V v>^ ** ^. \> »sf^ v^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I Ui^ |25 - 140 12.0 V y r Sdmces CorpQiBtm 23 WIST MAIN STRHT «VIUTRR,N.Y. USM (71*)t7a^M3 > CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHIVI/ICIVIH Collection de Canadian Institute for Historical Microraproductions / Institut Canadian da microraproductions historiquas T«ehnic«l and Bibliooraphie NotM/NotM tcehniquM at biMiographiquM TiM tol TtM liwtHut* liM attrnnptad to obtain tha boat orifffMl oopy avallaMa for filming. Faaturaa of ;iiia eopy wM«h may ba bibUographieaHy uniqua. ¥thMt mmi altar any of tha imagaa in tha rapro (moaning "CON- TINUED"), or tha symbol V (moaning "END"), whichavar applias. Un daa aymbolaa auivants apparaftra sur la darnlAra imaga da chaqua microficha, salon la caa: la aymbola -^ algnlfia "A 8UIVRE". ia aymbola ▼ algnifia "FIN". Maps, platas, charts, ^tc, may ba filmad at diffarant raduction ratios. Thosa too iarga to ba antiraly inciudad in ona axposura ara filmad baginning in tha uppar laft hand cornar, iaft to right and top to bottom, as many framaa as raquirad. Tha following diagrams iilustrata tha mathod: Laa cartaa, planchaa, tablaaux, ate, pauvant Atra filmte i daa taux da rAduetion diff Arants. Loraqua la documant aat trop grand pour Atra raproduit an un aaul clichA, 11 aat filmA A partir da I'angia aupAriaur gaucha, da gaucha A droita, at da haut an baa, 9n pranant la nombra d'imagaa nAcaaaaira. Laa diagrammas suivants iliuatrant la mAthoda. irrata to pelure. •n A n 32X 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 1?* * ■* '^ ."^rr.. •^i 1 ^''f'. «4» $ h h^ 41 :t i ^ 41- 4 i a». ♦ S T»'«» -* — r- PREIilMINART CHAUT OF KE W YORK BAY^D H ARB OR * i i i 'msC.'cmut^Caft'BipUEngn .Ant.in chaige ofOnti/ j^ Pitnn. a T-»itfoD.o-m.etrioal Suj-vwy luvder die dipeclion. of AX>.BACHE,Svipei-intend«nt of t]i» SURVEY OF THE COAST OF THE UNITED STATES l^rian^atioii '\rj J.PER0U80N anA :E . BliUiSr T , Aaats TopogFupkjr bj 8 A aiLBERT , A 8 WAD8W0RTH , AKSARRISON.HJVIIAMS and H.L. WHITING Aeaistanta . Sfdxogfrfljiil^ liy^ the Faraes under the oonunand of Lleuta .Comdg R 'WAIirWBIOHT T A CRAVEN and W G.TEMP1.K U.BN A8.te '% S0a)« 8«.66«> 1H)I 8tacut«Mlea 46' k t \ WOTE. 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IS 1 f- 13 • «o 1 U « * iork Any rt,'mi/f.t .V f, f K fhmi Highland crtWavfnnk Lufht tf i%^ 1/ twol.ufhln -i.HtH iihi/vf tht lf\/t oi'the tm vmbU at a'duntirtif" TII)K^< unml If iilwrtni nfunr ihf plant of'rrtrrrnff t '!•■ Iifl.m ,/,. rf,, niiin- „r-yf,riii(i 1\,1,j, Mom ,lo -i«M U'atir «r.Y„ip I'tiltg ahi>vf do 'ill .,r 7irf/,r tiryfimiifriiifji 'iWrit/i Tttim >. ttitt Hfkiimnif Atnn thrmitUUeofim* fall f/ajid UifJu iiuddU .if iHt mejtt •'itond Sniiilvn....k U V VII XXIX •'•ovrrniiin T* M M VIII \iv 7 •»" I « o t o t . 4 • . 5 • t o . ■u 'I i m. ''4 survrv «> 'i'» '" rtftrmnt thf tufure iif'thf hothwn LaHtudt of NrwYork (Ity Unil ^ 4<>'lf«;i Laifiitid*. of do wtst fivm firtfnwitk Obs^y.in arc 74'ou oS.i IianffiUuie of do do ifo in Hmt l' M'oj' 4«' ;:^- M Voriatione oP thp Ma^Jnmir Xeedle Iinoality Ftom Ob»«m«tiona in Ob»ePTBr vr.it oJJ'Jt, Caliunbla Pollefp Mfput ia44 Prof J Rm wifMiABttW »■ i3 > , ■ Stpumlier ims «■«» 3 Bkxniiutfclalii AMvi"»> Aprd l/Ufi Pnf.T.Loekf 1 o9t S" St' Xvwark Mnv "*^ ' • ■ 5' SB I «• 81 Moivnt ProBpecl JC;V 'AM • . . S'C4 7 fl 4i Leg'get Oetoier 1B47 R-HlHumtleroy A'^ii 6' 2l' OoTPrnurR Ulanrl jtugittt IMS (•A,Tfiu>tt tfM fi •' 5(, Bodloenlslaoid AuffWtt 1656 , 7* 01 1 7' '» H»»«rvin.gRp»frvi V t JfewDoep Oeovan s A CitiiJb>' i ^^ f >*" '4 ' • ♦■ t ^» », » »" » '» 4 s • f h > / t -A*-;- i» j> 44 ^ 1» 1.4 aOBOKEN '/ 4 HM. Sojilers Stingy Mccrbor Tomplinsvine JBH8BYC1TY f" I T Y If K W YOR K J,„ "«» i7 «Ji^ mC I y' ♦ * ' .'; '"'sJ l>iiuni)ndK " i i^ WILLI A M SHI Ti a ,;^ 11 9 p 7 ^ ,.i&L .' «l '» /' ^QuaraJiunc "f , ^ / f CMaHead ^ ^:\ sV " -.Vi/* b; .-fey orp OfuvnTi tit.Jb) 4 3 • 1 7 7 Staple ton !^ 6','. V «» -^ ^ ^l7 \ *" H.rh, lit 7l fii r.3 a < • ,itUOV -fc. ■;. ;i» ;: ti^e/^iu ' .\ cT ' «i J9 A * 11 JI idl - - W^/'i; » l4f^ -^V *U ..7 ■..■...""'"'44 Fsf-JLlsi' «,;■;•• .-':d. . 4 5 *'' ■■.« r-">i* • '^» .-. v.. T ',4 -•■; 9..--,' 7 -. 4}^""--i...:>.*^.'"'" "' Sf »t Si 6» 6i * ^^ «. "' «i 1 Pi. ^ J tu • ■«* «V V • » .... »♦ MJK. l> Cammh 'I .^ * * ' ; '9i l>>"»nndK « j .. / tftmmP* (I .'',a |il^ 1 ( * JMlB»iiI^;^>' { ^Jt)«7»i'nor'(r.J. 4 • « .' «r* A-"-.'-^:^-^-^^^ * • •'* ' ;.,nA, ^< et fl *^ ''• 'irf>- i flprfHo* /» 4 , • ^ a Pi: i/'' ^'^ >' ;w •.■;-. '^ w \ jrlk*, if » 4 "^ 6 '5J JfSkiuKi •* t 9^,4 4j ?> •;'i"'>'^ •■ ' JVin fir^ffctoz I* tRksIammd SmUts ShoS JSarbcr Toinplin»vi]le f;;**^ ^ V i IfewDoFjt J/ttacan 7/ ^ 9» 9 Stapleum V^V 9t „j *«■ ^'^J ^ ^ fCMaHead ,> i;;^»/*H,'5 '. / 10 ,• lA ,-■» .» ' IW • ' *»uoy > ' ij .li '•.;■.■">«•-'. V- «- ■ ■ / * " ■■'».'' ^ i ^ a ..'■•uo»6; rnitrs ; . * "'' - - - ^■';i^----^ p ' s« * *» i S "^ ii M ^ "^ A ^ li M ; . M ~--.v. . ' » • •; V ,1 4i k"'--.J' -, ?» ■■■, 4! 4 -A. 4*^ 44 at 5^ 41 4^ 5 * at si *»» M 6 4t 44'',<^ 6 V, (11 7 8 7 lip.I. 10 4) 4^ > ^^.Jf 8 It » ** «^ s4 ■'••:;«r«l»S» 7/,/' ■lA <>i ,.ft.y' 9..-V 41 Ilk x. 35 SAILING DIRECTIONS Jn ranrto^ ibr^eBaf alartg ^uJfvm'.ofJjonf) bland shore, aioui i)tttu\^ m lent than x> fiiSumu, tin ruar «fc1 ■:■* , il. ■■'■ r-':tk\* m ,1 .7* 4t 4» if- !'• -»^ "«.' • •' Jt \ "J ;i 4 ^ *»' ' « w la, i..-"- I "• /u, in , :>; V! 44 ft» 77" y ' •••. .»♦ •" '^ «■■• • .. 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Light b. lilt iSt ~iii.l/I.V> l4t lit "^ Ui 9h 9i i4f ig^ ^ lit «t ilt ut i«» i4t 10 iBi- H- HI 9i- HXO lOt n»- Cb^pd -ffill Beacon I 9t 9t •t 91^ •at is 74*00' &s • '*«? *.-■. • ■■■, n It •• 7 ,• <» I* ,- 1* i&Otd * „ ri ; '<" i< . "' ••'■ ' ■.■■■♦,"• ''' '11.. -■ .. '• »» ' ■• J .'i ; "'"' i* 1*1 It lilt * •• ^= *i ^r""^-?^* •» \ '1 * : Kc. 'a----..,. •■■ »•■• r^-,.- . m ^* " ^ ^3, ** ^-;.r"^»; .■> '^ V K...*AA.«o-'* -civ^-T*-" :'C>^iii^, ^» ^» "^ ^* M •'' H ^» f ■» •> . .n -' r^' ^-l ^\ *' "i ^' * 7 •"- ■" / 1* .i "-M ^ ., 7» '■'»*«<* "a •<■ "•-■ ■5,,, 3'"r ■« .1: , " . •' •' fart" a 4 . IS XL ao 4 4 I J»OOY 12 ,4*. "f ■*' "* "^ ^ (ft 74*00' ^^^^^ ^^^_ .: 1. - *^ ' '.■ 1- ■"C' ■'.•^ :*,- , '•-■ ' V" ^^^ ^^ ■^■;i.» lif^idnrvu ^ti^B^ r I #;■». *f «» irt «t «» 7 Ak HI ■H ej 4t «l Rl 'Ij At «i. nl ft» ■'* ''• "* fl \kiOMrW, ll» "» tai «^ .*■ -^ ^*»- uf ur uf lA{ iflt- . Liirhl built 91^ itit Ai 91 iSf xt «♦ i« 1* riS HAILINi; niHKC'TIONS fn itiiiniiyi fiirlhf Bar alor^ t/U'/ffVfi.iyfx'nf/ lulnnii ihurr . aiiAil gimiuf m Itm than ti Mhanu till ntar thf, L \i/ht Mhip OEDNK V H c • (I A N N V. I. liUtt am if nirruA m nt mean low mittv thmi the I.Ufht ■'>%tp nturlf.W Whtnin Sththtmu /with l-t,fhl '^Sl/> tftwuuf'^'E.ond the fxnnt orWumiv Honk nn witfifVUnnt Bmren . .nrfr ff X ViWiN.9i'Vitithrit\ni\q thf Eiut Ufaivtt ift'hyS ion with. WUton'n Btaeim. (Wijrai the Bar tm thi* ixm^i m vpi let* than n tUt . cUiptmnq to 4 thtlnmv ■'tfcv inoiv -Wnilierfi; rp brtni) the (hctneyt fhcumel 'nn^c an . M-Juc/t eltni'n the Hoi'k oijU hoitth ( jrAwrrETL Th* Elm f/w Lx/fhta ( •Strath Chnniirl llt iii lentjOi to Che NorthMird of the Lower eamen through .J » fAtliom-r UOnH CHASUEL Ji M-H thr *> Aet, biit nani*H\ and no good, ranges crm he i/lven. HA8T CaAtTNEL h .m/i fbr ttustle of light droft- hut (V v*rv. Uttle luied ,n« the ronift.^ iire distant and. uncertain . and the £aj>t Bank shoah up ivrv .ruddenlv lUllCAKKS l%e tUtrrentu ofhalfEhh. in the .fua.'h Ouiunel . Mi to the X7?u/ Oirouffh theXart Chaiinil uhetv. rtie ileoA set> toMords the Ranvi-.thelJhhniMardt ffu Da?t£ank •^trtaigers .fTumJd anchor a.n M^on o.t tnaide the Rook , ituteim^ to the ffmilh ward, and Tfiftt^trd tdl xn .i liiiinuit , the aneiu>rai)e t> (food # ^- i ■ :* * I TA'iS' 3o to't5' Katth ecC'Zilh' 13 WilUain Tt AVw York • I I. :T Ji • w ^ •9 CYCLOPEDIA OF COMMERCE COMMEECIAL NAVIGATION. »Jt EDITED BY / J. SMITH HOMANS, ■loMTAar or thi oiiauiieb or oomukboi or tui btati! or niw tork, ahd iditoi or "Tna BAMKIII' MAOAIINa AND ITATIBTIOAL •lOIRIB;" w ^ 4 4 -1 r mil !'■ 'i'--'ii ). ■. '-( -A •-(■■< AMD BT / -'w f^\ yriHrt'^'vin j1«c J. SMITH HOMANS, Jb., B.S., ADTHOB or "AH UIITOUOAL AIID STATIRTIOAL SKITCB Or TUB rOBIIQN OOVIinOl Of TBI O. ■." tWftli fHn^n anU CnoTabrng*. SECOND EDITION, WITH RECENT STATISTICS. ?"■ TO WUICn 18 HOW ADDBD A C0ART or THE BAY AND HARBOR OF NEW TORK, WTTII THB BOrMDINOB OF BAST BITIB, NOBTn RIVER, HARLEM RIVER, NEWARK BAY, AND NEW YORK BAY ; EXECDTBD UNIXBB THB DIBECnON OF TRE 8UPERIMTENDKNT OF TUB COAn , ' BDBVET, V. a. •^i> NEW YOEKr HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHfeRS» FRANKLIN SQUARE. 1859. .^;u '* 1 • • n( UMm 'W /v!{!H'li).f)¥0 ^i '|;" • • vi i, 'I .7[orTAr)TY/J Mym\\m)i) rt it.ril' .p. V" /. r 'Mr II I I. .: > jwjon A' » ."•'■- -' •'■ '■ •■• 1,1..' ", -ii'ifiinT' -•! (. '11 '. » I .. * _^ ,-. Entered, according to Act of CongrcsA, in the year one thousand eight luindrod and flfty-cight, by n A u !• E II & n » f> T H E n s, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Soutliern District of New Yorii. 'i ,. i 1* ■'' , II Ml.". ■. '■■ •■.! " ' . ':t' T,Uri *0 tX'fMW l\\i\ ::{ .'R!/' /•;••,■ ■ nm> 'IT V') t r !,• I. '-I,! • r . ii'i.l i(/:'i'\; ■ 1% 1 ,u ■ i' .■\. I >>« * '•• -1 . ''jrrfni^ij :;T il n V •■' • ) M .-^ ;{ /t 111 <> '/ H-A i. ..lii.-" v; 1.; ,, . / ;; /. ii ^ ♦? ■^ ! 1 *? ^ ^:tf^ '-V V ^ ^: '. .1 % i, •♦ • \ w.n uid I '4 ♦ » 1 I 1 * ^' ' i% !-»: 1^ .*» / II' ' 1 strew ••^■j' 4,!>( ;/ ,('t w( i '/((Oy li'': ••*/ !;,n.' »;(U o)U oj ■{itivf^y\ [■?•■■ "i.l '^ W.I I ; !,h, ;. ....I ,yfad ■ 'I li .'/I I'lj'i tiv.n •1 -I../-'* '■ V' PREFACE. # • »i:i; :( I ■I' ',1 ■.',■ I '^1 I' , ' ; ' ell 111--) IJoij The want of a comprobenBlVe commercial work liaa long been felt in the TTnlted StatcH — a work exhibitang tho coiuliliou und resources of the United States and the Hcparute Stiitex, as well as of foreij,ai nations. Tiie only attempt hitherto mode in this country to HU|)])ly tho want of such a work wua tho reprint, twenty-flvo years ago, of M'Oulloch's DinUonary of Commerce and Commercial Navigation, Thig work, probably us complete in reference to tho conmierciul statistics of foreign countries as could bo made at tho time of its compilation, is very deficient in sta* tistics relating to this continent, particiUarly of tho United States. Tho later edi- tions of Mr. M'Culloeh's work contain much nuitter of an obsolete or local char- acter, in which tho American reader feels but little interest ; while many suhjectB of great importance to connnereial men in this country are, in tho English work, either omitted entirely or mentioned only incidentally. ' 1 . ' ... ^ Tho extensive and im{iortant changes that have taken placo within the post ten years in commercial afluirs — the establishment of now States, new Territories, now commercial j)lace8 — tho unexampled increase of tho commerce of tho United States, of the development and tho record of the great industrial resources of tho United States — all seem to require a new and distuict work, with a view to place before commercial readers a more ample account of tho progress of commerce throughout the world. Tho present volume has been prepared with a view to supply this want ; and while we have aimed at presenting a fair exhibit of the finances, the internal and foreign commerce, the staple products of each State, we have at tho same time gathered together the latest statistics in reference to the products and the commercial relations of foreign nations ; especially of those with whom the United States have the most intimate intercourse. We have endeavored to present, in a condensed manner and from reliable sources, historical and statistical details in reference to tho great staples of the country ; of those important products whose export to foreign countries has con- tributed largely to tho prosperity of the States ; and the increase of which ia cal- culated to give US iu future years a cortrol of the vast markets of the world, and -^ k o <"# "^ A^ m. ir PHEt'AOE. thus add greatly to the material wealth of tho tTiiioti. Among these we mention the subjects of Wheat, Corn, Cotton, llico, Ucnip, l'rovi»ion9. Iron, Copper, Gold and Silver, etc. This is the first attempt in the UnitiHl Stnt<^M to collect the historical and statis- tical facts in reference to these iniportunl HulijcctM into one single work. In collecting these materials, and condonHiiig thuiri within n moderate compass, we have been aided by the valuable ofllciul Itt^portH inHued by the Treasury Dcpart- vjnent and by the Patent Office of tho Uniti'd HtiitcH, for a scries of years; and by the recent and highly valuable HeportH oi' ihi! I ){!partmi'nt of State upon The Com- mercial Relations of the United States, Much of tho varied and important informa- tion contained in those official documontH Ik brought together in the present work under its appropriate heads; so that tho reiwler, inH&'ad of the labor of consulting some fifty or sixty volumes, may find every >«ubjcct discussed under its alphabet- ical order. A leading feature of the Ci/rlopcdia of Ci>mm''rri>^ at least to the American read- er, ia the reproduction, in brief, of viewH urged by Chnneollor Kent, Judge Story, Professor Parsons, and other authorw, u|)on tho Hubject^ of the Laws of Shipping, Insurance, Maritime Law, Seamen, etc, Tho oxtmctH from these writings are only such, however, as will lead the careful reader to refer for further information on these subject to the several works themsclvoM, In regard ,o the commercial relationH of foreign countries — their finances, pop- ulation, internal and foreign trade, staple prodiictionn, et(\ — the reader will find condensed, from the most reliable authoritiw, much valuable infonnation of a late date. The commerce and resources of tho prineijial maritime countries are illus- trated up to the years 1856-67, and tho relative importance of each in reference t» the others, especially to tho Unittul Statt'S, in fully illustrated. The foreign trade of the United States with each country for the last thirty-six years is also shown, compiled with great care from tho Trciwury Hcports of the United States from 1821 to 1857. These tabular detailx, vtthiabic, as shuwing the commercial progress of the United States, have not been oflltiinlly comnnuiicatod in a com- pact form to Congrcs.s, but are reproduced frnin "iiii llistorical and Statistical Account of the Foreign Couunerco of tho UuiU'tl .States," by the junior editor of this work. The editors take pleasure in acknowledging tho valuable aid derived from Mr. Poole's Index to Periodical Literature, a nceoKHary appendage to the editorial table, and a key to the fugitive writingH of the most able authors, English and American, of the present century; also froin Mr, Alexander's olabcirato and relia- ble Dictionarij nf Weights and Meaaurex ; from I'rol'oHHor llaehe's official Reports on the Coast Survey of the United State's; iVom Mr. Browne's able work on the TWes of America; and from Mr. Maury's Vhymul Oiwjraphij of the Sea, etc. %■ \ PBEFACP. A Cyclopedia of Commerce must necessarily be, in a great measure, a compilation, and any attempt to prepare a work of this character without taking advantage, to the fullest extent, of the labors of predecessors, would result in a failure. And though all of the articles have been rewritten or remodeled, to adapt them to this country, and with new information to bring them up to the present time, many of the important ones are entirely origiuiil, as far as compilation goes, and arc care- fully collated with the latest commercial statistics. Full use has been made of those standard works on commercial affairs which could give information pertain-^ ing to the subjects discussed. Under this view nothing more is claimed for this work than that it is a well-digested compilation. The plan of the work is based in many respects upon M'Culloch's Dlctionayy of Commerce, and from this work and the eighth edition of the Encyclopedia Brilunnica (now being published) have been principally compiled the articles relating to the commercial law and commercial trade of foreign -countries. The statistics of the commerce of this country have been prepared from official sources, through a series of ycai'S ; and in all instances no pains have been spared to obtain the latest and most reliable tabular detail' i on all subjects, as they are the foundation and principal value of a work of this kind. In all cases where possible, charts of the harbors and sea-ports, by the latest sur- veys, have been obtained ; and in this we arc much indebted to the United States Coast Survey Reports for accurate details of the harbors of our own country. We add here a list of those works consulted, from which we have obtained much of the valuable information contained in the present work. LIST OF AMERICAN AUTIIORITIKS. Conimorcial Relations of tlio United States. Trepared by the Department of State. 1856-'57. Reports of tlio Secretary of the Treasury on the Finances, Commerce, and Navigation of the United States. 1815-'57. The Encyclopedia Americana, rhiladclpliia, 14 vols. 8vo. History of the Foreign Commerce of tlie United States. By J. Smith Ilomans, Jnn. 1857. Dictionary of Wciglits and Measures of the World ; adapted to the United States. By John H. Alexander. Baltimore: 8vo. 1850. Kent's Commentaries on American Law. (Extracts, l)y permission of lion. W. Kent.) Manual for Consuls. Regulations prescribed for Consular Ofliccrs of tlio United States, by the Department of State. 8vo, p. 440. 1857. The Trees of America, Native and Foreign. By D. J. Browne, of the Patent Office, United States. 8vo, p. 520. New York, 1846. Condensed Census of the United States, of 185a-'51. 8vo, p. 400. 1855. Index to Periodical Literature. By W. F. Poolc, Librarian of the Boston Atlicneum. American Almanac and Repository of Useful Knowledge. Boston, 1830-'5S. Elements of International Law. By Henry Whcaton, LL.D. Edited by William Beacli Lawrence. 8vo, p. 728. Boston, 1855. Tlio Elements of Morcnnlile Law. By Theopliilus Parsons, LL.D., of Cambridge, Massachusetts. 8vo, p. 017. Boston, 185G. Digest of the General Laws of the United States. By James Dunlop. 8vo, p. 1650. Philadelphia, 1850. Hunt's Mercha.'ts' ^Magazine. New York, 1839-'57. ThePhysicaKieofeTaphy oftho Sea. By Lieutenant M. F. Maury, LL.D. 8vo, p. 860. New York, 1857. i ,?,.-■ '. .'• PREFACE. United States Patent Office Rjporto. 1850-'66. ,'?,'.,". De Bow's Review of the Soutli and West, \Vashington,. 1846-'56. De Bow's Industrial Resources of the United States. 3 vols. 8vo. 1854. Reports on the Coast Survey of the United States. - By Professor Bache. 4to, 1854-'S7. The Bankers' Magazine and Statistical Register, from 1846 to 1857. Progress of Arctic Discovery, to 1866. Blnnt's Coast Pilot. Siro. New York,' 1867. Harper's Universal Gazetteer, ' f LIST OF FOREIGN AUTHORITIES. M'CuUoch's Dictionary of Commerce and Commercial Navigation. London, 1866. The Encyclopedia Britannica, eighth edition, now in course of publication at Edinburgh. 1856-'o7. Comipercial Law of the World ; or, the Mercantile Law of the United Kingdom compared with the Codel and Laws of Commerce of all Mercantile Countries. By Leone Levi. 2 vols. 4to. London, 1854. Annals of British Legislation. By Professor Leone Levi. London, 1856-'67. Manual of Mercantile Law of Great Britain and Ireland. By Leone Levi. 8vo. London, 1864. The Mercantile and Maritime Guide for Great Britain. By Willmore and BedeU. 8vo, p. 1168. Lon« don, 1866. , i Haydn's Dictionary of Dates. 8vo, p. 600. London, 1856. Tuson's British Consul's Manual. 8vo, p. 672. London, 1866. Bohn's Cyclopedia of Political, C' nstitutional, Statistical, and Forensic Knowledge. 4 vols. 12mo. Lon- don, 1849. Pope's Teorly Journal of Trade for 185fr-'57. 8vo. London. Bronde's Dictionary of Science, Literature, and the Arts. 8vo, p. 1352. New York, 1856. Urc's Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines, 8vo, 2 vols. p. 1118-1000. New York, 1856, Dictionary of Geography, Descriptive, Physical, Statistical, and Historical, By Alex, Keith Johnston. Sto, p. 1353, 1850, Gazetteer of the Territories under the Guvemment of the East India Company, and of the Native States on the Continent of India. By Ednard Tliornton. 8vo, p. 1016. London, 1857. . . The British Almanac and Companion. London, 1829-'57. Almanach dc Gotha, 1857-58. Year Book of Facts in Science and Art. By John Timbs, F.S.A. London, 1866-'67. Dodd's Curiosities of Industry and the applied Sciences. 8vo. London, 1854. LIST OF MAPS AND ENGRAVINGS. Chart of New York Bay and Harboi . From a Trigonometrical Survey, under the di- rection of A. D. Bachb, Superintendent of the Survey of the Coast of the United Stites ; with Sailing Directions for Ged- ney's Channel, The Old South Channel, The Swash Channel, Hook Channel, and East Channel frontispiece Artesian Wells Page 62 Atlantic Ocean " 73 Harbor of Unhia " 84 Harbor of Cape Town " 269 Harbor of Constantinople " 401 Dry Docks " 650 Harbor of Elsineur " 689 Straits of Gibraltar " 816 Gulf Stream Page Marino Dynamometer " Heights of Waves " Il.trbor and City of Havana " Lil'o-boats " Light-liouses . Harbor of Rio de Janeiro " 016 935 9^3 049 1212 1213 1214 1216 1220 1221 1222 1223 1225 1226 1637 . if .- ABBREVIATIONS USED. E. B. for Encyclopedin BritannlcB. J. R. M. tot John R. M'Culloch. Com. Eel. for Commercial Rola- tioiu, U. S. t ■" -* I ll I I ■ I »^ < lodet Lon> x ■' Lou- ston. 016 935 0J3 94!) 212 213 214 216 220 221 222 223 !25 26 bar /Y^ LIBRARY. % /■\ v^^ PREFACE TO TH .viM 't .■ J I The first edition of the Cyclopedia of Commerce having been exhausted, and a favorable estimate placed upon the work by the public, we have deemed it im- portant that in the second edition recent commercial changes hiiould be noticed, and that recent statistics of the United States and of leading countries throughout the world should be added. The editors have taken pains to introduce a few fresh subjects, and to substitute new tabular details of recent dates, for the pages contained in the first edition. The following articles have been either introduced, rewritten, or enlarged : Average. Average Bond. Baliia, Trade of. Baltimore, Trade of ; Banks of, 1857-'69. Bank of France, Opcratlonn of, 1 gfiT-'flO. Banks of the United States, for Years 1858-'59. Banks (Savings) of Great Britain, United States, and France. Bankruptcy in 1858, Statistics of. Belgiam, Commerce, Tariff, I'ort Bcgulations, etc., of. Board of Trade, History of. Books, Copyright Law of Europe and United States. Boston, CommcrcinI Statistics of, 1858. Brazil, Commercial Statistics of, 1858. Brcadstuffs, Statistics of, 1857-'58. Buf- falo, Trade of, 1858. Cadiz, Trade of, 1857. Canada, Finances, Revenue, Debt, and Trade of, 1857-58. Cliina, recent Trcatic. with. Carpets, Manufacture and Statistics of. Carriages, Manufacture and Statistics of. Cliarlcstffn, South Carolina, Commerce of, 1850-'58. Chili. Clearing-house, Statistics of, 1850- '58. Coal and Coal Trade of Great Britain and United States. Coffee and Coffee Trade, 1867-'68. Cotton Crop, 185G-'u8. Cotton Consumption and Distribution throughout the World. Cuba, Commerce and Finances of, 1857-58. Denmark, Commerce and Trade of, 1857-'58. Flsineur. Franco, Commerce, Debt, and Finances of, 1857-'58. Genoa, Commerce, Harbor, etc., of. Germany, Commerce, Manufactures, etc,, of. Glass, Statistics of, 1857-'58. Great Britain, Commerce, Manufactures, and other Statistics of, 1857-08; Imports and Exports of, each Year, 1801-'58. Hamburg, Commerce of, 1856-'58. Hanso Towns, Commerce of, 1856-'08. Ilidci, Imports and Exports of, 1858. Hospitals. Hospital System of the United States. Ice. Ice Trade. Insurance (Life), Statistics of. Jamaica, Commerce and Statistics of. Key West, Commerce and Wreckers of. Lace, Manufacture and Statistics of. Leipsic. Liberia, Products and Commcrco of. Lloyd's, Sketch of; Instructions to Agents of. Louisiana, Statistics of, 1857-'58. Madeira. Mahogany, Production and Uses of, for Ships, etc. Malta, Population, Commerce, and recent Statistics of. Manufactures of the United States. Marseilles, Trade, etc, of, lH57-'58. Netherlands, Commerce of. Newfoundland. New Granada. New York State, Commerce, Trade, Manufactures, and Banks, 1858. New York C-tr, Debt, Population, and Property, IH57-'5H. Viii ^^ PnEFACE TOTIIK 8KC0NI) Knmojr, Paraguay, Crmmeroial Relations of. Pliiludclphiu, Coninterce, MwniifrtttiircK, etc., of, 18r>7-'58. Philippine Islands. Porto Rico. Providence, Ccnimerce, JAntiutiteUmi, elo,, of, 1857- '58. Quebec, Commerce, Trade, and Shipping of. Russia, Commerce, Trade, and Shipping of. St. Christopher, Revenue and Commerce of. San Domingo, Uevemm and < Ndnmorco of. San Salva- dor, Revenue and Commerce of. Sardinia, Revenue and Comniert'B (if, HUifi», Shlpjilng, Suggestions by the Merchants and Under^vriters of New York. Slorrft r^ gallons, at Hamburg to 38^ gallons, and at B'rankfort to 39 gallons. Aback (a sea term), llio situation of tiie sails when the surfaces are flatted against the masts by the forco _of the wind. The sails are said to be taken aback when they are brought into this situition either by a sudden change of the wind or by an alteration in the ship's course. They are laid aback, to oflect an immediate re- treat, without turning to the right or left; or in the sea phrase, to give the ship ilemway, in order to avoid some danger discovered before her in a narrow chan- nel, or when she has advanced beyond her station in the lino of battle, or otherwise. The sails are placed in this position by slackening their lee braces, and hauling in the weather ones ; so that the whole eftbrt of the wind is e.xcrted on tlie fore part of their surface, which readily pushes the ship astern, unless she is re- strained l)y some counteracting force. Abacus is the name of an ancient instrument for facilitating operations in arithmetic. The exhibition of numbers by counters appears happily littcd for un- fulding the principles of calculation. In the schools of ancient (Jreece, tlio boys acy the tide of victory, and maintained through the vigor and firmness of her imperial sway. But the simpler and more useful improvements survived the wreck of eiu|iire, among the various people again re- slorc'l by fortune to their barbarous iAdependence. In all transactieiis wherein mom y was concerned, it was found convemcnt to follow tlu ' ocedure of the abacut, in representing numbers by coi urs placed in parallel rows. During the Middle Agi it became the usual ]>ract>ce ever Europe for merci. its, auditors of ac- counts, or judges appointed to deci in matters of rev- enue, to appear on a covered bank < i bench, so called from an old Saxon or Franconian word signifying a seat. Hence those terms were afterward appropriated to ofiiccs for receiving pledges, chambers for the ac- , commodation of money-dealers, or courts for the trying of questions respecting property or the claims of thi' crown. Hence also the word b.inkrupt, which occur in all the dialects of Europe. The term icaccanum, from which was derive«l the French, and thence th< Knglish name for the Exchequer, anciently signitied merely a chess-board, being formed from scaccum, de- noting one of tlio movable pieces in that intricate game. The reason of this application of the term ii sulliciently obvious. The table for accounts was, to facilitate tlie calculations, always covered with a cloth, resembling the surface of the ecaccarium or abacus, and distingtdshed by per])endicular or chequered lines. The learned .Skene was therefore niistakc.i in supposing that the I'^xchequer derived its name from the play of chess, l>ccause its suitors appear to light a keen and dubious buttle.* The Court of Kxc.hequer, which takes cognizance of all questions of revenue, was introduced into England by the Norman Conquest. Hichard Fitznigel, in a treatise or dialogue on the subject, written about the middle of the twelfth century, says that the scaccariuat • " IlecnitBO inony persons convceiiis in the Checker to playe tlteir cauws, contmro iithers, as f'' tliey were fechtand in aa arrayed battrll, qiiilk is tlie forme aui ordour of the saidpUye." — Skkm, ad vac. Scaccarium, r i ABA 1 wu • quavlrangular table about ten feet long and Ave feet broad, with a ledge or border about four inches high, to prevent any thing from rolling over, and was surrounded on all xides by scats for the judges, the tellers, and other officers. It was covered every year, after the term of Easier, with fresh black cloth, divided by pcrpcndieular white lines, or dlstlnctures, nt inter- vals of about a foot or a palni,*and again parted by sim- ilar transverse lines. In reckoning, they proceeded, he says, according to (he rules of arithmetic,* using small coins for counters. The lowest bar cxhildtcd pence, the one above it shillings, the next pounds ; and the higher bars denoted successively rtiu, (if en/iMjAurK/rcf/ii, thousands, and ten thousandt of pounds ; though, in those early times of penury and severe economy, it very sel- dom happened that so large a sum as the last ever came to bo reckoned. The first bor, therefore, advanced by dozens, the second and third by scores, and the rest of the stock oi bars by the multiples of ten. The teller Mt about the middle of the tal>le; on his right hand eleven pennies were heaped on the first bar, nud a pile of nineteen shillings on the second ; while a quantity of pounds was collected opposite to him, on the third bar. For the sake of expediliun, he might employ a different mark to represent half the value of any liar, a silver penny for ten shillings, and a gold penny fur ten pounds. In early times, a chequered board, the emblem of calculation, was hung out, to indicate an office for changing money. It was afterward adopted as the Bign of an inn or hoslelry, where victuals were sold, or strangers lodged and entertained. Wo may perceive traces of that ancient practice existing even at present. It is customary in London, and in some provincial towns, to have a chequer, diced with red and white, painted against the sides of the door of a chop-house. The Chinese have from the remotest ages used, in sU their calculations, an instrument called the Sicnn- pan, or Computinq Table, similar in its shape and con- struction to the abacus of the Komans, but more com- plete and uniform. It consists of a small oblong lioard surronnded by a high ledge, and parted lengthwise near the top by another ledge. It is then divided vert- ically by ten smooth and slender rods of bamboo, on which are strung two small balls of ivory or bone in the upper compartment, and five such balls in the low- er and larger compartment; each of the lattci on the several bars denoting unit, and each of the former, for the sake of abbreviation, expressing five. The 8\ stem of measures, weights, nnd coins, which prevails throughout the Chinese empire, being entire- ly founded on the decimal subdivision, the sv.an-pan was admirably suited for representing it. The calcu- lator could begin at any particular bar, and reckon with the same facility cither upward or downward. This advantage of treating fractions exactly like in- tegers was, in practice, of the utmost cons('i|iiencc. Accordingly, those arithmetical machines, liiit (if very diflferent sizes, arc constantly used in all the shops and booths of ('anton and other cities, and are said to l)e handled by the native traders with such rapidity and address as quite astonish the Euiopean factors. Abaft, a sea term signifying the hinder part of a ship, or all those parts both within and without which lie toward the stern, in opposition to afore. Abnfl is also used as a preposition, and signifies yiii-Mfr aft, or ntarer the stern; as, the barricade stands ahafi the main-ma.it, i. c behind it, or nearer the stern. Abandonment, in commerce and navigation, \% used to express the abandoning or surrendering of the ihip or goods insured to the insurer. It is held, by the law of England, that the insured f has the right to aliandon, and to compel the insurers to ^jjff pay the whole value of tlie thing insured, in every case ^ • Ha calls it Arimnetua: In the Mi/rrour nf ttir H'orWr, printed tiy (;axton in USI, it Ir stran iji'ly named A rs Mi-trike, a proof of tlie total ignorance of Greek at that period in England. \ ABA " where, by the happening of any of the misfortunes or perils insured against, the voyage is lust, ur not worth pursuing, and llic projected adventure is frustrated ; or where the thing insured is so damaged and spoiled as to bo of little or no value to the owner; or where tho salvage la very high ; or where what is saved is of less value than tho freight; or where further expense is neccssarj', ond the insurer will not undertake to pay that expense," etc.— M.viihiiai.i,, book i. cap. la, § 1. Aliandonment very frequently takes place in cases of capture: (he loss is then total, and no question can arise in respect to it. In cases, however, in wliich s ship nnd cargo are recaptured uilhin such a lime that the object nj'ihe rot/age is not tost, the insured is not en- titled to aliandon. The mere stranding of n ship is not deemed of itself such a 'oss as will justify an abandon- ment. If by some fortunate accident, by the exertions of the crew, or by any borrowed assistance, tlie ship bo got offhand rendered capable of continuing her voyage, it is not a total luss, and the insurers arc only liable fur tho expenses occasioned by the stranding. It is only where tho stranding is followed by thipureck, or in any other way renders the ship incapable of jirosccuting her voyage, that (he insured can aliandon. It has been decided that damage sustained in a voy- age to the extent of forty-eight per cent, of the value of the ship did not entitle the insured to abandon. If a cargo be damaged in the course of a voyag<', and it appears that what has been saved is less than the amount of freight, it is held to be a total loss. — 1'akk OH Insurance, cap, 9, When by the occurrence of any of the perils insured against the insured has acquired a right to nliondon, lie is at liberty either to aliandon or not, as he thinks i proper. He is in no case bound to abandon ; bu( if he make an election, and resolve to abandon, he must abide by his resolution, and has no longer the power to claim for a partial loss. In some foreign countries specific periods arc fixed by law within which the in- sured, after being informed of the loss, must elect either (o abandon or not. In England, however, no partic- ular period is fixed for this purpose; but tlie rule is, (hat if the insured determine to abandon, he must inti- mate such determination to the insurers within a rea- smmble period after he has got intelligence of the loss — any unnecessary delay in making this intimation being interpreted to mean that he has decided not to abandon. S'o particular form or solemnity is required in giv- ing notice of an almndonment. It may lie given eitlicr to (he underwriter himself, or the agent who subscribed for him. " The effect of an abandonment is to vest all the rights of the insured in the insurers. The latter be- come (he legal owners of the ship, and as such are lia- lile for nil her future outgoings, and entitled to her future earnings. An aliandonment, when once made, is irrevocable, " A total loss within the meaning of the policy may arise either by the total destruction of the thing in- sured, or, if it specifically remains, by such damage to it as renders it of little or no value, A loss is said to lie total if the voyage lie entirely lost or defeated, or not worth pursuing, and the projected adventure frus- trated. It is a cons(riic(ive total loss if the tinng in- sured, though existing in fact, is lost for any licnelicial purpose til the owner. In such cases the insured may abandon all liis interest in the subject insured and ajl his hopes of ni'overy to tho insurer, and call upon him to pay as for n total loss. The object of the provision is (o enabli' llu' insured to be pronipdy reiiisiated in his capital, and l>e therebj- enaliled to engage in some new imivantile adventure, l.ong in eruption (o a voynco, and uncertain hopes of recovery, .• luldoften be ruiniHss to the business of the merchant : and therefore, if the "bject of the voyage be lost, or not worth pursu- ing by mason of the peril insured against, or if (he ear- go bo wj damaged as to be of 1-ttle or no value, or where ABA ABA elect cither no partic- llic rule i», iniist iiiti- lliiii a rtn- llie loss — lion being abandon. ired in giv- iCn eitlicr subscribed lolicy may thing in- ilunmge to is said to ,'fented, or ilure frus- ' tiling in- cnellcinl lured may mI and oil upon liim provision istated in ! in Nome htion to a Id often be Itlicrpfore, Ith pursu- lif the cor- 1 or where tho salvage is very high and further cxpcnto be neces- sary, and the iniiurer will not engage to bear it, or if what is saved be of less value than tho freight, or where tho damage exceeds one half the value of the goods in- sured, or where tho property is captured, or arrested, or oven detained by an indeflnilo embargo; in these and other cases of a lllu) nature the insured may disen- tangle himself and abandon the subject to the under- writer, and call upon him to pay a total loss. In such coses the insurer stands in the place of the insured, and takes tho sul ject to liimscif, with all the chances of re- covery and indemnity. A valid abandonment has a rotrospertivo effect, and docs of itself, and without any deed of cession, and prior to tho actual payment of the loss, transfer tho right of property to the insurer to the extent of tho insurance ; and if after an abandonment, duly made and accepted, the ship shoul'd be recovered, an(l proceed and make a prosperous voyage^ tho in- surer, as owner, would reap the profits. " These considerations have introduced the right of abandonment into tho insurance law of every country, and yet the text writers have generally condemned tlie privilege as inconsistent with Just nutiDns concerning the nature of tho contract of iusurancc, which is a con- tract of Indemnity. But it has now become an ingre- dient so interwoven with the whole system of insur- ance, that it can not be abolished; though the late £n- gllsh cases, says Mr, Bcncckc, show a stronger inclina- tion in tho courts to restrict than to enlarge the right. The laws of Hamburg distinguish themselves from all others, by restricting the right of abandonment to the only case of a missing ship. "As soon as tho insured is inrormed of the loss, he ought (after being allowed a rciisonable time to in- spect the cargo, and for no other purpose) to determine promptly whether he will or will not abandon, and he can not lie by and speculate on events. If he elects to abandon, he must do it in a reasonable time, and give notice promptly to the insurer of his determination; otherwise he will bo deemed to have waived his right to abandon, and will bo entitled to recover only for u partial loss, unless the loss be, in fact, absolutely total. If the thing insured exists in specie, and the insjrcd wishes to go for a total loss, an abandonment is indis- pensable. Tho same principle which requires the in- sured, who abandons, to do it i.i a reasonable time, also requires the insurer, who rejects an abandonment, to act promptly. Tho object of the abandonment is to turn that into a total loss which otherwise would not be one ; and it is unnecessary, and woi,ild be idle, to abandon in the case of an entire dcsti ictlon of the sub- ject. It is only necessary when the loss is construct- ively total within the policy, and not an actual total loss. The right of abandonment does not depend upon ,thc certainty, but upo'i the high probability, of a total loss, either of the property, or voyage, or both. The insured is to act, not upon certainties, but upon proba- bilities ; and if the facts present a case of extreme haz- ard, and of prol able expense, exceeding half the value of the ship, the insured may abandon, though it should happen that she was afterward recovered at a less ex- pense. Though the subject may physically exist, yet there may be a technical total loss to the owner if llie things be taken from his free use and possession. Such are the common cases of total losses by embargoes, by captures, and by restraints, and detainments of princes, " The right to abandon exists when tho ship, for all the useful purposes of the voyage, is gone from the control of the owner; as in the cases of submersion, or shipwreck, or capture, and it is uncertain, or the time unreasonably distant, when it will bo restored in a stnto to resume the voyage ; or when the risk and ex- pense of restoring the vessel are dis()roportioned to the expected benefit and objects of the voyage. All these general doctrines concerning ubandonment have been entirely incorporated into our American law, and they exist to all essential purposes in the French Jurispru- dence. " I'pon a valid abandonment, either of the vessel or of the cargo insured, the master becomes the agent of the insurer, and tho insured is not bound by his subse- quent acts unless ho adopts them. The owner or in- sured, equally with the master, becomes the agent of the insurer on abandonment, and he can not purchase in the property on his own account without the eon- sent of his principals ; and if he does, it revokes the abandonment, and turns the total into a partial loss.v It is the duty of the master, resulting from his situa- tion, to act with good faith, and care, and diligence, for the protection and recovery of the property, for the benefit of whom it may eventually concern. The mas- ter of an insured ship injured by-the perils of the sea, and not competent to coni|dcto the voyage, may sell her in a case of necessity, as when the ship is in a place in which she can not bo repaired ; or the expense of repairing her will be extravagant, and exceed her value; or when he has no money in his possession, and is not able to raise any. In cases of capture, lie is bound, if a neutral, to remain and assert his claim un- til condemnation, or the recovery bo hopeless. His wages, and those of the crew, are a charge on the owner, and ultimately, in case of recovery, to be borne as a general average by all parties in interest ; and if the abandonment be accepted, the underwriter becomes owner for the voyage, and in that cliaracter lialde for the seamen's wages, and entitled to the freight subse- quently earned. If the master purchases in tho vessel, or ransoms her, the insurer will be entitled to the ben- efit of the purchase or composition ; and, on the other hand, if the insured affirms the purchase of the master, it will be, at the option of the insurer, a waiver of the abandonment. Tho insurer can accept of the repur- chase of the master, as his constructive agent, and aftin: the act, or he may leave it to fall upon the master. " The assured has the right of abandoning the freight when there has been a constructive total loss of the ship ; and he has sustained a total loss of the freight, if hcaliandons the ship V> the underwriters on the ship, when the case justifies it, for after such abandonment, he has no longer the means of earning the freight, or of receiving it if earned, for the freight goes to the un- L francs, four for a cow, two for a calf, and one for n sheep or lamb. The money thus raised from all tlie Pariaian alinttoirs in 18)2 amounted to about iM8,IHH) sterling. It la greatly to be wislied that some regula- tions like those of the French abattoirs were introduced into the principal English towns, especially London, Liverpool, Manchester. Glasgow, etc., as has lately been done at Edinl)urgh. In 1851, the corporntlon of Edinburgh constructed a greatly improved al)attoir in tliat city, from designs prepared Ijy Mr. David Cousin, tlie city arcliitect. It occupies an area of four acroa and a quarter, surround- ed by a screen-wall, with entrance gates on each side in the Egyptian style of architecture ; liehind the scrcen- M nil is a large open area, from which access is given to all the different buildings connected with the eatablisli- nicnt. The slaughtering l>ootlis consist of a daulih' row of buildings, extending in a atri.:ght line to about n7C> feet in length, with a centre roadway 26 feet wide. There are three separate blocks of liuilding on each side of tho roadway, the extreme blocks lieing each lUO feet in length, and the central one 140 feet, with cross-roads 18 feet wide between these, giving access to the other portions of tho groumls. The different ranges of build- ing contain 42 Iwoths in all ; each booth is 18 feet , Wide, 24 feet in length, and 20 feet in height, having a catti* abed attached, 18 feet by 22 feet, and a small in- closed yard Ijehind-, wi'h a separate back entrance, l)y which all tho cattle are driven into the sheds, where ( ACA they are kept previously to being slaughtered. By a aeriea of large ventilators along the roof, and by other contrivances, theae buildinga are thoroughly venti> luted. Tho largo doora of the booths, Inatead of being hinged in the uaual manner, aro hung by balance weighta, ao as to slide up and down similarly to an ordinary aaah-window, ao that they never Interfere with tho operationa within, or with the thoroughfuro of the road. Improved mechanical contrivances have been intro- duced, aome of them of a novel application, which have aecurcd great facilities in the dressing and prepara- tion of the meal. Each booth Is amply provideA, (|uite freu from hidden dangers,* and as secure as the tiasin In the cen- tre of rurtsmouth ilock-yuril.'* — Honik A mfrirn, 11. 172. Previously to tliu emancipation of .Spanish America, a Kallcun, ur larifo ship, richly ludeii, was annually sent from Acapuleo tu Manilla, in the I'hilippine Islands, and at her return n fair was held, which wis niueli re- sorted to liy «tran;(ers. Hut this sort uf inlcrourso is no longer carried on, tlie trade to Manilla and a . otliur plaeea lieiiiK now cundiieied liy private Imlividuuls. riie exports consist of liullion, cochineal, cocoa, indigo, etc. The imports principally consist of cotton goods, hardware, artic|.:» of Jewelry, raw and wrought silks, spices, mill aruniutics, Acapuleo, for foreigners, is ex- tremely uiiheallliy; and though it lie one of tlio prin- cipal porta on the west coast of Mexico, its commerce Is liiit iiiconsiderahlii. The navigation from Acapuleo to (fuayai|uil and Cullan la exceedingly tedious and diflicult, so that llierii Is liut little Intercourao between Mexico and I'eru, I'anama having of late years be- ciinie Ihu leading port for foreign Imports near this lat- itiiilc. Aooount, or Aooompt, In n general scnso^ com- pulation or vuckuning of any thing by nuniliera. Col- lectively, I; Is used tu expresa the books ^i.ich nicr- chiints, tr4iiera, bankers, «tc,, use for recording their transucliiins In business, AooOi^ntant, or Acoomptant, In the most gen- ernl seiue, is u person skilled in accounts. In a more rcslrictod sinse, |i Is applied to a jierson or olllcor ap- pointed to keep the accounts of a public company or olHce. AooounttUlt-Oeneral, an olTlcer In the English * Tills Is not qiillii SI eiirste, Th«rn la one shoni on which a. vessi'l wss liist In I7SI ; liiit Ik-Imr IsIiI down In the cliarts, it la ciully avulileil,— IluNUobiiT, SuuvtUi HtpOfiu, tv, 9U. >j..,t of Chancery, appointed by act of Parliament to receive all niuncys lodged in court, instead of the mas- ters, and convey the same to the Uank of England tor security. There is also an accuiintaiit-general in the Irish Chancery, and one in Scotland, who has charge uf the accounts of the ('ourt of Session. Accounts, Chamber of, in tliu French polity, a sovereign court of great antitpiity, which took cogni- zance of and registered tlic accounts of the king's rev- enue; nearly the aumo with the English 6'uui-( uf Kx- chequer. AolcU are a class of compounds which are distin- guished from all othcra by the following properties : They are generally possessed of a very sliarp aiul sour taste : redden the Infusions of lilue vegetable colors ; are often hlglily corrosive, and enter into combination with the alltaUcs, earths, and metallic oxides; funning compounds in which tiie characters of the constituents are entirely destroyed, and new ones produced ditt'er- lug in every respect from those previously existing, Tlic quality or strength of an acid is gciicroUy ascer- tained either liy its rpecilic gravity, whioh is found by means of the hydrometer, if the acid be liquid, or by the quantity of pure niiil dry sulicarbonate of potass or soda, or of carbonate of liuie (marble), which a given weight of the acid requires for its exact neutralization. This latter process is termed Acidiinetry, or the ascer- taining the quantity of veiil acid existing i.D any of the liquid or crystallized acids. The principal acids at present known arc, the Acetic, llenzoic, Uoracic, Ilromic, Carbonic, Citric, Cliloric, ('yanic. Fluoric, Ferroprussic, Gnllic, Ilydrobromic, Ilydriuilic, Iodic, Lactic, sialic, Margaric, Moconlc, Muriatic or Hydrochloric, Nitrous, Nitric, Oleic, Ox- alic, Phosphoric, Prussio or Hydrocyanic, Purpuric, Saccholactic, Suberic, Sulphurous, Sulphuric, Tartaric, Uric, and many others which it would bo superfluous to detail. It is the most important only of these, how- ever, that will bo here treated of, and more particularly those employed in the arts and manufactures, Acelic or pyroliyneoua Acid. — This acid, in its pure and concentrated form, is obtained from the fluid mat- ter which passes over in distillation, when wood is ex- posed to heat in close iron cylinders. This fluid is a mixture of acetic acid, tar, and a very volatile ether; from these the acid may be separated, after a second dislillution, by saturating with chalk, and evaporating to dryness ; aii acetate of lime is thus procured, which, liy mixture with sulphate of soda (Glauber's salt), is decomposed, the resulting compounds being an insolu- ble sulphate of lime, and a very soluble acetate of soda ; these are easily separated from each other by solution in water and liltration ; the acetate of soda being ob- tained in the crystalline form by evaporation. From this, or the acetate of lime, some manufacturers em- ploying the former, others the latter, the acetic acid is obtained by distillation with sulphuric acid (oil of vit- riol); as thus procured, it is a colorless, volatile fluid, having a very pungent and refreshing odor, and a strong acid taste. Its strength should be ascertained by the quantity of marble required for its neutraliza- tion, as its .ipecific gravity dot^ not give a orrect indi- cation. It is employed in the preparation of the ace- tate of lead (sugar of lead), in many of the pharma- ceutical compounds, and also as an antiseptic. Vinegar is an impure and very dilute acetic ncid, obtained by exposing either weak wines or infusions of malt to the air and a slow fermentation ; it contains, besides the pure acid, a large quantity of coloring mat- ter, some mucilage, and a little spirit; from tlicse it is readily separated by distillation. The impurities with which this distilled vinegar is sometimes adulterated, or with which it is accidentally contaminated, are all of vitriol, added to increase the acidity, and oxidea of tin or copper, arising from the vinegar having been distilled through tin or copper worms. These may lie easily detected ; the oil of vitriol by the addition of a V. IIJ* V^ V^T—V- 1- I ACI I little Kolutlon of miirlalp cjf Imiytpi to the dlnlllcil Mii- i'K«r, whiili, bIiouIiI llif aciil I* |)io»i'iil, »lll luiiitu u (Iciinii whitu |in"ti(ilutu; mill lliu oxiili's of llii or rap- per liy Iho iiUdlliuii of «uiiT iiiipri'Biinliil willi siilpliii- rctfil'livilroKi'ii. VliirKar in iitiploud in many culinu- r) unil (li)MiLiilii' opi'riillunK. anil uImi \ ery lnr«cly in the luaiiufartiiri* of llm larlniiiiili" of luail (« liili'-li nil). //i«{(/«'.l(ii/oxisti( natiinilly lorimil in tlicKimi I't'n- zoln, and may Ik' pnnuroil iltlirr liy siibniilllnt,' llu' Ihmi- coiii in llnu povtilrr li> ripi'mcii llnl>lln>ation^ or l)y dl- ((I'litinK it »illi limi! and »ulrr, atralniiiK ull tlir clear aoliillon, anil addiiiR muriatic arid, wtdcli enters into comldnalion with the llnie, and tlie 'izole aeiil, Mng nearly inrolnlile in water, fiillii as a » ..e powder; this may l>c further puiilied l>y a nuldimulion, llunzoic aeiil is of beautiful pearly w hile i olur w hen pure, has B very peculiar aromatic odor, and an acrid, acid, mil hitter taste j it Is used in ninhiiiK pastilles and per- fumed incense. This acid also occurs in Iho l>alsauis of 'I'ulii and I'eru, and in iho urine of the bono and cow. Jliniitie Ariil ia found In an uncoinMned jiatn In many of the hot sprinj?" of Tuscany, as al.«o at Sesso, in the Klorenline territory, from whence it has received the nainu of Sessolln. In Thibet, I'ersia, and South America, it occurs in conibiualinn with soda, and is imported from Iho former place Into this country In a crystalline form, under the iiuinc of Tincul. These crystals arc coated with a rancid, fully substance, and require to lio purilted by repeuleil solutions and crystal- lizalions; after which it is sold under the appclialinn of horax (liiborale of soda); from a hut solulion of this tall the boracic acid is readily obtained, by the addi- tion of snlphuric acid in slight excess ; Bul|>hate of soda is formed, and the horacic acid crystallizes as tlie solu- tion cools. When pure, these crystals arc while, and ha^ an unctuous (jreasy feel ; they are solidile in alco- hol, conimunicatiuK a ureen tinjfe to its flume; when fused it fonns a transparent glass, and has been fonml by Mr. Faraday to unite with the oxide of lead, pro- ducini; a very uinforni glass, free from all defects, and well adapted for the purpose of telescopes and other as- trt/nomical instruments. Uorax is much employed iii the arts, particularly in metallurgic operations as a flux ; also in enameling and in pharmacy. (.See Uu- RAX.) Carbonic Acid. — This acid occurs very abundantly in nature, coudiincd with lime, magnesia, barytcs. aerial acid, fixed air, mephitic acid : from any of those it is easily separated liy the addition of nearly any of the other acids. In its unciunbined form it is a trans- parent, gaseous fluid, having a density of 1 ','>.'), atmos- pheric air being imity ; it is absorlied to a eousiderablo extent by water, and when the water is rendered slight- ly alkaline by tlie addition of carlionate of sudu, and a large (luantity of gas forced into it iiy pressure, it foniis the well-known refreshing beverage soda « ater. Tills gas is also formed in very large (luantities during com- bustion, respiration, and fermentation. Curliuniv ucid gas is destructive of animal life and combiisliun, and from its great weight accumulates in the bottoms of deep wells, cells, caves, etc., wiiich hnvc lieen closed for a long period, and numerous fatal accidents arise fre- quently to persons entering such places iiicaiiliously. The precaution 8h.)uld always be taken of introducing a lighted candle prior to the descent or entrance of any one ; for, should the candle l>o cxiinguislied, it would be dangerous to enter until properly ventilated. The com- binations of carljonie aciil with the alkalies, earths, and metallic oxides arc termed earlionates. Cilrie .liiJ exists in a freu state in the juice of the lamon, lime, and other fruits, combined, however, with inilcllage, and sometimes a little sugar, which renders il, If raquircd to be preserved for a long psriod, very liaUe to ferment ; on this account the crystallized citric add ia to be preferred. It is prepared by satnruling th* lemon juica with chalk ; the citric acid conibinei t Adt with Iho Ilmo, forming an Insoluble compound, whlU the carbonic acid is liberated; llie insoluble citrate, after lieing well washed, is to lie acted upon by diiutu sulphuric add, which I'orms sulphate of lime, and tho citric add enters into siilulion in Ihu water; by filtra- tion and cvuporalion the citric add is obtained in col- orless transparent crystals. Tlie chief uses to w liidi it is applied are as a preventive of seu scurvy, and in making rcrrcshing acidulous or efVervesdng ilrinki; for w hich latter purposes It is peculiarly filled from iit very pleasant flavor. Fluoric Ariil is found in tho well-known mineral lluor spar In combiualion with lime; from whiili it is procured in the liipiid form liy diKlillulion with ililuto sulplinric add in a Icadiii or silver rdorl : llie receiver should be of the same material us Ihu retort, and kept cool by Ice or snow. This acid is gaseous In its pure form, highly corro- sive, and intensely acid ; it is rapidly absorbed by wa- ter, coinniunicating its jirnpertics in that fluid. Its chief use is for etching on glass, which it corrodes wilh great rapidity. Fur this purpose u thin coating of wax is to bo melted on llie surface of the glass, and tho sketch draw II by a line hard-poinlcd iiislruiiicnt through the wax ; the li(|uid acid is tlien poured on it, uiid after a short time, on the remiival of the acid and coaling, an etching will bo found in tlie substnnce of tlie glass. A very excellent appllcaliuii of this property, posschaid by fluoric acid, la in the roughing llie shades for table lumps. All the metals, except silver, lead, and jilatiiia, are ailed npiiii by this ucid. (liiliic .lc/lnud ntuti-, U un invltlliln iluslic Ku>, hav- inu a very HtroiiK afllnity fur water; Ihul lluld ulmorlt- Ihk, lit » li'in|ii^nituri' of 10 tuhrenhcll, IWI llnu's Im volunii', iind lliu ruaullin^ lli|ui>l acid has u dtsnsiiy of r.'l. So uri'at ia tliia attraction for walfr, that when III" K'"* I'* liliitrutt'd iiilo tlie air, it »imliiiii» with Ihi^ moiatnru alwaya prvavnt In that nu'diuni, funniiiK dsnsB whito vapor*. Un coniliinationa with tliu alkulit'i*) ulc, uro turniud niurialva; tliuKu uf the sri'iitrat iniporlanio arc tini ninrlatvi of tin, aninioniu, barvti't, and aua aalt. Thx ti.'«t fur thu pri'neni'u uf murlulic acid in any lii|uid in thu nitrutu uf ailver (lunar cauatlc), which cauaus a curdy white precipi- tate. t/itrie A liJ, Uf A (/i whit* precipitate, Inaoluble in water, but aolubl* In acida. Ita comblnatioiia are termed oxalatea. l'ho$fthoi-ic AM ia of '^vfy little linpurlanee In • commercial point of view, except aa forming wl'ti lima the earth of Iwnea (phoaphate of lime). It i < prepared by heating Uinea to whlteneaa in A funiaee; froiii thia phosphoric oi'd Is ol>lain«d by tlie action of sulphuric acid, atill comldned, how ver, with a amall quantity of lime, 'the action of nitric aeid upon phoaphorua, the latter being added gradually and In small piecea, yields thia acid in a alate of purity : its combinations are termed phoa|ihalca. J'niuif Aiiil,i)r //gilrocynnic Acid. — Thia ncld, which la the must virulent and polaonoua acid known, Is con- tained in peach blossoms, bay leaves, and nmiiy other vegetable productlona, which owe Ibeir peculiar odor to the presence of pruaaic aeid. For llio purposes of iiied- icine and chemiatry, this aeid Is prepared either liy dis- tilling ono part of the cy anuret of mercury, one part of muriatic acid of specilic gravliy I'lfi, and six parts of water, six parts of prnasic aeid being collected ; or. by dissolving a certain weiglit of cyanui'et of mercury, and passing a current of aulphureted hydnigeu through the solution, until the whole uf the mercury siiall b6 precipitated; if an c.xiri'ss of sulphureted hydrogen should be preaent, a little carbonate of lead (white lend) will remove it; on liltering, a colorless prussic ii'id will be obtained, liy the lirst process, which is tlie one followed at Aputbecaries' Hull, the acid has • density of UU.'i, water being equal to 1(M)0; by the latter, It may be procured of any re((uircd strength, depend- ing on the (|Uantily of cyaiuiret of mercury dissolved. The Iwst test for the preseme of this acid ia, lirat to add a small qnuntily of the protosulphate of iron (solution of green vitriol), then a little solution uf potussa, and, lastly, diluted sulphuric acid ; if prussic acid lie present, I'russian blue will be formed. Its combinations are called prussiutca or hydrocyanates ; when In Its con- centrated form, it is so rapid in its eHects that large animals have been killed in the short space of 80 aec- onds, or from a minute to a minute and a half. /Sul/jliumiit A riii is formed whenever sulphur Is burned in atmospheric air; It is a sull'ocating and pungent gas, atrongly acid, bleaches vegetable colors with great rapidity, and arrests the process of vinous fcnncnta- tion. For these purposes it is therefore very much euqiloyed, especially in bleaching woolen goods and straws. Fermentation may be immediately arrested by burning u small quantity of sulphur In casks, and then racking oil' Ibo wine while still fermenting into tlieni ; this frc(|uently gives the wine a very unpleas- ant taste of sulphur, which is avoided by the uso of sul- phate of potass, madu by Impregnating a solution of potass with sulphurous aeid gus. iSii/phiiric Ariil, ur Oil uf yilriol, called oil of vitriol from Ita having been formerly manufactured from green vitriol (sulphate of iron). In some parts of the Con- tinent this process is atill followed. The method gen- erally adopted in thia country Is to introduce nine parts of sulphur, intimately mixed with one part of nitre, in a state of active combustion, into largo leaden cham- bers, the bottoms of whicli are covered with a stratum of water. Sulphurous and nitrous acid gases are gen- erated, which, entering into combination, form a white crystalline solid, which fulls to the bottom of the cham- l>er; the instant that the water comes in contact with it, this solid is decomposed with a hissing noise and ef^ fervescence, sulphuric acid combines with the water, and nitrous gas is liberated, wliich, combining with oxygen from the air of the chamber, is converted into nitrous acid gas, again combines with sulphurous acid gas, and again falls to the bottom of the chamber; this process continues as long as the combustion of the sulphur is kept up, or aa long as atmospheric air re- mains in the chamber; the nitrous aci \ merely serving as a means for the transference of oxygen from the at- ACO ADA nuxphtrp to th« lulphnroui trlcl to convert it Into iul- phuric ni'iJ. 'Ihu wctur if rcniovuil f^oni the chtiii- Iwr whi'ii uf ■ (i^rlitn ulrmiKth, (ml rupUcnil l>y (Vaali. ThrM ac'lil watcni *r« llivii I'vapuratuil in Inaclcn ImiII- *ra, anil lliially cuiicvntralt"! in kI"" or pintinn vvunli. A* lliua nianuraiiureit, •ulpliuric arid la • ilunie otty fluid, rulorlvM, inl>ni«'l>' uciil, nnil hiKl'ly ournwivt, ■ml hai k ■poi'illc gravity uf INIA, water Ix'hiK i>(|ual to IWH). ThIa add li the nioHt inipiirtant with whiili we am ac(|ualnled ; It la eniployi'il In tliti nianiifaituni of thti nitric, muriatic, acetic, phunphiiric, citric, tartar- ic, and many other acida ; alio In the prrparatinn of chlorine, for the nianuructiini of the hluachinK piiwdur (oxyniurlato of lime, or chloride o( lime), for the prep- aration of aniphate of mercury, in the manufacture of calomel and corronivo •uliliniule, and In Innunieralde other chemical nianufacturea. In the proctieo of pliyalc it it alio very much employed, It uaually contaiiia a little oxide of lead, which la readily detected by dilut- ing the acid with alioul four timea ita volume of wa- ter, and altiiwinx the Kulphate of lead to aulwldu. ItN comhinatiun!) are denominated aulpbatea. The fuming aulphuric acid, aa manufueturud at Norilhauaen, con- talna only one half the quantity of wutrr In Ita compo- altion. Turlttrie A ctd This acid l» procured from the cream of tartar (hitartrateofpotaien grouml, especially a wide campaign ; and in this antiqui! sense it seems to be preserved in the names of places; as, Castle-acre, : West-acre, etc. Thcstundant acre is formeti i<\ rais- ing a square of which the liari.s is the chain uf (;i> feet, I or 22. yards, or l-80th of a mile; and tin of these iquares form the acre, which thus contains ^M-to square yards. This is divided into rmxls, u( which there ore n>nr in the acre; and mia pulet or ii-Thes, of which ^here are 40 in each rood, or 160 in !he acre. The rood will thus measure 1210s<|uare yanl.i, and the pole SOi B4|uar« yards, according to tliu following table, which con compamd aina also other danumination* uaaful to b« aitli thu aoiti l»ba(. i.i>li>. ! (WlVd I rial. IM ««)ft 1 1 V.r*. P«lM iir rank. I'itM VII'MI 1) 1 Ull'iOt Mtl •IVIk 801 1 Ckslaa. MVint IIHNSI 4:W) 4144 Ill 1 ,ao.>U. lli«M»0 lltMNN) KMVII mn 40 1 «) 1 t Arr*. «1T!»MU IWSIOU UMO 4N4II lOO 1 10 1 4 1 U UtIIVM I lit'.'ia 1 IM 8 IMt n 1 iM 1 S4'.11 t ttoii* 1 1U-1« 1 SIM «' SO 40 1 4(» 9 W.*1 t Vi-Vi IHIW 1) Hll 8 w-as S 811 as 1 1T!I0 •it si n m-Hi 1 81 HB u W'U4 1 lUtM A HUT 1 2T-78 U I'.'IO •i V4'4II 1 80-41 Thu fuUowIng table ciintiiins the prlniipiil foreign land-measures, with their equivalents in acres: Arrt*. Ro(mIi, I'crrhM. France, Are o " Ilcrtsm 9 '* AnH-ul. great 1 " Ar|H.'iil. amall n Amatenlam, Morxi'ii li UiTlIn, MDrKi'ii, lario 1 " M'TKcii, siuall I)sntalc, Mei'Kcn 1 ilanilturtt, MurKrii II " H^'liefTfl f)f ci>m land . . ., 1 Ntiniiiiberif, MnrKcii, rtirn land 1 " Mnruen, meadow Hanover, Morifcn I'niKsiH, Murxen Khitu'land, Moriten 9 Zurich, Am-, rninmon '• Arn', wKKiir riiiiurlir a saltiia. The (In'ck iiU'thriin > ' iialated uf 4 arums aud oua equal to 8T perches, l53M|iiarc tV'et. Action, in C'lmmrrce, ia a term used abroad for • certain part ur share of a public cnmpaiiy's capital ■.lock. Thus, if a ciimpniiy has •ki.immi livrcs capital stock, this may l>e divided into ViiU actions, each cun- sisiting of I IKK) livrcs. Aottuuy, a person skilled in the doctrine of \it9 an.iuiliea and innurances, and who is competent to give opinii>ii* upon all canes iiivulving annuities, reversiuna, etc. All actuary sumetiines combines with tlie profei- siunal duticN of a ». ienlific adviser those of a secretary, in all matters in\olviiigciilculatiun, upon which it may be suppDsed tliat the members of the board are nut gen- erally ciiiivcrsant. Adarcon, or Daric, ^fjaxfiv, the most ancient guld coin of which any spc. iiiietii' have been preserved to the pn'sent day. It was the earliest coined money known among the Jews ; the impression on the coin ia a crvwned archer, in a garb such as is seen in tho sculpturra of I'ersepolis. Tho spedineiia weighed by Dr. Ueniard were lifteen grains heavier than the Kn- gliah guinea; their intriiitic value .nay therefore be reckoned at twenty-five sliillingB sterling. — K< kiiki,, IkKlrinn Aummurum Veterum; KicitxAHl), De Mcniurit et J'onderihut. Adaime, in Commrrtt, a nmall weight in Spain, which is alsu used at liuenos v\yres, and in all Spanish America. I ' is the liith part of an ounce, which at Pari* is called the demi-grvi. Uut tho Spanish uunca s*'^ ADA ADE Rgula. 1 Am. 4 1 1 t'Vl IM* 1 IM lii'ill iiiitH sie4 6' tit) DO 4« n'4T Iff '60 nH n-m anma IT NO lilSl ai-vfi Sb-Ut IVM 14'«T «TI8 I'Mt •UW 8U-4I nrrf U iiM'd. nilt lui liiip«- «n- '■■•■t. Two III: tlK- (luaii- I'u; a hiin- irlir H Mtltll*. UH niual to UT iliroilil for k c'i|iital vrcH rapital I, I'Bch con- trine of llfs iiiii to (five rcvtrKiuni, till' proft'i- a secretary, liii'li it may are nut gen- im-ient Rold roKer>'eU to lU'il money tlie coin ii ceil in th* Ivoinlicil by lun the Kn- herefore bo -Kl'KIIKI,, tie Mtruuri§ in Spain, kll Spanish whieh at luiali uuuca l> Mvrn per rent, llxbtrr lliun that of I'arii. 8lepli«n» ri'hilerii It 111 Kiitjll'li by a Jr.ii Am. Adatala, Adatla, or Adatya, In f.mimrnr, n miiiillu iir ruttiiii rliilll, viiry lliiii iiihl dear, ufHlilili the pii'oo I* ten Krenili rlU liinu, ami tlinu (|iiarli'rii bruail. It >'uinea fruiii the l'',aat iinllua, anil tliu lliuiat la niaile In IbnKal. Adelaide, a city uf .Smith Auatralln, capital uf the llritinh I'liliiiiy uf that naiiie, about 7 niilea M.^i.lC. fruni lla ncirt, an inlet on the eitxt i^lile of St. Vincent'* (iulf, Int. :)!' '>T H., loiiK. lie* 'M v.. ThouKh runntletl au ri'ceiilly ua ImiII, ami not well aitiiatml, thia la a well- built, pninperoua town. .Some of the lionaca, anil moat Iiiirt of the principal bnlhlin^tii, are uf brick ami atunu. 'iipiiUllun In IHIU, 7MU; anil In IHM probably about ■a |(reat. The river Torrena, nn which Ailelaiile ia liullt, loaca llHcir in A marah liel'iire renchinK the aea, ao that the city la about 7 inllea iliatant from ita port, an inlet uf Nt. Vlnccnl'a (iulf. Thia inlanil aituutiiin In n aerluua drawback on the trade of the city ; ami It would accni that a miatttku waa cummltted in not building it on, or much nearer to, the coaat. Thia, we are aware, liiia been ilenied, tliouKb, aa wo think, upon very un.tatla- fuctory KroumU. There iippeura, imleeil, to bu but little dnulit that in no very lengthened period moat part uf the commerce of tlie town will be tranafcrred to the port, and that it will be preferred an n residence by nil cummerciai people. In the rainy aeaaon tloi Torrena ia much lloodcil, tlioiiKh it aebloni overllows ita banka, wliich are nteep and lofty ; but in the dry aeuaun it hua no current, ita bed being then fornioU Into ■ ivrlvt uf poula or tnnka. I'ort Ailelaido, 7 miles N.N.W. tnm the city, in a low and niarnhy aituatiim, cunaiata of u number of dwelling houai'H and wnrchouaea, some of which uro of atone, with whurvea, partly beloiiKing to government, and partly to the South Anatraliun Company. I'opii- lalion In IxlH about IWIO. The lidet of the aea. >' ,. ingtho harbor, uppoaite the entrance to which ^ht- veaael ia moored, atrelchea from tiioOulf, fnun » luch it ia aeparuli-d liy a narrow neck of bind, fiii " at •milea aouthn .11.1, surrounding Torrena lalund. Ai ii< iitnutli ia a anndy bur, with H feet water at el>h am) 1)> tsei at Hood tide ; thia depth bt^iiif; eonsidir-nhly iiiMreaaed during south and southwest winda. ^ lips of 4UU or 6iH) tons may, conaequently, paaa llui t^r in safety, and onca over, tliure is depth enough f.ir the largest flilps to the head of the harbor. — l)in\iN, Hoiith Aiistrnliii, p. W'i. Large vessels are, howwer, obliged to lie in mid-channel ; but proji'cts were ccently on loot for im- proving the harbor, either by tarrying out |iiera into the deep water, or by cataliliuut 'i miles nearer to the harUir'a immtb, nhem the watrr iu- thore ia dei'per, and the situulion allordH greater facili- ties for the accominoilation of shipping. I'ort Ade- laide has a custom-house; but veaaels are oxenipted from all port charges in this and in the other ports of the colony. A rail«ay. planned to unite tlie city witli the port, will must liki iy be completed at an early- date. The trade of Adelaide is already extensive, and will continue to Increase with ilie increase of the popula- tion and tradi! of the coUiny. oftvhich it is the grand emporium. The mines of copper, lead, etc., discovered In its vicinity are of the richest description, and the ores furnialicd by thcin form nt present tlw principal arlii'Ie of export. In lXiV2, the imports of copper into llngland rroin .South Australia, principally from the Ilurrn-Uurra mine, amounted to N,'iM2 tons, worth above fliOd.illHJ ! The discovery of the gold lielda, liy attract- ing many of the laborers from the copper mines, ^ave a serious check to the progress of the latter, though it is probable that it will bo but temporar}'. Wool is also an Important article; and the imports of it into Kiiglanil, n hieh in 1K52 amounted to i),!l22,;iiH ponnds. have increased with tbo sanio u.xtraordiaary rapidiiy a* Ihoaii from the other part* of Aiialralla. Among llin lleina of Iniporl from thin colony in INA.' were l;i,'>H pouiida i|ulcksllvcr, and lllii cwt. bark. We Buitjuln the following atateini'iila with reapect to llio trada, shipping, etc., of I'ort Adelaide In the following jearai Isu I Mil IslT l»4s lti4U TuUl hiiin.ib i.ii-'.tiiri (I |s4,i|',» IH Mv.im I'J 4|o.'«Vh U 11N|,'1.N HI ri',iii,.'.i-. 10 TuUl Ki|.orli. II A'u.\.';i 11 a n l«i,g>ll 4 T u or.'.x:!! Ill « II IINi,:ils Ii 1 11 tuyt.KHn 7 It 4011. HIT II A Ytan. |S44 KlpflrU lh« l'r'>.lil.>« of Buulh AlUOalM. tni|iutl« ra hi- linj.iift* 1 'iiiitintaU |i.irl«il III tl.A 1 'ilouy. A'S'.'.'.'llH III S ill'.'.ll'il III 10 jiio.'.,iieu l;) 1 Mft Ilil.SISI II Kl.m.s H T IIW.Illil lit 10 1-40 'JhT.Of.S 1.1 •iti.TTH t> HOII.ll'il T W l^T itTri.iift Ii u TMUil u II Ulb,OU'i » 4 IMS 4(Ih,N7s HI 1) lH4lt 8T4.lrpr> ID It would be to no purpoae to give any later details in rcyard to the trade of this colony. 'I'lie illacovery of the giilil lielda in Victoria and New .Suiith Wales have bud nearly the same Inlluciicu lii^rc as In Van Diemen'l l.und (me (iiiLii). They oceaaioned an excessive em- igration, and gave a suddi'n and severe shock to all sorts of Industry. And tliouKh, no doubt, the colony Hill in the end recover from the contingency, and will most probably he improved by the circumsiancea in whii b it originated, some cousidcrabia lime will havo previ(ninly to elapse. Aden, a sea-port town of Southern Arabia, In the possession of the Kiist India (Jompnny, on the Indian ( Iceun, 1 IH miles east from the Straila of Itabelmandel, lut. I'J' 1(1' l.'i' N., long. 4j' in' 20' K. It stands on the east side of a promontory, projeoting south Into tho ocean, called tlie I'eninaulu of Aden. This peninsula, ' I 'i lerininatea in a lofty mountain, bearing a strik- ing .-.semblance to tht^ rock of (iibraitar, is coiiiicetej with tho main land by a low isthmus alioiil Im) yards in l>readth. tin the north uinl west the town Is over- hung by steep and craggy rocks, on whiili arc the re- mains of old forlillcntions. The east or out»:ird har- bor of Aden, formerly (and ppparcntly at a )-> • cut po- rh>d) large anil commodious, is now purtly Idled up with suiid. Hut the harbor on the west side of the town, between the promontory on which it standi und aiiotlicr parallel thereto, is a magnilicent basin, .-apabla of accommodating the larges' liects. It has a > ontraiit- ed entrance, which inighi .isily lie fortified, so as to make it inuccessilde to a hostile -.tuadron. From this harbor the approach to the town is over a low ridge of the mountain, tho road being in pa" ut through the rock. The site of this town, tho best adapted for trado on the « hole coast of Arabia, and the K ■ y of the Ked Se«, bus always made it a point of prin iry importanco in the direct trade iietwcen T impe an.: tlie Kust. It lie- cume at a very early period u celebnkted emporium (the Aniliiw emjHiriiiiii of I'lolciny). After the Itomans ol>- taiiied possession of Kgypt, and llippniiis (.v.ii. M) had discovered the ilircct route to India, they destroyed .Vdeii, lest it should fall into hostile hands, and interfere with their monopoly of this lucrative truHic. — ViN- i-KNr'.s C'immerce, etc., I'fihe Imliiin Oceiin, ii. .'I'J7, 628. It is not known when or by whom it was rebuilt; but from the 11th to tho llJlh century it was the great, or rather tho oxelnsivo rntn'i>ot of Kastern eonimcrce. The discovery of the pa.vsago by the Cape of Good Hope waa the lirst great blow to its importance. Si- multaneously with the appearance of the I'ort iigueso in India, the Turks, nnder Solynmn the Magnilicent, took possession of various Arabic ports, Aden among the nninbcr. Tliey erected the fortilicutions, the ruins of which excito the admiration of every traveler, and which rei>elled the attacks of tho famous Tortugucse general, Albuquurque. l-'rom thia date, howercr, Aden ADJ SO ADM I i«pldly declined; iior did the ejtpuUlon of th« Tufkn, which took place about the mlilills or Ittut Cfililliry, rn. Urd ita downlsll. Its ruin wm more t'onipk'lit Ihitli could have been antici|iiili'd; for lli cunviiliitilit Imr- bors and plentiful supply of wator make It, apart frntit other considerations, a most desiralilu port. When first occupied by tlie llrilish, it liHil not IIKirti than 100 hauscs, with a pared of wretched liula, ami (W)m 3000 to toco inhabitants. It had, linU'i], Iht ritlim of several cistenis and reservoirs cut In tliu miljil rvi'k, and of aqueducts for conveying water from (Iim niouiil- •ins of the interior, wliieli fully teslilliul lis fiirimtr greatness. Itut witliin the last hair' cln7,i>ii yeurit u VH«I change lius taken place, and the ancient pronperlt}' tif Aden bids fair to be again restoreil. IloluU fur tliu an- comniodution of the passengers by Ihs tleami'rs Imvti been erected; and the pa|iulation of thu viiliiily, at* tracted by the security allurded liy the Kiiuliidi t\n^, have tloclied to ho place, which has now (iM'i!)) ftoiii !6,00n to ,10,000 inhabitants! 8omu dufenjiiva work* have already been constructed, and others prnJi'Cliut, which, if completed, will make It (which It should Im) the Gibraltar of the lied Sea. While Its euMiiMatMllll(( position, excellent port, and abundant supply of vtnU'r, make Aden an important station in tlui roulu (mm In- dia to Europe by the Ucd Sea, it is no li'ss favorAlily situated for becoming an tnlreiiul lor lliu conllguiMi* countries of Arabia and Africa. It ohciI Ita fortiKi consequence mainly to its natural advanliiges, iiuil these it still retains. And it can hardly full iignln to become an important emporium, .md to bo of the itri'Nt' •St utility to the surrounding cunllnents. Tliu ellinali', though hot, is not unhealthy. 'I'lio abundant supply of water, for which Aden is remarkaldu ani'ing Arxlili' towns, is drawn from the ravines and gullli'S of ilii' surrounding mountains, and from the hind i>prliig>, Wliicli are abundant on the sea-shore,— (Heii lii-iii/rii/ilf teal IHiiionary, art. Aden, and other aiilhurltles tliori' t^uot e a third, a fourth, or a tifth worse, then th« damage is ascertained to a mathematical CDrtain- ty, Ifow li this to be fi/und out ? Not by any price itt the port of shipment, but it must be at the port of iMUierji, when the voyage is completed and the whole dntnagu known. Whether the price at the latter be high or low, It Is the same thing ; for in cither case it pipmlly shows whether the damaged goods are a third, M fourth, or a llfth worse than if tiiey bad come sound ; i'otniei|iionlly, whelher the injury sustained be a third, fiilirlll, ur llfth of the value of the thing. And as the Insurer pays the whole prime cost if the thing be wholly lost, so If it be only a third, fourth, or fifth worse, he jiavs a third, fourth, or fifth, not of the value for which it Is sold, lull iiflhe tdliie tiated in thepolinj. And when no vnltiiillun Is staled in the policy, the invoice of the coat, with the iiddltion of all charge, and the premium of Inaiirnncc, shall be the foundation upon which the loss shnll be computed." Admaaautement. See Toknaoe. Administrator, In Knijluh J.nw, he to whom the ordliinry romnills Ihc administration of the goods of a persim deceased, in default of an executor. The origin of ndmlnlstrstors is derived from the civil law. Tlicir i food are offenses punishable by law, the risk too frequently is outweighed by tlic temp- tation of gain. In Paris malpuctices connected with the adulteration of food are investigated by the Conseil do Salubrity, and punished ; but English laws are di- rected chiefly to the protection of sucli articles as affect the revenue. Adulterations of food, when willful, have been made punishable by the laws of most countries. In Great Britain iiumerous acts have been passed for the prevention of adulterations : they ai-e usually pun- ished by a fine, determined by a summary process be- fore a magistrate. In Turkey, a culprit baker has bis ears nailed to his door. By 61I1 and (!th Vict. e. 93, § 1, 8, 8, manufacturers of tobacco or snuff are liable to a i)enalty of il'iOd for having in their possession any substance or liquid to be used, or capable of l)eing used, as a substitute for tobacco or snuf)', or to adulterate or give them weight. The preparer, vender, or disposer of such articles, is liable to the same. For actual adul- teration the penalty is £300, and for having such adul- terated goods in possession, £200. After a similar man- ner, beer is protected by still heavier penalties ; which laws extend to chemists, druggists, and beer retailers. See bfy death in sev- eral ways. It was formerly considered as treason in Great Uritain, and rigorously punished witli denlli; but in the amelioration of the criminal code by Lord John Russell's act (Will. IV. c. 84, Vict. 1), the pun- ishment has been commuted to transportation for uny period not loss than seven years, or by imprisonment for not more than four years, at the discretion of the judge. The specific gravity of pure gold = I'J'SO ; stand- ard golcl~18-88; pure siiver=10-61 ; standard sil- ver=l(l''li Tlie proportion of alloy in the gold and silver coin of lirilain is oue-twelffli copper, which gives durability. A genuine coin, ur.lcss it be cracked, is quite sonorous; yet even this quality is nut an invaria- ble test for counterfeit money. Much false coin is in circulation, especially in llie nietro|iulls, a statement confirmed by its very frequent reception as change. Besides the frauds by clipping, liliiig, ca.iing, electro- plating, etc., the debasement of coin lias licen eft'ecled by boring the edge of a piece, and plugging the cavity with inferior metal : in this manner has platinum licen inserted in gold. Another method has ben practiced by sawing a gold piece laterally, and skillfully filling the centre with platinum ; a fraud which cutting alone could detect. To ascertain the adulteration of sliver and gold coin by e.xcess of copper, the following processes will suf- fice : dissolve a given weight of the silver in nitric acid, and precipitate by a solution of common salt; dry, and weigh the precipitate, which is the chloride nj' sil- ver, and contains 75-5 per cent, of the metal ; or it may be reduced on charcoal before the blowpipe, when a button of pure silver will be obtained, by weighing which, the proportions of silver and of copper will be known. Silver coin is very frequently imitated by some white alloy, generally of tin, antimony, and lead ; it may be known by its pliancy ond dull appearance, or it nmy bo tested for silver, as described above. Uer- nmn silver, a beautiful imitation of silver by nickel and copper, may be dcti;ctcd liy its deficient specific gravi- ty, and its emitting, when briskly rubbed, a faint, cop- pery odor ; or by dissolving it in nitric acid, and add- ing a solution of common salt, w hen it will give no pre- cipitate. The amount of alloy in gold may readily be ascertained, for ordinary purposes, by the sireak on touchstone, and comparing that with the streak of the gold needles made for the purpose ; or more nicely by this process : file oft' a given weight of the gold, and dissolve in aqiid reyia, then precipitate the gold by im- mersing in the solution a plate of silver or copper; or more quickly, by weak galvanic action ; or the gold may be thrown down by addition of an alkaline sulu- tion, or by adding the muriate of tin, which throws down the purple powder of Cassius, from which tho quantity of gold may be ea.slly ascertained, by oxidat- ing with the blowpipe a given weight of the powder, and so obtaining a button of pure gold. The purity of copper is ascertained by dissolving a given weight in any of tlie mineral acids, and obtain- ing copper of ccment.'iion by immersing a plate of iron or zinc in the solution ; or by decomposing the salt of copper l)y charcoal, alkali, and heat, in the usual way. (iSVe (."iiK.MisTKY.) It nmy be noticed as a curious fact that, in England, the copper coinage of William IV. was found to contain gold, from which discovery these coins speedily became scarce. — E. I). Ad Valorem, a term chiefly used in speaking of the duties or customs paid per cent, on goods. The du- ties on some articles are paid by llie number, weight, measure, tale, etc., and others paid ad valorem, that is, according to their value. Advance implies money paid before goods are de- livered, or upon consignment. It is usual with mer- chants to advance from a half to two-thirds of the val- ue of goods consigned to them, on being requir.'d, on their receiving invoice, bill of lading, orders to insure them from sea rii^k, etc. Adventurer*, Merchant, a celebrated and en- terprising coni|)ttny of merchants, was originally formed for the discovery of territories, e.Mensiiin of commerce, and promotion of trade, by John, duke uf Kraliant, In 12U(I. This ancient company was afterward translated into England in tho reign of Edward ill., and Queen Elizabeth fonned it into an English corporation in lu(>4. — Amikuso.v. Advertisement, in its general sense, is any in- forniation as to any fact or circumstance that has oc- curred, or is expected to occur; liut, in a cunimerelal sense, it Is understood to lehite only to inlimatimis with respect to the sale of articles, the formation and disso- lution of partnerflii|is, baiikruplcius, meetings of cred- itors, etc. AdvertUements in newspapers In England, as now puldlshed, were not genciul until the beginning of the 18th century. A penalty of £iM was Intllcted on persons advertising a regard with "No questions to 1h^ asked" for tho return of things stolen, and on tho printer, 25 Geo. 11. 1754 Ulalulei. The ad>erti8». mciit duty was formerly charged according to tlie num- ber of lines ; It was afterward fixed in England at Si. ()(/., and In Ireland at it. OtI. each advertisement. Tha duty was further reiluced, in England to )>. tiy statute :t anil 4 Will. IV. 183S. The duty was altogether abolished in the I'nltcd King- dom, by Ifi and 17 Vict. c. (!,t, Aug. 4, 18,W.— IIavdn. Advice is usually given by uuc merchant or bank< .*/ AFP 13 ♦ APP ion salt; dry, chloride of til- )Xa\ ; or it may rpipe, when a , by weighing copper will be y imitated by ony, nm\ lead ; ill appearance, d above. Uer- r by niekel and rpccific prnvi- ;d, a faint, cop- acid, and add- ill give no pre- may readily be the ftreak on le streal( of the more nicely by : the gold, and the gold by im- r or copper ; or n ; or the gold I alkaline solu- , which throws rom which tho ned, by oxidat- of the powder, l)y dissolving a dfi, and obtain- { a plate of iron >ing the salt of the usual way. 18 a curious fact of William IV. discovery these in speaking of ;ood». The du- uniber, weight, alorem, that ia, goods are de- luiil with mer- rds of the val- rcquir.Ml, on rdcrs to insuto iratcd and en- iiully formed of commerce, f llralmnt, in nrd translated and Qiipcn iration in 16U4. se, is any in- hat has uc- a commercial iniatloijH with ion and disso- lings of crcd- s in England, he beginning was intiicted Nu questions n, and on tho he adi'ertise- ig to the num- ugland at 3«. sement. Th« In. t>c/., and in ill. IV. IHBS. I'niled King- ja.— IIaviim. ;baut or bank< er to uncthar by letter, informing him of tho bills or drafts drawn on him, with all particulars of date, or sigiit, the sum, to whom made payable, etc. Where bills appear for accoi)tanco or puymer.t, they arc fre- quently refused to be honored for tcaid of advice. It is also necessary to give advice, as it prevents forgeries : if a merchant accept or pay a bill for tho honor of any other person, he is bound to advise him thereof, and this should always be done under an act of honor by a noturv public. Affreightment. " A charter-party is a contract of atfreiglitnient in writing, by which the owner of a ship lets the whole, or ii part of her, to a merchant, for tlie conveyance of goods on a particular voyago. In con- sideration of tho payment of freight. All contracts under seal were anciently called charters, and they used to bo divided into two parts, and eacli party in- terested took one, and this was tho meaning of tho churta partita. It was a deecl or writing divided, con- sisting of two parts, like au indenture at conmion law. Lord Manslidd observed, that the charter-party was an old informal instrument, and, by the introduction of different clauses at different times, it was inaccurate and sometimes contradictory. But this defect has been supplied by giving it, as mercantile contracts usually receive, a liberal construction, in furtherance of the real intention liini ! of trade. " This mcrcam.. ■'. a ship descril)es tho par- ties, the ship and t' and contains, on the part of the owner, a sti) .ts to sea-worthiness, and as to the promptitude with wliicli the vessel shall receive the cargo and perform tho voyage ; and tho exception of such perils of tho sea for w liieh the master and ship- owncrs do not mean to be responsililo. On the part of tho freighter, it contains a stipulation to load and un- load within u given time, witli an allowance of so many lay, or running days, for loading uiid unloading the car- go, and the rate and times of payment of the freight, and rate of demurrage beyond the allotted days. " When the goods of several merclmnts, unconnect- ed with eiPih other, are laden on board, without any particular contract of affreightment with any individ- ual for the entire ship, the vessel is called a general ship, liccuuse open to nil merchants ; but where one or more merch.mts contract for the ship exclusively, it is said to be a chartered ship. The ship may be let in w hole or in part, and either for such u quantity of goods by weight, or for so much space in the sliip, which is letting tin: ship by the ton. She may also be hired for a gross sum, as freight for tlie voyage, or for a particu- lar Sinn Ijy the month, or any other determinate ]ie- riud. or fur a certain sum for every ton, cask, or bale of goods put on board ; and when the ship is let by the month, tlie time does not l)egin to run until the ship breaks ground, unless it be otherwise agreed. The merchant who hires a ship, moy eitlicr lade it with his own goods, or wholly underlet it upon his own terms; and if no certain freight bo Uipulated, tho owner will be eiuitU'd to rcicover, upon a quimlum meruit, as much frciglit as is usual under the like circumstances, at tho time and place of .shipment. It is the duty of the own- er of tlu' sliip, not only to see that she is duly ecpiipped, and in a suitiililu condition to perform the voyage, but he is liounil to keep her in that condition throughout tli fore, or during, or after the voyage, or waiting for con- voy. If the claim for demurrage rest on express con- tract it is strictly enforced, as whore the running days for delivering tho ;arga under tho bill of lading had ex- pired, even though tho contlgnoo was pnivented from clearing the vessel of tho goods by tho dc'ault of others. " The old and the now French codes of commerce re- quire the charter-party to bo in writing, though Vslin holds that the contract, if by parol, would !>« equally valid and bindiqg. In the English law, the hiring of ^ ships without writing Is undoubtedly valid; but it would be a very loose and dangerous practice, at least in respect to foreign voyages, In tho river and coast- ing trade, there is less formality and lens necessity for it ; and the contract is, no douot, frequently without the evidence of deed or writing. If ciihor party be not ready by tho time appointed for loading thn ship, the other party, if he be the charterer, may seek another ship, or, if he bo tho owner, another cargo. This right arises from the necessity of precision and punctuality in all maritime transactions. Uy n very short delay, the proper season may bu lost, or the oljcrt of the voy- age defeated. And if the ship bo loaded only in part, and she be hired exclusively fur tho voyage, and to lake ir. a cargo at ceitain bpecltlod rates, the freighter is entitled to the full c:iJoyment of the ship; for he is answerable to tho owner for freight, not only for the cargo actually put on Ijoard, but what tho vessel could have taken had a full cargo lieen furnished. The master has no right to complete the lading witit the goods of other persons without the consent of the char- terer; and if ho grants that permission, tho master must account to him for thu frelglit. Ho 1ms no right to com- plain if the charterer refuses to grant the permission, or to completo tho lading, jirovidcd ho lias cargo enough to secure his freight. This was tho regulation of tho French ordinance, and it has been adopted into the new code. liy the contract, tho owner is tiounil to see that the ship be sea-worthy, which means that she must bo tight, stanch, and strung, well furnished, manned, vict- ualed, and in all respects equipped in the usual man- ner for the merchant service in such n trade. "The ship must be lit and co.npetent for tho sort of cargo and for the particular service fur which she is en- gaged. If there should be a latent defect in n vessel, uuliuown to the owner, and undiscoverablo upon exam- ination, yet the better opiniun is that the owinir must answer for thu damage occasioned by the defect. It is an implied warranty in the contract, that tho ship bo sufficient for the voyogo, and the owtuir, like a common carrier, is an insurer against every thing but the ex- cepted perils. To tins head of seo-worlhiness may bo referred the owner's obligation to sec that the ship !s furnished with all the requisite papers according to tiio laws of the country to which she belongs, and acc without convoy and Ix) lost, the owner becomes ans». iublo to the shipper tri damages for the breach of that representation,"— Kkxt'h Comm., Lect. XLVil. Africa. The knowledge of this great continent which ancient writers have transmitted to posterity I" of very limited extent, owing principally to its physic- al construction. The great desert, which in a broad belt strctclics quite across the continent, forbade a\jry attempt to pass it until the introduction of the camel by the Arabs. Tlic want of any known great river, ex- cept the Nile, that might conduct inio the interior, con- tributed to conliiie the Greek and Koman colonists to the habitable belt along the northern coast, 'i'he I'hd'nI- dans are known to have formed establishmcnta on the northern coast of Africa at a verj' early pcrioil of his. tory, probably not less than 3000 years ago; and the conquest of Egypt by Camliyses dates as fur Imck us the year n.c. 625. We may consider, therefore, the coasts of Egypt, of the lied Sea, and of the ilcditcrra- nean, to have been settled and well known to the an- cient Asiatics, wlio were constantly pas.^iug tlio narro* isthmus which divided their country from Africa, and led them immediately from parched deserts into a fer- tile valley, wotercd liy o magnilicent river. Hut wlu'lli- er they were much or little acquainted with the wcslerii coast, wlilch bounds tlie .Vtlantic, and the eastern count washed by the Indian Ocean, Is a question that h; ex- ercised the research ami inj;-jnuity of the alilest wliol- ars and geographers, and has not yet teen ^ati^facturiit answered. From the shores of the Mediterranean to aliout the latitude of 20° north, the population of Africu oiiusjsis largely of tribes not originally native to the soil, hut of Arabs and Turks, planted by conquciit, with a cunsiil- erablc number of Jew.s, the chlMren uf dii^pcrsion ; and the recently introduced French. The llerliers of the Atlas region, the Tuaricks and 1ibl>us of the Haliura, and the Copts of Egj'pt, may he \ iewcd as the descend- ants of the primitive stock, whik thoKC to whom the general name of Moors is applied are perhaps of ndxed descent, native and foreign. I'rom the latitude sluleil, to the Cape colony, tiilics commonly classed together under the tirle of the Ethiopie or ne^rro family arc found, thoiigli many depart very widely froui the pecul- iar physiogiiomy of the negro, wliicli in most uppan nl in the natives of tlic (iuinea coast. In the Cape colony, and on its l>orders. the llottcn'.ots form a distinct vari- ety in the population of Africa, most closely resembling the Mongolian races of Aria. The British colony of Sierro I.eonc extends from lio- kelle Kiver in the north, to Kater Kiver in the soiMli, and about twenty miles inland. The populalitui, ron- ! sisting chietly of liberated slaves, amounted In 1HI7 to \ i\,l'ih. Freetown, the capital, has JO,.'>KO inhabiliuits, I AFR town namml afior itt« (imldent, Mr. Monro. The pop- ulatiun Ntnotlitts to frt lti,(lOO to 16,000 native inhab- \l»n\*, ami! Iti/OtI lllieraitd negroes from America. 'i'hf Ivury r'uast extends from Cape I'almas to Cape Tlirci l'ullllk,«ti(l ulititlncd lis name from the quantity of lh« anil \» tiufililkd by lit numerous elephants. The Onid I'mtH •inilcht's fnim Cape Three I'oints to the Itlver VullR, and lic^ been long frequciited for gold diitt and uliitir t>rodu' is. The Dutch have several trad- ing purls, Iff which Elnilna, a town of 12,000 inhalw ilNiitii, in tlio itrltirlpal and oldest of the European sta- tion*, futlttdeil by (lie I'orliiguc^o In 1111. The Uritish pu«Mis» ('a|i« (^naat Castle, a spacious fortress, and Janivfi'ii l^urt, tt«ar Accra. The Uanlsh settlements of Clirintlitioilmrg and frledelisburg were ceded to the KltglUb III \MV. The ftlavu Coast extends from thd liivur Vfdia in the Calabar Klvcr, and is, as its namo linpll*'*, thn chief scene of the most disgraceful traffic llmt IdidK llitt lilst(ir>' of mankind, Eko, or Lagos, one of lliA ehliif l(Wt(*i of the roast, was destroyed In 1852. I lie Itllitfdotli* (if Ashanll, I)ahomey, Yoriiija, and oth- ers, oei'upy Ihd inleriur country of the Guinea coast. The eoant from llie Old Calabar Kiver to tlie Portu- guese possfMliiti* Is lliliablled by various tribes. Uuke'a Town, oti lh« former river, Is a largo town of .10,0(10 to 'IO,(HNI iiiliMldlanln, with considerable trade in palm-oil, ivory, and llliilier. On the (inbun Kiver, close to tliu equator, Kv a t^rcndi reltlement and American xa'.n- tioMury »(»ll«loi, At the equator, Soi-lhern or Lower tiulHea lii'ijlim, where the only European settlements aril tlio>a of llid J'ofdigucse, Ixjango is reckoned from the equator In Old /n're or C /aire, comprising a very fertile re- gion, with '"Ins (rf* copper and Iron, lianza Congo, or Ki, Halvudiir, Is the capital. Angola comprises the iHo dinfri'iii of Angola proper and Jlenguela. In these reKl"n» iImi I'orluxiH'.Hi settlements extend farther in- Iiiiuj ,lmtl ill lliti Iwoprecedlngdlstricts, namely, about ViHI miles, Tli« jiopulallon of Ihe settlements is about (00,()(,0, cotHpfl«l;(g otily I*ig0 Europeans. The capi- lul, Kl, I'wolo de t/ORttdo, contains HKX) Europeans and IINMi nalivn tnhnlillnnls, and has a tine harbor. iHt. FeliiMi d« Itciiguila Is situated In a |iicturcsquc but very Ntarttiy and most unhealthy spot. TliB coam from Iteligiula to the Capo colony may, in a general arrnntsement like this, be included either within M'«)»( Africa or Houlh Africa. The whole coast is litilu tlkilKd or known, being of a most barren and d>'sot considerable European I of aboul lt,000 nqtiare miles, It is highly favored in town on the western coast of Africa. Till! .Malngliettu or Grain Coast extends from NIerra Leone te Cape I'almas. Malaghella is u species of pepper yielded by a parasitical plant of this region. It is sometimes styled ilio Windy or Windwari! Const, from the fnMjueiicy of short but furious tornudocK, throughout Ihe year. The Itepulilie of Lllwria, a SkC- tlement of the American Colonization .Society, founil- ed in Wii, for the purpose of removing free people of color from the I'niled .States, occupies a con^illcrablu •xteat of the coast, and has for its capital Montuvia, a Ihote rn«pec(« jn which the Cape Is most ilclicient, liav- iiig Hliuiid/iiice if wood and water, with coal and vari- ous niiilHllic orca, a line alluvial soil, aixt a ilinialo loUpted to the cull Ival Ion of I he products for hIjIcIi the lioiiie dnniHlld Ii large and constant — cotton, silk, and liMllgo, rictcrni»rllr,lHir(f, the capital of the settle- iiieiil, lie* fill miles from (ho coast. I'orl Nalat, now KT'r'iaii, "'a!*"! on a fine Inkt-like bay, is the only harbor. To Africa liclmo/ a considerable number of islands, ihf HtMno, UiluiigltiK to I'ortugal, lie off ihe north- / AFB 15 ALA onro. The pop- M) native inliab- I America. I'alnias to Cape oni the quantity elephant!, Tho e I'ointt to the ueiited for gold ivo ■cvrrnl trad- jf 12,0(H) inhalw le European ata- 11. ihe British us fortresa, and h tcttlvments of re ceded to the xtcnda from thd I is, a.i in namo is;^raceful traffic to, or I.agoii, one !8troyed in 1(<»2. i'orulja, and oth- 10 Guinea coast, cr to tlic Portu- latribrs. Duke's ;o«\n of ;I0,<)(H) to rade in palm-oil, ivcr, close to tho I American mls- I'lhcrn or Lower )ean settlements is reckoned from •. Its chief town ■ans. Congo cx- a very fertile re- ISiinza Congo, >ln comprises the iguela. In these ktend farther in- " namely, aliout lemcnts is about ans. The capi- uropeans and harlior. Hi. picturesque but pe colony mav, ncluded either ic whole coast St barren and liarliors. Kroni letrated nearly Ngami, and Ovaherero, or only is gener- in the Cape of to the Orange cer In the east. (I v.illiin these inoccupied, or, I the hands of ast coast, and Iruriu, is a re- ining an area ily favored in (Iilicient, liav- iinl and vsri- nd a cIlMiato for wliich tho Iton, i>ilk, and lof the scttle- |t Nalul, now |, IS the only ^r of islands, bir the uorth- west coast of Africa, at a distance of about 860 miles. Madeira, the chief islai.d. Is about 1(H) miles in circuit, and lias long been famed for Its picturesque beauty, rich fruits, and fine climate, which renders it a favor- ite resort of Invalids. Wine Is the staple produce. Funchal, the chief town, with nearly 80,000 inhabit- ants Is a regular station fur the West India mail steam-puckets from Southampton, and tho Brazilian sailing-packets from Kalmouth. The Canaries, belong- ing to Spaii , the supposed Fortunate Islands of the ancients, are situated about 300 miles south of Madei- ra. They are 13 in number, all of volcanic origin, Tene- riffe being the largest. Tho latter Is remarkable for its peak, which rises as a vast pyramidal mass to the height of 12,172 fe«t. The Capo Vord Islands, uib- ject to Portugal, are a numerous group about 80 miles from Cape Vcril. They obtained their name from the profusion of sea-weed found by tho discoverers in the neighboring ocean, giving it the appearance of a green meadow. They are also of volcanic origin. Fernando I'o, a very moniitainous island. Is in the Biglit of Biafra. Formerly a Britisli settlement, it was abandoned owing to its iinhealthiiiess, and Is now only in'iabited by a few negroes and mulottoes. St. Thomas, immediately under the equator, is a Porlu- gue.^3 settlement; as also Prince's Island, 2° north of the line. Annoboin, in '2° S. lat., belongs to tlie Spaniards. Ascension, a snioll, arid, volcanic Islet, was made a British port on tlic arrival of Napoleon Uonapurtc nt St. Helena, ond since retained as u sta- tion, at wliich ships may touch for stores. Green Hill, the summit of the island, rises to the height of 2K'10 feet. St. Helena is a Inige 'ark mass of rock, risiTig abruptly from the ocean to the height of 2G'J2 feet. James' Town is the only town and port, containing 6:iU0 inhabitants, iladagascar, the largest island of Africa, and one of the largest In the world, is separatcjl from the Mozambique coast by a channel of that name, aliout 2r)0 miles wide. Tho area exceed- that of France, coirprising 225,000 square miles, and the pop- ulation is estimated at 4,000,000. It has an atmos- pliero so pestilential, in particular localities, thai to breatlie it for a short scar and the Comoro Archipelago. The Inhabitants arc diverse races of Negro, Arali, and Ma- lay origin. Tlie Ovahs, a people of the central prov- inces, ore now dominant. The principal town, Tun- anarlvn, Uas SOOO inliabitonts. Tlie Comoro isles, four in number, are in llie north part of the Mozambique Channel, and inhobited hy Arab tribes. Bourbon, 4110 mileii east of Madagascar, ib a colony of France, producing for export eoll'ee, sugar, cocoa, spices, and timber. Mauritius, cided to the British by the French In IHl I, is ',10 miles uu: tlieast of Bourlion. The sugai- cane is cliieily cultivated. Port Louis, the capital, beautifully situated, has 20,000 hihabltants. Within the jurisdiction of the Governor of 'he Mauritius are tlie islands of Itodriguez, the Seychelles, and the Ain- irunti' islands. Soeotia, a large island, oast of Cape ilerdafViin, with an Arab population, has been known from early times ; it is now a British possession. This islund was long celebrated as producing the tinest alo- etic drug ; a few years ago this was denied ; but now it is found ! till to produce a tine kind of aloe, though niiicli of what passed as Socutrinc aloes really came from India. — K. H. African Company, a society of merchants trad- ing to .Africa. An ossociation in K.\eter, wIkcIi was formed in loSM, gave rise to this company. A charter was granted to a joint stock company in U>\H: a third company was created in 1031 ; a fourth corporation in ll>02 ; and another formed by letters patent in 1(>72, and reniodeleil in Ifi'Jo. Tho rights vested in the present company, 23 Geo. II. 1749. — i'ee Slave Thaiiu. Agato (popularly Coknklian), Ocrm. Achatf Du, Achaat; Vt. Agate; It. Agata; Riis. Agat; Lat. Achata, A genus of seini-pellncid gems, so called from tho Greek axart^,. because originally found on the banks of the river of that name in Italy. It la never wholly opaque like jasper, » or transparent as quartz-crystal; it takes a very high polish, and ita opaque parts usually present the appearance of dots, eyes, veins, zones, or bands. Its colors are yellowish, reddish, bluish, milk-white, honey-orange, or ochre- yellow, flesh-blood, or brick-red, reddish brown, violet blue, and lirownlsli green. It is found in irregular rounded nodules, from tho size of a pin's head to more than a toot in diameter. The lapida.ics distinguish agates according to the color of their ground, the finer semi-transparent kinds being termed Oriental. The most beautiful agates found In Great Britain are com- monly known by tho namo of Scotch pebbles, and are met with in different parts of Scotland, principally on the mountain of Cairngorm ; whence they are some- times termed Cairngorms. Tho German agates are the largest. Some very fine ones have been brought from Siberia and Ceylon. They nro found in great plenty at tho eastern extremity of tho settlement of the Capo of Good Hope, and arc still met with in It- aly, lint the principal mines of agate are situated In the little principality of Rajpepla, in the province of Giyrat, 14 miles distant from tho city of Broach, where they ore cut into beads, crosses, snuft-boxcs, etc. They arc exported in considerable quantities to other parts of India, and to this country; and hence, perhaps, the jewelers' term " broach." Agent. See FACTon. Agio, a term used In Commerce to denote the difTer- ence betwci n the real and the nominal value of money. In sjnio states tho coinage is so debased, that the real is greatly reduced below tho nominal value. Some- times this is owing to abrasion, and the wear of circu- lation. Where this reduction amounts, e.g., to 6 per cent., if 100 sovereigns were ottered as payment of a debt in England, while such sovereigns were current at their nominal value, they would bo received as just payment ; but if they were offered as payment of tho same amount of debt in a foreign state, they would be received oiily at their intrinsic value of £0,5, tho addi- tional ilu constituting tho agio. Tho .same principle is applied to the paper currency of a country, when re- iluced below the bullion value which it professes to represent. According to the respective demand for gold or paper money for the purposes of cominerce, it liecoines necessary, in order to procure the one or oth- er, as the case nioy re(iuire, to pay a premium for it, which is called the agio. — E. II. Agrarian La^^, Agraria Lex. This wns nn equal division ameng the Koman people of all the l:inda which they acquired by conquest, limiting tlie ncrca which each person should enjoy, first proposeil by Sp. Cnssius, to gain tho favor of the citizens, 480 u.o. It was enacted under the tribune TilK'rius Giac- chus, 132 n.c. : Sut this law at last proved fatal to the freedom of Iton.£ under Julius Cojsar. — Livv ; V'os- sii:s. Ahead, a sea term, signifying farther onward than the ship or at any distance before her, lying immedi- ately on that point of the compass to which her stem is directed. It is used in opposition to astern, which expresses tho situation of any object behind the ship. Ahull, in Xanil l^nyuage (he s'tuation of a ship when nil her sails are furled on account of Ihe violence of the storm, and when, having lashed her helm on the lee-slde, she lies nearly willi her side to the wind and ton, her head being somewhat inclined to the direction of the wind. Alabama, one of the Southern Ignited States, Is bounded north by Tennessee, east by Georgia, south by Florida and the Gulf of Mexico, and west liy Missis- sippi. It Is between 80" 10' and 35° N. lat.,' and 85° Jin u.i — -J" «.i ALA 16 ALA «nd 88° 80' W. lo""., »nd between S" «nd ll' 80' W. long, from Wajhington. It contains 60,722 square miles, or 32,462,080 acres. Population in 1800 was only 2000; In 1810, 10,000; in 1820, 127,901; in 1880, 808,997; in 18-10, 690,760; and in 1860, 771,671. Whites, 426,607 ; free colored, 2272 ; slaves 842,892. 1 1 contained in 1850 8fty-two counties. The capital is Montgomery, situated on the left bank of the Alabama River, 838 miles above Mobile by the course of the riv- er. Mobile, the metropolis, is the most |H>pulous and commercial place in the State. The other principal places are IluntsviUe, Florence, Wetumpka, Tusca- loosa, Cahaba, Eufala, etc. Surface, Soil, f- senee of large rivers makes railroads indispensable to tho prosperity of tho State. Manufncturet. — There were in this State in 1850, 13 cotton factories, with a capital invested of $681,000, employing 34!* males and 397 females, producing 3,281.- 000 yards of sheeting, etc., and 790,000 pounds of yam, valued at $398,585 ; 3 woolen factories, with a capital of $3600, employing II males ..nd 3 females, manufac- turing cloth valued at $7470; 1 establishment making pig iron, with a capital of $25,000, employing 40 per- sons, producing 522 tons of pig iron, valued at $28,896 ; 10 establishments with a capital of $216,625, employ- ing 212 persons, and making 1915 tons of castings, etc., valued at $271,126; 1 establishment with a ca|>- ital of $2600, employing 14 persons, manufacturing 100 tons of wrought iron, valued at $7500; 217 flour, ing and grist mills, 294 saw mills, 149 tanneries, 60 printing-ofUces, issuing liO newspapers, etc. This State was originally included in tho territorial limits of (ieorgia, except the past which l)elonged to Florida. In 1802 (icorgio ceded all her territory west of Chattahoochee Itiv to the Mississippi Kiver, lo ttio United .States, and in i817 it was constituted the Mis- si.'.sippi Territory, and Alabama continued r part of this territory until it was admitted into the Union, and became an independent .State in 1820. Alabaster (tierm. AUtlMtter; It. Alabantro; Ft. Albafre; Kuss. Alttbittlr; I,at. Ahhastritet). A kind of stone resembling marble, Init softer. Under this name are confocnded two minerals, the f/t/fiseoun and calrle of a good polish, and is more used in statuary. The statuaries distinguish alabaster into two sorts, tho common iind Oriental. Spain and Italy yield tho best alabaster. That produced at Alontania, in the Papal States, is in the hi^'hest esteem for its beautiful whiteness. Infe- rior .wrts are fouml in France and Germany. Alabas- ter is wrought into tables, vases, statues, chimney- pieces, etc. ALC 17 ALE kte Arom Georgin )uthwardl>' fVom of the State, and ce, at the foot of ) Gulf ofMexico, See tioDiLiL I dhoah CanuT U in the Tennessee i milea, and cost vn's Korrv, nt tha cost $1,861,057. u Triana, on Ten- (cre in tuis State, ivliich were whol- to miles finished, ' chartered or in iree banks in tha Ji2,l(Mi,000. Tho There is also • for tho deaf and mcy in this State. Gt)3 miles in con- 856) granted land int will doubtless n progress. Ala- uliarly need rail- i in the State, but loard, and the al>- I indispensable to 9 State in 1850, 13 istod of ||G81,!)00, , producing 3,281, - (K) pounds of yam, ic9, with a capital .females, raanufac- Iblifhuient making mploving 40 pcr- valueiiat|t2«,8'J6; kilt'i.CriS, employ- tons of castings, infnt with a caji- is, ninnufacturing l|i75O0 ; 217 flour- 14U tanneries, 60 ■», etc. in the territorial |hith belonged to lur ti-rritory west lippi Kiver, to tlio istituted llie Mis- inucd r part of |o the Union, and Alabntlro; Vi. Itrilft). A kind lur. I'ndor this llic ipjpseouf and ly distinct from fhe varieties nro irnier, wlicn of a senii-lranspnr- lis cmjiloyi'd l)y Ibut is not nus- ICalcarcous ala- i nut so hard us Itilile of a good T The stntuarlcs Ic common iind Ibest alaba»tor. Inl States, is in liteness. Infe- lany. Atabas- luea, chimney- Alcohol (ardent sriHiT), (Fr. Etprit it Vm;\ Garni. Wcingcitl ; It, Spirito ardente, Spk-ito di Vir.o, Acqtiarzinli), the name given to the pure $pirit obtain- able by distillation, and subscijuent rectification, from ■11 llquars that havo undergone the vinous fermenta- tion, and from none but such as are ausccptible of it. It is light, transparent, colorless j of t shar.n, pene- trating, agre.iablo smell; and a warn;, stimulating taste. It is quite the same, whether obtained from brandy, wine, whisky, or any other fluid which has been fermenttd. Tho speciiic gravity of alcc.oi when perfectly pure is from •792 to -800, that of water being 1-000 ; but the strongest spirit afforded by mere distil- lati'in is alvjut -820 ; alcohol of the shops is about '835 or •840. Alcohol can not b« frozen by any known de- gree of • 'd. It boils at 171°, It is tho only dissolv- ent of many resinous substances, and is extensively used in niudicino and tho arts.— X»r<. A. T. Tuomson, Ukk, etc. Aldar, tho Betuln nintu of botarists, a forest tree abundant in England and most parts of Europe. It thriven l)cst in marshy grounds and on the banks of rivers. H rarely attains to a very great size ; its wood is extremely durable in water or in wet ground ; and hence it is much used for piles, planking, pumps, pipes, sluices, and generally for ail p:;rposc8 where it is kept constantly wet. It soon rots when exposed to tho weatlicr or to damp ; and, when dry, it is much Bul)ject to worms. Tho color of tho wood is reddish yellow, of different aliadcs, and nearly uniform. Tex- ture very uniform, with large septa of tho aanie color as the wood. It is soft, and works easily. — Tredoold's Principles of Cnriteittry. Ale and Beer, well known and extensively used fermented liquors, the principle of which is extracted from several sorts of grain, but most commonly from barley, after it has undergone the process termed malt ■ Ing. 1. Jlintoncal Notice of Ale and Beer. — The manu- facture of ale or Iw.r is of very higli antiquity. He- rmlotus tells us that, owing to the want of wine, the Egyptians drank a liquor fermented from barley (lib. li. cap. 77). Tho use of it was also very uncicntly in- troduced into Greece and Italy, though it does not ap- pear to have ever been very extensively usi-d in these countries. Mead, or metheglin, was probal)ly the ear- liest intoxicating liquor known in the north of Europe. Ale or beer was, however, in common use in Germany in the time of Tacitus (.l/oW4. Uerm. cap. 23). "All the nations," say» Pliny, " who inhabit the west of £u; ';ie have a liquor witli which they intoxicate them- selves, made of corn and water (J'l'ut/e nunUda). The manner of making the liquor is somewhat ditl'erent in Gaul, Spain, and other countries, and it is called by many various names ; but its nature and proper- ties are every where the same. The people of .Spain, in particular, brew this licpior so well thai it will keep good for a long time. So exquisiti' is tlie ingenuity of mankind in gratifying their vicious appetites, that they have tlius invented a metliod to make water it- self intoxicate." — Hint. Nat. lib. xiv. cap. 22. Tho Saxons and Danes were passionately fond of beer; and the drinking of it was supposed to form one of the principal enjoyments of tho lierocs admitted to tlie hall of Odin. — M.ii.i.kt's !\\>rthem Antiijuitieii, cap. 6, etc. Tlu! manufacture of ale was early introduced into Knijland. It is mentioned in the laws of Inn, king of Wessex ; anc allowed to sell two gallons of ale for a penny in cities, and three or four gallons for the same price in the country. The 1180 of hops in the manufacture of ale and beer (corns to bavo been a German inveutioa. They were B used in the breweries of the Netherlands in the begin- ning of the 14th century ; but they do not seem to have been introduced into England till 200 years afterward, or till the beginning of tho lOtli century. In 1630, Henry VIII, enjoined brewers not to put hop* into their ale. If would, uowever, appear that but little alter ,ioii ./as paid to this order ; for in 1552 hop plant- ations had begun to bo formed. — Beckmamn's Uiil. Invent, vol, iv, p, 836-841, Engl, edition. The addl- tion of hops renders ale mora palatable, liy giving it an agreeable bitter teste, while, at the same time, it fits it fur being kept much longer without ii\]ury. Gen- erally speaking, the English brewers employ a much larger quantity of hops than the Scotch, isot 1S02 1S03 tSU4 18(K> 1806 18(IT 1808 1809 1810 1811 1812 IHIU tSU 1S15 1810 IStT 1818 1SI0 1820 1821 lSt>3 ma ISfib i8va IS'21 1828 182» 1830 1831 18iW 1833 18:^4 ISilli ISutI 1837 183.8 1839 1840 MALT IN QRKAT BRITAIN. Buliali chftrKfld with duly. 19,742,741 &«,7ao,441 34,710,084 24,763,0'28 26,M8,183 80,710,1147 27,7»1,()«4 25,r.7,1,119 2S,86A3.'>9 20,880,183 29,C7fl,82T 21,23,1,023 26,8ti4,2(l3 'i9,743,04'2 80,209,038 24.200,(Hi3 23,834,730 20, 201,089 25,8 15, 2M 20,800,121 20,308,411 29,848,080 28,104,497 81,611,743 3(I,'.J06,4.'K> 8'2,4«8,779 2,591 42.S92,Of>.) 44,387,780 40.560.748 40,555. UO 39,92S,3'>9 42,400,882 Duty pitld. Kat«t of Duly par tiuahcl. EnglKud. 8«oUkd(I. | Iraland. 1841 80,104,236 1.842 8,^,871,394 1843 ' 86,093,890 1S44 i 37,187,1.'^« 1846 ; 80,645.990 1840 , 42,097,0S6 1.847 86.307,815 1848 I 37.645.912 1849 88,98.\400 1860 40,744,760 ( 1851 I 4n,!)ii7,4;2 . 1862 j 41,071,030 X 1,317,770 2,988,082 8,977,300 0,240,036 6,806,300 0,514,403 6,980,663 6,376,042 6,4UI>,ai4 6,741,992 16S buhls.* 0,332,867 4,498,7M 6,401,964 0,411,817 0,707,410 4,741,812 2,709,188 a,'i9rt,229 4,076,4S6 4,643,421 1-88 bshU.* 4,297,581 4,082,88,8 3,609,601 4,172,463 4,031,324 4,177,278 3,809,988 4,781,686 3,743,616 4,231,997 ' 1-39bslil8.» 6.030,069 4,799,063 6,140,769 6,'ii6,403 5,409.883 6,099,879 6,210,804 6,1.M,838 4,139,804 6,592,477 1-60 Mils.' 4,8,80,243 4,S48,.5Sl 4,827,9.'>0 6,027,071 6,638,033 6,691,273 4,776,091 6,070,'238 6,206,779 6,511,440 •72 bshls.* 6,0!10,369 6,823,085 >. J. 1 4J 2 6 4 6i 2 5 S 7i 27 <. i. m 1 81 2 7 and 6 per cent 1 81 a'ii 2 7 8 7i f. *. 101 i'oi 2 9i 2 Oi 3 3t 3 8( 46 «4t 3 Oi ? 7 2 7 2 7 and 6 percent. 2 7 and 6 percent. * l>«cenDUll ftrerBge unuil coiuumptiOD per head. 2. Distinction betieeen Ale and Beer, or Porter. — This (llslincllon has licon well elucidated by Ur. Thomas Tbomsdn, in his article on Brewing, in the Ahc^c/ojot- dlii llrilimnica : " Both ale and beer are in Great Britain obtained l)y fermentation from the malt of barley; but they diifer from each other in several particulars. Ale is light-colored, brisk, and sweetish, or at least free from bitter; while lieer is dark-colored, bitter, and much less brisk. What is called porter in England is a species of beer ; and the term ' porter' at present signifies what was formerly called strong beer. The original diflereiice betiveen ale and beer was owing to tho malt tnm which they were prepared. Ale inal^< ALB 18 AJ.E M WM dried at « very low boat, and consequently wai of a pale color ; while l)Oor, or porter molt, was dried at a higher teinpcroture, and had of consequence . quired a brown color. This incipient charring hau developed a peculiar and agreeable bitter Uste, which was communicated to the beer along with the darit color. This bitter taste rendered beer more aKreeablu to the palate, and less ii\juriaus to the constitution than ale. It was consequently manufactured in greater quantities, and soon became the commou drink of tlio lower ranks in England. When malt became high- priced, in consequence of the heavy taxes laid upon it, and the great increase in the price of barley which tuu>( place during the war of the French Kovolution, the brewers discovered that a greulcr quantity of wort of a given strength could lie prepared tVoni pale malt than from brown niait. The consequence wos that pale malt was substituted for brown malt in the brewing of por- ter and beer. We do not mean that the whole malt employed was pule, but a considerable proportion of it. The wort, of course, was much paler than before ; and it wanted that agreeable bitter flavor which character- ized porter, and made it so much relished by most pal- ates. The porter brewers endeavored to remedy thesu defects by several artlllcial additions. At the same time, various substitutes were tried tu supply the place of the agreeable bitter communicated to porter by tlie use of bi wn malt. Quassia, cocculus indicus, and we believe oven opium, were employed in succession ; but none of them was found to answer tlio pun'oso sufli- dently. Whether the use of these substances be still persevered in we do not know ; but xe rather believe that they are not, at least by the London porter brew- era." Ate and Wine are said to Imve lieen Invented by Bacchus ; the former where the soil, ow ing to its qual- ity, would not grow grapes. — Tookk's Panlheon. Ale was known as a beverage at least 404 n.c. Herodotus ascribes the tirst discovery of the art of brewing bnrley- wine to Isis, the wife of Osiris. The Uonians and Germans very early learned the process of preparing a liquor from com by means of fermvntatlun, from the Egyptians. — Tacitus, Ale-houses arc made mention of in the laws of Ina, king of Wessex. liooths were set up in England A.i>, 728, when laws were passed for their regulation. Ale-houses were licensed 1C21 ; and excise duty on ale and beer was imposed on a system nearly similar to the present, 13 Charles II. ICUO.— Havuh. Alexandria, so called from its illustrious founder, Alexander the Great, the principal sea-port of Egyi)t, on the coast of the Mediterranean, about 14 miles W.S.W. of the Canopic mouth of the Nile ; the linht- house being In lat. 81° 11' 31" N., long. 2'/ " iH" E. The situation of this famous city was admirably < hosen. Until the discovery of the route to India by the Cape of Good Hope, Egypt formed the centre of llie com- merce between the Eastern and Western Worlds ; and Alexandria was placed in the most favorable |iusition in Egj'pt for an emporium, being the only port on its northern coast, where there la at once deep water and security for shipping throughout the year. The ports of Rosctta and Damictta, the former on the west, and the latter on the eastern arm of tha Nile, arc both dim- cult of entrance, each having a liar, upon which there is always a dangerous surf. Ships liound for Alexan- dria avoid this serious inconvenience ; and by means • I an artlflcial navigation, stretching from the city to the western branch of the Nile, it bus almost the same facilities for internal navigation that are cnj(^ycd by the cities referred to. It may I* jiroper, however, to mention that this ar- tificial commuuicutlon with the Nile has not always been open. It existed in antiquity, but fell into decay during the barbarism of more modern times. After being shut up for sonic centuries, it has been reopened by Meheuiet All, who dug the Mahuioudie cauul from | Alexandria to Atfeh, on the Nile, about 27 mile* above Kosetla. This important work is 44 miles In IcDf^th, uO feet in breadth, and from 16 to 18 feet deep. It wat opened in 1811); but owing partly to the nature of the ground, partly to some dofecin in its construction, and partly to the mud deposited by the water of the Nile, it Is dillicult to keep in repair; and can only lie navU gated by boats that draw little water, and are not suit* able for the navigation of the Nile. Out, with all It* defects, the construction of this canal has been of the greatest advantage, not to Alexandria only, bat to Egypt and oven Europe. J'orlt, elc. — The ancient city was situated a little more inland tlian the modern one, opposite to I he small island of I'haros, on which was erected the liglit-house, so celebrated in antiquity. — C.naAU, De Hello ('ivili, lib. ill. cap. 112. This island waf narlly by artificial meana, and partly by natural causi-,-, gradually joined to the land by u mound, and on this the more modern town is principally built. The Isthmus and Island have now the form of a T, its head being northeast and southwest. A square castle, or tower, built on a small islet or rock, at the extremity of a mole projecting from the north- east angle of the city, is still called the I'lniros, and may perhaps occupy the site of the ancient light-house ; a light was exhibited on it down to 1812, when it ceased. Un each side of the city there is a port. That on the western, or African side, called the Old I'ort, the A'u- mutos of the ancients, is by far the largest and iicst. It stretches from the town westward to Marabout, about n miles, and is about 1^ miles in width. It is Iround- cd on the north, partly by the weslem tongue or ungla of the island on which the cily is partially built, nt the extremity '^f which is the new light-bouse, and partly by rocks and .. nd banks. It has three entrances, The lirst, or that nearest the city, having 17 feet water, is nearly 1 j miles southwest I'runi the light-house; liut it is too narrow and ditTicult to be attempted by any one not thoroughly acquainted wilh the port. '1 he eiultm side of the second or middle entrance is marked by buoys which lie aliout 2| miles southwest from the light-house ; it is about a quarter of a mile wide, nnd has, where shallowest, 27 feet water. The third or western entrance has its wetltm boundary within aliout three-eighths of a mile from the east end of Marabout island : it is about half a,pile wide, and has from 25 to 27 feet water in its sliuliowest places. This last is the liest entrance. Ships, when in, may anchor close to the town in from 22 to 40 feet water, and there is good anchorage in deep water all along the shore. Foreign- ers were formerly excluded from this port; but this prohibition no longer exists, and it is now principally resorted to by the shipping frequenting the port. What is called the New (though It be really the old- est) or Asiatic harbor is on the eastern side of the town. A rock called the Diamond lies a little to the east of the I'haros tower ; and ships entering the port ought to have this rock about a cable's length on the right. If they get much farther tu tlie left, they will come in contact with a shoal which stretches westward from the Pharillon, or little tower, on the enst side of the port. The water Immediately within tlie port south- west from the I'haros is from .111 to 40 feet deep ; but the space for anchorage is very llnilted, and is exposed to the northerly gales ; and the ground being foul and rocky, hempen cables are very upt to iliafc, and sev- eral accidents have happened in conieiiueiice to ships unprovided with iron cables. Clriliniiiy tides rise 2 feet; but during the overflow of the Nile the rise is 4 feet. Variation l.'l° west. Tnitle of Alfxandria. — The Imports principally con- sist of cotton stuffs, timber, woolen and silk stuffs, iron and hardware, including copper and tin plates, jewel- ry, machinery, aminunition, paper and stationery, cut- I(Ty, etc, etc. The exports consist principally of raw ottoii, rice, wheat and barley, lieans, liiisei'ii. senna, and other drugs and guina brought from tho interior; / ALE 10 ALE Indlf^n, upluiii, Mtrirh ft-ilhBra, itatna, »oi\», llnan cloth, eotl'i'u fruni Aralilu, uti!, 'I'ha «x|Mirtfi i fwhoal, liarluy, and puUe for ■ wtilla duclliuid In I'oijmtqunnra of tha ■upuriiir uncuuragiinKnt Klv«rt to III* Krowth of cotton ; but tlioy hsvii iti;*ln lner«tMd,snd In \M9 wo liroiiiflit from Ali-xandria 120,1)04 <(». wlinat, 'hi, Mi qni. Iieana, and )ll,ir>l qn. Indian corn. 'J'li* chIiudi of flax ha* duclined : forniirly from AD.INMI to m,m} i|uartcni of linseed hava licun oxportiit not tu any (p-oat extent, lliouf(l> ih* will and cllnia' . vf I'|i|i«r Kgypt are nuid to Ixi uapeclally favorii* ^i to Ita Krowth. In- di){« and inadilcr uru anioiiK I'lii artlcli.'t of culluro In- truducdd l)y tli« late I'ai^ha. Cotton liaa liccn Kfiivin It; KKypt from • very rc- mot« period ; prevloualy, however, to tho aarondrncy of Meheniul All It waa hut little cMlllvalcd, and tliot little wua of inferior ipialily, ahort>atapl«d, and cloacly re8ci.,liilii|{ "Hurata," under which name the ainnll quantitiea exported from the I'onnlry wcra uaualiy aold. Hut in 1K2<) a Frt.'ichman of the natic<'r. brought to Kngland, hut rarely, if e-. .r, with odvnnt- agu to the iinportera, They are iiiferior to Kiigliali beana, and jire peculiarly anhject In the worm. No oata are raiaeil in KgypI, the horaea being cnllrcly fed upon barley. Hilk la grown to aonin extent. The dule-palm thrlvea in every part of KgypI, and the fruit la largely ex|K)rted, It la aingniar that, not- wilhatundliig the luxuriance (;f nuiny of IM vegetable prodnctioiiH, iCgypt ahouhl be entirely deatilute of tinilier. jf/wicy.— AcTOunta ore kept at Alexandria, aa at Cairo, in currenl piniilrc), i^ach plaaire lieing equal to 40 paraa, or niedini, and eaih niedino to IK) aapcra. The medino ia alao divided into H borM, or I'orll. A purHo containa '2/i,lK)0 inedini. At the doae of \Xi'l tho uxcliungi! with Kiiglutid waa D.'WM current piaatrea per .t'l ; liiit ill general culculntlona 1011 piaatrea are aupprwed to e(iuul il. I'nyineiila, in Iranaacliona of any inipurtaiice, are generally made In Spanish dol- lars. I)iil!i'». — With llie exception of the arbitrary prin- ciples on which I he I'uclia llxes the priies of coinniod- ilics, tlicre ia nothing olijectlonable in liia policy aa to coininerce. The dutiea on iniporta are only H per cent. We believe, however, tliul a amnli increase of the cus- toms' duty would cnmpenaaK! the I'adia for (he iilioli- tlon of other ii|ipri'''alvu charges, and there can lie little doubt (Imt Ilia aulijecta wouhl lie materially benelitcd by the cliango. I.ctti IS written laat aummer (|H5r>) at Alexandria, Kgypt, atato that .Said Taaha, the viceroy, baa f(tven ilie nceeaaary ordera for the conatniction of a railway acroaa the desert between Cairo and Huor,, a dialance of H4 milea. The raila are to be brought Jut fh>in Kn- gland, and the I'aaha'a own engineers ho are Kr«nch- men, are to carry out the worka. In alKiiit three yean from thia time It may lie hoped that a railroad will run (|iiite acroaa tho country, and the tranaitof paaaexgers, which now occupies more than two days of unooiofort- able traveling, will bo reduced to ten or twelve hours of eaay conveyance. For tho extimsion of trade and coinmiinlcatlon with India, it will bo very desirable if tho J'aslia ahould consent to carry coal to Muez at a moderate charge, as the high price of coal at Mnez ia at preaent the principal ol)aiaclo to other steamers reg- ularly coming up tho Ucd 8ea besldea thosu of the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation '!omparty. According to letters from Kgypt dated Uece ,.il)er, 1855, tho railway between Alexandria and Caiio haa been nearly romploteii, ond, according to the L 't advices, ia almnt to lie opened for passengers and gnoda. The Importance of this communication, in supcraediiig lioth Iho canal and tho Nile passage, and shortening the transit between tlio two cities to aliout eight hours, will bo readily appreciated Ijy "very per jn who has traveled ocrosa Egypt, "".le cc'truction of the por- tion of the railway from Oiro , near Suez, widch is to coinploto the communication between the Mediter- ranean and tlio lied Sea, ia in active progresa. The directors are endeavoring to induce hie highneaa, tho viceroy, to construct nt tho termini of these railway* at Cairo and the lied Sea commodious iiotels, adapted to the convcniiMire of travelers from the East. The spirit of improvement in the ICust is further shown by tiie recent estalilishnicnt of an electric telegraph across Kgypt. Thia has been determined u))ou by hia liigh- ness the viceroy, and will form an important iinprove- ment in tiie overland communication r forward In admit that liU 4>n- tarprlM and darlnif were iiuwiav iiifiTior to liii tiicivM; and that he wa^ w<-ll oiilllled to tlir Kralltudu uf hii contrniporarii and thi- n'»|M;i't of iMiilrrll". From tbti I'lwh of tliia diai'ovury, llmO traded |i«ri- odlcally from Kttypt to MuKlria, i'oiiveyiii)( Iho produi Id of Kurope to India, and roin "nidy. Tliu ludlaii Koodn havinx Imm'ii landed at M\oa llorinoa ami licreiiicv were thence conveyed l>y caravan* to Coiiton (Ihu iiioil- em KcniiA), on the Nile, where Ihey »er/' put on l«iard IlKhlcn and lent to Alexandria, whence they were din- tribiiteil all over the Weslern World. I'lic (foods sent to India were conveyed to Myoii llomtoii and llerenlcu by the lama route. Myos llornion ww aituated on ihe shore of the Araldan (inlf, alniut a d.-jiree to the north of the ino4leni porl of Coanelr. T!ie diatancv from it toCoptoa, In a Mrni)(ht line, i« alw.it 70 Knxli'b mileii. Berenice wa* aitunlwi u Kood way I'urtlier Miiith, IwiiiH nearly under the tropic. It wan imilt by I'lolemy I'hiladelphuf. Iti dinlnnce from Coplon ia staled by Pliny at 2M Koman niiiea; tb-j dlderent realinK-placea on the road were ilelerniinsd l)y the wells, and tbu Journey occupied alioiil Vi day a. rtoluiiiy seems to have preferred this slnlion to Myoa llorinos, tliouKli the land-carriat{e to Coptoa was so iiiucli farther, from Ita greater proximity to the Straits of Itabclmandeli, and its lessening the voyage up thu Ited Hva. I'liiiy fays that the cost of llie Indian coininndities brought to Home f.!ir<>ugh Alexandria was increaiod n liiindrcd- fold (nHlujjIiriilo rrneiinl) by tbu expense of carriage, etc. We suspect, however, thai this is a ilietoriiul exaggeration, moaning merely that their prico was very materially enhanced. If tbu increase was any thing iilio that mentioned, it must have Iweii owing to the imposition of oppn-ssive tolls ami duties, for it could not possibly bavu lieeii occasioned by the mere expenses of conveyance. In the Itith century, the cost of In- dian commodities, brought to Western Kiiropn liy way of Alexandria and Aleppo, was aliout three, times the cost of those brought liy the Cape of Good Hope. — See poil, East India CoMfANY, Hutmy of. Hut Kgypt was then occupied l>y the JIamelukes and Turks, who threw ev«ry sort of obstacle in the way of commerce, and loaded it with the most oppressive exactions. — Plin. IIUI. Sat. lili. vi. cap. 23; Ameii.iion, Commerce det Kffgptieiu, p. 161-176, etc.; KuuKKTanN'a Ancient India, note 20, etc. Uesides this important trnfTic, which supplied Koine and Ihe Western World with the silks, spices, precious ■tones, and other products of Arabia and India, a great trade in com was carried on from Alexamlria to Itome. Egypt, for a lengthened period, constituted Ihe granary from which Uoine, and afterward Constantinople, ilrow the principal part of llieir supplies ; and its possession was, on that account, reckoned of the utmost conse- quence. Augustus employed merchantmen of a lar- ger size than any that bad previcusly traded in the Mediterranean to convey Ihe corn of Egypt to Ostia. They were escorted by ships of '.var. The fleet re. ALK celved the names oliaera tnti/ilii emMe, and enjoyed several peculiar privileges. Ihe ships belonging to it were Ihe only ones authorised to hoist the small sail called ulilic are principally indebted to the exertions uf Mr. Wag- horn for the early and successful t oloACh month. Th« ronlrart ntcamrr with thK outward mall waltii at Alexandria fur tlin linmnwani mall, and arrlTci at Malta about Iho IStb tnd 'IVh of nvory month, wliero lh« Mamrllli'a (lortlon U tmnafi'm-d to iino of her Majcatv'a atramcra, whlcli rarrli'a It to Mar- ai'lllca, whi'nni It la wnt by land to I'aria, and via lltivi'r to London ; lh« n'malnli k- portion la laiidi'd at Noiithaniptnn, and l« tbiiiri' M'Ul h)- railway to London. Avi^raK" >lnio to or from lloinhay, via .MaraiMiliii, 111 daya; and to or truui Calciitla, vto Miirw'lllin. aluiul 4i or 48 daya ; anil via H(]iilliani|iton, Aroin 4T to 5,1 daya. By uliip round thi> I 'u|h-, 4 niontlia. Tlio n«wa- papi'r pronrli'tora run nipreaara (Voin Marat'llli-a on thu arrival of each mall, and thua an inablul to publUb the nvwa loiua two daya bcforu tlui lutttin arrlvo In Ijondou, Rovrm rnn Paaaimnnu.— Fitiar, ria RnvTiiAMrTOW, Tlma oraunliK. ran to alttinilrla. AliiaiKlrIa to auu to Htmtbay. rroni Inti to tiylon, Maitru,iii('>kulla. riicaniora Icavi' 8H.- ny Htcaniur to Hoiilognc; railway to I'aria and t'balona-aur-Haoni'; thence to Lyoni, Avignon, and to Manwlllra. Tlnto orcnpli'd, tlircc dm f Krcnrh ^nvcninu'iit wtvHinti't Ii'uvi* Mnnudlb'a thu 0th, lOtb, and Stith of every month. rnllInK at Ij'Khoru, DIvlla Vrrihlit, .Naplin, Malta, anil >(<'SHlun. Kri'Urli pivirnnunt atcainera alio lonvu Maravlllca on tliii Uth and 23d ofivi-ry month for Alexandria and lleymnt din'rt, rallInK at Malta tin the way. The Pnnlnaular and Oriental Htoam Np.vlffatlon <'ompany have piibllahcd the f(dlowln(( statementa ; Ratea of pnauKo between EnKland and Malta " '* " Alexandria . rinl claM. t I. 4. 20 fl RO SacuaJ Clau. £ t.d. 12 10 1 1. W. 10 in ItATKa or i'AaaAUR, ini LuaivK iir Kxpiu»»» ut Thanhit Tiinotiiii K,or deck J MarriiMl eoiioleH, occupying a reaorved cabin on^ the main deck J Cblldn'n with the parent, S yearn and under 11. . . . A chiA under S years (no berth provided) HerviiUtH, European native . tn 200 SS Free. ■M IS r foregoing rittex to (!ey!on, Mndraa. and (.'alcntta. The expenaea of trunalt thriiiigh Egypt are charged at the Compony'a oilleeii, at the timu uf securing the paaaage, for the Egyptian government Wo aulOuln an extract from the TllANaiT AnHINISTRATION TASHT. B«tw««n Alavaaftrta i aaij biMi. A lady ") (Mi A gentleman In vana | 12 A child above ten yeam >a,^roaa the< 12 \ A child of Ave ycara and under ten | Ileaert. | S | A child of two ycara and under (Ivo. N.B.— Theae chargea are now Included In the forea to Aden and Ceylon, etc. A child under two year* A European female aervant A European man aervant or mechanic, . . A native female servant \ native man at^rvant un a dromedary or Between Alexandria and Sunt- 1 In van. f^'^'fi yacroaathe.^ *a j Desert. [_ I ifunkey 4 Canal helwten the. NiU and fhe HedSra.-AVe are a.i- H'trcd that, were tt not for the hostilities in whicli tlie I'aolia has licen almost always cngajjed, ho would have alleniptivl to rcopon tlio famous canal that formerly connected the Red Sea and tlio Nile, According to Herodotus, this canal was coimncnccd Iiy Ncchos, kiiij; of Esypt, and llnishcd by Darius (lib. lii. § l.M, iv. 80). ITndor tlio rtolemica, l>y whom, according to some authorities, it was complet(>d, this canal hccaine an importai.t channel of cunununiralion. It Joined the cast, or Pcliisiac branch of the Nile at nubastis, the ruins of which still remain ; it thence proceeded cast to the bitter or natron lakes of Temrah and Cheik- Aneded, whence It followed a nearly south direction to its Jnnctinn with the lied Sea at Arsinoc, cither at or near where Suez now stands. It is said by Strabo (lib. xvii. p. 805) to have licen 1000 stadia (122 miles) ill length ; but If we measure tt un the IhisI iiKidern ninps, it could hardly have exceeded from 85 to 95 miles. Herodotus says that it was wide enough to ad- mit two triremes sailing abreast. This great work having fallen into decay after the downfall of the Ptol- (uiiaie dynasty, was renovated cither liy Trajan or Adrian ; and it was finally renewed by Amrou, the general of the ca\i{ Omar, the conqueror of Egypt, anno li39. The French engineers traced the remains of this great work for a considerable distance, and it would be uf singular advantage to Kgypt and the commerce of the world were it reopened. Marshal Mannont states that the ground has been carefully examined by AI. Lep6re, an able engineer, and that it presents no sort of difliculty that may not easily lie overcome. This, indeed, might have been inferred from the fact of its former construction; for the ancients, being unacquainted with the use of locks, had to encounter difliculties in the construction and working of canals which are now oliviated with the utmost facility. According to M. I.cpere, the cost of constructing a navigable canal from tlie Nile to the Red Sea would not exceed 17,000,000 francs ,or less than X"00,000 (SIarmost, iv. IGl). Tlie completion of this work need not, therefore, be despaired of. The aprnliiR of Ihr Mdhniniidich ('«n»l from Ali<)i«nilri» to Alfc'h nhowi wh«l till' pDwiit (fovi-niniriit l» Mv U> »Lhli'H' ; •ml «» onliir|pri«i' like lliiit now umli-r roii- •liltrntlon, llioii((hiMortMli(Hiiill, woiilil Uiof ntlllKri'ul. ft ImporUnm to Kifvpl, «' wiOl an I" Kiiropc inil A«l«. Al(«bia li » »;«iii'riil imtlioil of ri'HilvInu niatlii'- Diallral prulili'iiin I'v incaim of i'|imlloii«, or II It « ni'tli- orl of iH'rforiiiliii-' '"' ' il' iilullutu of nil »oit« of ipwiM- lltli'N hy iiH'Oii' ni'iioral "Ik"' or ihnrai'trm. Ilu- nioili'rn writerii u» ehi' soljicl «rii l.miilM'rl, ll'Aliiiii iK-rt, l.a»(r«nK<',<>oii,('li^lr»ut,('oiwiii, Triiiplxhor, Kantii'T, llc/.mil, (inu»», I'tc. Wlicro al- gnlir* mu (lr»t Uf<\, aiicl liy wliom, !• not prwl«'ly known. I)lopli«iilii' iliixionii, ami llm now analysin, ItHW — lUriis. ▲lloant*, a nea-port town of Hpaln, In the now provin™ of Alicante, Ut. «H° W 41' N., Iohk. 0° WC W. Population of the city nlmiit '.'D.INMI, unit of tho provincf IMt.'l,MtM). The port in an open anil upaeiiiuii hay, lietwefn Cape ile lu lliierta on tlio nurthea.it, anil Itia I'lana on the s^iilh, distant fnmi each other •outhwfft and northeast alHUit ten niilen. Ships may enter on any course iHaween these points, iteerinK di- rect for the castle, which stands on iin eminence aliont 4lXl feci hiifh. Tliune of ' iinsideralilo Imrdcn iniMir north and south, distant from i to 1 mile from shore, In from 4 to M railmniH water; they nru expimed to all winds, from K.N.K. to S. liy W. ; but the holding ((round is inx»\, and tliere is no imitancu iIuHiik the last twenty years of a ship huviii^ U'cn driven from hor nioorlnK*. Small cnift lie alon)(Kidu the mole, which is already :iL>ll yards in lenKlhi and is cuntlnii- iii|; to Ih> projected still farther into the sea. The mole has ■ Axid liKht, !).'i feet hi^h, vi.^ilde 15 miles. The trade of Alicante, though still eonsiileralile, has declined much withiu the last few years ; a conse^ qucnce partly of the emancipation of America from the Spanish yoke, lint more of the oppressive duties laid on tho importation of must articles ottonign prod- uce into Spain (tee C.tni/.), and the extensive amu),'- glinj; carried on from (iiliraltar, Algiers, etc. llaislns form the principal article of ex|iort; and their proJuce, which amounts to nearly itWitKH) cwt., has Increased rapidly of late years. They are princi- pally taken otf by Kngland, the shipments thither, in 1812, having liecn U0,4U6 cwt. ilut with this single exception all the other articles of export have declined. Tho principal are silk, wool, barilla, almonds, wine, ■alt, oil, lead, mats, saffron, brandy, anise, etc. Tho ex- portation of barilla, which formerly amounted to from 60,(KX) to 1(H),000 cwt., has declined, partly from Its havhif; been largely adulterated, but principally from its beinft to a ffrvtt extent superseded by muile fuelice (artJHcial soda), to little more than 20,()00 cwt. The import! consist principally of su{{ar, culfec, cocoa, and other colonial products; cotton, and linen stutrs, and other manufactured Koods, from England and France ; (alted Ash, tobacco, iron and liardwarc, deals and tar, etc. ; but it is impossible to form any estimate of the Imports from official or other returns, as liy far the larKOBt portion are supplied clandestinely. Indeud, the whole population of this part of Spain are clotheil in prohibited articles, which are sold as openly In tlie towns as If they were of Spanish manufacture \—C' hath lh<> l fitllixr iimr niollo''', !■> Inillniiun prfciMllii^ In In lii^ wlilitiiit miv n'atrlctloii a** ('> llw* ii^r or rralilcni't' >>[ tliii I lillil, unit It iplM'ttM III liiivi' Ih'cii liilcMiilril fur iIk' I'hililri'ii i>r natural iHirii rliUi'iin, or of lilltcnii wlm wiirs urixlxa' i<'t' "<>■' Ki'volutlon. anil llicri'lorK It wa* iiiorii toni|iri'lioiiilvii nml niori' llliorul In tlii'lr fiiviir: liiit till) wholH KtiUiitii |irovlKlo; fur il ili'i'liiri'il ^I'ni'rnlly, tliiit Mini rlilMivn ut (llio'ioi of llu> Initi'il StiiliH, hum out of tho llnilta •ml Jiiri">lii'tiun »f thu I'nlti'il Sluliia, nliall Ih' nniil'l- or<'d UK cili/cuii of thi> Inlli'il Stutcn.' Anil wlicn wi' cuiiaiiliT Ihc univumul |irii|ii4irn aliniinl ithuulil, liy Ihii i'\iHlln)( act of IMll.', Ihi left no iiriMarioun, ami mi far inlVrlor in thii aiourlty which has lii^en kIvch, umlur like clrcuniHtanccn, hy thu Kn);linh atatutus." — Ki;nt'!4 Ciimm., 1^'ct. XXV, In KnulamI, ali«na wure Krinvoualy corrrcil up tu A.D. 1MT7, Whun tliuy wore to h« tripil criniinnlly, thu JiiricH wcru lo liu half fonHKncm, if they ao ilcslrcd, 1I;H(. 'I'hcy wcro nmtralnL'il from c^nrclal^({ any tniiUi or hamlicraft hy rntail, 1 In:I, Thn ct>lclirat>Ml Alien Dill pu»aml, J,inunry, 171(11. Act to rc){lator Alii'na, 17'.>r>. Hilt tu aliulith tlit'ir iiuturalizatiim hy thu huM- in^ufalock in the hankaiif .Scutlaml,.lune, WH), Nuw Uuuialralion act, 7 (ico, IV., IH-Jil, Tlila lout net waa r«|icali'il ami another atatutu paaaol t! Will. IV., IHIIII. 'J'ho oclcliratuil llaroii (icramh, n cmiapicuous and fasli- lonulilc furitj^'ner, known at court, was nrdvrod out of Kn^'laml, April (1, IMl' II.wum. Injiucnre of Ike llmvUnic of Atient. — There ran lie 110 douht that, ({onerally apeukiuK, the resort of for- eiKUera to n cuuutry, and their realdeneo in it, nre lii({lii.>' conduclvo to ila inti'reats. Tlio,ie who omi- (trate in order to practice their rallii); in nn old net- tleil country aro pretty uniformly dlstinnuiahed for activity, enterprise, and gfioi conduct. The native inhiil)ilanta huvu ho many advantaKca on their side, that it would hu ahaurd lo auppoau that forei){nera ■hiiulil uvcr coinu into any tiling like aucceasful com- petition with them, unleKa they wore accpiainted with •oinu hrancli of trade or niauufactnre of which the oth- ers weni iKUorant, or poaaeaaed anperlor akiU, industry, or ecunoniy. Hut whether aliens practice n«w acts, or introduce moro perfect proceases into the old, or dis- play superior economy, etc., their intlux can not fail tu lie of the greatest advantaKu. They practically in- struct those umoun whom they realdo in what it nio?.t concerna them to know — that ia, in those departments of art and science in which they iiro inferior to others ; aud enul>le them to avail themselves of whatever for- eign sagacity, skill, or practice has produced that is most perfect. It is not easy. Indeed, to overrate the leuelits conferred on most countries hy the resort of aliens. I'reviously to tho invention of prinlint;, there was hardly any other way of l)cei>niinR aciiuaintcd with fiirel>;n inventions and discoveries; nnd even now it is far ciwier to learn any new art, method, or prowss, from the example ami inatrnctiun of those fa- miliar with its details, than from the host possilde de- scriptions. The experience, indeed, of every a(;e and country shows that tho protjreas of nations in tlic ca- reer of arts and livilization ilepcnds more on tho fn>c- dom of commerce, and on tho lihcrality with wliidi they have treated foriiignerg, than almost any thing uUo. AUudlaa. Th« dlallnKulihinK characters of theia hudiea are, a alrouK acrid and puwerfidly i aualic taate | a ciirriialve adhiu upon ail animal lualler, deairoylnii lla texture Mill) cunalderalile rapidity ; oxpuaeil tu thu almoaphere, when In Iheir cauatic stale, they uliaurli larlioiiic ai'iil with K^eut rapidity, and iHicinne carlain- ntcd (iiT mild). Their action upon vut(etal>le colors nino all'orila nn means hy which the presence of an un- cumhlned ur carlninated alkali may he deteitcd; thu ycMoH color of turmeric la chan^cd tea red hrown tint when Inimersiil Into sulullunn cuuluinlnK them; thu hlue color of Ihn litmus, after lieliitf reddened hy an acid. Is attain reatureil; the Infunloiia of the rid cal>- ha^e, the violet, and many other puiple vep-taidu col- ors, nre couverled to ^ri'cn, l.itmna iiapir reddened hy larhunic add Is, however, the mun> 'idiiale (eat of the preseni'u of nil alkali, >Villi the \ , luus acida they also cumhine, foriniiit( the very iiiiporlant and extens- ive class of componmls Kcnerally called sails — a salt iKdnK any ciniipoun I formed hy the union of an acid with an alkali or iiielHllle oxiile. Midliiiulnj. ~\\w nu'thiiil liy wldch !• j value of the alkalies, or carhonatcd alkalies, is dctcrinineil, lie- in^ of considerahle iniporlaiice in u cuminercial point uf view, wu shall here treat II luiiiewhat in detail. It is an csluhlished fact that l:> parts, hy wei^dit, of oil of vittiol of thu specillc ({ravity of l-dlxfi are exaotW ('((ulvatent to the neutralii'..ili >ii of 711 purls, l>y weiK'<., uf pure carlioimte of potash, or W uf pure putass, ur jl uf carlKinate uf soilu, ur 11°.' uf suda, and that 711 purl' f uil of vitriol will therefore he necessary tu neiilruli/^ IIM) parts uf carhonate uf putasa. Hence, hy iinpluy- in^ a kIusb tnhe of ahout two ounces' ca|iacity, and ac- curately diviilcd into iDOeipiul parts, taking 70 grains uf oil of vitriol, nnd ililutiiiK it with water, to make the IIM) measiin s cuniplete, every nieasui'e uf tills di- lute acid must he eiiuul to a ^'rain uf pure carhunato uf potass. The perceiitUKc of real carhonate of putt, s existing in any sanipfu of peurlush may hu at ome a*- certaiued hy taking 1(H) ((rains of the nanipie, dissolv- iiiK it in hot water, straining;, ami adding hy di'ttrees 11)0 measures of the test acid uhove inenlioned; tho point of neutralization (^when it ceases to ulVeci litmus paper or reddened litmus) hcing accurately a.^ccrtain- ed, tho residual add will give the percentage of im- purities ; for instance, say that T& measures uf tho dl- iuto acid have Ixwn employed to render KM) grains of a sample of (learlash perfectly no., i.'-, ''icn we have a>- curtalncil that it contains '.Ti pi I ■>< inpurilies. The same process, of course, must ho 'm'.\ wed in examining samples nf harilla or kelp, except that the alkali con- tained in them hdng carlamate of soda, 'M-l't of oil of vitriol must he employed instead of 70. Tiie proc- ess recoinniendeil liy M" Varaday, nnd in which he uses only one test ocld, is as follows : Into a tuhe about thivc ipiarters of an iu' li in diunu'ter, and nine and a I half lung, and as cylindrical as pussihlc throughout its whole length, 1000 grains of water are to he weigh- ed, and tho space occupied marked on the tulie liy a line Hie; this space is then divided from nliove down- ward Into liM) eipial parts. At '2:!lt, or 7('r5li iinrts from the Inittom, an extra line should he ma le, and soda marked opposite to it ; at IS'UO potass should be marked in the same way ; at 6-4'G3 carbunnte uf soda ; and ot (!,') carbonate uf potass. A diluted acid is now to he prepared, which shall have a spcciiic gravity 1-1'.'7, and this is made liy mixing intimately together I!) parts, by weight, of oil of vitriol and HI of water. The method to 1h> followed in tho employnu'.nt of this acid is as folluws : Tho dilute acid Is to he meaKnrcil in tho tube up to the line opposite to which the alkali sought for is marked; if barilla, which cunlains car- bonate of soda, 51°filt measures are to be taken. The 100 measures aro then made up by the addition of wa- ter, and Is then ready for use, following tho raothod before stated. Tbc alkalies arc four In number; namely, .immonia ALK ii ALK \i w (or Tolatile alkali), potau (or veKadblu alkali), Mxla (er mineral alkali), and lithla ; wlijcli Um ii uf mi llUlti Ini* porUnco tlii* we shall not treat of it iiere. Tlie uuiiiiil. nation of tliese alkalies witli tliu various ai'l>U, wlitilluV' cr they form compounds of any importance, will liu iiu- ticed.' Ammonia, or Spirits nfllariihom, or VohilUe All/nil, in Its uncombined form, is an clastic Ktv^uus Ix'ily, having a very pungent and suffbcalinK uilor, lUstruyn animal life, converts the yellow of lurinuric im|i«r to a brown, which, from the volatility of the alkali, is auaiti restored by a gentle heat to its original culur, I'lils gas is rapidly absorbed by water, ttliich tiiktts illlu solution about 780 times iu volume, forming tliu Ili|ul4l .ammonia, or what is commonly called Imrtsliorii. Ammonia is liberated whenever any of the conipuutlds of this .alkali are acted upon by potass, auda, lilH«, and .many other alkaline earths. Lime, from its beiiiK tlitt most economical, is generally employed { the lixtt pru- .portions for its preparation are equal weights uf sal ammoniac (muriate of ammonia) and frenb slakud llin«, .When these are introduced into a retort, and huat ap* plied ammonia is liberated in the gaseous form, and in conducted by a Wetter's safety-vube into a vessel of water, by which the gas is instantly absorbed. Mu- .riate of .lime remains in the retort ; sometimes wal«ir is added to the mixture, and then distilled. As tlius ub- tained, it has a specific gravity of •1)30 or ■UW, water being equal to 1-000. The most concentrated iwlutloil of ammonia has the speciflc gravity of -876. Carbonate of Ammonia, or Volatile Sail, or flubmr- bonate of Ammonia.— TUa salt, whicli is very niui'Jl employed in various processes of the arts, was fur> merly obtained by the action of clialk (carlxiualu uf lime) upon muriate of ammonia ; a doulile decuniposl' tion takes place. Carbonic acid and ammonia an sublimed in vapor, and muriate of lime renitthis in lliu vessel. A much less expensive process is, liuwtivnr, now followed, namely, from tho waste gas liquors uli' tained in the purification of coal gas ; lliese are evap- orated, and the black, impure sulphurlu acid addfd, By this means a sulphate of ammonia is formed, and tae carbonate procured from it by the action of powder- ed chalk, as in the former process. Its uses are prill- dpally in forming other compounds of animoiiia, at snijliing salts; and it is likewise employed rather ex- tensively by pastry-cooks for making light pastry, i«hich is caused by the volatile carbonate of ainiimiiia .escaping and raising np the pastry by the b«at of the ,oven. It is entirely dissipated during the baking, so that no ill effect can arise (Voni its use. llotli t)'ls jBompound and the preceding act as violent sliiiiulaiits on the. animal system. Muriate of A mmonia, or Sal A mmoniae, was formerly brought to'Europe from Egypt, where it was procured by submitting the soot of camels' 'ung (there employed for tae\) to sublimation in closed vessels ; it is, how- ever, at present manufactured in very largo quanlltiits in England in a variety of ways. The most ecuiioin- ical processes are either submitting sulphate uf ammo- nia mixed intimately with muriate of soda (sea salt) to sublimation, or by substituting the bittern uf seo-waler, which consisti) chiefly of muriate of nmgnesia, fur titv sea salt. In the first process a sulphate of auila Is formed, and the muriate of ammonia, which, liellig volatile, rises in the vaporous form, and is cuiMliuistid in the cool parts of the apparatus ; in the latter proiiess a sulphate of magnesia (Epsom sails) results. It is generally ttom this salt (muriataof ammonia) that the liquid ammonia is manufactured ; it is aUo einpluyed in tinning and soldering, to, preserve the metals from oxidation. It is a senU-transparent, lough salt, 'lav- ing an acrid and cool tante, and Is usually met with In the form of hemispherical masses. Mai aniinoiilan is made at Calcutta, and is thence exported toUreat llr!:- ain, the United Stales, ami the Arabian and I'erslan Qu{6, In ISiir^ the export* amountod to Hi toM, Mpkatt la (carbonate of potass of the chemical nomen- claturn), ind likewise in rendering hard tpriiig waters »ufl, and In cleansing substances from grease : it ia suinetlliics called salt of wormwood. When made by the deflagration of two parts of tartar of argol and one uf nitrt, It Is called black flux, and is used extensively In mefallurgic uiierntions. From the sulKarlicmate of potash the pure ami uncombined potass is obinined, by adding an equal weight of fresh burned lime, previous- ly slaked, and boiling them with half their weight of water, lly this process the lime combines with the carlMjiilc acid, and the potass remains in solution in Its I'HIlstIc slate ; by boiling tlie clear solution rapidly III Iron vessels, and submitting it to fusion, we obtain the fused potass. If It be required perfectly pure for clienilcnl purposes, it Is necessary to evaporate in sil- ver ve*s / ALE 25 ALK orating at a temperature below 212°, and crystallizing. It is used in malting effervescing drauglits. It loses one proportion of its carbonic acid when heated, and is converted into the sulicarbonate. Sulphate of Patau, or Sal Polychrat, or Vitriolated T\irtar, is obtained by submitting the salt which re- mains after the manufacture of nitric acid from nitre and sulphuric acid to a rod heat, or by neutralizing the excess of acid contained in that salt by subcarbonate of potass. Biiuljihate of Patau, or Sal Etiixum. — This is the salt mentioned above, as the residue from the process for obtaining nitric acid. It is employed in very large ' quantities in the manufacture of alum ; also in tinning iron, for pickling, as it is termed ; it is sometimes also used as a flux. XUrate of Potaih, Nitre, or Saltpetre. — This salt, which is of so much importance in every branch of the arts, is found native in many parts of the world, espe- cially in the East Indies. It is obtained from soils composed of decomposing granite, the feldspar of which gives rise, as is supposed, to the potass. The nitric acid is not so easily accounted for, except it is by a union of the nitrogen and oxygen gases in the atmos- phere tailing place in those hot climates ; for, from au- thenticated accounts, no decaying animal or vegetable matter exists in the nitre districts of India. By lix- iviation with water the nitre is dissolved from the soil, which is again thrown out into the air, to be washed the following year ; so that it is formed continually. These lixiviations ore then evaporated; and when of a certain strength, a quantity of common salt separates, which is removed as it falls ; and the nitre is then crys- tallized and imported to England, always containing a certain quantity of impurities, which are deducted in the purchase of large quantities of the article, being termed its refraction. It is generally used for the manufacture of gunpowder and pure nitric acid, refined or recrystallized. Nitre may be also made artiticial- ly, in beds of decaying vegetable or animal substan- ces, mixed with old mortar, or other refuse calcareous earth ; these are watered occasionally, too much moist- ure being hurtful ; oftera certain periou, depending on the rapidity with which the process has gone on, the whole is submitted to lixiviation together with wood- ashes, which contain subcarbonate of potass, and which decomposes any nitrate of lime formed, of which there Is generally a considerable quantity. After the lixivi- ation is complete, which takes some time, the solution is separated and boiled down ; the salt separates as in the other process, and tlic nitre is then crystiillized. It was from this source that the whole of the nitre, nearly, smployed by the French during the long-protructcd war with the continental powers was obtained. Nitre has a cold, penetrating, and nauseous taste; enters into igneous fusion at a gentle heat, and is then mould- ed into round cakes, oiled sal prunella. 1 1 is employed in the manufacture of nitric acid ; of gunpowder, which is composed of 75 parts by weight of nitre, 16 of char- coal, and 9 of sulphur (the nitre for this purpose should be of great purity) ; and in the manufacture of oil of vitriol : as a flux it is one of the most powerful wo pos- sess ; it is also ucud for the preservation of animal food, and in making frigoridc mixtures : 1 ounce of nitre dis- solved in 5 ounces of water lowers its temperature 16 degrees of Fahrenheit's thermometer. — See S.\LTrETRE. Oxalate and /iinoTalale of Putn»»,— 'iho binoxalate of potass, or salt of lemon, or sorrel, by l>otli which last names it is very commonly known, is procured from the juice of the common sorrel {Ilumex Acetoea), or tlic wood sorrel (fixalit Aceliuella), by crystalliza- tion, after the feculent matter has been separated by standing a few days. Its chief uses are, in removing ink spots or iron moulds ; and also as a refreshing bev- erage when mixed with sugar and water. The neutral oxalate is obtained from this suit by combining the ex- cess of acid »liicU it contains with s solution uf sub- carbonate of potass. Is very much used in chemistry, as the best test of the presence of lime. Tartrate ami liitartrate of Patau. — Uitartrato of pot- ass, or cream of tartar, is, when in its crude and im- pure state, called argol, and is deposited in the inte- rior of wine-casks during fermentation, and from this source the whole of the cream of tartar is obtained. It is generally of a very dark brown color, but may bo pnrilied and rendered perfectly white by solution and crystallization. It is employed very extensively in dyeing, hut-making, and in the preparation of tartaric acid, and many of the compounds of tartaric acid, as tartar emetic, solulde tartar (tartrate of potass) : when heated to redness, it is converted iaio carbonate of pot- ass and charcoal ; mixed with lial.' its weight uf nitre and thrown into a red-hot crucible, it forms the black flux, and with its own weight of nitre the white flux, both of which are very much employed in nietallurgic operations. The tartrate is made by the addition of subcarbonate of potass to a solution of the bitartrate until perfectly neutral : it is used in medicine as a mild purgative. Ferro-cyanatc, .r Pruisiate of Patau. — This salt is obtained by the action of subcarbonate of potass, at a low red heat, upon refuse animal matter, such as hoofs, lioms, skin, etc., in the proportion uf two of subcarbon- ate to four or five of the animal matter. But the proc- ess recommended by M. Gautier is preferable ; ho finds that when animal matter is heated with nitre, it yields a much lar^rer quantity of the ferro-Prussiato than when either potas! or subcarbonate of potass are employed ; the proportions he finds most economical are, 1 part by weight of nitre, 3 parts of dry blood, and iron scales or filings equal to a fiftieth of the blood employed. The coagulum of blood is mixed intimately with the nitre nnd iron filings, and dried by exposure to tlie air ; they are then submitted to a very low red heat, in deep iron cylinders, as long as vapors continue to be liberated ; when cold, the contents are dissolved in 12 or 15 timca their weight and strained. On evaporation till of the specific gravity 1-284, and allowing it to cool, u large quantity of liicarbonate of potass crystallizes ; and by further evaporation till of the specific gravity 1'306, the ferro-Prussiate of potass crystallizes on cooling. This is to be recrystallized. It is a beautiful yellow salt, very tough, having a tenacity similar to sper- maceti, and is decomposed at a red heat. It in em- ployed very extensively in dyeing blues, and in calico printing ; also in the manufacture of Prussian blue, which is a compound of the ferro-Prussic acid and ox- iilo of iron, prepared by adding 1 part of the ferro- Prussiate of potass dissolved in water, to 1 part of cop- |)eras, and 4 parts of alum in solution, Chromate of Potass. — This salt is obtained from the native chromate of iron by the action of nitre at a full red heat in equal jiroportions. I)y solution, filtration, and evaporation, n beautiful lemon-yellow colored salt results. It is very much employed in dyeing, calico printing, and called making, from its producing bright yd! -w precipitates with solutions of lead. liichrumatc nf Potass is prepared from the above- mentioned salt, by the addition of nitric acid to the yellow solution obtained from the heated mass by the action of water; on evaporating this, a dark red col- ored salt crystallizes, which is the bichromate. This is also very largely employed by the calico jirinters, and when mixed in solution with nitric aciil, possesses the property of destroying vegetable colors ; on this account it is of great importance, as it at the same time removes a vegetable color, and forms a base for a yellow dye. Chlorate or Hyperorymuriaie of Potass. — The prepa- ration of this salt is attended with some little ditHculty, and requires a great deal of nicety. It is obtained by passing a current uf chlorine gas thrdugb a solution of caustic potass; then boiling and evaporating; the first salt that separates is the chlorate uf potass ; and by "m-SiF^' ALK 26 Att • Anther evaporetJon, muriate of poUM Is ottalned. It is used in making matches for instantaneous light boxes, w hich are prepared by first dipping the wood in melted sulphur, and then into a thin paste, formed of 8 parts i-hlorate of potass, 2 parts starch, and a little vermilion ; with sulphur it forms n very explosive com- pound, generally employed for filling the percussion- caps of fowling-pieces. Soda, or Mineral Alkali.— T\ia sources of this alkali in nature are various. It is obtained in combination with carbonic acid, when plonis which grow by the sea-side are burned. The ashes thus obtained are called barilla and kelp : and also in some countries it is found as an cflioresconco ui)on the surface of the eartli, and is called nitrum or natron ; this occurs par- ticulariy in Kgypt and South America. Trona is also another native carbonate of soda, and is exported from Tripoli. In combination with muriatic acid It is also found in immense abimdance, forming the rock salt, and sea salt or muriate of soda. It is obtained from the carbonate exactly in' the same way as potass is ob- tained from its carbonate, namely, by boiling it with fresh-burned lime previously slaked, decanting Hie clear solution, and evaporating and fusing. It is a white brittle substance, and by exposure to the air be- comes converted into a dry carbonate. Its uses in the arts and manufactures are of considerable importance. In soap-making it is employed in very large quanti- ties, and for this purpose is generally procured from barilla or kelp, by mixing them with lime, and by the infusion of water procuring a caustic soda ley ; this is mixed with oil and fatty matters in various propor- tions, and boiled ; the saponitication of the fatty mat- ter takes place, and the soap formed rises to the sur- face; the ley is then drawn from l)encalli, and fres'h leys added, until the soap is rompletely free from oil ; it is then allowed to dry. Soda is also employed in the manufacture of plate, crown, and bottle glass, though lor tliis purijoso it is generally in the form of carbon- ate or sul|ihate. Subcatiiinate of Soda. (In the chemical nomencla- ture it is called cnrfc«n than 4 or 5 per cent. ; it is the ashes obtained from seu-wecds by incineration, and is made on the northern shores of Scotland. From these, the crystallized carbonate (or sulicarbonate, as it is more frequently called) is made by the addition of a small quantity of water, boiling, straining, evaporating, and skimming off the common salt as it forms on the surface : ' rooling. the sulKarlinniitc of soda crystallizes. Anuili> i method is by heating the sulphate of soda with carbonate of lime and charcoal, and then dissolving out the soluble carl>onate ; also, by the action of carbonate of potass (pearlash) upon solutions of sea salt. — />Vc B.vhiii,i.a and KEi.r. Hiciirlmnate of Soda is procured by driving a cur- rent of carlionic add gas through solutions of the car- bonate, and tliiiii I'vaporating at « teniporaturo below 212' Fahrenheit; i', is chiefly employed in making ioda-waler powders. This is the carbonate ut da of the I'harniAcopii'ia. I)y the application of a ri d heat it loses carbonic acid, and is converted into the sub- carlionatc. Sulpkiite of Soda, or Glauber *(//».— This salt, which has received the name of filauber, from its discoverer, is the residue of a great many chemical processes ; for instance, when muriate of soiia is arle<) upon by oil of vitriol, muriatic acid and sulphate of soda rcsuK ; in making chlorine gas for the manufacture of the chloride of lime, or bleaching powder, sulphate of sotla and sul- phate of manganese result — the materials employed being sea salt, sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol), and black oxide of manganese: also, in the preparation of acetic acid from the acetate of soda, and in the preparation of muriate of ammonia from sea salt and sulphate of ammonia. Sulphate of soda is a colorless, transparent salt, effloresces readily when exposed to the air, and becomes converted into a dry powder ; it has a cold, bitter taste. It is used for the preparation of carbonate of soda, and as a medicine. It is found native in some countries, particularly in Persia and South America frequently as an eftiorejccnce upon new walls. Nitrate of Soda.— 'this salt is found native in some parts of the East Indies, and is called, freni its s a few qu.S- iv Incss, wo -vlence of C. into me- tinns that occur in particular bran. in s ol I choose rather to keep it distin'.t Ir.ni tbr arithmetic. Alligation is gi ii rally di'i; dial and altenmlr. AUiijation Medial, from the . 'ii the simples given, discover.'. Ih llule. As the total (|uaiitily u> )i To their price or value ; So any quantity of the mixture, To the rate. ExampU. A grocer mixes 30 pounds of currants, at a..il (,, -f !he —iiipies, titles of i.ixturc. cparation of acetic n the ]iroparation It and nu))>hate of orless, trnnsparent ed to the air, and Icr ; it lias a cold, ration of carbonate und native in some 1 Sonth America — new walls, nd native in some ed, fr^m il» siiuaro cry little used. This conijiound is earth, and is culled or sal ti'm- The in Knglund, and Spain, and many of this conjpound. lion of poa-water, Dr the purjjose, and zahle fluid is called i' placing; the salt, (cts, and passing It, which dissolves sia or lime. Pure iposure to the air; cm]>loy'cd fur the iteoffioda, muriate ions ; aUo in (:1az- roni its great iiiili- r the preservotion tallurgy. s Fait is found in puline lakes; it is liis country, where matter with which ( .vu> d, and the cd : i.v principal ; vei;, powerfully •hinet ; I)u. 0»te- A riinitt(i'), aspe- nn.). It has Ijeen the finest ((uality larly in the touth illicr. The roots are made use of. the thickness of deep piir]>lish red le whitish woody cuhol, oils, wax. Iter it gives only ally enijiloycd to oils employed in etc. The alka- Ids a more Ijcau- liat of France. — iutiuairt tlta J'ro- )d of Folviiig all if one ingridicnt hmclic generally nee, yet as it is tion of the coni- 1 V.l- U fitt i) into me- ■ 'I (,..•■ titles of ^ it ixturc. llipiUtf, I of eurranta, at ' ALL 87 ALL id. per pound, with 10 pounds of other currants, at 6d. per pound : What is the value of 1 pound of the mix- ture? Ant.iid. U). d. d. 80 at 4 amounts to 120 10 at 6 " 60 40 If 40 d. 180 180 a. a. AUigntion Alternate, being the converse of alligation medial, from the rates of the simples, and rate of the mixture given, liuds the quantities of the simples, SuUi. I. Place the rate of the mixture on the left side of a brace, as the root ; and on tlie right side of the brace set the rates of the scvefal simples, under one another, as the branches. II. Link or alligate the branches, so ,as one greater and another less than the root may be linked or yoked together. III. Set the dilferenco lietween the root ond the several bram^hes right against their respective yoke-fellows. These al- ternate dilferenccs are the quantities required. Note 1 . If any br.inch happen to have two or more yokefel- lows, the dilVerence between the root and these yoke-fel- lows mi^si be placed riglit against the said branch, one after aiibtlmr, and added into one sum. 2. In some questions the branches may bo alligated more ways than one ; and a question will always admit of so many answers as there uro dilTerent ways of linking the branches. Allignlion alternate admits of three varieties ; viz., 1. The <|uestiun may bo unlimited, with respect both to the (|uantity of the simples and that of the mixture. 2. The (juestion may be limited to a certain quantity of one or more of the simples. 3. The cpiestion may bo limited to a certain quantity of the mixture. Varulij I. When the question is unlimited, with re- spect both to the quantity of the simples and that of the mixture, this is called AlHi/dlinn tSini/ile. Kjcumple. A grocer would mi.x sugars at 6(/., id,, and 10(/. per pound, so as to sell the mixture or compound at 8(i. per pound : What quantit v of each must ho take ? lb. 8 (. 5 -X 2 12 ( 10 J/ 8,1 I 4, Hero the rate of the mixture 8 is placed on the left side of the brace as the rout ; and on the right side of the same brace are set the rates of the several siniples, viz., .'), 7, 10, under one another, as the branches ; ac- cording to Ki'ile I, The branch 10 being greater than the root, is alligated or linked with 7 ami T), both these being less than the root, g6 directed in Kule 11. The ditferi'iKC between the rooi 8 ond the branch 5, viz., H, is set right against this branch's yoke-fellow 10 ; the ditference between 8 and 7 is likewise set right against the yoke-fellow 10; and the difterence Ijetween 8 and 10, viz., 2, is set right against the two yoke-fellows 7 and '>, an prescribed liy Kule 111. As the branch 10 has two dlll'erences on the right, viz., 8 and 1, they are addeil ; and the answer to the qm^stion is, that 2 pounds at iVI., 2 pounils at 7>/., and t pounds at lOi/., will make the mixture required. The truth and reason of tlie rules will appear l>y considering that whatever is lost upon any one branch is gained upon its yoke-fellow. Thus, In the above example, by selling 4 pounds of lOi/. sii^ar at HJ. per p<"und, there is M. lost : but the like sum is gained upon its two yoKO-fellows, for tiy selling 2 pounds of t>d, sugar at 8s 1,4 6 40 of brandy, ) 7-^)4 4 32 of rum, \ i y 4 4 82 of gin. ) Am. 30 j 3fi\ 80 80 The operation gives for answer, f* gallons of brandy, 4 of rum, and 4 of gin. Hut the question limits the quantity of brandy to 40 gallons ; tbercforu say, If 6: 4 s s40!82. The quantity of gin, by the operation, boinf; also 4, the proportion needs not bo repeated. Variety HI. When the question Is limited to a cer- tain quantity of the mixture, this is called Alligation Total. After linking the branches, and taking tlio differ- ences, work by the proportion following! As the sum of the dillbrencos, To each particular difference ; So the given total of the mixture, To the respective quantities rei|iiircd. Exumple, A vintner has wine at 8ir, per gallon, and would mix it with water, so as to make a eompositiou of 144 gallons, worth 'it. (id, per gallon : How much wine, and bow much water, must hu take ? Oaltons. 120 of wine, > _24 of water, p"*" I'M total, 120X80=1820 24 X 0= Proof 144)1820(00 As 80 : 80 ■.-.IH: 120 As 80 : : ; 141 ; 24, There being here only two simples, and the total of the mixture limited, tho question admits liut »f one answer. — K, B, Allocation denotes tho admitting or allowing of un article of an account, espeeiully in the exchequer. Hence Allocatione I'aeiendn is a writ directed to the Lord Treasurer, or Darons of the Kxehccpier, command- ing them to allow an accountant such sums as lie has lawfully expended In the execution of his oHlco. — E. a AUowanoea, Tares, etc. In selling goods, or in paying duties upon them, certain deductions are made from theii weights, depending on the nature of the packages in which they are Inclosed, anri which are regulated In most Instances by the cu~tom of mer- chants, and the rules laiout four fathoms long, commonly made of liark, ana us.'d by the negroes of Africa. At Calicut the same name is applied to a kind of long boats, 80 feet in length and six or seven in breadth. They are exceedingly swift, and are otherwise called cathuri. — E. H. Almanac, a book or table, containing a calendar of days and months, the rising and setting of the sun, the age of the moon, the eclipses of both luminaries, etc. Authors are divided with regard to the ety neology of the word ; some deriving it from the Aribic panicle of, and rmnach, to coutt; some from almanach, New- 1 year's gifts, because the Arabian astrologers used at i the beginning of the year to mnl.e presents of their ephemerides ; and others from th.-; Teutonic almaen achl.', ..»' . atiuns en all the months. Dr. Johnson deri.- ', v.-om the Arabic particle al, and the Greek /iijv, < r!:onth. But the most simple etymology ap- pears i. om the common spelling ; the word Iwing com- posed of two Arabic ones, Al Mnttack, which signify Me Diary. All classes of thn Arabs are commonly much given to the study of astronomy and astrology ; '0 both of whi';h they are inclined by their l>elicf in /ate, and by their pastoral life, which affords time and opportunity to cultivate them. They neither sow, reap, plaat, nnr undertake any cxpef'ition or busincH«, nilhout previously consulting the s'ars, or, in other I words, tlieir almanacs, or some of tiie makers uf them, j From these people, by their vicinity to Europe, this I art, no less useful in one sense than trilling and ridicu- ' louB in another, has passed over to us ; and those astro- ' Domical compositions have still every where not only i retained t)i<'ir old Arabic name, but wer?, like theirs, { for a long uhile, and still are among many European I naliont, Mtnpfm'it vllh • great nnmher of astro- logical rulia* fur liUnlUtg, sowing, bleeding, purging, etc,, duwil l«i thit i^lUlIng of the hair nnd jiaring cf the naiU, i<«i!l()titw(ti!nii» aptiear) to have licen thn first in Kurupu, liowitvor, whii rcdcced almanacs i-iio their presunt furiti atlil lii«tliml, gnvv (he characters of each jruar anil Miiilitll, (iirnlnM the eilltises ai'd other phases, caU'ulatuil ttiM iii'illimR of the planrii, etc. His first aliuanoi! was puMlaliKd In M?-!. The essential part uf an alnraime I* tlix calctidar of months and days, Miih Ilia rtsliiKif attd scllltigs of the sun, age of the moon, ate, Tu thfm nti< added lists of posts, offices, dignities, imhlii^ Insllliillfins, wlili many other articles, political n» w«ll •« tbcal, and differing in different countries, Ahimtuic, SiKfilml, This, which In some respects Is a natlvnal aliitaiiac, U published imder the sanction of the Itoard iit l/«r» III advance. The late Dr. Maske- lyno wa« Iha arliiinaf"!' i>( this very valmililo publica- tion. It U new pliltllKhcd under the lininviliato super- Inlendencii of (lip wiwtary in (he lioani. Similar t) this alinsiiai! I* lli« Vtnwh publication entitled I'mnoia- iiinei' iln Trmt, (llfccli'd by the Jiurenu dr hmgilude, and which cuii|i)lMieiid » yi'ar. The work was put under tho supcrlnt«nd«Mi'* iif Ciiintnandcr C. H. Davis, of tho navy, v,ltli |'f(>feii«if llpnJAtnIn I'clrce as consulting ustruMoiiicr, llHing In the smallness of the first ap- pruprialiona, and (he greal amount of pnliniinarj' ialiur, Ili4 limt viiliitiii', for 1H65, was not published until \iit)'l\ diilcxHldi'li lline a vuinme has been issued each year, T'lin vobiiiie for ICfiO It now in a forw.ird state uf j(rep«*»tl(iii, and will be ready alrout .lanuary, WiT. 'I'he primary olrjerf cf :l"i work is to promote tho interests of tominerce i atii! for this reason great pains have baon lakeii wild those problems upon which tho 6cli-i(r« of n«v)K«ll(r!l d' 'peiids. KspCi-iaily is this ihe case with )hi' (.nimr t';phemerls; anil all the tests which have (*"(! appll".! show (hat this labor has been rewarded with great silccws, 1'rofessor I'eiric's Tables are used in pr"parlii(( lids eplienierls. The ephcmeris of the sun is prtipared (turn Hansen's Tallies. The nautical part of (liii work, besides the foregoing, con- tains the ep|ieiM>tr!des of lllnsn planets most cnmninnly used with lli« moon In d''t<'rinlnlng a ship's place at sea; also the appamil places nf about one hundred fixed stars. All (hii piirt df the work is referred to tile meridian of (ircmiwlchi and to prevent confusion in its use, Ihu arrangi'iniNl cf the llrltlsh Almanac ia adopted. The aslroiliniihwl |i»rt Is referred to the meridian of Wnthiniiloli, i^\\i\ «uch changes in the or- dinury forms of the r;ihemerldes have been adopted as would render them itHwf prnilhal In the daily routine of the observatory, The ephemerides of tho planets are being liati'd npim 'let* theories, as fast ns can he doiift consinifMlly »llli (he demands which the regular issues of the almntfa'' make upon the annual appro- priations Iliad" liy Cotiure" for lis support. The Egyptians lOMlpllled (line liy instruments. I,og calendars wiira ancjentty In nsi', Almim-aght is of Saxon origin, III ill" iiflllsh Museum and iiiilversi- lies are curioMS •|iro(5n(>8tlc»llona 1633 Lilly's E|ilioincrl« 1IM4 I'oor Hobln"« Alnianao . 106i Lady's Diary > 1706 Moore's AInianao 1713 Spaaun on thn Seasons 1735 Oentliinvan's Ulary 1741 Naullral Almanac (natirially Improved In 1S34) 1707 Foor lUrhard's Alr^anac (Franklin^ I'hlladel- pbla) 1738 British Impurlul Calendar 1809 BrltUh Almanac i ..id Companion 1828 American Almu.sac, lloston 1820 Nanllcal Almanac, United States 1866 Of Moore'S; at ono perioil, upward of 500,000 copies were anuiinlly sold. The Stutioiiers' company claimed the exclusive ri>;lit of puMisliing, until 1790, in virtue of letters patent from jamcs I., granting the privilege to tills company, and the two universities. The stamp duty on ulinaiiacs was aboli! U alif. i large alum work at Hurlett, ncBrraisley. tisti (.ro.!; . of wl ich trny bo c-jtinaiiii at iNitit I'iliO tciia !• y .ir. Alum is largely maiiufatiured ii! ('|,ii,B, rid i i .1 .I'v exported toal! the "iiresten! As',\ Joi'nmirici'. in i; >;", 35,842 piculs (',:' ?0 tons) were .'viiortfii front t '■\'Uou. Amalgamatio!], the (>pc>'&, ; » oi' makiDt; an auia!- gain, or mixing ineii i ry with aiiy .-lutal. For the com- bination of one metal with anuther. it i^i gcnorully »uf- ilcient that one of thcni be in a p^n'f of fluidity. Mcr- ciivy lieing nlways fluid, is Ibcn'^Tc tapalile (if anul- ,.-;.)nationwiti< other metals w'.;tiU heat, iron except- ed ; vieverthe'cfs, heat confiderublv fucilitntes the o|>- cratic." To amalgamate witliout .'vMt requires notli- in,<; n.i n 'lian rubbing the two mi' lis together in .: ir.ortar; 'mi the metal to be united vith the nienury should be privloufilv divided into very thin pla'cs or grains. \S i:oi' iioui, is us*d (which is always moxt ef- fectual, and witi: > :r;.f nictt Is Indispensably necessarj), the n\orcurj- shoii'.' ' ' heated till it licgin to snioko, and the grains of ir- . i! niade red hot before they are thi'own into if. If '.', ' ■> gold or silver, it is sufliciinf to stir the thild with iii! iron rod for a little while, and then to throw it into u vt's.scl tilled wiili water. This anialgan> is used fur giidinf: or silvering en copper, which is aJi.r-vard expof.'d to a degree of heat sufti- cien: ;o pvmj -Tate the mercui'v. Amalgamation with leal 01 tin is etlci'.ed by pouring an equal weight of mercury into either of these metals in n str.to of fusion, and st'rring will; nn iron rod. Copper anialgainaies with gf^a'. difficulty, .md iron not at all. — E. H. Ainaaon, Ma;.anon, OreUaua, or SoUasoea, the chief .-iver of ijiiuih America, and the largest in the world, whether t' carded as to its V(dume, or the extent of its basin, it is formed liy the union of the Maranonani! '.■ ovale; the former rii;ing in l.ake Lauri- co-.ha (I'ei.j), in '' t. 10 ,10' .S., long. 71!^ 10' W. ; and the head >tivani !' the latter, the Apurimac, origina- ting jbout 'at. I'j" t?., long. 7i° W. Uoth rivers have a ^ccneral (eiirse at first northward; the Marinun, for thi' lirst 5011 miles of its course. Hows N.N.W., and at about lat. n ' ti. Iiends eastward, .ind at lat. 4° 40' takes an nhiiMst duo east course, und afttrreceivingfhe ilual 'aga from flic south (where it is about 5(H>yards broadl It pursi.es a course of 4Bi leagues, and joins the Ccayn) at lat. 4'- 3.V S., long. 71" \v. Here the stream!. . depth sulli° 50' W.) it Is navigable and unintor. rupied hy any rapid or cataract. At least twenty ao. hie r'vc).', navigable to near their sources, pour t'liir watRvi Into It, besides numerous other less inipor; mj streai.'s, Chief tributaries, the Napo, I'uiumayo, Ya- pura, a. id l!io Negro, from tho north; the Yavmi, Jutay, .lurua, Coary, Turns, Madeira, Tapi^os, and Xinga, t'."«m the south. Ity tin; Casiqu! i re, a branch of tho HIv. Negro, the Amazon has n dire ' und remarit- able conir'ction with th.. Orincc >>. The vniazon and its trlbu'dicB afford an 'minmsie iidand vigation, estimated .,( ;>n,000 miles; u)'i! (he extent of iff 'isiu has been co.niuted at uiouf '. i > millions of squaiti milci', or abon; two fifths oi ili; whole continent of South Ani. vioa. The depth n Tides ascend this river fov 400 n\ile» from the Atlantic — as far as Olddo:-, wli in tiij I Vmaion Is sllli niore than a mile in widi^—ancj ncai I tha ftill moon the rise of the tide occasion.: a fofinida- iilo rush of water iiilo the channel, tonictimi!: hrin,iriiig •;)) neveral waves from 10 to 16 feet In height. This rihenome'iur., laUed the bore, is witnessed on u smaller ;».. alii In i'lu Ganges, and in some European rivers. I i l;e upper putt of the river, as far a.) the mouth of the i "iov.in, ,. ■- ercd at the end of eight munthj from the timii > ".i.nDf- ing, fumiB the chief source ot wealth of the proviiiC'. of Ccrcadu. AMA 81 AMA tIv jviiii;.: " Coflbe is cultivated aUo with lucccss In this prov- incu, uiul ill that of Chii|uitua yields Its fruit two years aftur Imving been planted, and requires scarcely any atcentiou. Cocoa, recently introduce^l Into theaa two provinces, ghea its fruit ut the end of threo or four ycnrs at must. The tamarind, wliich thrives in the same localities, produces its harvest In live years, (.'otton gives annual crops ; there are two varieties — he one white, the other yellow. Tobacco grows, so t' nicali, without cultivation, in the provluce of Valle 'i \>n le, v'u'ro it forms the pr.ncipal article of com- i'.rce. Indi;{u, of which there are three cultivated kinds and one w'ld, is eiinaliy abundant. Maize yields at the end of three munthw all the year round; it is also cultivatixl in the province of Oercodo. The caa- savii produces in ei^ht months after planting ; there arc two kinds of it— one sweet, and the other bitter; I : tlrst can replace the potato, and even bread; the ti'.oond is only i^oud for starch. Tlicre is an enormous amount of iiinds or virietivs of iiananas, wlilch produce in tho year from seed ; th«y are specially cultivated in the province of Cercado. Two i(!uds of rice— one white, tho other colored — are cultivated in the two provinces of Cercado and Chiijuitos. They produce every live or six months; they say it is found wild in tho region of Chlquitoa. "The gra|)e, which grows well every where, and especially in the province of Cordilleras, where it was cultivated In the Missions up to the time of tho Inde- pendence, is nevertheless made no article of prolit. It will some day, perhaps, form one of tlic principal sources of wealth of this country. Wheat, barley, and the potato inifrht bo cultivated with advantage intlio prov- inces of Chiquitos and Cordilleras ; but till now results have been obtained only in that of Valle Grande. The cultivation of cocoa has commenced in tho province of Cercado, and it is also found in a wild state, as well as the I'uruvian baric, on tlio mountains of Samaripata. As we Imvo already said, fruits abound in this region. They cultivate there principally oranges, lemons, cit- rous, figs, papaws, pomegranates, melons, water-melons, ciiirimoyas (wliich the liraziiians caMj'ruto Je condii), pine-apples, etc. The last of these fruits grow wild, and in great abundance, in tho woods of Chiquitos. Wo mot it, particularly the evening of our arrival, at Santa Ana. Its taste is excellent ; but it lea\ es in the moutli such a burning scrsation tha': I bitterly re- pented tniving tasted it. They cultiviito in sufKcieiit abundance, in tlie province, jalap, Peruvian hark, sar- sapurilla, vanilla, rocou, copahu, ipecacuanlia, caout- cliouc, copal, etc. Woods lor dyr ; 'g, coMm^t-making, and building, ab "'n' , and the people of tho country collect caref .lly u multitude of gums, roots, niul barks, to which they attribute medicinal virtues tho nu st vn- rieSuii Xavier. The Jesuits wrought mines of sil- ver in the mountains of Colcliis. Don Scbastiiiii I'aii- cas, while Governor of Chionitos, nuncunci'.l t the goveriiiiient that iliamoiub ' v > 'i'lo water, i ail been found in the bitcainj 'i . ouv.'O-/', of ^unto Coruzon." The '■■'isons of tl' ...il States are, of all *tli<'r foreigners, woii^l reap the lion t. share uf the advantages to be de- rived from it. Wc ivould fear nc competition. Our gcogruplilcal position, the winds of lieaveii, and the curreiii : of tho ocean, arc our po.o'iitial auxiliarios. Tl iM -, to Miiury's investigiitions of the winds and currents, wc [mow ihat u chip Uuug into tlie sea at tho mouth of the Amazon will lloat close by Capo Ilat- teras. Wo know that ships sailing from tlie mouth of tho Amai-on, for whatever port of lliu world, are forced to our very doors by thu8i.;/i .i) uad northeast trado- winds ; that New York is tho half-way house hctweolt I'ara and £urope. The present limited commerce of tha Amazon may be Judged of by a statement of tho exports and im- ports of i'ara, the port of entry, and situated most ad- vantageously at the mouth of an estuary of tho Amazon. COHHEiun or Para roa IRfil. American. . . Enulish .... Krencli I PurtufTueso . Hamburg. • . llelglan Osiilsli Swodlsli.... N°-' T....... 00 14 10 1» a 9 ii i 4,B74 li,7!ia tm 8,,4K4 2Tb,IMJ0 1"J,K3II 2.S1,4I»T 27,D1HI 4,TDII ♦ l,UU2,aTl Valua of KiporU. S!1A,IHIU IS^Ii»» 21M42 181,000 lU.'JUl U4.II0O *1,4.!4.S0t The city of Santa Maria do Belem de Grno ParA, founded by Francisco Caldnirn do ('ustollo Uranco, in the year 1016, is situated on u low elbow of land at the junction of the IlivcrGuamii with the lti\er I'ar&, and at a distance of about eighty miles fh>m the sen. A ship generally requires three tides, which niii with a velocity of about four miles to the hour, to reach the sea from the city. The harlior is a very fine one ; it is made by the long island of On^as in front, and at two miles distant, with some smaller ones farther down the river. There is an abundance of water, and ships of any size may lie within one hundred and fifty yards of the shore. There is a good landing-jdace for boats and lighters at tho custom-house wharf; and at half- tide at the stone wharf, some <;ve hundred yards above. Owing to the miserable policy of the Brazilian gov- ■ eminent, tho free commerce of the Amazon will be re- tarded until Brazil is forced to do justice to herself and others. I'ho Bolivian government are pursuing a more lib- eral policy, and have issued the following decree, dated La I'az, 27 /A January 185.9 : " Whereas, 1st, tlie eastern and western parts of the republic, inclosing vast territories of extraordinary fer- tility, intersected by navigable rivers flowing to tho Amazon and to the La Plata, offers the most natural channels for the commerce, popnlation, and civiliza- tion of these districts ; " Wiiereas, 2d, the navigation of these rivers is the moat efficacious and certain means of developing tho riches of tliis territory, by placing it in communication with tho exterior, and applying to its waters the fruit- ful principle of free navigation, as useful to the inter- eats of the republic as to those of the world; "Whereas, ild, by the law of nature and of nations, confirmed by the conventions of modem Kiirope, and upplied in tlio New World to the navigation of the Mis- sissippi, Bolivia, as owner cf the Pilconiavo, of tho triliiituriea and thv greater part of the Madeira, of the left shore of the Iteiica from its junction with the Sa- rave to its emptying into flie Mamorf", of the western j bank of the Paraguay to the Marco del I , as far as 1 -'C'^ 51' of soutli latitude, and of tho greater part and tlic left shore of the Bcrmejo, has tho riglit to navigate these rivers from the point in her territory in wliich they may ou susceptible of it to the sea, without any power I.eiiig able to arrogate to itself the exclusive sovereignty over ♦'•« Amazon and La Plata ; " Wliorcaa Ith, this navigation can not tie eflTcrteU without tiio i) ecssary ports are aObrded for trade; ■• Therefore, l>« it dccreeil : " .'iRT. 1. The Bolivian government declares frcR to tho lomnicrcc and mercantile navigation of all the na- tions of the globe the waters of tho naviitnlde rivers which, flowing throu'th tho territory of this nation, empty into the Amazon and Paraguay. "Aht. 2. The following are declared free ports, open to the traffic and navigation if ill vcssela of commerce, whatever may be their tlag, dtstination or tonnage ; AMB S8 AME " In the River Mainori— Kzaltadon, Trinidad, wd Lorctu. " In tbo Ucni — Kfnciiavuquo, Muchauis, and Mag- dalena. " III llio Pirttj-— Cuatro, 0|o». " 111 thii C'lia|iarc — Coni and Chimort>, tributaries of the Mamur^, tlic pointn of Aaunta, Cuiii, and L'liinior^. "In the rivers Mnpiri and Curuico, tributaries of the BenI, the points of (iuaiiay and Coroii'o. " III the I'ilcomayu — tlio port of MaxriAos, on the east coa.1t of the Paraguay, La Uahia Negra, and the pohit of Ilurlmn. " In the lierinejo— the point situated in 21° 30' south latitude, at whicli cmharlti'd, in IH4(i, the national en- gineers Oiidarza and Mijia. "Aitr. il. The vetisuls of war of friendly nations will also be permitted to visit these ports. "Aut. 4. Tbo government of Ilolivia, availing it- self of the unquestionable rights width the nation has to navigate tiiese rivers as far as the Atlantic, invites all the nations of the earth to navigate them, and promises — "1st. To donate in the Bolivian territory, for the pur- poses which the law allown, tracts nf lunil, from one league to twelve leagues firguure, tn the individuals or companies who, sailing from the Atlantic, shall arrive at any one of the points declared to Iw ports of entry, and may wish to found near them agricultural ur In- dustrial establishments. "2d. To guarantee the reward often thousand dol- lars ($10,000) to the lirst steamer which, through the La Plata or Amazon, may arrive at either of the above- mentioned points. "3d. To decree fKo the river exportation of the products of the earth, and of the national industry. " 4th. In due time there will be established and reg- ulated at the above-mentioned points, ulicrc it may be necessary, custom-houses for the loading and unloading of merchandise, the government seeing that the charges for the use of these custom-houses may be as moderate OS possible. "5th. This decree will be submitted for the ex- amination and approval of Congress on their next meeting. "6th. The Minister of State, In the office of foreign relations, is cliargeil with its fullillment, by circulating it and communicating it to all whom it may concern. " Given in the Palace of the Supreme (ioveriimcnt, in the place of Ayacuclio, 'iTtli of .lanuary, ItloU, 44th of independence, and tth of liberty. "MA.NUKi, l.siiioiio Uei^u. "If.\FABI. HiSTII.Ll), " Miiii/trr nf horivju Uetatiims, " A certified copy ; Ajiaiio Ai.vai:i;z, " AV (Ifficial Mayor." —See nEliNDDN's ValUj/ of the Amiuon. Amber I'dr. IhriisUm; Du. Ilarmltin; iJtt. Ilcm- tleen, ttui\; it. Aiiihrt jiiiiiu:; It. Amiiril ginllii ; .Sp. Amliiir: Huas.Janlun Viil. Jliirtzlyi ; l.at. iHucdiiuiii, JCteclrum), a brlltli-, light, hard subslainc, usually nearly transparent, sonietliiips nearly colorless, but coni'nonly \(llow, or even dicp brown. It has con- siderable lustre. SpecKic gravity l-Olifi. It is found In nodules or rounded masses, varying from the size of coarse sand to that of a man's bond. It is tasteless, without smell, except when pcjiindcd or heated, when il emits a fragri.nt odor. It is highly electric. Most ai'thors assert that amber is bituminous; but Ur. Thom- son stotes, that '• it is undoubtedly of a vegelabb' ori- gin; and though il differs from resins in some of its properties, yet it ogrces with tbcni in so many others, tliat it may without inipropriiiy he referred to them." —Chemiilnj, vol. iv. p. 147, .'>tb cd. Pieces of umber occosionally Inclose parts of toads ond insects in their aubstance, « liich ore beautifully pn^served. Il is prin- cipally found on the shores of Poinorania and I'ollsli PruMia; but it Is sometimes dug out of the earth in Ducal Pnisila. It Is also to be met with on the hnnka of the Klver Ularotta, In Mlcily. Sometimes it Is found on the east coast of lirltain, and In gravel pits round l^ondon. The largest mass uf amber ever found was got near the surface of (ho ground In Lithuania. It weighs 18 pounds, and is preserved in the royal cabinet at llerlln. Most of the amber imported Into this coun- try comes from the llaltic, but a small quantity comes from MIcily. Amber was in very high estimation among the ancients, but is now comparatively neglected. Ambergrla, or Ambergreaae (.< ter. .1 mber ,- Du. Amber; Vr. Anihirgru ; \y. Amiiruijnijia; Sp. yimftnr- grit; Lat. AtiUrii, Amhra griita), a solid, opaque, generally ash-colored, fatty, inflammable substance, variegated like marble, remarkably light, rngged and uneven in its surface, and has a fragrant odor when iieaied ; it does nut eflervc jco with adds, melts freely over the fire into a kind of yellow resin, and is hard- ly soluble In spirit of wine. It Is found on the sea- coast, or floating on the sea, near the coasts of India, Africa, and llra>:ll, usually in small pieces, but some- times in masses of ftO or 100 pounds weight. " Various opiuions have been entertained respecting its origin. : lSoiuc afllrmed that it was the concrete juice uf a tree, I others thought it a bitumen ; but it is now considered as pretty well established that It is u concretion formed in the stomach or ir.testines of the Pkyteter macroirjih- I aliu, or spermnccti wlial.>." — Thomson's Chemulry, Ambergris Ought to be chosen in large pieces, of an I agreeable odor, enti'cl;- gray on the outside, and gray with little black spots within. The purchaser should i Ik) very cautious, us this article is easily counterfeited I with gums and other drugs. America. Our object in this article is to take a ! coniprehensive survey of the Anirrican continent in its ■ physical, moral, and general relations. In attempting this, we do nut Intend to .,o much into detail u|'ou those subjects which will be morn fully and appropri- ately discussed in the dijtiiut article.^ assigned in this ; work to the several States included in the Western World ; but wo shall dwr II at some length upon those i features, pcculiiiritles, and classes of facts which either : lielong to it as a whole, or can be most advantageously I considered ur described when all its parts are viewed I in connection with une another. Such are the climate and physical structure of the country, the geographical distrilmliun of its cultivated plants, its indigenous pop- ulation, its animal tribes, its cumniercial and )iolilical capaliilitics, and its means of progressive imiirovenient, The new continent may be styled emphatically "a land of promise." 'thf prim nl there sinks into nothing { in itself, and derives all its importance from the germs . it contains of a mighty future. The change must not { only be great, but rapid, lieyond all which the past history of mankind would lead us to expect. ICven ; after we have familiarized our minds with the princi- ples u|)on which its progress depend*, we lind It dirti- cidt to reconcile ourselves to (he con.«cqueii(cs that in- I evitably result from then:. lint lime will do ils work ; and the great-grandsons of lb' now in existence may live to see the New World coutaiii a greater mass of ; civili/ed men than the (IM, Il Is this ^rtatncss in prospect wblih lends an interest to the Western Con- tiueiit similar to that ulilcli the I'.astern ilcrives from i its historical recollectiuns. The same eircunistaiiee re- quires that we should dwell at sunn* length on the ' physical structure of America, and on those liidi);e||iius ; iril)es which, in the course of three centuries, will iw ' ■ 1 live ill poetry and tradition. The future history of (he ^ w World must bo read by us in the conliguration of i surface, the- distribution > f its mniiiiti>lns and rivers, , the iiroduclioMs ofits loil. ii« y.atural and political ca- pa> ilities, uc:,! ill the character rather than the nuni- liers of its iivilir.ed inhabitants. The continental part of America extends from the Tilth degree of south to the (1st of north latitude, its extreme length, from the Straits of Magellau to thoae AMK 88 AME iij< climate iKrapliical niius pop- |ioIitical ivemt'iit. iilly "a nolhiiiff ijiiist not • past ICvon priiici- it ditti- that in- work ; jin'o may Ilia's of ilni'ss in Til (nil- i('« from taiKi' p'- III ilie ilitfi'iioiig will <» ' iry of tliu ration of III rivers, ilii'ttl cA- lii- num- rr(jni the tutlo, ita tu thoM of lii'hrlnK, l>«>ni{ IO,5(Ml Knitllih mlUt. Tho iilands of Tiurru iltl I"iuku ruucli uiiu duKriiu Iwyond Itn Miutli- «rn extremity into (liu Aiilarttiv Ociiun; and Uroun- lanil, wliiili In citiiiiuuliid liy k"<'K<'«I>Ii*'I''i witli Aniurica, hai iiiiiui truuvd tu lliu iHlli di'Kriu of north latitude, and prutiulily U proluiiKod niuili further lutu tho polar circle, 'lilt! lain dUiovvrlva ut Cnptalna I'arry, ICoim, and Franklin liuva u\vmi ua inucli inuro oxait l.tuan than wii furiiiurly pomwnacd of ilm norlhoni ri.'Kluiii of Aiiiiirica. 'I'liii couat of lliii iiialii land Ima been traced aliiii'iit coiiipliiti'ly friitii llidirliiM'a Htralta to Kox.'a Clutiiiicl on Uudaon'a Hay, and la found to run In a direction vuat uud wiml, in an unevuii lino near tho parallel of 7il". Thu Itouiida of continental America may tlierefuru liu coiialdi^reil ua nearly duturnilned on every aiclii. 'Ihu addilloiiul ll)(lita furnlahcd by Cap- tain I'arry'a and otlicr renint voyu^ea render it cx- troinely prolmblu that a Kriinl archipelago of Inlandn occupiea all the apucu lietweeu the northiirn coaat of the cuiitiiieut and the Nilili parallel ; and there la oven ■OHIO rcaHon for IjeliuviiiK that the country known liy tliu iiaiiie of (jreenlttiid la traveraed from vast tu wcat by uriiia of tliu aeu, llku thv rogluna un tlio weal aido of Uallin'a Hay. The new continent, when mmparcil with tho old, enjoya threu inipurtant udvantaKca. KirKt, It la free from HiK'ii vuat thmerta aa cover a lar^e part of tliu sur- face of Aula and Africa, and which not only withdraw a ({rettt proportion of tl.u aoil from tlin nae of man, but are obatuclea to coniinunlcutliin Imtwecn the aetlled dia- tricta, anil Kunurutu tliat nxeeaalvu heat which la often iiijurioua to health, and alwaya doatruclivu tu tndiiatry. Secondly, no part of ita aoil la ao far from the ocean aa the central ruKiuna of Aala and Africa. Thirdly, the interior of America la penetrated by mulcrtli'! rivera, the Misalaaippi, Amu/.on, and I'lata, xrcatly aurpanainK thoao of tliu old continuiit In maKniluili', and still more li the fucllltlea they prnaent for vnablinK the re- motest Inland diatrlcta to eomtnunlcatu with the sea. AccorUlni; to thu |(coK>'0|>l>i''<>l ayalcm adopted in the Old World, America uukIiI to be considered as two distinct contineiita, connueted liy the lathinua of Daricn, Its two Kteit dlvlaiona havu evidently more of a defined and separate character than Africa and Aala, or than Asia and Kurupo ; but thouKli this arranKoinent may b« very properly adopted for the purpoae of description, it is tuo lato now to think of aaal)(iilii(( aeparute nainca to rcgioiia which havu ao loiitf been known by a com- mon appellation. In tiut pliyalca; arranxeinent of the parts of South and North Amurlva there la u remark- able resemblancu. Uutli am very broad In the nortli, and Kftdually contract a* they proceed southward, till they end, thu one In a narrow lathiiiua, and thu other in a narrow proniuntory. Kavli liaa a lofty chain of mountains near ita weatern loaat, aljoiiiwIInK in vol- canoes, with a lower rldK" <"> thu op|Hmii>' aide, desti- tute of any tract of internal lire ; and eacli has one gn\at central plain ducllnliiK to tho ainth and the north, and watured by two KiKaiitlu atreaiiia, tlio Mia- aiaaippi corraapondlii(( to thu I'lala, and the .St, Law- rence to the Aniu»Jii. In tluilr climate, vegntablo productions, and aiii i.al tu uf, the two rogioni are very diaalinllar. The extent of the American cuntinont and tho Isl- acda connected with it ta aa foilov - North America Huuth America ,,, Itlenda Orceiilaiiil, and tlio lalaii.'i' t'uiiii" ! wlih) !: 'Kiiurth uf lluiiKiu'a Mraita,mayb«/- ■^■>: ted at > ■qaara KnR. MIIm. . . . 7. loo.(»ai O.r.im.iKKl ItiO.OOO 900,000 Tho American Continent, ther<-fnro, with Ita depend- ent islanda, la fully four tlnii" ' largo ai Kuropt, about one third larger than Af erato zone, is nearly in the same condition. Tliesu and the sunimita of tliu Andes are thu only parti of tho American continent which are rendered Incapi^ blu of cultivation by tho severity of the climate. The vast chain of the Andes is distinguished by aev- crul pcculi'ir features from all other niountaiiis in the world. It has its principal direction nearly north and south, while all thu great ridges of the old cuntincnt run from cast to west ; it la unparalleled in ita prodig- ious length, in tlie richiiesa of ita mineral treasures, and in thu number and niaguitudu of its volcanoes. The 'Vndes, if wo connect w itii tiiem thu Slexicaii Cordillera and the Kocky Mountains, extend from the Straita of Miigcllaii in a line wliieli niiiy be considered as ur.bro- kcn, to Point Itrownluw on tho shores of the Arctic Ocean, in the latitudu of 7U°, over a spacu equal to IO,IHIO miles in Iciigtii, or two-lifths of the circumfer- oncu of tlio gbdio. Their height, which attain - its maximum witliiii the tropics, deelinea toward botli Holes, but in auch a manner that, with a f-^w excep- tions, its higher summits ascend to the line of perpet- ual snow from one extremity to th other. It ma}' thus lie said to carry the temperaturo of the pole over tho whole length of t' American continent. The chain of the Andes is common to the two parts of America, and is in fact the link which connects thjin and makes them one ci>ntinent. As we propose, how- ever, to descrilw North ami South America sepurately, we a'lall reserve the details for another part of ttiis article. South America h a peninsula of a triangular form. Its greatest length I'miu nortli to south is 4560 miles; ita greatest breadt'< il'JUO; and it covers an ar< a, aa al- ready mentioned, of (>,500,(H)0 aqu: re English miles, about three-fourths of which lie between the tropics, and the other fourth in the temperat>3 zone. From the configuration of its surface, tlie peninsula may be di- vided into Ave distinct phyi^ .1 regions: 1. The low country skirting the shores of the racillc Ocean, from M to 150 miles in breadth, and 4000 in length. The two extremities of this territory are fertile, the middle n sandy desert. 2. The basin of the Orinoco, a coun- try ccnsisting of extensive plains or alfppes, called Klanos, either destitute of wood or merely dotted with fees, but covered with a very higii herbage during a purt of tlic year. During thu dry season the heat is intense here, and the parched soil opens into long As- sures, in which lizards and serpents lie in a state of torpor. 3. The basin of the Amazon, a vast plain, < iiibruciiig a surface of more tlian two millions of squaro miles, possessing a rich loii and a liumid di- inafc. i is covered almost every where with dense forests, V liich harlior innumerable tribes of wild ani- mals, ami are thinly inhabited by f" igcs, who live by huntii .; and Ashing. 4. Tho great southern plain, watered by the Plata and the numcrnus streams de- scending from tho c.'tem summits of the Cordilleras. Open etfppef, which are here called Pampas, occupy tho griiatir proportion of this region, wliich is dry, and in son't- parts barrer , but in general is covered with a «(' 111^ growth of weeds and tall grass, which feeds p: 'ii/ions herds j' i n. - und cattle, and affords shelter a few wiH »r;- nls !'i. The country of Bra- zil, Aiitx.ward of fit yti-ii,.,i and Ais'.'uay, presentio£; iT"*: AMB 84 AME ■IttriMt* rtifttB «nd volleyi, thickly covor»il with wood CD Iha lido next the Atlantic, ind o|iunin(; Into tli'i.iici or puiturei In tho intcriur. Nine-tenlha uf North America lyln({ iindw th'' » u.- perato xuiio, tlio cllninto followt a ditl'ureot li» ' v u what i> obicrved in the itontliern pcnlnmiln, i kI 'itv- Mnti more ttrllilnK contra«ti with tha' ' . I'lf lict known part* of the Old World. The lon« rlnrr<'^^ region now denoniiiiatud Central America, wljii li ■ 'innoct* the two great dlvlniona of tho continent, M.iuliin){ from Panama to Tehuantoiwc, )\a» in Kcncral a very huniiart of It i» within a amall dtitanco of thu nea. At Vera Vu' the rains fall durlnu nine monllift of the year, M is hot, niuist, anil unhealthy on tho low coasts ; !iut two-thirds of Its area, comprisini; all tho populmi.i clldtricts, consist of tahle- Und, from filKM) to WK)(l fcut in height. In conseiincnce of this sInKular conllxu'"''"" "f ''» surface, Mexico, tboUKh chicHy within 'li ■ (orriil lone, enjoys a tem- perate anil ci|uablo cl.miip. The mean heat at the capital, which is 74(K) fi 0°, which comprehends thri'i-fourths of the useful aoil of North America, we have three well-mark- ed varieties of climate, thai of the . i I coast, the west coast, and tho basin of the Mississippi. On the east coast, from Georgia to Lower (Jans'a, the mean tem- perature of tho year Is lower than i>i Kurope by 0° ut the latitude of 40°, and l)y 12 i' at the latitude of &()', according to Humboldt's calculation. In the next place, the range of the thermometer is much greater than in Europe, iVe summer being much hotter and the winter much colder. At Quebec the temperature of the warmest month exceeds that of the coldest by no less than Gu^" of Fahrenheit ; while at I'aris, which ii nearly under the same latitude, the ditfercnce is only 81°. In the third place, the climate undergoes a more rapid change in America as we proceed from south to north, a degree of latitude in the middle of tho temper- ate zone producing a decrease of annual temperature of ri8° in Europe, and of l'5i ° in America. The com- parison is greatly to the disadvantage of America when made in this form ; but when the east coast» f i lie two continents are compared, the case Is altered : ilio Old World is found to have no superiority over tho New, for Pckin haa still colder winters and warmer summers than i'hiladelphia, which is under the same latitude. It is the west coasl of the new continent which ought to exhibit the cliinato of Europe ; and from tho few facts known, we liavu reason to believe that it is quite aa mild and ei|uable. At the mouth of Columbia lilv- er, in lutitide OH ', Captains Lewis and Clarke found the rains to \>o copious and frequent; but they hail very little frost, and saw no ieo even in the depth of winter. From obser\-ations made in 18'.'2-1, it ap- pears that the mean heat of the warmest month was about 62°, of the coldest about ,S6°, and of the whole year Sl°. Kow the place i:i under the some Ibtituilo with Quebei', where the snow lies live months, and the mean ten uro during the three winter months is 18° below ' ,,L' freezing point. This single circumxtance marks emphatically the contrast in tlie climate of tho east and w est coaata of North America. Hut the mouth of Columbia liirer is also under tho same parallel with Nantes at the mouth of the Loire, where snow and ice are no strangers in tho cold season of tho year. Wc have, therefore, good grounds to conclude that tho west coast of America, ii the middle latitudes, has nearly as mild and equable a climate as the west coast of El ,r>pe. The clin.itc of tho great central valley, or baiin of tiio Uissistippi, biu a coniiderable itffinity to that iif the oast coast. It was long a matter nf dis- pute In what tho ilin'urencu between the two ciinsistt| liut tbl'< seems at last to have been clearly settliil, by ' II I 01 iliigleal registers kept at the military posts II ' < itcil States. From a comparison of four of ills ' i(l«tura, from posts near the centre of this great v.ilKv , with oil ITS kept on tho Atlantic const in the same latitudes, It appears that in the hottest month the tcniperaturo is from 5^ to 0" hl)(hei, and In the coldest month as much lower, In the basin of the Mis- sissippi, than on the coasts of New England, The proportion of fair weather to cloudy i,i as A to I in fa- Mir nf tho east coast. Tho climulo of the interior, therefore, exhibits In still greater excess those ex- tremes of ten.|ieriit\<, .isllngu^h ihe eastern I'luut of thin iMUi ,1011. Ii'oin th( tvestc... mil frioii tho shores of F:uropo, The fourth region of extra-tiopical America includes tho parts beyond Mount St. F.lias on the went coast, and, in tho interior, llic plains extend- ing from thu TiOth parallel to thu I'ldar !4caa. The in- tensity of tho cohl in thia tract of country is scarcely equaled by any thing that Is knimn nniler tho same paralluls in Northern Asia, The northernmost spot in America where grain is raisi d is at Lord Selkirk's colony, on lied Klver, In latitiule 5U°. M'heat, and uIko maize, which requires a high summer heat, ain cultivated here, Ilarley would certainly grow as far north as Fort Chippewayan, in latitude M]', where tho heut of the four summer niimlhs was found liy Captain Franklin to l>e 4' higher llian at F^dlnluirgh. 'Ilici'o is even reason to believe that both this species of grain and potatoes might thrive as far north as .Slave Lake, since tho siiruco lir attains thu height of Till feet tlircu degrees faithcr north, at Fort Franklin, in lati- tude 05". These, however, were low and sheltered tpots; but in tliis dreary waste generally It will not be found practiiiiblc, we suspect, to carry the arts of civilized life beyuml the (iuth parallel ; and the desira- ble country, capable of supporting a ilen.se population, and meriting tlio name of temperate, can scarcely be said to extend beyond the Aoth parallel. At IS6" the snow covers the ground in winter to the depth of only two feet, but small lakes continue frozen for eight months. I'hc sea is open only for a few weeks, fogs darken thi urfacc, and tho thermometer in February descended, u\ one instance, to vilnut [>>i . ut W" beluw the freezing point, .\t Melville Island, under the 7f>lh parallel, such Is tin t'rightful rigor of the climate, that the temperature the year falln 1' or 2° below the zero of Fahrenheii.t scale. It is n peculiarity in tho climate of America, that beyond the parallel of f>0° or 52°, it seems to become suddenly severe at both ex- tremities. At the one, summer disu|>pears from tho circle of tho scasei.s; at the other, winter is armed with double terroi... In no single circumstance is the tup«riurity of Amer- ica over the Old World so conspicuous as in thi; num- ber and magnitude of its navigable rivers. Tho Ama- zon alone dis' liarge- a greater quantity nf water than the eight ii Ipnl rivrs of Asia, the Euphrates, In- dus, GaiiL by, Leu i. Amour, and the Yellow Uiver and Kii ' >f Ch The Mississippi, with its branibis, ..ilm i, a ); iter amount of inland naviga- tion tlian 111 thu stream', great and small, which irri- gate F^uro 11' ; and tho I'lata, in this respect, may prob- ably claim a superiority over the collective water of Africa. But the American rivers not only surpass tlioso of the Old Worl>' in length and volume of fluid, but they are so placed us to penetrate every where to the heart of the continent, liy tho Amazon, a person living at tho eastern foot of the Andes, 20(K) niiles of direct distance from the Atlantic, may convey himself or his property to the s^ - VII ciiiinliUi •ctilt'il, \>y illtury piiitt II iif four uf uf lliia K'***' luimt in the KrHt month , Rnl(i part uf North America ia thu groat Interior plain extending from the Hocky Mourilalna to the Al- Inghanlim and the lakes, between tho parallels of 10^ ami f>0"; hut the Miaaiaaippi, Misaourl, and St, Law- rence, with their hraiiehns, aro »o wonderfully ranilllcd over thia region, that when It Is lillod with civlllicd Inhahitanta, two centuries hence, tlioao who dwell in III Inmost receaaea, at tho falls of the Mlaaouri, fur In- atancc, 17IK) niiha from tho Atlantic, will have a more eaay communication with I No ocean than the popula- tion of the interior i)f Spain and Hungary. It la only neceaaary to cast tho eye over a map "f South Amer- ica, to ai^e that all the most sequestered parta of the interior are visited by branches of tho I'lata and the /'ma/.on. These streams, having their courses in g>>n- eral remurkably level, and aeldom interrupted by cat- nract^, may ho considered, without a figure, as a vast aystein of natural canals, terminating in two main trunks, which comni micate with the ocean at the ei|uator and the iiritli ilegreo of aonth latitude. Since the invention of steam navlgallon, rivers are, in the truest scnae of tho term, Nature's highways, especially for in. int comniunitics, where the people ore too poor, and ilvi loo widely dispersed, to hear the expense of conatrucling roada. There la little risk in predicting that in two or three ceiUurlea tho Mi»»isaippl, the Ainn;!on, and the I'lata will he tho scenes of an itctlvo inland commerce, far surpassing in niagnlltide any thing at present known on the surface of the globe. 'I'lio Mi^Hiasl|ipi is navigable for boats from the sea to .111 l°:ilU of Its jirlncipal branch, the Missouri, 17INI inllt.>. Tom the Mexican ' df in a direct line, or ll'j'M) by t trcain; and the >\liolo amount of boat nav- Igatli. 'tforded by tho syalein of rivers, of which tho Mlaslssippi is the main 'ruuk, has been estimated aa equal to (iVKK) miles in length, apreail over a surface of l,8WV"»i ^-rinare miles I'erhaps this is rather hc- yond tho truih: hut let m call Iho niivlgation 3i),IK)(» miles, iin'l tho following tiiMo will exhibit the lengths, si/.o of til luislns, and pr iible extent of the naviga- ble waton of the greater i ivcrs of America : Mississippi to source of Missouri 8t. I<«wrence throuirh thu Inkea Orinoco Aumzon, not including Aiiguay riata, liichxUDK Uruguay Uenfflb. MUea. 4:iiai a.'IK) ISOO 40(10 'iV)0 Aras of Hull. The Amazon contains inany Islanda, is broad, and in tho upper part so deep, that on one occasion Conda- mine found no bottom with a lino 103 toises long. At its mouth, two days before and ofter tho full moon, the phenomenon called a Hore occurs in a very formidable shape. It is a wave of water rushing from the sea, with its front as steep aa a wall and as high as a house. Mo small vessel can "ncountcr it without certain de- Itructlon. The estuaries of all these great American rivers open to Iho eastward; and thus Providence aecms to have plainly indicated that the most intimnto com- mercial relations of the inhabitants of America should be with tho western shores of the Old World. It ihould at tho samo time bo observed that the position of the great rivers of America is but one example of a physical arrangement which is common to tho whole globe ; for it is remarkable that, in tho Old World as well as in tho Now, no river of tho first class flows to tho westward. Some, ai tho Nile, tho Lena, and the Oliy, flow to tho north ; others, as the Indus and the rivers of Ava, to tho south ; but the largest, as the Wolga, Ganges, Great Kiver and Yellow River of China, tho Euphrates, and the Amour, have their courses to the east or sontheait. T>ils arrangement is not accidental, biit depemU most probably on the In- clination nf the primary rocks, which, in all cases where their ilirtcl'n^ approai lies to the south and north, seem to have their steepest allies to the welt and llio longest decllvillea to tho east. VVu have ex- amples in the Scandinavian Alps, the niountaini of liritaln, the (Ihauts of India, thu Andes, and t!ie Rocky Mountains. North America, like tho Hnuthem penlniulo, natu- rally divides itself into five physical regions: 1. The table-land of A}oxico, with a strip of low country on its eastern and western shores ; 'i. Tho plateau lying between tlin Hocky Mountains and the I'acillc Ocean, n country with a mild anil humid atmosphere as far north as the Tirith parallel, but Inhospitable and barren beyond this lioundary ; 3, The great o-ntral valley of the MlaaissippI, ricli and well woodeil on the cast side, bare but not unfertile In the middle, dry, snndy, and almost a desert on tho west ; 4. Tho eastern declivities of the Alleghany Moiinfuins, a region of natural for- ests, and of mixed but rather poor soil ; h. The great northern plain beyond the 6lltli parallel, four-lifths of which Is a bleak and bare waste, overspread with inuumerablu lakes, and rosenilding Siberia both in thr |>hyslcal character of its surface and tho rigor of ila climalo. We should extend this article to an unreasonable length were we to dcacribc in detail the discoveries and sottlcinents made by the several iialiona of Europe in America. Wo ahull therefore conlino ourselves to a very brief chronological notice of the more Important events. 1 t'.l.'i. Tho first place in which tho SpaniariH estab- lished '.heir power was the largo island of Ilayti or llispaniiiia, which was inhabited by a numerous race of Indians, of a mild and gentle character, a third par* of whom are said to have perished within two or three years after tho Spaniards conquered them. — 1497. John Cabot, in the service of Henry VII. of England, discovered Newfoundland, and coasted along the shores ( f North America to Florida.— 1500. Cabral, a Portu- guese, visited the coast of Hrazil, and discovered the mouth of the Amazon. It was probably colonized be- fore 1516, as the first cargo of wood was sent from it to Portugal in that year. — 1508. Vincent PInzon is said to have entered the Kio de le Plata. It was in the same year that tho Spaniards, finding the aborigines too weak for the labor of tho mines in Haytl, first im- ported negroes from Guinea, and thus laid the founda> tion of a traffic which continue! to this day to di.igrace the civilization of Europe. — 1611. Diego Ct'i'!'. bus conquered the island of Cuba with .SOO soMieri', >>< wlioin he did not lose one. — 1513. Balboa cruised !)>'> isthmus of Darien with 290 men, and disc.'-ercd *)ie South Sea. — 1519. Hernando Cortes sailed iVosii ( ii! a with 11 ships and 550 men, and landed on the coast of Mexico, which had been discovered in the previous year, Tho conquest of tho empire was finished in 15'21 by 050 Spaniards, assisted by a vast number of tho Indians of TIascala.— 1631. Peru invaded by Pi- zarro, and conquered in little more than one year, with a force of 1000 men,— 1684. James Cartier, a French- man, discovers the Gulf of St. Lawrence.- 1535. Men- doza, a Spaniard, with 2000 followers, founds Buenos Ayrea, and conquers all the countrj', aa far aa Potosi, at which silver mines were discovered nine years after. —1537. Cortes discovers California.— 1641. Chili con- quered ; Santiago founded ; Orellana sails down the Amazon to tho Atlantic from the sources of the Rio Napo. — 1578. New Albion, on the northwest const of America, discovered by Sir Francis Drake. — 15«i;. The Spaniards found St. Thomas's Island, in Guiana, — 1687, Davis's Straits and Cumberland Islands discov- ored by John Davia. — 1604. De Monts, a Frenchman, founded the first settlement in Nova Scotia, then called Acadie. — 1607. Aftor many inoffcctaal attempts dur- AME 80 AME t Uiwi (wanly }'«ar^, tlio Aral |Miinan«nt uill*- _ ttf th>' KiikUhIi III Niirlh Aiiu'rica wu iiiolu thii jratr.on Ihu liiiiiksof,laiia'»'» Ulmr, in VlrKliilu.— lii'f*. gui'liet; fuuniliiil liy tlii' I'Vuiii h, » ho liail liitcl u umall ucKli'Ltcil wiloiiy ill I'mimla ulii'O 1 j-li.— liill. N«i»- fuuiiilluml raluiiiiiiil l>y tbv KiiK>l>l' i a Dulcli cuiuiiy eatalilliliii>■ '''li»h'iil In Now KnKlan i at riyiiioutli. It wan In Itiin yuar (liat tlii^ llrat lUKroi'ii wiTviniiiurtud liitu Vlr((lnia. Tlwy ^^^'re lirouiilit liy a Dutuh VHurl.— IKIA. A Kri'iuli toluny calalillnhi'il In Guiana. — liiM. Janiuira coihiucn'd l>y Uiu KnKli"li' Itltll, Tliu liutrh caliinliti uii Iludaon'ii Kivor capitu- late to lh« F-nKlioli.— llUilS' Tlio llurruncors lii>Kln Ihrir depri'datiuna on Ihu .S|ianliili ciiluiijo — 1IM2. William I'enn oatabliahcH a culuny In I'l'iiiinylvania. I.a Salle takes poaavaalunufLouiaiana in lli>' nanicof tlio Kn'tich klnt;.— lllilH. A culuny of I'iriO Scola plunlcil at Darion, nnil ruiniMl in Ihu fulluwIuK yuar, in lonRi'iiuoni.i' of th:' liilavrahlti Jealouay of Ihu ICn)(liah. — I'l'l.'l. (icorKin cul- oniit'il by the KuKlUh. — tTlii). Cauaila, and all the other I'n'nc'h auttlcmi'uti lii North Aniorica, conqucrud ty the Kn^liah. ' The fidlowlnft lalde, Riven by Uumlioldt, oxhiidia the avcra){c produce ul all Iho gold and ailvcr niinia In tli« Now World about IMua: j Paranoid. Pun aUfll. 1 Valaa orbolh.| Mexico Markf. 7,01111 II.4IIU vi.-n-i W.OtHi iiU,WK) Marki. a,iws,.»io illl.mio 'W.ilHI iSl.BSO Dalian. !a,IHIO,IMIO (l,'^40,IHMI •.',0«I1,(HI<) 4,Sf>0,(N«t V,1»«»,IHN) ' faiKI.IMMI CIdil L« ruia Colomlila(N«« UnniMl*) Bnuill In Kngll 78,ill ih money 8,40O,»4O 4II.NK),I)(NI ilN.TIMI.IMNI The 8paniah mark, In which the quantity la ex- preaB»a from Ihn Lake of Nicaragua, ami, al'ler u course of HO miles, fulla into Ihu Carililican Kea. 1 1 la nl' con- aiduraliln depth, liut Is olialrucUd by rupida, uiid llio port at ila mouth, now called tircytown, ia only iiipa- Ilia of recciviug aniall vcaaela. The lake la 00 or 100 milca long, ilo or lo broad, and Mb I'eet alune iiicun lido level ul Cireylowu. Ha depth varies I'niiii '.' I'lilh- onia lo III, but null b of it lina never been aoumlcd, and recent aurveyaahow hliiillowa al Iwlb enila, I'mm Ihia luku lo Ihe I'ucillc aixdillcrent riiulcahuve been traced, and aonic of them surveyed. Oiiii llirouKh the Luke Managua (which ia JM feet higher Ihaii Nicaragua Lake), westward lo lliu Uay of Fonaecn, would rciiiiire IM) or IIMI miles of canal, and lliu whole length of in- land naviguliiin from (ircyloHii would exceed 'M) miles; another route from Ihe same lake lo Kealejo ia 10 miles shorter; and a third to Tamurindu n good deal shorter sMIl, but liolh Iho latter want ^ooil ports at their termini on Ihu rucilic. A fourth route goes direct from Ihe southwest side of Nicaragua l.nke to San Juun del iSur; it ia only 10 to I'J miles in length, Ijut requires a tunnel (fur ships) 1 or 2 iiiilc.t long, und the port ul its mouth is mtv smull. A Id'ili niiia from tho same lake a little fartlier east lo the Hay of .Sali- nas, a disluncc of 15 miles, half of which i.s le the lake, and twicu as much above the I'acilic. It is believed there would lie a aullicieiil supply of water from the atrenm, and Ihe canal would further have the advanlage of a good port. Captain Kitzroy accnis to think this one of the moat proniiking lines, but it has not yet been carefully surveyed. Of the sixth proposed route, running from thu cast end of the laku to the (iulf of Nico\a, iiiji- ther the precise length nor the nature of the inter- vening country is known. Of the wlmle district laj)- lain Fitzroy says, that though insullicienlly explored, "cnougli is known lo dLscourage any attempt lo con- struct either canal or railway, unless the Sapoa truck (the fifth) should prove to be a.a eligible aa Dr. Oersted Ix-dievcs, Even then there will be the disadvaiilngcs of so inferior a harbor as that of Greytowii, and the difliculties of the river, which must bo cleansed from its numerous obstructions, though renewed uiinuully by tloods." lie considers tho climate pealilenlial, par- ticularly in the low grounds on both sides of the river, which holds its course amidst forests, swamps, and mud banks. Mr. Squier, however, in his work on Nicaragua, thinks tho climate comparatively good. In reference to a canal there is a physical evil not to be overlooked, namely, the volcanic eruptions which shake the soil, and might disturb the levuls ; and there i* • moral one sUll more serious arising from the fre- AME AMI id qnrnt Infiitmtcllnni Mrt pollllcsl nvoliillnna, which niiiki'* property lii«uciin<, ami may nmdiT nnKuicmcnla wllh ilii' Kipvi'rnini'rit more w»»tii pnpiT. Th« Ultiir ovil iipplli'it li> Ihii wh»l« Uthimia, Imt iiioro a>p<'i'lal|y tu till* illKlrli't, toiii'hirK »• It ilnri Ihn Irrrldirlcn of tliri'i' Slati'a (NlriiriiK<">i <'i»l> Kira, and Mua<|uttn) whli'li nro nftiin nt vnr with miii nnulhiT. il. Tlic I'uniiiim lrii<, nt 711' and MO' of wi^at lonKl- tiiilK. 'I'lin I'xtri'niti narriiwni-aa of tha iKthinun hen; ctlli'il itlli'ntUm to It na an ijli^lldn )iolnt for vntaldl^ih- liijj n idninuinli'allon liotwwn thii two ai-an, Iw-foni any nthiT liic'iillty wan thought of. Niiinnroui axploruliona h»vo hocn madii ; fonr ronli'n hnvo iM-nn pri'tty oiirc- fully unrvoyrd— tli()«n of l.oyd, Morid, (lari-lln, and llu){l"'"; ond alonit lhi< la.it of Iheno a rnllwny haa liwn Iti o|M'nillon ulnco Ki'hrnnry, IHSS, It coniini'nricrin. Amnhyl ; Kr. Amrthyitr; It. Amiitiata, Sp. Amrliiln; l,at. Amtthyiilun), a precloui stone, of which there nre two species dilTering wlilely In s. to two or three guineas each, for which, ton years ago, treble that sum would have been given."— M.WVK on Dinmmds, 2d. ed. Amianthus, AsbestOB, or Mountain Flajc, n mineral of which there arc several varieties, all more or less fibrous, fiexile, and clastic. It is Inconsumable by a high de^rrco of heat ; and In antiquity the art wns discovered of drawing the fibres Into threads, and then weaving them into cloth. Pliny says that he had seen napkins iiiado of this substance, which, when soiled, were thrown into the fire, and that they wore better cleaned by this moans than they could havo been by washing! Ilencc it obtained from tho Greeks the name of A/tiai'To( (undofiled). Its principal use, as stated by Pliny, was to wrap tho bodies of the dead previously to their being exposed on the funeral pile, that the ashes of tho corpse might not bo mixed with those of the wood. And in corroboration of this state- ment we may mention, that in 1702, a skull, some cal- cined bones, nnd a quantity of ashes, were found at Rome, in a cloth of amianthus nine Boman palms in ABIM 89 AMS lengti. by seTen in width. Itt emplo}'m«nt In tliU way was, fc-'wevor, conflned to a fuw ut tliti vfiry rich- . It families, incombustibl« cloth boiiiK vary icarvu, ami b.i.iging an enormously high priuu, Jliiriim invmlu, diji^^ ttxttt propter brevitalem, Chm Inmntum nl, aquat prttia exctUentlum margtirUarum, — I'MN,, lliit, Nat. lib. six. rap. 1. Tlio disuse of tliu praiillt:H uf cremation, or of burning the dead, eausud Ilia manu- facture of amlanthine cloth to liu iiu{;l«iUiid, Huvural modems have, however, succeedud In making It) liiil. if it be not lost, the art is now rarely praiitliMid.— Fur further particulars, see ItEEs'ii Cj/cliijieilui, Ammoniac, Sal. See Ai.kalikn. Ammonlaoum (Fr. Oomme A iniiumimiui' i It. Comma Ammoniaco; Sp. Gkaim Amnumiiwoi l.ut. Ant- mouMcumi Arab. Feihook), a coiicrute runinoui* JuIm obtained from a plant resembling fuiinul, fuiiiiil In lliu north of Africa, Arabia, Persia, tlio ICast lllilliw, ntc. Pliny says that it derived its name from its liuliig pro- duced in the vicinity of the temple of Jupitur Ammiili, in Atr.ca.— //i«. Nat. lib. xii. cup. 'i'i, It Ims tt faint but not ungrateful smell ; and a bitter, naiisuouii, swcttt taste. The fragments are yellow on llm uutoidt) ami white within, brittle, and break with H vitn'iiuii frae- tute; their specitic gravity is 1'207, 'I'iiu lii'ht ant- nioniacum is brought from Persia by [lorn bay and Col' cutta, packed in cased and chests, It is in largii manik es, composed of small round fragmonls iir tours i iir In separate dry tears, which is generally cuiikldiirxd n lAnw of its goodness. The tears should be whim Inlurnally and externally, and free from sueils or iilliur fiirt'lun substances. Hcjoct that which Is soft, ditrk't'iiliircd, and foul. It is used prlucipully In ilie mutiTln mudli'n, and the quantity imported is but snmll.— Kickk'n I'h- clopedia; Thomson's JJuiienMnloi'i/. Ammunltioii, a general name fur all warllki* pro- visions, but more particidurly powilur, ball, uli', ~- l'„ II, Amoy. a c'):nmercial city ami scu-piiit uf CIiImu, province of Fo-K CO, on an island uf tlni tamu nuimi in n bay of the China Sea, opposite F^rmusu, ami ii'io mil'"! E.N.E. of Canton. Lat. 24° 10' N, ; lung, JIM' |;r V„ Population, 2eo,OOiV The city Is sepuralud from the suburbs or outer town by a line of roi.ky lillls, com- manded by a citadel on a height, and furtllWil Willi numerous works constructed during tliu Itttu wur. 'I'lic town is not handsome nor clean, but lias nmiiv ruutiiy public buildings, well-supplied shops, ami guuj prlvatu houses. Harbor excellent ; ships can llu cIumi Iii (Iih quays, or in a deep and sheltured cr'u'k. Tlivre U n considerable trade, especially with l''orniuii«j muiiii- facturcs of porcelain, grass cloths, umbr'dlus, paper, etc., which, with sugar-candy and ''unguii It'it, lui'ti- poec its principal ex|)orts. Imports cumprlau rkn, Kug- ar, camphor, and European produce. Aiiioy, tli<iiiiiiil a grcnl falling off since the last-meiitiunod upuib, It N sllll very considerable. In I7HS the pupiilatluii Is naid lu have amounted to 280,000; In 1615 h had auvUhed t« IHO,179 1 but It* Increase In the interval has been such, that It amounted in 1840 to 210,077. The harbor is spacious and the water deep ; and it has recently been much Improved by the construction of docks, two of wlilull are already completed, and a tliird in a very ad- Viiiiuod state. Owing, however, to a bank (the Pam- plls) wlierii the Y Joins the Zuyder Zee, large vessels going ur coming by that sea are obliged to load and unload a part of their cargoes in the roads. Tlic nav- igation uf the Zuyder Zee is also, by reason of its nu- merous shallows, very intricate and difficult ; and as filers wore no hopes of remedying this defect, it became n«i:^:,sary to resort to other means for improving the access to Iho port. Of the various plans suggested for tills purpose, the preference was given to the scheme fur cutting a canal capable of admitting the largest class of merchantmen, from the north side of the port of Amsterdam to Newdiep, opposite to the Tcxcl, and a little tu lliu cHst of the lielder. This canal has fully answered the vi^ns of the projectors, and has proved uf signal service lu Anisterda'ii, by enabling large ships lon^old tlio Pnnipus, aswcU .is the difficult navigation uf tliu Zuyder Zee, wlierc they were frequently detained fur tlircu weeks, and to get to ond from Newdiep with- nut nny sort of risk in less than twcnt^'-four hours. The cnnnt was begun in 1810, and completed in 182&. It lins five sluices large enough to admit ships of the llmi j the dues and charges on account of towing, etc., being ut Iho same time very moderate. At Newdiep tlin water Is deeper than in any other port on tlie coasi uf Holland, and ehips are there in the most lavorable pusltlun fur getting expeditiously to sea. — ,S'cr Canals. The Imports principally consist of sugar, cofl'ce, spices, Idbncco, cotton, tea, indigo, cochineal, wine and brandy, wool, grain uf all sorts, timber, pitch and tar, hemp and flax, irun, hides, linen, cottun and woolen stuffs, liiirdwnre, ruck salt, tin iilatos, coul, dried fibh, etc. Tliu exports consist partly of the produce of Holland, parity nml principally of the produce of her possessions III the Enst and SVcst Indies, and other tropical coun- Irlen, fliid partly of commodities brought to Amsterdam, AS tu a cunvcnicnt entrtjwt from ditlercnt parts of Eu- rope. Of the first class arc cheese and butter (very im- purfaiit articles), madder, clover, rape, hemp, and lin- seeds, rape and linseed oils, Dutch linen, etc. Geneva Is prlmlpully exported from Schiedam and liottcrdam; uak biirk and rattle principally from the latter. Of the seeuiid class are spices, coffee, and sugar, principal- ly fruni Java, but partly also from Sjurinam, Brazil, and Cuba; indigo, cuchincul, cotton, tea, tobacco, and nil surfs of Eastern and culoiiial products. And of the llilid dflsn, nil kinds of grain, linens from Germany, timber, and uil surfs of Baltic pruduce; Spanish, (ier- inuii, and English wouls; French, lihcnish, and llun- garl,iii wines, brandy, etc. The trade cf Amsterdam iiiny, Indeed, lie said to comprise every article that en- ters Into the cummcrce of Europe. Her merchants were furtnerly the must extensive dealers Im bills of e.x- rhiinge, nnd tliuiigh London be now, in this respect, far superior to Anistcrdam, the latter still enjoys a re- spei'lable shore of this business. The Hank uf the Keth'^rlsnds was cstalilished at Amsterdam in 1H14, It is not, like the old Dunk of Amslerdani, whicli ceased in I'lMi, merely a Imnk of ilepu^lls, but a bank of deiiosit and circulation furnied »n fliu niudel uf the Hunk of England, Its capital, wlileli originally amounted to .'i,OilO,U()0 florins, was duulded in IMJ'J. It has the exclusive privilege of Issuing miles. lis original charter, which was liniiled tu twenty-five years, was prolonged in l».'i8 for twen- ly-llvo years more. About 300 or 350 large ships lie- luiig tu Amsfcrdain : they are employed in the East and West India trai s, and in trading to the Dallic, the Mudllcrraiican, etc. There is comparatively little cuasling trade at Amstc: dam. the cominunicatiun with most other ports in the vicinity being principally kept up by canals, and that with 1^'ricsland by regular AMS 89 AMS % packets. The total imports Into Holland in 1851 wero estimated at 803,U98,'i!24 florins, and tlie exports at 212,744,806. The United Kingdom, the German Cus- toms Union, Belgium, Java, France, and liussia, arc the countries with which she carries on the most ex- tensive trade. Dutch Commercial Policy.— The policy of Holland, civil, religious, and commercial, has long been of the most liberal and enlightened description (seopoit) ; and she was the first country to follow the example set in repealing the Navigation Laws in 1849. The Dutch law on this subject was passed in 1850. Previously to that period discriminating duties wero imposed on most articles imported on foreign bottoms, and also on thoso imported by foreigners inio Java and her other cul"- nie». Hut these preferences no longer exist. The fol- lowing is an extract from the law relative to these matters : Diflerential duties arc abolished on the ves- sels of those States which "a. I'lacc the Uutch tlag on the same footing with their national Mag trading to and from their own ports (coasting trade and fisheries excepted); b. Which place the Dutch Hag on the same footing with their national flag trading to and from their colonics, if they possess any ; and, c. Which do not levy u'hcr differential duties to the disadvantage of the produce of the Netherland colonies, or to the prejudice of produce imported from other parts of the world, from Ncthxrland ports, than those which are levied in fuvur of the produce of their own colonies, when imported direct." The fisheries and the coasting trade of Holland and of her colonics is reserved to Dutch ships. But it h no longer necessary that the latter should be of Dutch build. Foreign built ships have, however, to pay, on being registered, an ad valorem duty of 4 per cent over and above the fee charged on the registration of Dutch- built ships. Several important reductions were at the same time made in the tariff of import duties. The navigation i! les or tolls that were formerly chorged on vessels or goods passing through Holland by the Kliiuo and the Ysscl, and transit duties of all kinds, have also been repealed. And though it may be said, and truly, that these wise and liberal mea-.ures will be much more advantageous to the Dntcli than to any other people, still they are of the greatest importance to all commercial nations, and especially to tho^se who have an extensive intercourse with them. We are glad to liave to state that this liberal policy has in Holland, as in Kngland, had its appropriate reward. Commerce has been largely extended. The mercantile marine is in a highly prosperous state, and is daily receiving large additions. Many Dutch ships have latterly been cliurtered by English merchants. The importations into the United States from Hol- land, in the year 1852-3, were, free of duty, |U6,227; dutiable, |1,60'J,'J43 ; total, ?" ,025,170; iii American vessels, f 1«2,«41 ; foreign, 11,162,529. Total value of imports for the same year from the Dutch East Indies, (K>N4,583; Dutch West Indies ji40U,l»'5. The exports of domestic produce for the some year were, in American vessels, 18872,780 ; in foreign vessels, 11,110,913; totol, 81,n83,723. To the Dutch Eost lu- dies, ^202,822; to the Dutch West Indies, J251,2u8. CoMPARATivK Taulk OF KxronTS OF POHPSTir I'ROnUCE TO lloLi.ANn, roll THE FISCAL YeaH/I kmii.nu June 80. ItiMt, ts.u Eipottl. Itnportf. Am«rlran Ve«Mla. 1 PoreiKD VsimU TolBl. JI5.4 ■UiiMl 1,409,1^5 l,ll)ii,62« SBO.MB l.(iJM7O|l,0.S3.Ti!.9 2,2H!i.Tin! f,tWB,l)7» In 1852 Great Britain imported from Hollaiul 221,669 quarters of wheat, ont?, and other grain, but she fre- quently supplies more coiisideralile quanfities. She also sends larf,o quantities of butter and cheese (226,671 c« t. of the former, and 266,857 ditto of the latter in 1850), with, in 1851, 56,461 head of catlls and 165,865 sheep ; her other exports are bark for tanning, flax and hemp, clover-seed, madder, geneva, nutmegs, etc. En- gland also ta)' ja considerable quantities of Dutch sugar and coffee. The greater portion, however, of the trade between the United Kingdom and Holland is carried on with liotterdam, which is much more conveniently situ- ated for such intercourse than Amsterdam, But the lat- ter continues to engross by far the larger share of the commerce with the flourishing co iny of Java and the other Dutch possessions in the East; and is, consequent- ly, the principal continental mart for Eastern produce. The warehousing tystem has been long established in Amsterdam ; and all goods, whether for home con- sumption or transit, may be deposited in bonded ware- houses. Speaking generally, goods can only be kept in bonded warehouses for two years ; but grain of all kinds may be kept for an unlimited period. The ware- house rent chargeable per month on a quarter of wheat is, on an upper loft. Id. and 2-5ths ; on an under loft lid. On a ton (Engl.) of sugar in casks the charge U Hd. ; in bags, Gd, The dock and its adjacent warehouses, belonging to the Entrepit General, or establishment for warehousing goods imported by sea, or intended to be re-exported by sea or by the Rhine, are large and commodious. The dock has water to flout tin' largest ships, and the dues and other charges arc exceedingly moderate. Mer- chants may employ their own men or those of the dock in loading or unloading ; and may either place their property in separate vaults or floors of which they keep the kej', or intrust it to the care of the dock ofBcers. Dutch Trading ComjHiny. — A large proportion of the foreign trade of Holland was for a considerabio period engrossed by the large trading company called the Ncderlandsche /lundelmaatschapp!/, created in 1824. Its capital, wliicli consisted originally of 37 million flor- ins, was reduced in 1824 to 24 million florins ; lut as the company borrowed 10 million florins in 1835, and 13 millions more in 1837, its capital consists of 47 mill- ion florins. At first it extended its operation to Amer- ica and the West Indies, as well as to the East Indies. But it has latterly very much contracted the scale of its operations; and having lent 40 millions of its cap- ital to government, it is now merely tho agent em- ployed by the latter to bring home and sell that part of the produce of Java which, under the new colonial system, belongs to the State, ond to carry on the trade with Japan, which, however, is of little or no value, Tl>e company bus no sliii.s of its own, but charters those of private individuals. Its charges on importation are limited to certain fixed rates, .'ho business of in- surance is extensively practiced at Amsterdam ; the premiums are moderate, and the security unexception- able. The high duty formerly imposed in other coun- tries on policies of insurance contributed to the 'ncrease of this business in Ilulhuid. Credit, Discount, f^c— Holland is, and has always been, a country of short credits. A discount is usually given for prompt payment, at the rate of 1 per cent, for six weeks, and 2 per cent, for two months; but the terms of credit on most articles and the discount al- lowed for ready money, havo been fixed by usage, and are regurdcd as essential conditions in every bargain. In consequence of the preference giver, in Holland to ready money transactions, it is not a country in wliich adviiilurers without capital have much chance of speed- ily making a fortune. " Kien, en eflct, de plus facile que de s'etablir a Amsterdam; mais rien de plus diffi- cile (/(' s'lj sotttenir sans des ip'andes resources, Dans cettc vilb, oil rargent alwiide, on on le prete centre des suretes a si bon niarch6, il eat pourtant impoasihle de s'en procurer a. credit ; et sans argent il n'y a plus de possibilite d'y travailler, quo de trouver (|uelqu'un qui veuillc de se charger d'uii papier noiivcau (|iii tie serolt pas appuyc d'un credit que I'opinion, la protection, on des elfets nii'ls feroient valoir •! la bourse. Les Hol- loudois Bulvent Id-dcasus des maxinies tr6s austiirel, nn #■■ AMS 40 AMS mime it I'6gard des malsons d'une certain considera- tion." — Encyclop^die Mttkodique, Commerce, 1. 11. p. 660. But this auiterity is not a disadvantage, but the re- verse. It prevents commerce from degenerating, as it has too often done in other places, into gambling ad- ventures, and places It on a comparatively solid foun- dation. And it should be mentioned to the honor of the Dutch, and as a proof of the excellence of this sys- tem, that notwithstanding the distress and loss of trade occasioned by the Invasion and occupation of their country by the French, the bankruptcies in 1795 and subsequent years were not, comparatively, so numer- ous as in England in ordinary seasons ! The regula- tions in the Code Napoleon as to bankruptcy are en- forced In Holland. It has long been the practice in Holland to make, on selling articles, considerc.blo deductions from their weight, particularly from those of large bulk, as com- pared with their value. These tares and drafts, as they are termed, are now fixed by ancient usage. Magnilude of the. Comnmve of IlnUnml in the Seven- teenth Century. — Causes of its Pv jperity nml JJerlinc, — We bclibve we need make no apology for embracing this opportunity to lay before our readers the follow- ing details with respect to the commerce and commer- cial policy of Holland. It forms one of the most in- structive topics of Investigation; and it is to be re- gretted that so little attention should liuve been paid to it in this country. Previously to iln' commence- ment of the long-continued and glorious struggle made by the Dutch to emancipate themselves from the blind and brutal despotism of Old Spain, they had a consid- erable marine, and had attained to distinction by their fisheries and commerce; and the war, instead of being injurious to the trade of the republic, contributed pow- erfully to its extension. After the capture of Antwerp by the Spaniards, ni l.'iSo, the extensive commerce of which it had liecn the centre was removed to the ports of Holland, Jind principally to Amsterdam, wlilch then attained to the distinctkin she long enjoyed, of the lirst conmierclal city of Kuropo. In lt!02 the Dutch ICnst India Company was form- ed; and, notwilhstaiiiling the pernicious influence of that association, the Indian trade increaseil rapidly in magnitude and importance. Ships fitted either for commercial or warlike purposes, and having a consid- erable number of soldiers on board, were sent out with- in a few yours of the establishment of the company. Ambuyna and the Moluccas were fii-st wrested from the Portuguese, and with them the Dutch obtained the monopoly of the spice trade. Factories and fortilica- tions were in no long time established, from liussonih, near the moutli of the Tigris, in the Persian (iulf, along the coasts and islands of India as far as Jajmii. Al- liances were formed with several of the Indian princes ; and In many parts, particularly on the coasts of Cey- lon, and in various districts of Malabar and Coromaii- del, they were thenisihes the sovereigns. Uatavin, in the large and fertile Island of Java, the greater part of which had lieen conijuirr d by the Dutch, fonned the centre of their Indian commcree ; and though un- healthy, its port was exiellent, and it was admira- bly situated for commanding the trade of the Kasteni Archipelago. In Hi.")! they planted a colony at the Capeoftiood Hope, which had been strangely neglect- ed by the Portuguese. Every branch of commerce was vigorously prose- cuted by the Dutch. 'I'heir trade with the llaltic was, ho'S'Cver, by far the most extensive and lucrative of which they were in possession, (.luicciarilini mentions tha^ the trade with Poland, Denmark, Prus.-ia, etc., even before their revolt, was so very great, that fleets of 8(K) ships arriveit twice a year at Amsterdam from Dant/.ic and Livonlu only; but It increased prodig- iously during the latter jinrt of the sixteenth ami tin bcj;inning of the sevonlcenth centuries. The great population of H Mood, and the limited •xtenl and un- j returns for them fruitful nature of the soil, render the inhabitants de- pendent on foreigners for the greater part of their sup- plies of corn. The countries round the Baltic hove always furnished them with the principal part of those supplies ; and it is fh>m them that they liave been in tlic habit of bringing timber, iron, hemp and flax, pitch and tar, tallow, ashes, and other bulky articles required in the building of their houses and ships, and in various manufactures. Nothing, however, redounds so much to the credit of the Dutch as the policy they have invariably followed with respect to the trade in com. They have at oil times hod a large capital embarked in this business. The variations which are perpetually occurring in the harvests early led them to engage very extensively in a sort of speculative com trade. When the crops happened to be unusually productive, and prices low, they bought and stored up largo quantities of grain, in the expectation of profit- ing by the advance that was sure to take place on the occurrence of an unfavorable year. Kepeated eflbrts were made, in periods when prices were rising, to pre- vail on the government to prohibit exportation; but they steadily refused to interfere. In consec|uenee of this enlightened policy, Holland has long been the most important European entrepot for com; and her markets have on all occasions been fumlshed with the most abundant supplies. Those pcorcities which ore so very disastrous in countries without commerce, or where the trade In corn is subjected to fetters and re- straints, have not only been totally unknown in Hol- land, but became a copious source of wealth to her merchants, who then obtained a ready and advanta- geous vent for the supplies accumulated in llieir ware- houses. "Amsterdam," says Sir AValtei lialcigh, "is never without 70(I,IX10 quarters of com, none of it of the growth of Holland ; and a dearth of only one year in any other part of Europe enriches Holland for seven years. In the course of a year and a half, during a scarcity in England, there were carried away from the ports of Southampton, Bristol, r.nd Exeter alune near- ly XiOO.OOO ; and if London and the rest of England be included, there must have been4:2,()00,(KMi mere." — (ihserrations ti'iirJuny Trade and Commerce with the IIoU londer, Miscel. Works, vol. ii. The verj' well iiiform- cil auihor of the Jtichesse de la Holland'-, publii>ii>d in 177H, observes, in allusion to these circumslunces, ' ' .'uo la disetto de grains regno dans les quatre parties ilu monde; vous trouvorez du froinent, du Beit;li>, et d'au- tri's grains a Amsterdam; ib n'y manijiinil Jiimais." The l!.ink of Amsterdam w a., founded in liiiili. The principal object of this establishment was to olivlato the Inconvenience and unccrtunty arising from the circulation of the ciiiiis imported intc Amstenlum from all parts of llio world. Tlie merchants who carried coin or 'luliion to the bunk obtained credit for an equal va! '.i! in its books: this was called bank money; and all considerable payments were efVected by wriii':g it off from the account of one imlivldual to that ',t an- other. The establishn.ent continued to flourish till the invasion of the Fniich in 171*."). Hetween the years I'i.Jl and 1072, when the territories of the repub- lic were Invailcd by the French, the connnerceof Ilol- land seems to have reached its greatest height. Do Witt estimates its increase from the treaty with Spain, concluded at Mun-ter in 1G43, to l(i(i!l, at fully o half. Ho adiis, that during the war with Holland, .'^paln lost the greater part (f her naval power; that since the peace, the Dutch had obtai'ied Hiost of the trade to that country, w liicli had lieen previously earrieplng; that Spain had even been forced to hire Dutch ships to sail to her American possesyiims; and that so gnat was the expoitation of goods from Hol- land to Spain, that all the merchandise brought from the Sipanlsh West Indies was not sulllcient to moke AMS 41 AMS At this period, Indeed, the Dutch engrossed, not hy means of any artilicial monopoly, but by the greater number of their ships, and their superior skill and economy in all that regarded navigation, almost the ■wholo carrying trade of Europe. The value of the goods exported from France in Dutch bottoms, to- ward the middle of the fourteenth century, exceeded 40,000,000 livres; and the commerce of England with the Low Countries was, for a very long period, almost entirely carried on in them. The business of marine insurance was lorgely and successfully prosecuted at Amsterdam ; and the ordi- nances published in 1651, 1663, and 1&70, contain the most judicious regulations for the settlement of such disputes as might arise in conducting this difUcult but highly useful business. It is singular, however, not- withstanding the sagacity of the Dutch, and their de- sire to strengthen industrious habits, that they should have prohibited insurance u]ion live s. It was reserved for England to show the advantages that might be derived from this beautiful application of the science of probabilities. In ICSIO, Sir William Petty estimated the shipping of Europe at about 2,000,000 tons, which he supposed to be distributed as follows: viz., England, 500,000; France, 100,000; Hamburg, Denmark, Sweden, and Dantzie, 2jl),000 ; Spain, Portugal, and Italy, 250,000 ; that of the Seven United Provinces amounting, accord- ing to him, to 900,000 tons, or to nearly one half of the whole tonnage of Europe ! No great dcpendance can, of course, be placed upon those estimates ; but the probability is, that, had they been more accurate, the preponderance in favor of Holland would have been greater than it appears to be ; for the official returns to the circulars addressed in 1701 by the commissioners of customs to the oHicers at the diflTorent ports show that the whole mercantile navy of England amounted at that i)Oiiod to only 201,222 tons, carrying 27,100 men. — .MAfi'iiERSOM'a Annah nf Commerce, nnno 1701. It may, therefore, be fairly concluded that during the seventeenth century the foreign coninicri c and naviga- tion of Holland was greater than that of nil Europe besicbs; ami yet the country wbicli was the seat of this /ast commerce had no native produce to export, nor even a piece of timber (it for ship-buililing. All had been the fruit of industry, economy, and a fortu- nate combination of circumstances. Holland owed this vast conunerce to a variety of causes : partly to her peculiar situation, the industry and economy of her inhabitants, the comparatively liberal and enlight- ened system of civil .is well as of commerclnl policy adopted by the republic ; and partly also to the wars and disturbances that prevailed in most European countries in the sixteenth ond seventeenth centuries, an, repute, and dignity." In discussing into an examination, as well of tho causei which had raised the commerce of Holland to tho high pitch of prosperity to which it hud ouc:u attuh.ed, ai of those which had occasioned its subsequent deeline. It li stated that, though not of tho sanio opinion upon all points, they, speaking generally, concurred as to those tliat wore most important. AVhcn their answers had been obtained and compared with each otliiT, tho stndtholder had a dissertation prepared from them, and other authentic sources, on tho commerce of the republic, to which proposals were sulijnined for its amendment. Some of tho principles ailvuiKi'd In thli dissertation apply to the ease of lliilliind oidy ; but most of them are of universal applinitioii, nnd uie not more comprehensive than sound. We dnubt, indeed, whether the benellts resulting from religious Icderution, political liberty, the security of property, and the free- dom of industry, have ever been inori! dearly set forth than in this dissertation. It begins by an enumera- tion of tho causes wliicli contrll)U('d to adNaiHc tho commerce of the republic to itfi former iniexampled prosperity : these the aulbors ilivide into lliree clnKses, embracing under the llr«t those: that were natural and physical; under the hcidiiiI, those they denominated moral; and under the. third, thoso wlilch they con- sidered adventitious anil external. Tho central situation of the country, Us command of some of the priTicipnl inlets to the (.'ontiiienl, and tho necessity uniler which the InhabltanlH have been placed, in conscipii nie of tlu' liMrn^incHS of ilie soil and its liability to bo overllowed, to exirt all tlu'ir indus- try and enterprise, are circunistani:iH that sii'in to bo in a great degree peculiar in llollaiid. Kut tliough there can bo no doubt that their intluence has been very considerable, no one will preteml to say that it is to be compared for a moment with the infliiince of those free institutions which, forluiiatily, are not the exclusive attributes of any particular eoinitry, but have flourished in I'lin uicia, Greece, England, and America, as well as in Holland. Many dis.sertalioiis have been wrillen (o iK'count for tho decline of the coinmi ice of llnMaiid. Hut, if wn mistake not, its leailing causes may be chiswd under two prominent heads; viz., first, the natural (.Towth of commerce and imvigation in other I'lUntriis; and, 'cc ond, the weight of taxation at h(un '. During the pe- riod when the rc|iublic rose to great endueiice as a cnmmercial Stale, England, Frnuce, nnd .S|.,"!ii, dis- tracted by civil uiiil religious (IlKsinsions, or engrossed wholly by schemes of ft-; vi cimquest, were muibb to apply tlieir mrgicsfie the ciiltivition of coiuniircc, or to withstand the competition of so liulu.'drious a people as the Dutch. They, tlrerifori', were under the neces- sity of allowing the grenlir p"rt of their foreign, are! even of their ce)astiiig traele. to be carrie'rl on In Dutib bottoms, ane! unebr the! fuperlnlenele'ne'e eif l>ut(:h fac- tors, lint afteT the accsfion of I.ouis XiV. ;iiiel tiio aseende'iicy eef Cremiwedl lind put an end to Internal cemunolions in Kram i' iiiid Englanel, tho energies of the'se twei great nalieuis eie'gan (ei be: ilireili'ii tei pur- suits of wliicli the Duteli hael hithe'rtei e.njeiye'el iilineist a monojiedy. It was not fo bo Hii|'pose.i| i\\n\ when trane|uillity anel a re'gular system of gove'riimiiii lead been eslablisbe'el in France anel Kiigbiu'l, their active anel enterprising inhabitants weiuld siit.mit tei si'c one of tlu!ir most valuable brane'bi's eif iiidu«lry in tho hands of themfor igiiers. The' Diitili eeaseel lei be tho carriers of Kurojie, without any laulf of their eiwn. Their performaiie'c of that funetiem iii'e'essarily firinin- ated as soon as otiier iinlieins lie'caini: posse'sseil of a mercantile nnirine, anel were, olile tei do for llie'iiiselvcB what had previously been done fur them by their neigh- bors. AVhatever, therefore, might havn been thei cemdltlon of Hedland in .ither res|iiilH, tlie> naliiral aelviiiie'e of rival nations must iiii'vllably have ■ilri|i|ieel lier of a these eiucstions, tho merchants were obliged to enter i large portion of the commurce she once possessed. liut 4»«*"?P AMS 42 AMS the projrress of decline seems to have been conilderobly accelurated, or ratlier, perhaps, the cfforta to iirrest it ■were rendered inetfectual, by the extremely heavy UiU atioii to which she was cubject^'d, occasioned by tile unavoidable expenses incurred in tlie revojutloaary struggle with Spain, and the subsequent wars with France and England. The necessities of '.ho HtaUi led to the imposition of taxes on corn, on llour wIm-» Mm* (or tMnklflff that (! e Outch were, until very late- ly, tti« Urnmil eroitilurs of :iny nation in i;urope. It ».i lin|»M«ibl«, Inilmwt. to fomi any accurate estimate of what lb« "Kill" ««»ln« ihem by foreigners previously to lliii lain tituui'h war, of at present, may amount to ; but lli«r« *«ll !«• (Ml doubt that at the former period lh« umi/ui't tms Immense, and that it is still very con- tiiixrablv, M, \)iin*unkT {IHctiinmnire de I'Economir it was ground at the mill, and on bread when it coin* /'ulitU/ut, umi, lib Ji J'iO) slates the amount of capital from the oven; on butter, and (ish, and fruit; on In- li-nt by tlic liiitih to foreign governments, exclusive come and legacies; the sale of houses; and, in short, aliiiost every a^ti^•lo of either necessily or convenlenm. Sir AVillioni 'J'em|)le menlions that in his lime — and toxes were greatly increased afterward- otic lisli sauce was in i.onmion use, which directly i)ttid no fewer Ihun fliifi;, ditl'erent duties of excise ; and it was a common saying at .Amsterdnnr, that cv^ry dish of lish brought to tail' i.is pi:id for once to tho lisheruieii, and tu time!' ■> tho State. The iir 1 iiicious influence of this httvy tax-Mon has been alil_. c't forth by the author of the Uiiheue ili- In IloUauJf, and other well-informed writers : und it )ia» also been very for -ibly pointed out in Ihe Difscrlatioii already referred to, drawn up from the coiiiuiunicatlona of the Dutch merchants. "Upprcssive taxes," it is there stated, "must ue placed ut the head of uU Ihe causes that have co-operated to the prejuilice and di«. couragoment of trade ; and it may be justly Baiaid us our tuxes with pleas- ure, without any further inquiry. But, since the lua( century, the sjstcni of trade is altered all over ICurojie : foreign nations, seeing the wonderful eti'ect of our trad<', and to what an ciiiinencc we had risen only by nx aiis thereof, they did likewise a|)ply themselves lo it ; and, to save our duties, sent their superfluous products be- aide our country, to the places where they are most consumeil ; and in return for the same, furnisherl iheni- aelvcs from the first hands with what they wanted." But, notwithstanding this authorit.itive exposition of the |>ernicious effects resulting from the excets of tax- ation, the necessary expenses of tho .State were so gr'ut as to render it imnosrible to make any sullicient reduc- tions. And, with the exception of tho truiisil trade uf tliii UrK*i siiiii* lent to France during the American WKf, H( ummlji-ihi'tr millions sterling. According to iIm «mlior vt iIm' HMtme ih h IMlandt (ii. p. 292), the sums \imi to l'r»li(« and Kngiand only, previously lo 177H, MtMouiilM) Ici l,WK).(ri)0 livres touinois, or sixty tliillionii nt^rliliK- And beside;* these, vest sums were lent III lirlVMte indlvidunls in foreign countries, both reKularly n» loan* at interest and in the shape of goods Ailvttiicoil Ht lim« eredlts. 8o great was the ditficvlty of hudlMi; (to rtdvsMageoOs Inveslmtiit for money in Holland, tlint Hir Vtllllam Temple mei.tions that the payiDBiii of any port of Ihe national debt was looked upon \>y the ircdliors as an t\ il of the lirs t magnitude. '■'Ih«y rwWve It," says he, "with tears, not knowing how III tJi*|HHM of It at intorest with such safety and iiaii"." Amm^U, tliH Ktiliordlnato causes which contributed to the di'iHim (if l»u»(l( coniinerce, or which have, at all eveiiti, pfiivi'llliid It" gfowlli, we may reckon the oir- ciimslNNi'ii iif lliK iiiiiiinerce with India having been sulijiti'ti'il (II llie trammels of monopoly, liu Witt ex- prniiiuts liU linn lotivlition that the abolition of the ICant Itiilla Cimipany would have added very greatly to lliii Irnilii wllh the Kasi : and no doubt can now re- inaiii ill the liiltiil of any one that sucli would have been lh« I'AMf, The Inierference of tho administration ill regulal)iii{ llie tnode In wliicli some of the most im- portant liruiM'hes iif industry should be curried on, seems nIimi til have lieen exceedingly injurious. Every proeitmliiig wtlli re»(i<"el lo Ihe herring lishcry, for ex- amjil'', w«« ri'Klllatffd by the orders of government, carried illlo vffei't under llie inspection of oflicers ap- puiiited for llial pur|rfw. Home of these regulations were «lH'i'eil)ii«ly vexatious. The period when the llsln-ry iiilullt be«ln was fixed at five minutes past iHelvw u'l'lo'lt of the night of the 21fh of .lune! and the mtkoU't and pilot of every vesael leavhig Holland for till) llshiiry were obliged to make oath that they would ri'»|H":l IImi regulation. The species of salt to be niHitii uon lit III curing different sorts of herrings was also liiwiil liy law; and there were endless regulations with f"o)ii»et t«i tlin sl/.e of the liarrjls, the number and Ihiekiiewi «if dm staves of which they were lo be made; the gutlillK anil paeklnscf fhe herrings; the branding, of the bttrrol*, He., I'lr, — /luliiire den I'tches, ilr,, daiu til Mii't ill. fl/nrii, loin. I, cli(i|i. 21. Those regulations were iiitolidi'il III secure lo tl;e Hollanders that pupe- riorliy wdlili (liey had "arly attained in Ihe lishcry. carried on through the Rhine and tho Meuse, which i« > and I'l |iritM|lMireil| Indeed, in a great measure from tlie Mia, tiM Mfcuifiulafed a population of upward of two iiilllinns; lias malntalnel wars of unexampled dura- their capital in other countries, and to speculato ifi lluii witli tlin niimt powerful monarchies; and, beside loam to foreign govenimOQU. Xhera are the bust rua. i hyiun uui luiUimiMi suuit In works of utility and uriiU' \ ANA I ment at home, has been enabled to lend hundreds of millions to foreiKiers, Duriuj,' the occupation of Holland by the French, first as u dependent State, and subsequently as an in- tegral part uf the French empire, her foreign trade was almost ontiroly destroyed. Her colonics wore succes- sively conquered by England; and, in addition to the Io!s of her trade, she was burdened with fresh taxes. But such was the \ast accumulated wealth of the Dutch, their prudence, and energy, thot the infiuonco of tlicae ac'verse circumstances was far less injurious than could have been imagined ; and, notwithstanding all the losses she had sustained, and the long interrup- tion of lii^r commercial pursuits, Holland continued, at her emancipation from the }%kc of the French in 1814, to bo the richest country in Europe ! Java, the Slo- Iucc»s, and most of her other colonics were then re- stored, and she is now in the enjoyment of a largo for- eign trade. Her connection with 13el5;ium was an unfortunute om for both couTies. The union was not agreeable to cither party, and was injurious to Holl'^ Belgium was an agricultural and mar"- fac ' M 'jntry; and '.vas inclined, in imitation of t! . to lay restrictions on the importation of most sui'La ^ raw and manufactured produce. A pol- of thi.- sort was dire tly opposed to the interests t'l- ancient jirnctioe of the Dutch. But though thf i.uties pi enter! the restrictive system from being carried to the extent proposed by the Belgians, they were unable to prevent it from being carried to an cxtKiit tliat materially alVccted the trado of IIol- lund. WUatcver, therefore, may be tlie consequences as to Belifium, there can be little do'.ibt that the sep- aration of (ilie two divisions of the kingdom of tlic Netlierlunils yfiU redound to the advantage of Holland, It must ever ue for tlie interest of England, America, and all traiiirg nations, to nmintain the independence of a State by whose means t'loir productions lind a r"aal)le them to avail themselves to the full of the various resources of tlMUt noble island, ^md if they do fliis, and freely open Hhi'ir ports, with as few reairictions as possible, to till* 4ivips and comn.oditics of all countries, Holland may still lie the centre of a very extensive comn^erce, and may continue to preser.e a respectable ploce among merjoriitile nations. i'',\en at tliis moment, after all tlie vicissitudes they liave undergone, the Dutch arc, beyond all ij lestion, the most opulent and industrious of European nations. And tlicir present no less than their former state shows tliat a free sys- tem of government, security, and the absence of ro- striction.'j on industry, can overcome aln>o?t every ob- st.i.le "can convert the stjn<''ig pool and lake into fat meadows, covee ♦'!•) barren rock with v rduro, and make the desert smi.e with llowers." ii.inuleta, or Chamui. .a n nations have been fond of amulets, Tlie Egyptians had a great variety ; so had iIh" Jews, Clialdcans, ; nd I'ersians, Among the Greek's, they were mncli use provemeut of forming thorn with teeth or flukes to fasten themselves into ilie bottom; whence the words oAivrff and denUs are frequently taken for anchors in tlio Greek and Latin poets. The invention of the teetli is ascribed by I'liny to the Tuscans; but Pausa- iiias gives the merit to Midas, king of Phrygia, Orig- inally there was only one fluke or tooth, whence an- chors were called iTepoaTO/ioi ; but shortly afterward the second was added, according to Pliny, by Eupali- mus, or, according to Strabo, by Anacharsis, the Scyth- ian pliilosopher. The anchors v.ith two teeth were called d)j(ptiio?.ni or a/ipiaTo/iot, and from ancient mon- uments appear to have been much the same with those used in our days, except that the stock is wanting in them all. Every ship ha(' several anchors, the largest of which, corrcspon ling to our bower or sheet anchor, was never used but in extreme danger, and was hence peculiarly termed lepd or sacra ; whence the [iroverb Kwrnm 'inchm-tim solvere, as fly'ng to the last refuge. Weight. — Anchors are now universa'ly made of wrought iron, excepting in Spain and some parts of the South Sea, where they are made of copp-r. One essential (juality in every anchor is a sufBcient weight and angle oi" arm antnd free- ly ; for which purpose, in throicitig or cnrtwi; tlie an- chor, the cable is arranged, oiio end bein^ attached to tho and jr and tho cable bitted on deck, and the Inner end rcmov nl below. Kvery thing being prepnred. the la-shing of tho anchor is cast off, and the men stand \ (•stood, of j whole J where Icr, tho , and I of the Ipcint- lion of i.ding III frec- cil to I iimcr ■i\. the I stand '{■ ANC ♦ ready to let go; aud when this word is given by the person In coniinaud, the fastenings are all cast oft', and the anchor, falling into the sea, descends with rapidity. When tliu anchor, again, is to be removed from its sit- uation and drawn up into the vessel, the operation is termed weiyhing; which requires often a very liuavy purchase-, particularly at starting. This is obtained by means of tlie windlass or capstan, round which the cable is wound, and a number of hands applied to worlt It. With cables which are too large to be wound round a windlass, a smaller rope or chain is used, termed a messenger, which, licing attached to the ca- ble at dillerent points, and wound round the capstan, serves to bring tlie cable forward. But since the in- troduction of chain cables this contrivance is not so much required. When the anchoi' is brought above water, a tackle from the cat-head, called the eat, is hoolicd on to the shackle of the anchor, and hoisted up ; the cat-head stopper is tlivn passed, viz., one end of it is fastened round the cat-head, and the other is brought through the shackle of tho anchor, then over the stoppcr-clcat, and Is belayed round a timber head ; the cat is then unhooked, and another tackle, called tlie llsh, is hook- ed on just within the flukes, and the arms are hove up so as to lie upon the gunnel, or bill-board ; the stock is then made vertical by hauling upon another tackle, called the stock-tackle, in which position the anchor is secured by the utock-lashing tor sea. In the event of bad weather, and before commencing a long voyage, the cat-head stopper and shank painter is doubled- Muoring Anchurg are those which are lixed in cer- tain situations in harbors or roadsteads, and to which any of the vessels freiiiienting the place may be se- cured. As these are no way limited as to weight like portable ancliors, they often consist merely of a largo block of stone, with an inner ring llxed in the niiddlu of the upper side ; or several such stones maj' be fast- ened together so as to act aa one mass. Mooring an- chors are also often made by choosing one of the larg- est anchors used for first-rate ships, weighing 80 cwt., and by bending one of the arms close down upon the shank, to prevent it catching hawsers w hen transport- ing ships, nets of fishermen, fouling, etc. These an- chors are lowered down into the water with a very strong iron mooring chain fastened to the ring, to w hich the shii)3 are fastened : they are usually made from such as are damaged in one of the flukes or arms. A now kind of mooring anchor, of cast iron, was deserilied by Mr. Ilemman, of Chatham, to the .Socwli/ far the Encouragment nf Artt, etc., in 1809, for which he ob- tained a siU'cr medal from the society. Floating Anchor. — This is the name given to a sort of anchor which has often been proposed, but never re- duced to practice, for preventing a vessel from drifting, TAIILF. SlinWINO the estimated NUtlEBIRAt. VAIIES Ol' TUB ESSKNTiAi. TO A (ioiii> Ani'mou.— [Thls Table only professes maticftl acrunipy or precision.] \ ANC in cases where the great depth of the sea precludes th« use of the cable and ordinary anchor. 'J'lie plan sug- gested by Ur. I'ranklin seems tin. most rational. This anchor consisted of two cross-bars, secured together in tho middle, and having suil-cloth fastened to tliem in the shape of a parallelogram. To tlie centre of these bars the cable was attaclied, and, being'thrown over- board, It was thought the resistance of so large a sur- face would at least check the rapidity of tho ship's motion. Tho following is Mr. Aylen's plan for anchoring in deep water out of soundings, to prevent vea-sels from drifting in a calm when in a tide-way, or if disabled i Hoist out inunediately one of the boom boats, let go the kcdge anchor, and veer out 10 or 50 fathoms over the bow, and stop it to the ring in the bow and stern of tir.e boat, and then veer out from tho ship from 70 to 80 fathoms. Much attention has l)cen paid of late to the improva> ment of the manufacture of anchors, and several speci- mens were sent by tho makers to the Koyal Exhibition in 1851. A committee, consisting of tive ship-owners of London, Liverpool, and tilasgow, with hve nominated by the Lords of the Admiralty, was appointed to test tho relative merits of these. After trying, on the parada ground of Sheemess dock-yard, on the beach at Garri- son point, at Blackstakcs in the River Mednay, and at tho Nure, those that wero submitted for competition, viz.. Admiralty, Aylen's (a moditied Admiralty), Iloni- ball (or Porter's), Isaacs* (United Slates), Leno.x's, Miti-heson's, Rodgors', and Trotman's (an improved I'orter'.s), they reported in 1858 that, taking into con- sideration the results of all the trials to which the an- chors had been subjected, they thought it best to re- cord their cpiniiins in the following tabulated forms : Taiile snowiNOTnr. helativi! li-.tieb in wnicn the seveual Ahciiobs hi and with keoauu to eauii i*" the Propfeties kksf.>tiai. to a uood Ahciior; tue Na.ug8 ABnA^aEU al- niAlJETleAI.LV. lihl u n ANXIIORS. h J; -s s 1 §1 1 ;| tf- is a ItM &9 1 1 ■■" 1* T ^ u. V Admiralty 4 6 1 4 1 'i 2 2 Ayleii 7 4 1 t 3 4 1 2 2 R Ilonilwll (oil I'nrtcr's)..! 2 3 3 4 S 1 4 3 B a Isaacs 1 6 4 6 1 1 4 4 n 1 I.enox 1) 3 'i 1 1-S5 111 1-39 •04 r.'sft 9 IKl i 1 1 C A D lii 10 •05 •05 -5'.' •20 •,S7 •05 •S7 •52 198 1-98 •65 ■55 1^.H2 •>8 219 •56 •73 •44 ■m •SI •73 •62 •73 •44 lS-17 19 1)4 19-94 2()-tii 21-M 2-'-S0 •23 •39 5110 I 4-<.W I t«-(H) I 5-IKI 1 159-97 "I'he following is a recapitulation of the order in I getlier with their relative percentage of inferiority or which the anchors wero ranked by tho committee, to- 1 superiority to the Admiralty anchor, tho value of ANC 46 AND which, M given in tho foregoing Isbls (18-17), wu Ulcen u the Btandard or unit : TlQtman 188 or 28 p«r cont" Hodgom I**"''?? '•''• MllchoMn 1 -XO or ao do. l^nox 118orl8 do. Uonlb«ll IWor » do. Ayli'n l-flOor 9 do. Admlrtllr 1' the atandird. '73 or 9T per cent Inferior to Admiralty. Superior to Adml- nity wicbor. Suppo.iing both the fliiltea, nnd about two feet of Iho thanl( and crown of the anchor Is gone (Invariubiy tlio place where all anchors brcaic), the wclglit of the bro- ken part would bo about half tho weight of tho origin- al, say Cwl Bower anchor tor the nuUngn clam T4 r wt, half. 37 Stream anchor and ilock fur the aboro ablp 23 Kodgo and stock fur do. 11 To In making anchors In the Royal dock-yards of Great Britain, tho different parU arc forged by tho steam- hammers. In the first place, large slabs or pieces arc made about five feet long, and three of them put to- gether, soundly welded, and drawn out of sufilcient kngth for tlio shank ; the arms and palms ore for^pd nearly in the same way ; the palms are weldpil on to tho arms, and then tho arms welded on to the shank, and the shackle is riveted dii (o tho shank, the anchor then being complete. The shank for an an ;hor is made larger at tho low- er end, where tho arms are to be welded to It, and Is of a square figure. A sort of rebate or scarf is here formed on each side of the square, in order that tho arms may apply more properly for wcldhig. This scarf is rnade in tho original shupo of the fagot, nnd finished by cutting away some of the metnl with cbistls while it is hot, and using sets or punchcii, properly formed, to make a square angle to the shouMiT cif the scarf. Thu upper end of the shank islikewisL' wjuarc; and tho length between these siiuare parts is worked either to an octagon or round, tapering regularly from the lower to the upper end. Tlio hole to receive the ring of the anchor is pierced through the square part at tho upper end, first by a small punch, and then larg- er ones are used till it is sufiicicntly enlarged. The punch is mado of steel ; and when it is observed to change color by tho heat, it is struck on tho opposite end to drive it out, and is instantly dipped in water to cool it, and another driven In. The projecting pieces or nuts, which are to keep the stock or wooden beam of tho anchor, and its place on tho shank, aro next welded on. To do this the shank is hcaceii, and at the same time a thick bar is heated in another forge : tlie end of this is laid across the shank, and tho men ham- mer it down to weld it to the shank ; then the piece is cut off by the chisel, and another piece welded on the opposite side. While this process of forging the shank is going on, the smiths of another forge, placed as near a^ conven- ient to the former, are employed in making Iho crms, which are made from fagots in the same manner as the shank, but of less size and shorter, they are made taper, one end of each being smaller than the othoi ; tho larger ends aro made square, and cut down with scarfs, to correspoml with those at the lower end of ihe shank. The miildle parts of the arms arc rounded, and the outer cxtnnnities aro cut away as much us the thickness of the flukes or palms, that the palms may be flush with tho upper sides when they are welded on. The flukes am gpnerall\ made at the iron-forges in tho country, by tho forge-hammer; but in some yards they aro made by fagoting nnall bars, leaving a long one for a handle. The next liueinces is to unite the arms to the end of the shank; and in doing this particular care is necessary, as the t;(iodni,ss of the an- chor is untin ly . AND 47 ANN nd in 1092. Son Ilouso rk, entitled Ih. 4to, the tion by the Andsa, The Andca tutm • mighty mountain chain runnlMK ne«rly tisrallnl to tlio wtatcrn coant of .Sorth Ainorli'U. Tlw euntral rldKO ■•xHndii in an un''" ;(l chain from th« Kio Atralo, al Ihn lathtnii* of t\ .>. , In lut. M" N., lo tha Curdltltraa of Vllcanotu andC'uii< In lut. IV Ml' H,, whrrii It Mparatea Into wiiatcn. ar . eaat«rn rlilK"* (hat Iticloiin thn < rnnivo and idovated valley of |)u»aKUuduro, and uxlnolt nonm •ttipondoua peiika that alinoul rival lh« altitude of tho Hlmnlayait of tliii I'.aiit. Aftvr runnlnif |iarullrl to each other to lat. \'.)' W H,, Ihity a^aln louWiicc, and nuMtltutu oni^ central uhali. to the Ntrultit of MaKcllan, in Int. 5;)". Thu Andi'K of Houth Aninrica, then, havo a ranRO of about VM) nilli't. I'liu liiont wentern of the two longi- tudinal rid){«i* riiMH parallid to the I'acllle, and is called the Curilillrni of the (Joaul i the uaatern chain is Ron- •rally ternn'il the t'linliUrr^i of tho Interior, and its northern prolongation (,'iirilillrni Heat, Tho valley of UesaKUedcro cxtendii from lut. ir> (>' to lat. IV 8U' 8., with a varying lircudth of nri to IXI miles, pronentlng an area of lil,iHXl iH|uurit Keo^rap' I ndlns. It contains the celebrated l.uku of " Mica, th 'lu shores of this lake that Manco (^apac, the llrsl i, was miraculously discov- ered by the l/ulchu, thu ancestors of the Peruvians, "The central Andes nrn rich beyond conception in all the metals, lead only excepted. One of the most curious ores in tliu Ihiv Is of llioso mountains is thn poem, a compouml of cluy, oxide of lr(m, and the mu- riate of silver with native silver. The mines of Mex- ico and I'eru, so Ioiik the objects of envy and admira- tion, far from IicImk yet exhausted, promise, under a lil>eral and improved system, to become more product- ive than ever. Hut nature has blended with those hidden treasures the active elements of destruction. The whole chain of the Andes Is subject to the most terrilde earthi|UHkes. I'rom ( olopaxl to thu .South Sea no fewer than forty volcanoes are constantly burn- ing; some of them, especially the lower ones, ejecting lava, and others discliarKluK the muriate of ammonia, ■corllied bi««alt, uiid porphyry, enormous quantities of water, and especially »)'>)/'•, or clay mixed with sul- phur and carbonaceous matter, Kicrnnl snow invests their sides, and forms n barrier to the animul and veg- etable klnK'luiio- Near that conllne tho torpor of veKotalion is marked liy dreary wastes." — l^tlinb. Hi-- view, vol. XV. p. 'illll. Anemometar and Anemoioope, mnchincs for meaaurini; the force and liidicatiii); tho course of the wind. Angelipa, a larKn umbelliferous plant, with hollow jointed sti'lks, of which there are bevernl varieties. It grows wUd, And is cultivated in moist places near Lon- don, and In must Kiiropeaii countries from l.npland to Spain. Its roots are thick, llcsliy, and resinous; have a fragrant aKreenble smell, ami a bitterihh pungent tasta, mixed Hilli a pleasant sweetness kIowIii^ on the lips and palate for n Ioiik lime after they have heen chewed. To presi^ve them, Ihey must lii! thoroughly dried, and kept In a well-alred pincc. The other parts of the plant have ihe same taste and (lavor nsihc roots, hut in an Inferior lii'Utuu. The leaves and seeds do not retain their virtue* when kept. I he Lond(m con- fectioners make a sweetmeat of the lender stems. The faculty U84"; to direit that none but the roots of Spun- ii'li anfiellca sheuld lie kept by the drunKi'ts. In Norway the roots an- sometiinas use of which it Is composed. Annealing, by tho workmen called nmlintf, is a process used in glass-making, and in the manufacture of certain inetuls. In glass-nmking it consists in plac- ing tho buttles, etc., whilo hot, in a kind of oven or furnace, wliere they are sulfercd to cool gro cunity of a regular crystallization, but are icinp -.m toguihcr with little mutual cohe- sion, tin tho conr 1. they press outward to occupy* I more space, but an ). inced by the external crust. In consequenci. of t,.i; > ffort of expansion in the in- ! temal parta, the tjrenfjr number of glass drops burst ANN 48 ANN tapoollntt. nil ihote which rvmain entire are ni I .-n uUrly cr>>t«lli>c(l. A siimrt atrokii u|iiiii Ihviii ••'»{■ niuiiicuti'it vibrutloii to tl/u wlioli .iuaji, whi. ia nearly Bviiihroiiouii in o.ury pp . ; mill lliortlWu iho efl'ort ut' expaiiBiuu has litllu mure cDiict than if tliv boilv wcru «l .mt; but llio miiull tail and the nurfucv only art' r Kularly cryatulli/cd. If thu lull bu brukun, thin coniniunicaiuM a vibration alon^ thu crystullized •urfai'u uilliout ri'uc'hing thu internal parta. Ily thin they aru allowed rumu expajision ; and uvercuniiuK tliu cohe.Hiun of thu thin outer abell, they burst it, aud are dispersed in powder. In an unannealed K'aaa vcaael the samo thing (akca place, Soinetiniea tho vibration may continue for a considerable time befuro the internal parta overcome tho resistance. If the vcaael be very thin, tho re);ular crvatalliziition exienda through tho whole thickueaa; ur nl Icaat tho <|uantity of compressed mutter in tho middle is so inconsiderable ua to bu iucapablu of burst- ing the external plate. jly tho process of annealing the glaaa ia ) ept for ■omu 'ime In a atato approaching to fluidity ; (he hcul incieases ih" bulk of tluicryslalliieed piirt. ;.nd renders it so soft, that tho internal parts have the opportunity of expanding and forming u regular crystallization. M'tt. — In tho manufacluros in vhicli tho malleable metnls are employed, annealing ia used to soften a nielal after it has been rendeied hard by the hummer; and also to soften coat iron, wliich ia rendered very hard and brittle by rapid cooling. In the nmniifucturu of stjcl goods, which are first formed by the hammer, and rciiuire to be filed or oth- erwise treated, and in which soilness and tlexibility are essential to tho change, annealing ia absolutely necessary. This is particularly the case 'ii oinking tiles and scissors, that the nietul may bo !'li ^^lii. iont- ly soft for cutting the Icctli, and for J liutii off tlioao parts which can not bo ground. Ai; "<7i.!liiif, i:i not iesa necessary in the drawing of 'v!;?. .(i, '.hi r roii, copper, bras.s, silver, or gild. Ihc -.iiuiun «C ■iraw- ing soon gives the wire a de),rce of liar)iv"(s 'in. I elas- ticity which, if not removed from tiino to ti.i;' by an- nealing, would prevent thu extension of tho wire, and render it extremely brittle. The sainu operation iu also necessary in rolling or flattening those metals which are in a cold st.ite, such aa brass, silver, gold, etc, Tho brazier who forms vrgsela of copper and brass by the hammer, can work upon it only for a lit- tle time before he is obliged to anneal it. The methods often employed for annealing iron and atei'l aro very injudicious, and materially injure the latter when it is used for making cutting instruments. After they have lieen formed by the hammer, they are sometimes piled up in an open lire, slowly raised to red heat, and then allowed as gradually to cool, Dy this method the aur.'ace of the steel w ill be found consider- aldy scaled, from the action of tho oxygen of the at- mosphere, \Vhen it ia remembered that stoel consists of iron joined to carlKin, it will bo evident that the ateel immediately under tho scaly oxido will be de- prived of its carlM>n, which has been carried olf by the attraction of the oxygen ; and, in consequence, will lose the property of aoiuiring that degree of hardness necestary to a cutting instrument, Kntliing, therefore, can bo more obvious than that steel p.irlicularly should be annealed in close vessels, to prevent that eft'ect. For Ihia purpose tho goods ■houM bo placed in a trough or recess made of lire- atone or fire-brick, and stratiliod with ashes or dean sauit, and finally covered with a thick stratum of the same ; hut if the size of the vessel bo small, it may have a cover of its own materiala. This oven or trough must now t>e heated by the fiamo of a furnace passing under aid round it, iul tba whole is of a red beat. It must then be suffered to cool, without letting in the air, 'Ihc goods so treated will be much softer than Siy the other method. The surface, iustead of becoming scaled, will have acqirireil a metallic whitonesi, from the preseiicu ul a small i|iiuntily of carbonaceous ii;.it. tor contained in the ashes in which thry were ini »,'i>- ded. They will bceuniu so fiexiblu also, as to Jjoit them to benil considerably without breaking, which U ^ V r} fur from being the case before the operutioii, Th« fracture, befuro annealing, will be smooth and short) butafdrwardit will borough, exhibiting bright parts, of a crYstallino appearance. Wire, enpeciully that of iron and stci 1, should be treated in a similar way when it is nnnealcd. Tho wire used fur soniu purposes ra> qiilrca to be soft, and is sold in that slate. If tho wire, otter tinishing, when it ia bright and clean, were to lie annealed in contact with oxygen, it would not only lose all its lustre and i>nioothiiesa, but much of its ta> nacity. The j r>'i esa above mentioned will therefore b« particularly necessary in annealing finished wire, ai well as ill softening it from timu to time during tha drawing. Copper and brass suffer much less than iron and ateel from annealing in the open air, and do not reiiuir* to bo heated above a low red heat. If, however, the lustre ia to be preserved, a close vessel would b" do. siralde. The latter mctala, after annealing, although much discolored by the oxygen of the atmosphere, may be cleansed by imniersiim in a hot liquor composed of water and a small quantity of sulphuric or nitric acid. A'ery small brass or cojiper wire is frequently annealed by exposing it to the llame of hay or utraw. In cast> iiig minute pieces of pig-iron, which is generally done in damp sand, the metal possesses the property of steel to such a degree as to assume, by the rapid cooling, a degree of hardness equal to hardened steel ; at the same time that the articles are so brittle aa to break by failing on thu ground. AVhen, however, these goods are treated in the way above directed, they ac> quire a degree of softness which renders them ]>cnetra> bio by the die, and at tho same time capable of bend- ing. In thi^state they uro much less tenacioiia tlian steel, but still so much so aa to have been sold in tho form of cutlery for steel. The change which metals undergo by annealing is not yet thoroughly understood. Most of the malleable metals arc susceptible of two distinct forms, one called the cry.Htnlline form, which they assume by slow cooU ing; u,id the other the librous, which is acquired by hummering or rolling. M'hen this, however, is car* ried beyond a certain point, the metal becomes so hard that it ia not capable of being bent far without break- ing. All the malleable nielala in the ingot or in theif cast state arc brittle, and exhibit a crystalline fracture, Ily hammering or rolling they become moro tenacious, and break with difiiculty, exhibiting what is cuIIchI a librona fracture At the same time they become stilfer and more elastic. They lose the latter properties by annealing, but become more malleable. If the anneal* ing, however, be long continued, the malleability di- minishes, and they again have a crystalline fracture. Zinc by wire-drawing becomes very flexible, and possesses a degree of tenacity not inferior to that of copper; lut if it bo kept in boiling water for a length of time, li w ill resume its original brittleness, and show a crj'stallino appearance when broken, I'his provei that the particles of nictuls can change their arrange- ment without losing Iheir solid form ; which is still more strongly confirmed by the fact that brass wire loses its tenacity by exposure to the ''unics of acids, and oven by the presence of a damp atmosphere. Thii is not caused by the moisture, but by tho action of air upon the moistened surface. The manufacturer* of common pins aro obliged to keep their wire in a dry atmosphere, or immersed in water. If the wire be first moistened, and then exposed to tho air, it will ataumo tlio brittle state much sooner. In this condition it breaks with a crystalline fracture, similar to that ex- hibited by an ingot. M'hcn a steel-plate, such aa a watch-apriug, hu been once tempered, the operation ANN 40 ANN wire cids, Thii >f air I first sumo )n it t ex- >tion of limply nilihlnn It lirlKht wilt render it lofl and elaitiv. TliB «»mo oli«n({i' 1» hrouijlit aliout by tllKhtly hammertiiK it. It, liowuvur, reuiiiiuii itii «la*ticttatn l>y beint; carefully heated till It livuoincii uf a liluu color. If tlie heat lie coiitiiiiieil to rediie.ia, particularly In a cloie venmil, ll liecoiiii'- perfuctly aunealiid.— h;. II. AnuottO, or AniuttO (l'"r. Hocim; (ler. OrUan ; It. Itrianii), a upwci™ of rod ilyu funned of the pulp un- velopinit the aoude of thu fiixa Orettima, a plant com- mon in South America, and the hjut and West Indies; but dye is made, at least to any extent, only In the flrst. It Is prupurvd liy inaceratinK the pods in lioil- iii^ water, oxtractiiiK the seedn, and leaving; the pulp to subside ; the tinlii ticiiiK xubacquontly drawn oft', tlui reeidunm, with which oil is sometimes mixed up, is placed In shallow vessels and gradually dried is thi' •liudr. It is of two sorts, viz. flug or ciike, and roll •nnotto. The tlrst, which is by far the most import- ant article In a cuiiimercial point of view, i« furnisheil alniont wholly liy Cayenne. It is imported in B<}uare cakes, wclftbing 2 or :i pounds each, wrapped In banana leaves. W lien well made, It Hliouid bo of a bright yel- low color, soft to the touch, nnd uf a good consistence. It impartx a deep lint nut durable orange color to silk and cotton, ami is ut.e(l for tiiat purpose by tho dyers. ItuU niinottu is principally brought from Urazii. Thu rolls are snmll, not exceeding 2 or !l ounces in weight ; it is hard, dry, nnd compact, bruwniiih on tho outside, and of a beuiitiful red cidor within. Tho latter is tho best of all ingredients fi>r thu coloring of cliccso and butter, and is now exclusively used for that pur|iose In all (he Uriiish mid in some of the Continental dairies. In (iluucestersliire it is the practice tuali»w an ounce of luinotto to a cwt. of cheese ; in Cheshire, 8 dwts. are reckoned sulHcient for a cheese of (M pounds. When genuine, it neillr'r aft'ects the tnsin nur thu smell of cheese or butter. Tho .Hpanish Americana mix ainiotto witli their chocolate, to which it giyes a beautiful tint. — (iiivv's Supjilinnnt ti> lite I'hnrmnco- jHiiiii; Loiimin'.s Enctio. of ,lyric»/<«rc, mid [irivste information. Aunuitles. -v > annuity is a periodical income arisnig fioin pensions, lands, houses, or money lent. When the possession of on annuity is not to lie entered upon until the expiration of a certain (leriod, it is called a revrraiomii'i/, or ilrfirmi iiniiiiity ; when tlio tiiuo of possession is not deferred, the luinuity is somctinios called imnifir .' nation, especially on yt the time by adistin ' ' Nono were grautei years of age. Aft. r tli granted to all |>ersoi i of In March, ISl'J, Mr. li inent actuary, with itrope. htmrnnce). ■h government coinmenced es calculated according 'tillty, and continued a groat loss tu the ; 1 '.as was sliuwn at 'tvr ^.loahua Milne, Kb(|\ 'ver. en lives uader :I5 10 annultios wcr* "I years. appointed goverik- a-..istuiii» aiwl access to thu reginters of tha nominees in tontines, and others on whose lives annuities had lieen granted by government for mure than a hundred years before ; in which regi»- ters the exact ages at which tho onnuilunts wore nom- inated, and at which tliey died, were Mated. IJpuu these data Mr. Finlaison made atablcof mortality mure valuable than any thing of tho same hliid which had yet been published, an»rding to which the llritisli government grant nnnuitics at tho present time. Hy Mr. Fiiilaison's tablo It was found that the llvos of annuitants wore generally hitler (longer) than the general average of thu pujiulation, as intiired livus generally belong to the lietter classes. This suliject will lie more fully treated in Tables nf MurUililg, Intev- est, ami Life Iniiirancr. Calculations arc niailc,. and annuities granted by the liritish government and by Life Insurance Companies, both in Kiirnpa and tlii.s country, upon all cunibina- tions of lives, auclvaa joint lives, survivorships of two nr more lives, etc., etc., ftllbrding a perfectly safe and reliable investment, and in the case of a Mutual Lifo OtHce, one of very great odvantago to thu annuitant. Tho doctrine of annuities, with its kindreil science of Life Insurance, Is so abstruse that few writers arc found willing to devoto their time and attention to it unless actuated by professional motives or an unusual taste for tho subject ; fortunately, however, its treat- ment is marked by nniform and eminent talent and ability, so thnt nearly all thu works upon this subject contnitt something new and valuable. The standard authors are, David .lones, Jenkins Jones, Milne, Mor- gan, Lubbock, Sumuul llro«vn, U. Daviea Babbagc, and Dr. I'rice. Tlic lives on which annuities depend will generally bo somewhat better (by which we here mean, will at- tain to greater hmgevity) than the general average of tho population', thougli probaiily not nearly so much better as many believe them to be. The prevailing error in the popular estimate on this subject appears to have arisen in great measure from comparing the mortality among annuitants and assured lives, with that represented to take place by tablca of mortality erroneously coiisidered to correspond with tho general average of the people ; ivhiie, from being constructed on erroneous principles, and from insuflicicnt r«OiM. Aft. fwCwI. rinfttCwt. •UpnCnl. M I Ck. MOO 1 (^ to 80 8 Ck. &T0 10 1*86 «■ iJun' li!!6^ 11 88 88 80 80 88 80 11 ITTOTa 1846 68 1429 89 11 88 80 81 10 TOW 11 1T48 86 laSTSS Ut3 78 U 68 80 8140 TO 60 18 1TE« T9 . 1T48 85 1688 M 1417 78 14 nao 81 TO TO 80 14 18W88 1411 6« 16 6T80 8100 TllO 15 ITSeil 181181 1406 14 M 68 00 01 40 T160 18 lTt6 48 1808 8T 1898 7T IT 68 80 88 80 T180 IT 1T14 80 1608 68 189116 U 68 TO 88 10 TIW 18 iTcnsi 1884 18 1886 86 1878 40 It 60 10 88 60 T160 19 1898 M 16T4 88 W 68 60 88 90 TllO M 1880 84 1684 86 1871 M n 6880 84 80 T8 80 81 1668 88 1654 80 1644 61 1868 98 » 80 40 84 TO TSTO 11 1866 T8 1866 41 18 00 80 86 10 T4 10 IS 1844 46 1884 16 1848 TO M 8100 85 80 T4 80 14 188184 1628 41 1840 TT 16 8180 88 10 T6 00 15 1818 98 1611 41 1838 61 M 82 80 88 80 T6 60 M 1606 TO 1601 IS 1824 21 «I 8180 8T10 T6 00 IT 189116 1489 68 1318 88 fS 88 40 8TT0 T6B0 18 1BTS4S 14TT89 ISIKAS « 88 80 88 10 TTIO » 1864 1T 1486 60 129T63 w UM 88 80 TT80 80 1648 TS 1468 01 1268 09 •1 86 10 88 40 TSW 81 1684 98 1440 18 1278 38 M 46 80 TO 00 T8 80 81 1619 Tl 1428 99 1268 38 n 8860 TO TO T9 60 88 1604 IS 1413 48 1268 01 M 8T80 T160 80M 84 1488 18 1899 64 114T84 w ST 90 TIM 80 90 86 14T1T1 1886 28 1286 81 M 88 TO T8 00 81 80 38 1464 89 18T0 01 1214(18 n 88 80 TS80 8140 ST 148T80 1886 88 1213 15 88 TO 40 T4ao 88 80 88 1419 80 1889 T8 1100 tl 88 Tl 80 Tseo 84 10 88 1401 81 1828 89 1188 80 40 T880 T8 60 86 10 40 188188 1807 12 1175 29 41 T8 80 TT80 86 10 41 1868 68 1290 06 1101 78 41 T4 40 Tsao 81 10 41 1848 T8 12T2 46 114T 74 48 T6 80 T8T0 88 10 48 1828 41 1264 W 1183 20 44 T8 80 60 90 89 40 M 1801 4B 1286 68 1118 11 46 T8 10 8110 SOTO 4S 1180 91 1118 28 110160 48 TO 40 88 80 8110 48 1288 TT 1198 88 1088 30 « . 8080 85 00 8880 4T 1188 04 11T6M 1069 68 48 8160 88 80 96 00 48 1211 80 1164 M 106120 48 84 10 88 10 88 TO 48 HWOO 1183 41 1084 60 60 86 80 80 00 88 40 80 \i64 9S 1111 4T 1016 17 61 8T TO 9180 100 10 61 1140 M 1080 08 997 86 61 88 TO 08 80 101 10 01 1116 14 1066 18 978 88 68 8180 86 80 104 SO 68 1089 Tl 1042 81 968 69 64 84 00 88 10 106 80 64 1068 T4 1018 90 938 61 66 88 48 100 60 109 00 66 lOBTM 904 67 017 82 66 88 00 108 10 11160 6« 1010 41 909 8T 896 61 6T 101 TO 106 90 114 80 6T 988 11 944 61 874 91 88 104 TO 108 SO 11T80 68 986 41 918 96 862 76 68 lOTSO 11100 110 80 60 9tT8S 89191 830 15 80 111 10 116 40 118 80 60 880 or 866 88 807 16 81 114 00 119 10 in 60 61 8T0 68 838 8T 788 81 88 118 80 118 00 18160 81 841 86 818 03 TOO 21 88 113 00 11T90 1W80 83 818 09 T88 0e TS6 88 84 IITOO 181 TO 140 40 84 T84 8S T60 01 T12S9 86 18180 ISO 80 146 80 66 186 45 T81 99 6S8 32 88 1ST 60 141 SO 160 60 66 T2T0T TOO 01 664 19 8T 148 10 14T60 166 10 6T ODSST 678 14 640 OT 88 149 10 UU60 162 80 68 6T0 4T 661 41 616 08 88 166 80 180 00 168 90 88 641 4T 824 81 601 91 TO 188 TO 18T10 1T6 10 TO 614 6S 688 81 667 88 Tl no 40 1T4 90 1SS90 Tl 886 88 871 85 648 78 Tl ITS TO 188 80 198 40 Tl 660 88 546 78 619 84 T8 ISTTO 19180 Ml 80 T8 631 Tl 620 06 496 18 T4 ItTOO 10110 111 CO T4 606 84 484 TS 47191 T6 MS 10 112 80 HI 30 T8 480 «T 409 90 449 98 "Sdut Xtrat.— That the Uvet on which annuitiet d«p«nd can not be fo veiy idcct or so much better than tha common average, a* hat general)/ been suppoeed, might raatonably be expected on these ground* : 1. A« to annuitant*. TIm live* are net all choeen on account of their pretnmed 'goodneti; for many peraon* who have no ocoaiion to provide for other* who may tnr- Tive them, pnrchaae annuitie* on their own live*, only that they may themaelve* eqjoy the whole beneflt of the purdia*e-moii*y,.both prindpal and inteieet, dur- ing their Uve*. iuoA the greatest recommendation of thMa Uve* *eem* to be, that they ar* generally pm- dOBt person*, ef temperate and legnlBrfaabila. Many other person*, eqUtdally f^malM, tpendtbrifts, and Ikithfol aervant*, eqjoy annuitie* bequeathed to (hem by their deceased rdativei, master*, or mittrestst, as the moat digible provision for their ^tnre comfort and teeority ftom want; and there seems little ground to sappoes them to be better live* than the common aver- age of the Mine age and sex. "3. In such case* a* tontine*, where moatof the live* are selected for their presumed goodness, the best crite> rion probably is, hereditary longevity in the family of the nominee ; but partiality for their own friends or kindred often ha* considerable influence in biasing the judgment of those who select them. That they will generally I>e persons of good constitutions and regnlar habits when selected, is all that is likely to be obtained under these circumstances ; and that is also the case with the average of th^ population in comfort- able circumr'ances. Whatewr the constitutions and habits of annuitants may be, the annuities held by then, during their own lives, by protecting tbem from many of the wants, care*, and anxieties which the bulk of the people are exposed to, no doubt contribute to their longevity. But where powerful motives to raise money by the sale of an annuity on a person'* own life exist, it Is extremely difficult to prevent him Oom parting with it, whatever precautions may have l>een taken with that view; aud with it he also lose* that help to longevity. " 8. Insured live* are also generally supposed to bo ANT «1 AMT niaeh better tMi m each other of 720 miles. It was coasted by Captain Wilkes for 1700 miles. Mr. Brisoow, of the British Xavy, fell in with land, which he coasted for 800 miles, in lat. 67°, long. 60°, in the year 1830. ^wHiinrtny (6er. and Du. Spietglat ; Fr. i4ii(tnioine ; It. Antimonio; Rnsa. Aniimonia; Lat.^*(imontiiin), a metal which, when pure, is of grayi»h white color, and lias a good deal of brilliancy, sliowing a radiated frac- ture when broken ; it is converted by exposure to beat and air into a white oxide, which sublimes in vapors. It is found in Saxony and the Hartz ; also in Cornwall, Spain, France, Mexico, Siberia, the Eastern Islands, and HartalMin, in Pegu. We are at present wholly supplied with this metal from Singapore, which re- ceives it ftom Borneo : it is imported in the shape of ore, and commonly as ballast. It is alwut as hurd as gold ; its specific gravity is alraut G-7 ; it is easily re- duced to a very fine powder ; its tenacity is such that ' rod of one-tenth of an inch in diameter is capable of supporting ten pounds weight. Antimony is used in medicine, and in the composition of metal types for printing. The ores of antimony are soft, and vary in color flrom light lead to dark lead gray ; their specific gravity varies from 4-4 to 6'8 ; they possess a metallic lustre, are brittle, and occur in the crjstallized mas- sive forms.-7TuoMgO!i'8 CiUmif<«;y and private inform- ation. Antimony was very early known, and applied by the ancients to various purposes. It was used as paint to blacken both men's and women's eyes, as ap- pears from 2 ktHgi ix. 80, and Jeremiah iv, SO, and in Eastern countries it is thus used to this day. When mixed with lead, it makes types for printing; and in physic its uses are so various that, according to its preparation, alone, or in company with one or two as- sociates, it is sufficient to answer all a physician de- sires in an apothecary's shop. — Boylr. Antipodes, in Geogngpht/, a name given to those inhabitants of the globe that live diametrically opposite to each other. The word is Greek, and compounded of iivri, oi^totiU, and irovf, afoot, because their feet are opposite to each other. Plato is regarded as the flrst who thought it possible that antipodes existed, and is looked upon as the inventor of the word. As this phi- losopher apprehended the earth to be spherical, he h&d .only one step to make to conclude the existence of the antipodes. The ancients in general treated this opin- ion with the highest contempt, never being able to con- ceive how men and trees could subsist suspended in the air with their feet upward, for so they apprehended they must be in the other hemisphere. They never re- flected that these terms ypviard and downward are merely nlaUve, and signify only naarw to, at Csrfher flpom, the oentre of the earth, *Jie oomaion centre to which all heavy bodies gravitate.— E. B. ' AntWMp (Flem. AntutrptHf Fr. Aw)tn\ a f*' mous (brtifiad dty of Belgium, and the centre of it* foreign trade (capital and province of th* same noma) on the Scheldt, 60 miles firom the sea, and distant byi raUroad 37i tolle* tarn Brussels, 82 firom Ohesit, 100^ from Cologne, 268^ from Paris, and 74 fVom Ostsnd^ Lat. of cathedral, 61° 18' 2" N. ; leog. 4' 84' 2" Bi' Population 90,000. Its port was greatly fanproved' by Kapoleon, who erected two large basins ; andi uhips anchor in the river opposite the dty in tnm US' to 40 feet water at ebb-tide. Chief mannfaotnreai' silk and cotton hosiery, thread, tape, and linen cloths, calico-printing, embroidery, bleac^ng, and sngar re- fining. Ship-building is extensively carried on, and the diamond-cutters of this city are celebrated. The principal imports are coflfise, grain, and seeds, raw sugar and woven fabrics ; exports flax, woven goods, refined sugar, metals, glass, eic. In the Ifith century Antwerp was the richest and mutt commercial city in Europe, and contained 200,000 inhabitants. In 1648, at the treaty of Westphalia, it was stipulated bj' Spain and Holland that the navigation of the Scheldt should be shut up— a stipulation which was observed till the occupation o< Belgium by the French, when it was abolished. It was taken by the Spaniards in 1676 and in 1686, and by the French in 1792 and 1704. It was the capital of the department Deux Nethes, under the dominion of the French, to whom it again surrendered December 24, 1832. It is the birth-place of the paint* ers Teuiers, Jordaens, and Vandyck, the geographer! Ortelius, and the engraver Edelinck. In 180S, the im- provement of the harlmr was begun, and extensive new docks and warehouses have since Ijeen coostmcted. Ships of the largest burden come up to the town, and goods destined for the interior are forwarded with the greatest facility by means of canals and railways. Al- most ail the foreign trade of Belgium is at present cen- tred in Antwerp, which has agidn become a place of much commercial importance. There is regular steam communication between Antwerp and l«ndon, and Hull and Botterdam. Goods may be warehoused in Antwerp en entrepA, at the rates of charge specified in a fixed tariff. The exports chiefly consist of flax, cotton and linen manu- factured goods, refined sngar, glass, zinc, oak-bark, grain and f^erds, lace, etc. Tlie imports consist prin- cipally (f cofiee, sugar, and other colonial products, cotton -.raffs and other mannfactuied goods, com, raw cotton, leather, timber, tobacco, wool, rice, dye-stufib, salt, wines, fVuits, etc. A large proportion of the im- ports not Iwing intended for home consumption, but for transit to other countries, their amount is always much greater than the amount of the exports. Of the total value of the articles imported into Antwerp in 1889, amounting to 97,960,200 francs (;C8,918,40e), those supplied by England were worth very near 30,000,000 francs; ditto by Russia, 14,866,900 francs; ditto hy the United StaUs, 8,217,800 friincs; ditto by France, 7,630,200 francs, etc. The principal articles were coffee, worth 14,746,600 Arancs ; grain and seeds, 18,936,800 francs; sngar, 11,480,800 francs; woven fab- rics, 11,339,100 francs; raw cotton, 6,226,200 francs; meUls, 4,872,300 francs, etc. The total value of the articles exported during the same year was 86,630,000 francs (£1 ,426,440), whereof those sen t to Engluid were worth 14,349,100 francs; ditto to Holland, .6,777,600 francs; the Harse Towns, 4,820,200 francs. JfoMey, Wti^U, and Meaiuret. — The French sys- tem of moneys, weights, and measures has been adopt- ed in Belgium, Formerly account* were kept in florins, worth Ir. 8|(1. sterling. The quintal formerly in use, and stiU sometimes referred to, = 103^ pounds avoirdupois. In 1837 the Commercial Bank, a Joint- stock association, was founded in Antwerp. It has a ANY 5B APf flUtari of SS,000,000 tnata (X1,000,«)0), divided into St,(MO«haiM oriOOO flranei aacb, and tranMeU all lorti of banking biuincM. Hen iIm an two considerable inninnoe eonpaniet. Tlie railway tnm Antwerp to Bfueeli, m miles in length, has been signally suo eessfol, and has been of great advantage to both dties, but aspedally to Antwerp. CuitomA4T. 1 is«i. .MS. 1 VmhIi. Toaa. V<..j>k. Tw. ViMk. T(W. VmhIi. Tm. Vate maps which attracted the attention of the most eminent geographers. — E. B. Apeak, in Seamen'i languagt, signifies perpendic- ular; thus the anchor is said to be apeak when the stem of the ship is brought directly over It by drawing in the cable. Apotheoaxy. In the United States, a dispenser of medicines. In England, frequently prescriptions as well as medicines are (brnished. Apron, in Naval ArckUtctttrt, is a piece of nurred timber llxed behind ihe lower part of the stem imme- diately above the foremost end of the keel. Apron is also a name given to a platform or flooring of plank raised at the entrance of a dock, against which the dock gates are shut. Apron, in Guimery, a piece of lead which caps or covers the vent or touch-hole of a gun. Appellation, the name by which any thing is known or distinguished when spoken of. Kothing can be more foreign to the original meaning of many words and proper names than their pre.*eut or vulgar appel- lations, frequently owing to the history of those things being forgotten, or an ignorance of the language in which they were expressed. Who, for example, would dream that the legal proclamation called " O yes,^ was a proclamation commanding the talkers to become hearers, being the French word Oj/tt, listen, retained in our courts ever since the law pleadings were held in French? Or would any person suppose that the head-land on the French ctoast near Calais, called by seamen Blackness, has been so entitled from its French name of Blame ifez, or the White Head4andt King Henry the Eighth having taken the town of Boulogne in France, the gates of which he brought to Herdes, in Kent, where they are still remaining, the flatterers of that reign highly magnified this action, which, Porto Bello like, became a popular sulject for signs ; and the port or harbor of Boulogne, called Bou- It^e Mouth, was accordingly set up at a noted inn in Holbom. The name of the inn long outliving the sign and fame of the conquest, an ignorant painter, employ- ed by a no less ignorant landlord to paint a new one, represented it by a bull and a large gaping human mouth ; answering to the vulgar pronunciation of bull and mouth. The same piece of history gave being to the bull and gate, originally meant for Boulogne Gate, and represented by an embattled gate or rntran,. into a fortified town. The barber's pole has been the subject of many con- jectures ; some conceiving it to have originated fh>m the word pott or head, with several other conceits as far-fetched and as unmeaning; but the true intention of that partv-colorcd staff was to show that the master of the sb' 'ced surgery, and could breathe a vein as well 3 A beard. The white band which en- compass ..cafl' was meant to represent the fillet thus ekgantly twined about It. Nor were the chegueri, at this time a coinmon sign of a pul>lic house, less expressive — being the represent- ation of a kind of draught- board called tablet, and show- ing that there that game might lie played. From their , color, which was red, and the similarity to a lattice, it was corruptly called the red lettuce, which word is fre- quently used by ancient writers to signify an ale-house. The Spectator has explained the sign of the Bellriat- age Inn plausibly enough, in supposing it to have been originally the figure of a beautiful female found In the woods, called in French la belle laurage. But another reason has since been assigned for that appellation, namely, that the inn was once the property of Lady Arabella Savage, and familiarly called BeU Sarage't Inn, probably represented, as at present, by a bell and a savage or wild man, which was a rebus for her name, rebuses Iwing much in fashion In the sixteenth centur}'. The Mree gilt balU so commonly hung out as signs at pawnbrokers' shops, by the vulgar humorously enough said to indicate that it is two to one that the things pledged are never redeemed, were in reality the arms of a set of merchants fVom Lombardy, who were the first that pnblidy lent money on pledges. They dwelt together in a street, from them named Lombard Street, in London, and also gave their name to another at Paris. Tlic appellation of Lombard was formerly all over Europe considered as synonymous with that of usuror. At the institution of yeomen of the guards, they used to wait at table on all great solemnities, and were ranged near the buflbt*. This procured them the name APP » 'ktto ' name, entur}'. signs at enough I things he arms rere the ly dwelt 1 Street, >ther at lerly all that of icy used id were le name of Imfeiitri, not very noUke in sound to the Jocular appellation of btff-ealeri, now given them ; though probably it was rather the voluntaf}- misnomer of some wit' than an accidental corruption wising from igno- rance of the French language. The opprobrious title of bum ban^fe, so constantly bestowed on the sheriff's officers, is, according to Judge Blackstone, only the corruption of bound baj/liffe, every sheriff^ officer being obliged to enter Into bonds, and to give seouiity for his good behavior, previous to his appointment. A conftoainer seems to have no relation to the occu- pation It is meant to express, which is that of a shoe- niulcer. But eordomer, origiually spelled cordaunitr, is the French word for that trade ; the best leather used for shoes coming originally from Cordova, In Spain. — E.O. ▲pplea, the (hiit of the Pjp^t Mabu, or apple-tree. It is very extensively cultivated in most temperate climates. An immense variety and quantity of excel- lent apples are raised in England, partly for the table, and partly for manufacturing into cider. Those employ- ed for the latter purpose are comparatively harah and austere. The principal elder counties are Hereford, Monmouth, Gloucester, Worcester, Somerset, and Dev- on. Mr, Marshall estimated the produce of the first four at 30,000 hogsheads a year, of which Worcester is supposed to supply 10,000; but it is now probably much greater. Half a ho^^ead of cider may bo ex- pected, in ordinarily fkvorable seasons, from each tree in an orchard in fidl bearing. The number of trees on an acre varies from 10 to 40, so that the quantity of cider must vary In the same proportion, that is, from 6 to 20 hogsheads. The produce is, however, very fluc- tuadng, and a good crop seldom occurs above once in three years. — Loudon's Eucylopedia of Agriculture, etc. Besides the immense consumption of native apples, the English inport, for the talde, large supplies of French and other foreign apples. Owing, however, to the duty, previously to 1842, having been an ad va- lorem one of 6 per cent., we are unable to specify the quantities imported. They must, however, have been very considerable, as their declared value amounted, in 1841, to £41,197 it. lOd. In 1842 the duty was fixed at 6d. per bushel on raw, and 2*. per bushel on dried apples. At an average >'f i860 and 1851, the entries for consumption amounted to 442,950 bushels. The duties in England were reduced in the course of the year lt*53 to ^i. per bushel on raw, and 1(. per bushel on dried apples. The apples produced in the vicinity of New York are universally admitted to be the finest of any ; but dnless selected and packed with cart, they are very apt to spoil before reaching England. The exports of apples from the United States during the year ending the 80th of June, 1852, amounted to 18,411 t>arrels, valued at 43,636 dollars. Of these 1808 bar- rels were shipped for the United Kingdom. In the year 1854.6, the qusntity exported was 88,969 barrels, at a valje of 1107,600. Apptalaer (from ad, to, and pretium, value), one who rates or sets a value upon goods, etc., used princi- pally iu the custom-house to designate men who ap- praise goods entered for duty. Apprentioe, • person of either sex bound by in- denture to serve some particular individual or com- pany of individual* for a specified time, in order to be instructed in some art, science, mystery, or trade. ApprsnttoasUp, the servitude of an apprentice, or the duration of his indenture. Seven years seem anciently to have been, all over Europe, the usual term established fbr the diuration of apprenticeships in the greater part of incorporated trades. All such incorporations were anciently called uttiveriUiet, which ln4«M i* the proper Latin name for any incorporation whatever. The university of smiths, the university of tailors, etc, are expressions which we commonly meet with in the old charters of anUent towns. When those particular inoorporationtwUeh are now peculiarly called uiueeriititt were fint established, the term of years which it was necessary to study in on der to obtain the degree of master of arts, appears evU dently tohave been copied from the term of apprentice- ship in common trades. Of which the incorporations wen much more ancient. As to have wrought seven yaara under a master properly qualified was necessary in on der to entitle any person to become a master, and to have himself ^jprentioes in a common trade; so to have studied seven years under a master properly quoli- fled was necessary to entitle him to become a master, teacher, or doctor (words anciently synonymous), in the liberal arts, and to have scholars or apprenticet (words lilnwise originally synonymous) to atudy under him. Apprenticeships were altogether unknown to the an- cients. The reciprocal duties of master and apprentice make a considerable article in every modem coda. The Koinan law is perfectly silent with regard to them. There is bo Greek or Latin word which expresses the idea we now annex to the word apprentice— • servant bound to work at a particular trade for the benefit of a master during a terra of years, upon condition that the master shall leach him that trade. — E.C ▲qua FoitlS. See Acid (Nitric). Aqua Marina. Ste Bbrvl. Aqua Vita (Ger. Aquavit; Fr. Eoh da vi$f It Acqua vile; Sp. Agua de vida; Ross. Wodha; Lat. Aqua vUa), a name familiarly applied to all native distilled spirits; equivalent to the eou da via, or bran- dy, of the French, the whiekf of the Scotch and Irish, tlie ;ea«K> of the Dutch, etc. In this way it Is used in the excise laws relating to the distilleries. Aquadnot, a conduit or channel for the convey- ance of water. It is derived from aqua, water, and ductui, a conduit It is applied more particularly to those structures of masonry which have been erected for the conveyance of wat«r across valleys, to which, liowever, we would rather give the name of aqueduct bridges, extending the term aqueduct to the whole conduit or channel by which the water is conveyed from one place to another. The conveyance of water for the supply of large cities has in all ages formed a very important object of public economy ; and aque- ducts of various kinds have been in use for this pur- pose ilrom the earliest times, the remains of which have been examined by travelers in diflerent parts of the East. Pococke describes a work of this kind erected by Solomon, for conveying water from the pools and fountains near Bethlehem to Jerusalem. " The aque- duct," he says, " is built on a foundation of stone ; the water runs in round earthen pipes alxnit ten inches diameter, which are cased with two stones, hewn out so a* to fit them, and they are covered over with rough stones well cemented together; and the whole is so sunk into tlie ground on the sid* of the hills, that in many places nothing is to be seen of it." But it was in the luxurious capital of Rome that the i^slam of aqueducts was brought to the greatest perfection, and carried to an extent which has never been equaled even in modem times, and has justly excited admiral' tion l)oth from the number and magnificence of the works themselves, and the prodigious quantities of water which by these means were continnally poured into the city. These aqueducts extended, some of them 80, 40, and even 60 miles ih>m the dty, in one continued covered channel of stone, carried by areadei over the widest and deepest valleys, and by tunnel* running in many parts for miles through mountain* and through the solid rock. " If we consider attentive* ly," says Pliny, " the quantities of water brought into tt.c city for the use of the public, for baths, for fish- ponds, for private houses, for artificial lakes, for gar- dens in the neighborhood of the city, and for villas ; if we look alto at he works which have been construct- ed for forming a i-egnlar channel for the waters— arch- AQU SA AQtJ M MUfhd up, moMiUias rtarat4 with taniwb, and TaU Uft ttlBd up to ■ laval ; It nniit b« •cknowledead tliat ■ thtn U nothing In the whol« world wore wonderful." ■i ' Within the lut century, the invention and improTe- aant of the manafitoture of cait iron but completely ehangad the mode of conducting water Intv clt!'!f, by the introduction of cait-iron pipes Instead of -he utone coaduita of farmer timot. Theee pipea cnn now be Ibrmad of almoet any dimeneiona, and united together into a ooatinncd aeries, ao closely as to prevent the es- cape of the water, even ur.der a violent prassure aris- ing from the altitude of the fountain-head. They ena- ble na, therefore, to take advantage of and give elAet to that grand principle in hydrostatics, that the fluid :abment tenda continually to a level, even though it be conflned in the smallest or most complicated system of pipea ; lo that however low it be carried in any valley, or to whatever distance, still it will rise on the opposite tide totheorlgnalaltitudaof thefonntain-bead — a prin- dpie whieb is most important, indeed, in such works, •eeiog thft by it we ar« not restricted, as the Romans were, almost to a perfect level in the line of the con- duit. Wo have seen that, for the purpose of attaining this leV«I,.or very gentle declivity, all along the con- duit, they were jmder the necessity of raising it by ar- cades continued in one unbroken aeries, frequently 80 or 40 miles in extent; and, in addition to this, often .|irol6ngiBg the length of the track by a clnniitous route, turning and winding for miles out of ita course, tut the very purpose of increasing its length. But the use of pipes enables us to diapenae with these long arcadea, all raiaed nearly to the same level With the Ibnntain-head ; liecause the conduit may be varied in its level to any extent, and still will rise at -last to its oiiginal altitude. The pipes, thareibre, are merely laid M along the surface of the ground, with a cover of two or three ihet of soil to place them beyond tiM reach of flroat To prevent, however, the Arequent or abrupt.altamationa of riae and fall, any audden in- oqnalitica in the ground are equalized by cuttings and emtiankaients, but not to any thing like the extent that wonld be required to raise the whole to a level. This, therefore, forms a capital improvement in tht method of conducting water, and the greatest, indeed, wl^ch baa ever been made in this important branch of practical mechanics. That it was not introduced by the Bomans, is not to be ascribed, as many have done, to their ignorance of the hydrostatic principle that tho fluid would rise to a level in the opposite branches of the same tialn of pipes. Professor Leslie has shown that they were well acquainted with this principle, and has moreover obtained firom Italy a portion of a leaden pipe, supposed to have been nsed in the baths of Caracalla, which sets this matter at rest. But from the low state of the arts at that period, they were un- able to give eflfcot to the principle. They had not the meana of fkWoatiag pipes of such a magnitude as would have been required for the enormous quantity of water consumed in Rome, and at the '-ame time of strength •uiBcient to witlistand tha pressure flrom the fountain- head. Lead waa the only material that could be used by them for the purpose; and beside* the enormous thickness tliat so weak a material would have required, •ad the impracticability of their forming them, and taiting them together endwise, they were too well ae- ^aaintod with the tendency of lead to render the water uiwholesome by its poisonott* impregnation. The use of cast iron was quite unknown. There remained, therefore, no resource bnt in the aqueducts, which, though attended no doubt with vast expense, and re- quiring great enterprisa, as well as both skill and pa- tteBce-, www yet attaiaaiile by these means, and formed whan oempteted a simple and very perfect mode of ef- fMting the oljeot Hence arose all those works above deacrfbed which have since excited such astonishment. Now,, however, when the mannfactara of cast iron has baes brought to such perfection, and methods contrived for uniting perfectly together all the pipes Into one con- nected train, this improved system has been universally adopted. Crctom Aqutduct. — The Cretan Aqueduct, by which the city of New York is supplied with water, may be regarded a* the meet magniHcent work of the kind ex- ecuted in modem times. It was commenced in 1887, and completed in 1842, at an expense of 8,576,000 dol- lars, the diatribution pipes costing 1,800,000 dollars additional. Its length from the Croton Lake to the re- ceiving reservoir is 88^ miles. The Croton Lake, which is formed by the Croton Cteek, a small stream of whole- some water fslling into the Hudson, covrrs 400 acres, and contains a body of water of about 600,000,000 gal- lons. To the valley of the Harlem River, a distance of 88 miles, the aqueduct is built of stone, brick, and cement, arched over and under, 6 feet 8 inches wide at the bottom, 7 Iteet 8 inches at the top, and 8 feet 6 inches high ; and capable of discharging 60,000,000 gallons per day. It is carried over the Ilarlem valley in iron pipes laid upon a magniflccnt bridge 1460 feet long, constructed of archea 114 feet above high-water mark at Yorkville. Theae pipes pass into the receiv- ing reservoir, which is 1826 feet long and 886 feet wide, covering an area of 87 acres, and capable of containing 160,000,000 gallons. Hence, to the distributing reser- voir, a distance of 3f miles, the water is conveyed by a double lino of iron pipes 8 feet in diameter.' This second reservoir is 430 feet square and 44 feet above the streets, with a capacity of 20,000,000 galloiu— whence the water is conveyed through the city by about 170 miles of pipe, principally from 6 to 12 inches in diam- eter. In those parts of British India where the fall of rain ia scanty and uncertain, recourse is had to artincial ir- rigation, and the waters of many of the rivers of the country have been rendered available for this purpose by means of public works constructed by the govern- ment. Of these the moat important ia tho Ganges Canal, which traverses the northwestern provinces of Bengal, and distributes over their vast area nearly the whole volume of the waters of the Ganges. The canal begins at the point where the river issues from the mountains and enters the plains of Bengal. About 20 miles from ita source, the line of the canal crosses the valley of the Solani River, and the works for eflccting the transit are designed on a scale worthy of the un- dertaking. The valley is between two and three miles in width. An earthen embankment is carried across, raised on an average between 16 and 17 feet above the surrounding country, and having a width of 860 hit at its base, and 290 feet in the upper part. This embankment forms the bed of the canal, which is protected by banks 12 feet in depth and 30 feet wide at the top. To preserve these banks (h>ni the cfTecta of the action of the water, lines of nia«onry formed into steps extend on each side throughout their entire length. The Solani River is crossed by an aqueduct 920 feet long, having side walls 8 feet thick and 12 deep, the depth of tho water being 10 feet. The water of the canal pasaea through two aeparate channels. That of the River Solani flows under fifteen arches, having a span of 60 feet each, constructed in the most subatantial manner, and springing fW>m piers resting on blocks of masonry sunk into the bed of the river. The great water-works that supply the city of Mar- seilles with the water of the Durance, by a canal about 60 milva in length, are among the boldest under- takings of the kind in modem times. This canal, begun in 1880, and not yet completed (1862), has al- ready cost above ^2,000,000 sterling. It ia conveyed through three chains of limeatone mountaina by forty- five tunnels, forming an aggregate length of ej[ miles, and across numerous valleys by aqueducts ; the lar- gest of which, the Aqueduct of Roquefavor, over the ravin* of the Rivet Arc, about 6 miles fhim Aix, sur- passes in size and altitude the aucient Pont du Gard. AllA. U Ak^ Hix, sur- tu Gtrd. Tke ImmanM roluma of watar, which pauM at th« nt* of 108,000 gallon! per minato, la oairttd acroai ai In the old Boman aqueduct* by a channel of maaon- work. The height of thla aqueduct la 162 feet, and Ita length 1287. The number of cubic yarda of ma- ionry contained in it ia 67,000 ; the total coat ha* bean X161,394. Edmburgk ITater-uanl*.— The worka undertaken by the Kdlnliurgh Water Company in 1810 were probably the moat complete and perfect of the time. They were deaigned by Mr, .Tardine, the then engineer of the company, and carriea out under hia auperintendence in a atyla quite worthy of the city, and offering, both in the general deatgn and in all the delaila, a model of propriety and akill in tbia apeciea of hydraulic archi- tecture. The Crawley springe were conducted by an aqueduct into a covered ciatem at a point about 7 milea diatant from Edinburgh, and a aupply flrom the atream called the Glencorae Burn, conveyed by an open-work tunnel from about a mile and a half weat- ward. Thla tunnel ia in aome placea upward of 80 feet deep, and the valley through which it paaaea, con- aiating entirely of gravel, acta aa a fliur through which the water descends and percolates, all solid matter being intercepted in its passage to the tunnel from whence it is delivered into the cistern, and conveyed to Edinburgh by a chain of pipes varying from 20 to 15 inches of interior diameter, without being expoaed to the light of day. ITrom the numeroua undulationa of the surface, the fall of the pipe ia not unifom). Abrupt inequalities, however, were removed by cutting and embanking. Toward the northern termination of the line the pipe ia carried through a tunnel of 2160 feet in length, and about 70 or 80 feet under the aurfltce of Heriot'a Green, In croaaing the Grass Mark- et it forks off by one branch to a reservoir in the Cas- tle Hill, and by another about 120 feet under the raaervoir, through a tunnel 740 feet in length, cut through the rock of which the ridge leading to the Caatle ia composed. Branchea were laid through all the principal atreeta. The pipea are in lengtha of 9^ fact each, and were tested before being laid by a pressure equal to a vert- ical column of 800 feet of water. The Joints are what are termed spigot and faucet. Cocks for the discharge of air accumulating in the pipes are placed at the sum- mits of all the considerable elevations; and in the hollows are placed sluice cocks for the purpose of run- ning off sand or other solid matter which may collect in the pipe. It ia capable of delivering 268-56 cubic feet of water per minute into the reservoir at the Castle Hill. The formation of the Compensation Reservoir was undoubtedly the greatest work of hydraulic engineer- ing nf its day. It was designed and completed by Mr. Jardine, and, with the then limited experience of ooBtractora and workmen in the construction of similar works, ita suocesaful completion does great honor to the genius and perseverance of the engineer. It has been twice enlarged, and now forms an artiflcial lake extending over an area of 46 imperial acres. — £, B. Anuigocs, a apeciea of beada made of rough car- nelian. They are of variona forma — as, barrel, bell, round, etc — and all drilled. The barrel-shaped kind, cut from the best stones, are from two to three Inches long, and should be chosen aa clear as possible, whether red or white, having a good polish, and free from flawa. Th* bell-ahaped are from one to two inches long, being in all respecta inferior. Conaiderable qnantitiea were formerly imported fVom Bombay, for re-exportation to Africa; but aince tbe abolition of the atave-trade, the importa and exporta of Arangoea are comparatively trifling. — Milrorm's Oritnt. Com. Arbitration, a term derived from the nomencla- ture of the Roman law, and applied to an arrangement for taking and abiding by the Judgment of a aelected peraon in aome disputed matter, instead of carrying it to the eatabllahed eoort* of Joatioa. Arraagwnanti for avoiding the delay and expenaa of litigation, and r»- ferring a diapnte to fHenda or neutral peraona, are a natnriu practice, of which traces may be found In any atate of aodaty ; but it ia to the Juatinian Jnriaprudance that we owe it aa a ayatem which haa found ita way into the practice of European nationa in general, and ha* even evaded the dialike of tbe EnglUh common law- yera to the civil law. The eighth section of the fourth book of the Pandects ia devoted to thia aulject, and may be conaulted through the commentary of Heineo- ciua, or a more minute critical inquiry by Gorard Noodt, in hia commentary on tbia section (Opera, it. 186). Almoat all the advantagea, as well aa (he de- . facta of the ayatem in modem practice, aeem to have been anticipated by the Roman Jurista. Thus it i« shown that voluntarily selected Judges can only prop- erly decide queationa which the partiea thcmaelvea could aettle by giving and taking, and that they ought ;iot to be authorized to deal witii criminal inquirlea or public queationa ; while, by excluding mattera of per- aonal atatua, auch aa marriage or legitimacy, the Ro- man Juriata anticipated the principle, that even private queationa which may affect the public morala or policy can not be thua extnyjudicially diapoaed of. They dwell on the principal advantage of the ayatem in ex- cluding appeal from the arbiter'a deciaion on any auch ground aa erroneoua law, or falae vlewa of the influence of well-inveatigated facts. But, on the other hand, they discuss, with their usual scientific subtlety, the many defects, such as excess of authority, neglect of form, and partiality in receiving pleadings or evidence, and the like, by which arbitrations become vitiated ; and thua these Jurists at once suggest what is ever the defect of a system of arbitration, that the more it per- forms its function of doing Justice, the more it becomes what the establiabed tribunals of the country ought to be, and foaters two ayatema of Judicature where one ahould be aufficient. Some of the civiliana make a distinction between the arbitrator, the name technical- ly applicable to a person voluntarily chosen by partiea to decide diaputea, and the arbUer, an officer to whom the pralor remitted queationa of fact aa to a jury. In thla aenae arbiters appear to have been employed aa a substitute for Jury trial in some of the old provincial laws of France ; and hence, perhaps, it comea that, by a very remarkable proviaion in the French code of commerce, all queationa between partners touching the partnerahip muat be referred to arbitration. In the code of civil procedure, the title dt$ arbitragtt is treated so fully and minutely, aa ver}' forcibly to convey the impreasion of a separate system of voluntary Jurisdic- tion being created for performing what ought to be ac- complished by the ordinary tribunids in a well-regn. lated Judicial system. Arbitration, in the //ito of England (according to Ulackstonc), is "where the parties, injuring and in- jured, submit all matters in dispute, concerning any personal chattels or personal wrong, to the judgment of two or more ariitratort, who are to decide the con- troversy ; and if they do not agree, it is usual to add, that another peraon be called in as umpire (imperator), to whose sole judgment it is then referred ; or frequent* ly there Is only one arbitrator originally appointed." The decision must be in writing (unless otherwise ex- pressly provided in the submission), and is called an award ; and thereby the question is as fully determ- ined, and the right transferred or settled, as it could have been by the agreement of the parties or the Judg- ment of a court of law or equity. There were, however, many inconveniences attend- ing this mode of proceeding ; and in the year 1698, the legislature accordingly interfered, and passed the act 9th and 10th WiU. III., cap. 15, which enacted that, "for promoting trade, and rendering the award* of arbitrators the more effectual in all cases, for the final determination of controversies referred to them by M ▲BC •r MMWI or tndu, «r « aAor taa taa v^ iha n*at term. 8ub- ■riationa of diapiiiaa to tAMn'.'o- -. iff b* by eoBMnt af tba partlat, ar witfe ibt 4ti«r)K.»iik/ ImmmI, agnanMntln writing, or by pama. A varbol agraamanl, bowarer, to abide by an award aai n«» k, mada a rai* of courL Nor «aa maltara partly tfiminal ba tabmittad to th« de< aitioa «f an arUtralar. Aad by tba 13tb and ISib Viol, <), 46, 1 It-it, Um pravitioMi of tb* formtr itat- nlat at to amtralloM u» axlatidad la " controvinict and ditpulat, §i» wfciab lb* rtmady it by appeal to a Coart of Qtntnl or <|aarl«r flataioai «f tba Ptace." LatUy, altboMgii Iba Htliil of raal property can act paf* by a mart award, yat if a parly be awarded to convoy land, aad raflif*, ba will bt liable to an action, or to an aUaabmant nr not pttfanaing tbe award. Tha afraamaiit of raflawiM* mati ba aaprettad witb graat eara and aaoaraMr) pravUiont tboaid be Iniert- ad UvUtg powar to aiwar party lo make tba tobmi*. tion a rwa of eoarl, to aaabla tba conn to refer tbe matlar back to Uta lama or to anotbar arbitrator ; and in eata of Iba daatb of ailhar mirty baibra award, for ila mafclnf and dalivary to bia rmrtttntotivet} and afaw aa to tba eatia, wbiw ara ataafly diractad to bo in tba diaeratian af Iba arbitrator a* to tbota of tbe refer- tn«a,andaatotbaaaaflba«aaaa toaUda tbe event of Iba award f and a atrlaia day tboaid be appointed on or baibra wblab Iba arbitrator ia to maba bia award, wllb a powar to aaafc arbitrator to aabMwe tb* time. Wban arbitraton bava tba pawar «f ebetiog an um- pirt, tbay may tboet* bim, and aall ia bia ataiaiance at teon u tbay bagin to laha tiia aatdtei into oontld- oration ( and tma ia Iba Mora «aavani*nt prastisa, at It taeura* a dacition upon a tinala iavtttlgatton of tbt totttrovarty, Aa to lb. award t it matt ba ia pami< aaca M Iba tabmiitian, m4 ambrata all tba matton tabmlltad, and nat axland btyaod it ia tb* tutjeci. matter, in panoM, In lima, ar la partiealar ciroum- atanaatf it matt ba atrtain ) it matt make a dnal end and datarmiaalian tl all maltort oaotainad in tb* tubmittionf it nmt U mataal, Ibat ii, it matt not ba aniiraly of tbiagi to b* parwrmad hy one party, wtlboni taak tfcinft baiuf in taliaAMtiaa t4 tba mat- tart in diUbnma* ( and, dHally. it matt aol be anraaaon- abk, illafal, or impaitil;la to ba tlRieiaai«d. Fonnai^ ly. a tabmittlan to arMlraliAi, Utng a nMia anthority, might ba rarofcad at a|iy lima bafort raaentlon by an indranMnt of aa bigfc a Mtim aa Ibat \n whlcb the tabmiatlanwaaanalad, Baln«w,brtbaEnglUiiLaw AmandaMM Aat (M and 4tk Will, n., aapT 4n, tbe •abflrtition to arUlralion by Xult of (ftmii, or Judgt's ori»r, or utkr tf NM l'm$, or irlbart be an i^nt' mmt u> Mab M« uAmM m a tMt qfCowrt, aan not be Irarohad by aqy party thereto, witboat leave of tha court or a Jadge. The death, however, of either party balbra award it a revocation of tbe authority, unlem otherwite provided in the tubaUition ; and to alto te Iha marriage of a famal* b*flM* award ; Iha marriage operating at a eivU death to all her righto at a fnmt till. Under thit ttatuta the atUcdanca of wltaeitea, or production of documente before the arbitrator, may ba compelled by a rule of court, or order of a Judge, on payment of expeatei and lott of time ; and the arM> tratort an empowered to admlnitter oatht to the wi^ neee«t, where it ia to agreed or ordered by the rule or order of reference. Any witaettee failing to attend are deemed to be gnil^ of contempt of court, or giving blao evidence guilty of perjury. The court or Judge may alto, in the catee within the ttotute, enlarge the time for an arbitrator to make bit award.— £. B. ^'*'*'**^tl. the principal commercial city of tha north of Ruttia, in lat. 64° 82' 8" N., long. 40° 88' B., on the right bank of the Dwiaa, about 86 English mllea above where it Iklla into the White Sea. Pop. 24,800. The harbor it at the itland of Sollenbole, about a mile tmm the town. The luu at the month of tbe Dwiaa baa £rom 18 to 14| feet water; to that ihipt drawing more than thlt depth mutt ba partially loaded ontaida tha bar ttwa lightert. The Dwina bdng a navlgabla river, travaning a great extent of country, and coii> neeted by canala with the Wolga on the one hand, and tha Neva on the other. Archangel it a coniiderabla n^ IrtpM. It wat diacovered in 1664, by the famout Rich, ird Chancellor, the companion of Sir Hugh 'Willouglk by in hit voyage of ditooveiy : and from that period down to the foundation of Petertburg wat tbe only port in the Ruttian empire tcceatible to foreigner*. Though it hat lott ill ancient importance, it ttUl en- Joyt a pretty ezteniive commerce. The principal ar- tidet of export are grain, tallow, flax, hemp, timber, linteed, iron, potaih, matt, tar, etc. Dealt from Arch- angel, and Onega in the vicinity of Archangel, ara con* tldered tuperior to thote &om the Baltic. Hemp not to good at at Riga, but proportionally cheaper. Tal- low la alto inferior. Iron tame aa at Patertbuig, tome- Umea cheaper ud toiiietimet dearer. The quality of the wheat exported flpom Archangel it about equal to that tnm Petertburg. The importt, which are not very extantive, coniitt principally of tugar, cofliM, tpioet, tail, woolent, hardware, etc. The trade of Archangel hat latterly been declining. It ia much influenced by the demand firom the more toutherly parte of Europe, and etpecially IVom England, for com. When a britk demand i* anticipated, oate are brought in larg* quantltiei trom the interior, lometimet even tnm a diitance of 1600 milei, in covered barkt capa- ble of holding teveral hundred quarteri. But aa there are few axtentlve ettabliihmente here, the tuppliet ara tcanty, except when a large demand ia expected for tome time previoutly to the leaton for bringing them down.— Onvy'a £uropia» Commiret, and private in- formation. MoHtgt, Wtigbt, and Jftaturt*, tame at at Pbtsu- acno : which tee. ArahipclaSO, called by the Turki Ah dtgnix, the White Sea, to dittinguith it tnm Cam dtgnU, tha BUck Sea, it generally applied to that part of tba Hediterranaan extending from European Turkey and Greece on the wett, to Atia Ifiaor on the eatt, and itratching touthward to the itland of Candia. Tha name Archipelago wat unknown to tbe an- dente, and it generally tuppoted to be a corruption of Klyaim irrAayof, by which name, the derivation of which it uncertoin, it wat known to the Greekt. Tha anciante divided it into, (1.) ifsr* Tkrucium, the north- ern part, extending touthward to the northern coatt of Eubcea ; (2.) Jfor Jfyrtoam, the toutbweatem part, wathing the dioret of Attica and ArgoUt ; (8.) Jfora ttarimm, tba toutheattem part, extending along tba ooatto of Caria and Ionia. 4., ABC »T ABO he an- tionof ion of Th« Borth- COMt pMt, J/or* ig th* Tha D«viK«tkm of thU m* U nndtred difloult by tho muy UlaniU and foclu with which il abound*, and by tha frMumt ocourrmiea of audden aqnall*, ••■ p«viaUy about tna aquinoseii but it haa a great num- ber of aafa and oommodloua gnlfi and bay*. I)**ldei the Cycladoa and Sporada*, which are the two princi- pal groupa of waaller Uland*, it contain* Euboa, S^ mo*, Chioe, Leabo*, Leninoc, Imbroa, Samothraca, etc. All theaa laland* are mountalnoua, and many of them are of Toleanto fcrmatlon ; while other* are almoat en- tirely oompoiad of pure white marble, for which Faroe, one of the CyoUde*, in particular, la ao celebrated. The Uiger laland* have *am* very fertile and wall- watered valley* and plain*. Tha principal produo- tlon* are wheat, wine, oU, maatic, flga, raiain*, honey, wax, cotton, and lUh. The inhabitant* are much en- gAK«d In flihing, and tha coral and apongo flthery are actively proeacuted among the Sporada*. Manufto- tur«* ar* at a very low ebb, almoat the only branch carried on being that of cotton-weaving. The climate U mild and ealnbrioua; the haata of aumnwr being temperad by the lea-breezee, while the winter* am la** *overe than on the neighboring main-land. Tha man are hardy, well-built, and baudaome ; and tha women are noted for their beauty. Tho island* of tha Archi- pelago are conaldered to belong partly to Europe and partly to A*ia. At praaent the Cyclade* form a por- tion of the Greek kingdom, while moat of th? other Islands are subject to Turkey. The name Archipelago, which waa primarily given to the iEgean Sea, i* now applied to variou* other eeaa' which contain numerou* island*, aa the Eaetam Archi- pelago, Caribbean Archipelago, etc JLrcibitt, or ArohiTsa, a chamber or apartment wherein the records, charter*, and other papera and evidences, of a atate, houae, or community are pro- served, to be consulted occasionally. Thua we aay the archive* of a college, of a monastery, etc Arotlo Cirol0 la a lesser circle of the sphere, parallel to the equator, and 23° 80' distant firom the north pole ; ttma whence its name. This, and its op- posite, tho ohtarctic, are called the two polar circltB, and may bo conceived to be deacribed by the motion of the poles of the ecliptic round the poles of the equa- tor, or of the world. Arotio Ocean, that portion of the Xorth Sea wk Vh extends from the arctic circle (lat. 66° 80' N.) to the north pole. It receives the waters of the northern slopes of the great continents, and is the recipient of the drain- age of an area of 8,761,270 square miles. It enters deeply, in the form of gulfs, bays, etc.. Into the northern parts of the cohtinenta of both hemljpheres. The prin- cipal of these indentations are the White Sea, in Eu- rope ; Sea of Kara, Gulfs of Obe and Yenisee, in Si- beria ; and BafBn'a J3ay, in Xorth America. It is united to the Pacific by Behring's Strait, and to the Atlantic by Davis' Strait, and a wide *ea extending from Green- land on the west to Norway and Lapland on the east. This portion of the Arctic Ocean is occupied centrally by Greenland, and on the east is the extensive group of Spitzbergen, the small Island of San Mayen, and Iceland. West of Greenland, and divided from it by Davis' Strait and Baffin's Bay, are a considerable num- ber of islands of great site, which have been but Im- perfectly explored. The region north of lat. 70° ia the most dreary on the face of the globe. The shores are covered with eternal snow*, and the (urface of the aea, when ita icy covering is rent aaun- der, present* a series of hugo floating masses in per- petual motion, and whose tremendon* collision* arb attended with the most appalling sounds. Dense fogs, violent storma, and endlesa nights, add to the horror* of the icene. In the region of Spitabargen the sun is not seen for several montha In the year, and the ther- mometer rarely rises above 46° Fahrenheit ; while there la but one month in tha year (July) in which snow doe* not fall. The only, or at l«a«t tha greatest da- gTM of light tha Inhabitant* airiMr during thair long winters, or fhim tha latter and of Mptember to th* b*> gUmIng of May, I* that which proaaada from the boi^ rowed luatra of tha noon, tha *tan, tha aurora, or tha ■now blink. Thi* ooaaa tnnu avan In aummar, aa4 during tha atght wintar montha a oontlnuoua body «f ica aatanda over lla entire *«rl***, fllling tha area o( th* cirola of batwaan (QUO and 40(10 mile* in diamatar. Tha loabarg*, of whieb va«t nambara ar* continually in motion wharavar aa opening appaara, vary tiom a ttw yard* to mlla* In elreumfHano*, and rlH to him* drad* of fcat In haigbt. Tha ioa In the** region* ia very tran*par*nt, compaet, and remarkable for the ▼*• rlety and beauty of ita tinla. Tha water I* extremely pur*, shalla being dl*lln«tly vi*lbl* at a depth of M bthom*. Tha pntsaura of tha water at a depth of 1^ miles baa been found to ha IWOV lb*, on a square lack of surface. The history of advantun In tha Arctic Sea* preeent* a striking dliproportlon batwaan eflbrt and aohiava- mont. All that human daring can do has been dona to op«n up tha myst«rl«* of thaee dreary region*. Th* llrst attempt to axplor* tha Polar Haas was made in IbliS, by Wllloughby and Cbancalh>r, who were sent out with instruction* to aacartain If there was a north- east passage, or if they could reach China by passing to the nortli of Europo and Aala. Wllloughby reach- ed Nova 2vmbla, but be and all hi* crew w^ra frocea to death. Chancellor antartd th* White Sea, and thua opened a communication with Uuisia. Captain Cook reached ley Capa from tha I'acltio in 1778. In 1607 Captain Hudson wa* (ant out to attempt to discover th* nonbw**t pa***ga, and reached the lat. of 81°, but wa* und*r tha necaislty of putting liack on account of tha ica. In 177U this oxticriment was a^ain tried by an aspaditlon under the command of Captain Phippa, who advanced about a* far a* Captain Hudson had previously don*t and a *lmlUr attempt was made in 1818, which proved equally unfortunate, under Captain Bucban, In 181H Captain Kos* attempted a nurthweat p**«age, and p*i**d through Lancaitar Sound. In 1810 Captain Parry raaohsd long. 11U° W., and In 1821-28 examined tho coait to tho north of Uud*on'* Bay ; in 1824 ho reached Prino* Regent Inlet. In 1826 Captain Kranklhi v/aa aant overland to explore the north coaat <>f '.inarlca, to the west of Mackenzie'* River; and at ,'im time Captain Beecbey waa dia- patched to meet hi: ■ !n 8ahring'f< Strait. The two ex- pedition* approach.d each other to within a distance of 140 mile*, but returned without meeting. In 1827 Captain Parrv wa* sent out to peaetrata as far as poa- aible in tha direction of tha Pole In boat< and sledge*, over the lea, and he reached about 62° 40', the bigheat latitude yet attained. In 182»-8fl Captain Roes sailed up Prince l(«Kunt Inlet, aseortalned that there ia no communication between the Arctic Ocean and the At- lantio south of Uarrow'* Strait, The expedition *ent out in learob of the long-de«lred route from tho Atlan- tio to the Pacific, through the Polar Seas, commanded by Sir John Franklin, miIImI In 1846, with two ship*, the JCrihiu ami Ttmtr, and ha* not since been Beard of. Several exfiedltlons have been dlspalchod in search of the missing navigator and hi* companions, but hith- erto without *ucc**«. On* of these expeditions, com- manded by Captain Kallat, attained, on August 16, 184», tho lat. of 71' 12' N„ long. 170° 10' W, ; and on the lOth discovered an almost Inaccessible Island of granite, rising 1400 feet above the «*a, beyond which a range of high land wa* Men ) but constant snow- storms compelled him to quit th* nnlghborhood with- out doing more, to prevent hi* being hemmed in by the pack-ice. The long ab«eno* of th* aapodltlen under the com- mand of Captain Franklin, and tha unsuccessful eflbrt* mad* from Britain to asoertaln the fate of the missing navlKaton, indunay any vewel of the thraa UrUUh axpadU tlona then engagad in the aaareb, all of wklob bad baaii ■aaiatad bv ataam on their outward vojraga, whan In •ad while' cnNning Bafflo'a Bay. Tha aspadltlant of Soaa, AniUn, and Penny made barbora. Tha Amaiw leaaa were atloat tha whole of a long arctio winter, at tka merey of the wtnd«, the eurrenta, and the tea. On tka 18th of September, De Haven was north of Capa Bowdltcb, till! moit northern point aean bv Harry In U19, and fluthar north within Laacaatar Hound than kad bean attained by any vaaaal of all tka exploring ■ad aearohing aspedltlooa. Hia diaeovariaa began at Capa Bowden, on the 17th of Saptembar) by tka and af tka month he waa at 76° 36' M. Hera ha law hltb- arto unknown land to the eaat, and tha weet, and far to the north. To thia naw-diaoovered land be mky» tha name of OninnBLt, Land ; and to a height of land ■aan, Mount Franklin ; and named tha bodlaa of water Ifauiy Channel, etc. The fbllowing aaaaon thIa coun- try waa explored by paning over tha lea mueb Airtbar waat, b7 Captain Penny and othara of tha Britlah narr, Tka name of Un|MMBLi. Lamu haa been ungenarouaiy omitted turn tha charta of ihia ragion publlibad by tha Britlah Admiralty, and the name of AUitrl Lmulw^ pllaa ita place.— HAnrna'a QauUttr, Captain Mr Bobart M*Clure, in the antnmn of 1R60, by traveling over toe, connected the geography of the watara of tha Fadllo and the Atlantic for the flret time. When In 1868 thia newa arrived in England, lie waa balled, very Jnatly, aa the diacoverer of the Nortbweat Paaaage, But DO veaael baa ever paaaed through tha fVoian atralti traveraad by VCIure. The pauage diicovarad by him kaa been croaaed on the ice many timea, but navar by akip or boat of any aorl. ifiy 81, 1868, Dr. Kane itarted on bla taeond rm- age, aad being longer than the time propoead, tn» Arttie, ander Lientenant Hartatein, waa aent in wareb «f him. Dr. Kane was foond at tha Danlab wttla* Bwnta on hit return home, having loat bla vataala and anlfered great bardahip, but wit'' }nt meeting any aue- eeaa in his efforta or making Airt er dltcoveriei. Mau- lanant Hartatein arrived, with Dr. Kane, Ootol)«r It, 1866. It ia now almoat certain that the remalna found hy Dr. Rae wen tboae of Sir John Franklin and party, and the Royal Geographical Society propoaa giving Mm the reward of £10,000 which waa oflbred. ,ArgOv in A»tiq«ily, the ihip celebrated in ancient poetry aa that in which the Argonauta made their aspeditlon to Colchia in quest of the golden fleene. Jaaen having happily accompIUbed bla enterprlaa, eonaeemted the ahip Argo to Poseidon (Keptune), or, •a othera aay. to Athena (Minerva), on the latbmut of Corinth, where, they add, it did not remain long before it was translated into heaven, and made • con- atellaUon.— E. B. Arsol, Arg>l> or Tutu- (Oerm. WHntMni Da. WsniueH ; Fr. TVirfre; It Sp. and Port. Tatiaroi Busa. Whmui kamen; Lat. T\uianui), a hard eruat formed on the aidea of the veasela in which wina hat . kept ; It ia red or white aeeordinj; to tha eoler af tha wIna, and la athaiwiaa impnra. On being pnrMad, U la tarmad eraaai or erj/thO* i/ tartar. It aanatita pHnHpally of Murtrau of potash. While •rgal la pnfcrabla to red, u eaalalalng lata drossy or aartby MOtlor. Tka aiarka of good argol of alihcr kind are, tia being tklak, brittle, bard, brilliant, and Httia aarlky. Tkat brongbt ftan Bologna is rerkoaed tka beat, and fatokaa tka kighast price. Argol is of eonaldarabla nsa among dyara, as serving to dispose tha atnth to take tksir colore tka batlar. Pure argol, or enam of tartar. Is tntantlvelv used in roedieine. It baa an ntild and rather unpleasant taste. It Is vary brittla, and easily reduced to po«il<-r: speelflo gravity, I'M, Tha F.ngllsh duty on argv), of M, per ewt., was repealed In 1846. In 1868 the imparls and enportt of argol Into Oraat Britain amounted renpect. ively to l7,Mttf and 8646 ewt. The price of arKol In l.ondon. In Haptamber, 1868, varied; Bologna, ftam 1*1. to . to 89<. Aruteleeata (Fr. gfrpmairti Oerm. ScUan- gtrnwuruti It. Btrpmlttrini Lat. Ari$totothia ttrvtn- Inrlii), tha dritd root of Virginia snake-root, or birth- wort i It ia email, light, and bushy, consisting of a number of flbraa natlad together, sprung fVcm one oommon haad, of a brownish color on the ouulde, and pala or yellow within. It haa an aromatic smell, eomatklng Ilka that of valerian, but more agreeable ; and a warm, liliterlsh. pungent taste, very much re- aambling eamtihor.--A'«(YcA9NP 80' and W 80' W. long., and Im- twaan 13° SO' and 17° 80' W. lung., Oom Waih- ington. It it S40 inilva long and i'Vi wld«, contain- ing 64,600 square mllet, or 84,H00,IK)0 acrat. The population in 1880, 00,8(tH; in 1840, 07,674 1 la 1860, 300,030. It ia divided Into 61 counllat. The capiul Is Uttle Koc'it, tituated on the right l>anli of Arkaniai river, 800 niiloa from it* entraiicn into tlia UiniMippi. The other prini'lpal tuwna are llvleiia, Columbia, Van Buren, Fort Mmith, Waihington, Uataavtlla, Fayalta- vitla, Kl Uorado, etc. The eaatern part of tha State, for the diitance of 100 mile* from the MletiMlppi, ia low, and iniivh of It la lubject to be overltuwed at certain Maaona ; but thla hai been in a great muaauro obviated by an extcneivu ambankmunt or kwt along the Mlsniaaippi, Arlonaaa, and White Rivera. Tho central part of the 8tato in uneven and broken, and in the weat it it hilly and mountainoua. There are tome extenalve prairiea, and tome heavily timhnrod lunda. On tho margin of tho rivera the aoil ia exceedingly fertile. The Uxark Mountalna, riaing tomotlinat to the helKht of from 1000 to 2U00 foot, Croat itt northwaat part. A range of hllla, called the Black Mouutaliu, runt between tha Arkanaat and White Itivera, extending wett from near White River to the weat border of the Slate. A little touthwett of tho centre of the State are boiling tpringa, tho temperature of which at timet riaet nearly to the boiling point, thougli autfject to much variation. Near thcae tpringt are ridgea of hilla, which rite into elevated peakt known at the I'otvau and Wathita Mountalna, whote higheat elovatioiia are weat of the State In the Indian Territory. Wild animal*, at the deer, elk, bear and wolf; and wild fowl*, as the wild goote, turkey, and quail, arc found in abundance. Ita mineral produotloni aro extensive, consiatiug of Iron ore, lead, zinc, and copper, gypauro, coal, and talt. Tho country it well adapted to tho raising of cattle. There were In thit 8ute, in 1860, 781,631 acres of land improved, and l,81(i,n* of wine; value of home-made manu- fiuitures, $638,217 ; of slaughtered animals, $1,162,918. In the eastern part, particularly on the border* of the rivers, the climate is generally moist and un- healthy, but in the middle and western parts it is lalubrious. Itt rivert afford great faciUtiet for com- merce. The Mitiiasippi flowi along itt eastern border (br tha distance of nearly 400 miles. Tho Arkansas > ABK in a sottthaastwardly diraotlon ; It ■ broad and daap stream, and it navigabia for staamboats SOU miles to Little Hock, and in tha spring floods 860 miles farther to fori UlbaM, beyond tha waatam liorder of tha HIala. White Kivar riaa* in Usark Mountalna, flows through a fertila and healthy country, abounding with tpringt and streams of pure water, and allbrda many mill aaats. It flows into tha Arkansas Kiver, and la UIK commonly drcuitoua in itt course. Tho Hi. Krancit Kivar rtsaa la Missouri, and flows south nearly iiarallal to tha Missiuippi, which it at last enters. It Is boaW able for 800 miles. The Washita waters IM touthen, and tho Had Rlvar, a m^atlo tinam, Itt t«ulhwatt> am part. Tha internal Improvamentt are In embryo, bat whan carried out will form an oxcellent lyatam. 'Tha rival* are numaroua, and would give good facllitiet for eom> merce, but for the rafts of sunken wood which ol»- struct nearly all. Congreti hat made appropriation* fbr tho clearance of soma. Including the Red Rlvar, but to tush u limited extant as not to remove tha obatruotiona entirely. Tha railroad ayatem need* but development to give proaperity to tha State. Congress has granted lands to all tho principal roail* in progress ; one of which, from Memphh to I.lttio Rock, will be Important at a purt of the trunk line to California. Maimfactum. — There wara in tha State in 1860, II cotton factories, with a capital invetted of $10,600, employing 18 males and 18 females, producing sheet- ings and 81,260 poundt of yam, valued at $16,(>37 ; 28 flouring and griit milli, 67 saw mills, 61 tanneriet, nowapapert, inclnding periodicals, publiahcd. Capi- tal invested in manufactures, $824,066. ArkwtlBiit, Blr Rlohard, famous for his inven- tions in cotton-spinning, was boro at I'reston, in Lan- cashire, in 1732, of parents in humble circumstances. Ho was the younKest of thirteen children, received but a very indlfl'erent education, and was bred to the trade of a barber. Uut tho m anguila domi could not re- proas the native vigor of his mind, or extinguish the desire he felt to emerge from his low situation. In the year 1760 he had estsblished himself in Bolton-lo-Moor, where he exchanged tha trade of a barber for that of an itinerant hair-merchant; and having dis> . vered a valuable chemical process for dyeing hair, ho was in consequenco enabled to amass a little property. It it unfortunate that very little is known of the steps by which he was led to those Inventions that raised him to distinction, and have immortalized his name. His residenco in a district wliero a considerable mannfac- turn of linen goods, and of linen and cotton mixed, was carried on, must have given him ample opportunities of becoming acquainted with the various processes that were in use in the cotton manufacture, and of the at- tempts that had been made and were then making to Improve them. His attention was thus naturally drawn to this peculiar department ; and, while ho saw reason to conclude that it was likely to prove tho most ad- vantageous in which he could engage, be had aagadty and good fortune to invent and improve those extraorw dinary machines by which, unlike most Inventors, he amassed vast wealth, at the same time that he added prodigiously to the demand for labor, and to the riches and comfort of the civilized world. Tho tpmntHjf-jenH}/, Invented in 1767 by Hargravet, a carpenter at Blackburn, in Lancashire, gave the means of spinning twenty or thirty threads at once with no moro labor than had previously been required to spin a tingle thread. The thread spun by the jenny could not, however, be uted, except at weft, be'iig des- titute of tho flrmnett or hardnest required i'> the lon- gitudinal threadt or warp. But Mr. Arkwright lupplled thit dellriency by the invention of the tpinnutff-fivme —^that wonderful piece of machinery, which spins a vast number of threads of any degree of flnenesa and hardness, leaving to man merely to feed the machine Biver, which gives name to the Slate, flowi through it with cotton, and to Join the thread* when they happen 60 AHtt to bfMk. It k not dMmdi to M iliw tM l tk* pitns!- ■!• w wMak IM« mmMm li MMtMMtwi, and lb* mod* •f lu (MMllMi. It BW i il rt i W tm pWn •# relltn, tWMa by mm- of auwliiaorr. Tko Imtor rotlor of Msh fit U AiriDWOtl or lliilod loagiliidinaUjr, »n* Iho appor oM U ooTorod wllh loaibot, la ndw iImm I«Im • koM of iIm cotlon. If Ikon won only mm pair of follon, U I* oloor tbat • cm«IIii( of eotioa, |mimd tu pradloa. Mr. ArkwrlRkt tlattd tbat ba accidenlally dtrivcd tbt lint bint of bit great Inrontlon from MwbiK a nd-hot Iron bar viongalad by Iwing mad* to patt lie- twotn ration ; and tboagk tbcto It no mocbaalcal anal- ogy botwton Ikal oporatlon and bit prootti of ipin- nlag, It I* not diflltult to Imaglna tbat by nfltviing upon It, and placing Ibo tuUcct In dlflbnnt polntt of ytow, It might load bim to bit Invonllon. Tbt prodie om of Ibo lUtcovtry It not known ; but It It mott prol>- aMo that tko fcllcltout idea of ipinnlng by rolltni had ooeurrtd to kit mind at oarly at llw period wh«n Har- gnvM waa engaged in tbt invonllon of tbt Jvnny, or almott immediately after. Not being a practical me- cbauk, Arkwrigbt employed a perton of Ibo name of John Kay, a watch-maker at Warrington, to whom we tbail afterward have to refbr, toaititt bim in the prep- aration of the parit of hit machine. Having made tome progreot toward the completion of bit invenlioni, bo appUad lu 1767 to Mr. Atherton, of Liverpool, for poeunlary a t tlt t a n co to enable him to carry them Into oflhct ; bat tbia gentleman declined embarking hit prop- oity in what appoarad to baiardout a t|)ecuUtion, tkougk ka it tald lo have tent bim tome workmen to attitt la Ibo conttruction of bit machine; the flnt model of which wat net up In the parior of the boute baloaging to the IVeo grammar lobMl at Prttton. Hit invtntiona being at length brought into a pntty advanced ttale, Arkwrigbt, accompanied by Kay, and • Mr. Smalley, of Pretton, rcooved to Motilogbam in 1768, in order to avoid the at u'-ke of Ibo tamo lawleea rabble that had drivea Uargravea out of Lancathin. Hen kit oporatioM wan at fim greatlv Altered by a want of oapitaL Bat Mr. Stmit, of l>srl>y, a gende- maa of groat nMcbanlcal tUU, and largely engaged In tkattocUag nutnufliotan, having teen Aikwrigbt't In- Toationi, and talitfled hlmtelf of their extraordinary valae, Imnediatoly entend, coi\}olntly with bit part- aor Mr. Need, into parlntfthip with bim. The oom- awad of tbo aooettary fknda being Ihnt obtained, Mr. Arkwrigbt eroded hit ftnt mill, which wat drivea bj- bortea, at Kotliagkam, and took out a patent Ibr tpln- aing by roUcra, in 1769. But u the mode of working Iko BMiDkiaory by bone-power wat found too expent- Ito, ko bolU a tocood tkotoiy, on a mack largar icale, at Cranferd, la Darbythira, in 1771, tho maehinary of wkkk wat tamed by a wator-wheol, after the manner of the fwMoa tUk-mfll erected by Sir Thoniat Lorobe, Having made levrral ailillllnnal dlirnvertrt and im> pnvamanit in lh« proreMn of eardlng, ruving, and tplnaing, he look out a tmh patent fbr Ihu Mbula In 177ft I and Ibut completed a leriea uf aitihlnery to variout and eomplleated, yel to admlrabl) cumlilnei), aad well adapted lu produce the Intendvil i>ir»rt, In lla moel perAN-t (brm, at to excite the aalonUhnirnt end admiration of every one capable of apprevltllng the In- gonully ilitplayeil and Ike dHMcultlet overniiiio. _K. H. Anuid*, a Hpanltb tenn, ilgnlfVIng a llrrl of war. The armada which allempled In liivailc Kn- gland in the lime of Queen Elliabelh it famoiit la hittory. Ani«4 IfMllniUty. The ronfrderacv, to called, of Ike Norlbem powere, agalntt Knglanii, wat com- menced by the Kmpnti of Kuttla In ITWi ; liut III ob|e«lt were dcfraled in 1701. The prolciialun waa nnvwed, and a treaty ratlHtd In order In ctute their lligt lo be rcapectrd by the lirlllgerent powi'ra, De- cember 10, IHOO. The princl]ile that iiuiilral dtgt protect neutral lioltnmt being contrary lo the marU time tyitem of Kngland, Iht Itrltlth calilnrt reniun- •traled, and Nelian and I'arker detlmycd Ihe fleet ot Denmark befon Copenbagen, April 1, IHOt, That power, in contequrnce, wat obll|ied lo tecrdc (Vom tho alliance, and acknowledge the claim of I'l h'o.uI to (be empin of the tea; and the Armed MeutreMty wu toon after diMulved. — IIaydn. ▲raw. AVr KlHK-AHM*. Arraok, or Rack (Fr. Amet tSitiKi. At.^ck, Knekl l)u. Amk, Hu'^i It. Araeoi tji, A-nl .■ Port. .4rllmallnn; thatof Columlio or Ceylon hat lieen tald to dc Inferior to tho former; but Ibit ItdnulitAiI. Qoa and Colunitio arrack la Invariably made ftrom the vrgetabln Juice, (ixfffy, which flowt by incltlon fTnm the cocoa-nut tree (A'licnt NMct^ra). After the Juice It frrnu'iilvd, It it diMllled and recllfled. It utually yieldt about an tifhiA part of pure tpirit. Batavia or Java arrack la obtained by dlilillalion fVom molattct and rice, wllh only a tmall admixture of toddy. When well pre- pared, arrack It cictr and tranaparent ; ((■'■orally, however. It it tllftbtly itraw-colored. lit flavor il peculiar; but It diffrra contidorabty, no doubt In con' Mquenco of tho variout arliclct of which It U prepared, and Iha unequal care taken In lit manufavluro. In England, arrack It leldoni uted except to give flavor to punch ; formerly the hnporti were quite inconald- erable; but they have recently been a koom a Uritith potiettlon it 8<. id. a gallon, and on that IVom a foreign country, 16*. per gallon. In the Eaat iti con- tnmption it immenic. It It Ittued to the tulilieit In India aa part of the ettablithed ratloni; and it la tupplled, Inttead of rum, to the loanten of (he royal navy employed In the Indian trit. It It one uf tho principal producit of Ceylon. Itt prime cual in that iiland rarlet ftrom M. to IM. a gallon ; and largo quantlllaa an exported to India and cltewhere. It it told In Caylon by the legger of 160, and In Java by the legger of ICO gallont. In 1841 the exporit fh>m Ihe latter amounted to ptrit gmga (CbiMMiw mW^mX and • tptalM of AMuro, In Ih* vlaw •f InoraMliitf tin lnliMil«*lln| pnwur. Iliil II U mil olMr wh«tli«r Ilia twm parUh-arravk Im moaiil to In- pi/ Ihal U I" DO Infurior •plrll, ur an adulUraluU com- puHUilt TliU ll<|iiur U •uniiitlinai illttlUinl fhtiii vwdni- iiul ItMy, ut<\ MiiiMllaiM frmn a mlxlurn uf i»KX»ty, watar, and lb* Iwrlii of varlnui ttuv.—Htt Uimiunm'* Ori»»t' ('"*•. / and Mm. 1Uu«iiai.i. ■ulnaiU Kungim ikt I'uftn-nul '/Vw, ii. IH. Anow-root, llia pilh or •tart'h of tha mot Mn- ran/ii nruHiliniu'Mi. It liaa rmiilvrd It* cuinninn nama fhini U« iHilnii (uppuwiil to In an antliluta tu tlia poli- odikI arruwa uf Ilia Indlant. Tim pnwiliir U prapanil ttom mola of a yott old. Il U ntkunad a v«r.y whuU- •oin«, nutrllloui AmmI i It I* oftau aduU«raliid, wban In III* ilmpii, with tlia ilarvh or dour of polatoaa. 1 1 U a natlw of (iouth Aniurlva | liiit lian Iravn lunii In- Iruiluead Into thn Waal Indian, wliara It fiirmi a prat- ty Inipurtaiil articia of cultivation. An axi'iillont kind uf arrow-root, If It may ba w vallud, la iinw prepai'i'd ft'oin tha Weat Indlea to Cvylun, whara It thrtvita exlramuly wall, and wliunt arrow-root of llio flnuat (|iiallty haa baaii maoufacturvd from It. — Ainn- lik'h .U(it, InJuiit, Arrowunltllt Aaron, an aminunt Keoicrnphar and hvdruKrnpher, born at Lindnn In 1760. llo pul>- llahud, In IM17, a now Uanaral Atlaa, ttu, and pro- ducad a )(■'<'•>' numliar uf niapa and cbarta. Ilia map of tlin worlil on Haroalor'a projactlon la much uataam- «d. Ila diod In 1M38. AtmusI (from Iho Romaont arthmal, a citadel), originally dunutod vxcluaivuly a nia||a7.ino of naval Ituroa and warlike apparatua, k'v'"K probability to thu vtyniul»|{y which derlvva tho word from tin) l^atln arjt Hiirii'w, a naval cltadol. Now, huwiivor, tho tartn la appllud to a rapuaitury of warliko atorua, wliothur fur land ur aoa aervlca. Thu naval araanala arc, howovpr, atlll tho mom nuniaruua, and will bu fuund deaertbcd at lunifth under thu artlclo DtHK-TAHDN. The ifruat araonal of Urltaln (If wu oxcapl tho Towor) la that of Woolwich, whuru all warliku atorca and apparatua aro not only pruaarvud, but manufac- tured In (ho Iniiuonae buildinKB ilovotod to tho pur^ noio. At Woolwich, Duplford, (!hathani, Hliuurneaa, I'orlamouth, and Plymouth, nra thu grvat naval ar- tenata. In France, there are inililary araonala at I'aria, StraabUrR, Metx, Lille, etc. ; and live groat maritime araanala, tho chluf of which aro thoao of Droat, Toulon, and Kochofurt ; next to thcin L'Orlent and Cherbourg. There are alao inferior araanala at Dunkirk, Havre, Saint Servau, Nantea, Bordeaux, and Uayonno. The other principal uaval araenala In Europe are, thoae of Uuaala, ot 81. 1'oteraburg, Cron- Itadt, anarala and a good daal of brilliancy. Il haa no aeiia> Ibia smell whila eidd, but when heatad II smita a atroiiK odor of garlln, «hli'h la vary vharactarlatle. II la thu aoflml nf all the mntallle iHidlaa, and au briltia that It may lie aaally radueetl Iu a very line powdar by trituration In a niorlar. Its apacllle gravity la A'7tl.— riliiM»m reaching the Mirface by the auperpoiition of other lieda or itrata impervioui to water. In luch circumstance! a per- foration through the latter allows the water, by hy- drostatic pnssure, to reach the surface; and it will overflow, or even gush out, with a force proportional to the difficrence of level of the dilfeient parU of the water-bearing strata, especially if the ftw course of the subterranean sheet of water be interrupted by what are termed^huAf in the strata, or the occurrence of veins of atony bodies intersecting them. Thus, in tho diagram of a supposed section of • country, let P P represent a thick bed of plastic clay, ABC strata affording water, alternating with strata D£F, imper- vious tn water, and let V represent a vein of trap rocic traveraing theae strata, and producing a thi/l or fault ; by ainlting the pipea abc into the strata ABC re- spectively, we shall obtain the water derived from the more elevated portions of these strata at such artesiaa fountains. Tho same prinuples an applicable to the sinlclng of common wells. It has sometimes happened that a well has been Inst in attempts to increase its flow by • deeper excavation. Thus, if the bottom of the well was a bed of clay resting on sand, a perforation made through that clay has occasionally lost all the water ; because the stratum of day had prevented the water llrom escapinK to a lower level, and conducted it to- ward the surface. The direction of the strata, as well as their nature, are esaential elements for the eucceas- ful formation of either common or artesian wells ; which last ard of great consequence in champaign countries, where natural springs are less common. Artesian wells have been also sunk for the purpose of obtaining worm water. It is well ascertained that in the interior of our earth then is a source of heat, which may be reached by deep artesian perforations, so as to bring warm water to the surface. Thus Von Bruckmann, of WOrtemburg, heated a paper manufac- tory at Hellbronn by water from a deep artesian well ; and by the same means prevented the freezing of the water in winter round the wheels of mills. In the artesian well at Rochelle, at the depth of 870 feet, the water has a temperetora 18° higher than that of the atmosphere. H. Arago was tliie chief promoter of the arteaian well in the plain of Crenelle at Paris, wrhich, at the depth of upward of 1900 feet, affbrda water at 92° Fahrenheit. In the deepeat artesian well yet made, that at Kiaacngen, the temperature of the water ia alao very considerable. The instrument now used in making artesian per- forations to great depths is not the old machine em- ' ployed in boring for coal, etc., a series of iron rods screwed together, and forced down by repeated bt^ws with a mallet. That was a costly and tedious opera- tion : a Chinese instrument has lately been introduced with great cflcct. It consists of a heavy bar of cast iron, six feet long and four inches In diameter, armed at its lower end with a cutting chisel, sur- rounded by a cylindrical chamber, which, by means of simple valves, receives and retains the abraded portions of tho rock. Tho instrument is suspended by a rope passing over a wheel. Aa it is wrouglit up and down, the toi'sion of the rope gives a circular movement to the bar of Iron, sufficient (n vary the position of tite chisel at each stroke of the instrument; and when the chamber is taW of the debris of the rock, it is drawn up and discharged. This mode of working has greatly diminished the labor and cxpens* of such operations ; and is applicable to many pro- cesses in mining, blasting In quarries, and the like. An ingenious tiorman engineer, M. Bellow, has by a similar instrument of greater size, succeeded in ven> lilating the mines at SJaarbrOck, by perforations 18 inches in diameter, and several hundred feet in depth. Tho importance of artesian wells can scarcely be overestimated. They are capable of rendering dis- tricts now scantily supplied with or destitute of pota- ble water, convenient domiciles for man ; and under an enlightened government might render habitabla no small portions of the arid wastes of Africa and Arabia. In the latter, re- cent observations show that there are abundant subterranean aourrcs of wa- ter, and possibly a scries of artesian wells might diminish the perils of the passage of the Great Sahara. — E. B. The United States Government has re- cently authorized a series of experi- ments for the construction of a number of artesian wells on the plains of Western Texas, on or near the military and emigrant roads leading toward New Mexico and California, for the relief of emigrant parties. An ex- pedition for this purpose left Texas in January, 1866, under the comnmnd nf Coptain Pope, United States army, and had not completed their operations in De- cember, 1866.— iSfe Hericat db Thi'RY, Cimtidera- lionf mr la cause du Jailliutment dtt £aur de$ I'uilt- fork, Paris, 1829; Von Bruckmams, Vfher Artesitche Jinmnm, Ileilb. 1883 ; M. Arago, Noticrt Seintifiquei, Attnuaire du Bur. dtt Long, pour Anna plui. Aztlfloer, a person who works in iron, brass, wooM been most vigorous. It is inferior to the oak In BtlflViess, and ia'niore easily split; but in toughness and elasticliy It is far superior to the oak, or to any other apeclea of timber. Henea its univeraal employ* ment in ail those parts of machinery which liavs to sustain sudden shocks, such as the circumference, teeth, and spokes of wheels, ship-blocks, etc., and in the manufacture of agricultural implements; in tha latter, indeed, it is almost exclusively made use of. The want of prolonged durability ia its greateat dofoot | and it is too flexible to Ihi employed in building, Tht wood of old treea ia of a dark brown color, aomellmes beautifully figured ; the wood of young treca is bruwn> ish white, with a shade of green. The texture is al- ternately compact and porous ; where tlie growth has been vigorous, the compact part of tiia several layers bears a great proportion to the spongy, and the timber la compuratlvoly tough, elaatlo, and durable. It has neither taste nor smell, and, when young, is diffleult to work. The mountain aali (Pyrut aucuparia) it quite a dlflbrent tree from the common aah, and itt timber is far leas valuable. — TueixtuLD'H Principht (/ Carpentry ; Timber Trtet and t'ruitt, in Ubrary (/ Lntertaining Knowledge, etc. Asbea(Fr. V'edatte; Ger, Waidatehet Du, iVudaii Da. Veedathe; It. Feccia bruriata i Bp.Alumbredehrti Buss. Weldaach ; Lat. Cineret iu/ectorii), the roaiduuro, or earthy part, of any substance after it has iieon burned. In commerce, the term ia applied to the ashes cf vegetable aubstances; from which aro extracted tha alkaline suits calied potaah, pearlash, barilla, kelp, etc. ; whicli aee, Asia. Thia division o. the globe is dlstlnipiiihed by its vast extent; by the striking ckaMCter of Ita interior geography ; above all, by the stupendous rev- olutions of which it Ima been the scene; and, lastly, by the high antiquity of its civilizstiop, of which wo can still Aiintly trace the prociuus r,)inalns, Htretch- Ing from the southern hemisphere into the nortliora regions of perpetual winter, it comprltes within ita bounds the oppoaite extremes of heat and vt/ld ; all tho varieties, consequently, of the animal and vugotablo tribes; and that still more interesting variety which the irresistible law of climate impressus on (he human species. The aurface of Aaia, towering to Its height far above tho reglona of perpetual snow, presents, wlien superficially examined, a confused mass of lofty mount- ains, diverging into an endless variety of inferior ridges, apparently without plan or ayatom. But a more attentive aurvey diacloacs, amidst the bold Ir- regidaritics of nature, the same order and unity of de- sign in the structure of this great continent as in all tlio other works of creation. Asia was the earliest abode of the human race | and, when all the otiier parts of tho world were either uninhabited or sunk In barbarism, it waa tho seat of great empires, and of flourishing and aplenilld cities, of commerce, of literature, and of all tho arta of civil- ized life. But its early prosperity was blighted hy tlie ruthless devastations of war ; Its populous cities were utterly destroyed, so that tho spot on which many of them stood is now only inarkini by niaaacs of ruins ; their arts and literature have purixlied ; and in such fragments of their writing as still survive, the meaning la buried under tlio almost impenetrable veil of an ancient and unknown character. In touching on the various topics wliich are comprehended under tho designation of Asia, it must bo rememlicrcd that in the following article we are to confine our attention to such general views of its geography, liialury, insti- tutions, policy, and manners, as will not siiperaeds a more particular description of its various states under their respective designations. ASI M> Jk6l A«U eontsioi ■ larger mm than any of the other divblont of the ffiobt, vis., ineludtog iU iiUnd*, 13,M0,000 square geographical mile*; the area of America being 1U,600,000, that of Africa 8,650,000, aad that of £un>pe 2,6«0,000. The Islands of Asia are : in the Arctic Ocean, Xova Zcmbla, consisting of two large islands, and New Si- beria, consisting of three islands of considerable ex- tant discovered in the course of this century. Along the east coast : the volcanic group of the Kuriles ; the Japaoeia Islands, of which Nipon is the principal; the Lu-ku group to the south of Japan ; the large islands of Formosa and Hainan, on the coast of China. Sag- halia, opposite the coast of Mantchuria, was long be- lieved to be au island, but is a peninsula extending over 8 degrees of latitude, and connected with the continent by a low, narrow, and sandy isthmus, a little to the south of the mouth of the Kiver Amur. In the MOtheastand south : the Fhilippines, among which Lu- ■on and Hagindanao are the largest, and half a dozen otken have areas surpassing or approncliing those of Cyprus and Candia ; the great islands of Borneo, Suma- tra, Java, and Celebes; Uie Moluccas or Spice Islands, among wliich Gilolo, Coram, Bnro, and Amboyna, between Celebes and New Guinea; Nias, Batu, the two Pora, etc., on the west coast, and Datum, Linga, Banka, and Billiton, on the east coast of Sumatra ; and, finally, the Sunda and Banda islands, a vast latitu- dinal Archipelago, extending from the east point of Java toward Australia and New Guinea, and composed of myriads of islands, among which the principal are in • direction ft'om west to east ; Madura, Bali, Lambok, Sumbava, Sandelbosh or Tshindana, Florcs, Timor (250 miles long), Timor Laut, and Aru, which form a bridge, as it were, between Asia and Australia. In the Indian Ocean : the Nicobar and Andama Archi- pelagos, between the northwest point of Sumatra am) the mouths of the Irawaddy ; the large island of Ceylon ; and, on both sides of the 70th meridian east, Stretching due north from south lat. 8° nearly as far as ti:e latitude of Goa, the Archipelagos of the Tshagos, Maldives, and Irftkkadives, all three composed of myr- iads of mostly very small islands of coral formation. In the Persian Gulf: Ormnzd, Kishm, and Bahrein. In the Red Sea: Perim, Arish (erroneously called Hamish), Farsan, and Dhalak. In the Mediterranean : Cyprus, Ithodes, Chios, etc. The surface of this vast continent is exceedingly Taried. In some places it towers in stupendous mount- ains, forming four great chains, with subordinate branches, of different names. It often exhibits vast plateaux or elevated table-lands, of prodigious er.tent; ill other points it stretches in plains little elevated above the level of the ocean ; while in certain points it presents enormous hollows or depressions that are lower than the surface of the Black Sea. Humboldt computes the superficies of all Asia at 1,346,000 geo- graphical square leagues. Of this a large proportion b mountainous, or raised in elevated plains. The eminent authority estimates these as follows : Iq. The monntalnoui psits of Araliii, Belachlstan, ori the pUtcau of Kelst, Ksndahar, with the mount-S- 340,000 ain itdges of India ) The mountainous parts of China 64,400 The i^ateau of (ioU or Hha-nio 42,000 The plateau of Tlilbel aiiil Ladak, between the Hlm-\ a, nnn aUjraand Kiien-lun Mountains / "'"" The plateau of Persia ST.OOO The Taurus of Asia Minor, Ararat, and the Hindoo) oi itAn Kooab / "'** Of which that of Ararat alone is 3,M0 The Caucasus, from Baku to iUiapa S,TDO Hie Onral and Altai groups 1,400 The northern portion of Asia consists of a series of plains divided by mountains of small elevation, form- ing the comparatively low land of Siberia, intersected by several large rivers, and occupied often by extens- ive swamps. This region is estimated at about 400,000 square leagues. The central part of Asia, still iroperfbetly known to Enropa, wai till lately con- ceived to ba one vast table-land, of irregular form, but- tw me d on every side by lofty mountains ; but it now appears, on the contrary, to be traversed by long mountain chains. Asia presents to the eye snch a compactness of con- formation, and its outlines are at the same time so diversified by deep indentures of the sea, forming gulfs and peninsulas of every shape and dimension, that neither Africa can be called more compact, nor North America more diversified. Every prominent feature of this vast continent is on a gigantic scale ; and the ag' giegate of its mountains and rivers, its low plains and its elevated plateaux, surpasses those of the other di- visions, not only in magnitude, but also by its con- trasting variety.* Its mere steppe rivers approach the size of the Don and Dnieper ; and the second of iti salt lakes, the Aral, is still larger, by 6400 square geo- graphical miles, than Lake Superior, the largest sheet of water in America ; while the combined superficies of all the American lakes would not suffice to cover the area of the Caspian. Its Indian Archipelago forms a worid by itself, with which the West Indian Islands can be compared neither for extent nor import- ance; its mountains rise higher into the regions of eternal tinow than the fur-famed Chimborazo ; it has its deserts of burning sand and of firozen swamps, alike destructive to the human race. Nowhere is there such an exuberance of animal and vegetable life, not only spread over the whole continent, but also displaying itself within the narrowest limits, as the traveler rapidly descends from the crest of the Hima- laya into the plain of Bengal. The same variety, the same contrasts, appear in its history. Asia, the cradle of mankind, the mother of religion, the nurse of civil- ization, where arts and letters were cultivated in the remotest times, contains within her inaccessible mount- ain forests numerous descendants of her primitive in- haliitants, who still continue that brutish life which their forefathers led when the first vine was planted, the first hieroglyphic character carved In the rock. Of the domestic animals, the elephant claims the |)re-eminence, being unequaled by any other animal for the purposes of draught. This animal is confined to the southern countries of India, where the climate is hot, being seldom seen in the mountainous tracts toward the north. The camel is used for domestic purposes over a far wider extent of country than the elephant. This animal is of two species, the one with two humps, and the common camel with only one hump. The latter is the camel of Arabia, Syria, Per- sia, India, and Northern Africa. A lighter variety of this species is the dromedary, used only for riding, and differs fh>m the camel of burden as the racer does from the draught-horse. The two-humped camel is the Bactrian species, and is so rare, even in AVcslem Asia and India, that Captain Lynch states, that in a caravan of 5000 camels there were not above eight or ten of this Bactrian species. In Mongolia, however, they are very numerous. The dromedary is chiefly used for traveling, and its valuable quality is swift- ness, by which. Joined to its capacity of enduring * AocordluK to Berghaus, then are 10 rirera in America, and lit in Asia, the buHia of each of wlilch contains upward of lO.tSOO Gcnnan, or 108,000 geographical iquan! niUes. The united area of the former, the first of which Is the Amazon, and the last the Rio Negro, is 834,500 German, or 0,102,000 geographical square nitled ; of which the iiaetn of thu Amazon oceoplcs not less than 2,018,400. Tlint of the latter, the Obi standing at the head with ti24,$00 geographical square miles, and the Tarim being the last. Is 803,788 Uerroan, or 6,K2(l,000 geographical square miles; giving a difference of 628.i!00 geo- graphical square miles in fovor of Asia. The total length of the 10 American riTeni, windings Included, Is 76,010 geo. graplilcal miles ; that of the Aalatio, 08,448 gcographliol miles : dllhranee in fiivor of the latter, 21,808 geographical miles. Yet tlie system of the Uon&oa in the fcrmor otanda unequal- ed bjr anjr In the world. ■_- ^,, .. ,, A8I 69 ASI duniestic than the one with only one Syria, I'cr- cr variety for riding, racer does vanicl i( Western that in a eight or however, is diiefly is swift- cndurlng America, ns upward UcB. The Amazon, 6,1D2,000 e Amazon r, the Obi am niileii, 6,S20,000 8,(IU(I geo. length of sOW gi>a- cal miles : cal miles. unequal- hardship, It ia qualifled to trarel at an Incredible rate for many successive days. In all the low conntrles, especially in the dry and sandy tracts, such as Arabia, Syria, etc, the comraoa camel is employed. The two- humped camel is a native of the high countries in the neighborhood of the Oxus and the Jaxartes, where it is still chiefly used. So large a portion of Asia ia oc- cupied by vast plains and wastes of sand, that its in- terior interconrse must be maintained by land Journeys. But without the aid of the camel, it would-be impos- sible to traverse extensive deserts destitute both of food and water ; and in those arid countries such an animal, which has been truly called the ship of the desert, Is the most valuable gift which Providence eould bestow, AitmaU. — ^The other domestic animals of South- em and Western Asia are horses, mules, asses, buf- (kloes, black cattle, sheep, goats, etc. ArabI* may be considered the native country of the horse, in which he arrives at perfection, and combiner all the most es- timable qualities of symmetry, form, tineness of skin, fire, docility of temper, fleetness, and hardiness. It is chiefly from the Arabian breed that the horses in other parts of the world have been Improved. In Persia the horses are neither so graceful nor so swift as those of Arabia, being high, with long legs, spare carcasses, and large heads ; but they are highly prized by the inhabitants for their extraordinary capacity of endur- ing fatigue. To the east of Persia, at Herat, the breed of horses is fine:; also on the banks of the Indus and its tributaries ; and in the higher regions of Balk and Bokhara they are excellent and numerous, and are expr ted In great numbers to Hindostan. The mule and the ass, all over India, are miserable animals. The mules are of better quality in the Pui^aub, on tlie upper course of the Indus, and they improve' still more farther west. In tiio countries west of the Indus, they are superior to those in Hindostan, and in Persia there is a still flner breed. But tire mule of the East is inferior to that of Europe. The asS' partakes of a similar improvement In hi» progress westward, and is a far finer animal in Western Asia than in Europe. In Syria, Palestine, and generally in Asia Minor, he is distinguished by agility, tire, and patience-of Catigue. and ranks in the first class of domestic animals. Buffa- loes are found in the hot plains of Asia, as well as in the mountainous tracts ; and the oxen which are used in the plow have all a hump on their backs. The wealth of the pastoral tribes, who rove al>out in the western plains of Khorassan, oiul in the hilly tracts of Afghanistan, consists chiefiy in- sheep^ which have tails a foot broad, and composed entirely of fat, but in other respects resemble the English sheep, being better and handsomer than those of India. Goats are common all over Asia, especially in the mountains, where there are some breeds with curiously-twisted horns; and they are by no means scarce in the plains. In the northern parts of Asm. onrV in the high mountain tracts, a difierent ctass jf aiiiinal.i is to be foundk These cold regions are ntit distinguished by the same profusion of animal lif^ as tlie tropical coun- tries. The beasts of the forest decrease in numbers, size, and fierceness ; and the wolf, the licar, the glut- ton, and the- wild boar, are the only ferocious animals which thrive in these northern climates. Ia advanr- ing on the desolate plains of Siberia to about the 60tii degree of north latitude, wo find the i:M AiW taking etfecl on the animal as on the vegetable eatiou. '^nd the living creatures, as well as the plants and i.ces, stunted in their full proportions. Beyond this limit a diflcrent order of animals appears, protected against the severity of the climate liy n tliick covering of fur, which is sought after as a rh li article of dress in more opulent countries. These animals are accordingly hunted for their skins, which constitute the great sta- ple article of trade i» Northern Asia. Va th« Arctic regions the bear seems to form the only exrcption to tbo diminished grandeur of the animal oreatioq. This E animal,' nourished in tha raglen* of VtHrthem Atla, acquires a larger size, and Ihr greater power and flereB> ness, than in southern climates. The domestic anU mals of tha northern and moantalnons coantries of AsU are of a less ImposiDg appearance, and not nearly of the some strength as those In the lower valley* ol tha south and west. In the high and cold plains of Central Asia the camel is no longer nsed as a baaet of burden, nor in the northern part» of the continent. Thibet and Central Asia, till beyond tha Altai Moant- ains, are inhabited by MongoUsh and Turkish tribes, whose wealth consists in their cattle, which not only fUmisb them with food, clothing, and shelter, bat art also used as beaats of burden, and in the labors of agriculture. The yak af Tartaiy, or the bushy-tailed bull of Thibet, seems to supply the place of the camel in these mountainau* countries. This animal Is about the siie of a small bull, af great strength, and is reck- oirad a valuable property among the itinerant hordes of Tartars, to whom it a6R>rds the means of easy con- veyance, of clothing, and shelter for their tents, from the prodigious quantity ef long, flowing, glossy hair on its tail, and, finally, of subsistence from its milk and fleslK In those mountains is also found the mask-dear, which delights in the- mast intense celd, and of which the musk, a secretion by tlie male, affords a revenue to the government, as well as a yaluable article af trade. Here, also, on the highest mdnntalns, amidst ice and snow, is the Cashmere goat, the wool of which affords the materials of the finest shawls. Wild horse* are seen in the high plains of Thibet ; and the breed of sheep, a peculiar species of which ia indigenous to the climate, is of great value. They are nourished on tha short and dry herbage of these exposed plains, and serve for subsistence to the inhabitants, as well as for beasts of burden. The wild and extensive plains of Tartary are inhabited by pastoral tribes, who depend in like manner on their herds. On the southern bide of the Altai Mountains we find the same tribes of wanderers, most of them the scattered remnants of the Tartar nations who had- formerly so deep a share in the great revolutions of Asia, All these tribes subsist chiefly by pasturage. Near the Ural Mountains some live chiefly by hunting or ensnaring the elk and other wild animals for their fura. Among those who ara shepherds, sheep and horned cattle are fonnd ; while the hunting tribes have scareoly any dome.ttic animals. In all these countries the wolf and the bear arc known to abound. In the rigorous climate farther to the north, where the cattle are stunted in size, and can scaroelr subsist, then' place is supplied by the reindeer, a species peculiar to a rigorous climate, and most val- ualjle for all domestic purposes, whether for draught or for subsistence. During part of the year the in- habitants of those desolate countries subsist upon its flesh or milk ; its skin furnishes them with the chief part of their dress, and its horns with such domestic utensils as they requis-e. The dog is also trained to draw the sledge, Bu-dt. — The feathered race in Asia includes al- most every known species. In the southern parts are found all the tropical birds, distinguished l>y beautiful plumuge, and some of them uttering sounds that have a resemblance to the human voice. Here are also I found' some of the largest and rarest birds — the ostrich, the cassowary, and, in the Himalaya Mountains, the gypaetc, one of which, shot by a British officer, i* stated by Bishop Heber to have measured from the extremity of one wing to another the enormous length of 14 feet. The other birds are eagles, kites, vultures, magpies in the higher cdiintries, hawks, crows, wild geese and ducks, flamingo!:, herons, bustards, florikens, rock pigeons, lapwings, storks, plovers, snipes,. quails, partridges, different species o( fringiUiiltr, and almost all the other small birds to be found in similar climate*. In Northern Asia the feathered creation U nearly the same a* in Europe. A8X M Afil Ar^ ttmwirw.— Arit, notwilluUadlnK ill* wm by which 11 ha* been dewlttad, vu tnm an earir Pe- riod ths MAt of comoMre* and of wealth. The eait- •m couDtriei of Hlndoetan and China preceded Enrope in dviliMtlon and indiutfy, and, Independent of that divenlty of natnral productione which if the founda- tion of trade, they had cultivated many arta and man- ■aetnrea which were unknown in the WeiUm World. Aaia, accordingly, abounded in many preoiou* oommod- Uiea which could not be produced by the ruder indue- try of Europe. Thus China had itt lilk and porcelain ; Undoetan lu mulini, cotton, preoioui itonee, m China to Europe, where they were batched by means of heat, and the race quickly propagated : and one great link of commerce between China and Europe was in this manner broken. The trade of Asia was interrupted by the irruption of the liarbsrians, who invaded and finally subverted the Boman empire ; but the moment the storm was past commerce resumed its quiet course. Constantinople, the eastern capital of the empire, was still the centre of luxury and trade ; as were also such parts of the Boman territory as had not been swept by barbarian invasion;. and with those places the caravans still traded, shaping their course as they best could to avoid the distractions of the interior. Farther to the east, the califs who reigned at Bagdad encouraged science, commerce, and the arts; and the extensive country through which the Oxus and the Jaxartes flowed was the scat of a flourishing commerce, and of many opulent cities. Besides Bokhara, still a great city. Balk, Samarcand, Cosh, and others in the valley of the Oxus and the Jaxartes, numerous splendiil cities are enumerated which are scarcely known to Euro- peans. To the east of the great range of moiiotains, which takes a direction ftom the main Himalaya ridge, the country of Casligar contained Csshqar, its 'apilal, and Khoten, which were both large, populous and wealthy. Those countries served m the cc ' necting link iMtween India and Europe, and the resting-place of the caravans, which there collected in great force, and prepared for tbeir jou/ney to China across the great eastern desert, or Tt a more southerly course, through the country of Thibet. The armies of Zinghis Khan in the thirteenth, and of Timerlane in the be- ginning of the fifteenth centur>', laid waste this high- i]r cultivated and flourishing region. But those con- qoerars were not the enemies of commerce, and the Mrplus produce of India still reached Europe, though by a route nodered more difficult and dangerous from the desolation of the intervening countries. But the •fliMt produced en the trade of Asia in the East by the encroachments of barbarism, and by the disorders in the interior, was more than eonnterbalanoad by the growing drilization of Europe. About the beginning j of the DMfteenth century, the darkness which had so long eovered the Western World began to dispel, and the Italian cities of Venice, Genoa, and others, had al- ready made advanees in letters, science, and commerce. The costly articles of Asia, her rich stuflTs and precious aromatics, were now required to answer the growing demands of laxnry and wealth ; and the produce itf India, imported into Alexandria through the Red 8ea, was thence brought into Italy by the nobles of Venica and 'Genoa, who were all engaged in trade, and was diflbsed in smaller qnantitiss lUl over Europe. The lulian SUtas wen enriched by this lucrative traffic, which only ceased with the discovery of the maritime route to India by the Cape of Good Hope. From this period the trade between Asia and Europe took a dif- ferent direction. The commodities of India and China were transported to Europe directly by sea ; and nei- ther Alexandria nor the other ports of the Red Sea or of Italy were any longer the depositories of the East- em trade. The Portuguese, always distinguished by their ardor for maritime discovery, wei« the first ad- venturen in the Asiatic seas. In the course of tha sixteenth century the English and Dutch appeared as their competitors ; and with the growing wealth of those countries the trade to the East rapidly increased. The commerce of Asia may therefore be distinguished into the following branches : 1st. The inland trade of China, Hindostan, Burmah, etc , with Turkey, the eastern countries of Europe, and with the intervening countries of Persia, Balk, Bokhara, and the regions of the Oxus; also, by a difTerent route, the trade with Russia and the north of Asia. 2d. The maritime trade, including the coasting trade and the trade to the East- em Archipelago, and the great trade to Europe and America, in which, fhim the progress of wealth and luxury, there is a great consumption of Asiatic produce. C'aratam.—lht inland trade is carried on l)y cara- vans, or bodies of-mcrchants, who travel together tor the sake of security through those parts of the country which are disturl>ed by predatory tribes. It is only from the southern countries of Asia, such as Hindos- tan, China, the Burmese countries, Thibet, and the western countries of Persia, Afghanistan, Bokhara, and the regions of the Oxus and the Jaxartes, that Europe can derive any supply of valuable commodi- ties ; and all this trade, tnm whateverquarter it comes, mast fiow in its progress to Europe through the coAn- tries that lie between the Persian Gulf and the Caspian Sea ; as the caravans could not, without inconvenience and danger from wandering tribes, pass to the north of this sea or the Sea of Aral ; and accordingly, though .-\n annual caravan is sent hom Astraean to Khyvah and the countries on the Oxus, the chief trade with Russia is by sea to the port of Maogalshuck, and thence to Khyvah and Bokhara. The Russians have atco be- gun to trade with Persia from the Caucasian province of Georgia, of which Tiflis, the capital, has, from a wretched collection of wooden huts, been rapidly im- proved, under the protecting influence of a European government, into a respectable and wealthy town, tha fiiture emporium, as may be anticipated, of this grow- ing trade. The caravans iVom Constantinople and Syria proceed through Asia Minor and the northern or southern provinces of Persia, according as their ulterior route is through Afghanistan and the Punjaub into Hindostan, or to Thibet and China, or the more north- em districts of Balk, Bokhara, and the country of the Oxus and the Jaxartes. Bokhara, though reduced to desolation by Zinghis Khan, is still one of the largest towiu of the East, its population being estimated by Bumes at 160,000. It is also a great commercial mart ; and the caravans which come (h>m the West, passing along the southern. shore of the Caspian Sea, through the Persian province of Astrabad, a most lux- uriant and fertile country, arrive successively at Dal- froosh, AshmfT, Astrabad, Mushed, Serrakhs, Merve, fomcriy the capital of the Seyook sovereigns, but now ASI 67 m inrronndad by dewrti, and at Bokhara. From this great cantre of commerce they proceed northeaitward about 400 or SOO roilet to Khojend and Kokaun, the former a largo city, lald to contain 80,000 houaea ; and crosiing the Bolor range of the Himalaya Mountalni, they arrive in the Mohammedan E^atea of Kaihgar and Yarkund, 600 miles eatt of Kokaun, pauing some towns on the way, of which Ush is the moat Important, being a trading and populous town. Those two latter States lie within the precincta of the Chinese authority, where the most exact order Is enforced ; and they are fertile, rich, and well cultivated. The town of Cash- gar is said to contain 20,000 houses, and to be throng- ed with strangers from all narts of Asia. Yarkund is also wealthy and populous. So strict a police is main- tained by the Chinese authority, that, according to the information glrun to Fraier, a single traveler may traverse the whole territory as safely as a large cara- van. From Kashgar there is a constant intercourse through Chinese Tartary, along the edge of the great central desert, with China, though we know little of the Intervening countries beyond what we learn from the accounts of the early missionaries. Besides this eastern trade, and the trade westward along the south- em shore of the Caspian, two caravans, consisting of 4000 or 6000 camels each, proceed to Astracan by Khy- vah, reund the northern shore of the Caspian Sea. The imports from Russia Into Bokhara are, iron, steel, copper, brass, quicksilver, vermilion, coral, hard- ware, plated goods, gold and silver embroidery, copper wire; furs, the broadcloths and cotton manufactured goods of Britain, Germany, and France ; refined sugar, cochineal, paper, and a variety of rich goods, which, from this great commercial dipdt, are ditfused far and wide over Central Asia. Russia receives in exchange black lamb skins, certain manufactures of cotto.i and silk imported ttora Persia, antique gems and coins, lapis lazuli, rubies, and turquoises, which are received from the southern country of Buducluha, whero there are famous mines of these precious stones. From Cashgar, Yarkund, and the side of China, Bokhara receives large quantities of tea, the great modem staple of the China trade, porcelain and China ware, and the various manufactures of China ; and in return sends turquoises, coral, sheep, lamb, and fox skins, and furs, etc. From Persia shawls are imported, and woolen goods from Korman ; silk stuffs from the cities of Yezd and Ispahan ; gold and silver embroidery, copper waro, loaf, candy, and raw sugar; Hamadan leather; and turquoises, of which there are mines in Persia ; and,.in return, black sheep and lamb skins aro sent^ which are in great request, to be manufactured into black caps ; camblet made of camel's hair, coarse colored silk hand- kerchiefs, lapis lazuli. Indigo from India, cochineal, tobacco, chintzes from ilasuiipatam, and cotton manu- factures. Slaves form a staple article in the commerce of Bokhara, and also of Khyvah. These are made prisoners by the disorderly trilies of Asia, the Koords, Turkomans, etc., in the course of the wars in which they are constantly engaged ; and they are carried to the great slave markets of Bokhara and Khyvah, where they are exposed for sale like cattle. The balance of trade is always In favor of Bokhara. Hon- ey is consequently in great plenty, and can not be im- ported with a profit into this trading city. The Rus- sian caravans, as they journey round the northern shore of tlie Caspian Sea, are frequently attacked by the Kir- geesh and Cossack tril>es, and prisoners are carried off and sold into slavery. Frasor was assured that the number of Persian slaves In Khyvah and its depend- encies exceeded tlio male population of these coun- tries, and amounted to 150,000 ; and that, according to inquiries set on foot by the Empress Catherine, there were in Bokhara no less than 60,000 Russian slaves. The commeree of the west with the southern coun- tries of Asia— namely, Kaubul of Afghanistan, Cash- mere, and India— passes through Persia by a diflerent and mote southerly rante, namely, by Cashaa, Taid, which is the seat of rioh silk manufactures, a great entrep6t of oommeice, and a convenlant resting-plaea for all the caravans, both from the Eut and other quarters ; through Furrah and Herat, on the fkontiert of Persia, bmed for its rich manufactures of silk ataflk, a great channel of communication l>etween the Eaat and the West, and also an entrepot of all the richest productions from Kabul, Cashmere, and India on the one side, and from Bokhara, Persia, Arabia, Turkey, and even Europe, on the other. From Herat the route continues through Furrah and across the River Hel- mund and the ranges of the Paropamisan Mountains, to Candahar, a Journey of about 800 miles { tlienoe to Kabul, Peshawur, and the countries on the Indus, and across extensive sandy deserts to the rich valley of the Ganges, whence by this river there is an easy acoesa to Bengal and to Central India. There are various other routes by which the commerce of Asia, concen* trated within the comparatively narrow boundaries of the Caspian Sea and the Persian Quif, diverges in its progress eastward to the north, as well as to the south. From Bokhara there is a mountainous route into Little Thibet, and thence through Thibet into China ; be> sides other mora sequestered and difficult roads, through glens and mountains, where the only mode of transport is on the backs of asses and mules. Perna.— Persia, from its central situation between the East and the West, is not only a great entrepot of trade, but, though on the whole rather a poor country, it still contributes some valuable productions to the commerce of the East. It has long been famed for ita abundant produce of raw silk, of cotton, and of wool — that of the province of Kerman especially being so valuable for shawls that it rivals in some respects that of Cashmere; of fruits, turquoises, tobacco, grain, etc Almost all (he principal towns of Persia, such as Ke- shan, Ispahan, Yezd, Tabreez, Kerman, Herat, etc., excel in the manufacture of silks, cottons, woolens, fine carpets, etc. ; Kerman also in the manufacture of shawls ; and others in that of cutlery, arms, etc These are Its chief exports to other countries, in ex> change for their manufactures or produce. To India Persia sends raw silk, carpets, Kerman shawls, dried fruits, tobacco, horses — in which there is considerable traffic, swords, etc., and specie to make up the deficient balance. The imports from India are cotton goods, as chintzes, sent from Masulipatam by sea to Bushire, whence they reach the interior of Persia, and are thence carried eastward into Kabul and the countries on the Indus ; the same article from Moultan, Luck- now, Delhi, etc. ; some muslins, indigo, spices, sugar, and sugar-candy, in large quantities; gold and silver stuffs and brocades from Benares; precious stones. Cashmere shawls, iron, lead, copper, etc. Many of these articles, namely, Caslimere shawls, spices, indigo, muslins, etc., are carried through Asia Minor by a long land carriage to their final destination In Euro- pean Turkey, and are found, with the lamb skins of the no less distant Bokhara, in the bazars of Bagdad and Constantinople. To those countries Persia ex- ports also every article of her own rude and manufac- tured produce ; coarse fabrics, Iwtb of silk and cotton, for the consumption of Asia Minor; and many heavy articles, such as grain, rice, tobacco, salt, coffee, cotton, etc. ; besides fine silks, brocades, and prints, which are exctianged in Turkey for European goods brought through the countries of the Levant, namely, l>road and narrow cloths, cossimeres, cotton goods, chintzes, muslins, veils, silks, satins, French brocades and em- broidered goods, imitation shawls, cutlery of ail sorts, glass, etc., and a considerable quantity of gold and silver bullion. Persia imports cofito and pearls from Arabia, in exchange for wheat, dried fruits, and cloaks. The mountainous country of Afghanistan, on the south- em declivity of the Himalaya ridge, and the country on the bead streams of the Indus, export to India JOl 1 boiMt and ponies bred In Tartary, ftir, (hawli, Moul- Un ohintt, madder, atafiDtida, tobacco, and driud and Other fruita, such ai aJmonde and platachto nuU. The import* from India are, coarse cotton cloths, worn by the common people of this country, and also In Tartary ; iBusUns and other tine manufactures, silicen cloth and brocade, indiijo in great quantities, ivory, chalk, bam- booe, was, tin, sandal-wood, almost all the sugar which b used in the country, and spices from the Malabar coast, through Kurrachee and other parts of Sinde, and thence to Kabul and Candahar. The Indian cloths, shawls, cblntxes, and also the indigo, are ex- ported to Bokhara, from which are imported the broad- cloths, cutlery, and hardware of Europe, received from the Russians, and Anally consumed In Kabul and the countries of the Indus, loaded with the expenses of a land journey across nearly half the globe. China. — In the east, China has from the earliest times been the seat of wealth and of an extensive trade. The Chinese have been always noted for their indus- trious habits, and the country has from time immemo- rial abounded in the most valuable produce and manu- factures. These were sent westward in the caravans to Asia Minor and into Europe, or they were trans- ported by sea to India, and carried thence by the Eu- ropean fleets t ) the Ked Sea The same commerce is still continued, and China exports Its produce of wool- ens, silk, and satin ; tea in small boxes of thin lead ; china; porcelain, raw silk, cochineal, crystal, gold dust, golden ingots, and silver with the Chinese stamp. These are sent through Chinese Tartary into the coun- tries on the Oxus, and also to Cashmere, Kabul, and the countries situated on the southern declivity of the Himalaya Mountains. Regular caravans of horses and ponies — no other ovlmal being fit to travel through those mountainous districts — set out from Cashmere, and from Peshawar, the capital of the Afghan countrj' of Kabul, and a considerable commercial resort, to make their way through Chinese Tartary with goods imf)orted from India and Persia. China carries on also an interior trade to a considerable extent with Russia, by the frontier town of Maimatchin, in ;t'hich European goods and furs are received in exchange for tea, silk, and other articles of Chinese produce and 9ianufacture. Foreign Commerce. — In addition to her internal trade, Asia maintains an extensive intercourse by sea with Euttipe, America, Egypt and the Mediterrranean. A great trade ia also carried on (rem Ilindostan and China to the Asiatic Archipelago, and the trade of the Asiatic islands with each other is of great importance. It appears that those islands were at a very early period the seat of commerce ; and the learned research- es of Europeans have brought to light, in some of them, the monuments of ancient civilization. Sumatra was the seat of the Malay empire, Java of a Hindoo State; and the Celebes were inhabited by the Bugis, a race of expert navigators and merchants. The productions of these islands, and of the Moluccas and Borneo, namely, spices, aromatics, and gold, entered into the commerce of the ancient world, and were imported into Homo through Egypt. In later times, about the ninth century, the Asiatic Archipelago was visited by the Arabs and the Chinese, while the adventurous Malays frequented the coasts of Asia, and even of Africa, and particularly the African island of Madagascar. AVhen these islands were visited by Europeans, about the fifteenth century, Malacca, Achecn, and Bantam were the great marts of the Eastern Archipelago, where the rich produce of Sumatra, Borneo, and the Moluccas, conveyed in the small trading craft of the countr}', was exchanged for that of India and China. The Portuguese fixed on Goa, on the Malabar coast, as the capital of their Eastern settlements ; and they after- ward selected Malacca as a central station for protect- ing and extending their intercourse with the neighbor- ing nathmi. The Untch chose Bantam, and afterward I ASI Balavta, situated midway betwean RIndostan and China, as the centre of their commercial settlements. The situation was most advantageous, and the port was soon frequented by vessels from China and Ja- pan, Tunkin, Malacca, Cochin Chbia, and the Island of Celebes. But the great and flourishing trade of Java was crushed under the colonial monopoly of the Dutch, and under what Sir Stamford Raflles terms " the short- sighted tyranny of a mercantile administration." The conquest of Java by the British in 1813 put an end to this thraldom, and the great trade of the Asiatic Archi- pelago began to centre in Batavia, whioh was fast ris- ing into a great commercial emporium ; all the articles which were the exclusive produce of the Eastern islands being collected at its principal ports for reex- portation to India, China, and Europe. Since Java was restored to the Dutch, the free port of Singapore, established by the British, is the centre of a great trade, and is frequented by the Chinese in their junks, and by all the other navigators of those seas with the produce of their respective Islands. The Chinese lake back with them the nests of a certain species of bird, which are esteemed a great luxury at their tables, and sell. It is said, for their weight in silver; bichc-de-mer or tripang, a dried sea-slug, also used in Chinese dish- es ; Malayan camphor, the exclusive produce of Su- matra and Borneo ; the tin of Banca, the spices of the Moluccas, opium, indigo imported from Htndostan; gold and silver, the first collected in Sumatra, Borneo, and some of the other islands. The maritime coun- try trade of the Asiatic islands is carried on chiefly by the Chinese in their junks and brigs, by the Arabs in square-rigged vessels, and by the Bugis, the inhab- itants of Celebes, who are all bold and expert navi- gators. Product*. — The annual fleet of Chinese junks ar- rives with the favorable monsoon among these islands, from Canton, Anioy, and other provinces, with cargoes of teas, raw silk, silk, piece goods, and innumerable minor articles, for the use of the Chinese, who are settled in great numbers here, and are distinguished by their shrewd, intelligent, and industrious habits. The Chinese extend their voyages to Sumatra, the Straits of Malacca, and eastward as far as the Moluc- cas and Timor, collecting edible bird-nests, b!che-de- mer, and other articles of which Java is' the great entrepot. Java is also a great d6p6t of European goods ; and the people lieing rather industrious culti- vators of their fertile island than mariners or traders, it exports rice, a variety of vetches, salt, oil, tobacco, timber, brass-wire, and its own cloths, and a consider- able quantity of European, Indian, and Chinese goods, in exchange for gold dhst, diamonds, camphor, benja- min, and other drugs; edible bird-nests, biche-de-mer, rattans, beeswax, tortoise-shell, and dyeing woods from Borneo and Sumatra. The rice and other pro- ductions of Java are exchanged for spices and pungent oils of the Moluccas, and for the tin of Banca. The natives of Celelies are famed for the manufacture of a particular species of fine cloths, of a very strong tex- ture, which arc in great request, and, along with spices, wax, and sandal-wood, are exchanged for the produce of Sumatra, Borneo, and Java, whence they arc ex- ported to China. The Bugis have a large share of the carrying trade of the Asiatic Archipelago ; and they bring the produce of the Bloluccas, and of Borneo and Sumatra, to Java and the other islands, and receive in exchange tobacco, rice, and salt, from Java, besides opium, iron, steel, European chintzes, and broadcloths and Indian piece goods, with which they return cast- ward during the southwest monsoon.* The eastern countricsof Asia, viz., India and China, as wo have already state W« aotiM only wieli Ibat the lawi wbfab piwvaU in fthrmt* to plata were more gener- ally •»t«Hd«d In tb«lr apiilleallM to tb« manuractnre &li»m(Mf, awl atbirr fmmuA omamenta; for in tkeie lbM» tfta pul«li« bava no gnaranlaa agalntt fraud and wMimf ba^rewt tba «bara«tar or aiauranoe of the If tlia art af aaaayinit b« daamad valuable and Im partant aa ramarda bnlTlon and plate, eacuring a cer^ tain an4 r«liaM« l«M «f val««, aa well a* a •ufflciant abaali n|wn frandttlantdfaifni, «o can not %\m\y quet- lian ita tmrn ffmitt lni|i«rtan«a In reference tu the MataUia mummy of a coanir/, tb« tundard accuracy af wbiab afNfia maierlall/ tb« Intentau of all, and eo fcr land* (a pttrnvit tba walfan of mankind. What- WM tbl* Mandanl b«, ll la obvlom the value of all •MMft/ In a»«baHga mnet ba regulated and determ- WM ^ ll, wbatbar In land, houMi, oommoditlea, or tka wafia af labor ) and If wa bad no reliance on the totagrUy af mu ««in aa a maaeare of Taloa, we could niuf aa mmtity In anr property, In all countrlea, tbarafow, «laimM<( a «barac(«r for bonent}', the integ- ritx af tba ftandard ebonid be a fandamtntal principle. A»y tba allnbtaat davlatian from It will initantly be dlaaa w ra d , fellawad by a Iom of credit, and violent •natnallan* in tba aacbange, which of all thinga are OMMt iMjarian* t« trading totnmunitlee. For the ex- aiiania batwaan ana Mmntiy and another la not de- tarmmad \m aain nMif«ly u a drenlating medium, but, to nalily, by Iba anaet amount of fine metal contained In Ifca a«.— Amon(( Ibasa we may briefly in- a t a wa a Ilia anaiafft aaranony called the Trial of the iys, wbMIl, to llM moat Mblte manner, scrares an to i p arl to l anamtoallan af ina aolnage, and a verdict, as pHbUa, a dgneet may be created by deed, or ly lawi by dead, wbere tbe leatee of a farm attign* tbe taoM to MMKbar I by law, wbere tbe Uw make* an aiaignee, without any appolntmeot of tlM parton entitled, aa an aneculor w aadgnee in Uw |Ui the teeutor, and an admlnitlrator io«nbitettata. > The term la moat commonly applied to tbe offdal ataigneet appointed to manage oaakrupt aetata*.— ifce B >^ ucpr AMl«Da» Jit, fc<«tginWan. Atrtgn— , art of A«i|n*nt teclnical uia bi Uw. To attign la l« mak* over, and tb i larm U generally uied to axpreta a tran*> Cartnse by writing, in oontradittinctlon to a traniCnv anoa by rctnal daliveiy. In England tba nauat •!• piataian ft atiignment, in Scotland It U aiaignalton. "tbt pam n making over it caUed ntignertr, mdgmr, i^eedmt, tbe recipient, oMtt^iiM. Tbi* latt farm If Of teporiaot application in tba Uw of baoknytcy In Xn- l^aiad and 1 sUnd, at exploiting partan* of two «la**> «L tbe official a»k^'i(neet and tbe trade a*tlgn*M, to wbom tboreaUxatiA i and dittribution of tba bankrupt aaUta it committed — E. B. Sf BAJiKKvrTC'r. JUMIM. St4 T.KMAtt. An«Q0l«tiOB (Amn tbe Latin atioeiar*, to join in feUowebip), the act of attociating or conitituting a to- dely or partaersiiip, in order to carry on torn* tohemc or botinett witb more advantage, Tb*. raader la ra> flirred to tbe Eae^clvptdia Britanitiai, article* 8,e«rt it b^^samo • fiiy, and is IHt waa awatad into a bitbopri*. Tbe atUaeeni ter> ritoty it rirh and fartlU In a high dtttiee, and abonnda inagfaal varieliyafiMta. The air bi temperate and (Tlmala illMalaaalnbfioM 1 tb* tree* are perpetually green, I la tbe neigbborbood faed numer* thai and the riab paaturee I _ au* floehi *f eattU. Tba eity'lt inbabiUd by 8pa»> iarda, IndUnt, and Meetlaoet, who trade In bidet, t^ baceo, and migtt. Tbe Paraguay alTorda a channel of eommnalcalkm wllb Buenoe Ay re* ; but tbe pattag* It long, owing to the rapid flow of the watert of tbat rivet I thic, however. It eontiderably obviated try tba favorable wind* wbleh bUw ftam the toulh for a great part of tha year. PoMlatlon, 1S,000. Long. 67' 87' W, , Ut. 16^ 10' »^i. K t Amiraao*. 4m InavMacn. Aatmil, a tea phraee, uied to ilgnUy any tbing al ■M dittance behind tbe iblp | being tbe oppoeite of Amiuo, which ilgnUlee the tpace before her. AtMamUtM, a date of mediclnet uted for binding or *antra4itTng the leveral parti, external or Internal, uf tha human tvitem, for rettraUing profbM diatbarget, coaguUtUg the fluid*, condeniing and ttrengibeoing tbe tellda, Tbe pilnelpai attringenti arc tbe ninend acMa, alum, llma-wator, chalk, teveral preparatib.-ut.. IfiM .. leu loniT IHT 1«U errid im lata rend mo ■•u*7 in« ' UM nov ,.. tear ... IMS ... im. ^ ... 1780 Bh IS im . ItM .... ISOl 180t 180« im IMt •ath IMO 400,000 fun, that that ft ^ V j m:os' #r .._. ^v. , /laaiti iif'tJir SWfh Athwth Ot^on by f^utiU Maury l/.S.N^. ¥ I 'ffii mtirn^ •II ip»»i''' r^V^ J" ,;l .'^X, , Itvo -u k NW> , '••too' afftii a-; *»'"• . \ 1 M...' /4T" ■M / / T.r-H .- 4- -4.-. J'- - /y,/^/- / , lAlu "V lidu lUHl < >! r 1 n 'j^.^mS-.^ -fm Lm — — t ■ — . ..■■^ •I I', II-, l".1.1,..l" # ATL 7« ATL cannon-ball would take near nine niilliona of yean to reach one of them, supposing there were notkiog to hin- der it from pursuing its course thither. As light takes about eight minutes and a quarter to reach us from the sun, it would be about six years in coming from one of tJiose stars ; but the calculations of later astrono- mers prove some stars to bo so distant, that their light must take centuries before it can reach us ; and that ev- ery particle of light which enters our eyes left the star it comes from three or four hundred years ago. — Haydn. AUantlO Ocean (_Allat>ticua Oceaniu), one of the five great hydrugraphical divisions of the globe, occu- pies an immense valley, and extends from the Arctic circle on the north to the Antartic circle on the south, bounded west by the coast of America to Cape Horn, and thence by a line continued on the samo meridian to the Antarctic circle, and cast by the shores of Europe and Africa to the Cape of Good Hope, and thence pro- longed on the meridian of Cape Agulhas till it meets the Antartic circle. Its extreme breadth is about 5000 miles, and its area is computed at 26,000,000 square miles. It is naturally divided into three por- tions : 1st, the north ; 2d, the south; and, 8d, the in- tertropical Atlantic. The North Sea, or Gorman Ocean, the Caribbean Sea, and the Irish Sea, form portions of the Atlantic; but the Baltic and the Medi- terranean, which communicate with the North Sea by narrow channels, are properly considered separate seas. The principal gulfs of the Atlantic are, in Europe, the Bay of Biscay, or Golfe do Gascogne ; in Africa, the Gulf of Guinea ; in America, the Gulf of Mexico and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The chief islands are, in Europe, the British Isles and Iceland ; in Africa, the Azores, Madeira, and Canary islands, and the Arohi- pelago of the Gulf of Guinea; in America, tbeAntilles, Newfoundland, and the islands of the Gulf of St. Law- rence. The Atlantic, with its branches, drains nearly the whole of Europe west of the basin of the Volga ; all North America east of the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Madre of Mexico ; and the whole of South America east of the Andes. Its chief affluents ore, in Europe, the Rhino, Loire, and Tagus ; in Africa, the Senegal, Niger, and Congo; and in North America, the St. Lawrence and Mississippi ; in South America, the Orinoco, Amazon, and La Plata. The bed of the Atlantic is very unequal in elevation, in some places rising in immense sand banks to within a few fathoms of the surface, and in others sinking to great depths. In 1853, Lieutenant Berryman, of the United States navy, ran a line of deep sea soundings from the ii'^igh- borhood of Newfoundland to Ireland, to test the prac- ticability of finding a base for a submarine telegraph between America and Europe. Average depth, 12,000 f^et. But farther south. Lieutenant Bcrrymun made a sounding (lat. 62° 55' N., 17° 5«' W. long.) 8i),600 feet in depth, equal to a little over 7^ miles. Tlie most extensive banks are those of Nev, foundland, the Dogger Bank in the German Ocean, and the Agulhas Bank off the south point of Africa, The miuimum depth on the Bank of Newfoundland is CO feet. The Gennan Ocean varies in depth from CG to 500 feet. " From the top of Chiuiborazo to the bottom of the Atlantic, at the deepest place yet reached by the plum, met in the North Atlantic, the distance, in a vertical line, is nine miles. In its entire length, the basin of this sea is a long trough, separating the Old World from the New, and extending probably from pole to pole. Could the waters of the Atlantic bo drawn off, io as to expose to view this great sea-gash, which sep- arates continents, and extends from the Arctic to the Antartic, it would present a scone the most rugged, grand, and imposing. The very ribs of the solid earth, with the foundations of the sea, would bo brought to light, and we should have presented to us at one view, in the empty cradle of the ocean, ' a thousand fearful wrecks,' with that dreadful array of dead men's skulls, great anchors, heaps of pearl, and inestimable stones. which, in the poet's eye, lie scattered In the bottom of the sea, making it hideous with sights of ugly death. There is at the bottom of this sea, between Capo llac* in Newfoundland and Capo Clear In Ireland, a m- markable iteppe, which Is now known ai the tele- graphic plateau. A company Is now engaged with the project of a submarine telegraph across tlie Atlan- tic. It is proposed to carry the wires along this pla- teau from the eastern shoros of Newfoundland to tha western shores of Ireland. Tlie great-circle distanoa between these two shure-llne* is one thousand six hundred miles, and the lea along the routu is prob- ably nowhere more than two thousand fmt de«p,"~ Maury's Geography of the Sea. One attempt has been made to lay a cable from Fort au Basque, Newfoundland, to Cape North, the extreniest point of Cape Breton Island, but owing to continttwl storm the cables had to be parted, and it was given up. Preparations are now being made for another trial. The trade-winds blow regularly in Ihii iiitcrlrupical portion of the Atlantic ; beyond these limits the winda are variable. The principal currents of the Atlantic are, the equatorial current, which flows from the coait of Africa to the Caribbean Sea, wilh a velocity of from 30 to 70 miUs a day, and the Gulf Stream, which, leaving the Gulf of Slexico, flows through the Strait of Florida, with a velocity of 80 miles a day, and • temperature of 86° Fahrenheit, and extends with • gradually decreasing velocity and diminished tempeN ature to the Azores. Ininienso numliers of fish are found in the Atlantic, and herring and cod fishing ara important brandies of industry in the northern portion. A great part of the surface of tlie Atlantic, between lat. 1C° and 46' N., and long. 85° and 75" W., Is cov- ered with a species of weed (_Fucut Nalatu) of a beau- tiful green color, from which circumstance it Is called the Sargazo Sea — the sea of duck-weed, or the grassy sea. In the higher latitudes of the North and South Atlantic, navigation is impeded by Imnionie icebergs, which are floated from the polar regions, and although these are generally melted before reaching the fre(|uent- ed parts of the ocean, they have occasionally been met with as far south as lat. 40° 45' in the North Atlantic, and in the vicinity of tlie Capo of Good IIopu in tha South Atlantic Ocean. For extensive information on the navigation and currents of the Atlantic, lee Mau- ry's Wind and Current Charts of the AlUmtia Ocean, Plate I., from JIauky's Geography of the Sea, " pre. sents a map of tbo depths of the ocean according to re- cent soundings. "It relates exclusively to the bottom of that part of the Atlantic Ocean wiiicli lies north of 10° south. It is stippled with four sliades ; the dark- est (that which h nearest the shore-line) shows when the water is less than 6000 feet deep ; the next, where it is less than 12,000 feet ; the third, wliero it is lost than 18,000 ; and the fourth, and lightest, whore it is not ^^ over 24,000 feet deep. The blank space south of Novk*' Scotia and the Grand Banks includes a district within which very deep water has been reported, but from casts of the dcep-sca lead which upon discussion do not appear satisfactory. The deepest part of the North Atlantic is probably fomewhero between tlio llurmudat and the Grand Banks, but how deep It may be yet re- mains for the cannon-ball and the souiidlng-IIno to deterraiue."— Maury. The Atlantic, according to Humboldt, presents all the indications of a valley, as If a flow of eddying wa- ters had been directed from toward the northeast, then toward the northwest, and back again to tlis northeast. The paralleliam of the coast north of 10° south lati- tude, the projecting and receding angles, the convoxU (y of Brazil opposite to the Gulf of (iuiiica, that of Africa under the same parallel with the Gulf of tha Antilles, all favor this apparently speculative view,. In this Atlantic valley, as is almost every whore the case in the configuration of large continental masnet, coasts deeply indented and rich in islands are situated 7 ATL 'J'4 ATT oppoiite to those posaeasinc • diflficnnt character. The | depth of thiii ocean is extremely various ; and is enor- mous, both to the north and south of the equator. Thus, Captain Sir Edward Belcher, K.N., in lat. O"*' N. long., 10° Ci' Vf., toundej to the liepth of 8066 bthoms = 18,390 feot ; Captain Burnett, K.N., in lat, 41° 2' N. long. 44° 8' W., sounded to the depth of 8700 flithoms, or 2-.',200 feet ; Captain Sir James Uoss, K.N., in 1840, to 2677 fathoms, or 16,06'i feet ; and afterward, in lat. 88° 8' S., long. D° 1' £., to 4600 fathoms, or 27,600 feet ; and Captain H. H. Denham, H.M.8. Mtr. aU, has obtained soundini^ at the vast depth of 7706 fisthoms=46,236 feet, or nbout 8} Englivh miles. This, which is tlie deepest souml : \\g ever yet taken, occurred on 80th October, 1862, in la(. 8«° 40' 8., long. 87° 6' W. Two American captains have also obtained soundings •t the depth of 8100 and 8600 fathoms. The intertropical part of the Atlantic is under the influonce of the trade-winds, which frequently extend to the 3'2d db,^ree of north or south latitude. The winds lilow almost invariably in tho same direction, Anm east to west, occasionally varying a few points to the north or south, on tho north and south sides of tho equator. A region of calms, varying from 8 to 10 de- grees of latitude, according to the season of tlio year, separates tho t^ro trade-winds. It is, however, daily agitated by a squall, which begins about two o'clock in the afternoon, and continues about an hour. This region does not always occupy the same part, but its central line may be placed about the 6th degree of north latitude. In some tracts the influence of the trade-winds extends to the shores, but in general it does not come within 200 miles of tli'^ coasts. The current of this ocean first kno vn to mariners, is called the equinoctial, and is within the tropics, es- pecially liowing from tho coast of Senegal to the Ca- ribbean Sea. Its direction is constantly from cast to west, with a mean rapidity of 9 or 10 miles in 24 hours. This current is attributed to the impulse which is given to the surface of the sea by tho trade-winds. " In the channel," says Humboldt, "which the Atlantic has dug between Guiana and Guinea on the meridian of 20 or 28 degrees, and from tho 8th or 9th to the 2d or 8d degrees of north latitude, where the trade-winds are often interrupted liy winds blowing from the south or south-southwest, the equinoctial current is more incon- stant in its direction. The equinoctial current is felt, though feebly, even beyond the tropic of Cancer, in the 26th and 28lh degrees of latitude. In the vast basin of tho Atlantic, at 600 or 700 leagues fhim the coasts of Africa, vessels (h>m Europe bound to the West Indies And their sailing accelerated before they reach the torrid zone." In the Caribbean Sea, the motion of this current is much accelerated by the action of an- other current. The Mozambique current, flowing from . north to south, l>etween Mn'lagascar and the eastern ' coast of Africa, bends to the nurt h of the Lagullas bank, round the southern point of Africa, and advances with much violence along its western coast beyond the equa- tor to the island of St. Thomas. It gives anorthwest- erly direction to a portion of the waters of the South Atlantic, causing them to strike Cape St. Augustin, and to follow the shores of Guiana beyond the mouth of the Orinoco, the Boca del Drago, and the coast of Paria. The coast of America presenting a barrier to the equinoctial current, its waters are driven with ve- locity thrc-jgh the strait formed by Capo Catoche and Cape St. Antonio, into the Gulf of Mexico; and, after following the bendings of the coast, force their way back into the open sea north of the' Straits of Bahama, where it fonns a warm rapid current, known as tho Qulf Stream. At flrst its rapidity is sometimes as great as five miles an hour, but it decreases as it pro- oeeds toward the north, at the same time that its breadth increanes and its waters lierome cool. Between Cayo Biscaino and the bank of Ituhama the breadth is only 16 leagues, while in the Intitude of 28} degrtes it is 17 ; and In the parallel of Charleston, opposite Cape Henlbpen, (him (brty to flfty leagues. "The waters of the Mexican Gulf forcibly drawn to north- east preser^'e their warm temperature to such a point, that in 40 and 41 degrees of latitude I found them at 22-5° cent. (=72'4'' Fahrenheit), when out of the current the heat of the ocean at its surface waa scarcely 17-5° ( = 68'6° Fahrenheit). In the parallel of New York and Oporto, the temperature of the Uulf Stream Is consequently equal to that of the seas of the tropics in the 18th degree of latitude ; as, for instance, in the parallel of Porto KIco and the islands of Capo Verd."— IlUMnoLUT. In lat. 41° 26' and long. 67°, where it is nearly 80 leagues broad, it turns suddenly to the east, and almost touches the southern edge of tho Great Newfoundland Bank, from whence it con- tinues its course east and cast-southeast to the Azores. On the meridian of Corvo and Flores, the most west- erly islands of the Azores group, the breadth of the current is 180 leagues. From the Azores it turns to- ward the Straits of Gibraltar, the island of Madei- ra, and the Canary group. There are several other minor currents in the vast ocean, as the branch sent oft' liy the Gulf Stream before reaching tlie Vestcrn Azores, w hich at certain i>casonBof the year flows toward Ireland and Norway. The experiments o<° Sir Jamea Koss and Captain Penham show that, after the depth of 200 or 800 fathoms, the temperatnre of the Atlantic waters is stationary at 40° Fahrenheit, w hatevrr be the temperature at tho surface. This uniformity uf tem- perature in the waters of great oceans renders tlicm the means of mitigating tho extremes of tropical and polar regions. — E. B. See Qvuf Strka.m. See aUo Kennki.i.'h Intettigntion of the CurrenU of the AtlaHtic Ocean; HrMnoMiT's Cotmot, perianal narrative ; and M.\oky's I'hi/tical Oeogrnphy of the Sea. Atlaa, in Literature, a collection of maps, charts, or other tables ; so called from the fabulous king of that name, who is sometimes represented as supporting the world on his shoulders. The term was first used in this sense by the celebrated geographer Mercator, in the 16th century. Atmometer (from urito^, rnpor, and /lerpov, a meaiart), an instrument contrived by Professor Leslie for measuring thr quantity of moisture exhaled from any humid surface in a given time. It consists of a verj' thin ball of porous earthen-ware, from one to three inches in diameter, having a small neck firmly cement- ed to a long and rather wide tube of glass, to which is adapted a brass cap, with a narrow collar of leather to fit close. Being filled with distilled or pure water, the waste and descent of this column serves to indicate the quantity of evaporation from the cxtenial surface of the ball. The tube is marked downward, through its whole length, by the point of a diamond, w itii divisions across it, amounting to from 200 to 600, each of which corresponds to a ring of fluid, that, spread over the whole exhaling surface, would form a film only one thousandth part of an inch in thickness. This gradua- tion is performed 1>y previously sealing one of the end* of the tube with v ax, and introducing successive por- tions of quicksilver, to mark every 20, 60, or 100 of those divisions; being calculated of equal bulk to disks of water, that have the surface of the ball (ex- clusive of tho neck) for their base, and so many thou- sand parts of an inch for their altitude. Alanosphcre, is the name applied to the invisible elastic medium which surrounds the globe of tho earth to an unknown height. The fluid of which it is com- posed is usually known by the name of air. Attachment, In Knglith Imv, is a process ftrom a court of record, awarded by tho Justices at their discre- tion, on a bare suggestion, or on their own knowledge | and is properly grantable In eases of oontcmpt. It difl'ert from arrest, in that he who arrests a man carries him to a person uf liiglier power to bo forthwith disposed of; but he that attaches keeps the party attached, and pre- r^ ATT n AUC first used /terpov, a essor Leilie haled from unsists of • one to three nly cement- to which is leather to water, the ndicato the surface of through its li divisions h of which over the only one lis );radua- if the ends ssive por- or 100 of bulk to ball (ex- any thou- 1 I invisible J the earth lit is com- Iss fVom • Jirdiscre- lowlcdgo) lltdiffert rrles him ■josed of; I and pre- tents him In court at the day assif^ed, as appeani by the words of the writ. Another dlH'erenco Is, that ar- rest is only upon the body of a man, whereas an attach- ment is ofton upon Ids goods. It is distinguished from distress in not extending to lands, as the latter docs; nor does a distress touch the body, as an attachment does. Kvery court of record has power to flne and im- prison for contempt of its authority. — G. B. AttMT, or Otto of Rosea, a well-known perfume of great strength. Is an essential oil prepared in several parts of Asia and in Egypt from the Roxt motchnta and Jioaa Damucena. It is xaid that 1(MI,OUO roses yield but IHO gr.'.i.is of attar. This oil is at lirst of a palish green color, which by keeping b«comes darker, and presents various tint) of green, yellow, and red. Attomey-at-law is one who is put in the place, •tead, or Uir» of another (attornaliu), to manage or conduct his law proceedings or affairs. The term is used in England to denote the class of legal practition- ers whose functions are preparatory to tliose of the barrister or advocate. Auotlon, a well-known mode of selling property, in open compi i ition, to the highest offerer, by means of an agent or auiiixuoer. When the property is of considerable value, a pur^uu is sometimes appointed to superintend the sale, who is denominated Judge of the roup, and acts as an arbiter in settling any disputes that may arise. The terms of the sale may be regulated at the will of the o.xposer, provided they are distinctly announced to the public twforehand. The party offer- ing the highest price is declared the purchaser. When formal Articles of sale are employed, they commonly regulate how much each offer shall exceed tho pre- vious one; whether the oxposer shall bo allowed to make an offer, or to withdraw the subject, if tho high- est offer does not amount to a given sum ; and some- times it is declared that an installment of the price ihall be payable instantly, or that security shall be found. within a stipulutod period; failing which the immediately preceding oflbrer is preferred. Secret contrivances, either to raise or depreciate the price, are unlawful. The seller must not attempt to practice any imposition on tho public; neither are tho bidders permitted to adopt any unfair means to prevent the natural operation of free competition. Where any such thing is detected, not only is the sale vitiated, but reparation is due to the ii^ured party. For ex. •mple, the secret employment by tho seller of a friend to raise vhe price by making a fictitious offer is fraud- tilent, and entitles the highest offeror, on detecting it, to repudiate the transaction, or (in case ho has been outbidden by such fictitious part}') to demand the prop- erty at tlie price which ho fairly bf) ranged, we believe, under that division by Pinkerton ; they are of less importance to geography than to geology. Australasia, then, may be subdivided into the fol- lowing groups and islands : 1. Australia, or New Hol- land ; 2. Van Diemen's Land, or Tasmania ; 3. New Guinea, and the Louisiade Archipelago; 4. New Brit- ian. New Ireland, and neighboring islands ; 6. Solo- mon's Islands; 6. New Hebrides; 7. New Caledonia; 8. New Zealand, and isles to the southward ; 9, Ker- guelen's Islands, or Islands of Desolation; 10. St. Paul and Amsterdam; 11. Numerous reefs and islets of coral scattered over the Australasian Sea. The first attempt to ex]ilorc New Holland, which, from its size, may be considered as the fifth continent of the earth, is unquestionably due to the Dutch ; for although some part of the northern coast may liave been seen by the early navigators of Spain and Portu- gal, there is no direct testimony in favor of sucli a dis- covery. There are two charts in the British Museum which belonged to the Ilarleian Collection ; one French, without date, which was probably the original ; and the other English, apparently a copy: the latter is dedicated to the King of England, and bears date 1642. In both of these charts is marked down an extensive tract of country to the southward of the Moluccas, un- der the name of Great Jaea, agreeing more nearly with the position and extent of New Holland than any other land. The form given to the northwest part of the coast in these charts approaches nearest to the truth ; a part, indeed, whicli may have lieen seen by those early navigators who visited tlie Moluccas long before the date of the English chart. It is a singular coinci- dence in geographical nomenclature, that, on the east coast of the French chart, something like tJlolang Jiaif should be designated under the name of Co§te ilea Her- baiget. The Abbe Prevost, in the Ilittoire (lenerale del Vvyaget, and the President de Brosses, in his Hit- Imre dea A'arigaliona aux Terret Auttralet, are not very happy in advancing a claim in favor of Paulovicr de Gonneville, a French captain, to the discovery of this Terra Australia in 1504. It was the coast of Mada- gascar npon which Gonneville was driven, as is evi- dent b}' their own accounts E. B. Australia, or New Holland, th . largest island on the glolie, is situated in the southern hemisphere; and, as described in the preceding article, forms the main land around whicti are clustered those groups of islands which, in modern geography, constitute tlio Jijth great division of the earth's surface. Wilson Promontory, its most southern angle, is in lat. 3U' 11' S., and Cape York, its northernmost headland, in lat. 10° 4il' S. Its greatest lireadfh from north to south is thus 1708 geographical miles, or 1966 statute miles. Cape Byron, the eastern limit, is in long. 153' 87' E., and Cape Inscription, in 112° 55' E., forms its western- most point; making the extreme length of the island from cast to west about 2C03 British miles, liy an aver- age breadth of 1200 miles — a tract of land well entitled to i>e called a continent, l>y which name it is fre<|iient- ly designated by geograpliers. Its superficies approx- imates to 2,6'.)0,810 square miles. That of the conti- nent of Europe being 3,684,841 square miles, we can form some idea of its extent liy comparison. The nomenclature and geographical sulidivislnns of this island-continent have undergone many altcrationa from time to time, as the territory has become colo- AVH n AUS linns of Irationt ■0 colo- iiind. Beftre iny settlement had been effected by the Uritiah government upon its shores, the entire island was designated Xew Holland, not only by the Dutch — flrom whom it received its name — but on our own charts and maps. The east coast, tlrst discovered and explored by Captain Cook In 1770, was named by him New South Wales. The middle portion of the north coast bore the name of Arnhem Land, after the ship of its discoverer, Zeachen, In 1618. The west and southwest coasts were named in like manner by their discoverers, the Dutch navigators, in the seventeenth century, De Witt's Land, Endraght's Land, Kdel's Land, Lecuwin's Land, and Nuyt's Land. That of Van Diemen's Land was given by Tasman to what he supposed was the toulhorn peninsula of New Holland, but which was afterward discovered by Bass to be an island. The colonists have been anxious to name It after its dis- coverer, but the government still retain the first title. Since this great territory has become the undisputed possession of Britain, other names, with the exception just mentioned, have, according to the law of nations, been substituted for the old Dutch titles. New South Wales is only applied now to about one-half the east coast territory. Th j name of the entire island also is changed from New Holland to the more appropriate designation of Australia, by which it is now universal- ly recognized and described. The subdivisions South, North, and Western Australia would be equally proper if their boundaries were deHiied according to the ordi- nary rules of geographical dissection. But while the first section. South Australia, is only the middle por- tion of the south coast, trending inland to the central region ; and the second. North Ausiralia, embraces all to the north of New South Wales ; the third section. Western Australia, nearly bisects the island, leaving a small tract of land between it and South Australia with no name at all. A better division would be to draw a lino right across from east to west in lat. 26° S. ; thus bisecting the island near its intertropical par- allel ; for although this line would bo 3^ degrees soutli of the tropic of Capricorn, still the influence of the tropical rains and winds ascend even higher than this parallel. At all events, this would bo sufficient for us to designate the northern section Tropical Australia, and the southern Temperate Australia. Besides these two great meteorological divisions, they could conven- iently be subdivided into four political sections by drawing another line from south to north in the me- ridian of 133° 30'. Each of these sections might then bo designated, according to its direction from the cen- tre. Southwestern and Northwestcn' Austrplia, North- eastern and Southeastern Australia. And tliesc, again, might be subdivided into provinces, as the last-named section includes tiio three colonics of New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia. This arrangement would tend to simplify an importantt section of geog- raphy which at present is very muchfconfused. If, for the better elucidation of ourYubject, we sup- pose these lines and boundaries to exist on the map, tlio northern or tropical division lias little to do with the history of British colonization in Australia. It is within the temperate zone thot our colonies have been planted and successfully nurtured. And this tract, again, separated by the meridian line suggested, coer8 at 1600 miles long by 160 miles broad, or 226,000 square miles ; or nearly three times the superficies of England. From a letter written by Mr. Edward Hammond Ilargraves to the colonial secretary, dated the 3d April, 1861, we learn that on the 12th of February previous he had discovered the existence of gold among the al- luvium of the surface rOcks over a large area of crown lands within the settled districts of the colony; which subsequently turned out to be from 20 to 30 miles be- yond the town of Bathurst, an inland town 125 miles from Sydney. He was led to prosecute a search for the precious metal in that locality, from the similarity of that mountainous section of New South M'alcs to the auriferous regions of California, where he had suc- cessfully worked as a gold-digger. Governor Fitzroy was doubtful of the discovery, f^om the circumstance of a similar statement having been made to him two years before, by a Mr. Smith, of Berrima, who allowed the matter to drop on the governor's refusing to pay him a large fixed sum for the discovery. At the same time. Sir Roderick Impey Murchison, president of the Royal Geographical Society, and other eminent geol- ogists in the colony and in England, had predicted the discovery of gold in the Australian mountain ran- ges, from their presenting similar characters, both geographically and geologically, to the gold-bearing mountains in Russia. Partly from these representa- tions, and partly from the general claims of the colo- ny to have its mineral wealth scientifically investi- gated, the government had just recently appointed Mr. Samuel Stutchbury as geological surveyor ; and that gentleman at this period was prosecuting his ste- reoti/md researches not verj' zealously in the mountain ranges at a short distance from Mr. Hargraves. It is worthy of notice that gold had been found in its na- tive state from time to time some twenty years pre- vious, by a Sci,toh shepherd, who was known to have sold a large quantity to the jewelers in Sydney ; hav- ing kept the secret so long from a fear, as he stated, that, if any one dogged him to the spot, they might murder him. Notwithstanding these and other evi- dences which need not bo specified, no one had prose- cuted tho search systematically before Mr. Hargraves, who demonstrated the fact publicly and withont delay. To him, therefore, is due all the honor of the discovery. After having intimated to the government that he was satisfied to leave to their liberal coi.sidcration any reward or remuneration they chose to offer him for his discovc.y, ho posted off to Bathurst, and announced to the astounded inhabitants that they were living with- in a doy's journey of tho richest gold mines in the world. Followed by a number of tlie enterprising in- habitants, he led tho way to Summer-hill Creek, and there, in a romantic vale, surrounded by hills, where this streamlet wound its course round a picturesque lioint of land, they dug tho auriferous earth from the adjacent bank, washed it in the stream, and found that tlie soil was mixed with grains of gold. These gold pioneers, wlio thronged to the first "diggings," re- minded of the resemblanco between their country and the ricli gold mines mentioned in Scripture, called this spot the Volley of Ophir. This was in May, 1851, and it became the signol for the colonists in other parts of tho territory to be up and doing. " Ascertaining the nature and description of the .ocks occurring in tho vicinity of the gold de- posits, tliey immediately set to work in their own lo- calities to search for the hidden treMurc, instea and valleys of the oolony. Stock-whip) and ihepherd'! crooki were thrown aiide for pickaxes and shovels, with which these adventu- rous men might be seen exploring the gold regions, and with what success is now well known to the world." The Turon River, Muckerwa Creek, Louisa Creek, Me- roo Creek, Frederick's Valley, Abercronibie River, and Araluen Vale, had their bidden treasures exhunted by the industrious diggers ; and in three months after the workings at Bathurst had l)een set in operation, the newly-erected province of Victoria, within seven weeks fh>m the time of her separation from Mew South M'ales, disclosed her treasures at Ballarat ; and before the close of the year, the Mount Alexander gold region gsvo forth that astounding yield of the precious metal, to which no racord of ancient or modem times can furnish a paral- lel. The result of the latter discovery not only arrest- ad the departure of the Victoria colonists who were flocking to the BathuAt Mountains, but afterward turn- ad the tide of adventurer)> from the parent colony to the greater attractions of the Mount Alexander (;old fields, which threatened at one time to deoiniato Iho popula- ktions of Sydney and the surrounding townships. The gold was not merely found in the scales or grains which at first came from the stream-washings at Opbir, but it was now dug np in large masses, varying from several ounces to many pounds in weight, which were familiarly called " nuggets" by the diggers, after the Califomian name given to these /K/itVtu or nodules ; and in one instance, at Louisa Creek, lOti lli. weight of puie gold was found by an aboriginal shepherd imbedded In the quartz matrix, which formed one solid block of about 8 cwt. Neither was it found in the beginning at any great depth in the ground, but in many localities lay scattered among the surface soil, and hung to the roots of trees and shrubs. So easily and plentifully did it oome to the hands of the gold-seekers, that it bore tbe aspect (and such was the belief of many of the less-in- formed diggers) of having only then sprung into exist- ence from the earth, or having recently been scattered over the land by some mysterious agency, instead of carrying along with it the geological fact that its veins •n coeval with the primary rocks. It was also dis- covered that the convicts had built a bridge across a small stream on tbe Bathurst road to Carcoar, above tbe gold formation, and that they had unconsciously paved tbe road with bioken fragments of the gold quartz veins. Even in the streets of Bathurst and Melbourne, small particles of the precious metal were picked up by children in its natural bed ; and several farmers and gardeners found that they had been plowing, digging, sowing, and planting their grain and trees in the aurif- erous soil. A knowledge of these facts industriously circulated by tbe colonial press throughout a commu- nity possessed of all the modem facilities of informa- tion, and keenly alive to the speculations of money- making, could not but fairly upset the minds of the people. Consequently, a guld mania seized every class of colonists, to the temporary suspension of all indus- trial pursuits. Then followed a heterogeneous scramble for the cov- eted ore throughout tbe length and breadth of the land, which spread like wildfire to the neighboring colonies of South Australia, Van Dieinen'3 Land, and New Zea- land, threatening to depopulate them of their male adult inhabitants. Masons and bricklayer left unfin- ished buildings in the towns; shopmen left their coun- ters, clerks their desks, sailors their ships ; and arti- sans of every description threw up their employments, leaving their masters, and their wives and families, to take care of themselves. All other interests were al>- Borbed in the search for gold ; scarcely any other sub- ject was talked of or thought of; and the mass of the people ran off to the " diggings," as this new occupa- tion was termed. Nor did the mania confine itself to the laboring classes, for " these were soon followed by responsible tradesmen, farmers, captains of vessels, ud not a few of the superior classes ; some unable to with- stand the mania and the force of the stream, or because they were really disposed to venture time and money on the chance ; and others because they were, as em- ployers of labor, left in the lurch and bad no alterna- tive. Cottages became deserted, houses to let, busi- ness was at a stand-still, and even schools wero closed. In soma of the suburbs not a man was left, and the wo- men were kno.wn, for self-protection, to forget neighbors' Jars, and to group together to keep bouse." Tlic ship* in the harlwr, also, were in a groat measure deserted ; and instances were known wliero not only Tarnicrs and respectable agriculturists found that the only thing they could do, seeing that the ] 'ople employed by them had deserted, was to leave tbuir farms and Join their men in the golden scramble ; " hut even masters of vessels, foreseeing the impossibility of maintaining any control over their men otberwitie, agreed to make up parties among them, abandon their vessels, and proceed with their crows to the gold fields." The (owns and their environs being tbus drained of their laboring pop- ulations, the prices of provisions rapidly rose. The common necessaries of life roacbed famine prices, which fell heavily upon those depending upon salaries. This, coupled with tbe high wages demanded by domestic servants, forced the upper classes of society to dispense witli their services, and the ladies had to perform tbe household drudgery. Clerks and others under govern- ment, and in public and private offices, finding it im- possible to make both ends meet, throw up their ap- pointments and rushed to the diggings, and even the constabulary foroe wero leaving tbe towns unprotected. During this state of affairs the govemmeot was obliged to raise the salaries of their ofbcers, in order to main- tain a sufncient staff for the public service, and to pre- serve the public peace, wbicli was becoming sadly dis- turbed. The banks and mercantile firms wero obliged also to follow their example. Meanwhile, tbe governments of New South Wale* and Victoria — the two gold colonies — looked with ap- prclicnsion upon the probable result of this gold-revo- lution among a pastoral population widely scattered over the country, a portion of which had but recently been reclaimed from the ranks of the felon. 1'herefon, how to regulate the prosecution of this new pursuit on crown lands became a matter of grave consideration. The crime and anarchy which had prevailed in Cali- fornia upon a similar discover}- brought the worst fears to their recollection. Precautionary measures were promptly taken, and all the available military force — wliicli was but slender — was called into requisition, as- sisted by tbe mounted police to maintain order and au- thority at the localities where the diggers were work- ing ; for at some places communities had assembled, aud erected tents with the rapidity of a military encamp- ment, in larger numbers than were to be found congre- gated within the ordinary townships scattered over the country. A proclamation was issued asserting the right of the queen's government to all gold or precious metals found on crown lands; and that every person digging therein in search of it, or any individuals trad- ing or otherwise profitably employed at the diggings, must take out a monthly license and pay tbe sum of 30<. This measure was at once acceptable to the peo- ple, and gold commissioners were appointed to see that it was carried into effect. Notwithstanding the ex- citement which prevailed at the first blush of tbe dis- covery, and during the subsequent discoveries in other localities, which drew from time to time one half of the adult male population to the gold fields, to tbe honor of the people of Now South Wales be it said, that no greater amount of crime existed in that colony during the following eighteen months than the usual average. "Every where," as stated in the dispatches of his ex- cellency the governor general, " the gold-diggers were loyal, orderly, and obedient to the laws," and thpv AUS 79 AVE res were force — ition, as. and nu- work- l)Ied,aiid cncanip- congre* over the ting the precious persoD als trad- Iggings, sum of the peo- sec that the ex> the dis- other ilfofthe le honor that no ' during average, his eX' ers were ind thpy eheorfuUy paid the fee of one shilling per diem for li- cense to dig. The tamo flattorliiK testimony can not be borne to Victoria, where a Callfonilan state of an- archy at one time threatened the subversion of ail law and order; the consideration of which will bo reserved for our remarks on that colony. At the close of 18M, six months' experience had proved the most satisfac- tory ri'sults as to the extent and richness of tlie gold deposits. In New Soulli Wales, upward of 20,000 li- censes were issued ; and the export sheetfroni the port of Sydney showed that 142,076 ounces, valued at up- ward of half a million sterling, had left the colony, Dy this time also, hundreds, nayj thousands, had ascertained that they were morally and physically un- fit fur the liard labor and privations to be encountered in the search for gold. The consequences were, that not only did many clerks, shopmen, and artisans come back to tlieir former occupations in the towns, but much distress was felt by those who had abandoned lui'rativo employments, which were shut against tlicni ^n their return ; in many instances impaired in health ^um exposure to the rigorous climate of the gold re- gions, which, it will be understood, were lirst worked ill the winter season in Australia. The beneficial ef- fects which accrued from this reaction in favor of the industrial pursuits, was the supply of labor to be had, although at exorbitant wages, for securing the wool- crop of the season. Not only was this evil result an- ticipated, among others, at the beginning of the gold discovery, but at many sheep and cattle stations in tlio far Interior, the herds and flocks were abandoned by their keepers, and at that period nothing short of utter ruin to the pastoral interests of tiie colony hovered over the slieep-farmers and graziers. In one instance, an enterprising squatter drove 2ti,000 sheep into one flock, which he shepherded with four trusty shepherds on horseback. Mere, as in other matters, the gentlemen settlers and capitalists in the colony proved themselves equal to the oevosiuu ; and much consideration is due to them for assisting to maintain the peace and pros- perity of the community, by their untiring energy and support given to the government, under such an un- looked-for event. And where at first the squatters anticipated a ruinous reduction in the value of their stock, the demand for sheep and cattle to supply the diggers with food raised the prices 50 per cent., while the land-hold>!rs found new purchasers of land among the judicious and fortunate gold-diggerp. So at the close of the year 1851, the prospects of New South Wule':, on all sides, were most cheering, where the re- verse was expected. The .population had increased to li)7,168 persons. The value of the imports was £1,563,931, and the exports £1,796,912. Thus the average of the former, for every man, woman, and child In the colony, would be nt the rate of £8 per head, and of the latter about £9. The ordinary rev- enue = £277,728 ; and the crown revenue £208,969 ; the coin In the colony £560,766 ; and the paper currency £118,541. The wool exported = 15,269,3171b., valued at £828,342; the tallow 86,460 cwt., vjiluc £114,168; and the gold 144,120 oz. 17 dwt, value £468,336. Shipping inwards 553 vessels, of 153,002 tons, having 7955 men on board ; and the shipping outwards 563 vessels of 139,020 tons, having 7988 men. From the circumstance of gold mines having been hitherto only worked by barbarous or despotic nations, who, from ignorance or policy, shrouded their opera- tions in mystery, our information regarding the extent and character of gold-bearing rocks throughout the world was of a very meagre description. Tlie "great fact," therefore, of gold regions being discovered, and worked within territories claimed by the Anglo-Saxon race In California and Australia, is not only an event of considerable interest in the history of the world, but has proved of the utmost benefit to science in determ- ining this important qaestion in auriferous geology. Not only was the gold found in the ordinary quartz matrix, but the reports of the geological surreyon of Now South Wnles have shown that It Is found in gran- ite at Araiiien Creek ; schistose or slaty rocks at tha Turon ; and In Frederick's Valley specimens were found of a ferruginous rock, beautifully dotted with globulei of gold. It would seem, therefore, that gold li the most universally distributed of metals among the unstratl- fled rocks, although found In greatest abundance in the quartz veins which intersect these rocks. However, the great bulk of the gold found in Australia has not licen extracted from its matrices, but dug out of the gold alluvium formed by the disintegration of these rocks. Hence the gold mines in this region have re- ceived the familiar name of " diggings," firom the prac- tical-minded Americans and Australians. What are termed the " gold diggings," then, are spots where the miners have to dig pits trom 10 to 15 feet deep before they arrive at the substratum of auriferous soil in which the particles of gold are found loosely imbedded. This subsoil is generally a stiflf blue clay mixed with sand and gravel, and the pure metal appears in scales about the size and shape of bran or sfaellings ; and in rounded grains and lumps varying f^om the size of a pin's head to the form and dimensions of flints as they occur Id chalk, a specimen of which, when gilded, gives exact- ly the appearance presented by these gold nodules, or, as they are now universally called, " nuggets." 'fhia alluvium is collected and mixed freely with water in a tub, which is termed " puddling." After having un- dergone two or three washings, the residue is thrown into a cradle or wooden trough, with "cleets" or ribs fastened across the bottom, and a sieve at the head, which prevents large stones or lumps of gold fVom past- ing through. The cradle is then rocked and tilted to and fro, while water is poured over the auriferous sand or gravel. When sufliciently washed, the residue at the bottom of the cradle is examined carefully, the large pieces, if any, picked out, and the scales of gold separated from any foreign substance by further wash- ing in a tin dish, until it is perfectly clean ; after which a magnet is passed through it to extract small particles of iron-sand, which are frer lently mingled with it. Upon reaching the " washing-stulT," as the "diggers" tei-m the gold alluvium, they sometimes see the nuggets dotting the earth, and collected into heaps or " pockets," which they extract easily with the point of a knife. This pleasing operation to the fortunate digger is called " nuggeting," Again, a similar process is followed at some localities where the grains of gold lie on tlie sur- face of the ground, technically termed " forsicking."— E, B, See Adklaide. Average, a term used in maritime commerce to sig- nify damages or expenses resulting ft-om the accidents of navigation. Average is cither general or pailicu- lar. General average arises when sacrilices have been advisedly made, or expenditures incurred, with a view to the preservation of the ship, cargo, and freight from the cfTects of some extraordinary peril ; and it implies a subsequent contribution from all the parties con- cerned, in order to make good the loss which one or more of them may thus have sustained. Particular average signifies the damage or partial loss happening to the ship, goods, or freight, in consequence of some fortuitous or unavoidable accident; and it is borne by the individual owners of the articles damaged, or by their insurers. It may be here remarked, that the term Average was originally used to signify what is now distin- guished as General Average, Tho expression " Par- ticular Average" is not strictly accurate, as it does not, ill its current acceptation, imply the idea of an equal- king contribution, as originally signified by the word Average, It has, nevertheless, been generally adopt- ed, and is now fully recognized as the distinctive ex- pression for damage or partial loss falling on (onie one of the individuals interested in a sea adventure. Av- erage Is said by Cowcii to he derived from tlie Latin AYE to AVE wont a^iraffUim, (nm tiM v«rb avtrmft, te tntf. It* ■appotai it to hftv* Inmr lniriMlH««wt titln <.<, m lh« o^\m1 hanil, At- liTci it from tli« fiwnvb Awtrir, ur tb« (i«rmM ftittn, • port ; it IwiiiK • iwRtrllwilon p»M Utt h«vtnf( nooi» ttvuglu tnfeig to port,— IH Jur* JUuHHnm, lib, )l. cap. tU. mcu 1, Ptitj/ Amrag* contlM«4 «f e«rt«in fWl«tl rbaffiM tot pilotage*, ligliu4iiiM, ale, wbt«b w*r« appofllnnert ome- tbinl to th« tbip aii4 twwHMrd* l« (h« eargo ) Mt tiila i* DOW (uparacdad hy Iba ngfmmmt that ilia CrHght ptTable for ibii cargo nhall iHiluibi all nw^ ««ip«n«*«; anil tba tarm ha*, ciWM«|Ml« |*r«itM»r(lotia i>y all who ar* bauatttad by it—yat IRnplk'«t«4 «aa«'a which arlae in tb* eouna of mtrllima ««mtH#r«« bn* occaaioned man;- diversitie* of u«aga in dilfar«ttt nmntrlca, and •van in tha aama country at Mlturmit ptifiitiU. With- out enlariug nii to wi4« a liatd a* >ha dlM'i*Ml<;n of tlie«« divanlti** wjubl opan uf>, w« aball Mtd«avnr lo preaent • brief •umnwry of tb* W dng ;rrin«^|fl«» «hlch have bean ettablUbad in (iraat Hritain, l«t Haa((« ur bj legal deciiioni, in conriai-'tion wilb Iba UHljm^t. All general averttge to**** m»v tm divld«d Into two principal ciataea t 1. Hmr^flMt of part of lh« cargo and flight, or of part of (bit tbip, Utt i)w g«in««neflt ; 2. kxlraoniinary ejrfit.tuJilurtt, InitHfrvd with the aamc oljeci. Under tba ltr»t of lUnm itit»m» w« ahall begin by noticing the a<;ta wbitli involve aarrllkea otpnti qf the cargo aHd/rtighl, WIdwi a puift of the cargo u thrown overboard \orjMfimuui, aa It I* Irrmed) lo aave the ibip from foundurlng iti a *liiftn, or to float her when itrHndcdior to fapmi, If, Instead of liehig thrown ov#rlaMtrd, lh« good* arc put into boat* or llgbttfrs, and io«t Of damaged l^efore reaching the shore, such los* la rit. aa may aotnc- times happen, wtien tiMre is no Mimr place where they can be landed. Wut wban tba gooda have l>e«n con- veyed to a place of ordinary safely, tttny itre no longer at the risk of the gemrnl in(«r«st ) and ahould they be damaged by lire or utb«r aecbbinta, Ihn Unm mnat be borne by the iiuUMiuil pro|«fi«t<»ra or (»y (heir inaurcra. The loss of cum, sal'., guano, or ftinillar goMla, arlaing from their lieing pumped up of baibi>« muat Ui initm by the ship- owner. Tlie damage done to tha t!»ri(» l>y m«en* of water thrown down (he babL'lwt* to aatlngnlah an accidental flre, c- by acnHlIng the ship fur that Irtifpoae, la ex- cluded, iy usage, from gaiwrat •varagtf, Thia point a««m« to have never yet been settled by any legal de> cialon { and the usage referred to la considered by tev- eral writer* of high authority to bo at variance with aound principle. It la sometimes defended on the ground that the damage In question is itamdarg and inciilenlal, and not primary and intmiional. But tbia reaaon aeem* somewhat fanciful for the purposes of equity, and is, bcaidea, Inconaistent with the analogy of certain other cases, where an opposite principle 1* practically recognized ; as, for Instance, in the case of gooda incidentally damaged in eS'ccling a Jettison of other gooda. The amount of compensation (o be made for goods sacrllTced by general average acta ia determ- ined by the net market price they would have pro- duced on arrival at the port of deatination had they not been aacriflced ; but under deduction of the freight attaching to them (which is made good to the ship- owners), and of the charges for duties and landing ex- penses which are aaved. We now proceed to notice the general average acts which involve aacriflces of part of the Mp vr her uuile- riali. The same principles which regulate the case of goods thrown overboard apply also to the jettison of the ahip'a chaina, anchora, hawaera, spars, boats, or other stores. But if water-casks are stowed on deck, or If chains and hawsers are carried on deck when tlio vessel Is not near the land, so as to render it necessary that they should be so carried, the loss arising from the jettison of these articles falls on the ship-owner ; and if boats are jettisoned in consequence of their having been broken adrift from their fastenings on deck by the force of the sea, they are excluded from general average, and are charged to particular aver- age on the ship. The damage done to the ship by cutting holes to cfTcct a jettison of the cargo, or to pour down water to extinguish a Are, or by scuttling her for that purpose, is allowed as a general average charge. The damage arising from cutting or knocking away a portion of the ship's bulwarks in order to prevent the deck from being flooded in a storm, is compensated in the same manner. AVhen sails or masts are cut away In order to righten a ship which has been thrown un her l)eam-ends, or to prevent her fium driving on a lee shore, the loss la made good by average contribu- tion ; but if the object in cutting away a sail or spar be merely to save a matt, the loss is not made good in general average. It frequently happens that masts or yards are sprung and carried away by the force of the wind, and are left entangled in the rigging, or hanging over the ship's side in what is termed " a state of wreck ;" in these circumstances it becomes necessary to cut them away, with the sails and rigging attached, and lo throw the whole overboard, otherwise they would impede the navigation, ind endanger the ship and cargo. On this ground it is held by some authorities that the loss caused by the act of cutting them away should be made good by average -jontribution. But this act is the direct consequence of the previou.^ accident, which places these articles in a situation where it is impossi- ble to save them without imperiling the shi]), cargo, and lives. It would not be reasonable to imperil these for such a purpose; wliencc it follows that tlie dis- placed articles are already rirtualbj irrecoverably lost by means of the original accident, before the loss U act- ually consummated by cutting them away. And as the general interest ought not to be endangered for the purpose of attempting to save these articles, so neither should it be implicated in the loss resulting from the only remaining alternative of clearing them away. This loss is accordingly excluded, by the usage of (his country, from average contribution. On ti,e same principle, no contribution can be demanded for any ar- ticles which are sacrificed as having themselves be- come, through previous accident, the immediate cause of danger to the whole interest. The loss of sails or spars, in consequence of carr}-ing AYE 81 AVB carrjing • pNu of eaayai to avoid ■ l«»«hori, or to oicape from ■a «namy, U not tbo lulOoet of goneral »varag« In thli country ; nolthar ii the damago luffiired by tho ihlp from Mraming, undar any inch aztraordinary pr«M of tail. Whan aaohon and cablet are illppad from in ordar to woric a vaual olTa le«-ihor«, or to avoid oolli- ilon with aiiothar iblp, the loaa is made good by aver- age contribution ; bat if the cable it slipped in ordar that the vesiel may join convoy, or beoauia the anchor haa beoome hoolted to some o^ect at the bottom and ean not be raised, the loss is borne by the shipowner. When sails, ropes, or other materials are out op and used at sea for tho purpose of stopping leaks or to rig jurymasts, or when the common benefit requires that they should be applied to some purpose for which they were not originally Intended, the loss is made good in fienoral average. The same rule applies to the case of bawsers, cables, anchors, sails, or boats, lost or dam- aged in attempting to force olT a stranded vessel from the shore. The damage sustained in defending a ship against a pirate or an enemy is not the sulfject of gen- •ral average ; it it treated as particular average on the ship. It has been much debated by writers on maritime law, whether the voluntary stranding of a ship, in or- der to prevent her from foundering, should be treated as a general or as a particular average lots. In the United States It has been settled, by judicial decision, that the lost in question constitutes a general average claim ; but the opposite doctrine is acted upon in tho usage of Great Britain, and the point has never been raised Itefore the courts of law. It appears to us that Iba argument greatly preponderates against the rule adopted in the United States, and in favor of the usage tatablithed in Great Britain. The only reason for re- garding this loss as the subject of general average it, that it originates in the intentional act of running the ship aground, for the preservation, as far as possible, of the whole interest concerned. But it can seldom be Icnown beforehand how the diflferent interests at stake will be specially aflhcted by the act in question ; wheth- er, for instance, the damage to the cargo may not be more serious than the damage to the ship, or vice vtrta. Thus no particular part of the interest can be said to be intentionally sacriflced for the benefit of the whole ; the intention, indeed, is not to sacriAce any one part, but to place the whole Interest in' a situation of less peril than it would otherwise have been in. What particu- lar damages may thereafter ensue to either ship or car- go will depend, in each case, on a variety of circum- stances entirely accidental in their character, and there- fore in no proper sense the subject of previous inten- tion. The same rule, therefore, which excludes from general average accidental damages in all other cases ought to exclude them in this case also. Moreover, when the alternatives are, either that the vessel be left to founder, or that she be run ashore with a chance of preservation, there can really l>e no room for choice, or, at all events, the elements of will and intention are entirely subordinate in the part they must play under the pressure of the existing circumstances ; and in this view the stranding Is as truly inevitable as if it had been caused by the force of the winds and waves alone. But, even were these reasons less weighty than we hold them to be, a serious practical objection might be urged against tho doctrine that voluntary stranding should be a general average loss, on the ground that it would in most cases bo impossible to distinguish be- tween the damages received by tho ship and cargo prior to the stranding, and those sustained after or in consequence of it. It is needless to remark, that be- fore a ship can be in such imminent danger of found- ering as to render it necessary to run her ashore, she must be presumed to have sustained a ver}' considera- ble amount of damage ; and the probability is, that the cargo alto will have suffered to a corresponding ex- tent . p to this point these damages are confessedly F ptirrteulor artraga | and ware it held that Iha damaftt after the stranding ware the tul^t o( general avstaft, It would, of course, ba neeattary to distinguish the sep- arate damagai that belonged to each. Ilul In avery case these diflkrent damages would exist In varying proportions, yet always so Ineorporatad together that justice could never have a more parplasing task than that of diterimlnating batwaen than. No ganaral rule could be applied that would msai the widely dlf> ferent eirenmitaneas of aaeb particular cat* | and tha arbitrary method of aiUiistmsnt that would alon* ba poestbia would doubttosa glva risa to endless dissatis- faction and dispute. On tbt ground of sxpadienoy, therefore, as well as on that of principle, tho usage now established in Qrsat Britain ought to be maintained, notwithstanding tha bigb antboritiaa by whom tbs op- posite haa been eountenanoed. The aaiount of general avsraga loftason tho ship it compensated by allowing to tbs owners the cost of^re* pairs, or of new materials In place ot those sacriflced, sulfjeet to the deduction of one-third for tba dlffrrenco of value between old and new ; bat no deduction Is made from the cost of new anchors, and only one-sixth is deducted from the cost of new ebain cabMS, If the ship ba on her flrst voyage (which la bald to include the homeward as well •§ m» outward pusags), tba re- pairs and new materials are allowed til Aill. Kitraordinary k'ipendtiurtt.-'Whtn a ship Is obliged to put into a port of refuge, in coasequenoe of damage received In the course of tba voyage, tba usage In Great Briuin is to allow as general average all the charge* connected with the entrance of tba vestal into tba port, and with tha landing and wartbeosliig of the cargo, when this Is necessary to admit of the ship l>elng re- paired. Thus the expanses vt pilotage or other assist- ance into the port, tlie harbor does ami similar charges, the coats of the protest tal>iin by tha matter and crew, and of the survsy held to asiwrtain woeiiwr um cargo requires to be discharged, together with the charges for landing the cargo and cwivsying It to a warthouse or other place of tabty, are all made good at general average. The eotts of repairing tba tbip rre charged to general average only in to far at lb* repairs may refer to damages which ar* thsniselve* tho propor sub- ject of general contribution, if the damages are of the nature of particular average, a* It mure usually the case, they are charged accordingly ; or if they pro- ceed from " wear and tear," they are stated agalntt the ship-owner. The warehouse rent for the cargo at a port of mfugo, and any expends connected with it* preservation, form tpecial chargei agklnst that particular interest, and are borne by the proprietor* of the goodt, or by their Insurers. When goods aro Insured "free from particular average, unless tlia ship Iw stranded," It Is necessary. If the ship has nut lieen stranded, to distin- guish the charges for wamhoute rent and Are insur- ance from those Incurred in connection with the pres- ervation of the goods from tli« ofTvcls of damage ; tho underwriters being llublo fur the furmor, but not fur the latter. Tho expenses of rcsltipplng the cargo, and the pilotage or other charges tmlwiird, are liome by the freight. Ii the entire cargo can not be taken nn board again, from tho want, at the port of refuge, of the usual facilities for stowing it, the loss or expanses resulting from the exclusion of part of it are not treated. In Great Britain, as the subject of general contribution. The wages and provisions of the tnast«r and crow during the period of detention at a port of refuge are not a Tha axpantat Incnntd In gattlng • ttrandtd iMp off tha ground, tha hlra of axtnt handa to pump a iblp which haa apruog • leak, and tha lumt awarded for Mlvaga or for othar tervlccs rendered to tha ihlp and cargo under any extraordinary emergenciaf, are com> paniated by average contribution. But thii rule ap- pile* only to tho aartraaMW auielanoa that may have been obtained j the crew iielng luund to do their ut> mott in tho lervicn of the Mp on all occaiioni, without uxtttt remuneration for what they might conaider ex. traordinary exerliona on tlieir part. Tha coata of ra> claiming the ship and cargo after having been cap. tured, are allowed a« general average chargea ; and although ronton to an enemy is prohibited in Great Britain by legal enactment, it leemi that thi* do«i not apply to the ooae of money or goods given up by way of compoaitlon to piratea for the lilieration of the (hip and cargo, and that thit would alio form • lub- Ject of average contribution. When the ahip and cargo arrive at the port o/ dot. tination, it ia unneceisary, in ordinaiy cawa, to dittin. guiah, In the a<\juatment of the ,(enoral average, lie- tween the losaes which have ariaen from Mtcr\ficti, anil thoae which have reaulled from expendilurtt fur the com. ■ion benefit. But if the xhip and cargo ahould bo loat before reaching their destination, no contribution la due fbr thegooda or ahlp's maleriali which may have been murffktd at a former stage of the voyage, the ownara being In no worse position than their coalvenlarart. Font or AY AvtBAoa BoxD. Wherea« the , whereof ■■ — — Is having on board a cai|o of morchandlaa, tailed tnm tlia port of . bound for , and, In tlie due proteeu. tlon of her tatd rnj»ge, bj which meant certain lotaea and eipenaes hava Itaan Incurred, and other eipenaaa hereafter ma^ be Incurred, In eonaeqneiiea thereof, obleh (aeaording to tha utate of tbia port) oonatltnta a general average, to be apportluned on the aald veatel, her carnlnga aa freight, and the aargo on board. Now we, the aubtcrthara, ownera, ahlppert, contlKnce>, agenta, or attnmajra of certain eonalgnaaa of aald veawt or eargo, do hsrabjr, for ounHlres, our exeeulon, and ad- minlatratart, aeverallf and raapectlvel^, hut not Jointly, or one for the others, covenant and agree to and with ■ , that the loaa and damage albreaaid, and other Ineldcntal expenaes thereon, aa aliall be niaito to appear to be due from ua, the aubacrlbera to them prea- ent>, either aa owners, ahlppera, eonttgneca, agenta, or atlombjra of certain eonalgneea of aald veaael or eargo, •hall be paid by na reapectlTelr, necordlng to our parte or aharea In the said veawl, her eamlnga aa flight, and her aald cargo, aa ahall belong or be ronalgnad to ua, or aliall belong or be conalgned to any person or i craona with whom we are copartners, agenta, or attornnjrii, or In anv manner concenied therein ; provided audi losaea and expenaea afonmentloned be Bt«ted and apportioned by John Robertaon and Itichnrd Wllllama Inauranee bro- kers, In accordance with the eatahllahed iiaage and laos of this State In ainillar caae*. And for the true perform- ance of all and aingular In the premiaei we do acverally hereby bind ouraelvea, and our reapectlre heira, exacu- tora, and admlnlatrators, to .:. i aald In the penal aum of dollars, lawful money of the United Btatea. In witness whereof we have to theee presents set our hand, In the city of New York, this dny of — — , In the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and — IVreck md Salvage, by Martin, 18SS. The contribution for general average losses is regu. lated by the values of the respective interests for the benefit of which they were incurred. The practical rale adopted, In all ordinar}' catea, is to estimate tho •hip, cargo, and tteiffht, and their tut voliiaa to thalr ownara, in lh« data In which tbay arrtra at iha port of dasllnatloa, 6nI kelmlkg in lk4H wtlun ik* tasw wuuU gaodfiir nuirifU'U, anii lo aiaaaa the contribution accordingly. The aaaaialty for thelndlng the amount of companiAtloii mwU for saarllleaa In the valuatlona on whioh tha oontribnllnn la ehargad, arlaea from tha principle that all lbs parties Interested In ths adven- ture slwuld bear tha ultimata loss In exact proportion to their raapaeliva Inlerssta, which would not be tha caaa if the owners of the arllclaa sarrlHcsd were to ra- cover llmlr full value wltbot't Iielng themselves assest- sd for Ih lose lhara«M in Iha sania manner as their co> adventurers, Tha contributory v.tliM tA the th\p Is accordingly her actual value lu her owner in lh« state In which aha ar- rives, wlialher damaged of otherwise. Including tha •um mode gaox.'( a uf traffic must >'« Included In the valuation of the cargo ; but Ilia wi-aring ipparel, or pcraonal cftects, of tha passengers and crew are exempted fttim contrl. butlon. The valua of ihe/fiii'ii for contribution ia the sum racslved by Iha sbl> <• ner on the completion of the voyage for the carrl*{i' uf l!i« cargo, after deducting from that aum the wages then Ju«, the port charges at the place ul dettlnatlon, and the special charges agalnat the freight which may have been Inrnrrcd at a port of refuge, consisting of tha cosl« of rfshlpplng the cargo, and of outward pilotage, etc, Tha provisions for the voyage are not ditducted, as thrse are held lo have formed par; ot tha original value of the ihip. if the (height baa lieen paid In advance, It forms ^art of tha value of Ilia i/midt, and, cons««|uentty, does not con. tributo as a separata interest. It has lieen decided that when • vessel baa been originally chartered for a double voyage, tha whutti freight which the general average li ad- Juaud ( n ihe arrival of the ihlp and gooda at tha port of deatiiiallon, Tha sulijeet of general average Is only Incidentally connected with that of marine Insurance, being itself a diatinct branch uf maritime law. But tho su^ect of particular average arises directly out of tho contract of Insurance, and will therefore lie Imat considered In connection with It.-K, B, Htt IdsOKAXCK, Mamikk. Hqj /iirllier inforniillcin with respect to the subject AVO 88 BAH I for a undw valiw, irhich ill Tula royago, , liable oouTie ohkh ,ny for- provcd e coun- llng on thongh ugh the t froni n. The in the aritlme liad- ,h*port Icntallr • itaeir ^ect of lontract end in lAnlKK. leuliject of average, Ihe reader ii referred to the famoui work of M. Valix, Cumtnrntairt ikr rOnlimnauce tcrcupteii betwenn the nit'H'llan of the place anU tiM vertical circle pauing througli the centre uf the olfject. Atimuth, MuymlicM, an arc of the horizon inter- cepted between the vertical circle paaeing through the centre of any heavenly body and the luagnetlual m»- ridiin. AumiUk Vomfmu, an Inatrumenl for llnding either the uiagnetlcal ailinuth or amplitude of a Ikeav- enly ol^ect. Aximnlh CircUt, called alao (uimuthi or virtiail circUi, are great circles of the aphere luleraect* ing each other In the zenith and nadir, and cutting the horizon at right anglen. Un theao are reckoned the height of the atari and that of the lun when not In the meridian.— E. U. Asos* Ships {tnm the Spanlah ruojue, mtrcurj/), voaaela which carried quickailvcr to the Hpanleh Weat Indloa, In order to extract the allverfrom the mlnet of Mexico and I'eru. They carried no goods escept fbr the king.— £. B. r B. Bacon and Bwim. The former Is made (Vnm the llded ai>d lielly of the pig, and the luttcr from its hind lega. The process of cuiing may lie efl'ccted inditTor- ently by the employment of salt or sugar, orl>oth; but the tlrit is by fur the most commonly used. After being impregnated with salt or augar, and allowed to remiiin a certain time In the aolutinn, the bacon and hnma nro taken out, dried, and smoked. In tho Stutca of Uhlo, Indiana, Kentucky, Virginia, Maryland, etc., large quuntitica of l>acun are put up yearly for do- mestic use and for export. The counties of England most celebrated for bacon and hams ..re York, Hants, Derka, and Wilta. Ireland producea great quantities of both ; but they are coanio, not ao well cured as the English, and much lower priced. Of the Scotdi coun- ties, Diimfrios, Wigtown, and Kirkcudbright are cel- ebrated fur tho excellence of the'.* bacon and hams, ->f which they export large quantities, principally to the Liverpool and I^ndun markotn. — See I'ouK Tkadk. BaggagO, in Commrrcml yarii/dtion, tho wearing apparel and other arti'^les destined for tho sole use or accommodation of the crews and passengers of ships. Bahamaa, or Luoayaa, a chain of islands stretch- ing in a northwesterly direction from the north coast of St. Domingo to that of East Florida, and lying l>c- twcen lat. 21" and 27° 80' N., ond :ong. 70"" 30' and 70" 5' W. The group is componed of alwut twenty in- habited islands, and an innnense number of islets and rocks. The principal islands in thia group .are New Providonce, containing tho capital, Nassau ; Harbor Island; Abaco; Eleuthorn ; Hencaguo, or Inagua; Mayaguana ; St. Salvador ; Andros Island ; Groat Dahuma; Kugged 'stand ; Rum Cay ; Exuma; Long Island ; Crooked Island ; Long Car ; Watling's Isl- and ; tho Cuicos, the Turks, and the Berry Islands. Most of these islands aro situated on those remarka- ble flats called the Great and Little Bahama Bunks, and some out ofaoundings in *he ocean. The Great Bahama Bank is alwut 30o miles in length from northwest to southeast, and 100 in breadth ; and the Little Bahama la almut 130 miles long. Tho jslanda have, in general, a very flat appearance, and many of them consist nf mere bleak and barren rocks. The soil in those that are under cultivation is thin, nnd generally light and sandy, but interspersed with occaaional patches of rich mould. The substratum, so far as has Iwen ascer- tained, consists of calcareous rocks, composed of coral, shcUa, madrepores, and marine deposits hardened into solid masses. The surface stratum is a combination of debris of tho rock, cxuvio), and decayed regotable matter. Though destitute of running streams, they possess numerous springs ; and by digging wells down to the level of the sea, fresh water is obtained. The productions of tho soil comprehend all tho varieties of a tropical climate. Prov.'alons— such as maiw, yarns, sweet potatoes, etc. ; and fruits, as oranges, lemons, pino-apples, cocoa-nuts, etc. — are produced in abund' unce. 'i'here are also several species of valuable trees ; as muliogany, fustic, lignum vitot, cedars, pines, etc. Oxen, sheep, horses, poultry, and a great variety of live stock aro reared ; and wild hogs and ngoutis ar« found In the woods. There are many varieties of birds, and tho shores and creeks nliound in turtle and excellent fish of various kinds. In the most southerly islands are salt ponds of great value. — E. B. Bahla, or Bt Salvador, a large city (formerly a capital) of Brazil, contiguous to ('ape St. Antonio, which forms the right or eastern side of tho entrance of the noble bay of 'Todos os Santos, or All-Saints, 170 miles southwest of Sergipo del Rey, and about 860 miles north-northeast of Rio Janeiro. Population 100,000, one-third uf whom are whites, one-third muluttocs, and tho rest blacks. According to the ni)servatluns of M. Roussin, the light-house on the Cape Is In lat. 13° 0' 30" S., long. 88° 80' \V. Tho opposite side of the entrance to the bay is formed by the Island of Taporica, distant from Cape St. Antonio about 2^ leagues. But a bank along the shore uf the island narrows tho passage for large ships to about two-thirds this distance. Another bunl. runs south-southwest from Cape St. Antonio al)OUt li leaguca. Withtn, the buy expands into a capacious basin, having several islands and harbors, the depth of water vnrying from 8 and 10 to 40 futhoms, uff'ord. ing ample accommodation and secure anchorage for the largest fleets. There is another entrance to the Imy, partly exhibited In the annexed plun, on the west aide of the I. land of Taporica ; but it iy narrow, intricate, and at iiH mouth has not more tliun six feet water. Several rivers have their omlKiiichui'e in the bay, which genoral'y uccuaions a current to set iicra the north end of the island by Cape St. Antonio. Bit". IMKMT or SuoAB ExeoBTzn raoM Bauia nnBino rna \'SAa I.S&C-'.'iT, ooMrABED wiTU Tua KxroBT ron tub ■EAB 1858 -"60. Wlilthar •xportfld. (Jliamu'l, llrUUIi... Uroat Brttnin Uerinany Ilnlland France Sweden Portugal Gibraltar (ienoa , Trieste United States Klver Platte Paolflo Africa Total, lS6fl-M. Total, 18l«-'n6. 11,023 4,801t 1,019 40B 484 8,2.18 T,8»9 2,402 i'"73 1,401 4 :13,S8» .T>,316 1811 138 10 1 1 403 180 i 2 8 1S4 Vila SOS B«m. 41,440 70,414 10,283 1,TT5 14,110 1,707 12,628 21,813 »,6!M) 1,'«4 13,144 »,n»7 1,683 00 203,284 170,178 Ton. 10,I(KI 8,100 1,390 ass ],n2(l 6,tB8 8,154 «B7 (180 1,840 TiB 16 8 80,651 83,100 WMt, tttUtA In IM*. br ThoMu a)r than cnnid ba acqulrad from any dcioriptlnn. It la copltd, wllhnat any raduetlon, from a ravlud adillon of a Portuipiua chart puhlUhad liv Mr. Ijiuria, and axklblta tha banka, aonadlnga, au-horaga, ate. r.l .1 ) «■■ fc- »»■ ♦»■ >!, airi Mfftrmea to Iht flan.— A, Cape, llcht-bouM, and fort of M. Anionloi B, Fort do Mar; C, Foit St. Phllipi D, Tapagtppe ; E, Ida do Mar; F, Ida do* Fradoa; O, Fort BeaumoBL The figurea in the plan are the wundlngB In hthoma. Balllffi, or Sherifb, are aald to be of Saxon origin. London had ita lAtre-me prior to the Conqueat, and thia officer waa generally appointed (br countiea in En- gland in 1079. SherilTa were appointed in Dublin, under the name of baUiffe, In 1808 ; and the name waa changed to sheriflT, 1648. There are atill aome places where the chief roagiatrate is callnl bail! AT, aa the high bailifT of Weatminster. The term num-builiff ia a cor- mptlon of bound'iMiiliif, every bailift' being obliged to enter into bonds of security for his good belUvior. — BLACKarOKE. Balaohong, an article consisting of pounded or braised flsh. It consists principally of small tish, with prawns and shrimps. Though fetid and offena- ive to strangers, this substance, used aa a condiment to rice, ia laiigely consumed in all the countries to the •aat of Bengal, Including the southern provinces of China, and tha islands of the Eastern Archipelago. Its distribution gives rise to an extensive internal traffic. BalUlCS, a machine for ascertaining the weight of substances. There are several Idnds of balances, as the common balance or scales, tlie steelyard, the Dan- ish or Swedish balance, the Chinese balance, the hy- drostatic balance, etc. Tlie same name is also given to certain liinds of apparatus for measuring or compar- ing the intensities of very small forces, us the balance of torsion, the electric balance, etc. — K. I). Jialauce, In accounts, is the term used to express the difference between the debtor and creditor sides of an account. Balance of Trade, in Commerce, is the term com- monly used to express the difference between the val- ue of the exports ft-om and imports 'into a country. The balance is said to be favoralde when the value of the exports exceeds that of the imports, and unfavor- able when the value of the imports exceeds that of tha BAL H BAl •sport*. Aeconllnii lIU«, ilur- InK Um y»t andlim nU f Januacr, IMX, MnounUtl to X10'i,lliO,M7 ; mill tli. ifflcld viUuo of tko InipvrU durlnK iho y- Jrcl uf lh« itreti»'i liii|mrUnf». I'lui pnidiiuii iiirUU, In cunM<4U«nc« of tlmtr Mnn uuA u niuiiay , wan lung oonaldfrad ai thn only ml wttllh that coulil Im pua- •uiMil «Ub«r by Inillviiluida or natkunt. Anil »• luun- U let without mine* iHiuld act obtain nupplla* of than DMlula axcapt In axchantta for axportcd proilULti, It waa I'unrliiiind that If tha value of tho commudltlea •xporlfd vxciwdad Ihatof thoaa lm|Kirteaad on the frndoin uf I'ninineri'o during tlia laat two rantu- rira grew nut nf thia notion. The iinportanco of hav- ing a favorable balance being univeraally admitted, •vary alTort waa made to attain it ; and nothing aeemed ■o effactual for thia purpoaa aa tha devlaing of aKhemea lo facilitate exjiurtation, and to hinder the iin|Mirtatlon of alinoat all pruducta, axcapt gulil and ailver, that wars not intended fur future exportation. Hut the gradual though alow growth of auundor opininna with rea|M!ct to the nature and functliina uf money, ahowed the futility of a ayatein of policy having auch oltjecta In view. It la now conceded on all handa that gold •nd ailver are nothing but cominMlltliia, and that it la In no raapect neceaaary to interfere, either to en- courage their Importation or to prevent their exporta- tion. The truth la, iiowever, that tha theory uf the b.ilance of trade la not erroneoua merely from the (klae notiona which ita advocates entertained with rcapect to money, but prnceeda on radically miatiikcn viewa aa to the nature of commerce. The mmle In which the Italance la naually catlmated ia, indeed, completely fallacioua. Suppoaing, however, that it could !« cor- rectly aacertalnad, It would b* found, in oppoaltion to the common opinion, that the Importa Into every com- mercial country generally exceed the exports; and that when a balance la formed, It la only In certain eaaea, and thoae of rare occurrence, that It la canceled by a bullion payment. He proper buaineas of tha wboleanle merchant con- •tits In carrying the various products of the difTerent countries of tho world from the places where their val- ue Is least to those where It Is greatest ; or, which is the same thing. In distributing them according to the efTective demand. It Is clear, however, that there could be no motive to export any spooiea of produce, unless that which It waa intended to import in its stead were of greater value. When an Kngllsh merchant commissions a quantity of Polish wheat, he calculates on Its selling for ao much more than ita price in I'u- land, as will l>e sufficient to pay the expense of fk'eight, insurance, etc., and to yield, besides, tho common and ordinary rate of profit on the capital employed. If the wheat did not sell for this much, its Importation would obviously bo a loss to the Importer. It Is plain, then, that no merchant ever did or ever will export, but In the view of Importing something more voluulde In re- turn. And ao far from an excess of exports over Im- ports lieing any criterion of an advantageous com- merce, it is directly the reverse ; and the truth Is, not- withstanding all that has lieen said nud written to the contrary, that unless the value of the importa sxceed- ed that of the exports, foreign trade could not be car- ried on. Were this not the case — that Is, were tho value of the exporta alwaya greater than the value of ihe importa — merchanta would lose on every transac- tion with foreigners, and the trade with them would be speedily abandoned. lo Engiaiid, tho rates at which all articles of export •nd Import ar* oilelally valued were Axed ao far baek aa IdUfl. But tha vary graat altaratlon that haa aine* taken plara, nut oidy In tha valua uf moiMv, but aiae In the coal of moat part of tha commodltlw produced in thia and othar rauntrUa, baa randored thU oAlclal valuation, lho«igh valuable aa a maana uf lUlarrainlng their quantity, uf nu uae whatever aa a critarlun uf tlia true valua uf Ilia axixirta and lm|H>fla. In order to remedy thia defect, an aci-uuiit uf tho iciWur lUtUrtd value of the exporta ta annually pniMtrwl, frun the (Iccluratluiu of thu marciuinta, and laid Iwfure I'arll^ mant : thara la, bowevar, no auch avrnunt uf the Inw ports ; and, owing to the dilHcultles which high dullaa throw In tho way, It la, perlinpa, Impoaallile to f^am* one with any thing like avouracy. It haa alao boea alleged, aiul apparantly with aoma pn>lMbility, that merchanta hava not unrrequentl> lioaii In Ihe habit of exaggerating tha valua of arllcias enlltird to draw- Itai'ka on exiMirtatiun; liut the recent extanaion and improvement of tlm warehoualng ayalem, and Ihn dinw inutloii of the numlier uf drawbiicka, muat materially leaaen whatever fraud or inaccuracy may hava ariaen trom thia aourca. Most artlclaa ware formerly charged with an ad mUortm duty of Ida. per cent, on asporta> tlon, ao that, If any thing, their value waa probably rather under than overrateil ; but now that this duty bus lieen reiwaletl (A and 6 Vict. cap. 47, | 40), tha presumption is that their declared value comes very near tho truth ; at laaat, aufllclvnily ao for all practical purpoaef. Now the declared value of the exporta of (irnat lirlUin in 11141 waa 4:61,084,6211, being only altout half their otHclal valua, and n«uly 118,000,0(10 under the ofHcial valua of the imports. What the ax- ceaa uf the latter might lie, had we the meana of com- paring tiielr real valua with that of the ex|iorta. It ia im- poaallile to aay ; but there can lie no manner of donbt that, generally apeaking, It would lie very conaideri^ ble. The valua of an ex|iartey the expenso Incurred In traito- (wrtlng It to the place of Its destination ; whareaa tho value of tha commodity Imparted in ita stead la esti- mated ttfltr It has arrived at Its destination, and, oon- aequently, after It haa been enhanced by the coat at ftwight, inaurance, importer'a proHts, etc. In the United States, the value of the importa, M asc«rt:'fned by the custom-house returns, alwaya ex- ceeds the value of the exports. And although prac- tical politicians havo been in the habit of considering the excess of the former aa a certain proof of a disad- vantageous commerc*, " It is nevertheless true," say* Mr. Pitkin, "that the real gain of the Unlud State* has been nenrly in proporiiun at their intportt havt ex- CMifcrf Ikfir tiporli." — Commtrrt of Ike Unittd Stattt, 2ded. p. 2H0. The great excess of American importa has In part lieen occasioned by the Americans gener- ally exporting their own surplus produce, and, conse- quently, receiving tiom foreigners not only en equiva- lent for their exports, but also for the coat of convey- ing them to the foreign market. '* In 1811," says the author Just quoted, "dour sold in America for niiM doilari and a half per barrel, and In Spain for Ji/ietn doUart. The value of the cargo of a vessel carrying 6000 barrel* of flour would, therefore, l« estimated at the period of Ita ex|)ortation at 47,500 dollars ; but a* this fluur would aell, when carried to Spain, for 76,000 dollars, the American merchant would be entitled to draw on his agent in Spain for 27,600 dollars more than the flour coat in America, or than the sum for which he could have drawn had the flour lieen exported in a vessel belonging to a S|>aniah merchant. But tho transaction would not end here. The 76,000 dolUn would be veated in some species of Spanish or othar European goods flt for the American market ; and the freight, insurance, etc., on account of the return car- go, would probably Increase its value to 100,000 doU lari, so that, in all, the American merchant might i^Ai 86 *At have Importjd goodg worth 52,800 dollars more than the flour originally sent to Spain." It is as impossible to deny that such a transaction as this Is advantageous, as It is to deny that its advantage consists entirely In the excess of the value of the goods imported over the value of those exported. And it is equally clear that America might have had the real balance of payments 111 her faror, though such transactions as the above had been multiplied to any conceivable extent. The argument about the Iwlance of payment is one of those that contradict and confute themselves. Had the apparent excess of exports over imports, as Indi- cated by the British custom-house books for the last hundred years, been always paid In bullion, as the supporters of the old theory contend is the case, there should at this moment be about 450,000,000 or 600,000,000 of bullion in the country, instead of 60,000,000 or 60,000,000, which it Is supposed to •mount to! Nor is this all. If the theory of the balance be good for any thing — if it be not a mere Idle delusion — it follows, as every country In the world, with the single exception of the United States, has its favorable balance, that they must be paid by an annual importation of bullion fWim the mines corresponding to their aggregate amount. But it Is certain that the entire produce of the mines, though it were Increased in a tenfold proportioii, would be insufficient for this purpose ! This redvetio ad abmrdum is decisive of the degree of credit that should be attached to conclusions respecting the flourishinff state of the commerce of any country drawn fh)m the excess of the exports over the imports ! Not only, therefore, is the common theory with respect to the balance of trade erroneous, but the rery reverse of that theory Is true. In thejirat place, the value of the commodities imported by every coun- try which carries on an advantageous commerce (and no other will lie prosecuted for any considerable period) invariably exceeds the value of those which she ex- ports. Unless such were the case, there would plainly be no ftind whence the merchants and others cngnged in foreign trade could derive either a protit on their capital, or a return for their outlay and trouble ; and in the ncond place, whether the balance of debt be for or against a country, that balance will neither bo paid nor received in bullion, unless it be at the time the commodity by the exportation or importation of which the account may bo most profitably settled. What- ever the partisans of the doctrine as to the balance may say about money being a preferable product, or marchimdisf par ercel/enee, It is certain it will never •ppenr in the list of exports and imports, while there is any thing else with which to carry on trade, or cancel debts, that will yield a larger profit, or occasion • less expense to the debtors. It is difficult to estimate the mischief which the ab- sard notions relative to the balance of trade have occa- sioned in almost ererj' commercial country ; in Great Britain they have lieen particularly injurious. It Is principally to the prevalence of prejudices to which they have given rise that the restrictions on the tr.ide lie- tween England and France are to be ascribed. The great, or rather the only argument Insisted upon by those who prevailed on the legislature, in the reign of William and Marj-, to declare the trade with France a Huitance, was founded on the statement that the valne of the imports from that kingdom consideraldy exceed- ed the valne of the commodities Great Britain exported to it. The balance was regarded as a Iribule paid by En- gland to Franco ; and it was sagaciously asked, What had wa done, that we should be obliged to pay so much money to our natural enemy ? It never occurred to those who so loudly abused the French trade, that no merchant would import any commodity from France, anless it brought a higher price in the country than the commodity exported to pay it ; and that the profit of the merchant, or the national gain, would lie In •uet proportion to this excess of price. The veiy reas KXrOUTKO >'BOM THE Uniteu 8tatxs ANNUALLY rROU 1821 TO 1SB5 INCLtlSIVE; AND ALSO TUK AMotiNT or Importation oveb Extoetation, and or Ex- portation ovEa Impobtation, dcrinu the same Yeaeb. y«rf •ndlnff COIN AND Bl'I.I.I0N. | Elms of Im- KiMn ef Ex. portAlion oTW IniporUlioa. StpJHI. InpoiM. KiporUd. portalion ovtr KiporlUlm. 1821 :ji8.064,890 $10,478,069 Kl2,418,169 1822 l),Se»,84« 10,810,180 7,440,884 1888 6,097,896 6,872,187 1,275,091 1824 8,37»,8S6 7,014,662 $1,866,283 1S26 6,160,706 8,932,034 «,TS1,208 182« 6,880,966 4,704,633 2,176,483 182T 6,161,130 8,014,88" 136,260 1828 7,489,741 8,248,476 768,736 1S29 7,403,612 4,924.1120 2,479,692 1830 8,166,064 2,178,773 6,97T,191 isai 7,8(16,946 9,014,931 1,708,986 1632 6,907,604 6,66«,S40 261,164 1883 7,070,308 2,011,701 4,468,661 1884 17,911,082 2,070,768 16,834,874 1836 13,181,447 0,477,n8 6,668,672 1830 18,400,881 4,824,330 9,076,646 1837 10,616,414 6,976,249 4,640,166 18SS 17,747,116 3,r)08,040 14,230,070 18S» 6,696,176 8,770,743 8,181,607 1840 8,882,818 8,417,014 406,790 1841 4,988,683 10,034,832 5,Ot6.a:<<) 1842 4,087,016 4,813,639 72(i,Ci;3 1S43' 22,390,669 1,620,791 20,809,708 1844 t6,830,429 6,464,814 876,216 1846 4,070,242 8,600,4(16 4,N';o.-;6.'i 1840 3,777,733 3,906,268 127,6M 1847 24,121,289 1,907,024 22,214,206 1848 0,360,224 16,841,610 9,481,89? 184D 6,661,240 6,404,048 1,946,692 1860 4,628,792 7,622,994 2,894,202 Lsei 6,463,692 29,472,762 24,019,100 1862 6,606,1144 42,074,186 87,Iflfl,()Sl 1868 4,201,882 27,488,876 23,286,498 18M 6,768,687 41,197,8vO S4,4iW,713 i866 «,6Ml,812 &0,247,&43 i-3i»,602,713 62,6H7,6.'!1 «28U,(Hi8,M4 $112,301,646 1 $2l3,80t>,T44 * Nine monUis. t 12 months ending June 80. Bale, a pack, or certain quantity of goods or mer- chandise ; as a hale of silk, cloth, etc. Halet are al- ways marked and numbered, that the merchants to whom they belong may know them, and the marks and numliers correspond to those In the bills of lading, etc. Selling under the hale, or under the cord; is a term used In France and other countries for selling goods wholesale, without sample or pattern, and un- opened. Balks, large pieces of timber. Ballaat (l>u. Ualtatt; Fr. Lett; Ger. Ballatt; It. Savortu ; Sp. Ijaitre ; 8w. BaUatt), a quantity of iron, stones, sand, gravel, or any other heavy mnteriul laid in a ship's hold, in order to sink her deeper in the water, and to render her capable of carrying sail with- out being overset. All ships clearing outward, hav- ing no goods on board other than the personal l)aggage of the passengers, are said to be in ballast. The quan- tity of liallast required to lit ships of equal burden for a voyage Is often materially different ; the proportion l>cing always less or more, according to the sharpness or flatness of the ship's bottom, called by seamen the Jhor. The proper ballasting of a ship deserves pecul- iar attention, for, altbougfa it be known that ships In BAL 87 BAL general will not carry aufflcient aail till thej are laden so tliut the HurfHce of tlie water nearly glances on the extreme breadth midships, more than this general knowledge is required. If the ship have a great weight of heavy luilUst, as lead, iron, etc., in the liot- tom, the centre of gravity will Ijo too low in the hold ; this no doubt will enable her to carry a preas of sail, but it will, at the same time, make iter sail heavily, and roll so violently as to run the riali of Iwing dismast- ed. The oltject in ballasting a ship is, therefore, so to dis|)08e of the l)allttst or cargo, that she may be duly poised, and maintain a proper equilibrium on the wa- ter, so as neither to lie too stiff nor too cnmk, qual- ities equally pernicious. If too stiff, she may carry much sail, l)ut her velocity will not bo proportionally increased ; while her masts are endangered by sudden jerks and excessive lultoring. If too crank, she will lie unfit to carry sail without the risk of oversetting. Stiffness in l)allaBting is occasioned by disposing a too great quantity of heavy ballast, as lead, iron, etc., in the bottom, which throws the centre of gravity very near the keel ; and this l)eing the centre almut which the vibrations are made, the lower it is placed, the more violent is the rolling. Crankncss, on the other hand, is occasioned by having too little ballast, or by disposing the ship's lading so as to riiiso the centre of gravity ton high : this also endangers the masts when it blows hard ; for when they cease to be perpen- dicular, they strain on the shrouds in the nature of a lever, which increases as the sine of their obliquity ; and it is superfluous to add, that a ship that loses her masts is in great danger of l)eing lost. Hence the art of ballasting consists in placing the centre of gravity to correspond with the trim and shape of the vessel, so OS to lie neitlier too high nor too low ; neither too fur forwanl, nor too fur uft ; and to lade the ship so deep, tliat the surface nf the water may nearly rise to the extreme breadth midships : she will then curry a good quantity of sail, incline but little, and ply well to windward. — .SVc F.vi,coNKH's Marine Dictiunnry. The mischievous consequences of not attending to the circumstances now mentioned are often experi- enced by ships loading barilla, lirimsta much smaller space than could tt first have been supposed ; so that ships after getting to sea are sometimes oliligcd to return to port to unload a part of their cargo, to prevent their foundering. In such cases, firm dun' nage, such as ouk staves, should, if possible, lie always employed. — .S^e Jackson's Cinnmerce of MtdHerrane^ nil, p. I'2ft-ri8. Ships that have cargoes of light goods on lioard require a quantity of ballast ; increasing, of course, according to the greater lightness of the goods. Balloon. Oalien of Avignon wrote on aerostation In 1765. Dr. Black gave the hint as to hydrogen in 1707. A liuiloon was constructed in France by MM. Montgnltler, in 178R, when Rozier and the Marquis d'Arlandcs ascended at Paris. PlliUro Dcsrozicr and M. Unm.'iin perished in an attempted voyage ttom Boulogne to Kngland, the liallo^n having taken fire, June 14, 1785. At the battle of i"'eurus, the French made iise of a lialloon to reconnoitre the enemy's army, knd convey the oliscrvations l>y telegraph, .June 17, 1794. Garnerin ascended in a lialloon to the height of 4000 feet, and desceniicd by a parachute, Septemlier 21, IHO'i. Gay-Lnssac ascended at Paris to the height of 28,000 feet, Septemlier 0, 1804. Madame Dlanchard aacended from Tlvoli at night, and the balloon, lieing (nrroundc I liy fire-works, exploded, and she was pre- cipitated to the ground and killed, July 6, 1819,— HAVDiC. BidMun (Qer. BaUam; Du. IJaUemi Fr. Saumt/ It. and Sp. HuUumo; Lat. Baltumuin). Balsami an vogetubln Juices, either liquid, or which spontaneously become concrete, consisting of a substance of a reslu- ous nature, combined with benzoic acid, or which are capable of affnniing lienzoic acid by lieing heated alone, or with water. The liquid balsams are cupaiva, opobalaam, balsam of Peru, storux, and Tolu ; the con- crete arc benzoin, dragon's blooil, and red or cuncreta storax. — Ube, 1. Copuiea ^Fr. Haume de C'upuhut Ger. Kopaiva BaUam; Sp. Co/hij/i:), obtained from a tree {Coimiffra) growing in South America and the West India islands. The largest quantity is furnish, ed liy the province of Para, in Uruzil. It is imported in small casks, containing from 1 to 1 ^ cwt. Gcnulna, good copaiva, or copaiba balsam, has a peculiar but agreeable odor, and a bitterish, hot, nauseous taste. It is clear and transparent ; its consistence is that of oil ; but when exposed to the action of the air it l)e> comes solid, dry, and brittle, liko resin. — TiioMaoM'n Vupenaalory. 2, OpdxUsam (Fr. BaUamier de la Afecque ; It. Opa- bahanw; Lat. Baltamum verum album, ^tlgyptincum i Egypt. Baleuan), the most precious of all the balstmi, commonly called Ualm of Gilead. It is the produce of a tree (.Imyi'U Oileadeiitu), indigenous to Arabia and Abyssinia, and truiisplanted at an early |)eriod to Judea. It is obtained liy cutting the Imrk with an axe at the time that the juice is in the strongest circulation. The true balsam is of a pule yellowish color, clear and transparent, about the consistence of Venice turpen- tine, of a strong, penetrating, agreeaiile, aromatic smell, and a slightly bitterish pungent taste. Uy ago it becomes yellower, browner, and thicker, losing by degrees, like volatile oils, some of its finer and more subtile parts. It is rarely, if ever, lirought genuine into this country ; dried Canada balsam lieing gener- ally substituted for It. It was in high repute among the ancients, but is now principally used oa a cos- metic by the 'Turkish ladies. — Drs. Ure and Thomson, The Canada l>alsam, now referred to, is merely ^n« fur- fitniiue. It is the produce of the Pinu» Baltamea, and is imported in casks, each containing about 1 cwt. It has a strong, but not a disagreeable odor, and a bittor- ish taste ; is transparent, whitish, and has the consist- ence of copaiva balsam. — >';<>e Turpentink. " Szafra and Bodcr are the only places in the Hedjuz where the liulsam of Mecha, or Balcssun, can be procured in a pure state. The tree from which it is collected grows in the neighboring m^juntains, but principally upon Djeliel Sobh, and is culled, by the Arabs, Bcshcni. I was informed that it is ft-om 10 to 15 feet high, with a smooth trunk, and thin burk. In the middle of sum- mer, small incisions are made in the bark; and the juice, which Immediately issues, is taken off with tho thumb nnil and put into a vessel. Tho gum ap|iears to lie of two kinds, one of a white, and tlio other of a yel- lowish while color: the first is tho most esteemed, I saw here some of the latter sort in a small sheep-skin, which the Bedouins use in bringing it to market : it had a strong turpentine smell, and its taste was bitter. The people of SzafVa usually adulterate it with seso- mum oil and tar. When they try its purity, they dip their finger into it and then set it on tire ; if it burn without hurting or leaving a mark on the finger, they judge it to be of good quality ; but If it bum the finger as soon as it is set on tire, they consider it to lie adul- terated. I remember to huvo read, in Brucc's Trav- els, an account of the mode of trying it, by letting a drop fall into a cup filled with water ; the good lialsam falling coagulated to the bottom, and the bad dissolv- ing and swimming on tho surface. I tried this ex- periment, which was unknown to tho people hero, and found tho drop swim upon the water ; I trtcd also their test by fire upon tho finger of a Bedouin, who had to regret his temerity ; I tliercfore regarded the balsam sold here as adulterated ; it was of less density than BAL 88 BAL honey. I wished to purchase aome ; but neither my own baggage nor any of the shops of Szafhi could ftir- nlsh any thing lilce a bottle to hold it ; the whole skin wai too dear. The Bedouins, who bring it here, usu- ally demand 2 or 8 dollars per pound for it when quite pure ; and the Szafra Arabs resell it to the hadjeys of the great caravan at between 8 and 12 dollars per pound In an adulterated state. It is bought up principally by Peraians."— Burckuardt's Traveli in Arabia, vol. U. p. 128. 8. Balsam o/Prru (Fr. Baume de Ptru ; Ger. Perw- vianiicker Bidtam; Sp. Bakamo de Quinquina; Lat. Balsamum Peruvianum), the produce of a tree {Myroiy- lan Peruiferum) growing in the warmest parts of South America. The balsafh procured by incisions made in the tree is called tcliiie liquid baltam; that which is found in the shops is obtained by Ixiiling the twigs in water : it is imported in jars, each containing from 20 to 40 pounds weight. It has a fhigrant aromatic odor ^inch resembling that of benzoin, with a warm bitter- kh taste. It is viscid, of a deep reddish-brown color, and of the consistence of honey. 4. Slorax (Fr. Siorax; Ger. Slryarbroom; It. Slo- raee; Sp. Azumbar; Lat. Stj/rax; Arab. Usitrul'), the proauce of a tree (Sti/rax affidnaW) growing in the south of Europe and the I.evant Only two kinds are found in the shops : storax in tears, which is pure, and Btorax in the lump, or red storax, which is mixed with sawdust and other impurities. Both kinds are brought ftxim the Levant in ..^.ests and boxes. Storax has a flragrant odor, and a pleasant, sub-acidulous, slightly pungent, and aron. itic taste : it is of a reddish-brown color, and brittle. — Thomson'^ Ditpentatorg. 6. Tolu, BaUam of(¥T. Baume de Tolu; Ger. Tola- tanitcher BaUam; Sp. Baltamo de Tolu). The tree which j-ields this Inlsam is the same as that which yields the balsam of Peru, it being merely the white balsam of Peru hardened by exposure to the air. 6. Benzoin, or Benjamin (Fr. Benzoin ; Ger. Benzoe ; Sp. Bengui; It. Belzuino; Lat. Benzoinum; Arab. Li- ban; Hind, Luban; Jav. Menian; Malay, Camtnyan), li an article of much greater commercial importance than any of those balsams previously mentioned. It is obtained ftx)m a tree (Sigrax Benzoin) cultivated in Sumatra and Borneo, but particularly the former. The idonts produce in the seventh year. Tho balsam is obtained by making incisions in the bark, when it ex- udes, and is scraped off. During the first three years the balsam is of a clear white color, after which it be- comes brown. Having borne 10 or 12 years, tho tree is cut down, a very inferior article being obtained by scraping the wood. The balsams procured in these dilTerant stages ore distinguished in commerce, and differ widely in value. Benzoin has a very agreeable, fWgrant odor, but hardly any taste. It is imported in large masses, packed in chests and casks. It should be chosen full of clear, light-colored, and white spots, having the appearance of white marble when broken ; it is rarely, however, to be met with in so pure a state, but the nearer the approach to it the better. The worst sort is blackish, and full of impurities.— Mii^ burr's Orient. Com., and private information. The price of Benzoin in bond varied, in the Ix>ndon mark- et, in February, 1848, from £3 to no less than X46 per cwt. ! Mr. CrawfUrd has given the following inter- esting and authentic details with respect to this arti- cle ; " Benzoin, or fVankincense, called in commercial language Benjamin, is a more general article of com- merce than camphor, though its production be confined to the same islands. Benzoin is divided in commerce, like camphor, into three torts (head, belly, foot), ac- cording to quality, the comparative value of which may he expressed by the figures 105, 45, 18. Benzoin is valued in j>roportion to its whiteness, semi4rans- porency, and freedom from at* ventitious matters. Ac- cording to its purity, the first sort may be bought at the *mg9ria to which it is brought, at ttom 50 to 100 { dollars per picul (188^ pounds), the second ftnm 35 to 46 dollars, and the worst from 8 to 20 dollars. Ac- cording to Linschoten, benzoin, in hi3 time, cost, in the market of Sunda Calapa or Jacatra, trom 19-05 to 25-40 Spanish dollars the picul. By Niebuhr's account, the worst benzoin of the IndUn islands is more esteem- ed by the Arabs than their own l>est olibunuui, or fnink- incense. In the London market, the best benzoin it fourteen times more valuable than (^ibauum, and evea the worst two and one third times more valuable. Benzoin usually sells in England at lOj. per pound. The quantity generally imported there in the time of the monopoly was 812 cwt. The principal uso of thii commodity is as incense, and it is equally in requiit in the religious ceremonies of Catholics, Moham- medans, Hindoos, and Chinese. It is also used as a luxury by the great in fumigating their apartments, and the Japanese chiefs are fond of smoking it with tobacco. Its general use among nations in such vari- ous states of civilization, and the steady demand for it in all ages, declare that it is one of those commodities the taste for which is inherent in our nature, and not the result of a parti-^ular caprice with any individual people, as in the caM of Malay camphor with the Chi- nese." — Indian Archipelago, vcl. iii. p. 418. An infe- rior description of benzoin, the produce of a ditferent tree fVom the Stj/rax benzoin, is produced in Slam. It is comparatively cheap and abundant. 7. Dragon's blood (Fr. Sang-Vragon ; Lat. Sanguis Draconis ; Arab. DamuldHneain ; Hind, lleraduky), the produce of a large species of rattan {Calamus Draco) growing on the north and northeast coast of Sumatra, and in some parts of Borneo. It is largely exported to China, and also to India and Europe. It is either in oval drops, wrapped up in flag-leaves, or in large and generally more impure masses composed of smaller tears. It is externally and internally of a deep dusky red color, and when powdered it should become of a bright crimson : if it be black, it is worth little. When broken and held up against a strong light, it is some- what transparent, and it has little or no smell or taste ; what it has of the latter is resinous and astringent. Dragon's blood in drops is much preferable to that in cakes, the latter being more friable, and less compact, resinous, and pure than the fanner. Being a very costly article, it is very apt to be adulterated. Most of its alloys dissolve like gums in water, or crackle in the fire without proving infiammable, whereas the gen- uine dragon's Uood readily melts and catches flame, and is scarcely acted on by watery liquors. It sells in the market of Singapore at ttma 15 to 85 dollars per picul, acccrding to quality ; but the Chines<) have the art of purii^'ing and refining it, when it sells at from 60 to 100 dollars per picul. — Milbcrm's Orient. Com. ; Crawford's East. ArcAip.; and private infomiption. The price of dragon's blood, in the London market, varied, in November, 1863, fh>m £b to ;ei5 per cwt. Baltic Sea. The denomination of the Baltic, ap- plied to the inland sea which forms the subject of thia article, is first found In the work entitled Chomgraphia Scandinavia, by Adam of Bremen, who was canon of that city at the close of the eleventh centniy. The etymology of the name has given riue to many conjeo« tures. "The Swedes derive it from the Scandinavian word baelt, a girdle, because of its peculiar form ; the Prussians ttom the Sclavonian or Listtonian word bolt, white, from its bein^ frozen part of the year, or from Battus, one of their kings ; while by others it is de- rived fk-om Bakea, the name of on island mentioned by Pytheas, a mereiiant of Marseilles, who, in the second or third century before the Christian era, is supposed to have sailed as far north as this sea. In the coun- tries which bound it, its ancient name was Variatzkoik More, or the Sea of Variaghi ; by the modem Russiana It is called Baltiskoi Mori ; and by the Swedes, Dane*, and Germans, the iJist Sea, Extent of the Bailie.— The Baltic is inclosed by Swe- BAL ^ BAIi den, RumU, PniBsla, Mecklenbnrg, and Denmark ; ' and it communicates witli tlie Nortli Sea by tlie Ska- gcr-Rack, Cattegat, Sound, and Great and Little Belts, i From SwinemQnde in the south, to Tornea in the north, | it.i length is 770 geographical miles ; and it* width , from Karlscrona to Hemcl is not less than 180 miles, i Its whole area, including the Gulf of Bothnia, is about j 125,000 geographical square miles. It runs tlrst in an easterly direction as far as Memel, a distance of 800 miles, and then northward as far as lat. 69° 'A' N., a distance of 350 miles, at which point it separates into two great gulfs. One of these, the Gulf of Finland, runs nearly due east ; the other, the Gulf of Bothnia, almost north. The Gulf of Bothnia is 400 miles in length, with an average breadth of 120 miles, but where narrowest it does not exceed 40 miles. The Archipulago of Aland lies at its entrance. The Gulf of Finland is 200 miles in length, with a mean breadth of 60 or 70 miles. Numerous rocky islands and reefs, many of them level with the water, render the lutviga- tlon of this sea extremely dangerous. Depth of the B^iUie.—the greatest depth of the Baltic rarely exceeds 100 fathoms. On tiia western tide it is not more than 15 fathoms ; and, in general, only firom 8 to 10 fathoms. On the south it nowhere exceeds 60 fathoms. The Gulf of Finland suddenly shallows from 60 or 60 fathoms to 5, or even less. The average ^epth of the Gulf of Bothnia is not greater than that of the rest of the sea. It has long been a generally received opinion that thu waters of the Bal- tic are gradually diminishing. Celsius, a learned Swede, w* J flourished toward tho middle of last cen- tury, advances this hypotliesis; and, from observa- tions made on the coasts of the Baltic, he estimated the diminution at 45 inches in a hundred years. This hypothesis was supported by Linnans, who founded on it a theory of the earth. M. Otto, in his physical observations on this sea, has suggested another theory to account for its apparent decrease. H.: supposes that, instead of really subsiding, it may be only shift- ing its position, and gaining in one quarter what it loses in another ; and this he ascrilies to the large and rapid rivers, which carry along with them an immense quantity of earth and sand, by which the beds at their mouths are raised, and their banks extend toward the sea. The views of Celsius have been confirmed by the observations of Von Buch, who also discovered at several places on the western shores of Scandiiuvia, and at considerable elevations, deposits of sand and mud containing numerous marine shells of species still existing in the neighboring ocean. Mr..Lyell at first entertained doubt* of these phenomena ; but on subse- quent inspection he was led to concur in the opinion of Von Buch. Mr. Lyell found the marks which were cut In the rocks at water-line some years previous to his visit to b« actually several inches alwve the level of the Baltic. From these observations, that eminent geologist concludes that, in several parts of Sweden, a gradual elevation of the land is taking place. — Lyrll's Principles of Geology. The groat quantity of sand and mud carried down by the rivers has considerably raised the bottom of this sea, and afTectijd its navigation, so that the mouths of rivers formerly navigabli; are now inaccessilde. In the Baltic, the tides are scarcely, if at all, per- ceptible. There are sensible tides in the Skager-Kack ; but these begin to diminish in the Cattegat, and are very trifling In the Sound and Bolts. There are, how- ever, irregular variations in the level of the waters of the Baltic which bear some resemblance to tides. These elevations generally occur in autumn, when the weath- er tbrea«;ns rain ; and they last sometimes a few days, sometimes several weeks. The maximum rise is three feet and a half, and the low shores are occasionally in- nndated. They also render brackish the freih-water lakes which communicate with tho sea. In the Gulf of Bothnia, the subsidence of the waters ia usually succeeded'by north winds ; whereat, near Stockholm, these winds usually follow their rise. M. Kruft, for> merly professor of experimental philosophy in the Im- perial Academy of Sciences at St. I'ctersburg, in his treatise on the inundations of the Nova at the autumnal equinox, observes that, three or four days before or after the full or new moon, a violent northwest wind drives the waters of the Northern Ocean, during the influx of the tide, into the Baltic, and is accompanied or immediately succeeded by a south wind in that sea and tho Gulf of Finland. By Schultens, a learned Swede, who paid particular attention to the physical geography of the Baltic, the irregular elevations of this sea are attributed to the state of the atmosphere, lie liad observed that when tho waters wore about to rise tho barometer fell, and that when they were about to fall it rose. Hence he inferred tliat the unequal pressure of the atmosphere on different portions of th* water deranged the level of the waters. The differ- ence between the greatent md the least rise of the biu rometer in the northern purts of Europe is two and a lialf inches, which answers to three and a half feet of water, or the difference of the elevation of th.i wateri at their extremes. Superior and inferior Current*. — In the Sound there are superior and inferior currents. These were first observed by some Englishmen, who, being in a boat in the middle of the channel, found that they drifted toward the Cattegat ; but having let down a loaded bucket to the depth of four or five fathoms, the boat became stationary; and when the bucket was sunk deeper, the boat drifted againut the superficial current. The general currents of the Baltic are strong, and evi- dently occasioned by the vast numl>er of rivers and streams that pour their waters into it, many of which, especially toward the north, rise thrice in the course of the year. At the northern extremity of the Island of Bomholm, a violent agitation of the waters, or kiny the Swedes mali-ijuem, or tha grinding-mill, is occasioned by the current rushing over a circular cluster of sunken rocks. The waves of the Baltic are short and broken, in consequence of sudden changes of wind, irregular depths, and strong currents. Sahnets. — The waters of this sea are not nearly so salt as those of the ocean; and when the wind blow* strong fl-om the north they become so f^csh us to be fit for drinking or cooking meat. The degree of their BultnesB varies in difl'erent parts, and even in the samo Sirts, according to the season or wind. According to prgman, in Ids Phyncal Gengraphg, the waters near the south coast of Norway, at the entrance of the Ska- ger-Rack, contain from one-tenth to nnc-seventh part of their weight of salt ; in the Cattegat, one-twelfth ; in the Baltic, one-sixteenth; and in the Gulf of Both- nia f^om one-fortieth to ono-fiftieth. The southwest and west winds augment the saltness, liy introducing the waters of the ocean. In the summer it reqnirda 300 tons of the water of the Gulf of UothnU to produce one ton of suit, but in the winter only 50 tons. This difference is caused by congelation, and by the dimin- ished flow of fresh water. Temperature. — There is great difference in the tem- perature in difl'erent parts of the Baltic. The general temperature of the Gulf of Bothnia in July is f^ora 48° to 5U", but k is sometimes heated to 70° ; the medium of the thermometer throughout the year at Tleoliorg is 29°, and at Stockholm 42 4-5°. Near the land in the Gulf of Bothnia, the temperature of the atmosphere in the month of July was observed to be 68°, while the temperature of the surface of the water was 65° ; and in October the temperatures of lioth were respectively 8!)° and 46. In the Sound, the temperature of the at- mosphere in the month of August was 70° ; on the Hurfuce of the water, 68° ; and at three fathoms, 66°. On the 10th of October, 1813, Dr. Thomson found the temperature of the Sound to bs 64°. The Skager- ba£ 90 M£ Back and Golf of Norway are open to n»vIg«tlon all the winter, whoroas several portions of the Baltic are covered with ice in a very moderate degree of cold ; and generally the bays and channels are encumbered with ice at the latter end of December. The waters toward the heads of the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland are first ftrozen ; and the ice being conveyed by the currents to tlie south, the masses of it are united by the increasing cold into vast fields, which become sta- tionary on the west toward Stockholm, and in the east toward the islands of Dago; and (Kscl. In the south- em parts of the sea the ice begins to break up in April, but the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland often continue closed till May. The rigor of the climate in the Bal- tic is Bupimsed to be considerably diminished by the clearing of the forests and the progress of cultivation ; at least the frosts during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries appear, in their intensity and long continu- ance, to have exceeded those of the severest seasons in more recent times. The wir.da are extremely variable In the Baltic, but they blow most commonly from the oast in the apring, and fh>m the west in autumn. Calms are seldom ex- perienced except in the middle of summer, Fiiheriet. — There is historical evidence that the her- ring fishery was a branch of national industry in the Sound as early as the year 1168 ; and in 138!>, accord- ing to Philip de Mezibres, such vast shoals of herrings crowded into the Sound, that 40,000 boats, with from six to ten men each, were employed hi the fishery, be- tides 900 largo vessels. In which tho herrings were salted. This important branch of industry, however, no longer exists. " In the year 1238, the inhabitants of Gotliia (Sweden) and Friso were prevented, by their fear of the Tartars, from sending, as usual, their ships to the herring fishing on the coast of England ; and as there was no exportiition, 40 or 60 of these fish were ■old for a shilling.— MAi-rnEw Paris, p. 896. It is whimsical enough that the orders of Mogul Khan, who reigned on the borders of China, should have lowered the price of herrings in the English market." — Gib- box, vo!. xi. p. 422. Salmon ascend the rivers ftrom April to June, according as they arc free from tee. On the south, they abound most in the Oder, Vistula, D&no, and Narrowa ; on the north, in the Motola, Dalecarlia, Ulea, Kemi, Tomea, and Keymen. Salmon-trout k taken In some bays of the Baltic. In the middle of the River KemI Is a small island where an annual sal- mon fair is held. Wholes very rarely enter the Baltic. The common porpoise is the only one of tho lesser species of ceta- ceous animals that lives habitually in this sea; and at Mlddlcfahrt, In Funen, Is a crmpany which i.'njoys the exclusive privilege of talking it. There are two vari- eties of the common seal, which are hunted for their e\'., In March and April, \iy the peasants of the Isle of Gottland, and of the islands In the GuU^ of Bothnia and Finland. The trade of the Baltic is of great extent and Im- portance. In 18.'>2, 17,563 ships passed up and down the Sound, of which 8902 were British vessels. The internal trade Is also very considerable. Tho exports consist of the various productions of the countries on its coasts, and Include com, timber, pitch and tar, hemp, flax, tallow, hides, linseed, bristles, wool, etc. Its imports are colonial products, manufactured goods, dry stulTs, wines, salt, coal, etc. The most important ports are St. Petersburg, Riga, Kunlgsberg, Dfinzig, Swinemiinde, Labeck, Copenhagen, Karlscrona, and Stockholm. By means of numerous large rivers and canals a considerable trade is carried on witli the in- terior.— E. B. See Thomson's TrarrU in Sireden; TabhM dr la Her Bnlligue, par Catteadj nbleau da Elats IkmoU, par Catteac. Of all seas, the Baltic Is one of the most danger- ous to shipping and harassing to crews. Sudden and fVequent changes of the vrind, shallow waters off shore, innumerable shoals and insulated rocks, with currentt divided by these obstacles, l)ranching olf in different directions to be divided by the same cause, till, meet- ing from opposite quarters, the waters are embroiled In the hurly-burly of a sturdy conflict; these are al- most constant causes of anxiety to the mariner, for the navigation Is most beset with such impediment! precisely in those parts which are eminently the high- ways uf commerce. Ilcnco the proportion of mari- time casualties Is much greater In the case of vessels sailing to the Baltic ports than in the instance of merchantmen passing between Great Britain and America. Three of the rivers flow Into the North Sea ; the Oder flows into the Baltic, and the triido of all tho four, particularly that of the Veser, is increasing. Of the Jahde the world has heard but little till lately, when it was made known that Prussia had acquired a port on it. By an agreement between Oldenbi.rg and Pmssia, concluded in July, 18fJ3, and rutilicd In December, Prussia purchased of Oldenburg for 500,000 thalers (about il80,000) the sovereignty of 600 morgcna (about 3000 acres) of land and marshes, in order that Prussia might have a sea-port on the North Sea, to give protection to her trade. Jahde, or rather Fulirhuh, will probably hereafter become a place of some im- portance. It Is seated on a large and tolerably safe bay between the Ems and the Weser, and may prol)a- bly, in the hands of Prussia, Increase In importance. At present It possesses little except coasting tnide. The Wcscr, a short river, with all Its tributaries, so far as navigable, flows through the territories of six different Powers, and, as their territories are mixed and mingled the sovereignty through which it flows changes no less than thirty-four times. Formerly every sovereign had his tolls, and at every change of sovereignty there was a toll-house. At present the tolls are reduced to one sum, and tho toll-houses, which wore 22, are reduced to 9. Tho toll at present, from Bremen to Carlshafen, is nearly a third of the freight. — Die DeuUchen SIrihne, u. s. w. Vierte abthei- lung die Weser, Ems, Jahde, und Oder: Leipzig. — PorE's Journal of Trade. Baltimore, a city, p«rt of entry, metropolis of the State, and capital of Baltimore county, Mary- land. The third city in extent and population in the United States ; situated on the north side of Pa- tapsco River, 10 miles from Its entrance Into Chesa- peake Bay, and 200 miles from the ocean bv ship channel. In 89° 17' 23 ' N. lat., and 76' 87' 30 " W. long. It Is by railroad route 38 miles from Washington, 98 from PhUadelphla, 186 from New York, 590 fh)m Pittsburg, and 690 northeast firom Charleston. Popula- tion in 1790, 18,503; 1800, 26,614; 1810, 85,583; 1820, 62,788; 1880, 80,625; 1840, 102,313; 1850, 169,054; 1854, with environs, 200,000. The branch of the Pa- tapsco River, around which the city Is built, is about a mile and three-quarters long, and varies from one- eighth to three-quarters of a mile in width, having its greatest breadth opposite to the tract called Canton. It affords an easy access to the city, and a capacious, safe, and well-protected harbor of a depth and extent sufficient to float ships of the largest claus, and to af- ford ample accommodation for at least two thousand vessels. Its harbor consists of an inner basin, at the whar^-es of which vessels drawing ten or twelve feet of water may He, and an outer lay lying between Fells Point and Canton on the north and east, and Whet- stone Point on the south, with from sixteen to twenty feet of water. Ships of heavy burden do not go ii|> higher than the Point. From*the fitcilities ofl'ercd by the depth of the water, tho Point is also the scat of the principal ship-yards, from which have been launch- ed some of the finest and fleetest vessels of the Amer- ican marine, which are especially noted far beauty of proportion and excellence of construction. Tho I Be Lz 1853. 1854. 1855. 18R:; . . I 185T . . I85S.. 1869.. tS41. 1842. 1S41., 1844.. 1845.. 1840.. 184:.. 1848.. 1849.. laso. . 1851., 1852.. 1853. . , 1854. . , \B!A. . , , 1«S«... 1»BT. . . ..i BAL n BAL name of Baltimore clipper tt synonymous all over the world with all that is beautiful in naval architecture, and perfect in the requisites of a stanch and well-ap- pointed ship. Etiimate of tha Ti-atle of Baltimore. — In presenting tlie annexed table we do so only with the view of ag- gregating, as nearly as possible, the results which are aproad out at length in the text and figures of our an- nual statement. It is, of course, impossible, unless an official and rigid system of statistics was adopted, to get all the values of the thousand ramifled and differ- ing l)ranches of business in a great centre of trade lilie Baltimore. In malting up this estimate, however, the endeavor has been to approximate to the true value as nearly as possible, and no figures have been sot down without the concurrence of experienced dealers in each specific trade. In no instance has an over-estimate been taken ; in some it is quite probable that an in- crease might Justly have Ijeen made. In this view the table may have a value ns a basis upon which the whole trade of the city may he estimated.— floft/inore Americnn, January, 1863. Boots Slid Bhoc'S . . ^,650,000 i Iron $2,flOn,0«0 nooks and psper . 8,000,000 I I^esthor 1,800,000 Coal 8,060,000 I Live stock 4,174,000 Clothing 6,SOO,000 ^ Lumber l,80i>,(HXl Copper 2,000,000 i Malarucs »0(),I100 Cotton 2,828,000 Naval atorcs . . . . 25S,00li IifSPBonoKS or Wua^T Ftotra at DAtTiiiora, 1841-83. ColTee 8,800,000 I>rug^ painta, etc. 1,600,000 Dry Koode 80,000,000 Earthen-ware 1,000,000 Fish 280,000 Flour 6,260,000 Grain 6,300,000 Oiiano 1,000,000 Hardware 6,000,000 Oysters 4,0011,000 Provisions 6,000,001) Plana trade 82ii,000 Salt 86,000 Sugar 6,000,000 T-ibacco & cigars 4,OSi),000 Vosatila built. . . > 805,400 Whisky 1,870,000 Wool 376,000 Total $108,000,000 CouPAaATivi RaoEirrs or Gbain at DALTiMoai, ISS^'.^S. Grnfn. I8U. 18S6. 1 185S. 1 I8H. ISM. nuiheli. Btuhell. BiJlheU. Buabfli. Duiheli. Wheal. . .',523,559 2,99S,6:19 4,278,109 .3,102,004 2,716,781 Com . . . 1,641,100 3,998,178 6,003,492 4,208,61S 4,046,746 Oats. . . . 1,004,000 1,3S3,400 1,600,000 1,157,613 1,116,194 Ilye.... 118,000 260,000 34^000 161,40:' 110,000 Poaa , . . 7,000 20,000 16,000 6,oon 23,000 Ueans . . Total.. 1,000 1,400 2,000 2,000 2,000 8,a'il,669,S,ti46,4IT ll,(M3,70O 8,«-.'8,48T 8,013,0711 IMPOBTATIOMS or Corr» at Baltimokc, 1866-'69. Imporh from I8S6. lUT, IIU. Ulo Ban*. 196,931 16,487 6,418 193",V28 6,711 2,020 194^1561 10,W7 7,3(14 Other ports Coastwise ToUl 917,736 201,466 217,402 V«ara. BsrrtU. 1841.. 1842.. 1843.. 1844.. 1848.. 1816. 1847.. 1848. 1S4'J. 1830. 1861. 1862. 1863. IS.'U. 1S86. 1863. 18S7. 1868. 613,006 644,801 647,824 480,476 6C"1,032 834,666 048,787 724,978 76'.t,680 883,777 806,084 1,288,91H) 1,171,268 830,480 1)60,070 082,029 847,974 898,487 HslfBamli. 81,716 86,962 26,415 26,062 20,220 81,322 27,839 22,!183 27,007 20,080 82,828 86,368 24,878 16,680 14,188 ]0,r73 16,880 16,000 Tuut to BarrtU. 628,974 658,282 660,481 499,601 676,748 8.'>0,116 960,466 780,441 764,619 896,698 912,408 1,807,160 1,188,704 837,196 967,789 940,814 866,014 900,487 iNsraonoNS or Mabtiaiid and Onio Tobacco, 1841-'6 Viin. InipMUooa. Stoeli on hand 0«c«inbor 81 Mar>:i.nd. Oblo. total. HhJi Ilhdi. Hhda. Hhdi. 1841 i9,! SO 7,692 07,673 10,000 1842 88,7-.3 1 1,279 48,038 9,000 1818 29,017 i,;,406 43,082f 12,864 1814 82,ls8 16,8!;0 47,608 12,008 1846 S!>,S44 26,710 66,860 16,848 1840 41,027 •;8,302 69,8S9 82,410 1817 .13,726 15,071 4'',400 28,467 1848 23,2.13 9,846 33,098 8'2,-61 1849 80,965 18,618 44,688 19,628 1850 27,(85 13,!'65 41,040 10,617 1861 26,018 10,791 41,804 17,699 1852 £9,570 17,720 47,290 11,760 18.W 29,248 17,947 47,195 0,779 ISM 20,048 10,802 86,41 > 3,718 18' 8 88,470 10,1:97 88,5i;; 4,278 1860 44,779 0,610 61,889 4,094 1887 87,978 7,680 45,608 4,101 1,888 46,140 82,243 07,383 8,900 Valub or FoaaiaH Impobtb amd Kxpobts at toe Distbiot or IlALTIHOBX, lSll-'58. Vun. Import*. Eiporta. V.ar.. 186(1 Import!. *0,417,I13 Eiportf, 1841 $8,1119,101 $4,a»7,fi33 $.s,53O,070 1842 4,062,':60 4,448,940 1861 7,'.'43,9G8 0,406, ll'e 1843 3,6117,734 4,740,042 S.V.' 6,97S,021 7,849,760 1844 4,261,883 4,622,063 .■53 6,881,671 0,(186,914 1846 8,3.'i«,670 6,2bfl,'276 4 7,750,3^7 11,800,010 1840 4,288,700 fl,710,N>9 'i 7,772,6.11 11,001,087 1847 4,140,743 9,820,479 1 10,140,838 13,'202,528 1848 6,24^894 7,209,002 IS.'., '1 ■3,(154,670 11,4(3,810 1849 6,'i9l,666 8,06:1,831 185b , T,008,980 10,119,080 Banks. — There are sixteen banks in Baltimore, whose condition for seven years, from January, 1853, to January, 1859, inclusive, is shown as follows : January, 1888 . 1864. 1865 . 1860. 1857 . IS.'H. 1860. Capitol. $7,291,416 7,693,880 8,570,698 0,00.5,934 9,777,603 10,100,348 10,206,846 $3,888,0.18 2,960,533 8,C!1S,708 3,388,430 8,3r6,fl43 8,068,048 2,972,344 DopMlti, $0,021,707 0,962,089 6,868,623 0,486,368 7,766,860 0,082,007 7,880,634 $14,291,221 14,009,213 14,279,r,fl3 16,307,869 18,704,9.M 17,8(12,005 17,960,316 Spoei*. $2,00 1,010 2,848,708 8,484,946 2,88),7fla 2,998,876 8,169,617 8,717,199 ExroBTS or Tobaooo rBOM Baltixobe, 1841-63. 1841 Hkdi. 16,878 1843 17,719 1843 16,949 1844 17,137 1846 28,788 1846 24,074 1847 22,251 1848 12,708 1849 18,f,81 18!50 16,980 1851 la.wo 1852 2»,70T IS-W 18,947 1854 16,676 1856 «:,009 1866 31,408 1087 V,.»1S 188« 16,780 Hhdi. 7,918 10,874 0,474 11,878 18,171 8,104 8,693 7,938 18,876 7,810 9,061 11,858 10,898 7,368 9,728 ]4,e28 18,088 17,988 Hhda. 6,169 8,109 7,311 7,098 10,944 7,314 10,409 8,000 8,786 ^<.'8» 4,164 5,004 9,9,80 6,486 ^761 10,141 4,104 Antwtrp. Hhdi. 008 978 324 190 667 1860 16.59 131 800 471 ia6 Rmdon. 602 190 238 pio 829 269 Hhdi. 8,814 4,083 8,.''>66 7,218 7,188 8,105 8,047 4,911 9,668 8,177 8,826 7,679 6,880 10,180 7,8-'0 4,919 7,488 10,986 Trioito. Hhdi. 1183 1401 S614 903 1878 426 180 600 1861 840 1619 610 802 1218 1140 Bngland. " HhS: ~ 120 860 600 1936 1820 2815 2778 1116 30(10 4268 2228 4283 Total Bi port. Hbdi. 86,483 43,768 42,824 41,910 66,910 61,880 63,844 20,032 82,348 44,468 8.1,840 81,773 80,(:88 41,340 88,2;i 86,or8 4^7<8 68,843 BAM 9» BAN koooawt or na ImraonoH* or Wheat Fioim, Ihoum Cobn iUal, Rtr Umau, amd Toiuooo at BAunnoaa, Doiini* iu.f tin and iron wares, and leath- er. BxporU compriM' sugar (from 10,000 to 12,0(10 tons yearly), black pepper (4000 to 6000 tons), tin, card- amoma, fine woods, ivory, cotton, rice, hides, horns, skins, and feathers. Imports, tea, quicktilver, raw and manufactured silks, porcelain, and numerous man- nfartured articles from China; camphor, and edililo birds' nest*, from the Asiatic Archipelago; and I'.iiro- pean and Indian piece goods, opium, and glass »arcs, tnm the British and Dutch settlements in the East. The country around is flat, but conUins rich niinas of Iron, and extensive forests of teak. The most fnvor- able time for reaching Bangkok, in sfaiiw of consider- able draught, ia about the lieginning of November, when the rains are Just over, and the season is cool and healthful. There is then on the bar of the river, at low water, a depth of SJ fathoms. In the spring and summer months it is sometimes as low as two fathoms, or a little more, and the capital is then reach- ed with some difiiculty. Bank.— Banking. Banks are establishments in- tended to serve for the safe custody and issue of moik- ey ; for facilitating its payment by one individual to another; and sometimes fur the ucconimodation of the public with loans. These subjects will lie consld. ere d under the heads : I. General Principles of Bank- ing; II. Account of Bank of England; III. English Private and Provinchil Banks; IV. Scotch Banks; V. Irkh Banks; VI. Foreign Banks; VII. Banking in the United States; VIII. Savings Banks. "The first established was in Italy, A.n. 808, bythe Lomlmrd .lews, of whorii some settled in I.ombard Street, London, where many bankers still reside. The name is derived from 6«nivi, a l)encb, which was erect- ed in the market-place for the exchange of money. The mint in the Tower of London was anciently the depositor}' for merchants' cash, until Charles I. laid Ills hands upon the monej', and destroyed the credit of the mint in 1640. The traders were thus driven to some other place of security for their gold, which, when kept at home, their apprentices frequently ab- sconded with to the army. In 1646, therefore,' they consented to lodge it with the goldsmiths in I^mbard Street, who were provided with strong chests for their own valuable wares; and this l)ecaiBe the origin of banking in England."— Uaydk. A.D, Dank of Venice formed , 1167 Bank of Geneva 1 345 Bank of BarcclonB 1401 Bank of Genoa 1407 Bank of Amsterdam 1807 Bank of llambniv 1019 Bank of Itotterdam 10.15 Bank of Stockholm loss Bank of England 1004 Bank of BcoUand ifl05 Bank of Copenhagm 1736 Bank of Berlin 17J6 C'alsae d'Kicompte, France 177J Bank of Irclaad ifsi MassachuKtu Bank, Boston, established 1784 Bank of 81. Petersburg uso In the V'mA Indies iTnj Branch Banks In Orest Britain 1828 I. Genkivii. PniJccipi.Es or Bankino.— Banks are commonly divided into the two great classes of banks o/deponi and bankt o/iiiue. This, however, appears at first sight to lie rather an imperfect classiflcution, inasmuch as almost all banks of deposit urc at the same time bunks of issue, and almost oil liunks of Issue also banks of deposit. But there is in reality no am- I'iguity ; for by lianks of deposit are meant hanks for the custody and employment of the money deposited with them or intrusted to their care by their custom- ers, or by the public; while by banks of issue are meant banks which, besides employing or issuing the mone}' intrusted to them ' others, issue money of their own, or notes payabl'< on demand. The Bank of England is principally a bank of issue ; but it, a* well as the other banks in the dllfeiwnt parts of the empire that issue notes, is aho a great bank of deposit. The private banking companies of London, and tho in i the 1 The are BAN •:>s BAN A.D. .. 116T .. 1345 .. 14))l .. 1407 .. IWt .. l«t» .. ions .. 1688 .. 1894 .. loss ... nse ... 1T« ... m» . .. 1T83 ... ns4 ... IMd ... ITST . .. isas Vtrioui provincial banks that do not Isnie notes of their own, are strictly banks of deposit. Banking business may In conducted indifferently by individ- uals, by private compauies, or by Joint-stock compa- nies or associations. l/HHtjf anH Funetiotu nfBankt nfDepotit. — Banks of this class execute all that is properly understood by banking business; and their establishment has con- tributed in no ordinar}- degree to give security and facility to commercial transactlnns. They att'ord, when properly conducted, safe and convenient places of de- posit for the money that would otherwise have to be kept, at a considerable risk, in prirnlo houses. They also prevent, in a great measure, the necessity of car- rying money from place to place to make payments, and enable them to be made in the most convenient •nd least expensive manner. A merchant or trades- man in Ix>ndon, for example, wlio employs a banker, keep.s but very little money in his own hands, making all bis considerable payments by drafts or checks on his banker; and lie also sends the various checks, bills, or drafts payable to himself in I.«ndon, to his bankers Ijefore the}' become due. By this means he saves tiie trouble and inconvenience of counting sums of money, mid avoids the losses he would otherwise be liable to, atid would no doubt occasionally incur, from receiving coins or notes not genuine. Perhaps, how- ever, tlie great advantage derived by the merchant or tradesman ft-om the employment of a banker, consists in its relieving him from all trouble with respect to the presentation for payment of due-bills and drafts. The moment these are transferred to the banker, they are at his risk. And if he either neglect to present them when due, or to have them (iroperly noted in the event of their not being paid, he is responsilJe for the consequences. "This circumstance alone must cause an immense saving of expense to a mercantile house in the course of a year. Let us suppose that a mer- chant has only two bills due each day. These bills may be payable in distant parts of the town, so that it may take a clerk half a day to present them ; and in large mercantile establishments it would take up the whole time of one or two clerks to present the Ait- bills and the drafts. The salary of these clerks is, therefore, saved by keeping an account at a Iwnker's : besides the saving of expense, 't is also reasonable to BUpjKise that losses upon bills would soniCtinies occur from mistakes or oversights ; from miscalculation as to the time the liiil would become due ; from errors in narking it up; f^om forgctfulness to present it; or ft'oin- presenting it at the wrong place. In these cases the indorsers and drawees are exonerated ; and if the acceptor do not pay the bill, the amount is lost. In a banking-house such mistakes occur sometimes, though more rarely ; but when they do occur, the loss falls upon the banker, and not upon his customer." — GiL- UAUt's Practical Obtervations on Hanking. It is on other grounds particularly desirable for a merchant or tradesman to have an account with a banking-house. He can refer to his bankers as vouch- ers for iiifl resjiectaliility ; and in the event of his wish- ing to acquire any information with respect to the cir- cumstances or credit of any one with whom he is not acquainted, his bankers render him all the assistance in their power. In this respect they have great facil- ities, it being the common proctice among l)ankcrs in London, and most otiier trading towns, to communi- cate information to each other as to the credit and solvency of their customers. In Great Britain, to provide for the public security, the statute 7 & 8 Geo. 4,^c. 20, § 49, "for the punish- ment of eml)ezzlement committed by agents intrusted with property," enacts, "That if any money, or se- curity for the payment of money, shall l>e intrusted to any banker, merchant, broker, attorney, or other agent, with any direction m writing to apply such money, or tny part thereof, or the proceeds, or any port of the proceeds of such security, for any purpoM tpeelfled In such direction, and he shall. In violation of good faith, and contrary to the purpose so specified, in any wis* convert to hii own use or benefit such money, securi- ty, or proceeds, or any part thereof respectively, everr such offender shall be guiHy of a misdemeanor, and, being convicted thereof, shall be liable, at the discre- tion of the conrt, to be transported beyond seas, for any *erm not exceeding fourtiien years, nor less thon seven years, or to suffer such punishment by tine or imprisonment, or l>y lioth, a* the court shall award t and If any chattel or valuable security, or any power of attorney for the sale or transfer of any share or In- terest in any public stock or ftind, whether of this kingdom, or of Great Britain, or of Ireland, or of any foreign State, or in any fund of any body corporate, company or society, shall be Intrusted to any hanker, merchant, broker, attorney, or other agent, for tali custody, or for any special purpose, tHthout any authai^ ity to tell, negotiate, transfer, or pledge, and he shall, in violation of good faith, and contrary to the object or purpose for which such chottel or security, or power of attorney, shall have been intrusted toliim, sell, ne- gotiate, transfer, pledge, or in any manner convert to his ov'ii use or l>enefit such chattel or security, or the prDcee<1s of the same, or any part thereof, or the share or interest in stock or ftind to whicli such power of ot- tomey shall relate, or any part thereof, every such offender shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and, being convicted thereof, shall be I'able, at the discretion of the court, to any of the punishments which the court may award, as hereinbefore last mentioned." This act is not to affect trustees and mortgagees, nor liunkers receiving money due upon securities, nor securities upon which they have a lien, claim, or demaiMl, entitling them by law to sell, transfer, or otherwise dispose of them, unless such sale, transfer, or other disimsal shall extend to a greater number or part of such securities or effects than shall be requisite for satisfying sucli lien, claim, etc. — § 50. Nothing in this act is to prevent, impeach, or lessen any remedy at law or in ciiuity, which any party ag- grieved liy any such offence might or would have had had it not l)een passed. No banker, merchant, etc., shall be convicted as an offender against this act, in respect of any act done by him, if he shall it any time previously to his being indicted for such offense have disclosed such act on oath, in consequence of any compulsory process of any court of law or equity, in any action bond Jidf instituted by any party ag- grieved, or if he shall have disclosed the same in any examination or deposition before any commissioner of l>ankrupt. — § 62. Under the provisions of this act the members of the firm of Strahan, Paul, and Bates, banken, London, were found guilty, and on the 27th of Octoljer, 1856, were sentenced to transportation for fourteen years. The Bank of England, and the private l>anking com- panies of I/>ndon, as well ss some of the English pro- vincial banks, charge no commission on the payments made and received on account of tliose who deal with them. And until the recent introduction of joint- stock banks, none of the London bankers, except in peculiar cases, allowed interest on deposits ; nor is it yet allowed by the great majority of the metropolitan private Irankers. It is also either stipub red or dis- tinctly understood that a person employing a banker should, besides fumisliing him with sufficient funds to pay his drafts, liecp an average balance in the banker's hands, var)'ing, of course, according to the amount of business done on his account ; that is, according to tlic numlier of his checks or drafts to lie paid, and tlie numlier of drafts and lillls to lie received for him. The bankers then calculate, ns well as they can, the prob- able amount of cash that It will be necessary for tiiem to keep in their coffers to meet the ordinary demands of their customers, and employ the balance in dis- BAN 04 BAN counting iiMroMtllt UlU, In Itm tmrfUmm »f •Mart* Um, or in wm* ollwr iturt uf pnMuliU iMlv«MIMr«t no U»t tlisir prolltf L'oniLit of Om tMni llM>y r«(illK« ttum iucli part of tba inonayi Imltf*') >ii llioir h«nil/> «• IIm/ G«n Ventura to auiploy lu an a4i'aHI«((MW« way, aftor deducting tJia variijua expaMa* »ll«ii4«nt on llw man' agenieiit of their ettaltlitbuuiMli*. A )miik ii( il«|iu«nd un it* own capital ; it niakee lu) prulit, in it* trntmity lA iMnh, tilt it lieghu to employ tite capital 'if (rtWa, The director) of tba iiank of Kui{l«n4 Ah ikrt alWw any individual to ovnrdraw bla ai'^'iiunt. 'iliay anawar drafts to the full extant of iba fuiiila daMwilMl in Itietr handa ; but thay will iwt \my » dntit if^tt aN<'««d their amount. Private bankara are mil gMMrfally mi Msrupti* loiu; moat of tbem allow mmtflutAii IwllvMiial* In whom they have cunltdenca to uyurff raw tltalr acnnintii, those who do so paying iiilorust at llMt rati i/f A per cent, on whatever Hum* tboy wvorilraw, Tim ixmse*- ■ion of this power uf overdrawing U iitim a great nm- vanlence to merchants, wbilu it U rarely iirrxlHdlve Ilia pMlillc In lh« ne- gotiation at bllU of excbauga, or in tb«« making ut pay- ments at distant places. Many ut tb<« Iwnking com- panies established In different dislrirta hnva a direct intercourse with each other, and tiMty hava all corre- spondents in iMuiun, lleui.'e an in may wish l transmit IIm mumy l/y lett«r would be hazardous ; and If thara want frarti^mal pads of a pound in the sum, it would hardly \m |>ra«tlc«liis will receive it from a banker tbare, 't'l)« iramiiw'lljin Is 6»- trcn-^iy simple ; the I'anzanca Imnkor «fil«f» lii* corra- apondent in London t/t pay tu tita ('(/rrn«)a/fMbmt n( the Inverness banker the nunt in utmnlUm «st mannor. By far the largest proportion lurth of lb« Inland Hits In circulation In the country, aixl also of iIm tirfeign bills drawn upon Great Kritain, »r« ma4« payable in London, the granJ foius to wbiili alt llt« pmunlnry transactions of the empire are nlllmat^ly immuht Ui I* adjusted. And in order still fnrtlMir Ui awmimize iIm use of money, the prinilwal liankers uf Uu, m«tr(/polls are in the habit of tuiumu a tlarfc muih (i»y to the clearinghouse in I.cmUrd Hiraat, wim caffl** with him the various bilU intlui |iu«niiMlon of Itlii htmmlhat are drawn upon other liankero ; and having exchanged tbem for the bills ip the poswssWn of ilum uitmtn that are drawn upon bU constltuonls, tlw lattamm oti the one side or the other is pabl in niuiU ut Uutik uf Kn- gland notes. By this cuntrlvanc* t!i« Itankars of l^m- don are able to settle tranaa<'tions l» Um unUntl ut SbV- eral millioDS a day, by Ilia enipb,(m Ut imi,m) of cash or bank notes. — See Ci.KAHiiiii.Hiii/aK, In consequence of tliese and olb«r fafdlltlas MirM by the intervention of bankers for Ilia s«t|t«m«fll of pecuniary transactions, tUf iiioiMiy rfifuifmi U> cowtiict the basloeiw of au e»uasiva country la r«du«Mi lo a trifla only, compared to what it would otherwise be. It Is not, Indeed, possilde to fom> any very accurate uKti> male of the total saving that is thus eft'ected ; but, sup- posing tlut 60 or 60 millions of gold and silver und bank-notes are at present required, notwitlistandiug all the devices that liuve been resorted to for euoiio- mking money, for the circulation of Urcut llritaiii, it may, one should think, bo fairly concluded that 200 millions would, at tlio very least, be required to trans- act an equal extent of business but for those devices. If this statement bo nearly accumte, and there ara goo- ligations arc subscribed are persons of whose solvency no doulit can be oniertained, they are readily accepted in payment of the debts duo by one individual ts an- other. But wlien the circulation of obligations or bills in tills way has continued for a while, individuals liegin to perceive that they may derive a proflt l>y issuing them in such a form as to elng of sitrvlcn tu un]r one else ; it is, in fact, so much alistractvd from tM wealth of the community. To obviate the endless inconvenUinres that woald arise fhim the circulation of coin* of every weight and degree of purity, wore tiiere nu restrictions on their Is- sue, all governments have forbidden the clriulallon of coins except (hey be of a r'crtuln s|tccilled or stntidurd weight and iineness. And the recurrence iit similar In- conveniences fktim the Issue of notes for varying sums, and payable under vuryitig conUilions, Ims led, In all countries in whicli paper niunoy Is made use of, to the enacting of regulations furliidding the Issue uf notes below a certain amount, and laying down rules fur their payment. In England at tbia moment no note payable to bearer on demand can lie Issued for less tlun flvo pounds, and they must all lie puld (he mo- ment they are presented. In Hcotlnnd and Ireland the minimum value of liank-notos Is fixed at one |Hiiind, the regulations as to payment i)cing the same as In Kn- gland. In order to preserve mono|iiily of the I^indon circulation to tho Bank of Kngland, no notes payable to bearer on demand are allowed to l/o Issued liy Individ- uals or associations, otiier than tho Bank of Kngland, within 3ixty-fivo miles of St, Paul's. But lieyonri these limits mery one who complies with the nbovfl regulations as to the minimum amount of notes, and who promises to pay them on demand, may, on pny^ ing the stamp-duty, and making returns of the issues to the stamp-office, circulate any amount ut notes he can succeed in (retting the pulilic to take off, But tliough the condition that they shall lie paid on demand, and the belief that this cnndltlun will bo com> plied with, be necessary to sustain the value uf notes issued by private parties or associations, it li nut nec- essary to sustain the value of pn|icr money, properly aocalled, orof noteswhich havelicen vcMiXthjinllfiutrr, The only thing required to sustain the value of tho lat- ter description of currency is, (bat It siiould lie Issued in limited quantitiet. Every country Ims a certain Jium- ber of exchanges to make; and whether tlicMi are pITect- od by the employment of a given number uf coins of a particular denomination, or by the employment uf (ha same numlier of notes uf tho same denomination, is, In this respect, of no Importance wh. 'ever. Nutii i which have been made legal tender, and i.re not payable on de- mand, do not circulate because of any confidence placed in the capacity of the issuers to retire (hem ; neither do they circulate because they are of (ho same real val- ue as the commodities for which they are exrliungnd ; but they circulate because, having lieen selected to perform the functions otmoney, they are, as such, read- ily received by all individuals in payment of their debts. Notes of this description may be regarded as a sort of tickets or counters to be used in computing the value of property, and in transferring it from one Indi- vidual to another. And as they uro nuwiite afl'ected by fluctuations of credit, tlieir value, it U oiivluus, must depend entirely on the quantity of them In circulation as compared with the payments to be made thruugli their instrumentality, or the business they have to pur- BAK BB ITAM fytm. BynducingtlMiiapi'lrof'iatMlMlowtJMiu^ ply ofooiiu that would clrcuiMU in tteir plan wan thajr withdrawn, their value may ba raiaad abeva tha valua of gold ; whilo, l>y lncr«a*iii({ them to a graatar axtaat, it i« proportionally lowerad. lianoa, luppwing it wara ptaalbla to otitala aay tacurily, othar thaa immadiala convartlldlity into tha pfacloua nataU, that notat da- darad to ba laKal tandar woubl not In iHuad In excaaa, but that their number afloat would ba lo atljaated aa to preierve their value a* compared with (told nearly unt- forqi, the obligatloB to pay them on demand might ba dlapenaed with. But it It -leedleM to My that uo auoh taourity can lie obtained. < irever the power to iseue paper, not immediately convertible, haa bean conceded to any let or parton*, it haa been abuied ) or, which la the aame thing, luch paper has nniformly been over- liaued, and ita value depraoiated ttom axeeaa. And it la DOW admitted on all handa to be quite Inditpensobla, for the prevention of injurloua fluctuation* in the val- ue of money, that all ootca be made payable, at the pleasure of the holder, in an unvarying quantiiy of gold or silver. But though such ba tha law In this and most other conntries, it is, we are sorry to say, operative only on tha richest, most cautious, and respectable bankers, and 1* found to alTonl no real security against the roguery and misconduct of others. This security is, bowavar, the more Indispensable, seeing that the baua of notes is, of all businesses, that which saems to bold out the greatest prospect of success to the schemes of those who attempt to get rich by preying on the pub- lie. The circumstances that excite the public confl- dance in the first instance, and that afterward keep H up, are often of the most trcacheroue dnseription. The cost of engraving and Issuing notes Is also but an In- eoBsideraUe Item, compared with the sums for which they are issued, and provided they be got into any thing like extensive oirculation, they become at once oonsUsrably productive. They are seldom issued ax- oept on the deposit of bills or other securities yielding • considerable rate of Intareat ; so that if an individual, or aet of Individuals, with little or no capital, contrive, by fair appaarancas, promises, and similar devices, to insinuate himself or themselves into the public oonfl- dence, and can maintain £30^000, £60,000, orX100,000 in circulation, he or they aeoura a good income in the mean time ; and when the bubble bursts, and the Im- posture is detected, they are no worse off than when they set up their bank. On the contrary, the presump- tion la that they are a great deal better off; and that they have token care to provide, at the cost of the ered- nluus and deceived public, a reserve stxk for th' r 'O' ion- f;"thl" ,u.rpo.e, urn Sh'";'' 'T '-f"""".! " l» ii>iiteii,li.,| that h.. Imii ■ V" *'"'' ''• produced ^ult a. .0 1.0 ,,ut rarely «-e,Sl .7""?""' '" ''"«■ •"o Hank "f ttflt uT '"" '" '•"»■" ^«n 7" carried „„ to a lo* '^^It? ""!'"• "■•'' '»Wrv ""J Puni«l,„,e„t«, a.,,^„ '. r "'" '""lu-ne.vof ca,,. to 'IH^cle P..yn.e„u ,n" s^*^:" "f '*" '^ "-a iStuI^" noto». "'• ""'* '"0 «u|)pretslon of ill tender, ei -ry whoro .v . ^"K'"'"' "otcs lecul wnt. The u.,Ju,t Ilablli .o« fif,',," 1 ♦^'""t in.„.,ve. «' grB-t dlfflculty and haz.nl t '""'" " »'t"«tlon provide « ,„,,p,,/„f col,rn„d ;„IM '"'^' '"'"«'"' »«" to 0XKencies„„|y,\,^f„7jJ ''•"»". »ot for her own nnd, what k harder still Ii? ""' """ntrv banks • injure.1 by any [„Ucon L :f. th""""' '""' "• ''« """p' v ^fl'iohy tlw dUtrer", w^ 1 T" "f the latter .^ "% bo involi od In rn. L ""'>' ""'Kl't aceidcnt- to render „s,i„a„co to ?ho l,a kC '/"" ''" P"«" terests i„ peri,„j, „f .liscr,^^, ''!"« ""i.^^/^'mtile in- The countr,, bank, kept bu a sT'if ''"^■. •"'"i"i«hed. their coflcrg. Thev Xr« „i. . " '"'''''^ of coin in 8«»ter or le„ extent o?""' ^""'''^'"' •"•'J*", to « whenever any ci:;.^^*«l^;~fntBecnri, ■"'n-l upon them f„r coin ,h„"? to occasion a dc- Pledged thewholeora JoVo;^''';V»f'"'«t«l>' »oId or the notes to the Bank *,. VT ?' *''*''" «tock, carried Hed the s,.cie to ."hf c i""'=H2'"'' -'"' «-«"-'' Picions were ontortainod „fVh. T' *•"" """J' »"»- •^nk., or when a pSn^c olln . ,"^" °^ '^^ '^""'■trv of their notes, a, w«, the rnLf fi"''"'^ ""« holder, *hole of ,ho„; retwated n^^o,': ."l'"" '«26, the "I'l 700 or 800 condiZ J!^ ""' "■"'' "f England "Peeie of that ost^b 'h^enrwhr' '"^"^ °«' 'bo *"t, exposed to tho rirof 7tnl "" ,"""• " '» "vi- rtone any thin^ wroL I? „ "'^^t *'"""" having from abroad, ,^t the'^drai^'C^r f'" ':?'" '^ ^'"-' that nearly exhausted the iwt. I?"" ""> ''ountn-, -eed her to issue al^uu m llL' :?IT '" '»25, aid ne currency could ..ot be i„ , " 1' '"'' •^^ notes. ;h«e the Hank of Cland and th^^' 'l'".'"'^' 'ff. credit, were placed In so Iri. ' ""I*"" ''"' Public themakingof Hank of Fn'T r* " »'tuation. But «" Place. oxceptTl" Bank*''t'r!!'' '"«■" '<»"•<''" protect her from the iSus cl """• "^terially to or runs among the hol.Sr. ^f ™"*■ "'^K'*" affected provincial currenc' Id"" '''"'r/'""' ^'orn-rly the !'"'" '-"loci fVeque ,;if w„"' T" '! ''"•"^' "'iKht b, ;'o"Kht «l.out eiole \v :;„3r''''"'' ■'"Is wa 'ho country bunk,, Kener, llv In H « "" ""■ P"" of '•««et, but always'lS h. L'?,, ''" ""' '"•"">-.• the prices; or by th,. Issues of T, i ."""""• "f » ■'l*'.- of i" consequence of an !,„ ,':";:"" "' '^"ftl«."l b-ing I'ror more rapidly than ho!^ '^''T' ''"™''''<' "oonl n ether .ase, the provl, l '. "'" """""^' '"'nks. '"ant as compaid wli wh . '"' •^""''""•y beii.i re.Iun ' " "".......1 o,^ Its is* ."r 'n^*; , ,"/ """{".poli., ,^,„'-,"„"; •"•tcr al to obscrye "h "t ,„ " ! ?," f^"'"'"" ' '"'t it 1, pected, there was not I , h, h ' ''■■ "•■'"' *"" «"»- then, for „old. u 1 l . 1^ 'T', ""^ •'■""""<' "Pon 'lanoy of the crrrn v ""™''', "''yious that a rcdun" viatcd byBCti;^,; , ;„» '^^'-^t that can not be oj. (as hoarding i, out of .[ '" ^"""""-^ ''"nks, unless -na it abroad, Tnd 1 tXylr^ " '■" "'"'""^"' " "'"J cheaper l-V K«t.i„„ 1 ' "fh T ''" ''''"« *^«"- notes, or bills on l.o,^ l*^""! V^!"} "«'"' "^ *=»K'''ny made show that It ;,",* id"" "l^ "atement, hat it can take ,.lace more readlU f"''^ •" '"PPO"* tent, under the r'r<.,ent smem th ' '^ '° " Kfo«ter ex. respect no change was r^aTe , '',«;I"""r>.r- ^" "'is ancient security against ov7ri ' ■*"'' "'hiie the impaired, the arrl^nge, cnL 7?'"" """ "'"intair.ed ,„! stability of the Dank of F InT T''" "'"'«'•'"' tho Proyed the Pecuniary s'^'fj,""''-.""" consequently im! If any doubt cnnbi „ ... *"*' country. """ of -this HmeS'tr ; >beT'" V" ">« "P"- to Scotland. Gold L. 7 ^ removed by referrli.n. tlmt country fSoX'S?„r'"^"">'''«"'»he^^^^^^^^^^ pretends to say that prices a retbl"" i "2" -^"^t "o one ■n Kngland, or that he cZ y*'.;'; '" *'?'''"«' than Scotch currency ig ke„t „IT ^ 'le|,reclated. The check of gold pa.yme'l^,'' , ^ f.'^Z d '^'' "."' '^ "- on Lon.Io,. , and lt ig „s ^ffi" '•[.'?' l'™"""' f""" l-'Hs a» It w.,111,1 be were the b„i k! t' '"'''' '" ""'s way ofexchanging notes fogow"" "S^lTf^"' '"« ''""'^ l« It to bo apprehended that ti.» ," ""'""t grounds, then, of England notes or I I .on 1?. "''"';'," *» S'^'" K-nk "al In restraining oeriss"^ i ''v"J'" '"' '««'" offect- than in Scotland? Tl , kcr win •""™ " ^""■'"» keep beside him such a stock If ?'"' "'"'"' """* nmy be sufBclent to answc" the l""'^'""' '"•"ion «, for their payment If .1, , •'*"">n'l» of the public iion in his'cJe,: were onua; t "tV *\' '""" ""'•""'- ■n circulation, he would not "it?/",'? "^ '"» «otes Pront; butifhebeinrrnn^ ' u ^ P'"'"' ""ako any ".von a fifth part ^f'thrstrw-V"",'"'''''''"'"!. 0^ "cnt; and his profit consistgorti ""■"'""''>■ ^« "'<"- teregt deriyedlVom hig nn?„. • ''^""'.<»'«oss of the in- torcst of the sum he i obLve'dt^t" '"","" "^•""«' '"- ftrong-box, and tho ex^,e .fes o^^**'' ">""""' '" '""^ h»hn.c.>t. The Bank of S.^d T^tl^ ■"" '"*"''- wen, keops an average stock nf'l;. "'i' ^^ «f*orward to a tWrd of her lialdHties '" """* ''"»'o° eq»al no^r/TKiVe^X^arr ? '- '-^^ ^or . detlnlto .urn (in ^Cd^Tw^ L' •'rti:» BAN 08 DAN Si, «ml In RcotUmI »nil IwIihhI not Ibm thun t\), lh»t It thoulil Imi iiiivhIiIk (•> Ix'iirrr nii (li'iininil, mid that It ■huulil bt' pruiMTlv iiliiiiiiMil. l'roiiil«wiry niili'n, iIkiiikIi ImuoiI l>y iMiiknrii, \f ixit |iiiyiil>lit to livuriir mi ili iiiniiil, do not roiiiti iiiidsr tli« dviKiiiiliiutluii of liiiiik-iiiiti'n; th«y Are nut, Ilka tliu latlcr, takun «• rimli In nil »r- dtnitry trniiaiivlloiiii ; nor nro they, llko tlioni, (imluii- •bU by niuro delivery. The eirciilntlon of iioica for lem than £6 wna ru- ■tralned by liiw (ttiit. 15 (li'o. 11, i\ M) from I'Hil to 1707. In IHOS, It wtti cniiitud by Mat. HH timi, 0, o. 8H, that all baiik-noti'D, prunilwory nuti'i, or uthor ne- gotlabla inatriinionia fur Ii'im tliiin 'ilU., ahoiild Iki nbao- luttly void! a iwnalty of from 2»»<. to I'li, at the dl»- cratlon of the Jiiallcca, \»\nn linponod on thoir Itauora. It WM enacted by the 7 (ii'o. 4, c. II, that the laauo of all liank-nntcn or prunilwory notea for Icaa than Xft by tho liaiik of KiiKlund, or by any llcnnaud Kngll'h bank- ■ra, and atamiied on tho Dili of Foliriiary, tM2)l, or prevloualy (after which iierlod 'uch iiotra worn not Stamped), ihould terminate on the (ith of April, IM'21), By the 9 (loo. 4, e. '211, Kii)(liiih bankora nut In tho city of London, or within throe inlloa then'of, are au- thorized to iiiaua promiMory notea, and to draw and Isiuo billit of oxchaiiKo, on uimtauiiKMl papor, for any aum of •£& or upwanl, axpre**ed to lie payable to the bearer on demand, or to order, at any |>te». — Sotos of the Dank of England were not, proviimslv tn tlio act 8 & 4 Will. 4, c. Urt, like bills of cxcliaiii;o, mere Mcurities, or documents of debt, but were treated as money or cash in the ordinary courxe or Irausactioii* of business; tho receipts glvi n iipun their payment being alwoys given as for iiKiii*'y. Nii«, however, they are legal tender, every whore except nl the Bank, for all sums above X6. All luite^ pay:iblo to bearer •re assignable by delivery. The liiiliier of a liank- note is primafmie entitled to its prompt payment, and c«n not lie aflectoil liy the previous fraud of any for- mer holder in olituinluK it, unless evidence bo given to show that ho was jirivy to such fruml. Siu'li pi i v ity may, however, lie inferred frrforni in some res|M' many of whom are, as already seen, without tlic )iow er to re- fii'fe them, and without tlio means of furniiiig any cor- rect conclusion as to the solvency of the issuers. Bills, on tho other band, pass only, with very few exco|)- tions. among persons engaged in business, who, being fiiily aware of the risk they run in taking them, reject such as they appreliend might involve them in loss. There is plainly, therefore, a widu and obvious diatinc- ILVN BAN lion li/'twri'n ttio two «p«rlirl»lnK «nil Inlcllltti'iit Si'oli'li Kcnlli'Miun, who wuii ufli^rwiinl •nKDKcil in Ihn lll-fntril colony iit l>nrlcn, (iovcnt- nii'iit lii'inK lit (III) tliiiii nini'h illinm] of tho iiamo. . "That tho mnnaKomont and government of tho cor- poration lio coniinltteil to the Kovomor, deputy rov- emor, and twenty-four ilirecton, who nhall lio ducted between thn 2'ith day of March and 'iMx day of April, oach year, IVom amon)( thn nicuilicrn of the coni|iany duly i|ualllleil. That no dividend shall at any time lie mado liy the nald (,'nvernor and company-, save only out of the intercut, profit, or protluco ari mi^' l\y or out of tho Halil capital atoek or fund. <>r ' v such ilsHlInK aa I« allowed liy net of I'arllam'"' I'hoy must l)0 nutu- ral-honi niilijecta of ICnKland. i naturali/.rd aulijecta ; they nhall have in their "wn name and for thnir own IIBO, severally, viz. ; the m,< ■ rtmr at leant X4IX)0, tho deputy ({ovefnor £300o iumI cik h director X2()00 of tho capital utock of the luusi corpuinitlon. That thirteen or nioro of tho Kald ne> • -loni a«d director* (of which tho Kovenior or di put* ,; i -rmir mu»t Iw alwnya one) iihall couHtltuto a couri of .tircctors, for tho inunaKcnient of tho airaln of the .'iimpany, and for the Rppoln|nient of all a){ent.s and -"orvanta which may lio neceasary, pay- \\\^ tlicn< Hui li Kaliirlea aa they may conaldcr rea»oii- ablo, KNcry elector muitt have in lila own name and for his own unr, .iTjOO or mure capital atook, and can oidy nlvii ono vote. He muat, if mcpilred by any menilier pri-unt, take tho oath of stock ; or the dcela- raliun nf slcik. In cano ho lie one of the people called Quakers. Four general courts to lie held In every year; in thu months of iSvptomlior, Dec.emlier, April, and .luly. A general court may ba summoned at any time, u|K'ii tlio n'i|ulaitiou of nine proprietors, duly qualilieil n* clectorH. Tho majority of electors ill gen- eral courts have the power to make and constitute by- laws anil ■Tilinances for tho government of tho corpora- tion, pro\ iiled that .such liy-laws and ordinances be not repui;nant to thu laws of the klnf[dom, and bo con- rtrnied ami approved, accordluK to the statutes in such case nuido and provided." The corixiration Is pro- hiliited from cuKaKlnR In any sort of commercial un- dertaking other than dealiiiK In bills of exchange, and in (;olil and silver. It is authorized to advance numey upon the security of goods or morchandiso pledged to it ', and to sell by public auction such goods as are not redeemed within a specilled time. It was also enacted in the same year in which tho Bank was ostablished, by stutnte C William and Mary, 0. 2U, that the Hank "shall not deal in any goods, wares, or merchandise (except bnllion), or purchase any lands or r«vpnu»« belonging to the crown, or ad- vanie or hnd to their nnijenties, Iheir heira or nutinlk. •om, any iiim or sunia of money by h ay of limu or an- ticipation, or any part or |i.irts, brani li or liramhss, Aiml or funds of thn revenue, now granted or liebing- Ing, or hrreafter to lie granted to their niajrslli's, their heirs and succesrors, other than siii h fund or funds, part or |iarta, branch or branches of the snid revenue onl.v, on which a crrilil of lii:iu I* or shall be granted liy Parliament." And in Itl'.l7 It wiw mailed that Ihe "common capital and principal stink, and aim the real fund of the govenuir and cmnpauy, or any proAt or produce to bo made thereof, or arising thereby, shall lie exempted from any rates, taxes, assessments, or im|xisltiuns whatS(M>ver, during the lontiiiuaiiceof the Hank; and that all the prollt, bonetlt, and advantage, from time to time arising out of tho managrnient of the sahl corporation, shall be applied to the uses of ill thn members of the said corjiorathin uf the (iovrrnor and ('oni|Mny uf tho Kopk of KiiglamI, ratably and in pro|uirtloii to each memlirr's part, ^hare, and inter- est in the coniniou capital and principal stock of the said govenuir and company hereiiy established." It was further enacted. In Ili|i7, that tho forgery of the company's seal, or of any sealed bill or bank-note, should bo felony without benetll nf clergy, iiinl that tho making of any alleratlun or erasure in any bill or note should alsA be f«liin,y. In llltM!, during the great recolnagc, tho Dank was Involved In conslilerabin dinicullies, and was even coni|M>lled to aua|H'nd |Hiyment uf her notes, which were at a heavy discount. Owing, however, to llie Judicious conduct of the directors, and the assislanco uf government, the Hank got over the crisis. Hut It was ut tho samo time judged e'C|iedlent, In order to place her In a situation tho better to vvillistand any adverse circumstances that might afti > >■ inl occur, to increase her capital from Xl,2(X),(XHi lo i:2,'i()l,171. In I7<)H, the dirtictors iimlcrtook to [my off and cancel one ndlliiin and a half of Exelieijuer bills they had circulated two years before, at i\ l«'r cent., with the interest on them, amounting in all tn .£1,775,02)4; which Increased tho |iennancnt debt due by tho )iulilic tn the Hank, including i.''UH).s time than six months from the borrowing thereof." This proviso, which has had so |K>werful an o|ieration on banking in England, is said to have been elicited liy tho Minc-advcnturo Company having commonccd banking business, and begun to issue notes. It has been pretty generally imagined, from tho private banking companies in tho metropolis not issu- ing nntes, that they were legally incapacitated from doing so. Hut the clause in the act of 17nH which has lieen the only restriction on the Is-oic of nines, ap- plied generally to all England, and hu I no peculiar reference to Ix)ndon. The fact that banks with six or fewer partners have not issued notes in the metro|iolls, as well as in tho provinces, is, therefore, ascribable either to their lieing aware that their notes would ob- tain no considerable circulation concurrently with those of a great association like tho Hank of England, or from thoir believing that their issue would not be protitable. BAN 100 BAN An Acoocin: or tob tucoiuiva Bcmiwals or rat CnABTXB, or toio Cosditumw nnim wuicu tuek Rxmcwau wxib JIAHK, AMD or Tint VaBIATIONB IN Till AMOONI AMD InTXBCBT Or TUE I": lUIANKMT D«I1T UVK UV GOVEIINJIBMT TO 'iHB Ba: for maungu- Charter conUnuod'by tjie S& o'vi'lil S, c. SO, tlU la moathi' DoUce after lat of August, ITIO, ^ider this act the Bank took np and added to their stock £1,001,171 Exchequer bills and talll(*9. Charter continued by 7 Anne, o. T, till U montbs' uotieo after Ist of August, 17S2, on pay- mont, etc. Under this act the Bank advanced X400,000 to govenunent without Interest ; and de- livered up to be canceled Xl,776,0iT 17«. lOd. libichequer bills. In consldoratian of their iweiring au annuity of X10«,Ci01 ia«., being at the mto of per cent Charter continued by 12 Anne, stat. 1, c. 11, till 12 mouths' notiee after 1st August, 17 A on payment, etc. In 1710, by the 8 Geo. 1, c 8, Bank advanced to government, at B per cent. And by the same act, the interest on the Kxohequer bUls canceled m 1708 was reduced bom 6 to 6 per cent In 1721, by 8 Geo. 1, c 21, the South Sea Company were authorized to sell £200,0011 government annuities, and corponitions purcli(it*ing the same at 20 yt'ars' purt^luti^e were authorized to add the amount to their capital stock. The Bank purchased the whole of thofe annuities at 20 yean' purchase B per cent, interest was payable on this sunt to rald^unuuer, 1727, aud thereafter, 4 per cent. At different timea between 1727 and 1788, both Inclusive, the Bank received ftom the public, OH account of nvrmanent debt, £8,276,027 17a lOd., and advanced to it on ac- count <'f ditto, i:3,000,(X)0: difference Debt due by the public In i T88 ... Charter continued by 10 Geo. 2, c. IS, till 12 months' notice after Ist of August, 1704, on payment, etc. Under this act the Bank advanced £'.,600,000 without Interest, which being added to tho orlghial advance of £1,200,000, and tho £400,000 advanced In 1710, beating iiitorest at 6 per cent., rcduci'd tlii' Interest on tho whole to D per cent. In 174B, under authority of 19 Geo. 2, c. fl. tho Bank delivered up to bo cauccled £086,000 of Exchequer bilU, in consideration of an annnity of £80,472, being at the rale of 8 per cent In 1749, tho 28 Geo. 2, c 0, reduced thu interest on the 4 iier cent, annuities held by the Bank to 3t per cent, for 7 yean from the 25th of December, 17SU, and thereafter to 8 per cent Charter eontinued by 4 Geo. 8, c. 25, till 12 months' notiee after let of August, 1786, on pay- ment, at^ Under this act tho Bank paid into the Kxchcquer £1 10,000 free of all charge. Charter continued by 21 Geo. 8, c. 60, till 12 months' notico after 1 st of August, 1812, on pay- ment, etc. Under this act the Dank advanced £8,000,000 for the public service, for S years, at 8 per cent. Charter continued by 40 Geo. S, c 23, till 12 months' notice after 1st of August, 1S88, on payment, etc. Under this act the Bank advanced to government £8,000,000 for yeara without inter- est ; but in piirsuancf of the recommendation of thu cumiuittee of 1M)7, the advance was continued without interei't till niuntiis after tho signature of a defluitlTe treaty of peace. In 1S16, tho Bank, under authority of tho act 66 Geo. 8, c. 06, advanced at 3 per cent, to be repaid on or before ist of August, 18'^ Charter eontinued by 8 & 4 Will. 4, o. 08, till 12 mof'hs' notice after Ibt of August, isefi, with a proviso that it may be dissolved on 12 months' notice after 1st of Augutt, 1815, on payment, etc. This act directs that In ftiture the Bank shall dednet £120,000 a year tmm their charge on account of the management of the publio debt, and that a fourth part of thu debt due by the public to tho Bank, or £3,071,700, be paid off Permanent advance by the Bank to tijo public, bearing interust at 8 per cent., inde- pendent of the advances on account of dead weight, etc Charter eontinued by T & 8 Vict e. U2, till 12 months after the 1st of August, 1865, on pay- ment, elcL 'This act, an abstract of which Is given In a lubseqnent part of this article, exempts the notes of tho Bank from all charge on account of stamp-dnty, and direct4< that In fu- ture the Bank sliull deduct £180,00t) a year fVoiu the charge on account of the manage- ment of the public delit. It alao separates thu banking from the issuing department of the establishment, and cflfccts other Important chanKt'f. Ptrnisntnt D«bt. £ «. d. 1,900,000 8,17^04T 17 10 2,000,(XX) 4,000,000 0,875,027 17 10 276,027 17 10 0,100,000 u 1,600,000 SS6,8U0 8,000,000 14,6S6,800 8,671,700 11,016,100 The charter of the Bank of England, when first (granted, wai to continue for eleven ysan certain, or till a year's notice after the Ut of August, 1706. The charter was further prolonged in ICU7. In 1708, tho Bank having advanced XlOOiOOO for the public service, n ithout interest, the exclusive privileges o' tho corpo- ration were prolonged till 1733; and, in > ^qucnce of various arrangements made at different i ,nea, the exclusive privil^es of the Bank have been continued by succeuive renewals, till a year's notice after the 1st of August, 1855. For further details as to this sulject. see the Appendix Np. 1 of the Report «/i832 on the Re- mwal of the Bank Charter, and the Acts of Parliament referred to in it ; see also PogrLETHWAtT's History o/" the Revenue, p. 801-310; and Faibmast e done without recurring to specie payments ; and the dilference of 4^ per cent, that obtained in 1819, be- tween the value of gold and paper, was not deemed suf- ficiently considerable to warrant a departure from the old standard, and from the acts engaging to restore it. But it is alleged tliat those who suppose that the act of 1819 added only 4 i per cent, to the value of the cur- rency mistake altogether the effect of the measure. It is admitted, indeed, that paper was then only 4J per cent, less valuable than gold ; but by reverting to spe- cie payments, an unexpected purchase of thirty mUiions of gold was made ; and it is aflirnicd that this nov- el and large demand, concurring simultaneously with the contraction of paper iu several of tlie Continental states, and with a falling off iu the supply of bullion ti'oni the mines, had the effect of adding very greatly to the value of gold itself, and consequently to that of the currency. It is very difficult, or ratlier, perhaps, impossible, to determine the precise degree of credit that should be attached to this statement ; but, while we incline to think that it is well founded to a certain extent, we see no grounds for believing that it is so to any thing like the extent that has been stated. The gold imported into Great Britain, to enable the Bank to resume specie payments, was not taken from any particular country or district, but was drawn from the market of the world ; and considering the vast extent of the supply whence it was derived, it is against all reason to suppose that ite value could lie materially influenced by the purchases. We doubt, too, whether the contraction of the paper currency of some of the Continental states, and the substitution of specie in its stead, was not more than balanced by the cessaticc of the demand for specie for the military chcste of the different armies, by the stoppage of the practice of hoarding, and tho greater security consequent to the return of peace. And with respect to tho falling off' in the supplies from the mines, it is not a circumstance, supposing it to have had a considerable influence, that Parliament could take into account. It could neither determine the extent to which bullion had been raised, nor at what point the rise would stop, nor how soon it might again begin to decline. The diminution in the supply of bullion bad then continued for too short a period, and ite influence on tho value of gold was much too uncertain, to make it a ground for interfering in any degree with tho standard. And notwithstanding tlie falling olf in the productiveness of the American mines still continues, tho diminution thence arising has been since more than compensated by the extra- ordinary increase that has taken place of late years in the produce of tlie Russian mines and washings. Tho decline in the price of most articles that has taken place since the peace has been often referred to as a conclusive proof of the great enhancement in the value of bullion. But the inference is by no means so certain as has beA represented. The prices of com- modities are as much aflected by changes in the coil of their production as by changes in the quantity of money afloat. Now, there is not one of the great ar- ticles of commerce the cost of wliich has not been con- siderably nnluced, or which has not been supplied from new and more productive sources within the last few years. The growth of corn, for example, has been vast- ly extended in France, Prussia, and generally throu^li- out tlie Continent, by the splitting of large cxlatos, and the complete subversion of the feudal system ; and the reduction of its price in Kngland has been wholly owing to the astonishing improvements made in agri- culture, and to the increase of imports from Ireland. Tho fall in the price of wool is satisfactorily accounted for by the introduction and rapid niuitipiicatiun of Merino sheep in Germany, where they seem to succeed even better than in Spain ; and by the large and rap- idly growing imports from Australia, wlicrc little more than 60 years ago thcro was not a single sheep ! And a very large portion, if not the whole, of the fall in the price of colonial products, is admitted, on ail handn, to be owing to tho destruction of the mono|>oly system, and tho vast extension of cultivation in Cuba, Jira7.iI, Java, Louisiana, etc. Although, therefore, wo do not deny that tho falling off' in tlie supply uf bullion from the mines must, at first, liave had some influence over prices, wc hold it to lie the greatest imaginable error to ascribe to it the entire fall that took place after tlie peace. Were iU effect rated at from 6 to 10 per cent., we believe it would bo very considerably overstated. — See PuKCious Metali. On the whole, therefore, we are disposed to approve of the conduct of those who framed the act of IN 19, That it added somewhat to the burdens of tho indus- trious classes, and has been in so far hostile to iiie pub- lic interests, it weniu impossible to doubt; but it hu ) BAN 108 BAN / And ) approvo _, of 1H19. |ho imlus- 3 liie i)ut>- |jUt it llM ...' been ao in any thing lilce tlie degree wlilch its cne- rii IS represent. Tlie period, too, wlien it >vus passed is now so distant, that the existing engagements among individuals liave almost all been formed with reference to the altered value of the currency ; so that whatever ii\)ury it may have occasioned in the first instance must be neai'ly gone by. To modify or change the stand- ard at this late period, would not be to repair injustice, but to commit it afresh. At the end of the war, the circumstances wore considerably different. The stand- ard had been really abandoned fur the previous 18 years; and perhaps wo may now say that it would have been better, all things considered, had the mint price of bullion been raised in 1816 to the market price. But having surmounted all the dithculties attendant upon the restoration of the old standard, and maintain- ed it since 1821, it would be in the last degree impoli- tic to subject it to new alterations. Should the coun- try become, at any future period, unable to make good its engagements, it will better consult its honor and its interest by fairly compounding with its creditors, than by endeavoring to slip from its engagements by resort- ing to the underhand and dishonest expedient of en- feebling the standard. The price of grain, which had been very much de- pressed In 18'>1 and 1822, rallied in 1823 ; and this cir- cumstance "onlributed, along with others peculiar to that perioti . . < note an extraordinary rage for spec ulation. -. ■ t of the country banks being in con sequencr >r > ;: ith extended, the currency became redundai t u autumn of 1824; and the exchanges having been depressed, a drain for gold began to oper- ate upon the Bank of England. But the directors of the Bank liaving entered, in the early part of that year, into nn engagement witli government to pay off such holders of 4 per cent, stock as might dissent from its conversion into a Si pei' cent, stock, they were obliged to advance a considerable sum on this account after the depression of the exchange. This tended to counter- act the effect of the drain on the Bank for gold ; and, in consequence, the London currency was not very ma- terially diminislied till September, 1826. AVhen, how- ever, the continued demand of the public on the Bank for gold had rendered money scarce in the metropolis, the pressure speedily extended to the countrj'. Such of the provincial banks — and they wore a numerous class — as had been originally established withQut suf- ficient capital, or had conducted their business upon erroneous principles, began to give way the moment they experienced an increased difHculty of obtaining pecuniary accommodations in London. Tlio alarm, once excited, soon became general ; and confidence and credit were, for a while, almost wholly suspended. In the short space of six weeks, above 70 banking estalj- lisliments were destroyed, notwithstanding the very large advances nuide to them liy the Bank of England ; and the run upon the Bank for cash to supply the ex- igencies of the country banks was so heavy, that slio was well nigh drained of all the coin in her coiFers, and obliged, as already remarked, to issue about a million of £1 and £'1 notes. To guard against a recurrence of the wide-spread mischief and ruin produced by this and tlio previous baukru])tcie8 of the country- banks, it was resolved, in 182U, Willi consent of the Bank of England, to make a change in the law of 1708 limiting tlio number of part- ners in banking cstablisliinents to six only. And it was accordingly enacted that thenceforth any number of portners might form themselves into associations to carry on the business of banking, including the issue of notes, any where not within tirty-Jiee miles of Lon- don. The directors of the Bank of England came, nt the same time, to the resolution of establishing branch- es in some of the principal towns ; and these have since been established in Gloucester, Manchester, Birming- ham, Leeds, Liverpool, Bristol, Exeter, Newcastle- upon-Tyne, IIuU, Norwich, ate. Besides attempting to lessen the flrequency of bank- ruptcy among the country banks by repealing the law liniiting the number of partners, it was further re- solved, in 1826, to prohibit the issue of £1 notes. The policy and effects of this measure gave rise to much dispute. It seems clear that it went far to shut up one of the most convenient channels by which the in- ferior class of country bankers contrived .to get their notes into circulation, and must, in so far, have done good. But there were many other channels still open to them ; and to imagine that this measure was to place the provincial currency on that solid basis on which it should be placed was quite visionary. There were no notes under £5 in circulation in 1792 ; and yet fully one third part of the countrj- banks then in existence became banknipt ! The truth is, as already stated, that it is not possible to guard against loss and fVaud from the proceedings of the country bankers, otherwise than by compelling them to give security for their is- sues ; and as security may as easily be given for £1 notes as for those of £5, ttxe suppression of the former docs not appear to be essential. No doubt can, how- over, be entertained that the representations of the extreme injury occasioned by the withdrawal of £1 notes were greatly exaggerated ; though it is, at the same time, obvious that the means of the bankers to make advances, as well as the profit derived ft'om mak- ing them, must both have been diminished by the sup- pression of the small notes; and it would be foolish to deny that this circumstance must have occasioned some loss and inconvenience to many individuals. These remarks are meant to apply only to the case of the country banks. The extraordinary extent to which the forgerj- of the £1 notes of the Bank of England was carried affords a eufiicient vindication of the policy of their suppression. But the comparatively limited cir- culation of tho country banks, and perhaps we may add the greater attention paid to the manner in which their notes were engraved, hindered their forgery from becoming injuriously prevalent. Charter of 1844.-^The defects inherent in the old system were again fully developed in 1836 and 1887. It is needless now to enter upon any investigation of tho circumstances which led to the overtrading of these years ; but it was carried to a great extent in England and in the United States. In nothing, however, was this more strikingly evinced than in the rapid increase of joint-stock banks ; tlieir number, which in 1834-35 had amounted in England and Wales to S6, having risen in 1835-36 to no fewer than 100 ! Many of these wero banks of issue, and in consequence of the large ■ additions that were thus suddenly made to the number of notes afloat, and still more to tho number of bills, checks, and other substitutes for money, the currency became redundant and the exchange depressed ; and tho deficient har\'C8ts of 1838 and 1839, conspiring with this redundancy, occasioned a further fall in the ex- change, and a severe drain upon tho Bank of England for gold. But while the latter was narrowing her is- sues by supplying the exporters of bullion with gold in exchange for notes, tho country banks went on in- creasing tlieir issues ! M'hat the former did by con- tracting on the ono hand, the latter more than undid by letting out on the other. Tho vacuum created by tho withdrawal of Bank of England paper w^s imme- diately filled np, and made to overflow, by tho issue of a more than equal amount of provincial paper ; so that had it not been for the rise in the rate of interest, and tho other repressive measures adopted by the Bank, tho probability is that she might have gone on paying away bullion for notes till she was drained of her last sixpence, without in any degree affecting the ex- change ; and as it was, the bullion in her coffers in August, 1889, was reduced to £2,420,000, so that the market narrowly escaped a tremendous crisis. This perilous experience having again forcibly at- tracted the public attention to the state of the banking BAN 104 BAN t^gtCDi, Sir Robert Peel was encouraged to attempt ita improvement. The clause in the act 8 & 4 WiU. 4, c. 98, for the renewal of the chirtor in ltJ33, which gave to Parliament power to reviae or cancel it )n 1846, •ffonled a legitimate op' r'unity for the introduction of the newayatem. ^i owever desirable, the total auppreaalon of the isaue c.'notuB by joint-atock and pri- vate banking conipaniek would have been a measure too roach opposey Mr. Loyd, in 1887, for eft'octing a com- plete separation l^etween the issuing and banking de- partments of that establishment. And while the di- rectors are left at liberty to manage the Utter at dis- cretion, their manageuient of the fjrmer, or issue de- partment, is snijected to what seems to be a well-de- vised system of restraint. The Hank is allowed to is- sue £14,000,000 of noti'9 upon securities (of which the debt of £11,015,100 leut by her to government is a part) ; and whatever paper the issue department may at any time issue over and alxtve this maximum amount of securities, it must have an equal amount of coin and bullion in its coffers. A clause is inserted in the net allowing the Dank to increase her issue upon aeonriti' s in the event of her notes being used instead of those of any or all of the i.'xisting banks of issue. Hence it is impractical^le for the issue department to Increase its issues without, at the came time, propor- tionally increasing its stock of coin ond bullion ; or to diminish the latter without proportionally diminishing the amount of paper supplied to the public and the banking department. And, therefore, if the latter is- sued the whole notes assigned to it, the total amount issned Ijy the isaue department and the amount in cir- culation would be identical ; and it might under such ciroumstances be truly said that, in so far as the (jur- renoy consists of Bank of Englcnd notes payable on de- mand, it varied in amount and value as it would do were it \^holly metallic, and, consequently, by being M closely identified with the standard, realized the bttm idatlott paper currency. But, though the currency approaches lo, it has not arrived at this degree of perfection. The public does not deal alone with the Issue, but also, and to a far greater extent, with the banking department. And tbla latter department retained such a portion of the notes issued to It by the former, nndcr the 2d clause ci the 7 & 8 Vict. c. 82, as was supposed at the time to be sufficient to carr, >n its business, their anioaiit hav- ing since varied with the varying demands for bullion, the soles and purchases nf securities, etc. But it is suf- ficient, in illustration of what is now atated, to observe that during the week ending the 4th of November, 1848, notes to the amou it of £26,790,(ieO had been issued to the public and thd banking department, of which the latter had £8,242,076 in its coffers, naking the sum in the hands of the public £18,664,086. And as ii is sometimes supposed that the bonlung department might issue this sum o' £8,242,676, or l!ic spare notes at any time in its coiibrs, in the discount of bills, or any other way, it is concluded that there is still room for some, though but little, derangement of the curren- cy from mistaken proceedings on the part of the l(>2,1()6 29,05-2,146 2(1,107,093 20,782,000 29,891,088 20,190,700 28,053,800 28,385,070 27,267,116 20,540,480 20,075,926 20,098,020 27,079,270 27,181,080 27,072,295 28,326,000 29,822,200 29,292,820 29,700,870 29,3.VJ,7!I6 28,2;i5,gS5 28,209,106 Goverontenl Debt. £ 11,016,100 11,016,100 11,015,100 11,016,100 11,016,100 11,015,100 11,018,100 11,016,100 11,016,100 11,016,100 ii,oi5,i;io 11,015,100 11,015,100 11,016,100 11,016,100 11,015,100 11,015,100 11,015,100 ll.Ol.'i.lOO 11,015,100 11,016,100 11,015,100 11,016,100 11,015,100 11,015,100 Otiwr Soeuritiet. ■old. £ 2,9S4,90O 2,984,900 2,981,900 2,984,900 2,084,900 2,984,900' 2,984,9IpO 2,984,900 2,984,900 2,934,000 2,984,900 2,984,900 2,984,900 2,984,900 2,984,900 2,984,900 2,984,000 2,084,900 2,934,900 2,984,900 2,984,900 2,981,900 2,984,900 2,984,900 2,984,900 i! 12,228,894 1 2,493,414 12,548,406 12,943,918 13,200,548 13,088,142 13,005,716 13,(61,932 13,206,991 12,98'.',S91 12,614,730 11,061,081 10,992,631 11,093,869 11,140,210 11,417,040 11,460,446 11,279,130 12,192,710 12,905,074 12,864,018 13,057,997 12,032,794 11,724,111 11,70-2,047 silver; i~ 1,503,611 1,693,611 1,684,080 2,00,8,187 2,091,602 a,078,963 2,120,884 2,140,008 1,989,769 1,970,709 1,840,940 1,005,434 1,517,8-19 1,682,056 1,638,410 1,00'2,230 1,721,535 1,7113,106 2,132,290 2,417,126 2,437,702 2,70-',873 2,727,1X11 2,511,774 2,500,4.58 Weekeiidl-.(. C>piliU. Reel. BANSINU DBPA Depoeili. BT.MENT. Seven I)ey«* and oUiei BUIi. SecuTltiea. Notee. Cola. Fublie. Private. Publle. Other. 1844, Dec. 7 i4,5ra,ooo 3,110,009 £ 6,795,572 £ 8,422,809 £ 960,155 13,540,019 £ 10,193,718 £ 8,286, !ll5 £ S27,40 7-22,057 May 8 K'553,000 3,183,817 2,7t?,011 10,355,040 1,139,288 13,010,906 9,857,0)0 7,827,925 641,159 June 7 14,.-i53,000 8,186,091 6,745,4,82 10,504,024 1,018,497 13,334,398 11,470,oi05 9,382,6(15 779,436 July 6 14,6o;' .5,651 Aug. 1 14,553,000 8,697,679 8,793,610 13,449,888 9-13,423 12,961,786 14,063,267 8,7''1,S75 610,283 Sept. 5 14,553,000 8,804,479 7,318,919 8,657,100 935,830 12,961,735 12,623,650 9,2o.,008 512,967 Oct. S 14. .553, 000 8,880,985 9,77fl,l!'5 8,107,143 930,793 12,901,300 15,0,36,776 8,809, l.')0 450,831 Nov. 7 11,553,000 8,408,362 5,428,733 8,281,024 1,013,010 12,808,119 12,153,009 7,204,020 5-24,021 Dec. 5 14.65.B.000 8,432.203 8,612,488 8,303,523 1 805.483 12,807,417 18,853,212 8,402,;)00 7'i.'i,7n3 Connection with remment and the Public. — The Bank of Englaml nducts the whole banking business of the British government. " It acts not only," says Dr. Smith "as an ordinary bank, but as a groat engine of state. It receives and pays the greater part of the annuities which aro due to the creditors of tlio pnblic ; It circulates Exchequer bills ; and it advances to gov- ernment the annual amount of the land and malt taxes, which are frequently not paid till somo years thereafter." Advances by Iht Bank in. Discount!, etc. — The greater part of the paper of the Bank has generally been is- sued in the way of advances or loans to government, upon security of certain branches of tho revenue, and in the purchase of Exclieqacr bills and bullion ; but her issues through the medium of discounts to individu- als have, notwithstanding, been at all times consider- able, while during war, and in periods of distress, they hare been occasionally very great. Generally speak- ing, however, tho directors do not think it advisable to enter into competition with private bankers in the transacting of ordinary banking business, or in the discounting of mercantile paper. Mr. llorsley Palmer is decidedly of opinion that all banking business, apart from the issue of notes, is better transacted by private baukers than by public bodies. — Min. of Evidence, lie- jKirt of 1832, p. 37. He also thinks that were the Bank to come fairly into competition at all times with tho pri-.-tte bankers and other individuals in dis- counting, it would bo very apt to lead, every now and then, to an excess of the currency, and a fall of the exchange, producing fluctuations that could not fail to be injurious. At present, therefore, and generally since tho peace, the rate of interest charged by the Bank for loans has been somewhat above the market rate. The consequence is, that, in ordinary periods, very few applications are made to her for discounts. But, at the same time, every one who has any reason- able security to offer, knows whero they may always be had ; while the rate of interest charged by the Bank BAN toir BAN necessarily formg a maximum rate which no other es- tabliahnieat cun excood. Whan, howuvor, any cir- cumBUiices occur to occoilon a pressure in the money market, or a difficulty of obtaininij- accommodations in the usual channels, thd market rate of interest imme- diately rises to the ratu fixed by the Bank ; and on such occasions tho pHvate bankers, i>rd the publ'.^ general- ly, resort to the Bank for nid. She tlien becomes, as it were, a bank of support; und has, as such, on many trying occasions, particularly in 1798, 1815 and 18)6, 1826-2G, and 1888, rendered essential service to public credit, and to the commercial interests of the countrj'. The usual limited amount of tho Bank's discounts does not, therefore, proceed, as has been absurdly enough stated, from any indisposition on the part of tho dl- re'"tor '0 render avcry assistance in their power to the commercial classes, but is, in fact, tlie efl'ect of such dispositiuu. They consider, and we l>elieva justly, that, exce;>t under peculiar circumstances, the business of discounting; and banking is best conducted by private parties ; and that by abstaining from coming into com- petition with them they are better able to act as a bank of supjiort in seasons of distress and dilBculty, This is not to neglect tho interests of the mercantile classes, but to promote them in tho best and most effi- cient manner, oven though it should uo at tho expense of the Bank. At tho same time, however, it must be admitted that the interference of the Bank in assisting iho commer- cial interest is a matter that requires tho greatest con- sideration, and that it can only be safely undertaken under very peculiar circumstances. It should always be borne in mind that however a drain for gold may originate, the factof its existence is of itself a conclusive proof that gold is more valuable abroad than ut home, and consequently that the currency is redundant, and ought to be diminished. Under uuch circumstances, it is the imperative duty of the directors, in order to pro- vide for tho safety of tho Bank, to prevent the vacuum caused by tho exchange of bullion for notes from being again filled up by the issue of fresh notes. Thij may be done in various ways ; but the best and suiest way is by raising tho rate of discount so as to lessen the number of applicants for loans. — See Post. It is at such periods, however, that the applications for assist- ance arc the most urgent ; and it is exceedingly diffl' cult to yield to them, and at the same timo to enforce that systematical and continuous reduction of the issues that is now indispensable to reduce the currency to its proper level, and to restore the exchange to par. Un- qu stionably tho Bank allowed the etock of bullion in her colters to be reduced in 1889 a great deal too low. And though, perhaps, as things turned out, less hard- ship was, in the end, inflicted on individuals than if the directors had adhered more to the stern path of duty, still it is extremely hazardous to trust in matters of such vast importance to the chapter of incidents ; and we incline to think that in this, as in most other r plan is, that no one knows when it is in oi>eration, and, consequently, that it goes far to ' obviate that internal discredit and alarm that are apt to ./O produced when the itock of bullion in tlie Bank is reduced unusually low. In fact, had 'he Bank not acted, in part at least, on this plan in Ib^U, the proba- bility Is that she must have suspended payments. No doubt the Bank would be exposed, if she adopted this plan, to the contingency of losing by her foreign secu- rities in tho event of the breaking out of hostilities, or of the occurrenco of any event by which their value might be reduced. These events may, however, be in general foreseen and provided against; and if the Bank's investments were judiciously made, not in one only, but in several quarters, the risk they would in- volve does not appear to be at all equivalent to the ad- vantage. Perhaps, as the law now stands, there may be legal objections to the Bank's holding foreign se- curities ; but if it bo expedient that she should do so, tho law might he easily altered. Tho amount of the discounts of private paper at the Bank and her branch- es varies, as already seen, greatly in diircrent periods; and depends, indeed, wholly on contingent and acci- dental circumstances. Thus, on tho 1st of Januar}-, 1889, the bills discounted in London amounted to only i:89G,000, whereas on the 3d of I^ecember of the same year they amounted to £8,926,000. The annual aver- age loss by bad debts on the discounts of tho Bank of England in London, from 1791 to 1831, both inclu- sive, was;£81,698.— ^/)pencii2 to Rep. on Bank Charter, No. CO. Advance* to Government. — These iro made on ac- count uf the produce of taxes not yet received, and on the security of tho Exchequer bills, etc. They varied, from 179-2 down to 1810, f^om about £10,000,000 to about £16,000,000. During tho remainder of the war, and down to 1)320, they were a good deal larger ; but in 1819 provision was made for reducing the amount of these advances ; and they do not at present, ex- cluding the permanent advance on account of the dead weight, exceed a fourth part of their amount in 1820. They are represented by the Exchequer bills and dcll- cicncy bills in the hands of the Bank. Balances of Public Money. — In point of fact, however, a very large part of these advances has been nominal only, or has been virtually canceled by the balances of public money in the hands of the Bank. Thus, from 1806 to 1810, both inclusive, the averago advances to government amounted to £14,492,970. But the aver- age balance of public money in possession of the Bank during the same period amounted to about £11,000,000 ; so that tho real advance was equal only to tho dlficr- cnce between these two sums, or to about £3,500,000. This statement completely negatives, as Mr. Tookc has justly stated, the supposition so commonly enter- tained and reasoned upon as a point beyond doubt, that the Bank was rendered, by the restriction, a mere en- gine in the hand of government for facilitating its financial operotions. — First Letter to Lord GrenvUle, p. 64. Tho Bank being enabled to employ tho greater part of the balances of public money in her hands as capital, they have formed one of tho main sources of the profit she has derived from her transactions with the public. This suljoct was brought verj" prominently forward in the Second Report of the Committeo of the House of Commons on Public Expenditure in 1807, And it was agreed in the same year that the Bank should, in consideration of the advantages derived from the public balances, continue the loan of £3,000,000 made to government in 1800 for 6 years without in- terest, on tho same terms, till 6 months after tho sig- nature of a definitive treaty of peace. In 181(i this sum was finally incorporated with tho debt duo by gov- ernment to tho Bank, ai, aa interest of 8 per cent. •V fUJK 108 BAK \ t SfanaffemenI ijfPuhUe />*#,— l»r»irl«ii^ t« Vm, ltl« Daok reculv«d an allawMiiw on lhl« mn\t Um\( tk- ftndtd a« a very improvMant •rranrtniolit u|us)i(!A, (|m luttHH Wilt. 4, c. 08, directed that JilW,i»H> a yii»T ottAitld Im de- ducted from their aaioiMt| and ttia lato art, Ihs 7 A 8 Vict. e. as, direcM (bat till* 4wlu«tirin<'ipal i««l)i"f«, Mr, Aii(l<'tt, ; - lew tlian X340,0<»()5 ami th« fi»ri{i(»l«» «f Vtitmti^^oy / • banker coBt her a ttiil larKitr •nni, At an avnrnf^e of the ten yean ending with INiil, (Im If Nk Umt, through forgeries on the publis funda, 4^t a yt,m -Hffurrl on Bank Ckarter, ApiMwl,, p, lHlt, Tb« (Mat atima paid by tbe pnblto to tbe Uank nn aofwrnnt (ff (hn loanii railed, Excliequer l>iiU fundad, trani^ «f f4 fx-r cent, atock, etc., from 17U;J tolnjO, Iwtli Inctwlod, nnKrtinlcd to £426,796 l<. Uil. — ParUmntmMry t'up*t, No, 81, 8e«a. 1822. Dtad Weight — Beaidaa tlia tranaaefiMt* atlttded to, the Bank entered, on (b« 2M4, l« Jh. ie,ieM,I- fnmOd. M, I'M, lo Ju. I «, ms, on Inland Mill. . . 6 |iurri.ol. riMiiM. IS, IHI, la Mlf It. ISM, oironlnkUla . . i parrot frumjaa. 16, lO'tl, (tofuatonivniur (lt« baitkl Ju. . . < ~ rnmjM. I«, KM, In July ID, Ula}aliU at lliu bank . rii«i, oo U day Mlla . . fr-.m ()rt. 15, IMO,to Juna it, IVj], on 94 day bltli. • rromJima 8, IMI,taApril 1, IMi.oa '■ . . rrom April 1, 1849, to Rapt S, 11(44, on " . . from Baft. «, IM4, to Mar. IK, 1«4», on bill rromSai,!. t, l.'l44,tuMar. 13, 1«44, alinotaa . . . . rrom .Mnr. 13, lN4fi, to Urt 10, l'44fi, on Inioimum rata . rfomOrt 14, IMI>, to NoY. •,li<4h, ui^ " Krom Nor. «, 1«44, lo Auff. II, 1N44, on •' Kn.m Ank. II, 1"J«, to Jan. 11, ISJI, on " framJati. 14, 1841,to 'u. 91. lUl.ili ■' rrom Jan. 91, l»41, to April H, IS41, on " rrom April «, 1«4T, lo An|t. », l«41, on " rroniAu,r. 6, 1U1, to Sapt 93, 1IM1, on " rrom«»|.l. 93, mi, I.. OrV 95, l«47, on " rromOrt 94, 1*41, to Nov. 99, 1841. on " Prom Nov. 99, 1841, lo Dar. 9, 1B41, on " rrrnn Drr. 9, l«4t, to Drr. 93, 1841, on " rram l)oa. 93, 1841, to Jan. 91, 184«, aa " rrom Jan. 91, 1848, to Juno l«, 184", on " from Jnna IS, 11(8, to Nor, 9, 1848, on " rrom Nor. 9, l«4^ to Nov. 99, 1849, on " rt'im .\..r. 99, 1849, lo Her. 9«, I'SO, on " rromlMr. 94, I8M>, tojan. 1, 18(9, oo " rrom Jan. 1, 18&9, to April 99, 1^9, on " rrom April 99, 1859, lo Jan. «, I8S8, on " rrom Jan. 4, 1843, to Jan. 90, 1 943, on ■* Kr-im Jan. 20, 1859, to Junr 9, 1"53, on *' i rrom Jnna 9, 1843, to Srpt I, l»>3, on " rromNapt 1, 1843, loBapt 14. 1143, on " rrom Kapl. 15, 18,13, to Sept 911, lira, on " PromSapl. 99, 1843, toHay II, IfCi, oa " rr..m May II, l»S4, •" Aug. 8, 18S8, on " ffrm Anj. 3, l«S4, lo April », I8J», on "a; h'TOTii April Ff'.m yftty 8, l-SS, U, June 14, 1W5, on , IM'b, lo Hfty 3, 1068, on rtim Juno 14, 1M6, tn ri«|>t. S, 1tl», on rrom Seijt. «, l^'6, to Hcnt. V^, 16fi6, od Fffm »»crl. n, IMS, to S«pt. ^1, !«B5, of) " ! rmtn thpi. i% 16U, to Oet. 4, IM6, on " Fr*.m Oct. 4, lS55,toOct. 18, 18W, on " FrnmOft. 1H, 18U, ODtttUybllb. ffom Oflt. 18, 1W>, on 9S dsy btlU . • ptr coBk 4 |tT eoni. 4 por r«n|. i p*r ccol B pur cant. 6 par cMt 4 par CflBk f ^ per roDt. 8 p«r cent. 9^ P«r csDl. t par rant. 8^1 par renL 5 per rent. I)fi par cant. 4 par etnt. 8 par rtnt. 8)6 par oant 6 per root B par o«nt. 1 par cant 6 per p«l. * parcml. 4 per caola tJfi P«' *«•• 8 pareaot. ^\i percent. 8 fT cant 3^ p«r cant. 3 per cant. 8 pur cvnt. 8 ^ par foat. 4 par canta 4ti, percent. 8 par oant 51^ percent. 8 per cent. 4H par cent 4 per cent, a^ l>er coot 4 per cent. 4^ per rerrt. ft per canl. 5^ {ler cent. t per cant. T par «anta When the currency happens, from any cause, to hecome retlundant, its contraction, always a matter of some difficulty, Is to be effected only (if she hold no forcigpa ft^'curities) by the Bale of btiUion or pubUc securies by the Dank, or by a diminution of tho ustial discounts, or iKrth. But were tho Hank to throw any considerable amonnt of puldic securities upon the market, tho clp- cnmstanco would bo apt to excite alarm; and, even though it did not, it would he difficult to dispose of them without a heavy loss. Hence, when a reduction is de- termined upon, It is most commonly effected, in part at least, by a contraction of discounts ; and it is plain that such contraction can not he made except by rejecting altof^ether some of the bills sent in for discount, or, which is in effect the same thing, by shortening their dates, or by raising tlic rate of interest, so that fewer may be sent in. Of these methods, the last seems to be in every reflpect the most expedient. When bills are rejected for no other reason than that the currency may be contracted, the greatest iijury is done to indi- viduals, who, entertaining no doubt of getting their usual accommodation fVom the Bank, may have enter- ed into transactions which they are thus deprived of the means of completing. When the reduction Is made by raising the rate of Interest, it principally affects those who are h^M ahle to bear it ; at the same time that its operation, instead of being, like tho rejection of biKs, arbitrary and capricious, is uniform and impartial. It does, tltereibro, seem that the Bank should seldom or Thia ofth that the J the I "woul Ban the: with BAN 199 BAM iMTcr throw ou( good blUi tlut ibo m«y contract hoi iMue* ; but that, whet *bo hat rewlveil upon luch a maaiuro, abo BhoulU, provijod tlio contrartiun can not b« niado by tho aalo of bullion and |iubllu locuritloi, roiw tho rata «f diaoouut lo a* to luue* the duuaudi upon her fur loanj. The dividends on bank stosk, ttom tha ottablith- mont of tho oompan/ to tho proient timo, havo be«n ai follows : iflttT" 1TU8J 1720f tailv-dny 1T80 UlohMluuui 1T80 L«dy-Uay 1781 Micliiii'luias 1731 Ijiay-ilay 1782 Mirhselmai 1T81 Lady-day 174T 1753 Mlchocliuiu 1701 " 1T07 " 1781 lody-dttv 17 notes in 1703; and £1 and £2 notes in March, 17'J7. The issue of tho latter may bo said to have ceased in 1821, though they woro again issued on tho emergency in 1825. Interest o» Deposits. — Tho Bank of England does not allow, cither in London or nt her braiK'bca, any inter- est on deposits; but it would be exceedingly desirable if sho could safely mako some alteration in this respect. The want of the power readily to invest small sums productively, and at tho same time with perfect secu- rity, tends to weaken tho motives to savo and accumu- late. Nothing has contributed more to dlliuse a spirit of economy, and a desire to save, among all classes of tho population of Scotland, than tho readiness with which deposits of small sums arc received by banks of undoubted solidity in that part of the country, and the allowance of intercut upon them. — See .S'JOTCii Daxks. This advantage i» now, however, in sonic degree secured In England, not only by tho u.sticution of savings banks, but >'y the Joint-stock banks that have been o{.en«d in most parts of tho country, Tlic receiving of deposits is, indeed, an essential part of the proper business of a bank. " A banker is a dealer in capital, on intormediato party between the borrower and tho lender. He borrows of ono party and leiids to another ; and the difference between tho terms at which he borrows Lnd those at which ho lends is the source of his profit. By this means he draws into active op- eration thoso small sums of money which were pre- viously unproductive in tlio hands of private individu- als, and at the same timo fyimishcs accommodation to another class, who havo occasion for additional capital to carry on their commercial transactions." — See Gil- babt's Practical Obtervutions on Hanking, p. 62. In further corroboration of what has now been stated, it may be mentioned that it is estimated by the best authorities that tho deposits in the Scotch banks may amount at present (184G) to about £30,000,000, of which mora than a half consists of sums of from jCIO to £200 ! This is a most satisfactory proof of the vast importance of the system. Perhaps it is not going too far to aflinn that but for the receiving of deposits by the banks, and the allowing of interest upon them, not a third part of tha sums under £200, and not a half of those above it, would ever have been accumulated. — See Scotch Banks. We are not, however, able to say whether the Bank of England could offer interest on deposits without having so large a sum forced upon her as might in periods of distrust seriously endanger her stability. | And it were better that tho system should continu* M at preiant, than that any risk of thU s«rt sbould lie In- curred, Since 1820, the private (Isposlta in tho hands of tho Bank have Ijecn gr jatly augroKUted, Their In- crease is mainly aaorl' Ma to the prscodluK panic, and the loss that waa tbon ovt- asloned by the failurt of pri- vate banks. . ilethud o/ conducting Jliiilneu -U tht lliink,—M\ ac- counts kept at the Bank with Individuals are termed drawing aceuunti i tlwse wllb whom tlicy are opened being entitled to draw cliacks U|Kin them, and lo send the bills and draft* In their favor Ut \m proMinted by the Bank, exactly a* If tlioy dealt with private bank- ers. There Is no flxad luui with which an Imllvidual must open a drawing account! "or Is there any flxed sum which the Bank requires hlra to keep at his credit to indemnify her fur liur ''oublo In answering his drafts, etc, tir. Iloriloy I'mniur gavo In hi* evidence, in 1882, tho following slat mient as t«i tho facllltlet granted by the Bank In drk.:ing accounts since 1826 1 1, The Bank receives dividends by power of atlornejr ttT all persons having drawing accounts at the Bank. 2. Dividend warrants are received at tba drawing o& tice for ditto. 8. lixchei|uer bills and other securities ore received for '.', 'o ; tluj ! .lis exchanged, the Interest received, ..(.d the iiouiit carrhid lo their respective ac- counts, 4. Checks may be ilraw.i for £6 and upward, instead of £10, as heretofore. 6. Casli-lHixes tak«n in, contents unknown, fur such parties at kecii accounts at tho Bank. 6. Bank-noti's are paid at the couulei-. In- stead of drawing tickets tot tiMiil on the pay clerks, as heretofore. 7. Checks on city banksrs paid In by tlireo o'clock may bo drawn for livtweeu four and Ave; and those paid in bufure four w 111 be received ami jiasscd to account tha samu evening. K, Cbtcks paid In after four are sent out at nine o'clock tlie fullowiiig mondiig, received and patted to account, and may lie drawn fur as toon at received. U, Dividend vtarruiit* taken in at tha drawing ollice until live In tita aftemiion. Instead of three at heretofore. 10 Credits paid In lo account are received without the bank-l>uok, and are afterward entered therein without the party claluiliig them, 11. Bills of oxchauge acceptad payable at the Dank are payable with or without advice; heretofore with ad- vice only. 12. Notes of country bankers payable In London are sent out the same day for payment. 18. Checks are given out In books, and not in sheets as heretofore. A person having a drawing account iniig have a dis- couni account ; but no person can have the latter with- out, at tho same time, having tha furniar. When a discount account hi opemid, tlia signatures of the par- ties ore entered In a book kept for tha |/ur|Ki«e, and powers of attorney are granted, empowering the per- sons named In them lo act fur their principult, Ho bill of exchange drawn in tlio country Is discounted by the Bank tn lyomlon under £20, nor London twle under £100, nor for a longer date, under existing rigulatloos, than throe montlis. The nuiiilwr of holiday* formerly kept at the Bank has rucenlly been reduced abuut a half. In tha view, a* stated by tha directors, of prevent- ing the interruption of busliuiss. There are no holi- days In tho months of ftlorcb, June, September, and December, excepting Christmas | £atlar Monday and Tuesday are no iongci' kept. We subjoin an account of tlio doy* for transferring stock, and when tba dividends are duo at tho Bank of England, the South Sua Uousa, and the luitt India House t Transfer Day$ at tfie DaHt. DltMaulg da* Bank Stock,— Tueaday, Weduesdty, Tlmnday,* and Friday . Red,- S per ccnL had Tuesday, Wedntaday, Thurs- day, and Friday .,..•*.**.......*.,, per cenL 1720.— Tuesday, Wadnasday, 'Tburs-' day, and Friday ,,,,.,,,,,,. 3 per cent Cona— Taatday, Wadnasday, Tburt- day, and Vridor •>•..•.• .■..•••., Aprils. 'Oct Id Jsn, 9. JiUylk BAN 110 BAN Loof. Awmlly to Jm., IMO.— Tn«»d»r, Wedna*- d«r, ThaiwUjf, •lid Krlday ' New at v" ■•""'• Annuity. — Tucidny, Wednw d»y, ihii«d»y, »nd Fridiy Ntw ft IKT toot Annuity — Tneidcy, WfdBewUy, Thunday, *Bd ITridsy Annulllu for lanai of 7««n, wina pajrabU on . . . IMirl4Mi4i *m. April ft. (K't. lU. Ditla. othanon Life Annuity, If tnnaferrrd betwean January B r> and (>rt«>K!r _ _ >tiri>eii April Band Taiji, or Wweon * )etaber 10 and January 4 . , and April 4, or Iwtwcwn July i Ufa Annuity, if transfcrreil bei .Jan. B. 'July& April 0, on. 10. ,lan. n. ,luly ft, .Ian. ft. .lulyB. April 6. Oct. 10, At (Aa South Sm Bmm. South B«i Stock.— Monday, Wcdncaday, and Fri- j Jan. B. day (JulyB Spar cent Old Annuity.— Monday, Wednaeday, ( April B. awl Friday ( Oct 10. B per cent IJeir Annuity. — Tucaday, Thumday, i j,„ ^ and Batuiday tJulvB 8 par cant ITS! Tuaaday and Tburaday ) ' At tht BaU Indalls. No advance is made by (h, and nona are for a Issa amount than £6." Uank-niitu to be Itgul TtnHrr, rremi at Iht Hank and Branch llimi;~ytom and aflar Ins tat of .^ugust, 189-1, unless and until I'arllament shall "therwiao di- rect, a tender uf i note ot' null's of the (iovemor and Company of ilia Hank "f England, (xpressnd to be payable In Iwarer on d-ir.and, aliall lie a legal tender to tlio r any liraneli bank uf the snlil governor and cuinpany ; but ihii auld govurnor anil company arc not to li«i'om« llabtii ur Ixi reifulrcd to pay aiiil sat> isfy, at any brani'li bank iit llin said governor and ' company, any nodi or notes ut the said governor and company nut made i>|Hii'lally payable at such branch bank; but the aald ((uveriior and company shall be liable to pay and sallafy at the Hank uf England in London all iiutos uf lliii said guvernur anil company, or of any branch Ihereuf,— | 0, Ah A( WIRT ur tiik /tt knauk M «skiit Vnum nr llti.iioN m KAiii VitAB, rwiH WNI Til lv;| (f4Kr,(i Hum urriniAL DoriNiiMTs) 1 or Tiia AVKDAun Viiii r era I'r.xi. or tiif Ci'Buuic:r, wtTiUA^in) nr Twa Maskitt I'airr nr (Im.n rnn TUK sAHK I'aaiuui A»ii ur TUB avaaAur. Iiki'uoiatioh i>r.u caKT, Ymr. Ar«fM« PrUt M IMiftlM. utiU »>|M«/ .4 rtriif • li«pr«- • lrllMi|»r(.tiil. ■ M ,. ir i I, d. 1800 S IT lot loM n NIL ItMt 4 B U III 12 4 8 T 8 ifUft 4 4 M 14 1 T BIO 1WI3 4 ftf A in 3 18 1 1804 4 IT «10 9 111 a 1806 4 W 10 3 la 1 180« 4 •T « 10 9 18 S I80T 4 VT « 10 9 IS 1 181*8 4 W 10 9 18 1 180» 4 W « 10 9 13 9 1810 4 10 MIO 18 « 1811 4 4* M * f T 1« 10 I8I« 4 IS « T» A S 9ft 14 » 18IS B t TT 't 99 18 1814 B 4 T4IT « 9S 9 S 18IB 4 11 • an A » 1« 14 S 18l« 4IS « «« B « IB 14 S 181T 4 W « 10 9 18 9 1818 4 0T « 10 9 13 9 I81D 4 1 < vnt) 4 9 ISiW tlOlt •T a 9 19 1811 1 IT ltf( KM Ml. Am AccotmT oir tux Pa/iMTS or Ttis Haux nr V.nn^.kvo m Till: i j:»B rnoiau Tlie Wrn ur KriisrAav, l«i«; statiko THK Dim aimoN i» tiik Mih t xittra »a,it nt Tna Uaxk, Ami THH Mouif'rjt riiuM wiiioii 'rtis saiii I'sonrs iiavi AcrBuxii,— A'u. 1ft, Afiimul, to lltpnrt. Interest on eAniliHireisI Irflla , , , , , Inlereit on Ksebvi|uiir Mils, , , , Annuity fur 4fi years |tli« dvad-walKht se- en unt) , Interest on eapllal reratved frmn (tovenmiwil Allawaw« rocnlVMl fur tHsiiaicnixnt of tha public debt , , Interent nu luaiw 'in iiiortKiitfKS , . , , , , Interest on atue k In tha pMhlia fHnds, ,,,,,,. Interest on prlvalo limns I*ruAt nn liiilllun, <'"iiiiula>li/n, riiil, reeelptii on dlnciiintiiil bllln iiniMld, nisnaKenient uf tho bualneaa uf Ilia Itanki) uf Ireland, of Saotland, and IWyal llMlk of MiyHland, and sundry ll«ws,,,,,,.,,,,, ,.,.,,,,,.. i;lflo,ot)6 904,100 4B1,41A 44B.MI9 gBI.SOO «0,B84 IB.flTB tM,»41 T1,8BB iCl,C8»,lTa flnti 1339, isaa,. 1SS4, ! 183^! 1836, 1837, 1S38,J J 1839, J J ISM, J •> 1841, J •I 1S42, Ji . Ji 1S43,J| BAN ni BAN Am Arcomrt or all niimiiit riniii »«■>■ bt tiir Haiiic or Kxai-ANi) ahoxo tiii PHiii'iiir.TiiiM or Hanii HmrK, wurrnim nv MiiNRY I'ATMiNTa, TUAMnrH or ft i'«i> Dknt. Anni'ITim, oh otiii hh mr^ i nukii tiik IUakii or llnNi;ii, iNinitAiia or DiviiiKiii, ANK Inihhaiiii or Cai'ITvil, iirrwtiui tiik VAtii or Fkiihiaiiv, ITUT, and IIIht or Maiiiii, IH31, m aihiition to Till OMIINARV AnnIAL tllVIIIKMK or T I'EII ('KNT. ON TIIK (UriTAI. HTOXK or THAT CollpullATION, KJlltTINU IN ITUT, IN- CLIIIIINII TIIEItril THE WHOLE DiVIIIENH I'Alli HINI I ,)t>NE, IKIII, ON TIIKIH INrltCAkEI> CAI'ITALI ETATINU TUE I'EUUIU WHEN • UI'll DiKTBIIItlTIONN WKHE MAhR, ANII THE AuilllBOATB AMOI'NT or.TllE WllOLE. DakMiilnAliMi Md PwriMb »l DUIrlbutloa, In June, ITW i £10 iwr rent. bunuE lu t pur ninU. ITDI, un i:il,lM<,4M), IeT Mex, IWII I jC6|wrniiil >Utl)tobor, low, both Inciuiiva Incrr«Hi of tllvliiendE «t the rato uf JiB p«r cent per knnum, on jeil,041,'tOfl, Ir, It jtmn liionMUMofdlvldondtnce June, IStO, on a capital uf £14,668.^1011, to October, 1821, Inclnalve, at the rate of £10 percent, iwr annum Annual dividend payable from April, 18211, to the SUt of March, 183i, both Incluslvo, on a capital of £14,868,000 at tli« rate of £8 |)er cent per annum brr, 1N22, both IneluElve From April, 1828, to October, I 1881, both luduiive Amoiul, £T,Tl>i,24ir IW2,i20 20l,0 1 3 £1IIO.a«6 204, 10» 4M,416 440.(>«a 261 ,M« 00,084 16,016 M,«41 Vtar. 1608 «nUi r«bruAry, £ l,221.'.iOO Yanr. 1T22 Mlh fabmary. £ 2,a«.,040 Yaar. 1740 (JMh KtiitUAjy. £ 0,888.720 Yur, 1770 0 no6 660.1)10 1T2« 4,162,600 1763 4,401,680 1777 8,T12,2aO ITOO 01)0,H4O 1180 8,1H)8,280 1764 4,O02,kT0 1778 7,440,880 ITOT OBO.SiiO 1T8I 4.461. T20 nr* 8.060,060 1779 0,012.010 1T08 04S,680 ITIW 4,261.000 1760 4.1(KI,TOO 1780 8,4 10, TOO ITOO T»T,4T0 1TB8 4,886.1100 1767 6.810,180 1781 7,002,460 ITIO U0I.6S0 1T34 4,20,i.OTO 1768 2o,r>ito 1782 8,028.880 nil 4TT,r)10 1T85 4,027.000 1760 ^,^s<\,s|.l 1783 7,076.000 1112 T39,020 nao 4,B07.T.V) 1700 4.1IOtt,'.'!)0 1784 8,202,700 1T13 1,221.880 1T8T 6,216,010 1701 6,082..'I60 1786 6,928,000 1TI4 02a,ll4O nat 4,700,280 1702 6.74I.O00 1780 7,681,00(1 1T15 DT2,iaO 1180 4,847,270 170.1 6,91)0,010 1787 8,829,840 ITlO 1,460,000 1T40 4.660,1180 1704 6.601, ilOO 1788 0,601,120 mi • 2,068,160 1T41 4,841,840 1706 O.alO.OTO 1780 »,N07,210 1T18 2,T82,420 1742 4,471,610 1700 6,017,670 1700 10,040,640 ITIO 1,80T,010 U43 4,064.800 1707 6,610,090 1701 11,4110,200 1120 2,400,880 1T44 4,2M,flI0 1708 6,778,000 1702 11,807,880 1T21 2,244,280 1746 4,279,010 1700 6,707,190 Kg previously pulilinlieil tnliUi of the circulation of tho Dnnic of Kiiglninl ixtcnds further bnck tlinn 1777; me are indolitcil to the Court of Dinotors for licinj; ulilo to supply tliiH striking ilefect, and to exhibit for tho first time tbo circulation of tho Itank, from within four years of its estnblisbmcnt down to the prcbcnt day. Stateuciit KxiiiiiiTiNa TIIK Town anp CotrNTBv Cibcci.ation, Pr.rosixs, SEruniTiKO, Hn.uoN, etc., of the Bank or EMOLAND, on tun rNDESIIENTIONKI) DATS OF TIIK FOLLOU'INO YF.AHS. DalM. NolM In CIrculalloe. Dapcalla. ToUl LiabUlllaa. BMailliaa. Bullion. Total Aaatta. Balanra of Aaaalii ovar LlablllUaa. In Loadoo. inlfaa Country, £ £ £ £ £ £ £ £ 1332, July 3 . . . . 14,869,000 2,784,000 8.668,000 26,661,000 21,280.000 0,016,000 27.840,000 2.188,000 1883, January 1 . . . . 14,208,000 2,T78,000 12,T26,000 20,801,0IHI 21.047,(HIO 10.020,000 81,078.000 2.172,000 July 2 . . . . 16,783,000 8,1B!I,000 12.830.000 31,778.000 22.088,000 11,.'101,0(IO 34,074,000 2,200,000 1S34, January 7 . . . . 14,198,000 8,220,000 io,a-iO,ooo 87,811.000 20.fl!l4.(KK) 10.142,000 r.o.s.".6.ooo 2,5-.'6.0O(l July 1.... 16,618,000 8,171,000 i6,aT3,ooo 84,062,000 27,411.000 8.S,v6.000 80.866.000 2,204,000 183^ January fl 18,860,000 8,166,000 17.804,000 84.890,000 so.oaa.ooo 6,838,000 87,771,000 2,872.(K10 July 7.... 14,081,000 3,829,000 1T,T02,000 r,6, 11 2,000 31,446,000 6,636,000 37,1181,000 2.809.000 1830, January 6 18,818,000 3,.')90,00O 20,420,000 87,143.000 32,057,000 7.007,000 119,764,000 2,011.000 July 6 . . . . 18,716,000 8.6'.'^000 10,810.000 83.82«.flOO 29. 897,000 6,714.000 SO. 11 1.000 2,786,000 1837, January 3 . . . . 13,023,000 4.074,000 lfl,OTS,000 as,77s,floo 82.447.000 4,22I.0(H) 80.068.000 2.sfla,«oo July 4 . . . . 18,149,000 3.73,^,000 10,267.000 27,141,IK)0 24,680,000 6.677.000 a(l.lOO.(KIO 8.026,000 1838, January 2.... 18.369,000 8,723,000 11,230,000 28,822,000 20,027,000 9,0011.1 K 10 .W.SliO.OOO 2,614.000 July a . . . . 14,690,000 4.0.18,000 9,1110.000 27,030,000 20,6110,000 0,|ISO.O(IO ,TO..'>70.000 2.034,000 1839, January 1 . . . . 13,461,000 4,008,000 11.32T,000 28,860,000 22,377,000 0,0+SOOO 31.4'.'6.(X)0 2,609,006 July 2 . . . . 18,442,IK)0 4,100,000 7,480,000 26,100,000 24,001,000 3,070.000 2T.T8T,000 2.037.000 1840, January 7 . . . . 11,021,000 3,026,000 14,61 s,000 80,066,000 28.411.01)0 4,7.08,0(10 32,010,000 2,s.H000 July 7.... 12,041,000 8,071,000 7,20.8,000 28,906,000 21.016,000 4,810.000 20,781.000 2.>-2»,000 1841, January B . . . . 11,000,000 8,971,000 8,4T!l.0OO 24,100,000 22,860,000 4.003.000 26.91 8. (HK) 2,818.000 July 0.... 12,867,000 4,107,000 14,T2S,0OO 31,262,000 28,947,000 6.aiii.(Xio 84,260,000 8,014,000 1S42, Januaiy 4 11,816,000 4,304.000 0,008,000 26,187,000 22,612,000 B,0(V>.000 28.114,000 2,927,000 July 2 . . . . 18,261,000 4,003,000 8,070,000 20,894,000 21,002,000 8,608.000 20.6115,000 2,701,000 1843, January 7 . . . . 18,804,000 ^214,000 16,634,000 36,062,000 26,706,000 10,932,000 37,038,(HIO 2,680,000 -■• ''■..*. RAN lift BAW A tortwi nr m Arnuui Awisanin AHnt'irT at I>»>mimo«v Niitm, patajili m lluiin dm Dmiamd, in iixirLATinH III Till I'liinil KmuKOU IK Till MllMTII* '•» .lAKI'Aat tHU .IVLT. IMmMfHIIUimM TIIIHII rllMtl.ATIill UT fill IIamIII OV Kl> NT lltVAT* \NI> llllNT-niM k II tHIIII IN Kmil.ANII, H<'im.AIIU, AND IMMLAIIII, TUumiM WI1U nu Uuiuuit m mi Uauk uv »ulani>, rwiM Ha^Mnmu, imt, toJahuak, Ism. IMM, Rcpbiiiilicr IMM, >f*nii*r)r . .Inljr HUB, JnaunTv . .I.iljr . IHM, ,Ui \ . .Inly ..'... IMT, Jannarjr . July IMA, .Inn nary . July liai, JuiiiAry , July ISIO, Jtnukry , July IMI, .lAniiarv . July ..... lMII,J*nu>ry . July 1S4a, Juiwry . KMtof KitflMNl. J lo.fit »,nno III.VM.hiK) IU,Ws.4llll |x,MT,n<"> IT.SM.Mil |H,M<,7H<> IH,Iltfi,ll(H> ll>,IT4,MK) |n,,U*IU 17,«1|.0II0 lii,Nn3,tni) K.nTn.ono iii,!io;i,(i<)i) lo.MH.noii IK,V>iS,UOI) fcllMU . ril>>l> JalaMMk BtoAf. BABk*. — 3 — (l,l«t,i>«T ii.tivi.iMn MtA4.IM (l,(lTC>,!'Htl II. vi?.*:! I1,TIII.»!«» II. Km. til l),'i*).4|H U,ilf.li.7vi ».WI.I»b I,ftHll.l*» n,N4T.iiM a.iwc.ii;4 d,n^'.ii.'<'it n.m.vvn h,47-i,l'h4.ni4 i.siN.oin l,4l>l.'^40 R4II,IH8 U4)\.Ut •JTHVH VWI,71I» M.NUl «'i.;.Tii BT.Wt 104 71T *<«ilUa4. Jolli|.aMl — i I.IU4,4!iA II.W)4,I»,'iM n.iii.Myi B.'.'44,ltllH S,llVk,7lll 3,ii;ii,iy« B,lt4,W<.-. 8,1K|.r«4 «,nTii,ii7s ii,Tift,mii «,7Tu,HIM RMkW iMlMlii 0,«T>t,lion 4,ol7,niH) l»,ll;lM,.'ino H.nAk.MII I1,4»I.I7A II.4S4.IM<> li,i:'.it,mn) B,4NT,lftO ll.ll'll.ivill 8,:il'J,iliNl B.W.'.Hftll D.nftl ftift II, lim. i:ft U.VUA.hMI S.UTII.IIM) i),'iiii,yiiii i'^llf»^ll•.'n 8.'Jll^,s7n li,H41t,T7n B,II«,»M InlMil. l*rlvM« iiihI Julnl-abMh ■ula. 2 i,nafl,MH 1.184,7114 ^TiCi.liM l,^TO,^'.u !(,ii!l5,7n« I 'I4ii,li7il V. 14:1,11111 l,UI.7il'J ■i,'ilil.4'.'4 l.tn(1.7ll"i ».l>'.1l,i4fl li,ii7l,4:'J 'i,7IA,IV46 I.NTltltni '/,niiii,?ii4 1,1)«S,I!7J 1(,M5,I17T I,IW«,9HT I,0»»,A.|1 TcIa) Imimc III IIm I'ultoil lUM^Mn. X IIA,I>I'A,'M4 H7,'>fift.! M ii1.:r.-».sni> 87,M4,U4ii,i»h nii,i)i'.>,07'i U>i.»"l,i7fl M.74:i,iiiiT ii>.77ii,v(in .,..11111,4711 aT.iKiii.l ;7 ^^.«^7,l1■i iiri,iinii,KvT 36,441,7^:1 B.'I.IUiA.n I IU»,iKi;i,; -1 B4,04I>,I<.J Am'Ovht or Tni CiKirLATioN, Dinxirt, BfcDaiTiu, Dillion, and Bi-Bricn (uildiivi nr Capital) op tiir Aukts ovn Till t,IAIIII.ITIIIH nr TUI llANK (IP KniiI.ANII AT (Ull At MIIAB TMUITO A» TIU AuUOVin UAJI Ul MAUI l;l'> Tim I MIIU1-MU(- TlnlUl IJATU IN KAUI l>r Till PULLIIWINII YlAlU, DtlN. CImUailai. Dtpoalli, iMuiUaa. Bullli.1. RmI ..r lurrlai' l.l»l.lllllta. 170S, Frhniiir> '» t 11,9W(,»10 t 16,01 i|).J50 4.nii).0Hn 2.7'W,100 3.414,410 IHB, Febriury IW 12,(l(«,900 8,131,M20 l7,ouii,o:ii) 7.rifl:i,9(io 3,511,310 Anoun 81 ISflO, Ffbnmry iW 18.8X9.400 7,W2,240 16,930,440 7.(K)(>.790 2,9!H>,490 10,N44.4TO 7,002,1190 21,0'J4.II50 fl.lM.'.'BO nmiMBO AngiMt 81 lB.04T.18n 8.885.1100 22,13!<,4'W 6,ltA460 3,900.080 1901, Kabruary 28 10,218,280 10,745,940 26.424.7:10 4,040,120 4.1(if>.730 Ausuiit 81 ISna, KubniaryW i4.fieo.iio 8,iii3,9:m 22.209,570 4,:::i».260 8.9.%4.990 IB, 198.980 6,959,210 «l.«B0.9iO 4.152,060 4,(I07,0«0 AURUft 81 1T,(WT.680 9,739,140 27,11:1.300 a. •ill 1,790 4.1lW,870 1808, Fvbniiry ti8 1B,819,980 8,060,240 28.9I4.9U0 il,7IO,7nO 4,:i2l.490 August 81 1B.U«S,B!I0 9,917,240 20,91 \840 8,5w.;,:'00 4.710.770 1904, Kobrunrj- W n,(iT7.9.-» 8,870.930 20,999,1170 «.:i7i,iio 4.01(1.450 AoRuit 81 1T,IB8,900 9,71B,BS0 26,920.090 6.979.190 4.1(30.460 4800, Fubruwy U 17,NI1,1T0 12,0S3,0.'O 29.0(ll,miU 6,,VHa.9()0 4.590,400 Auguat 81 lfl,8.V(,400 14,04,9.0*) 27,772,950 7.024,600 4,U0fl,>ii0 1900, February S8 IT.TSO.ISO 9,9S0.7110 20.5111,070 6,997,100 4.K0-,S50 Aiigiiit 31 21.02T.470 9,0:W.8:)0 211.47:1. 1(K( 0,215.020 5.024,320 180T, Fi!bru»ry«S lO.liBH.Osil ii,9'2«,nio 27.4(W,4(10 0,142,940 4,771, .100 Auiput 81 1909, FeEruiry » 19,679,8110 11.799.200 29.986,160 6.494,360 4,95:1,740 18,1158,800 11,061,900 27,884,090 7,1*6.470 5,0^s,7.iO AiiKiiBt 81 laOD, F«bniary 99 17,111,290 18.(112,610 29,'J44,090 6,015,040 5.i;i(i.230 19,B42,9flO l),082,liOO 29,ll'i,200 4,499,700 . 6.091,1100 August 81 1810, Fobruaiy !9 19,674,190 12,267,190 83,.1BB,270 8,652,480 6,260,300 «l,(llO,flOO 12.457,310 83,il7s,690 8,fi01,410 B,4o:i.iiso Aiiguil 81 Mil, Fabniary «8 24,"9fl,»90 13.017.520 40,973,770 8,191,950 5.754.110 23.I)«0,«iO 11,445,660 87,12i,05l» 8,860.940 6.007,420 AuguM 81 28.290,980 11.075.660 87.(193.280 8,243,800 6,964.070 181% Fubruaiy « 28,409. B«0 11.696.200 89.020,290 2,993,190 6,006,960 Auguit 81 1918, Febniary « i3,O20,HSO 11.949.910 89,176,120 8,099,270 6,8l'0,000 43.210.980 11,269,190 87,080,960 8,894,600 6. ,136. 340 Auguat 11 24.929.120 11,169,780 40,1(10,090 2,712,270 6.9ilO.60O 1814, Febniary iH 24.9111,090 12,465,400 41,999,910 2,204.480 fl,li87,>iOO Auguat 81 1815, FeSniaiy 88 28,;i«9,290 14,949.940 49.346.900 2,097,680 7,225,410 27,2«l.«BO 11.702.250 44.559.600 1,036,910 7,081,510 • Auguat 81 27,249,670 12,606.000 44.954,190 8,409,040 8,819,660 18M, Febniuy W 27.0-18.620 12,899.990 4'i,4(ll/<10 4,640,980 9,039,680 Auguit 81 20.759,720 ll,SB(l,38rt 87,279,640 7,502,7,90 6,227,220 1811, Febniary 29 27,897,900 10,925,010 84,279,080 9,090.970 5,786.090 Angnst 80 «).548,780 9,094.690 S2,OOB,080 11.(169.200 6.045,520 ISia, February S8 27,770,970 7,997,660 80,906.880 10,066,400 5,192,270 AnguBt 81 20.20'2,1S0 T,9S7,780 82,870,760 6,869,160 4,004,(140 1819, February K 25,126.700 6,418,870 81.466.000 4,IU.620 4,0119,550 Auguat 81 law, February W 86,252,690 6,804,160 (1,740,600 8,6.16,860 8,779,(100 98,494,110 4,008,660 26,197,490 4,911,(160 8,520,890 Auguit (1 lMl,Feeruai7,(ifla «. .■rifi,oiio 7 ;m,niM n.'.'Ml.lKM) 4 "77, (KM) I 'i4N,IN)0 111.17 1.IMKI 9,r4l),0lHI «,773,0O0 i,4«l,000 4,911,000 4.iUt>,000 4:130,000 4,n4II,(I00 6,lltl,000 U,7'ill,000 11,010,000 l.lakOlltM. im, IMI, IM4, IH.'S, 1»M, 1817, in«, ino, llMO, 1881, ISSJ, 18IU, 1834, 183B, IS.W, 1837, 1H3S, 1R30, 1840, 1841, 184'i, |_1W,1, Am A . AilNiiil 80 . Fi'hruarx VH . AiiKuit 81 . Ki'Sruwjr 1J7 . Aumiat 80. Ftibrimry M . AiiKiiat 01 . Fi'liruarjr W . Aiii^itdt M . FHtiniary M . .ViiKHHt *iT . rt-l'niarjr S5 . AtiKiiNt M . I'l'bniary 14 . AuKiut *M , Fi'hruary ^8 . AiiKiiHt 80 . Fi'briial^ 18 . AiiKiiat W . Fflirinry it . AiiKoat tX . F«*tiniary M . AiiKUtt «7 . Ffbniiu'y ib . AiiKuat '.'B . Fi'bniary 18 . Aiirtuat 81 . Ft'liruu7 yi . AiiRuat 17 . F«hniiU7 W . J l«,Mi,IM 17,4*4,7M ]K-»i,'UO iu.'i:ii,t40 1».73«,VM WMIM.IW il(>,7Ba,7«0 lt,ll«fi.H40 W,4«7,«10 11l,Mtl,BII0 ai.hvo.«io n,T47.«no ll.WtO.llA it.mi.Mo i».n;ii,hm l»,M7,8NO 10,000,780 1I.4M.70O 10.000, 140 tS,Bllfl,«80 iN,iini.7io ii4,g«o,ooo l»,071,OOO i».ow,oeo l»,ilBi).IM)0 19,1116,000 lM,Bl»,aoo lH,llt«,IMM) IH,IHI,<)IN) 1H.O|N,INIO IH.IOA.OIM 1H,HN7,000 H,97n,iiOO IB,4mK.INI0 m.(iON,ooo 17,11*1.000 lO.MVt.lWO 17,170,000 lO.noo.ooA 17,870,000 10,01(1.000 10.831.000 io.iio.ono 2 4,aM,N« «.aw,44o 7 ISl.KIII I ••■il.lIBi) |ii,civ7,(IB(> M.I(In,7H(I «.4lii.Mn (.ttaft.iMO 7,li)*.mi» H.mil,(MO N,iin'^,(iu« l).IIH.I40 lO.lfll.M) u,n(M,u«o • ,(IIIA II7II lo,7fl».lbo ll.MO.ittU 1I.118.M10 D.OOU.UIO 8.937,170 10,17n,(III0 11,4U,«00 11,917,000 13,087,000 18.800,(100 10,071, (KM) ia,7«6,(Kio 14,(M4.(I00 ll,n40,0lN) 10,(MI7,000 I0,(>4().(ll)0 lO.WtB.IMW N.oM.nuo 7.780,000 6,488,000 O.bM.UUO 0,lM,fl)IO •,407.(KIO S,97&,000 H.IUU.OOO 8,090,000 11,610,000 1 iB,»7s,ram ll,wo,»in 18,819,780 17,4«T,8TU iH,>i7i.oin 1«,V<>4.68(> 14,lini,3»() 16,IOll,IKI0 81.VIN.M0 16,IMII.AB0 18,Cii(I.MM 18,199.1110 «8 6'«1,17« 18,900 ,IUW 10,UIM,700 14,««I.KI(I 14,'204.8»(l 14.nM6.0WO lO.llM.VNO 18,906,000 14,I)3II,4»0 in, 410,000 18.xAO,OIIO 1II,140,(NI0 lO.lH.dtM) 17,i31,ilO0 (4,H96,>I00 IH.ni.ixai 17,MH,(MM) 1T.09-.(N)() 17.197,01 M) 16.307.0(10 ll.OftVKMI 11.(111,000 11.74l,(»)0 86,141,000 1I,011.UIH> 11.07n.(MI0 1I.344,(MM) 11,801,000 11,114,000 11,IM>.(MI0 88.N)4,0(I0 M.«7 1.940 8.0J4.140 8,l3(l,ni10 1,A47,1«U I,h8l 1,6I8,8«0 i,7ad,K60 1,637.760 1,086,(100 1,111,(100 i,ia4,(i<«) '.',3(MI,()(IU l.Mll.OOO 1,6(KI.(I00 l,6lN,(ino l.'3(l.(MI0 l,HH9,(mO !,97'*,(Ha i.(i'i'.',"»)»' 1.741, («>■ 1,077, (K«, B,(I91,(MI0 l.K01,(HI0 1,'. OO.OH) i,8ra,o(Ki 8,07»,(HIO 8,(ltW.UM 1,860,000 1,871,000 OCNT or TUB NoTW IN (:lft!V titf T(1M llANK or KniILANII, AND OK TDK AND WALU, HCOTLANI), ANI> Illtl.ANII, irill IrVINII A(.«o TIIX llttLION IN oTiiitii IIankb or Tnui: in Enqi.ind Till llANK or Enuland. . rawWMkaaii*^ Eimlaml. '■ IV.illanil. 1 Iralaad. Total. Bnllloa In Iba Dank of Hank or Pril>aM and Julnl-flock Uaiika. KoiUad. Uaiika. Ua«k>. Julnl.al.wh Banki. Inland. Knllaad. ji: X e £ £ X £ £ M.iuir, mi 17,970,000 6.1HI7.(181 8.418.810 8. 18) ,694 3.(166.016 1.9(16,672 86.4+4.783 6,011,000 H ,liuiu«ry, 1S41 10,1U3.(NIO fi.47S,l89 U,(I41,197 3.070.076 3.1(*),87B 2.515,077 33.606 013 5.619,000 1 April, " ia,«74.o()() 6,''S9,(16(» a,047,656 l,67(l,l»() 11.(174.115 1.169,556 lia.OI4.077 7,006,OIM) 18. Inly, " 10,90H,(NIO 6.10(1.681 2,9119, 1(16 1,715,080 1.S111.776 1,6S(),1I87 ;«.ii03.118 8.H88.WHI lBOclnb(^r, " lO.BUI.OOO 6.488,(MI 8,064.639 1,743.7116 3,(41,15(1 l.(Hll.7H4 !I5,843,U19 ll,801,(KX) 7 .laiiKiiry, 1843 18,18il,(NM 4,1141,815 1.8aU.909 1.770.8U8 3.111,1160 1,0911.041 ^ ■«" 168 11,064,000 1 April, " l'.l,6»9,()IM) 4,716,6(16 1,861.1186 1,467,0(14 a,llN6 48,s4& :',■ . ■.'.s.S'U I'.', 11*0, 000 O.lmKiary, 1844 18.964.000 4,811.676 U.in4,90« 1.901.746 3,4s:l,()B0 1,301,180 ll.'>.774,-.'6'.i 14.03.8,000 17 April, •' 11.839,ll()0 ,M96,i;i» D.76i,au7 1,714,617 3,6.'6,916 1.867.416 81I,5'*,1(14 16884,000 lOJulv, " 11,448,000 4.014,179 a,."40,ai6 l.liflil,311 8,44(1,700 1.974,184 37,730,811 I5.486,0(HI 11 (Vtiihcr, " lt.01«.(IOO 4.074,161 8,n31„M8 1.1187,6(16 3.5'.I7,850 2.466.1(U 38,070,464 14.S.ii,000 4 January, 1845 10.801,000 4.419,464 il, 06(1, 861 8.169,460 8,917,800 8.0. ■ .61 87,930.317 11.8(17,000 20 April, " 11,078.000 4,680,648 8,;iO(i,148 8,OOI.148,776 8,B88.'.HI6 a,.S(i(),47B l,'Wa.li67 39, 6*1, 49-1 10,174,000 11 Oi-tnhop, " ll.SW.OOO 4.6&»,711 a,aiui7 8,428,074 3.!107,Oiri 2.'.'18,'.'06 4O.Ol'1.0(13 14.1188,000 a.laiiniiry, 1846 11.018,000 4,606.818 8.1(11.749 3.886,409 4,;i6l,200 8,063,100 31I.4!I7.340 111,313.000 IB April. " ll.ilo.ooo 4.736.786 H.a(ii.i8i 8.096,317 4.866.015 8,181,1118 aii.Dltt.rtlfl 13,681,000 18, Inly. " 11,184.000 4,4I».6'<6 a.ii.-i.rtiii 3,390.060 8.995.S76 l,6U(l,fil(l UM, 869,766 16,898,000 10 OrtulxT. " 11,194.000 4,666,748 !l.'J(il.6H8 3.6(16,156 4,181,575 3.060,1180 40.040,046 15,1183,000 Llanunry, 1847 10.638 000 4,6-.>5.SB6 3,138,311 3,787.151 4.111,l'.r .'i.an.i.iso 3!>,B9i).741 16,083,000 17MHnli, " •iO.(187.000 4.641.548 .1,147.M1 aiWO.348 3,s57,' 1,107,410 31,400,890 11.401,260 27,lanuar>-. 1819 19,191,000 a.0.M,797 1,011, S19 8.031,871 1.717..Mf) 1,1157,114 a;i.l78,117 I6,01.%.(NM) M .laiKiarv, 1860 10,141,000 3,n>i.MiH 1,080.4.57 8.I11.S59 l.lillO.sOO i,97ii,()i;4 34.891.431 10.8.'>S,1IOO '^B.laminrv, 1861 20.806,0(10 8.673, 199 1.718,624 8,251,486 i.MiUtM 1,1.10.501 36,141,002 14.(1(17. (KH) 14,lanuary, 1861 11.4sr>.(Hi0 a,4m,4l6 l,74a,»51 8.188.B01 1.4H4.C60 2,196806 :i5,(;86,716 17,083,000 ll.liimiarv, 1858 14 Peocnilior, " 14.818.000 8.771,528 9.989,678 8,611.710 2.8;i6.100 1,703.651 40,911,467 19.719.000 11,1 12.000 L8.8118,75S [8,1166.086 4.112,787 3,0.16.900 8,8.'>7,!li7 39.567.861 16,414,000 F..xi'F.Nai!s or tub Hank or Enulamu »o» tiin Yiab ■miiino IOtii or Kkhkvaiiy, 1831. Da. Xallonal ilcbt department .4161,143 100.092 09,106 1 la. £318.008 1 89,187 8,000 40,000 B,70a 9s,ao9 Ilank-notea Banking dvpuUuent Ilont Kxpenaoa at eleven branohea ariilnK IVom the Expenm'»aHTOdlngtlieclrc(il«llonofXl,800,flOO (if branch Hank of England notea, at cloven bninchei je)t)9,4oo £3SI>,400 u BAN 114 BAN III. EKOLisn Private asd Pbovisciai. Bawkb. — Beaides charging the usoal rate of Interest on bills discounted, the provincial bankers are mostly in the hatit of charging 5». or ftt. per cent, as commission. They also charge a couimission on all payments, and derive a profit from charges for tUe transmission of money, etc. They usually allow from 2 to 3 per cent, oo money deposited ; but the numerous failures that have taken place among them have, by generating a feeling of insecurity in the minds of the depositors, confined this branch of thoir business within compara- tively narrow limits. When their customers overdraw their accounts, they are charged with interest at the rate of 5 per cent. Country banks, established by in- dividuals possessed of adequate hinds, and managed with duo discretion, are productive of the greatest service. They form commodious reservoirs, where the floating a.id unemployed capital of the surround- ing districts is collected, and from which it is again distributed, by way of loan, to those who will employ it to the best' advantage. It is, therefore, of the ut- most importance, in a public point of view, that these establishments should be based upon solid foundations. But in England, unfortunately, this, till recently, has been but little atten'ied to; and the destruction of country banks has, upon three diHercnt occasions — in 1792, in 1814, 1815, and 1816, and in 1825 and 1820— produced an extent of bankruptcy and misery that has never, perhaps, been . .lualed, except by the breaking np of the Mississippi scheme in France. Government is bound to interfere to hinder such disastrous results, and we have already given some account of the meas- ures adopted in this view. The following is an account of the number of com- missions of bankruptcy issued against country bankers in England from 1809 to 188C, both inclusive : Vt.™. CommiBUiu. Ym». 18Ut) 4 ISiU 4 1810 20 1821 10 1811 4 1822 9 18tS IT 1823 9 1818 8 1824 10 18U 27 1826 87 1815 25 1826 43 1S16 87 18-27 8 181T 3 18.8 a * 1618 3 1829 S 1819 18 1830 14 Exclusive of the above, many banks stopped pay- ments, to the great injury of their creditors and the public, that afterward resumed them; at the same time that the aflTairs of some bankrupt concerns were arranged without a commission. During the whole of this period not a single Scotch bank ;;ave way. Besides the stomp duties payable on notes, each in- dividual or company issuing them must take out a license, renewable annually, which costs £S0. This license specifies the nan to be taken out for every town or place where any notes shall be issued liy or on account of any banker, «tc. Unless the license granted to persons in part- jership set forth the names and places of aliode of all persons concerned in the partnership, whether their names appear on the notes issued by them or not, such license shall be absolutely void.--55 Oro. 3, c. 184, a. 24, For the regulations as to the Imuc of unstamp- ed notes, see ante, p. 69. The issue of notes for Ions than £5 was prohibited in England, as previously shown, from 1777 to 1797 ; but they continued to he issued from the latter period down to the 5th of April, 1820, when their further issue ceased, in consequence of an act passed in 1826, This act did not extend to Scot- land or Ireland, and was intended to give grenwr stabil- ity to the system of country banking in England, by •hutting up one of the principal cht:.nela through whicli the inferior class of bankers had been In the habit of getting their notes into circulation. The joint-stock banks established in different parts of England and Waki, under the provisions of the act 7 Ueo. 4, c. 46, authorizing their establishment, consist of bodies of partners, varying flrom seven, the minimum, to any greater number. Each partner holds one or more shares of the company's stock, and is individually lia- ble for the entire debts and engagements of the com- pany ; so that a person holding a £50 or £100 sltare in a joint-stock bank may, in the event of its becoming bankrupt, be called upon to make payment of as many thousai.ds of po'mds ! They are uniformly almost managed by boards of directors appointed by, and gen- erally responsibh to, the body of shareholders. The conditions of copartnery vary materially in different associations ; but the above are distinguishing features common to them all. The shares in many joint-stock banks are very small, few being above XIOO, the great- er number not exceeding £50, while many are only £26, and somo not more than £10, and even £5 ! Generally, too, it is understood, or rather it is dis- tinctly sot forth in the prospectus, that not more than five, ten, or twenty per cent, of these shares is to be called for ; so that an individual who has ten or twenty shillings to spare may become a shareholder in a bank. And owing to a practice, or rather a flagrant abuse, introduced into the management of various banks, by which they mukn large advances or discouiits on the credit of the stock held l)y the shareholders, not a few individuals in doubtful or even des|)erate circumstan- ces take shares In them, in the view of olitaining loans, and bolstering up their credit ! Th^ orreat danger aris- ing from such banks is obvious ; and wore one of tliom to stop payment, it is plain, even though the claims on it should be ultimately made good, that they could be so only at the cost, and perhaps ruin, of such of its proprietors as had abstained from the abusive practices resorted to by others. It may well excite astonish- ment, that any one who can really afford to make a bond Jitle purchase of shares in a bank should be fool- hardy enough to embark in such concerns. No doubt a joint-stock bank, if it possess adequate capital, and be discreetly managed, may ati'oril ample security to its shareholders ano the public. But th-!r« is no foundation for the notion that because a Itaiik has 50 or 100 partners, it will therefore be lictter managed than if it had only 5 or 10, On the contrary, the fair presumption is that it will not be so well managed, A few wealthy individuals engaged in banking or any other sort of business, must, if they would protect themselves from ruin, pay unremitting attention to their C'liicems, and act in a discreet and cautious man- ner. But the partners and maimgers of a great joint- stock company act under no such direct and pressing responsibility. " I think," said the highest authority on such subjects, "that joint-stock banks are dctlcit^nt In every thing requisite for the conduct of banking business, except extended resiwnslliility ; the banking Ifusiness requires peculiarly persons attentive to ail its details, constantly, dally, and hourly watchful of every transaction, much more than mercantile or trading bus- inesses. It also requires Immediate, prompt decisions, upon circumstances when they arise — in many cas<:s a decision that does not admit of delay for consulta- tion ; it also requires a discretion to I e exercised with reference to the special circumstances of each case. Joint-stock banks Iwing, of course, obliged to act through agents, and not by a principal, and therefore under the restraint of general rules, can not lie guided by so nice a reference to degrees of difference in the character or respnnsiliility of parties ; nor cnn they un- dertake to regulate the assistance to lie granted to con- cerns under tcm|)orary emiiarrassnient by so accurate a reference to the circumstances, favorable or unfavora- ble, of each case."— A'cWcncf »/8. J, Lorn, /.>7., br/nre the Commillee i/lHSion the Renewal uf the Bunk Cha'rtn: Oft trac ««rv, to ma llcnl I ent uv for Oio Iw the would liy mei Ills lUI insun; tliroo J The pi joint-! TidUoll ble to t supply properl other. where ( of the I offloe. oflhrsi deed, / BAN tm BAN In fact, mora than nine-tenths of the partners in joint-stoclE banlts are wholly ignorant of banking |>US' Iness, and have nothing better to trust to than the aup- posed honesty and intelligence of the directors ; and, even if they were acquainted witli the business, the re- sult would lie nearly the same, as it would not be pos- sible for any one, by a mere cursory inspection of the bool(S of any bank (if such were permitted), to form any accurate estimate of its condition, or of the mode In which it transacted business. And hence the direct- ors in these establishments are practically all but ab- solute. If they bo worthy of the confidence placed in them, all goes on smoothly ; and this also is the case when they are most unworthy, till they have involved the concern in inextricable difficulties t The history of the Norwirh Bunk, of the Northern and Central •Bank, the Marylebone Bank, the Manchester Bank, and a host of others, sufficiently attests the truth of what has now Ijeen stated. The responsibility of the directors to the shareholders has not been found, in any of these instances (and it is, indeed, ludicrous to suppose that it ever should be otherwise), to have been any check whatever over their frauds and improvi^ dence. The whole paid-up capital of the Manchester Bank, amounting to about £750,000, had been wasted In the most improvident speculations, and additional dctts iqcurred, tiefore the great body of the sharehold- ers had the least suspicion that the company was oth erwiso than prosperous I We may ol>8erve, liy-the-way, that the mischief occa- sioned l)y un establishment of this sort, when perverted from its proper objects, and mismanaged, is not to lie es- timated by the ruin it entails on its partners, and proba- bly, also, on its customers. It becomes, in fact, a public nuisance, and entails privations on many who might lie supposed to be beyond tlie sphere of its influence. Within the ten years ending with 1842, we liclieve it may bo moderately estimated that about £1,600,000 of banking capital was wholly dissipated in Manchester and its immediate vicinity. And as nine-tenths of this enormous loss was occasioned by advances made to manufacturers who bad little or no capitjil of their own, it is not easy to imagine what * ruinous stimulus it must have given to reckless competition, and Iiow very injurious it must have liecn to parties trading on their own capital. Indeed, i.o inconsiderable portion of the distress in Manchester, in 1842 and 1848, may be traced to this source. Remedial Meatnret that should be adopted, — The act of 1844, 7 & 8 Vict. c. 82, h<\t successfully obviated some of the defects formerly existing in the joint-stock and private banking system, especiolly by limiting the extent of their issues ; but in other respects the system is still open to serious objections. We retain the re- marks made u|ion it in a former edition of M'Cuiloch's Z>iVi. of Commerce, before the act of 1844 wus passed : " VVc tlo nut, however, think thtit it would be at all neces. Hsrv, in providing for a secure system of joint-stock lunking, to inoico any regulations with rettpect to many of the points no- ticed by the committee as to which the law Is silent. At pres- ent uvcry partner in a Joint-stock bank is liable to the public for the whole debts of the firm ; and this may be tnily said to he the saving principle of the system, and without which it would he an unmixed evil. Nu individual should, howc^'er, by meri'ly withdrawing from a joint-stock conceni, get rid of his liabilities in conntictiun with it To prevent fhiud, and to Insun.' due caution, thi'so ought to continue for a period of three years at least afb't- he has publicly withdrawn his name. The public, too, are clcsriy entitled to know the partners in Joint-stuck aMociations; that In, to be informed who the iiidi- viduali are with whom they arc dealing, and who are responsi- ble to them. But, unluckily, no effective means are taken for supplying tti'ti necessary infunnation, or, consequently, of properly discriuiiiiating between one establishment and an- other, The net of ISas directed that an account of the places where they carry on business, and of the names and residences of the partners, should be quarterly transmitted to the Mtamp- ofHce. Hut doubts have iMton ontintalned as to the correctness of these leturus, nml comparatively little use has b<-en, or, in- deed, can be made of them. The accounts of the names and resldenoca of the proprietora are not published, but ara aaeludad (Tom Uie public eye in the repositories of Somerset Uousa I II is true that these lists may be seen, by those who cboese to ap- ply at the office, ibr a amalt fee, and tliat certified coplas maj he procured at no great expense. But few know that such re- turns exist ; and fewer still have the opportunity, or think of availing themselves of tbem aa sources of Information. To render them of any real utility, they should be brought under the publlo eye, by being hung up in the ofHces of the bonks to which they refer, and periodically published In the newB|iap*ni of the placea where they carry on business. By tbis veana tlia public would know exactly to whom they had to look, aur| would act accordingly. They would not bo deceived, us this/ are liable to be at present, by supposing that, because a bank has a number of partners, some of them miuit be opulent aol trustworthy. They would know the precise state of tbe fkoti and If it were seen, fhim the quarterly returns, that opulent and Intelligent Individuals were withdrawing fkom a bank, every one would be put o i his guard, and would naturally conclude tliat the parties ''Ad very sufbclent reaaons for quit* ting the concern. Thus fur publicity may be made eSectual, and would be of the greatest importance. Neither la U posalbls to allege a single plausible objection to this proposal. It Inter- fetes in no degree, nor in any way, with the proceedings of the parties: all that it does is to declare who and what tbtf are ; and to this degree of publicity no honest man «iU ol^ ject" And we are gkd to have to state that this tr now efr thoted )>< the act I & 8 Vict. c. 32, { 21.— gee ante, p. 84 " III we have great doubts whether it be possible to carry publicity farther than this. The committee state that ' the law does not provide fbr any publication of the liabilities and a»> sets of these banks, nor does it enforce the publication of anjr balance-sheet to the proprietors at large ;' and it lias been pro- posed to compel the periodical publication of a atatement of this sort ; but it is very questionable whether any such publi- cation would not be a great deal worse than useless. It ia not proposed that commissioners should be appointed to Inspect thi; accounts of the different banks, and to see that the returns are iccurate: this would be too inquisitorial, too cumbrous, and too costly a plan to be thought of for a moment There would be nothing for it. In fact but to trust entirely to tiM Aonor of the parties I Hence, in all cases In which a dlseloaurs would bo really useful, the publication of an account of as- sets and liabilities would afford the means of deceiving tho public, and of representing a bankrupt concern as being In a prosperous condition. Supposing, however, that the parties were, in all Instances, perfectly honest, still the publication of a balance-sheet would be good for nothing. Every one knows how sanguine people arc In relation to their own aflisin, and that debts and obligations that otlicr parlies would baldly reckon worth any thing aru estimated by them aa if they were HO much bullion. But, independently of this, the futility of the thing is obvious. A bank with a capital of illOO.OOO dis. counts bills and other obligations to tlie extent, iierbsps, of i:3nO,000 or £400,(HIO; the fact that it has discounted tbem shows that It believes these bills and obligations to be good i and they will, consequently, be reckoned among its aaseta. Hut should a revulsion take place, or any cirenmstance occur to shake credit, these bills may not be worth £100,000 s and tliosn who have dealt with the bank, on the hypotbesis of Its haviu); capital and assets more than enniigh to meet all its obligations, may find, to their cost, that it is not possessed of a single shUllng, but is, on the contrary, some iC200,000 or i:S00,U00 worse than nothing I "The committee seem to think that some regulation should bo enacted, providing that a certain portion of Its capital should be paid up before a bank begins businesa. But the better way would be to pruhlhlt all advertising of nominal cap- ital. This, in fact, is a nu're device by which to entrap and delude the public. A bank Is announced with a capital of £1,000,000, X3,IM)0,000, or i:3,000,Mm; and a great number of people, pi'riiaps the lusjority, immediately conclude that tliera can bu no risk in dealing witlr an eBtabliahmcnt possessed of so groat an amount of property. But what is the (act 1 Tho capital advertised Is nominal merely ; not more, perhaps, than a tenth or a flflh part of it has been received into tho cofhra of the bank, and we hare nothing better than the statement of the bank proprietors, or Uieir agents, that they will pay up tho remainder, if necessary s of which aecessity tbey of course are to be the only Judges 1 Practically this la neither more nor less than a fraud upon the public ; it is a contrivance for making £10,000 pass in the public estimation ror£10fl,l)00, and for procuring tlio same degree of credit to Its holders. This, however. Is not all. Whore la the security that, if a greater amount of capital were really required, it would be forthcoming r The notion that the bulk of the shareholderK in many, wo are pretty sure, we might safely say most of the joint-stack banks now In exlsltnce, could pay up the fUU BAN fit BAN inMOBt of their BhuM, U too Indlcrou to denrr* notlca. We Alight u well call upon a num worth Jt6 to exUngutaih • debt ofiWM. " There can be no doubt, tberafore— unlea It be meant to afflnn that deoeptlon and iiiUacioiia etatomenlaare Indiapenaa- Me to the succeie of Joint-etock banklDg sehoiaea— that all ad- Tertlsing of nominal capltaU ahoi Jd be put an end to ; and that no auodatlon Bhould be allowed to represent IM capital aa ex- ceeding the Bum actually paid up by the propiieton. But though thia would obviate one lourM of fraud and deception, there would still be abundant nieanaof practicing on the ere- doUty of the public at tlie disposal of parties inclined to use tbem. Admit that a bank baa a capital of i»M,UOO actually ncelred Uito its oofltira, what is to hinder the directors from lending out the whole of this sum, or eten more, to them- •elves or to partneni iu tlie bank If or, supposing them not to do this, who can tell whether the entire capital, or aome considur- abie part of it, be not wholly ingulCad in ruinous speculations? It hi indeed alleged, and truly too, tliat this could not happen with any 'respectable' bank; that 'gentlemen of character' would not lend themselves to such trauaactlousl Unluckily, however, there are no decisive mark* or testa by which the pnbUc can, »priori, say what la or what is not a 'napectable' bank, or who la or la not a 'gentleman ^fchanoter;' and It is not a Utile haxardons in such matters to indulge in speculative remarks. Ilenee it Is that the Marytebone Bank, the Bank of Manoheater, and indeed all banks, are held to be respectable, that is, solvent, till the event prove the eontrary ; and that all gentlemen oonnected with banks are held to be 'men of char- acter,' pangona, in tun, of honor, honesty, and intelligenee, till their fkaud or ignorance ha* involved hundreds or tbou- sands in bankruptcy and ruin. "AVo do not state these drcnrastanoca In order to raise any prejudice against Joint-stock banks or other aasoeiations, for fxy 'PPlT equally to banks with one or a email number of partners; but we state them to show the folly of placing any reliance on statements as to the capital of any bank, or the character of its managers. Such statemcnta may be either true or false ; but, as the public can not tell which, they are plidnly good for nothing. The only real security Is to be found, if it exist at all, in the names of the partners responsible for the delita and obligations of the bank. The number of snch part- ners is a very inferior cnnslderntion. There can not, in truth, be a greater enur than to suppose tluit because a bank has a great number of partners, its security may bo safely depended upon. A single individual worth £100,000 is an incompanbly better security tlian fifty individuals worth X3000 each ; and a hundred indtvidnain worth XlOOOwonId hardly be any security at all, at least for a snm of JCIO.OOO or £20,000. A private bank with fix may be a safer place of deposit than a Joint-stock bank with «<« ftuiidred partners. Every thing depends upon tilt atailabU iteeOth of those responsible for the debts of the con- cern ; and hence the propriety and Jnslloe, whether the Ann consist of one or of many partners, of pnbllcly doclaiiug HnJ specifying their names. " We are decidedly hostile to a preposition vre have heard mooted, and which seems to be countenanced by the comintt- tee on Joint-stock hanks, for obliging all banks to establish a guanntee itand i that is, for obliKing them to accumulate a jwr- tioH c/ OuirpnJUa as a reserve stock. Where is the security that such reserve would Iw aW-ays deducted tnm preflts ? The truth is, that banknipt and fraudulent concerns, and none else, would gain by such a'rpgulatlon; inasmu^ n it would ena- ble tbem, by appearing to lie prosperous, tin in^tter to deceive the puUie, and to blind them to the real state of their affairs. It I* woiM than absurd to induce the public to depend on guarantees that can not be enforced, and which, consequently, must be good for nothing. The knowledge of whom the part- nere in banks really consist, and tliclr unlimited responsibility, are tlie only seonrities that, speaking gcni-rally, are worth a pinch of aniiff. If these can not protect thp public from fraud or loss, notbln;; else will ; and the question will come to be, j not whether the system should be reformed, but whether it should ho abated as an Incurable nuisance. On this ground, also, we shonid be dlsposcU to dissent from nr, • ntlempt to pre- ™nt, by legislative enactment, the makips vf .«n» upon the credit of bank stock. We do not question tin ndvantOBe of such a regulation, provided It were honestly carried Into effect But it U useless to say that, whenever the parties were dis- posed to defeat such a regulation, it would be quite inoper- ative. " Some of the Joint-stock banks have an extraordlnaiy num- ber of branches ; and the multiplication of these subordinate cstablishmcnta all over the countr)- is not one of the least strik- ing features of the system. Neither Is it very m tha head hank, the cbanoe* am ten to one that they will continue fur a much longer period in circulation, and that they will consequently bj able to cany on business with a less amount of capital than if they were, a* they ought to be, obliged to pay thehr notes at the branches a« well aa at the principal ofHse, It la obvious, Indeed, that tha eonvertibility of the paper, even of flrst-dass banks, Into either eoah or Bank of England notes, is at present oxoeedingly im- peifect ; and that vaiy gieat facilities are aflorded for getting the worst class of notes into clrealation, and for keeping them afloat even after their quality may be suspected. This delect in the law should undoubtedly be amended, by obliging all banks that issue notes to pay them indlfllerently at any of their offlees. But w* incline to think that Fartlament might go fvtherthan thli; and that itahoidd enact that no branch bank be established, whether for the Issue of note* or otherwhK, be- yond a oeitain diatonce (say fifty miles) ftvm the head office, " Several of the points recapitulated by the committee, as to which the law Is silent, respect the rights and interests of tha partnen In Joint-stock banks, in reUUon to each other, >nd not as between them and the public. But It Is always a very dlfflonlt nutter to Interfore to dictale the footing on whleh parties in any undertaking should stand among tliemsehrel, Much should, in such coses, be left to the Judgment of the par- ties; and public regulations, if enforced at all, should only go topreveiit obvious and acknowledged abuse : the parties may, In most cases, be safely left to take care of themselves. The protection of the public Interest Is the paramount considera- tion ; and we do not well know what can be done to effect this, in the case at least of such banks as do not issue notes, other than the making known who their partnen are. " The Joint-stock banks formed hi the city of London offern fkir rate of interest for depoaits ; and if they go on successfully in doing this, they will confer no slight advauiage on the com- munity, and will become, aa It were, so many savings' bank* for the middle classes, and for the rich aa well as the poor. But the responsibilities this system will bring along with It are neither few nor small. A bank with a numerous body of part- nen of undoubted wealth and Integrity, that should give 2 per cent interest on all deposits of £10 and upward, how short so- ever the period for whidi the deposit might remain In the bank, would, there la little doubt, speedily have ample funds at It* disposal. In quiet and prosperous times the system would work exceedingly well ; and the bank . . ' *'t^ public would be vastly well pleased with each other. I>iib h .v.': the cycle of prosperity has gone by, and tlie cycle of « '.\ "My has begun j when the waters are out, and the winds begin to blow— it is donbtfnl whether cither the bonk or it* depoalton may feel quite at ease. The former will proliably raise the rate of in- terest ; but it hi doubtful whetlier that will hare the wislied-for effect Should the exchange set against us, and tlie Bank of England he forced to narrow her Issues, and should bankrupt- cy and a foellng of insec.irity begin to prevail, as they havo done hitherto on all similar orca.sions, a run for deposits may, and most probably will, be made upon the bank ; and In snch n case her situation, however well she may have been man- aged, will be most critical. She will be compelled to dispose of or pledge securities in a market where they may be all but unsalable ; and it will be impossible for her suddenly to pull tip In discounting, without exposing herself to the Imminent danger of extra loss, by bringing on the stoppage of those who have been accustomed to trust to her for loans, " It win be said, perlmps, that this is all Imaginary, and that nothing of thn sort ever occun In Scotland I But It would really be about as much to the purpose to say that nothing of the sort ever occurs in Japan. Ixindon Is the pivot on which the foreign exchsnges turn, and when they become depressed many of the London depositors win do what the Seotch depos- itors never so much as dreamed of; that Is, they will demand their deposits, convert them Into gold, and either send this /eld abroad, or get a profit from those who will. From this source of annoyance and loss the Scotch banks are perfectly free ; and this, by exhausting the resources of the London luinks, and subjecting the weaker ones to dlfllcultles, occasion* discredit and, in the end, nins or panics. Nothing, therefore, can be more perfectly futile than t. »■ itand t'mt b<^rauso this system has proved profitable for li - ?> ;i > banks, it will also be profitablo for the txmdon • "■' v.. .i i not presume to affirm that snch will not, ar' But It would be rather 111, ceeds remarkably well In snceeed equally well }n tlie " The Joint-stock banks deavor to obviate some of th ■!.T. i ' iif'. lay, be the case, ause wheat snc- • f'Mtui Iter, that it will ii laoui , ;r 1, U \ttf m their books, is absurd; for, supposing that it was the intention of the parties to delVaud, they might easily keep their hooka so tliat tliey could afford no information that was not Mse or mls- lomllng. The annexed list of Joint-stock banking companies shows that there is no disinclination on the part of individuals to engage in snchxoncems, even with the present unlimltod responsibility. And the w«y in which some of them are con- dncted proves aufficieM^, if such proof were wanted, that the serious linbllltiea incHtatd by the partners are not more than enough for the protedttgn of the public To lessen them would be an act of gratuitom folly. If we are to Interfere, lot 'hem be increased, not diminished. But In the caw of banka not Issuing notes, enough is done, if measures bo tftkon to prevent deception, by letting the public know tho partners In them, and making sure that they shall have no means of evading tho re- sponsibility attaching to their engagements Tho first object may be secured by compelling all banking aaaociattons what- ever to pubHsh annually a liat of the names and addrcssi-s of their partners, with the amount of their paid-up ,:apital ; and to accomplUh tho latter object, wo have merely to abstain from interference, and to let the law take its natural course." An AcooTOT OF Tim NuMnra op Piuvatb and Joimt Sto<:k BaxKB IN Knulani) BBuisTEuitn IK KAcn Ykae, riiOM 1830 TO IS4'.', IWTII INI'LUaiVK. Ynr. Numtxr at Numbtrof PrivRU Bsoki. JohMotk Banki. 18W to IH'il (>21 18'21 to 1822 626 ISn to 1823 64T IS-.'S to 1824 647 1824 to 18-'S 6M 1826 to ]82« 664 1926 to 182T 186 6 1821 to 18-28 464 7 1828 to isai 4«0 11 1820 to 1880 48l> 16 1830 to 1 sat 436 It 1831 to 1833 424 26 1832 to ISt3 416 86 1833tol8S4 416 47 1834 to 188S 4U C5 1836 to 1SS« 407 100 18S« to 1837 861 107 1H3T to 1838 1141 101 1838 to 1889 382 108 183U to 1840 881 lis 1840 to 1841 821 116 1841 to 1841 811 118 ay, en- \ declln- ■in lime. Id. ""' Iwhat is Drawing on hnuion — The net 8 & 4 Will. 4, c. 88, repeals the regulation in the 7 Geo. 4, c. 46, prohibit. Ing banlct with more than six partnera iVDm drawin(( on I^dndon on demand, or otherwiae, for numa of leaa than .£50. — f 2. For statiatieg of EnKliah joint^stock banlu, tee conclusion of Article on Bamkinu. IV. Scotch Banks. — The act of 1708, preventing more than six individnala from entering into a partneN ship for carrying on the bnMness of banking, did not extend to Scotland. In consequence of this exemption, several banking companies, with numerous bodies of partners, have always exUted in that country. Jiank of Scutlani. — Tliis institution was projected by Mr. John Holland, merchant, of Lonuon, and was established by act of the Scotch Parliament (Will. 8, Par. . 1, § 5) in 1695, by the name of the Governor and Con ipany of the Bank of Scotland. Its original cap- u,.: was 1,200,000 pounds Scotch, or £100,000 sterling, distributed in shares of iOOO pounds Scotch, or £83 65. Sd, sterling, each. Tho act exempted the capital of the bank from all public burdens, and gave it the evL- clusive privilege of banking in Scotland for twonty-one years. The objects for which the Bank was instituted, and its mode of management, were intended to be, and have been in most respects, similar to those of the Bank of England. Tho responsibility of tho share- holders is limited to the amount of their shares. The capital of the Bank w as increased to £200,000 in 1744, and was enlarged by subsequent acts of Parliament, the last of which (44 Geo. 8, c. 23) was passed in 1804, to £1,500,000, its present amount. Of this sum, £1,000,000 has been paid up. The lust-mentioned act direriod that all sums relating to the alTau-s of the Bunk sliould henceforth bo rated in sterling money ; that tho former mode of dividing luink stock by shares should be discontinued; and that for the future it should l)e transferred in any sums or parcels. On the union of the two kingdoms in 1707, the Bank of Scot- land undcrtooktherecoinagc, and effected theexchange of tho currency in Scotland : it was also the organ of government in the issue of the new silver coinage in 1817. The Bank of Scotland is the only Scotch bank constituted by act of Parliament. It l>egan to establish branches in 1696, and issued notes for £1 so early as 1704. The bank also began, at a very early perioecn pnxluctive, both directly and as an example to other banking establishments, of much publir utility and advantage. It may be worth mentioning, that the net of Will. 8, establishing the Bank of Scotluud, de- clared that all foreigners who became partners in the l>ank should, by doing so, become, to all intents and purposes, naturalized Scotchmen. After l)eing fqr s long time forgotten, this clause was taken advantage of in 1818, when several aliens acquired property in the bank in order to secure the Ijeneftt of naturalization. But after being suspended, the privilege was Unally canceled in 1822. We subjoin an itfficial abstract of the constitution and objects of the Bank of Scotland, printed for the use of tho proprietors ; the terms and mode of transacting business are, of course, sometimes altered, according to circumstances : I. The Ihuik of Scotland la a public national aalablishment, erected and regulated by the I^eglalature alone ; and expresa- ly aa a public liank In thla kingdom ; for the benefit of thj nation, and for the advanftment of agrtcnlture, commerre, and manuhetares, and for other ol^ects of public policy. — •rm. Tart. 1, i 6 ; 14 OfW. 8, c. 32 ; 24 Oeo. 8, r. 8 ; 82 (Veo. o, c. 26: 34 0«o. 8, e. 1»; 44 Geo. 3, c. 28. II. The statutory raplti,: Is At present £1,600,000 sterling. It in raised by vol- untary subacTiption, and haa been aubacrllied for. Xt,O0O,Q0O baa been called for, and paid in. — 44 dm. 8, .-ap. 28. UL Subscribers, if not under obligation to tho Bank, may, at pleanire, transfer their right. If under obligation to the Bank, the obligation must 1>e prevloiudy liquidated : or the pmoeeda of tba sale, at a price to the aatiatactioB of the dinct- BAN 118 BAN on, miut bo >pplM towkrd lucli liquidation. Transfen lira made bjr a iihort aMlgnmiiDt and acceptanro tberaof, buth iu a icKiator appointed for tbat purpose. Tbo iipcnsi!, be- •Idea the goveruiuriit Btamp, U 11a.— H'tlL I'arl. 1, i 6. IV. Baiik of .Scotland stuck may be acquired. In any portloDS by any person, community, or otber lawful party wbalsoever ; without selection, e;iclusian, or limitation of numbera- Wm. Pari. 1, t B; 44 Oto. 8, r. S3. V. Bank ofScoUand stock may be conveyed by will, and, if specially mentioned, without expense of contlrmatlon. It can not be arrested : the holder's •Ight miy be adjudged. Dividends may bo arrested. — H'iU. Pari. 1, i 0. VI. The Bank of Scotland is a public corpora- tion by act of rarllaincnt. The Bank's transactions arc dis- tinct from thoie of the stockholders, and Ihelrs from tliuse of the Bank.— WflL Pari. 1, t B. VII. The establishment Is expressly debarred from any other business than that of baaUiig.--H'iILI>ari. l,iB. VIII. The management Is vest- ed, by statute, in a governor, deputy governor, twelve ordi- nary, and twelve extraordinary directum. 'I'hcy are chosen aniiuaily, on the last Tucsdny of March, by tho stockhuldets baring £'26l> of stock or upward. Those abovo £i60 have a vote for every A'SSO, to f BOOO, or twenty votes. No penion can have mon' than twenty votes. Tho gorcmor must hold at least £2000 of stock ; tho deputy governor £1800 ; and each director £T50. They swear to be equal to all persons, and can not hold any inferior o/Hce in tbo Bank.— Vill. Pari 1, tS; 14 0*0. 3, c. 02; 44 Oto. 8, c. Sa IX. The executive part U conducted by a trrasun'r, secretary, and otiicr public officers, all sworn. Those having the ofllclal charge of rash And duu security.— H'fll. Pari. 1, i B. X. Tho bo.ird of di- rectors sits 'or the general administration of the Bank, at tho Banl^H public head office lu Edlnbu'gh. The local businciis of that district Is also conducted atthnt ofllce. For the local business in the other parts of the kingdom, the Bank luu its regular public offices in the p: '. r Mpal towns. At each of these offices there Is the bsnk agent or eaihlor, who gives duo se- curity, and conducts the Bank's business for that district In the manner after montloncc'. There is alco tho Bank's ac- countant for that office, who is appointed by tho directors — ITtO. Pari. 1, { 5. XI. Tho Bank takes In money, at all its public offleen, on deposit reoclpts or promissory notes, or on current deposit account. At tbo head office, drafts on Lon- don, or on any of the agencies, arc given ; at each agency, drafts on London, or on tho head office, are gi/cn. All tiu-tii' documents are on the Latxk'a check (and sealed trith the Dank'n seof). They bear. In » crds, to be " For the Bank of Scot- land j" or, " For ilio Governor and Coin))any of the Bank of Scotland." The!.- documents are signed, if at Kdlnburgh, by the treaani«r, and countersigned by tho principal account- ant: if at en agency, they must b« signed by the Bank's agent at agent, and rouiifer«i|/ny law ; nor has any act been passed limiting tho |icr!od for which such issue shall continue legal in that country. In Kiiyland, tho issue of proniisori' notes for a less sum than £f> was prohibited by law from tho year 1777 to the epoch of tho Bank Restriction in 1797. It has been permitted since 1707 ; and the permission will cease, us tho law at present stands, in April, 18'29." i'here hiivo been comparatively few bankruptcies among tho Scotch hanks. In 1793 and 18'2,5, when so many of the Knglish provincial Uuiks were swept off, there was not a single cstablishkHJIit in Scotlanu that guve way. This superior stabilitj; seems to bo ascrili- able partly to the fonnation of so many banks with numerous bodies of partners, whictt tends to pre\ ent any company with only a few partners, unless f licy arc known to possess considerable fortunes, from getting paper into circulation ; partly to the less risk utlcud- ing the business of banking in Scotland ; and partly to the facility afforded by the law of Scotland of nttucl;- ing a debtor's piipeiiy, whether it consist of land or movables, and making it available to the payment of his debts. In the Report already quoted, tho lust-mentioned topic is tonciicd upon iis follows: 'The general pro- visions of tho law of .Scotland bearing upon this sul)- jcct nro calculated to promote the solidity of lianking estuldishments, by affording to tho creditor great fa- cilities of ascertaining the [lecuniary circumttnnccs of individual partners, and by making the private fortunes of those parties available for tho discharge of the obli- gations of the bank \silh which they are connected. There is no limitation upon th* number of partners of which a banking company iii flcotland may consist ; and, excepting in the case of the Bunk of Scot land and tho two chartered lianks, which have very considera- ble capitals, the partners of all banking companies are bound jointly and severally, so that each partner Is liable, to tho whole extent of his fortune, (br the whole dciits of the company. A creditor in Scotland is em- powered to attach the real and heritable, as well as the personal ntuto of his debtor, for payment of personal debts, among which may Ims classed debts due by bills And proniUflury notes ; and recourse nay be had, (or the purpo,ie of procuring payment, to each description of property at the same time. Execution is not con- lined to th: real property of a debtor merely du.-iiig his life, but pioceeds with equal effect upon that properly after hin dscense. The law relating to the estn'r)li.ih- nient of records gives ready means of procuHiig in- format'ion with respect to the real and heritable cKtnte of which any person in Scotland uiay be posfsssed. BAN tti BAN Ko purchase of an ent^de in that country !a aecuro un- til the seizin (that is, the instrument certifying that actual delivery has Iwen ^i t'en) is put on record, nor is any moHgaift effectual until the deed is in lilte man- ner recorded. In the case of conflicting pecuniary claims upon real property, the preference is not regu- lated l>y the dute of the transaction, but bi/ the date ofiit rtetrd. These records are accessililo to all persons ; ond tlius the public can with eane ascertain the clFcct- ive means whirh a banking company possesses of dis- charfjing its oMigations ; and the partnerfi in that com- p.'tny are «nal)leeen roiiuected were in sums from £10 to £200. Being asked what cIobs of the community it is that makes tlie small deposit!*, he said the laboring class ; from which it appear^ that the mode of conduct- ing this branch of thu banking business In Scotland has long given to that country many of the beneflts derival)le ft-om the estal)lishment of savings banks. The system of cash credits has Ijeen very vrell dc- gcrilie)- diicing and encouraging habita oi° iVngulity and ik- dustry. The ptictice referred to is that of cash cred- its. Any person who applies to a bank for a cusli credit is called U|K>n to produce two or more competent sureties, who are jointly bound ; and, after a full in- quiry into the character of the applicant, the nature of his business, and the sufticiency of his securities, he is allowed to open a credit, and to draw upon the bank for the whol« nf its amount, or for such part as his daily transactions may require. To the crodit of the account he pays in ^uch sums as he may not have oc- casion to use, und interest is charged or credited upon the daily lialance, as the case may be. From the fa- cility wliich these cash credits give to all the small transactions of the country, and from ti.,. cpportuni- ties wiiich they alTord to persons who liegin business ■srith little or no capital but their character, to employ protitabiy the minutest prulin ; thirdly, three ut Belfast; and, lastly, one at Mallow, TheEc eight banks, with the New PtotIii- BAN 199 BAN cial Bank, »nd the Bank of Ireland, are the oo\y banka now existing in Ireland. " In 1821, In consequence of 11 banks having failed nearly attlic same time in 'lo preceding year >r the routh of Iroliind, government succeeded in m.^Vin^ an arrangenent with the Bank of Ireland by whi' I- joint- stock companii>B wore allowed to be establish) I. at a distance of 60 miV.'S (Irish) from Dubiln, and thu Hank was permitted to Increase iU capit I ;C500,000. The act of 1 & 2 Geo. 4, c. 72, was foui) .u;(l on this ni'ree- nient. But nuuisteni having omitted to repeal li this act various restrictions on the trade of banking 'Jut had Ijcen impost"! by 38 Geo. 2, c. H, no new . nm- piiny was formed. In 1824 a party of merchanis of Belfast, wishing to establls'i' a Joint-stock company, p.( itioi:ed Parliament for the repciil of this act of f '■<:(>. k KiX :m act was accurdingly passed in that session TXipeaiing some of the most objectionable resttictionn r.Ht (tbr 3 Geo. 4, c. 73). In consequence of thi^ act titi Nortiiern Back of Uel.ant «aa oi.ivorted luto a Ifliul-jU'ivc company, t^ilh a capita] ui i50&,00U, and coCTiienoe*! bnsinei'S •v '■!!? jst of .Janu' r^', 1825. But thii romu'iiin/i ivstno'^iTi. »( ?"■ Geo. !, and certain jirovisionB i:i)ntain ii"i i' *le in'i' »^' i:i>v'S)ini"?it to removt, fhcta ; and li bil' v« t vi.:>nli,ii»' v uitroduccd which Aiiulii 'mo reycal'i! .nii 'I • otitio \ lou.- clause'? of thi! .% Geo ?, hill it noi bciii .j i Iton-d iu Ilic com- mittee 08 to lo»v« w voral of ■l.>'i"j In force. Tn 1825 !h' ."< r of issuing [j:)per have been so great, that much mon, in necessary 'lO hn d«me, by way of protecting the pvUv.: from future loss, than tho meas- ure proposed iu tl.'. vnor 182G by I'urlianient for abol- ishing small notes, uni the raea8ur> already ad,ipted of allowing joint-stock companies to be cstabli.'^bed in tW intorior of the country. As the main source of the .: rS! i-imMHU in tlio interference uf tho law in creatiriif 1 v!^'':ioual bank with exclusive prkvilpgei<, the Arsl ■i:,. that ought to be taken for introducing u good sys- tem into Indond is the getting rid uf such a luuik, and opening the trade rf banking vn Dublin. The next ;lK^asure should Ira the requiring of ench liank u> give security for the amount of paper that is iiisaed ; for aflor the ;>xperierce of the ignorance with which the Irish i>anlu have conducted their business, and the derangement of the natural course of the trade by the long existence of the Bank of Irt'Und, it would be uii- wiar) to calculate upon a sound system of banking speedily uupplnntiiig that which has been established. I'niirr the circumstances in which Ireland is placed, nothing would so much contribute to liijr rapid im- p^J^'elnent in wealth as the introdi'cing of thii Scofch plan of cosh credits and of paying ir.terest on depos- its. By cash credits the capital which now exists \/onld i)e rendered more elBcient, and the paying of srcst on small .leposits would lead to habits of econ- omy, and to the more rapid accumulation of new cap- ital. " — Obstrvationt on Paper Monty, eic, by Sir II KNBY Jk>AR.'4ELl^ p. 171-177. Thu capital of the Bank of Ireland, st its establish- r;ient in 1793, amounttid to £600,000, but. it has been iocretsi'd at. vai-ious peri.ty>iO. Tr<< > Mi fire have been iipened si'u < 1881. '.' ' 'ntlre tv. .• uge- ment of '^e osttblishmei '. is vested in the court of di- rectors in Lrn'liii. The l<:i?ineBS of tlii- 'irunch bauka is conduct «d, I'ltler tho cojt
    id oflice, by the manager', it iih the advice cr.' assistance ui' two or i])ore gentl"iin, etc. ; and ' . I other details incident to '.Hiking. li has hi'\ several pretty severe runs to austiiiii. In the courcf «.' a sin- pli.- week, in Octol>cr, 18'28, aliout Xl,(HiU.(lO0 in gold I was uent from England to Ireland on account of the I Provincial Bank ! This prompt iind ample supply ef- ' fectually maintained the credit of the establishment, ' and did raach to restore contidenee. The notes of the Irovincial iinnk have always been payable at the places where th?y are issued. The Bonk of Ireland began to estubli.'ih branches in 1625; but the notes issued l>y her hraiulies were not, at first, payable except at thu head ofl'an':hcs, was in no long time obliged to suspend pay- ments. Some of the others have al«a Iceii abandoned. There are comparatively few private bauke in Ireland. " Not many years ago there were upward of six hun- dred loan societies in Ireland, besides privalc pawn- bri.ikors, who abounded in every town throughout the ki.qgdom. Two hundred were enrolled under 6 & 7 Will. 4, one hundred and sixty-eight ware under the direction of the Irish Keproductive Loan Fund, a b- tions were |>roductive of very little good to the people, the rates of interest charged to their customers being n-sarly Ruch as are charged at ordinary pawnbrokers' cstublJEhmtnts." — Lawoon on Banking. The provisions in the act 8 & 9 A'ict. c. 37, with re. gard to banking in Ireland, do not differ materially fVom those in the preceding act reliitiug to Scotland. The prohibition that formerly existed against joint- stock iianks carrying on business in Dublin or any whet^ within 60 miles thereof Is repealed ; the charter of the Bank of Ireland is prolonged >'ill January, 1855, when it may be dissolved on notice ; i"- -s o: th^ Bank of El .gland are declared not to lie le^.n. 1,M' '»r in Ir». land ; and notes fi>r less than 20i. .\T7!miaX AMOUNT OF BANK-NOTIS I» SaVEBAI. <;bAR'ICBXI> I:ANKS OF U. HKLii ntainu the roca Weeks div ' .^iM^otiable. -.c.'« or Tn» 1» OF CfUK Ifuns Mil TiU*. Bank of Ireland Provtnclal Bank BelfkstUunli Northern l»nk Clalrr Bank National Bank t'arrick-un-BuIr National Book Clonmel Nfltlnnal Bank . '.rr.Ctt K- ■■ i f.il.llr i4,oai .'•tloB. Avffrmrt Cain hald. « »6!I,8S6 iOi.MO «."i.rsT ■■>■ \ .■'. ,1 > S, •((Ifl.ltW 2S4,I34 'i4«,17T Il3,nii9 li!8,S«5 C2.|,46T T,«SO 18,176 ,.v,-!Atia;c!,..«;ii. BAN 121 BAN A I-iOT or nn Joiiit-«toox Baickimo CoHrAints or Iulamd in 1846, BrioirTiHO tiik Oath or nuii Estauliuimkhi, Till NvMKn or Toiim Pabtkom, nil Ahovht or Tuxm VAiii-t'i- C'AriTAL, tiik Sitvatiojc or thrib IIeaii Urricxe, ahd oTTUBin Ubanciw, wimH Tim uatb aut, witii Till riXKi> Imub or TiioaB authobi/.ku to isavB Noteh. land. Lhun- tland. joint- r any larter 1«65, Banic n Ire- ible. |r Tn> Coin Bank*. WhM MUblUiad. NumlMi o( PwMni, Fald-un rayllal. Amuuiil of fllid l«u. llauk of Ireland' 178B Dec, 1827 June, 1826 184S S4.;an., 1836 May, 1880 May, 1880 1 Jan., 1826 8iiblin liunk* . . • • National llauk of Ireland* ** »» Clonmel* *' " U8rrlck-on.8ulr» Northern Banking Compunr, Bulfiut* ProrlnoialUankoflreUndT Ulater UanUng Uompany, Ilvl£iit» . . i;«,llM,4M > Head Offlee, Dublin t Dranchcs, Armagh, BalUnasloc, Belfant, Carlow, (^Itinmcl, Cork, Droglu'da, Dublin, Dundalk, Oal- vay, Kilkenny, I.imcrick, Lonilondorry, Longford, Mountmolllok, Now Kois, Nuwry, 8llgo, Traleo, Tullamoro, Waterford, VeHtuort, Wjxford, and Youghal. 3 llrad Offlre, Ueiraat ; Ilrtincliei, Armagh, Dallymona, Ballymoney, Coloraino, Cookalown, Dcrrv, Duneannon, Lame, Lvilcrkonny, Magheraiult, Honagfaan, NewtownUmavady, Newtownanls, Portadown, gtrabanc, Tandragcc, Dublin, Nevry, •nd Cutlebl-nal capital of b,Zii ^(' fli irs was donbi 4 in 18!;). The king ho!,;^ nn^ '.' iithot'.i,;? T!ic affairs of tho bank are D">i»,,c J oy a pre8io>.„t, serrctary, and five director are chosen every si>. .".-"ths, but , , ;}• be in ;. ..ily ra-electcd. This bunk tii«connts bills of exv Hugo :vith three ri^po:>8ible signatures; it takes couti^i'ialjons on stock, and sometimes icnds on bullion at ai'ch a rato of 'nterest and to such .'j loans on inerchaDdise, but iierer at less than 6 per cent. Its notes vary fVom 1000 florins to 25 florins; that is. from XS." J to .< i i-12. The dividends have va- ried from 8 to 7 per cent. The shares are each lllOU florins. The responsibility of the sha<%holders is lim- ited to tho amount of their etock. Its original charter, which was United t" ?'• y tte, was prolonged, in 1838, for 25 years more. Thu Bank of II, u:^ '.a i' ipo4t bank, and its af- fairs are managed according to a system that insures the fullest publicity. It receives no dcponits in coin, but only in bullion of a certain degree of liucncss. It charges itself with thu bullion at the rate of 4-12 shil- Ungg tho mark, and issues it at tho rate of 441 shil- lings, being a charge of four-ninths, or nearly one-half per cent., for its retention. It advances money on jew- els to three-fourths of their value. The city is answer- able for all pledges deposited with the bank ; they may bo sold by auction, if they remain 1 year and 6 weeks without any interest being paid. If the value bo not claimed within three years, it is forfeited to the poor. Tho Bank of Hamburg is universally admitted to be one of the best managed in £uropo. France. — The ISank tf France was founded in 1803. The exclusive privilege of issuing notes jiayablo to bearer was granted to it for forty years, and was con- tinued, by a law passed in 1840 (confirmed in 1852), till 18C7. This law was preceded by a very able Report, drawn up by M. Oufauro, In which, among other ques- tions, tho policy of having only one bank of issue in Paris is examined, and decided in the aflirmative. The capital of tho Bank consisted at first of 45,000,000 fr. ; but it was subsequently increased to 00,000,000 fr., di- vided into 90,000 shares or actions of 1000 fr. each. Of thrse shares, 07,900 passed into the hands of tho pub> lie; 22,000, having been purchased up by the bank out of tho surplus profits, were subj>equcntly canceled; henci- the i.pital of the bank consists], pvoviuusly to tho 1. .olutioii of 1848, of 07,900,000 fr. (£2,710,000), exolu..vc of a riscrve fund ot *0,000,0(K) fr., since in- creased io 12,980 750 fr. But notwithstanding tho laudable skill and caution with which her afl'uirs were conducted, the bank could not avoid suspending pay- ment under a decree of the Provisional Uovcrnnient of the lOtli Marct., 1848, to which and to the city of Par- Is she had to make large advances. To gel some limit to tho abuses that might have taken place under the suspeniii'in, the maximum ':ircuiation of the Bank was fixed, by the decree now referred lo, a: S.'iO, 000,00? ft'. ; while, lu the 'aw of supplying a currency suifc' to thb smalior clfss of payments, nhi^ wits pcrmitteu to re- BJOt m BAN duM th« dcnomln«tl«n oTmU* in cbnhMm tfom 000 to 100 franca. At tb* Miiw ti*M, or toun tfUf, IIm (I«- partmanul l)»nki, or bookt wbifb b«4 Immi MtoMlab*(l Id (ome of the prlnclnsl pruvltKial I«wn«, w«r« ran«lw» of llw llanli nf Kraiien, Bank qf franoi.—Ki • lata iii««tiNK id l\n •tiara- holders of tbla aitablUbmaiit, ('uuiit Ait H»ruifiif. th« governor, read t ruport of IfM 0|Mr«(l.sl«m, Oauphloi, Ar- dennes, Stra.ibouri;, Suutlierii, and (itim¥», 'tUi a sUlt re- mained 271,000 bonds to bo M«i{otUl«d, or f/(l(l«r more than one-third of the iwue autburi4wl fur |«i;>N, A sub- acription was opsned from tlw 6(b to (b« lOtb of July at the central and branch baiikii, and iIm nam\mt *«lb- scribed for was 98li,t*87, or (br>!« and a half tlinrs as many as remained to b« Issiiad. Tbo ««K'^rn««s of ( H«|rtefore the dsta of tli« t««t lostallriHinl, brss than 14,000,000 francs remained uiipsld. C'/r ih« rfi.rnc««d- Ings only in 23 cases, in which lbs prbi«'lpal» wero ei- ther absent or had died, aii'l repr«s«iitlNi( UinHhut not noro than 233 Ijonds. On tlia 1st lit IhHmmtmf, Udl, the average prico of the bonds of i\m «ff(tit rmnpanies wa« 265f. 18c. ; tbs avoraij* r»la at wnirh itiey were sold, either by the bank direct or by imlmtlMUm, was 274f. 60c., thus realizing to tin- »oiflp«Hl#s, for »tfr;//a6 bonds, a plus value of 8,'.'99,7'«0f, V)i', 't bus IIm ngftl- cy of the bank, without coniproiMlsliig any ui t l(.j lin*f- ests confided to it, was useful hi all parties. The document then goos on (o giro sn a««oun( of Its ordinary operations ; " The aliundanoe of spacfa allownd Ibn (>aiiV to re- duce its rate of dlicouot. At l\m b«/(innfn|t( of iHtm -niam — WijitiU.fntt «,000,0UO francs. In 1868 the amount was less, bat had sDII reached the toUl of 6,218,900,000 (Vanes. —(iAUanMit'H Meutnger. The operations of the liank of France for tho post ten years show a vastly augmented commerce throuKli- ont the emplri), greater activity in hor manufacturing system, and enlarged wealth among the people. The emperor alludes to tills in tho o|>eniiig of his speech of the 7th February : " Franco has, as you are awaro, daring the last ilx years, aeen her welfare siugincnt, her riches Increasr," etc. So far as these changes are Indicated and conflrmed by the movements of tho Bank of Franca, there can bo no doubt of renewed prosperity tbroughoat the empire. Tho bank was allowed, in IHOft-'t', to double her capital, or fi-om 01,250,000 francs to 182,500,000 francs. Upon this capital, equiv- alent to |l!iri,n00,000, the bank has added largely to ita individual deposits (say 26 per cent.) since May, 1850. The clrcnlatKm Is equivalent to |14C,0(:3,000, and tho specii; on hand about (104,000,000, considerably mora than all held by all the banks in the UuiUd States. In order to show this progresaivo movement, wo add a condensed view oi'tlio liabilities and assets at three pe- riods, viz. 1 May, IHbC (before the new capital was an- thorlsed) ; February, 1858 ; and Ist February, 1859 : l.labllltln. Majr, ISU. ra\i., IMS. F.b., I«i8"n CsplUI Franfi. 01,26 1,000 O2d,m,ooo 106,714,000 »0,UOO,000 10,080,000 3i,606,0fl0 1,066,173,000 4';<,730,000 108,816,000 f>4,91 0,000 100,1)00,000 06,171,000 250,340,000 17,701,000 1,056,173,000 F/aoe*. OKvW.flOO 91,260,iH)0 672,701,000 140,010,000 78,036,000 20,108,00., 23,802,000 FraiMi. 91,260,000 01,259,000 T30,Sfl 1,000 204,070,000 06,894,000 27,010,000 16,122,000 (;a|illal, new (Mroiilittlon Drpoalls Hue Treasury — Reaerre M laeellMncoua Total AmU. l^ommereUI bills.. f.oa(i8 on public) SccirlllnB / f/)snfl on ralKra/K Loan to State Stock voaorrcd.... ^penlfl on hand . . . .Miacellaneous Total 1,029,78^,000 473,000,000 81,805,0W 02,V«),006 60,000,000 06,171,000 2S2,SB3,000 04,690,000 1,'^88,603,000 483,020,000 89,728,000 110,70,^,000 46,000,000 08,178,000 524,'i71,00(l 17,W,flOfl l,029,r5»,003 l,28f , 8!l,0mj rp to 1857, tho smallest denomination of notes issued by the Bank of Franco was one hundred frai.cs. In that year bills of fifty I'rancs were authnrizcd. Tho circulation is more largely in 1000 franc bills than in any other — a marked contrast with tho condition of bank Issues in tlie United States. The circulation in 1860 was of tho following denominations : NolAtof MS rraaa. 72,000,000 3 I DM 1866 18M Ai sti vit vf ),ta«,««i|4»<« Uitf>.m,m »,«4I,«»«J«*» Rajm. 4,««o,om 1t,tWl,0llO i2,'/r,o,oo« t»«,M7,00l> il)OfKI,WiO SUtm. FraoH. 94,282,000 109,000,000 S48,(M,000 429,970,000 440,840,000 480,400,000 484,974,000 119,482,000 199,728, "00 100,000,000 Tmal. Fraati. 10t,llS2,i>00 lfl»,6!X»,000 2oO, 300,000 4s:;,870,ooo 468,820,0f)0 609,720,000 603,910,000 823,080,000 392,001,000 I!l9,rxi(),(j00 190,000,000 i wr Shaw. I Fraaci. 1?? 76 10* 101 105 118 164 1V4 200 971 igliQjl friet fUWrt. eooii 3:10 WW 24'. 2060 3108 2960 .1000 3800 40T5 BAN ijAMLiTin Ann Rnocitcn or nn Bark or Fsinci fob HKPTUIIIU AMD UUTUIUB, 18IMI. i issued |i:a. In TIi« khan in Ition of \iio\i in gtrr LUbUUta. (M., IIM. ■•pi., IIM. rnm». Vraao. Capital of Ihi! n«nk ei,8eu,ooi) 01,260,000 RemrvR uf t)in Bank 11),980,T6.) 12,080,760 Iht, in lAQilrd prupurty 4,00O,0W) 4,000.000 Itank-noli't In clraiilatlon 6Sl,aTB,lMt 548,602,200 Do. of thi> braiirh bunki W,I20,7(M 77,024,400 Itank-notf B to nrdnr 4,ST8,2M 4,428,624 KacfilptH ptiynbln at sight a,Ml,»3 ^0a8,888 Truanury account current 101,4ll,UT 118,818,802 auP'iry accoHiUa currunt Do. with Iho lininch banka. . . , 119,6a5,T(U llKI,oa8,2tie ita,ST9,04r 2^475,4(a DlvldcndR )>Hynblo 810,481 1,141,906 DiiaounlB and sundry Interests 11,MT,8I>B 7,480,220 Ue-dlscount th« last six montha l,(M9,Wa 1,«29,9«3 I*roli)ated bills 88,860 «,TB8,M3 15,869 6,«74,12S Sundries Total 1,003, 170,«M 9»8,4'a,918 ASMlS. Cash In hand TT,0«2,910 89,4OT,0S« 118,120,401 Cash In tho branch banks 122,676,000 Commercial bills overdue 00fi,«81 2,111,194 Ullla discounted, not yet due . . 2TI,0fiS,4M 221,808,498 Do, In thu branch banks Jt3»,08S,60'i 217,829,820 Advanced on deponit of bullloa 0,720,900 1,749,400 Do. by thu brunch banks 8,T«,9TB «,S28,475 Advanced on public aecurltles . T«,02T,93< 78,420,886 Do, by tlic branch banks 11,914,980 11,876,100 Advanced on railroad mtcurittes 88,000,000 88,273,100 Do, by the braooh banks 17,211,100 17,180,900 Advanced to the State on agree- ment ufJinieSO, 1S4S t»,000,000 66,n()0,000 Discount of Treasury lionds. . , 40,000,000 40,000,000 Government stock rvscrved . . . 12,980,761) 12,1180,760 Do, disposabio 62,100,046 62,29^,796 Hotel and furniture of Bank. . . 4,000,000 4,001>,000 Landed property of bisnch banks 5,260,406 4,908 807 Expenses of management 1,1S8,68J 823,634 Premium on gold and silver. . . 2,128.694 1,496,318 Bundrlea 84,661 7^347 Total 1,002,170,644 098,468,018 1 Bsnka have also been established in Berlin, Copen- baKun, Vienna, and Peteraburg. Those who wish for detailed information with respect to theso establish- ments may consult the 4th vol. of the Cotiri cTEcono- mie Politique of M. Storck, which contains a good ac- count of the paper money of tho diflerent Continentiil Btatca down to 1823. We also refer to other portions of this article ; but in the mean time we lay before oni- readers the followiu^ details with re.^pect to the Com- mercial Bank of Russia, established in 1818 : This bank receives deposits in gold and silver, for- eign as well OS Russian coin and in bars and ingots. It has a department for transferring the sums deposit- ed with it, on the plan of tho Hamburg Bank. It discounts bills, and lends money on deposits of mer- chandise of Russian produce or origin. Its capital con- sists of 8,571,429 silver rubles. It is administered by a governor and four directors, appointed by govern- ment ; and font directors, elected by tho commercial body of Petersburg, The property in the bank Is pro- tected against all ta.xation, sequestration, or attach- ment; and it is enacted that subjects of countries with which Russia may be at war shall be entitled at all times to receive back their deposits without any reser- vation. It is also declare! that at no time shall the bank bo called upon '.at i.:iy part of its capital to assist the govcrniueut. All deposits must bo made for 6 months at least, and be repayable at or before that pe- riod, and not be less than 500 ... ' ' rubkn: sums so deposited to pay i per cent. Th" - . nosits, if in bars, ingots, or foreign specie, arvi u-'ii! id i; Russian sil- ver coin, and so registered: m t' ' atLotatiou ; and if not demanded back witnin 15 utiys of tho expiration 1 1 hs, or the necessary premium paid tor the pro- ^.ongittK. I, the owner loses tho right of (.iaiming his original deposit, and must take Its estimated value in Russian silver coin. No bill!) rre discounted that have less than 8 days or mor» ...a •" lonths to run. Tho rate of discount is per cent. '' I'ltuc^t is allowed on money deposited In the banV "•' ■,> notice be given that it will lie allow 1 to lie f - • '-'.ar, ond 3 months' notice bo given of th<> intention t' drow it out, when BAM H> per cent. Interest Is allowed. Tho bank has hnnch- es at Archangel, Moscow, Odesaa, Riga, Ac. By means of lla capital and deposit*, which In INilO amounted together to ll)l,Wtl,H)IU sliver rubles, th« bank emctad in that year the followlnK operations i lluttUf, Cop, 1. Repaymenla on deposits In tnuisAr M,« at Intoreat. ,,..,.., lll,Kn,77( 91 6. Discount of bills of exchange 17,1ITM1 T 6. Advances nn deponlbi of nierehandlie l,n4'l,M4 M 7. Advances on the notes of oilier iMIiks 660,1101 1( 8. Discount ol noUis of the I^iinbard 1,928,671 it 9. Advanced on flxed property by branch at Kle« :...'. 1T4.0TO SO The net profit during tho same year amounted to 060,601 silver rubles, and the r«*frve capital uf tho bank was then also 1,379,071 sitvnr rublc«,~^ organized under a now charter, by which more (fxten> sion was given to its operations. In accordanco with this new constitution, which has bren in force since the 1st of January, 1847, the issue uf notes has tieen carried to fifteen millions of thalers (the thaler er^iial to 2«. 1 UfJ, sterling). In 1860 this issue was raised to ttvetity* one millions of thaler*. The capital of the b ink Is tX- ■vvjti to be in proportion with tho notes In circulation, two-sixths in silver, three-sixths In bill* discounted, and the rest in loans on securl''!*, The bank-notes are from twenty-five to fifty thalers each, Thu shar* of the government 'i "le bank amounts, at most, to 600,000 thalers. 1 ,•.• shurehulders are entitled %o an annual interest of S} per cent, upon the eanltal, and, after deduction of tlin sum Bet,ap»rt for klir lesnrvn or rest, which is not to exceed 30 per cent, of fhn capital, one moiety of the sur|i'i > profits Is apportioned to thftn in addition, and the otlier goes to tho treasury, The bank has branches in a great number of (Htles, a« Brns- lau, KOnigsber?. I>iintzie, Htettln, Magdelm/g, Mun< ster, Cologne, Men il, Poson, Htoipe, Klberfnld, '1 revcs, Aix-la-Chapellt.', Uusseldorf, Coblenf z, MInden, Krfurt, Frunkfort-sur-Oder, Stralsund, iuisilti, I.ingnitz, and Oppcln, and thus forms a vast network of financial op* erations through all the kingdom. Tho private bank of the n''lil('ase of Pomerania was founded at Steltin, in 1821, by an association of noble proprietors, with a capital of 1,000,000 tlialera, After tho crisis of 1830, this capital was carried to i,6i'l't,600 thalers. The operations of this bank embrace discount , loans upon lodgments of merchandise, loans upon pulf- lilt and private securities, current accounts, and du deposits, an I i • ;:..'tlKtlons of loans, The bank pr.ys an anr ■' Iciiteji, ipf per cent, upon ih"^ ril.ii'.t'.e capit.^1 unrl o ^i\1dend, r. -r deduction «<' t'l. rei < vefunil. >tj r-'^;''"'!''' o' ' 't«r, extends t.) :bu year 1866. i; hM :irat:'iic( ..: I'aj^ue, UrUiin, ii£S^ ^-^— BAN ^ 114 BAH Troppau, Ogtn, Ttnriwar, Kiahaa, Ltmbery, Trd'at <, Innapruck, UorlU, Line, anil Ilcnnitailt. 'the Uank of Extreonlluaiy Cretlit of ". , ^i. ' . i •onititutad in 1(H6 by Imixrisl ilecn" .r tuitui ti% ol^ct to devote ■ part of the iiiiiu d' <; i . o) government, willi a capital of 1,600,000 thalera, divided into du' )» of 200 Ihalen, receiving a per cent, intereet. It* operation* are depuaita, loan*, and diacounta. It ha* the right of iaauing note* of 20 and 100 duller* each, of which the two-lhird* tbuuld bo guaranteed by value* to the amount in apecie or ingot*. There exiata, bcaidea, at Dre8d ' .t I mitral eatablUbniinil, to anawar the pur|Mna of ii '•uiKing (y*l«n fur tU uvrlh of Oermany. It jjropoard to rnduw It wl(h an airuniulalion of cap. i: I* to the extmit of rruin /<0,(NIO,UOO to 100,000,000 tbalan. lint tkta Klganlb' prir|«ct ba* reaolvtd llaolf Into a private enterurlu, caialtlliiliiKl In ihr beginning of 18-17, under IIm lllle oi'IIik t'r»vlil .U4 u« .iunild In )'il9. Tha ailnlmuin dvpmlt of a wnmlier drairlng to irficn an ao- count la too mark* bann/ In bar allver, or In a bill, for the aanie aum, utotn of the m«nilier»of Iho hank, which i* then tranaferrad tnmt Ilia an^unt of the latter to that of tb* furnwr. Traiiafi-r* i-an not laka place for a leat *uro than 100 marka, exiwpt mmt day* iiefnre Chriat- mai, or in the middi* of July. Illllterlo, for each mark of Ana *llv«r of Coliigna, tlw depoallor wa* ac- credited with 27| marka banco | while, In withdrawing hi* money fur a aimlUr >um, he wa* dablird with ?7| marka banco, §i> that Ilia ainiple uaaga of the optratlun brought a I'uat of U'20 |wr cent, A new regulation, which ia to ronie Into fone nn thn I6lh nt Auguat, 1867, ini|)orl> that the mark of Una allvnr nf Cologne aliall ba crwlited 27j| marka lianco, and debited at a aimilar rate after deduction uf 1 per mllla, Indeprndrntty of thit *ort of butt'icaa, tiiu bank lend* uplicd to the bank, principally loan* on Mn!urill«a, public fumla, etc. There liave licen iiuuirr(/ua flnandal enttrpriie*, lately ttartcd on the Coiilintnt of Kuro|H-, al>M>rbing • Iwavy aui'iunt uf capital bitlierin available for other purpoee*. I'lw fullMwIng Hal of new bauka in (iermany repreutnt* a capital uf nearly I l/),llOO,0(M) didlara, which fori but a auiati part ut llin amount lately inveatod by (iomian eapllaiUta wItMn Ibi liordera of llieir owa country. The alutret of all the lianka n«ni(.' idBt'leut Um« lu u|MiraliMi to pay divideada. List or BAasa EaTini.iaini> n Oiau^iir aiain It I YmuT lees 18(iO ins 18M 1865 l>iW ISM ISM IliA ISCfi 18U laM 1SH ISO* 18t5S 1«S« N'* ..sM 18M law i«sa Na.aa. Loudea Uwik, Braunachwelcrr Bank, Bank ftier Handel nnd ladusirle, Weimaraebe Honk, FmnkAirter Bonk, Wli>ner Cr. Bonk, OeraerBonk, '' " Thneringiaehe Bonk, Bank Aier Sued DcutaoUand, Corlner Bonk, Breiucr Bonk, line. Ijindea Bank, Mitt>'l Deutaebea Cr. laaUtnt, CriIU AnaUlt, Creil.t Inatttut, Uiaconto (IneHachaft, ColmfK-OothalMbe Cr. OtiaeUaehaft, Cr. und Veriaicberuugi GeeeHacbaft, IMvot Bank. Norddeutaehe Bonk, Veralna Bank. riu: llfaaau, Bninaebsk, Itarmatadt Welroar, rrankfuiiMn-lba-Naia, Vlfnn*, Oera, gond«r*kau< m, Uain 4*41, *■■•! 1«, 1 I), irt, WHO, I <''ijoi», I/ub»c Magdebun;, llaiuburc, llarolnni. ('wila, vitln, Ca^ul. 4,(MO,(iOn Ttmlera. s,liMi,nno Thjili^ra. '.'H.non.min OniMert, »,nW>,(l(iO 'It •ten, iO,uiidenb tO.imn.nno Itnlllrra. »,«liO,miO '• Imlira. l,min,imo Thalen. l»,mift,00n (Inilderc i.mm.niwThiiiii'o. «,mn,«w rh. ooid. l,aM,nilo Oiillder*. a,MI0,(in0 Tbalera. a,eeaau, and other*, of which the *bare* are at premium* ranging from 10 to 90 per cent, there are now two addition* which have been introduced at Berlin. The firat con- siit" of aevcral *econd-rate merchants and banker*. The other, which i* doaignated the Society of Commer- cial Credit, counta among ita administrator* (ome of tb* fint mercantile name* in Berlin. The capital la flxod at IA,000,000 thaler* (or 4;2,2&0,riCl0), of which the directorn tak« 7,r''<^l,U00 thaler* at par, while the renm'.nder are to Imi Mdd at a premium, which 1* to 1)0 carried to the cr' ^llt of the company, L'pon a *ub> »crlption iNiIng o\, mA Uit a (lortlnn of the amount, at 10 per cent, iiremlum, application* were acnt in to the exUnt of 140,1X10,000 ibalfr*. The engerneaa to obtain aharca la attributabln tn ihn favt of the company haT< ing at il* liead cominerelal men who bare alwaya been known tu b« lucctMful, Ilia manager* reserve to them- HAN lis BAN •rtvat 5 iwr Mni. out of tlHi proAtP, and (ha dlracton V to have f> pnr cent, betotv «ny (llntributlon wliat- «V«r It iDsd* to tiM ulianilialittira. Tli« iharM are of two hundnd (halcn oaer cant, premium." — Lomkm TimttiAif l/iut, IM&tt. UoTiMiNT* or TUi iMiwiui. Bamk ot AutTaiA, rna tub Yiab* l»M-18fi&. 'iVniMMNpfu nf tJU Am* in Fknim. '^'^ AJiftM*! u Km DrsfU. DlMMlH. AdTMVMua ItacurlllM. nilwmvt. ims 1N54 1sB6 riofiM. UI.WIU.BJB M,SHa,tlBT l«,ttlT,NIB IU,IIM,MB tMI,UM,440 itii.giiB.wn S'»,ii3l),l>*4,tMII rIollM. ui,iJi,a,7a4,tMM IU,l(ll.B88 IU0,I>4U 1S&4 ;i,'.Ki4.i4i,'.i:i7 a,«8'.»,r>i7,i6i 1,93U,TW,"07 14I>,77A4B4 Sfl 10.301, ri88 B«1.8(I7 liisn n,;iP7,a:is,(W8 l,8«V,10l,«t» 1,aS«,»W,(l!<') 17T,10.',4I(1 7n J ll),.)«l,688 Wi.tm ' VII. liAiiKi.Na IN THE Unitbu Statiu, — Tho bank- iDif interest of the United Status has attalni«l an tniport- anca In tho varied coiicernii ut thin wiiloly-extcudod country, and ia ao interwoveu with all our couiracrcial, manufacturini{ and aKriuuluirul purauits, that it inuaC be conceded that it ia u |{>'eat motive power in our condition of national proapcrity, unrl secondary in ita iniluauce only to that uf the Kovernmeut itavlf. And yet there uru few nuhjecta {""a practical nature on which be people of till I 'lituil States have go wldi'ly dillured ' opinion as upon the policy of banka iiiul the snbati- lion of a paper currency, based even upon coin, for one purely metallic. On ono side, the zealous friends > •' bmi^s have soinutinies overrated the utility of paper ,r('(lil '.lid nttii'iuted to it a creative power which even golu and silver do not posseaa; on the otiicrside, ''M'ir opponuntK. without distinguiahing between tho <,!>ea and aliuw >f banks, discerned, in these useful and almost iIlensublo auxiliaries to commerce, manufartiiret ami agriculture, nothing hut mlachief, and regarded them aa impeding the wealth of tho na- tion, and even as injurious to its morals as well as dan- gerous to lis lilierties. Ituth parties, perceiving the glaring errors of (heir adversaries, have lieon strength- ened in their owi' opinions, and as each party Ima al- ternately come into power, it has calablinhed or sub- verted, encouraged |>1UI. Buki. CirtKUIlcMl. 18;)7 *.'!I(I,77-/,(K>1 788 iiil4'.Msr>,8ii« 184(1 ;iBs, u-.',o»a (101 HM!,!M;8,57a 1813 •.ii.^.M:i,948 flftl M.Bda.ooa 1810 190,Slt4,309 707 l(*,r 18,070 312.114.404 18!M> ln3,BS6,B»R aM,2W,(y73 18B4 188,188,744 007,287,423 1898 237,U&«,&81 034,183,280 It must l>c borne in mind that the two laat crises In bank affairs occurnHl In tOc years 1837 and 1HI2-43, , and their circulutiou, as it ap|>«ttra above, was reduced >from (U9,2(X),IM)U to |58,5«3,tH)8, and their apecie from $37,916,340 to |33,61&,HU(I. Tho conaequence was ■ I ruinous fall In prices of property, and many business I men found It iinpoaaiblo to comply with their engage- ments, under tho sudden contraction of bank loans I from 526 to 25-1 millions of dollani. The history of all our Itank pressures and panics has been tho saniu in 1825, 1837, and 1843, and the causes given ill two simple words — univtncU trpamioit; and nothing but gold and silver possesses the cunser^'ativo power to regulate the stato of our currency or check the ruinous InHation to which our banks are prone, but for this check on their issues. All other kinds of prop- erty have but a llctitioua value, which in pcrioda of continued prosperity ia enhanced l>eyond tho limits of reason or common discretion. At snch times the banks themselves have aided tho populiir delusion by stretching their utmost spread of canvas to court the favoring breeze ; but when caught aback, are the most alarmed at the perila which they are sure to encounter. Instead of becoming auxiliary to others, they but in- creased tho panic and aggravated tb» troubles, which forr i',htmight have prevented. Exfi iiue has shown that the contraction whicli succeeds an K.uiitomiptcd prosperity is more disastrous than if ih .i.nmunity had never enjoyed any bank exte>i jidu if tho effect of these n.i was confined (u ih ■ speculators who originated thum, there would be little to excite public anxiety or sympathy; but the misfortune ia, that they reach the iii lua- lion* o( •xpaniluni Md contraelloni } Tu a certain •xlent tbav are, but aot wholly w; they ar« hut aux- lllarlM. In perlodt of pr.jniwrlt.v they have on hand •loney to loan, and dUpcime It freely while It !• In Iheir power, aa It U their duty to du, In onlor to iccuru gnid dlvldendi for their atoikhulder* ; but It wan thu •xreH of oanttdeiica out of the banks which tlrat In- duced npecuUtlun, and the expansion of Individual «redit to Ita utniotl tcntlon. While money ii redun- dant and capital unemployed, Icniptallona are offered to th« adventuroua, and apaculatlon liecoinea rife in itocka, land<, railroad*, mine*, and the countleaa "fan- elei" which promlaa auch flatlerlnfc reaulta In anch a brief period of time. Nor li this apeculutire apirll conflnod to our commercial citlea; It pervades the whole country, and a liclltioua value la atlaclird to •rery thing animate and Inanimate, movable or fixed, nhlcb possesses any value at all. The pm|ierty thus enhanced In valuation, without any reaiHinablo causa, la either sold to soma irresponaihlu purchaser, or per- haps niorl((aged as s«cond thought dis- closes the infatuation, and the dreamer awakes to the appalling perception of his true condition. The prop- arty Is tacrijictd ; In other words, it is sold for lis specie value, anil ihs speculator is ruinele representations. Ail olasses of the community feci the shock, and the gen- •rat outcry Is against the banka as the origin of the mil; but is it an evil ? It must be acknowledged by all that an uninter- mpted course of prosiierity caused by a redundancy of currancy, and the consequent supply of bank facilities, would, in the end, be prejudicial to the true and per- manent welfare of the countrj-. We have had expo- rienco enough during our intervals of success to note tba cinsequencas of a prosperous career, and the bene- fits have ri«ver been equally shared l>y the community. Bold and reckless speculators, nionopollsls in every branch of trade, wealthy capitalists, and a few adven- turers, may have amassed fortunes in soma few in- stances, but ten times the number of each description have been mined ; and under any circumstances, the great mass of the community, the laboring classes, salarlc.1 ofHccrs, annultanta of every sort, professional men, medical, legal, and clerical, while they derive lit- t'.u iienfflt from the golden harvest, are inevitably doomed to suffer their full proportion of the losses which ensue. The moral tone of society Is also deteriorated and corrupted by the continuance of prosperity ; luxury, with ita enervating inflnence ; extravagance, with tU lavish expenditures, undermine the foundation of our moral strength, economy, and integrity, and corrupt not only our morals but our legislation. An extrava- gant style of living and habits of personal expenditure on the uamelesa artificial wants and luxuries of society, which are almost inseparable from suddenly acquired or even suppositive wealth, have no small sliare in creating a demand for money, which ultimaiely leads to ruin ; first, by a loss of confidence and impaired credit j next, temporary- sacrifices; and, finally, by l>ankruptcy. And It Is liotter that it should be so, for the occasional sifting of the chaff from the wheat has always been followed by periods of well-regulated trade, reasonable profits, and that degree of thrift with which men of Integrity Md substance are contented. Trade flows on In its nat- ural channals, nslfher Impeded by artificial barrian nor luipidlsd by the force of ■peculation. lUverses, than, ant the surest safeguards against approaching ruin, and banks managed by conscientious and pru- dent directors are the gri'at coni>rrvali>es nhUh arrest the proclivity of financial pnitllKacy to nMllohai de- struction. What reason Is there, then, In Ihs popular outcry in the dominant party against lianks, when It Is obvious that they are one of the strongest and best pralectora of the lulervsts of the indualrial classes? " It is true that ths bunks ara not U'yond lliu reach of adversity ; like other business corporations, they may liu on tbo high fidu of success, anil tempests fVom distant quarters may sink thcni beneath the wuttra, without any fault of their own. Channela of trade, now full, may dry up; Important dvparlnients of in- dustry may In broken down ; the cartli may not yield Its Increase In unpropillous seasons; wars may arrest or reverse the great currents of trade ; eniliargoes aud non-lntercoursu may sweep commerce from tliu ocean ; and when thu whole country Is ovcrwhelined with em- barrassment by events so great and controlling In the commerco of the world. It can not lio expected that fbo banks should escape." From 1KI3 to ix&o, there was at first a diminution and then an increase of capital, but Ihu circulation steadily advanced each aucccasive year, especially in IHIH, occasioned by the large nxfiortalion of brtad- atufiS to Kurope tlio preceding year, and Ilia return of nearly twenty-five millions of apecin, whirli gave to all the western banka thu long-needed relief. During Iha financial year ending In June, ItMT, our exports amounted la (168,0(10,001), of which flll8,(IIMI,0t,0OO,000 in cotfun, and exceed- ed onr imports $12,000,000, This amount of export* was larger liy I||40,(KKI,000 than in nny preceding year (excepting iii 1M3I), when the amount was|ili;'>,(MKi,U(Hi), and about (30,000,000 more than In llorU. 1800 21,1)00,000 18:^8 ltl,(NHI,OOU 1M)I 17,000.000 1881 22,iNMi,ono 1!WS sn.000,000 1832 14,000,000 1800 '^s,ooo.ooo 18SS i8,niHi,oflo 180T 311.000,000 1834 22,1X10,000 18U8 .'^B.OOO.OOO I8as '^N.000,000 1810 lu.noo.ooo 1830 (11,000,000 1819 ao.ooo.ono isnT 28,IMMI,()II0 1815 61,000,000 1840 27,000,000 ISH 6«, 000,000 18B0 42,0(N),ll(IO 1S19 28,000,000 1R68 07,000,000 18IB 17,000,000 18IM !«),000,0«0 1820 16,000,000 In the intervening years the excess was from two to ten millions, but which our freight* discharged by their earnings. With the exception, therefore, of 183C, none of our crises can with Justice bis attributed to exctmve importatiom. We do not, however, assert that our banks are in- culpable, nor that they are not responsible for much of the^mischlef that this overtrading and speculative •pirit has uocas tradu !■ proapei port, Ihe lianks •xtuud their loa »'"'/ can Incri'a flueuca of publi •olliu spirit of I *'"'» spirit, they *')leh it would Intending It, a,„ cation, tSay slin •chenies and ad •pIrIt of speculal •"extent as will banks of circulati larger towns wh wouM confine thi •re eng«,{„j |„ , •ceoiiiniodatloii ( •onKoinr ; If ||„.y "«' ajiirlt of spec would do much t< ■wp tbo eqiiilll,, "lit while bank cli towna aa well as U obtaliicil, and ofter "etora destltulo ol oflianks, and capo, eaaonllal to a right them will Inoviiaf, and probaf.ly disasi Wo have In th (1880) almut 1400 I «;«l,'''« in. As it is no wmincrcial cities curtsi " '."O" 'uppliod by th( "vail themselves of the •Bbstitntlon of»,veako •are comes, ,|,e,o,„g„^ 1>7 their importunate , BAN lt7 BAN •pirit hu uocMluntil. Whaii tha oourdi of our famiRn (r*ilu la protptiruui, snil tff.ia ii iiul In itimtml for »x- port, (liR iMinlia litve b«iiii (iid tn itronuly tauiptnU lo uKluii'■< ami vlK<>r uf niUchliif whirh It woulii nut othurwlmt attain. Thiiii, without Intriiiling It, anil In tha nii who uwn the stock. Wo have In thu ITnited .States at this period (IH60) about 1400 banks, with capitals amounthif; to t:)44,iMH),0(K), and a circulation of (jl'^OUO.noo. The discounted paper of these banks is almut |ltj;M,0U0,(H)O, and the amount of bonds and stocks held In Kurope is prulml>ly near (UUO,000,UOO more, making an aK)(re((atc ofijl'.m,('MK),0(X). Now thu value of this Immenss amount of credit Isalfectedby the condition of our money mark- et, and a depreciation of ten per cent, of its amount Is equal to the loss of one of our cotton crops. Should we allow a few reckless adventurers to trespass upon the rights of others, and by the a)(«ncy of a few smuli banks, scattered throughout thu country, disturb our ilnanclal equilibrium and depreciate the value of prop- erty, by causing needless fluctuations ? Still, howev- er, the multiplication Is going on with fearful rapid- ity ; some urit(inating with parties who have surplus capital, and wish to focllitato their own and their neighbor's comnicn:ial transactions ; with others, who wish to invest funds for the sake of the income ; inrlth another class, who are solicitous to create bank capital, M It is called, for the supply of their business wantH, by an exchange of their own stock notes for the bills of their chartenul banks; and last of all, by those whose sordid motive is to speculate on the community, by foiating upon it notes of circulation, and then decrying their value, to purchase them back again through other channels at a discount, or perhaps ttnally abandon them to their fate, without redemption, on any terms. Our banks arc the oflapring of twcnty-aevon different States, and are founded upon the throe dilferent systems of a specie basis, a safety fund, and the " free banking" principle, a deposit of fitocks ; but until some uniform system of bank circulation is adopted, we can not hope to escape the evils of our present heterogeneous curren- cy. The issues of our banks ought to bo regulated by the state of our foreign exchanges, restricteil when gold is flowing out of thu country, and expanded when it is coming In. As it is now, however, if the banks in our commercial cities curtail their circulation, tlio vacuum is soon luppliod by the country banks, who eagerly avail themselves of the opportunity, and thus notliing is gained, but, on the contrary, much is lost by this sabstitution of a weaker currency ; and when a pres- snre comes, these smaller banks add fuel to the flames, by Ibeir importunate criea for ugUtanc« and indul- genca. The ellbrts ofuur lianka un tha aea-hnard can pro- dure but little perceptible aD'act In contracting Iha cur> renoy, If the great mass of the Intarlor lianka pnmlat In Issuing their paper aa long aa they have iiintlilenrn Ir their cuatomers, or the pulilln are willing lu reitilvn ll, W« therefore need » restraining or an overawing pow- er, which can Ihi axareiaed fur the general gixiil | and until wo have thia, the currency will coiitlnuu to lia flurtuating, both in quitntlly and quality. An annual report on the condlliuu uf thu banks throughout the l.'nlon is made to (.'uiign-aa by tb« Treasury Uepartinenl. The reaoluliuii uduplrd In July, 1HU2, under whlcli thrao annual repurta am made, calls for "suth ktatemenls and returns as may have liern rom'^Mulcated lo the l.<'glslatnres, govurnors, or other olHci rs of tha several Slates ttilhiii Ihr i/mr, and niodo public," Tho want of unifurmily nf dulea, how- ever. Is nut the only doflriuncy In these aiinuul repurta ; there is nn apecilUatiun of immeiliiitr liahililin iiii'l U,00<), but it was not all paid in ; and it has lieen stated that the capital of the first United States Hank, chartered In 1701 ((110,000,000), probably exceeded tho paid up capital of the thirty-two local banks. Of these, eight- een were in New Kngland, live In New York, two each In Pennsylvania, Maryland, District of (,'olunibia and South Carolina, and one in Delaware, Tlicre are no reliable statements of the amount of circulation or api'cio on record prioi to 180H, but estimates have been published by the Secretary of 4he Treasury, in 1865, which give the circulation at fllO.fiOO.OUO in IHiH), and gradually Increasing to |lt8,mKI,IN)0 in 1807, while tho . 8|iccio in the country y:iKn powers during tlio tbree succeedint; years presented a new accumulution ; and soon after our declaration of war against Ureat Britain, in Dili, the banks throughout the Middle and Southern States, which had for some time been paying specie reluctantly and sparingly, 8us|>ended altogether thtir specie payments." — South Carolina Hank Heforl. In 1811 all the banks in tho Union, with the excep- tion of tli08e in New England, suspended payment, and the confusion and depreciation of their notes assisted tho plan of re-establishing another United Statr^ Kank, which was finally accomplished in 181<>, with a capital of $35,000,000, and a charter of twentj gears' duration. This capital, as in tho former bank, was paid " one- fourth in coin and three-fourths in stock, which the bank might sell at the rate of $2,000,000 per year." Though its affairs were mismanaged, and it sustained some heavy losses iu the first years after its establish- ment, it was afterward conducted with great »kill, pru- dence, and success. It established branches in nearly every State, and bought and sold bills of exchange be- tween all parts of the Union to an immense amount, because the low rates of in premiums and discomits gave lo it almost a monopoly of this branch of busi- ness. While it rendered this and other important serv- ices to commerce, it was the general financial agent of the govevnment through nearly tho whole term of its existence, and transmitted the public revenue to whatever points it was wanted with equal j>romptitudo and certainty, and without charge. Its charter ex- piring in 1H3(), it was then dissolved, after inefTectual attempts in botli houses of Congress, during two terms, to counteract tlic opposition of President Jackson, and to renew its charter. In June, 1832, tho renewal of its charter passed tho Senate by a vote of 28 to 20, and in July following the House of Representatives confirmed the vote by 107 to 86, but tho president vetoed the bill a week afterward. The same corporation afterward obtained a charter from the State of Pennsylvania, but in 18-11 it linally suspended vayracnt, and its shares wore sokl during that year at $17J, and subsequently at $9, the same year. After the fate of the United States Bank was decided, in 1832, the number of local banks was greatly multiplied, and rose from 3o0 banks in 1830, with capitals amounting to $145,000,000, to bi-i banks iu 1838, with $817,000,000 capital. So great an increase, and the consequent distention of tho circu- lation, contributed, with the excessive importations of the four preceding years, especially in 183(!, to tho gen- eral suspension which took place in May, 1837. At this period we commenced tliese remarks, and we will now advert to some of the local diversities in banking ; for which purpose wo will consider tho State banks according to the geographical divisions of the United States, as tiio banks in each of the five divisions have some common features of resemblance. We shall then take up tlie several States wht.re there is a material dif- ference in each division. hew llngland. — Banking in the New England States has, witli the exception of the Southwestern States, been carried on to a greater extent than in any other por- tion of tlie Union. Tho first attempt at banking among the colonies in New England was in the years 1739-40, when the " Lund Hank" was established by about eight hundred suliacribers, who pledged tlicir real estate to tho amount of their respective shares, and, after the choice of ten directors and a treasurer, agreed to issue £150,000 in l)ills, to bo circulated as, lawful money, each XI note being equivalent to three ounces uf sil- ver; but it wns soon after dissolved by act of Parlia- ment, and each holder of tho bills was entitled to a right of action against any individual partner for the amount, with interest. The first legitimate liank iu Boston was instituted in 1781, the second in 1792, the third in 1803, all oi which are now in existence ; there were, however, four otlier baoka in Um State in 1800, one of whlcli wa« the Essex Bank, in Salem, incorpo* rated in 1799. There are no reliable tables of the ag- gregate condition of the banks prior to 1836 ; but from various sources we ascertain that the (bllowing tabular statements of tho number of banks, and the amount of capital at the periods named, are nearly correct, in reference to New England ; Biuki. 180D 4T 1811 «T 181B ea 1820 il2 1830 172 1888 319 18B0 312 18&« 480 C«piUl. $13,368,000 12,207,3(14 1»,0B3,0piUl. ClKuUUon. Bpecit. Maine 82 $8,008,000 $2,262,704 1,770,021 $3!tO,231 13D,12() No IV Iluntpshire 23 2,180,600 VeiTOont 24 1,820,975 2,322,902 120,7(8 Mfu fiacliuactts . 119 34,080,011 16,700,086 2,740,fl7 Connecticut . . . 80 8,928,204 4,611,670 676,060 lihodo Inlana . . 01 11,312,404 2,826,649 291,2; 5 18M. .Muinu Oil *;>,913,870 $6,317,760 $1,132,010 Mew Ilampslilro 36 3,370,000 8,021,679 180,230 Vermont 33 2,014,040 4,704,43!) iss,i7a MAHsachiiHettt . 143 40,060, 17.') 26,020,472 8,731.704 Connecticut . . . B3 13,104,554 10,224,441 1,145,S:>7 Itluwl)> Islnnd . , 77 15.!]17,429 4.8r5,r)2o 2.'')0,000 Of the six States of New p^ngland, Bhodu Island has the greatest amount of bank capital in proportion to its population, but its extensive manufacturing concerns require it all. Vermont has the smallest capital, but its circulation is proportionately the largest, as the pre- ceding tallies exhibit. Prior to tho commencement of tho present century, and for several years afterward, tho prosperous condi- tion of the commerce of New England gave on impe- tus to trade, and a speculative spirit prevailed, and large invesmenis, for those days, were made ir real es- tate and thu construction of turnpikes. Money, in 1808, was in great demand, and at a high rate of interest, but during that and the succeeding year a great revul- sion occurred ; real estate and all other descriptions of • property depreciated, and several banks failed. The Farmers' E.xchange Bunk of Hhodo Island, w itii a cir- culation of $660,000, was among the number, and the entire amount was a total loss to tlie bill-holders, in February, 1809. Tho failuro of this bank caused oth- ers to fall, ond among them, tho Farmers' Hunk of Gloucester, the Coos Bunk in New Hampshire, and others of less note. No shock of public or private cred- it hud taken place, since 1783, wliich so alarmed the people of New England as did these failures. Massachusetts. — After this period the amount of bank capital was diminished about one million of dollars, al- though the number of banks wan, in 1811, tho same as that of 1805, being forty-seven in both of those years. In 1811 the State Bunk, with a capital of three -nillions, was chartered in Boston, and the Merchants' Hank in Salem, both of which were subscribed for by the Join- inant party of tho day ; ond when war was deelnred In 1812, the State Bank subscribed $5(Kl,()00 toward the first war loon of eleven millions, the Merchants' Hunk $20,000, and the Providence Banks $80,000, which wag the entire sum taken by tlic banks of New iMiglaiu; of the first loan. Of the second loan of thirteen miiiinns, in December, 1812, $9,230,000 wos subscribed for l.y tho banks throughout the country', and $3,870,000 i,y lull- vidii.ils ( but the whole amount contributed by No v ]',•.. glunil wao only .?2,311,5(X), of which Boston and S;'lein furnished $2,]"H,100. During the war i-f 1812-1'1, all tho bonks in New Englond maintoinc<' specie pay* ments, wbUo all tbs rest in the Middle, AVosteni, and BAN 129 BAN Soathem Sutei raapendcd payment. The following table exhibits the accumulation of specie in Kassachu- Mtts in 1814 : Vi«tt. B»l>k.. OplKl. CireuUUoo. SpMli. 1805 16 $;>, 460,000 $1,653,824 $»t7,98S 1810 15 6,685,000 2,098,40' 1,347,722 1814 21 11,050,000 2,922,611 6,946,642 1815 25 11,462,000 3,464,241 2,740,611 1820 28 10,600,000 2,614,734 1,280,852 1826 41 14,685,000 6,994,264 1,088,986 1830 68 1»,2»5,009 6,124,090 1,268,444 1885 10ft 80.410,000 9,430,35 1,186,357 As all the banlcs in the other New England 8tat«l were founded on the same basis, it is fairly to bo infer- red that they were all well fortitiod with spuvlu,' but w« can not find any speciflcations of their condition in any authentic shape. We give, however, a coniparatlva view from 1820 to 1837, to show bow rapidly both banks and banking capital were multiplied during tbis brief period of seventeen years: showing an incroaso be- tween 1820 and 1830 of eighty banks and 115,386,076 capital, auJ between 1830-'37, of one hundred and six- ty-three banks and |38,660,828 capital i BUM. 18W. isao. mi. Buki. CnplUl. Baaki. CapiUl. Bula. caritor. Malue 15 10 1 J 9 30 8 $1,654,900 1,006,276 44,965 10,486,700 2,982,026 8,689,887 18 18 10 4pocie, they wero adopting the same rule as the ilank of England, by limiting the aiiidiint of circulation to three times the amount of the capital f'ock. This provision having once found its way Into iiomo of the early char'ers, it was copied into others on tlio ' presumption that it hiid lieen tcetcd by cxpuriclico. In -lOinu of the Stutis ibe only restriction was tliut tho , amount of their loans should not exceed ttutiO Uiuet BAN UQ BAN the tmonnt of their c«piul stock, or that their iasnei diould not exceed that proportion ; but both these rc- strictloqs are merely Lominal, for there is not a bank ill Kew England whose discounts have ever amounted to three times the capital. This error, however, has been remedied Id all the States of New England, first by la^, and secondly by the operation of the Suffolk Bank system, which exercises a constant watchfulness over the Issues of every bank, and not one can venture spon an excessive Issue without Immediate exposure. The laws of Massachusetts, in relation to circulation and loans, ate as perfect as legislation can make them ; they limit the circulation to 25 per cent, beyond the amount of the capital paid In, and Impose upon the stockholders an individual liability to the amount of their stock, for the redemption of the bills of the bank. The loatis are limited to double the amount of the cap- ital paid in, nor can they be extended beyond this amount, however large or permanent the deposits may be. Weekly returns from the banks In Boston, and monthly retiuns from all others in the State, are re- quired to be made to the Secretary of State on the first Monday of the month, showing their true condition, un- der a penalty of $500 for ever}' omission ; and, Anally, three commissioners are appointed, whose duty it is to visit every bank and savings bank ' ' at least once in every two years, and to examine every new bank, and every bank whose capital has been Increased, within a year after they go into operation, or after the stock shall have been paid in respectively." Maine, Ver- mont, and Connecticut have bank commissioners also, and with the aid of the proposed now " Bank of Mutu- al Redemption," should it go iuto operation, the cur- rency of New England will be tlic safest in the Union. There liave been other errors in banking in past times, of which we have not yet token notice. The Legislatures of tlio ditTiriMit .Staies liave not been suffi- ciently curofiil tu discriminate between real and nom- inal capital; and while the stoi'kholdcrs have gone through the form of paying up tlif stock of the banks, it has been too often nothing but form. In some in- stances, stork notes have constituted the chief part of the capital ; gol(* has buen borrowed from other banks for the purpose >f examination on pay day, and then returned to its r)B[htful owners. The stocli notes wore the next day disi o'inted by the new bonk, its bills paid out therefor, an 1 scattered far and wide for the pur- pose of circulation. Being new, curiosity would retain them for a wbilr, until the bank could gather in its de- posits, and these would enable it to redeem that portion of them which would be presented for specie payment. Again, thu banks have been too numerous, though the capital may have been real, and this part of the machinery has lieennot only more expensive, but more easily ilcranged. In consequence of the cxced.iivu com- petition induced by the undue multiplication of l>i>iikt>, ar'jf and schemes have been resorted to for tl.i purpoBe of ultftining a larger share of circulation, thereby en- largini; their profits, the currency greatly distended, and the safety of the banks themselves endangered. In genersl the same capital will be safer, as well as more prollial)!'-, If cona'ntrated in one bank, than if distributed among several smaller ones. When tlie number of banks has been ."sufficiently enlarged to se- cure to the public the benefit of competition, it appears to be as unwise to multiply them any farther as it would be to make any unnecessary addition to the nunil»er of our colleges, churclies, or any othor public institutions. The only innovations which have been attempted upon the banking system of Sew England have (wen in- troduced in Vermont, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, by the passage of frc'c banking laws ; but the experi- ment has signally failcank8 in Maine expire by limitation in 1867 ; those in Uhode I^and are perpetual, and there, oa in Maaiachuif til, stockbolderi are individually liable for the redemption, of the circulation, The failures which have occun«d have been numerous, but they have all originated either from r 'leficlency of the payment of the original capital, or by . alpable mismanagement. It has been truly re- marked by a keen observer, that " the personal charac- ter of the officers and stockholders of banks Is intimately blended with their safety. At the start, good intent tions prevail as a general rule, and the directors pay striot attention to business; gradually, however, the management passes into fewer hands, and somelimea into one only. Trade in money has its peculiar effects upon character, like all other occupations and avoca- tions, from which effect only the most sterling men escape. Malpractice will grow as care and diligence slacken ; so, from neglect or undue anxiety to make money, losses occur. This is the general feature of all barking; much of the safety of banks lies in the unre- mitting attention of directors and stockholders to the affairs of the bank." The truth of these remarks will be admitted by those who were conversant with the circumstances attending the disasters of the following banks in Massachusetts : American, Kilby, Commonwealth, Oriental, Middling Interest, Cochituate, and many others in Boston ; and theNcwburyport, Wobum, Roxbuty, Chelsea, Kahant, Dover, and others in the country. In Maine — Kenne- bec, Castine, Ilallowell and Augusta, Wiscasset and others. In Connecticut — Eastern, Derby, Eagle of New Haven, Commercial Bank of Tolland, Bridgeport Manufacturing Company, and others. In New Hamp- shire — HillsboroandPiscataqua. In Vermont — Wind- sor, Barrington, Agricultural, Green Mountain, etc. In Rhode Island — Bnrrillville, Eagle, Franklin, Mount Hope, etc. We have specified these banks because they are the most prominent and the most recent, and, witli perhaps some few exceptions, owe their downfall to one of the two causes to which wo have alluded, viz., fictitious capital or palpable mismanagement. The art of successful banking is in itself a ecirnce, not ac- quired with facility or mere obscrvotion, but Iiy labo- rious study and application to its practical details and operations ; and when we investigate the origin, foun- dation, and career of the various banks in New England, and the vicissitudes and political changes through which they have passed during the period wliieb we have been considering, it appears raarvelDus that any of the earlier banks should have been conducted in safety through the mysteries and pprplexiti<'.< of cur- rency in its frequent cimtractions and expansions, and of exchange 'n its constant fluctuations, produced by silent operations in distant markets, and imperceptibly, yet Inevitably, influencing the monetary condition of their sphere of operations. And yet, in comparison with the whole numln'r of banks in New Knglaiid, liow few of them have failed ? And to what cause can we mure probably attribute it than to tho excellence of the tt/tlem under which they are constituted— o tpec^ batuY Minnr.E Statics. New Tori. — In the early hii-'ory rf banking in New York, since IHOO, politics and finance were so intermingled that the question of granting a bank cliarter was n matter of direct issue l)etwcen the two political parties of the day; but prior to that pe- riod, in the efitablishmcnt of the first Imnks, this state of partisan excitement did not exist, but in lieu of it there was a Jealousy in regard to the incorporation of moneyed institutions ; and after they were establish- ed, great caution was nfju'red to avoid the perila which their opponents had predicted would inevitably ensue. Fortunately, however, the first bank establish- ed in N«w York was niana^'od with such ability and discretion that it disarmed all opposition, and became F.n important auxiliary to tho government of the I'niied States, by a loan of |ll(K),()00 at five per cent., I thereby securing in its early career great popularity, i 0* the bonk owed no favor to the government, and had - BAIT Ut BAN no interested motivea in loaning the money. Tlie or- ganization of tills banlc (tlie Banic of New Yorit) was, howevar, an association for banlcing purposes, rattier ttian a regular banli. It commenced business in 1784 (Its first application for a charter iiaving been unsuc- cessful) without a charter, and discounted short paper at 6 per cent, per annum, which rate was advanced to 7 per cent, three years aifterward. In 1791 a charter was granted, the act of Incorporation having l)een drawn by General Alexander Hamilton, which was not ma- terially altered before its expiration. Its authorized capital was $1,000,000, but it is now double that amount, and its annual dividends have usually been 8 to 10 per cent, per annum. The next banks incorporated were the Bank of Al- bany in 1792, and the Bank of Columbia, which were chartered without any other opposition than that of the timid portion of the community, who had not for- gotten the disastrous losses by the Continental system of paper money. In 1799 the Manhattan Company was incorporated, with an unlimited charter, and was regarded as a par- tisan triumph ; and from this period all projected mon- eyed institutions in the city of New York were advoca- ted or opposed on political considerations onlj-, and thus finance and politics became blended in the con- test, which continued until the question of the con- struction of the Erie Canal diverted the gladiaturc of zealous politicians to this new area of eti'ife. In 1801 the whole number of bunks in the St«t« was but five, whose authorized capitals were $4,722,000. In I(«)3 the New York State Bank ot Albany was chartered, and in 1805 the Merchants' Bank in New York, having commenced business, however, two years previous to its lieing chartered. Thero were then, ii 1805, but seven banks in New York State, the aggregate of whose capitals was only $5,430,000; but it has now 300 banks, having a capital of $9G,000,0'JO. In 1810 theMechanics'Uank was chartered ; in 1811, the Union, and the Farmers and Mechanics' in Albany ; in 1812, the I'hoinix, the City, and the Bank of America. The projectors of tliis latter bank originally applied for a capital of six millions of dollars, to supply the place of the United States Bank, whoso charter Imd so re- cently expired, and offered for the "barter a bonus to the State of $400,0 '0 unconditionally : $100,000 in ten years, and $100,000 in twenty years, if, at tlie expira- tion of those terms, there should be no additional banking caijital authorized by the Assembly in the city of New York. They further oft'ercd to loan the State one million of dollars, at 5 per cent., for the construction of the Erie Canal, and one million more at li per cent., to be reloanod to farmers and others on landed security. As in the case of the Manhattan Company's appli- cation for n chartei in 1799, all the arts of political in- trigue were brought into requisition, but after a pro- tracted and violent opposition the bill was hrully passed as petitioned for; but a sub'icqucnt Legislature authorized the bank to rvducc its capital to two mill- ions of dollars, and at the same time reduced its bonus to the State to $100,000, as immediately after the char- tor was granted war was declared against Groat Brit- ain, anf" "with it came the long series of commercial disasters and financial troubles, and a general inter- rup'.ioii of our foreign trade." In 1H14 the banks in New York, in conseank an annuol coutribntion of half per cent, of its capital to a common fund, to be deposited with the State Treasurer os a '• bank fund," until it amounted to .1 jier cent, oi the capital of each bank, and was to be applied to the payment of the del'ts of any bank which might become insolvent which bad contributed to the same ; and in case the fund was at any time di- minished by payment therefrom, the banks were again required tr make their annual contributions, till each had in deposit the .1 per cent, on its capital stock. For a series of years this system was regarded with fa\or, but tho sudden failure of 10 Ijanks, with capitals amount- ing to $'2,o5y,000, occasioned uloss of $l,ilH,.')GO fur re- demption of circulation, and 81,010,371; for the payr.icnt of the c.her liabilities of the.«e insolvent banks. At the time /f the failure, the fund amounted to !ji 1 ,87C,073, and the balance was paid by a (i per cent. sto;k au- thorized by the State, tlie redemption of which stock was provided for by the subseijuent contributions of the banks to the fund. Under this same law of 1821), three bank commissioners were appointed, with large jiowers, to supervise and inspect the several banks of the .State. These ollicers were at fint appointed, one by the governor and Senate, one by the city banks, and one by the country banks ; but in 1837 the power of ap- pointing the whole number was transferred to the gov- ernor and Senate, which placed these officers " within the vortex of the great political whirlpool of tho State, and (he place was sought foran sociatiott was authori/.ed to engage in tlie business of banking; and on depositing with the controller tha stocks of the United States, the stocks of tny State which should be oi be mode equn< to a 5 per cent, stock, or such stocks and bonds, and mortgagoe to the same vnount o.i improved, productiv<', and unincum- liered real estate, worth double the amount secured by tho mortgage, ovor and aliove all faaildiiigs thereon, and bearing an interest thereon of 6 pr cent, per an* nuin, tho co.itroUer was required to deliver to such individual o.- asso.'riation an .:qu»l amount af lrofusion. Tliix extraordinary expan- sion produced the usual results, inflation of prices, ex- tension of credits, and wildnei^s of speculation ; and to aid the delusion, the bonds of the M'estern and South- western States were freely supplied. But the crisis came with fearful results ; first in the shape of non- pa) nient of interest, next of great depreciation, and, tlnally, the ropuaiation of the State bonds, and the consequent failures of the banks which owned them. But these disasters did not discourage the people from a persistence in the scheme oi free banking ; on the contrary, the Legislature of 1840 preserved the .-ystem, i)y excluding the stocks of other States, after that date, and re,0(I0 on property valued at $31,o00, exclusive of buildings, wore sold for $3,000 ; State Bank of Now York, Buffalo, $&,00<) lllinnis ti's, sold for $812 50; and so on with tho remaining 27 banks in his report of 1849. To il- lustrate the rapid progress which the banking interest liiiS mad'! within the last twenty years, wc add the fol- lowing table : Ya«n. Banb. L'splUI. ISOO 1S64 1(10 l»s $8T,<0I.MO 48,6m,70'.i 80,IV!0, and of balancei lettled of |GOO,273,82(>. I BAN 188 BAN Feitnti/lvania. — The first bank which was Citahliah- ed in this State was the Banlc of North Amurica, which was chartered by Congress on the Blst December, 1781, with a capital not to exceed ten millions of dollars, and without any limitation of duration. The <;harter was confirmed by the State in April, 1782, and it com- menced Its operations upon a capital, paid !n, of $1400,000, and as the country was deficient in notes of circulation, and its credit stood high, it was enabled to 'xtend its issues vastly beyond its capital. The ex- tenulve circulation of the notes of the bank, occasioned by the disbursements of the government, which was a heavy borrower, emboldened its directors (o oveT«tep the bounds of discretion. The channels of circulation soon became surcharged, and the public, beginning to doubt the ability of the bank to redeem its notes on presentation, they were returned sc rapidly for pay- ment, that it was compelled to cull upon its debtors for payment also. This reduction uf loans occasioned a general pressure for money, bankruptcies, usLi-ious extortions, the disappearance of iipecio, anur liranches ; in March, 1804, Uie Philadelphia Bank, with a capital limited to *,2,0O0,000, of which $1,800,(»00 wire paid in, «.nd limited to 1st of Jlay, 1814, but afterward extended to 1824, with liberty to establish liTanclies, and four of wliich were established ; in ]Marcli, 1809, the farmers' and Slechanics' Bank, with a caoital iif $l,2o0,000, to continue till 'he Ist May, 1824. These were the only incorporated institutions in !811, although there were others in the State, such as the farmers' Bank of Lancaster, with a capital of J300/ 10, egtal)lished in 1810, and several othurs in the citv as well as in the State. The following circu- lation of tile three chartered banks we give : UlOtK ClnuUtloa. 181). Circulktlou. Dank of 1 VnT:sylv*ntn Pliiladclphia IlaiUc y»niier> and MwlianlfJi" Hank $1,426,203 718,8011 804,780 $l,4(KI,8fi6 «M,420 (104,700 In March, 1810, the Legislature enacted a law to prohibit unincorporated associations from issuing notes or pursuing any of the operations of banks ; i)ut in de- fiance of its provision":, tiie system was persevered in, and even oomj- ..ie.s incorjjoruted for the purpose of ciM: itructing bridges depn: ted from the spirit of their charters, converted themselves into banks, and issued notes for circuln'!on. This mania for banking would soon have been cliocked by the return of the notes for payment, had i: >t the war of 1812 intervened, and the cessation of the demand for specie for exportation to India and China removed the usual check at that period against excessive issues of bank paper. The apparent success of the Fanners' Bank of Lancaster, which, from the enormous extent of its issues, was en- abled to divide 12 per cent, per annum, and to ac- commodate its stockholders with loan.i to double the amouul if their ttock; had p powerful influence on the public ndr.d. During the session of 1812''13, a bill was passed by the Legislature, by a majority of one in each bran<:b, to incorporate twenty-flve us\r banks, whose aggregate capitals amounted to $i),6'2a,00O, liut it was vetoed by Governor Snyder, and returned with bit objections, some of which were, that "it would, by readiness to give credit, invite to rtsionary specula- tions, divert men from useful pursuits, damp the ardor of industrious enterprise, and consequently demoralize the community." In March, >814, the subject was renewed, and a bill wa^ pissed incorporating forty- one banks, with capitals amounting to upward of 117,000,000, of which only one-fifth part was -.-equired to be paid In. Although the bill passed both houses by large m^orities, Governor Snyder returned this bill also, witli his objections, but two-thirds of Iwth houses voted for its paasat;e notwithstanding; it be- came a law, and thirty-seven banks went into opera- tion under its sanction. The immediate commencement of a number of these banks, whoso bona fide capital was little more than the flnt installment required, increased the amount of cir- culation, already too redundant, and the depreciation of tlie currency grew worse and worse, and all confi- dence in its convertibility was lost. The new banks discounted stock-notes to meet t\\o ri-maining installments, and hence only one-fifth part of their capitals was ever paid in, as before stated. In our remarks upon the New York banks, we have conmicnted upon the move- ments and operations of the United States Bank in 1817 and 1818, and their influence was, of course, more severely felt in the central point of its negotiations, Philadelphia. And here it would be most appropriate *o glance at the rise, progress, and final doom of the second United States Bank ; but so much has been written on the subject, and its historj- is so familiar to our readers, that we shall add no further remarks to those which have already been made in a previous portion of this review. In 1819, 15 of the 37 banks chartered in 1814 failed, and in duo time were officially announced as " dissolved, unlawful, and unincorporated," and there were at the same time 22 banks more in the State transacting bus- iness without charters. In 1820 there were 38 banks in existence, With capitals amounting to |14,G81,780, and an iudelinito number of "freebooters." ' It is an unpleasant tusk to run over the next decade of years, from 1820 to 1830, for there is nothing clieering in the review ; througliout almost this entire period there was a rapid succession of untoward event,', leading to embarrassments, insolvency, litigation, dishonesty, and mui'c lagrant crimes. It is a continuous history of bankruptcy ihroughout a large portion of the coun- try, and of frauds upon the community witliout any previous parallel. Banks were bribed to fail, that the stockholdcrr, might pay .lieir indebtedness in '.he cur- rency of the same uank, after it had reached its mini- mum point of depreciation, commonly 60 per cent. "Mjney mills" wore established in New York, Phila- ..elphia, and other places, which were based on the system of the celebrated Malepar, the keeper of an oyster cellar in New York, who had the adndtness to swindle the community out of $500,000 by his notes of circidatiou, and whose motio was, " Maiie money, ^on- estly if we can, but rascally if we must.'' In 1822 there was a prejsiiig scarcity of money ; in 1825 and 1820, coiivulsions and bankniptcies among the banks; in 18'?7and 1828 among the banks and the manufacturers iVjm New England to Georgia ; but in 1829 and 1830 tue gloom which had settled so long upon the country was dispelled, and a brighter prospect was unfolded. For the first ti.me for eight years, the natural course of trade liad brought a balance in specie of eight millions and a haifof dollars into the country, and to Pennsylva- nia there is due a Urge share of this fortunate result, by her effective act for the suppression of the circulation of small notorde;'s uf the Stale. Here was an illustration of the principles which have been always iiiaintaiucd by the ablest financiers of our country, •' that we must widen the basis of our metallic currency by aholLvhing the use of small notes, so as to allow coin to take the placs of them, as it inevitably would." Another cause of this influx of gold in li>30, and its BAN teiuporaiy retention in this country, was the partial oesMtioii of thu exportation of specie to India and China, occasiimed by tlio substitution of bills of «x- change, and letlora of credit on London for the imports from those countries. On a review of tlio tabular statements of the capitals of the banks in Pennsylva- nia, there does not appear, with Jie cxcr.ption of IdiV, when the 41 banits were chartered, anjTiixtraordinary aui;mentation of banking capital. Vwn. a.„iu^ Capital. ISOI * $A,(N)(),INIO 1S06 a T.OOO.OlW 1811 4 6,IS3,00O )81B 4'i IS,06S,H00 18!0 3« 14,681,780 1S38 26 2a,T6(),ll33 ■ 1W5 M 18,164,600 1K50 M 1S,9«0,1160 IsSfl 6T 21,«81,4«4 BAN and four others In 1814, one in 1816, and one in 1816, the agi^rcgate capital of all of which was $18,800,000, of which only |l8,506,5!)d were paid in. The annexed tebular statement, derived f^om the Treasurer's reports and estimates, will exli!l>it the amount of banking capital in the State for the last Hfty years, and presents a striking contrast to the banking mania of other Atlantic cities. The progress of bank capital In Maryland ha^ been less than in other Slates, viz, : During the four years of 1832-1838, the specie im- f irts exceeded the e.xporls more than thirty-six mill- ions of dollars, owing to a combination of favorablo causes, viz., high prices for cotton, an increase of English credits, foreign indemnities paid in gold, in- creased production of our Southern gold mines and the tilver mines of Mexico, loans effected in Europe by thu United States Hank, and various oilier operations in cks and bond.id was an increase of i.anks, and the cstabliabment uf new ones. Tliu number t>f banks in tlic country was estiniuted in 1830 at ii'J!), with 110 millions of capital. In 1837 there were 78^^, including Yun. Banlu. Capllil. Vmn. I BmU. t'apilii. 1708 !|«()U,WIO 1SB6 21 »S,2fl:l,B7B 1801 1,600.000 1887 2» 10,438.665 1605 6,800,000 1S40 23 10,6'.>0,404 1811 4,8: 6,:(yi 1845 22 8,661,332 1815 IT 7,882,004 1850 28 8,704,711 1S20 14 0,708,180 ISfit 80 11,180,821 isno 13 «,V!)«,4i)5 Some of the banks fipecilied in the preceding schedule failed in 1834, such as the BKiik uf Maryland, Tarmera' liank of Maryland, Elkton lUnk, Havre du Grace Dank, Susquehanna Bridge and Banking Company, and various others; but the loss of their lapitals was supplied by the enlargement of others, and is scarcely perceptible in the above returns. As .in illustration of the vicissitudes of some of these banks, v, e select at random tho history of the Franklin I>ank, of lialtimore, chartered in 1810, with a capital of |B00,000, for Hvo years, and of which ^416,(100 only were paid in. In 1815 the charter was extended twenty yeors, and in 1821 ten years more, but a tax for the benrlit of tho school fund was imposed, of twenty cents on every hundred dollnrs of its stock. In 18B4 the charter was branches, and a capital of 290 niillinns. In 183fi the Dank of Eiiglond required payment i extended from 1845 to 1857, and in 183,') the l>ank was from tho "American houses" in Undon,whicli was re- j authorized to double its stock, making its capital soundedthroughoutourconmiercialcities, and shortly I ]Ji, 200,000; l)ut in 1840 it was discovered that its after Congress passed " tho surplus revenue" bill, and , laaliicr had committed large frauds on the bank, and the bank credits, whicli represented the surplus rev enue, were transferred fron\ place to place w itl;out any regard to tho laws uf trade. Thcconiijination of these circumstances was too nuicK for the banks, and thoy all simultaneously stopped specie payments in Slay, it was compelled to stop payment in 1841. After an examination of its affairs, tho Legislature authorized a reduction of its capital to $iiOI,595, and in 1853 it was increased again to 1600,000. The adoption of tho new Constitution in 1861 imposed upon stockholders 1837, us well as threu of the leadUig Aineri^an banking I in new banks, or in those whoso charters might lie re- houses in London. Tho depreciation of ^ank-notcs , lanved, per.sonal liability for tho debts oc liabilities of throughout the ci .ntry varied from 12 to 25 per cent. [ such banki. to the extent of the stock held Iiv them The banks at the eastward odopted all needful nieas. respectively. In 1852 the circulation of notes under nres to secure a speedy resumptit -x of payments, but , flve dollars was prohibited by law. under similar penal- in the west and south an oppos'te policy was adopted, and new banks were created. During the reeiduo of 1837 and 1838, the excess of ij.cciu imports over ex- ports was eighteen millions v' dollars, of which a part was sent by the liank of Euginnd to enable the Ameri- can banks to resume. In May, '■'3li, the lianks in Nfw York and Nov, Ei.^^and resumed, and continued to pay specie. In August following, the banks of Phil- adelphia [. .cfesaed to pay specie; and in January, 1839, there was a mnai'n'i/ tesumption throughout the United States. In Octi.ber, 1839, the Philadelphia ties to thofe in various other S ates, and we believe has had a favorablo influvince in creating a larger cir- culaliun of coin. The bunks of Maryland all suspended specie pay- ments in 1814 and 1837, in common with all the others in the Middle, Western, and Southern States; and it would be 8u)>erfluoug to recapitulate thu circumstances attending these events, as they have already lieen de- scribed in the preceding pages. The same causes oc- casioned and the same results followed in both periods. It will be recollected that in 1814 the New England banks suspended a /Kiconrf time; resumed in January, : banks did not suspend payment, and this produced 1841 ; suspended a third time 4th Februarj- fyllotvinc, great jealousy and acerbity of feeling, especiallv In and permoncrtly resumed in Map-h, 1842. ! Boltimoro. In A'iVm' Hrguter, in 1814, wo find' tho ilan)land.--'X\\a Qrst bank establishtl in this State was the Bank of Maryland, which wa« incorporated :n following remarhs : " If money («pccie) be the evidence cf commercial prosperity, Massuohusetts was never half 1790, with a capital of $300,000. Next in the order of so well off as now'. Some years ago, when the trade ^ auocession was the Bank of Saltimorc, incorporated in of the l!nitfd States naturally TOUght the places whero ^* 1796, with a capital of $1,200,000, of which 11,122,000 I Ut commodities were to be had, one of the Jialiinutre were paid in. In 1803 the Farmer^'Bank ..f Moryland, j banks had more specie than all the bonks in Msssa- *sith two branches, was chartered, with a capital of > chusetta combim-d; nay, probably more than there H,000,000, of which $712,746 wore paid in. Next, | wa, hi tho whole State, whether in possession of tha {' hanks or of individuain ; and so it will bavo agpin, : whon a regular and honest commerce shall si'ccied the I Hritiih war and tMiem tmMi/glinp." Instead of the " commercial prosperity of Mussachnsetts" being ile- rived from " Eastern sn:ugKling," the true cause n.sy : be found in the followin;; abstract fnim the report jf a committee of the .Seiintn of Pintisylvanla in 1819 : "The laws of the Nt-w En.'land States hud lieen so i r^oruus on the subjtot of baika, which w i wh«eher that i» not mora than counterbalanced to th« Wont of their notes, that ni> lUprecuilvm iif their cur- people of tho State by the lo8« they sustain in the ilin- rency took place. The consequence thereof was, that \ count upon notes passing through their hands. At the dift'erciice Iwtween the New England prices of the prolits to the owners depend entirely upon tno du- -coinmuditics, stocks and foreign l)ills of exchange, and preciation and the circulation of their notes, it be- those of t'cnnsylvania, was equii' to the extent of tho i comes desirable that the banks should Im ostensibly depreciation of th.j currency of the latter, and as our bank-notes were nt that time redeemable on demand, the most profitable remittance which could )» mado to New England In exchange for her commodities was ■pecie ; ond this demand created a run upon the banks -whicli they were not able to withstand. The situa- tlon of the Southern and Western jjunks was precisely located ii. places diXiciilt of access, so that no one will ))« dlsfiasud to apply at their counters (if perchance they should have otllces) fur the specie or its ecpiiva- Innt ; and tho more distant and out of the way, the greater tho discount they will be>.r, and the greater tho accruing profit. And to extend their circulation, nothing is easier than to uilopt the naiuo und general (imilur to that of our own ; all had overissued, and a ! iippearancc of some w ell-known liuiik, in good credit, general depreciation had ensued. The same causes | keeping tho place of issue as much in tho l>ackgrounci produced the same eft'ects, and a general stoppage of : as iwssilile. For example, locating a 'Delaware and payments of all the bunks in tho United States, except i Hudson Dank' amidst the sands and pines of Ocean those of New England, took place in Augusc and Sep- { County, making tho title very prominent, but having temlwr, 1814. The New England demand, it is true, i\\a place quite the reverse, so that tho inexperienced was Increased l)y two causes, viz. : (Irst, by facilities : are readily induced to receive the notes." These banks In fbreign trade through neutral vessels, which were ! are entitled to three days' gmce upon any application afforded them by an exemption from the Idockade of | fur redemption, and of course they have ample time tho enemy ; and, secondly, by a, well-grounded appro- j to procure tlio specie from Wall Street whenever they hension that the .'^uthern l>anks, from their extensive | are pressed. In 1853 there were 'i\ regular banks emissions, M'ould necessarily I)ecomoeml)arrns8ed. Ccr- , in Now Jersey, tho aggregate of wlioso ca|iitiil» was tain it is. however, that all these causes comliincd could I $1,080,816 — whoso charters expired in from one to tiot have produced a general suspension of payment | twenty-one years. Besides these, there wore four- liad our banks obtemeil the same caution ill their iaiues as \ tQen "free l)anks," tho aggregate of whose capitals that which characterized the banls of the Eastern States. Again, in Silts' Register of 18'21, wo find tho follow- ing remarks: "That country whoso money currency Is kept at the highest rate n/rahic will have tho great- est advantage in trade with other coimtries. The hand of labor is not injured by money being scarce | no interest of the country is injured, but the specula- was $l,02ti,!)fiC, and circulation ji72'2,895. In hi^ mes- sage of 185'2, tJovernor Fort recommendeil tlie pro- hibitioo of the issue of any notes under five dollars ; after two )'ears, all imder ten dollars, and in a few years all utuler twenty dollars, und then proceeds: " I am satisfied, however, that fifty dollars, us the minimum tlenomination of bank paiier, should be our tor and monopolizer. It is truo that the scarcity of ' ultimate aim. If we excommunicate all small notes, money checks im|iorts, but it encourages exports ; it j whether of our own or other States, specie munt nete?- is not so important i:i what tho money consists, as sarily flow in to supply their places. The smullness that it should lie at as high a rate of value us that of ' of our territory presents no serious objection ; tho con- Other countries." [ stunt trade with the large cities on our borders would Neir Jersey. — There arc two other States in our 8ut>- i supply us with an abundance of the precious metals, division of "Middle States" — New Jersey and Deitt- j which no advcrie policy of neighboriug States could ware — which claim our attention next. in New Jersey was as follows : The increase V«AK Buika L'uplUl. ISDS 1811 18l!> ISil) 'i 3 11 U $1,000,00(1 7S!),740 2,l'il,9BS •2,130,1149 possibly prevent. The Stale which soonest adapts the use iif coin, by tho e^pulsivn of paper in tho smaller business transactions, iriil diitsti-lp all others in the per- manent proaptrily of every other branch of useful iniliu- try. Bank oxidosioiis and individual bmikniptciej t would then lie flf, rare as ti.ey are now frequent." j Ho further adds, " tho persistent evasion of the law From and after this period banks occasionally fail- i Ijy some of the free bunks calls for prompt and efH. *d, and new ones created to take their places, and talw ; cient action on the part of the Legislature. They arc ulur statements would not exhibit the annual rise and of no aili aiitage to the business community, ami add fall of the moneyed institutions. In our ordinary ■ nothintr to our reputation us a State. I would rccom- " Bank-note Reporters" there may he found the names mend tliat an inquiry be Instituted in regard to tiiese of olmut tliirty of ttiese bunks, against three of which ' banks, to tho end that such as do not conJ>il«l. 1S41 ■26 $3,S34,818 IMIl 25 ;>, 497,001 l«fiO S4 8,:i,S15 ISM 14 Free l,0«0,!)'ifi 18B6 "« e,B2«.n(ifl Ve.r». BmVi. r>piul. 1815 & $99S,9tlO 18'20 6 074.1M)0 IWT 8 818,020 1849 9 '210,000 ISfiO 4, with 3 brandies 940.000 IWkl 0, Willi 3 hrsnches BSO.OOO 18M R, with a hranchoi 1,OBO,OOU UAV 186 BAN % Bankini; ii doiM In thl« MnIm mi « ;iM>«t( tiuli, and . Mt l><-ltevo Hut Ihti urily Mlunn trliicfi l)«t«i «Tcr nc- j eurred In it w«r« tlui lUiik uT M>l(Wil, In l*i(V(, iinil th« b«urol Hank. In Nxw RH^Unil, •* wk hat'* (irgvl- ' ouiily ttHt«t, iboreiirK fNfllMiMk*, tfitliiafittaliiattHnint- ' tng to ^in.Mff.ft'W, urwtikb I7U Utnhn unA $(a,m,000 ■re In Miutailiuwtta, Wkhtkiin Htatki, O/ih.'-Vw flnt iMinti rliarlered In Ohio WM in IHO!), i-all<.')i (Imi Miattii y.npiirHnn Com- puny, with a iiapital <>( tVHI.im, ll wan (H>t a rrgular bank, but " ilt main )i4irjwM< mnn la fa<'lllta<« trade, then lutTcrlnj; unikr Krual lUnirt'imUm," 'J1i« Hank of Marietta wut chartcri^d in |MW, mm?utli«, th<; fiirnwrnUUtUllltllllO, Die lat- ter witli i)luo,iK)0< a|)ilat, Olhxr iM«litt)ll(rtM were loon after incorporaieii, ami lb« tnWuwUiu Ma(imi«nl ifaowa the progress uf baukiiiK iu (Iw HtalAi Vt«n. ti*Bk». o^-. VMM, I0,£»7.MI 1806 I Mou.ww 1811 t »b'l»,')UU i*4U «) 1815 11 1,««4,TI9 IMA « (,ui,8M),«0 IS86 •a S.tllV^MM Of the bank) chartarad in llilx Htai«, If) tiara ^en closed under varlou* t'lr('ilin«la»»^«(»(i 7f> per cent, discount, and aliout m^ uf ihvm liaffi falM, and their billt are reiJorlcd .i» vnirttiUiM, 1 •»« brandies ankinif waa intrudiieoit IntM (b« Mtale, known as I the "safety fund iiyst«m,"«u4 Mwlof tlw name act, an ; "independent bank nysum," Tlw ffrtwef was based ' upon the New York nyiamn, Iml It »«» mora perfect •, j it created a Mtate bank, Mitiiltvi/teil liitt; alxnjt forty ' brunches, under tli« »u|i«rv|ai«(ti i)f h UmrA of ('ontnil, ' who furnish all the ituUm ri'<|Mir«() fur rlrciilndrrri ; and to this board each bran< li ii nauirni to rontrKiute 10 ' per cent, of the amount r»|uir«'! (tir (lirrulallftn, either | in stocks of Hie State or iifUm I'tiUnt Matfs, or the ! amount in numay j to tw ap|ilt<«) by i)i« Imard, In case ' of need, to the r«deni|;tiuti «f Itw mU» of tireulatlon j of any one of the l>raiicli«» which may fall to radeem ^ its bills; and each braiwh U rmfuiriid io contrlt/uta in ' the ratio of the circubtiou Ui which H is imtllled, to the sum necessary for tlw rnMinctNt«d (rmn the Ksfety [ fiind an soon a« the «al« of tito atocks in (be hands of | the board of «ontEol c»b im tlflift!»|>it«| |« IH,f each l^ranch to rcceivt the notes of tlnr i>, U, protect lb« clrc«la;lof! In the ■ event of the (aiiiire of any Uiix or tw^fe brancIlM ; the constant su^'ervlsiou ofttm KmfA id (Antral over all ' th«>r Aiovvmeiitjj, and th« ^—lUmii «lf(1tance of .each other »■> protect thainsalvus from loss t;y the inlsman> I agenient of others. •• II ib#»«' furninh /• XKarantee of ! the circutalimi lu iwrfurt a* fun lie ^lA^^lred ; <|uarterly | statements are r«<)uire<) from ^ni\i bank, which are ; rsgularly pubiishati by lh« \Hi\\Uit of .%«te, and tiie ' cominanlty si Ur(;<.' tisvn tlwi'ab) a fMll kmrwiedge of their inie condliufii «i d>>lrabl« (niArvals. I'nder the old syatttin, Utnk cowiuiaakwafa ifw* appointed t« tn- \ amine the banks periodically, liut the Hoard of Control nuw perform those duties. Tlia inde|iendvnt banks are twelve in number, having a capital of (5NT,&00, one of them having become insolvent, and two others are li<|uidating their concents. These banks are re- quired to depusit with the State Treasurer certilicate* of stocks, cither of the State of Ohio or uf the I'liited States, for tlui entire amount of their circulation, wliich can not exceed three tinuis the amount of their capital. These banks arc unuually examined b}' a commission- er appointed liy the auditor, and quarterly returns of 'heir condition must be furnished to him, und ar.t p.jb- 1 . lied with those of the .State Dank brunches. The lianks are all rc(iuired to have 80 |ier cent, of the amount of their circulation always on hand, in gold or silver coin, or its equivalent in value, one-half at least being in gold or silver; "but deposits in any bank or banker's hands of ostalilisked credit in the cities of New York, Itoston, rhilailelphlu, or Uultimnre, subject to drufls ut siglit, and payalile in specie, sliall be deemed eq\dvnleiit to gold and sliver." Of the banks chartered prior to 1(145, but one remains iu ex- istence, the Ohio Life Insurance and Trust t'ompony, whose operations are managed in two departments : the "Trust Ucpartmeui," and the " Bankiii^r i)o|>art- ment." Its capital is two millions of dollars, and It was chartered in 181W, and ut one time its cinulatlun waa nearly one million of dollars; but iu 1X42 tin bank surrendered the right to issue notes, und its circula- tion has oil been redeemed, excepting t4.1&0, wliich have never licen presented for payment, und a large portion of whicii probul)Iy never will bo; ne, for the past seven years, lung iiiliTvals (in one instance, near- ly eighteen months; iiuve elupscd without the presenta- tion of a single liill, und that for only live unk plates iiu\iiig been stolen, an alarm was raised, an I the miles of these lianks were suddenly presented tor reditinption. A few months after the pussage ol t'u free bunk law, the new Constitution of Ohio waa siibniitliHi to the pele for tb, au- lio an, and with ton branches, aubaequently increased tu (!)i len in num- ber. By the original charter, f I u, 00 wero as- (igned to each triu 'i, but they wore subsequontly authorized to increone the amount to ^250,000 each. The branches wore mutually liable for the debts of each other, liut divided their own prolits ; each aliare was sulijcct to a tax of I'H < unts for educotioual pur- poses, ill liuu of all other taxes ; but in case of an aii rulurem system of taxation in the State, then tlie stnclc was li:kble the same as other capital, not exceeding, however, 1 jier cent, altogether. No note under Jive dolTurs was allowed tj be isrued, and the I.P){islature reserved the rl({ht to restrict it to ten dollurs within tell years. The ciipitul of any branch might be in- craased by and with the assent and concurrence of f'e Ltgislaturo and the directors of the State Bank. 'I 'ic directors of the p, it bank were to hav charge of the plates liank paper of the branches, and were empowered i 'eliver tu them an amount of such paper notexcevili ' vice the amount of the stock subscribed for. One half of the stock was subscribed for and onmd l>y the State, for which they authorized bonds to bo issued to the amount j{ $1,31)0,000, at 6 per cent,, to ri':.1::ar were tlioso nf tlie State Bank of Indiana, which did not again resume the payment of specie until Octo- ber, 1841, when the branches held $1,127,618 in spe- cie, to meet a circulation of $2,960,414, and deposits amounting to $317,890 only. Since that period the bank has maintained its credit inviolate, and under able management successfully efTecUHl a regular ro- duction of its suspended debt, whi'cli had rapidly ac cumulated during the indation of business in farmer years, without ruinous sacrifices to the debtors of the bank. If we scrutinize the origin of this baak, we perceive at once that it was founded on false principles, and that tlie issue of the State liunds for $1,300,000, to provide for the payment of $800,000 of stocks, was a viuliitioii of the tirst article of the Constitution nf tha United States, which proliibits any State (him i». suing "liiils of credit." "No State con coin money — no State (,not even Congress itself) can inuke any tl'iiig a tender but gold and silver — no State can emit liills of credit." In direct opposition to these views, Indiana issued her bonds to procure bcr quota of stock, and for upward of twenty years has been participating in thu profits of the institution. In November, 1851, a new Constitution went into o|)eration, ami :" 5I?,y, 1852, a general banking luw was passed under its pro- visions; it is called "An act to authorize (mhI regu- late the business of banking," It was liberal onougli in its details to suit all parties, and ninety-four bunk.-. were in a brief puriaf dolhtrs, and *• the wcurllles do|i pnr cent. Iionds, wortli only abou . 'jr> per cent,, the law presented strong templotiuns tu l>ank u|ierat.iaiiwhilQ, what would bn the discount m the billAif his Imnk if dri vvu into li<(uldatloii ? I'ast experience bus taught us titat the cuiniiiunity would sutt'er a loss of luunlj/'jli'ii ptr nenl , nflh'ir nmiuni, and we niuintiii I that that Is nut kiKltlniutft banking which cx[ioii' ^ . comniunity lu such a contlngont hazard." Suili wuH *lir predieliiin \n iHfil ; what wis the result? Of the Ui iice banks of Indlitiia, !>\ have nuiprnikd, and their mils are selling at frum 2'< to 75 |M'r cent, discount in tlic city uf Cincinnati. The cliarler irf the Statu liuuk uf IndLtiia expires this year, but the I.«g- islature, at their lust session, chartered a new .Stnte Uuuk, w<))' a capital "f $ii,00<»,O0ii, tiaviiig 15 tu 20 branchet . - ' ':; eocli specified district — the new bunk purchuslci- .0 interest uf thu Statu in tlii! old liank, and the c.:,ii. '?' to be paid in liy the Isl nf January, 1867. tUinuU -Bank legislation In Illinois has lircn quite as extruurdiuury o" in any uther .Stns, ' , • "niun. This .State whs ailinittt'il into tho I'nimi in l)('cemlior, 1818, but the first liank won i'>ttabllshr-d wliilo it was under territorial guveniment, in 181.1, at Nhawneetuwn, the whole territury tbeii cuntnining liiit lijOl) iiitiub- ilants. I:i 181G it was regularly iii''(n^>rutcd, and, aided by ■ lo ;;ovnnimvnt dc|iusits, it flirqiilr«il extens- ive credit, nuying s|iecie for its liills until August, 1821, after ilio Kentucky banks had stis|«iidcd; It wuii at leii, :! coMi|ieilcd to slop, and rcmubii'd dor- mant until I'cliruury, WV>, wliMi the Legislature re- newed its iliarter until 1st .ianiiury, 1857. In tho fed- lowing muiiib its capitiil, originally $)IOO,000, was in- creased to SI, 400,000, aii'l siibscrllK'd for liy the Stnte ; and their lioii N. puyalil" In 18(11 wer« Issued to pro- vide the funi: . ^flatiire received their pay In the depreciated currency at the marliet value, and on one occasion received (!) per iluy for their aarvicea, which the State was conipelluil lo redeem at par; and a loan of 9100,000 recplvcd In thaw notaa at par waa paid out at fifty cantt on the dollar. In February, 1836, a new bank waa Incorporated, with a capital of «1,6UO,000, with the lilieity to In- creaae it to $2,600,000— the State taking (10U,0aUuf the •tock; but In March increased the capiul $2,000,000; tba whole of which the State subucribed for. The bonk waj« allowed Jiftg for the redemption of ita bills, and wna required to redeem tho 910U,(XIO loan alwve referred to. The career of thbi uank was brief; It was shortly compelled to suspend payment, and in laii flnds of all States payinff 6 (ivr cent, biterest, llnited States stocks and Illinois bonds at 80 per cent, were received by the auditor in ex- change for thu notes of circulation, and Ihc l>ank com- menced operations. Theamount uf bank-notes is limit- ed to the amount of tho bonds in the hands oftlie aud- itor; but the denominations are optional, eo that the lekole circiilaiiun may bo in one dollar uulti if tlic par- ties cIio»«e to require them ; >"\t in case of failure to roduem them, thty are subjef ; ta'.i) per cent, diimagcs per anmiin, ten days haTim.;' ilfti-id after spcclo is dcmandc•, IbRO ticcomes for- feited. Tlic stockholdti ,■ 'i iiHlividually liable for all the debts ond liaLibi •■ ' .' ih-^ liuik, and provision israndofor the oUectionof '.i.i •, '>;e, ifwcnsion should require, llie act does not liirii. 'Seumountof capital, excepting that it shall not be les.* than t»0,000for each bank, nor the length of time, but leaves both optional with the applicants, who may designate any numlicr of millions for any number of yearn, UHlimiltd anlt«d fbr tiM ^ii'^VmioU dfc culatlun. luiea — low* waa adnilllad Into ltl> {'tit' i< In IMt, bm at prtaani this Htala Is dmtllnia i.i' inv inrorpora. led banks. 'Iliara I* a privata bank, rallaii tha Bllnera* Dank, at Dubuqua, liut Its bills ara not current, nor even salable In Clni'lnnatl, WuriMfhi was Hdniillxd Into tha t'nion In 1848. Tlia first bank was ratiifiliiihAd In Mllwsukle, in 1861, with a capital of t'fth.mi, In \Hf,-l tha lyco bunking law was alr par value, but not exceeding ono-balf of tha cost of tha road on which they are • lien, nor for more lliaii ona-half the amount of tha cir> culating notes diiliverrd, A tax of I) percent, wat iiii|Hised, and llin |i<-rs(miil llalilllly of tha stM'kl' iders, to the Binuunl of liioir stuck, v-» — "■ "ImU,' ~T;«»H.r. ciniUllM. " .iMiiwrir, IsAI, ,, 10 *IM,inm *(>IU,(lU Inly, IWM IK l.'i/io.nw Tsn.iiis .iHniisrx, INMt, ,,,,,,, Tl l.tno.isK) nio.noo ./■iiiisrr, IKM m l,(>*!I.MIO t.lAfl.KU .Iiilv. 1 \tm. ~BftBk« and BraaehM.'^ CjpluL rKlininry, 1S18 43 «ii,i»T.7ir. Janiisrv, 1g4t 1, 000,01 •> Janimnr, ISO) Lleceinbcr, 1*W 44((,7i"0 719,100 UocrnilxT, 1*14 SO^.tbO DMenibcr, 1S40 8IB,«»T Decemlwr, 1N44 n«.lST Januu-^-, 1848 189.4BO January, 1849 UT,«fiO Jsnimry, ISBO E 89t,SSO January, 18R4 •1 1,064,110 January, 18M 6 1,100,060 The only banks which are now In existence In the Stat3 are tha Michigan Insurance Company, the Penin- sular Bonk, and Fanner,i' and Mechanics' Rank, all of Detroit ; the Bank of Macomb County, and Hunk of Tecumseh in the Interior. "Free bank laws" were adapted by this State in 1849, and personal lial>illty is aiao imimsvd u[ii>TliriiN Hr.tTKs, Krnliidy This State was ad- mitted Into the I'nlon In .lime, 1 ,'|I2, ami tlie Arst bunk was established In Wfl, witli a capital of i|<16fi,(iOO, in I.«xington, under tlie covert name of an iiuurwtrr cum- imni) which was aulliorlx«d lo issue notes, payable to liearer. In IH04 a rcgulnr bniik was Incorpornird, under tho name of "'I In- llNiik of Ki^ntuiky," wilh a capital oftli'MK^IKN), This bank rusiiendcd payment in 1814, but resumed It In IHIfi; In 1817 forty new Imnks were incorporated, with capilnls ninountlng lo (ilO,(MM),000, and hud perinlMluM to redeem their notes witli iliv bills of Kentucky lianks. Instead of s|ieclo. In 1818 tho State was inundali'd wllh the paper of these banks; large loans wi-ro innde, sfiecnlutlim wns rife, alid most of the bubbles which were sot afloat collnpsed within OHM brief year. The pressuro beciimo uiilverKul, and for "relief" lh« l.egl>lnhire chartered a new Imnk, "The Commoiiweallh," wllh a capital of three mill, ions, pledging the public fnith f(;r the rcdcniption of its circulation; and a» aectirlly held certain lands, fouth of Tennessee Itlvcr, as a guarnnty. If a creditor refused lo receive this paper In payment, the debtor was aulborir.ed lo "replevy Ihe debt for the space of two years." The p«|i«rof liic new bank fill fiO per fc. t., and cn-dllors had the choice of the puynient of one-half the atnminl of Ihrlr clnlms, or a delay of two years in tli« selllciiietil, wll'i alS Ihe hazard of'ulllmate bankru|itcy, and • tre- veuted Iho Htook of the new bank (Vom tieing taken up. The trading voniinuuity wu In i dcapurato condition, yet thov stoKKered on undur their opprciaive loud of debt*; >:iit liy the Uberal acrumniodutioni and inclnl- gencet of tliu liaiika, thoy were partially roliovod, uuiil 1H4.1, when tho preanure (('"■lually diminlithed, uiil ■hortly ufterward it ceased oltoKelher, In 18-1'.: the tbreo buiikii rnaunied specie payments, nnd from a cir- culation of <>2,H()0,000 in 1H42, gradually extended Iheir issuiss until IHAO, whan they amounted to t(i,UMll,000. The .Soullirrn Hank of Kentucky had its charter amend- ed, and In IHbi went Into operation with a capital of tl,3iM),IKlU. Since llien charters have been grunted to tlie Farmers' Hank, with •2,nOU,(NM) capital; the Com- mercial Hank, wltli $4UO,0()O; the Kentucky Trust Company, with an HN/iniiVct/ capital ; and the New|x>rt Safety Fund Hank, with 93(M),0(H) capitul. Both of these institutions fulled in 18M, ami their notes are now selling at fiO per cent, discount; and the small notes of lliu latter bank ut DO |ier cent. With the ex- .ceptiun of the charters of these two lust bunks, tho legislution of Kentucky Iius lieen of a, tlxcd character, and hiir circulation has ever liecn eKiccmcd in the Wcat«rn States us of the highest character. There are now 31 bunks and lirunchos in the State, the ag- gregate of whose capitals Is $11,7:UI,IUHI. and circu- lation uliiiiit $13,.S()0n,()(M). In tho scKsion of 1864, it was pri>poH(>d to charter six new banks, with capitals anixunting to $(1,100,000; but the governor having vetoed one of the Idils of Incorporation, tho bills all failed to puss, and there for' tho present tho matter rests. Trnnetsi - . — In 1807 tho Nnshvllle Dnnk wos Incor- porated, Kith » capital of t. 1)0,000, afterward in- creasjMl to 400,000 each, and wero permitted tu lieciiinc branches of the Hank of Tennessee. In 181!) the Farmers' and Mechanics' Hank of Nashville was chartered, with a capital of iJ400,000, but within a year It was insolvent. In 18'20 tho .State Bunk of Tennessee was established, with a capital of ♦1,0(10,000, on tho Ijusis of funds belonging to the Slate. This bank loaned money to Individuals, In sums of $500 tu anch, on twelve months' credit, secured l)y a mortgage. The bunk was nol rer/iiircH to hnre any tpecie, but was authorized to sell lt',>!iO,000 |)or cent. State stocks as its working rnpital. The proceeds of the Iliawusso lands, and suiim other securities, were pledged for tho redemption of the circulation, and although its paper was rejected l)y two of the oldest bunks in the State, •nd was 10 per cent. Iielow pur, yet the bunk strug- gled on, and after six years it uttaincd nn avallalile capitul of i57.')|tXK) out of tho procei, 3 of tho pledged lands, Tlu; liank was limilly wound up In I8it2, with oonslderulde loss to the Stute. Tho Union Hank was Incorporut.'d In 1882, with a capital of *«,0luess, and failed in conse- quence. In 1838 tho RanK (>f Tennessee was incor- porated, with a capital .>f $8,'2'iO,97A, all owned by tho State, its nominal capital In-ing $5,000,000. Tho State requisitions on this l>ank were so onerouo. that its cap- iUl, In 184anks In this State are In niMitlMir 40, >T, uul all are under the fcitpvrvijlon Govoni returii capitii of a Stai' there and , It little to say of Arkansas, where Ainiiig banks to claim our attention, nrc to A/iMi'Mi'/>//i, where tho theme j as ti, itton crops are luxuriant. There were rn inks in Arkuiisus, tlin Keul Ks- tate liaul. link of tho Slate of Arkansas. They uro I , tii hands of trustees for li<|ui:lution, and are Imlelited to tiie State about $1,60(1,000, and interest to an equal amount for Slate bonils loaned to them, and still unpaid. This Stute was adniittfd Into the Union In December, 1817, and it hud tlien one bank, with a capital of $100,000. In 1820 this cup- Uul was Increased to $000,000, and in 1811(1 it had but one bunk, capital $U60,UU(). At tliis |)criod there wero no bunks in Kcntiii ky or Missiiuri, only one In Ten- nessee, two in Alabama, nnd four in Louisiana. Mmi»»ippi, — During this year ttie riuntcrs' Hank of Mississippi was cliurtcred, with a capitul of $a,000,0(M), of which two-thirds were reserved for tho .State, and one-third allotted to Individuals, In duly, 1881, tho Stute issued $5(X),000 li jier cent, bonds, and in March, 18(12, $1,600,000 more, for her proportion of tile stock. These lionds were sold at \n\ ))er cent. niUanco, and yielded to tho State u premium of $250,000. This was dc[)Ositcd in tho bank as a sink> iiig fiind, to lie increased by tho dividoiids on the State's stock in the liank, from which fund the inter- est on tho two millions of lionds was to bo regularly puld. The bank paid 10 per cent, dividends up to September, 1839, when tho .State stock was trans- ferred to tho Natchez Itailroad t'imipany. Tho sink- ing fund was then $800,000 beyond the amount re- quired to pay tho interest on the State bonds. In 18.16 to 1839, a large proimrtion of this fund was lost, and the remnants left were only $60,000, to which about an equal sum baa since been added by the com- missioncra, by collections from the assets of the Plant- ers' Hunk, in 18i)5, tho banking capital of tlie State umounteil to $12,000,000, and auch was the prosper- ous condition of the Stote, that it was proposed to add $10,000,000 mora to the amount; and in tho ses- sion of 1886-'36 about $17,000,000 In bunks and rail- roads wero chartered. In 1887 there wero 18 banks in Mississippi, tho aggregate capitals of whicli wero $12,872,81.'i, having a circulation of $5,073,425, and loans $24,351,414. But tho end was not yet. In 1838 the Mississippi Union Bank was chartered, with a capital of $15.,500,000, to he "raised by means of a loan, to bo obtained by tho directors of the institu- tion." The fjovernor was authorized to issnc 7500 bonds of iJ2()o() each, interest at 5 per cent., and pay- aide in 12, 18, and 24 years, and for tho poyment of which the fnlth of tho State was pledged. Two and a half pt>r cent, in cash was required of individual sub- scriptions, and the balance aecured by mortgages on real estate. In June, 18.S8, Governor M'Nutt exe- cuted and delivered to the bunk 2500 of the proposed bonds. The three coinmlssioners appointed under the charter negotiated these bonds with Mr. Hiddlo, who paid tho commissioners of the bank $6,000,000 there- for, In live installments of ouo million each. This cen- tral t was guaranteed by tho Pennsylvania Bunk of the United States, on behalf of Mr. Biddle. Upon this sum of five millions, and $8000 received from indi- IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // .♦'A K<^ 1.0 1.1 ItilM 125 ^ 1^ 12.0 u& 1 1-25 III 1.4 1 1.6 t 1 < 6" 7 .4' Photographic Sciences Corporalion 23 WIST MAIN STRHT WnSTIII,N.Y. USM (716) •73-4»03 ^ 4^* W \ o^ iM^ >^ \ ■'■:',:J ■ HAS 440 HAS mitni tatMeribon, tht tank taMd alt IM opnmtloiit, khd the dtpIOMbl* Imm of whidk we (tall thortljr Mite. In ISSBsnotlie^ieTleeof bonds, ftr « tiOiUar aiMomit, WM iaened to the bank for ftiither ^^acHtie caplx^;' but in 1840 the gonmor bmed • proelin»- tion, iwning the eommtinitjr ageinit adTMOing ihob- ey on the hypothecation of then bonds, on any ttrmt net aathorUtd bg the ckatitr. In 1841 the go^-etnor eommanicated to the Legidatore that thii praolittia- Hon had prevented an ^gal sale of these bonds, and with it the following Interesting summai7 of the " eon- dltion''afthe Union Bank: ■ Sa4i*Bdeddeiit, thing bnt tHtgraet; Oovemor H'Nntt was the flnt open, avowed, and relentless assassin of Americaa cMiUI In Europe, and the "deep damnation of its tak- ing off* originated a (Ming of distrust and disqnl*. tnde In ihianolal circles, which will be forgotten only when John Law's ifiuiitippi scheme has been sur- passed in extravagance. Well and truly did the Sen- ator ftom Uississippi utter that unfergotten sentence, "the moral sense of communities and of mankind will condemn us," unless a tax was raised for the payment of these bonds ; and it may be safiely asserted that the deepest injury ever inflicted upon the commercial and financial reputation of the United States was in this reprobated and dishonest act of " hepvmatio;!.'' The Planters' Bank bonds were not nArt(%' repudi- ated, but the peoplA of the State, In 1862, refused, by a majority of 440o votes, to authorice a tax to pay them, and redeem " the plighted faith of the State." In July, 1854, the amount of these bonds, with inter- est, was $8,618,061, and the bonds of the Union Bank, ttir f 6,000,000 and interest, iqay be added thereto, as the cost of banks to the State, independent of the in- dividual loss that can be superaddied thereto. The following tabular statement ftimlshes a sufficient warn- ing of the fhte of banks which are bastd upon fictitious capital. There were in the State in Vwn. B»k.. C..1I-. Cif..bii^ SpMla. Loui. 1880 18ST 1S40 1848 18G0 1800 1 18 ' IS IT 1* 1 $060,600 lC872,815 00,870,408 -i^ 9,M1,«I0 £«)^ie6 $840,1!I0 6,078,426 >^tbiid.of their llabiUtiea. In 1864 tha retdnu wore, 6Baoks. $l&,j!7o,48( SFrsebanks 2,688,776 ' I In 1866 there were nine banks, whose capitals amounted to $16,702,600. As New Orleans is the grand entrepot of the products of the whole Western country, large Iwnking facilities are requisite to exp». dite the cotton, sugar, and tobacco shipped annually from this great commereial mart, and to supply the d» mands of the planters during each successive season. For many yean past there has been a deficiency of lianking capital In New Orleans, in cooiequetice of tha restrictive Umlts of the banking policy of the State la relation to discounts, as the supply of specie in th« banks has been always large enough to justify a much hwgcr funonnt of oironlation than has ever been issued. Under the general banking law, it is probable, from the general appearances of things, that this detlcienry will no longor exist, but, on the oontnuy, thii* wiU. b«A tondoncy to an oppoeite oxtromo. "i' t! vtiMiijy- BANi Itlt VkX ■wn. ncy of oftlM Utein in th« I much am the ywitt ArATBlBiT WTitt Bamsi or'NEw 0*t.Kufi,' Oor. 11, ntf tOriTl ll»TMIWiW.'-U*Bm»l— , ' Bank of LouWaiui. . . ~ LoaWHUkStataBsU... OaaalBaok CttlMiu' Bank ItMbanIc** and Tiaden' VnlonBwik SouUMraBank . Bank of N«,m da«,ni TIM,1M TCfl4B 44S!,41« 158,410 Igt.tW $l,n8,M0 * Vkee bank* under tbe geneial law i tbe otben an ehar- tetedbanki. Ahbama WM adaiitted Into th* UnioB la 1819; Hif In the foUoiring yaar lb«n wan thra* banka, whoM oqjitab ainoanttd to 9469,119; in 1880, one bank, witii •tt&,608 cafMal ) and we give below the tabular atate* nenls of Ibwr yewa, to exhibit ita bank hiatory daring the ineBioMble epoch of 1886-^41 ' In:1848thabuikinKai|iitalwaaradaeedto41,600,000,; the Bank e( Mobile Mng the only institntien untU 1861. The State owned twiMiftha of the atook, MOO^OOO, for which it iaeued ita booda, and the bank p^ the intef eatthaieoAi Sinoetiian the SouthemBankof Alabama,, oipital $ean no advantage takan of i/U piivllegaa^ by eetabliiliing any each Inititntion In the State. The Bank of the State has been winding up ita affairs ever since the expiration of ita dtartar^ and it haa Aimished anotlier illustration of the principle that there should be no interwoven interesta of State and bank, or of politics and finance; they may be tor-* ttlalioe, but not amjoiitt> Tbe executive mcsaages have folly argued tide point, and there Is no ocoaaion for Airtlier eommmt. Vnn. ^ 18M 1840 1841 1841 OaVttaL ijtet i4,8T»,i!» 14,d4«,834 8,(WT,7flO OtmMioa. *o,m,iOT T,2U,141 1,TS8,04S H.8T1 By«el». $l,Mt,4B4 1,68>4>10 «8B,1W 28,204 lS,tW,04T «8,1«,04T 2,827,619 980,428 629,609 DlMmati,' 1 $16,020,505 24,188,594 28,160,521 2,948,929 nth the State of Texas we shall close the lemarka on the Southwestern division of the Southern Statea, with merely stating tlie fact that there is one bank in the State, at Galveston, having a capital of $832,000. Tliis Sute was admitted hito the Union in 1846, and although she lias cost the country a vast amount of money, in prolonged debates in Congress, in the wasted hours of the excited msases of the people, in cities, towns, and villages, nnd the exhaustion of all the in' tense expletives that sappoaitive patriotism could in- vent, yet beyond those straws, after the payment of the hard money of the contract, we believe that tho government have made a good bargain, and that her territory may in our favored pathway to the Pacilic. We have done with the Southweatem division, when we have quoted a remark of Professor Tucker, twenty years ago, 1886. "The banking mania has prevailed in the Southwectem Statea beyond any other in tiw Union, not excepting Xew England, bnt in consequence of which, with the most proJUable agricutturt tn (Ao Umted States, tbe bank circulation has been the most depreciated, and they are still suffering the evils of a disordered currency." Virgbua. — ^The first notice of any bank in Virginia was in 1805, mentioned in Mr. GaUatin's report, cap* itol $1,000,000. This was the Bank of Virginis, char- tered bi 1804, and which expires in April, 1657; its capital has been enlarged to $2,650,000. There was, it is true, a l>ranch of tbe first Bank of the United States in Norfolk ; but the paper of this bank rarely found its way into the interior of the country, where tbe currency, was purely metallic^ " Tbe desli of ev- ery agriculturist in Virginia had some gold or silver to spare, if he was a prudent, industrious man ; or he had something like money to spare in the hands of his mer- chant, who, in the days of which I am speaking, acted OS a banker to his prospering customers. The currency being specie, was widely scattered through the land, and in div^rsilied hands, so tliat its concentration at any par- ticular point was imiwssible ; and consequently its re- moval from the country could not happen to any great extent." Tho same writer proceeds : "Ko people had more cause to rejoice than the people of Virginia; but alas ! the banks cume, and all things l>eoame changed. Like the Upas-tree, they have withered and destroyed the healthful condition of the country, and inflicted oq the people political and pecuniary disease of the moat deadly character." Such was the tone of public sentiment in theSontk-' em States, originating with the establishment of the first United States Bank, and eheriahed by Virginia until the expiration of Itt charter in 1811, when, tkrongh fear that its sovereignty would not be repre> sented at the Aineral orgies, ^Assembly, in January, 1811, passed a special resolve, "to instract their sen- ators and request their representatives to vote against the renewal of the charter at tho United States Bank" -^-« puny little institution, on its laat legs, with an eidbaigo behind it, and a war before its last expiring momenta. Butinonobiief year the mystery was ex- plained: Virgmia wanted a bank of her o-jm, and in February, 1812, we perceive that the Farmer,* Bank of Virginia, with a capital of $2,000,000, and with • right to isane $6,000,000 of circulation, was chartered ; and with the Bank of VirginU (in which the Stata waa interested $300,000), and the enlargement of capital to the old, and the creation of new banks, it certainly was very politic that the State should wish to avoid either the rivalty or tbe surveillance of a natiovinl institution. Three other banks fbllowed in quick viiRceiision, with capitals amounting to fbnr millions .iiore, and there was no flirther outcry against (Mper money or banks, because the " Old Dominion" had adopted them. The charters of the two first banks prohibited the issue of notes under $6, which they adhered to, until it was found convenient to issue $7, $8, and $9 notes to sup- ply the use of coin ; and thus the intent of the law was frustrated. Our usual tabular statement furnishes the readiest mode of showing the banking operations of the State fVom 1820 to 1850: Von. i82?r 18B0 18ST 1840 1842 1848 1800 18M 1866 BMlki. 4 4 B 6 6 6 6 16 60 Opitol. $5,212,192 5,761,100 6,731,200 10,283,683 10,803,862 9,684,670 9,731,870 12,796,486 18,734.800 $7,699,000 18,021,000 15,«e6,«00 16,170,000 17,802,000 18,168,000 24,918,000 CiTcuIatfoa $8,858,000 9,107,000 6,707,000 7,740,000 8,907,000 8,044,000 14,298,000 With the exception of 1887, there does not apiiear to be any extravagant banking ; but in January of that year the proportion of loans to capital was larger than that of any other State in the Union — being 60 per cent, aliove the average rate of all the banks, and ita circu- lation in excess by a larger ratio, 214 to 91 average pro- portion of circulation to capitaL In 1851 tlie general -'^< wj ff y lis BAN liiaUng Uw mil paued, and m tkb chartend baaki •spirt, thay have b««i iwialrKi to comply with the general rule of aecnriag their cticulation by a pledge of pabHc itocki. The Bauk of Vitginia and the Farm, tn' Bank charter! expire in 1857 ; bat they have been wisely renewed upon their old baaia, " aa the experi. ment of ' independent banking' hai not fo triniapkant- ly vindicated the aoond wisdom of the principle ai to induce the poblio to sacrifice a system which has opeN Bted, in the main, equally to the advantage of the State and the community. There is certainly nothing in the financial condition of the State to warrant any haxard. oos experiments with its monetary relations." JVor<4 Corefino.— The first bank incorporated in this Slats was the Bimk of Cape ITear, in 1804, with a cap. ital of $260,000, located at Wilmington. lu charter has been extended, sbd its capital increased by vari- ona enactments. It has now $2,000,000 of capital, of which the State owns f 688,100; and its present char- ter expires, by limitetion, in 1880. It haa seven branches. The Bank of tha State of North Carolina was originally incorponted in 1888, with a capital of 91,600,000. It to now 92,000,000, of which the State owns 9600,000 ; and its charter expires in 1860. It hss nine branches. In]<>84,tfaeMerohants'Bank,9.anks by charter. Wherefore, these charters ars wholly unconstitutionsl. Congress only has the right, and that is the only po«nr which csn confer it. Other banks have been subsequently chartered in South Carolina, as follows: CaiilUI. :<•'> In 1836, Bank orCbari-.«ton $8,1(10,800 " 1888, Southweitern Itallr^ and Banking Company 8(9,4M CoBUoetrlal Bank, ColnmUa 800,000 BankofHambniK 000,000 Merchanta' Bank of Cberaw 400,000 Tionk of Camden 871,000 BankofOeon^ctown 200,000 Farmers* and Exchange Bank 990,(00 Bank of Newbuny 800,000 and some others, numbering altogether 20 banks and branches, having an aggregate capital of 916,600,000. The annexed tabular statement finishes our notice of these banks : ¥«». Baata. CafHaL CtomlaUoa. Dapoatla. Sfaiia. Laaaa. ' ISiM ' $7,988,818 r.<88,7«7 $4,011,210 $2,600,42t $l«,Sia,BI9 1887 8,838,118 7,i!lS,61« 6,048,477 1,884,788 18,8fl9,R88 184S 11,472,981 8,932,164 1,743,000 1,388,178 18,890,038 1848 11,03«,1«0 8,911,880 2,883,188 1,728,681 14,181,718 18W 18,189,071 8,741,780 8,821,181 1,711,901 M,801,18T 18E6 1«,S0S,168 «,7«9,82> 1,871,096 1,288,884 18,149,098 9A1V I4t BAN crodin l8a9,4M 1800,000 1600,000 ■400,000 |8TT,IS«0 |«00,000 l9M,«00 1800,000 Inks ud 1600,000. Ir aotice . O*orgia,^\n aMrnU, th« flnl ImhIi whlsh ititiMM la Mr. yfooi\my'* wjNMrl to, 1h Mill oiw tmnk, oiv- tt«l 1910,000) In mS, Iwo iNtntu, >t«l (ittM,A«0| In 1816, tbrea ImnIm, etpktal |I,6M,W0| In 18W,ftmr bank*, wiU> Ml iMPtitM wpttel «( #8,401,1101 and tho following tsbla thowi that Georgia hu had har htt ■hare of banking bnaineM, notwHhitanding her flr*> queat complaiate of dependence npon CbarlesttM ftos fuUtttee, and her own want of bank capital. Ther* ware in the State, in vmummT "ii,ni»,iiu' «1,SM,4S4 1,948,689 1,98&,4I8 1,1)08,841 l;n8,M8 1,«n,0PB 1,618,117 1,084,466 ey««i». $I,WM41 1,800,818 1,800,««4 1,106,«T1 1,104,186 l,&4T,«>a 1,676,818 1,461,880 t6,t«l,4T4 10,091,116 18,788,111 ^451,761 6,640,131 «,t68,lM 18,66T,48» 11,648,060 Theie ttatanMnt* givo » vory ltn|tflb«i iiloa of the red lUta of ItnanpUToMrattoiM 1h (Itofgla. For iO' •tance. In tb« nnart of 11146, th« e«ntMt Dank, the property of the Htat«, wjtlvb had for t«H years been winding up It* oonRernp, bad III eattitan luoltided, #1,480,000, and tba two railroad ««wp«nl«i, eatiltala #6,604,000, maUsff, in Uw mfsgiM, #8,174,000, which ihoHld ba dMHslod from no bauklag oapital, aa above (tatad, whoft tbo roturn would bo, In 1849, flflaenbanka, Capital...,, Depnie now to Florida, the lait State In the Southern diviaion, and which was admitted into the Union In 184S. Under its territorial government. It had, in 1888, five banks, with an aggregate amount of capital of #2,118,802, #774,040 drouUtion, #145,841 specie, #498,628 deposits, and #2,662,614 loan*. These were located at Pensacola, Tallahassee, Appalachicola, and Magnolia, but they are all broken and worthies*. A law waa paased in 1849 authorizing a bank at Talla- hassee, but ''. e lielieve that it was not organized, and we know of no regular bank in the State. iVJMoiiri.— This State was adnatted Into the Union In 1821. There was one bank in existence prior to this date, the operations of which were disastrous, but the flrst we find in the regular reports is the State Bank of Missouri, at St. Louis, with one branch, in 1887, and a capital of #583,638, circulation #28,000, and specie #460,000. This is now the only bank In the State, altliough it has increased the number of its branches to meet the increasing demand for banking facilities. We give a tabular statement of its operations, during a series of years, fTom 1837 to 1856 : ill Wf WW"wWff etmiiUhm. «0U8,UU0 410,000 D<|wiili. «819,000 1,174,000 epach. «466,000 662,000 LOUL $1,109,000 1,077,000 1848 ,I0O,IM4 nifooo 1,116,000 1,160,000 961,000 184S 'KS'^'i «,..*,000 1,996,000 1,468,000 1,168,000 1848 ,I tlon. It has malntainAd ipoolo payments since Us In* corporation, altbuugb It* PlreHlatlon was necessarily restricted, wldle mwiy of tbo liank* of the Kast and West were under suspension dnrlnu t lie years 1897-1840, We trust that It miiy uontlnn* o fortress of ilrenjflh to resist the encroachment of frug Imnking nrlneiples, which are now pervading sevsral «f the States, and (Umiah an enduring Bvltl«n«« of the nroHt and leourlty of banks based upon a apotiie eApital, Co/i/orain.— We are not owaro of any Ineofporated banks in the State of OaliftirnUi and It only remains for us to speak of those of th« Dlitrlet of Columbia. The first bank establiabed at W«»hlngten was In 1792, with a capital of #600,000 1 In W0», there were two banks, #1,600,000) In W06, Ibroo Imnks, #a,riM,000( in 1811, four bank*, #8,WI,IH>B) In I81fl, (en lianks, #4,078,295 j In 1820, thirteen Iwnks, #A,I)!I6,|||(| oapllnis. Ymui. 1887 1841 1844 OssIm, jPstifKi; The charters of all these banks expired some year? since, and passed into the hands of trnstees for the l>en- eflt of the stockholders. The Farmers and Mechanics' fill nk, Georgetown, the Bank of the Metropolis, Bank of Washington, and Patriotic Bank of Washington, ar* of the above class, and are about the only banks whose- bills are current on any terms, and they are looked upon with distrust out of their own neighborhood. Conclutioni. — The past financial history of the United States abounds with examples and warnings; but the misfortune is, that they are apt to l>e unheeded and forgotten. How many of our merchants now on the stage of active enterprise have an intimate acquaint- ance with the past history of commerce in our oten vountry during the present century, if, indeed, they know that which rrilates to their owi business, beyond the last twenty years ? How few statesmen and financiers of these modem days of high attainmento are familiar with the finan- cial events of 183(>-'42 ! Those who retain a fresh re- membrance of that financial crisis will ever dread a re- currence, and be inspired with caution, prudence, and distrust. But the race of these " conservatives" is fast passing away, and the counsels of the few remaining are almost derided. Junior partners, or successors, and " Young America," fill their places, and now take the lead. The past is disregarded, and similar errors will probably eventuate in similar disasters. Our iiinstrions statesman, Daniel Webster, who has left for our use invaluable lessons of political wisdom, in his celebrated speech at Trenton, in 1844, uttered these words ; " We are well instructed by experience ; but let us not be lost to experience. Lilt not all the (ood, all tho oomforta, all the blestinga, which now 1 IM nAa Mtm to yvoMMt fcr lit ikMiM. Iw MdlkM, niiHi, uui dMirpyMl, by raimliNi («(• mmw irliMi w« mmv MroM, Tm mM Mm M m iiH «Mi»l»M«U Mgli Ml or w«(«r. timf ItA IbifNMlrMi, (Mwiwd wMi ut flwgiMiii* oftb* nirflil wr««t(« «h4 fii(H«if •Mwf tiUM. Ut w nvaM Ihrai, l<«(llMfliM<«rMt4llwfiit«<««Mid tiM MbnimM m4 (H llw «•»• tw wM« tmitMi, uti lira (IM b«Mfc«n » «m4 iMMk/'' [ lu l«N, Mr, MMI«, At rn«M«H( «r toriM ho oBflWond to tlu faHiiiiftotf JMWifM^^ii 4 *' 'Hm* ffeBMIBflfaUf MBbIl HuA ffsllMAJiM. Miui AtlWillHlilildi. MM IMNKw MM (pWwvP'WHM WHWrHWr tFIOTv CWH nPV Hw (WWB^ I tort mtil wHM vabuM* I m ^ ww i iM iit ii fymi irMek onppltoo «wmlM4 ifiMl, ttM« to «« «iMmfy WMrtd ( wrf. (M«ii4> I7, to MMx to (1m m»>pifmMM «f ifttoto Iw ilM tomlu 10 \m»vy • fiOMlt)', My M iumtti of l9 (jM ««M., M to (bo oMo «f M« NMk 0/ tiw yirttotf Mtotoi* Of M por Mirt,, M to WHIM of dw iPofMf InhA*, m weaM 4oi^vo (bo bMilM «f att ( g wytottea to to«w (tM tkk ofinMlvoRS)'," Hoarlx • «|HH(or of • Mnlwf Inw «Uttii«4 tlMe tlwM iMnorM wMw m«4« bf Itw " m>ii^ti4 Mtto«r«( of 1>MI> ■dolpbto," iH)4 (b« VH)' twiMpto* ii««w«d bf Um nte now (bo wtopto4 dofHW* ef hto fewHW ommm u, We balbivo (b«( U i« n»w 8wwnii>' »4iMtmi^, to ordtr to carry on •HwuMfArfl/ Hw mtoHAivs l««tto«M of (Mt ooontry, wo nw|Nlro » Mii4« «to<, d jif«4, Mwl y BMfd* «f ilh««(«rX( icfM btiew notbbw of tbo §rH i\mmUi ef it»nUing, m4 tuuMl tbair pofwr promtoo* to otdiet (b«to ffumii tobliw a wortbtoaa wfiHon to4tvbto«l pfMtttoe ftrf «a ttioally wortbtoaa pHnt*4 iMHMkfloto. Hut wttat «f oti (tMw tbtogi, and mimy mora wbi»b Mf(!bt !<« ihMmI, ih« gnat avtaiwioA of trMi, mnmpmii Upim (to) lie cMoaod bonktog fii«fH(iM, mrmlmimd m (twf b«t« fimtrlf boon, baa boon bMMltotol to «ti «tMi««« to (bo CHmen and msabiwlM (MltoM tbim to (toi M«ftban(a, " YoangAmo^ana," moil of to4««(ftoN«« utAtmpAAttg, and enargotie ebora«(#f», iwv« toft (tM «MHfofM of (hMr ponntal bomea, »ed ttf tb8 «M «f tMHli ««()itol hata fomtd tbo fiiailUo* bf wbM) tbof m«t4«Mmd' toM fofaau and HRtiwidM wf t4« brt« ««((H'ii(«d fitttit aad vtUagaa, witbto (bo fVMfiNili* «f wtiktb «li«y horo aatobliabod aabool* aod fbUfobM, •ni«(« *«h will probaUjr be " confliilon worse confonndcd." Whora, than, are wa to look' for saccbr l> We can dt»i eoror bnt on* anrs point, and that i* the general goir.. emmont, who alone have the power to exerciao a salit^ tarjr aMtnl over the eafrenej' of otir whole countiy, throngh tlio agency of that grand regutotor of e^. change, an exchequer aysteni, aided, a need be, by (hat pat of tbo government, the plwant lab-treasurjr rrom (b* followtog table of the number of banki, anoant of eapiul, and drcutotion, it Will appear that tho nnmber of banks ha* doubled In a period of niarty twenty year* ; while the capital and cbxmlation have increaaod only about 80 per cent, to the aame titne,' wMeh ratto to not equal to the growth or toereaae lit; wealth of tho country. TiaAsuiT nroBn y«M. 1 B«U OqdUlrMI.. CUaiUUw. "~iS»~ 7M ^000.000 (149,000,000 ISW ma «J,0».000 110,000,000 im MO 8rr,«oo,ooo ; 180,000,000 IMO 001 IMS,000,00O 107,000,000 1841 TM 818,000,000 107,000,000 IMI tlon of the government. The transactions of the con lioration were limited to making loons and trading in the precious metals, and the sale of such goods oc proceeds of such lands as should be pledged. Branches wore established in various parts of the Union. No other similar corporations could be char^ tered by the government, except bonks in the District of Columbia, with a capital not exceeding In total (6,000,000, during the period for which the chorteT was granted, namely, to the Sd of March, 1886. The bank was prohibited from purchasing any part of the public debt, taking interest over 6 per cent., or loan- ing to the government over (600,000, or to any State over (60,000 ; and the debts of the bank were in no case to exceed the amount of deposits by more tbon (35,0O0,(HX). And in case of refusing specie payment of its notes or deposits in specie, the bonk was made liable to pay interest at the rate of 12 per cent, per an- num. The bank was also obliged, by its charter, to glv^he government the necessary facilities for trans- ferring the public funds ttom place to place witliin the United States without charging commissions, or claint- ing any allowance on account of the difference of ex- change, and to transact all the business of commis- sioners of loans whenever required so to do. The bank was prohibited from issuing bills under the denomina- tion of (6. The bank commenced operations on the 7th of April, 1817 ; and soon after entered into a compact with th^ State banks for a simultaneous resumption of specie payments, which took place on the 20th February, 1817. Every effort was made to push its paper into circu- lation. Its discounts were increased in one month from (8,000,000 to (20,000,000; and in October, nine months after going into operation, they had increased to (33,000,000. Of course, with this immense expan- sion, the currency depreciated ; prices of every thing ranged high; speculation, especially in stocks, was rife. The management of the bank was very bad; money was lent on the stock of the bank to its par val- ue, and so persons of no means became stockholders — pledging the stock for the loan with which they bought the stock. The branches which had been mode at all points. North, East, West, and South, were issuing notes, limited by the ability to make thcin. In obe- dience to a fixed law of action and reaction being equal, a revulsion soon came, and, owing to the mie- management of the directors, it was increased. The branches met with great losses : at Baltimore, for in- stance, from the improper conduct of the officers, it was estimated at (1,671,221 ; and the aggregate losses of the parent bank np to the 6th of March, 1819, ex- ceeded (3,600,000. The dividends in the same time amounted to (4,410,000; of this sum (l,848,i63 was received for interest on public debt held by the bank, which made the profits on the banking operations less by half a million than its losses. These losses, and the fluctuations caused by the difliculties of the bank in the currency and in money affairs generally, created a strong feeling against the bank, which added to the party who held that the bank was nnconstitutional and inexpedient. In the sessions of 1881-'82 the bank made applica- tion to Congress for e renewal of the charter; and a bill was passed incorporating anew the bank. This was vetoed by President Jackson. It was then re- considered by Congress, but failing to obtain the con- stitutional majority of two-thirds, it was finally re- jected, July, 1882. The removal of the government deposits fIrom the Bank of the United SUtes by the President, Septem- ber 28, 1888; the adoption, in consequence, by Con- gress at what was afkerward called the " deposit-bank BAN 146 BAN tftttm,' M • muiw of Mfaly keeping the pnUlo mon- ey I tin niolutlon of the Senate that the removal wai nneaUed for, and the reipomlbility aiiumed by the Prwrident finconitlliitional, etc., introduced by Mr. Wabtlar, and paiMd March 28, 1884 ; the paaaage of the act of June 88, 1886, for the distribution of the nrplui revenue among the different Statei of the Union ; the iuue by the 8eci«tary of the Treaiury of the ftmoui ipecie circular of July 11, 1886) the in- corporation of the Bank of the United Statei by the Iii^ilature of P«nniylvanta early in the lame year; the derangement in the currency of the country, which led, in May, 1887, to the general euapeneion of ipecie paymenta by the banki ; the roinmption of ipecie pay- ment* by the banks in the lummer of 1888, with the adoption of the " free-banking lyiiem" by the State of KewTork, and several others, were events which may be regarded as being intimately connected with the supensioD of the Bank of the United States.— E. A. "When It was Anally settled that no reoharter of the national bank was to be obtained, a plan was pro- Jsotad to combine the advantages of the long-estal>- lisfaad oorreipondence, name, and machinery of the former bank, by incorporating iti stock with a#ew iattltation nnder the name of " Tho Preiident, Direct- ors, and Company of the Bank of the United Statei of Pennsylvania," which was chartered on the 18th of Febmary, 1886, by the Legislature of that Sute. The tnasfor of the funds of the old institution was made into the new State bank. More than 15 per cent, was restored by the government iieyond its subscription at the period of the tiansfer, and 8^ per cent, had been paid to tlie same source every six months for a long course of years. In coniequence of the advantagci to be derived from tlie new institution, the stockholders were content to subscribe anew in the Dew State (>ank ; and it is alleged that all of them might, at this junc- twe, have received their investments l>ack, not only at par, Irat with a large advance. This tho govern- ment actually did, and no power was ei^oyed by the government that was not sluucd by every Individual. Indeed it was alleged by Mr. Nicholas Biddle (who kdd the administration of the affairs of the State bank, as he had done in the national bank), as recently as April, 1841, that the State institution waa prosperous down to the end of Us administration in March, 1880. The downfall of the State institution, however, soon occurred, bringing disaster upon the stockholders. From March, 1888, to March, 1841, the stock of the State bank declined fhim 116 to 17 per cent., and this loss fell in considerable part npon those who had been the original stockholders of the national bank. The stock is now quoted from $1 to #2 per share. The new imtitntion did not rest npon the broad fonndatkin of national aid, and of course had not the confidence pos- sessed by the national bank."— Host's Merck. Mag. A bill for establishing a Fiscal Bank of the United States passed the House of llepreientatives, August 6, 1811; vetoed by President Tyler, August 16. Another bill for ■ Fiscal Corporation vetoed September 9, 1841, followed by a resignation of all the Cabinet, except Jfr. Webster, which ended for a time all efforts to obtain under any name a new national l>auk. Cahada.— There are eight banks in Canada besides the Bank of British North America, which has iu chief office In England, and spreads its branches all over British America. - This bank, which was incorporated la 1840, has a capital of £1,000,000 sterling. Of the eight more strictly colonial banks, four are in Lower and four in Upper Canada. Tho most important of these is the Buk of Montreal, with a present capiul of £1,600,000 currency. The three other banks in Lower Canada are, the City Bank of Montreal, with a capital of £800,000; the Banque du Penple in Mont- real, with a capital of £800,000; and the Quebec Bank, with a capital of £500,000. The banks in Up- per Canada are, the Bank of Upper' Canada, Toronto, incorporated 1821, with a present capital of £1,000,000 ; the Commercial Bank of the Midland District, Kings- ton, incorponted 1882, capital £1,000,000 ; the Gore Bank, Hamilton, incorporated with a capital of £100,000; and the Niagara District Bank at St. Cath- erines, with a capital of £600,000. Almost all of these institutions have branches in various parts of the country, and lisue Dotes, payable on demand, from one dollar upward. The least de- nomination of tlie notes of the Bank of British North America is four-dollar notes, representing £1 colonisl currency. The greater numlier of these Institutions are now understood to be paying from 6 to 7 per cent, per annum npoii their paid-up stock ; and the stock of the most ineceaifbl among them wai lelling, .In April, 1854, at from 10 to 25 per cent premium. All accounts are kept in Canada in pounds, shillings, and pence, provincial currency. The present one pound of provincial currency is about equal to 16i. 4d. ster- ling, or four dollars United States currency. The En- glish sovereign is equal to 24«. id. currency ; the shil- ling within a fraction of 1<. Sd. ; and the half-crown about 8a. lid. colonial currency. The bank capital of Canada was largely increased by act of 1854, vii. ; Bank of Hontrral Hank of Upper Ouisda . Oomni. BaokofC'Miada City Ilank, Montreal . . . lianquo du Feuple Quebec Bank Total Fom«r Cifltol. 7 1,000,000 Boo,aoo 000,000 22B,U00 100,000 !80,000 2,6T5,000 AddMoa, IBt4. 2 000,000 fi00,0«or by sickness or accident; and the endowment of members or their nominees. Friendly societies are, therefore, associations for mu- tual aaaurance, but are diatinguiahed firom assurance societies, properly so called, by the circumstance that tlie sums of money which they insure are compara- tively small. Although the period when snch societies originated appears to be nnlniown, their existence in ancient times is unquestionable. They were numerous in En- gland among the Anglo-Saxons, but Avm the general want of learning at so eariy an agm.'.:m' BAN 147 BAN Audb flfM< i;nil»d SUUt*, 1867.-Th« fcll owing It flelal rttnrni in or n«ar January, 1857.— fhmihin- • lummarjr of the lUbllitlei and the ntoureu of th« banks of each SMta in lh« Union, acoordlng to tha of- 1867. ■Utol. tuHunu. 1 Bwka. RnmIim. D>l«. CailUI. CInalaUoa. D 10 1 1S,«1S,8T1 9,197,741 4,090,885 875,187 911.468 N«wY»rk 810 1 Sept., 188« 18,891,801 84,019,838 06,907,970 19,014,116 8,707,888 New Jen«jr 48 , , Jm., 186T 8,IHI,TT0 1,T8»,8B8 4 891,970 l,4.'».8e8 Tl ,, Mot., 18S« 18,801,844 17,M8,09« 17,608,684 4,115.616 117,069 I>elaw*n S 8 Ju., 186T 1,418,185 1,894,0m 808,414 147,160 HurUod 81 Jan., 18eT 1I,WT,1T8 6,166,0.10 9,6U,824 l,69S,'i84 679,701 VlrglDta » 88 Jan., 186T 18,888,000 11,186,817 T,897,474 7111.507 98,186 North Cuollna. . 11 1< Jan., 186T 8,415,100 8,801,181 l,170,nM 114,811 8,046 tenth Ciiioliiia. . 18 a Jan., IWI 14,887,841 10,064.851 1.601,718 8.618,1181 8,866,119 Ctaoqila 1» 4 Jan., 1B6T 16,418,800 9,147,011 8,180,5:» 1,103,429 871,044 AUtam* 4 , , Jan., 185T 1,117,800 8,177,184 1,418.169 708,413 6,000 Loutilana 9 10 Dm., 1SS8 11,78(1,400 9,194,180 18,478,719 9a6,&U> *,107,6S8 lIlalMlppI 1 , , Jan., 188T 888,000 600,846 88,486 e • > • '* • • • TanneuM SJ 18 Jan., 1857 8,461.411 8,401,948 4,875,848 944,917 961,141 KMtnokr 8 IT Jan., 186T 10,608,806 18,481,115 4,473,378 1,983,373 60,000 MUMurl 8 ,, Deo., 1884 1,816,406 £,780,880 1,188,981 111,981 e • • • IlUnoU 41 83 is Oet, 18M 0«t, 18M 6,871,144 4,U8,08J 6,684,945 4Tai,706 1,001,899 1,851,T4S 110,488 171,815 157,981 177,800 iDdlaoa Ohio 81 , , Mot., 18M 6,741,411 9,158,819 1,643,410 1,101,981 891,768 Mlohlgan 4 . . Dea, 1804 e4i;489 870,649 1,847,968 118,981 51,140 WiMonilD 41 , , Jan., 18fiT 1,905,000 1,709,670 8,886,681 . *• 1,190,480 NcbruU Terrl-r Iktal llablUtlM 4 .. Jan., 185T 106,000 863,798 116,191 1,749 .... li88 IBS •87Uli. (138,251 76,898 185,168 1,410,892 47S,651 453,181 4,808,946 224,711 1,100,509 180,000 402,117 871,868 101,475 431,278 8,848,180 78,148 9,470,188 11,418 690,715 446,007 98,264 62,832 127,690 810.145 40,1)0 160,315 8,975 (24,124.521 Otiiar ' iBVMlmMltf. (61,881 70,l"88 488,128 188,2e4 803,730 1,045 18.628 484.481 7,913 0:)8,041 684419 1,261 1,498,905 i4,'l4!) 868,914 880,911 487.8B7 11,146 1,892 2.151 $5,9^0,334 Dim by otktr Buka. (1,158,270 741,476 1,141,104 7,574,791 1,166,811 8,432,976 .1,179,149 1.287,104 6,143,830 6:10,614 1,894,791 1,406,111 840,410 1,180,038 1,808,971 465,801 0,414,728 257,606 1,380,700 4,116.480 76,091 8,968,450 1,388,418 1,749,668 li\li41 458,771 110,804 (05,84'J,2fl.'> NoUtofoUa/ ~p75;5Tr 180 604 48,144 6,848,879 1,281,754 867,319 1,986,106 710,071 6,719,184 40,080 1,886,868 1,509,089 304,070 639,497 1,480,670 604,187 '26,618 1,009,4(3 840,969 190,910 433,717 567,188 1,199,843 U),489 701,161 15,069 $'J8,124,00 stitutions in the seteral States at the beginning of the year 1857. The onfaTorable condition of the foreign trade of the Union, added to a redundant bank circu- lation, led to a large export of specie from the United States daring the nine months ending September, 1867. A panic followed these continuous exports, which was accompanied by a sudden reduction of bank loans during the months of Aognst and September in the Atlantic cities, producing in September a suspension of the banks of Philadelphia, Baltimore, Washington, and other cities ; and in October, 1857, to a suspension of those of the dties of New York, Boston, and other portions of the Union. Those of Ohio, Kentucky, Illinois, In- diana, and a portion of those, in South Carolina, New Orleans, Pennsylvania, Missouri, etc., and one in New Tork city, being the exceptions. On the 14th Decem- ber following, a lesumption of specie payments took place througliout New York and New England; a measure soon after adopted by those of Pennsylvania, Maryland, and other States. The suspension of specie payments in the United States was followed by the failure of several provincial banks in England and Scotland; tind by an order in council on the 12th November, authorizing the tem- porary suspension of the Bank Charter Act, whereby the bank Was authorized to enlarge its issues, if neces- sary, beyond the chartered prescribed limits. This necessity did not, however, arise ; bnt the announce- ment had the efhct at once to allay the panic prevail- ing in England at the time. The rate of interest adopted by the bank was raise'' to 10 per cent, tempo- rarily. In Scotland, the City of Glasgow Bank, and Western Bank of Scotland, suspended, aiid are now in process of liquidation. The Borough Bank of Liver- pool also failed, together with nunterons small banks in the interior. — For recent discnssions as to the prin- ciples of banking and the currency, the reader is re- ferred t(> the Amiters' Magazine, New York, 1860-1868 ; London Quarterly, 19hl-'!a, 148 BAK BAN llMi «( itfakr fUlMMata, fhowiag ilu oiMM t w tl 111* tanlu In Um prindpal «l(iM, U Um bMt IwliB of llM«oaiiMr«ls>n>or«MiilortlM«owMr)r| Mdstw*- Ail ttndjr of thU morMBuit bjr bank oAotn, and • ng* uUtioa «f dJfoowiUi tt«., •ooonllnsl/, weidd b* Um bMt mlkfiiMii agaiiMt itriagMiojr In tb* MOMf mark' •I, oomnMroiai diatiwi, and tba otbtr altaadaat ovila or dlMTdtrad floMMat. Wa allada partUalarljr to Iha Importano* of pabUitdag tba ntanu of tba banlu in OoMrABAnra CoaDmos o» *■■ Ba>k8 m ma wtUMrnM Kmm At mrraaawt Puiona, Jakvabt, 18U, 1807, 18S8, AM* 1858, Uw aMtai fcr rnnmr taaka, batag In a aaasan local laatlMUMiB, afa aat Mikitaat to tba aaaaa flMtnattoni, da Ml alwir wltli aaaatotaa tin eoana of uads, and do Ml hataadlroal InflaaaM apon tba llnaneUl condliioa of tha aoaatijr. Wa glva tba bank nturni Arom tlia prtMlpal aMRmaralal oantni— Naw York, riiiUOal. pbU, UooiMI, Malllnon, and Naw Orlaana— axblblting In tba attftgata tba loaiu, ipacla, circulation, and da- paalla cftba bankt in tboia oltlai, and alto tha par. aantagaa of Ineraaaa or daoraaaa in tba Hvaral lima. Na«York... nilidalpbU. BattlBora . . . MiirOilniM, ToUI. [«» Yorfc . PblUddpbla.. Boitoa IMUaort... MawOrlMM. Total... $1«,(14,080 1,W e,887,687 liWll^MO 1,I«»,6I7 10,07 8,518 iWil78,180 vi^uqm f,n«,448 8J>l8,l81 14,4W,«I4 fJ8l»,4l»,T» » HiQki,m^mtu^ *c M^0IIO,«lt H;T44,8B« t8^TM,8« '-UIIS8a8 8,478,148 8,881,491 I,8I'8,«78 8;MB,10 9 il7,87l,l5 l ctnuUtlom IVSVOf 5,411,161 7,151,117 8,890,848 8,tf87,» 7t> 888,444,808 $87,8M,8a4 17,Tn,>H8 15,910,187 7,785,887 14,889,480 ^14^,M^541 t^T,889 7,a8a,4ta I1,4M,1I8 lil,t74,04» itit«,i)oa,ii» lf,NOi,noo 98188(1,800 |M,4oa,(N)o 8,0(18,000 fsa*4,ooo 9,717,000 18,««, 000 ^1,800,000 87,980,000 8,741,000 8,548,000 1,971,000 I',ti04,0 00 .■ KI),ltlfl,016l,684,000 Wa aae from thaaa ttatamanta that tba Inoraaia ar danaaia of ipada in tbt aavaral eltia* baa baan aa Ui- Iowa: IM1(< im4. "- Tonnw: — i iMfWMa Dt«rMW llMtMM pMmiw N««y«rk 908 51 118 ii 80 't 18 01 14 • • PhUadalphta Boitoa Baltimera XavOriMM Tkking the aggragata of (ha two jraan, bowarar, woaM ihow tba graatait Ineraaaa of tpacia In Maw Tork city. Commoa or *■■ Baku or.TBB Crriaa or Haw Yoaa, rnLAsaLmiA, IJobtoii, Bju/naoaa, aid Naw UaiaAMi. Jaauary, 180S $904,106,000 JaOB(ury,18&7 997,688,000 April, 1888 118,lit^000 Jiaaair,188» 981,878,000 Jaaaarr.lSOO 99!Sao,ooo Jaanaiy, 1807 97,871,000 Aflll, 1808 67,978,000 Jaaaar7,180e 81,98«,000 CiniMla. JanBarT,18e8 80,488,000 JanBaqr,1807 88,445,000 April, 1808 16,484,000 JaluwrrilSSa 99,180,000 DmmU*. Jannu7,18S« 130,410,800 JuinM]r,1867 143,388,000 April, 1868 160,104,000 January, 1869 161,684,000 'inQi^ng % wmmaiy of tha Ineraaaa and daaraaaa un* dor each bead, we bava : wCni pw(M. U tt "i #a t lii •• •' '» ii 18 is •• T ,, ' ' IM-tl MM.- i4KW,— 1 11 1! K H 11 ]{ OiMOonU'..... Speda c£mlatloa.... Dtpoilti 11 ■» 10 '8 lii "e 4 M T •J Wa ghra tha ftdlowing exhibit, abowlng tba aondl. Uon of tba banka of tba United Stataa for a 8ariaa af yeara. Thaaa ara all made np from oAelal aoaraaa, with tba aaoaptlon of tha loana and (taioalta In Jami* •rjr, 1M9 IMMrjr, tMi,: C^lttl. - Vk,mM. \m.:.'..... laM I«T I«48 I«4« 1801 I«B4 I8B« U0« iwr liso tie* 008 •81 iior IS 1670 $100,806,(M4 15I,87&,»1 170,771,001 198,881,ft<8 901,888,170 917,807,608 801,878,071 8Sl,m,W8 818,874,179 870,884,088 884,891,799 808,868,700 •814,119,499 467,608,080 et6,ll&701 164,644,987 844,478,881 41il,7M,79* 667,8»7,n9 07^14^7S8 684,188,180 884,460^887 588,611799 010,000,000 iMNwrr, L *»"'•• GimlMloa. Dapodta. illllllilli iN,14i,TU 97,916,840 MgtiMoa M3MST60 48,«7I048 0*^410,188 0*,844,04O 09,814,088 I8,»4»,888 74,411,889 f2S;K 148,198,890 08J)88,60S 118,500,001 106,185,901 104,689,80* 188,951,998 19*^747 900 914,778,891 156,908,844 i76,(18tt,»84 117,881,185 715,897,187 06,168,698 108,1S8,177 198,1)07,741 188,188,744 190,400,841 119,7ll6,<«l 180,801,851 18^llll,048 TABta MowiMO vaa Noaaaa or Bahki, Capital, flrioia, ■to., IN lAon MAra, BAoa or to Jamcakt 1, isso. hum, (NMt>. c.rH.1. Rp..!.. (;imil>(i«.. Malaa N, Haanifclra. Varaionr;.... WawYaflT... MMT^antr... rinaanfiiMio 8'«:::::: B, afColaaiMa. VMnto NahbCawllua. OMilhUrrilac, Oaercia Alabama Ilito«l« Indiana loira Kaniia.,.,,,,, Xaataakf MInnatirta Ill»r::::: Nabnwka (ibl« 8* 09 41 17« •9 71 lt» •0 19 10 M « 7 08 40 8 1 41 18 1 4 10 • 00 lfl« 7,43l>,900 0,041,000 8,880,000 •l,80*,000 10,801,780 1(US1,700 IM^OOO Bw8t7,00O 1,740,000 1,180,000 i4,*4e,ooe 8,0«,000 1toe i^tasioo 180,075,000 BAN 149 BAN Vllt. SAViKoa nAHKt.— Hmm bank! wen erigind- W eiUblUhed in EngUnd for tha receipt of imall •ami ' iU|ioiiltid by th« poorer clui of peraoni, and for their •ccumulttlun at compound Intereet. They era tliere manoced by indlvlduaU who derive no l)enefl( what- ever mm the depoiiti. AH monoyi paid into any SavingD Bank eitabllihed ■coording to the proviiioni of the aote Qeo. IV., o. 91, and 7 A 8 Vict., c. 88, are ordered to be paid into the Binki of England and Ire- land, and vetted in bank annuitiee or Exchequer billi. The interoit payable to dopoiitore ii not to exceed 'id. per cent, per dum, or £8 Ot, lOd. par cent, per annum, no depoiitor can contribute mora than X80, exoluiive of compound Interest, to a Saving* Bank In any one vear ; and the total depoiiti to b« received ftam any individual are not to exceed XISO ; and whenever the depoei(i, and compound intereit accruing upon them, itandtng in the name of any one individual, ihall amount to £200, no Intereet ihall be payable upon luoh depoait 10 long ai It ahall amount to X200. The com- mliitoiien for tho rednetion of the nillonti 4«M br\-e the dlipoml of the lumi veited In the publlo fontb on account of Saving! Bank*. '1 hii lyitem began In 1817 ; and on the SOth of Ko- vember, IBM), there wai due to depoiKorl, hcladlng intereit acerntng on depoilli, 481,!l08,tn. It fkrtber appeari that from the 0th of Auguit, 181S, down to the 20th of November, 1842, the publio paid on tocount of Intereit and charges on the lumi due to Bavlngi Bank* and Kriendly Socletiea under the act Qeo. Iv,, e. m, i;i4,u/u,84t 2i. 6d., and that the dtvidend received during the lame period on the itock and other public lecuritlei in which thocomroiiiloneriforthe reduction of the national debt Invested the laid sums, amounted to .£12,089,781 8<. M., leaving a balance of i:2,080,6&0 14«., which conicquently may be laid to be the sum which tho system has cost the public— /'art. Paper, No. 268, Sess. 1813. But the reduction of the intereit on deposits In 1844 firom 2i(f. to 2d. per oent. per diem, hu In a great measure obviated this source of lost. NoMaaaoF Bavihoo Banks in raa Umitid KucanoM, ahd ot AocounTS TnaaaAT: Amovkt owiito tITand Rati or iMTBaiST PAID TO DRroSITOaS i AMNIIAL NDHBKa AMD AVISAOB AmOUHS Or UlOairTS ADD rATMRMTS; NOHBU A«D AnoDNT or AmiviTiBe obamtxi), akd Kxransis or MANAaiMBBT, amd Katb pbb Cbbt. TilBBior, na, in BAoa or TBI YBABS BMDIMa 30TU NoVBMBBB, 1861, 1806, AKD 1866. roriiAUos, NanlnrorBulii. Nninb«r of Afleou/,92T 118,601 64,008 18,371 1,100,636 138,888 64,467 18,»6« 1,140,661 119,381 6T,,490 116(1,1180 i X 8fl,ia4,9«8 80,T8^T89 »,0I4,116 1,986,496 1,616,126 1,710,180 8TI,it66 1 888,476 Inland...: Channel Islands Tola! 3T,469,4T& [b94_ 091 DOT I,II6B,«I8 1,1)01,423 1,881,860 8^4U8,lt6 il4,18^6'i6 |84,T«A,tU 1 Auul Nambor of Rtaalpli floai Uopodlon. Anoaal Noaibor of Paymtnli to' Dopoilton. Avoraga Amoaal o^ kaealpta inm DopMllora. ISU. lUI. lUI. ia>4. lau. INS. 1U4. 1 ISU. ISM. 1 England and VTales. . gootland 1,110,684 316,669 78,066 T,T99 1,418,068 1,116,638 211,993 74,809 T,895 1,409,734 l,228,iaT 823,933 84,882 8,8T1 1,648,763 684,786 141,789 68,483 4,fl26 789,642 BST,981 148,986 66,693 4,46T 708,066 686,818 147,407 6',764 4,779 701,702 i S -8 8 Til 6 11 11 7 16 1 6 4 9 X •. d. 6 T 8 8 8 6 9 T 11 10 6 9 S X 1. If. 6 4 9 8 4 9 6 1 T 8 10 6 1 Inland Channel Islands ToUl bj Ika CommlaaloBonJ.t total Nmnbor. Total Amouat. ISM. 18U. ISM. ISM. IRIS. tus. IBM. IMt. 1 IMS. 1 England and Wales.. Boeiland 9,305 928 1T9 30 6,413 96B 300 31 9,683 1,018 920 21 189,789 16,268 0,6" 832 164,803 16,667 8,830 828 X ■ 104,986 16,866 8,886 028 97,673 6,102 6,067 1,010 «T,012 6,837 7,666 1,029 101,883 T,431 7,684 1,049 Inland Channel Islands ToUl 10,882 10,609 10,843 208,083 i^V'" 186,616 111,840 113,424 ■il»,»«» Rata of tataKil paid la Dapoaiton. ATaraga Amount of Paymaota to Dapoaituii. Ap:.or.J Rata par Ctat. on Ihi Capital of tho Bank for tho EtponM ISM. ISU. ISSI. ISM. ISU. 18 .. . Addforcenta ,. Total resouieea itnmioRS voB SAvnioa or tn Statb or Niw Yob)^ Jakvast 1< 18rti, tha raaufta of falluraa booaaa wall known. Wa extract froni tba annual raport of Ifaaan. D, Douglaia 4 Co., of N. Y. i " With ragard to tba labia annaxad, wa would lay that It baa baan praparad mora to anabia marcbanta to oompara tba oommarolal dliaitara of 18U with thota of 18fi7, ao aa to arriva at aema daOnlta concluiion aa to bow far tha panic bai aspandad Itaalf, rathar than for mora minutaly analytical purpoaaa. In our latt wa Includad tha numbar of aloraa, with the number of falU urai, tba paroantaga paid by thoaa that failed, to aa to arrlra at tba probabla ultimata lot*, etc. ■lAtianaa or r^iLvaaa la ran UanaD iTAiia ahd Dwnan Paomoaa roa inn Yiau IMS. Naw York Ulty (laeludlug Uiooklya), New York Alkaay D««Ua iVer rey. UUaa. Balanaa of Uie Btala Philadelphia, reaaaylraBla. ntlakarfh BalaoeeortheBlate ObMlnaall, Ohio Olerelaad Balaaee oftbe State tndlaoa. 0;trolt,MleMnn Bataneeof the State CMaaio, Illlnol Balaaea of the State Dobaqae,Iowa Baianee of the State Milwaukee, WlMxniln Balaaea of the State MlnaeeoteandTanltarlea Delaware and DIatilet of ColumbUi . Beelon, Maeiaehnielte kelaaee of the State Pnrhleoea, BhodeUan^ Baianee of the State Conneettout NewUaaipeUre Vermont New Jereay New Orleaaa, I«nliUna . Baianee of the State... Si Loute, If iMOBri Balaoee of the State... Baltimore, Maryland . . . . Balaoee of the Slate... LoalarMIe, Kentneky . . . . Baianee of the State. . . RlehmoDd, Vlriinta Baianee of the Slate... Gaoigla Aitaaaaa Mltriarippi. Texaa, North CaroUna Cbaileelea, Sooth Carolina . Balance of tha State FloiUa Total United Statea Toronto, Canada Wait Baianee of Canada Weet Mootrael, Canada Beat Baianee of Canada Eatt Mora Seotla and New Bruuawlck Total United Slatee and BriUdi Pnrlneee. No. •/ rillafM JallM. as n IS ti M 14 M 44T (SO SR MS M to S20 IDS 84 M IIT 19S St 1M ID 101 tt 10 168 ISO BS 4 tl 81 TO 6T R« M 6 49 M B8 41 1« 81 SO SO 81 T It II 40 IS tS 81 14 T No. a( «5r IB lot IB IS 11 BUS 4llt 18 St t IB 11 It It 840 lot M 181 61 IT 114 m IT im 8T SUB It »4 11 la; 90 4t 188 US IT 18 8« tt ST 40 to 46 18 11 M Tt 91 18 tl 15 144 Tl IT 48 tt 103 IS 80 10 11 t It 111 40 18 TbsT Avfnmouf L.I*. Mlllhioluali r>llaN !■ ini, tUT^WT 88,048 BH,88T 11,886 tT,4l8 1^0t4 t6,«6S M,IBO 16,1X8 11T,t»8 41,1M 10,101 4o,toa 10,488 10,TI4 II, TOO 44,680 10,14t ea,iTi 18,000 1«,4IT 11,841 10,01)0 ll,Slt IT.OtS 18,060 101,006 11,361 180,400 1A,100 18,608 18,06T 18,1&T 8,100 18,1T0 108,801 4%100 111,884 14,981 6A,1T6 lT,t98 88,841 81,484 M,0S8 10,811 18,108 44,148 18,48T 40,466 1T,800 18,100 18,88T 1S,T41 11,T08 S6,T1B 108,680 ]9,Mt 84,880 84,486 01,600 Avonat ol LU. lilllllMorMtk rallanlaltH. ■ m^tr 16,TU 18,«tB lie 11,600 1T,8BT 11,111 lAtDS 9I,T8B 1T,T81 10,rtun«, or bMU dlMp- polntitl In the hnp«» Ihay •nUrtalntJ ot iMing •bit., in •IM wajr ur olhar, to lituharKs th«lr il«b(i. Th« liar of linpriMuiuwit don nut K'v'l'y Inrtuanco luch p«r- tooi; fur wban Ihtjr oonlruct iluliU th«y hav6 no doubt of thtir •bllity to pay (h«ni. And tbouKb the imprleun- DMUt of tuna jUh Iniolvantt were abullihed, It would give no encouragement to the practloei of tbote who •ndeavor to raUa money by falw repreiontatlone ; for theee are to bo regarded ai twindlere, and ought, at Mcb, to be lulfiected to ad«|uate punlahmcnt. At preeeni, indeeil, the law la much loo indulgent to Ihia deecriptiun of penona. Tradere or other* who en- deavor lo obtain goode or loana of money, wbetbnr by OonceallHg or mlirepreeenting the real etate of their •flhlrt, are, In fact, about the very worat iiMiclet of ehaata ; and the tami'tatlon to reiort to luch |iiactlce(, ■ad the farlllty with \thlch they may be carried intoef- bet, ihould make *.hom, when detected, b« vlilteil with • proportionally Im-i-eaeed taverlty of punUhnient, on the principle liild down by Cicero, that «a luitl anmaJ- ttrtimla itncalo tmuiimi, i/iu* ilf0icUtiiH» pracavtHinr. V;\iiu, howevdr, >he law of England hai alway* given ihu creditor an unnoceuary degree of |iower over the dubtor'e person, it did not, till very recently, give iuificient power over hii property. In thin re- •pect, Indeed, it waa io very defective, that one la ■Imoet loniptuu to think It had been intended to pro- mote the practices of fraudulent debtors. The property of person* subject to the bankrupt and insolvent laws was. It is true, nominally placed at the disposal of Mslgnee* or tnutee*, for the benellt of their creditor* ; but when a poreon po**e*«ed of property, but not sub- ject to the baaknipt laws, contracted debt. If he wont •broad, or lived within the rule* of the Kibg'* llench or the Fleet, or remained In prison without petitioning for relief, ho continued most probably to ei\)oy the Income arising from that property without molestation. AOOOOMT or TUB NCMBtS or IUmmuptoibi oamttio im lAcu Ya4B, rauH 1M7 tu laM imclusivc. Uvorpool Msnohciter . . . IHmilDKhsm . . Leeds Bristol Kxater Newcastle Total country. . London Itkil 104 lt>S 140 IM «8 52 8B0 800 iflsr lOH UB na 169 6B DO UUil TflO 10*18 IMS. I law. 80 lliB 04 96 BO BT4 M 10« TO 6< 88 89 4M 411 MT i»»r M 69 00 00 6< 85 99 489 4T8 085 79 B8 loo 78 40 9T 489 sir /Vance,— In June, 1888, the French law of bank- ruptcy and Insolvency was abrogated, and an entirely new law was promulgated, which now form* Book III. of the " Code do Commerce." Unittd Slatet. — The power of making uniform law* on the subject of bankruptcy in the United States, 1*, by the Constitution, conferred upon Congress, and was generally undersUMMl to be exclusively vested in that body. This power was exercised by Congres* in 1800, by the enactment, of a bankrupt law, limited to five year*, and which wa* repealed by act of December 19, 1808.— Kknt. The Congress of the United State* leg- lelated a second time on the subject of bankruptcy, by an act, pasted In August, 1841, to establish a uniform •ystem throughout the Union, which took effect on the !d February, 1842, but was repealed March 8, 1843, The repeal of thi* act *caroely affected any existing Intereet*, a* alniott every debtor had haataned, in an- ticipation of the po**iblllty of it* repeal, to take ad- vantage of it voluntarily. At preaent there i* not any bankrupt *yttem under the general government of the United States, and the eeveral States are left free to Inatitute their own bankrupt system*, under certain limitation*. The Supreme Court of Mew York had de- clared the bankrupt act of Congre** to be con*titutlun' al (Justice BroDton diesenting), but the U. S. District Court of MUfOuri declared it to lie unoonititntional. B Mrbado— , or B» r b«dO«, I* one of Ih* Welt India Islands belonging to (ireat Britain, and tha okU est of hur tetllenienit in that part of the world. Tha •xsct dale of It* dlti'overy is unknown, but It wa* liruhaliiy not later than tliu early part of the sixteenth t'vntury. The I'orluguete (re tuprosad to have bean tlio llrst Kuropoant that vialtcd this laland, as It lay almost directly In their couraa lo and from llraall. They, however, had not rcganled It a* holding forth sulUclsnt Inducements for colonising, as when Ant visited by the Knglish In lUOfi It was destitute of !•• Iiabitauts, and covered with thick forests. The lint Knglish vessel that arrived thora "as the (Mm lilottom, tha craw of which took possi'salon of the island in the name of King .lanies, by orecllng a cro** upon the *pot where Jamestown was afterward built, and cutting upon tlie bark of a tree that stood near, "James, K. of K. and this island" — James, king of England and this island. The favorable account* which Sir Wiillani fourteen, a L«ndon merchant, afterward received of the Island fVom one of his ships that had touched there, induced him to attempt a set- tlement. He accordingly tittod out two large vossal* under the protection of Lord Ley, afterward Karl of Marlborough, who had otitained a grant of thi* lilaad from Jaine* I. Une onI> of these ships arrived at ita destination on 17th February, 1U2&, and landed 40 Knglish, and 7 or 8 negroes, who laid the foundation of a town, which, in honor of their fovareign, tbay called Jamestown. Barbadoes Is the moit eastern of the Caribbae Islands, lying 78 miles due east of the Island of St. Vincent, between lat. 18° 2' and 18° lu' M., and long. 6»° W and &9° UU' W. It presents almost the form of an Ir- ngular triangle ; It* greatest length, In a direction north by west, is nearly 21 miles, and its extrame breadth ft'om east to west is 14^ mile*. It* circumfer- ence, excluding the sinuosities of the bays, is 66 mile*, and it* area 106,470 acre*, or about 100 *i|uara mile*. In sise, and in some measure in its outline, it bean • considerable resemblance to the Isle of Wight It i* almost encircled by coral reefli, wliich in some part* extend seaward for nearly three mllo*, and prove vet}' dangerous to navigation. 'Ihe chief staple article* produced in Barbadoes tor export are sugar, arrow-root, aloes, and cotton. Tho following table gives Ihe value of tha import* and ex- ports for the year* 1840, 1860, and 1861 : \—n. " 1IU9 1860 1S6I Imporl*. ieBI,478 784,868 789.OTT ■ Bipori.. —mliio 881,684 887,097 Twaiff*. 85,781 90,881 96,979 Carlisle Bay, the port or harbor of Barbadoes, form* an open roadstead, which Is much exposed to the wind when blowing flrom tho south and southwest. It is spacious, and capable of contair'ng upward of 600 vessels of all bIzcs. It aflbrdB, however, no protection during gale*; and at *uch times vessels at anchor generally prefer putting to sea, to running the risk of being driven ashore. — K. B. BarOMlao, or Baoalao, the Spanish name for cod. Barcelona, the capital of Catalonia, and the prin- cipal town of .Spain on the Mediterranean, lat. 41° 22* 68" N., long. 2" 8' 11" E. It is a strongly fortified, well-built city. The population is supposed to amount to about 120,000. Barcelona is eminently distinguished in the history of tho Middle Ages for the zeal, skill, and success with which her citizens prosecuted commercial adventures at • very early period. She would seem also to be entitled to the honor of havin}{ complied and promulgated the famous code of maritimo law known by the name of tho Coniotato del Mare; and the earlieet authentic notices of the practice of marine insurance and of the negotiation of bills of exchange are to be found in her annals. Catalonia has continued, amidst all the vicissitudes it has undergone, to be tiM most industrious of the Spanish provinces. Several BAB 152 BAH •xtenrive mamrf'Mtnm have been eiUbliibed in Bai^ eeIona,««peciaUy of cotton; and no fewer than 28iteam- •nginea were erected in Catalonia in 1842, tlie greater nnmber being in Barcelona. Latterly, however, her txnmnerce, owing to a variety of caoiea, bat princi- pally to oppreuive restrictiona on the importation of fiiveign goods, the emancipation of South America, and internal diueniions, has very much declined. Iptportt.—tbe principal articles of import are raw cotton, sugar, coffee, cocor, and other colonial prod- nets, principally from Cuba and Porto Rico ; Mlted fish, hides, and horns ; iron and hardware, etc. Most species of manufactured goods are prohibited ; but it is needless to add that they are, notwithstanding, largely imported into this as into most other parts of Spain, The trade with the colonies, France, and tlio coasting trade is pretty active. The imports trom England are not very considerable, and the exports little or nothing. In 1842, no fewer than 8667 vessels entered the port ; but these were mostly coasters of small size, the bur- den of thq whole being only 189,117 tons. Hrpartt.—'Ihe principal exports are wrought silks, aoap, fire-ams, paper, hats, laces, ribbons, steel, etc. But no vessels, except a few that take on board manu- Ikctured goods (or the Spani^ West Indies, are loaded here ; and even this trade is much fallen off. Upward of 2000 hands used formerly to be employe d in the «ily in the manufacture of shoes for the colonies ; but their export hss now nearly ceased. The principal articles of native produce that Catalonia has to export are most conveniently shipped at Villanova, Tarra- gona, and Salon. They consist of wine, brandy, nuts, almonds, cork, bark, wool, fruits, etc. Of these, Cuba takes annually about 12,000 pipes of wine, worth at an average £i per pipe, and alwut 8000 pipes of brandy, worth £S per do. ; Sonth America, 16,000 pipes of wine, and 6000 do. brandy ; the north of Europe, 2000 pipes of wine, and 2000 do. brandy. A good deal of brandy is sent to Cadiz and Cetto ; most part of the former finds its way into the wine vault* of Xeres ; and the latter, being conveyed by the canal of Languedoc to the Garonne, is used in the preparation of the wines of Bordeaux. From 25,000 to 80,000 bags of nuts are annually sent from Tarragona to England. Tarragona also exports about 12,000 bags of almonds. The ships belonging to the port carry on no foreign trodo except to the Spanish West Indies; they are few in number, and are daily decreasing. Those engaged in the coast- ing trade are usually of very small burden. We have derived these details from various sources ; but princi- pally from British Consular Setunu, and from Inglu't Spain m 1830, vol. ii. p. 384-387, and 862. Barilla (Ou. Soda; Fr. Saudt, Sarille; Get. Soda, Barilla; It. Barriglia; Port. SMa, SarriUta; Buss. Sociatla; Sp. Banila ; Arab. Kalt), carbonate of soda (see Alkalies), is found native in Hungary, Egypt, and many other countries. It is largely used by bleachers, manufacturers of hard soaps, glass-raakerf/, «1c. The barilla of commerce consists of the nsfaes of several marine and other plants growing on the sea- •hore. The best, or Alicant barilla, is prepared from the Saltola loda, which is very extensively cultivated for this purpose in the huerta of Murcia, and other places on the eastern shores of Spain. — Towmsekd's Traveh in Spain, vol. iii. p. 196. The plants are gath- ered in Septemlier, dried, and burned In fumares heat- ed so as to bring the aslies into a state of imperfect fusion, when they concrete into luud, dry, cellular masses of a grayish blue color. Sicily and Teneriffe produce good barilla, but inferior to that of Alicant and Carthagena. Kelp, which is a less pure alkali, is formed by the incineration of sea-weed. Se» Kelp. The Saracens established in Spain seem to have been the first who introduced the manufacture of barilla into Europe. They called the plants enipldyed in its prep- aration halt; and this, with the Arabic article al pre- fixed, has given rise to the modern chemical term •Ikali. Prime quality (n barfll* (* l« im AUiinnfAOui by its strong sroull wlwrn wlwitwd, mtii It* Hn wMtltti ojlor. Particular attouilvM ihimM tm fmU Ut h««« u little small or dust «« poMilrfa, 'Ctw H)«HMf««inr« «f artificial soda itoiidf /lelM, mm V»ty fiHtiuiAvtfy carried on, occasionsd an »%imm4Umr)i rtw1(M« In the import* of barilla, tha (|u«nfll/ niH*fH(i tiHu OfMt Britain for home coiwumpiion (n IHM, nmitimUtifi to 287,712 cwt., having Imn r«lH««t Ih 1X0 •« 41, sm cwt. Considsrabla <)uaiitt(l«* wu>4 fitfmnly Ut M Im- ported ftwm Tcnarirth, bat it imw »mm j/rt«t'lB(tlly from Alicant in Spain, and Wully, t Iim», ut Hiilrnn imported Into Great llriul)) Ih iMM, )*m vmtt from Spain, 768 from Italy ((*Mly), KW frm (h« IJrtiltrd States, and none from Ilia l'iinitrU>», 'ttw Auty m barilla, afier being redwud In imt 'tnm Wt, Iti (U, a ton, wa» wholly rt'pealert ipi tHitt, f»,i, i7 Umn, »f Hli,Uil I'M,, none of which was re.a»j)urli/liliii, dM Is the original cinchona of Peru, It (» mm vwy oc/(fce, It is imported In chest* cover**! with •)*(«#, fniM CWIililtl' IngaboutaK) pounds, well |w M, (rtll fimmHWf m\%l!([ with a quiiiitliy of dust and iMmt h4>itifimimcles, or rod bark, l» ittitnUmii tfimi iiw f'lni'/iniin obhmtfifolia, growing m t\m AittUm, H in imfmtttA In chests containing firnm IMI lo tM \HmtlAi> fmb. ft consists of variously sliied ))ioiw«, mmi nt i)wm fiat, but some partially <|uilM iff fuiM, 'itSm Inlofnai part is woody, and of a rust fnA »»\i)ri H ji/ts a WCdh pecnliar odor, and It* ImUi Is mui'h tfH* hUii^, iiUt mora austere and nau>w«ui, tImN llt*l lit llnf trtlier barks. Tlie third Bpiic|i»», or y4Um (i(*l1t ht tlw shopd, is obtained trom tbo IHiuhnm I'imllfillo, ((fimfnK In Quito and Santa Vi. It I* iummn^ In vitfMn cfwlaln' ing from 00 to liK) pounds vsuh. ctmoMIlt^ lit [Mi^ti H or 10 Inches long, sotiw arfc annually eK|iorii'il friim Ainfri/a afnnfinlii to (Irom 1S,000 to 14,000 qwlMala, iff itmm, 90U0 tn ;. ■><■■. BAR 153 BAA Amiahed by Santa F4, and 110 by Loxa; Peru Air> niahing m abroad, and used to give a yellow dye to ailk and wool, is mixed up in the cua- toni-houae returns with bark for tanning. The latter, which la by far the most important, is brought princi- pally from Belgium and Holland, Germany, Italy and Spain, Norway and Australia. Quercitron is found principally in the United States. The quality of bark differs — according to the age and size of the tree, the season when it Is barked, etc. — so much that its price varies from £i to iElO a ton. The duty on bark for tanning and dyeing, which previously to 1842 was 8d. a cwt., after being then reduced to 8d., was repealed in 1846. In 1852 the imports and exports of Peruvian bark were respectively 18,207 and 10,092 c/t. Dur- ing the tame year was imiwrted 403,980 cwt. bark for tho use of tanners and dyers, of which only 146 cwt. was re-exported. But in addition to tho above woro imported. In 1852, 2516 tons divl divl, and 18,871 tons valonla, of which very llttlo was re-exported. Bel- gium, Holland, tho United Stateu, Germany, Italy, and Norway {\imish by fitr the largest portion of the imports of oak bark. Wo are lndcbte;i-Jiii«afc BAB 1S4 BAT t«r, no Mt of barratry can be committad ; for no man (an commit a ftsud against himself. It is a maxim in law, that tnnd (ball not be presumed, but must be clearly proved ; and it is a rule in questions of insur- ance, that he who charges barratry must substantiate it by conclusive evidence. It is not necessary, to render an act barratnxm, that it should be committed with a criminal intent a> lespects the owners, in order to injure thorn, or to beneiit the captain or crew. It may even be committed with o view to promote the owner's interests ; for an illegal act done without the authority or privity of the owners, and which proves detrimental to them, is barratry, whatever be the mo- tives in which it originated. Lord Ellenborough, in an able judgment, has laid it down as clear law, " that a breach of duty by the master in respect of his own- ers, with a ft'audulcnt or criminal intent, or ex male- Jich, is barratry ; that it makes no difference whether this act (if the master be induced by motives of ad- vantage to himself, malice to the owner, or a dUregard oflhote law which it vxu hi* duty to dbey ; and that it is not for him to judge or suppose, in cases not intrust- ed to his discretion, that he is not breaking the trust reposed in him, when he endeavors to advance the interests of his owners by moons which the law for- bids, and wiiich his owners also must Iw taken to have forbidden." The circumstance of the owners of ships being permitted to iusuro against the barratry of tlie master and mariners can hardly fail, it may be not vncliaritably presumed, of rendering them less scru- pulous in their inquiries with respect to their charac- ter than they would otherwiw be. Perhaps, there- fore, it might be expedient to prohibit such insur- ances, or to lay some restrictions u|H>n them. They were, indeed, expressly forbidden by the Ordinance of Rotterdam; and Lord Manslleld, whose authority on all points connected with the law of insurance is so deser^-edly high, seems to have tliougbt that it would be well to exclude barratry- entirely from policies, and to cease "making the underwriter become tlie insurer of the conduct of the captain whom he does not ap- point, and can not dismiss, to the owners who can do either." But though it were expedient to prevent the owners from making an insurance of this sort, nothing can be more reasonable than that third parties, who freight a shippPr put goods on iward, should bo al- lowed to insure against such a copious source of loss. For a further discussion of this subject, see the arti- cle Mauikr Ixsurakce; and Marshall on Innir- anct, book i. c. 12, § 6, and Park on Inmrance, c. 6. Owners, masters, or seamen, who willfully cast away, bum, or destroy ships, to the prejudice of freighters or insurers, incur the penalty of death. — .See Seamen, Barrel, a cask or vessel for holding liquids, par- ticularly ale and beer. Formerly the barrel of beer in London contained only 32 ale gallons = 32^ Imperial gallons ; but it was enacted by 4.1 Uco. 3, c. C9, that 86 gallons of beer should bo taken .u be a barrel ; and by the 6 Geo. 4, c. 68, it is enacted, that whenever any gallon measure is mentioned in any excise law, it shall always be deemed and taken to Ije a standard imperial gallon. At present, therefore, the barrel contains 3C imperial gallons. It may be worth while observing that the Iwrrel or cask is exclusively the produce of European ingenuity; and that no such article is known to any nation of Asia, AfVica, or America, who h.- >> not derived it from Europeans. Builoade, in Xaval Architecture, a strong wooden rail, supported by stanchions, extending across the foremost part of the quarter-deck in ships of war. The vacant spaces between the stanchions are com- monly fllled with Tope-mats, cork, or pieces of old cable; and the upper part, which contains a doulile rope-netting above the rail, is stuffed with hammocks, to prevent the execution of small-shot in time of ac- tion.— E. B. Barwood, a red dye wood brought trom AMca, particularly tnm Angola, and the River Gaboon, The dark red which is commonly seen upon British ban- dana handkorchieiti is for the most part produced by the coloring matter of barwood, saddened by sulphate of iron.— Bancroft on Colon. The imports of bar- wood into England, in 1841, amounted to 2012 tons. It brouglit, in January, 1848, from X8 to £4 a ton (duty 2«. included) in the London market. Baaketa (Fr, CorbeiUe»i Gor, Kiriei It, Paniere; Sp. Camufos, Canattotf Russ, Koninii) are made, as every one knows, principally of the interwoven twigs of willow, osier, birch, etc,, but fk«quently also of rushes, splinters of wood, straw, and an immense variety of other materials. Jbey are used to hold all sorts of dry goods, and are constructed of every vari- ety of quality and shape. Baat, for straw hats or bonnets. — See Hats. Batavla, a city of the island of Java, the capital of the Dutch possessions in the East Indies, and the principal trading port of the Oriental islands, lat, 6° 8' S., long. 10G° 60' £., on the northwest coast of the isl- and, at the mouth of the Jaccatra River, on an extens- ive bay. The harlior lies between the main land and several small uninhabited islands, which, during the boisterous or no>°thwestern' monsoon, afford sufficient shelter and good anchorage. Population in 1842, 63,8C0, including about 8000 Europeans ; the rest are CL-inese, Javanese, Malays, etc. It is built on marshy ground, and intersected by canals in the Dutch style ; defended by a citadel and several batteries, and has a considerable garrison and marine arsenal. Mean temperature of year, 78°'d: winter, 7S°'l; summer, 78°-6 Fahrenheit, Temperature at mid-day, 80° to 90° ; at night, 70° Falirenheit, It has a stadthouse, exchange, hospital, numerous churches, a mosque, a Chinese and two orphan hospitals, several Chinese tetpplcs, a largo eluli-houso tei med the Ifarmonie, and a botanic garden, Batavia was formerly so very in- salubrious, that General Daendela was anxious to transfer the seat of government to Sourabaya; but Ijeing thwarted in this, he set about building a new town, a little farther inland, on the heights of Welte- vreden, whither the government offices were immedi- ately removed. Most of the principal merchants have now their residences in the new town, repairing only to the old city, when business requires it, during a portion of the day. In consequence, the old town is at present principally occupied by Chinese, and the descendants of the ancient colonists, several of its streets having been deserted and demolished. More recently, however, the Baron Capellen, whose enlight- ened administration will long be gratefHilly remem- bered in Java, sensible of the superior advantages of the old town as a place of trade, exerted liimself to prevent its further decay, by removing the causes of its unheulthiness; to accomplish whicli, he widened several of the streets, filled up some of the canals, and cleansed others, demolished useless fortifications, etc, ; and the effect of these judicious measures has been, that Batavia is now as healthy as any other town of the island. It is the seat of a supreme commission of public instruction for tiic Dutch East Indies, and has a school of arts and sciences, and publishes a news- paper. The Jaccatra is navigable by vessels of 40 . tons two miles inland ; ships of Arom 300 to 400 tons anchor in the bay, one mile and a half from shore, Batavia is the great commercial emporium of the Asiatic Archipelago, and aiisorbs by far the greatest proportion of the trade of Java »nd Madura ; the an- nual exports of which islands amount to 60,300,000 florins ($25,123,000), and the imporU to 80,000,000 florins (412,000,000), Exports consist mostly of cof- fee, sugar, pepper, indigo, hides, cloves, nutmegs, mace, tin, rice, ratans, and arrack. Chief imports, linen and cotton goods, woolen stuffs, provisions, wines, metallic wares, and manufactured articles of all kinds from Europe and America; with the prod- BAT 155 HAT coloniei in the world. It contaiiu, including M«dnM, an area nf 62,000 square roilea, with a population of nearly, if not quite, 10,000,000. TBI Values or Tin ExroBra from Java, and tuxib Disti- HATioN, in 1846, 1886, AND 1836, wiRX AS follows: CounlriM. IMt. 183<. Netherlands Indian Arolilpelago. Great BrtUin China, Macao, etc. . . rioriiu. 80,608,848 fl,8!i«,548 2,&«S,D87 1,S8«,T0S 1,826,140 1,100,644 61B,M1 816,940 Tll,808 Plorint. 27,889,688 6,708,168 189,603 8,318,706 1,344,146 America . . .' Hamburg 1,009,&S» 108,149 Sweden 263,069 Other places 800,816 18M. nets of the Archipelago, Cliina, Siam, Bengal, Japan, •nd the West Indies. It was founded by the Dutcti in 1619 ; talien by the English in 1811, and occupied by them till 1816. The district of Batavia, extend- ing along the north shore of the island, is flat and not so fertile as the other provinces of Java. The res- idence of the governor general was transferred flrom Buitenzorg to Batavia in 1847. As the population has increased since, it may at present be estimated at from 180,000 to 140,000, independently of the military, of which there are always a considerable numlier. Among the principal mercliants are Dutch, English, Americans, French, and Germans. The ishind of Java forms the most important portion of the Dutch posses- sions in the East, and is, in fact, one of the finest OmoiAL AooomiT of tue Quantities or Tin Pbimcipal Abticlks of Pbodcoi xzfobtid fboji Java and MADrSA ih Tm FOLLOWIKO Y« Plorbf. 6,618,626 4,867,788 840,098 1,076,109 49,989 911,981 68,884 67,172 060,735 1880 188S 1340 1841 1842 1843 1844 1816 288,740 466,871 l,139,m 061,467 1,018,854 1,018,102 1,2,10,1136 1,006,100 Papp«r. I Indigo. | HIAmT TCuli 0,061 11,868 9,911 18,477 10,441 23,083 19,494 11,627 Poontb. 22,068 686,763 2,193,911 1,827,886 1,627,437 1,800,129 1,648,620 1,653,869 Pl«;«. 80,240 139,096 110,494 190,473 167,677 162,310 160,224 106,761 ClOTSI. Pleub. 808 4,666 63 T,6Ca 1,718 2,027 2,800 9,934 Nutmtgi. Pleulii 1,804 5,093 8,600 6,126 6,129 2,113 8,181 8,403 Samr. PInila. 108,640 489,548 1,024,408 1,046,676 884,686 929,760 1,008,632 PInili. 91,426 40,836 62,334 48,840 60,127 46,706 68,729 1,466,428 j 78,687 Riet. Ritain. I Hm«. COTMU. 18,621 26,677 PICIllL 080,009 676,213 884,167 1,008,774 785,276 447,017 Plcnli. 6,090 4,905 28,032 87,017 86,594 73,635 78,600 61,260 Plenli. 177 1,606 STO 1,171 1,432 486 2,300 2,076 6,261 4,«73 4,663 6.862 0,26S 4,378 Account oi tue Quantities and Values or the Puhcipal Abtioles expobtsd rBOM Java and Maduba in 1386 Ann 1845. Prfncipftl ArtlelM. Arrnck Hides Indigo ■ CofTeo Popper Bice Spices, Mace Cloves Nutmegs Siiintr Tobacco Tin All other articles and treasure. Totals. QoantUlM •>port«d In 1886. Vain* Qf BxporU QnftDtlU«i •iportel I Tnlo* of SxporiB 1,477 Icegers. 109,008 pieces and 816 plculsi 407,708 pounds. 498.073 plculs. 7,000 plcnia. 86,480 coyans. 931 piculs. 2,185 plculs. 3,836 picuis. 509,614 piculs. 2,477 kodies. 47,739 piculs. rlocini. 116,005 217,715 1,122,882 16,090,362 125,085 8,389,615 896,268 168,036 1,711,600 9,083,141 769,860 3,718,810 7,867,833 42,261,642 4,378 leggers. 106,761 pieces. 1,613,869 pounds. 1,000,190 piculs. 11,527 piculs. 447,017 plculs. 830 piculs. 9,284 piculs. 8,408 piculs. 1,456,428 plcnls. 6,811 kodies. 78,686 piculs. FtorlM. 153,222 220,649 4,061,608 20,123,798 184,433 2,682,101 182,834 201,046 510,383 20,850,200 2,824,480 4,044,518 10,006,888 66.895,168 Bani of Batavia. — A bank, for the issue of notes and other banking business, was established at Bata- via in 1827, with brandies at Samarang and Soura- baya ; the history of which is not uninstructive. The capital of the bank, consisting of 2,000,000 florins, di- vided into 4000 shares, was subscrilied with difficulty ; and the most unfavorable anticipations were enter- tained of the success of the establishment. No soon- er, however, had the bank been set on foot than she began to enjoy a large share of prosperity. The rapid increase of cultivation and commerce in Java led to a corresponding demand for capital, and to the payment of a very high rate of interest on loans ; and as the loons made liy the Imnk consisted of bank-notes, which cost next to nothing, the profits l)ecumo quite enor- mous ; so much so that tlicy amounted in 1837 to 83 per cent., tlie price of the 600 florins share of bank stock being tlicn also 1560 florins. But this prosper- ity was as brief as it was signal. The ofler of an ex- orbitant interest had tempted, in not a few cases, the bank to make advances oa doubtful security ; and in Java, as elsewhere, issues of paper payable on demand necessarily stop, the moment tlie circulation has lieen fully saturated with notes; and this result having been attained In 1838, and the notes issued by the bank Iraing lienceforth returned on her for payment, she speedily l>ecamo involved in the greatest diflicul- ties ; many of those who depended on her advances for support were no longer able to meet their cngage- ntents ; and the whole Island was subjected to a severe pecuniary and commercial crisis : in fact, but for the Intervention of the government, in 1810, when bank- notes were made legal tender for a llmiteelieve, from all we can learn, that it is preferable to every other system hitherto devised for developing the resources of tropical countries. — For some remarks on this subject, see the learned and able Vittertatio Hutorico-Pvlilica, on the Dutch East India Company, by Van Linden, published in 1839, p. 161-171. Very great public improvements have also been al- ready effected, and are still in progress in the island. Among others, an excellent high rood has been con- structed through its whole length, from Kantam, on its western, toSourabaya on its eastern coast, whence cross- roads lead to all the principal stations. A number of forts have, also, been constructed in commanding sit- uationg in the interior, the principal of which, at Sn- rackarta, near the centre of the island, is a regular and strong citadel. It is said to be the intention to transfer the seat of government thither (Vom Batavla. These forts have been erected principally to keep the natjves in check, and to prevent those outbreaks that have done so much to retard the prosperity of the isl- and. Several important establishments have also been recently founded along the southern coast, which had previously been all but neglected. — See Argout tur Java, Singapore, etc. Rice used to be the staple product of Java ; but it is now far surpassed by coflTee and sugar, the culture of uoth of which has been astonishingly increased. In proof of this we may mention that the exports of cof- fee, which in 1890 amounted to 288,740 piculs, had increased in 1846 to 1,000,190 piculs, or to 01,090 tons; while the exports of sugar, which in 1830 amounted to 108,640 piculs, had increased in 1845 to 1,456,428 piculs, or 88,365 tons. More than half the trade of the island centres in Batavia. Indigo has also become an important product. The other prin- cipal articles of export are tin flrom Banca, tobacco, tea, and birds' nests. The imports comprise cottons, woolens, and other manufactured goods ; wines and spirits, with iron, hardware, and machinery ; opium ft«m the Levant and from Bengal ; and a great variety of other articles. Port ReffiUatioiu. — The following is the substance of the port regulations of Batavia : 1st. The command- er of a ship arriving in the roads is not to land him- self, or permit any of his crew or passengers to land, until his vessel be visited by a boat from the guard- ship. 2d. The master, on landing, is first to wait on the master attendant, and afterward report himself at the police office. 8d. A manifest of the whole cargo must be delivered at the custom-house within 24 hours of the ship's arriving in the roads. 4th. The master of a vessel must lodge the ship's papers with the mas- ter attendant when he first lands, which are duly de- livered up to him when he receives his port clearance from the same authority. 5th. No goods can be shipped or landed after sunset, under a penalty of 600 florins, fith. No goods can be shipped on Sunday without a special permission from the WMter fiscal, which, how- ever, is never refuse i oh application. 7th. No mus- kets or ammunition cnn Ire imported ; but the prohi- bition does not extend to fowling-pieces exceeding 100 florins value. Tariff.— KHcT a good deal of negotiation, it has been fixed that goods imported in foreign vessels shall pay an nd valorem duty of 26 per cent., and jinder the Neth- erlands flag of 12i per cent. ; that is, a duty upon the wholesale price at Batavia, not in bond. 'The export duty on coffee, if exported on a foreign bottom' to ft foreign country, is 5 florins per picul ; if on a foreign bottom to a port in the Netherlands, 4 florins ; and if on a Netherlands bottom to a Netherlands port, 2 flor- ins. Sugar exported on a foreign bottom pays 2 flor> ins per picul ; but if exported on a Netherlands bottom, 1 florin. Bice, on whatever bottom exported, and to whatever country, pays a duty of 8 florins per coyang of 27 piculs. Tin, exported in a foreign ship to what- ever port, 4 florins per picul ; and by a Netherlands ship, 2 florins per picul. The trade in spices is mo- nopolized by the Netherlands Trading Company. Goods are received in entrepot not only at Batavia, but at the ports of Samarang, Sourabaya, and Anjier in Java, and Khio in the Straits of Malacca, on pay> ment of a duty of 1 per cent, levied on the invoice value. Money. — Accounts are kept, at Batavia, in the florin or guilder, divided into centimes, or 100 ports, repre- sented liy a copper coinage or doits. The florin is a new coin made expressly for India, but of the same value as the florin current in the Netherlands. It is usually estimated at the rate of 12 to the pound ster- ling, but the correct par is 11 florins 68 cent, per pound. Doubloons, and the cotaM' of Continental India, are re- ceivable at the custbm-house at a fixed tariff; the Spanish dollar, for example, at the rate of 100 for 260 florins. Weight). — The Chinese weights are invariably used in commercUl transactions at Batavia and through- out Java and the other Dutch possessions in India. These are the picul and the cattle, which is its hun- dredth part. The picul is commonly estimated at 125 Dutch, or 188^ lbs. avoirdupois, but at Batavia it has been long ascertained and considered to be equal to 136 lbs. avoirdupois. — Hooendobp, Coup ifUiU mr File de Java, cap. 8, etc. ; Evidence o/'Gillian Mac- LAINE, Etq., hefore the Select Committee of the House, of Commons on the Affairs of the East India Company, 1831 ; Nederlandsche Staats-Counmt, 18th August, 1842, and other official information. Batten, a name in common use for a scantling of wood 2} inches thick and 7 wide. If above 7 inches wide, it is called deal. Bay (Saxon byge, an angle), an arm of the sea ex- tending into the land. It is smaller than a gulf, and larger than a creek. Bayou, bl'oo, or more usually bl'o, a term con- fined chiefly to inlets of the Lower Mississippi River, signif^'ing properly any stream which is derived from some other stream, or from a lake ; in other words, any stream which is not fed by fountains. The word is supposed to 1>e a corruption of the French hoyau, a " gut" or " channel" — a derivation which is rendered mor» probable by the prevalent pronuncia- tion, bl'o. Se^jtai of the bayous from Lake Pontchar- train, near New Ciirleans, end from the Gulf of Mexico, are very important channels to the interior country, and afford great facilities to commercial intercourse. Baxar, a term used in the East to designate a market, or building, in which various articles of mer- chandise are exposed for sale. Bazars arc now met with in moat large cities of Europe, There are sev- eral in Loii Ion, of which the one in Soho Square is the most considerable. Bdellium (Arab. AJhtoon), a gum-resin, semi- pellucid, and of a yellowish-brown or dark-brown color according to its age, unctuous to the touch, but briU tie ; soon, however, softening between the fingers ; in appearance it is not unlike myrrh, of a bitterish taste, and moderately strong smell. Two kinds have been distinguished : the oj>ocalpamm of the ancients, which is thick like wax, and the common dark sort. It is found in Persia and Ara1)ia, ))ut principally in the latter ; all that is met with in India is of Arabic origin. The tree which produces it has not been clearly ascer- tained. — ^Aimslib's Materia Indica, ■ BBA, lis? BEE B«aoh, « ibalving trimi of mwI or fililnfile wnshsd by the •«» or » freiilk-WHtor Uktt, uml llilerpnneti Iw* tween the wutsr uml tiw Untl, UH wlilyh vi lials ; as pearl, steel, nitiberi f{Mrw(| Mt»\, dkttlttttda, crystal, glass, sto, UonMit (-.'ittbnIkH ttN btiadi In rehearsing their Ave Maria* Hud l'Mt«rutMteri. Ulms beads or bugles are im|)ort«it in Utgs i(yilHiitlel Into India and Africa, -^HM,UnH llm> bitvlntf b«eH ihlliped from England to tbu weiit iiuitNt of the Utter In iH41. Large quantities are sent fruitM^hiim III liidiii, llii* Hmu em island^ etc. The ghtss iHiitilii neiK fnitil KilKlund are nearly |U imported, priiisiiiitlly frtiHi Veiik'e, where they are very largely produued. Titeir fiult'ltuiHufMC.> ture in Great Uritain is sitid to ba it MeMiMil|tl«Hi«f (rtrtwda- tlonsi and the quantity i)t wim t»ii<*A Mug llmKrd was reserved for tlw riiub. wbtl« - tlans in his day, Miny, ArtiH*m, tHntm, (h«! owl4^ il (M'^Mibt* (hat beer was used as » drink l*y fb« WM^lit K^)'t«(l«As neariy as early aa wine ftaolf, %m*^^im, in Mi* nt- connt of the retreat of tb« im tbM«WHi4 iiff«k*« M» yean B.C., mention* Mat (Iw iflbN^fNtri* >^ Afm«nis used a fsmienud drink mwie ifim imnkv, MitAntm Siculus state*, that the nNlbm f«f (iMtNiM pi-^ttA a fermented drink from Iwri^y, *tytiHe H ji^hHSf like the Egyptian*, Reef w«* 4i*riflgMMh(^ «4M«Mk (he Gnjeks by a varisty of mrm», H ^m c#W*/l ftivn^ KpiOtvot (barley wine), fr«W It* vlfwtt* Wftficrtl^dj awl firom the materia) emnloyed in it* f//rmM t)f whifii im «»♦«« (h« name foflof, and to the otiw niwit/ii ) Itut (w «!♦»« no description of either •ufflwI^Ht U» mHtti>: H* tii flMht- gui*h them f^m e*«b iHiicr, titifitj b« iiihiftnn «s, were made from barley, »b4 *ftw(l#r «»(«<** ««w m«^ nfactnred in Spain and llritain ftom niimn, Tacitu* inform* u* tb*t in hi* (im« imf wm (tM common drink of the Ommtw, Htui ftmn bin imptt- fect deecription of tN» prwe** whifh (!«'>' f«l('rt»e«1. It is not unlikely, or ratlxf (her* ^hh Iw km Aituiti, tiiit they were acquainted wlfll tiMi (Hrtlw*/! «f «(ttv«>f(l«f( bariey into malt, Hl»y i^Vfit m mmw rt#t«lls re- specting beer, He dlstiflgnisbwi It I* iim ftsme «f eerevuia or eefnUin, the Si*!*"!!*!!** fif #blch H I* known in modern l<»t(» wori*", Thi* beverage doe* iwt »j»(»«W (fl hfW* WrttMj Into general use in Urse«!e or it*ly ( \mi in (iwmtmf and Britain, end some otMr PoniJHl**, H i^ipmf* Ui have been the common drink of lb« IhI)*W«««(* I« lb« time of Tacitus, and proloitdy iimn itfdif^, h has etm- tinned in these countrie* ever sittccj »«wl (jt*«t *(0*n- tHles of lieer are still l»»»»f**tHfWl )« ()»it miMimHf*, ttmatU that the drink of ,i»« hrimf* in tblM i#"« toH of eharp drink roede with farnmnU'li imtiff, ntltifiii With the addition of hop*, WiwiA b# WJ- ll)i : tlced In London, such a brewer's "entire." I Havarian Brer Is the only other malt liquor which, ' from the peculiarities attending Its fermentation, re- ' quire* n special notice. The Germans, fVom the ear- liest historical periods, have been a beer-drinking na- tion, and some excellent malt liquors are made In that country. The "wcl*e bier," the truly patriotic bev- erage of Prussia, Is not made firom barley alone, but from 1 part barley malt and 6 parts Vhcat malt ; but the excessive tendency of wheat beers to sour hat caused potato starch to be substituted for the wheat, and tartaric acid to give the admired tartness. The other beers, however, more especially the ones now to lie noticed, the Bavarian beers, both the common pot liecr (schank-bier) and the intoxicating luscious bock- lieer, are browed flrom barley malt alone. — See Laoer BiKB. Ah appear* to be an ancient drink, and the name Is usually given to strong lieer of a pale color, as por- ter Is to that of a dark color. The varieties of ale are Infinite, but wc purpose only to notice the peculiarity in the manufacture of English ale, Indian ale, English home-brewed ale, and Scottish ale. In all high-priced English ales of the present day, liritliancy and paleness of color, with as little excess of sweetness as possililc, are tho objects to be attained l>y the lircwcr. To accomplish these ends, nothing Imt the finest pale malt must be used ; and to secure sound-keeping ale, It is of first importance that the malt shall have liecn thoroughly dried on the kiln. If prepared from what is technically known as "slack- dried malt,"that Is, malt not thoroughly dried for fear of coloring It, or which has had water sprinkled over It while still warm from the kiln, the wort as run from the mash-tun will be found acid, and will tinge litmus paper of a much deeper red than ordinary wort from well dried malt, and the ale prepared from it will not keep beyond a few months. It is necessary also to lie careful in the selection of the hops for ale. Oood sound hop* should alone be used ; many brew- ers now use a proportion of foreign bops along with the English hop. /'n/n, Indian, or Burton Ale, originally intended for exportation, and now so deservedly in high repute as ' among our most esteemed and wholesome lieveragos, i requires more particular treatment in its manufacture. I This ate can only lie prepared from the best pale malt and the Iwst hops ; and the chief peculiarities attend- ing its manufacture are, that U requires more than double the usual proportion of hops, that the attenua- : tlon is generally carried to a mnch greater extent, and i that the temperature during the fermentation should i never lie allowed to exceed 05° Fahrenheit. That a considerable amount of sweetness should exist in com- mon ale is allowable, and Indeed it is the presence of I a large quantity of undecomposed saccharine extract which gives to common strong ale its luscious mild- I ness. It is, however, the presence of this large quan- ' tity of undecomposed saccharine extract wliich pre- I vents common ale from being used as a diet drink by I the Invalid, or being relished in a warm country ; and I it Is tho circumstance of the Indian or pale ale having I its fermentation carried so much farther, and its sac- : charlne matter reduced in quantity, togeiher with its larger proportion of bitter, that commends it so much as a grateful and stimulant stomachic to tlie European resident in a warm climate, and to tho invalid. ffome-braeed Ale, a* brewed by the middle classes ;:^-; BEB 159 BEL for fear over run tinge wort (Vom it cessary Tor ale. brew- with fled for pute as eragos, icture. le malt attend- than ttenna- nt, and ghoold That a in com- nce of xtract 8 mild- I qnan- * pre- •Inlt by y; and having ts aac- rtth its much iropean I claaie* In Engtiind, ii uinally made in quantltlea of 3 barrela, i. e., 72 gallons. For this purpose a quarter of malt, or if wished to be extra strong, bushels of malt, are talten, with 12 lbs. of hops. The malt being crushed or ground, is mashed with 72 gallons of water, at the temperature of 160°, and covered up for three hours, when 40 gallons are drawn off; and into this the 12 lbs, of hops are put, and left to Infuse. Si.xty gallons of water, at the temperature of 170°, are then added to the malt In the mash-tub and well mixed, and, after stand- ing two hours, 60 gallons are drawn off. The wort from these two mashes Is Intled along with the hops for two hours, and after being cooled down to 65°, it is strained through a flannel bag into the fcrmenting-tub, where it is mixed with 1^ gallons of yeast, and left to work for twenty-four or thirty-eix hours. It is then run Into barrels to cleanse, a few gallons being reserved for filling up the casks as the yeast works over. Eight- een or twenty gallons of beer are obtained from the used malt by making a third mash with 26 or 80 gal- lons of water, and boiling the wort thus procured with the used hops. ScoUM Alt, but especially the Edinburgh ale, has been long celebrated, but as an ordinar)' beverage it is much more luscious and beady than London porter, English ale, or pale Indian ale. It is a much stronger drink than any of these, the home-brewed English ale approaching nearest to it in this respect ; and as the attenuation of the saccharine extract is only carried the length of the decomposition of two-thirds of its original strength, the largo quantity of undecomposcd saccharine extract renders It much more luscious to the taste, and milder than the English ales. The Scot- tish ales are brewed of various strengths, and are known in the market by their price per hogshead, and are hence commonly mentioned as £7 ale, JE6 ale, etc. — E. B. See Alg and Brewiso. lUl-OHTATION or 11(101, Ai.E, AND PORTIB IHTO THE UNITZI) Statis, ACCouniNn to Tbkaiiury Rkport or 1865. Bnglud. Seotliuid. Gallwu. V>llHi. Gallon. V.l».. 1844 101,489 $102,167 19,286 $18,843 1S4S 79,808 78,720 20,711 21,294 1846 117,821 110,897 88,404 89,881 184T 178,803 110,298 17,620 10,662 1848 130,000 101,171 39,282 21,538 1849 140,473 lis, 283 62,297 80,083 1160 160,788 120,987 52,856 41,790 ISBl 475,836 189,010 88,179 86,786 1853 202,883 186,904 110,-88 67,804 185,1 897,420 284,347 181,867 77,414 ISJM 826,671 424,876 270,064 128,007 1856 019,262 569,900 S4^016 188,457 Beet, or Beta, a well-known genus of plants. The common beet. Beta vulgarit, a variety of the red beet, has long been cultivated as a food for cattle, and is also used for the table as a pickle. It was intro- duced for this purpose in the latter part of the last cen- tury flrom Germany, where it is known by the name of mangel-tmnel. — See Aoriculturb. The variety termed white beet is smaller than the former, and has chiefly been cultivated on a largo scale for the forma- tion of sugar ftom its root. The chemical elements of beet-root sugar are expressed rt/omica% thus: Cu, H», 0» -|- 2H0, or, twelve atoms of carbon, nine of hydro- gen, nine of oxygen, and two of water. The largest extract of pure sugar fVom beet-root in Belgium was formerly 8 per cent., but is now 6 per cent., and is capable of further increase by improvement in the process of manufacture. The cultivation of beet-root was especially fostered in France by Napoleon, whose policy it was to encouroge every thing that tended to tender the Continent independent of Britain, then in possession of the chief sugar colonies. It Is only with- in a comparatively recent period, however, that the manufacture of beet-root sugar in Europe has assumed any degree of Importance, the total quantity produced In 1828 not exceeding 7000 tons, while in 1661 it was Mtimated at not leas than 180,000 tons. We aubjoin a few statistics relative to the Increasing importanee tif this manufacture from Tie Kconomiit (Nos. 481 and 482, Nov. 29tb, and Doc. 26th, IH&I). The quantity of beet-root sugar annually produced in France is 60,000 tons, or fully one-hiilf of the entire consump- tion. Though now subject to a higher duty than colo- nial cane sugar, it is considered probable that very shortly it will exclude foreign sugar from the French market altogether. The production of beet-root sugar In Belgium also Is rapidly on the inciease, the quanti- ty produced in 1860 being 7000 tons, or half the entire consumption of that kingdom. This had increased in 1851 to 10,000 tons, while of foreign cane sugar only 4000 tons were imported. In Germany it has made similar progress. In 1848 the quantity produced was 20,000 tons, which had risen in 1851 to 43,000, with a corresponding decrease in the imports of foreign sugar. Of 85,000 tons of sugar estimated to have been con- sumed in Russia, 86,000 tons were beet-root aiigar. In Austria, also, the production of this article increased ft'om 8000 tons in 1848, to 15,000 tons In 1861, while the consumption, of cane sugar had sunk fhim 82,000 to 25,000 tons.— E, B. Bebrlng'e Strait, explored by a Danish navigator in the service of Russia, whose name it licars. Behr- ing thus established that the continents of Asia and America are not united, but are distant from each oth- er about thirty-nine miles, 1728. Belfast, a maritime town, a municipal and parlia- mentary borough, the capital of Ulster, the chief mon- ufacturing and commercial town in Irclimd, and since 1850 the county town of Antrim. It i.i mainly com- prised in tho county of Antrim ; but the large suburb of Builymacarrct, separated fl-om tho town by tho Riv- er Lagan, is in tlie countv of Down. Belfast is situated in lat. 64° BO' 8-6" N., and long. 6° 66' 58-7" W., at the month of the River Lagan, which flows immediate- ly into Belfast Ixjugh (Carrickfergus Bay), an cstnary about 12 miles in length, and 6 miles broad. The town Is built upon an alluvial deposit and land reclaimed from the sea, the greater portion lieing not more thiin six feet above high-water mark. In common with all places so situate, it is exposed to occasional inunda- tions, and somewhat to the visitations of epidemics ; but independently of tho lowncss of its site, Belfast is in otlier respects advantageously placed, and generally by no means unhealthful. The environs of the town are highly agreeable and picturesque. Belfast has been steadily progressive in population firom an early period. In 1758 the number of inhal)itants was 8549 ; in 1782, 18,106; in 1798, 18,820; in 1821, 45,177; in 1831, 48,224; in 1841, 75,308; and in 1851, 100,800. The custom duties collected at the port in 1784 amounted to £104,370, and, after various fluctuations, reached £288,756 in 1834, £339,989 in 1843, and £877,829 in 1862. The great increase of sliipping fre- quenting the port appears in the following account of the number and tonnago of vessels entered inward at various periods : Ytan. No. of Vamli. TonMlce. Yenrt. ■no. of VmhIi. Tonnagf. 1780 1796 1806 1816 772 801 840 1,184 84,2S7 D2,r>76 09,535 91,371 18i5 ISuO 1848 1861 2,000 2,730 8,055 6.010 18!l,44l 290,709 445,087 060,988 The chief export trade is carried on by the cross-chan- nel navigation; but a considerable direct trade also exists with the United States and Canada, the West Indies, the Mediterranean, ond the Baltic. Belfast is the centre of tlie Irish linen manufacture, to the culti- vation of which it is mainly indebted for its prosperity. In 1841 about 240,000 spindles were employed, and the increase during the last ten years has been so rapid, that about 510,000 spindles are now in operation. The total value of all producte of the linen manui'acture ex- ported abroad in the ter. months ending 6th November, 1862, was £4,357,87''., against £4,160,157 in 1851 ; and ^-^ B£L 160 BEE; Iha export of Hnani and yunt, eipecially of th« latter, eontlnuea on tha increaM. In 1861, 6,060,ICU pound* of linen yama were exported ttom Uolfaat; and in 1868, 6,770,680 pounds. The harbor of Uulfait, orig> inally a creek of the Kiver Lagnn, has been niuub im- proved of late yean, and now allows vessels drawing eighteen feet of water to reach the quayi at spring- Udes.— £. B. Belgium. Belgium extends fVom lat. 49° 27' to 61<> 00' N., and ttom long. 2° 84' to 6° 4' £. On the north it is bounded by lloUand ; east by Dutch Lim> bourg and Luxembourg, and Bhenish Prussia; south by France ; and on the west by the North Sea. It is somewhat of a triangular form, of which the longest side is that adjoining Francn, being 860 miles in length. The eastern boundary is 233 miles, and the northern and western are together 270 miles in length. Its greatest length from northwest to southeast (IVom Ostend to Arlon) is &C leagues of 6000 metres, or 174 English miles, and its greatest breadth fVom north to south is 105 miles. It has an area of 2,046,608 hco- tares, equal to 7,278,068 English acres, or 1 1,873 square miles; being almut one^^ighth of the area of Great Britain. This country is divided into nine provinces — Antwerp in the north ; West and £ust l^luuilent and Hainault in the west ; Namur in the south ; Luxem- bourg in the southeast; Liige and Limbourg in the east ; and Brabant in the centre, Commerciai Auociation. — Belgium possesses a great number of commercial and financial associations. In 1861 there were no fewer than 101 legally authorixed Joict-stock companies for carrying on pul)lic works or enterprises, having a united capital of 880,847,208 francs. Of these 12 were assurance companies, 12 private banking companies, and 14 railway companies. It has eight commercial exchanges, under. the direc- tion of government; namely, iu Antwerp, Brussels, Ghent, Bruges, Ostend, Mons, Temionde, and I^u- vain. In 1822 the Qeneral Society for the Encourage- ment of National Industry was formed at Brussels, under a royal charter for 27 years, and which has since been extended to 1876. It has a social capital of 80,000,000 florins, divided into 60,000 shares of 600 florins, l>earing interest at 6 per cent. The admin- istrative body consists of a governor, nominated by the king, six directors, a secretar}', and a treasurer. It discounts bills, receives money at interest, grants loans and advances on titles and other deposits, etc. The national bank, instituted by charter granted in 1860, for twenty-flve years, has its seat at Brussels, and has branches in all the provincial capitals and several oth- er towns. Its capital is 26,000,000 ftuncs, in shares of 1000 francs each. It pays a dividend of 5 per cent, tipon the shares, and one-third at least of the profits, exceeding 6 per cent., goes to form a sinking fund. The administration consists of a governor, nominated by the king, six directors, and a council of censors. The banking operations are superintended by a govern- ment commissary ; a report upon its state is presented to the government every month. The State fkinds are deposited in this bank. The Bank of Belgium, char- tered in 1835 for twenty-five years, but which has been extended to 1876, has a capital of 30,000,000 tVancs. Its seat is at Brussels. The Bank of Flanders is estab- liiihed in Ghent. Antwerp is the principal sea-port of Belgium ; it has a good harbor, and superior commer- cial facilities. PopuUtion, in 1850, 420,000. The weights and measures of Belgium are the same ■• those of France. Gold, silver, and copper coins are struck at the royal mint in Brussels. The gold cams are ten and twenty-five (Vane pieces; the silver are of the value of \, i, 1, 2, and 2| fhuici; and the cop- per of 1, 2, 6, and 10 centimes. Commerce.— la 1861 Belgium posseased 149 trading ressels, of the aggregate burden c/ 80,677 tons. Tlie value of the import* and export* for the yean 1849, 18M. and 1881. wa* at CoBows^ „ . Vmh.- 184V 1W0 1881 U»»>iH«. li|i»tW, ' 400,^411,000 418,111,000 41».6y Belgic vessels was 7,046,655 francs; by foreign, 28,712,470; and by land and canals, 165,287,202 francs. Although there is a slight decrease in 1851 as compared with 1860, in com- paring 1850 with 1841 we find an increase of 259 per cent. The value of goods in warehouse on the 1st January, 1851, was 26,626,000 fVancs; entered during that year, 66,006,000; taken out for consumption, 39,922,000; for export, 26,942; and 26,480,000 were iu bond at the end of that year. Under the rule of France, Belgium, like tie other parts of the Continent, had suffered severely trora the operation of the conscription laws, which bad deprived the country of those active laborers who were necessary to cultivate the fields. Although peace could not re- store the great numbera who had perished,yet it stopped the further prognss of the evil in the Netherlands, by the establishment of a voluntary enrollment for a small regular army, and of a militia, whose service was re- quired only for one month iu the year. The mines felt the benefit of this regulation. The minerals of Bel- gium consist of coal, iron, and calamine. As soon as the union had been formed, and laboren became less scarce, a great impetus was communicated to thii branch of industry ; and companies were formed, who were most lilieraUy repaid by the profit of their invest- ment* in thi* branch of industry, which was augment- ed from year to year as long a* Belgium and Holland constitntod one kingdom. By the ezoitanent com* BIL 161 BBL mnaieatod to minbig, th* provlncM of Utgt aad HaU nsnlt, u4 a part of Munur, wan grutljr tnrlolMil i and a oompany fbrnwd to oxplort the mlnM of Lnxom- bourg were amply rewarded In their labon and their proAtf, till Interrupted by internal commotloni. The varioui branchei of manufiioturing Inddltry received a ilmllar Impulae, though at firit they were checked by the peace. The continental lyitem of Bonaparte had given a factitious encouragement to tome article* of manufacture, which ceaied with the return of peace ; and, till the formation of the kingdom of the Nether- lands, many branches were depressed by the rivalry of foreign goods in the market* to which they had ac- ceu. But as soon aa the Junction was completod, a stimulus was given to the manufacturers, by opening to their goods the market* of the East and West Indies, and those of alt countries with which the Hollanders bad traded. The Iron manufactures of Liege advanced rapidly in prosperity ; the woolen manufactures of Ver- viers felt most powerfully a similar impulsion; and many large estabiishmeat* were formed at Ghent and other places, where cotton goods were fabricated which rivaled those of England, and so far surpassed those of France that much of the goods was sold by the con- traband trade in that kingdom. The opening of the Scheldt was the necessary effect of the formation of the united kingdom. Merchants from various countrie* formed establishments with Urge capitals at Antwerp ) its docks became crowded with ships from all countries ; Its warehouses were loaded with colonial and other prod- uce ; and It advanced rapidly to a rivalry with Amster- dam, Rotterdam, and Hamburg in the transit trade to the interior of Germany. TIn following table shows the anBaal IneaaN aad expenditure fer the tvm years preceding 1861 : 1844. 1846. 1846. 184T. 1848. 1848. 1860. M8,8io,aas U0,8eB,tOl 114,««4,04S 118,888,0(8 l48,llT,8e« lt8,STl,49r 18t,eTT,18T VrMM, 1«^I8B,«T 184,88»,84» m,nt;iT4 I86,0«I,8M» ltt,Mr,0l» iis,Tan,to4 The number of works, In lUO, for the prsparation of Iron was 861, steel I, lead 8, copper 20, sine 19, alum 2, glass 85 1 18,223 workmen were engaged, and thv value of the produe* was 61,261,4(7 franc*. There U a decrease of 87 per cent, on the average of the three years preceding 1848, as compared with the three sub- sequent, in the iron manufacture. During the former period the demand for Iron was great, and the prices were augmented by the number of railways eonstruel- ing In Belgium and other countries. The population of Belgium In 1881 was 8,785,814 ; Inl840,4,078,lti2; and in 1860, 4,426,208; distributtd asf>>Uowii IBM. ISW. IS5*. 1 Aiitwus>i> e7 (91,079 646,064 7T»,4(6 («1,T0I 410,171 1(0,90(1 174,7111 188,868 4Mi,6fi6 784,617 (81,187 7SMei> 7US,740 4(7,848 ISBilfS l»i,B88 974,078 Unbsitt Went KUiiden I':uit Flendan lUtnault LIsge Namur Total ,.. 8,785,814 4,(»y^i6« 4,4>^6,S02 CouHtaoiAL Statistios of Bautau roa tbi Yba» IBM. Coa&trtM. If o. ot VaiMla. Toiuaf*. Cargo. Nuaabar of Man. Ko. of Vaaaala. Toaaaga. Cargo. Huads 8wedea and Norway Dtnmork Pruisia Mecklenburg Hanse Towns Hanover and Oldenburg . Netlierlanda Oreat BriUUn France Portugal Spain Sardinia Auitria Sicily United States Argentina Conrederatlon. Pern Uelglum Total, year 1880 5 149 (8 108 88 M 110 176 1040 186 8 69 9 1 10 100 8 1 419 9679 1,046 96,876 7,8.10 94,614 18,166 19,646 18,407 91,166 186,9(7 18,778 877 8,699 1,846 186 1,827 74,898 088 1T9 101,804 691,704 tuu. 1,048 t«,84« 7,699 94,876 18,166 11,199 18,094 11,070 186,874 16,885 877 8,960 1,840 185 1,S97 T4,76T (98 1T9 71,164 09 1,164 443 978 785 687 703 1,068 11,709 1,997 80 865 111 11 10} 1,876 80 8 8,049 485,856 27,573 8 140 68 108 89 60 107 197 1080 181 8 66 • 9 11 104 8 1 _428_ 2697 1,8(7 96,980 7,815 94,479 10,175 18,000 19,185 98,480 190,68( 1,0(» 1,978 T(,584 798 179 108,684 I 684,497 Taaa. 976 B,26( 4,070 4,400 1,689 4,117 6,007 18,095 69,209 11,908 223 4,773 1,449 098 1,746 92,678 9 48,927 1MI,09S 79 1,926 461 971 820 690 664 1,920 ll,n8 1,96S SO 888 107 81 120 1,090 84 10 6,081 I 27,u;f. I weta There are nineteen chambers of commerce and man- ufacture establibhed in the principal towns, the mem- bers uf which are nominated by tlie king from a triple list of candidates presented to him by the chambers. The meinliers of earh vary in number from nine to twenty-one, one-third going out annually. AUtratioru and Miiijicaliom in the Tariff, Tonnagt Vutiei, and Port Regulation! of Belgium, hg Adi of the 12th dag of April, and the 30th dag of March, 1855.— A law of the 21st July, 1844, article 6, authorizes the government to provide, by royal order, the necessary measures for admitting the products of Asia, AfHca, and America, imported direct Into Belgium under the flag of the countries of production, or of the countries whence imported, on the same terms as if Imported under the Belgian flag, provided Belgian Wssels are placed in such countries on an equality with the na- tional flag. By royal order of the 12th July, 1864, this law Is made applicable to Mexieen vessels and products. The law of 8th June, 1868j provides that the government is empowered to allow vessels proceed- ing firom transatlantio countries, or from « port beyond L the Straits of Gibraltar, to touch at an Intermediate port, whether for the purpose of receiving orders nr carrying on eemmerelal transactions by discharging or receiving cargoes. This law, being of limited durn- tion, is continued in force until the Slat day of March, 1866, by the law of 80th March, 1866.* The law of the 11th of June, 1863, authorizes the government to admit, free of duty, machines, new or improved ma- chinery imported for the purpose of introducing new branches of industry or perfecting those already esteb- lished, or for agric<)ltnnl purposes ; also, steam-vessels constructed on a new principle or improved plan, or such as could be regarded as models. This law is con- tinued in force to the 24th day of May, 185fi, by law of 4th June, 1866. * This lav suspends the prsetleal operatfen of the Tth ar- ticle of the treaty of November 10, 1845, between the United Slates and Belgium, which rutrtct* the equality of flogs In Belgian ports to direct Importations from porta In the United States. Under Its opemtlon the flag of the United States Is equalized with the Belgian, whether the vessel proceeds ftoit a port in tha Vnited State* or not Ti«rr UhmmMi* I oa>i. V .%L lain r. t ltai»-JutiiH Ihr building, B oMUnwtru or untfw In irWHh fW iMtMl.o ,,, Amair, l&i w>t Uquon vttnrr klMli lBbunli,MrkM«olUn ;iiV.li lab*«tiMi,fMorM ....>..,......... bUgnlcnnmta.pM'noiMiuiida ......A.............. From other piMM I ]■ nallsBAk ▼MMlit ptfMOpoandi ...•....«.««*.........*......*..... la fcntcn TMMla, per IM pmoAi .......>>........>...... OiaMnon aiKl «■*•!* Il|na: orohlaa, per MOpoandi ^ Of CoyhmMd other piMM, per tWp«Mdf PoiMi4povl ■■hoM •*• **t*»*«*f umitttttt titiiti*tti I * nu la hulk, ud other vegetiMa AluoeaU MtallMrviM tmO M tM U , fttUt f i M ntt Home Md hone-apo of oxen, eowi, ete. , Cotton, new *'"'v .»»•». ,,»»»»#»««*»»»»*»»#i.i.,*«» UidWMdMaummloaneduiddr^, p«rlWppVBd«. dipping* Copper oWt ,».•»..»*«#»»»».»#««»«#»«. I, *..« lpla*a,aotepecl*UrenuDwroted , ,.,„.,,„„, Tin, emde Oingcr ..«.. Tar • • ,,,»,tiititi>t>ittnnii*t,f runecd. Imported diract from Rlgo, from til Aug, la tat April. vpMi |ft«f of orlgtn Fat, tallow, and lard, perlMpoundi Oil, of palm, eoeoa, Touloaeuna, per ISO pounde ,, ,... Indigo ..,,.,.,,,.,......,,... >.>...,. Honejr, per no poonde MarWe, In Moeki and rough Lead on and old lawl ....■■ Herring!, other than m dry alt and pMhMLMrlMO...,, Codflih, ptakled or In drjr laH, per tun oriU la MO kHofrawMM . BtoekflibiperMOponndi Pepper and plmaato, per no pounde , Quenltron berk Wee, not hulled, or paddy, dlreet from eounlfle* of pndMtlM I In national reee el i, per WO pounde In fcwlgn TiWeli, par MO panada From etaewheni In n a ti onal Teeee l a, per WO pounde In foreln Tiaeila, par WO poundi . Blet, hulled, mm the counttTof produatlon, or from tiannHaMIe cotMlilee i In national T e eeela, perWOpounda , In forelga teeeela, porWOpounda From eleewherei In national maeela, par no pounda >.............,..,... In foreign TCieela, perWDpounda SaKpatre, enidc, per iM pounde , 8«ap,Iiaid, pernOpounda ,...,...,.,....,,.,.....,.,,,,.... Simp and molaeaea of even kind, per SiO pound*......,.....,..,,. Tobaeeo— Havana, F«rta Ueo, Columbia, ani OrinoM, dlmat f»Mi tmiMltaalla coontrleai In national Taaaele, per WO poundi ,...,....,...>.,...,........,..,,,. In foreign Tcaeele, per ttO pound* .,,., From eleewberei In national Tcaaala, par WO pound* ..,...,................<............ In foreign veaaeU, perWOponndi Tobacco— StDomlnga, or Weit India*, direct from tiMMailMll* (OunMeii In national reaaela, per WO pound* In foreign Timili, per WO pound* .............................. Fromelanrbere: In national reaeel*, perWOpoond* In foreign veaael*, per WO pouad* Other klad* of tolmeco, of eouniHe* out of Ean|«, dlrtet fttm touhUy of pndiwtioa, or tranmtlantlo aooatri** t In natianal veaeeia, per no pamda. ............................ ........... In foreign Tciaela, per WO pound*,,. ................................ ....... Fnmeliewheres In national TCeeele, per no peonll..... In foreign veaeda, perMOponada.... Tea, parWOponnja :'gi»rr ii3 ltd *n in «M ."♦ Int. ^* Ffaa. Fn*. 0001 Fre*. Fre*. I M per emt. Free. I W per cent ad Talomn. Fr*« f^ M Freo. Free. Fre*. 1 M ««« Free. dS 60 84 04 1 80 !«• 1 » %» «I «T» ISM 9 74 too 1 n % 19 1 M Sl( *0« 1 w It 10 i.fn.*t'»^WJ^..» AaHl 11, IMM. War. •0,l«ee. Mot. so, 1S64. Mar. 80, 186b • WIthIa the year ending SaftemI I, Oualc iher SO, tlDSk change* Mid modMaoltaii* ba«« Im»ii made In the general cnitoma tarlffii of Mexico, New Oranada, Peru, Oualemala, Ion Haivador, (ia*l* Maa, Turkcr, llell^tfm, llollaad, PDrtugal, England and her dependendea, and France ; but Inaamucb a* tbcw lorUb, liiu* modMod or CMllged, will appear in delaU In the aniwer to the naolotlcn of the Houae of RepreeentatlTC* of Deeembf r 14, tlH, now in cotifM of preparation at the 8tate Department, the eiiangaa In the tedtt of Belgium, HoUaad, Portogal, nefimid*, and N«wfo)iiidhind, afx alone giren in the pment report in tabular form; aad thoae In tb* taiiflk of Bngtaad WMl Fna** by *b*tiMt«y niMi* dans among the miuical initmment* of porciiation. Bells were a*ad among the Jew*, Qnak*, Roman Catholic*, and beathens. The reiponi** of tba Do. domean oracle were in part convejred bjr ImU*.— SntA. BO. The monument of Ponenna waa dooor«t*4 b)' pinnacle*, each lurmennted hy tell*.— PLur. lain- daeed by Panlinni, bliboii «f Nob* is CwpifMy •bout A.». 4M>. Flnt known In France in 660. The •rmy of Clothalr it., king of France, wai frightened froia tlM ti«g« of Sen* by the ringing of the bells of M. Stephen's cbarch. The second Excerption of the Knglisb King E((b«rt commands every priest, at the proiMr boar*, to sa«nd the hells of his chnrch. Bells won used in church** by order of Pope John IX., ai a rft^WWf bf rinfkf tiMm, agmmH (Aimder and ligklmmf^ ■A BEN t€i BKN ■bout 9M, FInl rn , w«l(hi 8,400 lb*. OrMi Tom of LtaMoln, mfcha *,»* " Omt Tom of Oiford, walflM 11,000 " Bell of th* Pdauo, FlonDoc, welghi. . IT.OOO *■ M.fMM'a.slIlama.wclghi I«,a0ft •• UraM Ball tl ErAirth, wrigha M,tt4 " 8t iTU'a Ball, Meaaow, valgba iaT,8M " Oall of Iha KramUn, walgha Ma,TIS " Th* l«it U the great nnsuapendad IwH, the wonder of traveleri. Iti metal alone ii valued, at a very Iot ealculation, at 466,606 itarllng. In Ita fiialon great quantitlee of gold and allver were thrown in at votive ofleringi l>}' the people. — IIayiin. B«U-in«tal, an alloy of copper and tin, Uinally In the proportion of HO parte of copper to 90 parti of tin. Zinc generally entera Into tha eompotition of amall ■hrill Ixlla. liy analyai* Dr. Thompaon foumi an En> gilah liclWmetal to conaiit of 800 parta of copper, 101 tin, 66 line, and 43 lead. The thickneaa of a bell'a •dge Is uauully l-16th of the diameter, and Ita height la twelve timci its thickness. The bi'll-foundcra have a diapason, or acnlo, wherewith they meaauro the size, thicknest, weight, and tone of their liclls. — E. B. Bandinc, in Nautical language, the tying of tw« ropei or caViea together ; thus, to bend lh» eablt, is to make it fait to the ring of tha anchor; tobendlheml, to make it faat to the yard. Bends, In a ahip, more generally called walet, are the thickeit and stoutest planks in her aide, on which men tot their feet when climbing up. They form the chief atrength of a ship'a sides, and have the beams, kneet, and foot-hoolu bolted to them. Bengal, the largest and moet important division of HIndoatan, altuate toward its eoatem extremity, and containing Calcutta, the seat of the Britiah govern- ment In India, Excluding the posaesslons of the na- tive priooet, over which the Britiah government mere- ly exereliei political supremacy, and excluding also the Punjab aud the Agra, or northweatern provincea, which are administered by functionaries having the powers and authority of lieutenant governors, the tract eirbraced within the presidency of Bengal lies between 10° and 28° N. lat., and between M' and 99° E. long. Its most northern extremity Is situate in the prov- ince of Assam, and its moet to'ithem point lies on the coast of Tenaaserlm. The district of Mirzapore, under the jurisdiction of tha lieutenant governor of Agra, forma the extreme boundary on tb^ 'vest, and the fron- tier of Slum constitutes its most eastern lii)nit. The longest line which could be drawn with extremities ly- ing within the limits of the presidency, is that in a di- rection from southeast to northwest, from the Pak Chan River, in Tenaaserlm, to the northwestern angle of the district of Sarun, where the River Gunduck issues from the mountains of Nepaul, in lat. 27° 26', h>ng. 88° 65', and would measure about 1560 miles in length. A considerable part of this line would, however, Ue across the Bay of Bengal. Tha longest lino that could be drawn without crossing the buy is from northeast to southwest, flrom the boundary of Assam to that of the British district of Palamow, a distance of about 870 miles. The extreme breadth of tha presidency, meas- ured at right angles to this last-stated line, is about 465 miles, bearing from southeast to northwest, fi-om the mouth of the Hooghly to the exit of the Gunduck from the mountains of Nepaul. Tho area of the presidency, as thus defined, amounts to 226, 103 tquaret railei. Bengal, especially as it approitchca the sea, may be designated a level country. Even In. Its northern IVontier, it is reached only on one point by any of the branchea that diverge from the Himalayas. A spur ttom the great culminating range bounds the north- eastern extremity of Assam; and thence taking a toutherly direction through the native States of Mun- neepnre and Independent TIpperah, (brma tlra eattam ftmntler ofthe British diatrlct of ChitUgong. Contin- ning fVom thia |iolnt ita aoutherly course, It atrelelMa, under the name of the Yoomadoung Mountains, throagh the province of Arraoan to III aouthemmott point at Cape Ntgraia, forming the weatem boundary of tha valley of the Irrawaddy. ThIa apur where it touehea upon Aaaam attilna an elevation of 14,640 feet alnva the level of the aea, and there Itt tumuiit It covered with perennial mow. The soli of to extensive a province Yariee, of eoartt, In Its character and fertility with the physical pacul- larltlea of tho country. In the level tract interlaced by the Ganges anil Brahmapootra, with their numer- ons branches and trlbntarlea, the soil Is alluvUl, itt basis iMing compoaed of sand, on which are annual- ly deposited, by the retiring waters, clay, ealcareom ibn whole world, Cotton is ralaad In abundance, but the produce soarcety exoeeda tha eensamption ; and the demand of the Uritish and China markets for the cotton wool of India ia almoat wholly supplied ttom the western side of the country. Silk is an ancient product of India; the ailkwonn, it Is said, being originally introduced from China. Former- ly tha raw material waa brought drum India to Ureece and Italy, whence Kurope was chiefly supplied. Den- gti still carries on a trade in this valuable article; and although the quality is scarcely equal to the finest Italian silk, the annunl export from Calcutta exceed* In value half a million sterling. A coarse species of allk la procured from the wild silkworm, w hich is found In the countries bordering on Bengal, and in several districts included within it. It is renilered usefiil In tha fabrication of infirior silks, thongh liearing no com- parison to the produce of the domestioated insect. The cultivation of the poppy ia entirely regulated and con- trollad liy the government. Annual contracts are mad« with tha farmers to sow certain quantities of land with tha plant, and to deliver the produce to the government In tha form of opium at a flxed price. The sowings commence In Novenilier, and the crop arrives at ma- turity Ijy the end of Fcliruary. The revenue realixed by the government from the sale of opium produced in Be.igal alone amounts to between two and three mill- kma sterling per annum, Tha orchard is a great object of cultivation with the paaaant In Bengal ; and it attaches him to his native soil, flrom the almost siiperstltious predilection whicli ha liebi for the trees planted by his ancestor. The sea- font, however, from the long continuance of the rains, which occupy the greater part of the aummer, are not narileularly fa%-orable for liringing flruit to maturity ; yat the orange, lime, shaddock, citron, tamarind, and ether Aruita, may be reckoned among the productions of Bei^al, Orchards of mango, a tree thriving with little oare, and yielding a fr^ait esteemed one of tlie best among those of India, divcnlfy the plains, In,size and foliage this tree resemblu) ttia .Spanish chestnut ; its fruit la extremely delicio'is, and is said to surpass in flavor tha largo yellow pouch of Venice. Another fralt tree is the cocoa-nut, voluable not only on ac- count of the nut, from which a superior oil it large- ly extracted, but in consideration also of its timber, which Is peculiarly fitted for the construction of water- pipaa and other useftil purposes. Even the husk which envelops the fruit furnithea a fibre from which the beat cordage Is manufaetured. The mullierry is extensive- ly plulted In contideratinu of its leaves, which iifTord the food of the silkworm. Assam abounds with tho genuine tea plant ; and the l««sia thriven in various localities, especially in the hillv 'list! -stt. Iti produce it aaculent and nutritious, ani< its ers yield an in- toxlf^atlng spirit. From its w«de ia pressed an all which is sometimes used as a fubst!' 'or 'jutter, There are also valuable forest tr«.. a, nv.iirjiv '' ulch may ' be noticed the teak, equal to tho .)«k t i' _. 'pos^ .if ' thlp-bnilding, the sal, and the banyan. T'h t i^ h/.JO ' the bamboo, which, being hollow, light, iwd .scooij, la tervicaable in supplying the pea.isnt Viith ,Ht( rials for hit buildings, as well as for the nianubcture of baaketa, matt, and other articles of like character, to which, when split, its flexilde flbre is well adapted. Minerali. — From the alluvial character of the great- •r portion of the soil of Bengal, no great amount of mineral wealth is to U aipactad. In the hilly traatt, huwaver, both In tha ••stem and wealam parts of tlia country, two of the nuMt useful yrmlucta which tha mineral kingdom ran lioast, coal and iron om, sxiat In abundance, tioid, in tha form of dost, ia found in a few placaa, but nut in (|uantities tuMotent to encourage to any extent the search for it, Manii/hrtiirf ami (\«MMrcs.— Cotton place goods form tha staple manufacture of Bengal; though tlia use of Indian fabrics of this description in Kurops has almost entirety ceased, wliile even In India thf ilomand for them has been in a great degree anperanded by tha cheaper gooda of Ureat Britain, The district 4if Dacca, la tlM eastern quarter of Bengal, has long been flinied for the manutiicturt of plain muslins, distinguished by various namoa according to the Hneness and the closa- nast of their texture, as well as fur rioweiad, striped, or checkerad muslins of the most beautiful and axquislta flilirics, Heveral kinds more closely woven ara nianu- fuctured on tha western side of the delta of the Uanget ; but those of a more rigid texture do not seem to be lim- ited to particular districts: coarse turbana and hand- kurcbicfa ara alao made In almoat every province. Un- der the general appellation of calicoca ara Included varioua spsoiea of cloth which ara atlll distinguished liy their Indian drsignationt. Moorshadabad and its ■eighlmrhood is the chief seat of the silk manufacture. The internal trade of Beugul consists chiefly in the exportation from Ihu grain districts of corn and rice in I'Xi'hungo for salt. The supply uf this article In Iten- gal is provided partly by manufacture con lucted on account of the govrmincut, partly l)y importation, and to a small extent by private manufacture under a sys- tem of excise. The duty on all imported salt is at the rate of Ave shillings on 82 pounds, or aliout three far- thinga per pound | and the same rate of duty ia levied on the home manufacture '>f tha article, the prima cost of which amounts to «)>riiit ana farthing par pound. The wholesale pricn ol > it at Calcutta may tlierefore lie estimated at one r wiy thn pound. Its supply is no longer a monopolv -, for thitiijh the manufacture and sale have not b<.ou rellnquuhed l)y the government, yet the public participate in its provision, under a combined system of cuatoma and excise. The net rev- enue derived from salt by the govenimiint within the presidency of Bengal exceeds a million and a half sterling per annum. Salt is a very ancient source of revenue in the East ; but a feeling againat its manufacture lieing carried on by the govemmeot haa been for some time on the in- crease. During the parliamentary session of 18&R, a clause waa proposed to be inserted in the India bill, then in its progrett through Pailiaroent, forbidding the manufacture after the 1st May, 18&6 ; and though op- posed by the ministry, it was in tha House of Com- mons carried. By the House of I^rda it was, howev- er, rejected, it being dc ■ "d unsafe thus suddenly to diminish tlie resources oi !/\dia by so large an amount as that of the revenue produced by the trade as at prec cnt conducted. The facilities aftbrded for tlie Intro duction of English salt have for several years past caused a great increase of the imported article, the quantity received in Calcutta in the oflicial year 1850-51 being double tliat of previous years. The internal trade of Bengal is greatly aided by the navigable communications which intersect the country in every direction. The boats used in this navigation vary in fom: and constmction, being each adapted to the natu'u of the rivers which they generally traverse. Steam navigation has liecn introduced u|)on the tianges with suct.'ess .; avi the Macadamized trunk road from Calcutta :r, Delhi has afforded facility of communica- tion with the capital to various parts of the presidency ; bat there can be little doubt that in the course of a few years the rivers and roads of Bengal will alike be- come subsidiary to the great arteries of communica- tion which, in the form of railways, are now com- 165 UKR ■MfiHng t« IntofMrt Ik* eounlry. Hm lln* Arom CaU tutta to Hur4wan li •dvaneliiK niplilly lo ronipUtlm | fruM IhU polat II will U ««lliiu*il In a northerly ain. Tha an porta conalat chlatly ut all tha aUpla aril- olat o/ Iha cuunlry— aiich aa eollon, ailh, lUffar, rum, and Indira. Tha Import* ara malala of all aorta, wruughl and iinwrougbl ; wuolan and cotton manufac- luraa of varlotia kind*, wlilr'i can !« aani from llrllain and aoM ehaapar tJia ' 'i.a ■aina daaurlptloi- II >id allver liulUun ; " r\ ufaotura. »f . >v« andUiaro itaa< t ilandt ara ehilly . "lun' n plM . o< ma manufaeturaa of tha i.llury aloraa ; gold and rtlcltiof iirliUh man- ia carried un to China . ' tha CMt. Tha axporta r dtpeiro, (funpowdar, cotton, and B. Y(« ilfal, Bajr oi a portion of tha Indian Ocaan of Ih' 1 I ufa trlaMKla, havliiK on lla waalam alda tho I > .1 ilangal, and on tha aaal the coaal of Arrai^an, I'l II, aim Ihe ahore, while the caat couat haa aoundinga two dc- greca from It. Coroiniimlel prescnta un open country ! It la parched with drought from winda blowing over tultry oanda ; the mouiha of ita rlvera are ahallow from bare of sand, and It la often vlaited by dangeroua gales. The eaat coaat, on tha other hand, la covered with wood. The climate ia alwaya temperate ; the rivera are deep and muddy ; and the weather ia generally oalm. The monaoona blow over the Bay of Bengal, though It ia remarkalile that here, ua in many parts of India, atrong winda are found blowing dirertly from the sea, while at some distance from the Inn I it is a dead calm. Thus in Bengal there are slroii„. norther- ly winda, while at sea calma prevail until May and June; and on the Malabar coaat the southwest mon- soon doea not comm e blowing till tho lH-);inning of tii<' ''aaon, white on ahore there are atrong wcat- «rl} ..ua about and after tha time of the vernal equi- nox.— E. B. Bargamot, • species of citron, Citriu limetta, dis- tinguished from the orange and lemon by having wing- teaa leaf-atalka. It is a native of the Muth of Europe, and is produced abundantly in tho nelgUtorhund of Nice. The fruit has a delicious taste and sm«ll, and Its essential oil is highly esteemed as a pfrfuiup. The essence of bergamot is also called eunzia di fcdro. It la extracted fVom the yellow rind of the frii i by fit- ting it In small pieces, and express! 'k tho oil, or by distilling It ftvra water. One hundrxK) bergmimta of NIca yield, by expression, 2^ ounces of oil. B4rgiimot is also tho denomination of a coarse tapestry, manufactured with flocka of silk, wool, cot- ton, hemp, cow's or goat's hair, and supposed to be in- vented at Bergamo, in Italy. Bargen, the first commercial city Of Norway, situ- ated at the bottom of a deep bav, in lat 60° 24' K., long. 6° 20' E. FopnlaUon 26,000. The bay is in- rloeed cm til aldSff by rugged racks an>l Islands ; Iha watrr in daap ; bat, ««li<< >" the nnmlm and InUlr*' oy of II. p ai aa g ea, iha a. ..a» ii Iba lomi ia atlandad at all lliii(-< wiih a good deal of dlMcitilv. '"»l uliuold never he atlemptnl wlihnnt a pilot. Codnah, ii|>i«a chlaMy •« Italy and Holland. The flaher) la the prinolpal itnpbi) mant | and ciinaidarable quanlitlea of Hah ami mhar prodncU are alao brought hither for axporlallon rrum tha nrara northerly parte of the kingdom. At an average, from ■i6,()0U,IN)U lo IM),0 Iher detalla aa lo the trade and navigation of Norway. Berlin D«ora«, a memorable interdict against the commerce of England. It dudared the llrillsh ialandt to be in a state of blockade, and all Kngllshnien found In countries occupied by French troops were to be treated as prisoners of war ; the wliole world. In fact, was to cease from any communlcalion with Great Britain. Issued by Bonaparte from the court of Ihe Prussian king, shortly after the luitlle of Jena (which for the time decided the fate of Prussia), Nov. 21, 1806. BamradlW, or IEk>m«n' Zslea, were discovered by Joao Bermudas, a Spaniard, in 1327 ; but were not inhabited until 1600, when Sir George Somen was cast away upon them. They were settled by a statute O James I., 1012. Among the exiles fh>m England, during Ihe civil war, was Waliei*lhc poet, who wrote, while resident hero, a poetical description of the islands. There waa an awful hurricane hero, Oct. 01, 1780, and another, liy which a third of the bouaea was deatroyed, and all the shipping driven ashore, July 20, 1818. Berriaa {Uacca), the fruits or seeds of many differ, ant species of planta. The berries quoted in London price-currents are bay, juniper, Turkey and Persian, 1. Bny-4rmV» (Fr. Baia de Lnurier ; Ger. lA>rbterm ; It. Baceki diJMuro; Sp. Bagat), tlie fruit of the Imutui nobilia. This tree is a native of the south of Europe, but is cultivated in England, and is not uncommon in tlieir gardens. The berry is of an oval shape, fleshy, and of a dark purple color, almost black; it hat • sweet fragrant odor, and an aromatic astringcDt taste. Bar-lierrles, and (he oil obtained by boiling them in water, are imported from Italy and Spain. — Thom- son's Diipmalory. 2. Juniper Berrift (Fr. Gtnevricr; Du. Srrenboomf It. (iinepro ; Sp. Kmbro), the fruit of the common juni- per (Jtiniperus communU). They are round, of a lilack purple color, and require two years to ripen. They liave a moderately strong, not disagreeable, but peculiar smell, and a warm pungent, sweetish taste, which, if they be long chewed, or previously well bruised, is fol- lowed by a considerable bitterness. They are found in England : but moat of those mode use of there ara imported ftom Holland, Germany, and Italy. They should be chosen fresh, not much shriveled, and frea from mouldlness, which they ara apt lo contract in keeping. On diotillation with water, they yield • volatile eHential oil, very subtle and pungent, and Ik BEB 16< BBSS •mell in«atly nMmbliog the barrin. Tha peenlUr Uavor and diuretic qualitiea of Geoava depend princi- pally on the preaenck! of thia oil. £n|;liah gin is said to Iw, for the most part, flavored with oil of turpentino. — Lewis's Mat. Med. ,- Thomsom's Dupetuatoty. 3. Twkry Ytllow Berria, the unripe fruit of the Xkamiuu in/ecioriut of Linnicus. They are used as a dye drug in preparing a lively but very fugitive yel- low, for topical application in calico-printing. Con- siderable quantities of them are exported from Saloni- ca, to which tliey are brought ftrom Thesaaly and Alba- nia. An inferior sort ia produced in France. — Ban- CKUPT Off Colort. Price in the London market, Sep- tember, 1853, 34s. to 40s. per cwt. 4. Penitm t'ellow Berria are said by the merchants to be of the same species as the Turlccy yellow berries. The colors whicli they yield are more lively and lasting. Ther are high-priced, fetching fkom BOi. to llOi. a cwt. Betyl, called by the Jewelers Aquamarine. This stoue was suspected by I'liny to be a variety of the emerald; a coi|jecture which modem mineralogists have completely confirmed. The term emerald is ap- plied to that particular variety which presents its own peculiar color, or emerald green ,• while that of ber}i is given indiscriminately to all the other varie- tiea; aa the sea green, pale blue, golden yellow, and Golorlesa. Pliny says that the beryl is found in India, and rarely elaewhere ; but besides India, it ia found in Peru and Brazil ; at Kantea and Limoges, in France ; in the Wicklow Blountains, in Ireland ; in the district of Cairngorm, in Scotland ; and in various other places. — Pliny, Uitl. A'at. lib, xxxvii. cap. 6 ; £itcj/c. Brit. new edition. Those only which are of good color and sufficient depth are manufactured; they have a pretty, lively eifect, if in good proportion and well polished. Large stones, from one to three and four ounces, are not un- common, but from their bulk are only in request as •paciniens for the cabinet ; smaller stones, suitable for necklaces, may be bought at low prices, ivitliiu the teach of every description of purchasers. — ii&WB on Diamotuh, etc, 2d edition. Bcwint, or BSBsnt, a coin of pure gold, struck at Byzantium in the time of the Christian emperors ; and henoe the gold offered by the king at the altar is called betant or bitaut. It seems to have been current in En- gland from the tenth century till the time of Edward III. Ita value is not precisely ascertained, but it is 1 nerally estimated at 9t. Hd. sterling. B«tel-leaf (Hind. Fan; Malay, Sireh; Javan. Suro), the leaf alluded to in the following article. It is the produce of a species of pepper vine (Piper belle), and somewhat resembles the ivy leaf. In their fresh state, betel leaves form an important article of Eastern traiBc, Iwing every where used in the preparation of betel. The Piper betle is a acandent plui.t, and poles are placed in the ground, round which it twines itself. In consequence of the great consumption of its leaves, it is extensively cultivated tbrongbout tropical Asia. It grows in the greatest perfection in rich soils close to the equator, and is raised with more difficulty the farther we recede iVom it. — Ettcyc. Brilaimica, new edi- tion, article Betel; Crawfuiiu's Indian Arthipelago, Tol. i. p. 403. B«t«l-nut, or Ar«o« (Sans, and Hind. Simprif Malay, Pinottg; .Javan. Jambi), the f^it of the Areea ealtrku, a c!ender and graceful palm, rising to the height of about 80 or 40 feet; it produces fruit at the age of five or six years, and continues bearing till ita 25th or aoth year. The fruit, which ia the only part of the palm that is made use of, ia eaten both in ita nnripe and in its mature state. When ripe, it is of the size of a amall egg, and of an orange color ; the exte- rior part consists of a soft, spongy, fibrous matter, in- closing a nucleus resembling a nutmeg in shape, inter- nal structure, and color, but usually larger, and alwaya harder. A single tree produces, according to its situ- ation, age, culture, ate,, trm WOUtim ttM», TfMy areoljeels of great ImportawM In ttm fstH, (»mitla the principal ingredient of • mHUtmnA •« tuihunai uae aa a maaticatory in all Citntm iut4 ^^up^fll^ AM», The other ingredtento are tba \^llf^4^l^n tmU4 p^pptt (which see), in which the ar<«^^«-«Mt ia 4l'f«|«|M'4 ) » mU Chdnam (wblflh see); and gxiwrsll/, t»H MU ittwafn, a little caleohtt or terrajaputiiia,— /«'<'# (b« tilu btti, would be considered neglcil, and Its ft^nMm %im6 h« Judged an alTront on the ulhar, Nw »mii iif MefUif rank addresses a digniUed fnitlvMual wfllM/Ml ilt«r ptf- Tious precaution ol cbuH iiig lMit«l ( iww ptHipUf M'ldoffl meet without exchanging it f and U is Hi^ujfii Hlt»»i on tho ceremonious iiiterviaws iif pnliHn HiMmutitt, The areca-nut is, in consaquance, «h mUif lit iixtf ««- tensive trade. The couHtria* whifti fMl[ H tn««ii largely for exportion ar«, MaUbsr, t'¥f\im, «M «tt- niatra. Of the extent of this Ir«i1«< mmm miiUm tnty be formed from the fact that i\w \m\mm* itf pffen Itilo Calcutu in IH41-18i'/ ainuuMUd Iw Mi,m» tutt, (naiinds, or 1066 tons, and those iiili) i'sHC/H tH tm, Iff Mi' ish ships only, amounted to 1(1,^)1 ^|^^IHU, m iUrt tmt, iiotwithatanding Bengal and ^nM^wmiMn* ac* I'tdttt- tries in which areca ia larguly [ifm\w¥Ar=-Hfii Ihf nrll- cfe Betri, in tho new adliiuw uf ttm Kui'i/h, IMlamlin i Bell's Reviiw nf ih» fMtrwU (.'imiwi'i'i' (// flinydti CnAWFUBu'a Mfan A reiiptlapi), V(/), i, p, JW, vol, li. p. 414 ; Climeet i'ulindur Hn4 llrultl'i', Bay rout, Bvirout, or lirirttt Ou fniii/), « ftrf DArd sea-port, and the niuat fUmrUMnn "imHmAnA iimn ot Syria in proportion to its »\im, fm'tm^iii' lit Attn, m a bay of the Medilerranuan, b7 mHf* wnni-ilittiU^itnit tit Damascus, of which »liy it Is (ha)(Wt, mili ft roll^a miilh of Cape Beyrout, whUh f» tl) l«», »»" WC ft,, hiig, 96" 26' E. Population MtinmUd at I V""'' UimMl\»»t» about 8 miles In circumfaraiM*!, imhitU- ot tthiih are suburbs equaling t.'iu town tii immi, U has mrmt large and well su|i|>lied hmntfUf HlfffU iinttim, but clean, it being pkiiiifully furiileMttHh Kfitltigsj am) it is said to have durivi'l ifs iiiri^Ui»\ imtlm ttum the Phu'niclan deity, Baul llmilh, " \i)tA ut wHl*," Alfrtig the shore are some remains itf aii«))|Hll/, mtnytMvy^ mosaic pavements, coluwMS, #»(d a i\iW wall, Thn harbor, protected by a mol*, )• »'U\ii¥([ imiy tin miM boats; but in the bay \m\m\A H •hf|/* may uni-hitt In from 6 to II fathoms, 'lb" Umn \im mn* tnatnifac. tore; of silk stuffs, and gold m\A uSUm (bfci«l. J'rln* cipal exports, silk, galls, iM»d4«r, y,»mii, wlttc, anit oil* j Imports, muslins, cottons, tin, \mrA¥i»t¥. /hrtdi., ami nianul'actures of western Vmiu^, \u m\, tiKS jliliis, nil -ily Turkish, Arab, and 'if«*)t, ai$gr><((ai(i bMKlcti 38,4 11 tons, entered tlie port t»(()l I'Mnum Ui Ihf t/ilriB of jE66,74() ;' and naariv ilia sania tiM«»(*r iU»t¥i\ otit with cargoes worth iib, I m. \mi\l\¥* imWMt Ufv tout was bombarded and (afceii \iy ^^w KHjrfj.b In /M«. Bnoar (Arab, h'miuji |M»d, Mif^n&iihi Vnn. Padt hr Kanit), a concretion (UHllA (« thu utimiMch of an animal of the gust kind | It liM » Mnimih glossy surface, and is of a dark groen itf iiUnit MlUif i ill* word bezoar, however, baa lately (Mian »'»(*H larly in European languages, llie Polyglot Dible, edited by Walton, bi||iop of Chester, in the Hebrew, Syriac, Chaldee, Samaritan, Arabic, Ethiopic, Persic, Greek, and Latin languages, 1667.— Wood's Faiti, ftron.— Haydh. Bight (Dutch bogt, participle othoogen, to bend), a bend in the sea-coast, Ibrnring nn open bay; also a ronnd of a rope or cable when coiled. BllbkO, a city and principal port of the north of Spain, capital of tho province of Vixvaya (Biscay), on the Nervion, 8 miles from its mouth at Portugalcte, and 28 miles north of Vltoria, hit. 48° 14' 8 " N.. long. 2° 56' 6" W. Population 11,900. It is inclosed by lofty mountains, and is well built. Principal manu- factures, hardware, anchors, leather, paper, hats, to- bacco, and earthen-waro ; tliere are large rope-walk, and docks for building merchant vessels, with iron and coppermines in tho vicinity. Exports comprise wool, iron, fish, and fruits. Principal imports, cotton and woolen fabrics, and colonial produce. Bilbao was found- ed in 1800; at the end of the 15th century it became the seat of the famous consulado, originally established at Burgos, and having the highest authority in Spain as a commercial tribunal. It was the scene of frequent contests in the late Carlist wars, and Zumalacarregui received his death wound here, June 10, 1835. BUg6 of a ship, the bottom of lier floor, or the bieadth of the part she rests on when aground. Bilge- water is that which lodges on her floor below tho level of the well of the pump ; and bilge-pumpi, or burr- pumps, are those that carry off the bilge-water. A ship is said to be bilged when her bilge is broken in and she springs a leak. Bilge, the greatest circumference of a cask. Bill, in Nautical Language, the point of the fluke of an anchor. BUI, in English Law, a declaration in writing, ex- pressing either some wrong the complainant has suf- fered from the defendant, or a fault committed by the person complained of against some law or statute. In Scottish lav, every summary application, by way of petition to the Court of Session, is called a bill. Bill, in Commerce, has been usually defined a writing in which one man is bound to another to pay a sum of money, on a day that is future, or presently on demand, according to the agreement of the parties at the time when it is drawn ; and on which, in the event of fail- ure, execution may be summarily done to enforce pay- ment. — E. B. Bills of ZSzchange. AVithout entering into any investigation regarding the origin of bills of excliange, which has been assigned by diffbrcnt writers to dif- ferent countries and causes, we may say that it is now the most generally adopted opinion that they originated in the twelfth or thirteenth century, in Italy, at the public fairs, which received a marked importance in commerce, throujr'i the Crusades. The money-chang- ers transacted their principal business at the public fairs in tho principal cities, and bills or orders for the payment of money nt a distant place were at first drawn only from one fair to another, and were called cambia regularia. But when commerce increased, through the Ilanseatic League, and extended to places where no public fairs were held, Idlls of exchange were also drawn upon such other places, and these bills were called cambia irrtgularia. The oldest copy of a formal bill of exchange known at present is one dated at Milan on the 9th of March, 1826, and runs in the original as follows : " Pagate per questa prima litera [lettera'] a di TX. Ottobre nLuca de Goto Lib. XtV. Sono per la valuta qui da Mateo Reno, al tempo il pagate e ponete a mio conto e R. che Chritlo ri guarde Bonromeo de Bonromti de Milano IX. de' Marm, 1325."—" Pay for this first bill of exchange, on the 9th of October, to Luca de VSL 166 BIL Ooio XLV. LirNt ; thty are for viiaa nceived hsn fiiom Maico Keno ; at tbe time of maturity pay the Mm* and paw it to my account, and thanking yon, may Christ protect you, Bonrameo de Bonromei of Milan, the 9tfa of March, 1826.'* In England, reference was made, in the atatute of 5 Rich. II. ch. 2, to the drawing of foreign bills, which waa in the } ^ar 1881. The legal propertiei of blUi in England are derived firom the custom of merchants, but promissory notes are said to derive their properties from the act of Parliament of the 8d and 4th Anne, c. 9, which puts them on the same footing with inland bills. In the United States, bills of exchange and promissory notes are recognized in law as negotiable instruments, with all the properties usually attached to them by the custom of merchants. The statute laws in many States especially provide for their negotiability ; but in States where this is not the case, the same custom- ary properties would be held to attach to them, Name and D^fbution. — A bill of exchange, in commi n speech CHlled a draft, is an open letter of request, ad- dressed by one person to a second, desiring him to pay a sum of money to a third, or to any other to whom that third person shall order it to be paid; or it may be made payable to bearer. For instance : " BoUon, Id January, 1862. " Exchange/or $1000. " Sizty dayt after tight qfthit till (if exchange, pay lo the order ofOeorge Green, One Thomaiid Dollar!, value nctived, and place the tame lo account, at advited bg "CuAULEs White. "To Mr. jACoii Bnowir, AV» york." Partiet. — The person who writes the request is called the drainer, and he to whom it is addressed is called the drateee i and if he agrees or consents to pay the money signified in the bill, he is said to acoept it, and is then called the acceptor. Tbe third person, to whom the money is payable, is called the payee. In the above instance, Charles White is called the drawer, Jacob Brown the draieee, and after he has consented or accepted to pay it, the tttceptor, and George Green is called the payee. If it is made payable tq him or order, or to the order of him, as above, and he then assigns it to another person, to wUom the money is to be paid, by writing his name on the back of the bill (which is called indorsing the bill, and the act itself an indorsement), he is then called an indorter. The person to whom he orders the money to be paid is called the indortee or holder, and if this one again as- signs the bill to another person, the latter is called the indorsee or bolder, and the other the second indorser ; and every ether person who successively puts his name on the back of the bill is called an indorser, and the person to whom it is last delivered is called the holder. If in the almve-cited instance George Green should write on the back of the bill, " Pay to tbe order of William Baker," signing his name beneath, "George Green," tlie latter would be called an indorser, and William Baker would be called indorse^ or holder ; and if Baker, again, should sign his name under that of Green, and order the contents of tlie bill to be paid to sometwdy else. Baker would bo called an indorser, and the person designated by him tlie indorsee or holder, and so on. Slant Indortemmti. — It is very common for parties to sign simply their names on the back of the bill, without designating to whom the contents shall be paid. This is called a "blank indorsement," and whosoever holds the bill may write above the signa- ture that it is payable to his order, for instanr , if George Green, the origii|al payee in the above specified bill, had simply writteit his name nn the back of it, and had delivered it to William Baker, and Baker again bad simply put his name on the back under that of Green, and bad delivered the bill to one J. Brown, tha latter would b« the holder, and might write over tha signatiin of Orvan, *' Pay to tha ordsr of WilUaas Baker," and over the signature of Baker, " Pay to tha order of J. Brown." Although these blank indonw- menta are very common. It would be desirable, and it is highly to be recommended, that each indorser should write in full over his name the place of bis residence, the date, and the name of his indorsee ; that is, the name of the person to whom he assigns the bill. Thus, in the above instance, if George Green resided in New York, he should write on tbe back, over his signa- ture: "A«w Yoti, Jamiary 8d, 1862. " Pay to the order of William Baker, "Georoe Gkken." And in a similar way the successive indoraers should do. This way of indorsing has twoadvantnges. Intha first place, if the bill should be lost or stolon, with a blank indorsement on it, any person who finds or holds it might fill up the blank in his own name, and de- mand payment ; whereas, if it were indorsed in full, the finder or bolder would have to forge the name of the indorsee before he could get payment. In the second place, if the bill should be protested for non- acceptance or non-payment, the holder would know at once the places of residence of the different indorsets, and be able to give them due notice without delay. Formt. — When bills of exchange are drawn on a place at a distance, and in a foreign country, it Is customary to give a set of three bills of the same tenor, that they may be sent separately by different mails, so that in case one should be lost, one of the others might reach the person concerned safely. One of tha common forms of a bill of this kind would be sabstan- tially as follows : "Boston, July ls(, 1862. " Exchange/or jtlOOO. " Sixty dayt after tight [or after date, or at tight, or on demand], pay thit my first bill of exchange (tecond and third of the tame tenor and date not paid) to the order of Mr. , One Thousand Poundt Sterling, ralue re- ceived, and place the tame to my account, at adcited by " Paul Joxes. "To Messrs. Okkss A Ca, Xontfon." The second bill of the same set would be in evety respect tbe same with the first, except that it would read, "Pay this my tecond bill of exchange, first and third, etc., not paid." And the third bill would run, " Pay this my third bill of exchange, first and second, etc., not paid." foreign and Inland Billt. — Bills of exchange are divided intoybreiV^ bills of exchange and in/and bills of exchange, because the rights of proceeding and remedies thereon are not uniformly governed by the same rules and regulations. A bill of exchange is called a foreign bill when it is drawn in one state or country upon a person residing in a foreign state or country : ns, for instance, when drawn by a person in one of tlie United States of America upon a person resident in England, and payable by the latter. And it is called an inland bill (or a domestic bill) when both the drawer and drawee reside in the same state or country ; for instance, when the bill is drawn in Boston upon a person residing in Salem, both places being in the State of Massachusetts. The differcn t States of the United States are considered as foreign to each other, so ihat a bill drawn in Massachusetts upon a person in New.York is considered a foreign bill. In like manner, a bill drawn in England upon Scotland or Ireland is considered a foreign bill. — Maboncy t>. Ashlin, 2 Bahi, & Adolpb. K. 478, 482. The Form, — A bill is not confined to any set form of words, and it is not essential that the very language of the formulary which has been given above should be used. It is only requisite that it be in writing, and contain an order or direction by one person to another person tu pay money to a third person, absolutely and BIL 169 BI& In every , it would , fust and my third )aid." Iiange are ihmd bilU ding and led by the change ii ■tate or state or person in a person ter. And hen both slate or in Boston IS being iu ates of the ach other, person in e manner, Ireland is ln,2BaVn, let form of ^ language )ve should riting, and to another lately and •t all evantt. The writing may be in pencil, aa well as in inlc, nor is it necessary that the whole instrument be in writing ; the general formulary is generally printed, but the signatures must be in writing. If a person should order another person to deliver a particular sum of money to A. B., or to be accountable or responsible for a particular sum of money to A. B., it would con- stitute a bill of exchange. So if the expression should be " Please to pay," or " I request you to pay or de- liver," '.t would be a good bill, because these expres- sions are mere words of politeness, in the place of an absolute order. But if the language used necessarily or naturally imports a request as a favor, and not as a matter of right, it would not be a^good bill. So it has been held in England that a note addressed by A tj B in these words : " Mr. liittle, please to let the bearer have £7, and place it to my account, and you will much oblige your humble servant, J. Slackford," was not a bill of exchange. — Little v. Slackford, 1 Mood, and M. 171. However, whera the language used is susceptible of, two interpretations, the true rule seems to be, that the mere drawing of a bill is deemed to be the demand of a right, and not the asking of a favor, and to deem it a favor only when the language used repels, in an unequivocal manner, the notion that it is claimed as a right. — Stoky on Bills nf Exchange, § 38. If the word " at," instead of " to," should bo put before the name of ti|e drawee'; «iff.," Two months after date pay to the oMor of J. J. £'S, value received, T. S. At Messrs. John Morson & Co.," it might be held a bill of exchange (Shuttleworth ti. Stevens, 1 Camp. 407), or a promissory note, at the election of the holder. So in a case where the instrument was as follows : *' May 20, 1813. Two months after date pay to me or my order the sum of £30. W. S. Payable at No. 1, Wilmot Street, opposite the Lamb, Bethnal Green, London," and was accepted by the person residing at that place, it was held to be a bill of exchange. — Gray V. Wilmer, 8 Taunt. 739. The rule is, that, where an instrument is so framed as to admit of reasonable doubt whether it was intended for a bill or a note, the holder is at liberty to treat it either as a bill or as a note, as against the maker. It docs not seem necessary that the whole of the bill be written on one and the same side of a paper, or on one and the same paper ; it may be written in part on one paper, and in part on another separate and de- tached paper, provided the writing on each be done at one and the same time, and both parts be intended to form one entire contract. — Story on tiUh of Exchange.^ § iM, and note 1. If there should be no room left for indorsements, a paper might be affixed to the original bill for this purpose, but it would require proof of the fact that this paper formed a part of the bill. It often happens that there are but two parties to a bill, which is tlie case when the drawer makes the bill payable to his own order ; and when he then indorses it, the in- dorsee becomes in fact the payee. And if no drawee should be named, but the bill be made payable at a particular place, and the person living at that place should accept it, bo would be held answerable as ac- ceptor. Negotiability. — In order to make a bill negotiable, it must bo made payable to the payee and to hia order or atiigm, or to bearer. The common form, as stated be- fore, is "to the order.of A. B.," or "to A. B. or order," or "to iMarer." It would be advisable to adopt the form, "to A. B. or his order." If no expression be used which gives to the payee the power of transfer, it is novertheluss a bill. If the payee of a negotiable bill indorse it in blank, it is transferable by mere de- livery, in the same manner as if it were payable to bearer. If tbo name of the payee be left in blank ; e.g.," Pay to or order" — any holder may insert his name, and then indorse it ; the efl°ect would be tlie s.'uno as if it were made payable to bearer. So, also, if tbo name of the payee is fictitious, and the bill he indorsed in the name of this flctitions person, a holder who was ignorant of this fact when he took it may ro> gord it as a bill payable to bearer, and may sue tlN drawer, and also the acceptor, if the latter knew that the name of the payee was fictitious. The wordl "value received", are generally inserted in a bill, but it is not necessary, for the law in cases of negotialds instruments of this kind presumes it. Several Vrameet. — A bill addressed to " A, or in his absence to B," is valid, and will, if accepted by either, bind him. If a bill is intended to be accepted by two persons, it should be addressed to both ; otherwise, al- though accepted liy both, it will bind only the person to whom it is addressed as acceptor. If a bill is drawn upon A, B, and C, it may be accepted by A and B only, and it will bind them. — Stoby on Hills of Ex- change, § 68. On the Continent of Europe it is not unfrequent to put, liesides the name of the principal drawee, the name of another person, to whom applica- tion may bo mode for acceptance or payment, if the first-named drawee should be absent or refuse pay- ment ; which is generally done in this form : " In case of need, apply to Mr. at " (in French, "An Ijesoin, chcz M. , a ;" in German, " Im Noth- fall bei Ilerm , in "). The holder of the bill is obliged to follow the direction, if the first drawee should be absent or refuse. Although it is common to use the words, at the end of the bill, " and put it to my account," or "to your account," or "and put it to the account of A. B.," or " put it to account as per advice," or "as advised by," these words are not es- sential, but are used only as a matter of convenience. If the drawer should be indebted to the drawee, he would say, "and put it to my account;" if, on the other hand, the drawee should be indebted to the drawer, he would say, "and put it to your account;" and if the bill were drawn on account of a third per- son, he would say, " and put it to the account of A. B." If the bill concludes with the words " as per advice," then the drawee is not obliged to accept or pay, with- out receiving further directions or advice, and if he do so, he does it at his own peril. If the bill conclude with the words, "without advice," or "with or with- out advice," th'n the drowee may accept or pay with- out being further instructed by the drawer. But the words may be altogether omitted without impairing the validity of the bill. We may generally state, that all persons who are legally capable of entering into any other contract are capable of bjcoming parties to a bill ; or, in other words, all persons of full age and sound mind, both males and females, may draw, hold, indorse, and accept bills. Partners. — In regard to partners, the signature of the firm must be put to the bill, either in case of in- dorsement, drawing, or accepting; and each partner has complete authority to use it; and when so used, the bill is deemed to be on partnership account, unless it appear on the face of the bill, or it can bo proved that the party taking it hud full knowledge that the bill was drawn, indorsed, or accepted, not for partnership, but individual purposes. Agents. — Agents, if empowered for the purpose, ei- ther expressly or tacitly, may bind their principals to the full extent that their principals might do for them- selves, provided that they do not exceed the scope of their authority. But if agents would bind their prin- cipals, they must draw, indorse, or accept the bills in the name "of their principals, and not in their own name. The most proper way of doing this is in the following form, supposing A. Green to bo the princi- pal, and B. White, the agent : " A. Green, by B. White, his Agent." A number of other forms may be used ; caro should be taken, however, by ti J agent, if he means to ex- empt himself from personal responsibility, to use clear ami explkit words to show that intention, and to ex- BIL 170 BIL pnii on the contract the quality in which he acts ; otberwiae he doos not bind the party who employs him, but binds himself. A great many lawsuits have ■risen in consequence of an indistinct and looee way of stating the quality in which a person signs a bill, and different decisions in different States have been the consequence. It is understood in all theee cases that the agent haa sufficient authority fVom bis prin- cipal to draw or accept bills, or nial(e note*. If the agent, however, haa no authority, then the agent him- self is liable on the instrument. — 8fe liallou v. Talbot, 16 Mass. 461 ; Rossiter r. Itossiter, 8 Wend. 494. Payment in iloneg. — A bill of exchangu must be for the payment uf money, but it matters not what denom- ination the money specified has, whether it is called dollars, fVancs, pounds -sterling, Maro Banco, or any other currency, because the value of each kind can be ascertained. In England negotiable paper must bo for the payment of money in specie, and not in bank- notea, and it may bo said that the same rule obtains generally in the United States of America, although there are some cases in some States which have ex- tended this rule. — Kent's Comm., Lect. XLIV., p. 45, 46, Hence an order to pay money ' ' in good East India bonds, "or to pay "in cash or Bank of England notes," or "in foreign bills," or "in goodx," is not a negotia- ble bill. In New York it has been held that a note payable "in York State bills or specie" was a nego- tiable paper. — Keith v. Jones, Johns. K 120. So also a note "payable in bank-notes current in the city of New York;" and the court remarked that it would have been a note under the statute if payable in bank- notes generally. — Judah e. Harris, 19 Johns. R. 144. But a note payable " in Pennsylvania paper currency, or New York, to be current in the State of Pennsylvo- nia or the State of New York," was held in New York not to be a note for the payment of money, within the statute, because the court say that they may take no- tice, ofBcially, of their own bank paper being regarded as cash, but not of the value of the paper currency of other States. — Lciber v. Goodrich, 6 Cowen, 186. A note made payable in New York in Canada money, is not a negotiable promissory note within the statute. — Thompson r. Sloan, 23 Wendell, 71. In Pennsyl- vania it was held that a note payalde to A. B. or or- der " in bank-notes of the chartered banl>« of Pennsyl- vania" was not a negotiable note. — U'Cormick v. Trotter, 10 Serg. and Rawlc, 94. In New York it was j held that a check, drawn in that State, upon a bank j in Mississippi, payable in current notes, is not nego- ; tiable.— Little v. The Phccnix Bank. 7 Hill's it. 859. I A note pural>le to the Iwarer ingooda is not negotiable. , — Clark r. King, 'i Mass. 624. Nor a note payable in ; " foreign l>ills." — .lones v. Fales, 4 Mass. 245. It is I not necessary that the sum parable should be expressed ! in words ; it is sufficient if it be in figures. But it is I neccssart- that the order be for a specific amount. A I bill or note for a given sum, "and for whatever else ' may be due to the payee," is not, even between the original parties, a bill or note. — Batley on Bill*, p. 12. So an order for " (1000, or what might be due after deducting all advances and expenses," is not ne- gotiulilc. — Ciiehman t>. Haynes, 20 Pick. 132, J'ayable abtolutely. — A bill must also be payable alv solutely and at all events, and the payment must not be made to depend on any uncertainty or contingency, or it will not be considered a ))ill of exchange. Thus a bill drawn payable " provided tlie terms mentioned in certain letters shall be complied with ;" or " out of rents;" or "on the sale of produce when sold;" or, "when the drawer shall come of age;" or "at thirty days after the ship A. shall arrive at B. ;" "or when the drawer shall marry ;" or " when freight becomes due;" or "if the money be not paid at a certain day | by a third party;" or "^provided a certain act is done , or not done;" or "on the balance of account lietween i the parties ;" or " provided, at the maturity of the bill, I I am living;" or "when certain carriages are sold by payee ;" in all these and similar cases the instrument is not considered a bill of exchange.— Baylkv on Bilh, p, 14-17, and Story on Bill; § 46, But where pay- ment only seemingly depends upon a contingency, but in reality is certain and at all events, although the particular time when it will arrive is uncertain, it will be a good bill of exchange in law ; e, ff., a bill payable at the death of the drawer or of another person, or at a fixed time afterward. A note payable " provided the ship Mary arrives," etc., " ft*e firom capture and condemnation," is not negotiable. — Coolidge v. Bug- gies, 16 Mass. 867. Accfptam.t. — The person who receives a bill or note thereby contracts with every other party to the bill or note who would be entitled to bring an action on pay- ing it, to present it in proper time to the drawee for acceptance when acceptance is necessary, and to the acceptor for payment when the bill shall have arrived at its maturity and l)e payable ; to allow no extra time for payment to the acceptor; and to give notice in a reasonable time, and without delay, to every such per- son, of a failure in procuring a proper acceptance or payment. Any default or neglect in any of these re- spects will discharge every such person from responsi- bility on account of a non-acceptance or non-payment; and will make it operate generally as a satisfaction of any debt, demand, or value for which it was given. — Ghkenleaf on Kridence, vol. ii. § 175; Wallace ». M'Connell, IS Peters's K. 186; Story on Bill; § 227. When NectitttTy. — If a bill is payable at sight, or in BO many days after sight or after demand, or upon any other contingency, or after a certain event, a present- ment of the bill to the drawee for acceptance must be mode, in order to fix the perloil of payment. But if the bill is payable on demand, cir payulile at a certain numlier of days after date, or after any other certain event, it need not be presented merely for acceptance, but only for payment ; but if it be presented for ac- ceptance, and acceptance be refused, the holder must give notice of the dishonor, in the same manner as if the bill were paynlde at sight or after sight. — Story on Bill; § 112, 227, 228. It is, however, usual and advisable to present a bill drawn payable a certain number of days after date, for acceptance. By vhom to be prttented. — The presentment for ac- ceptance must be made by the holder or his agent. If the bill is presented by one not authorized to hold the bill, the drawee may not be bound to accept it ; but if he does accept !t, it is available to the holder. A pre- sentment by any person in possession of a bill or note bonajide is suiGcient, and no letter of attorney or oth- er writing from the proprietor of the bill or note is necessary to give an authority to another person to make a presentment. — Freeman v. Bovnton, 7 Mass. R. 483; Bank of Utica r. Smith, 18 Johns. R. 230. And a person's having a bill or note in his possession on the day and at the place of payment is presumptive evidence of authority to demand payment. — Agncw v. Bank of Gettysburg, 2 Har. and Gill, 478. To vhom to be pretenled. — The bill must be presented to the drawee, or bis authorized agent. If it is drawn on partners, a presentment to one of them is sufficient ; but if drawn on several persons not partners, it has been said that it should be presented to each ; and if one of the drawees should refuse to accept, tlie holder would not lie bound to take the acceptance of the oth- ers a' >ne.— Stoby on Bill; § 229. The death, I)ank- ruptcy, insolvency, or absconding of the drawee will not absolve or excuse the holder from presenting the bill. If he is dead, it should be presented to his per- sonal representatives, his executor or administrator, if any there lie, and if not, at his last domicile ; and if he has absconded, it should be presented at his last domicile or place of business.— Ciiittt and Hdlmr on BitU, p. 279, 280; Groton r. Dalheim, 6 Greenl. 476, If the holder, upon presentment, should ascer* BIL 171 an tain that tha drawas U » m»TfM wom»n, er * pttmn I under age, or otberwiM i|ui»|Ml(ltt ttf iimitriMtltlKi '>» I" not bound to take tlialr 41 uspUnWi liu( m»y tre«l the bill as dishonored,— Chcttv on JlUh, «h. 7. |)i ttlO, Time t/ PivMnlmeHl.^^A* ratfurdit (Im tiin« wllhln whlcli a bill outflit to ba i)rawMi«4 for itiii'«t)(atii'i!, no definite rule can be laid tlitwil, Wild tliM law dm)'* oiiI)' tliat it muat be preasnted wifltltt h r)iaiiimMlile tlmni but what this reaaonabla tinifl lit, dt«|Htiiil« upnii tlic peculiar circumatancea of »mill, payable at altfht, >r aitfbt, by tlw itiMUt illrevt route to the place wlmis :, U payabla. wh«H It Is thn Gomuiou course of trade |o aemt »H(dl IdllN \iy Mil llidl* rect route. Thus, where » bill of vhvUmitD wait ilrait'n in Havana u|M>n London, payable at aJKly tiayi* aflef sight, it was hold that the htddur nm\ nut fmiid It dl* rectly to London, but mlgbt a«)ld it ti) lltH IJhltnd States for sulo, auch being tjio (lOtMIMHII t'olirne iltUiiAe, — Walliice ('. Agry, i Maaun, 3IHt, H«, wllffe » bill was drawn at New Orleaua on LIvBrpiad, it W»« bgld that it niiglit Vie sent to New Viirk lirnl fur aab', that being the usual oourae of ImKiMfaa.^lbdttill (». Ilrtffod, Martin, 32C. Hut if the boldur nf » furitktl bill I'tUty It to the place where it is nayubU, ItH tillfjitt tul and essen- tial rules which prevail on the Continent of Europe, among tha different nations, in regard to bills of ex- change and promissory notes. The most important nations are the French and the German. The French Commercial Code on bills and notes has been adopted In a numljer of other countries, viz. Belgium, Modeiia, Sardinia, Lucca, Poland, Greece, Geneva, Hayti, Ioni- an Islands, Turkey and Wallachia, the Papal States, Luxemburg, Tessin, and Wallis, with but slight vari- ations here and there ; so that when we speak of the French law. It will equally apply to all those coun- tries. A new and uniform code of laws regarding bills uf exchange and promissory notes has been introduced, since 1849, throughout Germany (with the exception uf the Binall States of the Grand Duchy of Luxemlmrg, the Duchy of Limburg, and the principality of Lich- tenatein), so that when we apeak of the German law, It will apuly to every one of the thirty-eight States of Germany (exLepting the above-named three), includ- ing the whole of Austria and her crown-lands, and the whole of Prussia, Wurtemb^rg, Bavaria, Hanover, (taxony, Brunswick, Baden, etc., containing more than sixty millions of ]>eople, and the important commercial cities of Hamburg, Bremen, Frankfort-on-the-Maine, Lutieok, Leipsic, Berlin, Vienna, Trieste, Brunswick, Ntuttgart, etc. There exist yet distinct codes on liilla and notes In Russia, Holland, Copenhagen, Spain, Portugal, at Basle, and St. Gnllen, which we '^ »\X notice where they essentially difier from other codes. Tlie law on the Continent of Europe, in regard to legal remedies on bills and notes, ia more stringent than in regard to other civil contracts, in so fur as it allows {lersiinal imprisonment for a breach of such a commer- cial engagement, be it aa drawer, acceptor, or indorser ; whereas no personal arrest and imprisonment can be bad against a debtor for an ordinary debt. When we Use the exprepsion, that a party is liable according to the taws of bills uf exchange, it must be understood, idao, to mean that these extreme legal remedies of I'uerciun may be applied to hiiv The time of im- prlsunment differs in different States, and varies ac- t'urdinu to the amount of indebtedness. The French law allows personal imprisonment not exceeding one voat. If the debt docs not exceed 50 francs ; two years if the delit docs not exceed 1000 francs ; three yiars fur a bill of from 1000 to 3000 fVoncaj and four years for a debt of from 8000 to 5000 francs ; and Ave years for any sum lieyond this. But persons of the age of seventy are entirely exempted from arrest, and parties to promissory notes {billets a ordre), if not merchants, except the notes were given on account of some mer- cantile transaction, traffic, exchange, banking, or bro- kerage, are also free from personal arrest in France. In Austria the imprisonnipnt for a debt on bills can not exceed one year, in Prussia five years ; other German Hlates differ In regard to time, but they are generally less rigorous than the French law, and exempt from arrest, besidps persons of the age of seventy, various utbersf for instance, relations by blood or otherwise, military persons, public officers, etc. The creditor. mi, m BIL howaver, h«« to hanr rtw mnmncW),— i'i|Hl*ll«i nf a bill of exchang* in HHtmmy HffViHi i)-. l.tliAtthn word " lilll of ii»ch»ng«" Oi'H'M) tm «rtH«(*(Cd In »he inrtruinent, or, if writt«tt Ih H U»4{M liM^tM^t, (he expresiion aorrvupowtlNy U} t(/ t, tM «|M<<-lfl«>(HIf'(«)«i dfiy «fter date, or at » csrtwin fttir I W< ««• ): /)/ thl ii)f(nntiire nf the drawer, liy bin mnw iif (tHH.- ft, 'ftltf Kinhimnt nt the place and dxte of muntll HllA fmt *U¥tt Hm\ when it wa* drawn, 7, TImi mmf Mftlui pffli^m tit flrri w whom it i« drawn Ohimw), H, th* nfrnfini^Ubt: ut the place of |)ayin«))t j if H" t4«Mi«t tit ttwrnUitied, the place of (be drawee i» M bo MIUh N* fbc I/Imm fntyalile to bearer (n« porlttw)lUa B«t wdNliMtililf, ¥\m't\n (}gf. many or Prance, Tlw l^feiM b l»W ( -I fl, I KO fC'inlfci that bills of eKchwtge shall l» 4f»»H ffim tiM Mace im another plaise ; that (Imy sbwil \m liHlut, HUA (hat (hey specify : 1. The anm |u \m pai4; !!, tb* «»(«« of (he person who is to pay \\w m»w, «. 'ttm (i(n« wA^n, and the place where, (!»« fwytfl^Ht )# (« \m (rtad*. 4. The value furnished, whsHtwr Ih ftum*** lo (tierchan- dise, in acconnt, or in «ty (rtlw (M((«(«'f, 'fbe* are drawn to the order of H f birfl wfum, iifUttUt titift lit the drawer himself, if tiwy m 4WWN Ih ««(«, 1 , 2« 8, etc., it must lie so e)(|)rMw4, In Oermany, avtry \mt»m> wiui (■«« lawfrtlly Wnd himself by a contract H»*y bw/»W*' a pHfty (« a l,||t of exchange. The age of tmjimtf i», Iw/^^tcr; different in different States i i» J'rH«»ia If CWWWCMCM With (he completion of the (weMly^'Wrlb fHilf llf HgK i III Aus- tria, Bavaria, Saifony, na4<<», WM'I In (Imm Ma(es on (he Khine where (be l/fsfw-b f'ivil fUDk pffintit, It commences wi(b (be (wen»y.-iif»f yc*f iif «i«, and (he same is (ha case in Vr»Hm 'mt4 'iHVlM'i'. ih ftardlnia, only merchants can draw ifllawl (rtll*, Irtit nay body may draw foreign bills, 'JM M««#la« U^^ eacludes only women who do not >-»rry im Htmmffee. The Cods of (he Kingdixn of t Its Thm Nbilb"* »>*cl«des »b« ci(t'--ll»M. ' tlw law of Basle requires the sum (Wy»bb' l« I** «fa(*4 id toilers, and not merely in (lg»re#i llw l«»s nf Mfissia and Copenhagen require tba »»m Ul \m MtkifA t«o(b Ift let- Urs and in figures) aM Iba law cf M. Oallen pro- vides (ha( any erasure or al»*ralb*(( »/ »b»i wiik, or any other requisite \mn of lb" 1*111, mitluf* (Iw Mil toid, ■cd entitles the drawail to r#fu«« i»<(^NI#ht, tif (he law of Copenhasm, the bills payable to bearer (lettra nUporteur) are allowed, but not by the law of Germany or France, Ry the French law (A rf. 121)) a bill of exchange may he drawn payable at eight, or at one or more days, or months, or usances, after sight or after da(e ; or on • day fixed, or at or during a fair (rn/>iVe); and {Art. tA2) the usance Is thirty days, which run from the day after the date of the bill; and (Art. 18U)a bill payable nt the fiilr is at maturity on the evening preceding the day fixed for the termination of (he fair, or the day after the fair, if it continue only one day. The (jcr- man law {Art. 4, Mo. 4) does not now allow bills drawn In Uermany on a foreign couniry, or inland bills, to be drawn at usance (a luo, nwztu imo, doppio tuo, i. c. at •Ingle, half, or double usance), or a piactrt, " on de- mond" (with the exception of Austria, which allows the la((er). If foreign bills arc drawn upon any Ger- man H(a(e at a usance, (ho (ime of maturity (f'rAm the date of its being drawn ; and if a period of presentation has been prescribed either by drawer or indorser, the bill mnst be presented within that period, or the holder will lose his right of recourse against drawer and indorser as debtors on account of the bill. The law of Russia fixes the time within which bills at sight or after sight must lie presented at one ycur, unless the drawer lias prescribed a period ; but in case of neglect to present the bill, it will still bo good as evidence of indebtedness for the ordinary period l>e- yond which debts become outlawed. The laws of other countries fix the time of presentation for accept- ance or payment according to the distance from the place of drawing to the place of payment. The French law {All. 160) requires that the holder of a l>ill of ex- change, drawn from the Continent and the European islands, and payable in the European possessions of France, whether at sight, or at one or more days, months, or usances after sight, must demand pay- ment, or acceptance, within six months from its date, under the penalty of losing his remedy against the in- dorsers, and even against the drawitr, if tlic latter had made provision for the payment of the bill in the hands of the drawee. A delay of eight months is allowed for the presentment of a bill drawn from the ports of the Levant, and northern coast of Africa, on the Eu- ropean possessions of France, and, reciprocally, from the Continent and European islands on the French es- tablishments in the I.evant, and northern coast of Af- rica. A year is allowed for the presentment of bills drawn on the western coast of AfVioa, as ftir as, and including, the Capo of Good Hope. A year is als« allowed for the presentment of bills of exchangu drawn fh>m the American continent and West India islands on the European possessions of France, and, recipro- cally, from the European continent and islands on the French possessions or establishments on the western coast of Africa, on the American continent, and West India Islands. Two years is allowed for the present- ment of bills of exchange drawn from the East Indian continent and islands on the European possessions of France, and, reciprocally, from the European conti- nent and islands on the French possessions or establish- ments on the East Indian continent and isiauda. The delays alwve mentioned, of eight months, one year, and two years, are allowed to bo doubled in time of maritime war. If the drawer has not made provision for payment with the drawee, the former will be hold liable, although a protest has been made after the time fixed by law. Of .icnpttmct. — The law of Germany (.Irt. 21) re- quires that acceptance of a bill shall be made in writ- ing on the bill itself; and if the drawee writes but his name or that of the linn on the face of the bill, it is considered an absolute acceptance, and every declara- tion written on the bill and signed is taken as an al)- solute acceptance, unless the drawee expressly stitut in it that be will not accept, or will accept only rigned ; it is expressed l>y the word " accepted" (at epti) ; it is dated, if the bill be at one or more days or months after sight. And in the latter case, the want of a date to the acceptance renders the bill payalile at the term specilied in it, counting from the date when it was drawn. The same rule prevails in those countries which have formed their laws on bills after the French law, which countries have lieen specified before; it also obtains by the law of Copenhagen. By the Span- ish law, such a bill runs from the day on which it might have been presented, according to the ordinary course of the post. The French law (.Irt. 124) enacts that the acceptance can not be conditional, but it may 1)0 limited in regard to the sum accepted. But in this case the holder is bound to have the liill protested for the deficiency. And {Art. 1'2&) a bill of exchange must lie accepted on its presentment, or, at the latest, with- in twenty-four hours afterward. After the twenty- four hours have elapsed, if it be not returned, accept- ed or not accepted, he who has retained it is liable in damages to the bolder. The German law {Art. 20) provides, that if a drawee refuses acceptance, or re- fuses to date his acceptance, the holder must have the bill protested within tlie period prescribed for present- ing a bill (i. e. two years from date or the time pre- scrilied by drawer or indorser), or he will lose his legal claim against indorser and drawer. The day of pro- test is, in (hat case, taken for the day of presentation. If no protest has Iwen taken, and the acceptor has omitted to date his acceptance, the maturity of the liill is counted from the last day of the pcriom the day after the date of the bill. The months are ac- cording to the regulation of the Gregorian calendar. (Art. 188.) A bill payable at the fair (en/oirt) is at ma- turity on the evening preceding the day fixed for the closure of the fair, or the day of the fair if it continue only one day. The law of Copenhagen counts the day when the liill Is dated, and grants to the acceptor eight days of grace, and to the holder ten days of grace (called in Italian ,7tbrni(Hruipcftn). The law of Russia (§66) al- lows on bills at or after sight three days of grace, and on other bills ten days of grace, and the same on promis- sory notes. The law of St. Gallen allows six days of grace on bills and promissory notes. The German law (Art. 88) enacts that the holder muif not refuse an offered part-payment, even though the bill has been accepted for the whole sum. The French law (Art. 166) states that the payments made on account, as part of the nmount of a bill of exchange, operate in dis- charge of the drawer and indorsers. The holder is bound to have the bill protested for the balance. FORMS OF FOREIGN BILLS OF EXCHANGE. Frrmcr. LOle, fe 28 -SepeemJre, 1866. Bon pour £158 9 Sterling!. Au vingl-emq JMcembre proehain, il vout plaim payer par ct mandat li Pordre de nout-memet la tomme de cent tinqaant^Jaat livrtt sleriingi 9 shellingi taleur en nonp-maaet et quepaueres tuirant taeit de A Mesiieun . ,.. ~ ~~ " [ alondret, lu, t-: ; t -i; li'' Gp.rmah. iVSr»8«y, den 28 October, 1866. Zaei monate nach data zahlen tie gegun die$en Prima Wechid an die Ordrt de* Uerm Ein Uundert Vj^nd Sterling den Werth erhalten. Sie hringtn tolche aufRechnung lata Bericht von Uei^^en ^_^__^_^^^_^___^.^..„^.^.^_^.^^^^^^__^.^_^.» Londtmi Pro ;eiOO Sterling. / BIL 171 DOTOH. BIL Grmim,itn\itNotembtr,\9M. ^.w.n.- ,.•.•)■..«•*,.! f." ' Toor X69 17 « 7VMf maanitn nii liato gtUer* VEd tt ttfalM «Mr • ^\1 'v^ im- t.M-., *■•. . - •' '- iTALua, ■■i-i.i .- . .;.:ii .••■ iMomo, It 35 Settembrt, 1866. i4 7're meti ( reqnired of him, in Qermany, ttiat lie present the bill for payment, and that he have the bill duly protested. The protest may be made on the day of payment, but it mutt be made, at latest, on the second secular day after the day of payment. The presentation of the bill for payment may likewise be made within this period of two days, and the holder would not lose his rights, even if he had waited with the presentation to the last day of protest, and the drawee were yet solvent on the day the bill fell due. But a protest before the day of ma- turity i» not good, although payment would not have been made on the day of maturity. The law of Basle, St Gallon , Zurich, Kussia, Spain, and Portugal, re- quires that the bill be protested on the day of maturi- ty, and up to a certain hour of that day (the latter pro- vision is not law in Portugal). The law of France (Art. 162) and Holland (§ 179), however, requires pro- test on the day after the day of maturity {lendemain) ; and if this day be a legal holiday, the protest is made on the following day. If a bill is made payable at a place ditferent fVom the domicile of the acceptor, and a person there is specified, the German law requires that it must be presented to such person ; and if no person be specified, it must be presented to the ac- ceptor at the place specined ; and, In case of non-pay- ment, it must be protested there. If the proper pro- test is neglected the holder loses his recourse, not only against the drawer and indorsers, but also against the acceptor. But in no other case is the acceptor dis- charged fi-om hia liability by the German law. Notes and Bills loit or detti-ogtd. — If a promissory not* or bill of exchange has been lost or destroyed, tlM holder must, nevertheless, make demand of payment at its maturity, and, in case of non-payment, give due notice to the' antecedent parties. Bnt whether the promisor or acceptor and Indorsers can be compelled to make payment, without a delivery or production of the note or bill, is u question on which the authori- ties in America differ. In England it has been held that the holder can not recover in a court of law, but only in a court of equity, on a negotiable note or bill lost or destroyed. A distinction is had between negotia- ble and non-negotiable instruments, or those which have been specially indorsed, so that no person but the holder, who sues, could have acquired a right to sue thereon. In the latter oases, the note or bill may Iw recovered at law. And in an action oii a lost note, where the evidence docs not prove nfflrmatively that it is nego- tiable, the presumption in New York is held to be that it is not negotiable, and the plaintiff is therefore en- titled in such case to recover. If a bill or note trans- ferable by delivery lie lost, the loser should give im- mediate notice thereof to the drawee, or persons who are to pay it ; and if such persons afterward pay it to a person who has not taken it 6ona fide, or paid value for it, they will lie responsible to the loser. If the note or bill lost is negotiable and transferable when lost, it has been held in some States that a suit at law is maintainalilo against the maker, in others that it is not; and, agnin, in others it has l)een held that the hold- er may recover at law, provided ho executes a prop- er instrument of indemnity. It was held In Massa- chusetts that, where a note has been stolen from the payee, he may itill prove his demand against the BIL 171 BIL m*k«r, and enrorca payraant ; th« court In luch etM {iraaciibing tha bond to be Klvan to Iha makar. Hut r a bill or note b« deitroyed by Art or oiiiar acaldaut, an action' may b« brought thereon for ra«ov«ry.— Baylky on Jiillt, forged liulrumenli.—Wben the lii^ature of tha , drawer of a llll of exchange ia furled, and tha bill !• accepted by the drawee, the latter will Imi ImhiiuI to Sty the same to a bona fide holder ; and if be luM paid , ha can aot recover buck the money from the \mt»w\ to whom he paid It, although ba can luH ncover It back from the reputed drawer, The aama duetrina applies to an acceptor tuprapnAut, a* to tha signatures of the parti(nl fc'ged Indorsement, he may likewise recover back the fjiount. But if a subsequent indorser should pay llie amount to the holder, where the signature of the maker or of a prior Indorser is forged, be could not recover it back, because every indorser warrants the genuin«n«Mt of the signatures of the antecedent parties, both of tlm indorsers and maker. — Stt Stoky on Nolt$, f !iM7, Therefore, before the maker or an indorser pays ■ tiota, he should be satisfted that the signature of tha payee or other Indorser under whom the actual bolder cUiins Is a genuine signature, for if it be a forgery, the pay- ment would be a nullity. Jktmagf* to be Kecovered. — When the holder of • bill of exchange bos complied with all the requisitions of the law, upon the dishonor of a bill, either for noii'aC' ceptance or uon-payment, he Is entitled to uu imUM- dlate recourse against the drawer, acceptor, and Ih> dorsers or guarantors, and to a full relmbursemeut of all the damages sustained l)y hlni. These diffaretit parties are liable according to the law of the placa where they entered into their respective contra (,'i|«il sum, ami InlarasI, and the damages and axpensei ' incurred by tha dishonitr. Ttio Interest Is due accord- ing l« IIm legal rata allowed at the place where the bill Is tmyal/le; and the expcnsea are the ordinary I «o*t i/f prrilnst and other incidental expenditures, sucli I a* iHMlage. commission, and brokerage, If tha party I haa Imwh abllgad tfl> pay the holder, In consaquenue of I Iba a<:rep-ex- cbanga. Hut the Indorser of a bill is not enti.1 il to recover of tbo drawer the damages Incurred oy the non-Ncceptanca of tbo bill, unless he hat. paid theiu, or is liable In puy them — li Krnt's Comm., Lect. XLIV. BiMJt (IK KXI'II,\!«)K DKAWX IS THE UnITKII HTAttw,— In order to avoid the difficulty of ascertain- ing what Is tha true rata of exchange, most of the Htalas of Ilia Itnlon have provided by a statute a cer- tain llxad sum. In the place of damages and ro-ex- cluinga, Tha law In tha different States, in this re- spect, is a* follows i 4/iu»«,— The damages on bills of exchange negoti- at«d in Maine, payable In other States, and returned under |mfl«st, are as follows (R, 8. 510): 1, New Hamj)- shirf, Vertnont, Massachusetts, Bhode Island, Cnn- ni-cticut, New York, 3 per cent, 2. New Jersey, Penn- sylvanbi, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, District of (.'otumlila, South Carolina, Georgia, 6 per cent. 8. NurtbCarulina, Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Michigan, Mis- tisslppl, Missouri, Ohio, Tennessee, Texas, Wisconsin, I) |ier cent. The damages on foreign bills of exchange ruturmid under protest ore 10 per cent. Null lliHnpthin.,—^0 statute In force in this State albiwiiig damages on foralgn or domestic bills return- ed under protest. l-'erwx/frf,— There Is no statute In this State In refer- «nc« to damages on protested foreign or domestic bills ofexclwnge, Mmmwhumi, — The damages on bills of exclnnge nogoliited In Massachusetts, payalde in other .States, and r«(tum«d under protest, arc as follows: 1. IIIIIh INiyable In M^lne, New llunipsbire, Vermont, Kliode loland, ('nnnecticut, or New York, 2 per cent. 2, Bills payable In New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, or iJclaware, 8 per cent, 8, Bills payalde in Virginia, District of Columbia, North Carolina, South Carolina, «r ile«r||U, 4 per cent. 4. Bill* payable elsewhere BIL 177 BIL I negotl- eturned r lUmp- |d, t;on- , Pciin- Strict of lent. 8. llUinoi'i an, Mi«- Isconsiii, xchBnge lis Stute I return- lin refcr- ^tic bills sclianRe States, 1 1. llillH KUode fent. 2. Wyland, hrftinia, Earolina, Isewhere within Um Cnltad SUtn or Um TerrilorlM, 5 par cant. 5. BUU A>r on* hundrad doUwi or mora, payalila at any plaoa in BLuaachuaatta not within aavanty-flva mUaa uf tha placa wbare drawn, 1 par cant. t'unigH BUU.— I. UllU payabia, raturnad undar proteit, Layond tha llmlta of the Unltiod Htatai (axeaptInK places in Africa beyond the Cape of Uood Hnpa, and places in Asia and the islands tberauf) shall pay th« current rate of axcbanxe wlien dua, and 6 per cent, oilditlonal. 8. Biila payable at any place in Africa lieyond the Capa of Uood Hope, or any place in Asia or the islands there- of, shall pay dannKes, !iU par cent. Miide JMlmui.—'l'be damaffea on bills of exchanKe, payalJe in other States, and returned under protest, •re uniformly 6 par cent. The damages on/«ni^ mif iij'iucchmig» returned undpr protest are 10 pur cent. Ctmnretiiiit. — The dania^os on lillls of exchange ne- gotiated in Conn'-cticut, payable in other Stales, and returned under protest, are as follows: 1. Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Ithode Island, New Yorii (Interior), New Jersey, I'eunsylvania, Dela- ware, Maryland, Virginia, District of Columbia, 8 per cent. i. New York city, 2 per cent. 8. North Caro- lina, South Carolina, GeorKia, and Ohio, 6 per cent. 4. All tlie other Statea and Territories, 8 per cent. There is no statute In force In Connecticut in reference to damages on foreign bills of exrhange. A'ao York. — The damages on bilis of exchange ne- gotiated in thh) State and payable in other States, and returned under protest for non-acceptance or non-pay- maut, are as follows : 1. Maine, N per cent, dam- ages on the value of the principal sum mentioned in the bill, and interest from the time of protest, and costa. H Vtrfima Damagaa on bills of exchange nagatiatad In Virginia, payable in other States, and retumad UB- der protest, ara uniformly 8 par cant. Tha damagaa on for*ig» hiUt nftxcKango returned under protest are uniformly 10 per cent. Nirrtk rnnWian.— The damages on bills of exchange negotiated In this State, payable In other States, and returned under protest, are unifonnly 8 |ier cent. Tha damagaa on Jhrtign btUt of rxikmig* returned undar protest are as follows : 1. Ullls payable in any part of North America, except tha northweat coast and the West Indies, 10 per cent 2. Ullls payable on Madei- ra, tha Canaries, the Aaoras, Cape de Verd Islanda, Europe, and South America, 16 par cent. 8. Ullla payable elsewhere, 20 per cent. HiMiK Carolina. — The damages on bills of exchange negotiated in South Carolina, payable in other States, and protested for non-payment, are uniformly 10 par cent., together with costs' of protest. A bill drawn In South Carolina, payalile in another State, Is deemed a foreign bill, and damages may be claimed, although such bill lie not actually returned after protest. /'oi>. eign BilU.—'Vhe damage^ on foreign bills of excha«ga negotiated in South Carolina, are : 1. On bills em any part of North America other than the United States, and on the West Indies, 12i per cent. 8« On bills drawn on any other part of the world, 1& par cent. (>'soi7ia.— The damages on bills of excaaage nego- tiated in Ueorgia, payalile in other Slates, and retnru- ed under protest, are uniformly 6 per ceat. The dan>< ages on foreign bilh of exchange rstWlMti «nder proteat arp 10 |ier cent. /KoAuma.— The damages on bUla af exchange nego- tiated in Alabama, payable in ether States, and re- turned under protest, are unifonnly 16 per rent. Bills payable within the State of .\labaiaa, 6 per cent. The damages on foreign bill* of txthange returned uixier protest are 20 per cent. Arkantaa. — The damages on bills of exchange drawn o- negotiated in Arkaiisas, expressed to be for value received, and protested for non-aeceftance, or fbr non- pagment after non-acceftance, are as followi< (R. S. 1848,0.25): 1. If payalile wl.bin the State, 2 percent. 2. If payable in Alaliama, Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee, Kentacky, Ohir, Indiana, Illinois, or Mis- souri, or at any point on ihe Ohio Klver, 4 per cent. 3. If payable in any other State or Territory, 6 per cent. 4. If payable within either of the United States, and protested for non-payment, afirr noceptance, 6 per cent. 6. The damages on bills of exchange, expressed for value received, and payable beyond the limits of the United States, 10 per cent. California. — Ity an act passed April 16, 1860, tha damages on protested bills of exchange drawn or ne- gotiated in California were lixed as follows: 1. If drawn upon any person or persons citst of the Rocky Mountains, and within the limits of the United States, 16 per cent. 2. If drawn upon any i)er8on*or persons in Europe, or in any foreign country, JO pUmage« ou hilli of exchange nag»- tinted In MI»ouri, payalilo in other 8tale*, and re- tnm«W, the hny'i enemies, fire, and all and erery other dangeri and nccidenti iff Ike teat, rieeri, iimi iKtrigniiim, of vkal' tter nature and kind toerer, trctplej." Bills of lading are not. In general, imniadialely given by the mailer on receiving Ihe goods. The usual practice Is fur tho niaater or his deputy to give a common receipt fbr tha goods, which is delivered up on receiving the bill of lading. The latter should always lia raquliad within twenty-four hours after tha goods are received on board. Three sets of all bills of lading ara made out : one uf these ahould be remitted by tho llrst post to the person to whom the goods ara consigned, a second being sent to him by the ship ; the third Is retained by the ship- per of the goods. The master ought always to retain copies of the bills of lading for his government. Trantfer of BUU if lading Bills of lading ara I transferable either by blank or special Indorsement, like bills of exchange. And whatever may be tha character of tho person to whom the gnodt are con- signed, whether ho lie a buyer, or merely Ihe factor, agent, or broker of the consigner, the b)ma fide holder of a bill of lading indorsed liy the consignee is entitled to tho goods, and may claim Ihem from the master If he can prove that be has purchased the bill lor » good amiideration ; but unless he can do this, he la not en- titled to the goods. — Holt, Lok ofShi/^ng, 2d ed. p. 868. Delicerg under BUI of l/xding. — It being nsnal to sign and deliver three bills of lading, It is possible that there j may be conflicting demands upon tho captain by the I diflbrent holders. Nothing, however, ia, in auch a case, required of him, except that he act wilh gowl faith, and to the best of his Judgment ; and that he make deliv- ery of the goods to the person who first demands them of him, upon presentment of the bill of lading, provided the dreumlancet he nt4 tuck at to jutlify a lutpicum of his having unfairly got pnaseasion of it. If hn act dilfeiently, he Is answerable, according to the pccul- iarllies of the case, to the person injured by his negli- gence ; the bill of lading being not only the instruc- tions of the merchant to him, as his carrier or servant, but his own especial agreement to deliver according to its conditions. Where several bills of lading of a dif- ferent import hate been si){iicil, no regard is to be paid to the time when they were lirst signed by the master ; but the person who firrt gets legal possession of one of them from the owner or shipper, has a right to the consignment ; and where such Mils of lading, though different upon the face of them, arc constructively thi; same, and the master has acted bmia Jide, a 'Iclivcry according to such legal title will dldcharge him from all.— Holt, p. 876 and 877. Bill of Bait, a contract under seal, by which an individual conveys or passes away the right and inter- est he has in the goods or chattels named In the bill. The property of ships is transferred by bill of sale. Bill of Sigbt. In England, when a merchant It ignorant of the real quantities or qualities of any goodii assigned to him, to that be i* uoabl* to make a perfect 179 BIB Ivhleh an ml inter- (the bill, r gale, l-chant la ny goodn I perfect Mtrjr of Ihrni, bt roof t toqiaalnt (h* wlWior or con- IroiUr of tbo rlrcunutanc* ; ami (hay ar<' millioitxt, upon tbo linportar ur hli a^ant inakInK «ittli that ha can not, for want of ftill liifornallun, iimIxi a i^rfnct entry, to receive an entry by hUt nfugki r.-r i i park- a(ui, by the lieet ilanoription which can )>« : .'ii, ami lo icrani warrant that the eaine may Im lamb'a ami ex- •rainetl by the Importer In praeance of the ofllcera | and within Ibree erftct entry, and ahall either pay down the dutira, or ihall duly ware- houM the eanie.— S A 4 WiU. 4, c. ft'i, | 'U. In de- fault of perfiict entry within three day*, anoh kooiI* are to be taken to the kln^'a wareboueo ! ami if llio Im- port<'r •hall not within one month make a perfect en- try, and pay the dutiea thereon, or on luch parte aa can lie euterail fur home uie, to|(ether with charirea if movloK and warehouae rant, euoh gooda aball bo >ol ' for payment of the dutiea.— | 26. BlU of Stora la a llcenia granted by the coelom- buune to nii^riihanti, to carry inch etunta and provlelont aa are neivMary for a voyage, free of duty. ¥llHw^^ Invented by the Oench, by whom, and iiy the Uemianii, Dutch, and Italian*, th<ut what ahall lio for his own salo or use, under tho (wnalty of AW. No peraon la to have in his possession, or ex|>ose to sale, any spawn of lisb, or flsh unslzable, or out of season. — 3(1 6'm certain plants, and it obtained artificially fh>m tha middin hark nf the hnily. Its eeler Is gTMnlsh, its flavor tpour, and it is gluey, ahlnlng, and Ipnarinua, The natural la more adhealvn than the artiflolal bird- lime. TrioMani'a Chtmutry. Blrda' IVaata (< li-rm, ImUnniirk* Viigrlnntrr 1 Ihi. InilituiiUihf i'lmrlnritjn i Kr. S'uh dr Tunkin ; II. .Vi'JI Ji T.iHchmo; np. AW(V rfa In i'HiiM; Javan. Su$u i Malay, Sarungkumnif), the neata of a apecln nf swallow pocnilar to the Indliin iaianda (llirunilo urultHln), very much eateemeil In China, In ahape this neat rearni- btea that of other swallows ; It la fumird of a viacid auliatanre ; and In external apiwarance, aa well aa con- slat«m'e,'ia not unlike fliiroua, ill-poncurted iainglaaa. Kaculent neata are principally ftmmi in .lava. In eav- erna that are moat fVe(|uonlly, though not alwaya, ait- uated on tha aea-cuaat. Many cunHI> ling slatenicnis have been made aa to the substance I'f neata ; some con- tending that they are formed nf aea-fhiim or other ma- rine |irnducta, andntliers that they am elalnirated IVom the food of the bird, etc. Hut iheae arc points aa to which nothing satisfactory li known. We Imrrow from Mr, ("rawfuni's valuable work on tho t'.iulfrn Arrkipfliigo (vol. Hi, p, 4H2-IB7) the fol- lowing authentic nnd curious details aa lo (he traffic in this singular production : " The lieat neata are those obtained In deep damp caves, and such as arc taken beforn tho blrda have laid their eggi. The coarsest ara those obiained after the young are fledged. The finest nests are tho whitest, that la, thnao taken bribro tho neat haa been rendered impure by tlio food and fitre$ of the young lilrds. They are taken twice a year, and. If regularly collected, and no unusual ii\]ury lie offered to the caverns, will produce very equally, tho quantity lieing very little, If at alt, Improved by tho cavea being left altogether unmolested for a year nr two. Some of tho caverns are extremely difficult of access, and tho nests can only lie collected by perxons accustomed from their youth to the ofllce. The moat remarkable nnd productive cavee in Java, of which I superintended a moiety of the callection for several years, are those of Kamny-hnhing, In the province of liiiijlrn, on the south coast of the Island. Here the caves are only to be approached by a perpendicular descent of many hundred A'ct, by ladders of bamlioo and ratan, over a sea rolling violently against the rocks. When the mouth of the cavern i;* attained, the perilous ofllce of taking tho nests must often be per- formed by torch-light, by penetrating Into recesses of tlin rock, where the slightest trip would be inatantly fatal to tho adventurers, who see nothing lielow them but the turbulent surf making Its way into tho chasms of the rock, "The only preparation which tho birds' nests un- dergo is that of simple drying, without direct exposure to the sun, after which they arc packed In small lioxvs, usually of Imlf a picul. They arc assorted for the Chinese market Into three kinds, according to their qualities, distinguished into fimt or beat, itcvnri, and Ihiril qualities. Caverns that aro regularly managed will afford, in 100 parts, AS'S parts of those of the first quality, 86 parts of those of the second, 11 '7 parts of those of the third. The common prices for birds' ne.its at Canton arc, for tlio first sort, no less than iJ&OO Spanish dollars tho picul, or X& ISs. iid. per pound ; fur the second, 2800 Spnnlali dollars per picul ; and for the thirti, IfKM) Spanish dollars. From these prices it is Bufllciently evident that the birds' nests are no more than an article of expensive luxurj-, Tiicy arc con- sumed only by the great ; and, indeed, tho best part is sent to the cajiltal for the consumption of the court, Tlie sensual Chinese use them, under the imagination that (hey ore powerfully stimulating and tonic ; but it is probable that their most valuaiile quality is tlieir being perfectly harmless. The people of Japan, who so much resemble the Chinese in many of their haiiits, have no taste for the edible nests ; and how the latter acquired a taite for this foreign commodity is no less BIB 180 nn singuUr than their ptrievering in it. Among the Western nationi there is nothing panllul to it, unleH we except the wtiinuivil estimation in which the l(o- mans held some articles of luxury, remarkable for their scarcity rather than for any qualities asorilied to them." Hr. Crawfurd estimates the whole quantity of birds' nests exported from the Archipelago iit '^42,000 pounds, worth X284,2iM). "The value," he observes, "of this immense property to the country which produces it rests upon the capricious wants of a single people. It is claimed as the exclusive property of the sovereign, and every where forms a valuably branch of his in- come, or of the revenue of the State. This value, how> ever, is of conrse not equal, and depends upon th« sit- uation and the circumstances connected with the cav- erns in which the nests are found. Being often In re- mote and sequestered situations, in a country so law- less, a property so valuable and exposed is subject to the perpetual depredation of freebooters, and it not un- f^equently happens that an attadi upon it is the prin- cipal object of the warfare committed by one petty State against another. In such situations, the expense of aflbrding them proteotion is so heavy, that they are necessarily of little value. In situations when the caverns are difficult of access to strangers, and where there reigns enough of order and tranquillity to secure them from internal depredation, and to admit of the nests being obtained without other expense than the simple labor of collecting them, the value of the prop- erty is very great. The caverns of Kartmg-boUmg, in Java, are of this description. These annually alibrd 6810 pounds of nests, which are worth, at the Bata- via prices of 8000, 2500, and 1200 Spanish dollars the picul, for the respective kinds, nearly 139,000 Spanish dollars ; and the whole expense of collecting, curing, •n>1 packing, amounts to no more than 11 per cent, on this amount. The price of birds' nests is of course a monopoly f rice, the quantity produced being by nature limited, an.l incapable of augmentation. The value of the labor expended in bringing birds' nests to mark et is but a . rifling portion of their price, which consists of the highest sum that the luxurious Chinese will af- ford to pay for them, and which is a tax paid by that nation to the inhabitants of the Indian islands. There is, perhaps, no production upon which human industry is exerted, of which the cost of production bears so •mall a proportion to the market price." — See also the valuable work of Count Houendobp, Coup iflKU lur F lie de Java, p. 291. Bixmiligtuun, a parliamentary and municipal bor- ongh, one of the principal manufacturing towns of England, near its centre, county and 17 miles north- west of Warwick, 100 miles northwest of London, and 78^ miles southeast of Liverpool. Area of borough, which includes the adjacent townships, Aston, Edgbas- ton, etc., 2660 acres. Population in 1600, 4000; in 1801,60,822; in 1841,182,922; in 1851, 282,841. The town, on the River Kea, occupies the eastern declivity of throe undulating hills, and from the southeast presents to view a mass of red brick houses, interspersed with several lofty church spires, and a vast number of tall chimneys belonging to its factories. Birmingham ex- isted in the reign of Alfred, A.u. 872 ; but its import- ance OS a manufacturing town commenced in the reign of William III. Birmingham was besieged and taken by Pfiuce Rupert in 1643. The great works of Soho were established by the illustrious engineer, Matthew Boulton, In 1764. The Birmingham canal was origin- ated by act of Parliament, 1768. Memorable riots commenced here, July 14, 1791, on some persons com- memorating the French Revolution. The theatre was destroyed by fire, August 17, 1792. More commotions, November, 1800. The theatre again luimed in 1817 ; and again, January 7, 1620. Birmingham political union formed, 1881 ; dissolved itself. May 10, 1834. Town Hall built, 1833. Birmingham and Liverpool railway opened m the Qrand Junction, July 4, 1887. Umdra and Wmingtmu WuMwi/ «MMd lt« «ntlr* length, SapiaiuUr 17, iltUH, «ir)t«li)«llll(<«l rl«t, firing of housas and other uutr«3«« mtiUlHttit hy tha Chart- ists, July 16, WW, (j«rn KiMhaNK* «ti«n«il, Octobar 27, l»47. Uiming^m tm» m«4« hum rapid pmgresf in manuAicturing Mwtry within th* t>f«««til cantury, Its manufaoturaa cum^fUm rimmUntitf d«a«r)ptlon of iron sudsiaal good*, Unm wi4 Irim fetiHilInK, saddlery, llreHirmx, cutlery, guM, rilvm, piitUii, htmiM, trnnoiu, audjapsiiiiud warts i |iNMi«rwmMh« mmnI*, toys, jewel- ry, electrupiattfd gouiln, imHtmn, stwUMtil, fltu, tools, sUamxingluKs, ami all kind* n mm-hmxty, BlMBjr, UlifOHVr, UuUti d* U»untKn«, AijuUa^ nieut timus), » VMt Iwy »f HHWfymtd \iy the Atlanlid, and extending batwawn timmuM Irland mi the west coast of I'ranu), and V»\m OH¥ntA m lli« north coast of Apain, It ruvsivss tim w«i«rs of ib« Loire, Cha- rente, Uironda, anil Adwiir, lis ^iSmSptX jioris are, L'Urient, Nanus, l,» Hi>«'liti||*, UmMlMi, nordeaun, and Bayonna, in ynnm, V»*»»^¥t, (l«fl Maliasllan, Bilbao, liaiitandar, old mum, It* npiAtt, VMM U\- ands, Bullu IsU, Wt, and OUfMH, im lli« «««tt of franca, lu norib and u>u(l) 8u«*t« «>*« htild tttd nAy \ but on the east, from lh« uwMtb »f iktt Ulrttttd* to j)e ; Sp. Negro de zapatot). A factitious article, prepared in various ways, used in the blacking of boots and shoes. The principal ingredients in its manufacture are oil, vine- gar, and various sorts of blacking matter. It is in very extensive demand. Soma of the establishments for its manufacture, espKially those in tha metropolis, are on a larp^o scale ; an' it is in such only that it can be cheaply and advantogeo.'sly produced. One of the principal, or rather we may say the principal outlay in establishing a blacking business, consists in adver- tising. Indeed, any individual or set of individuals, provided they supply a reasonably good article, may, by continuous advertising and pufting, attain to the highest eminence in the " blacking line." Blaok-lead, Plumbago, or Wad (Du. Potlooii Fr. Mine de Plomb noi'r, ptomb de mine, Potelot ; Qer. Potttolh, Beiubley ; It. Niniera dipiombo, Piombaggine, Cortxolo ; Lat. Plumbago ; 8p. Piedra mineral deplomo), a mineral of a dark steel gray color, and a metallic lustre ; it is soft, has a greasy feel, and leaves a dark- colored line when drawn along paper. This mineral is found only in a statv of purity in Borrowdale, in Cumberland, the mines in which have been wrought since the days of Elizabeth. The lead is not found in veins but in detached pieces, or in what are called tops or bellies, so that the supply is very ir- regular, the miners being frequently en'ployed for a lengthened period in seeking at random for tho lead. Its quality aino differs very widely. The best is that which is lightest, and the trace of which on paper is easily and completely removed by the application of India rubber. The mine used only to be opened at in- tervals, but for a considerable number of years past it has been constantly open. The supply, however, has been extremely scanty, and mostly also very inferior. This lead is now almost wholly employed in making pencils : an inferior variety from Spain and Ceylon being used in the manufacture of crucibles, the polish- ing of cast-iron utensils, the diminishing of friction, and other purposes to which genuine black-lead was formerly applied. Black-leadPenoila (Du. Potlootpem\en; Fr. Crag, ons noirt ; Ger. Blegstijle ; It. Lapit nero ; Port. Lapit negro; Buss. ATaronascAu ; Sp. i.apfz w^-o) are formed of black-lead, encircled with cedar. Ti ere is hardly, perhaps, any thing in which the tempta tion to substi- tutn a spiuious for a genuine article is greater, or in which, consequent!}', the purchaser is more liable to be deceived, than black-lead pencils. This is occasion- ed by the vast difference between tha cost of genuine Cuml>erland lead and of the other articles that are or may be substituted for it. Pencils are usually de- scribed as follows : first quality, or drawing pencils ; second quality, or prepared pencils ; third quality, or composition pencils. 1. Pencils of the^r<( quality are, when genuine, made of pure CumlierUnd lead, and cost, in the year 1848, SO: per lb., or £168 per cwt. From 18 to 20 dozen such pencils an. produced from a pound of this lead. These pencils are usually made by sawing the lead into the pieces inserted in the cedar. Sometimes, however, the lead is in parts gritty and defective, so tliat a pencil of this kind may, in fact, be very inferior. To obviate this defect, some makers prepare the lead, to free it from the grit or earthy parti- cles ; and, provided no antimony or other alloy t>e mixed up with the prepared lead, the pencils produced from it are most to be depended on. 2. Pencils of the tecond quality are manufactured out of the sawings or dust of pure lead, with the dust of tlie small pieces picked up by poor people from the rubbish thrown out of the mine, mixed or alloyed with a greater or less qtuntity of antimony. The goodness of this pencil depends, of course, on the proportion in which the pure lead ex- ceeds the antimony. But as the cost of the former may be taken at £100 a owt., and that of the latter at only 2C»., there is an all but irresistible temptation to increase the proportion of the latter beyond due bounds. This sort of composition produces about 16 or 16 doaen pencils to the pound ; their price varying according to the purity of tha lead. 8. Th^ third quality of pencil is made by using Mexican or Spanish load dust, costing 46>. or 60s. a cwt., with antimony costing about 26t. per cwt. It produces about 14 or 15 dozen pencils to the lb., which may be sold at from 2«. 6d. to 12<. per gross, aocording to the cost of the articles employed BLA 182 BLE and the care taken in mixing them. Tliia aort of pen- cil may talce a linn point, and raaite a tine strolte, but iti trace will not oblitoratn un being rubbed witli India i-ubber. Tlie easy and complete obliteration of the stroke ia, in fact, the Itest and perhaps only test of a pencil being of pure Cumberland lead. — Pricate infor- mtitioii. Black Sea, or Xhudne S«a (I'ontiu Etunnua of tliu ancients), is a large inland sea, bounded on the west by Runielia, Bulgaria, and Bessarabia ; on the north by Russian Tartary ; on the east by Mingitilia, Circassia, and Georgia ; and on the south by Anatolia. It is entered from the Mediterranean through the chan- nel of the Dardanelles, anciently the Iltilapont, the Sea of Marmora or Propontu, and the channel of Constan- tinople or Thraciun Botporu$ ; and it is connected with the ISea of Azof, or Palut MaoiU, by the strait between the Crimea and the Isle of Taman, anciently the Cm- merian Hotporm, and known by the various modem names of the Strait of Kertch, of Yenikale, and of Taman. Till within less than half a century, the extent of the Black Sea, and the position of several of its principal ca|)es, gulfs, and ports, were very imperfectly ascer- tained. But soon after the commencement of the French Bevolution, tho National Institute sent M. Beauchamp to examine this sea, and especially its sonthum shores. In this enterprise he was much impeded by the jealousy of the Turks : nevertheless, he ascertained that Cape Kerempe, Carambis, was placed in tho charts too far to the south ; that the Gulf of Sansr-.;?., Amitenui Siniu, was deeper than it is commonly rr presented ; and that Trcbizond, the Tarabazan of the 1 irks, anciently Tra- peau, was five or six leagues farther to the west than it appeared in the charts. But recent travelers have discovered that even tho Parisian charts are inaccurate. According to Dr. Clarke, the Isle of Serpents, the Ulan-Adassi of the Turks, the Fidonisi of the modern Greeks, and ancient Lfuce, lies fifteen minutes, and the port of Odrassii twenty-seven minutes, too far to- ward the north (Clarke's Traceh, i. 668) ; and Mr. Macgill ascertained, from two observations of his own, compared with those of some captains who had navi- gated this sea, that in the Fionch charts even Cape Ke- rempe is set down fifteen miles too far north, while Cape Aria or Saritch or Careza, Kriu-Metopon, in the Crimea, is placed twenty-two miles too far south. This, of course, makes a diflerence in the width of the sea at this place of thirty-seven miles. — Macoill's TVoih m the countries on the Sea of Azof, by the ports of Taganrog, Berdianski, and Mariapol, iron (of which Constantinople and Smyma require about 60,000 quintals each), dried fish, caviare, butter, hides, tallow, wheat, timber, furs, sail-cloth, cordage, hemp, linens, wuz, and wool ; from Anatolia, by the ports of Erekli, Amasreh, Ineboli, Sinope, and Uniah, hides, dried fruits, linens, linen thread, wax, honey, hemp, copper, and ship-timber ; from the coast of Roum and Sansoun the same articles ; from tho I'ountrios of the Laziens and Gurions, principally by Trcbizond, all the above articles, except ship-timber; and from Mingrelia, and the country of the Abasses, principally by Saui^uk and Anapa, slaves, timber, box-wood, wool, silk, furs, butter, hides, wax, and honoy. The trade to these coasts is entirely carried on by a few Greeks of Constantinople, and is vory in- signilicant.— ". B. Blaok (French Blanc) literally signlflea white. Blannu, or Bhnca, was a kind of white or silver mon- ey, of base alloy, coined by Heniy V. in those parts of Franco which were then subject to l^ngland. It was valued at Sd. sterling. Blank also denotes a small copper coin, formerly ourront in France, at the rate of five deniers Tonmois £. B. Bleaohing is the art of depriving cotton, linen, silk, wool, wax, etc., of their coloring matter, and ren- dering them aa whita aa possible. The word is proba- bly derived from the French term bUmekimatt, which signifies the process otremUring whit*. This art waa known early in Egypt, Syria, and BLO 188 BLO Cherson ;orn, oak )y, hemp, ports of honey, leather, caviare, on the nski, and Smyrna caviare, lil-cloth, natoUa, ope, and d, was, he coast TPm tho ally by [■timber ; basses, timber, |ax, and carried Ivory in- white. |er mon- parts of It was small I rate of k, linen, |tnd ren- I proba- , which |i«, anA India. Known tn ancient Gaul. — Plixt. In tho last century an improved chemical system was adopt- ed by the Dutch, who introduced it into England and Scotland in 17G8. There are now immense bleach- fields in both countries, particularly in Lancashire, and in tho counties of Fife, Forfar, and Renfrew, also in the vale of the Leven, in Dumbarton. Tho chemical process of Berthollet was introduced in 1796. — BlanchV meni dea Toilet. Blockade, in war, the shutting up of Any place or port by a naval or military force, so as to cut off all communication with those who are without the hostile line. There is, perhaps, no part of the law of nations which, in practice, presents so many perplexing ques- tions r.s that which concerns the respective rights of neutral and belligerent states. No dclinite line of dis- tinction has yet been drawn between the privileges of war and peace ; and the consequence has been, that, in all the wars which have been waged In Europe, the general tranquillity of tho world has been endanger- ed by the jarring of th'ese two different interests. It has commonly happened, too, that all tbcse Important questions have been agitated during a season of war ; when the passions of the contending parties wore keenly engaged in the dispute ; when principles were already subverted ; and when the minds of men, ex- asperated by the glaring infraction of acknowledged rights, were not in a state to agree on any system of general equity by which to regulate and refonn the erring policy of states. In these circumstances, many points of international law, which appear to rest on the most obvious prinrvles, and which are very clearly settled in the writings of civilians, have, nevertheless, been the occasion in practice of no small controversy, and have frequently involved nations in all the miseries of protracted war. This has been in some measure manifested in the case of the Rightt of Blockade, re- specting which, though no difference of opinion has ever prevailed among speculative writers, a controversy arose during tho late contests in Europe, which, along with other points, ultimately involved Great Britain in a war with the neutral powers. We propose, in the course of the subsequent observations, to state, 1st. The general principles from which the most approved writers have dedui-ed the rights of blockade ; and, 2d. To give a short account of tho difierences which took place between the neutral and the belligerent states respecting the extent of those rights. In regulating tho respective privileges of the neutral and the belligerent, it has generally been hold as a fundamental principle, by writers on the law of na- tions, that those rights from the exercise of which less benefit would accrue to one party than detriment to the other should be abandoned ; and in all cases where the rights of war happen to come into collision, the application of this rule will decide which of the two parties must yield to the convenience of the other. Thus tho neutral state is debarred from carrying on any trade with either of the belligerents in warlike stores. Tho general right to a free trade is modified, in this particular instance, by the paramount rights of the belligerent. To refrain for a time from trading with an individual state in warlike stores can at most only Impose a trifling inconvenience on the neutral power, while the continuance of such a trade might terminate in the destruction of the belligerent. The detriment occasioned to the one party by the exist- ence of such a trade, is, in this manner, Infinitely greats er than the loss suffered by the other from its aban- donment. Warlike stores, and whatever else i>ears a direct reference to war, are accordingly proscribed as nnlawful articles of trade, and made liable to seizure by either of the belligerents. To this inconvenience the neutral is exposed, to avoid the greater inconven- ience and damage which might fall on the belligerent by tho liconsiiig of such a trade. On the other hand, the neutral sute enjoys the most unlimited freedom of trade In all other articles with either of the powers nt war; and though, by means of this beneficial inter- course, they may be both furnished with the means of carrying on a protracted contest, this is a contingent and incidental consequence of the trade, which, in its character, is substantially pacific, and which is attend- ed with such great and immediate advantages, that they could not, with any regard to equity, be sacri- ficed to the remote convenience of the belligerent. Applying these principles to a iy a fred intercourse with tho blockaded place. On this ground, therefore, a belligerent who has formed a siege or a blockade has an indisputable right to debar the neu- tral from all intercourse with those who are included within his lines; and any attempt to penetrate the blockade for the purposes of trade sull' cts those who attempt it to destruction, and their pru|iorties to con- fiscation. Tho very existence, indeed, of o siege or a blockade, as a lawful act of hostility, implies the right of enforcing It by an indiscriminate exclusion of all who seek access to the besieged. jliut although this view of the nature of a blockade, and of the rights attaching to it, is clearly laid down by all writers on the lav/ of nations, and although it has been acknowledged in practice by all civilized states, a question was agitated in the late wars of Europe, between the neutral and the belligerent pow- ers, as to the degree of restraint necessary to constitute a blockade, and, of course, to entitle the blockading party to all the rights consequent upon this scheme of operations ; and it is this dispute which was, in a great measure, the occasion of a general war with the neutral powers. The success which attended the naval operations of Great Britain during the war with Franco naturally suggested to her rulers the possibility of extending this species of annoyance, and of converting .the all-power- ful navy which they possessed into an instrument of active hostility. With this view, instead of conHning Its efforts to the mere watching of the enemy's already ruined trade, it was resolved to give greater scope to such en Immens'b engine of maritime power, by plac- ing under blockade the enemy's ports, the mouths of navigable rivers, and even extensive tracts of his coast. Proclamations to this effect were accordingly issued ; and the neutral trader was duly warned ot(, and prohibited, under the peril of detention, from all intercourse with the interiUcted coast. But the legal- ity of these blockades by proclamation being disputed both by the neutral powers and by the enemy, their execution was resisted by a counter decree, which, on the plea of retaliation, placed under blockade the whole island of Great Britain, and sul)jected all neutral ves- sels to detention and capture which should have been found touching at any of Its ports. On the same plea of retaliation, several decrees or orders in council were issued by Britain, ordaining that no neutral vessel should have any intercourse with France and her de- ptndencies, except such vessel should first touch at a British port, where, in some cases, the cargo was to be landed, and was to pay certain duties to the British government. From this period the maxims of equity and the rules of international law were set aside, and the ocean became a scene of proscription and pillage. All this anarchy having originated in a disagreement respecting the nature and extent of a blockade, U be- come* of Importance to bung back the question to its true elements, and to fix tiie principles by which alone it should be settled. The object of a blockade is to reduce the Inhabitants of the blockaded town to such straits that they shall be forced to surrender to the discretion of their enemies In order to preserve their livts ; and hence the legality BLO 184 BOA «f eveiy blockade, except wHh • view to capture, hat been queitioned. But without entering into this que«- tion, it eecmi obvioui that, i^ order to conititute the blockade of a town, either with a view to capture or to temporary annoyance, the line by which it i( lur- rounded >bould be so complete as entirely to obstruct all access into the place. When a place is blockade cision of which was wisely adjourned by the powers at war, and not suflfered to clog the work of a general peace. It is likely, however, that on the breaking out of any new war, this and other questions of a like nature would recur, and on this account It might be of importance to the future pcaco of the world if these questions could be settled according to some acknowl- edged rule of equity or policy, and that without delav. — K. B. Blubber (Germ. T^ran, fucJUran ; Da.Tkraan; It. Olio di pesce ; Sp. Uraua, A ceite de peicado ; Russ. Salo Korteannoe, Woncan; Lat. Oleum pitcinutn), the fat of whales and other large sea-animals, of which train-oil is made. The blubber is the adtpt of the animal : it lies under the skin, and over the muscular flesh ; It it about six Inches in thickness, but about the under lip it id two or three feet thick. "The whole quantity yield- ed by one of these animals ordinarily amounts to 40 or 50, but sometimes to 80 or mort hundred weight. For- merly train-oil was manufactured from the blubber in the iieas round Spitzbergen, and other places where whales were caught ; but the practice is now to bring the blubber home in casks, and to prepare the oil aft- erward. Board of Trad*. Cromwell seemt to have given the first notions of a board of trade. In 1656 he ap- pointed his son Richard, with many lords of his coun- cil, Judges and gentlemen, and about twenty merchant* of London. York, Newcastle, Yarmouth, Dover, etc., to meet and consider by what means the trade and nav- igation of the republic might be best promoted. — Thomas's Nota of the SolU. Charles II., on his res- toration, established a council of trade for keeping a control over the whole commerce of the nation, 1660 ; he afterward instituted a board of trade and planta- tions, which was remodeled by William III. This board of superinspectlon was abolished in 1782 ; and a new council for the affairs of trade, on its present plan, was appointed September 2, 1786. — Haydn. In many cities of Europe and the United States, a voluntary Soard of Trade is established by the merchants of such cities — in some instances termed a " Chamber qf Com- merce." Such associations ore productive of incalcula- ble benefit to the commercial ibteretts at large. We are indebted for the following elaborate sketch of the origin and progress of Boards of Trade to Mr, Sabine, secretary of the Boston Bunrd of Tiade, taken from the annual Report of that body, January, 1859 : The Britieh Board of 7Wi«• merchaVU ind m.'„T' contrary to the Utmrtk^aM, I ' *«'»''«<1 modopolle, ""■'';'«''t* a. Englishmen. "" '"*»''on of afsi^tS?"'"' "■" '■*"""'•'-'"-■"-■■ «' t. to retain tliair U.,^1 VliA *' •"■ •«"«» of th« I iim " .— •' -"• "<"■ lor toe r «^in ; for Charla, th. f l«? ' "T *' "^'"'"""i !• cer- r.^ , «?' " President of thi, Bo«r,i ''? "™en>- n>oney,r9.or"dtotha ''^t'." H '« «H«f J ,.7,; ^"\»f Sh-fte'l'ury. who fou^l the ^r' "" «""' That Board w..„L/ *'" ^«""«". "C «««"' «'"" «'« "I'o '''';'" ''"'h hemispheres ""' "'""'"'''" " "i"^"/ ~» iS ".~t ':? " "• wi. I i' : »: vi* •"■' "««to." mi,?!."!'"", •'""• '" ..p.r..„„dr;i'S,*'°',:'.''': ''»*•• K tt/r "":"»■". " ". w'mi, '; •••'«" were soon united "ri w!i ^* •" (twetlisr l but ll.., («„ , ,"" ."'rone, had defined with .ml ? "* ^^'"ry •n end, the Boa d .en '1 7.^ '',''•* "(('"•t .l«l.«t«i'< at fc'f'" ""^^ '''-l •'een established at Am^T" ""^ BOA Board (/ Tnd* >m4 PlnitMlmUr=^fiim iIm «nlv«rt- •lly w:knowMi;«4 »\A\Hy itf WfltUw it #«* lo \i» pre- lumsd tbat hit Himri-^itUtut (til (/C tthl(rlt w« liava ipoken— would h»»'« *w»MH«n4«'4 IIm >«4|(cet of (hat ■ge and of our own, fiut, M iti ttm (i»f» ut the flto- ■ru, it wa* iueAk'lout for g«wl, «h4 |Mrt««( tut mitclilef ovary wb«ra, John I^lui, • h¥»ril« M tiM ¥fMK» «M(I tttlh«Ung, and with soma at^riemm hi fxvfi^tHfy UH(ttt flhaflaa- hury, wa* tl)« Arst lwf4 WHl)«(»#l«rt«f «f wssldant ; but, in declining h»Mt »h>i ikviHfd ifi phllnMlililcal inquiriaa, lia retirad wUtmUt if»¥iht( th« lm|i^eM of hli taltnta upon il« rvmr^f, Witli tbe »iKl)t I«r4* mmmit^mm* of if»a« and plantatione, (Ita govarH'^M nf tim auUrtlUit itete n- i]uired to kaa|i ui> « emufHtii i^tffKtpdttitlteti; and, that avary tbiiig duna Iw AiiUfUt »iwiti4 im known in England, tlui jowriml* a( (Im 4i^mit ««1«mI«I eounetia and aMeniblN, mU tiM Wt^tMNt* «f tiM eoll«c(or« of tbe customs, wara ur4«r*4 1« Im (fMMHlttMt, aa well oa •very othar kind of iHformstfMi nmmiin io ofdniont on Amarican affalra, TbM* (Im iiitntti ii< 'ttifti mm«limei obeyed, accumulaud in iMr #r»iliivc»i, fn (Iw t)itifm nt elffbty year*, no las« than two tllfytf#»H<1 fhfe« hundred folio volumea of raprM w»4 9tb«f (IwtfMMrnt* of a aimllar nature. Unpopular H«imrH,=kH*l llw f*»J((««tlon of Mr. Locke, tlie (irat I«mft1ll'i« lit the Hoard in aome form w»s ewn*(«n( «n4 imiuMUttUi, liy refns- Ing grants of land U> immmn »f Itm Mghftl character in America, wIm daeigH^4 Ut ittfm MtnpaniM and to effect exUnsiva mt-UmmH ) \tf 4tM'0Mritf()n{$ or pre- venting eniigratbw i l*y r»'#lr««(»*jj the ««« at paper money, though coin WM of mm»*W retnltied to Kn- gland to p»y for tlia mmvttmUifiHt »«(<■<* KinM \m pro- cured lawfully n»wb#ra cla*) I* r«f««lttg «««cnt to bills of the colonial lt*mmhmt 'iWM *fttf framed or revised by tlte wimut nn4 ly denying plftc* •h4 uMitm Ut «o)onlal talents ; by destroying tifa mmt tH«nt)f« bf»tt(hn tit colonial commerce, the 0o«r4 «if«H»i«4, >)tt«tl/( (he Ktiflh and the South; and KpiM^ii, mmtft'MwtA Virginia and Puritan, republican 1H»!mMm>ti» mn, tm the aamo field to break (!)» yok* tif mUmM fM«a)«Ke. In a word, there is hardly « Wfttng in (M Unu and atirrinK array of grievancas in (b*« ^ftit■il^f»^itm of independence
    e i^mmntmiUm, Abolitm nfihn fimit'ti,=fn tmti, H htttgmt at laat aa odious in lingl»o4 fti (» Am<-:fkH ( (ind in 17(tO Mr. Burke, in « full bon#, »Hnt « i/Hfjf iHlmated debate, carried » vo»», by • mtimity itt itigw, tut It* entire al»- olilion, and tba triHWWr flf lt« Im4tl«iin 1« tlie privy council j but (ha msr^MUt, Mtniim Miif tot reform, were dissatisfied witfc (I4« i»(f«m« IM«MI«re, and it waa revived and continiwd, fx ttM ^(1pl« m which it rested it would seem tbllt tl)#f« b«4 imeu (Hi eonslder- able change ; for (Jjan, m gv^r iittfttff, Hn power* were derived f^om tba roy»| l)ffHi)f»lUii father than from Btatnie. Mr, Durka, In I4« timt-ii im the occasion, as- failed it In »lffM>s( evurjf fufm uf tuptutuAt, In hia view. It was of no servlaa i» (b« mmnttr, and ita ^^reaiest l>en- eflt was to eight mtmlmt ftf rufitumnt, to whom it aiTordcd a salary of 4t^W, ut4 tmmimkf to mature arlaimto4oHb(atlMiWM(M»f«tffM«p«((alM<. Inid* icim(orlt»i»»eAfily,U«»i^Mami "Ybeperpetoal tm virtual adjournment, and the unbroken tltting vaeatioa of the Board of Trade." So of its uaolessiicas in legis- lation ha as bitterly said : " Wo want no instruction from it or from any other Board; and God forbid that we should give (he least attention to their reports." Vibbon, tht llitlorian. — Gibbon, tbe historian, was one of the lords commissioners, and vouches for the ){eneral accuracy of Mr. Burke's representationa, and allows of himself, personally, that ho remained for weeks at a time in his study undisturbed by the cares of omdal business; and it appears that a part of his Hecline and fall of the Roman Umpire was written while he was in office. In fact, from tbe evidence within our reach, we are led to conclude that the Board of Trade of England thus far, and in all its clmngea of name and functions, had been more serviceable to the world of Icttara than to the wr 'Id of traffic ; and that It is to be rcmemliered with complacency principally because it ministered somctliiiig to the pecuniary wants of Evelyn, of Locke, and of Gibbon while pursuing the Inquiries to which they mainly devoted tlieir lives. True, Georgia and Nova Scotia owe their origin to the Board ot Trade and Plantations ; but though to found (hose colonica coat England quite five millions of dol- iara, njithor made scnaible progress until the lords commissionors ceased to Interfere, to plan, and to manage. Hoard nftht prtitnl Ztoy.— Having rapidly noticed the course of the Board while subject to the control of the king and his ministers, and while the celel rated Act of Navigation was enforced against all foriign countries and against tbe American colonies, wo pass to spcnk of it ill our own day, and under tbe change of policy wiiieh has resulted in (he adoption of the prin- ciples of free trade. As now constKutcd, the president of tiic Hoard is a minister of the crown, and no person concerned in commerce can lie a member. For the last forty years Its afTalrs liave been directed by men of eminent talents. Its authority is derived entirely from statute law. The care of the mercantile marine, once intrusted to the admiralty, has been transferred to it, and in thia department, except in matters of revenue, its superintendence Is wcU-nigh supreme. Among its other duties are, to advise the colonial secretary upon questions alTccting colonial commerce ; to confer with (lie lords of the treasury upon measures relating to customs and excise ; to communicate with the foreign aecretaries upon the formation of commercial treaties; to supervise orders in council ; to report upon dock and railway bills ; to exercise partial control in the various liranchea of indus(ry and over chartered companies ; to prepare monthly statements of exports and imports, of sliipping, and the like. Such are the outlines. In a very recent debate in Parliament it was ar- raigned for alleged misuse of its functions in several specified instances ; and an inquiry into its constitution wa* demanded on the ground that the duties imposed upon It are too numerous, too various, and too cnnipll- ca(ad (o bo eificiently and satisfactorily discharged. The attack was without results. Some of the oldest and ablest member* of tbe Hou*c of Commons rose in its defense, and 1(* asaalland were refused even tbo courtesy of a committed. Keser^'ing our expresalon of asaent to its policy iti the direction of free trade a* applicable to tbe present condition of the United States, or while the use of cap- ital and the wages of labor shall continue essentially dearer than in England, we may commend ita course In moat other ri- Ixindon, in a petition to I'arlianient, expressed the opii-ioQ that tbe repeal of the protective rtgultuim BOA m BOA of commerce woold be for the public advtntige. Such A sentiment, deliberately uttered, and suatained by reaBon>, by some of the best informed and moat ex- tensive merchants in the world, bad great inriuence ; •nd several measures to lessen the existing restrictions were at once devised and introduced by the proper kninister. Jfi: llmkiuon, the Champion of Free Trade. — In 1823 Mr. HuskiMon, by a partial change in the administra- tion, was plucud at the head of the Board of Trade. His essay on the currency ; his speeches in opposition to the views of the Chancellor of the Exchequer and in the debates upon the question of resuming specie payments during the suspension by the Bank of En- gland of nearly a qucrter of a century ; the wisdom be had displayed in the agitations on the vexed measure of the corn-laws, in discussing which members of Par- liament of moderate views incurred the fury of the suf- fering masses on the one hand, and the hate of the powerful land-owners on the other; and his masterly exposition of the complicated subject of the national revenues anU expenditures, had conllrmed to him the reputation of being one of the ablest flnanciera as well as one of the most profound statesmen of the age. Ho became at once the champion of free trade, because of his belief in its principles to give an impulse to the in- dustry and to the intellect of his own country, and be- cause it \\'as the chosen and constant rule of his life to look upon man every where as a brother. He pursued the plan of removing the century-hallowed restrictions CD commercial freedom calmly and considerately, yet with an energy which excited the admiration of the liberal, and afforded occasion for the most malevolent accusations on the part of his opponents. As president of the Board of Trade, he •vindicated himsi^lf in the House of Commons for the last time in 1827, on a mo- tion for a committee to inquire into the distresses of the shipping interest of the kingdom. Navigation was fearfully depressed, and in au otiensive tone the em- barrassments of the ship-owners were attributed to him. The attack was made after "a long and threat- ening note of preparation ;" but, in the opinion of his friends, ho overthrew his accusers, " not only by the most convincing reasoning, but by the clearest arith- metical proofs." Time will test the wisdom of some of Mr. Husklsson's measures ; but beyond all doubt he accomplished great good to England and to the world ; and it is lit that our records contain n 'ribute to the memory of the illustrious man, who represented Liver- pool in Parliament, and who, whetlier in otHce or out, and whether praised or persecuted, retained the confi- dence of the merchants of that city to the last hour of his life. Labors since 1845. — In concluding our notlcr, of the Board of Trade of England, we have barely time to re- fer to its most considerable labors since about the year 1845. And first it advised the revision of the tariff; the repeal of the duty on four hundred and twenty ar- ticles of import; the reduction of the duty on all raw materials; the oonversion of prohibitory duties into protective, and the diminution of protective duties. It has entirely abolished the navigation laws, which, existing from the day of Cromwell, were deemed the bulwark of the kingdom. It has consolidated fifty statutes relating to ships and to kindred interests. It has been instrumental in adjusting, in a satisfactory way, the measurement of tonnage; it has introduced an examination of masters and mates with great suc- cess ; it has established shipping offices in order to pro- tect seamen against their tempters, who are the same in every port and country ; it has arranged a system of money orders, by which the sailor, on receiving hi» wages, may transmit certainly and safely what he wills to his family ;* It has instituted savings banks for sea- faring men, and induced them to deposit con8ideral>Ie sums ; it takes charge of the wages and effects of de> ceased mariners for distribution to the nearest rela- tives ;* it has issued, at great expense and labor, elab- orate instructions to consuls, for guidance in allmatteri of difficulty ; it has extended the principle of salvage, so as to Include reward for the saving of human life ; it has insured the survey of passenger steamers, and adopted a rigid mode of inquiry into the misconduct of sbip-maitin. It has regulated claims for salvage by vessels of the navy, and the manner of volunteering into such vessels from the merchant service ; and mod- ified the laws which compelled ship-owners to take ap- prentices. It has improved the life-boat establish- ments on the British coasts ; revised tlie whole subject of pilotage in the port of London, to the saving of one hundred thousand dollars annually : devised a plan of registry and title to ships which is at once simple and safe ; and receiving from Trinity House the manage- ment of light-houses, it has remitted light-duties to the amount of more than three quarters of a million of dollars yearly. Such are some of the recent services of the Board to commerce and to humanity, Boardt of Trade in the United Stalet. — It remains to speak of the United States. At the commencement of the year 1858, as fnr as we were able to ascertain, thero were ten Chambers of Commerce and twenty Boards of Trade between Portland and San Francisco. It need hardly be said that all those are mere voluntary associations of men of business, without political pow- er or patronage, but generally with limited charter privileges, and sustained by self-imposed assessmonta and contributions. The Chamber of Commerce ofKeto Yoyh is by far the oldest. It was organized in 1768, for the purpose of " promoting and encouraging commerce, supporting industry, adjusting disputes relative to trade and nav- igation, and procuring such laws and regulations as may be found necessar}' for the benefit of trade in gen- eral," Two years after, its founders obtained a royal charter. At this juncture the merchants of Boston would have been refused a similar favor ; for such had been and was their resistance to the laws of navigation and trade that they were deemed objects of punishment, and ships and soldiers had been sent to awe tbcm into submission; troops had been quartered in tlie very room which they used as an Exchange ; their vessels and merchandise had been seized; and they were pros- ecuted in the Admiralty Court to recover ruinous fines and penalties. Quite a different state of things existed in New York, Isaac Low, an early president of the Chamber of Commerce, who, at first a Whig, and a member of the Continental Congress, fell oft, lost his estate by confiscation, and died in banishment; and several morv of the original members closed their days in ex- ile, in consequence of their disaffection to the popular cause. In 1784 the Chamber was continued » corporation, with enlarged privileges, by an act of the Legislature, Strangely enough, for nearly eighty years, and until within a few months, it was homeless, and depended upon accidental accommodation. It met first, proba- bly, in a tavern ; next, as required by charter, in the "great room" of the "Exchange" in Broad Street; early in the present century, where it best could ; and from 1885 to June, 1858, in an apartment of the Mer- chants' Bank, Though until quite lately without a library, and a secretary devoted exclusively to its service, and though it has published no reports of its proceedings, the Chamber has still acted with energ}' upon the important questions in its province which have arisen firom time to time; and, as it has borne and yet bears upon its list of members some of the most honored names that adorn the commercial annals of New York and of our common country, its influence • Tb« luia thus traoimltted in ISM was about tT00,00O. • The amount of these distributions in 18H was $1I»>,000, BOA 188 BOA In Ih* Icgblttlon of tb* State and ot the nation bai li«en in accordance wUb ita high reapoctabUit.v. Babmotv.— In th« hiatoiy of tha Baltimore Board of Trade there are incidents Bomewhat alnguUr. The flrat election of offlceri wai on the 'iOth of Febnur}r, 1831, when Robert Oilmer wai choKn preiident, and William Coolce Mcretary. Mr. Gilmer died the fol- lowing year, and William Patterson, the senior vice- president, was elected to flU his place, but declined ; and choice was made of the junior vice, William Lor- man, who continued InofHce until January, 18U0, when the Board ceased to exitt. The number of members at the organization in 1831 was sixty-four, of whom eight survive ; namely, F. W. Drune, Joseph King, Jun., Isaac Tyson, Jun., Thlllp K. Thomas, J. W. Patterson, James Brundige, Israel Mankin, and Will- iam Cook, the first and only secretary. Thf se gentle- men, mmarks our informant, "are in affluence, and possess the respect of tliu entire community." In February, 1836, the Board was revived : Utnty Thompson was cbosec president, and his son, Samuel T. Thompson, secretary. The former survived but little more than a year, and was succeeded by James Wilson, who served fh>m 1887 until March, 1843, when there was a second disbanding. Tha latter continued in service the whole time, and the Board, without rooms of their own, met at his private office. After another interval of six years, and in October, 1849, the present Board was organized, under circum- stances which promised permrnenoo and success. John C. Brune, iha first president, and George U. Porter, the first secretary, have been annually re-elected, and are now in olBce. The Board liave apartmenta of their own, which are open to the members. It is not in our power to enumerate the many useful measures which have been proposed and matured dur- ing the last ten years ; but of this we are certain, that the Baltimore Board of Trade— if without other claims to honorable mention — deserves the gratitude of the country for opening the new channel in the Patapsco, by which ships of the largest draft car approach the city in safety, and for establishing a floating-school, in which boys are taught practical seamanship, and train- ed to habits of thrift and sobriety almost free of charge, PkUadelphia On the 16lh of October, 1888, there was a meeting of merchants of Philadelphia, "To take Into consideration the Topriety of farming an associ- ation by means of which the commercial and trading community may be enabled to act with united effort on •II aubjeeis relating to their interests"— wbich resulted in • resolution to form a Board of Trade, and the elec- tion of twenty-four directors. On the 22d of the same month, Thomas P. Cope was unanimously elected pres- ident, two hundred and twenty merchante voting; and on the 1st of January, 1834, a constitution waa adopted, which has never been essentially changed. J. H. Wright was the first secretary of the directors, and, aa we suppose, acted in that capacity for the Board. An act of incorporation was obtained in 1888, which •nthorizes the Board to appoint annually two of the seven port wardens of Philadelphia. In the lapse of a quarter of a century there have been but three changes in the presiding, and only four in the recording officer. Mr. Cope remained president until hii decease in 18M ; Thomas P. Hooper, his sue. cesser, resigned at the close of 18S7, and was succeeded by Samuel C. Morton, who is still in office. Mr. Wright was secretary from 1884 to 1838 ; C. Q. Childs from the last-named ^ear to 1863 ; F. W. Grayson from 1863 to 1868 ; and was followed by Lorin Blodget, the pres- ent secretary. It may be inferred, from the small salary atteched to the office for several years, that the duties were occasional and inconsiderable until quite lately. The first movement of the Fblladelpbia Board— not nnlike our own— was to increase facilities jn transpor- tation. In 1888, and before thejr organization was completed, they sent delegates to a Convention called for the purrose of devising a plan for uniting the canals of Pennsylvania with those of Ohio, and by the publi- cation and distribution of tha proceedings of that body, and by continued action on the general subject of con- stmcting canals and railroads, rendered efficient serv- ice in opening the existing means of communication with the West. Since that time the efforts of the Board to promote the commercial interests of Philadelphia and of the country have been constant, earnest, and eH'eclive. Investigations into the causes of delay in thi carriage of goods inland, always difficult and vexatious, have been made at intervals for years, and occasionally by special agents. Congress has been solicited by me- morials for additional light-bouses and buoys ; for • survey and chart of the l3elawai« Bay and Kiver; for change in the postal laws ; for a new custom-house and a dry-dock ; for the erection of piers at Delaware City ; for Uie establiihnicnt of the warehouse system ; for a sleaiii line to Brazil; for aid to revi,-e steam commu- nication with F.urope. The President has been asked to interpose, by negotiation or otherwise, to revive American ship-steam communication with Europe un- der national auspices. The Legislature of Pennsyl- vania has been addressed on the subject of a modifica- tion of the insolvent laws; on the inspection of tobac- co i for aid to the city ice and tew boaU; for revision of the usury laws; for the suppression of Insurance companies of doubtful management or pecuniary abil- ity ; for the repeal of the tax levied by the Slate on merchandise transported over the Pennsylvania Cen- tral Railroad. Such are some of the matters which have attracted the attention of the Board, more or less of a public na- ture ; while those of local importance are far too nu- merous to bo mentioned here. Since the year 1864 our own co-operation has been sometimes asked In measures which are of national interest, and we recall no case in which it was refused. Like the New York Chamber of Commerce, the Phil- adelphia Board of Trade had no home until June, 1868, when two largo rooms, with an office, were fitted up for their accommodation on the second floor of a new iron building opposite the Mayor's office and Inde- pendence Hall, Chestnut Street. At first the meetings were held in •' Wade's Hotel" and the " Merchant's Coffee House," and after 1834 in some apartment of the"F.xchange." We are glad to add that the Board Is In a prosperoiu condition, and has a considerable fUnd invested in Stete and other sound stocks. Botton Mercantile Orgtinizatiom. — About the year 1806 an association called the " Boston Importing Com- ■pany" was formed, with the design of regulating the trade with London and Livorpool in a way best to suit tha importers. Three or four first-class ships were purchased and kept employed. Tha war of 1812 put an end to our intercourse with England, and the Com- pany closed their affairs. One of the ships was de- tained by France, but was released to bring home Mr. Armstrong, the American minister. A second association was organized after the peace of 1816, by the namo of the "New England So.iety for the Promotion of Manufactures and Mechanic Arte." which still reteins ite corporate existence. Semi-an- nual public sales of domestic goods were made ^nder the auspices of this society for several years, 'inri with success. These sales attracted buyers from different parte of the country, and were of essential bcjeflt to Boston. Chafnbtr of Cammirce. — On the llth of January, 1886, at a meeting of " Merchants and Traders" at the Old Council Room, Court Square, Thomas B. Wales presiding, and George W. Gordon acting as clerk, Stephen Fairbanks stated that, at a previous meeting, at wbxcb he presided, • committee, of which Thomai BOA 189 BOA year ;Com- ng th« |to suit were |12 pat I Com- |as do- iMr. hnarj-, |at the t^ales I dork, leting, pomai B. Curti* wai chairman, wa* appointed to eoniltler the •spedlenoy of forming a Chamber of Commerce, and that the persona then pretent had met to aet definitely on the subject. A constitution and a code of by-laws were reported, and referred to a committee, of which Heniy Lee was chairmau ; and on the 18(h of that month were adopted, and the organization completed by the choice of William Sturgis for president, of Thomas B. Wales, Robert O. Shaw, and David Hon- shaw fbr vice-preaidentn, and of forty-eight directors. The number of membcij appears to have been two hundred and twenty-four. The government of the Chamber soon after elected the late George M. Thach- er secretary, and James C. Wild treasurer. The presidents . who ibllowed Mr. Sturgis wore Thomas B. Wales, Nathan Appleton, and Abbott Iaw- rence. The successore of the flrst vlc»-preildenta were Francis J. Oliver, Charles Henshaw, William Apple- ton, Jchn Bryant, and Amos Lawrence. The changes in the Board of iJirectors were too numerous to lie re- lated here. Mr. Thacher was the only secretary ; and when, in 1830, Mr. Wild resigned, he was cboeen treasurer. In this mention of the principal ofHcen of the Chamber we pronounce names that will never disappear from the annals of the humane and literary inslitutlonc. of Massachusetts — names widely known and widely blessed. (7oniin*V/rer.-~The standing committees of the Cham- ber were twdi— of Inquiry and of Reference. The only case which seems to have occupied the time of the for- mer related to inoney transactions l>etween several members and certain brokers. Eleven oases were be- fore the lutter, and a part of them wore somewhat carious. Diaolniion.—On the flrst of February, \Wi, the Chamber voted, " That a meeting of the president and directors be called for the purpose of taking measures, If any can be devised, to infuse more vigor Into the op- erations of the association, that It may bo more useful to the mercantile community; and if, in the opinion of the officers, no such measures can be taken, then to consider the expediency of dissolving the association." That vote was taken op by the government on the 6th of April following, and indefinitely postponed, A year passed of less " vigor" than ever before. The last baaincss transacted by the Boston Chamber of Com- merce was on the 14th of March, 1843, when the »ec- retary submitted % communication from Canada on the subject of a railroad in the direction of that colony. Boston. — The act which incorporates James M. Bee- be, Sila& Potter, and James C. Converse, and their as- sociates and successors, by the name o^ the Boston Board of Trade, for the purpose of promotin(j the trade and colianerce of this city and vicinity — which forbids us, in our corporate capacity, to traffic in merchandise of any description, and which allows us to hold prop- erty to the amount of one thousand dollars — waa ap- proved on the 29th of April, 1851. Government Board of Trade. — Wo do not accuse the government of the United States of willful neglect of tho commercial Interests of the country ; but, with all deference, we do say that, as now constituted, the Treasury department can not devote to these interests either the time or the attention which they impera- tively demand. We commenced our career as a nation with half thb ports of Europe shut against our unknown flag, with but two hundnd thousand tons of naviga- tion, and with exports of only twenty millions of dol- lars ; and the care of out commerce, rapid as was Its growth, was an easy duty uuiii after the lapse of a generation. But now, when we own Ave millions of tons of shipping, and send off annually surplus products of the soil, tho sea, and of the shop and the mill, worth two hnndred and fifty millions of dollars ; when our territories, and population, and means of transportation inland have multiplied In the ratio of ships and ex- ports, we may ventitre to remark ths^ the fiscal opera- lions of that department, in which there has h««n a eorrespondi- icreaaa, require the attention of lit of- ficers, wituout any concern whatever In navigation ' and trade save in matters of revenue; and that, of consequence. It has become the duty of our statesmen to form another department, which shall relieve the Treasury, and possess, as closely as the nature of our institutions will allow, the powers of the Board of Trade of England. And, in the most respectful tone, wa will add that the merchants and ship-owners of the United States have a right to a«k that the government assume and besr much of the labor and expense which, under existing circumstances, looal Chambers of Com- merce and Boards of Trade are obliged to incur in or- der to be useful In their respective sections of country ; and Ibr the very conclusive reason that many of the (juestiont which these aswciations are required to en- tertain ■!«, either Incidentally or directly, national in their character. It Is not Just, we think, that mer- chants, who are borne down by the cares of private buainesa, should be compelled, as they are, to devote the time which they need for rest or recreation to con- cerns which, though of interest to thorn profenlonally, affect still more tho humanity of the age and the com- ■neree of the world. But while we suggest r new department In the gov- ernment, with the powers indicated, we would not dis- pense with local Chambers and Boards, since these and similar associations are necessary tu ascertain and remove evils In trade with which a national Board could hardly he expected to Interfere ; necessary to de- vise ways for safe, speedy, and cheap transportation inland ; to produce uniformity in commercial customs and charges of factorage; and to form and to concen- trate commercial opinion. Nay, more ; Just one quar- ter part of the signers of the Declaration of Independ- ence were bred merchants or ship-masters, and men of these classes, retained in Congress after the adoption of the Constitution, helped materially to shape the pol- icy of the country ; but as neither are hardly repre- sented in the public councils now, the abolition of these Chamber* and Boards would deprive them of thoir principal remaining power in legislation. For this reason alone, then, we would not only maintain exist- ing organizations — under whatever name — but would earnestly recommend the formation of others. Boat, a small open vessel, propelled on the water by oars or sails. The construction, machinery, and oven the names of boats, are very different, according to f"* various purposes for which they ai« intended and t.ie (ervicea on which they are to be employed. Thus they are occasionally slight or strung, sharp or flat-bottomed, open or decked, plain or ornamented; as they may be designed for swiftness or burden, for deep or shallow water, foi' sailing in a harbor or at sea, apd for convenience or pleasure. The largest boat that usually accompanies a ship is the long-boat, which is generally furnished with a mast and sails. Long- boats fitted for men-of-war are occasionally decked, armed, and equipped for cruising short distances against merchant sliips of the enemy, or smugglers, for impressing seamen, and other services. The barges, which are next in order, are longer, slighter, ^nd nar- rower. They are employed to carry the principal sea- officers, as admirals and captains of ships of war, and are unfit for the open sea. Pinitacti exactly resem- ble barges, but are somewhat smaller, and have never more than eight oars ; whereas a bargo properly never rows less than ten. The cutters of a ship are broader, deeper, and chorter than the barges and pinnaces; they are fitter for sailing, and are commonly employed in carrying stores, provisions, passengers, and tl^e like, to and ftom theship. In the structure of this sort of boat the lower edge of ever}' plank In the side over- lays the upper edge of the plank below, which is called by ship-wright« clinker-build. Yaielt are somewhat less than cutters, nearly of the same form, and used for BOA 190 BOL •Imllw MrTl«N. Tiny tra gcn«r«ll/ rawtd with liji oan. Th* •bove boata mora iiarticuUrly btUmg U< men-of-wu'. Merchant voiwiU abova IM toni bara at laast two, a long-boat and yawl. Mtrcbaat •blp* am- ployad In the Medilerrantan find It mora eonvauiant to naa • lamcit, which ii longar, Hattar In tba bottom, and bsttar adapted avary way to tha barbora vf that •«•, than a long-boat. A whnrf U a light, tfiarp boat, uaad In a river or harbor for carrying paaaangiira from placa to place. Puitli are a urt of oblong, Hat-lwt- tomad boata, nearly raiembUag floating etagM. Tb«y are umJ by abip-wrlgbta and caulkan, for breaming, caulking, or repairing a ahip'a bottom. I( <• alto tba name for the amallcit boat of yacbte, etc, <•«»« la a very flat, broad boat, uaed by merchant thipa among tha Caribbee Itlanda, to bring bogabaada of augar off from the aea-beach to the ablpplng anchored lu tlia roada. k felucca la a atrong paaaaga-boat uaad \u tba Ifedltarnuiean, and propelled with can and lataan aalla. thepiivgut of the Southern and Eatlam aaaa U a kind of canoe made of the trunk of a Irea boilowad out It la generally worked with paddlaa, but aoroa- tlmaa it la decked and fnmlahad with aaila and an out- rigger. The proa, ao much uaed by pirataa in tba Eaatem Archipelago, la sharp at both anda, in erdar lo •ail either way. Ita lee aide la rounded, but tba waatb- er aide la flat, and provided with an outrigger to aacure ita alability.— E. B. The Invention of boata waa ao early, and their uae so general, the art can not l*a tramd to any age or country. Flat-bottoniad boata were mado In England in the reign of the Conqueror t tba flat-lut- tomed boat waa again brought into uae liy Uarfcar, a Dutchman, about 1690. The life-boat waa Ant aug- gested at South Shields; and one waa built by Mr, Greathaad, the inventor, and waa drat put to a«a, Jan- uary 80, 1790.— Hatum. Boatawain, the officer In a ship who bu tba charge of the boata, sails, rigging, colors, anchore, cabica, aixl cordage. It ia also the duty of this officer to auuimon the crew to their duty ; to aasiat with Ids niat4M in lint neoeaaary business of the ahip ; and to relieve lb« wal4'b whan Ita time expires. Ho haa a mato >lio baa tlie charge of the long-boat, for aetting forth anchura, wulgli- ing or fetching home an anchor, warping, towing, or mooring. BobMn, a amall cylinder of wood, with a llttia bor* der or bead at each end, and bored through to r«««iv» an Iron pivot. It ia used in spinning, to wind thread, wonted, hair, cotton, silk, gold, and silver, BobUnc, among fishennen, a method of catching eela, diffiirent from sniggling. To bob for e«ls, a nom- ber of large lobr are well scoured, and a twitted ailk thread la run through them from end to end with a needle : they are then tied fast with tha two anda of the ailk thread, that they may bang in ao many bonkt ; after which the whole maaa ia attached to a atrong cord, with a plummet fixed a little above tha womia to sink the bait, and the cord ia made Cut to • atrong pole. This apparatus is thrown into muddy watar; the eela tng lustily at the bait ; the ropa Is than to be drawn in gently, and the eels are brought ashore, Boga, commonly the remains of fiillan far«at«, eoV' •red with peat and loose soil. Moving boga are allpa of land carried to lower levels by accumulated waiar. Of recent acta, one relating to Ireland for their drain- age, paased March, 1830. The bog land of Ireland boa been estimated at 8.000,000 acres ; that of 8cotUn4 at opward of 2,000,000; and that of England M naar 1,000,000 of acres. In January, 1849, Mr. Ueea Boaca took out a patent for certain valuable product* from Irish peat. — Household Wordi, So. 41. Bobea, a species of tea. See Tea. Bon, a friable earthy substance, a spacfaa of tba ioap-stone family. Specific gravity 1-4 to 2, It It (bund in the island of Lemnos, whence it ia aomattma* called liemnian earth ; and In Armenia, Italy, fraiica, Sileala, various porta of South AiuetiM, «t«. Arm- nian and French bolaa were at one time not uncommon in Ibis country, Iwlng uaud in the materia modlca ; but tliay are now cntlruly, or almost entirely, iliscarded. In India, bowavar, Armenian bole still cuiitinuet to b« in aalanslva ilamand. It ia brought to Uuiiibay (h>ia tba I'artlan Uulf. It la aoft, feela greasy tu the touch, adheres atrongly to tha tongue, and U very frangible i It It generally of a yellowlah brown color; though aotnetime* It la teen of a fine fleah rod, which ia tba variety liald In tba bigheat eatimation. Home aavaga uatlona, such aa the Uttoma«|uea, described by U. Ilumlwldt, are In the habit of allaying the pains of hanger lif eating luiiet. The Javanese, wlicn they with to iMirome thin, eat cakes, called ianitnuifHi, niada of b«l«,— I.rwik's Mulrria Mnlicai Tuumijon'h Chtm- Uifji I Aiim.n.'n Mtitrria Jndiea. Bolivia. This name was given In 1821) to a new H*at« or Hepublic In South America, fomieil from tha |irwvlni-es ik rpper I'eru, which formerly constituted |iart of tlM vice-royaify of Huenos Ayres, uml wcrt well known by the names of (^hurcns, I'otosl, Lu I'ai, ('iMiialwMil'a, and Santa Crux ilo la Niorrn. These provinces, on teeurlng their ind«|iendeDcc, noon after tha battle nf Ayaeucbo, Olfa UucemlMr, 1621, found It nacaaaary to come to a detennination as to tlieir futura pulilleal ttat4' and institutions ; and theroforo it became a quntlion with the Inhabitants of Upper I'uru wheth- er they should continue their former connection with tha lluenot Ayrean or Argentine provinces, attach tli«nit«lv«s to tlifl republic of I'eru, or form their c^un- Iry into a M'|iarnto nnd indeiHindent re|iuljlic. But tlia eaistlng government of Ducnus Ayres having with «<|ual Judgnwnt and generosity divested itself of the vlalin wlilrh It hod on the provinces of I'pper Teru, tlie Inhabitants of the latter were left at perfect liberty to d«clerations was, that the provinces of l'p|ier I'eru should in future constitute a i«|)arate and Independent nation. This assemlily, con> linuing its sessions. Issued n dcclaraticFi of national ind«|i«nd«ncc i and, In the exulieranco of tlieir grati- tuite to (teneral Uolivar for the important influence he bad exercised in areomplisbinK tho lilicration of their cmintry, they determined on giving tho name of Bo- livia to tlio whole country. liolivia extends from 9° 30' to 26° 40' of S. lat., and from W to 71' of W. long, from Loudon, and it is lioitndcd nn the north by Peru and Braxil, on the east by llrastil and Taraguay, on tho south by the Argen. liiM provlnres nnd Chili, and on the west by the I'ucillo Ihuiink :.«ru. It has been divided by the constiU uiml Congress of Holivln into six departments, viz., I'otosi, ('bu(|uisaca. La I'ax, .Santa Cruz, Cochabara- l«, and Oriiro; and these have been subdivided into provinces and cnntons. Thus cnth department in- cludes In Ita Juris«nil.o mntains Cm'habambo, Sa- ealia, Ta» *aUy il«|ieii(lent on them for iub- •Istvnva. C'ui'ua to the value of t'iOU,0OU in annually •xiKirted from La I'ai to other parta of Bolivia and I'vru. Uefore the Revolution, a very extonalvo trafllo waa malnluined lirtwcen the upper provincea of I'eru and the provinccn uf the Kio do la Plata, fur •upplIcK uf cdttle and mule/i. Tlieae were roared in great num- lien in all the intoriur Ar|{entino provinces, expreaaly for the use of Ihuso countries, and were drat sent by oiisy journeys to the luxuriant [taaturea of Salta and Jujuy, whom they were carefully fed and tended dur- liiK the winter, provioua to their being conveyed to (heir llnul ilestinution In Uollvia and I'eru. 8unio idea may lie funned iif the extent uf this truffle by staliiiK, that licsidos all those funiixhed by the other Argentine provinces, the province of Sulla alone supplied annu- ally to I'pper and Lower I'eru from 00,UOO to 80,000 mules, on all of which they realized considerable prof- its, the prices being proportioned to the distance to which they wore conveyed. The war of Independence, which has so greatly desolated the northern provinces of the Kio de la I'lata, and the diminished working of the niinoB of Iloliviu, nave almost annihilated this lu- crntivo tratliv ; but it may be expected to revive with incroiising vigor on their again resuming their former huliits uf tranquillity, and livcnniing stimulated to in- crcnscd exertion, liy '.he accession of laliorious and in- telligent Eurupeana, and by the s^ uad of education and intelligenie. Ky tlie route of Cordova, Tucuman, and Salta, the provinces of I'pjier Peru or Bolivia formerly received tlicir supplies of articles of commerce from Europe, which wore landed afUuenoa Ayres; and liy the same channel they likewise ol)t4iincd large supplies of i'lrba or Paraguay tea, to the great amount, it is afflrmed, of 100, MM) arrobat, or about 2,600,000 pounds annually, which had been previously conveyed by water from Purnguay to Buenos Ayres, and from thence by wag- ons and mules to Jujuy and Bolivia; thus enhancing its value by a circuitous and expensive land-carriage of from 2000 to 3000 miles, while, liy a more improved system of conveyance, it might Iw sent by the rivers Vermejo and I'ilcuinuyo Into the heart of Bolivia, at n vast saving of troulile and expense. The large amount of goods sent from Buenos Ayres liy wagons to Jujuy tended greatly to enrich the varinus pruvinccs through which they passed, giving employment to numbers of the luhabitants ; and Jujuy, which formed the most distant point that could be reached by wagoits or car- riages, became a place of considerable importance, forming tho entrtp'A of the commerce of Peru and the Argentine |irovinces. From this place tho various ar- ticles of commerce were convoyed on mules to their ulterior destination. Tho now order of affairs consequent on the Revolu- tion bus necessarily produced important changes in this brunch of commerce, and Bolivia has in a great measure ceased to receive her supplies of foreign com- modities by this expensive route. Commerce, where unrestricted, always tinds out the shortest and least expensive channels for tho introduction of its com- modities. Tho trade is now in a (treat degree divert- ed to tho ports of the Pacitic, called the Puertoa Inter- medios. Tacna and Arcquipa, with their respective ports, have now liecome the principal channels through which Bolivia niceives the produce and manufactures of other countries. How far tho Bolivian government has succeeded in making Cobija or Puerto la tiar of that exclusive commercial importance which it con- templated, remains yet to be ascertained. Nature presents great obstacles to the success of the under- taking, which is certainly a most praiseworthy one ; while all the rest of the coast, in which are situated the Puertoa Intermedins, forms part uf the republio of Peru, to which, therefore, they must nacuatarily pay transit duties, A new and very important channel of ciimmunicalion fur commercu will be optnad ti«- tween llolivia and the Atlantic, whenever commercial enterprise and increasing ':ivllization shall have es- tablished steam navigation on the Kio do la Plata and Its tributary streams, the Vomiejo and Pilcomayo, and from the mouth of tho Amazon to its distant tributa- ries, the Beni and the Mamori. By a decree uf tho republican government of Peru, dated 22d Keliruary, IMItl, the following Judicioua reg- ulations have been established for settling tho com- mercial relations of that state with the repulilic of Bolivia! 1, The productions of the territory of the Bo- livian repulilic, Introduced into Peru for its consump- tion, shall be tuliject to an Import duty of \ |K-r cent, on their valuation. 2. Those productions uf Bulivia which only pass through the territory of I'eru for em- liarkation from its ports, shall only be subjected to • transit duty of 2 |icr cent, 8. Silver and gold, either coined or otherwise, introduced from Bolivia into Peru, shall be exempted from any duties, 4. All foreign articles of commerce passing through tho territory of Peru, and destined for Bolivia, shall only be suliject- ed to the payment of 2 per cent, ad vnli>rtm ; and the decree of 22d January, 1880, which Imposed transit duties of from 16 to 46 per cent, on such commodities, has lieen repealed. Silver, however, has hitherto been the staple metal- lic production of Bolivia, and has given to it that celeb- rity which it has lung possessed. In the rich mountain of Potosi alone, fhim the year 1646 to tho year 1800, no lest than 9828,060, 600 were coined ; and if to this bo added the amount of the preceding years, not in- * eluded, and that obtained in a clandestine manner, $1,017,001,018 baa been obtained in the space of 22S years.— E. B. Bomb (jJo/i/Joc, a loud noise), in military affairs, a largo shell of cast iron, with a vent to receive a f\isee, which is made of wood. Tho shell being tilled with gunpowder, tho fusee Is driven into the vent within an inch of the head, and fastened with a cement made of quick-lime, ashes, brick-dust, and steel-filings, work- ed together in a glutinous water ; or of four parts of pitch, two of colophony, one of turpentine, and one of wax. This tulio is flilcd with a combustilile mutter made of two ounces of nitre, one of sulphur, and three of gunpowder-dust, well rammed. To preserve the fusee, it is pitched over, bnt uncased when the bomb is put into the mortar, and covered with gunpowder- dust, which, taking Are by '.he flash of the powder in the chamber of tho mortar, bums all the time the bomb is in the air; and when the composition in the fusee is spent, it fires the powder in the bomb, which bursta with great violence and commits dreadful devastation. Bombs may be used without mortars, as was done by the Venetians ut Candio, when the Turks bad pos- sessed themselves of the ditch. Bombs were roiled down upon them along a plank with ledges set sloping toward their works. Bombs did not come into com- mon use before the year 168-1, and then only In the Dutch and Spanish armies. One Maltbus, an English engineer, is said to have first carried them into France, whcro they were used at the siege of Colliuurc. — E. B, Bombay (Portug, Suon-Ha/iia, "good harlior"), a city, sea-port, and capital of tho presidency, is sit- uated on a narrow neck of land at the southeastern extremity of the island of Bombay, separated from the main land by an arm of the sea, forming, with the contiguous islands of Colaliah, Salsette, Butcher's Isl- and, and Caranjah, one of the best harbors in India, Lat, 18° 6C' N., long. 72° 63' E. In 1716 the popula- tion was 18,000; in 1816, IRl.SuO; and, according to the liombai/ Calendar, in 184.'), 236,000. Of these two- thirds are Ilindocit, 20,000 Parsees, and the rest Mus- sulmans, Jews, and Christians ; with a great variet ' BOM IM BOM •f fluctiistlnff fopuUtlon, chtodjr Mllori Md imUrt. It coDtUu of till fort or old town, 1 mil* In UnKlh by 4 nlla m l>ra« in 1001, aa tha dowar of Qminn Cath- ■rina, witk of (.'harlaa II., and waa takrn |Hiaaeaaliin of in loot; ao that it haa Iwan In their oi'cuputionahout IHU yrara, liainff liy fur tha uldeat of their p4>aa*aelona In the Kaat. In 16(H) It waa tranaferred by tha crown lo the Kaat India Company by lettera-patant. In tn» and common aacca((*, on payment of the annual rent of XiO, Hut by the preaent charter It haa reverted to the crown, with the raat of the conipany'a aaaota, lieinx beld by the company In truat merely. On Ita ueaaion to the crown of Kngland, In 1601, Ita phuuae, aecretariata, and oiher Rovemment officca, cuatom-tiouie, town-lvall, caatle, mint, cathe- dral of Mt. Thomaa, 8t. Andrew'a Hcotch church, Eu- ropean hoapital, etc. In the centre of the fort la an IrroKular o|ien apace called the " Green ;" and outaido of tha maaaive fortltlcationa la the eaptanade. In Iho new town are Elphinatone college. Sir J. ilejeabhuy'a hoapltal, the Dyculla church and club, the houae of correction, theatre, and the great Hindoo temple of ifomba 7>m. On the aouthweat the fort ia connected by Colabba cauaeway with the laland of t^olaliba, on which are the llght-houae, ubaervatory, lunatic aay- lum, aome mercantile buildlnga, and a atone pier. The government-houae la at Parell, milea north of the fort. There are two banka— the Bank of Boqibay and the Commercial Hank of Indie. 'Ilie property of the laland balonga principally to the Paraeea, who are the chief merchanta and moneyed men. The harixir of Bombay la one of tlie Iwat in India, and afforda good anchorage for ahips of the largeat burden. On it are alao excellent building and other docka for ahipa of the flrat claaa. Next to Calcutta and Canton, Bom- bay la the principal commorciol emporium in the Goat, and fbr many yeara ita trade haa lieen uniformly in- creaaing. In 1837 a ateam navigation waa commenced between Bombay and Suez ; three ateainera wore at flrat employed, which the war in 1848 increased to 8 ; and a regular monthly paaaage ia now made from Lon- don to India, under the arrangenienta of the (Oriental Steam Navigation Company. lUtmbny Island, on which tb* city ia built, la 8 miles in length, and 3 milea in breadth, and ia formed of two raagea of green-atone, connected in the middle by aand-aiune atrata. Th« in- tarlor lies low, and wai at one time liable to be floo Saliette by a causeway constructed in 1805. On the eaM side of the barlwr, between it and tlie muin land, la Bntcber'a laland, distant ulmut 4 miles from Bom- bay; and immediately behind ButcherV Inland la tliu famoaa laland of Elephanta. About 3 mU^ aouth fVom Batciur'a laland lathe Uland of Canmjali. m the weai- em aid* of whiflh, n*xt th« harbor, ti an •xt*nalv« ahual. flouthweat ttttm Caranjah, diatani alwul 6 niilna, ia Tull I'nint; lietwaan which and ('olaluih, or Old Woman's Uland, la tha entrance to tha harlmf. There la a llgbt-bouaa on Iha aontharn extremity of (^lalwh laland, alevalad about IM) that aliova tha level of Iha aea, which In clear weather may lie seen at lh« diatane* of 7 leagnea, Tha point on which th* light* houae atanda ia aurroundad on all aidaa liy an extena- ive reef of rncka divided Into pronga : of these, th* moat dangeroua la the prong stretching aouthweat alwut 8 milea from the light-hnuae, and forming th* northern boundary of tlie enlrance Into the harbor. The reef, atratching weat-northwcat ftam Tull Point almut 3i milea, forma the aiiuthern lioundary of ili* entrance ; the breadth of the channel between them Imv iiig aliout 8 milea, with a depth of ttom 7 to 8 fathomo. In going Into the harlior, it Is necesaary to clear a sunk- en rock, lying almoet due east from the light-houae, at alwut It mile distant; and alao a bank, called th* mlddlu-ground, lying nearly op|ioalte to and about 14 tiiile from the Miuthern extremity of the towu. — Stt Nit'lloLaoN ami WATNrty, and are for the moat purt un- der the direction of t'aracoa, who, excepting the Chi- luae, are the moat induatrioua and intpiligent peopi* if the pjiat. Merchant vcancia of the largeat claaa, or from 1900 to 140U tons burden, for tha cotton trade to China, have been built in these docka. Frigates and line-of-battle ships have also.lieen occasionally con- structed in them, sometimea under the exclusive di- rection of Paraee artilicers. Tlio timlier having to li* brought from a great distance, ships built at Boinbny are very costly ; but being, contrary to the practice In other parts of India, entirely conatructed of teali, tboy are the moat durable vaaaela in the world, requiring little repair, and often running M or 00 yeura, Biing for the moat part built by natives, wttlwut any vary atrlct application of the mica of the art, tboy are com- monly, though not alwaya, heavy auilerH. Commerce, etc. — The «mall and aterile Island of Bum- liay alTbrda no produce for exportation ; Indeed, hard- ly a week'a consumption uf com for ita inhabltanta. Nor does the whole presidency of Bombay, although comprising about 180,000 square mile«^ and trom 8,000,000 to 9,0OO,O(H) inhabtlunts, with x not revenu* in 184« '49 of *2, km, 000, yield, with th. exception of cotton, rice, ami coffee, any of the gmi«t colonial sta- ples, such as sugar and Indigo; u circumstance which may, per^iiips. lie ascribed to the Impolitio restraliiti u|Min the cniploymciit of British aettlera and capital tliiit wen- l"iii; imimHcd by law, and acted upon with peculiar rlK<>r in this and the sister presidency of Ma- draa, ill <'(mtradi!itlnction to the greater latitudn af- forded in licngai. Kuiiibay is also much less favora- lily situated, in respect of internal communications, than Calcutta. The Uangcs and its tributary streams intersect the richest provimrs of India, and give Cal- cutta u vast command of inland navigation; whereas uil the inland trade iil liomltay has to lie curried on liy means of roads that are aeliloin available for carriages, and which can lie used only by pack-liuUiicks and camels. The transit duties, by which the inland trade was grievously oppressed, have been aliolishcd ; and if this judicious measure lie fnllnwed up by the forma- tion of lines of railways to i\\- principal markets in thi interior, a great increase of the trade of the town and improvement of the presidency may lie expected. The principal trade of Bomliay is carried on with China, Great Britain, the countries on the Persian and Arabian gulfs, Calcutta, Cutch and Scinde, the Mala- IIOU 198 BOO with |an and I Mala- bar coa«t, r<)ri'lKn Kiiroiw, i>tc. Tha Imporia tram China ciiiitiiit i»'lii''l;mlly of mw allk, •iiKur, ami suKur- oan«ly, allli i>Iim-u f{mHU, trimMuro, rU*. 'I'li0 |trliii'l|Mil artW'lct <>' KXiMirt lu I'liliia are, raw cutloii, ii|iliiiii (IN.lllM) lipatii), |irlncl|iull,v Ociiii Mulwa, nluirki' film anrti to China IwIiik much Kr«itttir (liai> iho lni|H>rtii, tliu rv- turni fur ti'vcrul venm |iait huvn lit'iii iiiudo to a larKo cxtnnt ill lillU on l^milon, unil mi llm Iinlluu Kuvtiru- nienti, ilriiwn li,v lliu nuirilinnlii In China. i Tho Iriiitu with the I'liltnl KinKiluni han hcuu nku- larl,v hurfanliiK xiniw thu uliolitlmi urilix reatrli'tlvutyi- tani. rhi3i'lili'l'iirlii'li'iiorini|Mirt fruniUrvat Dritainaru, • cottun uiiil wiHih'ii ntiiirn, (.ottuii yaru, liardwiu'i', cii|>- pcr, Iruiiuiiil luiiil, t(la*", u|i|>arul, fur, •lulloiiury, wiiiii, •to. 'i'lio |irlni'l|Hil nrtliU'D of vxport to Urituin are, [ raw rnttiin, raw iillk fVum China ami IVrHlu, Ivory, popper, ami tpliea, pluco ki»hU, colfvu fVuni tliu liiil Haa, ami wool. The ex|M>rt of tliu lunl-inuiilUinttl arti- ! olo hurgaiii'il with extraordinary rapidity, the i|Uiintity ihlppeil for Knifland in IMIIil^'iM IjuIii); only (ll),'.ltl | llm,; whcrvaa liio uhlpmaiita fur KiiKlaiid liilM4l^'ll amouutcd to :VI^H,UftA Ilia. Ilut It liiia hIiicu cuntliiiiiid I naarly nlatlonary. At pri'*«nt the prlni'ipal aupply of the artivlu U drawn nroni (^utvh and Sclndo, and from i Marwur, na (iiuurut; hut active ineamirua Imvo liuvn j taken hy Kuvurnmcnt for linprovhiK tliu llurkt in tliu piwtural roiiiitry of the Dutcaii, nu that a further and [ very ronnldi'tuble liicreaao of this new luul Important ' trade may l>e antlclpateik ' Bombay Presidenoy, the most westerly and ' the amallcst of the three presiduneles of Ilrltisli India, ! mostly between lat. M and 21' N., and loutf. 'i' ami 70' IC, having northwest and north the (luleowar's dominions, east thu territories of Indoro and the Nl- ' zaiii, south (loa, Mysore, and thu Madras presidency, ' and west the Indian Ocean. Area, with Scinde and 8atturii, I2U,WI& ■(|iiuru miles, t'opulatiun 10,48,'i,U17, | and Is ('om|iosed of tlio following sulidlvisioiu: llom- hay Islanil, I'oonuh, Ahjnednu)()(ur, C'aiidelsh, Dhar- war, Siiutli .IsKhiredars, iSouth Coiiraii, North (juncan, Surnt, etc., Uaroach, Ahmcdabad, Kaira, Buttara, etc. The Western (ihauts separate the western or nioritim" from the eastern diatrlcts, which latter form » part the Kreat table-tnnd of tho Ueucan. In tlio north vhr mountaiim lielonK to the .Saut|iO(ira and other r>.nKes connected w itii the VIndhyun chain, rriiiciiwl t'rs, the Nerbndda, Tapteo, Mliye, and Salieniuillt • i.iinK Into the (iulf of Cuniliay. Above the Uhuui -. tkiti riv- ers are tributary to the GoUnvory luid Kistuah. Cli- mate for the most part less hot and more luNiithy than in the other presidencies, a i^reut part iil tlie country behi); under tho intluencoof tho scii-l>reeios. Uicoaml cotton are the principal articles of culture, und tho cot- ton of this presidency is decidedly Hii|wrior to that of the othera. H ime tuguT and indlKo am niised in Cau- delsh, Ophi'ii is nowhere cultivated, and other ^reat stap'ca of Indian produce are only produced in small n juntities ; but in return, tho carilainnins, |Hi|\|ier, and teak, ox|iorted from India, are almost exclusively tho growth of this rc){lou. The itorthcrii districts are fa- mous for their great variety of fniiis; cocou palms cover a verj' lar)te oxtent of sandy land In tho Con- can, etc, ; wool has lately been e.\|i$•< iNhl.l, Bombasine, a kind of silk stufr, origlually manu- factured at Milan, and thence sent Into France and other Gouiitrlcs. Now, however, it la manufactured in largo i|uunlities and of a good quality in Cireat UrltuIn ua null as on the Continent. Bomb-veaael, ur Bomb-ketoh, a small ship of unusual strength, eniployeil for tluowlng lienibi Into a fortress ; aiilil to have lieeii Invented by M. Ituyneau, and lirst used at the bouibardiiuint of Algiers. Till then It liail liceii judged bnpractlcable tu liouibard % pliiiHt from the sua. — V,. II. Bond, in /.(!»', is a deed whereby tho party obllgas hiiuself, his axeculors, or admiulstrators (,and, if tha deed so express it, his heirs also), to pay a certain sum to another at a day appointed. If this lio all, tha iHiml is called u siuiplu one (nimpltx obligaliu). But there is geuerully a condition added, that, if the obligor does some particular ad, thu ubllgatlun shall be void, or else shajl reiniiin in full force ; as, payment uf rent, liorforinanca uf covenants h> a deed, ur repayment of a prinuipal sum uf money borruwed uf tho obligee, with interest: wIm. b special sum is usually one-half of the penul '■Miu ,| lied in tho bond. In case this condl- ti' not pcrj'urmed, the bond bccumcs forfeited, or lute at law, and charges the obligor while living, Mid, after his death, his personal representatives, and liiH heirs if the heirs bo named in the bond. In cas« .. .1 failure to ])erfurm the condition of the bond, the 'Miiligee can recuver uiily his principal, interest, and expenses ; if tho bond were givou tu secure tho pay- ment gf money, or if it were given to secure thu p«r^ foruianco of a covenant, he can recover oulj- reasonable damages for the breach. — E. A. Boiiea of cattle and other animals are extensively used in the arts, in forming handles for knives, and various other purposes ; but of late yeara they have been of must importance in agriculture. Wliio >^U|- phiyed in tho latter, they are, in most instance nod or reduced to powder, and arc commonly us> as ma- nure for turnip!*, Iieing in general drilled in » ith th« seed, though suinetlines, also, they arc 8owi< broad- cast, and with other crops. The quaniity use varias from alwut 25 Imshcls otdtitt to about lU bushrcls targt an acre. Their effect is said to be considerably In- c reused when tiKy have undergone the process of fer- mentation.. They woro lirst used in England on a large scale as u manure iu Lincolnshire; and there can lio no doubt that their extensive employment in that county has been one of tho chief causes of its rapid improvement, und of the high state of cultivation to which it has attained. Bone-dust is now, however, very largely used, and its intluence in increasing the crops of corn and turnips, and consequently, also, the supplies of butcher's nicul und farm manure, has boon quite extraordinary. Book-keeping, (.ho art of keeping tho accounts and books of a merchant. Book-keeping by double entry means that mode or system in which every en- try is double, that is, has both a debtor and a creditor. It U called also the Italian method, because it wm <^>mo 194 uoo iint praetloed In Venice, Genoa, and other towns in Italy, wiiera trade was conducted on an extenslre scale at a much earlier date than in England, France, or other parta of Europe. This method, however fa- miliar to merchants and book-keepers, seems intricate to almost ail who hare not practiced it ; nor is the dry- ness and difficulty of the task much lessened by the printed worics on the subject, which, having been com- piled more by teachers than by practical merchants, contain a number of obsolete rules and unneceasarj' details. To discuss this subject ftally would require more space than could bo appropriated in this work. We therefore refer our readers to the reliable volumes of Mr. Marsh (published by Appleton & Co., New York) and other writers. Books (Gcr. BUdter; Du. Boektn; Da. BSgtri Sw. Backer; Fr. Lioret; It. Libri; Sp. Librot; Port. /,i- trot ; Rnss. A'nii^' ; Pol. Ktiaiki, Kaugi ; Lat. LUn), written or printed treatises on any branch of science, art, or literature, composed in the view of Instructing, amusing, or persuading the render. Ancient bookn were originally Iwardh, or the inner bark of trues ; and bark Is still used by some nations, as are also skins, for which latter parchment was substituted. Papy- rus, an Egyptian plant, was adopted in that country. Books whose leaves were vellum were invented by Attalus, king of Pergamus, aliout 198 B.C., at which time txioks were in volumes or rolls. The MSS. in Herculuneum consist of papyrus, rolled and charred, and matted together by the Arc, and »ro about nine inches long, and one, two, or three inelics in diameter, each i)eing a separate treatise. The Pentateuch of Hoses, and the history of Job, are the most ancient in the world; and in profane literature, the poems of Homer, though the names of others still more ancient are preserved.— Haydx. h Prieet cf Booh. — Jerome states that he had miued himself by buying a copy of the works of Origen. A large estate was given for one on cosmography, bj' Al- fted, about a.d. 872, The Raman de la Hose was sold for above £30; and a Homily was exchanged for '200 sheep and five quarters of wheat; and they usually fetched double or treble their weight in gold. They sold at prices varying from XIO to £40 each, in 1400. In our own times, the value of some volumes is very great. A copy of Macklin's Bible, ornamented by Mr. Tomkins, has been declared worth 500 guineas. — Bdt- LER. A yet more superb copy is at present insured to a London office for £8000. — Timet. II Dtearnermie of Boccacio, edition of 1471, was bought at the \i\x\ir of Roxburgh's sale by the Duke of Marlborough for £2260, June 17, 1812.— Phillips. A copy of the " Hazarin Bible," being the first edition and first book ever printed (by Gutteml)erg at Mentz, in 14,55), was sold at auction in London, in April, 1846, for £600. This copy, the only one known to exist except 19 In public libraries, is now In a private librarj' in New York. — Id. Printed Books. — The first printed liooks wei* trifling hymns and psalters, and, being printed only on one side, the leaves were pasted back to back. The first ]>rintlng was, as a Ixwk, the Book of Psalms, by Faust and Schneffer, his son-in-law, Aug. 14, 1457. Several works were printed many years before ; but as the in- ventors kept the secret to themselves, they sold their first printed works as manuscripts. This gave rise to ! an ad\entuTe that brought calamity on Faust. He j began in 1450 an edition of the Bibie, which was fin- ished in 1460. The second printed was Cirero tie Offi- eiU, 1466.— Blair. The first liook printed in England was The Game and PUiyofthe Chrsse, by Caxton, 1474. The first in Dublin was the Uturgy, in 1560. The first classical work printed in Russia was Com. Nepotit Vila, in 1782, Lucian's Dialogues was the first dreek book printed in America (at Philadelphia), 1780. Books of astronomy and geometry were all destroyed ^a England as being infected with magic, 6 Edw. VI. 1662.— Stowk's Chronkltt. Accordingto PETTianEW (flft/i). Btftn.X, tba «Mt \tmM ^t^UA i»)l»» ntor«»»l« types was th* Will Klbln, iiftHM (»y iiMn lilitHttfi 111 fytirope. Specimens of the lilm'k limit, (i»1ll(««1 *(((( Miftfureii wooden blocks. Instead of ly|i«, uru ()«w ♦(if y fmu, i)t the Biblia Pau}mium, duMtiill »i»l» ¥ii>y, «t)jf «w« cfrfdes exist, one of which butniigs Ut n clldpicii lit Hunt Viirh, Copijrii/hl Is the right whM» ttm «M((M(« III trimks or treatises claim to Ilia auuMvH pfi^tiUil(ll «( |Wliitltlg, puhllsbiiig, and selling IJitim, Books are divided into I'liutm, mvittAUiit In lh« tnodo in which the sheets of tlia \mimf im wfiixh ihtiy «fo printed or wrillun are ful<1«4 1 nn„/ilh, MiUcn thif »tttiet is folded Into two hiavus t i/imi'lii, wlum MiM Into/zwc / oi-inro, when tnUlud Into W//A// ilimiMmii, when the sheet Is folded Into lunlirn, uUi, Ui «H«l(lll|; Ides* clas- siflcations, no uttonlMi Is \iM \ii llw iit»i> <*f (he sheet. Progress and present Minis ijf Ih* him lU In Ihii t'njty- right of ltoiihs.—\t \\m Smm iUm\iUiA WiMlthef, ttl Nfl- tlqulty, an uuthur li«il;tiiy «i(/^lM«(f«( f)((ht (» it work, orwiiother, liilving wica |mbll*hM) fl^liftfmld fcMraln others from copying it Hn4 mWUiys I'li^iUm, Yii- Inclhie to think that hu coujil, '('(w m\Mii nnU iit I'mAtn of W(irks is often referred Ui til im |f|((»«lM| lltid 1(1 Wicli a wuy as warrants the iiifur«i|i'« thm tiwy Wdfe pftv ductivu to the uutlior, whidti imM «<«. huVe beeo the case had every oiui Iimii imfmilUui (« fim iliem at pfousure, Tereneu, in una of III* \Aiif» (Prul, tit Ku- ntivh. I, 20), »»ys, h'libiilum, iimm tiutm iiiiiifi siimui, poiiquam adilss ememiiil i Imt wtlff ntftiiM the tnagts. trates have liought it, li»4 (I iiwii fr*« ♦« nnfty one to copy It ? It wouM liava immt »iHtiUkf, Uuiivii, had It Iwcn otherwise. Of all ilia s|i«i'l«s iif jifuperty n man can possess, the fruits of |||« iiii/m)nI klmfn nvmn to he most peeuliuriy his own, Alfi lliiUluU It way, we think, be sliown timt imny m^imn (iicrtttvetilences would result from giving iIim unmn HimiUile awl hi- termlnabie property ovar iiUm* ♦lint (* «f*M( over ma- terial objects, thuM UmimvunUtii'fo I'lmM (mrdly have been perceived in aiitlifiilt)', If wIM ttimi )« fif>s«rv«d that In antiquity a copyright wM (if (iilicd less vnluo than In mortbm, «ii4 I'Mimiupniif rendered copyrights mora valiiabla, Irtit •( nlm nttoriUil tile means of proveiitlnglhulr plriwy, MtHnu in iiiit. n de- vice liy which a few cj»)i|ii» itf» tmnk imil lieiilitalned at a cheap rate, It Is firinimlivH ii( ihrntpnunn imh when it is employed upon a largn umtu, nt ntlwn n rmislder- ablo Impression Is to Im llirowii iilt, And in-iivf, after Its Invention, piracy mmM Imrdly (« ((rtiiitiHtfld In se- crot: the pirated iiook hmi iu M titimttUl io market; the fraud was thus sura to \m *rt«i'(*id, atid the offend- ing party might lie prosci'iilu/t uttii |iiiiilstiM(, For a consldaralilu tliiiii nfw iUu (iivKtidon oT print- Ing, no i|ue«tlons sauni t4i hitvo f Mem, piracy was eA'ectually preveiltad, 't1m \iimmUi'it twidH ft H Chas, II, c. If), and tlia ftnviim* iwi* add (icoelamatlons to the same elfsct, (iruhihit«4 tiM |rff Ming of any liook BOO 196 BOO n of print- tti ffl«|ieot nt\y ni\op- I «(«(ti iier- nxltio Hint lt«tliiK tlio Mil l>y aii- ««•, |'lr«<'y flitmiitloni ntif lioolc ' wlthont consent of the owner, as well ■■ without a li- cense. In 1694 the licensing act flnnlly expired, and the press then became really ftree. Instead, however, of the summary methods for obtaining redress for any Invasion of their property enjoyed by them under the licensing acts, authors were now left to defend their rights at common law; and as no author or bookseller could procure any redress for a piracy at common law, except in so far as he could prove damage, property in books was vi.rtually annihilated; it being in most cases impossible to prove the sale of one printed copy out of a hundred. Under these circr mstances, appli- cations were made to Parliament for an act to protect literary property, by granting some speedy and effectu- al method of preventing the sale of spurious copies. In consequence, the statute 8 Anne, c, 19, was passed, se- curing to authors and their assignees tlie exclusive right of printing their books for 14 years certain, from the day of publication, witii a contingent 14 years, pro- vided the author were alive at the expiration of the first term. Persons printing books protected by this act, without the consent of the authors or their as- signees, were to forfeit the pirated copies, and Id. for every sheet of the same. Such books as were not en- tered at Stationers' Hall were excluded from the bene- fit of this act. Every one most be satisfied that 14 years' exclusive possession is for too short a period to indemnify the author of a work, the composition of which has re- quired any considerable amount of labor and research ; though 28 years is perhaps, all things considered, not a very improper period. But the grand defect of the statute of Anne consisted in its making the right to the exclusive possession for 28 years contingent on the fact of a person having lived a day moro or less than 14 years after the publication of his work. This was making the enjoyment of an important right depend- ent on a more accidental circumstance over which man has no control. Could any thing be moro oppressive and unjust than to hinder an author from liequeathing that property to his widow and children that would have belonged to himself luid he been alive ? Nothing, Indeed, as it appears to us, can bo more obvious than the justice of extending all copyrights to the same pe- riod, whether the authors be dead or not. In the United States, the jurisdiction of this subject is vested in the Federal government by the Constitu- tion (art, 1, sec. 8), which declares that Congress shall have power " to promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times, to authors and inventors, the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries." By tiie acts of Congress, Miiy 81, 1790 (c. 15), and April 29, 1802 (c, 36), the nuthora of maps, charts, books, engravings, etchings, etc., being citizens of tlie United States, cr resident therein, are entitled to the exclusive riglit of publishing for 14 years, and, if the author be living at the end of that period, for an addi- tional term of 14 years. The English law does not distinguish between resi- dents and non-residents, aliens, like the American law. A copyright may exist in a translation, or in part of a work (as in notes or additional matter) ; but a bona fde abridgment of a book is not considered in En- gland and the United States a violation of the original copyright. So a person may use a fair quotation, if by application ho makes it part of his own work ; but can not take the whole, or large part, under pretense of quotation. If an encyclopedia or review copies so much of a Iwok ae to serve as a substitute for it, it be- comes liable to an action for a violation of the law. An encyclopedia is not allowed by its transcripts to sweep up all modem works. In Uermany abridg- ments are not protected as in the United States. The great practical difliculty in ii\terpreting the copyright acts is in distinguishing between an orig- inal work and a copy made. Evmptan Copi/rii/kt Ijtws. — The present Utts respect- ing the duration of copyright in the various Enropeiui nations aro as follows : In our own country the copy- right lasts forty-two years absolutely, for the author's life, and seven years after bis doath. in Greece and in Sardinia it lasts only fifteen years from the date of publication. In the Roman states it extends to twelve years after the author's death. In Russia it lasts for twenty-flve }'ear3 after the author's death, and for ten years more if a new edition has been published in the last five yei>rs :. the first term. In Belgium and Swe- den it lastL' twenty years after the author's death, with a provision, in Sweden, that, should the representative of the author neglect to continne the publieation, the copyright falls to the state. In France it lasts for the benefit of children or widow (that is, to the widow if she be, whpt ia called in France, en communauU de bietu, a peculiar arrangement in French marriage settlements, which establishes between husband and wife a perfect community in eacli other's property) thirty years after the author's death, but to other representatives only ten years. In Spain it lasts fifty years, reckoning firom the author's death. In Austria, Bavaria, Portugal, Prussia, Saxony, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, WOrtemberg, and the states of the Germanic Confed- eration, it lasts thirty j'ears from the author's death, to all his heirs and assigns without distinction ; and in Denmark, till so recently as 1858, it lasted an in- definite period, provided the work was kept in print ; now, however, it is restricted to a period of thirty years after the author's death, with a provision that repub- lication by others is permitted when five }-ears have elapsed in which a work has been out of print. In the United States copyright lasts for twenty-eight years, and an extension of fourteen j'ears is granted to the author if he lives, or to his widow, children, and grand- children. With regard to lectures, sermons, etc., the law of France appears to be, that professors and preach- ers have the sole right of reproducing their lectures and sermons in print ; but that advocates and political speakers, while they alone have the right to publish their speeches in a collective or separate form, can not prevent their being published in the journals of the time as news. The general inference is, that all coun- tries appear, by their various restrictions in time, to consider that 'here is no ineing in- vaded by pirates at home, and by the clandestine im- portation of liooks printed abroad ; but farther than this we should not go. AVe are well convinced that it is for the advantage of the public and of literature that nations should have full lil>erty to repuljlish each otli- er's works in such t'orms and at such times and prices as they may think fit. The real evil with which our literature has to con- tend originates in the barefaced piracy carried on at home, and not in the proceedings of foreigners. The latter may, perhaps, interfere a little with the sole of native works, by supplying the public with foreign in- stead of home editions ; but the proceedings of the in- digenous pirates are ten times more mischievous. They consist, for the most part, of knaves and drudges, with- out talent or learning of any sort, save only that of transmuting and adulterating the labors of others, and disguising their own rascality. Such persons fasten like leeches on any new work of talent, research, and industry ; ' they forthwith announce some system, com- pilation, or abridgment of tho same sort, every idea and statement in which ii stolen; and then publish their spuriont rubbish at a low price, advertise it at being decidedly the best work on the suuject, and find numbers of newspaper writers ready to puff off and eulogize their disinterested and meritorious labors! It is difficult, we admit, to deal with such a nuisance, and it can not, perhaps, be abated by legislation. But while we regret tho fact, there can not, we believe, be a question that courts and juries have for a lengthened period inclined too much to a lenient interpretation of the law as to piracy; and that literary plunderers, whose robberies are but little disguised, too often es- cape with impunity. By the following table it will be seen that the foreign trade in books and maps is limited. The imports are from England and Frunce principally, and also a few from Germany. DoHESTio ExroBTS ntoH THK UniTZD States, pou tox Yeaxs lEMDINO JUMK 30TU, 1S6S, 1854, 1866. IBU. 1 ISM. isw. Books and Mapa Paper and Stationery $142,004 122,212 $1S;,3B6 191,»1S $207,218 186,087 luFOBTs or Papzb asd Books imto tub Ijniteo Statis, roB TUB Ybabs ENniHo Jcme 30th, 1858, 18W, 1865. IU3. 18M. 18U. I'aper and Stationery. . . . Books and printed matter $002,668 728,221 $T56,82<» 1)17,044 $708,122 798,431 Boom (Dutch boom, a beam), in naval language, a long spar for spreading out the clew or comer of par- ticular sails; as the jib-boom, studding-sail boom, main boom, square-sail l)oom, etc. Boom denotes also a strong chain or cable stretched across the mouth of a river or harbor, with spars lashed to it, to prevent thp entrance of an enemy's ships. — E. B. Booming, among sailors, denotes the application of a boom to the sails, in ordci to accelerate the speed of the ship. — E. B. Boota and Shoes, the external covering for the legs and feet, too well known to require any descrip- tion. Boots are said to have been the invention of the Carians, and were mado of iron, brass, or leather ; of the last material, some time after their invention, boots were known to the Greeks, for Homer mentions them about 907 n.c. — For an account of the value of the boots and shoes annually produced, see Leather, and for the duties on those imported see Tariff. Borax, or Tlnoal (Arab. Burak; Pers. Tunkar), one of the salts of soda. It is white, transparent, rath- er greasy in its ftracture ; its taste is styptic, and it con- verts sirup of violets to a green. It readily dissolves in hot water, and swells and bubbles in the lire. It is of great use as a flux for metals.— Thomson's C/iemis- try. This salt is found in a crystallized state at tho bottom of certain lakes in Thibet, and in various local- ities in Persia, China, South America, and Europe. Formerly, however, the demand of Europe was almost wholly supplied from the East, and especially by im- portations fVom Thibet, where the salt is comparative- ly abundant. Crude l)orax, when imported, is culled tincal, l>eing enveloped in a fatty matter, from which it 4 has to be separated by a process that was long known only to the Venetians and Dutch. Large quantities arc supplied from the famous lagoons near Monte Cor- bole, In Tuscany. These lagoons, which occupy a large extent of surface, consist of an infinite number of low volcanoes, and springs in a furious state of ebullition; the ground, which shakes and bums be- neath the feet, is covered with crystallizations of sul- phur and other minerals ; the whole scene presenting a striking picture of the roost tremendous energy and sterility. Tho vapors that are constantly bursting forth from the boiling lagoons being found to contain lx>racic acid, it occurred to a most ingenious person, a M. Larderel, to construct pans through which the vapors being made to pas* impregnate the water in them with the acid. The pans are kept boiling by the heat of the lagoons ; and the water being evapora- ted, the acid is deposited in ciyttals. In cooMquenco BOB 197 BOS Tunlar), rent, rath- »nd it con- ilissolvea Ire. It is 's Cliemi*- ate at the ious local- 1 Europe, ras almost ^ly by im- nparativc- I, is called n which it iig known [quantities jlonto Cer- occupy a ;c number Is state of bums lic- )n8 of sul- )re8enting lergy and , bursting to contain person, a fhich the •water in )0iling by r evapora- ^iiequenco of this dlscoyery, the lagoons, firom being altogether I -worthless, have h-^^me most valuable. From 10,000 to 12,000 pounds '12 ounces each) of acid were, a few years ago, daily produced ; and this vast supply, and the facility with which borax may be obtained from the acid, has occasioned a great reduction in its price, and enabled it to be much more extensively employed than before. — See Dr. Bowbino's Report on Tmcany. Bordeaux, a large and opalent commercial city of France, on the Garonne, about 75 miles from its mouth, lat. 44° 60' 26" N., long. 0° 84' W. Population in 1861, 130,927. The commerce of Bordeaux is very extens- ive. Tho Garonne is a noble river, with depth of water sufflciont to eiiabie large ships to come up to the city, laying open, in conjunction with tho Dordogne and their tributary streams, a large extent of country. The commerce of Bordeaux is greatly promoted by the famous canal of Languedoc, which communicates with tho Mediterranean. By its means Bordeaux is enabled to furnish the south of France with colonial products at nearly as cheap a rate as Marseilles. Wines, bran- dies, and fruits Are the staple articles of export; but the merchants apply themselves more particularly to the wine trade. Most part of their other business is confined to dealing on commission ; but this they con- duct almost invariably on their own account. The reason they assign for this is, that the difficulties at- tending the purchase, raclting, lining, and proper care of wines, so as to render th^. * ■ exportation, are so very great, as to make i . ipossible to con- duct the business on any thi' , ■ > ordinar}' terms so as to satisfy their empl ' ulonial products, cotton, dye-stuffs, pepper, iiide», tobacco, rice, form the principal articles of importation. — See p. 726, etc. Borneo, or, as it is called by the natives, Brun6, an island forming part of the great East Indian Archipel- ago, and, next to New Holland, which may be consid- ered as a species of continent, the largest in the known world. It reaches from about 7° N. to 4° S. lat, and from 109° to 118° E. long. lu length may be esti- mated at 760 miles, its greatest breadth at 600, and its average breadth at 350. Its area has been calculated by Baron Melville, of Cambee, ot 12,745 geog.aphical square leagues. It exhibits the usual insular structure, a mass of lofty mountains in the centre, sloping grad- ually down to level and alluvial tracts along the sea- shore. It is in every part intersected by fine rivers, many of them navigable to a considerable distance fhjm the sea. Tho interior of Borneo is covered with immense forests, filled with wild animals, particularly orang-outangs, A great part of the coast is marshy, so that it is in portions only that it displays tjie exu- berance of tropical fertility. Of all the East Indian islands, Borneo ranks lowest as to civilization and im- provement, Kothing, perhaps, has tended so power- fully to check its progress as the solid and unbroken form of its coasts, destitute of those large bays or in- land seas which have always proved the nursery of commerce. Tho commerce of Borneo, though not equal to its extent and natural capacities, is by no means incon- siderable. Gold is its principal export. Mr. Milburn estimates the annual quantity exported at 200 piculs, or 26,000 lbs. avoirdupois, which would coin into up- ward of 900,000 guineas. Like some other commi>di- ties, it is divided, by a grotesque scale, into three kinds, called the head, the belly, and the feet; the first being the best, and the two others gradually di- minishing in value. Camphor is exported to tho ex- tent of thirty piculs (3990 lbs.), all to China, where it is more esteemed than that of Sumatra. The singular Chinese luxuries of bkht-it-mtr, or sea-alug, and edi- blu birdsnests, are found in Borneo, as over all tho Indian Archipelago. Pepper to a considerable amount, canes and ratani of various descriptions,- sago, and a little tin, complete the list of esportt. The chief im- port ii opium. Boston, city, capital of MasMclinsetts, and me- tropolis of Kow England, the second commercial city, and the fourth in population in tUe United States of America, is mostly bituated on a peninsula, 3 miles long, and a little more than 1 mile broad, at the head of Massachusetts Bay. Tho harbor extends from Point Alderton to Medford, a distance of 14 miles ; is 8 miles in width, and covers an area of 76 square miles. It has a depth of water sufficient for 600 vessels of the largest class to ride at anchor in safety. The entrance is barely sufficient for two ships of a large doss to sail abreast, and is defended by three fortresses, two of which, situated on George's and Castle islands, are on the largest scale, and constructed with all the impiove- ments of modem science ; the third, or the citadel, on Governor's Island, is still incomplete, but, when fin- ished, the defenses may be considered impregnable. The territory now covered by the city was, in 1630, a peninsula, connected with the main land by a narrow isthmus : this tract contained 600 acres — it was called Shawmut or Trimountain, and derived its name from its springs, and three lofty hills. The cpot was un- doubtedly selected for its security from tho inroads of the Indians, and its facilities for trade. Before the Revolutionary War, Boston became tho most commer- cial town in the colonies. The narrow limits of the peninsula have long since been found insufficient for the growth of the population, and her extended com- merce. Dorchuster Point, containing 600 acres, was first annexed, then Noddle's Island, comprising COO acres more, and several hundred acres have been re- claimed from tho sea; but so rapid has been the in- crease of population, that the number of inhabitants of the subuibs within a few miles of the city limits near- ly equals the city proper, Boston lies in 42° 21' 27" N. lat., 71° 3' 80" W, long., from Greenwich, England. It is 105 miles south-sou'hwest tiom Portland, Alainc ; 216 miles from New York, via Stonington, 236 via Now Haven and Springfleld ; 313 Philadelphia ; 411 Balti- more ; 449 Washington ; 990 Charleston, South Caro- lina ; and 1838 from New Orleans. The population in 1790 was 18,033; in 1800, 24,937; in 1810, 33,250; in 1820,43,298; in 1830, 61,391; in 1840, 93,883 ; in 1850, 138,788 ; and in 1854, 178,000. Boston has overstepped her sea-girt isles, and at- tached herself to the main land by one wide, enlarged avenue, tho Neck, paved, and planted with trees ; by one granite structure, the Westem avenue, a mile and a half in length, bridges, 8 railroads, and 3 ferries; 8 railroads branch into 16, and 10 avenues divide into 30, within tho first 9 miles from the Exchange. The city exhibits a picturesque and beautiful appearance when approached from the sea; and in surveying its several partu, tho visitor finds much to admire. Ben- con Hill, on which the State House stands, is HO feet above high-water mark ; it was originally 30 feet high- er. Fort Hill, on the east side, fronting the harbor, is 80 feet, and Copp's Hill, in the north part, is 50 feet above high water. On this hill the British had a bat- tery in 1776, from which, during the memorable battle of Bunker Hill, they bombarded and bnrned Charles- town. Mount Washington, or Dorchester Heights, is 180 feet above tho sea. The largo quantity of merchandise offering for Cali- fornia has given employment to a largo number of clipper ships, at a higher rate than has been current for years past. Small and medium vessels have also been more sought after. A larger number of vessels left Boston for California and Australia in 1858, than in any previous year since 1863, The clearances have been as follows : isu. I8t«. llUi. 18U. IBM. ISiS. 8llll> I>»rk« iwr» Schoonors .... 101 e « 61 T 'i 62 8 48 6 "i 80 2 60 6 1 1 Total 149 69 61 64 4T 6T BOS 199 BOS MATXimiT nmiBiniia nn Ncmbie um ToiniA«s or Avibkiu) aiid yoaaioH Vimils, amd or VusEts ii> the ooabt- IMO Tbadi, wnicn chtxsid ihto and OLua;>a> ntOH thi Oktbiot or BoaToa and CuA]i:.ii>TOWH ddbino xuc riBOAL YlAU 1348-1860, XHDINa uTTin 80, Ym M4lai JuulO. ronlfn. COML •Tiwi.. Knto/^. ciund. BntUMl. OlflWtd. ■itond. Clasrad. Ni>.o( TMHit. Tom. No. of VHMla. Tom. No of (MUll. Tom. No. of ToMOli. Tom. No. of VoomU. T-n«. No. of VoMb. Toat. 1848 lien ^(09,21)7 1012 S29,SO. 1H30 163.875 1828 164,019 1628 846, W8 3110 '61^4,780 1849 976 248,095 882 914,146 2O0S 208,020 2034 196,185 1429 824,184 2980 680,078 1860 1028 260,640 904 216,801 1908 218,296 2199 208,776 1423 820,n7 8171 602,600 1851 044 236,939 8C1 207,944 2042 275,817 2016 288.828 1628 814.. .-9 2843 618,408 1853 90S 257,844 848 224,784 1899 360,'>38 1896 286,845 8b70' 727.^71 2818* 671,877 1868 900 287,969 1246 265,513 2089 294,621 2112 814,689 231 0* 620,232 21I18' 629,46} 1854 991 820,638 t)»0 284,63' 2083 833,249 2064 829,088 2I108* 6,S3,9S9 8047* ftW,»47 1865 1073 878,826 1033 853,5»7 2071 834,298 1911 334,288 1076 491,489 2941 663,198 1866 1068 851,628 1030 337,183 2033 827,863 S039 810,104 1604 886,631 2773 702,821 * In theie jeau the numlMr of veirelt arriving and departing, but which did not enter and dear, are Included in thv •tatement. In the other yean only such as entered and cleared are given. VALim or Iktobts imo, ahs Expobts rBOH, thb Distbiot or Boston Ain> C'nABUsTowir to jronsioH pobts roB TUB BLBVEN rIBOAI. VXABI BMUINO JVHB 30, 1S66. DomoMIc Ooodi. roNlgn Qoodi. Dome, Mc and fonlpi Bipom. fonigOi Importi T«u» ToUI Valoo. Ofwhichwan Oold and Sllvsr. ToUl Viluo. Of which wert Oold and Sllvrr. ToUl Valuo. Of which w«r« Gold and Sllvar ToUI Valot. 1846 1817 $>t.669,696 7,872,992 8,1(9.933 6,714.5!I0 6,953,628 8.269,646 11,110,010 15,203,208 16,408,841 22,970,460 24,673,577 $56,674 80,018 191,100 83,697 170,847 805,926 8,970,028 8,7.10,939 4,080,487 12,(i22,6'.l8 11,860,302 $2,208,436 1,843,999 4,064,879 1,977,483 2,188,124 2,228,608 2,278,502 2,891,480 3,848,678 3,671,201 3,312,076 $104,241 344,4;i3 2,869.787 144,999 • 888,021 459.930 236,718 267,610 837,968 266,470 149,721 $8,968,081 9,716,991 12,204,812 8,692,073 9,141,062 10,498,163 13,388,513 18.094,683 19,761,916 20,041,661 27,986.668 $460,815 874,471 2,560,867 178,603 659,468 1,265, 8,t5 4,206,743 4,004,649 6,268,460 12,279,068 12,010,083 $22,616,117 86.628,968 27,182,808 28,841,145 28,669,788 80,608,417 81,958,192 89,800,fl9 45,988,646 48,260,279 41,061,088 IgtS 1849 1850 1851 1862 ;. 1S88 1854 1865 1856 India Trade of Boston, — ^Tbis important branch of business has attained in Boston at the present time a magnitude little thought of by the early founders of this trade. Salem was the p-oneer in many branches of the India trade, and for many years a great mart for the sale of teas, spices, dj-e-stuffs, drugs, colTee, etc. Ships and brigs from two hundred to three hundred and fifty tons burden were at thaf time the class and fits of the vessels employed. The ' ourse of trade, and the saperior advantages of Boston and New Yoric as central markets, have diverted this business very much : ita its ancient seat Quite a number of Salem hovses ha^ ' still an extensive interest in the East India uad Pacific business, but their vessels are, for the most part, fitted from and arrive at Boston or New York. The East India and Paciflc trade oi the United States em- ploys, in all its various brandies, at tlie present time some six hundred ships and barks. Must of these ves- sels — at least two-thirds of tlicm — aro owned in Boston and New York, and many of tho remaining third at ports east of Boston, in Massachusetts and Maine. To show the extent of the Boston trade with India, we would state that one hundred and nine ships were, in January, 1857, expected at this port from Calcutta alone previous to August 1, 1857. The sole of tho h(ia^y and bulky kinds of East India goods at Boston has greatly increased within a few years, in consequence of tho enorinous growth of the manufactures and general tra>Ie of the commonwealth, Thf annual sale at the present time in Boston of the principal articles of East India produce would much surprise any one not acquainted with the extent and rapid growth of this important branch of our business. One would hardly believe that we received at this port nearly as many bushels of licseed as of Indian com ; yet for several years past such has been '-e fact.— BotUm Hoard qf Trade iieport, 1857, p. U Mediterranean Trade. — Among the variou branches of commerce which have contributed to augment the wealth and extend tta fame of Boston, none deserve mention more than the Mediterranean and fruit trade. At rarions ports of Malaga, Palermo, Messina, Mar- seilles, Genoa, Leghorn, Trieste, etc., the merchants of Boston eiyoy a large portion of tho American trade ; and at some of tho alrave-named places the trade moy be said to be entirely controUed by the ciliea of New York and Boston, tho other commercial cities of tha United States having but an occasional vessel nrriving at their ports from these placrj. It is woU known that Boston has nearly the entire control of the American trade with Turkey .hroui;h that country's principal port of Smyrna, — Rislon Board of Tiade Report. Direct Trade vith BAlish Promncts. — The treaty be- ..veen the United States and Great Britain, concluded .ue 5th of .Tune, 1854, known as the "Reciprocity Treaty," was intended to regulate a direct reciprocal freo trade between the British North American prov- inces and tho United States iu certain designated arti- cles of their respective growth and production. Thii purpose is clearly stated in the preamble of the treaty, and in the act of Congress carrj-ing it into efi^ect. On an application, therefore, for the free admission of certain products of the British North American Provinces, imported into tho United States fro n Ha- vana and London, the Treasury Department decided that they could not be so admitted ; and that the arti- cles, if of tho growth and production of the North American British Provinces, aiitl designated as free in the treaty, would be entitled to the privilege of free entry only when imported directly from those prov- inces into the United States, BTATBMKNT EXniBITINO TmS DKOLABF.Il Al-im OF MXB- rHANniBX TBAN'SPOBTKII IN UoKD TO ( ANAUA FIIOM TUB Distbiot oi' Hobton and Chablebtowm, ddbiho thb tbnYbabs endimo June 30, 1866, 1847 $21,716 184S 24..148 1S4B 83.140 1850 151.817 1851 694,709 18152.. , $1,966,172 1868 4947,484 1864 6,178,911 1866 4,!I70,4I>3 1886 4,787,386 This table fully illustrates the operation of the Re- ciprocity Treaty aiiJ other treaties with Great Britain in reference to Canada. It may not be uninteresting to mention here that tho " Clearing-house" for the banks in Boston, which was organized January 15, 1856, is in full operation, and perfectly successful. The business began March 29, 1856, and the transactions from that date to the Slst December, inclusive, amount to $1,129,704,619, being a monthly average of $126,532,724. With tha commencement of the Clearing-house all the bank ledger accounts of dally transactions with each other were merged into one Clearing-house acwaat,— Ibid, Nuj IK ISI 18] sacn 16,4 y BOi^ fStxttum ■rniBimia mi Nmnm nnsED iMTo Tim IHWfuef or tj TBI FiioAt YiAii Mtmnn Hvnt Sir, UK BOT 0f AMMiAAn iint Fraaim YMfni, wrm ra«B ToimAsa Aim Cnwi, wmcar M AtrO UMAUJiWOtril, Aim TBI COVNTBIIS FBOH WHUtOB IQIT AUITIU, DIIWII« tnm ,_ M mi»ym> la- • ■ roMl(a VaiHli. 1 ToUL 1 nHnwH. fe*.. ■■ F(wnb«r. Tana. Crawl. NnaUt. 1 Tmu. Crawl. 'ktuHi. on ttia tM* «n4 Vsrili B«m, "^f ""T,l(ifl , 1» t,i(i8 ' 195 ' Bwaden and Norirty .>.i>iii>. ■ t\m lOB 9 989 97 9 4^994 182 BwwUib WMt Il)4U« ,,, m 10 a ■•• • ••• • ••• 9 189 10 ' OkniihWaMIndiM ,,,,,,,,,.,.... Jf4 M *••• • ••• • ••• 8 774 98 lUmburg > > > • > 1 > 1 > > 1 > f I > 1 1 SO ■ ■ *• ■ ■ a • • •■• 1 741 20 Ufemen tf >i>iiiit>i>i 10 • • ■ • 1 218 10 Hollud i IS 1,(M« w 6 1,999 71 1> 8,844 128 Dutch WutlndtM.,,, ,,.„,,„,,. Dutch OuUna. , , .,,,.,.. t ... . vSi 18 88 8 1,814 60 10 10 1867 2,090 I Dutch E»rt India* .,„,..,.,,, e,MI9 ns ■ • • • • < > * • • •• 19 6,626 228 Bolgium .,..,,„..,., 4 «.1»» TS * • * • • • • • • * ■ • « 2,195 78 EogUnd ^'iS 1,18T 60 <8,9fl8 1,499 100 120,877 S,60B Scotland 1 SI 19 10,616 976 S3 12,867 829 Gibraltar ^ 19 a a • • * • ■ * • • • • 9 464 19 Malta .,..,..,... « 15 , 9 424 15 Canada .............i. ,..>.. Other Uritiib North AnwviMR Vm, M*.» mx l',004 1 1766 190 918,101 « 9,842 1 1026 120 260,062 10,935 BritlthWaat Indian..:,.,, BriUah Pomalon* in AWm »t mi 974 29 6,5.->4 211 €0 18,730 485 iti 4>it ICl 9 ^649 21 16 ^160 179 Other port* In AMa»,,,,, „,,„.., i« i^m in 1 163 10 18 8,148 188 liritlahEaadndiaf .,,. .„,.. 8ft 0611(1 1,760 1 683 16 86 56,209 1,765 Fnnce on th* ittlantla.. ,,.,.,,.., , 18T» DO 9 3!'4 17 6 2,273 73 France on the Medllarranaan. .,,,,, 1 8,149 89 1 326 10 9 3487 09 French North Amarloan )«a«wMl«nfi, 840 11 18 9,096 118 15 2,836 129 SpKin on the AtUntle, ,,„,,,,,.„ , T tl,fi«8 104 , 7 8,688 104 Bpain on the M' dltAtrMKitn....,,.. Philippine Itianda ,,..,........,.., mi 108 8 9,138 71 18 6,610 179 HUM 90T * • • • < • • • 16 12,966 267 Cuba , ...,„,,.,.., m 43,148 1,OTO 11 2,410 88 193 48,497 1,768 Porto Htco, .,„,,„,, ,,.,„,,„,,, Azorea ,...<, 6 Wifl 48 8 447 20 9 1,877 68 M «,ll!ll 88 4 720 38 19 8.401 126 Sardinia >.....(#.... 9 16fl 86 2 S94 28 4 2,465 63 Tnacany .■•,,..,•,.......,, 1 m 10 4 1,468 49 6 2,081 65 Two Biclllea ..>...,......... 48 i0,«se 618 7 1,680 68 69 18,671 666 Auatria .......,.•...., S 914 80 • •• • * t • • • • > 8 924 80 Ionian Bepublia, ,,,,,, ,,,,,.,,,,., mi 1 188 1 138 6 Oreece ■•.,,.,,,...>..>...>, •"< i«nT • • • • 1 189 9 1 189 9 Turkey In Europa,,,,... .,,,,,,,., 88 .... • • • • 8 1,207 98 Turkey In Aala,.,,,. ..(.,.,,,,,,,. M 8,flir 801 1 482 18 27 0,129 814 Haytl , , m 8V,fT4 91T 1« 2,661 113 143 28,426 1,099 San Domingo .,,..,,,.>...,,..,,., { 'm 8 1 110 7 2 807 16 Mexleo ,,..,.,,,......., k DM » ,*•■ • • t • ■ • > * 2 699 10 Central Bepublls ..,,„.,..... R Ml M ,,,, *■>■ • ••• 8 661 28 Braill ,,„,,.,,., A '^i 63 8 I3« 86 9 2,224 88 Uruguay, or Clipjatliie ItdpubMe , , , J 11 • • ■• • * * « > • ■ • 1 281 11 nuenoBAyrea,orArgenttimit«BHlilii> 19 «,»« 189 • • •• .... • *.. 16 6,898 189 Chill .,.,.,,...,...., 18 8,fl0« SflS 9 1,101 84 17 9,827 809 l-eru .,..,,...,.,,., i 8811 13 1 783 23 S 1,122 86 China .,...„.,., Total, 18B8, ,,„,,,, ,,,,„, %m 71 .... 8 2,C45 71 MM' 111,430 1906 8L'7,(i39 l'!,6S9 281'6 066,4i2 23,126 Total, 18BT,, ..,,...,..,.,, Mt« «»t,tS4 19,480 1963 317,066 12,641 3012 714,521 26,077 Total, 18M ,, \(m 8M,riM .... i(»3 827,639 .... 4030 682,166 .... NvMBiB AND Ci,AM Of VitaaRM Dffii/r IN MMnAam»iim» Vt TBI Y«AB BHDUa JUKB 811, 1^1(8, miMMUkU WWtt I85fl AMD 1867. DlillMi. i f ' 1 ;; It V n T 9 » 1 3. VtAil Nowhuryport,,,, Glouceater Salem Boverly Marblehead . , , , , DoBton 8 'i as 'b 'i 81 B« 84 ■i 4 r 40 1 I 4 10 •i 'f ir 4T 80 T 9 4 -w 40 8 1 4 m 1 4 § 1 1 110 MM 09 06 86 897 TO S<,!ld 20 (78 89 639 79 1,120 13 'mt 41 91 49 468 59 Plymouth , FallKlver New Bedford. , . . Barnstable KdRartown ..... Nnntuckct Total, 185S.. Total, 1867., Total, 1865,, m,m 41 ()r>,4ll SO 80,884 83 NtmniB o» VBaaBLR BDIM IK TH8 nmrnfor ttt floWOH in TUB YgiBs mnivq Jutii SO, ISfifl, («fif, AJtlt 1889, Yaan. 8U|ia Baru. Biiga. wWBHWfi/ Ttdal, TMititga. 18.'.« 1S67 1S^8 68 88 23 9 B 1 ,1 i i 51 m ''59,444 ■ 40.014 iii,9;5 Fmt Botton, » part of th« city, IShifllblk tounty, Mii§> BBchuistt). Population in \»W, 19,811 1 hii4 In 1864, 15,000. Botany Bay. A buy of the Paciflo Ocean, on tho ^BBt coa,it of Australia, New South Wales, county of Cumberland, five milea soath of Sydney, about &n miles in length ai.d breadth. Lat. 84° S., long. 161° 15' £. It was discovered by Captain Cook in 1770^ ond derived its name from the variety of new plants then observed on its shores. It became an Englisll pennl colony in 1787. On its coast is a column erect* ed in 1826 to the memory cf the French navigator, La Perouse. — See Syumbt. Botargo, called in Provence Bouarguet, a sausage made on the shores of the Mediterranean and the Blade Sen, of the roe of the mullet. The best cornea flrom Tunis and Alexandria. Bottles (Fr. Bouteillet; Ger. SouteiUen; It. SotigUe, Fiaichii Russ. JiuliMi; Sp. SoteUoti), glass ves'^sls for holding liquids, too ""U known to reqiUre any descrip. tion. They are mauu^actured in considerable quanti* ties. The imur .'ta of l>ottle glass into the United State* average about (140,000 annually. Tha imports of all other descriptions of glass amount to about $2,200,000 yearly, and are very constant. About one-fourth of this consists of window glass. The principal placet of manufacture of bottle glass in the United States are Pittsburgh, Penitsylvania, and East Cambridge, Massachusetts. — For further details, «ee Glass. Iloldei, of gloss, were first made in England abont 1658. The art of making glass bottles and drinking- glasses vas known to the Romans at least before 79 A.u,, for these articles and other vessels have bean found in the ruins of Pompeii. A bottle wliiob coaa. SOT iOO BQT toined two bogvlMid* '#M hUtWH, W« m U/U, M Leith, | in ScbtUnd, in i/munry, mi^n, Bottom, tw NtrmtlUt Imiimyt^ S» « f«mlU«r ex- presslou fur » ubipi M )» (Im JyhfMM /o t/Hp ffooM in foreign bottom,— Kf li, Bottomiy, « iiMrtiiflM imum \if tttil«1i k itilp (or bottom) ia lij.jMtiMWWfM l« i>¥mnif tut inmey Un- rowed for tlio |iuriXM«4 iif fwf ifi>)i»Ki>, ««(!« th« condi- tion that, if tita 4)fp »rrf»'*i M tlf, lut Wfll M th« ittrlfi, nlmll tx liable for tba ro|i«^iR«»t luf Oim Mmh, (<«f^(h(>r with mich preniiiim tlisr«uu «# >»*y bsVM lw« \)fi'Ulim)l (#btcb In nomctlmes Utmei mariliiiw iiileftil) N H'uMf b)«1( ; It tnnj range from 10 to 'ib per c«Hl.i "f" «»*<« (W/fc, A^cnrdlnK to the nature of the nsk, ur tlw 4irti(<«)( >' (y< (/fVimrinff thfl nec- essary funds, 'i'be ffu\\^^^ mny tm i«Mf;»d as well as tha sidp, and, if nm«»»tif^, Kw mnii «(.«(, When mon- ey is borrowed o» tUn »>'>'Ufit)r (ff ih« mffiO, H Is said to . be taken up at ret^ ' mUtllM, H iPflH iiUifli seetrn to hare been introdu^eii fruw llw cir*H«l»t#rt<>« (it the borrower •ngogiug to mnii'ii/F (ur fM ffp«)'t#l«>f«( of the loan on the arrival of (be gMwi«> UlU Ihimull (h« terms are distinctive, tberu in m im»nti ti Ml^fl'Mv In the nature of bottoniry and r<'»)<«»<1<'«lbt ««(♦*/■(«, and l>oih arc regulaUid by the wme pOH«ii.b"i lit IhHtUhili- law. In- deed, tluj co«tr»i-t of fMp<«M>((lW (» «(/* iw!l(l«fn or nev- er entered into uaNw Ut (^yl^HIMtkyM wllb that of bot- tomry. A botiomry eonlrite^ mny t« anfitUm ttat In any form wbbsb siifficieiitly s\wyi» Am m)4UUttin ngtetd on I*- tween the two partbis j tmt- H in HMMtty »tnmtt up In the form of » Itoiui, 1'im lUxmniflH tflUst sIkjw, cither by expi-ees tiirws, or ffum Un i^tiffii lem/r, that the risk of loss is lutmneii by (tw* TfWfW; (his bein« the consideratb)n fur wbb-'b tik< Mull pmniUlti Is conceded. Tte lender way transfer ' h« imMian Invested In the indorsees. According to tJw lnw at V.HtAmAf » ixAUmrj con- tract remains in fore* m ]mtii >h (!*« sldp exists in the. form of a thijt, wh«t«V>'r Hmmiil i.* 4aiiiiiiiif she may have sui«4ine4, t!i»»)ii«jHWI!l*'.- ((«' "cMlntfuellTO to- tal loss," whidiis rwa/gMI/*/! t(* murm iHimtance when tlie ship is damaged fu ewb itlt fitittlii that she Is not worth repairing, is ftut »MiwgHi/* ^M Uiiiit^tm tha hottrmet Is frfead from all liability utiiUtf tw UiHimtf contract ; and the lender is H/*te»rt(b atry rfiaro of the proceeds of sui'b of fl»« »;*((/» Mnim (it materials as may have been tsvsd tfum l\m WW'd. Utmty od- Toncsd on bottuni^ l# W4 Ji«M«) f« ^,ttgl«nd, for gen- oral average losses. If the ship should lievkti (rmtl lh« fltjrUgn tot which the funds were sjlveiiwrf, tm HllfimiilHil UiM Will not 4iscfaarge tlw ubligatb'N »f I(m» fmfimot under ihe Ixjt- tomry conirwit, W ftm iiumiii tM J*v«eert at all on her intended vojTigis, the NlAf k wH etitlded to re- cover the Iwttomry ftrmiium in nAAUUm (o his advance, but only the ordinary rate «f (HfcteH dit the tempora- ry toan. As rtw tmUmn pfmtiUM is presumed In eve-y case to nover «l»e fitkti itiilitri'ti by (lie Ifnder, be is not entitled tu tbwge IIm* Uittiii^tff with the pre- mium which he may |.»»y ftHfw* i4 (he toyage. f'lr- cumstances often erite in wldoh, *l(htrrtt- (be exer< im^ of this power en tb« port (^|h# Mi«i«f, H wtmM be iin> possible to provide means for accomplishing tho voy* age ; and It Is better that the master should have au- thority to burden the ship, and, if necessary, the freight and cargo also, In security for the money which has be- come requisite, than that the adventure should bo de- fetitcd by inability to proceed. But the right of the master to pledge tho ship or goods must always be cre- ated by necessity ; if exercised wlihout necessity the contract will be void. Accordingly, the master of • Ilrltish ship has no power to grant a bottoniry bond at a British port, or at any foreign port where ho might hive been able to ralso funds on tho personal credit of the shlpH>wncrs. Mcither has bo any power to pledge tlio ship or goods for private debts of his own ; but only fur such supplies as are ludispensable for the purposei of the voyage. Tho bottomry lender must use reasonable diligence to aKertain that a real necessity exists for the loan ; but he is not bound to see to the a^'pMcation of the money advanced. If tlio lender have originally advanced tha funds on the personal credit of the master or owners, or on any othior security than that cf bottoriry, he is not entitled at a sulisequunt period to convert bis claim into a bottomry obligation; and although the master should grant him such obligation, it would not bind the owners. In evmy case a bond procured by compulsion would be void. The power of tho master to pledge the cargo depends upon thcrn being some reasonable prospect of beneflt to it by bis so doing. Ho has no such power except in virtue of circumstances which may oblige him to assume tho character of agtntfor the cargo, in the ab- sence of any other party authorized to act on its be- half. Under ordinary circumstances he is not at lib- erty to pledge the cargo for repairs to tho ship. If, indeed, the goods be of a perishable nature, and if it bo impossible to get the siiip repaired in sutTicient time to obviate serious loss on them by delay without In- cluding them under the bottomry contract, he has pow- er to do so ; because it may faiviy bo assumed, in the cose supposed, that the cargo will be benefited by this procedure. But if tb .!re bo time to communicato with the proprietors of tho cargo, it is his duty to give them notice before resorting t3 this course. The general principle is, that the ma!>ter must act fur the cargo, with a reasonable view to the iutercsts of its pioprie- tors, under the whole circumstances of the case. When ho does this bis proceedings will be sustained ; but should ho manifestly prejudice the intorests of tho car- go by including it under bottomry for the mere pur- pose of relieving I he ship, or of earning the freight, the owners of the cargo will noi. bo bound by tho bottoniry contract. Any buttoniry or rospondentia bond may be good in part, or liad in par according as the mas- ter may have acted icUhin or beyond tho scope of his le- gitimato authority in granting it. If two or more bot tomry bonds have been granted at dill'crcnt stages of tho voyage, and the value of tho property bo inEufli- cient to discharge them all, tho last-dated bond has tha priority of payment, as having furnished the means of preserving tho ship, and thoreby preventing tho total loss of tho security for the previous bonds. In a recent case in the English Admiralty Court (the Cynthia, 2U L. 7, 64), it was decided that a bond granted by a British consul over a British ship, the master of which had been murdered in a mutiny by the crew, was valid, although tho new master, appoint- ed by the consul, had not l>ccn required to sign it. When the sum due under a bottomry bond over ship, freight, and cargo, is not paid at the stipulated time, proceedings may bo taken by the bond-bolder for re- covery of tho ftvight, and for tho sale of tho ship ; and should the proceeds of tliese be insufficient to discharge tho claim, a judicial sale of tho cargo may be resorted to. As a general rule, the value of the ship and Alight must be exhausted before recourao can be taken against the cargo. BOU 201 BOW Court bond ip, the iny by ppoint- it. CT ship, d time, for re- ond icbargo csorted freight against The bottomry premium must bo ultimately paid by the parties for whona especial Iwneflt the advances were obtaiaed, as ascortnired on the final adjustment of the average expenditures at the port of destination. For further information on this sabj^t-t tli-j reader Is reforred to the cases uf the Qratitudlno. 2 Kob. A. R. 240, 272 ; the Lochiel, 3 Kob. 84 ; the Alexander, \ Rob. 846 ; to Soares v. Rahn, 8 E. F. Moore ; Uobson v. Ly- all, 8 Jurist 060 ; and especially to the cases of the Lord -Cochran", 8 Jurist 714, and of Jucobsen v. KcLihardi,, U2 Scottish Jurist 809. See also M/usiiall on I The Leeds and Liverpool canal conneeta it with botii the Iriah and North Sena. Bmn, tha thin akina or husks of com, particularly -^'heat, ground, and separated from tho com by a sieve ir bolter. Brandy Oerm. Bnmltweini Do. Bnmdewgni Ft. £nu dt vie, Brandtvini It. Aguartentti Sp, Aguanli'' tntt; Voti. AguunUnta I Buss. Winot Lat. Vinutnadut- turn), a spirituous and Inflammable liquor, obtained by distillation from wine and the husks of grapes. It is prepared in moat of tho wine countries uf Europe {, but the auperiority of French brandy ia universally admitted. Tho latter Is principally distilled at Boi^ deaux, Koohelle, Cognac, the Isle de Bh6, Orleans, Nantes, and in Foitou, Touraine, and Ai\Jou. That of Cognac is in the highest estimation. Wines of all descriptions, but chiefly those that are strong and harsli (jxmmi), arc used in the manufacture of brandy. The superior vintages, and those t'. t have most flavor, are said to make the worst brandy. It is naturally clear and colorless. The different shades of color which it has in commerce arise partly from the casks in which it is kept, but chiefly from the bumed sugar, sandere wood, and other coloring matter intentionally added to it by the dealers. It is said that tha bumed sugar gives mellowness to the flavor of the liquor, and raiiders it more palatable. The art of distillation is believed to have been first discovered by the Arabians. From a passage in tho Tetlamcnium Nofiumum of the famona Raymond LuUy, wlio flourished in the thirteenth can" tury, it would appear that the production of brandy and alcohol fh>m wine was familiar to hia contempo- raries. — P. 2, edit. Argtnt. 1671. But the practice doea not appear to have been introduced into France till 1313. — Le Grand d^Auui Vie prici de Franfoii, tome ill. p. 64. Yi'^ "n flrst introduced, brandy or bumed wine (vinum ttdua ^.m) appears to have been used prin- cipally as an antiseptic and restorative medicine ; and tb most extravagant panegyrics were bestowed on ita virtues. It was described as a sovereign re.medy in almost all tho disorders of the human frame ; it waa commended for its efficacy in comforting tho ipoEsory and strengthening the reasoning powers; it was ex- tolled, in short, as the elixir of life, and an infallible preservative of youth and beauty. — Hendkksom's Uii- tory of Wine, p. 24. Dr. Henderson says that the ex- perience of later times has shown how little the eulogy was merited ; but in this he is contradicted by Burke, who maintains, with equal eloquence and ingenuity, that " tho altmbic has bean a vast benefit and blessing." — Tlumghtsand OetaUaon Scarcity,\). 41. Brandy form cd, for a lengthened period, a prominent article in the exports of France — few ships Siiiling from Bordeaux, Bochellc, or Nuntes, without taking a certain quantity of it on board ; but of late years there has boon an ex- traordinary falling off in the exports of brandy as well aa of wine. We auljoin A> Aooonn or nn QuAmma Ain> TAtun ori JHO WITU 1839, TO TU m BoAxmr xxvobtkd nton Fxtnoi a t'HiiaD KiiiuuoM amd to all Cob Dusrao XAcn of tus 10 YcAsa emd- wrsixB. Tun. QauUty. Vsliu. goutitr. V>Iu>. 1880 LUru. 9,028,140 «,9a«.71> 13,669,446 10,867,076 7,829 366 •,612,690 7,179,644 ^gfl6,286 7,410,610 6,284,289 Frtme*. 8,164,071 6,430,000 12,208,000 0,230,760 6,064,966 6,226,120 6,939,123 4,783,241 6,002,618 4,187,431 tUru. 17,91B,8S« 14,182,783 88,787,732 22,039,926 16,146,280 18,468,224 19,»VI1,B06 18,833,909 20,609,714 16,418,668 FrMtt. 16,837,280 11,960,000 20,732,024 18,708,180 13,712,700 14,987,888 10,262,104 14,928,811 16,668,437 12,398,600 1881 1882 1838 1884 1886 1806 1887 1U8 , 19«" TotaU 80,468,676 67,877,216 187,886,960 166,686,618 Avenge of ten yearn 8,046,ie7i 6,787,721 1 18,788,696 16,868,661 1 Avenge of tho 10 yeara In Imperial gallons i,ni,i66 ■ ■ 4,i2i746 C--6 7, C- -0 Z sc-t-z 8 C-f-Z DRA 208 BEA. Th« export t»1ub of bmndy from F.-fp* ?o tlit Uoitad Utatca in tho year UbH wu 1U,6(U,UUU frauct; wines, 'Ja,'l02,(X)U franct. iMTOIITATIOIf or IlKANDT I^^TT) THIC UMITaD RTATU, THIANBT HaninT, laiSfli YMrtii4lil|J«MM. 6.\U,. V.l... ' 1844 Tt«,610 1,(M1,UU 0B4,41T 1,870,111 '2,Utt4,Uil 4,14ft,S(H 3,108,788 i),75l,mO B,S.HUM 8,lb2,S0er with tin. Tho same alloy, with moro tin, is used In machinery, and is prefurrvd to tho alloy of copper and xino on account of its greater hardness. It appears from tho analysis of tho brass j( tho oncienti that it was an alloy of cop- per and tin. A small portion of tin gives to copper great hardness, and renders it capable of beArluc; much greater resistance. A larger portion of tin gives in- creased hardness, but is less Httud to boar a straining resistance, on account of its brittleness. Its elasticity is very great, which lits it for bells. In this state it is called bcU-metal ; and with a still greater proportion of tin it forms an alloy employed for the mirrors of rc- ilectlng telescopes. The alloy of copper with tin is easily distinguished from that with zinc, from tho agreeable color of the latter, which varies with tho proportions of the metals. Pinchbeck has the least proportion of zinc. Common brass has moro zinc, and tho gold-colored alloy called prince's metal contains a still gnsater proportion of zinc. An alloy of copper with a very largo proportion of kiinc is used for tho com- mon white metal buttons. Jiram-color is prepared by braziers and eolormen to imitate brass. Thero aro two kinds, the red brass or bronze, and the yellow or gilt brass. The latter is mado only of copper-fllings, the smallest and brightest that can bo found ; with the former it is usual to mix some red ochre, finely pulverized. Tho various alloys of copper with tin and zinc form- ing the dilTeront kinds of brass, aro to be considered OS chemical compounds, and, of coursu, governed by the same laws of defmito proportions which ob'ain in the moro conspicuous compounds. On these princi- ples, which can not I>e doubted, we have an imerring rule for uniting these and other metals in tho best pro- portions, the weights of their atoms being previously known. Tho weight of tho atom of copper being 8, tin 7-35, and zinc 4, the following tAbles exhibit tlie pro- portions of the various alloys, exprccsed in atoms, and their proportions by weight, the third column pointing out the color and character of tho resulting compound. C, Z, and T aro to represent the atonu of the metals respectively. Compounds or Znio wrru Comn. , Atoml. C+Z C-f9Z C+3Z c-t-oz c+oz 3(H-Z »C-fZ by Jvalgb? Charxtor ud Color of Uie Compound!. 2 tot Itol 8 to 8 lto2 3 to 6 lto8 4tol etoi The bust proportions for common bnuts. Tba alloy called prince's metal, of a bcuitlftil gold color. Of a paler yeUov, very little malle- able. StUI lighter In color, and not malle- able. Yellowish-white and britUc. Very brittle, nearly white. A very malleable brass, used In watch-work. An alloy mui.h hanler than copper, and Inclining to M color. Conroimna or Tin with Corm. PruiturUtNM by Wtljlit. T+C 8 T+C 4 T+C T-)-3 T-(-8C T-HC T-f60 T-Heo T+TCJ T-H40 T-J-OC 11 to 13 lltoA ll>o4 11 to 3 11 to 14 11 (oM Uto48 11 to 80 11 to T» 11 to 84 11 to 08 11 to 108 CbarMUr tad Color of lb* C«ap«aadl, I A wry brittle and rather wUte { alloy. BItll morn brilllo and more white. Very white, tiat'd for specuVims. iUoarsu-Kralned, aud too brittle Ibr any piirpoae. A yellowish alloy, vuy bard aud sonoroiii. Mll-nietal. I A yxy bard alloy, used for some ( culinary veaiwli. Hoftor, but not malleable. )8tlil lucreaat'd In aoftnoaa, and of a yellower color. I Uaud lur lomo purposes In machln- I cry. An alloy used for cannon. (Moro common for cannon and roa- -j chlnur}-, aiid uiwd for bronze \ Ntntiiea. nitherto the proportions of theso alloys havo le- pended upon tho practice of workmen, guided by nu- merous trials; but what confirms tho law of dof.nite proportions, is tho necessity of adhering to fixed pro- portions, ascertained by trial. By attending to the proportions pointed out above, the most striking and pri-cr compounds will lie jiroduced, without tho trou- ble of trial. Any Intermediate proporH"!)!! will, doubt- less, be marked by defective color '.tte^ ar crys,,alU- zation, or imperfect malleability. iVltbough tho most direct way of forming theso dif- ferent kinds of brass is by immediately combining the metals together, one of them, which is most properly called brass, was manufactured long before zinc, one of its component parts, was known in its metallic form. The oro of the latter metal was cemented with sheets of copper, charcoal being present; and the zinc was united with the copper witliout bccoinin;; visiblo in a distinct form. The same method is still practiced for making brasd. — E. U. Brass was known among all tho early nations. — UsHEn. The British, from tho remotest period, were acquainted with its use. — AViiittakkr. When I.ucius Mummius burned Corinth to the ground, 146 n.c. the riches ho found were immense, and during tho confla- gration, it ia said, all tho metals in tho city melted, and, running together, formed tho valualile composition dcscril)ed as CoritUhian broM. This, however, may well bo doubt'jfi, for the Corinthian artists had long before obt:uned g.*eat credit for their method of combin- ''ng gold ana silver with copper; and the .Syriao trans- lation of the Bible says that Ilirnm niadu tho vessels for Solomon's temple of Corinthian brass. Articles made of this brilliant composition, though in them- selves trivial and insignificant, were yet highly valued. — Ui; FnEssNor. Brasil, an extensive empire of Sonth America, oe- cnpying a large proportion of the eastern and central part of that country, extending between Int. 4° 28' N. and 82" 45' S., and long. 34° 65' and C5"20'W. Length from north to south, about 2C:iO miles ; greatest breadth, 2640 miles. Its internal boundaries come in contact with all the different states and territories of South America, with tho exception of Chili and Patagonia, while the Atlantic Ocean washes its shores from its northeast to its southern limits. Brazil was discovered by Alvarez do Cabral, a For- tnguese, who was tlriven upon its coasts by a tempest in 1600. Ho called it the land of tho Holy Cross ; but it was subsequently called Brazil, on account of its red wood, and was careftilly explored by Amerigo Ves- pucci about 1604. Tho gold mines were first opened ia 1684 ; and the diamond mines were discovered in 1730. The French having seized on Portugal in 1807, tho royal family and nobles embarked for Brazil. A rev- olution took place here in 1821. Brazil was erected into an empire, wheu Don Pedro assumed the title of em- peror, Nov. 18, 1825. He abdicated the throne of Fort> / w.i.i'JWk.J'i'.i J.i< BBA 104 DBA ngal, May 2, 1f)M ; and that of llraail, in fiivnr at bU | Mntf rltar anrl Mntnr, ami rrfronlivd liy thn ua-lircez* infant >on, now (1H&&) rinperor, A|irU 7, iNItl, and r«- from Ih* na*!. At Itio Janviro tho annual nii'un of turned tol'ortugal, where a dvll waranaiwd.— IIaviisi, j NlimnMi'* Ihcrniomnii^r U 77". Th» ulinri't of th« The cmplr* ia divided Into ID provincci, M iiUua(«il ' xaet vuaal art K*nerally luw-lyhiK, (h» Kruuiid rl>ing •long tho ahorei of Ibo ocean, and four In Ilia iutorlvr, vraduallx lielilnil Inio the inuuntain ri-Klon, « hit li runa the relallvu |>opulatioii of which la axklhltcd In lb* , paralliil to the ifiail. Thn harliom arv f(ciivrall,v k<>o>1i following table, drawn up according to thu mual recant parllrMlarly tho»' nf Ulo ile Janeiro and DaliU. Tha tnd accurate autborltiua. ProviiM«i. UariUm* /YovinrM. Pitro • • • MuntiiUaiu ItMihy ( 'vnm Hio (Irandu do Morte .... I'antlbA I'urimmliiicu AlHgoas Hrrvlpo ilol Key Uahla Knplrito >-tin,«un «>«,nrw po.iaM MU.IUU VM.aim MM.UUM iwi.iaw {Mitiulatlim of llrixll i otniiniit of Kuri>|it'ann, * lillci liorn n Ihn rniintry, who u,\\ iIumimIvi'I llra/llluii«; Mu> lalt'iot, Mainaluco<'«, or ofTniirinK* of » hllm and iiatlv* Indlaim; Nrgrorn; Mi'iil|y.nKWmmI, lnah«Kan,i , IWaaill, and nuiiiiruua ollitr ilyo- wmmU, with aa'aafraa, aar»a)'arilla, iiuiaiiianhu, and a grt at varlnly of other druga. ( vcoa, tuoutcliouo, and manioc, are Indlgenoua prcu'ucti. I'lipi/ iif It lilnpal.-h, lialfil ffhrnani "H, IH.'>/4. nililr'Urd liy Mr, Mnryiin, llril'mh l'nn$ul I lliihiu, In ike Ann/ qf t 'tttrnuitnit rrtatirf tn Ih reporinl existfwe nf .Va- lr»lf nf Hoila in the ntiyUiorkiiml uf the Hirer man f'rnitri*'o, "t have the honor to acknowledge tho receipt of ymir l«r'Ulil|i'a diapatch of .lanuary 7 la&t, inatrurtliig m* 1 1 report, aftir a careful in(|uirx-, on the local!- hia Thu aiirfaco of Ilrazil la nlwut equally dividMl inlu uplands and lowland*, or valleya. Two paralM inounl- ain ranges travorao tho country from north tu aouth, tlaa In wlilch nitrnle of toda hna liccn found in forming elevated ridgca of tahle-land — thu gn-atcat prcivinca, ila aiatn of purity, thn coat of extracting and height of tho central range being from OOIK) tu 7<«X) tv»t, raAnIng It, and the ex|ien»e of trnnaport to a aliipplng Several minor ranges intersect the country, imloaing (lurt, In reply I lieg to stiitc, that ever since the nicn> tracts, some of which aro elevated, and others luw-ly. llun inada In my Commcrrlul Iteport for the year IM.'iO ing plains. Tho northern part of Drazil omaiala of tit* of lh« dlM-ovrry of this Important manure In tliin |)rov- greater part of the vast plain through whlib lliiwa Ihn Inco I linvo received undonhted Inrnrmatiou nf Its ex- River Amazon and Iih tributaries, and varying In width latenra In aeveral other localitiea, and In conaifiuciwe from 050 to H(H) miles. Tho rivera, lakiia, and wat«r loat no time In renewing my cxcrliona, with the assiat- courses are ao numerous as completely to inluraect IbIa j an<'« iil a few frienda having connections In tho IntcrU great plain, lliu soil of which is deep and soft, and cov- { ur, In ribtnin every Information poasiljle thereon, Tho ered for the most pari with dense forests. Moutlwast i Infiirinatlon received from several districts Is audi ns of this is another plain. The principal rivers In this | i)> aallsfy my moat sanguino expectations, especially direction aro the Tocantins, Araguay, I'aranablba, Han i In IIm iiortheaat of thia province, in the neighborhood Francisco, Uelmonte, Doce, I'aralba do Hul, and lllu : uf thn KIter Han Francitco, at a place called ' Salitro.' Grande do Sul, all of large size, but nf ililHcult navi- ' In lli« words of a most distingulahcd and talented na- gstion, in consequence of rapids, etc. The lublu-land I llva nf the town erf .lonzriro, through a valley of aix- on the west is separated from the Andes of liulivla by i««n tn twenty leagues long, one niiias of nitrate of soda a large and extensive plain, traversed by tuoa« rivers ' i« found— In anmo places on the surface, at others a few which join to form the Madeira; tho elevation of this plain is (nm 1200 to 1600 feet. Un the l>anka of tbit Iriuana, and westward to the north branch of tliu H«rra Pareeis, extends a sandy and nearly barren d«a«rt, called Campos dot Parecls. From seven lakes (Heta Lagoas) on this table-land rises the Itiver Paraguay, ftiet nndnr) and contains suflicient manuro for [ir- tatinn for years to come. On the opposite side of .he alMfVe-named river, near tho town of Pilao-Arcnd-, AtlHir deposits exist in equal quantities. Tho prnject- e desired tlint receives the Rio Grande, the Paranabilia, Hapucaby, its wurks should lie commenced and prosecuted with Pardo, etc. Several small streams How in a southeast I vignr, a* the dislanco is only UO miles from this city." direction into the Atlantic. The Uruguay Hows south ' The prndiice of the country exported consisted of, through another table-land of smaller dimensions to »il1i!e, l,>ll'l,Z13 bags; hides, U7,Wf>; sugar, 7824 the plain of the Missiones. The principal lakes »n | casrs ; rum, mfl pipes ; rice, 8229 bags ; horns, 2.'i(i,9'l9 ; Patos, an enlargement of the Rio Grande, aud l/ak« | Inbncro, 'itf,7M< roll<: rp'e-wocd, 86,647 pieces ; linlf- Hirim. Many otherBoflesssizcaniinlbewoatempruv- tanned hides, 12,744; tapioca, 17,787 barrels, etc. The inces. The climate of the Amazon valley is of a lrop> I Import* from the ITnlted States, in 1861, amounted in ical nature ; only tho dry and rainy seaaun* are nut I valun tn $.1,7'>'l,409, consisting mostly of Hour nnd very distinctly marked. The night* aro cloudliiMi > ultter prnvialuns, and cotton manufactures; tlic ex- but in the morning clouds accumulate and umllnuH till ' ports bt the same period amounted to |!10,6I7,3G0, the afternoon, when thunder end lightning, with tor rents of rain, prevail for two houra, and all again l« clear. The climate of Central and West Ilrazil is mora varied, the heat in the dry aeason being exceasiva. fflMlly In coffee, sugar, and hides. (Jiimmtrce rifJJrazil. — From the report of tho Mlnis- itt lit Finance, read in the Chamlwr of Deputies on the loth May, we gather the following particulars of while frosty nighta are of frequent occurrence in win- 1 the lmp';rts into, and exports from, the empire of Dra- ter; rain in some situations Is of rare occurranca. Tlia I zll, for the years 1864-'b6. The commerce of Brazil oUmate in the valley of the southeast coast ia, nutwllb- \ with foreign nations, during the year 18&4-'55, em- tU n d ing ita low Utitude, aa genial a« that of It«lx, | ployed t^fib ships orresaels, measuriDg 1,667,016 tons. BIIA 205 nuA Intcri- I'ho Buch as ■ilally irliood lalltrc.' tCll 110- uf Bix- of smla :» a faW Itr. of he irojcct- 3t pnsa lificciit ailroad le com- •d that ■A with r city." itcd of, 7824 r)«,919) hnlf- Tho itcd in ur mid llic ex- 17,300, iMlnis- Itics on Pars of of nra- I Brazil em- 16 tons. Tho ruxciiiin of tite laat three y«ari amounted to— 1H62-'6;I, •l«.l'".<''''*i lH4;t-'ai,|17,i41),H(Xi; 18.Vl-'5ft, |17.TI>7,UM). Total, &II,2UU,aU. Avira((>'. |17,7 111, inJ, On the fllit of Dccomlier, IH6A, the cxterlnr ptihlle t amouiitud to i:.i,T 41)7 14A 1113 0(«l a'4A 081 U'14 O'Tt KfVwu. ♦ lU.Mt.MD" 4,0N«,llll ll,l)01l,«44 '2,tt'i4,MU a.ONT.BTI) ll.t).SI,4lia 1,BU1,S4T 4>M,IMM> I8U,rAi (10M,OT8 I,«n4,04v Bl'i.Ull lou.uu 68I,BBT TTll.OM 1U4,T0» |4U.'M. KM-'U. !Sii'.i "iiiU Tun »oi iiHiif> naiiH 4116 Bill «■« 7-;rr 4 vn 4 ai 1 7>l B,4(M bA4.iii:i I1T7,W4 lSi,7T4 IW.'JTI BS.TM BtU.IMT bm.'mo 6-!T'.' 11 Tl 1) IM (1x1 6-it, MIS V'lU ()i>i 41) OTH O'M OS* OOT 0-04 1 iittiiii Htiiti'ii I'nrtiiifAl liiiil licr uuiisoMlonN Uio (I* U Platft Clflll HwtMk'ii bikI Niirway Di'iiiimili Tiirliiiy Ke-oiiiurt>tlim Tiital 1^:1.040, 1T4 HlbU.MIfWB 1 A derrco of the gorommont of Drazil, under date of January 10th, 1865, exDin|its furclKiicrH from pcrniltn of rciiidcnM', and pcrmitu them to travi;! in tlio iiituriur of tho eniplrn with nuch paanports as thoy may havo hroiiKht with tliom, and, for thu want of such, with tlio pumport of their respective iiiiiilHtors, consuls, or vice- consuls, tho same licaring the vita of tho Urazllian au- thorities. [Tnnalutlnn.] Art. 1. I'emilts of resldcnoe are abDlliheil, and fonsl|;ncrs eonilnfr to tho rmplre are oxemptcil fnim tho samo. Art. 'i. At nvery police oltlou a book Hlmll Im kept for tho roglntratlou of forflgneni entering or litavlng thu empire. ^Irf. X On the ooeasloii of the pulla^ visit foreigners shall state tltelr nsntt-s, condition, tho place of tlieir nativity, pro. fcMsIon, the object for coming hero when they arrived, and where they Intend to reside. In thoKo plnrcs where no police ▼Istt Is made, the aforcsAld decliimtion Hhall he made before the chief of iwUce, delegate, or sub-delegate within twenty-four liouni after landing, uniler iicnalty of Ironi $10 to $60 line, Im- powMl by tlie coniiwtent authority. AH, 4 The declaration alluded to In the foregoing article doc!* not cxonenite captains and inoHterH of merchant vessels ftvi\\\ the oMiKittion leipotMMl upon theui by the twenty-fillh ar- ticle of reguliition No. 120, of January illst, 1»I2, to declare. In a statement signed by th'.'m, the numlKT, name, employnient, occupation, and place of nativity of the passengers they bring with them, with or without passporta w4r(. B. The declaration ol the foreigner and of tho muter or captain of the vessel shall be iinntediiitely truuHmitted to the bureau of police by tho vlalllug olBcer or the authority who re- ceives them. Art. 6. Tho visiting olHcer, the chief of police, or the dele- gato or siib-delegato to whom the foreigner presents hlniKcIf, shall examine his passpoii, and the same Udiig found In due form. It shall be returned to him visaed, dated, and sl(^ed. Art. T. if there should bo any doubt as to the legality of tho passport, or tho foreigner come without one, the chief of police, tho delegate, or sub-delegate shall penult him tu land If tho.o Is no reason for nuspectlng him to be a criminal ; but If he should be snspIclou^ and have no certificate to present In his IWvor from his minister, or. In the absence thereof, from his respective consul or vice-consul, the chief of police, the dele- gate or sub-delegate shall comp(d tho vessel which brought him to take him buck, reporting tho circumstance to tho gov- ernment ut the capital, and to the presldont in the provlucea A rt. 8. To enable a foreigner to travc I from one province to another, or in the Interior of the same, tho passport with which he arrived In tho ompiro will be suffleient, provided it lieara the vim of the competent authority with this clause, " For tho province of ." The vina must bo dated, sign- ed, paid for, and renewed every time the foreigner leaves one province for another. Art. 9. Hut if the forelKner shoidd happen to havo come without a passport, or have lost tho one ho brought with him to the empire, the pasxport of tho minister, or, in the absence thereof, that of his rcs|>cctlve consul or vice-consul, with the visa of the Urazllian authorities, as set fortli in the preceding article, shall answer the same purpose. Art 10, A foreigner who has resided in the empire for two years, Iwlng in possession of an establishment, and conduct- ed himself well, or being married to a Draiilian, shall be at liberty to travel Ihiely like a Uraclliau, after having obtained frrtm tho chief of police a rertiflcate of 1 1 1 liur of said conditions, thirf rertlHcate Is revokablo lu easo of a change of circum- stances. Art. 11. In caso of therti tjcing no diploniatio or consular agent, or tho funiKuer Im a refugee or enilgrnnt, or not coma under the provU' mh of the preceding aitlelc, tlie passport Hhull bu Issued by iJie chief of police, the delegate, or sub-del- • h'ate, thu same being always free of • liargu for the emigrant or the poor. Art. 1'i. The mlidaters if state, or tho chief clerks of the several departments at the neat of goveniiueut, tho presidents or their eecrctarlcs In tho capitals of the provinces, tiin chief of iKillce, tho delegate or nub-delegate, at thu place of lumllng or of departure, shall bo empowered to grant the pasHjf >tt or the visa referred tu in tlui preceding articles. The power» inn, ferred by this decree upon thu chief of police, thu del. giito and sub-delegate, ari? not concurrent, hut shall bu exercUed by the delegate in placcH where no chief of police resides, or by tho sub-delegate when- no chief of police or delegate exists. Art. 10. In couhlileratlon of tho foregoing articles, the po, spectlvo portions of the articles in regulation No. I'^O, of Jan. uary Slst, which referred to penults of residence, and to poss. ports for fon-ignoni traveling in tho interior of titu empire, arc hereby aboll^'hed. BraEll-nuU, or Chest' uta of Brasll, tho fruit of tlie ,lu^ m (Hii'tlidllilui exceUii), a mi^estic tree grow- ing to tlio helgiit of ono huildre(l or one hundred and twenty feet, abounding on tho banks of tlio tiriiioco, and in tho iiurtliurn |>art3 uf llrazil. The nut.s aro tri- angular, having a cuneirurm appearance, with sutures at each of tho angles; the shell is rough and hard, and of a brownish usli color. Tho kernel resembles that of an almond, but is larger, and tastes inuru like a com- mon hazel-nut ; it contains a great dea i »f oil, that may bo obtained by expression or otherwise. Those nuts do not grow separately or in clusters, but are contain- ed, to the number of from liftecu to lifty or more, in great ligneous pericarps or outer shclLs, generally of the size of a child's head. This outer khell is very hard and strong, so that it is rather ditlicult to get at tho nuts, V, iiich arc closely packed in cells inside. Tho na- tives are particularly fund of this fruit, and celobrato the harvest of tho juvia with rejoicings ; it is also very mucli esteemed in Europe. Tho nuta exported to England and tlio European continent aro chiefly fh>m I'ara, and form nn article of considerable commercial importance. — Ilf-MBoLur's rertoaal Narrative, vol. v. p. 538, English trnnslation, BrasU-wood (Fr. Dois de Bresil; Ger. Brasilien- holz; Du. lirasUunhout ; It. Leyno del liranle, Verzino; Sp. Madera del llnsil ; Tort. Pao JirtuiC). 1 1 has been commonly supposed that this wood derived its name from the country in which it is principally produced ; but Dr. Bancroft has conclusively shown that woods yielding a red dye were called Brazil-woods long pre- viously to tho discovery of America ; and that the ear- ly voyagers gave the name of Brazil to that part of that continent to which it is still applied from their having ascertained that it aboaoded in such wood*.— f I BBE Me BRK fl«« (hu Irarnfil luiJ •xcelloiil work, PMItunphu nfCnU art, vol. 11. |i. Jlltf-a'.M, It U roiinci In llio Kr'at^t tbundiinctt, *n(l la uf th« iMtt quality, In lit* prorlnc« of romaniliuru, whore It ii c«Jlii- Uanaa. NotwIthitaodlnK Ita a|<|>areMl bulk, the bark la •o thick, that a trca an ' K<' x a man'i liody with tha bark will not Ui lo thit < ^ iho hg whim pvulvil, When cut into chiut, It loiei the |j|la rulur It before had, Mid bacomoa ri'il, and whan chewcit kaa a aweal taila. It I* uied for vnrioui ))urpo«i-)i liy calilnat-makon, and ad- mila of a Ix-audfiil vamUii, but ita principal uio U in dyainK red; and though tlio color ti liable to decay, yat, l>y mixing with It alum anil tartar, It ia eoaily made |ximianciit, There is also made of it, by means of acids, n sort of llqnid lake or carmino for painting In inlnlaturo. llrazil-woud has been for many yean past A royal monopoly ; its exportation, except on account of guvemmcnl, Muk prohlbltcil under the severest pen- altiua. Owing to the improvident manner in which It boa baen cut down by the guvernment agents, it li now rarely found within several leagues of the coast. In- deed, we ore assured that many of the planters have privately cut down the trees on their estates, and used the timber its tire-wood, that they might not expose themselves to annoyance fh>m the arbitrary and vexa- tious proeceilings of these funrii»naries. The quantity of lirazil-wood imported Into Great Britain ia but in- considerable. Its price in the London market, exclu- sive of the duty (it. per ton), varies for the first qual- ity fVom £60 to £K0 per ton, — Dr. DANCRorr in luc. cit. Kwijclup. Mtttvj). Mothm Tnirtltr, vol. xxix. p. 67 ; Maute But's, vol. v. p. &2fi, English edition, etc. Bread, the principal article in the food of most civ- ilized nations, consists of a paste or dough formed of the liuur or mval of ditlbrcut sorts of grain mixed with water, and baked. When stale dough or yeast is add- ed to Iho fresh dough, to make It swell, it is said to be /earewcii^ when nothing of this sort 1* added, it la said to be unlratrntd, llulurical Hhetrh of Srtad.— The President de Go- guet ha« endeavored, with his usual sagacity and learn- ing, to tracfy the successive steps l>y which it Is prol>- ablo men were led to discover the art of making bread (Origin of Liac$, etc. vol. i. p. 95-106, English trans- lation) ; but nothing positive is known on the sutjoct. It is certain, however, from the statements in the sa- cred writings, that the ose of unlcaviaed bread was common in the days of Abraham (^'en, xvlil.'8); and that leavened bread was used in the time of Moses, for he proliibits eating the Tascha' lamb with such broad.— AJ»rf. xil. 16. The Greeks a Brmed that Pan had instructed them in the art of making l^riad; bnt they no doubt were indebted for this art, as well as for their kncwledge of agriculture, to the Egyptians and Phoenidans, who had early settled in their country. The method of grinding com by hand-mills was prac- ticed \k Egv'pt and Greece fhjm a very remote epoch ; but for a lengthened period the Romans had no other method of making flour than by beating roasted com in mortars. The Macedonian war helped to make the Romans acquainted with the arts and refinements of Greece ; and Pliny mentions titat public bakers were then for the first time established In Rome.— //u<. Nat. lib. xviii., c. 11. The conquests of the Romans dif- fused, among many other useful discoveries, a knowl- •dge of the art of preparing bread, as practiced in Rome, throDgh the whole south of Europe. The use of yeast in the raising of bread seems, however, from a passage of Pliny Olb. xviii. c. 7), to have been practiced by the Gennani and Gaols before it was practiced by the Ro- mans; the latter, like the Greeks, having leavened -thalr blMd by IntMiaiziiig the (reah dough with that whirh had baroma slala. Tha Roman practice seami lu have auparsailad that which wi> , revluualy In use In Kranr« and Hpain ; fur tha art of raising bread by an admixture uf yeast was not practlc«d in France In mad- am timea till toward the and of tha seventeenth centu- ry. It deserves to lie manlioncd that, though tha bn>a>l made In this way was decidedly superior lo that pre- viously in use, it was declared liy the faculty of medi- cine In Paris lu be prejudicial lo health ; and tha uaa ocn almost every where used in praferi'nco to any thing else In the manufacture of bread, to the whuleiomeness and exoellaucu of which It baa not a little contributed. The species of bread In common use in a country de- pends partly on the taslo of the Inhabitants, but more on thu sort of grain sullal>io for its suil. But the su- IMBrlorily of wheat to ail other farinaceous plH.ils In tha manufacture of bread Is so very great, tliat, w berever It Is easily and succcsafully cultivated, whcaten bread la used, to Iho nearly total exclusion of most othara. Where, however, the soil or climate is less favorable to ita growth, rye, oats, etc, are used in its stead. A very great change for tha better has, In this respect, tuken place in Great Britain within the last century. It is mentioned liy Harrison, lu his deserlpliun of En- gland (n. KM), that In the rolgii of Henry VIII. the gentry had wheat sulHcient for their own tables, but that their hotutkM and poor nclghbon were usually obliged to content themselves with rye, ba>l>'y, and oats. It appeare from the household book uf Sir Ed- ward Coke that, in 1696, r}'e bread and oatmeal fomi- ed a considerable ])art of the diet of servanis, even In groat families. In the southern counties. Barley bread is stated in the grant of a monopoly by Charles I., In IdiO, to bo the usual food of the ordinary sort of peo- ple.— iSir F. SI. Ei>EN on Me Poor, vol. I. p. 5(11. At the Revolution, the wheat produced in England and Wales was estimated by Mr. King and Dr. Uavcnaut to amount to 1,760,000 quarters.— Davknant's fVorlct, vol. 11. p. 217, Mr. Charles Smith, the very well in- foraied author of the Tracts on the Corn Trade, origin- ally published in 1758, states that in his lime wheat had become much more generall}' the food of the com- mon people than It bad lieen in 1689 ; but ho adds (2d eiKn«l Iniprovsmiint hav- ing takun |iliic* in Um conillllua of tbu po|iulatliin, In mpcot uf fooit, will bo ulivloim. Uut gntt, ai hai Iwon the ImpniTamant In tho condi- tion of thn paopleof EnKUuililni»i 1760, It It Imt trlHInK conipariMl to tha luiproveinant that haa taken placo •Incit tha aaino purioil In tlio conillliun of tho paoplo of Ht'ol- lanil. At thu niiddle of lant runtury, Hcotoli aKrlrulturn wat in tliu niont dopruHuil itala ; ^he tanant* w<'re dniitU tntv allka of capital und iklil ; grtrn cropa wnm nlmont wholly unknown ; and tho quantity of wheat that wai ralaad wat i|uita inuonalduraldo. A Held uf viKht acn't ■own with thla K^aln, in Iha vicinity of Edlnburf{h, In 1T27, wai rackoneil lo Krout a curioally that it excited thaattontlun of tha whole nuighliurhitoil. — KonKnTaiix's Rural Rfcnllrclum; p. 3(17, Uut even io late aa the American war, tho wheat ralaoil in the Lothiana and Bcrwickalilro did not exceed n third part of what la now grown in tliem ; ami Inkini; the whole country at •n avera^, it will be a niodurate eatiinato to aay that tho cultivation of wheat haa increaaed in a ttt\/bld pro- portion tinea 17HU. At that purlod no wheatan bruad waa to be niut with In the country placoa and villuf{c' of Scotland, oat taktt and bitrley biinmtekt being uni- Tsraally made vto of, Dut at preaont thu caao la wide- ly dilKirent, llio upper and alao tho iniilillo and low- tr claraet In towna and villaKoa uae only wheatun bread, and ovan In farni-huuaoa It it very extcnaivuly con- aumud. There it at thla uionient hardly a villagu to be met with, however limited Ita extent, that haa not a public baiter. In many parta of Kngland It it tho cua- toni fur private familiea to bake their own bread. Tliia It particularly the caaa In Kent, and In luuio parta of Lancuahlre. In ltH>4 there wot not a aInKlo public baker In Manchcater, and their number ia ttiil very linUted. Tha word broad it lomotimoa uted for all the nccos- lariei of human life, cipocinlly In the Horipturoa. (.'IdnK-NdunKt the aucceaaor uf Folii, la reputed to have been the flrat who taught men (the Chineae) the art of huabaudry, and tlio method uf nrnkinji broad from wheat, and wine ttom rice, 1U98 k.k:. — L'nieertal llia- iory. Daking uf bread waa known In thu patriarchal agea; aee Kjrodut, xll. 16. Itaklng broad became a profeiaion at Home, 170 B,o. During tho aicge of Faria by Henry IV,, owing to tho famine which then raged, broad, which bad been nold, wliilu any remained, for a crown a pound, wot at laat niiide from tho Itonca of the cbamel-liouae of the Holy Iniiocentt, a,d. 1691. — lIiSNAtri.T. In the timo of James I. tho uiual bread of the po«r waa roado of barley ; and now In Iceland, cod-fltb, beaten to powder, is made Into bread ; and tha poor uae potato-bread in many parta of Ireland. Earth has been catun m bread In gome parts of the world : near Moacow ia a portion of land whoso clay will ferment when mixed with flour. 8ome of the In- diana of the Southwett cat a white earth with talt ; and the Indiana of theOronokoeat awbito imctuout earth. — Grkki ; Phillips. Brtail-making.—BnaA It a mott Important and gen- erally uied article of food, and its proper preparation it a matter of the first importance. In New York It ia chiefly compoied of wheat flour, although rye and In. dlan meal enter somewhat into the composition of some ■pedes. 100 parta of wheat flour consist of Starch ftS parts. Uluten J4 •• Bugar [',]', 6 n Vegetable Albumen a '• Of these dlfTorent constituents, tho t^lnten is that which gives to it the univeriutl preference it cnjoyt over all other articles for bread-making. In oats, barley, and rye, the amount of gluten Is small. As iu name imp«rta, it glvet to tha flour, when raized with water, In the form of dnugh, lit i/IhImihh or adhaalve proper- ly I and hi'nco, allhuiigh wheal rimir <'aii raally l»i om- varted Into a plaatir patto with wafer, yet it in found exoeHlluuly dllllndl or inip«>aiblu li> make an adbealvu 'l>ii»;h witli rye or oat meal fluur withuut tlie addltlan It a pcirllun of wheat finur. 1 b<' i|u illly of wheat Hour la gn-atly Improved by thnu' or four inontba' age, and It uiakea a miieli atrongar liiiuil after thla period than before. If, however. It It kept liM) lung, It la not only liable to fvrmnntutlun, but lonea Iu part Its glullmiua property. It la tli« cuatoin with bakera, who K'Idoiii uao fluur lieforu It la of thu ago inilleatad, to mix tliut uf threu or four nionthn' age with that which it one or two yoart old; beyond thit period it can not be well kept without rapeelal earn; anil, Indeed, ao great la thu demanil, that It la seldom pormltti'il lo III eumulatu fur a longer time, Moat of tliu liread uied in New York \iij'rnn< , nl or raised bread, whieh In Induced b}' adding to the duugh a portion of leaven, or yiaat, which quickly dlttuaen It- self throiigli tha whole maaa, and causes It tu IVrmenl, Thla ferinentntlon, which, although dally ol)BOr\<<', Is far from being to well undoratood aa at first ti^'.t might ho Buppuasd, evolvea a quantity uf fixed air Into tho duugh, which the gluten of thu flour, by ita tenac- ity, cauaea to bo retained In tho little eella seen in tha raiaed dough before l>aklng, or in the bn ml un It comes Into tho conauinur'a hands. Flour ia nnw avid which contains tartaric acid nnd saleratua, i>i ^kIu, in a dry statu, AVIien water la milled to tbiK, it < iiusea an evo- lution of thu cnrbonle. aeid gua contained in tlie aoda, or potaah, anil thu bread la suddenly raiaed without thu proceaa of femicntation, Tho method of making bread in large bakeries is to idfl B quantity of flour Into a kneailing-trough. Into which is thrown a quai\llty of hot water In which salt hua been dissolved. Into this mixture yeant ia east In the centre, and workeil witli a portiun uf the sur- rounding mass, which ia made of the consistence of a stiff batter. Tho surface Is covered with n little loose flour, and tho whole Is left in a state of repuse until it begins to manifest decide 'or tho oven, tho loaves are placed in it, bukod, n"i' :■■ .ed in the form of bread, Tho loaf Increases ton ^ . . ..-vico tho slzo which it had in the form of dough, but lotea somewhat in weight in tho process of baking. In most European countries the weight c f tho loaf ia regulated by law, the assize being attnr'ed with strict regulations and penalties ; but in this < uuntry the sulv Joct of quantity and quality, as a ger rral rule, has been loft for tho baker and his custcme i s to roguluto between themselves, it being considered that competition would probal'ly regulate this matter ns advantageously for tho consumiT as it could \m done liy strict legal enact- ments. This is the more advisaldo, because thu l>akcr has it in his power to Increase the weight of his loaf by adulterations, which are difllcult to detect, without adding to its nutritious properties. As it is, he is frco to select the mixture of flour which Is best suitud to tha wants and tastes of his customers, Ihoro is a great difference in the aliilify of various kinds of flour to make a given quantify uf l)rcad, A portion of this dllftrence consists in the capacity of the flour to absorb and rotoin water, which is not only used to moisten the flour, but absolutely enters into tho composition of tho bread. Notwithstanding a largo portion of tho water used In making dough Is ex- pelled by the heat of the oven in baking, yet a suffi- ciency is retained to increase tho weight of the bread largely over the solid uaterlola uted in making it. BBE 808 Bum 'Wlien the broad is ireighed immedlatoly after bak- ing, It is found that for evarj- 100 pouuda of flour about 188 pounds of bread are made. This will diminish, bv keeping, four or five pounds, but even when stale Uis mucli above the weight of the Hour actually lued. As a general rule, fifteen pounds of flour and ten pounds of water will make twenty pounds of bread, bo that one-fourth ofeuth Itxifo/bread comittu i^water chemk- aUy combined and aolidijied. Each baker has his own standard for the size and weight of his Idaves, as well as his particular method of making bread. As a general rule, the sixpenny loaf weighs from one pound two ounces to one pound six ounces, and larger loaves bear a like proportion uf weight to price. Those whose custom is among the more fashionable classes use a higher-priced quality of flour, and make a smaller loaf, while those who sup- ply the laboring class of the community use a good but less liigli-priced flour, and furnish their customers with a large loaf. Many of the shops contain American, French, and German loaves, while large nun.bera of establishuicnts coniino themselves to the ouo or the other of these species. The chief ditrercnoe between t]io American and French bread consists in the larger quantity of yeast used in the latter, and its greater porosity, or waut of closeness. The Gorman bread is more den«o than either of these, and contains, in addi- tion to wheat flour, a small admixt-niim4 til « iinuiiha Mtleg of flbrcs, is formed into » kUlii uf uUiHl, 'thn wood Is soft, smooth, and of a yeltHHUIt vuUit, und t« Mi«d for the building of buata »uil Umiiw', In «lu|«t«r part ♦ha tree is wounded, » uUnUuim wUhy Jitico issues, which, when boiled with imu»rUiH iM, k diiifdoyed for making biril-llmu, and as » (WHtnitt tut MUtin up cratks in such veasuU us are UituiiM In tuM walrr, Memo parts of the Uonvrs mivvu H» timinf, miii llie Icates are used for wrapping up tuiiii, milt iiliift (iiiriinwi. As the climato of lliu Huutli M*'* M»ni\li i» wwnldefed not very dilfcrent from thai uf Urn Went I««1Im, tt wat., about 4i years ago, tbuHtfItt »i*/t)r»l»l« IhH rW«f*(1 fatgldy pal- atable by the Kuropuan i»ilml/llaHU,'^fc, A, Brcadatuffs. Nu«i in ijni mtm imU, that of breadstulfs and provl.l«n» i» Iha nmi Impmiant In our foreign export trofle, and uf fitt tttWH Imporlnitce in its general bearings upi/il nmm^tii; mui amniitita yearly to about one.j(/>ti of lUit total nnpuriii from the United Sutes, As »ill uppuHt frimi Itm laid* below, the exporu are increasing Vdfv i/»{M)r, iiatln^^ quad- rupled from 1H44 to Mi, U I* pnrimhk tliat ilila Increase will contlBim, '^4 Uw tmrin mimm un now operating to enlarge Ilia 4aiHiin4 ttiNiluya Inii.ased the e:;ports fur the past. Great Ilrifain bus always li««ii ||m ((«rt tMomer for tho surplus breudstnlti. ut lliu UnilKit MiAtM, To mmt other countries w!.lih laku l>r«ail«lnlfs uf im, nut ship, ments of flour liave been iioMiparMltv<'lv uniform, v«heih- er tho crop was largo or sina!! ( Inil to llrlllsli piitln (he shipmonu have variaa wllli Ilia i|Manltly we have had to spare, allliougli avuragiiiK in<«ii«' liaif ilio total clearances of all foreign pcf l«, llraxlf ami lii« West Indies aru regular cnatouiera (ut uut lUmt, M lliey pur- chase about the saniH iinanllly ^vpty yfnt, »mf, after Great Ilriuin, lake IM largast iinanllly In a s«rlns of years; but a largo porlbm uf imt •liijintMila uf grain (with wheat and eofn) go to Itflltali |if>fts, Thus, uf I8,6n3,161 bushels of wlivat ultlpfiwl In all putU from July 1, 1849, I.. Jnnaim, mti, HMi,M were sent to Great Urilain | and uf M,7H'/,MI UuuMn corn ex- ported to all poru witliin Urn imnm iMT?#" BBS 109 BBE flour and Indian corn, both in qoratity and ralue, from 1849 to 1866 inclusivo, with a compariion of the quantity ofoach sent to Great Kritaia. Th« total* are all taken from official document*, and may be relied upon as authentic, although it mnit be noted that of many direct clearances to Great Britain for orders there are sometimes considerable quantities directed from thence to Continental porta. The " famine" of 1847 led to lar)^ shipments of bioadstuffs, and to the inauguration of free trude in England, and wo com- menca, therefore, with 1848-'49, when the business had become settled under this system. The periods noted are for the fiscal years ending June 30 : Ezrovrs pioh tub United Statiss, or Whkat, Whkat Flods, Ann Ihuiam Cuiui, ritoii 1849 to 1855, iiOTn iMCkuaiTi, Aitkin ISO. Wheat, bushels. Flour, barrels . . Corn, bushels . . ISM. Wheal, bushels. Flour, iMrrels . . Uom, bushels . . itsi. WLuat, bushels. Flour, barrels . . t'o;n, btishols . . lUt. Wheat, bushels. Flour, barrels . , Oom, bushels , . I8M. Wfaeitt, bushels. Flour, barrels.. Com, bushels . . IIU. Wheat, bushels. Flour, iMtTels . , Com, bushels . . I9U. Wheat, bushels. Flour, barrels . . Com, bushels . . To OrMi BriUin. Uuaillly. i,o;a,780 »5U,81S 12,896,242 810,P2« 870.TTI B,»B7,206 692,683 1,004,783 2,700,829 2,049,657 1,63-2,094 1,894,700 3,672,248 1,388,005 1,063,840 0,0.58,003 2,(>V!0,121 S,U05,SS0 396,215 189,712 5,V85,2»t Taall QuanUlt. 1,6'27,6J4 2,10S,013 13,267,309 008,061 1,r>$6,443 6,605,092 1,026,763 2,2112.336 8,426,811 2,694,540 2,79il,339 2,627,075 8,890,141 2,920,018 2,274,909 8,036,666 4,02t'.376 7,768,810 798,884 1,204,640 T,807,6S6 ValiM. « 1,766,848 11,280,682 7,966,369 648,746 7,079,670 3,892,191) 1,026,781 10,624,381 1,701,549 2,665,209 11,869,143 1,540, 2!» 4.354,403 14,783,394 1,874,077 12,420,172 21,701,444 6,074,2n 1,329,246 10,896,908 6,961,671 The ordinary siiipmcnts in former years have not in- cluded any thing direct for France. In the first year named above (1849) there were no exports of floui' to French ports, r.nd only 108 bushels of wheat ; in 1862 the total includes 2700 barrels of flour, and in 1853 only 8784 barreU; but in the year ending June 30, 1854, there were shipped direct to France 1,041,086 bushels of wheat, 728,27i> barrels of flour, ar 1 r^-iOO bushels of Indian com. In the following fiscal year (l8u4-'55) the shipments of flour to the same purts had dwindled down to 8557 barrels, and there was no ship- ment of wheat, but the exports of corn increased to 312,740 bushels. Daring the year 1855, the partial failure j( the crops on the Continent of Europe led to large direct shipments, and the total exports to France for 1855-'56, not yet offlciaily compiled, have been larger than ever before recorded to the same ports. As soon as the threshing of ..heat commenced in the west and north of France in 1855, its bad quality and light weight created a general panic, and prices continued to advance up to the first of January. The abundance caused by the large receipts from this country, Spain, and othor sources of supply, caused a downward tend- ency in prices throughout January, 185(i, and every thing was promising fbr the next harvest until the in- undations in May, These checked the decline without wholly arresting it; but as the harvest approached, the hopes of an average crop became less sanguine, and it is now generally admitted that tl>c supply will bo deficient firom five to ten million hectolitres, that is, from fourteen to twenty-eight millions of bushels. The quantity of amble land in France is act down at 56,810,000 acres, of which fciurteen million hectares, or 34,580,000 acres, arc devoted to the culture of grain. The average annual product is 495,000,000 bushels of wheat, oats, rye, maize, and meslin, of which about one-fourth arc uats, and two-fifths, or 198,000,000 bush- el*, ar« wheat. With on averago cr6p, fnuice bu O heretofor* been able not only to supply her wants, but to furnish about 5,500,000'bushels of wheat (or its equivalent in flour) for the consumption of Great Brit- ain. It is evident that this export trade must be cut ofl' or greatly reduced during the current year, as the crop in France is below the wants of her own people. Indeed the total exports to Great Britain from all the French ports for the year 1856 amounted to an equiva> lent of only 880,000 bushels, and this was all furei^^i produce, shipped from bond. STATlaiaNT BXBIDITIHO IIIB AOanCaATB VALmt or BttlAH- •TVrrs Aim i'aovisfoiia (zroBTan Anmuau.t raou the UMTBD 8TATBB, raoM >BI VlAB 1821 TO JVNB 80, 18.8, Bora iHOLUsiva YCSM. AaioMDt. 1821.. 1822. . 1828.. 1824.. 1826., 1826. , 1827.. 1828. 1829.. 1830.. 1831., 1832. . 1838., 1834.. 1835., 1836. 1887., 1838.. I8S9., 1840.. $12^1,901 13,886,856 13,767,847 16,069,484 11,634,449 11,303,496 11,685,666 11,461,144 18,131,868 12,076,480 17,688,227 12,424,703 14,20!l,128 11,624,024 12,009,39'.' 10,614,130 9,688, S."® 9,6.S6,6'>0 14,147,779 19,067,686 Vmh. 1841.. 1849. . 1843'. 1844t. 1846.. 1846.. 1847.. 1848.. 1849. . 1860.. IS-M.. 1862.. I8,'53.. S54.. 1S68.. 1856.. 18.'S7.. 1868.. $17,196,102 16,002,876 1.1,204,12.1 .7,070,188 16,743,4'.. 87,701,121 68,701,921 87,472,761 38,156,607 26,061,87:1 21,998,661 «6,e67,027 82,fl86,82-.' 06,941,328 88,89.'>,84S 77,187,801 74,6117,85' 60,683,285 ToUl $923,373,894 • 9 monthSrto June 80: t 11 months, to June 80. In Great Britain the crop this year is very good ; l)Ut it is never suflicient to supply the wants of the people. The total imports of breadstuff's into the United Kingdom for tire last three years (reckoning flour, etc., at its equivalent in grain) are as follows; Ynn. ■r-'l to Biuhal> VTtsat. 18i3 84,41l),632 1864 «:i,2«7,240 1855 60,2'27,608 The high prices have contributed to reduce the Im- ports into the United Kingdom during the last two years to the lowest possible point; but the first six months of the current year the total imports amounted to 1,8.'>9,000 quarters, showing an increase of 161,000 quarters, or 1,248,000 bushels, and must continue at about this rate throughout tlie remainder of the year. Even with a good harvest, the kingdom must need at least 40,000,000 bushels of grain, or its equivalent in flcur, for its own consumption. Of this amount Russia — Northern and Southern ports — whose supplies wei-o out ofl* during the war, can now furnish 10,000,000 bushels; Prussia, whose harvest is this year bclotv tho average, 10,000,000 bushels; all other countries .O.ilOO.niH) bushels; leaving 15,000,000 to come from the United States. If prices rule at a comparatively low- rate, the consumption will lie increased, and the quota from this country may reach 20 or 25 millions of bush- els. Spain and Portugal have hitherto exported to both Franco and England, tiio shipments to the latter last year I>cing upward of 4,000,000 bushels. It is difficult to ascertain the exact productiop of the United St-^tes. The total arable land under actual cultivation is given in the Census of 1850 at 113,0.32,611 acres, of whicli 51,700,000 acres were producing bread- stuffk. The following was the total production of grain as given in the Census returns for 1840 and 1850 : AttlelM. 1S40. IS50. Wheat Ujro Buibala. 84.S.'3.272 18„'H6,66T 1-28,071,341 877,631,876 4,161,604 7,201,743 Biuhals. 100.48^944 14.188,818 146.584,179 692,071,101 6.167,016 8,966,912 Oals Uuckwheat Total 616,626,302 867,463,967 BBE 310 BRE A Urge amoaiit of arable land has been bronght under eolttvaUon iince 1860, and those moit convenant with the West think that the product of wheat hai increased 60 per cent since the date last given, while other grain has increased 20 to 26 per cent. The total yield of wheat being computed at 160,000,000 bushels, it is easy to see that the export demand can be filled without cre> ating any extraordinary excitement throughout the country. Last year the fanners anticipated such high rates, that many of them refused to sell in time, and thus were obliged to dispose of their stock far below the avcrago price. This year the enrly sales promised to be the best, but there appears to be a limit below which foreign orders will rapidly diminish any home ac- cumulation. At present good white v.heat is worth here about $1 CO, and good red about $1 50. We scarcely expect to see a decline of 20 cents from these rates during the current season, but within that range an active foreign business may be expected. The prospects for Indian com can not be given until nearer the close of the harvest. Flour will fluctuate more than wheat in price ; sales have been made to arrive In England at a price which would net here alraut |5 for a standard superfine, but this is generally thought to be an inside price. We have compiled from the official records a statement of the average export price in flour since 183ti. The highest price, since 1800, was f 14 75 per barrel, at which all the shipments averaged in the year 1817. The lowest was $4 25, which was the •rerage of 1852. The following is the average of the total shipments to all ports in each year for the last twenty, years. The price in 1654-'&5 was enhanced materially by the demand arising for export to Europe during the war with Russia. At intervals of that pe- riod first brands produced over $13 in the New York market, and common shipping flour over $10 per bar- rel. — See Cbmsds Reiwrt, United States. YSAXLT ATIOAOl PiMOB Or TUX EXPOBTS Or 'WllEAT Fl.OCK rxoM TUB United Statu to Fobeigm Posts, rBou 1836 to 1666. The periods before noted are the government fiscal years, ending June 80. The average of 1856 is not yet made up, but will be considerably below that of 1865. If any think we have overestimated, in the following table, the present production of wheat in this countr}-, we have only to remind them that the cultiva- tion of this grain for export received but little stimulus until the repeal of the British com laws ; and since that time we have added the States of Illinois, Iowa, and Michigan to our wheat-producing States, and by means of railroads made them equal competitors with the At- lantic States.— iSee Art. Wheat. Pboddctiom or Wheat, Rtx, add iNmAM Cobh im mi UxiTBn States, in isno. Y..™. rrl». Vmii. Fiioa. Von. Prif». Y..n, Prlc 1886 «7 60 1841 $e!JO 1846 $618 1861 $4 77 1837 10 26 18« 600 1847 6(16 1862 424 I83S 960 1843 4r>o 1848 6 22 1863 660 1838 6 76 18M 4 75 1849 6 86 IS-M 7 88 1840 6 87 1846 4 61 1860 600 1865 1010 SUtM ud TaRitcriM. WhMt. Rjra. iDdln Con. BuhaU. Miuhali. Bubili. Maine too 269 10i,916 183,117 1 760066 New Hampshire. 186,668 1,673,670 Vermont 636,966 170,288 2,082,396 MassachuBetts... 81,211 481,021 2,346,400 Rhode Island . . . 49 26,409 680,201 Connecticut 41,762 600,893 1,986,048 New York 18,121,408 4,148,182 17,868,400 New Jersey 1,601,190 1,266,678 8,769,704 Pennsjrirania . . . 16,867,691 4,806,160 19,836,214 Delaware 482,611 8,066 3,146.642 Maryland 4,404,680 226,014 11,104,631 District of Col. .. 17,070 6,609 66,280 VliBlnia 11,232,616 468,930 86,264,819 North Carolina. . 2,180,102 229.663 27,941,(»1 South Carolina. . 1,066,277 43,790 16,271,464 Oeoisia Florida 1,088,634 63,760 80,080,099 1,027 1,162 1.906 809 Alabama 294,044 17,261 28,764,048 Mississippi 187,990 9,606 22,446,662 Louisiana 41T 476 10,266,373 Texas 41,689 8,108 6,926,611 Arkansas 199,639 8,047 8,808,!)80 Tennessee 1,619,381 89,168 62,270,223 Kentucky 2,140,822 416,073 68,676,501 Ohio 14,487,861 426,718 69,0'8,6f6 Michigan 4,926,889 106,871 6,641,420 Indiana 6,214,468 78,79« 62,964,363 Illinois 9,414,676 83,864 67,646,984 MisMiuri 2,981,669 44,268 86,214,637 1,630,681 19,916 8,666,79!) Wisconsin 4,286,181 81,263 I,988,!i7!i CalUbnila 17,328 ■ < • • W,?,"!' Minnesota Ter. . . 1,401 128 r.,- ■■ ) Oregon Terrltoiy 811,493 106 ."MB 1 Utah Territory . . lOT.TOJ SIO 9,.. New Mexico.... Total 196,616 866,411 100.603.899 14.188,639 6»'2,826,61'J A« Account or tub Extobts or Floub and Wueat, Indian Coen and Indian Cobn Meal, Rtb, Ship Bbbad, rro., raoH TUB IInited States, ddkino the Ykab bndino SOth June, 1847, known as tub '• Faminb Yxa»" in Ibblanu, SFEcirx- inO TUB COUNTBIBS to WUIOU THE SAHE WEBB SENT, AND THE QUANTITIES SENT TO EACH. TO AMERICA. Flour, tiarrels Wheat, buiheis Indian coin, bushels . Com meal, barrels . . . Rye meal, barrels Rye, oats, ete. Ship bread, bairels. . . Ship bread, kegs Briliah Nofth ABMrieu ColooiM. 272,290 019,068 119,616 89,930 27,401 $24,312 20,rj.l6 2-20 WMt laillM. 483,671 16,106 698, 029 176,418 8,480 $118,385 64,788 13,267 Soatli Amarica. 828,987 '8,964 2,760 101 $2,291 1,711 7,48T North Amarica yanarally. 66,993 200 28,928 10,364 180 $18,699 21,218 673 Aitlelii. Flour, barrels Wheat, bi(shels Indian com, bnibels . Com moal, barrels . . . Rye meal, barrels . . . , Rye, oats, etc Ship bread, banreb. . , Ship bread, kegs . . . . , Groat Britaia. 2,144,681 2,078,663 7,627,586 426,070 4.080 $866,322 34, TIM 6,647 Iralaad. 842,498 466,911 7,908,039 287,013 2,362 $66,680 11,994 666 Pruco. 612,641 749,242 7,248 4,401 3,006 $60,697 3,771 16 Spala aod Portusal. 1812 4892 Othar pari! of Europa. 113,429 170,491 22,203 606 8,332 $762,081 1,728 648 TO OTIIKIl roUNTRIES. Altlelai. Flour, barrels Wheat, bushels Indian com, bushels . , Cora meal, barrels , . . , Rye meal, barrels be, oats, etc. Snip bread, barrels. . , , Skip bread, kegs , Total value. A«Ii gananiUy. 8,674 1,362 176 77 $4,°l»6 3,166 163 Africa f-narally. ad,800 24^474 486 $2!868 6,609 1,482 South Saai a PulSe. 764 $181 1,768 100 ToUl to all Paru. 4,382,496 4,899,981 16,326,050 948,060 48,093 160,980 I 81,082 i Total Valua of Fitport a. $'ji,i:iX-;; «.'.i4»,it5i) «.i»i ■■■■'■■ 'I'm--" v«,2wi ter I BRE 211 BRE \, rsoH , BrEcm- l;iit. -;' li*<).S5') Breaken, a name given to thoie billows that break violently over rocks lying below the surface of the sea. — E. B. Breakwater is any obstruction of wood, stone, or other material, as a boom or raft of wood, sunken ves- sels, etc., placed before the entrance of a port or harbor, or any pnjectlon firom the land into the sea, as a pier, mole, or Jetty, so placed as to break the force of the waves, and prevent their action on ships and vessels Ij-ing at anchor within tnem. Thus the piers of the ancient Piraeus and of Rhodes ; the moles of Naples, Genoa, and Castellamaro ; the piers of Ramsgate, Mar- gate, Folkstone, Howth, and the wooden dike de Kichclieu, thrown across the port of Rochelle, may all be denominated SreakwaUn. In French it Is some- times called Battre diEau. ; a name which appears to have been applied to tho mole at Tangier, a work com- menced in 1663, under the direction of Lord Tivlot, Sir J. Lawson, and Sir Hugh Cholmley, and finished, or rather discontinued, in 1676, after having cost En- gland the sum of £243,897 6i. iid. The term Break- looter, however, has of late years been considered as more peculiarly appropriate to large insulated dikes of stone, whether of regular masonry or sunk promis- cuously in rough masses, so placed as to form an arti- ficial island across the mouth of an open roadstead, and thereby, from obstructing and breaking the waves of the sea, to convert a dangerous anchorage into a safe and commodious harbor for the reception of ships of war or raercha'ntmen. Of this description of dike for creating an artificial harlrar on a grand scale, fit fbr the reception of ships of war of the largest class, there are remarkable exam- ples in the breakwaters of Cherbourg, Plymouth, Port- land, Delaware, etc. The first stone of the breakwa- ter at Plymouth was lowered in tho presence of mul- titudes of the people, August 12, 1812. It was de- signed to break the swell at Plymouth, and stretches 6280 feet across the Sound ; it is 860 feet in breadth at the imttoiii, and more than 30 at the top, and con- sumed 3,666,000 tons of granite blocks, fl-om one to five tons each, up to April, 1841 ; and cost a million and s half sterling. The architect was Kcnnie. — See Art. CiiERBouKo and Delaware Breakwaters. Breeohea. Among the Greeks this garment indi- cated slavery. It was worn by the Dacians, Parthians, and other Northern nations ; and in Italy, it is said, it was worn in the time of Augustus Ciesar. In the reign of Honorius, about a.d. 894, tho braccari, or breeches-makers, were expelled from Rome ; but soon afterward the use of breeches was adopted in other countries, ami at length it became general. — IIaydn. Bremen, one of the free Hanseatic cities, on the Weser, about 50 miles from its mouth, lat. 53° 4J' N., long. 8° 48' 3" E. Population in 1849, 63,478. lU sit- uation renders Bremen the principal emporium of Hanover, Brunswick, Hesse, and other countries trav- ersed by tho Weser. The charges on the buying, selling, and shipping of goods arc very moderate. The principal German exports are, woolen goods, linens, grain, oak bnrk, glass, smalts, hides, rape-seed, beef and pork, rags, wool, wine, etc. The wheat and bar- ley shipped here are mostly inferior ; but the oats are useful common feed; beans are good. The linens arc mostly the same as those from Hamburg. The imports consist of tobacco (of which large quantities are re-exported), coflee, sugar, and other colonial prod- ucts ; whale-oil, iron, rice, hides, wines, raw cotton, cotton stuffs and yam, earthen-ware, brandy, tar, tea, dye-woods, timber, hemp, etc. Bremen has long been and coniinues to Ik, the most important entrepdt on the Continent for the sale of tobacco. In 1861, about 6000 hands were engaged in the manufacture of cigars, of which the export was estimated at 236,000 boxes of 1000 each ; but an in- crease of the duly on cigars imported into the German Customs Union subsequently gave tho trade a check. Entrance to Bremen. — The entrance to tlie Wcsef lies between the Melluni and other sands on the south- western, and the Teglers Plaat, etc. on the northeasts em side. Its course from Bremerlehe to Its mouth is nearly southeast and northwest. It is buoyed throughout. Tho buoys on the right or starboard side, when entering, being black and marked with letters, while those on tho left or larboard are -.vhite and num- bered. The first or outer black buoy has a gilt key upon it, and ;'s, therefore, called the echliuiel, or key buoy ; it lies i i lOi fathoms, bearing northeast 6 miles from Wri>,:;;"i Dog light. This is an intermitting light, having replaced, in 1860, the old coal-fire beacon on the island of Wrangeroog, opposite to the northern ex- tremity of East Friesland. It is, according to the most authentic statements, in lat. 63° 47i' K., long. 7° 61' 66" E. ; is elevated 63^ feet above high-water mark, being alternately visible and invisible for the space of a minute. A light-vessel is moored in tho fair-way of the Weser, between the black buoys E and F, and the white buoys 2 and 3. She has two masts; during the day a red flag, with a white cross upon it, is kept flying at tho main-mast; and at night she exhibits 7 lantern lights, 28 feet above deck. This vessel is on no ac- count to leave her station, unless compelled by the ice. Largo vessels do not now generally ascend farther than Bremerlehe, on the east side of the river, about 38 miles below Bremen, where a new and spacious harbor, called " Bremer Haven," has been constructed. But vessels not drawing more than 7 feet water come up to town ; and those drawing from 13 to 14 feet may come up to Vcgesack, about 13 miles from Bremen. The latter had, in 1849, a papulation of 3638, and Bremer Haven of 8618, — Sec the Sailing Dirfctionijbr the Korth Sea, published by Mr, Norrie, AccousT OF TiiK AiisrvALs or Suirs at BRSiim in 18S0 and 1S81, SI'ECIKYISO TIIK OoDNTBIFS FBOM W1IBN0« TDEX CAME, ANI> THE NUMUKBS A^D TONNAGE OK THOSE FROM EAOII, Coontriw, ISM. lUI. ' 1 Vanali. Tom. VmhIi. Tml Ureat Britain Denmark 381 84 44 161 1113 6« IBl 128 61 13 1» 8 13 14 20 4ll,)!8T !.C>31 5,049 8,S13 12,160 T,4T8 9,068 02,049 13,140 4,810 8,61B 1,801 2,4S6 2,873 6,400 402 107 61 217 180 125 1T2 181 67 17 21 6 11 60 34 62,481 8,270 0,003 14,864 10,462 15,661 10,000 04,714 12,246 8,3»8 3,868 942 1,869 9,006 7,678 Holland Sweden and Norway United States (juba Hayli Venesuela, Brazils Other places Breslau, a city of Prussia, capital of the province of Silesia, and of the circle of same name, on the Oder, at the' influx of the Ohlau, and on the railroad from Berlin to Vienna, 409 feet above the Baltic, 190 miles southeast of Berlin. Lat. (of observatory) 51° 6' 67" N., long. 17° 2' 33" E. Population of the circle in 1819, 1,174,676 ; of the city, 112,194, of whom nearly iliree-fourths are Protestants. It is the greatest empo- rium for tho linens of Silesia, for which it has four an- nual fairs of eight days each, and tho greatest mart for wool in Germany. It has manufactures of linen, wool- en, cotton, and silk fa'«rics, lace, needles, plate, jewel- r^', earthcn-warc, colors, soap, alum, starch, snuff, and sealing-wax ; and an extensive trade in mining produce, timber, flax, hemp, madder, com, and oxen, from the southern Russian provinces, and In Hungarian wines and other merchandise. It has an active trade on tho Oder, and communicates by railroad with Berlin and Frankfort on the north, Dresden on the west, Cracow and Warsaw on the east, and Vienna in the south. It was bombarded and taken by the French, January 7, 1807, and its fortress, then partly destroyed, has since been entirely razed. Brewing is the art of preparing on exhilarating or BRI •I# Bin intoxtcttlng beverage by meiuis of • prooett of kr- mentation ; but at the preaeut day the term ia uaually limited to the manufitcture of ililferent kinda of beer, from infiislosB of malt or of graini. In all uountrieg, savage ami civilized, one kind or other of exhilarating or intoxiutiug drink is prepared. In the warmer re- gions of the globe the juice of various palm>trees is extracted, and, when fermented, forms the favorite beverage. Over all the warmer regions of South America, and in Mexico, the universal drink is Pulque, the fermented juice of the American aloe ^Agavt Amer- ieaHa). Guaiapo, a favorite drink with the Megn> races is the fermented juice of the sugar-cane ; and when the sugar-cane is not in season, these races pre- pare fermented drinks ft'ora honey and from rice. In many Northern countries, and even occasionally in the highlands of Scotland, the juices of the birch, maple, or ash, are fermented, and form a p«latabli3 drink. Kuumij, the intoxicating beverage of the Mongols and the Tartars, is the fermented milk of the mare. In countries favorable to the growth of the vine, wine is the usual beverage. The Peruvians and many other Indians prepare their favorite intoxicating drink, chicha, from maize. The Arabians, Abyssini- ans, and several tribes in Africa, prepare their fer- mented drink, bouta, from the flour or bread made from tee (Pua Abt/mnioa) ; but the durrha or millet (jSof^ ghum vulgare), and even barley itself, are occasionally substituted for the teff to prepare the muddy, sour louta. Ttie universal Russian beverage, kvau or guau, a sharp, acid, muddy liquid, almost the same in taste and ap])earance as " bousa," is made by mixin:; rye bread or rye flour, or sometimes barley flour, with water, and fbrmenting it. Tlie well-known national Gcmtan drink, the weut bier, is prepared from a fer- mented infusion of wheat ma't with only a sixth part of barley mall. But over almost all the civilized vurlil, the fermented infusion of barley malt, seasoned or not with hops or otiier bitters, when it takes the name of beer, is the favorite beverage. — E. B. Bribe. The giving or oflering a recompense or re- ward to any person to induce him to neglect his duty. Bricks and Tiles, well-knowu articles used in the building and covering of liouses. They are made of baked ciny and sand. Fire-bricks. — A mode has been invented intended to do away witli manual labor in the manufacture of fire-briclis made from ground clay, by passing it di- rectly from the grinding-niill to the machine, where it il made into bricks ready for the kiln, instead of add- ing water and making it into a paste according to the present process, 'llie invention consists of a combina- tion of hydraulic machinery, for compressing clay in a pulverized state into bricks, md for changing the posi- tion of the moulds in which the clay is compressed, so that they may till and discharge themselves after com- pression. After the clay is formed into bricks the sides and end of the mould recede, and leave them free, without any forcing, which eOTectually prevents all llabilitv t.. frpcturc or damage. A machine with two n^ouiu. v.i! iroduce from 2000 to 4000 per day. Bridge - -o early and general, and the expedi- iits for t;i> ; V ..onstruction so various, their origin can not bo traced ; they were fust of wood. The ancient bridges in China are of great magnitudes, and were built of stone. Abydos is famous for the bridge of boats which Xerxes built across the Hellespont. Tra- jan's maguiticeHt stone bridge over the Danube, 4770 feet in length, was built in a.d. 103. The Devil's bridge, in the canton of Uri, so called from its frightful situation, was built resting on two high rocks, so that it could scarcely be conceived how it was erected, and many fabulous stories were invented to account for it. At ghaffhausen an extraordinary bridge was built over the Rhine, which is there 400 feet wide: there was a pier in the middle of the river, but it is dou>)tful wteHiar the bridge r«sted upon it ; a- man of- the ligbt- I est weight felt the bridge totter under bini, 7et wag- ons heavily laden passed over without danger. This bridge was destrcyed by the French in 1790. Suspen- sion bridge at Niagara Falls completed July 29, 1848. The ancieirt bridges in England were of wood, and were fortified with planks and 'merlined ; the lii-st brides cf stone was built at Bow, near Stratford, a.d. 1067. Westminster bridge, then the finest erected in these realms, and not surpassed by any in the world, except in China, was completed in twelve years, 175U. The other London bridges arc Elaekfriars, completed 1770; London (rebuilt), 1881; Southwark, of iron, 1819. The first iron bridge, on a large scale, wai erected over the Severn, in Shropshire, 177!>. The finest chain suspension bridge Is that of the Menal Strait, completed in 1826. Hungerford suspension bridge, 184('.— H avbn. Bridgewater Canal, the first gr^at work of the kind in Kngland, was bcgua by the Duke of Bridge- water, styled the father of canal navigation in that country, in 1768. Mr. Brindley was the architect. The canal commences at Wcrsley, seven miles from Man- chester ; and at Barton bridge is an aqueduct which, fur upward of 800 yards, convoys the canal across the navigable River Irweli : the canal is 29 miles long. Srixnstone. See Solphur. Bristles (B'r. Soiesf Ger. Borttm; Dn. Jiorstehf It. SeluUj Sp. Cerd;iable manufactures of pins, shot, china, earthen-wares, soap, leather, tobac- co, cottons, hats, and floor-cloths, with extensive estab- lishments for ship-building; and in its vicin'ty are large brick and coal works. The Avon at Bristol, though narrow, is deep enough for large ships, and ear- ly in the present century its course was turned for some distance at a cost of .£700,000, and its own channel now forms a harl>or furnished with locks and quays 6000 feet in length. Ships of large burden and flrst-rate steamers load and discharge cargo at Kingruad, in the mouth of this river. The city retains a large share of the West India trade. Imports consisting chiefly of sugar, molasses, rum, coffee, tobacco, with wool, tur- pentine, hemp, timbe/, wine, and brandy, from North and South America, the Baltic, and France. Bristol communicates by railroad with Birmingham and Exe- ter, with the Thames, etc., by the Kcnnet and Avon canal. It was the first port in Britain whence regular steam communication with the United States was es- tablished. It has a chamber of commerce and several mercantile corporate li dies ; and it lately had six banking companies. lu 1848 it was made a fVee port The city is divided into fen wards, and governed by a mayor, sixteen aldermen, and forty-eight councilors. Its corporation has juris iiction on the Avon tvom four miles above the city doi- n to the sea, and along the channel to Clevedon ; alio the right to license pilots for numerous ports on th3 Bristol Channel. Markets Bm 918 BRU daily, that on Tbnnity A*r v»ttl«. fAt'ii tor ttMUM, U-ut)ier, etc, Marrb Ut Mid l^lil)iint)«r Irt, t^ptitif Asiizei fur civil mhm*, <4H»r(«r w»f.ii,»», Khnrlft't «iid oilier eourU are lield h«ri>. Itrlftttil li«ili- vey fuinily. Tba ecenery lit tJM Vltiinlty, iwpootally at Hotwell Saline Spring, i« «iMiiMidln){ly b«IUtlftll. Biriitol OIiaiuMi, an arm of llta Alt«iit)«, «itt«r> Ing betwuun >St. A nii'e ll««i| Wi (tw fmrlh and LiMd'e End on tlie aoutli, extending int'i lb« MWtiiWMt part of Ureal Britain, lietwasn Ut, M' wtd t)l« Mf H.^ «tid long. S° nnd 6° ito' W„ iMiindad norllivAfil by Mouth Walce, and eouthward tiy the iinglUh mmtiett of Oom- ertet, Devon, and (JoriiwaU. A( (In ^mttvni vKtmitilty it terminatee in tlie eUHary of Ihe Nxviifn. iHifitdM itbicii river it recoivea tlie Parrat, Taw, TorridK^, Taff, Hnd Towy. Sahdy island, wllb it* ll|{ll(.biiUM. lit In the mouth of the oh«imel, and tbn town* et iiffMombe, Comlw-Martin, '.Vattllut, Mwitiine*, KItlwtlly, »Md T«n* by, are on its coaels. It ooiitaili* Mtlfof4 HitVMI, C/*r' marthen Bay, wd Swanaea Hay OR til* north, 8n eialile, Porlock, and Bridgewaler llsy pn llii *«nth, Its tiiies tiotf rapidly upward, and, niNftiinij with (bs diif' rrnts of lb'^ Severn, oaim tba pbeAMn«n«A fi«U«d the bore. Britain. Se« Grrat Hritain, Brooada (8paniiih broeadti), a etuffef goM, lilv«f, or sillc, riised and enricliod with MMWltni, titWitifit, and otlrer ornamentn. Fomitrly thu wsrd *i|i$nlA(N, Its m&uufactura wa* eitabllshud wt'b \iiai »UWJ«M at Lyon* in 1767. Brokantg*, the eommiMton or pwtwntuffii piild to broker* on tlie *ale or puri^basn of lillll, fundt, geoda, etc.— .?«' I'ACTORJiaE, Brokers. Tho*c both of monpy nnd mer«banMm\A be licensed before transatiting bnstnwf. M & II Will, ill. l(>9&-'96. Tba doalings of «toiik'broKiir* werti retf^- ulated by art 6 Geo. I, 17||i, and lU iira, l\. iim, Some deri^'e th* word brokw from lb* Vnw\i liftAtff " to grind ;" other* from brmnptler, " tK (<»vll of big' gle ;" and other*, again, from a ttadar broli«n, ond that from the Saxon frroo, ■' misfortune," A broker is an agent or intermodiala p«r*«n appolni' •d fez traatacting *peeial busines* on wtmnnt of itii< other, but ditforing semewliat from an ordlnafy helot in functions aud rHponsibilltv , ( If Ihio hUmi imtit DM var'uus description* sserfli*ing empltiymmt without the smaliest analogy, though K.\\ are liriHigtil undi#r ih>> general name of brokers ; and of tli*««i tiMi prlntilpat «r« exchange brokers, whose provlni't) t» to «#a on IIvpk or property , and pawnbrokers, wlin adVAiU'i' mimcy on goods, on conditioii of lieing allnwwl lo sfill th* f$ooda, if the sum advanced Is not repaid with inliirt<«l, wllhltt a limited tim*.— /Sm Aukvt, Udiinancij, and fiAI.K, Separating pawnlirokers and lho«« d|i«l*n in old wares wlio are called brokers, a* iMlh diaiinnl from the alass to whom the larm in iU broader awtptAltoil llp< plies, the broker is an agent for both parties, the buyer and the seller; and for the general principlea of Juris- prudence applicable to bis position, reference may be made to the word Aqent. It is a marked peculiarity, however, of the broker as an agent, thai his quality of agency la not only palpable in the face of the transac- tion, but he is agent for both parties, and therefore those subtle niceties of law which arise out of the agent acting as principal can not apply to this class of agen- cies. The function of the broker is, indeed, a very sim- ple one, and easily separates itself from the usual in- tricacies of the law of sale and of agency. It la hi* proper function to lind buyers and sellers, and to bring them together that they may transact with each other. Hence the rise of such a class in any department of business is an Indication of its great increase. I n small towns, and in narrow and peculiar departments of busi- ness, the buyers and the sellers know each other, and noed-not be at tiie expense of employing a third party. Uut where both bodies are numerous, and the iiidivid- «al members of each find enough to occupy their atten- tion in the production of their commodity, or its pui^ chaae and distribution, there is economy in the estab- lishment of a distinct class who bring the buyer and the seller together. The late enlargement of the rail- way aystem has created a peculiar and extensive sys- tem of brokerage transactions. — E. B. Brokers are divided into difl^rent cloasea, as bill or exchange brokers, stock-brokers, ship and insurance brokers, pawnbrokers, and brokers, simply so called, or thoae who sell or appraise household furniture dis- trained for rent. Exclusive, too, of the classes now mentioned, the brokers who negotiate sales of produce between diflierent merchants usually confine themselves to some one department or lino of business, and by at- tending to It exclusively they acquire a more intimate knowledge of its \-arious details, and of the credit of those engaged in it, than could be looked for on the part of a general merchant, and are consequently able, for the most part, to buy on cheaper and to sell on dear- er terms than those less tkmiliar with the business. It Is to these circumstances — to a sense of the advantages to be derived firom using their intervention in the trans- action of business — that the extensive employment of brokers in all largo commercial cities is wholly to be ascrllied. Bronia (Ger. Siakgut, StShnelM; Dn. StOlgoed; It, llromo ; Bp. Metal ih Canones; Lot. Mtiallttm lor- mrntomm), " a mixed metal, consisting chiefly of cop- per, with a small proportion of tin, n)id sometimes oth- er metals. It is used for casting statues, cannon, bells, and other articles, in aU of which the proportions of the Ingredients vary." — UnE. Bronze was known to the anc'rwia, some of whoso statues, vessels, and vari- ous Othti arlirles, made of bronze are in the Kritish Miiaenm. The equestrian statue of Louis XIV., 1699, Iti the Place Vendome at Paris (demolished August 10, 17(12), was the most colossal ever made; it contained 60,060 pounds' weiglit of bronze. Bronze is two part* brass and one copper, a . :'ie Greeks added one df. leenth of lead and silver. Brooma (Ger. Beten; Fr, Balait; It. Scope, ''a- mtfj Hp. Ktcnbat; Huss. Mtllit) an principally iiinue of birch or heath. Vast quantities are manufactured in Nouthwark for the supply of the London mai^et. ■mgaa (Flem. lirugge), a fortified city of Belgium, catiitnl of the province of West Flanders, on the Bnis- m», Ghent, and Ostend railroad, 76 miiea from Brus- sels and 14 fVom Ostend, and at the junction of the canala from Ghent to Ostend, and to Sluls. Lat. (of f h« halle spire) 51° 12' 80 " N., long. 3° 18' 44" E. Pop- ulatlnn, 50,273. Bruges is surrounded by walls, and defended by an old citadel ; it is one of the most flour- ishing commercial cities in the .Jngdom. It owes Ita name (0 the number of its bridges (upward of fifty), which cross Its canals, and is remarkable for the man^ fln« Gothic buildings which it contain*. Chief iitdaa* mni m BUC ouiiupkM Hwr* (l«#H » »i«th t'M>( mC (iHt r«in«l« popula- tion i m»nv(»eturi-» sf liHfii, «««(l«n AtKl cotton hb- riui, cu)'il«i{>i, (uIm'^'U, .>m4 mm^: \UilHn \i»» immer- ou* i' ^iumtiA ^i»fn**, and »« aurrounM wUb »u»<-'Mwi tt4rch I'llnclpal ex- port*, l»M »IHJ o'hu* IM«MWfi»« of fllf ''hmh(# (4 if}»'iiUil»\ In th« lf]'r. te«utb coMtur) • m»ii mm MffllA INUfii ftifriniKrclal cltiis tn tbu wurH, »w4 l\w nifl^Dt iHifrpu < f tht itanneatic Lcagun; H »»« bwij (''iw/ttM'd fo* lh« frxcellence of lu wookn t-'lolb^ wh4 \!■»•/,•, MlUtn the rctif^loua peree- culions of I'liUlp If, "i.f;mi Hti ilM>it»»lii tn Mek ref- uuciii lCi){|{l»i>4f (f'iii'foi''Ml)|;tl(('(^«od, 'tiikeof Unr- guudy, Mrfi (HsUfMl'^J !)»« ("-ftf (rf (J*« (l(il'l«Ii 1 !cBr<>. Clmrltt* II, UvKtl Ml I^H. ' 4 (^uritl(( hi* e;«ih] froiii L»- glaiid, puriio»i!», sunk m liimiiim «*«>'• •*!*»< f *''ni.'iiii;4 or i>ol- isliing eurfww^, tua, Ulii^ninf i^mMi* I •■ .v^<1« .if siuitll bioidM «f (»«)!((<"* (;»^ )«!m, (tc«tWi .*. M? 'lid bj- a liguturui simJ t(lt»li»i»ti>rf «(w* I* >*( *iih l*!''- "' cement ; ;|U) « W0(i»d*» *!!«•}> ,1>\tUsii ••; (i^^wd ,i ild jji'iii'-i with boles for iM p»r^*!W, 4 fstfr'i ^ai «j»-taii e.i :.. l8.to for sov«r»l !JMpr./v*«w>(* v.i liif ^tfiwtfiisttt.'i o' bnisbei. Of th«>- ■ tlw (-((i^f ^>i(iiif« iviinjjia it, ^ re,». ing tlie k)iot|£4 «•'»> 'f *(»'* ('H«d'- foii! «(-(>(;.;.r(!,ipifd gruuvee In tb« 6(4<»4} i ji>r «hi':)* Kitif iiisj Ipo furllier siieured by b«iBg SfrvuMl *Jflt u fc'fif^ 'jf (ncta), oi a v«wUn |H»lbtt, ^w<»i| bft**!*** «A f;(*i»f((l(j' made by -ijiii'liiig ())» fjaif w l/fWf}y IHC**' ■ < n thread or wire vttleb i« i^l)gftg''4 Ih ti)f> foy, M/'l M^^ii'i!* lo ieruro it; ttfwr wi .-ii tiM Iristki^ »»* »■»« «^H( . Urtwhes vary in thelt .'( ■ . for»), w«4 WM(«nAl« M '' i>«tructlon, ac- cording (t) I -^ 'wvierfti tt('i«i tw ^thi^b (h-'t- are aopllrd, Siiver-<>OkUi.< -sf* WVf SflirffW* «w» a'sw'ri! 6r'>/«* for scrubbioe »|ik -•(, ,'')!/j<»;f, "> \>fHii»,itfvMm» to filldlng. Id iHHua x-put«tm< 'i-'- l'i»»((*'»» W «t(/*f ftbroBn plant \» converted l»t# • (t*, ' -f l^rtMll^ for (Minllne and «lml. lar purpown, hv frHUr., ■ Jbf H%lmmf iif Mating and then binding it ui»4y »■■<*¥» tim p«rf «6 tf«»le> (If Hi, » (■ii)' tri't'tnUA Kurope, capital of t|»e fci»grf«)(l >( 'M^um mA lA the province ofUraltaiit, OH the fiutmii, HWi ni' iUn iM^ian railroad, 88 ir.'Aan fro;.i '^xfftHd, ^t fmn i4l(t#pr(r, ii from Obent, 71 fi;>»:> I4af. »? frwii IMf. (4» from Coloffne, 160 ft»m I'«if!», «h4 ^7? frwH (itmyil, }/«*. (id obetrvHto- ry) 50° 61 II" ».. 5«H(J, *■' W ilf if,, l'«pt(lallon In 1845, m,mi \n \m; mjm AllifUde «f obnervs- tory, iW) feet, CUmnU^ f#ti*(**f*<^, fctltfid, a>sd very variabla, but |«i»l'4*j, Mm»« (^trtperat'ire of year, 49°-6 i winter, 8«^i »w«;itw»f, #>♦' J'ltlifewlj-lt. ft It the moat inipon»i)( lu'ity mi lb# ti^iltiifhttMi «lid the chief iw-at of public inatrwititiPi miii UdHftfti tiie rctldfrico of the cour(», the saui. 'im l^«J!>l#li*(! «f>«e«i(ille«, court* of appeal, and fiuto^'*' at umtDU'fi'f^ JlrtiMele la re- in>«rkabU for tfl4< . 'Xlwr mh4 fUiini'ni of lt« ancient buib'lng*) Md, ffom thfj «l«its»H<« trf it* new qnsrtera, it. rank* «ro»Hg ttw (i>l*<'» rtiW «f fcttfot'e. It li the sei't nt tifs ^'rioci|)»t i^»i^, iMfl i4 (!(« Mily mint of the kingdom, vnd |)»4 « :w¥,l>iiii *i«ttk n^d many wealthy •lid ubariul'ie UtHHulUma i if i* Mif> of the great cen- tre* o| Relgian indHXry, itii4 H )» nflll eelebtated for iu !««;% c«n«l4ef«*l the tinM W fh« «»rtd j lt.i o**wi chief in*aiif4i.Ni«th«"t««l)eiiil and mmical in- ttiuuwBt*. H toil* «lw iAinbiithMet*)* (tn eoach-build- tkt v>d oithiwi-imkihii, W«(>.'^"K/t^>«« orf chemical products, io«p, fwrwIslA, dM (^ . (i«l, atxl axtenidve fii«w i«A«ariMi whI bR))»«ri««/ U b«« ttM>ii> extcaaiva 'ypOfC'phical and lithographic eatabltshmenta, which are cbioHy employed iu reprinta of works published ia France. Tho com v.erce of Brussels is facilitated by a canal wiaich ocnneci* it with Antwerp, and admits ves- sels ef SOO iciMi burden, by excellent roads and by rail- way*, whiUi radiate from it in every direction. Brus- sels I* ■ Very ancient city ; It ia believed to have bcea founded in t le seventh century ; it was fortiliea in the ■ 'cventh ct!itur}', ami w.is tho residence of the Dukes ■•' Brabant, and afterward of the Srnmiah aiii> Vuntrlan governors g< nnrai of the Nclherlanda : its fui \i cations were dianiaiiiled by Joacpli II. !> was, iiMder tha t'roncb enipi :, capital of the dxpftiidincies of tl " '^yle ; previous to 1)^.:'', it was one li {he. najiilals of the king- dom of the Kutbeilaivds, and altonintc'y with the 7Ia|.'ue, the seat of thocour' >indofthutn;it:..'l>'^'neral: it is the birth-place ot Ihr |ihyslcians Yibilius and Van IleV- mont, and vne of the two paintere Cba npatgnr. Bubbles, a .^iimlliar name applied ge)^.-.il]y t-n fraudulent or unitiba.a' ;lal commerci,il pvojeiti, v liitH Ik'iI out ho|)cs of rnpiU gain, for the purpose ^ ! enri' >.- int *!■« projectors Kt the expense of sanguine andig!'.- n.«' adventurers! aiul particularly 'jscd to <(..aignJiR Ibuic prqjects tho ivnia for which are raiseii by the «»)') of shares 'j' iuli.sci'iption to a transferable atock. ht ded to the cc.-imon grievance, prejudice, and I InconMMiicnco of great numbers of his mi^esty's sub ■ I ject* in their trsdo and commerce," and deecrlbini;, I among other 'practicea of the time, the ordinary mo^k< of raising monc) by ahpres and aubacrlptions to a pro- tcni!cd trunsl'erablc stock, enacted that 'he undurtnli- I Ings and attempts ;o described, and public subscrip- I ttuns, assignments, and transfers for furthering them, I and particularly the raising or pretending to raise transfcrilib! slocks without authority ot charter or act of ?arl!ftn- llahmeiits there. But though the Spaniards were u'l able to people such extensive coimtries themselyea they wore resolved that no others should do it for tbeii- and thurefore waged a cruel war on all those of ai natioi. wlio attempted to settle in . ' *': 1 or CtrlLlwe Islands. The French, : ' - .' 4 last lucky cnongh to acquire soice ! i^is ""■ .■>o island of St. Christopher's ; but by the '..a thci- bejan to *ub*lde into • regular form of ;,ov3) ^v.-i ', tha Spaniard* found means to dislodge them. X \y< this the wretched fugitives, considering at how ,v ».'■ < dUtance they were from their mother country, and bo\^ iM«r to tbs isUnd of Hltpaniol* or St, Domingo, ('» th( BUC 81S BUC northern parts of which were then uninhabited, and full of awins and black cattle, immediately resolved to take possession of that country, in conjunction with several other adventurers uf their own and the English nation ; especially as the Dutch, who now began to api>>ar in these seas, promised to supply them plenti- fuily .<'ith all kinds of necessaries they might require, In >7X>l4-r.ngR for the hides and tallow they should pro- oi.w I.' 'anting. Th/:t ' ■ w setters obtained the name otbuccaneen, tton t!-' , custom oi bucanning their beef and pork in < nUt I'j keep it for sale or for their own consumption. But some of tliem soon grew tired of this new way of life, aiul took to planting ; while many more chose to turn pirat<^!<, trusting to find among those who remain- ed on short', a quick sale for all the plunder they (wuld maV;e a', sea. This new body of adventurers were <. s'.leilyW 'looteri, from their making free prey or booty oj whatever came In their wny. The colony now began to thrivn at a great rate, by the. cheap and easy manner in which the freebooters acqiiirsKl the greatest riches, and the profusion with wliicli ihey distributed them among their old compan- ions, tuo buccaneers and planters, for the merest trifles. This brought numbers of settlers from France in qual- ity of indentured servants, though they toiled rather like slaves than servants during the three years for which they generally bound themselves. One of these men presuming to, represent to Ms master, who always fixed upon Sunday for sending him with skins to the port, that God had forbidden such a practice when he had declared that " six days shalt thou labor, and on the seventh day shalt thou rest," the brutish buccaneer replied, "And I say to thee, six days shalt thou kill bulls, and strip them of their skins, and on the seventh day shalt thou carry their hides to the sea-shores ;" and this command was followed by blows. Thus the colo- ny consisted of four classes — buccaneers, freebooters, planters, and indentured servants, who generally re- mained with the buccaneers or planters. And these four orders composed what they now began to call the iody ofadcenturen, who lived together in perfect har- mony, under a kind of democracy ; every freeman hav- ing a despotic authority over his own family, and ev- ery captain being sovereign in his ship, though linble to be discarded at the discretion of the rrew. The planters had settled chiefly in the little island of Tortuga, on the northern coast of Hispaniola ; but Bonn afterward .some of them having gone to the great island to hunt with the buccaneers, tbr rest w- ro siir prised by the Spaniards ; and :\ll. ven those wao had surrendered at discretion in ',jpes of mercy, were put to the sword or hanged. The next care of the Span- iards was to r'd the great island of the buccaneers ; and for this p irpoio they assembled a body of five hundred lanc(vni •;, who, by theiv seldom going fewer than fifty in a company, obtained from their enemies the name of the Fiftit». But before detailing the particulars of this attack we shall endeavor to give some account of the manners and customs of the people whom it was proposed to extirpate. The buccaneers lived'ln little hut ' ;uil' >'■■ <-• ^'^ spoi.' of cleared ground, just large enough to ' f > ' u.;ir skins on, and contain their bncanniug h<'v These spots they called 6oucaM,ai. . .he huts I I velt in q;oup tho Lipaniards, ai d the Spaniards from the natives. c')iough these ajoupas lay open on all sides, they were very agreeable to the hardy inhabitants in a climate where a free circulation v\. air is so desirable. As the buccaneers had nd' ;cr wives nor children, ''iey associated by pairs, and mu- ttully rendered en other all thr services . . master could reasonably expect fhjm a servant, living togeth- er in so perfect a communtly that the survivor always ■uccecded his deceased partner. This kind of union or fellowshl]' they called i'ematdole<- (Insailortpi;'' and each other nt:ife(o< (sailor), whence iaderiviw' ;; jstom of giving, at least In some parts of the French Antilles, the name mattlolage (sallorage) to any kind of society formed by private persons for their mutual advantage. They behaved to each other with the greatest justice and openness of heart ; it was considered as a crime to keep any thing under lock and key ; but, on the other hand, the least pilfering was unpardonable, and pun- ished with expulsion from the comniunily. And, in- deed, there could be no great temptation to steal, see- ing it was reckoned a point of honor never to refuse a neighbor what he wanted ; and where there Wus so lit- tle property, it was impossible there should be many disputes. If any such happened, the common friends of the parties at variance Interposed, and soon put an end to the dlflbreiice. As to laws, the buccaneers acknowledged none but an odd jumble of conventions made between them- selves, which, however, they regarded as the sovereign rule. They silenced all objections by coolly answer- ing that It was not the custom of the coast; and grounded their right of acting in this manner on their baptism under the tropic, which freed them, in their opinion, from all obligations antecedent to that marine ceremony. The governor of Tortuga, when that isl- and was again settled, though appointed by the French court, had very little authority over them ; and they contented themselves with rendering him fW)m time to time some slight homage. They had In a manner en- tirely shaken oflf the yoke of religion, and thought they did a great deal in not wholly foigetting the God of their fathers. We are surprised to meet with nations among whom it is a difHcult matter to discover any trace of a religious worship; and yet it is certain that, had the buccaneers of St. Domingo been perpetuated on the same footing on which tlioy subsisted at the time we are speaking of, the third or fourth generation of them would have possessed as little religion as the Caf- fres and Hottentots of Africa, o.- the Cannibals of the South Sea islands. Such were the buccaneers of St. Domingo, and such was their situation when the Spaniards undertook to extirpate them. And at first the assailants met with great success ; for as the buccaneers hunted separately, every ono attended by his servants, they were easily surprised. Hence the Spaniards killed numbers, and took many more, whom they condemned to a most cru- el slavery. But whenever the buccaneers had time to put themselves Into a state of defense, they fought like lions, to avoid falling into the hands of a nation from whom they were sure to receive no quarter ; and by this means they often escaped ; nay, there are many instances of single men fighting their wny through numbers. These dangers, however, and the success of the Spaniards in discovering their boucans, where they used to surprise and cut the throats of the bucca- neers and their scr\-ants in their sleep, engaged them to cohabit in greater numbers, and even to act olTensivc- ly, in hopes that by so doing they might at last Induce the Spnnlards to let tliem live in peace. But the fnry vi'.-'i which they behaved whenever they met any Spaulki't. ' served only to make their enemies more In- ( ;'it on their destruction ; and assistance coming to L. ': jiarties, the whole island was turned into a slaugh- ter-hou' ' .--nd so much blood spilled on both sides, that many i.1b«,-, on account of the <•— nage of which they had been the scenes, were ( scribed as the hill of the uinssacre, tli?, plain of the »■ issacre, the valley of thu massacre, and so forth. At length the Spi niarda grew tired ol' this mode of proceeding, and hal recourse to their old method of surprise, which, against enemies of more courage than vigilance, was likely to succeed better. This placed the buccaneers under the necessity of never hunting ex- cept In large parties, and fixing their boucans in the little islands on the coast, where they retired every evening; an expedient which succeeded very well, and the boucans, by being mo-c fixed, soon acquired ..d^< V£_ ^uc flf BUO th« air and coniUtcncy of little towns. Whan the buccaneers bad once established themselves, as hero related, each boucan sent out scouts evei^ moroing to the highest part of the Island, in order to reconnoitre the coast, and see if any Spanish parties wore abroad. If no enemy appeared, thoy appointed a place and hour of rendezvous in the evening, and were never absent if not killed or made prisoners. When, thei«fore, any (Die of the company was missing, it was not lawful for (he rest to hunt again till they had got intelligence of liim if taken, or avenged bis death if killed. Things rontlnued in this situation for a long time, till the .Spaniards made a general hunt over the whole island, and, by destroying the game, forced the buccaneers to butake themselves to another course of life. Some of them turned planters, and thus increased the French settlements on the coast, or formed others ; while the ri'st, not relishing so confined and regular a life, enter- ed among the freebooters, who thereby became a very powerful body France, which had hitherto disclaim- ed for her sul^ects these ruffians, whose successes were only temporary, acknowledged them, hon - vcr, as soon as the/ formed themselves into seltlcmen ', and took proper measures for their government and defense. Buccaneen, Iht Piratet, — Before the English had ef- fected any settlement In Jamaica, and the French in St. Domingo, some pirates of both nations, who were nfterward so much distinguished by the name of Suc- (oneert, had driven the Spaniards out of the small isl- and of Tortuga ; and, fortifying themselves tliore, had with an amoxing intrepidity made excursions against the common enemy. They formed themselves into small companies consisting of fifty, a hundred, or a hundred and flfty men each. A boat, of greater or smaller size, was their only armament. Here thoy were exposed night and day to all the inclemencies of tho weather, having scarce room enough to lie down. A love of absolute independence rendered them averse from those mutual restraints which the members of society impose upon themselves for tho common good ; and as the authority they had conferred on their cap- tain was confined to his f;iving orders In battle, they lived in the greatest confusion. Like the savages, having no apprehension of want, nor any care to pro- terve the necessaries of life, they were constantly ex- posed to the severest extremities of hunger and thirst ; but deriving fron their very distresses a courage su- perior to every danger, the sight of a ship transported them to a degree bordering on frenzy. They never deliberated on the attack, but it was their custom to board the ship as soon as possible. The smallness of their vessels, and tho skill they showed in the man- agemrnt of them, screened them from the fire of the Iwger class of ships ; and they presented only tlie fore pari of their little vessels filled with fusileers, who fired at. the port-holes with so much exactness that it entirely confounded tlie most experienced gunners. As soon ns tbey threw out the grappling, tho largest vessels soliK ni ticflfiefl them. In casci ofextrentre iictesiiitylhey attacked tho peo- ple of eve y nation, but fell upon liie Spaniards at all times. They thought that the cruelties which the lat- ter had exercised on the inhabitjints of the Kew World justified the implacable aversion they bad sworn against them. Bat this was heightened by the mor- tification they felt in seeing themselves debarred from the privileges of hunting and fishing, which they con- sidered OS natural rights. 'I'hcir principles ot justice and religion in nc degree interfered with their preda- atory habits ; for whenever they embarked on any ex- pedition, they used to pray to Heaven for the success of it; and they never came back f^om plundering without returning thanks to God for their victory. The ships which sailed ttom Europe to America sel- dom tempted their avidity, since the merchandise which thsse contained could not have been easily sold, nor Indeed very profitable to those barbarians. They al- ways waited fbr them on their return, when they wen certain they were laden with gold, silver, jewels, and all the valuable productions uf the New World. If they met with a single ship, they never failed to attack her. As to the fieets, they followed thom till tliey sailed out of the Uulf of Uahama ; and as soon as any one of the vessels was separated by accident from th* rest, k was taken. The SpanUrds, who tremliled at the approach of the buccaneers, whom they called dev- ils, immediately surrendered. Quarter was granted if the cargo proved to be a rich one ; if not, all the prisoners were thrown Into the sea. The buccaneers, when they had got a considerable booty, at first held their rendezvous at the island of Tortuga, in order to divide tho spoil ; but afterward the French went to St. Domingo, and the English to Jamaica. Each person, holding up his hand, solemn- ly protested that he bad secreted nothing of what ha had taken. If any one among them was convicted of perjury, a case which seldom happened, he was left, as soon as an opportunity oifcrcd, upon some desert island, as a traitor unworthy to live in society. Such of their number as htd been maimed in any of their expeditions were first provided for. If they had lost a hand, an arm, a leg, or a foot, they received twenty- six pounds ; while an eye, a finger, or a toe, lost in fight, was valued only at half this sum. The wound- ed were allowed half a crown per day for two months, to enable them to have their wounds taken care of; and if they had not mocvy ci.ough to answer these several demands, the whole company were obliged to engage in some flresh exp-^dilion, and to continue it till they had acquired a sufficient stock to ".nable them to satisfy these honorable contracts. The remainder of the booty was then divided into us many shares as there were buccaneers. The commander cou!d only lay claim to a single share ; but they complimented him with two or three, in proportion as he had acquit- ted himself to their satisfaction. Favor never had any influence in the division of the booty, for every share was determined l>y lot. Th? must rigid justice was extended even to tho dead. His share was given to the man who was known to l>o his companiou when alive, and therefore accounted bis heir. If the person who had been killed had no intimate, his [ortion was sent to his relations when they were known ; and if there were no friends or relations, it was distributed in charity to the poor, and to the churchci<, which con- sented to ofTer up prayers for the person in whote name these benefactions were given. Among the buccaneers who signalizeu thempelves in this new species of freebooting, Montbar, a gentle- man of Languedoc, particularly diiitinguished himself. Having by chance, in bis infancy, met with a circum- stantial account of the cruelties practiced in the con- quest of the Kew World, ho conceived an aversion, which he carried to a degree of frenzj', against that nation which had committed sueh enormities. Ttie enthusiasm which this spirit of humunily worked him up to merged in a ferocity still more cruel than that nf tho religious fanaticism to which so many vielims had been sacrificed. The manes i ^ these unhappy suf- ferers seemed to route him, and cull for vengeance. He had heard some account of the buccaneers, who were said to bo the most inveterate enemies to the Spanish name ; and he therefore embarked, with some others, on board a ship in order to join them. His savage disposition, as well as that of the oth- er buccaneers who attended him, having obliged the Spaniards to confine themselves within their settle- ments, tho fHebooters resolved to attack them there. This n«- method of carrying on the war required supe- rior fo' n ; and their associations In consequence be- came more numerous. The first considerable one was thatfonr td by L'Olonois, who derived his name from the •and8ofUlone8,theplaoeofhi4 birth. From theabject state of a bondsman, he had gradually raised himself to ^'.^mf BUG •lY BUG fclvet entle- mst'lf. rcum- con- rsion, that The i him that L-tilTlS y Buf- :ance. , yibo the some oth- 1(1 the IhiU- Ihere. Isupe- Tie i)c- wus ■mtha Ihject lelfto the command of two nanoei, with twenty-two men ; and with tliene ho wai au auccemful ai< to tako a 8punlih ft'lgatfl on the coaat of Oulia, He then repaired to I'ort- •u-l*rinco, in which were four ahipa, titted out pur- poaely to sail in pursuit of him ; but ho took them, and throw all tlie crews into the •«« except one nwn, whom ho saved in order to send him with a letter to the governor of tho Havana, acquuintinx him with what ho had done, and ossurin); him tlutt he would treat in tlic sumo maimer all tho Upaniarda who should full into his iiundb, not excepting the governor hlm- iclf, if ho worn fortunate enough to take him. After tliia expedition ho ran his canoes and prize ships aground, and sailed with bis frigate only to the island of Tortuga. Uut wlillo they were idly dissipating tho spoils which they had made on tho coast of Venezuela, Mor- gan, the most renowned of tho English buccaneers, soiled from Jamaica to attack Porto Ucllo. His plan of operations was so well contrived that ho surprised and took tho city without opposition. The conquest of Panama was an object of much greater importance. To Bocuro this, Morgan thoi' '{ht it necessary to sail in the latitudes of Costa liica, in order to procure some guides in tho island of St. Catharines, where tho Span- iards conlincd their malefactors. This place was no strongly fortilied that it might have held out for ten years against a considerable army. But notwithstand- ing this, tho governor, on tho thrst appearance of tho pirates, sent privately to concert measures how he might surrender himself witliout incurring the impu- tation of cowardice; anund prodigious treasures concealed in the wells and caves ; some valuable com- modities were also taken in tho boats which were left aground at low water ; and in tho neighboring forests were likewise found several rich deposits. Having burned tho city, they set sail with < grift .mmber of prisoners, who were ranBomed a few days afterward, and arrived at tho mouth of the Chagres with a prodig- ious booty. In 1603 an expedition of the greatest con . , e was formed by Van Horn, a native of Oste, < - . , j,o had served all his life among the Frond' >. in intrepidity prevented his tolerating tk'* lossi ^.n of cowaidice aroo" " V ■■-■■ who associated with him. In theheatofan -{.m.^ jnt be went about his ship, ob- iifirved hii men in euc( jssion, and immediately killed those who shrunk at the sudden report of a pirlcl, gun, or c^fiiton. This extraordinary dlsciplin" endered him the terror of the coward and the id • of lU^ ^ rive. In other respects he readily shared ftith the men of ipirit and bravery the immense riches which were ao- qiuired in the course of his marauding ixpeditioDi. V'hen he went upon such expeditions, he generally sailed in his frigate, which was his own property. But h's designs requiring greater numbers to carry them into exr'Ution, he called to Us nnsi'ttanco Urammont, Godfrey, and jouqui, three Frenchmen distingulsliad by (heir exploits, and I.awronce do Uralf, a i>utch- mnn, who had signalized himself still more than they. Twelve hundred buccaneers joined themselves to these oomniandera, and sailed in six vessels for Vera Cruc. The darkness of the night favored their landing, which was eflectcd about three leagues from the place, where they arrived without being discovered, Tho governor, the fort, the barracks, and tho jiosts of the greatest ccnsequence, every thing, in short, which could occasion any resistance, were taken by the break of day. All the citizens, men, women, and children, were shut up in the churches, whither they had Aod for shelter. At the door of each church were placed barrels of gunpowder to blow up the building; and a buccaneer, with a lighted match, was to set firo to it upon the least appearance of an insurrection. While the city was kept in this stale of terror, It was easily pillaged ; and after tho buccaneers bad car- ried otT whatever was most valuable, they made a pro- posal to the citizens who were kept prisoners in tho churches to ransom their lives and liberties by a con- tribution of £487,600. This unfortunate people, who had neither eaten nor dmnken for three days, cheerfully accepted the terms which were oft'ered them. Half of tho money waa paid the same day, and tho other part was expected from the interior of the country, when there appi arcd on an eminence a considvrablo bod v of troops advancing, and near the port t fleet of seve.:teea ships from Europe. At the sight u' this ammment, the buccaneers, without any marks u prise, retired quietly, with fifteen hundred bUvcb they had seized, as a trifling indemntflcation for the rest of the money they expected, the settling of which they nferred to « more favorable opportunity. Their retreat was equal- ly daring. Tljey boldly sailed tbrou^i. the midi>t of the Spanish fleet, which let them pass without firing » jingle gun, and, in fact, seemed afrnid of being attacked and beaten. The Spaniards wuiild i.ot probably have escaped bo easily if the vessels of the pirates had not been laden with silver, or if the Spanish fleet had been freighted with any other effects but such merchiuiUiie ai waa little valued by these daring freebooters. A year had scarcely elapsed since their return from Misxico, when, on a sudden, they were all ; 'ud with a passion for going to plunder Porn. It is probable that the hopes of finding greater treasures upon a se« little frequented than on one long exposed to piracies of this kind, was the cause of this expedition ; but it is somewhat remarkable that both the English and French, and the associations of these two nations, had projected this plan at the same time, without any com> munication, iui. rcourse, or design of acting in concert with each othei. About four thousand men were em- ployed in this expedition. Some of them proceeded by Terra Firma, others by the Straits of Magellan, to the place wbict- firmed the olject of their wishes; and if the intrepidity of these barbarians had been di- rected, under the inflrmne of a skillful commander, tA a single end, it is i . .j.i i that they would havo do- prived tho Spaniards i '' this important colony. P<'t their natural character < esented an invincible obsta- I 'i to so rare a union ; ibr they always formed them- SLlvea into several distinci, bodies, .lometimcs even t't fi'i" in number as ten or twelve, who acted together, or rooarated, as whim or caprica dictated. Groginsr, Lecuyor, Picard, and Lo ?;>ge r-ere the most distin* guished officers among >'>■. French; Duvid Sammi, Peter Wihicr, and Towh • among the Fi'iOi"' Such of these adven .;i'c.'s as had got iuio iae Sonth BITO 111 WTO 8m by the Stnitlii of nari«n mIm4 Mpon ih* lint vm. | •el whicli thny fouiiit upon lli« «Mjt ; iiui Iholr (MO- { ciatsi, who hail aiilled In th«lr own vcmhU, w«ni not much butler provided. Wosli, baw«T«r, u thay w«n, they levitrn! tlinei beat the aquadront whli-b wara tU tad out aKainit them, But that* vietoriaa wan pi^ ndiclal to them, by Interrupting tlwlr n«vl(»(i«n ' •nd when there were no mora ihipa lo lie taken, lb.; were continually obliged to make dewenli u|>oii il > coasia to got proTliloni, or to go by land In orOt i l< plunder thoie cities where tha booty had bean i I'l.riii. They •uccriilvely attacked Meppa, I' u«bla'N«avilanla, wbo fl«d at the ai)(ht of the enemy. Aa soon aa t'le buwamHir* took a town, it was directly set Ml lire unUsa ■ anm proportioned to its value was \r '.■' in save II. Tb« priaoiicra taken in battle wara nia»t»" «l without mer- cy if tboy were not ranaomcd b;* ti - overnor or umui of the inhabitants; while gold, p;ai'U, or prscloiM atones, were the only things wki^uo offer tlia pay> ment of their ransom. Sllve be'rig loo common, and too weighty for Its current .alur, would liava IxMrn troublesonio to them. The chances uf fortuiio, wliiih seldom leave Ruilt unpunished, or adversity without a compeniiation for its su'*'>ring, atoned fur Ibe L'Tiinas committed in the conquest of the New World I Ni4 tba Indians were amply avenged on the Hpaniaru>' While such piracies were being omitnltlad on the Southern Ocean, the Northern waa tbrealeiiM with the same by Grammont. He was • native >if i'aiis, by birth a gentleman, and bad distingulfhed bimscif in a military capacity in Europe ; but his passion for wine, gaming, and women, bad obliged liini lu Join the pirates. KevcrtbelcsF, lu' was affable, pulUf', gen- erous, and eloquent ; endued wilb a sound ju-'i made him be considered as the chief of tba Kraticb buc- caneers. As soon as it was known Ibat ba bad taken np arms, he was Immediately Joined by a number of brave men. The governor of St. Domingo, wbo bad at length prevailed upon liis master to approraof tba project, equally wise and Just, of fixing tba pirates In aome place, and inducing tbem to become cullivalors, was desirous of preventing the concerted expadilkin. and forbade it in the king's name. But tiramimmi, wbo had a greater share of sense than bis asooeialt^ii, was not on that account inclined to comply, and >«t«m- ly replied, " How can Louis disapprove of • d«*l(^ b* is unacquainted with, and which has Ixen planned only a few days ago ?" This an» wer highly pleoaad all the buccaneers, wbo directly eml>arke(l in lAHft to alticb Campeachy. They landed without opposition. But at soma dis- tance from tie coast incy were attacked Ity eight hun- dred Spaniards, who uers beaten and pursued Ui tha town, wbieb both partiei entered peli-nielt togtithf.r. The cannon they found thern were Immedlataly I«vi)lii4 against the citadel ; but as these bad very litlU affect, they were contriving some stratagem to enablo tb«m to become masters of the place, wbeu intelligani'a was brought that it had been abandoned. Tbara raMoliMd in it only a gunnc. . Englishman, and an oAUer of signal courage, wl j chose rather to ex|ios« himself lu the greatest e:(tTf inities than basely to Hv frum tha plaue with the rest. The commander o( the i>u»:aii«ars received him with marks of distinction, g«tierou*ly re- leased him, gave him up all bis effects, and, b««id«s, complimented him with some valuable presents i su«h influence have courage and fidelity even on tba minds of those who systematically violate all tlK» rigbta of society. In 1697, tf, live bundrad bn>. :»men wart bi4qc«d to join a amtadron of seven ships which salted from Kn- rupi unisr the eomniniiil uf one I'ointia, tu attack the fanir/tts dly of Carthageua. This was the nioit dlHI- attlt antrfT'i* wiileb enuld b« attempted In the New Wr> ' ,i> I !'->i of the port, the strength of the pi I* , i> '<< , 'nn of the climate, were so many ' . "t< >*• wk / , ild bav* seemed insurmountable to iiiy bill such MMii as the 'juccaneers. But every ob- •lacle yielded to their valor and good fortune ; the dly waa taken, and booty gained to the amount of 4I,7A0,0• solved Immedlatel;- to board the vcKsel called the Serp- Irt, where I'olntis himself waii, and were with great diffically prevrliied from assassinating him. They than ict sail for t'arthagena, where they amply repal'"llnali .1, and even without on^- fixed revetiiie, they lieramo Ihe astonishment o\ the ogc in which they lived, aa thcv will be also of postnritv. — v., II, AuOklOi^ The weii ^ of buckles commenced in trui reign of Charles II., hut people of inferior rank, and such as affected plainness in their garb, wore strings In their shoes some years after that period : thes of rank in most countries of Kuitme. BtlokwiMat (Fr. SU Satrattn, Eli not'r; Germ. I llurhientm, J/eidtiom ; It. firatui flamcfno, Fat/gina, j h'rmnn 1 tip. Trigo .V ractn-, Trigo negro ; Pol. To- \larra, tlrykn, I'ohw ■ Bub». Orttaclia; Let. Fagopg- 1 rum) Is prinHpa'' tivatcl in order that it may le cut when yoiin^ ''eer ind employed as fodder i (i)T callle; when «. .•>^eil to pen, the grain is usually ' kmptoyed to feed »>l:,eons aim poultrj-. When ripe, it is of a deep yellow color, the seeds bearing a great re- •emblanca Ui lierch-mast : it will grow on the poorest •oils, II Is cultivated In almost every part of the tem> p«r»l« and arctic > llmates "f the civilized world for ' tba farinaceous allnimen of its seeds, which, when prap- : erly eooked, affords a delicious article of food to a large portion (;f tbe human race. It also serves as excel- Milt fodder to milch cows, and the straw, when cut grean and converted Into hay, as well aa Uie ripened seeds, are fed to cattle, poultry, aiid swine. It Is be- I liarad lo l>a a native of Central Asia, as it is supposed i to bava been flrst brought to Europe in the early port BUE itt BUE of the twelfth century, at the time of the Crunaderi for the raravery uf HyrU fruin the dumlniuii »f the Hera- oeiu ; while otiiera contcml that it wai intrueriud, II, >|)ouks of it a* growing in Pennsylvania, Now Jersey, and New Vorli ; and several American writer* on agricultural subject* have treated of it since. The cultivation of hucicwhiHl, in one or »thcr of It* spocic*, 1* principally conHned to Great llrlt..:in, Krance, Switz- erland, Italy, Nethorlandi, liermuny, Hwedon, fin*- ■la, (;hinii, Tartury, .lupnn, Algeria, Canadr., and the middln and northern portion* of the United Ntatca. In thI* coui>''v, from thirty to forty-live bushels per aero may be cu.isidered ua an averngo yield in favoralilu ■eason* anil situations, Imt sixty or more bushels arc not unfrcqiicntly produced. This grain heretofore has never entered into our foreign commerce. According to tlie census rutuma of 1840, the annual quantity raised In the United States waa 7,291,743 bushels ; nnd of 18o0, H,95(i,UlU bushola.— C'eiuu< Jieport. >S'ee Uukad- ■TUKKS. The followiiif; table shows the product of barley in the year 1840, and of buclcwlieat in 1840 and 1860,ln each State, according to the census returns : SlaUi Md T«rlloriM. Bailey. nuckii h»t. n». IIUO. IB&O. Biuhila. Biuliela. Biuhali. Alabama 7,092 es am ArksDMiiH 700 88 175 ' .>llfuml» .... 1 olumbla, IV irlct of. . 2M 27" BTS C.innectlput 88,751 303,043 229,2117 Ueluwaro... 6,2«0 11,299 8,016 Klortdtt 80 , 65 Ocorgla 12,979 141 2611 Illinois 83,251 57,884 49,019 184,504 149,740 Indiana 28,016 7:8 17,491 0,212 8,109 6t.Mb 6.',bl0 10,OS7 3 104,523 a65,'l01 Maine Maryland ii,6!ii 73,006 103,071 MaHHacbuBctIs 106,31 87,000 106,896 Michigan 127,80j 113,593 01 472 917 Mlssisslnpl Missouri 1,064 1,121 9,801 15,318 23.041 New Hampshire 121,S99 106,108 06,205 Now Jersey 12,601 2,520,008 3,574 8.'i0,117 2,287,885 15,391 878,9i>4 8,18.3,065 10,704 New York North Carolina Ohio 212,44" 209,8!ia 06,490 033,139 2,113,742 2,979 038,060 2,193,092 1,245 Rhode Island 8auth (JarDllna 3,907 72 283 Tennessee 4,809 17,118 228,416 243,822 10,064 19,427 69 209,819 214,898 79,878 615 Bi,7Rl Virginia 87,430 Wlucoiisln 11,002 Minnesota Territory . . New Mcxlcci Territory. .... 100 Oregon Territory Utah Territory Total .... 833 4,101 ,BM 7,291.748 8,1'60,91« Buenoa Ayres, the largest and most important province of the Argentino Confederation, is Iwunded on the north liy the Parana, which separates it from the province of Entro Rios ; and by the provinces of Santa F6, San Luis, and Uondoza j on tlie east by tho At- lantic ; on the south by the Rio Negro, which separates It from Patagonia; and on the west by the country of the Indians, which e.\tcnds westward to the Andes. The area of the province is estimated by Sir Woodbine Parish at about 200,000 square miles, being little less than that of France. Its seo-lmard along the Uio de 1» Plata and the ocean Is upward of 600 miles in length. Since U25 no censiu of the population baa been token. At that date it was found to amount tn 188,000. Pii' ish estimates the present population at 820,(MM), of whiiti number 120,000 beh>ng to the city of Ilucnus .Vyres. liy M'Cann, another authority, the entire |>opul/illon of the province i* computed ut 200,000, This siiiuU increase over tlie results of tho census of 1826 is attrib- uted l>y him to the civil wars, to the prohibition of llie slave-trade, and other causes. The general aspect of the country, as \lewed from the sea, is eminently uninteresting. From the mouth of the Plata to the llahia lllanca tho sea-line presents an iinliroken series of sand-dunes, varied here and there with low ridges of rock. From this latter point to the I'atugonian frontier tho as|)ect of the const is loss ino- notoniius, though equally destitute cf life or interest. Though lliienoa Ayres I* the only ]irovince ut' the Ar- gentino Confederation that Iwrder* upon the fea, and though all the exports and Imports of tho country pass through It, It possesses only two harbors, one of which (that of tlie city of Duenos Ayres) Is extremely bad ; the other (that of Uelgrano, near the souther:! extremity of tho province), thougli possessing greui natural ad- vantages, is by no means adequately appreciated. It might bo turned to good account as a starting-point fur vessels engaged in trado with the South American states that liorder iiiHin tlin I'acllic, but the ditlicult and sometime* dangerous navigation of the adjoining seas counterbalanies in the ineun time the other :i(l- vantagea which It oilers. Tho Interior of tho country, except where it is intersected by tho low inoiintuln ranges of tho Ventana and Vuulcun in Its soutlicm ])or- tlons, and the spurs of the Andes In the west, in one vast plain, of which by far the larger part I* laid out In etlnnciiu, or cuttle farms, though the soil Is In itself well adapted for producing ull tho European I'croulia. Agricultural pursuits, however, are hy no means In favor with the natives, who can not bring themselves tn engage In any pursuit that can not lie prosecuted nn horseback. " Kvery man, woman, and child In the country rides," say* Parish. " One might fancy one's self In the land of centaurs, amid a population half-men hulf-liorse*. Kvon beggars ride on horseback." .Some of tlio cnttlc-furms are of immense extcfit; one in par- ticular is mentioned by traveler* as comprising mora than (too *quare miles of land, and yielding an enor- mous revenue to the proprietor. Some of the largest of them belong to Krltlsh setttlers, and are worked by British servants. The cattle wore fonnerly hunted down and killed merely for the sake of their hide* and tongue*, while the carcasses were abandoned to bcnsts and lilrds of prey. They are now slaughtered in abat- toirs, where every part of the aniinul Is made availa- ble. The beef Is suited for exportation ; the tuUow la boiled down, and now forms an important item in the farmer's revenue; and tho trade in hides is stead iy increasing. Ilocf and an infusion of tho native tea are the stapl: food of tho natives. Uy the care of a ti w Uritish colonists, sheep have of lute years been extens- ively reared, ond their wool Is annually increuslisg in value. Till recently they were reputed so valueless that their carcasses were used ns fuel for kilns, etc. A decree of government ordained that no live sheep should Iw employed for this purpose. Tho numlier of cattla In tho province is estimated at 12,000,000 ; of sheep, about the half of that numblr. The total value of ex- ports fl-om Kuenos Ayres In 1849, was £2,537,821; in 1850, X'1.98.S,u1!); and in 1851, i:2,12G,705. In this latter veur the value of the jerked lieef exported waa i.172,749; of hides, Xl,80O,670; of tallow, £217,690; of wool, £190,060. The other exports consisted chief- ly of hulr, horns, bones, skins, and feathers. The vuliic of imports Into Duenos Ayres may be stated upproxi, mately, for the year 185"l, at £2,110,000; of which Grout Britain contributes £900,000 ; France, £500,000; northern Europe, £170,000; Giliraltar, Spain, and the Mediterranean, £120,000 ; the United States, £200,000; Brazil and othor countries, £220,000. Of the corcaU BUE MO BUE grown in nuenot AyrM, Uut iiuHit Importaat li mail*, which !■ Iuill|;riuiiia to Ihti luuiilry, H'h«nd and t'ranie. 8lnco the expulfiion of (ienerdl Ruaaa, llie navitiation of the I'a- rana and I'ruguuy haa been thrown open, and other meaaurea have been taken to place UitJi the province and city of Duonoa Ayrea on a level with the other provincca of tho confederation, lluenoa Ayrea hua publlahcd a proteat agalnat any auch meaaure, and the diapute is atill unsettled. The only other towni in ibo province of any importance, iMaidea the capital, are San Nicolaa, which ia aituated on the I'anina, about 200 milea northwest of lluuiius Ayrea, and coiitniua a population of about 10,000; San Pedro, also on the rarann, about 160 milea from the capital in the aanie direction, with a population of 1000; Chascamas, on the ahorca of a cognominal lake, once a place of con- aidcrable Importance, but seriously injured by the long continuance of the civil wars; and Uelgrano, which, from ila position, bids fair to bncoiue the rival of the capital itself. Buenoa Ayrea, thu capital uf the Ari^'cntlne Con- fedet.itiou nnd of tho province of Buenos Ayrea, is sit- uated on the right bunk of the eatuury of the Plata, In Ut. SI" 89' S., long. M" 18' W. The river is at thii: point so wide, that it is <|uitn im{ioasible witli the naked eye to dfttioguiah the opposite liunk ; and at the Bunrea8t of tho city. As the deptl> '>r watur is never suSlcient to admit of their coming to shore, passengers and goods are landed by means of large-wheeled carts, wliich are either drawn or prshed by thi; requisite number of horses. Tho town of Bue- nos Ay res is situated in a vast plain ext<>ndlng west- ward to the Andes. The level uniformity of its out- line is only broken by the apures of the various churches. The stranger, on landing, la struck with the regularity of the streets, which are quite Htruigbt, and Intersect each other at distances ofl50 yards, forming squares like those of a chesfUioard, with the cleanly appcoranco of the bouses, and the general air of independence that distinguishes the inhul>itants. The only puMio build- ings that have any pretensions to architectural beauty are the churches, which were built for the most part : The principal articles of export are specilicd in the by tlio Jesuits. The houses have never more than two | subjoined table, — Ste Plata Rivkr. stories, and commonly only one, the rooms of which Previously to 1886 no wool wns exported from Due- open into each other, >nd till lately were chiefly sup- nos Ayres. Rut in ths*. year merinn and Soxnn slicop plied with furniture of a very inferior description fhnn | were introduced j and notwithstanding the constant the United Statcx. A chimney was u thing unknown, ! recurrence of disturbances, they have succeeded Try M the old SpaDiHh btazero alone was employed In ! markably well, ns is obvious ft-om the following AccocxT or ma ExroRra or Wool i-boh Bckhos Aran ron rivs Ykaos, ntDtno wim 1801. heating the dump and whItv-waahMl rnoms, A great thange has, hownvir, taken place In Ihi'x' rcstireti within the last hw years. The fiimlttr<> la now lup- plieil ft'om t^uropa, tha walla are papered, K'nies and chimneys have cum* Into flishloa, and Kngllah coal is bumetl at a hiwet prioe than It brinif' In the Ixindon market, I'b*** comforts are all the more valuable, as tho climate of lluenos Ayrea it on* of th* most humid and changeable in the world. As the ayati in of pollcs is still somewhat of the rudest, the lnhal>iliinta aro oldi^' d to guard Ihrmstdves and their pruperty by mvaiia of the iron railinga with which tlirt iimttet the windows of the kousts. Kven this, hoHe\<'r, Is not always found to be an rflii lent guard againHt the dex- terity of thieves. Though thu city is built within M yards of tlie largest river in the world, the suppli** uf fresh water are both scanty and expensive. There arc no public reservoirs or foui.tains, and the wells of the city yield only a brnckirh and diaagreeabln water. By the w oalthior claasea tanks aro lonstruilud, in which a aulBeiencv of rain-water for domestic purposes is col- lected from th* roof of the hous*, Tha common people are obliged to purchase water trnm th* water-i^arrier*. As it Is derived Oom th* river. It I* commonly muddy, and must stand for twenty-four hours till the sediment sinUs tu tlui bottom. It is then found to lie excellent. The street .s of th* city are now tolerably pa>ed with granile. Many of them, however, are still unpaved; and these in wet weather can hardly be traversed by a mounted horseman, and are utterly Impassable by n person on foot. Floriculture Is a favorite pursuit; and muiiy iCnglish and {Scotch gardenora have nurse- ries in the neighborhood of the town, — E, II. Tho Plata is one of the largest rivers of the world, traversing a vast extent of cpuntry, of which it is tho great outlet. Unluckily, however, its estuary, though broad, is in most parts ahalluw, being also encuinlicred with sand banks, and Infested with sudden gusts of wind called ^(im^wiiM. Us niivlgatlon is consr(|iiently attended with a good deal of difficulty, and ships bound for Buenos Ayres generally take pilots on Itoard, There is no harbor, nnd vessels drawing 10 or 17 feet of water anchor In the outer ronds, called the Amar- ratfiro, 7 or 8 miles ft-oni shore, loading and unload- ing by means o( lighters. This, too, is an operation by no means ft«c from danger, lioata being sometimes swamped in crossing the bar lietwecn tho outer and In- ner roads. From tlic want of a pier, and the shallow- ness of the water on the beach, even the boats are not able to come close to the shore, but are met at a little distance from it by a rude sort of ox-carts, into which they deposit their goods at no little risk, and some- times much loss. These unfavorable circumstances, which might, however, bo mnlerlally improved by a little exertion and outlay on tho part of the govern- ment, operate as a heavy drawback on tho trade of tha city, and tend proportionally to augment that of Mon- tevideo, which Is more easily accessible. But not- withstanding the competition of the latter, Buenos Ayres is still tho principal outlet for the produce of the vast countries traversed by the Plata, and espe- cially for the provinces situated (m its right bank. Ymm. ■mUwI. riaua. VtUti SMIM. 0mm. Bstriunt SundrtM. Tout rnadi Poudi. Powidi. P«ia4« Paudt Pond! Putlndf, 1862 i,8'<9,6n0 ».9nT,760 .'.,6S1).(I(»0 M«,UOO 1,8U,I47 1)1, lua in,w.wn 1851 M3,91« 8M,«14 ll.82T,KSO 8(»,P42 880,878 ins.noo 1H,08«,U74 tSM 1,86!),100 3,o(ie.iin B,8!1.SM MT,4M T68,4i20 171,839 13,843,38(1 1»40 8,imi,448 l.eM,798 10,»M.K8 S90.41S M6.S40 1<8,»M 17,4!'^6(» 1St8 8,TS4.M1 t,OU,01S T,(Ke,«)e 170,130 *8,SB> I>,14« 18,880,811 BITF 121 Bin Corn, whlrh tnt ft vonuMxrililr period wa* not pro- taavi In •uflli'i«nt i|iMntily tut homa eoniiimpllon, hii Ultarly liHuinii mi mowlMul «rtirl« uf •x|)nrt. Moat part ol'the Jcrkcil licur, ami iiiiiulKiri of niiilrii, «ru ex- poftoil to the iUviiim mid lir»ll. 1IM»«, tallow, •kin*, IwnKii, and horna, impmstally III* Ant, are laaillnK Mtlclmi of axporl Sir Wuodbint I'arliih eatliiiaiM the total amount of tti* linporta Into the I'lata at al>out i-J,llU,Ul)U, ufwhleh ahoul on* half may In for Uaino* Ayroa. The valua of llrtllnh ta Vi,WKi pipe*, Iwsldcs about 1000 pi|>ca of brandy. The j/rrba mitt, of Paraguay tea, formerly an Import article of eome conacquence, haa been nourly auperacded, even in lluetma Ayrea, by genuine tea. The trade with ('hili and Teru la inslff- nilcaiit. The marketa an well aupplied with butch- er'a meat nnd Hah. Poultry, vp^ctablea, and fhiit nre generally dear. All the butter nned is imported. (We have derived thcao dotuila principally from the excel- lent work of Sir Woo dollars, and the same amount for the bill of health ; 4. Foreign vos- •ela belonging to nations having no consul, and whoso roll is made out by the captain of the port, nhall pay 40 dollars for It; A. The duties fixed by the preceding articles shall bo paid one half on the entrance of the vcBsel, and the other half on her departure ; 0. National and foreign vessels, which do not leave nor receive car- goes, shall pay one half of the duties hero catabliahed ; 7, Ket this decnc be cominuriic/itcd and publisliod in the official rcgiators. Buff (tier. Biifel, Bilffefhilute i Fr. BuJIe, Pern de hufflu, <•( Penax p(u$hi en biifflea; It. Bvfalo, Onojo di bt^alo), a sort of leather prepared from the siiin of the buffalo, dressed with oil, a- nwnt of tha great lakes Erie, Huron, Michigan, and Nuperior. Its commerce is Immense, employing a vast number of steamcn, brigs, and sloops, which convey from the several lake ports a large amount of prod- uce, which from hone* is transported tu eastern mark- ets by canal and railroad. The ground on whicli the city la built riaes gradually from Huffaio Creek on the south, and within a short distance firom the lake on th* west it liecoinss an extend*.', plain M feet above the sur- face of Lake Krie, From this elevation is obtained a picturesque view of the Canadian shore, Niagara Illv- er, and the lake. The streets are hroad nnd straight, crossing each other mostly at right angle*. Main Street is 100 ftael In breadth, and extend* for a distanc* of ftiiir miles, and is built very compactly with atores, holela, and expensive private dwellings. The hnuati generally are constructed with neatnos* and taste. Till mannfkcture* of Uuftlilo are very extensive, con- sisting of engine and boiler (hctoriea, tarnaces, car- work, (bunderies,oto. Th* capital employed In 1850 was |ll,04f1,348 ; value of manufactured articlea, |I<,674,I>88 ; and sine* that time b*lh th* capital employed aiwi valua of products have been largely Increased. In 18M) there were six steam flouring mills, nianufactur> Ing during the year 210,2116 barrels of flour. in the "Annual heviaw of the Commerco nnd Trade of Buffalo," published January, 1859, are tiie following facta : PopuUtlon of tlio city 100,1100 Value of real esUte $«»,4«,580 Value of penonal property «,06T,TiO $30,614,000 Cspttal of the banks '.{,720,700 ABgrcgalo receipts nf all Kralns, Including flour reduced tn whsnr, buahela S8,1tD,%S Ursnd total cf r«p<,rled aalso, lneludlu| flour reduced to trlieat, buahela ] l,01l,&00 Nuuitier of eiitrancca nnd clcsroncea uf veaaels Into and from the port 8.III9 Value of laks vaaseU owntd In the city $8,4t8,aOs them to ex*:ute with the greatest facility. The L Milder contracts to do certain specified works for a certain total sum of money, the amount of which he determines by a previous estimate, or to do proscribed operations at so much for a certain fixed quantity of every sort involved, per yard, per rod, per foot, and so on, the amount to be ascertained, when they are com- pleted, by measurement; or he executes works accord- ing to instructions or specifications, leaving the charges to be determined according to the usual and accustom- ed rates, on the quantities ascertained by admeasure- ment. In the two former ctses be is said to work by contract, and in the last by measure and value. For Jobbing, in repairs apd alterations, a day account is kept; that is, & record of the time workmen are em- ployed, and of the materials used, in performing certain operations. This is made out with an advance of so much per (cnt. on th^ prime cost, or wages of the work- men and selling prices of the unwrought materials, for the builder's profit or remuneration, as before stated. A builder should be theoretically acquainted with the principles of construction, and practically conver- sant with the details of all the mechanic arts used in building ; as well to be enabled to carry on his business with advantage to his own interest as to the proper ex- ecution of the works he may undertake. He should be qualified to ascertain with the utmost minuteness, from the drawings of a design, and the specification of the manner in which, and matter of vhich, it is to be car- ried into execution, the quantity of labor and materials of every kind and description, and tho exact value of them all. In this is involved the necessity of being well acquainted with the market prices of raw and manufactured articles to a verj' great extent, and a ma- tured judgment o' tho quantity of labor required, or how much time a vorkman will take to produce a cer- tain result. These thingt, however, i>;hich involve tlio making of estimates on which to make contracts, in tho practice of this court.-y arc generally referred to a sur- veyer or measurer, because of the general ignorance and incompetence of builders, or because of the greater aptitude of the latter, in consequence of their attention being solely occupied by sutli things. — K. B. Building. The first structures were of wood and clay, then of rough stone, and, in the end, tho art ad- vanced to polished marble. Building with stone was practiced early among tho Tyrians; and as ornaments and taste arr-rse, every nation pursued a ditfercnt sys- tem. The art of building with stone may bo referred in England to Benedict or Bcnet, a monk, about A.u. (i70. The first4)ridgo of this material in England was at Bow, in 1087. Building with brick was introduced by the Romans into their provinces. Alfred encour- aged it in England in 886. Brick-building was gen- erally introduced !■/ th? Karl of Arundel, about 16U8, London being then almost built of wood. The increase of building in London was prohibited within tlirco miles of the city gates by Elizal>eth, who ordered that one family only should dwell in ono house, 1680. Bnlle-heada are partitions made athwart a ship with boards, by which ono part is divided from the otli- e.°; as the great cabin, gun-room, bread-room, etc. — E. B. Bvlk of a Ship, the whole space iu the hold for the stowage of goods. Bullet*. Those of stone were in nse, a.d. IfiH ; and ircn ones are first mentioned in the l-'adera, 16r>0. Leaden bullets weru made before the close of the six- teenth centur}', and continue to be those in use in all nations for musketry. The cannon-ball in some East- am countries is still of stone instead 'of iron. — AsiiK, Bullion, uncoined gold or sUvor iu the ii.4ss, The precious matalt »n M ((•ll«4 MiKf mhfh smelted and not perftti'tly r«flni4, ut wlwH raltMsd atid melled down ir. bars or ingots, »t Iu «Hy form MliiwltMd, as In plat*. — E. B. ■om-boafe, » MH«U lw«t UmA t« sell rsgetables, «tc„ to ships lying M • dtHftHtW ffcrttt nhtim. Butik is » «f«r4 msmI, In (h« (ittlisd tliatos, to ilg. nify » UK~> •» c»bl» uf Uu»rA» ttit « M, Thus, in iha army, (lis suldinr's Iwlb is «»ll«(l his bi«nk. Bust, tits Ntlddln \mH »t «<«tity «r ih« rrindpal square sails, as t\m HiNitiSNil. fMCMil, «<«, > if one of them be suDnwiHid Ut tm 4UUm ttito four tqual parit from one side to lltn ollwr, llt« itte middle divisions, wliicb com(irsh«Hii IntiftiC Dm snII, form ifa« llmiis of the bunt,- V, A. Buntliif, » )hln vmim ttluif, «f wlilch the ctlor; and signals of » M\i itr» ummWy fumnl. Buoy, • uUttut t:M{it)/ VHtU, ut H Mvtti of worn! or cork fastened by a ni\m Ut mt niii'twf, and floaling on the watvr tu sImiw wlmtti llif uunhutfn ttluafrd, Buoys are of various liiiiilsi «« I'im'lwm, In the furm of a const nun-buoDt, hIiIijIi «w«>il in llio nilddl«, and taper to a point at «»ii|) mii\ fM'tmayii, tniply casks em- ployed lo buoy up lliM vnIiIm in I wlty anchorage. Bnovs are also us«4 to initif*(« lltM (iM; li is llkcil « liotlow pole, with a port-lira fixuii lo lis lop, 'I his Hpparatits, which is properly balUstoil, it »li»t)Mtiimi mi as to lio ready for use at a muinvnt's n*tti«'H| Mnil It Is so conlrlved that by thn act of lutlinff It off lini \iitti't\tii Is iKfilfcd ; thus enabling the |i«r>on in (tin WMl«r iu dlMern the buoy in tlio durkust nitfl)!. Bur4*n ur BiirtiMH (H»nim hinUn ur hyrihen), a fixed quaniiiy "ifwHy (((niniwltly Uit Ifansll. Burdan of » 9bip, ils tmtM», ut ifaa number of tons it will nnrty.—Mmi T»»K!»/«(i«i Burgundy, Hm Wink, Burgimdy Viteb, a tt»\», lli« \itm\vm9 of the /'tniM Ahiet, or t,\,t»ia fir, it is olffMlnM \if making incis- ions iu lliu bark down fo liio wvod, whence it flaws thickly and liiH|{uiilly, intntf«tl«t*'t\*i>» lli« genuine 't4.'hK» alMinl liaif lli« ptlce nr that which is etrainod, — , earthen-wares, fire-arms, and gunpowder, ihd manufac- tures of the Burmese in the two last articles being of tho most wretched description. Public revenue is de- rived from a tithe of the profit of cultivation, duties of 10 per cent, on imports, and d per cent, on exports, and on petroleum collected, a royal monopoly of mar- ble, amber, and the precious metals, and gems above a ccrtHin size, a poll tax on the unsettled tribes, etc. ; and the whole fiscal system is " replete with uncertain- ty, rapacity, and violence." The Burmese empire is divided into seven provinces. Ava and Monchobo have altrmately been constituted the capital of the em- pire. The other principal towns are, Amarapure, Sa- kaing, Rangoon, Bassain, Martaban, Setang, Tanngo, Prome, Patango, Yandabo, and Bhamo. In 1823 tho Burmese, by encroaching on the East India Company's territories, brought on a war with the British, which lasted during the years 1824-'26, and terminated in their defeat and the cession of several territories to the English. Bumlng-glaaa and Concave Mirron. Their power was not unknown to Archimedes, but the pow- ers of these instruments are rendert ' wonderful by the modem improvements of Settalla ; of Tchimhausen, 1680 ; of BufTon, 1747 ; and of Parker and others more recently. The following are experiments of the fusion of substances made with Mr. Parker's lens, or burning mirror r Siiiifaiu bas only ' about twelve feet of water, but the channel within is deep, so that ships of 500 tons burden, i)rovided they ; cross tho bar at the spring., may without difHculty ' ascend the river as far as the city : and both its grand ' Irfanihes may be navigated to a greet distance by smaller vessels. Bnssorah is the principal inlet on tho east, through which Indian and other Eas'om products ! find their way into tho Turkish empire. Its commerce BUT SH ;t^, '*-,:->-■ -^ BUT ii, therefore, eren at present, pretty considerable ; and were the rich and extenaive countries traversed by the Tigris .ind the Euphrates occupied by a civilized and industrious people, it would be very great. Its im- ports from India and Europe are similar to those at Busbire. From Persia it imports shawls, pearls from Bahrein, etc., and coffee ft-om Mocha. At an average, six or eif;ht British ships arrive in the course of the year from India ; but the principal part of the trade is carried on in Arabian bottoms, the merchants of Mus- cat being the owners of some of the finest ships that are to be met with in the Indian seas. Its exports are principal!}- bullion, pearls, dates, copper, raw silk, horses, gall-nuts, and drugs. Captain Hamilton men- tions that in the early part of lust century the exports of dates from Bussorah exceeded 10,000 tons a year. — A'no Account of the East Indies, vol. i. p. 78. The commerco with the interior is conducted by means of caravans to Aleppo and Bagdad ; but it might be car- ried on to much more advantage by means of steam- boats. It was at one time proposed to forward mails from India by steam by the Slmt-el-Arab and the Eu- phrates to Bir, thence by land to Soanderoon, and again by steam to the Gibraltar and England ; but this proj- ect was verj' wisely given up in favor of the route by the Red Sea. Money. — ^^VU sorts of coins circulate here, but their values are constantly fluctuating. Accounts are kept in mamoodis of 10 danims, or 100 floose ; 100 mamoodis make a toman, which may bo valued at about 15 sicca rupees, or 36«. sterling. Wiights and Meiuure*. — Gold and silver arc weighed by the chcki of 100 miscals, or 7200 English grains. The commercial weights arc the mound atteree, the maund sofy or sesse, and the oke of Bagdad. 1 vakia =19 01. avoirdupois; 2t vakia8=l oke of Bagdud= 47^ oz. avoirdupois; 1 maund atteree =28 llis. 8 oz. avoirdupois ; 1 maund sofy =20 lbs. i oz. avoirdupois ; 1 cutra of indigo =138 lbs. 15 oz. avoirdupoU. These ore the weights used by the Europeans settled of richer taste, at Kebba, than any batter made fW>m cows' milk. — Munoo Park. The various circum- stances attending the introduction and use of butter In antiquity have been investigated by Beckmann with great learning and industr}'. The conclusion at which he arrives is, "that butt( was not used either by the Greeks or Komans in cooaing or the preparation of food, nor was it brought upon their tables by way of dessert, as is every where customary at present. We never tind it mentioned by Galen and other* as a food, though they have spoken of it as applicable to other purposes. No notice is taken of it by Apicus ; nor is there any tiding said of it in that respect by the an* thors who treat of agriculture, though they have given us very particular information with respect to milk, cheese, and oil. This, as has been remarked by uthcra, may be easily accounted for by the ancients having accustomed themselves to the use of good oil ; and in the like manner, butter is very little employed at pres- ent in Italy, Spain, Portugal, and the !iouthem part* of Franco." — Uittory of Invtntktu, vol. ii. p. 418, En- glish edition. Beckmann has further shown that the little butter that was used by the ancients was in an oily or liquid state ; and such is its usual state in all hot countries. It is rather singular that Beckmann does not allude to the consumption of butter by the Arabs, by whom it has been very extensively used from a remote period. "Arab cookery is extremely Jriant, more so than even the Italian ; but no oil is used for culinory pur- poses, except in frying flsh. Butter is their universal sauce,, and of it the consumption is immense ; their vegetable dishes float in butter; with it they work their adjotie (paste made of dates) into a proper consist- ency ; dried com, or bread crumbs, boiled in butter, is a common breakfast with ail classes ; and in the des- sert, ti!j kemnuii/es arc prepared for use in the some manner. In short, butter forms an indispensable part of the diet of the Arab; and, besides the various forms in which it is taken with other articles, it is a comnion at Bussorah ; thoi'c used by the Arabians differ a little |)ractice with Inith Bedouins and townspeople to swiil- from the above, ami frequently also among themselves low a coffee-cupful of butter every morning ; the for- — a circumstance to wliich the merchant must pay par- \ mer, and the lower orders of tlie latter, adding another ticular attention. liulf cup, wliich — to the disgust of strangers — they snuff The long measures are the Alepix) yard for silks mid | up their nostrils ! Arab butter is made from the milk woolens=2 feet 2'4 inches ; the llaililod ditto for cot- of sheep and goats, that of camels not being used for ton and linens=2 feet 1-2 inches; the Bagdad ditto for all purposes =2 feet 7-6 inches. For further details as to the commerce of Bussorah, see KiNSKv's Memoir on the Persian Kmpire, p. 283; Kkli.v's Oriental Mttroloyy; Tiiokst'>s'3 Kast Ind'um Calculator, p. 42-J. Niebuhr has given a plan of Bus- sorah, Voyage en Arahie, tome ii. p. 170. Butchers. Among the liomans there were three classes : the Simrii provided hogs ; the H-mrii oxen ; and the Lanit, whase office was to kill. The butchers' trade is verj- ancient in Jjiglaiid; so is their company in rx>ndon, although it was not incorporated until the second year of James I., 1604. — Arnials of London, Butlerage. See Phisaoe. Butt, a vessel or measure for wine, containing two liosshciula, or 120 wine gallonp. Butter and Cbe«ae (Da. Smiln-; Du. Eater; Fr. Ileurre; Genu. Jtutter; It. Ilur.o. Hutiro; \jt.i. Buly- rum; Pol. Maslo; Port. Munteiga ; Russ, Masslo Ko- nnce ; Sp. Manleca ; Sw. Sntur). Butter is known as n tat, unctuous, and, in temp>^rati' climates, a pretty linn su1>Btan'<<>. obtained from milk, or ratlier from that purpose. The home cupply is not nearly sufficient for the consumption, and butter consequently form* an important article of importation." — (JtuijraphlcaX JHctiunary, article Anilin. Considerable (|uaiititics of butter are made in Ir». land, and it forms a prominent article in the exports of that country : generally it is very inferior to that of Uritain; but this is a consequence rather of the want of cleanliness and attention than of any inferiority in the milk. Some of the best Irish butter brought to I-ondon, af-.er being washed and repacked, is sold as Dorsetshire and '.'ambridge butter. Tlic salt liutter of Holland io superior to .hat of every other loantrv ; large quantities of it are annually exported. It furmi about tno-thirds of all the foreign butter imported l)y England, the rest being lirought from Germany, Denmark, etc. The production and eonsuinptinn of butter in Greot Britain is very great. The consump. tiun ill the English metropolis may, it is believe<), be averaged at about eight pounds a year lor each indi- vidual ; and supposing this estimate to lie nearly accu- rate, and the population to amount to 2,300,000, the to- cream, by th«' i^'ioess of churning. AccorJing to some • tal annual consumption would, on this hypothesis, lie writers, it was lute before the Greeks had any notion : 18,400,000 lbs., or 8214 tons; but to this may lie added of butter, and by the cnrly Romans it w.i8 used only 1 3000 tons for the butter required fo; the victualing of nsamedlcine — never as food. ThoChristiiuisofl'^iypt i ships and other purpows; inuking the total coiisump- biimed butter in their !am[)C instead of oil, in the third tion, in round numbers, 11,200 tons, or 25,088,000 11 »., centurj-. In JfiTo, there fell in Ireland, during the which at lOJ. per pound would be worth i.'l,045,3.^.'* winter tune, v. tliick yellow dew, which had all the | The census uf 1840 iurnishts us no statistics from medicinal properties of butter. In Africa, vegetable . which we can accurately determine the quantity uf butter is made fron. tbe firuit of the »h«a-tiee, and is i butter and cheese then produced, The vi^ue of both BUT 225 BUT ia given under the haading of " value of the products of the dairy" at the sum of |8S,787,008. It is pre- sumed that the marshals made their returns in accord- ance with the prices governing in their respective dis- tricts, which would differ so widely as to render any assumed average a more conjecture. New York is far in advance uf any other State in the productiveness of Its dairies. They yield one-fourth of all the butter, and nearly one-half the cheese produced in the Union, Pennsylvania, which malios 40,000,000 pounds of but- ter, is less prolilic in cheese than several smaller States. In this latter article Ohio is before all other competi- tors, except New York. ' C'etuiu Report, 1850. — The following table shows the amount of dairy products exported fh)m the United Stntcs for several years: V.UI. BuUet. OhMM. V«Im. PonniU. rounill. « 184P-'21 188&-'81 l,0Ult,(«4 7(H1,431 190,287 1,:28,1!18 1,131,817 264, 766 18*>.'41 8,786,908 1,748,471 604,816 1841-'4! ii,066,18S • 2,466,607 386,186 lS42-'43 !l,4f.8,li4T 8,440,144 608,988 1843-'44 3,261, nB2 7,348,146 768.829 1844-'48 8,687,489 7,941,187 878,866 1846-'4« 8,436,040 8,076,800 1,063,087 1846-'« 4,214,483 15,073,600 1,741,770 184T-'48 2,751,086 12,(ll3,8(r) 1,301,668 184a-'49 8,406,242 17,4'I3,682 1,064,167 1849-'50 3,870,178 18,020,817 1,216,468 18Ba-'61 8,»g4,&42 10,361,18i) 1.124,662 PaoDUOT or Doitee anu Cueebe in the sbvebal States in 1S60, and Vai.lt! of Daiby Pnoiiuirrs m 1S40. Dairy Product*. Stfttw and Terriloriai. Butter. L Ch«M«. Total, 1881). Alabama Arkansas CaUfomla Columbia, DiBUIctof.. Connecticut Delaware Florida : Ocorgia Illinois Indiana Iowa Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland . ■ Massachusetts Michigan Mlssisaippi Missaiiri New Hampshire New .Jersey New York North Ciirolina Ohio Pennsylvania Rhode Island Bouth Carolina Tennessee Texas Vermont Vli^nia Wisconsin Minnesota Territory . . . New Mexico Territory. Oivgon Terlitory Utah Territory Total Pouodi. 4,008,811 1,864,239 705 14,872 6,498,119 1,066,308 371,498 4,640,669 12,626,643 12,881,635 2,171,183 9,947,.523 033,069 9,243,811 8,806,160 8,071,870 7,065,878 4,ai6,234 7,834,369 6,977,086 0,137,210 79,706,094 4,146,290 84,449,379 80,878,418 895,670 2,0P1,R50 8,139,685 2,844,000 12,187,980 11,030,369 3,633,750 1,100 111 211,464 83,809 8 13, "46,306 Poundj. 81,412 30,088 150 1,500 6,363.'J77 8,187 18,016 46,970 1,278,226 624,661 200,840 218,054 1,957 2,484,454 8 075 7,083,142 1,011.-102 21,191 203,672 8,106,668 366,758 40,741,413 05,021 20,810,54!!; 2,505,034 316,503 4,070 177,681 96,299 8,720,834 43C,29ii 400,233 36,980 80,998 Poundi. 4,040,228 1,834,327 S5C 16,372 11,801,390 1,053,498 339,513 4,037,535 13,801,768 13,.%06,099 2,381,028 10,101,477 os5,oi;o 11,073,266 3,310,185 15,169,512 8,077,370 4,d67,425 8,037,981 10,173,619 9,862,960 129,507,507 4,242,211 6;>,268,921 42,3S.1,!62 1,312,173 2,0S6,820 8.317,266 2,140,199 20,S.')S,314 11,5M,C51 4,034,083 1,100 6,959 243,444 114,307 205,200 50,206 .'),566 1,, 176, 534 113,828 23,094 005,172 428,175 742,269 23,609 931,863 1,53,069 1,400,902 457,466 2,373,299 301,062 359,635 100,432 1,088,543 1,328,082 10,496,021 674,349 1,848,369 ,3,187,292 223,229 677,810 472,141 2,008',737 1,430,488 35,677 105,535,804 413,831,2110 $33,7"6,808 Milch Cows. — Under the general term of "neat cat- tle" were embraced in tlie siy th census of the United States the three descriptions of animnlst dcsign.itcd in that of 1850 as milch cows, working oxen, and other cattle. The aggregate of the three clussci, in 1840, was 14,971,581!; in 1850, 18,355,287. The increase, therefore, between the two pcrLJs was i?,3S3,70l, or about 20 per cent. They appear to be distributed quite equally over the Union. The amount of butt' r pro- duced gives an average of something over 49 pounds to each niilcli cow. The average production of clieesc to each cow is 16| pounds. As with horses, the same allowance must be made, on account of the omission of cowd, except in connection with agriculture. Tlie only schedules in whicli the live stock of the country could ha enumerated were those used for olitaining the ugri- cultural products of farms. From the fact that the scliedulos for eniimcriiting agricultura' pros by an arch from one wall to another. Byron, John, was thj second son of ^\'illiam, lord Byron ; bom November 8, 1723. He w ent out with Lord Anson, in the ll'ri/,t";', about 174U, and was w lock- ed on tl>e coast of South America. An Indian chief- tain eon\eye(l him and his comj'aiiiona, after thirteen months of dreadful sutferings and privations, to the island of Chiloe, from whence they made their way northward, and were kindly treated ty thj .Sjiuniards (though they were at war with England), in conse- quence of the chivalrous conduct of Lord Ansontoward some Spanish ladies whom he liaci tnliin prisoners. This wreck, and the si, "crings 'hrough ,-hich they jmssed, form the subject of "ii/nn's ymrnlii ," which was published in 1745. He was coni;tuntly employed by the British government, both in war and jjence, and, among other public services, he destroye an iron cable has brckcn at eea. Their great weight also ion- tributes to their strength, inasinui h a.s the impulse of the ship is checked befo.e the cable is limught nearly to a straight line, or that llic strain approaches to a maximum. Bolts and shackles arc jiruvided at every fathom or two fathoms, by striking out which the ship may, if necessary, be detached from her anchors with less difficulty than a hempen cable can be cut. Ever in their most defective form, iron cables are a great deal stronger than those of hemp ; and as to durabil- ity, no sort of comparison can be mnJe. No wonder, therefore, that they should be rapidly superseding the latter ; which are now almost wholly laid aside in tho navy, and to a great extent also in the merchant serv- ice. The sited anchor ceible is the greatest coble lie- longing to a ship. The stream cable is a hawser or rope used to moor the ship In a river or haven shelter- ed from the wind and sea. Cabot, Sebastian, the celebrated navigator and re-discovercr of the American continent (the continent of North America had been seen, and even repeatedly 0AB 227 CAB seaman, isslous tU rkaulivn (Lslinis p. 20", taken nearly _ yiracti- Thc dif- 1S08 to llic liist c9. Iron t'ncyelo- isti'd by jttr than thty are of acci- ■d; and an iron also lun- iiilsc of nearly ■lies to a at every the ship lors with Ever a preat duraliil- wondcr, ■ding tlio Ide in tlm lant Bcrv- :al)le lii- lawscr or shelter- lator and lontinunt [poatcdly visited about ftva oanturlot \u(m» by lllfl Iwlatidots), was the son of John Vn\mi, a VttfistlitH lfl«rcti«nt resi- dent in England, ttn4 wa» horn Ahotit tlia jrear 1477. Although long tba outtlPHt ut mm\\ dltitilltd, It Is now certain that England waa (lift |*Ia«W etf tila tiatlvlty. In an ancient oolleotlun ot voyAtffA And (favets by Klch- ard Eden, a learned wrltHr Anil mnknipnrary of Sebas- tian, the author, in A nmrginAl nult*, aavs, " Mobostiun Caboto tould me, tliAt Im WAi* tj«r»« In Ur^stowe (Bris- tol), and that »( ilU ^uAri- uul(t lis WAS carried ivlth his father to Vjinfaa, anil m> fsflimwl agayiiB into En- gland wltli Ills f«:hpr Afffif MrtAyiin y«rtf», wheroby he was tliought to hiivfl lisi?n liern in ymke "^Decades of the jVeio Worlil, fol, 'iB6, i( aIm AJipeftr* that he returned, while still yoHOff (pr*«^ iliflitm), to England, and remained tb i till Iw gfsw (((t lo nianllnod. The brilliant <<: .covorles jf (.'flUimlnw Imvlng awakened a spirit of enterprise thr»ii({lMH(t (Iw itnll^lltcned nationi of Europe, iloiiry VII, (if l',njilMH(i WAS not slow In perceiving the adviintA«Ba !<) Iw ({slned Ujf promoting adventure in the now CAreur (,))nnfi1 tt(i to human am- bition. Tho all-impiirtAMt awI wtyroislllfj otjuot was to discover a ronf- 'o IndlAl And Att «Ji|i«dtUon In a nortliweht jrly ' -, 06twiwlb;v in rsaolt what was called Cuf' 8>' iind (rf M|ilt!)*, w,(fi jtfnrjpcted by Sebastian C«.. •. ttsd «Mt nndsr tlie auBplces of tlio English (f. varnmani, 'J'Ija rtr«' pAlwit, which boars date Marcl> 1406 (HVMKM, AV("'*W(, Vol, Jid, p. BPft), wa^ given u ' (Jabot Ann U lliriitt ((oni», l^wis, Seliastian, anit ....iiclw^, Th»< imlPIHmt Were empow- ered to set up ebe roysl hAuntti', and ocuupy and pos- sess all tl'.'; " newly-found" l»nd» In tito name of tlie kins, wlio rcoirvfld a (tfUl of tllH prorth, It Wgp also stipulated (hiL tlie tfrissuU slwnld fulMm (« llrlsfol, and that che privil.yi: of «K.elusWM ftmiirt And Irafllo should belong to the poteutan*. /jUlnniijIi (lie pAtent was eonlerred on Joiiu Cabot and lll^ ((irfif soils, lliefo can be no doubt, even if tlio f»t|i.ir did AUt'iiinpA'ty Ilia ex- poditioti, tliiit ilssiiiiiss w»«>ttiiiiii »«ulAHt A licVA lonxl- tudiuo gradiium pone parum liAbnxrif," A failure of provLiioiis at tliis poii'l coiiipellud liiin to dc'l-t from ' fui her pursi'it, and che UKpadliioH fetlrfnfil lo En- gland. Tho second patent U t\nt ! lid I'Mbcimry, HOB, and gives nulbori'- lo ".lohn KAbuMo, oi- hlfi de|iu- ties," to take at pleasure eiit Eligljiill st|l)rt, Auil " (bem convey and lede to tho loiida ai.'d i«l»f« iif lali- fniiiid." Shortly after the date of this imlunl, ilidlH ( !ab»l died ; and it i.s said that his suns, !,oMis and Haui'his, WenI to settle in Italy. Sebastian, howovdr, did mil nimuilon the enterprise in which ha Imd mnliArkud ; And a sec- ond voyngo was /ealoHsly uiiderlAkKtl tindfr ills siiper- intenden'C. A ship equippad At Ihti kind's cdpcnse, along with four snirJi vaejaU; tallnd doin l(fl.«(ol hi the sprJiig of the year 14tl«, TIln ri'»((lt of flie espe- ilition is unfortunately wrapt III nilll'l' iibs; (ifily, (lo- iiiani alone furnishes u» with what Hlrty be n cofrect account. According to this imtlMif, ' 'Abet " dlfcrled his course liy tli.i tracUi of islHlldn, llp|iiiH (lis ('Ape of Labrador, at Ivlil. digruesj AlflflliyngH illAl, In thr moncthe of July, tbora was nueh fwnld, and liprtjies i.f ise. that he durst passe no furttlMf J »Ut), thai Ihs dayos were very longe, and In mancr without nyght, and tho nyghtea very clear, Certayno it is, that at the Ix. degrees, the longest day is of xviii. hourcs. But con- syderynge tho coulde, and the straungenesi of tlis unknowen laudc, ho turned his course from thcnsn to tho west, folowyngo tho coast of tho lande of Uacenlaos unto the xxxviii. degrees, from 'whcnso ho returned to Englandc." — Eken's Decades, fol. 818. The rcsuUn of this second voyage were not sufficiently important to induce Henry to equip another expedition. We have good authority for believing, however, that Cabot, in. 1409, " with no extraordinary preparations sett forth from Bristoll, and made create discoveries." — Skyeu'.s Memoirs of JirisUil. But tho narrative of Cabot's life for tho fifteen years subsequent to tho departure of his second expedition is meagre and unsatisfactor)'. One cirou-nstanuo de8er\'e3 notice, that during that period Amer!go Vespucci, in company with Hojcda, crossed tho Atlantic for ti.e jirst time, while Sobaatian was prosecuting h'' tliird voyage. After tho death of Henry VIZ., upon tho invitation of Ferdinand, Sebastian Cabot went to Spain; and Vespui ,1, who held the ofHco of pilot-m^or, having died, ho was appointed his successor. He was soon employed, in a general revision of maps and charts : and his public and private character endeared him to most of the learned and good men in Spain. The dcatli of Ferdinand put an end to an expedition then in con- templation. The ignoble commencement of tho reign of Charles V. frustroted all further hopes of its prose- cution ; and Cabot returned to England, where, under Henry VIII., ho got honorable employment, and per- formed another westwardly voyage in 1617, which, however, proved unsuccessful. In 1618 we find Cabot In Spain, and again reinstated in the appointment of pilot-major. The dispute between .Spain and Portugal in regard to their respective rights to tho Moluccas having been decided at the Congress of Badtyos, in 1521 in favor of Spain, a company was formed at Se- ville to open a commercial intercourse with those Islanils ; and '^abot, with tho title of captain general, after many delays, set .jail with a fleet in April, 1526. The squadron was ill assorted, and a mutiny broke out : in consequence of which be diverted his course from the Moluccas to the mouth of tho Kio do la Plata, up which ho penetrated about tlyee hundred ond fifty leagues. Ho erected a fort at St. Salvador, and after- ward tailing up the Parana, ho built other two forts, lie subsequently entered tha Paraguay, where he was drawn into a sanguinary contest with tlio natives. From the report then made by hiui to Charles V., it is jitobablo, had he been suiiplied wi Ji mciins and ammu- nition, he would havo made tho coiiqnest of Peru, wlilch Piy.arro afterward accomplished with his own private resources. After tarrying in the hopes of re- ceiving supplies, Cabot was forced to return to Spain, whc'o ho resumed bis functions of pilot-major. He finally settled in England, where ho appears to have exercised a general supervision over the raari- tlino concerns of the country, and enjoyed a pension of two hundred and fifty inerks. It was then that ho dis- closed to Edward VI. his discovery of the phenomenon of the variation of tho needle; a discovery for which alone his name deserves to be immortalized. It was also at hi5 instigation that the important expedition Was undertaken wliich resulted in the opening of the trade with Russia ; and in tho charter of the company of merchant adventurers ho was nominated govemior for life, as "the chiefest setter forth" of tho onterprise. Cabot lived to a ■.■cry advanced age, and died about 1557, probably in London ; but neither (he date of his (teath nor the jilacc of his intenf.eiit is properly authen- ticated. Sebastian Cabot may he justly regarded as ono of the most illustrious navigators the world has ever seei;, and the world owes him a debt ."f llnpcri^h- ^'ble gratitude. "Ho ended," siiys the luitlior of the memoir which has rescued so much of his life from GAG 228 CAD olmmiiy, "M m4*4, u Iw hud l^cgun, hli canor In tlw wrvifis itf M4 H4ti¥i' tiitMfjr I Infuilng Into lisr umtiua » apirU wf Mfy I'MffptiiVt a high niorsl tone, •uil • ajf»Uim uf miUi hut mflf]t)(>l« ditdpline, of wbivb tlio r«*wll« Wffi* mH Uma »tlnt to coniplcuouily di«pl«>'i>i4. Vimlly, l«# U m<«m to »(Mn n«w sourcei of comnrnrea, uf whi^l) >Im iiiHiUiMe May be (littlnctly tr»c8d on yf iifumtH Kfmiii-M uiui trroxtsrlty,"— E. B. Sie Jhimif i^Mmlim Cilitiilf villi a llefiew f/the Uiilory (/ ilm'ilimn iHMWH-t/, iUmlriilid by documenti /rum (he //i///i, nimi'tHl itlihlwinl, ttiri,. Ixiiidon, 18D1. OuilU), ur Oeaan, Htf nUiittmitt jntpBtmX hum the («e4» uf Mm* 'I'litulifimia i"iiiKi, Wb«(i the bruiMil wcdi are fl»yor«4 wUb ((m tyhUndfHin runillii, mixed with « Utti« mgnf, timy ftttm ltl« Ngf«e«bi« cbnfeotlon well .known uwkr Hw imiim t4/lnii-i//tt(f, C4dte, tbo (/rifW'iMi mimmM ellr and nea-port of Spain, on )M (w»t/i#*#j«h( «■(«(«<( «m'lhe rocky and oleva««4 sxffWM-ty ,^ 4 ii,tff' '• ; ■ >Ul^ tfiHIl riw JcIh de Udii, norlh- uorthwBst )»l)«> I ■' ,WM(I/«1 (((ihin, (l H nurroiimlcd on alt fi4'i», fii^pt ttlf miHlUi itlftf it Utitn the lnnttl |/ttjf( Awi ha*, at a distance, » vr/> »tf»»,j;.t i/.ttntfHmi^, 'tit» t(/#cr («■ lluht-bouae off)!. t^»b#iKi»n M«(4# Wl riw #(.i«f«rrt tide of the city, b(*('^ v/zlJi;;;- 1« T«(iW, (M (*». «fi ■ fll' 7" N., long. 6* Ji, • W, U U « W*(«t Krt<»fdnMiti» object to vcii. set ^^, ,4fMnis frmii »h* Alkutu. the HkM, which if 17iJ ;>aiH. biif'i ••( {(mm ItriiVwiuy, revolves once a minute, *n4 i'l utimf imf I." kan more than aix lewgueg off, Bay Iff Ciidii,-^t\w mi»tm ti) thla noble b««ln lies between tile f^jt y #h4 »I(# !//*« atwt (rrinnoiitory of Kottt, bearing MurfbwKKl U)f iHitfUf /IWartt aborit I'l lca«uc. Tlw bay is of v«fy fefjii ('♦lent, affording, In niort places, gou4 nmUttntUi', 'flw |«rf( in on the cant-im side of the 4ty, wimff M IWiif y anchor in front 6 U) 7 dtliuith'; the tnkK called the Cocbinos, the l'M«r(-#s, «l«1 tim Olaniatitp, llo to th« north cf the nity, in fim mtHlli'i' to fhi' !.«>- ; the (IrBt two at aboHt tUfHe'lifliln iif H tliih liMiWt, and the Dia- mante at ratlMir iw/f* timn ii in'U- (fi'in tli^ city. Vc»- sels may en'er Mwutt^ Htn ('iinim nH the hi'iniante ; but none, eiM'ept i|)//y'b Huiliny Vireclioru/or the Hay iifBlscny, tic. Cfldlr. Is a very ancient city, having been foundeil by the Fhrenlclans about 1200 years before the Christian era. The temple which tliey erected in it in honor of Hercules was one of tlie most celebrated in aniiquity. — SainU Croix, ilet Anciennes Culoniet, p. 14 ; J'ump. Mela, lib. ill, cup. 6. Its excellent port, and Its situation, fa- vorable alike for commerce and security, have made it, whether possessed Iiy Carthaginians, liomans, Moors, or Christians, and under every vicissitude, a place of considerable commercial and political importance. It haa long been one of the principal stations of the Span- ish naval force, Repml by Mr. Brackinhury, Britith Conml nt Cadiz, on the TraJt o/lhat Port during the Year lSt\'. The number of Dritish vessels that entered the Port of Cadiz during the year 1860 was 366, K'iiig ill more than in the prtceding year, with an aggregate tonnage of 06,297 tuns and 8679 men. ISI arrlTeil from England, with cargoes amounting In vnliio to *S7,7T8 1 73 arrived from England in ballsat ; 47 fioin olli. er countries, with cargoes amounting in valno to jC74.430; Bn from otiier countries In balliut; 187 Uritlsh vcssiiU Railed from Cadiz for England, with cargoes in value aiiinuntlng to £034,880: r'wll«« within jbmil three.(,„a/!<;rs , fruit. The calculations of the imports and exports of a mile of the I'uaiHk* M*f 1«, iitl (h* Isla lie I^on. j hove been made at five dollars to the pound sterling. Statuwit or TMi HimiHHt, f#^^ ,.((*, Ciirwii, Ann VAtints of TUB C'Aauowi orViflsrLs, nai.oNawa to vabioob Natiomb, WHU ti tirtlfHkti ANii ( r.KACKii At tiik I'OBT or <.'Am7. in 1 S46 a:Iua of , — lWl).b. .,„,„,,,,,,„ m ' 4;<,r.7fl Csftf" £30.010 307 61,li!2 2,i:BB £847,247 */''"£''--ii'i7'"---- t «,«IT (!S6 W.B.-4 87 B,684 678 14,!'37 i^ KmatiamW, si ,,,,,,, 7,MI esi 1^.071 BO 8,213 667 16,070 <^ I.l.iWO MB 7,na4 OS 14,370 721 is.oio ProssUy, ,,„„„„„. J« Ifi.MI SfU 20,2^0 52 17,121 774 O.SIO LSswM), ,,,„,,,„,„, i_*S «.7(W ft,4Iwttiitttittiit ^»** i-f^.f/is H.mn i;^«2,7S« m\ 132,«!16 b,67B jtl.l'.'l.SOT m M.Mfl i,aM taxt.mH 2S0 08,633 C,270 £707.840 ^ Awaiif^ i}j, d.i * • 8w£4M,000 ? The city stands on a rising ground, and has ai; imposing effect from the sea. The public buildings and churches arc numerous, and some cf them splendid ; but the streets are, for the most part, narrow, steep, and filthy. The Gulf of Cagliari ex- tends from Pula on the west, to Capo Carbonara on the east, a distance of about 24 miles across, and about 12 in depth, with good anchorage every -\hero after fret- ting into soundings. A mole projects from the I'ra- tique office, ■••nd ships usually lie abou ^ 1 mile south- west by south from it, in 6 or 8 fathoms water, on an excellent bottom of mud. There is a verj- convenient pier harbor at the south angle of the tower wall, capa- ble of containing 14 or 16 vessels of a tolerable size, besides small craft. Altogether, Cagliari is one of the Itest and safest ports in the Mediterraneau. — See Sar- dinia. Cairo, the modem capital of Egypt, occapiei the natural centre of the country, situate on the east liank 6f the Nile, 12 miles above the apex of its delta, 112 miles southeast of Alexandria, and 75 miles west fWini Suez. N. lat. 30° 2' 4" ; E. long. 31° 15' .3C". It is built partly on the plain and partly on the lower slopes of the rocky range of Hokattem, on a spur of which stands the citadel, in a most advantageous position to command the town. Cairo occupies a site of almut 7 miles in circumference, and is surrounded by a wall strongly built and fortified with lofty towers. The prospect firom the ramparts of the citadel is one uf great magnificence and beauty. The commerce uf Cairo, although still depressed, is considerable. Being the rendezvous of one of the great caravans to Mecca, it is the central mart In which the slaves, gum, and gold dust of the interior, and the oils and flannels of the nortli of Africa, with the European merchandise from Alexandria, art exchanged for the coffee, per- fumes, spices, aud shawls of Arabia and India. As the residence of the learned and wealthy of Egypt, it afl'ords a market for the agricultural produce of the surrounding districts ; and in addition to the making of arms, already extensive, it contains manufactories of sal-ummoniac, saltiietre, coarse gunpowder, glass lamps, and linen cloths. From the central situation of Cairo, and its proximity to the hot sandy deserts, its temperature is much higher than near tiio coast ; but the diseases which Infest it, such as the plague, oph- thalmia, and malignant fevers, seem to originate in its " stifled filth," and other local causes which advanc- ing civilization will greatly remove, rather than in the unhoalthincss of its situation. Population estimated at al)0ut 2(X),000, comprising aljout 121,000 Moham- medans, 60,000 Copts, 4000 Jews, and the rest Franks, Greeks, and .\rmenians. — E. B. Cajeput Oil, the volatile oil obtained from the leaves of the cajeput-ti'ee (^MeMeuca J.eucadenilnm, Linn.). The name is a corruption of the native term car/u-puti, that is, white-wood oil ; because the bark of the tree which yields it has a whitish appearance, like our birch. This tree is common in Amboyna and other Eastern islands. The oil is obtained by distilla- tion fVom the dried leaves of the smaller of two varie- ties. It is prepared in great quantities in Banda, and sent to Holland in copper flasks. It is of a green col- or, very limpid, liglitcr than water, of a strong smell reseml)ling camphor, and a strong pungent taste. It burns entirely away without leaving any residuum. It is often adulterated with other essential oils, colored with resin of milfoil. In the genuine oil, the green color depends on the presence of co|)per; for, when rectified, it is colorless. — TiioMsqx'a Dispensatory. Calalsar Skin (Fr. y'c(iV.J7r« ; Ger. (.VnMwcrJ-; It. Vaor, Vaji) ; Uiiss. jijelka ; Sp. Gris jKqiifno), the Si- lierian squirrel skin, of various colors, used in making muffs, tippets, and trimmings for clothes. Calabash (Spanish calithnza). in Coim.ierce, a kind of vessel formed of tho dried shell of tlie cucurhita, or gourd plant. It is used for containing liquors or gums, as pitch, rosin, and tho like. Calamander 'Wood, a beautiful species of tim- ber lirought from Ceylon, It is so hard that common edge-tools can not work it, so that it muut tie rasixnt and almost ground into shape. It is singularly rc- mirkal)ie for llio variety and admixture of colors. The most prevailing is a fine chocolate, now deo])enin):! al- most into absolute black, now fading into a medium iwtween fawn and cream cohjrs. It arrests the eye from the rich beauty of the intermingled tints, not from any undue sliowiness. It takes a vcty Mgh polish; and is wrought into chaii.., and particularly into t-aldes. Sir Kol)ert, Brownrigg, late governor of Ceylon, had the doors of the dining-room of his seat in Monmouthshire made of c.'\lamander. It is scarce in Ceylon, and is not regularly imported. In a few in- staukcs, it has been imported liy private gentlemen, re- turning from the colony, for their own use. It is liy far the most lieautiful of all the fancy woods. The nearer it is taken from tho root of the tree, the finer it is. — Mii.iii'iin's Orient. Com.; Library of Entfriaining Knmr/edf/r, V^egetalde Sulistances, p. 179. Caloedony. Tlie distinction lietween this sub- stance and agate rests upon very arbitrary grounds. GAI» 230 CAL Ag«ta ftvquently presanU a yariety of color*, and a niultipUolty of beautiful deliueatiuna. Calccduny U generally of one uniform color, of a light brown, and sumetimei nearly whlto. It occurs iu irregular mass- en, forming groteaqua cavities in the trap rucks, par- ticularly in Iceland and the Fanw Isles, from the for- mer of which thoro are specimuus in the Siuseum of Edinburgh of a very large size. These stalactites ap- pear always to have proceeded from the npper part of the cavity, which is sometimes lllled to the very sum- mit witli solid matter. Calcedony is used for the con- struction of cups and plates, and other articles of taste, of which tho most splendid specimens are imported from India. The labor which has been Ixisfowed in the manufacture of these articles, and the perfection with which it has been accomplished, is a mutter of Kurprise to uU who examine them. There iiru some of them as thin and as delicate as china, Tho flncst stones arc of course selected fur this purpose. They are generally dear and almost transparent, still main- taining tho warm brown color which churacterixes tho litonc. They often have the appearance of having liecn hammered, so shaded and undulated is tho us])ect of tho mass ; and to add to their l>eauty, the tine den- dritic Mocha stones are often selected. We .ire in ig- norance oven of the locality where those beautiful ol>- jects are manufactured, whetiier in Japan or China ; l)Ut they generally come from India, whom, we lieliove, they are found among tho most prei inus treasures in tlie reiwsitorics of the nalmbs aud princes of the £a«t. — E.B. Caloutta, tlie principal city of the province of Don- gal, tho capital of the liritish dominions in India, and, with tho exception, perhaps, of Canton, the greatest emporium to the eastward of the Cape of Good Hope. Its citadel is in lat. 22" 84' 49" N., long. 88" 27' IC E. It id alx)ut 100 miles from the sea, licing situated on the custurn Iwuik of the western brancli of tlic (iuiiguu, denominated by Europeans the Hooghly lUvor, whicli ii the only urm of fhe Ganges navigable to any coii- Bidcrablc distance by large ships. At high water tlio river opposite to the town is about a mile in lireudth; l>ut during the ebb the side opiwsite to (^a)i utta ex- puses a long rauge of dry sand )>nnl(S. Owing to tho lengtli and intricacy of tho navigation from tho sea, it can not bo undertaken without u pilot ; so tliat, even if it dill not exceed our limits, it would be useless to attempt any description of it iu this place. — See JJoui/hli/ River. In 1717 Calcutta was only a petty village; but it subsequently increased very rapidly, and was sui>- posed, toward the close of the last century, to havo 600,000 or 700,000 inhaliitants. This, however, was a gross exaggeration. A census ^f the population, taken in May, 1860, by order of the chief magistrate, gives the following results : Europeans C,233 Eurasians (tho progeny of European fathers and native mothen) 4,016 Am.'riFftns 893 Chinese S4T Armenians in,^i4'2 Hindoos 274,336 Moluunmcdtns 110,918 Total 413,18* The occupations of these various classes are nearly what might Iw expected in the luxurious capital of a great empire, and in eo great nn emporium of mari- time commerce. Public officers, lawyers, physicians, merchants, and their families, make up the bulk of the British inhabitants. The natives and foreigners of respectability are mostly engaged in trade, or live upon their property ; and the lower classes arc princi- pally compowd of retail dealers, me< !ianics, and serv- ants. A great part, however, of what rauy l)e fairly lonsidered the population of Calcutta, consisting of lalwrers, mechanics, and persons engaged in trade, reside at ui^sht iu the suburbs, or neighboring villa- ges, coming into town early In the morning to their respective employments. These were estimated, in 18U7, on tolerably good data, at 177,000. The small number of English resident in 'Julcuttu (where, how- ever, they are far more numerous tlian \n any other part of India) may well excite surprise. It was sup- posed that the cessation of the East India Compuny'i monopoly, and of the prohibition of European resort to India, would occasion an influx of Ilritixli settlers aud capital. But this anticipation has not been real- ized. Scarcely a single Englisli agriculturist, with capital sufficient to cultlvato 100 acres of luud, has established himr ,' in India, and there hn>i been no immigration of art;^ns. And this, after all, is only what might have been expected — tho country being too fully occupied, the burdens on the land too heavy, and tho wages of labor for too low, to admit of any thing like nn extensive immigration. The Eurasians, the progeny of white father.s and native niolhers, aro mostly employed as clerks In tho government offices and mercantile establishments, and are said to be an industrious and useful class. — Bengal and Agra (latet- teer. Tho town, excluding suburbs, extends about 4^ miles along tho bank of the rlvir, with an average breadth inland of l\ mile. Fort AVilliam, the cita- del, lies on the same side of the river, a Mttlo lower down. It is a strong, regular fortification; but so extensive tlmt it would re;sc men arc watchful and ocute beyond even thosu en- gaged in similar pursuits in the West, The English society iu Calcutta is of the best de- CAL 281 CAL Kriptlon, and numeroug fc'tei Are g\rm during th« cold seuaon, which Inrts (him September to April, on a aplondid acale, by the governor general and otl;rio < more oppressive and more iiuhealthy than lie- (OT*. ? '..e mean temperature is nl mt 06° in January, «B° in " -I nary, 80" in March, 85^ in April and May, HS' in J unu, 81" in July, 82° in August and September, 70' in October, 74" In November, oiul rr° iu Uocem- lier. The annual fall of rain during six yeara, conv- moncing with 1880, averaged slxty-four inchoa. — E. B. COIUIIBCIAL WllUllTS AN-> MEABCBES tir INIIU, WITH TIIKlIt EQUIVALENTS IN EhOUSU AVOIBIICPOIS, 0B:IUAL FACTOBTi MAIXIAS, AMU UollUAT WeIUUTH. C«aiwwUI Me— iwiitto. Achcen baliar of 200 cuttlea Achi't;ii i^iinclm of 10 nelly Anjfn an raiuly of 20 niRiinda llritiivlu pecul of 100 oattioa Ik'iii'oolL-n baliar Hcngiil fKctory mauiid llonKHl bar.ur iiiniind Itoiubay cniuiy of 20 maiinds ..,...,, ItiiHKoinli iimund of 70 vakias lliisKorati iiiaiind of '24 valcloa ('lUicilt niaiind of 100 pools i'hina iMiCitl of KK) catties Cochin camly of 20 luatmds (tuinbrouii bazar candy Goa randy of 30 maululH tlonkccyluii baliaf of S cHpina Madras candy of 20 maunds Malacca batiar of It pucuU Mocha babar of 15 frazils Muscat IHisMm-lionKe niaund \. Mysore candy of 7 uioratia lVf;u candy of 160 vis I'cnang pi'inil of 10*) catties Sural niaund of 40 seers Hurat l^ucca inaund Tullh'herry candy of 20 maunds ATolniipolfc Lbl. 4211 220 BOO i:i6 eoo 74 R2 MM) DO 28 »0 138 043 7 4(>K 48C (MKl 400 4S0 8 BOO l>00 liia 87 74 COO dr. la 10 10-T 2 2'1 B-a 6-8 63 ca 10 10-7 P«iiK>l Factory. Mda. S. B 2 7 cb. 20 la 87 18-7 16 10 U'fl 4-3 11 1 81 7 1' 2-6 4 « 25 2-9 6 20 28 B 10 16 4 7 20 « 28 81 1 11 20 1 8 M aH- MH. Vi.. ;o , 8 b 22 8 6 8 22 3 1 1 B 2 .0 8 211 22 8 Bmnbay. HiU. 1, rU: iv 18 4 27 ic 7 84 80 8 20 10 4 88 22-4 8 20 tlft-7 2 20 20 11-8 2 87 10 B 20 8B-2 a H 27 4-8 1 21-4 24 1 2 26-7 .'« 4 80 14-3 g«8 V) 1(1 12-0 16 10 21 vl 1« 17 27 4-8 12 17 IP 10 17 84 8'fl 24 14 IS 171 10 2 25-: ?'i IS 15 S 20 17 B4 8-« 20 4 80 14'B 87 1 li) 10 t6-7 2 20 20 21 17 4« Calcutta is the great emporium of India. By means of the Ganges and its triliutary streams, it has an uninterrupted water communication with the wliole of the lower provinces of Bengal, and also witli tlio fertile territory suliject to the jurisdiction of the lieu- tenant govcnior oi' Agro. Being thus advantageously situated for commerce, it trades extensively with al- most every country in the world, and numbers of ves- sels of every form ond description are constontly arriving in or departing from the river, which, in the vicinity of the town, presents the busiest scene imag- inable. Numerous dock-yards have also been estab- Mshed, in which are built vessels of great imrdcn and of admirable construction. Indigo, sugar, cotton, rice, opium, siU^ and saltpetre, are (he staple com- modities of export. Those of import are, British cut- ton goods, salt, copper, iron, and h>\rdware^ Tlie commerce of Calcutta has for a long period of ^eara enjoyed the advantage of a bank, called the Bank of Bengal, established by government authority and carried on imder government inspection. Various acts have nt difToront periods been pussed by the gov- ernment of India for its regulation ; the lost bears date the IHtli of March, 1839, and took effect from tlio Ist of May following. By this all previous charters and acts, except so far as continued by the new act, were canceled and rcpealel ; the capital stock, previously fixed at 75 lacs of rupees, was increased by one half, the nature of the transactions in which the bank might eni;age was prcxci'bed, and the conditions and liinitu^ tious under which its l)U8iiic»8 was to be conducted were laid down. The 8tocl>. is livided into shares of 4000 rupees, or quarter shares of 1000 rupees curb ; and a portion is, and always has been, held by govern- ment. i'i7()fa(;rc..— Tho navigation of the River Hooghiy, from the Sand Heads to Calcutta, a distance of aiiont 180 miles, is naturally dangerous and intricate; but reuilered comparatively safe liy a skillful and excel- lent, thongh costly, pilot eatablishmeut. All foreign vessels pay the sinm pilotage as those under British colors. By brotiru pilot.igc is meant tlie proportion of full pilotage uetween the diflerent stages or places of anchorage. All ships the property of foreigners, as well Asiatic as European, are suliject to the cl^a^go termed "lead money;" it being indis- ptnaoiiJy necessary that the pilnt should have with him a leadsman in whom be can ci ' I'l. Detention money, aWthe rato i 4i. per diem, from British and foreign vessels, ii ' i,>'ei Ucm 12«. piT lUuiii 10«. |KT di«ra Hire of the chain-moorings a, Diamond Ilarlior, £1 per diem. Tlie lowest charge to a ship requiring the accommodation of the chain m T'ngs at cither of tho places above mentioned :a fur len days; and using them longer, a further charge is made at tho estali- lished rote per diem for every day exceeding ten. The charge for transporting a ship from her moorings into any of .lie docks at Kiddcrpore, Ilowrab, or Sulkes, or trom any of the docks to hot ■■ orings, is fixed ... 60 rupee); and no higher chargi for »uch service is authorized. Besides pilotage, ever}' ship is cbargoo- ble with the hire of a row-boat to accompany lier; viz. : fir a boat of the first claps, 24a. ; of the second class, 18». ; .-.r.d of the third class, 14». Oi' lato years a light-house has been erected pt Kedgeree, .'or which tho charge on British or American fla,"'.i is at the rote of 3d. per ton per annum. Sliips proceeding to Cal- I cutta must land u i •< ' . lur at the powder inaga- [ zine at Moya|>ore .ge is at the rate of Hi, per ton for each m ''"'ii whole pilot estubliali- I ment, and the catii oi luo aii .~ •dbyamarlDeiKMK"' Ub a niaatar alUndaat and bar* bor-iiianter. The Marine lloard at Calcutta bava LmuwI '\u fol- lowing reiulutiuua with mpovt to piivlaKi- ic, i 1. t'uiiiiuanilvniar«n>f|uvit«d, |>riorlo<|ultiliialli*lr vniwla, on ftrrlvAl off CUcutta, (o liU up and ui-U/x, (/r liauM tif Im lUod lip and certified, a funu of.csrOllcalii idiuwina llw arlU' al leglitered tonnage, the drauglil uf * txr, »tti »liattticr llw TeucI baa or haa not been lUKVi'd by a atfauuir any pert uf the wa/, or haa or ban not had the uu.' o( a roir-l»>al| uliiili form wilt be furniiihcf till' nfiirrncc for the payment uf lilii veMi-r» bllla. On tlui receipt liy the niaett-r attendant of the above t'frtirtrali*, and written reference for payment, a eliigle bill wUI Im pntpared, including Inward pilotage, llgbt-lioanu duly, Muy»p»r« mafa- aino duty, and row-boat hire (If aii>), wbUii, tiigotlurr with the certlAcate, will be forwarded tu liie niariiw iwynuMt^r, liir collection within fifteen dayn of tbo arrival uf (be viMtl, aiwl hn^Hnr im It the name and reaidene*) of tiMt |Hirty rpUtm<*i Ui for paymeui, which eommandera are reiiumU'd to ftiruiiih b> tile raaitcr attendant, in writing, aa early alter llulr arrival a» practicable, that o.'!|i«n<'d at llwi desire of the commander. It Id reanylug tlie Mil wlwrn pre- tented for payment to tho referee. B The praclbw iil rhnrit Ing for hauling try the chain-moorliige, fur tlii-ir monthly liire, and for hauling fram the moorings, lii sejwrate IdlU, UdiM'//n. tinned, and henceforward one bill will be pre|ain.'4, IwiiulInK the charge for iiaiiling to die moorings, tliat Uir ue«upytnt( them, and that for hauling troax tlu-iu t and rj>niniaiider» Htn requested to give, or cause their cuminandlnif uffiiurrs tu kIvc, to the nmster attendant, or the harbor'nrs»t4'r, e^'rllfieir'. . ^it't. date of hauling to and from tiie moorings, whlth i-Atrtit.^Hi''^ :^•^ before, will a^^company tho bill wlieii presi'iifed f'f ])n\ititi.f, Tho hire ofthe moorings will lie charged fur tlM,'', <* **<)). tho vessel la hauled thereto, without leferenoa to t' ' \f..H'M '■! the day; and in like manner, no charge wi'J h' '".-yt fur f>.';. day on which she hauls fVom her mo< <1iigs, l«u- ' >h>' \>M- ^jt i< ^ dayslie may i *V' '• In one payment, Instead of tliree or iiiur", aeeiirding Iu IIhi iiuni' her of munths tl^e vessel occupied the moorings, 0, TIm nyfApm of chui^ng outward pilotage on aa estlmali'd dniuglit uf tea. ter, with an addition of lOpcrcMit., siiliJectt/isiijui^JiMentafler the vesHd has sailed, and efrhargiiig a certain nuiolM^'/f days fbr a row-boat, subject to a like aiDustment, is aliulisli'^d ( and in future the outward pilotage and charge (urruw-liuat birn im outwanl-bound vessels will be as follows ; Wlien the veMel Is finally laden, the commander is to give nutlce ltii'rey tiui luuijur-iiuiater un tlie part of the government ; subject, in ease of disi'Ut'^, Ui \h» decision of tho master attendant. On n'o^ipt uf llui eertlA- cate, tlie master attendant h ill cause a bill Ui Iw nuubi wit tut the regular amount of pHotage, and fur tlui ruw-liuat litre, v. cording to an average rate, witli reference to the •)»! uf llw reseets and the season of the year, fixed by a marine cuniinldee which lately sat at the Bankahaii, tite majority of which was composed of menibere of houses of agency and eomHianders of ships. Tho liill and certificate will b« pres'/'iled in diui course for paj-m^nt 7. As, howevi'r. it fre<|uenlly hspiwns that vessels are taking in cargo or filling llulr wnler up In lli/i last day of their departure, or tlist from uther causes (tie tdlts fbr the chiln-moorings and outward pilutage can nut tie nitute out till the eve of departure, owners, si/nM Ibrward by the Dak to their agents. '>n rereijif ttiereuf, agents are requested to malu. uut e. Mil sgsini,! tlie tiuti"ralil/< comiiany Tor the quarter deduction from tha |iU«ta|fa allowed '!"* It itMini, or for the rnw-boat hire paid, as tha eaa* I a'nl In for.ard it, tugi'tber with tin' Trtlfioate, to I iS ,«• buerd for audit and payment. •. In cases where ' v««««| leavea Cale'itla avoweilly Intended tu fill up cargo al lie place bc'-iw, the pilotage » III be charged al tli,' draught •< Thleh she learra (^aleulta. In like manner, llinugh at the rvdiHiMi amnunt, as If she had proceeded to sea; and, with reepret te the siibaeipient pilotage charge, IVoni the place at whkb \h» vessel Itkes In the additional cargo to sea, owiiera ur aarnls of vesselx will be requireti to Airnlah a siieclul guar- ante* In pay Ihi' amnunt chargeable according to a certltUata uf the draiiKlit nf water, to be signed by tlie eoinnisnder, or fuminandliiK "(Ilcer and pilot. 10. Blx sets of moorings at Dtamund lisrlHir having been fitted especially to enable vessela arrtving In distress fWrni loss of anchors and caWis to be rcnd- lly miMrtud, the charge will be I'o.'s Its. BO for mooring niid im- ninnring, and the dally liire tlio same as fur tlie moorings at i 'aleiitla. Tlie inuurings will, of course, bo available to vca- aels nid In distress fyoni loss of ancliors and cables; but the harlmr-maetrr will be Instmctcd at ail times to keep two seta VM'ant during the southwest monsoon, to meet casualties. 'Hiero are Mvcral dry docks at Culcuttn, in which vnasela of nny size may li« built or repaired. Ships \ Iniilt at Citlciittii nru of Inrerior durability to those e»m»trH(teil at Ilonibay, in consequence of the tVnmc- worli U'Ing nlwnrs of the inferior woods of the coun- try ; and tlio ptniiks, slicntliinK, upper works, and darks, otone of teak ; which last is furnished ultnost entirely from IVku. In 1848, tho numlMtr of register- ed ships lielonglniK to the port of Calcutta was 134, of tlin liurden (»f 43,6(ii) tons; IwinR at an average of almilt 330 tons for each. The largest class of vessels earry nearly "fiO tons; hut ships drawing so much wa- \ lir aro unfit for tho aavigation of tho Ilooghly. Not iMlng atile to load at C'ulculta, they are oliliged to ro- I celvB pirt of their cargo at Diamond llurlior, aliout ' Ihlrly-foiir miles farther down tho river. The most ; iim\ etilent-sl>:ed ship for trade between Calcutta, and Kiifoj*, and ..merica, Is from 400 to 500 tVilllam, In Ilcngal, ^ort Ht. Oeorge, or Iiomba> , shall be charged only with tho •amo rates of duty as such goods would nnw by law be eharged with if inch goods were imported into any of tho •aid pTTts on Ilritiih bottoms, any tiling In any act of tha <;oanell of India contained to (he contrary notwithstanding. II. And It la hereby enacted, that from and alter the said day, all goods exported on foreign bottoms by sea, from any p>/rt nf the said prfn ^itucies, sliail he charged only with thx same rMf* of duty us such goods would now by law be charged with If such goods were exported fVom any of the xald ports un Hrlllsh bottoms, any thing in any act of tiie Council of India eonlained to the contrary notwithstanding. III, And It Is hereby enacted, that flom and after the said day, no duly shall be charged on any goods lawfully carried from any puH in the territories subject to the guvenimcnt of the Kast Indi Company, to any other port in the said tend- Inrltm, any thing in any act of the Council of India contained to the enntrary notwittiptanding. IV, rrovlded always, that nothing In this Act contained shall apply to the articles of salt or opium. Mfhatuk A Rales of duty to bo charged on goods import- ed by sea into any pnh of tho rresideneies of lort Will- lam, in Bengal, IVjmbay, or Fort St Oeorge. nnliinn and coin Free. IIT-eions stones and pearls Free. Orain and pnlse Free. Horses and other living animals Free. Ice Free. (;osi. ruke, bricks, chalk, and stones Free. Ilouk '. prtnti'd In tho United Kingdom, or in any llrit- Isb posieseloo, ..,.. Free. Sugar at Kingdi Sngar a Plaw. Grain an Indigo , . OAL 283 CAL Free. , Free. , Free. , Free. , Free. . Free. ,"... Freo. Fonlirn bonki n per cent. IlKrlnu Rtonis, the produce or niftnufac- tiire of ttie I'lilted Kingdom, or of iiny llrltuh |ioucmIi»i S per eenb M>rlna itorci, the produce or manulkc- tiiro of nny other place or country tO per cent. Hetalu, wrought or unwrouKht. the nrnd- tico or manufacturi^ of tho i'nltod King, dom, or any Hrltliih potwoaainn per cent Metala, wrought or unwrought, thi' pro- duction or manufacture of any 'her plaio Ill ptreenk WoolcnM, the produce or manufacture of the United Kingdom, or any Urttlah W}oiucsfllon per cent, oolona, the produce of any othiii place or country 10 per cent. Cotton and allk piece goods, and all maiiufacturea of cotton or allk, except thread, twist, and yarn, or of cotton, or sltk mixed with anv other material, the proiluce of the tnlted Kingdom, or of any lliitlsh iHiaacmlon 5 per cent Ditto, the produce of other placea If) jicr cent Uplum iilma. petaoorof 80 tolaa. Porter, ale, hecr. elder, and other fer- mented Uquora 6 per cent Salt ]{». H-i per md. of NO tolaa per aecr. Alum 10 jier cent Camphor 10 jicr cent Caaaia 10 per cent Clovei 10 |H!r cent Conine 71 pi'r cent Coral 10 per cent Nutnioga an i- duty paid at any custoni-houso or chokce of thn.luniri I'l'mitler Hue, or < Meuares, except only upon the article ot < .Jtlon wool, . i byruwuuas taken out at tho custom-house of the we ''irps, and proved to have Imen destined for export Mussed out of thoso pruvinees. Tho policy of clmrfjing ilutlc \pnt wl articles seoma very questloimblo. '•'•'" ''Weully iiiuier which Inillii labors, in it > -loint of view, consists |irlnclpiilly in If r In .bltit ' ■-.h equivn- Iciils fur forei^'ii iiiiportetl guo is, ;■. <'< ttio noc- esaiiry puynii'iitH nbrouil; unci, wi the case, It U certainly not it littlu coiitrai. . i. iny tlutica on oxportn. Tho most obvious considerations of cc- peilloiiey anil common «en«o wouM 8UgKeninK of tho trade in 1814-'15, cotton piece ^oods formed tho principal article of export from India; tho value of these cx|)ortcd from Calcutta, at an nvcraRO of tho live years from 181 1-'15 to ]«1«-'19, bciiiK (at ii. per sicca ru|ice) Xl,2(iO,7;i(i a year. The extreme chca|v ness of lalHtr in India, and tho excellence to which tho natives had loii); attiilncd In several dcpartinenta of tho manufacture, would, it ml^ht have been 8U|>- jiosed, have Hufllccd to jilaco this Important depart- ment Ix^vond the reach of foreign ci>inpctltl»ii. Uiit tho wondurful ^:onius and tho admiriihlo 8kill of tho Euroi)can machinists, and their Immenso capital, liavo far more than countervailed tho apparently insupera- ble drawback of high wages, and tho exijcnse of bring- ing the raw material of tho manufacture from America, and even India itself; and have enabled Knglisli man- ufacturerg to hear ilown all opposition, and to triumph over tho cheaper labor, contiguous material, and tra- ditional art of tho Hindoos. Tho inip^ K^ f ^ ■Jl & OAL 284 OAL to b« no limit othar than the necaMlty of ftarntehlng •qnlvslenta In their itcad, to the indefinite sale of our product* in the East ; and in so far, at least, as India Is concerned, the facilities for famishing such equiva- lenti will, most likely, Im gradually increased. The ■oU and climate of Bengal seem to be peculiarly well luited to the production of grain, sugar, indigo, opium, silk, cotton, saltpetre, and a host of other articles. And as the inhabitanta are not deficient In industry, nor In the desire to improve their condition, It would seem that there wants only a reduction of the lan'I- tax, which is so heavy as to paralyze all their ener- gies, to enable them to increase their articles of export to an indefinite extent, and to render their country comparatively flourishing and prosperous. In the year 18&3, the great articles of export firom Calcutta were opium, indigo, sugar, raw silk and ^Uk piece goods, saltpetre, rice, hidcii, cotton and cotton piece goods, gunny bag* and gunny cloth, nun, >itc. We subjoin An AocouKT or trk QoAimmB Ain> Valuxb or mm NAfmn PaopvcB AND TBBAauai BxroBTB) raoii Ualodtta ucaraa Tna Oftioial Ybab 1861-62. Meicliulhe. mi-Jti. Qnullly. V.ta.. Opium Chestik 82,906 8,13,77314 Indigo iMliuimda. 1,77,604} 1,82,16,636 giKor " 16,16,826 7,09,600} 80,91,563 1,494 1,51,88,518 41,00,908 86,88,136 879 Saltpetre " Wee " Paddy » Wheal " 2,87,258 8,28,616 (Jrtm " 1,01,640 66,080 l,0^694 gs,272 DhoU and peas... •< Oats . ** 40,614} 260 44,168 260 Uailejr •' Dran " 1,170 877 Itaircotton " 4,96,890 49,68,768 ItawsUk " 20,858} 77,86,384 Cotton piece goods 1 m.„. (country) ( neoea. Silk piece goods . . " 46,962 N6C,127 62,862 27,47,663 Mixed piece good* " 1,26,819 2,73,486 Country woolen* . *' 8,603 76,720 Arrow-root IndlanmdsL 79} 2,118 Borax and Uncal.. " 12,767} 1,82,794 OastoroU " 50,086} 5,00,853 Canvas Bolts. 1,620 9,707 40,067 CIgan Indlanmda Elephants' teeth .. " 8} 494 ChoD " 1,008} 82,678 14,123 1,15,690 Ginger " Qunnybaga Noa. 1,44,66,498 16,68,846 Gunny cloth Pieces. 4M849 17,86,424 Hemp twine Indian mda 11,854} 1,04,779 Hemp " 8,810} 10,682 Hides of sorts Nos. 88,62,65i 87,62,171 Horn tips iDdtanmda 4,397} 29,567 Juto »* T,2S,707 12,881} 18,10,808 6,60,707 8.87,084 UcDye .-... " „ (Shell •• J-^Soed « •^ (stick » 43,140 634} 2,087 589} S,38» Unseed « 14,26,821} 62^061 MoIsBses " 9,060} 6,613 Uunjeet " 694} 6,48,891 1,786 10,96,776 Kustardaeed..... « UustardoU " 8,827 62,969 I*utchuck " 8,406} 69,135 Pr0TMonsandUu4 '* 1,62,098 Hum (Bengal).... OaUons. 8,98,766} i;i9;927 Bafflower Indianmds. 28,128} 6,90,208 Sal ammoniac .... '■ 286} 8,243 Soap " (,421 14,610 Tallow •• 9,364 91,489 Teetaeed « 60,096} 1,20,101 Teel^edoU '< 266 1,792 Tobaceoleaf. " 18,803 47,720 Tnrmerie "■ 80,688} 1,58,871 AU other ezporta.. •• Total exporia— Company** 6,44,727 rupees 10,4t).66.641 Goods le^xpotted 84,OT,8«6 Treasute exported 19,46,809 11,04,09,706 Specie exported by B. I. C jmpany 6,82,000 The export trade of Calcutta would be much in- ereased If facilities were created for Internal oommerce, •■pedally in building railroads and Improving the wa- tMT eommnnioatioM with th* intarior. Somathing hu been done in the way of building good tnmpike road* and in locating railroads, and farther Improvements may be anticipated. The present mode of communi- cation l>ctween Howra, on the opposite bank of the river, and the metropolis, Is by ferry ; but Howra ha* been selected as the locality for the terminus of the East India railway ; and upon the opening of the first section, which Is now complete, greater facilities will bo required, as well of access from Howra, as of egress from the city In the same direction. Opium. — The trade in opium ha* rapidly grown in magnitude and Importance. At an average of the years 1830-'81 and 1831-82, the exports fl-om Calcutta were 7278 chests, worth xi,121,660; whereas during the year 1851-'62 the exports had increased to 82,806 chests, worth ^CS, 187, 781. China is not the principal merely, but almost the only market for opium, so that the trade between Calcutta and her is now second only to that between the former ond England. It is true that largo quantities of opium are shipped for Singa- pore and other intermediate ports, but China is its ul- timate destination. Subjoined is a statement of the quantity and value of the opium shipped i^om Calcut- ta In 1840-'41 and 1851-'62. CluiKIa 1M(I->41. "■ \«i\-^iir - Uunlil/. VUu«. quuuiy. . v^«,. China 6,863 8»"SU45 27,921 PjinoM, 2;71,84,6S9 Singapore... 10,822 70,06,688 8,916 87,96,960 Penang 640 *'Si'?i9 HI . 3,77,040 IlaUvIa 65 32,078 60 60,850 Pegu 79 49,130 21 19,766 Ehiewhere... Total.... 2 1,390 17,866 1,18,90,818 8.2,806 8,18,77,814 Previously to the year 1815, the exports of indigo firom Calcutta were comparatively trifling. But about that period Euro; CmnMn. 1840- 41. IWI-'tL 1 qnwUlj. V>lu>. Qwutllj. V>Iu. Great Britain lodUu lUonda. Bumm. 17,17,200 l,BO,(o,86S 48,181 8,40,6. - RniMM. 14,266 ^,689 • ••• 2,28,038 • • .• 2,86,148 8,238 78,069 10,50H 1,88,760 7,67,704 8,82,249 8,06,208* 1,82,164 8,78,441 t . *• 2,83,774 13,04,440 6,08,07V 02,8201 21,40,489 25,4Mt 8,77,868 2,816 78,100 66,071 4,06,686 24.480 4,42,888 6,87,600 18,78,646 4,887 87,877 • • • • 14.13,034 69,347» 4,08,140 86,89,768 ) 80,35,45US 7,364() 2,61,06,167 11,68,702 86.128 SO,396J 66,48,083 18,806 ) 8,fl0,622t J B06O 6,78,193 81,74,870 81,74,870 • .■• 1,62,718 ■ ••• 4,60,477 • ••• 6,72,004 1,76,86,865 07,08,346 .... 11,34,089 • >.. 18,27,883 80,46,814 .... 6.76.14.760 .... «3,4»,6S,184 0,24,77,084 * In addition to tl-.'s, the rcglitered amount of specie Imported by the Honorable Company Is as Ibllovs: 186a-'Bl=CompuVsvesselss=S7,47,U0 I lSSl-'61=C9mpany>Teasels= 1,94,653. CAL S86 OAIi AiimA''>T ViNw Af Trm RxTiniN*t. OflMMimr'ii or BxNnAL. C«uliiM or StatM. Qnwt Britain Fnnee North Ameriim MMbuCoart Ceylon Htldtve* and LaeeadWea Malabar ooart Arabian and Fetilan OuUk Slngapora Penang and Malaeea China New Holland Java and Sumatra Pegu Hanritlui Bourbon Cape and Bt Uolena Hamburg Cadia Amirterdam Trieate G«noa ( Other places Total, Company'! rupeea. , >l«Min» 1H,OH,00» 1,II0,UW S,47,8W 1,N0,7tn 10,16,081 1,84.0111 8ii,u,nii« 10,4M V,4I»T CM.uoa 1,0 1 •008 T,8H,»n6 86, WU aiTTir 'otoT d.M.MI.S'^O iii,0{i,mi 1 AVI, 748 tlT,ll';,8til I.Od.UOO l,80,!«l!< tl,!t8,lS0 9 8,S2,17,«7 8,10,644 08,971 14,48,888 16,96,197 0,00,806 9,08,685 9,9T,D60 88.008 4,91,888 8.00, 'i78 10,84, 08,8ti7 78,058 4,78,08.188 48,07,481 70.84,924 1,47,994 14.00,814 67,100 9,07,840 .... 80,882 20,71,601 12,61,607 640 44,04,077 7,148 6,61,007 * • >• 8,22,17,277 • . . • 8,10,544 .... 0S,071 16,90,1X4 80,40,057 60,870 16,61,007 * .'. . 0,00,806 9,600 2,71,(185 9,97,060 .... 83,'(W8 .... 4,21,888 .... 2,fl0,i78 19,46,809 11,04,(19,700 STATnasKT ExniDiTtKO TUX PaorouTioM ny tkk rxTMNAi. r(iMiKK(U'ii or Bkohal ENJUtiiu UY EACH CoDMTBY AXii Btatc IlllBINM THK Vkaiw 1H6(W'61 ANIi 1»61-'62. CooBdlM. United Kingdom France Hamburg Altona Cadis Guam Trieate Oibraltar Lisbon Amsterdam Rotterdam Antwerp Qenoa AtU. Coromandel Coast Ceylon Malabar Coast Maldlvea and Laceadives Arabian and Persian Gulfs China Singapore Penang and Malacca . . Java and Sumatra New Holland Pegu New Zealand Sandwich Islands Manilla Jfrkm. Mauritius Bourbon Cape and St. Helena , Cape Terd Islands . . , North America... South America. . . Trinidad latO-il, Vsliu. gUMCi. 4,01,12,788 10,80,081 6,68,088 1,B0J60 66,800 1,17,801 li,10,6«,2«i- 17,79,047 67,404 18,00,016 1,67,470 11,86,760 00,89,861 84,77,780 0,40,094 43,748 8,86,104 0,72,841 "liseo 90.041 1,08,99,018 0,70,603 4,60,466 70,441 99.098 13,90,667 8,89,171 8.89,171 7,0.^ 89,010 P«. FIsM.. lui-'U, ISM' 4^800 440 98,060 87,828 10,219 iam C,>)4« 4ney, they employed them, probably because they could with difficulty dis- pose of them otherwise, in all manner of mercantile speculations; advancing very large sums to the indigo planters, exporting goods to Europe, cither directly on their own account, or inuirectly by lending to those who did, becoming owners of Indian shipping, etc. Mosi of those speculations turned out exceedingly ill. The production of indigo was so much increased, partly in consequence of the large capitals turned to the busi- ness, and partly of the high prices in England, that " fine blue violet," which had brought in the London market, at an average of the three years ending with 1827, from lis. lOd. to 13a. id. per lb., fell, at an aver- age of the three years ending with 1882, to from 6t. Bd. to C>, 4(1. per lb., and other sorts in proportion. At these prices tho production would not pay; and very heavy losses were sustained and much capital sunk by the planters and those who had supplied them with funds to extend their undertakings. The invest- ments la Indian shipping turned out even worse than thote in the indigo plantations, the shipping of En- gland having nearly driven that of India oat of the field. The embarrassment occasioned by this locking up of thoir capital, and by the ruinous nature of the ad- ventures in which they were embarked, liegan to man- ifest itself simultaneously with the scarcity of money occasioned by the drains on account of the Burmese war. The great mercantile houses began then to find that they were entangled in difficulties from which they were wholly unable to extricate themselves. After struggling on, some for a longer and some for a shorter period, most of them subsequently failed, the greater number for very large sums. But, however distressing in the mean time, the em> barrassnient and want of confidence arising from the failures alluded to wore not of long continuance, and have in the end been advantageous. It is of the ut- most consequence that the vicious combination of the business of a merchant with that of a banker should be put an end to. It is singular, indeed, that individual* should be found willing to intrust large sums in the liands of those who they are aware are employing them in the most hazardous adventures. The higher tho in- terest promised l)y such persons, the greater ought to be the caution of the public in dealing with them. Internal Tramrit Duties. — A very great improvement has liecn cfiected in the domestic economy of Brit- ish India by the abolition of the duties on the trans- it of goods from one part of the country to another. This important measure was preceded, and, we Iwlieve, principally brought about, by the publication of an elaborate and valuable report on the inland customs of Bengal, by Mr. Trevelyan (now Sir Charles, K. C. B.), then one of the secretaries to the Indian government, and now Secretary to the Treasury. These duties had existed in India from a very remote period ; and, by obstructing the intercourse iMtween its different dis- tricts, wore singularly pernicious. After the East In- dia Company began to acqidre a footing in India, they availed themselves of a favorable opportunity to pro- cure an exemption from the transit duties in favor of their own trade ; " the goods which they imported be- ing allowed to pass into the interior, and those which they purchased for exportation in the interior being al- lowed to pass to tlio sea, without either stoppage or du- ties."— Mill's India, 8vo ed. vol. iii. p. 289. They were, however, not long permitted to monopolize thi« privilege. Immediately after the victories of Clive had raised the company to the situation of a great ter- ritorial power, their servants engaged largely in the inland trade, and endeavored, partly by fraud and part- ly by force, to extend to their own goods the exemp- tion from transit duties established in favor of those belonging to the company. P>cr;- reader of Indian history is aware of the multiplied abuses and disturb- ances that grew out of this attempt of tlie company'i servants to release themselves from duties and charge! that pressed with grinding severity on the natives, and, by consequence, to engross (for such was their object) the whole internal trade of the country. The company endeavored to obviate the evi) by itriotly forbidding CAL 888 CAL their MTranU tnm engaging In Intcnal traffle ; bat It* orden to thia effect were long cither totally dtsre- garded, or bot veiy imperfectly obeyed. At length, in 1788, Lord Comwallls adopted the decisive and judi> clous measure of abolishing the duties. They were, however, again renewed In 1801, The exclusion of Englishmen from all participation in the interior traffic of the country having been gradually carried into com- plete effect for a lengthened period, they were leas alivo than they would otiierwise have beon to the it^iu-ioua influence of the duties, so that their re-establishment met with comparatively little opposition. In 1810 a new tariff was introduced, by which the duties " were fHghtfully augmented ;" and they continued from that epoch down to their recent abolition seriously to ob- struct all sorts of internal traffi'^, and to oppose the most fbrmidabla obstacle to the improTemeat of the country. Had the Inland transit dntiea been produotive of a Iarg« amount of revenue, that would have been some Mt«ff against the enormous evils of which they have been productive. But such has not beon the catn. The expenses of collection, and the interruption of commu- nication, were so rery great that the net produce of the inland transit duties was quite insignificant ; so much 10, that, according to Trevelyan, It did not exceed, in the extensive province of IJengal, the miserable pit- tance of .£27,600 a ytn.—ltqtort, p. 148. We see no reason to doubt the accuracy of this statement; and, assuming it to be comet, wo are warranted in affirm- ing that there is not another instance to bo found in the history of taxation of a tax so ittiitftil of mischievous result* and so barren of revenue. Tbten Dutie: — ^These were charged on the principal article* of consumption in 33 of the chief towns of Ben- gal. They were in many rerpects similar to the oclrou hi France; and, though not nearly so it^urious as the internal transit duties, were productive of much incon- venience. We are glad, however, to have to state that they, as well as the transit duties, have recently been abolished ; and that the internal trade of Bengal is now a* flree, in so far, at least, as statutory regulations can make it, as the internal trade of England. This article has been compiled from various authori- ties, including MiLnoRN's Oriental Commtrce ; Bkll's Comparative Vino of the eiettmal Commtrce of Btttgid, with the Continuation by Wilkixson for the years from 1828-'29 to 1841-'42 ; The Bengal and Agra Guide and Gazetteer for 1841 and 1842 ; Parliamentary Puptrs relating to the Financet of India, i: itf Me Trade of /mlia and China, 1880-1848; and private communications. Caledonian Oanal, from the Korth Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. By means of this magnificent canal the nautical intercourse between the western ports of Great Britain, and those also of Ireland, and the North Bea and Baltic, is shortened in some instances 800, and in others 1000 miles. A snm exceeding a million ster- ling was granted by Parliament from time to time ; and this safe navigation for ships of nearly every ton- nage was completed and opened in 1822. — Havon. Calendar. The Roman calendar, which hts in great part been adopted by almost all nations, was in- troduced by Romulus, who divided the year into ten months, comprising 804 days, A,i>. 738 B.C. The year of Romnlu* wa* of fifty days less duration than the lu- nar year, and of sixty-one less than the solar year, and its commencement did not, of course, correspond with any fixed season. Nnma Pompilius, 713 B.C., correct- ed this calendar by adding two months ; and Julius Ciesar, desirous to make it more correct, fixed the so- lar year as being 365 days and six hours, 46 B.C. This almost perfect arrangement was denominated the Ju- lian style, and prevailed generally throughout the Christian world till the time of Pope Gregory XIII. The calendar of Julius Casar was defective in this par- ticular, that the solar year consisted of 865 days five hpor* and forty-nine p^notes, and not of S6S day* and six honrs. ThIsdim!renee,atthetlmeofGregoryXni., had amounted to ten entire days, the vernal equinox fulling on the llth instead of the 21st of March. To obviate this error, Gregory ordained, in 1582, that that year should consist of 8C5 days only ; and, to prevent further irregalarity, it was determined that a year be- ginning a centurj- should not b« bissextile, with the exception of that beginning each fourth century ; thua 1700 and 1800 have not been bissextile, nor will 1900 be so ; but the year 2000 will be a leap-year. In thi* manner three days are retrenched in 400 years, because the lapse of eleven minutes makes three days in abont that period. The year of the calendar is thus made as nearly as possible to correspond with the true solar year; and future errors ..i .' ronology are avoided.— Haydn. See Almanac. The Gregorian colendar was introduced into Spain, Portugal, and part of Italy, the same day as at Rome. In France it was received in the same year in the month of December, and by the Catholic states of Gcmmny the year following. In the Protestant states of Ger- niary the Julian calendar was adhered to till the year 1700, when it was decreed by the Diet of Katisbon that the new style and the Gregorian correction of the in- tercalation should bo adopted. Instead, however, of employing tlie golden numbers and epacts for the de- termination of Easter and the movable feasts, it was resolved that the equinox and the paschal moon should be found by astronomical computation from the Ku- dolphino tables. But this method, though at first view it may appear more accurate, was soon found to be attended with numerous inconveniences, and was at length, in 1774, abandoned at the insinnce of Frederick II., king of Prussia. In Denmark and Sweden the re- formed calendar was received about the same time as in the Protestant states of Germany. Russia still ad- heres to the Julian reckoning. In Great Britain the alteration of the style was for a long time successfully opposed by popular prcgudicei The inconvenience, however, of using a different date from that employed by the greater part of Europe in matters ot history and chronology began to be general- ly felt; and ot length, in 1751, an act of Parliament was passed for the adoption of the new stylo in all pub- lic and legal transactions. The difference of the two stylcsj which then amounted to eleven days, was re- moved by ordering the day following the 2d of Septem- ber, of the year 1752, to be accounted the llth of that month ; and in order to preserve uniformity in future, the Gregorian rule of intercalation respecting the secu- lar years was adopted. At the same time, the com- mencement of the legal year was changed frum the 26th of April to the first of January. In Scotland the new style was adopted from the beginning of 1600, accord- ing to an act of the Privy Council in December, 1599. This fuct is of importance with reference to the date of legal deeds executed in Scotland between that period and 1751, when the change was effected in England, With respect to the movable feasts, Easter is determ- ined by the rule laid down by the Council of Nice ; but instead of employing the new moons and epacts, the golden numbers are prefixed to the days of the /)ilt moons. In those years in which the line of epacts is changed in the Gregorian calendar, the golden num- bers are removed to diffiircnt days, and of course a new table is required whenever the solar or lunar equation occurs. The golden numbers have been placed so that Easter may fall on the same day as in the Gregorian calendar. The calendar of the Church of England is therefore, fl-om centnrj' to century, the same in form as the old' Roman calendar, excepting that the golden numbers indicate the fUU .noons instead of the new moons. — E. B. Calender, a mechanical engine employed by cloth- lappers for dressing and finishing cloths and stnflfe of vaiions descriptions and fabrics, before exposure to tale, or deliveiy to purchasers. It is also used by cal- CAL t89 CAt )'s, was ro- of Soptcm- 4th of that ' in Riture, Ig tho 8CCU- thc com- ,m the 25th id the new 10, accord- ibcr, 1599. the date of ;hat period England, is detcrm- Nice; but !pactB, tho if tho full \{ cpacts is Idcn num- Jurse a new Ir equation Iced so that I Gregorian Rngland is [inform as Ihe golden If the new I by cloth- , stuffs of Icposnro to ed by cal- ico-printer*, In order to extend and smooth tba lur' face of their cloths after they have been bleouhed, and bofuro they aro subjected to the operations of the prinu intf-tabio or copper-plat* press. British musllas are folded generally to a yard in length, with a sniall al- lowance for extra maasuru ; and as the folding is al- ternately flrom right to left, every part can be instantr ly examined upon s table or counter, every fold i»\im\f Ing as easily m the leaves of a book in its uncut st«t«, The piece, when folded, is reduced by douliling It lani- gitudinaliy to about nineteen inches, and it is tlian (oW ed across to the breadth of about thirteen inches. An ordinary-sized trunk, 89 X 19 inches, thus conUins threa layers of pieces, in which package goods for axporta- Uon to the colonies are generally packed, the trunk there forming an article of merchaudi«o as mucli in gei>.- eral demand as the muslins which it contains. £veH the Indian ornaments of gilt silver threads which were at first woven into one end of each piece, although they did not exceed tho value of twopence each, have been either greatly curtailed or totally given up upon prin- ciples of economy. Even the cost of this trivial orna- ment has been computed to have amounted annually in Oksgow and Paisley to about £30,000. PullicaU and other handkerchiefs are most commonly folded up (n dozens. For the African and some other foreign troiiss, pieces containing only eight liandkerchiefs aro prefurr red. These are still ifaiitations of Indian precedents, confined to markets whore competition continues to cki- ist, not only with the British company, but with Amer- icans and others trading to India. A species uf pale orange-colored India handkerchiefs, distinguitlied by the name of Madras, being in extensive reputation in the Caraccas and other Spanish settlements in South America at the period of tlie capture of Trinidad, in 1795, patterns were procured by some Britisli trarieis, who ordered very largo quantities to ho manufactured in Scotland of tlie same quality and appearance. With such effect were these imitated in texture, in dye, in finishing, and even in the packages, that soma hun- dreds of pieces sent to London for exportation were acL- ually seir.ed at the custom-houso as India goods, eitiier illegally imported, or stolen from some of tho Compa^ ny's ships in the river. A scrutiny, however, clearly ascertained that these goods were not Indian, but Brit- ish, and that no trespass eitlicr against tho privileges or the property of the company had l>een even attempts ed. The goods were of course released, and permitted to proceed to their destination, where, after examina^ tion and trial, it was found totally unnecessary longer to conceal their real origin ; and a very exfensivo trailii, through direct channels, has since lieen carried on for similar goods,— E. B. OallOO (Ger, Kattuni Da. Kaloen; Dan. Kattun,- 8w. Cattuni Fr. Colon, i'oih de Coton; It. Tela Jiatih bagina, Tela dipuUa-; Sp. Tela de Atgodon; Port. Pami de Algodao; Kuss. W^oikaf Pol. Batoelnika), doth made of cotton ) so callod from Calicut, on the Iktaiabar coast, whence it was first imported. . In England all white or unprlnted cotton cloths aro denominated cali- coes ; but in the United States this term is applied to those only that aro printed. Calico Printing. — ^This art, though apparently one of the most difBoult, hag been practiced from a very re- mote era. Herodotus mentions (lib. 1, § 203) that a nation on tho shores of the Caspian wore in the haliit of painting the figures of animals on their clothes with a color formed from the leaves of trees bruised and soaked in water ; and he adds that this color was not elTaceablo, and waa as durable as the clothes them- selves. It is difficult to imagine that the colors could have l)een so permanent, had not those using them been acquainted with the mo of mordants. There is, how- ever, a passage in Pliny (Hiit. Nat. lib. xxxv. § 11), which, though in some respocta obscure, shows that tlie ancient Egyptians were fully acquainted with tho prin- dple of ciUico printing, " They paint," says be, " the tlatMn, fM with ftftnfs, but with dmga (lorhftKAm Hutliiiumi'ltliiii tifMt hut* no eotor. Thin being dona, tttoy iHIMtorw tium Itl a tMtful of boiling dye, and |«»vu Uumi tMr« f»f » UUU l whan they take them out tUfjf m» ((sJhM »rf *»t1ou» colon. It" Is extraordina- ry, (MoIm^ Mmt thtftn ttt mtU me color In the vat (unut in ivHimn nttiH'), timi » vnnety of colors should be pr^ dwiwt \tf (h« i^m\im at ihe drogs." Pliny further •t»(«* W»( tim fuiimt WKr« so adhesiva that they could MMt M wfMllMt ml I Mtid that clothes were the strongor fur I'MiHii l\)fi4i A ntwtlar )>toce«s is known to har« imn MUm»i In IndiA ffum (he earliest times. Tho ti|)i>mi tstinUiHH m> i itfrtWiifltl Aft I tint the passage now quoted shnws rtftllMciJy ilwt «e huve, in this instance, been only fmrtmUt^ »mi intptuiring processes practiced in tiia tmmtfH n»i\nnUf, OnUfefHtS/ th« «««ie " Cnllfiimia" is found in (lie hUHify t4 (Iw ((((MltMWt of Maxloo by Ilnmal Diaa, » mm^mUm l^ CufUft, But there It is only appliai In H linn, Af«*f»(IKl H ««s given to the vhole coUfUrg nurth ij/Umi Imy, lift origin is uncertain, Some IsAiwa itWH ltiMr(«'f\il{i\P<"o'j* wDwl (twso sltpposed Cflliforninn islands "Mw Qnmliniln" i%\tt^ Cfiflrtes' Islnndu), in honor to (.'Imrlus If,, fcillj} of SpdiH, who intended to conquer the hIwIa, Wll»t W» H»W e»t( " t't^ef Cnl\firrn'm" was called by llw gw»gf»|()«*f« of iM slAteenlh century "Qum- ra," from A (iMjiUOst'rt fill* kittgdom of this mime. The nortlMBW iWflOf lllW MfttS I'plier Colifornia nnd of oiir (L>r«gi»l 'hmUWf yim ttAhll (iri7«) by Sir Fmncis \)m%a '• N)im AViimif" Wiil this name was pretty gen- erally a^'ltlfrt \if i\m VMfttpem geographers, except lliu 6|»#ni»ll, U W«» «*(*fla«(< «t last over the whole of Ofu^m »ii4 t'miw' t'dlilW (ila, Tlw B»WS '• (ippff Gnty^ifitia Ot New California" (CaKfOTMift MWV»5 apfimu into existence when tho J>»»<;(8«.'»H fflfs^ifmsfl**, SlHctt 1769, made settlements U) tiM) mnh f-f »)«* «14 C«1ifoHiiaft Peninsula. They cal|s4 " Viiljfimiin Miem" ihe whole Pacific slope, as far mrih w H l*(i«m» fcttowti to them, Hini;ij i>om the pure Indian to the pure Caaliiian. The population of the State, according to the cenaua of the United SUtea in 1850, waa 02,669; and by the State cenaua in 1862, 261,486. The aeat of government ia at Sacramento City, on the left bank of the Sacramento, juat below the en- trance of the American Fork. The principal placea are San Francisco, Stockton, Monterey, Santa Barbara, San Diego, Humboldt, etc. Surface. — The greater part of the State ia billy or mountainoua. The moat prominent range of mount- oina ia the Sierra Nevada, lying nearly parallel with the coaat, and from 100 to 200 milca distant. On the weatem alopo of this range are the principal gold minea, extending 400 or 600 miles in length, and 60 or 60 in width. Tbij alope of the Sierra is broken by the nu- merous tributaries of the Sacramento and San Joaquin into deep gorges and ravines, and the aurface of the region is extremely mgged and uneven. West of the Sierra Nevada range of mountains, the great valley of the Sacramento and San Joaquin apreads 600 miles in length, and 60 or 60 in width. This is very level, contains but little timber, and though fertile in some portiona, ia extensively covered with an arid unpro- ductive aoil back from the atreams, and by immense tnle or bulrush marshes in the vicinity of the rivers. The annual freshets in thia valley occur in the winter and spring, and the atreama are often at their maxi- mum hoight aa late aa June, In conaequence of the melting anowa of the Sierra. Thia great valley is bounded on the west by the cooat range of hills and mountains, which rise In some parte to the height of 8000 feet and upward, and lie from 80 to 60 milca back from the coast. These hills are interspersed with numerous valleys, soma of them of great beauty and fertility. SoU and ProducHom. — The best agricultnral lands •re found in the great baaina of the Sacramento and San Joaquin, and these vallcya in spring and nummer are covered with a luxuriant vegetation of various grataea, wild oats, etc. The hilb are generally cov- ered with wild oata, and furnish excellent paaturage, though for the moat part too dry for cultivation. Farther north, the valley of the Mendocino or Eel Bir- •r ia repreaented by recent explorers as well adapted to agricultnre. The lands in the vioinity of Humboldt harbor are also said to be verv twttt*, and In eonN* quence of occasional ahowers Inrwugh the dry Maaon, they aUnd in no need of tr^gation, wlilvh, thnujuh not eaaential to the aucceaa of most erops in ullwr paria of the country, is, navsrihelssa, oocisloimlly deilrabla. The grape flouriahea all ever ths lti«l«, and win* has long been manufaclurud at I, and fur* niahing an extremely durable material fur bulldiniK, In the northern part of the State, and AHiung lbs snowy mountaina, are forests of gigantic pines, iirs, c«dars, and other valuable forest trees, ranging from 100 to 200 feet in height, and from 6 to 16 feet In diamster. In the central part of the valley uf the Sacramento and San Joaquin, near the Junction of these rivers with ilM Bay of Suisun, is an extensive tract of low, ttiartb land called the 'lAilarea, or Tula lands, from tba liilt or liul* rush with which they are thickly covered. Ihrao lands are estimated to cover an arta of at l«a«t (I(NI,0«0 acres, and are drained by a net-work of slough* wlili'h generally aflbrd navigable cbaiinela from two to six fathoma In depth. Should theao lands lie reclaimed, their ants. J/mu.— Silver, lead, ooppor, platinum, and other mines, have been discovered In ('California (though not yet worked), but the great miners) waaltb of the Stala consists in its mines of quicksilver and gold, partUttt' larly the latter. The quieksUvtr mine of New Mmt- den, discovered in 1846, 18 miles south of Han Jost, it probably the richest in the world, and, If properly worked, would yield a million of doUan a yaar. Oeld CAL. i41 OAL lit M wall III* tnitin, In III sif , mill fur* liullillng. b» inowy c«dtn, . 100 to i\ttMt»f. •unto iitit with tiM ifib (■nil er but- TIlfM (MKI,tK)0 bn wiiluh ;o to lU ii'Ultmil) illwiip!' ifmeiin*- H*ii Jo** liitr wild iMi b«rdi In found • ef III* Callfof ]ldM Nnd II of lb* InbaMU ^4 otbtr jiugli not |h« 8t«i* Iputloti- > Aim*' ioit, <• ^ Gold U Ubanilly icattanKl otm a l*rg« portion of iha Stat*. From it* Hrat dlioover^-, in Fabruary, 1848, to tb« pre*- ent lime, new dvpotit* havo b<«n •ucccuivi-ly opcnstl in viriuu* liireetiuni, and the wliole extant and rich- IMU of tbo minas itiil remain* a matter to b« developed horaaflar. The llrat gold diK'overed na* on the Amer- ican Fork, abou( 60 miio* eaat of Sutter'* Fort (now Sacramento City). About tbrae month* afterward it liagan to b» ftiiind on tbo Yuba and Featitar river* to the northward, and on the Coaumne* to the eouth- ward. Subaequently it waa diecovered on all the principal eutern tributario* of the Sacramento and San Joaquin, and, atiii later, oxteiiiive depoaita have been opened amuiig the coaat range of mountain* in the nurthoni part of the Sutu, particularly on the Trinity and Klamath, and their tributariaa. Total produetlan of the mlnea to Janu- ary 1, ltl5i (14O,tBl,108 Product of 1861 SI,t»9,MS Product of 1888 M.000,000 $8«0,6ilU,ll01 There were in 1863, 108 quartz mill*, with a capital •f (5,87 1,405, and other mining operation* employing capital of 18,026,042. PttUiim of Ike Ootd. — Tlie gold i* found under two principal forma ; interspersed in irregular veins tlirougli beds of quartz rock ; In grains and irregular water-worn lumps of all sizes, mingled with the bed* of drift or gravel, which cover the face of the country, but most abundantly In the bottoms of tho mountain ravines. Tlkese grains and lumps were once parts of veins trav- ersing quartz rock, and have lieen dislodged from tlieir original inatrLx and reduced to the form in which we now behold them by those aqueous and elemental agencies which have every wher* disintegrated and broken down the surface rock*, and of their ruins formed the present sand and gravel beds that cover the fiica of the earth. Their origin, or rather the ori- gin of the forms in which we see them, was the same as that of ail our sand and gravels. They are, in fact, nothing more nor less than golden pebbles— metallic gravel and sand. The idea so prevalent that tlia gold has been thrown out from volcanoes in a melteil state, it entirely unscientlflc and erroneous. The gold re- gion is not volcanic, and ail search for the " blow- holes," or "fountains," from which the gold is sup- posed to have been thrown must always bo, as it heretofore has lieen, entirely frnitloss. In general, tho loose gold i* found In the immediate vicinity of the parent veins of which it once formed a part; or, at least, at no great distance down the slopes of the valleys and ravine* which have in process of time been excavated l)y the elements. Tho vein gold found m i^ant in the quartz rocks occurs in various parts of the mines, but chiefly in tlie southern districts — in tho neighborhood of the Cosum- no, Moquelumne, Tuolumne, and Mariposa rivers, and elsewhere. The working of these veins require* ma- chinery, and ha* not yet been fairly tested. Some (rials have been made with flattering success. Ilia scale and lump gold is found most abundantly in the bottoms of ravines, and in the banks and l)eds of the rivers, particularly In the bars of sand and gravel thrown up In the streams by tlie rush of the mountain torrents. The gravel bed containing the gold lies generally not over two or three feet Ijeiow the surface ; but occasionally it is covered to the depth of 10, 20, and even 50 feet. Most of the gold hitherto obtained has been taken from such localities. The banks and bed* of tlie rivers yield most abundantly at the lowest stage of water in the autumn nnd latter part of sum- mer. The side " gulches," nr ravines, are usnnlly des- titute of water in the dry season, and hence the ex- plorations in them are denominated " drj- diggings," and are conducted most successfully during the winter, spring, aiid early part of summer, particularly the two Utte» r It la Impoasibl* to aay which portion of the miaaa la th* ricbeat. All part* of them have yielded immenae quantltias of gold, ^ha aoutbem nilaat have tamed out the grtateat number of large lumps, and more of tbo coanM or lump gold i* generally foond In that re- gion. But for tbia very reaaon, perhap*, digging in them i* *omawhat more precarioua and lottery-like than eisawhera. In the nortiMm minaa the chance* of Hnding Urge specimana may be leas, but the proapeot of making fair daily wages baa been considered rather moru «;ci'tain there than in the southern mine*. Tlie recently-discovered deposits in tlio coast range on the Klamath and Trinity, and their aflluanta, are reported to lie unusually rich, and many hare baatened to give them a trial. The implement* needed for procuring the aUavlal or looso gold are picks, shovels, and washer*, llie wa*h> er* are either eimpie pan* or wooden bowl*, or ma- chine*, generally in the form of a cradle, and hence called craiUu or nok*rt. The*a are sometimes more expensively constructed, and fumUhed with ceil* for quicknilver; by mean* oif which tho gold may be more completely and economically extracted. It is well known that comparatively but a email portion of the product* of the mine* i* entered at tho San Francisco cu*tom-hou*e. Large mm* are token by pa**enger* leaving the country among their bag- gage. An immense amonnt has also been taken out overland, by the Sonoranlans and other Mexican* who have returned fh>m the mines to their homes. It may lie estimated, therefore, that not much less than Ihiee hundred and twenty millions of dollars have been dug from the gold region of California since it* discovery. — II. G. For later California sUtisties, see artides San Fran- cisco and Gold. Oalilbniia, Oulf ot, an arm of the Paciflo Ocean, separating tho peninsula of Lower California fh>m the main lund. It lies between lat. 23° and 82° N., and long. 107° and 114° W. ; and is about 700 miles in length, with a breadth varying from 40 to 150 miles. Its western shores are generally high and rocky, with few places of shelter ; its eastern shores are lower and less rocky. It contains numerous islands, and at its northern extremity receives the river* Colorado and Gila. Calk, to drive a quantity oi' i.^i.um Into the *eamt of planks, to prevent the entrai. ./' hi water. After tho oakum is driven in, it is covered -rtth melted pitch or resin, to preserve it from the actio.) of the water. Callao, a fortilied town of Peru, department, and six miles west of Lima, of which it Is the port, on the Pa- cific, in lat. 12° S., long. 77° 18' 7" W. Population perhaps 20,000. It is generally well built ; it* castle, formerly very strong, has lately been dismantled, and is now used for a custom-house. Its roadstead, shel- tered by the island of San Lorenzo, is the best on the Peruvian coast. It has a convenient quay, and com- municates with Lima by a good carriage road, along wliich omnibuses now run dally. Customs revenue, about $1,000,000. Exports consist chiefly of bullion, specie, copper, cotton, bark, and hides. In 1841, 498 vessels, aggregate burden 101,084 tons, entered; and 404 vessels, burden 119,944 tons, cleared ont of the port. In 1740 the old town of Callao was destroyed by an earthquake. In 1820, the Earl of Dundonald (then Lord Cochrane) gallantly cut out the Esmeralda, a large Spanish ship of war, fVom under the guns of the fort. — See Lima. Cklma, Region o£ In tho Atlantic Ocean, be- tween the Tropic jf Cancer and latitude 29° north, and an the confines of the trade-winds, between 4° and 10° north latitude, calms of long duration prevail ; and hence these tracts are called the calm latitudes, or the nffion nfealnu. In the latter tract, particularly, these perpetual calms are accompanied by a snfibcating heat, by thundar-atorm* and flood* of rain, so tlukt it is ton** OAL I4t CAM I oklltd lb* Katnf Sta. TiM oaly windt tb«t oc- MT art luddin iquaJU of ihort tIatatioB and (xtanl. la tb*M calm* lb« provlilont m corrupted, lb* deck •Mm* op«D, and Ui* (Ugnant air brtad* dlMaM. Wb«a a Alp U In Ibit poiilloa, if tb« currvnt aeti In ••ward ro«kt, and the Ma U too deep to ca«t anchor, bw dntnutton It aluoat IntvluUe. In tbe Mrditer- ranaan, wbar* than ai« no tidu, diad ealmi an more aommoii than in Iba open ocean ; but they are often thepicMget of approacklng itonnt. — £. A. OaloOMl, a pw p a r a t lcc of marcory, much wed in OMdlcine. OalOlio, tbe principle or matter of beat, or tbe iimple element of heat. Oambrio, or Cambrlok (Oer. Kammirtuchi Du. KammrykidoA; ft. Camtniy JIalutt; It. Ciimbrajai Sp. Cnmbrai ; Port. Camiraia ; Kusi. Kamtrluif), a epe- olea of very fine white linen, flrit made at Cembray, In French Klundrn, whence it derivei ite eppellHtion. Cambrice were lint worn In Kngland, an il doea not agree even with the mild climate of our ta. gard the camel aa a sacred animal, the gift of Heaven, without whose aid they could neither tul>al*t, nor trade, nor travel. Ita milk la their ordinary food ; they also eat Its flesh, especially that of tbe young camel, which they reckon excellent; Ita hair, which la renewed ev- ery year, is partly manufactured into stuffn for their clothes and fumilure, and partly lent abroad as a valu- able article of morcbandlno ; and even its faces nerve tbcm for fuel. Itlrnned with their camels, the AraLa want nothing, anil fcnr nothing. In a single day they can traveae 40 or 50 milea of tbe deaert, and interpoaa ita trackleta sands aa an Impenetrable rampart between them and their foes. (See tba admirable deacriptlon of the camel, in Bvffo.n.) But, liowever uaeful to the inbabitanta of parched, sandy deserts, it may be worth while, perhapa, to observe, that the camel la of very little aervice elaewhore. He can not walk 100 yards in wet or alippery ground without atumlillng. He is totally unknown in all hilly or woody countries; and, with few exceptions, may l>e aald to lie aa great a atran> ger In the Eaatem Islauda, Japan, the aouthem parts of China, the whole country lying lietween China and In- dia, and all the southern parts of the latter, including Bengal, OS he id In Europe. In all those vast countries tlw ox is the most useful of the lower animals. It Is used for draught (for which tbe camel is totally untit), in the cart and plow, in tbe carrying of burdens, in treading corn, in tlie oil-press, etc.,' and llnally as food. In 18A6, Congress, In accordance with a recommenda- tion of the .Secretary of War, granted an appropriation for the purpoae of importing and introducing the cam- el into the United Stalea, to be uaed principally on the prairiea and deaerta of tlie Weat— the Statoa of Texas and New Mexico enpecially. To carry out thia plan, an expedition, under Major Wayne, of the United Statea Artillery, and Lieutenant Porter, United .Slates Navy, visited the Mediterranean, and purchasoounil, •ml lin«k their halten to cic-epe * rrekture to whirh Ihry will not Ket •cGuMomed. We happened once to ■ee a couple of camali driven throiixh a country vll- laKOi and never were horaei and mulei Innpirited with more ridicuioua fIrlKht than the farmers' naga were at till* ungainly apparition. Cwnal, a machine, of Dutch Invention, for ralilng large ibip* lo far above the water-line ai to enable them to pau over the obitructlon of a liar or ihallow. It conaiatcd of two large boxei, or half ahlpe, which were applied to each aide of the hull of a large veiael, and from which a numlwr of cablea ware paaaed under tlia keel, unit attached to horlaontal windlaasea on the deck of either half of the camel. When the machine wai to b« uaed, water wai allowed to enter, ao aa to •ink the two parts of the machine to the requlalte depth ; the ropea ware then caat looae, and large beams were placed horiaontally through the port-holes of the ship, with their ends resting on the camel on each aide. When the ropes were made faiil, and the ship properly secured, the water was pum|)ed out of the camel, which then rose and Imm up the siiip along with It. By this contrivance, Kaat Indiumen dniwlng 16 feet could lie made to draw only 11 feet; and ships of war carrying DO or 100 guns were enabled to pass the sand lianiis of the Zuyder Zee. — liKCKMAN.t's IIUl. cff Inttntunu, vol. 111. p. 888. This machine la also available for raising sunken vessel*. — K. U. Camel'a Hair (Garm. Kamttlkaari Fr. PoU de ehameau, I/tine de chtvroni It. J'elo di camello; 8p. I'flo A hna ih ciimetlo). The hair of the camel im- ported Into this country Is principally used In the man- ufacture of line pencils for drawing and painting. In the Kast, however, it Is an important article of com- merce, nnd Is extensively used in the arts. It serves for the fabrication of the tents and carpets of the Arabs, and for their wearing apparel. Cloth Is also manu- factured of It In Persia and other places. The moat esteemed hair comes fhim Persia, divided Into three qualities — black, red, and gray. The black la the deareat, and the gray only worth half the red. Con- siderable quantities of camel's liuir are exported from Smyrna, Constantinople, and Alexandria. It is used in the manufacture of hats, particularly by the French. — Rkks' Cyclopedia, art. Camki.us. Camella, a very ornamental genus of plants, na- tives of China and Japan, lielonging to the natural or- der Tem^romincfos. Many varieties of this plant are grown in England and Belgium, sometimes in tha optn air, but more generally in hot-houses. Thci^'i I'lually cultivated in pots, they are found to thrive licst in open soil in a glass-house artiflclully heated. Cameo, a peculiar kind of onyx ; also a stone, nn which are found various ligures or representations of landscapes, a kind of liuwi nntnra, exhibiting pictures without painting. It is of these camaieuz that Pliny Is understood to speak when he says of the manifold pictures of gems, and the party-colored spots of precious stones, (I'emmnnim pictura tnm multiplex hpidumque tnm diteolnret maculm. Camco Is also frequently applied to any kind of gem on which figures are sculptured, ei- ther indentedly or In relievo. The shell of large uni- valves Is now much used for making cameos, the suli- ject Iwing wrought on the outer or white layer of the shell, and the pink or brown under one serving for the ground. Camco ie also uaed for a painting of only one color, whore the lights and shadows are of gold, wrought on a golden or azure ground. When the grouud is yellow the French call it eirage ; when gray, griuaiie. This kind of work is chiefly uaed to repre- sent basso relievos. The Greeks called such works liovoxpuiiaTa. — E. B. Camera Luoida. Invented by Dr. Hook, about 1674. — Wood's Ath. Ox. Also an Instrument Invent- ed by Dr, WoUaaton, in 1807. Camera Obaonra G' *• i""^ f'lmmher\ in Opiift, a machine or apparatus reprrnenting an artlAclal eye, by which the Images of external objects, recalved through a ilouble convex glass, are exhibited distinct- ly, antl In their native colors, on a white matter placed within the machine, In the focus of the glass. The y tba laural, and U In hlxh rapiilii anioMK tbo I'hiiiaaa, by whoni It la aliiHwt whol- ly cunaumrd, Tbara l» an Ininiaiiaa (ll>|>ailty In tha priraa uf Iha two upacloa In C'hliMj tba llnaat Cblnfia e«m|ihor lialnx •oniatiiuaa quoted at t'M par ptciil, ^blla tbvUalay camphor In quotad at 4illO par valty, jiMktng Iba prica of tb« latter lUU timm K<^atvr than that U th» former I Mubty uanipbnr la wholly un- known In tbia country aa an aitlcla of Irada. OamplMr OH (Ualay, .l/i«^'), a fraKrant aaaan> tial oil, obtained In larKa quantltlea by haatlny tha wood of tba />ryiil>aliiHnpt ntmpki.ra. It la nearly aa cheap aa aplrita of turjirntiiir, but la not liekl in any Mteem by tha (.'hliicM, It inlxht, |iprhapa, ba prollt* •My lin|Nirted a* a subiitltutfl for Kiilriln uf tiir]inntlna lu tba arte, and for nicdlcinul purjvwra, \Va may add, that the timlwr of the Dryahalmnpi f impkimt la not infirior to any produced in tho cnuntrlea where It growa, for tha purpoaca '» ImUan Arcki- pfl'igo. Cam-wood, a rnl dyawoohi>rca of I.,ubrador, and iVum the watera which flow into the Northern < )cean to tho parallel of Pennsylvania, in tha l.'nited Stutoa. Ita extent from eaat to weat ia computed nt about 1400 milea, and from north to aouth at fVom 'Hn to 400 mUaa. Ita preclao KeoR'opli'cal limlta ara liotwecn tlie paral- lela of 41' 71' and 60^ N. Int., and l)atwe«n the me- ridian of 67" 50' and 117° W. Ionic. Canada, lylnR diagonally along the frontier of the United Statea, fhnu northeaat to aouthweat, and poaaeaainx an inland navigation along ita enlira Imrder, in a anriea of lakea and rivera unrivaled for extent and grandour, boa, ea- pecially of late yean, been making anch rapid prog- reaa, that It promicea aonn to liecomc, in conjunction with Ita slater Uritish provinces, n jiower uf llrst-clasa importance, commercially and politically. Tho entire aurfiice of the present territory of Canada, exclualvo of ita great waters, haa been e'atimatcd at 106,000,000 •cfca, or between two and three tiniea the size of Cireat Britain and Ireland. This country, formerly divided into two provinces known aa I'ppor and I^wer Cana- da, was in 1N41, by an act of the Imperial Parliament, conatituted one province, with one i.«glslature. Al- though now united, however, for legislative and other purposes, tha country will most probably continue to be viewed and spoken of under its formerly recognized diviaiona of Uppvr and Ixiwer Canada. Canada may he said to comprise one vast valley, throagh which the great Kiver Ht. I^wrence takes its course, issuing fhim Ijuke .Su|ierior and flowing suo- ecssivi-ly through Lakes Huron, Erie, and Ontario, until it fulls into the ocean after a course of 2000 miles. This immensa valley is on each side encompassed by different mountain ranges, sometimes nearly approach- ing the water, and at other times receding into the in- terior, and thus forming extensive plains, for the most part alluvial, and suitable *or nearly every dcacriptlon of produce. The high tuhlc-land along the northern boundary of this valley acpnrates the streams which take their rise within it and flow Into its basin ttmn those that take their rise In the almost unknown ter- ritory beyond, and which fall into Hudson'a Bay. The high land along the aoalhern lioandary of the valley •aparalea the streams whlub flow northward Into Ita liasin ttvm Ihoaa llwt have ihvir course aouthward to- ward the Atlantic anil Mlsalsilppl. Comnieiu'lng at tin northern ahura of tha Ht. I^wranoa, toward tha niuuik uf that river, whara Iha width Is 00 mllaa, wo lliid one uf tha walla of thia vast valley which eunalU tiiica Canada riaing bolilly In niountainons form, ch)Sa to tha river, and continuing llius to fonn its ruggnl liank fur upward of lOii nillca. One of tha moat ra- niarkublo of the heighia of this noriham bank la Cu|'« Toumieut, overhanging the very brink of the river, and aomawliut preparing t lie voyagar for tha still bold- er and mora magnlUcent grandeur of Cape Diamond, the (ilbraltar of Aniarlca, which rises to a height uf 400 foet, and la crowned by the illudel of (juebac. The city of (Jueliec, hero clinging around the rocky steepa of ('a|>e Diamond, and overlooking ona of the moat magnltlccnt harlMira In Iha world, ji situate on llie northern liaiik of Iha Ht. Lawrence, and about 400 miles fhiin the mouth of that river, Tba view fh>m the citadel presents on every aldo a country with feat- ures of peculiar and striking grandeur. Immediately opimslte Quelieo the 81. Lawrence contracts to about half n mile In width, with bold rocky banks on ailhnr side. The northern or (.'ape Diamond aide, lieing much tho bolder uf tha two, commands a view of the wide stretch of tallo-lund extending lieyond the southern liank, the vaat plaina presenting for leaguea upon leagues their dark muaaes of forest, with houses and cultivated llclds inlers|iersod, until the distant mount- iiliu of tho >Stttl«a of Maine and Vermont bound tho view. The northern shore presents a wilder and more rugged nxpect, Krnm the heights of Cape Diamond the ii|iectator surveys bidd rangca of hills fringin)( llio nortiiorn hurixon, and furroing the liuundarisa uf almost unexplored territories beyond. About HO miles below Quebec Is Cape Tourment, to which, in our upward progreaa, we had traced the rocky nortliem bank of tha river. Here tha ridge, taking a direction weat-southwest, terminatea on the River Ottawa, about 120 miles above its eonfluenca with tho hit. Lawrence, thus extending westward from ('a|i« Tounnent along the course of the Ht. Lawrence aliout 800 miles. The tract uf country lying between this ridge and the Ht. I^jiwrenco, which may Iw esti- mated at trom ID to SOnillis in breadth, ia beautiftilly picturesque, well watered, level, and fertile. Thia portion of Canada, stretching along tha northern ahnre of the river, fruni below Queliec upward to Montreal, a.4liatance of about 200 miles, and thence along the lianka of the beautiful Ottawa, may be considered, es- pecially toward its upper and western extremity, one of tho choiceat parts of the country. Tho territory lying beyond this ridge is intersected l>y another and higher range of mountains, which nins into the interior in » northwest direction, at the dis- tance of almut 200 miles (Vnm the uther, and forms the water-shed between the tribntury streams of the St. Lawrence and those that full Into Hudson'a Bay. This territory may be said to be only one great wilderness uf forest, whose sulitudea are aa yet unexplored, and only occasionally tracked by wandering huntera. Glancing at the south shore of the St. Lawrence, a ridge commences nearly 100 miles below Quebec, which, passing upward In a southwest direction, o|>- poslte that city, at • distance of 80 miles from the river, crosses the boundary line between Canada and tba United States, and Anally slopes down to the lilvor Hudson. Beyond this ridge, at about the distance of 50 miles, is anotlier and a higher one, which commence* at ('ape Kozitsrc, the bold headland at the mouth of I the St. Lawrence, and, nnining for about 400 miles In I a direction nearly parallel with the river and with the ; other chain, terminates upon tho eaatem branch of the I River Connecticut. Thia forms tho dividing ridge be- I twecn the tributary streoma of tha St. I()la, aoma of whiah ara iindar aultlvatlon, aaiiorUII)- alnnx (he aoaat, whar* Iha InhaMUnia art prlnelpally daptnilant on tha flaharlaa, Tha rountrr fur 100 nillca ImIuw Qiiabaa, and aslamllng la tha HIvar (Ihaudlira, a faw mllaa alwva thai alli', liaa mu«h of (ha brukan and billy oharaaMr whUb It baa farthar down (bo rivor, but with aatanrfva Iraala af axMllant land. Thla piir- tlld«ralda portion of tha land cultlvatad. Tha country alwva (^iialxif, alimit tha aouth aide of tlio Nt. Lawrama, to tli« Wnt 4A" of N. lat. (which la tha ■outharn lioiimUry nf i^twar Oannda), may lia charac- tnrlud aa una axtaiialva and fartlla plain, In parta auraiiiiMy iirokan and iindiiUllnK. Much of It la cov- arad with impliloiia and urna|Niroua tattlamenta. Ai It tiaa ronllKUoui lo Ihii l7nltaat»aan the lower and upper provlni'aa, Uclnx aliout IMO mitea above Quo. bao, and QualMO liaInK Itaelf almnt 400 milea up the rivar, Montraal U thiia iltiiatad nearly 000 mllta in the Interior of Uanada, Statimrnt laHiamNA Tna diHiirra caoti rna I'liiTiin DTlkTaa TO, AMII Tlia iMfONTa INtft TIIR I NITKIi Htatib r«uM,t'*a*luaNlinmiaaMNlT«iin t'oaanaainNa in Noaxil AHaain*, va(/Man $i,^b•i,IH»^ mak> lii|( a loUl fbr publls work* of |i'J8,4O0.U07. rika Indlreet debt of the Province appeara to lie i ., Hallwajr* t**.fM|<)M ' i Muatalpal loan fund •.OBT.TH ' < ■uaditaa I,ldv,aa4 *^ Of the riiilwsy debt, the advance to the Great Weat< am Railroad (#1,810,500) can alone be regarded ai iia> cure, leaving unaacurtd $17,484,608, for which the Provlnca may hava ultlmal«ly to provide — meantime advancing tha intereat. The remaining portion of the Indirect Provincial dobt haa mainly arlten from loana contracted by munlclpalltlai under the ('onaolldalad' Municipal I^an Fund Act. The amount nn Blat De- cember, IHftH, waa : Upper Canada, •7,'20l,T0'i I Lower Canada, $1,708,000. AaaraAoi or thb Drbt or via raoviaoa or Oanaiia oa AIM'nUNT or I'lnvlNOIAL WoiKB (RXOLVaiVB Or LoAMa), vaoH iml TO ISM. Ittlaeaaty. iMTrr.TTTTT INM I»4» IHAO Ilftl IRBJ IM» |l«4.. I8I» ISM lani IMS Vm> M^IHf (l,ltM,nit7 lliJii«,ni« T,4n4,nal l»,i4n,M9 IA,«M,l4t «4,n«fl,^M) ift,a)i«(i*,I W,iiW,i)4? l»,fiM,lia tM,3«9,4S' )|),tn,V(»> !ll,IIOI,7'i7 Ti)T,l 6t,tWJi6i,»« a,i>iu Imponi Into 1MI I'ull i (l,llll,»S T,NW,7IS R,'iST,n«l 11,310,421 2!l,l/4,2!!0 l^ST,'/«n 10,TII,Nia »,SII*i486 fH,(l<6,l>94 X.WI.OtB H,8ST,ST8 S,t41,«64 T,4Sfi,lW H,I3T,484 Tha dirtct puUls debt of Canada In 1N68 wat |24,4SO,07ft| which baa baan created nlmoat wlioily for (ha great oanat* and othtr worka af national Improve- ment, Tha axpandltur* upon thew worka Is shown by tba atatemanl of aaaela and llabllitlat of the Prov- inta, OB Slit L>a0T Roaila and hrMgea l,*lo,l6T NUaella«e«ui,, „,,„,, „,,„;, 1,8M,B4n T«tal,,,,„„ $il,itS,U24 aiarilnf ntb«nlur*fl la Eoiiua. l|i';iiie,H47 I2,M>I,I«I 1V,MI,I01 1V,7M,(Mfl 14,8411,7110 14,»'2«,N'JT I^0SS,I4T 1I»,II«0,«IM 14,04a,TM 14,SM,T44 l«,itsT,Mil t!i,1lt4,flH'i <,44«,20 D,57l>,«M 8,BM4,fi07 B,8m,«4a »,8sn,Tll8 «,786,iwa 18,TS6,»M_|_?,t8a,B«9 Total. 1ft,0(l7,'.'- . 15,4118,4 l«,S4«,(tM 1S04I,874 17,807,847 18,M4,77B 18,480. lit I7,4IN7«7 17,S4'.',548 l8,RI0,'iU 81,4T0,tM Tha ralna of the goods enumerated In the Reciproc- ity Treaty — being the growth and produce of the United States, and Imported Into Canada during tha years 1867 and 1868— waa as follows: 1887 »S,(I4J,n44 IBOS _M!>4s«i» L/rcreaae l|J,u;T,4W CoMrABAtiTi f>TAT«a««T or Tm nn RaTBMua Ann Rx< raNuiTOBi or tiic CoxaoiiDATiD Fcmd or Canada voa TUB Ybabb 18&( and 1867. Ouatoma Exclae Territorial Bank Impoata Bavanua from publlo worka MllltIa flnea, ato Ftnee and forfalliirea, lncludln() aeixaree / Caaoal revenue Uwfaenind. 12Vlcc.68&t4.. Oancrai I'eat.o(llce $4,1 in,*!! 88, 1 '.".I 102,886 88,570 zo7,oai 45 8II,«09 27,CIS0 Total. BwiaDiTvaa. Intereat on public I'jbt CIvtl government Admlnlatratlon of Justice Provlnolal penitentiary l.eglalatlon Kdncalinn Hoapltala and eharitiee Oeoiofleal aurvajr Mllltta and enrolled force I.lght-houias and coaat aervioe . . . KmlaratloD PansTona Public inatltiitlona Ocean and river aleam navlaatlon. IMllee Mlaeellaoeona printlnf Fublle Worka and bulTdtnga Indian annultlea gink log Aind Agrieiiiture Romoval of seat of government, . . Mlaeellaneoua Poat-offloe eervleea
    83,278 11,807 198,180 8^4■i0 S01,rioo 00,,614 11,874,871 2i;0,169 2,728,846 12,401,904 $417,812 l-iO,74S 12,067,848 176,2tl7 2,180,611 1,746,21* $317,406 846 21,098 9,'929 343,112 »t2,608 i,'3U 2,008 $4,361,300 460,636 4,61l,::86 109,211 644,070 10,'.68,2-20 $309,&;3 1S,!84 374,691 4,600 4V,012 67,447 $l,ii4/,7g4 118,181 2,631,864 14,609 At 16 p«r oent At 6 nar cent At S|f jflr wut. FiMgooda Ttolid $39,430,6:8 $U,1»tf,026 $761,888 $2s210 $3,926,061 COMrABATITB STATBJnHT BBOWIHS TDK OBOSS VaLVII AHD DOTIH Or AbTICLICS Or BBITIC 11 AHD rOBBIQH MMOUAMDIBB BMTBBVn rOB C'OMBVMPTION IM llAMAUA DDBIMO TUB YRABB 1888, 1886, AND 1S6T. IIM. lUI. 1811. VnllK. Unly. Viili». Duly. Vulna. 1 Duty. $6,029,103 17,22i'),'2g4 2,.'>81,1.S6 10,355,636 «l,30il,46U 2,162,635 63,779 $7,543,640 $l,6il5,',ll0 200,800 1 K.t.97J $'),6ne,2'8 610,014 17,874,871 3,ii|'.ui06 1?,407,904 $l,a4?,7S4 118,131 2,081,864 82,180 AlSOmrcent At Vik and 16 per cent 90,90.>,e32 2,876,639 11,991,766 1,843,642 7^467 At 5 and 24 iwr cant Frae goods Total $3ii,0j6,l6^ $3,&^6,78J $43,684,387 »4,f)0S,8S2 $39,431 1,693 $3,9';6,oei GABRYr^O TRADE AND IxAVIOATION OF THE PROVINCIAL CANALS OF CANADA. , .., . SvHMAmT Statbmkict or tiii ItUBiNBHB or Tua Wkllakd, Bt. LAWBKNfiBf Chamolt, ani> nvauNOTON Canals^ Pt. Oitb'b AMD 8t. Ann'b Looks, bhowinu tue total Quantity ok baoii DKiiOKimoM or I'aorxBxv pasai^io Tunouaii ami> ok THB aAHB, AHD TI» AMOUNT Or TOLLB COLLBUTBD DUBINU THE VeaB ISM. AlticlM. Wallud Cnnal. St. Liiwr«ti«« Cuiil. Chftmbly Canal andSI.Oiir'iLock. Burllnsloa Bay Canal. 81. Ami Lock. Tom. I Tollt. Tom. I Tolli. Tom. I Toll!. Ton.. Tolln. TOHI. Tolli. Veusli of all khida l,148,t:)4 17,23i 8011,987 247 ^49^ 389,834 1,109 $.'3,077 028 82,719 62 1,011 120,661 414 690,031 31,962 S27,843 1,587 3,634 120,8*6 2,647 $7,503 2,07S 12,100 T48 82,861 818 16^,064 2,423 8!',759 44 227 18,117 1,227 «l77e 42 6966 2 23 1T6S 92 14.',410 46 1S3 17,080 13 $I12S iic3 7 71 4047 10 170,956 11,614 133,381 285 946 2,185 101 $2211 16 1611 14 4i ins t1 lYodiieo of the forent Purm Btoek Vegetable food Other BffrtcuUurel products. Statbubiit Bnowmo tob Numbbb, National CnAr.Aona, and ToNHAor. (coHPurxn ritoM aoobcoatb Ndhkeb or TBirg MADB DDBINO TUB SB.\aOH Or NaTIOATIOH) Of VBSBBI4I WHICH PASBEU ON AND TllBOVUil TUB NVxi.LANII, ST. i.AWRXNCK. VUABULT, AHD IIUBLINOTON IIaT C'ANALB, ST. ODB'B AND 8T. AHN'b I.O0K8, DITBINO TUB YBAB 1867, AHD Till! AUODNT or Tolls oollbotbd tdebbon. . i,-. W'.i -v-^ From C-anadlaD to Canadian Porta. Pn>m Canadian tu Amarican Porta. to Canadian Pom. Prom Aniariean to American PorU. Total. Amount ofToll. on Vtiaala. No. Tom. No. Ton*. No. Ton.. No. ; Tom. No. Ton.. «AH«»IAII tMaUlM AHD It^AMBM. Wellaiid 1,639 6,967 639 349 2,611 224,954 616,369 81,703 76,400 163,101 624 273 618 137 284 01,426 24,18:1 44,246 12,720 21,284 TSl 2S6 624 135 102,575 24,286 48,279 41,340 3,044 7,5i8 1,881 621 2,796 418,984 664,814 121,228 138,469 174,445 $7,5: .■< 7,'.8i 1,331 1,024 2,580 Chambljrand StOur'a Lock . 8t Ann'aLock Total Canadian venela AHaaicaa vaaaau AMD aTlAMlaa. Wetland 12,105 l,lU2,)il7 1030 103,8:B 1826 216,480 1^866 1,612,970 $19,414 183 3 8 19,442 120 221 600 169 363 71 27 02,361 13,301 18,229 S,941 1,266 617 101 373 '« S4,94> ll,(>8ii 18,056 i,266 1786 14 6 622,716 €8,1 331 8,196 347 750 7; 64 720,460 26,187 36,836 8,941 2,610 $16,082 811 441 104 311 gt. Lawrence Chambly and St. Our'a Lock. St. Ann's Lock Total American vessels Total Canadian and Atner'n , 194 11,783 1239 134,077 1178 125,338 1806 623,726 1 4,417 MI-.',II24 1 $10,973 12,2i(0 l,122,400' 3176 1 327,060 301)3 341,818 1800 623,726 |ill,28a 2,316,894 1 $30,387 Serenl thriving towns are groiving up rapidlj: along the shores of Lake Ontario, the chief of which are, Kingston, at the foot of the lake ; Toronto, 80 miles fram the head ; and Hamilton, at the extreme bead. Toronto, which is very finely situated, spreading over ■ wide and gently rising platenu, and In a protected part of the lake shore, is the largest city of Upper Canada. The quantity of tobacco produced In Canada In 1852 amounted to 1,253,128 pounds; of this 7G4,47(i pounds were the produce of Upper Canada. The pro 14 s 4; •i los 1 It CAN «47 CAN one-third, and the importi in the Mme retle; while at Toronto the exports liave nearly doubled, and the im- porta have increased twenty per cent, between the yeara 18A3 and 1866. The exports and imports of the leading towns for the yean 1868, 1864, and 1866 are as follows: IHPOaTAVIOM. 1 lUI. iat4. i;i,764,320 8,816,062 1,B62,7U6 lau. <^eb«! Montrrjil Toronto i;i,14l,S.lS 3,881,540 i,iun,(jsu jC78«,n(16 8,ort and ex- port trade with Montreal direct. At the same t!,>d9 at Toronto via New York, in lieu of Quebec. The ex- port trade of the latter is mainly products of the forest, groin, etc. Exports or Canada roa Tin Ykab 1855. Produce of the forest £2,856,265 Produce of the mines 27,880 Produce of the bc4 66,000 Value of sliips built 620.000 VegcUble food 1,W6.0I14 Animals und their produce 842,081 Manufactures, produce, etc 525,006 Total «i,0ao,325 The reduced business of Queliec is farther shown in the comparative number of arrivals and tonnage at that port far the tirst ten months of 1864 and 1866. Animals of all kinds. Freah, smoked, and salted meats. Cotton-wool. Seeds and vegetables. Undrled ftults. Dried fruits. Flih of all kinds. Products of flsh, and of all oth- er creatures living In the water. Poidtry. HIdeii, fUrs, sklna, or tails, un- dressed. Stone or marble In Its crude or unwrought state. SIttte. Butter. - . ^ , , ChecBo. ,., , , Tallow. Urd. Horns. AnIvBli. VMseli. Tom. 18W (to l)ct. 22) 1S6B " 1276 6(16 56:),631 841,1101 The value of exports from the United States to Canada for the liscal year 18&2'-'6Swas(i7,820,000, ex- ceeding those to any c-ountry, except Urcat Britain, France, and the Hanse Towns. Since then the trade with Canada has been increasing rapidly, and nssum- ing each year n greater importance to us. Reciprocitti Trtaly betuieen the United Statei and (Ireal BrilaiH. — This treaty was concluded and signed by the respective ministers of the two governments on the 6th of June, 1854. The following is a tynopHa of it : Art, 1. It is agreed that United states fishermen shall have the privilege of taking tisli on the sea^coasls and shores, in tlie bays, harbors, and creeks of Canada, Now Brunswick, Nova bcotia. Prince E«lward's Island, and the adjacent islands, without being restricted to any distance from the shoro; with permission to land on these coasts and islands for the purpose of drying their nets and curing their tish, provided they do not inter- fere with any prior right of British fishermen. It is understooly proved that they amount to more than il260,(K)0 fur about 400 milet of inland navigation, which it 4626 per mile, the tquai* surfooe of which mile does not exceed two acres of ground ; a proHt so amazing, that it is no wonder other nationt ahould imitate what has been found so advaiV' tageottt. The canals of Holland are generally 60 feet wide and 6 deep, and nre carefully kept clean ; the mud, as manure, is very profitable. The canals being gen> erally level, but few locks are required. From Rotter- dam to Delft, the Hague, and Leyden, the canal it quite level, but is sometimes aiTected by strong winds. For the most part, the canals are elevated above the fields or the country, to enable them to carry off the water, which in winter inundatat the land. To drain the water (h>m Delftland, a pnn'ince not more than 60 miles long, they employ 200 wind-mills in spring- time to raise it into tlie canals. All the canals of Hol- land are bordered with dnms or banks of immensa thickness, and on these depends the security of th* country from inundation ; of course, it is of great mo- ment to keep them in the best repair; to effect which there is a kind of militia, and in every village is a magazine of proper stores, and men whose business it it to convey stones and rubbish in carts to any dam- aged place. When a certain bell rings, or the waters are at a fixed height, every man repairs to his post. To every house or family there ia assigned a certain part of the l>ank, in the repMr of which they are to as- sist. When a breach is apprehended, they cuver tha banks all over with cloth and stones," Canal from A mtltrdam to Nii'vdiip, near the Htlder.—r The object of this canal, which is the greatest work of its kind in Holland, and probably in the world, is to afford a safe and easy passage for large vessels IVom Amster- dam to the German Ocean. This city has 40 feet of wa- ter in the road in front of its port ; but the pampas or bar at the junction of the Y with the Zuyder Zee, 7 miles be- low, has only a depth of 10 feet ; and hence all ships of any considerable burden entering or leaving the port must unload and load part of their cargoes without the bar. As the Zuyder Zee is every where full of shallows, all ordinary means of improving the access to Amster- dam were necessarily ineffectual; and the resolution was, therefore, at length adopted of cutting a canal from the city to the Helder, the most northern point of the province of Holland, The distance between these ex- treme points is 41 English miles, but the length of the canal is aliout 50}. The breadth at the surface of the wa- ter i8l24i English feet (120 Khineland feet); the breadth at bottom, 36 feet ; the depth, 20 feet 9 inches. Like the Dutch canals generally, its level is that of the highest tides, and it receives its supply of water fyom the sea> The only locks it requires are two tide-locks at the ex- tremities; but there are^ besides, two sluices, with flood-gates in the intermediate space. It is crossed by about 18 draw-bridges. The locks and sluices ore double— that is, thire are two in the breadth of the ca- nal ; and their construction and workmanship are said to be excellent They are built of brick, for economy ; but bands of limestone are interposed at intervals, and these project about an inch beyond the brick to protect it from abrasion by tha sides of vessels. There it • broad towing-path on each side, and the canal is wide enough to admit of two frigates pasting. The Una which tlie canal follows may be easily traced on a map of IlolUnd. From the Y, at Amsterdam, it proceeds north to Purmerend; thence west to Alkmaar l,akeS again north by Alkmaar to a point within 2 miles of the coast, near Petten ; whence it runs nearly parallel to the coast, till it joins tha tea a little to the eaxt of the Helder, at the flna harbor of Kiewdiep, formed within the last 30 years. At the latter place there is a pow-* en'ul steam-engine for supplying the canal with water during neap-tides, and other purposes. The time spent in towing vesxels ft-om Niewdiep to Amsterdam is 18 hours. The Helder is the only spot on the shores of Holland that has deep water; and it owes this advant* aga to its b«ing oppotite to the Texel, which by contraat- C- S41> OAir on a map proccedt uir I^k«i mileii of parallel to ,»t of the ed within !■ a pow- ith water inie xpent dam is 18 Bhore* of ■ advant* contTa«t- Ing the communication lietwieK the German Ocean and the Zuyder Zee to a breadth of about a mile, produce! a current which scoun and deepeni tiie channel. Im- mediately oppoaite tho Heldar thfere are 100 feet water at high Udea, and at the Bhallowest part of the bar to the weatward there are '11 feet. In the same way, the artillcial mound which runs into the Y opposite Am> (terdain, by contracting the water>way to about lUUU feet, keeps a depth of 4U feet in the port (at high water), while above and iwlww there are only 10 or 18. Tlie canal was begun in 1819, and linished in 18S6. The cost was estimated at 10,000,000 or 12,000,000 florins, or about £l,0i>O,00U sterling. If we compute the magni- tude of tliis canal by the cubic contents of its bed, it is the greatest, we believe, in the world, unless some of the Chinese canals be exceptions. The volume of wa- ter Which it contains, or the pritme tie nmplumge, is twice as great as that of the New York and Erie Canal, or the canal of Languedoc, and two and a half times as great a* that of the artilicial part of the Caledonian Cojiol. In consequence, however, of the facility with which the Dutch canal was dug, and of the evenness of the ground through which it passes, the difficulties with which the engineer had to contend in making it were trifling compared to those which had to be over- come in constructing the canals now mentioned. We have not learned what returns this canal yields ; most probably it is not, at least in a direct point of view, a profltable concern. Even in Holland, notwithstanding the lowness of interest, it would require tolls to tho •mount of jC40,000 a year to cover interest and ex- penses; and so large a sum can hardly, we should think, be raised by the verj' moderate tolls laid on the ships passing through it. — iSee Amsteriiam. This, however, is not the only consideration to be attended to in estimating the value of a work of this sort. Its influence in promoting the trade of Amsterdam, and, indeed, of Holland, may far more than compensate for its cost. It is evident, too, that the imposition of op- pressive tolls would have etfectually counteractcject for which the canal was constructed. JJanish Canah, — The Holstein Canal, in Denmark, is of very considerable importance. It joins the Itiver Eyder with Kiel Bay, on the northeast coast of Hol- stein, forming a navigable communication lietween the North Sea, a little to the north of Heligoland, and the Baltic ; enabling vessels to pass from the one to the other by a short cut of about lOO miles, instead of the lengthened and difiioult voyage round Jutland, and through the Cattegat and the Sound. The Eyder is navigable for vessels not drawing more than D feet of water, from Tonningen, near its nviuth, to Kendsburg, where it is joined by the canal, which communicates with the Baltic at Holtenau, about 8 miles north of Kiel. The canal is about 26 English miles in length, including about 6 miles uf what is principally river navigation. Tho excavated portion is 96 feet wide at top, 51 feel 6 inches at bottom, and 9 feet 6 inches deep (Englifih measure). Its highest elevation above the level of the soa is 24 feet 4 inches ; to which height vessels are raised and let down by G locks or sluices. It is navigable by vessels of 120 tons burden, or more, provided they are constructed in that view. The to- tal cost of the canal was about je60O,O0O, It was open- ed in 1785, and has so far realized the views of its pro- jectors, aa lo enable coasting vessels from the Danish islands in the Baltic and the east coast of Holstein, •Jutland, etc., to proceed to Hamburg, Holland, En- gland, etc., in less time, and with much less risk, than, in the ordinary course of navigation, they could have cleared the point of the 8kaw ; and conversely with aliipa from the west. The smaller class of foreign ves- sels, particularly those under the Dutch and Hanse- atic flags, navigating the Baltic and North Seas, have largely availed themselves of the facilities afforded by this canal. About 8000 vessels pas* annually through the canal. Thti It a sufficient evMenee of Its utlltty. It would, however, lie much mora frequented, were it not for the diflicult navigation of the Eydor jfrom the sea to Rendsbnrg. The dues are moderate. — CoxE'a Travelt m tlw JVoilh of Kurvpe, 6th edition, vol. v. p. 289, where there is a plan of tho canal ; Cattkau, To' bUau da ktaU JJaHuii, tome ii. p. 8UO-3U4; and pri- vate information. Sieedish CanaU.—The formation of an internal navi- gation connecting the Cattegat and the Baltic lus long engaged the attention, and occupied the eflbrts, of the people and government of Sweden. Various motive! conspired to make them embark in this arduous un- dertaking. The Sound and other channels to the Bal- tic iteing commanded by the Danes, they were able, when at war with the Swedes, greatly to annoy the latter, by cutting off all communication by sea be- tween the eastern and western provinces of the klngw doro. And hence, in the view, partly of obviating i this annoyance, and partly of facilitating the convey. ' anee of iron, timber, and nther bulky products, from I the interior to the coast, it was determined to attempt i forming an internal navigation, by means of the Kiver I tiotha, and the I^kos Wener, Wetter, etc., from 6ot- ; tenburg to .Soderko-ping, on the Baltic. The tirst and most difficult part of this enterprise was the perfecting of the communication from Gottenburg to the Lake Wener. The Gotha, which flows from the latter to the former, is navigable, through by far the greater part of its course, for vessels of considerable burden ; but, besides others less difficult to overcome, the navigation at the point called TriiUhoitta is interrupted by a series of cataracts about 112 feet in height. Owing to the rapidity of the river, the stubborn red granite rocka over which it flows, and the perpendicular banks by which it is bounded, the attempt to cut a lateral canal, and still more to render it directly navigable, present- ed the most formidable obstacles. But undismayed by these, on which it is, indeed, most probable he had not suflicicntly reflected, Polhem, a native engineer, un- dertook, about the middle of last century, the Hercu- lean task of constructing locks in the channel of the river, and rendering it navigable. Whether, however, it were owing to the ull but insuperable olistaclcs opposed to such a plan, to tho defective execution, or deflcient strength of the works, they were wholly swept away, after lieing considerably advanced, and after vast sums had been expended u])on them. From this period, down to 1798, the undertaking was abandoned ; but in that year the plan was proposed, which should have liecn adopted at first, of cutting a lateral canal through the solid rock, aliout H mile from the river. This new enterprise was begun under the auspices of a com- pany incorporated for the purpose in 1794, and wa! successfully completed in 1800. The canal is about 3 miles in length, and has about 6^ feet water.— -Cat. TKAii, Tableau de la Merlialtiijiie, tome ii. II. 77; OliDV, in his Kantpean Cimmeree, p. 806, and Balbi, Abrti/i de la Geoffraphie, p. 886, say that the depth of water is 10 feet. It has 8 sluices, and admits vessels of above 100 tons. In one part it is cut through the solid rock to the depth of 72 feet. The expense was a good deal less tlian might have lioen expected, being only about i:80,000. The Ijike Wener, the navigation of which was thus opened with Gottenburg, is very large, deep, and encircled by sonic of the richest of the Swedish provinces, which now possess the inestimable advant- age of a convcfilent and ready outlet for thoir pro lar ; and, since 1819, a canal has keen conslruuted from the latter to the Baltic at BOdcrtelge. The uanal of StKcmsholm, so called from its lusslng near the castle of that name, has effected a navlRulile communication between the province of Ualecarlia and 1h« I^ka Mae- lar, etc. — For further details, see, liesldes the aulhorl- ties already referred to, Coxk'h TrmrU in lh» Sortk of EnnjK, 5th ed. vol. iv. p. 26ft-2*l6, and vol. v, |i, H-66; Thomson's Travtli m Hiredrn, p. 85, etc. Frmch Canalt. — The first canal executed In France was that of Briare, 84^ English miles in length, Intend- ed to form a communication l)etween the Heine and the Loire. It was commenced in lUOA, iu thu reign of Henry IV., and was completed in lA4i, under Ills sue. cesser, Louis XIII. The canal ot Orleans, whi<^li joins the above, was commenced in 1076. But the most stupendous undertaking of this sort that has been exe- cuted in France, or indeed on the continent. Is the ca- nal of Langurdoc. It was projected under Francis L ; but was begun and completed in the reign of ].ouls XIV. It reaches flrom Narbonne to Toulouse j and was intended to form a safe and speedy means of coni- nuuication between tlie Atlantic Ocean and the Medi- terranean. It is 64 French leagues in length, and sne, liy Qple, Besanvon, and Mulhouse, to Straslmrg, wherti it joins the Khinc — a distance of al)out '200 English miles. From Dole to Vogeaucourt, near Montliillard, the canal is principally excavated in the l>ed of thu Doulw. It is not quite finished. The canal of Bur- gundy will, when completed, be about '242 kilometres, or 150 English miles, in length ; but at present it Is only navigable to the distance of about 00 kilometres, In addition to tlicse, a great many other canals have been finished, while several are in progress, and oth- ers projected. There is an excellent account of the French canals, in the llulvin de la Navigation lnl»' rietire de la t'mnce, by M. Uutens, In 2 vols, 4to, and to it we beg to refer the reader for further dotalts, lie will find, at the end of the second volume, a very lieau- tlAil map of the rivers and canals of France. The rail- roads now in the course of constmotlon tft France have, how< ver, checked the progress of canals. We may oli- serve, too, that the state of the law in France Is very nnfavorable to the undertaking and success of all great public works; and we are inclined to attribute the comparative fewness of canals in France, nnd the ru. cent period at which most of them have been construct- ed, to its influence. In that country, canals, docks, and Bucli like works, are mostly carried on at the nx- pMM and for behoof of government, under the control of Hs «f(ntl. No Mope has been given to the enterprise of Individuals or associations, llefnre either a road or a canal oan be eonstniotcd, plans and estimates must be mads out and laid liefore the Minister of the Inte- rior, by whom they are referred to the prefect of the department, and (hen to the Hureau det Ponti et de$ Vhauuti I and supposing the project to be approved by these, and the other functionaries consulted with re- spect to it, the work must after ail be carried on under the superintendence of some public officer. In conse- quence of this preposterous system, very few works of this description have l>een undertsken as private spec- ulations. And while not a few of those begun by gov- ernment remain unfinished and comparatively useless, those that are completed have, as was to be Expected, rarely proved profitable. There are some good re- marks on this FUbJect In the useful work of M. Dnpin, on the hWou Cimmtrrialrt of (ireat Britain. I'ruuiim Cnnalt. — The Prussian states are traversed liy the great navlgaldo rivers the Elbe, the Oder, and the Vistula; the first having its embouchure in the North Sea, and the others In the Baltic. The forma- tion of an Internal navigation, that should Join these great wrtlri'-wagi, excited the attention of government nt n distant period ; and this oliject has been success- Ailly Nccompllshed, partly by the aid of the secondary rivers falling into the alio^o, and partly l>y canals. In iOA'A the cannl of Muhlrose was nndertaken, unit- ing the Oder nnd the Spree ; the latter being u nnviga- ble river falling Into the Havel, also a navigable riv- er joining the Elbe near Havelburg. But the naviga- tion fl^om the Oder to the Elbe i)y this channel was dif- ficult, nnd liable to frequent interruption ; and to ob- viate these drferls, Frederick the Great constructed, toward tlio middle of Inst century, the Finnow Canal, stretching from the Oder, at Oderburg, to tlie Havel, near Lieiienwalde ; the communication is thence con- tinued by the latter and a c\ialn of lakes to I'laucn; from which point u canal has lieen opened. Joining the Kllie near Magdeburg. The Elbe being In this way connected with the Oder by a comparatively easy nav- igution, the latter has lieen united to the Vistula, part- ly l>y the Diver Netze, and partly by a canal joining that river to the llrahc, which falls into the Vistula near llroinlierg. A vast Inland navigation has thus lieeii completed, l)arks passing (Veely through the whole extent of the country from Hamburg to bantzic; af- fording the means of siilpiiing the products of the inte- rior, and of importing those of foreign countries, either by the NoHh Sea or the llultic, as may be found most udvantagemis.— CArrK.w, Tableau de la JUer Ballique, tome II. p. 11-18. Hunian (MiuiUi.—Vm inland navigation of Rnssia is of vast extent, and very considerable importance. By means partly of rivers, and partly of canals, St'. Peters- liurg Is connected with the Caspian Sea. Goods are conveyed from the Inttcr to the capital, a distance of 74114 miles, without reshlpment. Hnmrian C'antilt. — A grand canal, which was for a teiigtlienf-il period in progress In Bavaria, was com- pleted In 1840, and promises to become of great public utility, It extends from Uietfurth, on the AllmCihl, a liavlgalde affluent of the Danube, to Bamlierg, on the Mayn, a distance of 28^ German, or about 112 English miles. It Is on a lorge scale, and has cost aliove £\,(Ktn,mm, This magnificent undertaking, which car- ries an inland navigation through the centre of Europe, nnd raatUrs the project of Charlemagne for uniting the Black Sea with the German Ocean, is conducted by a joint-stock company, with the assistance of the Bava- rian gnvemment. But the navigation of the Mayn and the Dsnulie requires to bo considerably improved liefore (his grand channel of communication acquires nil the ImiMirtsnce which, most probably, it is des- tined tn obtain. A iitlriiin (!/mati. — The Austrian empire is traversed i in it* whole esttnt bf the Danube; but the advant- CAN titt CAN I was fnr a Iwafl com- ical pulilic Ikltmuhl, a Irp, on the ISEnglUh |(>8t above vhich car- |»f Europe, iiitin); the Icted by a Ithe Bava- Tlhe Mayn I improved acquires lit is dc6- |traver«ed advant- age! that might result to the foreign trade of the em- pire firom so great a command of river navigatiqn have been materially abridged by the Jealousy of the Turlu, who command the embouchure of the river, and by the difficulties that are in some places incident to its navigation. Two pretty extensive canals have been constructed in Hungary. That callud tho Uegu Ca- nal is 73 English miles in length : it stretches from Fascet tlirough the Bannat, by Temeswur to Bccslccrelt, whence vessels puss by the liega into tho Thciss, a lit- tle abovo its Junction with the Danube. Tho other Hungarian canal is called after tho Emperor Francis. It stretches from tho Danube by Zaml^or to the Theiss, which it Joins near Foldvar, being 6'i English miles in length ; its elevation, where highest, does not ox- cecd 27 feet. Besides tile alrave, the canal of Vienna establishes a communication between that city and Neustadt. It is said to be tho intention to continue this canal to Trieste ; but however desirable, wo doubt much whether this be prncticablo. A railroad has been made from Munchausen, on the Daunlxi, to Bud- weiss, on the Moldau, a navigable rivor that fulls into the Elbe, which promises to be a highly useful com- munication. — Bbiuht'8 Travels in Jlmigaiy, p. 246; Balhi, Abregide la tiiograithie, p. 216. Spanuh CVinab. — Nowhere are canals more neces- ■ary, both for the purposes of navigation and irriga- tioB, than in Spain ; but tho nature of tho soil, and tho poverty and ignorance of the government, as well as of the people, oppose formidable obstacles to their con- struction. During the reign of Charles II., a com- pany of Dutch contractors offered to render the Man- fanares navigable from Madrid to tho Tagus, and tho latter from that point to Lisbon, provided they were allowed to levy a duty for a certain number of yoars on the goods conveyed by this channel. Tho Council of Castile tooli this proposal into their serious consid- eration, and, after maturely weighing it, pronounced tlio singular decision, "That if it had pleased God that these two rivers should have l)oen navigable, he would not have wanted human assistance to have made them such ; but that, as he has not done it, it is plain he did not tliinli it proper that it should be done. To attempt it, therefore, would be to violate the decrees of his providence, and to mend tho imperfections which he designedly left in bis works!" — Clakke'-s IMtera on ike Spanuh Aation, p. 284. But such undertakings are no longer looked upon as sinful ; and many have been projected since the accession of the Bourbon dy- nasty, though few have been perfected. The canal of the Ebro, l>egun under the Emperor Charles V., is the most important of the Spanish canals ; but it is only partially completed, and during dry seasons it suffers from want of water. It runs parallel to the right bank of the Ebro, from Tudela, in Navarre, to below Sara- gossa ; tho intention being to carry it to Sastago, where it is to unite with the Ebro. Tlie canal of Castile is intended to lay open the country between the Douro and Keynoaa, and to facilitate the conveyance of grain fk'om tlie interior to Santandcr and Bilbao. It passes by Vallodolid, Palencia, and Aguilur del Campos ; a •mall part has been executed, and is now in operation. A company has also undertaken, what the Dutch con- tractors formerly offered, to render the Tagus naviga- ble from Aranjuez to Lisbon — the free navigation of the river having been stipulated at the Congress of Vienna. A project for deepening the Guadalquiver and some otjiers are also on foot. — (Jeographicul IHc. tionary, ii. 710. British C'inaU, — Owing partly to the rise of extensive manufactures and commerce in Great Britain, but more, perliaps, to the insular situation of the country, no part of which is very distant from the sea, or from a navigable river, no attempt was made in England to construct canals till a comparatively recent period. The efforts pf those who first began to improve the means of interual uuvigution were limited to attempts ; to deepen the beds of rivers, and to render them better I fitted for the conveyance of vessels. So early as 168S, a project was formed for rendering the Avon navigable ! from the Severn, near Tewkesbury, through the coun- j ties of Warwick, Worcester, and Gloucester, "that I the towns and country might be better supplied with I wood, iron, pit-coal, and other commodities." This : scheme was approved by the principal noliility and I lund-owners in tho adjoining counties ; but tho civil I war having broken out soon after, the project was abandoned, and docs not seem to have liecn revived. After the restoration, and during tho earlier part of last century, various acts were at different times ol>- tained for cheapening and improving rivor navigation. For the most part, however, these attempts were not very successful. The current of the rivers gradually changed tho form of their channels ; the dikes and otlier artificial constructions wcro upt to be destroyed by inundations ; alluvial sand bunks were formed be- low tho weirs; in summer the channels wore fre- quently too dry to admit of being navigated, whilo at other periods tho current was so strong as to render it quite impossible to ascend the river, which at all I times, indeed, was a laborious and expensive under- taking. These difficulties in tho way of rivor naviga- tion seem to have suggested tho expediency of aban- doning tho channels of most rivers, and of digging parallel to them artificial channels, in which tho water might be kept at the proper level by means of locks. Tho act passed by Parliament in 1765 for improving the navigation of Sankey Brook, on the Mersey, gave rise to a lateral canal of this description, about 11^ miles in length, which deserves to be mentioned as the earliest effort of the sort in England. But before this canal had been completed, tho celebrated Duke of Bridgewater, and his equally celebrated engineer, tho self-instructed James Brindley, had conceived a plan of Inland navigation inde|>endent altogether of natural channels, and intended to afford the greatest facilities to commerce, by carrying canals across rivers and through mountains, wherever it was practicable to construct them. The duke was proprietor of a lurga estate at Worsley, 7 miles from Manchester, in wliich wore some very rich coal-mines that had hitherto lieen in great measure useless, owing to the cent of carrying coal to market. Being desirous of turning his mines to some account, it occurred to his grace that his purpose would bo best accomplished by cut- ting a canal from Worsley to Manchester. Mr. Brind- ley, having been consulted, declared that the scheme was practicable; and an act having been obtained, the work was immediately commenced. " The prin- ciple," says Mr. Phillips, "laid down at the com- mencement of tills business reflects as much honor on the noble undertaker as it docs upon his engineer. It { was resolved that the canal should be perfect in its kind ; and that, in order to preserve the level of the I water, it should bo free from the usual obstruction of locks. But in accomplishing this end many difficul- I ties were deemed insurmountable. It was necessary i that the canal should be carried over rivers, and many j large and deep valleys, wliere it was evident that such stupendous mounds of earth must be raised as would : scarcely, it was thought by numl)ers, be completed by i the labor of ages ; and, above all, it was not known from what source so large a supply of water could be I drawn, even on this improved plan, as would supply the navigation. But Mr. Brindley, with a strength I of mind peculiar to himself, and being possessed of : the confidence of his great patron, contrived such ad- i miruble machines, and took such methods to facilitate '■ the progress of the work, that the world soon began : to wonder how it could be thought so difficult. I The success that attended the Duke of Bridgewater's canal stimulated public-spirited individuals in other districts ta undertake similar works. Mr. Brindley I had early formed the magnificent scheme of joining CAN >8t CAN the gntt porta of London, Liverpool, Briitolt'ind < Hull, l>y s lyBtem at internal navigation ; and though ' he died in 1779, at the early age of 66, he had the latis- faction to iee hi* grand project in a fair way of lieing realized. The Trent and Hertey, or, ai it hai lieen more coDinMmly termed, the Grand Trunk Canal, (HI ^ miles in length, wai begun in 1706, and completed in j 1777. A wuter communication between Hull and ' Liverpool was thui completed; and by meant of the j StaflTordshiro and Worccatemhiro Canal, which Joins the Grand Trunk near Haywood in the former, and ; the 8evcrn near Stourport in the latter, the same means | of communication was extended to Bristol. During the time that tiie Grand Trunk Canal was being made, { • cunni was undertaken from Liverpool to l^ceds, 180 miles in length ; another from Biriuingham to the ' Staffordshire and Worcestershire Canul, Joining it near Wolverhampton ; and one from liirminghum to Fazely, and thence to Coventry. By canals subse- quently undertaken, a communication was formed be- tween the Grand Trunk Canul and Oxford, and conse- quently with London, completing Brindley's magniti- cent scheme. In 1792 the Grand Junction Canul was begun, which runs in a pretty straight line from Brent- ford, on the Thames, a little almve the metropolis, to Itraunston, in Northamptonshire, where it unites with j the Oxford and other central canals. It is about 90 i miles in length. There is also a direct water commu- ' nicatlon, by means of the River Lea navigation, the I Cambridge Junction Canal, etc., between London and i the Wash. In addition to these, an immense number | uf other canals, some of them of great magnitude and importance, have lieen constructed in dift°cront parts { of the country ; so that a command of internal naviga- tion has been obtained, unparalleled in any European country, with the exception of Holland. j In Scotland, the great canal to Join the Forth and ; Clyde was begun in 1768, but it was suspended in 1777, and was not resumed till after the close of the Ameri- : can war. It was finally completed in 1790. Its total length, including the collateral cat* to Glasgow and the Monkland Canal, is 89i miles. Where highest, it is 160 feet above the level of the sea. It is on a liir- ; ger scale than any of the English canuls. Its medium ' width at the surface is 66, and at the Iwttom 27 feet. ; Originally it was about 8 feet 6 inches deep ; but with- in these few years its banks have lieen raised, so that ' the depth of water is now about 10 feet. It has in oil 89 locks. In completing this canal many serious difficultie* had to bo encountered. These, however, ^ were all successfully overcome ; and though unprofit- able for a while, it has for many years past yielded a handsome return to its proprietors, the dividend hav- ing latterly been abont 20 per ceift. on the original stock. Swift bfiats on the plan of those snlisequcnt- ly deacrilied were established on this canal in 1833. — Hit Clelanu's Statittict of (ilwgntp, p. 170, etc. The Union Canal Joins the Forth and Clyde Canal | near Falkirk, and stretches thence to Edinburgh, be- ; ing 31^ miles in length. It Is 40 feet wide at the top, \ 20 at the bottom, and 6 deep. It was completed in i 1822. But it appears to have been an extremely ill- ' advised undertaking ; so much so that its proprietors ! have sold it, at a heavy loss, to the Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway Company, who employ it in the con- ! veyance of coal and other heavy goods. A canal in- | tended to form a communication between Glasgow, | Paisley, and Ardroisan, was commenced in 1807 ; hnt j only that portion connecting Glasgow with Paisley I and ihe village of Johnstoun has hitherto been finish- \ ed. This part is about 12 miles long ; the canal being | 30 feet broad at top, 18 at liottom, and 4i deep. It i was here that the experiments were originally made i on quick traveling by canals, which are said to have j demonstrated that it was practicable to impel a pro|ier- | ly-constructed lioat, carrying pavaengers and gtwds, •long • oanal at the rata ^ 9 or 10 miles an hour, with- ont injury to the banks ! The Crinan Canal acroM the poninsultt of Kintyre, admitting vessels of 160 tout burden. Is miles in length, and 12 feet in depth. The Caledonian Canal is the greatest undertaking of the sort attempted in the empire. It stretches southwett and northeast across the Island firom a (Hiint near Iii> vernesa to another near Fort William. It is chiefljr formed by Loch Ness, Loch Olch, and lA>ch Lochy, The total length of the canal, Including the hikes, U 60i mile* ; but the excavated part is only ul'out 28 miles. At the summit it is 96^ feet above the level of the Western Ocean. It Is mostly constructed upon % grand scale, Iwing intended to be 20 Oeet deep, 60 feet wide at bottom, and 122 at top ; the locks are 20 feet deep, 172 long, and 40 broad | and had It been wholly executed as was originally Intended, fVigates of 88 guns, and merchant ships of 1000 tons burden, might have passed through it. It was opened in 1822, being executed entirely at the expense of government, from the designs and under the superintendence of Thoma* Telford, Esq. The entire cost amounted, exclusive of interest, on the 1st of May, 1868, to£l, 847,780. It would npiieur, however, to have been projected with* ont due consideration, and hus lieen a most unprofitable speculation. The revenue of the canal amounted, in 1862-'58, to only f 5889, whereas the expenditure dur. ing the same year amounted to £7420 ! But this is not all. Owing to a wish to lessen the expense, and to hasten the opening of the canal, parts of it were not excavated to their proper depth, while others were executed in a hurried and insufHcient manner. Hence the canal does not really admit vessels of above 260 or 800 tons burden ; and previously to steam-tugs being provided on the lakes, they were frequently delayed In making their passage across for a lengthened period. During 1887 and 1838 the works sustained considerable damage ; and the reader need not be surprised to hear that it was gravely debated whether it would not be lietter entirely to break up and abandon the canal I There was naturally, however, an extreme disinclina- tion to destroy a W3rk which, how inexpedient soever originally, has been executed at an enormous expense | and various schemes have been suggested for relieving the public from the expense of keeping it up without involving its destruction. Among others, it has been proposed to assign it to a Joint-stock company, on their agreeing to complete the works and keep them in n- pair ; and an act authorizing such transfer was passed in 1840. But hitherto it has not been found possible to dispose of the canal in this way ; and Parliament has since voted large sums for the partial repair of the works, which, though a good deal improved, will every now and then require firesh outlays. 8onie other ca> nals have been projecteil and completed in different parts of .Scotland. Of these the Monkland Canal, for the supply of Glasgow with coal, has been the most successAil. Irish Canalt. — Various canals have lieen undertaken in Ireland, of which the Grand Canal and the Royal Canal are the principal. The Grand Canal was be- gun in 1766, by a body of subscribers ; but they could not hayc completed the work without very large ad- vances from government. The canal commences at Dublin, and stretches in a westerly direction, inclining a little to the south, to the Shannon, with which it unites near Banngher, a distance of 86 statute miles, and thence on the west side of the river to Bullinasloe, 14 miles. But, exclosive of the main trunk, there ia a branch to Athy, where it Joins the Barrow, a distance of about 27 miles ; and there are branches to Pnrtar- lington, Moiint- tlnguislicd tiy tite spirit witli wliicli tlioy have under- talien, and tlie pareavcrance they have displayed in ex- ecuting, tlie most magnificent plans for improving and extending intarnal navigation. Tlie following is a de- scription of the principal canals in tlio United States : HAiNR.— Cumberland and Oxford Canal. Tliis nav- igation, partly natural and partly ardllcial, extends ■bout 64) miles from Portland, Maine, to Sobago Lalie. The head of the canal is at the end of Long Pood, which is 10 miles in length. Nkw Yuiik. — This State has the most extended and important system of canals, connecting the navigation of the Hudson lUver with that of the great Lalieg, and Lake Chainplain, Delaware, and Alleghany liivers, Cliamploin Canal is 63^ miles in length, 40 feet wide at the surface, 28 feet at the bottom, and i feet in depth, and connects Albany, on the Hudson Kivor, with While- hall on I>alvo Champlain. /mporlimt Connection of Nem York Cimalt. — The Lat- eral Canal, connecting the canals of New Yorli State with the head waters of the Alleghany Kiver, has Just been tininhud to its terminus at Olean, on that river, in Cattaraugus county. New York. From thenco it ex- tends to tlie Ucnesee Canal, on the Genesee lUver, in Alleghany county, New York, which runs north to Rochester, where it commands the trade of Lake Onla. rio, and, connecting with the Erie Canal, leads to ButTa' lo and Albany. The connection of Pittsburg and Roch' ester, by tliis route, depends on the navigation of the Alleghany Itiver. The whole distance to Olean, HO miles, is said to be navigable, and for 200 miles above Pittsburg it'is navigable for small steamboats. The consummation of this work will be of vital importance to the people of the Alleghany Valley, and i» large share of the rapidly increasing trade of that section wUI find its way to this city over the Pennsylvania Bail road. The distance from Pittsburg to Philadelphia is 863 miles, and from Olean to New^York, by the New York and Krie Railroad, is 396 miles. Delaware and Hudson Canal, built by a private com- pany. It is 33 miles in length, 32 feet wide at the sur- face, 20 feet at the bottom, and 4 feet deep. It con- nects the Hudson at Rondout with the Delaware River, and connects with the Lackawaxen Canal, in Pennsyl- vania. The principal trade of this canal is in coal, as it extends l)y its connections into the coal region of Pennsylvanio. Nkw Jeksky. — Morris Canal is 102 milca long, 32 feet wide at the surface, and 18 feet at the bottom, and 4 feet deep. It extends from Jursny City, on the Ilud- sun, to Euston, Pennsylvania, where it connects with the Lehigh Canal, Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania. — Schuylkill Canal or Navigation. It Is 108 miles in length, is 3C feet wide at the surface, 24 feet at the bottom, and 4 feet deep. It extends from Philadelphia to Reading, and from thence to Mount Carbon, where it has connections with the anthracite coal mines. The Pennsylvania Canal is formed of several divi- sions : ^t is to connect Columbia with Pittsburg, on the Ohio; but its middle division over the Alleghany Mnimtains, from Hullidaysburg, on the eastern side, to Johnstown, on the western side, is a division of railroad. Its total length, including 37 miles of railroad, is 316 uiilcs. The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, had it been com- pleted, would have been a great and useful work. It begins at the tide-water of the Potomac River, above Georgetown, in the District of Columbia, and is intend- ed to terminate at Pittsburg, in Pennsylvania, a dis- tance of 341^ miles. Its dimensions are nearly iden- tical witli tlioso of the new Erie Canal ; its breadth at the surface being from CO to 8U feet, 60 feet at the bot- tom, with A depth of water varying from to 7 feet, Several tnnnels occur in the line, wliich crosses tlie Al- leghany ridge. The cost of this work vas estimated at |3tl,m,00A, whM) mm ^# M NMtiM'rilN-d paHli- by in(il> viduals, and \im\f Ujf Urn iitliUlii m«tm Mid the States of Mary |«Hd »lt4 p¥m»yiv»llitt, This wmrl now term- inatus at UmUmfiiHit, MttfUui, utitl there is but • slight \mU»MUHf »< U» (n/¥f imtig t-ompleted. Ohw,--TM prt«*ll»»l fmti in this State is froH, PortsniOHth, tm (Im Um, Ut til«V«lMidi ol(Hm VaiUld Ma«>s, has been under (ha direciiuii nf Hm 'ffrntimn ihtmHMttii the past two years. Tli» l'» elf)**'* of f^mai^ tfaotigh infe- rior, magniiMd*', » mmi hm imtt tomed connecting tlia iiudsuH v/Mt I<«Im* Kti», This work is 869 miles ill length, (Im* fim mmiI M\ aUmn itiA entire line being mi fast, It w»» minmiif 'ill f««t wide at the surface, 28 fest at the Mttmt, MHil 4 hH ikep, Hut these di- mensions buJMg dmmU (fmit ilw f»tM)r increasing traf- tie and im|»«F(HH»« ut l\m I'mmi, i« be far too limited, an act w»s m^mi Ui ^nt^n iifufUUtti' tot Its enlarge- ment, Vnm this W't iiu Vttmi ii«s been increased, so as to Iw 70 fl>9t, HidM m i«*,(o the Slate of New York a«)4 Ihn P'h(w« fffhetniif, This work was llrst suggeslmd »« MfJy (tutfts **«f J«lfi, (>y a memorial from the Cjiy of ^«w \tifk h ih« lifgisktiiW. An artificial t.'«M#«l (rum Hm lt»i\fiim lo Luke tth had, in fact, been midif«J iflutdlis of Die tear ; "whereas the ch»lMI^) Ut fhc t!h*««J)P«(i« leads ifirect- ly Into a warmer tliw»»*, w ihw ♦cfscls may pass the whole winter, 6Hl(jwf eiily Ut shwtt delays."— /Ai'rf. The importanos of »d'li»jg ffM-llilies tut eommiinication with the weslfirn pttrts n( HfW t«*f1t ««« also «rged hr Governor CllMlon.in l7<'» «l)4 iMittf 0«««tal Schuy- ler; Surveyor gtffl^Fs) Km W(((, ill 18iUiff\», «(ep((M) Van Bcns- seiaer. Da Wi« Cli»|#H, I'«t«f Jl, Vmiff, atid others, CAN SS4 CAN M commiMliHwn for txploring tha ronta for inland ntvigdion ftrom tli* Hudaon to Lake* Ontario and Erio ; and $8000 appropriated for expenm of lurveya. A tbrougli canal was tlien conatderad ai tliB acma of iiuman •wlshea, m far ai communication witli the Far Wttt was concerned. Railroad) were not dreamed of tlian, nor, in fact, until tiro yean 1R20 and 1826. The conimiuluncra naid in 1812: "Viewing the ex- tent and firtUity of the roontry with which thii canai ii to open a communication, it ii not extravagant to lupposc that, when eettlcd, ita produce will equal tlie pretent export of the United Slates." (The foreign exports of that year amounted to the enormous sum of $88,000,000, and four years before were $108,000,000). And they add, " Will it appear tmprolxlile that twen- ty yean henco (1882) the canal should annually bring down 250,000 tons?" The prophecy of the commissioners was more than fullilied. In twenty years after the completion of the Erie Canal, there came to tide-water on that canal 1,107,000 tons, valned at mora than $46,000,000; and tha tolls amounted to two and a half millions of dollars. On the 26tli of October, 1825, eight yean and four months from the time of its commencement, thu Erie Canal was completed. The original profile of the Krie Canal, published In 1826, shows 83 locks, and a rise and fall equal to 087 feet. These were Anally reduced to 71 locks, and a rise and fall of 040 feet. In 1828, an act was passed to connect the Cayuga and Seneca Canal with Cayuga Ijike. In 1829 the construction of tha (Chenango Canal was authorize CiiAMn.AiN Canals, Y«an. Two 1821 1SS2 1823 1834 1826 1826 1827 18S0 1831 1882 1833 1834 1886 18S« MiIm. I Tolb. 04 94 116 160 260 883 863 SOS r>03 868 863 363 863 863 803 863 868 (6.244 23,nill 60,446 126,132 2(I4,M6 4»2,664 677,466 776,919 727,650 707,883 943,646 1,081,714 1,086,612 1,200,136 1,179,744 1,376,821 1,440,639 $12,297,929 fbamiilala fmal. Mlln. 24 40 61 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 Tolii. $1,886 3,626 26,966 46.214 73,616 64,636 83,341 107,767 87,171 8»,(IK8 102,886 110,191 132,639 11^211 116,181 I16,4i.'> Total Tclk. 96,244 24,888 64,072 163,100 atO,761 no, 280 762,003 860,260 836,407 796,064 1,032,600 1,194,610 1,196,804 1,422,6(16 1,204,966 1,4»1,«&2 1,686,()66 $1,290,(184 $18,604,018 A further enlargement of the Erie Canal, and of the Genesee Valley and Black River Canals, was au- thorized by the law of July 10, 1851. This Act, al- though declared unconstitutional, was subsequently owfinned.— 18«« Nbw York and Hooioii Hivbk. CAi>Ai.a i» Tim t'DiTsn ■t4T*»— 1VM, Miiim. Cumliar'd and Oxford gongo Klver Impr. . , . .Vns HttmptMr*. Bow Falls Ilookiet Falls Amoikeag Falls Hevell'a Falls MMdlesax VtrmmU, White River Falls . . . Hollow's Falls Wateniueeobf IUumc\«tetti. Middlesex Pawtuckel Blackstone Hampshire Montague Falls South lladley FalU . . AAotfs triant. Blaokatono CimntMnU, Enfield Falla Hat X'ofk, Kris Champlaln Jtincliuu. . Watenbid Junction . . Oswego Cayuga and Seneca . . t^rooked \jtka Chemung Chemung Feeder . . . Chenango Quneseu Vatloy l>anvi]lti llranch .... illnck Uiver Illack HIver Feeder . Delaware and Hudson Harlnem (not uaed) . ('n)ton Aqueduct. . . . Oneida \tw Jeraey. Delaware and Itarilan Morris Salem Arnnmltunia. Delawani li iaion . . . Kaatcm Division 8uaquehanna Ulrlalon Juniata West liranch North Branch Western Division .... Frsnklln Erin and Beaver French Creek Feeder. Lackawaxcn Bald Kagle Tide-water Concatoga Codonis Schuylkill I ktllM. 206 80 •6 •2 ■4 27- m 46' 22- a- 2' 66 864' 64' 2' 88' 21- 8' 80' 16' 97' 106 -6 11- 77 'B 10 83 3 40 42' 101' 4' 69-7 44 '6 89' 127-6 76 78' 106' 22' 136' 27' 22' 26 46 18 11' Caasli, nlun l4ibl«b Navlcalhm , , . M9uart, Chssaussks and IM., Varyland. I'bsaapssks and Olthi clieaopsaka and Usl»- wora , ,,,,,, vuvtm. Ahissndria ,, lames Klvsr and Ksi)- awba , Dlamal Hwsmp , , llranshes. ,,,,,,,,,,, North OmlitM, Weldon Club Foot Ulsmsl Hwsnip. ,,,... South amdlna, Hsnisa ,,,.,,,,,,..,, Wlnvasr ,,,,,,,,,,,, teluaa •.,.,,,. I , I .. I Drahi's ,, I^oriek I.ockhort's , Wularaa ,,•> , CaUwbs Otoniia, Savannah , llrunawluk ..,., Alaimiui. Muai-la Hliosl Iluutavllla ,,,, I^ouMana, Orleana Hank ,,, (Jarundi'lel .,,,,,,,,, Ilaralaria Lake Vent , . , . , KitUUflni. lA>ulavllle aud^rortl'd Kinlueky HIver lutur IJckIng •• •> Oreen " " llorran " •' latntii, IlllnoU and Nlshlgau InMana, Waboah and Kris, , , , Wlillawater ,,,, Ohio. Ohio and Kri* ,,,,,,, Koneavllla Draneb, . , , Columbus " , , , , [.sneaster " , , . , Hocking VsUsy Walliondlng Ifrsneli, , Eastport '• Drealen " Miami and nranelira, Miami Estcnalan, •!<', Waboah and F.riit , , , , Muskingum Impr,,,,, Bandy and Hesvi*? , , , , wsr iff 41- 14' IM- 7'* 144' II' It' It' I'B M' 7* «'« I'D 1' S-T 4' 7'« !«' ]«■ Dft'T )«' 4'« 4' «S' 8' <'« KM' 1)4' IIIU' IW 100' IWI'T 14' 1(1' »• Afl' tA' 4' 2' N7'7 KW' VI' HI' N6' COnrABATIVK I'OST or CANALS, I WIm, Of New York Of Fennaylvanla Of New Jersey Of Maryland and Delaware. Of Virginia or Ohio Oflndlana (Jflllbioia Of Canada 618 64« 144 204i 147 646 070 102 8«t >wJgW«,~ *»4.n!r 26, 100 4I,H(I« 62,800 »4,IA0 16,600 M,VW N4,M« IBO.WIO Recapitulation of canala (including ilack'Walsr iia* vigatlon) in each State in 1K&4. raitat«; "I'l 147 vm 18 021 VM autw. Alabama Connecticut . . . Delaware Florida Georgia Illinois Indiana Iowa Kentucky I-oulalana Maine Maryland Hasaachusetts . Michigan Miaataslppl . . . . MlJoiif Cuak. 61 61 14 "Vs 100 S67 486 101 60 184 100 MiiMuuri , New Ilampuhirs ,,, New Jersey, ,,,,,,, New York. ,. North Csrulins ,,,. Ohio ,, fennaylvanls,,,,.! Khode Island,,,,,, South (Jarullua ,,,, Tenneaaea,,,, Texaa, ,,,,,,,,,,,, Vermont ,,,,, Virginia ,.,,, Wisconsin ,,,, ToUl M IW "^ST CAN MS CAN T* n't III I' , 111 4' , «' 111' noil !«• 4-11 4' «B' »' till llW 114' 1 IWf IW IMT'T ilOT' 14' 1(1' »• M' lift' 4' II' W'T ttW' VI' Kl' Ml- IWilM 4I,»,tNW Htn Its' It ViO ID Ml VM "m Caiudian Cono/t.— The Drltlih government h«( ex- panded • very large auin upon the Ridetu Klver and Uanal, stretching from Kingston, on Lake Ontario, to Bytown, on the Ottawa, or Grand River, an affluent of the St. Lawrence. But this worit was undertalten as much in the view of improving the military defenses of Canada as of protecting its commerce, though In the latter respect it has lieen of considerable utility. The British government has also conntructed the Welland Ganal, uniting Lakes Erie and Ontario, tho navigation between which by tho river Is interrupted by tho Kails of Niagara. This canal has become a wclUfrequented commerciiil channel, and Is every day rising In import- ance. Tiie public works of Canada have already at- tained some degreo of celebrity, both in America and England. " There is no country," observes Mr. I. D. Andrews, in his report to the United States Senate, " which possesses canals of the magnitude und import- ance of those in Canada." The Krie Canui, which is the rival American water route for carrying tho prod- uco of tho great Western wheat-growing countries to tho Atlantic sco-board, is capable only of transporting barges of 7& tons bnnlen ; whereas the canals of Can- ada are on a scale to allow of ocean-going vessels of from 860 to 5(H) tons, and carrying 4000 barrels of flour, to proceed througli them, and thus accomplish an in- land navigation into the heart of tho continent for a distance of 1&87 miles from tide water at Qnelwc. Tho public productive works of Canada, consisting of ca- nals, light-houses, etc., yielded a net revenue in 1851 of i:58,738, Tho work yielding tho largest amount of revenue was the Welland Canal, extending ttom tho head of Lake Ontario to tho foot of Lake Erie, thus overcoming the interruption to navigation caused by tlie Kalis of Niagara. The length of tho main trunk of tills cunal Is '28 miles, and of a feeder branch, from the (Jrand Klver to the main trunk, 21 miles. Its width at bottom Is 85 feet, at top 71 feet, and the depth is to feet, llie dimensions of the locks are fh>m 150 to 200 feet in length, the width from 26i to 45 feet, and the depth on metre 01 foet. Tho amount of lockage is 346 feet, and the number of locks 27. This canal is also important as affording an unlimited supply of water-power to numbers of mills and factories on Its banks. The St. Lawrence Canals, connecting I.ake Ontario with tho River St. Lawrence at Montreal, ex- tend in all to 40i miles, having 27 locks, and an amount of lockage of '204i feet. The whole of these have the dimensions of their locks ns large as those of the Wel- land Canal, and have all 9 feet of water in these locks. The Lachinc Cannl, cutting through the island of Montreal, is 8 miles in length and 10 fpet deep. It is now In contemplation to construct another important canal, connecting I^e Champlain with the St. Law- rence, and thus afford a more desirable route for tho trade l)etween the Hudson River and Canada and tho Western States. Incretued Speed nf Traveling by Canah. — Groat, how- ever, as have l>een the Svh-antages derived from the formation of canals, their progress has been to a con- siderable degree checked by tb3 formation of Rail- roads (which see). We believe, however, that canals will always be preferred for the conveyance of coal and other bulky and heavy products; and even passen- gers are now conveyed along them with a rapidity that would previously have been supposed impossi- ble. This new system was introduced on the Paisli^y and Glasgow Canal, by Mr. Houston, in June, 1831. Tho results are described in the following statements, to which it is unnecessary to call the reader's atten- tion. Mr. Thomas Grahame, civil engineer, in his " Letter to Canal Proprietors and Traders," says, " The experi- ments of great velocity have lieen tried and proved on Ike narroKiArt, ihallowetl, und moit curved canal in See4- land, viz., the Ardrossan or Paisley Canal, connecting the city of Glasgow with the town of Paisley and vil- lage of Johnstonn, a distance of 12 miles." The result has disproved every previous theory as to difficulty and expense of attaining great velocity on canals, and aa to the danger or damage to their banks by great veloo Ity In moving vessels along them. "Tlie ordmaty tpeed for the conveyance of passengers on the Ardros- san Canal has, for nearly two years, been/rvm i>m« to ten milea n» hour; and, although thert art fourteen jour- neya along the canal per daif at thii rapH tpeed, itt banki hace luntamed no injury. The boats are 70 feet in length, nliout 6 feet 6 Inches broad, and, but for the extreme narrowness of the canul, might be made broader. They carry easily from 70 to 80 passengers ; and, when re- quired, can and have carried upward of 110 passen- gers. The entire cost of a boat and fittings up is about £Vi5. The hulls are formed of light Iron plates and ribs, and the covering is of wood and light oiled cloth. They are more airy, light, and comfortable than any coach. They permit tho passengers to move about from tho outer to the Inner cabin, and the fares per milo arc one penny in Iha Jirri, and Ihree/tirlhiiigt in the lecond cabin. Tho passengers are all carried under cover, having tho privilege also of an uncovered space. These boats are drawn l)y two horses (the prices of which may bo from £60 to £60 per pair), in stages of four miles in length, which are dono in fVom 2'2 to 2S minutes, Including stoppages to let out and take In passengers, each set of horses doing thrco or four stages alternately each day. In fact, tho boats are drawn through this narrow and shallow canal at a ve- locity which many celebrated engineers had demon- ilrated, and uhich the public believed, to be impuMibl*. Tho entire amount of the whole expenses of attendants and horses, and of running one of these boats four trips of 12 miles each (the length of tho canal), or 48 miles daily, including interest on tho capital, and 20 per cent, laid aside annually for replacement of the boats, or loss on tho capital therein vested, and a considerablo sura laid aside for accidents and replacement of the horses, is .£700 some odd shillings ; or, taking the number of working days to lio 31*2 annually, gometliing under £'i 'is. 4(/. per day, or alwut IIJ. per mile. The actual cost of carrying 80 to 100 persons a distance of 30 miles (the length of the Liverpool Railway), ot a velocity of nearly 10 miles an hour, on the Paisley Canal, one of tho most curved, narrow, and shallow in Britain, is therefore just £1 7«. 6d. sterling. Such are tho facts, and, incredible ns they may appear, they are facts which no one who inquires can possibly doubt. Boats on this principle have since been established on a great many British canals, and on tho Grand and Royal Ca- nals in Ireland. Prafilt of Canalt. — It Is a well-known fact thot ca- nals, at an average, and allowing for the length of time that must elapse from tho first outlay nf capital before they yield any return, are not very productive. When, indeed, they connect places that have an extensive In- tercourse, and when no very extraordinary ditHcnItles have to be surmounted in their construction, they most commonly yield very largo profits; but, generally speaking, this does not appear to be the case ; and, on the whole, they seem to havo been more l)eneHcial to the public than to their projectors. I Canary Islands. They lie in the North Atlantic Ocean, lietween the parallefs of lat. 27° 40' and 29° 80' ! N., and the meridians of long. 18° 80' and 18° 20' W. j The names of the seven principal islands, their respect- I ive area in English square miles, and their population I in 1*836, ore given in the following table : 3' Tantrib. Qrud CMiiuy. Pnlmn. rn«rt«T«ntnr>. Gomtra. Htorre. Ams, sq. miles.... Popiitntlnn 87T-T 8^0l of wbicb ara unlnhabltetl. The K'*l>* diacaw matia Ita appearaiioe at Iha Canarlaa In Itf&O, and daatroyed iioarly the whula crop, Pra- vloualy the total aaiaual pruduie woi aatimatcd at ■bout 40,UOU pipca, of which '2,'t,WU pipei wore pro- duced ill Tcuerlire. Uatwveii HOUO and VOM) pipoa ware axported. The priva per pipe ou Iwurd ranged from £» to JtiO. Soma of tlie wliia la dlatillud into good brandy. Sumach for the taunera, cunury-Ked, and a little Max, are grown. The giirden* produce, in addi- tion to the vegetablea of Kngliali gardena, pumpkina, gourda, yania (taro), garlic, red pepper, and the caator- oll plant. Tha fruit trees are badly managed, so that the fruit la generally inferior. Here are found bruits ft«ni every quarter of the glolw, including orunges, flga, banunus, dates, plne-apploa, |M>niegraiiatos, pa- paws, guavas, custard apples, and prickly pears (the fruit of the cactus). There are no cocoa-nut trees or braod-fruit trees, oa Humboldt reports. A little oil is obtained from the olive in Cimnd Canary. The oguvo la abundant, and supplies a material for ropes, glrtha, •t«. The leaves of the date pulin are made into hats and baskets. A good deal of orchilln lichen is gath- ered fur exportation ; and the ice-plant is cultivated for barilla. The sugar manufacture, once so largely carried on, has fallen Iwfure the American and West Indian trade; the only two existing mills are on J'alma. Wine having been for some time so little re- munerative, other things have received attention, the chief of which is the covbincol insect, which feeds on the common cactus ((ipuiilia tumi), and is now largely produced on all the islandx, land formerly occupied by grain and vines being devoted to its cultivation. The insect lias not l>ccn long Introduced, but the cultiva- tion bas rapidly extended. In 184V, 800,000 pounds were exported, principally to France and England. Since that year the exports have much increased; tho price paid to tho Canary exporter is alwnt a dollar por pound. Tho silkworm is reared to a small extent, chiefly on Palma. Raw silk is exported, and some is manufactured on the spot into stockings, rilibons, oto. Some linen and woolen stuff's of a coarso kind are mado for home consumption, but the great bulk of the cloth- ing in use is of British manufacture. The island goats (a peculiar and esteemed breed) furnish milk, from which butler and cheese are made. Hhcop, of a small coarsc-wooled breed, are numerous. Horses an('. cat- tle are scarce; domestic fowls and rabbits are plenti- ful. Asses and mules are much used. A fishery on the African coast, at present engaging from 40 to 60 vessels, and giving employment to many persons, has existed sines an early period. It was deemed of such importance, that the home (rovemment lately sent out a commissioner to report on it with a view to its im- provement. The flsh taken is principally bream. It is salted, and largely consumed at the Canaries. There is an extensive intercourse by means of txiats and bmall sailing vessels among the different islands. In this way wine, raw silk, cochineal, liarilla, and dried fruits are taken to the places of ex|iort; and grain is conveyed from those islands where it is abundant to those where the supply is dcticient. The principal foreign trade is with England, the chief exports lieing wine, cochineal, barilla, and orchilla. The imports consist of iron, met- al goods, glass, crockery, leather, silk, cotton, and wool- en manufactures. There is also a considerable trade with the United States, and tho countries bordering the Mediterranean. With Hamburg and France an exchange of commodities takes place. The ships em- ployed in this commerce are foreign, chiefly British, but tlic islanders send a few vessels of their own with brandy, coarse earthen-wnre, and silk goods to the Spanish West Indies, bringing back cigars, sugar, cof- fee, mm, cocao (the material of chocolate), and u few other articlei. Suta Cmc, Orotava, and Los FftbqM, ara tha only porta angaged in foreign trade i nearly 200 vaasels enter these porU in the course of a year. In 1H61 the porte were practically made nwe— tha anibll duty of tt. per cent, only being now levied upon Ini- liorted goods, with tlia exceptliin of tobacco, which pays bd. per pound, and cigars, which pay lOrf, per pound. A Hpanish steamer from Cadia inakss two voyagea to (ianta Crua every month. Tha Hpunish government packet, on her outward voyage to Ha- vana, touches at 8anta Crua unco a month; and Die same port la visited monthly by tha English mull steamers to Brazil and the African coast, loth on their outward and homeward voyages. Tentrijfi, the largest island of the group, lies between Canary and Uomera. It is of an irregular shape, 00 miles in length, with an extreme breadth of 80 inilcs. Not more than one-seventh is cultivalile. A chain of mountains traverses the island in the direction of its greatest length, and in the middle of tho broadest part risea the celoliruted peak locally known as tho I'ico de Teyde, which, with its supports and spurs, occupies neatly two-thirds of the who'.i island. It has a douMe tup; the highest, £i I'lion, Is 13,180 feet above tho sea; the second, Cliuhorra, connected with tho first by n short and narrow ridge, has a height of 1)880 feet. They are Iwth orillci-s in the same grand dome uf trachyte. Neither reaches the line of perpetual snow. Tlicro is, however, a natural cavern, 1 1,000 feet alove the sea, where snow is preserved all the year. 8iiow remains about four months on tho upper part of the peak. — E, B, There are sovoral species ot nopal (la Tunera lilvtilrf), Indian flg (Catlui lunu), short leaf with numerous thorns, which serves only for coloring sugar, fruit, and wafers; and^ 'J'lineraamiiilta, w ithlarge,yellaw,sweRt fruit, and round green leaves. The Tunera Unnrn is best adapted for the culture of cochineal ; but it is in- convenient on account of its numerous thorns, I astly, there is an American species, with very sul't thoriit, which is likewise available for cochineal culture. The following table sliows the increu^i^d product and exportetion of cochineal from the Canaries: Yetn. Ptittoda, l.S,51 7i 188a lis 1S.TS 1,000 1S34 1,7M 1836 4,M1 1830 n,otw 1H8I T,W1 1R!W 2,1,112 1889 27,««1 1H40 ««,B21 1S41 00,«19 Vvtn. Poanda, 1849 «»,1IA 1843 74,1164 1844 S8,l«t4 Man I«8,t08 1846 Sat,OGO 1847 aii6,m 1848 tabfiati 1849 44»,.6T 1860 782,670 1H6I »68,ln« 1862 806,164 Thus, in the year 1853, tho exportation would prob- ably amount to 1,300,(K)0 |iounds ; and the value of this, since tho increased prico consequent on tho fail- ure of crops in Honduras, would be £225,000, Candle (Gcr, Lichler, Kerzen; Uu, Kaaritn; ¥r. ChiiiMlej It, Cundelle; Sp, and Port, I Was; Kuss, Sirjetichi; Lot, Catidela), a taper of tallow, wax, or spermaceti, the wick of which is commonly of several threads of cotton spun and twisted together. The Ko- man candles wero composed of strings surrounded lir wax or dipped in pitch. Splinters of wood, fultcd, were used for light among the lower classes in England iiljout A,t>, 1800, At this lime wax candles were lit- tle used, and esteemed a luxury, and dipped candles usually burned. Tho Wax Chondlers' Company, of London, was incorporated 1484. Mould candles arc said to 1)0 the invention of the sieur Le Brez, of Paris. Spermaceti candles are of modem manufacture. 1 lio Chinese candles are made from the berries of the Ci,n- dlebury-myrtle, and they universally bum this wnx, which is fragrant, and yields a lirlght light, — Hayhn, Dr, lire givga the following tabic, as containing tlic result of certain experiments he bad made, in order to determine the relative intensity of the light, and tho durotiou of diffoxent aorta of taUow cM>dlw : CAN 267 CAN NamWi U • totmi. luiU. Utalu. Coaniaplliili p/., In an Arguml, are equivalent in il- luminating power to B pounda of tallow cnndica, which coat al)out 2«. The larger tho flame in the aliovo can- dlea, the greater tho economy of light." Until of lute yeara, candlea were aolely manufac- tured trom l)eoi4wa!i, spomiacvti, or tallow. Tho ap- plication (if scientific rhomical reaoarch, however, to thia brunch uf art, coupled with the withdrawal of the voxatlona exciao aupcrvision, which prcvcnta linprove- monta In every trade which comua under ita Influence, haa ao improved tho matcriula uaed, aa well aa tho manufacture Itaelf, that all the heat cundlea aro now made from the pure aolid and cryatullizal)le roargaric and atoaric uclda. Thoao aro freed from the fluid oleic acid, and from glycerin, which exiat in combination with them in ordinary tallow, aa woll aa from other anologoua aubatuncoa, aa from parafHne (a carbo-hy- drogcnoua aubatunce roaembling apermncoti, prepared ft'om tar and peat), tho atenric and margaric acida of tho cocoa-nut oil and the pulm oU (£V(ii« guinetnsia), bcaldea the old anbatancea apermacoti, and wax, both vcgetalile and animal. The diacovery by the celebrated French chcmlat Chovreul, that fata were compoaed of three highly in- flammable botllca, atearic and margaric acida (aollda), and oleic acid (a liquid), coml)ined with a comparts tively uninflammable body, glycerin, has led to the creation of tho great new manufacture of atearic and compoaite candlea; the importance and growth of which will lie underatood when wo atate, that while In 1833 the new caiidlca were unknown In England, and the quantity manufactured In France amounted to only twenty-five tona annually, a aingle London houao (that of E. Price and Co.) manufactured last winter (1854) more than that quantity of atearic and compo- aite candlea daily, and employa In thta business abovo 900 hands, and a capital of nearly three-qunrtera of a million. The old proceaa for making atearic acid may be thus described : Tallow la boiled up with thin cream of lime, which cauaes the fat acida by superior affinity to foraake their glycerin and combine with the lime, the glycerin dissolving in the water; thia combina- tion la then broken by moans of sulphuric acid, which, seizing on the lime, seta ttea the fat acida ; these aro then aeparated (the liquid fVom tho aolid) by means of preasure. This process of making fut acids ia called " lime saponification." The hard matter remaining in tho prcaa ia stearic, or a mixture of stearic and mar- garic acids, and the candlea made f^om it arc called stearin, or more properly stearic candles. In 1840, it was discovered in England that by com- bining stearic acid with the solid matter, or stearin obtained by prcaaure tiom cocoa-nut oil, good candles not requiring snniHng might be made at a consideral)ly less cost than stearic ca^idlea. These were called by the Inventor "composite." The trade in these com- posite candles is now very great. Since 1840, numer- ous great improvements have been invented, which have reanlted in the present manufacture of candles baTing all the good qualities of the old itaiwic, wUle they are sold at prices little exce«• (iarmani put 16(47 a-'ll pouiicU of copiwr, ■JU't \\.U |ioundt of brut, wd U07 Utk-ll pouuda of tin. tltlian, iiK»i»i >■■• M> pound* uf cop|wr, tt pouiuU of brmia, and U pounda of tin I and olhara, lOU |x)Uiula of cupjiar, lU pounda of braaa, and 16 pounda uf tin. It aaaiiia to liii the K^nural opinion that I'annon wtro flrat mmla uaa of In llliUI ur IWM; liul Don Antonio da Capniuny hai prwlucud aoin« atatcniant* wliUli rondor It ainioitt cvrtaln that nuniu aort of urtillury wua uivd by tlio Moon In Hpaln to anrly ua KH'i. — (tutsliuHti Critinu, p, IHl, «tc. Cunnoni wars cvrtainly mod liy the EnKllah In 11M7 at tho aieKa of Culaia, and i>y thu Vanatlana at C'hIoKKia in KMil, and in tliair wan with tha Uanoaaa in 187U and 18H0. Tlio Turka i-inploytd tham at the aleKea of Conatantlnopio, in iau4 and 1 l&a. Whan lint introduced, they waro for tho moat p;trt Yary heavy and unwieldy, and throw lialla of an cnor- moua aire; they were, howpwr, owing to thoir fro- quently liuntlnK, about aa dnnKuruua to thoao ualiiK them aa to their opponent*. There la a valuable arti- cle on the conatructlun and hiatory of cannona In Rkkh' CgdnpriVut; but It waa publii4hc- IMarance of Capmany'a work rufvrrcd to above. Tho larKoat known place of urdnunco la uf braia, coat In Irfdia in KJ8S. At Ehronbrcitatoln Ciiatio, one uf the atrontfcHt furta In (icrinuiiy, up|>oalto Cobluntz, on Ibe Khine, in a prwIlKluua cuniiun cltthteon feet and n half lung, afout and a half In diainctor in the boro, and thrco feet fuur Inches in the breech. Tho ball made for It WflKhs IHO pounda, and ita charge of powder !)l pounda. The iiiarriptlon on it aliowa that It waa made by one Himon In 1629. In Dover C'aatle la a braaa gun called Queen Elizalioth'a pockct-platui, which waa pre- tented to her by the States of Ilulland: thia piece la 24 feet lung, and Is beautifully omanionted, having on It tliu anus of the stalea, and a motto in Dutch, im- porting thus, ** Charge mo well, and npongo mo clean, I'll llirow a linil to (alala Or«cn." Some line specimen* are to be seen In tho Tower. A leathern cannon was tired three times In the King's Park, Edinburgh, October 28, 1788.— PiiiLLirs. The precise date of the llrat oast-iron guns la not known, but it has been asserted by (ieneral llaguenin, that a piece of this description at Ilois-Ie-Uuc bears the date 1411. Some doubt, however, has been expressed on thio Htibject ; and It has lie en thought more proba- ble, with reference to the Invcntltm of high smelting Airnaccs, to suppose this date 1611. In IMO Kalpli Page cast eight iron guns at Kackstadt ; and In 1647 the use of such artillery began to liecome general, and was for nearly a century exclusively adopted in some countries. In France cast-iron gun* were not manu- factured liofore 1600; but so evident were the advant- ages to lie gained by their use, both as regards the qual- ities of the guns and their mo.<)den in 1640; onofoundery alone, in the latter oouni ' having lieen said to have supplied for some time firo. '00 to 600 cannona annually. All these plec2i» . . :nn 'ce Tinre cast hollow until 1729, when a .horkon.. i«.fiiig nriHi-iiiic was establish- ed at Lyons, .'.d, a't;- inie XtI\\» mule In I7d4, M. Marltz abandoned i'viUr i ci lOug .. Sfmsburg In 1744-'46, and ailor.tc.; thi boring machiu — E. i> CanO«, or CmsMl, iUe verm genemlly need to designate the tniall vessti i which uncivilized people, living near the water, use. In the East Indies there Is a kind of lioat known by this name, sometimes from 40 to 60 feet long, and 6 or 6 broad. The North Amer- ican Indians generally impel their canoM with paddles, which have a very large Wade and are managed i)er- pendicnlarly. The canoes of Canada are of the most firagila taxtur*, and of au lltti* weight, that In pasting from one rivsr to anullur, lh« biiatinvn carry tiii^m ua their hnada acniaa their (lurtagea, 'I'hay are niuatly covered with liark, thu piacea uf which are tawad to- gather with a kind uf grata. Thia bark la gaiiarally not more than a quarter uf an Inch in thlckneti ; yd, in thei* frail vuttalt, tha liullana and Canadians do nut hesitate to t laiil open, is uf a reddish hue, and the tap Is perfci Ily while. It has a line glossy grain, with a considerable tli.ire of strength ; that it Is but littlo employed la attributed partly to its speedy decay when exposed to tho succession of dryness and moisture, and partly to the exitlnnco, in the countries which proclet of wood, which are far preferable fur tho uses uf the carpenter and the wheelwright. It is sometimes employed by cnbinot-iuakers for tables which are stained in iinltatioii of mahogany. But the must impiirtant purpoi-o fur which it is employed, and one in which it Is replaced by the bark of no other tree, is the construction of canoes. To procure proper pieces, the largest and smoothest trunks are selected : in the spring two circular incUlona nt-i! made several feet apart, and two longitudinal ur n| < ite sliles of t'ln tree; after which, by ini.\. i. ■!.,; i a-ojden wci.j ., tho bark is easily detached 1 .■ n' ri n , 'irt usually ten or twelve feet Ion' .■■ "t i- ■ m.b Inches broad. Great use la mii cur. by the Indians and by the French Canadians in their long journeys into the interior of the country ; they are very light, and arc easily transported on tho shoulders (Vom one lake or river to another, which is called the poitafft, A canoe calculated fur four persons, with their bag- gage, weighs fVom forty to ilfty pounds : some of them are made to carry fifteen passengers. Such are tho or- dinary uses of the bark and of the n nod of this tree. — Unows'a .'•'y/ro Americana, Cantharldea, or Bpaniah Fly (Fr. Caniharidet, Miiuchm itKtpagne; Qcr. SpanUche Fliegen; It. 6'im- tnrelle; Lat. Caiilharit; Wat*. UUchpanikit muchi; Sp. CanlariJai). This Insect Is found uu a variety of shrubs In Spain, Italy, Franfc, etc. Those used In England are imiiorted partly from Sicilj', but princi- pally (Vom Astracan, packed in casks and small chests : the most esteemed como from St. Petersburg. Tho best are of a lively fircsh color, a small si/.e, and not mouldy. They are (yequently adulterated with tha lantharidet, It. t'lin- ImucAi; Sp. Ivarioty of Lse used in Ibiit princl- liaU chests : [urg. Tho B, and not with th« OAlf H UM'ifUka ritlti liiit IhU la ilUtlnKulsh*l>l<' ly Ol tutm, wliliilt U wiunraf Ihun (li« ennthitris, *iiv liliivk fiMl. It limy In pfiiparly ilrUil u\il prutaiu.i (yum llitt tir, llwy iniiy U knfit (nt « vary lonif pcriiid. — Tli»Mwi«'» IHtpntuUnfi/. Thar* worn fnur naw v». riatlns iif iianlharlilaa fruin ImlU ahnwn at Iha t.oniton Enlill'llliiionNAI, I Oaiiton. "iM iif Iha tfraalaat ampnrluma In tha ¥.n<, raiikliiK, M « iHirl iif trail*, allhar li*fiir*, or ImniadU >ilHly aflvr, I'alnulta. In tha prnvlnna uf (jiianlonK, In Cliliu Iwlr : |iri rloualy to IKIlt, iha only plnct In that •• , ir* ' Ian liy •uthiirlly lo Kuriiiwan trailara i li* ' 'ly >',, Inn, UK' 14 K. ('anion cInniU un .1 ' II lif ' /Iha I'akln Klvar, whit'h flows fhim tl. I I' lark' I « navltfitlila alraam of imn miles to lbl> lv iinolhnr wnIi running east and west, Tho m>i> lain division Is I'alind Ihn old, and th« southrrn th« now I'lty, In llin old rlly Is tli* Mnntchoii or Turtur uKniirul, with his Karrlson of Manlchou trmips. Thi' liiiiitiiiiant uiivnrnor or Cooynen's oftlro Is niso in Ihu old I'lty, lint Ihn uiisntnut and hoppo (principal eustoiiia nlHcar} rasld* In titn nnw rlly, not far from tlio rivur. All fiirulKii I'ominiirni Is rondnrl«d In thn antilhwost (uliurli, wliurii Ihn fiiridtfn fnnlorli's arn sllunted) and whiidi, with III* olliar sulinrlia. Is pmlialdy not less |uipiiluiis llinn III* r till) fii'a of Ihu rivtir, The iMHipIn who orcnpy thp UrKer porlloil of III*** IhmIs nr« siilil to hiive rnmo orli{liiiiily from tha Miiith) and lieUiK n furel^n and despised rai'a, w*rH not, at Urst, nllowed to dwell on shnrn ! Iiut must of thn illsllncllons Imtween them and Ihu rest of the puople lliivn lieen nliulUhed, Although Cuiiton is sltiiiilnd iimirly In the sntne pnrullid of lutlttidi' us I'uli'iiltH, lliurn Is N i-onslderiildn dinpronco 111 tlii'lr liiiii|H miles below (Jniitgn, loodliiK and uiiluadlnK I'y menns of nutlvo bouta. The Chlnaaa, eonaliknid as Iraderi, «r« imlnently active, peneverlng, snd lnt«lllg«nt. Thtjr are, In I CAN fact, al'iuhl 'immefelal people ; nml the notl*>ii thiit was one* very ^mtflXij enteruliied cif Ihsir liclni; pei'ulliirly charnctertted l> J ■iilfmj.I of cnmmen-e and nf •iranuers is *• utterly u..l. Business tii trhii>-<.ii ' ''nntun with K'asi llspalch; and n< where in th nd may carifovH lie nnld mid liiiiiKht, |,,iiile - orldlant. Kvery description uf them, dead and nil 'r, la sold by welKl't. It Is a curious fact that the i hi- noso muke no use of milk, ellbir In its liquid xUle. wr in tho shape of cunls, butter, ur cheese. Aiimhik the delicacies of a Chinese market nri> tu be nci'n linrM- flesh, doKS, cuts, hawks, and owls. Thu < >mrilry is well supplied with fish ttnm the numerous cmmls nnd rivers by which it is Intersected. f'urtii/n hacl'Ttit. IbciHi extend for a ciinsldernhle way alouK the bunks of Iho river, iwt tho dIstnni'T of olMiut KHI yurils. They aro named, uy the <'hln«ae, /mnffn, and resemble louK courts, or rlusi>s, v 'linut n thorouKhfure, which ({cncriilly contain ft)ur or h m sepu- rnlo houses. They nrebiitlt una bruud i|iiiiy. n I Mitvc n puriidu in front. This prmnenudu Is ruilid in ml is fjeneriilly called ItetjtDnih nlin Walk; and here i Kn- ropean merchants, cuminunders, nndoHlcersof ili. hips meet after dinner and enjoy tho cool of tho «vcti ing. Tho Kn^lish hon^, or fuctory, far surpasses tde ot^ "rs In eloKanre and extent. This, with the American . nd Dutch honifs, nro the only ones that keep their natim il fliiKs llyiuK. The neighlKirhood uf tho fuctorles is I' - ciipicd with wurohuuses fur the rccuptiun of Kuro|iciii Kooil In Wtl, durInK n dreadful contlaKratlon that took pluoc At Canton, thn llritish fuctorlea und abuvo 1II,(MH) hnusep were destroyed; on which occoslon tho Vlnst Indiu Com- pany's loss was estimated nt i.'K0O,00() itorllnt;, three- fifths In woolens. For the space of four or five miles opposite to Can- ton tho river resembles an extensive floating city, con- slstinf; of lioikts and vessels ran)(ed parallel to each other, leaving a narrow passage for others to pass nnd repass. In thoso tho owners reside with their fiiiiillles, the latter rarely vi»ltln|f tho shore. All tho business at Canton with Euru|>eans Is transacted in a jurKon of tho Kn^iish lunKuuKe. Tho sounds of such letters as li, I>, U, and X are unknown in China. Instead of these they substitute some other letter, such as I. fur R, which occasions a Chinese dealer in rice to offer for sale in English a rather unmurkctublo commodity. Tho nunio innndnrin is unknown among the Chinese, the word used by them to denote n person in authority being quan. Mandarin Is a I'ortugueso word derived from the vorb mandiir, to command. — Hamii.to.i's Halt liiilin dazellier ; MitBunN'» Orient. Commerce! Com/mnion In Ani/lo-Chinete Cnlendnr, etc. The trade - actlons. All foreign cargoes passed through the hands of these merchants, and by them also the return car- goes were fiimishcd. They became security for tho payment of duties, and it was treason for any other merchant to engage in the trade with foreigners. This severe law, however, has recently been abolished, and foreigners may now deal with any merchant they think fit to employ. CAN 260 CAN The Engluh TVeatg leM China.— Tha following is tlie synopsis of the treaty effected by Lord Elgin witit Clii- na, ss put fortli by tlie Britisli Foreign Office. It was signed at Tien-tsin, June 26, 1858 : Art 1. Coiiflrms the Treaty of Nankin of 1843, and abro- gatea tba Bupplementarjr Treaty and General Kegulationa of Trade. Art, 2. ProTldea for tlie appointment of embaiaadora, mln- iaters, or other diplomatic agenti on the part of pltber coun- try at the courts of Pekln and St, Jamea. Art. 3. L'ontalna proTlaloni for the permanent establish- ment of a Britiah minister, hia family and suite, at PcUn, and the forms to be ohscrred In bla communications with the Imperial [^Temment. Arti. Hakea arrangements for the traTellng and the trana- minion of the carreagpndence of the miniater, and the employ- ment by bim of apeclal couriers. Art 5. The Emperor of China ccnsentii to nominate one of the Secretaries of State or some high offlcor to transact buel- neas with the British minister, cither personally or in writing, on a footing of perfect equality. Art 6. The same prlrllegea are to be granted to the Chi- nese minister In London. Art 7. Conaula may be appointed In China, and may reaidc In any of the open porta, and their official rank and position aa regards the Chinese local tuthoritiea is determined. ilrt. 8. The Christian rell^on, as professed by Trotcstants or Roman Catholics, to be tolerated, and Its professors pro- . teeted. Art 0. Britiah subjects to travel for pleasure or trade Into all parts of the interior, with passports from their consuls, countersigned by the local autboritlea. The regnlatlons aa regarda theae passports are determined. The provisions of the article not to be applied to ships* crews, for the due re- straint of whom regulations are to be drawn up by the consul and local authorities No pass to be given to Mankin, or eltles In the handa of the rcbela Art 10. British merchant ships are to be allowed to trade up the Great River (Yang-tae), but in the preacnt diaturbed state of the Upper and Lower Valley no port is to be opened for trade with the exception of Chin Kiang, which is to bo opened in a year from the signature of the treaty. When pckco is restored, British vessels are to be admitted to trade at such ports as far as Hankow, r •>. ixceedlng three In num- ber, as the British minister, after consulting with the Chinese Secretary of SUte, shall determine. Art. 11. In addition to the present ports. Now Chwang, Tang-Chow, Tai-wan (Formosa), Chow-Chow (Swatow), and Kiuug-Cbow (Ilsinan), are to be opened, a:id the right of residence and tiolding landed pniperty Is conivded. Art 12. British subjects are to make agreements for land- ed property at the rates prevailing among the people. Art 13. No reatrlctlons to be placed on the employment by British subjects of Chinese suljjirts in any lawful capacity. Art. 14. The hire of boats for transport of goods or paiscn- giirs to be settled between the parties theroaelvea, without the Interference of the Chinese government. Tha number of the boats not to be limited, and no monopoly allowed. If any smuggling takes pUee, the offender to be punished according to law. Art. 16. All questions In regard to rights of property or person between British subjects to be subject to the Jurisdic- tion of the British authorities. Art 10. Chinese subJecU guilty of any criminal act toward British subjects to be arrested, and puulsliud by the Chinese authorities according to the law of China j British subjects committing any crime In China to lie trie-' and punished by the consul or other public fbnctionary according to the laws of Great Britain. Art IT. Determines the mode of procedure In the naltorof comphilnta on the side ciUier of British or Chinese subjects. Art. 18. I'lovides for the protection of the persona and property of British subjects. Art 19. If any BrllUih merchant vessel In Chinese waters IS plundered by robbers or pirates, the Chinese aulhorilies are to use every endeavor to capture and punisli tho offenders, and to recover the stolen property. Art 20. Wrecked or stranded vessels, or vessels under stress of westher, are to be afforded relief and security In any Cblneae port, and the crews are to bo furnished by the Chinese, if necessary, with tho means of eonveyanco to the nearest consuUr station. Art. 81. Chinese erimlnala taking refhgo In Dong Kong, or on board of Britiah ships, shall, upon the reqnlslUon of the Cblneae autlioritiea, be given up ; the same also If taking ref- uge In the honaea or on board Uia tsimIs of BiiUsli nibJecU ' the open pert«- > Art 23. The Chinese authorities to do their ntmoat to ar- reat Cblneae suhjoets falling to dtacliargo their debts to Oril> lab aubjects, or fraudulently ahaconding, and to enforce re- covery of tha debts The Britiah autboritlea to do likewise as regards Britiah subjects Indebted to Chinese. Art is. Debts Incurred by Cblneae at Hong Kong must be recovered in tho courta of Justice on the spot. If the debt- or should abscond, and should possess real or personal prop- erty In the Chinese territory, the Chinese authorities. In con- cert with the British consul, are to see Justice dono between t the parties. Art. 24. British subjects shall pay, on all merchandise im- ported or exported, the duties prescribed by the tariff, but in no case shall they pay other or higher duties than the aub'ects of other foreign nations pay. Art 26. Import duties to be conaldered payable ou tlie landing of tho goods, and duties of export on the shipment of the aame. A rt 20. Tlie tariff fixed by Article 10 of the Treaty of Nan- kin to be revised by a commlsalon of British and Chinese of- ficers, to meet at Shanghai, so that the retiscd tariff may come Into operation Immediately after tha ratification of the treaty. Art 27. Either contracting party may dumand a farther revision of the tariff and of Uie commercial articles of tiie treaty at the period often years; but six montlis' notice must bo given, or tlio tariff is to remain in force for ten years more, and so at tho end of each bucccsbIvo ten years. Art !8. It is agreed that, witUn four months of the signa- ture of the treaty, the Chinese collector of duties at ports al- ready opened and hereafter to be opened to British trade shall be obliged, on application of tho consul, to declare the amount of duties Icviabio on produce between the place of productiou and tlie port of slilpincnt, and upon imports between the con- sular port in question and the Inland markets named by the consul ; and a notification thereof shall be published In Kn- glish and Chineae. British subjects may, however, clear their goods of all transit dutk-a by payment ofa single charge ; the amount of the charge to be calculated as near oa possible at the rate of 2i per cent ad mlorent duty, and.it is to be lixed for each article at the conference to be held at Shanghai, Tho payment of transit dues by commutation la In no way to affect tho tariff duties on Imports or exports, which will continue to be levied separately and In full. Art. 29. Regulates the amount of tonnage dues. British merchant vessels of more than 160 tons burden to pay at the rate of four mace per ton ; If of 160 tons and under, at the rate of one mace per ton. Vessels engaged in the coasting trade, or clearing for Hong Kong from any of the open jiorta, shall be cutitled to a spc- ci.ll ceriiAcatc, exeinptlug them from ail farther payment of tonnage dues In any open port of China, for a period of four montha from the date of her port clearance. Aii. SO. The master of any British merchant vessel may, within 48 hours after his arrival, but not later, depart with- out breaking bulk. In which case lie will not lie subject to pay tonnage dues. No other fees or charges, upon entry or de- parture, shall be levied. Art. SI. No tonnage dues to bo paid on passenger-boats, or boats conveying baggage, letters, articles of provision, or oth- er artlcler "lot smiject to duty. All cargo boats, however, con- veying m> rdiaiidlse subject to duty shall pay tonnage dues once in ^ix months, at the rate of four mace per register ton. Art JS. The eonsula and suiierlntendcnta of cuatoms to conault together respecting the erection of buoys and light- ships as nccaaion may demand. Art. S3. Unties to bo paid to the authorized Chinese bank- ers either in sycee or In foreign money, according to the assay made at Canton, July 13, 1843. Art 34. Sets of standard weights and measnrcs to be de- livered by the superintendent of customs to the consul at each port, to secure uniformity. Art. 86. Britiah merchant vessels to be at liberty to engage pilots to take them Into any of tho open porU, aud to convey them out after they have discharged all legal dues and duties. Art 30. The superintendent of costoms shall depute one or more customs" officers to guard a Britiah merchant ship on arriving off one of the open porta. They ahall stay either In a boat of their own or on board ship i their food and exiicnses shall bo supplied from the custom-house, and they sliail be entitled to no fees from the master or consignee. Art. 87. Ships" papers, bills of lading, etc., to be lodged In the hands of tlie consul 24 hours after arrival, and full par- ticulars of the vessel to be reported to tho superintendent of customs within a farther period of 24 hours ; omission to com- ply with this rule within 48 hours punishable by a fine of 60 Uels for each day's delay. The total amount of penalty not tn evMwd 900 taels. The master nsponatble for tho correct- CAN S61 CAN lo b<3 do- ll at (uU nfl« nf the nanlfMt; a Mie manifeat ral^eeto the maater (o a fine of 600 tiieli ; bnt he will be allowed to correct any mti- take within 24 houra wlthont Incurring a penalty. Art 88. If the loutcr ihall begin to dlHharge any gooda without the permit from the anperlntendent of ouatoma he ■hall bo fined BOO taela, and the gooda dlubarged ahall be confiacated wholly. Art. SO. Drltlah merclianta mnst apply to the aiiperintend- ent of cuatoma for a apeclal permit to land or ahip cargo. Car- * go landed or ahlpped without auch permit will be liable to conflacatton. Art. 40. No tranahlpment ftnm one Teaael to another can bo made without apeclal permlialon, under pain of conflaca- tion of th^ooda tranahipped. Art. 41. Tho Bupcrlntendent of cnatoma ahall give a port clearance when all duca and dutlea have been paid, and the consul shall then return the ship's papers. Art. 42. If the British merchant can not agree with the Chinese ofhcer In fixing a value on gooda aubject to (i(l valo- rem duty, each party ahall call In two or three merchants, and the higheat price at which any of the merchanta would purchase them shall he assumed to be tho value of the gooda. Art. 43. Provides that duties ahall be charged upon tho net weight of each article, making a deduction for the tare weight of congee, etc, and regulates the manner in which the tare on any article, auch as tea, shall be fixed. The British mer- chant may appeal to his consul within 24 houro. Art. 44. Upon ail damaged gooda a fair reduction of duty ahall be allowed, proportionate to their deterioi^tlnn. If any diaputes arlae, they shall he settled in the manner pointed out in^the clause of this treaty having reference !x> articles which pay duty ad valorem. Art. 45. British merchanta who have Impoited merchandise In* . ».i open port and paid duty may reimport their goods, under certain regulations, without payment of any additional duty. British merchanta desiring to re-export duty-paid imports to a foreign country to be entitled, under similar regulations, to a drawback certificate, which is to be a valid tender in pay- ment of customs* duties. Foreign gmin brought into a Chinese port in n BrltUh ship. If no part haa been landed, may be re-exported without hln- deranco. Art. 46. The Chlneao anthoritlea at tho ports to adopt the meana they may Judge most proper to prevent the revenues aufTcring from fraud or smuggling. Art. 4T. British merchant vessels not to resort to other than the ports declared open ; not unlawfully to enter ports, or to carry on clandestine trade along the coast* Vessels violating this provision to be, with their cargoes, subject to eonfiacatien by the Chinese government A rt. 43. If a British merchant vessel bo concerned In smug- gling, the goods to be subject tu confiscation by tho Calnese authorities, and the ahip may be prohibited from trading fur- ther, and sent away aa soon aa her accounta ahall have been adjusted. Art. 49. All penalties or confiscations under tho treaty to belong and be appropriated to the public service of the Chl- neae government Art. 60. All official communications addreaaed by British diplomatic or consular agents to the Chinese authorities are henceforth to be written In English. For the present they will bo accompanied by a Chinese veraion ; hut it is undcr- Btood that in caao of there being any difTorence of meaning between the Kngllsh and Chinese text, the English govern- ment will hold tho sense expressed in the English text to be the correct aenae. Thia provision is to apply to the present treaty, the Chinese text of which haa been carefully corrected by the English original. Art. Bl. The character "I" ("barbarian") not to bo applied to the British government or to British su^ccts In any Chi- nese official document Issued by the Chinese authorities. Art. B2. British shipa of war coming for no hostile purpose, or being engaged in the pursuit of pirates, to bo at liberty to Tialt all tho Chlneso ports, and to receive every facility for procuring necessaries, or, if required, for making repairs. Tho commanders of auch ahlps to hold intercourse with tho Chlneso authoi Itlea on terms of equality and courtesy. Art. B3. Tho contracting partlea agree to concert measures for the suppression of piracy, AC. 54. Confirms all advontagca secured to the British government by previoua reatica, and atipulatea that the Brit- ish government ahall p irtlclpate in any ndvantagea which may be granted by the J.mperor of China lo any other nation. Art. 5S. Tho conditbna afTectlng indemnity for eipenses Incurred, and loss suati ined In tho matter of tho Canton ques- tion, to be included lp a separate article, which shall be in ev- ery respect of equal alldlty with other articles of tho treaty. Artnt. Katlfleatlena to be exchanged within a year after the day of algnatnre. Separate article provide* that a smn of 2,000,000 taela, on account of the losses sustained by British subjects, through the mlsoondDct of Chlneso authorities at Canton, and a fur- ther sum of 2,000,000 taels, on account of tho ezpensea of the war, ahall be paid to the British representative in China by the authorltiea of the Kwangtung province. The arrangements for effecting theae paymenta to be de- termined by the Britlah repreacntatlve, in concert with the Chinese authorltiea at Kwang Tung. The British forces are not to be withdrawn from Cantoa antll the above amounts are diacharged In full. Tho heads of tho new treaty with Chitia were re- ceived in li^ngiand willi general satisfaction. The com- mercial stipulations appear such as, supposing them to be maintained with good faith, will provo consistent with the most extended trade. The present tariff is very moderate, and the stipulation that the internal transit dues, which have lately been levied capricious- ly, may be commuted liy the importers on direct pay- ment of 2i per cent, ad vo/orem, is calculated to prevent the possibility of any new or unexpected obstructions to the demand for our mantifuctui-e s. It would have been better, perhaps, if these payments had been spe- cific instead of ad valorem, but that is a point on which we could hardly dictate. Treaty between the United Stalet of A merica and the Chineie Empire. — Preamble, — Tho preamble declares that the President of the United States and the Emper- or of China, being desirous of renewing the obligations of friendship between the two countries, and of estab- lishing fixed rules for regulating the intercour.ie of their citizens, havo named, on the one side, 'NVilliam I). Keed, plenipotentiary of the United States, and on the other, Kwoiling and Hwashana, imperial commis- sioners, and that said ministers have agreed upon the following articles : Art. 1. Tlicre ahall bo permanent pence between tho Unit- ed Statea of America on the one part, and the Chinese empire on the other, and between their people respectively. They shall not insult or oppress each other for trifling causes; and if any other nation should have differences with the Chinese empire, or act injuriously toward them, the United States will exert their good oifices to bring about an amicable ad- justment of such differences. A rt. 2. To perfect Ihe friendship, it la agreed that upon its ratification, thia treaty ahall be kept for safe preservation In the following manner: The original treaty, as ratified by tho President and Senate of tho United States, shall bo deposited at Fekin, In custody of the Privy Council ; as ratified by the Emperor of China, it shall be deposited at Washington, in custody of tho Secretary of State. Art. 8. In order that tho people of the two countries may know and obey the provisions of tho treaty, the United States agree, upon its ratification by tho President and Senate, to publish and proclaim the same through the Journals in which the laws of the United States are published and proclaimed : and tho Emperor, on his part, agrees to direct its publication at the Capital of the empire, and by the governors of the prov- inces. Art. 4. In order to perpetuate their friendship, tho minister of representative of the United States In China shall have the right to corrcsirond on terms of equality and in the form of mutual communication with the Privy Council at the Capital, or with the governors-general of two Kwangs; and when- ever he desires to communicate with tlie Privy Council, he may send his communication through eltlier of the governors or by the general post, os he may prefer. His letters may be sealed, and the seal shall bo respected i and his letters, when received, shall be considered and acknowledged promptly and respectfully. Art. 5. The minister of tho_ United Statea, whenever he has important business making It'necessary, may visit and sojourn at the Capital, and confer with members of tho Privy Conncll, or ,vlth other officers who shall bo deputed for that purpose. Such visits shall not exceed one In each year, nor shall they be attended with any unnecessary delay. He may go by land or by way of tho mouth of tho Peilio, but he shall not bring any ships of war of the United Stotea into that river. He ahall inform tlic government of bis arrival In the river, that they may provide boats for his service. Such vislta shall not be made on trivial occasions or for triflingreasona The Board of Rights will give all neceaaary directions for hla accommo- i CAN 262 CAN dkUon, ud «U1 proTida him % fanUlied rNtdenets bat ha nhall d*tnj hti om expcDMi, and bli lolta ihall not axnad tweaty iMnoni In all, azeliialTa of UUoaaa Mnraota — Dona of whom ahall ha angaged in trade. Art. t. If the £uip«ror of China •ball bareaftar enter into anjr treatj angagemaota permitting the repreaentativea of anjr other nation to reiide permanentij at the Capital, then the ropreaenUtlre of the United SUtea ahall, without any farther i<«gotiatlon or diaeuaaian, have the aame privilege. Art 7. The auparlor authoritiea of the United Statea and China, in eorrespondlng together, ahall do io in terma of oqoalltjr and In the form of mutual communication. The conaula, and the loeal oflicera, civil and miiltaty, in corre- •ponding together, ahall iikcwiio employ the atyle and form of mutual communication. When iuferior offloera of one rov- ernment addreaa aupcrior offlcera of the other, thoj •hall ilo ■0 In the atjrie and form of memorial. IMvate individuals, l:t addreertog lup^rior ofBeera, ahall employ the atyie of iwtl- tL:n. In no caw ahall uny terma or ityle be aulfcrod which iliail Iw oflMuive or diareipectful to either party. And It la agreed that no prcaent, under any pretext oi form whatever, •hall ever be demanded of the United Statea b/ China, or of China by the United Statea. Art. 8. All penional Interconrae and interview* between the miniater of the Untied Statea and the offlcon of the Chi- nene empire •ball be held at the official realdencca of thoao ofHcera, or at the temporary realdonce of the miniater of the United Slatee, nor ahall any pretext or cxcuaca be urged for ' declining eucb Interviewa All Intercouree upon current mat- tera sball bo done by correapondenco. Art. 9. Whenever ahlpa of war of the United Statea, In cmiaing upon the coaat for the protection of the commerce of their country, ahall arrive at any of the porta of China, the oommandera of aaid ahlpa, and the anperior local authoritiea of the government, abail hold Interconrae together in terma of equality and eourteay ; and the aaid iliips of war ahall en- Joy all auitable facllttiea on the part of the Chineao govern- ment for the purehaae of provlaions, procuring water, and making neceaaary repaira. And In caao merchant vesaela tball be wrecked and plundered, or captured and pillaged by plntea, the national veiaela of the United Statea may puraue the piratea, and ■hall deliver tliera, if taken, to the Chincae government for trial and puniahment according to the Chi- neao lawa. Art 10. The government of the United States may appoint conaula or other officers, for tlie protection of trade at each cf the ports opened to commerce, who ahall be duly rocog- nixed aa auch by the oflicera of tho L'blni'ao government, and •hall hold official intercourse and correspondence with them, either penonally or In writing, upon terma of equality, and in the style of mutual communication. If disrespectfully treated or aggrieved in any way by the local autlloritle^ uld officera shall have right to make rcprescntatlona of the same to the superior officers of the Chinese government, who shall see that full Inquiry and strict Justice be had In the premises. The conaula ahall avoid all acta of unneceaaary ofTenae to or colliaion with tho officers and people of China. Upon the ar- rival of any consul, the minister of the United States shall give notice of the ssmo to the government, in order that be may bo properly rvcognUcd. Art. 11. All citixons of tho United States in China, peace- ably attending to their own affairs, belnt; placed on a com- mon footing of amity and good-will wllli the subjects of Chi- na, ahall receive and enjoy for thcuiselvcs and their proprr^y the protection of tho local authorities, n ho shall defend thiui from insult and injury of any aort on the part of the Chlncne If their dwelllnga or property be threatened or attacked by mobs, incendiaries, or other violent and lawless persons, the local officer, on requisition of the consul, will immediately dispatch a military force to disperse tho rioters, and will ap- prehend the guilty individuals. Subjects of China who may be guilty of such violence ahall be punished according to tho law of China, and citixena of tho United Statea who may In- jure the persona or property of tho subjects of China shall bo punished by the consuls of tho United Slates, aceordliig to tho law of their own country. Arrests for such injuries may be made by either party. Art. 12. Citizens of the United States residing or sojourn- ing at any of the porta open to foreign commerce ahall enjoy all proper accommodation in obtaining hour's and placca of huainesa, or In hiring sites on which to consvruct bouses and places of business, and also hospitab, churches, and ceme- teries. The partica iPtcrested shall fix the rent by mutual agreement, and the local authorities ahall not Interfere, but all legal feea for neceaaary papera shall be paid. The mor- chanta shall not uiircaaonably loalat on particular spots, and the cemeteries shall be protected from desecration by the an tlt!)fiti^ of cUoa. A^ pUcea wbero sblpa are permitted lu coma, the oltixeoa of the United Stales, merchants, seamen, and others sojourning there, may pass and repass in tho im- mediate neighborhood, but they shall not go into the country or neighboring villagea, or to the public marts fur the pur- poae of dlspoaing of goods unlawfully and defrauding the rev- enue. Art 13. If any vessel of the United States shall be wrecked or stranded on the coaat of China, and ho subject to pluuder or other damage, the proper officers of the govenimout, on receiving information of the fact, will immediately adopt • meaaures for their relief and aecurlty, and the poraons on board ahall receive friendly treatment, and bo enabled at once to repair to the moat convenient uf tho free porta, and shall enjoy all facilities for obtaining supplies of urovlslona and water. If any merchant veaaei of tho Unitea States in Chinese watera shall be plundered by robbers or pirates, the Chinese local authoritiea, civil and military, on receiving In- formation thereof, will arrest the said rokbora and pirates, and punish them according to law, and will cause all tho property which can be recovered to be placed In tho hands of the nearest consul, or other officer of tho United States, to lie by him restored to the true owner. If it should happen that the robbers should not bo apprehended, tho Chinese gov- emment will not make Indemnity for tho goods lost. Ilut if It bo proven that the local authorities were In coliusloii with the robbers or pirates, then proper representations of that fact shall be made to the auperlor authorities, in order that they may memorialize the throne, and the guilty officers sball be punialied and their property conflscatod. Art. 14. The citixons of ibe United States are permitted to frequent the porta of Canton, Cbow-Chow, or Swatow, In Kwangtung ; Araoy, Foo-chow, Taiwan In Formosa, in the province of Fuh-klen ; X'ingpo, in tho province of Cheh- kieng; and Shanghai, in Klaug-Su; and ani/ oilier ports that may be opened to the commerce o/ other rutiotie, and to reside with their faniilica and trado there, and to proceed at pleas- ure with tkclr vessels and merchandise to and from any for- eign p<.'t, and cither of the aaid ports to any other of tlicm. But said vesaclii shall not carry on a clandcatlno and fraudu- lent tradu with other ports, or along tho coast. Any vessel under the American flag which almll violate this provUion shall be seized, and with her cargo shall bo subject to conAs- catlon to tho Chinese government; and any citizen of tho United Statea who shall trade In contraband articles of mer- chandise, in violation of thla provision, sball bo dealt with hy tho Chinese authorities, and shall not be entitled to tho countenance or protection of the govenuucnt of the United Statea. And the United States shall take measures to pre- vent the American flag from being thus abused. A rt. 16. Tho citixena of tho United Statea may export from, and Import to, any of the designated i>ort« which are oimi to commerce, all merchandise which Is not prohibited— tho tar- iff of duties to be paid by them being the same as that agreed to hy the treaty of Wang-hla, except as the same may bo niodlfled hy treaties with others nations. But it l.> agreed that they shall In no case be subject to other or higher duties than are or shall be required of the most favored nation. Art. 10. Tonnage duties sball be paid upon merchant ves- sels nt tlie rate of four maee [forty cents] per ton, if said ves- sel IMJ over 150 tons burden ; and one mace per ton If they oro of tho burden of IBO tuns or under, according to the amount of her tonnage as specifled in her register lodged witli tliu consul. And If any vessel which, having anchored at ono of tho aaid ports, and there paid tonnogo duty, sliall have occa- eion to go to any other of the aaid ports to complete the dls- |)0sal of her cargo, tho consul shall report tho same to tiio commissioner of customs, who, on the departure of said ves- ael, will note In tho port clearance that the tonnage duties have been paid, and report the same to tho other custom- houses; and on entering another port, the said vessel will only pay duty there on her cargo, but shall uo', bo suhject to tonnage duty a second time. And the government shall tuko measures for erecting light-houses, placing buoys, etc., Iho expense to be defrayed out of tho tonnogo dues. Art 17. CItixens of tho United States, for their vessels bound In, ahall be allowed to engage pilots, who will tuko aaid vessels into port; and when the lawful duties havo been paid, they may engage pilots to leave port It shall also be lawful for them to hire at pleasure servants, compradori, lin- guists, and writers, and passage or cargo boats, aud to em- ploy laborers, seamen, and persons for whatever necessary service for a rcaaonablo compensation, to bo agreed on by the partiea Art 13. Whenever merchant vcaaels of the United States shall have entered port, the superintendent of customs will, if ho see fit, appoint cuitoni-bouso officers to guard the said vessels, who may live on board tho ships or in tliclr own boats at their Gonvoulence. Mutiuccra ou boani Amertcou vcsscla CAN 26S CAN ■hill be apprehended by the local ofRcen, and delivered to tlie coniulB for punUbment, If Cblnose criminal! aball take tefugo on board American veuela, tbey shall not be harbored, butiball bo delivered up to the offlcors of Justice upon proper demand being made ; and In cases of violence between seamen and Chinese subjects the local officers shall enforce order and do Justice. Art. 10. Whenever any merchant vessel of the United States shall cast anchor at any of the said ports, tlie supercargo, master, or consignee shall, within 43 hours, deposit the ship's papers in the hands of the consul, or other United States agent, who will cauae to be communicated to the superintendent of customs a true report of the name and tonnage of said vessel, the names of hkjr crew, and the nature of her cargo, wblcli being done, the superintendent will give a permit for the dis- charge of her cargo ; and the master, superc;:.rgo, or consignee, If be proceed to diacliarge the cargo witliout such permit, shall Incur a fine of $500, and the goods so discharged without per- mit shall be subject to forfeiture to the Chinese government But if the master of any vessel In port desire to discharge a part only of the cargo. It shall be lawful for him to do so, pay- ing duties on such part only, and to proceed with tlie remain- der to any other ports; or. If tlie master so desire, ho may, within 4S boura after the arrival of the vessel, decide to de- part without breaking bulk. In case of the absence of tlic consul or agent of his own government, he shall apply to the consul of some friendly power, or directly to the superintend- ent of customs. Art. 20, The superintendent of eustomo, on application made through the consul, will appoint suitable officers, who shall procc'^d, in presence of the cnptain, supercargo, or con- signee, to ti.ake a just and fair examination of all goods being discharged or laden on board any vessel of the United States. If disputes arise as to the value of goods subject to an od tu- iorem duty, and the same can not be satisfactorily arranged by the parties, the question may within 24 hours, and not afterward, be referred to the consul to a^iut with the super- intendent of customs. Art. 21, Any citizen of the United States who may have Imported merchandise and paid the duties upon It, and may wish to re-«rporf the same to another part, shall bo entitled to make application through the consul to the superintendent of customs, who shall make examination to ascertain whether the duties liave been paid according to tlio re transhipped to another vessel, application shall be made to the consul, who shall certify the occasion thereof to the superintendent o( customs, who may appoint officers to examine into the facts, and permit the trunshipmcnt And If anygoodsbotranshipped withoutstich application and permit, they shall bo subject to confiscation to the Chinese government Art. 24, Kor dcbta due from subjecta of China tj citizens of the United States, the latter may seek redress In law, and on suitable representation being made to the ChincHi' aiiihor- IticB, through the consul, they will cause due examination in the premises, and take all proper steps to compel satisfaction. If citizens of the United States be indebted to subjects of Chi- na, the latter may seek redress in the same way through the consul. But the ChlueBo gover.'meut will not hold Itwlf re- sponsible for any debts due from subjects of China to elttzeni of the United States, nor will the United States be responsible for any debts of its citizens to subjects of China. Art. 25. It shall bo lawful for the officers and citizen! of the United Slates to employ scholars and people of any part of China to teach any of the languages of tlie empire, and to assist In literary labors ; and the persons so employed shall not, for that cause, be subject to any Injury on the part of tho government or of Individuals ; and It shall In like man- ner be lawful for citizens of the United States to purahaaa all manner of books In China. Art. 20. Kclations of peace and amity between the United States and China being eatablUhed by this treaty, and the vessels of the United Statei being admitted to trade freely to and from the ports of China open to foreign commerce. It Is further agreed tlint in case at any time hereafter China should be at war with any foreign nation whatever, and for that cause should exclude such nation from entering her porta, still the vessels of the United States shall not the less continue to pursue their commerce In freedom and security, and to trans- poi-t goods to and from tlie ports of the belligerent parties, full respect being paid to the neutrality of the Hog of the United States ; provided that the said flag shall not protect vessel! engaged In the transportation of officers and soldiers In the enemy's service ; nor shall said flag be fraudulently used to enable the enemy's ships, with thtir cargoes, to enter the ports of China ; but all such vesBeis so offending shall be sub- ject to forfeiture and confiscation by the Ciilneae government. Art. 27. All questions in regard to rights, whether of prop- erty or person, arising between citizens of the United States In China shall be subject to tlic Jurisdiction and regulated by the authorities of their own government ; and all controver- sies occnning In China between citizens of the United States and subjects of any other government shall be regulated b> the treaties existing between tiie United States and such gov- ernment rospcctiveiy, without interference on the part of China. Art. in. If citizens of the United States have special occa- sion to address any communication to the Chinese local offi- cers of the government, they shall submit the same to their consul or other officer, to determine If the language be proper and respectful, and the matter just and right. In which event he ahall transmit the same to the appropiiate authorities for their consideration and action in the premises. In like man- ner. If subjects of China have occasion to address the consul of the United States, they shall submit tho communication to ttio local authorities of their own government, to determine if tho language be respectful and proper, and the matter Just and right, in which case tho said authorities will transmit the ■'inie to tho consul, or other officer, for his consideration and action In tho premises. And if controvcrEles arise be- tween citizens of the United States and subjects of China which can not be amicably settled otherwise, tlie same shall be examined and decided conformably to Justice and equity, by the public officers of the two nations acting In conjunction. And the extortion of nil illegal fees is prohibited. Art 29. The principles of the Christian religion, as pro- fessed by Protestants and lioman Catholics, are recognized as teaching men to do good, aud to do to others as they would have othera do unto them. Hereafter, therefore, those per- sons who may bo quietly and peaceably teaching these doc- trines shall not be persecuted ; and any person who may teach these principles shall not, on that accouut, bo Interfered with or molested In any way. Art 80. Tiie contracting parties agree, that If the Ta-tsing empire should grant to any nation, or to any citizen of foreign nations, any rights or privileges connected with commerce, navigation, or politics, sucli rights and privlirgcs shall enuiB to the merchants and citizens of the United States also. This treaty shall bo ratified by tho I'resldcnt and Senate of the United States within one year or sooner from the date thereof, and by the Sovereign of tho Ta-tsIng empire forth- with. And ratifications shall bo exchanged wltMn one year from the date of Its signature. Dated at TIen-tsin, Juno 18, 1S69. (Signed) Wu. D. Heed, United States Commissioner. nw""rNi, } ^'''""'^ Commissioners. Ewoptan Tradt at Canton. — As soon as B vessel ar- rives among the islands which front tha entrance to tho Canton liivcr, she is generally boarded by a pilot, who condacts her into Macao or Hong Kong roads. The pilots' names are rcgistorcd at the Keun-min-foo's offlco near Mu ,ao ; and for a license to act the sum of $600 is paid. The person wlio takes out tho license sometimes linows nothing about ships or the river, but employs iishermen to do the duty. On the vessel's i CAN S04 CAN arrival In the roads, the pilot goes on there to report her at the oiBce of the keun-min-foo, who, when ho haa received answers to his inquiries, gives a permit for her to pass through *.ho nogue, nnil orders a rivor pilot on liourd. This pilot seldom rciwirs on lioard the vessel ticfore 24 hours have elupsed. When arrived, the vessel proceeds through the Bogue, and up the Can- ton River toWhanipoa. Every ship that enters the port requires the service of a linguist and comprador before she can commence unloading. The master used to be required to give a written declaration, in duplipate, solemnly affirming that the ship has brought no opium. All the trade with foreigners used to be conflned to the hung or se- curity merchant*; but this restriction has recently been almlished ; and foreigners may now deal with any merchant or other party they think lit to employ. The linguists are government interpreters, who procure per- mits for delivering and taking iu cargo, transact all the custom-house business, and keep accounts of the duties. All the minor charges of the government, also, are paid by tliem ; in consideration of which thoy receive a fee of aliout $173 previously to the vessel's departure. When a vessel wishes to discharge or re- ceive cargo, the linguist is Informed a day or two pre- viously what kind of goods are to bo received or dis- charged, and in what quantities. He then applies fur a permit, which being issued, the lighters or chop- Iwats proceed to Whampoa, where they usually arrive on the evening of the second or morning of the third day. For a single l>oat the linguist used to receive a fee of $23 ; but if a permit Ije obtained for from two to six boats at a time, the fee for each bont was only 11 taels 2 mace 6 cand., or about #10}. When the goods are ready to be landed from or sent to the ship, the hoppo (principal custom-house offi- cer) sends u domestic, a writer, and a ^lice runner ) the hong merchant who has secured the ship sends u domestic, called a court-going man (one who attends at the public offices on ordinary occasions In Iwlialf uf his master); and the linguist sends an accountant and interpreter to attend at the examination of the goods. The hong merchants used to be held responsible by government for all duties, whether on imports or ex- ports In foreign vessels; and therefore, when goods were purchased, it was customary for the parties, lio- fbre fixing the price, t6 anango lietwoen themsclvos who was actually to pay the duties. Of an Import cargo, each chop-boat, according to rule, which, how- ever, is not rigidl.v enforced, should contain — of wool- ens, camlets, and long-ells, 140 balci ; tin, SOU bars ; leaj, IHM pigs ; Bombay cotton, 65 l>alos ; Kengal cot- ton, 80 bales; betel-nut, pepper, etc., iKXl piculs. Of export goods, a chop-lioat should take — of tea, 600 chests; of other sorts of goods, 500 piculs. If more than this, the hong merchant gives to the chop-U)at, for each additional picul, $C}. In calculating the duties on export goods, 90 catties are considered 100, The woolens, long-ells, and camlets, are measured by the chang of 10 covids, without any deduction ; and single articles are numiiered. If, after entering the port, any persons tranship goocls, it is considered tliat the one ship sold them U> the other ; and in that case the same duty has to Ui paid 08 if the goods were brought up to Canton I'rii- visions are not included In this regulation. Shlfm' boais are not allowed to carry up or down any thing chargealite with duty, (iold, silver, copjK^r, anil Iron ore prohibited to be exported ; a few culinary utensils are the only exceptions. When it is desired tu ex|>urt treasure, the hong merchant must mako an estlmato of the value of the import and export cargoes, ar.d whatever lialance there may be in favor of the ship may then lie shipped off as treonuro. If mora cargo be sent to a ship than she can take' on iioard, anil the wishes it to lie shipped on Iward another, it must Iw dona within 3 days aft«r aunooiuiing tUa good* a^ Um ciutoin-hnnsa, and a hong merobant must state it to govnmmont ; If granted, a himg merchant and linguist are ordered to go to Whampoa and take an account of such goods ; all which, with the exiwnso of lioats, runners, etc, ut Whnnipoa, costs 40 or 50 dollars. — (.'uniimnloH In Aniilo-Chiiimr Calemlar, p. B9-101. . J/imy J/i>rcAan(i>.— i'revlousiy to the commencement of the now system. It had liecn the invarlnbie practice, enforced by law, that all foreign vessels arriving in the (wrt should otnpluy, .'?s broker or agent, a hong or security merchant, who became, by doing so, resimnsi- Ide to the guvernutunt for the duties. These mer- chants, who were imt few In numl>er, were the only Indlviduuls in tliu empire legally authorized to trade with fiirulgncrs, n privilege for which they had to pay vwy largely, Dut after an arrangement had been mode with any particular hong merchant for securing a ship, licr captain or supercargo miglit dcul with any other liiitig merchant, or even with any outside mcr- cliaiit (ur inurchaiit not bolimging to the hong) ho pleatod, The peculiar duty of the hong merchant was tu pay the duties on both the Inward and outward car- goes; and hniii'd arose tlio practice of foreigners buy- ing all gimiln for ox)iort duty paid, and selling »ll the /(nods iiniiiglit with tliom free of duty, the duties l)eing. In iHith cases, paid by the hong merchants who had secured the ship ; and hence, also, the ignorance of most foreigners as to the amount of the duties. But now that the privilege of tlie hong merchants has lieen abullshcil, the duties will have to be paid to the Chi- lieso authorities by the parties Importing and export- ing, In tlin sami way as In this country. J'uri ('Imrfftii nn' lixnd under the new treaty at five inaco |i«r ruglst^ir tun, in full of all charges ; so that the complex system that previously obtained for charg- ing thoMi duties is now, in so far at least as British ships are concemotl, at an end. Vessels im|mrting rice or other grain Into any of the five ports open to British vessels, are liable to no charges whatever; but if they lake away an export cargo, they then have to pay the duties on such cargo agreeably to the tariff, and one iniiiiity ut tlio tonnage duos, or 2) mace per ton. The whold numlier of vessels arriving at Canton In IM54 was (12(1, with the tonnage of 154,157. Of this numlxir, I!I7 were Ilrlllsh, 06 American, 28 Dutch, 21 Hp.inlsli, II Danish, and 18 renivian. The latter, we Imuglliv, are all engaged In kidnapping, a system which cundvtnns hundreds of Chinese to a speedy death among the guanu Islands of Callara. These vessels brought ill the same year gooils to the value of £795,255, con- slitiitiiig (/'anion u gmid, Imt not a first-rate customer to Kiiriipn, Uf cotton gomis our mercliants purchased l|2,70iirly 10 |)cr cent, ml valorem upon the wIkiIo nmveinent of llrltlsh trade in that )x)rt. The customs dues of (Calcutta, heavy as wc believe them to lie, arc a trlfln when compared to those of Canton, which average very nearly 17 rupees a ton. — /long KiMD UvumitmU (joMtU*. CAN S8S CAN Foreign Jtferchanit, — These conalst of BrltiAh. Amer- ican, French, Dutch, Danish, 8wes of persons deceased, as executors or admlnlstratorH 6 per cent 20. The management of the estates of others, on the amount received 2} percent 20. All cash receipts, not serving for tlie pur- chase of goods, and not otherwise speci- fied above 1 per cent 81. Shroffing 2 per mil. 82. Transhipping goods 1 per cent 83. All advances not punctually linnidated, the agent to have the option of charging a second commission, as upon a fresh ad- vance, provided the charge does not occur twice in the same year 1 percent 84. At the option of the agent, on tho amount debited or credited within tho year, In- oludinglntero8t,and excepting only items on which a commission of 6 per cent has been cliarged 1 per cent ?l.B.— This charge not to be applied to paying over a bal- ance duo on an account made up to a particular period, unless where such balance Is withdrawn without reasonable notice. Opium, which is by far the most profitable of all the articles imported into China, is excluded bom the offlcial account of imports, which comprises those at* tides only that are legally admiasible. Althou)^, however, it be nominally excluded, opium is openly, systematically, and easily introduced ; the trade in it lieing, in fact, as safe and as regular as that in any other commodity, while it is incomparably more ox- tensive. Notwithstanding the efforts that have some- times been made to effect its exclusion, the importl have continued rapidly to increase. In 1816-'17 they amounted to only 3210 chests, whereas in 18'2m'30 they had increased to about 14,000 chests ; and they art now estimated at aliont 64,000 chests, worth about 1:38,000,000. So rapid an increase in the production and consumption of a drug is, perhaps, unparalleled in the history of commerce. It is probable, however, that its importation will shortly receive n check; for it is believed that the Chinese, aware at last of tho im- potency of tho attempts to prevent its introduction, are about to legalize its importation and culture in tba empire. And as the soil in many parts of China is un- derstood to be well suited to the growth of the poppy, there can be little doul>t that its cultivation will be rapidly extended. Should this expectation be realized, it will produce a very important change in tho trade of China. On the whole, however, we incline to think that tho change will be beneficial. It will go far to restore the balance between the imports and exports without draining China of her bullion ; and it will en- able her to purchase larger quantities of the manufac- tures and other products of this and other countries. The change in question, supposing it to be realized, will, however, seriously affect India, which furnishes almost all the opium sent to China, and tho culture and sale of which, besides affording employment and subsistence to a large population, yields a net revenue to the East India Company of considerably more than ^3,000,000 a year! Shanghai is situated in the southern part of the prov- ince of Kiang-Su, at a considerable distance from tho sea, on tho Kiver Woo-Sung, in about lut. 31° 10' N., long. 1'20° 60' E. The river, which may be navigated by large ships for a considerable distance above the town, crosses the grand canal, and, consequently, mokes Shanghai nn intrepijt for all tho vapt and fertile coun- tries traversed by tho canal and by the great rivers with which it is connected ; and hence the present im- portance of tills ein|)orium, as evinced by the extent of our trade with it in 1848 ; and hence, also, tho in- finitely greater importance to which its commerce will licrcafter most prol)ably attain. Expoaxs OF Tea fkom C'UINA. Black Tu. Oreen Tea. Told. To Great Uritain, lft48-'49. To Great Hrltain, lS49-',')0. To (ireat llrituin, 1860-61. ToUniterl Static IWl-S'!. Pounda. 38,763,600 45.848,900 5,'),0!10,S0O 13,301,61.1 Pounda. 8,479,200 8,120,4110 8,060,000 20,9fl.%9]S Pounda. 47,242,700 53,509,800 03,763,400 34,827,428 From this statement it will l>e seen that the anionnt of tlio exports of Idnck ten to Great Britain is increas- ing very fast, at the rate of 20 per cent, per annum ; and was in 1850-'51 seven times as great as tho ex- ports of green tea ; while tho exports of black tea to the United States were only two-thirds the exports of green tea. ExTOnTR OP Tea prom China. Year ending Jane. United StMee. Orent Britain. 1864 Pounda. 27.807,000 81,616,000 40,240,000 P,)und8. 77,217,000 80,600,000 01,03t',(W0 ISM I860 Trade with the Indian Islands, etc.— in his evidence before the select committee of the House of Commons, Mr. Crawfurd gave tho following details with respect to tho native foreign trade with China : " The principal part of the junk or shipping trade Is carried on by tho four contiguous provinces of llsnton, Foklen, Che- klang, and Klannan. No foreign trade is permitted with the Uland of Formosa; and I have no means of describing the ex- CAN 266 CAN tent of the tnfflo which may bo eondimleil between China, Co- rea, and the Loechew lilanUi. The fullowlng are the coun- tiioi with wlilch China carriea on a trade In Junlu: viz., Ja- pan, the Philippines, tlio 8oo-loo Itdandit, Celebes, the Moluc- cas, Borneo, Java, Sumatra, Singapore, Khio, the past coast of the Ualajran iienlnBUla, Slam, Cochin Clilna, Cambodia, and Tonquln; and these may, in all, employ about 'i2^ junks. The ports of China at which this trade Is conducted are. Can- ton, Tchao-tchoou, Nomhong, llocitchcon, Suhcng, Kong- moon, Changilni, and Hainan, In tho province of Canton ; Amoy and Chlnchow, In the province of Fokien ; Nlugpo and Blang-hai, in tho province of Choklang; and Soutchcou, In tho province of Kiannan. Tlio above estimate docs not In- clude a great number of small Junks belonging to the island of Hainan, which carry on trade with Tonquln, Cochin China, Cambodia, Slam, and Slnga|wro. Those for Slam amount yearly to about 60, and for tho Cochin Chinese dominions to about 42 : these alone would bring the total number of ves- sels carrying on a direct trade between China and foreign countries to SOT. The trade with Japan la confined to tho port of Nlngpo, in Clicklang, and expressly limited to 10 ves- lels; but as the distance from Nangasukl Is a voyage of no more than four days, it Is ])erformed twice a yf*ar. With the exception of this branch of trade, the foreign lntcr..ounie of the two provinces, Chekiang and Kiannan, which are famous for tlie production of raw silk, teas, and nankeens. Is confined to the Philippine Islands, Tonquln, Cochin China, Cambodia, and Slam ; and none of this class of vessels, that I am aware of, have ever found their way to the western parts of the Indian Archipelago. The number of these trading with Slam Is 24, all of considerable size ; those trading witli the Cochin Chi- nese dominions, 10, also of considerable slae ; and those trad- ing with tho l'lilllpplnes,5; making in all 4fi, of which tho av- erage bunion does not fall short of 1T,000 tons. Besides the Jimks now described, there Is another numerous class, which may he denominated tho colonial shipping of the Chincs>\ Wherever the Chinoso are settled In any numbers. Junks of this description are to bo found ; such as In Java, Sumatra, the Straits of Malacca, etc; but the largest commerce of this description Is conducted fh)m tho Cochin Chinese dominions, GBpecially from Siam, where the number was estimated to mo at 200. Several J links of this description trom the loiter coun- try come annually to Singapore, of which tho burden Is not less than from SOO to 400 tons. Tho Junks which trado be- tween China nnd the adjacent countries aro some of them owned and built in China; but a considerable number also In the latter countries, particularly In Slam and Cwhln China. Of those carrying on the Siamese trade, Indeed, no less than 61 out of the 89, of considerable size, were represented to mo as being built and owned In Slam. Tlic smalljuuks, however, carrying on tho trade of Hainan, aro all built and owned In China. The Junks, whether colonial or trading direct with China, vary in burden from 2000ploul8 to 16,000, or carry dead weight from 120 to 900 tons. Of those of the last size I havo only seen three or four, and these were at Slam, and the same which were commonly employed In carrying a mission and a tribute yearly from Slam to Canton. Of the wholo of the largo claj*s of Junks, I should think tho average burden will not 1)c overrated at SOO tons each, which would make the total ton- nage cm))loycd in the native foreign trade of ('hina lietween 60,OOOaDd "0,000 tons, exclusive of tho smalljunks of Hainan, which, estimated at ISO tons each, would make hi all about 80,000 tons. " The Junks built In China are usually constructed of fir and other inferior wooils. When they arrive In Cambodia, Btain, and the Malayan Ishinds, they commonly fumUh them- selves with masts, rudders, and wooden anchors, of the supe- rior timber of these countries. Tho Junks built In Slam arc a superior class of vessels, the planks and upper works being In- variably teak. Tho cost of ship-building Is highest at the port of Amoy, in Fokien, and lowest In Slam. At these phiees, and at Chang-llm, in Canton, the cost of a Junk of 8000 plculs, or 476 tons burden, was stated to rae, by several commandera of Junks, to !« as follows; at Slam, $7400; Chang-llm, $16,000; Amoy, $21,000. A Junk of tlio size Just named has commonly a crew of 90 hands, consisting of tho following officers, besides the crew ! a commander, a pilot, an accountant, a captain of tho helm, a captain of the anchor, and a captain of the hold. The commander receives no pay, but has the advantage of tlie cabin accommodation for passengers, ntckoned on tho voyage between Canton and Singapore worth 160 Spanish dollars. He Is also tho agent of the owners, nnd receives a commission, commonly of 10 per cent, on the jmifitu of such share of the adventure, generally a very considerable one, In which they art ooncemed. The pilot receives for tho voyage $200 of wages, and 60 plculs affreight out and homo. TKe helmsman luis 16 pleuls of IVtlght uMil no wages. Tho captalus of the anchor Multbe bold have plculs of fipclght each ; and the seamen 7 plculs each. None of these have any wages. The offlcers and seamen of tlio colonial Junks an differently rewoniud, In a Siamese Junk, for example, trading lietweon tho Siamese cap- ital and Singapore, of 0000 plculs burden, tho commander and pilot had each $100 for the voyage, with 12 picnis of freight apiece. The accountant and helmsman had half of this allow- ance, and each seaman had $13, with 6 plculs of freight. In construction and outfit, Chinese Junks aro clumsy and awk- waid in the extreme. Tho Chinese aro quite unacquainted with navigation, saving tho knowledge of the compasH ; not- withstanding this, OS their pilots aro expert, their voyages short, and as they hardly ever sail except at the height of the monsoons, when a fiiU* and steady 7 or S knots' breeze carries them directly ftom port to port, tho sea risk Is very small. During 13 yean' acquaintance with this branch uf trade, I can recollect hearing of but four shipwrecks ; and In all these Instances tho crews were saved. The construction and rigging of a Chinese Junk may bo looked upon as her proixi i.gl5tr>-, and they are a very effectual one ; for the least deviation fhnii them would subject her at once to foreign chai'geH nnd foreign duties, and to all kinds of suspicion. Tho colonial Junks, 'whieli aro of a more cuniniodlous form and outfit, if visiting China, aro subjected to the samo duties as foreign vesselik Junks built in Siam, or any other adjacent countr}-, if con- structed and fitted out after the customary model, are admit- ted to trade to China upon the same terms as those built and owned In tho country. If any port of tho crew consist of Si- amese, Cochin Chinese, or other forelgncra, the latter are ad- mitted only at tho port of Canton; and If found In any other part of China, would bo seized and taken up by tho police ex- actly In tho same manner as If they were Kuropeons. Tho native trade of China conducted with foreign countries is not a clondcstlne commerce, unacknowledged by tho Chinese laws, but has In every case at least tho express sanction of the vice- roy or governor of tho pvovincc, who, on petition, decldts tho number of JunUs that shall be allowed to engage In It, and even enumerates tho articles which It shall bo legal to export and Import. At every port, also, wliero such a forel^i troda Is sanctioned, there la a hong or Ijody of security uiorchants, as at Canton ; a fact which shows clearly enough that this In- stitution Is parcel of tho lows or customs of CIdna, and not a peculiar restroint imposed upon tho Intercourse with Kuro- jieans. The Chinese Junks properly constructed jiay no ineas- urenient duty, and no cumshaw or present; duties, however, are paid upon goods exported and imported, which seem to dijfer at the different provinces. They are highest at Amoy, and lowest In the Island of Hainan. The Chinese traders of Slam Informed me that they carried on tho folrcat and easiest trade, subject to the fewest restrictions, In the ports of Nlngpo and Slong-hal, In Chekiang, and Soutchcou, In Kiannan. Great dexterity seems every where to bo exercised by tho Chinese In evading the duties. One practice, which Is very ofien follow- ed, win afford a good example of tills. Tho coasting-trade of China Is nearly ftve fVom all duties and other Imposts. Tho merchant takes advantage ofthls; and, intending in reality to proceed to Siam or Cochin China, for example, clears a Junk out for tho Island of Hainan, and thus avoids the payment of dutlea When she returns she will lie four or five doya off tho mouth of the iwrt, until a regular bargain bo made with the custom-houBO offieera fur the reduction of duties. The threat held out In such coses Is to proceed to another [lort, and thus deprive tho public oiHcers of their customary jwrqulsltes. I was assured of tho frequency ofthls practice by Chinese mer- chants of Cochin China, as well as by several comnianders of Junks at Singapore. From the last-named persons I had an- other fact of some consequence, as connected with the ChlneBe trade ; viz., that a good many of the Junks carrying on trade with foreign ports to the westward of China often proceeded on voyages to the northward in the samo scison. In this manner they stated that about 20 -.onslderalile Junks, besides a great many small ones, proceeded annually fVoin 4;unton to Souchong, one of the capitals of Kiannan, and in wealth and commorco tho rival of Caiiton. whore they sold about 20<) chests of opium at an advance of bO per cent, beyond tho (.'onton prices. Another place where tho Ci.. tonjunks, to the number of five or six, repair annually. Is Chinchew, In the province of Canton, wlthia the Gulf of I'echelcy, or Yellow Sea, and as farii.rth as the U7tli degree of latitude." — AjiJMuiix, Hqxnt 0/1830, p. 298. A Chinese ship or junk is seldom the property of one individual. Suuictinies 40, 5U, or even 100 ditfcrent merchants purchase a vessel, and divide her into as many different eompartments ns tlicrc are partner.^, so tliiit each knows his own particular part of tlie ship, which ho is at liberty to lit up and secure us he pleases. Tho hulk-heads, liy wliich tlicsc divisions are formed, consist of stout planks, so woU caulked us to be com- CAN 267 CAP pletely water-tight. A ship thus formed may strike on a rock, and jot sustain no serious injury ; a leak springlug in one division uf tlie liold will not bo at- tended witli any damage to articles placed in auotlier; and, from licr tinnncss, she is qualified to resist a more than ordinary shock, A consldcrablo loss of stowage is, of course, sustained ; but the Chinese exports gen- erally contain a considerable value in small bulk. It is only the very largest class of Junks that have so many owners ; but even in the smallest class the num- ber is very considerable.— &e China, Canvas (Jr. Toile a voile ; Gcr. SeyeUuch ; It. Cune- vuzzo, Lonu; Ituss. I'uruasiioe jiololiw, J'arumiia; Sp. Imiih), unbleaclied cloth of hemp or flax, chie8y used for sails for shipping. Caoutohouo. "This substance, which has been Improperly termed elastic gum, and vulgarly, from its common application to rub out pencil nun-ks on paper, Iiulid rubliei; is obtained from the milky juice of difler- eut plants in hot countries. The chief of tlieso arc the JtUropha einaiica, and I'rcvuUi eUutica, The juico is applied in successive coatings on a mould of clay, and dried !>}■ tlie lire or in tlie s\in; and when of a sutTi- cient thickness, the mould is crushed and the pieces shaken out. Acids separate the caoutchouc from the thinner part of tlie juice at once, by coagulating it. The juice \,>f old plants yields nearly two-thirds of its weiglit; that of younger plants less. Its color, when frcsli, i^, yellowish-white, but it grows darker liy ex- posure to the air. Tlio elasticity of this substance is its most renuirkablo property; when warmed, as lij- immerxion in lu>t water, slips of it may be drawn out to 7 or 8 times their original length, and will return to their former dimensions nearly. Cold renders it stiff and rigiil, l)Ut warmth restores its original elasticity. Kxpuscd to the (ire, it softens, swells up, and burns witli a bright flame. In Cayenne it is used to give light as a caudle." — Umi'a JMcl. See. Indi.v liuiiuiui. Caoutchouc has become an article of very considera- ble importance. 1M. do la Condaniino, who was one of tlio first to communicate authentic information with respect to it, mentions that, owing to its being imper- vious to water, it was made into boots by the Indians. — ]'vi/age *, J« this nrnnnflr tliread of ftOdO y(#r»r» Ui CMidrt tlw (lifc/id inelas- tic, which is ertwlu/j hv ViUiAum *' tls'itly on reels and allowing it Iu mm\H ill IImI ((iiiilllion imlil near- ly dci)rivc« t>Mmi\»w» Mil frohi the solid cuke, and may likjuwivix \m u\iin\iwi\ uf Htiy si/e, and of extreme U-mUy, by 6(/fl'lw1ili(|S » si'tllliort In naphtha uiMju cloth previously ui/l"l, mriMillK it off when dry. Tlie use of rullds, witll « ((JWK lit ihiiU »itnl1arly pre- pared and eu|)erillij»)W<4 im >tin VrtfllislK'il sKfface'of the first, may also hu umiiUipfti ill tilin lipetMiau.—K. H. Cap. The ItoiMiills \ttiHi fiif HlHll)' Huea without regular covering fur Hm Iw-nd, mii«1 iwim (Tie heads of all the ancient stalMus »f>i)it»f imfv, UlK Ht (me period the cap was » symlw/l ut litiCfiy, Hil(t ttdcil the Ilomans Rave it to tlieir sImvI'II H I'Ii'IHM Hwm to freedom. The cup was soMi'-'f )lll«s liwrt UK It mafk (it Infamy ) in Italy tlie Jews wefu 4i<>lillMllililll<(1 iijf M J'tllow cap, and in France tliosc mIm Iiii4 Wfli tiKlilifllfils were for- ever after obliged (M Wmf » (jlWH I'ttp, The general use of caps and Iwts is frfwwl (« (lie fmt 1 itfl ; the first seen in these ()#>•»» I'f (ll« *llfM (icillg at the entry of Charks VII, i|it« lUmfl), friKII #(ll< ll (line (hey took tlie place of chaptfoMS Uf milh, A R((l((l(e Was" pass- ed that none sImjmW wll itiijf Imf rtl/iy+e 2(T(/. (40 cents) nor cap above -Jia, Htl, (lilj mn\^), ft Wmif Vll., 1489.— IIavdn. Cape QattorMi fl Iiij|(4Iaiii1, %( IMnMittie Utlf, Lat. 88° 40' 30" N., hnis, In" i' ii" W, 'Hie light-house shows afjed wliife lig()(i |i) emment in 1889. In many of the illatricts are mission- ary schools supported by dllTerent I'roteslaiit sui'lellcs. In 1842 there were 40 public and 102 private niiliiHilf, attended by 2700 children. The colonial grants In lh« same year were, for educatlonil pur()UMa, £lMK/|, ami for religious purposes, distril)uted among tliu diftbri'tlt sects, £10,481. Slavery was abolished in IHIIIt, Tha English language is ulunu used in the courts of law, but the Dutch is also taught In tho government schools, The money in use is exclusively Uritish; and Dutvh weights and measures are nearly superseded by tiM English. Tho peace of the colony Is freipiently Intai'' ruptcd by incursions of tho Kaffera, and other savagt tribes on the frontier. Capen (Fr. Cnpretj Germ. Kajmemi Du. K»p- ptrs; It. Capjiari; 8p. Alcfipamu i ttunt, Sammtiti Lat. Cajiparit), the pickled buds of tho IMppiirli tjilnii- aa, a low shrub, generally growing out of tliu jiilnta vl old walls and the Assures of tocka, in moat of (Im warm parts of Europe. Capers aro imported from different parts of the Mediterranean ; the best ttoiu I'uulon, in France. Some small salt capers come from Minorca, and a few flat ones from the neighliorhood of l.yuna. In 1862, 117,007 poiuids of capurs were retained for consumption. Cape Town, the capital of the Brltlah territory in South Africa, at tho bottom of Table Hay, about H miles north from the Cape of Good Hope, and un the western side of the territory to which it gives its nainit | lat. 33° 65' 50" S., long. 18° 21' E. The town was founded by the Dutch in 1060; and remained, w(th the territory subject to It, in their posaeaainn (ill It was taken by the British in 1706, It waa reotornd (0 the Dutch by tho treaty of Amiens; but being again captured by the British in 1800, it was Anally cudud to them in 1815. The streets are laid out iu atraliflit lines, crossing each other at right angles ; many of them being watered by canals, and planted on oach side with oaks. The population in IH42 »mom\Ui(\, according to the statement in tho Cajie Almamn; to 22,543, of whom about a third were blacks. The town is defended by a castle of considerable strength. Ta* bio Bay is capable of containing any number of alilns) but it is exposed to the westerly winds, which, durlri|( the months of June, July, and August, throw in • heavy swell, that has been productive of nmny dis- tressing accidents. This, in fact, is the great draw- back upon Cape Town, which in all other rospAL'ta It most admirably fitted for a commercial atatiuii, At the proper season, however, or during the |irevAlutlM of the easterly monsoon. Table Bay la perfectly anfe | while the cheapness and abundance of provialona, ths healthiness of the climate, and, alwvo ail, Its ponllliin, render It a peculiarly desirable resting-place for ahlpn bound to or from India, China, Australia, eti.', The plan of Table Bay on tho op|>oalt(t page la taki^n fh>m the survey of the Cape of Good Ilupii, ii)(if(!iit4iil by Lieutenant Vidal and others, under the direction of Captain Owen. Port Inttrucliotu. — Art. 1. On the arrival of iner- chant vessels in Table Bay, a proper lierth will Im pointed out to the masters thereof by tho port captain when he boards them ; and no master of a meri^lmnt vessel shall shift his birth without peruilaaion from tlio port captain, unless In case of extronio eniergeiify, when he must report his having done su as early M possible at the port-office. Art. 2. Should it be tho intention of a maati-r of A vessel to discharge or receive on Itoard any conafder- ablo (quantity of merchandise, a berth will U) |wlnt«d CAP 260 CAP 1(6 It tttkon ■rBctian *)t lnaU'r of A I jiointo*} .„)» I, -. \l I .„ < •, , <>„ » e!=-Tv.*(ii — W^ It H • V«'J', ^ ,.?■„.,.( ■■>\ •.■•'■■iHfl II .11 ill» ii'i'i: f^il i- ., II ■II !•'■> I II ,•1 U.4« PLAN OP lABlK DAT. BY ItKOTiaANT VIDAl, B. TS.—Sce p. 268. lUfermuo to the Plan.— A, ItKht-house, Aimishcd with double l\gh{f. Thcjr may be tfn elcarly off deck at 16 miloa' dia- Uncc ; but tliry do not appear double till within 6 or 7 luilcs to tliu westward ; from the northward only one light is seen. II, Lion's Uuni|i. (', Tublo Mountain. l>, Devil's I'eak, In lat. 33° 67' 'i': £, Kobhiu Island. F, Salt liivcr. The Bgatta denote the souiidinKS in fathoms. out to him an closo to the jetty, or other landing-place, as the safety of the vessel and other circumstances will admit. And the master will then moor with two bow- «r anchors, witli an open hawse to the north-northeast, taking especial care, in so mooring, not to overlay the ■nchors of ai^ other ship, or in any way to give the VeMol near him a foul hoTth. Ships and vessels touch- ing in Table Bay for water and refreshments alone ntay ride at single anchor in the outer anchorage ; but in tills case it is particularly recommended to veer out 80 or 90 fathoms, if they ride by a chain cable, as the liability of starting or fouling the anchor, or breaking the chain, will thereby be greatly lessened; and if riding by a rope or coir cable, to run out a stream or good kedge, to steady the ship ; and in both cases the •ther bower anchor should be kept in perfect readiness to let go. When the vessel is properly moored with bower anchors, or well secured with a l>ower and stream anchor, and with good cables, buoys, and buoy-ropes, tlM BiMtar will then tak« the exact place of the ship I by the I)earing8 of two landmarks, and the depth of the water ; and should accident occur, by which the vessel may drift from this situation, or lose her an- : chors, a good bearing and depth of water must be taken at the lime, and the same must be notified in writing I to the port captain. It is particularly recommended that vessels bo kept as snug as possible, to counteract the eUtcts of the periodical wiudts, which at times blow with considerable violence. I The district subject to Cape Town is of very great j extent, and contains every variety of soil, from the I richest level land to the wildest mountain, and tracts destitute of even the appearance of vegetation. The ! climate fluctuates between the two extremes of rain and drought. On the whole, its advantages and dis- advantages seem to be pretty equally balanced ; and the prospects which it holds out to the industrious emigrant, if not very alluring, are certainly not dis- couraging. PcjpH/aftm.— According to the official tetums, the CAP 270 CAP population of (he Capa Colony In 1847 conaistod of 107,UU6. Proilun. — Large quantltioi of corn of a very good deicryitlon are pnxluctiU In (ho linmcdla(a neighbor- hood of Capo Town, and In o(h«r purt> of (ho colony ; but agricuhuro It oripplyl by the Uu(cb law of auc- ceuioii, which, by dividing a man's jiropcrly equally among hia children, hinclora (ho accumuladon of capi- tal in niaaaca, and tho formation of proper farming ca- taliliahnionta, — Tiiumson'h J'ravtU in Southern A/iiia, p. an. The Maurltiui and Rio Janeiro are (ho principal niarke(a for (ho corn of the Cape. The exporta of wool havo incrcaacd very rapidly wllhin (he laat ten ycara, and It now (otmi by far (ho moat impor(ant arduli^ lent fn>m the colony. The native breed of alieep ii) very inferior; its deece la worth nn(hing, and It la re- markable only for the aizo of tho tail, which aometimea weighs 20 lbs. ! Hut flnt-woolcd iSpaninh nierinoa, Saxon and English sheep, succeed rcinarkaMywcll, and (heir wool l'c(chcs a high price. Tho oaa(ern dis- trict of Albany Is especially sullablo for aheop. Large quaudties of wine, and of what Is called branily, arc produced at the Cape ; but, with (ho ex- ccptiun of Cons(antia, they are very inferior. The eftect of allowing the Importation of Capo wines Into tho United Kingdom at a comparatively low duty is, not to occasion their direct conaumptlon, but (o cauae them to be employed aa a convenient meana of adulterating others ; so (hat, besides being injurlona to the revenue, such reduction of du(y promo(cs fraud- ulent pracUcei, and detracts from the comforts of the public. Considerable (|uantltles of hides, akins, and horn* are exported. They are principally brought from Al- gua Hoy, on (hu eus(ern side of (he colony ; and tho (rado hna incrcancd very fast during the last six or seven years. Aloea lire an Important product; and horsea, liutler, beef, ivory, argol, and varioua other articles, are among the exporta. The la((i'r alio In- clude dried lii«li, whale and aeal oil, e(c., tho Capo flah- erics being of conalderablo value. The Imports nt tli : Capo consist of woolens, cottons, hardware, earthen-ware, furniture, haberda dicry, soap, )>apcr, books, and portions of mnsi articles used in (hia coun(ry. Piece goods and (eak (imber are impor(ed from India, tea IVom Chiua, sugar Oom India, the Blaurltiua, etc. Trade. — Tho trade bot>v(>rn tho colonla(s and (ho In- dependen( nadves Is sulijccled (o various rcs(raints, of which It la not olwnys very easy to discover llic poI- icy. Tho sale of gunpuv dcr and tirc-arn:n to (hu na- dves has been prohibl(cd : a reguladon which might have lieun a judicious one, had (hey not been able to obtaii- them from any one elae. The Amcricniis liave, howoer, traded with the eaatcm coaat, ami have lib- erally supplied tho nadves wi(h these and various o(her ardrlea; so (ha( by keeping up (he reguladun In question, (ho Kngliiih exclude (heniBelvea from partlcl- padng in what might be an advantageous (rude Uut since (hey have taken poKxeBiiion of Na(al, thia Inter- course nioy perhaps have been e(opped. ACCOUKT OV TUC QUAHTITlIa AMI) VaLCU OF TIIK HTAPLK ARTICLES, TnX PaoliCrR OF TUI C'OLOMY Or 'lUK CaI'K OF QOOD IIOI'K, >L\I'<)BTKI> IN THE YEAB ENIIINU IStU JA>UABV, IS47. AlticlM. Aloes Argol Beef and Pork U«mc (whale) llu(ter Uuidlea Com and meal — vis. ! Hurley Beans and peas . Uran Flour Oata Wheat Feathers (i>a(ricli), . . . Fisli (cured) Fruits (dried) I'Viiita (green) roundi. C'aaka. Founda. Mi)lda Poundfl. Miilds. Founda. ttMllllllM. 218,7nn OO.OOU 4,80« 8,861 81.706 1!6,M() 2,800 049 r68,105 76U,4n.S 008 840 1,827 l,G»-2,0a6 isn.sis A, 600 V.laa. X f. i. i,\m I) Olio 18,484 204 B,S07 040 1,802 1,008 1,432 7,918 400 n 242 I) 7,01)6 7,li21 8,8»8 00 Artlrlx. liidea (horse and ox) . . llornH Huraca Ivory Muli'H OIl-vU. : WliBle Skins— vl«.: tlalf Goat 8eal Sheep ... .'oru Kxpurts, No. Tooaag*. No. Toanagt. X •. 4. X f. d. X 1. d. X t. d. Cape Town 300 138,880 874 131,708 74,163 12 8 80,087 1 7 614,687 4 310,000 Coaatwlse 181 21,884 100 27,7f" Simon'a Town. , 33 12,772 31 12,300 428 10 10 1,046 4 4,r.2il IB fl 00,000 Specie commia. 470 3 S(H) Specie. Coastwise 063 8 1,401 Fort Elliabeth. 70 1»,8«8 62 16,828 18,489 T it 18,774 it) a 203,848 172,0t'4 Coaatwlw Total Colony... IW 10,107 112 16,001 008 171,022 467 100,1180 08,081 6 100,768 4 1,128,001 10 10 480,!!M 8 « Coaatwiae Grand Total... 080 37,004 810 4r>,232 704 200,426 782 200,018 03,081 6 100,708 4 V 1,128,001 16 10 480,364 8 6 By an act poaaed hy the colonial goremmiint of (he Cape of I therein, being original packagca as Imported, to be ahlppcd Good Hope, It la provide,!, "That it shall lie lawful f (1 'ill II ii.i II ,Mll 188 u u ,711" (1 ('>r>!i ,41) 1 r^ 0(1 .014 n n .^.'►s 1!1 ■till .■•IK) 13 ,4,S6 ou .T7t. 13 C 184T. ) d. 1 s 1 cic. c 8 6 8 A CAP m CAP Blilppcd leRBCl, not Iftny other Ul be un- drr mirh m\n and rrmiUIInn* u tlio collector of ciiatonia ■hall (limit \ and any •noli artlolea ihliiiwd ai itorfa contrary to aiicli rnli'H and rS'cc TKri-Kn. Capatan, or Capatem, a strong massive column of timber, formed like a truncated cone, and having its upper extremity iiioried w Ith a number of holes to re- ceive tho bars or levers. It Is let perpendicularly down through the decks of n ship, and is fixed in such 1 manner that the men, by turning it boriiontally with their bars, may jicrforin any work wiiicli requires an extraordinory olfort. Considerable Improvements have of lute years been niudo In Phillips' capstans, which In their original form nro not now nuich uscil In her majesty's service. A port of Phillips' plan, however, Is retniiicd, that, iiamo- ly, of connecting tlie upiicr and lower capstan together. A French plan was recently devised, in which, instead of tho wheel, an iron flungo is fitted to take the three cables (the one above and tho other lielow tho class, or rate, for ships), and by this means a messenger Is not required. Messengers nro generally of cliulii; but rope ones are also supplied to each ship, in cuso the chain ones sliould become defective. Tlio chain-mcs- ; senger is made w ith a largo link and a small one. llils I latter tho pikes of the wheel eiter as the wheel rc- j volves. This messenger Is passed half round tho cap. stun, taken forward round tho rollers in tho liow, and tho two parts of the, messenger shackled together. Kope-messenp ers are passed three times round the cap- stun, nnd with an eyo nt each end lashed together. Tho rope-me88eiig''rs in all ships are cut from live to eight fathoms longc than the distance lictwccn tho cupstan and the bow, In order tlint tho men may hold on when tho cubic Is hove in, Nippers, made of rope, from four to live fi.,hoins long are used to attach the cables to tho messenger. These nro taken ofVwhcn the cablo is hove in, and come aft to tiie chain locker (or, if tho cable Is iiempcn, to the hatchway near the tier). A patent has lately been taken out by >lri Thonms Hrown, of I.etween the lioat and ship; put on A snatch-block to traverse, with one or two pigs of ballast, to he used according to the atrength of the current. Supposing that the current at from 40 to 60 fathoms deep is running in a different direction from that of the surface — as has Ijeen flrequcntly observed in clear water at sea — it is plain that a great strain is taken off the anchor by using the lioat, inasniuoli as the whole strain would lie on the hawser b e, tlic greater part uf whicli is borne l)y hawser a A; that if tlie ship rodo immediate at b, the whole of the strain being at b r, would naturally require a greater weight to hold her; in fact, a liowcr anchor witli (K) futtioms of calilu would not Ije sufficient, Itcsidcs the difliculty of again recov- ering the anchor. If the surface and deep current should happen to rtn in the same direction, the ship would nut then separate from the boat ; all would drift together. This plun for anchoring, there is every reason to suppose, will an- swer near the equator, or at any place at a distance from the main land, but it is not intended for a tide way.— E. B. Captain (Fr.eapttatM; It. capt^a>io,lJrom the Latin caput), liirraliy a hsad, nr chief otHcar | but the trrm l>UH>d In iMrtlniUr luilc. note nil iiHIier holding a ii'r.utii rank In the army iir the navy. In Ihn army, ■ captain Is the ofllcvr who loninianili • troop of cavalry, or a cuinpiiiiy of Infantry, or of artlllury. Ills full pay in ilrilisli cavalry reKlmrnls Is 1 1«, 7'/. a day; *n the infantry lU. ~,it. CaptaliH In the l.lfn and FiMit fiuanls rank with the cnhinels of other regi- ments, and their full pay U \!u. a day. t'(///iii» (.fiienil, the ciiiiiinandiT-ln- chief of an uriiiy, iir of tlin inililia. t'li/itiiin l.ir>iliHiinl U an oDIier »ho, with the riiiik iif captain, but the pay of lleutiiiiaiil, coiiinianda a tnH)p or cumpiiny In the name and place of soniu iilher person. Tlius the ciilmiel of a I'c'giiiiciit lii'iiig usually captain of the llrst company, that cnni|iany is coninianded by his deputy under the title of ciiptain lioutenunt. Cn/.tuiH italii in tlie navy ia very cuniprc- lionsive, inaaniuch as he Is not only answerable for any bad conduct in the military goveruiiient, navigation, and equipment of the ship ho coninmnds, blmn r/'ii vurrhuni thip, he who has the direction of the ship, crew, lading, etc. Caraoaa, or Caracoas, the capital city of Vene- zuela, 8outh America, department and piiivince of I Caracas, Int. 10' aO' 18" N., long. 07° 4' 46' W., on a ' declivity 2(*K0 feet in elevation, and l(i miles south- southeast of La Uuayra, Its )M>rt, on the Caribbean >Sca. Population csllmateil from :I6,00U to 60,000. It is reg- ' ularly built, well supgilied with water, and has a healthy I climate. Mc.in teiniivraturo of June 72", February , CM" '2 Fahrenheit. I'rincipal buildings, a catliedral, the fine church of Alta (iracla, and three hmpitiils. ] ICxports from La (iuayra consist princii>ally of cacao, cotton, indigo, tobacco, coffee, hides, and live cattle. Hy the earthquake of 1H12, 12,000 jiersons perislied) since which time most of its houses have been con- structed of sun-dried bricks. It is tho seat of a uni- versity, and tlio residence of the principal merchants, I on whose account tho trade of La (iuayra is conducted. It is the birlli-plaoe of llolivar. The province lies be- [ twecn lat. T'Sti' and 10" 20 N., and long. 06" 80' and GH" . W. Area, 2H42 square leagues. Population, 242,HX8, Surface (wrtly mountainous and partly flat ; the former I toward the sea-coatt, "here several deep Indentation* occur, and form good harliors ; the latter in tiio inte- rior, and on the south, where the country stretches out into vast plains. It produces the best cucao, and all tropical fruita are grown in perfection. It is divided into 1(> cantons. Carat, tho wcif;ht which expresses the degree of fineness of gold. The word is lUso written carract, ' corral, karract, and knrral. Its origin is contested ; , but the moat probable opinion is that of Kennet, who ' derives it trom carecta, a term which anciently denoted . any weight, and came afterward to be appropriated to that V nich expresses the fineness of gold and tho gray- ' ity of diamonda. Carat* ar», not raal datarmiiiato CAR 978 OAR wtlghti, lull only tin««litiir)', Tli* wIkiId m»'», »lial< •var Im Ilia wuIkIiI, I* iimi'wlf nl In iw illt IiImI IiiU) twanty-fuiir I'ltrala I uiiil n* iiiKiiy i»i iily-("»t\h parU M It I'uiilKlna iif |iur« hiiI'I, It la citllfil //•' - divliluil lulu t, 1, 1, |IL, nil. Ma Witiiiiira ainl Mk.«n- UltKI. ■ K. II, Oaravaii) an orKaiiUiMl i'itiii|iany nf mnnliniita, nr pilt(rliua, iir ImiIIi, wliuiiaaiH lain lii||ir In many |inrta of Aalii mill Afrlia, Unit liixy may Iravnt wllli Kr<*»t<'r ■ei'iirlly tlirout(l> tlin iliw>rla ami nlhrr |ilHi:iia liirtra| iir wliurn llm riHiil la iialiinilly (Imiikit* oiia, Tliu woril la ilorUml fmiii llm l'i. !), Ill) I'll, Kv.'ry t'liraviiii la iiiiil»r llm I'lmiiimtiil iif a dilef or lilfit("irtirfiii.biiilii), hIiii liiia fri>i|i|i'iilly lit Ilia iIIkikwhI •iirli a nuiiilaT of iriHiiM or foniia ita la i|in- cuni|i iii'iir wvlla or riviilula, aiiil oliatirva n rcKiilar iliacliilliiu, (!aiiH'la urn iia»i| »» a innana of rniiviiy' aiii'u, nIniiMl iiiilforiiily, In iimfi'miicn lo lli« lioraa or •ny ullii'r iinliiiul, uii an'onnt of llmlr woniUnfiil pa- tiomn uf fitll|{ui<, ualliiK llllli', iinil au lalalliiK tlirim nr four iliiya nr iiiiirii wlllioiil wnlnr, Tlinra am K«i>o'al- ly inoru I'miii'la In a iiiravan lliiiM lllnn, - Hrr Camki,. Tim coiiiiiitirrlal liilariniiran of Kiialnrn mill African niillniia hua Immii |irinvl|iiilly vurrlt'il nn, from Ilia rc- miitvat iKirltxl, by miiaiia of I'lintvaiia, llurlntf nnllq- ulty, lliH iirwliirla of liiilla anil I'lillia WHfii cunviiyml citlier from Suuit to llliliioi'iiliira, or fruin tlliaaorati, near Ilia lii'uil of Ilia I'uralan (liilf, liv lh« Kn|iliriilaa, to llaliyluii, mill llMr»lnK llm wlioln (ixli>nt of Aalnl«d In the wurM, and 1 niitliiuea tu liii writ altrii'lail. " h'W pLtirlnia," aiiya Iturck- lurilt, "exci'pl IliK niuiiillcanla, arrive without lirlnK- InR aoiiiu priMliicllona of their rua|H't llvu countrlua for 'al« i and Ihia rainurk la applliulile ua kiiII tnlhc niar- I'hanta, witti whom cnniiiierclttl puraulla an- the main nliject, *a to Ihoau who am actiuti lirliiK Ihrlr red lionneta and woolen lUiiika; tho Kiirnpciin Turki, aliiira mid allp|H'ra, liurdwiirc, I'mlirolduri'd atiiD'a, aweat- niiiata, amber, trhikela of Kuro|><>nn niaiuifucturc, knit allk purtea, etc. ; tho Turka of Anatolia liriiiK cur|i«ta, allka, and AnKora nhuwia; I'm rurainna, I 'iixliinara ahiiwla and lar^e "ilk hunilkcn hicfa; tliii \l^(h*n», toolh-lirualica, called Mcaiiiink Kallary, iiiniln of the a|Hiiiuy iMnixha of a tree ki-owImk in Itnkliiirii, tmida of a yellow aoa|>-alone, and plain eiuirao ihawla manufac- tured In their own cnunlry ; Ihu Indiana, tliu numer- nua producllnn'* of their rich aiidextonalve rcKiiin ; the |M'oplii of Yuiiiun, anakra for tliu roraiiin pi|iea, aaiidala and varloua other wurka in leather; and llie Africiini lirliiK Turioua urticlen udupled tu the alav o-triiiln. The pIlKrima aro, linwovor, often diaappulnted in their ox- (ipctatlona of Kuin ; want of money makea Ihum haatily aell llmlr lilllu iidventurca ut the public aueliuna, and often uldlKoa tlioni to accept very low piicua."— 7'iiiii)i« m Araliia, vnl, Ii. p. '21. The two princl|uil cumvuna which yearly rondeivou* nt Mecca aro tliuao of Uainuacua and I'liiro. Tho lint iaconi|K>aednf pili^rliiia from KurupeaiidWealern Aala; the ai'coiid of Mnhiiniinedana from all parta of Africa. The Syrian caravan la nuld by Uurckliurdt tu iio very well ret(uluted. It ia nlwaya aicompanled by the pucha of Uaniaacua, or one of his priiu'i|iul olllcera, who K'voi Ihu aignal for eiiciiiiipInK and aturtinx by llrin)( a niu»- kot. On tho route, a troop of liomoinon rido In the front, and another In tho rear to brinK up the atrag- glera. Tho dilTerent purtlea of piltsrima, diatiiiKUiahed by their provincea or towna, kuep doae together. At nlxht turcliea are lighted, and the dally diiitunco It uaually |M!rfornied between threo o'clwk in tho after- noon and an hour or two aftur iunrlao on tho fullowlng day. The Uedouina or Arabs, who carry proviaioni for tho troo|Hi, travel by day only, and Iu advance of tho caravana ; tho encampment of which thoy paaa la tho inuniiiiKi and aro overtaken In turn and puaaed by the caravan on the fuUuwluK ninlit, at their own rest- liiK-place. The Journey with Ihcao Uedouina ia leas fallKuInK than with tho" Kfeat body of tho caravon, aa a regular ninht's rest ia obtained ; but their bad char- acter deters moat pil|/;riin9 from Joining them. At every watcrinK-place on the route is a small castle and a largo tank, ut which tlio camels water. The castlea aro garrlauncd by a few persons, who remain the whole year to guard tho jirovisions deposited there. It la at these wiitorlng-pluccs, which belong to tho Ue- douina, that tho aholkhs of tho tribe meet tho caravan, and receive the accustomed tribute for allowing it to pass. Water is plentiful on tho route; the stationi are nowhere more distant than 11 or 12 hours' march; and In winter [inola of raiii-watorare frequently found. Those pilgrims who can travel with a litter, or on coin- modioua camel-saddles, may sleep at night, and per- form tho Journoy with little Inconvenience ; but of those whom poverty, or the desire of speedily aci(uiring a largo sum of money, induces to follow the caravan on fiHit, or to hire Ihcmsolvcs as servants, many dio on the road from futlguo.— 7'ra«/» i» Arabia, vol. 11. p. 8-0. The caravan which sets out from Colro for Mecca is not generally so large as that of Damascus ; and its route along the shores of the Red Sea ia more danger- ous and fatiguing. Hut many of the African end EgyptUn merchauts and pilgrims sail from Suez, Cos- CAR 274 CAR aeir, and othei ports on the western shore of the Red Sea, for Djidda, whence the journey to Mecca is short and easy. The Persian caravan for Mecca sets out from Bagdad ; but many of the Persian pilgrims are now in the habit of embarldng at Bussorah, and com- ing to Djidda by sea. Caravans from Bagdad and Bussorah proceed to Aleppo, Damascus, and Diarbeltcr, laden with all sorts of Indian, Araliian, and Persian commodities ; and large quantities of European goods, principally of English cottons, imported at Bussorah, are now distributed throughout all the eastern parts of the Turkish empire by the same means. The inter- course carried on in this way is, indeed, every day be- coming of more importance. The commerce carried on by caravans in the inte- rior of Africa is widely extended, and of considerable yalue. Besides the groat caravan which proceeds fVom Nubia to Cairo, and is joined by Mohammedan pil- grims from every part of Africa, there are caravans which have no object but commerce, which set out from Fez, Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, and other states on the 84a-coast, and penetrate far into the interior. Some of them take as many as 50 days to reach the place of their destination ; and as their rate of traveling may be estimated at about 18 miles a day at an average, the extent of their journeys may easily be computed. As both the time of their outset and their route is known, they arc met by the people of the countries through which they travel, who trade with them. Indian goods of every kind form a considerable article in this traffic ; in exchange for wliich the chief commodity the inlial)- itants have to give is slaves. Three distinct caravans are employed in bringing slaves and other commo gerous. But it Is not unusual for the Turkish pachas to realize considerable sums by selling the privilege of conducting caravans ; and it is generally believed in the East that leaders so appointed, in order to indem- nify themselves, not unfrcquently arrnngo with the Arabian sheikhs as to the attack of the caravans, and shnro with thorn in the booty. At all events, a leader who has paid a large sum for the situation, even if lie should be honest, must impose proportionally heavy charges on the association. Hence the l)cst way in traveling with caravans is, to attach one'j self to ono conducted by an active and exiicrienced mercliant, who has a considerable property embarked in the expedi- tion. With ordinary precaution, the danger is then verj- trifling. It would bo easy, indeed, were there any thing like proper arrangements made by govern- ment, to render traveling l)y caravans, at least on all the great routes, abundantly secure. — Nikuliih, Vvi/age tn Arable, tome ii. p. 194, ed. Amst. 1780. No particular formalities are required in the forma- ! tion of a caravan. Those that start ut fixed periods are mostly under the control of government, by whom the leaders are appointetl. But, generally speaking, any dealer is at lilierty to form a company and make one. The individual in whose name it is raised is con- sidered 1.9 the leader, or carartin-bachi, unless ho ap- point some one else in his place. AVhcn a numlier of merchants associate together in the design, they elect a chief, and appoint officers to decide whatever contro- versies may arise during the journey.— For further do- tails with resjwct to caravans, sec the Mudti-n Part of the I'ltivirtal llhtoig, vol. xiv. p. 214-248; RonwiT- son's Disquisition on Ancimt India, Ifotc 5-1; Rkks' Cyclopedia, art. Cnraran, most of which is copied from Robertson, though without a single word of acknowl- edgment; BL'ncKll.\nuT's Trarels in Arabia, vol. ii. passim; UnQiin,VRT on Turkey and its Resources, p. 137, 161, etc. Caravanaerai, a large public building or inn ap- propriated for the reception and lodgment of the cara- \ ans. Though serving in lieu of inns, there is this radical difference between them — that, generally speak- ing, the traveler finds nothing in a caravanserai for the use either of himself or his cattle. He nmst carry all his provisions and necessaries with him. They are I chiefly built in dry, barren, desert places ; and are mostl)' furnished with wafer brought from a great dis- tance and at a vast expense. A well of water is, in- deed, indispensable to a caravanserai. Caravanserais are also numerous In cities ; where ihey serve not only ! as inns, Imt as .«liops, warehouses, and even exchanges. Caravray-seed (Er. Can-i, Cumin desjm's; Gcr. Keummel, Urudkiivimel ; It. Cm'X'i), a small seed, of an o)>long ond slender figure, pointed at both ends, and thickest in the middle. It is the produce of n biennial plant (fiimm enntt), with n toper root like a parsnip, but much smaller. It should be chosen large, new, of a good color, not dusty, and of a strong agreeable smell. It is principally used l)y confectioners. The stem ! rises from two to three feet in height, and produces numerous umbels of small whitish or reddish flow- j ers ; and each flower is succeeded by two single-srcdcd capsules, which arc the caraway-seeds of commerce. These have a strong peculiar odor, with an aromatic bitter taste, and yield, on distillation, almut 4 per cent, of a volatile oil, on which their properties depend. Carboy, a large glol)uIar bottle of green glass, pro- tected by wicker-work ; used chiefly for holding acids and highly corrosive liquids. The average capacity of these imtllcs is 12 gallons. Carbuncle (f!er. A'ar/imW; Tr. Kscnrbnidie ; It. Caroimchio; Hp. Cnrbunrufo ; l.at. CarbumtilHs), a pre- cious stone of the ruby kind, of a very rich glowing blood-red color, highly esteemed by the ancients. — See Rrnv. Card (Fr, Cnrdes ; Ger. Kardatschen, Karden, Woll- Iraizatf It. Cardi/ Ruts. BardU; Sp. Cartftu), an in CAR 276 CAR strnment, or comb, for arranging or sorting Iho halri of wool, cotton, etc. Cards are either fantcncd to a flat piece of wood, and wrought by the hand ; or to a cyl- inder, wrought by machinery. — See Playiso Cahds. CarcUunonU (Fr. Cariltmiomes ; Gcr. Kanlnmom; It. Cardamomi; Sfi. Kartlamomot ; Hind. Cujaratiela- cAi), seed capsules produced by a plant, of wliicli there are different species growing in India, Cochin China, Siam, and Ceylon. The capsules are gathered as they ripen; and when dried in tlie sun, arc fit for sale. The small capsules, or lesser cardamoms, are produced Iiy a particular species of the plant, and arc the most ral- ual)le. Tliey should be chosen full, plump, and diffi- cult to bo broltcn ; of a bright yellow color ; a piercing smell ; with an acrid, bitterish, tliough not very un- pleasant taste ; and particular euro should bo talcen that they are properly dried. They are reckoned to keep licst in a body, ai»:l are therefore packed in large chests, well jointed, pitched at the seams, and other- wise properly secured, as the least damp greatly re- dnccs their value. The best cardamoms are brought from the Malabar coast. The}' arc produced in tlie recesses of the mountains by felling trees, and after- ward burning them ; for wherever the ashes fall in the openings or fissures of the rocks, the cardamom plant naturally springs up. In Soonda Balagat, and other places whore cardamoms are ])lanted, the fruit or ber- ry is very inferior to that produced in the way now mentioned. Tho Malabar cardamom is described as a species of bulbous plant, growing 3 or 4 feet high. Tho growers are obliged to sell all their produce to the ogents of government at i)rices fixed by the latter, varying from 550 to 700 rupees tho candy of COO lbs. avoirdupois; and it is stated that the contractor often puts an enhanced value on the coins with wliich he pays tlio mountaineers ; or makes tliem take in exchange tobacco, clotlis, salt, oil, bctcl-nut, and such necessary articles, at prices wliicli are frequently, no doubt, es- timated above their proper level. Such a system ought assuredly to t)C put un immediate end to. Not more than one hundredth part of the cardamoms raised in SInlabar arc used in tlio country. They are sent in large (piantities to the ports on tho Kcd Sea and the Persian Gulf, to Sind, up the Indus, to Bengal, Bom- bay, etc. Tliey form a universal ingredient in cur- ries, piliaus, etc. The market price, at the places of exportation on the Malabar coast, varies from 800 to 1200 rupees tlio candy. — Mii.uuhn's Orient. Comtnerce, and the valualilc evidence of T. II. Babcr, Ksq., before Parliament, 1830. Cardiual Points, in Cosmom-aphy, are the four intersections of the horizon witli the meridian and the prime vertical circle, or North and South, East and West. Tiie cardinal points, therefore, coincide with the four cardinal rogioi-s of the heavens, and arc 90° distant from each otiier. Tiie intermediate points are called collatinil jwinlf. Cards, or Playing Cards (Du. Kaart'^^n, Speel- larJen ; Vr. Curies iijoutr; Our. Karlen, Spiel Karlen ; It. Carte da ijiunco ; IJuss. A'rtrtM; Sp. Carrnj, AVk/jci; Sw. Kort), munufnctured of pieces of puste-board, hav- ing various devices, and arranged in packs, gonerBlIy of 52 pieces in a pack and used for playing numerous games. — See Pi.Avisti Cakds. Careening (^Frcnch t'aire iMattre carener"), heav- ing a vessel y painters in miniature. It is a species otlake, and is formed of finely pulverized cochineal. It is very high priced, Camelian, See Agatk, Carpet, Carpets (Ger, Teppiche ; Du, Tapylen, Vlner-tapyttn I Fr, Tapit; It, Tappeli ; Sp, Alfombrcu, Alcatifm, Tapeles; Uuss, Kouru,Killmi), Is supimsed to be derived from Cairo (whence also the French Cairam, a Turkey carpet), and from the Latin tapes, tajxistrj', corresponding to the Italliiu caipetta and the Dutch karpet. It is legitimately applied to an article of man- tifacturo used for covering the floors of chambers or spreading on the ground, althou.i;h, while It was a novelty In Europe, tables also were covered with It, Carpets and rugs were manufactured at a very remote period in Kgypt, India, and Clilna ; but those of Per- sia and Turkey are the most celebrated. They were originally used for sitting and reclining upon, as may still 1)C observed in Eastern countries, where they con- stitutc tho entire furniture of tho |ieop'e. In Egypt they were first applied to religious pi rposes by the priests of Ileliopolis, and were olso usee' to garnish the palaces of the Pharaohs. It was al$io a custom of an- tiquity to place them under tlie couches of guests at liauqucts. Sardinian carpets arc mer tioned liy Plato, tho comic poet, as being disposed In this manner — " be- neath the ivory feet of purple-cushioned couches." The cirpets of tlie Homeric Age were generally white or plain cloths ; liut they were also sometimes produced with various colors and embroidered designs. -At the supper of Iphicrates, purple carpets were spread on the floor ; and ut the magnificent lianquct of Ptolemy Phil- adelphus (an account of which Is given liy Callixenus of Rhodes) we learn that underneath 200 golden couches "were strewed purple carpets of tho finest wool, with the carpet pattern on both sides ; and there were hand- somely embroidered rugs, very lieautlfully claliorated with figures. Besides this," he adds, "thin Persian cloths covered all tho centre space where tho guests walked, having most accurate representations of oni- inals embroidered on them." — Alhenteua, v. 2C. The Babylonians, who were very skillful In weaving cloths of divers colors (Pi.iN v, viii. 48), delineated upon their carpets entire groups of human figures, togetlicr with such faliulous animals as the dragon, tlie sphinx, and the griffin. These were numbered among the luxuries of lleliogabalus. On the tomli of Cyrus was spread a purple Baliylonlan rariict, and another covered the bed whereon his body was placed. — AitRi am, vI. 29. Those carpets were exjiorted in considerable quantities to Greece and T'.omc, wliere they were higlily esteemed. Carthage was also noted liy Hernilppus, Afitlphanes, and others, for Its magnificent carpets. " Carpets were In use, at least In some kind, as early as tlio days of Amos, about 800 n.c. — Amos, ii. 8. Carpets were spread on the ground, on whicli persons sat who dwelt in tents ; but when first used In houses, even in tlie East, we have no record. In the twelfth century carpets were articles of luxury ; and In En- gland, it is mentioned as an instance of Becket's splen- did style of living, that his sumptuous apartments were every day In winter strewn w itii clean straw or hav ; about a,d, 1100, The manufacture of woolen CAR 276 CAR carpets was introduced into France from Persia, in the reign of Henry IV., between 1589 mid 1610. Some artisans wlio hud quitted France in disgust went to England, and establlBhed the carpet manufacture about 17S0. There, as with most nations, Persian and Tur- key carpets, especially the former, are most prized. The famous Axmlnster, Wilton, and Kidderminster manufacture is the growth of tlio last hundred years. The manufacture of Kidderminster and Brussels car- pets has much advanced within fifteen years, at Low- ell, Massachusetts, and Thomsonville, Connecticut," — Haydn, Sir J. Gardiner Wilkinson gives us an account of an ancient carpet-rug of Egyptian manufacture, " This rug," he tells us, " is made, like many cloths of the present day, with woolen threads on linen strings. In the centre is the figure of a boy in white, with a goose above, the hieroglyphic of a 'child,' upon a green ground, around which is a border composed of red and blue lines," etc. — Manners and Cxutoms of the Ancient Kgyptiaru, vol. ill. p. U\-2. Ho further informs us that there are in the Turin Museum some specimens of worked worsted upon linen, " in which the linen threads of the weft had been picked out, and colored worsted sewed ou the warp." In these two examples we have evidence of the existence, at a very curly time, of a system of tapestry-weaving. The ancient carpet manufacture of the Asiatic countries may re- solve itself under the appellation of needle-work. Uf this, the present process of curiiet-weaving in I'ersiu and Turkey, and the tapes! 'y manufacture of France, may be considered as flttin/_, examples. The tapestr}-, as is well known, consists of woolen or other threads sewed on the strings of the warp by means of small shuttle-needles. The Persian carpet is formed by knotting into the warp tuft after tuft of woolen yarn, over each row of which a woof shot is passed, the fin- gers being here employed instead of the shuttle-needles, as the fal>ric is of a coarser description. In both meth- ods the principle is the same. Both are formed in looms of ver^ simple construction, the warp threads are arranged in parallel order, whether upright or hor- izontal, and the fal)ric and pattern are produced by colored threads, hand-wrought upon the warp. This may be designated the hand-wrought or needle-work method, which only makes one stitch or loop at a time, in contradistinction to the machine-wrought process, the result of mechanical appliances, whereby a thou- sand stitches are effected at once. Herein lies the essential difference between the ancient and modem, the simple and complex carpet manufacture. Persia. — In Persia thpre are entire tribes and fiim- ilies whose only occupation is that of carpet-weaving. These dispose of their productions at the bazars to native merchants, who remove them to Smyrna or Constantinople, where they meet with European pur- chasers. Tlia trade in reail Persian carpets is, howev- er, very limited, owing to their small size. They arc seldom larger than hearth-rugs, long and narrow. Very many of them, moreover, are considerably tur- nished by exposure in bazars, if they have not indeed been already used. To render them more salable they are cleaned. This is done by cropping the surface, which in some cases is shaved quite close to the knot ; hence a great proportion of those brought to this coun- try have not their original richness and depth of pile. Felted carpets oTnurmudi are also made in Persia, but do not constitute an export commmlity. Sir Henry Bethune, late Persian embassador, had in his posses- sion a very singular specimen of this felt carpeting, in which colored tufts of worsted had been inserted dur- ing the process of manufacture, producing a regular pattern when finished. Turkty. — ^The greater part of those Turkey carpets imported into Western Europe are manufactured at Usbok or Ouchak, in the province of Aidin, about six days' joainey firom Smyrna, and rugs priacipalty at Kulah or Koula, an adjacent village. In the provinces of Iloodavendigniar, Adnuu, and Nish, numerous households are employed in their production, as also in the districts of Bozah, the city of Aleppo, and the villages of Trebizond. Here and there, throughout Caranmnia, such carpets are also made. The 'Turco- mans of Tripoli, the women of Candia, and the peas- antry of Tunis and Algiers, are likewise engaged in their fabrication. In none of these places, however, does any large manufactory exist ; the carpets arc the work of families and households. These cai'|iets are woven in one piece, and there is this notable i>e<. 'iliari. ty in their manufacture, that the same pattern is never again exactly reproduced ; nu two carpets are quite alike. The pattenis are very remarkable, and their origin is unknown even to Mussulmans, The Turkey carpet pattern represents inlaid jeweled work, which accords with Eastern tales of jewels and diamonds. If this were rightly understood, it would prevent such speculations as those of Mr. Redgrave in his Great Ex- hibition Report on Design, wliere he remarks, that " the Turkish car])cts are generally designed with a fat border of flowers of the natural size, and with a centre of larger forms conventionalized in some cases even to the extent of obscuring the forms — a fault to be avoided." This is doubtless a very ingenious mode of accounting for the curious fonns of a Turkey car- pet ; but these, however fantastic, are never obscured, nor are there any flowers, flat or otherwise, in the bor- ders (ir elsewhere. The great beauty of tliesc carpets lies in the equal balance of color, of dull neutral shades, somewhat sombre in effect. India, — Generally throughout British India the carpet manufacture is carried on. At Benares and Moorshedcbad are produced velvet carpets witli gold embroidery, A very eluliorate carpet, sent from Cash- mere to the Great Exhibition by Maharajah Goolab Singh, was composed entirely of silk, and excited great admiration. In evcrj' square foot of this carpet, we are informed, there were at least ]0,0(5o tics or knots. Silk embroidered hookah car|)cts are made at Lahore, Mooltan, Khyrpoor, Tanjoro, and Bengal; cotton carpets, or salrunjeet at Rungpore, Agra, and Sasserum ; printed cotton carpets at Ahmedul)ud ; printed floor-cloth at Mooltan. Woolen carpets are far more extensively manufactured ; some of which come from Ellore, Mirzapore, and Goruckpore ; but the principal manufacture rs at Masulipatam, 292 miles north from Madras. There the capital and enterprise of Great Britain have lent their aid to the rather tardy movements of the natives, and this article is now in general demand. Of late years linen warp has b«cn introduced instead of cotton, and the faiiric is thereby much improved, Tlio designs of the Indian carpets have more regulority than those of Turkey, and the colors are mostly warm negatives, enlivened with liril- liant hues interspersed. For the introduction of Masul- ipatam carpets, us of many otiiers, the English are in- debted to the firm of Watson, Bell, & Co., whose In- dian connection is the sole means of obtaining these beautiful fabrics.— E. B. Tlie total value uf I'ersian, Turkey, and Indian car- pets imported into England may be computed at about £20,000 per annum. Oriental carpets were first introduced into Spain by the Moors ; and at a later date the Venetians ini]>orted them into Italy, and s\ipplied Western Europe with this luxurious manufacture. We have frequent men- tion of them during the Middle Ages, and their cost- liness and magnificence arc celebrated in the illumin- ated jMiges of fubllnux and romances. They were spread in tlie prcsence-chamlicrs of royalty, before the high altars of cha[)els and cathedrals, in the bowers of "ladyes faire," and on the summer grass. Many ar- ticles of f\imiturc were also covered with them — beds, couches, tables, and regal faldestols ; but here it be- comes difficult to diitinguUh between carpet and tap- CAR 277 CAR mn cur- at about ipaln liy iportcd pe with nt mcn- dr cost- illumin- jy were iforc the iwcrs of lany ar- 1 — Ijeds, re It be- ind tap- estry, both beinf; used promiscnously. Tapestry of Duldekino or Baldnchlno (from Italdak, altcient name of Ilagdad), was a carpet Inwrought with gold and silver threads. Such were carried on poles, and up- lifted as n canopy c vet the host, and over great per- sonages in procession. The troubadours had carpets of gold embroidery which they laid upon the grass beneath them. Hearth-rUgs and throne carpets, gor- geously emblazoned with heraldic cent|re-pleces, were the handiwork of high-bom dames during the romance period. To some of these were attached fHnges, but such were more usually composed of the fag-ends of the warp, like those of Persia, India, and Turkey. A black velvet carpet, " fringed with silver and gold, and lined with taffeta," is enumerated in the inven- tory of Archbishop Parke's household fUmiture in 1577. Kushes were strewn on the floor of Queen Ma- ry's presence-chamber, and that of Elizabeth had the additional covering of a Turkey carpet. Long prior to this, however. Eastern carpets had been introduced. In tlie reign of Edward VI. wo read that before com- munion-hibles were placed " Carpets full gay, Ttiat wrought were In the Orient" Checkered matting appears to have been very gener- ally used about the fifteenth century. The same ar- ticle is produced in many parts of Asia from the grassy fibres of the ,ratan. A superior description is now made from c6coa-nut fibre and Manillan flax. In Lydgate's metrical life of St. Edmund (MS. Harl. No. 2278) is a representation of tha room wherein that saint was born; t'.e floor is covered with checkered matting, and a fringed hearth-mg of Gothic design is before the fire-place. Carpets composed entirely of leather strips interlaced together may bo seen in our antiquarian museums. A sample of this description was lately prepared for the inspection of the now houses of Parliament, and offered as a covering for their halls and passages, but was rejected. France.— In tlie reign of Henry IV. the carpet mun- nfacturo appears to have been introduced from Persia Into France. Colbert, the minister of Louis XIV., established the it'-.^nufactory at Bcaurais in 1604, which is now ;ii tlio hands of the French government, and produces very artistic specimens. A variety of those, "in Turkish, Pertivlan, and Chinese styles," was exhibited in London In 1851. The national man- nfactoiy of Gobelins, which likewise sent its beautiful carpets and tapestry to the great exhibition, was estab- lished shortly after that of Beauvais. It was pur- chased In 1677 l)y Colbert from the Gobelin family, whose progenitors, a century ago (Gilles and Jean Gol]elin), brought their art, as was supposed, from Flanders. An attempt was made, In the time of Hen- ry VIII., by William Sheldon, to start this manufac- ture in England ; but under the patronage of James I. it was more successfully established, with the super- intendence of Sir Francis Crane, at Mortlako, In Sur- rey, whore both carpets and tapestry were, produced. Toward this object the sum of £2676 sterling was con- tributed by its royal patron, and French weavers were brought over to assist. But it docs not appear that any thing considerable was effected until after the rev- ocation of the edict of Nantes in 1085, when artisans of every trade fled to England, among whom were tapestry and carjiet weavers, who settled in various parts. About the year 1750, Mr. Moore was awanfed a premium by the Society of Arts for the Iwst imita- tion Turkey carpets ; and Parisot conducted an estab- lishment for their manufacture at Paddlngton, under the patronage of the Duke of Cumlierland. Subse- quently, carpets were wrought on the same principle at Axminster, In Devonshire, whence the name ; and afterward at Wilton, where they are still manufac- t'jrod. The l)oard of trustees for the encouragement of arts and manufactures in Scotland ofl'ered prizes for the best Persian and Turkey carpets. About ninety years previously they had been made in the vicinity of Holy rood Palace. These expensive and magnifi- cent carpets are now made in matiy parts of Europe, but more particularly at the Gobelins raonufactory, at Aubusson and FcUitin, in the department of Creuse, at the manufacture royal de tapis de toumai in Bel- gium, and at Devcntcr in the Netherlands. They are also made in London and Kidderminster. Hitherto wo have been treating of the simple hand- wrought or needle-work process, which implies great expense and waste of time and labor, and is therefore not calculated to supply a general demand. The ma- chine-wrought fabric now claims our attention ; and first in order, the common lugrain, Kidderminster, or Scotch carpet, which is made in many parts of Scot- land, the north of England, and In the United States. This consists of worsted warp traversed by woolen weft, and is woven in pieces about a yard wide. It Is composed of two distinct webs interlaced together at one operation, and is therefore a doiilile or two-ply car- pet, similar on cither side. In tbi irtiolo only two colors can with propriety be introduced, as otherwise it has a striped or mixed apiwarance. A pure or plain color can only be obtained where the weft traverses the warp of the same color. Suppose a crimson figure on a maroon ground ; the one web is maroon, the other is crimson, and the pattern is produced by these inter- secting and decussating eacli other at points predeterm- ined ; thus wliat Is crimson on one side is maroon on the other, and vice versa. ■ One beam contains the warp of both plies, arranged In two tiers, which is passed through the mails or metallic eyes of the harness — two threads through each eye — and thence through the reed. The harness draws up certain warp threads, to admit of the pa.ssage of the shuttle with the weft, the pattern depending upon such warp threads as are so drawn up. This was formerlv cftectcd by means of n revolving barrel, whose surface was studded with pins, which by rotation acted uixin the warp threads. These studs being arranged so as to produce one pat- tern, a separate barrel, or a new arrangement of the studs, was requisite for every other pattern. But this machine is now superseded l)y the more efficient Jac- qnard apparatus, wliich produces the pattern by means of an endless chain of perforated cards working against parallel rows of needles. This double fabric is also made in France, and sprigs of divers colors inserted. A detailed account of this process, with elaborate dia- grams, Is given by M. Koland do la Platiire, in the A'nci/clnpi'die ifithodiiiue. An improvement upon the Kidderminster carpet is the triple or three-ply fabric, the Invention of Mr. Thomas Morton, of Kilmarnock. This is composed of three distinct webs, which, by in- terchanging their threads, produce the pattern on both sides. A variety of color is thus obtained, and the texture is of great thickness and durability. Figured Venetian carpeting Is of similar description ; here the woof is completely covered by a heavy l)ody of warp. Dutch carpeting Is much Inferior in quality, and was originally made of cow-hair, but now of the coarsest wool. Neither fabric has great capabilities of design ; simple diced patterns are wrought In the Venetian, stripes and checkers \n the Dutch. "Tlie Brussels carpet Is a very superior texture. It is composed of worsted and linen, and has a rich cord- ed appearance. The figures are raised entirely from the warp, by inserting a series of wires between the linen foundation and the superficial yarn. These wires arc afterward withdrawn, leaving a looped surface. In this manufacture there is a great waste of material, and the colors are usually limited to five. Each color has its continuous lnyer of thread, running from end to end of the web, which rises to the surface at inter- vals indlcatrd by tho design, and then sinks into the body of tho fabric. Thus there arc five layers or cov- ers, only a fifth part of which is visible; and owing to tho irregularity of their ascent to tha surface, they can CAB 278 OAR not be plaoed upon one beam, but e«cb thread t« wound on a separate bobbin, trith a weight attached to give ■ proper tension. Brussels carpets were llrat Introduced Into Wilton about a century ago, from Tourpal, In Belgium. Kidderminster is now tlio chief seat of this manufacture, where upward of 2000 looms are in oper- ation. Moquette or Wilton carpets are woven in the same manner, and diffisr only in this, that the loops are cut open into an elastic velvet pile. To eflTect this, the wires are not circular as in the Brussels fabric, but flat, and furnished with a groove in the upper edge, whore- in the sharp point of a knife is inserted and drawn across the yarn, cutting the pile. These carpets, be- sides being manufactured in many parts of England and Scotland, are also made in France. A great improvement in carpet-making, which orig- inated in Scotland, was patented by Mr. James Tern- pleton, of Glasgow. It is on the chenille principle, and consists of a process of double weaving. First a thin striped fabric is made ; and this, when cut up, is again woven into a denser fabric for carpets, rugs, and table- covers. Patent wool mosaic is anotlier novelty. This man- ufacture was introduced into England from Uermnny. It is produced by cementing with caoutchouc a close velvet pile on a plain cloth. Messrs. John Crossl-jy & Sons, of Halifax, have brought out soma admira- ble specimens of this mosaic-work in carpets, rugs, and hangings for walls ; but as yet this method has been moro «xt«nslvity applied to the manufJacture of small articles. A very cheap doicription of carpet is now mode near Manchester. It Is first woven in plain col- ors by steam power, under Selviur's patent, by Bright & Co, It is then printed with colored blocks by ma> chltiory patented by Uurch & Co. This article has a lari{e ux\H>tt sale. The carpet manufacture U rapidly incrousliiK In Great Britain. Upward of fiOOO looms, it is computed, are now in operation upon every descrip- tion. The production of carpets Is carried on extensively in the L'liltud Mtates, especially In Massachusetts, Rhode NInnd, (/'oniiecticut. New York, New Jersey, and in riiiladolplila, In Massachusetts alone, in 1850, tlio cupllul Invested In this branch of business amounted to t'i,m,m>, iind the annual product about $1,400,000, 111 which litUO iieriotis were employed. In the State of New York, In 1Mb, the number of carpet manufactories was If), employing IMftO persons i capital invested in real estate, (12115,2701 In tools and machinery, $3U4,200; value of raw materials used annually, $9!Vi,700; value of niunuraittured articles annually, 2,079,700. In Thil- adolphiu the annual value of carpets produced is, in ingrains, 12,51)2,000, and in ro^ carpeting $504,000. (Sou C'initu ijf Sew York, and I'hitnilelphia and iU Man- HfiKturtt, lOAfl,) Our manufacture of carpets is in- creasing, and will probably equal the demand when the production of wool shall supply the wants of our ninnufactureri, Of the Imports Into this country fully nliiu-tonths cuuie from Oroat Britain. Imports or Ckynrtt irro TM I'nitir) Ktatm. na. t»M, 'iM/k "i <.'.*," 11)57. ISM. Valiin. Valua. ■Tsnrr" Vol,... Viilua Value. Wilton, Saxon^f and AubusBon Bniuels, Turker, and treble Ingrmlned . . $94,871 W3,487 14'i,SIT 2^,404 I,&IH,|II7- lu^a;ll) ir iHfWi;.\M $2,1HI,21I0_ $l,r>4-',800 Tlie dotjr on carpets and carpeting, and cirpet-bags and ui|.c|ulh liii|Kirtitil liila the United States Is 30 per ccut ad noloron. On straw matting, wonted carpet-bags, aud carpet kludhig, 'iH i/vt vent. The quantities imported were, in 1853, 1,048,433 yards; in 1854, 2,853,620 yards; in 1855, 1,492,053 yards; in 1856, 2,000,586 yards; in 1857, 1,714,093 yards (excluding those " not speciRed"). Of those im- ported, the Brussels and Turkey carpets form more than two-thirds in quantity and value. Carriages. The invention of them is usertbod to Eriotboniua of Athens, who produced the flrsl chariot about 1486 B.C. Carriages were known in Franco in the reign of Henry II., a.d. 1547 ; but they were of very rude construction, and rare. They seem to liavo been known in England in 1553, but not the art of making them. Close carriages of good workmanship began to be used by persons of the highest quality a^ the close of the sixteenth century. Henry IV. bad one, but without straps or springs. Their construction was vaiious: they were first made in England in the reign of Elizabeth, and were then called whirlicotes. The Duke of Buckingiuni, in 1G19, drove six horses; and the Duke of Northumberland, in rivalry, drove eight They wero first let for hire in Paris in 1050, at the Hotel Fiacre ; and hence their name. — IlArUN, Pre' alums at the World's Fair held in London were given to the makers of carriages in the United States, OS they were superior in lightness and strength, with an equal finish. We learn that the most primitive specimeiu of vebU oles were two-wheeled. In Roman antiquities we And descriptions of their elaborate finuh and elegant deco- rations. In Mosaic history the chario*. and wagon are both spoken of (see Genetit), but no light is thrown upon their construction. It is to be inferred they were not in general use, as mention is made that " Joseph rode in the second chariot of Pharaoh," as a mark of pecul- iar dignity ; muci> is also mentioned about chariots lie- ittg itsad, and they are represented in rude «iif ravin|(f I as volildoi of two wheels. There is an exception to this rule. In one of the English libraries is an illu- ininated Saxon MS., supposed to bo the work of Cied- na, which lllustratos the meeting of Jacob and Joseph, and is a peculiarly conrtriictcd vehicle, looking for oil tlio world like a gigantic frumo-work inclosing a liam- iiiock, moving on four wheels of equal size. Ilcro wo first littvo tho original fom wheeled vehicle. Again, wo find a representation in fresco, by "Sir William Gell," fi'otn the excavation of Pompeii, of a wine cart of neat and Ingenious construction, with an open arch, for its wheels to turn more easily under it This ve- hicle had also four wheels. Italy, Franco, Spain, and Germany all co.itend for tue honor of the flrsl Introduction of carriages ; ami in tlie early records uf tho thirteenth century wo find that " Charles of Aiijou entered Naples, Ids queen riding in a chantta elegantly decorated with velvet and golden lilies." Tills voliiclu was represented as two-whcclcd, drawn by two horses, on one of which tlio driver rode. While Italy and France thus claimed the honor of the first Introduction of carriages, England was not behind- hand. In the llxtconth century carriages Increased In num- ber and richness, (jermany Jieing foremost in display- ing tbcni, so much so that in 1588 an edict was issued by tho Dukeuf Brunswick forbidding his vassals to ride in carriages. In which ho says, "That tho useful disci- pline and skill In riding have been almost lost ; and that tho principal cause of this is, that cur vassals, servants, and klnsmcri, without distinction, young and old, have ilared tu give themselves up to indolence, and to ridiiiy in cuachei." The first couch made fn England was in 1555, made fur tho ICorl of itutland, by Walter Rippon ; and in 15G4 tilt sania maker tuode «n« for Queen Mar^. The Earl ..Wl-i« CAB 279 CAB itend for an>l ill finil that riding in d golden wheeled, v-er rode, or of tlic ; belli nJ- in num- display- IS issued la to rido 'ul disci- )St; and viissals, lung and (dolcnce, I made linlJCl I'hi! Earl of Arundel brought one firom Oernuitij> In 1680. In 160&, about the time of the Gunpowder Plot, coachei iucreased so much as to be troublesome. Could the In- habitants of three and a half centuries ago have looked forward to the present day, would tliey not have been astonished to behold the almost countless stream of ve- hicles which throng the gay thoroughfares of London, Paris, and Vienna, or of our great metropolitan thor- oughfare in New Yorl( — Broadway. It is over three centuries since wheeled vehicles came into general use. Kiiglaud has improved but little during the last centu- ry in stylo and construction, though she may manufac- ture tlio most substantial ones ; but for beauty of fin- ish and elegance, Franco, Germany, and America take the leud. Previous to the breaking out of the American Rev- olution there were to be found, now and then, among the wealthy English families, and in fact amor.g the American loyalists residing in Boston, those cumbrous carriages adorned witli family crests on the panels, which characterize luxury and ease, and whose liver- ied und otHcious menials were objects of abhorrence to the plain American citizen. The "Adamses" and " (Juincys" kept carriages, but they were plain, mod- r.st afl'uiia compared with the Knglisli velilcles. In Virginia were a few which were brought out by colo- nists from England, but it was not until after the close of the Kevoliition that tliey became general in use. Even then they were confined to the wealthy classes of the people. Two-wheel vehicles, called chaises, and by some the gig, came into use, and continued until a few years since. The prevailing color of these gigs was, in old time, a bright yellow, or light sky-blue, ornamented with heavy silver platings. In New York there is not one of them to be found, and wo know of only two, which belonged to the estate of Paniel Wads- worth, deceased, and which, wo believe, are still kept at his old residence in Hartford, Connecticut, owned by Wm. U. Imlay, whose death was recorded a few days since. The first carriage said to be built in America was made in Dorchester, Massachusetts, by a man named White, for a private gentleman in Boston, in 1805. It was copied from an English chariot, though made much ligliter, and was a credit to its maker. It was, liow- over, found that, from tlio difficulty of procuring mate- rial, and high wages, it was expedient and cheaper to order them from England and France, Wagon-making, however, was carried on to some extent, and with suc- cess, in New York, Boston, and Philadelphia. The principal places where carriages are manufac- tured are New York city, Middletown, and Watertown ; also Albany, Troy, and L'tica, in New York State; Now Ilavenand Bridgeport^ in Connecticut ; Concord, in New Hampshire; Worcester, in Massachusetts ; and Newark, in New Jersey. Now York and Troy are celebrated for the manufac- ture of omnibuses, stage-coaches, and railroad cars ; tliddlotown, Watertown, Utica, in New Y'ork State, and Newark, in New Jersey, for buggies and light wag- ons; Concord, in New Hampshire, for its celobrated Concord wagons and stages; while New Haven and Bridgeport, in Connecticut, are celebrated for their el- egant private carriages and public hacks. Worcester, in Massachusetts, comes last, though not the least, in its manufacture of buggies and coaches. New Haven, in Connecticut, has the largest number of carriage manufactories In the Union, or perhaps in the world. It has thirty factories doing carriage work, which employ from 1200 to 1400 men. These turn out annually about 600 coaches and hacks, at an average of $700 each, making (1420,000 ; and 1300 buggies and other light carriages, ut an average of $100 each, mak- ing $i;iO,000— the whole total amounting to $660,000, or over half a million of dollars. Next to New Haven comes Bridgeport, with twelve large factories, employ tng some 400 men, besides a large axle and spring and several coach-lamp factories, which employ about 150 more. Middletown, Utica, and Watertown, in New York, with Newark, in New Jersey, have, in the aggregate, about forty establish- ments, employing over 1600 men, and turning out in the course of the year 2000 buggies — employing a capU tul of $668,000. Troy has three largo monufactories, and turns out annually some 200 coaelics, at $500 each, which would be $100,000 ; 800 btagcs and omnibuses, at an average of $800 each, $240,000 ; 60 railroad cars, first-class, at $2500, $150,000 ; and 40 second-class, at $800, $32,000— making a total aggregate of $522,000. Utica manufactures about 800 carriages a year, amount- ing to $80,000 or $100,000, and employing from 160 to 200 men. New Y'urk city has some 40 factories, small and large, employing not less than 800 or 900 men. The number of omnibuses made in New York re an- num is estimated at about 500, which, at $800 each, amount to $400,000; buggies, grocers' wagons, and carts about 2000, costing |200,000 more.— A'isio York Evening Post, Caniera are persons undertaking for hire to carry goods from one pljice to another. Proprietors of carts and wagons, masters and owners of ships, hoymen, lightermen, bargemen, ferrymen, etc., are denominated common carriers. The master of a stnge-coach who only carries passengers Jbr hire is not liable for goods; but if he undertake to carry goods and passengers, then he is liable for both as a common carrier. The post- master-general is not a carrier in the common accepta- tion of the term, nor is he subjected to his liabilities. Duties and Liabilities of Carriers, — Carriers are bound to receive and carTy the goods of all persons for a rea- sonable hire or reward ; to take proper care of them in their passage; to deliver them safely, and in tli'< same condition as when they were received (excepting only such losses as may arise from the act of Ood) ; or, in default thereof, to make compensation to the owner for whatever loss or damage the goods may have received while in their custody, that might have been prevent- ed. Hence a carrier is liable though he be robbed of the goods, or they be taken from him by irresistible force ; and though this may seem a hnrd rule, yet it is the only one that could be safely adu > od ; for if a car- rier were not liable for losses unless ii nuld be shown that he had conducted himself disho Hly or negli- gently, a door would be opened for c > 'v species of fraud and collusion, inasmuch as it woui lie impossi- ble, in most cases, to ascertain whether th< (acts were such as tlie carrier represented. On the same principle a carrier has been held accountable for goods accident- ally consumed by fire while in bis warehouse. In de- livering the opinion of the Court of King's Bench on a case of this sort. Lord Mansfield said : " A carrier, by the nature of his contract, obliges himself to use all due care and diligence, and is answerable for any neglect. But there is something more imposed upon him by cus- tom, that is, by the common law. A common carrie)' is m the nature of an insurer. All the cases show him to be so. This makes liim liable for every thing ex- cept the act of God and the king's enemies ; that is, even (oTinevitahle accidents, with those exceptions. The question then is. What is the acto/Godt I consider it to be laid down in opposition to the act of man ; such as lightning, storms, tempests, and the like, which could not happen by any human intervention. To pre- vent litigation and collusion, the law presumes negli- gence, except in those circumstances. An armed fores, though ever so great and irresistible, does not excuse ; the reason is, for fear it may give room for collusion, which can never happen with respect to the act of God. Wo all, therefore, are of opinion that there should be judgment for the plaintiff. "—rortpoivj v. Pittard, 1 T. R. 27. It is felony if a carrier open a parcel and take goods out of it with intent to steal them ; and it has been decided that if goods be delivered to a carrier to be car- ried to a specified place, and he carry them to a diflerent CAB S80 CAS jiUce, and diipoae of them for hia own profit, he ia guilty uf felony ; Imt the embezzlement of good* by a carrier without u felonioua talcing merely exposea to a civil action. A carrier Is alwaya, unleaa there be an esprcaa agreement to the contrary, entitled to a reward for hia care and trouble. In aome cases hia reward ia regu- lated by the I^gialaturc, and in othcra by a apecial stipulation between the parties ; but though there be no legislative provision or express agreement, he can not claim more than a rtasotiable compensation. Cummeneement and Terminaiion ofLiiibility. — A car- rier's liability commences from the time the goods are actually delivered to him in the character of carrier. A delivery to a carrier's servant la a delivery to him- self, and he will be responsible. The delivery of goods at an inn yard or warehouse, at which other oorricra put up, is not a delivery so as to charge a carrier, unless a special notice bo given him of their having been so delivered, or some previous intimation to that effect. " In New York it was held that placing goods on the wharf without notice to the coqaignee is not i de- livery to the consignee, so as to discharge the carrier, even though there was a usage to deliver goods in that manner. The carrier must not leave or alundon the goods on the wharf, oven though there Iw an ina- bility or refusal of the consignee to receive them." — Keht's Commentaries. A carrier's liability ceases when ho veats the prop- erty committed to hia charge in the handa of the con- signee or his agents, by actual delivery ; or when the property is resumed by the consigner, in pursuance of his right of stopping it in Irantilu. It is in all cases the duty of the carrier to -386; Burns' Juttice of the Peace, title Carriers; and Kent's Cmimentarics, Lcct. XL. I'here are some excellent observations with respect to it in .Sir William Jones's ICssag on the Laic of Bail- ments. — For an account of the regulations as to the conveyance of ]>a8sengcrs in stage-coaches in England, tee irCuLLocu'^ IHctionary, Cuxot {Dttucus carola, Linn.), a biennial plant, a native of Britain. Though long known as a garden plant, its introduction into agriculture has been com- paratively recent. The uses of the carrot in domestic economy are well known. Cart, a carriage with two wheels, drawn common- ly by horses, and used to carry heavy goods, etc. The word seems formed from the French charrelle, or the Latin carrtta, a diminutive of carrut. Carts of War, a peculiar kind of artillery anciently in use among the Scotch. In an act of Parliament, passed in 1466, they are thus described : " It is thought speidfuU, that tli'e king mty requeist to certain of the great biirrous of the land that are of ony myght, to mak carts of weir, and in ilk cart twa gunnis, and ilk ane to have twa Chalmers, with *he remnant of the graith that effeirs thereto, and an cunnand man to shute thame." By another act passed in 1471, the prelates and barons are commanded to provide such carts of war against their old enemies the English.— E. B. Cartagena ^Carthago Nova, or " New Carthage," it having been a principal colony of the Canhaginians), a celebrated city and sea-port, and the chief naval ar- senal of Spain, on a noble bay of t'ne Mediterranean, province, and 27 miles south-southeast of M|ircia. Lat. 87° M' 6 ' N., long. 0" 5«' Bfl' W. Popniatlon 27,727 ; in 178A it contained 00,000 inhal>itants. It occupies the declivity of a hill, and a amall jdain extending to tho harbor, which is one of the liest in the Mediterranean, and protected from all winds ^y snrrounding hcighta, and by an island on the south, which, as well aa tho city, is strongly fortified. The city, though dull, dilap- idated, and unhealthy, owing toan adjacent swiiiiip, has some good streets and houses, numerous churches and convents, a marine scliool, large royal hospital, found- ling hospital, town-halland custom-house, observatory, theatre, circus, etc. In its western division, an arsenal, docks for building men-of-war, and a biti/ne for galley- slaves. Its port communicates with tlie 8egura Kiver, by the Lorca Canal. Its nianufut'tures of cordage and canvas, with trade in barilla and agricultural produce, have decayed, but it still has a valuable tunny fishery, and a glass factory recently established by an English house ; and in 1848, 14 new smelting works hud been set up here. The mines of Cartagena, originally wrought by the Carthaginians, were rc-diaoovered a few years ago ; and in 1889 the new mine of Lu Carmen was opened successfully by a joint-stock company. Since then, drainages and mining have proceeded vig- orously. Cartagena was taken by Scipio n.c. 208, at which period Livy states that it was one of the richest cities in the world. It was ruined by tho Goths; and its modem importance' dates only fVom the time of I'hilipH. Cartagena, or Carttaagena, a strongly foriified city and sea-port of New (Iranadn, South America, of which republic it is the chief naval arsenal, capital of tho province, on a sandv |ieninsula in the Caribbean Sea. Lat. of tho dome' 10° 25' 86 " N., long. 75° 84' W. Population 10,000, nine-tenths of whom are a mixed black race. It is well laid out, and built mostly of stone. It has a massive citadel, several churches, a college with about 200 pupils, various scminariea, and two hospitals. The temperature is very high, from 80" to 80° Fahrenheit, but the air dry aiid heulthy. jts excellent port is defended by two forts, and is the only harbor on tho north coast of New Granada adapt- ed for repairing vessels. Cartagena is the principal depot for the produce of the provinces watered by the Cauca and Mugdalena Rivers, and is connected with the Magdalcna by a canal. It exports sugar, cotton, colfee, tobacco, hides, specie, bullion, etc. Under tho Spaniards, this city was the seat of a captain general, and of one of the three tribunals of the Inqtiisilion in America. It was the first town that proclaimed inde- pendence, and in 1815 endured a most vigorous siege, and was subdued only by famine. Population of the province, 10,S,788, Cartridge, in the military art a case of pasteboard or parchment, holding the exact charge of a fire-arm. The cartridges for muskets, carabines, and jiistols, contain l)oth the powder and ball. Those made for cannon and mortars are cases of pasteboard or tin, sometimea of wood ; and simple flannel liaga have been found convenient in practice. Caiiridgt-hor, a case of wood or turned iron, covered with leather, with cells for holding a dozen or more cartridges. It is worn upon a belt thrown over tho left shoulder, and hangs a little below the pocket-hole on the right side. — E. li. Carving. We have Scriptural authority fur its early introduction. — See Exodus xxxi. Tho art of carving is first mentioned in profane history 772 n.c, and is referred to the Egyptians. It was first in wood, next in stone, and afterward in marble and brass, Dipcenus nnd Scyllia were eminent carvers and sculp- tors, ando|K'ncdaachoolof statuary, 508 B.C. — Pliny. See article Woon. Carvers of meat were called by the Greeks iirribitarts, as mentioned by Homer. — Haydn. Caae, in Viiming, a large, flat, o> 'ong frame or box. |ilaced aslope, and divided into ii imerous little square compartments, each containing v number of CAS 281 c\n kime or |8 little Ibolr of typea of tho aamo kind, whence the componltor takes the particular letters he requires In composing his matter. Case-hardening, the process of converting; the snpiTlicies or outer jinrt of iron into steel. Tliis is efTuctcd by placing tlio article in a Imx witli some an- imal or vegetable charcoal, and exposing it to n red heat. It differs only from tho making of steel In the shoVtcr duration of the process. Iron tools, etc., when thus treated, cumliine tho toughness of Iron with tho hardness of steel. Cash, in Commerce, means the coin, Imnk Mils, drafts, bonds, and all immediately negotiable paper in an individual's possession, Oaah Aooount, In llooiA-eeping, an account to which nothing liut cash Is carried on tho one hand, and from which all tlie disliurscmcnts of tho concern are drawn on tho other. The l)alance Is the cash in hand. When tho credit side more than balances tho doliit or disbursement side, the account Is suld to be m ciuh; when the contrary, to be out of cash. Cash account, In Banking, is tho name given to the account of the advances made l)y a l)ankcr in Scotland to an individual who has given security for their repayment. Caabe^ir-nUtS (Ger. .1 kajunUsae, iVenliiidische A na- karden; Du. Catsjoenoolen ; Fr. Noii if acajou; It. Acaju; Sp. Nueces iracaiu; Port. Kozes d'acrijii'), tho produce of the Anarcurdmm occidentate. They are ex- ternally of a gVayish or brownish color, of the shape of a kidney, somewhat convex on the one side, and depressed on tho other. The shell Is very hard ; and the kernel, which Is sweet and of a very line flavor, is covered witli a thin film. Between this and the shell is lodged a thick, blackish, infiammalilo oil, of such n caustic nature in the fresh nuts, that if tho lips chance to touch it, blisters immediately follow. Tho kernels are used In cooking, and in tho preparation of choco- late. Caabler, a cash-keeper ; he who receives and pays the debts of a society. In tho generality of founda- tions the cashier is called treasurer. In a banking institution the cashier is tho officer who superintends the books, payments, and receipts of the liank. He also signs or countersigns the notes, and superintends all the transactions under the order of the directors. Cashmere, a kingdom in Northern India, so callcl from its principal division, the celebrated valley of that name, and comprehending within its limits the va- rious territories which constitute the dominions of Gho- lab Singh. Its l)oundar!c3 arc, the Karakorum Mount- ains on the north ; Tliiliet on tlie cast ; the British pos- sessions of Spiti, Lahoul, and the Punjaub on the south ; and tho Iluzarch country on the west. It extends from Int. 32=' 17' to lat. 86°, and from long. 73° 20' to 'ong. 79° -10' ; its extreme length from east to west bei'ig 850 miles, and its brcadtli al)Out 270. Area alwut i,'6,000 square miles, Tlie population has been estimated at 750,000. Within its limits are included tho valley of Cashmere, and the provinces of .i>-moo, Ladahk, Bultl or Iskardoh, Chamlia, and some others. Cashmorc has been long famed for the manufacture of shawls, which are distributed all over northern and western Asia, and are exported In great quantities to Europe. These shawls owe their peculiar beauty and tine texture to the wool which is brought from Thibet, lying at a dis- tance of a month's journey to the northeast. Tlio wool forms the inner coat with which the goat is covered, and the breed is peculiar to Thil)et ; all attempts to in- troduce it into India or Persia having invariably failed. The wool, which is originally of a dark gray color, is bleached in Cashmere l)y a preparation of rice flour. The process of manufacture is very slow, not more than one inch being added to the finest shawls in the course of a day. It Is estimated that aliout 16,000 looms were at one time employed in this manufacture ; but of late years the demand has declined, owing to the decay of the Persian and Ottoman empires, and the desolation «n4 poveflj' of i\\>> 1f,»n{etn cmintrlcs. When Cushmeru w«» \n\m\m}/ In Af«(f/(((i«tnn, n great portion of thu pi|bii»^ ^uvistiHw #«<( psdctpd In shawls. The yarn !uto which fhd ^iiii\ U l>)i((« Is dyed with various ci)|f)r», and, aftuf ^HiillH l»«tt>rtj tlic piece Is onco waslicd, and th" hiifftttf, (t( titled li dlsplnvpd a ^ uricty of figures imd ciilofK, (,i nllmUl>i\ in the ifiawls in so dexterous a mmilff tlwf il is llrttdlv possible to discover tliu junction, TIm* \iriin i/Hfitu In pKrportlon to the quality. A nm-inn lif wri(jhg-1irt(«r Is also made in rashniere, wlli|i*(1«ir« U imimtiitHitui], and a spirituima liquor (a rt)s)ilM f(i,m iUc «(■«(*. Tho internal inturiiiuriiu wC M|k I'imiltfjr Is (lllffly rnnin- taiued liy means of f))»' (M(IH»'t(M(S Mrcifffls Vhich in- tersect it, and wlijiii ntv mi^iSMfii JH 1(rtfg and nar- row floats nu)Vi.'(J jiy piidilt"*.'- Kj ti; Cashmere BtwwtiD, 'flw di^ftici fft.m whence come these costly ii))i*w|i* )s rtwsi (•jliM tin beltig "the happy valley, ai)d a |Wfrt4('* ill ((ftt*l((n1 s(rring." Tho true C'ashnwifB t-hftnU IHII (/« fflrtllllfrtctured of no other wool Itlttll tllilt (if '(lllllff. Tlll-I- Were first brought to Knglund ill (lililfj Idlf ttlPJ' WpVn well Imi- tated by tlie spinning »« \ir)ll\fl>ftii Ktld file looms of Hudderslield. Sliiiwls fnf iUmmmh^i (if thi' Tlilbetlnn wool, cost 150 rupees nm-% rtllKllt (lie fent 1«.')0.— Bkknikh. Caspian 099, tlie -Vflfii Hyfi'iiMlm wf tll« ancients, derives its iianie (mm file ('m\h\, « \f\\m ♦fho settled on its shores. AllMlllg Ki" Mficli(«(s j» Is fcffown un- der a variety of names ; by \\w tllll!i:i.lll tit Astracan and Orenberg, the t'aH»»B)»|( miMfi^ni Persia, and Tartaryi its greali^st (eilglll in utfdilt 7li« miles, and its greatest breadth dtiKiit il») (ftilii Crtsf »(( 1»est • gen- erally, however, only half l\mi lifCKiIld, lltlrt where narrowest not nuiretlmil 1*1 IIIJIcs ncWss, Its esti- mated area is from lill.OOH (o iWJW fiiHUin miles. There are no tides in thi« feij, tl/tf ttfc tlictc rtrtt regu- lar currents ; but tlie lijgli wfitits « lliih nciKslimally blow over its large surtane inilj* ((/Hsidcfalde and Ir-- regular agitations in it« nmUmffm fs^f j l^lt its *(itcrs are every where very shalluw (leur Jllf clllrt'C, P«)ie( Islly to- ward the west. VbpsuU rtmwfllg 'i (If Id fi^et -ttatet are thus cuin|x>lled t« illiiiy»'l fyf (finii lllp shote, ex- cepting near llakou and nmm wtwc pKffs iif f lie lake. Navigation is, in genenil, dnilgefdlis, itwiti^ Hi the fre- quency and violence of tlie e#et tifiA »( tbs Iwiglit of 60 of M ■ii m CAS 282 CAS t fNt, wllh l«rgo, •iiroutlhiK, horizontal branchei. The burk rv.Hcinlilct thut uf ciiiiiuiiiuii in u|>p«araiice, (inell, and taatv, uiul ia very uftvii suliatituted fur it ; but it may lio n^ulily distiiiguiahcil ; it is tliii'lier in aub- itanue, leas iiuiilud, brvuiia aliurtur, uiul ia nioro |iun- gent. It ahoulil Ihi clinat'ii in thin piocca; tho bvat being that whicli a|iprouclic'B npurcat to cinnamon in Havor : tintt which ia anmll and brultun abould bo re- jected. A ({0 ones there is contained a aof'liah, gruyf»li-y«lluMr, ur light-brown siibstuncF, which, on txpoiure tu tlio air, becomes dry and brittle, and of a bruwii culur. TiiU is castor. It has a heavy but aomawbuc Nrimiutlv aiMdl, not unlike niuak ; and a lillter, nauaeuus, and auliHiirlil taate. Tho best comes from Uusila ; but uf Ullliid liy a mixture of some gummy and reainuua •uiiataiii'iiit | but the fVaud is easily detected by c(iiii|iarlliK lint smell and taste witli those of real castor — Tiiumihin'h l>i»petuuton/. Castor-Oil (Fr, JIuile tlu Uicini Ger. Uiiiiiuiuihli It, lllio lit Kicino ; Sp. Jticimoel) is ubtaincd from thii seeds of the Iticiiiut mmmuiiit, ur I'altim Clirisli, atl all' nual plant found in most tropical cuunlriis, and In Greece, tho soutii of Spain, etc, Tho oil is si'jiaratftl n-oin the seeds cither by boiling them in water, ur by subjecting them to the action of the presja. It U suiil that though the largest quantify uf uU may b« pro- cured by the first method, it is less sweet, and UiuRi apt to become rancid, than that procured by (tNpr«»- sion, which, in consequence, l<; the process iiuw liiusl commonly followed. Good expressed cusfur-ull Ik nearly inodorous and insipid ; but the beat liiavca • alight sensation of acrimony in the throat uflvr it U swallowed. It is thicker and heavier than lint fat ult», being viscid, transparent, and colorless, or uf a \/iiry pule straw color. That which is olitained by bulling the secda hua a brownish hue; and both kimU, wliitii they become rancid, thicken, deepen in culur tu a rviU dish-brown, and acquire a hut, nauaeuus lustu, It In very extensively employed in the materia lucdii'it as a cathartic. — Tiio.mson's iJitjieiitutury, Culture and Manujiuiure n/Ciuloi-uil. — Kuullitirn Il- linois is the source whence all tho castor livans arit bruught that are sold or manufactured In tit, LuuU. The ground is prepared as fur uther crops, and wllfli there is no longer any danger from the spriiiK frusta tho seeds nro planted in hills and rows, much ill tlltl manner of planting Indian corn, with Iha exifplliiti that th^^re is but one seed put into each lilll, ami llmt at every fourth row a apace is left sufficiently wliht to admit of the passage of a team for the pur|iuso uf gatlt- cring the crop. Unlike the cereal griiiis, lliu ri-iniu bears at the same time flowers and fruit, and lliu *«• verity of our climate, which renders it in this lalllud* an annual plant, destroys its vitality while yut tlucked with bloom. The ripening commences in Augusl, and the crop is gathered at intervals from this duto Ulilfl the plants are destroyed Ijy frost. The yield, uf course, varies with tlio quality of tllD soil and the care of the culture. Tweuty-liv buslHtl* fWim an acre of ground is considered a very large vrup, and is but seldom obtained. From sixteen lu Iwi'lily bushels per acre is a veiy fair yield in a season not marked by drought or other unfavoralile fealuru, The primitive mode uf making castor-uil ww;i by putting the (bruised) beans in a bag, and placing Iha same in a kettle of water, and as thr iicuiis wuro b'.iU ed tho oil came 19 the surface and was skimmed uit, Subsequently there were adopted the sck'W and ■fVHr presses, and other devices for pressing ')iu lioaiis, «ing culled *' cold pressed," to distinguish it iVom the bulled uil (that obtained by boiling tho beans in water). About ten years ago, tho St, I^uls nianufaclureri commenced using tho ordinary hydraulic press, In* creasing the yield from the raw material, and wurk- CAT S88 CAT Ing (lie beam with grvutcr rapidity and oconomy. About twu yt'iirH nini'u tliero waa introduced a now promi, wliicli has brought tlio buuinvitii to a gruator ttato of ixtrfuctlon, [>y iucrvuain|{ tho product uf oil from tiiu Iwiiu UTJ |iur cunt, uvor tliu ordinary hydrau- lic proHH, and Hucuring other advantages lu the ucun- oniy 'i( labor and fuel. One of thcHu pruvBca will work 1&U,OOU liusliuU 0*' beauu pur annum, producing ae much an 'l(X),OOU gallons of oil. It is said that una of theso presses wurlcud on castor-oil, iu couuectioa witli others on Unseed oil, furnialius sullieiont combustible refuse from the lastur buan tu supply fuel fur the works ; and iu tiiis way tlie fuel from the bean is of lullieient value t« pay all the o.x|Kin»cs of manufactur- lug the oil. The ap.uuiit saved in Latuurottu's estal>- lislimont by burning the al)Ove refuse, when in full operation, is aliuut tifty dollars per week. After the oil h pressed from tl;u beans, it is clarilicd by boiling in large kettles with a siiuill ixirtiun uf water, and when perfectly clear is allowed to cool, and is then drawn otf into barrels ready for market. During tliu months of July, August, and September, IHAl, there were manufactured thirty-two tliousand gallons of castur-oil at this establishment alone. The manufac- ture of the oil, which, in 1850, was largely curried on In Illinois, la now mostly ellbctod in the city of St. Louis. KM. IStl. IBS9. 1M3. t;rup ill buslitls Fiict()rl4!H ill Ht. I^iiis, , Ksriorii's In Illinois . . . Hsrn'ls n'oil made ... i>>ltiiviileMt ill KBlions . ■itM.omt i ft.ooo •')0(),UUU 1UU,U00 aerved his health during a long and dilllcult voyag« by th3 ' iiitual usu of botul, while his companions, who did , ^ mSo it, died, mostly of dysentery. Cat-head, a strung timber projecting frum either Ihiw uf a ship, to which the anchor is raised and le- cured. Cat's Eye, a mineral of a beautiful appearance, brought frum (Joylon. Its colors are gray, green, brown, red, of various shades. Its Intornal lustru U shilling, its fracture imperfectly conchoidal, and it la translucent, Fro^ii u |ieeuiiur play of light, arising from white fibres interspersed, it has derived its name. The French cull t'. j appearance chatayunt. It scratch- es quartz, is easily broken, and resists the blow-pi|)e. It is set by tho Jiiwclers as a precious stone. Cat Skins. Tho skin ur fur of tho cat la used for a variety of pur|ioses, but is principally dyed and sold as false aulilo. U ap|>ears from uvidonco taken befuro u late Conmiittee of tho Iluuso of Commons, tliat it is u common practice in London to decoy tho animal and kill it for thu sako of its skin. Tho fur of tho wild- cut is, however, far moro valuable than that of tho domestic cut. Tho wild-cat skins imported into Kii- ropo arc brought almost wholly from the turrltoriea of thu Hudson's llay Company. Tho animal from which they are taken is u good du3il larger than tho Fnglish wild-cat, and is sometimes called tho loup aercier, or Canadian lynx. Cattle, a collectivo term applied to designate all those i|uadrui)eds that aro used either as food for man or in tilling tho ground. Uy ncut or ItorneJ cuttle is meant tho two species included under tho names of the ox (/w.4) and tho bulTalo (bubuluii) ; but as tlio latter is principally conlined to Asiatic countries, it is the former only that wo have here in view. Tlio raising; and feeding of cattle, and tho preparation of tlio vari- ous products which they yield, have formed, in all countries emerged from tho savage state, an important branch of industry. It would bo quite inconsistent with the olijccts and limits of this work tu enter into any details w ith respect to tho dilTorcnt breeds of cuttle raised in this or other countries. They aro exceedingly various. In (ircat Itritain and iu tliis country they have been vastly improved, both in the weight of car- cass, the quality of tlio beef, and the abundance of tho milk, by the extraordinary attention that has been given tu tlie selection and crossing of tlio best breeds, according to tho clyccts in view. This sort of im- provement began about the middle of hist century, or rather later, and wac excited and very much forwarded by tho skill and enterprise of two individuals — Mr. liakewell, of DislJoy ; and Mr. Culley, of Northum- berland, England. Tho success by which their elforta were attended roused a spirit of emulation in others ; and tho rapid growth of commerce and manufactures since 17G0 having occasioned a corresponding incrousa in the demand for butcher's moat, improved systems of breeding, and improved breeds, havo been very generally introduced. Ilut the improvement in tho sizu and condition of cattle has not been alone owing to tho circunistunccs now mentioned. Much of it la certainly to bo ascribed to the greot improvement that has been made in their feeding. The introduction and universal extension of tho turnip a. i clover cul iva- tiou has had, in this respect, a most astonishing influ- ence, and has wonderfully increased the food of cattle, and consequently the supply of butcher's meat. Among the various races of cattle existing among us, where strict regard is paid to breeding with a defin- ite object in view, a preference is given to the Dur- hams or short horns, the Ilcrefords, the Ayrshiros, and the Devous. The Durhams, from their rapid growth, early matur't}', and capability of taking on fat, ore adapted only for high keeping, or to the richest pas- tures of tho Middle and Northern States, and those if Ohio, Kentucky, and other parts of the ^V«st. Th« CAU 284 CED mtlei, wh»n Jailicioimly crossed with the other breeds, or with the cominon cows of the country, often hegct the liest of milkers, nnd fur this purpose they have been esi>ecially reconiinvnded. The Hercfords, on the contrary, ft-oni their preullnr organlzntlon, nro lietter adapted for poor or Indifferent pastures, and regions ■uhjert to continued driiUKht ; aiul for this reason thi^'V *re well suited for California, New Mcxirn, Texas, ■nd other parts of the Month. The oxen of this hreed ■re gooear to be adapted to almost every climate, and to all kinds of pnsturngc. From their stoutness, good tempers, honest/, and qu ick- ncss of action, they make the best teams, and in this Kspect their chief excellency consi >», Thecnwsmakc fair milkers, nnd their Hcsh very gi) 'beef. Theyalao possess givat aptitude to take on fai. — •Src AnATToiR, Cktdicillg, or Cauklng, the driving of oakum or old rope nntwisted Into the seams between the planks in a siilp's deck or sides, to prevent the entrance of water or leakage. The seams arc then covered with melted pitch or rosin, to keep the oakum from rotting. Cavendlali, Thomaa, was the son of a gentleman of gooy licat, and ndxud >vitli water, or with ruaiu and wax, ia uacd for uuitiii|{ piccua of niarblu, A cc- j nienl conipoHcd of brlcl<-du>t and main, or pitch, ia ompluyi'd by turnura, and aoniu otliur niochauics, to oonlinu tlio niutariul on which tlicy aro woridng. Coni- moii puliit, iiiailu of whltc-lcad aiial At nnra with tho raw iimtcrUI In (h« wlf-KovuriKMl llrltlih cmiilrn, re- qulml (;r«at iiiKmiiily (lul MKX'ily, A ccniun, to Ihi •iTuratn, iniiit )i« likon on a unlAirni lydein, antl muit bo taken •Imultanraualy. Thu t'nuincratlnni of IHil and tKSt In Kiigland wrro much fscllitntrd hy the iinirnrni ■}'>tcm of rpffUtratlun of liirlha, mnrrlnKCf, and deaths, cutaLliahod In IN.in, whli'h not only afTordud tho mcani of rhockloK "■" ar<'»«cy of thn n>turn«, Imt |irovidrd a prompt and •kllli'd niachincr}' ucrolonird to atatliitlral work. Far more dependence could now ho plai'cd on the dincretlon and Bkill of tho offlcera to whom tho local diitlen were committed ; and the retuma were niado more ininulc and complete. Scotland and Irelaml are pcrhapa tho only lonaidurahle coiinlrica In Chrintian Kuropo wlicro there is no uniform tyttcm of reKi"tratlon, In 8cot- l«n« It wa» neceiaar}- to adopt tlio iliimay method of enipluylng the pariah achoolnmntcra to perform the local duty In tho country dlatrlcla. In Ireland thu flmt attempt at n general cenAua waa niado In 1H11, bnt It was decidedly unsucccMful, It Han repealed In 1821, hut went no further than a bare enumeration of doubtful accuracy. Tho censui Ihoro taken In 1831 W4S aubjcct to correction In IHIII, to make It tho bauls of the new system of national education. In tho two subsei|uent enumerations Iho aid of tho admirable con- (laluilary force, and tho use of an ordnance survey, nearly complete In 1811, have gone far to supply the want of permanent local statistical machinery. The census of 1861 was laken on the Hist day of March, the previously -distributed schedules being then collected. Population arii Nihhkb or iNiiAKiTAMn to ths ^i|| asb Milk ok vauiols Amluica.n a.nd Kcroi-k.ui Coinikiiui. C«IBlf(«. r<>|>iilsu<»' UMWIy. <1I,IVI,87« l,'<4J,i(16 7,noi,9i» «,04U,H60 0,(1(16,0(10 2,IUt),4IKI fio,.iir.,;60 .'M.M4,4'''« 86,783,170 10,','V 1,888 li7,476,':7l 10.331, 187 i4,iio,'iie lf..60(l,0, and thi-ir descendants ; srrond, of those who have ronic in'o the country sincu that period by immigration, and their dcicendanta (of this class much will be said under the head of Nativities) ; thii-d, of those who have been brought in by annexation, as in Louisiana, Florida, Kew Mexico, etc., and their descendants. It is suffi- cient to say of the last claw, that Louisiana, when purchased, 'had 77,000 inhabitantf including 63,000 ■laves; Florida about lO.iMiO; ralifornta and Kew Mr.tlco about (10,IM)0; and (hat Texas and Oraguo only brought back Into the Cniun cilixeus who had emigrated thither but a slmrt time before. The num* lier of Indians (taxed) dcimestlcatcd and absorbed In llie population can nut lie ascertained. Thu colonial population was swelleil, in ITliA, by the extension of thu Imundary lo tho BlIssliKippi, and the Introduction of KIMH) French residents of the territory lucdrpurnted. Cent, a contracliim of the I.atin ifulum, n hundred, is used in commerce to denote u certain rule by thu hundred ; thus ID per iTUt. profit or Id per cent, luti upon tho sale of any inerchandiKU implies that the seller bus gained or liiit (IIO on every |1U0 of tlin price at which he bought that merihandise. The rate is term- ed frritnlnijf.—Srf Diii.i.AU. Cent Is aloii the name of a copper coin of the I'nlted Slat>?B, equal to tho hiindrcdth part of a didlar, or rather more than a halft)cnny Kngllsh nmuey. Tho copper coinage of the I'nlted Slates lo the end of \m\ amounted In f l,Sin,Un7. Vie have of that pon- deroui currency about IMIO tmi of 'JdOO pounds avoir* dupois. This circulation Is almost entirely confined to tho Northern and Middle States, as it Is rejected by tho South and West, According to the laws establishing tho Mint of the United States, "of the copper coins, the weight of the cent shall be one hundred and sixty- eight grains, and the weight of Iho half cent elghly- four grains; and the cent iiholl be considered of tho value of one hundredth part of a dollar, and the half cent of (he value of one tw o-hundredth part of a dollar. Copper bullion shall be purchased for the Mint, from time lo time, by tho treasurer, under instructions from the director ; the cost shall be paid from tho fund here- inafter provided for ; and tho copper bullion shall bo of good quality, and in tho form of planchcts fit for passing at once Into the hands of the chief coiner. Tho copper planchels shall be delivered, from time to time, by the treasurer to the chief coiner, to lio by him coined j and all such copper shall be returned to the treasurer by Ihechief coiner, weight forwelght, w ithout ullowanco for waste. It lihall be tho duty of the treasurer of tho Mint to deliver the copper coins, in exchange for their legal cqulvolent In other money, to any person who shall apply for them : ProridrJ, That tho sum asked for be not less than n certain amount, to bo determined by tho dircclur. ami that it be not so great as In his Judg- ment to IntcrlVrcwith tho capacity of the Mint lo sup- ply other applicants. Tho copper coins may, at tho discretion of ilie director, be delivered in any of tho principal cities and towns of the United States, at tho cost cl the Mint for transportati'Mi. The money re- ceived by the trea-iiirer in excbango for copper coins >1iall form a fund in his hands. ■^ hich shall bo used to purchase i-oppcr planchcts, ami lo pay the expense of tranK[>ortation of copper coins; and if there be a sur- piw, the same shall be appropriated to defray the con- tingent expcnhcs of the Mint. No copper coins or pici'i « whatfoc^ver, except cents and half cents, shall pass current as money, or shall bo poid, or ofTercd to be paid, or received in payment for any debt, demand, claim, matter, ur thing whatsoever; and all copper coins or pieces, except the cents and holf cents, which shall lie ]iaid, or o(H'r<;d lo be paid, or received in pay- ment, contrary to the prohibition aforesaid, shall be forfeited, and cverj- icrson by whom any of them shall have been so paid, or oflercd to lie paid, or received in payment, shall also forfeit the sum of ten dollars, and the said forfeiture and penally shall and moy be recov- ered, with costs of suit, for the benefit of ony person or persons by whom information of the incurring thereof shall have been given. ' — Sfe Coins, Coinaoe. According to the aci.s of Congress prior to 1850, tho gold and silver coins of tho United States were legal tender to any extent, but by the law of 185.1, authoriz- ing tho debased silver coin», the lotter arc receivable in •moll sums only. Cupper coins are not by statuto le- CRR m CEY of tlio for their ion who »kpU for iliu'il hy Juilg- lo mil>- at tho of llio nt tho lov rc- .'oini used to eneu of a sur- ho con- oliiB or ihall red to cmand, copper which n pny- hall be III ithaU ivtd in rs. nnd rccov- noD or ihcrcof !50, tho legal thorU- ablc in ;uto le- Kul ti-ni1«r in my «iiiihiiii. Vtrnnml •iiKK''"tliiii* In i I'linKrwiia liiiv* Imivii rxixiitly iiind" In rciliiin llin wiiJifht of ilui <'ii|ii>i*l. i''r'; cnmi, i(ri<»ii«» which prmliic* ii > liri'ifl mriKi tiich M whual, ry«, barley, u*la, iiiiii/'i, rl<», mid nillli'l. Oatt«, 4 I'liinmiirciiil mid furllllcd ncii.iHirt town of Kriiiii'K, ib'purliiixiit of lU'rHiitl, ia|illiil nf tho innlnii, ■t llin hil alrnpa, lii|iiora, aonp, perfiiinery, mul Klnaa-warca, tho prodinla of lla own fmlorlia. fntlo ii tho antMp/it for an iiat''na|vn roaatlnK-tradx, and poa- uatca inucli foriilt(ii i'oniiiinri'i<, It hna ahlp-biilldInK vardi, and an aillm iiyalnr and anchovy llabcry, and ii tliii rcaidnncii of vnrbma rnropcmi conanta. It la wholly of iiiodurn orluln, liavliiK Iwcn foniidcd by Louis XIV. at llio liaaa of thii ancient .Ifon* f*'.'" Ill' K. lla IciiKlJi la Vlt llillea, and lla ifreni breadth U'> nillea. It la of an ovnl form, po< north and aoutli; lla brondoi imrt iHduK nt H% . „tii. orii axtruinily, wliurii niaii la to i>n found the i«i' at masa of iti MtiU liiiiila. It la illalnnt froni ('np» < ,>i in, the ioutlierunioat point of the Indian pMilMaMla, utmnt 17ii uiilea, Thu moat liiiporlnnl cnllWaMiM in Ihiat of coiri'c, H branch of liidiiatry which, alnc* Ihn yaar IHII, haa aiaunicd a jioillinii of Ktfiil ni"l (niwliig promi- nence, (.'ortli* waa an arllcjo of xnwih ami export from (!eylon an far back aa thn linn nf Iho I'ortUKUoac, but like tho vinnamon It urnw wOd wllho)il nny nt- toinpl at cultivation, I'ntchi'a of || wrro to W neeii around tho Kandian vIIUk"' In wild Inxnrliince, and till! berry Katliorcd befuro tl|M , and Impcrfcdly cured, •ebioni poiiHaied niilcli llavor, and wna llKlitly calci-in- ed aa an artblo of Knropenn coiiinicrce. ( 'olTeo ciiltivn- tlon on thu Woat Indian plnn wna Ural romincnccd by Sir K. Karnea, the tlien «Hvnrnor of ('nylon. In WZ4, who hoped by hi* uxamplii lo IntriHlnco cofTop-plantlng by Kuropean* Into the lalund. Tlie Corut HMcj/lc/i, or coi uimut palm, la a native of tho iiland, and may jually be conaldered the moat val- uablu of itt treea, It ((rows In vaat iiiimlmra along the entire vca-conat of tha wcat 'ind aonlli aldea of Iho lal- and, and furnlahea alinoal nil thnt a Hlnglinleao vil- lager ru<|ulroi, Ita fruit, whm grofln, aiippllea food and drink ; when ripe, U ylulda oil, lla aap givea him toddy and nrruck. 'I'lm llbroua eaaillg of tho fruit, when wovun, iiiakua him ropc«, nola, nnd matting. Thu nut-iheiia form drinklng-vnaada, apoona, etc. The plaited leavea aervo aa ptatca and diahea, and na thatch for Ilia cottage. The dried llower-alalks nrn used na torchet, the large laaf-atalka aa gnrdim fencea. The trunk of tho trea aawn up la aniployad for every poaai- ble purpoie, from knifa-haiitllM tiii h com- m*t>i, hdlda out priunlae uf n good IlKhIng nt no diHlniit dale. Thu bniika on wlilcb tbcae nyalcra nre iiaiinlly found llo off the iKirtlicrn part of the west ciuiNt of Ceylon, nt a dUtnncc of fnini 1(1 to 20 inilca from the ahore. They oxtenil for mnny nilica north nnd south, varying con- aldornbly in their aizo and producliveneja. Tho oya- ter arrives at niatnrily l» Ita aevenlh yenr ; tho penrl within ia then of full growth, nnd if the lUh be not then taken up. It will shorlly die, and the penrl be lo»t, Thn Ushery, which U in the hands of th(! locul government, look plnce in the inonlli of Mnrch, when the wnlerwua perfectly cnlm. nnd nio.st fnvnruldo for the work of thu divers. It wna formerly rented to iintKe speculatorx, who paid a certain sum for tlie privilege of fishing with n llxid number of divers during n given period. In 1711" .iiid Ihn following year, tlie rental of tho fishery ieall«o.(l X'I'2.1,!»H2 nnd ,l'll'.',7H0 re.«pcctivcly, .Siiico that time tho government huve llshecl on tliiir own nc- coiint, selling tho produce of each boot by nuctiim on tho bench before tiio llsh cnuld bo exninined. This mode, however, hnd not proved so lucrutlvn as the ,dd method; the unnunl returns never having cxci cded £K",()no, nnd frcciucntly fulling ns low ns trj.ttiO; in somo cnscs, indeed, nniounting lo but a IV« hundred pounds sterling. Various causes Imve been assigned for tho failure of thcso llsheriea. It nia_\ , however, bo properly attributed to tho mismnnagement of ;iii in- spector of the penrl banks, who in lM:l(i took charge of them, nnd, from neglecting to aitciid to llie inalruc- tiona given liiin by his predecessors, caused the wrong lieda to be flslicd. Tlie result whs » '• '"idcto failure of the lisherj' ; the oysli rs which i I have been brought up were left t" iMc; young inls were di»turl>- ed, and from that tlnio this large sourcautifully lined with tho pearly secretion, is valueless as " mother-of-pearl." The Iiitest intelligence from tho scone of tho fisheries is ns follows ; \7tli Sale. — 206,000 oysters brought on shore on the 7th (by 42 boats) were sold at rates vorying from 15 to OEY 288 CHA 18 rnpoes per 1000, and ])roducud .£316. Total roccipU £9930.— Overland Colombo Obtervtr, April 16th, 1866. The trade of Cej'lon hiu been greatly augmented Binco the opening of the cinnamon trade and the com- moncouicnt of coflcc planting. In 1832 the iniporta amounted to X3&1,22'2 ; the exports to i;iC3,5«7. In 1842 the imports and exports amounted to XU22,447 and ;C421,413 respectively. In 1862 those amounts were Xl,000,474 and £!)48,400. The largest increase in expoitcd produce has been in cofiio, which from 17,287 cwls. in 1831 grew to 77,476 cwts. in 1841, and to 287,910 cwts. in 1861. In 1864 the crops of native and plantation kinds arc expected to amount to 600,000 cwts. The cinnamon trade of Ceylon forms a remark- able exception to the rule that by the removal of fiscal restrictions the consumption of articles will bo in- creased. Cinnamon is now exported from Ceylon duty free, yet the annual demand for the spico is found to bo no greater than when burdened with an export duty of 3<. the lb. When the island was transferred from the adraiuisti.ition of the East India Company to that of the crown in 18U2, the government entered into a contract with the company by which the latter acquired the exclusive privilege of exporting cinnamon from the colony. It was agreed that the Ceylon government should deliverannually 400,000 pounds of cinnamon, for which the company was to grant a credit of XCU,000, makiug the price of the cinnamon Za. per pound. lu 1814 the company agreed to allow to the Cej-lon govern- ment a sum of £200,000 sterling; for surplus profits on their sales of cinnamon ; and to give in future X101,Uolcs. Chaldron, a dry English measure of 86 coal bush- els; 21 chaldrons make a score. The coal bushel is 1'.)^ inches wide from the outside, and 8 inches deep. It contains 2217-6 cubic inches; but when heaped, 281&-6, making the chaldron 68-6& cubic feet. There are 12 sacks of coal in a chaldron ; and if 6 chaldrons be putchased at the same time, the seller must deliver 03 sacks : the 3 sacks additional are called the ingrain. But coals are now sold in London ond almost every where else by the ton of 20 cwt. avoirdupois. The Newcastle chaldron of coals is 63 cwt., and is exactly double tlic London chaldron. Chaleura, Bay o£ an inlet of the Gulf of St. Law- rence, in North America, Lat, 48° N., long. 66° W. Length from east to west about DO miles ; breadth va- ries from 12 to 20 miles. It separates Canada East from New Brunswick, and at its western extremity re- ceives the Itistigouche liiver. Tills bay possesses great advantages for the prosecution of the fisheries. The entire bay may be considered one great harbor, as throughout its entire breadth and extent there is not a single rock, reef, or shoal. During tlie summer it lit- erally swarms with fish of every description known on tho shores oi' this portion of America ; and its ancient name of " Kvketaun AemuacAt" — the sea of fish — well denotes its character. Chalk (from calj-\ in Latin called creia, a species of carbonate of lime, found abundantly in Britain, France, Norway, and other parts of Europe. The isl- and of Candia is said to have received its ancient name of Crtta from the quantity of chalk found there. Chalk is used as an anti-acid ; and from tho readiness with which it imbibes liquids, it is much employed as an ab- sorbent. When powdered and freed from gritty parti- cles by washing, it forms the substance called whiten' in op TnAnr. Chamomile XUowers. The flowor-hcads of the AnIhemU nobitit, or common chamomile. Thoy aru nsed in medicine in consequence of their bitter extract, which is strengthening, and of their essential oil, which is aromatic and stimulant. Champagne, one of the most esteemed and cele- brated of the French wines. An ofilclul report, made by the directors of the indirect taxes for the depart- ment of Mame, furnishes the following information as to the trade In champagne iMtween the 1st of April, 1846, and the Ist of April, 1847. The produce Is dis- tributed among the arrondlascments of Chalons, Eper- nay, and Rheims. On the 1st of April lost there were in the cellars of the wholesale dealers 18,816,867 bot- tles of this wine ; viz. at Chalons, 4,401,237 bottles ; at Epemuy, 5,710,75,3; and at Rheims, 8,500,977. The number of bottles sold and delivered between the Ist of April, 1846, and the 1st of April, 1847, were, at Cha- lons, 2,497,355; at Epemay, 2,187,563; at Rhoima, 4,090,677; making a total of 8,775,485 bottles. These quantities were thus distributed : PUea. Togo Abroad. To othtr DapoU WiUiui lln Dopol. From Chalons From Enernay From Klicima Total BoHlu. I,n74,'214 8ao,o«!i 2,831,038 Boltlei. 75il,17B 880,425 1,215,760 BuHlai. 0«;),006 904,405 43.773 4,711,915 !t,3&5,!t0« l,7il7,8W Champlain Lake lies between the States of New Tork and Vermont. It extends from Whitehall, New York, to the 45th degree of north latitude 102 miles, and thence about 24 miles to .St. John's, in Canada, to which point it Is navigable, making its whole length 126 miles. Its breadth is from one-fourth of a mile to 13 miles ; but, including the expanse which contains its large islands, It is 15 miles wide. Its broadest part, anobstruclcd by islands, is opposite Burlington, Ver- mont. Its chief islands are North Hero, South Hero, and La Mottc, which, with some smaller Lilands, and the peninsula nf Alburg, constitute Grand Isle county, Vermont. This lake was discovered by Samuel Cbam- p'atn, a French nobleman, in 1609. It was the theatre or many important military operations, in the French, Revolutionary, and the war of 1812. The scenery along its shores Is highly picturesque, and rendered grand by the lofty mountains at a little distance from it on both sides. It forms an important medium of commerce, and is navigated by steamboats, and by many sloops, generally from 80 to 100 tons burden. It receives a number of considerable rivers. Its outlet is Sorelle or Richelieu River, the navigation of which has been improved by the works of the Chambly Canul (Canada), so as to atford an ciiay communication fur largo vessels with the St. Lawrence River, The Cham- plain Canal, 64 miles loni;, connects it with the Hudson River on the south, and cost #1,079,872. It abounds with Ash, among which are salmon, hike shad, pike, and other lish. It is generally frozen entirely over, and la passed on the Ice, in winter. The broad lake closes in January or February, and opens early In March. The narrow parts continue frozen cimsiderably longer. It has three light-houses on its coasts. It comprises the ooUwtioa distrioU of Burlington and Champlain. Ag- gregate tonnage in 1868, 1,461,749. Tha aggregate shipping in 1851 measured 197,600 tons, and employed 11,860 men. The commerce of the lake la the sama - year amounted to $26,390,895; and the enrolled ton- nige was, of steam, 4157 tons, and 8983 tons of sailing vessels. Chanks, or Chank Sheila, common conch shell* , ( Volttta pfTum), are flshed up by divers in the Gulf of Manaar, on the coast opposite Jafltoapatam, in Ceylon, in about two fathoms water; and at Travancore, Tuti- coreen, and other places. Large fossil beds of chanka hivo also been found. They are of a spiral form, and constitute a considerable article of trade in India, where they are in extensive demand all over the country, Tliey are sawn into narrow rings or bracelets, and are worn as ornaments on the arms, legs, fingers, etc., by the Hindoo women; many of them are also buried with the bodies of opulent and distinguished persons. I'hose which, from being taken with the lish, ai« called gre'e, if the precaution be taken to add a little sul- phuric acid previously to the water. If the water casks be charred before they are filled with water, the liquor remains good in them for years ; this precaution ought always to be taken for long sea voyages. The sime precaution, when attended to for wine-casks, will bo found very much to improve the quality of the wine." — Thomson's Chemintry. Common charcoal intended merely for fuel is prepared by cutting pieces of wnnd from one to three inches in diameter into lengths of from one to three feet, forming them into a conical pile, nnd covering them with turf or clay ; leaving two or thntc small holes close to the ground for lighting the wood, and boring through the turf in the upper part of the cone, a few other small holes for the escape of the smoke. The pile being lighted at the several holes along the bottom, continues burning with a slow smouldering flame for • week or two, and ia allowed to cool befon CWA me GHA^ tkt tnif ii removed. In the case of very high «indi, tta bolM to the windward are stopped, to pieveitt eombuitioD ft«m going on with too great rapidity. Charcoal obtained by diitilling be«cIi>wood, log-wood, wUIow, and other wooda which are fVee from reain, is called cylinder charcoal. The charcoal employed in the manufacture of gunpowder is now always so pre- pared. Charga d'Aflbdraa. The third or lowest class of foreign ministers, according to the regtilations adopted at the Congress of Vienna. Cbariota. The invention of chariots and the man- ner of harnessing horses to draw them, is ascribed to EricbthoniuH of Athens, 1480 B.C. Chariot-racing was one of the exercises of Greece. The chariot of the Ethiopian officer, mentioned in Atti vii. 27, 28, 31, was, it is supfiosed, something in the form of our modem chaise with fonr wheels. Caesar relates that Cassibe- lanus, after dismissing all his other forces, retained no fewer than 4000 war chariots. Those of the ancients were like the modem phaetons, and drawn by one horse. — Hayon. Gharleaton, city, port of entry, and capital of Charicston district. South Carolina. It is the metrop- olis of the State, and the twelfth city in population in the United Slates. Situated in »-i° 46' 88" N. lat., and 79° 65' 88 " W. long, from Greenwich, England ; 2° 5(i' 8" W. long, from Washington ; 124 miles south- southeast from Columbia; 110 miles from Savannah, Georgia ; 165 miles from Wilmington, North Carolina ; M7 miles from Washington ; 687 miles from Baltimore; 684 miles from Philadelphia; 773 miles from New York, and 989 miles from Boston. The population in 1730 was 16,859; in 1800, 18,712; in 1810, 24,711; in 1820, 34,780; in 1830, 30,289; in 1840, 29,261 ; and in 1860, 42,986 ; to which may be properly added the In- habitants of the Neck, north of the eity, but lying without the charter limits, which contains about 16,000 inhabitants. Charleston is on a peninsula, formed by the confluence of Ashley and Cooper Rivers, which unite immediately below the city, aad form a spacious and convenient harbor, communicating with the ocean at Sullivan's Island, seven miles southeast of the city. The city is defended by Fort Pinckney, two miles ht- low, and Fort Johnson, four miles ; and by Fort Moul- trie on Sullivan's Island. The city is 'divided into eight wards, and is built on ground but slightly ele- vated, being only about nine feet above the level of the harbor at high tides. It extends from Battery Point on the south to the city limits on the north, a distance of three miles, and at an average width of one and a quarter mile. Ueetiiig Street, the principal street, is sixty feet wide, and extends for a diiitance of three miles nearly in a direct line north ; the cross-streets run nearly parallel to each other, and at right angles to Meeting Street, and extend from east to wrst, and from Ashley to Cooper Rivers. The houses built with- in a few years are of brick ; none are now alinwed In be construcl«d but of this material or of stone. The wooden houMs are generally kept well painted, and moat of them have piazzas extending to the roof, taste- ftally arranged with vines and creepers. Those in the snburbs arc surrouaded by gardens, planted with or- ange, peacli. and other ornamental and useful trees, and a profusion of vines aad shrubbery. Charleston is a great matt (or cotton, rice, and to- bacco ; and rice especially, as it is the heart of the rice- growing region, forms the great staple, of which it ex- ports 126,000 tierces annually. There is a line of i steamers with New Yolk weekly, a line with Haltimorc i and Philadelphia, and also with Ilavaua and Culia. I Tonnageoftheportinl852,42,658tons. 'Hie light^house I at the entrance of Charleston harbor is on Light-house j laland, and weat of the siiip channel. Lat. 82« 41' 64" N., long. 79° 82' 30" W. from Greenwioh. The tower la 103 feet high, shows a Kvolving light ele.vatad 125 feet •lasva the suifltos of tha aaa, and is viaibla for • distanaa of 16( nautical miles. There Is also a beacon, which with the light is used as a range to cross the main bar, and two others, the Morris Island and Sullivan's Isl- and beacons. By its being the port of an extenslva system of railroads, il drains supplies from a wide rangt of territory- ; besides almost the entire Slate of South Carolina, it comprises a large portion of North Caro- lina, Georgia, and of East Tennessee. Charleston was first settled in 1680. At the close of the year 177B the city was captured by the British, who held it until tha following Blay. CoarAKATivK HTATSinKT or t'oid Ireland British Weat Iliilieii.. Franco on the Atlan Uf Spain on lite Medit'n, Belgium Cuba Sardinia Brazil Umguajr Hoiico , Porto Rico , Canarjr iKlaiids ...... Spain Africa Anstris ti9i,fl2:t 148,533 liV96 236,207 12,281,863 176,027 2,753,066 901,287 48,500 4J,'050 493,921 114,024 Total {$l8,0«t,263 aire. $4,398 2.', 166 06,871 I0,6'i3 8S,6S4 43 8^421 04,847 301,137 2d^633 "432 Totel gipcrtt. .'il296,186 148,633 43,666 141,952 531,091 2.'>3,0t8 12,607,584 177,663 11645 41,271 8,8TO,fl22 l,0&9,6«6 48,600 431,281 40,641 33,473 11,363 1,600 38,032 650 602,877 4,264 114,024 «6(l6,!i22 |«19,!l.fl,l>86 FOBIiaif COUUBBOB or C'nABLBSTON, 1S60-'&S. Ymh. liWO.... 1851.... 185-> . . . . 1853.... lf«t ... \>M>.... IS86.... 1857.... 1863.... Total.. No. orVamk •agmvad (n tta Trada. 266 307 243 273 824 396 312 281 326 UuUakla Valna at Importa. $.',104,1191 2,320,.')S7 1,802,998 1,7()6,«86 1,4^% 250 1,873,701 1,984,206 2,113,947 912,S2S 2620 {1I16,»1»,996 H2»4,240 Dollaa. )Ktf>,744 6.>8,240 440,529 422,869 88t,87a 6'ifl,'i44 467,825 527,3.30 aiN),Rn3 Average aniuunl of wiports for iaat 8 yoan. $13,il'. 8,786 11,977,283 li'.,88?,563 12,697,(101 12,'?45,716 14,494, S63 10,777,1143 1.^,790,782 1!',3il,685 »nin,M)2,427 * l6,iiV4,053 Port.— Charleston harbor is spacious and convenient ; but the entrance to it is incommoded by a range of sand banks, stretching from Sullivan's Island on the north to Folly Island on the south, about 'l\ leagues. There are several channels through these banks, but only three, the middle or direct channel, the ship chan- nel, and I..awford channel, between the latter and the main land, that ought to be attempted by ships of con- siderable burden. The entrance to the ship channel is in lat. 82° 40'. The depth of water on the shallowest partofthe b|U'atobb-tid« is 12 feet, and at flood-tide f^om CHA S91 CHA 2l,U(>b renient ; ange of on the leaipies, itka, but ip chin- and the I of con- annel !• allowett ide from 17 to 18 feet ; while the depth In the middle channel at low water does not exceed feet, and in Lawford channel it does not exceed 10 or 11 feet. A light-houae haa br ~ " "rected on the aouth point of Light-house Isl- and, b»ar^ng from the middle of the bar of the ship channel northwest by west half west. It is 80 feet high, having a revolving light, alternately brilliant and obscure, the period of ob^icuration being double that of brillianqj- ; but on approaching the light, the latter gains upon the former, and within 1} league it is never wholly dark. The light may be seen in fine weather at from 8 to 4 league* off After getting into the channel, which is marked by the breakers and buoys on each side, the proper course for a ship to steer is to brin^; the light-house to bear northwest by west, and ttanil direi:t for It till you get within the banks, when the course is north by west. But it is unnecessary to enter into further details on these points, as all ships entering Charleston harbor are bound, provided they are hailed by a licensed pilot off the bar, to pay him full pilotage fees, whether they accept his services or not. In point of fact, however, they are always ac- cepted ; for the shifting of the sands, the influence of the tides, etc., render the entrance so diflicuit to those not perfectly familiar with it, that even the packet (hips that sail regularly to and from New York uni- formly heave to without the bar for a pilot. — See Plm ef Charleston Harbor, reduced from the original survey of Sfujor Hj Bache. Ships usually moir alongside quays or wharfs, where they are in perfi. ., *• . , Shipping Cit. _;(-. ' ;•<■ :harges of a public nature paid by ships ep r - ' ^ port diflbr but little in amount on a nat loreign ship. On a vessel supposed to be of cHHi ions burden, entering, unloading, taking on board a mixed cargo and clearing out, they would be as under : I CI: Fee on entry at the custom-house i 60 or Surveyor's fee on ■ foreign ship 6 00 " Sunreyoi's tee on a native ship 3 00 " Harbor-master's fee 2 00 " Portwsrden's survey, when required 10 00 " Fees, on clearance at the cUHtom-liousc, ) ■ ka i- ofanutlvcshlp J "*' Ditto, ofsforrlKnshlp 2 TO " Pilotage Inward and outward, supposing t pu) no t. the shit to draw U feet of water | °" "™ 'tVharfage per diem 1 00 " The difference in the fees on the clearance at the custom-house of a native and a foreign ahip is owing to tlie former being obliged to give certain bonds which are not required of the latter. The greater or smaller tonnage of the ship makes no difference on any of the almve charges except that of pilotage, whicii is in proportion to her draught of water, and is the same whether for a foreign or a native ship. Ratt$ of CommiaiUm. — The rates of commission or factorage usually charged and allowed nt Charleston on transacting different sorts of business, are as fol> lows, viz. : For selling domestic produce, i\ per cent. For selling foreign merchandise, 5 per cent. For guaranteeing cither of these sales, '2^ per cent, additional is commonly allowed. For purchasing with funds in hand, or drawing do- mestic bills for reimbursement, 2j per cent. For purchasing goods and drawing foreign bills for roiml)ur8cment, 6 per cent, is charged. For the sale of real or personal estate the regular charge is 5 per cent. ; but where the property to Iks sold is of any considerable value, the parties in general enter into an agreement I>ernrehand, and a much lower rate of commission is allowed. — <{>'ee South Cahoi.ina. Chart, or Sea-ohart, a hydrographical map, or a projection of some part of the earth's suiterticies in jiano, for the use of navigators. Charts differ verj- considerably from geographical or land-maps, which are of no use in navigation. Nor are sea-charts all of t : rf. U 11 u 1 1 4i on fj d s H i -i 8» ouiu oil 6t 10 13 «i 4 8t the aamo kind ; some being what are called plane charts, otherr. Mercator charts, and others globular charts. Plane Chart is a representation of some part of the su- perfloies of the terraqueous globe, in which the merid- ians are supposed parallel to each other, the parallel* of latitude at equal distances, and consequently the de- grees of latitude and longitude every where equal to each other. Mercator's Chart is that where the me- ridians are straiglit lines, parallel to each other, and equidistant ; the parallels also straight lines, and par- allel to each other; but the distance between them in- creasing fkvm the equinoctial toward either pole, in the ratio of the secant of the latitude to the radius. Globn- lar Chart, a, meridional projection, in which the distance of the eye from the plane of the meridian, upon which the projection is made, is supposed to be equal to the sine of the angle 45°. This projection comes the near- est of all to the nature of the globe, because the merid- ians are placed at equal distances ; the parallels also are nearly equidistant, and consequently the several parts of the earth have their proper proportion of mag- nitude, distance, and situation, nearly the same indeed as on the globe itself. Uydrographic Charts, sheets of large paper on which several parts of the land and sea are described, with their respective coasts, harbors, sounds, flats, rocks, shelves, sands, etc., together with the longitude and latitude of each place, and the points of the compass. Selenographic Charts represent the spots, appearances, and maculn; of the moon. Topo- graphic Charts, draughts of small parts of the earth, or of particular places. Anaximandcr, of Miletus, was the inventor of geographical and celestial charts, about 760 B.C. Modern sea-charts were brought to England by Bartholomew Columbus, with a view to illustrate his brother's theory respecting a Western Continent, 1489. Mereator's chart, in which the world is taken as a plane, was drawn ld.5G. — E. B. Chaiter-party, the name given to a contract in writing between tiio owner or master of a ship and the freighter, by whicli the former hires or lets the ship, or I a part cf the ship, under certain specified conditions, j for the conveyance of the goods of the freighter to some I particular place or places. Generally, however, a char- ter-party isacontract for the use ofthe whole ship: it is ; in commercial law what an indenture is at common . ; law. — See Affkkightment. i No precise form of words, or set of stipulations, is , requisite in a charter-party. The forms subjoined to this article are those most commonly in use ; but these may, and, indeed, in many cases must, be varied, to suit the views and intentions of the parties. A char- ter-party is generally under seal; but sometimes a printed or written instrument is signed by the parties, called a memorandum nf a charter-party ; and this, if a formal charter-parly l>e not afterword executed, is bind- ing. The stamp in cither case is the same. Charter- parties, wlien ships are let or hired at the place of the owners' residence, are generally executed by them, or some of them ; but when the ship is in a foreign port, it must necessarily be executed by the master, and the merchant or his agent, unless the owners hove an agent in such port, having proper authority to act for theni in such matters. A charter-party mode by the master in his name, when he is in a fbreign pert in the osual course of the ship's employment, aiKl therefore under circumstances which do not oflbrd evidence of fraud ; or when it is made by hhn at home, under circum- stances which afford evMenee of the expressed or im- plied assent of the owners, is binding upon the letter. But according to the law of England, no direct action con be maintained upon the instrument itself against the owners, nntesa it be signed and- sealed by them, or unless they aathorize 'he master (nr agent, as the cose maybe) te enter into the contract, and unless it be di^ tinctly expressed in the charter-party that lie acta only as agent. AVhen a ship is chartered by several owners to several penons, the charter-party should be CHA CHA •sacated by «tch, or they will not b« lUble to an action for noa-perforniaDce. But if the ohartor-party be not •zpnucd to be uiade between the parliet, but run* tbu«: "This charter-party iudeoted, wltnewetb, that C, master of the skip \V., with consent of A. and D., the owners thereof, lets the ship to frei^kt lo E, and Jf." and the instrument contains cot enunts by E. and t. to and with A. and B. ; in tufs cose A, and D. may bring an action upon the covei > .1 expressed to bt niada with them; but unless t). leal the deed, tbay can not be sued upon it. This, therefore, is » very proper form. The genecal rule of law adopted tu (be construction of this, as of other mercantile iustrunents, is, that the interpretation should be liberal, agreeable to the real intention of the partic- and oonfornialile to the usage of trade in general, and of the particular trade to which the contract relates. The charter-par- ty usually expresses the burden of the ship | and by the famous French Ordinance of 1G81, it is required to do so. According to Molloy (book 11. c. 4, § 8), If a ship bo freighted by the ton, and found of less burden than expresse'I, the payment shall be only for the real | burden ; and if a ship be freighted for 200 tons, or Iktrt- about, tho addition of (hereabout (sayH the same au- thor) is commonly reduced tojive tons, more or less ; but it is now usual to say so many tons " register measure- ment." The usual covenant that the ship shall be sea- worthy, and in a condition to carry the good*, bind* the owners to prepare and complete every thing to commence and fulAll the voyage. But though I lie char- ter-party contained no such covenant, tho owner of the veaael would be, at common law, bound, as a carritr, to take care that the ship should be lit to perform the voyage ; and even though lie should give notice, limit* ing his responsibility from losses occasioned to any car- go put on board his veesel, unless such loss should arise from want of ordinary care, etc., ho would be liable U bis ship were not seo-w orthy. — See Sea-woutiiv . In aJl maritime transactions expedition is of the ut- most consequence ; for even by a Hhort delay the ob- ject or season of a voyage may be lost ; and therefore, if either party be not ready by the time appoinl4N' ' r the loading of tho ship, the oth> r may seek another ship or cargo, and bring an action to recover the dariisges be has sustained. The manner in which the owner is tu lade the cargo 1.4, for the most part, regulated by tho custom and usage of the place where hu is to lade il, unless there be any exprcsa stipulation in the charlor- party with respect to it. Generally, however, the own- •r is bound to arrange the dilTef itt articles of the car- go in the most proper manner, amJ to take the greatest care of them. If a cask Im aooidentally slaved in let- ting it down into tho hold of the ^liip, the luastar must antwer for the loss. If the owner covenants to load a fnli and complete cargo, the master must lake aa much on board as he can do with safety, and without inj>iry to the vessel. The master must not take on board any contraband gocds, whereby the ship or cargo may be liable to forfeiture and detention ; nor must he take on | board any false or I'olorablo papers; but hu nmst take and keep on board all the pnpcrs and documents re- quired for the protection and manifestation of the ship and cargo by the law of the countries from and to whiili lb* ship is bound, by the law of nations in general, or by any treaties (jetween particular states. If the nian- ter receive goods at the quay or beach, or send bin IjosI for them, his responsibillly commences with the mtijU in the port of London. With respects to goods intend- ed to be sent coastwise, it has been held that the chief responsibility of the whartinger ceases by the delivery ] of them to the mate of the vessel upon the tehar/. A* 1 soon as he receives tho goods, the master must provide , adequate means for their protection and security ; for even if tho crew be 'iverpowered by a superior force, { and tlu) goods taken while the ship is in a port or river | within tha country', the master and owneta are llabia I tot tbs Imi, thouj^ they may have committed neitbei' i fraud IM7 fault. This may seam a harsh rule ; but it 1* necessary, to put down utleropt* at collusive or fraud- ulent I'unibiuutluni, The master must, according to tb* terms ut tlia charter-party, commence the voyag* without dalitXi •* * •* 'ba weather la favorable, but not otburwisii. Hometliuvs It is eovsnantvii and agreed upon between the parties that a specllled nunilier of days shall b« allowed for bading and unloading, and that it shall b« lawful for the freighter to detain tho vessel a further spaciUcd tiuio, uii payment of a daily sum as demur- rage.~,Sni Dkmoiiiiaiik, If the vessel be detained beyond both ptrWds, the f../ighter Is liable tc an action on llui contract. Tho rat* of demurrage mentioned in the cbarl«r-|iarly will, in general, be the measure of tho damages t« b« paid ; but it la not the absolute or necassary iiHrasura ; more or less may be payable, as Justico may mqulre, regard being had to the expen*« and hwi incurrud by the owner. When the time ia thua expremly ascerlaiiied and llmittd by the terms of the cotilrai't, the frt'lgbter Is liable to an action for liaiiiagt^s if ti's thing be not done within the time, dU lliimyh Ikil man titt be aliribuUiUe lo ang fault or vtnit- mm un HU paiii fur h« has eiigaaed that it shall ba tlunii. — Altliirrr on lie Law i\f Hktpping, part ill. c. 1. If iJiorv bas been any undertaking or warranty to tail with convoy, tfae vvsiiel must repair In the place of renduxvuul for that purpose ; and if the master neglect lu ptocwd witli convoy, he will be answerable for all lusae* that may arise from the want of It. The ow n- urs ut iiiuntiir should sail with the ship for the place of her deiitinalloti with til due diligence, and by the urual or shortest course, unless In cases of convoy, which the iiiastar must follow as far as possible. Sometimes the course la p<>lnl«- aigns, on board, to, etc., aforesaid (the act of God, the klng'a enemlca, fire, and all and every other dangera and accident* of the aeaa, river*, and navigation, of whatever nature and kind, in ao far *a ahlps are liable thereto, during the aaid voyage, alway* excepted), and there unlade and make die- charge of the aaid gooda and mercbandlaca; and alao ahall there take into and on board the aaid ahlp again the good* and merchandlae* of the aaid G. D., hla factora or aaalgna, and ahall then return to the port of London with, the aaid fooda. In the apace of, etc, limited for t^e end of the aaid voy- age. In conaldaratlon whereof, the aJtd C, D., for himaelf, bli exocutora, and admlnlftrator*, doth covenant, promiao, and grant, to and with the aaid A. II., hia executor*, admin- istrators, or aaaigna, by these proscuta, that the aaid C D., hU executors,. administrators, factors, or assigns, shall and will well and truly pay, or cause to be paid, unto the said A. B., his executor*, administrators, or assigns, for the fhilght of the aaid ship and goods, the eiim of, etc. (or ao much per Ion), within twenty-one days after the said ship arrived, and good* rotut.-ied, and discharged at the port of London afore- said, for the end of the said voyage ; and also shall and will pay for doraurrase (If any ahull be by default of liim, the said C. D., his fttctors or assigns) the sum of, etc., per day, daily, aud every day, n the same shall grow due. And the nid A. D., for himself, hi* executors and administrators, doth rovenant, promlie, and grant, to and with the said C l>., bis executors, admlnlatrators, and assigns, by those presents, that the said ship or vessel shall be ready at the port of I^ondon to take In goods by the said C. D., on or before, etc.. next com- Ini;. And the saldC. D., for himself, his, etc, doth covenant and promise, within ten days afU>r the said ablporveaael shall be thus ready, to imve his goods oi, board the said ship, to proceed on in the snld voyage ; and also, on arrival of tho said skip at, etc., within, etc., days to have his goods ready to put on board the said i-hip, to return on the said voyage. And the said A. P., for himself, his executors and administrators, doth further covenant and grant, to and with tho said C. I)., his executors, administrators, and assigns, that the sa'i ship or vessel now is, and at all times during the voyage shall be, to tho licst endea\ ors of him, the ssid A. II. , his executor* and admlnlstratora, and at his and their own proper cost* and charges. In all thinga made and kept stiff, staunch, atrong, well-appareled, fumlahed, and pr(.,'Ided, aa well with men and' mariners siifliclent and able to sail, guide, and govern the said ship, as with all manner of rigging, boats, tackle, and apparel, firmUun>, provision, and appurtenanceji. fitting and necessary for tu.^ said men and marlncn, and for the said ahlp during the voyage aforcaald. In witneas, etc Tho great v&rict}- of circumstances under which dif- ferent vo}°agea arc niaJo produce a, corresponding di- versity in cluirtor-parlies. Tlio charter-party of which the following is a copy aflurds a good example of the more complex !:pccie8 of these instruL. cnti. It is this day mutually agreed between Mr. T. B. Rann, owuer of the good ship or vckkoI called tho Mermaid, WlUUm Ilunnlker, master, cf the I'uv iirenient of 4Vi tons, or there- about, now la tho Bivcr Thames, and Mr. David Thomson, of the firm of Messrs. Thomson, Passraorc, & Tlmnuon, of .Mauritius, merchants, that the said ship, being tight, rtaunch, and strong, and every way fitted for the voy.igt, sholl, with all convenient speed, sail and proceed to Calcutta, with leave lu take convicts out to Kcv South Wales, and from thence troops, mercliandlse, or passengers, to the afore-mentlonod |iort of Calcutta, with leave to touch at Madras on her way tlilther, if required on owncr'a account, or so near thereunto as she may safely get, und there lood, from the factora of the said merchants at (,'alculla, a ftill and complete cargo office, or any other lawful goods which tho charterer engages to ship, and proeeed with the samsto I>>rt Louis, In the Isle of France, and deliver tho some fiite of freight ; afterward load there a flill and complete cargo of sugar In bags, or other lawful merchandlae of as favorable tonnage, which Uie charterer en- gages to ahlp, not ixcecdlng what she can reasonably stow snd carry over and above her tackle, apparel, provisions, and fitrnltnre i and, being ao loaded, ahall therawllb proceed to Uxidon, or (o near tlwreunlo as she may aafUy get, and de- liver the aame on being paid flielght, vtr., for such quantity of sugar equal to the actual quantity of rice, or other good*, that may be ablpped at Calcutta, at the rate of £5 12s. Od per ton of !0 cwt net, ahlpped there ; and ahonid the veaael de- liver more net angar In the port of London than th* quantity of rice, or other gooda, actually ahlpped In Calcutta, th* own- era to be paid on the oxoea* at the regular current imta of freight for sugar which other vessels, loading at the same time at Fort Loula, receive; the tonnage of the rice, »hcat, or grain, to be reckoned at 20 cwt net pc' on ; that of other goods at the usual measurement (the act of God, the king** enemies, fire, and all and every other danger* and accident* of the seas, riven, and navigation, of whatover nature and kind soever, during the aaid voyage, alway* excepted). Th« freight to be paid on unloading and right delivery of the car- go, as is customary in the port of London. Ninety running daya are to bo allowed the said merchant (if the aliip is not sooner lilapatched) for loading the ship at Calcutta, discharg- ing the cargo at Port Louis, and loading the "sr^o there t the said lay days to commence on the vessel being ready to re- ceive cargo, the mailer giving notloe In writing of the aame at CMcutta, and to continue during the loading there ; and from the time of her arrival at Fort Louis, and being ready to discharge, till the final loading at that port, and to be dis- charged in the port of Ixndon with all possible dispatch ; and '20 daya on demurrage over and above the said laying day^ at X12 per day. Penalty for non-performance of this agree- ment, £4000. The cargo to be brought to and taken firom alongside at the expense and risk of the merehants. The necessary cash for the disbursements of the vessel at Calcutta, not exceeding £BbO, to be advanced by tho charteroi's agent*; they taking tho master's draft* on the owner for the same at tho regular current rate of exchange, and at three months' 'Ight; and if the said bills be not regularly accepted and paid when due, the same to bo deducted flnm tho freight payabia by this charter-party. The vessel to be disbursed at Port I.culs by the chartering agents; sum not to exceed £300, frea uf commission ; and the amount to be deducted ttom the freight at the Hnal settlement at the port of London. Captain not to ship goods without consent In the event of the ship heing prevented, by damsge or any other cause, reaching tha .Mauritius on or before the Ijt day of .Januarj', 184.1, the thar- terer or his agents shall be at liberty to employ the vessel for one or two voyages to Calcutta, at the rate of £2 per ton of rice, or otiier goods, delivered at Mauritius. Fifty running days, to load and discharge, to be allowed on each \t>yage , It bemg understood that the charterer or liU agents shall load thu ship, as before agreed, cither at tho end of the first or second voyage, as the case may be. The freight on the Inter- mediate voyages (if any) to be paid on delivery of the caip>. In cash, or by bills on London at usance, at the option of the master. The vessel to be addressed, both at Calcutta and Isle of France, to the agenta of the charterer. In witness whereof, the said parties have hereunto set their hands and seals, at London, the 2d day of December, 1641. Signed, sealed, and dollv-) Tiios. B. Ramk, (l.s.) ered, In the presence of j " ~ (Signed) E. FoncvTH. V. Thomson, (l.r.) Chase. In nautical language, pursuit; also the vessel pursued. Chaaer. The vessel pursuing; also guns at the heacf and stcru for firing when in chase. Chay, or Choy Root, tho routs of a small biennial, rarely triennial, plant, growing spontaneously in light, drj-, Bandy ground near tho sea ; and extensively cul- tivated, especially on the coast of Coromandel. Tho cultivated roots are very slender, and from one to two feet in length, with % few latcr«l filiroa; but tho wild are shorter, and supposed to yield one-fourth part more of coloring mnttci - nd ot a better quality. Tho roots are employed to dye 'lie durable reds for which the In- dian cotton ya-n and chintzes have been long famous, and which can only be equaled by tho Turkey red. Chay root forms a considerable article of export from Ceylon. Only a particular set of people arc al- lowed to dig it. It used to be all bought up by gov- ernment, who paid the diggers a lixcd price of 75 or KO rix-dollars a cttr.,ly, and sold it for exportation at about 176 rix-dollars. — Bertefore five, with a memorandum of " canceled by mistake" written nnder it, it was held a refusal to pay. If a cheek upon a banker bo lodged witli another banker, a presentment by the latter at the clearing-house is sufficient. Checks are usually taken conditionally as cash ; M unless an express stipulation lie made to tlie contrary, if they be pres«ntcukin is made of new milk and cream; It is quite soft, not above two inches thick, and will not keep more than two or three months. Norfolk, the weight is generally fh>m 8C to 60 pounds ; the curd is dyed yellow with amotto or salfh)n ; and though not a rich chesse, it is considered a good keeper. Snji or Slip-coal it a small, soft, rich cheese, which might almost be mistaken for butler, if it were not whlte^ and which must be eaten in a week or two after making, Stilton, so named from the town in Huntingdonshire where it was first brought into notice, but which is made prin- cipally in Leicestershire. It is solid, rich, buttery, and white ; and, unlike all the other cheeses which have been mentioned, it Is twice as high as it is broad. It is mnch Improved by keeping, and is seldom used before it is two years old. It is the dearest of all En- glish cheeses, the price being generally to that of Ches- ter as 2 to 1, or 2 to U. In order to induce premature decay, and the consequent appearance of sgs in these cheeses, it is said the makers sometimes bury them in masses of fermenting straw. Colltnham, sc iiumed fVom a town in Cambridgeshire : it differs chiefly from the cream cliecse of Stilton in being fiat, broader, and superiorly flavored. The flavor is said to be owing to the rich grasses which grow on the funs. Suffolk, or tkim-miU, is round and thin, weighing from 25 to 80 pounds each, and is the best-keeping cheese made in England. WillMrt resembles the Cheshire; but is poorer, and of inferior flavor. It is apt to become scurfy, to prevent which it is generally coated over with red paint. Yorithire, or Cream Chee$e, is the sama as the slip-coat cheese, already mentioned. European Che(ne$. — Tlie most remark able >of thesa are the following : PaimenaH is chiefly made at i'arma and other places in Lumbardy, of the curd of skimmed milk hardened by heat. Its flavor is said to be owing to the rich pastures of that part of Italy, where all plants, from the greater quantity of briglit sunsliine than ill Britain, have doubtless their aromatic proper- ties greatly increased. Swiu ckeete is of various kinds ; but the chief sorts are the Uruyere or Jura cheese, and Schabziegcr or green cheese ; the last is flavored with the seeds and leaves of the melilot {ilelilotit officinaliM). O'emian cheeta are of diHerent kinds ; but none are celebrated, unless we except that of Westphalia, which is made up into round balls or short cylinders, under a pound weight each. The pecu^'.ar flavor which this cheese acquires anses f^om the curd being allowed to become putrid iicfore it is compressed. In Holland very good cheese is made, particularly the Edam and Gouda cheeses : the former is very salt, and Iieeps well at sea. In many parts of the Continent, and even in the interior of Poland and Kussia, there are imitations of English cliecse made ; but what may lie called the indigenous cheese of the Russian empire is nothing more than salted curd put into a bag and powerfully pressed, and taken to market as soon as it is made, in the same manner as liuttcr is. In some places, iiist<;ad of a press, I lie whey is forced out of the curd by putting it into a long cloth midway between Iho two ends, while a person at each ' 4 twists the cloth in an op- posite direction, and ti..< wrings out llio hey. In some miserable Russian villages the curd is exposed for sale in small lumps, retaining the marks of 1..3 fin- gers, which shows that no other pressure lias been em- ployed than what can lie given with the hand. In France the Roquefort cheese is the most esteemed, and next that of Neufchatel. The former somculiat re- sembles Stilton, but is much inferior; and the latter is a cream cheese, seldom exceeding a quarter of a pound in weight. — Set Johxbton's Lectures on Chenutlry. Cheese, in the United States, except for local con- sumption, is manufactured principally in New York and Ohio. The New York Orange county cheese, when new, is equal to any of the mild cheeses; but it does not acquire by age that richness of flavor that English cheese does. The Ohio cheese is produced at a very low price, and is taking a rank among the im- portant products of that agpicultural State. 'I'he prai- ries of the West, affbrding wild grasses of great nutri- ment and fine flavor, are exceedingly well adapted for the production of cheese of gcod quality, and at a price that excludes foreign cheesa from the market, except for epicurean tastes. CHE Expom or Cuini vimu the Unitxii HTATXb. 80A eHE V..r.„di,.,J.n.aO. 1 *;^"." To olliar PlrKM. TaUl. 1883 Piwuk. «,0a8,U8B D,B2:,884 8,4IM3T $584,184 Pouii. 7«,UU7 1,691,110 1,420,037 $15tf,8S0 Pound!. 3,7«3,U8i 7,003,1174 4.840 .sum tSll,0S4 1854 iMrOBTO or CUEI8K IMTO THIS UNITED ST\1K9. Vm' «il>lt §((*, It \i «W«jwcl, flns-BrBlned, and brilliant, «Hft »<4 lldtdc M 1>»fp *»h*n perf«clly seasoned, It U it%WwU>\f «>w(il»yey ciiliinet- mabera for e^tfv »w^\tin tif fHH(jl(*f», flWd when chosen umitH iif th« ffiittli It tUah nialKi^any In beauty. 'IhU >im>i{ it nmt^fniif (.referred to the black walnrit, wluw) Aim fmnpUnim with time be- comes nearly Uimik, On !> U»nit'> of the Ohl6 It la em- ployed in ship-lfHiMfHKf, «n4 (h« I'r^flt'b of Illinois use It fur the fiilloKS t)f wim>U,^htHi¥rfitt'ii f^ylra Amer. OlM»»M»lf« SUV mm\miA), is IflO IT es long, and from 7 to >«» \mm, i(H4 ((*ll*Ml(V 9 fathoms deep, being tlis largest \my Ih [\w Vn\ifi\ Siaies, Its en- trance is wtiully \n i\w Wftt** i(f V jf^ldia, Iwtween Cape Charles on tM mi^U M)A )'«)« Hf>ilty on the south, which are about M m \h mim »^uft^ tint the bay lie; mostly in MwrytHflfi, ilivMiH^ (h« M«i« into two parU, calM Mms K»'i»#ffl WmI i\v' ^Vm»#H» Shore. It has several mmmfAum<> \i»'lSm<>, mA N safe and easy navigation. It nrnvn* thf ¥A\^f» of (he Potomac, Kappobannoc, und immn mi'tn, ith\i-ii ore all large and n»vig»bl«) hIsm nf (Im is a commercial harlior lined with stone quays. Its roadstead, de- fended by several large forts and batteries, is now one of the best in the Channel, being slieltered by a digw, or breakwater, 411 yards in length (or consider- ably more than twice !a long as the Plymouth break- water), liegun under I.ouis XVI., and completed iu 1810. Cherbourg has a nuritime tribunal, a national Maderaic society, commercial college, naval school, and museums ; sugar and soda reflnerics, and tanner- ies ; and an active trade iu eggs, cattle, lard, butter, wine, and other prom Cherbourg, 8tfe July, 1847. ChOiTlSS. They were brought fi-om Pontus, to LucuUus, to Borne, about TO n.c. Apricots from Epi- rus ; peaches from Persia ; the finest pluns from Damascus and Armenia; pears and figs from Greece and Egypt; citrons from Media; and pomcgranaies from Curtbdge, ll-l-B.c. The cherry-tree wus lirst planted in Britain, it is said, about a.i>, 100. Fine kinds were brought from Flanders, and planted iu Kent, and with such success that an orchard of thirty- two acres pro 'MM* Mimi f« l(«H and com- pact ; wlwnyowng, ItislwiKl iiHdfl^siMej but when old, it Is brittle, »»4 uft^ti »Ti*i)'V, Tlie chestnut con- tains oidy » very »hihU imi\miim #f s«p-^*ood ; and hence the wood of yoHf)^ ♦ft** i» fmiHii to he superior to even the oak iit '^trMitifi H U rt(*Wf«l whether the roof o'' WestmiMstsf ilttfl Utt nf imk irt ehestnnt, the two woods being, w)l«H «M, Viftf i)lt(< cKch other, and having been formfiriy mi4 nAnmi iHd)lte«'«nt1y In the construction of b»)ii4ii)g<<, A ^mA (l««l of chestnut has been planted in VM^mA withltt (li« last thirty years.— Tlii!»(li)l»l»';i I'rimiiplni tifLWhpx'.-y. Cbeetnut (lUulamn S'tah), Tli« A«t«cl««t( fheH- nut does not venture )>»ym»4 th« 44th d^gtee of In •'. tuda. It is found ill Sew H»HiJ/«l(it«, hctiteen the 48d and 44ai degrees ( but *wM U «lw wvertty of the wiff ter, that it is less tmmvm fb»« IH t'wttwttlcMl, Kew I Jersey, and Pen»»y|v»Hl».. H W IB* Wosi tniilllpilled in the mountainous «lie»8ua. 'f'lm lmi^m<>a iit (h/i sufnmer and the mildness of tlta wiHtW ill IfwN! t*glo«« are fa- vorable u> tlie cbestnul I Dm Cfi^e itf the «rti«trt, also, is perfectly adapted to w tf/'f wllifrb pfektii the sides of mountains, or tlieir Uim^AiHl^ vMliHf, #hpfe the soil in general is gravelly, tlwilffh rfwf* PHtrtigh (n sustain its perfect developiDSHt- IM* » Hfmfj^f \ti Vet mont, the SUte of Maine, and ft (if»»t imH S( >*«♦? tork, to the maritime parts of Virgi»i#, to tlw (JwoliHiJS, Geor- gia, the Fbridas, \4»m»\»m, itfid m ftif an the tnouih of the Ohio. TM Aweri*#H (•(«'«(««» «rt««ti»nes at- tains the height of 70 or W> M, with h cir'ettwferencB of 15 or 16 feat. Tits wood U ^itfimg, cldsKCj and capa- ble ofenduring tlie swoumim »rf' dcj'Ht'W am molsinte. Us durability remlfira )( Bii|i«(.j»))t' <-(dMalrl« (at posts, which should be nmd<: of trerit l iiwf «f« Wt (« tlte earth. It is also used for rails, miA in kiA <# Ii4«f mote ihao fifty years. For sbingMs this ¥im4 1# »Hf#>ciof to any cherry tree is one of the largest productions of the | kind of oak, though It hm til* iHUHf Mffi of wacplng. American forest. In tlie Atlantic as well as the West- i It is not extensively uae4 for »t»Vtf», N(«d it* pores, em Suites, this tree is known only by tiie name which ! like those of the red^afc, ftm M o(WH, ihiti i( Is proper we have adapted. It is more or less abundant as the only for dry wares. 'I^a fh<><»tflM( i* iidic estetftned ■oil and climate arc more ur less favorable to its growth, |for fuel, niid is not WH<-'b US«d j it I* ntli nowhere more profusely mul- tiplied nor more fully developed than beyond the mOQDtsins In the States of Ohio, Kentucky, and Ten- necjaa. The perfect wood is 9f • dull, light red tint, and snaps when it burfis, 'f\m (*»l is «*(!ell««t,— Bhownu's Hi/livt limnii'nHB, Ohestnnts (Fr. uliiUmami (ig¥, Hmttmktti t«. Catiagnt; 8p. C<(»'a«iw), tl«»frH)tof tiMt (•(«'«l««t-- ined ts • substitute tor bread, <«Md form ft lftf)(« j,K'(}>wrlion of th« food of the Mm\i\^m», "Mt ii (Mfikularl/ the ■N, CHE SM CHI CUM In tb* Limouiin, in Coril<-a, and of several di>- (riete of Spain and Itidy. Tlia .-iliuliiUintt of the Li- mouain are (aid to prepare thoDi ii> a peculiar niamier, which deprlTea them uf their HstruiKeut and bitter propertlei, Cheatnuta liiiportedTrjni 8pain and Italy arc Itequently kiln-dried, to prevent their germina- tion on the paatage. In thia country they uf princi- pally lerVed up roatted at dcsMrte. CiMtWwrt, or Tsohatwert, a meaiure oi com In Kuaaia, equal to 677 Imperial busheli; hence 100 chetwerta • 73'12 Imperial quartara. ^ CllioacOk city and capiul of Cook county, and the moat commercial place in lUinoi*, 204 milea north- uortheMt from Springfleld and 717 from Waabington. The city VIS laid out iu 1880, and lot* first sold in 1881. PopuUtion in 1840, 4470; in 1860, 29,964; In 1H62, 88,784 ; and in 1864, 66,000. It U beautifully situated at the terminus of the Michigan Central and Southern Railroad, on level ground, elevated about tive iVet above the lake, which secures It from ordinary floods, and extends on both sides of the river of the same name, between the Junction of Us north and south branches, and distant 1) mile from its entrance into Lake Uicbigan. The harbor has a depth of fkom twelve to fifteen feet of water, which maliea it a com- mudiou* and safe haven; and It has be«n much im- proved artlHcially by the construction of piers wbkh extend on each tide of the entrance of the river for some distance into the lake, to prevent th* acoumola- tion of Band upon the bar. The light-house is on the south side of the harbor, and shows a fixrd light on a tower 40 feet above the surface of the lake ; and there is a beacon on tlio end of the pier. Numerous steam- bos s and vessels ply between this place and Buffalo, and the various intermediate places on the upper lakes. West of the city, toward the West Plains road, is a - fertile prairie, which, for the tlrsl three or four miles, is elevated and dry. Along the north branch of the Chicago and the lake shore are extensive bodies of fine timber. White pine lumber is obtained from the re- gions about Green Bay and Grand Kiver, in Michigan, and across the lake from St. Joseph's Kiver. The . ity is a great shipping point for an immense and fertile region. The Illinois and Michigan Caaal, which is 60 feet wide at the top, 6 feet deep, and 107 miles in length, including 6 miles of river navigation, through which is brought a largo amount of produce from the south and southwest ; and the railroads radiating flrom Chicago, add to the vast accumulalion which is here shipped for the Atlantic sea-board. There are 10 steam- ers, 80 propellers, and 190 barks, brigs, scboooera, and sloops, engaged in the Chicago trade. In 1836 the value of the exports was $1000; in 1840, t228,636; in 1845, tl,M8,619; and in 1862, (12,000,000. The as- sessed valoe of real and personal estate in 1853 was (16,841,881. There are twelve trunk railroads now constructed and in process of construction, all centre- ing at Chicago, and measuring in the aggregate 2486 miles. Of this amount, 1726 mile* will lie within the State of Illinois, and the remainder in Indiana, Michi- gan, and Wisconsin. Besides these trunk roads, there are several hundred miles of branches, all centreing toward Chicago. The trunk and branch roads reach the Mississippi River at ten diflferent points from Ga- lena aouth to Cairo. Chicago is supplied with the purest of water fkt>m the lake, is within a short dis- tance of the most extensive coal fields to be found in Illinois, and is the natural outlet for the produce of one of the richest agricultural sections of the Union. — Set Lakes, comsMree ^. The lumber trade of Chicago is immense. During the year 1855 over Ikret htmdrtd mUlioiu of feet were received here. The following tatile will show the re- '«ipu for the past six years : Tmk. W—tnttttti. Tmik T— in— int. imo ieo,3M,TT9 IS^S i02,IOt,0|l8 MKl 1(n,«e6,4»T IBM «2Mil*,0OI> UM 141,810,(32 UM 8()Mn,0H FLoua AKD Oaua aaoaiTan at Uhicaiio nm nn Vaiia 1864-'BB. aiUtlM. Flour, reduced to bushels of wheat Wheal, bushsls t;om„l)«sliels Oats, buihels Kye, bushels Uarle^, bushels Total 1964 Inarcaae bi ISfiS I»4. ~ mfih B,OTO,Mn T.4TS44II 4,IM,II« 86,«U0 _ (iio.iwn i6;57 isr l*.4«,lliM ll,MW,»«t (MMV IIW, -iBMimsiTOiT The total value of articles of commerce rsceivsd at Chicago In 1865 was nearly two hundrad nillioti* of dollars ; vis. ; By lake By canal By rallnods ToUl value. . i B.porti. ^6;m,Tirt *i T,4n,T<» BO 88,M1,S»T «0 tlUI,M4,llfi II "k»>i.Hi. "WMWW H«,»19,l«tl>T ttll4,IIH,tll«V6 Chicago has growr. .nore rapidly up lo this lime than any city in the world. In 1828, ll^)or Long and party maide a Journey to examine th* sources of tli* HI, l't> ter's River, etc. ; and in bis account of tba espvUitloR writes as follows of Chicago i "The village presents no cheering proepeet, as, not* withstanding its antiquity, it consist* of but few huM. inhabited by a miserable race of men, scarcely annu to th* Indians flrom whom they are descended. Their log or bark house* are low, filthy, and disgusting, dll> playing not the least trace of comfort. Chicago is, p«r> haps, one of the oldest settlements In the Indliin eouil- try ; its nsnie, derived fiom th* PotawatomI Ungaaga, signifies either a skunk or a wild onion ; and rjther of these significations has occasionally liean glvrn for it. A fort is said to have formerly existed there, M>-nlloii is made of the place as having been visilid in Iil71 by Vet,.- who found 'Chicagou' to be the resldeiii'a of • powerfu. ';hlef of the Miamis. The numlwr uf trallt centering all at this spot, and their appar«ni anilqui* ty, indicate that thia was probably for a lung perlMi the site of a large Indian village. A.i a place of busU ncss, it offers no indneement to th* s*ttl«rt ("f th* whole annual amount of th* trad* of ;>!s is!;s iiii not exceed the cargo of five or six schoonsr*, *v«n at tha time when the garrison received it supplle* from Mack* inaw. It is not impossible that at some diklant day, when the banks of the Illinois shall have bai'ii cov«r«a with a dense population, and when Ibe low pralriel which extend between that river and VoH 'Vayn* shall have acquired a population proportional* lo lh( produce which they can yi(ld, Chicago may bscoina one of the point* in the direct line of comniuniiallon between the northern lakes and the Missis(lp|il, Kut even the intercourse which wilt lie carried on tbrougll this communication will, w* think, at all tlm«* lie • limited one; the dangers attending the navigation of the lake, and the scarcity of harbors along the tlinr*. must ever prove a serious obstacle to the Ini^ri'sse of the commercial importance of Chicago. The extent of the sand banks which are formed on the eailcrn anil southern shores by the prevailing north and norlhwest> erly winds, will likewise prevent any important work* from being undertaken to improve the port of Chlcsgo," It is estimsted that the city now (1867) conlslnl 100,000 inhabitants, and does a larger trade in prapof> tion to its size than any city in the Union, What iMit* ter illustration can be given of the rapid gyowth of Ilia West at this place ? The population for the years between 1860 snd IMO (the last four years being estimated) is as fellows i V««n. PopalattM. 18B1 3a,()«0 \ibt 40,000 1863 48,000 1854 M,n00 lats. 1.. 6u,ooo ¥••>•. PwalstlM, IfM t!l,IMil IMiT IW,MIO 18B8 ,, lt»,IIOO I8M 149,eW 18(0 1TI,(M CHI SOT CHa IIMO It low 1.000 Th* (bllowing iitt •mbraeei th« trunk road* aotually compltted and in oparation, with tlieir branch and ex- toniion linei, centring in Chicago : Hlln. Chlugo tnil Mllwtnkta 8n Ractmtnd MInlMlppI HA Chleuo, 8L I'aul, and f ond du Lae Ill UtlwaukU and MlalMtppI, WeKern Ulvlilon liB Oalenaand Clit»Ko (Tnion 131 Foi Rlrar Valley BS . Wlnoonaln Central DeloU Branch tO UeloU and UadiMn IT Mineral Point IT Galena (Fulton) Air Line ISA (/hlcago, Iowa, and Nebraaka IS Chicago, liurllngtan, and (julnoy SIO nurllngton and MlHourl BO Northeni Croat 100 Hannibal and 81. Joieph 80 Cbloaaoand Rock lalknd 181 Mliilntppl and Mluourl, .at Ulvliion 58 " " ad " 13 Peoria and Bureau Vallor 4T I'eoria and Oquawka 143 Rlilcago, Alton, and St Louis ?83 lllinori Central T04 I'lttiburgh, Vort Wayne, and Chicago 113 Michigan Houtheni and Northern Indiana 1141 vUnclnnull, Peru, and Chicago 48 Michigan Central !82 Nc«r Albany and Salciu ~8t 11 trunk and IT branch and eztenilou llnea BOTH Tailing the portions of the above lines which lie in llio Htate of Illinois, and nddin;; the length of tlio dif- fti, eatlmata(ln June, 1886, ltwaaS3,609) 110,000 Total receipts of grain In Chicago for the year 1866 huahcU 20,487,063 Total reeelpta of grain for the year 1860 (incrcaae In Vi'A over 10 per cent.) bushcla £4,074,824 gliipnients ni' grain from the port of Chicago for Iho year IHMl bushels 11,633.221 Com received in XXtH bushels 21,8S8,308 Wheat " " " biuhels 9,391,306 Number of hngs alive and dressed received In Chicago for 1S5.VB* 808,6M Number shippod alivo and dressed 170,881 Averaging tiie weight at only 200 lbs. and the price at $6 per hundred, the value of the hogs reeclved would be $3,885,880 Number of barrels of beef packed In 1860 83,068 Keeelpts of lumber at the port of Chicago for the year I8a< feet 486,073,000 llecelpts of lead for tht year 1S66 lbs. 9,B2T,000 Nnw laid up In the port of Chicago, steamers and sail vessels 148 Tulal number of vessels arriving in Chicago for the year 1866 T,02S Total tonnngn nf vessels arriving in this port for the year 1886 : . 1,648,879 Anionnt of Imports received at the Chicago cus- tom.house on foreign goods for t)ie year 1S66, , $162,994 Uanltal Invested In manufacture* during the year 1*66— showing an Increase of $1,464,400 over IWO $7,783,400 Number of hands employed— showing an Inercass over 1886 of 1833 10,671 Value of raanufartiircd articles, showing in In. ereaao of $4,483,671 $16,618,000 Amount Invested during the year 1366 In Im- provements, stores, dwellings, hotels, ^t.e $6,706,000 Number of passengers carried west by four prin- cipal railways leading ont of Chlcag'- 839,666 Total number of passengera moved on all the roads centring In Ciiicago 8,880,000 The above facts and figures will be roga. .ad with special satisfaction by the people of the Northwest generally. They show • healthy, but rapid and most astonishing progress. It may be doubted whether the history of the civilized world can furnish • parallel to tho vigorous growth and rapid development of tha country which has Chicago for Us commercial me- tropolis. When it is remembered that twenty years ago it was not an Incorporated city, and less than • quarter of a century since the Indians stil' had posses- sion of the largest portion of (his magnilU ont country, these facts, stubborn and incontestable th 'Ugh they lie, seem more liite the dreams of some vagrant imagina- tion than sober matters of reality, which scores of men still among us havo themselves seen and realized. Twenty years ago Ciiicago was an insignificant town at t'tio southern end of Lake Ml'blijan, im'-orting near- ly all its produce from We'.ern vw Yora and Xorth- crn Ohio. Lust year it shipped .il,ri8;),221 bushels of grain, and tiio total receipts were over twenty-four and a half niillions. Six years, ago she liad only a single railroad some twenty miles long entering tho city ; now there are 3C70 miles completed and in operation, and the earnings o( those lines for the last year amount to the enormous sum of 917,848,242. The increase of earnings during the year 186G is over four millions of dollars. More than a hundred trains of cars arrivo and depart daily. Tho trade in lumber exceeds by far that of any other city in tho world, amounting to 4oG,(i73,1GU feet. Ten years ago the manufactures were In their infancy, and wore scarcely worthy of com- mendation. In 18&U tlio capital invested amounted to $7,759,400, and the value of manufactured articles to more ihan ffleen milliont and a halfofdoUari. Six years ago Chicago was reproached as being a city of wooden shanties ; last year she Invested in magnificent stores, many of them with superb marble and iron fronts, elegant ,nalatial residences and other Improvements, $5,705,6'.it. And wonderful as has been tho progres* o' the ritv, it has not benn able to keep pace with 'the improvements of tho country by which it is sur- rounded. Tho statistics of tho movement of population west- ward show tliat people enough found their hornet west of Chicago during the year 1857 to form two entire States. Nor is this a movement of mere human bona and muscle ; it is a concentration upon the rich roiling prairies and amid the beautiful groves o' a vast host of active, vigorous, intelligent men, who plant schools and churches wherever they settle, and bring with them all the elements of an enterprising Christian civilization — a deep, controlling, ever-abiding rever- ence for liberty and for law. They are laying tho foundations for an empire of whose wealth, intelli- gence, and power, tho sun in all his course has never seen tho equal. Ero tho next quarter of a century shall have rolled away, the beautiful valleys of tha Upper Missouri, the Yellow Stone, the Flat to, and tha Kansas, ay, and even that of the Ked River of tha North, will all havo been settled, and this ever-deepen- ing current of emigration will meet an equally resist- less stream from the Pacifio coast, and roll back in mingling eddies from the summits of the lEocky Mount- ains, Fourteen States aa large as Ohio, hot on an average more wealthy and populous, will have grown up on the magnificent country between the lakes and the Rocky Mountains, and how many will repose upon the "Pacific slope" we daro not attempt to predict. cm 909 cm OhlOOry, or Snoooiy, lh« wIM rndirr, ur Cirhn. I fnlfbui ol Liimmiu, TbU|tliiiit ii fuuml KruvviiiK wild on calcireout tvila In KiikUiuI, and In rauit uuuii- triM of Kurope. In Ui natural ilatu (he uteni titt» from ona to thrro fuvt high, hut when culllvatod it aboota to tho height of flvo or ilx r««t. Tho root, which rans d«ep into Iha ground, !• whita, fleihy, and ylolda ■ milky Juiur. In Uoriiiany, the Nethiirlanda, and Franco, chicory haa long bSan Antonio, in tho same district, Is found bismuthic silver on', i'<;nl>ined with native sliver, copper, and arsenic. As the mines l)Cconui deeper, tho silver ores are changing principally into what the natives call " motalcs frios" (cold ores); these contain diiferent pro|ioilions of untlmonv. sulphur, and one sort a little arsenic. Tho ovo the sea), which, when complctcf', will ena- IiIb the miners to send down tho poor silver ores which they now throw away. Tho comnierco of Chili ha* vastly increased slnco tho time when tho country lay torpid under tho yoke of Spain. As soon as it ha4^ covered from the unsettled condition caused by the revolution, liusiness of all kinds acquired now energy, and tlio trade, fVvcd from its oppressive refilrictiona, extended to the larger (wrts of the rnited States and Europe. A few years were sufflclent to sliow a largo increase in its export and import trade, and Valparaiso soon became a flourishing port. The precious nictiils aro tlic mait valuable exports fttim Chili. While obtaining annually fVom her mines metal to thoamount of i.' 1, 500, 000, she exported in the year 1851 gold to the viduo of X'59,950, silver to thn value of X709,467. and copper to tho value of £4U,lim. Flour, V heat, barley, and biscuits flguro largely in her exports, but wltli consideraldo variations in amount. In 1850 there were shipped more than 68,OtM).000 lbs. of flour: in 1851, 44,000.000; and In 18,'!2 only 41,000,000. Above 02,000 quarters of wheat were exported in 1850 ; In 1851 the quantity was 26,470; and in 1852, 55,570 <|uartcrs. In barley, however, there has been a con- siderable increase. From 3",7.'H) quarters in 1850, it rose to 90,100 quarters in 1862. The increased export of wheat and flour in 1850 arises from tho extensive shipuient.s made in that year to California. In the latter half of 1852 the exports of wool amount- ed in value to £92,31)0, pulse to je2n,81i8, coal to XI 3,970, bide* mnl skine to X37U2, guano to A'05fl2, and charqoi cm 309 cm or jerked hpof to XWWHt. Aihhiik the minor artlvl. ■ of •xport urn IIk". tlricil iifarln-n, wuliiutit, (.'«}'(!I\iib [»•{>■ p*r, wine, lirundy, Ihhick, horn*, hooh, Isathor, hum, rut, rhi'i'Di', hutler, ruK^ and timlwr. in return fen' her vurltiu* expurtu Chill roceivon ttom j KnKtuiiil I'citton K'xxI'i '''<"" l''runi'c sllka ind vurioui | ■rtli'leii of luxury, and frnm other coiiiitrieii ii vurlety of uf tli'U'H for dunicAtiu uie. ( 'bill liiijt r(!ci|iro<'al trcuU l«a i>r roninieri'o with Aunlrin, llruxil, llelKiuni, lire- men, Hunllulu, Ucnmark, France, (Irent Hrlutn, I'ruii- aln, Hwedeii, Norway, Tuscunr, Ilainburf{> I-ulicok, urK, the l'iiitc(l State*, I'eru, I'icunilor, and tho Sundwirh laUndn. Her commercial rclatlona uro moat axti-nnive with Great Ilrltaiu uml the llritiKh ciilonii'i, the liniHirts Into Chili amounting In lH&2lo XI,16li,(U3, and the e.x|iort> to £1,01)8,772. Next In Importuiirn U tlie trade with France, tho United Statca and Culifur- nia. With tho other rnpuhlica of South America har commercial trnioacliona, which wero once conaldor*- bio, a|>|>ear to bu on tiic decline. In IH.'il aovornl important re>ilrlctiflna were removed from tho vuntoniK ciHle of Cliili, which had l.'cn only partially modiliod in WM. The e v |)ortHtlon of nation. ■t pniduco waa then declared free in principle, l.ut a ainall iluty wna to ho niaintainod for n nhort tiinn upon a very few articleK. All iin|>ortH, witli tho oxii'plion of Iron, atcci, zinc, cotton, mercury, coul, iittricultural toolt, H'lruical instrument!), und luiokn, aro lialdr to u moderate duty. Jewelry payn 'i per cent, i hnr'cs, niiilex, and dried fruit, (! |)er cant. ; nhoca, linen hluA'n, furniture, iind article* u«eil only liy the wcjilthy, lU) per cent. The duty on whito wiue is reduced to 10 reals per dozen, and on red to 8 reals. Teas pay ti reals the |)ound. (irain of nil kinds ia auhject to a movalilc tariff. As lon){ as the prico In the home market doei not exceed lli.«. Hi/, the faiieRtt of 150 llis., foreign f;rain pays nn import duty of 12 reals tho fu- ncgu ; but if the price rises to 20 sliiilinf$s, the duty fulls to H reals, and If it exceeds 26 shillings tho import duly ceases allop;«ther. Agricultural knowledge and science progress slowly — a want of discretion in selecting for purchase from Kiirope the niacldnery liest calculated for tho soil and rlimnte has caused failures in many of the experi- ments, und consequent triumph to tho.se who still ad- vocate the crude and primitive mode of tillage. Chili Is now chiefly dependent on I'eru for iho export of wheat und flour, that to California (now self-supplied) being extinct, and to .Vustraila nearly so. The mining Interest continues to employ a largo amount of capital and lal>or, but there has been a markes in the money market, a ricochet from that at home, has r-iiuscd much anxiety among the merchants ut Valparaiso. No fail- ores, however, of any conseciuence have tnkcn place among Hritish llrms, ond I*. Is hoped that, with caulU.ii and prudence, they will weather the storm. — Extract f.oma Dupalch dnied Dreemher SO, \H!il , from the Hon- nrahlr Cnplain Harri.', lltr ifnjrtty'a Chirgfiie Ajffairu in Chili, to the hart of CUirentlon, refpecling llit t'ommir- d'll and Agricultural Condition of that Comitry. In liquid ncasure the English quart Is equal to 1-022 Spanish cnurtillo, and the Imperial gallon to 4'089 cuartillos. Gold is bought by the custcUano or marco. Its relative tineness is cxpresse nths of pure metal, and one-tenth of alloy. The copper coins are quite pure, containing no alloy. Their names, value, and weight may be most conveniently represented by uieaut ol tho following table: Dold Condor, (iiilil Uoblon. (liild l<^udo . Hllvcr I'oso , t I. i. =a c: 1 =0 8 =0 4 Hiivt'r HmlloiMMi =: 9 HllviT golnto ■ " ' Hllvrr Dt'clnio Hllvcr Volnlaiio .... <.'ii|>|H'r Ccntavo U OiH i.'uVV^v Modio ccnluru .... U OH l{««al«1i Frcnrll (IriiHM. OmmmM. IIO^ MO or m-IISH = I I = 004* =iO a| 16i-770 aiioa ' K(HI'Ttl8 ' io()-iBa ' fiowe ' •ib ftOK • iooaoT loo'iba 7-«7« i;uTi IJ-BOO h 2 MO HM 10 5 The communication between tho sevorul towns of Cblli i« now greatly facilitutcd liy rouds, rullwaya, und sl< ni-vessels. Tho excellent road fironi Suntiugo to Valpuruiso WHS constructed at a great cost by Gen- eral O'lllggins, -when I'residcnt of tho ri'publio. A road, generally kept in good repair, connects tho towns of Ataeuniii and Concepcion. liy far tho most pleasant for the traveler is that by which Santiago and Tulcu arc united. A railroad has been already estulilishcd between Copla|H> and Culdera ; and in 1852 the President, M. Montt, laid the flrst stone on Ihs lino (about 'JO miles iu length) between Sintiago and Vulpuruiso, and it is now rnpldly advancing to com- pletion. When linishcd it will be the most oxtensive work of the kind in South America. I*roposals for railways from Serena to the sea, from Coplupo to Tree I'untas, und from Concepcion to Talcahuano, have also been laid livforc Congress, A line of electric I telegraph has ulso been cstaljlisiied between Valparaiso I and Santiago. I'ho revenue of Chili is in u very prosperous condi- tion, exhibiting a su 'us of receipts over expenditure I iu tlio returns off .^rul years. In 1845 the revenue , amounted to £1,^83,109 18*., leaving, after the neces- Hury outlay, a surplus of £410,216. In 1819 the reve- nue, including tho surplus from 1848, was £1,352,210. The nirplus of 1849 was £57,048, which, together with tho receipts of 1851, amounting to £886,381 8k., were entirely swallowed up dui iig the revolution of the latter your. With tho rcsiurution of peace in 1862, tiie revenue rose to £l,09ti,09ti, which, with the sum of £24,000 paid by I'eru us interest for its debt, gives an increase of £2i)'l,714 I'lu. over tho income of the preceding year. Taole or Rm'KMni roa 1B6>. CiiHtoms X6(18,(K>T 14 . Governincnt nionupulti'S 156,672 10 Licenses n.1^S 12 HUnippaper 1»,S87 70 Tltlios lOB.SSS 20 Mint 1M20 60 Post-offlco 14,0€6 14 Pen),. 12,882 16 Auction-houses, 1,212 14 Cataslro 19,724 10 , AlcaUala 89.537 It i:i,l2U,WU Tho catastro is » duty of 5 per cent, levied upon the sale of lands. Tho alcahala is a duty of 4 per cent, on the sale and exchange of immovable property, and of 2 per cent, on the sale of mines. Peaje con- sists of tolls und ))ontagcs, and is levied on cattle, mules, vehicles, etc E. I). In 1886, the exclusive right of steam navigation between the ports of the republic was granted to a cm 800 cm ion|Mliy, which fommi-notd Ita npuralton' In IHIO. Oiim whirh hy triivf linK >' >•"«« th« Irthmm thn Purtfls AtlinlUr|>rivll»Kcwiii»flKrwiirilrxt«iiil<'y the )("V«rnniiiiitii of l'«ru, Kcuitilor, mul ttiKjournry contliiui'il In •(vmii-vrMrlii. 'Iliu vuyitg* New (ininitiU. Th< t'ommuiilcitlim lH>twmy thli rnutn u(.'i-ii)ilc> itlinut ■nd thill U m»lnt»liiMl liy w»y of llw Mhniuii i«f •'•n- forty or llfty lUyn ; whllo llm voy»ue from tlia t'ulUd tma. .Stnuiiien mII UtwMn KnRUn Htatu with Chili, rnnii iHToiira 1 1814, TO Ji'l.t 1 (i^lll<« «>4llliwl<'^ liU. TMllMlMj l8ltB ll>r«rtt Wk«nH Jmtft r,.f.i«». _ ItoWMi. " 'trntlfO. f>uL KifoHt',!. liii|ion«4 Imi.iIm «M1,4M IM.IKai T.'ioJ liMi m.mt •84I*4M l,441,4M S1I1I.U49 60,1110 161,774 «,7«8 INT 1.040,74» MI.SMI l,701,t(ll IHI.OVS 10,781 1 6. Ml 11,M4 .... IRM i.niu.vln I,1ll».4t4 «.«W,40t '81. M3 , . . • 830.808 1»,838 18W 8M,IIM (WO.TIH 1,411, IIU •llrt.llH I6a.8ri0 ii.ntu .... isati TuUl... •is.Tm t'JIi.MM ♦4,a'i4,48.j I.MA.IU »«,lJ6H,lit7" lsi,fl((B 1.609 11.187 »l,4'i4,7l7 «iM.»n «H7V.8U4 ~?7.8t» U8I *Mn,«io «ni8.Ml |l.lMM.15ft »413,;B8 fii.sei $01,004 11,146 .... I8.li M'l.Bin 0II,T4U i.ni,ii» fiO4,013 100.701 87.488 8,106 I8:u TUII.IM 71ill,H()lt i,4fla,ii4« 084,110 .... 97.nr« RBIKI IMM T!4,4i)T 7(ll,U4tl 1,470, »M 787,401) Ml 886. 6H1 8.6611 tUi IH« ^•*«,!>«» 3Afi,«IM l>4I.H>vt l)17,0»0 , , , , 416,160 0,1180 iMB tWV,NII« :»M*1 (•I17.ttl7 HII,49T • • • •;fl.i,ii80 t.,s37 hi I«ST. . \,im,w.> aufi.440 1.4117,7119 l,18i),IM 1.680 660,1117 0,044 ISW I.IMT.ATi 3M«M l.!l7a.M4 V4i.a«& Ml.l«ll ».i:t> ih:i9 i,:wT ua t'(7.41il 1.794.M.1 1. 180.1141 . . 134.008 8,883 141 IHIO Tol»I,.. l,.1T.',.'M Jft«,MB 1.71S.HW l.Alll.^4n(l 4N(I,680 $i,"06S,l,»4 7,414 «M,MI,TVi «4,tnv,ol9 lia.tio.RiB «.8,0U4,103 4i'.'4,iiai 903 IMI t>M«.4IU »itaa.A7N tl,l01,9M 91,180,080 $848, 4M 6,901 901 IXti i.no.Mi i)uii,7as i,(iav,ti7d 831,1189 $800 S'.M.IO 7,091 094 iNin* MU.K1.1 17»,iwn l,04(>,4flS 887,B6fl .... 118.080 6,878 . . . , ItlUt 86(1. I4B V4fl.Mll 1.10ft.l«l 7WI,370 ■ f • , 186,817 7,147 l8Wt l,M7.* BOO.N01 l.M»t,l»l 1,11»,6 WftM-Kl 1.9-i4,Blt 1,8I0,4B1 1 • . . 10,6(18 10,406 300 IMUt l,m,4l>7 194. 041 1,017,100 1,817,718 , . ■ • 170,41 ISMt TotiJ. . . i,w7,iaa «6,ft>« l,41'i,71l l,71l«,877 .... 1 19.06T 41,1711 VB,3S3 $l'i,lili,»ST iri,486,ll4 tir>,!iBU,OBl «I1,7I 1,649 $8UU $1,118,761 117,408 31,314 ISSlt $i.«os,Rn «2f)ll,4iH JI,80^30B «l,7a4.74< $.1,000 774 48,140 41,867 ll»n 9.(m,»M 8lifl,'2»7 i,amM!Ui I.UO.'.IOO n.iBo 01,711) 11,380 13,401 IWiBt «,1B7,8<0 100.117 1.320,487 l.llt.'JBl 30,000 11,818 18,488 88.1IOB ISft4t 1. Mi, 330 S.'.(»,I»V1I I.IOU.IAU s,;'.u'.Mi)7 0,670 11,8116 11,371 11,408 ISBBt »,w4,iiai 4a'i,n'M 8,4OT,»7 &,6lN8'.ia 13,10< 11,708 11.007 10,109 l8Mt t.MI.8r4 ST(i.ami 1.807,743 1.407,819 10,1100 .... 11,477 4,778 * roonthi to June SO. ChllUea (Hind, (7<>r8 required to expresa them, and forma but an indiatinct idea of their Buperflcial extent. No country In the world la better adapted, ttom situ- ation, climate, and products, for extenalve commerce, than China ; yet no civilized country has prt.fltcd leaa by these advantages. The happy distribution of Ita Dumerona rivers, aided by artificial canals, alTorda an •liDoit nnintemipted water communication firora tb« t I year to June 80. northern lo the southern, and from the western to the eastern extremities of this grand empire; uud thus a facility ia given fur the Intcrchungc of the products uf one province with those of another, unknown in any other country, and unequiiled even in (jreat liritain. The multitudea of barges of illtfercnt aurts und sixoi, which vary in their construction on almost every riv- er, are incredible. The Cliinesc arc rarely to Im; trust- ed where numliers are concerned ; but they are prob- ably not fur amiss in stating that the numlicr of im- perial barges employed in the grand canal and ita lateral branches, for tlio purpose of collecting and dis- tributing among liie public granaries the rice and grain paid in kind m taxea, amounts to lU.UOO, or, aa they express it, where they mean to be correct, to 9999. A vast number of vessels are also employed in conveyiiiif the copper currency from place to place, wherever it may bo wanted; othera in collecting the lilka, cottons, uud varioua articles of taxes, paid in kind, and depositing them In the public magazines; and the aalt barges alone are probably not Ic.is iiumcr- oua than those which carry grain. It was calculated that the dcp<'>t of salt accumulated ut TUn-siiig for the uae of the capital und the northern provinces was suffi- cient for a year's consumption for thirty millions of peo- ple. This was all brought up in the coiinw of the Bummer, from the seu-coast of Tche-kiang and I'okieu, in sea-going vessels. Cakes of coal-dust and turf, for fUel, and c&kes made up of various ingredients for gar- den manure, cn>pluy a multitude of barges; and when to these are added the varioua kinds of vessels em- ployed In general commerce, in the convcyunmt... lit4Bt.... li»4Dt.... IS4It.... IW(.t.... IM^t.... IM<4)t. . , . ToUI.. lH6lt. UVJt. IH'llt. IHIHt. IHtM. l«B4)t. 4W,«WI tM.IIIII li:ii*,4M IIMI.IIti* Ut.ibi tMil.TMl IM.WII '«K,ITT,4U MIT,TT4 «M>,TI4 UliA.wl IMl.tiAII IIH.VTU «I*,MI 4IIII,4«4 4ilU,|MI triMtn T.i;,t«iu i.iw.a'iii i,iiii,(i';ii V,IITII,»4I I.ITN.IHH I.TW.Uili •t,m «vi> i,4T4 i.wuyiB l,ll!l!l,IJ()I •J.iHVM MifwHi »,r«M,iiw 4,II4I,,IIM,HIM 4,a«,(H)l 6..'liit.lTI h.MoMn V.MHI.III4 a,iMi4,Kiri l,4iil,Kn'i l,llftt,1«4 T4'J.I»0 «liA,T44.IMI II.WI-Ml l.WMlM'J l.^lti.lM I, "III. Ml l.'MK.IMI 1,1114.401 wio,r«i i.nin.tioi l.liUII,IKII I.IK|||,IIINI li'/.riii.wa ti,«mi,i«i« I.444,MIT VJIMM I.TM.IMI ».ll7fl,tit>R 1,11111,141 l,N;i';,ftH4 'i,iwi,»l!) l,fWli,'.«4 i.m,,lt1 |IT,«4li,IM |4,4y),«tT iflfld.nT »,1M,«fil l,)ltllt,IH«t l,1ll ll,MI.4'
  1. , takn culTeo three or four liiiiea a day. The pruspet ta of Ihe preaent crop, from all parts of Ihu Isl- and, were never mora llatlerliig. It is prubable that llmro will bu a large incroaae over Ihe last year's crop. Contracts have already Immii entered into, paying as high aa ^22 per box. The bu.\es and casits uro paid for separately, as wUl be exhibited in Ilm pm J'urma invoices given in continuation. The brokerage upon sugar is 1 pi r I'l'iit, of which Hie purchaser pays a '-ilf per cent, and lliu s'ller thu other haii' per cent.— L'' . iti- /iir Itrliinit, Cnilml Nlaltt, lH6l-'63. fVi/fi-c— Tho production of this article has rapidly diminished during tho last 11 or 15 years on the norlh part of Ciilia, owing to liio low prices, scarcity of laliorors, and consei|Uont hlKh rales of wages, and II larger |irolIts in tho culllvalion of Ihe sugar-cane. The berry liegiiis to ripen about August, when the picking is commenced, and continued until December or January next. It liegina to (lower in February, Murcli, April, or May; the lliird llower gives thu best coll'oo ; the urticlo is brought tu market tluoughout the year; Imt in Dccenilier, January, and I liruary, and even as lute as March, it comes In greatest i|uantilles. Tlio packing in sucks of from to H arrobas of 25 pounds Is efl'octcd on tho plantations ; tho tare of a sack Is '2 pounds. CotVeo is sold by regular licensed lirokcrs by sample, and before being received is examined, ond if not eiiual to tho sample is rejected. It is usually classed Into live grades ; Superior, First, Second, Third, and Tr^'ache. Thero is a class called Carucolilh, a round bean, tho produce of tho first bearing year, when Ihu pods have only one kernel ; after the llrst year tho pods have two kernels. ColVee, when a long time in store, loses its nroma, and fades in color ; when good, tho berries aro smooth, eipiiil, and unbroken, freo from stones or unpleasant smell, and of a fresh green color. Tho rultivulion of cotTeo was introduced in the iFland of Cuba in 1707-'98 by tho French emigrants fioni Hayti. In 180 1 tho exports were 50,U0O arrobas; la 180',>, .120,000 arrobas. It will bo observed how sadly tho pro-lucllon of coffeo has decreased within tho last few y <. "^he time Is now fust approaching when none w i'' ' . cd on this side of ('uba, and then tho inhabi.ai ' . will have to depend upon the culVoo raised In the district of St. Jago dcCuba, which is still quite large in quantity; and were it not for the immense quantiiy of beans, corn, and other grain that are roastci^ .i id mixed with tho real coirce, the quantity of tho bitier would scarce- ly suffice for the consumption of a ojuntry where it is used in such great quantitici.. It is believed by many that I III' time will arrive vhen the island of I'uba will have to import cofTco for the consumption of her inhab- itants. — CoiDulur Returns, I'niled Stales. Custom-house. — Husiiiess transacted at the custom- house in Havana is nil done In writing, and pretty much all upon stamped paper, mostly at 60 cents a slicet, ex- 1 pting that for outward register, called papel de ihs- t-'i, costing |8 tho sheet. Vessels that go to ontporti to load havo to pay anchorage and other small foes, averaging some $15 or $16 each. At Cienfuegos every vessel pays the health commissioner $2, and as much more if ordered to <|uarantine. At Matunzas, besides the charges recovered as here, tho government exacts $4, and the royal exchequer $1. At Sagua an extra fee is exacted of $-1 if she enters in ballast and loaves with cargo, and $8 if she brings cargo and carries away cargo. CUB 490 CUB .■-■--■• COMMIROI or TUB liiiTiD States WITH Cuba, rBOK OOTOBEB 1, 1620, TO July 1, 133& - Eiporto. iDiporu. Wh«r«or there WM 11 Onlliun and Hpeele. Tonnafre Cleared. | 94pumb,812,151 7,009,857 199,182 91,065 128,538 25,632 1888 3,986,113 1,700,697 6,672,700 9,754,787 458,223 99,858 188,693 31,091 1884 3,692,980 1,659,456 6,352,486 9,096,002 14.3,469 600,666 129,624 29.954] 1886 8,917.436 1,689,872 6,600,808 11.840,615 316,176 266.256 151,313 26,788 1888 4,601,717 1,903,772 6,406,490 12,734,976 616,142 122,518 166,460 8,829 1837 4,808,783 2,063,8'20 6,867,608 12,447,9'22 607,147 1,643,110 175,796 P'i?J 1883 4,721,488 1,454,825 6,176,763 11,694,912 2:t5,290 410,794 198,746 10,618 1889 5,026,626 1,091,205 6,116,831 12,599,848 179,497 821,814 194,678 12,806 1S40 Total... 6,831,471 979,041 !>,310,516 9,986,477 149,570 648,103 li>2,543 15,670 142,876,100 $16,288,032 $68,114,132 $104,950,987 $8,023,160 $4,296,617 1,593,478 191,891 1 1841 $5,107,011 $632,071 $5,789,082 $11,667,027 $150,461 $134,909 194,001 14,168 ' 1842 4,197,468 672,981 4,770,449 7,660,429 100,102 235,940 182,466 9,719 1848* 2,920,922 899,876 8,826,797 6,015,938 128,496 656,205 136,383 4,897 1844 i8»4,002 934,.533 6,288,696 9,930,421 673,910 170,027 2'i4,618 7,538 1815 6,20;J,803 800,946 6,.5oit«H. 18.50 1851 1952 1853 6,244 6,.377 4,419 674 8,960 7.862 6,286 1,053 1.208.016 1,87H652 1,163,231 1,016,695 1,638,101 1,678,910 1,607,822 1,867,140 The following table shows the exports of sugar from Havana and Matanzas, fur the years 1853, 1851, and 1855: ExpoBT or SuoAB ra Boxes fboh Havana and Matanzas. To )l»3. 1X54. IBU. United Btotes 149.574 14,868 225.618 89,866 1.5,171 8,826 11,626 81,760 50.680 29.(18V 7,607 6,839 63&,341 164,396 67,410 274,372 1.5,496 44,277 7,930 24,908 61,880 37,590 41,808 8,428 4,737 ■(■87,756 197,179 42058 213.2.30 28,968 83,093 10,992 26,817 196,848 118,808 10,795 6,563 15,266 1108,177 Great Britain Coves, and a uurliet Baltic namburg and Bremen . . . Holland Bolsiam Bpain p>ance Trieste and Venice Leghorn and Oenoa OUicr Torts. Total boxes Taiii.k ExiiiniTisQ Tim VALHP. or Floub impobted into t;ullA FllOM 1347 TO 185:i, DIUi:iiTED FROM THE " IIalanzas ()e.nerai.f.8"op tuat Isla.vd. Yean. 1847 From Spain, From the Unil«d Slates. $629,0.56 From Knfiland. From other countrlae. $2,137,976 $63,694 $14,647 1818 2.050,623 174.405 0,711 25,050 1849 2,OT2,500 0,:»2 6,362 125 18,50 8,204.9''9 6,605 1,2.50 1851 8,091.525 20,291 650 • • •< 1952 r.,97 1,909 91,064 2,7'5 1853 2.677,791 29,930 80,149 25 The duty in Cuba on Hour im|)orted from Spain is $2 5'^; on tliat imported from the United States, in American or other foreign bottomE, is $10 81 ; the ef- fect of which is to drive the American article entirely from tho Cuban marl(ot, except at such times as when scarcity may have curried it up to famine point. Tlie tonnage duty that exit,ts on Spanish bottoms is 62^ cents iier ton, a.id on fore!,{n shipping $1 50 per ton, contributing, in combination with oticr difTereiitiul duties and restrictions, to tlie Spanish ting, advantages in tho carrying trado of the products of that island to the northern ICuropean ports. Tho imports of flour into Culii from the United States, from 1853 to 1850 inclusive, aie shown in the following talde : Year endlitir June SO. Board of Ti-cule, — Tho annual report of the Board of Trade of the island, to the superintendent of the royal treasury, of tho general navigation and commer- cial movements of the island, in tho year 1850, sets forth these farts in a manner worthy attention. It shows that in 1850 there had been an increase over the last year of $2,088,226 in the value of goods Importeti in national vessels, but that the importation in foreign vessels had only increased ^574,5-10 ; n result to be &»- cribed to the protective and dtfTerential system which eign f inereii portat ing 01 amoui 1849, lowiu) pUed, CUB 491 CUB 4,766 4,346' 1,212 2,184 8,648 8,909 8,120 11,886 60,^08 17,»1« 26,632 81,i«l 29,964 26,788 8,329 13,194 10,613 12,806 15,679 191,891 I 14,163 ' 9,719 ; 4,897 I 7,683 i 16,198 12,838 18,498 18,435 19,661 29,70 8 146,093 29,942 , 22,780 I 22,780 I 26,183 1 81,190 I 18,380 1 From other ouuntrlei. 114,647 26,060 125 25 Value. ♦7,780 8-.',4'<9 88,176 80,066 fsvon Spanish over foreign sliippiog, and on wlich the present tari6F is based. In regard to exportation, ex- actly the contrary state of facts will appear. In 1860 the exports In foreign vessels increased $2,748,287, while the increase in national bottoms was only $147,104. These different results are traceable to two causes, namel}- : as to imports, to the discriminations, both in respect of tonnage and tariff duties, in favor of the national flag ; and as to exports, to the advantages which foreign vessels, exporting the products of the island, enjoy as national vessels in the countries to which they respectively belong — advantages which, in general, more than countervail the discriminating ex- port duty in Cuba in favor of the national flag. In the year 1849 the value of importation was $30,820,460, an increase over the previous year of $885,892 — an amount much less, however, than had been expected from the steady progrebs of the island ; and in the same time the importation diminished, as it appears, in many articles of provision. Foreign (lour, preserved meats, cod-fish, bacon, jerked beef, lard, butter, and foreign wine (although the national wine increased to an amount, in value, $200,000), fell in the scale of quantity, and the article of rice increased more ♦han 8,000 arrobas over the importation of the last year, in consequence of the cargoes of that article from ihtanilla ; so that had it not been for this, and the in- creased amount of some other provisions imported, articles of manufacture and coin, the yearly account would have exhibited a still more considerable dim- inution. This state of things was considered by the .Board* to be the result of some evident causes, such OS the extreme drought, which affected the crops of the season, and the prevalence of cholera in the ports of Europe and the United States, rendering sanitary measures necessary, which interfered with the natural flow of commerce. But, be these causes what they may, a result of the year was an amount of carrying trade under the Sp»nish flag to the Island, of more than $1,000,000 in tlie value of effects imported ; and if the produce of the Peninsula, brought in national vessels, be taken into account, the increase of this branch of business reached, in twelve months, near $700,000, which was con'iidered to be the result of the differen- tial duties existing. VALCE or TUB IMPOBTATIOK Or BlOK INTO GOBA, IN TUB YXAB8 1848 AMD 1849. From 1848. 1M9. gpain and her colonies Spanish American republics. . . United States {223,943 101,664 701,118 16,621 {146,925 61,418 799,499 41,234 Other countries. Total 11,047,246 $1,039,076 From earlier tables, it appears that in the year 1820 the value of Spanish produce, arriving at Cuba in Spanish sbipj, amounted to only $409,352 ; in the year 1830 it reached $8,000,000 j it exceeded $5,000,000 in 1840, and at the close of 1848 had risen to more than $7,000,000. Foreign produce brought in national vessels in 1825 amounted to $2,449,440, exceeded $5,000,000 ia ISIO, and reoched near $8,000,000 in 1848, when the Spanish flag, in both commercial move- ments, came to flor.t a value of $14,936,811. The duties arising on imp fo; (-ijStojIfc; CO « I— ic t-i (£. r* i' 3i4! tc CO a> -■» o t 00 «o K> «o V ii -* w o o» o y Ot Cf feO >4 ibk QD •>) 00 M CJI rSto, to. Sg9»c!i=&c3^4^s toSo' go' o>;'

    .2'2:l 467,245 497,105 086,925 Dollori. 1,248,492 1,474,105 1,700,102 1.630,ii.M 1,681,994 1,642,795 1,205,069 Oullim. 108.8(0 101,848 75,871 09,200 173,403 164,692 813,866 Statkiient of tuk Quantities os Values or toe pkincipvi. DUEINO THE YeAIU 1848 Articles TO 1854. or Sub8isti:nce expobted fboh Cuba Yean. Ajruanilonta. (Kom.) Cotton. Sugar. ColTee. Beoiwax. Wood!. Honey. Muloflses. Copper ora. Leaf tobacco. Segnra. Pl|«.. Pound.. lloju. Arnihaa. Arrubaa. Dollnrs. Ilutlan. 11 tide. QiilnlaU. 656,191 Pound!. M. 184S 16,389 29.690 1,228,713 694,187 60,110 H.H2ll.% 66,623 22S,726 6,27^680 161,480 1849 11,6M 78,665 1,099,894 877,686 86,691 817.994 48,108 246,670 588,810 4,019,188 128,720 1860 4,826 88,475 1,249,618 520,1IW 69,194 859,128 55,182 209,044 M2,28S 7,978,148 212,640 1861 9,221 13,046 1,539,994 r.7.Ml9 67,4,W 89S,9I1 69,626 818,429 4-32,832 9,486,591 270,818 1962 11,359 12,009 1,409,012 789,826 68,691 468,945 78,6-38 262,,'S98 891,470 9,787,448 142,567 1958 14,294 188,626 1,657,192 442,7-30 45,946 448.483 85,959 808,831 8,089,797 237,850 1854 25,272 87,262 l,63.'j,-.'il 611,493 71,ii34 647,818 104,812 261,815 649,653 9,809,160 261,318 Stateme.vt of tub Quaktitieii or Values of the principal Articles exported from Cuba, 1948 — 1954. [Made up fboh the "Balanzas Generales."J Arllelea. Coffee an'Obas Cotton do. Cacao do. M^aque (cut) dollars Beeswax (brown)... arrobos Beeswax (whito) ... do. Tobacco, leaf pounds Tortle-sholl do. Sugar. boxes Molasses bhds. Copper ore quintals Onano (palm leaf). .seroons Aguardiente pipes tiegars thousands Cigarillos & ptcado. dollars Honey do. Fruiti, etc do. Woods do. Jfetals (old) do. Mats do. Manuflictnres do. Liquids & provisions do. Hides do. All other articles. . . do. Total value of a« exports] $26,077,067 694,187 1,148 8,485 T,867 l^B6e 84,644 6,276,&30 2,395 1,229,713 229,726 656,491 26,044 10,386 161,480 110,096 56,628 87,267 850,206 102,638 48.488 70,148 96,234 7,988 174,872 IM». 877,636 2,946 2,170 8,868 16,632 19,163 4,019,188 8.678 1,099,834 246,670 688,310 86,038 11,640 128,720 89,110 49.108 24,619 817,894 86,593 7,092 47,832 106,618 9,160 849,492 (22,486,656 620,184 8,889 7,768 11,076 18,2.34 89,960 7,978,148 4,884 1,249,618 269,044 652.298 58,831 11,825 208,212 77,299 66,182 54,647 859,128 84.889 6,774 41,087 181,098 9,6.W 231,772 »26,631,948 575,119 621 7,089 28,179 18,449 44,004 9,486,591 80,140 1,589,994 819,428 432,882 47,861 9,221 270,818 105,446 69,626 82,044 898,811 62,254 7,138 49,887 142,053 5,819 260,a38 789,326 12,009 88,614 1,458 27,810 31,231 9,787,448 8,848 1,409,012 262,593 831,470 42,961 11,869 180,610 (W,796 78,688 63,476 459,945 80,126 8,008 107,610 25,548 484,376 t31.»«l,fi8l { (27,453,986 442,780 6,646 87,857 1,021 26,406 19,640 8,089,797 4,868 1,657,192 808,881 845,080 4,288 14,294 287,850 84,595 Ki,95« 68,106 418,488 198,100 60,624 151,522 89,456 21,162 895.028 611,493 1,490 18,650 69 29,042 42,292 9,809,160 2,730 1,685,751 261,916 &49,N')8 10,411 26,272 261,818 178,826 104,812 82.628 647,818 99,1,38 12,693 09,186 124.277 ".185 :- 311.724 ♦81,210,405 |'*?>'is:'J8r Statement of the Values of the prinotpal Articles imported into Cuba, from 1848 to 1864. [From the "Balanzas Qenerales."] Artleles. ArtU-iet o/nibHdteHOf. Olive oil Liquids. Moats Spices Fi uits, nuta, preserves EIco Cereals, fioiir. pulse, cacao. . LanI and butter Cheese Fish Ice Dry good). Cottons Woolens Linens Bilks OtAtr matmfticturet. Skins and peltries Wotul MoUl Glass Iron-ware Soap Medicines Frmlture Perfumery Candles, sperm, lard Tobacco of all kinds Ootn. Gold and sliver Total value otall Imports (568,717 2,042,042 2,07.^129 68.484 840,804 l,07.^6-36 .3,220.682 1,176,0*4 100,838 728,602 2,177,716 405,851 2,028. S-V) 486,072 475,1.'S2 2,812,7.38 189,084 72,284 1,061,893 420,482 99,441 120,091 27,982 123,892 22,729 769,191 ift-w. .1 $.567,440 2,164.920 1,971.262 62,931 271,017 1,092.597 8,n67,,%44 1,200,755 149,7.51 653,080 189,768 2,4S: ■"'-. 497, ' 2,840,982 880,943 483,710 1,721,299 213.266 64.460 993.044 96,4:j0 91.1116 43,.'i9 184,61 .' 22,67. 858,6;M (707,974 2.U9.,561 1,978.011 66,5.58 259,446 1,139,744 8,410,988 969,072 167,924 621,349 201,887 $25,485,665 j $26,820,460 1,881,058 $28,988,227 $477,269 2,347,796 1,985,423 86,442 287,586 1,169,6,56 3,614,154 974,781 171,662 619,206 199,842 2,696,909 8,021,009 622,422 431,702 8.161,793 8,528,084 427,967 529,812 476,901 689,457 1,895,375 2,211,229 230,749 290,209 95,688 104,504 1,093,818 1,186,579 479,626 515,189 144,007 168.925 107,982 157,628 50,473 66,141 178,926 198,901 18,223 20,7«9 2,511.408 $32,811,480 (495 264 2,563,808 1,909,898 92,066 805.374 1,046,604 4,404,407 949 143 186,246 668,424 72,717 2,661,667 359,060 2,481,564 699,747 639,874 2,042,136 1.56,996 176,797 1,829,695 691,067 187,136 181.200 103,944 140,844 27,672 999,424 $29,780,242 $472,783 2,8.59,058 1,62,5,067 81,146 275,340 1,072,685 8,127,293 941,403 89,416 698,285 97,942 8,080,874 487,187 2,199,692 583,165 708,802 1,869,960 106,460 217,259 1,634,589 618,220 150,423 169,963 171,646 171,247 17,952 In 1851 Cuba imported to the amount of $32,311,- 430, being an increase over tlie year 1850 of $3,328,- 203, trhich exceeded the importationa of 1849 nearly two millions of clolUrs, The only articlea that had v-«)V' $4.83.162 2,7.36,874 2,215,029 97,614 27-5,742 1,000,221 4,888,846 1,197,(M3 1.58,135 878,323 119,995 2,,59.5,m)9 424,673 2,425,195 664,837 864,825 2,402,907 167,172 141,510 1,579.946 629,130 142,900 164,9S4 11.5,*tS 127,971 20,1125 •ird maa suffered diminution were liqu terials for railroad cars. Under tho national flag (1 . . .'^,176 UDdor foreign flags 12 ' j,3M Total importations la 18;>t, <0> t<1.4,';:i CUB 498 CUB NouBXB or Vessels xntebimq the Posts of Cuba rBOH 1848 TO 1854. Nation. 1S4S. 1849. 877 l«3tt 451 07 68 11 24 24 12 15 18 9 8 I 1850. 87S 1690 4U8 125 70 24 20 49 7 25 22 9 11 2 18 2 3350 1851. 883 •AU4 570 110 74 86 25 01 13 27 14 7 18S9.I IMS. I8I4. 8pauUh 875 1733 070 86 72 20 21 33 16 16 7 2 6 2 1 9471 901 IBSO 2307 »J8 2130 407 100 67 29 25 24 16 16 1 4 476 82 60 82 80 1:7 11 11 8 27 36> 1^6 67 20 24 45 13 17 7 17 Danish Dutch Ilclglan t4 1868 I860 1867 1888 Another and a curious statistical table, furnished by the Prenaa, namely, of the number and Rationality of passengers arrived in Havana in the year 1858, will not be found uninteresting. It will bo remarked, however, that nothing is said of the Coolies or the Af- ricans, who for the most part entered the island at the outports : From the United States 4,8S7 From England 282 From Spain 4,^73 From American ports not in the United States . . 1,468 From ICuropean ports not in England or France . 23 From France 84 From the Canary Islands 1,06ft Troops 8,S03 Colonisia 12,977 Shipwrecked persons 46 Total 31,502 Passengers In transit 9,509 The exports of sugar from the port of Havana to all parts of the world were, in 1858, as follows : Spain United States Channel ports) Great Uritainf Russia Sweden and Denmark Hamburg and Bremen Holland Rclgfum France Gibraltar Trieste and Veuloo Genoa Other ports. North and South America, Total BoxeH, 171,100 219,366 298,508 35,068 2,471 fl,6(10 83,680 12,876 26,738 76,081 1,480 42,780 6,467 9,804 940,614 Hhdi. 0,613 S87 2,609 83 10,004 The following table shows the exports of sugar from the ports of Havana and Mutanzns during the past nine years. The quantities are estimated in boxes : 1850 1,013,634 18.-)1 1,287,891 1852 1,017,480 1853 1,073,418 1864 1,248,484 1.S55 1,208,060 1856 1,163,818 1857 1,110,000 1858 1,263,160 The exports of cigars and leaf-tobacco from Havana in 1858, as compared with those of 1857, were as fol- lows: Cigars, the figures being stated in thousands : To United States Great Britain Itussia Sweden and Denmark Hamburg and Bremen Holland Belgium France Spain Trieste and Venice British provinces Mexico and South America . I 1857. Total. 44,198 27,718 473 1,591 30,779 (■60 4,3f;5 19,S51 7,769 0,512 140,719 4?,869 17,720 147 69 17,843 1,048 2,782 11,890 8,963 03 26 3,306 100,^31 Tho exports of leaf-tobacco in 1858 are given as fol- lows : United States Channel ports) Great Britain/ Hamburg and Bremen Holland Belgium France Spain Trieste and Venice Genoa Mexico and South America. Total Ilhdi. 984,862 133,386 485,010 162,505 91,703 1,793,330 18,302 27,277 3,690,185 1868^ ilLila; 1,492,426 923,BM 199,1'41 907,404 9,620 149,230 3fi2,8:i8 903,519 ' " 8110 128,080 5,046,8 6 On the whole, the figures abundantly set forth the extensive commercial prosperity of the island. To give some idea of the trade of the United States with Cuba, wo give the following table of imports and exports for the last five years : Year endlnff Eiporta of domeatlc Produce. Total Total June 30. Eiporta, Importa. 1S54 $8,i'-;8,110 $8,561,7.02 $17,124,339 1865 7,007,119 8,004,682 18,6>6,I139 18511 7,19i>,038 8,70!i,'J6S 24,486,693 1857 9,379,682 14,923,443 4'>,243,I01 1868 11,673,167 14,43,3,191 27,S14,840 The island of Cuba, from its geographical position, commands tho mouth of the Mississippi, and the im- mense and annually -increasing trade, foreign and coastwise, from the valley of that noble river, now embracing half the sovereign States of the Union. With that island under the dominion of a distant for- eign power, this trade, of vital importance to theso States, is exposed to the danger of being destroyed in time of war, and it has hitherto been subjected to per- petual injury and annoyance in time of peace. Our relations with Spain must always be placed in jeopardy while tho existing colonial government over the island shall remain in its present condition. For the fi.H "43b9 mi* ik JII,M«9 7,1100 i«f ■ H081 '68« ""8 Matinitt Cardenas. rrinldaj VUla-Clani ato. Eapl.ttn SagnalaOrondo.. Gisnfuegos Romedios OnU Manunillo GIbara. Holcoln Nuevltos 3ta,0rtu Ooootanamo Pto. Principe..... Lottory departm.. Total »9,99S,761» •4,001,388 (9,874,891 •4,164,779 •117,868 ♦441,197 "mm ■ ♦iiw Bevc nne collected t m 1855, tis 890,100,t and In 1854, •18,689,671, an Inoreina In IWW «f •ltB(),49H, | * Error in original : the flgnres shonld bo 9,934,061. It may be proper to remark in this place, that the Balaazai Geaeralea, from which the preceding and aubseqaent tables are derived, are not to be considered as giving the precise quantities and values of the commercial exchanges of the island of Cuba with foreign nations. They, donbtles^ present the mini- mam amounts of each, as it would neem to be the policy of the custom-house ofScials, by whom these annual reports are prepared, to undervalue the foreign trade of the island. Au far back as the year 1825, the unreliability of these Bulanzas, as authority in statistical compilitiond, requiring precise accuracy, was noticed by Baron Humboldt, in that portion of h.U " Personal Narrative" which relates to the ieen made in the preparation of these t Error ef •5,618— oxooM, J Kftitr of 14,700 oicois, annual exhibits of trade | for tlm l)«t*nft>l, during a period of seven years, from WH u> lHfi4, OoHiiEROB or Cuba wnn rcuaas Nations rnou 1S26 to 184a [Hadh dp raoii TUN " tUi,4ll8M Onii«ii«i,iss."] IMPORTS. r«n. NMIODSI eommeiva. In oatlnnal tbimU. UnlKd State!. EntUnd. Auierlrnn portn. Fniue. HanM Towns •nd PfntherlMuli. Pgrta„ril» li*lll>. l)>1M>lt, iv.7,r " TtiUl. '1'...... '■ Peioa. Pmm. Tm'.!. Pefi*. P««VI. P«W,!,, Pe«o«. 189d 9,858,793 314,888 6.632,80£ 1,328,627 1,169,461 1,631, 1«6 !6,tHW !J11,7»4 1,759,691 14,995,764 1897 9,541,899 349,728 T,16)!,696 1,618,371 .... 1,472,201 1,640,011 lW,>i2fl H«'J,IM7 9,llfl6,«46 I7.8«2,(t64 182S 4,623,809 431,568 6,599,096 l,7ro,OS5 5,784,7651 1,837,776 4,791,644 1,746,388 4,690,808 1,465,983 3,649,986, 1,957,964 4,461,479 1,«2.M78 .... 1,63.'5,S55 2,0H2.9l|« 176,0!J7 ■mm 9.098,501! I»,5fl4,929 1829 4,981,048 844,896 .... 1,24.Vj4: I,.'M«,HJ5 87,H8fl llft,WII tMi\Mt lM,09f.,Ni6 1880 4,789,776 1,051,586 .... 721,MS 1,701,363 81,9A« J01I.1M i,9IHI,9N3 16,171,569 1081 4,121,899 1,89^89C .... e6»,6l>4 1,S08,H99 2il,IIH2 W,6vj N»5,0ltl )h/4S7PI 1839 8,576,707 8,178,69« , S0.\824 1,9',S,197 83,818 17,114 796,512 in,l»'',406 1838 8,185,781 4,V77,53C 1.87I,7S6 927,491 l,14,^,967 90,931 9rt,7r.i WtM»fl 11.61 1.1 39 1884 8,419,487 4,9-0,01! 8,690,101 1,6T6,918 1,747.224 906,414 8.%5,36il 19,215 161,161 1,(34,407 11/iflil,800 I'--,- ? 508,349 5,900,956 5,406,919 1.689,46.^ 2,084,55!! 904,140 619,211 66,6*17 l«>,4tll 1,1(^,1)45 2(i,72'i,079 lit. 470,725 5,680,070 6,568,281 1,622,429 l,,579,58i- 817,446 7flfl,0.'i9 69,06« tUM'* 1,(109,771 2a/>r.l.969 i: .; 'i.,659,153 4,966,191 6,.MS,9571 1,8T8,96I 1,099,867 861,.380 6(»,048 28,IHI 95,450 »,6l»l,MI 22,(140,357 If..'. 4,4«0,9«7 8,168,152 0,'i02,00£: 1,489,30< 1,718,650 616,954 916,49ii 7»,I9H 64,6«M I(.17»,/M5 24.729.N71 18( • 5,890.515 7,108,704 6,139,794.1 1,770,499 1,467,125 714,664 5.'i2,07.S 124,406 IW.09t( 9.(i».7,9H 25,217,796 1840 5,995,961 0,6H718, 5,654,195 1,437,199 915,641 618,461 1.010,991 47,014 99,4011 8W.I79 94,709,199 1323 ETPOETS. 1,992,«S9 186,S7E 8,394,597 1^533,474 .... 1,162,218 2,998,154 47«,»»9 900,761 t,«iii,»m 13,800,888 1S27 2,934,950 184,069 4,107,449 1,605,078 .... 1,048,618 2,651,083 4HT,2H8 41*9,40'; l,4*.1.««l 14,216,199 1828 1,K3«,934 711,479 8,176,9« 1,611,820 .... 754,812 2,,Si)9,229 7«!t,WI m,'H> l,4Tlt,020 IH,II4,3(<9 1329 9,299,680 562,658 3,191,585 1,729,404 .... 907,80.S 2,406,813 9il4,U2i. ll(lll,^4'l 1,»'W,|J4V iii,nn9,4flr 1830 8,740,747 613,267 4,266,732 ^228,.W4 .... 7.'^7,7!l(t 2,413,290 ',036,2»« iim.iHi l,frj|,l44 ift.irfl.9P8 1811 9,193,761 727,888 8,921,692 1,667,720 .... 44l,0.')4 2,l'*H,li99 544,<<8« 44IM66 89(1,1^.4 12,918,711 1839 2,178,!W7 »98,4M 8,10i,46« 2,101,0*6 .... 300,999 2,.VtO,S13 t,lHn,69C lttf«,674 m,m lflM(f,.n1T 1838 1,854,714 1,974,040 4,88^SSJ 9in,9S1 19,078 681.821 1,771,31! 1 137,774 «M,5)I MM,Ni;t ii>,9!in.loo 1834 9,074,592 1,40I,56S 8,824.724 2,nso,3«7 16,214 6«7,4!ll 2,2S(I,782 1,»'.I,2S» 101,448 954,615 f|,4'(7.9f>5 1885 1,801.099 1,114.695 4,866,661 1,754,676 10,275: 603.085 2,076,(K)1 994,771 161,9'W 1,179.25'* M.mi.'M 1836 2,848,453 917,738 5,518,994 1,700,116 86,195 4'-'9,65*l 1,B.S 1,985 ',099,67» 96«,7» 1887 9,919,474 1,994,989 5,792,62C 9,990,406 21S.323: 1,3HHi>s' 2,713,688 144,018 1.646,953 MN.IOfl (.H75,ttl8 20,346,407 1838 9,699,159 I.5S9,84C 6,674,691 8,083,1!2S 80,582, 771,572' 9,69H,1«8 846,6411 I,fl74,9«' 90,471,109 | 1889 9,719,799 1,961,785 6,598,0411 5,141,09« 70,9861 845,906 9,054,088 87,919 908,605 2,836,620 266,401 494,W(n »,4Th,M1 91.411,8*) 1 Wk.^ 8,478,680 9,044,441 6,860,789 6,749,438 OH'HI^ Ill9,»lt «,»47,74fl 95,941,788 CUB 495 CUB 1i^ .' 'a •»*^ ■ Ok W Si w :g : : ^ iiii II ¥ ;ll§ S^'^S •CO -IH 1 ./•ror.--»r.^ Sf :^ «S 5» *» tfc T-t 30 rtOD ef :!:: 88 .t: OOO -00 sa :sSgSS 8 . *Hr»«aice3 J-'^^sS S£gf!?;£!9? =$;5 ■X t- ■+ 9? Oi is l3^ll^3'-*S'ir^' rfaf I <*!* 1^ T-^ 1^ ^^ ■ ju V,' r" *^ ^v T^ UJ « 9f »H l-T IF^" D 1-1 0> O *- ^ 2S¥fe£^5'5fSfS5 S' of h '« h^SS SIR ' Si :a o o*j $ S ^ s h " :S^ »-'2f :§S .ae CUB 496 CUB Ooin>A>ATin SumiABT or tot Couherob or Cuba, nox IMl to 1R54. [Fbou xm "Balakzas GmBAin."] Yatnw 1S41 1841 1S4S 18M 1845* 1840 1847 1843 1849 ISM 18S1 18A2 ISM 18&4 1841 1842 1848 1844 1S45* 1840 1847 1848 1849 ]8flO ISSl 18M 18AS 1854 VALDi or raroErATiDM. TALUK or BXPORTATIOa. la utlooA) veu«U, In fonlipi l*,llil,78S 14,887,780 1 8,883,741 lB,il8,8S3 18,651,821)1 l^ft4tl,6T(l 1^^!»,8I8, 16,866, 84«| 1'<,4M,071] ll»,e9»,lVfl! 2<).Si»,rM' 18.4il,Cil' 2(1,676,946' Teaoi. 10,967,625 ToW.« jlniutloiul I Tf>M«U. I "Jzir T"-'- I. 25,!)SI,4«8 7,148,674 10,24»,790!a4,(H?.6-i7 6,976,.')84 I0,(I.'')8,W ' *:). I -"J,096 6,9.W,B-i8 Il,S87,877i■2,^l^'>(■,.•2S16.ll6li,746 ll,tVJ7,764l'iS,20,485.'J/ 8,27,468,986 1 2«,93<),,'i67fell,2IO,405 1 24.177,128pi,6s3,78l EsroETAnoK or tub rRnroiru FBoDvononi or txb itLAND. flofftr. Mol.'.tJBnuKtj'.l CoAr, ll, 1 ;J' n-.,i,(» t-:-lU3, ,0. V- •«!,] 47!. VMS] 98) ."I tSi ,27J.,.^tl; ,22S,rlSi ,099.;i4l ,249.i:i3 ,589,.i"l! ,409,1 .■12 ,657,11' ■ Hhd..t I I'll-.. I 131,890 11,302 119,138 10,227, 191,098 18,81fll 172,4:11 6,.I26 121,.S22 4,120 808,597 9,082 25)1,840 19,782 228,J26| 16,389 248,5'0 11,640 269.0H 4,82.' 818,428 9,2211 262,5981 11, 8.^9 :'|'S,8.31! 14,294^ Ji'l, 161 25,272 Arnihna.ft l,28,5,mMl 1,988,8.(6 1,681,782 1,240,032 M9,322 817,662 982,1,M 694,11:7 877,11)7 820,13,; 575,11 OnpiMr I Tohftcco, ITottMrol ore, ' nw, MAiiiifMi 698,0606,767.677' 783,1171 ,^942,888, 708,660 7,208,238; 2,0(«,587,4,08J),7681 869,922 0,6:^873 68,\6W 8,826.047 ,565,495 9.809,606 656,49' 1 J75,630 ,583,8I( ,19,188 tp62.28t, ,178,148 432,882:.;. '.86,591 T,*,:;2i; 881,4709,: !• 448 «;■,:•'.: I 845,080 9,1rii'97 II '.'I 649,668 9,809,;. 'HI v."t:r , l;;^^ ! tow.. I !<.»„«,.♦ I " ' '"T 1,068 917 847 819 875 877 S78 888 947 902 5,081 8,084 i.r."'' 2,657 i,vro 3,685 ■■■.sso «,f!88 i,710 ii'sa 2,2<4 .i,.,'iH 2.9'M .S.Til 2.673 H,5-'8 8,38r'. 3,3!^ 2,47'= .ytfo) 2,98f. a.S(« ?,068 it.,ii 3,014 3 9(6 2,8^ .■l,il2 .J67.S39 472.1"« 477. 7M ftvr.'Xa r.\r,-i I BSI,.- ' ; 73,8, • . I T12,C-,ii : i74,fl'4 i 997,9W ! ftt^OKI I 713,»«i ■V12.794 ! Dutlei on Imp^rlAIIrn. 1 5,94.').sl9 6.005,632 5,896,839 6,Uir<>.408 .•-,,3»*',418 'vi'8,423 'jA'i-'i' ■'■ ■! 17^,8% ;>,.-. 4,7-', .',9(;t,i ,:■ 7,';ii . i' 7,', .11,1, •■ • From 184) (.) (848, thcso totals Include tho vnluo of koimIb ploof ) on dof n«lt, «.s well u of '.hoee set laliy i ii; wtei or i- P'lr^ed, and am i}i'tf* ct'n-.,ierft)I.v ftu,(i- '.II .itod. Prior to l-.*., no ,t;«tl«>ct t-.'.imni ttii!, dovotod to deposit '■, tb" 'lalanzu Oon.3nil ! but slnco tlist yenr larl imiit..;- tluQ litA been ohscrrod, a*".^ ibo :::,ult Is pircolvcdln thodlmlnutloii < .'tho;>i,".anlB of v.ilucs. t Prior to 1846, but one cc>l;.mn wm ,1. vntfd to tonnofro, no dlstluctlou bcio;^ mado between the tonnage of national and foroig;n veeeels in tho Balania: but since that year such distinction baa been inaAt.'.TivK Sr,n'r.iie"Bai.ak«a3 Oenbbales,"] CUBA. (. !MPORrATIO!( INTO C'-BA. Tom K4Tio;.ii, i 1 .PRODUCT*. I roBKisx rupoL'CTs. • ... ;ii'«ii;'l> < ^v.JvIl grti,."t-3r. ~l^ In Spviltli In for»ljcn ve:.*eU. EXIHiRTATION FROM CUBA. roK rni NATIONAL •mxbw. In Spv-Uh I reo«ela r>.>rtnr-. ISi'*! TAte'V'.Vt KJ.l:J.r'<>r 10,218,247 iw. is^roi 7,os2.r.' ,-.':y\;i4i y.94ft,fla'^ 2e, 1851 ' S,.W0,2^', - ' t.lWT 12.IWT,24^ 1852']0,2'>0.42PIv ■ -i.THl 9,av>.ft82 18W, 7,7ft6,C':cH),71U.W^ 9,il41,24T ISW! 9,057,42yn,*,Uo52[10^293 If. SimnUh] Jr. furflffn -I- rk.Uar.. I "Yv.'lir-. I Onlln,.. <" D<.ll»r.. '2,118,ll^6,2O.OS1.!.7.!26,077,0i>-.| 6.883,S.'SS >..!lnr.. I r«..ni« ,4JW,.'i65 8.9127,007 .12il.4m).3,113,fi70|2,»60.46416,S63,i:-.-i2'.!,4a6,.VA 6.429,260 ,9,8:1,227 3,O71,OS42,!I.'i7,7S319,0O!!,On12,'i.631,948 6,721,260 ,;lll,4)!0'2,S.36,S28;l..SS2,787 25 I22,."iti7 8l,!l41,«83 8,40'2,884 ,', 80.242 .3.882,6Sjl8,l.iV.388i2':. 485,918 27,4,^936 8.873,086 ,789,8flO,8,293,87liC,974,976j23,93,i,,')67 31,2I;l.405 8,»'«),317 ,394,SfS8,616,6»34,s»0,9l*24,l "1,123,82 683.731 9,743,600 NO. OF V ESSRUa * TONNAOK, CLKABID. ToDQAffC.) Ho, TunlUMib, ' 8,548 3,218 8,856 8,865 8,617 8,916 3,312 723,285! 2,949 No data 712,572 2,8991 1). 874.014, 3.1.51 997.99

  2. M9; i.". .Oflffl 2.;'I9.03,'I l,ii51,66fl 4.(-*1..583 i-«0; l,;;"' 961! 1.879,48>i| 1,986,679 5,222,0'>9 ..., ._ „_-, _„ 6,078.870 0,298,895 POKTO KICO. "660^a2(jj~2S3,8T6, X69.5,B00 MU.128' '237.823 4,7>)fl,419 lt;61l WH2,717i 2.210,062 2,821,089 1852i 2.030,9471 2.122.7841 2.14-l,643 1853 1.411.004,' 2,194,376 1,780,630 5.335.9l0; 440,406; l»5,090^ 4.5!!8,881 28.S.916, '271.860 6C'i,45l| '.:80,940 409,ai8| M»,718 5,821,642 4,918,632 8,8113,002 5,695.136 6,402,371 6,877.31(1 5,761,974 4,6r 2,339 6,299,327 1,034,'289 1,092.307 1,189,001 1,069,418 1,259,173 -.,051,837 1,066,118,910 1,129,123,261) 1,096 124,881! 1.126, 129..J73 1.206 I82,04o; 1,179; 131. 767 1,824 160,686 1,209 1.54,042 1,462 175,886, 1,352: 1('k'<.i6H 1,888 151, 663[1,235| 164,867 Qcural Port A'.'.7iM. 1. Ships leavlns irith a full cargo of molaB»3s a.-e free of tonnage duties. 2. Hliips a. rlTing In ballast, and leaving In the sanie stAte, pay no tonnage £uiy : but if they should take i-etum cargoes of the fnilta, or otler arlicles of the Island (entire cargoes of niolasaoa orlv excepted), they pay tl.o regular duty. 3. Ships n •: ' Ing ; per their renter, pay only 50 cents per ton for tonna^. • eve** if they hnng other merch.%i)diso bojidea. They are also exempt from all othe.' l.ical i;harges (excepting captain of tho port's fees), luch as pontoB and health dues, castom-houso vlalta, entJ7 and clearance '■ -x, wharfage, atage-hlrr, etc. Such aa bring ooal, solely, In i > i quantity than thatr tonnage Pleasure, paj 60 cents pr.r ton open tho portion occupied by coal ; aud the diiJerrnce between this portion and the num. ber of tons that tho vessel may prove to have, by Spanish measurement, will bo sebjccted to the payment uf the full tonnage duty ; but these vessels are allowed the exemption from all other chargeE excepi; captain of the port's fees. Vessels having on board, besides coal in leas quantity than their mcasuremt nt, other cargo, are in the aamc case re- specting the tonnage dues, but are subject to the punton. health visits, regist>~ring and other nenal dnes. Mail Kte era, rc^ognixed as si ch, are permitted to bring and rarvr i. tons of nrgo without paying tonnage dues. If th.' ■ xt .^ discharged erceeUs 3 tons, they pay duty on Buch . over and above the 3 tons. Vessels going from one another of the laland, carry a sea-letter of inlrode . ..i the custom-house of the other port, stath ; f-^it th. chargi:ii have been paid. This letter coa'j«i '. '"' Vovember 4, IS.'M, all vessels having to per' , . -, mnstgo either to Havana or to St. «Jago .i.n purpose. Quarantine fee, |il per da.v. !>.' ' ' ti: Ing general regulations, '.rhlch are in fdr^a at " tho liland, there are others of a mora local r .,? ; cable to aorae, and not to othen. These rel> e i .. > ally to tonnago and port duties, Bod utter ehit; ^-.u. . of M '. i;:»t ■ilfgO- lorts of -i>)dl. , sr"'!l- Do, Do. Do. Do. occupied by nd tho nuni- by Spaiiinh uf Uio full exemption .'8 fees. inantltythaTi mo COM re- the ponton, Mall "^ ami ran'. If th.' Buch ' one rodv th. tt ■liuti lb . of ao «.,.■ t'.:«t : tovego- lorta of ■ -TlVli- CUB in CUB Tl>« tonn«ca4atlM and other clurg«« tt tha princi- pal ports an lubjoined : AT HAVANA. Xfttanofehr.rg*!. ICj. .,! visit, p«r ton*. Q'l i;>'rTiinnit Intarpreter Ott.'ital.i of tUe port'! foea: oo entering on clearing. Ti«nit.'«i'ja of manlfeit , Toar.m\ 'Uf, pertoat. , LlftJit 1. 8' ^r ton Poiiim V «, per ton , Wkjirtfrt iiact, per ton S/acKago8) ^'^r oittw.t I register and stamp paper. . . I of hei- Ji, over 150 totia, . under IM tons. rortln T«U«U Spulili TMHlU i-y w 10 08 *O08 3 OO 8 W 800 800 800 400 ISO oeu 0«1 oosi OSll Otli 01} oou SBO D50 fiSO 860 £00 200 4-0 00 4-0 00 680 660 835 885 DOO 000 400 400 • '.Ills file 1> received by the boarding physician, and la ■Tiiil ed to thu general board of health. Ho recolvoa the bill of iK'iiith, which must be authenticated by the Spaulah con- aul at 111. port of departure, under a peia'ty of being sent to quaranitne for seven days, and a flno of flfty dollars. t Per Hpaulah measnrement ; In addition to this duty, one per cent, bahtnit upon the result of the tons, multiplied by H, la charged. Pilotagt. It ia optional for a reasel to take a pilot, unless she goes into the inner harbor beyond the shuuls ; in which case, whether she takes one or not, she has to pay $10 coming in as far as the inner harbor, $10 going out, and $10 from any part of the outer harlior into the inner. Foreign men-of-war pa}' BO port charges. If a pilot is taken, the rate charged la the aame u paid by Spanish men-of-war.— $7 ia, and the same out. AT BABAOOA. Vtijn of CharfH, Tonnage duty. Anchorage Free pus at the Ibrt Health oRlcera' te» for boarding vessela. Costom-booae interpreter's fee Costom-honse officer's fiie to visit no bonrd, to seal and unseal, so long aa the voasol la dis- charging Opening vusael's register. BegtaterofdespatcL TMMM •160 12 00 800 800 60O 600 800 8«0 AT SAINT JAGO. Nttnrtt of ehaifM. Health visit, per ton Government interpreter Cuatom-house Interpreter ■' Inward vialt, " outward vlalt Extract of manlfeat Cuatom-house officer, por dlem, while ves- sel la discharging On aggregate amouni. of tonnage duty, per cent Light-house dues, per ton Captain of port'a fee Fort paaa Pllotwe Wharrage per dlem, on 100 tons Wharfinger Btampcdpaper Clearance •. Telegraph Duty per ton ■Ign leu |i«r tO08i 200 400 880 660 060 6 60 1 00 06i 12 60 80 400 1 60 1 60 10 00 860 4 00 160 6 80 660 060 AT TRINIDAD, MATANZAS, AND OABDENAS. Natnn «f elurgfli. On aagrcgato amount of tonnage duty. Light duos, per ton , Pilotage for schooner. In and out brig, " " bark or ahip, " Entering in ballast, per day " with cargo, while dIacbarglDg, per day. Clearing In ballast " with cargo Governor's fee , Health visit, per ton Captain of the port. Fort pass Mnd-macfalne duty, per ton liOOk-ont man lOaBlOlf TtMU* PAT One per cent. 10 m 22 00 29 00 84 00 825 6 50 2 T6 21 60 8 00 08 10 00 1 00 21i 1 00 to 06i 1 Entering and leav- y ing with or wlth- ) out pilot, tl2 00.. Whole expenae, t2S I Opening register and f clearing, )2T tl 00 08 6 00 |2 60 (and stamps) . . ( When drawing T to ■{ iafeet,tl2. Each ( additional foot, fi. Anchorage, (6 00. ifode of CoUecling Outlet. The collection of the n]Q The duties is made in a very sinipJa uiannor, island of Cuba is divided int u^loms intendoiicies, of which Havana is the principal. The intendency ia organized into seven branches, viz. : the intendant, the superior counsel of the hacienda, the tribunal of account.4 the accountant-general, the treasurer-gene- ral, iho administration oi the customs, and the admin- istration of the internal revenue. Tha adminiatration of the customs is comprised of the administrator or collector, tite accountant, and the treasurer. 'When a vessel arrives at the Havana, she is first 1>oarded by the Health officer, after whom comes the r i^b *«. I'or and the umuggling-preventivo wrvxi . tojiy ot the custom-houae regulations in F- .■.iie'i, French, and Knglish, is faandeil to the cap' -d i manifest required of him of all luo partlcu. ' j < bis vessel and cargo. Every article on board ti . vessel, omitted ui the manifest, is subject to conlist.-n'. jn. Within forty- eight hours after the entry of th'i vessel, every cou- Bi..7nee must deliver detailed staterients of the articles coming to him, with their quantities, wei^;hts, ^ud moMures, all redii> . to the legal standard. All the documeii.K and pipers relating t.; u vessel, are stitched toi;ether in a book, with the signatures and fionls of uU the government ofQuera, through whose handa the •evtral documents pass. A copy of tlii* Ii book is made for the use of the inspectors and apprais- ers J the latter function being restrained within very narrow limits, by a printed tariff of all articles of im- port, with a valuation to each, which valuation, in a great degree, defines the duties of tha ad valorem char- acter. As fast as the inspection and appraisement take place, the consignee is permitted to remove the goods, by procuring the signature of some responsible per- son to the words inscribed in the book, " I make my- self answerable for the duties." The inspection and appraisement being concluded, the book is retnmed to tl':3 .1 'V'.untant'ij office, where the liquidation of the o'lties i.an- doned on account of its insecurity, — Macorkoor's SuuMct ! U. S. Com. Dig. For further information, refer to Am. <}«or. Xev., vii. xl,, 280; HoNT'a Afaff., vl., Yii., xvii.-xxi., 619; North. Am. Sep., xxix. ; Db Bow's Bev., vili., p. 818, ix., 164 ; Ch. £xamr., ri., 260, xxiii., 82 ; Fraser's Mag., xii. ; LlTTKLl/8 living Age, xxil. ; Foreign Quar., ill., p. 400 ; Bl^CK- WOOD, xl. i Southern Quarterly, Iv., xxi. Oab«b* (Qerman Kubtien ; French, Cubebtt t Italian, Cubebi; Spanish, Cubebat ; Russian, Kubebii ; Ijttin, Piper Cubeba ; Arab, Kehabeh ; Javanese, Ku- Wianhit ) Uindostan, Cubab-chinie), the produce of a vine or ciimlHir extensively grown in Java. It is a ■mall dried fruit, like a peppcr-com, but somewhat longer. Cubebs have a hot, pungent, aromatic, slightly bitter taste ; and a flagrant, agreeable odor. They should be chosen large, fresh, sound, and the heaviest that can lie procured. Cubit. This was a measure of the ancients, and is the first measure we read of ; the ark of Xoah was made and measured by cubits. — Uoldkn. The He- brew sacred culiit was two English feet, and the great cubit eleven English feet. Originally it was the dis- tance from the elbow, bending inwards to the extrem- ity of the middle finger.— Calmet. Cnoumber, a tropical plant, of which there are many varieties, largely cultivated in hot-houses in England. Cucumber-tree. Magnolia arumirmla. In all parts of the United States where this tree is found, it is iinown only by the name of cucumber-tree. It is a beautiful vegetable, equal in height and diameter to the big laurel. The most northern point at which this tree grows, is near the falls uf Niagara, in latitude 4!)°. It abounds along the whole tract of the Alleghanics, to their termination, in Georgia, over a distance of 900 miles. It is also found on the Cumberland Mount- ains. The situations peculiarly adapted to its growth are the declivities of mountains, narrow valleys, ond the banks of torrents, where the air is constantly moist, and where tiie soil is deep and fertile. At the distance of forty or fifty miles from the mountains, either way, this tree is met with only accidentally upon the steep banks of rivers, where the atmosphere is constantly refreshed by the evaporation from their surface. We may conclude, then, that this tree is a stranger to all parts north of the river Hudson, and to all the Atlantic parts of the United States, to the dif. tance of 100, loO, and 200 miles from the sea ; th'j na- ture of the soil, and the extreme heat of the climate in summer, being utterly uncongenial to its growth. It is also rare in the fiarts of Kentucky ond West Ten- nnsiee which are most remote from the mountains, where thi' fm-v of the country is less uneven. The cucumber-tree Sdmetiincs exceeds 80 feet in height, with a diameter of 3 or 4 feet. The trunk U perfectly straight, of a unifonii size, and often destitute of branches for two thirds of its length. The summit is ample and regularly shaped, and the tree is one of the finest in the American forests. 'I'he leaves are fi or 7 inches long, and three or four inches broad, upon old trees ; upon saplings growing in moist places, they are sometimes twice as large. On old rtocks the l>ark of this tree is grayish, and deeply furroweil. The perfect wood is soft, and of « yellowish brown. It is fine-grained, and susceptilile of a l>rilllaDt polish. Being a rare tree, it is only accidentally eniplnyed in the arts. Sawn into boards, it serves in Joinerj- for the interior of wooden houses, and for its size and lightness, it is selected for largo canoes. Most of the inhabltante of the country Iwrdering on the Allegha- nie.', gather the fjnes of this tree about midsummer. when tliey are half ripe, and steep them in whisky | a glass or two of this liquor, which is extremely IHt- ter, they habitually take in the morning, as a preserva- tive against autumnal feven. — Bruwhk'b Sglva A meriama. Cudbear, a purple or violet-colored powder, used In dyeing violet, purple, and crimson, prepared from a species of lichen (Lichen tartareut Lin.), or crusta- ceous moss, growing commonly on limestone rocks in Sweden, Scotland, the north of England, etc. Almut 180 tons of this lichen are annually exported from Sweden. It commonly sells in the port of London for about 20f. per ton i but to prepare it for use it must be washed and dried ; and by these o|)erations the weight is commonly diminished a half, and the price, in effect, doubled. Though possessing great beauty and lustre at first, the colors obtained from cudbear are so very fugaccous, that they ought never to be employed but in aid of some more permanent dye, to which they may give body and vivacit}-. In this countr}' it is chieily used to give strength and liril- liancy to the blues dyed with indigo, and to produce a saving in that article ; it la also used as a ground for madder reds, which commonly incline too much to yellow, and are made roxj by this addition. The name cudbear was given to this powder by Dr. C'nth- bert Gordon, who, having obtained a patent for tne preparation, chose in this way to connect it with hia own name, — BANxno;:r, Philntnphy of Ctilort. Culeus, in Roman Antii^ \!ty, the largest measure of capacity for things liquid, containing twenti' am- phora! or 40 umie ; e(,ui\ alent to 116 gallons, I'fi pints English, Culeut also denoted a sack or bag. Parri- cides were punished nt Home by l>eing thrown into the Tiber in a sack, along with a cuik, an ape, and a viper. Culm (Welsh culm), a variety of coal. It is dif- ficult of ignition, l>ut bums for a long time, without flame or smoke, but emitting a disagreeable smell. It docs not cake, and it leaves out few ashes. Culm is the bitumen oxyyenatum of I.innwus, and the glaui kohle of Werner. It is otherwise known as anthracite. —See Coal. Culna, in Hindostan, a town in the Britixli dis- trict of Burdwun, presidency of Bengal, on the right bank of the river linughly, on the route from Cutwa to the town of Hooghly, i*'t miles east of the city of Burdwan. It is the port of the district, and has long been noted for its trade in rice, grain, silk, and cot- ton. Of late years the traffic of tiie place has greatly increased, in consequence of its being found a con- venient station for steomcrs plying between Calcutta and the uppci provinces. The liazaar consists of 1000 shops, and the population of the town has l>een stated at 60,000, Lat, 23° 14' ; lo.ig, 88° 20*. Culpee, a town of Bengal, district of Hooghly, on the eastern bank of the river Hooghly. It stands 8S miles below Calcutta, at the mouth of a creek that gives shelter to boats from the impetuosity of the tide, which runs there with great violence. Opposite the town is the place of anchorage for large sliips which can not get higher up the river. The shores here are a bed of mud, and I'e linnks of tlie river are covered with thick jungle. (Julpee is considered ex- '"•'■niely unhealthy, on account of the swnnips and woods by which it is surrounded. E. long. 88° W ; N. lat. 22° 6'. Cumberland river, a large river of Kentucky and Tennessee, which flows through Kentucky iind falls into the Ohio. Its entire length is nliout (JUO miles, and navigable for large steamboats lo Nnvb- ville, 203 miles, and for boats of 15 tons, 8W ni'' ■ »rgi3 quantities of cotton, com, and tobacco, urn runsported by flat-tmats and steamlwats from nuiucr- nois cour'.es on this river, to New Orleans. Cummin-ieed (Ger. A »>«/»; Fr. Cumin j Jt. Comino, Cumino; Sp. Comino ; Arab. Kemun), the seeds of an annual plant (Cuminium ryminum, Lin.), • CUB 409 CUR , HTO iiuiuer- lin: !'• «b), the I,in.), » natWe of Eg^nt, hot exttnalvely euMvwM In MMtl)' and Malta. Thoy have a atrnni;, raoiillar, lM>»vy odor, and a warm, bltteriah, dlaaKreaalila tiiatit, Til*}' ar« long and slender. Cnmnook, <>r Old Oumnook, a villafa ut \yr- ■hire, In Scotland, on the I.iiijar Water, Vi mlUaniMitiif Ayr. It Is noted for the manufactura of »mitt-Ut%i'», similar to those of Ijiurenrekirk, tlia iiauulUrltX "^ which is the "invlaibla wooden hlni;a,'' Haa altbda Snuff'-boxet. Cupal, a shallow earthen veaael, aoiiiawbat uf • cup shape, generally made of liuns aurtli, It U liavd in the assays of the precious metals, whji'l) «r« fHa*i4 upon a cupel with lead. Cupellatton maana tlia raflll' ln)( of Kold or silv er upon a cnpel, Cupellatlon is a mode n( analynlng gold, allvaf, palladium, and platinum, by adding to siriall INHtl'ina of alloys, containing these metala, a lilt uf laail, fnaing the mixture in a little cup of Imne earth iiallad • mim, then by the Joint action of heat and air, uaydlntng tiM Tabular STATiuaNT or Saimaim rauM Tim laixtUB 0/ iUm/tmA iu VMM KNDiNU Jima 80T1I, 1888. [Madk ui' »|iiim Uii«ai/Mlt USftiaM to YMa I'tipput, tin, etc, present in the preciona metals. The imjriU thus prmluced are dissolved and carried down lMt« ih« imtittt* cupri In a liquid state, l)y the vltritied imyd lit mmI, Hm j4«my, (loU, and Silver. OUfMOa. This Island is situated In the Caril>b^ atl Hm, nxar thn const of Veneiuela, and la about 42 mll«is Inng, and from 10 to 16 miles broad. The chief arlinks of axport are i;oat-skins, huts, hides, and salt. 'I'll*f9 am niimnroiis hnrl)ors, l)nt that of .Santa Anna I* fmisldnred the Imst and safest. The principal mer- fh«llU»' corides, was used bv many nations ln»tea't of wlllli, That writer also relates that in the wastaril |i>irt uf Iberia, and in Britain, a similar beverage was In bis time prepared from wheat. Curranta (Fr. Rauitu ^< 'rus It considnr-i" • ontlay of capitat. Tbt ■ ,«p Is |J».tli!(»» larlj ' .. I injnry from rains in burvast, i nd is altogcrhet '« a very precarious deBcrt|itlan. \ft«r being dried m the sun, the curranta are 8](|)'ir(«4 packed In large butts. They are in extenalva dsiilAlHi III KlirnlM and the Ignited States, and, when mixed wltll flitiir and suet, make a dish that is peculiarly oc- l Unmt circulating, as current opinions, current ikiIHi In commerce it is applied in an analogous S8IIW ta tile price of any commodity : as current VkIii*' Uliit Is, the ordinary or present value. As Hpplii'il to time, It la equivalent to now present or |ia«iitti|j I MS the current month or year. It is applied i^hidlly til the progressive movement of fluids, es- fwwliillv (■''ilr, electricity, and water. Otlt^rauM in the ocean arise from various causes, ('itlliif (iifortflfial or constant. They may be ooca- slmimt I'X > ternal impulsion, for example, a gale iif wind) frail, t dllTerence in the te-mporu*:urc of dif- dircwl (Wfts ■ 'he sea; from the inequni '; ofevap- iiratloi:, thu ir-^ltlng of the polar ice, or in short any tiause t«tu1int< to disturb ihe hydrostatic equilibrium. H is dlnioult In many cas>-' to trace tlioir c .uses, or to (jlV8 lilty »atlsfa<'.".v theory of fheir ey'«tpnce; but tin Mflwilllt Of 'belr lm|)ortanc6 .o navigation they havti li<<(in iiliscved, especial'/ of late years, with 'm^7,^^- ClTtt SOO CUB gnat DM*. Amamm IIhnmi wtikh lMt« • |i«rni»n«nt or gciwral vbtrM'Ur, (Imim urii (wm whlth iir« vary wnurktbU, Tit* AMI I* Ihal nt Ih* '/rnuldiil wal«n w*>tw»r(l ruuiul (Ita Ki«'l<«i i*MMrr«<«it l« rhkHy cntillnatl within tho MHw, aitlaiMliHK I41 almiit fM*'^ on each nil** Qftha aiiuator, anil lt< vahH'H)' I* Mllmatml Iry II'" boldt at aUiut U ur III iiillan a ilay. in the Atk h.< it MiwraiM Into Iwii lifaiidio*, ima »r whicli fo'nui tba (iul/Ulnam 1 ami tli« ifth«uir Htnwn liuw* Horlhtvarit thriwifh thr iiillaiid«, Mn' i« In a gnnt m«a9- ur« into itauir, tta brxadlli l< < 1 'taKniw In th« Da- baina Cbaunul, aiMi ^eUwtty ffm 'n !i mlIcK an hour. (MuBB4ir'a liniiinijihii, y, iWl.) I h* (xiliir cnrrrnta flow ooBitantI/ fri'iii tba \m[m n^ntA thn oquator, tbougb it it avl/lant that tl >\f mittrnn inu>t l>« tup- pliad by uurranta In a mmu»>^ dlrmalon. Their ex- latanca U firuved liy Ola «fa«l ttiimi** of Ice whliii)( with them the tamparatura of tlia r«K>rma wbt^ce they flow, con- tributa in no umall A»m'm Ut modify tlie t iieratura of tba atiiioepliarH, NniTijIi'X a ibarKCter to the climate of the countrtiK Ui wbb'h tlii^y »fe contl({Mnnii. On tba par»lb>l of y«W VorIt, ttniilUiidt fiiun<' the tem- peratura of tlia (iHif NtfwaiM Vt' tit fabrenbeit, while out iif tba curranl, tba boat of tba oceiin at the nur- faca WW only ISiV\ I be i;tirr< Ita m'lHtHlltmi tiit," naya he, "liy the •trettBia «4Jting obib|iMtratl'm. That Hea tiea, 1 for the roost par* MtUin » Mlnleas and rlrerleaa dia- \ trict. It m»y ■ <.fH(i»f»i(l to a li ng and namiw trougb. Haing o a ralnlfaa diatrlct, the evaporation from it i» imwi-ioa 1 »Mm« of the watrt ti (m taken np in rstumad t^) It ttliar liy flvara or ralna. It is about l,bOO milea long i it liaa Miarlv tiifrtb and aouth, and txundafrow UtitH** l»''t« the piiraltel )rtm° north. MidiUrrmimt /,'«(r«»^i,^WIth regard to an under currant from tba l(«'iit<'rr«tM rant, which carriea an immenM amount of aalt into that Ma. Wa Itnow, moreover, that that aea la not ■ailing np j we might Infer the exUtenca of an uudeN currant i'toii);!! nhbh tbii aalt Hilda its way out Into tb • ' If ; .11 I'r'iU. 'J hi ' -ci 1' ttu Indian Octtm. — lly oarefully tn iilnluf .<. -Iiyalcal featurea of thia sea, and rtiidying iis u.uditlons, ere are led to look for warm currcntatbat have their gcneaia In thlaocciin, and thut carry from it volumes of overheated water, pmbuoly exceeding In quantity many times that whli'h la dla- charge|M>n..' 1 'lere Is much greater. That it U ^ cul jr, vo iiiighl, withn nlh aervation, infer from tliu fact of a higher temperature and a greater amount of preclpitatbiu on the neigh- Imrlng ahorca. These two fao», taken together, tend, it wonid seem, to ahow that large currenta of w irm water have their genesis in the Indian Ocean. One of them is the well-known Moziinil>i(|un current, called at the Cupe of Good Hope the Lngiillaa cur- rent. Another uf these currents makes its escape through the Straits of Malacca, and, behig joined by other wann streams from the Java and <^h!na Seas, flows out into the Pacilic, like another Gulf Stream, iHttween the I'hllippines and the shores of Asia. Thence it attempts the great circle route for the Aleutian Islands, tempering climates, and losing Itself in the aea on its route toward tlie north-west coast of America. Between thn physical features of this current and the (it-lf Stream of the Atlantic. there are several point of resemldunce. Sumatra and Blalacca correspond to Florida and Cuba ; Romeo to the Bahamas, witli the Old I'rovidenco Channel to the south, and the Florida Pass to the west. The coasts of China answer to those of the United States, the Philippines to tbo Bermudas, the Japan Islands to Newfoundland. As with the Gulf Stream, so also here with thia China ('urrent, there la a counter cur- rent of cold water between it and the shore. The climates of the Asiatic coast corresptmd with those of Amerii:a along the Atlantic, and tlioao of Columbia, Washington, and Vancouver am duplicates of those of Westeri' i^arop* and the BritLih Islands ; the cli- mate of Califomu (State") resembling tliat of Spain ; the sandy plains and rainless regions of Lower Culi- ''mla remi-.ding one of .Vfrlca, with its deserts Iw- t ween th" same paralli-i etc. Moreover, the Nortli Pacific, like the North Atbintic, is envcloiied, where these warm waters go, with mists and fogs, and streaked with lightning. 'I'he Aleutian Islund^t arc xlnii it aa renowned for fogs and mists as are the Orand Banks of Newfoun' asln of any large Icebergs into the Pacific. The Current Paa —The contrast haa lieen drawn Iwtween tlie 1 hina " Gulf Stream" of tlie North Pacific, tr.'. the Gull .Stream of the Xiirtb At- lantic. The rour.'.e of the China Stream has never been satisfactorily traced out. There is along the coast of California and Mexico, a southwardly move- ment of waters, as there i ■■ along the west coast of Africa toward the Cape de Verd labinda. In the open space west of this, southwardly act along the African coast, there is the f imons Sargasso Sea, which is the general receptacle of the drift-wood and sea- weed of the Atlantic. So, in li>r ; manner, to the west from Califwnia of this other soutawardly set, Ilea the OUR 801 otm ilumlila, those the cU- Spain ; Cali- crts Im!- North where anil are the urrcnt ATCtie not into north to admit .ntroiluc- ergs into has iieon of tin- !„rth At- itis never long the ly move- coast of In the long the ea, wliich and sea- ) the west , lie« the pool Into which the drift-womi and sea-w««d of the North Paclfln are Kenerully ({nthi^red, liiit In smHll •{uantltieii. The natives of the AleatUn Islands, whore no trff»« ((raw, depend upon the drift-wood cast ashnro there for all the ttmlirr lued in the construc- tliHi rif their hosts, ftshlng-ta<^kle, and himsehold gear. Among this timlier, the camphor-tree, and other woods of China and Japan, are said to l)e often recog- nised. In thU fact we have ailditional evidence touching this (;hina 8tream, as to which, bat little, at I" »t, is known. "The Japanese," says Lieuten- ant Bent, in a paper read liefnre the Araerii^an fleo- firnphlcnl Society, Janaarj-, 1886, " are well aware of ts existence, and hove given it the name of ' Knro- 8iwo,' or lllack Htream, which Is nndoniitedly derived from the deep Idue color of Its wnt-r, when compared with that of the adjacent ocean." (-'rum this we may infer that the Mue waters of this China Stream also cimtain more salt than the neighlwring waters of the sea. Tht Cnld Currntt of Okotilt.—\m\ion of, but coun- ter to till Jhina Current, along the eastern sliores of A sin, is found a streak or layer, or current of cold water answering to that between the (lUlf Stream and the American coast. This current, like its fellow In the Atlantic, is not strong enougli at all times sensibly to affect the course of navigation ; Imt, like that in the Atlantic, it is the nursery of most valua- ble fisheries. The Hsheries of .Fapan are quite as extensive as th.iin of Newfoundland, and the people of each countrj- are indebted for their vaUialde sup- plies of excellent flsh to the cold waters which the currents of the sea lirlng down to their shores. Jtiimboldt't Current. — The currents of the Pai'iflo ■re but little un(lerstoo -.vlth their snow-cups, on one side of the narrow Paciflc slopes of thi inter-tropical re- pulilic, and the ciirrtnt from the Antarctic regions on the other, make I' rlim ite one of tlie most remarka- ble in the world ; for, th. igh torrid as to latitude, it is such OS to tom|rcrature that cloth clothes arc seldom fe't as oppressiv. luring any tini" of the year, oape- cially after nightr ill. Vurrenlt of the A tianlie. — The principal currents of the Atlantic will lie descrliied in the article on the Cioit Stream. Lesules these, its offsets are the Equatorial Current and the St. Roque or Brazil Cur- rent. Their fountain-head is the same. It is in the warm waters about the equator, letween Africa and America. The former, receiving the Amazon and the Omhoco 08 tributaries by the way, flows into the Ca- ribliean Sea, and becomes, with tiie waters in which the vapors of the trade-winds leave their salts, the feeder of the Gulf Stream. The Brazil Current, coming from the same fountain, is supposed to be di- vided by Cape St. Roque, one liranch going to the south under this name, the other to the westward. This last ha« been a great bugbear to navigators, principally on account of the difflculttos which a few dull vessels falling to leeward of Si. iiiique have found in lieating up against it. It was said to have caused the loss of some English transports in the last century, which fell to leeward of the Cape on a voyage to the other hemisphere ; and navigators, accordingly, were advised to shun it as a danger. Tills current has lieen an olijcct of special investigation during my researches connected with the Wind and Current Charts, and the result has satisfied me that it is neither a dangerous nor a constant current, notwithstanding older writers. Horsburgh, in his East India Directory, cautions nav- igators against it ; and Keith Johnston, In his grand physical Atlas, pnbliahed in 1848, thus speaks of it : '* Thli enrrent grsatly Impedes the pmgreH of thoiA vessels which crosn the equator west of 'M° west lon- gltuile, impelling them lieyond ('ape St, Ku,|ii«, when they are drawn tuwainl the northern coast iif Uraail, and can not regain their course till after weeks or months of delay and exertion." Ho fitr fMm this be- ing the case, my researches abundantly prove that vessels which cross the equator five hundred mlliM to the west of longitude 2H° have no difliculty on ac- count of this current in clearing that Cape. I receive almost daily the alistract logs of vessels that cross the equator westof 8()° west, and in three days fp.in that crossing they are generally clear of that (.'ape. A few of them report the current in their favor : most of them experience no current at all ; liut, now and then, some do find a current setting to the northwanl and the westward, and o|)erating against them at the rate of twenty miles a day. The inter-troplcal regions of the Atlantic, like those of the other oceans, ulmund with conflicting currents, whlih no researohiii yet hate enabled the mariner to unravel so that he may at all times know where they are and tell how they run, in order that he may lie certain of their help when favorable, or sure of avoiding them if adverse. Under Vurrenls. — Lieutenant J. ('. Walsh, in the II. S. schooner Tuney, and Lieutenant S. P. Lee, in the If. 8. Iirig Dolphin, both, while they were corrj'Ing on a ayHtem of observations in connection with the Wind and Current Charts, had tlii'lr atten- tion directed to the subject of suJiinarine currents. They made some interesting experiments upon the subject. A block of wood was loaded to sinking, and, by means of a fisliing-line or a bit of twine, let down to the depth of one hundred or Ave hundred fathoms, at the will of the experimenter. A small barrel as a float, just sufficient to keep the block from sinking furtlier, was then tied to the line, and the whole let go from the lioat. To use their own expressions, " It was wonderful, indeed, to see this barret/a move off, against wind, and sea, and surface current, at the rate of over one knot an hour, as was generally the case, and on one occasion as much as If knots. The men in the Imat could not repress exclamations of sur- prise, for it really appeared as if some monster of the deep had liold of the weight below, and whs walking off with it." Both ofHcers and men were amazed at the sight. The experiments in deep-sea soundings have also thrown much light upon the subject of un- der currents. There is reason to believe that they exist in all, or almost all parts of the deep sen, for never in any instance yet has the deep-sea line ceased to run out, even after the plummet had reached the bottom. If the line be held fast in the lioat, it invaria- bly parts, showing, when two or three miles of it are out, that the under currents are sweeping against the bight of it with what seamen call a ttriijt/inff force, that no sounding twine has yet proved strong enough to withstand. Lieutenant J, P. Parker, of the Uni- ted States' frigate Congreta, attempted, in I8&2, a deep-sea sounding off the coast of South America, lie was engaged witli the experiment eight or nine hours, daring which time a line nearly ten miles long was paid out. Night coming on, he had to part the line (which he did simply by attempting to haul it in) and return on Imard. Examination proved that the ocean there, instead of l>eing over ten miles in depth was not over three, and that the line was swept out tiy the force of one or more under currents. — Maurt's Fhijaical Geography. Currency. (Lat. curro, I run.) In Political Economy, a tenn sometimes used to express the col- lective amount of the money, and of the bills, checks, and other sahstltutes for money, employed in selling or buying, or in the distribution of the com- modities and services among the different ranks and orders of the community. — See Artidet Banks, Coilt« AOB, Credit, and Gold. CUR 503 CUR OnnrcnolM In UnlUd Mtat**. Th« Tr«i>- uTj Uapartnicnl of th* L'niud SUta* l»u»(l, iin th* IMh of H«|>UiiiU*l |M>rti, and tha want of unlfuriiilty in tlia practica uf aiM-AilnK iliiti>- llih aoiiia uniform rrKulationi on tha luhjact, for tha fntura )(iivi!riini»nt of otiiciini of tha cuKtiinin. 'I'lio law raquiraa involca^ of all Importml ni«ri:hiiniliaa •ubjcct to an lul vaJoitm dut}' tu Imi nmda out in tha ourraury of tha vountry or pluca wliera tha lni|)orta- thiii la maila. Tb« baala of valua upon which the ilu- tlaa are to Im aaaaaied la the truii iimrknt value in tlio |>rlni:ipal niarketa of the rouiitry ut the imriml of ex- portation to the United Ntutaa, exhlliitril in auih for- •iKn currency at Ita Intrlnaiu vulut-, and converted Into money of the United State* uooinlinK to the ratxa of value at which aald currency may have been di'terniineil aKreeahly to law. DonKrcna hua fixed the value of aome of tliu foreign currcnuiex iit a|iocillc nitea ; but wliera the invoivn coat of Kv>n>i»«nti the I*re«ident of the United Stiitea if duly authorlxed by law to cauao to be eatiibliahed 'fit and proper ragulathina' for e«timutin;( the dutiea on any audi ffuoda, warea, and mnrchunillaa. In all ooaea, therefore, where the foreign eurri'in^y ie depre- ciated, itn value In money of the United Stutoa ia to l>e aarertainod In the mode preacrll>«d by the circular in- •tructiona iaaued by the Department, l>y direction of the Preaidrnt, under the datea of the Mtii of May and the Ifith of AuKuat, 18111, and the 16th of October, IHll'J. Altbou)(h the consular certificate, required by •alil inatructiona, of the value in United Statea' money of any foreign depreciated currency in ordinarily to \te r"ceive- purposo in cod before Before ibbing it id laini>- iluck; It ;ied, tul- the flesh ain witli Ijove dc- ■ain Bide, first op. Bcouied. 1h«« Ilia Ural IiImIi !• iitivll«n, than an Inm alleker i« ii'f malxrUla and in^iiiiifai'tiira, the primdiial dlnurunia IwInK aa ti'|aa lit liiiri/-i"li'rl |a alMi now iHifd In which tlie two iiiaterlaU urn bleti'led, niid which iiuikea a rdh and aiaK^iit I'urtiiln i llil« l« inada aim In woid without ■ilk, and tliun irallad rrjiii, When wmd la imed by itatlimntile, j Tha ciiatnnia were farmed to Mr. 'riHiliiiia Miiilth, for iCln.OlNl for several years, in the ralifii of KlUaUth H-rowK. They were farmed by CharUa II, for i'fHK»,'W« in tha year IfiUB —Uavkn^ni-. 'rim diltlaa i'oIImi led In Kngbind were In IMii l!U,iaNI In tana £!i,t7S.iN)0 In IftW A0,(aii» InlOH'.,,, Wojim In mwi )Aa,i«ai In I4W,., , tmm> lnI7'M,.,. \fitihM» In 17411 ';,iluo,iaal Tha luat'inia In Ireland were, In the year 1224. viz., on ovary aaik of wool, ikl, ) cm every liiat of hlde«, (III. I and 'ii\, on ayny \mtt»\ of nSnti.—AnmU of Jhib. tin. (^U'lomdinuwi iillicara, and ofllcera of excine, wera diiu|ii«lilii«l from virtln« fi?r tlie election of mem- bers of I'arllament, liy »l«tnln 82 (leorge III., 1782. Cuatoiiia dutlaa a«em to have "xlafed In every coni- nierciiil louutry, Tha Athenliina laid n tax of a flfth on the corn and otliar Nl«tnt part of the public reve- nue, Tha ratva at which they were charged were fluctuatiiiK ami varioua, and tittle la now known re- apectiiiK tliaill, (,'iiiiiro lllforma lia, tliat the duties on corn eX|iorta4 front tha porta of HIclly were, in his time, 6 par c«Mt. I!liiter thti Imperial Kovernment, the amuiint of tha ptifUirin detieniled aa much on the caprice of the priiM'a aa on the rent exlKences of the ■tkte. Tbuuifh aoiitatlMlNo dimlMistied, they were never entirely r«uittt«d, anil were maidi more frequently in- cruaaed. Ulldar tha llyMludM einperora, they were M biKli aa 12^ per imnt. 111 IWIH 1I,4»K,II00 In 1M0 i7,Mo,oi)o In law H.dU.ooo In 1140 Iv.fls.iMM) In IMfi ■io,0(io,ouo Cuiloma duttas axUlad in Kngland previous to the l'oni|ueat. They appear to have derived tliclr name from haviiiK been iiiiinemoriaily or cuatumariiy charKeil on certain artiiiea when conveyed acrosa the ijrliici- |ial ferriaa, lirldKes, etc., within tlie kingdom, and on these and other artidca of native and foreign produce, when ax|Hirted from ur imported Into the kingdom. In 12Ut) the entire cuatunia revenue of Kiiglanil, liiduiiing that derived from tolia and fair*, aimiuntad to only X4,VAH 7a. Iliuiid on all utiier merclianiil.ie. U'lieii these duties were granted to the crown, they were denomin- ated tubnijirt ; and as Hie duty of poundage had con- tinued for a lengtlienud (wrliMl at the rate of la. a pound, ur b per cent., a subsidy came, in the language uf the cuatunia, tu deiiute an nii vulurem duty of 5 per cent. The new tubmly granted in tlie reign of Wil- liam III. was an additlun of & |ier cent, to the dutiei on moat imported comniudities. — Trratite in\ I'tualion, by J. It. MdC'ulluoii, 2(1 ed., p. 234. The various custom* duties were collected, for the first time, in u Iwok of rates publisiied in the reign of Charles I.; u new liook of rates being again puldished in the reign uf George I. Uut, exclusive uf the duties entered in tlicse twu books, many mure had been im- posed at different times ; so tiiat the accumulation of the duties, and the complicated regulations to which they gave rise, were pruductive of the greatent em- barrassment. The evil waa increased by the car^ less manner in which now duties were added to the old, a per centage being sometimes added to the original tax ; while at other times the cumiuodity was esti- mated liy a new standard of bulk, woiglit, nuiulier, or value, and charged with an additional impost, without any reference tu the dutiea furmcrly ^nposed. The cunfusiun arising from these sources was still further augmented by the special upprupriation of each of the duties, and the cunsoiiueiit necessity of a separate cal- culation for each. The intricacy and confusion insep- arable from such a state of things proved a serious injury to cummerco, and led to many frauds and abuses. Customs duties, like all dutiei on particular com- modities, though advanced in the first instance by the merchant, are ultimately paid by those liy whom they are consumed. When a government lays a duty on the foreign commodities which enter its purls, the duty falls entirely on such of its own subjects as purchase these commodities ; for the foreigners would cease sup- plying its market with them, if they did not get the full price uf the cummodities, exclusive uf the tax ; and, fur the same rcaaun, when a government lays a duty on the cumiuudities which its subjects are ulwut to export, the duty dues nut fall on them, but on the foreigners by whom they are bought. If, tlierefore, it were possible for a country to raise a sufficient reve- nue by laying duties on exported commodities, such revenue would be wholly derived from uthcrs, and it would 1>e totally relieved from the burden of taxation, except in so far as duties might be imposed by foreign- era on the goods it imports from them. Care, however, must be taken, In imposing duties on exportation, Oct cus 004 CUS to Uj them 00 commodities that may be produced at tht nrae, or nearly the same, cost by foreignere ; for the eir ~t of the duty would then be to make the mar- kt.>t be supplied by others, and to put an entire stop to V. ilr exportation. Bat In the event of a country pos- s^ising any decided natural or acquired fcdvanta(^ in the production of any sort of commodities, & duiy on their exportation would se«m to be the most unexcep- tionable of all taxes. If the Chinese chose to act on this principle, and had the power, they might derive a considerable revenue from a duty on exported teas, which would fall entirely on the English and other foreigners who buy them. The coal and tin, and per- haps, also, some of the manufactured goods produced in this country, seem to be in this predicament. The revenue derived tnia the customs duties in 1690, in the reign of Elizabeth, amounted to no more than X60,000. In 1618, it had increased to .£148,076 ; of Arhich no less than j£109,572 were collected in London. In 1660, at the Restoration, the customs produced £431,n82 ; and at the Revolution, in 1688, they pro- duced £781,987. During the reigns of William III. and Anne, the customs revenue was considerably aug- mented, the nett payments into the exchequer in 1712, being £1,315,423. During the war terminated by the peace of Paris in 1763, the nett produce of the customs revenue of Great Britain amounted to nearly £2,000,- 000. In 1792, it amounted to ;e4,407,000. In 1816, at the close of the war, il amounted to £11,860,000. See Great Britain. See Tariff, Vnittd Statei. Consular officers are instructed that the following values have been established by the laws of the United States for certain foreign currencies, Wz. : dollars of Mexico, Peru, Chili, and Central America, $1 ; dollar, specie, of Denmark, $1 05 ; dol- lar, rix, or thaler, of Prussia, and the Northern States of Germany, 69 cts. ; dollar, rix, cf Bremen, 78f cts. ; dollar, specie, of Oweden and Norway, ifl 06 ; ducat of Kccles, 80 cts. ; franc of France and Belgium, 18 6-10 ':ts. ; florin of Netherlands, 40 cts. ; florin of Austria, 48^ cts. ; florin of Southern States of Ger- many, 40 cts. ; guilder of Netherlands, 40 cts. ; lira of the Lonain, 10 cts. ; ruble, silver, of Russia, 76 cts. ; rupee, company, 44^ cts, ; rupee of British In- dia, 44^ cts. ; tael of China, $1 48. Invoices of merchandise made out in the depreciated currencies of Austria, Ch'tc, Bolivia, Peru, Porto Rico, and Nova Scotia, with certificates of United States' consuls annexed, will he received by the collectors of tti United States. The depreciated pound sterling of Nova Scotia will be taken, in computation at the custom-house of du- ties, in the case of Invoices of merchandise from that province made out in that depreciated currency, at (8 84, as compared with the silver currency of the ITnlted Stutes, provided such depreciation, at the date of exportation, is ccrtifisd hy the United States' con- sul at the port of shipment. The v.jlue of the Austrian silver florin is fixed by the laws of the United States, and the Austrian paper florin is usually depreciated in comparison with it. Assuming It to be, for example, depreciated 88 per cont., the computation will l>e made by collectors liy proportion, t) wit ; as 188 ; 100, so is the amount of paper florins stated in the invoice to the value in silver florins. Of course the consular certiflcato, showinj^ the rate of drpreciatinn, must \m produced in such CMot. — See contra, Act, Feb, 1<>67. A Tabu laowna tdi Bivxhui ooLttonn noa rm BsoiMNnia or nu OovxaxHaNT to Jdjik sn, 18fi6, DNDia TUI HIAD or CCSTOHS, AMD TUX FABTIOUlAa TABirr, mn>t% which tm BiviKoa raou Tuoea soeaoas was oollxord. Teiin, Fnjm Caitomi. DiUortarUr. Toltl receipt*. From' (■July 4, 1789— gen- 1 March 4, eral; AngnstlO, 1789, to •4,8»9,478 1790 — gefleral ; I 110,210,026 Dsc 81. 1791 vm March 8, 1791- J-iff'SSI L general 8.740,766 May 2— general 1798 4,266k80« .... 6,720,624 1794 4,801,065 June 6 — special ; Juno T— general. . . 10,041,101 1795 6,588,461 Jan. 29— general . . . 9,419,802 17-3 6,667,987 8,740,829 1..-; 7,549,649 March 8— general; July 8— special.... 8,768,916 1798 7,106,061 8,200,070 1799 6,610,449 12,621,459 1800 '•SSS'S?! Hay 18-^spectal 12,151,184 1801 10,750,778 • •*• 12,945,466 iBoa 12,488,235 15,.101,891 18H8 10,479,417 11,064,097 18(M 11,098,666 March 26— special; March 27— special. 11,863,840 1805 12,l>«6,487 18,689,608 IBM 1' ^T,«9? .... 15,608,828 1807 16,846,621 .... 16,898,019 1808 n,863,66( • ■■ . 17,032,644 1809 7,296,020 .... 7,778,478 1810 8,588,809 12,144,206 1811 18,818,222 14,481,8881 1812 8,958,777 July 1— special 22,639,088 1818 ^i^^ July 29— special 40,624.844 1814 5,998,772 84,569.586 1815 7,282,942 60,961,287 181« «fl.«n6,874 February 5— special i April 27— general . 67,171,421 181T 26,2S»,S48 .... )|.'!,S'W,592 1818 17,170,886 April 20— special.... March 8— special.... 21,693,9S6 1819 20,288,608 24,606,666 1820 15,005,612 > .. * 20.' SI 498 1821 13,004,447 .... 19,578,708 iB-.-a 17,689,761 2fl,'.:82,427 1828 19,088,483 20,540,666 1834 17,878,825 May 22— general.... 24,881,212 1825 20,098,718 20,840,868 1826 28,841 ,S!!1 2.\260,484 1827 l»,712,2-« 22,966.808 1823 28,205,523 May 19— general; May24-Bpeclal... £4,768,629 1829 22,«81,965 24,827,027 1880 21,922,89) May 20 — special ; 24.844,110 1881 24,224,441 .... 28,626,820 1832 28,465,287 July 18 — special ; July 14— general . . Mar. 2— special; Mar. 81,866,561 163S 29,082,608 2 — compromlso . . . 88,948,426 1884 16,214,967 .... 21,791,986 1886 19,891,810 8,M30,(I87 1886 28,409,940 . 50,'<26,796 1887 11,169,290 .... 27,8-*858 1888 16,158,800 89.019,882 1889 28,187,924 118,881,242 1840 18,499,602 .... 2.%n82,198 1841 14.487,216 8cpt 11— general... 80,519,477 1842 16,187,908 Aug. 80— general... 84.773,744 Juno 8u,'43 7,046,848 20,7^2,410 1S48— 14 2,1,188,670 .... 81,19.S,.W 1844— » 87,62^.112 .... 211,941.858 1815-46 26,712 687 29,699.967 ](M6— 47 88,747,864 JHly80,184(^-general 65,38S,168 1847—48 81,757,070 Mar. !9, 1848- Bpecl.il 66,ii92,479 1848—49 28,346,788 Ang.l«,1848-Bpeclal; J*n.26,lM9— spec. 69.706,892 lh>j— 60 80,668,686 47,649,888 1850-51 49,017,667 .... 62,762,704 1851—52 47,889,826 .... 49.898,115 186»-S8 68,981,8661 * ... 61,500,102 1858-54 64,224,190 .... ■•8.802,891 18»4— » 58,026,794 .... 65,861,874 1865-56 ToUI. 64.022,868 |l,82t,181,69i 78,918,141 |1,8»,9!17,256 Tlie value of the specie dollar of Sweden and Nor- way having been flxcd by an act of Congress of the 22d May, 184B, at 100 cents United States' currency, and the rix dollar banco of Sweden and Norway, being a component part of their specie dollar, and in the in- variable proportion of 2} to 1 , and consequently equal to 89} cents United States' cjrrency ; the rix dollar banco of bvedcn and Norway is therefore taken, in computations at the custom-houses, at the rate of 392 til b[ n| "i r| cif tq ctrs S05 CUT MBts, United States' earreney, and no oenaokr cer- tificate will be required, uolesa the currency should be depreciated. All former acts authorizing the currency of foreign gold or silver coins, and declaring the same a legal tender in payment of debts, are hereby re- pealed ; but It shall be the duty of the director of the mint to cause assays to be made, from time to time, of such foreign coins as may be known to our commerce, to determine their average weight, fineness, and value, and to embrace in his annual report a statement of '''^e results therefor. The certificate of the United States' consul, showing the value of the currency of the country from which the merchandise is imported, and in which the invoice is made out, in United States' or Spanish silver dollars, must he required in every case in which the value of such foreign currency is not fixed by t): e laws of the United States. And in case the foreign currency in which the invoice is made out, whether its value is fixed by the laws of the United States or not, Is de- preciated, the certificate of the United States' consul, stating the rate of depreciation, must be produced on the entry, and the ofiicers of the cu&iioms are governed by such certificate in computing the foreign market value of the merchandise. Cuttonu Duties consist for the most part of tnxes levied upon goods, and produce brought for con- sumption from foreign countries ; such duties are some- times collected upon exports made to foreign countries, and upon goods and produce passing from one port to another in the same countr}'. The earliest statute passed in England, whereby the crown was authorized to levy customs duties, was the 3d of Edward I. The mode long employed in tlie collection of tliese duties, was to aflix a certain rate or value upon each kind or article of merchandise, and to grant what was called a snhsidy upon these rates. This subsidy was generally 1 shilling of duty for every 20 shillings of value assigned in the book of rates. The early acts which grant these duties speak of them as sul)sidies of tonnage and poundage. The word tonnage was applied to a specific duty charged on the exporta- tion of each ton of beer ; and the word poundngo was applied to other articles valued as alreiidy explained. The first " book of rates ogreed ujwn liy the House of Commons" is believed to be thiit compiled by a committee in 1642, during the reign of Charles I., and put)lished under the authority of the House by Law- rence Blacklock. The next book of rates of which we have any record, was puldished by order of the House of Commons, in 1660, the year of the restoration of Charles 11.— Nat. Cyclo. See Hdnt's M. M., v. 145 (J. BowBiNo), vi. 9 (C. Raouet), ix. 4^18 (C. C. ■\\'mTTi.ESKT), iv. (G. Tucker), xiv. 456 (by C. C. Jkwktt). See also Encyc. Am., Art. Tax'^a. Custom-house, an oflicn established by law in maritime cities or seaports, for the receipt and man- agement of the customs and duties imposed on goods imported or exported. Customs of Merchants. The law merchant is a peculiar system which prevailed throughout the whole of the Anglo-Saxon times ; it was especially recognized in the time of Edward III. ; when the sta- ple was ordained, a mayor was to be cliosen in each town, skilled in the law merchant to do right to every man accordiug to tiiat law. The modem law mer- chant is composed of three distinct elements, viz., the mstoms of merchants, the ordinances of foreign states, and tile statute law — as art precedes science, so cus- toms precede law. Long are these customs practiced before they are committed to writing. Hut though not written or declared by the legislative power, they acquire all the authority cf law, and are gradually en- grafted ii|)on the common law of the country. The customs of merchants arc part of the law. Judicial di- tcrmiuuttons settle what is the custom of incrchiints, •nd thev become the Itx mtrcnloria as to the ditferent qnesttona. In order that a cnstom be binding, it nniat be either the usage of the whole mercantile world, or of a particular trade universally known as such. A usage of a particular place, or of a particular class of peN sons, would not b« binding on other persons unless these were acquainted with those usages and adopted them. In all cases, however, no custom can be set against an express statute law. Among the most important cus- toms among merchants are the establishment of boards of trade, the settlement of disputes by arlritrations, and the binding force of the decision of a referee. See Levi's Manual ofMeramtile Law, Cutlass, a short sword used by seamen. The art of fencing with it is different from that with the small sword or broad sword. A guard over the hand is an advantage. It is, if well understood, a very effectual weapon in closu contest ; on account of its shortness, it can be handled easily, and yet it is long enough to protect a skillful swordsman. Cutlery (Fr. coutdlerie; Lat. ctdter, a knife), generally speaking, includes all cutting tools made of steel. Various co.intrics and cities have at diflTerent periods excelled in the manufacture of some particular article, as Damascus for a beautiful sword blade, which has hitherto baflled all attempts at imitation. If this blade is made, as is commonly supposed, by welding together extremely fine wires of iron, steol, and gold, laid alternately on each other, the dexterity required is such as must astonish the most active and expe- rienced workmen of other countries. The peculiar wave, usually called the water, so universally ad- mired, is effected by the application of a weak acid to the polished surface of iron and steel. At Damascus, sulphate of olumtne is used ; but any dilute acid seems to answer the purpose. The cutlery of England is de- servedly held in high estimation in every part of the civilized world. The finer articles, as razors, pen- knives, scissors, and surgical instruments, are made of cast steel, that is, steel purified and equalized by fusion. Dexterity and nice attention on the part of the workman to a variety of circumstances, as the quality of the tteel, nature of the fuel, accuracy in the process of hardening and tempering, and many other minor considerations, are essential to the production of a good cutting instrument. For table-knives, and all cutler}' of that description, shear-steel is generally used; the tang and shoulder of the table knifb and fork are iron, united to the blade by welding. The celebrated Indian steel called wootz is not used in the manufacture of British cutlery. The prlnc pal seat of the cutlery trade of England ij at Sheftield, where all kinds of table cutlery, razors, lienknives, scissors, sur,- ons' instruments, and every variety of cutting instruments, are manufactured. There are also some small manufactures of similar ar- ticles in London j but much the greater proportion of the cutlery sold as London-made, is a' tually manufac- tured in Shefflcld, although bearing the name of Lon- ion manufacturers. ShelHeld cutlery has de8or\-edly obtained a liigh degree of reputation in almost every pai of the civilized world ; and it is of the greatest im- portance to the commerciiil interests of the country thiit this higli character should be maintiiincil. But I.-^re it must not be omitted to be mentioned, that there is also an extensive manufacture of an inferior descrip- tion of cutlerj-, principally consisting of table knivos and forks, scissors, and pocket-knives, which nro pro- fessedly Made for export to the less civilized )>ortion8 of the globe, but also retaileJ in large quantities in this country. It is msnufactured by casting from a species of pig-iron. This iron is, from the superabun- dance of its carbon, highly susceptible nf liciuidlty, and readily c sts into the required form. In this state the cast-iron cutlery is extremely hard, and as brittle as glass ; lut it v reilujcd from tids hardness by decomposition — bein;^ subjected to a strong and long-continued fire in ul<>se vessels, in contact with CTJT 006 CUT Unn ore, oxyd of iron, or any aubstance containing oxygen, vith whicli the superabundant carbon com- bines, and flies off in tlie state of carbonic acid gas. This cast-iron cutlery is, when iinished, not always distinguishable in appearance from that made at the forge, and can, of course, be afforded at a much lower price. This very fusible iron may be applied to many purposes. It is hardly necessary to add, that it is quite unfit for any description of edge instrument. These observations apply generally to every descrip- tion of l(nife used in surgery ; but the nature of euch particular operation should not lie considered, in judg- ing of the requisite degree of strength or delicacy of edge. Next in importance to the linives are the saws used in surgerj'. All of these must be of the best spring temper, which, for the cast-steel blade, is about 670° of Fahrenheit, and for one of Indian steel 000°, or quite the boiling point of mercurj'. Of another class of instruments, namely, those denominated blunt, it will be sufUcient to observe, that what is icnown by the name of shear-steel is best adajjted for the purpose. Case-hardened iron has been most improperly used, this hardening being very superficial. It is, in fact, converting tlie surface only into steel, by heating it to redness, in a close vessel, in contact with animal char- coal, such as charred bone, leather, or liorn, and quench- ing it when red-liot in a cold fluid. Iron thus treated, will take a l>eantiful polish ; but, except fur orna- mental purposes, it ought never to be employed. Some invtruments are necessarily nimle of gdid or sil- ver J as catheters, and other tubes aiul probes. When for these ductility is required, the inetuls sliould be unalloyed ; the extra expense of which, will be more than compensated by the convenience of giving to the instruments, in all cases, the desired curve an(l form. The handles of instruments, together with all orna- mental parts, must in li grcit measure dei)end on tlie taste and choice of the purchaser, it would be well, however, to avoid such niater'uls as are liiiown to pro- duce chemical action when in contact with |iolislied steel. Ivory, motlicr-of-peurl, and ebony are much used ; but the fine walnut-tree, such as the London gunmakers employ, is perhaps of all the woods tiiu best for the purimse. .Sandal-wlished in 1706. The great French work, the Encyclop4Jie Methoilique, consists, not of one, but of a series of encyclopedias or dictionaries. Cypress, a forest tree, of whicti there are many varieties, the species denominated the evergreen cy- press (Ciipreuua tevtpervirent) and tho white cedar (fiupressus Thyoides) l)eing the most celebrated. The cypress is iudigenous to the soutliem parts of Europe, to several parts of Asia, and to America. It grows tu a greut size, and is a most valuable species uf timber. It is never attacked by worms ; .ind exceeds uU other trees, even the cedar, in durability. Hence the Athe- nians, when desirous to preserve the remains of tlieir Iierocs and otlier great men, had them inclosed iu cy- press coffins ; and lience, also, the external covering of tlio Egyptian mummies is made of tlie samo endur- ing muteriiil. The cypress is said to live to a great age : and this circumstance, combined with its thick, dark, green foliage, has made it bo regarded as the emiilem of death and tho grave. In his Geography and History nf the Western Utates, Mr. Timothy Flint has given tlie following account of the cypress-trees found in the southern parts of the vuUe}- of the Missis- sippi : "These nolde trees roar tlieir straight colunms from a largo cone-shiipcil buttress", whose circumfer- ence ut the ground is pcrliaps 3 tiniis that of tlie regu- lar shaft of the tree. This cone rises from G to 10 feet, with a regulai and sliurp taper, and from the ape.x of the cone towers the perpendicular column, with little taper after it has left tho cone, from 00 to 80 feet, clear shaft. Very near the top it begins to throw out mul- titudes of horizontal l)ranches, which interlace with those (if the adjoining trees, and, when bare of leaves, have an air of desolation and dciitli, more easily felt than doscrlbed. In the seaaoii of veg'tation tiie leaves are short, flue, and of a verdure so deep as almo t to Bf cm lirown, giving an indescribable air of fiincroal so- lemnity to this singular tree. A cypress forest, wlii'ii viewed from the adjacent lillls, with its numberless in- terlaced arms covered with tliis dark-brown foliage, has the aspect of a scaffolding of verdure in tho air. It grows, too, in deep and sickly swamps, the haunts of fever, musciuitoen, moccasin snakes, alligators, and all Iciatlisonie and ferocious animals, that congre- gate far from tho abodes of man, and seem to make common cause with nature against him. The cy- press loves tho deepest, most gloomy, inaccessible swamps ; and south of 33° is generally found covered with sable fc toons of long moss, hanging, like shrouds of mourning wreatiis, almost to the grimud. It seems to flourisli best when water covers its roots for half the year. Unpromising as are the places and circum- stances of its growtli, no tree of tho country where it is found is so extensively useful. It is free from knots, it is easily wrougl.t, and makes excellent plauks, tbingies, and tim'ier of all sorts. It is very durable, and incomparably th-j most valuable tree in the south- ern country of tills valley," Of whatever materials the building is constructed, the roof is universally cov- ered with cypress shingles, which, if made of trees felled in tho winter, last forty years. Cypress boards are preferred to those of pine for the inside i>f iiriek houses, and for window-aaslics, and tho panels of doors exposed to tlio weather ; cabinet-makers also choose it for the inside of mahogany furniture. It is highly proper for tlie masts and sides of vessels, and wherever it grows it is chosen for canoes, which are fashioned from a singlo trunk, and are often 80 feet long and 6 feet wide, light, solid, and more durable than those of any other tree. It makes the beat pipes to convey water under the ground ; especially the black variety, which is more resinous and solid. — ^Browne's Tr e» of America, Cyprus (Kybris), an island in the X. E, corner of the Levant, lying at about equal distances from the shores of Cilicia and Phoenicia. Its extreme length from the promontory of Dinaretum to that of Acamas is about 140 miles ; its exti erne breadth, from the promontory of Crommyon to that of Curias, about 70 miles. The area is roughly estimated at about 4,500 English square miles. The greater |uirt of the island is occupied by the central ridge and spurs of the Stavro-Vuno and Santo Croce mountains (the ancient Olympus). Jlie loftiest peaks of this range attain a height of from 8,000 to 10,000 feet above the sea. Tlio northern slopes are rocky and bare, but on the side of the south they are well wooded and highly picturesque, and inclose, in various parts of their course, valleys of unrivaled fertility. Considerable part of the wealth of ancient (^lyprus arose from its copper mines, the most iin)>ortunt of which were those of Tamasus in the centre of the island. Soli on the north coast, and Aina- thus and Cyrium on the south coast. In these mines gold and silver were also found. The precious stones cf Cyprus were also highly valued. The chief of these were the emerald, agate, malacliito, jasper, opal, and the minerals asbestos and rock crystal. The first settlers in Cyprus appear to have been of Phoenician origin. Under Augustus it liecame an in-perial province, and was governed by a proconsul, with a staff of inferior officers. Before the close of the 1st century of the Christian era, the Jewish popidation of the island had g'catly increased, and in the reign o{ Hadrian, is said to liave risen in reliellion, and sluiu •J00,000 of the otlier Inhaliitants. In the 7tli century, Cyprus fell into the hands of tlie Saracen^ ; and in the 9th, it owned the supremacy of tlie "g'l.jd" Huroun Al Raschid. At the (lose of the 12th century, it was conquered h) Kiclmrii Cuiur de i.ioii, who made it over first to the Knights of the Temple, and 'iltimatoly to Guy of Lusignan, titular king of Jerusalem. For three centuries tho islami remained ;i tlu family of I.usi^'- imn, till in 147'j, it became an appeiid«;^e of the Vene- tian ri public. Cyprus was ri tiined by the Venetians till In i.J71 it was overrun by an army of Turkisli in- vaders, wlio still nc'd Lelkosia and Fumagosta, and made n general mass;, .e of the inhabitants. Sirco that data the islan 1 has remained in possession of the Turks, and now forms a pa.',halic In the Ey.ilet of Djizairs, Under tl)o Turkish rule the material pros- pcrity of Cyprus ha.* greatly declim;' In the times of the Venetian supremacy, tlie island maintained a population of 1,000,0/0 ; its present popiilafi'/n is only aliout loU,000, of whom tho great majority ire Greeks. Slany parts of the island, formerly healthy and fertile, aro iiow, from malaria and other causes, barren and uninliubitablc. Its trade was at one time valualile and important ; now the value of its annual imports does not exceed £20,000 • of its exports, about jEOi),- 000. Besides corn, of which it produces about 120,000 quarters annually, Cyprus yields in considerable qunn- titles cotton, wine, various kinds of fruit, opium, uud madder j while the mountain districts furnish olives, pines, and iiauy species of voluablo timber. On the island are found great quantitiej of the ferula i/n-rii, which the Cypriote applies to a gro.it variety of domestic ,nirposcs. This is the plant whose usei are feigned l>y the poets to have been taught tu muN tola of old by Prometheua. DAG 508 DAI _.. I'f^i n-:.»H. D. Dacca, th« capital of an extensive and rich district In tlie eastern quarter of the province of Bengal, a large city, and for 80 years the capital of Bengal, of which it is atiU the tliird city in point of extent and pu)/- nlatiun. It is situated beyond the principal stream uf the Oanges, on thu northern bank of a verj' large branch of that river, called the Boor Ounga, or old Ganges, at the JUstance of a hundred miles from the mouth of the Ganges. Its position i!< admirably well adapted for inland trade, as the river which flows past -t con.municates with all ths other inland navigations by a direct course. The present town covers a great den' of ground, ex.>:(:nding four miles alon;; the bank of the r,X':i; though it is not of proportional hreadtli. The h' 'II es of the wealthy are built of l)rick, but there are ui.;ny thatched houses, with verj- narrow and crooked sUoets ; the bazaars ace only tiled or thatched ; and Rf ovary vacant spot Is cocered with trees, tlie town l.xiiis from a distance like a grove. Owing to the efl'jrts iif Hrit sh competition, the manufactures of Dn. ca are at this time scarcely deserving of notice ; but here were furmerly manufactured the most l)cau- tiful muslins, which were exported to all quarters of the wo.ld, and which had long been famed for their delicacy and Iwauty, The spinning of the thread was cariied on witli wonderful nicety. The operation was performed with tlie (inpers on a fine steel spindle by young women, who could only work during the early part of the morning while the dew was on the ground ; for such was the extreme tenuity of the fibre that it would not licar manipulation after the sun had riien. Suih was the skill of the darners that they could re- move an entire thread from n pi(^o of muslin, and replace it by one of « liner texture. Frorii their won- derful fineness these muslins were called .Vbrawan, or " fluwing water," and Shabnam, " evening dew." — E. n. Dag;uen'eotype. The name given to a process in- vented by M. Diigiierre of I'ari?, in IM.Iil, l>y which per- fect fac-simllcs of objects are tranKferred upon thin cop- flcr plates v'lth phited silver. The Images ire produced ly 1115 action of light upon the loiline. through the focus of the camera obscnro. An apparatus somewhat kin- dred in deiign, was In untriniihition about the snnic time by M. Niepci5, and about live i curs previously by Henry Kox Talliot of London ; the original idea, how- ever, Is truceable as fir buck as the days of Koger Ba- con. Ilj- means of the Tiilbotype, a recent improve- ment u|Hin the above process, pictures in colon are produce;! both on pnpet and plates. He important a discovery in the fine arts was the daguerreotype deemed by the French government, that it awarded to its inventot a life pension of (JOW francs.— Haydn. See Silmman's Jinrnal nf Sriinr.e, xxxvii., p. ()9 ; xl.. p. 137; xliil.. p. 18.i ; Fimifln Qimiirrh/ It'i-., xxiii., p. '-'18 i WiHlmitulir Rpt:, x'x.tlv., p. 4.14. In 1802 Mr. Thomas Wedgewcwd and Sir Humphrey Davy succeeded in forming pictures of objects laid on pajier prep.ired «ith nitrate of silver, and In taking profiles (silhouettes) by iiican.'i of shadows. They pro- posed to obtain siiuilar effects by means of the cairtern obscura, but their paper was not sufficiently sensitive. The eflTectual bar to their proceedings was, however, this : that they could dlsi'over no means o{ firing lln iku'l'icH which they iiad obtained, or preventing the wlioln surface of the paiicr fnim being gradually black- ened l)y exposure to light. In l 1825 Nlcephore NI«|H!« I "CLtiiM miiioeliited with l>a- guerre, who hud prHvloimiv liedu (mgaged in tl'ii same research ; they agreed to eomtniinicitte the results of their several experlmontn. Tlin ritsltlt, ns Is well known, was tha liivenlliiM nf the OAniir.nur.n'rTrfl, not improperly ciillsit rt'ler iMgtierre, who seems really to have worked It nut almost nntlrt'ly for him- self after the denth of Ntepfw In iH||l)| while so pa- tient and deterniineil win* llngiierrd In keeping his secret till brought to pTfecHi n, that he did not even show his remits iimIII eafl> III IWIf, when the numer- ous specimens he had to exhibit rivaled In delicacy any thing that the art hit* »llien prwluced.— ft'nc//, Urit. Pre. Dititrlaliim, by Vim\\¥,*. Dahlia. TliU Imitiltlful llower wan Imported fnmi China, of which It U A lliltlve, early In the present century, and uiniiteiira In Howefa h iv« annually laid out hundieds of poitiiiU Itl I'liglniid, nnd thousands of francs In I'ruiice, In the purchase of It, The Swedish botanist, I'roressor Duhl, llr>t iiiltlvnted and made It known. It siaiii wttruefed Notice In Kngliiiid, where, from the beauty of It* form iitiil vnHef.v of color, it be- came at onca un Bspecliil fuvorlte, IH iHlfi, nlioiit 2 months after the battle of Wiilerloo, It was Introduced into I'mior, and the celeliriited Ihirlst, >\ndre Thoiiine, suggested various pnicHi'iil Improvements in its man- agenienl. The bolmil'it, (leorgl, Inlit flioHly before this introduced it «t Ht. (•"Icfsbiirg t nnil heme it Is, that to this day tlie diililii Is known tliroiighoiit (icr- niiiny iinilcr the naiiie of tlnii'ifhin, — llAtliji, Daliry. Milk, either In lt< natural state, or In the form of butter and cheese, Is an article of diet so wholosoine and so piil«tab|e| tliiit the health and com- fort of people, eaiiecliilly such of tiieni ns dwell in cities, deiK'nil niiNli upon their having a pure and plen- tiful supply of It lit nil (teitiion*, JtAitiir XIanaok- MKNT, which liM liidi'K every (hli'.g about the jiroilio tion and tioat'iient of milk, It coriseqiiently a very Import- ant branch of hiisbandn', and one In which every body feels liiterented, The (ihyriij.it conditions of the dilTerent countries of th" world have determined In each cu.se the partlciilur iiillk-yleldliig animal tnort suitable to be there llKcd for dairy purposes. The Lapiander obtiilfls hi* Kill/pile" of milk florn his rein- deer, the rovin;{ Tartar fntm his (nafc«, nnd the llo- doiiin of the desert from Ills c/i»iels, In the teniperato regions of the eurtll llinfly panioral tribes subsist mainly upon the milk of their sheep, In some rocky regions the gost U liivninabin for this purpose ; and the buffalo Is ei|iially mi ntiild the swamps and jiiiif^lcs of tropical cllmiites, The lllllklllg of eWes was ojico a common pruetleit In ((rent flrltaln j but It has fallen into dlsiue lieeaiiBO of l(s lllirlflll effects upon the Hock. A frw mlh'h man* /ii|i| goats are hejit for the licneflt of Inf.ints or !iival|i|» i but with them exceptions tho cow l> the only Milmal now used for dairy purposes in this ( .iiuitry and K.iirojir, Butter Is made eltliitr ffoiii efeaiii only, or by churn- ing the whole milk ami ereain together, The best but- ter Is ohtiilned from the cream which rises during tho first 12 hours after niHklng, Kud the next best by churning the whole mill*, In the former eisc the now milk, after beinif u»rufiilly strained, la poured into 56<: DAM 609 DAM ir 111 the llipt BO inil I'om- lwy ■ tlio now iircil into sIikIIow vessols of glazed earthenware, glaM, tinned iron, wood, lead, or zinc, of which the 8 flrst-named torts are the best. The wooden vessels are objection- able from the difficulty of cleaning them thoroughly ; and the last two from Uie noxious salt which is produced by the action of the acid of the milic on the metal. When it is intended to extract as nearly- the whole of tiie butter from the millc as is practicable, the 1st skimming takes place at the end of 2d hours, and is followed up by on j or more skimmings at further in- tervals. The cream is stored in jars, which should be kept in d place separate irom the milk-room, that the milk in toe coolers may not be prematurely acidulated by the proximity of the sour cream. The latter is either stirred repeatedly, or poured from one vessel to anoth' , to prevent the formation of a tuugh coat u^ion It bbrore enough is accumulated for churning. In lar^e d.iiries it is usual to chum dally. Three days is as Ion); as the cream can ordinarily he kept with safety to the quality of the butter. AVhen a cow has recently ciilved, hci milk is comparatively rich in but- ter and poor in curd { but soon the relative proportions of tlicii' rinstltuentu change placet, the cream dimin- ish' 'le milk lieeon>ing thicker. A very sensi- bli* n tLe ({Uiiliiy (ilsu usually takej place wi again liecomes preirnant. In not a few cas 8 the cream is so affected by this circumstance, f doubiu or treble the 'ength of time is required to c.i ' ".lat sufficed bu., re, and the butter ii, at tlie sawo . .lie of inferior quality. If cowh are flurried and heated, cither by gadding In the pasture, or liy being overdriven In bringing them liome fur milking, their milk lieiunieij peculiarly liable to corrupt, the yield of butter in scnsildy lessened, and its (|Uality Is impaired. The siiicesH of tlie process of churning depends much on the temperature of the cream being nicely regu- lated. A mean temperature of OO'' I'"iilir..ihelt soeins to be the best. The temperature of the cream usually rises about lO"^ during the process of churning. A bout 60° is therefore the desirable starting-piint. Advan- tage U derived froi.i rinsing the churn with cold water in summer and with warm water in winter. The od- ditlon to the cream of small qMuntitlcs of cold or hot water, ns the ca.se requires, is also found benoficial. Uo.t or barrel rhums tve preferred when the creiim only Is churned, the f rmer being best adapted for small dairies, and the latter for large ones, — E, B, See liiilter mid Cheese. Damaged O-OOds, In the language of the customs, are goods, subject to duties, that have received some injury either in the voyage homo or in the bonded warohou.fcs. Oomar, a kind of indurated pitch, or turpentine, oxu'ling spontaneously from various trees imllgenous to most of the Indian islands. DitTercnt trees produce diffore.it species of resin, which are designated accord- ing to their color and cons'ctence. " One is called linm -bi: u in Malay, or Jl,im' selo in .lavr.nese, wliich means liard o' stoney rosin ; and another in common use, Damcr-J'ulih, or white rosin, wliicli is softer. The trees which produce the damar yield it in amazing qiiiintity, and generally without the neces- sity of mailing incimons. It 6.111110 through the bark ; Bid is either found adhering to the trunk or l>ranches in Inrgi' lumps, or In musses on the ground under the trees. As these often grow near the seaside, or on the banks of rivers, the damar is frequently floated away, and collected in distant jileces as drift. It is exported in largo quantities to Hengal and China; anil Is used for al) the purfiore.s to which wo apply pitch, but prin- cipally in paj'ing the liottoms of ships, Uy a previous arra'igemeirt, almost any quantity may bo procured at Borneo, at the low rate of ^ dollar per picul." — Ckaw- Foiii), h'mt. Archip., v. i., p. 455, v. iii., p. 120. UamascUB. This city was in being in the time of Abraham. — Giu. xlv. It Is, consequently, one of the most ancient in the world. From the Assyrians, Damascus pasaed to the Persians, Md from thwa to the Greeks under Alexander; and afterward to th* Romans, about 70 B,c, It was taken by 'Jie Sa.ivceng A,n, 633 ; by the Turks in lOOfi ; and wat, destroyed by Tamerlane in 1400. It was in a joomey to this place that the apostle Paul was mirrcidoualy con- verted to the Christian faith, and here he began to preach the gospel, about a,d. 60, Damascus is now the capital of a Turkish pachalio, — Uay0V, Damas- cus is the seat of an extensive trade both with India and with Europe. The productions of IndU, consist- ing chiefly of spices, cotton manuibrtnres, coarse and fine muslins, and gold stuifs, are in great demand, and bring high prices. They are brought from India by the Perjion Gulf, Bassora, Bagdad, and Aleppo, The manuf'aetnres of England aro much sought after, and !i«ld in very high esteem, particularly light woolen cloths of gay colors, printed cottons and chintzes, and silk and v {Uality has Iwcome proverbial ; for which reason these blades are much sought after by military man, and are high-priced. The oriental processes have ntjver been satisfactorily described ; but of late yearn methods have been devised in Europe to imitate the fabric very well. Danuwk (from Damascus, whence first brought), a variegated textile fabric of silk, richly ornamented with raised patterns representing flowers, fruits, etc., woven in the loom. It is also fabricated in woolen stuffs. Woolen damnslis and moreens are sold in Englan' it '.)(V to Is. 6d. per yard. JMmu ■!.- Uk iwise denotes a Itind of wrought linen, used chiefly f«r table-cloths and napkins, iind so called becaUF? !t« pattems resemble those of real damask. It waa f.rst DiP'i't in Handcrs, but it is now wrought ex- tun:i\'il m Britain, particularly at Dunfermline in Scotland, and also nt Lisbuni and Ardo}'ne in Ireland. ' •' iW.oT description has latterly been made of cotton. nth Damasks. — As early as the beginning of the lust centi-rv, the manufacture of linen damasks was introd'.K ' Ireland from (lermany ; and there still exist ••|i.,^i. .ns woven in Ireland 130 years ago. The manufacture has gone on increasing in excellence, and it is now considered that the liigli-class Iriiih dam- asks equal any from any other country. Almost all are used 'in Great Hritain, and the Itetter kinds are so costly that none but the wealthy can purchase them. Hand-loom weaving is invarial)Iy adopted fur the Iwst damasks ; but tlie power-loom is now beginning to Iw employed for the cheaper damasks and diapers ; and it is lioi)cd tliut this will create a foreign market for them. Tlie .lacquard loom is e~tensively used for the richer damasks, for which its wonderful action yapc- cially adapts it. What u .'aliy inclined, what kind of ornamentation is best fitted for colorless damasks ; human forr a and features are selc'.om dam- asked satisfactorily, and buildings are v ar^- tame affairs when so depicted ; at present, heraldic emiilems seem to take the lead. Damask is also applied to a very fine steel, prepared in some parts of the Levant, but particularly informer times at Damascus, wheuue its name. It is used for sword and nitlabs blades, and is vet y finely tcnii>cred. Damaskeeniug, or Damasking, the art of ornamenting iron or steel, by making incisions on its surface, and filling them up with some other met-ii, generally gold or silver. It is chiefly used for ciirii'' - ing sword Idades, guards, locks of pistols, etc. There are two ways of damasking ; the one, which is tlie finest, is when the metal is cut deep with proper in- struments, and inlaid with gold and silver A/ire ; " otlier is superficial only. This art is of great antiquitj , and its invintion is attributed l>y Ilcrodutus (i. 2o) ^.> Glaucus (if Chios, who lived ii.o. -I'JO. It would ap- pear to have fl(>urished at some period in Damascus, whence the name is generally derived. — E. 1), Dama—ln. A species of woven damask wltli gold and silver flowers. Dampier, William, an English navigator, was bom at East Coker, Somersetshire, about 1652. Hav- ing early become an orphan, he was removed from the litttin school, and placed with the master of a ship at Weymouth, In this ship he mode a voyage to New- foundland ; but, disgusted at the cold of that north- em climate, on his return he engaged himself as a common sailor in a voyage to the East Indies. Hs next served in the Dutch war under Sir Edward Sprague, and was present at two engagements ; but the declining state of bis health induced him to come on shore, and remove to the country, where he re- mained some time. In the year following he ficcamg an under-manager of a Jamaica estate ; but only con- tinued a short time in this situation. He afterward engaged in the coasting-trade, and thus acquired an accurate knowledge of all the ports and bays of that hiland. Having entered on board a vesnel bound for the bay of Campeachy, and returning n second time to the same coast, be remained with the logwood-cutters, and engaged himself aa a common workman. During his stay in that countr}- he collected the materials for the minute and interesting account which he has given of the laborious life of these people, as well as cf tim geographical description and the natural history nf the country. It appears that he was preparing in ITOS for another voyage. It is mentioned in Woodks Uoo- ERs' Voyage liotind the World, that Dampier liad the command of u ship in the South Seas about tlie year 1705, and along with Captain Stradling, whose vessel foundered at sea. Dampier accompanied Woodes Rogers in his voyage round the world in tlie years 1708, 1709, 1710, and 1711, but only in the capacity of pilot, which is supiiosed to be a circumstance due to some remissness in his conduct. During this expedi- tion Guayaquil was taken, and Dampier had the com- mand of the artiiler}'. Nothing further is known of the life of Dampier ; and we are equally ignorant of the place and time of his death, — E. B. See lletro- fpectivo Reviev, vol. ix., p. 73, for an account of the voyages of Dampier. DantziO (in German, Damig), the principal port and commercial city of Prussia proper, and capital of a cugnominal government, lies on the left bank of the Vistula, about 4 miles from its mouth. N. lut. tyV'^ 20' i E. long. IH'^ 38'. Po|)ulation in 1849, including military, 63,91 7 ; of whom 2,369 were .Jews, 13,839 Catholics, and 47,7i3 Protestants. Ramparts, bas- tions, and wet ditclies, which have been vastly strengtiiencd since the war, and gigantic works for laying the countrj' underwater, have done what forti- fications can to make Dantzic impregnable. I'lie road or bn3' of Dantziu is covered on the west side tiy a long, narrow, tow, sandy tongue of land, extending from Rescrhoft Point (on which is a light-house"), in lat. .W° 50|'i long. «° 23' 15", upward of 20 miles in an E. by S. direction, having the small town of llcclu or Heel, near its termination. A light-house, elevated 12,^ feet (English) above the level of the sea, has been erected within alwut \ mile of the extremity of this i>oiat. The flashes of the light, which is a revolving one, succeeil each other every \ minute. Dantzic lies about 8. \ Vf. from the Heel ; its port being distant about f(.ur 'eagu.-^s. There is good anchorage in the roads for ships of any burden ; but they are exposeil, except ininiodlately under tlie Heel, \.o the north and nortli- easteriy winds. Tlicre ar.-; V.ar'ior-lights at too en- trance to the port. All ships entering the Vistula I inuiit heave-to a'lout a mile iff the poi-t, and tal:e a ! ','ilot on l>oard ; and jiilots must always be ompluyed in I moving »liv|,* in tbo harbor, or in going up and down I the river. Tlie usual depth of water at the mnuth of the river is from 12 to lit fi«t ( English) ; in the harbor, from !3 to 14 feet deep ; at the confluence of the I Motlau with the Vistula, from 9 to 9^ feet ; and in DAN fill DAN )iil port pitnl of of tho 5-1° icliulinR 13,3119 ustly jrks for at forti- he road do \>y a .teiuiing I, In lut. >s in on Ii'clii or •levated las Ixsen of thU ivolvini? itzic lies distant he roads I, except id niirtli- tuo cn- Vistulu d take a iloyed in nd down iioutli of B harbor, le of the and io toini, from 8 to 9 feet. Molea have been erected on lioth tides the entrance to the harbor; that ou the eastern aide, which ia moat expoaed, is constructed of granite, but is not yet completed ; tho other la partly of Htone and partly uf timber. 7V(«fc.— Next to Petersburg, Dnntzic is the most Important commerviul city in the north of Europe. It owes its distinction in thia respect to Its situation ; the Vistuhi, with its Important tribntaries tho Bug, Na- row, etc., giving it the command of a great internal nuvigatio.i, and rendering it tho entrepSt where the sur- plus products of West I^ussia, Poland as far ns Hun- gary, and part of Lithuania, are exchanged for those imported from the foreigner. Tho exporta of wheat from Uautzic ore greater than from any other port, Udesso excepted. There are four sorts of wheat dis- tinguished here ; viz., nhite, ki'gh^ied, mixed, and red, according ua tlie white or red predominates. The quality of Dantzlc wheat is for the most part excel- lent ; for, tliough small in the berrj-, and not so heavy as many other sorts, it is remarkaldy thin-slcinned, and yields tlie tinest flour. The white Polish wheat exported here is the best in tho Baltic. Rye is also verj- superior, being both clean and heavy ; the ox- ports of liarlcy and oats are comparatively inconsider- able, and tho qualities liut indifferent. Very fine white peas are exported. Next to grain, timber is tho most important article of export from Dantzic, but latterly the supply has been diminishing, and tho quality is soid not to bo so good as formerly. — Meek: Tiie principal supply of fir timber, masts, etc., is brought by the river Narew, which, with its branches, rises in old Prussia and Lithuania, and falls into the Hug near tho confluence of the latter with the Vistula. Ojk planks, staves, etc., aro brought down from the higher parts of the Vistula, and tho tributary streams of Dunajetz, Wieprez, etc. Salted pork, weed ashes, linseed and rapeseed, mats, bones, zinc, spruce beer, feathers, etc., are also exported. Imports, — These consist principally of iron and steel, herrings, wine, sugar, coffee, cotton and cotton yarns, spices, salt, coal, tobacco, dyewoods, spirits, rice, etc. ; but tlieir value is seldom more than half that of the exports. DUTIKS ON PlLOTAUR AND POI.IOB Pa8«P0RTS AT DAXTZia Dlltiei. Pnis«Iaa and prlvUearod fonlKn flftif*. Poreltrn Itjuffi )>rlvllcKit(l. PlIotaKfj Duties, Vessel drawing 6 ft. wator and under. Ih. 111. |ir. 1 15 2 15 8 8 15 4 8 1 W 1 IT 6 1 25 2 T « 8 5 lb. 0 graini of flne gold, Is coined in 86 Fred, d'ors. The Fred, d'or la worth from i> dol. 18 ail, gr. to 5 dol. 22 sil. gr,, according co tho demand. Weighltani Meanuret. — The commercial weights are, 8'i lotlis = 1 ounce. 16 ounces — 1 pound. 1(4 poniuls ~. 1 ilspound. 20 ponnda ^ 1 small atone. 88 pounds — 1 large stooo. 110 lbs.^^1 centner ; 3 centncrs=l ahippound (330 Iha.) ; 100 lbs. of Pantzic=il03-3 lbs. avoird.=-l(j-85 kllog.=94-7 Iba. of Amstcrdam=90-6 lb». of Hamburg. The liquid measures are, for beer. B quarts ^ 1 ankor. 4 ankers = 1 ahm. ii *hma zs 1 lihd. a hhds. =: 1 hoth. i botha — 1 nider. t ftidora = 1 last=fl '4 Eug. wine gala. In wine measure, which is less than l)eer measure, the ahm=89J Eng. gallons. Tho pipe=2 aums. ThelB8tofcom~6|maltcr8=00 8cheffels=240vier- tels=:060 metzen ; and weighs 4,680 lbs. Dantzic weight In rye. The Bchelfel;^"^!? of a hectolitre= 1-liii Winchester bushels. Hence tho last of CiO schof- fel3=::ll quarters 3 bushels ; tho last of 55^ schefl°eU=» 10 quarters 7 bushels. Tho Dantzic foot=ll'8 Kng. inches, or 100 Dant/.tc feet==94-16 Eng. feet. The oil is 2 feet Dantzic meas- ure. The Rhineland or Prussian foot=="3138 Fr'-nch metres, or 12'866 Eng. inches ; hence IflO Prussian^ 102-8 English feet. The Prussian or Berlin ell has 25J Prussian inches— 26'2o6 Eng. ditto. 100 Berlin ell8=72-93 Eng. yards ; and 137-142 Berlin ell9=.100 Eng. yards. 14f Prussian miles are equal to 10 geo- graphical miles. Oak planks, deals, and pipe staves are sold by the shock of 60 pieces; wheat, rj'e, etc., are .sold by tho last of 564- schelfela. — Kelly'a Cambist ; Nelkettbrecher, ifanual Unieersd. Com Trade of Dantzic. — Grain is almost wholly brought to Dantzic by water, in flat-bottomed boats suited to the navigatiim of the Vistula, Bug, etc. The English consul estimated tho expense of the convey- ance of wheat and rye, including the duty at Thorn and the charges of turning on the river, till put into the granary, as follows : Par Imp. quarter. . J. d. From tho nppcr provinces on the Bn?, a dis. tancooffiom Too to 500 miles 9 2 to T 10 From the provinces of Cracow, Sondouilr, and LuWIn, 650 to 850 8 6 " 6 4 From Warsaw and Its nclghliorhood, about 240 miles 4 9 " 8 11 From Wlaclaweck and Its neighborhood, about 140 miles 4 2 •' 8 6 From Orandentz, a distance of about 70 miles, no duty at Thorn, and when not turned on tho river 10 "09 The Bug has many windings, and its navigation, wiiich is tedious and uncertain, can only bo attempted in the spring, when the water is high. It is the same, tho\igh in a less degree, with some of the rivers that fall into tho Vistula before it reaches War.«aw ; and toward Cracow the Vistula itself is frequently un- navigable, especially in dry seasons, except in spring, and after the midsummer rains, when the snow melts on the Carpathian mountains. The navigation of tho Polish rivers in some seasons is more than usually bad. The com from the upper provinces does not re.ich Dantzic till from 2 to 4 months later than usual, and is burdened with u very heavy additional expense. In fact, the supplies of grain at Dantzic depend quitu as much on the abundance of water in the rivers, or on their easy navigation in summer, as on the good- DAN «ia DAN B«M of the harvutf " Then are," «»yi Ur. J«cob, " two modes of oonv«ylng wheat to Duitzla by the Vbtuls. That which grows near the lower purts of the river, comprehending Poliah RuuU, and part of the province of Plocic, and of Musovia, in the liingdom of Poland, which is generally of an inferior quality, is conveyed in covered Ixwts, with iibiftlng-boanU that protect the cargo from the rain, but not from pilfering. Those vRsxels are long, and draw about 16 inches water, and bring about IM quarters of wheat. They are not, however, so well calculated for the upper parts of the river. From Cracow, where the Vistula lirst liecomes navigable, to below the Junction of the Bug with tlint stream, the wheat is mostly conveyed to Dantzic in open flats. These are constructed en the banlcs, in seasons of leisure, on spots far from tlie ordinar}- reach of the water, but which, when the rains of autumn, or the molted imow of the Carpathian moiintiiins in the spring, till and overflow the river, are easily floated. Barges of this description are about 75 feet long, and 30 broaing merely used at the head and stem, to steer clear of the sand-bauks, which are nimierous and shifting, and to direct the vessel In passing under the several bridges. These vessels are conducted l)y 6 or 7 men. A small boat precedes, with a man in it, who is employed sounding, in order to avoid the shifting shoals. This mode of nuvij;ating is necessarily very slow ; and during the progreic of it, which lasts several weeks, and even months, the rain, if any fall, soon causes the wheat to grow, and the vessel assumes the appearance of a floating meadow. The shooting of the tibres goon forms a thick mat, and prevents the rain from pene- trating more than an inch or two. The main bulk is protected Ity this kind of covering, and, when that is thrown aside, is found in toleralde condition. The vessels are l)roken up at Dantzic, and usually sell for about I of their original cost. The men who conduct them return on foot. When the cargo arrives at Dantzic or Killing, all but the grown surface is thrown on the land, spread al)road, exposed to the sun, and frequently turned over, till any slight moisture it may have inililbed ii dried. If a shower of rain falls, as well as during the night, the heaps of wheat on the shore are thrown together in the form of u steep roof of a house, that the rain maj- run otT, and are covered with a linon cloth. It is thus frequently a long time after the whciit has reached Dantzic, before it is fit to be placed in the warehouspi. "TliB warehouses i /pfic/ii-rii) are verj" well adapted for (Storing corn. They consist ,{enerally of 7 stories, 8 of which iirp in the roof. The floorr. nre about 9 feet uonder. Each of them ia divided by perpendicular purtltioni, the whole length, about 4 f««t high, by which different parcels are kept distinct ftom each other. Thus the floors have two divisions, each of them capable of storing from 150 to 200 quarters of wheat, and leaving sufficient space for turning and screening it. There are abundance of windows on each floor, which are always thrown open in dry weather to ventilate the com. It U natuUy turned over three times a week. The men who perform the ope- ration throw It with their shovels as high as they can, and thus the grains are separated ftt>m each other, and exposed to the drying influence of the air. The whole of the com warehouses now left (for many wore burr^ during the siege of 1814) are cajialile of storin , u : ),000 quarters of wheat, supiwslng the quarters to be la.-ge enough to All each of the 2 divis- ions of the floors with a separate heap ; but as of late years it has come down from Poland in smaller parcels than formerly, and of more various qualities, Wliicb must of necessity be kept distinct, the present stock of about 2ro,000 quarters is found to occupy nearly the whole of tliose warehouses whicli are in repair, or are advantageously situated for loading the ships, 8hlpi are loaded b}' gangs of porters, with great despatch, who will complete a cargo of COO quartf^ra in about 8 or 4 hours." — First Rtport. Hanking Kitabliahmentt. — There Is none such here, excepting a branch of the Royal or Ooverament bank of Berlin. This was founded partly in thu viuA or re- ceiving de|iosit3 of money under litigation in the courts of the province ; moneys the property of minors nnd charitablo institutions, the former until disposable or placed on good security ; and moneys Iwlonging to in- dividuals not merchants, and at times, also, those of tlie latter. Intorest is paid on such deposits as fol- lows, viz. : 3 per cent, on sums belonging to minors ; 'i\ per cent, on sums belonging to charitable institu- tions, churches, and sums deposltad by the courts of justice, and 2 per cent, on all other deposits. The principal is demandal>le at pleasure, unless other- wise stipulated. The bank makes advances ou grain and some other kinds of goo.ls at 5 per cent, interest ; discounts bills with 3 signatures, not having more than 2 months to run, at 6 per cent,, and sometimes, \then money is plenty, at a lower rate. It also malces ad. vances at 4 per cent, on deposits of Fred, d'ors and cer- tain foreign moneys ; and It occasionally buys bilh for account of, and sells bills on, the Ber'in Bank. It does not issue notes. The amount of its capital is not fixed ; but government guaranties its transactions. It is relieved from the payment of postage on money, and it is not required tr use the stamps fixed by law, on bills for Its deposit transactions, Imt only those of 10 B. gr. (aiwut ll|d.) ; while i.idividuals must u.se stamps for such bills of S s. gr. for every 400 r. of not longer date than 3 months, and for e/ery 200 r. of longer date. On negotiable bills, however, the tiank must use the stamps fixed by law, say of 5 s. gr. (about 5i '^ /<<»■), an important river, ami, mni Ut til* Vul|||a, l>ie largest in Kurupe, originatea in tin. I'ru», A mimhtain torrent which riuea in the IC. daclivUy of tiM Miihwarat* waid, in liaden, at an elevation ut *i,Nft(t fant nIiov« lh« level of the aea. The atreaui, whuii ioiiioil iiy tll« Urigavh, and by the waten of a uprillg rriilii llw i'NaIIh garden of U^naueachingun, taltnK tllN iMiiMi iif IIm Uonau. It flowa llrat generally K, N, li,, tiiriiuuli «h alpine country to L'i'n, thence V,, N. K, nh4 M. %, Ut Paasau, it traverse* the plain uf UavartA, Vium I'aiM lau to Vienna, K. 8. K,, it intemeiiU » liilly ritKliiti, ,i.nd the remainder of iu course, K, N, V,, Ut WatlK^li, S. to U^7>^, and K. to the Ulac|( Hea, in tlirotltfll N i^iiilti^ try generally tlut, except ot the liellla of lli« " irm gate," K. of Oraova, Length (ilirert), 1,IKNI lMil«iD | iif, including windings, l,Vih miles, t ilruilM It Hlirfai'd of about 25O,0UO 8i|uare n ' f \ its avaragi) full i* IN inches per mile, but belo\ . nth it is iillTv II IiiiiIhiii ) at Ulm it is 1,400, ut Ke^. '"rg 1,H0I>, ill VnhnnU MHI. at Vienna 'LOO, and ut Pesf h ,.IK) feet iiIhivm til« l«yal iif the sea. Its breadth at Dim Is lUN feet, ami in iti* liiwer course U,010 feet ; depth at Ulm, rigtil, tlix Iller, Lech, Isar, Inn, Kns, Kuali, Pritve, Hmv», Mii- rava, Tiraok, Isker, Vid, and Juiitrit | miil on (lilt left, the Altmtihl, Nab, Kogen, March, Waag, llriill, Tlmlss, Teoies, Chy'. Aluta, Jaloninit;«n«lM<, Consequently tlii'se vedscis, Ijefore <|i||ttillg tll« (sirts uf llraila uuil Cialiitz, must pn-^ii^iit )Ii»ir doi'ii)iMillli> to the Uus.iian consulur agi'ia, who will fliriiUli lllntti grutis with a certiluute showing the ihiotiiiiaMili of (lin ehip, and bear'.ig the formal daik »!«ril ill' Jlfo^ visions upon uny (mint uf the right banit of (ltd Danube, they wiU, hy this coiitravuiiliiiii, iniiiir no- questratiun. Neutral vested.- Hliiih wioll tii UM'itnit the Dimulie in ordiT to piunml at oiiuu into tli« Amd^ trian Stiitea, and which curry ibiwil cargoss ituHllwil either for Brila or Oalutis, or for e«|iorli«tliin liy tint Black Sea, will be liable to tin) sum.' formiliiiy of n Kiuaian uertiliouto indi'Mtiug (Delf il«ivided that on their IMSsngn by lirsova the- furnish themselves at the Rus- sian consuluve with a lertltlcate, stating that they be- 'irtig, hondjlilf, to a neutral power, and that their cargo IS not destined for one of the Turkish ports uf the DanMlie.— P. J. of T. 1860. Oardanellea (Straits of the), form the communi- cation lietween the Sea of Marmoii u)id the Archipel- ago, Tills channel, through which there flows a colistAiit current out of the Sea of Slarmura into the Artihlpelago, Is upward of &0 miles long, and varies In breadth from 1 mile toward its western, to 10 miles at Its eastern e:>l.iio.ii . t drives ita name from two nnulent fortresses on either . .de of the river, of which oiiK Is built on the site of the at^cient Sestos, ami the other on the site of the ancient Abydos. About '10 miles to the west of thene ere two modem fortressei calleit the Vew ( '< ties, and between the old and the n«w fort-: .re miiuur}' works of various descriptions. 'Hie total numl>er of guns mounted on these fortresses Is 090, some of which i' barge stone shot, and require H uliarge of more than .. cwts. of powder. It derived Its ancient name of the Hellespont from tlie tradition iif Pliryxus and I telle, and is celebrated In nnclent times tor the bridge of boat* built over it by Xerxes. I( is memorable also as the sceno of the death of Le- andflf,— K. U, i 'I'lie gallant exploit of forcing the passage of the t)at(tanelle8 was achieved by the British squadron liniler Admiral Sir John Duckworth, Feb. lUth, 1H07 ; iiut the admiral was obliged to repass them, which be illd with great loss, and iinmensa damage to the fleet, March 3, fuliowlng ; "' castles of .Sestos and Abydos llUfllngdown rocks of ston^, lachof many tons' weight, Upon the decks of the Jlntish snipe. — IIayux. So long as the shores of the Black Sea were excluiiivcly jsissessed by Turkey, that sea might with propriety lie considered a mare cfniMuin; and there soeins no reason to ((uestion the right of the Ottoman Porte to exclude other nations fro" navigating the passage ttlilcll connects It with t.' ''f<"!il,eiiunean, lioth shores of this passage being at tl' 3me time portions of the Turkish territory ; butsiu l'"< territorial acquisition!^ made by Russia, and the cum. ' 'rcial establishment.' furnied ny her on the shoi s of the Euxine, both thut nlllpire ami the other maritime po\ve,r8 have become entitled to participate in the commerce of the Black Men, itnd consequently to the free navigation of the hHtduni^lles anil the Bosphorus. This riglit was ex- pressly recognized b) the 7th article of the treaty of Adtlanople, concluded in 1H29 between Russia and tile I'otte, both as to Ri ssii n vcs<«m - a ImiMi th» tuthmn* tmpm )« ilmnt fOO mllnK. wHh tn tytttm tifMKftih nl 4n m\U» i l>ut .. long. , it nir- row* mwn in Um ll««)i do mt*" .. At this pent it li Th« AmMani rniit Egyptteni an ' 'le Imtm of thi> !•««• In thp prapanitiun of bagu tml banket*; the In.., rht, th« outer miiI Inner hark of thu trunk, snil th 'ir. fy iolwtance it the ruot of tlia Iriavea, where th'' I'liriitij pNWMwl t<> l>«l«M)ilh ih« Ktitji <^n«l. The eomitry k ' fVnm the trunk, have all their r«ii[iertlre \yji , and unOHlAtinif, will) rlMtnn iit «m«ll ninontalnii, but iiexiilvii tliln, the kernelK nf the fruit, nntwitlmtaniiing I fry f«>tli« ami trull llmtmred, The rxpenw cf a eumprMNltuiM •hit) c«tiil, my Wi nillen long and 'JOO fact wlili, wiiulif n*ft Iw I«m than $/M),<)n(i,riOO. Whan Mt 1* cmtuMcrwl thot im« half th« wnrld'n commerce would In oil imilwlillit/ |mm thrtmgh thia canal, the •C|wnM la Irilllng, All Iha India and China tradr, llt«la«4 ut d«i.tfi>Mi of making explorationa and vanfli'aliiifl nt lh« mr^ffyn already made of a «bip cwial nuurlli* lattimtia trf Darlen, to connect the wa- ter* lit til* I'ariflc tttu\ th« Atlantic hy the Atrato and Tru»H4»tnM*rmim,f/imflni freneh, /MMo* ,- lullan, Datltrii HiMnlah, iMtllm'), th« fmit of the palm-tree U'hitHlit ilwlfill/era lr»ii, MnhamitK"), In iin« nf his sayings, beauti- tfAXy immynn* IIm \t\ilifl\ti and generous man to the |Nllm-tr«« I " Ma staiuls ef««t Iwfore Ms Lord ; in his •very fteiUm h« UMtlvin i\m Impulse received from »\>n¥ii, mv\ hli whfdn ll's Is devotied « i..*- welfare of bU fu||«wrif»«tt(rc»," Hut the *-iii!r,(ilji.( In which tha (laliiMrm !• Iield In (he Kast U »« Vm iwHhed more to lu utilll;/ limn I't Its Maiity. i»^« fi^rr i the prin- e||«l jxirdif »lM«%\mH*4i with as much anxiety, and attended with «« niiii'li umiffiit rclitlcing, as the vintage in the south of Knrofw i and If the crop falls, which often li«p|i«na, «« thosM trees are seldom known to pnidnce aliundantiy for ft or 4 soccesslve yearn, or is eaten up liy |h« lo<'M«tw«d lo frntaln on the tree till they are quite rlpa, and li»v* l»ti('oi«e soft and of a high red color, Ibey urn fimtw4 into a hard, solid paste or cake, called wljim', TltU Is fofttied Iry pressing the ripe dates forc- ilil)' into Urija i>itslt«ts, each containing aliout 2 cwt. " In till* st»t«," says Durckhardt, "the Kedouins ex- port tint ndioiM { tn thx market It is cut out of the bas- kiBt, and mM \iy the |(ot(nd. It forms part of the daily food at all iUiitvn iitufiiyU t In trfveling it is dissolved in w#t«r, #nd Imms affords a sweet and rofre.ihing drink. Uurinij tlia (nowwsrti, the ships from the Persian Gulf Itrinii iui^iiu* (fim tlussorah t]idda, for sale, in small liankcts, wi-l|;ltinf( atmat 10 (Hiunds each ; this kind is prxfurrsd Ut wvpff other. Ships lionnd from Arabia to indlit t«k^ wtf li thsm a considerable quantity of a'ljiiue, wbl^'b la ruddlly disposed of among the Slohanimed- ■n* of Hin4»ma,""'Tr«rrli in Arabia, vo!. i., p. 67. their hardness, Cre used as food for cattle ; they are soaked fcr 9 days in water, when they become softened, and are given to oamehi, cowa, and sheep, instead of l)ariey ; they are said to be much more nntrltiv* than tluit grain. There ar« shops at Medina in which nothing else la sold bat date kernels ; and the beggur* are continually employed in all the main streets in picking up those tliat are thrown away. — Jiwi-khiinll, vol. li., p. 212. All the leHiiumenta of Araliian cMik- ery are exhausted In the prepuratiim of dates ; and the Araba nay that a good housewife will daily snpply her lord for a month with a dish of dates difl'erently dressed. Palm-trees ar« raised by shoots ; and l>r. 8haw ni' n- tiona that they arrive at their vigor in about DO years, and continue so 70 years afterward, lienring yearly 16 ur 20 clusters of dales, each of them weighing l.'i or 20 pounds ; after this period thoy liegin to decline,— 7'roi>> fit in the iM^mt, p. 142, 4to ed. The best dates imported are said to come fhim To- nis, hut they are most commonly brought from Hmyma and Alexandria. They nhonlil he chosen large, soft- ish, not much wrinkled, of a reddish yellow color on the outside, with a whitish membrane betwixt the Hesh and the stone, 'lliose that are dry and hard are of little value. The date-tree is indigenous to Syria, Arabia, and the lower parta of Persia, Eg}'pt, and northern Africa, whence it was introduced into the south of Europe ; and It is also more or less cultivated in British Indiji, South Africa, and in some parts of America. Though iMlonging to the extensive family of palms, which al>ound and flourish in inoxt tropical regions, It attains perfection only in comparatively higli latitudes, and doulitless would be adapted to the soil and climate of the more arid rogions of Califonila and of our southern States. The date is a lofty tree, growing to a height of (!0 feet, with a rugged trunk, crowned with leaves li or H feet hmg, with pinna: .7 feet long, end a little more than an inch broad. The tiowers of l)oth sexes, which grow on separate trees, come out in ver)' long bundles, fttmi the trunk, between the leaves, and ore covered with a spatha, which opens and withers. Those of tlio male tree have 6 short stamens, with narrow, four- cornered anthers, flilcd with pollen. The female flow- ers have a roundish germ, wiiich afterward becomes an oval berry, with a thick pulp, inclosing a hard, oblong stone. Tills licrry is the fmit known as the date of commevee, upon wliicli a considerable portiim of the people <,if Kgypt, Araliia, and Persia, alm(«t entirely snbsist, A single tree will produce tnm 100 to IIOO pounds of this fmit in the season. They come into liearing at from 6 to 10 years of .^ge, and are fruitful for upward of 200 years. The extensive importance of the date-tree, in the countries where it occurs, is perhaps one of the most ( ■ rious subjects to which a traveler can direct his at- tention. Independent of the use of the fruit as foml, the inhabit.Bnts make a conserve of it with sugar, and even grind the hard stones, to feed to their cuiiiels. In Barhary they form handsome beads of these utoncs. From the leaves they make couches, liasket:', bags, mats, brushes, and fly-traps ; the trunk is split, and employed in erecting small buildings, also fur fences to gardens ; and the steins of the leaves are used for making cages for their poultry. The tlire«d.H of tlio web-like integument at the base of the leaves are twisted into ropes, wl.. h are employed in rigginu; small vesseis. The amylaceous central part of the trunk is also good to eat, and the buds arc enteeined ii delicate vegetalde ; and even the young shoots are said DKA ftl6 DBA to /•Minhl* uparafpia. The nap, which ii iiweattih when Itnt collwlnl, ami miy Im ilriink im • mild b«T- »nff. If dbtllled into n kinri nt ipirlt, known In amt- •rn onuntrle* \>y the nama of " arrack." It Is obttUnml by cutting nlT the head of the trm, and acnniilntf out a hollow In the top of the item, where, In aiicending, tt lodget. 8 or 4 quart* may Im obtained dally from a ■Initlt pain, for lu or ir> Aiyt.—U. tl. Patau Office Htport, If,'),'!, p. 6(!. DkTite, Imams of wood or Iron, with ibeavei or blocka at their end-*, projcctinfc over a veMel'a ekle ur Item, to ho!9t In the boatii. Days of Gh-ao*. 'I'heie vary In almott all nier- ciintile townt and uountriea, but the tendency of mod- em legitlatlon la to abolUh them altogether. In Franca, lielglum, Lorobardy, Tuacany, the Two Slcl- liea, and other Statea where the French oodo haa been lntroe payable on Friday, The word inontii nieuna generally n calendar month. A note dated on the ilUth of Anguat would end with tb« corri!i<|H)ndin^ cUy of the month. In calculating tlie day when I b« bill folia due, the day of the date Ip ulwuya excludiiil ; «o n lilll drawn on the let of Janu- ary at 10 daya after date would became due on the 11th, and not on the 10th Uanual of Afercanlil'- [.aw, by Lkonk I.kvi. In New \ ork and other Statci atotutea have been adopted by the Legialaturn, providing that when a bill falla duo on a puldio holiday (ClirUtmaa, 4th of July, Thankagiring Day, New-Year'a Day, and, In New Urleoua, January Htli, fur inatance) the bill ahiill lie payable the day preciHling. Dead-lighta, |-.irta ncsia xlx., 24-28 ; and traces of towna or buildings are reported, on doubtful authority, to have been seen at certain times in ita bed. Aaphiiltum was thrown to the sur- face at its southern extremity in large quantities after the oarthquakea of 1834 and 1837. Messrs. Kobinson and Smith have found the "Aiclepitu gii/antea," grow- ing at Kngcdi, on Its wealem coast, the fruits of which (thii famed " apples of Sodom") though Inviting m *f' pearance, crumlile in the hand Into powder. — Baa ^V, A. Ktr., I., p. 20a (by II. II. liiWAnim) | Bib. ,Sac., v, 897, vii. (by Dr. Hiihinhoii) j Siixihan's Jour., xUIH viii., 317 ! NuHk tirit. Hev., U., p, 261 ; lAvrng Agr, xxUI, (aains article) ; ao Lit. itut., xiv, (M, F, Maiiuy) ; Mtthmiift Quar. Jiev., ix., 1133 ; lUvinf Agt, xxxl., 307. '' In undertaking to nxplnre the phyaical geography laymlf atanding aide tiy xidn und, and with him, far away 'M conaldering some of the of tlio ■'<>», I havii fouii with ti ■ giMihigiat "I' ' from the aea-shorr. pbrnoinena which > inimenae indentatum aea-drainag«— present Among the moHt '' ' Dead Sea. Lieut Navy, has rim a li .el ninean, and llml.i t " f i low the general atii a \ account fur this great arried olT the excess to the ocean wlience it came. '.' In the basin of the Dead Sea, in the luiain of tlie Caspian, of the Sea of Aral, and in the otner inland basins of Asia, wo arc entitled to infer that the precip< itation and evaporation are at this time exactly equal. Were it not so, the level of these seas would lie rising or sinking. If the precipitation were in excess, those seas would be t;radually lieconiing fuller ; and if the evu])oration were in excess, they would be gradually drying up ; but observation does not ahow, nor history tell ua, that either is the case. As far as we know, the level of these seas is as permanent as that of the ocean, and i'. ia diflieult to realize the existence of subterranean channels between them and the great ocean. Were there such a channel, the Dead Sea be- ing the lower, it would Ije the recipient of ocean waters, anil we can not conceive how it should be such a re- cipient without ultimately rising to the level of its feeder. It may be that the question suggested by my researches has no bearing upon the Dead Sea ; tiiat local elevations and sulisidences alone were concerned in placing the level of its waters where it ia. Kut is it prolmble that, thruugbout all the geological periods, during all the changes that have token place in tb< IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 11.25 L&|28 |2^ 2.0 m LA. IIA Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREIT WMSTM.N.Y. M5.10 (716)S72-«S03 ^^>%. %!«^^^ :^ '4;-X' ^lilU: •'" ■•;'-'; :;'4,;-':t-^:^,'.yX''-''-'^:',*i"- ''V ; ":-:0^;: "■ ■ v-;;:^!.^-;^^,;: ;;-:;i"J-;r^ ^ :fm^'-^-^^ Nw ' '"' ■ '"^ ''■ ■-~' *'■>;' ^:-c"U°-"- '''■■ ' . \ '''-' ': ^ >^^v 6''v-- '"' f- " '''i-^^ ;'""' V % ' ' V' "/>'; .^;''"'' ':' ' "■ ' -. ► v;^-,'T. 1 -?■-«,:- - 'f ^ -'■ ^ . i^i- DEC ffl6 DEC dlitribntloii of land ud water inrfu* over the earth, the windi, which in the general channels of circalation jMMM orer the Dead Sea, have alone been unchanged ? Thronghont ill agea, periods, and formations, is it prsbable that the winds have brought us just as much moisturs to that sea as they now bring, and have just taken up as much water ftrnn it as they now carry off? Obvioasly and clearly not. The salt-beds, the water- ■laiks, the geological fohnations, and other focts traced by Nature's own hand upon the tablets of the rock, all indicate plahdy enough that not only the Dead Sea, but the Caspian also, had npon them, in fonner periods, more abundant nins than they now hare. Where did the vapor for those rains come flrom 7 and what has stopped the supply ? Surely not the elevation or depression of the Dead Sea basin." — Uadbt's Phgt. Gtog. of the Sea, p. 323. Dead-water. The water that closes in with a •hip's stem. Deala, or Deal-bearda (German, Didtn ; Dutch, Ifeelen; Danish, Btder; Swiss, Tiljor; French, Pbm- ekes minces; Italian, Tavole, Piane; Russian, IhriH) Folish, raretce), a thin kind of fir planks, much used in carpentry. They are farmed by sawing the trunk of a tree into longitudinal divisions, of greater or less thick- ness, according to the purposes they are intended to •erve. They an imported fh>m Dantzic, Petenbutg, Narva, and many other ports in the Baltic, and tnm North America ; but those fh>m Clirlstiana, the capi- tal of Norway, are the best, and bring the highest Srice. They are distinguishable from those produced t the co.-i^^ons provinces of Norway ; their superi- ority has been said to depend principally on their lieing more perfectly sawed ; hut it really depends on the greater care with which the sap-wood and other defect- ive portions of the timber are cut away, and on the quality of the timber. A Russian standard deal is 12 feet long, 11 inches wide, and 1^ inch thick ; 400 feet of H inch plank make a load. A Christiana standard deal is 11 feet long, 9 inches wide, and H inch thick. There is another standard of Norway deals at Dram, 10 feet long, 9 inches wide, and It inch thick. Debenture, a term used at the custom-house to dgnUy the certificatf subscribed by the customs officers, and given to the exporter of goods on whicli a drawback is allowed, bearing that the exporter has complied with the required regulations, and that he is entitled to such drawback. Debt, in law, is a species of contract, whereby a dkote in action, or right to a certain sum of money, is mutually acquired and lost ; usually divided into debts of record, debts by special contract, and del)ts ny sim- ple contract. A debt of record is a sum which appears to be due by the evidence of a court of record ; such as debt on judgment or recognizance. Delit by specialty -is where a sum is acknowledged to \m duo, or becomes 4ne, by Instrument under seal ; such as a covenant, bond, etc. Both these species of debts, being con- tracted by a man for himself and his heirs, attach on bis lands and tenements, and bind them in the hands of his heir or devisee. Del>t by simple contract is either by parole or by written obUgation unsealed ; within which class fall bills of exchtmge and pronilssnr}- notes. Debt is also a persona! action of contract, in which the plaintiff seeks the recover}- of debt ; i. e. a liqvidated or certain sum of money alleged to be due to him. TMit, Impriiotmnit for. See Hvirr's M. Mag., iv. pp. 72, 688 ; ff.A.Rnitw, xxxii. (by A. H. Everett) ; Am. Almamte, 184S, 181 ; Weetmituter Bevirm, ix., xix., XX., xliv ; Brituh and For. Rev., v. ; Baakeri' Maga- mnt, iU. p. 88. Decade (T termed decadi. Thus, except in bissextile years, the whole numlier of decades waa 86i : the days of the half decades, falling at the close of the year, were at one time called taneculottidet, and afterward compL- ( mentaiyi and dedicated respectively to Virtue, Ge- nius, Labor, Opinion, and Kecompence. Decimal Coinage, a system of monetary calcu lation advancing to infinity from a fixed standard of value, and performing its multiplications by any in- creasing progression of tens, and its divisions by a decreasing progression which is also decimal. This system, whose superiority to all others now In nse is universally acknowledged, waa first organized and established by the Constituent Assembly of France in 1790. It forms a part of that vast decimal metrical system of weights and measures, which, since the close of the last century, haa obtained in France, and is slowly spreading thence into the other countries of Europe and America. The subject was so widely and keenly agitated throughout Great Britain in the open- ing months of 1858, that the House of Commons ap- pointed a committee to investigate the whole matter. The report of this committee was laid liefore the House on the lit of August of that year. This document was introduced with a strong recommendation of the decimal system of coinage, and proiiosed that the basis of that system when introidnced should be the present pound sterling. By the retention of ;he pound, the decimal system m^ht be Introduced with the least possible change. Its 10th part already exists in the shape of the fiorin or two-shilling piece, while an alter- ation of 4 p«r cent, in the value of the present farthing will serve to convert that coin into the lowest step of the decimal scale, which it is necessar}' to represent by means of an actual coin, viz., the one-thousandth part of a pound. To this lowest denomination it was pro- posed by the committee to give the name of mil, in order to mark its relation to the unit of value. Tho addition of a coin to be called a cent, of the value of 10 mils, and equal to the 100th part of a pound, or the 10th part of the florin, would serve to complete the list of coins necessary to represent the moneys of account, which would accordingly be pounds, fiorins, cents, and mils. As to the coins by means of which the decimal system will be developed, it is proposed that some of those now in nse be retained, and that new coins I e sulMtitnted for others of them. Tho coins thus re- tained would be the present sovereign (1000 mils), the half-sovereign (600 mils), florin (100 mils), and shilling (50 mils, or 5 cents). The present sixpence, under the denomination of 25 mils, might be retained ; and the crown-piece, or a piece of 260 mils, of which few are in circulation, need not l>e withdrawn. On the other hand, it would be desirable to withdraw the half-crown, and the threepenny and fourpenny pieces, which arc inconsistent with the decimal scale. In the United States the decimal system has been introdnced into tlie coinage with great advantage; and an effort is now Iwing made to introduce it into weights and measures, which it is hoped will succeed in a few years. Decimal Praotiona, are fractions which havo for their denominator 10, 100, 1000, etc., or in gcnenii some power of 10. The use of decimal fk'actions is merely an axtensioh of the ordinary scale of arithmet- ical notation. Setting out from tho unit's place, the 1st figure to the left (in the expression of any whole number) denotes so many tens, the 2d to the left so many hundreds, the 8d so many thousands, and so on ; so that in the number 705, for example, each unit of the 6 is the 10th part of each unit of thn ', and each unit of the 6 a 10th of each unit of tho 6. In like manner, in the expression of a decimal fhiction, setting out from the unit's place, tiM 1st figure to the right expresses so many 10th patta, the 2d to the right so DBO 617 DEO ich have „ (Kenenil actions i» arithraet- place, the my whole le left 80 ltd so on ; h unit of and each In like J, settinK the right light (O Many 100th paita, the 8d lo many lOOOtht, and lo on ; 10 that each fignre, aa before, expresaea parts, which are each 10 times smaller than those expressed by the figure immediately preceding. By expressing fteo- tlons in this manner, the operations of addition, sub- traction, multiplication, and division, are exactly the same as in integer numbers. In order to distinguish the integral from the fractional part of a numeric^ ex- pression, a point or comma is placed between them. Various marlu have been used for this purpose at dif- ferent times; but the point la now most commonly employed, and, according to the practice of Sir Isaac Newton, it should always be placed near the top of the figure, thus 2*40, which prevents it from being confounded with the ordinary marks of punctuation. ^Decimal ftactions appear to have been introduced by Kegiomontanus, about the year 1464; but Stevinus was the first who wrote an express treatise on the 8ut>- Ject in his Pratique tF Arithmttiqut, published in 1582. The}' are now universally employed in all arithmetical calculations ; and it is much to be regretted that a dec- imal division of weights, measures, money, etc., has not been adopted in all clvilixed countries, by which the reduction of fractional parts from one scale to another would be obviated, and all the applications of arithme- tic to the ordinary purposes of life greatly simplified. A subdivision of weights and measures on this principle was adopted in France at the time of the Revolution, but has not been imitated by other countries. Decimal Weighta and Meaaures. I. IfUro- Huclion of the Decimal Syetem. — The introduction of the decimal system is so Important to all nations, and the advantages so apparent, that any discuaalon on the sub- ject will be of interest. The facility of transacting every business, and the saving of labor, would be much increased by having a general and convenient system of weights and measures. The good result of the introduction of the decimal system into our coin- age is so universally admitted, that efforts should be made to carry the system out in all our ttandardt. The importance of the clause in the Magna Charta, and expressed in an old English law of older date, is not folly felt, that there ahall be only one meamre and one weight throughout the land. This has never been realized either in. England or this country, though many efforts have been mode to introduce a common system. Ooi^mercial intercourse would be facilitated, and many of the embarrassments and delays would bo obviat'-il, could a system be made unlveisal in all mar- itime conutries. There is no bar to the introduction of such a system ; for whatever difference there may be in the systems adopted or in the notation used, yet they are all founded on the Arabian numbers. All have the same numerical system for a foundation, though the superstructures are varied. It would be scarcely practicable to introduce into the whole world a general system at once ; but it is practic'hle for the principal maritime nations, who are so much interested, to have a congress, and unite upon some complete xys- e brought forward, each standard of measure, of weight, and of coinage having some advantages ; and it may be difficult to decide what are the best. It seems, however, to be admitted that the decimal division is the only perfect one. It being stated as a general principle, that for convenience a standard varying but little from some old standard, should, If possible, be uwd< II. The Natural Standard or Unit /or the Bait o/ the Sgstem. — In respect to coinage, our standard of a dollar for a unit seems to answer ever}' purpose, and is the most convenient of any in use in the world. So it will, perhaps, be sufficient to examine with respect to weights and measures. The standard or unit for measurement that would seem to be given by nature, is the.drcumference of the earth taken at n given lati- tude. We have there an unvarying base, and one always practicable to measure. For convenience, we would naturally take a part of this circle, vAng any natural division. This is given to us at once by the rotation of the earth on its axis, and the aio a fixed star traverses in a given time, and then dividing by a decimal division this time of rotation, gives a standard of convenient length. Having to call In the aid of ao- trouomy to determine this distance, the notation used in that science, of degrees and minutes, etc,, was natu- rally adopted. It was found that one degree, or 860th part of the earth's circumference divided into 60 parts, was about equal to a mile of the old empirical system, A very sniall change will be therefore necessary, tak- ing this mile as a unit. From this unit a table is con- structed that will give the most convenient measures, with the least possible change from the old system, and one that could be adopted at least by the United States and Great Britain with advantage : III. 1. General Table o/ New Lineal Meaturepropoted. lOtenths = 1 Inch. < oj-ivi.- ». .j 10 inches or 100 tenths, = 1 foot ; ;:'' , ' . . ■ 6 feet or 80 Inches = 1 hthom. ' " ' — 1000 ttthoms or 6000 feet = 1 mile, 60 mtlas = 1 degree on the meridian. Measures of Temperature and Air. — The centigrade thermometer generally used in France and other coun- tries, having its zero at the freezing point — the only invariable point of temperature in nature — and ita 100th degree determined by the temperature of boiling water, when the barometer stands at 24^ inches of the new lineal measure proposed to be adopted in prefer- ence to Fahrenheit's scale. The barometer to be marked in inches and lOths of the new measure. The new standard of lineal measure to be the fathom of 6 feet marked on a rod of brass or other metal, and made equal to 6 feet 0*91548 inch of our present measure at the temperature of 62-6 degrees of Fahrenheit, or 17 degrees of the centigrade thermometer. This propor- tion will make the proposed mile equal to 1012*716 fathoms of our present measure, being the mean length of the minute of a degree of terrestrial meridian, ac- cording to Mr. Airy's treatise on the figure of the earth. — Ency. Metro, Should more extensive surveys of meridianal areas, since made or in progress, lead to a more accurate Value of the said minute, it is pro- posed that the necessary correction shall be effected, not by changing the standard rod, but by altering the legal temperature to a higher or lower point than 17 degrees centigrade. For measuring works of architecture and engineeN ing, the foot and its decimal subdivisions will be used, and measurements by 10 feet and 100 feet, and not by the yard or rod. 2. For Land Measure. — The fathom to be the tmit, and 10th and 100th for fractions, and all square-woric to be so measured : 1000 square fltthom* =: 1 acre. wtnin ;.'t 1000 acres' = 1 roils ■■/•'■■• i.a; 8. For Solid Measure The foot to be the nnlt t v 1000 oublq Inobts = 1 foot. ,;, , Liquids to be measured by solid measurements : it'-'' 10 ooblo inches = 1 pint ^tk 100 cubic inches = 1 ksUod. '., , 100 cubic gallons or 10 cubic feet = 1 barrel /, ' 4. Measures of Weight Proposed. ''■ ,, , lOtenths = 1 ounce. ,,, I 10 ounces = 1 poand, J' " " 100 pounds = 1 hundred-weight 3"' 1000 pounds = 1 tbousand-weigbt, it i WOO pounds = Iton. ^, MOf SIS DEB' Aad 1 pound be the weight of l-WKh of a cable foot of water at 17 degraei oentigrade, and tbe barometer standing at 24^ inches of the new lineal meaaure. Jfy thia arrangement, 100 pounds will be eqoal to alwot 106 pounds of the present aroirdlipols weight. All the weights fbr coins, bullion, apothecailea' weights, etc., be regulated by this system, and all customs and du- ties collected by these tables. This would soon Intro- duce the system without any compulsory measures. rv. Sonie qf the Advantajfet of the Jvmght the decimal system of coinage, weights, etc., before Parliament, February 2Mh, 1824, bul: it was not till Hay, 1888, that a com- mission of inquicy was appointed at the instance of tbe then Cliancellor of the Exchequer, Mr. Spring Rice, since Lord Monteagle ; and in June 20, 1848, another rommission was appointed ; they both consisted of c juinant scientific men, and both reported strongly in fliror of the change. A committee of the House of Commons reported to the same eflkot, August 1st, 1863. Mr. Qladstaae, however, whUe admittfaig the advantagaa of this system, tlwugbt its iotndnction prematura. In June, 1854, an association was formed for the purpose of obtaining the adoption of the sys- tem. In July, 1856, the commtssionen for inquiry wen again appointed." See Weigku amd Meaiuru. See Bmkert' Magatiue, N. Y., 1866; Btmkenf RegU- ter, N. Y., 1857. DeoUiwtionoftiwlfeedlc. PnfiBssar Chris- topher Haasteen, of Christiana, in Norway, is tlu person who has given, prolwbly, the greatest impulse, in recent times, to the efforts to methodize the facts and laws of the earth's magnetism. M. Hansteen was bom September 86, 1788, and is Professor of Astron- omy in the University of Christiana, and Director of the Ofaaerratory. HU dissertation, entitled MagmitU- mut der Erdo, published in 1819, which received a prize firom the Royal Danish Academy, recapitulated all the authenticatrd facts obtained by Voyagers oni! others, from the earliest times. It wUl be recollected that Halley had reprtsented tbe magnetic variation at dUferant parts of tlis globe by Ihiea traced on Merca- tor's chart, and passing through all the pUces when the variation (or decHnatlon) of the needle from the tm* Borth waa eqaal ; aad babg wdl owan af tba progressive (or secular) changes la the eourse of these lines, he pro|K)se(i the hypothesis of 8 pafai of magnstia poles interior to the globs, of which 1 pair nmdvea slowly. Professor Ha n < « >sn also constructed charts of the lines of eqnal dip. In certain poaitions between the tropics tlie dip Is nothing, or tbe fireely-snspended mag- netic needle remains horisoatal. The line connecting these piaeei is called the magnetic eqoator. It is an undulating line, inclined somawhen near 13° or 18° to the terrestrial equator, and cutting It la 3 points, not exactly opposite, but in about 8° 30* and 174° 80' of E. long, ficom Paris, aooordlng to Admiial Dupamy'a observations in 1886. The pnsitioB of these aodsa is, however, variable. The north end of the needle (as Is • well known) dips more and aiofe In the aotthara hem- isphere, until in a certain place it bnoomet vertical, when iiierefore the horiaontal eomponeat of tlie mag> netle force Is nothing, sad the oomaion compass loses altogether its dtractive power. Similar plieaomena occur In the southern hmsisphon. Lines of dip of 10", to', etc., may be drawn, and where the dip la 90° there Is a true magnetic pole. The iMst observa- tions serve to show that there is but one such true pole in each hemisphere. — B. B. PrtUmimuy /Mwartatum, by J. D. FoRBia, F.R.8. D0«d is a written contract, sealed aad delivered. It must be written before the ssaUag and delivery, otherwise it is no deed ; and, after it is once formally executed by the parties, nothing can be added or in- terlined ; and therefore. If a deed be sealed and deliv- ered, with a blank left for the sum, wUeh the obUgea- deli'^rs up after sealing and delivery, this will make the di :^ void. A deed must be made by parties ca- pable ot contracting, aad upon a good consideration, and the subject-matter most Im legally and formally set out. The formal ports of a deed are tha premises containing the number, names, additions, and titles t the parties, the covenants, which are clauses of agree- ment contained in the deed, whereby the contracting parties stipulate for the truth of certain foots, or bfaid themselves to the performance of some speoiflc acts ; the conclusion, which mentions theexeontion and date of the deed, or the time of its being given or executed, either expressly, or with reforenee to some day and year before-mentioned. Every deed most be founded upon good and anfflcient oonsideration, not upon an usurious contract, nor upon fraud, oolhuion, either to deceive toMi JUe purebosen, or Just and lawful credit- on ; any of which considerations will vacate tbe deed, and subject the parties to forfoitura, and in soma cases to Imprisonment. A deed, also, without any consid- eration, is void. A deed mast be executed by tbe party himself, or by another for him la' liis preaancs, or with his direction ; or, in his absence, by an agent authorized so to do by another deed, also under seal ; and In eveiy sneh case, the deed must l>e made and executed in the name of the prinoipal. A deed takea eifect only from the day of delivery ; and therefore, if it Iuve no date, or a dote impossible, the deliveiy will, in all cases, ascertain the diirta of it ; and if another party seal the deed, yet, if tha party deliver it himself, he thereby adopta the sealing aad cigaing, and by such delivery makes them both his own. The deliv- eiy of a deed may be alleged at any time after the date ; but unless it be sealed and Mgularly delivered, it is no deed. Another reqaislte of a deed b, that it be properly witnessed or attested. Tbe attestation is, however, necessary rather for preserving the evidence tlun as intrinsindly essential to the validity of the instrument. There are four principles adopted by the courts of law for the expo8iti<>n of deeds, via^ : 1. That they he beneflcial to the grantee, or person in whose favor tliey are Intended to operate. 3. Tiiot where the words may be employed to some intent, they shall not be void. 8. That the words be eon* DSd 019 DEL itniad aooofdiag to Um iMMillig of lb* ptttiH, »»i (ha inUnt of tha paitiu b* aanri«4 into all^At, provldsd ■uoh inUnt can poaiUiljr ataMt m» • Uw, 4. Tb»t tlw/ ara to ba axpoundad oonaonMtl)' to t(M rHl«» «f l«W, and naionably, wiUuxit iujary to tM gnuitor, tfld t« tha graataat advaalaga of tha gf antaa.c^K, Ai D»gt— of Latitud* if tiia »mim or Ai«t*n«8| on th« maridian, thnugh wUab an oowrvar muft RWV« to vary hla latituda by 1 dagroa, or to \mr»U» or diminish the diitanea of • atar from tbo noflitb by 1 degree ; and which, on tha ntppoaitioA of tb» pifn«t ipkerlcity of tha aaith, ia tha MOtb part of tb« mM- ian. Tha length of a datpraa of » moridiAH, or othw great cirda on the aurfaoa of tbs aartb, Id vum»\jf it- termlnad by diSsrant obaarvor*, and tb« in»(bnd« IM4« use of are varlooa | and, tbaraforo, without ont«riflH into the hlatory of all attempt* a( tbi« kM, wo ibtfl praatat our leadara with tiia fallowbltf TA3tas or na Dwraaain LaoaTiM or ♦ Dmmg, M MO/MM o««D in vAUQDs p*iii» or TUP l$4aTHi THii Ti.di or m MKASuauiiirr. tui LATrriiUR or in 0IRMI6« •T 68 M'06 m 'oa 1 21 68-27 45 48-74 26e,767-8 tolses. From these meas- MrnHMttta It appears that the earth ia not a aphere, but ail obbtto «t)h«rold,— £. B. OcktWAfU] DM of the middle United Stotos, next to 8b«d« hlaua tha amallast in tlie Union, and in pop- ulotbm tho leaat, Is bounded north l>y Pennsylvania, ««lt hf tlelawara River and Bay, nouth and west by MuyfltOi. U Is between 88° 27' and 39° 60' N. lot., Ofld iMtweett 76° 04' 48" and 75° 66' W. long., and lietwwM l" la' and 1° 67' E. long, from W. It U 92 IhIIm lutw and 38 brood, and conUlns 2,120 square ioiloN, Of 1,866,800 acres. The population in 1790 was 6li,0tf4 1 in 1800, 64.272 ; in 1810, 7-2,674 ; in 1820, 72,. 74Uj )lt 1800, 70,789 1 in 1840, 7M,086 ; in 1850,91, 582. Jsaft^ tiUtory That Delawure Bay was already known to the Spaniards a long time before Hudson, Iboro {» Ho doubt. But the question is what they (iMlkd it, Bensoti, in hia memoir on the names of the 8t«t« of Mew York,-say8 that they called it The Bag ij/illl SatnU, lie does not give his authority. In the toofit autlcfit Spanish description of the east coast Wtlji'b we bz-.re (that of Ovledo), this "Bay of all K«ldt«" i« not mentioned all. But Oviedo mentions It fllthlu een At tbo OUtrance of the bay, is Henry Hudson, when (1000) ho sailed along the coast from Chesapeake Bay toward the north. He looked into the bay, found it foil of shoals, did not explore It, gave to it no name, and " luapeaetl, from the currents which came out from It, that there was a river leading into it." It is pnUy g«tit»fn\\y said that Lord Delaware, when (in the fear lAlO) he sailed to Chesapeake Bay, was thrown ont of his way and touched at this bay, and that it wa« therefore called by him, or by his compan- l6H«, and the flrst English settlers in Tirginia, Dtla- mfH /lltjf, This was not only the flrst English, but U(Mm tho whole the first name under which the bay be- eamo more generally known in Enrope. We see it for (h« 6ftt time mentioned and writtep in the letter of daptalfl Afgalt, of the year 1612, in Pnrchas' Pilgrims. Tbo old Virginian writers spelled or corrupted the namo In very different ways. Sometimes they writo " % tMfd bektttire't Bay," sometimes Dehvar Bay, and wmottmea bdaumn Bay. Later French map- makOfS {tot Instance Bellln) made of this Bay Delaware or fMUf, The flrst map on which we And this name, {» a little map of the greater part of the east coast by (iaptain Smith, of the year 1624. For the flrst time, tiretty well drawn, the bay is to be fonnd on the flfit map of Maryland, of the year 1680. DEL 8i6 DBt After Hndaon and Lord DeUwus, Dnteh drippwi and nsvigaton war* the flrit who entorod thte t»y. The Dotch CapUIn Hendrlduen nlled (1616) up Into the bay and rirer aa far aa Schuylkill river. Captain Onmalloa Uay entered the bay 1628, explored it, lailed up in the river aa high at leaat aa the preaent aite of the city of PhUadelphU, and boilt there • fort called " Fort Naiaau." The bay waa ftom'hi « catlud •• New Port May." The river waa called by ,u« Outch Zu^dt rmitr (the South river), with reipect to the aecond great river of the Kew Netherlanda to the north (Hud- unn'a river). It i« not evident, but it ia probable that the Dutch commenced at once ijler Hodaon'a dlacovery to deaignata the river under that name. The flrat boolc in which the name Zoydt rivier li mentioned and printed b the "Kew World" of Uet, 1624. From the river also the bay waa generally called Znydt Bay, the South Bay, and thig name became among the Dutch ao common tliat the other name. New Port Hay, was loon foigotten. Another Dutch name for the bay waa that of Godyn's Bay, fh>m the well-luown Afjst srdam merchant, Samuel Oodyn, who purchaaed firoro the Indians Cape Hay, and a tract of country from this cape along the shores of the bay. Other Dutch names of this river sometimes used were JVoa- aoK rivur, Princt Baidriei'i rivter, and Charlet rivitr. This latter name waa in use as well among the En- i;li«h as among the Dutch. We find in an English (locoment of the year 1648, the name Delaware or Charlet river. And so we And on the Italian map by Lucini, taken from a Dutch original in about the year 1631, the name Rio Carlo. We do not know in honor of which Cliarles the river was so called. The English claimed the bay and river in consequence of Cabot'a and Delaware's discovery, and fhim difTerent other reasons. The Dutch claimed it trom Hudson's discov- ery, and took possession of it about 1628, through Captain Hay. In the year 1629 they built another fort there, called Swanandael, and 1683 the great navi- gator, David Pietersa de Vries, entered the bay and river, explored it, and made there also a temporary little settlement. Fort l/pland. But all these Dutch settlements disappeared again, and wen partly destroyed by the Indians, and the river and Iny were without any habitation ttom 1638 to 1638, when at last the Swedes entered it under Peter Minuit, Hinnet, or Menewe. They changed the whole geography of the l>ay and river. The river was under them called The New Stndtland Stream, and the bay Neie Swtdeland Bay, and the Swedes erected also new forts and gave Swedish names to the old Dutch forts, which they partly rebuilt. The greater number of the Swedish and Dutch settlements on Delaware river and bay were ntade on the western shore, and tills first Dutch and Swedish population formed ttom tba beginning a peculiarly situated community. What since 1688 was called Nev Swedeland, comprised prin- cipally the territory of the present State of Delaware. The Swedea remained 17 years in possession of the river and bay, and one of their engineers, Lindstrom, who accompanied the Swedish governor Kising, in the year 16M, made • minnte exploration and the first special map of the whole. In the following year, 1655, lunraver, the Dutch governor of the New Netherlands, Stuyvasandt, appeared with some men of war in the bay, and subdued the whole little New Sweden to the Dutch. Tliey reintroduced the old and some new Dotch names, but retained possession only for 9 years. When the English (1664) coAqnered this land flrom the Dutch, it waa, ootil 1681, attached to the great prov- ince of New Yorlc But during the same time the founders of Maryland considered it to lie comprised nndar this name and to be a part of their coloi^ of Mary- land. In this period were formed the 8 counties of which the State still to-day consists, and the whole tract waa nsaally called iht three lower countiet on the Delatoare. In the year 1681 WOUom Penn bought these 3 coun- tle« tivm the Duke of Tork, and thay made now • port of Pennsylvania, nnder the nanol name of Th» Terriloriet of Peitmylvama, or the Three Louier Coun- ties. They remained in connection with Pennsylvania until 1776, when these territories separated ftom Penn- sylvania and declared themselves independent, nnder the name of the Stale of Delaware. — J. O. Kohl. A somewhat elevated table-land passes through • portion of the State flrom north to south, dividing the waters which fall into Chesapeake Bay fhnn those which flow into Delaware Bay. This table-land con- tains a chain of swamps in the western part of thia State, from which its principal streams originate. The soli in the north is a strong clay. Along Dela- ware River, and for about 10 miles west of it, the soil ia generally a rich clay, well adapted to agricaltiin ; but between this and the swamps the soil is light and sandy. Proceeding toward the south, the soil be- comes mora sandy, and in Sussex county sand greatly predominates. Kaoline, or porcelain clay, is found in the northern portion, bog-iron ora in the southern, and shell marl throughout the State. There were in 1850, 680,862 acres of land improved, and 876,282 of unim- proved in farms. Cash value of farms, $18,880,081 ; and the value of implements and machinery, 9510,279. lAve Stock, etc. — Horses, 18,862 ; asses and maleS| 791 ; milch cows, 19,248 ; working oxen, 9,797 ; other cattle, 24,166 ; sheep, 27,508 ; swine, 66,261 ; value of live stock, (1,849,281 ; of sUnghtered animals, $S7B,- 666. Agricultural Produett, etc. — ^Wheat, 482,611 bushels ; r}-e, 8,066; Indian com, 8,145,642; oats, 604,618; barley, 66 ; buckwheat, 8,615 ; peas and beans, 4,120; potatoes, 240,642; sweet potatoes, 66,448; value of products of the orchard, $46,574 ; produce of market gardens, $12,714; pounds of butter mode, 1,065,308; of cheese, 8,187 ; molasses, 50 gallons ; beeswax and honey, 41,248 pounds ; wool, pounds produced, 57,- 768; flax, 11,174; hops, 848; hay, tons of, 80,159; clover-seed, 2,526 bushels ; other gross seeds, 1,403 ; flax-seed, 904 bushels ; and wen made 145 gallons of wine ; value of home-made manufactures, $88,121. Manufacturet, etc. — There were In the State in 1850, 12 cotton factorins, with a capital invested of $585,- 100, employing 418 males and 425 females, producing 6,205,000 yards of sheeting, etc., valued at $588,489 ; 5 woolen factories, with a capital invested of $136,600, employing 113 mules and 86 females, manufacturing 157,000 yards of cloth, valued at $244,610 ; 18 esUb> iishments making pig-iron, with a capital of $873,600, employing 250 peraons, and making 8,630 tons of cast- ings, etc., valued at $267,462 ; 2 esUbiishmcnt.*, with a capital invested of $16,000, employing 60 persons, manufacturing 550 tons of wrougut iron, valued at $56,000 ; 70 fioaring-mllls, 83 saw-mills, 16 tanneries, with a capital of $99,850, employing 108 persons; value of products, $168,742 ; 8 printing-offices, isisning 2 semi-weekly, and 8 weekly newspapers. Capital in- vested in manufactures, $2,978,945 ; value of manu- factured articles, $4,649,206. The principal port is Wilmington, a port of entry, and the principal commercial town of the State, situ- ated between Brandywine and Christiana Creeks, 1 mile above thoir junction. On Brandywine Creek are some of the finest flouring-miUs in the United States, to which vessels drawing 8 feet water can come. Christiana Creek is navigable for vessels drawing 14 feet of water, and gives to WUmingtQn considerable commerce. 'The tonnage of the port In 1860, was 13,. 665 tons. The foreign trade of Delaware is efTected chiefly through Baltimore, New Tork, and PttUadol- phia, especially the last; so that its direct foreign commerce is very InconsIderaMe. During 1850, 16 vessels were built, of an aggregate burden of 1,848 tons, viz,, 12 schooners, 3 sloops, and 1 steamer. The Chesapeake and Delawara Canal connects these two bays. ice of De which State nia ft DcUti by th( em an tude4 sea, ai turns rectioi in lati Joined south- ofthes /. OfiC 831- DEL FoniOK OoHHnun or Tm Stati or On&wAU. noH Ootobh 1, 1810, to Jvit 1, 1866, rMRMdlx. EiporU. Imporu. TouHoCliorwL DUIrietTrnMgfc ^ DOBMllt. ronlfn. Total. Tool rnrtlgo. KHM«8 1M60 1,888 4.081 124 199 817 1,186 817 1,060 808 962 'Hi "lii 667 9,721 1468,119 84,614 16,M2 4^9I1 61,946 88,826 74,981 40,888 86,844 8,680 87,001 $88,824 $491,948 84,614 1^141 4M11 6<,946 88,896 74,981 40,888 8^844 8,680 87,001 $471,878 81,666 18,668 9,048 18^948 10,611 107,068 66,841 1,848 "802 11,848 799 699 186 418 966 888 91 18,468 $486,277 88,885 e^666 98,490 128,771 188,195 144,IM8 285,458 88,089 87,850 'iii 406 "ii 879 $486,277 88,589 66,666 98,682 126,177 188,196 146,221 286,469 88,058 88,229 $426,960 8,276 8,657 4,686 8,098 1,274 11,216 12.722 4»0 1,400 1,684 1,682 2,687 1.949 8,S82 4,968 8,496 4,096 2,466 1,091 1,298 2,202 1,672 866 'ioo '889 8,611 1,599 906 9,160 $957,099 80,920 68,087 76,880 8,178 $960,272 8b!920 68,087 76,880 $47,712 Ksii 8,063 26,101 8!o58 2,414 1,674 11,890 ' 668 11,217 * Nine months to June 80, and the flwil year begins July 1. Delaware Bay, at the month of the Delaware River, is a Iari;e arm of the sen, 76 miles Tong, 20 miles wide between Cape M:iy on the north, and Cape Henlo- pen on the .south, and 30 milea wide in the middle. The navigation is difficult and dangerous, being interrupted by many shoals. Its low and sandy shores were with- out harbors until the construction of the Delaware Breakwater within Cape Henlopen. Delaware Breaicwrater. This breakwater is situated at the entrance into Delaware Bay, near Cape Henlopen. The anchorage ground, or roadstead, is formed by a cove in tho southern shore, directly west of the pitch of the cape, and the seaward end of en extensive shoal called The Skeart. The entrance from the ocean is 1,950 feet in width, and is accessible during all winds from the sea. The depth of water it from 24 to 86 feet deep, at low tide, throughout the harbor. There are two dykes, one of 1,600 feet, and the other of 6,000 feet, giving a secare harbor of seven te.tha of a square mile. The ol>Jects of this artificial harbor are to protect vessels from winds from east to north-west, by way of north, and against the floating ice of the bay. Delaware River, a river of the United States, which rises on the west side of the Catskill Mountains, State of Xew York, and after separating Pennsylva- nia from New York and iSiew Jersey, falls into the Delaware Bay 5 miles below Newcastle. It is formed by the union of two streams. The Mohawk, or west- em and main branch, rises from a small lake in lati- tude 42° 45' N., at an elevation of 1880 feet above the sea, and flows south-west for nearly 60 miles, when it turns suddenly to the south-east, flowing in that di- rection for 5 miles to the Pennsylvania boundary line in latitude 42° N. Eight miles below this spot it is Joined by the Popaeton branch, which has a previous ■onth-west course of about 50 miles. After the union of tbeie two atraanu, the river pursues a winding south- east course l)etween New York and Pennsylvania for 60 miles to the north-west comer of New Jersey, where it receives the Neversink Kiver. It then turns Honth-west, along the liase of the Kittaning range, for 85 miles, in passing through which it forms what ia called the " Water Gap," a great natural curiosity. The banks here rise precipitously from the water's edge to the height of 1,600 feet, overhung by immense masses of rock, and at the south-east entrance leaving scarcely room for a road. Tho passage, however, widens toward the north-west. Its entire length is alK)ut 2 miles. From this point it pursues a south- east and then a south-west course to Easton, where it receives the Lehigh, a large tributary, from the west. A little below this the river passes through South Mountain, and has a south-east course to Trenton, 60 miles below Easton ; having in that distance 26 rapids, with a total fall of 165 feet. These falls are navigable at high water. The river below Trenton turns to the south-west until near the bay, which it enters in a south-east direction, after an entire course of 809 miles. It is navigable for vesseb of the largest class to Phil- adelphia, 40 miles, and for sloops 36 miles further, to Trenton. Above the falls at Trenton it is navigable for boats of 8 or 9 tons for 100 miles. The Delaware is connected with the Hudson River and the bays of New York by the Delaware and Hudson Canal, the Morris Canal, and the Delaware and Raritan Canul. Del Credere Commiaaion. All agents who sell goods for their principals, and guaranty the price, are said abroad to act under a del credere commimon. In tho United States, this phrase is seldom used, nor is such guaranty usually given, except b}- commission merchants. And where such guaranty is given, the factor is still but a surety, so far that his employers must first have recourse to the principal debtor. But his promise is not " a promise to pay the debt of an- other," within the statute of frauds. Nor does be DKII >mt--'^- DEM giunuitjr th* Mfi arrlnd of Ih* noiMgr neUrtA hy him in psyramt of tho gooda, Md tniumltted to hli •mplojor, bat miut UM proper cantlon in Mmlinft it. If iw taka a not* tnm the parehaier, thia not* ia hii emplo/ar'i ; and if ha taka dapreclatad or had paper, ha miut malta it good.— Parson* on ittrctmriU Lav, ch. X., p. ISO. In mercantilt law, a term dirivad fkom the Italian (frtdtrt, to truat), which denotaa a oonmitsaiaii uranted ysy a marcliant to a futor to diapoie of gooda ; ih» fac- tor, for tho conaidaratlon of an additional paroentage, agraaing to guaranty the solvency of the purchaaer. i30lft or Dclf (Germaa, Faymet, l/naehUi Pond- Urn I Dutch, M/tporctli/n ; French, faienbe), a coarae apaclea of porcelain, originally manufactured at Delft, whence ita name. It is a kind of pottery of baked earth, covered with an enamel of white glsiing, which givea it the appearance and neatneaa of porcelain. Some kinda of this enameled pottery dlflfer fh>m oth- ers, either in their auataining sudden heat without breaking, or in the beauty and regularity of their forma, enamel, and the painting with which thoy are ornamented. In general, the line and beautlnilly- enameled potteries, which approach the neareat to porcelain in external appearance, are, at the aame time, thoae which least reaist a brisk flra ; while those which auatain a sadden heat are coarae, and re- semble common pottery. Demand and Supply are terms used in polit- ical economy to express the relations between con- sumption and production — between the demand of purchasers and the supply of commoditiea by thoae who have them to aell. The relations between the demand for an article and ita supply, determine its price or exchangeable value : the relations between the demand fur labor and its aupply, determine the amount uf wugea to be earned by the lalmrer. For cauaea explained elaewhere, the price of an article will rarely vary, for any length of time, very much above or below ita cost of production ; nor will the wages of labor, for any length of time, much exceed or fall belew the amount necessary to maintain laborers and their families in auch comforta aa their habits of life have aecustomcil them to believe necessary for their aubaistenoe; but bearing in miud that, in the prioea of commoditiea and labor, there is a certain point, de- termined by caoaes independent of demand or aupply, above or below which pricea can not materially vary for any considerable time : all varlationa of price, if the medium in which they are calculated remain un- changed, may be referred to the proportion which exiata between the demand for commodities and the aupply of them — between the quaatitiaa whioh pur.^ ohasera are willing and able to buy, and the quantities which prodnoers are able and willing to sell. To Imve say inflnenee upon prices, a demand must ha aeoompanied by the moana of purchaaing. A de- mand ia not aimply a want — a deaire to obtain and enjoy the products of other men's labor) for if this were its meanhig, there woald never be the least pro- portion between demand and aupply : all men would alwaya want every thing, and production could not keep pace with consnmption. But an " effective de- mand," aa it ia termed by Adam Smith, exista wher- ever one man ia anxious to exchange the prodnnts of hia labor for that of other men. It ia, therefore, of an effective demand only that political econoolata are apeaking when they examine the oireaantanoea of demand and aupply in connection .with prices. But although a demand, without the means of pnr- diase, can not affect prices, the universal desire of mankind to poaaess articles of comfort and luxury suggests other important conaiderationa. Aa thia deaire ia natural to man, and too often ia ao atrong aa to tempt him even to commit crime, it obvioualy needa no encouragement ; men will alwaya gratify it when- ever they have the means, and these means oonaist in i the produsta of their own labor. Heaee all that It required to convert this deaire ol acquisition into an effective demand ia ample employment for induatry. Increase tlie prodartion of all commoditiea and an Increased consumption of them ia the certain reanit | for men, having larger prodaeta of their own lalwr to olhr In exchange Air the producta of other men'a labor, are enabled to purchase what they are alwaya eager to acqolre. Production, tlierefore, ia the great object to he secured, not only as fumlahing a aupply of commo same. When production Is restored, an effective demand for all articles will immediately follow ; but until the productive energies of the consnmera are in a atato of activity, it ia in vain to expect fhmi them an increased demand. Theae considerations lead ua to the concluaion that a univaraat glut of all commotlitics is impossible. The aupply of particular commodities may eaaily exceed the demand for them, and very often doea exceed it ; bnt OS the oonatant doHire to obtain commoditiea needa nothing but the power of offering other commoiUties in exchange, to become an effective demand, it is evi- dent that a universal increase of production ia neces- sarily accompanied by a proportionate increase of consumption. Men are stimulated by no love of pro- duction for ita own aake, but they proe obtained. In a siege the competition is still greater. The prices of provisions become enormous j the rich alone can buy ; the poor mutt starve or plun- der. A similar effect is produced if the supply, wlt)iout being deficient, be confined to the possemion of a small number of persons, who limit it to the consumers In onlcr to secure higher prices. However abundant com might be in a iKsieged town, if one mnn were exclusively authorized by law to sell it, it might rise to a famine price, unlets the people broke into the granaries, or the government interfered with the mo- nopoly. Less lu degree, but similar in principle, is the effect upon prices of everj- limitation of the market by fiscal restrictions. When any sellers are excluded, the others are enabled to raise their prices. These are casei in which the sup;!'- can not be increased to meet \he demand, or in ' ■ s the supply is mo»- pollzed. But the greater numi . '■ ■; oommod- itiet n'i'y be increased In quantity, and th supply of them is not artificially limited. The price of these also rises when the demand exceeds the supply : but the increased price raises the profit of the prodncier, and attracts the competition of others \n the market. Fresh capital and labor are applied to the production of the profitable article, until the supply is accommo-; dated to the demand, or exceeds it. The prices grad- ually fall, and at length the profits are reduced to the same level as the profits in other undertakings, or even lower. The encouragement to further production is thus withdrawn, and prices are adjusted so as to secure to the producer the ordinary rate of profits, and no more. But sometimea the demand for a commodity is di- minished, If the supply fall short of it for any consider- able time. There are various articles useful and agreeable to mankind, but not essential to their exist- ence, which they are eager to enjoy as far as they can, but for which thej- are not prepared to make great sacrifices. When the price of an article of this descrip- tion is raised hy a deficient supply, continuing for some length of time, it it placed beyond the reach of many persons who learn to regard it with indifference. They would buy it if it were cheap ; but as it is dear, they go without it, or are satisfied with a substitute. In this manner the number of consumers is diminished. Others again, who will not be deprived of an accui- tomed luxury, e^Joy it more sparingly, and consume it in lesa qnantltiaa. But ao long aa the supply li aot incraaaad, th* price will eonllnne high, because tha consumen who still purchase the article, notwithstand- ing ita price, k-ep up an effective demand equal to tha whole sapply ; while there I* itlll a dormant demand, only awaiting a reduction of price to beeome effective. For the same reasons, a demand fV>r articles it di- minished when their price la artificially raised by tax- ation. The demand Is gradually conflnad to a smaller number of penont, and many consume more spar- ingly- In these variout wayi damaad aad lupply iMcome adjusted through the medium of price, whenever the ad harvest, in a country excluded firom all foreign supply. Suppose that prices did not rise, but remained precliely the same at if the harvest had been abundant, what would lie the consequence ? The whole population would consume as much bread as usual, and use flour in every way that luxury points out, unconscious of any scarcity. Farmers might even feed their cattle with wheat. By reason of tnis improvidence, the whole of the com would lie consumed before the next harvest, and the horrors of famine would bnrst, without any warning, upon a people living as if they were in the midst of plenty. This evil is prevented by a rise of prices, which is a symptom of scarcity, just as pain it a symp- tom of disease. By timely precaution the danger is averted. A high price renders providence and econ- omy compulsory, and thus limits consumption. The supply, theref)ire, instead of lieing exhausted before the next harvest, is spread over tlie whole year. ' In the case of food, it is true that such economy is pain- ful and presses heavil}- upon the poor: but this evil la a mercy compared with famine. If no privation had been endured before scarcity became alarming, none but rich men could buy a loaf: for every one who had a loaf to sell, would be risking his own life if he sold it. These observations are also applicable In some measure to cases in which prices are raised by the sup- ply being confined to one or to a few persons, who have contrived to buy up the whole or nearly the whole of any commodity. But such exclusive posses- sion (sometimes improperly called a monopoly) can not exist, for any length of time, in articles of which the supply is capable of increase. The extreme case has been put of a liesieged town, in which the whole supply of com was monopolized by one man. Under those circumstances of course he would demand a high price; but unless his exclusive supply were upheld liy law, H does not follow that the inhabitants would suf- fer on that account. A most provident consumption of food is absolutely necessary for the defense of a town, and no organization could dlstributa provisloni according to the wants of the people so well at a sys- tem of purchase restrained by a high price. It mnst also be recollected that, without any auch exclusive possession, the fiict of tlie siege alone must raise prices by cutting off fresh supplies. If the siege con- tinue, provisions are more likely to last out by the in- strumentality of prices than liy any other means. At the same time the sole possessor of the com would be restrained fftim keeping back the supply beyond the actual necessity of the occasion < y many considera- tions. He would know that if a popular tumult arose — if the town were relieved, the siege raised, a capitu- lation agreed to, or the place suddenly carried by assault — the value of his oxcluslve property would be destroyed. His own interest, therefore, is coincident with that of the people. It is better for both that th* DEM 024 wppljr (hoald b* matod oat with pMnknoay | 11 U dan- ganiiu to lioth that it ibouM b* Immodtnttly ■tliitad. la olrcunutancM 1*m pMuUarlluui thaw, vary littla avil can arita ttam an axoluilva poaaaailun of any oom- modity not protactad dinotly or Indlractly liy law. If tha iiupply ba eapabia of incraaia, and tha damand ba •uffiolent to analila tha owner to aacura a hl)(h price, for reaaona already explained, the market would rap- Idly ba iopplied from other iiuurtara. If the aupply can not ba Incraamd, that fact alone would ralaa the price) and It Is probable that the aupply would not have been to great without tha extraiinliniiry artlrlty of tha eapitallit who had been able tu aecure for hia country the whole acoaulbia aupply to ba collected (torn the marketa of tha world. A monopoly, property w called, 1« of a totally dif- ferent character- for, however abundant the supply of an article may be, It may, nevartbeleaa, ba inacoes- alble to tha conaumer. When prices are high by reason of the demand ex- ceeding the supply. It is by no moans necessary that the profits of those who sell the dear commoditiea should always ba greater than the profits in other branches of trade. It must always lie recollected, that where scarcity la the causa of the high price, tha aell- •rs who demanil it have the less to sell. Whera scarcity la not tlie cauae, but the demand is great be- cause the supply, notwithstanding tho exertions of produoers, can not keep pace with it, the profits are undoubtedly greater than usual, until tha supply haa been increased. II. It is now time to consider the effects of a supply exceeding the demand, and this division of the Inquiry will require leas elucidation, as the effects of such a condition of the market may be stated to be tha ver}' reverse of those which we have Just l>een examining. When there is more of a commodity than people are prepared to buy, its price must fall. Its sellers must offer it for sale at the price at which thoy can Induce people to purchase. All is now in favor of consumers. They are no longer bidding against each other: but the sellers are competing among themselves to get rid of their goods. The price falls generally in proportion to the excess of the quantity, but this result is very much qualified liy the nature of the article. If there lie an excess of supply in perishable goods, there is nothing to prevent the natural fall of prices. When fish is unusually aliundant, it must lie cheap, or a great part of it will lie destroyed : , it must be eaten at once, or not at all ; and to induce people to eat it, it must be offered to them at a low price. But with articles which may be held back, in expectation of higher prices, their Value may l>e partially sustained. Pro- duction may be reduced, and the stock gradually brought into the market, until the supply has been equalized with the demand ; and wherever the article is such as to admit of voluntary Increase or diminu- tion, the natural result of an exunasive supply is to re- duce production, until the balance of supply and de- mand has lieen restored. This mutual adjustment is in perpetual operation, and is ordinarily effected with such precision, that it may be said, without exaggera- tion, that a large city is supplied exactly with every thing its inhaliitants require — even down to an egg or a pint of milk. There is always enough of every thing, and rarely too much. Whenever there is an excessive production of any commodity, it is an evil almost aa great as scarcity. It is true that the consumer derives benefit from it, but the producing classes are most injuriously affected. In order to raise the value of the produce of their labor, they must cease to produce, or must produce in less quantities. Tho workmen are thus either deprived of employment altogether for a time, or are employed for a portion of their time only, at reduced wages ; while their employers are dixposing of their. goods at low prices, which scarcely repay the outlay of their capital. Mor doaa tha penalty of ovar-produotlon fill axeln- aively npon those engaged in the trade in which aup- ply haa exceeded the demand. Their diatrsaiies extend to othar claases. It has lieen shown already that it la to production wa must look aa the cause of auatained consumption, and thus the pressure upon any conaid- erable liranch of productive Industry muat be sensibly felt by those wlio have the produce of their own laiior to sell. I'ltMluctlon haa failed, and oonaumptkin mual therefore lie diminished. The ruiniMit consequences of gluts. In particular staples of trail'- and manufacture, are too well known, especially in lliii country, tu require any further iilua* tratiun ; but tlieir causae are not alwaya agreed upon. 8uch gluU at* often attributed to the Ikcility with which manufactures are priHluced by machinery ; but we have shown that over-protluctlon in all branches of lndnstr>- Is Impossllile { and if that ba true, it is evi- dent that when partial gluts are produced by the aid of machinery, that powerful agent must have been misapplied. It la not contended that nothing cnn ba pnMluced in too great abundance. Whether machinery lie used or not, production must lie govemetl liy tha same lawa of demand and supply. Those things only must b« produced for which there is a demand, and they muat not be produced in greater abundance than the demand warranta. But the more generally ma» chinery is used, the more abundant will be the prod- ucts which men will have to exchange witli each other, and therefore the better will be the market. U fallows that machinery can only cause a glut wlicn ap- plied excessively to particular objects, precisely in tlie same manner as an exccnaive quantity of lalmr would cause one if applied where it was not needed by the demands of commerce. The supply of markets Is a very speculative busi- ness, and is often conducted with more zeal than dis- cretion. When a particular trade is supiiosed to b« more prosperous than others, capitalists rush into it in order to secure high profits ; and in this country tha abundance of capital, the perfection of our machinery, and the skill of our workmen, enable them to produca with extraordinar}- facility. Over-production in that |iarticuUr trade is tho consequence, and all engaged In it suffer from the depreciation in the value of their goods; but If, instead of rushing into the favorite trade, they had distriliuted their enterprises mora widely, their own interest and that of tjie couimunitr would have been promoted. When a ship is wrecked, if all the crew precipitate themselves into one boat, they swamp it ; but if they wait till nil the lioats are lowered, and apportion their numliers to the size of each, they may all reach the shore in safety. And so it is in trikde : one trade may easily be glutted, while there is room in other trades for all the capital and industry that need employment. In proportion to the extent of the market and the variety and abundance of commodities to be ex changed, will be the facility of dlspoalng of the prod- ncts of capital and labor ; and this consideration points out as the most probable antidote to gluts, a universal freedom of commerce. When the free interchange oa commoditiea is restrictol, not only Is a glut caused more easily, but its causes are more uncertain, and de- pendent upon unforeseen events. With the whole world for a market, the operation of the laws of de- mand and supply would be more equable, and tha universality of the objects of exohango would make gluts of rare occurrence. The market would still be llalile to dbturbanoe by )iad harvests, by errors in the monetary system, by shocks to public credit, and by war ; but apart from these cauMs of derangement, de- mand and supply would be ailjusted, and the product- ive energies of all nations called into full activity.— Bohn'r Cyclo. Pol. Kcon. ; Adam Smith, II'i«/o \n in the , and by jient, de- I product- Itlvity — •eallh of pMieal TRoi, PrineipUt 1/ Polilifal Keimomf 1 RioAnno, eh. 80 1 M11.1., kuagi OH UnHlthd QhuHohi <\f Poliliaal KcuHomj/, Ka»ay II. Damurrag*, In commercial uvl|(alloii, la an al- lowance made to the mailer or owntn of a ihip by the freighter, for detaining her In port lonKer than the pe- riod agreed upon for her iaillng. It U uiually atlp- ulated In cbarter-partlae and bllU of lading, thai a certain numl>^r of dayt, called running or working daya, Hhiill Iw allowed for receiving or dlncharglng the cargo, and that the freighter may detain the veiMl for a further siMcllied time, or ae lung aa he pleaiei, on payiuont of w much prr dirm tot luch over-time. When the contract of affreightment expreuly •tipu- latai that lo many daye nhall !« allowed for diacharg- Ing or receiving the cargo, and io many more for over- time, such limitation la interpreted aa an expreei •tipulatiun on the part of the freighter, that the veaiel •hall in no event l>e detiiiiied longer, and that if de- tained he will lie lialile for demurrjige. Thia holda even in caaes where the di-lay la nut occaaloned by any fault on the frelgbter'a part, liut la inevitable. If, for example, a ahip be detained, owing to the crowded atate of the port, for a lunger time than la allowed by the contract, demurrage la due | and It la no defeni* to an action for demurrage, that it aroae from port regu- lation*, or oven from the unlawful acta uf the Cuatom- bouBo ulHcera. Demurrage la nut, however, clalmalile for a ()ulay occaaloned by the hoatlie detention of the ■hip, or the hoatlie occupation uf the Intended port ; nor is it claimable for any delay wilfully occaaloned by the maati'r, or owneri, or crow of the venael. The claim fur demurrage ceaaea aa soon aa the ship la cleared out and ready for aailing, though she should Ik) detained by adverse winds, or tempestuous weather. — Ciiittt's Commereial Law. ProfcHHor Parsons In his admirable work on Mercan- tile Law [Boston, 1H5U], says : " As time has becoino uf the utmost Importance In commercial transactions, Ixith parties to this contract should be punctual, and cause no unnecessary delay ; and for such delay, the garty Injured would have his remedy against the party In fault. The charter-party usually provides for so many ' lay-days,' and for so much ' demurrage.' Ij»y-«, panlouUrly In Hehl**' wl« a«4 llaMatM, aifl th« Ulanda af f anan and Zta- UM, tba lillMhv I* v«rr rrM|uantl.v ol«i|«, awl lh« nunimar Untn only troni J)tn» I* fb« MbWM nt Au^ntt. Tha ellmnta, however, la n<«| MawbniMffma, Tbn mum of Ihn (npnUtton eon- ttit* nt MaitM, who Afl'iipy tha Ulan*r ynitf a mrtiiillliitlnn wa* granUil l>y lbs klnif; and Ibx l>Kl«l*llta power la now vi^tnl in two parliament- ary IniiII««, Iha ynlkithlitff and f/fnilttlMnq, lioth con- •la'liiK of KUcilra nwimlnrn | Iha fnrmar rciamlding thu lliiit»» iif It 'pf«Minlatlvi-a, and th* littor thn Senate, of Iba I'lmitrtxi nt Iha Untied »liit*« of North Amcrloa, rallter Ihan Ilia l/ord* and (.'nminont of Ureal lirltain. I'enmarli I* a •mall and poor country, and her naval and iniUtUfy power e:lpal naiKe of till* Ijeing tho reaction in IImi uralH irad<, which wa* to be exiieotcd aflcr tho Mliv* yii»r ut IMA, during whiuli luch immenie ex- pltrU ik iirain lixili plaee from tho producing to the Mtntum^nn counlrle*, and the reault to Denmark was ItHlfWI ifiiartar* dacreaaa in thu exports of thi* article. " On aompaflng llie value of the import* with that W lb« anp'iria fur the yaar MM, a* givon up in the re- lltrH*, there I* found a lialanco aguiust tha country of »» !«<• a aum than iia, 764,470; but thU I* only nom- Initl, ilin great tlllfarance aridng, a* 1 have remarlied Ih prxtlou* yntn, from the low utBclul value at which tiM arllort calculated aftvr tbair araraga prieaa, It may with oontldence be *aid that Iha dllferenea between tha value of th; import* and anierrt* would b« reduced to lea* than .£l,UU(),OiM) —a aHfllrlently large eum for a countr}- which ha* for many year* liaeii Aeurlthlng upon the extended ez- |Miri «r It* agrtsultural produce, did wo not take into «utMld«riitl'jtl that the augmentation in the import* prinalpalty arlaaa llireogb Iba inaraaaed demand Ihr foralga artlalaa of ooainiaraa, for ooaauniptlon or Inx- iiry, caUM'd by tbu impriivail cundlUoa and cIrcuBi- *lanc«* ut tiw *gri*iihural populalluo. " Tbu tout omaant iif Import duty paid In Danmark, in Iha vaar lOAU, waa7,04l,7U7 rlxdollar*, l«ing I)(A,II6I rlx dollar*, or 4!IH,:UW, mora than In lb* pi«vloua y**r | tko** article* wtileh prort duly. Tba total Impart duty give* an avarag* of II par cant, oa tha total value of tba Importa. "Tba trade lialwaan l>aamark and tlie dlfferant ooantria* I* In mach about Iha aame proporibin* to each other ** in tba y*ar IMA, tlie only graat exrrp. tian being thai of Ku*ala, which In 18U ainonnted tu only i.;IO,M«, wheraa* in IHM it ro*e lo JHtl,m\l, Iha reauit of the ceaeatlon of hortilillr* liatwecn the allied power* and that country. Hamburg >how*, a* uiiiai, tba targeal amount of dirtot tmla with Denmark ; liut ■a a great deal of the good* Imparted u from ll*m- liurg are. In fact, mimifaclured article* from Kiigland, France, and the Orraian atalei, trananiltted ri'i that place, It mav be eonidd*r*d that the** connlrle* reap a tari;e portion of the lieneAt arleing (Vom *uoh trade. T'ha aame may of couna lie *ald of tho export trade of thia country to Hambnrg, moat of the pnduca Mhlch And* It* way tlicra IVom Jutland and the ducliieii being destined fur other part*. The value of the importa tU- ruct from (Jrent lirltuin hail increaecd with an amount of Xl.')3,00li ; ttie value of tho export* to that country having, on the othor hand, deereaicd i,'348,00O, or above M per cent., to be accounted fur by the dcproinloii in the Engliali grain market* after tha reopening of tlio KuMlsn ports. " Witii rofercnce to tho ahipplng trade of Denmark, It I* to be remarkcti, that a great part of tho Daiiiali ■hipping onguKed In the foreign trade wa* employed bvtweoii this country and (Jreat Dritain. Tlie total quantity of murchandiie imported from Great Dritain In 1X50 wo* 2!)l,7i:9 tons, of which 160,140 ton* wero brought ill Danish siiipa, mukin;; 6li per cent, aguinet 62 p<'r cent. In 1855. The gotnls exported to Urunt Britain measured !)a,705 tuns, of which 80,S88 tons, or 86 per cent, (in 1866, 80 (ler cent.), wuro carried by Danish ship*. "Of the trade carried on tietwecn Denmark and Hamburg by sea 78 per cent, fell upon the Danish *btppiiig, of that with Ru*«la 33 per cent., Norway 33 per cent., *nd Sweilen only per cent. Tiie trade with Allona, aa also with the Daniah colonies in the West Indies, wa* carried on entirely by Danish ships." The shipping trade of the principal port* in Denmark wai, in 186(1, a* follow* : ; , ,^,,^ ,, ,^.^ ,, C'onmiAoaii. Vam '" ■ *iii|>i; tnU«. Slow IK*. lav 1^4!)5 18,TW C«i,l8B T.>I1,1IT Tim. 4Tn,!>IU 188« 1 V«i„, F1.Kii*DUBa p iiiiii«r' 1 RViUtorT' )RM tIV9 MM "rem. 11 soil 116,480 T.MII. " 70,1 Hit 18M KiKI. Vnn. 4u,i. l.(M.r. ttawmf. T«a.. Ill,!1.10 I8BB MI4 (114 Tcaa. 1«4,4«S 1«S,IM 18M Alton A. Y«»n. ahlpa. H<(lfUr. auiwsirfl. ISES iB,«e9 1B,«19 T«u. SOMtM Tom. 1R6«. «23,7»7 n( fe ni £ 14 V DEN Mt DEN Toa*. Hlow g*. T<>M. Tom. Tom. M3,79T .%-iimi Diui Tn 14tm ih* r«((nhic khig nf T>raiMrk ■ud* ■ oommariUI (maty with llitnry VII. nf Kn- gUnd, by which th« Kngllah tngiKKil to pny the (tnnail nUM on ill VMMiU ontKrlng i>r nitunilng fyiim lh« lUltJi' I •nil In return th«y w*ro kllowad tn h*v« mcr- cantlU ciiii/iiiIk In thn chief uraporta of Denmark and Norway. Ily thU llnw tb« •xtrniiou of trail* had (Itco riM In IVnioark, a« In Kngtaml, to a mlddla riau, among whomth* M>verf>lgn found in each roun- Iry tha mcaiu of halanring Iha polltU'jil wnighl of Iha nubility j hanoa a grant waa niada liy Ik* king* nf I'anniark of variooi prlvtlagai to tradan, and rallaf fynm a nunilxr of loral impokta on tha tranilt of mar- ohamlliic. H»« hnnitk Himml thin. The Amrd StulriiUlg. — On* of th* prlnrlpal pnlltl- nal quMtlon* iMtwmn Kngland and Denmark mTlimd In tha y«ar 1710, In tha mld«t of a war b«tw*mi Kn- f:land, rrance, Hpnln, and the North Ann nt.inrolonlaa. )urlng that arduoui eontcat, Rngland, aiip*rlor at a*n, had no dlfflciilty In obtaining, by her own marrhant- men, a atipply of heinp, cnrdiigo, and oth*r naviil iturM, friiii the naltli', wliil* Kriinc* and Npain Irnatrd to rac«lvltig auch aiippllna by nriitral vraaela. Hut llie Brttlah guvammont danleil tha right of neutral* to carry wnrllka atorea ; aud the northern powora, headed by the amblllout Culharlne of Kiiaaia, entered Into a compact, called the Armed Neutrality, by wh'ch, with- out reaorting to actual hoatllity, they aought to over- awe Kngland, and to rontlnne the quratlonal)le trafllc. Happily n)i libxNlahcd followed thia diplomatic menace, and the (|ueatlon fell to the ground In 178V, on the ne- gotiation for tt general peace. Tha king of Dcninnrk, aubject all along tn Imhecitity, became after 1781 quito lncapn)>le of governing. Ilia (on, the crown prince, waa therefore appointed regent, and aoon poaaed acveral Judiclnui enaetmenta. The peuaunta living on the crown Innda were gradually emanci|iated — an example followed by a number of the nolillity on their reapectivo eatatca. In the nUilltion of the African alavc-trade Denmark had the honor of taking Iho load among tho govenimenta of Kuro|)e. The crown prince, guided liy th* counaela of Count BomilorIT, aon of the minlatcr already mentioned, long remained neutral In 'he politicul rnnvniainna engendered by the French Revuliitl'iti He cnntinned to adhere ateadfoatly to thia plan utilil in IHOl the Kmperor Paul of Rusala having, aa in the coae nf the nrmed neutrality, furmed a compact nf tho northern |K)W('ra hoatlle to England, a Briliali fleet was aent into the ll.ilHr under the order* of Sir Hyde Parker, with Lord Nel.iDn aa hl( aecond In command. It waa thia fleet which taught the Danea that their capital was not Impregnable, and that the long line of men-of-war moored in (Vont of the harbor was an In- •ufllclent defcnae ogainst luch enterpriaing opponents, llie attack took place njvi^m^ent discovered no intention to violate its neutrality, the English ministers, eager to please the pnbllc by acting on a system of vigor, despatched to the Baltic both a tieet and an army, In order to compel the surrender of the Danish navy uiion condition of its being restored ■I a |>MM. Tn neh a damaml Iha enwn lav* an ImmwHal* nagativ*, dw'laring tliat ka waa both able and willing to maintain bla n*ulrallty, and that hia ll*«t rnnid nn« li* given nfi on any such eiin- ditlon. On IhU th* Knglhih army liind***ntm*nt fslt on that oenaalon by th* Kmp«ror of Ruiaia was ai> KTrst •• In d*priv« England during four anlnons year* of th* lM>n«flt of hi* allliinc* i aiul tha salinre of the Danish fleet ao exasparatsd the rrown prlnc* and th* nation at larg*, thai th*y forth- with declared war againat Knglaml, throwing tb*m- aelvcs completely Intn th* arma of Kranr*. The hoatlliti** iH-tween England and Denmark w*r« carried on liy aea, partly at th* entrance of the llaitio, and partly on the eoast of Norway. These conaiatfd of a aeries of actlona lietween single veaaeia or amall detachments, in which tho Danes fought olwaya with •nirit, and not Infrrniiiently with •ucness. In regard < trad*, both natlima anlfered severely ; th* llrillah merchantmen In tho Hullic beinu much annoyed by Danish cmlaera, while th« foreign Inide nf Denmark waa in a manner sns|iended by England's naval su- periority. ropulnlitm. — The Increase and dislrihution of tho pnpniatinn of Denmark will appear ttoia the following table ; Th* population of Denmark Proper, 1st February, 18M, was as follows : Zoslsnil and Moon . . . Bomholm Fnnan, ete Laalanil and Falster., North Jutland Total ITfl.SM (»,4M 81 .Wi II.IU «8,tS4 tWfitr Ronil niiU. 1H,4T« 1SMD4 67,i«8 _IW«.MI 1,'llY,V89 T.'liil. 8I.M7 IST.SIS Tl»,017 m which it is three miles distant. All merchant Teasels are obliged, under certain reservations depend- ing on the weather, to salute the castle by lowering their top-sails in passing. In the vicinity is Horienlyst (Mary's delight), till lately a royal chatnau, now the property of the corporation, and let to a private family. The towns of Altona and Wanslwcic are included un- der the head of foreign commerce, as standing without the toll-regu)ations of the kingdom. The navigation from the north of Germany to Den- mark, around the northern point of Jutland, being always tedious, and sometimes dangerous, gave rise to the idea of uniting the two seas by means of a canal, communicating with the river Eyder. The work was commenced in 1777, and e, as well as from Tonning and the ports of ^hleswig, and still more small Danish bark.i belonging to the islands, find it a great convenience to traverse the Canal of Kiel. The hazard on the north coast of Jutland arisen from extensive sand-banks and a number of currents. — E. B. The customs regulations of Denmark did not assume any fixed or permanent character until toward the close of the last century. No regular system of com- mercial policy was pursued ; and the regulations which, from time to time, were enforced, were issued more with the immediate view of recruiting the treasury of the crown, than with any regard to tlie encouragement of the industrial or commercial enterprise of the coun- try. High and prohibitoiy duties were imposed ; ex- clusive privileges were granted by the crown to such companies as were either rich or favored enough to se- cure them ; competition, so essential to success in every pursuit, was prevented ; and the industrial energies of the nation, the only true basis of individual as well as of national wealth, were crushed by the monopolizing spirit and grasping cupidity of these privileged associ- ations. They enjoyed the exclusive right of trading, even with the colonists; of supplying their wants; taking in exchange their surplus productions at such valuations nnd prices as they thought pmper to fix and wore willing t'l |iay.' About the period already referred to, a better system was gradually introduced. Many of the restrictions which hod hitherto contributed to fetter and depress the foreign trade of Dennutrk were taken off; a new taritf was adopted ; and th'o whsle system of regulations was coiisnlidutcd into the " ordinance 31, Christian VII., lUted the Ist of Kel)ruary, 1797, re- lating to the customs;" which, with the various enact- ments since adopted, cunstitutus tlie l>asis of the pres- ent commercial policy of Dennmrk. Under these regulatiuns, a distinction is drawn be- tween privilegi"! and nnprivileged natlont. The former arc those with ■■ Iiich, by treaty, couventlon, or other- wise, a reciprocity and equrlity of commerce and navi- gation have been established — such treaty, convention, etc., prescribing the terms on which reciprocity U granted ; the latter are subject to extra duties, amount- ing to as high as 60 per cent, above the rates fixed in the general tariif. To the former class the United Stiitcs belong, the treaty by which entire reciprocity and equality of commerce and navigation are guaran- tied, dating as far back as April, 1826. The following abstract embraces the principal stipulations of thii treaty, so far as it relates to commerce and naviga- tion: No particular favors in respect of commerce or navi- ga,4]7 tons, and, as appears from official returns, floating 765,475 tons of merchandise. It may be interesting to inquire to what extent the national flag of Denmark participated in this general movement. The total number of vessels which en- tered and cleared on foreign voyages in IB'14 was X),- 845, with a tonnogo of 1,260,417 tons, and conveying 765,475 tons of freight. Of these vessels, there were under the Danish flag 22,275, with a tonnage of 717,- 891 tons, and conveying 450,070 tons of freight. Thus, Denmark had, 1 St. In the number of tossoIs S5.8 per cent. Sd. In the tonnsfio A2.T " M. In the cargoes 60 " Leaving for all other nations, 1st. In tho number of vessels lii.i percent 2d. In the tonnage 47.4 " 8(1. In the cargoes 4Vt " The aggregate tonnage of ves.sels employed in tlio trade between the United States and Denmark in 1844, was 3,458 tons. In 1851, it had decreased to 2,608 ; in 1856, it was 2,013. / HnoniRT TaMU or Duch abk, Jahvabt, ISM. 629 DEN MiBwk. I H■• riNDEKCIHg IN 1847, WITH AMOUNT Or DcTin. OaMrfptlon of Marohjui* ■llw. Total nnmber of veasela, 5,154; stesmera, 87. Tonnigo of MlUDZ TeH«Ia, 103.171 : stoamon, 1,819. Hone-power, 9,069. Boo (joOm Ahnanac, 1867. From official returns of the foreign trade of Den- mark, it appears that in 1847 the imports and exports united amounted to i)4G,B00,000 ; a sum nearly equally divided l)ctween Denmork Proper and its dependencies. In estimating the true relative value of this commercial movement, we must bear in mfaid that the kingdom proper contains a population of 1,860,000 inhabitants, and comprises an area of 683 Danish superflcial miles ; while the duchies contiin a population of 842,000 souls, spread over an area of only !U8 Danish miles. The Danish miles are given as found in the authorities ftrom which these facts are condensed, and because they will suffice for the purpose of comparison. Den- mark and dependencies in Europe contain an area of 1,081,076 geographical miles, and a population of 2,296,687, exclusive of Greenland, Iceland, and the Fanw islands. Thus, the latter, with a territory less thfj'i OLe half, and a population more than one third less, , xitributes more thun its proportionate share to the general commerce of the country. The importance which Denmark attaches to the sovereignty of the duchies is thus anounted for. Tliey are not only the granaries from which her cereal supplies are obtained, but they also constitute the commercial conduits through which her principal products — ^llve cattle, horses, etc. — ^pass to a market. The loss of the duchies would, besides, inflict an irreparable injury upon Denmark, by outtlng off the enormous revenue which she has so long derived from the Sound dues ; as, in the event of a separation, the Schleswig-Hol- stein Canal would soon become the principal route to the Baltic. The description and quantities of merchandise which constitute the cliief basis of the exchanges between Denmark and foreign countries, for any one year of average commercial activity, will furnish the most ac- curate standard by which to judge of the present or prospective importance of the trade between that king- dom and the United States. Data from which to calculate, even approximately, the value of importa. tions, ore not at hand. A valuation based upon such data as are possessed may, however, lie attempted. Wo And that the duties levied on importations for the year 1847 reached as high as $2,685,654, or, in round numbers, $2,600,000. Allowing 12 per cent, on the ira|)orts ns the amount of duties, we have as their value for that year over #20,000,000. The value of the exports, as registered in the Danish custom-houses, is more accessible, and will be found under its proper head In the following tables. Of the $2,685,8.54 which is found under the column of duties on Imports, the portion received in the cus- tom-houses of Denmark Proper, amounted to $1,806,- 246, and that which was levied In ^he duchies reached $879,408. While this latter sum is less than 60 per cent, of that received in Denmark Proper, we must not infer that importation into the duchies was In the same pMi)ortion. On the contrary, the table which follows will show that, in general, they Import more — in some cases 100 {ler cent, more — than the kingdom proper. The disproportion in the amount of duties results from the operation of different tariffs ; that of Denmark Proper being much liigher than the tariff ap- plicable to the Duchies of Sclileswlg and Kolsteln. Altona, In the Duchy of llolstcln, the most important commercial city in Denmark next to Copenhagen, Is a free port; and all goods may be landed and stored without any other charges than port does. Cottons Bugar and syrups Woolens ,. Wood Coffee Iron, anmanlkoturiid and minufacturad. . , Wines Bait Brandy and other tplrUs Tobaoeo , Coal Cloths, linen " Bilks. Cotton, raw and spun . Tea Olosswaros Pottery Homp and flax Itioe Fruits Paper Bkins and hides tanned Yam, cotton " woolen Other articles Mttiunr* or qwMltlly. Ktlogs.. Tol>1. Onblofeet, Kllogs..... Total duties collected. Heotolltres Kllogs..... Tons t >l 1,085,000 18,074,000 556,000 8,464,000 6,57S,000 20,608,000 81,000 16,006,000 • 88,000 8,816,000 614,(XI0 618,000 87,000 1,374,000 883,000 1,766,000 868,000 2,566,000 3,868,000 1,888,000 884,000 680,000 162,000 6^000 Amounti of dntldi. |82.%600 891,000 866,878 808,506 159,588 126,178 184,484 83,886 83,886 n,876 51,886 49,476 89,060 84,696 81,848 28,880 89,994 18,828 16,740 18,080 9,114 8,184 8,848 680,320 I 2,685,664 The hectolitre is equal to 26-4178 gallons. The authorities from which the preceding table is compiled omit the countries from which the different articles were exported. The United States' Treasury Report for 1847, however, furnishes data to supply the omission as respects the United States. From that document the following statements are derived : American tonnage, entered from Denmark none. " " clcsied ftom the U. B. for Den- mark A 816 tons. Foreign tonnage, entered flrora Denmark 717 " " " ricared from the U. 8. for Don- mark 2,274 « Total tonnage entered and cleared 1S47. . 8,807 tons. The trade of the United States with Denmark is shown by the following exhibit of exports ft-om and imports into tho United States. Exih,rt«. Import*. Totft). 1826 $84.^870 (49,264 |S95,184 1886. 68',985 48,971 684,956 1»I6. 121,248 1,318 124,656 1856 287,715 1,130 828,845 The total exports of domestic produce to Denmark from the United States for the fiscal year ending Juno, 1856, were, In American vessels (158,904 In foreign vessels 85,966 Totoi 'im^m And foreign produce 81,768 Total for the year (887,713 GXFOBTS rXOM THE ITnITRD STATES TO DENMARK rOB TRB Yeabs enoinu Jkke 80, 1847 and 1!i50. DoMTlpllon of merchiuidUe, Dye woods Tobacco lbs. Spirits of turpentine . galls. KIco tlorcos Cotton (raw) lbs. Kre and other grains Flour bbia, Itoain and tnrpontlno " Whale Jc other flsh oil, gls. Bnndrles Drugs and modli-lnes. . Totol Quiuillilfa, 2,119 7,756 .^,029 660,738 ■"i7 V«ln,->. (210 8,708 115,625 68,609 6,000 181 456 11,888 6,019 IMS. ViUiiel. 81,763 49,663 127,790 8,316 15,202 803,895 I 827,718 It appears that the United States supplied Denmark In 1847 with all the rice imported into thnt country, and a large share of the raw cotton, spirits of turpen- tine, flsh-oU, grains, etc. Wines and spirits are chiefly imported ftum France, eitlier direct or l>y way of Ham- burg, and cottons almost exclusively from England, but in 1856-6, the exportation of tobacco, groin, flour, oils, and turpentine, had ceased. . \ i DEN 880 DEN Ths following table exhibits the vftlne of exports from Denmark and the dnchies to all foreign conntrlea daring the years designated. The valaes are given In ftsncs, each equal to 18'6 cents. DetrtptloB otTMrtltmoilM, Cereal*. LlreanimaU Bntter. Bacon, etc Hides and skins... Seeds Wool (raw) Salted provisions., Bones Total Franos.. isu. 41,88S,000 1S,4B8,000 8,000,000 1,A29,U<0 2,710,000 1,168,000 779,000 098,000 8M,noo 70,«»,00V I84S. 4«,818,0«0 11,780,000 11,708,000 1,802,000 1,720,000 1,005,000 680,000 461,000 968,000 76,178,000 I8«1. 6^714,000 11,66«JD00 9,066,000 1,670,000 1,816,000 1,««),000 1,679,000 780,000 807,000 84,745,000 The following snggostion is found in a commercial report recently issued under the direction of the French government, which may be found useful to others be- tides the French merchants engaged in the trade with the countries of northern Europe : " In the northern nations, especially Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, there is an active demand for a beverage extensively used in those countries, which our merchants engaged in supplying them with lig- iteurt, might advantageously imitate. It is a mixture known among the northern people as gammel Franih riVn (old French wine), and composed of white wine, rum, syrup, and spices. This kind of net/ut Ik highly esteemed by a people who have no relish for liquors, unless they are highly sweetened." In 1830 there was published, by order of the Danish government, a statistical report of the commerce and navigation of Denmark Proper for the year 1848. From this publication, it appears that though Denmark was involved in difificulties with the Germanic Con- federation during the year 1848, the general commerce of the kingdom suffered no sensible diminution. This was mainly owing to the geographical position, as well as to the militarj' murine of Denmark, by means of which she was enabled to blockade most of the German ports, and thus give free scope to her own merchant flag. Cnt off from the German markets, firom which she nsnallj' draws her supplies of articles of first necessity for her manufactures, she sought for new channels through which to supply her wants ; and at once found England already waiting to avail herself of the difficulties in which she was embroiled. Hence, the principal foreign trade of Denmark during this year, was carried on with England. The numlier of vessels employed in the foreign trade of Denmark in 1848 was as follows : ■atared Vessels 7,008 Tonnage 383,747 Cleared " 7,816 " J58,98« ToUl 14,819 " 692,579 The tonnage of merchandise was 480,240 tons. From North and South Ameaica there entered, dur- ing the same year, Gl vessels of 12,820 tons ; while there cleared 67 vessels of 15,368 tons, of which there were 18 vessels of 3,736 tons under a foreign flag. The value of the imports and exports from all coun- tries, in 1848, as compared with 1847, was as follows : 1848.— Import* 118,021,860 Export* 8,076,678 Total trade In 1848 »21,098,888 .1847.-Import» $18,69/,71« Eiport* 7,015,882 Total trade In 1847 .TT. 20,618,078 Increase ^ 1943 '486,460 Of the alxive ligures, the trade of Copenhagen alone •baorbed: 184a— Importa .-.. «9,808,624 Exports I'if?!?** Total trade of Copenhagen in 1848.. 111,271,786 1M7.— Import* 19,069,860 ';. ExporU J,8I6,860 '^ ' '' ToUl trade of Copenbagcn In 1847 . . 10,884.720 Increase In 1848 |387,0«U See Commercial Jtelatiom ^ftht U. JS., 1867. The following table exhibits the trade feetWMn lh« United States and Denmark during the year 1848 Navioatiom and Comiiiiicii. Entered the United States from Denmark 1 ,494 tons. Cleared from the United States for Denmark..,. 8,438 " Imports from Denmark 119,017 Exports to Denmark 181,913 Of the general exports from Denmark during 1848, England received 50 per cent. ; and of grains, as high OS 65 per cent. ; while in 1847 the proportion exported to Great Britain was only 86 per cent, of the whole. The exports to the United States were, Woolen and worsted yams |856 Ho*ler]r 662 Bristles, 8,188 lbs 1,110 Ksgs, 53,290 lb* 1,614 Coal, 96 tons 410 Unennmorated, paring a duty of 6 per cent 9,467 " .. » JO » 2,694 " u .1 80 « 241 Sundries 2,77 8 Total $19,017 Copenhagen, as already remarked, absorbs about 80 per cent, of the entire trade of Denmark. In 18ol there entered at this port 821 steam-vessels, propelled by engines of 44,865 horse-power aggregate, and float- ing 4,700 tons aggregate of merchandise, viz. : From Prntala 620 tons. " England 978 •' " Luboc 1,688 " " Weimar 1,008 " " Elsewhere 606 " The chief imports into Copenhagen trom foreign countries in 1851, were iron, coal, cabinetmakers' and other wood, flre-wood, and heav}' merohandise. From the United States and Cuba there entered 15 vessels, of 8,158 tons' measurement, and with 2,884 tons of merchandise ; and from the Danish West Indies, 34 vessebi, of 8,670 tons' measurement, and with 8,632 tons' merehandise. The imports of sugar were as fol- lows: From Danish West Indies kilogrammes, 6,600,000 " Brazil " 1,50(P,(H)0 " Cuba " 2,760,000 " Java " 650,1WO " Entrepots or Europe " 100,0(J0 Total " 'l6;600,000 Imports of coffee were from Brazil, Haj-ti, and European entrepots, 5,250,000 kilogrammes ; of which there were exported from Copenhagen 500,000 kilo- grammes, leaving 4,750,000 kilogrammes for consump- tion. The value of the foreign commerce of Denmark for 1853 and 1854 is exhibited in the subjoined table : OamnncR op DsxifAnK and the Dithiks or BrnLEswio AND UOLBTKIII rOR TIIR YeAK* 1863 AND 18.^. Coantrj'- I8M. Import •. Hambnrp.... Great Britain Altona Norway Sweden Knula U. 8tate^ West Indies, and 8, Sea. Lnboe Dan. Colonies. Pmssia, Holland Iceland Bremen Franco Belgium Mecklenburg... Hanover Madlti^rranean E Indies, China and Oulnca Greenlsnil. . . Faroe Isles . . All othon. . . 16,988,378 7,664,040 4,141,248 2,179,825 2,918,5iM 8,566,109 8,467,4.'M 2,169,566 1,914,682 1,208.808 713,090 806,056 1,012,1M 668,407 2,^^,869 877,671 165,277 444,781 289,020 276,882 146,168 267,865 Eiportn. 9,019,762 10,662,224 8,821,698 S,aM,727 1,821,128 812,750 860,246 1,015,»I4 880,006 91A129 1,199,444 607,788 46.926 825,905 498,449 278,299 828,012 14,461 122,013 10fl,«46 63,306 424,864 ToUl (thalers). 60,860,712 1 81,268,800 60,861,711 { 89,088,108 Imitorlt. ll!,S59,(16« 10,882,863 4,481,490 2,246,696 8,657>18 854,618 2,997,838 2,651,947 2,800,786 2,U01,.VI9 8H,H8fl 840.783 1,232,626 619,718 222,805 678,374 261,1192 148,365 278,877 48,188 106,293 1,096,880 Eiport*. 9,048,n5 12,194,060 5,208,919 2,553,518 1,773,W7 49,610 142,175 1,170,229 849,600 950,001 2,278,108 658,107 i 74,364' 17.H,969 ! 872,692 ! 269,644 , 3I6,6S0 88,086 1 73,4401 76,748 . 69,411 jSpIr Tob 8ho jHi» T. T Danish vessels arriving in tho United States from the Danish island* of Santa Cruz and St. Thoniaa are BEN Itt DEN |gS6 M2 l,tlO 1,614 410 »,45T 2,"80,000 6fio,noo 100,0(10 MM. 1 ■■ Eiport.. Wl ■m,04«,775 nA8 12,194,0«O 4IN) B,«fl8,»19 «»n a,5iS,51« %4S 1,T:8,B4T «1H 49,«10 T4,8M 17S,909 1 87'2,*)9-2 , 869,644 , 8in,6S0 88,Uti« '. not chargeable with tonnage duties in the ports of the United States ; the vessels of Denmark and the United State)* being placed on the same footing, in that re- spect, under the provisions of tiie act of Congress of the 81st May, 1880, and the treaty with Denmarlc of the 2eth April, 1836. The following table ezhiliits the commerce of the United States with Denmarli flrom the year 1820 to the year 1866, by which it wil be seen that this commerce does not assume any addt tional importance from year to year ; YMTimdliif. Kiporti to Denniark. Inpotta. Wkaniiif tktra «•> Id BiUlon •nd Speel«. Tottlug. Clemd. 1 DomuUc. Foreign. ToU. Tol.1. Kiported. InipaTfe4- Amcrirui, Foreign. Sept. 80, 18ai |lto,6'tf3 ♦860,536 ♦526,108 ♦16,156 .... 4,142 ma 82,028 160,757 192,780 11,282 1,248 .... 1838 89,788 68,184 92,91T 24,028 .... 909 267 18M 86,487 299,822 885,809 .... .... .... 2,416 82 1895 214,617 637,146 851,068 46,827 6,099 200 1826 100,582 245,288 846,870 lX'!2i .... ♦842 2,681 .... 18J7 148,958 258,988 402,941 40,822 .... 2,928 .... 18S8 160,979 836,689 687,668 117,946 ♦600 4,289 203 18W 78,697 18,106 86,768 »?'2'1 .... 1,048 1,070 1880 Total... 76,292 29,048 105,840 5,884 1.929 ♦1,087,786 ♦2,489,568 ♦8,477,364 ♦854,570 ♦600 ♦842 27,276 1,811 B«pt 80,1881 tl78,88S ♦176,888 ♦866,216 ♦576 ♦10,600 8,060 4,2® 1882 181,605 860,115 681,720 68,812 18,600 728 1888 180,511 112,458 292,961 28,172 7,000 2,907 791 1884 99,643 818,461 418,104 62,543 5,842 12,523 2,280 1886 212,461 110,889 823,800 121,000 4,900 2,881 1,282 1886 814,288 271,717 &86,9!l6 48,971 8,718 1,190 188T 172,2011 109,421 281,081 102,819 1,092 4,797 1888 98,081 24,750 122,881 27,118 880 1,072 1889 60,084 88,177 88,811 80,997 70S 961 1840 Totol... 76,188 17,868 94,061 7,501 824 1,362 tl,668,»79 ♦1,580,(184 ♦8,094,008 ♦543,087 ♦46,842 21,811 14,448 Sopt 80, 1841 ♦110,424 ♦24,304 ♦134,788 ♦8,791 .... 889 1,965 1842 70,766 27.819 98,586 • .•• 795 917 9 mos. 1843 74,0.'i7 6,610 81,167 • . * . . • 1 465 1,714 June 80, 1444 1>»,869 11,975 112,834 6,068 481 2,567 1846 124,666 20,601 1A187 22,429 1,040 2,116 1848 97,746 23,496 121,242 1,818 666 1,398 1847 198,952 4,948 208,895 475 .... 216 9,274 1848 164,661 17,262 181,918 19,617 im 2,676 1849 55,188 65,139 19,204 >..• 1,681 1850 Total... 165,874 20,706 186,580 627 ..- . 602 8,282 ♦ 1,163,744 ♦157,56d ♦ 1,321,809 ♦78,419 .... ^ 6,817 20,524 Jane 80, 1861 ♦92,2,'i7 ♦19,640 ♦111,797 ♦88,887 199 3,086 1862 93,009 22,643 115,052 16,611 .... 874 8,916 1853 82,1)08 .... 82,903 ...t .... 832 2,174 1864 87,S70 28,547 111,417 8,091 714 1,894 1865 70,996 8,676 79,071 1,701 .... 1,210 1,027 1866 196,960 81,755 227,716 1,180 .... 2,197 716 SlATBHKST KXIIIBITINU TIIK CHARACTER, QUANTITIES, AND Values op UuxcaTio Piiodittb of the United States, TDOETIIRR WITH THE TOTAL VALUES OF FOSXION I'UOD- tiers, Imported imto Ubnhabk, from tuk United States in 1864 and 1866. I8H. I8U. I ValiiK. QilMltlllu. Viiliiu. Oil, spcrmacotl Whalebone ♦485 galls. 1,920 1,416 ihiL aiinn ♦8,616 1,218 104 297 18,846 -80 19,263 90,971 1,741 4,619 897 Cnndjos, spormacetl. . . Mnnufacturos of wood, lionln and tnrpentlno. . Flour. r "i»1 8,815 67 74974 868 bbls. 4,860 bbls. ""s Blaoult Rico Ckitton 8,340 ill" 9n«ii« Tobacco 1,868 938 1,000 166 "6o4 lbs. lV,728 pairs 6,000 Spirits from moloues. . Si>lrits of turpentine. . Tobacco, inaimftictured Shoes, Indla-rubbor. .. Hltcollaneous Tot. domes, products Tot foreign products Total trade ♦87,870 28,547 ♦tU,9U6 8,075 ♦111,417 ♦79,6il The l>anish merchants no longer import tobacco from the countries of its production. In 1818 there were 2,03'2,,387 liilogrammes imported, nt a volue of about $469,966 20, principally from Holland, Bremen, and Hamburg, where select cargoes can at all times l)e purchased. These markets are supplied chiefly from the United States. From Cuba Denmark imports an- nuiiUy aliout 12,2.')0 kilogrammes — say 27,000 ll)s. of segars. Tliere are no restrictions of any kind on tlio sale of tol>acco in Denmark ; and under the inmlerate duty [leaf or unmanufactured, 80| cents per 110^ lbs. ; manufactured, $3 l.'i per llOJt lbs.], direct importations from the United States could not fail to l)e profitable. value, ♦hlSO 639 1,404 1,868 106 In the article of cigars, at least, there is no reason why the United States could not successfully compete with Cuba. The quantities of tobacco exported direct from the United States to Denmark during the four years specilied, were as follows : 1862— Unmanufnctarod 15 hhds, ; Manufiictured 8,085 lbs. 1858 — Unmanufactured none Manufiictured 9,248 lbs. 1864— Unmanufactured 18 hhds. Manufactured 800 lbs. 1865 — Unmanufactured none Manufiictured 11,728 lbs. •• 1,741 So long, however, as any duty is imposed in Den- mark higher than that levied on similar merchaniiise in Hamburg and the other Hanscatic towns, viz., from -} to )- of 1 per cent., they will continue, more espe- cially Hamburg, to be the entrepots from which Den- mark will have to draw her supplies of such colo- nial produce as her own islands in the West Indies can not furnish. Cereal produce constitutes the leading staple of Danish exports, and forms the chief basis of her exchanges with foreign countries. Indeed, Den- mark may be considered an exclusively agricultural and maritime country. Such, at least, is the predom- inant feature of her national character. In 18,51 the entire exports of the kingdom amounted to upward of $7,500,000. Of this sum, cereals appropriated $4,500,- 000. The commerce of the kingdom and the duchies for the year 1852, imports and exports, reached the sum of $42,450,810 90 ; and the proportion of cereals in the export trade was about equal to that of the pre- ceding year. During the past 10 or 12 years, however, manufactures have made consideralde progress in tl:c kingdom and the duchies •, and, were tlio obstacles re- moved, with which this branch of national industry DEN 892 DEN hM to oontond, tha most opprasslT* of which are royal and privUaged KonopoUu, and heavy consumption dutica, that progress wonld be stUI moi« encouraging, and its influence mora perceptibiy felt in the aug- mented wealth and increased commercial prosperity of Denmarlc. The following brief summary of the pres- ent state of manufactures in thia kingdom is condensed from recent Danish official publications, and is given for the purpose of showing the extent to which Den- marlc mutt rely on the worlcshnps of other nations for the necessary supplies for her 2,600,000 subjects. Woclem. — ^The woolen manufactures of Denmark are coarse, and of a very inferior quality. Tha chief factories are those of Neumunster, in the duchy of Holstein. The proportion which these manufactures bear to the quantity annually consumed in the king- dom may be seen from the following statement : Foreign woolens eonsamed >fi,9u6 IbSw 148,000 lbs. Nenmunster woolens consumed 86,700 " 88,000 " Besides these woolen cloths, Denmark consumes large quantities of other manufactures of wool, partic- ularly such as are suitable for women's apparel. These are all important. During the 2 years above-named, this class of imports reached as high as 320,000 lbs. each year, yielding a revenue to the government of nearly (10,000. Cotton*. — The manufacture of cottons was intro- duced into Denmark about 40 years back, but its prog- ress was slow and inconsiderable until within the past 10 years. At Copenhagen there were manufactured from 1836 to 1840 about 800,000 Danish ells (about 2'26 feet each) per annum from cotton twists supplied from English markets, Sinoe 1840, the custom-house declarations indicate a large augmentation in the quan- tity of spun cotton (twist) imported. In 1844 it reached as high as 911,000 Danish livres. The Dan- ish livre is a fraction over 1 lb. avoirdupois. The manufacture of printed cottons has been attempted, but the experiment has but indifferently succeeded ; indeed, its present continuance is owing to high pro- tective duties. The chief cotton manufactures may, therefore, be said to consist of old-fashioned, heavy, coarse pieces, brought through the loom by a process at once slow and expensive. There is but one factory in the kingdom — that at Nyhavn — where modem im- provements are introduced. The success which has so far attended the operations at this factor}' may eventu- ally create an extensive demand in Denmark for Amer- ican cotton. How far these factories fall short of the demands for home consumption may be gathered from the following figures : Corton Glotus ihpoitsd into DniiiiAaK raopaa, raoM 1$4« TO ISfiO. 1,1(0,000 lbs. 1,110^000 " 184«.... 1,120,000 lbs. I 1849.. 1847.... 1,010,000" 18M>.. 1848.... 780,000" | These importations were destined for the kingdom proper. The quantities imported for consumption in the duchies can not be ascertained ; but tlioir relative consumption of such manufactures considerably ex- ceeds that of the kingdom proper. Paper. — At Strondmullen and Silklierg there are several flo'ir;.>iiing paper-mills ; but the prices rule so high, that, despite the protective duties, paper figures largely in t!>e imports from foreign countries. In 1860 there were imported 217,663 kilogrammes, valued at #68,180 88. Sugar. — Sugar refineries have reached n high state of prosperity in Denmark. Of upward of 12,000,000 lbs. of refined sugar consumed in the kingdom, or ex- ported, but little is imported from foreign countries. Kaw sugars, however, constitute an important item in the importations of the country ; indeed, it is known, that if we except England, there is mora sugar con- sumed in Denmark, in proportion to its popuUtion, than in any other country in the world. In I860 raw sugar imported reached 13,186,288 kilogrammai, val- ued at (1,616,931 66. Of this, there were imported direct from the United States only 77,253 lbs., valued at (8,102. jPorctlam.—Than is a factory at Copenhagen, under government monopoly, for manufactures of this de- scription. It contributes but little, however, either to the revenues of the country or the wants of the people. Tha manufacturaa are of beautiful fabrication and brilliant colors, but they are not considered durable. Notwithstanding a high protective duty, the markets of Denmark are supplied with manufactures of porce- lain ftrom Franca. In 1860 there were atwut 40,000 lbs. imported. VittUleriei. — This is tha most flourishing branch of manufactures, both in the kingdom and in the duchies. Nearly all the spirits produced in these establishments are from grain. The excise duty, or impost, derived from the distilleries, forms a large item in tha revenue of Denmark. In 1860 they produced 21,262,078 Dan- ish cans (over 1 quart each) of spirituous liquors. During the same year, 2,492 gallons of spirits from molasses were imported direct from the United States, at a value in the home market of $1,009. BreKeriet. — The number in Denmark is not known, officially ; but they can not add much to the internal wealth of the kingdom, as tLeir annual consumption of malt does not exceed 700,000 lbs. In 1860 there were imported direct from the United States 14,617 lbs. of hops, valued at $685. (jHoM-workt. — There are 4 establishments in the kingdom, 4 in Schleswig, and 1 in Holstein. They are chiefly devoted to the manufacture of bottles, of which they produce, annually, upward of 3,000,000. Ship^uiUing. — The principal ship-yards in the king- dom are at Copenhagen and Elsinora, and are chiefly used in the repair of vessels. At Apenrade, a capa- cious port opening into the IJttle Belt, vessels of tha largest class are built. In 1846 12 vessels, and in 1847, 15 were built at this place. In the former year, 30 large class vessels, Iwlonging to this port, entered the harliors of Kio de Janeiro and Montevideo. f'outtJeriu. — Prior to the separation of Norway, Denmark drew all her supplies of iron from that coun- try. Since that event, the eflTorts to obtain sufficient supplies, even for maritime purposes, have not been crowned with success. The geological formation of the country is not such as to furnish minerals ; hence, with the exception of building materials, but little i£ left for the miner to develop. There are, however, founderies at Garlshytto, near Rendsburg, which em- ploy upward of 250 hands, and produce, annually, 200,000 lbs. of iron ; one at Copenhagen, of about equal annual produce, from which considerable quan- tities of anchors, chains, etc., are obtained ; and seve- ral others, distributed throughout the duchies, at Altona, Kiel, Flensburg, and Ottousen. Near Elsinore there is a founder)' for the manufacture of fire-arms, which produces, annually, about 2,000 muskets. Be- sides the nuinufacturing establishments above enumer- ated, there are in tho kingdom 200 tan-yards, and 60 tan-mills, yielding annually, the latter 2,600,000 lbs. of ground tan, and the former 3,080,000 tanned hides. In addition to these, there are 88 cunying establish- ments, in which 164,000 lbs. of skins are annually pre- pared for hosiery and otLer uses. At Altona 000,000 lbs. of candles are manufactured each year ; 100,000 lbs. of refined wax are annually produced in the king- dom and duchies; soap, oils, chemicals, gunpowder, etc., but the manufacture of these last-named articles is so inconsiderable as scarcely to afl°ect importationt from foroign countries. The only manufactures in Denmark which yield a supply equal, or nearly equal, to the home consump- tion, are those of refined sugan and tobacco. The former is fully adequate to meat tha demands of the home market ; and the latter, augmented to soma ax- of thei lego 1 from their j opened and. : tensive exports valoren ton. ports, is, prob provislo introdut sels emj taket age. draught King regulatl St. Croi •luno 30f of the sa Section from natl there dl« sted and ', Danlab) DEN t«nt hy Imports ftrom the United StatM and Onh*, equally so. The quantltiei annually imported from these conntries have already been given. Alton* counts 28 tobacco factories, employing 488 bands, and producing, annually, 1,062,068 lbs. of tobacco, 106,' 487 lbs. of snuff; and 12,000,000 segars. At Copenll»' gen 4'/'S workmen are employed, and the annual produce reaches 1,000,000 lbs. of tobacco, and 10,000,> 000 segars. Besides these, there are other Umttm factories, at Flensbnrg in Schleswig, aod Kiel in Uolstein, which contribute largely toward the national supply. It has been already shown whence Denmark obtains her supplies of unmanufactured tobacco, and why her manufacturers are forced to purchase it at MO* ond hand in the neighboring entrepots, instead of im' porting direct firom the countries of production, It will bo easily seen, from the preceding summai^, how much Denmaric still depends on foreign oountriaa for the supply of her most essential wants. 6inos she has lieen Induced to profit by the example of Kngland, and other neighboring countries, in abolishing tits duty on raw cotton, her spindles have multiplied, and she is now learning to depend on her own capital and industry for the spun cottons which she has heretofore derived, and which, to a great extent, she still derives, from the Khglish spinning-factories. A similar ■nodi-' OOUPABATIVR SlATESIEST Of THB COMMKltOK 0» TUB Va\Ttt» ST+TM Wlflj fllB tiA1>lt8tt WtlSt IhBIBS, KJIIIBITINO TnR VALUB of EXPOBTS 10 AND lilPOBTS »B01I BACII l)UlIirT»¥, 4«i(l THB TaKIKilS* Of AMBKIOAH ASD UANIBn VESSBUI ABBivmo vaou and dbpabtino to baou CouhtrVi nVIMNM fMH Itum iimitHiAtHO, 9 DEN Anatinn In haf t«fin' In respect to nnmunufactured Mmnm, attd itihtit raw material not grown on her soil, wuitM t#ll4 tli*t mily to augment the importations of surI) [innUum ftrnn the prodncing countries, but would aMltnvndy tiitttribltln l« attract Investments of her own «*|)lti«llKi'«<, mttHlpl)^ her manufactured productions, and eimbJM llf r (tl iMi'iime «n exporter of the sam'i descrip- tion* of HMfulMtullse which have lo long been an nn- niMt drain »\t>m the wealth of the kingdom, and a iMNtvy *trttWlW)la<* half^Hnufadtured, such as cotton twists, etc. ; whda Itar annual e*priuin of an ax- tensive commerce. The duties upon imports and exports are moderate, not exceeding 1^ per cent, od valorem ; and port charges do not exceed 19 cents per ton. This does not apply to vessels from European ports, which pay 45 cents per ton. The distinction is, probably, made to encourage the introduction of provisions, rather than the fancy articles and liquors introduced from Europe. At St. Croix, however, ves» sels employed in tlie foreign trade, even if they ilo not take a pilot on board, are compelled to pay half-pilot- uge. The full charge is $1 per foot of the vessel's draught, in and out. In 1832 an ordhiance of the King of Denmark, dated at Copenhagen, prescril>ed regulations for foreign navigation and commerce with St. Croix. This was superseded 1)y an ordinanoe of .Tune 30th, 1850, published at St. Croix 15th of August of the same year, and which is now in force. Section 1 provides that all vessels, native or foreign, both fk'oni national and forclf^ porta, may trado to St Croix, and there discharge and load at tho two ports of entry, (Jhristian- sted and Frodoricksted. Sselion 3. Vessels belonging to the Daolah West India Xalanda, trading between Denmark and tha MtwiMi DImII fttjaf, In futtire, the same rlghla and priv- llDgNS M Vtimi\ll Iic1rt«pt)f« (d tho mother country. Section 3. tjvury yfiiM(i| It) Ui (MV ^ltttmge dues aeoordlng to Its tonnage, lli)(h m tr In «tie half of its tonnage, per commcr- Pial laitt yil fipiitit I if it diarhstgo or load leas titan one quarter of Its tmrngf, »» fmilttlefftsl last 10 cents. AM vessels not diwhoFgiHg i,r (HKilldu sfe enempt from tonnage dnes, as well as viisiwlii Miinme Ul the Itatilnh West India Islands, when tra4llllj llflwti, M tli(< illiiive rate, for keeping the har- lior, wttn wll«f*«» «nil other appurtenances, in repair. Tl)8 6th >iaMliiin (irovliles that, within 24 hours after the vassal liaa Itc^n himnht (n anchor, the whole cargo, wliether intfrnlfil to he discharged or not, shall lie en- t«r«4 A( (in* VUStoiH^lloUse, stiedfled, and in writing. If tlw wIimI** mtifii In not to lie discharged, tho remain- der iihall, «tn tlix VKiifiers clearing out, l>e entered for e*|wr( In tho mne tnanner. l<'or duties on imports and eifports, artii'les free of duty, and regulations rel- ative to tita tra(l«< of Hi, Vtuin, reference is made to the tarilf, in U- mitted to the exaction from deference and respect for Denmark ; but it can not be expected, great as is our regard for that ancient and respectable power, that we shall submit to it much longer." The 10th article of the treaty of 1826 stipulates as follows : " The present convention shall be in force for ten years from the date hereof ; and further, until the end of one year after either of the contracting parties shall have given notice to thn othejr of its in- tention to terminate the same ; eacli of the contracting parties reserving to icself the right of giving such no- tice to the ether, at the end o! the said term of ten years ; and it is hereby agreed between them, that, on the expiration of one year after such notice shall have been received by either, from the other party, this con- vention, and ull tlie provisions tlicreof, shall altogether cease and determine." The notice required by the foregoing article has l>een given by the government of the United States, and it Is believed that no new treaty will be entered into with the government of Denmark, without a spe- cial article stipulating that vessels of the United States, in passing and repassing the Sound and the Belts, sh^ be forever exempt from the payment of any duties, either upon their tonnage or their cargoes. By virtue of a resolution of the Senate, in executive session, March 8, 1855, Mr. Bedinger was instructed by the President of the United States to communicate, and on the 14th April, 1856, did communicate, to the Minister of Foreign Affairs, of Denmark, notice of the desire of the government of the United States to ter- minate the treaty of 1826, in accordance with the 10th article of the same, and that at the expiration of 12 months from the date of said notice, said treaty " shall cease and determine." In the communication to Con- gress fh)m the Department of State, already referred to, the bistor}' of tlie Sound dues is tlius given : " The date of the origin of the Sound tolls has never been, so far as is known to this government, authentic- ally ascertained. They are presumed to be the relics of exactions by the Notman pirates of the dark ages. As civilization advanced, they were enforced upon the plea of protecting the lucrative herring-fishery at Schonen. The coasts of the three straits (Skaggerack, Cattegat, and the Sound) were owned by Denmark until 1668 (with the exception of 86 years in the 14th century), when, by the treaty of peace of Rothschild, the east coast of the Great Belt, including the fortifi- cations of Ilelsinburg, was transferred to Sweden, and is still owned by her. The right of sovereignty upon which Denmark presumed, in consequence of her own- ership on either side of this conncctlug link uf ocean water, necessarily ceased after this occurrence, even if it had been before, in the slightest degree, in cunfurm- ity with national law. But, nevertheless, she persisted at Cronberg, the key to the Sound, in extorting large sums from every bottom that passed. Previous to the treaty with Sweden in the 14th century, the collec- tion of the Sound tolls was resolutely and successfully resisted by the Ilanseatic League. Then, as now, they came in direct conflict with the interests of all the cities upon the Baltic ; and that powerful confede- racy, at that time in the meridian of its greatness, ob- tained a free passage for its ships and cargoes through the Sound. In the year 1401, Denmark, perceiving that the Hanseatic League held her authority over tho straits in utter contempt, deemed it judicious to invite other nations to engage in the trade of the Baltic ; and a convention was entered into with England, and 8ul>- sequently with Holland, by which their vessels were permitted to pass through tho Sound by the payment of mere nominal tolls. In 1516, it appears thut the latter countiy paid no tolls whatever, but stipulated to give a small sum instead thereof. This was, as in- tended, a blow at the Hanseatic cities ; and in their name Lubeo demanded the immediate exclusion of the Dutch from the Baltic — a demand, however, that was not complied with. In 1544 a treatj- of commerce was concluded l)etween Christian III, of Denmark and Charles V., Regent of tlio Netlierlands, by which tho subjects of the high contracting parties were permitted to trade with each other, by paying the sound dues which had been levied ' since days of old.' Tlie Dutch at this period were a great navigating and com- mercial people, and the stipulations which they en- tered into imparted dignity to the jurisdiction claimed l>y the Danes over the Sound, The influence of tho Ilanse towns began to decline alwut the beginning of the 15th century, but they exercised a supremacy over the North and Baltic seas until the middle of tho 16th. From their unceasing quarrels with Denmark, relative to the Sound tcdls, recourse was had to nego- tiation ; and, in 15G0, * the King of Denmark and his subjects (m the one part, and the right honorable Han- seatic cities and the merchants thereof on the other part,' concluded the treaty of the Odensee. In 16fl3, Denmark was involved in a war with Sweden, and slie made this circumstance a pretext to increase the Sound tolls against the Hanse towns, notwithstandiug her covenant to the contrary three years before, which was still in force ; but the Ilanse towns, in their declining power, were compelled to submit to this violation of her obligation. In 1570 a treaty was contracted )je- tween Denmark and Sweden, at Stettin, by which it was agreed that the latter nation should be exempted from the Sound dues ; but this was evaded from timo to time by Denmark, in levying the toll upon tlio wines intended for Queen Christiana's own private use, and by the prohibition of ammunition when Sweden was in absolute want of it for prosecuting the thlrt}- years' war. At length Denmark became so Intolerant as to search Swedish vessels, unnecessarily detain them, and, in some instances, convey them to Copen- hagen, The Netherlands experienced 1)ut little Iiettrr treatment. The Stadtholder complained, ami he was put off with promises. In 1640, the year after the dis- solution of the Hanseatic League, the United Nether- lands, which had secured their independence, formed a compact with Sweden for the maintenance of their respective rights ; and in 1645 a new treaty was con- cluded between Denmark and Sweden, and on the same day (August 13) one between Deumarli and the / DEN S88 DEN NatherUndi. In tba negotisttoni which concluded them, the Dutch and Swedish plenipotentinrios de- manded free navigation through the Sound for all nations. The Danish plenipotentluritiH contended that the Sound was a 'Danish canal,' and that the tolls collected were of a similar character to those exacted at the mouths of certain rivers in Germany and Hol- land. France, acting as a mediator, held the question under consideration, to be decided at a more conve- nient period ; and subsequently she sustained ttie inter- eats of Denmark, for which site was rewarded by the bestowal of the same advantages to her flag as had been bestowed upon the Netherlands, and without any limit as to duration. In 1654 Great Uritain concluded a treaty with Denmark, which was renewed in 1670, by which all the advantages were to lie enjoyed by her which had been conferred uiwn'the Netherlands. Pre- vious to 1720 (from 1647), Denmark fixed the toll, in her treaties with other countries, ' in conformity to the terms granted to the Netherlands ;' but after that time she placed them upon the footing of ' the most favored nations.' Sweden, in consideration of the restoration of her provinces which had been conquered by Denmark, stipulated to pay, in future, l>y the treaty c ' Fredericksburg of June it, 1720, the same rate of Souid dues that were collected upon the ships and cargoes of the most favored nations, reserving to her- self the right to establish a commissary at Elsinore, to prevent impositions upon lier navigation and commerce. These conditieos and obligations ('ilthongh several treaties have been made between the two nations since) continue to be observed. During the 18th century, Sweden having lieen quieted, the Sound tolls seem to have l)een submitted to by other powers and states without opposition. Denmark concluded seve- ral now treaties, but none of them contained provi- sions prohibitory' of the exaction of the dues demanded at Klsinore. " This was the condition in which Denmark was found when tlie Congress of Vienna assembled. It was quite naturally expected, at that time, that the Danish Sound tolls would present a legitimate sulijcct for the delilwrations of that l)o0 2,811 2,582 Russian 759 887 820 S-tt 757 783 Bpnntsh 17 20 18 14 4 8 Swedish 1,162 1,262 1,884 1,182 1,278 1,461 14,980 ToUl 18,988 16,214 16,702 !I4,780 18,994 Statemknt of Sou.nd Dcks paid OS Goods siiipprd bt AuEsiCAN Vessels to and frou tub Baltic Sea, FROH 1887 TO 1S43 INCLl'BIVR. Year. From lh« BalUe Fromtim Ualtie iuu.1 Sp«rle lo Anier, pnrti. to foreiini P*irl*. Hollart. 1S87 715,827 14,2.30 666 90,224 1888 109,140 17,498 1,62« 129,165 18.39 7^762 11,488 119 84,119 1840 04,110 13,294 1,010 118,414 1841 73,828 16,967 9,218 90,614 1842 57,254 8,860 1,030 67,144 1843 71,763 7,886 1,916 81,618 Tlie old specie dollar of Denmark is valued in tba United States at $1.05. {United States' Com. Dig., 1H56-7, p. 300, issued under the orders of Secretary Marcy, of the State Department.) We find, now and then, full official returns pub- lished in the different commercial pa|>ers of Europe. From some of these, and from other relialile sources, wo have compiled the following tabular statcinenti which will serve to show the amounts of revenue de- rived by Denmark from the Sound dues, as well as the /N DEN 086 DEN proportion Miigiiad to each of tha iMding eommaroUl oonntrlM In tha aima : 1880 |i,oTy avoiding any such " dangerous complicity," as Mr. Marcy terms it. The offer of the United States to share lllwrally in compensating Denmark for Iter expenditures at Klsl- nore In the interests of commerce ought, us it seems to us, to satisfy any reasonable demand which she can urge upon our own country or the countries of Europe ; and, if all combine to pay a " fair equivalent" for the advantages derived by their commerce from the out- lays of Denmark, it should Iw accepted by her without furtlier delay or protest, and, instead of making the antiquity of her exaction the plea fur its continuance, should rather acknowledge the equity of those govern- ments which are willing to meet all her Just claims in the future without seeking any Indemnity for the past. The following table exhibits the number of vessels of all nations that have passed the Danish Sound during the years 1864-55 : I'msalu... Donniark., . . Norway. . . . Sweden England . . . Russia .Mecklenburg Lubec. .. Hamburg.. Bremen. . . Hanover.... Holland Oldenburg . . Franco Belgium Italy Bpaln Austria. Portugal .... Pern United States 8. America.. *"E'"'i"Frolnlh. 1,416 900 1,426 1,258 1,219 "868 84 16 16 841 798 74 61 5 19 1,448 T21 1,414 1,205 1,196 879 86 26 IS 854 T05 76 63 6 14 7,798 Total. isu. 2,804 1,621 2,840 2,468 2,415 7 787 70 48 29 695 1,698 l.-iO 125 11 58 16 Total. 8,095 1,898 8,328 2,688 2,0112 166 878 111 61 11 497 1,460 79 81 11 46 15,787 I 16,868 Increase.. Decrease In 1865. Iner'se. I8U. 18 198 188 71 44 "so Da«r*io, SSI 277 120 "l50 186 41 19 691 I 1,472 681 It will bo seen that the total number of vessels that passed the Sound in 1853 exceeds that of the preceding; year by 8,907 vessels. Of the whole number, 18,100 were laden, and 3,846 were in ballast. The countries which contributed most to this augmentation arc Prussia, Great Britain, Denmark, Mecklenburg, and Kussla. The following table will show the nation, and the number of vessels from each nation, In 1853 : Nation*. Natlom. .Vii. nf TeSMili. England 4,668 PruMla. 8,471 Norway 8,411 Denmark, 2,0M Sweden 1,996 Holland 1,874 Russia 1,202 Mecklenburg. Hjinover Franco Oldenburg.. . . Luboo United States. 1,067 748 843 101 166 96 For a sketch of the Danish Exploring Expedition around the World, see Hunt's Aferchartti' Magazine, vol. xxiii., p. 406 ; vill., 469 ; We»tm. Rev. 1., 75, xlviii , 195 ! iV. il. Rev,, xxvii., 285 (by 11. Wubatoh.) DEP AS7 DES Tabdlab 8*ATuiaRT iHowno nn Natioatiom or nii Bomns tbb riisoiPAL NATiom rAknoirATnia thibux, Taa BlIAll AHiaHIO TO lAOU, AMD TIIK l>>arollTIOM Of lAOO PU OMTUM OK TUI WHOLE, riOM 18S0 TO 1H64, >OTU iMotmir*. a. J J«»'_ m SJT 488 tiO "iM 180 41 I 19 1,47'i t>81 C8»el9 that le preceding ilier, 18,1_G« a countrien ntation aro nburg, and nation, and 18532^ 1,067 748 84« 101 1B6 96 r«u«. ■i«UM. BwadM and Worwiijr. Dannuk. Riud*. rnwU. llMklnbiiri Huh Towm Uolud auui. Fraof*. HoIlui4. 1860 1S61 1«M 1858 1804 ^48ti 4,893 8,(01 4,668 9,046 ,4,685 6,177 6,190 6,407 6,841 1,966 1,540 1.464 9,004 1,990 1,1S8 1,098 946 1,909 178 9,8(1 9,660 9,819 8,471 8,108 1,081 1,0M ni 1,067 868 176 986 104 166 181 106 11( TO M 41 "44 Ml 180 848 8T 1,006 9,081 1,691 1,874 1,808 Aggregate- '90,9id 96,080 8.993 4,687 18,086 4,730 1,061 441 1,046 8,90ir A'rorago... 4,18a 6,916 i.eeo 907 9.787 1 (66 1 910 88 " m ' 1,7«U Proportion per cent.. 9808 98-9 n B 16-8 6-8 l-l 0-6 i-i (^ BtguUuioiu ohitntd on pat$iHg through tht Sound into th» Baltic. — If the vesaol be laden with cotton for Kuaiia, the captain muat lie provided with a certificate, properly attested by the Danish consul at the port of departure, verifying that the cotton does not come firom Kgypt or the Levant. Every veasol not thus protected will be aubject to quarantine, and may have her antire cargo put ashore. Every captain must be able to show legal evidence of the nationality of hi.'i vessel ; must be provided with a manifest and a clearance from the custom-house offi- cers at his last port. Should the vessel come from France, Holland, Belgium, Portugal, or Hamburg, the captain must exhibit liis passport. If from Holland or Belgium, destined for Prussia, tho certificate of the Prussian consul at the port of departure will suffice. If the vessel comes from the United States, laden with cotton, the captain must be provided with a man- ifest of his cargo, custom-house clearance, register of nationality, and the certificate of the Danish consul attesting that the cotton was actually grown in the United States ; ov if it come from Brazil or any other country, that it was first landed at a port in the United States, and not transhipped from a foreign vessel. If tho vessel comes from Cul)a, the captain must be provided with a register attesting the nationality of his vessel, a manifest, passport, and custom-house re- ceipt ; and it would ha advisable for him to have, also, a bill of health, attested by tho Danish consul at the port of departure. The papers and certificates referred to in the pre- ceding remarlcs must be in duplicate ; and, when the vessel is destineil for Kussia, should there be any in- terlineations, or marginal notes, or addenda, tho cap- tain's signature must be affixed to each, so as to give it authenticity Com. Ret. U. S. Since the preceding article was in type, a conven- tion was held in reference to thefunding of the Sonnd dues on the part of the several governments interested. For the results of those deliberations, the reader is re- fefred to article entitled " Sound /Jhm." Deposit. This term is applied to the sum of money which a man might deposit with the slierifF after he was arrested, instead of putting in special bail. The amount of the deposit was the sum sworn to on the bacic of the writ. (Blackstonr's Comm.) Deposit is also nsed for any sum of money which a man puts in the hands of another as a kind of security for the fulfilment of some agreement, or as a part payment in advance. The Roman word, depositum, signified any thing which a man put in the hands of another to keep till it was asked back, without any thing t>eing given to the depositarius for his trouble. The depositor was called deponens or depositor. The depositary' was bound to take care of the thing, and to make good any damage tliat happened to it through flrandulent design (dolm) or gross neglect {lata culpa). The depositor could recover the thing by action ; but the depositary was entitled to satisfaction for any loss that he sus tained In the matter of the deposit by any default (culpa) on tho part of the depositor. The depositar}' could make no use of the deposit, except with the per- mission of the depositor, either given in express words, or arising from implication. If a man refused to re- tam a deposit, and was condemned in on action of deposit (actio drpoiili), infamy (infamia) was a conse* quence of the condemnation. — Dio., 16, tit. 8; Jv- VBNAL, Sat. xlli., 00. Depot (Fr.), la used to designate a place where all sorts of military stores and provisions are kept, or where recruits are received and traineit with the different latitudes in which they are placed a corresponding variety of character, and accordingly the distinguishing peculiarities of each are known by different appellations. Thus we have the stipjxs of Europe, the desertt of Asia and Africa, the mvannah$ of the Mississippi and Missouri, and the pampas and Hanoi of South America. The most striking feature of Africa consists of its immense deserts, wliich have in all ages presented to the speculations of the geographer objects highly wor- thy of attention. Of these the chief is tho SaJiara, or the Deaert, so called by way of eminence. This pro- digious zone of sand stretches, with few interruptions, from the shores of the Atlantic to the confines of Egj'pt, and comprehends in its length and breadth a superficies of about 2,200,000 square miles. Tho sand raised by the burning wind called the simoom is fre- quently in a state of motion, and as it sweeps along in its career of desolation bears a strong resemblance to the waves of a tompestuous sen. This immense ex- panse, however, is by no means a uniform surface of loose sand. In many parts the drear}' wastes is l)roken 'by low bills of naked sand-stone, or by tracts of arid DES 588 DES ela^, and ocruloiully It U enlivened hy venUnt blei or oatti, which eerve u reitinK-platel for the caravani that traverae these dlamal region*. Hut for theiin oattt, inileed, the Sahara would be wholi}- impaauble. It preaenta, aaya Malte Biun, no tracea of a beaten path, and the cararana that traverae it, dlrectin)( their way by the (mlar star, deicribe a tortuous road in order to profit l>y the oaava, which are represented as brilliant with v«Ketatlon, but which prolialdy owe a greitt part of their reputation to the contrast they form with the absolute barrenness of the desert. The great deserts of Africa are omly separated from tboae of Asia by the valley of the river Nile, and the Red Sea. But upon this subject we can not refrain from transferring to our columns tiie remarks of Dr. Traill, who has sketched with a masterly hand the grand outlines of the AsUtlc deserts. " .Soon after quitting the Nile, the traveler by the route of Sues en- counters sand, which is continued into the centre of Arabia, where It forms the desert of Nedsjed, extend- ing to the valley of the Euphmtca. 'i'he sandy zone then inclines nortliwanl. enters Persia, and forms the saline deserts of Adjemi, Kerman, and Mekran ; it is turned north-east by the valley of the Indus, passes through Oaubul and Little Itukharia, till it Joins the vast deserts of Cobi and Shamoo, which occupy so large a portion of Central AsU lietween the Altaian and Mustug chains, and reach to the confines of ('hina. The sandy zone, thus traced throughout the breadth of the ancient continent from western Africa to the 120° of east longitude, has been computed to cover an area of 6,6(H),(K)0 square miles ; but the Asiatic portion of this tract includes many chains of mountains and fertile valieya. It is characterized by the occurrence of arid wastes of sand or clay, sometimes with saline incrustations on the surface, and is rcmariubly deficient in conslderalde rivers : except the Nile, the Euphrates, the Indus, and the Oxus, there are no large rivern |u a region which embraces almost a fourth |>art m both Africa and Asia. Thia portion of Central Aaiu forms a series of elevated plains, 6,000 miles in length from east to west. Some of these plains, says Humboldt, are covered with herbqge ; others produce only ever- green saliforous plants, with fleshy and Jointed stems ; but a great number glitter from afar with a saline efllorescence that crystallizes in the semblance of lichens, and covers the clayey soil with scattered patches like new-fallen snow." Under the bead SIiKAUR will be found some account of the so-called singular optical illusion so often seen in the desert. In Scripture, the term desert bears a wholly difTerent interpretation from that usually attached to it in pro- fane writings. It has been fully shown by Kulund Cl'aJat. 1. i. p. 375) that the Hebrew -1210 (midbar), the ipri/to{ of the Greeks, and the dettrtum or tnlitwUi of the Latins, bear no anJalogy to each other; the first being appropriated almost exclusively to those thinly- peopled districts of the Holy Land which yielded pas- turage for cattle, and were remarkable at once for their beauty and the luxuriance of their vegetation. " The arid plains and deserts, as well ati high mount- ain ranges, have, it may well be supposed, an influ- ence upon the movements of the great aerial ocean, as ahoals and other obstructions have upon the channels of circulation in the sea. The deserts of Asia, for in- stance, produce a disturbance upon the grand system of atmospherical circulation, which, in summer and ■utumo, is fell in Europe, in Liberia^ and away out upon the Indun Ocean, as far to the south as the equinoctial lino. There is an indraughC from all these regions toward these deserts. These indraughts are known as monsoons at sea ; on the land, as the prevail- ing winds of the season. " We perceive how a desert land spreads its influ- ence through the distance upon the winds. The first affects of beating up the plains are necessarily felt by the air newest at hand, and by that further off at a - later period, so that the south-west mnnsoon Influenca Is in this part of the ocean propagnti 1 from the land out U|)on the sea at the rate liefore sUted. Of course, the vast plains of Asia are not brought up to monsn heat ptr mitrm, or In a day. They require lime both to be heated up to this |Niint and to be cooled down again. The mcmsoon season may In always known by referring to the causes which proumed plains of Asia are, for the moat part, north of latitude I1U°, their influence in making monsoons Is fell south of the equator. So, too, with the great desert of Sahara and the African monsoons o' the Atlantic ; also, with the Salt Lake country and the Mexican monsoons on one side, and those of Central America in the Paoiflo on the other. The influence of the des- erts of Arabia upon the winds Is felt in Austria and other parts of Europe, as the observations of Kriel, lament, and others show." — Mauhy's Vhi/tical (Jeoy, nf tke Nea. Deaertion by a Seaman. " Desertion from the ship without Just cause, and nni'rno no» recfrlendi, or the Justitluble discharge of u seaman by the master for bad conduct, will work a forfeiture of the wages pre- viously earned ; and tMs is a rule of Justice anil of policy which generally pervades the ordinances of tho maritime nations. Uy the EnglUh statute law, and by the act of Congress, desertion is accompanied with a forfeiture of all the wages that are due, and an absence of forty-eight hours without leave, is made conclusive evidence of desertion ; and whatever un- justifiable conduct will warrant the act of tho master in discharging a seaman during the voyage, will e<|ually deprive the seaman of his wages. liut tlie forfeiture is saved if the seaman repents, makes compensation or offer of amends, and is restored to his duty. Public |M>licy and private Justice here move together, and the maritime ordinances unite in this conclusion. The master Ims power to remit a forfeiture, and the penalty of forfeiture is not applied to slight faults, either of neglect or disobedienco. There must be cither an habituul neglect, or disobedience, or drunkenness, or else a single act of gross dishonesty, or some other act of a heinous and aggravated nature, to justify the dis- charging a seaman in a foreign port, or the forfeiture of wages; nor will the admiralty courts, except in cases of great atrocity, visit the offenses of a seaman with the cumulated load of forfeiture of wages and compensation in damages. They stop at the forfeitnru of the wages antecedently earned, and in the applica- tion of the forfeiture, the advanced wages are made a charge on the forfeited wages, but the hospital money is apportioned ratalily on the wages for the whole voy- age. In these regulations the moderation of tlie courts, and the solicitude which the peculiar condition and character of seamen excite, are equally manifest. So, if the seaman quits the ship involuntarily, or is driven ashore from necessity, from want of provisions, or l>y reason of cruel usage and for personal safety, the wages are not forfeited, and he will be entitled to receive them in full to the prosi)eroug termination of the voyage. On the other hand, it la the duty of the seiimen to abide by tiio vessel as long as reasonable ha|)e re- maiifs ; and if they desert the ship under circum- stances of danger or distress from the perils of the sea, when their presence and exertions might have pre- vented damage, or restored the ship to safety, they forfeit their wages, and are answerable in damages. And even when a seaman might well have been dis- charged in the course of the voyage for gross misbe- havior, if the master refuses to discharge bim, and DES S80 DET Imtm him III Impriionmant uliroad, he wilt, In that «M«, In •utillad to hli wiffci until lili nturn to the Unltml 8tat«ii aftar dcJuotiiiK rriim the rlulin hia tlma of iiiiprUanmanl." — KBHT'a CumuuHtarin, Lact, xlvl. Than are, howarer, at tirnen, cxtmiuatlnK circuin- Itanceii, which will In part authorino u Halliir to louve his ahip In ii torelKn port. Thin nuhjuct It (llicumied with ('Ivarnpjiii in tha work alHivo-mentiimad. Judifa 8tory IkiIiIh that the vuyaKe of a uhlp li ended whrn ■he arrivHH at her port of doatinatlon, and la aafely moored, tlioiiKh her cargo lie not delivered | and deaer- tiun nftprward doe* nut forfeit the wagea entire, but a partliil forfeiture only ua con^pcnaatiiin for breach of duty. — Ibitl. 8«e DiaoiiAKOH nr Skahrn, Desl|n (Fr. ikumrin, from Lat. Jeiigno), a acheme or plan ; purpoHe, intentlun ; a reproaentatlon of a thing liy an outline or iketuh, etc, Ihiign, In the manufacturiea, axpreiui the Hgurea witli which the worliman eurlchea Ida atuff or silk, and which he copies after some |iattorn. Dfign In I'aintmg, is the flrat idea of a large work, drawn roughly, to be afterward care- fully executed and llnished. JJfiign, ScliooU ii/*, nro establishments for Instructing pupils in the art of drawing. In some the instruction Is confined to what Is sulisorvlent to the tine arts, but In others, oxpecially In the very admirable establish- ment at PMinburg, under the lloaitl of Trustees of Arts and Manufurturos, not only is attention paid to the instructlAi) of the painter and the sculptor, but de- sign is taught, to perfect the mechanic In the principles of his art, wherever ornamental pattern is required. Such 8cliortunt bene- fit has liocn conferred on the manufacturing Industry of tliose countries. The FMinlmrg School of Design ap|)eurs to have been the first established In Uritain for the express Improvement of manufacturing Indus- try. It Is most ably conducted, and has found Ita pu- pils in demand for the chief seats of Kngilsh manufac- turing art. In England, besides the estalilishment at Somerset House, Umdcm, there is a brunch school of design in Spltalllelds that is well attended. Similar schools are now eHtublished In Hlnnlnghani, Manches- ter, Coventry, Nottingham, Leeds, York, Uudders- lleld, ShetHeld, Norwich, Stoke-on-Trent, Newcastle- on-Tyne, Ilanley, Ulusgow, and Paisley. Several have lieen established in the cities of New York and Boxton, and other portions of the United States, and their utility is clearly demonstrated. — ItiiAMDK'a A'nr. De-allvering Lead. Nearly all lead oro con- tains a little silver; and Mr. Pattinson of Newcastle, Kngland, has devised an ingenlnus and beautiful mode of separating it. His discovery has rendered many load mines workable which must otherwise have been abandoned. The chief ore whence lead Is extracted is galena, u bulphurct of the metal, containing on an average about 80 per cent, of lead and a minute portion of silver ; and this silver treasure often determines the working or non-working of the mine. Until recently, 20 ounces of silver to a ton of lead were the least that would pay for the expense of separating ; but Mr. Pat- tinson has enabled the lead smelter to realize a profit from so small a ratio as 3 or 4 ounces to the ton. The lead-smelting at the Allenbcad mines, and at the Wan- lock lead hills in Uumfriesshire, are both founded on Pattinson's process. This process is not only scientific in the principle on which it la based, but it is really beautiful to witness. After the ore has been smelted, and the lead run off into the form of blocks or " pigs," these pigs are slowly rc-melted in large cast-iron open vessels. The molten leaa, while gradually cooling, is stirred uninterrupted- ly with an iron rod, and crystals of lead gradually form. These crj'stals, being denser and heavier than the rest *f the lead, fall to the Iwttom, and are thence removed ky the aid of a colandur or perforated ladle. Now these crystal* contain less silver than an equal weight of the uncryttalllied load i and here we benln at one* to sea the rutlnnalo of the prtH'eas : since none of the silver la aetnally gone, that which has left the crystals has tended to enrich the remaining portion of the lead. Again are the crystals melted, to get more and mora silver out of them ; again is the rlclier lead melted, to Increase Its richness at the ex|ienie of the niiwly-formad crystals ; and thus do the double processes advance until almost every atom of silver is obtained from tha lead. Uut this requires another kind of operation. Tha very rich lead U brought to an intense heat In a pecu- liar furnace, and a blast of air is driven upon It ; tha lead combines with the oxygen of tha air to form lith- arge, while the silver sinks to tha bottom In a pun state, forming a slab of delicate silver. A very lieau- tiful appearance presents itself during the Dmcass : the molten silver abaorbs much oxygen, whicn escapes again aa the metal solidlHea ; bursting through tli* gradually hardening surface of the mass, the bubbles of gas force along with them portions of the fluid meta. from below. It really affords a verj- close representa- tion of a volcano ; for the same chemical laws are In operation In iMith cases. This escaiio of oxygen leaves the surface coveretl with beautiful and fantastical con- cretions of pure and brilliant silver — silvery mountains and valleys, formed by a process bearing much anal- ogy with that by which our earth mountains were Iirobably formed. In the recent London Exhibition there was a <'uko of silver weighing no less than 8flOC ounces, obtained from lead In Mr. Ileaumont'a rainet in Northumberland. — Novellin ami Intention: Detroit, a city and ]iort of entr}- of the Unitac States, capital of the county of Wayne, Michigan, sit uated on the west bank of the Detroit Strait or River which connects I^kes Huron, St. Clair, and Erie. I^at 42° 2' N,, long. «8° 2' W. The city exten(hi along the river for mora than a mile and a half, its centra point being 7 miles from I^ke St. Clair, and 18 froK Lake Erie. The river is here about five eighths of a mile in.width ; and Its depth varies from 12 to 48 feet Tlie descent from I.ake St. Clair to Lake Erie is abo'. feet, or 8 Inches per mile ; and the velocity of tb current at the deepest part, opposite the city, Is 2 miles per hour. Its shores on both sides ara highl; cultivated ; and from its outlet into Lake Erie to it origin at Lake Huron resemble a continuous village with fine farms, pleasant villas, groves, gardens, am. excellent roiids. The town Is well and regularly built, extending in the form of a rectangle fur aliout 1200 feet from the river, and afterward tennlnaticg in a triangle. Some of the principal streets are 200, others 120, and others CO feet wide. These generally cross each other at right angles. The houses are mostly of wood, but many of them are of brick. The principal of the public buildings are — the old State House, the United States' Buildings (of polished lime- stone), the State buildings for the supreme court, public ofliccs, county court-house, county jail, city-hall, and market, the new Catholic cathedral, and the cathedral of St. Anne. Detroit Is well supplied with water horn the river, by means of hydraulic machiner}' In the up- per part of the town. Ship and boat building is a large and important branch of business ; and there are sev- eral large steam saw-mills, iron founderies, etc. Detroit has a very extensive trade, for which it enjoys many advantages. The harlwr is capacious and secure. It is connected by the Michigan Central Railroad with Chicago vlii New BuflTulo and Michigan City, a distance of 268 miles, and by the Pontiao with the town of tliat name, 20 miles distant. The Great Western Railroad, constructed through Canada, brings it into direct com munication with the New Y'ork and other eastern routes. The population in 1801 was only 770, and in 1880, 2222 ; in 1840 It amounted to 9193, and 1850 to 21,000, while in the summer of 1853 it was 84,400. This, however, includes only those within the corpo- rate limits, beyond which there is a numerous popid» \ DIA fit DlA Mm, w(mm MtiM •Miipallon and InUniU tra In Iht ■Nato, IliVMitoil Inr Anaslmanilcr, AM) n. n.— /V/H||r, TIm rlfal ilUI «/ thu •iin m«ii it liuiim, wia |rf««wl (fit tlm Umiilx nf t;rilrlnu» liy I,. I>a|ilriuii (^ur* •or mhtm IIdm *»» ilUMwl Inin hmin, -JDH ii. i.—lllnir. In th« timm nf th« umiKiriiri, •Imniit nvrry paUrn anil iinMI« iHili'llnn had a aun-dlal. Thay war* lint hI up In fhiirchM In <«, ii, OtH,—l^!/Ut. DUMie«4 (Oar. Mn. Ha.' anil Cr. hiamtml, Nw. Ihmmil, fllimiml* i It. «p. and Tort. Oiimumlf i Kun. <4/«/«/ ViA, hnimnnt I \*i, .Uium$ i Hind, //im), a |iraiM« ainna whlrh haa l»«n knuwn fr, I'llny liaa doairllwil It (//iW. AW., Ill), 117, Mil lilll hU ai'i'ounl In, In many nmprrti, Inarcurala. 11 (a fiHind In dllTarant (mrta of Indlii, and In llornao ; It la at«i Aiiind In Itrarll, m which, lni>md>. Tha minea of nruall were clUcovcrcd In IU», ' wmi thaaa Inat a diamond, welKhlnff IflHO •Mtti'f , r H y M, Homeo dn I'lalo nt the e.xtrava- Kant ami "fr/l,y othrra it waa valued «1 MAtlH, ■m, Ita value waa next atnted fo lie ;i,6()0,nO() j liHl lla tma valna la tMra,imn. The diamond called lit* " ttwinnUIn of IlKht," which lietonxed to the king of l-'anlml, waa Iha moat anperli gem over aeen. It waa wf llta flnaat water, and the hV/jn of an egg, and waa mIxi yalnad at fl,nn(l,(NMI, The great diamond of the Wliliariff of Knaala welgha lim carnta, or I ox. 12 dwt. 4 ft,, Ifiiy, The eni|ireaa diiy, 1772. It la RMW In tha a<'a|itra of Raaaia. Thr' Mtt diamond w»iKh«d IfMt laraia, and, after cutti'< , 'W r.iiti. U waa ■ -M to Iha king of Krance for ai'*), <')'' » iTV'i, - l/iit, Arnrrdlng »o Mr, Mntmm (Or>' .'. '■v. ,, u. •ImxiM I* liaffivtly rryatalllne, r '' » Ji i, of I'laar affflng w«t«>r. In Iha middle oi wiilih you will (tanalta « almng light playing with a great deal of Sdnt, If the coat he amnoth and lirlght, with a little n«l«ira of uttmn In It, It la not thn worae, and teldom prinfnt had j Irtd If there he a mixture of yellow with ll»« gfa'-n, (hen (i«war» of It— It la a aoft greoay atone, «nd will pmva had. T'lln/htiimimitii, Culling, r/r.— To oaeertain whether »ny afiaciman la a troe diamond or not, ■ fine file may \m Haad I and If Iha aurface of tha atone be the least »\irmM lit acrali^hed liy ita action. It la not a diamond. 'ri*« difTofawa will ala» appear upon oloaa examination Wlllimil Ihia hiatrament : the raya of light easily paaa IhroHgh othar getna, hut In the diamond they are re- ttm'ifh tn Iha aurfaca, which occoaiona Ita superior MIIUlMiy< If the apeclmen under examination lie f«ry mtnttl*, M mny h« placed between two half- crowns, or char flat matalllo aurfacaa, and praasad with tha tbumli and flngari if a diamond. It will not lie Inlurwii )iu' If otiiarwiaa, it will break and fall to pt p'< 'aimed Ana, are worth from i.7 to XH |M>r carat. Ni 'dy ivllnra iimv I ,ike lU per cent, loan for '" h ; but this ia the genn :ii venga price for a lot of 10, 20, or M) carnta of weli-m.iiie stones, If tlie quiility Im goiMl. llrllllnnta, from two grains to three, may li« lx>uglit in lota at from XI ~: to X« per curat. It is to bo uniluratood that dlanioniln In a lot are never all quite free fnini faults ; hence there may arise u ilif ference of 10 |iar cent, in the price. Ntones iif II grains, if tine anil pi'rf< rt, are always in demand nt i'H tii 4)1) per carat, llrlliianta from .'I grains to 4, if very Una and well proportioned, are worth from i.'M to 4.1) |icr carat. Those nf a cnral each, if very lino and well selected, are worth X^ to illO. Three year* ago 1 of- fered XVi each for H, and could not obtain Iheni. llrll- iianta from A grains toO, if pure, are worth, from ilin to ilH ; if perfectly tine, und of the full weiglit of (i grains, they are worth from £\1 to A'lH each. 1 have fur such paid i.'20. Ilrilliiinta of 2 cnrata euili, iiro worth from £'.'7 to XWi. .Stones of this weight, if well pro- portioned, are considered of a tine size, and well culcii- lated fur pins, or the centre of clusters i indeed, well proportioned dhimonda, from 6 grains to 2 curata ciich, are always in demand, and are rctiiiied at from i,''.'0 to XAlt each, according to their degree of perfection, or ua the retailer may think lit to clinrgo them. For hril- lianta of 8 carats. If flue and well formed, from i.'7U to i.'HO may be obtained. Htones of this size, nnd larger, are more liable to capricious lluctuutions of price tlinn tho smaller ones liefora named, being cliiody required for the centra stone of salable necklaces. Urilliants of 4 carata, if tine, are worth from illOO to 411110. 1 have •old atones, single cut, a little oJf'ciJor, of this weiglii nt HO guineaa. I poaseased one of 17 grains, pcrfec^^ white, having a .urface lai rn oa that of a 7 curat stimo ough:. to ' • t was, k unsciiuently, very thin, liut I ■. Ing mud quest, on account of ita great tpmul i>r •urface, it was sold for XIUO. Urilllaiila of !> curat* uro not frequently met with in general trade, and are val- luible in price : aa tho dealera exact more if tlle^ It now that sucii stones are wanted than they woul'i in the ragular course of buslnesa. The pricea may > ' ^uiil to vary from 4:180 to 4:200. Urillinnts of 6 caruts, aa before stateil, are not com- mon : they ore suitable for centre stones of ex|«>-n>i% ■> necklaces and single stone rings. If perfect ao'l n.il shaped, they sell for f 2»fl to 4:250, or more. Vur i- ti- mating the value of peculiarly tine dianion ' then ia no fixed standard. Hough diamonds, svIim 1 ,ix line. and well formed for cutting, may lie ostinmtnl .i/ KurMiM, U vmUiI in * >>'»> for aovrnil ymtm liwii, (itn'n (ha wbolv, iffiutuiJly ri'\uit, liut thnt It l« llkaly tii iixillniiu oti llw •dviinva. At Ilia |'|( .cni liimi. iiiiWiHl, anil l'»r til* luiit faw yann, than hwi ..>-ii n I K iwla iif di*- moiiiU III I'liijiniiil, nor illil tbe luriuiittuvri ' 'i^luii • (laiiikiiii » ill iKilicn I liii( I'll Ilia (.lootliusnt Hi.' truiln Imi) Imh.'!! xi.'vily, Hiiil r<>U)(li iliitinomU Iwvu iwan ciiii- ■Uiitly rJHliiK III prku. I Iml tliU ailvaiii'a will li« |in>- graimlvu iiiiiy lia mMiiiiieil fnnu th« fj' >. that tlia Iwx (llaiiiiiiiil Knmml now known, the S«rn. ilii Krlo in H' i- ■ 11, hM Haanrolly paaMll tha xanith iif ill pr>«|HMi..v. I want iivar tho KNalar |Mrt of what la yat raHvivail, ■ml allll ramaina to lia wurki'il, ami I conceiv.! ilutt there wiiiiM Iw nu (IllllcuUy In lalvulntinK tlii^ Iru^h of tint* In whii'h tha |ireitant numliaruf wixl^inK may railiira It to n atuta of exhaimtliin, Ilka that nt' tlin fiir- fuinail (■(ili'onila. Tha iivaniKu iiimuni |iri>ilu(u of tu- turn yanra niiiy lie aatiinatail liy tho ainnunt olitalniiil from tliiit |iortlon which haa iMwn alrvmly workail, Uruiil may \m aaiil to fumiah Kur,ihmi or 80,IKN) carata |H!•»//,• I)u. Dtvl: Kr. lAnge- ouii-i; It. Teht leuula a open) Sp. Mantelet aleman- itriui Ku». Sal/tti'tMfhme), a sort of line lioworod linen, lOKmonly uxod fur table-cloths, naplcina, etc., brought to tho highest perfection In the manufactories in the iiurth uf Ireland, in (iormany, and Scotland. It siiniatinies resembles an inferior liind of damask, it ia said to have lieen originally manufactured at Ypres, in Flanders ; wheoM tbe term d'Vpras, ooiw rupted into diaper. 1 1 itlun, is the "^'"■unllng ^>n^ i dali- " iirt- >nd • <■ ;lio W \\\m it ->4r^ to rai, or of ■ tlia com- li, "f two 1 til' rmer I' i-OH, 1 diet i«r>' Ml gl . iows .i'l I, DIM (C)w. in^Wj 0U. T,mrtimgm, ft. I)fi{k joiirr) U. /MuU: Sp, Oadnt |(us. Kotli), eubiool pkicvH "I hfliHi or tvnry. marked with dots on each of (lii'ir alilrn fmin l ii> O, occunling tu the nnnilMir uf the tmn Thay am uiatl In vari'^ua goniM of chance, by being thrown fcwn a Ihix. Dlnlcar (prit^lily fnun itnm, In), In our oUl wrt- tars, is ised tu ilc nut* the ntHwber or ^u•ntlty uf tan, piirtlcularly l<>tl bidas or ski"', nf wriMch twniity inaiU a laat I ami is suiiiatiiniw I i thhiga, oa • dicker uf gloved or ten (>« >. "> of Ircii ur ten laan, nti'. DloUonanr, In Its original amiiirfing of all tlin viotiU of a Im tu the order iil' lliu alpha^'at. and nittiin ur axplanatiun t" •>»< i> wll^l, »'lanras liegan to Iwi iiupi t i ' tiplicity of technical t'liM. i. I'uinplle dictlunariiiH, oith' ■ ul' »< particular acienri"<. > " > ' iig tn pilcr. Ilunca diniuij may aurts, of vurdt, and < imlt or i Sanaa, tha term dictinu y haing nqi, in the lattur, to iHeyili'iKedin. A st 'uf the Chinuso languogn cuul»>n>i>l(aUjut tO,00)' iiuw itv'lura, iniiat uf thnin liieriiglyphii if °t' 'apfeynU- tiiuna, aomewhut like uur signs of the ' wm ptr^ factail by I'a-out-sha, who liveil abn n, r,— Morruun. ( 'yclupwdios ware cnnipllr lifteentll and sixttienth centuries. Tlie lirst ' > ur -» lubrity, perhaps tho llrst. Is tty Am 'piiii, a Venetian friar, in I,.atin ; h* wrote ' ii< ight liii,- guagaa, about A. n, 1,100. — Nirenm, i Lejricon l/eiiliiglultoH WHS pulillahed by I'Muiuml tidl, In 11)51), I)ayle':< liutlonar;' was publUhod In 'the tirst work of the kind in which a man nin mto think," — r«//iiir«. Cham i irrs' Cyclopaiiilii iirst lictiunar}' uf tho circle of the arts, scieiu'i w«s iilillshod in 172H, The |. raat dictionary 'i- ^'ilsli language, by 8umuel .iuhnson, appenn ..',, 1 riiiiiia liruse's Dictionary irf the Vulgar Tun, ' ,is I' u|iili>d in 17tiH ; and fruiii this periud iiiimcr' iiv ti' Kirica have lioen added to our sture uf lili ri>, N. ill Wobater's great American Dictiunury in ICii IJHh language, in two i|uarto volumes, wiu i pul'linhed lit New Haven in 1828, It was rcpniii."' in Lundun In 1H,'I2, Numerous abridgments ami iiaw oditii MH of the whole work have since been publlshi'il in LumI' 1 and New York. — llai/dn. Die (Kr. lU), in coinage, is the instrument by which the impresaiuns are given u|xin tho various do- noniiii I uuns of coin. The ftdlowing is an outline of the dii •lumiij'acture : Tho engraver selects a forged plug 01 ■ he best cast steel of proper dtmensiuns for hia intend)' work ; and having carefully annealed it, and turned surfaces smoutli in the lathe, proceeds to engrave pon it the intended device fur the cuin. When til is |icrfoct the letters are put in, and the cir- cularity u ul size duly ailjustod ; It is Hun hardened, and in termed ■•■ matrix. Another plug of .I'jft steel is now selected ; .• ml tho matrix being carefully adjusted upon it, they ur>' placed under a very powerful lly-preis, and two or three blows so directed as to commence an impression ^ r the matrix upon tho plug ; this is then annealed, ai. I tho operation re|>eated till the plug re- ceives a )ierf ft iuipression of the work U|ion the mat- rix. This imiirrssion Is of course in reliej", tho original work upon tl < matrix being indented, and produces what is teruii I the punch. This, beiug duly shaped in the lathe, is hardened, and ia employed in tho pro- duction of Imp^resslons in soft steel or diet, which, being properly turned or hardened, are exact yVic- timilei of the original matrix, and are used iu the pro- cess of coinage. When a pair of dies arc mude of good steel, duly hardened and tempered, and are carefully used, they will aometimea yield from twu to three huttdnd thouiMid impiesslona ImTon thay twcome m DIP JI4d Dl? far i^orn or Injured as to require to be reuovs'l from the coining presses. Dieppe, a commune and seaport town of France, capital arrondissement, Department Seine Inferieure, at the mouth of the Arques on the English Channel, and 88 miles north of Rouen, and by railroad 1S5 miles from Paris. I-at. of light-house, 49° 65' 7" north, long. 1° 6' 2" east. Population 17,000. It is divided into the town proper, and the suburb le PoUet, which communicate by a flying bridge, both Iwing well fur- nished with water from an aqueduct supplying nearly 200 fountains. Principal ediflccs, an old castle on a cliff west of the town, 2 churches, the town hall, com- mune college, thei)tre, public library, baths, and a school of navigation. The port, inclosed by two jet- ties, and bordered by quays, can accommodate from 60 to 80 vessels under 600 tons ; but it dries at low water, and it is otherwise inconvenient. Dieppe has an active general trade, ship-building docks, manufac- tories of ivory wares, watches, lace, etc., and it is a packet station, communicating daily, by steamboats with Brighton ; the trafSc having increased considera- bly since the opening of the Paris and Rouen Railroad. It is also resorted to by summer visitors ; but its in- hal)itants depend chiefly on its fisheries of herrings, mackerel, and oysters. Digit, or Monnde, in Arithmetic, any integer under IC, as, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 6, 7, 8, 9, and by means of which all num1>ers are expressed. Digit, in Astronomy, the twelfth part of the dinmerer of the sun or moon ; a term used to express the quantit}' of an eclipse. Thus, an erli{>8e is said to lie of svc digits wlicn one half of the disk is hid. Dike, or Dt/te, in its primary sense, denotes a ditch or drain. The word seems to have been formed from the verb to dig; though others derive It from the Dutch d'gt, a dam, sea-bank, or wall. It is generally used to signifj' a work of stone, timber, or fascines, raised to oppose the entrance or passage of the waters of the sea, a river, lake or the like. Junius and Sig- nage conceive the Flemish to have iHirrowcd their word from the Greek Tctxoc, jrall; but Guiohard de- rives it from the Hebrew dag/iah. Dimity (French, lituin ; Italian, Dubhtln ; Span- ish, Dimite), a species of cross-barred stuff entirely composed of cotton, similar in fabric to fustian. Dim- ity was originalij' imported from India. Dr. Johnson calls it dimmili/, and describ"s it as a kind of fustian. The distinction lietween fustian and dimity seems to Iw, th.it the former designates a common tweeled cot- ton cluthuf a stout fabric, which receives no ornament in the loom, Iiut is most frequently dyed after l)eing woven. Dimity is also a stout cotton cloth, but not usually of so thick a texture ; and Is ornamented in the loom, cither with raised stripes or fancy figures, Is seldom dyed, but usually worn white, as for bed ond Iwdroom furniture. The striped dimities are the most common, they require less labor in weaving, th;m the otiiers ; and the mounting of the linim being more sim- ple, and consequently less expensive, thej" can be sold at much lower rates. Dime, a silver coin of the I'nited States, weighing, according to the act of Congress of IK.IS, ilS lO-inO grains. The half-dime weigliing one half, or 19 20-100 grains ; Iwth legal tenders to the amount of five doW lars. See IUxkkrs' Jfagnzinr, .Yew i'nrl; 185."! -IS.'iC. Dippiug-Needle, a magnetic needle that dips or inclines to the earth ; an instrument for ascertaining the amount of the magnetic inclination at the different IK)ints of the earth's surface. This fact was first ol)- scrved by one Robert Norman, an Knglishman, and a maker of compasses for mariners, at)out the j-ear 1.57fi, who, finding that ho wiw always oldiged to counter- Imlanco ttiat end which turns to the north liy a l)it of wax or such other substance, though the balance had t)een ever so exact before, pulillshed an account of his discover}- oa a matter of importance. The subject was instantly attended to ; and instruments were not only contrived for ascertaining the quantity of the dip, but various speculations were formed concerning the cause of so surprising n phenomenon. The general pheno- mena of the dipping-needle are, that in the equatorial regions it remains in a horizontal position, but as we recede fh>m the equator toward either pole, it dips • the north end, if we go northward, and the south end, if we proceed southward ; and the further north or south wo go, the greater is the inclination. Its incli- nation is likewise found to vary very considerably at different times in different places of the earth. — K. B. In the most improved form of construction of the dipping-needle, the axis, instead of being a cylinder, is a knife-edge, resting perpendicularly, like the sup- ports of a pendulum, on two agate planes. A needle thus supported, however, must necessarily make small oscillations ; consequently It must lie so adjusted that when it points in the direction of the magnetic force, the knife edges may he perpendicular to the agate planes. The mean ralue of the angle of the dip must therefore be known previously to its construction ; but it is the best adapted, on account of its delicacy, for ascertaining the minute variations of the dip at the same place. The angle of the dip, like that of the variation, changes its value when at the same place, following, of course, the motion of the magnetic poles, which, from the observations made by Scoresby, Parry, Ross, and others, in high latitudes, appear to have a motion westward, the annual amount of which is about 11' 4". In the summer of 1831, Commander R6ss, in an excursion from the vessel in which his party wert 5o long detained in the polar seas, reached a spot on the continent of Korth America, which had been calculated to Ih) the positten of tl'.e magnetic pole. There ho found the dip of the needle to be 89° 59', within one minute of the vertical ; ar. 1 compass- needles suspended in the most delicate manner possildo exhibited Tin polarity whatever. The latitude of this spec is 70° .5' 1/" "north, and its longitnde 96° 46' 4">" west. For a description of some other forms of the dipping-needle, see BREW-sTEn's Treatise on Afag- net ism. Diplomacy, in its most restricted sense, is used to express the art of conducting negotiations or ar- ranging treaties between nations liy means of their foreign ministers, or written correspondence ; l)nt In its most extended signification, it embraces the whole science of negotiation with foreign states as founded on pnlilic law, positive engagements, or an enlightened view of the interests of each. But, upon this subject, we can not do lietter than embody in our pages some rem.irks from the Introduction of Marten's Afamiel Diplomat iijve, in which a distinct view Is exhiliited of tYio lni|iortance and main olijects of diplomacy. Di- plomacy, says that able statesman, must lie placed In the foremost rank of the useful sciences. Tlic fiito of nations, in the present state of tlie world, depends greatly on tlieir relations with others ; and these again arc materially influenced and determined by the na- ture of tlieir foreign policy, that is, liy tlie success with wliich they have cultivated and applied the prin- ciples of this science. Diplomacy emliraces— 1. The law of nations, by which the relations of one state with another are determined both In peace and war. 2. The political principles of individual states, as de- duced from a regani to their peculiar interests ; and a knowledge of the way in wliich tliese interests may lie reconciled with, and made suliservient to, the law of nations. S. An acquaintance with the privileges and duties of diplomat'^' agents. 4. Tlie conduct of negotiations, or the course to lie pursued In treating of the interests of different states. 5. The moral and physical statistics of eacii |M)wer. 6. The political and milltarj- history of the states having diplomatic relations ; and the projects, tendency, and policy of their respective governments. 7. 'The variour, gyi- DIP 543 DIS tarns of govtrnraent, supremacy, concession, retention, eqailibrium, centralization, confederacy, etc., that may be brought into operation. 8, The art of composing diplomatic despatches. To this multifarious informa- tion the diplomutist should unite the powers of cal- culation and application peculiar to stron); minds — ^the " tact des convenances," which may be felt, but can not be expressed — circums|>ection, address, and perfect Integrity. The combination of tlicse various qualities will procure for the diplomatist such a character for sagacity, rectitude, and straightforwardness, and will, sooner or later, obtain for him an ascendency over the minds of others, and give great weight to his opinions. It must be remembered that the diplomacy of every nation is more or less within the range of casualties ; being subject to the versatility inseparable from human affairs, the flcltleness and passions of man, and the uncertainty of eventt — an unlooked-for death, a change of ministry, treaciierous designs, undue influence from any quarter, a false calculation, corruption — each of these causes may change the policy or course of a gov- ernment ; and this will more or less atfect ever}' other government, in proportion to the extent of its influence. In addition to these numerous causes of variation, if ambitious projects lie entertained by any great power, diplomacy becomes still morn intricate and difticult. Every state desires to l)e protected against the storm which its rulers imagine tliey can prognosticatA, and of whose burstin); they are appre- hensive. Again, we must remarl?, that the schemes of a government, how admirably soever contrived, have often miscarried, either from sulmrdinuto persons or those intrusted with puttnig them in execution having misapplied or misunderstood tho instructions of their superiors. From what has l)een said, it will be easily under- stood, that in diplomacy, false estimates are frequently formed of the merits of original plans or designs from looking at their results only. The diplomatist is, of course, exempted from all responsibility in regard to operations mixed up with the events of war — he is an- swerable only for the success of his projects under the conditions on which ho proposed them. A diplomutist of moderate capacity, if favored i)y circumstances, may accomplish mucli more than the man of genius who has to contend with adverse for- tune ; l)ut this difference of success makes no change in their relative ability, and those acquainted witli tlic circumstances readily discriminate between sagacity and accident. Diplomacy has been practiced in substance ever since mankind have lieen formed into independent states, though it Is difficult to ascertain the precise pe- riod at wliich the term came into use. 'i'lie system, however, of tho regular and uninterrupted residence of foreign ministers during peace at tho F.uropean courts, us at present practiced, is said to have origi- nated with the Cardinal de Hicliciiou. Ileforo that time embassies Iind l>cen only sent on special occa- sions, luit attended with much greater sliow and reti- nue tlian has l>een tiie fashion in modem times ; while tho substantial Inisiness of states at tlie neighboring courts was transacted liy agents of a lower stamp and character. Diplomatic agents are now ranked, in Eu- rope, in tlie following order, according to tlie regula- tions of tho Congress of Vienna : — 1. .\mhassador8 ; 2. Envoys extraordinary and ministers plenipoten- tiary; 8. Ministers resident ; •!. ('liargcs des aftalrcs; 5. Secretaries of legation and attaches ; the latter, however, have no precise diplomatic character, and are imly considered by courtesy as attached to the legation. Among the I)cst works on this important subject are tho Tniiti com/ilH de Uliilomatie, »u Theorie generate del Relatiotit exterieures de> PuUsnncet de I'Kumpr, par M. LB CoMTE DE GARDEN (I'arls, 1833), 3 vols. Hvo. ; and De Wicquefort'i Ambatactdeur et cet Fonctium (lid. Opt.) 1746, 12 vols., 4to. See also the ifanutl Diplo- matique, by Von Marten (Paris, 1825) j Fi.assan's Iliit. Gen et Saitonn, de la Diplom. Franfaise, 7 vols. (Paris, 1811), and Von Marten's (senior) Grundritt einer Diplom. Getchichieder Europ. Staatthaiulel, etc., (Hamburg, 8vo.) Bbanue's Enc. See N.A.Jtev., xxxix. 802 (by E. Everett) j xxiv., p. 82 (by T. Pitkin) ; U. IS. Lit. Gaz., v., p. 1 (by C. Cdshino) j Fhaseb's Magazine, xli., p. 605; Foreign Quarterly, xUi., p. 1. Discharge of Seamen. Whenever a ship or liessel belonging to a citizen of tho United States is sold in a foreign country-, and her company discharged, or when a seaman or mariner, a citizen of the United States, is with liis own consent discliarged in a foreign country, it is the duty of the master or commander to produce to the consular officer tho certifled list of h s ship's company, and pay to such consular officer for every seaman or mariner so discharged, being desig- nated on such list as a citizen of the United States, three months' pay, over and above the wages whicli may then be due to such mariner or seaman, two thirds thereof to be paid by such consular officer to each sea- man or mariner so discharged, upon liis engagement on board of any vessel to return to the United States, and the other remaining third to be retained for tiie purpose of creating a fund for tho payment of the passages of seamen or mariners, citizens of tlio United States, wlio may lie desirous of returning to the United States, and for tho niaiutenunce of American seamen who may be destitute, and may l)e in sucli foreign port. The several sums retained for tlie seamen's fund are to be accounted for to the Treasury Department l)y tho consular officers receiving the same. — Statutes at Large, U. S. See Hunt's Mag., xi., p. Ml ; Ihid., p. 230; Kent's Commentaries ; Parsons' Meriuntile I.ain. According to tlio laws of the United States, consular officers are not to discliarge a seaman for sliglit or venial oft'enses, and certainly not for a single off'cnse unless of a very aggrav ated character. If tlie charge be negligence, drunkenness, disol>edience, or dishonesty, the question should lie, wliether the misconduct was of such a degree as to show a habitual inattention to or un- fltness for duty, having always in view the particular station of the piirty and the nature of his duty. If tlio iillegation be tliat the seaman is a dangerous person, i'rom a spirit of insubordination, or hostility to tiio master, it has been held that the master must sIiow tliat the danger is such as would affect the mind of a man of ordinary firmness. Hut even In cases of ag- gravated off'enses, or of a continued course of conduct wliich would justify tho discharge of a seaman, if he repents and offers amends, tlie principle whicli is always operating in his favor against all kinds of for- feiture, witli very rare exceptions, intervenes to restore him to liis rights, and lie is ordinarily entitled to lie re- ceived again on lioard. To deprive a mariner of ttio lienellt of this rule, it should appear that the miscon- duct amounts to a radical disqtialitication, ns dislion- esty and haliituai drunkenness in a steward ; or that tile party is really dangerous to the peace and safety of tlie ship. Tiicse principles receive additional force from tho general policy of tlie laws of tlie United States, whicli discountenances tho discharge of seamen in foreign ports. Tlie various enactments in respect to destitute seamen sufficiently show tho paternal so- licitude of the government for tho preservation and protection of tho seamen of the country. — .Manual /or tjotwils. See Desertion dy Seamen. " Tiie right of tlie seaman to lie lirought back to his own homo, is very jealously guarded by our laws. The master slioulil alw^ays present his sliipping arti- cles to the consul, or commercial agent of tlie IJnited States, ot every foreign jiort which lie visits, but does not seem to be required by law to do this, unless tho consul desires it. Ho must, however, present tliem to the first boarding officer on his arrival at a humo port. DIS 844 And if apon an arriral at a home port flmm a foreign voyage, it svpean that any of the seamen are missing, the master must account for their absencu. If he di>- charges a seaman abroad without his consent, he^ust pay to the American consul three months' wages, of which the consul gives two to the seaman, and remits one to the Treosuiy of the United States to form a fund for bringing home seamen from abroad. This obligation does not apply when the voyage is necessa- rily brolien up by a wrecic, or similar misfurtune. But proper measures must be taken to repair the ship, if possible, or to obtain the restoration, if captured. An^ the seaman may hold on for a reasonable time for this purpose, and if discharged before, may claim the extra wages. Our consuls and commercial agents may au- thorize the dicharge of a seaiuiiii abroad tor gross mis- conduct, and he then has no claim fur the extra wages. They may also send our seamen home in American ships, which are bound to bring them for a compensa- tion not exceeding ten dollars each, and the seamen so sent must work and obey as if originally shipped. Besides this, if a master discharges a seaman in a for- eign port, he is liable to a fine of 600 dollars, or six months' imprisonment. And a seaman may recover full indemnity or compensation for his loss of time, or expenses incurred by reason of such dischai^." — Paksoss' Mercantile Law, p. 898. Diaconnt, a sum of money deducted iWim a debt in consideration of its being paid before the usual or stipulated time. The circumstance on which its fair- ness is founded is, that the creditor, by receiving his money before it comes due, has the interest of the monv\v during the interval. Consequently he should only receive so much as, put out to interest during the period in question, will realize the amount of his debt at the time when it would have liecome due. For in- stance, jEIOO is to be paid at the end of 3 years ; what should be paid now, interest being 4 per cent. ? Here it is evident, that if we divide the whole debt into 112 (or 100-)-8X4) parts, 100 of these parts will make the other 12 in three years (at simple in- terest), whence the payment now due is the 112th part of i.'lb,00O, or £»9 6s. 9d. The rule is, n l>eing the number of years (a fraction, or number and fraction), r the rate per cent, and D the sum due, Present valuer Discounts lOO-f-nr' Dne "lOO-(-tir' In practice, it is usual not to tind the real discount, but to allow interest on the whole debt in the slm|)e of abatement. Thus it would be considered that, in the preceding example, three years' discount upon 41100, at 4 |>cr cent., is jC12, or £68 would be considered as the present value. In tramiactions which usually proceed on compound interest, as in valuing leases, annuities, etc., the prin- ciple of discount is strictly preserved. The present value in the preceding case is, in its most usual form, V V ,—. — ■-, and the discount D— r-,- — ; (1 +/))-' (l+p)"' where p is the rate per pound (not per cent. : thus it is •0-1 for 4 per cent.). Hut recourse is usually hod to the tables of present values which accompany all works on annuities or compound interest. The name of discount is also applied to certain trade allowances upon the nominal prices of good^. In some branches of trade tlu-^se allowances vary according to the circumstances which affect the markets j and wliat is called discount is in fact occasioned by fluctuations in prices which it is thought convenient to maintain nominally at unvarj-ing rates. This system is prac- ticed in some branches of wholesale haberdasher}' business, and we have now before us a list of prices furnished to his customers by a manufacturer of tools M Sheffield, In which tb« nominal price of each articls is continued the same at which it has stood for many years, while to every different species of tool there ia applied a different and a fluctuating rate of discount, this fluctuation constituting in fact a difference of price l)etween one period and another. The rates of dia- count in this list \iay from 6 to 40 per cent, upon the nominal prices of the different articles. The term discount is also employed to signify other mercantile allowances, such for example as the abate- ment of 12 per cent, made U|)on the balances which imderwriters, or insurers of sea risks, receive at the end of the year from the brokers b;' whom the insur- ances have Iwen efiected. The word discount is fur- ther used, in contradistinction to premium, to denote the diminution in value of securities which are sold according to a fixed nominal value, or according to the price they may have originally cost. If, for example, a share in a canal company, upon which JEIOO has been paid, is sold in the market for i;i)8, the value of the share is stated to be at 2 per cent, discount. — BuiiN. Diaoriminatiitg Dutiea. The discriminating duty of 10 per cent,, under the 11th section of the U. S. tariff hiw of 1842, is an additional duty of 10 per cent, on the rate of legal duties chargeable on the im- ports, and not a duty of 10 per cent, on the value of the goods ; as, for example, an import chargeable with a regular duty of 20 per cent., and also with the dis- criminating duty of 10 per cent., under the llth sec- tion of tariff act pf 1842, would become chargeable with a duty of 22 |ier cent., and not 30 per cent. It has Iwen decided that a discriminating duty ex- acted on a Spanish vessel clearing from a port of the United States for Cuba or X'orto Kico, under the 2d section of the act of 30th June, 1834, " concerning ton- nage duty on Spanish vessels," can not he refunded, although tlie vessel may never arrive at her destination, being wrecked on the voyage. — Manual fur Consuls. Dispensary, a place where mediciues are made up and distributed ; but used more generally for a char- itable institution, where the poor are supplied witli medicines and advice. Institutions of this nature are of comparatively recent origin ; thougli they are now to lie met with in every town of any importance, both in this country and in Europe. To every dispensary there ore always attached one or more physicians, sur- geons, and apotliecaries, whose duty it is respective!}' to prescribe and dispense medicines to the poor, and to visit them in their own houses in the event of tlicir being too ill to attend personally at the institution. In most cases dispensaries are supported by voluntary contributions. Distafli the staff U> which hemp, flax, wool, or otlier substances to be spun, is fastened. The art of spinning witli it at the sniull wheel, first taught to English women by Anthony Uonaviita, un Italian, 20 Hen. V'll., 1605, — Stowk. The distaff is used an au emblem of the female sex. — Howell. Tlie di.^taff formerly occupied the place in the drawing-room or boudoir of the English ladies that the harp or piano does now. District of Columbia occupies a space of UO square miles, and is situated on the left l>ank of the Potomac Kiver, 121) miles from its entrance into Chcsa- lieake Bay, and at the head of navigation. The terri- tory was formerly 10 miles square, and was ceded l)y the States of JIaiylund and Virginia for tlio purposu of l>ecoming tlio seat of govommont of the United States. The |M)rtion west of the Potomac was retro- ceded to Virginia in 1840. I'he District, whiah is under tlie inmicdiute jurisdiction of Congress, contains the cities of Washington aud Georgetown, and is en- tirely comprehended in the county of Washington. Population in 1800, 14,008 ; 1810, 24,023 ; 1820, 33,030 ; 1830, 89,834; 1840, 43,712; and in 1850, 51,(i87 : whites, 88,027 ; free colored, »,g'3; and 3,C87 slaves. In 1850, there were 16,267 acres of land improved, and 11,187 of unimproved land, in farms. Cash valU5 I Sept ! Sept; OisUUa qnont conde ^^friafrxitort), "f 'ho art of alchemists ; •■•'mote ages ilerived from till.ition, thou riliarmuceutici extcnsivo seal 'he distilleries. I'KK.MExr.VTlr tails bearing i "f spirituous |i "e shall limit processes whici *» »wo distinc Dig "^"^rr, •40,820. '"w •"mplement. tnd i m„4, , toes. 2S t/' bMi»l» of wm!k ""^ ""' herring, tho». I^Mri •adbf. i>otneitle, 1.081,476 T79,803 e subjectod to fermentation. When the waxh is adjnited as to dens- ity, it is run into the fermenting-rats, where, mixed with a small quantity of yeast, it is subjected to the process of fennentation, which continues from 6 to 10 or 18 days — the time required for its completion vary- ing. The proo/ ipirit of commerce, and that of the Pharmaeopoiia, is generally stated to be of the spectflc gravity of 0-920 at 62° and is considered as a mixture of t^al weighi* nfabioluit alcohol at the tptcific gravily of 0'791 at 60° and of water. The rectified epirit of commerce, or rather that of the Pharmacopoeia, is di- rected to lie of the specific gravity of 0-888 at 60°, and may be regarded as a mixture of about 82 parts of al>- solnte alcohol and 18 of water. — Bbands's Cfclo. See also Encg. Brit., 8th edition. Divan (Arabic dimm), among the Arabs, Persians, and Turlc9, is a word that bears very various significa- tions. It primarily denoted a lioolc of accounts, a mus- ter-roll of troops, etc. ; and hence came to be applied to a collection of \ync poems (called gatellet) arranged in • kind of alphabetical order. Thus we have the Di- van ofSadi, the Ditean ofllafiz, etc. ; a practice which has been imitated by (iocthe in his WettStllicher Diwan, • collection of pocmx in the Oriental style. The wonl among the Orientals denotes also a coimcil-chamber, a tribunal of justice, and in like manner is applied to the general council nf state. Under the khaliffs of Bag- dad, the diwan wan a court of justice over which the khaliff presided in person. At Constantinople in the present day the term is used to denote the great coun- cil of the empire. It is also a common application among the Turks for a saloon or chamber of reception, or in which business is transacted, or used as a place of occasional repose. The divan more properly is a kind of stage, raised about a foot above the floor of the saloon, covered with rich tapestrj', and furnished with a number of embroidered cushions leaning against the wall ; and on this the master of the house is seated when ho receives visitors. Hence the word is frequently applied by other nations to a kind of public coflfee-rooni, furnished in a manner somewhat similar. — K. II. Diwl Divi, the commercial name of the pod of the Cirtalpinia coriaria, a leguminous plant, found in low marshy situations on the north coast of South America, and in some parts of the West Inillos. It is used Imth for dyeing and tanning, but chiefly for the latter pur- pose. The pod is from 2 to 3 inches in length by } inch in breadth, and when in perfection is of a rich brown color. It contains a few small seeds ; but the only valuable portion is a resinous matter, of a briglit yellow color, easily pulverized, which lies l)etwixt the outer skin and the husk tliut incloses the see.l, and contains a large quantity of tannin. Almut O-IDths of the imports into Enjriiind come to Liverpool, wlicre the following quantities were received during the last four years, viz. : In 1840, 3IJ60 tons ; 1H50, 2700 tons ; 1851, 2280 t<,ns ; 1852, iO'M tons. It might lie supposed from this statement that the article was going out of favor i iMit such is not the case. When, however, the price in England is under £10 per ton, the imports de- crease ; and it has latterly been Iralow this limit. Re- cently, however, its price has risen considerably ; and with this rise the imports may be expected to increase. Maracaibo, Rio de la Huche, and Savanilla are almost the only places whence this article is imiurted. That brought from &Iaracaibo is the Imst, that from Sava- nilla the most Inferior. During the last 4 years prices have ranged lietween XV Vit. and £14 per ton for Rio Uaohe and Maracaibo, and £7 and ;eiO 15s. for .Sava- nilla, the highest quotations lieing now current (Septem- ber, 18,M). I)ivi Divi is used by dyers, not for the esloring principle which it contains, but for its strong astringent qnalltie* M a mordant. For thb pnrpon it is at present used, to some extent, Instead of sumach, which Is scarce and dear ; and hence the recent high price of the article. In tanning, it accelerates the process, and imparts to the leather a clean and healthy apearance. Dividend, In commerce, is a word which has two very distinct meanings. In its more general employ- ment it Is understood to express the money which Is divided, pro rata, among the creditors of n bankrupt's es- tate, out of the amount realized from his assets. The other meaning attached to the word dividend signifies the periodical division of profits among shareholders of insurance, railroad, bank, and other corporations. Diving-bell, First mentioned, though obscurely, l>y Aristotle, 825 n, c. The diving-bell was first used in Europe a, u, 1609. It is said to have been used on the coast of Mull, In searching for the wreck of part of the Spanish Armada, liefore A, n. 1669. Ilalloy greatly improved this machine, and was, it is said, the first who, hy means of a diving-bell, set his foot on dry ground at the Iwttom of the sea. Smeaton applied tho condensing-pump to force down air. Mr. Spalding and his assistants going down in a diving-bell in Ire- land were drowned, June 1, 1783. The Roi/al (leorge man-of-war, which was sunk ofl' Portsmouth in 1782, was first surveyed, by means of a diving-bell, in May, 1817. Lately, and particularly in 1840, it has been employed in sub-marine surveys. The first diving- bflle was the wife of Captain Morris, nt Ph'mouth, who descended in one a few j-cars ago. — Haydn, it is an apparatus by means of which persons are let down and enabled to remain under water, and execute various operations ; such as leveling or clearing the bottom of harbors, preparing a foundatlin for buildings, bring- ing up sunken materials, etc. The principle of the diving-bell depends on the impenetrability of atmo- spheric air, and may bo illustrated by a very familiar experiment. Bring the edge of an inverted tumliler, or any close vessel, to the surface of the water, and, keeping the mouth horizontal, press it down in the water. It will be seen that, though some portions of water ascend into the tumbler, tho greater part of the space remains empty, or only filled with air ; and any object placed in this space, though surrounded on all sides with water, would remain perfectly dry. In fact, the quantity of air remains the same, but is compressed into a smaller volume, in proportion to the depth to which it is made to descend. Now, if we conceive a vessel of wood or iron, sufliciently capacious to hold several men, to \te suspended by a chain, and lowered, by means of weights attached to it, to any moderate depth under water, it is evident that they mu}- remain there for a considerable time, and perform any opera- tion that could lie executed on land in tho same con- fined space. The machine, however, as thiLs di'srrilicd, is liable to two great defects, which must be .)bviatoil by other contrivances before any great advantages can l>e derived from it. In the first place, as the air by its coniprcssiliility allows the water to enter tho lower part of the bell, the dry space is not only diminished, but the Iwttom on which the bell rests, and where the operations are to be carried on, is also covereil with water to a proportional depth. In the second place, the air within the bell, by the repeated respirntiim, s'lon lieconies mephitic, anil unfit to support life ; so that it is necessan' to elevate the apparatus after short in- tervals to admit a fresh supply. It is not known at what period the diving-bell was invented, Beckman, in his " History of Inventions," mentions that at Toledo, In the 16th century, two (irecks, In the presence of tho emperor ("harles V, and several thousand spectators, let themselves down under water in a large inverted kettle, with a burning light, and rose again without Iwing wet. Oeorge Sinclair, tlie author of" .Satan's Invisible World Displayed," in his work entitled " Ars Nov.i et Magna Gravitatis et Le- ■l}jc^^H DIV A4r fiJI to hiiW uv rciiii>ii> any operii- Biime cim- (Icsi-rilie'li ,e ,)l)viiitod nta^os can air l>y its tho lower aimlniMieil, wlicro tlio ivercil with cond place, rpspirati'ini life ; SI) that er slinrt in- Ing-lipU was Inventionn, , two ('. rocks , anil several under water IK Unlit, ttn'l Sinclair, the lyed," in W' ■Itatis et Le- ay ^tatii," mentions some attempts that were made about tho year 1665 to raise, by means of a diving-ball, tba treasuro from the ships of the Invincible ArmaiU tliat went to the bottom near the Isle of Mull, in the He- brides, and describes the kbid of bell that was em> ployed. But on account of the defects to wbtcb ws have alluded, the diving-bell continued to ba of very little use till the time of Dr. Halley, who contrived a means of introducing fresh air into the Ml while un- der water, and of allowing the mephitic or brsatiied air to escape. The bell he made use of he descrilos as havuig been of wood, containing about 00 oublo foot in its cavity, and of the form of a truncated cone, whose diameter at the top was 8 feet, and at the bot- tom 6. This was coated with lead, so heavy that it could sink empty, and tho weight so distributed about its bottom that it could only deucend in a perpendicular direction. In the top a clear glass was fixed, to let in the light from above, and a cock to lot out the air that had been breathed. To supply the air to the liell, \m caused a couple of barrels, of about 30 gallons each, to be cased with lead, so as to sink empty, each of them having a bung-hole in its lower part, to let in the water as tlio air in tliem condensed on their descent, and tu lot it out again when they were drawn up full from be- low. To a hole in the uppermost part of the barrels a trunk or hose was fixed, long enough to full l)elow tlia bung-hole, and ikept down by a weight, so tliat no sir could escape by the hose till its end was raised up, The liarrels thus prepared were let down by tlie side of tho bell. A man stationed on a stage suspended from the bell was ready to take up the hose ; and as soon as their ends were brought to the surface nf tlie water in the barrels, all the air that was included in tlie u|h ^cr parts of them, was blown with great vinlouce into tlie bell, while the water entered at the Imng-bules lie- low and filled the barrels. By means of this contriv- ance the air was not only kept fre'th, but another great advantage was gained, namely, that by admitting a Buflicicnt quantity of it the wliole of the water was ex^ pellcd from the inside of the bell, and the l>ottum of the sea laid dry. By means of this contrivance for the admission of fresh air, it was now possilde to rem» ing no power over it, its rising or sinking dfir pends entirely upon the people at the surface of tlie water ; and as the bell, even when in the water, has considerable weiglit, there is always a possiliillty uf the chain l>y which it is raised breaking, which would inevitably bo attended with the destruction' of tlie :lir<>rA. Another danger, still more to lie apprehended, is, tliat if the mouth of the lioll, in its descent, sbould cuine upon a sunken sliip, ur a rock projecting aliruptly from tlio bottom, it inlglit be overset liefnro any signal could be given to those almve. These defects were ob- viated by tho very ingenious contrivances of Mr. Spalding of Edinburg. In order tu avoid tlio risk of being upset when the bell descends on a rocky or uneven bottom, ho suspended a considerable weight, which he culled a balance-weight, below the liell, liy u rope passing over a pulley lixed iu the inside ; and tliu other weights attached tu the bell being so ailjustuil tliiit tliey could nut sink it without the balance-weight, as siion as tlie latter rested on the ground th« liell re- nininod suspended in the water. In case of the nioutli of the bell being caught by any obstacle, the balance- weight is immediately lowered, till it rests on tlie liot- tiiiii ; and as tho bell, when thus relieved, is buoyant, tlic divers, having disengaged it from the rock, have it in tlieir power cither to descend, by pulling in tlie rope, or, by allowing it to run, to ascend to the surface, Anutiier contrivance of Mr. .Spalding deserves mention. lie divided the bell into two com|iartnients, tlie one above the other, and communicating by means of a slrni^MKli, The dlvvfit »te stationed in the lower one, 0)14 till) w»\nMit MM Ml ndjustod that when the cavity abovti is fmM, Ml« bell Is buoyant i when it is filled wit!) WAtur, titt* Iwtl sinks. Immediately above the partition writ MHM »\\tt iu the sides of the bell ; and at tba top i« HH Ill1rii<«, wlllcll nan be opened or shut at illeitilUFli, MuUtHtsili how, this orifice being open, the ball in riiquifHO dl \m lowered ; as it descends, the wa- ter »ntet|)lH<'« a quantity of the water, and the flpiwrHtHH will bit lightened by the whole of the water so dtii|ilHiili Tint divers have It thus in their power to rii^lllHtit tll« de^icmt or riso as they please. By »4lMitHll)i It iifMiilH i(((a(itlty of air Into the upper v^vHy, th' 'IfeiMtllt i/ftlie bell Is arrested ; by admitting a jfrmtff iiiliintit,V, it bit lif filll'll n thickness that its own weight was suntiliinf to uhlk It t ntid its thickness was greater near the iniiuth or tower part, to prevent it from being easily overneti Thin (* the most hazardoua. The retuma are principally made in cash. The trade with India and the Gulf of Persia ia aafer than the coffee trade, and ia very considerable. DJidda has also a good deal of intercourse with the ports of Cosseir, Soual(in, and Massouah, on the opposite coast of the Red Sea. The Imports from the lost two principally consist of slaves, gold, tobacco, dhourra or barley, hides, batter (of which immense quantities are made nse of in Arabia), mats, etc.) in return for which the Africiun receive Indian goods suitalde for thair marlcets, dressea and ornament* for their women, datea (whicli are not pro- duced in any part of Nubia), iron, etc. The principal article of import from Cosseir is wheat ; and not only DJidda, but the whole Hedjaz, or Holy Land of Arabia, la almost entirely dependent upon Egypt for com. Coffee is the principal article sent in return. Business la transacted at Djidda with ease and expedition. The number of ships belonging to the port is estimated at 250, Owing to the scarcity of timber, none of them are built at Djidda — those Iwlonging to it 1>eing either purchased at Boml)ay or Muscat, or at Mocha, ITo- deida, or Suez. For a considerable period each year, before and after the feast of Ramadliun, when ))ilgrim8 come ftvm all quarters to visit Mecca, the town is thronged with strangers, and a great deal of mercantile business is transacted. Djiddu is at present, and has been for a number of years, under the government of the Pacha of Egypt. The montyt, weights, and meat- unit of the latter country (for which see Alkxandria) are now generally used in Djidda, the commerce of which has been much improved and extended in con- sequence of the comparative security and gowl order enforced by the pacha. — Bdrckuarut, Tmvih in Arabia, vol. i., pp. 1-100. Dock, an inclosed place for the reception of ships, either for their security or for the convenience of Imiid- ing or giving them repairs. This word has lieen de- rived by some, al)8urd1y enough, from tlie Grecit dexoftai, to receive. That we had it, along with al- most the whole of our sea terms, from the northern continental nations, is sufHciently obvious. Thus, in Flemish, it is ilol- ; Teutonic, dock ; Swedish, docla ; Suio-Gothic, docia ; perhaps originally from detken, to cover, protect, secure, inclose. The dock for inclosing the prisoner in a court of justice is evidently from tlie same origin. Docks for the reception of ships are of two kinds, tret and diy. A ml-ilvrk may either have gates to re- tain the water in it, so that sliips shall constantly remain afloat, or be left open for tlie tide to flow into and ebb out of it at pleasure, either leaving it dry at low water, or with a certain depth of water remaining in it, according to its construction and situation with regard to the low-water mark, and to the ebbing of tlie sea at spring or neap tides. A wet-dock without gates is generally distinguished by the name of a basin, wliich, however, is sometimes indiscriminately applied to n wet-dock, whetlier with or without gates. A dry-dach either becomes dry by the cl)l>ing of the tide when the gates arc left open, or by shutting the gates at low water, and pumping out whatever water may remain in it at that time, liy tlie power of men, hones, wind, or l)y tlie steam-engine. Wel-docks. — A wet-dock may be defined to be "a liasin of water, in which ships may be kept afloat at all times of the tide ;" a dry-duck, a " receptacle in which every part of a ship can l)e examined, and its defects repaired." Ships may also be convenienti}' built in dry-do<:ks, and floated out liy opening the uneformt ; and a slip, una calte. The digging out the earth, and building the aurronndlng walla of masonry to prevent the sides falling in, and the preparation of the mortar and puzzolana, in the construction of a wet-dock, are attended with great labor and expense. The two wet-docks or basins of Cherbourg (see Biirak- watkr), which are among the finest specimens that exist in the world, are estimated to have cost .C3,000,- 000 sterling. The labor of excavation may sometimes be spnred, and a series of wet-docka or basins conve- niently made, by turning the course of a tide-river through an isthmus, and placing a pair of gates at each end of the old channel. In this way, were the new docks of Bristol constructed out of the bed of the Avon. Wet-docks are an Improvement In navigation and commerce of the utmost importance, but of very modem date In this country ; indeed, they owe their introduction entirely to a spirit of individual enterprise in commercial speculation. Liverpool might still have remained a poor fishing-village hut for ita convenient docks, whicli not only produce to the town and corpo- ration a large revenue, bnt insure to the merchant every possilde facility in refitting, loading, and dis- charging his ships, whatever their liurden or their cargo may be, without being exposed to the risk of losing both ship and cargo in a rapid tide-river ; and at all events, to an unavoidable delay, occasioned by distance, the weather, or the state of the tides. London, though unquestionably the first city in the world for its opulence. Its commerce, and public spirit, and possessing within Itself the powerful internal means of supporting docks, and all otlier conveniences that trade and shipping may require on the most ex- tensive plans ; Ixindon was the lost to try the experi- ment of dorks, except in the case of two spirited individuals, Mr. Perr)-, at Blackwall, and Mr. Wells, at Greenland Dock, both private ship-builders. Not- withstanding the total inadequacy of legal quays, which subjected the merchants to incalcalable losses and delays, and in many cases proved otisolutely ruin- ous ; notwithstanding the effect of the heavy, expens- ive, and fatal cml)arrassments experienced regularly on the arrival of the West India fleets, and the annual losses, by plunder in tlie river, on West India produce, which alone were calculated to amount to i:i50,fl00 to the proprietor, and X.'>0,flOO to the revenue, and more than the double of those sums, including other branches of commerce ; It was not till the rear 1799 that preju- dices and private Interests were so fur removed as to enable the merchants concerned in the "'est India trade to obtain an act of Parliament to carrj- into ex- ecution a plan of docks, quays, and warehouses, fiir the convenience of that trade on the Isle of Dofis. Since that time the London Docks, St. Katharine Docks, and various others, have been completed*,' ito the incalculable lienefit of the shipping interest and the commerce of the metropolis. The docks of Liverpool were the first of the kind tliat were constructed in this kingdom, Iiy virtue of an act of Parliament, passed In 1708 ; and from that period the town of Liverpool has rapidly raised itself from a poor tlsliing-vlllagc, and a port for coasting- vessels, to be the second commercial town and port In the empire ; and the improvements carried out for the enlargement and licfter arrangement of the docks. rendered It, for convenience and appearance, In this respect the verc first, not even London excepted. It apjieurs from a statement, apparently authentic, that In the ten years ending with 1808 the number of ships which entered these docks was •18,497, tonnage 4,9M,204 ; and the dock duties received, £32«,f)fifi ; and that In the following ten years, ending in 1818, the number of ships was 00,200, the tonnage 6,.')7.'),,'i(j(), and the amount of duties, X6n6,y immense warehouses, which are estimated to contain nearly 10,000 hogsheads of sugar, and an immense quantity of rum. The sum authorized by Parliament to l>e raised for completing these doclu and warehouses was i:i,200,000, and the total expense was probably not far sliort of i:],500,00<>; yet on this captital the subscribers have been receiving from a very short period after their opening, 10 per cent., which, by the terms of the act, is not to be exceeded, and the term granted is limited to 21 years ; but, like most other property, these docks have been greatly de- preciated in value, and at present barely pay 8 per cent. The next set of docks that were undertaken for the advantage of the trade of the capital were the London Dochi. These docks are situated in Wapping, and are appropriated for the reception of all ships arriving in the port of London with wine, spirits, tolMkcco, and rice on board, but not exclusively, ships having on lioard other cargoes being admitted on the payment of certain fees. The oct of Parliament for incorporating the Dock Company was passed in 1800, authorizing them to raise a capital of ^£1,200,000 ; but such was the number of houses to be purchased (we believe not less than 1200) occupyinft the site of the dock, that this capita), by suluequenc acts, was extended to £'i,- 200,000, the dividends on which are limited, as in the West India Docks, to 10 per cent. The great dock is 420 yards in length, and 2:tO yards in width, covering an area of 20 acres. A liasin of 3 acres nearly, con- nects it with the river. The wareliouses are very niag- nilicent ; and the tobacco wareliuuse is the grandest and most spacious building of iu kind in tlie world, being capable of containing 25,000 hogsheads of to- bacco, and the vaults underneath as many pipes of wine. This single building, under one roof, is seid to occupy upward of 4 acres of ground. These docks were opened in February, 1805. The Eait India Dock*, for the exclusive reception and iiccommodation of tlie Fast India ships, were the lust in succession. The act for the incoriwration of the company wag pasted in July, 1803, authorizing them to raise a capital of £200,000, which was after ward increased to £600,000, the dividend, as in the case of the two others, to be limited to 10 per cant, lliese docks are situated at Blackwall. That for the reception of homeward-bound ships is 470 yards fn length by 187 in width, containing a surface of rather more than 18 acres ; the outward-bound dock is 260 by 173 yards, and is consequently something more than 9 acres. An entrance-basin of 8 acres nearl}', and ■ spacious lock, connect them with the Thames. Besides these there are the London Docks, the St. Katharine's Docks, and the Victoria Docks, in course of construction ; of these, detailed accounts will be found under the article, London. In other portions of England and Scotland, there have been costly docks constructed of late years, viz. : Hull has 6 docks, occupying, with their basins, a wa- ter area of 40} acres. A timber-pond of acres was constructed in 1853. The tonnage of shipping in 1852 was 799,800 sailing-vessels, and 305,021 steam-vessels ; the amount of dock dues, £483,755. Southampton, the station for the West India mail and Lisl>on and Alexandria steamers, is now constructing extensive docks and quays to accommodate their great and in- creasing traflSc. Grimli/ Harbor has lately been greatly improved. Wet and dry docks have been con- structed, on the most approved principles, at the ex- pense of £250,000, and a canal cut into the Humber culculated to admit vessels of 1,000 tons' burden. Hartlepool has also lieen of late years greatly enlarg- ing its harlmr and dock accommodation. Sunderland has new docks of 18 acres' extent, which were opened in 1850, and whicli can accommodate 300 sail. Dun- dee has lotely immensely improved her harbor and docks ; liesides two smaller docks, the wet-dock now constructing will occupy 14J acres, the lock of which will be 00 feet broad. A berdeen has a wet-dock, where the largest vessels may float in safety ; it covers nearly 40 acres, with quoy room of about 9,000 feet. Leith, the port of Edinl>urg, has 3 wet-docks, containing al)Out 15 acres of water room. Detailed accountt of these docks will be given under the names of the respective ports. The naval dry-docks of the United States are among the most stupendous mechanical enterprises of the country ; they are constructed at the navy-yards of New York, Charlestown, Norfolk, etc. By far the most extensive and magnificent of these structures is the granite drj'-dock at Brooklyn ; 80,000 tons of stone have been used in its construction ; the masonry foundations are 400 feet in length, and 120 in breadth. The main chamber is 286 feet long, and 30 feet broad on the bottom ; 307 feet long, ami 98 feet broad at the top within the folding-gates ; the height of the wall is 36 feet. The work was commenced in 1841, and took 10 years to complete it; the aggregate expenditure was nliove $2,100,000. Dry-docks. — A dry-dock, requiring to be perfectly water-tight, demands the greatest care in its construc- tion. It is sometimes lined all around with wood, but more generally with masonry, mostly of hewn granite. The expense is very considerable, as the foundation, by means of piles or otherwise, must be well secured, all leakage prevented, and the culvers or drains prop- erly constructed, to let in and carry off the water with- out its undermining the quays or piers. The cost of a complete dry-dock will vary probably from £20,000 to £100,000', according to the size of the ships it is in- tended to admit, and the nature of the ground on which it is to be constructed. A dry-dock may be single, or made to contain only one ship ; or double, to contain two ships ; but the former is the most common, because most convenient. As it is of the utmost im- portance to preserve the water m a wet-dock, and to keep it out of a dry-dock, it may be proper to describe the different kinds of gates which are in use for thii purpose. DOG C50 DOC Dock Gate*. — The moat common, and on the whole perhaps the beat end moat convenient, are awlnging- giit«!<, which open in the middle, und lie flat, one purt uguinat each wharf or aide-wall of the paHango lending into the docli or baaiii. Thia iiind of doclc-gate ro- c{uirea to be made of great Htrength, with aound timlwr and good iron, and the gudgeona on which the hingea turn to bo well aecured into the »tone abutmenla. Care alio must l)e taken tu make the bottom of the paaaage and the bottom of the gatca perfectly plane and parallel, to prevent leakage, and give facility to their o|)ening and abutting, which la usually asaiated by rollem fixed in a groove, and performed by moana of a amall capstan on each pier. Attached to the top of the gates is usually a foot-bridge with railing, which, separating in the middle, opens and shuts with the gates. The most simple but by no means the most eifective contrivance f)r keeping out the water, is the wicket- gate. It conaista of three parts, which when opened arc removed acparately. Thia gate is rarely made use of unless where the abutments are not eufliciently strong, or their fuunchition auflicicntly accure, to bear the weight of a pair of swinging-gatea. A third kind of gate conKists of a flonting-n, first Introduced into this country by (iencral Dcnthuui, and first applied to the great new liasin in Portsmouth dockyard. They are built somewhat in the alia|)e of a < iroenlund fishing-boat, sharp at the two ends, narrow, and deep in proportion to the deptli of water at the entrance of tile dock. The keel fits into a groove at the liottom of the passage, and the two 'lanting ends rise and fall in corresponding grooves cut into the two abutments. I)y letting in the water, the caissoon sinks in the grooves, and acts as a closed gate ; and l>y pumping (mt the water, or letting it out to a certain depth, tlie dam flouts as the tide rises, and tlie narrow part, rioting to the top, is readily disengaged from the grooves, and easily floateil away as a boat. The advantages of these floating-dams, as stated by General Bentham, are, that they are cheaper of con- struction than the gates heretofore in use for closing docks or basins ; that they occupy less apace, are more easily repaired, and one and the same dam is capable of being used, as need may require, in different places at different times. Theae cai;)soons have also the ad- vantage of serving as I>ridge8 of communication for loaded carriages across the entrances they close, and they require much less labor than gates in o|>enlng or shutting up passages into dorks or liasins, since their occasional buoyancy may lie olitained without pump- ing water or unloading ballast. Docking a Ship. — When a ship is liroiight into a drj' or graving dock, she gradually subsides us the water flows out, till her keel rests npon the lino of square bliK'ks which are placed to receive it alon;^ the middle for the whole length ; and on these blocks she is kept steady and upright by a numtier of shores or polos on each side, one of their ends being placed on the nllam or steps of the dock, the other under the ship's bends ond Imttora. As a ship under repair generally requires something to be done to the main or false keel, or at any rate these parts require to l)e inspected, sometimes to shift the main keel, or to add to the whole length of the false keel, it was always found necessary in such casea to remove the blacks, in o/der to get at the bot- tom of the ship ; but this operation could not be per- formed without the more serious one of first Ufling liodily the ship clear of all the blocks, and suspending her as it were in the air. This process was performed, by driving wedges simultaneously under the ends of ail the shores that supported the ship ; an operation that required from four to five hundred men to enalde them to suspend a ship of the first rate. When the ' San Josef, a largs three^ecker, reiiuired her Ijottom to b« examined in 1800, the assistance of almost every ^ artificer in the dockyard was found necessary to per- I form thli process of lifting her; nor was thia the onljr inconvenience ; the ship, thus auapendod, aulTered very material injury by the pressure of her own enormous weight against the enrt«d her, such as forcing in her sides, straining the knee* and all her fastening, lireaking the treenails, etc. To remedy these glaring inconveniences and verjr se/ioua injuries that ships thus ]>laced were apt tu sua- ta:n, and to eSect a saving of time und expense in tho ojHiration, Mr. (afterward Sir Kobert) Scpplugs, then muster shipwright, and afterward surveyor of the navy, contrived, several years ago, nn improvement, as ingenious aa it simple, liy which twenty men will suspend tho largest ship in the navj-, or rather, which amounts to the same thing, will disengage any ona lilock that ma}' be required, in the apace of two or three minutes, without the neci-ssity of suspending her at all; and, as a first rate in dock sits upon alwut fifty blocks, these twenty men will clear her of tho whole of those ■docks in al>out two hours ; and as the saving of a day in completing the repairs of a ship is frequently tho saving of a whole spring-tide, the docking and uudock- ing of a ship may make, and frequently has made, by this new method the difference of a fortnight in tho time of ey the name of the dry rot, attracted very )(eneral attention i its alTacta wore well known, but a variety of opinions were entertained as to its causes and its cure. It was quite ol)vioUB, however, that exclusion of air and niulsture were the two i^reut operating causes In K'vinK activity to the progress of the disease (see Uliir Hot) ; and that u ship in dock, stripped of her planking, and open to the weatlier in every part, alternately ox|H>sed to frost, rain, wind, and sunshine, must at least have her tinilioni differently affected, some swelled and water-soaked, others shrunk wltli heat, and others rifted with the wind and frost ; and, if closed up with planking in this state, might lie expected, at no great distance of time, to exhibit symptoms of decay. The workmen, too, in the open docks or sli|M, suffered from the vicissitudes of the weather no loss than the ships, and their liflior was frequently suspended, to the great detriment of the naval service. The measure of routing over tho docks and slips had long and repeat- edly licen suggested, liut, either from prejudice or a false economy, it was only of late years carried into practice, but is now universal in all the yards. These roofs are generally constructed so as to be capable of having the sides and ends occasionally closed, according to tlie quarter from which the wind may blow ; and by tliis contrivance the timlier is prevented from rift- ing, as it is liable to do, l)y the action of a thorough draught of wind, and the health of the artificer is pro- vented from injury. The light ia admitted through numerous windows placed in the roof. These roofs are in general supported on a row of pillars, and cov- ered with plates of iron. The same roof, with little or no repair, serves as a covering for eight or ten different ships in succession. General Ucntham, who, in his statement of Servicft rendered in the Civil Department of the Nar;/, seems to claim to himself nil tho inven- tions and improvements which have been introduced Into the dockyards for the last forty years, carries his invention lieyond a mero covering, and pro|H)se8 to house over tlie docks and ships so completely as to afford " means of licating, warmiii);, ventilating, and artificially lighting the interior at pleasure ; the intro- duction of boilers or stoam-kilns for bending the planks within the inclosuro ; tlio introduction of maoliinery for assisting in various operations, particularly the more laborious ones ; the {iroviding room for carrying on all the shipwright's work within the building ; be- sides u variety of lessor works, such as it is found very inconvenient during the building or repairing of a ship to have executed, for example, in a smith's or carpen- ter's shop ut a distance." Such liuildings would not only lie enormously expensive, i>ut, m the present crowded state of the dockyards, utterly impracticable, ■With regard to the invention of covered docks and ■lips, they have lieen used in Venice from time imme- morial ; and it appeared from the evidence given by Mr. .Strange, the British consul at that port in the year 1702, liefore the commissioners of land revenue, that two-and-twenty large ships had been under cov- ered slips, some of them for sixty years nearly. At Carlscrona, also, there are several covered docks, and both are strongly recommended for tho building of ships under cover. > ilaiilinfi up Shipi. — Among other ex|ierimcnts which were made in the dockyards for facilitating and ex- pediting the repairs of ships, one may be mentioned, of which many persons were sanguine enough to think that the successful result was likely to be attended with most important benefits to the naval service. It was that c)f hauling up ships of war, of any dimen- ■ions, on Imilding slips, instead of taking them into docks. It is no uncommon practice, at various ports of this kingdom, where there are neither artificial twains, nor natural harbors, to haul vesaela of the bur-- DOC den of fifty to two hundred tons, or probably largar, upon tho beach, by means of capstans, to give them repaira ; in like manner, most of the large fishing smacks are hauled up for security In tempestuous weather ; but tho practicalillity of luiuling up ships of war, especially of the larger classes, was a matter of some doubt. Several frigates hud, at various times, l>oen hauled upon slips, when the docks were all occu- pied ; and the ease witli which tlio o|>eration was per- formed Induced the ofllcers of the dockyard to propose tho hauling up of a line-of-battle xlilp. Tho Kent of 74 guns was selected for this pur|ii>ie. It was neces- sary. In the first place, to take her into a dock, to have (iroper liilgewaj's prepared, and to I>le ; her wiight lieing, accord- ing to a calculation made fnnn the water she displaced when afloat, aliout fourteen hundred tons. To heave up this weight fourteen capstan i wore employed, and the number of men to work these were as under : Nino nion to each bar and swifter 1,819 Elgtit men to liold on at ooch 119 Tfirco men lo iiach capstan, to SI tunc! tho fill 49 Men on board the slitp, and uniployed In otbor opera- tions iflO Total of men employed 9,116 The time occupied in hauling her up, after all the pur- chases were brought to bear, was forty minutes. The ex|)ense of preparing her, and the loss and wear and tear of the materials, wiis estimated at somewhere about .£2,000. The advantages which slips are supposed to possess over dry-docks are many and important, . They can be constructed at one twontictli |>art of the expense ; they occupy less space ; they can be constructed on a steep or a shelving shore ; and ships can be hauled upon them either In spring or neap tides ; whereas a dry- dock can only lie made in particular situations, and, when made, ships can only be docked and undocked In certain states of the tides ; from which circumstance a con.'Iderablo delay and Inconvenience are frequently experienced. It should be recollected, however, that a large ship must necessarily go into a dock prepara- tory to her being hauled up on a slip. It has been considered as not at all Impossible, aa was suggested some time ago by Mr. Perring, tlien the Ingenious clerk of the check in Plymouth dockyard, that the wliole ordinary might hereafter be luid up on slips, which, if housed over, would unquestionably be the best means of Increasing their durability, and pre- serving them from partial decay. Nor is it certain that in the end it would not be the most economical mode of preserving them. The expense, as appears from the Jiatimatea of the Ordinanj of the A'ary for the year 1817, is i;i87,00O for harbor victuals, harbor moorings and riggings, etc., besides .£135,00(1 for wages ; the chtef part of both which sums is on ac- count of ships of war laid up in ordinary, nut contingent, may lie onnsidertd to depend upon one or more exteiw •Iva baalna, lurronnded by spacious wharfs or quaya. Hy means of Umm a prodigious saving of time, lalior, and ex|ieBS« may h» saved, in every stag* of the prog- ress of fitting oat a ship for saa, from the moment sbiu is launched Amm the slip, or taken out of a duck, ai well as In dismantling a ship on returning to port to ba paid off and repaired, or laid up in ordinary. For thia purpose the docks and slips should occupy one of tha sides of the basin, with working-sheds for carpenten and Joiners, smiths' shops, saw-pits, and seasonini^ shetls lietween them. The ship, when completed on the slip and launchail into the basin, may then b« taken immediately into the adjoining dock to b« oofv pered. From this she pmceec'i to the seconi side of the Itasin, In the comer of which i» the Iwihist-wharf, The remainder of tlie side will proliabiy lie occupied hy the victualing department, with appnipriate stores in 'he rear for various kinds of provisions, and behind The Polide afKerpmg ll s Sra, that Henrr V. had botii iheae the bakeri-, lirewerj-, and slaughter-houses ; on ships, olBcers, and men exclusiveh' appropriated to hi* - 'h* wharf the iron tanlu for holding water, now uni- service, and Independently of those which the Cinque , /ersally used for the ground tier In lieu of wwden Porf a were Imund, and the other ports were occasio^i- "^ ')ks. These are taken on hoartl next after the l>al- ally called upon to furnish, on any emergenoy. ',iy ; laxt, and, tof^ther with the superincumbent casks, this poem it also appears that Little Hampton, unfit : would be tilled in the ship's hold by means of Hexibia aa it now Is, was the port at which Henrj- built pipes to convey tlie water intrmoua fioating cas- tle. At that time it is well kni.v ,t tiint they had no docks, nor even sniistltutes for tncm. The foundation of b regular navy, by the establish- ment of dockyards, and the formation of a board, con- sUtlng of certain commissioners for the management of its alfaln, was first laid by Henry VIII., and the first dockyard erected under his reign was that of Woolwich. Those of Portsmouth, Deptford, (Chatham, nnd Sheemess, followed in succession ; and tha luut, excepting the new and unfinished yard of ''embroke, was Plymouth, which was founded liy Willbim III. From the first establishment of the dockyards to the present time, most of them have gradually been en- larged and improved by a succession of expedients and m.'ike-shifts, which answered the purposes of the mo- ment; but the best of them possess not those con- veniences and advantages which might 1>e olitained fVnm a dockyard systematically laid out on a uniform and consistent plan, with its wharfs, Imsins, docks, slips, magazines, and workshops, arranged according to certain fixed principles, calculated to produce con- venience, economy, and despatch. Neither at the time when dockyarda were first es- tablished, nor any subsequent periods of their enlarge- ment as the necessities of the service demanded, could It have lieen foreseen what incal julaliln advantages would one day lie derived from tlie substitution of ma- ehiner}' for human labor ; and without a reference to thia vast improvement in all mechanical operations, it could not be expected that any provision would lie made for it» ftitore introduction ; on the contrary, the docks and slips, the workshops and storehouses, were •uccessively bnilt at random, and placed wherever a Tacant space would most conveniently admit them, •od in snch manner aa in most cases to render the sub- Mqnent introduction of machinery and iron railways, and those Tarious contrivances found in the large man- nfkctsring establiahments of private individuals, quite fanpossible, eren in the most commodiooa and roomy dockyarda. wharf, in front of tlie victualing stores, Tlie third side might be appropriated to the ordnance department, with tho gnn-wharf extending along the wliole side, and tlia gun-carriage storehouses, magazines, etc., in the rear. The fourth side would lia occupier^, as tha anchor wharf, with tlie cable storehouses, the sail-lofts and stores, rigging-ioft, and magazines for various stores, in the rear. Itehind these, again, on the first side, containing the dri--dacks, and building-slips, tha ground would be appropriated to the reception, lierth- ing and converting of timber, from whence Iron rail- ways would lead to the saw-mills, saw-pits, and workshops, all of which would be placed on that side. Un tha second side a pond or liasin for the victualing lighten and craft, with wharfs communicating with *he manufactories and storehonses; the same on the ordmince or third side ; and on the fourth side might be f'.aced the ropert', hemp storehoujes, tar-houses, with a basin for hemp-vessels, lighters, and the like. Communicating with the great liasin on the building side, and also with tha river or luirbor on the shore of which tha dockyard is to lie formeil, should be a mast- pond, with a lock for the storing of spars. In front the mast-houses, to)>-houses, ca|i«tan-houses, and a slip to launch the masts into tlie ixind. Hera also might be pUced the iKiat-houses and lioat-pond. A Sg$te>nalic JJoeiiianl. — A peninsular situation, having at least three fourths of its shore surrounded with deep water, is peculiarly favorable for some such arrangement as is here nientioner iinine partlcu- luT and pr«Mtn)( mrvicA ; hII nf whirh, whitii iihl|Mi an fitted out in a banin for nea, ara avnlclml. Ilara an delay, no emlwitlement, no denertlon ciin take plaiw, A 8hlp in retarning fmm aea may b« cinclied and un- doclied into the haiin w itii all li<*r ■toren on lidard \ anil If to lie paid off, Innteiiil nf kropInK the crew on Ixiard fir weeka, till all thp ntoren have bren dpliverad Into the doekynril, the nhlp, liy the pmpoiied plan of baalna, would rnnaln securely In the banin, to In utrlpped at leisure by the riggera and laliorera of the yard, aiid the crew Income immediately available fur other ahlpa, PorlmoulH Dockynrd. — Portamouth dockyard will always Iw considered aa the grand naval araenal of Enitiand, and the heiulqiiarters or general rendezvoua of the llrltish fleet. The dwkyard, accordingly. Is by far the moat rapacious ; and the safe and extenalvo harlwr, the noble anchorage at Hpithend, the central altiiatlnn with respect to the Kngllnh Channel and the opposite coast of France, and particularly with regard to the naval araenal at (.'herbourg, render Portamouth of the very flrat im|iortance an a naval station ; and in thia view of It, every possible attention appears to have been paid to the extension and improvement of its dock- yanl. The noble steam-basin, which was opened by the Queen, In Slay, 184H, with great ceremony. Is one of the most important of the recent Improvements. The sea wharf-wail of this yard, extending in tlie directiim of north and south, along tiie western shore of the har- bor, is about H,9()0 feet in length, and the mean depth may be 2,U00 feet ; and it incloses an area of more than 100 acres. In the centre of the wharf-wall, facing the harbor, Is the entrance into the great basin, whose dimensions are 3H0 by *2II0 feet, and its area 'i\ acres. Into this basin open 4 excellent dry-dorks, and on each of its ■Idea ta a (lry-er, are magniticent buildings, the fornmr occupying nearly 600 feet in length, exclusive of tli« two inter- mediate spaces, and n >arly (>0 feet in width, and the two latter 400 feet, Tii< two hem|)-houscs and the two sea-stcre houses occupy a line of building which, with the three narrow openin ,'S between them, of '!ft feei each, extend 80O feet. 1 he ro|)e-houso, tarring-house and other ap)>endages oj' the ropery, are on the same scale. The two aets of quadrangular storehouses, and the two corresponding buildings, with the intervening Mmlwr-berths and HT,.pit», at the head of the dry- dorks, issuing ttom tie great basin, arc all excellent, and conveniently pin e- la on a large scale, and contiguous to It is an iron-mill, a cop|ier- mill, and a copper-refluery, ut which Is re-melted and rolled all the old copiter which is taken from ships' bottoms ; and here, also, are cast bolts, gudgeons, and various articles of copper used in the navy. The num- lier of sheets manufactured in one year of the war, amounted to about H(M),0al part of these mllta is the machlner}- for making blwks, con- trived by that Ingenious artist, Mr, Brunell (sea TnRiHioT.ii'a Cari>K!klyn Navy Yard is tho most extensive navul depot in thu 1,'ntteil States, situated on the south side of Walialiout Ray, at the north-eastern part of the city, and contains 46 acres of land. It is inclosed by a substantial l>rlck wall on the land side, and on the left h ind, as you enter its gate, there is a flower-gar- den most tastefull}' arranged. Thia spacious yard affords si'fflc'cnt room for the residence of tho officers, machine- hops, storehouses, etc. The most conspicuous buildings arc two large eillHcps, '2r>0 feet long by 126 feet wide, and 120 feet high, ca .able of containing the larg.!st .ships of wor while lieiiig built. In time of poaco several national vessels are usually to be seen here, either laid up or undergoing repairs, A vast amount of cannon, can- non-balls, liombs, and all kinds of munitions of war. Is always on hand at this dfpiit. The Brooklyn dry- dock is located at the Navy Yanl, and Is capalde of receiving the largest ships of war. Tills is a magnifi- cent work, uneqnalod by any of the kind In America, and scarcely surpassed by any in the world. Tiie foundation is 40(1 feet long by 120 wide, and the main p'lamlMir or basin. is 28G feet long by IM) wide at '.he 'oottom, and 307 feet long and 08 wide at the top. i'he weight of tho iron folding-gates is 160 tnna ; the pumps discharge 40,000 gallons per minute. The engine- house is a flre-proof building, containing machinery of DOL 6S4 DOM Iht NMMi |«rf*H klmt. Th* whoU oceupUd 10 ytan In lb« fiiifM of I'linairiiellon. Hm Arri.CToa'* JUie- Uimiiry fiMif t'liiriitii). The w III a lirlllUnl |ioll>h, from which clnuni- •i'tHia It m»y \m •iilnlUulml hit nunirniua |iur|>n*»» tii • lllili lrfi«»iiiNl la n|iji||«i| Tlia aaii-wiKxl la uorfmllv wlllt*, atiil Iha haail-w ««l l» iif tlm iciliir of ifioiulata. Ih lit* I'lill^il Ml.iti-a, It riitcra Into tlia (oiiatriiition of mKlir itrtlf Ira, Inith for iitllllv Mri.l ornamant, am h »• III* liariillxa of ll^ht toola, ninllrta, toya, Hv. It la al« for tha IlKht hoopa of iuiuill VNaka. Niiil In Iha MliMia Ntutca, tli« ook« of iiilll- Wllwala aro m*|iiial for viirloiia a|H-<'iiermnn dahlrr, tho Daniah i/ii/it, tlia Italian lnlUra. All Iheaa wonhi, toKcther with our M'li', ara ilarlvnd from tho name of the Bohemian iimil Jimihimt.thiil (.looclilm'a Valley), where, in Vi\K, tha Count of Hchlick coinol marriage, urn nut auliject to the lixlmi, iiut muKt lie governed liy tha law of the doinlril ) and tliui, theri'fiire, in auch countriea, a valid ciinlruct of niar- riuge may lie aoleninl/eil, und the contract authentica- ted, not only liy an amlwaaador, liut liy a cimKiil »( tlui I'nited .States. The Kngliah uulhoritlea come to •iili- atantiidly the aauie cuiulualon, fur alinilar reuaona, " .Ndliiidy can aup|Hiae," aaya Lord Stowell, " that while the .Mogul empire exl»ted, an Kngliahumn I In llindoatan) was liouiid to conauit the Koran for tha celeliratlon of hia marriage." In moat uf the Aalutlc ami African couutrlca, liidoeil, l.iw la (leraoiial, not hical, aa it won in miiiiy |airta uf modern l'luni|Hi lu the formative |ieriiid of its preacnt organiiatimi. Heme, in llriliah India, IliniUHia, I'uraeea, .Icwa, Mo- hainmedana, I'hriatiuna, all marry according to the law of tlieir religion. The eccleniaatical law nf lln- gland goes further than thia, fur It rciiigiiueti the mar- riage of Kngliahinen, c«l«lir.ited acioriliiig to the Kn- gllah law, that In, liy u clergyman, in llritlali factories aliroad, tlioiigli situated in (liriHtian ciiuntriea, liUt countriea of the Itoniun (.'uthulic or (irevk religion. — MuHiialj'ur Coiiiiih, I', .S'. MrriliiinlA. — I'liu national charactor of merchants n>i>iding in Kuri'pe and America, U derived from that of the country in which tiiey resiile. In the eaaterti parts of tiiu worl'd. Kumpcaii persona, trading unilt r the shelter anil protection of t he fui lories founded there, take tiielr national cliaracter from that asHociatiim un- der whicli tlicy live and carry on llielr trade. This distinction arises from tlio nature and haliits of the countries. In tho western |uirts of the world, alien merchants mix in the society of the natives ; access siiil intermixture are permitted, and they liecomo incar- |ioratuil to nearly tho full extent. Hut, in the ICust, from almuHt the olde>t times, an iiiinii.scilile character has lieen kept up: I'ureigners are nut admitted into tlio general isidy and muss of tlie nation ; they con- tinue strangers ami snjiiurners, as all their fathers were. Thus, with respect to estalilishinentn in Tur- key, the llritish courts of prize, during wur with Hol- land, deternilned that u merchant carrying on trudti at Hinyrna, under the protection of the Dutch consul, was to lie considered u Dutchman, and condemned his property as liolonging to un enemy. And thus in I'iilnn, und generally throughout the l''.ust, jR-rKons ad- mitted into u factory, ure not known in their ow n pecu- liar national character ; and not being permitted to assume tlie character of the country, are considered only in the character of that association or factory. liut these principles are considered not to lie ap- plicable to the vast tiirritories occupied by tho llritisli In llindostun j lieeuiise, as Sir W. SiMitt observes, " though the sovereignty of the Mogul is occasionally brought forward for tho pur])0se of policy, it liardly exists otherwise than as uphuntom ; it is not upplied In uny way fur the regulation of their estulilishmentn. (ircat Kritain exercises the power uf declaring wur and peace, widch is among tho strongest marks of actual sovereignty j and If the high and empyrean sove- reignty of tho Slogiil is sometimes brought down from tho clouds, as it were, for tho purposes of policy, it by no means interferes with the actual authority which that country, and the East India Company— a crea- ture of that countr)- — exercise there with full effect. Merchants residing there, are hence considered British subjects." — 'Wheaton's International taw, Fart Iv., eb. 1, p. 408. DOIl 0AS IX)W DomlnlOS) on* of tlm |^«wiinl K"»ip of tnUiiiU tii Iht Wntl InilUt, IxliinKinK tii llrlUlii, uikI lyliiK U- twun III* Krani'h Inlitiiila nf Mitrtliil<|iin hikI ••iiiulit- liiil|w, '^1 miUa liiirlh iif tli« fiirmor, mul ulioiit tlm nmiin dUtitnim aolltll 1)1 tlln liittxr. |)cilllillii'it WiK xii liuillml liy Ciiliinihiiii rriiiii liia liH>iii|( illiiri>v<'ri'i| It mi it Muii- iluy (III I ID.'I). It wu 'iii'ii uf l7Na It wua rttatiirail tu Kiit(l>iiiii' N., Iiihk. 01" W W. Tim ■urfiit'ii la K'nKrully niKKml ami niniiiituinoiia, intnr- •iwrii'il with fiTtllii iinil wpII-wiiIiti'iI viillrya, Tlio hlKlieat |ioliit la A, ill I hut jIkivo till luvul nl' tliu aim. Tha iirlKin of thia l»liina. Thu riiltlMitiun uf I'ottiin haa liituly lii'i'ii Intriiiluecil to it ainall vxtunt, unil haa liuiin fnuinl to anawur very well, |iartit'ularly on laiiil iiuar th« Ht'a-iiiiaat. The |irini'i|ial «tii|ilu |iroii- ucta cxiKirtml in the yeura I'liillnt; M\ .lanuar}', IHi'i, ami >'itli January, lN.'i;i, weru aa I'ollowa : INA'/. iHsa. Bnmr (I'i.im I'wu. iw,;-"* rwta. Knm Mi.D'iT uiill*. »MM Kulla. Mnlunoi UA.ihIO " Hl.iilil •■ (.'oiri'ii h\»AH II* II'.MII U.S. «!iiiim m,'*M " iw.'.'im " T.lini' JnIrn 4.tlsit Kiilla. ft.ml'.' aiilU, Arrow riiut MIU Iba. H.Ai.'V ll>a. 'a I.OIU.NOO l.aM.irJII Cotiua Wiml 2,iKa» Itu, il.'Jfto Ilia. Thi' vaiiii) of u.\|iiirt< ami linporta, nml tho rovunuo for thu yeara IHIU, IK.JO, anil IHSl, wuro aa follows : IH41I. Irnin. IMAI. Iniporta £.'ai,l)IA iiAT.ilM £7I,h'JN Kxiiorla 4s,il7U b»:ia.'> mfiil Itcv.'iiuu t(,Ul!l 1iVi75 I'^.OOl Thu |io|inlatiiin in IHIt waa 22,200, of whom ll,lini were I'uniulea, Tho |iriiiri|uil hurliora uro Itoaeuu and rrimo liiipert'a Kay. — 10.11. DorilOOk ia u ii|ici'ii'a of li^uruil linen of atont f.ilirio, V hich ili'rivpa ita name from a toy. n In Sootlanil, wlicro it waa llrat manufacturi'i) furtalili'-rlnth.i. It la tliu mo»t ■ini|ilu luittern of all tint vurii'tira of the illa|ii'r or ilani- Oak atylu, and therefore tho ((ooila are usually of rmirae quality for ooinmon lioiiauholil wear. It reueivea tlio nat- ure liy reversing tlio llualiinu of the warp and woof ut certain Intervala, »o na to form H(|>iarc.s or olilong rect- iintlle.a upon theilotli. Tho nioataimplo of tlicao lau aui;- ceaaion of alternate aipiarea, forming un imitation of a checker huaril or inoaaie work. The coaraeat kinila are jjenerally woven ua tweela of three leaves, where every thread lloata over two, and la Interaeeted liy tlio third in auceeaaion. iSomc of the liner are tveela of four or live lettvea, liut few of more ; for the six or seven leaf tweela are seldom or never uaoil, and tho eight leaf tweel is confined ulmoat exclusively to dnniaak. Dort, or Dordrecht, an impurtant coniinen'ial city of Holland, capital of a <'o|;nominal district in the province of South Holland, 10 miloa south-east of Itiit- terdiini. It is situated on an island of the Meiise, said tu have licen apparated from the mainland in 1121, liy an inundation which swept away 72 villages, and aliout 100,000 inhaliitaiita. This is oiie of the oldest cities of Holland, liut the periiHl of ita rise is uncertain. It was surrounded liy walls in 12;il liy Florent IV., Count of Holland, who made it his residence, and ip'anted it many Important privileges. In 11.07, utniust the entire town, incluiling the church of Notre Dame, founded in 13liiJ, and other pulillc liulldings, was doatmyed liy fire. It was one of the first towns to embraco tha Ro- fiirmwl mllgloii, and tu throw off IIm yoke of tli* MiMtn- lah king. In Vui a inrvting of dnputlM wiis h>M livrv, nhoii thu liidepenilunce of tha Uiiltitd I'rovlmii waa llmt dui'lurtid ; and In IIIIH and Mil!) aat Iha roln- lirated M} iiihI iif Hurt. I'hn tiittii-h.ill la a hanilHuiiM liiillilliigi iiiiil thu prim ipitl ihiirih la an old (iuthlo ■trui'tiirn iliKl fint huig l>y IVTi fuut wid«, with a heavy aipiaru tower, and niimeroiia monitiiii'ntul alohxa, aiiina of great antlipilly. The hall In ithlch tlm sviiihI waa held la now a puliilc liiiuae. The Imuaea nre gunurully of an untli|uu fashion, nilli tlm galilea turned outwarii, and many of tliuin d.ilu from the period of the kSpanlali iH'cuiuitlon. Dort |ai>seaaea u giHiil harlinr, from which two canala lead to the rentru of the town, and thiia f.ii'llltate the iiiiiveyame nf goiida to thu warehoiiaM. It larriea on an extensive trade in corn, flax, ault llah, train oil, and timlier, liniiight down the itiiinn ; and liaa shi|i-liulhiing docka, auw-milla, aiigar 'iiid aalt rti- llnerlea, tiiliaccii factorlea, lineii-lileachlng autl whilu- lead Hiirka, Dort la the liirthplacn of tho hruthan Du Witt. ropillatiiilulN''0), 20,878. Doubling, in navigation, the act nf sailing round iirpaaaltig lieynnd it I'upe or priiiiiontory. Doubloon, nr Doblon, a Npaniah and I'ortiigunM coin, licing the ilimhie of a piatole,— K. II. 8eo Ciiixa. Dover, Strait* of, the narrow channel lietween Dover and ('aliia, wlil'li separates (Ireat llritain from tlm I'remh cnait. llritain la aiipiHiaed liy many to have liein once a peninsula— tlm present atraits iiccii- pylng the aite nf the istiiiiius which Joined It to (laid. " The correapondeiicy nf strata," aays .Mr. rennuiit, In hia Irii, Xixilnt/;/, " nii p.irt of thu opposite shores of llrit.iin and I'rance, IcaVea no ronm to dmilit that thej well once united. The chalky clilfs nf lllancHe/., lie- tween Calais and iloiilogne, and tlmae to tho westward of Dover, exactly tally. The last are vast and con- tinued ; tile former siiort, itiid the termination of the inimenso lied. lietween Iliinlogne and Folkestone (aliout arg, remarks tliat thu increased height of water, from a decrease of breadth, hits been apparent, even in thii space. The depth of the channel, at u medium, in th( highest spring- tides, la about 2j fathums ; thu bottnii' is either coarse sund or rugged sears, which have, for ages unknown, resisted tlie attrition of tho currents. — K. A. Down ((ier. Dunrn, Flnumftdn-n; Du. DoM; Vt. /Iiiret; It. J'inmi miillii, I'itimiiii ; Sp, f'lujel, Ptii- j/iiizii ; Una. I'uih ; Lat. /'lumie), tho line feathers from the breasts of several birds, ]mrtlcularly those nf the duck kind. That of the eider duck Is the most valu- able. These birds pluck it from their breasts, nml line their nests with it. Jlr. Pennant says tliat it is so M'ry elastic, that ft quantity of it weighing only f of »n ounce, mora than tills the cruwn of the largest liat. That found in the nest is most valued, and termed lire ildvn ; it is miicli more elastic than that plucked from tho dead bird, which la comparatively little esteemed. The eider duck is found on the w eatern islunda of .Scot- land, hut the dowu is principally Imported from Nur- woy and Ireland. DRA 566 Dm Downs, a bank or elevation of sand, which the sea gathers and fonns along its shores, and -which serves It as a barrier. The word is formed from the French dune, or the Celtic dun, a mountain. Charles de Visch (jCompend. Chronolog. Exnrd. et ProgreM. Abbot. Clartu. B. Maricf, de Dunit) says, Valirm rrptril artnarum enllibui, quoi ineola Duynen rocant, iindiqtie tin'iam. K is also applied to a large open plain, pri- marily on elevated land. Dotctu is particularly applied to a famous roadstead for ships along the eastern coast of the county of Kent, from Dover tu the North Foreland, where lioth out- ward and homeward-bound ships frequently make Rome stay, and squadrons of men-of-war rendezvous in time of war. It affords excellent anchorage, and la defended by the castles of Deal, Dover, and Sandwich. Dragoman, or Drogueman, an interpreter; a term of general use in the Levant and throughout the East. There are dragomans attached to the embassies and consulates of Christian nations residing at the Porte. The word is formed from the Arabic targeman or targiman. of the verb taragem, " he has interpreted." From dragoman tho Italians formed dragmnanno, and, with a nearer relation to its Arabic etymolog}', Itirri- mannof wlience comes Iruehtr^mn, as well as dragoman and drogueman. See Turkev. Dragon's Blood (.Sang draeon, Fr. ; DrarhenblOt, Germ.) ii a resinous substance, which comes to us sometimes in small balls almut the size of n pigeon's egg, sometimes in rods like the linger, and sometimes like irregular cakes. Its color, in lump, is dark brown-red ; in powder, bright red ; friable ; of a shin- ing fracture; sp. grav., I'lUG. It contains a little beuzoic acid, is insoluble in water, but dissolves readily in alcohol, ether, and oils. It is brought from tln' East Indies, Africa, South America, as the produce dt' several trees, tho Draecena Draco, tho Vterocarpus tantalinus, Plirocarput dram, and the Calamus rotang. Dragon's blood is used chiefly for tinging spirit and turpentine varnishes, for preparing gold lacquer, for tooth tinctures and powders, for staining marble, etc. According to Herl)enger, it consist* of 9'07 parts of red resin, 2 of fut oil, 3 of benzoic acid, 1'6 of oxalate, and S'7 of phosphate of lime. Drake, Sir Francis, a celebrated English ad- miral, was l)om near Tavistock, Devonshire, in l.M.'i. His father, who had lieen bred a sailor, obtained a naval chaplaincy from Queen Klizabcth, and was after- ward vicar of Upnor church, c the Medway. Young Drako was educated at the expense and under the care of Sir John Hawkins, who was his kinsman ; and, at the age of eighteen, he had risen to be purser of a ship trading to Biscay. At twenty he made a voyage to Guinea ; and at twenty -two ho was made captjiin of the Judith. In that capacity he ytn» in the harbor of San Juau dTlloa, in the (Julf of Mexico, where he behaved most gallanth' in the actions under Sir .Tohn Hawkins, and returned with him to England, having acquired great reputation, though with the loss of all the money which he had embarked in the expedition. Having next projected an attack against the Spaniards in the West Indies, to indemnify himself for his former losses, he set sail in 1572, with two small ships named the Patka and tho Stran. He was afterward joined Uy another vessel ; and with this small squailnm he t^nik and plundered the Spanish town of Nomlire de Dios. With his men he penetrated across the Isthmus of Panama, and committed great havoc among the Span- ish shipping. In these expeditions he was much as- sisted by a nation of Indians, who were then engaged in a desultory warfare with the Spaniards. Ilaviug embarked his men and fllled his shii>s with plunder, he liore away for England, where be arrived in August, 1753. In l.'>89. Sir Francis Drake commanded the fleet sent to restore Don Antonio, King of Portugal, the land force* being under the orders of Sir John Norria ; but they had hardly pnt to sea when the commandem dif- fered, and thus the attempt proved abortive. liut as the war with Spain continued, a more formidable expe- dition wag fitted out, under Sir John Hawkins and Sir Francis Drake, against their settlements in the West Indies, than had hitherto been undertaken during the whole course of it. Here, however, the commanders again disagreed about the plan ; and the result, in like manner, disappointed public expectation. These dis- asters were keenly felt hj' Drake, and were the princi- pal cause of his death, which took place on board his own ship, near the town of Nombre de Dios, in the West Indies, January «8th, 1595.— E. B. See fdlnb. Ree., Ixxx., 197 ; Dublin Vnir., xxlll., p. 651 ; N. Am. Kev. [Peabody], lix., p. 70; Littell's Living Age, iii., p. 289. Dra^vback, a term used in commerce to signify the remitting or paying back of the duties previously paid on a commodity on its being exported. A drawback is a device resorted to for enabling a commodity affected by ta.xes to lie exported and sold in the foreign market on the same terms as if it had not been taxed at all. It differs in this from a bounty, that the latter enables a commodity to lie sold abroad for lfs> than its natural cost, whereas a drawback enables it to be sold exactly at its natural cost. Drawbacks, a; Dr. Smith has ob- served, "do not occasion the exportation of a greater quantity of goods than would have been exported had no duty been imposed. They do not tend to turn toward any particular employment ft greater share of the capital of tho country than would go to tiiat em- ployment of its own accord, but only to binder the duty from driving away any part of that share to other employments. They tend not to overturn that lialance which naturally establishes itself among all the various employments of the society, 'out to hinder it from being overturned by the dutj-. They tend not to destroy, but to preserve, whot it is in most cases advantageous to preserve — the natural diviiion and distribution of labor in the society." Were it not for the sj'stem of drawbacks, it would lie impossilile, un- less when a country enjoyed some very jiecnliar facil- ities of production, to export any commodity tlint was more heavily taxed at home than abroad. Hut tho drawback obviates this difRculty, and enables mer- chants to export commodities loaded at home with heavy duties, and to sell them in the foreign market on the same terms as those fetched from countries where tliey arc not taxed. Most foreign artictles im- ported into this countrj' may lie warehoused for sulise- ({Uent exportation. In this case they pay no duties on lieing imported, and, of course, get no drawliack on their sulisequent exportation. Sometimes a drawback exceeds the duty or duties laid on the article ; and in such cases the excetn forms a real bounty of that amount, and .should be so considered. Dredging Machine. A machine for clearing out or deepening the beds of navigable rivers, liarliors, canals, etc., bj- the removal of deposited matter. Dresden China. The fine |>oree1ain ware known as Dresden china was discovered tiy M. Boeticlier, who was at the time an apothecarj-'s Ikiv, 1700. Services of this ware have cost many thousands of pounds each. A costly sor\ice, each piece exquisitely painted, and tho liattlcs represented, and subjects all different, was presented to the Duke of Wellington by tho King of Prussia, in 1KI6, and is the finest in England. Dressing. A term applied to gum, starch, and other articles used in stiffening or preparing silk, linen, and other fabrics. Drift, in navigation, the angle which the line of a ship's motion makes with the nearest meridian, when she drives with her side to the wind and waves, and is not governed by the helm. It also implies the distance which tlie ship drives on that line. 7>r//>, in mining, n passage cut between shaft and sha 1, or a way wrought under the earth, iiig chieli\ euomy /it t the ortiio o that ofiiec i vested in t the expens seas of pip, lie at once ment. In •"■ought .a, in 1801, on( 180(!, Seven the last WL brought £\ iind so l:irg( nioMient in "ftcr paying and large sti 'ly, gave a service, (i <^i»il list, in it was arra, roight accrui exchequer fi 'lie civil list tiim in that i •\;^ DRO S57 DRU f(,r clearing ers, hurbore, inttcr. wiire known rticlirr, who 8ervii:c« of )oun(l9 cttfh. painted, ami IffiTiMit, was the Kini; of mil. stari'li, ftnil ij; 8ilk, linen, the line of a riiliiin, wh™ vavcs, anil i* ) the dintunco I, in niinini?, a ■way wrought Drift of Bottles. It is a custom often practiced by seafaring people to throw a bottle overboaM, with a paper, stating the time and place at which it ia done. In the absence of other information as to currents, that afforded by these mute little navigators is of great value. They leave no tracks behind them, it is true, and their route can not be ascertained. But knowing where they were cast, and seeing where they are found, some idea may be formed as to their course. Straight lines may at least be drawn, showing the shortest dis- tance from the beginning to the end of their voyage, with the time elapsed. Admiral Boechey, R. N., has prepared a chart, representing, in this way, the tracks of more than 100 battles. From it it appears that the waters from every quarter of the Atlantic tend toward the Gulf of Mexico and its stream. Bottles cast into the sea midway between the Old and New Worlds, near the coasts of Europe, Africa, and America ; at the extreme north, or further south, have been found either in the West Indies or the British isles, or within the well-known range of Gulf Stream waters. Of two cost out together in south latitude on the coast of Africa, one was found on the island of Trinidad, the other on Guernsey, in the English Channel. In the absence of positive infonnation on the subject, the circumstan- tial evidence that the latter performed the tour of the Gulf ia all l>ut conclusive. And there in reason to sup- pose that some of the bottles of the admiral's chart have also performed the tour of the Gulf Stream ; then, without being cast ashore, have returned with the drift along the coast of Africa into the inter-tropi( al region ; tlience through the Caribbean Sea, and so on with the Gulf Stream again. Another bottle thrown over off Cape Horn by an American master in 1837, has been recently picked up on the coast of Ireland. An inspection of the chart, and of the drift of the other bottles, seems to force the conclusion that this bottle too went even from that remote region to the so-called higher level of the Gulf Stream reservoir. — Mauby, Plii/s. Giog. nfthe Sea. Drift-Bail, a sail used under water, veered out riglit a-hoad by slieets, as other sails are. It serves to keep tlie ship's head riglit upon the sea in a storm, and to prevent her driving t^o fast in a current. Drift-wood, trees or timber carried out to sea by rivers when in flood ; timber drifted or floated l)y water. Driving, in sea language, is said of a ship when her aniliiir fails to hold her fast, and pho floats away with the winil or tide. A vessel is also said to drive when she scuds before a gale. Droits of Admiralty. The perquisites result- ing eliii'lly from tlic seizure of tlio property of an enemy at the conmieiiceiuent of a war, and attached to the otiico of Lord-higli-adiniral, or to the crown when tliat oflice is vacant. These perijuisites were originally vested iu the sovereign, to enable him to provide for the expense of defending the realm, ond clearing the seas of pirates ; iind their value and importance will bo at once perceived from the following brief state- ment. In 1TU8, one ship wliich had l>een captured brought il.JOjOOOj in IHOO, another brought i:«a,0UOi in ISO-l, one taptureil ship was worth i:i05,()00; and in ISOfi, several taken at once netted X155,000. During the last war, also, the Dutch ships at one seizure brought 4:1,0:10,000; the Spanish ships, 4:2,200,000; and so large were the sums made at ouo and the same moment in this rich fund, that the crown one ycor, after paying many hundreds of thousands to captors, and large sums to ditrcront branches of the royal fam- ily, gave a million out of the residue to the public service. {Edinb. Rev., vol. xxxiii., p. 482.) By the civil list, introduced on the accession of William IV., it was arranged that all droits of admiralty which might accrue during his reign sliould be paid into the exchequer for the benefit of tlie public service ; and the civil list of her present majesty has made no altera- tiim in that arrangement. — Brande, Drowned Penona. Dirtctimt for RaUmng Penotu Apparently Drmmtd, From R. B. Fobbrs, Esq., of Boston, an officer of the Iklassachusetts Hu- mane Society. — Convey the body to the nearest house, with head raised. Strip, and rub dry ; wrap in blankets ; inflate the lungs by closing the nostrils with thumb 'and finger, and blowing into the mouth forcibly, then pressing with hand on the chest. Again blow in the mouth and press on the chest, and so on for TEN MiNOTES, or until be breathes. Keep the body warm, extremities also. Continue rubbing. Do not give up as long as there is any chance of success. Drugs, Inspection of. By an act of Congress, passed June '2(i, 1848, to prevent the importation of adulterated and spurious drugs and medicines, it was provided, that all drugs and medicines, medicinal preparations, including medicinal essential oils and chemical preparations used wholly or in part as medi- cine, imported into the United States from abroad, shall, before passing the custom-house, be examined and approved, as well in reference to their quality, purity, and fitness for medicinal purposes as to their value and identity specified in the invoice. Also, that all medicinal preparations, whether chem- ical or othenvise, usually imported with the name of the manufacturer, shall have thj true name of the numufacturer, and the place where they are prepared, permanently and legibly affixed to each parcel, by stamp, label, or otherwise ; and all such medicinal pre- parations imported without such names, affixed as aforesaid, shall be adjudged to be forfeited. That if, on examination, any drugs, medicines, med- icinal preparations, whether chemical or otherwise, including medicinal essential oils, are found, in the opinion of the examiner, to be so far adulterated, or in any manner deteriorated, as to render them in strength and purity inferior to the standard established by the United States, Edinburg, London, France, and German pharnnieopoeias and dispensaries, and thereby improper, unsafe, or dangerous to be used for medicinal purposes, a return to that effect shall l>e made nyxm the invoice ; and the articles so noted shall not pass the custom- house, unless, on re-examination of a strictly analytical character, called for l)y the owner or consignee, the re- turn of the e.xaminer s'. all be found erroneous ; and it sliall be declared as the result of such analysis, that the said articles may properly, safely, and without danger, be used for medicinal pur|M)ses. That the owner or consignee shall at all times, when dissatisfied with the examiner's return, have the privi- lege of calling, at his own expeme, for a re-examina- tion ; and depositing with the collector such sum as tlio latter may deem sulltcicnt to defray such expense, it sliall be tlio duty of that otHcer to procure some com- petent analytical chemist possessing the confidence of the medical profession, as well as of the colleges of medicine and pharmacy, if any such institutions exist in the State in which the collection district is situated, a careful analysis of the articles included in said return, and u report upon the same, under oath ; and in case the re|Hirt, which shall bo final, shall declare the return of the examiner to be erroneous, and the said articles to tie of the requisite strength and purity, accordAig to the standards referred to in the next preceding section of this act, the entire invoice shall be passed without reser\'atlon, on payment of the customary duties ; liut in case the examiner's return shall be sustained by the analysis and report, the said articles shall remain in charge of the collector, and the owner or consignee, on payment of the charges of storage and other expenses necessarily incurred liy the United States, and on giv- ing of liond, with sureties satisfactory to the collector, to land said articles out of the limits of the United States, shall have the privilege of re-exporting them ut any time within the period of six months after the report of the analysis ; but if the auid articles shall nut lie sent out of the United States within the time specified, it DRY 558 DRY ■liall be tbe duty of the collector, at the exfitration of the said time, to cause the same to be destroj'ed, hold- ing the owner or consignee responsible to the United States for payment of all chargen, in the same manner as if said articles had been re-exported. Drugget, a coarse and flimsy woolen texture, chiefly used for covering carpets. It was fonnorly extensively employed as an article of clothing among the poorer classes, more especially of fcinalofi ; but this and similar fabrics are now almost wholly super- seded by cotton goods, which induce greater cleanli- ness. Dninunond Light. The three angles of the enormous triangles by which a topographical survey is primarily conducted, sometimes 80 or 100 miles asun- der, must be visible one from another ; but how to produce the visibility ? In the earlier sur^'eys, where such daring distances were not attempted, a signal light was in some cases obtained l>y reflecting the light of the sun from a well-adjusted surface of polished tin, or by Bengal lights being fired at night, or by a pow- erful Argiind lamp being placed behind a lens or before a parabolic reflector ; but Lieutenant Drummond, dur- ing the progress of the Irish survey, made a happy suggestion which eclipsed in elBciency all others. In what is called the Drummond or IJme Light, a, small ball of lime is exposed to the action of a spirit-flame fed by pure oxygen gas ; the flame, in a highly-vivid state, heats the lime to an intense degree, and in this heated state, it emits a light of suq)rising brilliancy, far exceeding that of any flame j-ct seen. So Iieauti- fuUy was Drummond's apparatus constructed, that the lamp fed itself with spirit and witli oxygen, supplied itself with balls of lime as each one slowly wasted, and reflected its surpassing liglit from un exquisitely- jifllished parabolic surface of silvered copper. It was not merely figuratively but literally true, tliat a piece of lime, not bigger than a Iwy's marble, emitted a liglit at Londonderry which was visible at Belfast — a .'.;i- tance in a direct line of nearly seventy miles. On a later occasion Colonel Colby made a lime-light signal visible from Antrim in Ireland to Ben Lomond in Scotland, a straight-lino distance of 95 miles. See LlOIIT-IIOUSES. Dry Distillation. This term is applied to the distillation of substimccs per se, or without the ad- dition of wotcr : thus if we put wood into a retort or otiicr distillatory apparatus, and subject it to lient, it yleliis tur, vinegar, water, and various gaseous and other ni;itters. See Distillation. Drying Machines. The drying process , l)y cen- trifugal agency, is of very wide application. Bleach- ers, (ij-crs, and calico-printers use it. Tlie wet mass of cloth or yam is put into a hollow cylinder ; this cyl- inder is made to revolve from 1 to '.' tliousand times in a minute ; tlie moisture is driven fmni the cloth with great violence ; o|)enings are left to afl'dnl an exit for this water into an outer vessel, and in a few seconds the cloth is nearly drj-. Nothing l)ut actunlly wit- nessing the process, can convey an adequate idea of tlie rapidity of this drying process. In some of tlie baths and laundries now estalilishcd, machines of this liind are employed to supersede the hnnl necessity of " wringing" tlie wet linen — a great liooii to the jioor women who avail tliemselves of these advniitiiges. Dry Rot. A most destructive, and apparently infectious disease in timber, which, by decomposing the filires, deprives it of all strength, and in i.o great length of time, reduces it to a mass of dry dust ; a circumstance from which it seems to have derived its name, which, perhaps, would lie lietter expressevi(Uis ; but the predisposing state of the timber to contract tlie disease is not so clear a problem. Accordingly, theories with- out end have been hatched to explain the phenomenon. A writer in a public jonrnal, who has sliglitiy touched on the subject, thus explains it: " It is well known," he observes, " that if a piece of green wood lie laid across a fire, the air within, expanded by the heat, will drive out ut each extremity a viscous fluid, possessing the property of disposing itself en the surface i 1 retic- ulated fllamenta. Tho same appearance of nervous foliation is not uncommon In the intermediate spaces of the concentric layers of the allmmum of wood ; and the core or heart of trees, and particularly of the pitch- pine, after its passage in the heated hold of a ship, ii often enveloped with a membranous corticle, like that which lies immediately beneath the bark. All these appearances are certain indications of thj dry rot ; and they point out, with suiilcient clearness, that the sap, or principle of vegetation, brought into activity, is the cau>e of the disease ; the effect, though infinitely more rapid, is the same as that of the common rot. It is still a problem, in wliat manner this sap circulates ; but there is no doubt that the tubes and cells of the alburnum, or sap-wood, are filled with it in the spring of the year, and that they are empty in the winter ; that it is organized matter, developing itself by heat in all the various forms of new bark, leaves, and branches. The 8teo< of a tree cut down, will, on the return of summer, iii.ike an effort to push out leaves ; a more feeble efl'ort of this organized sap ends in the production of /un^u* only." — Quartei-ly Review, No. xv. The real efficient cause of the Ary rot, is that of the juices of the timber being brought into a state of putrefaction, occasioned generally by exposure to a moderate degree of heat and moisture in a stagnant atmosphere, " To favor this process," says Mr. Wade, " as much as possible, the air and water should not be renewed, as they undergo a decomposition, which takes place verj- slowly." From the structure of timber be- ing composed longitudinally of an assemblage of pipes or tulws, it is only necessary that one end of a log of wood should be placed in a damp or wet situation, to occasion the moisture to be conveyed lo the opposite end by capillary attraction ; and hence arises the in- fectious nature of the disease, which will always spread wherever the moisture finds its way ; and even where there is no moisture, it will be created by the filaments of the fungi working their wi^' through the tubes of the dry wood and carrying it with them. Hence, also, the rapid decay in ships of war, from the great inter- nal heat occasioned by the numlier of men, tlio moist- nre, and the close air. Hence, also, in houses, the dn/ rot always first appears in the lower apartments, where the floors, partitions, skirting-boards, etc., are supplied with moisture from the wet walls on the ground. In the London houses there is generally a room on the basement story, called tho house-keeper's room, which is boarded, and carefully covered over" with an oiled floor-cloth. In such a room the dry rot is sure to make its appearance. The wood absorbs the aqueous vapor which the oil-cloth will not allow to es- cape, and being assistetl by the heat of the air in such apartments, the decay goes on most rapidly ; and, as Mr. Wade observes, " if the seed of fungus be present, the plant is developed in all the superfluity of vigor exhibited in a hot-house, where the same means are resorted to, namely, an atmosphere scientilically and artificially heated, and highly chargele matter, is by depriving it of moisture. Various schemes have been put in practice fur drying the juices in large logs of timber. Time alone will do it when the wood Is placed in fa- vorable situations, that is to say, in a dry atmosphere, and constantly e.xposed to a free circulation of air; but time will also produce the rot in timber when piled up In stacks in the open air, imbibing moisture from tha earth, and exposed to the vicissitudes of the sea- aona, and the alternatives of woather ; scorched at one time by the heat of the sun, at another drenched with rain, and rent and split in every possible way by the freezing; of the water which has in^inuuted itself into the pores and crevices of the wood. It was formerly, and, indeed, till very lately, the practice to let ships of war remain on the stocks in frame for two, three, or four years, to leaton, as it was called ; but there never was so mistaken a notion. " >Vhen a ship," says Mr. Wade, " is built, exposed to the weather, the lower part farms a grand reservoir for all the rain that falls ; and as the timbers in that part are placed as close together as possible, the wet escapes very slowly. Those timlwrs are always soaked with moisture, and, to some distance from the keel, exhibit a i;reen appear- ance ; their green matter, when viewed through a mi- croscope, is found to be a l)eautiful and completely formed moss, which vei^ctutes at the expense of the timber. If to season timber be only to dry it, the sooner it is dried the i 'cttcr ; i-nd when completely drj-, It can not too soon be employed in ship-building, when it should be kept dry. It can not cnswer any end to have seven years' wear out of a ship on the utocks." At length our shipwrights are convinced of this truth, and the plan now generally adopted in shi|>-building is to protect the vessel by a roofed structure, with the aides open to admit a free current of air, but to exclude all moisture, as well as the raj-s of the sun (see Dook- YAHDS) ; a practice which we have tardily adopted from the Swedes and the Venetians. A new system seems also to have been adopted in the piling of the timlier stacks. Instead of their beirig placed on old, use- less, unil often rotten logs of timber resting on the ^ound, they are now insulated from the earth on stone or iron pillars ; and in place of their surfaces coming in contact with each other, pieces of wood are placed lirtween tliem so as to admit of a circulation of air. Nothing further appears to be wanting but to protect the trps and the ends of the stocks or piles from the effocts of the weather. Of the various niiKles of artificial and rapid desicca- tion, that of charring is perhaps the best ; but it is liable to two objections ; the first is, that if the surface be completely charred, it diminishes very much the strength of the timber; and, secondly, it the more readily attracts moisture. Tho juices cf timber may ba drawn off or liardened by kiln-drying ; but this also disturbs the arrangement of the fibres, and deprives the wood of a great part of its strength. ExperirutUt — Sea$omng J'imber. — Tha ezparlmeots made by Mr. Lukin for the rapid seasoning of green oak timtci, promised at one time much success, but ended In disappointment. He conceived, that if tha acid and the watery particles were driven out of a piece of oak timber by some process which should pre- vent the surface from splitting, the fibres would ba brought closer Into contact, and whilst the log lost in weight it would gain In strength. With this view he buried a piece of wood in pulverized charcoal, in a heated oven. The log wore a promising appearance ; the surface was close and compact ; it had lost in its weight and dimensions ; but when divided with the saw, the fibres were discovered to have started from each other, exhiliiting a piece of fine net-work, resem- bling the inner l>ark of a tree. The bad effects of applying artificial heat to the sea- soning of green timber, were strongly exemplified by a practice introduced very generally into our ships of war which had exhibited indications of the dr}- rot, particularly in the Queen Charlotte. Enormous fires were made in stoves placed in various parts of the ship, and the heat led in tubes to the cavities between the timbers, etc. The consequence of which was, as might 1)0 expected, an increase of the mischief they were intended to prevent. Ever}' part of the ship was converted into a hot-house, and every part where the seeds of fungi had been deposited began to throw out a luxuriant crop of mushrooms ; and where these did not appear, the juices of the wood were thrown into a state of fermentation, and, in the course of a twelve-month, a groat part of her upper works became a mass of rot- tenness. After staving tha powder magazines of some of the ships, there appeared under their floors, which are contiguous to much moisture, numbers of large excrescences of a leathery consistence, of the size and ahape of a quart gl|^-decanter ; and In all such parts where two surfaces of the wood were Imperfectly l>rought into contact, were whole masses of fungi. Winler.fiUcd Timber. — Another mode, of very an- cient standing, was practiced for getting rid cf tho juices of timber. This was supposed to be effected by felling the tree In the winter season, when the sap hud descended and the vessels were empty. By this prac- tice the bark of the oak, so valuable in the process of tanning, was lost, as it will strip only from the wood in the spring of the year, when the sap is said to be rising. The supposed superior quality of the wood, when winter-felled, and the general practice of felling oak timber at that season, may be inferred from a stat- ute of Juiiies I., by which it is enacted, that no person or persons shall fell, or cause to be felled, any oaken trees meet to be harked, when bark Is worth 2s. a cart- load (tinil)cr for the needful building and reparation uf houses, ships, or mills, only excepted), but between the first day of April and the last day of .Tune, not nvcn for the king's use, out of barking-time, except fur building or repairing his majesty's houses or ships. The old Sovereiffn of the Sean is the standing exam- ple generally quoted to prove the beneficial effocts uf winter-felled timber. Wo are informed by one writer that, when taken in pieces, after 47 years' service, tho old timl)er was still so hard that it was no easy matter to drive a nail into it, and all future writers have taken it fur granted that this was owing to its being winter- felled. Mr. Pett, however, who built her, takes i.i notice of any such circumstance. He merely says lie WHS commanded by the king, on the I Itli of May, l(ilir>, to hasten intu the north to procure the framc-tim'.ier.H, [ilank, and treenails, for tho great new ship at Wool- wich. Ilut lie left his son behind to .••hip tho moulds, proviiions, and workmen, in u hired chip, to trnnsiiurt them to Newcastle ; that the frame, as it was ;;ut ready, was sent in colliers from Niwcastle and .Sun- derland ; and that, on the 21st December, in the sapie year, the keel was laid in the dock ; and in less than two years after this she was launched. Now, as it was DRY Ml DRY o( tho fected by ! sap hud ,hi9 pruc- ■ocess of Hie wood aid to be tie wood, of feUint; m a stat- ic person ny oaken >9. a cart- iration of between not oven cept for ships. ijjT oxiim- ..ffects of nc writer rvice, tho sy niattiT I've taken ijT winter- takes r.t y savs lie |lay,lC:ir>, :.tini".iers, at Wool- |o inoulds, trnnt^liort was 'r;^t and Siin- |» the SO"'* , loss thttii r as It w« the middle of May before Mr. Pett received liU msj> esty's commnnda to procure timber for this ship, Aud as she was on the stocks the same year, it Is nut very prubable that the timlier procured and sent In colliers from Newcastle to Woolwich, was felled in the winter ( much less could it have been " stripped of Its bark In the spring, and felled the aecond succeeding autumn," as Mr. Wade has It. Neither is there the least proof cf the old Roi/nl William, recently broken up, when a century old, be. ing built of winter-felled timber. The fact Is, that she was rebuilt half a dozen times, and the only old »l)d original timber remaining in her was in the lowest part of her hull, always Immersed In the salt-water externally, and washed with the bilgn-watsr inter- nally; and the wood from this part of lier, wl>en broken up, was perfectly sound, but quite black, bitv^ ing the appearance of being charred. As far as experiments have been made, there is iw reason to conclude that timber felled in tlie winter is at all more durable than that which is felled at tU« usual time. In the year 1798, the Ifawke, sIiHip-uf- war, was ordered to be built, one side being of tinilier that had been barked in the spring and felled In the winter, and the other side with timber felled at the usual tune. In 1803 she was reported to be In so bad a state of rottenness, that she was ordered to be takeit in pieces, when no ditforence whatever coulii be dis- covered in the state of the timbers of tlie two »iiles. It is suld, however, in Derrak's Memoirs of the Nuinj, " that the timber had been stripped in tlie spring of 1787, and not felled until the autumn of 1790," and this is given as an explanation of the failure. Why the barking in the spring should add to the durability of timlier, Is not easily conceive j," and " in tlis wane of the moon ;" and we And an i i ' rurtion of llo- naparte, that " as ships built of timln : rolled at the moment of vegetation must be liable to rapid decay, and require immediate repairs, from the effect of the fermentation of the sap in those pieces which had not been felled at the proper season ;" the agents of tlie forests should almdge the time for felling naval tim- ber, which should take place " in the decrease of the moon, from the 1st Noveml>er to the 15th March." Immersion m JCarth, Sand, or Water. — Tho facts ara so numerous and so strong in favor of tho durability of timber when steeped in water, or buried in eartli or sand, that no doubt whatever can be entertained of the effieaey of such a practice. At Brest, all the timber used in ship-building is deposited in tho narrow creek of the harbor which runs through the middle of tho dock- yard, and It Is said that tho Brest-built ships never had the ivy rot. The same practice prevailed at Cadiz and Carthagena. Indeed there is reason to think that steeping in fresh water is a preventive of dry rot, prob- ttldy by dissolving the juices of the timber. It was an ancient practice, and we believe it is still followed In some parts of Knglund, to place the timlier Intended for threshing-rtoors in tho midst of a stream of water to harden it ; and all the oak planks intended for the wainscoating of the old mansions were previously steeped in running water. It is said, and there seems to be no reason for doubt- ing the fact, that the planks of ships near the bows, which are obliged to be boiled in water or steam in Nk ordftr to b^iiil (titmt, ate never infected with tho dry- m I If Uw WHt<'(' Itl Whli'li they are boiled be strongly iinpri'i/llitlfit tfllli nnit, file effects would probably be mm itMrHblfi mA i1«loyed in carryinij nut mh tiif tlieir flsherlea and domestic pur- poses, WMFA lllf ItlUfit durable t and both tliey and the liltWh KPM ijkA lu ^et M cargo of salt into a new ship, as Hid mtf^iii limim iit ptenervlng her. The carpenter of tl)0 f'mid-liil, «ft Aliteflcan 74 gun ship, when at (Spithsud, tul4 nmm iit llPr visitors, that at tho juno- tiui) iif (lis lieitmii, Mild (It till- butt end of the timbers, piBcps wers ('(If, KHi) file hollow part filled witli salt, and wverwl witll felt, fur the purpose of preserving thosH |i4rl4 wtlPfHtWu surfaces are Imperfectly brought ^«g^tllaf, fmn ttis drj- rut, wliere it is always most pr«v»liin(, 'I'bufM »f», ItrtwetSf, tety serious objections to the ilV.nwn'SlHfl III' ullljio irt a sfrniltf solution of salt, and the prAOtiufi iiC itl>>«irfillfj m\i in the vacant space between the tlMiliofii, wlliill lliiiy nut, perha|i«, apidy with equal force t« tlifif limMdfoiufl itl sea-water. It Is obser%-ed by » yif\m ill llw limiHpi'li/ Ueriew for October, 1814, that " tllH ttttritiliim fur ttiolsture which salts and acids IMissesn, wuhIiI lioiili (l(« whule Interior of the ship dripping wrt i wllicli *«liid tint only destroy the ship witb His wrt riii, litii Hip ahlp'ti company also, whose health, SlijKtrtiiiiCK Iiaa proved, Is best iireserved by keeping IJiM tihlp Hii ,\fy os pussilile t and thus the rem- edy wimirt (iB Wiirwi tllirn the disease." These bad elfucfs ImVH tllM(»p.6ti»tt«bly been experienced, the murinti) uf HI«f{IIPi>ill, whicli exists In sea-water, lieing one of tlin iMUal i|p|ii(IIPi!H>duttpil ill tile Ilrltlsli service, had been sulMtiDWHIKil i Ntlil ttie result was, that in damp weather SVSry thilta ilSPIIItltl moist, the Iron-work was rnstad, »n(t tll# llMlilt uf lll« crew was impaired i in liiitt," lis wM*, " tilDiictit m (•Irclttostanced are perfect bygruHotwrs I M^ its srnsihle to changes of the DRY fi62 DRY moUtnre In the ttmoaphera as lumps of rock salt, or slips of fuel, or the plaster of inside walls whore sea- sand has been used." Mr. Chnpmiin, however, is of opinion, that vessels impregnated with l>ay-salt, or the large grained salt of Limington or of Liverpool, (being pure muriate of soda, without ndmLxture with the l>itter deliquescent salts), will possess decided advantages, as would also vessels laden with saltpetre, if it has been dispersed among their timlrars ; and Mr. Ogg sees no dilficult}' in refining salt so as to deprive it of its deliquescent quality, lint if' a very weak solution of salt, or even msh water, shall be found to answer the purpose, the objection against immersing timber in sea-water seems to be got rid of. That it will immediately destroy all vegetable life In the delicate fibres of the fungus, and also prevent its ^'utnre growth, is quite clear ; and if It shall be found to prevent also the putrefactive process, it may be considered the most advisable wa}' to pre- pare timber for all purjwses of house carpentry, and ship-building. Impregnalion of Timbtr with Foreign Subttanet$. — A great variety of substances besides common salt, indeed almost any salt or acid, will destroy and pre- vent the growth of fungus. Sir Humphrey Davy recommends a weak solution of the corrosive subli- mate as the moat efficient. A solution of sulphate of iron or copperas, is much used in Sweden for hardening and preserving wood for wheel-carriages, etc. It is boiled in this solution for three or four hours, and then kept in a warm place to dry, by which process it is said to l>ecome so hard and compact that moisture can not penetrate it. "The wooden vessels," says Mr. Chapman, " in which the sulpho-femiginous solution is finally placed for the copperas to crj'stallhe, become exceedingly hard and not suliject to decay." A solu- tion of alum has been recommended ; but Mr, Chap- man seems to think that its earthy basis would become a nidus of putrefacti' < . The wood, however, which is nsed about alum works, liecomes hard and durable, and resists fire in an extraordinary manner. All tim- ber, in fact, when completely saturated with saline -natter, is more or less indestructil>le, and absolutely incombustible. A solution of arsenic has not been fonnd to prevent the dry rot. With reganl to the im- pregnation of oils, there are various opinions, some thinking them Iwneficial, and others injurious to the durability of timtier. It is known, however, that ships in the Greenland trade have their timliers and planks preserved as high up as they are impregnated with whale oil from the blublier ; and Mr. Chapman says, that one of the masters of a Greenland ship having payed her upper works with twelve or more successive coats of whale oil in hot weather, they liecame covered with a thin varnish, much harder and more compact than if filled with successive coats of turpentine. Resinous substances, however, are prob- ably better than oil. After o variety of experiments and sensible obser- vations, Mr, Chapman sums up the three great opera- tions by which timber may be brought to resist the tendency to dry rot, 1, To deprive the timl)er of its mucilage, whick is very liable to fermentation. 2, To impregnate timl>er with any strongly antiseptic and non-delliinesccnt matter, 8, To dry timl>er progres- sively l>y the sun nhd wind, or l)y the latter alone ; and then to close its pores completely with any sub- stance impervious to air and moisture, and at the same time highly repellunt to putrescency. Mr. Wttde recommends the impregnation of timber with sulphates of copper, zinc, or iron, rejecting deli- quescent salts, aa they cornxle metals, and would de- stroy the liolts and metal fastenings of a ship. He observes, that timlier impi>,'nated with saline matter If no longer capable of i*. mientation, and that, of course, the gases necessary for the nutriment of fungi M« not evolved. Selenite is recommended as being insoluble, or nearly so, and not liable to any alteration In the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere ; but all salts, he observes, composed of barytes, should be rejected, Iwcause, though they are plentiful, cheap, and have some qualities eminently fitting them to be employed for this purpose, yet they are, without any exception, very poisonous. From all experiments that have been made, it ap- pears that the most effectual method of preventing the dry rot, and of giving durability to timber, is that of depriving the sap of its mucilage, more especially in the alburnum, where it most aliounda ; for though sea- sonmg in the dry way will coagulate and harden the extractive matter of timlwr, yet when exposed to heat, moistnre, and a stagnant air, the process of pu- trefaction will commence, and all tlio symptoms of dry rot will speedily make their appearance. It will be preferable, therefore, that such timljer as is likely to l>e exposed to the vicissitudes of weather, should be seasoned by immersion or impregnation, rather than by the dry way. Cure of the Dry Sot. — In this disease, as in those in- cident to animal life, prevention is much easier than cure. In fact, tiiere is no other cure for the part af- fected than excision, and the sooner it is done tlie bet- ter, as the disease spreads most rapidly when fungi are propagated, throwing their minute fil)res into the tubes of the contiguous sound wood, and producing that moisture which is a condition absolutely necessurj- to the putrefactive process. If, however, the fibre of the wood is still sound, and the roots of the fungi extend not lieyond the alburnum near to the surface, immer- sion in sea-water, as in cases of the lietinlance and Eiini, or impregnation with some of the solutions above mentioned, may stop the progress of the dis- ease ; but the only safe cure, we apprehend, is that of cutting out the infected part. The sinking of the Royul George at her moorings has not been the means of preserving her timliers. On Iwing visited in tlie diving-liell, her oaken sides were broken down into a confused mass of timber and lilack mud ; having, no doubt, Iwen too far gone in decay, when the fatal ac- cident happened ; but her fir deck appeared as sound as the day when she sunk, MisceUaneoua Ob$ereationt. — It is a great mistake to suppose that the ancients were unacquainted with the drj' rot or premature decoy of timlier, Pliny has u numlwr of valuable oliservations on the preservation of timber, and on its decay occasioned l>y the juices ; unc! among other things, recommends tliut a tree should lie cut to the heart all round, in order to let the juices escape, and that it should net be felled until the wliole luul run out, lie knew that the sappy part of oak was more sul)ject to rot, and advised that it sliould bo cut away in squaring. Ho knew, too, that resinous ond oleaginous matter in wood preserved it ; oliserv- ing, that the more odoriferous a piece of timber is, the more durable. lie knew that much depended on tlie close texture of timber, and that box, ebon.. , cypress, and cedar might almost be considered as indestruct- ible. We also know Ihut cedar, teak, and mahogany, are verj* durable woods. The felling of timber while young and full of vigor, making use of the sap-wooil or alburnum, and apply- ing it to ships and buildingo in an unseasoned stute, have, no doubt, contributed to make the disease of dry rot infinitely more common and extensive than it wag in former times, when our ships were " hearts of oak," and when in our large mansions the wind was suffered to blow freely through them, and a current of air to circulate through the wide space loft between the pannelcd wainscout and the wall. In those old mansions which yet remain, and in tlie ancient cutlie- drals, wo find notliing like the dry rot, tlibugh perhaps .. perforated sore And drillM In boles, the solid oalc Is found By worms Toraolons mten through and through. ♦ Thci noticiid, n. ing tlio nppcnrs I as dry rot preparing wood-wor purposes, tougher, I Is aa follo' which la r>RT 563 DUB ill of viRor, and apply- loneil state, •lisease of (ivc. than it ' hearts of wind wa» . current of ift between I thoKO old ;i«nt catlie- igh porliaps I irottgh. Knmeroua oxamples of the extraordinary duration of timlwr may be produced, both from complete desic- cation and exposure to the air, and from tlie complete exrli'Kion of air and immersion in earth or water. Without adducing the snrturbrandt of Iceland, covered ■with several strata of solid rock, or the logs of wood dug out of peat-moss, the antiquity of which Is mere conjecture, we may instance the mummy-cases of Egypt as l)oing in all probability the most ancient timber in existence that has been worlied by the hand of man. When BelzonI entered the splendid tomb of the kings of Thebes, in which was the transparent sarcophagus of gA'paum, he found two human Azures larger than life sculptured In wood, in as good preservation as if it had been worked In his own timje ; but the sockets of the eye, which had been copper, were entirely wasted away. We are told by Pliny, that the Image of Diana at Ephesus, supposed to be of ebony, remained entire and unchanged, though the temple itself was ruined and rebuilt seven times. He adds that, in his o>m time, the Image of Jupiter in tlie capitol, made of cy- press wood, was still fresh and beautiful, though set up in the year after the foundation of Rome 651, nearly tlirce hundred years before. He further says that there was a temple of Apollo at Utica, the tlml)era of which, being of Kumidian cedar, are said to have stood 1188 years. The roof of Westminster Hall, which Is con- structed of oak, has stoml for more than three hundred years, and is probably better now than when newly erected. Similar Instances of the long duration of timber have occurred in situations where the atmos- pheric air has been excluded. In the I.evcrlan Mu- seum was a post said to l)e dug out of Fleet Ditch, cliarred at the lower end, having the name of Julius Cicsnr cut into It. The foundation on which the stone piers of London Dridge are laid consist of huge piles of timber driven close to one another, on the top of which is floor of planks ten inches thick, strongly bolted together ; on these the stone piers rest, at above nine feet above the bed of the river, and, at low water, may be seen or felt at a very few inches lielow the surface. These piles have lieen driven upwanl of six hundred years, and, from the solidity of tlie 8Uperincuml)ent weight, it may be concluded that thej' arc perfectly .■ioimd. In the old city wall of London, timber Is fre- quently dug out as sound and perfect as when tirst de- posited there. As the last instance of the extraordinary preservation of timlier, we may mention that in digging away the foundation of the Old Savoy I'alaoe, which was built about six hundred and fifty years ago, tlie whole of the piles, consisting of oak, elm, lieech, and chestnut, were found in a state of perfect soundness, without the least appearance of rottenness in any part of them, and the plank which covered the pile-heads was equally sound. Some of the beech, however, after being exposed a few weeks to the air, liut under cover, had « coating of fungus spread over the surface ; which affords a striking proof of the immense length of time that the seeds of this pare site will remain dor- mant, without parting with the principle of vegetalile life, which is called into activity from the moment that tliey are deposited in a situation favorable to their growth. In this instance wo have only to suppose that the indurated juices of the wood liecame dissolved liy its exposure to the moist atmosphere, and the phe- nomenon of fungous vegetation is capable of receiving a satisfactory explanation.* ('ommunicated to the * The proceJis tormeJ ki/awzing is similar to tlmt already noticed, as proposed by Sir Humphrey Havy — namely, steep- ing tlio timber In a Bohition of corrosive subl'^-'iate. Tiiis appears to l)c one of the best preservatives of wood In so far as dry rot is produced by a fangns, Mr. Bethell's method of preparing wood for fences, railway sleepers, piles, and other wood-work submerged in water, and for various siutiar purposes, is said to render timber of any description miicli tougher, and greatly to promote its duraljUlty. The process is as follows : The timber is placed in a strong close iron tjuik, which ii flllod with oil of tar and other bituminous matters Eneyrhpadia Urtfanniea, by Sir Johm Baurow, Bart. See Am. Jour. Sc, il., p. 114, xxxlv., p. 169 j Wtal- miiuttr Jiev., x., p. 414; London Quar., xll., p. 227, XXX., 216; JI/o«i<%Aev.,lxxxvi.,861, xe., 887; Urb's Did. Aril. Dubb«r, or Dnpper, a leathern vessel, bottle, or jar, nsed In India to hold oil, ghee, etc. Barrels, as already observed, are entirely a European Invention. Liquids, In eastern countries, are for the most part packed for exportation in leathern vessels, Dubbers are made of thin untanned goat skins ; and are of all sizes, from a quart up to nearly a barrel. Dublin, the metropolis of Ireland, In the county to which It gives name, and province of I^inster, nnking In Importance as the second city In the United Kingdom. It is distant 292 miles W.N.W. from Lon. don, 1'I8 miles west from Liverpool, and AO miles west from Holyhead, in lat. 68° 80' 88" N., and long 6° 7' 13'' W., agreeably situate In the great central limestons district which reaches across the island from the Irish Sea to the Atlantic Ocean on the River Litfe}', and ex- tending to the junction of that river with the ILiy of Dublin, the waters of which wash its suburban shores. The population of the dty of Dublin was estimated by Rutter, in 1753, at 101,088; In 1798, by Whitelaw, at 182,087, and was ascertained by the census of 1821 to nnionnt at that period to 185,881, and by the census of 1831 to 204,155. The population of the city, according to the most recent enumerations, in 1841 was 2.S2,726, and in 1851 it was 258,3(11. In order still further to promote the commercial In- terests of Dublin, an association was formed about thirty years ago, under the name of the Chamber of Commerce, which soon decayed ; but the idea was re- vived In 1820, when a number of merchants formed themselves Into a soeletj' under the same name, which still exists. Its objects are the protection and promo- tion of the manufacturing and commercial interests of Dublin, and of the country in general. The business is transacted by a president, vice-presidents, and com- mittee, instnicted to communicate with the officers of government on the subjects of the association. Their office is held in the Commercial B"!blings. The Ouzel Galley is another voluntary assi n of merchants for determining commercial diffen l>y arbitration. It takes its name from that of a ves^i i, which was the occasion of a complicated and protracted suit, that was ultimatelj- adjusted in an amicable manner by the In- terference of some of the most respectable merchants in Dublin. The effect of steam navigation on the cross-channel trade has produced a great alteration In the state of commerce in Dublin. The Hank of Ireland was formed in 1788 In order to give security to commerce. It was opened at first in some old houses in Mary's Abbey, with n capital of £600,000, which was afterward increased to f 3,000,000. In the year 1802 the parliament house was purchased 1))' the directors, and adapted to its present destination. This edifice was erected in 1729 ; and notwithstanding the changes made in it since it was diverted from its original purpose, the exterior has been but little alter- ed. It consists of three fronts. The principal, toward College Green, o colonnade of the Ionic ordei, formed of a fai^ade and two projecting wings, la muc admired for the noble simplicity of its elevation. The western front, a portico of four Ionic columns, was connected with the other by n colonnade of the same order, forin- contuiniiig ercasotu, and with pyrolignlte of iron ; tlic air is then exliausted by powerful air-pumps ; after which more of the satiiratln ^iiid Is forced in b^ hydrostatic pumps. When the wood han i subjected for six or seven hours to a press- ure of from Iv. ' .50 pounds on the square Incli, the process ia complete, am. Ue wood is found to weigh from 8 to 12 pounds per cubic foot heavier than before. It also pro8er\'e« iron bolts driven Into it from corrosion. Wood thus prepared lias been used for sluepora on several of the great English railroads, and is said to bu' o proved extremely durable. (See Ubb's Diet. 0/ ArU, etc., vol. 11, p. 903,) DUB 064 DUN log the quadrant of a circle. The eaitern tnnt, which waa the entrance of the House of Lonk, woe, by their special order, a colonnade of the Corinthian order, whicli the architect found ^reat difllcvlty in uniting -with the other (larts. The apartment for the lordri, a tine room, waa hung with tupeiitr}'. That of the commons having been bunted in 17U2(wliothor liy accident ordcsigu has never been fuliy ascertained), was reconstructed after a more elegant design, in the form of a circio surround- ed by pillars, Itetween which was a galler}- for hearers. This flne hall was talion down by the bank directors, and converted into a square room, now the cash-office. The commerce of the port of Dublin had increased so much toward tlie close of the last century that the accommodation afforded in the river for shipping waa found insufficient, and the Irish parliament granted 4)16,000 for forming doclts on Imth sides of it. The floating and graving doclcs, communicating with the grand canal on the south side, including a basin cover- ing 40 statute acres, with a tine quay and store frontage of 7,600 feet, were opened in 1796 ; and 8t, George's, the latest of the custom-house docks, in 1821. These latter cover an area of H acres, having 16 feet depth of water, and 1200 yards of quay ; they are capalile of accommodating 40,000 tons of shipping, and the stores have space for 8000 casks of sugar and tobacco, and 20,000 chests of tea, wiih cellarage for 12,000 pipes of wine. The doclcs on the south side aflTord commodious wharfage for 100 sail of merchantmen and colliers, ex- clusive of that suppliey the river quays. The for- mation of the asylura-harlior at Kingstown, then Dun- leary, which wus commenced in 1H17, gave additional aid to the commerce of the port, by the increased pro- tection it afreen but 6 or 8 in thit of the West' Indies, the same number in that of France and the Spanish Peninsula, and 20 or ilO in tlie North American timber trade. The amount of customs col- lected averages about £950,000, and hax not varied much during the last twelve years, the reduction of duties having more than balanced the increase in the quantity of articles imported. *' First impressions of Duldin," says Inglis, " are decidedly favorable. Dublin, for its size, is a hand- somer city than London. Sackville-street will com- pare with any street in Kurope ; Merrioa Square and St. Stephen's Green surpass in extent any of the squares in the Uritish metropolis. .Iiere are points of view in Dublin, the quays, and some of the finest public edifices, more striking, I think, than any that are to be found in London ; and although tbo Irish capital con boast of no St. Paul's, ytt, in the archi- tectural beauty of some of her public buildings, she has just reason for pride. I p jed but name the Custom House, and th<- Bank of Ireland with its magnificent yet claasicHlly chaste colonnades, in proof this asser- tion." There is much truth in thu dcsciiption, yet the chief advantage which Di'!>iin has in picturesque beauty lies in the concentration of the objects of in- terest within a small compass and further examination dues not confirm the first favorable impression. Sir John Forbes, who vuited Ireland in 1862, says : " I own myself to have been a good deal disappointed with Dub- lin as a city. To say nothing of its extent, it la greatly inferior in many other respects, not only to London, bot to several towns in England, and some in Scotland, Its >!t« i« flat and monotonous, and its streets and squares possess no architectural l>eauty. The former, to bo sure, are often very wide, and some of the Utter, as Merrion Square and Stephen's (iroen, are of im- mense extent, but there is throughout a general want of elegance and grandeur. Most of the streets seem to want dignity, and the majority of the houses are common-looking, and even mean and dingy. While denying both beauty and grandeur to Duldin as a city, I must Join in the universal Judgment as to the splendor of many of its public buildings, as the Hunk of Ireland — formerly the Parliament Mouse, the Cus- tom House, the Post Office, the Koyal Exchange," etc. Few cities present a more striking picture of the extremes of splendor and destitition than Dublin. A line drawn from the King's Inns in the north of Dub. lin, directly south, through Capel-street, the castle, and Aungier-street, will, together with the line of the Lilfoy, divide the whde area into four districts, mate- rially ditferenl from eacii other in appearance and char- acter. The suulh-eastern district, widch comprehends three of the great squares, and the north-eastorr., which includes tho two remaining squares, are chiefly inhab- ited by the nobility, the landed gentry, and tho liberal professions. These two districts |)rusont many symp- toms of affiuence and luxury, liut on proceeding west- ward the scene suddenly changes. A considoreble por- tion of the south-western district, which included the liliertios o' St. Sepulchre's and Thomas Court, and wus formerly the scat of the silk and woolen manufactures, and also of the north-western portion of the city, are iu a state of almost hopeless dr cay. The squalid misery visible in the ruinous portions of the city is relieved to the eye by the beauty of the environs of the city ; and in its immediate vicinity is the Phcenix Park, of which the citizens are Justly proud. It comprises an area of 1763 acres, within whicli are contained tho Viceregal Loilge, the ur.ual residence of the lord-lieuteuant, with IGO acres of demesne and gardens, the c'uief and under secretary's ledges, and the lodges of tho park rangers and their assistants, witli their respective inclosed grounds, tho Hibernian school foi soldiers' children, the military magazine, the military infirmary, the zoological gardens, the constabulary barracks, etc. Inglis, a good authority on such subjects, pronounced this park as superior, both in extent and diversity of surface, to any public park, promenade, prater, or prado, belonging to any other European city. (White- law and Walsh's llUtory of Dublin ; 'I'hdm's Iriih Almanac; Gilueut's llUtovy of the Cily vf Duhliu, 1864.^ — E. 13. Dublin Univ. May., viii., xvi., iii., iv., v., vii. Duoat, a foieign coin, either of gold or silver, struck in the dominions of a duke. The ducat was first coined by Longlnius, governor of Italy, who revolted against the Emperor Justin the Younger, and made himself duke of Kavennn, calling himself Ktarcha, that is, wilhout lord or ruler ; and he struck pieces of money, of very pure gold, with his own stamp, which, as Procopiua relates, were called Jucati, ducats. Ac- cording to Du Cangc, ducats were coined by Koger, King of Sicily, in the year 1240. The Venetian ducat was first struck by John Dandolo, iu 1280, and in- scrilicd with this legend : " St TibI, Cbrlste, datus, quern To ri^gia iste Ducatus." DucatO (Cape), the modem tiame of the ancient Leucate, a promontory ut tho south end of Santa Maura, one uf tho Ionian Isla'ids ; celebratepho precipi' uted herself into the sea. Duoatoon, a silver coin, struck chiefly in Italy, particularly at Milan, Venice, ""'nrenc?, Genoa, Lucca, Mantua, and Parma ; though there are, also, Dutch and Flemish ducatoous. Dundee, a seaport town of Scotland, county of Forfar, 42 miles M.N.E. from Edinburg; N. lat. 56° 2' ; W. long. 8° 2'. It is situated on the north side of the Kiver Tay, about 12 miles from its mouth. Population (1866) 78,931 ; and a« a considerable increase BUN 865 DTJN silver, first revolted il nmde xairha, )iece9 of which, Ac- Koger, AD ducat und in- catuB." ancient Sunta il as the .0 the sea. in Italy, a, Lucca, Dutch ounty of . Ut. 66° lorth side s mouth. eincreaM ha* since taknn place. It may now ho osttmated at "0,000 to 100,000. Dundee Is thus the third town In otlund in respect of population. The name applied to it by the earliest writers is Alectum or Taodunum. It was sul>aequently designated Deidonum, of which the present name is supposed to l>e a corruption. The early history of the town Is Involved in obscurity, but It appears to have been a place of importance as early as the 12th century. Frequent mention Is made of It In connection with the disputes regarding the succes- sion to the crown of Scotland ; anci It was the scene of severe conflicts between the English forces, who In- vaded the country In the reign of Edward I., and the Scotts, under the patriotic Wallace, and the other sup- porters of Scottish Independence. Duudco was nt one time surrounded by strong walls, and portions of them are yet to be seen. The Cow- gotj port still stands, and Is •cgardcd with veneration as a momnrliil of (Jeorgo WIshart, the Reformer, who Is said to have preached from it In the yearlWI, when the plague prevailed, the sick being placed on one side of the wall, and the liealthy on the other. The ground on which the town is built slopes gently toward the river, and Is hounded on the north by the Law of Dundee and the Hill of Halgay. The former rises to the height of 535 feet, and must In warlike times have l)ocn a strong position. Tlio walls of a fortiticatlon are still to lie traced on its summit. The town in general is irregularly l)ullt ; but within the last 20 or 80 years scvcinl new .ind spacious streets have been opened up. Tho principal public buildings are the Exchange licading-Room ; the Royal Arch, erected by public sul)snription to commemorate the landing of Queen Victoria in 1H)4, at a cost of nearly X8,000 ; the Public Seminaries ; and the New Baltic Exchange ("offec-Room, a splendid specimen of the Klemish-Ciothio style. AVithin a comparatively recent period n number of Important public undertakings havo l)een completed. The Dundee and Newtyle Railway was opened for trafllc In 1S26 ; the Dundee ond Arbroath Railway in 18!18 ; and tlie Dundee and I'erth Railway in 1HI7. Py means of theso railways, and of the Edinl]urg, Perth, and Dundee Railway, which joins the Dundee and Ar1)roath Railway by means of !'. ferry and t)ranch line at Broughty Costle, four miles east from the town, Dun- dee has direct communication with all parts of the kingdom. There are two gas-light companies, eacli of them with a capital of about 4150,000 Invested in their works and apparatus. The Dundee Water Com- pany was formed In 1840. Its capital Is almut ^fl.lO,- 000. Its reservoirs are situated In the parish of Mo- nikie, about 10 miles distant from the town ; and from tiiese an abundant eupplj' of water has been procured. The most important of the public works are the har- bor and docks. Previously to 1815 the harlror was of very limited extent. In that year an act of Parlia- ment was obtained for enlarging it, and erecting a wet- dock of 6i- acres (King Wiiiiam's), a tide-harbor of 4} acres, graving-dock, and other accommodation suitable for the increasing trade of the port. Tho plan was afterward greatly enlarged, emliracing new docks (Earl Grej'"s of 5J acres, and Victoria Dock of 14^ acres), patent slip, careonlng-beach, and Rdditional tidc-harliors. The Victoria D. ck, though for some years open to vessels, is not quite completed. The quays are wide, and aiTord convenient berthage for almut 70 vessels. On the south quay of Earl Grey's Dock, is erected a large crane, capable of raising 30 tons. It is used ch iefly for lifting the boilers and hea vj' machinery of si eam-vessels. Besides the ordinary branches of 8hip-i)Uilding, the building of iron vessels is carried on at tht port. Owing to the increased bur- den of the vessels I'ow employed in tho trade of tlic place, and tlie greater depth of water required by them, additional works nt the harbor are projected. Tho cost of the docks and larbor woa about ;eC00,000. The number and tonnage of veascla entered at tho harbor for the year ending 81st May, 1854, was as fol- lows: Vesaols In fbrelitn tradi), tn Boglatorod tonnage, '^ ooMtliiK do., 1,7M ** " " river do., 088 " " lin.fWT llM,H»t Total, «,nTn »T,2llfl Tlie following statement shows the progrosalve In- crease in tho harbor and shipping dues. It was, In 1780 S/Mi 1T9.1 MB 1806 ],9T» In 1815 W,400 1886 ii.itns 18M 1M,4(N The staple trade of Dundee Is the mannfacture of linen and hemp fabrics, chiefly of tho coaraer descrip- tions. The manufacture of linens appears to have been Introduced from Germany in the beginning of the last centur}'. Insignificant in extent at first, it grad- ually Increased till the close of that century, when, machinery having been applied to the spinning of flax, a great impulse was given to It. Splnning-mllls were erected, and of thcs3 there are nowaliout liO in Dundee and Its immediate neighborhood. Hand-spinning has l)eon entirely superseded by mill-spinning. The coaraer fabrics are still woven In hand-looms ; but there are now six or seven largo powor-loom factories, and some smaller ones. The chief articles of manufacture are sheetings, sail-cloth, drills, dowlas, sacking, and bag- ging. Nearly one half of the quantity made is sent to London, Manchester, Glasgow, and Leeds, for home consumption. The remainder is exported, either di- rectly or Indlrecllj-, to foreign countries. The mann- facture of Jute carpeting is also now carried on to a largo extent. The number of persons employed in the linen trade of the place is estimated to l>e from 20,000 to 25,000. The quantity of flax, hemp, cedilla, and jute. Im- ported for the year ending Hist May, 1854, was as fol- lows : At the harbor, 64,!)41 tons ; by railway, 11,406 tons ; total, 05,747 tons. The quantity of linen goods sent away for exporta- tion and home-consumption for the same period, was as follows : Lintns of all descriptions shipped at the har- l)or, 421,432 pieces ; by railway, 086,110 pieces ; total, 1,107,542 pieces. Assuming the value of the material at £30 per ton, its total value used in manufactures will be £1,872,410. Assuming tho value of the goods manufactured to be 60s. per piece, their gross value will be £3,822,626 ; and on this assumption, tho balance of £1,450,216 repre- sents the cost of the manufacture. Including wages, the rents of premises, and machinery employed In it, and the profits of the manufacturers. From the fore- going statements, some idea may be formed of the rapid increase of the town In commerce, wealth, and population. Dundee is now the principal seat of the linen-trade of the United Kingdom, and its fabrics are to be met with in all quarters of the world. In proof of tho prudential ha1)its of the people, it may be men- tioned that a national security savings-liank, opened in 1838, now contains upward of £70,000, lodged by 4,632 depositors. The country surronnding the town Is fertile, and well cultivated ; and has sliared largely In its prosper- ity, the rents having increased much, and the value of the luni l)eing augmented in proportion. With the natural advantages which it enjoys, and the energy and enterprise for which its inhabitants are distin- guished, Dundee may be expected to maintain the po- sition which It now holds among tho commercial towns of the British Empire.— E. B. Dunnage, in commercial navigation, loose wood, consisting of pieces of timi)er, boughs of trees, faggots, etc., laiii in the Imttom and against the sido of the ship's hold, either, Ist, by raising the cargo when she is loaded with iieavy goods, to prevent her from becom- ing too stiff (see Bai.ia.st) ; or, 2d, to prevent tho cargo, should it be susceptible of damage by watei, DYE 566 DYB from being Injured tn tha event of her Iracomlng leaky. A ship l« nut rei'kuneil eeewurthy unlemi iihe lie pro- viiletl with pru|)pr and aulBcient diiiinUKo. — Kai.dux- ■h's Marine Dicliimaiy ; AnBorr (l^ird Teuturdon) oh the Imip of Nhipiung, I'urt lii., c. 11. Duplloata, u copy or trnnncript of any thhig ; an ofadeinl, Icttor, liill of exchange, etc. Duplication, the act of duuliUng ; the niultlpUcution of u uunilior by i. Aliio a folding ; a fold. Dupondlus, in antiquity, a weight of 2 iwundn, or money of the value of 2 asiiea. Dust, or Duat**, a river of renia, flowing from the Interior through the province of Mekran, from the Kouthem ahore of which It fall* into the Indian Ucoan, Jia courxe la aup|Mued to extend, under dilTerent appel- liitiouti, about I, (MX) milea, Dutch Cklld, the commercial name of a coarse in- itation of gold leaf, made of cop|ier, of broaa, or of bronxe. It la chielly used fur ornamenting toy*. Dyalng (7V/n/ur<', Kr. ; Fdrbeiti, (iomi.) la the art of impregnating wool, ailk, cotton, hair, and akina, with colors nut removable by waahing, or the ordinor}' uaage to which theae tibrou* Ixxllea are ex|)o»ed, when worked up into articlea of fundture or raiment. We shall here consider the general principlea of the art, referring for tiie iwrticular dyoa, and peculiar treat- ment of the stuft'a to Iw dyed, to the different tinctorial substances in their alphabetical places ; such as ccicl'- ineal, indigo, madder, etc. Liyeing is altogether a chemical proceas, and requires fur its due explanation and practice un acquaintance with the properties of the elementary bodies, and the lawa which regulate their oombiiuitions. It ia true that many operations of this, as of other chemical arts, have been practiced from the most ancient times, long before uny just views were entertained of the nature of the changes that took plate. Mankind, equally in the rudest und most re- fined state, have always aought to gratify the love of distinction by staining their dross, sometimes even their skin with gaudy cidors. Jfoses speaks of rai- ment dyed blue, and purple, and scarlet, and of sheep- skins dyed red — circumstances which indicate no small degree of tinctorial skill. He enjoins purple stutfs fur the works uf the tabernacle and tlie vestments of the high priest. The ancient Kgyptiana cultivated this art with some degree of scientilic precision, since they knew tlie use of mordants, or thoaa substancea which, though they impart no color themselves, yet enable vhite robes (caudiJa rela) to absorb coloring drugs (colortn tortxtuliliui mediramentit). Tyre, however, was the nation of antiquity which made dyeing its chief occupation and the ataple of its commerce. There is little doubt that purple, the sacred syndral of royal and sacerdotal dignity, was a color discovered in that city, and that it contributed to its opulence and grandeur. Homer marks no lesa the value than the antiquity of this dye, by descriliing his heroes as arrayed in purple rolies. Purple 'labits are mentioned among the presents made to Uideon l>y the Israelites from the spoils of the kings of Midiun. The juice employed for communicating this dye was obtained from two different liinds of shell-flsh, de- scribed by Pliny under the names of purpura and buo- cinum ; and was extractet' pomegranate, and of un Kgyptuin ucaciu. Hut the vast superiority of our dyes over those of former times must be oscrilied principally to the use of pure alum und solution of thi as monlunts, either ulone or mixed with other bases ; substances which give to our common dye-stufTs remarkable depth, duruliility, and lustre. Another improvement In dyeing, of uioru recent date, Is the application to textile substances of metallic compounds, such as PrussUm blue, chrome yellow, manganese brown, etc. The compound or mixed colors, are such as result fh)m the comliinatiun of twodiSerent colored dye-stulTs, or from dyeing stuOa with one color and then with another. The simple colors of the dyer are red, yel- low, blue, and black, with which, when skillfully blended, ho can produce every variety of tint. Per- haps the dun or fawn culor ndght be added tu the almvo, as It Is directly obtained from a great many vegetable substances. 1. Itcd with yi-lloir, produces orange | a color which, upon wool, la given uaually with tho spent scarlet bntb. Tn tills fihado may be referred flame color, pomegranate, cupucblii. prawn, Jonquil, cffssu, chamola, fit/i au tait^ aurora, nmri- gold, orange peel, mordoria, cinnamon, gold, etc. Bniiff, chestnut, muak, and other aliadea are produceed by aubiti- tutlng walnut peels or suoiACh fur bright yellow. If a little blue be adt^ed lo orauge, an oUro Is obtained. The only di- rect orange Jycs are onotto and aubchromate of lead. 2. Ued with blue prodiicca purple, violet, lilac, pigeon's neck, maliow, peacb bloesom, Meu de rof, llnt-blossoin, ama- ranth. 3. Red with black ; brown, chocolate, roarone, etc. 4. Yellow with blue ; greenofagreat varletyof shades, auch aa nascent gruitn, K»y groen, grasa green, spring green, laurel green, sea green, celadoii green, parrot green, cabbage green, apple green, duck green. 6. Mixtures of colors, 3 and 3, and 4 and 4, produce an Indetnlto diversity of tints; tliua red, yellow, and blue, form brown olivea and grecnlah grays ; In which tho blue dye ouglit always to be first given, lest the Indigo rat ahould bo soiled by, other colors. Red, yellow, and gray (which Is a gradation of black) give the dead-leaf tint, as veil w dark EAR 567 BAR onnK*, Kniifr nolor, ttii. Rnl, l>lu«, ud gr*f, ifln » ml wtrtvly of ahmlia i u lend gny, ilitlfl Kr'^i wuuil-plguon |r»7i *n>l (ilhiT nilnm, loo nuinnroua to apeclfjr. Tho fiilliivrlnK Hat nl dyoa, and Ihn colorlnK lubaUneei which prntluru them, may pruva UM^fii) : Hut. Cochineal, kimncia, Itr, maddar, arrhll, ■■■rthamiia or ttlHowcr, braill wood, loKwood, pcriodiilc r.i tnnrrurjr, alka- net. Vi-lloip. (junreltron, wold, fiiatlo (fullow <^ "Mlt, annotto, anwwort, ilycr'a hroom, turmeric, fiiatot {rhu.i i' furrnKliiona mordantfl • tho anacardlum of liidln (Irttii, Thuao aru produced by tho blun tiint yellow dyoa •klllfully comblnod ; with tho exception of tin' rhromu graou, anil perhapH the copper KToon of Hchwelnfiirt. Ontrifif. Annotto, and mUtiirca nf red and yellow dyoat Juhchnnnuto of lead. f'liieii, y>ini, or Hoof. Walnut poela, aiimaoh, hlruhtroe, hanna, aandal wood, — liRR'a IHet nf ArU, Inilii/i) niul ('ocMni'ul, — [n l.'ilH noltlier of they tlie MexiciuiH an a dyuHtulf. In lu'ili <'ortez rocolved ordem from the court of Spain to multiply tliU precioua Inaoct, to culluct It and aonil it to 8|>ain. Cochineal liy itself kIvbh only a ci'iiiiiiun color ; it dyes trarlet when inixod with a aolution of tin. 'I'hii* fact waa dlHcovered accidentally liy ('omo- liu.H l)relil>cl nhout the year 1030. lie communicated hin olmervution to hiit 8on-ln-law Kuflelar, who wan a dyer at Li^yden. lie soon hrouKht the pro(^(>aii to per- fection, kept it a Bccret, anil liruu{{lit tlie scarlet color into faxliLun. 8o(m after, tiie aamo proceHU waa dia- coveriyl l>y a German cliemint called Kotller, who car- ried his Hccrut to Konilon in 1U4H. A Flumixb dyer culled .lolm Kliiock |{ot inl'ormatliin of tliu proeena In 11H7, and it uroiluiilly mule Its way tiiroU)(h evorj- coinitry of Kurope. Indi)(n, tiiiMi)(h » much more im|>ort:int dye-stutf than cochineal, did not make its way Into general use without tlie (frcatost difllculty. Tho use of it was prohil>itcd In Kngland during the roign of Klizaheth ; and tlie prohibition was not taken oil till the time of Chtrlos II. It was equally prohlb- Itrd In Hitxony, wboie it w«a stylvd in tlie pruhlbltiun ■ corroHivn aubatance, nnd called fooil for the devil. Rastrictiiins on the uae of indigo In dynlng were Im- poied itUo in Krunce, though It wim not altogether prohihlted, as It hud Iwnn in Kiigiund and Haximy. 8«e nr.itriioi.i.RT, on Dj/eitii) ,■ liANruoKT, on C'uliirt, There has been injeh aiwculatiun among pliiloaopli- ical dyera rea|)«cting tho nature of tlie coloring mattem, anil the way in which the ditferunt colors are induceil by dyeing ; liut theae speculations have nut led to any Information of much value. Tliere is reason for he- llivlng that the coloring matters employed aa dye- stiilTs nrn nil traiiKpurent, and that the color is pro- duced l>y tlieir action iin tlie light transmitted tlirough them from the white lllires of the clutii. Those color- ing matters that transmit all the rays e(|unlly leave the cloth white ; if the blue ruy be transinlttcil and the rest alisoriied, the cidor of the doth will lie hlur, and so on. This is all that wo know about the me- chanical nature of tho dypstiilt's. With respect to the aptitude uf lieing dyed, and the brilliancy of llie colors thus communleatod, there Is found to be very groat dill'erenco in din'erent tissues. Animal suiutunces are much more easily dyed than vegetable substances. Uf animal substances, lilt receives color, and tho shades given are brigliter and mora lieantiful than those whicli can be imliibud by any otiiiir tissue. Woolen chitli is also very lit for being dyed, and receives very lirllliant colors with avidity ; though in this respect it is inferior to silk. Cottor. and linen are much more dilHcult to dye, and can not lie made to Imbibe such brilliant colors as silk pr woolen. Thus the ricli scarlet given to cloth by the combined action of cochineal and the oxyd of tin, has never been communicated to cotton cloth or lineu. The Turkey-red dye. wliicli Is liy fur the finest and most permanent red that has ever been communicated to cotton cloth, is a crimson, or rather a crimson with a shade of lirown. It has not the least approach to a scarlet. — K. 1). Dyke, or Dike. When a mass of unstratitied or igneous rock, such as granite, trap, or lava, appears as if injected Into rents and llssures iu the strutilled rock, so as to intersect the strata, it is called a di/ke. Vi/kf Is also the name given to a mound of earth, stones, or other matorials, intended to prevent low land from lieing Inundated by the sea, etc. j as the dykes of Hol- land. E. Ich, upon To this rtiipuchln. ra, niari- . BnafT, jiy nubiti- If a little |o only dl- plgeon's , ama- cB, such 1, laurel kge Bros"' ■roduce an Hblne, form blue dye I should be irhich la a |U ts dark Eagle, in numismatics, a sort of base money which was current in Ireland In the early part of the reign of Edward I., that is, about tho your 1272. There were also liunines, rosades, and many other coins of the same sort, named according to tlie llgures with which they were impressed. The current coin of the king- dom at tiiat time was a composition of cop|ier and sil- ver, in determinate proportions ; but these were so ranch inferior to tiio standard of that time, tliat they were not worth, intrinsically, half so much as the others. They wore imported from France and other foreign countries. When Kdwurd had been a few ycurs estulilishod on the tiirone, ho set up mints In Ireland for coining good money, and then prohibited tho use of eagles, and other kinds uf base coin — making it deatli, with conllscation of effects, to Import any more of tliem into the kingdom. Eagle Is the ilesigna- tiun of the principal gold coin of the United States — value ci|iial tu 10 dullars. Earing, in nautical language, a rope attached to tlie cringle of a sail, liy means of which It Is bent or reefed. EarnoHt, in commercial law, is tho sum advanced by the liuyur of gootb in order to bind the seller to tho terma of the agreement. It la enacted by the 17th section of the famous Statute ,if Frauds, 29 Charles II., c. A, that " no contract for the sale of any goods, wares, and merchandises, I ir the prices of £10 sterling, or upward, shall be allowed to bo good, except ti\a buyer shall accept port of the goods so sold, and actt ■ ally receive the same, or give something in earnest to bind the bargain, or in jiart payment, or that son.e note or memorandum in writing of tlie said bargain be made and signed by the parties to be charged by such contract, or their agents thereunto lawfully author- ized." As to what amounts to sufficient earnest, Illuck- stone lays it down, that, " if any |jf»rt of the price is paid down, if it is but a penny, or any portion of the goods is delivered by way of earnest, it is binding." To con- stitute earnest, the thing must be given as a token of ratitlcation of the contract, and it should be expressly stated so by the giver. — Chittt's Commerciul Law, vol. ill., p. 289. Ear-ring, an ornament worn at the ear ; a pendant or jewel suspended by means of a ring or a hook passing through the pendulous lobe of the ear. The use of this kind of ornament dates from the remotest anti- quity, since the first mention of ear-rings occurs in the EAil sas EAR iMnfc "f ftM««tit. Kar-rlnip of rartaln kIniU wen ini'Miillr, xii'l ntlll aro, In llix Kant, ln»triiini>ntii or »fi\»uiliiitn lit MoUlry mill i>ii|Minilltlon — IralnK rii- lf«r>l«'l M Ull'ninna ami amiilclit. Hucli, imibalily, Wftf IU» mttUiic ot •ItriiU'ii fNiiiily, wliiili ha huiieil will) llio alranK* K'"'' *' l>i'lhi«fi »t* tfitHini lit ailnnimiint wax iiiii'il (an It atill la In wKiia i»unlrl«>i hy Imlh utixaaaniniiK many (lrl«ntiil H«)l<>«i< I •••iwlally \ty Iha l.yillann, rnmlniia, lliil)y- l(>nla*i>, l/Miyafi«. anil CartliaKliilaiia, aa may \m giilh- «r«ur|Miaa of iH-arliiK tlipno ii|i|Mmil- Satth, figure of tha 'I'hn ilvtarmiuutlon of tha ftMiirn nml illmanalima of tha (tiirtti la n pMlilrm of ¥i>ry ufrnt lm|iortanr« In aatrommiy, Innamiich iii it la In fafarani'i' tii Ilia aarth'a illiiiiiatar that tlin iliatuncoa (if )lia (ilHiM'ta from tha aim anil from i4l'f|i may Iw I'onalilernl. Thn fltfiire of the earth muf lia raxarilail aa a fiirt to lie ilatarmiiied liy invoati- flatWin ami aa|Hy lll« aitiial ninaaiirement anil i'oin|iBriaiin of iliflVrent laifllirfia irf (he terreatrlnl aurfai'e, thn niitiiro of ita fMfvaliira, ami the inaKnitiiile of ita diami'tera. I'nilrr Iba aai'imd (Hiliit of view, the f|UPHtion la olio of pure llMMify, The earth may lie reuarded na a ronKeriea of matt^lal (larflilea, altractlii); eaoli other with fiirci'a r*('l(ifoi alli )irii|Kirtlonal to their mutual diatonrea, ami emiiiweil wjlli a rotatory motion ahout a rtxeil •Mia I ami thn priililem la to determine the fiinii the witfil* maaa wiiiild aaaiime In virtue iif thn iittriiitive ami I enlrtfilKiil forcea liy whirh the |uirtii'loa are im- |iall«"l Viewed In thIa li((ht, the nttunl liKure of the aaflh iiecimiea one of the aerlea of ' oiiaequonrea reault- \ttK fr./in Iha iinlveraal Kravitntion of matter, and di-- (0li4Uiit on the aame lawa which regulate ita motion in I* iirlilt aliiitit thn aim. It wmil'l Im n waate <•( time to inquiro what were Mm (I'ltliiii* of the flxiir-.- of the earth, which were or ifM|4lit ha»» JH'in eiilef lined liy ila eurlieat and nio^t ymiratit InhaMtiinta. A very alight attention to llio (W/'t < iitrtmoii I'lienoiiifna render* the fact of ita (jen- afal roimdneaa almnet patpahin to the acnaea. Tlie MNlffirm leirel a|i|iearan('o of the aenailile horizon in mH'tY •Miiatlon III wlilcli a apectutor can lie placed— tlia deiireaalim of the rlri'iim-|Hilar atara aa he odvuucea l/rward the aonth, and their elevation aa ho proreeda in » colli rary direction — tha diaappearance of a ahip •tamlliiK out to a«a— the projection of the earth an aoen III a liinir m l||iae, and a numlier of other familiar ap- |if>liraii< I'- ynt the Klohular flxure of our plancl lieyond «ll maini» ' lit doiili*. Keaaonlng from auch np|iear- »«<*•. Ill* earlieat Mtrotioinera univeranlly regarded th* aarlh f a aphere ; and their attention was solely Jllract*"!, in their vnrloua menaiirementa and compula- ll"lla, t" aai^ertnln Ita dlmensiona. Modem acienre haa dlaiovered that Ita figure daviatea alightly from that of a aphere, lieing compreaaed or flatteued at the aatrefiilllf ^ of Ita axia of rotation; and the ohjeit of (Im a«lriniorii«'r, at the preaeiit time, la to determine DM mtly Ma dimenalnna, but also the exact amount of Ita crnnpfaaadm Attenif/ta to e«timite the magnitude of the earth W»r« UuAk at ■ very early dote i for Ariatotle raUt«« that tha UathamAltcUna prior to hij time had found the circumference In he HH),!)!)!) atadia. Hut Kriitoa- Ihriiea ap|ieara to have lieen the Itrat who rnlertnlned an accurate Idea of the prliiciplea on whiih the deter- minalitvn of the llgure of the imrth really ile|ii'iida, mid attempted to reduce theau priiici|ilitance ffoni tlie zenith to lie 7° I'i', or ii WMIi part of thn circunifcreiicn. Then, naauiiiing Hyeiie to I'C exactly uniler the meridian of Alexandria (tlie error in tiiia aaauinption wa-* almut !)'), and the di»taiice lictween the two placea, meaaured in a atruight line, to lie A.IKH) Htiidia, he hud fi.nWIXiM)-. I>fi0,mxj atadia for the whole circumference of the earth. It la eaay to see how very iiii|ierfect thia o|H'ratioii iiiiiat have la-en. With- out mentioning amalier errora, the neglect of the aolar diameter would ulone occaaion iin uncertainly iia t'. Tlie determiii ition of the azimuth is, however, un operation of considcralde dif- tlculty; and I'tidemy has given no details of the method by which he proposed to estimate it. He baa lieen equally silent In reaiiect of tho meous I y wliich tlie mean length of a degree was ascertained ti> \m 500 Hiadia, so that tho result which he has recorded is still leas satisfactory than those of the two more ancient astronomers. Tho active curiosity of the Arabians, which waa exerted so succctafuUy in promuting practical iutron- rad nic redii Tho tho lengi tho I a mi plovi Tl mcnf open indel who cauti tion percl Iciigl a qui virei BAR flAO EAR omy, illil not overlook Iho mitivtnr* of tho onrth. Th« ('nll|>h Aliimmcj'Jii, wlii> Iivkuii hl« ri'l^ii In n ynt 111, cirilrnil It riiiii|iiiiiy of iiKlniniimi'rM t» iiiniiiiiirn n ilKt(n<« oil tli« lini'l |iliilii of M |Kitiinil>i. IliviilliiK thotiunlvc* Inlii iHci piirtli'^, tli« iiim |irn<'<'i>(l>'>l nurth- ward, mill tint iirticr uniitliwiinl, III tliii illrri'tioii of tho iniTiilUii, lliroii|{li 11 ilKKriin iif Intihiilx, iiiiil nii>iii«iiioiit iif lln'lr cniicliiaioii with that of rtiili'iny, thrciwi It oiirii to ^rciit >iu«|ili'lon ; iiiiil whrii It I" riinniili-rccl that thi'lr ri|MTiiliiiii wiin ri'iM-iiti-il iit ii ilUP'ri'iit |ilu(K, with I'xiirlly thn hiiiiik ri«»iik, thuri' iiin lin no iliiiilit thiit tliin>lilik. i.AViMiK, Anlrntiiiinif, toin. ill., chap, xxxv.) Hut tho flrnt who hail tho inoflt 4if attoinptln^ to oxeoiito tho gooileflc oporatlonit that aro ImliKponHnMy noonHary to oflVit tho aooiirato nioamiroinpnt of a h n^ linn on tho nnrfuoo of tho earth, wu« Wlllchriiril Sm '.I, It niitlvo of llollanil, ami n teaihor of inathom urn. llavin(( o»tahlishi'i| a ohiiln of trlanglcx hitwi'in Alk- inaor unil H«rt;on-op-Zooni, anil oliHorvod tho an^lon of cai'h trlanglo, hy moans of a qiiailrant of .'>J fort railliis, ho moasurcil a hunoon tho frozen toirl'.ire of tho nioiulows hotwcon I.eyilon ami tho vllla^to of Hoetor- woiiil, anil iloternilned tho dlxtanco Iwtwccn tlio two plai'on liy trl(?ononiPtrli'al eonipiitntlon. Thn longth of tlio (lej^rco whlidi ho funnel wiji 28,500 Itynland pcn^lioH, or tthout 55,020 toincs, whloh U aluMit 20.'>0 toi»c» too small. ThU roniitt wiw pnhll-ihi'd hy Miis- clionhmek, who In faot rovisod or lah idatod tho oli- porvatlons from tlio arl|{lihil papers a 1 intiin' after the (Iciith of Siioll. Norwood, ill thn year 1635, attemptod to mcaitiiro a de^roo in Knuland Hourly in t'l. ^^nifl mannor a» Ker- nel. Ho inoa'iurod the JIhI 1.. hotweoii London and York alonn thn public roail. taking tho hoaringa and rediiiing the diroition to tho meridian in o rough way. Tho dlft'ercnce of lal'tude.i li found hy observations of tho solstice to bo J" 28', .ml thence concluded the length of the dogni' to ho M>;7,17(i Knglish feet. Like tho measurement of Fernol, this has liecn found to ho n much nearer approximation than tho method em- ployed would have led us to expect. Tho application of tho telescope to circular instru- ments gave n far higher degree of precision to geodetic operations. Picaril, to whom practical astronomy is indebted for this capital impmvement, was tho first who measured tho arc of the meridian with such pre- cautions and care as tho delicate nature of tho opera- tion rcipiircs. lie twice measiirod with wooden perches a baso of nearly seven Knglish miles In length i and observed the angles of his triangles with a quadrant, having a telescope adapted to it with cross wires in its focus. He even culoulatod the error pro- duced hy the ln>tnini*nt Iwlng placed out of the o«ntr* of thn slatliin, iiiol i!<'f«riiiltiiMl Ilin tPiilth di'>taiiio of a star In Ihn 1 uiMtolbitloii CiiHnliipi'lu with it Miclnr, for thn piir|MHn iif olitiiinlng tho dltrwrriicei iif latitude. Thn illntaiicn hrtwern Aiiilcns and Malvnlliio wua found to lin 7N,M50 lolsos, and Iho dllfKremn ui' lilltuda I" 22' 55", wlicnin tho result gave fur the iligr. • at Amiens 57,0(10 tolsrs ; hilt as thn aborrallioi and iniita- tliin worn Unknown at that tliiio, and Ihn rcfnutlon was nut taken Into account- causes of error to whli h it Is Indlspoiisably necessary to havo regard a deter- nilnutlou wlilili iignies so nearly with thn rciiilts of rncent measures loiilil only havn arisen from a fortu- nato coin|i«nsatlon of errors. In fact, his tolso wit) somewhat shorter than that which has simn been adopted as tho stiuidard ; and thn error occasioned hy this I'lrciinistume nearly lonipeiisatod that which was committed in detormliiliig thn celestial arc ; so that III recalculating all tho oloervatlons, tlio dngreo Is fiiiiml to bo very nearly tho Haiiie as was found by I'liard. t'nnrk t'.ritfnmiHln. -WWwtiit geodetic operatloni had been conlliied to the detorinliiatlon of tho inagnl- tudo of the earth; lint a discovery mailn by Itli her turned tho allentioii of mathematicians to Its deviation from tho spherhal form. This astninoiner havinj^ been sent, by the Academy of .Sciences of l'arl«, to tli« isia III of Cayenne In .South America, for tho pur|His« of ilotcrmhiing tho amount of terrestrial refract loii anil other astronoinieal objects, observed that his 1 hick, «hlih had been regulated at Paris to la-at seconds, Inst about 2^ minutes daily iit Cayenne, and that, 111 order to bring It to measure mean solar time, it wns necessary to shorten tho pendulum by morn than a lino. Tills fact, whieli apiaiared exceedingly curious, and was si .irccly credited till it had lieen iniillnneil by tho suli>ei|iieiit observiitiiins of V'arln ami Desliuvus, was first expi lined In tho third hook of the I'riiiiipin, by Newton, » ho showed that It could only he referrcil to a diminution of gravity arising from one of two causes — a |irotiiberanco of tlio ei|iiatoriul parts of tho eurtli, and consoipient increase of the distance fmni the centre, or from tho counteracting efl'ect ni tho ceii- trifugal force, occasioned by tho rotation of the earth. The former could not, on iiiiy rnasonable suppositloii regarding the llgiire nf tho earth, lie regarduil us ailc- quute tu priiduco tho eflcct ; but tho latter, which would produce a retardation of tho pendulum iit ( 'ay- enno in the r.ii m of tho s<|uare of tho sine of ii° to that of 1!)° (the resiioctive latitudes of Cayenne and Paris), might nmoiiiit to I'll! seconds. This was tho first direct proof (if the diurnal rotation of tho earth. From this tiino tho exact detorminution of the figure of tho earth began to ussumo a degree of importance which had not formerly uttaciieil to It. The centrifu- gal force arising from tho diurnal rotation completely set aside the Idea of ,)erfoct spliericit)'. Newton, as- suming that the ciirtli had been originally fluid, iiml supposing its density to bo tho same throughout the whole nuiss, and supposing, moreover, that Its consti- tuent molecules attract ono another in proportion to the inverse square of tile distance, demonstrated that it would assume, In consequence of the rotation, the form of a spheroid flattened at tho poles ; and that the proportion of its eiiuatoriul to its |)olar axis would be 2110 to 2.'U. Hut the supposition of the equal density of tho earth is obviously very improhablo, and conso- quently the ratio of tho equatorial and polar diameters must ho different from that now mentioned. Newton erroneously concluded that if the density is greater in tho interior of the earth than at tho centre, tho com- presshui would ho greater than in tho case of u spheroid ' f equal density. This mistake was pointed out by lluygcns, who, in order to determine the amount of the compression from theory, reasoned in this way. Suppose two tubes to bo united ut the centre of the earth, forming a right angle with ouch other ut that point, and extending to the surface, one in the plana EAR 670 EAR of tbe equator u>d the other along the potar axis, and filled with a homogeneous fluid. Now the fluid con- tained in the polar branch exerts a pressure on the centre equal to the whol« of its weight, while the pressure of that in the other tube will be diminished by the centrifugal force. The second column, therefore, If of the same length, will be less heavy than the first ; and in order to restore the equililirium, it is necessary that the equatorial tube shall have gained as much in length ns it has lost in weight through the effect of rotation. Hence the sea in the equatorial regions must be higher, or at a greater distance from the centre, than the polar sea, and consequently the earth must have a flattened form. Calculating from the supposition that the density increases regularly from the surface to the centre, where it is infinite, lluygens found the rat.o of the diameters to be that of 678 to 679. This investigation is given in his worlc De Causa Graniath, published in 1690. frmch Theory. — The theoretical determinations of the form of the earth by Newton and liurgens were at variance with the results of gemletic opera- tions that had been carried on in France under the superintendence of the first Cassini, from 1680 till 1716, for the purpose of making a geometrical survey of that country. Cassini found the degree of the me- ridian to the south of Paris to lie 57,092 toises, while on the north of that city it was only 66,960 toises. This result led to the conclusion that the earth is a protracted spheroid, or elongated at the poles ; a con- clusion entirely inconsistent with the principles of hy- drostatic equilibrium, and the deductions of Newton and Huygens. The question, however, was of too gi-eut importance to astronomy to he allowed to remain undecided. Accordingly, the Academy of Sciences of Paris determined to apply a decisive test, l)y the measurement of arcs at a great distance from each other. For this purpose, some of the most distin- guished members of their body undertoolc the nieas- nrement of two meridional arcs, one in the neighlior- hood of the eqaatnr, and the other in a high latitude. In 1735, Godin, Uouguer, and La Condamine, pro- ccedcd to Peru, where they were joined by tw^o Span- ish officers, Don Georges .Juan, and Autunio d't'llon, and, after ten years of lalmrious exertion, they meas- ured au arc of above 3 degrees, l>etween tlic paralle'o of 2' 31" north, and 3° 4' 82" south latitude. Th« other party, consisting of Maupertuis, Clairaut, Ca- mus, Lemonnier, Onthier, and Celsius, were in some respects mere fortunate, inasmuch as they completed the measurement of an arc noar the polar circle, of 57 muiutes, and returned to Europe witliin 16 months from the perioeen regarded as a most valuable detennination. The original base was determined twice, and the difference between the t wo measures was scarcely 2^ inches. Alwut the middle of the last century several arcs of meridian were measured in various countries, which, though of inferior importance in comparison of the more extensive surveys which have since been under- taken, are nevertheless deserving of enumeration. In 1751 Ijicaille measured an are at the Ca|>e of Good Hope, whither he had gone for the purpo.i of deter- termining the lunar parallax, and making other astro- nomical observations. At the latitude of 33° 18^' he found the degree of the meridian to \w 67,0.S7 toises. This result was nearlj- the same as had iMJtjn obtained in France, VP further from the ci|uator ; and clearly proved either the existence of great local irregularities in the form of the earth, or the dissimilarity of the two terrestrial hemispheres. As theory recognixeil no such abnormal condition of figure, and on the other lumd, LacaUle'g observations, all the details of which had been preserved, appeared to have been carefully made and correctly computed, the result which they gave was for some generations a very vexaUt quaitio among all gpodesists. After the lapse, however, of nearly a century, the arc has been lately remeasured under the auspices of the British government, with all the mod- em improved means and appliances ; and an approx- imate calculation of thn observations shows, that the greater part of Lacaille s anomaly was produced by mountain utiraction on his plumb-line. (Ii55). In 1751 the measurement of a terrestrial arc was undertaken*in the Koman states, by tbe Jesuits Maire and Boscovich, It extended nearly two degrees Im- twoen liomo and liimini, and it was found that the degree of meridian between these parallels, namely, 42° and 44°, contained 56,973 toises. The details are given at length by Boscovich, in a work of great ele- gance, and entitled I)e Lilteraria Kipeditione per Pon- tijiciam dilioitcm, etc. Romie, 1755. Liesganig, a .Tesuit iu 1762 also executed two meas- ures of a meridional degree, one in Hungary and the other in tlie Austrian states ; but it has been shown by Boron Zach, in his Corrrtpoiuknce Ailronomiquf, vol. viL, that the results merit no confidence, and, in fact, would lead to certain error if employed as elements in determining the figure of tbe earth. About the same time, in 1764, an arc of meridian was measured in North America, on the peninsula be- tween the Chcsapejiko and Delaware bays, by two En- glishmen, Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon. They employed no trinnguhition but measured the line with deal-rods along tlic wholo extent of the arc, the mean latitude of wliich was 39° 12'. Their rods were af- terwards compared with the tlve-feet brass rods made by Bird. The latitudes were determined with a zenitli sector. The length of the degree, after the necessary corrections and reductions were made, was found to lie 6U,625 English fathoms, or 56,888 toises. There is no doubt that great care was bestowed on this openitiun ; it is, however, easy to see tliat the measurement of so long a line by means of rods is liable to many caiues of error from which the method of triangulation is exempt. In 1762 Beccaria undertook to measure a degree in the ]ilains of Piedmont. He found the degree of tlic meridian at the latitude of 44° 44' to contain 57,468 toises ; but great uncertainty remained respecting tlie correctness of tlie latitudes, the extreme points of tlie arc lieing in the near neighliorhood of immense ranges of mountains, which (%uld not fail to produce a very considerable deviation of the plumli-line. It was sup- posed that as both ends of the are were terminated by mountain ranges, whereas Bosci'n ii h's arc had been carried across the Apennines and terminated at the sea coast, the emir? of the two measures occasioned liy the local attraction, lieing of opposite kinds, would neutralize each other, lUid give a correct lueun result. Amid the rapid ativunces of mathematical science toward tbe end of the last centur}-, the dctcriniimtion of the figure of the ej'rth was not overlooked. In tlic year 1783 a memorial was presented to the British government by Cassini de Thurj', stating the import- ant advantages that would result to astninomy and navigation, from having the diflerenco of longitude of the Greenwich and Pari* observatories determincil liy a geodetic measurement. Fortunately this proposal was agreed to. The English operations were placed under the superintendence of General Roy, who tu active and indefatigable zeal united great skill and experience in practical astronomy and siirvcjing. In the summer of 1784 a base of rather iiioru tlian five miles was measured on liounslow Heath. In the nieasurcnient of this base, deal-rods woru fir^t em- ployed ; but as these were found to warp, and be af- fe<^ted with the variations of the hygrometrical stafe of the atmosphere, glass tubes were sulistituted ; and, in 1701, the same base was measured with a steel chain EAR 611 EAR carefully nude by Ramsden, yet the difference from the former measure was found to be only three inches. The mean result was 27,4W'2 feet reduced to the level of the sea, and the scale being taken at the tempera- ture of 62° o*" Fahrenheit. A chain of 82 triangles, in connection with tliis base, extended over the coun- try to Dover and Hastings ; and two more, stretching across the Channel, connected them with thn French signals on the opposite side. The instrum nts em- ployed in this survey were of the most excellent description, and far superior to any that had ever been employed in similar operations. The angles of each triangle were measured by a large theodolite con- atructee determined with tlio greatest possible precision, it was resolved to romeasure the meridian of the arc of Paris, and to ex- tend it from Dunkirk to Darcelona, a distance compre- hending altogether an arc of about nine degree.'. The practical execution of this nndertaking was confided to two astronomers of distinguished al)ility, Delambre and Mechain, by wlium the requisite operations were carried on during the years 1792, 1793, and 1791, amid all the dangers and difficulties arising from the disor- ganiised state of the country, with a resolution and courage of which tho aimals of science aO'ord few ex- amples. The triangles amounted to 115 in number. Each of the three angles of every triangle was sepa- rately observed with the repeating circle. The dif- ferent ooservations, with the original registers and remarks of the observers, v/ere compared by commis- sioners, among whom were some of^ the aldest men in f ranee. A form was drawn up, after which all the calculations were made. The calculations of the tri- angles, as well as of the azimuths, were examined by Tralles, Van Swindon, Legendre, and Delambre him- self. The triangles were connected in the neighbor- hood of Paris with a base of upward of seven miles in length, behig 6076-9 toises, at the temperature 16^ centrigrade, or 61^ of Fahrenheit. A base of verifica tion of 6006.25 toises was measured by Mechain, near Perpignan, at the southern extremity of the arc ; and the measured len^^th was found to dlfler by less than a foot from the \eugth deduced by calculation from the first base, though the distance was more than 436 miles. A line of this lengiL, measured with extreme precision, is obviously quite sufficient to enable ui to infer, with all the requisite exactness, the length of the qaadrantal arc ; but the French astronomers re- solved to extend the triangulation still further. Ac- cordingly, Mechain repaired again to Spam, and in the year 1805 continued the chain of triangles from Bar- celona to Tortosa, on the coast of the Mediterranean. At this place his labors were prematurely terminated bv an epidemic fever. The prolongation of the arc W..3, however, committed to two philosophers of dis- tinguished reputation, Biot and Arago. An immense triangle, one of the sides of which exceedpd 100 miles, connected the coast of Valcntia with the island of Iviza, which was joined by anotlier triangle with For- nientera, distant no less than 12° 22' 13"'ij9 from Dunkirk, the northern extremity of the arc. The re- sult of the whole gave a value of the quadrantal arc, differing somewhat from that determined by Delambre and Mechain, but so little that the length of the metre would be scarcely affected by four times the millionth part of itself. The details of this magnificent opera- tion are given at length in tho four volumes of the Jiaae Metrique. The English survey, which had been interrupted by the death of General Roy, in 1790, was resumed in 1793 under the direction of Colonel Mudge. The origi- nal triangles between Greenwich ond Dover were ex- tended along the coast to Dunnose in tho Isie of Wight, and thence through Devonshire and Wiltshire, and connected with a base of verification measured on Salisbury plain. The length of this liase was found, after the proper reductions, to be 36571'4 feet, differ- ing scarcely one inch from the length deduced by cal- culation from the base on Ilounslow Heath. So near a coincidence, though probably owing in some degree to a compensation of errors, affords a convincing proof of the extreme accuracy with which every part of the operation luid l)een conducted. In 1802 the triangula- tion was carried into Yorkshire, and a meridian arc measured from Dunno.se to Clifton. The latitudes at the terminal points wore determined with Ramsden's zenith sector. The arc was afterward extended to Burleigh Moor, and has since been carried to the Shot- lands. It may be remarked that both tho French and English arcs present this singular anomaly, that when portions of them at pa.'ticulur places, are considered separately, the length of the degree appears to increase on going southward. The survey has been continued, up to the present time, and the triangulation has been carried to the remotest parts of Scotland, and a considerable part of Ireland, In the course of the operations, several im- portant improvements, both in respect of the instru- ments employed, and in the method of conducting geodetic measurements in general, have been intro- duced into practice. A base of upward of seven miles has been measured near Londonderry ; and it now only remains to detonnine the latitudes of some stations, to give us tho elements of a new and greatly prolonged arc. In the years 1801, 1802, and 1803, Maupcrtuls" Swe- dish arc was remoasurcd by Svanberg, and extended nearly 40' in amplitude. The methods were the simie as had been employed by Delambre. The extremities £AR 672 EAR of the nnw arc were at Hallum and Pahtawars. The distance vrui found to be 92,778 toisea, and the differ- ence of the latitudes 1° 87' 20"'8 ; whence ] °=57,- 106 toises. This agrees much better than tlie result of Maupertuis (57,422 toises) with other measures ; ^ut the difference, which implies au error of 12" in the latitude of Kittis as determined by the French academicians, has not been satisfactorily accounted for ; so that thera is still some doubt about the length of a degree in that latitude. See SvAynERo's Kxpo- ntion des Operationt /aites en Lapponie, etc. Stock- holm, 1806. Since the beginning of the present century, two arcs of meridian liave been surveyed in India. The first was in the ncighlKirhood of Madras, and comprehended only 1° 85'. The second, however, is the longest whicli has yet l)een measured. The first, and a large part of the second, was accomplished under the direction of Colonel I^amliton ; and the instrumiMits and meth- od? of observation and calculation were exactly the same as those that had Ijeen employed by Colonel Mudge in the English survej-. The south extremity of the second arc was at Vnnna), near Cape Comorin, latitude 8° 9' .12"-51 ; and the northern at Daumer- gidda, latitude 18° 8' 16"-07. The amplitude is con- sequently 9° 53' •13"-56, and the distance lictween the extremities was found to !« 598,629'98 fathoms (aliout 680 miles), giving GO, -195 fathoms, or 882,970 feet, for tlie length of tlie degree. Several bases wore meas- ured, and the whole of the operations appear to have l)een conducted with great sitill and accuracy. This irc has since Iwen extended liy Captain Everest to Kaliana, ktilude 29° 30' ■l8"-8; so that the whole length now includes more than 21°. The details of Colonel Lambton's operations are given in the diffcf- ent volumes of tlie Aiiatic Jlcsmrchex {see vols, viii., X., xii.), and titose of Captain Everest, in his ".le- count of the Measurement of an Arc of the Meridian 6f- tteeen the Parallels of 18° 3' and 24° "'," printed at the expense of the East India Company. Various geodetic operations on a less extensive scale have been recently executed, which are Iretter adapted, perhaps, to give information resiwcting the local cur\'- ature than the general form of the earth. Keccaria's arc has been remeasured l>y Plana and Carlini : the results clearly demonstrate the existence of some errors in the original measurement, but they are not yet altogether satisfactorj', anil the country is vcrj- unfivorable. The distance between (Jottingen and Altuna has been measured by (jauss ; and the ampli- tude of the corresponding celestial arc is known with the utmost precision, from observations of the latitude made at the respective observatories of the two places. The amplitude, however, is only about two degrees, and there is some doubt almut the exact length of the iron bars with which the base was measured. A more extensive arc has been measured in Russia l)y Strnve. It extends at present to three and a half degrees, and it is understood that it is in contemplation to prolong it still fttrther. Many new methods have Iwen em- ployed in this measurement ; and it aeijuires additional value from its high latitude, and the acknowledged skill and accuracy of the observer. The above are the principal arcs of meridian, but some arcs of parallel liave also lieen measured. The- oretically speaking, tlie figure of the earth may be de- termined from the measurement of arcs of pArallel, as readily as from meridional ares ; and the ge(«letieal op- erations in the one case differ in no resjwct from those in the other. But the great, and, we fear, insurmountalile difficulty, is to determine with sufHelent precision the difference of astronomical longitudes. In a subse- quent part of tills article wo shall have again occasion to mention Cassini's measurement of an arc of parallel across the mouth of the Rhone ; of the English arc between Beachy Head and Dunnose ; and that recently made from Marennes to Padua. i Tabls snowiHO Tira Lihotr or a Draan or LoHoiTimii roB ivBKT Dioaiit or tudk, in QEoaaAruioAL AND IN KnOLISU M|LI9. ut. Um. ^Z Ul. (too. mllfff. mil*!. iM. Ueo, mllri. £at. n>lle>. T M99 69-05 "sT 6T-45" 69-20' ir 29-09 38-48" i 59 •96 69-02 82 60-88 58-67 62 28-17 82-42 8 69112 68-90 1 88 60-82 57-92 68 27-lM 81-86 4 69-85 68-89 84 40-74 67-28 64 26-30 80-27 fi 59-n 69-SO ,35 49'16 56-.^7 65 26-36 29-19 6 B9'67 68-68 86 48-64 56-87 66 24-40 29-09 T 69.66 68.» 87 47.92 65.15 67 2.8.44 26.98 8 69.42 68.89 88 47.28 54.42 68 22.48 •25-87 9 6926 68-21 39 46-68 68-67 69 21-50 24-78 10 69 •W 69-01 40 45-96 62-90 70 20-52 28-62 11 SSW 87'79 41 45-28 62-12 71 19-58 22-48 12 68-69 67-56 42 44-69 61-82 72 18-54 91 -IM 13 6S-46 07-29 48. 48-88 60 61 78 17-64 20-19 14 68-23 67-01 44 4316 49-68 74 16.54 19-04 15 67-96 66-71 46 42-48 48-88 76 1658 17-87 16 6T-68 66-88 4« 41-68 47-97 76 14-62 16-71 IT 67-.SS 6604 47 40.92 47-10 77 18-60 16.51 18 57-06 6.V68 48 40-15 46-21 76 12-47 14-36 19 66-78 65-80 49 89-86 46-31 79 11-48 18-18 20 66.BS 61-90 60 88-57 44-39 60 10-42 11-99 21 56-01 64-47 51 37-76 48-49 81 9-39 10-80 22 ,W-fl3 64-08 52 86 94 42-i52 82 a.35 9-61 23 M-23 68-60 58 8611 41-66 88 7-81 8-12 24 W-Sl 62-09 64 86-27 40-69 84 6-27 7-22 2S 54-88 6259 55 84-41 89 61 86 6.28 6-02 26 M-98 62-07 66 88-.W 89-62 86 4-19 4-88 2T 68-4« 61•.^S 67 82-68 87-61 97 8.14 8-61 28 52-98 60-98 68 81-79 86-60 88 2-09 2-41 29 62-48 60-40 59 80-90 36-67 80 1-06 1-21 80 61-96 69-81 60 80-00 34.58 90 0.00 0-00 Our limits do not permit us to . t, ■ ' ' '• 'ietails ro- sjiecting the numerous experin. ■'- '■ •' l ive been made of late years to determine the r ■ ' iho earth by measuring the variations of j^ ■ ' ■ " different places liy means of the pendulum. I'hb most valualile series of observations of this kind we yet possess, are those of Ciiptain Foster, reduced under the direction of Mr. Baily, and published in the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society, vol. vii. But a discovery recently made by Bessel proves that less accuracy has lieen obtained by this method than was supposed. It has been found, that a pendulum, when vibrating, drags along with it a portion of air, the precise effect of which can lie ascertained in no other way than liy actual experiment in vacuo with each individual pen- dulum. The probaliie correction which it would lie necessarj- to apply to the results that have already lieen found, can not be satisfactorily determined. The mean of the pendulum experiments gives rather a higher value of th« ellipticity than tlie results of geodetic measures ; but there are many elements, par- ticularly the irregular constitution of the exterior crust of the earth, and the density of the str/ita sur- rounding tlie station, which can scarcely lie deter- mined, and which yet affect materiallj- the results of the experiments. Besides the methods which have now been alluded to, physical astronomy furnishes other means of arri- ving at a knowledge of the figure of the earth. The precession of the equinoxes, the nutation of the earth's axil, are phenomena depending on the compression of the earth j and as their amount is now ascertained, from astronomical observations, with the utmost accu- racy, we can reciprocally deduce from them a knowl- edge of the compression. They do not, however, give us an absolute value of the amount of compression, but they make known the limits within which it must necessarily be confined. 'J'hese limits are]-27!land 1-578. But a more delicate measure of tlie same element is furnished by some irregularities in the moon's motion to which it gives rise ; and as the lunar theory has now attained a very high state of iierfeition, and as the small irregularities which cause so much perplexity in goodetical measures here entirely disap- pear, tills Is perhaps, the most satisfactory- method of all (if determining the ellipticity of the earth. 'I'lie equa- tions into which the Irregularity question enters, were discovered by Lafilace ; and the ellipticity necessary to produce the observed effect was found, on calcnla- EAR 873 EAR n aUmlcrt of nrri- rth. Tho he ciirth'a Tossion of ortnined, nont apcu- tt knowl- evcr, (live iiprosKion, h it must ].'.'7!l Kinl tlip Hume ies in the the lunar perfection, SB no mweh ly (iiciip- niethral of 'I'lie oqua- terB, were f nccesBftry on calcula- tion, to 1)0 ISOi ; conflrming, in s moat remarkable manner, the deductiuns from the measurement of arcs and the observations of the pendulum. The Surface of the Earth, and itt General Divitiotu. — ^The surface of the earth contains about 196,663. iOO square miles. By much the larger portion of this space is water, which is, indeed, more than twice the extent of the land. The surface of the land is exceedingly diversillcd, almost everywhere rising into hills and mountains, or sinking into valleys, and sometimes stretching out into plains of great extent. Among the most extensive plains, are the sandy deserts of Arabia and Africa, the internal part of Kuropeai Rus- sia, and a tract of considerable extent in Prussian Po- land, But the most remarkable extent of level ground la the vast table-plain of Thibet, in Asia, which is the most elevated tract of level ground on the globe. The principal mountain ridges are the Alps and P}-reneos, in "urope, the Altai and Himalaya Mountains, in Asia, the mountains of Atlas, in Africa, and the Andes or Cordilleras, in South America, The great- est concavities of the gliiw are those which are occu- pied by the waters of the ocean ; and of those, by far the largest forms the bed of the Pacific Ocean, wliich, stretching from the eastern shore of Asia ond of New Holland to the western coast of America, covers nearly half the glol)e. The concavity next in extent is that which forms the bed of the Atlantic Ocean, extending between the new and the old worlds ; and a third con- cavity is occupied by the Indian Ocean, The Arctic and Antarctic Oceans till up the remaining concavities. Smaller collections of water wliicli communicate freely with the oceans, are called teas ; and of these, the principal are the Mediterranean, the Baltic, the Euxino or Black Sea, and tlie White Sea. Seas some- times take their names from the countries near which they flow ; as the Irish Sea, the German Ocean, Some large collections of water, though they have no imme- diate connection with the great body of waters, being J all sides surrounded by land, are yet called seas ; as the Caspian Sea, A part of the sea running up into the land, sc as to form a large hollow, is called a bay or gulf, as the Bay of Biscay, the Gulf of Slexico ; but If the liollow be small, it is called a creek, a road, u ha- ven. When two large bodies of water communicate by a narrow pass between two adjacent lands, the pass is called a alrait or »lrait>, as the Straits of Gil>raltar, tlie Straits of Dover, tlic Straits of Babelmandel, A channel is a wider kind of strait. The water usually flows through a strait with considerable force and ve- locity, forming what is called a current ; and frequently thw current, as in the case of tho Straits of Gibraltar, flows continually in the same direction, A body of fresh water entirely surrounded by land. Is called a lake ; as the Luke of Geneva, Lake Cham- pluin, A considerable stream of water rising inland, and draining a portion of country more or less extens- ive, di'icharging its waters into the sea, is called a riVcr ; a smaller stream of the same kind is called a rivulet or brook. Of the land, which fonns the rest of the surface of the globe, two iwrtirms, of vast extent, are culled con- tintnls ; the one the eastern continent, or tho old world, comprehending Euro|)e, Asia, and Africa ; the other, the western continent, or new world, comprehending North and South America. New Holland is a third portion of land, however, which has by some been also reckoned a continent on account of its great extent, A iwrtion of land of comparatively small dimensions entirely surrounded by water, is called an island ; as Britain, Ireland, Jamaiea, Madagascar, New Ilol- limd is the largest portion of land which is called an island. When u numlicr of small islands lie near p.ich other, they are said to form a group of islands, A |H)rtion of land which is almost entirely surrounded by water, is called a peniniula ; as the Peninsula of Ma- lacca, the Morea or Grecian Peloponnesus, etc. The term peninsula Is often applied to a large extent of country. Thus we speak of Spain as a peninsula. The narrow neck of land which joins a peninsula to the mainland, or which connects two tracts of country together, is called an itthmut. The most remarkable isthmuses in the world are the Isthmus of Suez, which joins Africa and Asia, and the Isthmus of Uarien, which connect; the continent of North and South America, A n,\rTow tract of land stretching out into the sea, and appearing to terminate in a point, is called a cape. The most remarkable capes are, the Cape of Good Hope, at the southern extre-nity of Africa ; Cap« Horn, at the southern extremity of South America ; and the North Cape, at the northern extremity of Eu- rope, A large portion of land jutting out into the sea is called & promontory. Until of late, in systems of geography, the earth used to bo considered as divided into four quarters ; Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. A classiflcation in which tho whole world is arranged under seven di- visions has now, however, been very generally adopted. These divisions are, Europe, Asia, Africa, North Amer- ica, South America, Australasia, and Polynesia, With regard to tho last two, the one, Australasia, or South Asia, comprehends certain of the great islands, partic- ularly New Holland, which are usually considered as belonging to Asia ; and the other, Polynesia, signify- ing many islands, comprehends all the smaller islands which are scattered over tho great expanse of the Pa- cific Ocean, This classiflcation of the parts of the earth's surface is founded on tho most obvious iwints of distinction. We shall now explain two divisions employed by tho ancients, which are founded upon different principles ; that into zoues, and that into climates. The divisions into zo-ies is suggested by the differ- ent degrees of temperature which prevail in different regions of the earth. The temperature of a country depends on a variety of circumstances ; but of these, one of the most obvious is the position of the sun with regard to the zenith. The more nearly his ruys are received vertically, the higher will be the temperature ; ond, on the contrary, the more obliquely they fall, the less effect will they produce in raising the temper- ature. Now to every point of the earth's surface be- tween the tropica the sun is vertical twice in the year. It is in this region, then, that the highest temperature will prcvi>il. Again, within the polar circles the sun's rays ut all times fall very obliquely ; and for a length of time tlicy do not reach these two regions of the globe at all. Here, then, the temperature must be lower than anywhere else, vs all other places enjoy more of tho sun's genial influence. In the two regions be- tween the tropics and the polar circles, a medium tem- perature is found, increasing as we approach the former, aiid diminishing as we approach the latter. Thus is the earth's surface divided, by the two tropics and two |)olar circles, into fiv« zones, distinguished irom one another by the prevailing temi)erature in each. That between the tropics is called the tofrid zone, because there the heat is understood to be extreme. This region, which has tho equator passing through the middle of it, the ancients, indeed, considered as unin- habitable. The two regions comprehended within the arctic and antarctic polar circles, are called the north- em and mvithem frigid zonet, on account of the sever- ity of the cold which there prevails. The two regions situated between the tropics and the ]>olar circles, the one in the northern hemisphere, bounded by tho tropic of cancer and the arctic circle, the other in the south- ern hemisphere, bounded by the tropic of Capricorn and the antarctic circle, are culled the northern and southern ^ mperate zonet, because there neither the heat nor cold is excessive ; but the heat reaches the highest temjwrature of summer, and the cold sinks to the lowest temperature of winter, without either be- oomiog extreme. BAR 674 EAS ' The divIMon of the earth'* surface Into climates w:^ •mploj'ed by the ancients for ascertnining the sitni* tton of places. Th«y anpposed the northern and sonth- em hemispheres t be each divided into Dinall zones, to which they ga\i the name of climatei, the breadth of each zone IWng such as to malie half an hour of dif- ference in the length of the longest day at the two par- allels of latitude by which the climate was bounded. Proceeding flrom the equator, where the length of the day is always ii hours, they thus divided the space between it and each polar circle intc 24 climates. Hav- ing reached the polar circles northwanl and southward, where the longest day is 24 hours, they divided the space between each polar circle in SMcli a manner as to make the diflhrence In the length of the longest day at the beginning and termination of each climate, one month. Henoe, as the pules are alternately illumi- nated for six months, there were just six LKmates within each polar circle. Tadlb or Climatzs. ClInulM. Ulltudo of the Hlffher BreitJIb of th« Cllmile. LonRcit Day under the lllgber I>»nnel. Or. Uln. Dtf. MIn. Hotin. MlD. I. 8 84 8 84 12 80 II. 10 48 8 9 13 in. u 10 T 2T 18 SO IV. 80 46 6 86 14 1 V. SO £8 5 49 14 80 VI. 41 21 4 63 16 i TII. 4,"! 29 4 8 15 80 VIII. 48 ii 8 80 16 IX 61 67 a 68 U 80 X. M ii 2 81 17 XI. B« 86 2 8 17 80 1 XII. fi8 26 1 49 18 XIII. t,» 5T 1 82 18 80 1 XIV. 61 16 1 1» 19 XV. 02 24 1 8 19 80 XVI. 63 20 B» 20 9 XVll. M a 4S 20 SO XVIII. &t 48 40 21 :it have l)een made in it since the middle of tlie laxt century have contributed pow- erfully to its extehsinn, and have added greatly to the comfort and convenience of all classes. " There is scarcely any manufacture which is so inte'.esting to ccntemplrite in its gradual improvement and extension as that of earthenware, presenting, as it docs, so beau- tiful a union of science and art, in fiimislitng us with the comforts and ornaments of civilized life. Oheinis- try administers her part, liy inveHigatin^ the several species of earths, and ascertaining, as well their most a|>prnpriuto coml>inntions as the respective degrees of hfitt which the several compositions rtHjuire. Art has studied the designs of antiquity, and pnxluced from I them vessels even more exquisite in form than the ' models l)y whitrh they have l)een suggested. The ware lias l>een provided in such gradations of <|nality as to suit ever}' station, from the highest to the lowest. It iti to Im) seen in every country, and almost in every house, through the whole extent of America, in many parts o.' -'^la, and in most of the oonntrlei of Enropa. At home it has soperseded the lesi cleanly vessels of pewter and of wood, and, by ita cheapness, hoa been brought within the means of our poorest house-keep- en. Formed from substances originally of wo value, the fabrication has induced labor of such various classes, and created skill of such various degrees, that nearly the whole value of the annual produce may be consid- ered as an addition made to the mass of national wealth. The abundance of the ware exhibted in every dwellfng-house is sufBcient evidence of the vast augmentation of the manufacture, which is also demonstrated by the rapid incrase of the popula- tion in the districts where the potteries havti been es- tablished." — London Quar. Rev. For the great and rapid extension of the manufac- ture, the English are chiefly indebted to the late Mr. Josiah Wedgwood, whose original and inventive genica enabled him to make many most important discoveries in the art ; and who was equally successful in bring- ing his inventions into use. The principal seat of the manufacture is in Staffordshire, where there is a dis- trict denominatbd the Potteries, comprising a number of villages, and a population whicli is supposed to amount, at tl:is moment, to aliove 85,000, by far the greater portion ot which i.- engaged in the manufac- ture. There are no authentic accounts of the popula- tion of this district in 1700, when Mr. Wedgwood l>egan hij discoveries ; but tlie general opinion is, that it did not at that time exceed 20,000. The village of Etruria, in the Potteries, was built by Mr. Wedgwood. The manufacture has been carried on at Burslem, in the some district, for several centuries. East Indies (Dritish). 8eo India. East Indies (Dutch). See Holland. East Indies (French). See Francr. East India Company, a famous ossclation, originally established for prosecuting the trade be- tween England and India, which they acquired a right to carry on exclusively. Since tlie middle of last cen- turj', however, the Company's political have l>ecome of more importance thon their commercial concerns. East Indies, a popular geographical term not verj- well defined, liut generally understood to signify the conti- nents and {.stands to the east and south of the River Indus, as far as the Iwrders of China, including Timor and the Moluccas, but excluding tlie Philippine Islands, New (Suinea, and New Holland, l^hinaand the Philip- pine Islands were, however, included within the limits of the East India Company's peculiar privileges. See India. I. East India Compamt (Histomcal Sketch OF).'— The persevering effortg of tha Portuguese to dis- cover a route to India, liy sailing round Africa, were crowned with success in 1497. And it may appear sin- gular, that, notwithstanding the exaggerated accounts that had Iwen prevalent in Europe, from the reniotest antiquity, with respect to the wealth of India, and the importance to which the commerce v ith it hail raised the Phccnicians and Egyptians in iimjquity, th« Vene- tians in the middle ages, and which it was then seen to confer y which the people of most European states were actuated in the sixteenth cen- tury, and the |iecullar circumstances under which they were placed, hindered them from emt>arklng with that alacrity and ardor that might have been cx|)ected in this new commercial career. Soon after the Portu- guese lM>gan to pvosecute their discoveries along the coast of Africa, they applied to the pope for a bull, se- curing to them the exclusive right to and possession ot all countries occupieil by iniiilels, they either had discovered, or might discovfr, to the south of Cape Non, on the west coast of Africa, in 27° 64' north lat- itude : and the pontiff, desirous to display, and at th« EAS BiB BAS I time to extend, hia power, Immeiiiataly Utnsd n bull to this effect. Nor, preposterous us a prnuseitiiig of this sort woul riod, allowed to prosecute their conquesU in (niHtt without tiie interference of any other KuruptMin \mw»f, And it was not till a conaidernhle period ut'tur MM liv? ginning of the war, which thv jlind and lirutul bigotry of Philip II, kindled in the Low Countries, tilut tUi> Dutch navigators l)egan to display their flag on (lie Eastern Ocean, and laid the foundations of tlieir IndiwH empire. The desire to comply with the injunctlnns In tM pope's bull, and to avoid coming into ciillision, Itrst with the Portuguese, and subsequently with the HpttiM iards, who had concfnered Poiiiii^ttl in 16M), seems tn have been the principal cause that led the l-!nglii>h U> make repeated attempts, in the reigns of Henry VI If, and Edward VI,, and the early part of the reign iif Elizabeth, to discover a route to India by a tutrtb-wast or north-east passage ; channels from which tlia Poitil^ guese wonld liavo had no pretense for excluding Uiem, But these attempts having proved unsuccessful, m\ii the pope's bull having ceased to be of any eft'act in this country, the English merchants and navigators re- solved to be no longer deterred by the Imaginary rights of the Porttiffuese from directly entering upon wbnf was then reckoned by far the most lucrative and ail- vantigeons branch of commerce. Captuln Stspliens, who performed the voyage in 1682, was the liret I'.n^ gllahman who sailed to India l)y the Cupe of Onod Hope. The voyage of the famous Sir Francis \)f»kv contributed greatly to diffuse a spirit of naval enter^ prise, and to render the English better acqualntad with the newly-opened route to India. Hut the voyage nf the celebrated Mr. Thomas Cavendish was, in the hU ter respect, the most im])ortant. Cavendish sail'id from England in a little squadron, fitted out ut lll^ own expense, in July, 1586 ; and having explored tllH greater part of the Indian Ocean, a'i fur is the l'liill|i- plne Islands, and carefully observed the most inipiirt- ant and characteristic features of the people and coun- tries which he visited, returned to ICnglnnd after » prosperous navigation, in September, IfiHH. I'urliap^, however, nothing contributed so much to Inspire the English with a desire to embark in the Imliiin trilda, as the captures that were made about this period (mm the Spaniards. A Portuguese Eiist India Klilp, nr cartack, captured by Sir Francis Drake, during bis exr peditlon to the coast of Spain, inflamed the cupidity of the merchantii by the richness of her cargo, at tha same time tliat the papers found on lioard gave specilii Information respecting the traffic in which sliu bud necu eqgaged. A still more important ciiptuiu, of the same sort, was made in 150.S. An armament, tlttad out for the East Indies by Sir Walter Hulelgli, and commanded by Sir John Durroiigbs, fell In, near the Azores, with the largest of all tlie Portuguese car^ rucks, a ship of 1000 tons' burden, carrjing 7U0 men and 86 brass cannon ; am\, after an olittinuta conHlct, carried her Into Dartmouth. She was the largest vesse I taine\ 1111(1 f(« »*poH '-t ij 1 coin, or bullion, to the dlWHIH* lit ;l,V Cfillied «t the mint ; but they were obliged til illliMffi, within months after the completion of ^vcry *''it resolutions, or thought it lietter Milt til liiiiifcifts it, th^'esides, liighly in- jurious to the public interest, and contrary to alt prin- ciple, to allow goK and silver to b sent out of tho kingdom. The merchants and others interested in tlie support of the Company, could not controvert :he reasoning of their opponents without openly impugn- ing the ancient policy of absolutely preventing the ex- portation of the precious metals. They did not, how- ever, venture to contend, if the idea really occurred to them, that the exportation of bullion to the East was advantageous, on the broad ground of the commodities purchased l)y it l>eing of greater value in England. Itut they contended that the exportation of bullion to India was aan a husbandman, ilut when we consider Ills labors in the harvest, whicli i^ the end of his endeav- ors, we find the worth and plentiful increase of his ac- tions." — TrtatUTt by Foreign Trade, p. 50, edition of 16(>4. We may here remark, that-whikt has been called the mercantile cyttem of political tconomy, or tliat system which measures the progress of a country in the career of wealth by tue supposed balance of payments in its favor, or by the estimated excess of the value of its exports over that of its imports, appears to have originated in the excuses now set up for the exporta- tion of bullion. Previously to this epoch, the policy of prohibiting tho exportation of bulllion bnu been universajy admitted ; but it now began to be pretty generally allowed, that '.'.s t mrtation might be pro- luctivo of advantage, provided it occasioned the sub- sequent exportation of a greater amount of raw or manufai.'tured products to couctries whence hidlion was obtaine>t of any thing else. Mor were these opinions confined to the partners of the Eost India Company. They were gradually communicated to others ; and many eminent merchants were taught to look with suspicion on sev- eral of the previously received dogmas with respect to commerce, and were, in consequence, led to acquire more correct ond comprehensive views. The new iileas ultimately made their way into the House of C'ummous ; and, in 16C3, the statutes prohibiting tho exportation of for'iign coin and bullion were rejiealed, and full liberty given to the East India Company and to private traders to export them in unlimited quanti- ties. But tho objection to the East India Company, or rather the East India trade, on the ground of its caus- ing the exportation of gold and silver, admitted of a more direct and conclusive, if not a more ingenious reply. How compendious soever the ancient inter- course with India by the Ked Sea und the Mediter- ranean, it was unavoidably attended with a good deal of expense. The productions of i!ie remote parts of Asia, bnmght to Ceylon, or the ports on the Malal>ar coast, liy the natives, were there put on board tho sliips which arriveil from tho Arabic gulf. At Berenice they were landed, and carried l>y camels 2&0 miles to tlio banks of the Nile, They were there again embarked, and conveyed down the river to Alexandria, wlience they were despatched to different markets. The addi- tion to the price of goods by such a multiplicity «( operations must have been considerable ; more e.spe- cially as the price clmrged on each operation was fixed by monopolists, sul>ject to no competition or control. Pliny says, that the cost of the Araliian and Indian products brought to liome when he flourished (ad. 70), was increased a hundredfold by the exi)en»e8 of transit — (//m(. Nat., lib. vi., c. 23) ; but there can be little or no doubt that this is to be regarded as a rhe- torical exaggeration. There are good grounds for thinking that the less bulky sorts of Eastern products, such as silks, spices, balsams, precious stones, etc, which were those princi|)ally made uee of at Home, might, supposing there were no political ol>stacles in the way, be conveyed from most parts of India to the porta on the Mediterranean by way of Egypt, at a de- EAS 677 EAS oidcdly cheaper rate than they could be conveyed to them by the Cnpe of Good Hope. Kut at the period when the latter route to India oegan to be frequented, Syria, Egj'pt, etc., wore occu- pied l>y Tiirl(a and Muniululces ; burbariana who de- ■pUed commerce and navigation, and were, at the same time, extremely jealous of strangers, especially of Christians or infidels. The price of the commodi- ties obtained tliroe of Good Hope occasioned in the purchase of the above-mentioned aiticles. — A Ducourte of Trade from Knt/land to the East Iiidit.i, by T. M., original ed. p. 10. (This tract, which iii verj- scarce, is reprinted in Purchas's Pilgrims). In the same puolication (p. 37), Mr. Mun informs us that from the beginning of the Company's trade, to ,Iuly, 1620, they had sent 79 shi|M to India ; of which 34 had cume home safely, and richly laden ; 4 had been worn out by long service la India ; 2 had been lost in careening ; 6 had been lost b> the perils of the sea, and 12 had been captured by the Dutch. Mr. Mun further statiis, that the exports to India since the formation of the Company had amounted to .£840,376 ; that the produce brought from India had cost £366,288, nnd had produced here the enormous sum of £1,914,- (i(IO ; that the quarrels with the Dutch had occasioned a loss of £84,088 ; and that the stock of the Company, in .ships, goods in India, etc., amounted to £400,000. The hostility of the Dutch, to which Mr. Mun has hero alluded, was long a very formidable obstacle to the Company's success. The Dutch early endeavored to obta!n the exclusive possession of the spice trade, and were not at all scrupulous about the means by which they attempted to bring about this their favor- ite object ; the English, on their port, naturally exerted themselves to obtain a share of so valuable a com- merce ; and as neither party wa°. disposed to abandon its views and pretensions, the most violent animosi- ties grew up between them. In this state of things, it would be ridiouloiu to suppoee that unjustifiable acta Oo were not committed by the one party aa well 1 1 the other ; though the worst act of the English appears venial, when compared with the conduct of the Dutch in the massacre of Aml>oyna, in 1622. While, how- ever, the Dutch Company was vigorously supported by the government at home, the English Company met with no efHclent assistance from the feeble and vacillating policy of James and Charles. The Dutch either despised their remonstrances, or defeated them by an apparent compliance ; so that no real reparation was obtained for the outrages they had committed. During the civil war, Indian affairs were necessarily lost siglitof; and the Dutch continued, until the as- cendancy of the republican party had been established, to reign triumphant in the East, where the English commerce was nearly annihilated. But notwithstanding their depressed condition, the Company's servants in India laid the foundation, dur- ing the period in question, of the settlements at Madras and in Bengal. Permission to build Fort St. George was obtained from the native authorities in 1640. In 1668, Madras was raised to the station of a presidency. In 1646, the Company l>egan to establish factories in Bengal ; the principal of which was at Ilooghly. These were, for a lengthened period, subordinate to the presi- dency of Madras. No sooner, however, had the civil wars terminated than the armies and councils of Cromwell retrieved the situation of our affairs in India. The war which broke out between the long Parliament and the Dutch in 1662 was eminently injurious to the latter. In the treat}* of peace, concluded in 1664, it was stipulated that indemnification should be made by the Dutch for the losses and injuries sustained by the English mer- chants and factors in India. The 27th article bears, "that the lords, tlie states-general of the United Prov- inces, shall take care that justice be done upon those who were partakers or accomplices in the massacre of the English at Amboyna, as the republic of England is pleased to term the fact, provided any of them be living." A commission was at the same time ap- pointed, conformably to another article of the treaty, to inquire into the reciprocal claims which the sub- jects of the contracting parties had upon each i>ther for losses sustained in India, Brazil, etc. ; and upon their decision, the Dutch paid the sum of £86,000 to the East India Company, and £3616 to the heirs or execu- tors of the sufferers at Amboyna. — Bruce' t Annals, vol. i. p. 489. Th"i chniter under which the East India Company prosecuted their exclusive trade to India being merely a grant from the crown, and not ratified by any act of Far'/ .-nent, was understood by the merchants to be at an .ad when Charles I. was deposed. They were confirmed in this view of the matter, from the circum- stance of Charles having himself granted, in 1G35, a chaiter to Sir William Courten and others, authorizing them to trade with those parts of India with which the Company had not established any regular intercourse. The reasons alleged in justification of this measure, by the crown, wore, thut " tlie East India Company had neglected to establish forified factories, or seats of trade, to which the king's subjects could resort with safety: that they had consulted their own interests only, without any regard to the king's revenue ; and in general, that they had broken the condition on which their charter and exclusive privileges had been granted to them." — Him. Fadera, vol. xx., p. 146. Courten's association, for the foundation of which such satisfactory' reasons has been assigned, continued to trade with India during the remainder of Charles'l reign ; and no sooner had the arms of the Conunon- wealth forced the Dutch to desist fn)m their depreda- tions, and to make reparation for the injuries Uiey had inflicted on the English in India, than private ailven- tui ers engaged in great numbers in the India trade, and carried it on with • seal, ecouomy, and auccesi, EAS 678 EAS llMt monopol;- can never «x|>«ct to rival. It la stated In a little work, entitled " UrltannU LanKuena," pub- lished in 1A80, the author of which ha« e /Idently been • well-informed and intelligent person, that during the yearn 1653, 16M, IGM, and IfUiS, when the trade to India was open, the private traders imported ICast India commoditiea in such large (|uuntities, and sold them at such reduced prices, that they not only fully supplied the Hritiith marltets, but had even come into successful com|iotition with the Dutch in the marltet of Amsterdam, "and very much sunic the aolions (shares) of the Dutch East India Company." — (p. 122.) This circumstance naturally excited the greatest ap- piehenslona on the part of the Dutch Company; for bdsides the danger that they now ran of being depriv- ed, liy tlio active cum|)etilii>n of tlie KngllKh merchants, of a conslderulilo part of the trade which tliey had pre- viously enjoyed, they could hardly expect that, if the trade were thrown open in Kngland, the monopoly would be rVowed to continue in Holland. A striking nruof of wuut is now stated is to lie found in a letter in the third volume of "Thurlow's State Papers," dated at the Hague, the Ifith of January, l(i54, where it is said, that " the merchants of Amsterdiegun, in 1648, to found a colony in Assuda, an island near Madagascar. The Company, alarmed at this projec'w, applietl to the Coun- cil of State to prevent it» lieing carried into effect ; and the council, without entering on the question of either party's rights, recoiiinieiiuud them to form a union ; which was accordingly effected in 1649. Itut the union was, for a considerable time, rsther nominal than real ; and when the Dutch war had lieen put an end to, most of those holders of the Company's stock who had belonged to Courten's association joined in petitioning the Council of State that the trade might in future be carried on, not by a joint-stock, liut by a rtgulated company ; so that each individual engaging in it might lie allowed to employ his own stock, serv- ants, and shipping, in wliatever woy he might conceive most for his own advantage. — Petition of Adcfniureri, 17th of Nov., 1656 ; Hnice'i Annalt, vol. I., p. HIS. This proposal was oliviously most reasonalile. The Company had always founded their claim to a monop- oly of tlie trade on the alleged ground of its lieing necessary to maintain forts, factories, and ships of war in Indhi ; and that as this was not done by gov- ernment, it could only be done by a company. liut, by forming the traders with India into a regular com- pany, they might have lieen sulijected to whatever rules were considered most advisable ; and such special duties might have lieen laid on the commodities they exported and imported as would have sufficed to de- fray the public expenses required for carrying on the traile, at the same time that the inestimalile advan- tages of fne competition would have lieen secured ; each individual trader lieing left at lilierty to conduct his enter{irises, subject only to a few general regula- tions, in his own way and for his own advantage. See COMPAXIEB. But notwitstanding the efforts of the petitioners, and the success that was clearly proved to have attended the operations of the private traders, the Company succeeded iu obtaining ■ renewal of their charter trum Cromwell In 1667. Charles II. conflrmed this charter in 1661 ; and at the same time conferred on them tlie power of making peace or war with any |iower or {leople not of lh€ Chrittian rtligitm; of establishing fortilications, garrisons, and colonies ; of exiiorting ammiinitiim and stores to tlieir settlements duty free ; of seizing and sending to Knglanil such liritish sub- jects as should be found trading to India witliout their leave ; anil of exercising civil aud criminal juris- diction In their settlements, according to the laws of England. Still, however, as this charter was not fully conflrmed by any act of Parliament, it did not prevent traders, or interlopers as they were termed, from appearing within the limits of the ('ompany's ♦-r- ritories. The energy of private commerce, wt-'ch, to use the words of Mr. Urme, " sees its drift wi'.o eagles' eyes." formed assocUtions at the risk of crying the consequence at law, lieing safe at the .mtset, and during the voyage, siuco the Company were not authorited to stop or oei/e the ships of those who thus attempted to come into com|)etition with them. Hence their monopoly was liy no means complete ; and it was not till after the Kevolutlun, and when a free system of government had liccn estuldished ut home, that, liy a singular contradiction, tlie authority of Parliament was interposed to enable the Company wholl}' to en- gross the trade with the East. In addition to the losses arising from this source, the Company's trade suffered severely, during tlie reign of Charles 11., from the hostilities that were then waged with tlie Dutch, and fnim the confusion and disorders caused by contests among the native princes j but in 16(iH the Company iilitained o very valuable acquisition in tlie island of lloinbay. Charles II. acquired this island us a part of the marriage por- tion of his wife, Catharine of Portugal ; and it was now made over to the Company, on condition of their not selling or alienating it to any (lersons whatever, except such as were subjects of the llrltlsh crown. They were allowed to legislate for their new possession , but it was enjoined that their laws should lie consonant with reason, and, " as near as might be," agreeable to the practice of England. They were authorized to maintain their dominion by force of arms ; and the natives of liomliay were declared to have the same liberties as naturul-liom subjects. The Company's western presidency was goon after transferred from Surat to Ilombay. In 1G64, the French East India Company was formed ; and 10 years afterward they laid the founda- tion of their settlement at Pondichorry. But the reign of Charles II. is chiefly memorable in the Company's annals, fnira its lieing the era of the commencement of the tea trade. The flrst notice of tea in the Company's records is found in a despatch, addresses to their agent at Bantnin, dated 'i-lth of January, 16G7-H, in wftich he is desired to send home 100 His. of tea — "the best he can get." (Hkuck's Annah, vol. ii., p. 210.) Such was the late and feeble beginning of the tea trade, a liranch of commerce that has long been of vast importance to the British nation, and without which it is more than proiialde that the East India Company would long since have ceased to exist, at least as a mercantile liody. In 1C77 the Company oiitained a fresh renewal of their charter ; receiving at tlie same time an indemnity for all past misuse of their privileges, and authority to establish a mint at liomliay. During the greater part of the reigns of Charles II. and James II., the Company's affairs at home were principally managed by the celebrated Sir Josiah Child, the ablest commercial writer of the time ; and in India, by his lirother. Sir John Child. In 16x1, Sir Josiah published un apology for the company, under the signature of "tiXoirorpif — " A Trcatisn whererein is Demonstrated that the East India Trade licensi in 168,T influcnc incrcasi the Con nents had the cceded. being formati( The latt unison, carried i on tliii history < 'ng com '» fact, anthorilif if gold d P- 127.) iAi 57» EAS renowftl of 1 imlemnity luthority to Charles II. home wore Sir .loniiih time; Biiil In 1 lerchants, who had previously opposed the Company, o' the 4.'2,00O,00O, at 8 per cer.t., on con- dition of tLe> r being formed Into a new and exclusive compan}-. W MIe this project waa In agitation, the ad- vocates of (Vee trade were not Idle, but exerted them- aelvea to show that. Instead of establishing a new company, tne ild one ought to he alwllshed. Hut, however concbnive, their arguments, having no ad. ventltioua recon mendationa in their favor, failed of making any Imjresslon. The new company was es- tablished by ant* orlty of the legislature ; and as the charter of the oU company was not yet expired, tho novel spectacle \ as exhiljlted if two legally consti- tuted bodies, each claiming an exclusive right to tho trade of the same possessions ! Notwithsfandlnj all tho pretenalona aet up by those who had obtaine 1 tho new charter, during their atniggle with the ild company. It was Immediately seen that they were is anxloua as the latter to sup- press every thing like free trade. They had not, It waa obvious, been actuated by any enlarged vlewa, but merely l)v a wish to grasp at the monopoly, which they believed would redound to their own indi- vidual interest. The public, in consequence, became equally disgusted with l)oth parties ; or. If there were any difference, It Is probable that the new company was looked upon with the greatest aversion, inasmuch - . we arc :r'turaily more exasperated by what we con- ceive to be dupVi-ity and bad faith, than by fair undis- guised hostility. At rtrst tho mutual I atred of the rival associations knew no bounds. Hat they were not long in perceiv- ing that such condi ct would infallibly end in their ruin ; and that while me waa laboring to destroy the other, tho friends of U'^a trade might step in and pro- cure the dissolution ol both. In consequence, they became gradually reconciled ; and in 1702, having adjusted their differences, they renolved to form them- aoves into one company, entitled The United Cnmpany of Merchants of Kngland trading to the Kast Indies, The authority of Parliament was soon after inter- posed to give effect to this agreement. The United Company engaged to advance f 1,200,- 000 to government without interest, which, aa a previ- ous advance had been made of A'2,000,000 at 8 per cent., made the total sum due to them by the public £.^,200,000, bearing interest at 5 per cent. ; and gov- ernment agreed to ratify the terms of their agreement, and extend the charter to the 26th of March, 1726, with .1 years' notice. While these important matters were transacting at home, the Company had acquired some additional pos- sessions In India. In 1692, the Bengal agency was trai ferred from Hooghly to Calcutta. In ]6!I8, the Company acquired a grant from one of the grandsons of Anrengzohe, of Colcutta and 2 adjoining villages ; with leave to exercise judiciary powers over the Inhal)- itants, and to erect fortifications. These were soon after constructed, and received, in compliment to William III., then king of England, the name of Fort William. The agency at Benj^al, which had hitherti l)cen subsidiary only, waa now raised to tho rank of n presidency. The vigorous competition that had been carried or EAS 580 EAS for aonia yttut hcfora th« coalition of th« old and new Companiea, Iwtwcan thoni Mini tli« privata tradvrit, liad ocoaaioned a gntt additional Importation of Indian •Ilka, place kooiU, and other pn liy thomi who wi*h to ezcluilo forelKn competition ; alHrniinK that manu- factumd India koihIs h»y gold and silver, tho pxpurtatiou of wliii'h had caused the general Impoverishment of the l2,'tlO 12s. Cd. The average value of the bullion annually exported, during the Mima perimi, amounted to je51H,lU2 lis. Od., making the total annual average export .£617,fil3 As. lOd. ; a truly pitiful sum, when we consider the wealth, population, and industry of the countries lie- tween which the Company's commerce was carried on ; and affording, by its sniallncss, a strong presump- tive proof of the effect of tho monopoly in preventing the growth of the trade. At this period (1773) the total nuinlwr of proprietors of East India stock, with their qualificatiims as they stood in the Company's book, were as follows : ProtiHetori. "" ' Englishmen, pos s e s sing £1,000 stock ant] opwani Forrlxnors, iH»sesalnK £1,000 stock sntl upward Engllslimen, poasesslDg £fiOO ) stock and upward i Foreigners, possessing £fiUO j stock and upward f ToUl 48T 81fi f,»i« »5 Slork. £t,018,8l)S 6»0,»4D es.t,4M OO,!^!) 9,188 £2,.^M,»■2I» Notwithstanding the vast extension of tho Company's territories, their trade continiieKotlatl»n, and lntrl)(»«. Thn aUte of thn rountry, inatiMul nf IteliiK Improved, liccama woraa ; ao muih ao, that In « ciiuncil mlniitn liy Mar- i|iiia (^ornwallla, ilatud th« INth of Scptemlwr, 17HI), It la dlatlnctl^- atatml, "that tma thint /wrt of Iht Com- pani/'t lemlitry it now aJMgUfor mid braiU." Soma ■liuaea in the coniluct of their aarvanta were, Indeed, rectlflpil; liiit, notwithatandInK, the nett revenue of Mi>n|{iil, lluhar, and Orlaaa, which. In 1772, had amount- ed to X'i,l'J<),7(l«, declined. In KHft, to i:2,072,0«a. ThU exbauntlon of the country, niid the ex|)«nata Incurred in the war with llyder All ami Frnnce, Involved the Compain in freah dlfflcultien ; and lieluK unable to meet tlit-m, they were oldlKed, in 17HB, to preaent a petition 11 I'lirllument, aettlnjc forth their Innlilllty to pay the atipulHted aum of ;C'ltK),000 a year to the pul>- ilc, iind prayint; to lie excuard from that payment and to 1)0 auppiirtnil tiy a loan of A'IK)0,(MN). DnrinK the nilminiatration of Mariiuia Oomwallia, who aucrcedod M. Ilaatlnxa, TIppoo Hall), the aon of Hyder All, waa Btripped of nearly half hia dominiona j the (.!oinpany'a territorial revenue waa. In conaequence, greatly Incroaaed ; nt tho aamo time that the p«rma< nent xettlement wna carrieeing stipulated t but they were to jwy, in tlmo of pence, XS outward, and 4)15 homeward, for evcrj- ton ociupied by them In tho f'om- pany'a ships ; and that tiiis frei^t might be raised in time of war, with tho approbation of the Board of Control. It might have l)een, and, indeed, most probably was, foreseen that very few Ilritish merchants or manufac- turera would l<« Inclined to avail themselvea of the privilege of sending out goods in Company'a ships ; or of engaging in a trade fettered on all sides by the jeal- ousy of |)owerful monopolists, and where, consequently, their superior judgment anil •conom}' would have availed almnat nothing. Aa far, tharefbre, aa they wtn.' concemml, the relaxation waa more apparent than real, and did not produce any useful reaulla. It waa, how- ever, made nae of to a conalderal)la extent by private merchanta In India) and alao by the Company'a aerv- antk returning from India, many nf whom invested a part, and aome the whole, of their fortune, in produce tit for the Kuropean marketa. Notwithstanding the vaat additiona made to their terrltorlea, the Company'a commerce with them con- tinued to he very incnnalderable. During the 6 year* ending with IHll, the exports to India by the Com- pany, exclualve nf those mud* on account of Indlvid- uala In their ahlpa, were aa undrtr : laOT £IWW,41« 1MM »I«,M4 IgUD )tU,IM ISIO £1,010,811) lull 1,088,a|« The exporta h,v the private trade, and the prifilrge trade, thitt la, the commandera and ofllcera of the (Company's ships, during tho al)ove-mentioned years, were al)flut as large. During the b years ending with 1H07-H, the annual average imports into India l)y Rtitlah private traders only, amounted to i,'noA,406. — I'apm publiihfd by the Kiut India t'ompntiy m 1818, 4to. p. 5(1. The Company's exporta Include the value of the military stores sent from flreat Britain to India. The ahlpa employed In the trade to India and China, during the same f) years, varieil from 44 to 68, and their bur- ilen from 88,C71 to 4ri,.14'i tons. For aome years previously to the termination of the Company's charter In 1M18, the conviction had l)een gaining ground among all clasaes, that the trade to the Ka»t was capable of l)elng verj* greatly e'xtended ; and that it waa aolely owing to the want of enterprise and competition, occasioned by Ita lieing subjected to a mo- nofwly, that It was conflned within such narrow limits. Very great efforts were, consequently, made by the manufacturing ami commercial interests to have thn monopoly set aside, and the trade to Die f^ist thrown open. The Company vigorously resisted these preten- sions ; and had Interest enough to procure a prolonga- tion of tho privilege of carrj-Ing on an exclusive trade to <;hlna to the l()th of April, 1881, witli 8 years' no- tice ; the govemmont of India being continued in their hands for the same period. Fortunately, however, the trade to India waa o|i«ned under certain < "udltions to the puldic. The principal of these ci tlons were, that private Individuals should trade, .rectly only, with tho presidencies of Calcutta, Sludras, and Hom- l)ay, anil tho port of I'enang ; that the vessels lltted out l)y them should not \\e under !I50 tons' l)urden ; and that they should abstain, unless permitted by the Compaii , ortiie Board of Control, from engaging in the carrying trade of India, or in the trade between India and China. And yet, despite these disadvan- tages, such is tho energy of individual enterprise as com|>ared witli monopoly, that the private traders gained an ahii' -t immediate ascendancy over the East India Compam', and in a very short time more than IreHrd our trade with India ! But besides l)eing injurious to the private trader, and to the public generally, both in India and England, this trade was of no advantage to the East India Com pany. How, Indecil, could it b« otherwise ? A Com- pany that maint < ned armies and retailed tea, that carried a sword in the one liaiid and a ledger in the other, waa a contradiction ; and, had she traded with Bucccaa, would have been a prodig)'. It was im- possible for her to pay that attention to details that is indispensable to the carrying on of commerce with advantage. She may have gained «imething by tho monopoly of the tea trade, though even that la ques- tionable ; but it is admitted on all hands that she lost heavily by her trade to India. When, therefore, tho question aa to the renewal of the charter came to be discussed In 1882, the Company had no reasonable BAU A89 BAIT inU\U I utga i^ilnal tlwir MnK il»|>rlvail uf III* |ifi*IU||t »r IrwIlKH. AikI llw art 11 miil i Will. 't. ■.'. «/«., f»r i'«ntliiiilni( Iha i:liartiI, Irrmmnlnl tht I'mUfHUtn'l nmnnniiitl rharuiitri hy •■iim tliiK, tllut Uw Hummnjr't IrwU t'Jil of AutH, INi^l, «ii/| that Iba ('uinpaiiy waa aa ujiiu aa jKia- •ll/l« art«r tbal lUU In iIUinim iif ilirir atiM'ka mi linml, atfl I low lliair Kiiiiiniiri lal Imaluaaa. Ami tlia wiimler' M liii'fraaa that hiia alma tiikcD (itaia in tba tr«il« Willi Iha Kaal U Ilia Iwat prcKif uf tbii a^ijoclly and •fmiMlti^aa Iff Iha aplnliina of Uiiiaa by wli .«u alTurU Um ln< uliMa iif iiM>n.. Hoard of Control, tban *a •'^ariilalnii an lnil«|Mm|uiit authority. All Iha raal and |ioraonul |iM|>erty htdi'iiKiiiif tu lbs (''"(iiiany on tba ^2d of April, iMil-l, waa vvatuil In tbu iiriiwn, and l« babi or iimniiKcd li> lbi< Cninpiiny in IfMal for Ilia amna, aulijaitof i:ourau i nil ilulnia, ilalitH, Minlrai ta, alt., already in axiatviiev, >.r timt iiiuv bi".)— .1. U. Mt- I'tll.MN II, 8«M, Hirrin. Oit.) The point of the horizon at wbh'h Iha aim rlana at the tiinn of the oiiulnoxiia ; or tin- point dclarniliird by ii |iiir|H'niliiiibir to tho unTbliuii drawn toward Ilia (piiirtar of aunriae. Tbu eatl la ou« i/f Iha four ntntiiuU ptiiiifn of tho ccmpoJ. SMt India. ,H<-« I Mill A. 8a*t tU'Wtr roinniunic'al«a wltl^ the Iliidaon in Iha Itiiy of ,Ni-w York, and U formed by the narrowing of IxxiK laland Mounil, wbicb opcni with a brouil immlh at tba auatnrn and into, iiikI recoivoa a atron)( ltn|itil«<< from thi- tidaa In tlio Atlantic. Tbin clumntd la mi iMnl in contrailiHtlnction to the N'orth Klvur (tli« lludaon;. Aa iha Hound lontracta, to the went of the bfoad axpanw in front of Now Haven, and forms what la callad tJntl Uirrr, the oi'eanii- cun'enta act with a f«fi'« that inirraaea with tbo diuiiniabiiiK width of Iha atraain j iind tbia ijiuaea bibber tidi'.i hero than at any olhrr plucn aruunil tbu taland, nrriviiiK ut New Kirtk alxiut tbrfle (|uartt,'ra of an hour earlier than IIh»« by Ibn ^arrowa, Tbia current drivea upwiinl nUmn Iha aaat ahore of the HudaoD many miliyi in ud- varn a of tha other, on tho west ; and tbu.i the lludaon baa two tidea, wlilch hardly unite tbolr action till l)i«y have paa^ed Tiippan and Iluveristraw liaya, Iforll-Oale, II«ll-(iat«, or Ilurl-Uute, a dangeroua and vary irooked -l, nccoaiouinK atron^ eibly cur- ; fariU, Tbarn ia a autHcient deptli of wato' for any j raaaala, but the poaaa^o of large ahipa aliould only bo /itl«m|i4«d with skillful pilots.— K. A. j BatI A» Oologna. This well-knnwn perfume ia , t Milulion of different volatile oils in pure stroii); tbtrit. The principal condition for tbo preparation of a ; ntia watar la the einpluyiuent of u spirit ijuite devoid of fuaiUill (oil ol gT»\a), and of all forr||ni oibir. !■ rpa|M>ct to Iha pn>|HirtUin and kind of olTa eniployad, wa have nunieroua forniube. It U of iinportancn that tbaaa oila, which are usually puri liiiscd of the i\n>^if\ttt of the south of Kraiica, aboubl be of tlo' llnot (|iiiillty, and that no oil should \m used In aMllli lent i|Uiinlily to allow of ita peculiar or. Distil- Ution does not affccl thia { on the contrary a fresh dis- tilled water rai|uires tu lie kept a iiiiicb loiiKcr time. Distillation is iiiileed objectbiiuible { for on ai count of the Kieut volatility of the spirit, the oils in part remain behind In the still. Distillation can improve the uronly when the less volatile oil bus bei'ii u«ed In too great a qiiuntit), and we wish to obtain u Ijetter pro|M>rtlon. Ilefore ull things, we sboidd I'lnpbiy ii pure, old, strong spirit, and not loo much of, nor too strongly smelling oil. The ditfereiit sorts of vidutile oil wliicb are obtained from varieties of citrons, oranges, and lemons. In different states of maturity, are Ibe most important ; and, therefore. It Is most Im- IHiitant to ascertain their purity and gixNiness. Kors- tcr gives the following formula for the preparulbm of line euu de Cobigne : Take of rectllled spirit X'i per oimt., of Trullea (,~»p. gr. 0-8.M), (I (wine) ipiart-; c«. seiice of onuiges, esseuci) of bergamot, essence of cit- ron, essenie of iiiucltn, and essrncn of petits grains, of eacli, J j i essence of cedro, essence of sedrat essence lie Portugal, and essence de nenill, of each 5 sa ; oil of rosemary, j IJ j and oil of tbj ine, J J. Otto ^'ive8 tbo following formula for a good eau do ('>>lin;ii.' : I^M^tilled spirit of Hd per cent. ; of Tralles ( " 'in ^p. gr.), l.'(M» (wino) ipiarts j oil of citrons, lb, iv ; oil of bergamot, lb. ij; oil of neroll lib. ; oil of laveniler, lb ■ ss ; oil of rosemary, 1 Si . ; and spirit of ammonia, | sa. Mix: don't diatiil. This preparation has long |iossesaed great celebrity, in consei|uence i liielly of the numerous virtues ns- cribeil to it by its venders ; and Is resorted to by many Mitarics of fashion as a panacea against ailments of every kind. It Is, however, nothing more tiian aro- loati/.cd alcohol, and as such an agreeable companion for the toilet. Numerous lictitbois recipes have been offered for preparing euu de Cologne ; the following may lie reckoned authentic, having been imparted by Kuriiia himself to a friend. Take GO gallons of silent brandy ; sage, and thyme, each J vi ; balm-mint anil spearmint, eu<:b J xlj ; cal- amus aromuticus, Z iv ; root of angelica, 3 iJ i cam- phor, 3 J i petals of roses and violets, each J iv ; (lowers of" lavender, J ij ; (lowers of orange, 3 iv i worm- wood, Jj; nutmegs, cloves, cassia, lignea, and mace, each 3 >v i 2 oranges unil 2 lemons, cut in pieces. Allow the whole to niuccrute in the sjiirit during 21 hours, then distill olf 10 gallons by tlio beat of a water bath. Add tu the priHliict ; essence of lemons, of cedrut, of bulm-mint, and of lavender, each 3 ^>J ; neroli and tho essence of tbo socil of unthus, each 3 >v ; essence of jasmin, 5 J > "' bergamot, J xij. Filter, and preserve for use. Cadet de liussincourt has proposed to prepare eau de Cologne by the following rocipo : Take alcohol at DJ'' 1). , '.' ({uarts ; neroli, essence of cedrut, of orange, of lemon, of bergamot, of rosemary, each 21 drops ; aild 3 ij of tho seeds of lesser cardamoms ; distill by the beat of tt wuter bath a pint and a half. When )>rc- pared aa thus by siiffple mixture of essences, without distillation, it is never so good. There is a curious contest in Uermany concerning the veritable Fariim, whu makes the celebrated eau do Cologne. The con- tost was curried even into the Crystal Puluce, where there were four John Blaria Fariiias, all claiming to be the original. It ap|>cars that s|)ccu1atian is curried to so high u pitch in Cologne, that uny cliild entitled to tho ■uniumo of Farina ia bargained for as soon us S|H>ri inci E(1Y ft§8 VMY ttorn, iikI cliriilanMl J«an MirU. At tlin** thU avtiit U nvrri millclpuUil, Bau da liuo*. A ilping M>lutiiiii of animonU, >i'iinti>il, iinil rvii>lnrK roniuii MinkM. Bbony (.(iiT. Klirnlu'lt i I in. tMnwuti Kr. A'W/ic; It. t^bittut ; Klirt. fJifftinriniirrrti'tt ; l.dt. Khrtitis), II >|Ht iluraliliit.v, mix 'I'ptililii of n very lliin |Mili>ili, uiiil nil tliiit m'roiint uiKil III iiiiMiili' iinil iillivr liiUlil wiirk. Thflrn an liiiiiiv K|)vcli'H uriilHiiiy. Thn liimt In timt wlilih U Jul liliii k, rr('erniiiivnliiiiHnilriiiil,vi!ryciiiii|iai'l,it»triii)(xiit| uiiil dl' iin airlil |mnK<\nt tuatd, Till* niMii'lt'ii (d"!"'"''- nutiiil hy iHitmiliitii I )imi>iinn HhrHiit) la fiiiiiiil |irliiri- (Hilly In MaiUKimiitr, tlm Muurltlim, ami ('nylnii. Tli* centra unly i>f tli« tr«« U milil tn \m vuluulilv. In 1MII7, 'JUKI cwt, of tiUiny, nl t>iii mtliiiutml vuklo iif XVi'J wvrii vxiKirti'il fnini tli« ' iiirltliu, lliwliles the Mmk, thxrii urn mil, Kr^on, .•.iil ynllow clinny ; l>ut tli« latter lira nut mi niucli i'jtiii|{ of two up|inHitu lurruntH ; unit In thin neiiHU It in Ulan applied to u Hiniiliir inotion of atiiiiiH- I'l.erii. Eel {An;irtlon of the eeln used in Kii|{laiid nru furiiihiiei. hy llidlund. Indeed, very few except IJuti li eeln are ever neen in Lomlon ; and evuii lluuipton und Uichmund aro principally xuppliud hy thoin. The triulo is curried on hy Dutih truilurn, who employ in it ii«V' ■' Minall vennelH, hy iiieann of which the luurkc't in ri i':.:,>' v uuil uinply provided for. Bfferveaoenoe (hut. ijfi-rivtm). The encape of guKuoun matter from lii|uiilii, un in the act of fernient- utiiui. All liquidn from which huhhhin of ^'un rapidly escape, 8o a» to '■nsemhlo boiling, are saiil to eli'er- venco. EffloresortQOe (I.at. ijloreim, I flower). The HjKintaimo'.. i crumhlinK down of transparent cryatuU, in coii74oquenco of the Ioh.s of water. Eggs (Fr. (KuJ'i ; Lat. Orn), are too well known to requiru to be dencrlhed. They dilVer in size, color, taste, etc., iK'i'nrdin); tu the dill'urent B|)ecieH of birds (h.it lay them. The c^jja of poultry are thone mont cominunly UKed 0.1 food ; and form an article of very "onniderable inijHirtuuce in u comnivrciul point of 1 lew. The eK)(n of plovem are enteemed a great delicai y, and niuke, indeed, a perpetually rocurrinK dish ut fa.thionuhlo diniicrn, Egypt, a country nituutod at the north-eustem ex- tremity of Africa, between N. lat. ai° 87' and 21° 1', and K. long. 27" 111' and 3-1'^ 12' ; bounded on the north hy the Mediterranean Sen, on the south by Nubiu, on the east by I'alentine, Arabia, and the Heil Sea, and on the weiit by the Ureut Uoaert. The chief llaliUproduua la whaat (which la mora ffmwn than any otiiar kind of corn), liarlity, aavaral mirtn of millat, maUa, rli«, uata, clover, |miim, the ■ilt(ur-cane, ronaa, two aiMiclaa of thn tohucco-pluut, and cnltnn. Tha •UKar-cuna la axtanalvely cultivatad, and axcallaiit niiKar la muiiiifuctured from It. There am llelila uf ronaa In tha KulyiHini, which aupply tlix marknt with rona-watar. Tha tobacco priHiucad in K^ypt la coaraf and atrouK compared with that which la ua« 1 mourning; therefore women, at fu- neri' ..nil generally after a death, nnieur themnelvei with Oil In extructed from tha needa of thn ciitton- ; ' ' ' i|<'inp, colewort, the pnppy, the luatnr-oil plant, t u'l.u, and llux. Tlm high, coarne griisa, calleil lull'eh (,/'on »i/H4i, i-uii/ia) grown in great quantity In wuate placen anh .oiig ancient rains. Mr. I.aiiu 1 H. , cntimutea tha (Hqiulation of Kgypt at lean than 'i,IXM),l)UO, und gives the fulhiwing num- bern nn nearly thone of the several clasaon uf which it in mainly componed : Monluiii KKypllnna (felldkoon or puaaanta, I , <•»»!» and Inwilnpeople) ( •><""<'"'> Chrl^tliin KKyiitlaiiB (Copta) 1.V),000 Osmi'iiilcei, or Turks. Hyrlalin. ... (Irecks Arnu'iilans •lews III.IKM 6,(100 e,IN)0 2,1)00 B,000 and the remainder, exclusive of the Arabs of the des- ert, ahiiut 7(I,(KK). Sir (iardiier Wilkinson (IRIII) romputen the total at about 1,HOO,00(); hut Clot-lley (IHIU), not olwuys an imjuirtial writer, places it much higher, upward of !l,lMMI,00il. riie following result of the government census, taken in 1H17~H, is remarkable as showing the system nf falsil'ying statistics for state purposes. It U copied from an ofHciiil return : Kl-Kusoyr S,48."i Uosetta 18,40S Uanilutta VSDiN Hiicj 17 -" Middle Kitypt... n()l,i04 Kl-(lh«rbeeyeh. . MWIHII Kl - K aUoobeeye U 1 ^t.'i^O rppcr Kijypl.... l.lDiMls Ksli-rtliarkoeyuli. 84i.B0() Kl-Oeeioh ni>.eM Kl-Dobeyreh.... !ilS,HIO Kl-Monuurceyeb. 4411,511) Kl-Oakshleeych.. 84-,M7 Whubra 10,116 KI-'Arocsh «,B4T Alexandria 14J),l»t Cairo 2.Vt,Ml TuUl 4,842,620 Since tlm conclusion of the Syrian war, until the present struggle, the navy has been totally inactive. At the former period, it numbered 11 ships of the line, ti frigates (one moved by 8teum-|mwer), fl corvettes, 9 lirigs (;l being steamers), and 2 cutters. Some of these wore constructed iu the naval yard at Alexandria, but the hirgor number wore contracted for in Kurope. Grout care was bestowed on the formation of the navy, and tho establishments connocted with it ut Alexan- dria, but the Egyptians do not seem to be » muritimt people, or, at any rate, their men-of-war have none of tho tautnoss and neatness of Euro|iean ships of th« class. — E 11. Thn trade with Europe is carried on through Alex- andria. The traffic with tlio interior of Africa is car- ried on by moans of caravans, which bring, in exchange for European und Egyptian products, ivorjr, gold-dust, BGY 584 EGT ■kind, wool, gain, oatrich-feathen, and metalg. The chief commercial rtlations with Arak'i and India are carried on l>y Cosseir and Suez. Since the establisb- ment of regular steam-packets in the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean, Egypt has become the route to India for all the correspondence of Europe, as well as for the greater portion of travelers. The principal means of communication at present are the Nile, which is traversed by steam-packets, and the canals, many of which have been repaired by Meliemet All ; but even the Iwst of them are often unnavigable during a great pait of thu }-ear. The route from Cairo to Suez (180 miles) is traversed by horses and vans, and the mail is conveyed in 18 hours. The project of uniting the Mediterranean with the Red Sea, by re-opening the ancient canal, has been recently revived, but it is sur- rounde7 IMS 1,097 1846 1,241 1847 1818 1848 1 i08 1M9 1,609 1880 1,6.50 1881 1,798 Tlio value of tho pfaBtrrt varies. That of Alexandria Is reckoned at 5 cents United States' currency : tliat of Turkey generally Is equivalent to 4 cents. The import trade in 1841, tlie first year given in the table, reached 187,000,000 I)itt8tre8=fi9,350,000, and ascended in 18,'>1, tlie lost year, to 230,000,000 piastres, or alw'Tt $11,500,000. The articles which diminished in the import tetums during the period, were sugar, linens, certain kinds of silks, ami mm ; and the di- minution was about equal to the increasetl production of those articles in Egypt. The imp<)rtation increas"d ID woolens, cottons, French silks, and articles of fashion. CoHUEBCi! IN 1S5S (Value ix Pounds Steruno), FxporUtlon 4,600,000. To England... 2,600,000 " France 811,000 " Auatria.... 444,000 Importation, 2,141,000. From Eniflsnd . . 908,000 " France... 17T,(HX) " Austria... 200,000 Navioation in 1384 axu 1858. Kotercd uiil eleftrcd. Veuali. Tiinimi^. ISM 8,982 7S8,4.'i7 1885 4,449 918,216 The English flag occupies the first rank in the re- tuns from which the preceding figures are taken, though, since the repeal of the navigation laws of Great Uritain in 1850, the importations under the flags of other countries of northern Europe have largely in- creased, Alexandria. — The trade of this port has increased rapidly since the opening of the canal which commu- nicates Iwtween Alexandria and the Nile at Atfeh. This communication has taken away from the ports of Damletta and Kosetta the extensive commerce for- merly enjoyed by them, and for which, from their po- aition on the two moutba of the Nile, they posseased great advantages. The total trade of Alexandria in 1840, amounted in value to $11,997,146, of which there were for imports $6,0.36,980, and for exports $6,860,* i65. This trade in 1842 reached In value $21,000,000, an increase over 1840 of over $9,000,000. The treaty of 1888, placing foreign commerce on a mora secure basis than had previously existed, and the tranquillity which followed the settlement of the difficulties of 1840, were the causes of this great augmentation in the trade of 1842, Among the exports of this year, raw cotton reached in value $1,800,000, of which Austria received upward of $1,000,000 in value. The trade of 1843 oxhil)ita a falling off from that of the preceding year, aggregating only (imports and ?x|iort8 united) about $19,000,000, of which raw cotton reached in value about $2,000,000. In 1844 the total trade of this port fell again to about $13,000,000 ; and in 1846 the totals reached nearly $18,000,000, of which, for cotton, there were $2,000,000, In 1849 tlie foreign trade of Alexandria reached $16,000,000, of which for imports, there were $7,600,000, and for exports, $8,- 500,000. The raw cotton exported this year reached in quantity 268,000 quintals (the quintal, or cantar, is estimated at KM lbs.), or 25,800,000 Ibb., valued at $2,776,000. The tranquillity which prevailed in Egypt during the ten years anterior to 1850, was highly favorable to tho development of its foreign commerce, The treaty of 1888, guarantying the un- restricted circulation through Egypt of European merehandise, and its freedom from the vexatious taxes to which it was subjected Iwfore that period, contributed in like manner to the prosperity of this port in 1860. The total trade exceeded in value $19,- 000,000, a figure wliich it had never l)efore reached, excepting in the year 1842, when the large augmenta- tion was brought alwuit by causes purely ncridontal. Of this sum, imports reached nearly $8,00O,0O<), and exports al)out 11,000,000, Of the latter, raw cotton amounted in qiuintity to 82,084,600 lbs., and in value to $1,200,000. Thu establishment of a national bank in Alexandria, under the title of Bank of Egypt, has already, though not in o|)eration, commenced a revolution in the ideas of the fellahs, or cultivators of the soil, with respect to money matters. It is well known that the fellahs have hitherto hoarded or buried the cash they have re- ceived for their produce. Since they have l)een paid by drafts on the Bank of Egypt, and they find the mode in which those drafts are cashed is so satis- factory, some of the more wealthy have o|)ened ac- counts with the bank, and deposited their savings there for safe keeping. Should this practice become general, and the many millions which are known to l>e hoarded by the fellahs l>« brought into cireulatinn and laid out in profitable investments, it must produce an enormous effect on the prosperity of the country in general. It is worthy of notice, that, in the voluminous re- ports from which the preceding statements of the trade, both of Egypt and its principal port, Alexan- dria, are extracted, the United States does not once appear. A despatch to the State Ue|)artment, dated Alexandria, Moy 1, 1856, Btate.s that " the increase in foreign tradera is very perceptible, but there are few branches of Aine'.lcan houses among them." England, France, and Austria, seem to have been the principal foreign countries which participated in tlii.i trade. The total trade of 1861 reached $29,000,000. ami that of 1852 ascended to upward of $81 ,000,000, of whirh a large share is assigned to Turkey mid .Syria. The quantity of raw cotton exported the latter year was 718,066 quintals, valued at $6,960,249. The whole of this cotton was sent to England, France, and Austria, in tlie following pro|K>rtion8 : to England, 420,118 quintals ; to Austria, 169,800 quintals ; and to France, 128,030 quintals. These figures, as well as those em- EGT 68b EID fioua re- of the Alexan- lot once it, datoil roasB in lire few •;nglani\, irini'ipnl trade. ~~lnnl that I whii'h a la. The \enT was Iwhole of I Austria, 420,nH i France, hose em- plojmd t'eak and sternum, constitutes the type of a subgenus, called iSomnteria. The common eider (^Somaleria moUissima) frequents, in great numbers, tlie Orkneys, Hebrides, and Shetland isles. It is defended from the cold of the dreary northern coasts by the development of an unusual quantity of the finest down beneath its dense exterior plumage, which is equally well adapted to form an impenetrable barrier to the wet. The down of the eider constitutes its chief value, as it comliiiics with its (leculiar softness, fineness, and lightness, so great a degree of elasticity that the quantity of this mate- rial which might be compressed and concealed be- tween two hands will servo to stuff a coverlet. As the female plucks from her own Imdy a quantity of her finest down to lino her nest, the Orcadians avail themselves of this instinct, and take nn early opportu- I nity to rob the nest of both eggs and down. She then ■ liegins to lay afresh, md envelopes her eggs with another Tayor of down ; and if this be removed, the male is saiil to contributo his own down, when the female can afford no more. Lastly, when the brood of ducklings is hatched, tlie nest is again visited ind /N ELB 686 iiiB the down reraored. Thus a considerable quantity of the valuable material funiished by the eider-duck ia obtained independently of that which is plucked from the slaughtered birds. Besides the down and eggs, the islanders turn the skins and flesh of the eiders to profit ; while these birds cost them no expense, a* thoy feed entirely on sea-weed and other natural pro- ductions of the ocean. Blaatio BandB. (Tisnii Elastiqun, Fr. ; Feder- hars-zeige. Germ.) The manufacture of braces and garters, with threads of caoutchouc, either naked or covered, seems t<> have originated, some time ago, in Vienna, whence it was a few years since imported into Paris, and thence into this country. At first, the pear-shaped bottle of the Indian rubber was cut into long narrow strips by the scissors ; a single operative turning oflf only about 100 yards in a day. by cutting tho pear in a spiral direction. He succeeded next in separating with a pair of pincers the several layers of which the bottle was composed. Another mode of obtaining fine threads was to cut them out of a bottle which had been rendered thin by inflation with a forcing pump. All these operations are facilitated by previously steeping the caoutchouc in boiling water, in its moderately inflated state. More recently, ma- chines have been successfully employed for cutting out these filaments, but for this purpose the bottle of caoutchouc is transformed into a disc of equal thick- ness in all its parts, and perfectly circular. This pre- liminary operation is executed as follows : 1. Tho bot- tle, softened in hot water, is squeezed between the two plates of a press, the neck having been removed beforehand, as useless in this point of view ; 2, The bottle is then cut into two equal parts, and is allowed to consolidate by cooling, before subjecting it to tho cutting instrument. When the bottle is strong enough, and of variable thickness in its different points, each half is submitted to powerful pressure in a very strong cylindrical i"nl". ■•f metal, into which a metallic plunger descend. , ..'irlt forces the caout- chouc to take the form of a ti '<^ .ilinder with a circu- lar base. The mold is plunged into hot water daring the compression. A stem or rod of iron, which goes across the hollow mold and piston, retains the latter in its place, notwithstanding tho resilience of the caoutchouc, when the mold is token from the press. The mold being then cooled in water, the caoutchouc is withdrawn. The transformation of the disc of caoutchouc into fine threads is performed by two machines ; the first nf which cuts it into a ribbon of equal thickness in its whole extent, running in a spiral direction from the circumference to the centre ; the second subdivides this ribbon lengthwise into several paral- lel filaments much narrower but equally thick. — Uue's Did. BIba, called Ilea by the Romans, and ^Ihalia by the Greeks, an island in the Mediterranean >Sea lying off the promontory of Populonium, at equal distances from Corsica and the Italian mainland, though some- what nearer the latter. Its outline is extremely irreg- ular, and its sides are indented by numerous inlets and arms of the sea, reducing its breadth in some places to s'mut 3 miles. The extreme length of the island is aljout 18 miles ; its extreme breadth about 12 miles ; and its area aliout 150 miles. The whole length of the island is occupied by a mountain range, one peak of which (that of Capanna) -i 'ii '.o tlie height of about BiiOO feet above the sea. i'Ue i.ixcntains of this range, though themselves luvi-r . .nulose < allays of consider- alile fertility. Vir ; <. .iUvo.<, ..s, i '..ulberries, grow In large quantities ii liis !!59. Blbe (the Albi* of the ancients), a large river of Germany, which rises in the likii.n Geblrge, or Giant's Mountains, Iwtwuen Silesia and Bohemia, and is known at its source by the Sclavonic name of Lubbe, Its principal sources are the White Fountain, at the iMise of the Schiee-Kuppe, and tho 11 fountains of the Elbe in the Navarian meadow. To the number of streams which descend into Bohemia from the neigh- boring mountains it owes its early increase. After its junction with the river Eger, it becomes navigable ; and, entering Saxony, it pijBses successively Dresden, Meissen, Torgau, and Wittenberg. In its course, which is northerly, it receives as tributaries the Mul- dau and the Saale ; and running through the territory of Blagdeburg and the duchies of Mecklenburg and Lauenliurg, it discharges itself at hist into t' d German Ocean, aliout 70 miles below Hamburg, after a course of 500 miles. The Ellie has always been an important river in a military point of view. With respect to commerce, it is of inestimable value to the countries of north-west and central Germany, being the channel by which they export their surplus products, and re- ceive their imports from abroad. It gives to Ham- burg its command of the navigation fur into the inte- rior, although the voyage is difBcult on account of the numerous sand-banks with which the estuary and the rivers are encumbered. It communicates with the Havel by the canal of Plauen, in the territory of Magdeburg ; and at Hamburg it i.s connected in like manner with the Trave at I.ubec. It is also joined to the Weser by a canal running between Vegcsak and Stade. By the railway from Leitmeritz to Vienna it communicates with the Danulie ; and the other rail- ways that touch upon otiier qiuirters of the river sup- ply channels for distributing merchandise through the various districts which they traverse. Alwut 4U miles from its source, the elevation of the river above the level of the sea, is only daH feet ; at Schandau it is 341 feet; at Dresden, 279 feet; and at Ameliurg in Brandenburg, only 176 feet. Formerly 3 entrepots (Pirna, Dresden, and Magde- burg), and 35 tolls, and numerous coriwrations of privileged watermen, opposed almost iiisurmountublo difficulties to tlm navigation : the Austriuns and the Saxons could alone navigate tho Upper Elbe, that is, from Magdeburg to where it ceases to bo navigable, anil the Prussians and Hamburgers had the sole privj. lege of navigating the Lower Elb«. But the naviga- \' ELE 587 ELM Magde- tion of the river i^aii definitely regulated by a conven- tion concluded on the 13th June, 1621, between all tho bordering states, viz., Austria, Saxony, Prussia, Han- over, Denmarlc (for Holstein and Lauenburg), the grand duchy of Meclclenburg-Schwerin, and the three principalities of Anbolt, This convention established the principle of free navigation, allowing every mer- chant, to whatever bordering state he might belong, -whh his own vessel and crew to navigate the whole course of tlie river without interruption ; the 35 tolls were reduced to 14 ; the heavy dues which were levied upon goods of the first necessity were reduced to those whicli are paid, one for the cargo (AVie Toll), and the other for the ship (RecognUiotugebOhr) ; and each state was bound to watch over the portion of river which passed through their territories, and to preserve it from every thiug injurious to the commerce or navigation. But uotwitlistanding these regulations, merchants are still exposed to vexatious burdens and interruptions, Woo-wood is of a yellowish or brownish white, .vitii pores inclined to red. It is in general porov; imd < u'ss-grained, sometimes coarse- grained, and ha» ii> birge septa, It.hus a peculiar odor. It twists and warps much in drying, and shrinks very much both in length and breadth. It is difficult to work, bu! is not liable to split, and bears the driving of bolts and nails better than any other timber. In Scotland, chairs and other articles , f household furniture are frequently made of elm wooii ; but in England, where the wo«l is inferior, it is chiefly used in the manufacture of Collins, casks, pumps, pipes, etc. It is appropriated to these purposes be- cause of its great durability in w ater, which also occa- sions its extensive use as piles, and planking for wet foundations. The naves of wheels are frequently made of elm ; those of the heavy wagons and drays are made of oak, which supports a heavier weiglit, but does not hold the spokes so firmly. Elm is said to bear transplanting better than any other large tree. — Trkdooi.d's Principles of Carpentry. The wood of the Ulmna Americana, like that of the European elm, is of a dark brown color, and is liable to decay when exposed to the alternations of moisture and dryness ; and when cut transversely or obliquely to the longitudinal fibres, it exhibits the same numer- ous and fine undulations ; but it splits more easily and bus less compactness, hardness, and strength — weighing, when perfectly dry, only 33 pounds to a ELS 090 KLS enblo foot. The principal uses to which this timber is appiied are for malting naves or hubs to wheels, for piles and foundation-pieces to mills, canal-loclis, and fur many other pur])09es where sl.'etigth in required and the vrortc is constantly buried in water or mud. In the State of Maine it is occasionally employed for the keels to vessels, for which purpose it is well adaptt.d on account of its size. It is also employed for the swingle-trees of the carritges of great guns ; and in some parts of tlie country, where more appropriate wood is not to bo found, it is used for making; o.x-yokes, sleds, and other implements of husbandry. The bark, which is easily detached from the foe during eight month* of the year, is sometimes used for making bast- uiats, ropes or withes, and for the bottoms of chairs. The wood, when dry, makes excellent fuel, and when barned yields a large proportion of ashes, which abound in alkaline salts. In Canada, and in the northern parts of the States of MLinc, New Hampshire, Vermont, and New York, a profltaldc business is followed, especially in connection with clearing the forests, in preparing the salts of ley for the manufacture of potash. — Browxk'm Trees of America. Blaluetir, or Helsingor, a town of Zealand, on the Souijd, about 22 miles north of Copenhagen, lat. 56^ 2' 17" N., long. 12° 88' 2" j:. Population about 8000. Adjacent to Elsineur is the castle of Croi>borg, which commands the entrance to the Jtaltic by the Scund. All merchant ships passing to and .'rom the Baltic were obliged, until 1857, to salute Crouborg caatio by lioist- Ing their colors when abreast of the same ; and no mer- chant ship was allowed to pass the Sound without c?oi>r- ing out at Elsineur, and paying toll, acconling to the provisions in the treaties to that effect negotiated with Oenmirk l)y the diRVircnt European powers. The first treaty with England having reference to this subject is dated in 1450. The Sound duties had their oMgin in an agreement l>etween the King of Denmark on the one part, and the Hanse Towns on the other, l)y -.vaich the former undertook to construct light-houses, land- marks, etc., along the Cattcgat, and the latter to pay duty for the same. The duties have since )>eer. varied at dilfjrcnt periods. (See orticle Uami3ii Sound Does.) Ships of war ore fixempted from the payment of duties. Host maritimo nations have consuls resident at Elsi- neur. The following plan of the Sound Is taken from the admlralt} ciiart, compiled from Danish authorities. (See opposite page.) "The trade of Denmark in the yer.r 1855 again showed an increase, the imp'irts lieing 71,210 tons, of the val'je of (!,4?7,lfi3 lix dollars, or .£747,3119, and the exports of the value of 745,314 rix dollars, or i;85,988. tartar than in the previous year, and the whole trade of that country has increased during eight years 80,000,000 rix dollars, or X3,4fi],537. " The total amount of import duty paid in Denmark In the year 1855 was C,97G,653 rix dollars, or £804,990, the articles which brought in most being sugar, cotton goods, tl-nbcr, woolen goods, coffee, iron, wine, spirits, lilk, and silken goods — the impart duty on these arti- cles amounting to 4,744,585 rix dollare, or £547,452. "The value of imports from Hamburg to Denmark is more than double the amount of the merchandise imported direct from Great Britain, but it must be taken into consideration that a largo amount of the merchandise received from Hamburg is of English manufacture. " ^"'ith reference to the foreign and coastwise it is to be observed that the Danish ships in the year 1855 were principally in the trade with Great Britain, tl-.e total quantity of merchandise imported fro signal for one being a ilag at tlie foretop-masthead. Those bound for the Baltic take a pilot at Elsineur, who cither carries the ship to Copenhagen or Dragoo, a small town on the southeast extremity of the inland of Amaok, where she is clear of the grounds. Those leaving the Baltic take a pilot from Dragoe, who car- ries the ship to Elsineur. Sometimes, when tlie wind !« fresh from the east and southeast, it is impossible for a ship bound for Copenhagen or the Baltio to double the point of Croiilxirg ; and in that case an Elsineur pilot is sometimes employed to moor the ship In the channel toward KuU Point, on the Swedish shore, in lat. 50" 18' 3 " N., long. 12° 20' E. But this does SLS Se/treneea to PUm.—A, Castle ud light of Oronborg; f>,V,MmuH ^>, tUMugbaTg In Sweden; D, the bank called the Lappen; E, the bank called tim i)|«|(#o, Tti« MUHdidlft are In fathomi. not often happen, as the Danish govemnunt employ Bteam tugs for the special purpose of bringing ships, itt adverse weather, round Cronborg Point. Tba pilots are regularly licensed, so tliat, by employing tbsin, the captain's responsibility is at an end. Their clwrgws itra UncA hy autliottty, and depend on the ship's flmugllt t)( Wttlet, We snbjoln a copy of the tariff ap- |)li' 9 » " 10 " » 11 " " 12 " » 18 .. •' 14 " " 16 " " 16 " 17 " « 18 " u 19 " « 90 ' " 91 " » M » 8 feet. 9 " . 10 " , 11 " . 18 " , 18 " , 14 " 15 " 16 " 17 " 18 " 19 " 20 " 41 u 22 " 13 " R. b. dr. Dell. 14 98 PnwM.' 16 18 80 28 84 95 87 89 88 84 87 40 41 4S 4« 75 54 87 19 TT 80 58 84 V8 -Jita ' \l n 84 84 a* NO m HA 88 41 UL \' EMB 500 EMB When a pilot b taken on board rt Dragoe to carry a •hip to Elslneur, the charge is the same oa that given u'i le? the first heud of the above column. (A rr/ih-f^ lib Comnwrc, tome tii., p. 146.) ^he^fcn•t,,l. ii'i.yV-y. and Mraturtt of Klsineur are the same i\ ■ '.iio.v of C'»- penhogen (which see), except that '. .<> rixd'illnr is divided 'nto 4 urlt Instead of 6 marcs ; ! !m» 24 ■■' ii!; -ins mako 1 ort ; and 4 orta 1 rixd.-Uar. lint 3>iiiii' vi les aie, however, levied and paid in specu rixdi.i.-iM.. of 48 stivers, 9J such specie rlTdoliars inustltiitlii). ' raarc fine silver, Cologne \ -Ight. 1 i !••(< sil'."" i« C». 2d. an unce, the valu of the sptoic rixdcllar is 4«. 6Jd., and T»kiiig it at •':?. an ounc' It is worth S2'7d., orAr 4>f<'.. nearly. 1,. . Uher caso .h-s -.alue of th ' stiver may ' .i . ilten at I'id. f- .Teeable effu.l, and for tli« ingenuity of the proci ;>^ whereby they are rroduceii. It copsist.i in flooding colored but tianspai'cnt .>!azt i over J<'t"giij stumped upon the surface!. rp . ^-iticti of fric stamped design appear a« stiii Sows of v.wions depths — the parts in highest relief rnming nearest to tl>(> surface of the glaze, and thus having the iflTect of the lights of a picture. It has been said that " per- I:apii there if no other process in the ceruunic art )>}' wliich, at so cheap a rate, desi|i;n.4 of high artistic merit can be reproduced in the m<'at. balmmum, balm), a process adopted by the ancient Egyptii^i-, chiefly for the preservation of dead bodies from [.'.it^foction. The term is derived from the use of Ijalsai.ii- substances in the operation; in addition to these, fiiine sulistances and tanning materials tiem also to liavc luen used. Bmbargo, a restraint or prohibition imposed by the putdic authorities of a country on iiiorchant ves- sels or "Tther ships, to prevent their leaving its ports. Embargoes are ur.ually imposed only in time of war, or in apprehension of an invasion j in wiiich cases tlie government employs the ships under embargo iu arm^i- iiionts, ex()editions, and transportation of troops, etc. Vi'h'^n it is found necessary to stop the c(mimnnicati(m of intelligence l)etween any two places, an eml>argo is •aid upon all ships, l>otb foreign and under the national flag. Tn England, this )>ower is invested in the crown, bus it is rarely exercised except in extreme cases, ami sometimes as a prelude to war. The most memorable in!eti- mcstic eml>argo j and if the ei tilt commencement o/ . ' '. not dissolve, the cc^ntran ; niny aliandon and clain . ciple is incorporated ir . • ciMie, and it pervades m\\' It is no objection to the '' •urcd, tliAt the loss \\a\>\.-. emment of his own country. / 1 insurance ''to*''s own gov- .;i». There is 3ign and do- .iior^'cne after spends, but docs i, dnd the Insured !.. -f Tlie Siimo prin- .•iv j'rencli commercial T the law of Insurance. . 1 rovery by tiie in- et of the gov- he and the Insurer are subjects of different states. — Kritt's Com. See also I'aksons on Mfrcantile Cotitraett, p. 806. Embassador, or Ambasnador, a word of dU> I'Uti'd origin, but probaldy adopted into the English l»)!;,>iage fmm the French, means, in its general sense, a i''.'• ! ich may lie represented at others, i yet' .,"8 nu.n'rt; ^ i .ict ' i be entitled to app-jint so ' Ingh a rip/e.'c*. aiive as an emliassador. Messages require to b^ iiili rchangcd l)y »U moderately civilized nations, unleps those whicli, )lko the Chinese or the Japanese, peculiarl}- isolate themselves, llenct Sdch messages, and the manner in which they were sent and received, arc rimiliar occurrences in all histories. 8oTO" U" '"rslisn.i ig that tlie persons who undertook >,iij;i ,' fi action uould enjoy freedom and safety in the sfate ti vhlch they were sent was absoluteli neces- sary fur i;s performance. The Romans adopted strict '■:•)» fov tho safety of emlmssadors j liut the less def- '1 \) provisi'ms of other nations were liable to be unfccted by i"omcntary impulses, and ir-any incidents of ancient warfare arose out of insults OT injuries com- mitted on embassadors. It was on the ground of an insult offered to his emliassadors that Alexander de- stroyed Tyre. The Persian invasions of Greece were stimulated by the xlaughtcr of the embassadors of Darius — who, however, demanding earth and water as tokens of dependence, were rather mes.sengers of hos- tility than emliassadors, in any tiling like the modem sense of the term. Emliassadors now communicate private!}' with sovereigns or oflicial persons, not with legislative liotlies. In Greece, however, embassadors sometimes pleaded the cause of their state in the pub- lic assemldies, and in Rome they were formally re- ceived liy the senate. The legatvi of the Romans answered pretty noarlj' to our embassador extraordi- nary ; but the term was also used to mean another and totally different oflicer who accompanied the pro- consul or governor of a province, anil wos more like a colonial secretary. It liecamo the practice to give honorary legations of this kind on account of the priv- ileges which they conferred on the holder in the province to which he was accredited. Tlicre is, how- ever, a distinction of a generic and very cliaraiteristio kind between the embassador of modem diplomacy and any ancient rciiresentatives of states, 'I'he em- bassador of old was chosen for a particular message or negotiation, and a permanent resident representative of one state within another wai- urknu>vn, at '.st ,ii a system. It if not yet Intel' ^ill,! to nations licyond the circle of Eiiropitm diplomacy. The Turks had the inveterate practice, on going to war with a state, of committing iis representative to the seven towers; aiii) th ugh the reason assigned fur the practice was the safety of the person of the embassador from out- rage, even this. If it were sincere, showed that the feel- ings of hatred indulged against a member of a hostile st.ite would break out too strongly to be controlled even by that despotic governnioiit. The Chinese, and their neighbors nearer HindostiH, can \i on a om- lii.is.idor or diplomatic agent nt, merely ,» ^,- t-td vjj', to whose presence nothing but \eoes ■: • n.upels tliein to submit. Nor at ' he}- enti • jng, since the European emliassies maybe i'^- .u. a mutually tol- erated system of espionage. I, i n \\ ickefort call- the embassador an honorable spy, ; utected by the law of n.itions; and l.a Uru}cre says 'pigramniatlcall}-, that tb<' embassador's function is to cheat without licing cheated. The un ' rstindin;.' that an embassud' was a person ever r- to do whatever he could with safety to the advantage of his .iwn lountry, at", the injury of that to which lie was accredited, became a fitanding object of sarcasm with the wits of tht seventeenth centuiy. Sir Henry Wotton, himself an embassador •*iSM?.>«.V'^tft^&ft'^i ^i^iil .>'-^- EMB 501 EMB , tinco the utuiilly tol- )rt ciili-- tho the liiw of ...iilly, tlmt ;hoiit being ISSU'.l' wiw with nafety . tho injury I a standing levonleentb •mhasnador wli«n uked to write aomething in an album at Angm burg, could not resldt a sarcaam on the same subject, and f>pol> jected to some parts of it, and particularly to a condi- tion of tho protection uf emba.ssador8' retinues, that their names should be recorded with tlio Secretary of State and the sheriffs of Ix)ndon; but Parliament, then exulting in the continental triumphs of Marl- borough, received their demands with haughty silence. It has been usual since the Congress of Vienna to divide representatives into three great classes— embas- sadors, envoys, and residents or charges rfc* ajf'aires. The first and second are accredited from the head of the government, and communicate with the head ; the third class have instructions from the foreign depart- ment of their own government, and communicate with that of the state they aro sent to. The term embas- sador extraordinary having been appliennanent embassadors at the courts of tho great powers, as it was deemed desirable that no diplomatic rank should bo deemed higher than theirs. The custom of admitting resident ministers at each sovereign's court, was an important improve- ment in the security and facility of national inter- course ; and this led to the settlement of a great question, which was very frequently discussed in the 16th anil lOtli centuries, concerning tlie inviolability of embassadors. It became at last li definite principle of public law, that emiiassadors were exempted from all local jurisdiction, civil and criminal ; though Lord Coke considered the law in lis day to be, that if an embassador committed any crime which was not merely malum firohibitum, ho lost his privileged dignity as an embassador, and might be punished as any other private alien, and that he was even bound to answer civilly for his contracts that were good, jure gentium, — Kent's Com., vol. i., p. 15. It sometimes becomes a grave question, in national discussions, how far the sovereign is bound liy the act of his minister. This will depend upon the nature and terms of his authority. It is now the usual course for every government to reserve to Itself the right to ratify or dissent from the treaty agreed to by its em- bassador. A general letter of credence is tho ordinary letter of attorney, or credential of tho minister ; and it is not understood to confer a power upon the minister to bind his sovereign conclusively. To do so import- ant an act would require, at least, a distinct and special power, containing an express authority to bind the principal definitely, without tlie right of review, or the necessity of ratification on his part. This is not tli4tordiiiary or prudent course of business. Ministers always act under instructions which are confidential, and which, it is admitted, they arc not bound to disclose ; and it is a well-grounded custom, as Vattel olt'erves, that any engagement which the minister shall enter into, is of no force among sover- eigns, unless raiilied by his principal. This is now tho I usage, although the treaty may have lieen signed by plenipotentiaries. — Kent's Corn., vol. 1., p. -IH. A safo conduct or passport contains a pledge of tho I puldic faith, that it shall bo duly respected, and the ' observance of this duty is essential to the character of I the govenmient which grants It. The statute law of I tlic United States has provided. In furtherance of the ' general sanction of public law, tluit if any person shall I violate any safe conduct or passport, granted undei I the authority of the United States, he shall, on coii> EMB 602 EMB Tictlon, h« impritoned not ezceading 8 yetn, Md fined at tho diacratlon of the court. The same punlabment is inHicted Ufion tbnse per- sons who infringe the law of nations, by offering vio- lenco to the persons of eml)a8sadors and other pulilic minbiters, or 1))* l>eing concerned in prosecuting or arresting them or their domestic servants. This is an offenp9 highly injurious to a free and liberal eummuni- cation lietween ditferent governments, and misohicvous in its consequences to the dignity and weil-l>(>ing of the nation. It tends to provoke the resentment of the sovereign whom the eml>assador represents, ami to bring upon the state the calamities of war, 'i'be English Parliament, under an impression of the danger to the community from violation of the rights of em- bassy, and urged l)y the spur of a particular occasion, carried tho provisions of the statute of 7 Anne, c, 12, to B dangerous extont. That statute prostrated all the safeguards to life, lil)erty, and property, which the wisdom of the English common law had estali- lisheO, It declared that any person convicted of suing out or executing civil process, u|>on an emiwssador or his domestic servants, by the oath of the party, or of one witness, (>efore tlie lord chancellor and the two chief justices, or any two of them, might have such penalties and corporeal punishments inflicted ujion him a.1 the judges should think fit. The preamble to the statute contains a special and inHamod recital of the breach of i.ie law of nations which produced it, l>y the arrest of the Russian minister. The ('ongress of the United States, during the American war, discovered great solicitude to maintain Inviolate the obligations of the law of nations, and to have infractions of it punished in the only way that was then lawful — l)y the exercise of the authority of the legislatures of the several States. They recom- mended to th ' States to provide expeditious, exem- plary, and adequate punishment for tlie violation of sale conduct!^ or passports, granted under the authority of Congress, to the sulijects of a foreign power in time of war; and for the commiiassiulors and other pulilic ministers. — Kk.nt's Com., vol. i., p. 180. A marriage, celebrated in any given p'ice, must l>e celebrated according to the law of the pli>"j, and l)y a person whom the laws designate, unless ilie person by whom, or tho premises in which, 't is celebrated, pos- sess the privileges of exterritoriality. Tlierefore it ma}- be, according to the opinion of Ixird Stowell, that the presence of a foreign sovereign sojourning in a friendly country, or that nfhit minuter firnipdeittiary, or the act of a clergyman in the chapel or hotel of such sovereign or his embassador, may give legality to marriage l>etween subjects rf his, or niemlwrs of his suite. According to the American view, the courtesy lietween the United Stiites and foreign nations, in mu- tually ( xempting from duty iirticlcs imported liy cer- tain of their i Mic officers resilient alM'oad, decs not extend beyond ministers or chnrgh i . 'ng the rights, interests, and dignity of the sovirelgi- ■ .•*nte l>y wliom he t* delegated, his persi com- plete exemption from the local jurisdictioi, , ' > fiction of extraterritorialit}r hM been invented, by which the I minister, though actually in a foreign country, ta iup> posed still to remain within tlie territory of his own sovereign. He continues still subject to tbu laws of his own country, which govern Ids |>erHonal ttatut and rights of property, whether doriveni,, vol, ill,, sect. 252, As earners by water were liable at common law to the same extent as land carriers, and as their respon- sibility was more extensive, and their risk greater, from the facilities for the commission of acts of fraud and violence upon the water, it was deemed in P^n- gland a proper case for legislative interference, to a Guarded and limited extent. The statute of 7 Georgi I., ch, ]fi, and 2C George III,, ch, 86, and &3 Georg« III., ch, 159, exempted owners of vessels from resiHin- sibility, as common carriers, for losses by fire, and provided further that the owner should not I.e lialile for the loss of gold, silver, diamonds, watches, jewels, or precious stones, by robbery or embezzlement, unless the shipper inserted in the bill of lading, or otherwise declared in writing to the master or owner of tho ves- sel, the nature, quality and value of the articles ; nor should he be liable for embezzlements, or loss or dam- age to the goods arising from any act or neglect, without his fuult or privitj, beyond the value of tlie ship and freight; nor should part owners in those cases be lialde beyond their respective shares in the ship anil freight, — Kkmt's 6'o»i,, vol, ii,, p, 789, Bmboulng, the forming of works in relief upon any substance, whether by cutt'i g, 't,i 'tping, casting, or any other method. In sculptuie particularly, ac- cording as the figures are more or less prominent, they are said to be in alto, mezzo, or basm-rciievo ; or high, intermediate, or low relief. Emboaaing of Leather. Bean 1 ' .ments in basso-relievo for decorating the extei i .. i < ' r t .iioriora of buildings, medi'.llions, picture-frii"ies, c iiiet '>"';, etc., havt .Gently made by the pn.A.>ure of n,.- tallic bloii,s t.ni, dies, for which invention a patent was obtoinnd in June, 1839, by M. Claude Schnth. The dies are made of type-metal, or of the fusible alloy with bUmutb, called d'Arcet'a. ThakAtbok^is beataa ' 'eittti clcthj EMB Itt BMB (oft In watm , tta«n wning, preasod, rolled uid fulled aa It were, by workinK it with the hands till It kecomea thicker, nnd c|iilte aiipple. In this atnt* it la laid on the mold, and forced Into alt it« cavities lijr means of a wooden, bono, ur copixr tool. In other rases the emboasin); la performed l>y the force of a press. The leather, when it han liecnme dry. Is easily biken off of the mold, however deeply It may be Inserted Into Its crevices, by virtue of Its elasticity. A full detail of all the prdc'psiea la given in Mkwton's Journal, vol. xl., p. m. Emboaaing Wood {Botmge, Fr, ; Erhabtntt, Arbeit, (tor.), raised ilgureg upon wood, such as are employed in picture-frames and other articles of omo- mentnl caljtnct work, are usually produced by meana of carvinj;, or by casting the pattern In plaster cf Paris or other composition, anil cementing or other- wise fixing It on the surface of the wood. The former mode Is expensive ; the latter Is Inapplicable on man}' occasions. The invention of Mr, Streaker may be used either by Itself, or in aid of carving ; and de- pends on the fact, that if a depression Imb made by a olunt instrument on tlie surface of the wood, such de- pressed part will again rise to Its original level by sub- sequent imnipralon In the water. The wood to bn ornamented having been first worked out to Its pro- posed shiipo. Is in a state to receive the drawing nf the pattern ; tliis licing put on, a blunt steel tool, or bur- nisher, or die, is tb be applied successively to all those parts of tlie pattern intended to be in relief, and, at the same tinni, is to be driven very cautiously, with- out breaking the grain of the wood, till the depth of the depression is equal to the Intended prominence of the flgare. The ground Is then to be reduced by planing or filing to the level of the 'leprcssed pan ; after which, the piece of wood being placed in water, either hot or cold, the part previously depressed will rise to Its former height, and will then form an em- bossed pattern, which m.'.y be finished by the is al operations of nrving. Bmbou iTt) (Fr.), signlfles the mouth of a rlvoi ' it is used also for the mouth-piece of a musical Instru- ment. -. Bmbroiderlng Machine. {.Machine a broder, Fr. ; Stccl-masrhine, Get.) This art has been till of late merely a liundicraft employment, cultivated on account of Iti elegance by ladies of rank. But a few years a|,() V.. Ileilmann, of Mulhause, invented a ma- chine of 1 most ingenious kind, which enables a fe- male t" cml>roIder any design with 80 or 100 needles us accurately and expei'Uiously as she formerly -ould do with one. A brief account oi this remarkable in- vention will, therefore, I'e acceptable to many readers. It was displayed at the national exposition of the prod- ucts iif Industry ri Paris for 1884, and was unques- tionably the object which stood highest in public estctm ; for whether at rest or in motion, it was always surrounded with a crowd of curious visitors, u(i. liring the figures which it had formed, or Inspecting it') n < ments and Investigating its mechanism. l:<0 ■!> ' U- were occupiid in copying the same pattern witl. wrt'ect re^ulority, oil set in motion by one person. — UnB'8 Dictionary nfArtt. Bmbroidery is the name given to the art of working flgun-s on stufTs or muslins with a needle and thread. All embroider}' may bo divided Into two Bortt, embroiderj- on sluffa and on mtulin : the former Is used chiefly in church vestments, housings, stand- ards, articles of furniture, etc., and Is executed with silk, cotton, wool, gold and silver threads, and some- times ornamented with sii:nngles, real or mock pearls, precious or imitation stones, etc. The latter Is em- ployed mostly in articles of female apparel, as caps, collars, roIdery. At a later perhnl, this art was Introduced Into Greece, proli- ably by the Phrygians (by some considered us tlie In- ventors) ; and to such a degree of skill did the Grecian women attain In it, that llielr i)erforman('es were said to rival the finest paintings. In our own times, tht art of embroidery has been cultivated with grout suc- cess, more especially in Germany and France ; and though for a long (leriod it was practiced only liy tha ladle* of these countries as an elegant accumplishment, It is now regarded us a staple of traffic, and furnishes employment for a large )>ortion uf the population. In Enghind also It apfiears to have taken deep root, as it now forms an accomplishment of which almost every lady is in possession. About seven years ago a great impetus was given to the cultivation of this art, both on the Continent and in England, by the invention of a machine which enables a female to execute tiie most complex patterns with 130 needles, all In mution at once, aa accurately as she could formerly do with one. But as no account of this remarkable Invention whkh we might give could be intelligible without the aid of illustrations, which would lie out of place in this work, we mu:it refer the reader to Dr. Ure's liictionary of Aril, etc., for full Information respecting it. One such machine, with 130 needles, is estimated to perform dail> the work of 16 hand embroiderers employed In the ordinary way. Many of them are now mount- ed in Germany, France, and Switzerland ; and in ^'^•r u 'er there is one factor)' where they do beau- t.iiil V. . , See the Art of Needlework, edited by t! C .untess of Wilton. Liindon, 1810. — Bhandb, Eney. There is one branch of manufactum connected with cotton embroideries to which it would be wron ' ' not to particularly alliiUn, and that is the embroi' ering of muslins, better known under the commn designation of " sewed muslins." This la compar t- tlvely a new manufacture, having only being flret started In Scotland about the year V^'za. At that period there were only two or three persons engaged in the manufacture; now there are fifty or sixty. The importance of tlils branch may in some measure be estimated trom the fact that it gives employment to a vast number of females :n the rural districts, for whom no other useful work is provided in the intor- "11 s uf field labor. In Ireland alone, where it is pi'ucticed from the Giant's Causeway to Capu Clear, and from St. George's Channel to the Achill and other remote islands, it is a source of great comfort to the female po|)ulatlon, as it enables them to add to the food and clothing of their families %Tithout entail- ing on them any of the evils of the factory system, the work being supplied to them by agents of the large manufacturers scattered over all the country, and executed entirely at their own flresi>les. As the workers are only engaged a portion of their time ut this species of Industry, it is impossible to estimate their numbers ; but It is computed that the amount paid in ."le western counties of Scotland and in Ireland, reaches no less a sum than three quarters of a million sterling annually. Like all other fancy trades, it bos been aabject to its periods of depression, but its prog- ress has been regular, from a total produce of a few tbonsand ponnds s year paid for labor in 1625 to tLs t^c EMR EMI •moant ibove iUtcd, th« gnatett Incrsiue havliiK, bowevor, Ukon plu* •Incii 1H4&. Emerald (Kr. Kmirnuih; (iorm. HnutragH i It. Bmmililo ; IM, Smarmjiliii ; Hp, Ktmrrnlda), A prcdou* (tona in hl^h DUtimatiim. It la a full anil d«op nilor, than which, na IMIny liiia truly atatnl, no'hing can Im mon lieautiful nny inteniin appli- cation, ia rvlVeahed and atrcnKthencd liy the quiet en- livening K^een of the emerald." In I'llny'a time the heat came from Scytbia. Thnae met with in modarn tlireDd'r ' Kceed tho aize of a walnut. Some ■ '.'a inUi li larger ' lie, u.. |ierf«ct, have liocn found, liut they lire extrvmly rare. Nero uaed one aa an eyo-glana in attrvcyinK the camhatii of the Klaiiintorn. Hitherto Ic baa alwayn lieen found iryntalll^ied. iS|mi- clllu gravity from 2-(i to J?". — I'i.iny'h Hut. Anl., Ill), xxxvii., chap. 6 J Th.vmsos'h I'hrmufry. For the laat two ccnturiea and more, the only coun- iry known to yield emeralds Is Peru, where they oc- cur in Santa Vi, and In the valley of Tunen. Heverul large stones have appeared in Kuro|>e. Aliout two years ago I cut one, exceeding two oimcca in weight, for the Kmperor of Morocco, l>ut it was full of iinper- fectiona. The largest specimen known Is a hexagonul crystal, nearly six inches long, anil alwut two in diam- eter. This gem, however snuiil, is so rarely seen perfect that "an emerald without a tluw" bus luisscd into a proverb. A flne stonii nf four carats may lie viili'sd ati!40 or X50, or even more. If very pure. In- ferior stones of one or two carats are sold at from iOs. to 70s. per carat ; and if smnller, and defect' ", at 10s. or 15*. |)cr larat. Kino emeralds are rare, .; in such demand, that a particular suit has lieeu knonn to huvo posscil into the |>osaes!j iiU quntiziffrf. It ia ver}' al' mdant in the island of Naxiis, at CajM- Km- eri, whence it is imported in largo quantities. It oc- curs also in the islands uf .Icrsey and Guernsey, at Almml.'ii, in Poland, Saxony, Sweden, Persia, etc. Its < "lor variea fn m red brown to dark brown ; its apeii.ii gravity is aimut 4'000. It is so hani as to scratch quartz and many precious stones. Ily Mr. Tenant's analysis, itconsUti of alumina, 80; silica, 3; iron, 4. Another inferior k.''ul yields 82 of iron, and only 50 of alumina. We have recent accounts of emer" discoveries in Minnesota; but nearly all that is used at present in the arts conies .ruin Turkey, near ancient .Smyrna. Dr. Lawrence Smith, the Vpicrican geologist, iiiaile a discovery of a ilr|iosit of emery while residing in Smyrna, and he maile sn examina- tion of tho locality in 1817. Dr. Sniilli having re- ,iuricd lii^ discoveriea to the Turkish govenimeiit, a omniii' >n of inquiry was instituted, and the business mn u> med a mercantile form. The mona|>oly of the ciiii of Turkey was rfdld to a mercantile house in Smyrna, and since then the price has diminisheil in the market. The mining of the emery is of the sim- plest character. The natural decomiiosition uf the Toek In which it occurs facilitates its extraction. The rock de< "inposes into an earth, in which the emery is found embedded. Tlie quantity procured under these circumstances is so great tliat it is rarely necessary to explore the rock. The earth in the neighborhooil of the lilock is almost always of a red color, and serves as an indi^Mtion to those who are in search uf the min- eral. Sometimes, before beginning to excavate, the B|iota are sounded by an Iron rod with a iteel point, and when any resistance is met with, th« rod Is rubbiul in contiii't with Urn resisting liwly, and the etl'i« t |iro- duced on the point enables a practiced eye to Awder over it from a sieve. There are iilaiut six degrees of coarse, ness, Sievea with DO and tlO meshes jier linear inch, are in general the coarsest and linent si/.i empbijed. When used by aitizans, tlie entery -paper is commonly wrapiied around a tile or xjip of wood, and applied junt like a tile, witli or without oil, iiccunling to ciriuin- stances, '1 •■ emery-paper cuts more smoothly witii oil, but leaves the Work dull. Kmrrg-cluth only differs from emery-paper in the use of thin cotton clotli liiitead of p.tper, as the niu- teriai U|>on whtch tho emery is Hxed by means of glue. The emery-cloth, when folded aruuiid a Die, does not ply so readily to it as eniory-pa|ier, and is apt to unroll, llenco smiths, engineers, and others prefer einery- pa|ier and einery-r'icks ; but for household and other puriNises, where the bund alone Is used, the greater durubilily nf the cloth is advantageous. Hinery-»tick$ are rods of board, about 8 or 12 inches long, jilaned up square ; or with one side niuivled liku a half-rounded tile. Nails are driven into each end of the stick as tem|Hirary bundles ; they are then brushed over, one at :i Mme, with thin glue, and dublied at ail purti ii I l»M| . I Hicry-iiowder, and knocked at ono I'lid to >hako oil i ii.> excess. Two coals of glue and emery iire gem 'y used. Tho ry-sticks arc much more econ ul than emory-pa|i«r wrapped on a file, which is iiai. to lie torn. Kmiry-mkr consist < of emery mi (cd with a little beeswax, so as to i m .lute a solid lump, with which to dress the edges of imll nd glaiio » liuels. Th'i in- gredients should be thorouj^hly iniiir|sirated by 'tir- riiigthemi\turowhii Hiiid, after whiili it is frequently IMiureil into water, II I thoroiiglily ' 'ailed with the hands, and rolled into lumps befur it lias time to ciKiL Tho eiiiory-cak' is sometime* u|iplied to tho wheels while they arc revolving ; but the moro usual course is, to stop the wheel, and rub in tlie cmury-cake by the hand. It Is afterward smoothed down by tho thumb. Emery-paper, or patent ra/,or-sirop paper, an arti- I le in which fine emery and glass arc mixed with puper pulp, and made into sheets, us in making ordi- nary pa|ier; the emery and gluss are said to constitnto together fiO per cent, of tho weight of the paper, which resembles drawing-paper, except that it has a delicate fawn color. The emory-pupn cmlttrant* itxiwrt ' ithvr to krnlil ioni« eon- ■lilerahln evil, or to Improve or «in«n>t thoir situation. Ihe natural niultlpll'^tlon of man nnil of llii- milrmalii whl"h hn ilomontlciiii-*, and tli« tsmlanry of ImiUi to increaao Imynnil HUch tneana of nulHiUtenr* u may Iw ■•niilly mnila nvallitliln fhr their iiu|iport, have bmn tn all n(jp« tho Krt-iit caiua nf xmlKratlona. When tU« llmkn ami lipnls of tim orcii inra of partlrular ilUtrlcta 1«-)(nii to lie m> numeroua timl panture liecaine deflriant, It was an ulivloua rewiiiri'f, in the event of any unoo- ouplcil liuifh lielnK In their vicinity, for a portion of thn trllm to rmlKruto to them. The Hook of (leneala nfforrt« a utrlkiiiK lrntion of what la now atatml. Th« herilii of Aliniliam and I.ot, it ia there 'tated, had »o Krently Incromed, that, there not lii-lti^j Mom for them liolli, conti'Hta took place lietween their aorvanln. Wh«reu|H>n Ahrnhum >uld to Lot, " la not the whole land lieforo thee ? Separate thyHelf, I pray thee, from mo. If ihou wilt take the left hand, then I will ^o to the rinht j or if thou il-part to the ri^ht hand, then F will no to the left. Then Lot ( lioae hlni all the plain of .Ionian, and I..ot Journeyed eimt ; and they aepa- rated themaelveii, the one from the other." (Chap, xlll. 8 11.) f'rmale tMifrmtt.— Owing tn rauaea which an too olivloH^ to need lieln« pointed out, the greater number of eniij;rantH, eapeilally of tlioiio who no to new iiettlc- mentx, ((nuint of maicn ; and the want of a projicr proportion of fomaion In often pnulnrtlve of tiie worat I'onsequenceii, Inasnun li, too, an tho fenialo jmrtlon of the population In old "(■(tied countrten U Kenoraliy that which 1.1 most in cxcchk, it In plain that every facility and enoniragement uliould lie given to the eni- IgrHlion of witralitt; and it in to lie hoped that they will not relax In their lienevolont lalmrs till tho wldodlnpropor- tion which now (1H.'>7) exi.stn between the soxea in that continent be materially reduced. The application of ateani to the pnipulHion of vea- sels nnd en from firoiit llritain. The vast majority of the (J. n;i. ;i cniigranta arc destined for the I'nited .Stnt ■■<, w', .i- (iiey occupy extensive districts, and have est .b|l.(!iril tiiemaelves in great numliers. The .Slates has" ibo become, since ]K:t.>, tlie principal resort of the cniigrunta from tho Ignited Kingdom, more particularly of those from Ire- land i though largo numlicrs of the Knglish and Scotch emigrants, with a smaller number of Irish, continue to resort in preference to (;anaoorer classes to lind, without assistance, their way to this new KI Dorado. .Vnd we may add, that to the natural diffl- cutties in the way of emigration to Australia have lioen superadded thoso which arise from an extrava- gant minimum price of Ave dollars an acres having been set cm all waste land in that continent, even though it pliould reiiuijre three, four, or five acrea to pasture a tingle sheep Next tn the United Kingdom and nermany, China furnishes the greater number of over-sea emlgranta A Chliieae population has long been settltd in large numtters in many parts of the (^Btern Archipelago, where they am dlitingulshml by their industry hdiI good order I and recently many thousands of them have found their way to Califomia anl<>nt»l )!»l»lid. All ulbn y\ntmt. Toisl. 1,90* 192 i,08f IMia 8.»7n 9,091 . *. . 118 tisto bil; »,T»7 1II,3M) AS7 20,684 IKXH iMna 12,429 .... 22-2 27,787 IHIB ItH.Mt 1».«74 .... 579 IM.T87 isio U.Vil l),74A .... 1,068 8.5,729 IHtll la.v.w 4,9lt8 S84 18,291 IHW 16,ni8 4,1117 279 8o.42» WHX 1I,>I.V1 B,n)l2 168 16,MI t>i»4 N,774 n,1.12 9V 11,025 IHM 8,741 ^m "488 114 14,8»1 li.2fl Vi.hlH i.im 908 116 »0,»0(1 IS^T 12,1)4.'' ' 1 .^26 715 lit 98,iKia 1 IfHH 12,l>s4 J.SI7 1,I)B« 188 36,092 ' 1 tlM» |il,Hil7 l,'.,f)78 »,ni« 19T 81,1»H 1 I.SIM) ilo,n74 24,HS7 1.242 2M 56,907 IHHI f>s,(i«7 211,4 18 1,601 114 88,160 IWt'i c)t;,)i;iii 82,H7a 8,788 19U 1118,140 mm •JS.SdS 29,109 4,01)8 517 62,527 IHH4 4(MH)0 8:1,074 2,Sl)fl 28S 76,2«J tSDA lB,ft7il 211,720 i.son 825 44,478 IHHfl M:m\ 87.774 8,124 2'.>8 75,417 1SH7 aii,-s4 88.770 5,0.%! 820 72,084 IMHH 4.577 14,882 14,0.'l 292 88,229 INW) ia,6ft8 88,.Vta 15,786 227 62,907 IS40 112.298 40,042 15,850 l,ll.^8 90,748 IM! 8H,I84 4.\017 82,625 2.786 113,699 ima M.I28 e8,>4A2 8,584 1,885 128,844 \n l'*S,28:i 28,904 4.887 24S0S9 1 IN49 41,807 219,4R0 82,091 6,.59fl 999.498 IKAd 82,imi 228,078 16,087 8,778 980349 1S.M 42,il(« 287,8.^7 21,582 4,472 81«,96fl IN.V2 my,n 241,201 87,424 4,208 868,764 829,987 8,798,699 ngdom : I8SH Total Ave Mfin 280,KSS 61,401 8,129 55,144 Xu7i,2:l0 2,295,466 ■ 8»1,680 ago annua cmlKralloi 1 n-om the Unlteil Kl From K15 to 1858 .. 97,269 For 111 1 five years emllug isj ■8. 828,002 Kmi ifTUlion to A mrrica. lieix-rl . from the Stalf />«- imrlmnil. Ihjnrlmfnt n/Slatf, I8|)i!._ln compliance with the act of Congress of March 2d, iHli), regulating passenger ships iind vessels, I have the honor to com- municate herewith the annual statement of the num- ber and designation of passengers arriving in the United .States liy sea from foreign countries, during tho year ending December 111 , 1855, compiled from returns made to this Department by collectors of cuatums pursuant to provisions of said act. Tlio niousiirea adopted by the Department in IHoil with a view to obviate tho previous absence of uni- formity, and to secure accuracy in tho returns of col- lectors, on wliich tho statement ia based, and which were referred to in the letter that accompanied the last annual stateineni. and in that whicli accompanied the ]>roceding one, have conduced most favorably to tlie desired end. Previously to tho statement of 1854 but two roca pitulations were appended to tho retnms, namely, ono embracing the "arrivals" in each State during the year; the other tho number of passengers belonging to each " country." The statement now submitted will be found to embrace rocapitulations exhibiting the following facta : 1. Arrival of passengers in 1855. 2. Country where bom. 3. Country where they mean to reside. KMI 006 EMI 4. Afaiad Ma. •, (tninptiUm. '• i t, I'M on th« tojtff. 1. Vnmf»tMi» aUUnunt ihowtnK '!>* counlriti lu wkloh «•?• iMirn panMngtra arriving in tl)« llnlud MM** frnm f>ir«l||n rauntrlM, from Dtctmbar 31, \Htfi, Ut IttvcnilMr III, IHAA. N, riftn|Mr«tlvii nUUnMnt iliowInK tli« •((*> ■"■I ■■^ (if |>««n charat'terUed by greater |irecl*luii during the pa«t year than beretuforu, there la atlil ruom for Iniprovcment j and tbn preaent atutement will, lllie It* iiredcicnaora for the laat two year*, li« trun*mlttiid tu them with a view to aid them In cauaing their return* tu conform tu th* requirement* of law. I buva the lionor tu bo ilr, your olicdient *ervunt, W. L. M,vn( Y. Hon. N. 1'. Ilaak*, Jr., Hpvaltar of the lluuae of Iti'iiruatiut- atlrva. Hulijoined are the more Impurtant tublea avcompa- nylng tlie Hecnttury'r letter: , IN TUa llNITBD l*TATt* IN IMS. nrfi fl*io|i*hlr*. MMHrhnaiitta . . HMmIo l<(and j»»w V;l>anla Hartland Vl»«lr.l* , W'irth' *rn||M... •»iiiOii(;»fol((ia... laMlna il«. YeW.. rini quarter. |lM,P>4 quarlar. Tklnl (4Nan«r. 1,1M roarik qawwr. MaUi. rI71 4».«t7 RfMland 5.175 Wele* 1,171 iitnH Hrllaln 1.351 MrHlah Amrrlea... 7,7*1 Franmi MM HiMh 951 l^iftNfal MB NwlliKirlanil 4,488 1,0M M B • Cguiurtra. Total, Norway h Sweden. 811 Houth America... Ill Meileo 410 Central Ainerloa.. 1 China Aia Weat IndlA* 887 Axoree. ........... 175 Soclnty lalanda. . .. 1 Sandwich Uland*.. 7 Eaat Indlea 8 AnitraJU 4 Ada 8 Madeira Island*. . . 1 Africa 14 United (Mates 1»,5M Notitated ' l45 Total 180,47* ClllieniortbeU.H. 1«,AW tinnmy M,ll> f'oland 4*1 Allen* 100,877 No, III— CorNTBT wuaaa tuet hian to Bkbidi. IJliMH Hlatea 106,«17 In otbor roantrioa t,185 Cannitf tl propeaed retldenoe not itatad 18,(74 TuM 180,47« Xo. IV.— AuB AND Sax. Af>, Melas. r«Mi». •lawil, ™*'- 1 Vtiitl t /ear*. . . . DHweea »*tn.. 10,117 9,819 li,VIMt 9.100 8,888 18,088 " 10 "18.. »,(»05 7,071 15,07* " l»"».. 10,008 17301 87,810 ! *"»•• HIM 15,418 89,6n<|«red frnm the original authoritlee In • fnrin anmewliut mure ayallalile i Cniran HrATrV KaTtiaw nr AaatTAM raftM AaaoAD. Y.»<. Am«H<'Wi« uid ForalyiHn. t • " 879,481 879,798 88H,8ta 497,MVI 900,n77 IW^-ilftO iN«o-iH4n July, 1840— July, 1h4I 1H4» 1848 Jan. l-Ue«,SI, 1844 1848 1»4« 184T IM* SS:::::::. 1861 18M 1888 18M IsflB 8iM,»t» 7il'i.««» SH,N)4 ini.loT 7M07 88,887 1H0,7R9 178,888 188.978 iM«,lHn II9I«,^48 8'A<81 4flh,HllH 89Hk470 4(N),777 480,474 980,476 Wo alao add the followInK talile, which ahowa the rapid advance of the (ierman omiKrutiim to the United Stntca. tl|> to IH.'il, it in fnim « |)u|«t hv Dr. (iuebler In llubnpn'H Stiitiatik ; uiid includcn only th<>rti4. The yuiira 1N.V2 nnd IHriil are (Vom our ((ovomnient return*, and imlude nil arrivnin. 'Ihuni in a connldcralde hUHlnens done in bringing Oemian emlgrarta t'l rngland for theiu to take pna««Ke thence to America ; othen aall rrom Ant- werp aiirl llarra. Oaebler'a NtatUtIca after 1M4A are made up from the retuma of different aea-purta : KmuaAan to rna llaiTau Htatm rauM OiaiiAar. 1819 4,700 IHD) 9,900 1N91 9,400 18*9 9,800 1198 9,7(M) 1894 4,am 1898 4,HCK) 18M ll.UOO 1897 9,800 1898 H,UIIO 1899 18,1100 1880 no return. 1881 IMOO |h8'J 94,900 IHIUI 90,mHl I>i84 94,IK)0 INJlft 17,000 IH88 94,()(MI 1887 88U00 1N88 90,000 !>«• 98,000 IH40 98.18)0 1*41 99,000 lH4t 90,000 1N«| 98,000 1H44 48,701 XtM 87,9(«( 1844 ,,,.108,889 1S4T 110,484 l>t48 )t8,8ll 1><4« 88,197 iNfiO 89,888 IMBI 118,190 rrom IT. 8. Kspnrta. 1889 I44.N94 1NS8 141,998 IHM 9I\000 1888 71,898 the The arriviilrt fmm Oermany and rrutala In l^vemmvnt taldea are here uddetl tc>){ethi'r. Agrt i\f Umigrantt. — The following tiilde, which waa among thoHe aent to Congreaa by the State De- partment a few dnya aince, ha* not till now been pul>- liahcd. It givea the detaila of a mutter which hax l)oen a good deal diacuaacd, the age and chance of life of tho furrignera who arrive here : CuurABATivk Btatkhkiit auowiNO ma Aoa anii Hix or 1'AMrxnr.aa AnaiTixo in xna Uxiteu Btatiu raoii FoaiiuH Coi'NTRiaa, raou Dao. 81, 18A9, to Ukc. 81, 1868. The following table hIiuwh tho immigration at Now York for tho luMt four youra, with monthly compari- lonx : Monlhi. mu. IHM. lltu. IBU. January February Mareh... April 4,00 1 ll,9.^8 9,ftM,'S 98,tJM8 80.'il9 46.87S 99,^1H 88,6.19 80,'.jHS 28,'iOl 81,4»JJ 17,194 9!44,94S l.\M4 4,448 8,7ftS 81,148 M,u7H aft,H07 118,947 811,418 98,789 SH,li7^ 90.976 98,898 819,998 7,4t(a M»8 9,089 10,195 94,177 19.498 18,716 9,180 1 1,706 18,849 7,488 9,860 188,988 9,844 9,994 4,884 8,995 19,006 90,094 1^846 17,988 14,078 16,986 16,746 4,987 141,878 j€;:::::::;: July AuKUSt Hiptcmbor October November December Total Tho proportion of Irish and Oermana arrived during the year 1856 appears from the following table : I Iibh. January .... February... March April May Juno July August September.. October November.. December . . Total. 8h4 998 1,040 8,2:!7 8,618 6,015 6,068 ^090 4,988 6,691 6,901 1,888 48,998 648 444 1,905 2,290 8,803 6,045 ^0OB 7,789 6,247 7,616 7,844 _Jj941 86,846 _Tol«]^ 9.S44 2.224 4.884 8,296 19,006 90,024 16,848 17,288 14,078 16.0S6 16,745 4,287 141,679 IjiBt year there waa an unusually nmall amount of emigration, owing to the war, the drafts for the army and navy, increased employment at home, and the check given to emigration to the United States by tho stringent American regulations and the political objec- tions to Catholics and the Irish, and to naturalization, wlilch hud b' *';i' freely granted. The employ- ment of mar. ^ ur^ ' ' .'ers now disengaged fmm till' trauKport vTy\iie .ind ic iced fares, coupled with the proBporon< '•i > i iC,'I ' lo i56, but is much lesx '*, The following are I8i 1810— 1S<" 1, 1820—1880 IH Al86 1880—1840 .M 1,000 1840—1860 1,(;78,888 1881 989,601 1859 800,909 1888 284,946 1864 819,998 1866 188,283 1856 141,916 The tide of emigration during tho year 18fi6 did not set in Ktoadily until June and .luly. The following ahows the numlier of arrivals and the proportion of emigrants : CoiinlHt.1. ArrlT«li. Ireland 44,090 Germany 85,888 Kn^lanil 98,681 Scutlaud 4,67s Waloa 1,876 France 9,981 Bpnln 824 Switzerland 2,788 Holland 8,187 Norway 488 Sweden 918 Denmark 471 Italy 6»0 From the want of coal, Ireland is ill-fitted for manu- facturing industry ; and from the nature of itn soil and climate, it is much better suited to pari tge than to tillage. In 1854 the further reducti' i .it it- .• 'v tlon by one or two millions, by emlgi„tion wad . j- sidered favorable to its well-being. Cnantriea. ArrlTftlH. Portugal 20 Belgium 885 West Indies 226 Nova .Sentlik 80 Sardinia 490 Souih America,... 161 Cansila 67 China. 8 Sicily 10 Me.xlco 18 Kiiaalo. 6T Turkiy 4 Greece i^ sJEi EMI 698 van. Jiniuiy FtbnuiT.. . . Much April Miy Jane. Jnly Angoit Saptember . October November. . December. . Total... 8,008 8,844 8,008 8,844 8,fiT6 4,684 4,tM f,'iS5 «,S61 Ii<,no6 M19 2^084 4,881 15,848 8,880 17,858 8,489 14,0.%g 8,978 1«,986 8,ftl8 10,745 1,800 4,M0 89,819 Km!|n«ntf. Total. 141,91fi 4,807 7,1M 18,479 8fi,l»7 ^^)4S 20,076 !1,1S8 17,497 20,9S9 80,868 6^_ 18as884 The following tables, in connection with the above figures, will \>e found interesting : '*!» PER CKNT. lMCBE4aR OP PoPVLATIUN IH TUB UNrTKD STATK8. 1800—1810 7,889,884 Increase about 40 per cent 1810— lt80 9,6.'«,181 " " 80 1880—1880 18,868,080 " " mi " 1880— 1S40 17,669,469 " '• 88} " 1840—1850 88,191,870 » " 84 " TuK PIB CKXT. Ikorcase uf Iumiobatio.i in tue United Statbi. 1800—1810 70,801 Increase about 1 percent 1810—1880 114,006 " ' 1880—1830 186,0.S« " " 1880— 1840 670,000 " " 1940-1860 1,678,888 " " 7 Thf Emigration of \%bG. — The following tnlile, show- ing the destination uf emigrants who landed at Castle Garden, New Yoric, during the year 18S6, and the amount of cash means they possessed ut the time of ar- rival, ij made up from the official table prepared by the Superintendent of the Commissioners of Emigration : OctiioAtloo. Maine New Hampshire .... Vermont Massachusotts nbode Island Conncctlcat NowYork New Jcricy PennsylTonta Ohio Indiana Illinois Michigan Wisconsin Iowa California Delaware Maryland., Virginia North Carolina South Carolina Georgia Florida Alabama. Louisiana. Texas Arkansas MIssonrL MIsslsslppL Tennessr 11 2 427 1,674 8,686 2 11 1 2,118 141,686 CMh ni«Aiu. (8,986 60 2.778 81 5,S57 60 162.9^1) iA 2'J,921 60 99,.'W1 89 2,10l,6,'>() 60 295.480 66 694,785 4.8 681.687 81 160,184 72 1,400,488 43 .881,087 83 1,984,125 10 842.688 75 167,608 26 4,108 60 no,7(M 28 2,M98 48 8,829 60 8,946 ,10 8,207 00 668 00 1,707 51) 1(V»8 22 8,826 75 4,709 00 109,122 19 1,880 00 11,806 50 25,817 76 84.691 69 a,288 00 Sm 00 66,(y48 00 82,086 88 652,823 86 15 00 1,107 (JO 1,728 60 . 1,827 56 7 50 100 68 67 41 110 63 20 00 120,979 93 80 110 57 86 AT«>1lf« por head. "»26 98 ■ 15 66 21 4a 20 68 22 09 48 44 88 17 91 12 59 18 96 80 108 80 126 63 100 44 148 88 148 94 215 48 40 64 52 16 44 48 68 02 60 26 174 01 65 68 66 91 68 SO 109 U 1.16 66 1U2 .16 98 67 68 61 65 08 86 88 288 8L- 150 00 181 00 88°83 70 i\ •9,»I8,1M 00 I $6.8 08 I The total nnmlier of arrivals during the yesr is aljout six t!iousand more than the previous year, and the proportion of cash means to each passenger is con- sidenble larger than during the lost five months of 1856. The account of cash means was not kept until after the first seven months of 185S. The number of vessels liringing emigrants lost year was 679, from 21 different ports of Kurope, and not one serious accident has occurred during the disembarkation. Some emi- grants, ill-udvised by interested parties, have declined to avail themselves of the facil!ti<>s aflforded by the Commissioners of Emigration, and have consequently l>een plundered in various ways, sometimes irremedia- bly. The governments of Hamburg and Bremen have made it a penal oft'ense to solicit or book emigrants for inland travel in foreign countries, and it is to be hoped that other European governments will follow their ex- ample. Since the 22d of August lost a system of aiding destitute emigrants baa l^ecn established, which hag proved highly beneficial. Since that date in 185,5, 210 families were assisted to the amount of $2,<')n9 25 ; in 158 the advttnce,s have already l)een repaid, amounting to $1,456 25. The following is a list of arrivals during two weeks of January-, 1857, only: Jan Vtual. Henry Clay..., Columbia Victoria Fidelia Palestine Calhoun Ked Kover Wui, Nellson... Wm. V. Moses, BL Nlctaola.1.... Orpheus Swlticrlanil Northampton . . Union Germanla Gauntlet Liverpool., London.... Liverpool., I^nilon.... Liverpool. . Havre Bremen. . . Liverpool. Lontlun.... Bremen... Havre Niimbar of paMotifcera. 219 418 183 260 119 230 153 808 880 166 820 808 116 49 77 67 .8,260 The Dtatinaiion of Emiijranis. — The following table shows the destination and amount of money possessed by all the emigrants who arrived nt New York during the eleven months previous to July 30, 1856 : Dullnallon. »\\ New Knglsnd States Klfleen Slave States Mid D. C. New York New ticrscy Pennsylvania Ohio Indiana Illinois Michigan Wisconsin Iowa California MInnewta... Kansas Utah Oregon Total Total of the Free States and Territories £inlflranli. 8,148 8,256 89,943 9,272 9,421 6,117 l,i)09 7,718 2,887 10,1)00 1,856 806 806 3 1,829 1 AnMiint of thetr Ca*h Cjipltal. $121,528 01 194,888 78 1,291,028 09 214,956 79 646,088 78 479,683 90 101,861 63 698,456 81 199,860 80 1,045,661 88 248,8:16 40 166,126 18 85,166 OO 188 00 66,670 93 10 00 106,707 $6,898,869 64 108,461 1 16,208,480 SI Of late years (185S— 1857) there has been more immigration to tlie State of Texas than fomierly, especially by Ucrmuns, wlio liuve formed lar\;e settle- ments in several counties in the western portions of the State, where land can l>o had at 60 cents to $1 per acre, and where the climate and !!oiI are favorable. Emioratiom a!«i> Immioh.vtion. — The following from IlUBSKn's '^ Jdhrhucher" for 1854, gives the des- tiiittticns of natives of flcrmany embarking from the ports of Hamburg i>nd Bremen ; DMIlaatlon. 1841. I ISM. I IMS. J. United States. .... 88,287 i88,66» :82,120 A!,481 44,681 l7o,ttH4 British America.. All other places. 7,8521 1,8221 iliel 50;l 1,671 IJ.^IJ l.sn^j 1^44 Total [41,810 ,86,682 ,84,249 ,111868 49,778 J80,46T 647 I 4,948 ■1,594] 4,.' 85 r«1i Am ll joini EMI 1_WI. r7o,ii»« 7 4,948 4 J 4,.' 86 I 2'si),4«V i 800 EuoiATioic rBOK Obbat BEiTAnr, EMI Yaara. To North Aourlcancoloolei. To the United SUUoi. 'ToAtulnliu Colonlei end New ZeahDd. To eU other placet. Total. Numlxr. Kate p«r oeot, to whole emltrrmtlon. 1886 8,741 19,818 12,648 12,034 18,307 80,574 63,067 66,839 28,808 40,060 18,678 84,226 39,884 4,677 12,668 82,293 88,164 64,128 28.613 29.924 81,^08 43,439 109,080 31,063 41,367 82,961 1,197 842,893 6,661 7,068 14,626 12,817 16,678 24,887 23,418 82,873 29,109 88.074 26,720 87,n4 86,770 14,882 88,636 40,642 46,017 63,863 23,835 48,660 63,688 82,239 142,154 133,233 219,460 923,078 68,143 1,636,467 87-28 88-79 61-37 49-13 60-35 48-78 23-16 81-87 46-65 48-89 60-07 60-09 61-05 48-14 68-91 44-79 87-96 49-76 49-68 61-77 62-61 68-88 66-04 76-87 7327 79-48 91-67 63-65 486 903 T16 1,066 3,016 1,243 1,661 8,788 4,098 9,800 1,860 8,134 6,064 14.021 16,786 16,850 82,026 8,631 8.47S 3,229 330 2,347 4,949 28,904 82,101 16,087 2,962 204,836 114 116 114 186 197 204 114 106 617 28.3 825 898 886 292 227 1,953 2,786 1,886 1,831 1,378 2,830 1,828 1,487 4,837 6,490 8,778 786 40,820 14,391 80,900 83,008 36,093 81,198 68,907 88,160 108,140 62,627 76,222 44,478 76,417 72,084 88,223 62,207 90,748 113,692 128,344 67,212 70,636 93,.W1 129,361 268,270 348,089 299,498 880,849 1826 1827 1828 1889 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1835 1886 1887 1388 1889 1840 1941 1842 1848 1844 1846 1848 1847 1348 1849 1S,V) 1861, to March 8l8t Total 53,086 2,624,070 Whether the foreign immigration can be liopt up very long at icn present higli figure must b« doubted. The wars in Europe, whioli it was tliouglit would checic the tide, have, however, had no elfec-t as yet. The numtier arrived in New Yorlc for tlie quarter ending Marcli illst, 1854, was 29,023, against 29,657 in the corresponding quarter of 1853. Tlie following table shows the occupations of the eniiu -rants from England in 1854 and '55 : IK-l. 1S65. niai-kstnlllis and farriers 1,674 881 Brozlorii. tlii8inithn. and M'hltosmUbs 818 148 Brick ami tile inakors, poturs, etc Ill 82 Bri<-k]ayi'rs.iiiafluii9,nlasturcrMan(l8latur.'^ 8,0S4 1,314 Builders 69 86 Cal>lni.'t-..iakors and upholsterers 182 81 Carpeiitoi-s aitd Joiners 6,1^ 2,641 Curvi-ra and )! Ulers 66 64 Coaeh-nmkcr.% etc 60 26 Coal miners 177 62 Coopers 269 171 Enxlncers 817 235 Millwright" 86 10 Miners and quarrymen 4,112 1,678 Painters, pluiubors, paper-hangers and { «„. «., Itlazlers > Sawyers 213 141 Bhlpwrlnht* 01 16 Bmlths ((ton- rul) 216 263 Surveyors. 27 82 Turners 46 26 Wheelwrights 196 106 Moehanlcs not before sp^ -Iflod 8,898 2,546 Totol 21,.'147 1 1,1M To tliis statement the following remarks are sub- Joined: The total nuiuber of sucli adults who euti- grated in the two years having been respectively 134,- 789 and ti5,3C3, it follows that the mechanics and skilled workmen connected with the building and con- structive trades, who leave the country, form the pro- portion of about one sixth of the whole number. Fanners, agricultural and general laborers, and those identified with laud, constitute one half of the bulk of emitrrants. Tlie number of foreigners who arrived in the United States, since 1790, may be stated as follows ; the ar- rivals from 1790 to 1820 are given on the outliority of Professor Tucker ; those subsequent to that period, are obtained from the custom-house reports. Abhitals or FoREmMKas in the llNiTEn States. Ye»r«. ArrlvHls. j Yenn. A,rl«.l.. 1700-1800 1800—1810 1310—1820 1820—1881 1821—1822 1822—1828 182*-1S24 1324-1826 132,5—1826 1326-1827 50,000 70,000 114,000 6,998 7,329 0,749 7,088 8,632 10,161 12,413 iNie— 1S.H7 1387—1888 73,088 69,868 5-i,168 81.146 83,604 101,107 76,169 74,607 102,416 147,1161 1888—1389 1889—1840. 1840—1841 1341—1342 184-2—1848 1 184.'i--1844 1.344—1816 , 134.5—1.840. ]g27— 1828 26,114 24,469 1846 1347 220,182 206,837 1828—16-29 ' 1843 (15 moB.) to Sept. 80. 1829—1880 27,158 1849, 1 year to '• 296,983 1880-138! ■28,074 ' 1860, 279,080 1881—1382 46,287 186-i, (16 mos) to Jan. 1.. . 439,137 1882—1883 66.547 l8.5:{, to 1st January 872,r-2.5 1&S3— 1384 66,&S5 1»64, " " 868,648 1S!M— 1S,<» 62,899 1S,V5, " " 186,283 niV- 1886 62,473 1866, " " |141,950 Nativities or Passemgehs abbivi,-2 280 286 466 Year endiii]( Dec. 81, I8A8. Male. 23,ft58 86.716 109,268 34,306 86,096 16,484 Female. 2,474 7 1, "08 88,987 66,624 68,1M2 8,704 Sex not ttated. 25 2,600 2.600 2,958 Lam m lieffard to Kmir/ranto.-^hy the law of the State of New York, passed April, 1857, it is provided that. No person shall. In any city of tills State, solicit emigrant passent^ers or their luggage for emigrant boarding-houses, pns. senper-ortlces, forwarding traiisportatlnn lines, or for steam- ers, giilps or vesaelB boiiiNl or about to proceed to any port not within tills Slate ; or !'jr iiny person or for any company selling, or offering for sale, iiiutKage-tiekots, or oontraoUng or offerini; tJi contract fur passage lu any suoli sleanior, ship or vessel withont a license for that purpose, which shall expire at the •*nd of tme year from its date ; such ilcer.-te may bo is- sued and revoked in the discretion of the Mayor of the city where stieli liecnsQ may have been granted, except in the city of New York, In which such licenst- may lie issued or levoked only hy and in the discretion of tlie ( 'oniiniHHloncrs of i'',iiiigra. lion. Such persons receiving sneh license shall pay the fim of $^0, and give a bond, with two sufticient sureties, in the penally of ♦600. conditioned for tlio good hohavior and the observance to liiiu of tho provisions this act, to the Mayor of tbu city issuing the same, or lu the Ooiumisslonurs of Kml- EMI 800 ENA ^ration, u the easo 111*7 be. The money thna reeelred or collected on MUd bonde iImII be for the benefit of nld city, or of the emlKrant f\ind. Krery person so Uconwd ehall wear In a consptououa place about his person a badge or plate, of ■uch charaotc nd In auch time and manner as said Mayor, In tho city of nuw York, as such CommtsalnncrB shall pre- scrftio, with .hu words, ** I,iccnsed Kmli^nt Runner" in- scribed thereon, with his name and the number of his license. No person who Is not of approTcd good moral character shall be licensed as such runner. Every person who shall solicit alien emigrant passengera or others, for the benefit of board- ing-houses, pasEcnger-oflicps, or forwarding or Iransportntlon lines, or for any steamer, ship or vessel boimd or shout to proceed to any port not within the State of New York, or for any person or company selling or offering for sale passage- tlcketa, or coutracting or offering to contract for passage In any such steam-ship or vessel, upon any street, lane, alley, or upon any dock, pier or public hl^hw«y, or In any other (ilace within tho corporate bounds of any city In this State, or upon any waters adjacent thereto, over which any of said cities may havejunsdlction, without such licenso, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall be pniiiBhud by Imprison- ment In tho county prison or jail not less than throe months, nor exceeding one year. The bonds mentioned In the foregoing sections may he sued by and in the name of the Mayor of the city In which such license may have l)een issued, ami in the city of Ni-w Vurk by and In the nauio of the CommissionorR of Kniigratlun in any court having oognlzanoethen*of: and in casiMif a breach, tho Mayor, or the said C'ommlssiuners, shall recover the full penalty of said bond. AH personsi baggage of emigrant passengers arriving at the port of and destined for the city of New York, shall be landed at the place or pier designated as the landing-place In laid city for emigrant passengera ; and tho captain, owners, and consignees of every ship or vessel arriving at said port with emigrant passengers desiined for aaid city, shall be Jointly and severally subject and liable to a penalty of $fiU for each and every emigrant passenger, or his personal baggage, landed nt any place or pier other than the place or pier afore- said ; which p<-nalt7 shall bo a lien upon such ship or ver.sel, and may h<> enfort^ed and recovered by and In the name of the < "ommlssioners of Kmigration, either by an action or by warrant of attachment, under and pursuant to article first of title eighth of chapter eighth of the first part of the Itovised SUtntes. The Health Oflicer shall give notice in writing to the owner or owners, consignee or consignees, master, commander or person having charge of every vessel having cmigni.it pas- sengera on hoard of such vessel, destined fi.r tlie city of New York, to land such passengers and their personal bsggoge, 11 1 such pier or place In the said clly of New York as has been or may at any time be deaignated specially by the t'onimlH- sionera of Kmigration for the inmling of emigrant passi'ngeis and their personal baggage ; and It shall not tie lawful to land finch passengera or their personal baggagt! at any other pier or place : and the owner and master of any vi-ssel, from which passengers cr their persdual twggage shall be landed, in violation of the proviaions of this section, shsll be subject to a penalty of $.^t) f«jr each and every person or his hnggage io landed In viol.ition thereof; which penalty shiill be forth- with a Hen on such ship or vessel, and may be inimcdtately, upon such violation, sued for, enforced and recovered, with costs of suit. Ic the nal'ie of and by the (.'ommlssloMers of En^llTTition, either by an action in any court having cognl- laccc the' -of, or by an attachment under and pursuant to anieli' first of lillo eighth, chaptfir eighth, of the firel part of the Ki>visi-d Statutes, for which punxjse the satd Comniis- tloners of Kmigration shall forthwith tie creditors of such •hip or vcssi'l, and hsving a direct lien on such ship or vcsm'l. for said iH'Ualty ; the aald i>ennlty, wl;t'n recovered, to be fljiplied and used by the said 1 'ommlssioners for the pur- poses 'or which said (^tmmlssionera are constituted. Eminent Domain. 1'lic rii^lit of the .State to Its pulilii' property or tlomaiii 's nhmluli', and exclinles that of its own sulijetls ns well as other natiunn. Tlie national proprietary right in respect to those tiling's belongint; In private indiviiluiils, or Imlies eorpurnte, within its territurial 1' nits, is nhimliitr, so far as it ex- cluiles that of other nations , Init in respe( t (o the numliorsof tlio .State, it \* jHimmimnl oijy, ami forms wliat i^ ealled tlie eiuineat doiiuin ; that is, the ri^ht. In case of net'e'|i«rty lro has in several Instances been employed to designate a large erient nf tlominum, without reference to ttio title of the ruler or sovereign of a country ; thus wn hear of the empire of Persia, Ilindostan, etc. The doniin- ions of the Queen of England are invnrialpjy riiil" is officially prefixed to tho Parliament of the United Kingdom. Tlie term empire was applied from 1K04 to 1S14 to the dominions of France, including nil the countries then incorjxjratcd with it by tlio coiujuests of Napoleon. Emporium, in a general sense, signifies a city or a place whore extensive cominerclal trunsuctinns nro carried on ; but it is more particularly applied to the commercial centre of a countrj', or tho place to which buyers and sellers, from various cotmtrios, resort. Emp3rreuma (fir. npinvptvu, I h'ne Artr Vilrinr.) di- rects only manganese to be added to the mutter which constitutes tho basis; for azure, zaffer mixed witli cal.'C of brass ; for green, calx of brass with scales of iron, or with crocus martis ; for black zaffer with mang'.nese or with crocus martis, or manganese with tartar; for red, maiiganeac, or calx of copper and crude tartar; for purple, manganese with calx of brass ; for yellow, tartar and manganese ; and for vio- let-colored enamel, manganese with tlirice-caleiiud li^iss ; 111 making these enamels great nicety is reiiiii- site. The general way of making thi' colored enamel is this : Powder, sift, and grind nil tho colors very nicely, and first mix them with one another, and thi'i, with the common matter of enamels ; next set tliein in |iots in a furnace, and when tliey arc well mixed and incor|Kiratcd, C'jst them into voter; when dry, set them in a fi'mace again to melt ; and wlieii melted, take a prui'f of the enamel. If too deep-colored, add more of tho common matter of enamels ; and if too p»le, add more of tho eohirs. Enameling, the art of laying enamel upon metal.s, as gold, lilver, cop|i«r, etc. Enamel ornai;ents fir trinkets, in almost endless variety, may be produced liy the aid of tho blowpij*'. The enamel is usually first drawn out into threads, or reduced to thin lani- inte, to facilitate the proieiia of fusion ; and by the same means the enamel may be laid upon metals. Ver}' elegant ornamental work may be thus produced. Enameling also signifies to piiiiit in enamel. Etuwiel i'dinlitii/ is ])erformed on plates of gold or of copper, but seldom on silver, a» this nu'tal is apt to occasion imperfectio'is in the s .'ace of the er.'iiucl. Copper is tho mctul most generally used for thu pur- ENG 601 ENG lie liv ,) di- wliiili with M'Ulos with witti mill X cif for vio- iili'iiK'il ri'iiui- amel viTj- il tlii'il tlii'iii in ;pil iind Iry, »et iiii'ltpd, it, add if too niptals, ?iit.H fur roiiuo'il simlly I liini- liy tlio mi'tuls. iiliictvl. gold or In n]>t to fnnucl. Iii» jiur- poaa, onameled with the white enamel, on which paint- ing is executed with colors which are melted in the fire, where they talie n brightness and luster like that of glass. This kind of painting is particularly prized 'or its peculiar brightness and ^-ivacity, which is per- manent, the force of its colors not being liable to be effaced or sullied with time, as in other painting, and continuing always as fresh as when it came out of the workman's hands. This method of painting is almost entirely confined to miniature ; larger works being liable to certain accidents in the operation. The most perfect kind of enameling is practiced on plates of gold, the other metals being less pure. Copper, for instance, sometimes scales with the application ; and silver turns the yellow white. To obviate the crack- ing of the enamel, the plates are generally made a lit- tlo round or oval and rather thin. The operation is usually commenced by laying on ii couch of white enamel on both sides of the plate, wliich prevents the metal from swelling and blistering ; and this first layer 8er\'e8 for the ground of all the other colors. The next •tep is to draw out exactly the subject to be painted with red vitriol, mixed with oil of spike, marking all parts of the design verj' lightly with a pencil. After this, the colors (very finely ground, and mixed with oil of spike somewhat thick), are to l)e laid on, atten- tion being given to the mixtures and colors which agree to the diflferent parts of the subject; for which pur- pose it is necessary to understand painting in minia- ture. When the colors are all laid, the painting is to be gently dried over a slow fire to evaporate the oil, and the colors are afterward melted to incorporate tlicm with the enamel, making the plate rod-hot in a fire such as enamelers use. Enohaaing, or Chasing, the art of cmbo.ii'ing or making figures in low relief upon gold, silver, and other metals. It is (iraiticed only on hollow thin works, such as wptclwascs, tankards, cups, etc. The design having been traced on the exterior surface of the metal, the work is hammered upon steel blocks or puncheons introduced within ; and thus the workman proceeds to indent tho metil by the successive appli- cation of tho block and hainmtr to the several [)arts of the design ; after wliii li the work i.< cleared with small chisels and griferi. In this .simple manner a skillful artist is abl ■ to represent foliages, figures, etc., with admirable p-'cision. Bnc^Olopeedia (rf, in, «t/.?.of, a ciide, TUiiei'i itutniilioti), a term i-.early synoi yirio js with CYiA. England, tho -xitiiem, and by fur the most fertile division o' Britain, corresponds in latit'iil.. with Hol- land and tho north of (icrmany, extending from U)° to 65° 45' N. Its figure is nearly triangular, "nd its extent of coast is very great, Inrfh from I ein:^ much indented, and from the sea bounding it on all siiles ex- cept along a width of 70 miles on tho Scottish bonier. The adjacent seas are the (ioriAan Ocean on the eu.-;t, St. (ieorgo's Channel on the west, and tho Engli«li (Channel on the south. No country can b« more for- tunately sit'iated ; its climate is temperate ; its extent is EUllicient 'or its political security ; while its insular imsition not only presents the greatest capabilities of aggrandizement in a commercial sense, l)ut has, tiv ren- dering a great military force unnecessary, in all prob- ability been tho chief ca^se of jireventing the execu- tive branch from usurping alisoluto power, as in the countries of tho Continent. Iti superficial extent had long l)eon a question of considerable doubt, and the dilTerent eatimates varibd no less than 10,000,000 of acres. Mr. Pitt, on the authority of Arthur Young, assumed, in 1708, the superficial extent of England and Wales to be nearly 47,000,000 of acres ; a later calculation by Dr. Bceke, approaching more to accuracy than any preceding one, fixed it at 38,600,000 acres. But accoi-ding to tho census of 1861, the area of the great territorial subdi- visions of Great Britian is us follows, viz. : England, 50,922 square miles ; Scothind, 31,324 ; Wales, 7898 ; and the Islands in the British Seas, 39-1 square miles ; making the area of England and Wales 58,320 stiuare miles, or 37,1)24,915 imperial acres. The forms of the islands are irregular, and do not approach simple geometrical figures, if we except England, which was not inaptly compared by the ancients to a triangle. The area of Great Britain is equal to n square of 299 miles to the side ; England to a square of 220 miles to the side; Scotland to a square of .'7 miles to the side ; Wales to a square of 86 miles to the side ; the Islands in the British Seas to a square of 20 miles to the side. While the area is in the ratio of these squares, or as 51, 81, 7, and 't-10, tho population is nearly as 17, 3, 1, and 1-7 ; England has, on un aver- age, to a square mile 322 persons, Wales 136, Scotland only 92, the Islands in the British Seas 363 persons. While about 21,200,000 acres of territory lie north, and 36,400,000 acres south of 55° of north lati- tude ; the populations on the north and south side of the lino are respectively about 3,173,000 and 17,787,000. llarhort. — Portsmouth, Milford Ilaveu, and Plj - mouth, are the finest harlwrs in England, and are sur- passed by few, if any, in the world. Of these, I'orts- mouth is entitled to the pre-eminence. This noble harbor is about as wide at its mouth as th ' Thames is at M'estminster Bridge, expanding within mto a capa- cious ba.'in, almost sufiicient to contain the whole navy of Great Britain. Its entrance is unobstructed by any bar or shallow ; and it has throughout water ade- quate to float the largest ntun-of-war ut the lowest tides. The anchorage-ground )■< ' xcellent, and it is entirely free from sunken rocks, sand-banks, or any similar obstructions. Tlie western side of the harbor is f'lmicd by the island of Portsea ; and on its Miutli- wcstern extremity, at the entrance to the liarlior, is situated the town of Portsmouth, and its largo and imfiortant suburb of Portsea. Hera arc docks and other eslaiilisl......,its fur the building, repair, iiid out- fit of ships of war, con.slru(^ted upon a very laigo scale, and furnished with every convenieni,^. II. Port.smouth harlior has the additional anil important advantage of opening into the celebrated road of Hiilt- head, lying lietween tlio Hampshire coai-t and the islo of Wight, and forming a safe and convenient retreat for the largest fleets. III. MIITord Haven deep'y Indents tho southern part of Penilirokeshire. It is Oi great extent, a.nd has witliin it many lioys, creeks, ami roads, f ae water is deep, and the nnchorage-grounii excellent! and being lomplctely land-locked, ships lie as safely in it as if tlicy were in dock. IV. Ply iiioiilh. which, after Portsmoutli, is the prini'i|>al naval d^pot of (''ngland, has an admirable double harbor. Tho roadstead in Plymouth Sound has been iiiin h im- proved liy the eonstruilion. at a vast expense, of a stupeiidoiis breakwater more than 1,700 yards in length. This bulwark protects the ships Ijing inside from the cft'ec ts of the heavy swell thrown into the Sonnd by southerly and south-easterly winds, London stands at tho head of the river ports of Great Britain. Considering the limited course of the Thames, there is probably no river that is navigable for large (hips to so gieat a distance from the »on, or whose mouth i" less obstructed by banks. Lon- don is mainly indebted fur the unrivaled magnitude of her eonimcrce to her favorable situation on this noble river ; which not only gives her all the ailsantages of an excellent port, accessible at all times to the largest ENG eos ENG tbipa, but rendc.-s ber the emporiam of the extensive, rich, and populons country comprised in tli- baniii of the rhames. The port of London extends from Lkim- don Bridge to a little below Black wal), and i!i rlivided into the Pool, Limehoiise Reach, (iroenwiih Reach, Blacl(wa1I Reach, and Ilugaby'a Rcucli. The lo^iat- ing trade of London is greater than that of »ny port in the world, and gives it supenority over Iout IHb aciv.'<, and of the dry doo i's 20 ncroa. The entrance of the Mersey is impeded by shoals, but at liigh water may be entered l)y the largest ships. The docks are the finest in the world, and in connection with its .situa- tion and inland communication, give it the posltlbn it holds, of the first port in England, and having, next to New Yorl. the largest co-nmcrcial marlm , The Slersey, now the iiecond commr-ciul river in tho em- pire, is more incommoded with lianks t)m;i the 1 liamea, and is in all rea|)ects infcricr, as a channel of niiviga- tion, to the latter. Still, however, it gives to F.iver- pool very great advantages; and the new channel whicli has recently been discovered in tlic banks prom- ises to lie of much importance in facilitating the access to and from the port. Bristol and Hull are lioth river ports. Owing to the extraordinary rise in the Bristol channel, tlie for- n.er is accessilile even to the lorgest sliips. The Ilum- licr if a good deal impeded by banks; lint it also Is niivlgalile as far as Hull by very Iiirge vessels. Tlio 'I'yne admits vessels of very conslderaliio burden is f^ir a< Newcastle, vhich is one of the most important shipping ports in the empire •Slntistict. — The total length of railways In Kngiand and Wales open for traffic at illst December, IH.O.S, waa 6, HI] niilc^. The numlier of passengers conveyed in that year was Kl,222,!ri,r)fi() had been raised ; the amount raised in 185-.' was £16,39«,993. The number of pas.scngers that traveled by railway in the half year enilcd SOth .June, 18,>1, was -!5,080,31G ; tho amount of receipts from passengers was £4.092,601 ; from horses, carriages, luggage, and mails, £M5,ilij ; from general merchan- dise, cattle, minerals, etc., i:4,H'.!0,82.'j ; total for six months, £9,424,602. See RAri.itdADs. Klcrtric TeUijraph. — Connected with the railways is the electric telegraph, which is now stretched alimg thousands of miles across the length and breadth of the land, or sunk in the depths of the ocean, copveying intelligence between distant points with the rapid- ity of lightning. In ]84fi, an association under ti'o I title of the Electric Telegraph Company, obtained an i •ct of incorporation, and having bought up the variou.^ i patents for electric telegraphs, they sccureil the exclu- sive right of seniling intelligence through the kingdom by this meant. Since then they hi.e been extending their operations in all directions ; but great as are the advantages conferred on the country by this Inven- tion, there is reason to expect that thej- will be vastly Increased and extende,7.V) Hops, pantens of all sorts, etc l.Vi.OOO Fsllow and rape ),.SOO,000 13,817.000 nines — Quarries — /run, Copper, Tin, and Salt lt'«(7.<. — In regard ti, minerals, Knglanil does not yield to any counm- in Europe in natural abundance, and takes the lead of all in tho extent to which theso rude treasures have been converted to jiurposes of utility. En- gland's 'creat supori< rity ties in her coal mines, which are not only iiioro pi.iductive, but more u'' un- tageously situated, than tlio-:e of the ' ontlnent. To the mines along thr coast a ready conveyance is afforded by htr insuhir position, and to those in the interior by her inland navigation. The cimsiimptidn of coal in Englunil for domestic use has been estii cited at 20,000,000 tons annually. Large as this i|uunlity is, and larger as it must be when we add to it the vast consumption of monufactorics, such as iron-works, imp- per-works, salt-works, glass-houses, and the like, there is no reason to apprehend the exhaustion of this precious mineral; the dejith of the coal-beds I;eing very great, and the extent of ground contnining thcin niuountin^' to many hundred thousand acres. The principal coal- beds lie in Northumberland, Uurhioi. Derliyshirc. Staft'ordshirc, and Glamorganshire. The ixirts for shipping coal in largo quantities are Newcastle, .Sun- derland, and Hartlepool. Th>-i motive of the tax on coal exported to foreign countrits was thus neither an BNO fli appnhenaion of eventual scarcity, nor even • csIcuIA' t.ion of revenue, so much as a dread of giving bar Continental neighbors the means of rivaling her mUft' ufacturea. Coal is not wanting in Frince snd Uw many, but the mines are at a distan'ja from watAT' carriage, and «s yet very imperfectly wrouglit ( wItiU for the purpose of domestic fuel the i!ilml)itant8 gif« a preference to wood. After various rhunges, tl)a uk.^ port duty on coal was totally abolished in IHoO, According to the census of 1851 the tuiai number uf persons engaged in the coal tr^de is 239,46'.), In 1853 tlie exports of coal to foreign countries, *»' cording to the real or declared value, amounted to £1,602,762. See article Coal. In quarries, whether of stone or slate, England is not .'ich, particularl}' the eastern half of the kingdom i and hence the almost universal use of liricli in ordi- nary buildings. It is not till the traveler reatjieij Durham that he tlnds stone commonly used. In the north -t. counties quarries occur frequently ; tn ^lie southern, those of Portland and Bath are tlie most cousiderable. Still the annual profits of the whole are small. No branch of industry has increased mora rap' idly in I'.ie present age than iron-worl(S. A i-BHr tnry ago it was computed that England required an annual importation of 20,000 tons of foreign iron ; itn importation, which, for many years seems to have been on the increase, so as, after tlie middle of last cenhiry, to carry the quantity required to 30,000, iti,, 000, anil itv<>ii to 50,000 tons. This supply was Imiugllt from Hwedi^n and Russia, and, tliough burdened with duty, It WHS in quantity more than double the nativu proeen manufactured in Englsiid as on the Continent, with charcoal fuel only, cflal ber ing deemed inopplicalile to that purpose. Under that impression, the rapid nsumption of the wood in tliu nclgliborlioud of the difrercnt iron-v^orks hud neiessl- tatcd a removal, at a great cspense, of iiiuteriuls from one tfiiit to another, und was on tlie point of causing >n alarming decny in the liusincss, wlieii the iron- masters, after long pprseveri'fire, succeeded In apply- ing ciiul to Ihcir maiiiifurture. i'liey hud to conte^ul witii \Hrlous prcjuiliccx, (lartiiiiliirly tlie supposed ia- fcrliirity cif iron eo made ; Imt, in the course of yeitn, the manufacture acijiilred such an extent that there were, in 1805, 220 blasl-furnaces, making 2ftii,0W tons of pig iron. Ttic transill.in from war to peace did a gooil dial of Injury to some brunilies of the iron tiiilc; Imt llie effect of the chungi! was not of lung ilunitioii, and thi' production of iron in England has siiiie been astonish- ingly inireiiaed. In 1820 the pro'hico was calculated at 100,000 tOh.^. The excitement and Kpeculution of 1821 unit 1825 had a wonderful infiiicm n on tliiii de- partment. According to careful ini|uirips made at th» time, the furnaces at work in England and V.'des in 1827, with their produce, were as under ! « BNCf Ammviif Hf tm tttm»t» or FnnAcn akd or itn UVtUfmm lit laOM PBOBUOED in OaCAT'BBITAIN IS 1^ AMU iUll, Stairankhlrc 95 Shropshire 81 South Wales. 90 North Wales 12 Torkehiro ii l>orby«!\lro 1 i Tmi. ii 1 6,000 7S,II0I) ■m,im 24,000 ^n.ooo iiO.NW '""• IMS. 1 „t«(«i FrtHlnc* of Toul Ptodiioo of wmtmtMi Iron. Furnaces. Iron. Smm.Wftle'l,,,, WwhWslM,...., IW S!!n,419 196 Tom. 706,680 14 17,766 11 16,120 M IF \mm\iitm(l yitfMtUP:,,.... 86 100,000 a4 «»,1M 28 66,660 |(»xf ijmiittn: ... 19 «3,«73 80 96,000 I l«j)(fWl(il|)(ffl,„,., 1(17 isil,l.'i6 168 886,840 l«»wifwiij, ,.,,.-,, 4t 89,590 84 8!t,000 m — 8R,C40 180 ^W.OflO |_. Ttfh»(».i,.,,, eli^aae " 628 2,1108,200 . Total., 266 O.W.ftOi) Owing to the failure of various railroad and oilier projects set on foot in 1825 and 182(i, thi supply of Iron soems to have greatly exceeded the demand ; and there wa" a very heavy fall of prices in 1828, iui'i, and 1830, and again in 185U and 1851. but within the last two years prices have again risen ; ami llie iriiu trade is, at this i.ioment, iu a state of great activity. The produce of tlio various furnaces of IJiglaiid aud Wale!<, may be estimated at nearly 2,900,000 tons. 't'lw nmmUf tit iron of all kinds manufactured and HnmmmftiHimii, esported in 1862, amounted to 1,086,- l«i*t t*>ftii, licsidea 2r«,28ft tons of cutlery of the declared vniw iif i3j(ij»J/i(»r- Sow that the railways are nearly mmi>\M«(i, it tniKllt hare been oxpecteu that this would httva I'ftltDWl It slt«($natlon in Its mi'nufacture ; but iron is mw mt Ajtteii^irely used in tne construction of 8tBUHkV(t«o«t!*, that the demand has been maintained. I''up niiirtl itmpU details, the reader is referred to the article* tium, iUimwMltiliv^ llflte long been known in England, Imt fli(*y W(if8 rtought with very little skill or effect until t*iw«tv1 llio year 1700. Even at that time the aiMMfftI pfmUli'^, ttlft smelting tlie metal from the ore, tvas iinh « ffW liutldred tims of copper ; and it hardly em'itmUiii Mill tiitts fltiniially, down tc the middle of hal t^ndiiry, Vfnin that time forward, the increase liui AMIM I'fdi'idfif'alile, ns well In Cornwall as in Devon, HiiHU Wrti**, and tierliyshire ; in all of which, cop- l»ur-Hlill»"» »t(ii)i> of smelting ; and as the ore is less lieavy thftft flin (((aI re(]iilred for this operation (1 ton of ore rC(|llltiH|/ tfiim i to 2J tons of coal), the prae- ticB is t» I'lmVff the ore in vast quantities to Wales, i/aftiwMlf^rly Ui Kw(f(lsp«, In thia, as in other minerals, Vraina is (jre/tHj' helllnd England. She lias various ciiiipmr-niltlCB, hiit her coal-mines, at least those hith- BfUi wrimijllf, (fK* »t 1(10 great a distance to roaKO such iliniuitaitinijK ((Cdlifal/le j and she consequently re- quires nH ft'.ftlMl ltll|(((ttation from Enghind. Ii) Wii fliord ttere «a|(orted of brass and copper nmnuf»<'tur#s l,«fli,een abandoned. Fiom the brine-springs it is obtained at the rate of one gallon of solid salt from four gallons of liquiil, while common sea-water does not yield atjove one in twenty-eight. The consumption of salt is im- mense. Meeker estimated its consumption in those provinces of France which had puscliased an exemp- tion from the galieile {jniys francs rrdimid) at about 19^ Ills. (Eng.) for each individual. — Atlminulmlion dti Finance*, tome ii., p. VI. From all that we liave been alile to learn on the subju' t. we believe that the consumption of tho jieople of (iroat Britain may be estimated a little higher, or ut Ti lbs. ; the difference in food and hatiits, as compared with tliose of the French, fuUy accounting for this increased allowance. On this supposition, and taking tho |iopi>lntion of Great liritain at 21,00l),000, the entire cuiis:unption will amount to 46^,000,000 ll)s., or 20G,i'5O tons. Exclusive of this immense home-consumption, Eng- land annually exports about 1ri,0(Mi,0(N) bushels, wliicli, at 30 Ills, a bushel, are equivulent to 357,143 tons. The Americans are the largest consumers of British salt. Tho cheapness of this important necessary of life is not less remarkable than its diffusion. Its present cost may be estimated, at a medium, at from 14s. to 16s. a ton. Salt has been at all times a favorite subject of taxa- tion. It was tirst taxed in the reign of William III. In 179H tho duties amounted to &s. a liusliel, liut Ibey were subsequently increased to l.Os. a bushel, or about forty times the cost of the salt. So exorbitant a duty was productive of tho worst effects, and, in particular, occasionctl a great deal of smuggling. The duty hav- ing, in consequence, liecome exceedingly unpopuhir, wns finally repealed in 1823. Fiihfrio. — At present our space allows no more than a brief notice of the principal branches of the iisheries. Tho mackerel fishery is carried on with great vigor on the coast of Kent and Susseir, in May, .lune, and .Tuly, Ijirge as the supply is, it would still admit of augmcntr.tion ; and herrings al.'iO might be caught in vast quantities on the coast of Kent in (ictolier and Novemlier. The desideratum with tho tisliermen is nut so miu'h a high price as a certain market ; and tlie most, efectuil way to procure that is, to quicken, by every possible moans, the cfinvcyance to Ixindon, which has lieen accomplished by the employment of steamboats and railways. The pilchard flsherj- takes place chiefly on tho coast of Devonshire and Cornwall, and, though subject to great fluctuations, as well from the sejisons as from England's political situation relative to the continent, forms on the whole an important branch, employing a niimtjer of mamen Inith in catching the fish and in car- I ryii.(» it to foreign markets. Its season is generally , from .June to Sep'emlier. The herring, the most imjwrtant of all the fisheries, ' is hcppily now in a state of rapiil extension. It formed, during the 17th ccnturi-, the great employ- ment of the Dutcli seamen, a>id was contemplated by their nciKhlwrs with ver>- jealous eyes. Accordingly, ;.-: t!. ■• reign of Charles II., particularly after the rup- 1 turo with IlolUnd in 1(J72, several acts were passed for j the encouragement of tho fishermen, and in a spirit of j hostility to the Dutch. The suliseqnent accession of j William tfl the throne, and the long friendship between ] the two countries, relaxed the exertions of the gov ernment ; and it was not till after the {icace of 1748, that a large bounty was given on the tonnage of the liusses, or masted vessels, so employed. Still English fishermen were unable to compete with tho ex|ierience and patient perseverance of the Dutch, and it waa found necessary to raise tho liounty from 3Us. to 60s. per ton. This had the desired effect, and tlie niimlier of busses increased ; but the additional '.iOs. Iieing withdrawn in 1771, the fishery again declined. Tho Aniciican war, and, sulisequently, tho wars of the Jrcuch revolution, proveil extremely adverse to its ex- tension. At last, in 1808, an act was pa8se<) carrying the bounty to .£3 a ton on the busses, with a further grant 'jf 2s. per barrel on all herrings caught, whether in busses or boats. This act was further conlinned in 1815, and the bounty per barrol raised to 4s,, with the qualification that the herrings should be gutted before curing. In consequence of tho encouragement thus afforded, the fisher}' was materially extended ; liut this was eflbcted at a great ex)iense, and had, besides, several bad consequences. Tho Iwunlies given b.v govem- raent tempted persons without capital or skill to enter into the business, to the great injur}' of ttie regular fishermen ; so that notwithstanding the extension of the business, it was found, as is invariably the case with all departments carried on liy means of a bounty, to lie in a very unhealthy state. In consequence partly of the circumstances now stated, and partly in consideration of the real and sulistantial relief given to the fisher}' by the aUilition of tlie duties on salt, it was resolved graduall,v to withdraw the liount}-, which totally ceased in 1830. And it may be stated, that though the fisherv' fell off wliile tbo liounty was in tho course of Iieing withdrawn, it has since lieen materially increased, and is now in a better situation than at nny former period. From tlie year 1811 to IKW, the year when tho bounty ceased, the greatest numlier of bar- rels cured in Groat llritain was 4 12,1!I5 ; and in tho year ending December, IhTt'A, tiiey amounted to 778,- 030, the largest number cured in any prevlou.H year. The (luantities cured in each year vary couslclcrably, acconling to the abundance of the .'er of JCnglish vessels em- ployed at Newfoundland did not exceed 92. The peace seemed to promise a revival of this imiKirtant nursery of seamen ; and in the year 181G the number of vessels which arrived in Nowfounillnnd was 79.'i, manned liy C.OOO seamen ; but the trade, both then and in 1817 and 1818, proved unprolitablc, in consequence of indifferent seasons, of the hiffh duty imposeil on fish imported in British vessels into Naples, and of the comi)etition of the French fishermen, supporteil by a high bounty from their government. 'I'iio total value of fish exported from the British colonies in North America in 1851, was A'827,738. It is a matter of s\irprisu to foreii^ers that a mari- time nation should not have mure eA'eitually cultivated this great means of facilitating the support of the jwiv pie. The ample supply which might have been afforded liy the Xymph Bank, on the south-east coast of Ireland, has liecn avowedly neglected ; and it was only in 1818 that the discoverj- of n bank of almost equal productiveness in the vicinity of Orkney, was made. Fish is little known to the mass of the peopio in the Inland counties, though the facilities of tran.sport afforded by the railways is gradually distributing it in larger quantities. l.ondon lias always been amply supplied. Mr. Mayhew, in his pamphlet on " London Labor and the London Poor,'' estimates the weiglit of fish annually consumed in Lomlon at alwive 450,0(10,- 000 pounds, licsides an enormous quantity of shell- fish. Calculating the flsh of all kinds at 3d. per lb. on an average, the amount would exceed il5,00(),000 (terling. See the article Kisiikkiks. ifanii/drttirvt: — In this groat liepartment of English productive industrj', we begin witli woolens, which, although no longer file largest of those manufactures in point of cNfiortation, nor even in the value annually made, is entitled to the first place from the priority of its establishment, as well as from the substantial basis on which it rests. England, from thu extent of her poitures, abounded iit wool from a very ramote age, and the inhabitants were douhtleu capable of manu- facturing it into rude clothing ; each weaver working in his separate cottage, and with very little aid from macbiner}-. In the 12th and IHtb centuries she ap- pears to have luid only the most humble fabrics, and to havu imported all cloth of liner texture ; sending abroad her wool in quantities to Flanders, a country the inhabitants of which were at that period much further advanced than the rest of Europe, with the exception of Italy. It was in the middle of the 14th century that a better system was introduced. Flem- ish manufacturers were invited over to England, and improved greatly the quality of her home-made wool- ens. The seats of this branch of industry appear at that time to have been Kent and Essex ; afterward Gloucestershire, and subsequently the West Hiding of Vorkshire. It occupied at first the southern and more improved districts, and spread ufterwanl to the north- ward, on account of the cheapness of lulior, the abund- ance of coal, and the convenience of water-falls for the machinery. The general character of the woolen manufacture of England has been that of slow progress, but of little fluctuation ; the latter evidently a conse- (|uenco of its depending more on home-consumption than on exportation. In the long period from 1700 tu 1780, the exports ex|ierlcnced a regular, but not rtpid rbio, amounting in the latter years to about £I.t,500,000, while the home-consumption increased in proportion to her augmenting numbers. More recently the manu- facture has been niatcriully improved by the adoption of various im|H)rtant mechanical inventiims in the spinning, weaving, and dressing departments. On the whole, however, improvement has been much less rapid in it than in the cotton manufacture ; so that while her ox|>orts of cotton stuffs and yam have in- creased beyonil all precedent, those of woolens have been coini>aratively stationary. As we shall enter fully, in the article Wooi.ES MANup.vorunK, into the details connected with its history, progress, and piesent state, it would lie use- less, even if our limits permitted, to anticipate these here. Wis shall only observe, therefore, that tiie en- tire value of the manufacture is estimafed at about .£'2.'),000,(MK). .\ccording to the census of 1851, there were employed in the various branches of the woolen manufactures 170,131 males, and 118,042 females. By far the largest proportion of the raw material of the manufacture is the jiroduce of her own flocks ; Imt for many years past she has imported large quantities. Previously to 1800 the average imports did not ex- ceed 3,O0O,0(K) llis., mostly brought from Spain, the wool of which long maintained u high character. In 1800 the iiniwrts increased to 9,000,0(K1 lbs. Since then they have gone on increasing, till, in 1852, they reached 93,701,458 lbs., of which 43,197,301 lbs. came from her own dependencies in Australia. In 1831 the exports of woolen manufactures amounted to il5,232,- 013, Since then they have annually increased, till, in 1852, they reached il8,73i),934. For au account of the prices and qualities of wool, etc., the reader is re- ferred to article Woof,. The cott'-n manufacture of England is entitled to the greatest attention on different accounts. Of all her umnufactures, it affords the largest eiiport, and ex- hibits the most rapid impruvements in machinery. Its introduction, though ;iot remote, is less recent than is commonly supposed. It appears to have taken place early in the 17th century, when it was estal>- lished at Manchester ; but it was long conducted upon a very limited scale. The raw material, imported at liriit only from the Levant, in particular from Smyrna, iHigan, after 1600, to be supplied by her Wct-t India colonics. The quantity imported amounted, about the year 1700, to 3,o(» bales ; but, increasing with the extended cultivation of her colonies, it averaged, about the year 1720, something more than 7,000 bales. From the colonial coiiquesta of the war of 175eing re-exported to Holland, for the aupply of Dutch and Oerman weavoni. It wan not till after the peace of 17Gfl, and the Invention timt of the curding machine, and next of the aplnning-Jenny, that thU manufacture liecanie connlderably extendcl. In 1776, the average import of cotton approached 1N,(XK) balen. A variety of inventions, iinequalcd In the history of manufacturing induat-y, were now made (iiee article on the CoTTox MAsnFACTonE), which gave an astonish- ing stimulus to the business. Kino calicoes and muslins were Introduced ; the workmen wore withdrawn from their detached dwellings, nnd collected Into lar^re Uc- tories ; and the price of the finished article experienced a reduction, notwithstanding a rise In the raw material, and in the wages of labor. Tlie pcrio^r In thut or any other conntrj'. Neither does there eem to bo any ground for fvartr. g that this progres'. will lie speedily checked. On fit contrar^', her r.uperiority town of of Birmingham, but In a part of the sarround- ing district. It Is computed, by the census of 1861, to etitdoy, in Kngland and Wales, 10,066 males, and 097(i females, of whom 7626 are under 20 years of age ; for even this heavy article admits of subdivision of employment, which lightens the labor, an() enables the workman to avail himself of the aid of his .amlly. Of the two towns, HhelHeld is by much the nioi« ancient ; the command of coal and iron in the sumo neighl>orhoo ■ atch-movc- in the mAjurity of what contributes to the advuncement niciits and main-springs at IVscott in Ijiniashire. of the manufacture Is so very deciilod, thut, proviiled I the total value of urticlcs of iron, steel, liruss, and the pulilic tranquillity \te preserved uiiiinpaired, she need not fear from tho competition of others. The reader is referred to the article ' ' Cotton Manu- pactdhk" in this work for un account of the rise and progress of this great liranrli of nntiimul industry, and for tabular statements, exhibiting the present magnl- tu(b! and importance of the trade, tlie sources whence tho raw cotton is derived, and the foreign markets for the raw material and manufactured articles. Hanhrnrt. — We have already noticed the surprisiuj; increase in tho produce of the iron mines of Kngland iince 1780. This Increase of the raw material, joined in some cases to the command of coal in tho viciiiit r, and in all to a facility of conveyance of coal and iron by cannls and railroads, has, in tho lust M years, given s great extension to her hardwanj manufacture. In 'opper, including tlio niunufucture from its curliest to its most finished stage, is necessarily Huctuating, but may bo computed at ji;;iO,000,000 annually ; two thirds of which appear to be consumed at home, w hile the other third is ex|Mirted to two great murkets — the Continent of Kuro|)e and tho United States of Aniericu. Tho number of (lersons employed in Iho hurdwaro manufacture in Knglanil in IX.M wns about 10o,000. /n tho United States, iron and coal aro found, where land and provisions are certainly much dieaper than in liritain ; liut the scattered state of An\ericau popu- lation must, during several ages, oppose serious ulistu- cles to the division of employment necessary in nil tho nicer brandies of the hanlwure manufacture ; particu- larly as the eas» with which tlio Mississippi and Ohio are navigated by steam op«'ns even tho We.iteru Statea no department has tlie sulxlivision of employment lieen to the iin|iortation of Ilritisti goods. I'poii tho wholo, carried to so great a length; in none aro its eft'ects 'therefore, wo look on Knglish hardware niuuufuctures as in cheapening production so conspicuous. Binning- j resting on a solid basis, liecuusc in them are ciimbined ham and Shetfleld are the two great workshops for Kn- several ndvuntagcs ; — the raw material, the couiiiinnd glish hardware ; the latter is confined to iron and "f cheap fuel, and the use of machiucy, which tho steel, while i^i the farmer not only iron and steel, but moro it is adopted, will bring a greater pro|iortion of copper and brass, constitute the materials of labor, i the work within the compass of women and lioys, and Sheffield faliricates articles which are less for ornament thus leesen the pro|iortion liomo by wages in tlie cost than utility, and which )»)sse8s in general a certain ■ of 1\k linished article, bulk, such as grates, spades, sickles, files, knives, fen- l.inen Trade. — Linen has never forinei! one of the ders, fire-irons ; while in Birmingham thcro is, in ad- staple manufactures of Kngland, flax having been less ditiou to articles of solidity, a surprising variety of toys, 1 cultivated there th-iu on tho op))osite shore of the fancy goods, and petty manufactures ; each triftiiig, Netherlands ; a country which. In the 14th and l.'ifh when considered separatel}-, but the whole forming an centuries, supplied the rest of ICurope witli tlio finest aggregate of great value. The most insignificant of { linens and W'Hilens, When Kngland subsc(|uently ad- thcse, such as a brass cock or a button shank, pusses ' vanced in manufacturing arts, the uliundunt supply of through a number of hands, and each artizan |ierforms woo! pointed out the most siiitalile hrHmli ; and sho only a single operation. He thus acquires an extra- ' w is contented to continue her iiii|Hirts of linen from ordinary dexterity in bis limited department, and in tho Nctlierlands, from Kruiue, and from (Jermuiiy, it the course of a day deipatches several hundred, per- to favor tlin inaniifueture of the sister isluiid in a de- ha|is even u tliousand articles, through his purticiilnr partinent wliich did not excited her je.ilousy. In Ire- stuge ; the re^ult of all whicli is, that the price, when land, tlic linen niunufucture dutes ubout two centuries sold in quantities, is incrediblv low, Anutlier and ago, and in said to have cAed much of its e\teii>i(iii to very intercstin;; feature in tho situation of Uimiing- tlio measures of the unfortunalo V\ intwortli, in tlio ham, is the |Kipulou.-,ness of its neighborhood. Yet in reign of ('liarb's I. The annual consumption of linen none of the large towns of Knglanil is living less ex- in iMigland a century ago was prolmldy not fur lieli w pensive; an advantage owing partly to tho abund- that of her double |>o|iulatiou at present owing to tlia ance of coal, partly to the reudy supply nf milk and very general suli-titutiun in uurtimo of mttou articles, vegetaldea from the wide space occuoied by the popu- At that time the linen manufacture of Knglund was lation. established cliiofly in Kancasliire and ('uiiil>erlund, and yaiU. — Tka miil trade is carried on, nut in the in a county very remote from these, namely, Dorset- ENG 609 ENO I •hlfe, tn 17-1 5, goTornment, apprtned of the nxtenilon of the manufacture of cnartu linon in Sileiia and other part* of Oemiitny, ami actuated liy the fallucioua no- tion of Kwiking a iiKinopoly of all kinilH of productive industry, ({rnntcrl a l)ounty of H , the prime cost of all inferior i|ualitieii ex- ported. >So large a grant Hoon augmented the manu- facture of osnaburgA and other coarae cloths, particu- larly in Siotlunil, . Ithough the ratio of increase was infinitely smaller than in the case of cotton, where there was no premium, but a rapid improvement of machinery. The demand for bounty in the ten years ending in 17Sfi, was alwut X38,(MX) annually. Mora re- cently these ini|)olitiu issues were greatly increased ; but at leu ^th the ini|)olicy of forcing a manufacture in this . y '<';■■' l>ecomo obvious to every one, the Uiuiities, uftrt I .ng gradually reduced, ceased finally Id 1880. The manufacture is principally carried on in the AVeat Riding of '^'urkshlre, its chief seat being in Leeds and i'. ' neighborhood, and in Lancashire, Dorset, Dur- ham, I Salop. Ireland and Scotland, particularly Dundee, are both superior to ".ngland in the manufacture of linen. But some of tl ' flax mills established at Hull are on a more extensive scale than any other in the empire, „ IBtl. 1811. The exports of linen manufactures f^oni Orcat Brltuln cml IrclAnd In l,s,"il BUd JM2 were of the do- dared value of .fi.S,fS22,l)a5 £,1,S22 £.-S,372,!WI Silt Manufacture. — In the silk innnufacture, as in tlio linen, Knglnnd has hud to contend with a formidable opposition i" other countries, particularly in France ■•mil Ituly ; and "he has also had to import the whole of the raw maturii''.. It would therefore hardly have been attempte 1 by 'or countrymen, but for the great proflts expected from an article of general use anuing the higher classes. Its introduitioii goes back to the l.'ith century. About the beginning of the IVtli it seems to have been carried to u considerable extent, owing certainly noi the luxu';^ of the age, nor to any great proportion o. icnt persons in tlie community, but to silk being al'. t the only article of apparel In which the vanity of dn could display itself. Toward the end of the i. ign ot Charles II., about the year 1(!80, raw silk beg a to bo im)iortcd in quantitio • ""roni India : and the Kngiish manufacture received a sut)i.tai..i.il addition by tlie nuraliors and ingenuity of the French- men who settled in that country after the revocation of the edict of N,mte8 in 108;t. Various circum-tanoes thus contributed to preser\'e and exteiuitlie maiinfao ture, which i intinued rather upon tlie increase till the Klllce) nflllmie'd in his place in the Houm of Commoni that the improved silk looms In use in various parts of the ('ontlncnt enaliled the workman tn execute Jtot times us much work m he <-ould do in Kngland ; while in every business not protected by a monopoly the result was precisely opposite. At length, after a great deal of discussion, it was resolved to adopt a more lili- erul system. In 18'ifi, a Idll was In consequence passed, allowing the ini|>ortation of foreign silks on juiyment of an ml valorrm duty of 80 per cent., accom- panied, however, liy the eflectiial reduction of the sin- gularly oppressive duties which had previously been im|H>sud on the Imports of raw and thrown silk. 'I'liis measure, though vehemently opposed at the time, has proved most successful. We think that the silk trade has made more progress since 182(1, when the new sys- tem was introduced, than it did during the whole of the preceding century. The following quantities of the raw and thrown silk were iniiurted into ti o United Kingdom in Yuan. Iba, 1822 2,e80,Bfl8 IWta 4,224, Sl)7 1»tU 5,1100,242 YtSM. Illl. 1«S(I. 6,411,984 IHftI 5,020,972 1KM 7,801),«17 This table shows conclusively that the manufacture has increased nearly 200 per cent, sini'e the adoption of those sound and liberal measures which have been the theme uf 83 much ignorant invective. It is of Importance, too, to observe, that not only the imports of raw silk, but also the exports of manufactured silk goods, are rapidly increasing. The following table shows this : 1822 £181,708 K 1861 i'1,.S21t,77S 18.32 529,990 1 18.^2 I,.^51,8art 1850 1,225,(U1 11 1858 2,1)44,012 It is plain, therefore, that the manufacture i» not increasing nierely by reason of an increased dcmanil in the home market, but because Kngland is rapiilly gain- ing on her rivals in the markets of foreign countries. This alTurds unquestioiiulile evidence of the improve- ment as well as the extension of the mnniifacturo. in IH.'i'J her exports of wrought silks to France amounted to Ii2.')7,.^.').'), and to the United States to £-m,h'M. Leather, however little it may figure as an arti.'le of export, is necessarily one of extensive homo consump- tion in ever\' civilized country, particularly in such a climato as that of Kngland, and where there are so many rich and sumptuous equipages. It is matter of regret that there are so very few data, ofticiul or otlier- wise, on which to form an estimate of the export or import of hides in former ages. Such an estimate would possess interest, as indicating the extent of her pasturage and the number of her cattle in comparison with her population. Whatever may have been the case at a remote date, the custom-house returns, for many years past, show, by the annual imports, tliat the demand for leather has greatly exceeded tlie home supply of hides. For n long time this importation general sub itution of cottons for .silks uliout J TIM), j took place from the Continent of Kiirope, and from tho This gave a ti :ious shock to the manufacture, fmin | least civilized quarters ; from countries such as Lithu- whicb it rocov.>ied only by slow degrees. Its situation I ania ai»d I'oliind, where the quantity of hides fnr- had nut inde^ru ',cen at any time prosper(>us j and the continued complaints of tiie manufacturers occasioned within these few years a fundamental change in tlie policy under which it had previously been lonJucted. nislied by tho cattle materially exceeds tlii:t of the leather required by the ini'abitants. Hut since tho ojiening of tlie trade to South America, it has been found more advantageous to im|)ort hides from that From the first introdiution of tlie manufacture into I continent, where tlio herds of wild cattle are so nu- Kngland down '■> 182r>, foreign sill; were cither posi- inerous as to meet tho eye of the traveler in almost tively or vlrtua. exclud'Ml. But llie monnpoly which ' every point of tho horizon. was thus secured to tlio manufaitiirers proiluced, what On an average, there are imported annually about all moiio|)(die> invarmbly do, an indiirereiico to im- 1 2,000,000 liidcs, tanned and untanned. The qiian- provenieiit. Instead of trusting to tlie ingenuity c.r to | tity of leather annually made in lingland and )\'ale.s the superior skill which 'ley miglit have called to may be estimated at about .W, 000,000 llis. The larg- their aid for ptcserving thei ■ ascendency in the market, : est tanneries are at Herraondsey, in Sonthwark ; but the manufacfuicrs dejiended upon tho cusiom-liouse I theroarealso veryextensive establishmentsof tlie kind rogtiluiions, and udditiuiiul penalties on smuggling. \ in the country, as in Chcaliire, Lancashire, NSestmore- In con- iU( nee, invention was quite «t a stand. Sucii, ! land, Cumberland, and also in Lincolnshire. The late ii. I . .e influence of the system in this respect, j war, by its long continuance, and the magnitude of th ■ 6 the member for Coventry (Jlr. Edwanl j her army and navy, produced great orders from gov- ENO 608 ENO •rament fur her lo'i**>«r manufacturo. Sboaa wcra •nil still are nuula wUoleaal* In Mveral tnwni of Staf- foitlahirx, Chuhlra, and Northamptoiul r ' out tuoic mada In Ix>ndon, l>>- the iirlucljial dea>nt'«, n/v, though txpcnaiva, liy far the beat. Of the annual value of the leather manufactured into ahoei, boot*, harneia, auddlery, etc., there are no meaiia of forming a correct extlinato ; i>ut wo have merely to conalder the iiopiilatlun of Kn^land, and the onavuldable extent of their wunta, to bit aatlxtled that from i;iD,000,000 to X12,UU0,U()0 are rather below than above the mark, liut while her homo conauniptlon la ■o conidderable, herex|>ort in comparatively small — In ordiunry years not exceeding i:800,UOU; but In 1869 the exports of manufactured leather rose to i.'l,678,605. This largo increase was probably occasioned by the reck- less connignments to Austr ilia. The leather shipped to Ireland Is merely tunned : to other countries the exports are In a manufactured shape. The duty on leather was wholly aliolisbed in IH'M. Connected with the general manufacture of leather is the glove trade, a brunch of no inconsiderable ex of cotton glovea for those of leather ; and we have no doubt tliat, hull it not been for the greater cheupnesa and Improved quality of leather gloves, caused liy the atMilltion of the monopoly, this aul)stltution would have liern carried much farther than it has lieen. The in- creased lm|)ort21,801 lb*.| and the duty, wliiili is at the rate of l|d. per lb., plus 6 per cent., amounted to X7M,640. It i* difficult to say what |x>rtion of thi« was lilted In printing bonks, and how much was con- sumed by the newspa|>era i but the quantity used by some of the latter is so great, tliat a single nowapaiier, TAe Time), is said tn cuh.iuiu« about &0 tons a week. Wo come next to a lirniu h of industry of a very different description, iiainvh-, the brewery, the amount tent, being carried on In several of the midland and of capital anil lalwr invested in brewing cstablislnnciits western counties, viz,, at Woodstock, Worcester, j in Kiigland is very iar^i iinil puilleularly striking to Ludlow, Hereford, Yeovil In Somersetshire, etc. This j those who liave lived on tlie Continent, and have con- branch of industry enjoyed for a lengthened period the ; trasted the situation of Knglund with tliat of the wine protection of monopoly, which, however, was alwlished countries of the south of Kuri>|>e. It Is only in Flan- in 1825. Many contradictory statements have been dera and (iermany that lireweries are numerous ; and made as to the effects of this measure. We lielieve, | in the latter, from the liniitod capital, and the scattered however, that the depression so much complained of i state of their population, there are hurtlly any of those has nut lieen produced by it, but by the substitution ' largo ostablisliments which exist in l.ondon. Am Accoc.vt or tiix total NiruiiKR or Oiiartkhi or Malt hade lutrwERN tui Rth pat or Iaxiiaby, 1^1 add tiix fitU DAY or JaKI-AKT, ISAtI, I.f TH« tjNlTKO KiNdlluU ; UUTINIIUISIIIIIa TIIR (jCANTITV MAIH: IK XACH OOeNTRV, AMI TNR (Jl'ANTlTV CBltD *UR Ykax xniiixii thk ftra HY IllKWKRH Ann VliiTIIALIOX, AND DAY or Janitaht, \<>l. UY Uktail blKWRUS; A^lt SIMILAR AOTOUNT rOE Enftlona Scotland YKAR ENDINO 5TH JANUARY, IBU. 1 YEAR KNDINO STII JANUARY, laM. | QoArtcn of U>lt niadt. qUAKTKES of MALT VViO -^ QiiarUn of UAllmsde. ^CABTISI Of MALT VfID 1 B» bnwari ■nd rlrliulcr*. By ralaU brewsru. Total. Bv )ir«w«r« Aiul vWlnalon. Bv null br|.».M. ToUI. 4,01,4«8 ISfil »t,ll80,»8« ISU aS,Vi70,263 The quantity of beer brewed in England In 1830 was 4,ti78,428 barrels. The duty on l>eer having ceased on the 10th of October, 18.30, there ore no sulv sequent accounts of the quantities brewed. There can Iw no doubt, however, from the Increased quantity of malt, that the production of beer hoa likewlso greatly increased. Spirituoui liquori. — Spirituou.1 llquun form one of the branches of manufacture in which England ia de- pendent on her neighbors, as she Imports an annual supply of com spirit from Scotland and Ireland, rum from the West Indies, and brandy from France. It has been generally supposed that the consumption of gin has increased materially in England since 1825, when the duties were reduced. Wo are, however, inclined to doubt whether such be really the esse, and are disposed to believe that the effect is more apparent than real ; in fact, that it has resulted rather from a diminution of smuggling than from a positive increase of consumption. That such has been the case in Scotland and Ireland is beyond all question ; and there seems no reoiton to conclude that it is otherwise in England. Fur tables of the quantity of malt used in 1853, and of the quantities of spirit charged with ex- cise duties in 1850, 1851, 1852, see article UnKwiNO. To the i -miaiuing manufactures the limits allow of little space, though several of them would be accounted of great importance in any other country than England. The extent to which such artidea aa soap and paper are made in England Is amply shown by the excise returns ; but the list of her cm .>rts is of more conse- quence to the political economist, not from the vulgar notion that it Is l>y export only tlut national profit is realized, but as indicative of those commodities for which she possesses, In her soil, her climate, or her colonial |)Osse9sions — advantages that give them a superiority over their neighbors. Thus, in the cose of glass, the abundance and cheapness of her coal enaliles her to make an annual expurt of uiiuve £500,1)00. In the manufacture of hats, likewise, lier command of wool fur the coarser kind, und of furs from her North American colonies for beaver hats, enables her to ship to an extent of nearly l.'i,000 doaen, or .£44,000 a year. In earthenware England has the ad- vantage of clay, of fuel, and of ready cuirimunicatlon by canals. These, joined to the taste and ingenuity of individuals engaged in the manufacture, carried it, in the course of the IHth century, to an extent which has rendered it a natioual object — a tract of 7 or 8 miles in Staffordshire, culled the Pottery District, being almost entirely appropriated to it. The |><>pulation of this tract is about 60,000. The groat outlet is Liver- pool, and the shipments take place partly to the (Julted States — partly to the continent of Europe. Exports (comprising porcelain) In 1853 reached £1,337,911 in real value. The stocking manufacture is carried on chiefly In the counties of Nottingham, Derby, and Leicester. It formerly employed great numben of womeu in knitting ; but In this, as in most other branches, ma- chiner}' boa greitly supeneded manual labor. Lace ia made in vast quantities In the midland countiea ; and here also mocbiuery Is ezt«n«ively applied. And lo Ju . ..i-iv. .■..^--. -. BNG ENQ •xtrtanltnKiy liu b«rn (h* proKTtu of Inrcntlon In l«rK«, caniUtinK of wool, eora, flax, timtMr, Ua«i, tbl*(le|iHHini)iHi). — With IrtUnd llie intar- ' couna iif Knifland Ih viiry Knot —that country landing tbcm Kriiln, ulttd and frcah pnivUlona, llva cattia, ■ liuttar, etc., t» tha amount of 4;U,I)()<),(X)0 or i;7,000,OUO Himlk 11/* tMrnfm. — ll«ri< wu «nt«r on countrica of much l««a Inilimtry. Kroui I'lirtugiil KiiifUnd takaa wina In very InrKf, and fruit In numllrr <|»aiititli'ii, iu ruturn for her icittona, her woulann, and Imr liurdwaro, Vrom Mpain xlin racclvaa wool, winu, liranily, oil, frulta, barllU, etc. Italy, withrjut any cunimerclai annually, and CuklnK 1*<'K*'>' '■> i^itum her manufac- tmuty, takea a \»rg» quantity of her nunufacturua, tureo, piirtli uliirly cotton, woolen, and hardware, and Klvaa In return allk, oil, and fruit. With tha Noiih of /iiriipr. — From Kuaala hor chief Iniporta am talloiv. h< >{i, ||ax, corn, linen, limlMir, pitch, etc. i h domlnlona, iron and tinil>«ri from mber, and potaah ; from I'maaia, '■X. All thea* countrlea t>i.,> be: donlul prcHluca. ^From Holland her importa Oui lln, aa In the 17th century, re the carrlera of Kurope, hut ogrl- ' '•. wheat, Kvedt, hemp, cheeae, liole to a larife amount ; In 1 h take her hardware, cottonii, III riince her Importa have lon^ been liurdened with heavy dutiea, hut atiU tliey are lar^^e and IncrenaInK, ('onaiatiug chleHy of wInn luul brandy, ailk, luce, kIovch, etc With (iormany, h«r chief intenourae ia thriiiii;li the medium of Holland and Ilttml>iirf(. With tlii'Kx lountrlca her oxporta aro larKe, particularly In cottona, hardwuru, and colimlul produce. Her Importa are alao very vtirioua and from the PoUnd, wha.it, li cotton*, Imi Ctntml 1)1 AN nut ' ' when til euHurnl nxi butter; lao return fur wh and wiHilcnn Levant har tratUc ia almilar— conxiatinK of an ex|Hirt of manufacture*, piirticulurly prlnteil cottona and hard- ware, a".U of an iin|Hirt of ailk, fruit, and druKi. lb< United State* are, notwith liiiK their tarilT, iMf h«*t < itatomer*, recclvInK f . ■. .^.n. i. ', and aund- lug her In retuni vaat qu ' i *. <; < .>th a, toliucco, rice, and Hour i hut the ir : . u< - 1' mI from the Tnited Htutea lioinKfarimt lortc.- u< a of Knt;lii>h ux|H)rta, the difference la paid by reoiittam <>a in money from the continent of Kurope, arlaing from American mcri.huiidl8e aold flicro. With South Amer- ica a widii lii'ld of commerciul intcrcourae haa boon (ipiMied ; at preaent, however, the chief article* re- ceived from that vaat re)(ion are bullion, hhlea, aklna, indigo, unil cochineal. The trade I*, and will long lie *uliject to the vartoua diaadvautugea of u nowly-aettlid country, bare of capital, dolUient in induatr}', and poa. •eaaing but u aniall iiumlier of cunaumera of Kuropeun conmioditicH in proportion to it* extent and fertility. (louUIHCR >ir TU» i;.viT«o Htat** wiTu KaoLji »o. Kaon ()> r.iiiKii 1, 1»2(Vti> -Ijux 1, 1856. Yi-ari rnain(. Iiparto, tmpitrU. Whatmf llwra »m la BuIUoD and aiwrl*. Tooaaia Clatni, ll.iiiwiU>. Fomlioi. Total, Tocl. ICipnrud. Inittorli'il. Amertran. (■'nrilgn. Bcpt. HO, IWil ii'M^i^.iiiv $»,ll».tW4 $IMI>4,Tll8 |y8,lMt,N62 ♦ 1,9>I8,605 ♦OU),529 128,729 19,546 !H*i 'il,U7»,89S Ift'Ht.iU 22,1(11,019 82,108,947 796,21') 90,920 161,080 ao,2:li l-tH iH,»6tt,it(n 9Ts,474 19,940,0ri9 26,801,270 805,882 282,822 182,042 N),7.81 lvi4 1H,«1H,H41 1,'J*t.i|s2 19,487,12:1 20,0.17.92'i 812,119 149,101 140,125 42,810 lH2ft mjmfiw i,m\.\m 84,127,676 84,271,510 808,260 82,188 172,409 89,242 isao |!M"lft,IWi i,&ii».i)-i>i 20,6114,208 24,:lll2,2(l8 098,077 122,210 147,155 41,801 lS'i7 'A.M4,WI 9(K,ft9« 24,4111,017 28,lir.8,si!l 2(ai,liil 81,111 202.076 08,711(1 ivil iN,7M7.atii 9,90(1,2111 21,097,922 811.470,180 2,a5'J,2n9 20,072 1!18,.8.18 75588 . WiU !il,3H|.IVI4 l,7IIT,4:i7 28,048,791 «8,s92,768 078,888 80,826 179,848 00,722 1 luikl Total... IJ!),7Tlt,iW0 |al8,(»0ll,.Ml H2tl,ll4« (|6,40I,04I< 24,699.906 22.7.V>,(l40 »27l(,650AJ9 112,229 ♦82,47,842 144,2:11 ♦ :,62I,6>U 102,714 1,580,076 58,5vj ♦228,627,iW 482,621 SopL 80, IWU »«1, ■^41,4111 |->.afl7,4:!9 »8 1,2(18,800 141,864,828 ♦ 1,61,1,048 ♦ 180,81)0 2ai,845 •^8,461 JSH'i M.(li«,7HM •^■.7.MI17 29,610,905 84.849,090 1,112,208 8;(,680 189,579 96.615 ISHH lili,5Sa,(l78 1.4.-i2.7«ii 81,086,411 80,068,815 244 81,008 188,028 87,602 IWM «'<.07.l,a«4 2,1174.721) 4I,04\42(I 4&,560,(i(l» 270 6,80,1,618 210,250 hO,i:li) IMH.% 47.llllil,,WJ (.'>,-<09 48,980,841 6».00fl,989 89,087 1,808,488 21.1,810 69,,M3 |s;m M,;l'ri,4S:) r,S74,7il7 M, 177.220 75.761,71:1 2,509 2,822,920 it88,817 78,4.'.0 ISH7 4ti.-ii«,lt« 4,h->4,7(W 51,119,870 48,540.757 1.888,070 110,209 208,068 67.125 1S.SS 4S,'''.I!>,MSS l,,14.MSH ."10,44.1,070 4t,191,s'il 10,1.85 9,O00,:146 844,010 . 7(1,008 I'^HB M.«l.'i.l)'.'7 .I.W.Vt.Kis 58,508,485 04,80:1,710 .1.168,400 1,420,002 209,400 02,(1^5 isw ToUI... BI,».'>I,77S ♦«itf,7iiS,e76 ft,09fl,H,vi 127,9711,562 57,048,000 ^151,0911,287 83,114,18:1 |t7».489,9&S 4,8s:i,78fl $12,100,627 808,806 888,612 129.218 ♦21,027,880 2,W8,897 871,297 Sept SO, l"**! $U.\M,V,1 ♦3,1171,220 ♦47,.156,577 (41,780,007 ♦8.019,187 ♦580,580 972,081 130,708 M'i l)6,(WI,S(W 2,9112.1411 il9,dl8,94S 8:1,446,4:19 1,702,748 20.1,0!9 28.1.479 180,0,M iniis. .~W »~.it9,(m 1.100,1104 88,26,1.1.19 20,141.118 400 14,8flf.,714 329.985 108,174 Juno 110. I''!! 4\H[4Mi 1.125.414 46,ll40,l}a 41,470,0,81 8.1,706 1,181,959 811,741 102,588 islft 4I..MH,9H4 4,707,244 40.280, 1T8 44,087,860 8,078.187 180,829 874,840 108,021 ISllI 42,7^1, 11 10 1,7.^,4-19 44,540,103 fl, 814,100 4,1,170,874 978,110 412,711 804.149 1S8.94J 1N47 7o.il'.'.l,77r s.l4,921 71,1)58,099 SAM 10,812,980 457,.193 S00,5.Vi l't4S fii.lf.N.O-Jl S,924,291 71,S12,816 69,708,5ll'2 9,818,688 1,010,9.12 470.M8 258,210 l^tO AO.Iiil.liU'i 1,,sho,h7s 71,042,870 6^»1^425 764,097 2,071,702 670,018 849.1810 KVI Total... (M.IW(I.1).1» 4,2111,271 0s,s97,28U 72,11V>71 ♦491,196,006 2,584,115 ♦22,078,208 627,206 ♦41,816,601 440,682 8,880,627 209,078 , 'i,i8(),185 «,11,M:il,ft(i7 ♦311,910,782 ,|.M0,I)42,28» Juno 80, Wl ♦in5.1'.').0->l ♦S,15l,200 '»I1S,278,187 ♦90.612.288 ♦ 17,099,081 ♦ 1,098,667 621,608 274,888 l'*l>'i 1li7.7s1.«.'S7 4,580. 1 si 112,824,142 HS.l 19,869 84,802,2.84 1,487,4*4 678,489 800,017 IWH lli,77H,>«9 a,2n9,2IVt 116,987,028 12,1,774,2.32 1.8,081,000 284.790 004,892 429,174 ISM 1H.M11,7IW 6,508,0:11 140,07.1,8:19 I40.:iss7:i:l 27,!H26,268 8.1,166 868,970 489,210 liWi li9.47,^,»flV 0,l,1«,17-< ' 18.1,629,145 1 I(tt,4il0,'.'9ll 47,8,18,015 107.404 a81,4M 2,1.8,915 1806 t5'i,M1,978 1,517,6011 ' 154,079,5ai j 11H,04,1,.144 84,161,069 421,971 928,017 889,108 For a more extended occouiit of the commerce of KiiKlond, as well a* of (ireat Britain, me Gkkat Bbitais. Froi 1 Asia Knghind lin;iort« t(*a. Indigo, cotton, cofico, "Ugur, |>ieco good.^, 'vory, drug*, etc. Her principal urticlo of export in cottim goods, for which, liow aingulur soever it may appear, Indlii has, *incn tlie opening of the trade in 1811, become one of the very beat muikots. Besides cotton stufl'a and yarn, *he sends to A*ia woolen goods, copper, and a great viiriety of other articles. From Africa Knglund imports drugs, ivori-, teak wood, hides, etc. Hor export* are but inconsiderable, consisting principally of cotton and linen manuf.ic- t\ire*. The hopes so t'rctiuontly entertained, of open- ing nn ndvanlageou* trade with the interior of Africa, have hitherto been altogether disappointnd, and it U not ouppoeed they will be more successful ia future. ^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) ,^ 1.0 I.I UilM |25 Ui 1^ 12.2 w lift 2.0 us ui ■ 40 IL25 lliu Ml m 11.6 .fr ri.:A fliotografiiic Sciences CQrporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. USM (716)87^4503 4r O^ BNQ 610 BN0 Hm nemt dlMovai^ of tk« goU fltlds la AosImIU, tad the coDMqoMit mU« of fan m l gi Mta Into that eoaatTT', Imto made it an irapoitaat narlMt Ibr En- l^aad'i pradaoa and aiaaafactom. Th* deolarod raluo of her home prodace and auniiCietare* exported lo the Attstrsliaa ooloniea, incloding Van Diaman'i Land and New ZeaUnd, in 18fiO, was X1,S74,146, while ia 1861, 1852, and 18S8 it reBpeotlvely amounted to £3,807,866, £4,222,«», and £14,606,S8S. The n«nl>CT of sliipe that cleared m the United Kingdom for the Tarlona Auitralian coloniei wa« 27S in 1861, 668 hi 1863, and 1201 ia 1868. A letnm of the ex- port* and imports to the Anstrallan colonies for 1861, 1863, and 1868, sliows some oorioiis results. The ex- ports for 1868 exhibit in some instances an extincti > i, and in almost every aitide a decline, except wool, and of coune gold, which is not noticed in the return; thus tanners' bark, of which 86,894 cwts. were exported 10-1869, was reduced to 4776 cwts. in 1858 ; and tanned hides, of which 643,198 lbs. were exported in 1863, only amounted to 9842 lbs. in 1868; while nntanned hides rose tiom 30,348 cwts. In 1853, to 41,967 in 1858. Flax and hemp, guano, wine, timber, tortoise-shell, whale-Hns, etc., all de- clined or disappeared fWim the return. So did cop- per and lead ore ; but copper, partly wrought, that is, in bars, rods, or injtots, increased Oom 878 tons In 1853, to 686 tons in 1858. QnicksilTer fell from 14,631 lbs. In 1853, to 6988 lbs. in 1853; and wool rase fhim 48,197,801 lbs. fai 1853, to 47,076,968 Ibe. in 1853. The amount of exports in 1851 being doubled in 1853, and quintupled in 1863, and probably increased still mora in 1864, could not foil to cause a glut in the market, which has produced great emlwrrassment in the colony, and entailed heavy losses on the specnla- ton.— E. B, For complete statistics of Oreat Brit- ain, see article Grkat Bbitaiv. Bngllah Cbannel (rolled by the French la MOHche), is that part of the Atlantic Ocean which lies between the ncrth-west coast of France and the south- em coast of England. Its eastern extremity Is con- nected with the German Ocean by the Strait of Calais, and on the west it is imperceptibly confounded with the Atlantic Ooean. It lies between lat. 88° 48' and 61° north, and h>ng. 1° 20' east and 5° 43' west. At its termination — on a line drawn from land's End to the extreme easterly point of the department of Finis- tern, in France, it is about 40 leagues wide. On the French eoast it fnrms three considerable bays; the most easterly receives the Sevelne ; the second receives the Seine and several smaller rivers ; the third and largest lies on the south-west of the peninsula of Cotenlin. On the English coast is Mount Bay, be- tween Lizard Point and Land's End. Between Lizard Point and Start Point is a large gulf, on which nro sit- uated Taimooth and Plymouth ; the Gulf of Exeter lies to the east of Start Point. The principal islands in the English Channel are, the Isle of Wight, on the English coast, and the Norman Islands, lying on the French coast, the principal of which an Guernsey and Jersey. The prevailing winds are from the west. The Channel, being shallow and contined, is subject, from its communication with the Atlantic, to high and im- petuous tides. Its waters contain many fish, of which the most important are the mackerel and the herring. The oysters of Concal are also famous. Sngrawing (Sax. grnfan, to dig). The art of pro- ducing by indoion or corrosion designs upon blocks of wood, plates of metal, or other materials, from which Impressions or prints upon paper or other soft su1>- ■tanoes an obtained by pressure. Engraving, as an art, seems to have neuly the same relation to design and painting as typography bears to written language ; and its utility and great importance must be obvious to every one from its capatnlity of giving a boundless cirouUtioa to npreseatatioaa of the most valaable •zoaiptM of the aiti and et ohiacta esnaaotad with sdaaee. By tnne authon it la plaoad aiaong tba repretantatloo* called nonoeluomes (jtnvoxfxiiiaTot'), Xylography, ^or wood engraving, wa* the earliest method praetioed; but its origin is involved in ob- scurity. If wa might rely oa Da Halde {Dt$eripluM, etc., de I'Empin dt la Chime, 4to. 1785), it is possibk that it was known fai Chiaa 1120 yean before Christ; thongfa we think its invention is of a much later pe- riod, aa the Chinese wen not acquainted with the art of aiaking paper till 95 a.c. It has been stated that this art was introdaced into Europe Arom China through the intercourse of the Venetian BMrrhanta with its in- habitants ; for it Is proved that engraving on wood had been practiced in that part of Italy which bordan oa the Adriatic oa oarly as the 13th century. The iint wood engravings in Europe of which any thing is knowu ■■• 1. I certainty were executed in 1285, by a brother spd sister of a noble family of the name of Cnnio. Th(>y represent the actions of Alexander; and though donbts of their anthtinticity are expressed by Heinecken, Mr. William Young Outley, the author of the elegant and learned Ilistoty of £ngranng, to which we are much indebted, thinks otherwise. Bat for the accidental discovery by a Venetian architect of the name of Temsnza of a decree of the magistracy of Venice, in 1441, we might liave been without posi- tive proof of the practice of the art in Italy previous to 1467, and the Germans might still have continued to claim the honor of its introduction into Europe, This decree, dated 11th October, 1441, states in sub- stance that the art and mystery of making oardu and pointed figures had fallen to decay owing to their extensive importation; and in order that the native artists might find c.icouragement rather than foreign- ers, it was ordered that no work of the said art, printed and painted on cloth or paper — viz., altar pieces, or images, and playing-cards, and whatever other work of the said nrt is done with a brush and printed — should be allowed to be brought into the city, on pain of forfeiting the works, besides a pecuniary penalty. This decree plainly indicates that wood en- graving was practiced in Venice as early as the com- mencement of the fifteenth century. In Germany and the Low Countries, the early block books seem to hsve existed as early as 1420, and to have given G uttemliiirg the hint for using movalde types. At Rome, in 1467, a work entitled ifeditationei Johnnnit de Turrecremala, issued from the press of Ulric Han, embellished with wood engravings, in which the design and execution of an Italian artist are evident. The decorations of the work of Valturius by Matteo Posti, of Verona, published five years afterward, exhibit considerable spirit and accuracy ; and before the end of the fifteenth century the art had l>ecn carried to great perfection, as may be proved by the delicacy and purity with which the designs are engraved in the celebrated Hypnerotomachia of Colonna. At this periwl, how- ever, the discovery of copper-plate engraving had been made, and to this the more ancient art yielded place. Maso Finiguerra, a goldsmith and sculptor of Florence, and pupil of Masaccio, a1)0Ut the middle of the fifteenth centurj', seems from the most authentic accounts to have been the person to whom the world is indebted for the diacoveiy. In h- time, and 'for a considerable period previou<>ly, it was the practice to decorate church and other plate with works in niello, which were designs hatched with a steel point upon gold or silver, then engraved with the burin, and run in, while hot, with a composition called niellu — a com- pound of silver, load, copper, sulphur, and liorax, which was more eaaUy fusible than silver, and of a black color. The superfluous part of this niello which remained above the surface of the plate was then rubbed off with scrapers, anl cleaned away with pumico-stone, leaving the engi.wed design on tlis plate with all the etfect of a prim. In order to pre ENQ •n KNQ / en- com- and irabiirg "ection, with ibrated hoW' S '"^ yielded ptor of . ddleot thentic worid •for» dice to niello, it upon ndrun a com- Iwrax, id of a which then with on the ■ to pre V Mm MpiM «r iMr dMigM, th* ntlito wmwIuMm kaUt befon KOing tha design with the nMlo to tolM impfeMioDe of the plite* wMi Mith, over wbleh llqoM ■niphar wu poured, and ftom which, when oold, tha earth was ramored. But Finiguemi earrlad bla prMV tiee beyond thii ) tat with a inlxtars of loot and oil IM fliled tha eaTltia* of the engraving, and hy praMibig damp paper upon it with a roUor, obtained IrapreailoM on the paper, having, aa Vaaari My8, all tha appear- ance nt drawings dona with a pen, " venlvauo noma dialgnate di penna." ICngrating m Wood, or Xghgraphf.~'ln thil braneb of the art the material uaed is a blooli of box or paar* tree wood, cut at right angles to tha dlraetlen of tha fibres, its thieknesa befaig regulated by the sixa of tba print to b« asacnted. The snbjaet Is drawn on tha blocli with a blaok-lead pencil, or with a pen and In- dian Ink, taking care that the whole eflfect k repfv- aented in the Unea so drawn. The whole of tha wood is then cnt a^ay, except where the lines ara drawn, which are left as raised parts ; in which point It Is that this mode of engraving differs esisntlally from copper-plate engraving, wherein the lines ara oat out or sunk in the metal, instead of being raised fyom It, The Impressions ftvm wood blocks are taken In tha tome manner as from printing types. iSHgmvmg on Copper is performed by cutting Unas representing the subject on a copper-pUta by means of a steel instmment ending In an uneqnal-slded pyramidal point, such instrument being called a graver or burin, without the urn of aquafortis t whii'h mode will be seen below under tha art. Etoriho, Besides the graver there are other Instruments used In the process ; viz., a scra|)er, a burnisher, an oil-stone, and a cushion for supporting the plate. In cutting the lines on the copper the graver is pushed forward In tha direction required, being held In the hand at a sntall inclination to the plane of the copper. The use of tha burnisher is to soften down lines that are cut too deep, and for burnishing out scratches In the copper : It Is about three Inches long. The scraper, like the last. Is of steel, with three sharp edges to it, and about *\% inches long, tapering toward the end. Its use Is to scraiM off the burr, raised by the action of the graver, To show tlie appearance of the work during Its prog- ress, and to polish olf the burr, engravers use a roll of woolen or felt called a rubber, which is put In action with a little olive oil. The cushion, which is a leather bag about nine Inches diameter filled with sand for laying the plate on, Is now rarely used except I)}- writ- ing engravers. For architectural subjects, or in skias, where a series of parallel lines are wanted, an In- genious machine was InventM by the late Mr. Wilson Lowf}', called a ruling machine, the accuracy of whose operation Is exceedingly perfect. This is made to act on an etching ground l)y a point or knife, connected with the apparatus, and bit in with aquafortis in the ordinar}' way. Etching Is a species of engraving on copper or othei* metals with a sharp-pointed Instrument called an etch- ing-needle. The plate is covered with a ground or varnish capable of resisting the action of aquafortis. The usual method is to draw the design on paper with a black-lead pencil ; the paper being damped and laid upon the plate, prepared as above, with the drawing next the etching ground, is passed through the rolling press, and thus the .'lesign is transferred firom the paper *« the ground. The needle then scratches out the llnss of the design ; and aquafortis being poured over tha plate, which Is bordered round with wax, It is allowed to remain on It long enough to corrode or bite in the lines which the etching needle has made, Ktchtiig with a dry point, as it is called, is performed entirely with the point without any ground, the burr raised being taken off by the scraper. Etching with » soft ground is used to imitate chalk or black-lead drawings. For this purpose tha ground Is mixed with a portion of tallow or bnl, Moofdiac ta itM tMNNMl«M of tha niri A phM of thin paptr baiag attaehad tathe plata at tha four oonart hjr mim tamar's pMcb and lying ov«r tha ■Tiittnd, tha (Irawiiw it aiada on the papar and shad- dowad with tba blaali'laad ptnell. Tba action of tha pantii that dataabaa tha gnmnd which adharea to tha papar, aaaarding to tba £gr«a to which the finishing M earrlad i tha papar iNring then rtmoved, the work U lilt In tba ordinary way. H^pfimg is also executed on tba atahlng ground tiy dots Insiaad of lines made wli^ tha ateblB|t-naad1a, wblob, acoordlag to tha intensity of tba tbadow to ba rttKasantad are mada thicker and oloaar, Tba warb Is than bit In. Kuihiftg o» Sitel i* aKaoulad much In tba iam« way as In the process on eoppar. Tba plsta Is bedded on common glailer's putty, and a ground of Hrunswtck black Is laid In tha usual way, tbniugb which the needle sciatcbea. It la than bit In, lu the way above described. ' MttmHnto A'N^mWM^..— In this speflies of engraving tba artbit, witb a knifa or InstrumeBt made for the pur- poMi, Hujgh* ovar th* whole snrfaoe of the copper In avary diraation, »n m to trnha It snsesptible of deliv- orin«{ a uniform black, smooth, or flat tint. After this process tlia outline Is traced with an etching-needle, and tba lightast parts are scraped out, then the middle tbit* Ml as to l«av« a gceater portion of the ground, and so on awording to tha depth required hi the several parts of tlia work. A^mUlnlii f^/fmrinff, whoso effect somewhat resem- bles that of an Indian-Ink drawing. Tha mode of sITactliig this (llin design being already etched) to cover tii« plato with a ground made of resin and Bur- gundy iiituli iir miistlfl dissolved in rectified spirit of wins, wblsb is pnurad over the plata lyhig In an In- elined |Misttlim, The spirit of wine, from its rapid evH|iar«tliili, luavas tha rest of the composition with a grauulatod taxtura over the whole of the plate, by which moans a grain is produced by the aquafortis oa tba parts l«ft op«tt by the evaporation of the spirit of wins, Tba margin of the plate Is of course pro- tscted in tba usual way. After the aquafortis has bitten tlio light«ir parts tliey are itopl out, and the aquafortis is again applied, and so on as often aa any parts (iontinua to raqulra mora depth. Formerly the grain us«d tnit.>ouud the grain is rendered finer or cuarsir, in ,.riit away, leaving the design prominent, or in relief. We huvu sepu soma beautiful examples of thi» art, but varying little in their appearance from those of stone' engraving.— Brakdr's Dief. ofSrienee, EngTOHlng, is " the buying up of com and other dead victuals, with intent to sell them again." — Black- tlone, book iv. cap. 42. It has lieen shown how ali- ■urd it is to suppose that this practice should have any injurious influence. But, fur a long time, most scarci- ties that occurred were either entirely ascribed to the ladMMw tt ■ mi w Mt i m4 termtMm, m>, at leaat, wan •upposad to Iw mit«iUA\y aggmvated by their pimNMMiiMi' (n i)0nt«(|tMfl««i li«w«ver, of tha prav- aiiinai of Mora JMt and Miurgad vtaws upon such s«bjM!t«, tiM •t«(Hl«« that luMl Men mada for the sup- p raw l oB and ptmUhnMiit of wigrofslng, forsstaUing, •ta,, w«r* ftmtMl Im 1778, in Qniat BriUln. But natwttlwlaiidlng tbbt rtfwal, Mignwslag continues to ha ut indlctaliM offMiiMii {mnisnable at common law, by An* and i)nprlMmw«iit | tboti|^ it Is not at all likely, wera an «tt«n)|it ituwte, ttiat any Jury wotald now bo found Ignorant or tm)wtl«*4 enottgh to convict any ona on stub a iih»rg». Batrcpet (Krmwb), In Gommmm, a warehouse or nwguiiiM for goods ( am h«ll«« used to designate a saaport or oomnMrsM town which exports the produc- tions of • aofMldaralfhi adiaeent Urrftoiy, and imports foreign good* fur It* SMpply. OnTOy (i'r, ntrnffm; In nnd), a person depnted to nagotlata a traaty, or io transact other business with a foreign |iriiii>ia <>r amtttnnumt. Knvoys belong to tha sooond or• i'. the boundaries of tha asslam \tottUm of C' i>re not yet very well dallnod, Vt/ftlitlit* PriMlueiltiM^it iht low countries that dank tha b««M of the j4nf VHgftation, It is cov«re, |*on*«granflte, shaddock, orange, lime, Umon, \mmU, aprkot, cherimoyer, pulta, grandilla, tuna, and |iM«ay, f n the same region are found the olive, iftppwr plant, t^tniatss, and sweet potatoes, gum eojHil, Mt\mS\m balsam, cnrnna, dragon's Idood, sarsa- parilla, and vanilla, To these succeed, in the humid and sbadud I'loflfi nn the slopes of the mountains, troe- hm* and niwUimn m Peruvian bark, the finest kind ut whivb is oldainiid altout 8 to 12 miles south of Loju anxmg tho fUoHUtaltt^ of Dritusinga, Villanoco, and KumiMttana, whxre the trees that yield it grow in a soil resting "H mlf^a^lste and gneiss, at the moderate alavittlon of MM Ui 707i) ffet above the level of the s«a, iletwtNtn tb« elevations of 0000 to 0000 feet is the ragkm baH sultad for the liuKpean cereals. Wheat sevc due) and com Nea the ose 8ul| has ersi coai EQU Ml EQTT / win not fonn the ear lowirtbai' at 4600 feet, or ripen hl;{her than at 10,000 feet ; bat barley and rj'e grow at an elevation 2600 feet atUl higher. To these may bo added the guinea, a most uaafS production for do- mestic purposes. In this region also, and a little above it, grow the potato and its congeners, all of which are extensively used as food; the chick-pea, broad-bean, cabtutge, and other European vegetables, are likewise abundant. Within the cereal limits are found the oak, elm, ash, and beech, which never descend lower than S500 feet, and are seldom found higher than 0200 feet above the level of the sea. Higher up, the larger forest trees, except the pine, be- gin to disappear ; and on the mountains of Quito the escallonia mark the highest limit of trees at an elevation 11,B00 feet. The bejarias, the highest of shrubs, ter- minate at 18,400 feet, above which, in rich and beaa- teous verdure, rises the zone of the grasses. Above these, among the trachyte rocks, only Uchens, lecideos, and the brightly-colored dust-like leprarla are met with; and to these, succeed the region of perpetual snow. AnimaU. — In some parts of the low countiy the air swarms with musquetoes and other flies still more tor- menting, while the ground teems with snakes, centi- pcdesj and other reptiles. The banks of the great rivers are crowded with caimans or alligators. Bats are exceedingly numerous, and of great size ; the for- ests of the warmer regions almund with armadilloes, monkeys, and cavj-s; and everywhere are found the jaguar, the puma, the ounce, the ocelot, and several varieties of the wild cat. The pecari and deer are likewise common, as well as tliat singular animal the ant.eater. The characteristic animals of the Andes are the llama, the guanaco, the vicufta, and the paco or alpaca, some of which are trained as lieasts of bur- den, while others, particularly the vicufias, run wild among the mountains, where they are hunted by the Indians. Sheep and cattle are reared in great num- bers, especially the former, in the alleys of the An- des, and on the declivities of the mountains. Horses, asses, and mules, are reared in sufficient numbers to bo articles of export. The chief of the birds is the condor, which is found all along the Andes southward as far as the Strait of Magellan, but nowhere to the north of the equator. The turkey, vulture, and gal- linago, are frequently met with, together with many kinds of smaller birds. In some districts, particularly along the coasts, considerable quantities of beeswax are collected { and higher up there are spots in which the cocliincal inject is reared. Along the rivers of the great plain turtles are numerous ; and their fat, called manteca butter, forms a considerable article of trade. Fishing is carried on to some extent along the coasts, and a good deal of salt-flsh is prepared. A mnrex is also found which yields a Juice used in dyeing purple. Mineral Productions. — Equador is less rich in min- erals, especially in the precious metals, than any other of the South American stntes. There are, indeed, several mines of gold and silver, but the yeariy pro- duce is inconsiderable. In some places are found lead and quicksilver, but the latter is found, as usual, in combination with sulphur, in the form of cinnabar. Near Azogue, IS miles north-east by east of Cuen^a, the ore is found in an immensely thick bed of quartz- ose sandstone, containing fossil wood and asphalt. Sulphur is prepared in consideral>le quantities ; gold has been washed from the sands of some of the riv- ers; and salt is obtained from sea-water along the coasts. Population. — The settled population Is composed of Spanish creoles of pure descent, meztisos, mulattoes, and negroes, the greater part of them being agricul- turists, graziers, and growers of coooa. These form about a half of the population. The other half are native Indians, of whom those that live among the toonntabis are mostly agricnlturiats, cultivating their lands with much care, and making for themselvM coarse stuffs of wool and cotton. The Indians who inhabit the eastern plains are in a much lower degree of civilization. They cultivate only small patches of ground, and apply themselves chiefly to hunting and Ashing. Three fourths of the population dwell in the western or mountainous part of the state ; and the total number is now estimated at about 800,000. Jlfaiii(^aca, Ibarra, Guayaquil, Babahoyo, Cuenfa, Loja, or Loxa (Loh-ha), and Jaen de Bracamor. The state likewise claims the sovereignty of the Islas de los Galapagos, or islands of land turtles, lying un- der the equator at a distance of 700 to 900 miles from the mainland. The chief towns are Quito, with from 50,000 to 80,000 inhabitants ; Guayaquil, 26,000; Cu- enfa, 20,000 ; Kiobamba, 16,000 ; Loja, Babahoyo, end Ibarra, about 10,000 each. Quito is beautifully situ- ated In the elevated plain to which it gives its name ; and Guayaquil on the banks of a navigable river, opening into the spacious bay, to which it gives its name. The foreign commerce of Equador is chiefly carried on at the port of Guayaquil, which, with the porta of Manta and San Lorenzo, is open for general importa- tion and the exportation of national produce. The ports open for exportation only are Santa Elena, CaU lao, Bahia de Caraccos, Loja, and Ibarra. Guayaquil is the only port of generid deposit for re-exportation to foreign porta. The principal articles of export of this republic are cocoa, hides, cattle, tobacco, wool, straw-hats, coffee, orchllla, bark, India-rubl)er, and an inferior description of cotton. Cocoa is the leading staple, the quantity annually exported reaching over 15,UO0,00O pounds. The total value of the foreign trade of Fxiuador may be stated at $4,000,000. The countries whifli participate in this trade are the United States, Mexico, Guatemala, Chili, and Peru, in Amer- ica ; and England, Spain, France, and Hamburg, in Europe. The commercial relations of the United States with Equador are regulated by treaty and the local legiala- lation of that republic. The treaty with the United States was ratified April 9, 1842, and stipulates for iQicr «u BQU parlMt »4iulit7 and aiitira noipnoity of navlgatioii and commerce, both in the dinct and indirect trad*. Tin third article haa thin stipulation i " That whereas, by a I»w of Equudor, March 21, 1887, veuali built in the dock-j-ard of Guayaquil shall ba exempted from various charges; therefore, vessels of the United Sutes can not claim thia privilcgn, but shall enjoy it if It should be granted to vessels belonging to Spain or Mexico and to the other Hispano-American republicr." The following translation of the decree conferring spe- cial privil^es on vessels coustrncted at Quayaquil, btaring date August 28, 184a, is made from £1 Omer- cio th Lima, October 6, 184G : " The provisional govemneBt considering that the aUp-yards of Guayaquil, by reason of iU favorable position, and in view of the interests of commerce and of the npublic, merit special attention ; therefore, in order to advanoe these interests, and to encourage the construction of ships, it is decreed : Art. 1. '^sels constructed at Guayaquil, and retaining the national flag, shall be exempt from tonnage, anchorage, and other port dues. Art. 2. Such vessels shall be en- titled to a reduction of three per cent, on all produce, merchandise, etc., imported into any of the ports of the republic for consumption." The commerce between the United Jtates and Equa- dor is vei}' limited, owing mainly to the fact thaf the two great staples of the latter country, cocoa and straw-hata, find bat little demand in tha United Statat —the former being of limited ooasumptlon, and tha latter subject to a duty of 30 per cant. Before tha treaty between Spain and £quador, in 1848, United States' vessels carried flour and domestic manu£icturea diniot to the port of Guayaquil, and were generally chartered to transport cargoes of oocoa to Spafai. Sinoa that period, however, the high duties on cocoa In Spain, when imported In foreign vessels, have been equiva- lent to a prohibition. This, together with the annu- ally increasing importation of flour fhjm Chill, lu.s produced a depressing effect on American trade with that republic. The following table will exhibit the condition of this trade during a period of eleven suc- cessive years. But little improvement can be ex- pected, it is thought, so long as the present tariff regulations of the United States oontinua in force. The duties on navigation in the ports of Equador are — tonnage duties, S5 cents per ton ; light dues, 6^ cents per ton. When pilots are employed, the fees are (2 50 per foot of the vessel's depth. See Com. Rela- timt V. S., 1858-7. Ecuador, which once formed part of the empire of the Inoas, was discovered by Pizarro in 1526, and was held under the Spanish crown until the year 1812, when a revolution occurred, which ended in the estab- lishment of a separate republic. In 1821 Ecuador disconnected itself with Now Grenada. OoMPABiiTira STATaiHiiT or Tna Coimnira or ma ITiirrKD States with E<)Vado(, ■XHurriMO the Taldb or Ex- ruais TO AHD Imposts tkoh iaok Cuv.ntby, and tuk Tonmaiib or Ahseioah ahd roBiiOR Vosiia akuviho raOH AHD DCPABTIMl TO KACn COUNTKT, DURINO TIIS YEARS DESIONATtl). VIAKS. CoUMMCt. HAVWAtl6y. 1 VALiri or BIPOBIH. TALUS or iMPDan, AinstcAjt vomMt. IX»M1. fndiKt. rroduc. ToUI. itMndilM UulUd SUMl. ClMT«d from lll« U. SUM. CuWraJUM UnlUd SMai. OmlM him Um U, Siaim. 1346 94,414 .... MkOM il,180 871 10,811 11,180 87,834 84,885 70,898 18,800 87,884 18,686 "m 688 886 808 1,»81 877 819 "m V,oii "888 410 614 168 1,185 868 760 249 191 1*47 1W0 1851 18M 1858 1854 18B6 The following summary statements of the commeree of Guyaquil, condensed from the official reports for the yean designated, will convey a general idea of the foreign commerce of Equador, the port of Gayaquil Iwtng the principal port of that npublic : TaADE or OvATAqniL roa 1^16. Peru Chin Bpoln Hamburg Franoe Hexloo Central America.. New Oraaada England Total lm|io rt». $(M8;i40 148,930 S7,«10 iim M80 |110,77» 170.810 190,000 177,910 99,780 75,6M 86,910 14,680 6,170 8l6,t40 I 881,080 Tout. $718,910 814,740 »7,«M 177,970 194,070 T^tlO 86,910 19,780 6,170 1,897,170 The United States does not appear in the list of conntries for I8'16. Indeed, the foreign trade of Equa- dor is conducted chiefly with the ports of Lima and Valparaiso, the two principal entrepots for the trade of South America. The following statement affords a description of the merchandise, with its values, im- ported in 1845, and the conntries of origin : DtMri|)tli>B nf RMrchMdU*. VaIiu. CouUnoforifln. Textiles of cotton... " wool " lax •i Bilk Wins, (146,300 H4S0 88,190 tifi40 79,410 76,760 «,1B0 81,710 81,710 88,760 11,180 18,060 ■ «,7»0 Pern. w u u Pern, Spain, Franee. Ponj, ChUL Franee. Pern, Chill, ti .1 Psro, Chill, BpalB, Franoe PerOiChlH. ^•r tf.iMtmur.Ti - CfaUl, Pern, Fmoee. Spirits. Previsions Hsrdware Psper Mnsleal iBstramsaU and fomttura Potterjr and glass- wsns. EXPORTS. Deieriptloa ofiiMreliAiidlM. Vilqu. Whllhw. Cocoik 1860,880 11,180 19,890 8j.Jn.Hjmburg,F.a«^ Pern. • ' ■ •I''" CbUL Strsw bats Sole leather The following tabular statement exhibits the de- scription of merchandise exported fh>m the port of GuayAquil in the year 1856, with the quantity of each article, respectively : BiporU of mtrebAndlM. Ooon^ poonds Straw hala. doaen Taannd hides, sides Tobaceo. quintals Banaparina. ** Tamarinds, " CoAe " OrchUla •• BariE " Timber. toga Caaes pleeea Manyles " Indla-rabber. qntntals The countries to which the cocoa speclfled In the above statement was sent, together with the quantity to each, is exhibited as follows. Each carga equaU 81 lbs.: _ . Om«». Bpala 80,881 Ilambnrc. , 86,181 Franca 17,214 Pern 14,898 18 Chill 14.8(t7 80 UnltedState^ 7,544 04 Central America. 6,468 69 Mexico 6,410 80 Panama. 4,911 78 TotaL 186,998 10 The following table exbtbil* the quantitieo, in pounds, of cocoa, exported from Guayaquil during a SnonUtlfft. ,089,768 88,778 16,146 8,«S» 667 199 T76 4,000 7,780 9.868 78,661 6,660 765 Iba. » M 61 EQU eift BRI U. State*. I 6U~ 168 1,185 e68 760 in [06>,TI» 88,TT8 S6,246 »•!§? 6W TT« 4,noo T,78» •.868 T8,»l 6,660 T65 Ifled tn the lie quantity jkTga equal* Ita. 1214 6a 1,696 tS km 80 1,644 M >,468 69 iL4l« 8» [r,» M T8 -■. j,«98 ao ' ' lantitiefi, in during • pniod of Un yean, fVom 1M6 to 1861, both yean In- oluelve: tmmit, Pooada. 1846 11,W9,«08 18in »,fier, on every 100 lbs. exported to foreign markets. Art. 2, The bark taken from government lands, and exported to foreign countries, shall pay a duty of two dollars for every 100 lbs. on yellow, three on Cailessaya, and eight on red. Art. 8. Those persons who export In- dla-rubl)er and bark withot presenting the same at the custom-house, or place appointed for the collection of the duties specified in the previous articles, with the intent of avoiding the payment of said duties, shall he judged according to the process detailed ih the law of th(t 2l8t November, 1853. Art. 4. Ever}' citizen who proposes extracting India-rulilwr or bark from national lands, shall present himself to the respective governor, who, after hearing his proposal, and satisfy- ing himself tluit the land is actually government prop- erty, sh'iil give to the parties applying the required permission in writing. Art. 5. Those engaged in the collection of India-rubber must not cut down the tree ; but, to obtain their object, should bore a small hole in the trunk, at the height of alwut half a yard from the grounil, penetrating the greater part of the thickness of the troe, taking care not to bore through it. Art. 6. Those who are found taking Indio-rubljer or bark from national lands without having complied with the con- ditions prescrilied in articles 4 and 5, shall )>e treated as smugglers, and the substances collected taken from them and confiscated. Art. 7. The governors of prov- inces in the lands under their jurisdiction will take all possible measures to discover and apprehend .ill parties who endeavor to infringe the preceding dispositions. Art. 8. Article 6 applies, also, to those Individuals who do not comply with the dispositions of articles 4 and S, under the pretext that they are collecting the aforesaid substanoas fVom their own lands, ihottld il \t» dlioor* ered that the said lands an oattonal ftofnty, AH, H, Those persons who collect India-rubbar and bark fIruM their own property, an not subject to any of lha du- ties Imposed in the present dacrae. Art. 10, Tlia Ho«i> rat<>ry of the Treasurj- is charged with tb* due aiif«ii« tiun of this present decrae, of which it i« his du(v lo inform the Congrass next ensuing."— Cof/i. iMUiimi, U. S. See GuAYAguiu Bqwitor {aquar*, to maka eaual), In ailrommD and geography, a great cinle of tlia tpbar*, aquaUy distant from tlie two poles of tha world, ur havllif th* same polea as the world. It Is callcil wiuatur bawiiuw when the sun is in it tha daya and niglits an otiiwl i whence also it is denominated the iquituetiali and when drawn on maps, planispheres, or globas, It I* called the equinoctui line, or simply Ms luw, Kvary point in the equator ia 90 degress, or a quadrant's dis- tance from the poles of the world t and bantia tiw equator divides the sphen in'o two equal bamlspliarwi, in one of which Is the northern, and In tha c4iiar tha southern pole. Terrestrial longitudes are maasartd on the equator, or some oii» of Its parallal elrolai | commenclog from soma arbitrary point, wblob dlffap> ent nations assume variously, most of tham adoiitin( the meridian which passea through tbsir oapitaf oity or principal observator)-. Latitudes ara oountad frum the equator along the meridian. Equinox (Lat. aquus and non, night). In astron- omy, is the time at which tha sun passes through tba equator in one of the equinoctial points. Wbsn tba sun Is in the equator, the days and nights an of equal length all over the world, whence the derivation of the term. This happens twice every year, nautely, about the 21st of March, and the 'i'iA of Huptambar t the former is called the venml, and tba latter tba au- tumnal equinox. The equinoxes do not divida til* year into portions of equal length ; for in consaqiianea of the sun being at his greatest distanca from tba aaitb during the summer months, and his angular motion In his orbit being consequently slower, the interval from the vernal to the autumnal equinox is greater than that from the autumul to the vernal. In other words, the sun continues longer on the northern than on tba southern side of the equator. At the tieglnning uf tb* present century, the difference amounted to 7 days 10 hours and 51 minutes. The summer in the uortberu hemisphere is constantly longer than In tha aoutbam by this quantity ; and to this circumstuuua soma meteorologists ascribe, in port at least, tiM blgbar temperature that is found to prevail in the nonliam hemisphere under the same p4iruilel of latitude. Erie (lake), situated north uf Mew York, I'onnsyU vonia, and Ohio, and constitutes a part of tba lionnd- ar}- between the United States and Canada. It Is !M0 miles long, and 60 broad, in its wbest |iart. It n- ceives the waters of Superior, Michigan, and Uurun lakes, through Detroit Kiver, and diseliurges its wa- ters through Niagara River into Lake Ontario, Itl surface is elevated 565 feet above tide-water in tba Hudson River at Albany. The soundings by tlM U, S. Engineers show the lake to be divided Into tbrta sections of unequal depth, viz., one extends from tba head down to Point Pellee Island, and tba liottom presents a general level, with a depth of 30 feat In tb* average. The second is of much larger extent, and stretches to Long Point ; is also a level, with a ilaptb of 60 to 70 feet. The third section extends to Niagara River, and is an uneven bottom, with various depths of water, rouging from 60 to 240 feet. The business done on this lake Is immense, and Increasing. Tb* licensed tonnage of the lake Is 188,852 tons, of wbiob a large and Increasing proportion Is of steam-vessels, ! The estimated value of the commerce amounts to $220,000,000 annually. Then an 20 light-bouses and i beacons on the American side, and 10 on tha Canadian I side, A battle was fought near it* wast end S«pt*ffl> 916 KUP bw 10th, IMS, batwara tha Aaiarlom fleet, milar Cooiaadgn Parrjr, and tha EnglUh flaat. In wMoh tha Utiar waa eaptand. 8aa Laki*, Commtret of. ■nnln* (Gar. Utrmelin t Fr. Htrmme, Ermtnt ; Rm . OoniMdu), ■ ipaciea of waatal (muUln emtdida, Mn.), •bnniUat in alt cold eoantrlaa, particularly RohU, Norway, LapUnd, ate., and produoinv - uioit ralna- bla ipaciea of Iter. In tw"— .^e srralna if of u brown color, and it called the iloat. It la In winter only that the Air haa that beautiful anowy whitaneia and eontiatenee ao much admired. See Kdrs. BcpartO, a ipedea of rush, the ttipn Imarurima ot botanliti. It la found in the aouthem provincea of Spain ; Md la particularly abundant on all the aterile, uncultivated, and nountalnoua diatricta of Valencia. BKOKMAim (Hitt. of Invtnl., vol. 11., p. 280, Eng. ed.) auppoaea, apparently with good reason, that the ilipa tenacUMHNi la the plant deaeribed by Pliny under the name of Sparta, who aacrlhea ita application to uaeful pnrpoaea to the Caitbaginiana.— ffiW. Mi/., lib. six., c. 3. It la still uaed for the same purpoae* as in antiquity, being manufactured into cordage, shoes, matting, baskets, nets, matresaes, sacks, etc. Cables made of esparto are said to be excellent ; being light, they float on the anrface of the water, and are not, therefore, ao liable aa hempen cables to be cut or In- jured by a foul bottom. They are exclusively made use of in the Spanish navy. Esparto is largely eon- Humed in the manufacture of alpergatet. These ire light shoes worn by f'u Valencian peasantry, having pUttad soles made either of esparto or hemp, but prin- cipally of the former. They are extremely cheap and commiadlous in hot climates; and heaidea being in extensive demand at home, uaed to be exported In immenae quantitiea to lioth Indies ; but since the emancipation of Spanish America, this trade has greatly fallen off. The Spanish peasantry have at- tained to wonderful dexterity in the manufacture of esparto. " After having soaked the rush in water, the women and children, without either wheel or spindle, contrive to twist two threads at the same time. This they do by rubbing them between the palms of their hands, in the same manner as a shoemaker forms a thread upon his knecH, with this difference, that one motion gives the twist to each thread, and, at the same time, unites them. To keep the threads asun- der, the thumb of the right hand is interposed Iwtween them ; and when that is wanted for other purposes, the left thumb supplies its place. Two threads being thus twisted into one of the bigness of a large crow- quill, 48 yards are sold for little more than ^., the materials being worth about a fifth part of the price." — Towhsend'h Travth in Spain, vol. lit., p. 177 ; see also p. 129; Fischer's Picture of Valencia, Eng. ed., p. 92, and p. 57, etC. Bnenoe D'Orient, the name of a pearly-looking matter proeurrd from the bUy or bleak, a flsh of the genus typriniiM. This sulMtance, which Is found prin- cipally at the liase of the scales. Is used in the manu- foeture of artificial pearls. A large quantity of the teales being scraped into water In a tub, are there rubbed between the handa to separate the shining Dtuff which subeides on repose. The first water being de- canted, more is added with agitation till the essence la thoroughly washed ttom all Impurities ; when the whole Is thrown upon a sieve ; the substance passes through, but the scales are retained. The water be- ing decanted off, the essence ia procured in a viscid state, of a bluish-white color, and a peariy aspect. The intestines of the same flsli aie also eoveiM with this beautiful, glistening matter. Several other fish yield it, Imt In smaller proportion. When well pre- pared, it presents exactly the appearance and reflec- tions of the real pearls, or the finest mother of pearl ; propertiea which are probably owing to the interposi- tion of some portions of this same substance, itetween Ihe lamina of these shelly concretions. Its chemical nature koa net been Imraatlgatefl ; it pntrafles readfljr when kept moist, an accident which may, however, be ooontemcted by water of ammoBia. See P>Amu. BMMntlal OUl, or VoUtll* Oila. Under this term are included all those paenllar compounds ob- tained by distilling vegetable substances with water, and which pass over along with tha steam, and are afterward condensed in the liquid or solid form. The/ appear to constitute the odorous prindplea of vegeta- bles. Their specific gravity fluctuatea on either side that of water ; they are ver}' sparingly soluble in w»> ter, and these aolutiona conatitute the mtdicaled mtUri $ rose, peppermint, and other waters lieing such aula- tlona 01 the reapective essential oils. They dissolve in alcohol and form fMtnrtt, many of which are used as perftimes. When these oila are pure, they evaporate ftom paper when held before the fire ; but if adulte- rated with fixey the Antl- Taums and Taurus mountains, it works ita circuitoua way through narrow passes and over cataracts, until, breaking through a defile formed by the eastern ex- tremity of Mons Amanus (Almo-dagh) and the north- western extremity of Mont Taurus, It reaches the RDP 61? sent |il*1n eooBtTT' not flir from flamoaaU (SamaiMt). It then winds lonth and ■outh-mit, psMini; thr north of 8yrU, >nd tha north-oimt of Arabia Denitrta, and at length, after many wlndinK*, unite* with the TIgrIa, and thua unitnl, flnds ila teniilnatlon In tha Peralan Gulf, In conjunction with thn TIgria, it forma the rich, alluvial landa of Heaopntamlu, ov«r which It iows or la carried by canala, and tbua diffiiaea abroad fertility and lieauty. At OughiUd and Hillah (Babv. k>B) the Euphratea and Tigria approach companttvely •ear to eaeli other, but aeparate again, fonnlng a kind of ample Irnaln, till thuy flnntiy liecomo one at Kurnah. Although occasionally much more, the breadth of the Euphratea varies between 200 and 400 yards, but for a distance of 60 rallea through the Lemlun marahea, tha main atream narrowa to about 80 yarda. The general depth of the Upper Kuphratea exceeda 8 feet. In point of cnrrent It la for the moat part a alngglsh itreaa ; for, except in the height of the flooded aca- BOB, when Ita flow approachea A milea an hour, it varies from H to in, with a much larger portion of its conrae under 8 than almve, Ita general deacripllon for some distance below Kningon, la that of a river of the first order, atmggiing through high hilla sr rather low mountalna, making an exceedingly tortuous course, as It forces ita waj- over a pebliiy Iwd, from one natu> ral barrier to another, Aa it winda round ita numerous barriers, it carries occaalonaily toward each of the car- dinal pointa a consideralde l>ody of water ; and la shal- low enough In some places for loaded camels to pass in autumn, the water rising to alMiut 4| feet. The upper portion of the river la incloaed Iwtween two par- allel rangea of hills, covered for the moat part with high brushwood and timber of moderate aize, having a succession Of long, narrow islands. The principal towns on Its hanks are Samsat, Ilaoroum, Komkala, BIr, Qialwr, DeIr, Rava, Anah, Hadiaa, El Ooa, JIhba, Hit, Hillah, Lemlun, Kurnah, and Basrah. The scenery al-.jve Hit, in Itaelf very pictureaqne, la greatly heightened l)y the frequent recurrence of an- cient irrigating aqueducts, beautiful specimens of art, which are attributed by the Aral)s to the Persians %hen flre-worshlpers ; they literally cover both banks, and prove that the borders of tho Euphrates were once thickly inhabited by a highly civilized people. From Hit to Babylon the black tent of the Bedouin Is almost the only kind of habitation to he seen. This distance is cultivated only in part ; the rest is desert, occasion- ally intcr^iier^ed with cluatera of date-trees. In de- scending, the irrigating cuts and canala Income mora frequent. Bal)ylon Is encircled by two streams, one •Imve, the other below the principal ruins ; beyond which they unite and produce abundance. For about 80 miles below Hillah both lianks have numerous mild villages, shaded by date-trees : to those succeed huts formed of bundles of reeds. The country lower down toward lemlun, la level and little elevated above the river ; Irrigation is therefore easy ; in consequence, both Iwnks are covered with productive cultivation, and fringed with a double and nearly continuous belt of luxuriant date-trees, extending down to the Persian Gulf. At one mile and a half above the town of De- wanla Is the flrat considerable offahoot from this hith- erto majestic river ; another takes place 22 miles .lower ; and miles further, at Lemlun, it again sep- arates into two branches, forming a delta not unlike that of Damletta, and when the river is swollen, inun- dating the country for a space of aliout 60 miles in width, with a shallow sheet of water, forming the Lemlun marshes, nsarl}' the whole of wiiinh is covered witli rice and other grain, when the river recedes in June, Below Lemlun the Tigris sends a branch to the Euphrates, which is thus increased in Its volume ; and turning to the east, receives the chief branch of the Tigris, thence running In a single stream, under the name of the 8hat-el-Areb, as far as the Persian Quif. In this last part the river has a depth of troni 8 to 6 fkthomi I Tariea in breadth from 800 to 900 yards, »ai presents banks covered with villages and cultivation, having an appearance at once Imposing and majestla. The length of the entire stream Is 1,400 miles. It Is very abundant In ilsh. The water Is somewhat turbid, but when purilled, is pleasant and salubrtona. Tht Arabians set • high value on It, and name It Morad Sou ; that is, Water of Desire or longing. The rivar begins to rise In Haroh, and continues rising till the latter end of May. The consequent increase of its volume and rapidity Is attributable to the early ratna, which, falling in the Armenian mountains, swell Itt mountain tributaries { and also to the melting of tha winter snows In these lofty regions. About the mid die of October tha Euphrates has reached ita Inwar ebb, and ceaaing to decrease, becomes tranquil and alngglsh. The expedition sent out by the British government under the direction of Colonel Chesney, navigated the Euphrates in 18B6 frvm Bireh-Jik to Its estnar}-, a dis- tance of 1,117 miles ; and besides throwing much light on a countr}' then very im|>erfectly known to Euro- peans, proved that there exist no serious obstacles to the navigation of that river by moderate-sized steam- ers thus far ; and even for 88 miles above Ilirnh-Jik to Beies, an important station In a commercial point of view,— E, B. Europe, one of the great divialons of the globe. On a flrst view Europe appean to tie less favored by nature than the other quarters of the globe over whioh it hns obtained so great an ascendency. It la much smaller In extent ; its rocky and mountainous surface does not admit of those noble rivers, like inland seas, which lay open the remotest regions of Asia and of America to the commerce of the world, Ita vegetable productlona are neither ao various nor ao exulierant ; and it is poorly supplied with the precious metals, and with many of those commodities on which mankind set the greatest value. On the other hand, the climate of Euro|>e, if it nourishes a less luxuriant vegetation, is of an equal and temperate kind, well adapted to pre- serve tlie human frame in that state of health and vigor which flta it for labor, and promotes the develop- ment of the Intellectual and moral powera. The mountaina that interaect ita surface are barriers whioh enalded infant communities to protect themselves Arom violence, and to lay the foundation of arts, knowledge, and civilization. If it haa few lari;e iin-. igable riv- ers, its inland seii and liays are, f^'w ttieir position and extent, tho flnest in the world, t . / ve l>een tha means of creating and nourishing tni.t commeroial spirit which has been one great souree of its improve- ment. Though comparatively deficient in gold and stiver, It is abundantly supplied with those useful met- als and minerals which minister still mora essentially to the wants of civilized life. Ita apparent defects have become the source of real beneflts, and the found- ation of ita grandeur. The disadvantages of its soil and climate have excited the industry of ita inhabit- ants, given them clearer ideas of property, kindled a resolute spirit to defend their rights, and called into existence that skill and enterprise, and those innumer- able arts and inventions, which have enabled the in- habitants of this apparently barren and rocky promon- tory to command the riches and luxuries of all tha most favored regions of the globe. It is only in En- rope that knowledge and the arts seem to be indige- nous. Though they have appeared at times among some of the nations of Asia, they have either stopped short after advancing a few stepa, or they have speed- ily retrograded and perished, like something foreign to the genius of the people. In Europe, on the contrary, they have sprung up at distant periods, and in a va- riety of situations ; they have risen spontaneously and rapidl}', and declined slowly; and when they disap- peared, it was evident they were but crushed for tha time by external violence, to rise again when the EUR ew BUR ptMMN hMl NbiMtd. It la oaly in Earop*, aad (ummg ooImIm of KarapMM, that th* powan of iha hitiMn mImI, bfMking Ibfotijih IIm ■lavUb •tUchnMDl lo McUiil u— tf f mhI iMlitiiltoiui, have davalnpad thai iirlnrlaU of pragNMlva laiprovaiiMnt of which It b bapoMlhU to ealaulato lb* Anal reiulU. Tha rudaa IrUw In Kuropa, In whhih IhU priaolpla hai takan mot, Imm • cartain aoniea of raparioiity over the mott Im- pMvad natlona of Airla and Africa, where eociety ra- ■alna parfeeHjr ilatlonarjr. If thena aattont are ever ilaalbMNi tn ailraneo In oktllaatlon, they mutt borrow f^am Kumpa Ihoaa arte which nha haa invented, and whfek lialoflii tn dvlUaod life in every climaU, But tka lanaiHana adbaiance of rude nationfi teint( warmer tlian the •aatem. Kumiie lies almost entirely within the tem- parata aone, not more than one fourteenth part of its •arfaca lieinK within tlia arctic circle. Only a vorj- ■mall part of it Is uninhabitable from cold, and 'A no- where auiriTa from excessive heat. The mean tem- perature at its southern extremit.v, in the latitude of W, Is about na° of Kahrenheit ; and at Cape North, In tha latitude of 71°, where the menn temperature is •3'-', the cold is not greater than in the latitudes of 55° or M° on the east coaata of Asia and America. Hence Knrope la habitable at a higher latitude by 12° or 14° tban either of these continenta. Tem/ifralHrt. — The|n Is a diifci«nce of the same kind lietween the temperature of the taa-coaata of £u- Mpa and tlie Interior. In lalands, and on the sea-coast, |ba mean temperature of the year ia higher, and tha kaat Is more equally distributed through the different aaaaona. Aa we advance from the coast eoatward the mean annual temperature iliminiahea, l>nt the heat of •nmmer and the cold uf winter increase. Thus lA>n- don has the same mean annual temperature as Vienna, btit It has tha summer of St. Petersburg, and tha win- tar Is warmer than at MiUn. Tha Mediterranean, tha Baltic, and Inland lakes, produce the same effect as the In aa Inferior degraa. Tha following tabla ahows, I, Tha tomparatura of tka year, and tha ti^ rhiua aaaaona, in placea having the aama latitude) IK The diffeiwit diatributiun of beat through the varioua aaaaona In pUcaa having tha sanM mean annual tenw peratura. ««- OfllM V«v. WlKtar. • pri.«. vBMraa anal- mar. atusB^ Aa- tauia. M.talh.l *•"""■• limU Kdlnburg.... 47-8 m-t 4«-4 Ui 4S'4 W4 m-s Oopenha(«n tA-fl RA-H 411 «9« 4I*'4 U'O S71 H«eo»7... 4ut they an of less tlevaticm than tha mountaina of America and Aaia. The higbeat and the moat extenaive chalna in Kuro|)a run generally In the diraction of east and west, and are placed near ite aouthem shorea. The central maaa of the Alps, with which all the other mountaina In the aouth of Kuropa an connected, forma the summit of the continent, and determines the position of the surface and the counaa of most of the rlveri. Ai'rert. — Europe U well watered with riven, but they an mere brooks companxl with the mighty str«auis - rapid, particularly between Pasaau and Vienna, and at the Inini/ntf, through which it passes from the plains of Hungary to the low level of Wallachia. Tha average fall, tlierefora, of such a river would be • most fallacious index of the configuration of the wluila length of country through which it flows. Ita course is indeed through a seriea of terraces, separated by deep falls. The sourccK of the Rhine, In the heart of SwitcerUnd, hava an olevatiun of mora than 7000 feet^ BUR 619 / but whtn It rMchti tb* I^t of ConilMc* It hM aU rmuly r«U«a to 1000. rrom that Uk« tu lUnU, wli*n It laiivci the inountniiw, It falU mura th»n IMK) f««t, •nd avvti furthtr down it (till Hows with grut Impet- •oalty, falliDK -100 fMt mora berora it r*iM)hM 8trM- burif, A dlitanc* of only 70 mlUi. Thn average, how- «v«r, of It! fall from the latter city to tha Ma l« only •bout one foot a mile. The elevation or the Klbbntn- M«n, or auurcea of the Kllw, In lloheinia, i« 42110 bat, but the river falla lo rapidly, within a. ihort distance, that, after pansiuK the northern mountnin lionler of Uohemla, It! elevation ia found to be, at Dreaden, only 9M0 feet. Tha avaragn fall from that point to tha tea b l«M than a foot a mlla, The elevation of the aourca of tha Oder U 1706 feat, but at IlreaUu It bai alfaady fallen to 870, and the average fall of tha remainder o^ Ita oourao li llkewiae aliout a foot a mile. The eleva- tion of the auuroe of the Vlitula wa have not been able to lenm, but a« It la navigable from Podxarae, near Cracow, to the aaa, Ita average fall Is proliuldy much tha aame aa that of tha Kllte of tha Oder. Few of the rivers of Kuropa are of much Import- ance as means uf communication and transit. The VoIku becomes navlgalde at Kief, almut 70 miles from Ita Houri'e, and so continues to the Caspian Sea, a dis- tance of more than 2U00 mlleK, following tha course of the river. It is the xreat liigbway of Central Kussia, io many as fiOOO loocloil lH)nts annually descending its stream ; b«t as it embi unfortunately in an Inland lake, it Is of no two fur the transiiort of other foreign wares than tlie produce of the sandy and barren regions that ■urround the Caspian. The Volga is so connected with the other great rivers and lakes of Russia by canals, that there li un- interrupted navigation from the Raltic to the White Noa, the Illuck Sea, and tha Caspian. The Don has a course of IHM) miles, liut has so many shallows as to lie nowhere navlgalile for large or sharp-bottomed vessels. The Dnieper, the next largest river of Kussia, has a course of IIHX) miles, and is navigable from Smolensk to Kief; but, further down, its channel Is so olwtrncted witli rocks and fulls, for a space of 150 miles, that navigable communication between the sen and the inland provinces through which it flows is completely out otr. The Danulie becomes navlgalde at Ulm, IfiUO miles from Its mouth ; but lietween Passau and Vienna, It flows among mountains, und navigation is rendered difficult iiy the rapidity of tlie stream, and the frequent occurrence of rocks, shoals, eddies, and whirlpools; and, in leaving Hungary, through a nar- row gorge of 60 miles in length, which it has cut for itself across the mountains that inclose that rnimtry. It falls in a series of rapids, the lowest of whiefi in li'ie famous Irongata, through which the stre ru.ihes with great rapidity in n narrow channel, lietween stu- pendous rocks, ending in a series of whirlpools, eddies, and smaller falls. Here navigation was considered to be elfectually stopped; but we have just learned (January, 1855) that steamlioats have at last been constructed so as to lie considered capable of passing these rapids in safety, and that they will be imme- diately put upon the river. It is also proposed to cut a channel through the rocks 1200 yards long, 40 feet wide, and 6 feet deep, which will give plenty of ad- ditional depth fur the steamers and other loaded ves- ■els. The numlier of workmen to be employed in this gigantic undertaking Is '2000, and tha work will extend over a iieriod of 6 years, at u cost of 2,000,000 of flor- ins. So numerous, besides, are the windings of tlie Danube through the comparatively level plains of Hungary, that between Prealmrg and the Black 8ea, a d'rect distance of Ii50 miles, the course of the river actually measures 1200. The Khine Is navigable above the lake of Constance, but the navigation Is (topped by the Hheinfall near Schalf hausen. From that point to Basle It ia not very easy or always prac- ticable; to Straaburg it is not ttw from danger; but further down tha rlvar bacomea % fine naviipibl* ntrsam, not quit* free indeed fhim difficulty aud risk, partli'ulnrly In the deep and narrow gorge which It passes through lietween llingem and Coblenta; but below Coblenta the channel la uninterrupted and fra« fMm danger, lietween the Khine and the Uaaube there is a navigable communicatiun by means of the rivers Meyn and Altiiiubl, wblah are connected by the ImA- wig's canal in iiavitrbt. The fUlie, and Its trIlMitary, the Moldau, are lioth navigable even in l)uhelaU^ and from their confluenco to the sea there la r o serious litter- ruptiuu. The Oder ia navigable downward from HUeahi, and Is uf the utmost Importance aa tlia channel of uuii> vayanua for tha productions of that country to the sea, itresluu, Frankfurt, and Stettin, three uf the principal commercial towns of PrussU, stand on its hanks, aud It Is connected by canals with the Vixtula, the llavel, and the Hproe. The Vistula Is, like the Oder, the principal channel of transit lietween the Baltic Sea and the Polish provinces of Austria, Kussia, and Prussia, and begins to be navigable at Podgorxe, near Cracow. These are tha only rivers that seem to require notice aa navigable streams in a general survey of Europe, although there are many others of great im- portance to the several countries in widch they are found, as the Thames, the Tyna, the Clyde, the Kluine, the Po, etc. The islands of Knropu, Including Nova Zembla aud Iceland, occupy a space equal to 280,000 square miles, or 1-llth part of tha surface of the continent; and of this space the area of the British isles amounts to rather less than |. The Black Sea is the only Urge sea connected with Europe In which there are nu islands worthy of notice. Hent. — Tha Mediterranean, the noblest Inland sea In the world, forms the southern boundary of Kurope, separating it from Africa, and partly also from Asia. It may be considered as the liottom of a vast basin formed by the Pyrenees, Alps, Balkans, Taurus, Lllia- nus, and Atlas. These mountains are everywhere near Its shores, which are consequently narrow and much inclined. Hence there are no such extennive plains us Hungary or Poland near tlie coast of thia sea, and hence, also, no very large rivers full into it except tha Mile ; and altogether it receives a smaller quantity uf water from rivera than the Black Sea or the Baltic, though six times larger than either. Its length is about 2850 miles, its breadth is extremely various, and its surface (exclusive of the Black Sea) ia nearly equal to 1,000,000 of square Knglish miles, or something less than ^ part of the continent of Europe. It Is generally of great depth; and its numerous islands, which have uniformly a rocky surface, apfieur to be the summits of marine mountains. Jir • ihort tinw, bvt tkit U of nia oocumnc*. 8m Rai.tio. niaek Kra, — Th* HImIi Hm, which halnnR* ontjr alo Kurnpt, li 700 mllM Inng (nd AMO mllM . M<1, InrludinR th« 8*a of Aanf, prvMinli ■ aur- ttfn nf 170,000 iquara kiIIm, IwIiik altiKMl nf th* Hma miipilliiit* M th* lUltle. It d«rtv*» 4-Ath( of It* w*t«r ftam Ennip*, and I* (■nrlmialjr dUtln||iiUh*d tram th* ap, aneh aa th* lakn la th* Al|>a, on th* anat aid* nf th* Norwe- gian mountalna, and amonff Ih* mountain* of KnKland and Ncntland ; and Ihna* which ara formail In l«v*l conntrl** from th« want of a anffli'lani dm'llvitj tn tury oir th* water, auch aa th* laknt In Klnland, Foland, and lirandcnhnrK. 4-Stha of th* lak** of Europ* ar* In th* countrj* round th* Ualtic. Vtgtlablt ProtlHeiiim*. — Th* aoll of Earnp* h*a not Ih* *xtr«mca of luxuriance or at«rllity which Iwlnng to th* aoll of th* otkvr great contlnenla. If it doea not j\*\A th* rich fhilt* of tropical cilmataa, it I* not deformed lijr burning aanda like Africa, or by peatiltnt iwamp* Ilk* America. It da«a not pour forth Ita rich** aponlaneooaly, but, auliclting th* ear* and th* labor of man, It requite* hi* induatry with what it B*c«aaary to aupply hi* wanta ; and, by exerciaing and iharptning hi* power* of mind, haa given birth to thoa* arta which place th* production* of th* moat faTored climatca at hi* diapoaal. Many of th* pUnt* which have been domeatleated in Europe are native* of diatant countrie*. The vine, th* olive, and the mulberry are taid to have been brought from Syria by the Greek* t the Arabians introduced cotton ; niaiae waa received fhim the Indian tribe* of America ; the walnut and the peach come from Peraia ; th* apricot ttnm Armenia, and the augtr-cane and orange from China. There are not very many plant* belonging to the tropical r^glona that abeolotely refuse tn grow in Kurope, bat an enlightened economy finda other pro- ductiona more prolit«l)le. lieaidea augar and cotton, the banana, the orange, citron, fig, pomegranate, and dale, grow in the aouth of Europe. But the mon delicate fmits ar* conflned to aoutbam latltudea, and diaappear one l>y one a* we advance northward. And It la worthy of remark, that the xonea in which they grow generally follow the linea of equal summer heat, and run obliquely acroea the continent in the direction of Bouth-waat and north-eaat. If a line be drawn on the map from Bref t to Konigalwrg, skirting the aouth- em ahoras of the English Channel and the Baltic, the lonaa that limit the growth of different planta will run nearly parallel with thia line. This holda generally in the aouth and middle of Europe ; Imt in tlie extreme northern parts, and eapecially wilh regard to plant* that require a motlerate heat continued for a conildar- able time, the line* that limit the growth of certain vegetable* seem to follow a different courae, and de- cline toward the aouth aa we advano* eaatwnrd, in conaequenca of the Inereaaing aeverity and length of the winter. It la scarcely neoesaar}' to aay that the tone* traced aa proper for different planta, only mark th* limit* within which their cultivation i* found ad- vantageouj. Most of them will grow beyond these Umlta; but tliey either require son.u pe'"'iiar advan- tage* of soil and aituation, or they ara Icjs profitable than other kind* of produce. The sugar cane, one of the moat detirabi* tropical plants, grows in Sicily and th* south of Spain, in tiM Utltude of 87° and 38°. The ouhura of it, which waa one* •xlanslv* In th* latter rannlry, hM not yet h**n *nirslv •h*nilnn*d, *v*n ainc* augar waf pnx-urod from th* W*at liidlaa. Ciilton I* cultlvalaii in th* aonlh of Hpain on a aniall acal* i to a graatar •xt*nt In HIrlly, Ih* aoulh-**at angle of Italy, and la lireweand ita iaiaa, aa high a* th* iailtud* of 4tt°| we And It again at Aalracan, in th* latltuit* of 40°. The orang* and th* lemon roine to perfection in th* weat nf Euro|i*, only In tli* ixMinlrina to the mwlh of the Pyrenees and Afienninea, wllhiii the latitude 48" In H|>ain, and 44" in I'aly, The olive doea not auo- ceed on the went I'oaat of Knnce in the lalltiid* of 48°, bnt growa aa far north ua 44" or 4A° on the enat of France, and In Italy. Attempts to raiae it at Aatra- can, In latitude 46°, hav* not ancceeded, nn afoonnt of th* rigor of th* winter. The flg and the |nm»' granate, which accompany the olive In tlie waat of Euro))*, ar* found in th* (Crimea In the east, at tha latitude of 411", where the oliv* will not grow, a proof that lh*a* trees li«ar the winter cold lietlar, 1'he cilniate pM|K>r for m*IM ia found to terminit* nn Ih* weat coaat of Kranc* at 4A^° ; on the Uhiae at 4ff° ; on the Kill* at tA)° or Al °. Kloe ha* naariy tlin sam* gvographioal range, but require* a paculiar aoil and aituation. Th* culture of tli* vina *xtenda aa far north a* the latltmle of 47^° nn the Atlantic coaat | on the Khine to 5U^^ i and on the Oiler ti> !fl^. In Kusaia it grows aa far north nearly aa All", but Is not cultivated lieyond A0°. Tlie mullierr}' generally ao> companies the vine. The ilniltn of the culture of th* common cerealia am not so well deflneil, is th* iicc**- sities of man olilign him lo raise com under the moat unfavorable circumstances. In a general |Miint of view, haw*v*r, the parallel of 67° or M° may b* regarded as th* northern limit of the cultivation of wheat in Europe, It Is ralseil as far north as tiO° or 01° in Finland, Imt only In some favored aiHits. In Russia, generally, It iachielly contlncd to the province* under the latitude of &7°. The hardier cerealin, rye, oata, and barley, are cuilivateil in aome Klicltered aitnationa on the coaat of Norway, aa high aa the lati- tude <>U° AA'. But nn thu eaut side of th* NorwegUn mountalna tbusa grains scarcely ripen in the latitude of •);" or DM" ; and farther east, In Russia, it has l>een found impossible to carry cultivation of any kind beyond the latitude of 60" or U'i°. Barley, wlilch ac- commodatea itaelf lietter than any other grain to these high latitude*, by ahortening the period of Ita growth, ia »nwn and reaped within the apace of aeven or eight weeka. But the introduction of potatoea promiaea to be of vaat tttvantage in theae cold regions, as thia plant thrives and ylelila a produce of 1)U or U) fold in placea where grain often will not ripen. I'eachea and apricots succeeil with much care on far north only aa the latitude of 641° in Kiissia : melons as far as 6!i°. The plum and the cherry grow wild a* far north aa A6°, but are carried farther l>y cultivation. Fruit tree* and the oak terminate in Sweden, at Galie, in the latlUidaof 61°; but the pine and the birch advance within the arctic circle ; and the former gruwa to tha height of 60 feet in the latitude of 70°. The black- berry and the whortloliurr}' grow in Ijipland, and the gooseberry even in Orernlanil. Toliacoo Is exten- sively cultivated over the greater partof tlir continent of Europe, from Sicily to Sweden. Flax and hemp have as extensive a range aa com, liut they ara ralaed in the greatest perfection between the latitudes of 46° and 60°. We have stated that tha superficial extent of Eu- rope ia about 8,700,000 aquare miles. If we draw • curved line fhim a point in tha Uralian mountains, alwut the latitude of 60° or 61°, to the west coast of Norway, in the latitude of 69°, passing tlirough tha Lake Onega, and a little to the nortliward of the Uulf of Bothnia, this lin* will mark the extreme limit* of cultivation, and will out off a space equal to 550,000 aquare milaa, or nearly l-7tb of Europe. The snao* RUR m EUR of Eu. draw a nUlm, laat of Kh tha he Uulf mlU of &50,000 ,e onikM •ol oir, bowarar, b not tntlnlr umUu, m • part of It limlucM paatunaa aait wood. Tha outtlvatlna of ty», oat«, anil harUy, la onnllnMl to tha rtglnni aouth of thU Una, and Inrlmlaa iiiiira than Mtba iif Kumpa | but In tha northara part* of thia uma only a rary iniall proportlnii of tha lam) will l>aar com. Tha ragliin ailaptail t» tha cultivation ^it whaat compra- hanila alM>ut 4-7tha of Kurop<>, anil Incluilaa all tha danaaly-iwoplail parta, Tha raglon of tha rlna astanda uvar tt-7tba of Kuropa. Hitifralt. — Ruropa, In propartlon to Ita axtant, la probalily richar In minaral waalth than tha othar quartiira of tha hIoIm. It contalna all tha matala axcapt platlna ; anil though It alTurtla golil ami alWar only In limltail <|uantltlaa, Inm, coppar, laail, with ooal and (all, eominmlltUa of graalar value to aoclety, ara abuniUiitly anil wlilalj- diaerlliuteil. The mountatna, conalatlng of primary and tranaltiun rocka, ara the groat il«|ioaltarl«a of thaaa mineral traaauraa. Iron la found In all tha chalna of niountulna In Kuropa. The rlrhaat nilnea ara in the Dovrelleld, or Hcandlnavlan Alpa. Uut rich minaa are alao found In tha Alpa of Styria, Curlnthlii, nnil Ilavariu i In the Pyrenaaa, the Voagea, the Cavunuaa, tha coal diatricta of Britain, tha Urala, the C'arpathluna, the llarti, and many other placaa. Cupper la alao widely dlatrllmted, though laaa abundant than Iron. The'rlcheat mine* are In llungarj-, In the Carpathian mountatna. It abound* aUa In the 8*xan and Ilohomlan mountain*, in the DuvMtlaid, the Ural*, the north of Knglnnd, and the Alp* ; and It is found In the Vo*gea,the ryreneea, and other niountain* of Spain, In the north of Germany, and in Tuacuny. Lend exiat* In the Alpa, CarpathUna, Pyreneea, Cevennea, Voagea, the RritUh mountain*, and the Uraliuu chain. Tin la found only in a few place* in Ru- rope. The richeat mine* are In Cornwall ; next to theae are the mine* in the Krigebirge. It la alao found in Hungary und Spaniah (iullcia. Mercury, like tin, I* conllnoil to a few place*. The mlnna of Idria, in Au«- trla, which yield «()00 or 10,000 quintal* per annum, are the moat prwluctive in Europe. There are alao conaideriible mine* at Deux Pont*, in the Palatinate, In the HpnnUh province of Iji Manrha, and In Tranayl- vanla. Gold la widely diffuaed through Enrope, but generally In *uch qunntltiea a* not to repay the ex- pen*o of working. It I* wrought, however. In the Carpathian*, the Urala, the Itovrefleld, and the Alpa. Anciently there were rich mine* of gold In .Spain and Graece. Silver i* more uliiindant thnn giild, though le*8 widely di*tributed. Thcro are productive mine* of thta metal in the Krzgebirge, the Carpathian*, the Ural*, the Norwegian Dovrefleid, and in Sardinia. It U found al*o in the Alps, tha Vo*ge*, and the Sierra Marena. Of colli, the richeat mine* are found In the north and weat of England. It abounds also on both aides of the middle region of Scotland ; in Ireland ; in the Netherliinils ; In one fourth part of the French terri- tory J and occurs more sparingly in Saxony, Hanover, Denmark, Sweden, Kuaaia, Hungary, Bohemia, Mora- via, Sildaia, Bavaria, Auatrla, Kranconia, Westphalia, Swabia, Catalonia, und some other part* of Spain, in Portugal, and in SardinUi. After Britain, France and Belgium are the countries in Europe beet supplied with this mineral. Salt is procured from the water* of the ocean, and, in the interior of Europe, from numerous salt mines and salt springs. The moat productive salt mines in Europe are those In Poland, on the north side of the Carpathians, and those in Salzburg, on the north side of the Alpa, both of which belong to Austria. Then are also extensive depositories of mineral salt in Tran- sylvania and Hungary ; in Valencia, Navarre, and Catalonia, in Spain ; In Cheshire, in England ; and in Bavaria, in Switzerland. Salt springs are numerous along the side* of primitive mountaina in most coun- triaa of Europe. Tha moat aitanalva salt minaa nt Ruaala ara la Aaia | but vanr large quantitioa of salt ara riillaoted fraro the tutuit, or (all lake* In tha Crimea. Antimony, cobalt, alno, maagatiaaa, (ulphnr, alum, and a great variety of other mineral productiona, ara fiiimd In Kuropa i but It I* unnacaaaary to apacify their iocalltlea. It la oliaarvad that tha Alpa, Pyren***, Carpathian*, and other mountain chain* which run aaat and waat, ara riekeat In matala on the aouth aide | while the Dufrlnea, llnla, and othan which run north and aouth, ara richest on the aaal *lda. Of the mount- ain chaina of Kuropa, tha Apannlnea ara tha poora*! In matala, tha Carpothlana probably tha richaat. Tha prograsa of Improvement tenda to level all diatinotiona among atataa, hut Ihoaa founded on tha extant of their natural reaouroaa. Capital, skill, in* talligcnoa, and all aequlrad advantage*, tend to an aqailibrium. When Europe waa overrun with burlia- rlam, the city of Venloa, by ita commercial wealth, wa* a coiiiitarpoiaa to two or three of the gnat mon- archle* of tha Continent, Tha discovery of America, and of a paaaaga by *aa In tha Eaat Indlea, gave a new lUrectiun to commerce, and undermined the graatnaaa of that city. The Dotch Kepublio ro*e liy It* ftaadom and indnatry, and waa able, in the time of Charlea II., to diaputa the empln of the *ea with the combined imwer* of England and France. But England inoreua- ed her commerce, and improved her conatltutlon | and having a larger and more fertile territory, a* well a* a greater population, *he obtained at length the aacend- ency over Holland, deprived her of the empire of the aea, and atripped her of moat of her colonle*. At the be- ginning of the 17th century, Spain and Turkey wera the Hnt powen In the we*t and eaat of Europe, and Inaplrad their nelghliora with tha dread of conqneat. Sweden ruled with undisputed away in the north ; and Ruaala, now *o formidalde, wa* *carcely known. Spain, under a better government, might recover a part of her Influence ; but the Turki*h empire *eem* near it* din- mlutlon ! and the Importance of Sweden and Holland Is gone irretrievably, in con*equence of the growing etrength of the nelgblioring powen. The extent of territory and the inunenan iial oral reaouroaa of Kuaaia inuat, in the end, render tier highly dangerous to all the other powen of Europe, If the empire do not fall to pieces from It* own weight, or get luto disi'ord from the vices of it* government, or the barbariau' Igno- rance, and corruption of it* people. — E. B. By means of nteam-vcssola, communication between an the maritime region* of Europe has been rendered easy and certain, while the sealmard has been connected with the inland regions liy railways running in all di- rections. During the latter half of the last century, and the earlier part of the present, England was cov- ered with a net- work of canals, forming navigable com- munication between all her principal town* and river*. Belgium and Holland have long l)een famous for tlielr canals. In France, like.;i*e, the great rivers wera connected in the same way ; and tlie great canal of I^anguedoc formed a navigable communication lie- tween the Bay of Biscay and the Mediterranean Sea. In Prusaia, likewiae, and in Ruaala, the groat rivcra have been connected by canal* ; and in Sweden, he Gotha Canal extend* from the Cattegat, at Gotten- l)urg, to the Baltic, near Stockholm, through the lake* Wener and Wetter. Theao very useful means of transport have now, however, been very much, If not entirely *uper*edcd by railway*. Of these, En- gland i* covered with u net-work, a* she was with canals; and uninterrupted lines of communication ex- tend fh>m near the Land's End, through Scotland, to the Moray Firth. In Scotland, Ireland, France, and Gonnany, the principal cities and town* ara connected by railways ; and in Russia, we understand that one 1* forming to connect St. Petersburg with Moscow and the Black Sea. In Italy, Milan and Venice are con- EUR 022 EUR necUd, and nnmys an projected at leait in other parts of the countij. The later invention of the elec- tric tele{p«ph is likewiae extending ever}-where acroas aea« and continents; but tlie whole system of tele- graphs and railways will b« understood more readily at once by a glance at a map. AOSA Aa> POPOLATIOH OF EvardW BTATia HuMa, I. KKmn: Freneb. Austrian KaBsUn Ottoman II. KmsDoin; Oreat BritfJa and Irebnd. . Pmasla BeWnm Netheilaada. eiMia Portugal Denmark Sweden Norway. *BaTarlii *Haaover *8anMi]r • *Wlit«mberg. Sardinia. TwoSIclllcs. Hellas or Ore«o« IIL ''Electoral Heue States of the Church IV. OaAaD DnoHm: *Baden 'llesee-Darnistadt *a(eckloaburZ'8cbwerla • •' SlrtllB *Oldenburs *8nxe- Weimar Tuscany V. Di'ouic^ AND PamciDoiia •Nassau, D •Brunswick, D •Saxe-Coburg-OoUia, D • " Melntngen, D. • " Allcnbur;, D •Anfaalt-DesMu-Coetben, V.. • " Beruburg, 1> •Benss-Orloi, P • " Schleh, P •Watdock, P •llesse-Hombuiv, P •L cbtenstcin, I'. *Koiph»u.i«n Parma, D Modena, D Monaco. P Moldavla,P Wal lochia,? B«rTla,P. Hontencgro, VI. UcpcBLios: •Frankfort •Lub»c •Hnjmon •Hamburg Swiss Confcdorstlon : Zurich Bern Lucerns Bchwcli. UrI Uatcrwolden-Upper. . . . " Lower.... Olarns Zug. Friburg. Boleurc Boscl-CKy. ; " Country Bchaft hatiMon Apponieli-Ontor. " Inner Stfiall Orl-.jii» Aarcsu Thurgan Tesuln Vauil ValaK Neufcbotel Geneva Ionian Istfliids Saint Marino 804,000 !ST,T60 2,000,000 ias,748 i8i,n» 108,809 18,890 176,480 IU,l)00 tt,fl60 170,840 188,400 . 29,000 • 14,600 B,705 7,068 89,830 41,.";21 1U.800 4,488 17,048 (1,890 8,761 4,IM.'5 767 8,400 Ml* 1,767 799 88S Sin 6«.^ 810 145 448 461 168 K 17 8,184 8,073 M 16,000 80,000 18,000 1,400 91 148 106 151 647 8,088 600 &V) 480 860 881 186 , 496 2M 185 116 160 760 8,640 489 867 1,041 l,19i> 1,676 881 91 1,200 »7 Popaladon. 86,781,688 86^14,466 (4,098,800 10,600,000 87,621,863 16,98^490 486»,«t0 8487.861 14,816,819 8,487,086 a,89MW7 8,488,641 1,888,471 4,669,468 1,81»,8&S 1,987,888 1,788,868 4,916,084 8,704,479 1,008,118 766,228 8,006,771 1,86«,»48 864,814 6«<,449 99,028 888,114 808684 1,816,680 489.841 871,»18 160,418 166,804 188,788 171,769 62,641 88,159 79,S24 69,697 84,981 6,851 8,085 507,881 680,468 6,600 1,400,000? 8,ooo,oonr 1,000,000? 100,0001 77.971 94.166 79,047 200,690 1861 1846 1844 1851 1868 1848 1868 1849 1861 1890 1646 1S62 1848 1861 1858 1658 1880 1858 18M 1861 1898 1^ 1864 1863 1858 lS5'.i 185:) 1850 1868 1853 1853 1.S43 1S68 ta'>8 1860 1844 1852 1851 1848 1852 1860 860,698 458,801 188,848 44,168 14.606 18,799 11,389 80,218 17,461 99.891 69,014 29.698 47,w« 85.800 48,681 11,272 16'J,625 i*».K6e 8H,906 nr,7.->9 199.675 81,669 I .. 70,758 .. 64,146 .. 889,297 1852 7,600 I 1861 Considered In respect to political constitution and civil government, the states of Europe may be arranged in six classes. The first class comprises 4 empires, the sovereigns of which are absolute monarchs ; the second, 16 kingdoms, partly absolute and partly con- stitutional; the fourth, 7 grand-duchies, all monar- chies ; the flfth, 24 duchies and principalities, likewiso all monarchies, partly constitutional and partly abso- lute ; and the sixth, 82 republii-s. The third class com- prises 2 nondescripts, both monarchies indeed ; but in the one case the sovereign retains the subject title of Elector of the head of an empire tiuit no longer exists, and the sovereign of the other is at once the spiritual sovereign n' the Roman Catholic world and the tem- poral sovereign of that portion of Italy called the States of the Church. The preceding table contains the names, territorhd extent or area, und tli« population of these several states at the dates attaclied to them respectively. The grand total of the population, as it is not all of the same year, can only be considered as an approximation to the truth. In financial importance, Britain stands at tlio head of all these states ; for not only is her annual revenue the largest, excepting that of France, but site enjoys besides the unenviable pre-eminence of being burdened with the largest debt. The bad practice of anticipat- ing revenue by borrowing money is common to them ail ; and, as will be seen in the table, only some of the less important have e8cai)cd tho ever-growing evil. Within the last twenty years the debt of Austria has increased more than threefold, and the French emperor has been borrowing largely to pay the current ex- penses of the war in which he and the British govern- ment were engaged with Russia. Tho governments of Spain and Greece are virtually bankrupt, being neitlier able nor willing to pay either principal or interest of their large debts. Norway, on the contrary, tho poor- est country in Europe, has set the bright example of puj-ing olT that portion of the Danish debt with which sne was burdened when separated from that monarchy in 1814, while the Danish portion luis gone on increas- ing. The Ottoman sultan has escaped, until lately, only by virtue of his want of credit. Retenuk Aitn Dkbt or KoaorsAN States. Countrief. Great Britain and Ireland. . . Francs. Austria Rustia PmssU Spain Turkey Netherlands. Belglnm Denmark Bavaria, T.ho Two Siclllos Sardinia Hanover Baden SUtcs of the Church. Portugal Kingdom of Saxony bwoden Norway. Tuscany Greece Modena. Parma Wirtemborg Smaller Oerin.in States together Tho Swhs Cantons all together AnflQAl r,. . , £56.000,000 62,(K)0,0UO 2.5,000,000 86,000,000 15,000,000 15,000,000 6,600,000 6,000,000 6,000,000 1,500,000 8,000,000 4,500.000 6,000,000 1,800,000 1,680,000 2,881,000 8,8,'iO,0OO liOtVliOOO 1,040,000 650,000 1,2,50,470 860,000 84O,0eople, and their confederation, as such, enjoys neither infiueme nor respect at home or abroad. In Switzerland, on the contrarj', recent circumstances seem to Imve pro- duc'nd a closer and more intimate union, and given to the federative assemlily the authority indispensable to the efficient working of a central government. — E. B. Bxohauge, Prlnoiples of, by John Ramsay M'Cui.i.ocH, Esq. In commercial economy, the term " Exchange" is commonly employed to designate that description of mercantile transactions l)y which the debts of individuals residing at a distance fh)m each other are liquidated without the intervention of money. Tha object of thia article is to explain the nature of these transact'ons, and the principles on which they depend. This will he best effected by treating, Jim, of the exchange between different parts of the same country ; and, iteondty, of that between different and independent countries. I. ItiLAND ExcHANOB. — SuppoM s merchant of London orders his agent in Qlasgow to send him a thousand pounds' worth of cottons, and that it doea not suit the agent m commission goods of equal vain* ttma his London correspondent, the latter may, ncV withstanding, be under no necessity of remitting caah to Glasgow in discharge of his debt. Among coun- tries or cities having a considerable intercourse to- gether, the debts mutually due by each other are fonnd, in ordinary cases, to be nearly equal. The Glasgow agent, who has shipped the cottons for London, does not, therefore, transmit the bill drawn by him on his correspondent for their price to London to be cashed, as that would subject him to the expense of conveying the money home to Glasgow ; but he gets its value from some other party in Glasgow, who has a pay- ment to make in London on account of tea or some other article bought in that city, and who, unlesr he conld procure such a bill, would Im obliged to remit ita j>'ice In money. The bill on account of the cotton Is, therefore, either drawn in favor of the party in Lon- don who furnished the tea, or it is drawn in favor of the tea-dealer in Glasgow, and indorsed liy him to the former, who, on presenting it to the purchaser of the cottons, receives its value and consequently the price of the cottons, and the price (or part of the price) of his tea, at the same moment. 'This simple contrivance obviates the expense and risk attending the transmis- sion, first, of money from London to Glasgow, to pay the cottons ; and, second, of money from Glasgow to London to pay the tea. The del>tor in one \i changed for the debtor in the other ; and both accounts are set- tled without the intervention of a single farthing. The bill dranTi and negotiated in such a transaction as this, is termed an inland bill of exchange. If the transaction had taken place between London or Glas- gow and a foreign city, it would have been termed a fortign bill of exchange. A bill of exchange may, therefore, be defined to I)e, " an order addressed to some person residing at a distance, directing him to pay a certain specified sum to the person in whose favor the bill is drawn, or his order."* The price of bills fluctuates according to their abund- ance or scarcity compared with the demand. If the debts reciprocally due by I.ondon and Glasgow be equal, whether they amount to £100,000, £500,000, or any other sum, they may l)e discharged without the intervention of money, and the price of bills of ex- change will be at PAR ; that is, a sum of £100 or £1000 in Glasgow will purchase a hill for £100 or £1000 pay- able in London, and Wee remd. But if these cities be not mutually indebted in equal sums, then the price of bills will be increased in the city which has the great- est number of payments to make, and reduced in that which has the fewest. If Glasgow owe I.«ndon £100,- 000, while the latter only owes the former £90,000, it is clear, inasmuch as Glasgow has a larger sum to re- mit to I>ondon than I.ond(m lias to remit to Glasgow, that the price of bills on London will rise in Glasgow because of the increased demand, and that the price of liiils on Glasgow will full in London, liecunse of the diminished demand. A larger sum would, conse- quently, be required to discharge a debt due by Glas- • In mercantile phrascoloKy, the person who draws a bill ia termed the drtiwer ; the {htsou in whose fiiTor it is drawn, tho remitter; the person on whom it is drawn, the draicM, and nftrr ho hiu accepted, tho acceptor. Those persons Intc whoso hands the bill mny pass previously to Us being paid, arc, from their writing their names on tho back, termed in- dorsera ; and the person in whose possesirton the bill Is at any given period, is termed the Aoldn- or jwswssor. EZO «84 EXO gow to Ixindon, and a 1ms som to diwhargs an equal debt due by the latter to the fonner) or, which Is the same thing, the excliaiige would be in favor of Ixin- don, and againtt Glasgow. BUls on London would ■ell in Qlasgow at a premium, and bills on Glasgow would sell in London at a ditcounti the premium in the one case being equal to the discount in the other. On the supposition that the balance of ^10,000, due by Glasgow, depresses the exchange on London on* par ctiU., it appears at first sight that it will cost Glas- gow ^£101,000 to discharge her debt of ^6100,000 due to London ; and that, on the other hand, ^eSSjlOO-would be sufficient to discharge the debt of London to Glas- gow. But a very little consideration will serve to ■how that this would not be the case. Exchange transactions can not talce place between different cities nntil debtors and creditors of the one reside in the other. And hence, when the exchange became unfo- Torable to Glasgow, the premium paid by its merchants for bills on London would not go into the pocliets of their creditors in the latter, but into those of their neighbors in Glasgow to whom London was indebted, •nd fh>m whom the bills were purchased. The loss to Glasgow would, therefore, be limited to the pre- mium paid on the balance of ^10,000. Thus, suppos- ing that A, of Glasgow, owes D, of London £100,000 and that C, of London, owes B, of Glasgow £90,000, A will pay to B £01,000 for a bill or order on C to pay D £90,000. In this way the £90,000 of London debt at Glasgow will be cleared off; the premium, which is lost by the debtor to London in Glasgow, being gained by its creditor in the same place. If the busi- ness had been transacted in London, C, with £89,100, would have purchased of D a bill for £90,000, paya- ble by A ; so that, in this case, the gain would have fallen to the shore of the debtor C, and the loss to that of the creditor O, both of London. The complexity of real transactions does not affect the principles on which they are founded. And whatever may be the amount of the debts reciprocally due by different places, the only disadvantage under which any of them could be placed by a fall of the exchange would be the unavoid- able one of paj-ing the expense of remitting the bal- tmct of debt. The expense of transmitting money from one place to another limits the fluctuations in the exchange be- tween them. If 20s. suiBced to cover the expense and rislc uttcndin); the transmission of £100 from Glasgow to London, it would be indifferent to a merchant, in the event of the exchange becoming unfavorable to the former, whether he paid one per cent, premium for a bill on London, or remitted monoy direct to the lat- ter. If the premium were less than one per cent., it would be clearly his interest to make his payments by means of bills rather than by remittancee ; und that it could not exceed iine per cent, is ol>vious, for every individual would rather directly remit money than in- cur an unnecebsary nxpense by purchasing bills on London at a greate. premium than would aufSce to cover the expense of a money remittance. If, owing to the business of roads, distarbancos in the coun- try, or any other cause, the ex|iense of remitting money from Glasgow to Ix)ndon were increased, the difference in the rate of exchange l>ctwcen them might also Im prop I.ondon, I.onilim to ] latiun. It is clear, however, that the negotiaticm ipf Manchester, and Manchester to Glasgow, the latter i such bills can nut assist in transferring and settling may wholly or partiall}* discharge her debt to London by remitting bills on Manchester. She may wholly discharge it, provided the debt dw to her by Uaa- the boiui file debts of two or mora places. Fictitious I bills mutually balance each other. Those drawn by 1 London op Glasgow e / jiililumt wlu) nro unknown \n of this hoy arc a isfcr real witli B a i^ertiiin nnv retire purt-lmw, mcci their in dysti'in well <''I'i- r in (■'• .'uu- tiution "f (1 Bcttliiit; Fictitious drawn by lasgow on tondon, for the one set is druKm to p»jr the otbei^- the second destroys the first, and the result is nothing. The raising of money by means of fictitious bills has been severely censured by Adam Smith, who says it entails a niinous expense on those oni;aged in it, and is resorted to only l>y projectors, or persons of sus- picious credit. When fictitious bills are drawn at two months' date, it is common to charge, in addition to the ordinal}' interest, a commission of half or quarter per cent., which most be paid every time the bill Is discounted, or, at least, tix times a year. The total expense of money raised in this way xiuld not, there- fore, supposing the transaction to be always on ac- count of the same individual, and interest 4 per cent., be estimated at less than 5} or 7 per cent, per annum, (X stamps ; and the payment of so high an interest on borrowed capital, in a country where the ordinary rate of mercantile profit is not supposed to average more than from fix to eight per cent., could not fail to be frequently productive of ruin to the borrower. But it seldom happens that, in the negotiation of fictitiout bills, the charge for commission fitlls on one individual only. I^ans obtained in this way are usually on ac- count of two or more parties. At one time a fictitious bill is drawn by A of London on B of Glasgow ; and, in this case, the latter will, before the bill becomes dne, draw upon A for its amount, including interest and commission. At another time, the transaction will be on account of B, who in that case has to pay commission to his iViend in London ; so that each party may, on the whole, as Mr. Thornton has oljserved, gain almut as much as be pays in the shape of com- mission. It is often extremely difficult to distinguish fictitious bills from tliose which have arisen out of real trans- actions. Neither does it seem to be of anj' yery ma- terial importance. The character and credit of the parties whose names-are attached to bills, are the only criteria by which merchants or bankers can judge whether they ought to negotiate them. The circum- stances of an individnal offering accommodation paper for discount, ought unquestionably, if it \m known, to excite suspicions of his credit. But unless in so far as the drawing of fictitious bills may be held to be In- dicative of overtrading, or of a deficiency of capital to curry on the business in which the party is engaged, there docs not appear to l>e any very good reason for refueling to discount them. Within the last few years, it has been the practice to grant money orders, payable on presentation at the different post-offlces, for sums of £b and under. These orders coat 8d. for sums of £1 and under, and Gd. for sums between £2 and £b inclusive ; and as they are not paid unless the parties in whose favor they are drawn, or other parties well known to the postmasters by whom they are pa}'able, appear to receive payment, there is no risk of the money getting into improper hands. This system has been foimd to be a very great accommodation to the public, especially to those having small sums to remit, and has beeo very extensively re- sorted to. In 1850 4,439,713 money orders were issued in the United Kingdom; the aggregate sum trans- ferred by their agency being i:8,494,498. These observations will, perhaps, suffice to explain the manner in which transactions lietween different parts of the name country are settled by means of bills of exchange. They are, In general, extremely simple. The uniform value of the currency of a single country renders unnecessar}' any comparison lietween the value of money at the place where the bill is drawn and negotiated, witli its value where it is to Ira paid ; while the constant intercourse maintained among different parts of the same kingdom, and the usual absence of those occurrences by which the intercourse Iratween distant and independent countries is always subject to be iutemipted, prevent those sudden fluctuations which fireqnently btIm in the price* of foreign bills of Rr axebcBC*. We sh*!!, (h«Nftir«i, l«i«v* tbb part of onr subject, and pruoivd to IrivniitlKate the circumstances which Influenca tlia MHitm of exitliange between differ, ent and indepiiduiit iiiMtHtrl«i(, I(, KoHKitiN K«i!MANiiH,'-Thet>Hflti of foreign hills of exchange i|d|i«nd4 on two rirciinistnnc^s i flrti, On the value oC thu ciirrmiry uf tlie place whore they uro made payalib, uumimrad with the value of the cur- rency of tlie plattn wlivni thi«v are drawn i and, mo on<%. On the raUllon which tue supply of bills In the market Iteara to tliH iltiitmtid. If the value uf tlie itltt«iritiit i^ulns and moneys which circulate In natiiiiis Imvliig itttitllngs with each other were Invariable, ttw eKt'hitnge would lie exclusively infiuencetl by itlriMiinatiltliws nff«ctlng the supply and demand fur bills, lint, In mtdltlini to variations in its cost In partiiiuUr iioiiutrl«s, the weight and fineness of the l>ulllon c«iitaluMl In their cuius are liable to all sorts of varlatiuMs, And it Is alinvst needless to say that the price uf lillls, as uf every thing else, necessa- rily varies witli tlissM viirlutlitns, Increasing when the value of the money In which tli' v are estimated falls, and falling wlmn it liKtrraiiixs, lint these, it Is plain, are merely iwmiiwl or tiiiitiKrIcal varlathms. They grow out of uhunges in tllti standard emptuyed to measure values, and nut lit the valtws (bemsnlves. It is other- wise, however, witit variatluns uf price occasioned by changes In the supply uf lillls. or In the demand for them i that is, liy i!hang«is In tlie payments a country' has to make uoniparud wICll those It has to receive. These are real, nut numlimt vurjatluns, fur they affect the valuej in lillla, and lint llie money In which these values are expressed. And hnnoe the distinctions of nominal, real, and I'limmleil eKctiange. The jlrtt de- pends on nlterallun* In tliti value of the currencies compared togetlier | the umind d«tH^uni|utrtid with the demand ; and the third, or oumpiilnl fKi'hnnge, depends on the com- bined eflTeuta uf the utiier twn, Fur the sake of per- spicuity we slioll treat uf tlieiMi separately. <' III. Nominal Kxciianiih.— Iliilllon being every- where recognliied as tliA standard currency of the oommerchil wurlil, thu uuinparative value of the cur- rencies of particular cuuntrles depends— /r«(, On the value of bullion In those I'uuntrles ( nnd, Mcnmlly, On the qumUilij of l)ullluii vuiitaiiiett In their coln.-t, or on the qiutntity uf liullluii fur which their pajier money, or other circulating media, will nxcliangn. The value uf fruvly pruduced cummiKlltlef being commonly pru|)urtiuii«d tu tliti emt uf their production, including therein tlia vust uf their c cxcfaaiige with the Americans j the aiiiount of thu dilftirstK'e between the market and mint prloa of hulllan, and to tw riallu sffeeted by any do vlatlon f^om par auuttdlng or fatUog sluiri of that dllfcrenae. EXC 026 EXO than thoM of England. Bat when, u li actaally tha oaaa, the advantages of skill and machinery are on the iMe of England, another reason is added to that da- rived from our less distance from the mines, why gold and silver should be less valual)le here than in Poland, and why the money price of commodities should lie higher.* Hence, among nations which have attained to dilTer- ent degrees of excellence in manufacturing industry, the value of bullion does not wholly depend on their distance from the mines. But, whatever variations a dilTerent progress in the arts may occasion in its value In different countries, it is always less valuable in those into which it is imported than in those in which it is produced. Like every thing else, it is exported to And, not to destroy, its level. And unless its value in Europe exceeded its value in America and Australia by a sum sufficient to coverthe expenne of its importa- tion, including ordinary profits to the importers, we should not, though the mines in th«se quarters were infinitely more productive, import from them a single ounce of bullion in the ordinary course of trade. It is obviously incorrect, therefore, to lay it down as a gen- eral proposition, " that the par of exchange between two countries is that sum of the currency of either of the two, which, in point of intrinsic worth, Is precisely equal to a given sum of the other ; tliat u, fonlnint precitelff on equal weight of gold and ailver of the mme JineneM."^ For a given quantity of gold and silver is not always, as is here assumed, of the same intrinsic value in different countries. It may differ but little among nations bordering upon or near each other, and which are all destitute of mines. But though, to use a familiar illustration, the value of sugar approaches nearly to a level in the great trading cities of Europe, it can not surely be maintained that its value in the West Indies is as great os in Bordoaux or Liverpool, or that the exchange would be real!}- at par, if a bill, which cost a hundred hogsheads of sugar in London, only brought a hundred in Jamaica. Now, in respect of principle, this is precisely the case with bullion. Though the values of gold and silver, compared with com, labor, etc., may, and indeed mnst', vary very considerably among different nations, these variations are only the necessary result of their different progress in industry-, and of the different quality of their culti- vated lands, etc. .Such differences of price are in the natural order of things ; and bullion has not found its proper level till a quantity has been introduced into those countries which excel in raannfact^.ries, sufficient to raise the price of their com and labor. These vari- ations have, therefore, no influence over the excliange. Notwithstanding this difference of price, an ounce of bullion in one country, owing to the facility of inter- course, is very nearly equivalent to an ounce of bullion in another ; and supposing the trade in the precious metals to be perfectly free, the exchange will be at true par when bills are negotiated on this footing. But when we compare the values of these metals in distant countries, especially in those where they are produced, with those into which they are imported, there are very considerable differences. Gold and silver, like iron, coal, tin, etc., are necessarily cheaper in countries pos- sessed only of extraordinarily productive mines, than in those possessed only of mines of a secondary degree of fiirtillty, or where thcj- have to be entirely brought fh>m abroad. And the exchange between such places Is not a true par, unless adequate allowance t)e made for tills difference of value. Thus if, because of the expense of carriage, the value of bullion in (iroat Britain lie H per cent, greater than in San Francisco, 100 ounces of pure gold in the latter would not Im> worth 100 ounces of pure gold in London, but S per * Rlcarda, Prtneiplet o/ PaUUcal Beonomij, ete., Orst ed., p.nB. t BulUm Report!, London, p. tt, 3vo. ed. oent, Us«| •ii4 (h* •MitlMnKo wiraM ba at traa par wban bllla fur lOA imttMit ulandard bullion, tiayable la B»n Vnneimi}, aul.l in liimUtn tnt 100 ounces. TIm diffaraiit vnIims ntlUx |fry, t>\miU«illnit\y to export them, when- ever their raUtlvA vnUm dmditiml. " Whan," my* Adam Mmilli, " the quantity of gold and ailvar iltt|iort4Ml UtUi miy c/iintry ejiceeds the effectual dainaiid, mi vi)(tlanc« of government can prevent thuir »%\>iittitt\im, All the sanguinary lawa a( f^paln mid I'orttlKal are not able to keep their gold and sliver at liotua, Th<* mmt\nm\ Importations from Peru and UnM (tiuwixi tha nflW.'tHal demand of those countries, »nii sink tit* iirUm of those metals there be- low that In tha liMlKlili«irl(if( countries, If, on the contrary, In any partli'itliir roiintry, their quantity fell sliort of lliii Kiti'i'tiial tUiinmu\, so as to raise their price above llmt u( tlio minMmfinK roimtries the govern- ment wuulil liNVA nit iH'imnUm tn tske any pains to im- port Iheiu, I f ft wtiri* awn to take the pains to prevent their im|xirt«tfon, 1( wnyld not Ixt able to effectuate it. Those niet'tU, whet* tlw Mtmrtnns had got wherewithal to puri'liiisu tl)«m, hfiiim tfirottgli nil the liarriers which tha laws of l.yviiritltii npfmiim to their entrance into Lacedoiiuiiii, All tlia mni(H\niity taws of the customs aro not iilila to |irwv»lit tlin Itntinrtatlon of the teas of the liutch and fitrfMnbiirK Kast India Companies, l>e- causa sumawbat i^h(iNtH>r timn those of tha British Company. A immiimI iit tea, however, Is aliout a hun- dred tiinas tha bulk of miH of the higliest prices, 16s., that is mmmmiy (I'tlit for it )n silver, and more than two thiiusutid timioi tlH* bulk lit the same price in gold, and, conieqiiantly, iH«( m many times more difficult to smuggle,"-,, (IVrt//*// SiiIUhu, \h lilO. But th»U|;li iiiKfffi'tiMl lo prevent their egress, the rastrlctloits on tlw «»|Mirti((.loli of the precious metals have, navarttlttlwis, I'oMtrllilitnd to occasion some slight variations in tlixir valiix on different countries. The risk fonnariy lufiiirrwl l»y the clandestine exporters of bullion from Miwtn, U m^imm\ to have lieen equiva- lent to alwmt two iiar twnt, t ot, which is the same thing, ft is supfMHwd that tha restrictions maintained such an exi'iwa of gold and silver in thnt country- as to sink tli«in two |Mir tvnt, below their value In countries having a trim Iritdn In bullion, In calculating the true par of aKi^liaiiKH Mwcen different countries, circum- stances of thfs kind must \m taken Into account. For, to whatavur »%Un\\, bullloti In one country may be sunk lialow fta valiM In ntly rti»Hlt#, that whatever occasions a rise or fall In th« valua of the pfeolmfs metals in one country affwls tn (lt« sntnn extent its nominal ex- change with oth«r countries, If more coin, or con- vertfbla |Mi|H»r, cfrculatod (n Great llritain, compared with lliH tiusfnaas II has lo perform, than in other countries, fta rttjatlvo value would lie proportionally lass, Forufgn lillU wouM sell for a premium, the amount of whfidi would msasure the excess of the value of the iirai'foM* titttlals fft tha foreign market, cansed by tbeir roluiiilitui'y In the home market. And, on the otiitr b«nd, in ibo »VMit of ofir currency becoming i; Joccafllonfi a letalB in one Tiominal «»- loin, OT con- li, compared Ian In other iopoTtionally f emloin, tlio I of tho vttluo Irket, caused It. And, on ley beoomloil ^ EXO relatively deficient, Its value would b« proportionally Increaaed ; billa drawn on foreign countries would sell at a discount, the amount of which would equal the excess of the value of our currency over that of other countries. IV. Par of ExoiiAJiaB. — In estimating the quan- tities of bullion contained in the coins of different coun- tries, a particular coin of one is selected for a standard by which to compare the others, and the proportion be- tween it and thorn, supposing them to bo all of their standard weight and Bnenesa, is ascertained by experi- ment. A par of exchange is thus established, or rather It is ascertained that a certain amount of tho standard currency of one country contains as much gold or silver of the same fineness, as is contained in the coin or integer with which it has been compoied. This relation, or par, as it is technically termed, is considered invariable ; and allowance is made for sub- sequent variations in the coins of countries trading together, by rating the exchange ct so much above or below par. In mercantile langiutge, that country, by a comparison with one or other of whose coins the par of exchange has been established, is said to give the certain for the uncertain, and conversely. Thus in the exchange lietween London nnd Paris, London and Hamburg, etc., London gives the certain, or the pound sterling, for an uncertain or vuriaUe numl)er of francs, florins, etc. Hence, the higher the exchange between any two countries, the more is it In favor of that which gives it the certain ; and the lower, the more is it in favor of that which gives the uncertain. On the supposition that '25 francs contain the some quantity of standard bullion as a pound sterling (25 fr. 67 cent, is about the exact par), nnd supposing, also, that the value of bullion is the same In both countries, the exchange between London and Paris will be at par when a bill drawn In the one on the other sells at that rate ; that is, when a bill of exchange for 2600, or 25,000 francs, payaliie in Paris, sells in London for £100 or XIOOO, anil vice versi. It Is but seldom, how- over, that the coins of any country correspond ex- actly with their mint standard. Unless when newly issued, they are either more or less worn ; and when- ever this defect Iwcomes sensible, an allowance cor- responding (0 tlie difference between their actual value and their mint value is made in estimating " the sum of the existing currency of cither of two coun- tries which contains precisely the same quantity of bullion 08 Is cont.iinod in a given sum of the other." Thus, if our pound sterling were so worn, clipped, or rubbed, as not to contain so much l>uUion as 26 fr., but 10 per cent, less, the exchange between London and Paris would be at real par when It was nominally 10 per cent, against London ;• and it, on the other hand, the pound sterling were equal to its mint stand- ard, while the franc was 10 per cent, less. It would Im at par when It was nominally 10 per cent, against Paris and In favor of London. If the currencies of both countries were equally reduced below the standard of their respective mints, there would obviously be no variation of the par ; but whenever the currency of countries trading together is unequally deprecUted, tho exchange Is nominally in favor of that country whose currency Is least, and nominally against that whose currency is most depreciated. It is almost unnecessary to refer to examples to show the practical operation of this principle ; and we shall content ourselves with selecting the following, ' It is necessary to obaerre, that It Is here supposed that the clipped or doKnidcil raonoy exist* to s&oh a ileKroo of Abundance as only to psss current at its bullion value. If the quantity of clipped money were tufflcientltj limited. It might, notwithstanding tho diminution of weight, pass current at its mint value ; and then the par would have to bo esti- mated, not by its relative weight to foreign money, bnt by the mint prlee of bullion. This principle must be oonstanlly kept in view. EXO (Vom an Infinite number of •qnolly conclusive in- stances. Previously to the great recolnage In the reign of William III., silver being at the time legal tender, the exchange between England and Holland, calculated by th'< standard of their respective mints, was nom- inally 25 per cent, against England. Inasmuch, however, as English silver coins were then, owing to rubbing and clipping, depreciated more than 26 per cent. Iwlow their mint value, the real exchange was probably at the time in our favor. And the circum- stance of the nominal exchange having become favor- able to us as soon as the new coin was issued, tends to confirm this conjecture.* The guinea was so much worn and degraded, pre- viously to the gold rccoinage in 1774, as to be from two to three per cent, under its standard weight. Inasmuch, however, as the coins then circulating in France were nearly of their standard weight and purity, tho ex- change between Ix>ndon and Paris was nominally from two to three per cent, against the former. We say nominalti/, for as soon as guineas of full weight were issued, the exchange rose to par. The Turkish government, during the past century, has made successive reductions in the value of its coin. Before the first of these in 1770, the piastre contained uearly as much silver as tiie English half-crovm ; and, in exchange, the par was estimated at eight piastres to the pound sterling. But, in the interval, the degra- dation In the value of the piastre has been such that it Is now V(orth only al>ottt 2^. ; and the exchange is said to be at par when Constantinople gives about 109 piastres for .£1 sterling. It Is needless, almost, to say, that the nominal exchange, estimated by the old par of eight piastres to £1, became more and more unfa- /vorable to Turkey with ever}' successive enfeeblement of tho coin, though it is doubtful whether the real ex- change, or that depending on the balance of payments, was not all the while In her favor. When one country uses gold as tho standard of Its currency, and another silver, the par of exchange be- tween them Is effected by variations in the relative values of these metals. When gold rises as compared with silver, the exchange becomes nominally favorable to the country which has the gold standard, and vice rertd. And hence, In estimating the par of exchange between countries using different standards, it is al- ways necessar}' to inquire into the comparative values of the metal selected as standards. " For example," to use the words of Mr. Mushet, "if 34 schillings 11^ grotes of Hamburg currency be equal in value to a pound sterling, or 20-21 of a guinea, when silver is at 5s. 2d. per oz., they can no longer be so when silver falls to 6s. Id. or 6s. an oz., or when It rises to 6s. 3d. or 6s. 4d, ; because a pound Stirling in gold being then worth more or less silver, Is also worth more or less Hamburg currency. To find the real par, therefore, we must ascertain what was the relative value of gold and silver when the par was fixed at 34s. ll^g. Hamburg currency, and what Is their relative value at the time we wish to calculate it. For example, if the price of standard gold was £3 173. lO^d. per oz., and silver 5s. 2d., an ounce of gold would then be worth 15*07 ounces of silver, end 20 of our standard shillings would then contain as much pure silver as 36s. 11^ grotes of Hamburg currency. But if the ounce of gold were £3 178. 10}d., and silver 5s. (which it was on 2d January, 1798), the ounce of gold would then be worth 16'67 ounces of silver. If £1 sterling at par, therefore, be worth 16'07 onnocs of silver, then at 16-67 It would be at three per cent, pre- mium ; and throe per cent, premium on 34s. ll^d. is 1 schilling 1 grote and 9-10, so that the par, when gold is to silver as 16-67 to 1, will be 36 schillings 1 grotc and 1-10. The above calculation will be more easll} /-> • WeaUh Cif NaHont, p. 210. EXO 628 EXO Mt-iai t ! 16-S7 : 86-1 made by sUtlng, an 16-07 I-IO."* A« it is their intrinsio wortli in bnlUon which de- tarminei the value of coins in exnhuige transactions, those of equal weight and purity are reckoned equiva- lent to each other, though some of them nuy have been coined at the expense of the state, and others charged with a duty or seigniorage on their coinage. The latter may, if not issued in excess, pass current in the country in which they an coined for their value in bullion plKt the duty ; but thi-y will not pass any- where else, except at their bullion value.f But the principal soprce of fluctuations in the nom- inal price of bills of exchange, is to be found in the varying value of the paper cnrrency of commercial countries. The disorders which arose in remoter ages from diminishing the bullion contained in coins of the same denomination have since iMien reproduced in an- other form, and often to a still more ruinous extent, ia the deprecUtion of paper currency. V. Inkldkmce oir DErnEciATKD Pafbb Cdb- BEMcr ON THB EXCHANGE. — The impossibility of retaining a comparatively large quantity of coin or bullion, or of paper convertible into coin, in a particu- lar " intry, limited the issues of the Bank of England previously to the Restriction Act of 1797 ; and it has equally limited them since the resumption of specie i)ayments in 1821, and sustained the value of the cur- rency on a level with gold. Wlien the bank starves the circulation, or issues less paper than is necessary, bullion is imported, sent to the mint to be coined, and thrown upon the market. And when, oif the other hand, the bank issues too much paper, and thereby de- presses its value relatively to gold, it becomes profita- ble to demand payment of its notes, and to export the specie thus obtained either as coin or as bullion. In this way the vacuum it filled up when bank-notes are deficient, the excess removed when they are redun- dant, and the value of the currency preserved nearly equal. But, from 1797 down to 1821, this principle was suspended. Daring that period, the bank was re- lieved from the obligation to pay her notes in gold ; while, owing to their being made legal tender, their circulution was insured. Hence, their value exclu- sively depended on the extent to which they were issued comjuired with the demand. There is no dif- ference, in ib influence over the exchange, between a degraded metallic and a depreciated paper currency. And when a country with either the one or the other, has any dealings with another whose currency is of its full v^ue, the exchange is nominally against her to the extent of the degradation or depreciation. The nominal exchange l>etween any two or more places is, in fact, always adjusted according to the values of their currencies, being most favorable to that whose cnr- rency approaches nearest to its standard, and most un- favorable to that whose currency is most degraded or deprccUted. The intercourse between Great Britain and Ireland sul>sequently to the restriction on cash payment in 1797, furnishes some striking proofs of the effect which inordinate issues of paper have in depress- ing the exchange. The nominal value of the Irish shilling being raised In 1689 from 12d. to 13d., t ;£108 'An Inquinj tnto the tffteU proAvuxi on th» IfaUonal Curreneji by t)U Bank BMtriction Bill, etc., 2d ed., p. 94. f PrcTiooilj to I41T, no aelcnionge had for a very long pe- riod been deducted from either the gold or silver coins of Great Britain; But in the great reeolnageofthst ;'car, the value of •Uver was raised from in. 2d. to Bs. 6d. an ounce, or nearly In the proportion of «J per cent The gold coins, however, are still coined free of expense, and no variation his been made In their standard. The proportion of sliver to gold In the coins Is now as 14 S8T-1000 to 1 ; but their proportion to each other, ao- cording to their miot valuation, la aa 15 WO-IOOO to 1. XBfti proelamation of James II. The arrangement waa continued by the ravolutionsrf government, and was con- firmed by proclamation, 29tb September, 1T3T. But in 1825 the eorrencies of Oreat Britain and Irdaod ware aaslmllstsil 6s. 8d. Irish money became equal to only ^ClOO of British money, so that the exchange between Oreat Britain and Ireland was said to bo at par when it was nominally 8^ per cent, against the latter, In the eight years previous to 1797, when the paper currency of both countries was convertible into gold, the ex- change between London and Dublin fluctuated fl-om 7^ to 9 per cent., that is from 6-C per cent, in favor of Dublin to ) per cent, against it. In September, 1797, it was at 6 per cent., or 21- per cent, in favor of Dul)- lin. The amount of Bank of Ireland notes In circula- tion in Januar}-, 1797, was only ;e021,917 ; whereas in April, 1801, they had increased to £2,286,471, and the exchange was then at 14 per cent., or 6} per cent, against Dublin. In 1803, the Bank of Ireland notes in circulation averaged £2,707,956, and in October of that year the exchange was quoted at 17 per cent., that is, 8f per cent, against Dublin I The fact of the excliange Iwtween London and Dub- lin having fluctuated so little from par for the eight years previously to the restriction, shows that the cir- culating medium of Great Britain and Ireland had then been adjusted nearly according to the wants of the two countries. But, in these circumstances, it was evidently impracticable, supposing the value of British currency to remain nearly stationary, that the amount of Irish bank-paper could be more tlian quiid- mpled in the short space of six years, without render- ing the currency of Ireland redundant, and sinking its value below that of England. Had the Bank of En- gland increased its notes in something like the same ratio OS the Bank of Ireland, then, as the currency of both countries would have been equally depreciated, the exchange between London and Dublin would have continued at par. While, however, the notes of the Bank of Irehind were increased from £621,917 to £2,- 707,956, or in the proportion of 1 to 4*3, those of the Bank of England were only increased from £9,181,848 (their number on the 7th Janiiiry, 1797), to £16,505,. 272, or in the proportion of 1 to 1-8. But for this ad> dition to its issues by the Bank of England, th« exchange, it is plain, would have been still more ttn< favorable to Dublin. In the debates on the Bullion Report, it was con. tended that the increase of Bi.nk of Ireland paper could not have been the cause of the unfavorable eX' change upon Dublin, seeing that it had again ttocome favorable after the issues of the Bank of Ireland had been still further increased. But to give this reason* ing the least weight, it should have iieen shown that the cnrrency of Great Britain retained its value in th« intenim, or that it had not been depreciated to the same extent as that of Ireland. For it is ol)vious that the depreciation of Irish bank-paper might go on sub- sequently to 1804, and yet if English bank-paper were depreciated still more rapidly, the exchange wonld be- come more in favor of Dublin. This is merely sup- posing the circumstances which took place in the flrst six years of the restriction to be reversed in the second six. Let us inquire how the fact stands. We have seen that, in 1808, when the exchange was nominally 10 per cent, against Dublin, the issues of the Bank of England amounted to £16,605,272, and those of the Bank of Ireland to £2,707,956. And by referring to the accounts of the issues of the latter from 1797 to 1819, published by authority, it is seen that in 1806-1808 they were rather diminished ; and that in 1810 they amounted to only £3,261,760, being an increase of not more than £643,794 in the space of seven years, or at the rate of 2 and 6-7 per cent, per annum ; but in the same period (from 1803 to 1810) the issues of the Bank of England were increased from £16,606,272 to £-22,541,528, or at the rate of 6 per cent, per annnm. And this is not all. According to Mr. Wakefield, there were 50 registered bankers in Ireland in 1804, and only 33 in 1810, of which 14 wen new house*, 81 of the eld eetabUabmenta lutving dle> ttori Coq Ito I saml •00,1 ft y EXC 620 BXC appeand ; and '' I boUeTC," layi Mr. Wakefleld " for the moat part failed." TbU extraordinary diminution of the countr}- paper of Ireland, for the reduction of the isBueii waa at least proportional to the reduction in the number of bankfi, could not fail greatly to raise its valne, and to countervail a corresponding increase in the issues of tho national bank. Now, the reverse of all this took place in Britain. In 1800 there were 886 country banks in this country ; and in 1810, this num- ber, instead of being diminished as in Ireland, had In- creased to 721, having at least three times the numl)er of notes in ci^ulation in the latter as in the former period I It appears, therefore, that when, in the period between 1797 and 1804, the amount of paper In circulation in Ireland was increased, and its value de- pressed, faster than in England, the exchange between London and Dublin became prnportionally unfavor- able to the latter ; and, on the other hand, it appears, that when, in the six years subsequent to 1804, the paper currency of England was increased more rapidly than that of Ireland, its relative value was diminished, and tho nominal exchange became more favorable to Dublin. This is sufficiently conclusive. But there is still better evidence to show that the unfavoral)le exchange of Dublin upon London, 1802, 1803, 1804, etc., was entirely owing to the comparative redundancy or de- preciation of Irish bank-puper. The linen manufac- turers and weavers, with the majority of the other inhabitant^ of a few counties in Ulster, being at the period of the restriction strongly disaffected toward government, very generally refused to receive bank- notes in payment either of commodities or wages. The landlords having also stipulated for the payment of their rents in specie, a gold currency was maintained in the northern long after it had been banished from the southern parts of Ireland. If, therefore, the de- pression of tho exchange between London and Dublin had been occasioned, as many contended, l)y an unfa- vorable balance of trade between Ireland ond Great Britain, or by remittances from the former on account of absentees, it would ha\ e been equally depressed be- tween London and the commercial towns in the north- em counties. But so far was this from being the case, that in December, 1803, when the exchange of Dublin on Loudon was at 16^ per cent., that of Belfast on London was at 5J ; or, in otb^r words, at the very time that the exchange between Dublin, which had a paper currency, and Ivondon, was about 8 per. cent, against Ireland, the exchange between Belfast, which had a gold currency, and London, was about 3 per cent, in its favor. And this is not all ; for while there was a difference of 11 per cent, in the rate of exchange lictween Dublin and London, and Belfast and London, the inland exchange between Dublin and Belfast was about 10 per cent, in favor of the latter ; that is, bills drawn in Dublin, and payable in the gold currency of Belfast, brought a premium of 10 per cent., while bills drawn in Belfast, and payable in the paper currency of Dublin, sold at 10 per cent, discount !* It is unnecessar}' to refer to the history of the French aaiignati, or of the paper currency of the con- tinental powers generallj', and of tho United States, to corroljorate what hos been advanced. Such of our readers as wish for further information upon these points may have recourse to the fourth volume of the " Cours d'Enconomie Politique" of M. Storch,f where they will find an instructive account of the influence of inordinate issues of paper on the price of bullion and the exchange, in almost every country of Europe. * Further InformKllon on this suttjeet may be obtained Aram the Report, 1804, of the Committee of the House of OommoDS upon the state of the circulating paper In Ireland, It* speda, etc., from Sir Ilonry Parneil's pamphlet on the same subject ; and from the pamphlets of Lord King, Huskis- lon, eto. t Paris, 1828, 4 vols. 8to, They are, In every case, similar to tboM now stntod It only remains to determine the Influence nf flui'tuit> tlons in the nominal exchange over export* and lin* ports. VI. Inflobnob or Fmtctdatiom* or RxitiMNnM OVER Imports and ExroRTt:. -When the exehanK* is at par, the operations of the marohant are nguhlM entirely by the difference between foreign pri ports those whoso price abroad is sufflclniit to cover all expenses, and to afford a similar profit, Hut whan the nominal exchange becomes unfavorable to a I'liun- tr}-, the premium which its merchants receive on fur> eign bills has l)een said to enalde them to exjKtrt with profit, in cases where the difference lintwaen Ilia pri'!4 of the exported commodities at home and uliroad nilKht not be such as to permit their exi>ortatiiin with the exchange at par. Thus, if the nominal axrliange were 10 per cent against thU country, a meri-'hnnt wno had consigned goods to his agent abroad, would re* ceive a premium of 10 per cent, on the sale of the bill ; and if we suppose freight. Insurance, mercantile profit, etc., to amount to 6 or 7 per cent,. It would at first sight appear as if we migiit, in such circunittuiicas, export commodities, aithougli their price iit hiilita were 3 or4 per cent, higher tiian in ot'icr countries, If, on the other hand, the nominal exchange were In our fa- vor, or if bills on this country sold at a praniluffl. It would appear as if foreigners would then be able to consign goods to our merchants, or the latter to order goods from abroad, when the difference of real prbaa would not of itself lead to an importation. But a very little consideration will suffice to show that tho fluctnations in tlie nominal excliunge have no such effects. That fall in the value of the purraiicy which renders the exchange unfavoratdo, and causes foreign bills to sell at a premium, equally Incrnaaei the price of commodities. And hence, however irreat, the premium which exporters gain by aelllng IiITIh on their correspondents abroad, merely Indamnllies tlieni for the enhanced price of the goods exported, In such cases, mercantile operations are conducted precUely im they wotdd lie were tho exchange really at par | that is, by a comparison of real prices at home uud ahruiid, meaning by real prices, the prices at wliU'l: cumniiiill, ties would be sold provided there were no depreciation of the currency. If these admit of exportation or lin> portation with a profit, tho circumstance of the niinilnal exchange being favorable or unfavorable will make m difference whatever on the transaction, " Suppose," says Mr. Blake, who has very suceess. fully illustrated this part of the theory of exriinnge, "the currencies of Haml)urg and London being In their duo proportions, and therefore, tho |ibllilnal ex* change at par, that sugar, which, from its abuiidani'e, in London sold at £60 per hogshead, from Itn suarelty at Hamburg would sell at £100, The merchant In this case would immediately export. Upon the sale of his sugar, he would draw a bill upon his eoN respondent al)road for £100, which be could at once convert into cash Iiy selling it in the bill market at home, deriving from this transaction a profit nf 4M, under deduction of the expenses of frelglit, insurance, commission, etc. Now, suppose no alteration In the scarcity or abundance of sugar In I.ondon or Ham- burg, and that the same transaction were to take plare after the currency in England had been so much In* creased that the prices were doubled, and, rnnse- qucntly, tho nominal exchange 100 per cent. In favor of Hamburg, the hogshead of sugar would then cost £100, leaving apparently no profit whatever tu the ex- porter. Ho would, howsver, as iMfore, draw bla bill on his correspondent for £100 ; and, a» foreign bllU EXO 630 BXO trould baar • pTamlum of 100 per cent., be would tell thia lilU in the Engliih market for jCSOO, acb tbua de- rive • profit from the tran'uctlon of £100 depreciated, ur <60, eatimited in undepreciated currency — deduct- ing, u In the fanner instance, the expenia of freight, iuaurance, commlaaion, etc " The caae wuuhl lie preclaely aimilar, mulatit mu- tandit, with the importing merchant. The unfavora- ble nominal exchange would appear to occaaion a loaa amounting to the premium on the foreign bill which he muat give in onler to pay hit correspondent abroad. But If the difference of real prices in the home and foreign markets were auch as to admit of a profit upon the importation of produce, the merchant would con- tinue to import, notwithstanding the premium ; for t uat would be repaid to him in the advonped nominal price at which the imported produce would be sold in the home market. " Suppose, for instance, the currencies of Hamburg and London, being In their due proportiona, and there- fore the nominal exchange at par, that linen which can be bought at Haml>urg for X60 will aoU here at £100. The Importer immediately ordera his corre- spondent abroad to send the linen for the payment of which he purchaaea at £50 a foreign bill in the £n- gliah market ; and on the aule of the consignment for £100, he will derive a profit amounting to the differ- ence between £60 and the expense attending the import. " Now, suppoae the same tranaactlon to take Q^ace without any alteration in the acarcity or abutiJance of linen at Hamburg and London, but that the currency it England has been ao augmented aa to be depre- ciated to half its value, the nominal exchange will then be 100 per cent, agalnat England, and the Im- porter will not be able to purchase a £50 foreign bill for leaa than £100. But as the pricea of commodities here will have risen in the same proportion aa the money haa been depreciated, be will sell linen to the English customer for £200, and will, as before, derive a profit amounting to the difference between £100 de- preciated, and £50 estimated in undepreciated money, uud the expenses attending the import. " The aome instances might be put in the case of a fdvoratile exchange ; and it would be aeon, in the «ama manner, that nominal prices and the nominal exchange being alike dependent on the depreciation of currency, whatever apparent advantage might be de- rived from the former, would be counterbalanced by a loaa on the latter, and vice rend."* It appeara, therefore, tliat fluctuations in the nomi- nal exchange have no effect on trade. A fall in the exchange obligea the country to which It ia unfavor- able to expend a greater nominal eum in discharging a foreign debt than would otherwise be necessary ; but it does not oblige It to expend a greater real value. The depression of the nominal exchange can neither exceed nor full short of the comparative depreciation of the currency. If British currency were depre- ciated 10 or 15 per cent., the nominal exchange would be 10 or 15 per cent, against us ; and we should be compelled, in all transactions with foreigners, to give them 22s. or 238. for what might otherwise have been procured for 20s. But as neither 228. nor 23s. of such depreciated paper is more valuable than 208. of paper undepreciated, payment of a foreign debt would, It la evident, be as easily ina'lo in the one cur- rency as in the other ; and mercantile transactions would, in such circumstances, be conducted exactly as they would have been had there been no depreciation, and the nominal exchange at par. VII. Real Exciuxoe. — Ilaving thus endeavored to trace the influence which variations in the value of currenciea have over the exchange, we proceed to con- sider how far It Is influenced by fliutuations in the tup- * PatU, ISaS, 4 volo. 8*0. ply and demand for bilU. To facilitate this Inquiry, we shall exclude all consideration of changes in th* value of money, and suppose the currencies of the different countries having an Intercourse together to b« equal In weight and purity to their mint standard*, and that each haa its proper supply of bullion. When two nations trade together, and each purchases of the other commodtUe* of the same value, their debts and credits are eqnal, and the real exchange is, of course, at par. But It rarely happens that the debts reclpro* cally due by any two countries are equal. There 1* almost always a balance owing on one side or other, which affects the exchange. If, for example, tha de1)ts due by London to Paris exceed those due by th« former to the latter, the demand in London for bill* on Paris will be greater than the demand in Paris for bills on London ; and the real exchange will, conse- quently, be in favor of Paris, and against I/indon. The expense of transferring bullion from one coun- try to another, limits the range within which the rise and fall of the real exchange between them la con- fined. In this respect, as In most others, transactions between foreign countries depend on tho aame princi- ples which govern those between different parts of the same country. We have already seen that the fluctua- tions In the real exchange between London and Glas- gow can not exceed the expense of transmitting money lietween those cities. And this principle holds uni- versally. Whatever may be the expense of trans- mitting bullion, which Is tho money of the commercial world, between London and Paris, London and Ham- burg, New York, etc., tho real exchange of the one on tho other, can not for any considerable period, be de- pressed to a greater extent. No merchant will pay a higher premium for a bill to discharge a debt abroad, than will suffice to cover the exi)ense of transmitting bullion to bis creditor. Hence It appears that whatever ol>structs or fetters the intercourse among different countries, proportion- ally widens the limits within which fluctuations in the real e.xchange may extend. And hence the reason why It varies bo much more in war than in peace. The amount of the liills drawn on a country engaged in hostilities is liable, from various causes, to lie suddenly increased ; though, whatever may be the amounta thua thrown upon the market, the depression of the exchange con not, for any length of time, ex- ceed tho expense of coi^eying bullion from the debtor to the creditor country. But during war thia expense, which consista of freight, insurance, etc., Is sometimes much augmented. The evidence annexed to the Re- port of the Bullion Committee shows that the cost of conveying gold from London to Hamburg, which, prior to the Revolutionary war, amounted to 2 or 1\, had increased, in the latter part of 1809, to about 7 per cent. ; so that the limits within wliich fluctuations in the real exchange might range in 1809 were about three times as great as those within which they were con- flned in 1793. Owing to our having the complete com- mand of the sea, and oiu commerce not being sub- jected even to the depredations of privoteers, tho cost of freight ond the conveyance of bullion between this country and others, has not been affected by tho war in which we are now (1855) unluckily engaged. Tlio real exchange between neighboring countries Is gen- erally, on the principle now explained, less likely to fluctuate than that between distant coimtries. It costs considerably less to transmit bullion from I^n- don to Dublin or Paris, than to New York or Canton. And, oa fluctuations in the real exchange nro limited by its cost, they may evidently extend proportionally further l>etwoen distant places than between such us are contiguous. We have next to investigate tho cir- cumstances which give rise to a favorable or an unfavorable balance of payments, and to appreciate their effects on the real exchange, andoa trade In gen- eral. EXO 681 EXO VIII. JJai.ancb or Patmbxts.— A very grMt, if not the priiiciiml, source of the erron into which mer- ohanta, and the majority of writers on exchange, have been betrayed in regard to the balance of payments, appears to have originated in their confounding the sum which imported commodities fetch in the home mariiet, with their cost abroad. It is obviously, bow- ever, by tho amount of the latter only, that the bal- ance of payments, and consequently the real exchange, \* Intlupuced. A cargo of corn, for example, which cost jI'DOOO free on board at Odessa, may be worth ^£4500 when imported into England ; but the foreign merchant would not, unless he sent hither the corn, be untitled to draw on London for more than its origi- nal coat, or ^£8000. It Is clear, therefore, on the slighest consideration, that the fact of the imports being more valuable than the ex|K>rts, does not au- thorize the conclusion that the balance of payments is agulniit us. A favorable or an unfuvuruble balance depends entirely on the sum due to foreigners for com- modities bought from them being loss or mure tluiu the sum due 6y them for commodities bought from us. It has nothing to do with the prices eventually obtained for the Imported or exported commodities. Tho mercantile system of commercial jnlicy, which coutlnuos to preserve a powerful Inliuence in most countrloH, had for its grand object tlio creation of a favorable balance of |>aymcnts, by facilitating export- ation and restricting importation. It la foreign to our pur|M)se to qiaiie uny inquiry In regard to the princi- ples of this system, except in ao far as they are con- nected with exchanges. But it may be easily shown, in opposition to the commonly received opinions, that under ordinary circumstances the value of the imports into commercial countries always exceeds tlie value of tiii'lr cxpurta ; and that thia excess or balance has not, 8pcui(ing generally, uny tendency to render the real exchange unfavorable. It is the business of the merchant to carry the pro- ducts of din'erent countries from those places where their value is least, to tliose places where it is great- ost ; or, which Is the same thing, to distribute them according to the effective demand. Tliere could, how- ever, bo no motive to export any article, unless thut wliich was to l)o Imported In its ateiul were more val- uable. When im Kngliah merchant orders a quautity of Polisii wheat, he supiwses it will sell for so much more than its price In Poland as will sufSce to pay the cost of freight, insurance, etc., and to yield, besides, the ordinary rate of profit on tlie capital employed in tho transfer. If the wheat did not sell for this much, its importation would be productive of loss. Mer- chants never export but in tlie view of importing ar- ticles of greater value. Instead of an excess of ex- ports over imports being any criterion of an advanta- geous commerce. It is quite tlie reverse. And the truth is, notwitliatanding ail that has been said nud written to tlie contrar}', that unless the value of the imports exceeded that of the exports, foreign trade could not be carried on. Were this not the cose — were the value of tiio exports always greater tiiun that of tho imports, tliere would be a loss on every transaction with foreigners, and the trade with them would either not be undertaiicn, or, if begun, would be speedily relinquished. In ICnghind, tho rates at which exports and Imports ore ofSclaily valued were fixed so far back as 1690. The very great alteration which has since tai(on place in tho value of money, and in tlie cost of tho greater number of the commoclities of this and other countries, has rendered this official valuation, though viduable as a means of determining their quantity, of no use whatever as a criterion of tlie true value of the im- ports and exports. To obviate this defect, accounts of tho reul or declared value of the exports, prepared from the declarations of the morchants, are annually laid before parliament Thoro is, however, no such account of the imports ; and it Is, perhape, ImpostibU to frame one with anything lllie accuracy. It has alio been alleged, and apparently with some foundation, tliat mercliunts have fre(|uently exaggerated the value of articles entitled to drawbacks. But the extension and improvement of the warehousing system, and the decrease in the number of drawbacks, has very mate- rUlly lessened whatever fraud or inaccuracy mny have arisen from that score. The declared value of the ox- ports may now be considered as pretty uear the truth, at Uast sufflclently so fur all practical purposes. If perfectly accurate accounts could be obtained of the value of the exports and Imports, there can be no manner of doubt that in all ordinary years tho latter would considerably exceed the former. Tho value of an exported commodity is estimated when It is shipped, before Its value Is increased by tho expense incurred in transporting it to the place of destination ; whereas the value of tho commodity imported in its stead hi estimated after It has arrived at Its deatination, and been enhanced by the cliarges on account of freight, insurance, importer's profits, etc. It is of little Importance, in so far at least i^ the interests of commerce are concerned, whether a nation carries its own im|)orts and exports, or employs other. A carrying nation appears to derive a comparatively large profit from its commercial transactions. But this excess of profit is seldom more than a fair remu- neration for the capital It employs, and the risk it in- curs, in transporting commodities. Were the trade Iwtweon this country and France wholly carried on in British Iwttoms, our merchants, in addition to the value of the exiiorts, would also receive the cost of their carriage to France. This, however, would be no loss to the French. They must pay the freight of the commodltios they import. And if Engilah ships sail on cheaper terms than those of their own cuuntr}', there Is no gooail, therefore, of endearorlng to limit the trade whh countrlea from whluh the importa exceed the ex- port*, we ahoiild give It every ponKilde facility. Kvery man cimiilderii that market as the Iwat in which ha ol>- talnn tha hlgheat price fur hia gwMla. Why then ex- i'lnda him from It ? Why compel a merchant to aell • cargo of mualina, Iron, etc., for ^lO.SOO, rather than #11,(M)0 or #13,000 ? The wealth of n itate U made np of tha wealth of indivldaala. And what more effec- tual method of Increaaing Individual wealth can lie davlaod than to jiermit buying in tha cheapeat and ■ailing In Ihe dcareat marketa ? It would Im dlfllcult tu eatlmatn the miachief which •baurd nrted the augarof the Weat Indiea, thfl taaa and aplcaa of tha Eaat, and the tinilnr of tho llaltic j that la, liecauae there wna a demand for them, and liecuuae thny wore worth more In our marketa than the native priKlucta exported in their atead. The reaann naaigned for prohil>iting the trade afford* a con- rlualve proof of itH having lieeii advantii);ooua. There ran not, indeed, bo a doubt, that an unlimited freedom of Intercourae lietween the two countrlea would lie of great aerviee to lioth, Snppoaing It to be ao arranged, doaa any (me imagine that we should export or import any commodity to or from France, provided wo could alther aell or buy It on lietter terma anywhere elae 7 If reatrictlona on the trade with any (mrlicular country lie not Injuriona, that la, if it lie either a loaing or a leaa advantagooua trade than that with other countrlea, we may !« aaaurcd that tha throwing it completely open would not make a aingle individual engage in it. Kvery body knowa that theae cnncluaiona are not only theorelicany true, but have liecn practically ver- lAml. Ttie abolition of tha diacriniinating duty on French winea, the reduction of the exorbitant duty on brandy, tho repeal of the prohibition ogainat importing allka, and tho opening of our ports to French com and flour, have ill lieen advantageou". And though it bo true thiit tha prejudices of the French, and the high dutlea which they contfaine to impoaa on moat 'articles of Dritlah pro aver, be easily shown that this statement Is altogether erroneous j that a lialanca, whether on the one aide or the other, is seldom or never cancelled by means of bullion ; and that it is rot a measure, and haa, indeed, nothing to do witli the profit or loaa attending foreign commercUl tranaactions. If the premium on foreign billa. In a countr}- with an unfavorubte real exchange, be less than the cost of sending bullion abroati, It would be contradictory to suppose that it should be exported. And though tha premium on such bills were to increase, till it liecuma equal to, for it can not exceed, the cost of exporting tha precious metala, it does not follow that they will tlien bo exported. Timt would depend on whether bullion were, at the time, the cheapeat exportalda commodity ; or, in other worda, whether a remittance of bnllion was the moat advantageoua way In wliicii a debt might lie diacharged. If p I,ondon men^hant owe jCIOOO, or other aum, in ■'•H::, he endeavon to find out tlie choa|icat method of paying it. On the auppoaition that the real exchiinge is 2 per cent, below par, and that the oxjiense of remitting bullion ia alao '2 per cent., It will lie indifferent tn him whether he pays ^£20 of premium for a bill of £1000, ]iayabio in Paria, or incur an expense of X20 in remitting a £1000 worth of bul- lion direct to that city. If the price of cloth in Parii and I^ondon be such that It would require £1030 to purchaae and send aa much cloth to Paris as would sell for £1000, he would no doulit prefer buying a bill or exporting bullion. liut if, liy incurring an expense of £1010 the debtor may send us much hardware or cot- ton to Paris as would sell for £1000, he would as cer- tainly prefer paying his delit b)* ox|K>rting the one or the otiier. It woulil save him 1 per cent, mora than if he had liought a foreign bill or remitted bullion nnd 2 per cent more than if he exported cloth. Had there liecn any other commodity which might have been ex- |Hirted with more advantage, he would have used it in preference. It la obvious, therefore, that the trade in bullion is govemud by the same principles which govern the trade in other thinga. It ia exported when its expor- tation ia advantageoua ; that ia, when it is leas valu- alde at home, and more valuable abroad, than any thing else; and it will not otherwise lie exported. The balance of payments might be twenty or thirty millions against a countr}', without depriving it ol' a single ounce of bullion. No merchant would remit a £1000 worth of gold or sliver from England to dis- charge a debt in Paris, If he could Invest £970, £980, £9!H), ur any sum under £1000, in any other apecies of merchandise which, exclusive of expense, would sell in F'rance for that amount. Those who deal in the precious metals are as much alive to their interests us those who deal in coffee, or sugar, or indigo. But who would attempt to discharge a foreign delit by ex- porting coffee which cost £1IN), if he could effect the same oliject by exporting indigo which cost only £95 ? No bullion will ever lie exiiorted unless Its value be less in the exporting country- than In that to which it is sent ; and unless It lie, at the some time, the most advantageous article of expert, 2. It is in vain to contend that an unrestricted free- dom of trade might render some unfortunate country indebted to another so happily situated that it had ii< demand for any sort of ordinary merchandise, and would only acoeiit of cash or bullion in exchange for its exports. A cuse of this sort never did, and never will, occur. It is not even possible, A nation which Is in want of money must be in want of other things ; for men desire money only because It is tiie readiest means of increasing their command over necessaries and enjoyments. The extreme variety, too, in the EXO 088 EXO ed free- country , had ni and nge for I never I which thin);B ; readiest :eiwarte8 in the Mfli mA cUniat«*— In the machinery, iklll, and Indus- try of th' people of different countriea — occaalon extra- oMInary differences in their products and prices. Some ■rticlea of the hi|{hpst utility an |iecuUar to certain districts. Anil ttiere will ever he a demand, not only for such articles, l)ut also for those which, though they may be produced ut home, moy be imported of a better quality, or at a lower price. Nor, till the passion of accumulation l>e banished from the human breast, will there cease to be a deiire to send commodities from places where their exchangeable value is least, to those where it Is greatest. 8. In treating of the nominal exchange, we endeav- ored to show that no single country can continue for any length of time to Import or export a greater amount of bullion than may lie necessary to preserve the precious metals In it in tlieir proper relation to those of other countries ; or, which is the same thing, to have the rei\l exchange either permanently favorable or unfavorable. But though this principle he strictly true in reference to its aggregate exchange, it may lie Incorrect if Its exchange with one conntrj- only bo con- sidered. Great llritain, for example, may generally have the exchange in her favor with America, provid- ed she have it generally, and to a nearly equal extent, against her with the East Indies, or some other coun- trj-. " She may," to use the words of Mr. Rlcardo, " be Importing from the north the bullion which she is exporting to the south. She may Iw collecting It from countries where it is relatively abundant, for others where it is relatively scarce, or where, fi-om some particular causes, it is in groat demand. Spain, who is the great Importer of Imllion from America, can never have an unfavorulile exchange with her colonies j and as she must distribute the bullion she receives among tiie diflcrent nations of the world, she can sel- dom have a favoralile exchange with the countriea with which she trades." See Reply to Mr. Bosquet's Obser- vations on the Report of the Bullion Committee, p. 17. On this principle, Lord King successfully accounted for the favorable exchange between this country and Hamburg from 1770 to 1790. IIu showed that the im- portation of bullion from Hamburg and other parts was not more than equivalent to tho exports to the East Indies and the home consumption ; that tho de- mand corresponded to the supply ; and that its volue remained pretty stationar}-. The extraordinary influx of bullion into this country from the Continent at the era of the bank restriction in 1797, and the favorable state of tho exchange, were undoubtedly owing to the reduction in the issues of bank paper, and to the dim- inution of the gold currency, caused by the hoarding of guineas. In 1797 and 1798, above S,()0O,0flO of guineas were coined at the mint ; and this extraordin- ary demand for gold la of Itself abundantly sufficient to account for the verj' favorable exchange of that period, and for the length of time during which it con- tinued. But, at the same time that the demand for gold bullion for the mint was thus increased, tho de- mand for silver bullion, for exports to India, was pro- portionally augmented. Ounrvl. In 1T95, tho quantity exported by tho East In- dia Company aud prtvsto parties amount- ed to 161,795 InlTMto. 290,777 1T9I 9(i'2,880 179a 8I«16091 1799 7,297,827 From this period thu exportation rapidly declined ; and in the years in which the exchange was most un- favoralile, little or nc silver was sent to India. Instead, therefore, of tho extraordinary importation of bullion from Hamburg in 1797 and 1798 alTording, as Mr. Bosanquet and others supposed, a practical proof of the fallacy of the opinion of those who contend that it is impossible, for any length of time, to subvert the natural equality in the value of bullion In difTercnt countries, it is a striking example of its truth. With- out this tnfinx, bntlton In this country could not h«Tt maintained Its proper con'parative value. We Im- ported It, liecauso tho rec'uctlon of the paiMT currency, and the increased exiKir^s of the Ka»t India Company, rendered its value higher here than on the Continent, and made It advantageous for the Continental mer- chants to send it to us, in the same manner as they would have sent com, or any thing else for which we had an unusual demand. For, however favoralde the real exchange between Hamburg and I^ndon might have been tn the latter, we should not have imported an ounce of bullion, had It not been, at the time, the article with which Hamburg could most advantage- ously discharge her dolit to London. 4. In the absence of other arguments, it would l>o sufSclent to state, that It Is physically Impossible that the excess of exports over Imports, as indicated by the custom-house returns, should be paid in bullion. Ever}- countr}', with the exception of the United States, has its apparently favorable balance ; and, of course. If they really existed, they would have to bo paid liy an influx of bullion from the mines corri>)i|iond- ent to their aggregate amount. It Is certain, however, that, previously to the discoveries In California and Australia, the entire protluce of the mines, though It had been Increased In a ten fold proportion, would have been Insufficient for this purpose t This fact Is decls ive of tile degree of credit which ought to lie attached to the commonly-received opinions on this subject. 6, In the last place, the profit on transactions with foreigners does not consist in tho quantity of l)ullton imported from aliroad, but In " the excess of the value of the Imports over tho value of the exports." If, in return for exported commodities worth 10 or 20 mil- lions, wo Import such as are worth 15 or 80, we shall gain 60 per cent, by tho transaction, though the exports should consist entirely of nuUlon, and the imports of com, sugar, coffee, etc. It Is a ridlculoun prejudice that would make bullion bo imported rather than any other article. But whatever the partisans of the exclusive system may say about its lieing a proferaldo product, a merchaniite par trocWfncc, xe may be assured that it will seldom appear in the lict of exports or imports, while there Is any other thing with which to cany on trade thot will yield a larger profit. Tims it appears that the excess of exports over imports, instead of tielng any proof of an advan- tageous commerce, is distinctly and completely the reverse ; that tho value of the imports into commercial countries may, and almost always does, exceed the value of their exports, without rendering them In- delited to foreigners ; and that when a balance of debt has been contracted, that is, when the sum jxig- able to foreigners for Imports is greater than the sum receivnble from them for exports, bullion will not lie sent from tho delitor to the creditor countr}-, unless It be at the time tho most profitable article of export. IX. Effects of Real Exciianoe upoji Impohts AND ExpoiiTS. — Wo have shown that fluctuations in the nominal exchange do not Influence foreign trade. AVhcn the currency Is depreciated, the premium which an exporter derives from tho sale of bills on his corres- pondent abroad, is barely equivalent to the Increase in the price of tho exports, occasioned by the deprecia- tion. But when tho premium on foreign bills is not cansed by a fall In the value of money, Imt by a deficient supply of bills, there is no rise of prices, and then tho unfavorable exchange undoubtedly operates as a stimulus to exportation. As soon as the real exchange diverges from par, the mere inspection of price currents is no longer enough to guide tho opera- tions of the merchant. If it be unfavorable, the pre- mium which the exporters receive on the sale of bills must lie included in tho estimate of the profit they are likely to derive from the transaction. The greater that premium, the less will be the difference of prices necessar}' to make them export. An unfavorabla real EXO 094 EXO Mslwag* baf, la Intth, •ssntljr ih* hum (llWct on »• rDitation H » bounljr equal tu tba pnuium oo loniga IIU. Hat for lb* waM rwMon that an unraviiraliU rvoi •xcbang* IncnoM* axportaliun, It dIniinUlwii InipiirU- tlon. \VlwD It U unfavoraliU, Iht pricni uf furrltfa pruiliicU liroimhl to our iimrkata muit b* lo much unil«r thtir prioM n«r«, ■• nut mcraljr to airuril, «x- clutlv* uf •xp«nM<, tho unllnary pMlIt nn tliair tnie, but «Im) to pity tlin premium whlnh tbe lm|i<>rti>r niutt kIvii fur a furdifn lilll, If h* rnmit on* to hU vurra- ■ponilvnt, or fur tba diacountatblad to tlw Inruica prka, If tba Uttar draw upon bim. A leu quantity uf fur- eJKn K'xxl* will therefor* euil our market* when the exchange ia raally unfavorable i ami fewer payinvnta buvliiK to be made abroad, the comixttitiuu fur fun^lKU bllU in dIminUhed, and the exnlianKe rondtireil pro- purtinnally favomlje. A favurable mil excbunKe, GunMquontly, operate* aa a duty on axpurtatlou and a bounty on Importation. lUnce it t* obvlou* that ductuatluna In the rrnl *<• cbang* bare a necaaaitry teuil<^ncy to corr*<'t tbam- ■elvee. They can nerer, fur an v conalderiible period, exceed tbe expente uf trnuimlttinK buliiun from tha del>tor to tbe oreilitor cnuntry. And the exuhanite can not continue permanently fiivurobleorunruvonible even to thi* *xtFnt. When favorable, it correct* lt*elf by reetrlctluK exportation and facllltntln»{ im- portation; and when unfavurabin, It produce* the ■ume effect by etlmulating ex|i8e of them in Ix>n- don ; aad< by ao doing, prevent any great fall in tlie price of 1.1)1* on the former in the countrio* in which their aiipply exceed* the demand, and any great rUe in (ireat liritain and the country In which their aupply li.'ippena to be deficient. In our trade with Italy, tho bill* drawn on England generally amount to a greater ■urn than thoae drawn on Italy. The liill merchimta, however, by buying up the excea* of Italian billa on London, and aelllng them in France, Holland, and other countrie* indebted to Kngland, prevent the real excliange from being much deprvaaed. An unusual deficiency in the lupply of com, or of auy articl'! of prime necetalty, by cauaing a audden augmcntal.ur. ': import*, matetially affect* foreign debta and cred> and deprcue* the exchango. In time of war, tbu . nnce of payment* I* liable to be ■till furthoi 'liatni A t!i» amount nf the bill* drawn on a country •.•K!.-yji,' > foreigc .u'stilitlca, being in- creaaed l)y the wl>.>li, ojSi 'et? '-''its armamer.ij abroad, and of aubaidic] to foroi ^i p-j> ens. ' Bia neither the conjoined nor 9o;iarato hi'ut ace of lioth oi oit'tiT uf theae cauaes iias any p.ti'nent influence ' ver the exchange. A audden inctcaae in the accuatomed *up- ply of billa muat, In the firat Instance, by glutting the narket, occaiion their lelling at a discount ; but tbla effect will only be temporary. Tha unuaual faellitia* which an than afforded for exportatiun, aiul tiM dllH- oultlea which are thrown in the way of luipurtation, never fail apeedlly tu bring tba nnl exchange to par. During a periud uf peace we may, In tha loo great ardor of apaculativa eutorpriae, export an excea* uf produce, overliHui the fureigu uiarliet, and uccuKiun auch a decline in the prl>'e uf uur good* abroad, a* to inalte the lui|xirt* leaa valuable tlian the export* with which they have benu uurchu<«il. Uut audi a atatc uf thing* can unly be of limited duratUiu. '1 be diatrea* uf which It I* pruductiva, aaaiated by the fall uf the exchange, uccaalona a diniinutiuu uf export*. 'I'lie supply uf uur cunimuditlea In tbe foreign market* I* rendered mure nearly cuniuienaurata with the demand | till in nu lung lime tlio value of the imports again ex- ceeds, aa It alwaya ought tu do, the value uf the ex- |M)rta. Hut wlicn a country ha* a large fureign ex|HsniUture tu aiiatuln, its ex|K)rts art pru|M>rtionull/ augmenti'il. Wlmtever may have lieen the foreign ex|iendlture uf (irtoat Ilrltain during the late war. It U evident that It cuuM not lie defrayed otherwise than by our annually exporting an equal amuunt uf the prmluco uf uur land, capital, and labur, fur which |iayment was nut received, as in urdinary cases, by a curros|Miniliiig im|xirtutluu uf fiireign comiuuditles, iiut from the trouaury ut hume. This is strictly true, even though tho ex|ieniliture should have happened tu lie, in tho llrnt instance, disclmrged by remittances uf bullion; fur tho increased supply uf bulltun which tr t tbu* required, could be olituinod unly by an equally increa«ed ex|Mirtatiun of oilier imiducta to tho countries poa«ea*ed uf mines, or friini which it was Imported. Korelgn ux|ienditure, by incrouNing ex|iorta In propor- tion tu its own amount, ho* no (lermanent Inlluonce over the exchange. Thus it appears that an excess of ex|Kirts, Instead of being any criterion of Increasing wealth ut borne, is unly II certain Indicutluu uf cunimercial luascs, ur of exi'i'i'I ure abroad. " When," says Mr. Wheutley, tl. : ^jxporta exceed th< iiniwrta, ua tliuy must du 'ion there ia a largo fureigu expenditure, the equiv- alents tir the exceaa are received abroad in lu full and ample ii manner aa if the produce which they pur- chased were actually lmp at vurUince with tho fact ; and the rise of the exchange at tho end uf tho lute war, during tho suspension of cash payments, has been appealed to a* showing that its previous low rate eel of tho I'll 'Jilt ' >' tbe fru;, V ; • ex- . I'l. ' the had not been occasioned by any l>: r currency, but by tho exc. ' bill drawn UfKin thia country t' pendituie. The question, hov the excliango recovered from it auBiienaion of cash pa}-ment*, for lue luUuence ot tliut measure depended entirely on the use made of It, but whether its recovery took place without the amount of bank paper of all sort*, or of tho currency, lirlng dimlnUbed ? The statement* made In the article MoKBT are decisive upon thi* point. They show tlint the currency was very greatly diminished in 1811, 1815, and 181C; and that this ditninution occasioned the rise In Its value, and in the nominal exchnnge. Mr. Francis Homer, the well-infonnod chainuun of the Committee on the High Price of Uullion, made tlie following Btatemont in regard to this very iiuostion In his place in tbe House of Common*: " From Inquirie* • WoKATLBT, on (A* T/UOTU <>/ Mtitty, p. Sit. ,i.vy '»•,:■.. BXO WF BXO ha lud BMiU, anil from lb* MmunU oa the UliU, h* WM t'onrliii mI tuul • nnml»t iinil iiion auiMnn rctlui'- lion <>f lh« I IrvulittliiK inmlluin hotl navnr takaii (lUi* In any cuunlrx than Liul occurrad ilniM tha paaoa of IhU country, with tlia axcaptlon uf IIkmu railv^Uona thai bail taken plana In Franca aftnr the MImUkJ) I'i •cihainr, ami aftar tha ilaitrurtlon ut thn aaalgnntn Tha ratluctlcin of tha currcnny had urlglnnteil In tlm iirnvliiiM rnll (if tlia pricv* ut aKrluiiltural pruilui'ii. That fall hitil iiruduoril a ilnatruc.tliin of i'.iiiiiitry-liaiik pa|iartaanext«iit whluh wuuM not liava Ix-an thnuKht jwiullila, without mora ruin tluin bad actually •iiauml, Thn llaiik iif Knt(laiid biul iilio raatrtctad Ita litUM. A* appaara iiy tha ancounia racanlly praaantad, tha avarnK* a'lioiiut of Ita curranoy waa not, durlnti tha Uat yaa' moi thai, batwnan £2ti,tm,*»)Q and ii'it),- 00O,()(K' ' !1> two yaiira a^o it hail lievn naarar M ' , '" > M I tt one tima «van aniountad to Xill,- '^ '' ' '. ' ' ut loiikinK to the diminution uf ^!ank ' Eui,;> l paper, tha reduction of tha coun- try I aiwi waa am 'ii(h to account for tha rlaa which had > at ' .<'a In tha axchanga." Ilrnca It appaara that tha I > ,f the uxuhanf(a In IHIA and iHlti had nothing, or lint ilf'ln, to ild with th« ccKiintiim of hontllltloa, and wua untlnly , or mainly, a oonarquvnco uf tho IncroaMMl Talui of tli« curn'ncy, i-nuaod liy tlu reduction uf ita i|Ua<-tit> Inatead of liulnt( ut viiriunco with tlia priii- clpl' . wa have livan pndenviirInK to elucidate, tliia fact atfunla a atrun^ ci, illrniatiunof their vorrectnaaa. And having Iwiin aanctioned liy the fuUuat ox|irrieuco, may he cimnldored ai lieyoiid the reach of ciivii and dinputo. An iilijcctioii of a dllTereiit aort haa lieen made, to an- othpr iiurt of tho tlieory maintained in thia auction, which it Mwiy lie pro|ier to notice. When tlie e.xchiui|;e liecomna unfavorahle, the pro- mluni, procured liy the aula of tho hill drawn on a for- el);n merchant to whom liullion haa lioun conalKiied, la ni' Kroatcr than would be ol>talnod liy conaiKninK to hnn un e<>r cent., while the exportera of coffee would realize, indualve of the premium on tho aule of the foreign bill, a prollt of 7 |i^r cent. And hence tho oplhion maintained by C'ul sol Torrena,^ that when tho oxchnuge lieconioa unfak\urablo, thoao commoditlea Ahich contain the grenteal value in tho amalleat bulk, ui on whicii the nxponMi i carriage ia Icuat, are ex- ported In preference, uppcara to havo no good founda- tion. The pricea of tho commoditlea which nutiona trading together are in tho habit of exporting and Im- porting, are regulated nut merely by tho coat of their production, but ala" by tho expense uf their carriage from where thoy un produced to wliarti they are con- sumed. If Great liriluiu were in the habit of supply- ing France with cottuiiH and bullion, tlie average price of cottons In Franco, becuune of tli« ex|)enao re<|uired to convey them there wiMild priiliulily be from 5 to (i per cent. Iiiglier than >ii liriMiu whilu, beuuuso of the comparative fiicil''v with which bullion may b« trans- ported from the to to tlie other, its value in I'arls would not, perhaiM, exceed ita value here more than 1 per cent. Kow, suppose that when the pricea uf co(- t(i * CbmjiaraAM AMmoU, eta . itiid bullion Id KngUnd and Kranoa ara ailjualad IK ' or < ' irtlng the uiiif 'ha other, it iaavaa the cuat of :■ reducttoH .iiel (r lliaportatiun exactly whern tt I'liuiid it. During tha ileprvsf'i' i-' of Ihv exthaikgr, tfaa nxportara of I'uth aitlclaa gat the pr iiti'im ' n Oie billa drawn on ili. '" curraapundenta. Dut th- 1 >• im lu> ducament to > |iort bullion in |..«fer«nct; tu U na, unlaaa thu priiu of bullion Increaan mure raui'Uv iu France, or ilecllaa mora rapidly in tiraat llrltulii, than that of cuttona. Whatever, therafore, may bn tho ile|<) salon i ' lb« oxchoiigfl, tha merchant aalaota those cuiumoihtiea for ex|Mirtatlif theae, It will of courae ba axporteil; if not, not. Hut of all coninimlitlea, bullion la that of which tbi' miIu* approaches noareat to an equality In dilTurl'iit . rted lntetween Paris and London were 10 or 12 per cent, against the latter, it would show that the real exchange was also against this country to the extent of 6 or 7 per cent. And if, on tlin other hand, the computed exchange were only 2 or 3 per cent, against London, it would show that the real exchange was 8 or 1 i.cr cent, in its favor, and so on. It has been already shown, that in so far at least as the question of exchange is involved, the differences in the value of bullion in different countries are limited by the cxpen.se of its transit from one to another. And hence, by ascertaining whether a particular country exports or imiiorls bullion to or from other countries, wa may determine Its comparative value in these conntries. Suppose, for example, that the expense of conveying bullion from this countrj' to France, in- cluding the profits of the bullion dealer, is 1 per cent. ; it is clear, inasmuch as bullion is exported only to find its level, that whenever our merchants begin to export it to France, its value there must be at least 1 per cent, greater than in England ; and, on the contrary, when they import bullion from J'rance, its value here must be, at le-st 1 per cent, greater than in France. In judging of the exchange Iwtween any two countries, this circumstance should always be attended to. If no bullion be passing from the one to the other, wo may conclude that its value is nearly the same in both ; or, at all events, that the difference of its value is not more than the expense of transit. On the supposition that the entire expense, including profit, of conveying bullion from San Francisco to London is 6 per cent., and that London is importing bullion, it is clear, pro- vided the real exchange be at par, and the currency of lioth cities at their mint standards, that the nnminal, or, which in this case is the same thing, the mmpiited exchange, will be 5 per cent, in favor of London, but If the currency of London be 5 per cent, depreciated, or. in other words, if the marltet price of liullinn at London be 5 per cent, nhove its mint price, the com- puteil exchange Iwtwccn it and San Francisco, su|)- po!' little from its mint standard, was depreciated to the extent of about 23^' per cent. Now, as the computed or actual course of exchange varied, during the same period, from 10 to 21 per cent, against London, it Is plain the real ex- change could not be far from par. Had the computed exchange l>een less unfavorable, it would have shown that the real exchange was in favor of lA>ndon ; had it l>een mora tmfavorable, it would, on the contrary, have shown that the re(^ exchange was against London. Provided an accurate account could be obtained of the expense attending the transit of bullion from this country to the Continent during the sulisequent years of the war, it would most likely be found, notwith- standing the extraordinary depression of the nnminal, that the real exchange varied but little from par ; and that the exiiortatinn of gold and silver was not a con- sequence of the balance of payments being against us, but of its being advantageous to export liulllon, be- cause of its being more valuable on the Continent. None will contend that, in 180!l, 1810, etc., gold and silver were so redundant in this country as to sink their relative value. An}' surh supposition is out of the question. During the period referred to, they were sent abroad, because the depreciation of paper exceeded the cost of the transit of bullion ; and it was every luMly's interest to pay their debts in tlio depre- ciated currency, and to export that which was unde- preciated to countries where it ))ussed at its full value us coin, or in which bullion was in greater demnnd. Had our paper currency been sufficiently reduced, the supply of gold in the kingdom in 1809, 1810, etc., com- pared with the demand which must, under ia(tn, Ormvlns remarks, " PermtUatio est quod nimo Iwrbare eombi'um dlcltur."— iijp<«(. ad AUieum, xl. 24, I Attnait of OumnMFM, 1. 40S, exchange in modem historj' occurs in 1266, The pope, having quarreled with IManfred, King of Sicily, engaged, on Ilenrj' III, of Kiit,'iand agreeing to indem- nify him for the expense, to depose ManfVcd, and raisa Henry's second son, Edmund, to the Sicilian throne. The enterprise misgave. But the merchants of Sienna and Florence, who oiiginally advanced the money to carry it into effect, or rather to gratify the pope's ra- pacity, were paid by bills drawn on the prelates of England, who, although they protested that they knew nothing at all about the transaction, were nevertheless compelled, under pain of excommunication, to pay tho bills and interest!* Capmany, in his " Memoirs" respecting tho com- merce, etc., of Barcelona, gives a copy of an ordon- nance of tho magistracy, dated in ISiVl, enacting that bills should be accepted within twenty-four hours after their presentation ; a sufficient proof that they were in general use in the end of the fourteenth centurj-. But whatever be the era of tho introduction of bills of exchange, few inventions have redounded more to tho public advantage. Without this simple and inge- nious contrivance, commerce could have made no great progress. Had there been no means of adjusting the mutual claims of debtors and creditors otherwise than by the intervention of metallic money (for bank paper is only another species of bills of exchange), a very large portion of that capital which is setting productive labor in motion in every quarter of the globe, and ministering to the wants and enjoyments of mankind, must have been emploj'ed in eflfectlng those exchanges which are much better eflTected by the agency of a few quires of paper. Instead of a perpetual importation and exportation of gold and silver, necessarily at- tended with nn immensity of trouble and expense, bills, possessing little or no intrinsic worth, and which are transferred with the utmost facility, suffice to ad- just the most extensive and complicated transactions. But the mere setting free of an immense productive power, engaged in a comparatively unprofitable em- ployment, is only one of the many benefits we owe to the use of liilis. By cheapening the instruments l>y which commerce is carried on, they have material!)' reduced the prices of most articles ; and have, in con- se(iuence, increased the command of all classes over necessaries and luxuries, and accelerated the progress of civilization, liy occasioning a more extensive inter- course and intimate connection between different and independent countries than would otherwise have taken place. In a political point of view their effects have lieon equally salutary. They enalilc individuals impercepti- bly to transfci their fortune to otlier countries, and to preserve it safe alike from the rapacity of their own governments and the hcstilo attacks of otiiers. The security of property has, in consequence, been vastly augmented. And though we sliould concede to tho satirist tliat paper credit lias " lent corruption lighter wings," it has, at the same time, powerfully contributed to render sulijects less dependent on tlie policy, and less liable to be injuriously affected liy Hie injudicious measures of tlieir rulers. In countries in a low stage of civilization the inliabitants endeavor, by liurying all the gold and silver they can collect, to preserve a part of their property from the despots by whom they lire ajt^mately plundored and oppressed. Tliis was universally tlie case in tho Middle Ages ; and in Tur- key, India, Persia, and other eastern, and also in some European countries, the practice is still carried on to a greater or less extent. Some economists have endeavored to account for the long-continued importa- tion and high value of the precious metals in India, by tlio loss which necessarily attends the practice of hoarding ; and undoubtedly this locking-up of capital, while it evinces an extreme degree of insecurity, is a * liumo's Snglimii, cap. U> EXC 638 EXO mjn oaiiM of tlia poverty of tbeae coiuitriei. But the security afforded by biUs of exchange is infinitely greater than any which can be derived from the bar- baroua expedient of trusting property to the bosom of the earth. " Pregnant with thousands flits the temp nnseen," and in a moment places the largest fortune beyond the reach of danger, Mr. Harris was there- fore right in saying, " that the introduction of bills of exchange was the greatest security to merchants, both as to their persons and effects, und consequently the greatest encourageipent to commerce, and the greatest blow to despotism, of any thing that ever was in< vented." Its extensive commerce, the wealth and punctuality of its merchants, and their intimate connpctlon wiUi all the other great trading cities of the W' Ii), made Amsterdam, previously to the peace of 17C3, the chief place where the accounts of commercial countries were balanced and adjusted. But the loss of foreign trade, and the other vexations t < which Holland yim BUiijected during the ascendency o. the French, nearly divested Amsterdam of all share in this business ; and it has not since recovered its former superiority. Lon- don is now the trading metropolis of Europe and the world, univtrti orbia terrarum emporium. The vast extent of its commercial dealings necessarily renders it the great mart for bills of exchange. Its bill-mer- chants, a class of men remarkable for their shrewdness and generally possessed of large capitals, assist in trimming and adjusting the balance of debt and credit between the most remote countries. They buy up bills where they are cheap, und sell them where they are dear, and, by the extent of their correspondence and the magnitude of their transactions, give a steadi- ness to the exchange to which it could not otherwiie attain. The following is a statement of the usance and days of grace for bills drawn at London upon some of the principal commercial cities : t l*inion OD U.UCf. 1 tiftjra uf jrrHCA. Amsterdam 1 ni.d.» 1 m. d. 1 in. d. 1 m. d. 1 m. d, 14 d. a. 80 d. d. 14 d. (•. 1 m. il. 00 d.d. 80 d. d. 2 in. 8. 60d.d. a m. d. 'i m. B. S m. (L 14 d. a. 8 m. d. 8 111. d. 14 d. a. 80 d. d. 8 m. d. 8 m. d. 80 lis. 80 d. «. 80 d. d. 'il A. s. 00 d. s. 13 13 10 4 8 14 6 14 6 14 14 80 6 8 18 8 8 < 6 8 8 Hamburg Alton* Dantzic Paris Bremen..., Barcelona. Madrid Cadiz. BUboa Gibraltar Venice MalU Nwles. Palermu Oporto , Kio Janoiit^. Dublin New York * m. d., m. s., d. d., d. i,, d. a., respectively donate inontlu after dnU, month* al merchants i the other hand, thu direct exchange wore less than 24 and dlsAorer whether thry are buyen or Milan of bills. A few of the brokers, of most influence, after ttscertalnhig the state of the relative supply and de- mand for tills, suggest a price at which the greater part of the transactions of the day are settled, with such deviations as particular bills, fh>m their being in a very high or low credit, may be subject to. The price fixed by the brokers is that which is published in Wlttenhall's List ; but the first houses generally negotiate their bills on i, 1, I^, und 2 per cent, bettor terms than those quoted. In London and other groat commercial cities, a class of middleman speculate largely on the rise and fall of the exchange ; buying bills when they expect a rise, and selling them when a fall is anticipated. It is usual, in drawing foreign bills of exchange, to draw them in sets, or duplicates, lest the first should bo lost or miscarry. When bills are drawn in sets, each must contahi a condition that it shall be payable only while the others remain unpaid ; thus, the first is payable only, " second and third unpaid ;" the second, " first and third unpaid ;" and the tliird, " first and second tmpaid." Bills of exchange purporting to be drawn at any place out of the United Kingdom are to be deemed to be liable to the stamp-duty on such bills, though they may, in fact, have been drawn in the United King- dom. (§ 4.) The holders of foreign bills, or bills drawn out of the United Kingdom, are to affix proper adhesive stamps to the same liefore negotiating them, under a penalty of .£50. (§ 6.) No one acquainted with the fundamental rules of arithmetic can have any difliculty whatever In esti- mating how much a sum of money in one countrj' Is worth in another, according to the state of exchange at tho time. The common arithmetical books abound in examples of such computations. But, in conduct- ing tho business of exchange, a direct remittance is not always preferred. M'hon a merchant in London, for example, means to discharge a debt due by him in Paris, It is his business to ascertain not only the state of tho direct exchange between I.,ondon and Paris," and, consequently, the sum which he must pay in London for a bill on Paris equivalent to his debt, but also the state of the exchange between I^ndon and Hamburg, Hamburg and Paris, etc. ; for it frequently happens that it may bo more advantageous for him to buy a bill on Hamburg, Amsterdam, or Lisbon, and to direct his agent to invest the proceeds in a bill on Paris, rather than remit directly to the latter. This is termed the Arbitration of exchange. An exam- ple or two will suffice to show the prlnclplo on which it is conducted. Thus, if the exchange lictwcen London and Amster- dam lie aba. Flemish (old coinage) per pound sterling, and between Paris and Amsterdam Is. Cd. Flemish per franc, then, in order to ascertain whether a direct or indirect remittance to Paris would l)e most advan- tageous, we must calculate what would bo the value of the franc in English money if ttie remittance were made through Holland ; for it be less than that re- sulting from the direct exchange, it will obviously bo the preferable mode of remitting. This is determined by stating, as 35s. Flemish (the Amsterdam cunn^ncy in a pound sterling) : Is. Gd. FIemi.sh (Amsterdam currency in a franc) : : XI : lOd. tho proportion or arbitrated value of the franc. Hence, if the English money, or bill of excliongo, to pay a debt In Paris, were remitteil liy Amsterdam, it would require lOd. to discharge a debt of a franc, or £1 to discharge a debt of 24 francs ; and, therefore, if the exchange between Limdon and Paris were at 24, it would bo iiidiffvrent to the English merchant whether he remitted directly to Paris, or indirectly via Amsterdam ; but if the ex- change between Ixmdon and Paris wore above 24, then a direct remittance would he preferable ; while, if on it... EXC 639 BXO Hw indirect remittance ought as plainly to be prefer- red. " Suppose," to borrow an example frrnn Kelly (Universal Cambiat, vol. it., p. 137), " the exchange of London and Lisbon to \ie at 68d. per milree, and that of Lislion on Madrid SOO rces per dollar, the arbitrated price between I.ondon and Madrid is S-ld. sterling per dollar ; for, as 1000 rces : 68d. : : SOO rces : 34d. But, if the direct exchange of London on Sludrld be 89d, sterling per dollar, then London, by remitting di- rectly to Madrid, must pay 85d. for every dollar) whereas, by remitting tlirougb Lisbon, lie will pay only 34d. ; it is, therefore, the interest of London to remit indirectly to Madrid through Lisbon. On tlie other hand, if London draws directly on Madrid, lie will receive 35d. sterling per dollar ; whereas, by drawing indirectly through Lis'd, was called Collegium Mercaiorum, of which it is alleged there are still some remains, called by the modem Romans Loggia, the Lodge or place of St. George, Exchequer Bills are bills of credit issued by authority of Parliament. They are for various sums, and l>ear interest (generally from 1^. to 2^1. per diem, per jClOO) according to the usual rate at the time. The advances of the banic to government are made upon exchequer bills; and the daily transac- tions between the bank and government are princi- pally carried on through their intervention. Xotice of the time at which outstanding exchequer bills are to be paid off is given by public advertisenioiit. Bankers prefer vesting in exchequer bills to any other species of stock, even though the interest he fur tho most part comparatively low ; because the capital may be received at the treasury at the rate originally paid for it, the holders being exempted from any rink of fluctuation, except in tlie amount of the premium or discount at which they may have l)Ought the bills. Exchequer bills were Arst issued in 1G9C, and have been annually issued over since. The subjoined is an account of the unfunded debt in exchequer bills, and of the annual cliarge thereon, on the 5th of January, 1817, and the 5th of January every subsequent year down to 1855. In 1853, exchequer hands were issued bearing inter- est at 2} per cent, for ten years, and thereafter 2^ per cent, for thirty years, or till 1891, to such holders uf Soutli Sea, and three per cent, stock as chose to accept the same, a bond for ,£100 being given for eve>y X'lOO stock subscribed (16th and 17th Vict., cap. iX). Ilut only a very snuU sum (£5000) has been invested in such bonds. This description of temporary loan is unknown in this countr}-, but is a favorite investment by Britinh capitalists. The treasury has the power, by act of Parliament, to issue ways and means bills, or in other words, exchequer bills, to the aid of tho ways and means of the year, by issuing them in any one quarter, pa3'able out of the revenues of tho following quarter. Independent of these bills of supply, issues are made in exchequer bills to the paymaster-general for the ordinary service, to lie sold in the market to meet the public demand. The bills are signed cither by the comptroller or by the assistant-comptroller, and every means have been suggested to prevent forgery, iSomc- times the bills are issued to the pa}'master-general, and sometimes to the bank ; and the bank either curries the amount of money for which it has contracted with the government, to tlie paymaster's account, or tu tho exchequer account. Then the credit is issued from the exchequer account for the public accountant, Alwut 1500 bills are prepared in one day, and they arc signed in even quantities. There arc constitutional reasons against tlie treasury' having the issue of exchequer bills. The Constitution of England is founded on a jealousy of the executive government, and therefore checks arc rciiuired in dealing with the actii ,i uf the government, which a commercial company like tlie Bank of England may not in any respect require. From the 1st of .lanuary, 1842, to 1.5»h June, 18-17, there were signed by the comptrollor-general, and by the assistant-comptroller, 186,707 exchequer bills, for the amount of £197,983,423, From the 1st January, 1846, to l&th June, 1817, there were examined and controllad by (lt« i»H)tptrnll«r'i(«neral and assistants soroptrolUr, t{M niyHt iir(1«r« of (lie amount of £92,. 8a5,7ilO, and 900 Uvmuy WMrrants of the value of £283,681,258, i^rmil (Itx (tfsl iif Janimry, 1845, to lOtb June, 1817, titvrft wern issued and supplied to the paymaster, UO.lim bllN of (lin nmouiit of £54,6M,»00. The prepiiratiiil) of HXi'lmqiier bills costs the public for paper-inukliig, i'llKHIi sU|H'II,N;^,1)7 ; and i-ontndled 214 royal orders of £91,8)1,11), iiltil WM treasury warrants of £178,981,985, III mi, llt«re Were signed 22,654 ex- chequer boud« of m,m,m, Vaura enrllntt in n, i, 181T 1818 18l» vm Uti isai IX'it IviT 18'i4 lifiO IWW IMl \KVi \tm IhlM IbiM WMi IKHT ll>88 \>m 184« 1841 1842 inm 1S44 IS4A ii>4a J84T 1848 ]84l> IsfiO IxBl KVi IhM 1K6A AlHiMlNt »# K«- I Glui|iwr ItilU; «4,T4I,TW» msMtfrn i(T,*)I,i»l« 'Ui.WlJitii) aun.iifttt ST,IIH,MW «T,t(7MWt) 'iT,tft i1iin« l», Mureh 17, June I A, )«I7 19J7 IftSS 1MB 1KI» IMfl IIWI 1ftl7 1S40 iMiJ 1*48 «t,124 402,790 408,478 402,852 Rfis,414 84i<.,M8 Th6 liitarmt psM wllhdi phhU fnr In ulten In tho col- uiiin of ph»r|/ii, wlijili tiitKH'fl tins seflfUnd upon tho capl. tal sisiuil III tliu |/r»'>iiMiii( ^citr Till! InUirt-ol (wM HIiiKiilin elA.OM.AOO.and upon £l,7.'iO,- OOOof lillU l»>iii>i| III Aofll lv.(, wllllio imWIn 1855 Tito lnl.ir7. BxoUOi (li« ti8il)« itivnit to the duties or taxes laid on certain itrtiilus |iriiilui'il Dinfli'H ). The exclso-olTlce was built on Ihtt liilti of (irnilmm Tollege, In 1774, The officers of ensliiH nihI iimtoins were deprived of tlieir votes for iii«tiilH'r« uf I'arllnnient In 1782 //«i/(/». Excise ilutl«« Imd Ik>ph from an early pcrliMl estab- lished ill llolluiiil. Mild tll« large revenue which they aflfordail piinttid (Ixin) iiUt to tlie leaders of the popu- hir i>art/ Id lit* yr««t «ivil war, aa the most likely EXH 641 EXH ..■.,124 .'.Tim ii,478 ■.'>r)2 *.414 MR col- fripi- ,7.'iO,- iiyablo I laid homo ; and cnt of r excise ri){lund (;rom- |irnsent illcctcd • levied Hinent- ce wtts The if their fdn. pstali- ih thoy popu- llkelr iMMit by which they conid nln fundi to carry on the great contest in which they had emburlied. They were coni"qnently introduced by a parliamentar}' or- dinance lu 164A ; being then laid on the mnkem and venders of ale, beer, cidor, and perry. The royalists soon after followed the example of the republicans ; both sides declaring that, the excise should be con- tinued no longer than the termination of the war. But it was found too productive a source of revenue to be again relinquished ; and when the nation had been accustomed to it for a few years, the Parliament de- clared, in 1649, that the " impost of excise was the most easy and hidtfferent lev}' that could be laid upon the people." It was placed on a new footing at the Restoration ; and, notwithetanding Mr. Justice Black- stone says that " from its first original to the present time its very name has been odious to the people of England" (Com. book i. c. 8), it has continued pro- gressively to gain ground ; and is at this moment im- posed on various important articles, and furnishes a large share of the public revenue of the kingdom. AuouNT or Till ExmsB RiraMnK ur OnsAT Dbitaih uc TRK rOLLOWINO '' hAU I 1744 Great Britain. £8,764,078 178« " '• B,M0,114 1908 " » 19,987,914 1920 " " 2«.8ft4,702 1827 Cnlted Kingdom 20,995,824 18«0 » " 18,644,895 ISM " " :i;,877,292 1S87 " x 14,518,142 1940 " •' 12,607,768 1846 " " 18,688,588 ZIxhibitl6XI (exhibere, to exhibit, furnish, main- tain, etc.), a showing or presenting to view : a display. In law, delivery of writings in proof of facts ; a bill of discover}'. In our old writers it is also used for an allowance of meat and drink, a pension or salar}' ; and it is now applied to a benefaction settled for the main- tenance of scholars in English universities, not de- pending on the foundation. In this sense the term is analogous to the Scottish bursary. Among physicians, exhihitiun is a standard and convenient term to ex- press the administering a medicine. Exhibitions of Works of Fine Art. — A collection of works of fine art, arranged in some suitable place for public inspection, is styled an exhibition. It is organ- ized on a different principle from that of a national gallery or museum ; for the works are not permanently conserved, but contributed for a limited period annu- ally, new examples being provided for every successive exhibition. Exhibitions are comparatively of modem institution. In former times artists were chiefly patronized liy the church or tho government ; und the edifices in which their productions were placed were patent to the pub- lic ; but now artists rely mninly on private patronage, and generally obtain the sanction of those for whom they execute works to exhibitthem publicly for a limit- ed |)cri(>d as specimens of their skill ; or if executed for sale, those exhibitions aflTord an opportunity of dispos- ing of their works, while they themiiclvcs are improved in their art i)y the opportunity of companng their own eflTorts with those of other artists. Tlic members of the Academy of the Fine Arts, founded at Itome in ir)93, probably on particular occa- sions exhibited their works collectively to the public ; but it wus in Franco, in 1737, that the members of tho Itoyal Academy of Painting and Sculpture (founded in 1U4H) first regularly instituted annual exhibitions. These were made biennial in 1745, and were from their cummencement confined to works executed by members of the academy ; but during the Revolution (by a decree in 1791) all artists, French or foreign, were allowed to participate in the exhibition, which iu 179(1 was again made annual. The earliest attempt at an exhibition in England was in 17(i0 ; and the efforts of tlie artists were at length nnited in the Bcj'al Academy's exhibitions, the first Ss of which was opened in 1769. Since then they have been continued with Increasing energy. In 1760, the number of works exhibited was IBO, contributed by 69 artists ; In 1866 there were 1668 works, contributed by 918 exhibitors. The annual revenue of the academy arises from a fee of one shilling from each visitor, and now exceeds ;e8000. The Koyal Scottish Academy's exhibition Is the sec- ond In importance in the United Kingdom. Though, according to its present constitution, it only dates from 1826, those who instituted it had previously or- ganized exhibitions in Edinburg, which had been an- nually continued, with some few intermptions, since 1808. At the first exhibition, 178 works were sent in by 27 contributors; at the exhibition in 1866, 789 works wete contributed by 287 exhibitors. The an- nual revenue exceeds ^£2000. Exhibitions are annually opened in Dublin by the Royal Hibernian Academy. These are the only fine-art corporations in Great Brit- ain aided by government, the two first mentioned t)eing accommodated in public galleries, and the last receiving an annual money grant. Besides the above mentioned, the following siicieties in London have also exhibitions, namely, the British Institution, founded in 1806 ; the Society of British Artists, in 1824 ; the National Institution, in 1860 ; the Society of Painters in Water Colors, in 1805 ; and the New Society of Painters in Water Colors, in 1835. There are also annual exhibitions in Manchester, Liverpool, Glasgow, Birmingham, Cork, Newcastle, etc. But with the exception of those in London and the Royal Scottish and Hibernian Academies, they are mainly composed of works collected all over the kingdom, but principally in London. Exhibition of 1851— The great Exhibition of Works of Industry of all Nations, held in the British metrop- olis, was publicly announced in October, 1849. Prince Albert, as president of the Society of Arts, offered him- self to the public as their leader in the undertaking : and her Majesty's proclamation appointhig a commis- sion to promote the project was issued January 3, 1850. The amount of public subscriptions to the Cry8tr\1 Palace was ^£67,399 3s. lOd. After much discussion relative to the site proposed, a vast structure was erected oh the south side of Hyde Park, from a design of Mr. (afterward Sir Joseph) Paxton. This building (usually called the CrA-stal Palace from the material of which it was chieflj' composed) resembled, upon a great scale, the Victoria Regia plant-house, erected at Chatsworth, after Mr. Paxton's own design. The contract with Messrs. Fox and Henderson was for £79,800 — a sum afterward somewhat increased by ad- ditions to the plan ; or for £150,000, if the building was permanently retained. The exhibition was opened by her Majesty in state. May 1, 1851 ; and it remained open to the public till 11th Octolier, shortly after "^liich time the Crj'stal Palace was taken down. This gigantic structure occupied an area of 21 acres, and was coni|K)8ed entirely of large sheets of glass set in frame-work of iron, except near the ground, where it was Iwanled. Its length was 1851 feet (a number corresponding to the year of the exhibition) ; and its width, in the broadest part, 45G feet ; the transept intersecting the building at riglit angles in the mid- dle, was 408 feet long, 108 high, and 72 wide. The entire structure consisted of three tiers of elevation, the central portion lieing C4 feet high, the adjacent side portions 44 feet, and the outer sides 24 feet high. The materials employed were as follows : 890,000 su- perficial feet of glass, weighing 400 tons ; wrought- iron, 550 tons; cast-iron, 3500 tons; wood, includiii.^ flooring, 600,000 cubic feet ; nearly 2300 cast-iron girders, and 358 wrought-iron trusses for supporting the roof and the galleries (which extended nearly a mile in length) ; 30 miles of gutters ; 202 miles of sasli- bars, and 33.30 cast-iron columns. The number of exhibitors wag about 17,000 ; of prize medalg awarded, EXH flf42 EXH S9U ; of oonncil medaU, 170. The gnataat namber of visitor! in one weelc ww in tliit ending lltli Octo- ber, wlieu til* number of penoni paying >t the doors wu 478,773. The total amouDt of entrance feet dur- ing the Moaon wai X421,418 ISs. The Great Exhibition of 1N51 was altogether novel in principle, and unparalleled in magnitude and mag- niflcence ; comprehending under one roof, in almost endless variety, specimens of the Industrial produc- tions, nut only of Great Britain, but of tlie European states generally, together with those of nearly every part of the habitable globe. An account of these, as wall as of the peculiar mode of construction of the Crystal Palace, may be found in the oiBcial descrip- tive and illustrated catalogues and reports of the juries. • Our limits preclude our entering into the historj- of national industrial exiiiliitions, or to malie more than a passing reference to the various local exhibitions ot works of industry which have talien place from thne to time iu the United Kingdom ; such as those at Coric, Sheffield, Plymouth, and Salisbury in 1852, Dublin in 1863, and in Birmingham in 1849. Similar exhibitions were organized in Belgium in 18;iO, in the United States in 1853, at Munich in 1854, and especially in France in 1798, 1801, IHltt, 1806, 181», 1844, and on a large scale in 1855. This last is constituted on on entirely different basis from the English Exiiibition of 1851 ; Iwing set on foot by the capital of a commercial company f .rmed for the purpose, and on *.he prospect of remunerative profits ; but the State also takes a dis- tinct and positive share in the rislis of the enterprise, as it does with railways and other works of public util- ity. A certain percentage to the holders of stock is guarantied by the government ; and in right thereof an imperial commission is appointed whicli exercises supreme control. By this arrangement the proprietors are to receive whatever surplus may remain after all expenses are paid ; whereas the ;C170,000 derived from the prices of admission to the London Exhibition stands over as a public trust fund, under royal charter, to be applied to objects in harmony with those for which the exhibition was held. The French Exhibition is not contained under one roof, nor of the several buildings are all intended to be of a tcmporar}- character. The buildings, in the ag- gregate, will probably include a greater area than the Crystal Palace at Hyde Park, The main building is the Palais de I'lndustrie, a permanent ediOce of rec- tangular form, and with consideral)le pretensions to architectural effect. In this will lie exhibited all the higher productions of manufacturing industry. There is also the " Annexe," a shed 4000 feet long, parallel to the Seine, for the exhibition of machinery and raw produce. According to the plan, these two stru'turet are connected liy a gallery running across the Champs Elys^es, and having in its centre a fine circular space, which is appropriated to the productions of Sevres, and the other national estaldisbments ; and, in udilition, there is an extra shed fur the exhibition of carriages and other articles of great bulk. — E. B. The British government, in order tj secure an ade- quate representation of British art and industr>- in Paris, corresponding tu the efforts whi<:h the French government hod made in 1851, granted £50,000 by a parliamentary vote. The assistance of public associa. Denmark, 90; St. Domingo, 1; Egypt, 6; Frankforti on-the-Malne, 24; Great Britain and Ireland, 1589 1 British colonies, 985 ; Greece, 181 ; Republic of Ona< temala, 7 ; Kingdom of Hanover, 18 ; Ilanse Towns, 89 ; Grand Duchy of Hesse, 74 ; Electorate of Hesse, 14 ; Principality of Lippe-Detmold, 2 ; Grand Duchy of Luxemburg, 28; Mexico, 107; Duchy of Nassau, 69 ; Netherlands, 411 ; New Granada, 13 ; Grand Duchy of Oldenburg, 13; Ottoman Empire, 2; Sand- wich Islands, 6 ; Papal States, 71 ; Portugal (includ- ing colonies), 443; Prussia, 1313; Principalities of Reuss (Elder and Younger Branches), 2; Sardinia, 198; Saxony, 06; Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg, 2 ; Duchy of Saxe-Coburg, 6 ; Duchy of Saxo-Coburg-Gotha, 11 ; Duchy of Saxe-Meinlngen, 8 ; Grand Duchy of Saxe- Weimar, 1 ; Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe, 2 ; Principality of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, 1 ; Spain, 6G8 ; Sweden and Norway, 638 ; Switzerland, 408 ; Grand Duchy of Tuscany, 197; Tunis, 1; United States, 180; Wurtemburg, 207. Total, 10,148. New York Kxhibilion nj' the Industry of ail Nationt. — Although America achieved some of the most signal and permanently valuable results which were brought to the knowledge of mankind by the Exhibition in Hyde Park; still there was probably no American who saw our contrilmtions in London that did not feel some regret that tliey were not a more just and equally sustainoondon journals came in to swell and direct the IHipular sentiment, and to make every Englishman feel Duchy of Brunswick, 16 ; Republic (f Costa Klca, 4 ; j that he had an immediate personal stake in the anc- EXH 64S EXT y the election of Theodore Sedgwick, Esq., President, and AViiliam Whetten, Esq., as Secretary. No time was lost In publishing and circulating a general statement of the objects of the enterprise. A call for sul>scrlp- tinns to the stock was met in due time l>y almut 150 persons and firms coming forward to t^ke up the first (200,000. This wide distrilmtion of the Interest in a large number of hands completely avoided the olinox- ious charge, that the undertaking was a speculation designed for the benefit of a few. The countenance and co-o|)eratlon of the general government was sought with a view to the introduc- tion of foreign goods Into tha Exhibition duty Am, And official assurances wen given by Mr. Maxwill, the collector of the port of New York, that tha buIkU ing of the assoeUtlon would be m4d* • boiidad w«r«> house, thus entitling tha asiocUtlon to ravviva thi goods free of duty while on exhibition, Tha InfluanM of the general government waa also most chaarfully extended on behalf of tha assoclatluu tlinmuh (lia kind ofllces of Mr. Wel>star, then Hacratary iifHUUt, who wrote to the representatives of tha Unltad IMataa at the principal courts of Euro|)e, stating to thani Ills sense of the importance of the enterprise, and tha nu- merous reasons why in his view thay should giva (o the association all the aid and support In tliair n»w«r. The ministers of foreign powers reahlent In tha lJnil«e felt for a century to eonifl, and should confer honor upon those cnterprialng ('ltl/,ena of the metropolis and State who coiicelved and carrlnd into effect the plan now described. Tba axhibitlun was closed in the year 1855. Ezotlo. (Gr. riuTiKticfdreign,) Any thing In- troduced to one countr}- from some other country. In gardening it is sometimes applied to plants which ra- quire protection in winter, or to plants in general which are nut natives. Expectation of life. See I!(sdbani:k. Exploring Expedition (U. H.) consisting of the yincennet, sloop of war ; Peaenck, do, ; I'Dr/Kii'iif, Jielie/, Flying Fi»h, and Sea (lull, smaller voaaela, un- der Licntonant Wilkes, U. S. N., sailed from llaui|iton Roads, Va., August 19th, 18.18. Antarctlu continent discovered, July 19, 1889. Attack on tlie I'vjaas fur murdering two of the officers, July 25, IM», Tha Peacock lost on the bar of Columbia River, July JN4L EXP 644 "EXP The Vinftnnet (fl>|^ahlp) returned to New York, tfler ■n ibsence of nearly four year*, June 11, 1H42. Cap- tain Wilkea's Narrative of tlie Expedition, in 6 vola. Imp, Hvo. and quarto, waa publiahed In lIHfi. Tlie tclentlllc reporta of the expedition form about 20 quarto or folio vflliinica. Bxportatton, in Comment, the act of rending or earr^-lng commoditica from one country to another. — See Imi'oiitation and KxponTATioN. Bxpress. Thoro la no branch of buslncaa In thia country more extcnalva and Important than the ex- preaa aorvice. The ovor-buay handmaid of trade, ag- riculture, and the uauful arts, there la no community ao amall aa not to be ausceptlblo to Ita uacfulncsa. Yet, while agriculture, art, and trade aro world-old, the cx- prcaa la comparatively only a thing of to-day, Kn- gland had no part in creating It. Europe has donn nothing to eatabllah it; and twenty yeara ago it was not dreamed of even in America, whore it la now ao in- diapcnaable. Peculiarly American In ita origin and characteristioa, it has liecomo no thoroughly Interwoven with the dally bualucsa of the country, that it aeenia to conatiiute an iuaoparablo portion of Its muaclo and sinew. The inquiry naturally arlsea, " If the expreaa service la ao indinpenaable an institution now, how did the American people do without it prior (o Its creation ?" The fact Is, that the " cxpreasiuian" is only an improve- ment (a great improvement, it ia true) upon the "com- mon carrier" of olden timea. It was not a very rare thing, at an earlier period, to hear of a apccial express run for a temporary' purpose, such as tlie transit of news of intense public interest, or intciligunce of great private moment, lu those cases the enterprise em- ployed one or more riders, with the necessary relays of fleet horses at intervals u|)on the road. Browning's fine poem, " How they brouglit the good ncwa from Ghent to Aix," vividly describes an express of this kind, bearing news of peace aud safety to thai belea- guered city. But the express service, properly ao caUed, docs not date back beyond the origin of American railroads. Prior to that epoch, Htage-dri vera hud performed duties similar to those now diacburged by exproasnien ; and " bngyage-waijoini" (so called, though they carried mer- chandise as well) servml instead of freight-trains. With the innovation of railways, tho stage-drivera and wagoners found, like Othello, their "occupation gone." The loss of their services seriously incommoded the public; but the railroad 6flr«red no remedy. Years passed; trade and intercoinrauiiication between town aud country suffering, in tlio mean while, from this cause. At Icugtii, liardiy reali/.ing what an improve- ment he ivas about to elfoct, William F. Hamden, then a conductor upon tlie Itostoii and Worcester Itailroad, started the express business. It was in the spring of 1839. The idea was not original witli him ; but to hiiu is due the honor of having l>een tho first to put it into execution. The only through route from Boston to New York at that time (.March, IMiiU) was by railroad to Provi- dence, and thence to this city, by tho stea.iiboat X 11^. Rkhimmd. The Old Line of steaniliouts ran from Stonington to New York. Ilarnden had no paidagent in this city at the outset. The messengers (called, during the first year or two, emuluclun) attended lo ail the business, llarndcn liimsclf acted in that capaci- ty, usually making tho trip in tho J. W. Jtichmond, and carrying his entire express in an ordinary valise. Upon his arrival in New York qr Boston he would hasten to deliver the parcels intrusted to him by his customers, who were iiiostly Ijooksellers anil brokers. The express was run by Hamden some time before he made a contract with the Old Line of boats from Stonington to New York. His messenger paid regu- lar fare, and carried all the packages in • carpet-bag and trunk. After the lapse of six months or a year, he made • contract with the Old Company and the .Ston> Ington and Providence Kailroad Company to run a cur through. Each nieaaenger then carried a season tick- el — obtained by holding a few share* of the company's stock. According to the tenns of that contract, the Boston and Providence Kailroad Company were enti- tled to one thini of the gross receipts of the exprens I'ur fVeight; and the Providence wid Stonington Kailroud Company (including, wo presume, the boats) were to receive one third; the residue to be Hamden's, ills first contract with tho owners of the J. \V. Uirhmoinl was to convey a car or crate for him Ijetween Provi- dence and New York. Ho took five or six shares of the stock, which entitled him or his measengcr to a free passage. Tho first opposition express waa run on the 4th of May, 1840. Alvin Adams made an eflfort to contract, In its behalf, for privileges on the Norwich and Worces- ter route from Boston to New York ; but Hamden be- ing at that time Iwttcr known, the directors gave his "well-established expreaa" the preference; so that bo was liku to have tho monopoly of the facilities on lioili routes. Aa Adams was not to lie defeated In that way, he went to Mi^or Handy, agent for the Stoniiif;- ton line, and purchased two season tickets for himself and partner, to run as often as they pleased between lloton and New York, until January, 1811 ; with no other privilege, however, than to carry a trunk and valise. In tho spring of 1841, tho only express routca in tho world were thoao lietween New York and Boston ; but, with a succeasflil rival competing for tho business of those cities, Hamden & Co. thought it due to their own credit, as pioneers, to take another stride or two, and extend their line south to Philadelphia, and west to Albany, in this State, An express was established 23d April, 1841, lietween Boston and Albany, and another between Albany and Now York, by Hurnden & Co. About that time, Adams & Co. experienced not a little annoyance from their want of regular express facilities from New A'ork lo Pliiladelphia, and they used an infinity of " shifts" to put their parcels through. In the mean time, the Camden and Anilioy Kailroud directors had quarreled with Harnikn & Co. for non- payment of compensation alleged to lie due them, and had stopped their express over tliat road. Nor were they more favorably disposed lo make a simitar contract with any one else. Still, at his partner's so- licitation, Adams went to Philadelphia to apply for a contract, Steveris, who represented the Board upon that occasion, gave him a very decided refusal at once, Adama then made another proposition ; viz., to do the express business over that railroad in connection uith the company; the latter to allow Adams & Co, a pur- tion of the avails. This impressed .Stevens more fa- vorably, and tho iinmi'illate result was a contract that Adams & Co. should fill a certain number of crates dai- ly, and deliver the goods, receiving for their trouble a certain portion of the freight money ; the railroad com- pany to have the rest. In 1S42 Harndcn & Co. 'a Boston and Albany K\- press waa bought out by ita .Springlield agent, the en- terprising Colonel Thompaon, and called Thompsun & Co.'s Expreaa, Messrs, Mclcher and Johnson are his jiartncrs, Oay & (!o, (Gay and I.ittlclicld) started iiii express between Boston and New York, via 8toniii|{- ton, in 1842. They carried only a trunk of parols, and had no contract. Gay would run one way, ami Littloficld tli%o(hpr; and each bad the profits wliie'i he happened to make u|Kin each day's work, and pock- eted the same, without being cx|iected to render an account to liis nominal partner. This arrangement, apparently so priiiiilive and simple, did not work well in the long run, and Littlcfield retired from it. Kins- ley next joined Gay, and tho firm waa styled Gay &. Kinsley. The latter, for some years paat president of EXP Mpi EXT • dank at Newport, RhoUu Island, has become eminent as iiu expressman. In IHI-l there were expresses between Boston Mid Lowell, Uuaton and Salcni, and on one or two other sliiirt routes in Massachusutts, and tlicy were increas- ing' I'ho tint express west of UuUalo was established April 1, 1845, under the name of Wells & Co. The inunil)era of that lirm were Henry Wells, W. G. Forgo, nnd D. Uunniug. For the want of railroad facilities (uiid when the steamers were laid up), it was a wagou express between UuH'ulo and Detroit. In February, In 17, W. U. Fargo and William A. Livingston became rule proprietors of the express went of Ilufl'alo, under the style of " Livingston & Furgo." The latter is de- serviiif; of honorable nientiuii for his industry, perse- vurunue, and sound sense. M'ells & Co.'s lino extend- ed from New York to UuH'alo, via Albany. W. F. liarndeu & Cu.'s Furtign Kxprtu elicited the sp|ilaiiB0 of the community, and gave an idat, at home and abroad, to their already well-known name. Still, it by no means contributed to the advantage of their express in the United States. It only served to divide and weaken their energies. The result was, that the more concentrated efforts of their rivals here met with a larger slmro of success, and in 18-16 Adams & Co.'s business between Boston, New York, and I'iiiladelpbia Avas more valuable than liamden &, Co.'s. Canada was without an express until Virgil & Bice started one fram Troy to Montreal, via Lako Cham- plain, in the snmmer, and by wagons and stages in the winter. Thi8,>we think, was in 1847 or 1848. Subse- quently Kice retired, o'-.u Messrs. Virgil & Co. con- tracted with tho n^^iMtoga Kallroad for a car. The ex- press from New York to Troy was owned by Pullen & Co., who in the year 1841) united with Virgil & Co., under the style of I'nllen, Virgil, & Co. Under the management of these experienced and able men, the business was nursed and tendolishing a California express. With character- istic prudence, Adams & Dinsmore at lirst opposed the proposition ; foreseeing that the most important point of operations must necessarily he in San Francisco, many thousands of miles beyond their supervision, and they preferred to have all their business where they could give it their fhiqucnt personal inspection. How- ever, they at length yielded to Haskell's solicitations, and he went out to San Francisco in the steamer of ScptemWcr, 1849, to act as their partner In the proposed business. The building which he took for an express- office was a little shanty, of which I. C. Woods was ei- ther the owner or the owner's agent. As the business increased ra])ldly, this building had to be pieced out, or extended In depth every few weeks, to hold the mul- titudes which thronged to U to hear the news, obtain or send letters, and remit their gold dust. The enter- prl.io compensated lieyond the most sanguine dreams of its sanguine projector. Let us give some idea of the prices. The charge made by Adams & Co. for freight, from New Y'ork to San Francisco, was seventy-five cents per pound for packages not exceeding fifteen pounds each ; and for parcels of less weight, not bulky, such price was made as could be agreed upon. Three dollars was their price for conveying an ordinary-sized daguerreo- type; twelve dollars for a parcel not larger than a common size novel ; and this was always exacted in advance. It was paid cheerfully and without any hag- gling. Siuco then the prices have fallen about 60 per cent. Upon the arrival of the steamer at Chagrcs with mo express, the freight would be sent ashore in buulu — a tedious and perilous Job, for the sea usually ran high, and the boats were frequently swamped. At Chagres it was transferred to rlver-canoes, and propelled by na- tives to Ciui'os, where It was again transferred and placed upon the bucks of mules, which bore it (by a road that would have defied the loconu)tion of any oth- er kind of beast) to Panama, where the I'aciflc steam- ship awaited to convey it to San Francisco. Being liable to be saturated with water in being carried ashore at Chagres, and in crossing the Isthmus, by reason of rains and streams, it was required of shijipers to put up their merchandise in water-proof packagesi The load of a niule rarely exceeded SOU lbs. Usually he bore two oblong boxes or trunks weighing not over 125 lbs. each. Another class of messengers to which Adams & Co.'t ex))ress in California gave rise were wont to pcrfurni their service on horseback between San l-'ranelsco (and other towns) and the numerous "diggins." Sometimea ^ they made use of mules ; but in either case the beasts must be sure and swift of foot and easy under the sad- 'ice. The express companies may be said to Influence the domestic exchanges of the country, iossmuch as they transport nearly all the specie and bullion, as well as considerable portions of the bank-notes, bills of exchange, drafts, bonds, and other securities ; and the price of exchange between one city and another depends In some measure upon the express charges for conveyance. The rates paid for the transportation of bank-notes is usually fixed by contract in writing, and are low. For Instance, between New Y'ork and Cin- cinnati, 900 miles, one dollar per thousand. The total value of the capital employed in the express business was valued In 181)6 at ten millions of dollars. Four years ago, the entire number of miles of express routes in America was estimated at 'J6,0OO. As facilities hav« been increased, and express routes extended, the wholo distance traveled by express dally Is probably not less than '28,000. The multifarious lines stretch' In every direction, crossing each other like the threads of the spider's web. And now we find the principal express- men undertaking the enterprise of conveying the Unit- ed States mail overland to California. September 15, 1857, Messrs. Buttcrfield, Dinsmore, Fargo, and others, executed an agreement to that eft'ect. The contract, which is to run six years, is to go into effect twelve months from that date. Six hundred tl-ousand dollars per annum is the price to be paid the contractors. The extraordinary character of the labor thus confidently as.iumed can hardly be appreciated until the work shall have been accomplished. Certainly the establish- ment of such a route is an appropriate reward for express enterprise. — For a full history of the express business, SCO Hankers' Magazine, New Y'ork, September, 1857. Zlxtract, or Extractive Matter. TIic: term extract is applied in pharmacy to the brown substance which remains after the evaporation of certain decoc- tions or infusions of vegetables ; thus we have extract of bark, extract of rhubarb, ond so on. These extracts are usually mixtures of gum, starch, sugar, or other soluble matters, along with a certain portion of a pe- culiar vegetable principle of a brown color, or which becomes so by exposure to air, and which Is soluble in water and In alcohol, but scarcely soluble in ether. It combines with alumina, and Is often the basis of brown dyes ; It Is this principle which chemists call eittractirt, and which Is frequently closely allied to various fonni of coloring matter. FAO «4« PAd '.', ,f'». ■ t. V,Iw' 1 . ,. ^.. . . ,.,..,,... ft ■"- '■•^ F. .►■I. ) I ,. i ., .•II, .'•».•••■; ; . ,,,i , ' ■ ■ I rao-tlmil* (Ijit. factrr, to mako, and n'mi'/', ilk*), txtirpuMd In French l>y fait-umblablr, »\ga\n»» «n ut in nthera they are riidlcally different. " A factor," aaid Mr. Jnatice llolrnyd, " dilTeni materially fW)m a broker. The fnrmer li a peraon to whom gooda are aent or con- •lgneald, yet he haa a right to receive it. If it lie paid, and hia receipt ia a aalHcient diachargu ; the factY mar, in auch a vaae, enforce the pjiyniejit by action, and tlio buyer can nut defend hini- aelf by alleging that the principal waa indubted to him in more than the amount. "Where a factor," aaid Lord Manafleld, "dealing for a principal, but concealing that principal, delivers gooda In his own name, the person contracting with him has a right tu conaider him, to all Intents and pur- poaea, aa the principal ; and though the real principiil mar ap))ear, and brin) an action on that contract againat the purchaaer oi the goods, yet tiiat purchaser may aet off any claim he may have aguinat tlie ftctiir, in anawer to the demand of the princi|ial." Itlerchanla employing t^ie aume factor run the joint risk of hia actions, altbiiugh they are atrangora to eiich other ; thus, if different merchanta remit to » factcr different baies of gooal. h . thia ground it was decided, that a merchant who r. id consigned counter- feit jewela to his factor, representing them to be genu- ine, ahould make full compensation to the factor for the injury dona to him by being concerned in such a transaction, as well as to the persons to whom the jewels bad lioen sold. The office of a factor or agent being one of very great trust and reaponalbility, those who undertake it are bound, both legally and morally, to conduct them- selves with the utmost fldclily and circumspection. A factor should take the greatest cure of his principal's goods ill his hands ; he should be punctual in advising him as to hia transactions on his behalf, in sales pur- chases, freights, and, mure particularly, bills of ex- change ; he ahould deviate as seldom as possible friiiii the terms, and never from the ipirit and tenor, of the orders he receives as to the sale of commodities ; in the execution of a commission fur purchasing gooda, he should endeavor to conform as closely as practicu- lile to his instructions as to the quality or kind of goods ; if he give more fur them than he is authorized, tbey may be thrown on his bands ; but he is bound to buy them fur us much less as he possibly can. After the goods are Iwuglit, he must dispose of them accurii- ing to order. If he send them to a different place from that tu which he was directed, they will be at his riik, unless the principal, on getting advice of the transaction, consent to acknowledge it. A factor who aolls a comuiodity under the price he is ordered, may be obliged to make good the difference, unless the commodity be of a j>erithable nature and not in a condition longer to be lejit. And if he purchase goods for anoth.T at a fixed rate, and, their price hav- ing afterward risen, he fraudulently takes them to himself, and sends them somewhere ehn, in order to Moure an advantage, he wUl be found, by the ciataia re< Un toi m wi Ai to m FAC 047 PAO of marchaot*, lUbla In iun»if— to hli principal. If • factor, In confurmity with a marchant't ordsn, buy with hia money, or on hli credit, a romincHlity he la dIrei'Uil tu purchane, and, without K'v'nK advice of the tranM<'tliin, «ell» It n^aln ut a prullt, approprlutlnK that prullt 111 biiiiaelf, the merchant nu}' recover It fnjiii him, and have hlui amerced for fraud. If a factor Imy, con- formably to Ilia InatruetlunH, ke ao eually diacluirKee held reaponsllile even for • theft committed by hia aervants,--Jo!iK8 un Jiail- menit, '2i\ ed., p. 7(i ; Uiiittv un Commercial Law, vol. 111., p. IIUH. If a factor, having money In his hands belonging to his principal, neglect to insiira a ship and gooiis, ac- cording to order, he inuat, in the event of the ahlp mis- carrying, malte good the damage ; and if ho mulie any compoaition with the inaurers after inauronce, without orders to that eli'ect, he la answerable for the whole Insurance, A principal at the end of a very long let- ter, directed hia agent thus : " Observe, the premium on this value la also to bo inaiired." Ilut the agent, not noticing tlila sentence, neglected to insure the premium ; and being sued, waa lield liable for the omixalMii. If gooda are remitted to a factor, and he mal(e a fiilae entry of them at the cuatom-house, or land tlieiii without entry, and they are, in conae- queni'V, seized or forfeited, he la Imund to make good the diininge to hia principal ; but if the factor make hia entry according to Invoice or letters of advice, and these proving erroncoua, thu gooda are seized, ho is discharged. It la now a settled point, that a factor bus a lien on gooda consigned to him, not only for in- cidental cliarges, but as an item of n^utual account for the balance due to lilm so long as he remains in poa- aesslon. If he Ije surety in a lioiid for his principal, be has u lien on the gooda sold by him ^n account of such principal, to the amount of the sum he la bound for. It lieing the general rule of law " that property does not change while m trantitu" or In the hands of a car- rier, a cimsignment made before the baukruptcy of a consignor, but not arriving till after, remains tho property of the conaignor, except, indeed, where the delivery ia made by the onJer and upon the account of tho consignee, and is a complete alienatio t fntm the convignor. In the case, therefore, of a consignment tu ■^ factor, the property remains the consignor's, and paaaes Into the lianda of hit aaelgneca. When a factor hcs a lien on goods, be has a right to the price, though receive duct and character of the factor or agent he employs ( and if he make a false estimate of them. It is more equitable, surely, that be should be the sufl'eror, than those who have no means of knowing any thing uf the matter. " All agent* who sell gomls for their principals, and guaranty the price, are said abroad to act under a del credere commiuion. In tills country, thU phrase ia seldom used, nor is such guaranty usual. Heo \)k\, CUKUKHK (J0.MMI8SIUN. ' (ionerally, neither factor nor broker can claim their commissions until their whole service be (lerformed, and In good fuith, and with pro|)er skill, care, and in- dustry, liut if tlie aervice begins, and ia interrupted wholly without their fault, they may claim a propor- tionate coni|iensation. If either bargaina to give hi* whole time to hia employer, he will nut lie permitted to derive any compensation for services rendered to other persona. Nor can either have any valid claim ag:iinst any one for Illegal services, or thoae which violate inorullty or puldic policy. " A principal can not revoke an authority given to a factor, after advances made by the factor, without re- paying or securing the factor, " The distinction between f\foreigi\&ni a domestic factor is quite important. A domestic factor la one who ia employed and acti In the same country with bis prliici, xelusively to the factor. And for the pur- poBo of t!i;a distinction, and the rules founded upon it, we bold, on the weight of authority, that our states are foreign to each other. " Kvor,' factor ia bound to reasonable care ; and he is liable fur a loss by fire, or robbery, or other accident occurri. g without hi* defa.'lt, if he hud previously done aome wrongful act, without which the property might have been safe. And thla rule would apply even to a gratuitous agent." — I'ausons' Mercantile Law, pp. 1.18 -102. Factorage, or Commiuion, the allowance given to factora by the merchants, manufacturera, etc., who employ them: it is a percentage on the gooda they PAI «48 FAI porrhu* or tail on >ecflnnl nt thdr prinofpalii, mmI mrleii In illtrvrviil coiintrixn, nii'l iw It rrfi-ra in itllhr- •nt artklda. It U I'uatomar}' fur fki-tnra, u nliMirr* initiir* lh« dxlita due tn IhiiM for whom thry iirll for >n iidillttoniil, or tirl crriirrr ciiininliuton, ||«n«rall.v «v«r«Kl<>K tntm 1^ to 2 \»t fnt. KactoraK* or rommlulon la iiliio fn«|iiFntly rharitmi nt ■ crrtnln rat* |ier ciiak, or other parkiiK*, inmiauro, or wrlKht, e<|)«rlally whrn the furtor ia only vrnployrd U.' recelvii or deliver : thU onmmiaalnn U uaiully Hxed liy aiiecbil •((reement lietween the merchant and factor. Factory, in rommen'e, a place where merrhanta and fnrtora reaiiie, tn n ^re extaliliahed liy onier (if (iregnry VII. in lilW, and termed Frriir, ut whicli the monka celebrated tlie foatival of their |iatron aalnt ; the vaat reeort of |ieople ocuMlunvil a greiit demand for gmiila, warea, etc, Tliey were calle. 800 In the flrat, and 1071 in thu latter kingdom. Tlie falm of Itaucaire, Kalaiae, and Lelpnlc, are the most famuua In Kurope, 8ea K. H, —Uayln. 1. Orij/in of Fain. — Inatitutlnna of thia nrt are pe- culiarly •er\Tcalile in the earlier itagea of aociety, and in rude and inUnd countrlea. The numlier of ahopi, and the comuuNlltiea in them, are then either compar- utively limited, or they are l)Ut little frequented liy dealera j ao that It hi for the advantage of all, that fttira nhoulil lie eatuliiinhed, and merchant* induceil to attend them. Kor thIa pur|Hiae various privilegca have lieen annexed to fulra, and numenms facilities af- fonled to the diapoaal of iiroperty in tliem. To give them a greater degree of aolemnlty, they were orlgin- uliy, Imtli in the ancient anil modem world, assix'lated with religious festivals. In most places, indeed, they lire still held on the same day with the wake or feast of the saint to whom the church is dedicated ; and, till I he [inictice was prohiliited, it was cuatomary in Kn- gliind to bold them in chiirehyanls ! — (Jacob't //!■>> Dirt., art. Fair.) Hut since the growth of tnwna, and the opiMirtunitie* alTorded for the disposal and puri'hase of all aorta of prrxluce at the weekly or monthly mark- ets held in tlipni, the ntllity of fain, in this countr}' at least, liiw very much diminished ; they have also lost tnuch of their uuciont splendor ; and, though lome of them are still well attended, and of real use, a Koo Ject, in this or any other rea|iect, it will lie revoked { and II perwin whose ancient title ia pre]udlcen market. In general, trans- fers the complete pniperty of the thing sold to the ven- dee ! so that however vicious or Illegal that title of the vendor may lie, the vendee's Is gnod against ever}' on«i, except the king, liut the sale. In onler to coma within thia rule, must take place r Ihr markrt. The city of lx)n- don is said to lie a market overt every day of the week, except Sunday ; every shop lieing a market overt for such things a* the ahopkeeper profeasea to deal In. The pro|i«rty of gooda may, however, lie changed, and effectually tranaferretl to the buyer, by a iMithljitlr aale in a shop out of I^mdon, whether the shopkee|ier lie th« vendor or vendee, if the gooda are of llie kind in which he trades. A wharf in Ixindon is nnt within the custom, and Is not a market overt for article* brought there. liut a sale In a market will not be binding if it be such iis carries with it a presumption of fraud ; aa, for example, if it take placn In a back room or secret place ; if the sale lie covinous, and In- tended to defraud the rtial owner, or if the buyer know that the vendor is not the real owner of the gnnln, etc. It ia very dIfHcult tn transfer the property of horses, even when they are sold In nn open market, without the consent of the real owner. 6. ('our/ ifl'if I'oudrt. — According to Kngliah uaage, at ever}' fair or market there is indilcnt, even without any express wortls in the grant, a court of pii i>iiiidr«, in allusion to the dusty feet of the sulton. The ntow- ard or mayor may |ire«ide. It has cogniaance of all questions as tn contracts made In the market ras|iecting gooun(l- r», liirue , Mnrltet jilnrps. ||{U!it, for i cbeeta : m H l*'ri«1iAii«l ttuU »hnva Inn,nn0 Wmha •!« Mnnkllr •iilit ■ttlm fnrmcr, WixnllHimiiKh-lilll, In l)nri*l, f»r WKat i-ixintry muniirarliinii, «• kunwy*, ilrii)(K'ta, «tc. WiMHlntm k Oiiolwr fiilr, fiir clirMe. Niirthainpton •nd Notllngham hiivt ouch wvor.il InrKn fiilm, for bnnM, rtilU, cHmm, rtr. Ihn Au^imt fiilr of Horn- oaall*, in Mnrolnanir*, !• lli.' Inr/- .t hnnw-ftiir in tli* klniolom, many thouMmi li<.r>" ln-InK rxliiliitMl for mIb (InrlnK '•" f<>nlinuiini>« : it i niMirtnl to liy rniwiti of (laulara from all |)»rt« of (in'ut llritnln, liy ••r«ntl trTil fiiir. A Kiiilii, or Jiiliilm, mm- ninnrinK th« laat wiwit of Augnat, U li«lil cvfiri' twpn- tiKth year at TroHton, in Lnnoaaliirn; tli« laat wnahnlil In IN-t'i, anil waa wnll atti-ndml. Tlio Oriolivr fiilr of MnriiPt llarharoii|{li, l^ii'vatcrahirfi, liiata II dnya, ami k K'*'"' 'I*"! ■>' liuainnaa ta uautilly ilon* in oiiltlo, clieran, uto. WooillirlilK« Ij«ly-iii>rnlly trnm three to four, the haifvra h-oin tliren to four, anil the liullmki ffoni four to rtv-e yenra of ane. 'I'hey nro moKtIy lean j ami are kejit for a year In Lelnater liofore they «« lit for the Dulilln or Liverpool mnrketa. 7. /Vinri/Hi/ Frem-h Kairt. — An\onjf theae may lie i|i«rilled the faira of SI, r. Tbair iluration is limited to three wanks, but they usually laigin from el^iit to fifteen duva Iwfore their legal commencoment. Accuunti are kept in rix- iloUars , 1 rlxdollar of account ■> 1^ Horln, or i\ co|>> sticks, or 'X'i^ liataen. Thu rlxdollar »> ils, IKil. | so tluit the |iar of exchange la 141 butien |H>r ill •terlinH. lOOlli. common Frankfort weight •— lUillb. avairdu> pills. The foot •>• 11'27 Knglisb Inches, I'he fairs at Krimkfort-on-thivOdor are three in nuinlMir, via, i Itonilniscere, in Keliruary or March | Ut. Margaret, In •luly; and .St. Martin, 'n Novemlier. They ought, strictly s|Hiaking, to terminate in eight days, but they usually extend to fifteen. 'I lie rruaalun govcriiiiiant gives every facility to those who attend these fairs. Ai'coiiiits are kept in I'russian money, that Is, In rix- dollars of 'Js. ll^d. llXHIi. Prussian •» KliUli. avoirdu- pois. I he foot -^a I'^i'lliitl I'jiglish Indies. The fair* of l.clpsic era still more celeiirated than those uf either Kraiiklort. Tliny are held tbriie a-year — on the 1st of .liinuary, at I'jister, and at Michaelmas. The first is the leant linpnrtant. The Master and .Mlibaelinaa fairs are famous, |iartlcularly the former, for the vast numlicr of new pulillcutions usually ofl'urcd for sale. Tliey are attendud liy all the principal bitoksellera uf Uerinany, and l>y many from the aiijuining countries, who adjust tliclr accounts, learn the state of trade In all parts of tlio world, and endeavor to form new con- ne 11-11 Knglisb inches. — Kbl- l.v's (,'iunbitt; Manuel tk ffrltfnbrecl,er i IIowhinu'm Ui'/wrl on Mr I'ruaiiiin Cifmmtrcial Vninn, pp. 'ibb, 209, etc, Dr. Bright gives, in bis Trarrlt in IJiini/iirt) (pp. '-'01 32H), un liitore.iting account of the fairs held at Uebret/.ln and I'esth. The latter has becoiiie tho grand i^ntm of Hungarian commerce; most part of which is conduut^id at Its fairs. 'J. Italian Fain. — Uf these, the most celebrated is that of iSinlgaglia, a small, but handsome town of the I'apal dominions, un tlio Sllsa, near its confluence with tile Adriatic. Tbo fair commences un the 'Jntli uf July, and should terminate on the last iluy uf that month, but it usually cuiitiuues eight or ten days longer. Tlie duties un goods liroiiglit to the fair are extremely mwlorate, and every thing is done to pnunoto tho con- venience uf those fre<|unnting it. All sorts of cotton, woolen, nnd silk gwnis, colonial produce, iron and steel, lumlwiire, jewelrj-, brandy and linuors, timber, drugs, spices, etc., are bruiight here by the Kngllsh, French, Austrians, Swiss, etc. Those are oxchiinged for tho various raw and manufactured products of Italy and the Levant ; consisting, among others, of raw, thrown, and wrought silks ; oil, fruits, cheese, alum, so. — Those arc numerous, and many of them are well attended. The most important is held at Nijnii-Novgorod, at the confluence of the Oka with the Wolga, lat. 66° 19' 40" north, long. 44° 28' SO" east. Previously to 1817 this fair was held in a lest convenient situation, at MakariefT, lower down the Wolga. Hut the l>uildlngs for the accommodiition of the merchants at the latter having l>een accidentally burnt down in 1816, government took advantage of the circumstance to remove the fair to Nijnii. It is principally carried on within the new baiiaars con- structed for that purpose on tlie left liank of tlie Oka. These, wliich ate divided into parallel r'>ws, or streets, are constructed of stone walls and roofed witli iron, having covered galleries in front supported l>y iron pillars. They are built on piles, and, to guard against inundations, the ground on which they stand has been raised al>out 20 feet. Being inclosed on tliree sides by canals, and on the fourth by a navigable inlet of the Oka, there is every facility for the delivery and shipment of goods. The establishment is of great ex- tent, comprising 2524 booths, and is admitted e at once the largest and most perfect of its kind that is anywhere to be met with. Uut, in addi- tion to the above, no fewer than 2506 shops and liooths belonging to private parties, and constructed of wood, were occupied during the fair of 1841. The fair be- gins on the 1st of July, and continues for a month or six weeks. The total value of the various articles of Asiatic (in- e'uding Chinese) produce exposed for sale at Novgonxl i ■ 1841 amounted to 9,14G,71D silver roubles, Iwiiigmore tlian double the value of the protlucts of western Ku- rjpe exposed in the same year. Of the latter, indigo, " i ine, and cottons were the principal articles. — Journal a'ft Manii/ttrliirf.i, I'el^rtburi!, 1842. The stationary impulation of the town, which may amount to aluiiit 25,(X)0, is, during the fair, said to amount to from lllil,- 000 to lt>0,0fl0, including Chinese, • rslans, Armeni- ans, Tartars, llnkhariuns, etc. Theatrical exiiiliitions, shows of wild lieasts, and other Bartholomew fair ex- hiliitions, add to the attractions of tlie scene. Another celelirated Russian fair is held in the month of Decem- ber, at Kiachta, in Mongolia, on the Chinese frontier, lat. 50° 21' 6" north, long. 106° 28' 16" east. The town is small, the population not exceeding KKK) or 6000 ; liut l>y far the largest part of the connnerce l)e- tween the Kussian and ('hinese empires is transactcil at its fair, and it is also the centre of the ])olitical in- tercourse lietwecn them. Tlie commodities l>rought hither liy the Kussians consist principally of Kussian and Oerinan bmadclothii, furs, sheep and lamb skins, leather, coarse linens, worsted stuffs, cattle, etc., with, for the must part, bullion. These Ihoy change with the Chinese for tea, raw and manufactured silk, nan- keens, porcelain, sugar candy, rhul>arl>, ttbacco, musk, etc., the value of the articles, however, other than tea, being compamtively inconsideralile. The quun- tity of tea purchased at the Kiachta fairs by the Kus- sians, wliich has latterly increased verj* consideraldy, amounted, In 1850, according to tlie oHicial returns, to 210 170 [HKids, or 7, .566,444 pounds, of very superior tea, worth almiit 2s. 6pulution at the fair. — (Ki.ANgiii, Voi/nge en lUilgarie, p. 252; SrKN- ckb's Travelt in Kuropean Turkey, if., ;140, etc.) This great fair, which lasts fur 15 days (Ulan(|ui) is held, like the other fairs, in autumn, immediately after harvest. Hut though it bo largely frequented by (ierman, Swiss, Italian, and Cireok merchants, who transact a great amount of but^inoss, it is very little, if at all, known in Kuglund. This is the more surpris- ing, seeing tliat we have consuls at Adrianupio and other places not very distant from the scat of the fair. And it might iiave been supposed that these function- aries would have been anxiou" to send home the most ample details with respect to this and other fairs in their vicinity ; dcscribuig the products which might be . most advuntagcuusly lioiight and sold at these marts ; the routes by which they miglit lie most easily reached, and so forth. Hut if such reports any wlicre exist, they have not, at all events, lieeii published. And hence, probalily, the fact of tlio business of those fairs being mostly in the hands of foreigners. 12. J-Mstem /'o/;-jt.— The most important fair In the ICasteni worlii is that held at Mecca during the resort of pilgrims in tlie month of Ithalbajja. It used to ba frequented by many thousands uf indiviiluals uf all ranks and orders, bruught together from tlic remotest corners uf the Mohammedan world; and though the numbers nttemliiig it have declined of late years, the concourse is still very great. See Caiiavan. Hurd- war, in Ilindostan, in lat. 20° 57' N., long. 78° 2' IC, 117 miles N.IC. from Delhi, is famous from its being one of the principal places of Hlmlou pilgrimage, and ports of all sorts of tea into Kussia througli Kiachta ; the greatest fair in India. The town, which is but in- was estimated at 11,748,464 |iounds,' Kng., a year. | cim.'iiderabic, is situated on tlie (iangcs, ut the point Accordi g to the same accounts, the total value of the ' where that snored stream issues from the mountains, ex|iarts to ('hina through Kiachta, in 18,V), amounted | The pilgrimage and fair are held together at the vernal to 6,016,071 silver roubles, and that, of the imports to equinux ; and Kunipeans, nowise addicted to exaggeni- AlMiut the same. The customs duty received at Ki- tion, who have I icon rejicatedlj present on these ocoa- Bchto in 1848 amounted to Xwn 1 certain sels. ICi portions Choiseii nocted across. rugged due cast •nd rarj FAL 661 FAL :iiir In the ;he resort jscil to \m itls of all remotest iou|;li the loars, tlie Hunl- JH" -i' E., it) l)«mn uutfe, aiul is hut in- tl>o point lountains. the verniil exi>(?8<""'" hose occa- etraugers are then assembled in the town and its vicinity. But every twelfth year is reclconed peculiarly holy ; and then it is supposed that from 1,000,000 to 1,600,000, and even 2,000,000 pilgrims and dealers are congre- gated togetlier ftnm all parts of India and countries to the north. In IKI!), which happened to bo a twelfth year, when the auspicious moment for bathing in the Ganges was announced to the impatient devotees, the rush was so tremendous that no fewer than 430 persona were either trampled to death under foot, or drowned in the river! The foreigners resorting to Hurdwar fair for commercial purposes only, consist principally of natives of Nepaul, the Punjob, and Ueshwaur, with Afghans, Usbeck Tartars, etc. Tliey import vast num- bers of Iiorses, cattle, and camels j Persian dried fruits, shawls, drugs, etc. : the returns are made in cotton piere goods, indigo, sugar, spices, and other tropical productions. The merchants never mention the price of their goods, but conduct the bargain by touching the dilTerent joints of their fingers, to hinder the by- standers gaining any information. During the Hah- ratta sway, a kind of poll-tax and duties on cattle were levied ; but all is now free, without impost or molestation of any sort. Owing, also, to the precau- tions adopted by the British government, the most perfect order is preserved ; much to the surprise and satisfaction of the natives ; for, antecedent to our oc- cupation of the country, the fairs usually ended in disorder and l)lood8hed.---7° and (!2° W. long., or iu precisely the same latitudes south as Ix)ndfln and the midland counties are north. The group consists of two principal islands, Kast and West Falkland, with several hundred others of dilt'erent sizes clustered arouiiil anil in the strait lietween them. Kast Falk- land is about (<5 miles in length l)y 40 In breadtli, and West Falkland 80 miles long liy"-i.') to 80 miles wide. Ther are separated from each other liy Falkland Sound. The other islands range in size from 16 miles by 8 to mere islets of half a mile across. The whole group is dee])ly indented by numerous harbors and creeks, which, if they diminish the area, produce more than lounterlmlancing advantages. Verj* little is known of West Falkland. It Is uninhabited, but at certain seasons it is visited by whaling and other ves- sels. ICast Falkland is nearly divided into two unequal portions by the estuaries called Breton Sound and Choiseul Sound, the two parts of the island lieing con- nected by an isthmus not more than a mile and a half across. The northern portion is crossed by a chain of rugged hills, called the Wickham Heights, extending due oast and west fhim Port William to Port Sussex, •nd Yaryint; ii height from 800 to 2000 foet. There are few wild animals indigenoug to the Falk- lands. The only quadruped is the warrah or wolf- fox (Canit JUctgellanicua), rather taller, but not much heavier, than our fox. The other animals which are found in a wild state are those which have been left there by Kuropeans, as horned cattle, horses, sheep, wild hogs, and rabbits, all of which are very abundant. There- is a plentiful supply of excellent fish in all the creeks, and of small trout in the lakes and rivulets. Hair and fui' seals abound, and the black whale is still numerous about these coasts. The wild fowl are also numerous, as swans, geese, ducks, snipes, etc. There are few land birds or insects, and no reptiles. A gigantic sedgy grass, called tussac, of the genus Carcx, is very common on most of these islands. Its blade averages seven feet in length by about three quarters of an Inch in width, is extremely nutritious, and ad- mirably adapted for fattening cattle. Tuniips, car- rots, potatoes, and vegetables thrive well, and barley and oats have been successfully cultivated. Furze and other shrubs grow well, but there are as yet no trees. Peet is abundant, and some of it is highly bituminous. Coal has been discovered, but whether it can be profitably worked has not yet been ascer- tained. The discovery of these islands has been by many attributed to Amerigo Vespucci, in 1502 ; but it is more probable that they were first discovered by Davis in 1592. In 1594 Hawkins soiled along their north shore ; and in 1090 Strong sailed through the channel which separates East from West Falkland, and called it Falkland Sound, whence the group afterwa*^! took its name. During the earlier parts of the eighteenth century these islands were frequently visited by French vessels ; and in 17G4 a French colony wus ostalilishcd at St. Louis, on East F'alldand. Two years later tho English planted a colony at Port Egraonton, West F'alkland. In 1707 the Spaniards took possession of the French settlement, and three years liter of the English. In consequence of this step, some negotia- tions were entered into, the result of which was that the sovereignty of these islands were ceded to the En- glish, who, however, some time afterward abandoned them. Though frequently visited by whaling vessels and others, they ontinued without permanent inhab- itants till 1820, when they were taken possession of by the republic of Buenos Aytes. A settlement was formed at Port Louis, which rapidly increased until 18B1, when, in consesequently found on the south side of Stanley Harbor, where, in 1844, n town was laiil out. Mr. Lafone, a wealthy merchant, obtained from gov- ei-nment an extensive tract of land, ond jiossession of all the wild cattle and other wild stock for six years) from 1st .lanuary, 1848, in consideration of a payment liy installments of i:UU,000. Mr. Lafone's interests have recently l>een purchased by a chartered com|>any, which now |mssess, in Kast Falkland, all the southern peninsula called Lafonia, consisting of ul)out 000,000 acres, besides 138 islands and islets, with an aggregate * area of about 200,000 acr«s, until January, 18oi;. The company possesses absolute right to all the wild cattle or other wild stook which may Iw found upon any of the islands, but aftec that period tiiis right ceases ex- cept as to stock, etc., then in actual possession of the company. In 1847 the i)opulatirts the colony to lie steadily pn>gressing. In 1851, the number of tons of shipping that entered the port of Stanley was 17,688, and in 1852 it was 22,024, being FAL es9 FAN tn increMe of 4,486 tons. This etcessarily produces a demand for produce and labor. Unskilled laborers earn from Hs. to 6s. a day, and skilled ftam 6a. to lOi. Provisions are abundant, and at rpnnonable prices. " The transference to the Falkland Inlands Company of the large interests held by Mr. Lafone, and the commencement by that corporation of a more compre- hensive system of operation, supported by a large cap- ital, gives me very favorable hopes of benefit to the colony, and, I trust, to the shareholders." {Rtport.) In 1849, twelve allotments of one acre each, near the town, ware put up for sale, and were sold on an aver- age at £6 per acre ; and eleven similar allotments, sold in 1863, brought on an average £Vi per acre, or six times the usual government price. " The master of a barque, the Kecord, lately in the harbor, publicly nc- tiAed that he would take passengers to the gold dig- gings in Australia at £10 per head, and it gives me much pleasure to add that not a person could be found i"" the colony to accept his proposition." {Report.) Be- ing chiefly dependent upon the ships that call here to refit or for refreshments, the opening of a ship-canal between the Atlantic and Paciric Ureana would affect this settlement very much, and might probably lead to its almndonment. — E. n. Except as commercial and military stations, these islands possess no importance. There is no tonnage duty levied on vessels entering the ports of these islands ; nor, indeed, any charges, except for storage, which is effected in bulk, and for which there is a charge of fVom tS 'o ^10 per day. In a recent officinl communication ad' r^ssed by the present governor of the Falkland IslaVids, that functionary oliserves : "I beg to state that, as regards the precise limit to which Great Britain will limit the right of fishing, I have no instructions. I will, however, communicate with her tiajesty's government on the Bul>ject by the first op- portunity." As American captains cruising aliout thnse islands have, on one or two recent occasions, been 8nl>jected to considerable inconvenience and ex- pense by the executive authority of the Falkland Islands — so much so, indeed, as in one instance to ren- der the interposition of a United States' vessel of war necessar}' — it becomes a matter of some importance to American whaling Interests to have the question set- tled as speedily as possil>le.^.<7c>«. Rrl. U. S. Fall, the name given :n Scotland to a measure both of length and superficies. As a measure of length, the fidl is equal to six Scots ells, or 6*1764 English yards ; and as a measure of supenideii, to 86 square •Us. Fall, the sea term for the rape of any pulle}- or system of pullej-s, to fall aboard signifies to run foul of another vessel. Fallitu; Home. The term applied to the timlwrs or upper parts of the sides of a ship when they curve inwanls. The old ships fell home, or tumbled in (a* it is called), much more than the iiiwlnm ones, which approach more nearly to lieing wall-tided. Fall River, Mossarhusetts, 46 miles 8. of Boston, situated on the Fall Kiver, at its junction with the Taunton, which falls into Mount Hope lluy, a liranch of Narraganset Hay. The harbor on Taunton Kiver Is •afe and ensy of access, and has depth of water sufH- eient for the largest ships. Fall iiiver has n largo coasting trade, and is engaged in the wliale and other ' flsheries. It has extensive cotttm and woolen foe- i torics, bleaching- works, fuunderies, etc., and nommu- • Bicates regularly with New York by stnnmera, and with Boston l)y railway. Pop. (Wtb) \i.m». Falmouth, a seaport town of, England, on a liriinch | of the estuary of the Falmout'h, 14 m. N.N.E. the Liiard Point. \M. 50° K' 8" N., long. 5° l'' 7" W. The barlxir is formed liy the estuart- of the Falmouth, has numerous creeks, and is about five miles In length and one mile in lireadtK. The entrance is defenile ter wind. Fan, a simple and well-known implement employed to pmluce coolness by agitating the air. Upward of 3000 yean ago the artist of ancient E^fypt piiiiitud the fan on the walls of the tombs at Tfielici, wliure the Pharaoh sits surrounded l)y his fan-benrnrs. These officers acted as generals or marshals, using their funs OS standards in war, and in peace they assisted the Pharaoh in the temple, and waved their variegated fans Iwth to produce a caecan)e a Grecian deity. It was sometimes formed of feathers of different lengths, spread out in the form of a semi- circle, but pointed at the top. This fan, the precise t)'pe of the state-fan of India and China of the present day, was waved by a female slave. The fan U men- tioned by Terence and Oviil ; ami was termed iiidid'er- ently " ftaljellum" or "muscurium." When the Ko- mans wero at meals, it was the duty of certain slaves, when the weatlier was warm, to cool the ronui witli fans and drive away the flies. Tlie modern (ireck church places a fan in the hands of ita deacons to guard the officiating priest and tlie elements from dese- cration. When the fan was lirought to Kriiiiee by Catherine de Mee folded in the manner of those used in the present day. Fans in tlie luxurious reigns of I.ouis XIV, and XV., shone witli gilding and geni.s, and wore ornamented with the pictures of Uoui !:"r und Watteau, At that time no toilet was esteenieil com- plete without a fan, the cost of which was frciiuently as high as from $60 to $70. In fan-making, the Chinese and French are the great rivals, and may Iw said to monop work- man makes for himself out of pieces of wutch-i>pring. ibar- onue for reign I pro- main iepea- ubot- \ * PAR Mt FAS in oAo fan then are in some gpecimena 1600 taw- ptercinijs in a sqnare inch of mother-of-pearl. The printing, the coloring, the mounting, and the fininhing of fans are mngtly conducted nt Paris, where the fan- facto>'ieors ore rarely ice-bound. The only grain crop is liarley ; and on account of the uncer- tainty of the weather, it is frequently reaped in a half- ripe condition. Agriculture is In a very Imckward state, the infield, or cultivated land, l>eing calculated to be to the outfield, or uncultivated, in the proiwrtion 1 to 00. The plow is seldom used, being in fact III salted to the rugged and uneven surface of the land. The gronnrt U lh*r»tim turtilKl tip with ths apada, care baing takan niit to il«stniy tfa« roota of the grass. Horses and cow* art) f«w In nutnlrar, and the latter give very llttia milk, In lioliMMiMsnce, prolmbly, of the very coarse bay u|Hm wlileli they are fed. Sheep are numerous, and fiiriu thti chief rlidies of the Islanders — soma inillvliluaU Imvliig flc/cks of from tliree to five hundred. Tim nhovp Nr« never housed either in sum- mer or wintar, aiitt In iwvere seasons they suffer con- siderably, TliD woul la KttMfally coarse, and is torn oflrtbs anlmaU In au timgU a manner aa often to lacer- ate tha skin, Th« mUMnif of tha numerous birda which bullil tlieir tiasts upim tha face of the cliffs, forms a great suurve of aitlislstence to the Inhabitanta. Tha iiersuns employed In tills liaMrilous iraile display groat ingenuity and tha most adventurous spirit. Hometlmes the fowler Is let down from the top of tha cliir by a ro|Mi tmtUmntl Up bk walat) at other times, where tbare la any fiaitiiif( at all, h« cllmba the steep- est rocks, or, wliara that in lin|iosBlblfl, he la pushed upward by (lolaa made fur tha purpose. The puiBn (/I /fa aretim) ia tha iiUMt eommim of these birds, and the eliler-diick Is liarn often s|M;t for food. The fisher- ies are lin|Hirtttnt ond viiliinMe, The niunoiKily of tli« trii of ths Faroe Islands was for aoina tlina in tlia hands vf a mercantile houae at Co|)enlmgen | but it lias now lieen aasumed liy gov- ernment, and neltti«r Dane nor foreigner Is allowed to interfere. The trada la carried on between Copen- hagen and Thorsliavn. The ohief exports are hoaiery, tallow, dried anil salt llsb, traln-oll, feathers, skins, and butter, Tluirsbavn, the capital of these islands, is situated on tim soiitli'east side of the island of Str5- mii, upon A narrow tongue of land, having creeks on each aide, wberii uhllM may li« safely moored. Popu- lation alwiut l/KMI, tIw lionsas are built of wood, and roofeilwlth birch lairk covered with turf, the greenness of which makaa It linjiotsllite, at a very short distance, to dlstingnlsb tha tilaee fnmi the surrounding fields. The charat^tar of thfl |ieople Is generally marked by great simplicity of ninnners, kindness and hospitality. They ore well ftal and clotlied, and seem to be kindly treated by tha Itanlsli government. The average duration of Ufa, as stated by l)r. Panum, is 44 2-6 years; while in l>emiiark It is only 30. The language of the people is a rainnant of the old Morse, but that of the courts, oburclms, and schools is the modem Danish, Haa /'wwa utul t'irrim JUierala, by Lucas .lAi'onHKif Ukiim, translated from the Uanish into Knglisb, l6Vfl I Ilrnvriptiim n/l/ie Faroe ItlanJi, by the Kev. (I, I.ANliT, UmiUm, IHIO) an account of their geoUigy and niliiarakigy, In th* Trans, ij^tke Royal Hoi;, VA\n,, vol. vil., by ttir U. 8. Mackenzik, Burt,, ami Tkiihah Ai.I.KM, Vm\, t l>fn iJantke 8tats Sttilis- tit, vol, Iv,, IHftili >j, NliilKil.'a Account of Iceland, (IreeiJitml, imil Ihn t'crnr, /*/(■#( Or, Pawdm's Official UcfHirt im l/ir Itinutm of t'rroc, 1849, of which an ol)- struct In vol, vll, of the Atciticih^hinirffical Jicview, The si'enerv iif these Islands Is well illustrated in a work cntitiail fniiuft of the Yacht Maria, London, IHftfi.-t!. II, FKrtbingi a small Kngllsh copper coin, amounting to \ of a |H*nMy, It was anciently called /ourt/iin^?, as Iteing the fourth of the Integer or penny. A farthing of gold, equal in valiia to the fourth part of a noble, or 2iJd t^i lira tlia ananiy's Ixlgments or other works. FMbiOU (l''r. f Of on I originally from the Lat. facurt, t» makn or form), » term used to signify th* FAY tit FAY preTailing mode or taste in any ooantry, the only recognized quality whicli it po«s«B»ea being mutability. It may safely he averred that, in proportion to the in- fluence which fashion exercises in any countr}' may Its claim to civilization be vindicated — nothing being so characteristic of a rude and barbarous state of exist- ence as a rigid adherence to the customs of nntiquity. The term faMon has generally been considered as applicable chiefly to the adornment of the person, in conformity with the prevailing taste as introduced by some individual of consideration in society ; but it ha* , • much wider signification, l)eing applied to tlie most trivial kind of conventional usages, a disregard or ignorance of which is sufficient, in the eyes of the vo- taries of this tyrannical goddess, to banish the offender beyond the pale of civilized society. Fat, an oily concrete substance, contained in the cells of the adipose or cellular membrane of animal bodies. Fat also denotes a measure of capacity, but indefinite. Thus a fat of isinglass contains from 8^ cwt. to 4 cwt. J of yam, from 220 to 221 l>nndi«s, etc. Fat, or vat, a large woo.ien tub or vessel used in breweries and tanneries ; also as a measure for malt, containing eight bushels. Fathom, a measure of length, six feet, chiefly used for measuring the length of cordage, and the depth of water and mines. Fayal. The Azores, or Western Islands form a range situate in the Atlantic Ocean, extending In an olilique line from north-west to south-east, between 37° and 40° N. lat., and 25° and 32° W. long. It has iteen a sutiject of some controversy among geog. raphers, to what division of the gIol>e theyouf^it to be referred ; )>ut the)' are now generally considered as pertaining to Europe. It does not appear that the ancients had any icnowledge of the Azores, or of any group in this tiea, except the Canaries, to which they Anally applied the celebrated appellation of the Fortun- ate Islands. But tlie Aral)ian geographers, Edrisi and Ibn al Vardi, describe, after the Canaries, nine other islands in the Western Ocean. That those were the Azores is highly probable, since their numlwr is ex- actly nine ; and because a species of hawl( is speciall)' noticed by these writers as existing there in great abundance — a circumstance that afterward ap|>eared to the Portuguese so remarica1>le, that they gave them the name of Azores, or Hawk Islands. The climate in which they are placed also makes them north of the Can.iries. Some other <i w«r« made for the improve- ment of tlia Apirn* I hut the stupid and bigoted gov- ernniHiit whitrh tii\Ummi rath<^ tended to destroy these benefits, ami tu nwkN the Islands take a retrograde course, I'hyiiad Atpei'l.-^-'t'im Ajtorea within a recent period attrat^ted uiiiih aUvHtlmi as th« theatre of contest be- tween the partlnn i'iilit«tldltig for the crown of Portu- gal, The adhfroiit* ut (hn (lonsf Itutlon, who supported against MIgUf I tha rights ut Maria da (tloria, obtained IMsaessioii ut 'IVn^oirs, whxre they succeeded in main- taining tlifnisalfus. After various struggles, Queen Maria's wuth'trtty was ovenlually established over all tliesa Islands, The ai|xint ut M tlM Islands Is very similar in gen- eral L'bNriiut<>rii>(l''/«, nrfstitllng an elevated and undu- lating oullliia, with lltth) or no talile-land, and rising into (leaks, of tthdh Hw lowest (that of St. Marj-'s) is imi fttxt, anil IIm hlghxst (that of Pico) 7013 feet above tlia lyvnl ut the sea. Their lines of sea-coast are, with faw «iii'i>|)tl(ilis, high and precipitous, with lias«s of M('<'UlilMlat«d innsses of fallen rock, in which o|wn imy», or waffcly mute Inclosed Inlets, form the harlwra ut tha trading towns, The climate is particu- larly tr>'« of 700 square miles, and in 1841 had a iwpulatiotl of 'iM.tm, f4t, Michael, tlie largest and most iMipul«ils ut lliesr Islands, has an area of 224 •quaru iiillas and ( la 10; mi.nin) Inlmliltants. Proceed- ing from *«»t Ui WKsl, this Ifiland presents a consider- able variaty ut i>Uftitvi>, The east end rises from a bluff •aOH^Iilf of UtW(>en 1200 and MOO feet elevation, to a hifty iiilanit (m»k from which a central ran,?e, varying in h«ight from 2000 to 2&00 feet, runs to the westward, toriiilitatlllg In tlie Merra de Agua de Puo, ilOiiO fuat al/iiva lh«i sfii, Tlie sea-coast gradually de- clines In approai'lilng thn hist (Nrfnt, where it is not mora than alatiit loil feet high. The part next seen is lower, and lis oMillHe, as presented by the summits of intelligence soon reached the court of Lislmn, where it , numuroMn viiU'»niif monticules of alioiit 1300 feet eleva- excited considerable Interest; and the navigator Ca-|tiun, unllul In a ivfitrnl Miff more undulating; the bral was sent to prosecute the discovery. In 14.'i'.) the | wttsfrn aatminlty Iwlii)^ marked liy the conspicuous islands began to lie planted and colonixed, und in so | Herra S6 Sir Walter | is guiiorally covnrad with an undergrowth of heaths, Raleigh equipped two pinnaces of 86 and 40 tjna, tha | uedar, laurel) laurastlnus, and other evergreen shrubs tol of TliJ corn; the I even I are so the pi said t( origin flnes of the eonsid fruit, I confim tion privile and ot Is Pon Itants. Iicing ( nuincr Bold i anil f(i for the siippre.^^ those o| which, during I FAY ess FAT wMcn give the mountains an exceedingly rich and ■wooded appearance. Like all volcanic countries, the face of the island is uneven and irregular, being deeply excavated by numerous ravines and roughened by streams of semi-vitrified and scoriaceous lava that resist all atmospheric influences and repel vegetation. Heav}- rains fulling on the mountains afford a constant supply of water to four kites at the bottom of extinct craters or subsidences, and a numlier of minor reser- voirs; and through them to small streams running rapidly down on all sides into the sea. — Geographical Journal, vol. xv. See Hunt's March. Mag., 1855-6; Com. Rfl. V. S., pp. 233, 2iJ4 : pub. by Dcp. of State. In the year 1591 a most tremendous earthquake ap- pears to have Iwen felt all over the Azores, and to have shaken St. Michael for twelve days without intermission. Since that period, there is no record of any such great convulsion, except one in 1767, of which we have no particulars, and it was probably much less formidable; ncr are any of its volcanoes at present in a state of action. Hot springs abound in every part of the island, and from almost eveij' crevice vapor is seen issuing, llut the most remarkable phe- nomena are the Culdeiras or Iralling fountains, which rise chiefly from a valley called the Furnas, near the ■western extremity of the island. The water oscends In columns to the height of about 12 feet, after which It dissolves in vajmr, forming clouds of various shapes and colors. The heat is sucli as to boil an egg in two minutes, tliough tlie sulphureous impregnation unfits it from being employed in culinary purimsos. The ground in the immcdiute vicinity is entirely covered with native sulphur, like hour frost. At a small dis- tance is a remarkable plienomennn called the Muddy Crater, the vertex of whicli, 45 feet in diameter, is on a level with the plain. Its contents are in a state of violent and continual ebullition, accompanied with a sound resmbling the waves of u tempestuous ocenn. Yet they never rise above its level, unbss occasionally to throw to a small distance a spray of the consistence of melted lead. The Kumas aliounds also in hot springs, some of which it is impossilde to touch witli- out lieing scalded. There is almost always, however, a cold spring near to the hot one, so that the water can 1)0 brought to any tem|ierature tliut may be desired. These springs, after being long negUotcd, have, within the last half centnrj', l)ccn greatly re- sorted to, and the cures i)erformed in cases of palsy, rheumatism, and similar maladies, are said to have been verj- wonderful. Tlie plains are fertile in wheat, barley, and Indian com ; while vines and oranges grow luxuriantly on the sides of the mountains. Thej' are made to spring even from the interstices of the volcanic rocks, which are sometimes Idasted in order that they may receive the plants. liaised in this manner, these fruits are said to lie of superior qualit}- ; l)ut the great expense originally required in such a moilo of cultivation con- fines it to persons of some capital. The western part of tlie island yields hemp, wiiich might 1)« raised to a consideralde extent. Tiie exports consist of wine, fruit, and provisions. Foreign intercourse used to be confined rigorously to l.islion ; l)Ut since the emigra- tion of tlie court, the inhaliitants have assumed tlie privilege of trading directly witli Kngland, America, and other countries. The principal town on the isliind is Ponta Delguda, which contains about 20,000 inhab- itants. It is liuilt with toleraiile regularity, the streets lieing straight and broad. The religious edifices are numerous and elegant. Wlien visited liy Captain Bold in 1831, it had six churches, eight monasteries, and four convents ; l)ut tliese last, which were noted for the irregular lives of their vestals, have since lieon suppressed. Tlie harlmr receives only small vessels : those of any magnitude must anchor in an open road, which, though not dangerous, can not be occupied during the prevalence of southerly gales. Its other towna are Villa Franca, Ribetra, Grande, Alogos, Agoa de Poo, etc. St, Mary, — St. Mary is a small Island immediately adjacent to St. Michael, through the medium of which its trade is conducted, as it has no good harbors of its own. It has an area of 3C square miles, producing wheat in abundance, of which a considerable quantity is exported. It is of trap formation, and contains beds of marine shells. Population in 1840, 4GGG. Terceira, — ^Terceira, though smaller than St. Mi- chael, yet being placed in .1 more central position with respect to the other islands has been chosen as the seat of government. The port of Angra is also supe- rior to any of those in St. Michael. This island does not exhibit nearly tlie same extensive traces of vol- canic action ; and the summits of its mountains aro generally level. It is represented liy Adanson, how- ever, as entirely composed of volcanic products. The lava, he says, is of a thicker grain than that of Ten- eriffe. It abounds in grain and cattle ; \.\.i the wines are inferior, and the fruits are raised merely for inter- nal consumption. The residence of the government renders the society somewhat superior to that which is found in the other islands. The number of inhnbitanta is estimated at 50,000. Fayal. — Fayal is the most frequented of all the islands after St. Michael, as it has one of the best har- bors in the Azores, and lies directly in the track of vessels that are crossing the Athintic in any directicm. Its principal town is Villa de llorta. Captain Cook found that all sorts of fresh provisions might bo oli- tained tliere : the bullocks ond hogs are good, but the sheep small and poor. The town is defended l)y two castles and a wall, both in decay, and serving rather for show than strength. The city contains two con- vents for monks and three for nuns, with eight churches. These are the only good buildings in it, no other Having glass windows. Tlie ba\ is two miles in length and three quarters of a mile in lireadth, and the depth of water from 6 to 20 fathoms. Though a good road, it is not altogether free from danger in S.S.W. and S.K. winds. Population 23,000. Pico. — A consideralde quantity of wine is shipped from Fayal under the appellation of Fayal wine, Imt really tlio produce of Pico, one of the most remiirlialdo of the Azores. This island i oniposed of an immense conical mountain, rising to ■ lieight of 7613 feet, ond bearing every trace of v. inic formation. The soil consists entirely of pul -izcd lava, and tlio ground has even lieen said t^ ound hollow when struck. All the lower parts of f mountain are in the highest state of cultivation, aiul rovered with vine and orange plantations. The wine, which forms a sort of inferior Sladcira, is in considerable demand. Pico produces also a valuable species of wood, resem- bling and equal in quality to mahogany. Populotion 26,000. Graciosa and St. Ooorge aro two small islands, sit- uated between Fayal and Terceira. Graciosa is chiefly noted for the extreme lieauty of its aspect and scenery. About fifty years ogo St. George suffered from one of those awful visitations to wliich tlifc Azores are subject. In 1808 a caldeira, situate in the centre of the island, was observed to be in a state of violent fermentation. It continued during several days to emit suliterrancan noises, and to cause violent convulsions throughout every part of the island. At length the great crisis came ; vast streams of fire issued forth in every direc- tion, with clouds of smoke, which, but for tlie volcanic light, would have involved every tiling in midniglit darkness. The principal stream took itsi direction towar•. Wnaruin. UiKhnli, 11,175 = a9,0'i5 = 290,200 11,0W = 88,240 = 26fl,9'20 A.AC'S = 10,695 - 188.560 9fi»<) = 28,740 = 229,920 4,S90 = 14,670 = 117,860 12,1.58 = 86.469 = 291,672 9.000 =: 27,000 — 2la,(MH) 299,280 272.S6B 189,710 24fl,7s6 1 12,6*5 811,029 286,000 1986 1887 1888 1889 1S40 IMl The oranges exported in 1801 amouuted in value to $60,000 i in 1820, to $125,000; and in 1840, to $460,- 000. For five years, ending with 1840, the average annual value of exports to Portugal was $215,646 ; to foreign countries, $260,815. Average annual value nf imports during the same period, from Portugal, $266,- 6U0 ; from foreign countries, $397,110. CoMHKXoi! or Tna UNmtD States wrrn Fatal and oriiia Aiobks, raoH Octorkb 1, 1S20, to Jult 1, 1868, I 1 Tekra eBdloff. E>F.rtk Ini|>orti. Wli>rwr Iheni wm In JJuUloa ud Specie. Toniuve Cleared. Donulk. Foralfn. L Toi.1. T..I.I. ElIK)rte90 1,780 1 Sept 80, lS3t «10.M9 •6.049 •16,599 •82,092 •8.200 475 251 ' 1982 28,402 11,868 81,765 45,424 ...* 7,894 812 1988 18,897 8.629 21,915 26,291 8,2JO 910 1884 9,669 8,911 18,469 19,491 . t • 2.707 760 1985 12,088 6,400 19.488 26.678 •5,000 4,786 1,179 1S8« 7,191 460 7,081 K374 482 691 lesT 18,409 8,.58t 16,989 29,028 2,.964 496 1889 7,556 l,«sl 9,287 82.746 609 69 1889 9,180 4,789 13,969 15,222 819 1840 ToUl... 10.475 6.628 16,094 89.189 .... 7,089 1191,676 •47,275 •169,960 •291,469 $5,000 t24,0»8 ~ 7,780 819 Sept. SO, 1941 •18,187 •6.788 • 19,922 •16,093 $2,000 l,(i6S l*t« 49,198 19,600 69,798 41,049 •1,000 1,6;>2 100 » mos. 1>4:) 8.669 621 9,190 12,798 742 June 80, l-i44 19,246 6,998 26.229 29,570 !l,900 1,515 1,110 1 19tS 2,881 61 2.892 29.578 194 , ! 1846 4,226 4,225 41,297 1,000 1.52 151 1 1947 9,466 625 9,991 84,.W4 10,.W0 1.108 1848 8,660 8,660 11,489 815 1946 14,204 1,889 16,048 17,062 8,600 1,294 1880 Total... 14,421 2,162 16,578 10,.')2.9 908 161 412 It89,94i •87,566"^ • 176,499 •249,747 •4,200 • 17,615 8,489 Jane 80, 1S,M 120,240 (1,04? 921.285 •.f2.962 •4,867 1.M2 728 1S52 17.766 1,*I6 19,152 29,846 .... i,as2 1,447 696 IS.M 21,807 4,440 2.5,747 10.X92 1,777 1964 10,080 440 10,470 21,,%->4 560 468 18S6 18.972 593 14,660 199.111 .... 1,562 1,890 18M 16.969 490 16,449 22,898 .... 1,713 The harbor of Fayal is the best in the Azi>rv8, and greater facilities are offered to ships in dlHtruHs, by affording refuge or supplies. American whalers fre- quently visit Fayal, and deposit large quuntitie» ■( oil, to 1)0 tninahippod to other ports, amounting ami i- ally to a value of upward of $.900,000; most of wli i li is forwarded to the markets of the rnitcil .Statts. The direct im|M)rts from the I'niti-d Stutv!i to the Azores consist chiefly of timlier. staves, heads for hogsheads, etc. The duties on liiniljcr and staves are moderate. On cut noils they exceed 100 per cent.. and (in window-glass they rise over 300 per cent. American cotton manufactures are in good demand, and during the past few years have competed udvan- thgeously with those of Great Britain. The commer- cial regulations differ but little from those of the mother country. Foreign vessels, bringing the pro- ductions uf the country to which they belong, iind coming from the ports of the same, are admitted nn the same fitrar>- aanitary regulationa, which emanate trom the home government at Liabon, and which pre- clude all discretionary power en the part of the local authoritiea. For inttance, ahould the Portugueae con- sul at New Orleans notify his government that the yellow fever prevails in that city (aay in the month of September), nrdera are immediately forwarded by the Board of Ilealth at Liabon to the authorities of the islands to consider that city as infected. Theae or- ders, l>3' the ordinary mode of conveyance, will not reach the islands until the following January ; and notwithstanding it ma}' In notorious that the fever ceased in Octolwr or November, a vessel that should arrive at Fay al, having left New Orleans in Januar}', or later, would not be admitted, oven should she be provided with a clean bill of health, certilied with all formality, by the very same consul who hod reported to his government) the existence of the sickness I This regulation frequently exposes American captains to great inconvenience and considerable loss, — Com. Xd. U.S. Feather*, Bed-feathen (Fr. Pluma, Pluma It lit ; (Jer. Fakrn, lifttfeilem ; Du. Bedvfem, Pluimai ,• It. J'iiime ; Sp. I'lumai), make a considerable article of commerce ; particularly those of tlii! ostrich, goose, heron, swan, peacock, and other poultry. The feathers of the ostrich have been held in the highest estimation tram antiquity downward, and h&ve furnished favorite decorations for the fans and head-dresses of ladies, the helmets of warriors, and the most splendid processions. Many parts of Great Britain supply feathers for l>eds ; and an inferior sort is brought from Ireland. Eider- down, the finest variety of its class, is im|iorted from the north of Europe ; the ducks that supply it being inhabitants of Greenland, Iceland, and Norway. The eider-duck breeds in the islands on the west of Scot- land, Imt not in sniOcient numl)ers to form a profitable branch of trade to the inhabitants. Hudson's Bay fur- nishes very tine feathers, especially for quilla. The down of the swan is brought from Dantzic, as well as large quantities of superior feathers. Ottrich and other Plumti, — The long feathers of the wings and the tail constitnte the ordi .ary ostrich plump. Tlie animul is captur,!d and kill id with much care, to prevent any injury to the plumage. The feathers are sorted into various qualities, scoured or cleaned, lileached, dried, "'.uken, and opened, the ribs scraped with a bit of glass, the filaments made to as- sume a curly form by scraping, dyed or not, according to circumstances, and adapted for the adjustment of military hats or other garments. Those in England who are versed in the heraldry of pomp and formality would know the ostrich plumes worn by the Knights of the Garter or the Kniglita Grand Crosses of the Bath from the court plumes adapted for ladies, and the black plumes for officers of tho Highland regi- ments. In recent years, means have been devised for imparting brilliant dyes to ostrich feathers, several different ralors to one feather, gradually shaded or blended one into another. Then, liosides tho ostrich, we have tho feathers of tho maraliout, the ibis, the bird of paradise, the vulture or rhea, the emu, tho heron, the plotiia, the egret, the pheasant, the peacock, the turkey, the swan, the eagle, and some other blrda Tt — all applied ai ornaments to drsai. Soma of (hfM are very costly : aome are used almost axcluslvuly fur one particular purpose, while others liava' their fltiill> ionable and unfashionable period* In tb* publlo favor, Some of the marabout feathers are knotted with guM, to ipaka a costly trimming for dreisas. Tba «iuu feathers are more worn on the Continent tluta In Kn> gland. The heron feathers, worn by tlio Knights iif the Garter, frequently cost SO guineas the plume, ainl sometimes above 100 guineas, on account of ttl«lr srjucity. The large egret feathers are worn by tb« Hussars. Feoamp, a seaport town in Francs, departrn«nt of Seine-InfOrieure, situated on the English Cliannal, jt( the mouth of a small cognominal river 23 miles N.N, V„ of Havre. Population about 10,000, It occupies tli« bottom and sides of a narrow valley opening out toward the sea, between two cliffs, on one of which vtands a light-house. Its port, though small, is onu of the lixst on the Channel, and haa lately been greatly improveil by the construction of an inner port, with » line quay, etc. It carriaa on a conalderable trade in Itultlu uuil colonial produce, brandy, aalt, etc. ; and sends out v«ii' sels to the whale, cod, mackerel, and herring lUbiirlas, The river affords abundant water-power for numerous cotton, oil, and other mills. Fecamp has also sugar ro' fineries, tanneries, building-docks, and manufui:lurfl« of hardware, candles, soda, etc, The town coiisUU almost entirely of one street upward of two mils* III length. Feejee Islanda, These islands constitute a group in the South Pacific Ocean, favorably situated fur tlia whaling Interests of the United States, if the habits uf the natives did not render it unsafe for whale-«hlps to enter any of their ports, unless under the proteutluu of a man-of-war. The group consists of IM IslaniU In all, 65 of which are inhabited, and contains a popula* tion estimated at 134,000 souls. Tho principal inmniis are Viti Levu and Paou, or Sanilal-wood Island) others are Vuna, Kandaboo, OvoUu, Bau, Mathuatu, and Goro ; each of the islands containing from 0,000 to 18,000 inhabitants. Sandal-wood was formerly a leading production of this group, but it has now an- tirely disappeared. The great fertility of the soil, however, and tho low price at which vessels could racruit their stores, and obtain supplies of fresh provisions and excellent water, taken in connection with the fact that the whaling interests of citizo.is of the United Htutus In that quarter involve annually from seven to eight llilU lions of dollars, show how important tills group might become to American whalers, if they were only strong enough to prevent or resent acts of piracy and pluniUr, An official communication to tho State Department, under date of January 1, 1854, says: " The chief and inhabitants of Bau (at present the controler* of this group), causing the destruction of property at Lavuka, live by the fruits of begging, theft, and robbary—oiie unbroken serica of robberies and butcheries, In de< fault of justice, these men escape." When our whal- ers are fortunate enough to escape from the atrocities above described, they can obtain a full supply of all descriptions of vegetables, pork, poultry, etc,, for an entire crew for about f&G, in trade. The same com- munication further informs tho Department, that American vessels are actually driven away front this archipelago, the natives being emboldened in the per- petration of these acta by tho absence of American vessels of war in any of their ports. During the past year (1855) an American ship of war, the John Ailnmi, visited the Fccjeo Islands for the purpose of Inquiring into, and demanding reparation for, tho cruelMes and acts of plunder and piracy committed by the natives upon American ships trading and fishing in the Fuejee- an archipelago. Tho result of this visit, it is bellavad, will put an end to the atrocities of these savages, and secure a safe and oommodlous retreat for Ainerleait whalers in those dUtant seas. It ia undorstood tbiit FEL 668 FER thb Ncnrlty b gnanntied hy a eoBTcntkm or treaty ■gTMd to by Tui Viti, th« king of tha island*. Tliera are no quarantine rvgulationa oluf rved at any of tliese ialanda, and conseijuently no bills of health are re- quited. Passengen are subjected to no port or land- ing requirements, and are at liberty to go ashore when and as they please. There are no custom duties, nor are there any light, hospital, or other dues or taxes exacted. For pilots, the charges are such as can be agreed upon. It has been already stated that this group of islands affords a convenient and excellent stopping-place for our whale- shlpa engage,()00, viz. : in 1861 , to $83,000 ; in 1852, to #64,000 ; in I8&S, to $60,000. The merchandise receired in baiter for American imports consist of biche-de>mer, tortoise-shell, gums, arrow-root, and cocoanut-oU. The exports from the United States consist of assorted cargoes, and the an- nual value may lie estimated from the preceding fig- uies, as the trade is almost exclusively on i of liarter, in which the American shippers usually realize 260 per cent, profit on their merchandise. During the last six months of 1865, there arrived at the port of Lanthala Ave American vessels, inrluding two ships of war (the John Adam* and the St. .l/nry's), measuring, exclusive of the two latter, an aggregate of 1124 tons. Three whale-ships also touched nt the Islands during the same period. The inward cargoes of two of the merchant vessels referred to, amounting in value to (4000, consisted of general cargoes, of which was land- ed, in value, (3000. The remaining vessel was lailen with outfits, stores, ?id whaling-lines, valued at $30,000, none of which was landed at the islands. The outward cargoes consisted of biche-de-mer, 1600 peculs, and shells, 1000 pouds, valued at $41 ,000. One of these vessels made a voyage to Sydney with yams, cocoanut-oil, and live stocic, while the natives were colter' '.ng her cargo of biche-de-mer. — C. D. — Com. Rel U. S. Felt, a kind of stuff resembling coarse cloth, made of hair or wool, without weaving. The fnr of the hare, rabbit, seal, beaver, and the wool of the sheep, are the materials chiefly used for making elt. The hairs and loose flocks of wool are thorsnghly mixed together liy an operation called boieing, which depends on the vi- brations of an elastic string; when, in consequence of their anatomical straeture, they become matted to- gether. Felted Cloth. This woolen fabric is maject is intended to be stiff, like visors, the falosad in a way suitable to the wished-for article, and united by continued dextrous pressure. The stuff must ba next subjected to the fulling-mill. Felling Timber. In arboriculture, when a full- grown tree is cut down, it is said to be felled ; liut this term is never applied to young trees or bushes, under- growth, or hedges, which are said to be rootetl out or cut over. Much has lieen written res|)ectini; tho proper season fnr felling trees ; some arguing in favor of raid- winter, and others in favor of midsummer. The ques- tion principally turns upon the quantity and the value of the soft or outer-woiHl in the trunk of the tree to be felled, known liy foresters and carpenters as the sap. As this sap iir outer-wood is tho only portion of the trunk in which the sap or Juices of the tree circulate, it is evident that if no value be set upon it the tree may lie cut down at any season, because the truly val- ualile part of the trunk, the mature timber, is imper- mealile to the sap in its ascent through the soft wood, and Is, therefore, in the same state at every season of the year. On the other hand, where much value is attached to the soft or outer-wood, where this outer- wood is wished to lie made as valuable as possible, oi where, as in the case of comparatively young trees, the greater part of the tnmk consists of sap-wood, felling onght to take place when there is least sap in the course of circiilution. This season !s, without doulit, midwinter, which, all other circumstances be- ing equal, is unquestinnalily the liest season fnr felling timber; tho next liest lieing midsummer, when the sap is chiefly confined to the young shoots, the circum- ference of the soft wood, and tha bark ; as the worst Is the spring, Just before the development of the buds, when the tree is fullest of sap, and receiving con- stantly fresh supplies from the root ; and in autumn, immedlntely before the fall of the leaf, when there is a suiierabundance of sap, from its being as it wens thrown out of employment liy the falling of the leaf. In general, all the soft woods, snch as the elm, lime, poplar, willow, etc., should be felUd during winter; hard :voods, like the oak, beech, ash, etc., when the trunks aro of large size, and valued chiefly for their heart-wood, may be felled at any time. See articles Dht Rot and Wood. Felucca (Ital. /elura), a little vessel with oars and lateen sales, common in the Mediterranean. It has a rudder at the stem una another al the stem, to lie applied as occasion requires. Ferment (lMt._fmfo, I boil), the mbatance which is essential to the process of fermentation. It is either naturally present in the fermentable Juice, as In the grape, or it is added, as in tho manufacture of liecr, where ynut constitutes the ferment. Ferments are of an albuminous or !;V.:t!nnus character ; the presence of nitrogen ^ceius essential in their composition, hence they are classed bj* chemists among azotlzed com- pounds. Their modoa operandi is still unexplained. Th(i WUt( wati the I tlio< 1 on berll are I 1888 wca stea men .? At I Br,i4 the[ rail banil W.I the FER 680 FEZ Fermentation (Lat.) When cnrtatn vegetablo lubRtunces nra dUfiolved in water, and tulijected to a due temperiiture (lietween (55° and fi5°), thpy undergo a Heriea of changes which terminate in the production of alcohol or Hplrit ; theie changes constitute the phe- nomena of rim»i» frrmenUUiim. Sugar and some fe. ■ roent are essential to the process ; and during Mm formation of the alcohol the sugar disappears, and carbonic acid is more rr less aliundunlly evolved. The simplest case of fermentation is that of mu»t, or of the expressed juice of the grape, which, when exposed, either In c'ose or open vessels, to a temperature of almut 70", soon logins to give off carbonic acid, and to become turbid and frothy ; after a time a scum col- lects upon the surface, and a sediment is deposited ; the liquor which had grown worm gradually cools and clears, lose' its sweet taste, and is converted into wine. The chief component parfs of must are water, sugar, mucilage, gluten, and tartar. During the fer- mentation carbonic add escapes, the suga' disappears, and with it the greater part of the mucilage ; the gluten chiefly forms th« scum and a portion of the sediment; and the tartar, originally in solution, is thrown down in the form of u colored deposit. It op- penrs, therefore, that the new products, which are alcohol and rnrionic acid, are principally formed at the expense of the sugar ; and Gay Lussac's experiments have shown that ■15 pounds of sugar are resolved, in the process of fermentation. Into 2.1 of alcohol and 22 of carbonic acid. Sugar and water alone will not ftr- ment ; the ingredient requisite to the commencement of the change Is the gluten, which absorl)s in the first instance a little oxygen from the air, becomes insolu- ble, and induces the subsequent changes. The reason wliy grapes never ferment till the juice is expressed, seems to depend upon tlio exclusion of air t)y the husit or membranes j and If grapes !« bruised in a perfectly close vessel, carefully excluding oxygen, the juice undergoes no change ; so that the mere breniiing down of the texture of the ft'uit is Insufficient. But a very short exposure of the pulp to air is sufficient to induce that change in the juice which leads on to fermenta- tion, and -Arhlch is afterward independent of the further contact of air, the evolution of curbthe alcohol into water, and soflffects the change into vinegar. Fern, or Farn Islands, a group of small islets or roclis, 17 in number, lying off the coast of Northum- berland, but included in the county of Durham. There ore two light-houses on these islands. It was here, in 1888, that Grace Darling and her father, in stormy weather, rescued the passengers of the Forjnrshint steamer. The Fern Islands are frequented by im- mense numbers of sea-lilrds. 'rernando de Noronba, an island In the South At antic, lying almut 70 leagues fn-r". the coast of Br.iiiil. It Is about 20 miles In circumference, and the. ,-.'.7f:;ce is rugged ond mountainous. It has seve- ral harlmrs defended by forts, and serves as a place of lianishment for criminals from Brazil, N, lot. 3° 56', W, long. 82° 28'. Fernando Po, or Femao do Pao, an island on the west coast of Africa, lying in the Bight of Benin, alwut 20 miles firom the main.and. In N. Ut. tfl W, K. long. H° W. It is almut 44 miles in length ftam N.N.K. to 8.S.W., and about 20 in bnadth. The coasts are steep and rocky, and the Interior is mount- nous. A ridge cf mountains toward the centre of me island rises to the height of 8000 feet, and is tarmU nated at each extremity by a peaked mountain, tha one at the northern extremity attaining a height of 10,700 feet. The southern extremity of the island la also intersected l>y several steep mountains, var}'ing from 1,000 to 8,000 feet. These mountains are cov- ered, most of them to their summits, together with the Intervening vuUeys, with dense forests of sbnilM and lofty trees of luxuriant growth. The rocks are of volcanic origin, and the soil Is rich and fertile, produc- ing rice, s: gar-cane, cotton, tol>acco, yams, palms, etc. Sheep, goats, fowls, turtle, and fisli, are abundant The climate is salulirious, though the rainy season lasts from May to December, and Is succeeded by a season of dense fogs. The harbors are small, the largest lieing Port Clarence on the northern shore. This island wos discovered in 1471 l>y a Portuguese navigator, whose name It bears. It was taken posses- sion of l>y Spain in 1778, but oliandoned in 1782. The English In 1827 formed a settlement here, but relin- quished It in 1884 ; the Spaniards resumed ^ssesslon of it in 1844, and have given it the name of Piiertn d« Iinhrl. The native population is estimated at about 15,000. Ferrol, a seapurt town of Spain, province of Co- ruflo, and one of the first novol arsenals in the king^ dom, is situated on the N. arm of the Bay of Betanxos, 12 miles north-west of the town of CoruAa. The har- bor, which is one of the best In Europe, is deep, capa- cious, and secure ; but the entrance, which is a strait alwut two miles In length at the narrowest part, only admit", one ship at a time, and Is commanded on either side by strong forts, Tlie town Is protected on the land-side by a wall, on which 200 cannon might be mounted. The dockyard is divided into two parts, the outer being the smaller, and the whole occupying a space of more than 116,000 square yards. Behind the inner dock are the dwellings of the operatives, and in the north angle are the founderies, rope-walks, and magazines. They ore all, however, as well as the arsenal, in a neglected and ruinous condition. Perry (Germ, and Sox. fnhren, to pass over), in law, right arising trom royal grant or prescription to have a boot to carry men and horses across a river, and to le>7' reasonable toll. The land on both sides ought to l)elong to the owner of the ferry-boats. Fescue graaa, a valuable grass for meadows and pastures. {Festuca pralenait, I.in.) In deep, rich soils, somewhat moist, it is considered as the moat bulky and nutritive of all grasses ; but In poorer soils It is equaled, if not surpassed, by the rye grass (/.o- lium perenne), and the meadow foxtail grass {Aleopecti- riii pralentii). The meadow fescue grows to the height of between 2 and 8 feet ; but the sheep fescue (>', ovana), and several other species, seldom grow nlwve 6 Inches or a foot in height, and are chiefly sown on sheep pastures, and used to lay down lawns and grassy surfaces to l>e mown in pleasure grounds. All the fescues are perennials. Fes, an extensive country of Africa, and at one time the most flourishing kingdom in the northern part of that continent. It now however, forms a province of the empire of Morocco. Fez, or Fat the capital of this kingdom, was built in 798, A. D., by a prince named Edris, and having soon risen to i>e a city of the first magnitude, became the capital of the western Mo- hammedan states. In tlie 12th century it is sold to have contained 700 temples and mosks, und otiier pul>- llc edifices, a number of which wore erected upon a magnificent scale, and adorned with a profusion of marble pillars. The manufactures of Fez consist of woolen hhaiki, sashes, and silk handkerchiefs, slippers no 660 FEL )f HMNl laatlMr, wbkb tlwy Un nmarkahly well, rwl (•It e»pt, •vfii* rutm lln«ii cloth, tine <'*r|i«U, a euri- ett* hinil of Milhrnwani, waaiiunn of anvKral kioiln, taddloni' wan, Jawelry, ami copper utniiiiilit. Tlie arts Imiw And little •nciiuriiK«ment, ami ar«, inilwil, fur in- farlnr to thoM uf Kuro|i«, except in the preparatiun uf Ualher, eml In Ihe fabrication of car|iets and uf hlinlka, whioh the manufacturen know how to weavn a> line Mil oe trant|»nint an gtuM. They are aleo ex|i«rt worker* In wax, w(ui|K>nii, and harnene. The heat during Ihe •iininier In very gnat ; but In other aeo- ione of the year, particularly winter, the climate in aitreealile. With regard to the numlwr of Inhaliitunti, munh dllTeience of opinion prevaila anions travrlcm. nbr* (Ul./frni), a tine thread or lilanient ; a One •lender body, aurh aa thoae of which fleah, nervra, planta, rnota, etc., are compoaed. In our manufao tnrea veifetadle Hlamenta and flbrea are anionir the moet Important of the whole aerie* of raw produce ; fumlahlnK thread, cloth, conlaRe, anil the like. Kor Iheea purpoeea the tHainrntoua porta of the Oottypium CoHmtbu, and Linvm, oi ared In the Kaat from Ihe lilirea of the bark of certain treea boiled In a atrong lye. Home of theaa cloth* are very line, anil approach to the aoftnea* of *ilk, but in dura- bility fall abort of cotton ; othera, a(;ain, ure coaraer and otronKer, and much exceed cotton in durability. Mee Ki.Ax. ltd, a abort bar of wood or Iroc put through the heel or lower part of a topnuut, and reatlng by Ita endu on the treatletree*, and on which Ihe maat 1* therefore •upported. When the topmafit la to be got down, it la flnt lifted to take the pleasure off the tid, which la then withdrawn. Fid, or ■plloing-fld, la alao a aharp cone of wood fur opening the iitran4a of rope. ' Flddlaa, or VlolilM (Uer. IWi'iwfi, iifigett ; Pu. ViouUni Fr. Vuiloiu; It. Violinif Sp. Viuliner t Kua. Skripuii), muKical Instrument*, too well known to need any pnrtlcular deacription. The fineat-toned vio- llna are thoae uiiide in Italy; they are uaually called (/'remonaa, from the name of the town where they were formerly inanufactureil in the higheat perfection ; $6nO and more have not unfreijuently been given for a flrat-rate Cremona violin. Figa (tin. Frign; Du. Vygn; Fr. Figuri; It. f'irhi ! Hp. //<#»« ; Lat. f'ici, Caricm ; Arab. Tern), the fruit of the lig-tree (f'ieut ran'ca), a native of Asia, but early Introduced into Europe. It flouriahps in Turkey, tjreece, France, Spain, Italy, and northern Africa, and even aometime* ripen* It* fruit in the open air in thia ^.oinitry, ^'.' ^, when ripe, are, for the must part, dried in ovens to preaerve them i anil then packed very cluacly in the amall cheat* and iHwketa in which we import them. The beat come from Turkey ; those of KaUmata, in the Morea, are aaid to lie the moat luscious. — Thum- Niin'e Jjitprntatoiy, Dried flga form a very considerable article of com- merce in I'rovenre, Italy, and .Spiiin ; lieaides affording, ■« In the F^al, a principal articlo of sustenance for the population. In Hpaiii, tig* are chiedy exported from Andalusia and Valencia ; but they are more or leaa abundant in every province. In the northern parts of France there are many fig gardens, particularly at Argentenll. Figure Head. The figure, statue, or bust, on the projoctiiig part of thd head of a ship, colled tka cut- woter. Flgnrea, In Arithmetic, are the numeral charac- ter*, or ten digits, by which numbers ore expressed. They are aupposeil to be of Indian origin, and to hove been Introduced into Europe by the Moors of Spain in the IBIh century ; but the data of their Introduction I* much diaputvd. Filbert, or Fllberd, the well-known fruit of Ihe cultivated hazel nut, or Ciirylm artllana, U a aeed> vessel incloaed within an Involucre or cupule, which is the part commonly called the husk. This organ la of Ihe same nature aa the cup of Ihe oak, and the prickly cane In which the nuti of the aweet chestnut and the mast of the Iwecli are inclosed. In the filbert it is much larger than In Ihe common nut ; and it la this charui'trr, together with the lengthened figure of Ihe dul, which distinguishes the two races of nuts and Hlliert*. The beat known varletle* of the Hlliert aru Ihe red, the friialed, and the white, the latter being the kind moat commonly grown. File, Fllea (Da. /'i/« , Du. lyfrn; Kr. £imn ; Oer. Frilen; It. /.I'mr), an InatrumenI of Iron or forged ateel, cut In little furrows, uaed to polish nr smooth metnl*, tlmlier, and other hard liodles. Files are uf various forms, size*, and cuts, according to the uses to which they are to l>e applied. When the surface Is cut in transverse furrows by a straight sharp-edged chisel and mallet, the Instrument la properly called a file ; but when it Is ralaed by a triangular punch, it ia termed a rasp. ThI* laat kind is chiefly employed for rubbing wood and horn. The larger kind of files are maile of blistered steel ; but the small and fine files of cant steel. Various ingenious machines have been contrived for cutting the teeth of tiles, liut those have not hith- erto succeeded so well as to supersede file-making by the hand. After the flie has Iwen cut It must undergo the process of tempering. This Is sold to be well effected in the following manner: A saturated Bolutl'.)n of common salt, stiffened to the consistence of cream with ale grounds, or with any cheap farinaceous mut- ter, such aa beaa-flour (some use wcU-iIrled chimney- soot), is to be spread over tho file. In order to preserve its Burfoce from oxydallon during the process ; it is then uniformly heated in u coke or charcoal fire to a cherry-red color ; and on its removal from the fire it Is to be suddenly quenched in cold and pure spring water. It ia sulMei|Uently cleanod with charcoal and a rag ; after which it is laid up in wheat bran to preserve it from rust. When the file ia intended to cut iron or steel. It Is found preferable to substitute animal carbon for tho grounds or farinaceous mutter mentioned above. Thin will give even to iron a superficial hardness suiH- cieut for any kind of file. Filigree, or FlUagree (Ital. filifffano; Lut. filum, a thread, unil granum, a grain), a very dellcjte kind of ornamental work In gold or silver, wrought in the manner of little threads, or threads and grains in- termixed. Filigree work is of eastern origin, uiiil was first introduced Into F.iimpe by the Italians. In .Sumatra, manufactures of this kind have lieen carriid to the highest degree uf perfection, and yet Ihe tools employed ore exceedingly coarse and clumsy. These are generally rudely and inurtiflciully formed from any piece of old iron. A piece of Iron hoop suffices fur nmkiii); the wire-ilr,iwing instrument; an old hum- mer head, stuck in u liluck, serves as an nnvil ; and twu old nails, tied together at one end, will suffice for a pair of compasses. The gold is melted in a piece of preriH) or earthen rice-pot, or sometimes in o crucililo of ordinur}- diiy. In general no liellowa are used, liut the fire is blown with the mouth, through a Joint of liamlxx) ; and if the quantity of metal to be melted is considerable, three or four persons sit round the fur- nace, which is an old broken quiilleii or iron pot, und blow together. At Padung, where the manufacture is most considerulile, they have adopted Ihe Chinese bel- lows. The method of drawing the wire diflfers but little from that whicli is used by European workmen. When drawn to a suflicient frneness, it is flattened by Iwating it on the anvil ; and when flattened, a twist is given to it by rubbing it on u block of wood with a flat stick. After twisting they again beat it upon the FIL 601 FIN Lilt. il«Uc:ite uui;ht in ;raiii» in- fill, untl mis. Ill i-arrli'il the tixiU Tlu'sc from any ffiies fur ilil ham- ivll i anil mfflco for piece i)f crucililo used, liut _ joint of melted is the fur- pot, and ifacturc is Ineso bel- Affers hut nforkmcn. itened by a twint is with a Hat upon the •nTll, ind thus It twcomm flattmiml win with InAontod pdgM. The end of the wire Ih fnldml down with a pair of plni'em, and thus In 'irtnod n leaf, or element of a lliiwer, which ia cut off. The end 1« attain folded and cut off till they have a aufflclent nnnilMir of leavea, which are laid on nlnKly. I'attemii of the Aowem or f(illa((e, in which there la aeldom mncli variety, are prepared on paper of the Kile of the gnUi plate on which tho tlli)(n>e iit to lie laid. According to thene, tliey liegin to di«|HMe on the plate the largrr compart- mentii c. part. When the filigree is finished they cleanse it ' y boiling It In water with common salt and alum, or sometimes lime juice ; and In order to give it that fine purple color which they called mpo, they lioll It in water mixed with brim- stone. The manner of making the little balls with which their works are sometimes ornamented, is sim- ple. They take u piece of charcoal, and having cut it flat and smooth, make in it a small hole, which they fill with gold dust, and thia lieing melted in the fire becomes a little ball. They are very inexpert at fin- ishing and polishing the plain ]iarts, hinges, screws, and the like, lieing in this as much excelled by the European artists as the latter fall short of them in the fineness and minuteness of the foliage. The Chinese also make filigree, mostly of silver, which looks ele- gant, but wants the extraordinary delicacy of the Malay work. The price of the wnrkm.inship depends U|ion the difficulty or uncommonness of the pattern. In some articles of usual demand it does not exceed one third of the value of the gold, but in mattera of fancy it ia generally equal to that of the metal. In India, the articles usually made in gold and silver filigree are bracelets, ear-rings, brooches, chains, groups of flowers, and small boxes and caskets. Mr. Taylor, in his " Account of the Arts in India," sa}'s; " The design liest adapted for displaying the delicate work of filigree is that of a leaf ; it should be drawn on stout patier, and of the exact size of the article in- tended to be made, Tha apparatuii used in the art is exceedingly simple, consisting merely of a few small crucililes, a piece of bamlioo for a blow-pipe, small hammers for flattening tho wire, and sets of forceps for interweaving it. The gold and silver wire made by the Hindoos for this and other purposes is of varicil cliaracter, according to the purposes for which it is in- tended ; thus, the goolrhatoon is made at Dacca for the cmWroidering of muslins and silks ; gotkuo for caps and fur covering the handles of chowries ; lalmnk for tur- bans, slippers, and hookah-snakes ; and hooiun for gold lace and brocades. For some of these purposes it is not strictly wire, but gold thread, that is, ailk covered with silver and then wHh gold."— E, B. mi. The sM term tot bracing a yard which hod been laid aback, so that the wind may act on the aftar or proper nide of the sail. Flneas* (Kr.) may be defined almply as • peculiar aptitude of discovering, in any business, the best means of attaining the olijeit in view t or as the |Miwer of embracing In one comprehensive glancn I he vartooi interests of any subject, together witli iiit;pnuity to devise and tact t.i carry out the plan liest ciil> ulatcd to olitaiii success. Finland, called by the natives Snomminn, the He- giiiti of Lakes and Swamps, is a government of Kua. sia, comprising, Iwsliles tlie old SwiMlish province of Finland, the two I^pmarks of Kami and Tornek, and the district of WilHirg. It iiea between N. lat. 69° M)' and 7t)° 6', and E, long. 20° 80' ami nj^ 45' being lioiindeulf of Bothnia, The great mass of mountains is composed of red granite, and vast quantities of the same rock lie in boulders on the lower grounds, and prove a very serious obstacle to their cultivation. Many of the heights are liare, but the greater part of them being of moderate elevation are covered with forests chiefly of pine ; and in their combination witli the va't num- l>er of lakes inclosed by their bases, often form very romantic scenery. The extensive forests are some- times devastated by the tempests of winter, which seem to find access to their rer}- centres in tornadoes, tearing up liy the roots or liending and snapping the largest pines. Frequently also ravagea are committed in them by conflagration occasioned often through the carelessness of tlie peasants. The interior of Finland is also intersected and broken np by a vast numlier of lakes, throwing out winding arms and liranclies in all directions, which, while they offer tho greatest facili- ties for inland navigation, render land traveling circu- itous and dangerous. Many of the high roads pass over islands on these lakes, the natural strength of whose situation has been taken advantage of, to cover them with batteries ; and some of them, aa at Wlborg and Nyslot, are considered impregnable, save to fraud or famine. The principal of these lakea are I.ad( it>«lf at th* niirtharn •xtrKiiiity of the (iiilf of IhithiiU, unit rornii tb« pnMnt ImunrUry IwlvMn Hwotiin aiiil Kunila. TIm cllmct* variai much lu-ninilivt to th* Imitllty. In Lapnwrk, in thii north, it in poUr «ini«wh*t muth at rUalmrK, winlar li«||lnii In Oilolicr and cimtlnurt tut tha midilla of Auguat. During aummar, howuvrr. Ilia priiKrau of r«|(atatliin la raniarkaldy rapid : and than hava baan instanraa iif grain Iwing aown and n>tt|>a«in){ of Hva or aix mimthit' dura- tion. Uanaa foga ara fra<)uant, and haavy ralnii taka pUca in autumn. The Mill la for tha moat part atony or aandy i but mithwlthitanding thin It la much mora pnductlva than the op|MMita |i*rt of the 8i:andinavlan pantnaula, anil whan In tha poaaamiun of 8w«den it waa tarmpd tha granary of that country. Tha princi- pal crupa ara barlay and ry», hut owing to tha natiira of tha aurfaca and cllmata a large (Kirtlon of the land ia At only fur paature. In the north, where vagrtatlon la aimoat ronllned to the growth of moaa and lichen, other domestic animal;* are iiu|i«raadiid liy the reindeer, of which great herd* are kept. In odili'iim to timlier (chiaSy flr), large quantltlea of potoah, |iii<'h, and ruain are olitalneort. The mineral pnxluctions ara chiefly contined to inm, lead, sulphur, alata, and granite. The llrat la only wrought lo a limited extent for the supply of a few furnaces; wrought Iron being now principally inv- ported fnnn 8weliak recently ■fccted in Ht. Petersliurg to the Km|)eror Alexander. In its rough state it was 12 feet in diameter, and HO feet in length. The manufacturea of Finland are in- signilicant. Agriculture, the raaring of cattle, and Ashing are the princi|Hil occupations of the Inhabit- snla. The coasts present many good harbors, but on account of the long winter tbey can not l>e extenaiveiy usad. In winter sledges alTord an easy iind rapid communication with diflerant parts, and ev<'n witli Sweden acroas the (iulf of Bothnia. In Marck. Vm, Barclay de Tolly croaaad over with a divisiu.i uf the Rnaaian army from Voaa to Umea in .Sweden. From ofHciol documents the returns of the tnuln uf Finknd for the year 1848, were, in silver raaliies uf the Tolua of about 3a. 2d., oa followa : Exroara. To flweden anil Vorway I»T,MI ' To olhereonntriea 1,MMM Kxport duty on the same SS,TM Total 1,\'».HI) \ iMron*, Trem Sweden and Norway 4l)0,SM From other oountiias. S,I23,.'W0 Deduct Import duty thereon >tM,SOO ToUl 2,6«0,4S« Showing an excess in the imports over the exporta of . . ....ai.u •••n 476,816 rpublca, which, however, woa in part covered (.'hriatianity _ bjr tba frai){ht aariMd by the uarcbanl shippinK. The I Peter Um Ureat in V'il, and the reautinder uf tlu alMiva statamanti Indtcala ■ falling olT ■■ eompartd with former years In tha ex|iurt trade to Norway ami Hweilen. To these two countries tlia laadiiig artiilaa iif export and thair value wera— liah, 'i.1,&(IV riiulilas i hides, MIH | liaaf, M.AiH j grain, lA.UHU j tallow, U(),8(K)| tar, 1I,4H.'I| llrawixKl, 11,483. I'ha im|NirU wsr»— iMMika, Iti.'JOU muliles i Ash, 'iA,'i2H ; iron and ati'nl, •iM,H7»; sugar, tM,4IH| tobacco, 4*177 i dy» wiHids ami atufTs, 2M,II!I0. The *X|iorta to other coun tries ware alao lass than in former yaara \ the chief articles ware— (HiUsh, lll,7U:i roubles ; butter, 1n:|,4I)U ( tar, l)-.'4,7i; | womi and timber, U2l,;i0l). Ttte chiiif Im- ports from other countries were — medicinaa, 'iU,U14 roubles t cotton, liW,aiH ; arrack, rum, brandy, in0,71>4 ; coffee, MI7,7llN| fruits, llNI,(U'i | dyv-atufTs, liM.riOt) } yarn, :UII,UUIt { iron and steel, NU,7U0 ; salt, &.'<1,n under the Finnish flag. None but a native Finlandvr can hold any olHcu of trust in the country. Almost all the inhabitants aro Lutherans under the bislio|ia of Abo and Uorgo, ex- cept in the circle of W'iborg, where they belong to the Russian church. I'ublic education is in a very baik- warl state. At llelsingfors is a university, trans- ferred from AIk) In 1828; and all the towns have schools, but there is ■ great doflciency of country schools. The majority of the inhabitants are Kins, who call themselves Hwtnxalafu or Huonwt, but they ore denominated Tschuiles by the Kunsiana. They are of middle height, robust, flat-fiiced, with promin- ent chieok-lMmes, light, reddish, or yellowish-brown hair, gray eyes, little beard, and it dull sallow com- plexion. They nre cse nilies of a coar-ie manufacture, secured by a silken cincture like the kummtrbvad of the Mu^»lll- mans. The eight Una with their areas and populu- tiuns are as follows, commencing from the south and Mst: Arts. PopulAlloii. Wlbonr 1«,T0« 994,n)l W Mli-lbaal 9,«T1 lHft,Ml Nyland 537« 140.714 Tavastebaus 7,119 VHJM K\m 10,cndent kings tilt tlie twi'll'tli century, alwut the middlo of wliich Finland was Lunquered by the Swedes, who introduced The province uf Wiborg was seized by -j^'.^ijij^iikiSan- UrJji wxra tlia Ural nation wbu urnieil Uta fuut uiliUar with thioa waa|Mina. — l/tliia. Vullalm atatua, that Iha Vanallinia wara lli« tlrat tu uaa KUi»i In an iinxaKaniant «l a«a aKttlnat tba (ianuaaa, In lil< 7 i liul iiur liiaturlana ■lUrin that Iha ICnKllah hail guna at Iha lialtia of Oaaaay, In 1:M(I ; anil tha yaar fulluwlng at the alaga of C'aluia. Flr«-en(ln«, • apwlaa of furclnit-punip In whioh tha wiitar la auhjactail lo prnaaura aufllvlantly atrung to r»ia« it III th« rri|ulra, TJie mpchunical arrange- mant of tliia mitchinu cunKinta uf two cylindvra of •liout aix Inchea in ilUniatnr, una of tlioni balng tha iUain-i'vlindrr, and the other thn wuter-punip ; 'and Ihcy am plucad huiliuntaliy, ao that a |>iirallal motion la eoxily ulituined. An angina uf thia kind will d«- liver kIhiuI IIOINI guiluna an huur to tha height of '.10 feet. 'I'liu time of gi-tting the engine into ui'lion from the miinitMil of Igniting the fuel (the water lieiiig cold), ta leaa than ten minutea. Mr. MIloa (ireenwood, of Cincinnati, luude, In \Hbi, the llrat auccewful practical appllcallun of the ateaiu tire-engine; and enginrx ^ii hia conatructlon are now in uae In ',(:■»' li, 8t. I^uia, and many other large citiea. Fire-damp, the o.xploaive carliureUo.. hydrogen of I'lial niinea. Heo .Sakktv I.ami'. rirelook, or Fuall. A niu«k«« ur «mall gun, which la tired with u Hint and kUk] . ami thereby dli- tingulalied from the old niU!!' the inventiun of flrelockn la uncertain. Fire-ships. They were urat uaed In tlie aixteenth century. Among the moat turinidable contrivancea of thi* kinil ever uaed, waa an expluaiun veaael to deatroy ■•bridge of Imuta at thn aiege of Antwerp^ in 1&8&. The lirat use of thrm in the Engliah navy waa by Charlea, Kurd lluwuni of KfBnghain, afterward earl of Noltint;liam, lord high admiral of KngUnd, In the engtgeinenl with the Spaniah Armada, July, 1S88. — Xapiu. Fireworks. (Fan d'nrtijicr, Fr. ( Ffuerwirkf, Germ.) The rompoaltion of luininoua devices with •xplosive cuinliuatiMua la a modern art reaulting from the discovery uf gun|iowdar, Tha Unevt Inveiittona of thla kind are due to the celebrated Kugglari, father «nd son, wbu exemted in Koine and Paris, and tha principiil capitals iii' Kurupe, the nio«t brilliant nnd beautiful liraworks thiit were ever seen. Tbe follow- ing description of their procasaea will probably prove interesting to many of my readers ! The three prime materials of this art are, nitre, sul- pbur, and cbareosl, along with filings of iron, steel, copper, 7,ii)c, and rsaiu, camphor, lyoopodium, etc. Gunpowder is used either in grain, half crushed, or finely ground, for different purposes. The longer the iroD-Ullngs, tlie brighter r«d and wbit« sparks they give) thuae being preferred which are maila with • very coarsa Ale, and quite fra« from rual. Hteel-rtlinga anil raat-irun Imrltiga contain carlNiii, and alTunl • more brilliant lire, with wavy radiations. 4 Nipper- ftlinga give a grseuinb lint In Haiuei tliosa uf aine • line lilue color \ the aulpburet uf antlniuny givaa a laaa gneniah iiliia than sine, but with uiuih suiuksi amlier afTiirda yelbiw fire, aa well ua nilii)ihiiny, and ciimnioit aalt I but tha laat inuat lie very dry, Ijimplilai'k pro- ducea a very red color with gun|Hiwder, and a pink with nitre in exceaa, tl serves fur making gulden showers. The yellow aand or gIMsning inicii, cum- inunicalaa lu Hrewurka golden raili.itiona. Vanllgrli im|i«r< : a |>al« gr*«u \ sulphate uf lupiwr and aui-ain- muiiiac, a palm-tree grren. t'ampliur yiebia a very white Hama and aMiiuitlc fumea, which iniuik tbe biul ainell uf other aubalancea, llenmin and aturax ani uaed also im account uf their agrrnable wlur. I.yco- poilium liuriis with a rose culur and a iniignlllcenl flame ; but It is principally eiiipluyad in thealrea tu repreaent lightning, or lo charge Iha torch of a fury. Firkin, a meaaura of cu|NU:lly, equal to 1) ala gal- luna, or 7^ Imperial gsliuna, ur ^liiiM cubic Inchea, tie* WkiiIIITS and MK.iHIIHKit, Firlut, u dry meaaure u»ed In Nuulland, Tha Liil- lltliguw wheat llrlol ia tu the Imperial buahel as 'tlUt) lo 1 ; and the LInllthguw li.irley llrlul Is lo the Impe- rial bushel BS 1 ■'ISlI lu 1. itee Wkidiith anii Mka- aUHM. Firmsu (mora properly h'rrmAn), In the Persian language, signifies a cuinmund, and is tha name given lu Turkey, I'ersla, and India, to mandiitea ur ccrtlH- elites uf the sovereign, issued for variuua purposes. Those beat known to Kurupeana are given tu travelers, and servu us piiaa|Kirts. Tlie Kermuii has placed at Ita heml In Turkey the cipher of the reigning Sultan, written in u cumplicaled manner, affixed by the chief sucretary of the sign manual. In the East Indies, the term finnan U used fur a written permission to trade. Flso (l.ut. Jucui), lu Cieit Law, the treasury or revenue of a state. Fiscus, In its primary sense, de- noted a bosket ur hana|ier used by the Itomana f>" hulding large sums uf money, and hence was appj i to tt money-cheat ur a purse. Under the cni|wrurs tlie term tiscus came to be applied to the imperial revenue or privy purse, in contradistinctiuu tu liioirruniim or public treasury. L'ltiinately, when the emperura had concentrutod in themselves the whole sovervign pow- er, the word Dscus lust ita distinctive churncter, and was used in the same sense as lerurium under the re- public, Variuus oOicers were einpli>> ed in the admin- istratinn of the flscus ; as prucuraturvs, advui ati, pa- truni, and prasfoctl. Krom flic. Is derived the v.urd contlacatlun, which signiAes to take the giMHls of ■ condemned [lerson and apprupriate them to the public treasury. Fiscal Tear. The fiscal year of the United States formerly ended un Slat Diivniber, and up to tbe year 1H|:1, on ;UHh Septe • , but Cungreas en- acted, August '.'Ii, 18-12, "Tb.;i un and after the first day of July, in tliu year of nur Lord 1843, the fiscal year of the treasury uf the X'j ited States, in all mat- ter* uf accounts, recei)its, exiM* 'iilitures, estimates, and appropriations, sluill cummence on the first day of July in each year; and the reports and estimates required to be prepared and laid before Congress at the commencement uf each session by tbe Secretary uf the Treasur)-, in obedience to the acts of Congress, of the 2d of September 17HD, and of May lOtli, 18UU, shall be a report and estimate for each fiscal year, commencing ua afuresaid, and terminating on the 30tb day of June, in the succeeding calendar year." Fish (Ger. Fuchef Du. I'uscAeu; I)a. and 8w. I'iili; Fr. PoiuofU; It, Petci; >• ^. Petcadoi j Port. J'eixe$! Rus. Hiih; Pol. Rybi; Lat. Piseti), a term used in natural histor}- to denote every variety of an- iiual inhabiting sets, rivers, lakes, ponds, etc., that FI8 664 TIS tui not •xiat for any eoniidenilile tfane ont of the water. But in a commercial point of y{ew, thoae flthea only are referred to, that aro caught by man, and naed either ae food or for some other useful pur* pose. Of these, herring, salmon, cod, pilchard, mack- erel, turbot, lobster, oyster, whale, etc., are among the nioet important. See the different articles nnder these titles. As the Mods of a plant are nomerooa enongfa to In- sure an Immense progeny if even a small percentage of them be properly managed, so do fishes produce eggs in such number as might siwn overstoclt the wa- ters, were there not destructive agencies at hand. It is not improbable that we are on the eve of valuable improvements in the management of lish. It has been found that trout and other valuable fish have de- clined in some of the French rivers ; and on carefhl investigation it has been made apparent that not one egg In a hundred comes to maturity — the rest being devonred l)y other fish, washed away, or destroyed iiy mud. Two French fishermen, observing these facts, resolveti on an attempt to collect some of the trout- eggs, and to secure the young fish from the voracity of the larger ones ; they did so, and placed the eggs oh ■ layer of gravel, which they deposited in a box Aill of holes. This box they fixed in the bed of a flowing stream, and covered it with pebbles, thus far imitating the practice of the mother-fish. In due time the eggd excluded, and almost every one was found to be good. Several hunclnd fish were thus obtained, which were kept in water free of danger, ami supplied with food. Applying this operation the next year to a great numtwr of fish, they obtained several thousand trout ; and in a year or two more the number had in- creased to millions. The rivers in many departments of France were supplied fVom this artificial source ; and the French government are now encouraging the sys- tem in every way. Not only trout, but salmon, carp, pike, tench, and perch, are thus preserved ; and, more- over, the system has enalded fish of different specien to be naturalized in strange waters, or removed from river to river. Fisheriea. The fisheries may be divided into deep-sea and shore fisheries. The latter are. of course, under the control of the nation owning the shore along whose line the fish are caught. But the deep-sea fish- eries and the ownership of discovered shore-lines, have always given rise to disputes and quarrels. It has, however, been settled tbst a nation has exclusive con- trol and right over the shore fislierirs extending three miles from the coast ; giving, sometimes, nnder certain restrictions, a right for other nations to use the shore for the purpose of curing and packing the fish caught Iwyond three miles of the shore. Although fishing is an ancient and honorable em- ployment, fisheries were not of much importance nntn after the discoverv- of Newfoundland. Holland had fls'reries of some note in the 15th century ; but owing to the state of maritime knowledge they were much confined ; when, however, Newfoundland was discovered, an almost magical change took place. In the library' of Venice there is a map, which authorizes the conjecture that land was found before 1436. But little was known until 1497, when Cabot made his first voyage. From this time voyages were made in pur- suit of codfish at irregular periods, until the latter part of the 16th century, when enterprise and capital tie- came plenty. Colonies were forme ;r- sery of seamen, even at that early age, that laws were enacted in 1H.53 to prevent persons from eatinj; meat Wednesdays and Saturdays except under a license, so that fisheries might lie increased. The great benefit from the fisheries was fi-om the Mriy colonization of this country. It is questionable I whether w* thonld not hare been quite a emtory h»i hind in this, had it not been for colonies (bunded on onr coast! by the flihennen. The first direct voyage made by the Enf(lish was in 1G02, and the vessel catch- ing codfish near the southern cape of Massachusetts, gave the name It yet hears. The disputes in regard to fishing have disturbed commerce since this country was discovered. A ftall account of the disputes and treaties settling then, can be found in the able report of Lorenzo Sabine, Esq., to Congress in lfl62. We can notice but one or two affecting onr own country. In 1782, Adams, FVanklin, Jay, and Lan- rena were commissioners to negotiate a treaty with Great Britain, which contained this article : " It is agreed that the people of the United States shall continue to enjoy, unmolested, the right to take fish of every kind on the Grand Bank, and on all the other banks of Newfoundland ; also, in the Gulf of St. I^awrence, and at all other places in the sea where the inhabitants of Imth countries used at any time heretofore to fish ; and also, that the inhabitants of the United States shall have lilierty to take fish of every Irind on such port of the coast of Newfoundland aa Britiah fishermen shall use (but not to dry or cure the same on that island), and also on the coasts, bays, and creeks, of all other of his Britannic majesty's domin- ions in America ; and that the American fishermen shall have lilierty to dry and cure fish in any of the unsettled haj'S, harbors, and creeks of Nova Scotia, Magdalene Islands, and Labrador, so long as the same shall remain unsettled ; but so soon as the same, or either of them, shall be settled, it shall not lie lawfhl for the said fishermen to dry or cure fish at such set- tlement, without a previous agreement for that pur- pose with the inhabitants, proprietors, or possessors of the ground." Notwithstanding the position taken by Messrs. Ad- ams, Clay, Bayard, and Gallatin, at Ghent, that our treaty rights were not abrogated liy the war, the Brit- ish government revived their pretension to the contra- ry immediately after the peace. An American vessel was fallen in with by an armed ship, the J quires the evidence of the loss of the vessel to be transmitted to the (,'omptroller for his decision thereon. Under the act of March 8, 1849, this duty has been transferred to the C!ommissioner of the Customs, to whom the proof, certified by the collector of the dis- trict to which the vessel belonged, should be sent for his official direction thereon. " Instructions will be given in due season in regard to the mode of payment of bounty allowances, at and after the close of the year. To obviate any respon- sibility which might otherwise devolve on collectors, should such payments be made upon proof regarded us insufficient under the present instructions, it will bo advisable that probable claimants to fishing-bounty allowances lie apprized, before the sailing of vessels on their first cod-fishing voyage, of the requirements of these instructions, which are intended to supersede and supply the place of all former instructions on this subject. TuoMAa Gorwin, Secretarg of the Treasury." We make the following extracts from Sabine's able Report on the American ti>hcries : Cod-JUhery of France. — The French were the first European cod-fishers in the American seas. There is a tradition among the fishermen of Biscay that their countr}-mcn visited Newfoundland lieforo the time of Columbus. It is said, indeed, that the great discov- erer was informed of the fact by a pilot who had lieen engaged in the enterprises. The story, improbable aa it is, seems to have been treated with respect by some writers of the 16th century, but may be dismissed now as one which rests upon no clear and authentic testi- mony. But that the Newfoundland fisheries were known to the Biscayans and Normans as early as the year 1504, is quite certain. When Cabot discovered our con- tinent, Kurope, including England, was Catholic ; and during the fusts of the church, the pickled herring of Holland was the principal food. The consumption of fish r-as immense ; and the Dutch, having enjoyed the monopoly of the supply, had becoint Immensely rich. The knowledge communicated by Cabot and the voy- agers who fallowed him, that the waters of America contained, not only an abundance, but many varieties of fish, gave rise to an excitement on the sulijcct of fishing hardly less intense than is witnessed ut the present time relative to mining. Persons of the high- est rank, anil not engaged in commercial pursuits, be- came shareholders in adventures to the new fishing- grounds. And though the Diitcli refused to abandon the particular fishery liy which they had obtained both wealth and celebrity, vessels wearing the fugs of France, England, Spain, and Portugal cunio annually in search of the cod for nearly a century before a single European colony was founded in America north of the ancient limits of the United States, We have seen that when, in 1778, France embarked in our revolutionari- struggle, her fishermen, absent at Newfoundlandf were recalled to enter her ships of war. The same reliance is placed upon them now. War wni apprehended in 1841, and M. Thiers followed the example of the statesman referred to ; and M. Kodct affirmed that, " witliout the rttotirces which were found in the sailors engaged in the fsheriet, the expedition to Algiers could not hare taken place," TtS 666 FIS These Teaaons an not only lufllolent to jnitify, but to demand, national enconrageraent. But it may be urged, in addition, that the open or deep-sea cod-fishery differs from almost every other employment ; thai in war it is nearly or quite destroyed ; that in peace it can not be pursued for more than four or five months in a year ; that often sltill and industry are insufficient to insure good fares ; and that, when success attends severe toil and exposure, the fishermen barely subsist. The effects of a " bad catch" are, indeed, sad and ca- lamitous. The disasters of 1847 afford a recent and a forcible illustration. In that||-ear the French cod- fishery proved a failure. The quantity of fish caught was scarcely a sixth part of that of former seasons ; and the fishermen, discouraged, abandoned the busi- ness as early as the middle of August. The labor of the summer and the expenses of repairs and of outfits lost, the actual want of food and clothing until another year came round was alone prevented by the bounty allowed by the government. The manner of fishing is now the only topic that need claim attention. It is to be observed that the principal fishing-grounds are three, and that on each there is a difference in the mode of operations and in the size of the vessels. First, tlie fishery on tlio coatts of Newfoundland, which has alwa}'s been considered the most important, as being more certain and employ- ing the greatest number of men. The vessels are of all sizes— from 30 to 200, and even 800 tons. The latter size is, however, rare. When the vessel arrives on the coast, which is generally early in June, she is dismantled. Her boats, wiih two men and a boy in each, are sent out every morning, when the weather will permit, to fixh until night. On the return in the evening, the fish talien are split, salted, and put in "imcAu" or piles; remaining in piles a few days, they are " washed out" and dried until they are fit to ship. These processes are repeated from day to day until the fare is completed, or the season has passed away. Toward the close of September, fishing is sus- pended, and the vessels depart for France or the West Indies. The Grand Bank fisher}* is pursued in vessels of I)e- tween 100 and 200 tons' burden, with two strong cha- loupes, or lioats, to each. From 10 to iO men compose a crew. The vessels proceed first to >St. Pierre, land the shore fishermen and " curers," and thence take position on the banks, anchoring in 70 or 80 fathoms of water. Every thing in readiness, the chaloupes •re launched and sent out at night to place the "ground-lines," to which are attached some four or five thousand hooks. When not too boisterous, these lines are examinai every day, and the fish attached to the hooks split, salted, and placed in the hold of the vessel. Meanwhile, the fish caught on Ixiard by the men not assigned to the boats are treated in tlie same way. The first fare is usually secured in June, and rairied to St. Pierre to be dried. The second fare is cured at the same place ; but the third-'if fortunately there lie another — is commonly carried to France " green." This fishing Is difficult and dangerous. It requires expert and daring men. It is prosecuted in an o|ien, rough, and often a stormy sea, and frequently involves the loss of lioats and their crews. The third fisberj', at St. Pierre and Miquelon, ia liniilar, in some respects, to that between Cape Kay and Cape John, on the coast of Newfoundland. Boats, instead of vessels, are, however, employed in it. The boats of the two islands are between three and four hundre lation of Miquelon at the same time was 6i6, There are several Catholic churches and schools, priests, monks, and nuns. In 1848 a hospital, suf- ficiently commodious to receive upward of 100 sick persons, was erected. The dwellings are of wood. The government-house is of the same materUI, and plain and old-fashioned. The streets are narrow, short, and dirty. The official personages are a gover- nor, a commissary or minister of marine, a harbor mas- ter, and some inferior functionaries. The military, limited by treaty to 50 men, consists of about 80 gem d'annes. Upon the station is a single armed ship, though other armed vessels are occasional visitors. The present light-house was erected in 1845, at a cost of 80,000 francs, and, Tell built of brick, is a, substan- tial edifice. Such are the two islands-^two lsaoubs is ex- tent — which remain to the power that once possessed the whole country liordering on the Mississippi, the limitless regions penetrated by the St, Lawrence ; Acadia, from Canseau, in Nova Scotia, to the Kenne- bec river, in K^Sne ; the island of Cape Breton ; and the hundred other isles of the bays of the northern and eastern possessions. The extent of the French cod-fishery may be esti- mated from the following statisticti : Fbknou Cod-Fishkbt, ; Y..r.. No. of Tcinnjige. Nuidl«r of HMD. QulBUU of Value. IMU IMT "ii • >•■ 1577 ISO .... 1518 150 161B 100 . .., ITill 400 .... 1744 tM .'. . • 27,500 I,44V,500 !!!! 1745 lltO 1T6S 259 24.420 'f>i722 Ko,m •Mi'.m 1778 S64 24,996 lu.128 1774 • • • • • • • • 16,187 t7S« • ■.» • • • • 7,000 426^400 1787 .... «,0fl0 128,890 ... i8!a . , , . ao,954 8,108 .••■ l^«8 184 10,258 3,655 .. .* lt>«4 US 80,999 8,672 I.St 18i« ma 86,172 6,311 *.. . 1826 841 8S,9S8 T,fl«S t ... 1847 887 44,^^)8 8,288 1 ..• 1»2S «Ml 45,094 7,957 • Ci 1S2» 414 60,574 9,428 .... 1830 877 4^088 8.174 1S81 801 85,180 6,148 aoblouo ',.,', ll«88 » « » ■ . • 1 ■ 10,000 >..• ks84 • • • 1 10,000 • t ■ .... 1<.H8 800,000 18i» • • .. HWB 11,499 .... IMl 400 , . ,, 11,900 »... .... 1N8 400 t ■ • t 1S47 .... 12,000 400.000 ;::: i Oxt-jUherg iif iy;<(un,-^Participating in the excite. ment which prevallfd in Europe on tho discovery in the American seas of varieties of fish not previously known or used in the fasts of the Human church, Spain was an early oompctitnr with France and England. Vessels of her flag were certainly at Newfoundland aa soon as the year 1517, 00 years later, the number of her vessels employed in the fishery there is estimated •( 100, Tb« number rapidly Uiuiialsbed. SjrWectei h.: iitv-iCJ- fcJirt L. V .'.^Jf^B.'lUSk^W, FIS 667 FIS Wykt, of Bristol, England, who mad* a voyage to the St. lAwtenct) and Newfoundland in 1693, found only eight Spanish ships in a fleet of upward of 80 sail of French and English vessels. From the remarks of Smith — who Iwcame the Father of Virginhi — it would BH'itn that in the early part of the 17th century, the (Spanish fishery wag pursued with greater vigor tluui at the time last mentioned. But the greater wealth to bo acquired in the gold regioua of South America soon lured the Spaniards from an avocation of so great toil, and of so uncertain rewards. No controversy l)etween Spain and Knglund as to their respective rights to the fishing-grounds ever arose. Spain retired from our waters in peace, and at bar own pleasure. Little is hoard of her in connexion with our subject for quite a centur}', and until the peace of 17C3. Her claim — resting on dixcovory— ever vague and uncertain at the north, had liecome almost as obsolete as that of the King of England to the title of King of France. Still, in the definitive treaty cou- eluded at Paris, she formally renounced " all preten- sions which she has heretofore formed, or might form, to Nova Scotia or Acadia, in all its parts, and guaran- ties the whole of it, and with all its dependencies," and ceded and guarantied to England, " in full right, Canada, with all its dei)endencle8, as well us the islanii of Cape Breton, and all other islands and coasts in the Gulf and River of St. Lawrence; and, in general, every thhig that depends on the said countries, lands, islands, and coasts, with the sovereignty, property, possession, and all rights acquired by treaty or other- wise." \Vtth this treaty the history of the Spanish llpiiei V rica terminates. Spain relinquUlied her k;„'' < ' ' peace of 1763, with reluctance, though she hr I : ' wd to exercise them. A letter of Sir Josep. , quoted in the correspondence of I lur- acn VValpole, in which it is said: "By what I hear from Paris, my old acquaintance, Grimaldl, is tlw cause of the delay in signing the preliminaries, Insist- ing u|ion points neither France nor England would ever consent to grant, such as the liberty of fislilng at Newfoundland — a point we should not dare to yield, as Hr. Pitt told them, though they weru masters of the Tower of London." Cwl-Jithery of P ■rtugal.~-kn account of this flshen- may be embraced in a single paragraph. If materials exist by which to a' 'i'li« tUtry, (o itato It) *ubftMie« (n • wiml, Is, that the island Sco- rnflita, or Hlofn/Ua, on the map, and the island of KewfuundUiul, Mr* IdentlcHl, because the codfish Is culled iliiel^flth in tll« northern languages. The En- glish rusortwl to Iiwland fur the cod, previous to the vuar HIA, but tlitr« Is no account of their fishing at N«wrounillttii4 yi\ut Ut lfil7. Some writers suggest that the f ninth «»mm«fl(!«d «t the same time. But the fact. g«n«r«lly admitted, that the ships from En- gland, Fraiiee, Hpalii, «rw1 1'ortuuial, to the number of fifty, were «niiiliivmt In lfil7, Is alone sufficient to s'low that tlif llidilii)('gr(>iinds had been visited for sev- eral y»ikt*, \nA»m\ Ut MinAAvt that the French went to NawfouwtUnd tut lh« flmt time In 1604, and that in thirteen y»»l», hikI in tli« infancy of distant and peril- ous voyages, th«lr itdv(>ntlires hnd attracted the atten- tion of tlirtiH other imtlonK to the extent Just stated, is to allow »n IniTttimn of flags and of vessels so rapid as to still tm\u\t» tixpianatlon, without a knowledge of the fishing «litliii«lasm uf the period. Besides, somo forty or fifty houwes for the accommodation of fishermen w«ra built at M«wfoundhind as early as v>n. A faw Millos back from Oie coast, Newfoundland Is almost an iinbroki'ii wildprneas. The inhabitants, as a body, ara as IgnorNNt of the Interior of the Island as are others, 'I'o Ihi'in, and to all the world, the colony is known for Its ll*liitrl«s, and for these alone. To snumHr»t« Mt. JolinV, Ferrylaml, Fugo, and Burin, and tlia setthmisnts on the bays of Conception, Trinity, Uonttviata, Vitttum, Hull's, llacentia, and St. Mar}-'s, is to recall almofit evpry place of note. There was no free |sirt until 1X28, anil no lionk until eight years later. Frvni the dl>>i'(iv«ry of I'mIm^ to tlie arrival of a l)ishop of the cliuri'h, was iMfl yearn. The population in ]8Uolonl>!Nti(in bv lillbert— was leas than 26,000. It was less tlMll 74,00«l In 18,10 1 nnd but »6,fi0C in 1845. It remains to j<|i«itk of the fishing-grounds ; of tho manner of vtAi'Mn^ and curing, and of the habits of the (lerions wlui aril vrnployxd In the fishery. As the vessel or " bank" llsliMry Ims been abandoned by the English, an account of it is reaerved for tho thinl part of this report, Tltd bouts Uned for the shore fishery require from two Ui four men encli, The number of boats in 18118, WAS (tUiOj and In 18'I6, !ltl89. The fishing Is p«>rform(Hl within the harbors, and early In the season, naar tho lunil. The men stand while at tlier toil, and each Is ablti to t«nil more than one line. At times the fish fasten to th« liooki) so rapidly, that the fishermen dlsjiluy grant a«tU'ity, A boat Is often tilled in two or tlirati hours. On the fihores are " stages," or build- ings «riu-t«tlie other, that damps and rains do not in- jure tlia Hull while exptised In the air. Three quali- ties are usually sorted for exiwrtation, and a fourth, coMsl'tIng principally uf broken and discolored fish, U retained for t^nsiittipthm, Women and children are sonietlin«s umployed In the hoots, and very frequently assist tliH iiurem on stiora. t)uring the fishing season them aril no Idlitrs of either sex, Tlw hilsirs uf the fishermen and shoresmen are al- most iMiwssflllt. The time devoted to sleep, under cir- cumstancus that uftcn uccur, is Insufliclcnt for the de- mands uf iwtiirn ) white lung abstinence fk'om food Is Bvt uucvmiwmi *1S 668 FTS The flsbermen formeily lived in the nidert of rtnict- arei; bnt they now occupy comfortable dwellingi. Their food Is coane, uid their manners rough. Intoxi- cating drinks were once as common among them as tea or water. Of late years there has been a seiisilile change for the better ; and a 'arge class are moral and temperate. Their habits rf life are irregular, f^m the necessities of their posit.' but in hospitality and acts of kindness they at )t excelled by men of the higher walks of society. They are to be Judged in mercy, for tlieir opportunities to improve are few, and their temptatious to err are many. Exousn CoD-FisnisT, NawromiDLAND. Tw. Nfcofi VCSMlt. 1577 1«0S K15 16i» 1S I 17B8 1709 1800 1805 1814 1K15 1820 1826 1880 i(«i loss j 18S4 1885 1838 ! 1840 1841 184S 1843 1S44 1S45 1847 1848 1649 iToni SO 900 950 400 160 80 270 121 161 15,000 7,991 9,193 28S 38,912 177 17,268 854 806 254 292 280 806 886 804 299 816(4 145 ! 34,166 876 .... .... 13,838 806 88,508 HMD. r.'o. of Oulatkl* of boMo. Iba oiporlod 10,000 6,000 ibisoo 2,727 2,119 4,103 2,581 23,653 1,268 2,410 6,1.'W 9,989 106,952 111,000 210,000 759,877 691,276 684,421 458,887 882 000 520,380 1,200,000 l,l8n.t»1 899,720 978.4€l 760.177 01 P. r 77 688,686 674,988 712.5S8 7i),6I,'. 915.795 1,009,725 1.007,980 086.2111! 852,162 1,000,188 887,978 920,866 1,175,167 112,000,000 2,420,0)10 I 2,880,0(10 I 8,f«6,U0» i 2,806.000 2,660,000 i 2.410,000 I 2,'J!iO,000 I 2,4511,000 I 2.456,006 2,940,000 ExoLiSH HaaaiHa-FiBUKaT, NxwroiiifDi4)i». J B*mU pickled oip^rttj. 18S.^... 1889... IS40... 1841 .. 1*42... 1848... 1844... 184S... 1847... 16,276 90,806 14.686 9,965 18,889 9,649 18,410 20,90« 9,907 V«lii«. $68,615 60,200 45,180 81.806 8.'i,5»S 22,Si.'/0 88,829 96,170 25 5U carry fVem tr litfir ftit antl skin?. The common roetbod Is, to strlti itlf lht< tikltts and fat together, and to carry thtiwi \mHii to the vessels, leaving the re- mainder uiMiti tli« Itw ) I'lll when the weathur or other fircuiiutuiK'vs will itttt ptiftnlt this, th!> carcass Is tranufHirtiMt wltwl((, and (lie valuable parts are stripped off t(iil)«»i(UBntly, Htdtl-fatchltig closes toward the end of April, Tll» Ittost fdrtiittate vessels make two voy- ages in A Miaaun, After the arrival of the vi^Ksels in port, the fat M sttiMfated frotn the skins, cut Into places and put lii(« vnt*. where, by (be warmth of the sun, the nil (Mtws (itlt. The skltis are spread and snlted In plh»s, and wlltm (tntjiefly ctifed, are packed in Iran- dhis of I'OHveiilHttt »(/,(!, Iti the whole (Hrcle of human empUiyinentii, few (if iintM «fe more exciting and peril- ous than (lifl catchlnt; nf seats, A storm of sleet and snow in the tii((lit U Icrrtlde, and the stoutest hearts quail, While the vta^^oln are absent, the greatest anx- iety prevails tn tbti (mrt* of def.arture, and the most dUtressiiig ritiiiors (imvall i at times, n full nnnth elapses iMfitrii tlia arrival iit a single vessel, ami every imaginable imn** U aMlgned by elarmed families and friends for tli» dalay of (Idln^^ from (he sealing- ground, !<(»«•'•#««( gain drive the Ice toward the sliore, and fr(«)iMintly tirndiice fearful dlsn.«ter« to lioth life an I \ir< 'tftiy In IMS the loss of vessels waa very (.msldoraMe, and »«ver«i entire crews iicrished. Home vessels wffa wrecked In 1H19. 'I'be ymr l<«27 was t(ii(!(ittimonly prosperous. Forty. one veswls laden with seals arrived at St. .lohn's in a single week, (bey ciitigjil tifl,HU (tt the objects of their saarcli, (tn» of tlle«« vessels took npwnrd of 3000 in »\k days, and amitlier. stilt more successful, almut (INK) In the sxilt* ti(H«i, '/lie lntelis«0 ti,f tm , , , , im im M 1881 ll« 1889 IM 1 I8IM lOll 1864 VKi : 18(« \m i I>i86 m 1 IWT i«i , INK8 no ■ (WW K IMO ! IMI r» 1 Ii>«« 74 18W 1 mM !.1 1 t«4A \m l>»M IWT m law %m I8W ills , ' l».'l(l 1 «,tM t),t)46 11/462 a,6V. lUiSto 11,167 ll,4«6 lo,M< Vfiini 9M1 6,190 tijm vm ILisw li,*79 *l^«il« 16,44t l,WiA i/flK H,2P4 2,964 2,910 2,«I3 I,W 3.940 2JW6 2,029 (.(iflH tfltn 8,177 8,779 n,9m V.'M, 9,Jts8 SMlaUm. 4,900 141,874 321,884 331,516 2^1,618 559,842 442,688 501.486 860,195 557,494 881,041 Jft2,910 879.861 4R7.50I 6111,815 417,116 SI4.688 651,870 862,202 486^881 521,01)4 8(16,072 400,000t 8,226 1,224 7,808 l'2',871 ib^oio »,l'l30 11,780 • 'I'lw vessels wsfe hum llis port nf fit. John's, oxespt In I»f7, Ills, awl ls«* t Ksilmatu'l ttiim Ihu sevtal aeootitits of the catch of that yu»r lUlefencB t/i (h* tnble of stallslles will afford infoN nwtioH a* ill (h« guntfal stat« of this branch of Indus- hi Novi J'i.'^- 1.^-^. : 1.. ./ . ■"- i-.*-r-.>jie;;....i^-. vm- 069 FIB S,228 -.244 liy (inoe tLa v'^r 1830. It wUl be aeen that the re- turn of veaaels fitted out, is ftom the port of St. John's klone. The number from Ooncepcion, Trinity, and Bonavtsta Bays, and from other parts of the island, is known to be considerable, and in 1846 to have ex- ceeded that of the capital, but I have been unable to procure accurate accounts for any other year. Fulurit* of Nova Scotia. — The original grantee of that half fabulous, never defined country, Acadia, was Pierre de Gast Sieure de Monts, a Protestant, and a gentleman of the bed-chamber of Henry the Fourth of France. In 1608, his royal master, by letters pa- tent, gave hira the territory between the 40th and 46th degrops of hititude, and in the following year De Monts came in person to explore and take possession of his liomnins. Sixteen years before the landing of the pilgrims at Plymouth, he wintered upon an island in the Kiver St. Croix, which, since the adjustment of the boundary-line between the United States and New Bmnswicic, has been considered within the limits of Maine. This island is claimed by the heirs of the late General John Brewer, of Robbinston. Relics of De Monts' sojourn upon it continue to be found. An- napolis—the Port Royal of the French— was founded before his return, and is the oldest settlement in Nova Scotia. The " lieutenant-general of Acadia, and the oiroumjacent country," accomplished i)ut little. His patent allowed him to " carefully search after and to distinguish all sorts of mines of gold and silver," and gave him the mono|)oly of the trade in furs. He seems to have; oonfir.ed his attention to measures to secure the latter ; yet fish were caught, cured, and carried to France. A permanent fishery was estalv Itshed at Canseau. Acadia soon passed from Da Monts into Catholic hands, while the English grant to Sir William Alexander, in 1C21, embraced .i large part of it. As the events connected with our subject at thib time nppear in the nc-ount of the French fisheries, there in nothing to demund our attention until after Nova Scotia was permanently annexed to the British crown, l)y the treaty of Utrecht, in 1718. Down to the period of our Revolution, Novn Scotia was hardly known except for its fisheries. The resi- dent English population wat. so smsU in 1719, that Phillips, the military governor, was compelled to se- lect the council, required by his instructions, from his garrison. Thirty-six years later, the whole number of inhabitants was eicimated at only 50OO. In 1760, the township of Liverpool was settled l)y persons from Massachusetts, who designed to prosecute the salmon- fisheiy and who, successful in their labors, caught a thousand Imrrels in a season. They were followed in 1763 by about one huni'red and sixty fumiiius from Cape Cod, who selected the spot called Harrington, transported thither their stock and fishing vessels, and founded one of the must consideralile fishing towns at present in the colony. The whole value of the im- ports at this period was ess than five thousand dol- lars. In truth, the House of Assemlily asserted in 1776, that the amount of money in Novii Scotia was f 1200 (or a !•"•), of which one fifth was in the hands of furmor». .Such was tlie general condition. The settlement of Halifax, the capital, requires a more particular notice. Thomas Coran, a famous prnjector of the time, whose name occurs often in the history of Maine, engaged in a scheme to commence a town on the site rf tills city as early as the year 1718, and his petition for a grant of land received a favorable report from the Lords of Trade and Plantations ; but the agents of Massachusetts opiiosed his plans, because they interfered with tiie freedom of the fisheries, and bo was compelled tu aliandnu his purpose.* ' It Is aatil, In Burke's Commonpra of Knglsnd, that M^jor WUIIam Msrkham (of the family of Markhain, of Beccs Halt), who waa bom In 1680, built the flrai house hi Halifax, Mora Scotia. At the restoration of Cape Breton, in 1748, th« founding of a capital for Nova Scotia was undeitaken as a government measure. "As a substitute for Louisbonrg restored to France," aaid Mr. Hartley in the House of Commons, " you settled Halifax for a place tTarmet, leaving the limits of the province as a matter of contest with Franco, which oouid not fail to prove, as it did, the cause of another war. Had you kept Louisbourg, instead of settling Halifax, the Americans could not say, at least, that there would not have been that pretext for imputing the late war tc their ac- count." The new city was n." aed in honor of the Earl of Halifax, the president of the Loids of Trade and Plantations. " The site," says Halihurton, " about midway between Cape Canseau and Cape Sable, was preferred to several others, where the soil was better, for the sake of establishing in its neighborhood an ex- tensive cod-fishery, and fortifying one of the best har- bors in America." Thus, Halifax was designed as a fishing capital, and " as a substitute ibr Louisbourg." Liberal grants of land were made to officers and men who were dismissed from the land and naval service at the close of the war, and Edward Cornwallis was ap- pointed military governor. Horatio Gates then an officer in the British army, and subsequently the vic- tor at Saratoga, was among the first who landed at Halifax, in 1749. The project involved the govern- ment in serious difficulties, and the expenditure of enormous sums of money. The amount first appro- priated was ^40,000. In a few years the cost to the nation was nearly two millions of dollars 1 The fieheries were neglected, and the colonists, unable to suppo:t themselves, petitioned Parliament for addi- tional relief, even after so large an amount of money had been disbursed for their benefit. Omitting de- tails, we may state that five millions of dollars of pub- lic money were expended finally in the colonization of Nova Scotia, according to the plan devised by the Board of Trade and Plantations. United States, — Our continent was discovered in 1497, ny Ciabut ; and from the moment that the chron- icler of bis voyage made known to the people of En- gland that our waters teemed with fish — that here " were great seals, and those which we commonly call salmons ; and also soles above a yard in length, but especially there is a great abundance of that kind which the savages call baccalos ur codfish" — down to the year 16*20, as we have seen in the first and second parts of this report, the intercourse of the French and English with the northerly seas of Amer- ica was constant ; and of all this were not th>; Puri- tans as well informed as others ? Wore they ignorant of what transpired in the Now World in the ten years immediately preceding their flight from England, and during the ten years of their residence in Holland ? While among the Dutch they were neglected, if not unkindly treated, and became poor and unhappy. Many places to which to emii^Tate were mentioned, and the advantages and disadvantages of each were amply discussed. As soon as the decision of the Uttle fluck was made, some were dissatisfied and withdrew. The question arises, why did they decid(« to come to America ? I have no space to.ar,{ue a question which involves so many inquiries, but can not for'jear to state that, in a ft ■ words, some of the principal incidents which attended their coming to their "wilderness home." C mitting to notice the accounts of Amidas and Barlow, who explored the southern coast of the United States in 1584, under the auspices of Sir Walter Kaleigh, and what is said of Sir Itiohard Grenville';; expedition tc the same region the year following, as well as tiie va- rious other enterprises which, in several particulars, are pertinent to the sulijct, we come at once to the voyage of Gosnold, in the year 1602. He was the first Englishman who sailed directly across the ocean, and the flrbt who attempted to moke a settlement within PIS 010 FI8 litt llmha of Vew EngUnd. Tbe ito'ry of liia tdrm- turai wu written by two of hia OMOcIater, Archer and Btereton, and published In linden* immediately after liis return. Of Breretnn little iiecms to Im known; but Gosnold and Archer were subsequently prominent unong the early settlers of Virginia, and between tbe latUir anr- aimuch at merchants are diligent inquidlort after gaint, theg will toon remorc their trade fnrni Xetr/oundland" to ffev) England, where there is a l)ctter climate, greater security against the depredations of pirates, and less expense for outfits, shorter voyages, and safer harbors. The wrKer, anticipating that a eolunj- would soon tie founded. pi.-^Mcted further, tliat the ships of (i//the nations that " have Iwen accustomed to repair unto the NewfuundUnd for the commodity of fish and oils alone, will henceforth forsake" that island, " when once we have planted people in these parts ; by whose industry shall be provided, for all commerce," the products of the sea, "and many commmlities besides, of good importance and value." Eighteen years elapsed; the Pilgrims anchored oflT the same " Shoal Hope," and nettled this very countr)-. Pring followed Gosnoid, and explored the waters of Maine, in IflO.'). Ho saw and named the Fox islands, in Penobscot Bay, and /onnd good mooring and fish- ing. Like Gosnoid, he considered the fish which he took superior to those of Newfoundland. He made a second voyage three years later ; and Gorges remarks that his discovery of the eiistem part of New England waa perfect, and his account of It accurate. Way- mouth, under the patronage of se\'eral Englinh noble- men, and other persons of rank, came in KiOo. "A True Belntion" of his adventures was written by Jamex Ko»ier, "a gentleman employed in the voj-- age," and printed in Lomlon in the same year. He agrees with those who had preceded him In every es- sential particular. As they departed for England, thuy caught verj largo fish ; and he sa'ys that those * RepnblUhed in Collectiona of lUMaohoaetU Hbtorical Boeloly, roi. 8th of Sd serica. t Prince Cl.arles changed the name to " Cape James," In honor of his father ; but Ooanold'a appellation baa been pre- •ervad to the present tbnaib on l)oard of the ship, who were familiar with the bnsi- ness, " would warrant (by the help of God), in a short voyage, with a few goodjhhert, to rnaie a more pmJUabIt return from hence than from Nevfoundland ; tht Jiih being to much greater, better fed, and abundjnce mlk train," etc.* The f'isheriet from the eommenctmmi of the Bevola. tionary Controveny to the Peclaralion of Independence, — In tracing the origin and progress of the fisheries of New England, we have seen that they funished our first articles of export, and laid the foundation of our navigation and commerce. It was so in Europe. Of the present maritime powers of the Old World, there ii scarcely one that does not owe much of Its commercial prosperity to the same branch of Industry. Some fUgi ti ves trom the wrath of the monster Attila fled to the islet of the Adriatic, where, of necessity, thoy adopted the avocation of fishermen. By this employment, steadily continued, Venice in a few centuries Iwcame renowned for her wealth, commerce, and naval strength. The ori- gin of the republic was celebrated fov a long period, and the omis^icn or refusal of a Doge to provide the customaky lianquet, and to submit to the fishermen's embrace, rllowetl by his predecessors on this national festival, made tho name of Oontarini hateful, und well- nigh caused the sul>verslon of all legal restraint, and the overthrow of the reigning family. Genoa, too, grew rich and powerful by tho same means, and, not content with her own limitey the fame of their commodi* ties in foreign countries, and by the Immense con- sumption of them at home, to unexampled affluence and grandeur; and the sayings everywhere current two centuries ago, that " Amsterdam is (bunded on herring-bones," and that " Dutchmen's bodies are built of pickled herrings," were hardly more than quaint expressions of historic truth. So stcidily and snccessfully were the fisheries pur- sued by tbe people of Plymouth, Massachusetts, Naw Hampshire, and Maine, that nnly fifty years elapsed from the landing iif the Puritans, before an English «r!U;i of high authority In matters of trade, expressed his apprehension a? to the events likely tu result, in the following remarkable words : " New England," said he, " Is the most prejudicial plantation tu thia kingdom." And why? Because, "of all the American plantations, his majesty has none so apt for building of shipping as New England, nor any comparably so qualified for the breeding of seamen, not only by roo- Kon of tho nati' ti Industry of that people, but princi- pally b}' reaso.. of their cod and ~nackerel f.sherlcs ; and, in my poor opinion, there is nothing more preju- dicial, and in procpect more dangerour to any mother kingdom, than the increase of shipping in her colonies, plantations, or provinces." Sir Josiah C'hild was alarmed too much, prolial>ly, at what really was in his own time, but still saw with a prophet's eyo what was to be. But the policy of England, from the restora- tion of the Stuarts down to the Kevolutlon, was in strict accordance with the apprehensions expressed by him, and she not only neglected and declined all sup- port to tho navigation and commerce of Now ICngiund, but directly oppressed and restrained them. Omitting notice of tho acts of I'arliument which do not relate specially to the subject licfore us, tho first law to claim our attention was pas!iglZ,.^;!;k*kil^^^ FIS OVl FIS with tht Frefich, Dutch, and Spanish islandi, when thnse product!! of the plantatiom were exclunged for flah. It la said that, prevlcua to the compnencnincnt of the trade to then Inland), molassea was i,hrown away l>y the planters, and that this article, which Ii now so extensively (U«d In food, was first saved and put Into cauks to b« brought to New Kngland, to be distilled into rum. Certain It Is, that on the posso/^ of the act of 1788, the people of the northern colonies insisted that, unless th«y could continue to sell llsh to the planten of the foreign islam'.i, and to Import mo- lasses fruin thenci] to be man'ifactured Into ^^.irit, for domestic consumption and for trade with the Indians, they could not prosecute the flsherieu without rulnoi'.i> losses. Thp penalty for violating the act was the for- feiture of vessel and cirgo. Yet New England never Nubmitted, though a fleet Tins ttent to enforce obedi- ence ; an4 the Intenlicted trade with the French, Dutch, and Spanish islands, did not cease until a late period nf the controversy which terminated in the Revoimion, In fact, therefore, a measure which threatened to ruin the cod-fishery of ^'-<» ii.ii(jl:8es, and sugar, was attempted by the officers of thii crown, in a man- ner to create the most anxious concern ; for, the juris- diction of the admiralty courts was enlnrged, and the people were deprived of the trial by jury in all cases arising between th<'ni and the government under this law, and the trade and navigation laws generally. The most nlannlng discontents followed the collis- ions and quarrels which constantly occurred between shi|>-nia8ters and merchants, on thb one hand, and the officers of the customs on the other. In various parts of New Englnnd, and especially in Boston, Salem, Glou- cester, Fulmouth, and elsewhere in Massachusetts ; and the impression became general among commercial men, tliat their business and prcp Ron'lly •m|il>il, Tunniiff*. Nn.or .W5, MarbleUead. . , Gloucester Manchester,.. Beverly Salem Mewburypcrt. Ipswich. Plymouth CohiiSJet lUngham Scltuato I)u\bnry Kingston Yarmouth Welltleot Truro Provlncctown, Chatham Nantucket Weymouth . . . In Maine ToUI 160 146 25 15 80 10 60 ») 6 6 10 4 6 80 8 10 4 80 8 2 60 7,600 ^6«0 1,.VK) 760 1,600 400 • 900 2,400 MO 240 400 160 240 900 90 400 160 900 820 100 1,000 1,200 888 200 120 240 60 190 43C 42 42 70 28 43 180 31 80 83 340 64 16 280 90 160 16 19 30 10 64 84 6 4 8 9 4 80 ii so 6 R 80 6,400 8,400 900 1,286 1,800 440 84U 1,440 WNI 1W) 90 840 140 »00 "860 900 30' 160 800 TIKI «W) 130 167 l«0 Ml >4H m H6 14 180 "ii •m 40 n 130 665 2.\680 4.406 1 8110 19,INA Statistics or tiii FisuEuiiis or tuk Umtkd States ix 1840, Oknrral Vikw showino tiix PaoouoR, Maw, Aim Capital bmpioi'kd m bach Statb and T>!BaiTORY. lore oU. SUil«) »nd Territorial. Numb«rafqulii- IkUorimokcdor ter of barrel! of pickled Slh, Vumbcrofiralloiu oraponnaaetloll. Number of nlloiu ofwfaftleuiduUier Sik oil. Value of whale- bone and other Nunilier tl men ;)rodurtloni of ibe euil>liiyed. Aaherlee. r«[ilialbi«Ml«l MMno Now llanipshiro MaMAcliiisctts Khoile Mftiid 279,166 28,257 889,(15 4,084 1,884 "5 2,885 •■■'a 9 64,071 1,714 134,785 2.908 4,898 22''}24 1,184 2,018 28.0(H) 71,292 1KI.8I8 711,8,'iO 428 14 1,014 8,680,973 . 487,268 188,207 400,281 12,000 49,704 "262 117,807 16,284 8,844,725 638,860 1,909,047 1,269^641 80,000 142,875 2,887 ■"i4 "'28 "'60 V,800 »3,86l 442,974 46,628 187,873 S44',a66 74,000 15,240 7,987 13,167 4,150 23,800 V,i60 166 D.illO 899 16,000 1,160 2,216 l',238 m 88 166 7,814 !M ''Z 4 " 't "166 "488 67 188 69,H«I ll,728,*fiO l,ii77,IM 9i9,m 911,376 111,4110 170,0110 M8,»4T 8H,ittlfl 1,411 "343 l'3',3i» i»,m 0,000 41,800 44^)1) I4,4«»,«3U New York New JiTscy Ponnsylvaiita Delaware Vtrglnin North Carolina Boutb Carolina Alabama. Misstsaippt ■"97 8.m Kontuckv Ohio 14 1 ;;!! 18^585 49,000 T8 9,021 !!".; 34",800 Illinois Missouri Klorlila . . Wisconsin . . . . Ulctriot of Columbia., 18,800 1 637 Total 778,947 472,859 | 4,764,708 ] 7,886,778 | 1,158,284 , 84,884 BIS 073 VIS ItATiana »w m OaD-Fiuuai or th( Unitid BtaWi C, ■XUIBrrlKO THI ToDHAa,' aUrLOTBD: BODNTT PAIDTO ^ Viiiiina Vmiu : iMPOin >rSAiT, BxroinorOniD Fun, AND Tua VALoa or i K«4. {11,621.168 111.124.186 8,681,176 <)lltllMll. t >1 Sir... il8 871.816 488,907 400,818 877.718 406.016 411,176 41S496 892.7M 410,948 440,916 461,870 667,828 614,649 687,467 478,914 1.18,808 84.1,648 280.864 214,8>*7 169.019 68,616 81.810 108.261 119.991 207.AI4 808.747 280.866 821.419 267.808 241.228 262.766 810.189 8181,8.17 260,'i(« 247.821 16M17 194.761 229.796 280.877 18n..144 249,689 2.VI.I82 287.721 240.76? 1S8,»48 206.028 208,720 111.426 2.12.199 2.16,(183 174,220 271,610 28,8.880 177,401 2.18.870 106.649 197.467 168.600 161.068 V>l« of bollsn. 1,61(1^000 1,400,000 1,058,000 1.I60,0«0 1,896,000 628.000 1,128,000 918,000 7,17,000 691,00C 210,000 118,000 494,000 986,000 1,008,000 1,081,000 1,061,000 964,000 708,778 784.0*4 878,686 880,886 667,741 747,171 819,916 747,641 680,690 626.898 749.90k 718.817 630Ji86 788,896 746,464 688,606 626,246 709,118 641,008 602,810 667,781 881,176 699.888 803,868 699,669 669,629 6»9,is2 419,092 86,1,349 867,729 • MaIdd, 48,628; New Hsmpihire, 1,916; Maauobimetts. 89,982: Rhode I.il»nd, 871; Connecticut, 6,786; New York, 1,084; Total, 9.1,616. The Mitckerrl Fuherg, from the letllemenl of Nero KngUmd to the year 1862. — It U frequently wid that the mackerel tiithery \i of very recent ori^^in, or that, at least, vetsrit were not employed in it until Hbout the clo(W of the la!>t or the beginninjt of the present century. lioth nuppnfiitions are entirely erronenux. The Indians, reKsrdles* of the beautiful form and color of the fiiih, called it wamcunneieteoff, on account of its fatness. There is mention of it in the earliest records of the country. Winthnip relates that in ICM, the ship Griffin, two days Iwfore her arrival at Boston, lost a passenger hy drowning, as he was casting forth n line to catch mackerel. The first settlers must have commenced the fishery soon after, since, to omit sev- eral minor incidents, we have the fact tliat AUerton, one of the Pilgrims who came over in tlie Mayiflinrer, teceived mackerel for sale at New Haven, on " half profits," in the year 16AS. That the business was prosecuted with lUCCMt ii evident •> • .A. 1.808 .... 8,478 • >*• .... 1807 .... 10,904 • • • • 1808 .... 7,783 • <•■ >.*• 1609 .... 8,865 • >•• .... 1810 ... * 18,058 • •• • , . . , 1811 . . .* 19.688 • .* > 1812 .... ^()!8 • •■• • .•■ 1818 .... 8,882 ...* 1814 .... l.»t» • .*• 1816 .... 16,894 . ..* 1818 .... 80,011 .... .... 1817 .... 87,982 .... 1818 .... 47,210 1819 10^4S8 1820 ..>• 186.248 .... . ..* 1821 111,009 ..• . .... -821 .... 160,294 ..A* .... 16-M . • • . 14^006 • • t • 1824 . . *• 191.650 .... 18'J6 .... 264,3H1 ^065 lii26 .... 188,740 *.*• .... 1827 . , , , 190,810 .... 1828 237,824 . . * . ...• 1829 .... 12.1,881 ...• 1830 .... 808,462 &(^s6o .... 1881 888,869 ai,4fto .... 1882 112,482 SlJtiO .... 1888 48;726 112,946 1M76 1884 .... 262,SS4 lf*,200 4b;661 1886 104,460 lft.800 1886 176,981 ».4ao 2is;228 18.87 4«,8ii 138,187 6,220 22,462 1888 &6,64l> 1()S688 8,420 24,812 1889 7.8,018 TOO 1840 !»;26» 60,992 680 1841 11,811 6.\687 i.lOO 1842 1^09« 7.1,548 1,050 1818 11.778 04,481 1.175 18-14 10,170 86,181 1,«40 1846 21,418 202J)ir2 1,075 1846 86,468 174,0M 1,869 1847 81.461 232,881 2,008 1848 43,858 m\\m 9,400 1848 48.(MS 281,866 3,8«T 18,10 68,112 • • *• 8,1S5 18.11 60,689« «2»,242 8,078 81,471 1882 1»7,7«8 2,140 .... • Maine, 9,858; New lUinpabIro, 481; Massachnsotts, 89,410; Bhodc Island, 190; Connecticut, 694; Total, 60,539. Exact statements as to the progress and extent of the mackerel fishery previous to the Revolution, are hardly to be found ; but it is still certain that the pco- |ile of Rhode Island and Connecticut, as well as those of Massachusetts, were " lar^^cly concerned in it ;" nnd that fleets of sloops cmplovi^d in it were often seen upon the coast and in the harbors. It is certain also that alwut the year 1770 the town of Scituate alone owned upward of 80 vessels that were annually fitted out as " mackerel catchers ;" and that the whole num- ber of veaselt in Mastachiuetta wsa not lesa than 100, PIS 678 FIS :^ Boon »tt»t the p«ac« of 1788, • writer In > Boaton newi- pap«r, In a Mriefi of Riticlea on American ciymmerca, laid that the mackerel flaher}- ■■ voa of more value to MasHochuaettg than would b« the poari flahoriei of Ceylon." Annual Kktdin np Tiia numrki or DARaEui, IlALvn, (jVARTKIIK, AND KlOUTHa or UaRRKMI or MACKtRKL AND ornna I'irKi.(i> Kiaii, ihtiiiatru in nAaaitM, iNiii'ECTin) IN MAaaAciiuaiCTTa, roa tiik Yiar kniiino Drcbmbrr 81, 18S2, A* I'KR Tiia Brtvrns or tiik Drpiitt In«p«ot- oaa, NOW IN TiiR Orrica or tiii iNsrxttOR Grnrral. Wh«ra Iniixeltil, No, of Barnlk Bonton 8«,S8ll Olouccstor 48,0191 Beverly 866} Rockport . . , , 6,S46} Newburyport I1,H06 I'rovlnceCowo 17,(40 Truro S,540 Wellfleot 11,867 Chatbani BT,64S Harwich 9,147 Dennis 10,21)0 Tarniouth S,ia5 Barnntablo 8,igg| Illnghnm 18,lSSl Cohandot 11,6161 riymouth 67 Baleiii 14 ToUl 106,768^ Ibe abuvo Includes all except two returns from I'rovlncotown and one from Scltuate, estimated at 1,000 Total I881J 197,76IH — ,771} Belnapected at Boston 19,7711 Total 817,U0| All other kinds of pickled flah 9,m^ ToUl amount of mackerel Inspected In 1859 197,768^ Total amount of mackerel Inspected In 1861 899,'i!78 Decrease of 18S9 ttom 18S1 181,11091 Btatistior or roaaiON Mackrrxi. importkd into and ix- PORTED IROM TIIR UNITED STATES, AMD Or DRIED CoD- risu I MPORTRD INTO TIIR SAMR. Yw. Maekaral. Codflih. 1 Imporud !ato fCipuft*'! from tbi United Iha UDlud laiportHl. 1 SUUia. StRtea. Iterralt, BArrvU. Qulnlali. VaIm. 1821 7 None. 1829 887 ** 1828 67 u 1H24 790 u 1H26 949 H ln26 87 u 1827 89 it 1S23 S8 4t 1829 95 U 1880 891 H 1881 4,559 U • • . 1882 89 u 1888 90 u 1884 298 188S 8,158 850 1886 8,087 987 1887 1,266 BflO 1888 189 1889 7,046 • ■ . • '4,9M •94,808 1840 11,828 4,061 19,855 1841 10,881 2,438 19,269 1849 • • t • 184B 1844 1*15 1816 1S47 1848 1849 1&S606 88,295 92,590 48^769 18A0 7^491 18,577 95,115 45,961 18Bt 103,68s 18,940 14,705 97,769 There is little of interest relating to this branch of industry- for several years after the period last men- tioned, A highly re.ipectalilo shipmaster, who is still living, entertains the opinion that the flBhor)- in ve»$tU was commenced within 60 years ; and that " ho was personally engaged in theyirat regular mackerel voyage ever made in New England." His account, as related to me by himself, would occupy too much room. Its lubtUnce Is, that h« engaged in the coasting business for Uo some time between tiaasanhusetts and Maine ; he com- monly saw and caught \ .^keiel during the summer months in the vicinity of the island of Mount Desert ; that believing that they might be taken in quantitii>a, ha resolved finally to lit out a vessel for the expraaa purpose ; that his success was even greater than he had expected, and that others wor« induced to follow his example. The mistake of thU gentleman proliably is, that what he conaiderad the origin of the veaael fishery was only a rtvival ''. :\ since we can easily imagine that repeated losses anil discouragements had caused a suspension of it. Tk» Herring Fitkery,from its cvmmtnc -ent to th»year 18&2. — We hear of this flshery among the Pilgrims. In 1641 they rented the herring wtar at I'lymouth for three years to three men, " who were to deliver tlie shares of fish, and receive Is. Od. per 1000 for their trouble." We hear of it on the coast of Maine alco a few yeurs afterward. Jusselj-n says that the " herrin" were " so numerous, they take of them all summer long. In 1G70," ho continues, " they were driven into Black Point harbor, by other great fih that prey upon them, so near the shore that they tl irew themselves (it being high water) upon dry land ir such inflnito num- bers that we might have gone half >. ay the leg among them for near a quarter of a mile," He repeats the account in his " Chronological Observations of Amer- ica;" where he states, tliat so " wonderful" was the quantity, that " they w'.» half-leg deep for a mite to- gether." Of the m'.iine. f cooki .g at that period he remarks, that " we used to qualify n pickled herrin by boiling of him in milk." These incidents are su6flcient to show tlie early origin. From the fragmentary notices of the fishery which are to bo met with, it seems probable that, for a long time, as the aeou^i of herrings came to our coasts, the inhabitants on the sea and rivers, from Maine to thv, Carolinas, generally secured sufficient for consumption fresh ; that the more careful provided themselves with salt to cure quantities for future use ; and that some, becoming regular fishermen, caught and cured the fish for sale to their neighbors of the interior. And that the practice was continued, substantially, without in- terruption, until the waters resorted to by the herring for the deposit of its spawn were obstructed by dams and mills, is hardly to l>e doubted. It is certainly true that on some of the rivers, whore the fishery- is now nearly extinct, the supply at the revolutionary era was considered inexhaustilile ; and that farmers and Ishermen were in the constant habit of filling wagons und boats with scoop-nets and other simple implements. The Ualibiit Fithery. — The halibut fishery on George's Bank is a new rntrr|)riso. It was commenced within a few years by the adventurous fishermen of Cape Ann. Pursued in mid-winter, it is as hazardous an employment as can well be imagined. While the fisherj- was conflnu''. to the coast, the con- sumption of the fish was very limited. In April, 1848, the NorfM Herald announced that " our market, yes- terday morning, was enriched with a delicacy from the nortliern waters, tlie halibut — a strange Jish in these parts, knoum imly to epicures and natnralisti." The New Orleans Picayune, in May of the same year, contained a similar paragraph. At present, the fish, packed in boxes with ice, is sent, sound and sweet, by railroads and vessels, to the most distant sections of the country. Vessels employed on the Bank are absent fVom port from six to fourteen days. The av- erage catch of halibut is perhaps 200 to a vessel, though some olitain doulile that number. The weight of the fish is from SO to 200 pounds. [For nearly tho whole of this article we are indebted to Mr. Sabine's valuable Report on Fisheries, 1863.] For .Homo time, dealers in Boston purchased, packed, and shipped the fish almost exclusively ; but a com- - pany was finally formed at Gloucester for the purpose of transacting this pact of the business as well as the FIS 674 FIB oriMr. Tk« flihoniMa, howavor, nmrt afcaln to Bon- tan I for IbU company. *ft«r lining » cniuildenbl* part of tbalr caiilul, nllmiuliihed tlx-ir dimiKn. Th« Kmwih of th« ttilMr}' hiu l>eeii npid. Tb* naffltnr of vmuIii employml In it, owned at Ulooceib Ur, wu DO In ltM4 ; 611 In IIHH ; and about 7A in April, IBM. Tha praaent fleet eontaina many new, well- modtled, and faat-Mlllnft vesMla. The value of the ballliut cadKht in IHftl wan upwarl uf fl'iO.OUO. I can nut forbear to old, that had our ntataamen •t4NMi hj the doctrine which waa aanerted and main- tained at (Ihent by the American romminiiuneni, aa 80, 1SB8. ^ WkKhtr •Iporlnl. I Dried or MBokMl. 8,4M I Cwl. HweiUsb Wpil Indl«s . . ' .... Danlsk West Inilles. . . 1,188 ttalekWMt Indies.... 1,18A lialch Oulana > 18,MI) Knaland [ OlbralUr j Canada. Otbvr Hrillsh N. Amor-| Iran Powu-sslons. . BritMi Wpm Inillos Biitliih Honiluraa... British Oulana Bril. I'oaa. In AfHca British AuMralla. . . Hritlnh Kast Ir.illfS. . VranM on Ibo Atlantic Vrencb Wast Indies . Krcneb Onlana Cuba., , P(frto Ukw Ma'r Porta In Africa llayll I*an lloinlngo McJlcn CVintral Rnpubllc { Nnwdrrnada Vrnniui'la Braill t'rniiaay. or C'lspiatincj ll«putillo I Buenos Ayri^s, or Ar-, If ntloa Kcpulllc. . CSIII. Peru. Kqaailar Handwicli IslaniK China. Wbaie FMiariea. Total ll,a7», «9.10« 184^ «14i 1. 84,131, 14M21 ItarraU.! K«f>. Dulbn. 1 186 888 IM »S8^ .1,1491 110 l«i),l>71 678,011 188 » 18 mr»o» is! 1,100 64| 8sa ISVl "isi 1,880 OanaaaL STATamaT or DoHasTio Kxpoan, aaaANsn aT llMTaion, raiiM Tua Uairau ttTAtaa, roa tub VaAB aauiNU Juna 80, l 8,691 1,471 T8,H41 lIMl 68 ■ "79 478 1,694 4M 1,886 V,»76 58,407 1,191 V,8»R "m 48 "860 10 110 "oin 620 689 110 4.6,'I8 J7«,98» [Port land A ir»lmoulh. 1».8'«Si 17« 600 im i,iKi .... ' Ni'wbaryport 16,IUl! WM H0.888' 1,848 \i.* ll7(),!/7Si 14,806 68, 7 • 4»| .... 8141 9 161{ 110 1,840 4(W 19,718 111 m, .... »7I 141 914' 6 '14»,80N< 10.166 ts« '"40 471 ::;: ■... "io ■ '■'.'. ■■■"i ■'184 '(iloiin'»'«'r S»lrm Hoftton A OlurlMtown. r»ii KivoT Hrlfitol and Wwivn. . . . Ni'Wport ilenrsve Onwogo Nlamrfc 'Now V*»rk 1H,76,J '8^879 686 "m !J8,(V41 17 410 i'.iiii .■iiN,oir 418 "iso 6 ■■ » 1 17 ""t 160 Capo Vlnivnt PhlIa Tua Proi'dktion orriiR unrom.fh ano I.iijiinsku Tu.mnaok tm-Loraii in tiik I'oabtino TaAua, c'dd Fishkkt, MACXaKKI. FlSIIIKY, A.NU WilALR FiSIIEaV, rROH IHI6 to 1S66, iNCLiaiva. Yw jR*ffl*t'd*lTi>nnsc<> I lunitAff* Miiploy^d I Inlh" whs'e I Bihvry, i§is;i,«»ii,m 1816 1,871,219 lS17'l.«91»,9ll 1818 l.ll^l)^ 1819,1,20(1,761 1820il,2'*«,186 lN2l'l.29,S.969 1»li; 1,324.899 1 slit II. «.'((!.?)«« 1S24 l,«Sl(,18H l'<26tl,41.),lll 1H28 1,.'VM,I9I I.'«27l1,(i20.68.s l»lH;i,74l,8ltl lS2»;i,2(«l,7»N ISSull. 191,778 1H81il,167,S4fl| l»82il,4H9,4.'i(l 1W«I|,«(K1,1.VI| lH*4,1.76s.l>07( 18«'l,H2 1,9401 188(1 I,SH2,I0S 198T 1,1^,818 1MIh||,»»,%840 1 1NS9 9,098,479 1 1^41)12,1811.784 1S41 12,1.10.744 1<.I22(!M?.'IU1 llH4H|2,I.^^(lo.•l ;1^44;2,lS(p,ll9.^ llH46ll.4n.iHW lM0il,662,(M6 ;1S47|2,S3»,(>J6 1848 8.1,Vt.(V(2 '184918.884,016 l^dOISAA-tM 1W1 1),772,4J» IW.! 4,l:tN,44« IS,'i8'4,4((".(llO IS644.HI 12.908 18W ,Vil2,(l01 lFiMii nsviifs- lluD. tVulIni I Cm) trsd«. ' ' ' 4)«,087 479,979 ♦'-1,46s 608.140 62H,M« M9,080 67.t.iPsO 600.409 n>.9,22.S ,1'*7.27M 800,420 7«2,9.lH 76'<.922 6llH.H,'>S M0.1I7N !M,;u 0«|I,(I17 744,1911 7X.S.019 792..')0I sr8.o2« I ' ■■■'T- flTh^ 8^97g 40,111 47,421 4N725 0l,OS2 04.448 04,42.1 24.h79 11,610 28,001 67,069 40,19N 89,418 64,087 64,472 »4,48b 90,Sl4i I22,''l6! IH.HI.I l.M,TO,'il il9,0|«i| |U8,414'I,(MI,>II6 181,H4.^| 204.9HM l,I,'rt,,W2 18fl,927i201,itH)|l,17li,iW4 l.'>7,4i 2:(6.'<0«jl,07ll,l.'Xi 01.224 11.776 10^2B4 278.179,1,10(1,014 SS,226 10,171 11Ml,0»fli 820,1119 I, IffO.XllK R»,S20 21,418 lHll,i»»0; 847,i"t,241 2,iKV1,(i2r Ift2,fl."i9 72.,Mfl 1911,202: 614.098 2.184.268 109,227 60,860 181,9011 670,007 !,178,»0O 102.194 8.V141 18«.778| 77(i,2s5il,4»l,10i 102,«2» 21,626 189,218 078,07.'<, 2,2 11,986 06,SW 19,8S7 20,610 87,H79 68,990 6S„Vj1 a^l^6 60, MS 61,8.M 6^406 67,621 8-*,4l9 70,626 88,781 74,049 74,94s 10.,T97 81,.'>66 6(1,97H M,(12.S 62,721 61.404 72.074 02.80" S0,.'i»2 70,064 72,2.W 70.li.'IO 0fl,M2 54,.H04 01.224 S5,226 O9,s20 71,610 7(1,17 N2,6"i2 42,97(1 MKk. ■n,\ Wljslt lUbiry 1,280 1,188 »,M1 016 OSi 1,(164 l.!l24 8,184 6s6 IHO '227 829 180 '798 481 877 47s 8(U 1.678 40,slll |,s94 68,IV49i 6,280 8.\9S4l 440 •>>,209 ll,!121 8-71 1481 821: 20Y1 4401 488 70 248 £^-e* ^x^^i±iVA^ti3P*lt9S^X..,£k.iM±,^!/f^Jt^S^*li»^'^ . J.. ^ Hi' els FIS IffiO. ■MM. ruiwHM. CkpNtl. T«lM*fraw HwHiaidirkiyad. Knlln «•(•• fn wmOt. Malt, r7K 4M,»10 s,Mi,m<) 4S,7(tl) 4'):,ion »«,iiii It.lM ti,nao 4U,B64 10,140 »l»,&f4 19,187 4,»7> 11,0M 81,»41 1,W mi 1,7'W 11. AIM 144 ROO AW 1,N48 88 IW Its 47 "b "414 .... "'44»" iii.W 1,085 BB,110 1M),IMI N474 «,a«o 11.8M 44,A7H l,«8l »,70H «,«H7 1,010 lil^LBIM |1.7l)4.4Ni Ml IS,II7« B«»,N7t «,aiNi,H49 7ll,77B 4H4,ii4B 4,998 IA1; and proclaimed \UK September, 1864. AuTKi.K 1. It Is n)(reed by the hl(;h cnntractinR parties that, in addition to the lihcrtj' secured to the I'nitcd States' flshermen by the uliove-mentinned con- vention of Octolier 20, 1818, of taking, curing, and dryiuK fish on certain coasts of the British North American colonies tlierein defined, the Inhabitants of the United States shall have, In common with the snb- jei'ts of her Britannic majesty, the liberty to take fish of everj- kind, except shell-flsh, on the aeo-coasts and shores, and in the bays, harbors, and creeks of Canada, Now lirunswick. Nova Scotia, I'rince Edwanl's Isl- and, and of the several Islands thereunto adjacent, witliout being restricted tn any distance from the shore, with permission to land nynn the coasts and shores of those coUmies, anil the islands thereof,. and also upon the Magdalene Islands, for the purpose of drying their nets and curing their fl.ih ; provided that, in so doing, they do not Interfere with the rights of private property, or with British fishermen, in the peaceable use of any part of the said coast In their oc- cupancy for the same purpose. It is understood that the ulmve-inentioned liberty applies solely to the sea fishery ; and that the salmon and shad fisheries, and all fisheries in rivers, and the mouths of rivers, we hereliy reservu.l, exclusively, for British fishermen. And it Is further agreed, that in on'er to prevent, or settle anj- disputes ua to the places to whuli ihe reser- vation of exclusive right to British fishermen, con- tained in this article, and that of flshermen of the United States, contained in the next succeeding arti- cle, apply, each of the high contracting parties, on the application of either to the other, sliall, within six months thereafter, appoint a commissioner. The said commissioners, before proceeding to any business, shall make and subscriira a solemn declaration that they will impartially and carefully examine and decide, to the best of their judgment, and according to justice and equity, without fear, favor, or affection to their own countrj', upon all such places as are intended to be reserved and excluded from the common liberty of fishing under this and the next succeeding article, and luch declaration ahall be entered on the record of their proceedings. The cummlaaionara ahall name some third peraon to act aa an »rliitrator or umpire in any caae at caaea on which thi'j may themselvea differ In opinion. If they should nut lie able to agree U|>on the name of such third (lerson, they shall each name a peraon, and it shall be determined by lot which of the two persona ao named ahall lie the arbitrator or umpire In cases of dif- ference or lilsagrecment lietween the two comnilsiiim- ers. The is'rson ki. Io be chosen to be arbitrator or umpire shall, before proceeding to act an snch in any case, make and subscribe a sidemn declaration in n form similar to that which shall already have been I lade and subscribed by the commissioners, which shall be entered on the record of their proceedings. In the event of I lie death, absence, or Incapacity of either of the commlBsInners, or of the arbitrator or umpire, or of their or his omitting, declining, or ceaa- ing to act an such commissioner, arbitrator, or umpire, another and diflbrcnt person shall be appointed or named as aforesaid to act as such commissioner, arbi- trator, or umpire, in the place or f^tcad of the {wrson so originally appointed or named as aforesaid, and shall make or subscribe such declaration as aforesaid. Such commissioners shall proceed to examine the con»ts of the North American provinces and of the United States embraced within the provisions of the first and secimd articles of this treaty, and nhiill des.'g- nate the places reser\-ed by the said article from the common right of fishing therein. The decision of the > iimmlsioners and of the arbitra- tor or umpire shall be given in writing in each caae, and shall bo i led by them respectively. The high contracting parties hereby solemnly engage to consider the decision of the commissioners conjointly, or of IliK arbitrator or umpire, as the case may be, as absolutely final and conclusive In each case decided upon by them or him respectively. Artulr 2. It is agreed by the high contracting parties that British ubjects shall have, in common with the citizens of the United States, the lilierty to take fish of ever}' kind, except shell-flsh, on the east- em sea-coasts and shores of the United States north of the ilfith parallel of north latitude, and on the shores of the several islands thereunto adjacent, and in the bays, harliors, and creeks of the said sea-coasts and shores of the United States, and of the said islands, without being restricted to any distance from the shore, with permission to land upon the said coasts of the United States and of the islands aforesaid, for the purpose of drjMng their nets and curing their fish . provided that, in so doing, thej- do not interfrre with the rights of private projierty, or with the flshern'en of the United Stales in the peaceable use of any part o the said coasts in their occupancy for the same purpose It is understood that the above-mentioned liberty atiplles solely to the sea fishery ; and that salmon and shad fisheries, and all fisheries in rivers and mouths of rivers, are hereby reserved exclusively for flahemien of the United States. Akticib 3. It Is agreed that the articles enumerated in the schedule hereunto annexed, being the growth and produce of the aforesaid Britlsli colonies or of the FIS m fLk Unltwl flUtM, •h*ll Im admltud Inlo —A Miwlry r*- *p«rllvfily frvD of duly : ttwiniTLa or Autk-lu rmn iir Dutt m Kiiipbooitt TmitTt WITH Tiin lUiTitn I'BoTiNoan or H. A. tun Tna Ukitkii MTArn. QiAii, Kinfii, ami llaatn trtTrm, of all ktntlii, AaiMtLaofall klnila. t'aaaH, rtvoaan, and Haltid MaAiK. CorroN-woni^ Haaoa, and TaorraaLai. Uapaiau Kaiim, Dtilv Fai'rra, Pun of all la. I'aonirr.iK ^>i Kmn, and nf all otlwr RmMurM IItIr^ In Iha water. PolJLTar, Ko, and Tow, an- nianufltrlnred. rNMANirAOTVBBD ToaACOO, UAua. OanofMaTAUi, ufall kind*. A HTICLB 4. It U aKro«Hl that tb« citliena and inhab- ItuiitA of tha United Mtataa ahall hava tba rlKht tu iiav- ig»t» tha Kivar St. Ijawranca, and tha canala in CaniuU uaad aa tba mviiiin of cuminuiiicatinK brtwmii tha Kii'nt Ukaa and tha Atlantic Ocean, with their voMali, liouta, and crufta, aa fully and frealy aa the aulijvcta of bar Uritannic luiijasty, aulijact only to tha aame toll* and Other aaaeiuinieutA M now am, or may hereafter iia, ex- ■ctwl of bar mi^eaty'a aaid (ubjacta ; it bcinK undar- itood, however, thitt tha Itritiah t(ov*mi»"»t retiilna tba right of >u>|>vnding tliia privileKe on k'^'^K ''"o notice thereof to tha Kovemment of the United Htatea, It ia further agreed, that if at any time tha Uritiuli govemmeut Khould exerclte the wld renorved right, the KoveminiMit of 'he United Statea Hhiill hn\'e tha right of auspending, if it think lit, the o|)«rikti»u of Article a of the (iroaent treaty, in no far aa the pmvluro of Canada ia affevtad thereby, for no long ■« the itu»- lianaion of tha free navigation of the liiver St. Law- rence or the canaU nuy continue. It U further agn-cd that liritiiih aulijecta nhall have the right freely to navigate l^ke Michigan with their vetaela, iMHita, and crufta, ao long aa the privilege of navigating the lilvar 8t. Lawrence, secured to Amer- ican citizens liy the above clauiie of the prenent article, thall continue ; and the govenimcnt uf the United ' Statea further engagen to urge upon the State govem- menta to aecure to the iiubjecta of her Uritannic maj- eity the uae of the aeverol State oanala, on terma of equality with the inbabitoota of the United Statei. And it U further agreed, that no export duty, or other duty, ahall be lovied on lumber or timber of any kind cut on that portion of the American territory in the State uf Maine watered by the Kiver St. .lohn and ita tributariea, oud floated down that river to the aea, when the aame ia ahipped to the United Statea from the pruvinco of New Urunawick. riah-taoolu (JIamrcont, Fr. ; J'ithangcln, Ger.) •re constructed with simple tools, but require great manual dexterity In the workmen. The iron wire of which they are made should be of the beat quality, smooth and sound. A bundle of such wire ia cut in lengths, either by shears or by laying it down upon an angular wedge of hard ateel tlxed horizontally in a block or anvil, and striking off the pro|)cr lengths by the blows of a hammer. In fashioning the barbt of the hooka, the straight piece of wire la laid down In the groove of ao iron block made on purpose, and U dexterously struck by the chisel in a slanting dlrec- tbn, across oo much of the wire aa may be deemed necessary. A sharp-pointed little wedge is thus formed, whose Inse graduates into the aulistancu of the metal. The end of the wire where the line Is to be attached is DOW flattened or screw-tupped ; the other end ia abari^ pointed, Md the proper twisted curvature li giveo. The soft Iron li.ioka (re next rase-hardaneil, tn giv* thsni tha steely •tilTneu and ela.dl' Ity, by Imlwdilliig them In animal chiin ':il contalneil In an eiirtlieii >ir Iron l>ox ; after which they are brightened liy heiiling and agitating them with bran, and linally t<>m|>eriil )>)' exposure to a regulatetl tsni|ierntum u|Min a hot Inm plate. Hooka for aalt-water tlshlng are fmiuently tinned to (irevent them wearing rapidly awny in nut. Fish-ponds are pomla nioile by art, In wbb'h dif- ferent kinds of tlih are bred and fattened. In general thix i» only attemptml with frenh-wnter flah ; but In some places |>ouils have been formed on the sea shore, and so contrived as to biive their waters renew eig. Flag, an ensign or cdlnrs; a cloth on which am usually displayed certain devices, and attached to u staff. In the army, it aignilirs a small Imnner by which one regiment Is distinguished from another ; in the marine, a certain banner by which an atlnilral Is distlngulahud from the other hIijis of bis squudtun, or by which the ships of one nation are distinguished from those of another. The flag acquired its present form in the sixth century in Spain ; it was previously small and si|uare. — Ahiik. The dug Is suid to have been Intniduced tliere by the Saracens ; liefore which time tha ensigns of war were extended on cross pieces of wood. — I'akuo.v, The term flag is more particu- larly used ut sea tu denote to what country a ship l>e- longs, and the qiutllty of its commander. The honor of tile Hug salute at sea was exacted by Kngland from ver>' early times; but It was formally yielded by the Dutch in A.l>. 107:1, at which |)erlod they huil been defeated in nuny actions. lA>ui8 XIV. obliged tlin Spaniards to lower their flag to the F'rench, llixo, — IIknadlt, After an engagement of three hours be- tween Tourville and the Spanish Admiral Tupachln, the latter yielded by firing u salute of nine guns to tho French flog, Juno '2, l(m.—IJrm. To lotrtr or Mtrikt Ike Flag, In the navy, is tu pull it down upim the cap, or to take It in, as a token of the respect due from all ships or fleets to those which ur« undeniably their superiors. To lower or strike the flag In an engagement Is a sign of submission or sur- render. The method of leading a' ship in triumph Is to attach the flags to the shrouds, or the guller}' in the hind part of the ship, letting them bang down towurd the water, and to tow the vessels by the stem. Mvy relates that this was the mode in which the Komans used the ships of Carthage. To hmve out the Flag, it to display or put abroad the flag. Tu hang out the While Flog, h to ask quarter ; or, when a vessel bos arrived on a coast, it shows tliat it has no hostile intention, but comes to trade, or tho like. The red flag is a sign of defiance and battle. Flag Officers are those who command the several squadrons of a fleet. Flag of the United iS<n>r,W>l>hlsft>r| oinilna uul irtfDtklnlnif 19 of lh« rokl I bourt In lh« rtwui. vault. l.OM 1,072 l,ll«S i,n«7 l,tP6T 1,0M 1,046 1,04t 1,04a 1,(K)0 1,163 1,1M 1,ll,t i.U'i 1,101 1,103 1,104 1,081 1,0R9 1,000 In regard to these experimcnti Count Rumford ob- serves, that though linen, from the apparent ease with which it receives dampness from the atmosphere, seems to have a much greater attraction fur water than any other, yet it would appear, from what is related •bove, that those bodies which receive water Id its un- elaatle fbrm with tha Kreateat ease, or am mnai aaaity wet, are not those which In all raaaa altrart the Im. nildity of the atmosphere with tha gi^utest avidity. " I'erhapn," aays he, "the apparent dampness of linen to the touch arlaea mora fnmi the ease with which llinl suhatancn parts with the water It cnntalna than fnim the (luantlty of water it actually holds ; In tha aam* manner as a l>ody appears hot to the touch In cons*. ((Uence of Its parting freely with its heat g while an- other body which Is really at tlia same temperature, but which withholds Its heat with K'eat obatlnary, aflTects the sense of feeling much less strongly. It la well known that wimlen cloths, such as llannela, etc., worn next the skin, greatly promote Insensible per- spiration. May not thla aria* principally f^om the alrong attraction which auhaists between wool and the watery vn|ior which is rnntinually Issuiag fh)m Ihn human body ? That it does not depend entirely nn the warmth of that covering, la clear ; (br the same degree Iif warmth produced by wearing n re idothing of a dilferent kind does not produce the iine ofl'ect. Tha |M>rspirutlon of the human bmly lieing absorlied by a covering of flannel. It Is immediately distributed through the whole thickness of that auliatance, and by that menus ex|Kised, by a very large surface, to Iw carried olV by the atmosphere ; and t e lusa of tl , watery vu|is of the akin are disencumbered, and they are contlnuoUy sur- rounded by a dr)- and snlo'Tlous atmosphere."— • loiophical Trantacliimt, No. IH,1. Flannels are much more luxurious production'* 'lan they were In years gone by. We knew them form, riy only as woolen or worsted goods ; but mwlern Ingenu- ity has devised flannel inacle of mingled wool and silk Its Inventors claim for it a superiority over ordinary flannels, In being less Irritating to the skin ; it shrinks less in washing ; the silk increases the strength and durability of the texture, and renders it loss liable to tear. Such flannels have even been embroider'd, niid used for ladies' opero cloaks. Then we h.ivn choice "Thibet" flannels, made from the finest wool ; and flax flannels, in which flax, preporcd on Claussen's process, is mixed with wool ; and fancy-ccdored flan- nels—pink, rose-color, cherry, crimson, blue, orange, and other dainty tints. The philosophy of cheapness has also visited the flannel regions, for some of the low-priced flunncls contain a portion, mure or less, of cotton. There are striped flannels, end cricketers' flannels, and " anti-rlieumatl " flannels, and many other special and oddly-nnraeU i .n. . Flax (l!er. Fhehf; Uu. IV ,.i^ i't. Am; It. and Sji. Lino; Riis. /.CM, I.on; Pol. /.•',' l-"*. /.iBwm), an important plant (Linum utilaiuiimum) that has been cultivated from the earliest ugea in (ireut llritaln and many other countries ; Its fiores lieing manufactured Into thread, and its seec' . lUshcd for oil. Russia sup- plies by far the largest portion of the flax imported into Knglnnd, the pn.icipal sorts being I'ctersburg, Nurvu, Riga, itevel, Pcmau, Liehau, Mcmel, and Oborland. Petersburg and Nnrva flax are nearly of tho same quality, the latter lieing but little inferior to the former, llulli sorts cmno in bundles, of 12, 9, nnd 8 beads. The Riga flax seems to deserve the preference uf any imported from tho Baltic. It is the growth of tho provinces of Marienburg, Druania, Thisenbbausen, and Lithuania. The best Marienburg is called simply Marienburg (Af), or Marienburg clean ; tho second quality, cut (GM) ; and tho third, riattii drat/band (RO) J of tho three other provinces, the first quality bears tho name of rakilzer ; as, Itruania raJcitser (DB), ThieginlmuMn rahitzer (TR), and Lilhuania rakilter (I,R). The cut flax of these three provinces is the second quality ; and to the third quality belongs the badttub and baJtlub cut (B and Bti) ; the patemotttr FLA 618 FLA (FN); and h(fft thrti band (HD). Baiihib and pa. temoiter are the refuse of the rakUzer flax, and the three band again the refuse of the former sort, and con- sequently very ordinary. The Revel and Penau con- sists, of Marienburg, cut, rilzen, ha/t three band, and three band. The Liebau and Momel growths are dis- tinguished by the denomination otjuur and three band. These two sorts, as well as the Oberland flax, come from Kdnigsberg, Elbing, etc., and are little esteemed in the British marlcet. Flanders or Dutch flax is well dressed, and of the finest quality. Flax is extensively cultivated in Egypt. Of lute years, some of the Italian ports, which used to be supplied from Russia, have been fully supplied, on lower terms, from Alexandria. The Phomuum tenax, or New Zealand flax, has been Puid tu exceed every otlicr species in strength of fibre and whitene^i; qualities which, if it really posesses them in the degree stated, must make it peculiarly well fitted for being made into canvas and cordage. In point of fait, however, there is a great diversity of opinion as to its real merit.n, and it letches at present but a low price. In 1831 and 18.12 the imports uf New Zealand flax amounted respectively to 15,725 and 15,867 cwts. i but they fell off in 1835 to 7812 cwts., and since then only trifling quantities have been im- ported. It is alleged that this is in consequence of the imperfect preparation of the flax, which has hitherto been entirely intrusted to the native women. But without presuming to say whether the defects with which it is charged l>o inherent in the flax itself, or de- pend f^r. its preparation, it is abundantly certain that unless it be furnished of a superior quality, it will not suit our markets. When flax is brought to the princi- pat Russian ports whence it is shipped, it is classified according to its qualities, and made up in bundles by sworn inspectors (brackera), appointed by government for the asjortment of that and all other merchandise. These functionaries are said to perform their task with laudable impartiality and exactness, A ticket is ut- tuohed to ever}- buudle of assorted flax, containing the name of the inspector and owner, the sort of flax, and the period when it was selected or inspected. See Hemi*. Good flax should be of a fine bright color, well separated from the tow, codila, or coarser portion of the plant ; and of a long, fine, and strong fibre. In purchasing flax, it is usual to employ agents wholly devoted to this peculiar business, AoooVNT or Tns QtrANtiTiES op Flax and Tow impohtbd ixtoKnulani) unaiNO each or tue fitk Ykars kno- i»o wrrn 1S51, distisuuisiiini. the Covstriks wiiknce THEY WEE* IlllVETBD, AHD THE QOAIfTITIEl BROVOHT raOH EACB, Russia S8M'67|l,(Hfi,';i32|l I'ru5*la, Ilaose Towns. Holland Belgium France Italy and the It-lltnlsls.. JrU. ferrit. in tue E. Ind.. ...nited States. kMber parts 141,»4V 84.493 7!),0<(» SD.IHIl) 6,1171 I C'wi», ( Twri ,8l»,88Bi,240,;6« 18il,747| 12IW,!!7: 118,7S«! T6,7i» 2,27a :,2.v) iM,40O ^^_ 8,578 Tetal tpSlW»1.4 trivances uf Mr, James Lee, and Messrs. Hill & Bundy, shared the same fate. Wliatevor may have been the comparative merits of the two processes of these rival inventors, in the course of a few years both were re- linquished and forgotten. Various other ingenious mechanical arrangements have been devised, but hith- erto they have had very little success, Schenck's process, for which he obtained a patent in 184C, is undoubtedly a very important improvement. It consists merely in steeping the flax stems in warm water, heated artificially to the ti'mperature best suited to fermentation. In this simple way the operation is rendered rapid and certain, all imcertainty from fluctu- ation in temperature and weather is avoided, and the whole process is entirely under the command of the manufacturer. The temperature best suited for this purpose is about 80°, or from 80° to nearly 90". Above this poiut the process proceeds too rapidly, ond the fibre is utmost sure to be more or less injured. The time required is from ubout 70 to 90 hours. It appears to be generidly admitted that the warm-water steep- ing increases the percentage of fibre obtained from thu flax, stem over that obtained by the old modes of ret- ting by nearly one fifth ; and that, while the fineness and spinning qualities of the fibre are increased, the strength is in no way weakened or diminished, unless the process bo permitted to proceed too far — an acci- dent that need iiever happen, from the complete con- trol over it which the manufacturer has thrtfughoul. Although there is no doubt as to the practical value of the use of warm water in flax retting, yet the introduc- tion of Scbenck e , 'ocess is far from removing all the difliculties of the flax manufacturer; much st-ll re- mains to be effe>;ted ; and it is by no means imprubable that ere long a yet more perfect process may be de- vised. it is interesting to observe, that the use of warm water in the preparation of vegetable fibre is not alto- gether new, it having been employed by the Malays, and by the natives of Rungpoor, in Bengal. The process adopted at Bencoolen is stated by Dr. Campbell to consist of steeping the stems of the hemp in warm wa- ter, in which it is allowed to remam for two days and nights. The old German process, called " Molken- rOst," sometimes used in preparing the finer sorts of flax, is also, to some extent, an application of the same principle. In this mode of retting, the flax was steeped for four or five days in a warm mixture of milk and water, and thus the desired degree of fermentation in the flax stems was produced. This peration must l>e distinguished from the more modem one, in which sorr milk was used in order to give a good color to linen — a process introduced by the Dutch toward the middle of the last contiir^-. The linen was boiled in a weak alkaline \ye, and sul>sequently treated with sour butter-milk, for the purpose of aiding ii) -emoving the alkali, and dissolving the earthy impurities present in the fibre. Ocasionaily, also, suit of sorrel was used for the sumo purpose ; and in 1775 Reuss states that sulphuric and muriatic acids might be used for the same end ; but that Ijeing too costly, they had not as yet come into general use. Of course all processes in which boiling, or even hot, water is used, are quite different in tlieir mode of action from those in which only warm water is empIoye cent, of carbonate of soda ; and, lastly, when it has i< mained in the latter for an hour, it is pUinj;ed into a weak so- lution of sulphuric acid, consisting of one part of acid to 200 or 50O parts of water ; in this it is left for about lialf an hour, and the process is completed. The ef- fect of these several processes is " to divide and split up" the fibre in a most remarkable manner, so us com- pletely to alter its character. Flax thus treated is converted into a substance very nearly resembling cot- ton. It is probal)le that flax-cotton can be i.dvantage- uusly used in the manufacture of mixed fabrics, as it iippcnrs capable of being spun with wool, silk, and other fibres ; it may, therefore, perhaps hereafter lead to several new and important practical applications. The idea of modifying the fibre of the flax and hemp, so as to convert it into a kind of cotton, is l)y no means now. In 1747, Lilljikreuzes and Palmquist described a mode of converting flax into " cotton," liy boiling it for some time in a solution of caustic potash, and snlj- sequcntly washing it with soap. In 1776, consider- able qnantitie" of refuse flax and hemp were converted into " flax-cotton" by Lady Moira, with the aid of T, H Bailey, of Hope, near Mancliester. The full details of the process employed do not appear to have been published ; but from Lady Moira's letters in the 'J'mnmcliima of the Society of Arts for 1775, it appears that the fibre was boiled in an alkaline lyi?, or a solu- tion of kelp, containing carlmnate of soda, and subse- quently scoured. The result of this was that " the fibres seem to be set at lil)ert'y from each other," after wliich it may lie " carilcil on cotton cards." It appears tliut nt this time flax-cutton " was made and sold at 3d. per pound ;" and Lady Sloira states, that she believes that it takes colors better than flax. It is curious to oliserve the fate of Lady Moira's scheme : she says : " I have no reason to be vain of the samples I have sent yon : they merely, show that the material of flax-cotton, in able hands, will bear manufacturing, though it is my ill fortune to havi it discredited by the nrtizans who work for me. I had, in Dublin, with great difficulty, a gown wove, and three waistcoats ; but had not the person who employed a weaver for me particularly wished to oblige me, I could not have got it accomplished." Subsequently to this, several attempts were made in ricrmiiny to convert flax into a fibre resembling cot- tiiii. In 1777, Uaron Meldinger proposed to convert flux into a sort of cotton, by the action of alkaline so- lutions, etc. In 1780, a factory was established at Ueri'htoldsdarf, near Vienna, for the practical working of this process ; and similar jilans were subsequently brought forward by Kreutzer in 1801, Studler and Haupftaer In 1811, by Sokou in 1816, and by seTeimi others. At the factory at Bercbtoldsdorf, not only wat flax converted into cotton, but also a useful cotton- like fibre was prepared from tow and refuse flax ; and the seme is said to have been done by Hagg, near Prea- burg, in 1788, by Gobell in 1803, and SegaUa in 1811. Whether these various plans failed from the effects of jealousy and opposition, like that which prevented Lady Moira from introducing her "flax-cotton," it unknown ; but it does not appear tli.i:, n;iy of them were long persevered in. It is prcibaUe tiiatinmost cases the neighboring manufacturers set themselvei against the introduction of flax-cotton ; for Beckman, who speaks of its manufacture near Brunswick, state* that the work-people determined not to use the new material; though at the same time he observes, that exceUi n'. fustians were made, which could not be dis- tinguished from those manufactured with ordinary cotton. The extreme similarity of flax-cotton to ordi- nary cotton is also remarked by Des Charmes (1799), who states, that if the staple be cut before it is carded, it is not possible to distinguish it from cotton, either in its raw state or when manufactured. The matter was subsequently investigated by Berthollet, by Gay Lussac, and by Giobert, who employed alternately steepings in hot solutions of soap, alkali, and sulpburio or muriatic acid. Berthollet observes, that equally fine cotton is obtained from the commonest refuse tow as from the best flax. For some valuable information on fibrous mato- rials, the produce of India, which may be cheaply and usefully substituted for Russian hemp and flux, see " The Fibrous Plants of India fitted for Cordage, Clothing, and Paper," by J, Forbes lioyle, M. D., F.R.S. : London, 1856; and also an article entitled " Indian Substitutes for RussUn Produce," in the Edinburg Review for July, 1865. In 1616, M. Girard found means to apply machinery and to substitute the spindle in the spinning of flax. To France, then, belongs the honor of the discovery, but England was the first to profit by it and put it in practice, and her example was followed, at the inter- val of some years, by France, Belgium, and Germany, in the order indicated. The progress of this industry was rapid, and the following table presents its present position (July, 1866) : RHndles. Great BriUin and Ireland 1,480,000 Franco 540,000 Germany (including Austria) 171,000 Belgium 182,000 Russia 60,000 Other European States 40,000 United States of America 81,000 Total 2,400,000 ^Hiile the progress of machine-spinning ii; Great Britain, Germany, and Switzerland, independent of all kinds of protection, except in the case of Prussia, certain premiums paid by the government to those who have established factories, its extension in Franca and Belgium, and more especially in the former, is due to legislative interference. Let us, then, direct our attention to France, where an extreme import duty exists. Although the duty was made high in 1826,. the import of English yam was progressive, but slow, until 1836, when the rate was considerably reduced. Immediately afterward the quantity increased rapidly. In 1830 France received but 7,500 lbs, of linen yarn from England. In 1835, in spite of a high tariff, the import had increased to 11,700,000 lbs. Under the re- duced duties it went on augmenting until, in 1842, it reached 24,750,000 lbs. Then came the establishment of the present excessively protective scale of duty ; its consequences are manifest in the rapid extension of flax-spinuing in France. lu 1840 there were 90,000 spindles ; in 1845, the number was 127,000 ; in 1860, 275,000 ; in 1855, 490,000. In the nuun time the im- port of yams from (jl countries fell from 24,750,000 FLA 980 FLA Ibi. to 1,693,000 Iba. If we lud only to do with th« eatablUbment of a great ipinniog-trade in France, and tlie monopoly of tlie supply uf yam at Iiome, theae figures woald be triumphant. But unfortunately for the consumer, as well as for the wealth and resources of the nation, the operation of the tarilf has l)een a costly affair. While the capitalists who had placed their money in the spinning-factories rejoiced at the results detailed, and in the large profits which their government had given them a legalized right to derive fkvm the mass of consumern, we may inquire whether every one was equally satisfied with such a system of political economy.— /icpoH to the Reform Congreu of BnuteU, by Mr. J. Macadam, of Belfatt, 1866. Mr. Macadam's conclusions were as follows : I, In nil cases I would advocate the free, entry of the raw materials, flax and tow. Where natural and social facilities exist for the cultivation of flux, no protection is required, as it only renders the growers careless of Improvement. Where these elements of success are wanting, it is evident that the culture should lie abandoned. A nation should never be subjected to a tax simply to supply itself with a material which it can have better and cheaper from elsewhere. II. I would urge a moderate fixed ad valortm duty for the exorbitant ones now levied in many States, and fix it for 10 per cent, on the present value of En- glish yarns. If to this rate of duty be added the cost of packing, transport, commission and other charges, the rate of protection would really amount to 15 per cent. French and Belgian spinners may, perhaps, say that this duty would be inadequate to protect them, but I can not admit this. It is true that the cost of fuel is higher in France and Belgium than in the United Kingdom. But, on the other hand, I con prove that in Ireland we pay more in proportion, as compared with Great Britain, than France or Belgium does, as compared with us. For example, while at Leeds coals cost -Is. 8d. per ton, and at Dundee 8s., they cost in Belfast lOs. to lis. 6d. per ton, making a difference in favor of the English spinners of 140 per cent., and of the Scotch of 30 per cent. At Ghent, coals cost at present 14s., and have l>een much cheaper. At I.illo they cout Lis. 6d. ; the diflfercnce, therefore, in favor of the Irish spinners, as compared with the French or Belgian, is 50 |)er cout. We might, conse- quently, at Belfast, just us well demand protection from the English and Scotch spinners, as the French and Belgians ask it against us. As to the cost of la- Iwr, the factories of Ghent ami Mile are in a lietter position than ours. On what, then, do the spinners of France and Belgium liase their claim to protection ? On the 8uperir)rity of English machinery ? But these machines may enter Belgium free of dut}' ; and lately. In Franco, great advantages have been accorded in their import. Or is it on the great capital of England, and the smaller rate of Witerest of money ? As well might we, in poor Ir< ud, ask protection .against these, ond yet in the face of them, we have progressed more rapidly than either England or Scotland. Further, how does it bapp 4,921! 410,691: 69,6241 92,749| 164,8631 1,868,808 1,062,S9 I | 1,88 4,9421 TtAtX ^>11,482 ,286| ♦9,818,284,?rr596,¥03' Flu sije'i, or I ^ iteed (Fr. Lin, Graim de Lin ; Ger. Mr i- .• T>.i.i7-'-.a«kI; It.AiiMetw!; Sp. tinata; Port, ill, V III • V"l 'iitmie, Iniatte; Rub. Semja 1e converted into oil. As the quality of the crop depends much on the seed em- ployed, a good deal of care is requisite in solectliiK the best. Generally speaking, it should be chosen of a bright, brownish color, oily to the feel, heavy, and quite fresh. Dutch seed is in the highest ettimatloii for sowing ; it not only ripens sooner than any other that is imported, bnt produces larger crops, and of the quality that best snits our principal manufacturen, American seed produces fine flax, but the produce Is not so large as from Dutch seed. British flnx-seed Is sometimes used instead of Dutch ; but the risk of the crop misgiving is so much greater, " that those only who are ignorant of the consequences, or who are com- pelled from necessity, are chargeable with this act of ill-judged parsimony." — Loudon't Kite. nfAgrtndture, Crushing-seed is principally imported from Russia, but considerable quantities are also brouglit from India, Italy, and Egypt. Zieeoe, the covering of wool shorn from a sheep, See Wool. Fleet, a navy or a squadron of ships of war ; or u number of ships in company, whether ships of war or of commerce. Flint, siliciouB mineral. It consists of 08 silica, 0'50 lime, 0-26 alumlno, 0-25 oxyd of Iron, and I'O loss. This mineral occurs of various colors, but gen- orally yellowish or dark gray, and usually in a com- pact amorplious body, c /arious shapes. It is widely dispersed over the world, occurring chiefly in the clialk formations, but especially in limestone. Its princlpnl use is for gun-flints, and for striking light with iy John DoUond, after a long-continued course of experiments undertaken for the purpose of perfect- ing the telescope. It is, however, very diflicult to prepare flint-glass fit for the purposes of achromntli telescopes. This difBculty arises not from the want of sufficient dispersive power in the substance, liiit from the want of purity or homogeneity ; the sllgliU'st impurity or inequality of composition of the gl.iss giving rise to a streaked or imperfect Imago by reason of the unequal refraction of the rays. 'Hie coni|io sition of pure flint-glass long remained a secret In the fumil}' of the Dollonds, and its manufacture formed a very profitable article of exportation ; for, till about the l)eginning of the present century, no flint-glass of good quality was made on tiie Continent. Of late years, however, a great change has taken place In till* respect, and gloss of the best quality \x\xi been manu- factunut, both in France and Qennany, in nlnch larger masMis than KnKllsh artists have yet succeeded in ob- talnlllK. 'I'lils result has lieen mainly produced by tho exiwriirivntal researches of D'Artigucs, Fraunhofer, (.'auclioix, (lultinnd, and Komer. Formerly, an ob- JRct-glaiM itx«««tdlnf( five inches in diameter could scarcely bit produced. Fraunhofer succeeded in mak- ing lli«iil of W, and even U inches. The object-glass of tint large pHrallnctlfl telescope belonging to Sir ilanuis Mouth, at (!ninpden Hill, was manufactured by ('aui'hotxi It exceeds 13 inches, and Is throughout of tlui utmost liurlty. The exact proportion of the ingre- dlentt wliii'lt enter Into theno choice specimens is not known, and probaliiy their excellence depends in part onsonin Hccldimtnl circumstances in tho preparation. Kor'ter priHluced strniu of his best specimens by em- |))oylnKtliH following Ingredients : 100 parts of quartz, ilrst treNt«d with muriatic add ; 80 parts of litharge, or red lead \ and !I0 parts of the bitartrate of potash. Flliit-nlrtss for cotnmim purposes is usually made of Vlt) iinrt* of fine white sand, 40 parts of well-puritied |MMrlnsh, 'Ml parts litharge or minium, 13 parts nitre, and a small (piantlty (rf the lilnckjoxyd of manganese — the lattftr Ingredient licing used to correct the green color owaslowed by the presence of oxyd of iron in tho sand. The (irltn^lpnl dlfl°cronce between this and tlio glass used fof (ijitlcnl ]iiir]ioses consists in the much greater (|Uaiitlty of lead In the latter, and which is in- trodui'wd for tho purpose of Increasing its dispersive jiower. 'Illere U « valualile paper on the manufacture of glitiw for ojitlcal purfioses, containing the results of an axtoilltlvn series of exjieriments upon the subject, mndfl In the laboratory of the Royal Institution, by Mr, Faraday, In the I'hilotnphical Traiuactioru for the year lHiM>, vol, cxx, Hee Gt.Asa. Flouting Breakwater. This marine contriv- ancH may consist of a series of square frames of tim< Iter, conntH'ted Siy mooring-chains, or cables attached to anchors or lilocks of morlile. The framework may lie niadtt tif logs of yellow pine, from 30 to SO feet long, and from )H to id inches sqaare, liolted together very Arnily, and Increased In height as the situation ma}' be iKiUtarolis, In order to break the violence of violent waves, and to allow the vessels riding within these quadrnngtilar Imslns more safety and protection. Such hrfahi'ntin are admirably adapted to bathing-places and Nwlninilng-statlons, since they will always produce smooth water, and protect the machines. FlOfging, According to an act of Congress pasM'il Mc|itt'mli«r BHtli, 1860, it Is provided, "That (logglni? In the navy, and on board vessels of com- nierc«, Is hereby alKillshed from and ofter the passage of this act," Floor Oloth, This useful and ornamental manu- factiiro orl(;ltiatcd In (Ireat Dritnin about the year 17<0, when n nmniifflctorA- of it was established at Knlglitsbrldge, near Londnn, by Mr. Smith. It was orlglimlly mada of narrow ■ nnvaa sewn together like sail-cloth, Ui which succesxivo coats of paint were applied I but the seams proving inconvenient, a can- vas was wove for the purimse, about four yards wide ; It WHS then extended to seven yards In width, and afterward to nine, which is the widest at present made. The manufactory at Knlghtsliridge, now carried on by Mr, Italier, Is the largest estatilishment of the kind — thn common dimensions of the oil cloths producea there being iiO yards by 8, and BO yards liy 7, giving therefore entire pieces of 100 and 210 square yards without seams, These canvases are strotclicd upon franiea, aird arcesstblo over their whole surface by stages erci-lcd for tho purpose : these are the circum- stiinces which render the large dimensions of tho manu- factory requisite. The canvas lieing duly strained, ',» rutilied over with pumice-stone, which renders its surface sitiootli and even, and then brushed over with a weak solllHim of sl/,n ( when this is dry, the first ooat of oil I'olur Is Uld on, not with brushes, but with trow< FLO 6S3 FLO «■•, ■ometUngin the manner of pluteringi wbsn tbli is dry a second coat follows it ; and in this wiy wvtin coats of paint are usually applied in succewlon, tbnia on the back and four on tbe front. When iba clotb in tbis state and of one color, is suffif^iently dry, It i« removed from its frame upon a lar^e roller, and car- ried to ^he upper part of tbe building to Im pritUed, tbat is, to receive its pattern. Tbis was orlgiually ef. fected by a process of penciling ; but in the year 17f>0, Mr. Smith introduced the groat improvement of bliiek- printing, by which the colors are more correctly luiil on, and in greater body and variety. The printing- table, which is about 80 feet long, 4 wide, and 2 UH 6 mches high, is very firmly constructed of d«ul tini' hers laid edgeways, and clamped together, the surfaca being truly i^. led ; the roll of painted clotb is plumed underneath it, and as it Is unrolled it gradually pssiws over the table, where it is piinted, and is thru drawn forirard so as to hang perfectly free while drying, the height of the building being such as conveniently to admit of this, without rolling, doubling, or folding tbe material, which in these stages would of couraa injur* it. The colors, which are the usual oil colon very carefully piepa:red, are put on in euccassioD witit wooden blocks, which are made of pear-tree, box, or holly-wood, and on which the patterns are cut in relief; they are almut 18 inches i^quare, and are »\h plied in succession over the whole of the surfuco of tiia cloth lying upon tbe printing-table. Every u)lor ia put on by a separate block, and much dexterity U required in so placing ihem that the pntterns may cor' rectly interli:' i and johi each other, without in any case overlapping or interfering. To effect thin, tbe workman is aided by guide-pins, ot pitcAti, u tbay are termed, wliioh direct him in placing tiio lilook. Tb« colors are first brushed or tiered upon hard cuablonn, from which they ate transferred to tbe lilock and thence to the cloth ; and, though many are often re- quired, it is astonishing bow much effect is sometimes obtained by the judicious errangemcnt or mixture of two only, upon a third, which forms the grouml. It will ije obvious, from what has been stated, that tlia weight of tbe finished cU-cloth, as compared with tbe nuked canvas, ia no unimportant criterion of its gixul- ness — each square yard, when finished, weigliing fri.tii 8^ pounds to 4 or 4^ : thij distinguishes a ifootl uil. cloth from those which are vamped up and stiffened with size and other perishable materials. Independent of the common application of uil-clotli, it is not nnft«quently advantageously employed as » rooting material, especUlly for covering verandas and other light structures. When uted for thU pur|MU, the canvas should he made of picked long fbx, aini thoroughly saturated with good oil paint ; it will tbon stand our climate and lost for 14 or 16 years. Florida, one of the southernmost Sfat«s of the United States of America, lies between 24° H2' and 81° N. 1st., and betweon 81° 30' and 87° 86' W. long. It is 385 miles long, and from liO to 260 wide, contaiU' Ing fi9,268 square miles. Population in 1880, was 34,723 i in 1840, 54,447; and in 1660, 87,401. Tbttntry (xresented a very flourish* ing at»4 {ilfAMlNt flstxirt, and then because ho saw tbe coast at tbat frntttval-day which the Spaniards call "I'aieiM t'luriik, whl«h corresponds to our Palm Sun- day. 'I'bia iMitiA has since that time always remained to tba UfM twitlnsnla which we to thbi day call Flor- blii, tbougii tilt) name was sometimes taken in different wwuis, aiKl th(iii(ls Klii'la '|liipi(li« diff«f«i)t Mpnnlsh governors within the said limits, TIlM " nil) do lot J'almat" (Palm River) in Mu%k» was Iho Mtith-westem lioundary of this govern- ing tit. Wa s«a tti« fiiim« of Florida on many maps, with Urga li>t(«rs, writtm throngh t'le whole Mississippi valUy, IbrouglK/ut tli« whole area of the United K'atas I HtKi uyvn nn Itite as tbe year 1723, the Spanish liiatorfutt Ibtfrtd in it«l, In tbe work which he colls '' 'J'/ia lliiliti^ iif FinriiUt" also of Canada, and even of tlia Knglinb tm^iWiStim* tnt n discovery of the nortb- waat \i»mm», This kttar passage tlie Spanish au- Khtm yitty (liUm rAyU "a ttrail through Florida." Ilarrara, Itmcfivtir, nlrnady remarks tbat tbe name of l^riiJa was taken in two senses > it had a mere exten- eiva iin4 N nnnnwrt tneaning. In the latter sense the IMiiiiiisula was failed " Flitrida par excellence." Some author* liiiiktid upon tbis peninsula only as upon a btrgti Umitw *>r trromtmtor}- attached to the great Flo- riillitit l^oittlllMlt, and named it the "Promontory of Ftori'ih" ( I'rorminlnrium Floridai). On many old limiM wo niw* tltli name cover the whole peninsula. Htlit ifilixr imtiies for tbe whole peninsula grew out, as It Wfru, from Its tirni or from its southern point. At tlia tltttn of tbe Spanish governor, Don Pedro Mcnen- 'Ux, in lli« year IMC, tbe Spanbrds discovered near tbfl (,'a|M lit Florida an Indian village called Tequ?.ita, or 'IWlttiati , mImi wrliten Toi;;esta. This often-spoli en- uf vlllnga tlin ma|i-makers put down on their -mipB, atffl «.'(;:jti«(id It to A " I'rovinciu de Tegesta" (a province of 'iVgustv;, Hutne authors applied this name to the wbota pninsulA of Florida: thus, for instani-e, did f/ii£t, III bis work as well as on bis maps (a.d. 1C33). Wli«'fi tbe FrencW discovered and settled tbe Missis- •lp|il valltiy, and named it I.ouisiana, they extended till* llMlii«> and tbiilr pretensions as far as possible ; and im "lie I'Vewili map by Nic. de Fer, of the yeui 1713, we nee the name "J'eninmte tie Louitiane" uvco given Ui iiuf petiiiisiila of Florida. This was, I'owcver, only a Klitgle and unfi/rtnnato attem|>t, which had no further L'oniH«|iK3, their actual posses- 'UiH Mill! government in Florida, toward the east, not further than Molit), the KInridas were ceded to Great Britain, and abfi all tba French dominions east of the Missis- si|i|ii, tllett tbe Ixiundarles of the name Florida were eateiebwl again. Orent Britain established two prov- IliKwa of Florida, " Fui.1 and Weil Florida " The first Katelide4 «» far north as tbe St. Mar}''s River, or alwMl tbe illst degree of north latitude, and the latte: as far west as the Mississippi Delta, tu tbe Lukes I'lnil'dmrtrnln and Maure|.»s, In the year 1783 Great Urit«ii« fetroMdad the Flvridna to cipaio, and Spain at i i-. i/.^'jiiiiTritiKi^ii FLO 683 FLO the Mino time received the poiseuion of the whole of French Louis'ana to the west of the MUsIsaippi. Now, for the first time, Spain held in actual possession all the fhofi of the Mexican Gulf, and all the cuun- triea lyiuj; around it. Spain adopted the English di- vision in Eastern and Western Florida — Florida Ori- ental and Ocriilental — and retained also the extension of this name as far as the Mississippi Delta. The 81st degree of north latitude, which runs not much further thnn 10 mil»8 trom the northern shores of the Mexican Gulf, and is parallel to it, was agreed upon as the north- orn boundary of " the Floridas" toward the United Stat S9. So, since the year 1703, the name of Florido ex- ten:'ted again over half the circuit of the shores of the Uexican Gulf. Rut soon after the cession of Louisiana to '.he United States Florida was curtailed again. The United States claimed the western part of it as far cast as Perdido River, received the possession of it in tlio year 1811, and joined it to their " Territory of Mit- aitsipf.'," and afterward of "Alabama." Since this time (1811) the d'^minion of the name of Florida has not changed, though the so-called country changed, till 1821, its masters, when Spain ceded it to the United States. It was then at first called " the Terri- tory of FLnda," and since 1815, " the State of Florida." But the limits remained (with some slight exceptions) unchanged— Perdido Kiver in the west,'and St. Mary's Elver and the 81st degree north latitude, in the north. The division into East and West Florida disappeared uni'er the American government. — Kohl, Physical Feature!, etc.— Tho face of the country is uneven, but nowhere elevated over 800 feet above the sea. The whole extent of the coast is indented with bays and lagoons. A large portion of the countrj' is covered with pine forests, the trees of which standing at a considerable distance from each other, without brush or underwood, afl'ord an opportunity for the grass and flowers to spread with luxuriance over the surface of the earth during the whole year. The borders of the streams are usually skirted by ham- nocks of hard timber entangled with grape and other vines. A large portion of Florida consists of what are usually denomidated "pine barrens," and much of it is sterile, though there are extensive tracts of table land, himmock, and swamp of the richest soil, and v^ell adapted to the cultivation of sugar, rice, cotton, Indian com, tobacco, and fruits. A considerable por- tion of the pine land is equally rich, and even the bar- rens afibrd extensive ranges of growing land, usually intersected with streams of pure water. Many parts of the State abound In yellow pine and live oak tim- ber. The sea coast is generally healthy, and in parts remarkably so, and the interior is equally healthy, unless it be in the neighborhood of extensive marsheb. The peninsula, which is the southern portion of the State, presents a singular alteni.'ion. of savannahs, 'Mammocks, and lufoona, called coii'\'.tivi'ly the Ever- glades, which extend into the heart of the country for 200 miles north of Cape Sable. They are drained on the north by the St. John River, and on the Keet by Macac or Charlotte River. There were in this State in 1850, 849,049 acr,: , " land improved, and 1,246,240 unimproved in fat i its. Cash value of farms $6,82:1,109, and the value of un- plemcuts and machinery $658,795. Live slock, etc Hors-.^, 10,848 ; asses and mules, 6002; milch cows, Ti,<:G; working oxen, 6794; other cattle, 182,415 ; sheep, 23,311 ; swine ; 209,453. Voluo of live stock, $2,880,058 j of sUughtered an- imals, 514.686. Agricultural Products, etc. — Wheat, 1027 bushels; rye, 1152; IndUn com, 1,996,809 ; oats, 66,586; buck- wheat, 55 ; peas and beans, 135,369 ; potatoes, 7828 ; sweet potatoes, 767,226; rice, 1,075,090 pounds. Value of products of tlie orchard, $1280 ; produco of market gardens, $8721. Pounds of butter made, 871,498 ; of cheese, 18,015 ; sugar, hhda., 2760 ; mo^ lasses, 862,898 gallons; beeswax and honey, 18,971 pounds; wool, pounds produced, 28,247; cotton, 46,181 ; flax, 60 ; silk cocoons, 6 ; hops, 14 pounds ; tobacco, 998,614; hay, tons of, 2510; and were made 10 gallons of wine. Value of home-made manufac- tures, $75,682. Itivers, Bays, etc. — Thero arn many bays on the western side of the peninsula, some of which form good harbors. They aru Perdido, Pensacola, Choctaw- hatchee, St. Andrew, St. Joseph, Apalachicola, Appa- lachee, Tampa, Carlos, and GaUivains. On the east coast of the peninsula, the inlets afibrd harbors for coasting vessels. The St. John is the principal river on the eastern coast; it often spreads from three to five miles in width, and at other places it is not more than one fourth of a mile wide. It is exceedingly winding, and flows through a beautiful and licalthy country, St. Mary's River rises in Okcfinoke Swamp, Georgia, and enters the Atlantic between Cumberland and AmelU Islands. Of the rivers which enter the Gulf of Mexico, the Apalachicola is the principal. It is formed by the junction of Chattahoochee and Flint Rivers, about 100 miles from the Gulf of Mexico. The Chattahoochee branch of this river is navigable for steamboats 280 miles to Columbus, Georgia. 'The other principal rivers are EacambU, Suwanee,Withlacoochee, Oscilla, Oclockony, and Choctawhatchee. Perdido River forms the western boundary between Florida and Alabama. It is navigable about seven miles above the bay, is a fine mill stream, and its banks are covered with superior yellow pine timber. There are in this State several streams of limpid water which sink into the earth and disappear, and several which rise suddenly from the earth: one in particular (the Wakulla) i» navigable from its very source. The quantity of lum- ber shipped from the St. John River annually u estimated at 50,000,000 feet. Total tonnage of the State hi 1853 amounted to 12,124.25 tons. The principal places in the State are Tallahassee, the capital. Key West, St. Augustine, Jacksonville, Pensacola, and Apalachicola. On the 1st of January, 1856, tiiere were 26 miles of railroad in operation. May, 1856, Congress granted to railroads lands amounting to over 1,000,000 acres, which, if rightly managed, will build all necessary railroads. Manufactures, etc. — There were in the State in 1850, 1 cotton factory, with a capital of $80,000, employing 28 males and 67 females, producing 624,000 yards of sheeting, etc., valued at $49,920; 8 flouring and grist mills, 48 saw-mills, 4 tanneries, 10 printing-offices, 1 ' semi-weekly, and 9 weekly newspapers published. Capital invested in manufactures, $547,110 ; value of manufactured articles, $668,435. Principal Ports. -Key W ■:, i- built on an island of the same name, sixty miles > i ^-west of Cape Sable, lot. 24° 32', and long. 81° 62 W. It is a port of entry, and one of the few populous towns in the State. Its position commands the Florida Pass, and hence it is important also as a naval ttation ; but the principal occupation of the people at tho present time is " wreck- ing," and hero is located a special court for the ajj"di- oation of salvages. From fifty to sixty vessels aro wrecked in the vR-'nity every year, and upward of $250,000 are paid r < ..i^lvages. Salt and sponges nrn the principal expor ., but there is a large import tr< .is for the supply of the military stationed here. Steaia- ers plying between the Atlantic ports and Havana generally call here. The town contains alwut 4000 inhabitants. The tonnage of the port in 1856 was 3668 tons. Pensacola is a town and port on the west side of Pensacola Bay, ten miles from the Gulf, and has a fine harbor. The United States' government has here a first-rate naval station and a marine hospital. The i trade of Pensacola is principally in cotton. The ton- I nag of tho port in 1H56 was 1960 tons. A railrood I from Pensacola to Mobile is in course of constructioo. »*'\ FLO 684 FLO FouiSR OoMituoB or tok StiTi or Fmiida, fboh OoTonn 1, 18M, to Jvlt 1| ISIMl THn aidlof . Itpi. W, 1N21 18«l 1818 IBM 1896 1«M 1811T 1888 18S9 1880 ToUI.. Sept 80, 1881 1982 1888 1884 1985 1886 1S87 1888 I'm .'MO ToUI... $1,; ■• 1,61') 810 a,8«s MM 84,110 80,881 88,188 ■iporta. roralffn. IS-l.SZl ''im 1186,744 ' |M,8M 128,493 12,008 68,686 8,M0 6(,618 198 190,1 -S 88,640 49,mi9 12,701 68,076 9,586 74,878 98,804 71,988 50,549 89l,l>M 48,713 1,880,709 8,141 »•!,74^171 »19«"W Total. TuUl. Soil, 80, J.'tll rtii.. .. (mon, 1*M> Jnoe 80, l'M4 )(i».. .. IS46 H17 1.J48 1840 ISM Total.. Jii■(^80, IIM.. IKi'i.. ISN... 18M.. 1(s-'6.. •.'.^V*7 «jii8,w; 8..iA'7,»t^ 2,.->n,9V« J,fi»R,20fl 3,96(,«fl7 l,4l»S,Mit 1,976,82.1 I ■ '^ a'.:l 19.7:-Kf ■■■,'■* !IW1 $i,777 "i,.')iO 216 8,865 809 ..1,486 «4 1.821 K,086 '.570 tlsX,U40 ' F',49S 0>.^..5 228,,*!.'. 6l,ni; 7.'.«.1J ioB,«r7 122,583 884.606 1,S.^^830 118,870 6,877 4.808 6,986 8,818 ld,««0 857,994 168,898 158,648 88,688 (268 »2,r'42,07j 186,822 83884 760,688 1,011,416 nu/„f; i,8e3,IW!' i 'ASISiOi!? I f '2,882,188 ».i,940,17? 2,.M 1,070 1.69'<,i!ft6 8,a64,ft97 1,1113,5:4 1664,86^ 115.710 107.787 85,380 1B5,7U8 98,17,1 121,745 490,784 16.S,690 879,898 19(V788 « i,7Si;094~ •145,181 176,980 1I5S,6S2 1.15,695 107,868 140,584 14.8,298 64,267 68,211 95,709 Tonnaca Cl«ar«d. I IMtlrint Toniutffe. AnMrieu. roralga. 190 988 668 177 828 196 11,010 7,857 6,059 1,866 ""!i8,I78 52 8,M7 1,248 7,048 206 tl,831,42S $94,997 .W,718 65,4-84 28,969 4,'k9U3 20,3.54 24,170 in,8»7 12,895 41,9!W 5.'>,2M 1 ,696 610 - 1 1.2(>;' 1,1126 045 1,520 8,781 .289 ^845_ 'h,m .!.78! •,o«w .'.509 1,1)99 6,722 1,413 9,.'i34 7,.M8 10,922 18,134 "60,78,5 9,019 11,509 10,811 9,488 7,'!8.-i 10,520 R<|l>Ur«l. 88.) 64«, 1,810 8,terUng. This ij the lirst practical attempt at M decimal currency in Oreat Dritain. Up to thi.i tine (IS.")?) {aw of the coins have been issued or put in clr:"ulati()ii, and then' seems some doulit of its Irecom- inij urie of general use. TT* obverse of tho new florin has an exquisitely graceful bust of Queen Victoria in Ie(t profile — tho favorite sido in all the cofns of the pr('s',nt reign. Unlike all the pre', lous coins of this reign, however, the eiSgy is crowned — the coronal " ro.ind and top of Bovereignt3"" of the kinj^dom being faithfully copied, witii its Iwn^ers of jewels, its rim of flruif-de-lit and jfaltese crosses. Tiie legend, in bold, broad capitals, is " VicroniA Reoisa, 1849." Floaa-Silk {FilottUf, Bourrr de noic, or jirurtt, Fr.), -s the name given to the portior s of raveled silk broken oft' in the filature of the jocoons, which Is carde soft coarse yam or thread, for making ban.) ,wls, sucks, and other common silk fabrics. T' , i or flcuret, as first obtained, must be steep. , i .ater, and then subjected to pressure, in order to extract the gummy matter, which renders it too harsh and short for the (pinning-- iieel. After being dried it is made still mor* pUt, .> by working a little oil into it with th« hands. It is now ready to lie aubmitti-d to the carding engine. See Cotton MANUFAcrncK. It is spun upon the flux-wheel. The female priLsanty of Lom- bard;- generally wear clothes of homespun Hoss-ailk. Of irtte }'ears, liy improved processe.", pretty Hno fat>- ; rics of this material have Iwen priKiui-^d, Iwith in Kn- I gland and France, M. Ajac, of Lyons, presented at I one of the French nation»l exhibitions of the objects of industry, a great variety of scarfs and sqn.ire shawls of hourre de miV, clawly resembling those of cachfmin. Flotn, a name given by the Spaniards to the ships that formerly sailed together, or under convoy, from Cadiz and the othct (lorts of the Peninsula authorized to trade directly with the transatlantic possessions of Sp&ii.. Flotilla (Sp.\ literally a little fleet; in which sense, however, it is seldom used, being applied almost invariably to a fleet, how large soe\'er, compi.sed of small vessels. Thus tho term flotilla was given to tho immenee naval force with which Napoleoii meditaied the invasion of (ireat Itritain, and which consisted of 2,866 vesssis of ever)' description, was manned by ^bont 17,000 jailors, and carried ltiO,i)()0 soldiers, and 10,!)00 horses. In Spain the name flotilla is given to a nu'nber of vessels appointed to •" .ou';c« to the hi,me go\emnient the departure and in. irc of the cargo of the flota "T mercantile ships tr homeward voyage. Flotsam,' Jetatun, and T stitute a legal wreck, the g If they continue at w .''" :■ the foregoing imconV. j-/' Jloltam is when the ,. : )* ./■ surface of the wtivf ; ■.'«■ .■ under the surface , f th«- . - ? i are sunk, but tied io i- . , .i — (Blm'khtohb, book . , c, ri •li^n ports on their Tn onler to con- '. I come to land. •tinguishes them l.y barous sp|Hdlation.4 : , ') ue Bwimniiug on the is when thev are simk uii lagan is when they un(iy to be tuund again. (Export |B< ton.. Now Yorl Phll»,|o/p| Bgltliiiurt' New orli., 8t. Utah. Newro", [ BaltJnior I'hiliKlol I Now Ori, Bostoo.. I Rlchmon 8»n Ft 111, Other jior (_ Total flour ..J flrst meth(K added, whi vessel whie contain one Uon of tliia i/^rt;Jil*»- FLO 686 FLO I In which led almost lipi)8e<\ of Iren to the (neditaied aainteil of j\iinei\ liy [rtlerK, iind ttiven to » |th« hf.ms J eiiTiJo nf Wi (in their fii't to oon- to lunil. |inl5 when they La again- Flour (Ger. Feints mehl, StmmelmeUi Du. Bloem) Pt. f'Irur lie Farine ; It. Fiore ; Sp. Flor), the meal of wheat corn, flnoly ground and sifted. The imports of broadstafTs Into Great Britain, our best ciiidtomer, is fully shown by the following table. It will be observed that three fourths of the flour im- ported into ICngland were obtained from the United States, iu addition to three lifths of the quantity of Indian com, and more than a fourth of the quantity of wheat. IHI-OBTS or liBEAbSTUm INTO EXQLAND K>8 Till Y«AB 1856. CotmtrlM wheor* Imported. Russia, Nortbom llusala, Soatliorn Swtuion Norway. Denmark I'rusals Mockli'iiburg-Scbworln. Hanover Ilanxatlc Tuwiu Iklland DolKlum.. France Portugal Bjpaln Tuscany . Papal Tarrttorlcs Naples an.l Sicily Austrian Tcrrltorloa Oreocti Turkey Propi-r Wallachla and Mulciavia. Syria and Palestine P«pt Morocco Brillsb Kost Indies Hrltlsli North America .. UnlteilHUtes Chill Other parts, Total Whul. Qniin«,ri.* 4«),«17 291,842 10,708 4.483 177,216 222,681 62,625 8,917 187,326 28,179 24,988 '0,007 14,800 40,719 2,106 47,974 21,600 86,6*4 9S,184 112,326 124,671 36,196 684,6(13 4,569 90,963 111,819 1,279,160 1,084 9,480 S4i860 689 8,014 256 190 2 188,014 2,918 2,470 69,872 6,763 460,823 12,850 4,072,838 239 309,826 2,902,707 3i<,626 11,272 8,991,367 tiuRrters. 61,886 872 10 2,191 1,622 27,668 1,417 '4'4«7 67 1,001 80,776 210,427 6,819 62,711 196,706 6,298 100 441 9,169 26 61,257 28,317 1,000,971 82,960 1,777,818 * Quarters=8 moasnrod bushels, t Gwts.=112 lbs. Bread^t^ffi,—^he foUowlnv olDcUl staUliMtil ft* hibits the aggregate value of breadstulfii niiil |iruvl«l(mi exported annually from tlio United St«t«s, for ••oh ll»* cal year, from 1821 to 186d : Amoiitit, 1821 $12,841,901 1822 18,886,856 1828 13,787,817 1824 16,ll6'.l,484 1825 11,684,449 1826 11,303,496 1B2T 11,685,556 1828 11,461,144 1829 18,181,858 1880 12,076,480 1881 17,6118,227 1882 12,424,708 1883 14,809,128 18»4 11,524,0m 1886 12,009,899 1836 10,614,130 1837 9,688,359 1888 9,636,660 1889 14,147,779 Amitmu 1840 tltt,U«T,MI» 1MI lT,lllfl,l(l» 1H42 ll>,U(IV,i*T« tm 11,204,124 1844 IT,9r(»,IM 1846 I«,T4»4»1 J846 auoi.jgj 1847 68,101 92 j 1S48 117,472 T»i 1849 IHlBftBOT 18S0 26,061,1)74 1861 2I,U4N,|)()| 1862 26,867,027 1B5II «'J,9«BJM« 1864 6A,V4I,IKM 1856 38,896,844 1866 77,lN7,«»l Total,.,. ♦7(W,flM,g« EXI'OKTS OF BRISAnSTUPKS ITRUII TIIK 1'NIT«I( HfATIM 10 Orkat Britain and Irrlamii, ymm Mki'thmhrh 1. 1856 TO AuoosT 81, 1866. From Flour. Hisl. Wlinl, Oiin, Burreh. Il>rr«li, lli»lul<. l)ii, Now York 1,106,058 B08 6.1)07,374 ll,llt9,IIW Now Orleans. . . 96,366 688,601 »,42»,ftl2 Phlladolpbla... 199,258 4,195 47»,6»ll 6911,478 Baltimore 1«'<,288 1,100 U74,6>i2 423,841 Boston 8n,8s2 1,018 , , , , 20/tA9 Other ports,. .. 21.468 107.226 116,862 ToUl 1866 1,641,265 6,816 7,966,406 i,t.fi,ii)r " 1855 176.209 4,768 324,727 6,679,|))H " 1861 1,» 16,920 41,746 6.033,403 «,049,«7I " 1853 1,600,449 KM) 4,823,619 1,462,874 " IS.W 1.427.442 l,e_i 2.72H.H2 I,4l7,))98 •' 1861 1,569,684 6,620 1,406,1)56 2,206,121) " 1850 474,757 6,411 461,276 4,7fi«,l;6H " 1849 1,187,656 82,940 140,194 I2,l)>i6,260 " 1848 184.583 108,&M 211,1)09 4,1199,224 '' 1847 Total 10 years 3,1M.'*H 844,167 4,INHI,369 29,210,290 I7,I67,i:M) 18,201,609 l,102,Wr Flour EX'OSTrd fro« tub Unitid Statks to South American Ports, fob tub past nixk Tiiaiis, DnUiialloD. 18U, { IStS. ■ IBM. 1S>3. ISSI. 1861. im, 16fl,«i^' 88,286 28,159 28,064 8,048 2VU,I09 IMII, 216,872 86.277 211,118 1)7,314 26,913) RIo Janeiro ia.\\M 211,278 82,028 46,662 26,889 26.431 44,»16 81,485 113,820 22,716 156„^60 251,276 48,021 72,207 26,415 27,387 35,828 46,378 22,855 66,465 218.674 68.212 23.452 28,N82 40,784 249.230 08,442 18,188 32,316 25,699 146,806 66,187 28,096 81,626 8,490 270,OM Babia ,.... Rio Grande Blyir Plato Total 550,466 888,751 283,877 483,782 880,004 893,825 Btateuxnt suowino tub annual avebaqb Export Prick op Flour from tub United Status, FBUM IMO TIl.t Junk 80tii, 186,'). Export ..icu. Bi-ton Now York ... Phlladolpbla. Baltimore.... Now Uricans. St. Lonis 1» ,;•. $6 87 6 61 6 17 6 22 6 00 4 93 4 03 IS4! ' 1B4J. (5 m |6 00 5 77 6 67 6 89 6 67 6 34 5 47 6 31 6 20 6 83 4 M 4 75 4 66 \St\ I tSM. I IMS. (4 u ) t4 76: t4 61 4 S! 6 07; 4 60 4 36 4 18 3 76 5 13 4 61 4 841 4 31 444 460 6 82 6 00, 4 69 4 68 4 as 4 93' 1IUS. { 1841. 184S. t6 18 $6 96 (6 22 558 7 17 8 48 6 19 6 80 6 71 4 7ti 6 02 6 87 4 6*! 6 21 6 62 4 8.< 5iU 4T6' 450 4 03 6 25. ISW. 1850. 1811. |5 85 t6 00 6 OO, 4 961 4 84 4 83 4 61 6 48 8 00 4 88 4 97 4 89 6 31 6 26 »4 7T 6 25 4 19 4 4 18 4 00 4 88 1811, |4 2t 6 20 4 98 4 23 4 26 4 10 5 23 lit:). t6 80 6 27 6 61 6 47 6 39 6 48 6 08 KM, I IMi, ■ ■■ 10 261 9 25 8 02 N 14 8 13 T 60 6 09 » )I4 7 8^ The exports of flour from the United Stales, during the year ending June 80th, 1866, were a^ follows ; Now YorV . . , Baltimore ,, Phila. Total r- 314,846 261,.V)1 17.\508 150,821 1 1 ifiU 266,318 8,61l},826 y«tu«. |llS.692,94r" 4,776,175 2,496,908 : ''07,372 1 .-|6.987 1,.'>26,032 l,f70,121 e.249.802 "P»;275,148 Flour of Wheat, mlulitt Jions of, to delect. — Tie first method is liy spedflc gravity. If potato flour be added, wliicli i. frciji .itly done in France, sines a vessel which contains one pound of wheat flour will contain one pound and a half of the fecula, the propor- tioB of thia adulteration m^y be easily estimatod. If gypsum or ground bones be mixed with tlia flour, thay will not only increase its density still mure, liiit thxy will remain after burning away tlie iiieul. The second method Is by ascertaining the i|iiuntity of gluten which the suspected sample will nfTuril, liy i the process prescrilied under the article liRl^Ati, 'I'hg two following chemical criteria inny nlso be Binployud t 1st Ni'. 'c acid has tlie property o' eolnrlc.; vhcat flour f a fine orange yellow, whereas It i!fl'«iaut three centurieK, been the ntaple grain. The kind mu- all}' cultivated is the triticum tatirum. A bushel uf it should weigh, if very good, about CI |>oundK. Wheat in the form uf tlour i^ sometimes inauufat^tured as mac- ai.'ini and vermicelli; but its Almost 'iniversol use is as bread. (Sc^e Bakinu.) The following is the com- position of first-class whoaten flour : 'Vator, 140 ; ■'•buDiiuous coni|>ounds, 11-6 ; oil, ° ' ; sa icharini. compound.'), G(i-'J ; cellulose, 1'7 ; .^ih, Iti. The greater part of the ash is mado up of pliosphorus, po- tassium, and magnesia. The brati contkina much lees saccharine matter, but absolutely more oil and more alkiuniuous matter ; and " seconds" in this respect + I/>'>>'«t price— 1,000 barrels sold. stand Interniciliato between flno flour and bitin. The dieajier pried of seconds and bran, therefore, appears to be somewhat arbitra-y ii.'il improper, and brown bread is prubii .ly more economical timn that mada from lino Hour. The ol>j«i'tlon to it is probably that bran does not Iciiven particularly well. 'I. OtX»(lvena ttUivd). In Scotl.ind, the climate and soil of which seem particularly adapted to \U cultivation, this cereal has long constitutc.i the staple aft. i« of diet. This U also the case In the high-lying land In 'I' '' >-tt Riding of Vorkshiro and the adjacent parts o' f • lr». A bushel of g'Hjd oati weighs about io tr u . '.> Oat* are made into flour or meal, and before ' . minlit- ted to the mill they uru always kiln-dric ' . liitate the separation of the husks. The propoui. of husk vw 687 tfJiU) Tabu imirnra trr Pmoi ov Viiova,' MommtT, in Pniiisn,nnA, tmm 1786 to liSI, SirixTT-Tiro YiAU.— OmitnuMi, ■uraAoiira A Pmiod «r Ywr. J»l)r. Aujuit. OetilMr. Nsvimbw. OMMaUr. 1786 1. il. 44 48 48 6 86 88 8 4o"o 87 6 84 86 8 111 75 860 6 76 in 00 - 9 60 10 25 11 60 -11 00 728 7 00 7 75 10 t5 — 9 00 8 OO 6 76 5 00 — 8 76 6 18 — 7 00 10 00 —11 00 10 00 -U 00 8 60 760 7 00 — T15 9 96 - 8 78 It 00 10 60 —11 60 10 26 600 4 60 — 4 76 4 no — 4 50 6 75 — 6 25 700 626 6 50 — 450 487-460 6 00 4 60 - 4 78 6 00 — 6 00 4 50 — 5 25 8 87 — 4 76 600 6 00 — 6 80 8 25 — 6 60 6 81 7 on 9 80 - 9 96 6 48 - 7 12 8 69 — 6 11 616 6 25 — 8 50 6 60 - 5 87 B 25 — 6 87 4 no — 4 87 4 811— 4 63 «84 6 91 888 486t 806i 4 25 4 11 800 806 — 829 9 81 686} 1. d. 44 48 86 6 86 41 n 68 4 88 87 6 48 6 88 60 111 OO 860 600 — 860 960 10 78 11 00 7 85 7 no - 7 78 8 00 900 — 8 00 T 60 — 6 78 6 75 8 811 6 76 11 00 —11 no 10 78 —10 00 8 25 — 9 00 7 00 — 8 00 7 88 — 8 60 8 62 10 75 — 9 60 11 50 —10 no 10 60 -10 76 6 no — 6 26 460 4 63 - 8 00 688-700 6 60 686 6 no 450 5 00 600-860 600 — 660 5 26 - 6 75 4 76 87 — 6 25 6 13 — 6 00 660 6 06} 8 87 900-868 6 13 — 7 12 5 75 — 6 12 6 00 6 06 — 6 81 6 25 — 6 4,^ 4 75 — 5 W) 8 91 - 4 19 4 IS} 8S8 608 5 23 4 87 — 6 18 8 13 - B 87 8 97 4 20 6 88 8 18 — 8 68 8 81 6 62} 1. d. 48 6 41 6 88 88 41 46 86 89 47 6 61 • 90 6 119 00 860 860 960 10 80 — 9 75 10 00 — 9 60 7 00 — 660 7 76 - 7 60 9 75 -10 OO 8 00 7 M 7 18 - 7 50 5 no — 600 6 75 — 7 25 11 00 —10 76 9 00 9 00 —10 00 8 26 - 8 75 860 8 75 9 76 9 50 9 76 680 460 628-860 7 00 O.W 8 12 — B 80 800 460 — 800 6 00 — 6 28 660 — 7 no 6 50 — 5 75 6 80 — 6 36 8 26 — 5 50 6 87 — 6 60 600 580 — 888 6 13 9 37 8 00 — 860 6 90 — 8 45 8 87 — 6 12 8 00 6 62 — Si 4 561 4 44 a B9 — 4 88 4 60 8 83 - 4 12 6 50 8 67 601 800 8 96 444 8 70 8 89 — 8 81 7 47 6 49 1. d. 48 6 41 6 88 84 6 41 6 48 a 86 88 6 47 « 66 lis 00 18 00 860 8 60 9 60 -10 00 960 938 660 T60 900 8 00 • 76 7 86 — • 76 6 00 718 10 78 —11 60 8 60 10 88 —10 00 88 - 8 36 8 78 9 00 10 00 —11 00 9 00 C 78 6 60 4 28 860-760 6 08 6 76 6 13 6 00 — 6 11 8 no - 6 33 8 a) 6 26-700 ' ' — 600 .5 — 8 00 .•160 860-600 8 87 — 8 78 686 6 nil} V 8. 8 83 — 9 00 8 25 — 8 40 6 87 — 6 00 .■5 00 6 12 - 6 80 4 40 4 26 — 4 80 400 — 460 6 06} 8 18 648 6 43 8 10 483 4 12 4 48 6 61 838 — 888 8 87 6 69 ■. 4, 48 41 h"o 40 46 87 6 88 « 47 69 118 OO 11 00 -11 60 800 860-960 10 50 -11 00 10 80 900 680 760 10 00 —10 60 8 00 — »80 TOO — 760 700 600-860 T80 — 800 10 88 960 11 60 —10 60 8 60 —10 00 8 76 960 11 80 -11 60 9 50 -10 00 9 25 6 11 426 7 00 — 600 6 60 6 62 680-600 6 13 - 6 00 680 688 — 860 7 85 - 9 00 BOO — 6 28 8 OO 6 60 — 8 25 6 85 - 6 11 6 75 B 25 - 6 12 6 87 10 61 9 81 — 9 81 8 00 — 8 12 618 6 00 6 46)— 6 96 4 12 — 4 RJ 4 28 ~ 4 87 4 87 8 91 6 10 6 81 615 8 06} 488 8 91 490 6 90 — 7 48 8 68 — 890 81 6 62 •. i. 41 40 8b"o 41 6 46 87 « 88 6 47 6 69 118 76 11 60 -10 80 860 9 60 —10 00 10 00 11 00 800 — 660 660 760 1100 885 1 60 6 76 86O-80O 780 11 23 10 00 10 28 10 00 — T 60 800 983 12 80 —18 60 9 78 — 9 00 9 00 6 00 — 688 480 6 00 — 6 60 6 50 6 25 — 6 00 4 76 - 8 00 4 87 8 27 6 0(1 I 76 - 8.^ 5 28 — ♦ ■^l 8 00 — 6 «• 6 26 B 75 — 6 60 680 — 626 6 00 — 4 80 6 75 11 no 9 60 — 76 8 81 — a 60 6 6fil- 5 90 4 75 - 6 26 6 42 4 87 - 4 63 425 — 450 4 89 606} 4 76 6 49 8 14 487 4 71 4 15 B 16 1786 1787 1788 1789 1790 1791 .... 1791 1798 1794 1798 1796 1797 1798 1799.. .» 1800...' ISOl 1808 18U8 1804 1,806 1806 1807 1808 1809 1810 1811 1813.... 1818 1814 1816 1816 1SI7 1SI8 1819 1880 1831..*. 1822 1838 1824 1826 1826 1887 1818 1829 1S80 1S81 1883 1h88 1884 1888 1886 1S87 1888 1889 1840 1841 1848 19J8 1814 1848 1846 1847 1818 1849 1860 IMl 1858 1868 f 71'— . :".• 1884 1) I2,t- 1 -^1 1855 8 SJ' 1866 V 60 Is p«rhap8 nboiit n quarter p«r cent. Whca 'ho litiak it separated, but before the grain !a ground, the seeds receive the name of groats. When ground, the dust constitutes 011^' Ileal, and it is found in practice that oats affoid uli mt half their original wcip'i* of mc'i), the loss being the water expelled by the kiln-dr}-ing, the hUslc, and the chaff. The following is Nort'i,'i analysis (the arrar- nt beirj altered) of oat; .■..<'.. had been dried : '• ■■ Perhaps in this drj'ing t'u loss of water w )' about 20 per cent. .Mlmn' - nous compound ^ m i; e'.i' irine do.,(i8'(iS j olea;,i- nous do., 7'a;( ; husl., ^-28 j asi., 2'60. The proportion of ash, principally phosphate* ind snlpliatcs of lime, potassa, and magnesia, is sruiutimcs in mucli 1arg->r quantity. Oatmeal, therefore, coatains considerably mora nutritious ui\W.t than the samo weight of whea*^ flour. The husicg consist mainly of cellulose, and are almost never used as human food. 8. Kye (Secttle cereale) has lieen cultivated fh)m time immemorial, and was for a long time much used for bread-making in this country, as it still is (constituting the staple) In Russia, many parts of Germany, etc. A bushel of rye weighs aliout M pounds. Rye grain Is very coarsely powdered, and the mixture of flour and bran made into fermented bioid, which is distinguished from other bread by its uiuck color. Tlie following is an aniilysis of rye flour, the water having l)een prev- iously rtpelled: Album! lous compounds, 10*5 ; sac- oliarinc do., 78'0; oil. .i 5 ; salts, 6'0, principally ;ii isphates of potassa, -iVi, and magnesia; loss, 2*0= lOn-0. These three cereal grains constitute the baaif of the food 1 the modem European nation*. X FLU 088 FOG Flowara (FItvrt, Fr. ; Blumn, Oar.) of Iwniolo, of miliihur, of zinc, rtc, i< the npiielliition dlvrn !>}' the olilitr chfinlKtii to auch auljiitancea uii were olitained in ■ putvnriitdit or rather minutely eryitiilllne form l>y Iheprncena of nulilliiiatlun, nnwera, Artlflolal, Manufaotnn. •>< Ihr irt of rvprmenllnK hy Howem, leaven , ;. i , v • , ttal>l« nature In her ornamenul |> lu'tit/n , < '' tulen the liufllnemi of the artiflci .• ., rlitt, Thd Ualii m a|i|<«ar to hnvo lieen the flrrt ixoplv In £uri>|Hi wliu ox- cellod In the art of makinR f-rtillcial flowern; liut of lata yeara the French have Itcii niont InKcninua In thiM branch of Induatry. Ribhona lolitecl in ditferi'iit forniK, and of 'liflerent color*, were ori)(in»liy enip'oyed fur IniitatlnK flnwera Ity being attached to wire nlemn. Thii Imitation noon Riive wiiy to that l>y feathora, which are more delicate in texture, and more capable of aaaumlng ■ variety of flower-lilie tl)(ureK. liut a great difficulty v\ nii cnrounterod In dyeing tlieni with due vivacity. The navugea of South America manu- facture (wrfeC roalhiir flowera, -i gatatiun. The bloaaoma and loavca are odniiraldi rilln the colora never fade. The Itnl- lana employ t.i' juontly the cocoona of the ailk-worm for thia pur|M>i' ; these talie a brilliant dye, preserve their coi(M, and pjaaeaa a tranaparent velvety appear- ance, aui .iliU for petala. Uf lute ypura, the Krcnch have adopted the finest cambric for making petiii.i, and the taffi'ta of Florence for the leavra. M, du llernnr- dlere employs wh:ilelione in very thin Icavea for arti- flclul I'owers ; and by bleaching and dyeing them of variuiia hui'S, he baa gv > eded in making his Imita- tlona of nature to lie very remarkalile. The coloring matters iiaeil in tlower dyeing ure the following : For red ; earn ine dinHolved in a aidution of rarlioniite of potaxh. For blue; indigo di»s4)lved in sulphuric ncid, diluted and neutralized in part by Hpaulah whitening. For briglit yellow ; a solution of turmeric in spirit of wine, t'reum of tartar l)rightens •11 thi'Hc colom. F'or violet; archil, and il Idue bath. For lilac; arcldl. 8omo |>et»1a are made of velvet, and ar«i colored mcrE./ by the a, jlication of tbo flnger dlfiped in tlie dye. Flute, a wind-instrument of great antl(|uity, the older varieties of which arc descrllwd by I'iire Mer- senne in his llarmonie l^Hitertrlle, I'arls, WM. The fliifr-a-l/er (disused for more tinin a centurj-) t ,.' of various dimensions. The largest was a l)ass-flute, with a compaxs Oom F in the I>a88-clef, Iwlow the first line, up to I) iMtlow the first live nf the trelile clef. The next, a tenor-flute, extendeii i -m H Hat on the aecond line of the boas clef up to (i on the secimd line of the trelde clef; and each of these largo Hutes was Rounded through a lient tuht, like the 8 of u basscHin. The alto-flute reached from V on the fourth line of tlie bass cli I up to I) on tlie fourth line of llio trelde clef. The tr'blc-Hute extended from F in the first space of the treble clef up t i F" two octaves alnive. These two bail hinh, like tlie bill of a cock. Uut all these flutes gave way, early in the lust century, to the (ierman flu'B, which, however, was then very imperfect in its intooation, liaving only one tinger-kcy. liy the ail- dltlon of various finger-keys, for semitones, the G<",- man flute hau l>een much improved In the present ce tury. I.ik<- the life, it U blown by nn ovnl slde-liole. ft consists of four separable tubes, and iias a compus" < f nearly three (wtaves, from the lowest C in the trebh .1 iipwanl. Smaller flutes of tlii- kind are call :d third, fourth, ami octave flutes. 'Ih.' octave flute is the perrvly, used in malem orchestras and in military music. Fluke is applied in navigation to the broad part of the anchor wliich takes hold of the ground. Flux (Fxg. and Fr. ; t'lutu, taHh. lllack flux ia oblaiiied when equal parts of nitre and tartar are de- flagrated. It owea Its odor to the carlH)iiaceous mat- ter of the tartaric acid, whlih remains umonsumed ; il e quantity of nitre I'eing too small for that pur|Miso. 1 lie presence of the charcoal renilem this preparation a con>eiiient flux for reducing calcined or oxydlzcd ores to the metallic state. Llmest^me, fluor-s|uir, liorux, and several earthy or r'otalUc oxyds are em- ployed as fluxi's in inetuilurgy. Flylug Fish, a name given to severid speces of fishes which, by means of limg fins, can sustain them- selves for some time in the air. The common Hying fish of tlie Mediterranean Is thus able to raise itself so far aliove ^»j !•' of tiie sea us frequently to throw il-t'T I 0.1 . u.'.k of a ah'- liut ttie extreme limit of Its tllglit Is confined to uii arch <'Mendliig alMiiit r.'O feet, when the drying of its fins necessitates Its return to ''s pro|ier .dement. Hue Index to liirniY- oi.oov, In AVy. Brit., 185(i 7. Fodder (Uer. falter), in agriculture, the fooeds, which consists of the stems and leaves of plants, such as the ciilmiferous stems of the gra^ses, the haulm of legumes, potatoes, etc. ; or, in short, whatever is given us the ordinary food Is desig- nated fodder; whereas corn, beans, and other articles, which present noiirisliinent in a more concentrated form, are not Included under the term fus. FoK (Uan. fug). In meteorology, a dense vapor near tie surface of the land or water. F'ogs, in gen- eral, are tho i^onsequence of the nocturnal cooling of the atmosphere. The air, liy its rapid c . . I>e- conii's surcharged with moisture; a jstrt oi which lieing precipitated in the form of a cloud, gives rise to the ordinary fog. During the day tho heat of the sun generally disperses the fug, because the quantity of !nui^nings; and that along the whole of ■ coast igs supply the place of rain, which is ex- tri'iiiely r . In the polar seas thick fogs often pre- vail, eveu' iring tho warmest months; and they ure so dense tliut objects frequently can not Iw distin- guhihed at the distance of a fuw yards. 8ometimes, though rarely, fugs occur of which the cause Is IK t very well understood. In 1783, tho whole of FIui\)|ie was covered wltli a dense fog during nearly two months. On the 2;i*,.' FOO «8& FOO fhich the be whole ig nearly bout live and the ) gai; it in which be vapon >nd uhwi oJ»i titil \>y Tolcanoeii, »nil illiniii»l In tho at- miwpheni hy thn winds. Toll (Kr. fMullln, or l.iit. folium, n Ira/). ThU term In K<^iwr»lly appllpil to viirniaheil mi>tiil. Comiuon full i« iiiuniifiu'turecl n» fiilliiwK : a <'o|i|iKr plntK, covcrml » Itli II thin layer -if silver, U roll«il out Into iihoetii iimlflr th' l.iltlnft mill ; thr ullver «urfHc« i* thnn hlKlily pol- Ulifd or covi-rml with » colorlenn vamliili. Tim rnlortd /•'lit are almllurly prp|uir<«l with rolorod variil»hp- Inx cattle or olh«r agricultural nnlnmlM tonctlier, nither for tho purpoie of protritlon during night, or Jointly I'lir p'otfilinn and feeding. SoniPtimrM, alno, »heep lire fiildrd for tlie purpoHu of manuring. The harrier of which fold* are conitructed in commonly wockIoh hurdicK ; liut Mimetimeii, when tho fold In only to con- tain CM OH and liiriilm, netting Htretclied hctwurn (xnts In made u»e of, th. ro l»>liig a ntrong ropn fixed to the lower iMiriM of tiie |M»tii close to the gniund, to which tlic under ciigo of the limiting in attaclied, while ita up|K'r edge is attiichiid to a ro|)e stretched along the top.i of the Hamn pout!. The practice of .'oldiiig nhoep on naked fullown, with a view to manuring tlieni, In Htill common in rteverul parts of Kngland; liut the more Improvi'd nhccp funuen consider that it deterio- rateB tho wool, and inipedca the fattening of the sheep, l>y keeping tiiem for thn greater part of the night wliidly without f(Hid. Folio (It. n ti' cted with each other, and witli a small i '' t in the river hy u st(mo bridge 120 paces long, i icl with shops and resting on sidid stone piers, 40 nu thf northern, and 9 on the southern side. Several ' lokiuit houses are placed over the streets, or upon the ofs of Imildio . ono of which Immediately attracts 'III' attention . • the visitor from its height, and its rl 'ik--< !how writes to the State Department, U, H , that the le* ex|Hirtna in American ships visiting this |Kirt during the last i|Uar- ter, anmuutud to 4,H'.>4,19M llis., valued at $716,000. " The entire numlier of Anierh'»n ships which arrived In 1N60 wan n4, and one nlii|Mif--' ir, the llnltetl Ntatef' ship /.rvnnl. To give an idea >f the hurease of for- eign trad* at this po[A, I would remark that In the year 1H&3 (the year the port was openeil for trade) there were only (i American ships ; In 1N64, there were 12 American ships ; in 1X66, 27 ; and in 1H6II, ai. The whole numlier of foreli,^n ships which entered this port in 186H, was 14 ; in IHM there wero 60; In IH.'i.'i, 117; and in 1H6U, 175. I'here is very little done In the way of lm|)orts, except in opium, (n this article there la un immense trade, a singln llrm selling in one month more than i|200,000 worth. Nearly every llrni in the port Import opium with the full sanction of the (.'lil- neso authorities, T'heni Is starcely a day, and never a week in the year, wlien opium I' not landed In open day, within 10 feet of the door of the custom-house, and of course In full view of the ofDcers. There is, I beliove, an understanding between the importefs of this article and the olHcials, that the latter are to ro- ceivo liilo on each chest landed, which amount goes to tlie ciistoin-iiouse ofllcers, and is divided among tliom from tho collector down to the custom-house boatmen, each receiving according (o his rank." Food. All sulistances susceptiliie of digestion and assimilation may come uwler the denomination of J'liml ; but the proximato principles of organic bodies on which their nutritive powers depend are compara- tively few. Hence, altliough the articles employed In diflerent countries for tho support of anlinsl life ars almost intluitely various, their sustaining powers may be referred to certain substances capable of being sep- arated and identified by chemical analyses and testi. Among the proximate elements of vegetable food glu- ten and its nimlificutions, starch, gum, sugar, and llgnin or woody fibre, arc by far tho most important j and among those of animal food, alliumen, gelatin, and tlieir raodilicatlons, together with fats and oils, which are common to botli kingiloms of noturo. To illustrate tho actual simplicity of our food aa compared with its apparent multifariousness an/1 com- plexity, it may suffice to state, that wheat and almost nil the esculent grains ccmsist principally of starch and gluten ; that the same Ingredients are found in many fruits and roots ; that sugar, gum, or a relation of gum which is culled vegetable jelly, together with minute traces of aromatic principles which give flavor, and more or less abundance of water, and of vogetalile acids, are the chief component parts of apples, pears, peaches, currants, gooseberriei*, w.A '>'i analogous tribes of fruits ; a very few also, coutnin ( ii. Then, aa regards animal food, the muscular filri-.'r oi various animals closely resemble each ot!i< r in t ociposition and nutritive power; in some cai-'n f^ioto merely, and in others minute lulilitions of foieign mutters, con- fer upon them their relative digestibilities, and their different as|)ects and flavors : albumen or fibrin, and gelatin, small pro|xirt!ons of saline bodies, and a large quantity of water are found in them all. It often happens that the truly nutritious part of food is so combined with, or protected by indigestible matters, as to escape the solvent powers of the stom- uch, unless previously prepared and modified by vari- ous chemical and mechanical agents. Indurated woody fibre, for instance, or lii/nin, as chemists cull it, will often resist the joint action of the stomach and bowels, and pass tlirough the alimentary canal with scarcely any alteration. The htiska of many seeds and fruits are composed almost exclusively of tbia material. This is the case with the kemela of the ap- ple, pear, etc. ; the leeda of the cunant, gooaabarty . POO flOO FOO OMlnn, Mil lo on i lh« ikln, or hiuk of pau, iMani, •tc., iinil (if whxnt, lisrUy, anil niiU ; m that unlnia tha wimmIy part U aithar lintkan cinwn l>y Iha l»ath, or pnvlniiiily mnnvad, the fiaiit which It anvalii|>« la pMtnlml fpiin tha nolvnnt arlloii of the necretloiK of tha ■tomach. ThU l« in noma m>|ioi la n wita anil cu- rioua pnivlaiim In iialiiro; for hlnla In Ihlaway liormne tha carriora nf ai>eita, whlrh |uiaa lhnMi)(li Ihrm not only uniljgratail, hut even retalnInK thrlr vaK«tatlvy the inaatli-atiiry |Hiwera of tha animala which e«t thani, they too, would etiida illKeatlun. In refervnro, howarar, to the fiMxl of miin, niut'h of ita diK«atll>lllly and nuiritioua |Hi»i'r ia rrfnrahle to the im|i<>rtant rbamloal op<>ratlona preparntor>' to Ita uae which are carri«^talil« origin, play an iin|Mirtiint part ; nor muat the nixra rlTect of heat l>« overliMikml, for It la moat important. Meat, liy IwilInK and roiutln){, la not only anftuned In ita tlliro, hut new auluitancca are Keoeratad In it. Anion;; the«« a (hv ulijir extractive miiltur, and n«ina:i>air, or the prim Iple whhh gWeti an u^reeulde flavor and odor to dreaaed meat, iiri- eappclally recognized. Xiir are the cliangea which vegotalilea auffor under the influence of heat leaa obvioua. There la another lm|K)rtiint point in the hiatory of oar food, namely, ita ullimUn romixwliim. Wo have apoken of atarch, augur, gam, alliumen, and other auliataneea aa the pntjiauilr principlea u|H)n which we live ; hut what 1.1 the lUtinuttr conatitution of theae aecondary ^>ro(lu< t«, what are their true rlrmniny It la curioua that four rlrmrnlt only are princiiuilly concemed in the prortiint principlea, and alao in Ilgnin, the oxy- gen and hyiin>gen Iwar to each nthpr the aame relative proportiotia aa in water, ao thiii tliey may l>e figura- tivclj" deai-rllieil aa com|H)unda of rhnrrnnl and iratfr. Now there are two very curioua |H>lnta in referenre to that fwrt of the chemical history of our fooil, which haa iieen advurted to : the one ia, that no animal can (ubaist for any longth of time upon fimd which ia dea- tituta of nitrogen ; and the other, that a certain mix- ture of different kinda of food ia abaolutely eaaentiul. An animal fed ejr/iui're/y on atarch, or augar, or albu- men, or Jelly, aoon (wgina to auflTer in health ; ]>«culiar diaeaava make their ap|>e:iranue, and hi* exiatence ia piinful and brief; but mix theae together, and occo- •liinidly mialify their pro|iortiona, and lie then thrlvea ami r.ittena. Magendie'a experlmenta on thia aubject, together with thoae of Tiedomann and Omnliti, well illiiitrute thia fact. Thua, geeae fed upon gum, died on the llJth day, thoae feil up

    er or tongue is not prop- erly part of the lieil, but is furnished from other hands. In Kupnie it is usually of iron, witii a large knob at the extremity ; and is suspendcil in tiio middle of the bell. In China a WuoJen mallet 1.1 used, which is struck b}' the hand against the hell ; and hence ths ("hliiese bells can have comparatively little resonance. The Chinese have a method of increasing the sound of their bells, by leaving a hole under tlie cannon ; but this our bell-founders would reckon a defect. Tho proportions of our bells differ very much from those of the Chinese. In ours, the modern proportions are, to make the dioineter fifteen times the thickness of the brim, and tho height twelve times. The parts of a bell are, first, tho sounding bow, terminated by an inferior circle, which grows thinner and thinner ; sec- ondly, the brim, or that part of a bell whereon tho clapper strikes, and wiilcli is thicker than the rest ; thirdly, the outward sinking of the middle of tho liell, - the point under which it j^rows wider to tho brl.n ; loutbly, the waist or furniture, and the part that grows wider and thicker iiuito to tlio brim ; fifthly, tho upper vase, or that part wliich is above tlie waist ; sixthly, the pallet, which supports tlio staple of the clapper witliin ; and, seventhly, the lient and hol- lowed branches of inet^il uniting with the cannons, to receive the iron keys, bj- which the bell is hung up to the lieam, and which forms its support and counter- poise when rung out. Fountain-tree, or Til-tree, i» very extraordi- nary tree said to have existec'. formerly In tlio island of Ilierro, one of the Canaries, and to have distilled v:.- ter from its leaves in siicli abuidance n... to satisf . tho reiiuireiiientfl of those wlio lived near it. Whctiier such u tree ever existed is questionable ; yet vaiiiius writers have mentioned tho fountain-tree of lliern in apparently giMid faitli. (ihisse, in liis llnlonj of the ( '<;nnry /«/i7n(/.<, published at l^indon in 1701, alludes to it in the following terms ; — " Many writers have made mention of tliis famous tree, some in such a manner as to make it appeir miraculous ; others, again, deny the existence of any such tree, among whom is Father Feyjoo, a modern Spa lisli uutlior, in ills Ti'dlro I'ri'liro. Hut he, and tliose who agree with him in this matter, are as much mistaken as tliose wlui would make it appear to lie miraculous. 'I'liis is tho only island of all the Canaries whicli I liave not been in; but I have 8»iled with natives of Ilierro, who, when questioned about the existence of this tree, an- swered in tlie afllrmative." Frankincense, or OUbanum tree (HiwrrUia .wrni/ii) is indigenous to tho mour.tains of central In- dia, where it Is known under the name of Sal!, ami as producing the olibanum »e», ■nil use, ; for In- Anivrls el, thiit Islv tllllH -I'liInU tsata aad Fnuio*. tbta important part of continental Eu- rope extendi from the 4M to the Slot degree of north lat., and from long. 8° 25' aaat, to long, 4° 43' we»t. The greHteHt length of Fruncu, exi cii'ding Gdb mlleH, In from east to west— from AUaco to llrittany, which p^>- nu(8 Into the Atlantic like a wedge, and v. ithi .it whU h Krancn would approac' in form to a ■,,■■!. Its breadth from north to south Ih about biC- .:( f.i | and it« Hupertlclal extr'nt, aa stated in the ililati>'< ado la France, is 62,768,018 hectares, equal to '204,.>6j square miles, or 180,787, 100 Knj, ih acres— nearly twice the total area of the Uritish lales. Though in point of extent of coast and ready access from tlie interior to the sea, France is fur inferior to Ureat liritain and Ireland, she is, on the other hand, morn fv rtunate in these respects than the vast inland territories of Austria and Uussia. She has the ad- vantage over these countries likewise in strength of natural liarrlors, the Pyrenees forming a great bul- wark on the south-west, ti.e Alps on the south-euHt, and the Jura and the V'osges Mountains on the euxi. The Belgian is the only open part of the frontier. France enjoys, upon tlie wliolo, greater natural ad- vantages than any other country in Europe. Her ter- ritory is above a half lai than that of tireat Hritain and Ireland, and ' f Iht soil and climate are better— the climate being equable indeed, but there being a greater amount oi • m mer heat to bring the fruits of the earth to i>orfcctioii. .She has a greater proportion of nra- l>le land than any of her ncightiorn ; the natural means of communkatioii throughout lur jiiovinccs ar3 abundant and easy ; she is ivcH provided with all the useful metals except tin ; und is l>etter supplied with coal than any other country of Kurope, but liritain. Even during the distractions of her groat Kevolution, though her foreign trade was annihilated, her agriculture and manufactures were extended and improved, her |M>pu- lation was increased, and its condition ameliorated. The surface of France contains about 130,000,000 of acres. It U estimated that, of this (|uantlty, the waste land, indudin,; roads and rivers, amounts to an eighth part; the aralile land to near u half; tlie wood-land and pasture-land and meadows, each, to a)>out a seventh ; the vineyards to a 2rith part ; wild-land, quarr'ps, buildings, orchariis gardens, olive, and bther plantations, making up the remainder, in addition to the vegetable productions that grow in F^ngland, tlie climate of France enables her to raise vines, olives, mulberries, and chestnuts. Wine and olive oil are tivo of her most valuable productions. The cotton trade has been for some tin\o rapidly extending over the northern and eastern provinces ; awl Lyons has been long famous as the centre of the silk trade of Europe, a branch of manufacture that has lieeii brought to great |)erfection in that city. The manufactures of woolen cloth, linx, hemp, and iron, are also very ex- tensive, and have been carefully fostered under the protective system, which still prevails here, as elsc- wlii-re on the (.'(Uitlnent, notwithstanding the example which has Iweii sot by Ureat liritain. Toward the end of the ITtli lenturj , the terrltiiry of France, then equal, or very nearl_\ c(iual, to Its present extent, ap- pears to tiave contalni-d aliout 20,000,01)0 of Inhal)- itants. In 17'.)1, it was fi>uu(l to be above 20,000,000, and in IH.'.l nearly aii,0U0,001l. The government al- ways maintains a large standing army, amounting on the |H'Uce establishniKiit to alhiut 350,000 men, but nct- milly in Decenilmr, InVI, to .Wl.OOO. Her armed licet on scrvi'e is aliout equal in number of ships to that of liritain, with «2,(jOl) aien. Sur/iin . — -The euiface of France exhibits, in i;en- oral, un advantageous succession of lugh aud low ground. Less level IImii I'ulanil, the north of (jer- niany. or the greater part of Kuro|>ean tiussin, It is, on the whole, less mnuntainous than Spain or Italy, and may with great propriety be compared to England, witli thin diittiuctiun, that while in the latter, the mountainous tracts are In the north and west, in France they are In the south and east. Passing aver lofty ridges which form the frontier line of France on the side of the Pyrenees, the Alps, the .Jura, and the Vosges, und confining our attention to the interior, we iind throughout i'landers, Picardy, Normandy, und the countries to 'lie north and south of the Loire, a level tract, diver) iwed occasionally by bills, either insulated or in succesHlon, but by none of the massy elevations entitled to the name of mountains, Th .so wo do not meet until reaching tlie south of Champagne and north of Uurgundy, near the sources of the Mouse, the Mo- selle, the Saonc, and the Seine. F'rom this bleak quarter (lat. 47° and 48°), a very long range of moMiit- ains proceeds Trom north to south in a direction ))ar- allel to the course, flr^tof the Saone, and subsequently of the Kh6ni , until, nn approachUig the Mediterranean, they hi, 1 ^! ,,i\ , ' e south-west and join the Pyre- nees. Their gie, ;st height is in Auvorgno (about hit. 45°), where this chain, or more properly a lateral branch of it attains, ut tho mountains called Cantal and I'uy-de-I)dme, an elevation of fully G355 feet, and hi' I its ii'ghcst ri'lge covered with snow during the ; eater (.art of the year, Another, but a much less lofty range, extends from Bordeaux to the south-east, a distance of miles, nntll it reaches the Pyrenees. Tho smaller . iiains are iiuincioiis in the east and south-east of the kingdom — in Lorraine, tho Nivernois, Dauphine, Provence ; also in part of the interior, pur- ticnlurly the Limousin and (iuirnne. They are Inter- spersed with extensive plains, but, on the whole, the south and east of I'ranco are rugged und elevated tracts, and may be snid to be to that counry what Wales and Scotland arc to Great liritain. Kirfr». — The course of the great rivers is easily con-v nccted with this view of the surface of the territory of France. The Mo. idle, the Meuse, the Marne, tho Aube, tho Seine, tli ' oiine, taking their rise on the nurthern side of the mouii'^iii chain, between lat. 17° and IH", iiow all to tho nonli or north-west, until reaching tho sea or quitting ihe territory of France. From tlie southern slope of tho same range proceed the .Saone, tho Doiibs, and the AIn. These, along with many smaller streams, are all received by the Ithonc, wliicli flows almost di'i- • luth, with a full and rapid current, until it reache "' • Meuiierrancan. The Loire has much the longi ■>' ■ mrse of any river in France. It rises to the south- ;i ' of lat. 45°, tlyws In a northerly direction above 'iOn m.. ■i; turns, near Orlijan,'', to tho west ; is joined ;■ the Clicr, (ndre, and Vieiine from the south, and, utter reccivin>; the Sarthe iroi.i luv north, fulls into the Atlantic below Nantes. The Ciuronne, a river of less length of course, but of u greater volume of water, descends from the French side of the Pyrenees, llows northward, and after receiving from these inountuins a number of trUnitiirv streams, of wnlc th : chief is tho Arricge, turns to the westward nearJi.ntiiubnn (lat. 44°), aud falls Into tho Atlantic after belm; augmented by the waters of tho Tarn, Av-.iyron, i' and linally the Dordugne^all flowing from tho western face of tho mountains of Anvergno. F'nmce has very few lakes, either in the mountain- ous districts of the south, or in the great levels of the noi;th and west, it "ontulns, however a number of maritime Inlets, for ...g Inland bays, und communi- cating with the sea only by a channel of gre:iter or less width. These occur partly in the south-west coa^t. In (iascony ; • liut more In the south and soutlwast, in Langueiloc und Provence. Tleir want of dcptli pre- vents them from serving as roadi teads for shipping, and they are usjiful chiitiy for lishi ig, or for the manufac- ture of bay-Kslt. J-'urmU. — France has much lass of artiilciul or oma- mcnt.j'. p!nji -i • than England, and much more of natural 40 • ' .0 total extent of ground covered by wood '<«.i , -••♦ed ut 17,000,000 of acres, or one i'li VBA 702 FRA •li'J'«tl of tha territorial aurfsce of the " . For- Mi »n found in almntt every dopa 't'' . Tx)wer Nomunily contalnit MvernI of rnnniilTaliln extniit, Thcni U ■ \»lg» one ai K' .u.iirtili'iiii nly 4A miles from Ptrla ; anJ ■ \aTr-. une to tlienorti, lre, In tlio vicinity of Orleans. I'hono iiltnated In tlie nelghliorhooil of the nea, or of naviitnlile river.*, or of jrent workn, such as glass-hounes and Iron-fuMiideries, nave l()n){ heen sulijected to an improvident consump- tion, which is likely tu be incrauaed l>y the still lienvy though reduceil duties im|M)sed on forel^^n coal, nml liy (he undue encouragements given to the smelting of iron Iiy the heavy duties which were. In IHH nnd In 1122, laid on the importation of foreign iron ; no that at present the principal forestn are at A dlntnnce Inland, particularly In the east. In the department of Ar- dennes, and in the long moimtainons tract that forms the lioundary of France on the side of Switzerland, Cfimalr. — In a country of so great extent, and of inch diversifled surface as France, It is difllcult to con- denso a description of the climate under a few com- prehensive heads. The most natural division is Into the north, south, and centrol regions. The north, comprehending Flanders, I'icardy, Nomwitidy, Brit- tany, and In general nil that part of France which Would Iw liouniled on the south liy a diagonal line from Int. 47" on the west to Ittt. 4!)" on the east fW)n»ier, liears a great resemldance, lioth in temperature and priKliicc, to the siiutli of England, rain occurring tre- (jMciitly, and the country being consequently (it for pasture. There, as with us, the predominant culture is wheat, hurley, oats, rye, 'and such fruit as apples, |)enrs, cherries ; alto, hemp, flax, nml riipeseed. It Is hern only in France, that the natural pastures are rich und extensive ; here, also, the species of wood, oiik. ash, dm, l>t(ir a close resemldance to ours. The central region may he said to c u-i .chend the country to the south of the I.oIro, or r ■.i,i>r. , f ;he diagonal line wn have mentioned, until tcacli'iti:; ■• similar line in lat. 45° on the west an') '■' ' ,;a tit cast frontier. Here, with the excepi'v.' "' Cif tnoimtninous parts, the winter Is s. '■«lldy ■'■•rtr iw! milder. Wheat, l/arley, oats, and n-e, are i-'.\'.' I'rI'ivatcd, l>ut miiize liegins to apjK-ar, and vines ; , .me general. The weather in this great inland tract is much more steady than In the north. In the summer months there is little rnln, and stonns, when they occur, are frequently accompanied with |iail ; liut, on the whole, the tem- lieniture is perhaps the most pleasant in France, l)eing exemjit equally fmm the oppressive heat of tlio south and the frequent humidity of the nortli. The third region, comprehending the whcde breadth of the French territory from lat. 45° and 4G' to lat. -18°, and In some parts to 42° ?>0', approaches in climate to the heot of .Spain and Italy, rendering it necessary In the summer to suspend all active exertion during the middle of the day, and to reserve it for the morning and evening. A shaded «ituatiy a wheel and some rude machinerj-. Wheat Is partially cultivated ; barley, oats, and rj-e, only in the high grounds ; maize is very general, and vines supply not only the main article of export, but the n*ual drink of the inhaliitants. The common fruits are olives and mulberries, ami, in u few very warm situations, oranges and lemons. Pasturage is goml only on mountainous or irrigated tracts. To pulmonic Invalids the climate may l>o advantageous, but in this respect, also, material distinctions occur from locality, the winter in the south-east of Fnincc being ut inter- vals very cold, from the rfnt ' >l '.o ytia than in the number of rainy days. The atmosphere of France is much less cloudy than that of Britain. The most frequent wind in the north of France, as in Oreat Britain and Ireland, Is the south-west; it pro- vnils, also, but to a less degree. In tha central part of tliii kingdom. In the south of France tlie more com* mon winds are fmm the north. The dilferonce of temperature lietween London ami Paris Is not consid- erable, nor Is the degree of heiit found to be intense along the west coast of France, until reaching or rather passing Poitou. In the interior it is much more )ierceptible, being strongly felt at Lyons, Borw deaux, Toulouse, and still more in the latitude of Nlmes, Alx, Marseilles, and Toulon. Un tlie whole, the variations of climate lietween the north and ' uth of France are conslderaldy greater than between the north and south of Britain, where the elfect of dilTer- ence of latitude is so much moditleeen expended, U now n port und araenal of rent oHllty and im|K)rtnnco to the linperlal nav}'. Un douldln« the projecting part of Itrittiiny, we And, In the acuth-wcnt of that province, I.'Orlciit Brittany iilan imaaeaneii llreat, the great maritime imm ? of the Atlantic for the novy. Proceeding further to the aouth, we find Um-hefort, at I.a Kochdle, a small but aecure harlior, and ot Dordeaux a river nearly equal In width to thn Thamea at London. From thla there la no aea-port until we reach llaynnnc, a place of no eaay occeaa. l)n the tledlterrancnn, Kriinco baa the (lorta of Otto ond Maracillea, the latter apiidoua anil aecure, and the great inarltlmo port, aracnui, and dockyard of Toulon, which, with Chcrliourg. lln'ht, l.'Orlent, Rochefort, and Toulon, ore culled, in ordi- nary iinrlance, ptirln mililairr». Xante.'*, though a large commercial town, adjoina a shallow part of llio Loire, and vcKaela of Inirden are obliged to loud and unlonil at PuinilKiiiif. The great dockyards and naval atutlnna of the kingdom are at Breat uid Toulon, both excellent hftrlM)r», nnd at Itochefort, which la aituated on the Uivcr (Minrente, near ita nioinb. In all tiieao the occomniiMlution for ■hipping ia the gift of nature ; hut lit CiierlMiurg the caae la very different, that port containing works, of which the lalmr und expenae (aee tlio article 1lun.\K- WATKii, Etuyflo. Ilrit.) have been verj' greiit. Ita roiid'.teud, extenaivo but open, haa u aca-wall, nlford- Ing protection from the awcU of the acu ; und ita apa- clous dock, excuvotcd ainco tho beginning of thia centurj', ut mi expense of £3,0(10,000 atorling, la capa- bio of containing fifty sail of the line. I,o Havre ile (irace, tho licst mercantile hiirt>or in the nortli of France, baa alao been formed at a largo expenae. Inland jVdrlgalion. — Tlio aquarc form of France, favorable as it ia for military defenac, siilijecta the greater part of the country to tho want of tlioae ready and ec''u(imical means of tranaport liy aea which form tho great phyaiiul advantage of (ireut Itrituin ami Irelum). Unluckil)-, thia wunt ia very imperfcitiy aupplied by the inland waters, canala being very little extended, ond tho navigation of tlie great rivi-ra aub- jcct to many obstructions ; occurring in one part from rapidity, in another from abullownesa ; at ono aeaaon from ilrought, ot another from overflow. The appll- catiim of steam to navigotion has com'cted In part thia most inconvenient tanlinesa ; Imt tiie ai'c'ommmla- tlon which ia afforded by tho Loire in the interior, the Rhone in tho south, the Seine in the nortli, and tlio Gafonne, with ita Canal du Languedor^ in tho south- west, is hut a email portion of what la furnished iiy our numerous intersections in Knglund, or of wiiut ia wanted for .ao extensive n territory as that of France. The Canal of Langucdoc, or tlio ('mini ilti Midi, m it la now generally called, liegun in tlie 'eign of Louis XIV. and completed in the year ICfiH, was tho first example in lOurope of inland navigation on a great scale. It is the moat atupendoua undertaking of the sort that has been executed in France. Its general breadth is sixty feet, ita depth six and a half feet. It has 114 locka and sluices, and in ita highest part it ia (iOO feet uliovo the level of the aea. Aa a acieiitilic work, it did honor to an age as yet little advanced in engineering; liut in a p?'"'iniary point of view it was unproductive, tho tolls never having paid the interest of the very largo sum (upward of i."l,'200,000 sterling") expended upon it.* The canal begins at Toulouse on * Tha coat of the oaiud wu 17,000,000 franca, reprcscnling, the Oaronni, remounts the valley of tha IJian, tr*- veraea lli>t chain of tlie Monta (!orbiirea, whli h Jolni the (,'evennei to the I'yrenuei, deacendi the vullx) of the Aude at Curcaaonne, which It leave* at (jineatua to poas by Ilizlera, where it travcraea the Ulved'Orl). Fasaing through lli'rault above and near Agdat, it enila at I'litang ile Thau, at tho place called le I'ort ilea Ongloua. Tha navigation ia however eoutlniicd to the port of t'etta by the canal of Cette, and tliu* tlie Atlantic uiwl Mediterranean are united. The canal <>t' ItrUre U of larlier date, and of much loa extent. tlie ulijcct hero was i i open e naviga- tion from tl'r iiit, on the aoiitli to tlie Heine on thn north, l>\ <-egun in Kio.^. in !.• 1 " nrl IV., and wua completed in KM'i!, UU' r I 1'here are, beaidea tlila great work, acM-riil >riunt and extensive canuia in Franco. Thi- ..iiai mi Centre unitoi tlio Haono and the Loire in tlie upper part of the courao of the latter. It ia 72 Kngliah miles in lengtli, and was completed in 17U1, at an expense of Xiriil.Odfl. Ita aummit level is almut '.MO feet uliove tlie level of the Loire at IXgoin. It hiia HI locks, .'i^ feet of water, IM of breadth at tlie water'a eilge, und ilU feet at tlie bottom. Tho Cnnal of St. ({uentin, ix Fngllsh miles in length, wua completed in INK), Imt tiie navigation wua far from perfect. In ]N'J(I the neceaaar^- expeiisea to render tlio canal perfect wore eatiiiiutid ut 4,110(1,000 francs. A concesaifin of the cunal wua made to a Sieur Hono^!7, in IN27, for u period of t«onty years. On tha 11th of .luly, 1817, tho atate entered into full and entire posaeasion of tho lino wliich It had conceded. It joina the .Scheldt and the Soniine. The Canal of Desancon ia extensive. It joina tho Saone, and con- sequently the Khono, to the Khine. From tlie .Saone it atrctcliea a little aliove .St. .lean de Loanc, liy iJi'ilo, Ileaaiicon, and Miilhauaen, to Strasbourg, a diatanco of 2('0 niilea, where it joins tlie Ilhine. 'I he lanai of Hurgiindy joins tho Rhone to tho .Soino. Tiiia canal waa opened along ita wliole lino in HiTcinlier, iMliJ, liy way of trial, and in tho past year, IKVl, it wua com- pletely 0|)ened. Tho canul of the ()iirc(| wua dug, not for a commercial purpose, but to convoy tho wafer of that little rivorto I'uris forthe conauniption of tlie in- liubitonta. At a village called La Villette, on tlio north aide of I'nria, there waa some years ago excavated, nt tho coat of i million aterling, n basin, approaching in size to our London docks, and adapted, wlien tho necessary cnnala ahoil lie completed, for tho degiosit of mercliandlst' limught from Havre and Rouen cm tha ono side, an 1 Flanders and t'hanipagne on the other. In tlio aoutli of France there is a abort canal jiroiteeil- ing from tho Rhone, neiir Tarnacon, in a aouth-Hest direction, to tho Meiliterruneun, called, from ita vicin- ity to a well-known unniinl fuir, Canal iln Beauinire. Thia canal traveraea a greut extent of marsh, wtiich it hua had tho olVcct of draining. This water-way was o|iened to supply tlie imperfect navigation of tlie leaser Rhrmc, nnd of the two canals by wliicb tho communi- cation from tlio Garonne to the Rhone was forniorly carried on, Theae are among the chief canala of Franco. In tho year IHiM! there were soventy-four canala, having a total len(;th of 3,G09,Ul;i metres, nearly equal to iiHO Knglish miles. Hut since then largo auma have been allocated by the state for canal- ization. In the fifteen years between tlic 12tli t'uly, WWl, nnd the 2Hth March, ]8,V2, M. Ernest Grangez, cliiof-de-liureau ut the ministry of commerce and pub- uccording to M. Krncst OrnnKcz (see Precis HMoriqae ft Statisfpie des roi>a navigables^ p. 404), according to the prca* ent value of money, a sum of 80,000,000 IVanea. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 1.1 |25 US Ml 12.0 IIJ5 i 1.4 6' 1.6 ;--iS;r Photographic Sdaices Corporation 33 WtST MAIN STRUT WMSTM.N.Y. 14580 (716)S72-4S03 fev ^^1^ " '""■;■ "'V;,-. ;-''':*''-V;V; ■''■';* ■ ■-■/■.! w '' * v^yv '■ ■ ■- ;' ' V/ J; .',"'' ■' -i'' / ■_' ■ ,''/:-;\ ■.;f ■;/ ^'V^'V: '' ■ -i::>;«f«i:i i:^S\V^'\. /:'■'"'.-,' ""?'•■ ■'V^'^' *• " ■ '' W"' .■ "'t!'==^:" -^ ''■'-■' - ' ^■' ''•:.■ ^^- = e . ■' ■ --)-'-,. '' ':,' '-\Cyi::-'. ,; •■j; ;■■.;■, >j;t/?vJ:- ■^^^;lS;'^'"s:^^;-|:,r>-?: -■:,.-v^/^^,^^|^'^•■ '^'^f"'; '■■'^;''; % 6^ FBA 704 ERA. Mo iroikt, telb a» that, for this pnrposa, eztraoidlnujr endiu hara bean taken for 241,986,861 tnnet. Of thta ram S27,69(,600 flranes had been expanded on Slat Decambar, 1868. In 1864, a credit of 8,000,000 flranes had bean granted. The eanallaatlon of the Ua^renne from Laval to Mayenga, of the Vire fh>m the Pont de Gourfaleur to Tin, of Rhaims to the Hama, of Bouc to Martiguea, irom Caen to the sea, tiom the Charanta to Marennes, from La BoohaUe to Marans, and from Saint Th6banlt to the Utaral canal of the Loire, is in course of execu- tion. But it is proliable tliat this improved mode of oommnnication may be superseded by the still greater improvement of the railroad, which bad to a consider- able degree engrossed the public attention in France. There are, however, obstacles to the progress of these Improvements, arising partly fh>m tiie mode of man' agement adopted, and partly also from the high price of the materials required. All great worics for the iMnefit of the community at large, such as canals, railroads, doclu, and the Uke, are carried on at the ex- pense, for the benefit, and under the contivl of the government. Plans and estimates must be made out and laid Iwfore the minister of the interior, who refers them to other public functionaries, namely, the prefect uf the department, and afterward to the bureau det ponU tt del chauiiia ; and when all these persons are satiafled, a public officer is then appointed to superin- tend the work. The tedious officiiU routine, through which all public undertakings have to pass, tends to discourage individual enterprise, and accounts perhaps for the comparatively few worlu of this description which have been undertaken in France. The liigh price of iron, in consequence of the tax on foreign iron, has likewise operated as a great discouragement to the construction of railroads in France ; and thus we have an additional illustration of the ruinous effects of this tax in obstructing the domestic improvements of the country. Jioadi. — ^The great roads in France are managed, not, as with us, by county commissionera, but by gov- ernment bureaux, or boards, the chief of which are at Paris. These boards are all un^Ier the direction of the minister of public worlu. The extent of road under their direction is almut 80,000 miles ; and the annual expenditure from £1,800,000 to £1,600,000, the whole of which is defrayed without one toll or turnpike. An attempt was made under Bonaparte to levy tolls ; but this excited so much clamor in a country where com- mercial intercourse is carried on almost wholly b}- land-carriage, thav it was found indispensable to seek the necessary funds ft'om another source — a tax on salt. The great roads in France are in general in tol- erable condition ; but no epithet can convey an idea of the wretched state of the cross roads in almost every department ; full of hollows, encumbered with stones, or inundated with water, they receive hardly any re- pair, but are abandoned, year after year, to the effects of the weather. Notwithstanding the little done by government to favor locomotion, the traffic on roads increased tenfold in the thirty years between 1811 and 1841. The great roads in France are much wider than in England, exhibiting frequently a long straiKbt avenue lined on each side with chestnut or other large trees. Roads in France are classed under three categories — imperial roads 14 metres in breadth, departmental roads alwnt 11 metres broad, and the chemiiu tHcinaux. They are often paved like a street for many miles in succession ; the art of road-making being as yet too little understood to prevent material injury from the heavy wagons and ill-constructed wheels, without re- ■ofting to this unpieaaant alternative. Traveling is thus much less agreeable than in England, particularly aa the villages want neatness and cheerfulness, while most of the towns along the road are disfigorod by narrow crooked atnata, in whioh new stone buUdiuga are often mixed with antiquated wooden stmctiirw, such aa have diaappearad from our provincial town* for nearly a century past. The mails are now con- veyed as with us by the railroad, but where tliere is no raU, in a kind of chariot called a tnaUt-potte. Tha diligences, though somewhat improved in structure, are stiU clumsy and lumlieting. Xailroad: — tluiing the twenty years between 1828 and the 24th February, 1848, the railroad conceded to private companies in France amounted to 2287 milea. The revolution of February put a sudden stop to all enterprises of this kind. There was not a single con- cession made in 184f, 1849, or 1860. Indeed, soma companies, unable to carry on the irort^ confided to them, were either sequestrated or taken possess! n of by the stat -. The concession of the Una ficom Paris to Rheims in- made on the 16th July, 1861, of the line round Paris on the 11th Decemlier, 1861, of the line from Paris to Lyons, 6th January, 1862, of the line from Lyons to Avignon, 8d January, 1862. These and other concessions in 1862 added 205O miles to the ex- tent of rail. In 1863 the progress continued, and concessions to the extent of 1326 miles were granted. The year 1854 has l>een consecrated to the execution of the works, and more than 372 miles have been opened between the Ist January and the Slst Decem- ber, 1864. At the breaking out of the February rev- olution, the concessions for r&ilways amounted to 2237 miles ; in 1854 they amounted to more than 6214 miles. At the end of 1866, 3728 miles additional were opened to the public; The length of lines conceded, and executed have thus increased threefold in the space of a few years. About £80,000,000 havo been expanded on these enterprises. The credit required in the budget of 1856 for railways is equal to that of 1855— namely, 55.435,999 francs. At present (1865) the branch roil from Strasbourg to Rheims, from Bee d'Allier to Clermont, with a branch to Kevers, from St. Germain des Fosses to Roanne, from Mens to Laval, from Marseilles to Toulon, from Caen to Cher^ bourg, from Bordeaux to Bsyonne, and from Narbonne to Perpignan, are in course of construction. Some of these lines are to be opened this year, some in 1867, and some in 1858. BAILWAT RiTDBIia. 1858. .Talao received, 83,634,886 tr. 18S4.. " 40,146,682 Ew. HIlM. LengtV2,4T8 » 1,664 Bridge!. — The French have few cast-iron bridges, all their great structures of this description Iwing ot stone. Of these, the chief are the bridges over the Loire at OrUaps, Tours, and Xantes ; those on a smaller scale over the Seine at Paris ; and those over the Saune and Rhone at Lyons. The Font du St Es- prit above Orange, over the Rhone, is a long structure of 16 arches. At no great distance from it is the Pont du Gard, one of the most entire, stupendous, and beau- tiful monumente of Roman architecture, composed of a triple tier of arches, erected for the purpose of con- ducting an aqueduct over the river Garden. This magnificent structure is 167 feet in height, 530 feet in length at the bottom, and 872 at the top. Of the lately-erected bridges in France, the most remarkable are tl m over the l^ine at Neuilly near Paris, and over the Oise at St. i>Zaixent, with two of larger di- mensions, viz., one over the Garonne at Bordeaux, the other over the Seine at Rouen. Bridges, as well as roads, and all other means of intercommunication are under the direction of the minister of public works ; a special school for the formation of engineers of bridges and roads is established at Paris. The ter- ritor}' of France is divided into 16 inspectorsliips of ponU tt chauuiet. The telegraphic commimications are principally made l)y means of the electric tol». graph, of which the government reserves to itself a monopoly, but private persona »(• allowed to avaU themselves of it. -.fnv^^itfigi ■,s«fl«»*«lW^M•!*•nar-'i 1 t I ] e E S o M d o o n n a ot th la in m n fli 8l m ma io» FRA Jpriniftim.— Hm tgrienltaw of Vvmm It Ik • fvry dilTerant iUt« fttnn that at Ka gU a d or Soot* Uod, being nuriud by i dagtrM of bMkwwdiMM Mt • little taiprtoiag la » conntty m for •dvanood in many dcputmenta of ut and wlaaoe. Tha oaum of this, however, an not of diiBonlt aspk4atioB. Fnmoa eqjoyed for scarcely more than 8S ;rear«, i. «., firon 1814 to 1848, the advantage of a lepreeantatlT* bodjr | and the condition of the peaaantry wat long ikr Mli> rior to that of the same olaaa in En gla n d. STo eedaal- aatlcal reformation had talun plaoa to remova a Tala> able part of the national tarrltoijr out ol the handl ol indolent life oeonpanti ; and tha yrmuU ttigntmr*, tha other great l)ody of landhnMara, daroted tbei? tMUh tlon to Parb and VereaiUas, without beetowlBg a thoDght on their lands or their tenantry, except to •»• tract from them the meant of defhtring their aspanaat in the capital. To thif waa added a ayitem of lasa- tlon, leu heavy, Indeed, than that to which wa U% rabjected in England, i>at extremely crude and lin> politic, a< evlnc^ in tiie gabtUt, or tax on lalt mad to private families, and in the eorr^, or obligation on tha peasantry to labor on the high roads. To these ware joined the humiliating enactments of the game-lawi, and the moio sabstantial injury of tithes ; for tha olar> ical body in France levied this pernicious assessment as in England, though poseaasing in property, lands of the computed rent of Ave millions sterling. Another gnat drawback on French a^iooltura waa the insigniflcont size of the occupancies, whether held as farms or as property. A French agriculturist on a small scale has little idea of nelling bis paternal acres, and converting the amount into a capital for a fltfm. He is much mora lilcely to go on as tpe'proprletor of eight or ten acres of land, and VM eultivator of at many mora. Tbe mode of paying rent was aquallr singular; money rents wera general only in tbe nortb or most fertile parts of France ; they did not, on tha whole, exist in more than a fifth or sixth of the king- dom before the Revolution. A more frequent speoles of tenure was by a gr^nt made under the reservation of a flue, of a qultrent, or of certain servitudes, of' which the least burdensome were sending com to the mill, or grapes to the press, of the proprietor, But of all indications of poverty and backwardness, the roost striking was the system of nUtmn (rent In kind) i a practice by which a tenant, having little capital of hli own, receives tmm the proprietor the live stock and Implements necessary for cultivating his petty tenure, and divides with him Its produce. This wretohe.> 8TATIIMIKT or TNI Arxa or Fbamcb, DtsTiHOunniiia ap- VNOXIMATILY Hn VASIOOB XtSIlS OT SOIL OP WUIOII TUN BvnrAOM IS COMPOSKD. MouBlaiaoos eonn- try. 4,M8,TS0 Keathr ditto, or IsndM 6.IT«,188 Hell ofrtsh molds.. T,«T0,M8 8oll of ohalk Of llmeitono f.TM.lDT 8ollof«rav«l MIT.SRS Blonysoll «,«l<,848 BsndvsoU S,tBl,8n Boll of clay S,1SS,8S5 Marshy and' swsmpy soil. . . . 184,445 Boll or various Unds..., 7,284,942 Hectares, B8,T62,<93 (Aons, 180,TT2,47&) The surprising proportion of land in France under tillage Is owing to the smallness of tbe occupancies, tha cheapness of labor, and the general use of bread Instead of animal food by the humbler orders.' The last Is connected with another remarlcable circum- stance t the very slender proportion of land under pasture, of which the main cause is the dry climate of the Kouthem aad central part of the Idngdom. In tho proportion of poor and unproductive land France Hnd England are nearty on a par, but the French in- cur a very heavy disadvantage by using wood Instead of eoal for fuel, and covering with forests many tracts which might be made available for either pasture or tillage. All France In 1840 gave 1314 hectolitres per hectare. The total value of cereals in 1813 was 1,780,478,(100 fr,, or 0887 fr. per hectare, or 59 fr. per bead. In 184U (which was the last account) it was cal- culated at 2,565,388,000, at 18,900 ft-, per hectare, or 77 per head, In 1840 there were 6,686,787 hectares in wheat. In England 2,180,900 hectares. The wheat product In 1840 was 8-07 for 1. In England It is 9 for 1, The total value In the United Kingdom, 978,600,. 000 fr, at 25 fr, ; In France, 1,400,000,000 ft:, at 20 fr. the hectolitre. The arable land of France In 1840 was 22,340,090 hectares. The value of tbe cereals, fal- lows, and artificial meadows in France reaches 2,361,- A1N,IN)7 tr., and their mean value 106 fr. per hectare. The vines In 1H40 covered 1,972,840 hectares. Thetotal return of French cultivation in agriculture reaches i - Ftmaca. i. Cultivated Rronnd, to the value of.. . . . ^0t2,n4,^20 ;^ I'BStnrago, Ota 646,794,905 .. Woods and fttrosts 288,258,828 '* Total •.., «,022,ie»,4li0 In order to presen| this subject mora fully, we add \ tha following condensed tabMs of prinury and second- uy oropa t^ugbout Franco in tba year U&S : c PauuBT Omn n INa I^ T0« iRtatMi WbMl.. BmK.... MmIId... Bockirkiat Br*.... Biria/, Oite Tom. wMhSI*. HTtew.' i,m,oM <,M«,18« asisnjBi 4-98 4^ 4'n 811 4«T 6'4» 4'M e-116 »-T0» 1-4(1 I'W l-fflS 1-SM 1.TW T»Ulrn*MllM. 4S,«Be,8«-a l,4t4|l8M «.TW,44« £in,fS4,lM<4 BiooxoAST iHTBOvro Cloi* ni 18B>> Via«l>Bd... OvdMA.... Palw ICMigel-wnrUel noM «.••• Sn- Hamp Hamp-ieed.... I'UZ'aeed Ifadder TobMM OHVM CbMtanM, Paatare Mtada. Total , Acnt. 4,87S,9M wi,sn T88,T4S 14a,4«8 4«8,TB1 48ll,«8 86>MI 1*,«M S»,IIM l,1S^8i4 HITT^ 28Ul,Qt IM i-io M18 •144 1-80 1« 1-05 ■8T'«) S4-84 M-T6 4'08 18-«8 Val« 48M8 i-ns T-WVT 18-A41 4-T06 T-7* »-T«8, 1(HI80 lOflS l'8m -476 l-tM Toltl «H,M8,41S (.814,588 f.» 8»,BSS *,018,Tn> 1,480,000 >iSIM,8M fl68,lB0 187,818 87t,888 804,188 18, 788,188 Tine San RnuBR or Lakb ik FBAmm, ■■okokkd bt ibb SneUlB AOBB, AHD OALOOLATCp FBOM omclAL SVBTBTS. •. 4. n«ge(BTcra(««f poor tad fertile loib) 11 Inee V7 Headow hod 87 N«tBnlputan«,ehirV»<»at<>looiu. 8 8 fToode 7 8 Obeitnnt pUntatloiiiL 7 8 Oreberdi. .' IB Kitchen garden 45 Tarlooi kfnde of cnltore, tIi., nutertes, hop- (ronnda, olIve-Krounde, et« 18 8 General aTerage of all France, per English acre 8 1 We piDcead to add a few renuuiis on French agri- culture, with reference to articlea less known or lesa generaUy raised in England. Bucliwheat is coltivated extensive]}' in Brittany, Normandy, and the north of France, partly as green food for cattle, partly for the diet of Um paasantrj' ; it is generally sown in June and reaped in the end of September. Wheat and meslin are principally cultivated in the north, but the produce of the south, though less abundant, is gener- ally preferred. Barley and oats are also more common in the north. R]re is raised pretty equaKy in all parts of France. Bape-aoed is very genert.i iu French Flanders and Kormandy ; it sappUes oil IVr the mar- kat and food for cattle, either when green or in caliaa. Colsa (coleseed) is raised for the Bsme porpoees. To- bacco would be generally cultivated iu Franco, were it not monopidized for the benefit of the State ; hence its oolkivation is confined tn certain licensed districts, wtiioh are chiefly in Alsace and Picardy. Tho quali^ of the article produosd under tlie royal monopoly is greatly inferior to that pmdnoed by private cnltiv»> ton abroad, while the price being 400 per cent, higher, tha latter I* amuggled into France in great quantities, notwithstanding all attempts to prevent it. Flax is raised very generally, not merely in French Flanders, Alsace, and Normandy, but in the provinces of the west and sonth, where the family of almost every peasant rears a little stock annually to be spun by his wife and daughters. Hops are almost exclusively, grown in those parts of France bordering on Belgium. Hemp also is raised in many parts of France, particu- larly in the north. Maize is a plant of great import- ance, whether for the food of man or of cattle ; when intended to stand for harvest, it is planted in rows with vary little seed, and yiaUs mora ^n twice the quan- tity of wheat that Woulft be produced on tha same space. Daring its growth tha leavea *rs stripped ng> tdariy In tha ftiad of eattia; aail la i«ma distriota* M sawn thick and mown manly ftar that purpose. Mala* and arillat an cUafly grown In tha toatk and south-east.! Such valnaMe snbatitataa hare^ aayet, pravantad turt. nipafhmi being generally bttrodocadfaitaFrBBoe. Evan: poUtoas wen hrog very little known, and it is only during tha last b<^ oantniy that the dislike to thia tubar has disappeared, Potatoaa an man ooltivatsd hi the east than in any other district. Chastaats an most common in tha oantral part of Franca, where they' supply no inconsldenbla paitlon of the fbod- of thiti peasantry. In tha south tlia fruits an chiefly oUv4s^ almonds, mnlbarrlea, Ags, and prunes ; oanges an: pu^ally colttvatad in the sonth-eastem extremity ot> the Ui^dom^ on tha verge of Italy, bat with great un>j certainty, fitr a seven winter is fatal to thus treea^i and in soma measnn also to the olivea. Irrigath>n is little nndentood fat the north of France, bat bi the sonth the want of fVaquent rain randers it a primary otjact of attention | tt in fact determines the ratio of prodnctiveness, siiice tlis warmth of the sun seldom fails to ripen whatever has nceived an odk eqnata sapply of moistun. According to H. 9«cqua* nl, then hais been a progressive annual increase in. tha number of hectolitns produced thioe 1818. Then has been a very decided progress in agricultural im- provement in every part of France, but notably in the west and south-west. Tbs increase in productiveness ia. all manner of grains is estimated at 2,141,217 hectolitres. The onltme of tlie vine extends more or less ovet ftilly the half of France, beginning as far north as Chuipagae, and spreading over thia country to thet south and Ilia weet. This oultnn is, however, very limited in Champagne, and vrvA in Burgundy; in Provence, and the kwer part of Languedoc, 'he cli- mate is wanner, and Um oultnn general, thou^.. not managed with such sidll as along the banks of the Qaroune, when the spirit of improvement is excited^ by a demand for fonign markets. As vines succeed in light and unproductive soils, their cultun gives • value to much ground which would otherwise Iw use> less ; 5 ' *he petty subdivisions of land are here lesa iojui r. in the cose of com. From the great VB.:' v^ and climate, the quality of French wihc^ . ery various. The amount produced haa been considenbly increased since 1790, as well from tl!# division of many large estates, as from the quan- tity of waste land which has been brought into culture. It is, however, remarked by M. Moreau de Jounte (Statitlique de V Agriculture de Franee, 1848) that the consumption of wine in France has remained stationary since 1791, and that the quantity consumed by each individual is not more than it was half a century ago. Considering the increase of wealth and population, M. Jounte calculates that the consumption should have increased 60 per cent. It is computed that nearly 6,000,000 acres of land an planted with vines, and that the value of the annual produce is ttom ^£28,000,- 000 to £80,000,000, of which about a tenth or twelfth part only is exported. It is very dificult to say to what extent the vine disease and the excision of vine bnnohes in consequence thereof, has affected the pro- duction of wine either in quantity or quality. It haa unquestionably had the effect of raising the price of the finer wines from 26 to 86 per cent., and of raising the price of brandy, during the last two years, nearly 800 per cent. QoAxnTT or Wins PBOotrcBO tn Fbahcb Dnmxo rna roLLowiHO scriN Ybabs, in Iupxbiai, Oallohs. Imp. Oillt. 1848. 1,18S;00 " Tobacco 800,000 1 Cbit^nts. 800,000 ,, i^T!)?' Total*,1804 £84,800,000 f Of the pasturage ground of France, occupying ona eighth of its territory, the chief part Is in Normandy, Brittany, and other humid quarters of the north and west. In the south, f d natural pasture is confined to particular districts, chiefly mountainous; in the low grounds, the grass, whether natural or sown, is brought forward only by means of irrigation. Clover and sain- foin are cultivated in France, but chiefly in the north and north-east ; lucerne is much more general, being raised not merely in the north, but in the central and southern provinces, wherever irrigation is practicable and the soil and climate are favorable. The art of improving cattle by breeding is little understood in France, nor is there much judgment shown in gradu- ally fattening them by a removal to richer pastures. Still the beef and mutton of the north and west are very good, more especially what is called the prtis sall6 mutton, i. e., sheep fed on the salt marshes. Their price varies from province to province, but very seldom from year to year ; the general rate was 30 per cent, less than in England, but within the lost four or five years the price of meat has risen much in France, and closely approximates to the price in En- gland. Butter is made and used throughout the chief part of France, as in England, but cheese compara- tively little. In the south, however, even butter is little known, and its place in cooking is supplied by olive-oil, which is largely used throughout southern Europe. One of the latest novelties in French pus- turago is the introduction, in 1819, of a large flock of Cashmere goats, which were sent to browse in the easterly Pyrenees, and are said to experience but little inconvenience from the change of cUmate, Ilortea. — In the number of horses, as well as in their size and beauty, France is greatly inferior to this country. In the performance of labor, however, the Inferiority is much less conspicuous ; large, oldi- fashioned carriages, drawn by four or six horses, are seen proceeding along a paved road much more easily than we should anticipate Arom the weight of the vehicle, the knotted harness, and the diminutive siz.» of the animals. The same observation is applicable to the plows, the carts, and the wagons of France, which are awkwardly built, but all dragged on with expedition, the strength of the horses surpassing the promise of their appearance. A French diligence, ia the provinces in which such carriages still run, per- form!' only five miles an hour ; but this is owing IcM to iniuriority in the horses than to the state of th* FRA 708 wu rotdi, and to th* general want of dltpatch at poat- koaara. Of th« aggragata of hoiMi in France, mare than half belong to the northern provlneei — Nor- mandy, Brittany, Ploardy, Aliace, and the Itle of France. In the central and touthem rte]>artnient« a great proportion of the work In done l>y oxon, which are more •ultable to petty ftmu itud mountalnoui dUtrlcta. M«rp.— Sheep are reared in almost ever}' province of France, the gentle elerationa of the north and the mountain* of the nuth being alike favorable to them. The mutton is good ; but in the art of improving the fleece, the French have aa yet much to learn. Me- rinoet were flnt brought trom Spain in 1787, and formed into a loyal flock iit Rambouillet. The con- anmption of meat In the country then waa muill, and coniequently the flnt desire waa to improve the wool. The quality, originally good, has been progressively Improved, and distributlona of HeVinoea have been auc- oeisirely made to proprietors of sheep pastures in all parts of the kingdom. The consequence has been, that in many districts the weight of the fleece has been nearly doublee in -. cransition state ; its ptul histoiy oflkrs many poinU of instructive deduction, while flrom its future we may expect very lieneflcial results. These imported sheep were uami for crossing with the native breeds, to which but little attention had been paid either aa regarded the carcaas or the fleece. Aa time advancey continu- ing to introduce pure blood ; iq others it was t'uund more advantageous to develop the physical organiza- tion of the animal. The result has been that, not- Withstanding the laudable endeavors of the flnck-mns- ters to obtain a breed associating both weight and quality of wool with the production of meat, that enJ haa not been satisfactorily obtained ; the flocks still remain in an Intermediate ooniiitlon, neither producing the flne quality of wool of the Saxon, nor the weighty fleece or carcass of the Knglioh sheep. To encourage the rearing of sheep, a duty of 20 per cent, was in 1B2S laM on foreign wool. Mulf*. — Mules are almost as little known In the north of France n.< In England ; but In the central and southern parts they are vnty generally reared. Toul- tiy, in 'France, ar? Ix>th larger in size and more abundant than In Kngland, more esiecialiy In Nor- mandy and the department of La Sarthe. TALua or PaoDuorioxs or Tua Soil jlt DirraasKT ErooHS. Tmi*. ln)MbltiinU. ITflO W.TOO.OOO ITM 11,000.000 1T88 HflOa,00« 1818 80,000,000 ISM 8MM0,a00 Krur*. FnMt mr hMd, i,mo,aflo,ooo n l,aM,00O,000 T8 $,(181,983,000 85 8,886,971,000 ]|S «.02t.l««,000 180 with the domMtIo anlma)^ T,IK»,«O^O0O and 194. Even in the north and north-east of France, the farms are of small extent. To occupy 200 acres, or to pay a rent of £2W a year, plaoei. ore in the foremost rank of formers. Larger posaesslons are common in pasture districts, that department of agriculture ad- mitting, In France, as in England, of a greater con- centration of capital and extension of business than in the cose of tillage. But such districts are rare ; and in by far the greater part of Frane« the farms under tillage are of flfty, forty, thirty, and often as small as twenty, or even ten acres, there being, it Is computed, no fewer than throe millions of such occupancies in the kingdom. In the south of France the system of mMairie (paying rent in kind) Is still prevalent, and nearly on the same footing as in Lomhardy and Tuscany. That such insignificant occupancies are adverse to all en- larged Idea* of farming, is sufficiently obvious ; and to their many disadvantages there can only be opposed this single benefit, that no (pot of tolerable soil is neglected, even the space given by ua to hedges being reaerred for culture. ,, . j. ' , . .. The beneficial effect of long lease* I* a* little nndei^ stood in France as it atill unfortunately is In a groat part of England. Th* common method Is to let land for period* of three, itx, or nine yean. The peasantry, though Illiterate, are not slow or phlegmatic. They exhibit, as Fnnchmen In general do, no small share of Intelligence, of sprightliness, and of activity In the Individual, with very little concert or combination In the mass. They are content to hand down the family occupancy from father to son, without any Idea of altering their mode of life. The dwellings of the farm- ers, and- atill mora of the cottagen, are like those of our forefiithen half a centurj- ago ; the outside having frequently a pool of water in its vicinity, while the in- side la miserably bare of furniture. In the compara- tive trials that wen made at the French Exhibition of 18SA, the superior character of the English agricul- tural Implements over those of France was made very evident— In none, perhaps, more, than In the plowing trials, when the dynometer showed that while it re- quired only a force equal to 17'01 to turn over a ceiw tain quantity of earth in a certain time with the best English plow. It required a force of more than 27 to do the same with the best French one. The diet of the French peasantry is exceedingly simple. Bread und cider, with soup, peas, cabbage, or other vegota- Ides, form its chief ingredients in the northern prov- inces ; while In the central and southern ones the same aliments an In use, with the substitution of thin wine (rin du pagi) fur cider, and of chestnuts for the pean and apples of the north. Butcher-meat is reserved for the tables of the middle and upper classes. The landholders in France give little or no attention to beautifying the country ; its aspect is consequently monotonous, without plantations, seats, or cheerful cottages. The peasantry live In villages, frequently ill built and inconveniently situated. The purchase of land, however. Is the favorite mode of investing money in France. It sells, in general, for twenty-Hvo yean' purchase ; while the public funds seldom fetch above sixteen or eighteen. There Is at Paris a society similar to the Board of Agriculture in England, and, forming, llkn it, a central point fur corresponding with the different agricultural societies in the kingdom. It holds Its sittings twice a month, and a public meeting annually for the distribution of prizes. The French have also (since IRIO) a com law, permitting import* and exports only when the home market shall he above or below a specific rate. The chief difllculty the French government have to contend with in regard to the com trade, is the popular prejudice that i^edom of export raises the home price. Timbrr.—Ot the 18,3.10,093 acres which are covered with wood, in 1830, there belonged to govemmont 2,S47,800 acres, which were divided into 1473 for- ests. A ver}- small part <'f this is allowed to grow into large timlier. Tiio rest is subject to an annual cutting and sale^ fur fUel j coal being \ety little used in France, except for forges, glass-houses, and other large works. In tlie govomnicnt forests gross mis- management took place during the disorders of the first Kevolutton. Extensive tracts were sold for an in- significant consideration, while in those that remained timber was felled with a lavish hand, and without any regard to the ultimate cfToct on these valuable proper- ties. In 1801, however, a special board, appointed for the can of the forests, introduced the most benellcial ragulatlons. In the yean of financial pressure (1815, 1816, and 1817), it was proposed to efifect sales of these great domains; but a fair price being unattainable, govemment continues to keep them. During the monarchy the revenue derived from the wood annually cut and sold amounted to £700,000 or X800,000 ster- ling. The administration of the forests Is (1855) placed un- der the direction of the miniator of finance. The French territory, comprising Algeria, is divided into 30 FRA 700 FRA arrondiittmmUi firtstun, it tha head of which U placed • mntrvaleur who comipondi with tha adniin- ■•trativn, and who has under hli orden a number of inspectors and sub. Inspectors. Under theae are the gardet gMraux. Every one employed in the forests muat be twenty-five years of age, but this provision may ba dispensed with If the employ^ be a pupil of the £eok fontliire. There are (1865) 82 coiuerviUturt, 300 ii^teeleurt, 100 tout intpecleuri, and 600 gardtt gMraux of forests in France. Fuel being comparatively little wanted in tha south of France, the forests are confined to remote and rug- gej aitustions. These, Ulie most of the forests of the kingdoDi, harbor a multitude of wolves, which are fre- quently destructive to the sheep and lambs. Regular olflcars, called lieulenantt de louvttrie, an appointed for wooded districts ; and on occasions of heavy loss, recourse is had to a general battue, which seldom re- sults in any sensible reduction of the numlier ot wolves. Bears also are found in the forests ; but they are much more rare, lieing conllned to the elevated districts in the Alps and Pyrenees. ifmn and Quarriei. — France yields in this essential article of produce, not only to Britain, but to Ger- many, to Russia, to Sweden, and to Hungary, Ac- cording to the moet approved worics recently pul>- lished, the mines of France may lie .Massed Into Ave groups, namely, the mines of the Vosges and the Black Forest; those of the central provinces of France ; those of Brittany ; those of the Pyrenees ; and those of the Alps. It is not many years since the mines of the Vosges yielded above flOJOOO cwt. of lead, and a small quantity of silver, besides copper mixed with silver. The produce did not, it Is probable, re- pay the expense, as they have since been abandoned. There are now a ver}* few copper mines in the Vosges. In the central part of France there are numerous mines of lead, but they are not productive. They are chiefly situated in the department of La Lozere ; and they yield annually, along with tho lead, 1600 marcs of silver. The only metallic mines of any conse- quence in Brittany now am the three great mines of ffolire argtntifln of Poullaouen and IluelgOet ; and there is one mine of what is called in the divisional nomenclature of the minister of commerce and public works, plotiA argetUiftrt. In the chain of the Pyre- nees there is only one mine of copper, which has long since lieen abandoned. There are, however, numerous iron mines, which furnish materials for more than 100 forges. The chain of the Alps contains many mines of iron, but is not rich in otiier metals ; it possesses some unproductive, mines of lead, and one of silver, which has long been alumdoned. There are some ap- pearances of gold in the department of the Isire, but not such as to encourage any trial of their value. If there are few other mines, those of iron are in great abundance, Iwing thirty-eight in numlter, scattered throughout the country, and of these the produce is every day improving. The whole value of the metallic produce of France was estimated in 1828 to be equal to £8,199,695. The number of mines was estimated in October, 1864, at 824, viz., 448 of coal, 177 of Iron, 190 of other substances ; and the number of workmen they employed in 1861, at 83,684. (Tmvaux Statit- tiqutt del ^finet de 1847 h 1862, Imprlmirie Impe- rlale, Octnbre, 1854.) The working of mines is im- peded in France by the want of good roads and canals by which to convey the ore and tha coal for smelt- ing it. The production of iron has been encour- a(^ by the heavj- duties on foreign iron. In 1814 a duty was imposed of fifteen fTancs per fifty kilo- grammes, or 12a. Cd. per 110 lbs. imperial, on all foreign iron imported, which was, in 1822, Including the decime or the tenth added to all duties, raised to £1 2s. lid. on all coal-worked foreign iron. But this prohibition did not bring prosperity to the trade, though by these duties the price of iron in France was £28 9s, 2d. per ton, while Kngllsh lion wa* sold at £9 Ss. 8d. It Is atU- mateboat U |Mr cant, on the oaptUl employed. It If th« uwnan of fonat property who u« the moet leeiow lupporten of thU duty, •■> Im- p«ct which beneflti tl\eni at the expenie of the whole of France, and indirectly depreuee the national com- matee and in'duitry In iti moat Important hranchei. For many yean only a aniftll portion of Taria waa lighted with gaa, which la aavrlbed to the hljih price of ilttB pipes; and the aupply of water la alao impeded by the aame caosa. (An imperial decree of the 22d No- Timbef, 186S, materially reduces the cnatoms duties en the importation of coal and iron. Coal paid with the tUcime 66 centimes per 100 kllogranimes upon the mater part of the French frontier lyom the Sables d' Olonne to Dnnklric ; upon the remaining portion of the frontier it paid 83 centimes, by the land fh>ntter, except In certain places, by the Heuae, and in the de- partment of the Moselle. Henceforth the great zone nom the Sables d'Olonne, and fkom that by land to Ilelluin, is to have but one duty — amounting to 83 francs for French, and to 88 Arancs for foreign Teasels. The rest of the maritime ftwntler is aaalmiUted to th^ principal part of the Und (Vontier. A double duty to that levied on coal was charged on colie. Ilenceforth coke Is only to pay a half beyond what Is levied on coal. Aa to Iron, ^m the lat of Janunr}-, 1865, there is no distinction between Iron smelted by coal or wood. The fcmte bnle Is to pay 4 francs 40 centimes the larger bara, 11 fhinca the smaller bara, and steel 33 flrsncB. Rails for railroads are to pay 132 franca. The greatest reduction Is on steel.) The mines, like other large Undertakings in France, are under the di- rection ofoovemment, being superintended by a board at Paris (Cotuea GMral), and having an £col« Int. periale with public teachers, the whole under the con- trol of the minister of the home department. This, however, does not prevent their machinery being In general very clumsy and antiquated. Turf fit for ftael, or peat, la found in various parts of France, and will be more nsed as wood liecoraea pro- gKssively scarcer. This article is produced In the departments of Oard, laire, the I.ower Rhine, the Somme, Pas de Calais, Loire-lnferieute, I'laere, Seine- et-Olse, 0lm England by two manufactnren of Nimes, was extended and Improved. The mannal labor of the French woriimen was Ingenious, the machinery extremely imperfect. The linen, the paper, and in some measure the wool- ens and hardware, found their way abroad, because In the nat of Europe theae manufactures were verj' backward, and. In particular, because the exports of England were then very limited. The repeal of the Edict of Nantes was a very Impolltie measure, bnt ita consequencea have been overrated, for England has profited very little by the extension of her slUc fabrics ; and Brandenburg, the chief resort of the French emi- grants, has never become an exporting manufacturing JB^Hiet of Uniting the use of this article to such a degree, J country. Another and a more hnportant error is Um » FRA FRA veTj' irta of of th« rotita id hu ibrics; 1 emt- torlng IstlM oanmt noMoa tkal FrMdi mMrafactoNt w«r* for> mtrijr (frcm 16M to litO) nor* axtaMira.snd flonN lihtng thaa at pnunt, alto thai thn to the richer classes. The great demand turned the attention of manufactni^ en to this Important article ; attempts were made to imitate the Cashmeres, and specimens were exhibited at the Krpoiitum of 1W)1. Ordinary shawls are now made of merino and other wools. But this was only a step in the progress of the manufacture ; and a finer species of wool having been imported ftrom the coun- tries to the north of the Caspian Sea, the ingenious manufacturers with these materials at last produced shawls which rivaled In beauty those of the Kost, and in which it required the moat practiced and skiilfal eye to discern any difference. In 1819 M. Jaubert proceeded on the part of the shawl manufacturer, Tw- aaax, to the oonntriei between the Dlaok Soa and tk« Caspian to buy a numerous flock of Astroean goats, (br tha purpose of using the wool fur shawl-making. The speculation was a complete failuiat and the Fimch govemmant, which woa interaalad In it, loat 800,000 franca. Two towna very remote from each othar, Lodiva In tha south and Vlra la the north-west of France, maau* (kctured, under Bonaparte, very luigely for the army, French woolens an. In general, much thicker than ours. In tha fine qualltiea tha raw material forms (Chaptal, vol. ii., p. 181) somewliiit mora than holt the oost. In ordinary quolitiaa it is somewhat less | but It Is only in tha slight qualities that the price of labor goes considerably beyond tliat of the materials. The computation for the whole country is, that a value of jC4)000,(MO sterling In wool liecomes oonverted into a manufactured value of ^9,000,1)00, of which a tenth only is exported. The cloth in France which oorra- spends to our superfine, and wiiicb is worn In general liy the upper ranks, is very fine and durable, but lieavy, with the exception of the superfine block. The price of the cloths produced at Sedan varies so- cording to a graduated scale, from 16 to 60 francs the yard, and of kerseymeres from 7 to 24 francs. The duty on foreign wool has been very Injurious to the French woolen manufacturers; because, by compel- ling the French to pay a high price for the raw mate- rial, it prevented them manufacturing woolen cloth aa cheaply as their English competitors, to whom the fomigu market, where the raw material had now CdlaS to a low price, was open. J.%iU Wool and Woouhs lapoaTXD iirro FaAMoa, 'i KlIofframnM*. frwnu, 18S0... 4,»ia,000 CoosuDipUon In value 8,851,000 1S80... T,«14,000 " " U,97«,000 18M... 14,S4S,000 " " 84,Slt,000 1840... 18,46«,000 " " S»,08T,000 Belgium, Spain, Germany, Turkey, Barbery, Al- giers, and England send wool to France. The export- ation of woolen goods in 1889 reached 60,600,000 francs. In 1838 the exportation was 2,&78,487 kilo- grammes, valued at 65,828,846 francs. The wool pro- duced in France amounts to 20,860,000 kilogrammes of fine wool ; 20,0' i-i' England. The wool i . 1 >d (Vom England In 186S was 21,687 quintals, in vaii-' 9,481,886 fhincs, and the cloth 281,419 kilogramm !S, valued at 6,795,882 francs. The worsted or thread was 19,630 kilogrammes, valued at 385,844 francs. The importation of the Thibet fur or hair was In value in 1830 8,676,480 fhincs, but hat since declined to 2,058,920 francs. This material ii spun in Paris, employing 600 or 600 persons. The wool of France is of an inftrior quality. Its an- nual value averages about 120,000,000 fhincs, being 60,000,000 kilogrammes. There are 6,600,000 sheep of a superior breed, Saxons, Merinoes, and those imported ' from England ; and 24,000,000 of indigenous race. Since 182U the French sheep have increased nine per cent. The manufacture of merinoes and bomliazinet employs 17,000 hands : 6000 are employed at Amieni - in the manufacture of olispines, and alwnt 86,000 pieces ^ are made there, about a third of which are ezportell. - The bonneterie In wool employs 16,000 workmen, 800,000 kilogrammes of colored wool, worth 8,000,000 francs, and returns 17,600,000 francs in manufactured goods. Coverlets are made at Rheims, Rouen, Beau- . vais, Lille, Lyon, Orleans, and at Sommiires (Oard). This fabric is valued at 20,000,000 francs, and employa 10,000 hands, besides auxiliary assistance to the ex- ' tent of 26,000 more. Carpet: — Carpets are mode to the annual value of 8,600,000 francs, the larger part at Aubusson and Fel letin, two towns in the department of the Creuse, em ploying 1800 hands, and producing goods to the valu* of 1,500,000. Carpets are also made at Abbeville, at Amiens, Turcoing, and Besanfon. The finest and FRA 713 iMtMt t«It«M Mrpali, ealbd "d* laTOBBnU," «• mad* at BMBvab, and at tba Oobalin* In Parte. ThaM an onljr mad* lo ordar, and an not artlolaa of traflo. Tba axporU of woolen ipMMla nach on an avanc* tha ram of 6A, 600,000 or M,()00,000 (Vanci, cnn- iumlng 1,678,487 kllogrammci of wool. Thajr conilat (if oorarlaU, earpali, elotb, caadmarai, and marlnou, variad tlnih, ihawli wovan or made bj band, ban- nataria, ribbon of wortlad, and ilmllar light gooda, and •luflk ofmlnglad matariali. Macblnary ba* baan uaad fter ipinnlna wool In plaoe of tba band nnir Mnea 1800. Rbalma la the gnat centn of Fnnch wool-aplnnlng, It being aitaatad In that part of tha country when iheep an moat Anmaroui. Then an at Rhaima 275 eatab- llibmanta fbr aplnnlng carded wool, and nearly 65,000 aplndlaa, or 60 ertabliihmenta for oombad wool. The number of workmen b 60,000. Fnnea annnally ax- poiti woolen yam to tha value of 3,000,000 Aranea and upward. Neapolitan flannali, Engllth flannela or " bollran," olroaMlena, laatlnga, clotha, eaailmena, merinoaa, mouuellne-de-lalne, eulr-de-laine, made at Cartrea drat In 1819, and popllni, ara noted manufao- tuna. ' Colton,— Tba cotton manubcton waa introduced Into Amiena In 1778, tha nw material being auppllad, not from America, but fhrni the Levant, with maohinaa procured fh>m England. In 1784 a privilege waa con- ferred on an inhabitaat of Seine and Oiae for a manu- factory ; and toon afterward the manufactun paiied to Rouen, 8t. Quentin, Paria, Lille, and other paita In the north, extending with a npMity aarpaaiad only b}' that of England. At pnsant, aa for many yean paat, the great import of cotton la from tha United Statea. In thte great department of manofactun the French have only followed In the footsteps of Great Britain, whose machinery, after the lapse of a certain time, the Fnneh maaufactunn have imitated ; and though they bare equaled the British manufactun In durability, they have generally been inferior in cheapness. This la, In a gnat meaaun, owing to tha centn of the mannflMtun being at Rouen and Paris, places when the support of workmen, including the extra price of fuel, is not leaa expensive than in Lancashln. The dis- tricts moat nmarkable for the cotton manufactun an Alsace and Normandy. The manufactun of coUtm tehtt waa begun at Amiena so early as 176S ; and in 1784 U. Martin of Amiens obtained, under the title of " the lint importer (kom England of machines invented then for spinning cotton," the authority to establish • cotton factory, with apecial privilegee, Nimea te celebrated for its 8ne but not vary durable cotton stockings. Then are also manufactoriea of honiuterit de cotton at Basan9on, Vitiy, Bar le Due, etc. The cotton manufactun la proaecutetl In many paita of France, and presents a great variety of fab- rica and an extensive division of lab r. In one place the waaving alone la fidlowed; in other places the manufactun of threads, which ara aold to those who weave them into cloth. Such Is the case in the de- partment Dn Nord, which exports a great quantity of thread to the cloth maaufactunn. In other plaoea they bleach the linens, which an afterward dressed and stamped. The workmen employed In the cotton mannfactun wan estimated 20 )'ean ago at 260,000, and they now amount to 865,000. Still, however, flrance is decidedly Inferior to Great Britain in almost arery braoch of the cotton manufactun ; and the con- aaquenee la, that as the Importation of English cotton guada is prohibited, they an.smuggled Into the coun- try in great qaantltiee. Among these, the introduc- tion of cotton twist is most extensive; and aa the Fnneh mills can net manufacture the higher num- ben, from 170 to 200, whieh an required in the fabri- cation of bobbhiet, it baa baan found impossible to npress tha contrabaad Importation of this artlole. " It irakas its way," say the writen of the Report on tba Commercial Relatioas between Gnat Brit^ and Fnaea, " bath by land and aai^ la aplta of all intti>> dktioas, and to a eontinnally laoraaaing amount." Ilia RnglUb can ba soM also U half tha price of tba Fnnch article, which presents an additional indue*- ment to tha smuggler. The annual value of tha nisnu- (ketuna thua illicitly introduced was estimated in 1888 at £600,000 atariing t but smuggling has been re- duced mon than a fourth since that time. It is diflU cult to estimate tha amount introduced, but very experienced peraona In tha trade doubt if it much ex- ceeds ^60,000. English bobblnet was also smuKKl'^ 20 yean ago into Franca to tha aatimated annual value of iCa26,0OU sterling; but It Is questionable whetlier the amount of illicit traffic now amounts to jC800,000, though English Imbbinet sells at tma seven to eight per cent, alrave the price of Fnnch goods of the same nominal quality. Quiltings, cambrics, and muslins an also largely introduced by the illicit traders j and the delivery of these goods Is insured at a pnmlum of ttom 18 to 50 per cent., according aa the risk is greater or less In the rate of heavy or of light goods. In 1862, l,7(iO,()00 francs wen paid in bounties oajUttt tutu* d» colon. The average wages of men employed In the cotton trade Is 2 ftancs 50 per centimes per day ; of women 1 franc 20 centimes ; chlldnn an paid 60 centimes. The value of the cotton fabrics of Nor- mandy U 106,000,000 francs, that of Ahiace 80,000,000 fhmcs. In the last district 70,000 hands ara employed in weaving ; from 12,000 to 16,000 in printing ; and 1000 In the bleaching grounds. In Normandy and vicbiity. Including a part of tba Somme, Pas de CalaU, Atene, Eun, and Hanche, 120,000 hands an em> ployed, namely, 60,000 weaven for the Rouenneria, 20,000 for tha calicoes, and 49,000 in other divisions of the labor. Alsace produoea principally cotton clotha for printing, and exporta a part into Switzer- land. Tha number of piecea of printed cotton and muslins made te calculated at 1,100,000, valued at 40,- 000,000 francs. They an of thrae kinds and prices, but an unable to cope in cheapness with the Englteb, Tulles, at first made only in Normandy, an now manu- factured whenver cotton fabrics an made; to the extent of 32,726,000 francs, of which 20,000,000 franca is the cost of the embroidery. The most important of this branch of the manufactun te carried on at and near Calate, when (Vom 600 to 700 looms, and 4800 men, women, and childran, an in constant employ- ment. The manufactuns of muslins ara most In aman of all, owing to tha fineness of the thread re- quired, whi«sb is not yet made in France, but imported for the purpose. Tarart is the seat of this manufoo- ture, valued at 20,000,000 franos. These muslins ara generally embroidered. Blonda and lace ara made at Caen, Bayeux, and above all, at Chantilly (Oisa) when 70,000 persons ara employed. Cotton bonnetf rie te made at Xroj'es to the value of 7,000,000 franci^ employing 10,000 looms, and tiom 10,000 to 12,000 hands. In 1803 the import of coiton wool bad nached 10,- 711,666 kilogrammes, and In 1820 bad doubled that amount. The cost of the raw material in France, and its manufactun, an enhanced by the expense of fuel and carriage. The profits, deducting all outlay and wear and tear of naahinary, and making allowance for every expense, an considered to b* about 80,000,000 fhmcs. It appean, that prior to the legal permtesion to import cotton thread fkee, when above No. 143, not less than 6,000,000 kilogrammes wen smuggled, when tha duty waa from 70 to 80 franos tda kilogramme. Thte tnfRe has not yet ceased. The spinners number from 80,000 to 90,000, and the mean wages of adults and childran an I friwo 50 centimes per bead, who attend to 8,600,000 spindles. No. 182 of the French throad corresponds to 120 of the Englteb, because of the dif- fennce betweea tlie Englteb {lound weight and tha French demi-kilOi^mifte. In the year 1806 the ut- most degree of fineaesa attained in cotton thread waa FRA »1« FICA in ilO,- I Uut ,and (ml ' and for Vo. IM, III Mm ym IMW U kud mchcd Vo. 180. In MMcnl Ihii IfNiish thN«d nnulni mneh Mow tha KaiilUb, liul It mmtlnuAlljr improTM. No. INO, which in PrMM nII* M m friHPi or 40 rvtnct, cnmi in Ka> tiMll »lll)r IN tnitn. In lh« Hclna InrArlaura, at ^u*n, knit vlxlntt)*, Ihan in •bout l,noo,(X)0 of ipln. -.^ueedi the whole mado in Al«»4i«i tn tha dapani leuU of the Homme, Pas de Ualaia, Aiana, Kura, and Manolie, there are OO.oco waavarn of Himcniwrli', 10,000 nf calico, and 40,000 in Iba ntlier lirHHiiltas iif ilia manufacture. /.^nnM.->ln tha aiitent of ber linen manufacture, Fran** I* ((rmitly luparlor to KnRlond i not that her •all la Iwttar adaniad to Ilia orowth of hemp and flax, ItuI liaaamw Kn)(ii*nd dapands on importations of linen froni IraUnd «m Otrmany, and the spinning of flax doa* not furoi tb« iHloiipatinn of our female peasantry. In Framia, itNitlnularly In tha north, every fanner, ■nd almo«t avary i<(iltatt«r, covert a little spot with banip or (i»n In amiiloy ills wifti and daughters In spin- nlng IbroiiKbituI Iha year i a stuck of linen being the nsnal dowry «f Ihasa humbia occupants of the soil. Tba manwfai'tiira nf this arilola Is not exclusively con- oantratwl In llta towns, like that of the other fabrics: many of llii> waavars raslda In villages and hamlets ; and tha li«>mp and Iha flax ara spun by the hand. Tbli U ft HiimI vallialda lirnnoh of domestic industry, wbliib iiWaa *w|ibiynit>Ht to hmalea under the roof of tbair naranta i but It Is destlnnd, In the progress of oapltal and Industry'. In Iw superseded by machinery and (treat astalillshtnents. In Normandy, Msleux, UlapiNi, tha lialtflilNirliu'Hl of Mavra, Yvc'tot, Uolbcc, iwd tba nuira illTand towns uf VImolrtiers and Dom- Aront, art all rawarkkliie fur one ur more branches of tha linan manuAictnra. The mora baekwaiv) provtnea of Brittany manufkcturas, at Rannes, 8t. Maio, and VitrA, qaaotities ofcoarve linan, canvas, and sacMigi but Anjou aflbrds a much superior article | the loiu* d* ImviU have long lieen In repute, and gave employ- ment. In Laval and the oontlguoua towns, to nearly 25,000 workmen. Ulle and lU populous district hav* very extensive mannfaetures of hemp and flax i for the number of workmen so employed, directly or indi- rectly, in this part of French tlanders. Is not short of 00,000. Since 1700, line linen haa, in France as In England, been In a great maaaure replaced by flne cotton ! and the two together employ, at 8t. Quentin (in Plcardy) and the neighborhood, more than 80,000 workmen. In another part of the kingdom, the prov- ince of Dauphini, there are carried on linen manufac- tures of various qualities, the pricea being from 1 franc 10 centimes to fr.incs the yard. The value of the line3 manufucture of France of everj' kind is no less than 626,000,000 fhtncs. The raw material grown In Franco is valued at 80,041,840 fritnes for the hemp, and 19,000,000 francs for the flax. The hemp Im- ported, and the thread together, give 80,099,008 francs value. About 1 ,000,000 ft-ancs is the worth of the flax imported. Total, 20,000,000 fhnics. The manufac- ture gives : Fraafl. For the hemp. 107,OtT,not •* flax 70,000,000 AtoUlof 1 18a,09T,00» The manufactures of hemp and linen employ 000,- 000 workmen. The exports of linen, principally to England, were. In 1840, nearly 0,107,781 kilogrammes. The manufacture has doubled since the first Kevolu- tlon. Lille, Dunkirk, Essonne, Pont Remy, lioUais, Veraon, and Aleni;on, are noted places for their linen manufacture. Normandy sends to Piiria annually 20,000 pieces of linen. The linens of Brittany nre mostly consumed at home. The fine linen cloths called iUa4 aiCl,MO,OW, Ik* fiMiUlly Im|aftt4 •I A00,«iO0t logallMr 41,4M,t • ■um wkkih U Irlplail wkan It li ommU np Into Ilinia4, llnan, and mlzad itafk, and muck mora than triplMi In tha dnar qualltUa. /ran.— rnuM* bad ia MM abont 6W rnniaaat, id wbloh mofn Iban 800 an lald to ba bbwt-rurnacai. It b, howarar, alaMMt tmpoatlbU to •tuartain Ik* a*a«l numbar of blaat-flinuMMi, Ik* paaltion tit wblab I* rB||> ulalad by tbal of tha Itoa mina*. Tkay ara .hlaNy In Iba nounUlnuua daf^rlmanta of tha Uonhitfna In lb* •oulb-wait, and of tha Ilaut* Mama, lb* llauta H*. 6na, and tba C6la da'Or, in Iba aaat of Iba lilni|4i>in. Of forga* for maUaaUa Iron, oallad /iirgti i la C'ata- Imt, Ibara ara aigbtjr-ils aaattarad tbronnbonl dlllbrini dapartoMnti, but cblafl.r In tba bllljr part of LanifU** doc. Tbcra an alao a nnmliar uf, wln-wnrki In t'ranoc, in wbicb, a* in tha bUat-ftimacaa, titcra hai baan ainca 1780 a pmnnialvn but vary ilnw Inonaaa, altogetbar dllTarant from tha rapid ailvanua of lb* Iron-workiof England pravlouily to IHIA, Tha (tatfenary charactar of thana worka ba* avl> dantly baan owing to tba deflolancy uf fual and of w*> tar oommnnieation i dlladvantagaa wbiiih pnrant tba bardwan manuAutaraa from iwlng oonoanlntlad In dllaa or populoua diitricta, and cauM tbam to lia •pnad ovar tha country ia petty townn iir vlllagaa, with a vary liinltad divitlon of labor, and a eonaaquant infariority of axacution. Tba naull la, that Kranca dua* not export bardwan, and that in nothing It tha inferiority of domattio aooororoodatlon In that noun- try Dion oonipicuout than In artlcbi* wblub lia- long to the provittc* «f the lookainith and eutlar. Tb* amount of pig.iroa annually maiia In Kranua a|ipaan to be about 100,000 toni. The value of lb* bardwan of the kingdom, including cutlery, aruia, and other •rtiolaa of nice workmanthip, ia eomputail at XM.UOO,- 000 or <9,000,000 sterling. Fine cutlery In fiirmar tlnaa wat burgaty anugglad into franca, Imt now to a ■ucb aroallar extant. Tba annual lni|)o>ltlon •f that article, and after repaatad asparlmantt, tlwl In 1809 manufadoric* of tiael wen *ttBblltk*d, whlsb have been tino* *xt*nded to aavaral dtparlmento, *t> p*oially to tboee of the Loin. SM — Am ngarda lilk, France poaaaaa**, Uitb from physical cauaes and tiom the long-cttablltbad mann* iactun, a decided tnperbrity. Nalbarry-traa* wart introduced In tbu fifteentb centut. , and wan flnt planted, not in the south, but in the uentnil part of the kingdom, n^ar Tours. That town was the seat of tb* earliest silk nianufactuns, and it was niH till IWNI thai Ik* cultun of the mnlb*rry was carried toiitliwani, Tb* mnllwrry tbrivai In a Tariaty of tolls, and may b* plantad with tnooaat in n*gl*ctad boriUn or In waste land*. Tk* BMilfhaMn of tUk I* o*natdend a* an bnporl< ani b r a mb of Vnnek Iwlnalry, not only on accoaai of Ik* v*rl*ty and lieantv af tha fbbrlct, but bavanaa tk* nw matorial Is an Indigansu* product of Ike couatry. II wa* **tlnMt*d* W vean ago tkal the amount of tb* aaanal talet to (bnlgnert w*« tO,OM),(Nii) fr. » thai Ik* ham* runaumMbin af lb* kbigdoui amoonla to 4I,«H,8M| and Ikal Iba whole annual value of tha tUk manuAuilun waa aqaal to 4:4,&0H,INt». The niaau. AmImm of silk la net conlln*d to any iiarticniar spot. It It carried iw In dlffiiranl parti of tk* country, ia aU of wkkik ildUfuaat protperity. It baaenrioked tk* poor of Mbnaa, of Avignon, and of Tours. HI. <;kans< und and Hi. Klianna owe a great part of their pn>spai«> ily lo tlie nianufttitun of riblmns, and tb* town of (iangas to bunnstorl*. I'arit derivee iminente prollta froM her manufaclun uf silk stockings, and utker ralirlos, aither of silk with a mixtun of silk, or of wiNil anil I'litton. Hllk in also the great staple menu* hctun of Ijvimt, In wbk'b It la carried on In all it* biMMtka* witn aatanishlng succ**s j and sine* tha Kevo- lulkw, In •ddlllon In fabrics of silk, all totit of atulfa mined wllk illk, and with cotton and wool, have lieen maaufautarad ■ and lo these manufacturaa Lyont la ln« dablef^mmet, at 46 fr. 12 cen., In 1NH6 had Increuted to 876,016 kilogrammes, at 68 fr. (I-I cen. per kilogramme. But the home growth nut being enough to meat the demand, importiition* took place to the extent of 1,164,966 kilogrammes, val- ued at 68,781,688 fr,, and tkay still inonate. Italy, ini J inl Je, Itor • 8*e Oottaa, tw fAgrkuUun tt lat JfonHfaeturtt d* FRA I 8wlti*rl«nil, Tarlity, and Urcoca, iiipply Ih* larger DMt. A inwU quantity li ulitaiuMl from Auatrla and Sanllnia. Tha axiwrtatlon of tlllu, plain and ftowarad, from 17M7 to 1789, oa a maan uf 10 yaara, waa AT^ mil- Ibni uf rranclln valuii. In 10^8 it waa Ill,no0,00««, an milllona of franca, conaUtlnii uf 3,7.10,014 kllagrammaa, undar 'M diffarant ilanonilnalluna uf tfuwia. Tha tJnltad Slataa, England, <;«rman)-, than llalgiuro, and, laatly, Spain, ara tha principal uutlata for tha ailki of Franca | but South Amarica, Huula, •ad Hwltxarland, ars alio coaaldaraUa purchaaan. Franca axporti allka to a larga amount In tha way of trannit, I.yoaa, Avignon, Toura, and NImaa, ara tba principal Mat* of tha nunufactura of allk atuffa ; and St. Ktianna, Ht. Chainord, and Tarin, for that of rib. iKms. In tha arrondiaacmant of I.yona and Villa Francha, thare ara 81,0^1) laoma. The manulhoture of ribbona at 8t, Etienna amploya 20,000 workman and 80,000 loom*, ptoduoing 2'',47B,00O fr. value annnally. The fabrication U divided Into the manufiictnrea unit and/afonn^<. Under tha flrit head are thunx nllh the preAx ffrot i ai, groi Jo Naplti ; thone called pou ilf toie, funtoril, cripn, which liuit are aulMllvidefl j then nntlnii and the like. Hie ribbons am, In like mnnnnr, ilintln- gulahcd by differont appallationa, after tha nature of the fkbrlc. St. F:tienne employe In all 270,000 tpin- dlea (brocktt) \ of which 106,000 work organzlnes and Iramea, and 114,000 work the allk Intended for crapei and gauia ribbona. Tho number of lonma haa been eatimated In all at 65,000 for weaving allkt, and 80,000 for ribbona. The raw allk or ailk-wool coninmed In France In 1«40 waa valued at 63,7.11,586 fr. j while the volue of the ailks in transit reached 40,184,001 fr. Plain and flowered allk contumed at home, •= 6,200,490 tr. ; that which posaod in traniit => 87,204,483 fr. | being a total of 136,869,810 fr. A decree of tha 18th Auguit, 1862, permits tho free exportations of allk. The silk-wool of French production exported In 1840 waa valued at 8,798,103 fr, ; the fnrclijn grown silk- wool exported at 47,491,164 fr. TJie value of the ex- ?)rt and Import together was thua 380,250,696 fr. he following are the most important districts of the mulberry, with the growth respectively, and tha oo- coonj produced In 1840 : Dbiriiti. HaaUrM, Oard 14,l>4t Mil B,«Oti «,0T8 1,B4< 1,8I» 8S< T8T 89,TT0 Drl^me, . , AidAflha Uirault..., I««ro Bouchea du Rhdne RMne , AIn :.. Vor, Total CoMaiw. s,m paintings aieiutad on puN ptiae. tbith the establinhmentii hare lieea long con- ducted b}' government at a sairltlre, and Imth ara now on a reduced srale, the articles lieing far tiN> coAtly Air ordinar)' fortunes. Tha articlea mure frequently puN chased are pnttemtnlerit, by which is understood artl> flclal flowers, fringes, gold und silver laca, with a va- riaty of trifling but tasteful articles, all sufflclentlf adapted to a city where so muoh mora la tluiught of display than of utility. iSoap. — The value of all the toap made In France U computed at 80,000,000 fir. The main Ingredient ll olive oil ; and Haraellles was formerly the leat of thit manufacture fur almost all France — an advantage ow- ing iKith to the extent of the oltve-grounda In tht south-east of the kingdom, and the vicinity of Maiv seilles to Italy, tha Levant, and Spain, whence sot 41,419,489 0,429,281 6,44I,n» Cider is made everywhere ; In largest quantity In the Nord Occidental, and the best In La Mancha and Cal- vados. Some is distilled for ' randy. The quantity ti estimated at 11,000,000 hectolitres, at 7 fr. 76 cen. Normandy furnishes half. The whole Is worth 84,- 000,000 fir. There is also a considerable distillation of spirit from potatoes, " which," says Chaptal (vol. ii,, p, 197), " has liecn generally approved, and has been brought into competition with brandy, I^iser Afanu/actures. — Of hats, the manufactures, formerly concentrated at Lyons and Marseilles, are now dilTused throughout several towns ; and the value annually made Is about 24,000,000 fir. The ht.t manu- fucture of Paris is estimated at an annual production of 1,200,000, of the average value of five francs each, and employing 2000 men and 2600 women. Superior FRA Tie FRA qnalttles of itlk bats are sold to the retail tradeamen at iVom 9 fr. to 11 tt., for which the latter obtain iVom 16 tr. to 18 tr. The hat manufacture in France em- ploys 17/100 hands, and yields a value of 19,600,000 tt., in 1159 workshops. The second order of hatters, who flnish the hats according to the diflerent tastes re- quired, elevate the value of the trade tn 24,876,000 tr. The manufacture of gloves — principally made at Greno- ble, though called "Paris gloves"— employs 26,000 persons. In 1889, the value of the gloves made in France was 9,436,000 fr. ; in 1840, 6,666,000 fr. The tanneries prepare 88,286,004 kilogrammes of leather, valued at 82,864,706 fr., for boots, shoes saddlery, etc. Perfumery is made extensively in Paris, .'■1 in the south, chiefly at Montpellier, where, trom the mildness of the climate, aromatic plants are abundant. The value of the manufacture is about 18,000,000 fr. Pa- per being exempt flrom the heavy duties of England, la sold in France upon verj- reasonable terms, while in qnalitj' it is equal to our own. The value annually used in printing and in wHing is computed at 26,000,- 000 of francs ; and the paper employed in the hanging of rooms is estimated at an equal value. Of glass, the manufacture has been much improved and extended during the present age. Whether for mirrors, for windows, «r for bottles, this article in Franco is good, and of a moderate price. The number of glass- houses in 1818 was 185, and is now over 220. Small mirrors are manufactured much cheaper in France than in England. Bohemia is the country with which the French manufacturers state they can not compete. As to earthenware, i*' is only since 1790 that English potter}- has l>een successfully imitated in France. It is now made to the value of 29,000,000 fr. ; while the coarse earthenware, fabricated in almost every prov- ince of the kingdom, is computed at lb,900,621 fr., em- ploying 10,433 hands. French earthenware is very inferior to English. .Saltpetre, till lately a monopo- lized manufacture, is now unrestricted. Sulphuric acid has, since the Iwginning of the present century, been greatly lowered in price and increased in quantity. Sugar The manufacture of sugar from l)eet-raot was introduced into France during the reign of Na- poleon Bonaparte, when, tlie coasts of France Iwing blockaded by the fleets of Britain, the importation of foreign articles, and among others that of sugar, was rendered dangerous and difficult ; and its price was so high as entirely to preclude its consumption by the middle classes of society. Various articles were re- sorted to aa substitutes, such as honey, and juice of raisins, etc., but they were not relished l>y the taste of the people ; and in this case experiments were tried by eminent chemists to extract from iMet-root the sugar which it contained. These experiments were successful. There were in 1831 more than 200 cs- talilishments, from which were produced annually 7,480,000 pounds of raw sugar; an;! there were in 1854 303, proeen esti- mated in the mean product as follows : mm». Iron ttom the ore to the perfect state, minerals, etn 124,000,000 Copper, (Inc. and lead 2(liA0fl,a00 Glass, crt'stal, and looklng-glasies 4T,S00,00O Tiles, briolis, llmo, plaster M,0O0,00O Porcelain, pottery, otc 27,000,000 Chemical manufavturcs, tlio products. . . . 23,000,000 Hemp and Flax (supposed to bo no less than 825 millions of tnaoD 860,000,000 - Cotton 800,000,000 Wool 400,000,000 811k 280,000,1100 Leather and skins 800,00p,000 Sugar. 48,000,000 Paper, colored and figured 28,000,(100 Printed paper, books, etu 28,000,000 Machinery 10,000,000 Clocks and watches 80,000,000 Bmnies. 2^(IOO,a0O " plntodwore 6,000,000 " J(>» I'Iry and goldiimlth's work.. . . 60,000,000 Distilleries, breweries. 208,0011,000 DllTorcnt branches of Industry 186,000,000 Hechaaic and domostto arts 280,000,000 £1 16,440,000= 2,211,000,000 " Lalwr in Paris is as much dearer relatively to thfi provincial towns of France, as lalior in London is rela- tively to those of England, It still remains for us to remove from our capital some manufactures which liave been most injudiciously estuidishcd there ; but the French have carried this false calculation much further, Paris l)eing the centre not only of ornamental fabrics, such as jewelry, bronze, sculpture, ciibinet- making, and the vast variety of elegant trifles com- prised under the term " articles de Paris," but of a number of coarser employments, which a very slight change of plan might transfer to a cheaper quurter. Periodical exhibitions of French manufactures are lield at Paris every three or four years, at which are pres- ent the sovereign, the princes, the nobility, and all eminent men of science. In 1855 was opened in Paris an Exhibition of the Industry of all Nations, similar to that which took place in London in 1851, and in Dublin in 1853. The Parisian exhibition, lik« the Dublin one, contained a branch dedicated to tha fine arts. This exposition continued open from May till the middle of November. It was twice visited by her majesty Queen Victoria lietween the 20th and 25th August in her nine days' visit to France. There is also in that capital a Contenatoire Jet Arts et dtt Mftieri ; a collection, on a large scale, of models of all instruments or machines that relate to arts and manu- factures. It is more the practice also in France than in Britain to encourage ingenious inventions in the mechanical arts, by premiums, orders of merit, and other honorarj- marks of distinction. Yet, with all these advantages, industry has not made the same progress as in this country. " To prescribe th'> mode of manufacture was formerly a favorite course with government in England as in France. From the time of Coliiert (1600) the French ordonnancet prescribed peremptorily the length and breadth of serges, of druggets, in short, of every kind of cloth calculated for export, under the plausible Idea that ail these jjrecuutions were necessary tn establish a reputation for quality. It is a curious fact, that these rules were desired l>y the maoufacturors theio- /.: FRA nt mIvm, and wen long considered u the gafegnard of French lnduitr;f . A change was introduced iu 1779, and pennlaslon given to every manufacturer to follow his own method, provided he distinguished the goods *hus made from those which were in conformity with the regulations. But this was of verj* short duration. The power of habit and prejudice prevailed. New onbnnancM, issued the succeeding year, revived the former limitations ; and the manufacturers of France were not put on an unrestricted footing till the Revolu- tion. Much inconvenience had also been sustained from the absurd law which prevented a workman from settling in business in any town excepting that in wliii'h he had served an apprenticeship. Tliis law was abroKiited in 1707. " The manufacturing industry of France is confined, far more than ours, to the home market, whether we look to the supply of the raw material, or to the export of tlie finished articles. Her imports are large only in cotton and silk ; in woolen and iron they are not considerable ; white in flax, hemp, and leather, they may l)e termed insignificant. In exports the limita- tion is stiii more striking, her hardware, her linen, her wooiens, her cotton, her leather, and, in a gTeat meas- ure, her silk, being confln.i tn the liome market; a restriction owing partly to n' manufacturing supe- riority but more to the capital of our merchants, their ability to give long credit, and to deal with foreign traders and merchants in a iiljcral and not in a petty retail spirit. The productive industiy of France is con- sequently much less subject tlian ours to sudden fluc- tuation. It follows nearly the same routine year after year. On the occurrence of a war, or other politic.il change, the commerce and manufactures of our neigh- bors, to borrow a phrase of Talleyrand (Letter to Mr. Fox, Ist April, 1806), »e replien' sur mxfaime>."—'E,. B. Commerce, Colonies, Fisheries, Shipping. — In no country in Europe has trade been laid under such galling restrictions as in France ; and it is remarkable that this system of restriction has in a great measure been the creation of moe en- couraged by the exclusion of all foreign competition ; and hence all the vices and obsolete maxims of the mercantile system will still be found in the commer- cial policy of our neighbors. The extension of the restrictive system was promoted by the authority of Colbert, a minister who, though he introduced order into the finances, and improved in many particulars the system of taxation, ami was indeed a great master of detail, adopted the most erroneous maxims of com- mercial legislation. It is justly observed, in tlie re- port of Viliiers and Bowring on the commercial rela- tions between Great Britain and France, that the " whole of the Iwunties by which he induced adven- turers to enter into remote speculations, as well as the excessive duties which lie imposed on cheaper foreign articles, were almost uncompensated sacrifices ; while, on the other hand, of the manufactures which he '.ransplanted into France, and which he protected by the exclusion of rival productions, scarcely one took permanent root ;" and even those which he intended to aupport by fpeclal encouragement would all of them have been more prosperoui, but for the regul*. tions with which bis mistaken aeal retarded the prog- ress of manufacturing industry. His whole system was an attempt to regulate by law what wopld have been better left to the sagacit}* of Individuals, and to give a forced and artificial direction to the national capital. Thus he encouraged a trade to the West Indies by granting a imunty of 26a. on every ton of goods exported, and of 41s. 8d. on every ton imported. He boasted of setting up 40,000 looms by virtue of legal enactments, without considering that the capital employed in these establishments would have taken a more natural direction, and been more profitably em- ployed, but for hU interference. The restraints also which were thus laid on domestic industry were often enforced by the despotic authority of government. Many of the absurd and pernicious regulations of Col- bert were broken down by the first French Revolution ; but others remained, and the tariff of 1791 was from lieginning to end a system of prohibition, the object of which was to encourage the home manufacturer l>y freeing him from all foreign competitors. It must be confessed that England set the example of ilUberality ; and it was no wonder that the French of that day should be jealous of a country which excluded her silks and cambrics, and laid a discriminating duty of 83^ per cent, on French wines ; and whose Parliament, under the reign of William III., declared the trade with France to be a nuisance. The commercial treaty concluded with France in 1786 by Mr. Pitt wts the earnest of a better system. Since this perioject, in this case, to produce these Articles at home. In ad- dition to the existing restraints upon the importation of foreign nunufactures, special encouragements were given to the production of articles for which neither the soil nor the climate of France was peculiarly fitted. Thus when the maritime blockade of Franco was raised by the peace of 1814, her industr}-, partly from ancient and mistaken maxims, partly from the pressure of war, received a very artificial direction, and was oppressed by ruinous and complicated re- strictions. At the restoration of the Bourbons in 1814, the tariff of 1791 was the law of the land. It had undergone a few modifications, but these were mostly in the restrictive and prohibitory spirit, and were ac- commodated t« the hostile position which Fnince occu- pied in regard to surrounding nations. When the barrier to a free intercourse with foreign nations was at length thrown down by the peace of 1814, the ex- clusive provisions of the tariff of 1791 were brought into full operation; and when the obstacles to tlie commercial intercourse of France with foreign nations raised up l)y the war were withdrawn, a no less eflTect- ual line of circumvallatlon was drawn around her commerce by the restrictions and prohibitions of her own erroneous policy. It is remarkable, Indeed, that a committee of the Chamber of Deputies, in reporting on the budget in 1832, enters into an exposition and defense of the restrictive system, the principle of which is to encourage domestic industi)' by the exclu- sion of the cheaper and better manufactures of foreign nations. The tariff of 1791 either excluded from France, or laid under heavy duties, almost all the great staple manufactures of other countries. Manufactured iron in every shape, manufactured steel, copper, tin, cut- Ma fl8 MA lerjr, aaii au •rUoWt muiufactnnd fipom any of the metaU ; all fabrlct of wool, cotton, silk, or tisauea of hair, aaddleiy, ipirituons liquora, grain, reflned augar, tolMcco, toys, and varioo* other inconaiderable articlea, ' are included in this pharta of domestic commerce. The inconalatency, and the fallacies on which this ays- tern Is founded, are well exposed in the report of Vil- liers and Bowring. The passage, though somewhat long, ii replete with instruction. 'Ut reqalraa merdy to state some of the objaetlons to Im- portattoBS in order to show their narrow and antl- comBterclal spirit. The Introduction of manufaotured tin, for example, Is opposed because it might beneflt England, which Is rich In tin mines, aa If the Importation Into France oolM take place without eqnall]r benefiting her. The reasons, loo, which are groanded on the superlorltj of other countries ; as, for ex- ample, ■ dangerooa riralrjr' In the case of raanniketnred steel ; ' oheapncas' of Ibreign artleica In the ease of shipping ; threat- ened 'anulbUation of the Franeh manofltctore' In that of cut- lery ; ■ extra adranlagea of the English' in plated ware ; ' ap- prehenilon of the English' In articles uf pottery ; * Imprudence of admitting English saddlery,' as so many persons, regard- less of price, prefer It ; ' adTantages of machinery' In works of Iron ; all are modes of announcing the superiority of the foreign artldes, and the power which foreignen possess of supplying them on eheaper terms than they can be produced at home. " There are other grounds of prohlbltiou by wlileh particu- lar French manufactures are aroiredly sacrlflced to the Inter- est of other branches of French Industry. The luiportation of extractfi of dye-woods Is disallowed for the purpose of en- oonrsging the Importation of the dye-woods themselves ; the Interest of the dyer, the mannfscturer, the consanier, being nholly forgotten. The Importation of Iroll of certain sixes Is prohibited, lest smsll manufiMturers should establish fabrics, and supply the markata at a leas cost than the larger estab- Ushmenta Woolen yam Is not allowed to be imported because It can be produoed In France, though the high price roust be a great detriment to the woolen manufacturo : and east Iron of a great rariety of sorts Is prohibited, on the ground that a sufflcleney may be obtained at home, though the cost Is noto- riously more than double that of many articles of foreign eaat iron. Molasses is not allowed to be Introduced, because the ptlee far France Is so low, and the exportation so large, on the ground that' Importation will lower the prices still more, though the lowaeas of price would obviously make Importa- tion unprofitable ; and the fact of considerable exportation is the best crldenee th>t the average prices are low In France. Rock salt was prohibited In 17B1, and the prohibition Is now Justified on the gronnd that mines have lately been discov- ered. The prohibition of refined sugar was supported on the gronnd that lla admiaaion wouM not beneflt the treasury ; but It Is dear. If the Interest of the treasury were kept In view, tluit ail prohlbltlona would be snppreKscil, or super- seded by a system of duties. While some articles are pro- hibited because the production is small In France, and re- quires protection, others are prohibited (dressed skins, for example) because the production la great, and engages a large Dumber of hands." There is another branch of the French legislation regarding commerce, which Is equally exceptionable with t' prohibition to import fore', »« manufactures; namely, the sj-stem of drawhaclis and bounties on the exportation uf domestic produce. Having by speciiil encouragements created a surplus of certain articles at home, and which the high price prevented from being sold to foreigners, the public were called upon to pay the diiference lietween this high price and the price abroad ; and thus they were taxed, by the exclusion of the foreign article. In a higher price for what was consumed at home, and also tuxcd for all that was consumed abroad, in the Imunty which was paid on the exportation of the article. Thin is a double in- iquity, which has gone on InQreasing in France. In 1817, the whola amount of what was conceded on this account amounted to XilSOO per annum, while in 1830 it amounted to XGOO.OOO, nearly one fifth of the nett amount of the whole custom-house revenues of France ; and as it was going on progressively, it might soon have absorlMd the whole custom-house income, without in the least Iwnefiting, but rather Injuring, the gen- eral interests of commerce. During the first nine months of Out year 1882 pnrnioiiu or'fin^ittet nfMt paid to the amount of 24,448,876 tnncs, or Xl,018,682. The commerce of France, obstructed by these re- strictive duties, has not made the same advances as her agriculture and manufactures. The Internal produc* of every country necessarily increases with Its popiu lotion ; and the inhabitants of France having increased, since 1780 to 1855, to full 36,000,000 (for the census of 1851 makes the popnUtlon 85,781,628) from 24,800,000 must produce as well as consume more. Bnt in the mean time her commerce has not kept pace with this increase in her population. The value of the imports Into France amounted in 1787 to 631,790,700 francs, or about £25,000,000 sterling, and engaged 888,868 tons of shipping ; and lier whole imports only amounted in 1830 to £25,500,000 sterling, and employed 1,009,464 tons of shipping, which is far trom being an increas* corresponding to her augmented population. Accord- !ng to the lost accounts, the value of imports was in 1853 £65,240,000, of which to the value of £44,120,000 remained for home consumption, and engaged 4,605,000 tons of shipping. The whole trade of France with its own coloniea and foreign powers amounted for the year 1863 to an official value of 8,448,000,000 of francs, which was an increase of 12 per cent, on the year 1852, and an increase of 82 per cent, on the average of the years between 1844 and 1848. The foreign commerce of England was, in the year 1787 altout 7,000,000 less than that of France, or about £18,000,000 sterling, and employed 1,349,419 tons of shipping. Iler popu- lation was 9,000,000. In 18<10 her foreign trade had increased to £69,700,748, including £17,127,764 to the colonies, which employed 2,866,616 tons of shipping. Thus, while the official value of the commerce of En- gland had nearly quadrupled, and her shipping nearly doubled in forty-three years, not above one fiftieth part was added to the foreign commerce of France ; a fact which strongly illustrates the pernicious influence of monopolies in damping the energies of individual en- terprise, and thus obstructing tlie national prosperity. OrririAL Value of luroan add Ezpohts, ImporU. TMn. Frnnr*. 1849 i,m,ooo,«oo 1850.,.. 1,174,000,000 1981 . .•. I,l!i8,000,000 1SR2 1,488,000,000 18&S 1,682,000,000 ToUI 6,.M4,000,n00 .... 8,120,000,000 The intercouri'e of France with its colonies and for- eign St.ites in 1858, exports and imports united, formed a sum in official value equal to 3,493,000,000 francs, being an augmentation of 373,000,000 francs over 1862. The actual value of the imports In 1853 was 1,217,000,000 francs against 1,006,000,000 francs in 1852, and of the exports the actual value was 1,572,- 000,000 francs against 1,278,000,000 francs in 1862. The ocean imports were in actual value 1,070,000,000 fhinc.i, and those by land 626,000,000 francs. The exports by sea were 1,633,000,000 franca actual value, and those by land, 420,000,000 flrancs. Obserratimt on rradc— During the four years tiom 1850 to 1854 inclusive, the value of French commerce has augmented .303,329 franca, and the numl)er of sea- men employed has Increased 19,046. The exports to Russia, owing to the war, were reduced In 1864 to three ouward-bound vessels. The commerce with England has increased with great rapidity, having nearly doubled the amonnt in 1850. With Sweden and Norwiij- the increase has also been considerable. With Austria, on the other hand, there has been a di- minution, and also with tlio Roman States. With China there Is an increasing trade, as well aa with the United States of America, but with Rio de la Plata and Ecuador there has been a falling off. Most of the other States with which France carries on a commer- cial intercourse, exhil>ited an increase which. If small, augmented the general commerce to mnch as to show EiporU. ¥nne.». 1,428,000,000 1,581,1100,000 1,629,000,000 1,(82,000,000 1,861,000,000 MA 710 VRA tiki iBa coihrtiy was •ntaring tipoii s iaoN Mtirt career of traffic. The tables on the fonowtng page contain, firom official docaments, a comprehenrire view of the ralne and extent of the commerce of France at dlflTerent period). The trade between France and Bwitatrland u carried on by land by Colmar, Straabourg, St. Lonlf, Belfort, Nantua, Beygael, Mortean, Pontarllar, Lea Rouues, Montbellard, etc. iMPoan or Faixoa. BreadstnUk , Co»l Cotton...... Eawallk.... Wool Iron ToU... isti. £80,0001 1,480,« 20,000 represented French produce, and £20,620,000 was foreign produce re-exported. The imports for home consumption showed an increase of £4,680,000, nnd the exports of French produce an In- crease of £5,200,000 alnve 1852. The following is a brief sketch of the trade of France with other countries : The com, the hemp, the flax, the tallow, which form such important articles of export from the north of Europe to England, are comparatively unnecessary to Kriince. Their timber and pitch are imported there, but the quantities required by a people where ship- building is so limited, are necessarily of little conse- quence. It would appear, however, that in the progress of the recent war against Kuxsia, many arti- cles imported from the north of Europe have become more necessary to France, and by a decree published in the Moniteur on the 20th October, 1866, building- timber, woo«l for cabinet-making, of a certain thick- ness, rough castings, bar and sheet iron, hemp, etc., may Iw imported for three years free from import duty. Pitch, tar, and tallow, when employed in ship- building, may be imported at a duty of 10 per cent, if it can be proved they have been used bona tide for the purpose within a year. The further articles of im- port are iron, copper, lead, salt flsh, all likewise on a small scale. The returns from Franco are no longer in the sugar and coflTee, which, before the loss of St. Domingo, furnished an annual export to the north of ftally £2,000,000 sterling. Tbey are limited to wine and brandy, luxuries of which the consumption is cou- flnad to • (liw Utgi \emti», tuoh u fetaribitrg, HHb> burg, Iortutlon of wInn nnd brandy, as for the importation of sugar, cofl'flo, and cotton. Marseilles, u larger but a less hustling city, continues the emporium for the trade with Italy nnd tho I/«vant. Mantes has suf- fered greatly by the loss of Ht, Domingo, as well as by tho alH)lltlon of the slnvo-trade, of which it was the centre. It ttlll exports to Martinique and Oaudaloupe, linen, hardwurt', printed cottons t and, like Uordeunx, receive* hi return sugar, ciifl'i'c, and raw cotton. Kouen, though accessible *o vessels of burden, is, like Lyons and Llllo, chiefly remarkable for manu- factures, The mercantile marine of France recently presented the following results, which are remarkable while Eo FRA 720 FRA gUad aod AimtIm ue boUdlng vwmIi of luoh inp«< rior tonnage : MnoAKTiLiMABiiia— 18S8, T0O-60O «0O-70O EOfr-MM 400— BOO aoo— 400 900-800 1 8 4 as ISO TmX T nM lg*. T17 1,881 9,0»1 HMW B0,8M 180,899 Touact. 100—900 00—100 80— 80 SOandbctow Totia.., MM 1,M1 1,801 10,»4T 1^«00 ' Toul 19p4T 198^140 B8,T40 81.081 attfiw Manned, including the men of the fiiheriea, l^y 88,000 men and boys. The steam and sailing-vessels of France and the na- tions trading with her from 1848 to 1853 were as follows : NATIOATIOil FOB l&tS TO 1SS8 IMOLUSIT*— FaCNOn ADD Foanoir. Yttn. \rniKh. Fowlfiil TuUl. 1848 1849 18M 1861 ISM 18P8 Mean of flist flro years. 18,194 143«4 lS,a84 1N8S9 18,996 1^886 14,866 18,890 14,Tr l«,8l 19,947 19,808 90,496 98,614 99,189 81,998 84,886 8^09S 8«,9«0 1^80« 81,481 8«lUaff tnmU only. YwTfc |rwnBh.|fowls«| Total 1848 1849 1860 1861 1869 1868 Mean of flrst flre years 11,808 19,818 19,984 18,491 18,484 19,761 9,8*8 10,978 19,064 18,868 18,176 14,996 14,764 11,971 98,69* 96,888 97,060 98,171 98,I8Si 96,08! ^mf. — The superiority of tho English navy over the French exi^M when her pecuniary means wero far inferior { aM though, during the middle of the reign of Loult XrV. the French, by flnaneial lacriflaes, olv tained a nnmerioal superiority, one great battle, that of La Uogue, In 1692, was sufficient to ohaaga the as- cendancy. The war of 1741, however successful on the part of France by land, was, particularly toward its doae, unfortunate to her at sea. In the succeeding in- terval of peace, great eflbrta were made to reinstate the French navy ; but the war of 1756, though the French admiral, De la Galissoniir, boasted of a success ovei Bjug, proved doubly disastrous, and at last swept it almost entirely from the ocean. A very different scene opened 1^ the war of 1778, when France, unem- barrassed by a continental struggle, was enabled to direct all her disposable resources to her marine, an object of great care and solicitude to Louis XVI. She was then enabled to keep in an effective state about 70 sail of the line, the crews of which, added to those of the iHgates and corvettes, formed a total of 60,000 Ktt^ men. The injuries sustained by this force, toward tho end of the war were repnired with great diligence dur- ing the peace ; and to prepare young officers for the sea in preference to the land service became a favorite object in several of the government schools. In 1791, an official report stated the effective French navy at 74 sail of the line, 02 frigates, and 29 corvettes ; a state of preparation which accounts for tlie resistance made by the revolutionary government under all the dis- advantages of an unparalleled continental struggle. Tbadk aho MAViOATioit or FaAKOi wirn FoBuaH NATtoifS— Actual Valvo. Xalloaa. BnisllL Sweden , Norway Denmark Bngland , German Association. , Hanae Towns. Netherlands. Belglnm gwltxerland. Portngal Austria Spain. Sardinia Tuscany Boman States. Two Sicilies Greece Turkey Egypt Barbary... AMoa, West Coast... Manrltliu. AfHca, East Coast.... Engllsb E. Indies, Including Java, I Sumatra, and Now South Wales.) Dutch East Indies Philippines China and Cocbln-Chlna | Yoan. 1860 1864 1860 1864 1860 1864 1860 1864 1860 1851 1860 1864 1860 1864 1S60 1864 1850 1864 IWO 1%4 1860 1864 1850 1884 1850 ltl64 1S50 ISiM 1860 1864 1S50 laM 18.10 1864 1850 1S.M 1860 1864 1860 1854 1860 1854 1880 1B64 IS-V) 1864 18S0 1851 1850 ISM 1860 1864 1860 1864 1860 1854 Importo. Valiia. 97,966,1*5 68,868,979 Bt840,«97 7,707,164 18,896,660 19,914,908 77,709 7,889,998 111,181,981 901,490,681 47,894,489 108,6*1,686 6,654,094 7,099,584 98,801.018 88,984,969 166,690,184 967,680,168 198,777,710 991,690.684 9,414,166 4,808,981 6.089,909 6,74.1,678 48,861,889 88,911,169 91,946,671 117,648,989 19,931,181 16,981,118 8,^10,914 2,601,096 29,681,489 84,969,548 1,081,081 8,895,181 54,966,664 60.189,958 9,686,161 17,486,988 91,808.651 8,679,194 4,609,614 9,989.298 79,947 682,969 987,008 9,154.867 88,274,810 G{t,469,749 5,849,007 10,064.«20 1,706.667 1,168,617 1,685.970 9,798,684 Eiporto. Vdut. FnMMt. 90,146,640 8,862,690 1,96^16S 9,678,«04 9,184,180 1,986,981 1,289,077 4,066,140 812,119,098 586,648,810 60,988,890 laJMfin 1^640,264 18,891,908 14,911,980 99,279,058 118,690,647 158,690,899 •8,047,946 194,488,776 8,898,683 9,460,068 10,367,666 10,996,986 86,699,188 79,606,786 71,781.977 87,141,008 94,688,660 98,689,080 6,264,172 6,612,6*1 17,097,089 20,691,960 8,886,596 4,000,0*1 81,677,194 40,*08,896 10,689,807 7,685,460 4,987,086 4,498,767 2,198,676 8,964,868 6,067,189 6,669,609 508,619 8,819,823 4,287,420 5,767,690 1,8.88,228 1,706,440 190,881 889,78* 8M,8S7 8,858^897 8U|». 18* 48 29 99 16 49 * 4 9,878 8,082 16 6 96 «4 80 25 78 66 64 186 17 * 861 889 606 698 68 61 170 183 4 842 810 08 103 909 05 89 112 6 72 (98 191 Tl 8 6 12 8 1 8 9 8,911 1,646 19 8 187 76 98 89 1« 18 48 90 11 125 2*8 5S9 646 813 926 97 99 *8 86 15 7 200 950 54 »S 111 62 49 48 ' 17 9 6 18 46 8 17 Tonnaft. Kim ring. | ijutwrrt. i InwrJ. Ouiwardi 19,274 8,980 2,986 9,796 1,620 4,147 412 820 993,918 801,590 1,516 6»1 6,119 10,227 1,864 6,279 4,088 *,81« 17,826 9,0.88 649 80,198 68,225 86,018 68,160 18,289 88,907 4,141 4,28* 94,641 88,6.<)4 609 71,898 76,980 '.U,899 91,20* 99,278 14,927 14,081 28,165 l',i49 2,246 23,2i6 84.0 a «,9;i0 879 "m 9,206 9,296 7»5 857 1,181 269 101 *61 097 910,040 11.1,626 1,914 285 14,048 6,461 12,865 10A14 6,971 1,876 7,818 2,118 1,841 8,4*5 21,983 8,1,826 «3,728 19,188 86.634 1,978 2,27.') 11,236 7,192 1,781 9*6 47,846 70,386 18,400 13,966 14,021 9,289 9,558 9,418 6,798 627 2.368 6,786 17,663 8,682 799 6,600 1,266 468 199 190 102 934 86 26 21,990 27,983 104 41 990 890 1,830 168 468 845 410 1,869 138 43 9.869 5,658 4,286 6,928 2,141 4,091 821 346 2,020 2,476 81 6^886 ^609 1,696 1,665 1,911 1,698 891 1,166 819 49 86 758 69 42 81 19 T 60 64 93,880 15,806 128 20 1,207 474 1,519 949 819 615 170 076 141 95 708 1,899 8,711 6,066 9.023 8,226 16'J 240 1,221 1,038 116 89 4,072 6,029 087 1,112 1,869 1,111 Ml 486 "261 24 101 284 (740 Un I a 2*9 1831 cor\'i four anne 1864, ■iste< 10 FRA »21 FRA ^'~ Tbasi aiib NATisATioa or Fbahos win Fonnw NAnon— Aotvai. Talum— ObnMmMA 42 81 19 ! T I BO 64 13,880 15,D0« 148 20 1,20T 474 1A">« 249 819 BIO no 07B 95 708 1,829 8,711 6,066 2.fl28 8,226 loa 2tO I 1,221 1,0I» 1 US 89 4,072 B,629 I 987 > 1,112 1 1,8S9 1,111 1 5M I 486 I 24 \ KPl I 284 I (740 uai I 43 269 HMUm. HnlM rnltod 8UlM of Anuriom SMt. ■ ■ ■ United Btatti, WMt Onatcnula. NtwOnuda TaBonete BruU Craimj. Bio de la puts Eonador P*ra BoUtU Chill. , HajrU Bpan, Amer. PoaMMlons, late., ot«. En^ PoiMH, la Amer., lala., eto. Dntch PosMnlont In America. . .>. DanUh PoMoisloiu In America. .... Isle of Boarbon Frencb Onlaaa. Ifartlnlqne Onadaloape. Algiers Senega) French India, 8l Pierre and Mlqaelun, eto. . . Hayotte, et&, and Uadi^;aacar. ron. '~>C2:- vSwT .«.- 1 Tnm "■^ Otam. 1 1.. Out. ImriM. Ovtwftri. Inww,tl6 M9l,St8 M 91 4381 8,418 171 999 1860 1T,087,T8S 17,184,488 87 90 18378 10,401 1,084 1,199 UM 97,970,169 44,048,800 96 87 99,644 11,767 13(1 1,147 1860 987,881 il!;K 8 16 1,(61 8,814 Vi 908 1884 6,991,940 16 48 8,(66 11,776 116 (88 1880 10,768,88* 18,880,718 68 68 11360 18388 (M 719 1884 10,890,020 98,610,6a 96 46 *>HS 11,864 886 688 1860 890,990 (16,691 1 1 898 699 17 81 1884 997,498 192jn9 ,, 1 , 144 11 18B0 6,881,944 11,(06,849 90 14 (390 4,618 818 116 1864 7,868,988 18,789,998 84 1( 16,118 T,11T (29 IM 1880 49,880 * • • > ' .... .... • ■•• • * • . ..*. 1884 * • •• 879,161 .... , , • . •• ,, • •«» 1880 4,978,190 14,018,118 6 10 1,((9 ^797 71 806 1864 4,987,804 11,421,197 8 99 2911 9,984 141 485 1880 8,280,901 8,480,770 69 98 11,806 4,114 640 844 1884 10,180,198 8,881,788 78 89 14,488 6,«» 807 817 1880 90,894,979 10,880,914 198 89 29,174 8,417 1301 440 1884 99,910,484 17,989,209 118 40 28,(41 10311 1,428 887 1880 199,880 (12,(26 e • • • 9 • ■ • ■ (M • ■> • 19 18M 988,687 8,089,669 9 4 9,619 1,40( 188 (8 1880 158,646 16^09e 1 . • • • 8(0 • . * • 16 .... 1884 8,121 68,(68 ■ t . • • ••. • *.• 1860 105,014 8,008,481 9 17 189 ^((l 14 919 1884 191,764 6,400,481 4 18 890 1,8(4 48 186 1880 18,809,419 11,891,(98 80 88 1^419 94,141 747 1,251 1884 99,908,188 18,819,000 81 106 96,918 **S^ 1,887 1,677 1860 1,811,401 9,099,849 18 91 9309 8,776 1(1 281 1884 1,186,196 4,871,800 10 98 9,01T ^781 190 817 law 11,046,108 14,805,110 81 104 18,489 14,180 994 1,989 1884 18,987,406 10,144,117 lis 119 1S31( 18,481 1,481 1,488 1880 9,899364 11,181,741 81 88 11346 18,594 689 974 1884 17,114,818 16,976,198 116 110 11,189 14,881 1,996 1,878 1880 6,268,989 67,871,988 704 1,071 74,7(9 11M28 6,940 9,(80 1884 49,499,096 90,918,8n \m 948 188,188 121,156 11,9(9 11,868 1880 8,990,746 6,891,651 48 •9 8,970 8369 487 5«9 IRM 6,981,896 8,744,816 78 84 11,7(9 184,098 784 879 1800 8,888,849 474,896 6 8 1,(87 2,097 84 101 1854 10,869,487 446,716 19 4 ^890 1,187 979 69 1880 19,981,116 M»4,6n e>*'* >. • • • ..* • • ■ • 1884 18,901,978 «'*S-1SI .... .•>• ..*. .... .... .... 1880 .»». 90,086 , , *■ .. .... .... • . • * • *■• 1854 404,741 929,786 1 .4 SOS 1,140 IS (6 (hhx. Total Air ) Ontward bonnd, 7,540 1850... f Inward " 7,494 Tonium«. M.a. 787,860 76,946 887326 74,9n Total 18,084 1328^08» 180,898 Sblpfl. ToBMNK... M«n. Toul for ) Ontward bound, 6,726 796^18 78,186 1854... f Inward " 9,807 T,181J09 98,418 Tetat 16,08a 1328,416 169369 Tho proud naval force, however, cKsappeared pn>- greasively .at the capture of Tonlon, the victory of tie let June, 1794, and stilt more in the victory of Abonliir ; so that Bonaparte, on his accession to power, found the French marine Id a very reduced state. He labored, however, to reinstate it. The yexrs of conti- nental peace, 1801, 1802, 1803, and 1804, were favor- able to his efforts; and in 1805 he boasted of havihg in equipment 60 sail of the line, » force dtstined to an early diminution at Trafalgar and St. Domingo. The Bourbons, on recovering their erswn, found little more than half the foree which existed previously to the Revolution. It has since been augmented, and in 1831 it iimounted to 35 ships of the line, 40 frigates, 28 cor^'ettcs, 57 brigs, 29 galliots and cutters of eight and four guns, 12 steamboats, 16 armed 8tor»«hips, 82 armed transports, and two yachts ; total, 284 ; and in 1854, according to the hut autheitic account, it con- glgted of BS TCSiMslB— 9 carrying 120, 74=100, 19=90, Il:=80or82gun8. Totsl 8,n(W 68fHgstes-42=80to60,andl6=40tu46..... 8,955 89 oorvottea 868 101 briga, schooners, and cutters 1,066 89 corvette* do charge and gaberres 788 no 11,7I» StauarhM. 8 vesaeh of the line, I 90IHgates, 80 corvettes, (4 other vessels, J Amonntllag togetlter to 18,760 , guaa, 407 Ct886) In the present year(lSS6) 14 ships of fro* (alDe be- ing vessels of the line) have been launched, and 32 new vessels are on the stocks. On the 1st Januar}-, 1855, the officers of the French navy consisted of two amirals, 17 vice-amirals, 87 contre^mirals, 108 capitaines, 238 capitaines de freg* ale, 658 lieutenants, and 614 ensigns. Fitheriu. — The bounties paid for the cod-flsheries in 1852 absorbed between 6^,000 and 7,000,000 of francs, which was deubla the sum paid ob the aver- erage of the Ave years between 1820 and 1830. The vessels equipped for the fisheries of Newfoundland, St. Pierre, Mlqueloo, etc., proceed from the potts of St. Malo, St. Brieuc, and Granville. The vessels proceed- ing to Iceland sail from Dunkirlc. The French fish are of very inferior quality to those caught by tho Americans, the latter selling at 47 francs 85 oentimes per quintal, while the French cod-fish only bronght 26 francs 95 centimes. With all this expense, how- ever, the French fisheries an not adequate to the lup ^A. 732 fRK ply of the cMOalM, which rec«tv« eonaiderable quan- tities of flab from foraignera, u will ba laen from th« following table : f uuiiT AND KxpoiT or GoD^ raox 1848 TO 18S8. r«n. SMp.. Mm. b£||i|4ii(. jlVvmalllnna! prnMl. 1848 854 11,141 £18,981 Cwtk. 811,T8» £I1M40 1849 tM ]0,IIM 10,000 888,788 lilt(,«04 1980 18SI ^ 11,710 sa,«N 804,080 117,4S8 18,049 84,140 408.851 154,981 18A3 419 18,048 15,994 400,154 145,174 1858 421 ia,S88 15,847 871,716 188,190 Statement of the whale-flshery from the Fnncb porti— Havre, 6 ▼easclo, of 2045 tons and 127 men | return of product, 22,142 cwt. of oil of the whale ; 80 cwt. of the cachalot ; 1C08 cwt. of whalelwne. FaiNnii Con-KiHuaaY iHpoarAnoNt aud ExpoRTATioRa— Fiiraii, Dbixd, Oil, no. i Ain> Impobtatiomb or WlIALI-FiaillCBT. Ymh. Cod-rMmy. Wb>1«.rUli«ry. Upctltd. iCxptirtlHl. ImiwrtMl. Owtt. Ctrl.. Cwt a. 1W8 411,481 82,9M 10,711 1849 888,874 88,251 19,047 1S60 8T«,139 82,070 20.157 19.M 408,877 85,410 17,477 1859 878.862 54,400 8,889 1858 845^11 65,807 12,091 The mean of the tint 6vo yean is almve 891,91fi quintals. Vessel* of France employed in the fisher- ies generally— 1848, 849 ; 18-19,685; 1860, 838; 1851, 925 ; 1852, 959 ; 1863, 94.1. The mean of five years is 851 vessels. The total amount of codfish exported in 1853 ftom all the ports of France amounted to 1,637,971 kilogrammes, or 65,307 quintals. See arti- cle FiSHERIKS. M'hale-Jithery. — The whale-fishery wag established in Friince in 1784, \fy means of encouragements held out by Ix>nis XVI., who ordered that no duty should be collected on the articles exported, and that the produce of the fisheries should pay no import duty. He guarantied the adventurers against loss, and ulti- mately paid, in addition to .£12,300, which he ad vanced without interest, an additional sum of 4VG95, being the balance of loss on 17 voyages. Notwithstanding these encouragements, the whole project was aban- doned in 1787. In 1816 the offer of Iraunties attracted new adventurers into this branch of trade. The pre- mium offered by the government was 50 francs (.£2) per man, and two thirds of the crews were allowed to be foreigners. In 1819 40 francs were allowed to for- eign vessels having a crew half French, 6^1 francs when the captain and one third of tlie crew were French; the premium to he doubled if the vessel passed Cnpe Horn. In 1829 a new ordonnance granted 90 francs per ton on vessels wholly equipped by Frenchmf-n, 40 francs when only two thirds were Frenchmen, .ind ,30 if the captain was a foreigner. The premium was doulded if the vessel passed Cape Horn. A supple- mentary premium was allowed to vessels fishing to the aoutli-cast of the Cape of Good Hope, and the douldo premium was given to all vessels fishing at a higher northern latitude than 60° ; and as the fishing is sel- dom or never prosecuted at a lower latitude, this pre- mium of 180 francs per ton (£7 48.) was invariably paid. The law of 1832, which regulates the whale- iisherj' of France, established a bounty of 70 francs per ton from March 1832 to Morch 1833, if the whole crew were French ; the liounty to \te diminished four ft'anes yearly till it reached 54 francs. If one third of the crew ho foreigners, the bounty to he 48 francs pone. It waa estimated by the minister of commerce, in his report on this subject to the Chamber of Deputies more than 20 years ago, that the 650 seamen employed in the whale-'fishert- do not cost the State less than 1,000,000 frimcs, at "the rate of X72 12s. per man, or ;£6 a month. The wages granted by the budget to sea- men employed in ships of war amounted to £1 per month ; so that the allowance to the seamen employed in the Greenland fishery is six times the ordinary al- lowance of seamen in the public service. It is re- markable that France was granting these extravagant allowances for the encouragement of the whide-tishcry exactly at the time thiit (Jreat Britain was withdraw- ing the bounties by which she had formerly endeav- ored tov promote this branch of trade as a nursery for seamen. Yet, in 1880, the number of vessels that cleared out for the fishery in England was 123, con- sisting of 40,166 tons, navigated l)y 5044 seamen ; be- ing thus about eight times the quantity of the tonnage employed by France. The government of l^^ouis Phil- ippe, alarmed at the large outlay in Imunty, endeav- ored to lessen it, and to render it transitory and tem- porarj" only. M. d'Argont, the minister of commerce, insisted that these liounties exhausted the resources of the State, and decreasing Iraunties were after a period adopted, but M. Cunin Gridaine, who was minister of commerce, relapsed into the old error by introducing supplemental liounties. The provisional government of 1848,, by one decree augmented the liounties, and by a second extended the term of the law to 31st De- cemlier 1861. On the 22d of July, 1851, the National Assembly voted for the continuance of the bounties to 1861. Shijtpinff. — France seems destined, by the natural advantages which she possesses, to become u maritime power of the first rank. Her sea-coost excenls in ex- tent that of any other continental State. On the At- lantic she has 130 leagues of coast, 130 on the Chan- nel, and 90 on the Slediterranean ; while her position between northern and southern Europe, and her numer- ous ports and navigable rivera, are eminently fiivurable to the extension of her navigation. But in this as in all othfi' branches of the French trade, the prejudicial effects of the restrictive' system have been abundantly manifest. France, in forcing a trade with her colo- nies, containing less than half a million of inhabitants, has sacrificed her trade with other tropical countries and their numerous population, to the great injury- of her shipping interest. A great increase has taken place in the tonnage employed in the coasting trade of France, a fact which affords clear and convincing evi- dence of the extending resources of the country, which would have equally occasioned an increase in tlie ship- ping employed in the foreign as well aa the domestic trade, if this important liranch of industry liad not lieen stunted in its natural growth by the monm commerce and industry. From this tax the lands of the noblesse and clergy were exempt. " The tax was called tailtt," saya Borel, " because the peasant collectors, not knowing how to write, marked down what they had received on a wooden tally." Secondly, the vsngtiime was the tax of l-20th on prop- erty, from which the clergy alone were exempted. This tax was estalilished in 1760, and was levied upon all property of whatever description. In 1751, it was taken off the amount of income arising from personal industr}-. Thirdly, a poll tax was levied on all classes indiscriminately. Many of the taxes were farmed by rich capitalists, called farmers-general, or fermien- genrraur, who paid annually into the treasury a fixed sum, and collected the taxes fVom the people. Those farmers-general held the monopoly of the manufacture and sale of tobacco and salt ; and also the octroi, which was a duty on all articles entering Paris and other large towns. The power delegated to these contractors, was the source of grievous oppression to the people. The duties called aidet were imposed on spirituous liquors and other articles of consumption ; they also Include duties on all articles worked in gold or silver, on wrought Iron, playing-cards, leather, pa- per, starch, etc. These duties levied by collectors for the lienefit of government were abolished by the Na- tional Assemidy in 1790. The corrie, which consisted In so many days' labor annually, of men, horses, oxen, carriages, etc., was nominally applicable to the main- tenance of roads. The tax was payable either in money or in labor. The system of taxation, so pre- judicial to internal commerce, was, to a certain extent, reformed by CoHiert, the minister of Louis XIV., who, though his views in regard to the principles of com- merce were narrow and illiberal, yet improved in many particulars the system of taxation, by rendering it more uniform, and thus breaking down the l>arriers which otntructed the free interconrso between the dif- ferent provinces. Under his administration tho public revenue of France amounted in 1682 to X5,000,000. The long and expensive wars of l/ouis XIV. pro- duced a great accumulation of delit (nearly £100,- 000,000 sterling), which, after his death, was lessened liy an appeal to a singular privilege, of which advan- tage has often been taken in France, viz., that a new sovereign is not Ixiund to pay the debts of his predeces- sor in full. During the 18th century, the revenue of France increased progressively, but more slowly than that of England : the vicious system of farming the taxes still continued. Necker, appointed to office in 177C, endeavore00,000, while the axpenditare was ^£20,000,000. In subsequent yean both received a progressive augmentation ; and in 1818 the revenue derived from France, exclusive of conqoersd territory, waa about 37,000,000. O.' the res- toration of the fiourlwns, in 1814, the public debt, fund- ed and unftandad, did not exceed 133,000,000 vbignon, lUpoti Comparatif d» la France) ; Ite interest ^7,900,- 000. France had thus a fair prospect of financial prosperity, when the return of Bonaparte, and a second invasion by the allied troops, overthrew public credit, aad produced a national loss and a general derange- ment of trade. It has been estimated that the return of Napoleon from Elba, which led to the second inva- sion of France by the allied troops occasioned a loss to the country of 4,000,000,000 of francs. The direct loss, which Included the expenses paid to the allied powers, and those incurred by the maintenance of their armies, placed in cantonments throughout Franca, may be estimated ; but the indirect evils occa- sioned by the ravages inseparable from the invasion of a hostile army, by the confusion and derangement of all commercial relations, and the impossibility of col- lecting the nvenne in such a time of trouble, can not ba summed up in money. At the same time then an scarcely any national difficulties which may not be overcome by the energies and industry* of a free and intelligent people such as the French. With an incon- siderable addition to her debt, France has defrayed all these heavy expenses, the contributions imposed on her by the allied powers, the expenses of the tempor- ary maintenance of their armies, and her own warlike expenses. For this purpose, however, It became neceasary In 1816 to impose additional taxes. In 1817 a loan was required of 392,g8!),000 francs ; and in 1818, to defray the extraordinary contribution of 676,807,197 francs, paid in that year to the allies, the minister had recourse to another lo^ of 220,610,718 francs ; while, by the taxes which had been imposed, the ravenue of that year was carried to £86,000,000. Ukah Bsvikui or Fsakcr in tiik Tek Yxabs anwnx 1883 AND 18<3. ISil. 1 ISM. 1 Direct Tsxes Fnuiei. 841,88 Works. 79,79a,U4 .. Total 1,486,018,895 ' Bealdee the public nvenue of tba ampin, the com- munes raised a nvenue for their own local expenses. According to the latest published accounts, this nv- enue arises partly from oclroit, which amount through- out France (then being 1486 octrats) to 06,178,603 francs, and partly ftom other sources, the whole of which amounted to 280,638,309 francs in 1860. The total of the ordinary ways and means of France in tba Budget Provitoire of 1865 amounted to 1,628,110,288 francs. During the administration of M. Vilile the fl"e per cents, in France wen converted Into a three per cent, fund, at the rata of 183-83 cents, for every 100 of the five per cent, stock ; so that the whole Ave per cent, stock, bearing an annual interast of 80,674,116 francs, was converted Into a thna per cent, fund, of which the capital was incnased one third. The effect of this transaction was, in nality, to nduca the inter- est on the five par cent, stock to four per cent., by which he saved annual intenst to the amount of 6,000,000, though by a very useless complexity In his operations. The interast on the public debt of Franca, thus nduced, may be stated aa follows : it amounted in 1866 to 418,870,442 francs. The sinking fund, or cai«e tTamortutement, ceased altogether Its operations on the 14th July, 1848. In the 32 yean of its opera- tion the coiMS {Tamortifement lilwrated the country from liabllitlea to the amount of 1,633,474,090 Ihincs, and placed at the dispoMtion of the treasury, fh>m 1888 to 1848, 1,016,693,866 francs. Taxatiim. — The ancient system of taxation in France waa subverted by the National Assembly in 1791, and new taxes wen substituted In lieu of those formerly in force. These consisted of direct and indirect taxes. The direct taxes an, 1. CoHtnbution fonciirt, or land- tax; 3, Contribution penonelle et mobiliire; 8. A tax on doors and windows ; 4. Droitt depatente, or a license duty on particular trades and professions, and a duty on mines. The coHlribulion foncdrt Is ra||ed equally on all lands and hoases, in proportion to their nett ravenue. Then an no longer any exemptions in favor of the nobility since the first Revolution, in 1789. The Im- perial domains and the property of the State an alone exempted. The contribution perionelle et mobiliire is divided into two parts. Tlie tint is a species of poll tax, rated at thne days' labor, calculated in money value to be from 10 to 80 sous per day, and levied on all males above 18 yean of age. The cone grown by the retaQerbimself. Strong beer pays a duty of 2 ft'ancs 40 centimes, and small beer a duty of 12 sous, per hectolitre. Retailers of liquon must take out a dis- tinct license, which varies, in proportion to the size of the town, from 6 to 20 francs. Proprietors of piililic carriages pay one tenth of the price of each place for passengers, a third being deducted for w cant placet, and on* tenth of Um pric* rtcalved for merchandise. Privata carriages are subjected to a moderate duty, accordbig to their site, of 40 fk'anoa per annum for a carriage with two wheels, and hold- ing two parsons ; and of 160 francs per annum for a carriage with four wheels, and holding nine persons. The tnrtgittrtment, or regiatratiun duties, embraces • variety of transactions, where property is conveyed or given away l)y marriage-settlement or otherwise. There Js a duty on gifts inter vivot, which increasea with the distance of the relation lietween the parties. It was modified by an ordonnance of lx>uls Philippe in 1882. The duties payalile on registry are either fixed or ad valortmi the fixed or certain duties apply to common certificates, those of life or residence, account- books, bills of lading, appointments of arbitrations, valuations of furniture, and the like. The ad valortm duty applies to all bonds or olillgations, discharges, Judgments, deposits or releases of sums of money, and for every transfer of property, etc. The stamp duty applies to receipts, bills of exchange, newspapers, handbills, playbills, admission cards to pulilic places, and upon paper used for civil and Judicial aelet. The total received from the impot direct in 1864 was 411,278,000 francs. In 1863 the sum received was 420,064,000 francs, which shows a deficit of nearly 9,000,000 of francs in 1864. The total receipU of the impAti indirectt in 1864 were 817,260,000 franca. The imp6t on salt produced in 1864 a sum of 88,270,- 181 francs. The total of "droits" received in 1864 amounted to 149,887,610 ftancs. Vrsnea. Land earrlaffo or roulsge 81,non,OflO of tons, tlio moitn transport st IS leagues, at the mosD price or 1 truus per ton . 460,000,000 The public roltures which travel 18 . leagues per ''^,686 in 1853. In France these duties are laid on in many cases mora with a view to restriction and monopoly than to revenue. France sacrifices a large revenue for the encouragement of the colonial monopoly ; pay- ing for the produce of the colonies an exorbitant price, and afterward, as in the case of sugar, the staple arti- cle that is imported from the colonies, giving a great portion of the duty as a bounty on its exportation to foreign countries, to indemnify the exporter for the loss that he would incur If he were selling the sugar at its ordinary price in the markets of Europe. In 1830 the gross receipts from the sugar duty amounted to .£1,897,340, of which one third, namely, ^£420,908, were paid back in bounties on the exportation of the surplus. Thus the nett duty only amounted to £976,- 437, while in 1822, though the quantity of sugar con- sumed was only 1,086,596 cwts., or 281,076 cwts, less than in 1830, the nett amount of the duty was £1,234,> 653. The consumption of sugar in France in 1847 only reached to aliout 2,670,000 cwts. It is by means of heavy custom-duties that the French legislators en- deavor to preserve the monopoly of the liome market to their own manufacturers, by which policy they com- pel the French community to buy at a high price the inferior articles of their own manufacture, rathor than the l)etter articles of the foreigner at a lower price. The FEA 199 FRA InerMMd mnmiMn aad lupariw viKiluea of th* cu»- toiB-huOM ofltMn h«T« been itUl counteraetcil by the ntw (xpaditnU iind poneraring tn|{raulty of the Th« ftnntior of Franca Is tha ncana of thU paneeu- tliin aKitinit eommarca, when all tha lllagal, lUrlnK, and lnK«nloiu ranourua* of Iha contralHind truilara ara uallod Into p.i'tlvity. Anions other expeillant*, thuy trulned packiof duga, arconlliiK to Meiara, Villiem and U-, tu carry prulill>lt«uM to the custom-house olllcers to the amount of 4U,27H francs. That the trade, though It may be obstructed. Is nut prevented, is evi- dent Aram the circumstance that there ore regular rates of insurance on the conveyance of contraband goods Into France, vuylng from 10 to 70 per cent. A revision, and If passible a reduction, of these heavy duties would be tha true policy of France. Monopoly was never yut the soa.va of commercUl greatness In any country. Xaiional Jncome ami Capital. — Population.— fit the official surveys of the French territory, by fur the most minute and accurate is tha cadatirt, a survey which be- came Indispensable from the time it was determined to exchange the tuxes on consumption for taxes on pn>- duce. A return of the rent of land, such as was made under the pra|>«rty-tax act in Kngland, would not have been practicable in France, where so many thousands of petty lots are cultivated by their proprietors. At flrnt the ciulatlre proceeded on the plan of an estimate )mr moMta (If culture, or continuous valuation of extensive tracts ; but this proving unsutisfactor}', it has been con- ducted since 1807 on u plan of such minute detail, as to give the value of every separate /Kirrff land, i'he progress of this minute survey of the landed prop- erty in France has been retarded by many causes ; and in IHSO not above two thinis of the land had been sur- veyed. It was estimated in the report of ona of the committees of the Chumlwr in 1832, that it would still require from that period uliout eight years, and an ex- pense of almve i;2,(IOU,UO() sterling, to complete it. They had only surveyed 81,000,000 of hectares, or 68, 000,lM)0 of acres, The annual expense of the survey U .£130,000. The wages of mechanics are so fluctuating and vari- ous, that a satisfactory statement of them can scarcely be produced. It may, however, be assumed that tliey are generally 20 or DO per cent, lower than in England. The rate of wages of the agricultural population was thus estimated in 1861 : Vr. eanu. Frsnca. 6 millions of men, at 1 60 per dlom l,<« meridian between the paralleli of Dunkirk and ¥nK 191 VRA 8fi| ' lli.'J'irtl ■ii.m\ ttmUmt, cM hM Immhi ftmnd to miitala 5,1110,740 Vrani'h IiiIm), m WJ.WM.mn Rnglliih (*«t. Thla num- lur iIIvIiImI liy in,(Nl(l,()liO kIvm n'Wmm Knullth fMt, dc lH)'n707l) Knullali Ini'hM vtry nairly, fur tha tru* Itnifth ift lb* Krvnch niiitn), In iintar In *ii|ifiiM tti« dmimiil firfiiHirtlnnn, tha toU IwwIiiK viM'iltuUry nf nitmiia liiw limm ii(l(itit«l i y»r niMUIullnrii llm vrvfl* I**''* tnp»ni 10 timti, » « llnmii " 1(10 " " » Kill. '• 1,mnr:r lo nlM«rv« ihtt lh« pre- Hxf» Air niiilllptylnii itrti ((nhiIi, niiiI Ihimc for illvldinff l(i|iimI tn HM)270A cul>ic Incliaa, nr la yvry nawrl)' il-AOtha or SS-lOOtha of an liniiurlitl Kiiltnn. I.aally, Ilia iftumm*. wltk'tl la tha walxht of a cutdo cantlmxtra of dUllllai) WHtaf at Ha tamparature of Kreiileat I'lindanMllnili I* tlin ctamantal unit of all w^||{hla, and la aqiiai tn lAMHSA ^nilna troy, or 18-!t»da of an aviilrilu|Mda drmn tiaitrlyi Tahi.jui iir I^NHai'H VVNiitHta Aan Ma*fvaaa, with Tuut \im IN TUN K,iiiil,l»n iMi'aaUL MAaDAans. i.jia iir VALua Mllllniutra lluntlMiutra liuulinatra MatHH p«iiani»tra jluiittiiiititra Klloniiilru MIrlainatra OaHtlara puvlara Ahh Danara Ilui'tara Ellllare MIrlara laaNAI. MNAallNN. m MItTlrtft = - iWa'iialK) ta-di. • iimtm \n-mm - m-mtn = ti-xomiie. KHaidiM = la-mt " - lilWM'iW r=« 8-14 mllea. Ht'H^INI'M'Uli MNAal'NN, Nil. Variiii Na< F"!*, Na. fnrh^i. I'IIMWWb I'i'tMS = IMO-OW ■ iiinmM ■ IIWHUM ■■ liuwiii'f i||ti«INt' - 'iMTIl4 r^ ««I14 - «41114 ^147114 Canllalora ll«c|>Ura Hturi) Papatera ftiM.in MNAal'aN, l>«M> IfflMUi I'tMi t'Ni. - IliilfftiA e - DliM'tilA = fl'MIM ^ DIlMT'llft ^ Hft'ltllttt =^ MliWTH'ft -HM'IM Ma^aiiNN t>» OAfAoltf, V»W ffi^tiiit, Acrfl. 1-40 n'rly. = 1-4 " = 9 l-i " = 84 7-10 " =»47 1-9 » Ciibln Tardf. - vnmn = IS'OSOI n«ntllltr* > <^\m«\^ Uuulltira - iVtWTiiA LriitN ^ DliMruA r, ll-AOgtlloiia nearly. llmuillira ^ HllHI'TlM ^ «« ■■ " MIrtalltra ^DIMIT'iM -* WainHfi UHAh* VfUft ^ i'ft4i«r - 1(I4^» iff •W978 01. av. I-MHB •< Tha fotlowtnK aia aoiua naarar appnitAiaUotu to the valuea (if the walghta and maoauraa of moat fre- quent occurrence : .Maraa * about 1 yard 8 lnol«r "..""'J I*"" " ' Dai'AHiraa " lljranit, > viv ItiioTiiMaTaa " 1-ltf mile. ,| KaiiMKiaa " ft-S or mora nrarly 19-99 mile. One of tha old niaaaurea fraquantly uaed, tha tolta, ia equal to 2 yarda fi tnchee. Aaaabeut l-4ilaer». DaciAai. 1-4 aera nr HaoTAaa. 11-1 arrca. llaniaraaa 8 1-1 cable fkat BTaaa I 9-8 oublo yarda. DiOAaraaa 18 MO " " I.iTaa about... 1-5 or 11-flO gallon. llacAMTar..... 1 1-ft galluna, HacToLiTaa... 99 8 11 ft-9 MVKIALITIK. llNAUIir Dai'AiiaAMMa.. llairriKiaAMiii. KlLiMUAMUR. I rood. , ;.* . . :) - .< .-, %: »i .m any nnmlier of frtincs subtract their fifth part, and the remainder will lie their value in shillings. Or mul- tiply the francs liy four, point off the two right hand flgures of the prom the droil cTmibaine, and were empowered to devise real and personal property, and their heirs were permitted to inherit without be- coming naturalized in France ; and corresponding privileges were secured to French M)l>Jects residing in this country. The doctrine that " free ships mutce free goods" was recognized, and the articles to be deemed contraband of war were enumerated. The re- maining stipulations refer exclusively to contingen cies of war, and need not be enumerated. On the 14tb of Kovemlwr, 1788, a convention was entered into and ratified, defining the powers and duties of the consuls of the liigh contracting parties. This convention vaf FRA 1U FRA InlMdtd Um mm* tAMtaaUjr lo tMata tk* (UlbM ntMarraaM ot IIm Inaly ■UpalalloM. TImm •imnictnMnU w*r* nlllUd wblk IIm I'oa* llnanUl I'anRraM bad no autborlljr lo n||ulal« tiit- elipi eommarca ; and Iba rallltsallon, tbarafura, only amouatad to a pladna thai tba Hiatal would runAirm lo It* proTUIuni, tbty havInK tha mU powar to \»yf Impoat* aid pott and lonnana dotlai. Tha arranKa> manti eontlnuad In furea, howavtr, and wara oliaarvad for laora than 90 /aara, and nntll annullad hy Iba ael of Iba 7th Jnljr, 17M, on tha gfonnd uf rapaalad viola- Hum of Iraaljr •tlpnlaUoaa bjr tba luecauWa ravaln- tiunary gorarnmanti of Kranca. Manjr of Iha Mian uf trada wara ramovad by thla Iraaly | and, allliuuKh ImportatloM and axportationt wara, for a tlina, aa- poaad lo tha dapndatlona of Britlih orulMra, tba an- tarprlM of our saaman opanad a commarea of no Inconaldarabia valua. It waa aitimalad tbal, durlntf tba tbraa yaan Immadlataly nracadlnff tha Vrani'li RaTolutlon, tha araraifa annual ralua of our axportt to Franca waa 01,fttO,SOO, and of our Importa fnini tbanca, $880,000 1 ibowInK an txe.tu of axporta of tha value of (1,140,000. Th« (inp<>rt> and axporti up to tha data of tha annulmant ut tba traaly of 177lt, wtN aa fbUowa i a,lTt.TM i,f)iA.ini t,IM,IM TTf,4M This •lalamant Indlcataa that, from 17D6, than waa a rapid decraaaa of Importa and axpnrta, and a da- rrcaaa of tha axoaaa of our axporta, attribulalila, no doubt, partly to tha fcablaoaaa of fadaral authority, but I'hiafly to tha convulaad condition of tha Kranoli na- tion, tha continuance of war In Europe, and tba 0OM«> quant dlangard of treaty obllgatlona. Pnvloua to -Iba annulmant of Iba eommarulal i imallle t4i her. traaly, Congni* paiiad an act " to luipand tba ooi mercUl Intereouraa between the United Slalaa ">< Fimnca, and tha dependenchM thereof," approviid .; uiia 18, 1798. It waa provoked by rapaalad groM , Iota- tioiu of tha traaly by the French govammaiil and it* citiaan*. The act provided that no vaaael ahould clear from the port* of tba United Htataa fur Franca ur it* dapandenoiea ; thai no Fnnoh vaaael ahould enter our porta without a paa«port from the Praakiant, unlai* In diatraaa ; that Frauah veaaela found In our porta, and nfUiing to depart, ahould be aalied and detained | aud that the Pnaldant might diaaolve the prublliltlon of Iha act whenever be became aatlaAad tbal tba Krenrh govemmanl and all under ita authority ware, In good faith, endeavoring to pravent her citlun* (Vom iBtermeddling with our oommarc*. Tliia act waa aanUatted in force until the end of tba anauing Maaion of Congnia, when it expired by II* own limit- ation. Two day* *ubee. rsra boatility. Ob tiie 9X> ' Ptpt«mUr, 1800, a convention wa* algnad Lr the p . n''ratlxri4« of tba United Stat** and Frao'.f:. '*2''' 'af ratlfed in dna tl>M, for tba a4Juwad for Iba ramoval of praperly In aaaa of war i tbal debt* ahould aot lie *«. qu*al«rad or I'lmllwiatail In oanaa<|uanca of war ) lh«( ruaaul* and otiwr aganl* *ho«ld lie appointed i thai t*in trader* of aaah might buy and tall of iJie eaemiea ol \.\ ^ other, aava In porta liliM:kail*d i tbal certain BpaclAad artlcUa only wara lo be aonaliUr*, providing fur tba payment by Franc* of dalita due our citiiena. The ennventlon of 1M)0 ragulatad our oommercla inlareouraa with Franca until the !i4tb day of June, lN!i'i. A few facta will abow how our trade with that natbin pnigraaaed during that important perln>t. II niual Ita Imm* In mind, that nearly all Kuropu waa conililned for thrae fourth* of that apace of time la waging war upon tba Franch empira and >t < alllee, and that, fbr a conaMarabla period, the whole of Fran** wa* daotarad by Uraal Hrltaln to be In a *tata of likN'kada. Il muat alao be raroeniberel- iwed by Ibe non-lntercour*e act, and ultimately bjr Ilia dN4iluratloii of war agalnat Oreat Britain. Thli annihilated iiur carrying trade. On the return of peace, we again enjoyed aome of It, hut to a much mora lltnlled extent than furmerly, Tba tablea of axfinrtf and Importa ftally iUoatrata tba ofieratlon of the cauaaa anumeratod. In 171)9 our Import* from Franca wara of the value of •901,018. Tha valua uf ex|iort» I* not known. The following table exbllilt* our exfKirt* to France from 1804 to lH!tO, We have no data on which to estimate tha im- l«rta for that lirtiod, The contra*! between $6,461,000 111 ItttO^od $91,638,000, In tha amount of ov domeai FRA r«t FRA En- mted for- idMi- ) u to i«T)i- ay by This im of much 1 \—n. DMMMb Yon. l>wn«IH I«ki IMItJit 48.ftM,Mt ftir ir.t*. -I . 1106 t,07».MI •.M.M l<*U »N.U .1 im l,«M,«H «,1»I,»M mift AiMMHt HOT > 1,71M4I IO.SIMT* itit T,IIM.«T« im TOi,*)T 1,IM,IM 1«IT T.IKIMW IN* M»aniuin|itlnn of out prinrlim . siitplM, fm l fn4—' 10,1)18 l,UH,lM «,'/W,lMA l.miA.WM (,M«,ftTT l,IIM,»< For lh« rtmainlnii two y»n of tha pariod of Iha nparitlim of tha convention nf IMUO, tha Importa wara, in Itn, of tha valua of #4,0NU,IM0 ; and tha axportt of il iviaitki prodiusa, $a,IM0,N;U. iil/out tha yaar 17U'i, cotton bacama • atapla prod- net of tha loutharn Htataii, Tha quantity axportad to France fhim 17U0 to IWM, waa lft,7V4,HOO pounda. Tha followinff tabla axhiblta tha export* of tha ataple to that eonntr}' for the yaar* enumerated : Ytiirf. r«nii4a, IMW-ta Nona direet lUI. IM. Mi,TM 1.9IIT,M» a.MI.MO ._ 4,8(H,B» IIM. ....... T,om,l1f) 1I0T....X... <,II4,IIM IMN, f,08T,4M) 1DII lo inly. •is,4i« I8I» io,iao.M« 1814, t,«6I.OW WiR. IM7«,I4« IHK l8,0t4,MT IMIS— I8S0... No.daU.* * Tha Impiirta of cotton Into France fhim all coantric* dartac tbU period wore: In IRIT, IS.VTo.HDH klloKramme* (eaehl'on pound!); In 1S18, 1II,VT4,I6»| In IHI». I7,ii|0,4iil. In 18'il the export* of cotton were -iUS,?!!:) |Miund* of u» talund, and 2A,943,27S pound* of upland, the Ttlua of the whole belnu $4,531,801, Tha fluctuation* in quantity duriuK thl* period are plainly traceable to Iha wan and confuaion in Europe, and to our U*t war with Great Dritain. From 1822 to 1834, the exporU of cotton to France wen a* follow* (the nguni are compiled from the United State*' Tnuury Iteport* on Commerce and Navigation) : YMri. PduiuI*, INS, »).«on,ooo ina M.ssi.8«o 18K 8t,(lt7,S(W IMS. M^SS'K) in*. 4H,w«,«(io inr. 4«,i8«,ooo leaa. 47,iu7,oou Tobacco became an important export of thia ,u>nn- try al the cloae of the laat century. The following talile exhibit* our exportation* of tlii* article to France during tha period we an now conaMerinK. The regu- lation* of the two <^untriea in re«pect to it will be elucidated In anothr r part of thia digaat. Yi>iir«. Pontda. 10M S«,6m,WM INAO 4«,i)fi«,noo iHsi 6<\ni,(ioo IWJ M),S41,(I00 \fM{. <8,4A1,MM 1N84. W,tn,400 IMO. IWl. im. 1800. 148 l«.91« »,8III U04 14.S28 IWB 19,li» 180« 9,181 Ymh. ISOT 1S08 Ho«kM4l. »,8T6 &S6 1811 sat 1«19 149 1SI8 189 1S15 1816 9,«4a 4,076 In 1800 nnd INIO then wn* no exportation. The laroe circuni»<«ncc occurrey the ploni|Hitentiarle* of the two powers on the 24th of .lune, 1822, and ralirted and declared in operation by the United .Stittea on the 12th Febnury, 1828. That convention proviil^j that aril, clea, the growth produce, or innuufiivture of the United State*, when exported tu France in veB««U of III* ITnltMl (Mala*, »kall pay an adilMonal duty, mI axrm^lln,^ 10 rninra ($11 7A) par ton uf menlmn" over amt a'n' •■ tlia duliaa paid on the lllir •■»IK>rted to Kranca in French vii»«»la | thai artli Im, till' iir^wlh, pmduea, or miiniifkiituni of Fr«K^, Im- ported into t^" I'niteil Htater in French raaaala, '•lult pay an additional ' nl.t not "xveediag $.i 7tV per ti'O uf nierchandiia, over and atMj ,~ tb« dutle* pakl on ' ika irtlclea im|Mirt«d in vmaela of tlin MJIeil Nlatoa ; thai no dl'crlmlnatliiK (Intiea ahall Iw leviwl upi'ii ill* pro- ductiiina of Kriiiii* of cotton : 1,000 |Miiind* avolr- dupol* of toliacco ; 2,240 pound* avolrtiupoi* of pot and p*arl-«th«*t 1,000 pound* avoinlupoi* of rice) and for all weighable article* not nixrlAed, 2,240 |x)und* avoinlupola | thnt the diitie* nf tonnage, light- money, pilotage, port-chargea, '^nikeraga', and hU other dulic* on foreign ahipping, i «r miil ivAiove tho*a paid bv the nationu ahipping In the two countrie*, other than thn«e above •pecitlml, til not exceed. In France, for veaeel* of tha I'nlted jte*, A fTunc* (04 cent*) per ton of the vea*el'* Ab>i- ii-an rcgiater, nor for ve**el* of France in the t'nitiwl ."^ >te« iM cent* per ton of the veatel'* Fnnch iiaaapctrt ; ' 'oit the conven- tion ahall nmain in force two yeara :^)m tlie lat of Octolier, 1822, and after that time unth the concluaion of a deflntte treaty, or until one of tl> partle* *haU have deoland it* intention to nnouncc t. wliich dec- laration ahall pncetle tha nnunciatiiui ix month*; and, Anally, that, in ca*e thi* copventliiii -liall not be dUcontinued by either party, the dutiea f "illiod, ex- cluaive of tonnage, light-money, pilotage, pi rt-charge*, etc., laid upon article* of the growth, pro-. »r miinu- factun of either country, aliall, at the ex|i ution of two yean, be raduced one fourth of the wiiol' nmount, and afterward by one fourth of aald amount, i "m year to year, *a long aa it i* not ranounced by eitli r party. luroan fxom, aim axiwBTa to, FiAttna, ar Tm U. 8. Ymr. Import!. I8'Z5 «IO,MV8a ISiO 8,Sill,B'iU ISiT I »,!>'i7,t»i I8.'8 0.310,964 I8W ' M38,9T9 1831 1,7^9,198 1831 14,I>0»,74» 18.19 1'>1TB,7IW 1888 1H,48t,8T8 1934 11,141,17.11 183.% li2,lMR,176 18T0 30,616,417 1837 gJ.i'SJ.OU 18:>8 1T,T7I,71I7 I8:l0 89,631,391 1840 lT,.'S-«,976 1H41 ! 23,03.1,819 l»4i I l«,n74,0B8 1813 ; 7,867,081) 1844 , 17,649,484 1815 91,606, 4'.>6 18411 1 93,'>11,a3i 184T 1841 1849 1853 1861 186] 1»58 18.'>4 1866 1856 18.t7 1868 24,900,941 28,1106,1131 24,333,713 97,63S'«6 8l,7l^^^^ 95,8 '0,266 33,4'«,"49 86,481,308 31,00ft,t»l 40,249,808 49,000,868 !>&, 530,643 Kiporti. 1 llontMlli ProduM. Pertl(n f'*v4ue: »T,526,9B6 $a,Bf.-'.4iiT 0,848,1190 1,T»(i,«5 0,lS7,ViS 8,83i;,M6 t,im8,8.17 8,37r, -13 8,904,046 9,864..'.IM) V,ti01,140 I,(W,--3 ^636,484 8,520,: S 0,04?,676 2,677,; - 10,800,683 2,1'86,0 1*,TI^764 2,793, 'i^. 18,037,014 1.7U,'J:, in,60S434 l,:i:iO,0i-.' 17,860,014 2,:i.ii),«f. • t^7l6,46t 1,200, 1(1-/ 16,066,108 •.',V64,S41 18,910,327 2,«22,»27 18,410,367 3,350,888 16,016,9^8 1,100,559 11,67l),879 6i^279 19,000,919 2,372,188 12,830,171 8,170,933 13,601,060 1,6.'8,025 18,609,631 816,087 16,874,886 4,444,4'i6 19,623,763 2,080,8 4 17,060,977 1,8^.1,070 95,809,086 2,050,0(11 22,190,070 1,S(K),575 28,190,800 l,46O,0IK 80,»0S,262 1,1T»,7J» 31,628,808 1, •.'64, 2.10 42,604,1168 712,621 .'!8,l7ii,2'i7 1,066,123 89,»96,'.>2I 1,267,572 The coDvenlion with France of July 4, 1631, only tlightly modificB the convention of 1822. The wine'i FRA 780 FRA 6t France, from the rattflcation of that conTention until the pasMge of the tariff act of 1846, were im- portee traced in the preceding and fol- lowing tables of imports and exports. The preceding tal)le is made up from the annual Treasury Keports on Commerce and Navigation of the United States. It will not prove unintcjfosting, however, to subjoin, for comparison, a similar state- ment put forth by the French government. YALUK or CO.MMEKCE BETWKEN THE ITnITIID STATKS AND FrANCR, roa TUK TkARS BPECiriKD J TAKElf rBOH TUI OmciAi. Reports I'lTiii.isnED iiv th« Fresch Mimistry or Cdmuerce. TiAmi. VArUI or IHnillTIt peoh thx vnitid VTATKH mm FKANCt. VALUE OP KxroKn ysoM rHANi-i INTO Tll« UHlTtD MTATU. TOTAL, 1 (Ifliiiinil coiiiini.n'D 8|i«cUil cuiiiaMna. (leiiiTftl c.iinuiflrre Sp.-- IrI fomni.'n-e, (IpiwrRi coninwrcc Sp«otiil fimmirin'tf. 1881 Kp«iif.. 5I,4«S,000 89,860,000 99.079,000 97,186,IK)0 89,48'2,000 110,T70,«)0 117,788,(HI0 182,796,000 99,206,000 175,829,000 167.071,000 176,067,000 174,028,000 142,600,000 172.000,000 158,700,000 187,60.1,000 71,888,000 127,100,000 182,176,000 116,8.8:),000 190.089,000 179,786,000 Vrnnei. 47,;i28,0fl0 64,927,000 78,8S«,000 76,,164,000 71,515,000 81,464,000 80.720,000 101,'24a,000 ai,s88,000 117,970,000 121,491,000 18,1.046,000 144,259,000 183,600,000 140,700,000 141,200,000 110,434,000 60,9S6,0(» 105,779,000 12'2,10.1,000 109,8.13,000 167,721,000 157,921,000 Vtttnat. 13«,-9a,(H)0 87,681,000 184,966,000 113,094,000 196,042,000 288,874,000 98,615,000 170,698,000 2M,691,000 186,120,000 183,662,000 8^),846,000 96,689,000 I6I,400,(KW 148,000,000 1,10,100,000 185,684,000 165,749,000 282,661»,000 285.941,000 242,626,000 263,040,000 328,992,000 KPKllCli. 110,180,000 58,.M9,fl00 107,984,000 78,186,000 145.2,11,000 158,788,1100 58,611,000 119,724,000 120,016,000 80,760,000 12l,2»l,00O 48,106,000 6,1,808,000 102,00O,IH)0 90,,100,000 10tf,400,(KW ll'A414,000 99,480,000 148,.164,000 198,511,000 14-1,584,000 154,618.000 209,196,000 KrBno.. 1S6,'2.16,000 176.991,000 •284,044,000 21O,'28O,000 28.1.624,000 849,6*1,000 216,858,000 80;t,494,000 808,797,000 811,949,000 840,633,000 258,408,000 271, '207,000 808.900,000 31.1.000,000 803,800,000 828,289,000 287,362,000 869,769,000 418,116,000 8.19,.109,IKI0 4.13,129,000 508,778,000 167,70.8,000 128,486,000 181,870,000 154,-00,000 216,7116,000 240,202,000 145,38I,(NI0 220,972,000 2n6,8'2n,000 198.780,000 442,725000 183.152,000 210,067,000 28.1,600,000 287,!iOO,0OO 241,600,060 22'2,84VI00 156,416,oiH) 254,848,000 3t.1,616,iHiO !!5»,487,000 822,834,IK)0 377,116,000 1982 1883 1884 1885 1836 188T 1883 1889 1840 1841 1S42 1818 IftU 1849 1846 ]84T 1S48 1849 1860 1851 1S82 1863 In these tal>leB it is not difficult to trace the efTects of the conlroversy relative to the re-charter of the Bank of the United States, the temporary expansion of the paper currency, the necessary contraction fol- lowing tlio re.storutidn of the constitutional currency, and tlie addition to the gold circulation of the world mode liy the mines of California, All these historical facts are of too recent occurrence to need comment in A work such as this. In like manner may be traced the effects of the French revolution of 1880, the 18 j'ears' policy of Louis I'liilippe, the convulsions of 1848, the temporary ascendancy of republican princi- ples, and the re-establivliinent of the empire. Causes like these, which affect commerce without a chimge of international obligations, would require mora space for their elucidation in detail, than can lie accorded to them in this digest. They are, however, alluded to for the pur|Hise of awakening suggestive trains uf rea- soning. From 1831 to 1841 the general commerce be- tween the two countries increased 154,i<77,IH)0 francs, or aliout 8il per cent. This augmentation falls espe- cially iipon the products of the United States imported into France, the amount of which has tripled in this period. In t"ic following yours the effect of the high tariff of 1842 will be perceived, especially on the value of ex|)ort3 from France into tlie United States, The article of cotton has, for a number of years, consti- tuted in value, upon an average, three quarters of all our domestic exports to Franco. The average annual value of our exports of home products to France from 1830 to 1833, WHS $9,000,000 ; and the exiwrts of cot- ton for the same period, $7,000,000, The following table exhibits the quantities of cotton ex|>orted to France for the years enumnral< I, viz. : The tables from which wo extract do not give the values of our cotton exports for the years stated uVove, but, as in some preceding years, we learn from other data, they have been equal to the value of three fourths of our exports of home products. It may be added, that, with the exception of 185-1, the above figures have been compiled from French custom-house returns. They are considerably below those given in the annual reports prepared by the United States' Treasury De- partment, and are not so reliable. The following table, compiled from these annual reports, will show the exports of cotton to France for six years, ending with June 80th, 1850, and the value ; as also the total value of domestic exports to France during the said years, respectively : YB»Pt. Poundi. Vulii.. 1 , ■'"''"'' '•''"' wur. j j„n„,,(|p export* 1850 r25JI<4,091 18.11 189,164.571 18,12 186,214,270 18.18 1 189,226,918 1854 ; 141,428,860 1S59 ' 210,113,809 114,895.449 18,124,512 15,488,586 19,248,076 14,632,712 19,0.15,428 »i:.9.-i.2;tr 25,8n'2,0S9 '.'3,190,070 25.120,806 80,908,252* 31,628,898 Ymrt. Peoadi, 1836 71,110,600 1836 80,009,600 1887 80,281,800 1888 96.816,000 1889. 76,68!).400 1840 106,878,200 1841 110,700,000 1848 116,180.400 1848 128,497,000 1844 119,845,«00 1847.'. 1848. Vrnn. Poimdf. 1846 124,610,400 1846 121,518,000 , 125,628.800 . ie7.417,40« 1849. 107.1.S-2,8O0 1860 109.479.8oa 1851 113,9ia,!i'24 18.12 167,429,900 1858 174,639,940 18M }4t,4S8,8(W * The export of cold and silver coin and bullion was unusually large this year, amounting to $6,609,000. Tobacco. — Our other chief cx|)ort to France is to- bacco. In that country, the trade in this article is monopolized by the government. Information on this subje"t is derived from a recent publication, from the pen of a gentleman who has analyzed and studied our I'.uropoan tobacco trade in the principal markets of the eastern continent. The e.xclusive right to pur- chase imported and indig,enous tobacco is invested in the regie, or coniinission — an association under the supervision of the Minister of Finance, This rvgia alone can authorize its manufacture, fix the prices at which it is to bo sold to retailors, and the prices ut which the latter shall sell for consumption. The cap- ital of the regie, consisting of houses, offices, nuichin- ery, and tobacco in store, is of the value of aljout $46,000,000. There is usually kept on band a supply of tobacco sufficient to meet the demand for three yean. This enables (he regie to puiiufaotuTa it morf ilinp; (itul said ulue I >,S06 J,S«8 I tod in the icea at ices ut le cap- aehin- ftlrout lupply tbrea tmotf FBA' 731 FBA perfectly, and to provide agalnat accidental failnres of the supply, No one can purciiase at wtiolesale of any one but }.lie regie) and no one can retail without a licenM, which compels the purchaser to sell at prices fixed by that commission. Of late years, however, the system has been so far relaxed as to allow an im- portation, for personal use, of a certain quantity by Individuals, upon the payment, by the importer, of duties equal to the profits reaped by the regie upon its sales. One fact is encouraging : while the consumption is constantly increasing, tlie culture remains in France at a st:ind. It remains at a stand, because it is also under the supervision of the regie, which prescribes the metliods of cultivation, and conflnes its pro. 24,818,800 ♦ United States' Treasury reports (dve tlie qnantttfes of tobacco oxportoil to France for the flseal years ondInK June 80, ls54 and 185.% respoctlveir, as follows: 1854, l,M62.i>iKi lbs. ; 185,5, 40,860,11011 lbs, besides 2,9ij5 esses, and 879 bales, Tlio excess of the latter year was probably for the army in tlio Crimea- The French flwal year ends with that of the calendar. No values are attached to these quantities, but they may be estimated by the aid of other data. The cost of American tobaccocs, on deliver}' at the factories of the re^ie, all expenses included, is given by a French legislative report as follows, on an average for several years : Maryland tobacco, 9.5 cents per lb. ; Virginia, 8.2 cents ; Kentucky, 7.7 cents ; Missouri, 7.6 cents. The f(dlowlng statement, also derived fi-om French authorities, shows the nett profits of the regie, which, after paying all expenses of purchase, transportation, manufacture, and sale of tobacco, it has paid over to the State treasury, annually, from the 1st of July, 1811 (commencement of the monopoly with the regie}, to the 1st of January, 1853: Yfart. Fnino. 1811 6,1100,000 1812 20.000,000 19i:i 29,85.'i.S42 1814. 82,000,000 1S15 88,128,808 1816 82,865.321 1817 89,182,994 1818 41,7«),801 1819.... 1820 1S21 1822 1S28 1824 Is25 1V26 1827., 41.413,893 42,219,604 42,279,004 41,950.997 , 41,534,489 . 4.y the introduction of numerous modifications. Even foreign goods actually prohibited are admitted to entrepot for re-exportation at the ports of Marseilles, Bayonne, Bordeaux, Nantes, Havre, and Dunkirk, on payment of specified duties ; and these goods may l>e transferred from one bonded ware- house to another. Goods not prohibited may he thus transferred by land, on the terms of the transfer, free of duties. Aries, Port Vend6e, and Strasbourg ure points where merchandise not prohibited is received in Imnd, and from which it can lie exported by sea only. There is also, at Lyons, a special d^put to which all the (mrts of bonding depots may transmit merchandise for consumption or exportation. By the terms of the convention of the 24th of June, Id'li, the time for levying dist^iminuting duties has long since expired. The only chart's upon com- merce, in articles of home produce, whicli can be made liy either country, are duties upon tonnage ; and they are specifically limited to ,^ francs (or 1)4 cents) per ton on the vessel's measurement, which is to be calculated according to the American vessel's register, and the French vessel's passport. This tonnage duty exceeds the amount levied liy France on every other country, and thus operates injuriously to American interests. Vessels of all other countries, except Great Britain, pay 77 cents. British vessels, going direct to Franco, ' pay 20 cents ; going in ballast from any otiier country, I nothing. Other trivial '>ort charges, such as light- S money, permits, certificates, etc., are tlmrged equally I to all nations. The inequality in tonnage duties, i alluded to, gives great advantages to some other na- : tions over both France and the United States. This i is the case as regards Austria, the llunseatic League, I and leverBl othsr countries, which, by the terms of { their treatiei with the United States, are permitted Iu carry on an indirect trade. The vessels of these na- tions, being subjected to a lower duty than ours in France, and a lower duty than French vessels in our ports, are thus enabled to carry merchandise to and from the United States cheaper than the vessels of either countrj' can do it. In this way they have mo- nopolized no inconsiderable portion of the carrying trade between the two countries. The reciprocity stipulated in the convention of 1822 extends only to articles of the growth, produce, or manufacture of the respective countries. To admit a cargo from the United States to the advantages secured by the treaty, it must be certified by the French consul at the port of clearance to be of the growth, produce, or manufacture of the United States. The American ship-mastw is subjected, in a French port, to many small charglk for the autlientication of certificates, etc., from which tho French master is ex- empt iif our ports. Most of these are, protwbly, sheer abuses, without authority of law. They practically operate as an increase of duties, not warranted by the provisions of the treaty. There is a stipulation in the convention of 1822, by which the products of the United States, carried in American vessels, after a certain period, are to become liable to no higher rate of duty than if imported in French vessels. This does not include tin, the products of the fisheries, or spermaceti, simply pressed. Copper and lead* are also excepted ; but, in point of fact, are admitted to the advantages of this provision, if it be shown that they are of American production, "The prospects of future commerce with France de- pend upon a variety of facts and contingencies. The facts, of a permanent character, which operate upon them, are the natural capabilities of the countries, the populations, and the sulMlivisions of their labor ; the contingencies chiefly arise from their relations to other countries and their legislation. The facts bearing upon the suliject, in the United States, are to be found in its histor>' and its census, and are familiar to all. Those respecting the French empire, may be briefly summed up in a suggestive rather than an elaborate form. France proper, to which alone reference is now had, lies between 42° 49' and 61° fi' north latitude, and embraces an area of 204,355 square miles, greatly variegated by mountains, streams, and plains. The soils and their proportions are as follows : Parta. Soil of Stone* 13 sand 10 Mountain country. 8 Lands, or plains. .. lUi Boll ufrlcli mold... 14 " chalk 18 " gravol I " clay 6 " marsh 0^ VarloassoUs 14 Making an aggregate of lOO One half the area of France is cultivable ; and of this, 9 parts are meadow ; 4^ parts vineyard ; 15 parts woods and forests ; 15 downs, pastures, and heaths ; all the remainder consisting of roads, cities, canals, vegetable gardens, etc. It presents every variety of geological formation, exhibited in almost every variety of known relations. All tho departments, 85 In num- l)cr, contain mineral substances. There are HG coal- fields in 30 departments. The most important" are those of the Loire, embracing an area of 42,0(10 acres, lying between the Loire and the Rhone, down which their proilucts reach markets. Next to these come those of Nord, Saone, Avignon, Gard, Cal/ado.i. The remainder are small. The annual prodi'co of oiml ex- ceeds 3,000,000 tons. France is surpassed by Kngland only In the production of Iron. There arc twelve iron mine* in nper.ition. Lead, silver, antimony, cop- per, and magnesia are found, but do not assume oom- mcrcini Im]iortnnce. Salt is made in several loeullties, and has become a considerable source of wealtli. 800,- * Circular letter of the Customs AdminlstraUon, Septom ber, 189T. FRA 199 FRA 000 penons ue angaggd in mininf^, and tlieir op«ntloni •bow an annual vsJue of $80,000,000. The population of France, in 1851, was 86,781,628. Tiie increase in tlie preceding 10 yetn waa nearly 3,000,000. A lilie increase would give in 1856 « popu- lation of fully 87,000,000. A little less than one half are males. Those of them who were old enough to vote under the late republican constitution were em- ployed as follows : Working clus, or paupers (,686,000 HaDuftcturing, commercial, and agricul- tural capitalists MT.OOO Learned profesalons, and Independent In- comes.. ■ 416,000 Paid olBclals army, navy, and pensions .... 879,iKM) About the siime distribution of employments yet prevails. Schools are provided for only about one six- teenth of the children. The revenues of France are direct and indirect. The average aggregate annual revenue, from all sources, is about ^00,000,000. The national debt is over $1,100,000,000. The number of acres under vine cultivation excoeds 6,000,000, giving employment, in the cultivation of the vine and the manufacture of wine, to nhaut 2,000,000 of persons (mostly females), and in its transportation and sale, to 250,000. The average home value de- pends, as does all other produce, on the supply and demand; rarely, however, exceeding 20 cents, or full- ing below 10 cents per gallon. The vine disease, now more or less prevailing in all wine-producing coun- tries, has increased the average price of wine from 100 to 175 per cent. The following statements, showing the produce of wine in France, and the exports in 1846 and 1840, were furnished to the Economist from which we have talien them, by the authorities in Bordeaux. Account of tri PaonuoK or Wi.vi iif Fb^nck in kaoh Dkpartmknt, in tiik Obdkb or thkib lHro"''ANai. DaparlnwDta. Hectolitre*. bptom Depi Herault 2,616,000 Charente Inrertenro 2,894,000 Olrondc . 2,030,000 Var 1,«.%,000 Charente 1,162,000 Oers 1,128,000 Card 1,132,000 Aude 1,011,000 Meurtbe 912,000 Tonne 856,000 Lolret 800,000 Dordogne 770,000 Rhone 740,000 Baone and Loire .. . t44,lHW Lot et Garonne.... 637,iK)0 Indro et Loire 628.000 Bouches du Bhone 626,0il0 Hante Garonne 604,U0U Aube 692,i)( Loire Infcrleure... B«S,0«0 Cotod'Or 6!t«,ii00 Loire and Cher 627,000, Puy de Dome 680,000 HnutoMarnc B(i8,000 Maine and Loire. . . M(i,000 guino anil Olse &II4,II00 golne ct Maroe .... 616,000 Bsslihln B-IO.onO Lot 446,000 Meuse 469,IK)0 Vlenne 459,000 Bosses Pj-rcnees. . . 825,000 Land'cs 886,000 Msrnc 881,000 Uauto Hnone 848,000 Drome 806,000 PvrcneesOrlcnUles 801,000 Aln 888,000 I i Total product(pne.86,783,000 The following table gives a clear exhibit of the ex- ports of wine from France, and shows what countries are the principal consumers of French wine. These statistics exhibit some curious facts, and opposite to the belief of most pe.'aons. Algeria imports from France over ten times ns much wine as England, and, what is more curious, wine of a higher price. The United States imports from France not qui' ■> three times as much as England, but in value more than four times as great. Departmenu, lleelAlttrca. ATeyron 868,000 Jura....M 857,000 Vendee "819,000 Tarn and Garonne 807,000 Tarn 844,000 Ilaut Kliln 874,1100 Deux Sevres 270,000 Correze.. 268,000 Haotes Pyrenees. 268,000 Indre 218,000 here 242,000 Loire 228,000 Ardechc 282,000 Vauelaso 2-38,000 Vosgcs 212,000 Cher 860,000 Alsne 928,000 Moselle 974,000 Arrlcgo 166,000 Alller 105,000 Uoubs.' 174,000 NIevre 170,000 Basses Alpcs 1 14,000 Seine 107,000 Eurc and Loire . . . 106,000 Snrthe 89,000 Hnutes Alpes 86,0ln« lalands 147,100 Cbina,Carhlu>Cklna, and Paolflii Islands .... Ilaytl 818,600 UnltrdHtates d,889,600 Iirltl>h PosseMlons In America. 100,800 BpanUh PosMwIiias In America 618,700 uanlth PosseMlonI In America. 894,100 Broill 8,061,100 Moxloo 804,600 natemala , Vbiiezuiila , 118,400 New Granada 26,600 Peru and Uullvia 809,400 Chill 1,470,800 Rio de la Plat* 8666,600 Uruguay 1,018,600 Texas and Kquodur,.,, 96,ino Guodaloupo 1,676,800 Martinique 8,864,800 Bourbon 8,016,600 Senegal 1,181,700 Cayenne , 689,400 French Newfijundland Fishery. 678,60 Total I47,188,106~ .1144. ISM. UlrtB.' 8,669.900 616,600 171,700 1,118,700 14,697,400 4,6M,000 887,800 8,776,700 6,168,900 8,688,000 isii^mo 187,400 6,499,200 119,099 167,000 148,100 16,180,600 16V,700 168,800 47,600 6,188,600 iso'.iio 116,700 183,800 9,100 481,900 10,898,000 107,800 886,000 192,400 1,478,800 818,400 9,600 118,800 57,000 207,100 1,428,900 85M00 667,900 1,888,000 1,408,700 8,478,800 1,107,800 864,900 868,500 186,648,189 In 1840 therii waro produced In France, in round numbers, 926,000,000 gallons of wine. This was an increase over the ((iinntlty produced In 1839 of 115,- 000,000 gallons i lint tliero were hnlf a million of acres more under cultivation. The ((uontity annually ex- ported avaragos about 46,000,000 guttons. Onllonii. In 1^9 there were osported 41,iioo,no0 1S5(I " » 41,000,000 1861 •• " 49,600,000 1851 " " 68,200,000 1858 « » 48,500,000 The quantity ex|Kirt«(l In 1854 has not been ascer- tained. About iK),0IKI,U0O gallons are annually dis- tilled Into brandy, the «x|xirtatlon of which is under 8|)eclal govuminmit restrictions. 139,000,000 gallons of wine, in its various forms, nro annually exported to foreign countries. Th« government derives a consid- erable portion of Its internal revenue from the manu- facture of wine, 1'lifl excise duty In \Ha\\ amounted to upward of (122,000, Hesldes the 00,000,000 gallons converted into brandy. It Is estimated that 220,000,000 gallons are inanufai'tured Into other kinds of spirits. If this estimate lie vorrnct, there will be left for home consumption nvi>r 700,01)0,000 gallons, or about 21 gal- lons fur each liilmliltiint. The dlMusn of tli« vine, during the past few years, lus been very destructive in France, Hpain, Madeira, and other old winn-pruduving countries. Should the disease unfortunately continue In those countries which liave hitherto supplied the markets of the world rtiA ni FBX with thU bey«n^, the day may not be distant when the United States shall become the exporter instead of the importer of wine. The vine enlture bos already attracted attention in the western and southern States. The following table will exhibit the annual value of each of the chief products of France, all which enter into or influence its commerce : Wheat bushels Rye and mixed oom. " Buckwheat •• Barley » Poss and Beans ** Potatoes, " Oata " Indian corn ■* Wlno gallons Hemp Haw silk. Flax. Modilar _ Kael and tlmoer. Olive-oil, rape-seed, etc Tobacco Chestnuts QMnUty. lBll,«K),nOO 8S,0U0,0II0 2a,(KXI,(M0 88,000,000 8,tT»,IHI0 B«,000,0(IO 90,000,000 14,000,000 80(\000,000 Valm. |180,000,0()0 TO,00O,0flO 18,000,000 80,(H)o,oan T,B00,0fl0 11,000,000 04,000,000 9,000,000 100,000,000 8,000,000 8,000,000 4,000,000 1,000,000 18,000,000 18,000,000 1,800,000 1,000,000 Aggregate ann'lral. of products) I 081,600,000 The wild animals are not numerous enough to have any material influence upon trade. It is not so with those domesticated. The annual value of the wool grown from sheep is about $18,000,000. This branch of industry is very inadequntelj- attendeil supersedes butter. The horse Is not as well managed as in England, nor are there as many horses. Hogs are abundttnt, and so are domes- tic fowls. The latter are well attended to. Landed property is more minutely divided in France than anywhere else in Europe, or oven than in the United States. In a few departments may he found estates of 200 acres ; but they are rare, and daily be- coming more so, as the law divides the realty equally among the children. The greater portion of the farms are now less than 30 acres. Improvements in the methods of cultivation progress languidly, and the methods of manuring and rotation of crops, and of em- ploying machinery, continue to !» verj' defective. Commerce and manufactures may l>e justly said to have commenced with Charlemagne, They were re- pre.tsed daring the feudal ages, when tlie barons en- slaved the artisans and peasants. They were revived by the return of the crusaders, ivho brought a taste for the luxuries of the East. Ix)uis XIV. well understood their importance. The death of CollMrt and the revo- cation of the Edict of Nantes again paralyzed them, and the industry of France became subjected to mono|>- olics. They continued enslaved, in a groat measure, until the Revolution of 1789 unfettered them. Since that period, legislation has favored them by keeping them free, and giving full scope to individual enter- prise and genius. They have only Iwen retarded or disturbed by the intervention of wars. Their progress has, of late years, been wonderfully accelerated by the progress of science and its application to machinery and the useful and omamnntal arts. Of scientific stimulants, the most important has been the applica- tion of steam-power. To science are also attributable mctallurg)- ; tlie process of dyeing ; the various prep- arations of animal sni'.stances ; the weaving of cloths, cashmeres, and damasks; the making of pa|ier, watches, and clocks, and of fine and common pottery ; the manufactures of silks and tissues ; ami numberless other useful and tasteful arts, which h^tve spread wide the wings of commerce. The overage annual value of the exports of France, from 1825 to 1833, was about $iH4,lG8,lG0, and of its Imports t79,;8&,042. The official statement of the Imports and exports, for the yean 1844 to 1868, estW mated in francs, were as follows : Ttira. Importo. Kiporti. 1 FraMb retMU. ¥on\$n yttaaU, Krvncb vsMeli. Koralftn vt)iiA«U. Frsoei, Fruio. Krw». FnliH't, 1844 878,900,000 454,100,000 888,000,000 440,6liO,(K)0 1840 889,600,000 474,00(1,000 408,6(10,000 464,7(K),(HI0 l»t6 4^600,000 46s,6U0,0(H) 4Oi),6(MI,0()O 460,li>0,(MH) IMT 448,000,000 ft'>fl,IH)0,(SK) 43.S,1 100,000 681,I»HI,(KH) 1848 898,000,0(10 2.M,(MHI,0(tO aKO,i(si,nflo 476,liK),(KKI 1M9 401,000,000 840,»m,(l(N) 640,000,000 6(J2 0,628 70U,S06 The following table, made up from matcri.ils con- tained in " Annales du Commerce JSxti'rieur," brings down this statement of the amount and character of the foreign navigation statistics of France to the year 1863, the entrances and clearances being given in aggregate : NAViaATioK Tablk continued to 1868— ma Entbancxs AND Cl.EAKANCKS UNITED. 1847. 1S4.S, 1849. ]4Vt. 1851. 1858. f BINCn TIMKLa. VORBION TBMXLn. ToniMif , T,(sr7,(Mio 1,049,00(1 1,142,(KH) 1,102,IH)() 1,2(12,000 1.19I),0(K) 1,889,000 Wi.. 20,794 18,820 14,769 10,s!)2 19.247 10,808 20,425 Ton'Mirfl. ""CtllS^KPO" 1.62(i,()(IO ],721,(KIII 2,ll(),(»0 2,8S9,(I00 2,.'i4«,00fl 2,748,(H)0 In 1850 the arrivals and departures were thus dis- tributed : Vhhi*!*. T>i;m. Entered 25,74.'! 4,075,000 Cleared 14,475 2,821,000 Total 40,220 6,890,000 The great disparity between arrivals and departures is explained by the fact that the larger portion of imports consists of bulk}- and cumbrous mercliandise, destined for our workshops and manufactures, wliiia vessels leaving French (xirts are usually freigbtod with manufactured pnxlucts, the value of which c<)n!(ists in their skillful workmanship sather tlian in their specitic weiglit or ttj space wliiili they occupy. This year (1850), esimcially, the importation of cereals wu.s neces- sarily heavy. A comparison of the different flags engaged in this general movement forces us to repeat the rcniark wliich we are constrained to make whenever we examine tlUs subject — namely, that tlie French dag is invariably behind that of otiier nations in her own coiiunerce. How stands our flag in 1850 ? Vetwlf. Ton.. French Fla(j 16,a>i) 2,621.000 Foreign Flags 2.V.'8 8,s7.ViOO Total 4(1,219 0,a!Mi,(KW These figures are e naturalized, and to tuke the French flag with nil its privileges, on the payment of 10 per cent, on their assessed value. This will create a new market, and an active de- mand for American vessels of 500 to 900 tons, and especially for steamers of 1000 to 1200 tons. A decree has also l>een promulgated admitting lumber, timber, naval stores, etc., free of duty for three years. Another extends to December 31, 1856, the decree of October 0, 185-1, exempting from tonnage duties all vessels wlioUj- laden with breadstuff*, flour, rice, etc. ; and if only partially laden therewith, an exemption of tonnage dutie.i proportionate to the quantities of such cargoes. A decree has also been published, reviving an old decree of 1816, exempting from tonnage duties all vessels entering French ports for the purpose of exporting salt, on which article the, export duty has been suppressed. Karly in 1S55 important movemuuts were made in France, indicating an evident disposition in favor of the introductbm arid more general consumption of Amer- ican salted provisions. From 1S52 to 1854 the price of salt meats ad\ anccd nt the extraordinary rate of 10 to 45 |)er cent, 'riiis state of the provision market imme- diately nrresttd the attention of the government, and various projects were adopted with a view, not onlv to prevent a further increase in prices, but also to reduce the rates already raised to so exorbitimt a figure. The import duty on foreign cattle was lowered, viz. : from $10 23 to 74 cents per head, on beef j and every means was resorted to llk«ly to encourage the use of salted beef among the general mass of the French i)eople. To this end, the duty on salted meats has been siicces- aively reduced from $5 58 to ^:i 72, and again to fl 86 ; and in the month of September, 185.'), it was further lowered to OJ cents per 100 kilogrammes (220 pounds). The effect of this reduction of duty has •PartU. been to open the markets of France to American salted provisions ; and the importation has increased, since that period, to such an extent as to render it not at all improbable that this article will, henceforth. Income a leading staple of export from the United States to France. England is now almost exclusively supplied with salted meats by the United States and Ireland — the latter country' exporting about an eqnal quantity with the former. The supply from the United States could be made always to equal the demand ; and if France should open her porta to American salted provisions, the consumption in that country would be almost ex- clusively supplied from the United States. The fol- lowing brief summary' of the trade in salted provisions in France during the past 20 years will exhibit the development which this article of American produce has made in that country. In 18.14, the importation into France of salted meats reached only 8627 quintaux, equal to abotit 777,844*68 pounds. After a lapse of 21 years— that is to say, in January, 1856, ond during that single month — the im- portation reached as high as 3720 quintaux, exceeding the importation of the whole year of 1H52 by 203 quintaux, or 44,709 pounds. Prime pork is imported into France in barrels of 381J pounds gross, in brine of gray salt, and is usually sold at from §14 80 to $15 81 the barrel. For the English market such pork is exported from the Unitud States in tierces of 804, 320, and ."536 |M)unds, and in barrels of 200 pounds. American mess pork is too fat for the French mar- ket, and seldom finds a purchaser ; American sugar- cured hams, however, always find a ready market and a brisk competition among purchasers. Shoulders, well cured, and put up in iMgsheads of 994 pounds, are equally in demand, and bring from $18 60 to $19 63 per 220 lbs. A similar feeling is manifested in France in behalf of her colonies. By decree of 10th March, 1855, the duty on salted meats has been rediiced as follows : into Martinique, Guadaloupe, Guiana, and Reunion, salted meats of whatever origin, or under whatever flag, pay OJ cents per 220 pounds. This measure has attracted the attention of pork merchants of the United States, and already heavy freights of this article have been forwarded to those islands, Vorious other modifications have been decreed, but as they relate mostl'; tn the tariff regulations, they are merely alluded to here for the purpose of noting the tendency to u more liberal commercial policj-, which has, of late years been, observable in French legisla- tion. Recent custom-house returns, published in France, show that the revenue to the State during the first six months of 1865, upon 18 different articles, the duties on which have been lowered, was ill, 181, 574 francs, against 18,258,808 francs, derived from the same dcs(!ription of merchandise during tlie correspond- ing six months of 1854. .Such figures supply the best argument in favor of '"•ce tradir, especially in a countrj" in which a prolilb- itive and protective system has so long iirevailed. The annexed table will also illustrate the wise policy by which, it would np|)ear; that the commercial legis- lation of France is henceforth to be shaped. According to the Jimrnal dea Kconomislex, during the first six montlis of the year 1850, the commercial transactions of France exhibit a satisfactory conditiim ; although the receipts for customs, compared with those for the corresponding six months of last year, show a decided falling off, amounting, for tlie entire period, to 4,304,8,'!0 francs. This indicated a decrease in importations, which is to be regretted, but which, all things being considered, should cause no disqui- etude. The movements in 1858 exhibited, in point of fact, results altogether exceptional : tliiis the first six months, compared with the corresponding period in 1864, showed an increase in import duties of 21,000,000 francs, of which 6,000,000 were for June alone. FBA 736 FRA irATiainoH BiTWUH FiAiiaa akd Fouiaic CotnmuB— ISOd, 18S4, AMD 1868, OOMPABBab ream o* ruco. CNTHY or VCUUil INTO FRANCI. DIPARTUiUC or VmiLS moH niAMOl, 1 mac*. roRIMH, ATAL. rKMCM. rOKIIOM. TOTAL. No. of Toaaaf*. X".V»-n. No. of 1 -.--,-. No. of •bipa. ToiUMft. No. of •hi pi. TonMt«. No. of Tooufo. In the lint 10 mouthi of 1865; Murulllet 1,914 616 858 786 890 885 9 4111 809 3,185 409M4 187,889 99,058 87,688 88,688 86,880 1,107 4^4I6 88,081 169,670 3,441 1,889 468 178 688 710 tt» 871 818 8,486 481,268 888,838 10)1,876 97,061 61,178 67,878 158,807 114,704 81,351 867,957 4,600 2,000 1,815 959 978 ''^ 1,281 626 8,6»rt 840,836 531,117 808,989 114,749 89,807 108,988 158,914 160,149 1,537 811 891 167 188 126 4 403 860,998 79,358 78,437 48,787 17,771 12,835 494 46,414 20.730 1,889 624 166 44 168 287 711 688 246 8,898 316,300 316,863 87,688 6,686 18,7ia 37,770 118,878 78,889 36,879 141,U1 8,006 985 557 308 810 418 716 1,086 482 8,908 t9T,.>» 396,l(Hi 111,1168 49,428 8I,4S8 89,1198 118,S7! 120,2.'i» 47,899 2V7,2.Vi Harra BordeAUX Itotien Dunkirk Boulogne Cdala Cette 64,283 2116 Other ports SilJMl, 1.606 1 t8,ve83 ' 1 ' Totd 10 months of 1886 For 1884 •• 1858 8,099 8,885 7,689 1,047,869 993,837 880,898 11,884 1,T20,S99 9,IM8 1,878,389 9,674 1,885,858 19,479 2,7ns,28S 17,828 2,878,626 17,318 3.368.048 4,S»0 ! 780,711 4,918 681,189 6,840 6(I0.(U9 6,701 6,895 7,67S 888,608 911,818 908,001 11,690 11.818 18,626 1,694,337 1,898,0113 1,892,080 ■ The preceding ntatenient exhibit* the navigation between France and foreign nations in 1855, aa com- pared with 1854 and 1853. The following sUtement Tablb or ExroaTATioNB oi' tuk raiitoiPAL Abtiolbs op Meroiiandisb pkom FaAnoa, in 1856 and 1854, coHPAaKP. exhlbita the exports of principal manufactured staples in 1855 compared with 1854 : by which it may be seen that there has been an increase in the 10 months of 1863: ArtklM. Drinks: Wine, ordlnsiy ** de liqueur Brandy, pure alcohol Spirits of wine, pure alcohol Machines A meehsnical apparatut Mode^ mllllnory, etc Porcelain, line and common. . . Soap (perfumed tsotpUd) 811k: Raw Dyed FloH of all sorts. gggar, refined Fr«n,>h Mid for- Frrnoli and for- otgn darliiir tha tlgn during the first 10 moollu flril 10 monlhi oflS6(. ofl8t4. Oalloni. 18,386,000 485,000 3,108,000 144,100 Pound*. I,8!6,8.')«),000 1,962,000,000 7,800,000 18,000,000 1,808,660 90,180 MI.OOO 65.57R000 0«ll«i>. 27,386,500 844,100 8,043,930 158,000 PouBdi. 1,691,000,000 1,243,800,000 9,550,000 10,799,000 1,819,860 84,450 866,000 46,868,000 Freneh and for' elfpi durlnir the flnt lOniontha of IStl. jCotton tissues: ITnbleached and white. . , . Painted and dyed Tulle Others. Flax and hemp tissues: LInon Cambric anil lawn Others Woolen tissues: Cloths, caaslmeres, Jc merinos Others Silk tissues iOloss and Crystal Franeh and for- ■lini during tin- Snt 10 montlii of IBM. Ponndt. 9,898,800 6,909,900 128,040 4,776,900 4,837,700 106,180 204,400 ^700,83a 6,676,600 6,873,880 48,117,800 Poand*. 7,062,000 6,644,600 186,840 4,685,600 3,920,800 96,840 178,860 4,991,700 6,280,900 6,13^340 41,843,000 In addition to the numerous tables already given, I general direct trade between the United States luid the following statement is submitted, exhibiting the | Franco during a period of 11 successive }-ears. OoMPAaATiva Statebent or rna Commkkcx or tiik ITwrrED Status with France, exiiiuitino the Value or Kx- roXTS TO AND IVPORTS rEOH EACH CuCHTXT, AND THE TuNNAOE OP AbEKICAN ANO FoEEION VESSELS ARRIVINU ri'OM AND DEPARTING TO EACH COUNTEY, DURING THE YEARS DESIGNATED, "BtSfflHSECljr Douiaille prodn«f. VALDB or BXPOKT*. foralgn prod nee. 1845. 1846. 1847. 1848. 1849. 1880. 1881., 1882., 1S6S.. 18.M.. 1886.. 118,880,171 18,601,680 18,698,881 15,S74,8« 18,088,7.W 17,960,877 S6,802,0i!>6 23,190,070 35,130,806 80,968,363 81,638,898 «X, 1 71^388 1,589,928 805,087 4,444,425 8,986,884 1,883,070 8,960,061 1,900,575 1,4.80,978 1,179,729 1,284,280 Tout. • 1^80O,4O4 16,180,.875 19,097,618 19,819.810 16,810,.888 19,838,847 2S,2,52,146 28,990,648 26,571,784 82,147,981 82,878,138 TALUS or IMPOaT*. 121,89,8,428 28,911,882 24,900,941 28,096,081 84,868,783 27,889,028 81,718,683 2.%990,266 83,488,942 ai,79I,893 81,609,181 KAVTi iATTeiiS '. AMaaiCAN ToMNAua. J roBaioN BntanaH the TTnll«^d Statei, 126,417 118,884 189,672 186,826 102,017 114,967 142,943 198,242 189,916 288,149 199,696 Cleand from the U. gtalei. 141,083 181,679 160,667 182,816 127,989 129,747 163,707 214,703 201,191 280,062 206,823 Enterctl the United Htale*. 14,104 18,714 29,.'V)8 24,8.37 8:1,917 42,9.82 41,184 46,769 87,966 81,888 28,765 Cleared from the U. Statta. 10,690 13,116 28,107 27,887 80,898 26,893 88,160 17,603 14,983 19,091 16,068 This important liranch of French commerce com- prises ail the foreign merchandise transported over the French territories to other countries. It^ vast increase may l>e perceived from the following statement for three 3°ears : V— . i MetrfcBl qnlBtali. »'•"• I (»»0-4lJ lb..) Keal Value, Franet. (18-6 cent, rerh.) 1858. 1854. 1856. 782,635 760,484 863,000,000 877,000,000 898,000,000 Statement showing the amount of precious metals, gold and silver (ingots and specie), imported and ex- ported to and from France, during a period of 26 years, from 1830 to 1855 : Imported. The countries which supported this transit trade in 1855, were : Wlienco. 'Swltserland. . IBelclum lEnxland iSolTrereln.. . . United SUtos Batdiola... I Whither. Franoa. 148,000,000 108,000,000 60,000,000 A000,000 16,000,000 6,000,000 I.IJnitcd States.! 184,000.000 llEnnland....-..; 99,000,000 :,8ni:z.'rlnnd. . . 74.000,000 'Bni7.ll 1 11,000,000 'llclidnm I 11,000,000 Sardinia. 11,000,000 iZollvereln .... 10,000,000 Spain, etc I 8,000,000 (loid. surer. Total. Knuirt. 1,870,000,000 Franc. 4,014,000,000 Franca. ^914,000,000 Kxpobted. Gold. SIIrcT. 1 Total. Franc 867,000,000 Krftnu. 2,289,000,000 Franca. 8,088,000,000 See article France, Kncy. Jirit., 1857; Hint's Aferch. Mag., viii., 181, xiii., 26, xvi., 476, 547, xviU., 497, xxii., 269, xxiv., 284, v., 105, vii., 801 ; Am. Ann. Reg., v., vii., viii. (by JoiiM Q. Adams and W. C.K1VB8); /'or. Quae, Ui., 369; i>em. Aer., xxu., 646. FRA m FRA OoMiiiHoa or tub TTnitid Btatbi wrm Franoi on thi MiDTmiAKiAir, raoM Ootobib 1, 1830, K JrLT 1, 18M. y>«>«idiiw Eiporli. Importt. Whareof Uian wu In Bullion •ndBpnla. Totnng« CI««nd. DomeBtle. FoMlin. ToUU Tol«l. Eiport*]. Imported. AnMrirwi. Fnrvlgn. Boot 80, 1831 169,856 188,191 110,861 (80,706 (496,028 .... (247,884 814 598 18M 70,887 268,538 400,993 14,844 888 868 1M» 838,881 1,171,898 l,49^769 601,457 (988 4^760 102,244 10,247 881 ISM 385,810 750,481 1,016,246 460,464 47,878 S-**! .... 182S 187,343 726,499 918,741 812,511 20,000 17.065 9,488 .... 1924 278,078 488,677 757,859 892,163 1,600 86,038 10,960 .... 182T 475,847 781,076 1,366,638 848,874 1,600 60,179 13,064 889 ms aOB,*.*) 979,407 886,045 904,426 ^362 2,484 10,498 .... 18a» (8«,133 748,777 1,684,399 890,067 8,880 1,482 18,848 1880 Total.... 717,263 480,888 1,143,140 891,188 6,000 14,517 18,907 1,074 18,989,198 15,468,841 (9,448,089 (6,783,686 (45,128 (542,366 100,698 8,348 Septan, 1881 1071,867 1800,926 (973,798 (1,188,766 (14,411 (6,188 }5-f2 I'VJ 1888 914,091 1,140,876 2,084,467 1,248,775 12,000 14,888 16,486 8,688 1888 1,086,898 768,826 l,8ai,724 1,080,063 800 18,414 14,076 8,922 1884 1,083,898 1,862,889 2,88,1,287 1,827,400 4,684 17,946 8,775 1885 i,(m,»i» 664,193 2,678,021 1,468,993 74,000 »;283 18,200 3,811 i8sa 1,951,743 725,991 2,677,788 1,967,184 1,M1 18,614 4,678 188T 1,198,847 649,650 l,84^897 1,562,113 28,988 1,684 10,838 6,114 1888 1,488,766 288,185 1,716,900 948,695 0,820 75,229 17,846 2,391 1889 1,048,260 176,186 1,222,446 1,612,871 .... 6,506 9,256 8,681 1840 Total.... 1,178,888 224,202 1,408,088 879,587 .... 178,283 10,806 (12,486,080 (6,176,278 (18,642,808 (18,279,833 (140,710 (297,248 143,013 81,454 Bopt.80, 1841 |1,.M2,460 (140,024 (1,6.12,484 (1,221,580 (1,800 (18,144 18,927 2,875 1842 1,674,570 78,863 1,748,4.'» 958,678 8,021 21,944 2,147 9 mo». 1848 1,186,294 88,701 1,269,995 609,149 18,488 13,107 418 June 80, 1844 1,204,798 ai,104 1,289,897 1,608,818 7,478 11,641 17,808 456 1848 979,789 197,980 1,177,719 1,414,175 1,178 2,400 19,217 660 1840 898,678 191,448 1,090,126 1,802,748 14,000 2,688 14,950 740 1847 1,172,146 66,011 1,229,187 1,001,766 18,078 4,611 1848 1,2I5,(>S7 166,266 1,881,858 1,086,817 78,202 8,882 16,434 928 1840 877,147 168,521 1,046,608 1,183,905 18,858 8,227 1850 Total.... ],01,\486 ]58,1,M 1,178,641 1,702,368 2,698 14,183 8,676 (11,786,400 (1,821,108 (18,057,503 (12,004,438 (99,955 (52,497 166,846 24,488 June 80, 18.11 «785,018 (185.898 (870,411 (1,926,429 (3,921 16,614 10,627 1853 1,896,193 79,184 1,476,824 1,694,862 26,793 6,617 1888 8.12,514 70,881 922,845 2,604,898 1,074 .... 16,234 6,761 1864 1.21S,786 201,374 1,420,160 2,889,872 • >■• .... 17,728 8,166 18BS H,H37,804 164,084 8,491,688 2,599,788 .... .... 26,880 4,189 1868 8,006,482 185,164 8,231.596 8,518,664 .... 88,152 8,469 OOHHKBCE or THB UNITED STAT1!8 WITH FbANOB ON THK AtLAMTIO, rROM OCTOBBB 1, 1820, TO JOLT 1, 188& K),000 10,000 ., HtNT'8 I47, xvW., IsOl; Am. Is and W. Ixxii., &46. Y«an .Ddlng HeptlW, 1821.... 1822.... 1928.... 1824.... 1828.... 1926.... 1837 1828.... 1829.... 1330.... Total BeptSO, 1881.... 1882.... 1888.... 1884.... 1885.... 1386.... 1887.... 1889.... 1889.... 1340.... Total BeptSO, 1841.... 1842 9 mos. 1848.... June 80, 1944.... 1346.... 1816.... 1947.... 1849.... 1849.... 1880.... Total June 80, 1851 1853.... 1863.... 1854.... 1888.... 1866.... Kiportf. D»mettl(. (5,099,848 4,561,299 4,677,914 7,595,815 7,838,693 9,075,2.14 8,712,011 7,091,699 8,008,928 9,183,894 (71,884,845 (4,963,557 9,028,498 9,769,685 11,693.364 16,018,185 17,6,14,692 16,181,667 18,089,649 14,919,949 17,788,743 (181,012,767 (16,897,907 15,840.729 10.884,579 11,861,419 11,850,482 12,702,072 17,420,895 14,1,19,799 11,046,612 16,9»4,T9I Foreign. (.349,010 1,210,588 2,627,656 1,095,612 2,625.968 1,816,178 2,5.15.969 8,095.926 2,10,1,578 661,925 (17,544,150 (8,929,462 1.586,771 2,196,912 1,440,831 1,160,089 604,675 1,690,114 976,967 2,0f3,6.16 2,698,025 (17,620,S40 (8,216.364 1,076,684 441,573 2,287,084 2,972,253 1,.987,477 449,016 4,279,159 2,918,803 1,724.915 (189,699,622 (20,601,968 (24,567,067 (3,914,668 20,798,8781 1,721,441 24,268,292! 1,890,647 29,749 444 978,855 29,296,391^ 1,090,144 " 497,344 (.1,447,658 6,771,882 7,206,570 8,691,427 9,964,661 10,891,432 11,267,830 10,187,526 10,114,496 9,945,819 (99,978,496 (9,192,009 10,54.1,2,16 11,966,497 18,12.3,697 17,178,228 18,261,867 17,944,631 14,066,616 17,009,608 20,481,769 (148,688,607 (20,114,271 16,417,412 10,926,156 14,149,508 14,322,685 14,010,449 17,800,481 18,487,957 14,404,915 18,659,706 (159,801,495 (27,891,785 22,616,819 28,049,989 80,727,821 29,896,440 89,229.377 ImporU. Tolnt. (4,493,917 6,699,986 0,165,278 6,741,118 10,151,071 7,687,863 7,683,858 8,484,427 8,248,921 6,88 1,015 (71,178,398 (12,976,977 10,981,993 12,851,626 ]8,81i),778 21,448,379 84,049,281 20,521,496 16,928,112 80,918,450 16,69.3,2.99 (193,025,365 (22,712. 10,016, 7,050, 15,946, 20,191, 22,609, 28.999, 27,089, 28,209, «5,836, (204,819,072 (29,790,124 24,19.1,914 80,881,849 82,892,021 39,009,898 4^600,898 Whereof there iru In BuUloa I ud Specie. Tonoafe Cleared. Exitorted. \ lurwrtfd. ] Amerlran. (12,IIIH) 519,993 176,872 916^580 202,663 1,563,098 2,896,699 1,620,820 iai.111 (7,512,530 (2,960,669 450,779 60,006 70,274 5.16,622 111,092 1,020,609 467,448 2,017,799 2,199,608 (9,919,897 (4,087,199 1,11.3,699 186,009 2,029,195 8,179,278 1,180,886 4,724,674 2,988,124 2,162,992 (21,508,001 (7,471,341 ^474,494 4,291,863 6,948,023 8,742,4*0 7,172,893 *617,2»4 90,856 86,993 77,289 7,531 159,691 104,168 66,889 27,570 47,812 (1,214,212 (47,949 26,629 46,719 1,6.16,4.38 616,798 4,941.004 1,051,508 2,165,083 1.10,129 946,991 (11,449,233 (267,049 232,447 2,041,0.17 093,192 184,955 109,708 l,8.^9,472 277,223 241,184 79,251 (6,017,007 (304.988 759,430 831,908 24,564 2,814 188,188 798 .9,688 44,401 68,618 47,897 76,478 85,451 4^088 78,962 82,621 638,446 49,023 79,330 77,127 79,820 91,103 96,526 91,687 103,056 88,,119 182,823 893,012 121,631 180,865 110,171 109,327 121,915 119,729 147,579 116,062 114,036 114,699 1,206,706 147,098 187,965 184,947 313,834 239,948 896,886 Forelfn. 36,392 8^548 4,610 9,787 11,270 10,908 8,708 7,785 6,014 98,957 8,722 12,709 14,707 14,632 9,717 12,869 20,032 10,103 14,752 25,409 144,807 16,704 16,043 44,171 15,989 10,036 11,376 19,496 24,495 27,141 17,614 10,838 11,086 11,127 14,920 11,934 19,0m AAA r; FRA French Savingi Panh. — There nre Saving! Banki, Mutual llonoflt Socictlci, uiul Soclotie* fur Auurliii; Annuitiea. The Hrst Savings Uiuili was estaljiishcd by Barun U. Doleascrt, 1818, wlio left a legacy of 160,000 n-nncn in favor of youo worliing iiieu. In 18118 the total numl>er was 27; in IH-lil, UllU; in 1863, 377. On the 3lBt of Deconitier, 1863, there wore 844,040 de- positors in 360 Savings llanl(S in activity. Tlie sum deposited was 285,673,378 I'ruucs, or an average of 337 francs each. The number of Mutual Societies in De- cember, 1853, was 2773, having 289,440 subscribers, and a capital of 12,089,501 francs. Their income was 1,782,083 francs. The Annuity Societioa had, in DecemlHir, 1854, 87,018 accounts, and a capital of 42,084,822 franca. The PubUo Debt and Finances of Pmwe Tlio history of tlie Frencli debt since the concluilon of the war In 18U fiir- nUlies a very itrlklng proof of the evils of eiceislre oxpendl- ture during peace. I'erhapa there la no mora reniarkablu fact In connection with tho career of the flmt Napoleon, than that at tho end of his great ICiiropcan wars the public debt of Franco anionntcd only to £&U,ii46, 108, the Interest up'bt of only X'.VI,U40,1U8, iind nn Interoat to provide for amounting to X2,532,;:n4. As soon, however, aa France entered Into the ei^oyniL'nt of a permanent peace, the expenditure tipgan to exceed tho Income. Kithcr the pover of the ('hamber over the Minister muat have been very Im- perfect, or It muat have been exerclaed with great laxity. The Uourbons occupied the throne for sIxto<^n years of per- fect peace till 1830 ; when they fell, the public debt of France atood at i:iT7,Oas,»7T, and tho annual interest at ilT.llTa.OKS. The expenditure had, thcrt^fure, exceeded the Income upon an average in each of the sixteen yearn by the sura of £7,900,000. liOula I'hllippe commenced liU reign with an annual charge for debt exceeding that of 1814 by no less than £0,444,334. He was aald to be a atrong-handf 1 monarch, and to have ac- conipllahed and wise ministers. Did they benefit by the les- sen which the late administration of the finances during the previous reign should havo taught them 1 I/>ula I'hllippe re- mained on the throne till 1S4S. We have no precise account of the state of the capitiil of tho public debt when he atMlica- ted. But on ofllclal account gives the annual charge at the time as £0,771.489, being an increase during his reign of XI, 794,800, which shows that on an average of the whole eighteen years the expenditure muat havo exceeded the in- come by about £3,400,000 a year. The first accounts we have after the abillcallon of Ijouls I'hllippe show that on tho lat January, 18&1, the public debt of France stood at £lil3,8.>6,40'2. From that time It has increased most rapidly, as the follow- ing table of the debt at tho commencement of each year ijince that time shows: PiTDMG FCXDED DEBT OF FR\JfOE 0:« THl IST or JaNC- ABT IN KAOIl YE.VH IN rBANCB, AND IN HTEBLINO AT 25 Fban<;b rxB A', and in Iiollabs at B Fbancs pkb UOLLAB (I'BAOTIOMS OUITTEU). Ymh. franc. X * 1851 6,il4(),(ial,lKlil •.il3,S25,l)00 1,009,000,000 18.V2 5.61li.l'l4,onO M(),li47.(Kp0 1,10,3,200,000 ms B,577,6..»,00fl iJifl.ioo.ono i,ii!i,r)Ofl,ooo 18S1 5.6«9,«.'»,000 22(!,7S<1.0flO 1.138.800,000 13.'« (i,»S.',sT7,000 •.'4:1.31.1,0(10 1,230,200,000 1<(66 7.W>S,O10,000 3(W,.T.'1.000 1,511,000,000 18.'.7 s.oai.oiiu.oflo 321, '279.000 1,006,200,000 1859 8.42'2,(l9r>.00:) S3(1,8S3,000 1,084,400,000 This table shows that in seven years the debt of France has increased by no less than jC123,06?,000, nr at llio rate of £17,579,000 a year. No doubt this period includes the two years of the Russian war; but even If we deduct £00,000,000 for the loans applied to that punrase, we have still a balance of increa-e for tho period of £43,068,000, or at the annual rate of £9,008,000. Tho Incicnse in tho laat year, ending the 1st of January, 1868, was £16,fio4;000; and we are Informed that for the year Just concluded it will certainly not be icsa. On the let of January, 1366, the annual charge of the debt Is staled at £9,467,000; on the 1st of January, 1858, it was £12,486,000— so that in three years the annual Interest to bo provided for Increased by no less a sum in round figuici than FRA £3,000,000. We have thus the broad foci before ns, that from 1^14 to 1858, a period of forty-four years, of which fgrty-two wire yean of peace and only two of war, tho public debt of Fnneu lucruaaod from £60,040,000 to XUlW.tMH.tNK); and the annual Interest to be provided by taxes fi-oni £2.5112,000 to £12,436,000. It la by this means that what is called tho ei|uU llbrlun of income and expenditure hai been attained. And when It Is considered that tho price of public stock depends much more upon the fact whether It l» increasing, or Is sln- tlonary, or is decresaing In amount, it will be easily under- atood why English Consols, which have been rather ri'ducoil than Increased In amount during that period, mould stand at 961, while French Three per Cents, are only Oj|. It was a consideration of these facts, to which we have ad- verted In detail, and the knowlodgo that even during Ihu laat year a similar means of eking out the Income hml Itccn re- sorted to, that Interfered with the anticipated favorable re- ception of M. Magno*s report. 8ince then, no doubt, other circumstances of a more grave character have occurred to de- press still further the spirit of speculation, and to lower the prices of all classes of securities. Tho panic which has pre- vailed In I'arls since the Emperor's speech to the Austrian minister muat have proved to him that, in contenipluting a war, he muat consult other Interests than those of nn ardent army longing for employment In the field. — Lotulmi A'coao- niM, Jamuirii, 1869. A further loan of £20,000,000, or 500,000,000 francs, was negotiated in May, 1859. Cmnvternal Decrc'^a—- Brandies. —My a decree of tho 22d of Heptember, 1864, nil furelKn brandies are adniitteil Into France, by paying a duty of 16 francs per each hectolitre of pure alcohol. H'l'iKs.— Ily a decree of the 5tli of October, 1854, all wines, such as Mndelm, Sherry, etc ("vins do liqueur"). In cuaka, leather bottles, or twttlcs, are subject to the Importation duty of 26 centimes per 100 litres. Poreifrn V'esnels loading Salt exempt /rrnn Tannag* Dutij. —By a decree dated May 10, 1866, the dlspoaitlons of the ordinances of 31st July, and 4th December, 1810, allowing foreign veaiels to load salt in French ports when coming In baUast, free of tonnage duties, are extended to veaaels coming to France vith cargoes. The exemption from ton- nage duties shall be in proportion to the quantity of salt ex- ported. I>aciMt-tree«.— By a decree of the 23d June, 1865, the Im- portation duty on locust-trees is fixed aa follows : By Freneli slilps, 25 centimes the 100 kllogrummes. By foreign ships, 1 franc the 100 kilogrammes. Xavufation Dues — Ezeiuption to 31at December^ 18^. — By a decree of the 6th Juno, lrt,')5, the exemption of nuvii^iition dues accorded up to the 31st July, 18.^5, on cargoes of grain, flour, rice, potatoes, and dry vegetables, is extended to the 81st December, 1855. By a decree of tho 14th July, 18.W, tho regulation for tlio admission of molasses intended for distillation Is fixed as follows, until it shall be otherwise ordained ! By French voa- scls, from French colonies, exempt. By French veaaels, from the F^st Indies, exempt. By French vessels, from t^outh America, exempt By French vesseU, ft'ora t'.nj WcMt Indies, exempt. By French vessels, fVom elsewhere, 2 francs tho 100 kilogrammes. By foreign vessels, 3 francs the 100 kilo- gram mea. By a decree of the 3d October, 1851, the duty then exl«tlng on the exportation of leeches, of 60 centimes per 1000, was abolished ; and on the 6th, a duty of 50 centimes per 100 kilognunmcs was imposed on the importation of salted pro- TisloQS. On the 9th, a decree prolonged the free entry of vessels laden with grain, fiour, rice, potatoes, and drii'd vegetables, from the Slat July, 1864, to the Slst July, IS.Vi. Another decree dated the 25th, permitted the importulicm of leaves of oranges, ivy, cloTes, and senna. Intended for medicinal purposes, free of duty. On the 26th the distilla- tion of grain, and all other farinaceous substances whatsoever, was prohibited by an lmi)crial decree, under that date ; and on. the 6th November, a similar decree allowed the free ad- mission of quercitron bsrk. Imported by French TCHSela from countries out of Euifipo, and reduced the existing duty of 40 francs on that article, arriving by French vessels from the entrepots of Europe, to 20 francs; and from 60 fran.-s to 30 francs when imported by foreign vessels having no commer- cial treaty with France. On the Idth November, notice was communicated by circular, that, by a treaty concluded be- tween France and Belgium, tho former admitted geograplii- eal and marine churta, linen, printing-ink, types, thread and hemp yam, straw plait, slate, stone, and other raw materials, without a certificate of origin— Belgium conceding to France a slniUar privilege on charts, ty|Kis, printing-ink, clothes, pasteboard in aheeto, paper of all deseriptlons ezoept colored FRA 199 FRA or morocco, tUtei, prepued pluter, nordwoz, Durgnndj, and Champkfpie wtnet, *nd iIm thoM of Toun and B«]ranii«, io cuk. On th« 6th December, k decltmtlon wh proinalfpited be- tween the Emperor of the French and the l'rlni"o of Monnco, bjr which the former reduced thii then cxIitlnR duty on olire oil (not exceeding ISO.nOO kllognmmei in quantity), when Im- ported by French Tceccle, or thoae of the Prince of Monaco, • to a uniform duty of 16 franca per 100 kllogrammea— the Teiaela of the principality being aaalmilated to thoie of Sar- dinia for payment of tonnage dues— the duty on French winea Imported Into the territory of tho Prince of Monaco, In caak, being fixed at B franca BO contlmoa per hectolitre, and at 10 contimea in bottle not containing more than a litre. By another decree, dated the ilOth Decembor, molasaca from the French colonlei, arriving by French Toiiaela, la admit- ted free 1 when Imported from countriea out of Europe, at a duty of 3 fmnca, riiul from tho entropAta at a duty of 8 franca per 100 kllogrammRii. When imported by foreign vcaaola, It la Axed at lU franca per 100 kllogrammea. On tho 6th January of the current year, three decree* were pnbllHhedi one permitting tho temporary Importation of aheet oopper Into France by French Tciiacla, or direct from the country where It la prodncwl, free of dutyi when It Ic Intended for the manufacture of bollora or machinery. Iti oilgin nmat be certlflod by tho French conanl at tho place of Ita departure. Immediately on Ita arrival, tho Importer la bound to make a declaration at the cuatom-hoaae, of the num- ber and weight of tho aheeta, aa well aa of thoir length, breadth, and thlckncaa. Tho cuatom-houae, after having asciTtoined tho corrcctncaa of auch dcclarntlon. Is enjoined to cause a stamp to bo put on each sheet, In order to asaure the exportation of tho aame copper ; and a charge of 6 oan- tlmca for stamping. Including tho cost of tho stamp, la made for every shoot ao stamped. Bond must bo given that the wliolo quantity of copper imported shall bo used, and re-ex- ported, or placed In the public atores (excepting such parts as may remain from cuttings or cornera of sheeto, in which tho duty must bo paid In tho same proportion aa If they were wl|ola sheets), within six months ; and the custom-house Is eiOoineil to assure Itself that the articles so manufactured are oquul in quantity, kind, and quality, ao that, temporarily ad- uilttod, sheet copper can only bo exported from porta or places having public warehouses, or from places to which such articles are allowed to bo sent In trutuit. By another, the temporary Introduction of old caat Iron belonging to for- eign-built Btoainboats, which may put Into France for re- pairs. Is also admitted free of duty— tho Importcra giving sulBcIont security for replacing in tho ontrepflts of Franco within six months, an equal quantity of Iron, proper for Khips' use, to that which may have been employed In such re- pairs. Iron Imported under thia decree, and tho article manufactured therefrom, can only bo exported from places having govornnient warehouses ; and tho custom-houso Is charged to see that the iron Imported and not used be broken up in such way as to render it Imposalblo of being used, otherwise- Tho third decree subjecta foreign vessels at the Island of Scnogul to a simple tax of 50 centlmoa per ton, without the additional 10 per cent., but this is llniltod to tho port of Oor6e. A decree relative to French and foreign emigration was promulgated on tho IBth of January, a copy of which. In exienao, with a tronslation Into English, was forwarded by rae to tho Department on the 31 st of that month. A circular, dated IBth January, exempts from tho tak of ttomiage, or Uatiiui, certain articles of French origin, or foreign goods on which tho duty Impoiied by law has been paid, when they are sent by water from one part of tho ompire to another, pre- cautions being taken to assure tho identity of tho goods on their arrival at tho port of destination, lly a circidnr, dated 10th January, tho decree of 20th December, prohibiting tho Importation of foreign molasses, extends to sucli only as Is Intended for distillation r and tho exemption from duty on French molassea equally applies to such as is Imported solely for distillation. Molassea so Imported is always un- der tho surveillance of tho customs till after its completion at the place of distillation. By another circular of tho !!Tth of tho same month, alco- hol produced in Corsica, from the distillation of the bulbs of daffodils, figs of the cactus (prickly pears?). Juniper and myr- tle Irerrlcs, and all other substances, with the exception of farinaceoua (tho distillation from which substances tho cir- cular continues to prohibit), are added to the number of artltjea admitted free of duty. A decree of tho same date modifies tho duty on Juniper and myrtle berries, end also on tablc!-frults, and oquallzos tho duty on tho bulbs of daffodils and Hgs of cactus. By a decree of tho 81st of January, for- el^ wlnos of erery deacription are admitted into tho lalanda of Martlnlqat, Ouadalonpt, Oulana, J* Hi'- ' ^. and flanegal BuhJoct to a duty, when Imported by F thlpa, of m centimes per hectolitre, and to that of b ja whan Im- ported by foreign veaiels. A circular of the l>t of February exempt* from examination, at the custom-house* ot France, the baggage of forelgnera arriving from foreign parts, to em- bark fur places abroad s and a decree of the 10th allow* the free Importation of salt (foreign) Intended for the mackerel flahery, which heretofore waa confined to that of France, from the 16th February of every year ; and another deoroo of the 14th extendi the period for It* Introduetion from the 1st of March to the lOtli of Juno ; previously to the date of that decree, It wa* only admitted between the 10th of March and the 16th of June. A decree of the 14th of February Impose* a doty on sperm or whale oil. Imported In French ships, from countries beyond Cape* Horn and Good Hope, of 6 francs per 100 kllogrammea on the gross weight ; from other countriea than Europe, T.60 francs, and by foreign vesaels, 16 francs per 100 kilogrammes, lly another decree of the same date, flour from Algorla la admitted free of duty Into all part* of tho empire. On tile ITth of February a decree was Issued granting a drawback of S.W franca per 100 kilogrammes on white or mottled Boap, composed of alkali and ollvo oil, or from vege- table oil, entering for at least one half In sucli composition, or for less than half If mixed with animal substance*. On soap made wholly from animal subataucea, a drawback of franca per 100 kllogrammea la allowed, and 4 franca per 100 kilo- grammes on soap made from palm or cocoa oil, mixed with animal substances or rusln. A circular of tho '2nth of Febru- ary specltlus tho object* which shall bo considered as coming within tliu meaning of the treaty concluded with Spain on the 16th November, 1863, which are books, dramatic and musical compositions, paintings, drawings, engravings, lithographs, sculptures, guographical maps, and all other similar produc- tions, with tho exception of works of art applicable tu agri- culture and Industrial nianufacturca ; prohibits tho reproduc- tion of tho works of either In tho country of tho other, and indlcatea the porta In France by which alone such works can be Introduced. A decree of the 10th of March authorizes the Introduction into Martinique, Guadaloupe, Cayenne, and La Biiunlon, of salted provisions of every kind, from whatever country or under wliatuvur flag they may bo Imported, on the payment of an Inward duty of 60 contlnies per KM) kllo- grammea. Tho sanio provisions are allowed to bo Introduced Into Senegal (St. Louis), at tho aame duty, if Imported by French vesaels, whether from foreign countries or from the entrepAt at Gor^e. No change la made In the law actually In existence, with respect to provisions arriving at Senegal un- der a foreign flag. A decree of the 14th of April modlflea the Inward duty on wools, arriving direct from countriea altuated beyond Cape Horn and the Cape of Good Hope, when Imported by French vessoia, but leaving tho duty actually exUllng unchanged when Imported from other parts of the worlJ. Another de- cree of the aamu date repeala the export duty of 6 centimes per 100 kllogrammea on lime ; and by another decree, under the same date, tho duty on llqueura imported from the French colouieais fixed at 16 francs per hectolitre of liquid. On the iM of April an allowance of five per cent, for los* in weight, whether fTom water or decay, was authorized by decree on refined salt, If Imported by sea and shipped In bulk at tho place of production ; and a second decree of the same date establishes tho Inward duly on nitrates of soda and potashes arriving by French vessels from countriea situated beyond Capo Horn and the Cape of Good Hope, at 1 franc per 1 00 kilogrammes ; from places in Europe, 6 francs per 100 kilogrammes ; from entrepota 8 francs per 100 kilogrammes. Citric acids of ell aorts imported from tho colonies of France, In French Bhl|/), are admitted free of duty ; by for- eign vessels, at a duty of 11 francs per 100 kilogrammes. A premium or bounty of 6 francs Is allowed gn the exporta- tion of every 100 kilogrammes of net nitric acid, add one of tiO centimes on sulphuric acid. On the !i4thof April a circu- lar was Issued authorizing the temporary free admiaslon Into Franco of machinery, glass (for rcaliverlng), bronzes, and other aimilar works, and books, when Imported separately, or in small quantities, for the purpose of being repaired or finished, on condition of thoir being re-exported within six months. By a decree of tho 28th of April, iron work, in bara or aheeta (without distinction of origin) fit for the con- struction of edifices or dweillng-hoiisea, is allowed to be Im- ported Into Senegal by French veasela, free of duty, whether coming from the entrepots of the metropolis or that of Qo- rt'o. Another decree, of tho aame date, fixes tho duty on old worn-out typo at 6 francs per 100 kilogrammes. An arreii ol May 6th orders tho withdrawal from circulation of ail gold pleoe* of the value of 10 franc*, bearing the efflgy of the FRA 740 FRA aM Nirt raiptnr, lo tak* pUm on Ih* 15lh of Oetobor, IffiB. Br ardommne* of th« Blit J11I7 ud 41b DMonihor, ItlA, •)! TCUoU irrirlnn In Prmmw, In balUil, to take In lalt. won ex- •mplod from tonniRa duel. Bjr * deeres of the Ittb of May, IWXI, foreign reeaele nrrlving with wrgo e^Jo^ the Hme prir- Urge, but only In proportion to the quantlljr of ult taken bj tliuni : and hjr a rlrouUr of the ti of June the export duly on Halt la aiipprraard. Alcohol dlitlllcd from daffndlla In Alglera la admlltdd Into FranM frve of dntjr, by decrco of May aid. By a decree of the Id of Juno, the delay fixed for the Introdnrtianof prorlalona Into Praneo U prolonged to the Slat of Deoember, 1MB; by another of the Mb, the free admlaalon of ahlpa Importing grain, flour, rice, etc., la extended i ami hy a circular 01' thu nth, Ibe exportation of theao arllrlra la prohlblU-d during the aame period. A decree of the 'i.ld nf Juno accorda the prlTlloge of Iranaportlng grain and flour between Algeria and France to foreign reaaels, baring left their port of loading on or before the 9I«t Decembpr, ISBB. By another decree of the •arae date the eiporUllon if corn and barley from Algeria, to fonlxn counlrlca la prohibited, and by a third decree, the Importation of carol beana by French reaaela la admitted at a duty of iR centlmea per 100 kllogranmea, and of 1 franc per foreign reeaeli. A decree of the Tth July admlla, free of duty, ranllla, Imported br French TRiarla arrlrlng direct ftoni the French colonlcH, Cayenne and Mayottel. A circu- lar of lOth July Inipoaca a double d^clmo on the amount of all goTernment taxca, to remain In force till the I at of Jan- uary, 1H68 : Increaaea the exciae conanmptlon duty on bran- dlea, aplrlta, llquora, and brandy frnlta, from M fhiuci to BO franca per hectolitre of alcohol, and from 60 franca to t6 franca, exclualve of the double dfclme, the tax on thcM ar- tlclea nn their admlaalon Into I'aria, and further impoaea a Ux of 10 per cent on the rccclpta of paaaenger money by railroad, and alao on the eonreyancc of gooda by fkat or ex- preaa tralna. By a decree of the Uth July, molaaaea Imported for diallllatlon by French Tceaela from the colonlea of France, India, Houth America, and the Weat UMet, la admitted free of duty, and from other porta at a duly of 2 franca per 100 kllogrammca. When imported by foreign roaaela, the duty la S franca per 100 kllogrammea. A decree of the lAth July makea many rbangea and modlfl- eationa In the tariff of dntlcs. They are too numeroua to b« Imbudled In thia communication. They will no do-ibt be publiahed In one of the aupplcmenta to the neneral tartf, which ehall be forwarded to the Department when publiahed, rrllb any othera which may haTO preceded It, or by which It may hare been followed. The arowed object of thcae modi- ileatlona la to glre additional encouragement to Ita maritime comnierco by the total repeal of duty on the raw material of certain artlclcN— the produce of diatant countriea— when Im- ported direct hy French veaacla, for the purpoae of contribut- ing lo the progreaa of their own manufactnrea, and by totally repealing the duty on certain artlolca of amall productiro rerenuc. Among the moat Important of tht'ae modiflcatlons la the alteration of the duty on raoiitchouc. The duty on thIa article of '20 franca per 100 kilogrammPK in continued when It la melted aolely for artlelea of manufacture. Until the publication of thla decree, when other anbatancea were mixed with caoutchouc, or gutta percha, either for the purpow of girlng color or addint; atrength tu the article manufactured, the duty waa '200 franca per lOn kllogrammca. Thin tax la now reduced to .V) franca. The duty of 200 franca will In future be payable only on article* compoied of caoutchouc or giitta percha, with whieh other anbatancea are combined, and when Intended for other pnrpoaea than that of being melted. A decree of the Slat Auguat accorda the free ad- mlaalon of game, poultry, and ahell-fiah (tortile) ; and one of the '22d Rrplember prolonga to the Bltt December, ISM, the exemption from tonnage duty of all Tcaaela laden with grain, flour, rice, potatoea and dried regetables. The Increaae In the price of meat* In Franc« haa been rcry great aince 1848; ao muc!. ao, that general complaint cxlata on the auhjeet. From 18SS to 1H5i there haa been an Increaae of price fk'om 40 to 4S per cent. The attention of the government of France baring been called to thia fact. It* cffbrta have been not Only to prerent a further Increaae, but to effect a diminution from prfuicnt pricca. To thia end the Uriffa hare been revlaed, anii very great reductlona have b,;en made upon the importation of foreign cattle, to wit ; tenia 110 '23 to T4 centa a head on beef, etc. Not only ao, but the direct attention of the people of France haa been called to the uBc of Ball meat, and the experiment of opi.ning the mar- ket la being made with much anoceaa. The duty upon thla ar- ticle baa been meceiairely rednoed from fB 68 to t8 T2, to tl 80, and In the month of October but, t3 »i centa the 221 ponnda, or 100 kllogrammea. Under tbeie reduetl )na there hai b«m ta utonUUiig devaiopnwnt in Ita importatioa. In I MM the Importation of maata, fl'eah and laH, raadiad only nnyriiulnUux, or TTT,844 BN.IOO poonda; while In the Bra* nio.tth of the proflent yi>ar, th« Importation haa reaehad BT'20 qulnUux, being mora than In the whole year of iwyj by 20s qulntaux, or 44,TW «2-l(M pounda. I tranamit hem- with an oxtiact from the Keho iTAgrieal, ahowlng the uanal moda of Imparting aall innate, with tho reapocllTo raluei of the aercral qualltlea : " l>rime purk la tho moat common kind In briae of gray aalt; harrela of Bllliiha. gniaa, or IM DU-lOO* Ibr net ; ralue from tl4 80 to |IB HI the barrel. Meaa pork la llttlH Imported and doen not And a aala, being too I'at. rrime nieaa, flrat quality, preierred In brinn with white aalt, from lean hoga, la from tl8 DO to |l* 68 per barrel. llama aalted, augarrd, and amokcd, auataln a compartaon witli the heat we have lu Kurope, and And a ready aale. Bhouidera, dry aalted. And a good dral of favor In France. They come In dry barrela, nf UV4 40-100 Iba. net; valua from |I8 DO to $1D 63 thr 221 Ibc, or 100 kllogrammea. Lard cornea In bar- rela of 266 '20-100 iba., or in flrklna of 46 02-100 lb*, not; value |i:i ttio 110| Iba., or 6U kUog'umiiiea." The foregoing extract will Indicate the kinda, manner of iinportatlon, and vaiuoa, for the beneSt of Importura. Uy a decree of the lOth of thU month (March) the rat. a of dutlea on aalt meata Into the French colonlea have hoen reduced aa followa : Into Har- tlnhiue, Uaudaluupe, Uulana, and I-A KAunlun, aalt meat* of foreign make, from whatever louutry Importnd, and under wbataoovcr Hag, will pay a duty of 60 centime* tfik centa) per kllogramniu, or '221 Iba. Tho aamo duty la 'oquircd at tit. Louia, Hun >gal, but only when Imported lu French bot- toma, either directly from abroad, or by extrac'li u f>t)m tho entrepot of Uorie. TIiomi nieata Imported Into I uegal, un- der a foreign flag, are charged the duty In ff.TfK before the decree. f'ntich Coloniti, Fniuli ColonlM. *i\. nillai. VopnUlloil. AaiA.— Ponillcliiirry, In tlio C'arnatio; Karlkal In Tanjnre ; Maclie on the MalalmrroaHt; tliofko- toriva of Yauinon and Cluui- dernagori'. In IK'iii,'al; etc.. 24S IJI.TOT Armio*.— Tho cstabilnliinonta iiii the Benegal, wllli the Islands ol Bt l/ouls ami Gorto .... 19,«T8 Tlui Island ilo la I'l^uiiloi (Ilonrbon), lUO.I'W ; 8te Mnrio at .M' ;. riwcar, 6,000 Inhabitants, >.'' . 54 111,<32 Algerio, In 13.S2 — Euro- peans, 1IM,11B; iik!lvoS, In IHtH, a'2,42)) 6,000 216,688 Amreica.— West Iiidlos— The lesser Antilles, Martinique, 121,146; Oojulaioupe. HU Martin, Ma- rie, Ualante. Deslroile, and tho group called tho Halntea, 1><4,,%«4. 085 266,880 Routh America— A part ol Guiana, with the Island of Cayenne North America— The lals. 618 noio of HL I'lerre and Mlquelon, near Newfoundland T 1,888 PACino OCKAN.— ?Jb.r--:19:K S4 20,200 New Caledonia.. do. In im Total «,488 814,WA In Africa the French po§«e«8 Gor6fl and some facto- ries near the mouth of the Sencp^l. In the ?ji>t thry have the iHle of Bourbon, and Pondicherry, Chander- nagore, and some smaller factories on the mainland of India ; and their vessels are, lilie the Americans, ad- mitted to trade with Calcutta, Madras, and other Drit- ish settlements, on payment of moderate dues. The retention of the Man.^itius by England, at the peace of J814, deprived them of the great receptacle for their privateers in the East ; and on the continent of North America, they retiiiu nothing since the cession of Lou- isiana to the United States in 180!). Since 1N41, when the sovereign of the island of Mayotte placed himself under the protection of France, thia island, situated at the extremity of the Mozambique Channel, is to all intents and purposes a French settlement. Mayotte is capable of feeding a population of 20,000 souls, and of regularly furnishing provisions to a squadron of ihipt. France also posseisei an establislunent in Aus- fRA Ul FRA 20,tOO Inlli, fcr ilitM Ih* Sf •auiliiii iif Ilia Ifraiiull, 'I'liay liava mi graitl marltlma turtiuntm, Ilka (llliraUar ut Mnltu, and nu d«]>«n(len- olaa i>; tlia imtura ut tha limlnii laUhila. Ciimmnvi; rln, ..'t'U» iHimitMiriw irf Kranua with har onliiiiliM U raKiiUlait liy Ilia naitin iiarruw inaxImR aa tliH iitjiiir liraiinhaii iif liar l^ifalxii Iraili'. Tha nolnnlai and tliu inolhar lutiiilry «ra niiitunlly tmund tci trndo exiiliulvuly with aai'h iilhtrefore Iw artirii'lally ralaad in thn! ooimtry, in or- der to unaldM lliani U) imtty on thn cnttlvation of their eatatiia | wiiilu, on tlie iitlii erty to Imy tliu umiU whii'li Hii>y rpiinirn in the chea|>- eat market, Iml inuat tuka tliain Nt whnte«er pr!;.« tlier cuii lie alfoi'dad liy tha lllothiir I'oii'itry, Another evil of tlila i'oIomIhI monopoly ia, that the coloniaa aiipply inoru aiiKar tlinn l-'riiniin I'lin conmiine. Hut It can not tia aold In otiiar i ntrlea nt the price wliivh la paid to tha nololilaa liy tha mother country ; and hence It lan'oniaa nacaaaafy to lliid out the means of forcinii a aala of tha aiirpllla which can not lie con- sumed at home, A limitify la nccordinitly Krantod on all siiKar eaiairted from I'rancai and i:i IWll, while the duty on the Imiatrtathm of aii«iif ;iroduced i'l.tlSfl,- 0,10, tliuru waa paid iiack for lioHnllci Xtm,\m, widch was mora tlian oiia foiirlll of the «roa« receipts. The loas which I'ranca haa liiciirrad atncn the pence of 1814 by thia erronaoua ayalam la patimntcd in " llnwrlnK and Vliiiara' li«|Mirt," at 4.'«>,mi(MH»0 aterlhiRi and in return for tlieeu Kraat aai'iilli'aa, llie c(doiilc« iilTord luit nlimiutd dMinand for Ilia niaiiMf/icliih'a of tiie mother country i in INM, it amoiinti'd lo W,iwi,000 kllo«niin- m«si In iH/iil, to W,iH],mm klloKrummes) in 1«M, to 3!l,2il7,000 kiloKranMllKa, ro/i(Hi< <,— 'I'liB I'ldonlal po«a«aalona of France are qulto unaulUit to iiBf (jrcaliiaaa In other roapecta. The inaurrectlon aii({«i, jBred liy tha Oral Hevolutlon de- prived her of the waatarn llalf of Nt, Dominno, a rich and imuutifui t«rrltory, i'oiif«lnl«K formerly more ne- uroos, and «»i«irlln« mora produce, tlian all the llrit- l.sh West Iiidlea t"««tlwr, the Krench K<>verniiicnt Boema to liava ralliii|ii|«|ii>d the hope of reKaininj? this country, at laaat liy military mwana, and to limit its anildtion to ihe remaliiliiK colonlea, Martinique, Ouad- uloupH, t.'uyeiiiia, In t|,M Waal tiidlea, The Hrat two are, Ilka moat of oiir Waal India lalnnda, cultivated to a conahlerahla «»Miiii, lm( Mp»\i\n ut much Improve- mml, Tha petty Island nf Maria Oalanta la In • almlUr state ; but Cayenne forms • part nf a moat ex- tensive tract, of whii'h one comer only U as yet ren- ileroil productive, anil which may eventually liecome a Kraat settlement ; thoUKh on the acora of health it Is OS unpromising as the adjacent colonies of Demerara and Nurlnan.'. liefore the lors of 8t. l>omin|{o the annual Import Into France amounted to 70,000 hhda. of muscovado w brown sugar, 60,000 lihds, clayed, and nearly 20,000 of fine clayed. Of tills very large supply there were exported nearly 10,000 hhds. of brown, and alwvn 00,000 hhda. of clayed, forming, excluaivi'ly of any duty, an annual value of between i:',t,000,000 and 410,000,000 nterling, and affurding a most acceptable exchange for a nunilier of imported commaal atallon, ('a|Mi lireton. The peace of 17HA waa concludeil uwlar lielter auaiilcei. The lalanda of 8t, I'ierre and Mli|uelon ware ceiled to France liy thn treaty of Veraaillea, and the righta of flahlngand of drying flab from the ('a|Hi Nt. John to Cape llay. In the Gulf of Ht. Lawrence her righta were auliaequently recognized, liy the Ireatlea of tMO'i and 1X14, at 3 leaguea' dUtance from the coaata lielong- ing to (ireat liritain | liut within (he gulf, at a dlaliince of 15 leaguea fhim Isle Koyale, and UU leaguea from Xew Brunawiek. FoaaiuM C^miiaoa or FaAi«ra with uaa Culomim and Till FmHIMII llANKa. Ymm. 18U 18M t8U 1U3 1S&4 ItJDS VmmUJ Toiuuf*. 9,310 9,80T t,S74 t,>l>'V>."l> 10,9N9 il,tK)«,N)ir 18,449 !9,(ie;,l)IU CLEAREII. 79«,I)M I 8,8M 'l,0S8,8lft T9<,7I8 T,9I9 it,0M,A»9 mjMH »,Mi {l,ll)«,067 VlMll. 90,T7U 9,7fil),M« 9»,9H» '9,THH,M» 98,01(1 JM,Ni»4,7llA 1A,4XI |I,'een paid to those awning aliipa, and tu men employed in the French flaheriea. In purauunca of ordinauce« duted the 24th of June, and Uth and 12tli of July, 1801, the following Iwunties were grunted for the encouragement of the French flaheriea, They came into i<|ieration on the Ist January, lMft2, and are to remain in force until the 80th June, INUI : " C'xl-Jukery. — Premiums jiir Chiirlrring nml F./piip- ping Ve$uU. — Fur every man engaged In the lUliurlea, having drj'ing or curing grounds, whether on the coasts of Nowfonndland, Saint I'ierre or Mli|Ueion, ur upon the great Newfoundland Bank, 60 franca, For •very man engaged in the flaheries, not having drying or curing grounds, in the Icelandic Keaa, AU franca. For ever}' man engaged in the flaheries, not having drying or curing grounds, on the great Newfounilluiiil Bank, 80 fhincs. For every man engaged in the flah- eries on the Dogger Bank, l.'i franca, '^BamUiet on the Produce of Fitkeriti.— On tbo im> |iortalloa Into the French colonies, whatkarln Amerie* or on the other aide of the ('a|w i.f (IihuI IIii|>)i, of every qnlntal of dried ciHlllah, the priKluce of French llaher- laa on (ha roaata of Newfouiiillaod, Haint I'ierre, or Mli|Ueliin, or which may lie taken from entre|Hi(a In France, yo tt»nn. On the Importation into the above colonlaa, nf averv quintal of dried .■odtlah, the pro> due* of French naheriai, If the llah ahall be ex|Mirted from the French porta without having been there warehouaed, 1(1 franca. On every quintal of dried I'iKlrtah, the pi'aluce of the French flaheriea, and lin- iHirted illriM't fii'in the aanie or from French entre|iots. Into audi fiireign Meiliterranean |Hirts ^except thuaa of Harilinia and Algeria) In which a French consul may reside, 1(1 franca. On every quintal of dried codflah, the produce of the French flaheriea, forwarded direct either from tliiiae flaheriea ur from French porta, and Im- IHirteil Into Nantlnlan and Algerian |iorts, 12 francs, ''or every i|ulntal of cod-aoonda that tha flahing-veasela limy bring into France, the produce of their flahery, 20 franca." Veaaela departing fur the flaheriea with drying gfotinda, whether on the coaata of Newfoundland, Naiiit I'ierre, IHIquelon, or tha great Bunk of New- foundland, ahall have a crew whoae iniulnium is to b« flxed by a Myal ordinance, Wkiilr-iUkrr^. — Tha liountiea granted in pursuance of the laws of 24tli June, and Dth and I2th July, INlil, for the enciiiiragflnient of the whalo-flshuries, shall Im flxed as fiiUowa, tu date from thn let January, 181')2, unit to continue In force until the BOth June, 1M(il : " Jliiunliri iin Ihr /Irixirturr nj' yntelt. — For every ton of alilpping outward bound, with crewa composed entirely of French aallora, 70 francs ; and fur vessels with crewa coinpoaed |ittrtly of French and foreign aallora, agraeubly to the provision that the forelgncre exceed not oiin tliint eitliar of tha ufllcers or crow, 48 frunca, " lliiunlim im Ihr Itrtum n/ VrueU. — On each toi. ^f shipping where the crow Is coni]M>sed entlrol> oi French aallora. At) franca. On each ton of sbip'|>lng with a mixed crew, 24'6 franca." I'niler the conditions that thn vessels shall have llshed either lieyond ('a|ie Horn, or to the cast uf the (,'H|m of (IimhI IIo|m<, as fur aa 02° of latitude, and aliall linvn lieen out at leaat 1(1 months. In addition to tlie uliove, there ahull be alluwud tu vessels es|ieciully maiiiieil fur the apemi-whulo (rachalnl) flshory, in the I'uclllc ( tcnan, after tliey liave been at sea for the space of at least I'M) niiintlis, and during which tTme they may have reaehed aa fur us 2H° of north latitude, an addKlonal Uiiinty of Ih francs u|Nin the a|Hrtiitli>n fur riiiiiiiim|illiin, and nr« only ailmittml in entrniH^t " from trmih ''■ (MM in A'rrdiA Vmrli. — ("cico*, clnnaniDii, cluvw, > ifne i cotton, raw; IiiiIIko, ""'I prxpurmt murou i nil •pirltiioiia llqion, with tlin ox- rpptliin of liranily, Krtnch ami Murtlnli|un cunUala ; Klrarlianwaaaor anil gin ; nutinKK"i iwpiwr i iUKitr, raw anil whitanail, ami wiml, " >'/■(»»/» Forrign VitHHtrin ami in Ft^rtiyn Vf$$tU. — Cliitlivn, really mmlo, coniprliilnK hiitn iinil all artirloi for thii feat ; cotton, apun ; ((iinpowiler ; nUK't'i leAneil | tlniiuca of cotton, ailk, wovl, anil, hump," The following nrtlilea are kilniitleil free of duty, witlioiit reference to their lourre, iiniler all tliiKH : "AnlmitU, living | HKrIcultural Inntrumimtii Im- jHirteil for trial ; mncliinoi, ami limilar urtlcica ntii'i'Hnitry for colonial luJuatry ; «|iocinivna of niit- unil liiatory ; prectoua metitla in liullion ami coin ; tiulclc-IImn." Hij h'rtnrk VetirU .1 rrivinr/ Dirfct from Franrr, — IJtciiKlU ami iniplemiintit of hualiumlry, especially ihovcU, hoeii, batcheta, plowa, priinlnK-booka, ami hnrrowii ; milt livef; liollcn for i»i)(nr fuctorioa { cihI- Hull ami other anlteil fliih; flour anil nil other furlnn- ceoiia provtHiona ; vegetalilca, frciih nnil ilry ; unit pork, rcil herrlnjfa, /hilift (in Ftporl: — All prmlucta of the colony (ex- cept thoae which are free) exporteil to Krnnco or to Krench coloniea, In French veaaela, \ jwr cent, ail va- lorem. The aams exported to forelun countrlea in French veaaela, 2 per cent, ad valorem. The following producta of the colony are luliject, on ex|K>rtAtion, to the following additional dut}', ciilMd (rnnlribiitionfimeiirr) " ground-tax :" rViiamlnMlloii of I nian-liNiiill*!'. Nuiiit)«r, Wright, in«»4Urv. IUuVUiia.orV'iOlba.1 |0~fift-8 lAonattobrrouoou. iCocna jClovea, (lowers., . , I '■ aUllii. ('uflbe .... Cotton IMolanut |Ox-hlile« lEach TaBIa (rum) 'I.IKH) lltrc!i- KM f[al iHugar.raw or white !tj|0 p onnilt. " Foreign prohibited goods having been seized and ro-exportcd, 2 per cent, ad valorem. Foreign prohlb- Ited merchandise on leaving the " aUrrpAl Jiclif," ^ of 1 per cent, ad valorem." The following articles are exempt from all exporta- tion duties, whether for Franco or foreign countries : " Cinnamon j egga, fresh ; glngor-ront, indigo, nut- meg", ()epper, pimento, simnroiilm, specimens of nntu- rul history, turmeric, turtles, vnnilln, and wood." Chur;it.ifor Xalionalizini/ Fureign Vtmeh. — For u ves- sel of ioo tons and under, $11 23-5 ; 101 to 200 tons, •IB MD I }01 to nOO tons, •Kl (MO | over IMM (bri wh aililitioniil 100 tons, .|2 HO N. t'iKiriinif Itulin. — For the lung course (tun\nn v >T> age) per vessel, f!) T0'3!l j for tlin great nnil ■laitll I'oaating trade, (2 NO'N ; inaerlptliin duty (,regliMr<.~If the vessel ancliors in the n)ads or in the harlH>r :— For a vessel under Ml tons, great and small coasting trade, (5 A.'i ) fiU to DC tons, $7 lO'T | 100 to 140 tons, ft) ilO I lAO to lOU tons, «! 1 2IIm t 20O III 200 tons, in HM ; HOO to 1100 tons, tlO 000 ; 4IIII Ions anil upward, for each additlonnl 100 tons, $0 HD'ri. If tiio vessel casts anchor In the rouils :— I'ilots' servicei in the rooils, on demand of the captain, when not re- tained for conducting the vessel into |iort, for one tide, $1 80; charges of anchorage In the h«rlK>r of Cay- enne, (1 irO; delay of |iilot on Iward of u vessel, either on demand of the captain, or liecause of i|uaf- antine, indep.inilont of iKiard, which Is to l>o furnished to him at the ex|i«nsa of the ship, for 24 hours, i^l II'O ; pilotage fnim the harliorof Cayenne to the I'olut of Moncouria, without respect to tlie tonnage of the vessel, t'l Tirio. The pilot dues are the same for clearing as for enter- ing the port. Miiytillt and Depfwlencitt. — There are only pilot dues to he paid iit Miiyotte, Smegal antl Drprnilmciti. — Foreign vessels pay In Senegal 4 francs, or (4'4 cents, and in Uoruu only 60 centimes per ton. Tliey can, however, neither ex|Mirt nor import (except through UoriJo), nt the whole trade Is open only to French shipping and French mnnufoc- turvs, and Is prohibited to all other nations. Frtnch Urttlemtntt in lh» Fiul Indifs. — The jmrts of these dependencies are tree, and theroforo open to all nations. — Nnrigatinn Act nf Septemhtr 21, lillH Tariff. — I'ondicherry, Kiirlkal, and Mah6, tonnagg duty, without distinction of dag, 4 cents |ier ton. (1H47,) I'ondicherry alone, light-house dues, without distinc- tion of Hag, B cents per ton. I'ondicherry alone, fer- riage dues, without distinction of Hag, Mti'8 cents for one vessel, aS/. J'iem and Afiijuelon. — Ilefore 1840, American vessels were allowed to import into those islanila only such goods or the French trade could not supply, and which wero n'i|uirod by the necessities of the |iopula- tion. These restrictions were abolished by a decree of the governor, of May 7th, 184C. American ships sailing direct from the United States for Miquelon and St, I'ierro, either in ballast or loaded, enjoy the same privileges as French vessels coming from the United States, and pay no more duty than the suld French vessels, with the exception only of a compensation for the interpreter — which, however, by another decree of June 26, 1N47, has become entirely optional : that is, if the captain or any one else on board understands the French language, he Is not obliged to t.iko an inter- |)reter. The duties for American vessels are, there* .lore, as follows : tVilgnttlonof T«it«l. . -. - jiUTiEg.- ■- ■ "i MAViaATION. llotplUk* duel, {Mr Ciutnm>honu duei on ihn VAltmiloii otctirgit. TooMf*) P«T ton< PUolsf«, {Mr Teiic). Ughl-hoiiir, p.r THilBl. Under 80 torn, , , . , Exempt. • 10 7* Exempt (2 RU'8 4 6S 64a Exempt i »188 Kxeinpt. $1 86 lporcentaa\»l* I percent advftl. 84) to 49 " flOtoTO " Ocranii; — The ports of the French dependencies In the I'ttcitlc Ocean are free ports. Tonnage Dulie$. — For vessels over 10 tons, 28-0 cents pur ton ; for vessels under 10 tons, 13'8 cents per ton. Duliei for ffaiinnnli;ing. — For vessels under 100 tons, $1 67 ; from 100 to 200 tons, $8 88'3 ; from 200 * '* BntrtpJtficH/" « private storehouse where goods are nndcr the sole aiipcrrlsloo of the depositor. to 800 tons, $4 44 ; for each 100 tons additional, (1 11-6. t)utii$ far Clearance. — Docked vessels, ijil 11'6; without deck, $0 18'6. These are duties both for American and French ves- sels coming or going direct from or to (lis United States, in virtue of the above-mentioned decree. If, however, trading indirectly, they are subjected to the same duties as all other ships, for which, both French and foreign, the duty is as follows : FRA 1U Tabiit or 1347. PRA suravAvloif or rwaniM, suTtn, OMKKTATIOHa. PUoUge, per vettel. Tonnji|r«i p«r tuD, LlKhl-hooM, par niMl. HoiplUI, far TCHtl. Cuilom-hoiua dual. Jfr»ne\ reiueh. From m — (9 tons From M— 149 tons ISO and upward Foreign te—tU. 80 tons and loss 1 SI— 49 1 60—79 11 25 % 08 260 »8 70J 6SSi 740 i- »0 04J ■ Win (1 86 «18« •186 1186 • 1 per cent, on tho valaatlon of the cargo. Fronch vessels arriv- ing ftom the ports of tho IT. S. are sub- jected to tho same duties as American. 80 and upward Tabiff Duties cm Impoutation of SpiBirs in Foreiojj VK88KL8, BT A DeCRF.R OF NOVEHBEB 14, 1847. Danomlniition of dukIuukIIm, Number^welfflit or meoiurv, Wines, French, In casks jl'er barrel . " " In bottles Per dozen.. Llquar^ cordials, and all alcoholic 1 litre, or If wine, In casks. . The same. In bottles. . Absynthe, " Boer, " .. pint. Per dozen.. Rata of duty, |1 86 87-8 11-25 74-4 1 48 87-a The game orticbs pay, in French or Tahitian ves- sels, only one half of these duties. (1853.) — Com. Ret. U. a. French West Indiet. — The French colonial posses- sions in the West Indies formerly comprised a domain of great extent and value, agriculturally and commer- cially. The war consequent upon the grout lievolution in France terminated in an almost total destruction of her power in the New World. Hayti was then wrest- ed from her. Her necessities compelled her to dispose of Louisiana. At the close of the war in 1815, the naval power of Great Britain had enabled her to seize ever}- one of the French Islands, and drive tho fleet of France from the seas. By the treaty of peace consum- mated in 18M, and confirmed in 1815, England released to her some of the c:iptured islands. Her possessions in that quarter now consist of Martinique, Guadaloupe and adjacent islands, and the north side of St. Martin. The intercourse between the United States und tho French islands (San Domingo l^eing then iiu'Iuded) was originally regulated by an arreli of the French government, dated the 30th of August, 1784. Amer- ican vessels of at least CO tons were admitted into cer- tain ports in these islands, ladeu with lumlwr of all kinds, dye-woods, live stuck, salt l«ef, salt flsb, rice, raw bides, peltr}', rosin, pitch, and tar, which they exchanged for rum and molasses, und goods of French manufacture, paying thereon the local duties, and one per cent, ad valorem on all ir^^orts and exports. A further duty of three livres was impoiied on ever hun- dred weight of salt beef and fish, to form a fund for premiums to be given for tish from the French tisheries. The colonial legislatures were authorized, in times of scarcity, to suspend this law. Prior to tho French Revolution, the policy of France was in contrast with, that of England. That of England was to monopolize the carriage of the articles exchanged ; that of Franca, to monopolize the articles themselves. The former was willing that the United States should have sugar and coffee, provided they were carried in British l)ot- toms ; the latter was willing that the United States should supply her sugar and coflec plantations with certnin articles she was unable to furnish herself, but would not allow them td receive in return, the most valuable productions of the col(mies. Tliey were re- served for consumption in the mother country, and to augment tho national wcaltli. Under these regula- tions, the United States were prompt in availing them- selves of the advantages of the carrying trade to and fh>m tho French islands. In 178*1, our exports, domestic and foreign, to the French West Indies, were of tho value of 18,2B8,000 livres ; and our Imports from thence of tlie value of 7,263,000 livres ;* and the American vessels engaged in the trade had an aggregate of 5095 tons' burden. Upon the declaration of war against Great Britain, in 1793, France opened a free trade with all her colonies. She offered the United States the monopoly of this trade, on condition of a guaranty of her possessions, which was wisely declined. Our trade with the islands during the war was nevertheless much augmented. Our proximity enabled us to seize the advantages in advance of other countries. The following table ex- hibits the imports from and exports to tho French West Indies for the }-ears designated : Import!. »15,751,768 Yran. 1TK5 1 796 16,748,774 1707 14,080,887 1798 15,880,091 1799 2,022,929 1800 9,8)«,111 1801 18,593,266 Kiporta. $4,954,953 8,408,946 8,566,058 6,844,690 2,776,694 6,128,483 , 7,147,972 Tho exports of our domestic produce duing the years 1804, 1805, 180t>, and 1807, were of the average value of $2,800,000, and of foreign produce l>etween $3,000,- 000 and $4,000,000. Our imports during the same period were of much greater value ; but the principal part of them were re-shipped to France and other countries. About the latter part of the year 1807 tho English had become possessed of nearly all the I'rench islands ; and they were not restored to France until 1814, and then with the loss of the most iihportant one — San Domingo. Its loss greatly reduced the amount of commerce of those islands with the United States, as is exhibited by the subjoined statemeni. of imports and exports from 1821 to 1833 : Year*. Importi. 1K21.. (900.619 1S22. 1«28. 1824. 1S25. 18i6.. 1827.. 969,509 989,618 8'i4,0S4 848,968 978,270 921,830 Expert*. 1396,486 961,002 867,,^95 811.782 1,011,956 956,174 1,040,858 Year.. 1928. Import*. t8»J,6M EiDorla. ♦1,024,771 1829. 777,992 1,072,407 1880. .61\687 805.769 1881. 67l,8l2 717,877 1882. 57»,H57 624.975 1888. 511,242 618,719 The conditions of our corimercial Interconrse with tho T'rench West Indies were again changed by a roj-al or- dinance bearing date the 5th February, 182fi, and nn act of Congress l>earing date the 9th May, 1828. By the former, it is ordained that, after the Ist July fol- lowing, all vessels, cither foreign or national, may im- port into Guadaloupe and Martinique certain articles of merchandise, s|)eciflcd in the table accompanying the ordinance, on paying the duties therein rcquireil, without regard to their flagK. This ordinance also an- nuls all then existing tarilfii. The act of Congress ad- mits all French vessels " coming directly from the is. lands of Martinique and Guadaloupe, and laden with arti- cles the growth and manufacture of either of said islands, and which are permitted to be exported therefrom in American vessels," into the ports of the United Stutc), on payment of no higher duty on tonnage or on cargoes than are imposed on American vessels, and on cargoes imported in American vessels. The French ordinance exempts foreign vessels also, importing the articles thus authorized, trom any oilier duties or tonnage, or any port charges, but those to which the vessels of Fronee are subjected. The importation of other ar- * The Uvre was a coin of France prior to 1797 ; 81 UTres be- ing equal to 80 franca FRA 745 FRA tides than thcao specifled by the ordinance, by foreign vessels, is prohibited ; and articles allowed to bo im- ported can only be re-exported from one colony to an- other by French vessels. The imports and exports under the soregnlations have already been given, up to the j-ear 1H8U. The following tablo exhibits them from the year 1814 up to the close uf the year 1855, inclusive, embracing a period of 12 years : Yean, Iniporta from French W«il Indies. Erporrt 10 French Wert Indie.. 1844 1874,(105 416,082 848,230 . 151,806 127,089 71,469 75,084 22,009 4«,2S7 52,804 161,0s5 44,484 (617,646 6tW,10S 685,021 608,164 489,024 104,998 287,668 810,281 4,W.444 898,269 612,027 409,701 1846 1840 1847 1848 1840 1880 la^il 1852 1858 18M 1865 llTres be- On the 8th of December, 18-19, the tariff of 182G was somewhat modified by sliglitly enlarging the imports ; but the equal conditions upon which national and for- eign vessels were placed in respect to tonnage and port chargfis were not disturbed. The prospectH of an increase of our trade with the French West IniUa pos- sessions, and the motives to impel us to strive to ob- tain it, will he found in a brief summary of their natural resources and the conditon of their population. The island of (iuadaloupe lies between 15° 58' and 16° 13' north latitude, 20 miles north of Dominica. Its dependencies are Marie Galante, La Dcsirude, Les Saintes, and a portion of St. Martin. The aggregate area of the whole of them is 309 square miles, and the populations of all lila,000. The central ridge of (iua- daloupe is a chain of volcanic mountains 3000 feet higlf. From its base a multitude of rivulets descend watering the lowlands to the sea. The Frineh Colonies in 1858.— 'The colony of R6- uniun had, on the 1st of January, 1858, 53,175 immi- grants, of whom 30,141 were Indians, 151 Chinese, 10,509 Africans, and 71 nalivea of the different islands of Oceanica. On the 1st of .Tiinuary, 1857, the num- ber was only 50,227. Tliis abundant supply of work- men Is explained by the encouragement which K6- union has always alfurdul to the entrance of Indians and blacks. The ordinary premium given is 500 francs. The wages paid is about 10 francs a month, and a free passage back to their country is always guaran- teed to each immigrant. The Indians and Africans are the most highly valued by tho colonists us labor- ers; the Chinese are not in great repute. Prench Guiana, in 1857, only received 250 immigrants, and tho total ninnber there on tho 1st of .lanvary, 1858, was 1315, of wliom H72were Africans ami 143 Indians. According to a contract entered into with a house at Nantes, the premium given for each adult African was, in 1857, 329 francs; but, from tho dllliculties which arose in recruiting them, the price rose to 500 francs. The wages paid arc, on an average, 12 francs 50 cen- times a month, witli food and medical attendance. Martinique, in June, 1858, had 4927 immigrants, of whom 4412 were Indians and 515 Africans. This small number of immigrants is not sufKcient for the wants of tho colony, and tho colonists are anxious that immigration should be encouraged by every iiossible means. Ouadaloupe is better off in this respect than Martinique. In .Tunc, 1858, it had 098 Africans, 2800 Indians, and 141 natives of Madeira, making to- gether 8646 innnigranls. The wages are, on an ov- erage, 12 francs 50 centimes, exclusive of hoard, lodg- ing, and medical attendance. The natives of Madei- ra, when once they are inured to the climate, make excellent laborers ; but this takes place with difliculty, and only when they are employed on the high lands of tho colony, — Uivut C'olvniala. French vessels from the French islands of Martin- ique, GuudalouiM), ,St. Pierre, Miquelon, and Cayenne in French (iuiana, were exempted from tonnage duty under the special act of Congress of the 9tfa May, 1828, and, as to St. Pierre and Miquelon, by the pioc- lamation of the President of the United States, dated the 20tli of April, 1847, consequent on tlie removal by Franco of the restrictions on vessels of the United States in s'lid islands. A French vessel bringing Hsh from the l)anks of tho British colony of Newfoundland, being the product of the waters of that colony, is not exempt from tonnago duties ; the act of the Od of Alarch, 1845, exempts from such duties only French vessels coming directly from tho islands of Miquelon and St Pierre, either in ballast or laden with articles the giuwth or manufac< ture of either of said islands, and there is no other pro- vision of law or treaty authorizing an exemption. French Colonita. — Decree of /Septentber 29th, 1856.— The Kluperor Napoleon, has decreed as follows : AiniCLE 1. The extension fixed l>y the decree of September 19th, 1850, for the operation of the modifi- cations in the tariff of customs in the colonies of Mar- tinique, Guadaloupe, the island of Keunion, and of Senegal, in all that relates to grains, breadstufl's, and dried pulse, is continued to December 81st, 1857, AiiTici.R 2, Our ministers, secretaries of state, etc., will see to the execution of tliis decree wliich will also 1)0 published in the " ISiiUetin des Lois." The United States' consul at P.iris communicates to the State De- partment, under (hito November 10th, 1850, as fol- lows : "I beg to jioint out to your notice a modifica- tion in the duties on wool, as puldished in the MoniUur of the 8tli instant (which I herewiti inclose), and of which the foUoT/ing is a translation : ' Viewing the law of the 27th July, 1850, which has modified tho importation tariff on wool in bulk.' " Considering tliat it is necessary to place the duties estaldished on the importation of combed and dyed wool in unison with the existing duties on wool in bulk, it is decreed : AnTici.K 1. The custom-house duties on the importiv- tion of combed wool and dyed wool are fixed as follows : Fr. Coniboil wool By French vessels, per 100 kilo's 70 " By foreign vessels, " " 80 Dyed wool of all sorts.. By French vessels, " " 100 " " . . By foreign vessels, " " 115 " 8t. Pieobe, January 2;jil, 1867, " Since my last report there has been a considerable change in the duty on tobacco imported from the United States. It has been raised from 20 francs, or about it'A 75 jwr 220 lbs., to the enormous figure of 60 francs, or al>out $11 25 per 220 lbs,, making an aug- mentiition of 200 jyr cent. " Some slight ameliorations have been made with respect to tho importation of pork and hams, which heretofore had to ptuss through a French port l)efora admission, but which can now be imported direct from tho United States under a duty merely nominal. " It is much to lie desired that the French govern- ment should extend tliis privilege to all articles indis- criminately that could be imported here from the United .States. " Tho importation of flour from tho United States into this island has been much greater this year than during previous years. From tho 30th ilune to the 31st December, 1856, upward of 10,000 barrels have been iin|iortcd direct from the United ^States, and about un equal quantity of United States' Hour has been imported by way of French ports. This may be accounted for by tho duty having boon temporarily reduced, and it is much to be regretted tho measure is not a permanent one. The new duty (which expires tO' give place to the old one on the 31st December, 1857) is, on overy 220 lbs. of flour, 2 francs, or al>out 37i^ cents, Tho old one is, on every 220 lbs. of ttour, 20 francs, or about it3 75, a duty that of course ren- dered tho importation of flour impossible so long as it FRA 746 FRA existed. Ton will observe from the retarns, that this island exports almost nothing to the United States. The staple products are sngar, mm, coffee, and these are not allowed to be exported except to France. Some years ago there was a cnnHlderable exportation of molasses to the United States ; but this branch of commerce has completely died out, owing to the great extension of distilleries in the island and the conse- quent scarcity of molasses. — ComtUar Ketums, In order to present an English view of the com- merce and finances of France of late years, we add from Tooke's " History of Prices" (vol. vi., London, 1867) the following " Conclusions arising out of the Inquiry as to the Finances and Credit Institutions of France," contributed l)y William Newmarcii, Esq., to the new volumes of that work. " That the revolution of Februarj', 1848, occurred at B period when, by the operation of numerous causes, the finances of the French government were already seriously embarrassed ; that among the most important of these causes were the laws of 1841 and 1842, under which the State bad taiien upon itself the responsibili- ties and the expenditure entailed by the construction throughout France of an extensive net-woric of trunk lines of railway ; the unproductive expenditure for a long series of years of large annual sums in Algeria ; the unproductive expenditure of considerable sums on public works, yielding no adequate return either direct or indirect ; and the maintenance for a long period of an excessive annual outlay on the army and ma- rine ; and that in immediate aggravation of all these causes of flnai cial disorder, there had occurred in France, in the losing months of 1846, and throughout the greater part of 1847, a commercial crisis (taking its origin in the serious failure of the harvest of 1856) more severe and disastrous than had been experienced in France for 20 or 30 years. That the suspension of cash payments by the Bank of France, adopted in March, 1848, and maintained for two years and a half, till Augiut, 185U, was a measure wholly unavoidable, in consequence of tlie prevalence in March, 1848, of extreme internal discredit, which admitted of being met iu no other form; tliat the prevalence, during these two and a half years, of a very low price of com in France ; of a state of the ex- ternal trade of France which established a large yearly balance in favor of that country ; and of the absence of any political causes which rendered it necessary for the government to require excessive advances from the Uank of France, rendered the suspension practi- cally unproductive of any depreciation or inconve- nience ; and led to its removal in August, 1850, by the spontaneous accumulation in the Uank of France of an amount of treasure quite equal to the amount of notes in circulation. That among the important circumstances which have contributed to strengthen the position of the Bank of France since 1848, and to aid the government in its plans for fostering credit, Ims been the extension by ^£12,000,000 or £14,000,000 steriing of the disposable means of the Ilauk of France in consequence of the addition of that amount in the form of small notes to the former average circulation of the establishment. That under the autocratic government, established in December, 1851, there have lieen introduced into France a set of financial principles ; and there have been placed in conrse of trial a series of financial ex- periments, distinguished by a novelty which finds no sanction in any successful precedent ; by a hardihood which set at naught almost every established canon of finance ; and by a disregard of the future, which purchases present popularity at any co;t. That the earliest purposes to which the new finan- cUl pulley w:M devoted were the reduction, in March, 1H52, of the interest on the French 5 per cent, debt ; the imposition on the Hank of France of a new char- ter which compelled iw at once to lower the rate of dis- count to S per cent, and to make large advances on stock-exchange securities ; the concessions, on condi- tions more or less onerous to the State, of a large num- ber of lines of railway j and the introduction of seve- ral joint-stock companies, encouraged by every State appliance to foster the application of credit to purposes of speculation. That between the early part of 1852 and the autumn of 1853, the prosperity and progress which seemed to prevail in France were chiefly the results of the artifi- cial measures. That the difficulties of various kinds which hove oc- curred in France since the close of 1853 ; and more especially the difficulties experience,! liy tlie Bunk of France in the autumns of 1865 and 1856, have arisen in a principal degree — allowing, of course, for the war and the scarcity — from the embarrassments and disor- ders nntailed by the policy which has forced upon France enterprises and speculations disproportionate to its resources of available capital. That these embarrassments and disorders would have become altogether overwhelming if it had not Ijeen for the springing up, since 1849, chiefly in the gold countries, and in consequence of the gold influx, of a demand for French manufactures and produce, so large and continuous that, during the 9 years 1848-'56, the balance of trade in favor of France has amounted to not much less than £80,000,000 steriing. That neither the apparent success of the reduction of the French 5 per cents, in March, 1852, nor the ap- parent success for some time of the enforced maintcn- anc3 of a low rate of discount ; nor the setting up of popular discount and loan banks ; nor the apparent alacrity with which the subscription lists of the war loans of 60,000,000 were filled up ; nor the mainten- ance for a long period of the schemes of selling bread at an artificially cheap price ; nor the multiplication of railway companies by means of guarantied divi- dends ; nor the apparent prosperity created l)y public works and credit institutions, afford the smallest sup- port, when examined minutely and fully, to the finan- cial principles and the financial practices which have held the supreme place in France since December, 1861. That of the two great credit institutions called the Crfidit Foncier and the Credit Mobilier, the former is directed to a useful and laudable object, but is de- graded and disfigured by the introduction of elements of gambling, empirical and pernicious ; and the latter, the Cr6dit Mobilier, seeking to obtain large profits by exciting violent fits of stock-jobbing, and to obtain large funds by the issue of obligations practically not payable in specie, approaches, in design and machin- ery, nearer than any institution of recent times, to the model afforded by Law's Bank of 1716, and the Com- pagnie des Indes of the three following years. That as the result of the whole investi'jation con- cerning the financial policy of France since 1847, there have been made apparent three principal facts, namely : Ist. That between 1847 and 1851, it was the abundant harvests and low price of food in France, which con- tributed in the largest degree to preserve order, to re- store cosh payments, and to re-establish an equilibrium l>etween the income and expemiiture. 2d. That ))0- tween 1851 and 1857, it has lieen the £100,000,000 sterling, made available to France by the economy of its metallic circulation, and by the demand for its silks and wines in the gold countries, which has so far car- ried it thniiigh the perils of war, scarcity, and extrav- agance; and, 8d. That the reckless and Bocia'',stio linancial policy introduced since December, 1851, has already exposed France to failures and |)erils quite as formidable as any that were threatened by the revolu- tion of 1848, and unless subjected to early and severe restraints, will assuredly produce the most disastrous consequences." See Tookb's Hittory of Pricet, voL vi., London, 1867, pp. 130-184. FRA Ut FRA Frank, the name hy which the Turks, Greeka, Arabs, etc., designate a Christian. It proliably origi- natoil (luring the crusades, in which the French (de- scendants of the German Franks) particularly distin- guistied themselves. Europe itself, too, was named Frankistan, or the country of the Franks. The Frank language, Lingua Franca, is a jargon which is spoken in the Levant, as the common medium of communication between Europeans and the inhab- itants of the East. Its chief ingredient is Italian, and it probably originated during the crusades, which brought so many different nations together. Frankfort-on-the-Maine (Ger. Frankfurt Am Maine), one of the four flree cities of Germany, and so called to distinguish it ftrom the Prussian town of Frankfort-ou-the-Oder. It took its name (J'rankm Furl) from the river being fordable at this point ; and is supposed to have been founded by the Franks in the fifth century. From the earliest times Frankfort has been closely connected with the other free cities of Germany. During the ancient empire the cities formed together one corporation at the Imperial Diet, and enjoyed one vote in the public affairs. Up to the dissolution of the German empire, in the year 1804, there existed a great number of free towns, whiph had preserved their sovereignty and independence against the surrounding princes, depending only on the empire, and enjoying various privileges granted to them by the emperors. These disappeared, for the greater part, with the events of the Rovolution. Of tuose which had survived the German empire the towns of Hamburg, Bremen, and Lubec were incorporated with the I'rench empire ; while Frankfort became the seat of the Grand Duchy of the same, created by Napoleon, and placed under the rule of the Prince Primat Archbishop of Ratisbon. The overthrow of the French conqueror in 1818 re- stored these towns to their former independence, and they were received as sovereign members of the con- federation. The towns of Hamburg, Bremen, and Lubcc once Iwlonged to the Hansa, that celebrated league which was formed hi the thirteenth century. Its real object was the prcteotion and extension of commerce; but its power and influence increased in sucii u way that it at length included eighty-iive towns ; it equipped fleets, and declared war on neigh- boring States. England and other powers concluded treaties with the Hansa, and were glad to enjoy its friendHliip. This league, however, was dissolved in 1G30, when the last of its diets was held at Lulwc ; and from that time the three cities of Hamburg, Bre- men, and Lubec remained alone, as the properly-called Hanse Towns. These, with Frankfort-on-the-Maine, form the four free cities of the German Confederation. These four f^ee cities are represented in the German Diet )>y one minister, and have together one common voice. Notwithstanding this joint representation, each one of the four cities has its own particular representa- tive at the seat of the Diet. Hamburg is represented by Mr. Kirchenfrauer, Bremen l)y Burgomaster SmidC, Lubec by Senator Elder, and Frankfort liy DeHar- nier, senator and eldest burgomaster. The joint vote of tlio four cities is alternately intrusted to each of the towns for the period of a year. The free cities likewise have in common a supreme court of appeal for law cases, and political questions, too, sitting at Lubec ; and the control over which is alternately ex- ercised by one of the four cities. Besides that, there exists between them a similitude of political institu- tions. Their form of government is that of a repub- lic, the basb of which (excepting the short period of 18^18 -'flO) has, nevertheless, always boon rather more of an aristocratical than of a domocratical character. Their Interests are closely united ; they have the same political friends and opponents. The chief manufactures are carpets, table-covers, oU-clotb, cotton, woolen, and silk fabrics, jeweli^', to- bacco, playlng-onM*, etc, Frankfort was made a (Vm port In 181)1, and Is also one of the four great empo- riums for supplyInK Germany with merchandise. The river Maine, which U navigable to Bamberg In Bava- ria, whore comniencea tlin Diinau-Malne Canal leading to Kelhelm oi. the Danube, and the numerous railways which centre In Frankfort, render It the Industrial and commercial centre of the south-west and west parts of Germany. "So German city, with the exception of Berlin, Is the centre of sn great a number of railways. Four great lines, and seven others of a more local character, meet In the city. The Malne-Necker rail- way loads southwunl to the Grand Duchy of Baden, whence railways proceed to dwltzorland, Wurtemberg, and Bavaria. 'I'lie Taunus railway leads west and north-west to Mayonce, and to Wiesbaden. From Mayence a railway goes to Ludwigshafon, the harbor of the Bavarian Palatinate opposite Manheim, thence to Straslwurg, and therefrom to Paris as well as to Switzerland, Another branch from Ludwigshafen meets the HtraslKiurg and Paris railway at Nancy. From Wiesbaden a line Is now (1865) in course of con- struction to Coblent/,. The Maln-Wesor railway passes through the ^^■ iter part of the two Hesses to Cassel, and cummunluutes with Hanover, Bremen, Hamburg, etc. On the right Its branches lead to Berlin and Saxony, and on the loft u lino wl^l soon be opened to Cologne, The llanaa railway connects Frankfort with Hanau and the chief places on the Maine to Bamberg, from which southward with Nuremberg, AugsliurK, Munich and Austria, and In another direc- tion with Lelpslc, Uresdon, and Bohemia. There are also local linos to OITontmch, the chief manufacturing town of Hesse Darmstadt, to Hoden, a much-fre- quentod bathing-place, and to near Romburg, one of the famous spas of Uormany. Frankfort, however, is chiefly indobtod fur Its great wealth to Ijeing the seat of extensive banking, cimimission, and funding trans- actions. In proportion tu Its size. It is probably the richest city In the world. There are about twenty , llrst-class banking houses | among these are the Roths- childs, Grunolius, Motzter, and others, well known in the commercial world. The number of those in the stock and exchange business amounts to at least 200. A city bank, with a capital of 10,000,000 florins, was establlshod lust summer, and has just (1856) com- menced business o|i«rntlons. The two fairs of Easter and MIclmelmus are still much frequented. Goethe was born here In 1711), (;ivll population (1862) 62,361, lielng 47,100 Protestants, 10,001 Catholics, and 4600 Jews; military, AOrK)— 1717 being Austrlans, 1713 Prussians, IHIIl Bavarians, and 829 natives. The population of Frankfort Is but slowly increasing, on account of tlio old lllllMral laws still in force as to admission to citizenship. Only such are admitted as can prove thuir ability to maintain a family ; so no merchant can be ny the courage and intrepidity they displayed in executing the most difficult enterprises. The origin of their history is involved in oliscurlty, nor has the derivation of their name been precisely determined ; iiut the ^tiliiutiers of the French historians correspond to the bucanefrt of our own writers. (See BucANKKRg.) The South American islands farmed the chief theatre o! their exploits ; and such was the relentless hostility they exercised against the Hpuii- iards, that during the latter half of the seventeenth century their commerce in those seaa was almost utterly ruined. At the commencement of the follow- ing century those daring adventurers sustained a series of disasters which sensibly diminished their num- bers ; and their name, which during a period of 50 years hid been so redoubtable and dreaded, ceased to be formidable from that time. The term freebooter has c^ea applied in a general sense to robbers and other plunderers. See Bdcaneebs. Free Imperial Cltlea.— This appellation was bestowed, under the German empire, on certain cities which acknowledged no head but the emperor, and were governed by their own magistrates. Some of these cities, as Worms and Cologne, acquired various privileges and immunities at an early period, in con- sequence of the assistance they rendered the euipcrors in repressing the arrogance of the nobles ; and com- merce and manufactures gradually contributed to their importance. In this manner the imperial cities originated in the middle of the twelfth century. It would appear, however, that there were free cities In Germany which bad existed from the time of the lio- mans, though possessing little iu common witli those of li'ter times, and which in the beginning of the six- teenth century lost their most valuable privileges, and oven the name of free cities, through the ignor- ance and carelessness of their magistrates. As to the nature of these privileges It will lie sufficient to re- mark that they were such as to constitute them noth- ing less than independent republics. The cities of Lombardy, enriched by commerce and encouraged by the popes, often ventured to resist their masters vbe cmjierors ; and their example was followed by those of Germany. In the middle of the thirteenth century two important confederacies were established for com- mon objects — the Ilan^eatic League in 1241, and that of the Rhenish cities in 1246. The powerful Ilanse- atlc League lasted nearly 400 years, and its dissolu- tion was effected by several causes in 1630. The remnants of this league, with the former confederacy of cities which had its representatives in the German Diet, as well as the free cities of Hamburg, Bremen, and Luliec, were Incorporated with the French em- pire in 1810. As these cities co-operated vigorously in the recovery of German independence, they were acknowledged, together with Frankfort, us free cities by the congress of Vienna j and as such they joined the German confederacy, June 8th, 1815, and olitalned the right of a vote in the '>iet. See also H ansk Towns, Free Trade. A nation, iiossessing all necessary physical resources, but imperfectly develo|)cd, like England a centur}' ago, like the United States now, may do one of two things. It may resolve to produce for itself, or resolve to let others produce for it. If it resolve to use its own products, it must resolve not to use the products of other nations. Now, what is a protective tariff, which prevents tlie sale of foreign products, but this resolution expressed by legislation ? Two things ari' necessary : 1st. Not to use the pro- ducts of others. 2d, To produce for one's self. The first is protection. Now It Is true, that without Indus- try at home, protection from abroad will avail nothing, for there is nothing to protect. And without resources, neither protection nor Industry will avail any thing. We admit tlio necessity, first, of natural resources ; second, of industry ; wo claim, third, the necessity of protection. Protection, then, is the resolution of a nation not to use foreign products ; this is tho negative side of the policy of homo industry. A resolution to produce for itself is the affirmative side, and is necessary to com- plete it. Such a resolution in a nation is like self-con- trol in an individual, and protection is no more un- natural in the one than self-control In tho other. It Is a domestic policy, designed to keep foreign goods out of the home market. Now, a nation may sny it will not buy of others. This Is protection. It ■:an not say others shall buy of itself. This is beyond the power of protection ; and England reached this point years ago, we think as early as the beginning of the century. During the European war she enjoyed the most effectual protection, for we admit the fling of the free-traders, that protection is a sort of war, t'-.us far, that it involves mutual exclusion. England's fleets swept the seas, conveying around tho world her merchantmen that carried the raw materials to her fac- foui sisti ihii the proi: sis, the and nm wha ager men com I pric( mail IVf Idly FRE 749 PRE i to )reign may It pyond tbU ingot ijoyed ingof thus land's Idhor er fac- tories, and carried it baclc mannfactured to tlie ends of tlie earth. Xo otiier nation but the United States pretended to share the carr^'ing trade, and we then, favored by like protection, iirst began to manufac- ture. England commanded the marlcets of the world. What iiad site to fear for the marlcet at home ? Pro- tection had done its perfect worlc — it was funcUu offi- cio ; and yet, when England, thirty-five years after, when they had become useless, ventures to throw off some of the restrictions that swathed her industry, we are told she had abandoned the principle, convinced it was a mistake. Oboss Revknue ri.ou Customs or Obkat Britaik, after Dkiiuotioh or Drawbacks, with Statements or Customs Duties repralbd, beduokd, or expirki> each Year, and those imposed, prom 181A to 1S55. nmumn ankual producr op | CUITOHS Dunu T»\B. C17BT0M«. Rcpaaloil. Iinpoied, 1816 £23,488,000 £228,000 £(M,000 1816 19,845,000 63,000 90,000 181T 22,111,000 1,000 7,000 1818 22,869,000 1819 21,952,000 472,000 l,26b',66o 1820 22,104,000 6,000 1821 22,572,000 20,660 .... 1823 2«,,'i00,000 158,000 .... 1S23 24,841,000 211,000 1824 24,711,000 1,418,000 46,66o 1825 24,660,000 2,768,000 . • . 1826 22,8,56,000 778,000 189,000 1827 »:i,202,000 2,000 21,000 1828 21i.S66,000 86,000 2,000 1829 22,620,000 126,000 1S80 22,914,000 675,000 86',66o 1881 21,612,000 1,066,000 626,000 1882 21,978,000 248,000 23,000 1S88 21,2,V),000 847,000 1834 21,661,000 806,000 17,660 18.S8 22,146,000 88.000 1886 28,046,000 143,000 i",66o 188T 22,068,000 .... • 1 • • 1S!!8 22,365,000 • • > • 188» 2.'i,184,000 6^660 1840 2.S,842,000 i,06o,66o 1841 28,516,000 27,660 1842 22,628,IM)0 1,490,000 i6r,66o l^tt 22,647,000 171,000 .... lSt4 24,107,000 286,000 • • • 1845 21,706,000 3,608,000 .... 1848 22,278,000 785,000 2,000 184T 21,6,16,000 846,000 1848 22,594,000 686,000 1849 22,269,000 889,000 • • •* 1850 22,020,000 834,(H)0 • • . • 1851 22,137,000 801,000 .... 1852 21,791,000 06,000 1868 22,152,000 1,600,000 16^660 18M 22,017,000 983,000 440,000 1855 22,227,000 2,226,000 " We have seen that, apart from foreign trade, the population of every country supply their own wants to the extent; of from 90 to 99 per cent, of their whole consumption ; that the business of furnishing this sup- ply is by extreme division of labor, apportioned among four fifths of a people ; that their internal trade con- jists in distributing these products of industry ; that this distribution is substantially an exchange among the wliole individuals of a population, of products for products, or products for services, or, in the last analy- sis, of liilmr for lalmr ; that this exchange :s made l)y the agency of merchants, and takes the shape of sales and purchases, that is, leaving out of view the medi- um of exchange, men pay with their own labor for what they need of the laimr of otliers ; that all the Bgenry of merchants, brokers, banks, and credit, is merely a means of effecting this exchange, that the commodities or ialjects of consideration. The first considera- tion is the people, then, in their order, their labor, their products, and the distribution of them. The whole object of their industrj' is their well-being. As they can only purchase by their own Iaix)r what they need of the labor of others, it is abso'utely necessary for all to work ; whatever deprives men of the opportunity of labor, deprives them of liread, and of every other com- fort and necessary of life. Men consume freely and largely when they are fully paid for their labor ; that is, when they can purchase for their labor an equal quan- tity of the laI)or of others ; in this case, the nominal rate is of little account, liecause it is labor for labor. If the 25,000,000 of people in the United States, are consuming $10 wortli each of domestic woolen goods annually, upon the manufacture of which 260,000 of the people are dependent for their entire living, and if it be found thot these same goods, which cost at home $S, can be purchased at $2 per yard in Europe, then, at first sight, it would seem but reasonable, that the cbeaiwr article should be imported from Europe. To import $250,000,000 worth is impossible, because we can not pay for them, as wo are constantly importing more than we can pay for, iiud that sum is the figure of our whole imports. We import, then, say 10 per cent., or $25,000,000 worth of woolen goods, and sell them in our great commercial marts, where prices are cliiefiy made, 33 per cent, cheaper than the domestic article. Consumers fly to tlie cheaper article, and the domestic goods must come down to the same price. The annual domestic product must fall in price 33 per cent., and instead of lir!nc;ing its manufacturers $250,000,000, it will only l)riii)j 'lem $160,000,000 ; tlicir consump- tion of the product f others must 1)6 reduced one third. The effects of this luction will extend until tliey are felt throughout n \ ile nation. The importation of 26,000,000 of cheapo I . odens, would thus inflict a di- rect loss by reduction ui price upon the woolen manu- facturers of $8.S,000,000, and this loss is multiplied many times by indirect results In the reduction of con- sumption. The average consumption of cotton goods is about the same as that of woolens, and the same il- lustration is applicalile. The introduction of cheaper goods, of a kind which our country must, after all, chiefly maniifacturo for itself, is introducing against our own labor, the price of which is $1 per day, the la- l)or of other countries, the price of which is less than 60 cents per day. This can not but inflict a serious blow upon the whole system of our internal industry, and if continued, must leod to the utter prostration of the domestic manufacture thus attacked, and the utter poverty and ruin of tlie hundreds of thousands depend- ing on it for a living. TIte eft'ect of this in the case of woolen goods, v;ould be a reduction in the average con- sumption of woolens, of from $10 to $5, for the whole population, and a rise in the prices above the original domestic rates. While, therefore, it may at flrst sight appear to l>e very plainly lietter to import certain goods which can bo offered to consumers at lower prices than the corresponding domestic article, several questions must 1)6 asked before such a policy Is adopted. As, Will the Importation seriotudy Injure any home manu- facture i Will it throw muiy people out of employ- FRE 760 FRE ment ? It ii a great mtatake to Bnppose that anch meas- nrea affect only cmployen : in woolen and cotton man- ufactories, there are hundreds of men, women, and children, depending upon every employer. If we los- len our domestic production, will not our increased de- mand produces peculation, and a higher foreign price for the article imported ? If we resolve upon importing our whole supply of a necessary article, are we sure that we can increase our exports to a sufficient extent to pay for the additional importation ? Are we sure that we shall not, by this policy, deprive the poor of their supply of a needful domestic product, and con- vert it into a foreign product, chiefly supplied for the consumption of the rich ? What mode can be adopted to secure a supply of these needful articles in time of war, or interrupted commercial Intercourse ? All these, and many more inquiries, should be made and faith- fully studied, before any branch of domestic industry is broken up, under the temptation of buying cheaper goods abroad. On the contrary, it should be well understood in every country, that many sacrifices may, i^ith advantage, be endured, to introduce the manufac- ture of any article of general consumption, even though it can not be made as cheap as elsewhere. A manufac- ture can only grow and flourish in a countr>' where the people are willing to consume its products, and they can only consume them where their labor will purchase them. A people can consume largely of a doinestic product even at a high price, but may not be nl'Ie to consume even a small proportion of a corresponding foreign article at a low price. Let any one think of the innumerable articles which figure in our internal trade, and which go to pay for, as well as to mako up our consumption of home commodities, and he will see the diffcn uce betwen purchasing abroad and at home." — List's Pol. Ac., by S. Colweli,. Those who wish to examine the literature ot free- trade, will find the principles fully discussed in the following works : Hunt's Mag., vol. iv., 227 (S. G. Arsole), 425 (II. Greelev), v., 1C6 (11. Gkeelby), vi., 220 (C. C. Haven), viii., 407 (L. Woodbdry), Ix., 161 (J. B. Fisher), x., 399, 522, xi., 227, xxiv., 53 (S. Beman), 669, xxiii., 79, 110, xxii., 635 (IUcon), 406 (Slllkt), XXV., 822 ; N.Am. Rev., xl., 122 (A. H. Eveuett); Am. Qaar., x. 444; Dem. Rev., vii., 841, Ix., 829, xiv., 391, 447, xxxiii., 97; Dublin Univ., xxix., 785, XXXV., 270; £2, C04, ix., 856, vi., 693 (Galt), vii., 106 (Gait), .xliii., 716; (2i(nr.^<'r.,lxxxvi.,80; For.Quar., ix., 261, X., 68; xi., 140; Weitmimter Rev., xii., 138, xviii., 31)6, xix., 269, xxii., 220, xl., 1 ; Blackwood, xvii., 551, xix., 474, xxL, 1, xxiv., 370, xxvii., 553, xliv., 317, Iv., 259, 385, Ixvii., 94, 222, 447, Ixx., 106, 123, 448, 629, Isviii., 123. Freight, the sum paid by the merchant or other person hiring a ship, or part of a ship, for the use of such ship or part, during a specified voyage or for a specified time. 'The freight is most commonly fixed by the charter-party, or bill of lading ; l)ut in the ah- sence of an}- formal stipulations on the 8ul>ject, it would be due according to the custom or usage of trade. In the case of a charter-party, if tlie stipu- lated payment Iw a gross sum for an entire ship, or an entire part of a ship, for the whole voyage, the gross sum will be payable although the merchant has not fully laden the ship. And if a certain sum be stipulated for every ton, or other portion of the ship's capacity, for the whole voyage, the payment mu.-t be according to the number of tons, etc., which the -hip is proved capalda of containing, without regar 1 to the quantity actually put on board liy the nutrch.mt. On the other hand, if the merchant h:iva stipulated to pay a certain sum per cask or bait: uf goods, the pay- ment must be, in the flnt place, according to the num- ber of casks and bales shipped and delivered ; and if he have further covenanted to furnish u complete lad- ing, or a specific number of casks or bales, and failed to do so, he must make good the loss which the own- ers have sustained by hi; failure. If an entire ship be hired, and the burden thereof be expressed in the charter-party, and the merchant bind himself to pay a certain sum for every ton, etc., of goods which he shall lade on board, but does not bind himself to fur- nish a complete lading, tb« owners can only demand payment for the quantity of goods actually shipped. But if the merchant agree to load a full and complete cargo, though the ship be described as of less burden than she really is, the merchant must load a full car- go, according to the real burden of the ship, and he will be liable for freight according to what ought to be loaded. The delivery of goods at the place of destination is in general necessary to entitle the owner to freight ; but with respect to living animals, whether men or cuttle, which may frequently die during the voyage, without any fault or neglect of the persons belonging to the ship, it is ruled, that if there be no express agreement whether the freight is to be paid for the lading, or for the transporting them, freight shall be paid as well for the dead as for the living : if the agreement lie to pay freight for the lading, then death certainly can not deprive the owners of the freight; but if the agreement lie to pay freight for transporting them, then no frcght is due for those that die on the voyage, because as to them the contract is not performed. These distinctions have been made In the civil law, and have been adopted into the modem systems of maritime law. Freight is most frequently contracted to be paid either by the whole voyage, or by the month, or other time. In the former case the owners take upon themselves the chance of the voyage lieing long or short ; but in the latter the risk of the dura- tion falls upon the merchant; and if no time bo fixed for the commencement of the computation, it will be- gin from the day on which the ship breaks ground and commences her voj-age, and will continue during the whole course of the voyage, and during all una- voidable delaj's not occasioned by the act or neglect of the owners or master, or by such circumstances as oc- casion a suspension of the contract for a particular period. Thus, the freight will be payable fur the time consumed in necessary repairs during a voyage, pro- vided it do not appear that the ship was insufliiiont at the outset, or that there was any improper delay in repairing her. In the absence of an express contract to the con- trary, the entire freight is not earned until the whole cargo be ready for delivery, or has been delivered to the consignee according to the contract for its convey- ance. If a consignee receive goods in pursuance of the usual bill of lading, by which it is expressed that he is to pay the freight, he, by such receipt, makes himself debtor for the freight, and may be sued fur it. But a person who is only an agent for the consignor, and who a known to the master to be acting in that character, does not make himself personally answer- able for the freight by receiving the goods, although he also enters them in his own name at the custom- house. In some cases freight is to be paid, or rather an equivalent recompense made to the owners, al- though the goods have not licen delivered at the place of destination, and though the contract for convey- ance be not strictly performed. Thus, if part of the cargo be thrown overlioanl for the necessary pre.ierva- tion of the ship and the remainder of the goods, and the ship afterwanl reach the place of destination, the value of this part is to be answered to the merchant by way of general average, and the value of the freight thereof allowed to the owner. So, if the mas- ter be coni|ieIled by ne •^ssity to sell a part of the cargo for victuals or ropa. ii, the owners must pay to FRE 761 FRE the merchant the price which the goods would have fetched at the plaoe of deitination ; and, therefore, are •Unwed to charge the merchant with the money that would have been due If they had been conveyed thither. When gooda are det<>riorated during a voyaga, the merchant is entitled to a compenaation, provided the deterioration hoa proceeded from the fault or neglect of the master or mariners ; and of course he Is not •nswerabte for the freight, unless ho accept the goods, except by way of deduction from the rmount of the compensation. On the other hand. If the deteriora- tion has proceeded from a principle of decay naturally Inherent in the commodity itself, whether active ':n every situation, or in the confinement and closeness of a ship, or from the perils of the sea, or the act of God, the merchant must bear the Inss and pay the fireight ; for the master and owners are in no fault, nor does their contract contain any insurance or war- ranty against such an event. In our AVcst India trade, the freight of sugar and molasses Is usually regulated by the weight of the casks at the port of delivery here, which, in fact, is in every instance less than the weight at the time of the shipment : and, therefore, the loss of freight occasioned by the lealiage necessarily fulls upon tlie owners of the ship by the nature of the contract. Different opinions have been entertained by Valin, Pothier, and other great authorities us to maritime law, with respect to the expediency of allowing the mer- chant to abandon his goods for freight in the event of their being damaged. This question has not been judicially decided in this country. " The only point," says Lord Tenterden, " intended to lie proposed by me as doubtful, is the right to abandon for freight alone at the port of destination ; and in point of prac- tice, I have been informed that this right is never claimed in this countrj'." — Laio of Shipping, part iii., c. 7. Freight being the return made for the convey- ance of goods or passengers to a particular destination, no claim arises for its payment in the event of a total loss ; and it is laid down by Lord Mansfleld, that " in case of a total loss with salvage, the merchant may either take the part saved, or abandon." — Abbott, part iii., c. 7. But after the merchant has made his elec- tion, he must abide by it. It often happens that a ship is hired l)y a charter- party to sail from one port to another, and thence back to the first ; as, for example, from London to Leghorn, and from Leghorn back to London, at a certain sum to be paid for everj* i lonth or other |icriod of the dura- tion of the employment. Upon such a contract, if the vhole be one entire voi/aije, and the ship sail in safety to Leghorn, and there deliver the. goods of the merchant and tuke others on board to be l)rought to l4>ndon, but happen to be lost in her retrm thither, nothing is due for freight, although the m erchnnt has hud the benefit of the voyage to X/Oghom ; but, if the outward and homeward voyngei be distinct, freight will bo due for the proportion of the time employed in the outward voyage. " if," said Lord Mansfield, in a case of this sort, " there \>e one entire voyage out and in, and the ship be cast away on the homeward voyage, no freight is due, no wages are due, because the wlwie profit is lost ; ond by express agreement the parties may make the outward and homeward voyage one. Nothing is more common than two voyages : whercrer there are two vnyaget and one i> performed, and the ship is lost on the homeward voyage, freight is due for the first." — A'. B., Trin. Term. Iti Geo. 3. It frequently happens that the master or owner fulls to complete his contract, either by not delivering the whole goods to the consignee or owner, or by deliver- ing them at a place short of their original destination ; In these cases, if the owner or consignee of the goods derive any benefit fivm their conveyance, lie is liable to the payment of freight according to the proportion of the voyage performed, or pro raid ilinerit peracti : and though contracts of this nature be frequently entire and indivisible, and the master or owner of the ship can not, from their nature, sue thereon, and recover n ratable freight, or pro raid itinerit ; yet he may do so upon a fresh implied contract, for as much as he de- serves to have unless there be an express clause in the original charter-party or contract to the contrar}'. A fresh implied contract is inferred from the owner's or consignee's acceptance of the goods. Many difficul- ties have, indeed, arisen In deciding as to wliat shall amount to an acceptance : it is not, however, necessary actually to receive the goods i acceptance may be made by the express or implied directions, and with the consent, of the owner or consignee of the goods, but not otherwise. It sometimes happens that the owner of the ship, who is originally entitled to the freight, sells or other- wise disposes of his interest in the ship : wliere a char tered ship is sold before the voyage, the vendee, and not the vendor or party to whom he afterward ossigns the charter-party, is entitled to the freight. Uut where a ship has been sold during the voyage, the owner, with whom a covenant to pay freight has been made, is entitled to the freight, and not the vendee. A mortgagee who does not take possession, is not en- titled to the freight. The time and manner of paying freight are fre- quently regulated by e.xpress stipulations in a charter- party, or other written contract ; and when that Is the case, they must be respected ; but if there bo no ex- press stipulation contrary to or Inconsistent with the right of lien, the goods remain as security till the freight Is paid ; for the master is not bound to deliver them, or any part of them, without payment of the freight and other charges in respect thereof. But the master can not detain the cargo on board the vessel till these pajinents he made, as the merchant would, in that case, have no opportunity of examining the con- dition of the goods. In England, the practice is, when the master is doubtful of paj'ment, to send such goods as are not required to be landed at any purticul.r wharf, to a puldic wharf, ordering the whurlinger ni't to part with them till the freiglit and other charges ure paid. No right of lien for freight cun exist, unlc:ts the freight be earned. If the freighter, or a stranger, prevent the freight from becomingdue, the ship owner or muster's rem'.dy is by action of dumuges. For further information and details with respect to this subject see the article Charter-party ; Abbott (Lord Tksterden) on the Law of Shipping, part iii., c. 7 ; Ciiittv's Commercial Law, vol. iii. c. 9, etc. Freight Is a common sul)ject of insurance. In com- mon conversation, tliis word means sometimes the cargo carried, and sometimes the earnings of the ship by currying the cargo. The latter Is the nica^iing in mercantile law, and especially in the law of insurance. It includes tlie money to lie paid to the owner of a sliip by the shipper of goods, and tlio earnings of an owner hy carrying his own goods, and the amount to bo paid to liim by the hirer of his ship, and the profits of such hirer, either by carrying bis own goods or bj- carrying for pay the goods of others. An interest in freight begins as soon as the voyage is determined upon and tlie ship is actually ready for sea, and goods are on board or ready to be put on l>onrd, or ure promised to be on board by a contruct binding on the owner of the goods. If a ship is insured on a voyage which is to consist of ninny passages, and sail without cargo, Imt a cargo is ready for her at the first port she is to roach and ireak up the voyage. If there l>e a consfrutive total loss of the ship, the owner may abandon the freight with the ship ; but if the ship be actually lost, the freight may not lie ; for the mas- ter has the right, and is under the duty, of transmit- ting the goods, if he can ; and If he does, the owner of the ship Is entitled to the whole of his freight, and the expense of the transmission Is all his loss. If the mas- ter might have done this, and fails to do it, the esti- mated expense of transmission is still all the lose for which the insurers are responoible. So, if the ship can Iw lepulrod, and go on again and finish her voyage, the owner would have the right to hold on to the goods, and Anally carry them, and earn bis fk'eight. And he has this right alt'iough the delay would be ver}' long, and even if the )r jods are Injured, •nd It would cost time and money to put them in a condition of safety for the residue of the voyge. Still, the ship-owner, by his agent, may do all this, und then earn his freight ; and, therefore, If it can Iw done, whether it is done or not, all the claim which the in- sured on freight can make on the Insurers Is for the ex|)en9e nf doing it. The rule of 60 per cent, ap- plies to freight also. If, therefore, freight pro raid Im paid, it will be a total loss by construction if less than half be paid. So if the ship be injured, and part of the cargo be lost, but the ship may be repaired and carry the remalnini' goods on. If that part would pay more than half of the whole freight, it has been held not to be total ; and otherwise, it is. Freight is full}' earned If the goods remain substan- tially in s|>ecie, and are so delivered to the consignee, altliough there be a very great deterioration ; but fr<>igbt is lost, and the Insurers are responsible. If nothing Is left of the goods but the mere products of decomposition, so that they are lost In fact. If, after some freight is earned, there is an abandon- ment of the ship, and, after the abandonment, more ft«ight Is earned, the American cases hold that the fl^Ight earned before the abandonment goes to the insurtn on freight, while that earned after the aban- donment goes to the insurers of the ship. But the French law is the reverse, and pursues the rule in En- gland. By the French law, an abandonment of the ship gave to the underwriters the benefits of the freight pending at thu time of the loss. In the United States it seems now to be well settled that the freight eameing introduced which Is not consistent with the plain and obvious meaning of the words. The parties to it are the owners if present where the contract is made, and generally also the master, or the muster alone if the owners are absent ; and the merchant who hires the ship, or his agent. If the charter-party is liy deed and executed by an agent, be should bo au- thorized by deed, or letter of attorney, to sign for his principal, and must sign in his name. If the agent signs in his own name, actions on the charter-])arty will have to be brought liy or against the agent. The merchant hiring is called the charten r or freighter. The letting is for one or more voyages or some period of time : the money to l>e paid for the hire is called freight. This may consist of one sum for the whole ship or part let, or so much for each ton or each piece of merchandise, etc., the fiwighter undertaking to find a full cargo. If the payment !s to be made by the ton there should 1)0 provision for payment at the same rate for a loss quantity. Again, the payment may be by a sum in gross for the whole time of the ship's employment, or at a certain rate per month or other period of time. A month is understood to mean a calendar month. The charter-party expresses the register tonnage of the ship more frequently by both the old and the new modes of measurement ; and when the sliip is char- tered by the month the hire is paid for the number of tons, commonly old measurement, at which she is reg- istered. When the freighter is to pay l>y the ton, freight is to l>e paid only for the actual tonnage of the goods without any reference to the register tonnage ; but the goods mnst be in suitable packages, or otherwise the owner can claim for the lost room as dead freight. The words, or thereaboi'ts, are generally understood to mean alwut 6 tons ; but in one case where a ship was described aa of the bunlen of 261 tons or there- abouts, and the fftightcr undertook to find a full car- go, and no fraud was impntalde to the owner, the freighter was held bound to find an actual full cargo, though the ship carried 4(M) tons. Goods, however, may be packed according to the custom of the loading port, and so may form a full car,^ although it may be |)Ossible to pack them in less cumposs. Thus sugar may be packed In hogsheads if such is the custom, though it would take less room In tierces. A charter-party being an agreement tirawn up at the discretion of the paitles, thbv may of course in- troduce any terms they agree upon. The usual un- dertakings, however, a' said by I-ord Tenterden, ore on the part of the owners that the ship shall be tight, and strong, fumishsd with all necessaries for the voy- ago, ready by a day appointed to receive the cargo, and wait a certain numVer of days to take it on board. But the obligation to remain the whole of the running days may tie dispensed with by a distinct intimation tiom the merchant that no cargo will be provided, and that it is useleos to wslt. That after lading she shall set sail with the first fair wind and opporlimity, to the destined port (the dangers of the tea excepted), and FRE 1M FRE Ihero doliver the goodn to the merchant or hit aaslgna In the mimo condition nn they were reeclvoil on Imard ; and further, that during the cuurae of the voyuK^' the •hip iiliall l>e liept tl);lit, and xtuuiuli, and furnlnhed with anftlclent men and utiier ncccuHnricA, to the \>f»* of tliu owner's endeavnrH. If the eliip prove not ti' 'iKht, atiiunch, and flufllclent, the owners will, ne.crtholess, bo liulile although they them.ielvps liidievcd her to lie an. The merchant undertakes to load or unload with- in the time appointed, or within a roasonuhlo time, and t(. poy the freight. I'rovlsiona are also often Intro- duced relative to demurrage, which will he explained h"rettfter. The ship, and freight, and cargo, are also (>ftcn hound In a penalty l>y the owners or master, and tlio freighter respectively, for the performance of their undertakings, Ilut these clauses seem in tliis coun- try, at least, to he of no utility, fur in nn action for tile i'ailure of the undertaking the plalntiflf would re- cover to the amount of the injuries he hud suffered, Slid in no case, whatever penalty might lie introduced, couid he recover more. Neither could these clauses gWi; any direct remedy as against tlie ship, or freight, or cargo. If either party lie not ready by the time agreed on, the other mny seek a ship or cargo elsewhere, and also bring an action for the insuftlciency ; or if tlie mer- chant appears to be insolvent he may safely make up a cargo from other quarters. When the goods have been put on board, bills of lading ore signed by the master. These are evidence that the particular goods are shipped as the charter-party is of tho contract for conveyance. The ship owner has n Hen upon goods in respect of wiiich a (luyment is due to him, and may therefore detain them till the payment is made. Uut he can not by virtue either of tlie general law of lien, or of the clauses aliovo alluded to, detain the goods because of the merchant's failure to perform his under- takings generally, as for instance his undertakings tu pay demurrage or port dues, etc. Moreover, a party can liave no Hen unless he has possession of the prop- erty over which he claims to exorcise it. An absolute owner, therefore, of a ship who has so completely parted with the possession and control of her as to "luse the hirer to become the temporary owner, will not have the right of lien over the goods conveyed on toard his ship. Owners ought carefuU}- to consider this consequence, liecaiise if tliey part with tlie |)os- lession of their ship, and tho hirer of it be not u re- iponsiblo person, they will cense to have in their hands one very convenient and direct means of securing remuneration. Special terms of course may be intro- duced in the contract by which the right of Hen may cither bo entirely released, or it may be extended be- yond what is conferred bj' the general rule of law. Hy the following agreement the . icr was held to have crejited for himself a right of Hen for the bal- ance duo to him under tlie charter-party as to all the lading, though part had lieen transferred by endorse- ment of a bill of lading independently of the general rule of law, or the question whether ho remained in jiossession of the ship. The ogreoMient between the parties was that ownership of the ship "should re- main tirmly and be fully vested in the owner, and that he should at all times during the said intended v(^go nnd service, have a full and complete lien npon the lading of the ship as well as for all losses and damage which the said owner might sustain or be put to in consequence of non-payment of any of the bills to be given for freight, etc., and should have full power and authority to hold and retain the said goods until full payment of all si>'''i losses, charges, dam- ages, and arrears of freight paid for on account of the charterer, and which he of right onght to pay agreea- bly to the true intent of the charter-party." The freighter may either till the ship with his own goods or relet the whole or part to others. Where a ihip baa been let to hire at to much a month and t.be Bbb freighter lets at so much a ton, the owner has no right to detain the cargo for the amount the freighter haa ag.-eed to give him. The actuol shippers are only liable for wlittt they have ogreed to give tho freighter. The owner, thercfuro, may have no right to detain ihe goods of tho actual shippers for tho freight atated In tlie charter-party, but he may for that which Is men- tioned in the bill of lading. And he has a right to that In preference tc the freighter. Tlio bankruptcy of the charterer or any pledge or assignment made by him will not affect the owner's right of lien. Sailing with the first wind, is held to mean sailing without unnecessary delay, " Leave Amatordam," docs not necessarily mean to sail thence on the voy- age. Hut " final sailing" means the final departure from port and being at sea, ready in all respects to p.oceed on tho voyage. (See chapter on Kiarino In- surance.) If cither party be not r"ttdy by the time agreed on, the otiier may seek another uliip or cargo and bring action for the damages caused by tho delay. A deviation on tlie voyage will not dojirive tlie owner of his right to freight, though it may subject him to action if it causes a loss of the insurance to the freight- er. — Mercantile nnd Mantime (Itiiile, lAinilim, IHoU. Freight, in the common acceptation of the term (ac- cording to KKNT'ti Ct>mmentitrie»—see vol. ill,, diap. xlvii.), means the price for the actual transportation of goods liy sea from one place to another, but in Its more extensive sense, it is applied to all rewards or compensation paid for the use of siiips, including the transportation of passengers, Tlio personal obliga- tion to pay freights rests either on the charter-porty or on tho bill of ludint', by which tho payment of freights is made a condition of delivery ; and the gen- eral rule is, that the deliver}- of tho goods at tlie place of destination, according to the charter-party, is neces- sary to entitle the owner of the vessel to freight. The conveyance and delivery of the cargo form u condition precedent, and must be fulfilled. A partial perform- ance is not suflicient ; nor can a partial payment or ratable freight be allowed, except in special cases ; and those cases are exceptions to the general rule, and called for by the principles of equity, Tho amount of freight is usually fixed by agree- ment between the parties ; and if there lie no agree- ment, the amount is ascertained by the usage of the trade, and the reason of the case. Ifthe hiring lie of the wliolo ship, or for an entire part of her, for the voyage, the merchant must pay the freight, though he does not fully load the ship ; but if he agrees to pay in pro|iortion to tlie amount of goods put on board, and does not agree to provide n full cargo, the owner can demand payment only for the cargo actually shipped. If the merchant agrees to furnish a return cargo, and he furnishes none, and lets the ship return in ballast, he must make compensation to the amount of the freight ; and this is sometimes termed dead freight, in contradistinction to freight due for tho actual carriage of goods. It is supposed to be the doctrine of the case of Sell V. Pullen, that tho master would be entitled to freight for bringing back the outward cargo, if it could not be disposed of, though the charter-party was silent as to the return cargo. It would stand upon the equity of the claim to dead freight. The French law, in such a case, allows freight for bringing back the cargo be- cause it could not bo sold, or was not permitted to In landed. KIr. Justi e Story, in the case of the ship Hooper, United States' Circuit Oourt, Massncliusetts, May, 181)9, 3 Sumner, M'i, laid down the general rule that freight for the entire voyage could only be earned liy a due performance of the voyage ; and that the only acknowledged exception is when there is no de- fault of the carrier-ship to perform the voyage, and the ship-owner ia ready to forward them, but there is a default on tlie part of the owner of the cargo, or ha waives a further proaecution of the voyage. FRB 764 FRE If part of th« rarg<) lie until on tlie voyogs fh>m ns- ceuitXi the owii»r, »» we Imvc ieen, |uijn the value at the port of delivery, deiluctiiiK the freight equally a» If the t(ood( hod arrived. Uut if the Koode In prohib- ited on entry liy the Knvemment of the countrj-, and ■uch prohlliltlon taki'x pliice after the coinmpni'enipnt of the viiy«(iP, nnd tho CHrgo Im liroiight Iiacic, the flroi)(ht for tho outward voyiifje hax lieen hold to have been earned ; and tho cane wait dii an extraordinary' cause, inde|i«ndent of the orilinary marine |ht11ii. The cane of a l>locknde of, or Interdiction of, connnerue with the port of di«chari;e, after tlie conimencement of the yoyt<({e, is held to he different ; for, in that cane, the vaya)(o i» held to l>e broken up, and the charter-party dissolved ; and if the car);n, liy reason of that olista- cle, 1)0 liroUf(ht l>ack, no freight is due. The same principle uppi if the vorage be broken up and lost l>y capturo upor. .e (uixsaKe, so as t;) cause a complete defeasance of tlio undertaking, notwithstanding thorn was a sulueipient recapture, as in tlie case of the Hiram. On tlie other hand, nn embargo ilotaining tlie vessel at tho port of reuks ground, and ulterward recupturnd, liut tlio voyage lie broken up, the ship-arture. Such an olistacle does not discharge the contract of freiglitment, bccaii.io It is merely u tenijxirary sus|H>n- sion of its performance ; and the ship-owner may de- tain the goods until he can prosecute the voyago witli safety, or until the freighter tenders him the full freight. This was the decision in the case of /'aJmrr V. Jjirilltii-d, in which tlie doctrino was extensively examined; and it was shown, by a reference to the foreign ordinances, and the soundest classical writers on maritime law, that tho master, In the case of such an invincilde obstacle, of a tem|H>rury nature, to the prosecution of the voyage, is entitled to Wait for the removal of it, so that he may corn liis freight, unless the cargo consists of perishaliie articles which can not endure the delay. He stands U|)on a principle of equity which per\'ades the maritime law of Europe, If he re- fuses to surrender the cargo to the sh" ;• without some equitalile allowance in the shap? of freight for his intermediate services. When the goods become greatly deteriorated on tlie voyage, it has licen n very litigated question, whetlier the consignee was liound to take the goods, and pay the freight, or whether he might not aliandcm the gowls to tho master in discharge of the freight. Valin and Piithior entertain diflerent opinions upon this ques- tion. The former insists that the regulation of the ordinance holding the merchant liable for freight on deteriorated goods, without the right to alxindon them in disarties may stipulate tliat the freight so )>re- vlously advanced shall, at all events, be retained. In Watiim V. Ihnjkinik, tho rulo of tho i: irine law was recognized, though it was not applied to that case, be- causo the contract there apiioared to lie, that tho freight was |iaid for receiving the passenger and hia goods on lioard ; and, in such a case, tho payment is to lie retained, tiiough the vessel and cargo be lost on tho voyage. Tlie general principle of the marine law was admitteil in the fullest latitude In Origgt v. Aiialin; and whether tho price previously advanced is to lie retained or returned becomeji a question of intention in the construction of the contract. The French ordi- nances require a special agreement to eniililn the ship- owner to retain the freight paid in advance ; and Va- lin says that many authors on maritime jurisprudence, as Kuricke, Loccenios, and Straccha, will not allow even such a special agreement to be valid. The Kn- glish law is not so scrupulous, and does not require any such express stipulation, ur^d allows the intention of the parties to retain the previously advanced freight to lie more easily inferred. In De Sihale v. Ktudall, tho Court of King's Itenoh adopted a directly opposite principle, and observed, that if the charter-party was silent, the law would reipiiro a performance of tho voyago liefore freight was due ; but the parties ii^lit stipulate tliat part of the freight be paid in antifl^a- tion, and lie made free from subsequent contingency of loss by reason of loss of the sulisequcnt voyago. If freight be paid in advance, and there lie no express stipulation that It sliall bo rotiired in the event of freiglit not being earned, the inference Is that tlie par- ties did not intenil that the payment of the part in ad- vance should lio subject to the risk of the reinaindor of tho voyago ; and without some provision of that kind, a now implied contract to that effect could not be raised. See Kent's Cnm., vol. iii. ; Pakhons on Cun- IracU, lioston j Men; and Marit. Guide, London, 18S7. FIlK m FltO TnteO Fulntlng. x m*ttl(Wl nf imtnttng with Wtttiir-iiiliirK iMi friiali iiliulKr ttlilln It In ntlll In n unft •liitii, liy h' Mi iiii'iiii* Ihn I'liliirft nti> liirorpdrntcil witli tliii plHttiir, kihI lii'i'diHM UK iiKrirmiiPMt nn tlin inntorlal mi whirl) lliuy HMi ii|irMiiil, Tilt" lliilliiiK, fniiii wliuni wo Ipiprniw Ihu ii>riM, iiill it /nini (lltKrHliy frnh), eltlior liucaimii It la Kkiii'iilnil ii|iiiii rri'ali iilniitpr,' or liecaune it in iitiui (Ml itritlja, iiiiiivva, Mini irlfior l>uililinK> In tlio i>l<«n Hir, Vitriiviiii) (vii, 4) iniii It paiiitinK nth ler. (will, j'lilntintf III fruai'ii I* n rtry •iicicnt art. li wiia |iriti'lii'iii| liy liin nwriy (ifii|i|i», niiil iniiy lie tmi'cd Willi tn ilti; |i<> It U MHllKfltlly iDiKiiiitsil nil walla iinil viiiilla, lliii |i1iivt«r IikIiik laid mi In miicxiiiilve iMirticmx, i>r wi Miiii'li iiiily lit iiiiH ilinn a* tlin luiliilcr can dliipateli iitiriiru it ilrlna, 'I'll* itiiaiKii la iiallully drawn iireviniisly nil iiiiper, til li« cliiiliiiiil and ttailafi'frcd tn tlie wall aliout liiiir all iiiiiir iirtur ilia piaatnr Ima linen liild. From tlin dlltli'iilty iiC iiiaiiliiK altfltullona on tlin work rlien th« colora am oiii » aliMirliiol, tiin dp«l((ii alioiild lie prc- vlmuly priipiirnd wltli liix ufnntt-at iicciinicy. When nil ulturiitliill liiiint iiii iiwili, tlin liiirl \^ uiiuully out eiillndy away, iiimI fKlalit wllli frnali plaster. Tiie nn- I'ii'iita paliitKd 0)1 aliiii'iii and wn may remark In VI- triivlua wliut liilliilln ram tliey took in niukInK th« liiiriialiitliii) or iiiaatiiflnK nf tlielr liiillilInK", to remler tliiMii liiiaiilil'iil and laallnx | tliiniKh tlin mmlprna And u plaatnr of IIiiim and aiiiid (in feraldn for frencn paint- ing, liiitli liuuuinii It iloaa tint dry an liaatily, and oniic- 'ount iif iln aiilidiiKii and a«refalil(< tint. The pl^- iiunta liiludy fHiployiid in tlila itiiid of painting arc I'iirtlia, liiuailaa Iliiiir tuilnra urn nut llulile to lie aflfeitiMl liy the \<\m\\ltK i|iiailtlKa nf liin limn. White la niiido of lliiiu aiai'knd miimh tillin lirKVlinialy, nrnfwliltn nmr- liln duat I and tllM ntlinr aiilialiilli'na uaed are red and ^idl.iw ni'lir.-, vnrdllnl', lapladamili, liliick chalk, etc. riichu niily ivjiiirn to lin «riiiiMd and mixed up with wiitiT, 'lliti iiriialiaa and pniiclla aliould lie long and aoft, ulh«rw|au tim/ afn apt to rakn and rnlae the aur- f.icu, III onlur that tlia work may come out In nil Its licauty, tll'i inlnra llMlat lie laid on ((ulikly, while the plaatur la atlii iiinlat | mil' alindtd llinv nver lie retouched ilry witll lolora liiiktid Up wllll wliitn of egg, size, or gmii, aa la aoinetlinna ilnim j iiecauae sUch colors grow liliicklah, and anon tarniali, Frenben, in aca lanumige, the I. iteased enrrent of an I'lili tidii liy inoana of a llnod nf frcKh water flowing (lilt Into tlia »<.((, iiy w|||i<|| ||., waters iiri) often discol- ored for a grnal diatani'n ffnni tlin ccmat. Freinel, AuguiUn Je«n, Thn Invontor of the light now gniiarally Hand tlirniigli(,ul Kurope and ill varlnua parts nf tIm I fulled Htalns, for llght-houses. I In wa« dl'tiiigiiialied fur lila imutlcal appllciitinn of optiiH tn thu uanfnl iifta with Willi li Ills niiinp will ever lin liniioralily aaonelnled. At leiisl as early as IHIil it incurred In liliii that leliana tnlglit Im suristiluted for niirrnri, for tiia piirjiiian nf dlreeting parallel niys of light frnni ilgiit.lioMaiia, ailil llllla pfnventing inngrciit iniMiHiira lliii iiulltral wnaiilieso, In ennseiiiience of Its divorgenin, of light aami at a dlotflnen, It further oc- ciirriMl to liliii Hmt If nsca of Inrgn slue, and of modcr- iitu tliicknixia, liil|{l|t ii« hiilll ii/i nf sngulents of lenses. Thia laat Idea waa not iiMtpin the ll^'lit-hnusu commission i and in duly, IH'Jil, thn ('iirdumi l.igiit-iiouse, at the mouth nf the Oaronne, was oiiiiplcted upon the new plan. — K. B. lie was the author of various works on the Uiffrac- lion iiff.iifhl, on the In0iirncr nf Ileal oh (.'iilort, on tha /iiJlMmur iifthf Karlh't Moliun, on tlio Muliitil Ailiim of I'liUiritui Light, etc. Through the instruineiituilty of Messrs. K. ami (i. W. lllunt, of New York, the Kren- nel liglit was adopted in the Uiiitol States in tlie year IMilX, and is now in use generally in the light-houses of tills countr}' orid of Kiiro|ie. Kresnel was liorn May 111, 17HH, nt llroglle. In the departiiieiit I'rc, Normandy, and died at V'ille d'Av- ray, Kranco, on the llth duly, 1m27, aged .'I'J years. Frigate (Kr. frigate (f) ; Lat. ojikrudui, a long undecked vussid) ; a ship of war, usually of two decks, designed for swift sailing. Frigates mount from 20 to 44 guns, and sometimes more. T he name was origi- nally applied to a long kind of vessel navigated in tlie Moditerrancnn with sails and oars, Fri'iiitoooiiy a Ve- nitian vessel with a s.inare stern and without n fore- mast, having only a main-most, mizzen-maat, and liow-sprit. Frith, or Firth (I.at. fretum, a narrow sen), la a term chiefly applied to a narrow and deep inlet of tha sea upon u river, as the Firth of Forth, in BcotUnd. T'his term corresponds to the ford of the Danes and Norwegians, who, in all jirobability, borrowed It from the Knglish. lloth Latin and Teutonic are derived not Improbaldy from the same root, fahren, to luuu over ; whence ferry, ford, furt (Germ.), as in Frank- furt, Krfurt, etc. FrobUher, Sir Martin, a celebrated English navigator of tho sixteenth century, was bom (in what year is not known), at Doncastcr, in Yorkshire. He WHS the lirst Knglishinan that sailed in quest of the north-west passage to C'liinu and tho Indies. " lleing thoroughly furnished of tho knowledge of the sphere and all other skills pertaining to tha art of navigation, and lining persuaded of a new and nearer passage to ( 'atuya limn by Cajx) do liuona Speranva, which the Por- tiigals yearly use, and knowing this to be the only thing nf tho world tliat wiw yet left undone, whereby a notalilo niiad might be made famous and fortunate," he applied to various Knglish merchants to assist him In his projected enterprise, but for 15 years witliout aiiccess. At the end of that period he wag enabled, through tho assistance of Dudley, Earl of Warwick, and others, persons of rank and fortune, to set out on the expedition. He sailed from Deptford, .Tune 15th, 1570, with three small vessels, two of them, the Go- briel and the Michael, barks of 25 tons each, and the third a small pinnace of 10 tons. As they passed Oreenwich, the Queen, who happened to be there with her court, " commended tlicin, and bade them farewell with shaking her hand at them out of the window." After passing the Shetland Islands they came in sight of " Frceseliind" (.luiy llth), where they were unable to land on account of tlie ice, and on the 28th of the same month they reached that part of Greenland which Krolilshcr named " Meta Incognita." On the llth August they sailed through a strait which Frobisher called by his own name. Pursuing their way they passed several islands, to which they gave names, and came on the 18th to Butcher's Island, where they lost a Imat and part of their crew through tho treach- ery of the natives. After this they turned their prows homeward, and reached Enj^lund September 7th. Fro- FRU 708 FITO l>Uhi>r had Ukm poiMMlnn of tha varinna |ila<'aa ha liiurhrd at In tlin nainn of tha (Juaan | anil In liikan of thla ho (irilitrnl hi* man to put on lioarcl •lil|i whiit- avtr thry llrnt IhIiI hitnila on. AmonK olhar IhlriKa thua Hai'umI wan a lump of lita< k alonn, whlili mI l''n)liUliar rrtuniiiil honi«, wat urrlilanlally illmiivarail tn ointaln ifiM. Thla illavovary wiii anon iiiiUiol ahrrwil mill In thn fiillnwln)( iiprInK l''Ml>iihi>r raiiillly founri tha nixanii to fit out anothxr ax|Hiilltlon, iMrlly •vIriUlllc' ami partly with u vIkw to prouii iiIImk tha •earcli for nold. The Quaan lent lilni from Ilia roval navy a uhlp of 'jnt) ton«, with whiih, nml two »Miullar harkt, ha aailail from llarwirh, May III, 1A77. On nr- rivinn at tha »ien« of their forniar ilUtovaript thry founil that IUiIh of thn kiiM oru rnmiilnoil, liut lliay opcnetl forthwith communlrutlcinii with thn nullvaa for the |iur|ild country timii ha wiia iilili)(ed to return from tha latnneM of tlie aaaaon. Thla wiia the liiht of KruliiHlier'a polur voyii){ea. It la not known how he waa occupied durin^t the next aeven ynura, hut in lAXIi he aci'iini|)anled Sir Kriiin i.i Drake on hia ex- pedition tu the Weat Indiea, unil three yeiira later did aach (food aervice againat tho Niimilah armuiht ua to lie rewanli-d with the honor of knl^litluHid on liourd Ida own ahip liy the lord hi^li ailuiirul. In IMII, iifter varioua explolta againat tlio .Spiiiiiiinla, hn waa aent to aariat Henri IV. of France u^ainat thv Npanhirda, and tho meiultera of the leajjuc. Thn enemy had fnrtllled thnmaelvca atronKly in Croy/on, near llrnat { and In un attack on their jioallloii Froliialinr waa mortally woundml. lie lived to take hia fleet aafnly hoiitn, and (hortly after died at I'lymoutli,— /^'o^, llril.i ll.tH- LPTT'h CuUeel. of Voyagrt ; Stiiw'h .Innii/ra, etc, etc, FrobUBer Strait, an nmi of the aea In llrltiah North America, between lludaon .'^trait and Northiini- lierland lulet. It extenda in u weatnrly dlreitloii from the entrance to Davis' Strait. Prult(Ger. Obtt. ArucA/e; Du. ft/'.' ••'"■• '''"''.' ''• f'rulla, f'rutif; Sp. Fruta; Kui. Owosihltfh j |,at, t'rtictum), Thla appellation ia tieatowed by comnicr- cial men npon those H|>ecie8 of fruit, audi as orttnf(ea, lemons, almonds, raiains, currants, apples, etc, whirh constitute articles of inipiirtution from f>>ri'l|{n luun. tries. (lurdeninK wua undoulitedly aniuiiK thn llrnt of the arts to which the attention of man waa direitad. If we would ascend into remote antiquity, wa ciiii have TCcourae only to conjecture ; foraltlinUKh, in tha aacreil writinKs, and in tho earliest profane jiutliura, Hlluaioiia to Karilcna occur, little is told ua eitlmr of tlieir pro- ductions or their culture. .liiilKinK, though, from the liteniture of the present day, wc hliall scanel i And any art which rerrivet more attentimi. .Several varieties of fruit urn mentioned a> having licen iiitnidueed into Italy, 70 ii. i., i-l tn/, Kmith' fruits and ftowera of varioua kinds, previoiialy unknown tha faults whnaa Intrwiuctlun Into Rngland hai l)<>eii (raiad (llAlriis)! yamta, arn. rr..m Barhary ...Kyrla. North Ainarlca.. tntt 17IM IN|g ISM llUffl Almnnd-lrsa Applaa Ajipla, Ilia eiiilaril Ajipli', llix llugK .. " Aiirliiila Kplrna., I 'ni'rrv - Iraea I'oiilna . . I'ornallaii rliarr/ Aualrla. t'urraiila SUiiln . . . t'uirant, the hawthorn t'ansila JTOJi KiK'Iraa Houth nf Knrnpe, be for* IMI Kla. the IMan)>-bax...N«w Muulh Waloa Hit lliHiaelH'rrli'a Klamli'ra htturt IfMfl parsgiiB Aala 1.1'itiii'i' llriibaiit Atllrlioliea Holland llarile The Kaat ahallota Mllieria llorae llaillali Chirm kl'lney Heaiia . ..K. Inillea llourda Aatraean From I-entlla. Franra Chervil Italy Celery Flanders I'oUtoea Braxll Tobacco Anierlra Calibago Holland Aniae Kci pt I'araley KitVpt I iirrota Flanilcrs llrocoll Cyprus Bi'an^ liVtiuco I'eaa Spain Kuiwaas. .latMlii.... Khlxr-trae . Tulip liatriMlll l.lly, .Omaaala ..INrala ' appailacla iwAJa Tiibarroaa lava, ilc. Carnation Italy, etc. llanunruliia,,,Alps Haiiiaak roae.. . Itauiaaeoa llii|ia. Artols Uiiiiai'hi'rrli'S.. . Flanders illllyltnwer*. . .Toulnnao Mitak rose Danuwons _ Ffrtm. Pink Italy Povence rose. . . Maraollles Convolvulus Canaries Arotopua Cspc Itvll-irowor Canartca PaMlonflowcr . Ilraill Itiiseinary Ilsly I.abnrnuin Hungary l.aurel Iiovant Ijivcnilor Italy Weeping Wlllowl-evaut Fennel Canaries The damnak roae whs broii«hf hither by Dr. Linacre, phyai'lnn to Henry VIII., about 1540. The musk In EngUnd, were brought thither in the Mfu* of roae waa lirimght from Itoly by Lord Cromwell. The Henry VII. and VIII. and of Mary and Kllnalxith, between the years IM) and 1.^7H. 8ee (lAKliKNlNti, JCncy. Brit, Among others of leas note, wem musk- melons, plum-trees, and i iirrant-plaiita of sundry aotts, the musk and damask rosea, tulips, etc, ; aImi laffron, wood, and other drugs for dyeing, but these last were attempted tu li« cultivated witUuut tuccesa. H AKLVXT i LoEu Kamks. The following are anwmg tamariak plant was brought from Germany by Arch- bishop (Jrlndiil, about 1570; and about Norwiih, the Kleiitiiiga planted fliiwcm unknown in Knglund, us gill} rtowers, carnations, tho I'rovcnce rose, etc., 15C7. Woail name originally from Toulouae, in France ; tulip risda frniii Vienna, 157H. FUOB. Juaa de, .Strait of, Waahlngton Territory-, Including the wotora of Admiralty Inlet Hood Canal :ifit....c,.;'-:i:. FUE 757 FDI ItrM'illM Ipe VniJllTjr Ivint kvaut Inarlcs I MnBcrc, ■lie iniiak MI. The liy Arch- Vuli, the tUind, US |tc., 15G7. Ice; tulip ferritorj", ICaoal nml rut(xt Soiinil, with the Ar> hlpKln)(o nt Arrn up In tlin loth puralli'l, wrre nil mirvrycil l>y the I'tiitml Htiili'n' Kxpliiriii|( K\|ifiilitliiii. Thn wlmlit la imniir- puam'il liy iiny t"y i'c)iit|irl«» nmtiy Hun hiirlHiM iiiiil Date unrhiirii)(i>f<, itr« riitlrrly fri>« frciin clnii^orii, mul cuver iiii iiriM i>t rilxiut WH) •iimirn iiillio. 'I'lin country l>y which llipite wittnn am niirrniinilcil \* rcniarknlily miliilirlimn, ami offer* nvcry ii(lniiitiiK« fur the accnmmiHliitlun* of » v«»t I'omincrcUl iiinj iiiUltiiry iiiiirliie, with conveiileiicen for ilocki, iiii'l iniiiiy iiltiu for towim ami citira, iit nil tliiion Hell iiippllcil with watiT, nnil cnpalilii of lieiiitf pMvlih'd w illi III! needful suppliea from the nurrounclInK country, wlili'h in well adapted for iiKricuiture. Thia Htriilt In U.'i inlloa In lenittli ; HveriiK« wiiltli 11 milea (untrunco K inil<'4 in width). No iliiuKera exint, and It nmy !>« Hiifidy niivlKuted thn>UKhout. The wind* Idow for the nr''»'"f purt of tiie year from tlin wiwtwiird, and lit thnea AlronKly. The nliorca urn ludd, luid iin- chiira^u ii to he founil in liut few placen ; at iioaie {lartK no iKittoni in to lip olitaincil, even within ii hoat'a en|{lli of the iihore, with 110 fattinuiit of line. The north nhore (Vancouver Inland), In rocky, and coni- ponod of I'lmKlomcrate ami a rcddinh granite. On thin hidn there are ncveral inlctn, in wiiicii are anchorajfen : aiuon)( tlicni I'ort .Sun .luiin and Victoria. Victoria in A nnu^ liarl»)r and a niont important ponition. There i« an inner and an outer lianin, nnlliciently commodl- oun for larjjo nhipn of war. Vancouver Inland rinoi ahruptly, ami In ver}' much liroken i>y niountnin ran^en, l>ut wAll covered with timlior. It in 'JIO inilea luuK, and 110 milen wide. Tliu (iulf of (ieorKia and .Tnhnmm Strait are not Widl adapted for navigation, in ronneqnence of the rapidity of the tiilen, and Iho many nunken rockn nt tiiu nortlieni outlet. Tlie harliorn within them, Imth on the nuiln land and Vancouver Inland, are unelena on ui'count of the grvnt ilcptii of water and the perpen- dicular liankn. Not n nlioal exintn within tii« IStrait of •luan de Fuca, Admiralty Inlet, l'u((et Sound, or IIoihI Canal, that can in any way interrupt tlu'ir navif^atUin hy u 71 yuii niiip. The nhoren of all the inlctn ami hayn are remarkahly lioM — no much no, that iiany placen a nhlp'n nlde woulil ntrlke the ~l |.„ iief, ,,. tlie keel would touch the ground. Hi'^ > of then, have rrookn emptying; into them, wit waiter sunioiont to turn mills. Theno creekn i ' ~ i .■ exteunlvn mud- flatn at their entrancen, witti i i i |irairien nt their lieadn ami ulouK their liaiik.. I li spring tiden rinp IH feet, thonoof »he neap ' fi-et, uffording every facil- ity for the construction .i i v-iUvkn, etc. The conntry on all thene nalt water «• w In naid to lie remarkaldy healthy. Tiie wintei n represented to lie mild and but of short duration, and the ohniinein and harliorn uro never olwtructeil by ice. Fuel (from the French/™, (Ire, akin to the Latin fiifu», li iienrtli or tire-place), n wonl applied to certain suhatancen which are uncd in the generation of heut, such an wimxI, (wat, roal, etc., and nl-» nometimen ap- plied to tlie sulintances employed In genoratinn lin'it, iiuch an oil, npiritn of wine, najihtha, etc. In the pres- ent urticlfl the former application will alone lie conniil- crcd ; for information reapoctlnu the latter, see Uas, Lamt, etc. The aiiucd^ince and consequent cheapness of fuel httit a ureiit induenee on the prosperity, haliitn, and manners of a iiition. Where fuel is scarce, factories lungiilnh, and Mimraerce declines. In coM climates scarcity of fuel is individually a jfreat enliimity, for it aliridjtes the hours of lalmr, causint{ persons to spend those hours in sleep which under other circumstances would Imvo boon turned to prolitablo account ; it also causes persons to crowd together for the sake of warmth in a way tliat is injurious to health and morals. Aliundance of fuel, on the contrary, with ({""d roads i and a system of inland nnvljration for its distriliution, j forms the basis of national prosperity, not only minis- I terlUK 10 the useful arts, but anahlinK the m-euplrr of every house to ireatn an artiflilal cliniata suited to tils wants and wishes. The most connnon ami n ideiy-distrlliuted dencrlplion of fuel in inuii/, a term applied to the trunk, roola, ami iariter liranches of trees. Ueiently-felled wikmI con- sists chieliy of woody lllire, sup, and water. I he woody niire in » ciim|Hiun(l of cnrlsin, hydroifen, and oxyKen, and formn the chief bulk of plants | both l( and the nap are comliustilile' -that In, are capable, at A hi)(h temperature, of comlilniuK rapidly with tlie oxy- gen of the atmosphere anil forming t("*<'iiiin com- pounds. It In ill llie act of thin foniiallon that iinut la Kenerati'd. The nap, which forms only a nmall priv |Hirtioii of tlie bulk of wikmI, varien in dilfereiit kinila of treen : the sup of the pine trilie contains renin ; that of the oak, tannin ; that of the beech and birch, ex- tractive. The ipiniitity of water in wmal varies greatly with the kind of tree, and willi thn time of year when it in felled. It lieinK least in winter. As tho water is not conUiustilile, liut must be ^ot rid of nt the expense of tlie heut generated liy the parts whicli are so, it Is obvhiiisly ilesiraliie to store tiie wo certain vapors wiiiili condense into Hquid or solid products. Some of tli-« liquids are solulde in water, such as pyro\ylic spirit, pyridigneous acid, etc. ; the insolulii" !■'-• ducts form tar and cortala oily substances. In most countries deposits ofpen^ occur of greater or less extent. In llollail, the north of (iermany, Ire- land, etc., pent deposit are of immense extent. Tlie origin of peat li is been .• counted for in those districts where clay ociurs ne.ir tlie surface by supposing muddy pools to have formed, round tho edges of which aiiuutic plants have taken root and gradually extended themselves into the centre, tlius forming n bod where mosses accumulate, and now plants tako growth, while the old are decaying and liecoming compressed into a solid mass below. This process goes on until the pools are (lllcil up with vogetalilo matter, and the sur- plus water is discharged over tiie noighlwring lands, where tho process is repeated until a peat bug is formed. Kven in mountain districts, where tho soil is impervious, clouds and mists may supply muistore, and a bog bo formed by the growth of one generation of vegetable mutter on the ruins of its preilecessor. Af PUB UB FUB tlie plants which form the p«st are in diflfbrent stages of decomposition at various depths, the character of the peat varies greatly. Near the surface it is light- colored, spongy, and the vegetable character but little changed ; lower down it is brown and dense j while a. the base of some bogs, which may be as much as 40 feet in depth, the poat is black, almost as dense as coal, and resembling coal in chemical composition. On the banl'oy- afftt, vol. i., p. 84«, says, " We wore forced to use for fewell the dung of horses and camels, whicli we bought deare of the pasturing people." A substance in the form of long sticks, said to Iw made of camels' dung, is sometimes imporlerokeshire, The combustion is Aovi, and a long steady heat is kept up, well adapted for lima burning. In 1863 a patent was taken out in England by M, Dudaylu of Bordeaux for the manufacture of fire-ba!'3 of such materials as cinders or ashes, wood or lignite, anthracite coal, pit coal, animal black, calca- reous earth or clay, mold, etc. The fuel, in every respect the most interesting, and one of the chief sources of wealth and prosperity, is coal. The very abundance of this article causes it to be used in so lavish and extravagant a manner, that any general attempts to economize it, and to fix its value as a fuel, scarcely interest the public. There are, however, particular cases in which it is desirable to economize cool as far aa possible, as in the case of a steamship of a thousand horse-power, a single jour- ney of which may require upward of 2000 tons of coal, or more than 80,000 cubic feet. Hence it is obvious from the details given of the various descriptions of coal in the article Coal, that some varieties of coal are better fitted for the purposes of steam navigation than others. A few years ago, when the Ilritish gov- ernment was establishing a steam navy. Sir II. de la Beche and Dr. Lj-on Playfair were requested to ex- amine and report on the coal suited to the steam navy. The inquiry was conducted with great al>ility, and has resulted in two reports published in 18-18 and 18^19, wiiich the reader interested in the suliject will do well to consult. We will, however, state a few of the chief points elicited l>y this inquiry. Bearing in mind the object of the inquirj-, the com- missioners considered that the cliief test of the value of any coal sul)mitted to their examination was its power of converting water into steam, so tlmt if a given weight of coul in a certain time converted a larger proportion of water iuto steam than the same weight of another coal in the same time, tlie evapora- tive power (if tlie one would be greater than that of tlic other. It was found, however, that the coal l)cst adapted to steamships of war, should also combine other qualities ; for example, the fuel should lium quickly, so that steam may be raised in a short time ; it should not lie bituminous, lest its smoke should be- tray the iKisition of the ship when it might be desira- ble to conceal it ; it should have such a cohesive power as not to be broken into fragments by the roll- ing motion of the vessel ; it should have such a density and structure ns to liear stowing away in a compar- atively small space (a condition which in coals of equal eva|)orative value was found to involve n difference of more than 20 per cent.) ; lastly, the coal should not contain a large proportion of sulphur, nor lie sulijcct to rapid decay, or it might in either case lead to spon- taneous comliustion. But it was not found possllile to unite all tliese conditions in the same coal. Anthra- cite, for example, has high evaporative jiower. but not igniting easily its action is not quick ; it is not easily liroken liy the motion of the ship, but not licing a caking coal, it would not cohere iix the furnace, and would escape through the grate-bars during tho roll- ing of the ship in a gale ; it gives off no smoke, but from the intensity of its combustion, it causes the iron of the grate-bars and of tlio Ixiilor to oxydize rapidly ; hence, witli many advantages, anthracite has a few defects sufHeiently prominent to preclude its use under ordinary circumstances. It was thought that a patent fuel might be formed with some of the anthracites of Wales, wliich should combine tlie advantages and elude the defects above referred to ; but it was found that the cementing tar of the patent fuel burnt so In thi phi sul nis Ch the cvi nsh plo tho aft< PXJE 760 FUB much more rapidly in the fnrnace than thn anthracite, that the latter accumulated on the bars nnd obstructed the draft, or escaped through the grate unbumt. The commlsxionera found that the qualities which distinguish particular kinds of fuel are very varied, so that it is difficult to deduce general results. But the data furnished by their experiments enables us to con- trast the actual value of a particular coal with its the- oretical value, supposing its combustion to lie attended with no loss of heot. The actual duty obtained by one pound of coal from the boiler employed, may be expressed by the numlier of pounds raised to the height of one foot, a result which may be olitained by the fonnnia yVv+966-7y782==r, In which W repre- sents water, of which ri pounds are evaporated by one pound of coal. This formula is deduced from the fact that ;/ pounds of coal multiplied hy 966-7, or the co- efficient for the latent heat of steam at 212°, indicates the number of pounds of water which would be raised 1° Fahr. ; and the number 782 arises from experiment on tlio mechanical force denoted by the elevation of one pound of water 1° Kahr. ; that force being equal to 7Hi pounds raised to the height of one foot, accord- ing to the experiments of Air. Joule. The best Corn- ish engines are said to be capable of raising 1,000,000 pounds to the height of one foot for every pound of coal consimied, but this is only oliout one eighth of the actual force generated, and only one eleventh or one twelfth of the theoretical force. Kxperimcnta on the evaporative power of coal made by different oliservcrs give vet-y dissimilar results, Smeaton, in 1772, evapo- rated "SH pounds of water from 212° with one pound of Newcastle coal ; Wall, in X788, evaporated 8-62 pounds J AVicksteed, in 1840, evaporated 9-493 pounds of water from 80° with one pound of Merthyr coal, which is equal to 10-74G ponnds from 212°. In some experiments made at the United Mines in Cornwall, it was found, after a trial of six months, that everj- pound of coal evajiorated 10'29 pounds of water from 212° ; nnd according to some experiments made in Cornwall, «t the request of the commissioners, it was found tliat 11-42 pounds of water were evaporated bj- every pound of AN'cish coal of similar chemical compo- sition to that of Mynydd Newydd. At ordinary temperatures coal undergoes a slow combustion under the action of the oxygen of the at- mosphere, evolving carbonic acid, nitrogen, nnd infinm- malile gases, and in some cases lending to dangerous explosions. This alow comliustion is facilitated liy the higher temperature of Iiot climates, and by the presence of moisture. If the coal contain much sul- phur or iron pyrites the chemical action may become so intense as to ignite the coals. In stowing coals it is therefore important that they . !iould be as dry as poRRil)le, and such a variety should be selected as is least liable to this progressive decomposition. When coal is kept in iron bunkers, and in lialile to be wetted with sea-water, the iron rapidly corrodesfrom the car- Ism or coal forming a voltaic circuit with the iron, and thus promoting oxydation. In the great exhiliition of 1851, Messrs. Berard & Co., in the French department. No. 61, exhibited " small puriDed coals, ond residue of the same, the produce of a system for purifying coals, patented in France, Knglaud, Belgium, and (Jermany." This plan appears to be well adapted to the purilicntion of RulpliurouM coal, or coul containing much iron pyrites ; also wliorc the coal deposits are in numerous small seams, and can not l)e got out without lieing mixed with slaty and stony matter. The coal used on the Cheniin de Fer du Nord was so sulphurous as to injure the locomotives ; but by using the puritied coal, the evil was for the most part remedied ; the quantity of ash was also greatly reduced. The apparatus em- ployed for purif\-ing the coal is similar in principle to the jiggliig-machino used in dressipg ores, which, after l>eing stamped, in order to separate stony mat- ter, are agitated in water and ollowtd to rest, when, the various portions become arranged in layers, ac- cording to their specific gravities. This puritied cual yields a very pure coke. Mr. Grace Calvurt, of Manchester, ha* taken out a patent for purifying coke flrom sulphur. It consists in mixing the coal, before coaking, with from 1} to 6} per cent, of common salt, the proportion varying with the qtuintity of sulphur. The coking is then cnudueted as usual. By this contrivance, coal, wliicli was for- merly unserviceable in smelting operations, can now be used with effect. The following table, by Dr, Ure, shows the quantity of water raised from 32° to 212° by one pound weight of the different combustibles enumerated in the first column ; it also shows the number of pounds of boil- ing water, which the same weight of fuel will evapo- rate, and the quantity of atmospheric air absolutely consumed during combustion. The quantity of air, however, as given in the last column, is much lets than would be necessary in practice, where much of the air passes the fuel without coming into contact with it so as to have its oxygen consumed. The heat- ing power also, as represented by this table, can seldom be practically attained. Combiutiblc. IPoandaofwit«r|Pouuilt of boU-I Welsht of sn- whlch a )miind InK WAter evnp- mo«f>liflrl(^ nir ftl can mUfl from orat«d by one 88" ruqiilred to 22'' to 219**. poniid, burn one pouud. Dry wood Cummon wood Charcoal Pit coal Coke Turf Coal gas Oil, wax, or tallonr. . .\lcohol 85-00 2000 78-00 60-00 66-00 80-00 76-00 78-00 5S-00 6'8« 4-72 18-27 10-90 11-81 6-4S 18-Sl 14-18 6-S6 6-96 4-47 11-46 9-26 11-46 4-60 14-51 15-00 11-60 As various kinds of fuel afibrd different amounts of heat, and as heat can not be measured or weighed, and its quantity ascertained by direct experiment, the relative values of fuels are ascertained by comparing them with each other under similar circumstances. The heating power of a fuel is the quantity of effect produced by it in a certain time, and this in conjunc- tion with its market price gives its value as a fuel. One fuel may produce a certain greater or less effect than another fuel, and thus its relative superiority oi inferiority may be accurately ascertained, although the actual amount of heat furnished by it may be en- tirely unknown, Lavoisier and Laplace fixed these values by making the suDstance under examination act on ice, and the quantity of ice melted gave the value in each case. Count Rumford measured the value of fuel by the increased temperature which it produced in a given quantity of water. Now, as the same quantity of heat which melts one pound of ice at 0° Cent, is sufhcient to raise the temperature of as much water 79° Cent., or 0-79 lb. of water 100° Cent., so also an equal weight of aqueous vapor of any given temperature and elasticity is always formed from the same amount of heat, and always contains the same quantity of heat, and the quantity of heat which water at 100° ('ent. renders latent in order to become steam is &-6 times sufficient to heat tlie same weight of water from 0° to 100° Cent., hence the water converted into vapor by the beat required to molt one pound of ice is the 6-,')th part of the same pound, that is, it can convert into vajtor 0-154 lb, of water. It was found by Despretz and Welter that the quantities of fuel which require equal amounts of oxygen for combustion, give out equal quantities of heut;thus, 1 lb. of oxygen in comltining respectively with hydrogen, charcoal, alcohol, etc., raised 29 lbs. of water from 32° to 212°, A given woiglit of the different combustibles has its heating power repre- sented by the number of pounds of water raised in temperature, as in the following table, (See Journal FUE 760 FUE of the FranUtn Tnttilute, Phllad., 1856-7 j also Silm- mas'h Journal of Science, New Haven, Conn., 1864-6.] Ibi. 1 lb. of puro oharcoal rained . . . " common wood charcoal " baked wood ofwatflr. 78«h)m82°- 78 86 27 '• 60 5-80 68 90 " 80 " 236 -ai2» " wood holding 20 ** cent, of water . . . per t( tl " turf " alcohol ...2 (1 K " other 4i " hydrogen t* More recent researches have, however, cast consid- erable doubt upon the law that any given quantitj- of oxygen evolves the same quantity of heat with what- ever combustible body it may combine. From a series of tabulated results given in Gmrmn's Ifand-Book of Chemistry, vol. i., p. 292 (Cavendish Society's transla- tion), it would rather appear that oxygen develops a lAger quantity of heat the stronger its affinity for the combustible substance. Such experiments as the above tend to confirm the modem view of combustion which regards oxygen as a combustible as much as the fuel with which it com- bines (see CiiEMisTiiY, vol. v., En. Br); so that when oxygen burns by means of any fuel, the heat evolved increases with the quantity of oxygen consumed. It was on this view that Berthier based his process for detecting the quantity of oxygen reciuired for com- bustion, and the heating power of the combustible in one experiment. His plan is to heat tu redness a known quantity of the combustitle with a considerable excess of i)ure litharge until the combustible is en- tirely consumed by the oxygen of the oxyd of lead. On weighing the lead reduced by this process the amount of oxygen consumed is ascertained, and alsr the heating power of the fuel under examination. In calculations of this kind, it will be rememl>ered that (! parts, or 1 equivalent of carimn, require 16 parts, or 2 equivalents of oxygen, for combustion , that 1 part of hydrogen requires 8 parts of oxygen ; that by sub- tracting from the hydrogen a quantity corresponding to the oxygon in the coal, the calculation can be made for the carbon only. Now, 1 part of pure carbon re- quires for combustion 2'6fi(> of oxygen, and is capable, according to Despretz, of heating 78'15 parts of water from freezing to boiling. By multiplying each part of lead obtained by 2"26.'), the weight of water is ob- tained which is capable of l>eing heated lietween these temperatures by a unit of the coal used in reducing the litharge. The heating power of a particular fuel is the same, however that fuel may lie burnt. It is true, that the power may bo more or less economically applied ; the power may be expended with greater or less rapidity, greater, for example, in a furnace than in an open grate, but as the fuel during combustion combines with e<|uivalent portions of oxygen, the same amount of heat is liberated whether the combination Iw ra])id or slow. Tho rapidity of combustion depends not only upon the mode of arranging the draught or sup- ply of air to the fuel, but also on the state of division of the fuel itself. A given weight of wood in the state of shavings will, from the large extent of surface ex- posed, bum rapidly, and produce its full heating ulfect in a few minutes, while the same weight of wood, in the form of a log, may kce|) up a moderate tem|>era- ture for some hours. The division of a fuel may, how- ever, l)o carried so far that the air necessary for its combustion can not penetrate it. .Such is the case with saw-tlust, powdered charcoal, or peat, slack coal, I etc. If the powdered coal be of caking quality, it ; may be burnt into com|iact coke, and thus be more i useful than a fuel which in its first form is compact, | but which falls to powder on being heated in tho fur- I nacp. Small fuel may sometimes lie advantageously | applied by covering the fumace-bars with pieces of i aand-stone or lime-stone for the purpose of preventing the fuel from falling through, and for distributing tho supply of air among it. In the roasting of copper ores in South Wales a flaming coal is necessary in tho reverberatory fumace where the operation is carried on. But as the flameless anthracite is much more abundant in this district than the bituminous coal, it is turned to account in an ingenious manner. When burnt under ordinary circumstances it crumbles to powder, as already noticed, and either slips through the bars of the grate, or chokes them up. But when anthracite is raised to a very high temperature it foruia a vitreous scoria or clinker, which in the ordinary fumace combines with the iron of the bars and chokes up the grate. In the Welsh furnaces, the clinkers themselves are ingeniously arranged so as to perform the office of grate-bars, namely, to support the fuel, and to limit the supply of air from below. Tho clinkers are supported on iron bars placed at a con- siderable distance apart, and are arranged in a layer 12 or 16 inches in depth. Above this layer the fuel of the fumace is in full cumbustion ; this fuel consists of anthracite mixed with about one fourth of its weight of small bituminous coal, and also forms a layer of a depth about equal to that of the clinkers : it is in this the hottest part of the fire that fresh clinkers are being continually formed, and while forming they cake with the numerous fragments of bituminous coal heaped up above tbeni. As fresh portions of the fuel come into operation the clinkers descend toward the bottom of the grate, where, meet- ing with the numerous jets of air which stream up through the bottom,the vitrified mass splits and cracks in all directions, farming new channels for the ascent of the draught, but not large enough to allow the small coal to escape. As the calciner-man heaps up fresh fuel above, he hooks out a few clinkers from the Imttom to make way for the descent of others. Under this arrangement the oxygen of the air traversing tho multitude of channels formed by the cracks in the clinkers, combines with a portion of the fuel and forms carbonic acid, which is uninflammable, but before reaching the vault of the fumace it is deprived of a portion of its oxygen, and becomes converted into carbonic oxyd which is inflammable. But in order that this gas may undergo combustion, air is admitted through apertures in the sides of the fumace just above the ore, and in this way the whole surface of tho ore, occupying an area of nearly 23 feet square, is played upon by a thin sheet of flame, produced from fuel which gives scarcely anj- flame at all. Common coal gas is sometimes used as fuel, in which case it is calculated that 1 lb, or 24 cubic feet thereof, in buming, will raise 76 lbs. of water from tho temperature of freezing to that of boiling. Extending this comparison to the other forms of fuel, it is stated that 1 lb. of dr>' wood will similarly heat !!6 lbs. of water, but only 26 lbs. if the wood l)e not dry, or con- tain moisture to the extent of from 20 to 'in per cent. One lb. of good dry charcoal will similarly heat 73 lbs. of water, but if exposed to the air it absorbs at least 10 per cent, of moisture, and in buming gives a flame of carburetted hydrogen (or rather, probalilj-, a mix- ture of carbonic oxyd and hydrogen), arising from the decomposition of the moisture. One lb. of good pit coal is said to raise 60 lbs. of water fnim freezing to boiling, 1 lb. of coke 65 lbs., and 1 11). of turf or peat from 2.5 to .10 lbs.— B. E. See Coal. Fuelf, Artifrial, — It is curious to note how many new " patent artificial fuels" there now are. As ex- perimenters tell us that different kinds of coal and other natural fuel jmisscjis different ijualitios, an In- ducement is offered for the exereise of ingenuity In devising various imitative com|>ositions. The liyilrau- lie; press is brought into singular requi're tliny appi}' the soap. The Iiest is found in Hucklngliam- sliire and Surrej-. When good, it has a grennUli •^•hite, or greenish gray color, falls into powder In water, appears to melt on the tongue like butter, com- municates a milky hue to w.iter, and deposits very little sand when mixed with lioiiing water. The remarkable detersive property on woolen cloth de- ponds on the alumina, which should bo at Irast one tlfth of the whole, but not much more than one fourth, lest it become too tenacious. — ^Tho.mson's Chemiatry i Jameson's Mineralogy. Fulling, the art of cleansing, scouring, and press- ing cloths, stutfs, and stockings, to render tliem stroni^er, closer, and firmer. It is otherwise culled milliiij,. Pliny (vii. 66) relates that one Nicias, the son of Hermias, was the first inventor of tlio art of fulling ; and it appears l>y an inscription, c|uuted by Sir G. Wheeler in his Travels through Greeee, that this same Nicias was a governor in Greece In the time of the Komitns. The asperities upon the surface of woi ,; of a patent in iH'ib, In the course of the operation the fuller some- times niukes use of urine, sometimes of fuller's earth, and sometimes of soap. To prepare the stuffs to re- ceive the first Impressions of the stamper, they are usually laid In urine, then In fuller's earth and water, and lastly In sonp dissolved In hot water. Soap alone would do very well, but it Is expensive, and fuller's ourtll Is scarcely Inferior to It ; but then it must bo well cleared of all gritty particles, else it is apt to make holes In the stufi'. Method nffnlliiii) cloths and woolen stuffs with soap, ~A colored cloth of oliout 'IS ells is to be laid in the usual nuiimvr In the trough of a fulling-mill, without first soaking It In water, as Is commonly practiced in many places. 'I'o full tlils trough of cloth, 15 pounds of soap urn reipilred, one half of which is to be melted In two palls of river or spring water made as hot as the hunil can well licar It. This solution is to bo poured by di'grces upon the cloth, os it is laid in the trough i and thus it Is to be fulled for at least two hours, nttnt viWh It Is to be taken out and stretched. This dime, the cloth Is Immediately returned into the same trough, without any new soap, and there fulled two hours more. It is then taken out and well wrung, to express all the grease and dirt. Af- ter thu seconil fulling, the remainder of the soap is dli.solvud as In the former, and cast four different (liiiiis on the cloth, which Is taken out every two hours to stretch It, and undo the plaits and wrinkles it has aiijulred In tlio trough. When it Is perceived to be sufllrlently fulled. It Is well scoured in hot water. With regard to white cloths, these full more easily and in less timu than colored ones, and thus require only a third part of the soap. Fulminating Compounds. — Fulminates are of suviiral klniln, being detonating compounds of the futmlnic ai'ld with various bases. Such are the fulmi- nates of gold, mercury, silver, etc. The old fulminat- ing |H)wiliir Is a mixture of nitre, sulphur, and |X)tash. The fulminate of mercury Is largely used os a prim- ing to the |M'ri!Usslon-caps for guns. See Chemistry, vl., p. 171. Fulta, M large village of HIndoostan, province of Itcngnl, im llic niist bank of the Ilooghly, 20 miles S.H.VV. Ill u straight line from Calcutta, but much mom by thn windings of the river. It has safe an- chorage for ships, where they are protected from the swell of thn sea, and whore the anchors hold fast, the bottom belr.g stlirdoy. Ijit° 22' 18., long. 88° 10'. Fulton, Robert, n distinguished American engi- iionr and itieirlianUlnti, among the first who success- fully applied stenill *.o the |ir(ipulsion of vessels, was a niitlvu of the Htato of I'ennsy Ivanla. At a very early age lie gave decided Inulcatlons uf mechanical geriiua. FtJL wr FUL' While Ml > mere youth ha begin life In the city of Philadelphia as a portrait and landscape painter ; and in his 22d year, with a view to improving him- self in art. he visited England, where he remained for several yearo under the roof of his countryman M'est. He states that in 1793 he had conceived the design of propelUng vessels by steam, bat his numer- ous engagements prevented him from carrying it into effect at tbr 'ime. His time was completely en- grossed in 'sing a plane of double incline that should super„ xie the locks on canals, for wliich he ob- taine anals, on which latter subject he pub- lished a treatise. In 1797 he removed to Paris, and remained for seven years in the house of Jiiel Barlow, the American minister at the court of Napoleon I., prosecuting bis scientific studies. During that period he projected the first panorama ever exhiliiteil in Paris, and made important ex|)eriments on submarine explosives. It was also at this tir<.e that he first suc- ceeded, after repeated trials, in propelling a boat through the water by the aid of stiam. In 1806 he returned to America, and re|>eated the experiment on a larger scale and with more decided success. In 1809 he took out his first patent, and seemed to be on the high way to wealth and prosperity, when his rights were disputed, and he lierame involved in legal pro- ceedings, which embittereut afterward he formed acquaintances who were both able to appreciate his promise as an artist, and to facilitate his plans of improving hin-.self as a painter, U^' their advice he went to England, and througli a favorable introduction to West, he wu^ treated by that great artist with even more than his usual liberalit}-, and iMcarae an inmate of his house; and remained his guest and pupil for several years. After leaving the family of West, Fulton proceeded to Kxeter, wliere he lived two years, during which time his intelligence and ability gained li:m many useful acquaintances. Among theaa, t.h>' most important were the Duke of Brii'gewater and Earl Stanhope. It appears to have been at the instance of the former that he abandoned painting as a profession, and entered tiiai of a civil engineer. We find him next residing in Birmingham, engaged in tlie construction of canals, liiough prolwbly in a sulwrdinate station. Fulton's residence in Birmingham lirought him Into communi- cation with Watt, who hod just succeedeil in giving to his steam-engine that perfect form which fits It for unlrersal application as a prime mover. While in banded down by tradition, or preserved Ijy means of { Birmingham, Fulton issued a number of patented in- the press, has become sc enormous, that me must bril- liant discovery in the useful arts liears but a small proportion to the whole e:.len> of human knowledge. In remote times, the lide, n-hich modem inventors de- rive from the records of the reasonUigs, and combina- tions, and even the aliortive attempts of others, were wholly wanting ; and if no on? of the inventions of antiquity, when taken l>y itself, can rank in apparent importance with some of modem date, the former were in many instances far more conspicuous as steps in the progress nf human improvement. In the dawn of civil- ization, invjntions were usuall}' unexpected, and though often calculated to supply the most pressing wants, excited surprise, because the wants themselves had not been perceived. At the present day discoveries often appear as the almost inevitable result of pre- vious improvement. The highest degree of merit is to l)e awarded, in the present age, to those who, aware of the wants of the conmiunity, or of the world at large, set to themselves as a task the discoverj' of the means of supplying these wants. If we consider Ful- ton as an inventor, it may be difiicult to say in what exact particular his merits consist ; hut If we contem- plate him in the llglit of a civil engineer, confidently building a finished and solid structure upon the iu- 'vmplete foundation left by others, we must rank h'.m, in the extent of his usefulness to mankind, as second to Watt alone. See Life o/l'uUnn, by J. Kknwkr. Koliert Fulton was bum at Little Britain, in Lan- caster county, Pernsylvania, in the year 17(>f). His patents were respectable, though far from affluent ; hit father a native of Ireland, his mother descended from M Irish family, Fulton hUnsolf attached no iinport- ventions and several pulilisbed works. In 179.) he took out a patsnt for the introduction of the Inclined plane in Inland navigaiioD, and tbreo years later em- bodied it, with other projects of a similar nature, in a work on Inland Navigation. This work con lie quoted as exhibiting a high degree of uriglnalily, ingenuity, and talent, but as inapplicable to any n!y Symington, who put a Iwat in motion on the Forth and Clyde, in 1801. In the United States, experiments were made by Fitch and Rumsey ; and in 1791, John Stevens, of Hobolcen, commenced his researches, which he engaged in for nine years, when he became the associate of Chancelor Livingston and Nicholas Roosevelt ; to this association wai added Brunei, the Inventor of block machinery, and engineer of the Thames tunnel. The efforts of this association were unsuccessful, and were broken up by the appointment of Livingston as embassador to France, where he be- came intimate with Fulton, and offered to provide him with funds necessary for an experiment, and to aid in introducing the method in the United States, if the experiment were successful. Fulton had conflnned his original impression of the superiority of the paddle- wheel over any other means of propulsion, and, lute in the year 1803, commenced Imilding a vessel 66 feet in'length and 8 in breadth. To this an engine was adapted, and the experiment so satisfactorj-, as to leave little doubt of final success. Measures were imme- diately taken to construct a steamboat on a larger scale in the United States. An engine wcs ordered from England, from Watt & Bolton, in 1803 ; its form varied from their usual models in conformity io sketches furnished by Fulton. At the same time, an application made to tte Legislature of New York for an exclusive privilege of navigating the waters of that State t>v steam wag granted. Before the engine or- dered from Watt was completed, Fulton visited En- gland, and directed the construction of it in p.!rson. It was completed at last, and rcoclied New York in 1806 ; tlie vessel was finished and fitted witli her machinery in August, 1807. An experimental excursion was made, and a few mi :ntes served to convince the most skeptical and dnulitful that the long-desired ol>- ject was obtained. Within a few days of the first ex- periment, a voyage was undertaken in it to Alliaiiy. This f ity is distant from New York, by the channel of the river, nearly 150 miles. In u few remarkable in- stances the sloops which navigated the Hudson had performed the passiige in l(i hours ; but the average time was four days. Fulton's steamboat went up in 36 hourn, and returned in 30. Fulton, comply- ing with the wishes of the public, made regular voy- ages until the end of the season. Many of the mi- nor arrangements for tlie conven!once of passengers, tlie facility of working, and safety from accident of tlie machii. iry, were yet wanting ; some of the diffi- culties were removed at the time, and otliors remained until tlie lioat should bo laid aside for tlie winter. The next winter of 1807-8 was occupied in remodeling and rebuilding the vessel, to which tiie name of Clermont was given. Fulton provided such accammole to undertake the completion of tiie vessel. By exposure in his visits to the TSu-yy y.ird, in BrooUyn, he took a severe cold, which hi^ constitution, enfeebled by constant labors and anxieties, could not resist. He died on the 24th of February, 181.'). Rarely has it happened that tlie natural death of any citizen excited so general mourning as that of Fulton. Cut off in the very height of his usefulne.^", and in the zenith of his reputation, his eountrj'mcn felt it as u loss almost irre- parable. See Life of Fui.tos, by Jamrs Henwick, LL.D. ; Anal. Mag., v. 391, x. 177 ; Sr.VRKS's Am. liiog., X. 3 ; Qiiar. Hei:, r.ix. 347 ; Littell's Mus., xx.xiii. 340 ; Niles's liey.. xiii. 61 , xxxiii. 15 ; IIust's Mer. Mag., xv. 468. A siiitablo monument to the memory of Fulton has not yet Ixusn erected either by the United States, by imy one State, or l)y any asso- ciation. It yet remains for his naiive State (I'ennsyl- vania), or for the State which fostered his early efforts (New York), to |)lace in some great thorough- fare, an appropriate column in memory of one who hag so largely contributed to the growth of commerce throughout the civilized world. Fumigation is the employment of fumes or va- pors to purify articles of apparel, and goods or apart- ments supposed to be imbued with some infectious or contagious poison or fumes. The vajHjrs of vinegar tlie fumes of burning sulphur, and explosion of gun- powder, have long been prescribed and practiced ; but they have, in all probability, little or no efficacy. The diffusion of such powerful agents as clilorin gas, muriatic acid gus, or nitric acid vapor, should alone be trusted to for the destruction of morbific effluvia. Funds. To the Venetians is ascribed the orign of the funding system, in A. ». 1171. Public funds were raisoil by the Medici family, at Florence, in 1340, The English funding system, or the method of raising the supplies for tlie public service in England, by anticipa- tion of the public revenues (the origin of the national FUN 764 FUR debt), was introdnced at the Revolution, 1689. — Morti- mer's Brokfr. The funding system is coeval with tlie commencement of the Hank of England. — Anukiisun. The three per cent, annuities were created in 1720. The three jwr cent, consols were created in 17.11 j the three per cent, reduced, 1746; three per cent, annui- ties, payable at the South Sea House, 17r)l ; three and a half per cent, annuities created 1758 ; long annui- ties, 1761 ; four |)er cent, consols, 1762 ; live per cent, annuities, 1797 and 1HU2; five per cents, reduced to four, 1822. See National Debt. Tba following table has been calculated in order to show in which of the puldic fuuds money may be m- vested so as to yield the greatest interest. It gives the prices, differing by one per cent, i'rom 50 to i»3 for three per cents., etc., at wiiicli they all must be to yield the same interest ; so that supposing the three per cents, to l>e at 80, a sum invested in them, or in tliu 3} per cents., will yield the same iutor«st, provided the latter \m at 98^ ; if the .S^ per cent, be litlaw tliis sum, it will, of course, l>e more advantageous in so far at least as interest is concerned, to invest in tliem than in tlie three per cents, ; while, if they be above 9'H, it will be less advnntageous. To get the true mine of the different funds at any particular period, in order to compare them accurately together, it is necessary to deduct from each the amount of interest accruing upon it from the payment of the last dividend, TAOI.!! SlIOWIXO TlIK P«ICII8 THK DirFEKKXT KrXl« MUST BR AT TO raoDiTci: AN cqitAi. Intkk^xt; and ai.so thp. ANNCAL InTRREST PKODrCKP IIY £100 HTKKLINU ] VESTRD AT ANY or THOSK PrU'KS. 1 pet CD 1 lirlw. S 1-9 |»r CCDI. ! price. 4 |>«r c«nt. price. t 5 iwr renf. price. llitttreil. £ X •. il. .1 •. II. X 1. li. ~X~i7 .1. BO 64 6 8 66 13 4 88 6 8 81 69 10 68 85 5 17 7 , M 60 13 4 69 6 8 86 18 4 6 15 4 M 61 16 8 70 18 4 88 6 8 5 13 2 64 63 7'i HO 5 11 1 : AS 64 8 4 ^!^ 6 8 91 18 4 6 9 ' 88 65 6 8 74 13 4 93 6 8 5 7 1 67 66 10 76 95 5 6 8 68 67 18 4 77 6 8 96 13 4 5 8 5 Ml 68 16 8 7S 18 4 98 6 8 6 1 8 (Xl 70 80 100 6 b U 61 71 3 4 81 6 8 101 13 4 4 18 4 6'J 72 6 8 82 13 4 103 6 8 4 16 9 68 78 10 84 l(■^ 4 l.'i 2 U 74 18 4 85 6 8 106 13 4 4 13 H K, 76 16 8 86 13 4 108 6 8 4 12 8 66 7T 8S llO (» II 4 10 10 i 6T 78 8 4 89 6 9 111 18 4 4 9 6 68 5? « 8 90 18 4 118 6 8 4 8 69 80 1* 92 115 4 6 11 1 70 81 18 4 98 6 8 116 13 4 4 6 8 71 83 16 S 94 18 4 lis 6 8 4 4 6 72 84 96 IM 4 3 8 78 85 8 4 97 8 121 13 4 4 2 2 74 86 6 8 98 13 4 123 6 8 4 1 75 87 10 100 125 4 11 II 76 88 18 4 101 6 8 126 13 4 8 IS 11 77 89 16 8 102 IS 4 128 8 a IT 11 7^ 91 104 13il n 3 !tl 11 7» 92 8 4 105 6 8 131 13 4 8 1.'. 11 80 98 6 8 106 18 4 183 « s 3 1.'. 81 94 10 1(18 13,'. (1 8 14 (I 83 95 18 4 109 6 8 186 13 4 8 13 2 8» 96 16 8 110 13 4 r.l8 6 8 8 12 8 84 99 112 140 8 11 5 85 »9 8 4 113 6 8 HI 13 4 3 10 7 Ri) loo 6 8 114 !3 4 US (i 8 3 » !• S7 101 10 116 145 8 8 11 8S 102 18 4 117 6 8 146 U 4 8 8 2 88 108 16 8 IH 18 4 14s H 8 7 4 80 lOf. 120 150 3 8 »l 106 8 4 121 « 8 151 13 4 3 5 11 M 107 6 8 122 18 4 163 6 S 3 ft 2 »S 108 10 124' l.W 3 4 The public debt of the United States, wliich amount- ed, at the close of tlie last war with (ireat Britain, to l|158,71.S,049, was entirely [laid off in 1835. This proceeding, so honorable to the United States, nat- urally tepded to raise tlin character of Amerifun : securities in the English market, and enabled the gov- ernment to contract the loans required to carry on the Uto war with He^cico on veiy favorable terms, Tb« debt of the Union, existing on the 20th November, 1851, amounted to $62,660,895, and is at present (1866) about $-16,000,000, Uut in addition to thu debt of the Union, most part of the States, und several, also, of the principal cities, huvi contracted ])eculiar debts of a less or greater amount. In most cases these were incurred to pro- mote the execution of some public undertaking, such as the construction of canals or railways, tlio excava- tion of docks, the erection of buildings, tiiu establish- ment of banks or insurance ''ompanies, and so forth. Some of the debts so "ontructed have been advan- tageously laid out ; but a large portion borrowed ia 1885, and other periods of wild excitement, were con- tracted on very disadvantageous tenns, and expended on projects some of which have turned out extremely ill, Tliis, however, was the affair of the States them- selves, and did not afford so much as t,\ie shadow of an e.xcuse for the conduct of those States wliich have declined to provide for the payment of their debts. It was not, indeed, to be wondered at that eilcd to suspend pny- ment of their debts ; but a necessity of this sort could be teinpornry only. The indebted States a'e all rich, and eminently flourishing and prosperous communities, und it might have been expected tliat they would have ■nude every effort to resume payment in full of their debts at the earliest possilde moment. But this, we are sorry to say, bus not lioan the case with some of tlicm, Fundy, Bay of, un inlet of the Atlantic, sets up lietwcen Vayte Sable, the south poiut of Nova Scotia, and Mount Ue.sert Island, in Maine, a distance of 150 miles. From I'jistport to St. John, N. B,, is fiO miles. The bay is divided, in its nortli-cast (utrt, into two bruiu'lics, tiie north called Chiguccto Buy, the heud of which is 170 miles from Eastport, The soutli-cu^t part is called the Busin of Jlines, 150 miles from ICiist- port, I'ussamaquoddy Bay opens into it on the north- west, rear its mouth. Gypsum is obtained on tlio Basin of Mines, and grindstones on Chignectn Buy, This b.'.y is veiy peculiar ; itt shores, on iioth sides, are rocky and abrupt, while near its head, the tide, pressed und conlined witliin diminisiied limits, rusiics with much violence over extensive and wide-spread mud- lluts, and rises goneially bO feet or more. Its lisliories are valuulile und extensive. (See Pkiilky's vuluublo ro|xirt on its fisheries,) There are 16 iijjht-houses on the (wasts of the Buy , into lilergo- Iniiinu- That |rouj;ht Icarcer Icmblo k's^iblo iff "ni- ls tho rll, or ^ported Jpioas- Ivulua. Marten and mink, n diminutive apecies of otter, are principally imported fh)m the United States and Can- ada. The fur of the muaqunith, or muslcrat, a diminu- tive BpociDS of beaver, i» imported in vnit quantitfes from our posaesaionn in North An-.erica, which also supply U8 with considerable quantities of otter-skins. Nutra-skins are principally 1)rought from Buenos Ayrcs. The more valuable fnrs, as ermine, table, etc., como prii.cipally from Russia. Fur Trade Tliere is, perhaps, no branch of com- merce that has drawn forth a more dariri; and adven- turous spirit, or given rl e to a more patient and cour- agf^ous endurance of personal danfcers, privations, and hardships, than the fur trade, as is manifest through- out its whole history. 'rospect of large gains from his hazardous pursuits, have made known numerous triljes of men and nations partially acquaintvid with tlie aria and refinements of civilized life, who otherwise might have remained many ages, or forever, immersed in heathen darkness, and sunk In barbarity. Nor are tlie general advantages derived from the fur trade confined to a more p-t trato geo- graphical knowledge of a vast range o'. couiilr_,, and tho ext-'nsion of the arts of peace ar.d social happi- ness. Tho adventurods fur trader h'.s often been the precursor of the gospel niissionarj', and has enabled him to pursue his important labor i with comparative security und succesn. iVhftice furs were Introduced — The use of furs seems to have been introduced nto Europe by the northern invaders of the Koman en pire. In the sixth century tho skins of sables were 'irought to Kome from the shores of the Arctic Ocean thiui.,rh tho inter- vention of numerous parties, so that the cost to the consumer was very high. During sever .1 centuries after that time, furs were not ot oil comr ion in west- ern Europe. In 1252, A.i)., Marco Polo mentions, as a aulrect of curiosity, that he found the tents of the khan of Tartary lined with the skins of saldes and ermines, wliich had liecn brought from countries far north, " from tlie land of darkness." In less than a centur)-, however, from that time, the wearing of furs as a part of fashionable dress, Ii..d liecome rather prev- alent in England, since, in tit37, Edward III. com- manded that all persons among his sulijeets should be prohibited the use of furs unless they could spend jCIOO per annum. Arctic Regiont. — Early in the 17th century the shores of the Arctic seas were found tenanted by furred animals of great value ; and the idea of forming a settlement was suggested by Groscliei, a Frenchman. Tho suggestion was made first to his own'govemment, but as it was coolly received, lie olitained, tlirough the English embassador, nn interview with Prince Rupert, before whom ho laid his plans. The prince wannij- entere said territories, limits, and places which are not already possessed as aforesaid, or whereof the sole liberty or privilege of trade and traffic is not granted to any other of our ubjects." On Rupert's River the Company Immediately formed a settlement ; and in 1674 stations were settled on Moose River, and a few years later on the Alliaiiy, and soon after two more on the Nelson and the Severn, French Sttllementt and Sekuret. — By these vigorous measures the French court was awakened to a sense of its neglect, and Grosseliez, already detached from the English service, was sent out, in the year 1G82, to found a factory on the River Haj'es, which he aocom- plished, and also surprised the British factor^' on the Nelson. After this time hostilities became frequent between the French and the English settlers ; yet not- withstanding immense losses sustained by the Com- pany from 1682 to 16S8 (amounting to ;£118,014), tliey were aide, in 1684, to pay to tlie shareholders a dividend of 50 per. cent. Again, in 1688, an equal dividend was made, and in 1689, one of 25 per cent. In 1090, witiiout any call being made, the stock was trebled, while at the same time a dividend of 25 per cent, was paid on the increased or newly-created stock. By jther captures of their factories by the French in the j-eara 1692, 1694, 1696, and 1697, the Company suf- fered further loss to the amount of $97,500. At the peace of Utrecht, in 1713, however, these captured factories were restored to the Company, who, by 1720, had again trelded their capital, with a cuU of only 10 per cent, on the shareholders. Now they strength- ened the old fons and formed several new ones In the interior ; but in 1749 a que ition arose in Parliament concerning the rights of the Company, wliieh was de- cided in their favor. Again, in 1782, several of their factories were taken by the French under La I'erouje ; still their traffic seems to have continued very lucra- tive until the invasion of their rights and territories l>y a strong rival association, designated tlie Nortli- west Company, wliose fierce competition caused much animosity and l>l calthy and enterprising settlers in Canada, and employed about 2,000 persons as clerks, interpreters, guides, and boatmen (voyageurs), who were stiitioned over tlio vast regions of Canada ceded in 1763 by the French to tlio English. Shareholders who engaged actively in the trade were called agents, some of whom resided at the different ports estalilished by tlie Coni|>any iu the Indian territory, and others at Quebec and Montreal, eacli attending to the afiuirs of the Company in Ids ap- pointed district. These active partners met annually at Fort William, one of tlieir stations on Uikc ISiipe- rior, wliere they discussed matters ciiniicctcd with tlie aflairs of the association, and arranged future plans. Tho clerks of tho North-west Company were mostly young Scotchmen, of respectalde families, who were willing to undergo the hardships attendant upon a residence of some years in these inhospitable re- gions, in order that tliey might thus secure the advan- tage of Buccecding in turn to n share of the profits of the undertaking, the custom being to take from among the clerkc as partners those who had acquired tlie ex perience necessary for the management of the busi- ness. The hunters of this Company crosied the Bocky FUR 160 FUR Monntalni rbont the year 1806, and Mtabllahed ats- tioiM on the northern head-vrnters uf the Culuiiibin. Jn 181B they {.'iichated Astoria on thin river, which wan relinqL'Ifhed liy Mr. Aetor,* of New \otr., a-.id his partners, in ccn^equenre of the war brtwenn the United States and Great Dritain, At length the ]IudM>n's Bay Company, bolng rouaod liy the activity of the North-west Assr ' .un, exercised for the first time its chartered right >.» colonize, and sold, in 1812, a tract of land on Lake Winnipeg and the Kod Klver, to I^rd Selkirk, who Introduced a considernlile nam- ber of persons f^om Scotland. The conseqnencs was an u|)en war between the partliana of tho rival Compa- nies. After a war of two years, the Kcd Klver settle- ment was destroyed by the massacre of the f^nvernor, Mr. Semble, and many of his associates, while tho sur- vivor? were driven away. But this melancholy and ImrlHtrous state of matters was put an end to liy the union of tho rival Companies in 1821, since which the tnide haa lieen peacefully and successfully prosecuted. When the partnership of the North-west Company wns-aliout to expire in 1821, tlie tliree I.ondon repre- sentatives of the Arm offered to merge their interests In those of the Hudson's liny Company. Tills was agreense for 21 years of exclusive trade over the Indian and ii^ •'tral territo- ries. The affairs of the Hudson's Bay Cesldes hunting expeditions and ship- ping, employing 25 chief factors, 28 chief traders, 162 clerks, 1200 regular servants, besides employing in occasional labor, tho serviics of a large numiwr of the natlvos ; a steam vessel and five sailing vessels of from 100 to ,S00 tons, all armed. Their forts or stock- aded positions extend fnini tho coast of I,abrador to the Pacific, and from the northern boundaries of ('an- ado to the shores of the Arctic Oce.in. At every largo trading establbhinent there is an "Indian Hosfiltal,'' from which the natives derive the greatest benefit ; and several me.iic::! ni.on are maintained liy the Com- pany ut different ftirts. iMlnisters of the gospel of evory dcmominatlon are encouraged and protected by the Company, and a bishop of tho Church of England now presides over the diocese of Rupert's I,and. Tho fur trade Is prosecuted In the north-wostcni territories of the United States liy an association called the North American Fur Company, of which the chief managers reside at New York. Its princi- pal station is Mlchilimacklnac, to which are brought all the peltries collected at the other iwirts of the Mis- sissippi, Missouri, and Yellowstone Rivers, and all over tho vast mnge of country extending thence to the Rocky Jlountains. TIih Company is admiraldy organized and managed : it employs steamboats for ascending the rivers, which also penetrate with ease to regions which could formerly be explored only throiigh the most painful efforts in barges and kcel.lioats, or by small parties on foot or on horseback. A great many packages of furs are now brought from that sec- tion of the country, and from what Is called the Red River of the north, bj- way of St. I'aul in Minnesota, and thence by way of river to St. Louis and other cities. It has been proposed to build a railroad from St. Paul up the valley of the .Saint Croix to the valley of the Red River; and for this purpose lar(;o grants of land have been set aside sufficient to build this railroad. A road once built to this region would make a wonderful and complete revolution in the fur trade. Fur Sh'tit Imported. — About 5,000,000 skins of an- bnali applicable as furs, are annually imported into the sin St< pai a IS Ma fou qui gei tri( FUR 767 PUR Britain. The lubjolned table glvu the Import* and vj^porti of fur-iikina in the year 1861 1 1 AiUnali. Tntal lni|Mirt*il lolu Kngluul. "■"«•'• |X»1'° 526,000 00,000 H6,000 l»,600 11,000 60,(J00 4,500 1,000 1,500 20,000 55,000 120,000 245,000 1,000,000 17,800 18.(NI0 15,000 120,000 8,000,000 6,MI91 511,410 197,104 120,0im).— Till" rwlent quxilruiwd is an expert nwimmer, ■n(l fraqiiontii the neighlmrhmHl at wkter, wliern it liven In liurrowa ; it Ij* mnaller than the lioavvr, and cunniJeralily larger than the muaquimh, Itiit has a re- ■•nil>Unre to liotli thene animalx In ItH natural haliiti, and in the qualities of Its fur. Until lately llils fur was very much used by hat nianufactnrerii, ami as many as G()0,00() skins have Iwen annually iinporteil from Huenus Ayres and Chill, In which countries Ih.' animal alwnnda. Owing to the wars that c(mtlnue t.i be carried on lietween the difforent States of Uuenos Ayres, and the consequent withdrawal of the truiipcrs from their accustomed occupations, the Importnlicms have fallen to 3000 skins, which are dressed and dyed aa a sulistitute for the costly fur seal. The Hamster {CrU-rtiis lulgarit) — About 100,000 of the skins of the hamster are annually collected In central (iermany, where the animal almunds; it has a poor, short, and coarse fur, ami is almost e.Tclu9lvely used for cloak lin Ings liy the Greeks; the color of the back is a red(li,-li brown, the belly black, with a few light s|>ots Tlio animal Is about nine inches in length, and lives under ground, forming several apartments for storing grain separate from its own hyliemaculum. It is so in- dustrious and )>rovident, tlut when tlie peasants' go " hamster nesting" in the winter, they possess them- ••dves not only of the skin, but of tho valuable store of g(MKl grain, which Is said fre(iu<>ntly to exceed two bushels. The Perwitzky.— The skin of this animal is Iwautifully marked like tortoise-shell, and is brought from the south-eastern territories of Asiatic Kussia ; the fur Is short, giving little warmth, and Is chietly made into cloak linings and used by thu Russians. Tho Beaver (^Castor Amfrinimin). — Heaver skins are im- ported by the Hudson's Hay Company in less (juanti- tles than formerly ; tho lise of the fur in our hat manufactories has greatly diminished since tho intro- duction of silk hats, and a considerable depreciation has taken place In their value. This Iteautiful fur is sometimes used for articles of dress, Fn order to pre- pare tile skin for this appropriation the coarse hairs are removed, ond the surface is very evenly cut by an in- genious macliine, somewhat similar to that used in dressing cloth. The fur thus prepared has a lieautiful apjwarance, not unlike the costly South Sea otter, and has the advantage of lightness, with ('.uralillity and cheapness. The white wool from the under part of the beaver still obtains a high price, an^e«ii (Pkoeti). — There am numaroua varieties of these animals, some of which are found on the western coasts of Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. They fre- quent, in immense numbers, the coasts of NewfouniU land, Oreenland, and Lalirador, and the im|M)natlons Into this country froiincntly exceed 500,00(1 in one season. The younj; seals of some s|nM'les Increase in slie with great rapiiiity, and it is asserted l>y the seal fishers that they double their bulk in right duv-i. The greater |K>rtiou are tanned and enameled with Ijlack varnlHh for ladles' shoes ; other descriptions are well adapted for fur, es)i«cially the seal of the Houtli .Seas and tiie nortli-west iciast of America. Before tlioy can be uieii lut a fur, it Is necessary to remove the very coarse hairs wiiich cover a lieautlfully line and silky fur, The roots of these hairs are deeply seated in tile siilistance of the thick pelt, while the fur is strongly atfaibed to the upper surface of the skin. Ily shaving tlie pelt to half its natural suljntanie the riHits of tho coarse hairs uro cut through, and they easily fall out ; but tho same ell'ect is produced by a natural process of feriiiniitation, which ensues when the skins ure pro|H'riy pre|)ared and allowed to remain together. The soft curly fur of tlic seal Is now rorely Hied in its natural state, but is dvi!d a deep Van- dyke liniwn, and has thu appearance of tho richest velvet. T/ie Fox. — Of foxes' skins brought into Kuglund tliero are many varieties ; tho blaci< an'fi>rinilitary purposes, for rngs, and carriage hamiiiercloths. In Kussia it is frequently manufactured for sleigh coverings, and the skin of tho cub liear is highly valued for trimmings and coat- linings. That of the grizzly liear (^Urstu ferox) is up- plied to similar uses. That of the w liito jiolar bear, of which the supply is very limited, is frequently made into rugs, bordered with the black and grizzly liear skiiia. 'The fur of the brown or Isabella liuar (Urma laabellimu) luis fre<|Uently licon very fashiona- ble in this countr>', when its value has Iwen tenfold the present price. It is still considerably used for various articles of ladies' dress. The /tare. — The wool or under fur of the European gray hare (/.epns timidu/i) is extensively nsed for man- ufacturing felt hats, both in Euroiie and America. A few of these are dressed fur the purjxise of beiug worn aa a protection to tho chest. The white hare of Rus- sia and the polar regions (lA-pua glaciali*) was formerly much worn in its puru white state a« a lining for ladies' cloalu, and as a subatitute for the white fox, FlIR Mt FUR i-riters. will trupB liuiU. the \i9«d ilouk- urupean or mun- ica. A [i^ worn RUB- iirmeriy ling for lite fox, iMltiM Ma Mn$ •■cMNllngl/ tarnUir, iu um for UiU pHrpuM liM liMM diMimtlniMMf. TIm whiu hara U sIm rrMiiiKiilly ilymli It ItNikii txcmHllniiljr rich, but U nut vir^ iluntliU, /'*« MiMril (Ujmt ifMKiffM/M*)— The KnKliab rabbit, both III It* Willi «Nil (tiiniMlId itaU, alTurili a vary pUnlirill iiM|>|ilv lit MMiful fur. Whan dr«Md and ilyad In liiiltalliiii iif nlh«r nklnn, It l« m*nufactur«l liitu I tfmal varli.lv iiT rhaaii am! uiwful artlilu for tha IiiIiIjIU iiInvmi*, iba WiniI hai rwantly bmn inanufac- lurad InIii a imiillar nbith adapted for laillaa' uaa, but by far iIik ^r«at•r Mitmlwr iif alilna ara itlll ua«l for lutlara' pur|WM«, I'lwi Kn||llah allvar-tiray rabbit waa urlKliially a tiranl iimiullarlo UiHtdnahlra, whera graat •ttaiitlim waa paltl l<> It | but warrana liava ainca baun fwriiiail In varliiua |iarta of lli* nmntry. Skina of tbia varUty ara KiiHllnually aNiNiHad t«> c;hlna and Kuaaia, wltara lliay ara inui'li «aU«in«d and conmiand a wm- pirallvaly liluh iirlia. Ilia lludaima Day rabbit in liMUtlful In tlia laiiKth and taalurc of Ua fur, but the »kln la mt (r»tfi\», and tli« fur ao liable to fall off with alliflit wear, that It li«« little ralua aa an article of draaa, 'Ilia wjilla I'lillali rablilt la a breed peculiar to tkal uouiitrt i Ua akin M often matia into llnlnKa for ladiaa' ii|iiak>, and ^mU\n tlia ilieaneat and moat uaeful tut tut tliat iMiriKiaa, tlia anlinol la e«|K.rted In ureat niiiiilMira, file Ni|Ulrral (*(«r«» vuti/nritX—ThU at- tra4!|lva llltia animal aboui.da In inont coiiotrlea, eape- elally In NIlMirIg and tha north of Kiirope. It la from tlia ItuMlaii domlnbiiia Ibut we derive our prliitlpal •Uplily lit tltn akllia of tliU iiKJle vreature, which ex- oaada in nmnlwr Ihitt of any of the fur-producln« unU maU, It It khM lliat IA,(WO,(NM) are every year i np- lurad ill KllaaU, our aupply from thence exceodInK U,OOM,ltUit : in \t* natural alHKiiia It hna the aiflllty of the former, and ruaeinbliia tha rablilt In living in holea and bur- rowa, Ilia HKlroitii. aoftiiena and delicacy of the fur adapt it only for ladloa' iiae. ThouKh much admired and fraiiMnntly mirn In llila country, It l«,more exUn- »W»iv conauiiHid In t-'rame, (lerinHtiy, and Kuaalu. Thr lUi'iiiin (l>riii'[/iHi tal(,r),-~'l'hi raooon'ia an in- habitiiiit of North Alnorbni tlio akina are imported Into thU country In Imnicnae numliorai but meeting; with no dviimno for mir home trade, are exported by marcjiuiita who |iiifchilafl,Uplp» hilirwlnnit) The aklii of the Kuro|Hi»ii \m\{i»t, from the wiry nature of ita hiiir, ia ganarully u»«il for Ilia niannfacldre of aujierior kinda of abaviiiK \tted with black. Tlia aoftnaaa and duralilllty of the fur render it very auitabia for cloak-llnlnga, and it la alao nuide Into wrappcra for open carrlagea and railway traveling. The ''anada I.ynx if'tlit Canadeiuu); I.ynx Cat (,Ftlu rufa).-— The fur of the lynx ia long, aoft, of a graylah color, and aometimea, aa In tha Norway lynx, covered with brown apota ; thr belly ia white, aliky, and not unfre- i|uently apotted with black. The change of faablon baa for aome time diacanled it from thU countr}- ; but it la dyed, prefiared, and exported in conaMarable quantitiea for the Amarican market, where it ia much valued and admired. It ia generally uaed for cloaka, llninga, and facing*, for which purpoaaa it ia very ap- propriate, Iwing exceedingly aoft and light. Frfirrvalum it/Furi. — Tlie fur of moat animala ia in ita greateat perfection at the approach of winter, and before the animal baa attained ita greatest age. It ia the object of the furrier, by dyeing the inferior akina, to Iniitute the more perfect apecimena. Some difficulty haa u'tended thia proceaa, aa the nature of the akin will ailmit of dyea being uaed only in a cold atata ; but the method which haa Iieen practiced in Paria and London haa lieen ao fur aucceaaful that the permanence of the color in the dyed auble ia frequently found of equal durability to that of akina of the natural color, Connideralile excellence haa been uttuiiied alao in dye- ing rubliit and inferior fura of thoae colora which are more auitable to the prevailing taate. The Drat proceaa of the fUr-dreaaer la to prepare thr akina from the raw atute, and render them flt for orna- mental dreaa. In thia country, the uaual practice ia to trample them in closed tuba with a little aalt butler, turning them over and over for aeveral boura. By ' thia meana the akina ure made into aoft and plialile leather. The next proceaa la to rut- them on the lieaL aide over a blunt iron in order to remove looae plecea of integumenta, and to reduce the aubatance, after which it ia necesaary to cleanaa the fur and akin com- pletely fkvm the greoae. For thia purpoae it la again trampled with aaw-dust — uaually that from mahogany, whicli lii>ing lieaten out and repeated several timea, conduce,- tn render the fur glotsy and clean, and to fli !* for tlie cutter to fuabion into any shape that may be oceaaary. Fura ara atiltject to injury by aeveral apeciea of moths, whoae inatincta lead them to depoait their eggs at the roota of the tine baira of animala. Linnasua mentiona n- tlnuea increasing!}- deatructive until it arrivea at its full growth, and forma itself a allken covering, from which in a short time it again emerges a perfect moth. Anotlier eauae of the decay of furs ia the moisture to which they are frequently exposed ; the delicate struct- ure of the fine under-fur can not be preserved when any dampness Is allowed to remain in the akin. This fact ia well known to the leather manufacturer, whc, having wetted his akins, allows them to remain in a damp cellar for a few days for tho purpoae of removing the hair, which is pulled out with the greatest facility after remaining only one week in a moist condition. It follows from these oliservatious, that to preserve fun it U necessary to keep them dr}', and to protect them from motha ; if ex|iosed to damp or lain, they must l>e dried at a moderate distance from the fire ; and when put by for the summer should be combed and beaten with a email cane, and very carefully secured in a dry brown paper or liox into whicli moths can not enter. During the summer tlicy should be examined once a { month, to be again l>eaten and aired, if the aituation I in which they have been placed be at all damp. With FtTR m FITR th«* prtcaationa, tha moat riliuht* fura m»y b* pn- Mrv«il III! injured for many ystr*. Slimn/iulurr ./ Furt fnr ffUiug l'urpo**t.—tn lh» manufacturing of fur* fur tha maklnit of but*, lb* principal klntli of iklni uhiI am tlm hir», ralililt, liaartr, ami nutria. All llw«« klniU of iklna, In tha nnrtbam |iart fbrmad cm tha har«-akln, la tn np<ldarabta waata nf tba fur If tbia praraution lia nut attanilcd In, Tha akin muat now l>« rublird with what la ratlad a rtiit, which rcaamblaa a rnmmim dlnn«r-kiilfa, with laatli lika a aaw. TbIa la uard furtlix |iur|M»a I'laarlnn awuy all Inipurltira and drird ldn mlaaion of all the flngera. Sr una kind of Hheara, and aome annthar, Tbiiaa Ilka talbira' abeara make the neateat work when akillfully uaed | but the othera require leaa time fur tbrir iiiiiiiiigatnnnl. The ahenring of the akina fnrnia a very im|uirtant part of their manufacture ; for if one cut* tno fnr iliiwti, ha will aerUmsly dcalmy Imtb qiiiillty and quantity "f tha fur, aa well aa diatlgure ita ap|ieariini'e. ')ii llila ac- count many furriers conflnn ii part »f their wnrk |n>iipla to tbia liranch of the Imalncaa iilone ; fnr tha i(ri .iti-r part of the pmHta of a maater de|ienda upon tlm miiiu ncr in which the abeuring prncena la |ierfnnneil, After a bnre-akin haa liecn aubmltted to th« pr(Hi>aa of abearing, it prcaenta an appeurance altogether diffi-r- ent from what it did liefore. .\ nuvica would not know it to be the aame skin. Prevloiialy, It was nf a uniform brown color; now, it Is down tha whole nf the back of a moat beautiful jet lilai'k, wlilch griidually lia- coniea fuintc^r aa it approachea tlm slilea of tlia akin, After it undergooa the proceaa nf niumUng, wblih con- aiata in taking off all tire irregular or anKular placea of akin, and muling the pelt smooth and even. It U than lit for the cutting-lHiard. Tho cutting-lioards of fiirriora are niiiibs nf tho wil- low-tree, and are commonly aUiut twenty Inrhaa wide, and from two to three feet liroud. They ought to lie moistened with water at short Intervala, when uaad, to make the wood aoft, and prevent the edge nf tha i-ut- ting-knifa from being taken off too anon. Tliaaa knivea are sometimes made of common ah*«t-lrun, but mnr* frsquantly of steal, which ara tn ha prahrra^ to tha Airmar, nn acmunt nf keeping Ihair «dga longer, and halng in"<'h llghtar fnr the band. A Dne edge will nnt rut tha fur off the akina ; It muat lie a niugh a<*ga, whb'h la obtained from rubbing tha knih atmul every two nr thraa miniilaa upon a place nf common fraa> aiana, nf nnl tno Ana a grain. Thaaa knivea are fTnm live t tinn In which tha fur Ilea. Tb« rnttlng-knlfe la ran quickly backwaH and AirwanI agalnat the Drat Joint i'a to their felting power ; but the prac. lice nf the trade as In tbia ii> itter has nriacn from a deairn tn keep the dilfrrent l> iiida of fur fmin being mixed with one annther, and thereby In amitc degree to prevent adulti-rntlon. From tbia cause the almva mmla nf culling the bare-akin boa lieen long ainra much Improved by the uaa of liiatrumcnta made nf tin, agnlnat which the cuttlng-knirea run, and which are an mntrlved aa to gather In the whole fur off tba largest nkln with aa iiurh ease as the fur of n calf akin could lie gathered liy the hand when the knifn runs ngalnat the fingers. This simple inrentioii pre serves nil the most viiliiable parts nf tho akin in one lump nr fleece, and enables the workman to sort tba fur with mora ease and readiness than before, niMil-tkini.—Thn rabblt-skln la cut in preclaety tha aume manner aa that of the bare, only there la a cnnalderalita diffkirence In the mode of dressing or pre- paring the former. The rablilt-skin is covered over on the pell side with large quantities nf grease or fut, fmm which the bare-akin Is comparatively fiee. This muat lie removed when the rabliit-skin Is first opened. The knife uaeil In opening the skin muat li« preseed down ii|Hin that purl nf the pelt where the fatty sub- sliince la, till It gets lienenth tho cuticle nn whb'b It reals, when the whole of the greasy matter may be removed, and n little whitening rubbed on the spot. If this o|ieratlnn lie nnt well attended to, the grease will get mUed with the fnr, nnd damage it considera- bly, The rnblilt, like the bare akin, is covered over with linir U|Kin the top of tho fur; but Ibis bair can not lie tiikcn off by abearing, as in the case of the fiimier, but must lie removed by />N///tt,7 it out. Tbia la done with a short knife about three Inches long, which Is held ao na to grnap the hair between the thumb and It, which la secured from Injury by having a piece of litirkskin leather placed over it. Tlie hand nf the workman nught In full lightly upon the skin, nthcrwlse the bnir will be cut and the fur pulled out ulao, which will deteriorate its quality and diminish Ita quantity very conslderalily. Ilnirrr-tkinii. — The skin if the beavor Is manufac- tured III the same way as that of the rabbit. The fat, hiiwavpr, In the former is much greater in quantity and ninre firmly lmbcr«(^n, witteh the gtnenllty nf other iktn* do nut. The fur of the tiearer la iorted Into lhri>e er four dl(r>-r»nt kinda i liut that wMrh In cut off thn cheek of the akin liean the hlifbent prlre. White heaver la rniii|iaratlv«ljr •rarrc, and la miuh cateemni for tine drah hata. Nutriit-tkini. — Theite are iUvmA like rahhit-aklna, only the hnir on thn oiitaldc "f the akina l« much atron^er than In the rahhit, iiml i-eqiilrea a tharper knife and ((nater utrenifth to move II. Niitrljt-aklna •re full of flit j and before they are auhmttted to the pulling priK-eita, they mUit Iw well wanhed with aoa|i and liollInK water. The nkhi U laid with the prlt downward, and well •c.rublied on the flir aide with a bruah, till the t(r*'>'« '■ entirely removed. They muit than lie widl wiinhed in coM uprlng water, which la extracted fWini amoni; the fur liv a piece of wood madK for the pur|ifliie. After thin tnny are placed lie- fnre n rttovo or hot fire to dry, iinil am then (It to jjo through the other manufncturin;; procesncn. Both the lieaver and nutria fur*, liefure they are uae e skins are dry they ought to b* gently bc.it n wit.'i a rod, and moistened on the pelt side with vrater, previous to their being put under the pressing stone. They are then cut In the usual manner. Skins prepared In this way attract a great quantity of moUturo from the atmosphere ; and carrnted fur always feels to tho hand as If partially wet. The fur off tho rabblt-skln Improves In its felting capabilities by being kept a modern'e length of time after lieing taken off tho skin ; but hare fur does not. (Ireat attenthm ought to be paid by . it manufactur- ers, who keep considerable stocks of fUr on hand, as to the place In which they are dep- bit fur is always stronger in the Yelting principle when got off rabbits bred on the sea-coast, than in thosa found in inland places, however favorable in other respects these places may be for the rearing of the animals. The skins along the tract of coast already mentioned seem all of the same size and quality. North of Berwick the rabbit-skin becomes smaller, and the fur weaker and shorter; and the further north, along the coast, the more inferior it is found. Hara fur in Great Britain is superior, for bat purposes, to any in the world. The skins and furs imported by or for oui manufac- turers are more varied and more numerous, perhaps, than would generally be supposed. When we consider, too, how many countries must be ransacked to produce this variety — the beaver, the bear, the ermine, the ot- ter, the racoon, the chinchilla, the wolf, the fox, the musquash, the sable, the marten, the squirrel, the 6trh, the mink, the seal, and others — it will be plain that the commerce in furs must be considerable. In 1850, the squirrel furs imported exceeded 2,000,000 ; the musquash, 1,000,000 ; the racoon, 600,000 ; while the rest made up the total number to nearly 6,000,000 — not hides for tanning, be it remembered, but skins imported for the sake of the fur. The beauty of a fur does, most unquestionably, in the eyes of a purchaser, depend largely on the price he pays for it ; and this price depends on the scarcity in the supply. Why else should a black-and-silver fox fur command a price of 80 or 40 gaineas, or a sea-otter skin still more ? It is true that fashion. also tends to determine the price; and it seems that the different tastes of different coun- tries curiously illustrate tbis. Thus, the black-and- silver fox skins are mostly purchased for the Russians and Chinese ; the red-fox skins are in demand in the East for cloak linings and dress trimmings ; the otter skin is used in the same regions for caps and collars ; the beaver fur, now getting out of use for hats, is be- ing made available as a beautiful kind of !-.loth for •Iresses ; the Ij-nx, now out of fashion in England, is a favorite in America. Tho wolf yields a coarse fur, which the Russians employ for cloaks and coats. The sable has long been a favorite in England, and when dark in color commands a high price ; tlio minx (the choicest specimens) Li said to be now in high favor in Paris ; the musquash is largely used in England, it be- ing made to do duty for more costly furs by a little " doctoring ;" the fur of the block liear is chiefly appro- priated by military men, for caps, holsters, rugs, ham- mer-cloths, etc. j the sea-otter fur is a royal fur in China, itnd a noble fur in Russia, and hence commands high prices in those counti ics. Most of the furs named in the above paragraph are procured from North America, through the medium of the Hudson's Bay Company ; but there are some European furs wliieh command on extravagant price. The Russian soble, foi' instance, will sometimes sell for as much u 10 guineas a skin ; and so many of these are employed to form a lining for a cloak, that such a lining has not unfrequently involved a cost of 1000 guineas. The corporation of London display their sable-furred gowns or robes oti official occasions. The fur called French sable is really that of the stone mor- ten, which the French sliow miich skill in dyeing. The ermine or minever, from Russia and Sweden, is one of the most remarkable of furs, naturally as well as so- cially. Its beautiful and delicate white tan only lie insured by killing the animal in winter, when all is white except the tip of the tail. In social dignitie's, the ermine, perhaps, takes the lead of all furs ; for, not only in many countries of the Continent, but in less despotic England, tbero is a sumptuar}' law or custom respecting the ermine ; tho sovereign, the royal fam- iiy, the peers, the r^eresses, and tin Judges, all wear ermine on state occasions ; and this ermine Is ' pow> dered' (as the heralds term it) with small blaci spots or stripes of some other fur ; the number and arrange- ment of the spots and stripes being indicative of the rank of the wearer, and no deviation thereOom being permitted. For the squirrel fur, which is used in larger quantities in England than any other, wn are chiefly indebted to Russia. It Is cheaper than any other equal to it in appearance ; and some of the white portions are admired for their beauty. The fitch, with its strong and durable fibres, has latterly been passing out of favor. The lamb-skin, at a tender age, has all the beauty of fur ; and some of the foreign specimens command a high price. The cat-skin is now used largely in England as a fur, greatly to the danger of the domestic " puss" in general, Tho rab- bit is also an extensively used fur; and tho whito varieties are made to do duty as substitutes for ermine. The little chinchilla yields a soft and delicate fur, much used in England and France. Angora goat-skin was at one time worn extensively as a fur ; but it is now more customar}' to remove the hair or wool, and manu- facture it into cloth. Seal-skins, when to be worn as furs, have tne long coarse hair removed, and the rich silky down which lies beneath it is dyed of a brownish color. When these various furs are gathered together from every quarter of the globe, and consigned to the hands of the furriers, they undergo certain processes, which transform them from quadrupeds' attire into bipeds' attire. The " pelt," or under surface, of each fur has to be converted into a kiqd of leather, by greasing, and pressing, and scraping, and other processes ; and the hair}- or downy surface has to be dyed and pre- pared in various ways, to develop all the beauty which nu.^rally belongs to it, and sometimes tx> im- part extraneous beauty to it. When the light flocculent down trom birds is em- ployed as a fur, it requires much patient labor to ad- Just all the little fibres to their places, since there is no natural " pelt" or skin attached to the down when re- moved from the unimal. As instances of this kind of work, we may adduce the Persian muff and boa lately made from the down of a bird called the egret : their value was 160 guineas. There had been only three similar sets previously made — for the Empress of Rus9- TUB United Htatks (bicept Smii-ments hadb dibevt FBOH Tiir United States to Oehvant, and small lUlTS USED rOB HOMP. Co SUllPTION, WUICII CAN NUT BB ASCBBTAINED). TiIIMB B.HTIRB IhPOBTS were BUM) AT AUOTION IN LonDON, IN JANUARY, MaBCU, AND Bbptxmbeb, 1351. CttOAdaud DMCrlplluD of ikliw. Bcavor . . . . Huskrat... Otter Fisher. . . . . Marten.... Minx iiTHX Silver Fox. Cros» " . Ked " . Orsy " . White •' . KiU " . Black Bear. Bniwn " . Racoon . . . . Wolf. Wolverine. Wildcat... Htdioo*! Bay Company. «,686~ 1HMS 8,910 6,2»T M,8S7 21,141) iJ0,8S8 A8T 1,980 5,5«1 none, 8*9 1,608 4,828 1,803 1,808 9,T4B 1,498 S40 tlnlud Statu, cktofly Unlud SralH. 1,294 894,200 8,9<8 fi,0l« 21,1M 210,120 0,(48 8T« 1,(HI 84,M1 18, 4M MT non>. 8,682 IB fiSl,i4« 10,00T Total. £0,929 1,088,702 12,884 11,818 8&,B0T 381,2«0 25,fi81 908 8,641 40,222 18,4eo 1,476 1,608 «,8SS 1,817 068,064 9,766 1,481 10,847 Tht North Amtrican Fur Company, the leading directors of which reside in the city of New York, have PUR 773 PUR 11,884 11,8)« I 86^1 2&,fi8t 903 8,641 40,291 18,480 1,476 1,608 «,8S8 1,81T S(»,054 1,481 1 10,84T_, leading long enjoyed the princlpil part of the Indian trade of the great lakea and the upper Mississippi. But, with the exception of the muslmkt, most of the fur-clad animals are exterminated in the vicinity of the lakai. The sl(ins of racoons are of little value ; and the liaavei is now scarce on this side of the Roclcy Mountains. An Account or Tin QuANTmrj or Tua raiNoiPAL TAanmn or Fua iMroano into OaaAT BariAiN in 18S1, arm- . ryiHO Till CODNTBIU WUKNCE TIIRT WEEK BEOUOUT, AND TIIK QirANTITY rUENISHED BY XACU CUUNTBT. Marten a 1 Countriu. IlMV«r, Emiiii. FItok. Qoil. Kid. Lunb. MaHen talU. Mini. Miuqnadi. Rmooo. Stal. SkMp. Sfdml. No. No. .No. No. No, No. No. No. No. No. No. 'tto. No. Ruulo. 188,11E 11^70 6 10,610 .... 19,769 1141,848,«H Norway > ■•> . . • . 14,148 481 • >•> 81 .... • ••• 8,888 80«: .... iDenmark 16 468 9008 89.801 16l .... HinseaUo Towns. 4S 91,480 86,184 1^787 176 68,698 96,616 5,856 40,698 VM 87,991 1,718 l,719,66i Holland. .... 8,784 161,878 80«i 800 7,198 8,8901 .... 1 Jlelgiam .... 7,98! 7,168 16,019 .... 1,206 .... 48 88 • ••• France t • • • 7,87J 88,478 617,7511 84,888 1^806 141 18^ .... 10,180 4i Italy 97.1941.271.868 1,824 Tar'klshDomlnlons 1 ...• .•>■ 88 i;i97 188,214 1,040 16,641 . • .• Morocco .... .... 7,860 .... >. . . .... .... . ■■■ . . •. 18.188 British S.Africa.. .... 118,666^ .... t. .. .... • •• . 4,488, 116,577 ...» Brit Tor. In E.I. . , , , , 884,081 62,480 961 .... .... .... 814JS74 4 Britlah N. Amer.. 69,691 819 .... 18 .... 2 86,249 is,m 828,811 1,764 198,669, .... 4,141 United States 184 18 89,759 .... .... 7,496 180,4081,168,879 457,6711 1,918 .... Rio do la Plata.... * •<• .... .... ... .... 66,474 I 11,008 76,118 Greenland and Davis's Straits.. .... .... .... 97,826 .... Other parts 89 «9,9A» 86;»i4 .... 4,M8 116 8 T l,117l 4.%916' 1441 Total 280,480 65,899 789,965 616,7041,600,109 210,069 191,719:1,641,168(466,840 769,756 786,1044.631.619! The Fur Trade in Mifmuota. — Four or five jxars ago the fur trade was the paramount rommercial and industrial interest of the Territory Two or three years further liaclt, and it was not inily the paramount l>ut the sole buBine!>s interest. The (lopulation of the Territory was composed almost entirely of its employ- ers and attaches. St. Paul derived its whole import- ance (a small importance then) from being the depot of the Winnebago and Chippewa outfits ; while Men- dota, the seat of the Sioux outfit, gave laws to the im- mense region occupied by the Dalcotas and chains of trading-posts as fur as Lac qui Pbjle on the Minnesota ; and Pembina, on the Red River, held the whole coun- try like a dependent child at the feet of the magnates of the principal agencies of Pierre Choteau, Jr., & Co. The profits of the fur trade even then had tiegun to decline. The influx of a white population consequent upon the establishment of a Territorial government — the increase of competition in the Indian trade, con- curring with the gradual decrease of its products, and causes that lay beyond these, and that have been gradually but surely promoting the decline of the western fUr trade in general — all contributed to wec'.-en the eflicienc}' of the Fur Company's organiza- tion in our Territor;-, and to render it undesirable to maintain its expensive establishments any longer than was suflicient for settling its affairs. It has accord- ingly had no practical existence since the consumma- tion of tlie Sioux treaty in 1862, from which the traders received a parting token of several hundred tliousand dollars in payment of the accumulated back debts of some thirty years; Since then the trade has been carried on entirely by private individuals, fore- most among wliom, however, are some of the old traders. Two houses alone, Messrs. Forbes & Kitt- son, and Messrs. Culver & Farrington, are connected at this time with the fur trade in this city. The dis- organization of the Indian trade on the Minnesota River, and the diversion of the Indians from hunting, by the pernicious system of annuities, has vastly diminished the productiveness of the ftar trade on the Minnesota River. The trade is almost entirely limited at present to the Pembina or Red River regions, and around the head waters of the Mississippi. The bulTalo rolies come almost entirely from this source, the buffalo ranges being restricted to the region north of the Cheyenne, And west of the James River. The Minnesota River country has fallen off in buffaloes very considerably— the whole receipts for export tnm that region not amounting to more than 1200 rolies. This does not include, however, the large numliers reserved for home ounsumptiou. The table given below, for which we are indebted to K. W. Kittson, Esq., exhibits the total exports of furs teom St. Paul for the present year : 64,292 rats, $11,672 66 ; 8276 minx, (18,621 ; 1428 marten, $8,670; 1046 fishers, $4702 60; 876 red foxes, $1096 ; 3400 coons, $2660 ; 10 wolverines, $25 ; 364 badgers, $91; 2,032 wolves, $3048; 406 otters, $1417 60; 6»6 beaver (pounds), $882; 2542 kit foxes, $1271; 610 bear-skins, $6700; 20 cross fox, $100; 8 silver fox, $400 ; 60 lynx, $126 ; 7600 robes, $41,200. Total, $96,760 60. A notable feature of the fur trad* for the several years past, is the gradual but sui« de- cline of its productiveness — corresponding with a grow- ing demand in Europe and our own country for fun. Each of these causes haa assisted the other to enhance the price of furs — and they have grown expensive— and all these causes concurred to advance prices last }'ear to a sum they never before reached in the American market. Nevertheless it will not do to calculate too surely on last year's prices for the products of the present year, as the consumption of furs is, after all, entirely dependent on the evanescent caprices of fashion. Before closing this article, we will devote a few lines to the character of the men engaged in the fur trade. The character of the hunters and trappers en- gaged in the fur trade throughout the extreme north- west is peculiar and original. The trade is not carried on now, as in former times, by means of batteaux and canoes, which, under the old French and English sys- tems, enlivened the rivers and lakes of our old North- western Territory. The fur-bearing animals have been driven fh>m a great portion of their borders by the ad- vance of emigration, and their sho.v.. hnve Income, to a great extent, the sites of substantial farm-housea and prosperous settlements. The canoe has given place to the steamboat, the trading-post to the city. The great bulk of the trade has been transferred to the region of the mountains, whose wild recesses contain no lakes where they can disport their canoes, no streams which can float their furs to market. These traders and trapiiers transport their goods or furs upon pack- horses, or carry them on their own backs to a naviga- ble stream. They move from place to place on horse- l>ack, sometimes conveying their traps upon their shoulders through deep ravines,- up steep precipices, inaccessible to tlie horse, in search of places which contain their favorite game. The life of the trappar Incomes a scene of toil and privation, and yet of paa- sionate excitement. His views are exaggerated, hia habits unsettled, his sentiments, generally, noble and generous, like those of a sailor, for the causes wbich act upon him are similar in their character; and, Uka the lailor, he is nowhere contented except when lead- FUS 11* FUT lug hit Vta of dan^r uid excitement. Snch ii the life and oluuwoter of the active agents of the fur trade, the atordy hunter* and ttiippera of the north-went. See Hdnt's ^fer. Mag., iii., 185 (J. H. La»ma!*), iii., 252 (H. MnBRAY), xiv., 532 (W. Stcrois) ; Journal of ScieHce, xxv., 311 ; Sdin. Kev., I., 142. Fur-skln DreMing. Fur-sltins are usually dressed by placing them in their dried state in tubs, wheie they undergo a treading operation with men's feet, until they are sufficiently soft and bend easily. The skins, if large, are sewn up, the fur bein^; turned inward ; but if small sldns, such as ermine, are being dressed, they require no sewing. This sewing is pre- paratory- to the greasing with butter or lard, and is intended to protect the fur from the grense, and to pro- mote tlie softening in the succeeding treading operation. The 8l(ins are next wetted, and their flesh is removed ; or they are fleshed and then hung up to dry. Tbey are again subjected to treading in tubs containing saw- dust, and afterward In tubs containing plaster of Purls, or whitening, sprinkled between the skins. Tbey are then )>eaten with a stick and combed : when the dress- ing is completed. M. Pierre Thirion proposes, in his patent of June, 1845, to soften the skins, not by tread- ing, but by beating-stocks, of a construction like the fUlling-niUl. They are next sewn up, and again fulled in a strong vessel, where they are forced upward by the beaters, turned over and over, and thus speedily softened. They are now fleshed, and then returned to the beating-stocks, and mahogany or other sawdust is sprinkled upon the fur, before the beating is renewed. They are next placed in a heated barrel, famished within with radial pins for turning the goods over and over, in order that they may be acted upon by various dry substances, which are thrown into the barrel, and absorb the fat from the skins. Through the hollow shaft of the barrel, steam is introduced, which heats the skins, softening the fat, which is then absorbed by sand, flour, rr any other desiccative powder. It is proper to take the skins out of the barrel from time to time to comb them. Such as have been sufficiently acted upon may theb l>e set aside. They are lastly fteed from the dust by being subjected to a grated cylinder in a state of rotation, and then combed l)y hand. Faa«l Oil is the German name of the oflfensive ■melling oil which exists in alcohol, as distilled from the fermented infusions of malt, and com meal of all kinds, as also from the fermented wash of potatoes, and of beets, etc. A like oil occurs in the alcohol distilled from the fermented must of grapes, and the juices of many sweet fruits. This oil is not, however, identical from theiie several sources ; as may indeed be inferred from the diversity in the flavors of the differ- ent liquors. But they all agree in lieing somewhat less volatile than water, and therefcire make their ap- pearance chiefly in the spirits toward the end of the distillation process. It is to the presence of this oil that the milkiiinng of the last, and also sometimes of the first, portii of the spirii that come over, railed feints, owe their opalescence and their pdH'-trating odor. When the milky fluid is redistilled, alcohol and water first pass over with very little oil, but if the heat of the itUl be moderate, the oil may be made a raslduum, and obtained in a tolerably concentrated itata. Fostian (Ger. Barekent; Du. Funlein; Fr. Fu- lame; It f'ntlagno, fniftai/no; Sp. Futtani Rut. Biimatea;Vo\. Harekan) is a species of coarse, thick tweeled cotton, pnd is generally dyed of an olive, leaden, or oilier r.irk color. Besides tbn common fus- tian, which is known by the name of pillow (probably pUaw), the cotton stuffs called corduroy, velverett, velveteen, thicksett, used' for men's wearing apparel, balong to the laiiM fabric The corainonest kind ia merely a twael of four, or sometimes five leaves, of » very close stout texture, and very narrow, seldom ex- ceeding 17 or 18 inches in breadth. It is cut from the loom in half pieces, or ends, as they are usually termed, about 35 yards long, and after undergoing the subse- quent operations of dyeing, dressing, and folding, is ready for the market. Of velvet, there are properly only two kinds, that with a plain, and that with a tweeled, or, as it is here called, a Genoa ground, or back. When the material is silk, it is called velvet ; when cotton, velveteen ; and this is the sole difference. In the same way a common tweeled cloth, when composed of silk is called satin ; when of cotton, fustian or jean ; of woolen, plaidihg, serge, or kerseymere ; and in the linen trad* is distinguished by a variety of names according to the quality or fineness, or the place where the article if manufactured. FuatloCGer. Gelbholz, Futtic ; Du. Geelkout; Fr. Boiajauttt de Britil; It. Ij'gno ffiallo de Bratilio; Sp. Palo del BraaitamartUo), the wood of a species of mul- berry {Morus tinctoria), growing in most parts of South America, in the United States, and the West India Islands. It is a large and handsome tree; and the timber, though, like most other dye-woods, brittle, or, at least, easily splintered, is hard and strong. It is very exten- sively used OS an ingredient in the dyeing of yellow, and ia largely imported for that purpose. Of 10,800 tons of fustic imported into Great Britain in 1850, 3896 tons were l>rought from Kew Granada, 207C from the British West ladies, 1G39 from Cuba, 945 from the United States, 750 from Mexico, and C69 from Brazil. Fustic from Cuba fetches full 30 per cent, more in the London market than that of Jamaica or Colombia. At present the price of the former varies from £9 to £9 10s. a ton, while the latter varies from £o 5s. to ;£6 a ton. The consumption amounts to about 6,000 tons a year. The duty on fustic was abolished in 1845. Zante, or young fustic, is really a species of sumach {Shut coiintu, Lin.), and is quite distinct from the Aforut liacloria, or old fustic ; the latter being a large Americu'. \r<>i:, while the former is a small Euro|>ean shru'). !t ^. u,'' ■ J! {iaijuirl ,!!.,•>. ,(.■» 'liJirj !-■ ' ,' ,'i!.iOif y'-Stai-,, >i'i . m.ii. r 1 . /i-!!7; .li'iH li«'.-l.;> Gaff, in nautical language, ■ spar to which tht bead of a fore-and-aft soil is bent. Gaff-loptail, a small sail set over a gaiT, which serves to spread the foot of the sail. Oage, a pledge or pawn given (jy way of security, II. Gage, a challenge to combat ; that U, a gauntlet, glove, cap, or the like, cost on tlie ground by the challenger, and taken up by the accepter of the chal- lenge. III. Gage, in nautical language, the depth of water a vessel draws, i. e., the number uf feet she sink* in the water. In a different sense, when a ship is to windward of another, she is said to have the wealhir- gage of such vessel. IV. Gage, among letter-found' crs, a piece of hard wood variously notched, used to adjust the dimensions, slopes, etc., of th« diffisrent sorts of letters. In joiner}- it denotes an instrument to strike a line parallel to the straight side of a board, Sliding-gage, among mathematical instrument-iualiera, a tool for measuring and setting off distances, V. The term gage, implying measure, as of depth, lielglit, force, quantity, etc., is frequently used in eonii>o«ltlon to denote particular kinds of instruments) as, sea- gage, tide-gage, wind-gage, rain-gage, etc. Oalaoz, or Galatz, a town of Moldavia, on the left bank of the Danube, between the confluence of the Sercth and Pruth with that river. Lat. 46° 2fl' K. ; long. 28° E. It is ill-built and dirty, though in these respects it has latterly been much improved. Population supposed to amount to 25,000, The traile of the town is chiefly carried on liy Greek mercliants ; but, within the last few years, various English anil other foreigners have formed eatal)iishnients la It, Though at a considerable distance inland, Galacz Is In the best position for becoming the port of tlie Danube, At present, however, it is little more than tlie port uf Moldavia, Ibraila, or Brahilow, about 12 milei further inland, being the port of Wailachia. The commercial importance of these ports, and indeed of the Danulie, dates only from the treaty of Adrianople in 1620. Previous to that epoch the trade of the principalities laliored under the most oppressive restriction*, and was principally carried on by land. But all articles of native produce may now )>e freely exported either by sea or land, on paying moderate duties ; and the duties on imports are also, for the most part, compara- tively moderate. The probability, indeed, seems to be that Golacz, "the Alexandria," as it has been called, " of the Scythian Nile," will at no very distant period liecome a first-rate emporium. The rescuing of Moldavia and Wailachia from Turkish. mUgnvem- ment has been of signal advantage ; and It Is to lie hoped that they may never again 1)0 subjected to Its paralyzing influence. The establishment of a regular intercourse by means of steam packets lietween Vienna and Galacz, and thence by the Black Sea, with Con- stantinople and Treiiizond, has already done ■ great deal, and will ever}' day do more, to introduce a spirit of improvement into the vast and fertile, hut long neglected, countries traversed by the Danulie In the lower part of its course. The capacities of this great river as a commercial highway are certainly unequaled by those of any other Euro|)ean stream ; and their full development would be of immeasurable advantage, not merely to tlie countries on its bunks, hut to all commercial nations. Exports and Imports. — Moldavia and WallachU are very productive provinces, being fruitful both of corn and cattle. The high prices of com in Franc*, Italy, and England, in 1M6 and 1847, gave an extraordinary stimulus to the export trade of Galacz ami IbraiU, The exports of wheat from both |)ortB, in 18(7, •mounted to no fewer th-tn 670,978 quarten, worth on board ship, £1*76,009 ) the exports of Indian com dur- ing th« same years, were 937,720 quarters, worth 4Cl,17Si,lAO I and among the other exports were about 820,000 quarters of barley, and 42,000 owt. of tallow, with a variety of Inferior articles. The total value of tb« axiiorta from the two porta during the above year, amounted to the verj' large sum of .£2,308,472, of which about two thirds were from Iliraila. The qual- ity of the wheal, which is partly hard and partly soft, was, a few years ago, very inferior, being generally damp, and having an earthy smell from its being kept In pit* dug in the ground. Latterly, however, it has b««tt much Improved ) and the finer samples now fetch. In Marnellles, Genua, and Leghom, within from 3 to « |i*r cent, ut the price of Odeiisa. wheat. In 1852, we imported H0,MO quarters of Wiillachian and Moldaviim wluiat, with nu fewer than (i2ti,714 do. Indian com. Doth provinces fatton large herds of cattle, particu- Urty Moldavia, which annually sends great numbers to the Austrian States, Tuiiow may be had in large quantities, Ite annual produce, in Wailachia only, be- liijl estimated at aliout 8,000,000 okes, or 8,500,000 IKiunds. Until within these few years, the tallow shipped at Galarr, was burdened with a heavy export duty, which cliecked Its sale, and consequently, also. Its growth. Happily, however, that duty Is now re- duced to 8 per cent,, and the exportation is rapidly increasing. The quality of the Danubian tallow is excellent. Among the other articles of exports are wool, timber, hides, and skins, lard, butter, bristles, lionas, jerked beef, linseed, barilla, yellow-lierries, coarse clicese, etc. Timber of the finest quality may lie hutl in any quantity ; but as it can only be advan- tageously exported In large ships, which can not when laden make their way over the bar, the trade in it has hitherto Ixen confined within comparatively narrow limllff. One, however, would be disposed to think that tills dimculty might be obviated by sending down the timtier In rafts and loading outside the bar. Xot- wlthstandlng the recent period at which the naviga^ tkm of the Danube has tieen opened, and the barbarous state of the countries in the lower part of its course, the value of the exports from Galacz and Ibraila probably In 1863 exceeded £1,800,000 a year, of which from' X7$0,000 to ^£800,000 may be from the former. But, conaideralil* as this is, it is nothing to what it certainly would Ixi were civilization to mak^ uny con- sldarabU progress In the countries traver ed tiv iiie Danube after it leaves the Austrian don:-.aious, ind •till mora were the river to become, as it natiiraliy is, the printilpal channel for the conveyance of pixmuote tuand from Hungary and Transylvania. The great urtli^les of InifKirt are manufactured cotton goods, and cotton twist, |irincipaiiy from England, the demand for which is r.ipldly Increasing; with sugar, coffee, and other colonial products ; olives and olive-oil, iron and steel, hardware, etc, KiUranrf. to Oalaez.—Ot the three principal mouths of the river, the Soutineh (middle) mouth, in latitude 46« 10' no'' N,, l»ng, 29° 41' 20'' E., is the only one ac(!esslbl« liy vessels of considerable burden. The depth of water on the bar, at Its entrance, half a mile from (lin shore, varies from 10 to 13 and 14 feet, ac- cording to the season of the year, and the direction of the wind. When the latter blows from the east, it is opposed by the current of water flowing from the west, SI) that the bar Is rapidly increased by the de- posit th*r««n of the mud brought down by the river ; and when, on the contrary, the current and the wind colnclda, the mud Is carried out into the sea, and the depth of water on the bar is progressively augmented. Th* assistance of a powerful dredging-machtne, ot '^■-: GAL *V» GAL machine fitted to itlr np the mud, or other depotit fonuing the bar daring the prevalence of westerly winds, world be of great Importance ; and it Is be- lieved that with its agency the channel might \m very materially deepened. Great complaints have l>enn made of the atatr of the navigation of the Danube during the present year (18S3). It appears to have been occaaloned partly by difficuhies ari«ing out of the disputes between Russia and Turkey, and partly by the prevalence of easterly winds. But it would be eaiy, by erecting a light-house, to mark the entrance to the river, and employing ■ dredging-machine and steam-tugs, to obviate the physical obstructions to the navigation. From the bar to Oalaci and Ibraila, there is nowhere less than 18 feet of water, and in many places fh>m 60 to 70. Vessels of 800 tons lie cli ; to the quays at Galacz. The shores at the mo Ah of the river being low and bordered with reeds and shoals, vessels intending to enter the river gene- rally make the rmall rocky islet of Pbldonisi, or Ser- pent's Isle, in Ut. 45° 15' 15" N., long. 80° 10' 80" E., whence the Sonlineh mouth beurs wi>st by south, distance 28 miles. According to Mr. Cunningham, the flrst objects seen, on nearing the shore, are the masts nf vessels in the river and the houses in the town of Sonlineh, which, however, ar« veiy low. Hageroeister says that there Is a wooden tower en the south shore at the entrance to the river ; but thongit the contrary has been often affirmed, and its position given in Arrowsmith's map, there is certainly no light-house. When a ship approaches the entrance, a boat from the Russian ca|:tair. of the port goes jS, mCt by nn-riug a red flag indicates the course to te kept. Lighters are generally stationed withont the bar, into which large shipe discharge a part of their cargoes ; and pilots may generally be obtained from them or other vessels. As the current is sometimes very strong, and difficolt to stem, a proper establishment of steam-tugs at the month of the river would be a grant advantage. An E.S.E. wind carries a vessel from Sonlineh to Galaci through all the diflierent teaches of the river ; but otherwise the navigation is difficult, and towing is in parts necessary. Frost usually sets in on the Danube in the month of December, and continues till the month of March ; ic 1888, however, there was no frost. Freights in the ports of the Danube are always from ?0 to 2ft per cent, higher than in Odessa ; premiums of insurance, on the contrary, are not higher than at the latter, except >.14]^ pia. ; Turkish yermelik, old colnagesll) pia. ; Turkish yermelik, new colnageaal2 pia. 28 paras ; swanxik 'r::=i2 pla. 12 paras. A'o(e. — The same as in Galacz, any of these col'is may go to a premium. . Galacz and /braila. — All duties are paiid in both places, in the course of the Treasur}*, as follows : — Ducat blancaaSl^ pla. ; silver ruble^t^lOJ p. .. ; Span- ish dolUr^l4 pia. ; Turkish yermelik, oii.-wili pla. ; »wanzlkern2i pla. The dnert blanc weighs 1 Turkish drachm. £icA " Maraollles " Oapoa " Levhorn " London " Odessa lOd fst ConstaotlDople, 11 " ,.., Weightt.—Qalact and IbralU, 44 okes^it cantar. Meaturet. — Galacz and Ibroila. 20 banniza=^1 kilo. 8 kilo of 0Blacz=^2 kilo of Ibraila. CannroKDKxoB or Waionn and Mkabvrbs or Oalacz WITH TuosE or roaaioN Places. PlH . P>nu. » 36 |Mf florin. « 18 u florin. 8 it u ftaac 8 M u fhinc. 8 4 u lira. 80 20 u pound Iter). 100 roubles. 410 00 M 119 00 " lOOorOa^aca 400 dramg=l oke. M) okes. 78 " ., 18| " 100 kilo of Galacz. 100 100 •■ 100 " 100 100 fiS US 1 okcs Unseed. . 1 100 100 1 IfiO 480 4!.') 600 280 1 1 1 cwt. Kngllsb, klloKnunmos. ftand of Vienna. rnC of Russia, mpertsl quartem hcriolltrra. sU^onf Venice. sool'iS of leghorn, chetwerts or Odessa- Imperial quarter, beetolltre. ebetwert. kilo of Brabllow. . = Si Imperial qaarteis. Aotf.— These measures generally measure out somewhat less. Nora or Exroan raou Oalacz bt Ska in 1851, ix En- OLisn WxiouTS AND Measuirs, and Value or lua SAME IN Stebuno Money, fbee on Boahd. ArtlcUi. QiujUly. Valoa. ^aeat qnartoia 1UMT4 £141,108 IndUnoom ■* 890,083 280,545 Bye " 71,024 4»,71« Tallow and chervlca cwt 4,849 7,898 Oxhides pieces. 1,541 778 Wine gallons. 86,400 9,380 Flanks and deals pieces. 429,615 7,158 Masts and spars rsHs. 5 ft,600 Destination or Vkssei^s depaetino loaded from Qalacz, AND CAHOOn or SAME, IN 1851. DuttlnAtlon. iConstantlnopIe. TriesteAVenlce Ionian Islands. . Leghorn, Genoa and Marseilles England.... North of Europe Olessa. Total 1 Ho, of 17< 87 S 85 2M 14 6 019 44,084 14 80,4''57 8A« 768 9,167 S,2»l ,3.9GS 778457 ToUl Port Chargfi. — In Galacz anchorage is 30 pla., and a guardian for 6 days' obsorvatton, fi pla. per day. In Ibraila anchorage is 17^ pia,, and guardian for 6 days' observation, 5 pla, por day, QuarmUtne. — Vessels genenilly remain in quaran- tine during their stay, as Ititle or no advantage is gained by taking pratiqnn. Vessels wishing to take pratique may obtain it In 14 to 21 days according to the stnte of health in T«|w comi and tine I previ Isi Bessi but OAL 111 GAL key, Iby taking a Health Office gnard on board ; or the captain alone may take pratique, the tame as any passenger, by going into the lazzaret. During the la!ESTIHATION Or TkSSEU DXPAKTIifa LOADED mOH IbRAILA, AK» CAaaocs or nil saiiic, in 1861. OaillluiUon. No. of VoimU. WhMt. Indlu ton. B«rU7. Oonatantlnople 490 188 16 85 820 Qn. 108,144 H108 18,278 26,998 100,698 18?3S0 172,105 lj«97 4,908 2.S«,882 104^669 1,028 Trieste and Venice Ionian Islands.. Leghorn, Oenoo, and I Marseilles ( KngUind Total 1,049 288,106 646,617 105,567 The total number of vessels departing from Oalacz and Ibralla in 1851 was, 1,668, with au aggregate tonnage of 300,846. Of these, 634 were Greek, with an aggregate tonnage of 112,438 ; 352 were Turkish, with an aggregate tonnage of 60,234 ; and 304 vessels were English, with an aggregato tonnage of 6S,62fi, There was one vessel from Buenos Ayres. The export of grain constitutes the leading com* mercial movement of the port of Oalacz. The follow Ing table exhibits the grain export trade of the porta of Oalacz and Ibralla, during three consecutive years : aniliu. FROU OALATZ. Wheat Indian corn Eye Total FBOH IBRAILA. Wheat Indinn corn Kyo Total 1B4(. IMO. QaArtori. 178.797 258,768 60,617 498,177 117,488 885,582 72,986 Quvlort. 140,663 122,875 68,776 816,808 288,290 149,782 44,594 536,904 I 577,616 Qiikrterf. 134,474 850,682 71,024 656,180 283,106 616,617 106,597 1,086,820 The ports to which these vast quantities of grain are shipped, will be seen from the following return of the export trade during the same years : TBARi. CONSTAIinNOPLK. ) TKItJTI AMD VBNICt, |MAllllllIJ.n, GINOA, A LUHDHN. OaSAT BRITAIM. | No. nfvi!««li.| Uiisrtin. 1 No. ..f vn.el«. i (Imrlmi. i No. of vei^U. | QuarMn. No. of vetielf. iltimrun. Illl 493 620 447 666 829,032 404,815 294,607 466,789 1»7 126 104 276 175,515 180,976 111,026 294,876 160 117,280 101 71,656 70 r 60,006 70 1 66,479 280 297 253 606 264,691 889,774 816,019 688,707 The port of Oalacz is the outlet for the produce of Wallachia and Moldavia. And its Imports in 1660 amounted to $2,175,000, Its exports, consisting of grain, tallow, preserved meat, wine, and linseed, reach, annually, about $3,877,660. How far Amer- ican interests might be promoted in the foreign trade of the Danublan and other porta of the Turkish do- minions, may be gathered from the following table, exhibiting the articles of foreign and colonial produce exported to Turkey in the year U51. The table In- cludes, also, the imports into Wallachia, Moldavia, Syria, Palestine, and Eg}-pt : DoKription of marehandiM. Qtuuitltlet. Fernvlan bark owts. 60 Cassia llgnoa pounds 17,620 Cloves " 89,108 Cochineal cwts. 1,946 Cocoa pounds 2,908 Coffee " 620,502 Olnger owta. 97 Qumshellaa " 15 Indigo " 5,927 Iron " 61 Cotton mamilaotnres (value) 14,210 Iiogwood tons 76 Nutmegs pounds 8,621 Opiam " 5,406 Pepper " 478,504 Pimento cwts 720 Quicksilver pounds 42i) Khubstb •' 1,286 Elco, owta. 5,049 Bilk. : pounds l.iW Tuffetles pieces 6,978 Spirits gallons 66,961 Bngar. cwta. ' e.-Sol Tea pounds 197,485 Tobacco " 169,022 Wine (tallons 6,786 Wool pounds 4,511 Duties. — An ad valorem duty I :' ,jtr cent. Is levied on all articles, except provisions, imported into, or exported from, the principalities of Moldavia and Watlaclila Government reserves to itself the power of pn'ml/.ting the exportation of any article, hut it has to give a month's previous notice of any such pro- hibition. Oalacz Is a free port ; that Is, a port at which all commodities may bo landed, warehoused, re-exported, and consumed in the town, free of duty. Quaran- tine regulations are strictly enforced, unless performed previously to entering the river. Ismail and Keni, ports of the Russian province of Bessarabia, are situated on the Danube, and are both, bat especially Ismail, a good deal nearer its mouth than Oalacz ; but they are much less considerable In point of commercial importance. Having little im- portation, their trade is confined almost entirely to the exportation of com, and even in this respect they are very inferior to Galacz and Brahilow. They are sub- ject to the Russian duties and regulations. We have gleaned these particulars from a variety of works, but principally from the valuable Report by Mr. Cunning- ham, now vice-consul at Brahilow, printed at Galacz In 1841 ; the work of Hagemelster, On the Commerce of the Black Sea, Eng. trans, pp. 83-95, etc. ; Purday't Sailing Directions to the Black Sea, p. 193, etc. Account or the Quantities and Values of tue peinoi- PAt Aeticles impurted into and exported prok Var.na in 1847. .cwta imports. Almonds Carobs. " Coffee » Cotton twist packeta Cloths, woolen bales Cloths, cotton rigs cwts. Iron tons Olive oil cwts Olives... Popperai ' "IsorBplccs. pounds lislslns Sugar Soap Bait tons Tin (In bars) bands Snlrita gallons Miscellaneous Total CTi'^tt quarters .ricy. Iti'ios number Tallow owta Buuar " Cheoso " WalnntB .bushels Wool pounds Dried beef or pastnrms. . .cwta. MiMcllaneous, lucludlng poul- try and eggs Total qiiantltlai. Valuoin £ fllarllnir. 24 60 10,808 6,no<, 14,263 80,000 180,000 82,000 200 10,000 200 7,000 8,000 1,400 600 7,000 2,107 6,067 8,000 2,400 14,600 1,613 10,686 6,822 6,266 11,665 1,875 4.135 923 1,800 7»7 24100 600,000 75,000 10,000 .... £214,861 877,600 £471,000 10,1.1 ,\000 •..t'.Ol»l 84,466 ■'•,»'' 176,800 1',..? 21,816 , 24,w)fl 68,636 10,0'JO 1 y"} 112,000 "..i.ii:. 66,817 ' 2u,i,>lO £876,708 The port of Varna is situated on the W. coast of the Black .Sea, at the bottom of a rather small bay, about 3 miles N.W. Cape Galata, the latter being In lat. 43^ • '>*'^ym QAL 118 OAL 10' N., long. 17° 68}' E. TL« ortiiaiy uichonig* is to the S.F of th« town, in 7 or 8 iuthoDM, bottom Band and oaxe . It la open to all winda between E. and 8.S.E. VamieU load and unload by means of IlKhters, it being dangerous to approacli within le5s than one quarter of a mile of the shore. r< th hard and soft wheat are shipped from Vamu, the value of the former being . rom 80 to ■10 per i cr.t. greater than that of the latter. An export dir-y is charged on wheat when exported, and being a (JTid duty of about 2s. 8d. 1 quarter, it ia high when pn en are low, and low whon they are high. Steam to Galact. — Stea i lavlgatioii wan first estab- lished on the Danube in IKiO, since w.'i.L'h the under- taldng h.ia gone on iirospcring, so murh so, that the communication between Vienna and Ci'istantlnopla is now ni.i.ntalned by a line of 7 or 8 .'i.im vessels. The AMtrian Steam Company, which wi.s \\\:- first in the field, have ext.nded their scliome liy st.irti.ig ves- sels between Vienna and Unz, aud a B<(Viiii^^:i Com- pany comun'nced in 1838 running vessels between Ratis'oou uikI Liuz. At present (ur ver,> recently) steamboats ply on t'iie T)anul>e as long a.s tlio r'w -r is free from ice (usually trom 1 e'>ruary tir M,irch t.i No- rember), fr->m Rstisbon t(. i in/., once a wck ; Linz t') Vletiua, jt) ]ii':'i'., , rcc a w .i^if ; Vienna to Pio.^ljurg and {'■ratli. .'-■;ri' ■ Puth to Tifiincova, once awo3li; (rWovn to .'•••.•, t)ivo a wnk •, Galact to f iiiJian- tinojp^e, (iTiee ) '.I'l'^'^liV ^'iin voyap< *>■""> Vicima to Constantinople, in I !■]',. 5 ^tofipagct. i* riciilom p«r- >unn«d in ie'(» tlfi'.'i Vl 'i:i;'i, a: d soinetinii'j occupies 17 ; \u i-«iu;iiin< OjH/ ' rlis >,l.rca:i: it talte') at least a ic-'ri.t?l, iiiiudini; 10 ■!-.; ■ ' quarantii..3 at Orsova. The f«<« wtt« hv.cly, v,v't j/iaoe, 134 fi.rins, about .£13; •eot ' ': »(!"''•', Pt Elori.id. Tb? .'la* igation of the Danube liy steamers is unfur- tutjteJyiHterruiited for about 50 miles, lietwccn Dren- cova I'ud (iladova, l)y roclts and rapids, the lowest and most considerable of which !■■ s sort of cataract, called the 'lonj^ate," about 3 miles below the Hungarian frontier. It is worttiy of remark that tlie most illus- trioua of t'le Koman emperors, Trajnn, alive to nil the advantaji-cT to be derived from the easy navigation of •he Daniil>«, had with e^ual industi-j' i!on in the lied of a river, under any thing like simi'.ar oir- cumstuoces. are even tclerably successful. The bet- ter way undoubtedly would be, were it practicable, to constru'.t a lateral conal, or rather a canal from the mouth of the Rereska to I'ulanka, which would not only avoid the rapids, l>ut a' so shorten the navigation by getting .-id of the bend of the river b/ Orsova. But the diflicultles in the war of such an undertak- ing, from the nature of thd ground, jra said to l>e insuperable; and it is, therefore, piobeble that the distance of 50 miles along 'he rapids will continue, if not alvrays, at least for some considerable time, a j.o'i- age. The inconvenience, however, of this break in t)<.e nai igation has betn diminished, as far as possilvle, by the construction of an admiral>le carriagn roai , at great expense, by the Hungarian diet, from Moldova to Orsova. In tne extent of excavutiumi ir. the rock, atid tei races of masonry, npjn wliich it is carried, it U not inferior its a specimen of engi.iecring to the finest rouds ove/ tho A\ Several iteamers have been transported down rapids at the season of floodi, small barges p? ■•.u at all times, and little boat«, laden with wax u..i ^tKti, are towed up by Dion and oxen. The paaiengers and goods conveyed ty the t(«aman are tmufeirad from Moldov* in row- boata, to GUdova, below the Irongate, where they embark on another steamer. — Gtog, Vict, art. Danube. A railroad Is completed from Uruon, the capital of Moravia, to Vienna ; another railroad diverges, from the Danube at Linz, north to UudweU in UohemUt, where it reaches the bnnksof th" Vulilmi .nv. Junction of the JJanube -"hi /i'; SAinr. — 'I'-.c long projected canal to nnitf •:c,-s Diiniiti? anf Lu.ml is less, iiie commuii cation being in part ofFiitoi tiy the Regnit. , s tributorj- of tho Maine, an4 t'l.- jtiliiiuhl, a tilbutary of the Danube. There is now, I. inseqaenth', an intern .il rommunication by water thningh.'i.t all the vast luiintiy, Btretc)iln^ fn 1 1 the shorta of I' Nithe. . .nils to the Bltik Seii ; .-lo that piiiiii-e 8(iipp«d .'>v Rotti'fdam of at Giilacz 11! y be conveyed ft' a tl).^ una to tho othtv t'. thu s-im.! vessel. Qalangal <( cr. Ha'gaM; T> .. and I'r. ' danga; Rus. A'algati t l.i.i. (mtcnga; AruL, Kii$3Uuik; Chin. Ixmundutt), the rout of the gaUinsn, brought from China and the East Indies in pieces about an inch lon^, and hardly half an inch thirk. A larger root of tho same kind (greater gatangal), an inch or more in thickness, is to be rejected. It has an aromatic smell, not very grateful ; and an unpleasant, bitterish, extremely hot, biting taste. It should be chosen full and plump, of a bright cclor, ver>' firm and soimd. 12 cwt. are allowed to a ton. — Lewis's Mai. Med. ; MKLBmt!«'s Orient. Com. OalapagOB, a group uf islands in the Pacific Ocean, BO called from tho Span'tJi galnjmgo, a land tortoise, from their abounding in tiiAt animal. They consist of six principal and seven siuiiller islands, Iving between 1° N. and 2° S. hit., anil li.^tween 89° and 92° W. long., about 700 miles fnnii ^he continent of South America. The largest, Albemarle Island, is 60 miles in length, by about 19 in breadth. The highest part is 4000 feet above the ten. They are all of volcanic origin ; and along their shores black dismal-looking heaps of broken lava overj'where meet the ej-e. In many places the lava cliff's are very- liigh, while close to them the water is so deep tliat a ship can not anchor even in a calm. In the interior are some valleys and plains of moderate extent and of great fertility. The land tortoises, called the great elephant tortoises, their feet !ks, seed.s, and oiLer impuri- ' are considered as tho best. orown or blackish, it ia to lie ..rong peculiar odor, and bitterish, "m >:^isoti's ItUptntatorj/. gum resin obtained from ^ ^/iciuVe) growing in Aff'i 1 and in Syria and I'erei-. Irom the Levant in c: tc 300 lbs. cuch. Tb posed of distinct wli.i-^ by a pale If " or > ally much ttu..',- ■■■ ties. The i< i .ixi, i When the 0.' t h U''.. rejected, it h? ■ worn, acrid it ..vc OAL ^9 GAL iiee of Hope, (untry >mlOO com- jether ^ener- ipurl- best, to ll« teiUh, Oaltt of Wind. Th« sea term for a continued ttorm of wind : the lowest degi ae \» the fresh gnle, the next • arong gale, and the next a heavy or hard «ale. Oalena, a city of Jo Davlesa county, Illinois, 230 miles north-west of Siiringtield, situated on Fever or Bean Uiver, and on the Galena and Chicago Bailroad, and the metropolis of the great lead region. It is six miles above the mouth of tlie river, which is navigable to this place, at all stages of the water, for the largest eteambo<;ts. It has an intercourse by steamboat witli St. Louis, New Orleans, Louisville, Cincinnati, and other places on the Misaissippi and Ohio Rivers. The amount of lead shipped from Oalena and vicinity an- nually ia 42,000,000 of pounds, valund at itl,78O,0OO, employing about 2000 persons. The most productive ores of zinc and copper, aulphuret and carlwnate of line and sulphnret of copper everywhere abound in this region. Thousands of tons of Kino lie upon the sur- face, and aro neglected, because, in the abaonce of coal, it can not be profitably smelted. It is popularly known there as Dry lionet and Black Jack. Sulphate of iron i>i found in sheets of larger extent, ranging from a few inches to several feet in thickness. Oalena (Kr. Plomb mlfure ; Ger. Bteiglant), ia a metallic-looking substance of n Icad-gruy color, which crystallizes in the cubical system, r.nd is susceptible of cleavages parallel to the faces of the cube ; specific gravity, 7'7692; cannot be cut; fusible at the l>low- pipe with exhalation of sulphurous vapors ; is easily reduced to metallic lead. Nitric acid first dissolves it, and then throws down sulphate of lead in a white pre- cipitate ; the solution affording, with plates of zinc, brilliant laminie of lead (arbor Saturni). It consists of sulphur, 13 ; lead, 86 ; with a little iron, and some- times a minute quantity of silver. This is the richest ore of lead, and it occurs in almost every geological formation, in veins, in masses, or in beds. It is almost always accompanied by aulphuret of zinc, different salts of lead, heavy spar, fluor spar, eta Galena In powder, called alquifoux, ia employed as a glaze for coarse stonework. Galipot is a name of a white semi-solid viscid rosin found on fir-trees ; or an inferior sort of turpentine, poor in oil. Oalleona. Certain Spanish treasure-ships with three or four decks, formerly employed in communi- cating with Peru. Qalley (Fr. galire), a low-built vessel propelled by rails and oars, either on a single tier, or on tiers of lienches one above the other. The war vessels of an- tiquity were all galleys. Among the Greeks, those chiefly mentioned are the pentecontori, which appear to h 'e h.t'! 50 oars disposed in a single tier ; and the trieres (Lat, trirfmes), vessels witli three binks of oars, concerning tlie di.poaition of wliich much controversy has taken place. Jt is commonly supposed that a trireme hud three bankx of uare, one above the other ; but tills is rendered improbable by the circumstance of Pliny making mention of galleys liaving 30, 40, and even 50 I)ank8 of oars ; for it seems hardly credible that so many could hava been arranged directly above each other. Some liuve suggested that the rows of oars in the trireme were disposed, not horizontally, t ob iiuWy ; iu vh! -h case nn increase in the nuni- < 1 i.j. '■» f osn would augment the length, and ; .i>oulily tlie i. 'jilt v.'ould be increast^d in proportion. See ifeibomiui, l)t F.u r'.'ca relr.rum T: ieremium. Galleys were liktwiiii , liiofly employed by the mari- time nut! >ns of the middle ages in the A rditorrunean. Their use in naval war Irirdly ceased u:.. 1 the end of the 17th centur}- ; and the Venetian repuulic, down to the |>eriod of its extinoiion, alwcys maintained a nun;- ber i.f ar-galleys. The Venetlin galleys had a single tier only, and ail modern galleys followed the samn ri. ^struction. These were formidable vessels in a calm, l)Ut anfit for aea, and accordingly found chiefly iu the Medlterranen. The Venetians had also a large bigh< pooped sort of galley culled geleazza, whence the word galleass and galliott in old English writers. The Iteal galley is a long narrow bout used by the Deal boatmen, and managed, on the most hazardous oc- casions, in saving the crews of stranded vessels, with consummate skill. It is also used by smugglers, on account of its velocity. The galley is also the kitchen of a ship. The punishment of the galleys, i. e., the employment of condemned criminals in the toilsome employment of rowing them, ia said to have originated under the Greek empire, as well as the name Ta^capoi, or galley- slaves — in French, galMetn, It was used by all the nations wrdoring on the Mediterranean. In France, under the old jurisprudence, the punishment of the gal- leya waa the severest after that of death. About the end of the reign of Louis XIV., when galleys them- selves began to be disused, the galley-slaves were em- ployed in hospitals, public works, etc. ; and the name of the punishment was changed by the Constituent Assembly (1789) to travaux forcit, compulsory labor, whence the word format fur a criminal so condemned. Under the code of the empire, the punishment was ac- companied with forfeiture of property, infamy, and branding. By an alteration of the law, effected in 1832, the brand was abolished ; and the criminals, who had hitherto b^en intermingled in the three penal fort- resses (Toulon, liochefort, and Brest), were classified. Toulon is now appropriated to those condemned for 10 years and under, Brest to those from 10 to 20, Roche- fort to the condemned for life. The name Bagne, wliich is applied in France to prisons in which those condemned to compulsory labor are confined, is derived from the famous Bagnio prison at Constantinople, so culled on account of some baths situated there. The principal crimes now punished in this manner by the French law are — some acts of violence against the government or public law, coining and forgery, as- saults, followed by death, on legal ofiicers, murder, un- less under such aggravated circumstances as are pun- ished by death, cutting and maiming, rape, abduction, burglar}', highway robbery, burning of insulated buildings, threatening letters, perjury, etc. Oallipoli, a seaport town of south Italy, king- dom of Naples, province Terra di Otranto, on the east shore of the Gulf of Taranto, on the rocky islet at the west extremity of a narrow peninsula, to which it is joined by a bridge ; let. 40° 3' N., long. 17° 68' E. It is fortified, has u castle, and is well built. Popula- tion about 7000 (670!) in 1843). It is the principal port of the Mediterranean for the shipment of olive oil, and hai^, in consequence, a considerable trade. It is indebted for this distinction partly to its being situ- ated in a country where oil is produced in the greatest abundance, but more, perhaps, to the circumstance of the cisterns cut in the limestone rock on which the town is built, being peculiarly well fitted for the pres- ervation of the oil. They do not diflTer much in ap- pearance from a common water-tunk. They are usually under the houses of the inhabitants ; are arched over, with the exception of a circular hole, into which the oil is poured, and through which it is again drawn up. It will keep in these cisterns for an indef- inite period ; and is materially improved, not only in clearness, but also iu flavor. When the oil is to be shipped, it is drawn off from the cisterns into ut-ri, or skins, which are carried on men's backs to the bUure, where the casks, being filled, are conveyed in lighiera to the ships, Gallipoli has no harbor, but a bay or roadstead north-eubt of the town. The latter has from 10 to 12 fathoms water ; but it shoals toward the shore ; and vessels of considerable burden should not come within less th i:n a musket-shot of tlie land. Those that come nearest to the shore, moor with their hi \ds to the north- : west, with two cables out ahead and two astern, in ■m^i QAL 911 OAL ftvm 18 to 30 tktt of water. The only danger In en- t«ring or leaving the roada la a blind rocli at their en- trance, about 600 yards N.N.E. from the fort. It haa only about from Ave to Mven feet of water ; and aa it is not mariced by any buoy, pilots should I* employed liy foreigners. A tunny fishery is carried on iimido the buy i but the nets are easily avoided. Winds from the north and north-west throw in a heavy sea. About 1} miles west from the town is the low, flat island of 8t. Andrea. It is said, in Nontt'$ Sailing Directiont for th» Mediterranean, that there is a ilght-house on this island. But, though a light-house on it wou'id be of great service to ships malting the port, and though it be laid down in some of the charts of this sea, the truth is that none such really' exists, nor is there even a tower on the island ! There aro some lesser islands between St. Andrea .and the main-land. There is deep water between the former and the nearest islands, hut not between the latter and the town. A dangerous •boal lies about half a mile south of St. Andrea. Oallipoli Oil is a coarse olive oil, containing more or less mucilage, imported from a seii-|inrt, so named, of the province of Otranto, in the itingdom of Naples. Galls, or Oall-Nnta (Fr. Galles Soir. de dalle ; Ger. Gallapfel, O'alliu ; It. (latic, (lalluze ; I.at. ll<,l(t ; Arab. Afit; Hind. Afajouphal; Per. Mazu), are ex- crescences produced by the attacks of a small insect, which deposits its eggs in the tender shoots of a spe- cies of oak (^Quercut infectoria I.inn.), almndiint in Asia Minor, Syria, Persia, etc. Galls are inodorous, and have a nauseonsly bitter and astringent taste They aro nearly spherical, and vary in magnitude from the size of a pea to that of a hazel-nut. When good, they are of a black ov deep olive color ; their surfucr is tubercular, and almost prickly ; they are heavy, brittle, and break with a flinty fracture. They are known in commerce by the names of tchite, green, and blue. The white galls are those which have nut lieen gathered till after the insect has eaten its vay out of the nidus and made its escaiie. They are not so heavy as the others, and are of a lighter color, and do not fetch BO iiigb a price. The green ami liiue galls are gathered before the insect has encaped ; they are heavier and darker than the former, and a;e said to afford about one third more of coloring matter. Galls are of great importance in the arts, being very extensively used in dyeing, and in the manufac- ture of ink, of which they form one of the principal ingredients. They are the most powerful of all the vegetalile astringents ; and are frequently used with great effect in medicine, (iaih consist principuli}' of three substances ; tannin or tannic acid ; yellow ex- tractive ; and gallic acid. The decoction has a very astringent and unpleasant liittor taste. Tlie an-icnts reckoned the gall-nuts of l^vri.i su|ierior to every other, and they still retain their pre-eminence. They are principiilly exported from Aleppo, Tripoli, Smyrna, and Said ; those brought from the first come chiefly from Mosul, on the western Imnk of the Tigris, about ten days' journey from Aleppo. The real Mosul galls are unqucstionalily the liest of any ; but all that are gathered in the surrounding country are sold under this name. Those from f.'aramania are of a very infe- rior quality. Tlic gulls met with in India are carried thither from Persia l)y Araliian merchants. It is not unusual to dye the whitish gall-nuts Idue, in order to increase their value. The fraud is, however, detected by the deeper Idue tinge that is thus imparted to air, though losing Its leaves in the antanm. It dnahtless would bfl adapted to the climate of our middle and southern States. On this shrub, it may lie unnecessary to state, is found the well-known " gall-nuts" of com- merce, which are extensively used in the manufacture of writing-ink, and in dyeing. Tl'ese excrescences are the product of the gall-fly (Cj/nipt tfriplontm), a small insect of a pale-brown color, which may often lie fouid Inclosed in the galhi sold in the shops of the drug- gists, collected liefore the fly had made its appearance. Oalvanised Iron, is the name given, to iron tinned by a peculiar patent pmccss, whereby it resist* the rusting InAuence of damp air, and even moisture, much longer than ordinary tin-plat'' The following is the prescribed process: Clean the surfiice of ths iron perfectly liy the Joint action of dilute acid and fri<'tion, plunge it into a bath of melted zinc, covered with sal-ammoniac, and stir It about till it be alloyed superficially with this mekil ; when the metal thus prepared is exposed to humidity, the zinc is said to oxyilise slowly by a galvanic action, and to protect the iron from rusting within it, whereby the outer surface remains for a long period perfectly white, in circum- stances under which iron tinned in the usual way would have been superficially lirowned and corroded with rust. (lalnmized Tinned Iron. — One of the most remaric- able advancements in the iron manufacture in re- cent years has iieen the introduction of galvanised tinned iron for an almost innhmerable variety of pur- poses. This material consists of iron plate coated witl> tin, not by the ordinary tin-plate process, but by galvanic deposition. It serves as a substitute for plain iion, for tin-plate, for zinc, and for lead, under certain special circumstances. It is stronger and more dur- able, for many purposes, than lead or zinc ; it ix lietter than plain iron wliere rust is to be avoided ; it is su- lierior to lead or zinc in warm climates, inasmuch as it does not expand and contract to so great a degree. Withinside a* house and without, in vessels and in utenbils, in towns and in the countr}', in manufactures and in domestic economy, we now And this sulistanca empliiycd. We have galvanized tinned iron corrur gated plates for rooHng, and for the sides and doors of houses ; in another form tliere are plain plates for the same purpose ; roofs for sheds, roofs and sides for store-houses, and many similar purposes. Then, be- sides tlie Hlieet form, there are round and square bars, hoop-iron, wire, tulies, and pipes, nails, rivets, bolts, screws — all formed of iron thus jirotected by the gal- vano-tln process. There is this a 'i/bntage also, which is unattainalile liv the ordinary tin-plate proces.s, that articles can lie tinne, a steam foundery. 4 printing-olhcea issuing i! tri-weekiy, 1 semi-weekly, and 1 weekly newspaper, H eotton-pre8s,'s, ftO stores, and population, them i and by their lieing perforated and lighter than the genuine Idue galls. — Baniroit on Colon; Aiss- lie'ii Hal. Ind'tca, etc. The Gall-nut Oak (Quorcus infectoria), a native of Persia, Asia Minor, Arabia, Kgypt, Morocco, and Al- geria, in its natural haliitat, is s evergreen shrub, with a crooked stem, and seldon uttains six feet in height. From the circumstince of its growing near I as fur that of almost all the other \ic^n Paris, where It bears the winter qni>3 well in the open i and east sides of thd golf, the tV&-:'.^jcj in ISM, nl.out fSTKlO. Tonnage in 1853, 6173 tons. The liar oiitsiJe fialveston harbfir and Imy, lioween the north-enst end of the island and Point llollvir ou the mainland, has not more t'> tn VA\ feet of w iter at the highest springs, and Imi i > feet nt ebb ; hence tho smaller class of vessels, or those 'iH) or 260 tons are most suitalile for the trade ,/i i' i^irt, as well ■ :,he north of water QAL rti GAM batng all but tinlver»l. Though the land b« low, tha bouaea of Galvaitorj may be aeen from the nutt-lMtd •t a dlKtince of aevtral milea. Veaaela drawing eight feet of water and upwanl ahuuld, however, not ap- proach the bar nearer than nix fathnma, without hoav- Ing-to and making the algnnl fur a (lilot, which is promptly attended to, Veaaela drawing leaa than eight feet of water may npprooch tlie bar till the water ehoala to four fathoma before heaving-to. VeaieU malting the port In the night ahould Invariably anchor in five or six fatlioma ; and the holding ground being excellent, thoae who nre well found In anchors and cables have nothing to I'ear. PUot-boata are conataotly on the looli-out ; und iihlps should on no account at- tempt crossing the bar till they have got a pilot on board, (n the harbor there Is from IH to 80 feet of water. The liay, which stretches almur 86 miles from north to south, and from 12 to 18 miles from east to west, has not generally more thon nine feet of water, and Is intersected by a bar, on which there Is only from Ave to six feet of water. — Kfimedij'i Ttzas, p. 20. Several very considerable rivers have their embouch- ures in the l>ay, so that the town has a considerable command of Internal navigation. The present year (IH56), closes an epoch in the growth of sugar in Texas. The almost total destruc- tion of the plant by the unprecedented cold of last winter will reduce the product of the coming year to almost nothing. Should all who have heretofore pro- duced sugar determine to go on. It is doubtful whether the growing crop of cane will afford much more than seed sufficient for a re-oommimcement. The receipts of Texas sugar and molasses, ut this port, for the calen- dar years named below, wert' as follows : Yeftr, MoUaifli.bbtl. 1860 2,4«T 1861 1,909 1862 2,676 1868 6,086 1864 6.898 1856 6,728 For the commercial year ending August 81, 1855 the receipts of sugar were 5375 hhds. against 767 hhds. for the year Just closed ; and the receipts of molasses were then 7504 bbls. against 8G68 bbls. frr the year last past. We apprehend that two years will be required to bring the production again up to these figures The following is a com|)aratlva statement of ship- ments of the leading articles uf export from Gklv< >- ton for each calendar year since 1853 : Suffar, hhdi. 2,782 1,088 1,88» 4,076 4,764 4,781 ArUclef. I8U. I8U. lua. Cotton, balca. 00,892 84,178 68,868 4,078 4,764 4,781 0,086 6,898 0,729 2,703 6,937 4,801 14,148 18,224 20,617 Siiftsr, lihfia MoIas&,.'9, bbls Bocf Cattle Hides Statekknt or tuh Quamtity and estimaxsd Valve of AuTicLKS or Mkiicuandme of domestic Orowtii and Mani-pactiike, exported fbom Oai.vesto.h, Texas, in TUE Year endino Decrmiiek 81, 1866. Uattio number Cotton bales Hides number Molasses gallons SuKsr. cane pounds Total ToUl. 4,861 7«,».^8 ^ll,.^u• 84,016 1,984,710 Arur*^ prlcti. ValuitloD. «10 00 .85 00 4 no 26 T (69,770 2,693,855 82,008 21,280 186,429 118,001.864 and foreign, «770,248— total,^^418,408u Texas ha* not had a f|ivorabla season for cropi since 1858; and 185«i will add another to the years of short crops, though an improvement over the last two Is antlcU pated. The numlwr of vessels which arrived at this port, from beyond the district of Texas, during the year IH&a, was 26U, vis. : VhmU. Coulirlw. rorttgn. Totol. ISM. fltesmshlpi. Bhtpa 97 11 40 98 oo 6 T 18 1 1 9T 18 (4 19 81 90 14 Barks. 69 Brl({» 22 Schoouers Total 4S M2 87 209 ■ 988 " "he value of domestic produce f-xported from this port during the past two years affords a highly favor- able contrast m favor of the season just closed. The amount "'' shipments was, Augusf', 3> : follows: Y»- CoMtwIu. Foralfti. Total. .... $2,860,770 11,492,841 »4,«48,015 ... 2,012,604 ("84,811" 9,647,240 .. $888,166 «S6S,029 «1,096,196 The va'.ue of t.b« exports, for the year just past, is less than that o! tbe year ending with Aujust, 1864, when the value of exports, coastwise, ir. " ^,U87,266, Increase — Steamships, 7 ; ships, 4 ; barks, 6 ; brigs, 7 ; schooners, 12. Total increase, 86, Of Vessels belonging to the port of Galveston the custom-house books of the present year (1856), show that there are : Ya»rradlii(Aiis. 81. IIM. ItU. Bhipa 1 Barks 8 1 Brlgt 1 8 Sclioonors 08 (4 Steamboats IS IT Sloops 18 11 Totol 99 90 The amount of tonnage of vessels cleared at this port for the year just ended was 106,670 tons against 94,118 the year previous. The number of persons employed on board was 3407 — of whom but two were boys — being on increase of but two employed during the year. There is, we belitive, no article grown, for human consumption, in any State of the Union, which is not already, or may not Is produced in some portion of Texas, such is the variety of soil, climate, and gen- eral circumstances. In the production of thd great staples of wheat, com, beef, c C".i, and sugar, no State in the Union approaciies ii, j great is the ex- nt and productiveness of the soil . 'lapted to these articles. It is estimated that the sugar .., - i.. apa- ble of producing a crop of 8,000,000 of ho rr l-.i . j, or much more than is r< umaxy to supply thi i:ib. ibiiants of the whole Union. 60,000,000 of acres of the lands 'f the State are 8ituate(l within t'le cotton-producing region, and one third of this number are believed to be well adapted in point of soil to the growth of that plant. There is no doubt of the capacity of the coun- try to produce a much larger crop than is now yielded by the whole South, while the ex^^nse of production is much '.;:<'" than the general average in other States. — (Inlrtiton Price Current and Centus Reporli. GtalvrsLy, the county town, formerly designated the T iberties of Galway, and a count}' in itself, hav- ui|^ an exclusive local jurisdiction, extending two miles on every side except the south. It stands on the northern shore of the Bay ol Hnlwa y. Ireland, on the eastern bank of the river cf M., ;■ . Mmc. It is supimsed by some to be tl.n -J., i.i'. of Ptolemy. It certainly was considered u pot! '.ion of much import- ance from the earliest period, aj in the divisions of the island into north and south, at first made by the descendants of Ileremen, and afterward repeated by Conn and Eogan, it was tixed upon as the eastern ex- tremity of the line of demarcition, which proceeded eastward to Dublin. Galway is likely to become a place of some note, being the proposed eastern termi- nus of the submarine telegraph communication be- tween Europe and the United States. Gama, Viuioo da, the flrst European who reached India by it. .uliag the Cape of Good Hope, was bom at Sines, a small sea-port of Portugal. Of his early history so lit'le has been recorded, that even the date of his birth .a unknown. On attaining manhood, he found tha' tha success of Columbus had given a pow- erful Impulse to the spirit of maritime adventure. aAti ?83 GAK On th* 4th of Jaly, 1497, Vmco da Gsmk mIM fVom LUbnn with a mjuadron nf thrr« v«itiM(|n manntd liy iiizty lalloni, bent on making lita way to India round the Cape of Oond Hope, then known u the Caho Tor- mentoM), or Stormy Ca|>«. 1'lie hiinlahlpa ami dan- gers to be enrounterrd were appallInK, and led to n mntlny, whirli waa with difficulty quelled by the flnn- neas and pruilence of thn coninip'i'* He doubled the Cape nt length, and reii ' 'i, /)i'T' i! , niall town of Motlndn, where he " tir». ^' i> < ,>!i of an Indian pilot. In23dii . Uh/ vachei /liinuar, an 1 on the 20th of May 1404 tVcv citnn- to anchor at Cali- cut. (Inma wan well ri > pjvod by the zamarin ; whom, though not without iMttuulty, he ronvlnced of the advanbigea that would acrruo to his country- by the eatabliahment of a commercial treaty with PnrtUKal. Ganiathsn turned hln prown homeward ; and, having touched at various point* on the Asiatic and African coasts, he once more cast nnclior !n the Tagns In the Soptembrr of 1 1!)9, after an absence of 1 years nn' '. months. I'mmanuel received him wllli great buucrs, ennobled him, and gave him tho title of ud,.iiral of the Indian, I'ersian, and Arabian seas. The elTect of Oama's >oy ig« waa soon visible in the ruined trade of the It^r ,ii commercial republics, which had hitherto mono|)o.l. d the traffic of tlie Kust. In prosecution of Gni. discoveries, another fleet was sent out to rtidin, U' J iter Cabral, who accidentally discovered the Brazils au I on reaching Ills destination established a fai I orv at Calicut. Tile natives, Instigated by the Mi'oriuh merchants, who were Jealous of the I'ortn- guesn, rose up In arms, and murdered all whom Ca- bral had left behind. To avenge this cruelty, the Portuguese fitted nut a powerful armament, of which chn command waa clven to Gama. The admiral set snil, and devastate' tho^ie parts of Africa and India whore he had formerly been received in a hostile ipirit. He executed especial vengeance npon Calicut, whii.'h he bombarded and reduced to ashes, at the same time hanging the sailors of the vessels In the harbor which had fallen into his bands. He then tailed away to Cochin, where he established a factory, from wMch the power of Portugal radiated over India, In 150.'} he returned home, and as before was welcomed with honors and titles, but. was not immeiliately re- appointed to the command in India. He remained at homo in inaction during nearly 20 years ; but in 1624 (some years after tho death of the great Albuquerque, who had been consolidating the Portuguese power in the East), Gama waa appointed viceroy of "^Ttug^ w India. Not long after arriving at Cochin, Gama died. In 1S2S, and was buried there ; but 13 rears later his bones were disinterred and conveyed to Portugal by order of John III., king of i i. ' conntrj-. Vasco da Gama was a man jf great ability, conr- agc, and enterprise ; but he possessed none of these qualities in a higher dej'ree than many others of his cotemporaries who have long since passed into ob- livl'-n. He owes no small portion of his fame to the fact of hla being the hero of ♦he national epic of Por- tugal. The moment of his doul>ling the Cape of Good Hope, and seeing in the clouds the Spirit of that stormy region, has been often seized by painters as a striking subject for pictorial delineation. One of tin most rcmarkal)le of these pictures ib that by th« 1 ' Uavld Scott, of Edinburg.— E. B. OambogA (Fr. flomme ijulte ; Gcr. Oummiyu ■ Comma ^utla ; Lat. (lummi rpiltni, Vambogia : Aidb, Ot'aranwuu i' ; Si;imese and Cambojun, Hong), u r>n- crete vegetable juice, or gum resin, the produce of the Cara'nia Cambogia, a forest-tree nf the genus '.vlilch affords the mangostein, the most exquisite fruit of the East. Tlic districts which yield gamlw^fe lie on the east side of the Gulf of Sium, between 'the latitudes of 10° and 12° north, comprising a portion of 81am and the kingdom of Camboja, whence its English name. It is obtained by maUug Ucisloni in the bark of tha tna, from which it exudti, and la •ollaotad ta' vatsala placed to receiva it. In thao* It asaumaa » Arm oontlttanca | and being formed into orbiuuhir maaaoa, or moi* ftequentiy cylindrical rulls, It la at one* At ftir tha market, It la of a liright yellow color, opaque, brittle, breaks vltraous, has no smell, and vet}' Uttia taste. Speclllc gravit^' 1'22. When Ukan Internally, it oiwratea as a moat violent iwthurtic. It forms a Iwaut'ful yoilow pigment, for which purpose it is principally used. The Uutidi lH>gan to ini|Hirt It about the middle of the seventeenth century, Tha greater part of the gamboge of commerce lir^t llnda its way to Bangkok, th Siamese capital, or to 8aigon, . the capital of lower Coohin China ; fium then<.'a It la carried by Junks to Singapore, whenue it is shippsd for Rum|M. its price at Singapore varijs, according to quality, from HO to 80 dollars per ploul. Uark-coll ored ptecea should ha rejected.— CHAWtronn'a tJm' b<, "■ ■ p. 426; Tiiomson'h CA«mw(ry. <' , iftdrf, 'beprir ' alrivbrnflllndoostan, through the north part of which it IKiws from west to east, traversing the centre of the British presidencies, Ilciw ga) and Agru, almost in their entire li ngth. it rinua by two principal heaiis, Bhagirathi and Alakanauda, . in lat, 81° N,, and long. 7° K,, from an hnniensa mass of snow at an elevation of 13,000 feet ; Hows at first S.W. to Ilurilwar and thenceforward moHlly K. S.K. to the Bay of Bengal, which it enters b}' numer- ous mouths, its eoatniost arm uniting with the Megna or Brahmaputra, and its weat branch lieing the lloogb* ly River. Total course estiniatetl at 1600 miles, la its course it receives 11 affluents, some of which arc equal to the Rhine, and none smaller tlian the Thames ; the principal are the <)umna, Kamgungu, Uoomty, Goggra, 8one, Gunduck, Kooso, Malianuddy, and Teeata, which have courses varying from 300 to COO miles in length. On its banks are numerous cities .nd towns. Between Ilurdwur and Ailuhal)ad it is usuall}- from 1 mile to 1^ miles across ; i dow which its breadth increases frequently to 3 lui' , and at 6(10 miles from the sea It Is 80 feet In depth, and so con- tinues to near its mouto, where, however, the quan- tity of deposit It brings down often forms bars and shoals. In the annual overflow of thn river, when it is at its height in July and August, the waters rise to 32 feet. The annual deposit of mud at its delta is es- timated at 0,000,000,000 cubic feet. It U crossed by no bridges after it leaves tho mountains. The Gangea is the sacred river of tho Hindoos, and is so railed a* flowing through Gang, the earth, to heaven. Gangway, a narrow platform or range of planks laid horizontally along the upper part of a t-liip's side from the quarter deck to tho forecastle, peculiar to •li 1 that are, waivtod, for the convenience of walking more ezpeditiousiy foro and aft than by descending Into I lie waiat. It is fenced on the outside by iron stanchions and ropes or roils, and in vessels of war with a netting in wliich part of tho hammocks aro sto.ved. In merchant ships it i» culled the gangboard. iiangway is also that part oi a ship's side, both within and witiiout, by which persons en er and do- part. It is provided with a sUiHcient numl)er of steps or c'eat<.< nailed upon the ship's side :'.~ triy as low as the surface >f the water, and sometimes furnished with n railed accommodation ladder resemlding a stairs projecting from the ship's side und y iron braces. ty is also used to signify a narrow passage left in tiio hold whon a ship Is laden, in order to enter any particular place as occa»ion may require, whether to examine the situation of the provisions or cargo, to discover and stop a leak, or to bring out any article that is wHnted. Finally, gangway implies a thorough- fare or narrow passage of any kind. To bring to (he ganguray ; a phrase signifying to pnnii h a seaman by seizing him up and flogging him with a cat-o'-ninetails. flight secun OArt IM QAS Intel It her p,to iicla to Ihin ChintUti ur 0«noU«t (fr. ganteltt, froni gam. a kI<)V«;, n klnil nf Iron |(lnri, with llniivn covanol with •mill \tUi»» I riirmiirly wurn lir ckvalUn whan aniMd •t all iiiiInId, anit wlilih iinml tn he thrown down aa liikan »t I hnllvtiKx, Uniinllxtn were Introduced alwnt Uia ttMhKantilff, Oarnat, Oaraati (Kr. (Irmatu i>loH>, ami the rmnmnn. Tho color or (ha )tr>l la rait i and heme the nnma of the mineral, friiiii 1(4 iiU|))KMKil reneinldanre to the Howor of the |)o|il«KranMa I (Nuaea from Coliimlilne red, to oherri- •nidlirdwiirad) I'omnKmly rryiitatllKed. External luiitni KlUl«nln|{, lri(arnal ohlnlnii, vltreoua; trumparent, • llmaa imlv (Mnnliicenl; nynUW KniTlty lOH to i'tUi. 'I'lia ( iiliir of ihH I'ominon Kirnet U of varioua •htiil ^ of lir'iwii and ureen, DIITereut colore often aitpMir In ill* lame mnfiKi trnnalurent ; Muck varletlea naarly o|iiti|M« I i<|h>iHI. m. Otaa. 't'hU iMftammaliln aeriform tluld wu flnit •volvad from coal ht I If. Clayton, In 171)0-1789.— /'hll. Turn, It* a|i|dl<'fltlon to the porpoaea of lUu- niinatloii *»« (Irrt tried l.v Mr. Murdoch, In Corn- wall, In \!\n. 'Ilia Hrat dlnplny of ({B«-ll«hta waa made at Itoiillon and WaH'n fonndory. In Ulnnlngham, on the o<'iiM»|on of the rejolilu^a for peace in 1802. (lua waa liurniMnenliy lined to tbn exclusion of lamps aiKl i'4n,_tUviiM, Kvory iinu mint have remarketluii| fiiil hl4 axperiinents were upon > very llinitrd liiiitla, and ti» fiirtlier attentlim waa paid to the auiijKi't (III mora (Itaii half a centiirv afterward. At Unutli, howavar, Mr. Murdinh, of Holm, instituted ii aarluM of Jiidii'loitit ")i|M\t. JIurdoch found (hut tha t*» Mtlxllt lie I'ollacted In reservoirs, purllled, convuVKil liy (il|M, it was applied to ll|{li( Mr, Murdoch's mnnufoctorv at ,Soho ; In IW6, it W4a Hitil|i(eil \,\- Messrs. I'lilllips and Ue, of ManuhesU I, in (tin llKlilInx of (heir groitt cotton mill ; and U miw «iii{do)fid in (lie llifhttng of the streets, theatraa, and iitliar piilillc liulldlnHs, fuctoriea, etc. of all the nm>|,lttralila towns of the empire, and also in moat I'liiMlilaritlila towns of Klirotie and America. (iua llKlit la lldUlded, for Its rapid dKTusion, not mora to i(a liauiilUr miflness, tteamess, and unvarying Intenaity, tliaii (<) \U I'oiiiparallve cheapness. Accord- ing (a Uf . TiMiHwm {Kwyo. JJrii., irt. Gas Liuiits), If we valiu the quantity of l|gh( given \ty 1 II). of (allow In oandlea at la., iii> equal quantity of li|(lit from coal giM will not cost more than '.'IkI., b«iii|< li'" • than njhtitik ' fmi of tha iiAst of the former. Oil .ind other aulv stances have Iwen used In furnishing ga» for the puN |i«sH of illumination, but none of them hiii anawered so wi'Il as coal. Must of tha oil gas eiitalilishmenta have been aliand< led. The construction of gas worka on a large scale, and the carrying of pi[ies through tha streeta and Into houses, etc., is very extensive, and in!i(uires a large outlay of capital. Hence most of tht giu lights in the ililferent towns urn supplied by Joint- stock companies. Many of them have turned out to lie very proflable concerns. Tbn Hnt attempt to supply . itiea In (he I'nitad .StatcH with gas wok made at Ilaltlmoro in IH-'l, ao'l at New York In 1 H'.>!). Iloth of these attemptsi were un- successful. The New York Uoa-Ught (Joinpany, with a capital of i!lI,(X)0,0OO, was incorporated March 2Bth, lH'>y. It was r«organl2ed in 1^27, and then com- menced tt succeKsfiil buainesa. The Manhattan Ooa- l.ight Company was incorporated with a capital of a'i,OUO,000, February 2Uth, IHHO. Upil(lf«i\ The coke, or shell of tho co;il after the gus i' exr.c'-'d, is worth about $4 |ier chaldron, and inuxos u < ci y pleasant fire tn a grate. Tho bituminous .iml in thrown in a hot iron cylinder, or retort, as it is tnlUtd, whose mouth U cloaed and sealed tight witii soft clay. The vapor of the coal, distilling in tho retxirt, passes through a tube, by which It escapes Into a series of vessels called the con- den.^er, whore It cools and deposits all Its tar and other condonsible impurities. Thence it passes through an- other series of vcMsols called the purlHer, containini; ipiicklime, of tbn consistency of cream, which cleanses tlie vapor of its sulphurous intermixtures. From tho limo the purilicd vapor of tha coal, or, in other words, tho gas, now flows Into the gasometer, and la reody for use. I'rom the gasometer it Is driven, through main and service pipes, into the consumers' burners. The machinery of all gas manufactories Is the same in principle, ami seems now to be almost perfect. The chief improvemente made lately in tho machinery consist in the manner of applying to the gasometer the pressure which regulates the force of the gas. QAB 714 0.iV Tia roLLowiMu t4iii) Tm OhITII) |tT4TM t'wn or • OAi, tNB LAI Viiw raMHTi Tim mitPAiitTiTa cntr im Paioi or a«i at iiTiaAL uamm Oitih nr ■unwiiio AI.HI tii> Via* (ir ImmRmaATiM M «■■ Oomvaiit, Dam wmm Oai waa nan ■•■», (HWIMAtT A««V4I, riMiUMMlnK. ITS. rtaM. "US II 41 «nt •M.I. rauiuuf ('•ii.|i«ir IM,il>l« I'll.. ../ IIM ulllMKail V.ll, lam ('Ml mJ j"-» t'rti Alio AliMal llaa. ■ UWhllHN tl llM ■llMrf MiiaalaU. Dflnilt, Mich V... ^ IM) "~V.« IMt 10,1 11,000 IN MInaral Kldn, Drtar Hill, eta. Whofllnit, V» ItM) IWl iniflo inn 140 m.wn.noo T88 Hiift hlliiRilnona «mL Clnehinall, Ohiu .... UOT |x«l rnni.im «mi ««(V ts.ooo.iioo *J VnlnhloKtlfnir, OT rittabiirKh, aoal. UiilnllU, Kr l>W IMO MI.INW ion 4 8.t M,IM,0(K) lu Kanawha rannal anil YiHiKliloKhcny, (;UT<hltAdel|itilii. Paiiii. . . IRIH) \»)» t.ooii.om g III ton 4n4,iion,a* per liin MMbkttu Co., N. Y, IMO I«1I0 ll.TTO.MO IM Nonia in IK) em.ooo.noo 900 KiikIUIi riinnti and Newrantlff. BoMOOiIlM. inU ... 1 i.oiio.ffn i»i • IM) to BOOob. 100,000,000 10 I'trtoa ooal, $». Kn- Kllah cnimi'l, i|l« l.ii |wr chalclrun uf'JliO --..... - _ ,_^^ poiinili. A v«ry (wrxfiit and accurata aiialyaU anil pliato* metrie exaniinulliin of wikkI ^aa liavo Iwitii inmln l>jr two emlnrnt analytiinl rliaiiiUla (l>r, Wiili'nII Ollilia, or Nkw York, anil Dr. V. A. Oaiith, of l'lillailnl|ilila), ivhote ropiirt of tln'lr I'liniiili-al raaiilu fiiriiUliaa a lil((h- ly iatiAfact'iry nxplanallnn uf i-i Mr. Murdoch had on opporlnnlty of rar- rying his plans Into elTui't on n alill larger senln, liv means of the apparatui erected under hi* anperintnnii- enre In the extensive cotton iiillla of Miiaarn. I'lilllps and Son of Manchester. It has lieen alleged that Kas-llKlils wiira itand In France before they were known In Kniiland i hut as the earliest exhibition of tlinae llnhts, on which thn claim of priority of discovery Is founded, look place at Paris in 1803. it Is evident, from Ihe foreKnliiK state- inents, that the exhibllloii alludud In was len years tnbsequent to tha first exporiinent of Mr, Murdoch on the subject. The practicability of Il((htin(( by meant of coal ras having been deinoiutratad by Mr. Murdoch, a number of sclantlllc men applied their talents to (he further ilnvelnpmsnt of the art. Dr. Henry, the celebratid chenilat, lectured on the subject in IXOI and IHUu, nnd funilshed many hints for the iinprovenient of the niun- iifacturf. Mr. CIcgKi an engineer In the employment of lloulton and Watt, was a worthy successor of Mur- doch, and for many years was the most eminent »■■ eiiKlnrer of Kiiffland. A good deal of the machinery of the f(as-housa in its present form was contrived by Mr. Clegff, and to him, also, we are Indeliled for the in- Kcnlous wet Ras-mcter. In IHUI Westminster llridKO was Ural llithted with gas, and in the fnllowinK year thn atrccia of Westminster were thus lighted; and in INK) gas became common in London. So rapid wns tlie progress of this new mode of illnmlnation, that in tha course of a few years after It was llrst introduced, it was adopted by all Iho principal towns in the kiiig- dnni, for liKhllng streets as well as shops and publio edifices. In private honscH it found Its way mora slowly, partly from an apprehension, not entirely Rmundless, of (he danger attending the use of it, nnd partly from the annoyance which was experienced in many cases through the carriers and imperfect manner In which Iho sorvlco-pipcs were at first fitted up. These Inconveniences have lieen in a great measure, if not wholly, removed by a more enlarged knowledge of the management of gas ; and at present there are few pri- vate houses in largo towns which are not either par- tially or entirely lighted up by It. As the demanij for gas Increased, various Improveinenls were from time to timo Introduced, both in the mechanical arrange- ments and in the chemical operations of the manufac- ture. The rapid increase in the population of the metropolis, nnd of all largo towns, has naturally led to an Increased consumption of gas; and the application nf gas to the purposes of warming and cooking has also further increased the demand for it. Hence it has been not only necessary that new gas-works should be erect- ed for the supply of new districts, but that the re- sources of old works should bo enlarged. It is only a few years ago that a gas-holder capable of storing 2riO,000 cubic feet of gaa was regarded as of enormous site; at the present time gas-holders are made of double that capacity, and we occasionally hear of them of the capacity of upward of n million cubic feet. There Is one such at Philadelphia ; it is 140 feet in diameter and 70 feet in height. Nor will such dimensions as tlieso be regarded as superfluous when it la stated that some of the large metropolitan works send out each from a million to a million and • half cubic foot of gai In one night in mid-winter. not tho prl- pnr- for tlmo led 10 ■cation I also I been erect- ile re- «n1y a toring rmous ide of rthem There imcter ons as id that each of gas flEB i OKaglai, th* art nf Di«aaurin|| Um eoaUnta of catki or vu»U of any fiirin. (lauKlnK furni* » part of inviiimralliin, Imt U fraquanlly praitli-ml by (wrmina unacqii«lnti*il with It* thporvtlciil principle, who work liy uartatn riilaa, with Ihit nlil of a Kiiii|;liiK-roout the year lfi2<), and ao called (aoma any) liecuune umi gmrtin, a aniull piece of Venetian ciiln waa given to liiiy or read It. Uthera derive the name from giua, Italian for niitg- ple, I. r. chatterer. — TRimi.Kii. A gniette waa printed In France in lOlll ; and one in (jermany in 171/).— A'oMr. Diet. Ilitt. Oauas. Ilraaa wlro-gnuzo or cloth la now made of aurh exi|ulalte flncneaa that tho aepariite tlireoda can only be detected by cloen Inapection. Meaara. Rativant, who carry on the braaa manufacture on a aciile of great magnitude In France, produce wire of remarkable minuteneaa. There were in the French department of the late exhtl)itlon aeverul apeclmena of braaa gauie, each ahowing the limit of finenena to which the manufacturer* had attained at the date of the aev- eral Induatrial ex|ioaitloiM in France, Kach date dla- playeil a degree of flneneaa greater than that of any previouK date; and tho •pecinien for Wil waa the tin- eat of all. It almoat exceeda belief that metal could bo wrought to auch an oxquiaite degree of minuteneaa as In tliia web, Thero were )I7,(IIX) mealiea In one aquare inch of thia I)raa8 gauze, or '2tlO parallel threada in one linear inch. The wire-drawing In tho tint In- atani'p, and th« weaving ofterwanl, must hare been very carefully conducted. 0«aIong, a townahip of Victoria colony, South Auatrnliu, compriaing Ave contiguoiia villugea, at the head of the weat arm of Port I'hiiip, -II) milea aouth- weat iif Melbourne, with which it haa conatant com- munication by ateain, Populutiiin in IH 16, 2,0«,'), It haa an Increaaing trado in won! and grain, though large veaaela ran not approach it within aoven milea. The River Barwon flows paat ita west border to the Southern Ocean, (.'iiusii/nert, MatliT), and Lighlfrt at (leelong. — Wo And the following declaration on the rejpective rights and duties of oonaigneea, mastera, and lightermen, in the procoodingB of the Geolong Chamber of Com- merce, Tho motion of which notice had been given by Mr, McKellar, " that the committee consider tho sulijrct of the delivery of goods by lighters," was brought under dlscuasiim, and after careful examina- tion of tho law relating thereto, it was cioarly ascer- tained that it is the duty of tho master of the vessel, as aoon as the arrival of the ship has l>ecn reported, to give notice thereof to tho owners or eimsignees of tiio goods on board ; that he can not escape from his lia- bility by immediately landing goods at a pulilic wharf, -without giving sircii notice, liecnuse the delivery at the wharf Is not a dnlivcry to the consignee j that if they are landed without such notice lieing given, and are destroyed upon the wharf i>y an accidental tire be- fore the consignee haa had an opportunity of taking them away, the sliip-owners will be responsible fur the 'o8B, but that the lighterman or maater of the vessel is UUD bonnd to kaap tha goods on hoard or on tha wtiarf at hia own riak fur a reaaonabla time, to anabia tha con- aignm or hia aaalgna to come and fetch them i and that tha llghtarmnn la not relaaaad from lila rMponatblllt} until h« haa ulitained a roi'«lpl for the goods upon thalf delivery tii the innalgnen. OtoUtin* (I'jig, and Fr. i (litlUrt, I.rim, derm.) la an animal priNliict which la never found In tha hu- mora, but it may be obtained by iKiliIng with water the aoft and aolid parts | aa tha niuaclna, the akin, tha cartiiagas, bonea, ligaments, tendons, and membranaa, lalnglaaa conalata almoat entirely of gelatine. This aulutanca la vary aolulde In Ixiiling water \ the solu- tion forma a tremuloua maas of Jelly when it con gelatine. Alcohol and tannin (tannic acid, aea (iAi.i.-NUT>) preclpitata gelatine from ita solution i tha former by abatract< Ing tha watnr, the latter by combining with the sulw atance Itaalf Into an inaoluble com|iound, of the naluro iif leather. No other acid except the tannic, and no alkali, jxiaaeaaea tlie prii|>crty of precipitating gelatine, Hut chlorine and certain aaits render ita aoliillon mora or leaa turbid ; as tha nitrate and biclilorlde of mercury, the proto-chliirido of tin, and a few uthera. Hulphu- rio add converts a aolutiun of gelatine at a liolting heal Into sugar, (ieiatlno consists of uarlton, 47'M ) hydro- gen, 7'01 ; oxygen, 'il''il, (leUaifui tW»,— The beautiful may often be cre- ated out of mero refuse ; an example of this is afforded by tho articles now made uf gelatine, Tlie French show peculiar tact in procuring gelatine from the waste remnants of tlie skins, liones, tendons, ligaments, and other golatinoua tissues of animals. The well-ordered aballoirt of Turis and othor large towns, afford facill- tioR which we do not possesa, for the sconouiical ap- plication of all the waste parts of tha slaugUtemd animals, M, (irenet has lieen the flrst to fabricate, on a large scale, out of various residues of animiU liodlea, lieautiful and diversified products which have hitlicrto lieen made of the more costly material Isin- glass. He protluces different kinds of gelatine, lA thin sheets; pure and white tllms cut intothrea> for the use of the confectioner; very thin, wh id trun»|>arent sheets, called "papier glac6," <'. ii:t-|>u- |>er, for copying drawings; dyed, gilt, ani* iDn'rul gelatine sheets, adapted to the fabrication or ^. iiiri lI flowers and to the prixluctiun of an almost ■ O'l) " i vit- riety of ornamented articles ; and suv"tf "inlu'^-'ii or stamped with elegant patterns, Tli' c ti ic i^ u'ft.l, to' wn ». Oem (I.at, gemnui), in sculpture, a p.'ec J •''.hi\ used fur tho purpose of sculpture. The pr ..i carving gems is of remote antiquity, though 't in doubtful whether they wera able to cut tiie diamoni' or use the emerald and topaz for sculptural purposes. The stunes usually selected are rock-crystal of difTer- ent colors, jasper, chalcedony, onyx, cornelian, and blooil-stone. Among tiie Greeks tlio art was carried to great perfection ; but having fallen with the other arts into disuse, its revival was effected in Italy in the 15th century, and mo!rwent the revolutions of the Roman empire till a.d. 950. The Genoese revolt against their count, choose a doge and other magistrates from among their nobilit}', and be- came an aristocratic republic, 1080 to 1034. Several revolutions occurred up to 1528, when the celebrated Andrew Doria rescued his countr}- from the domin- ion of foreign powers. Bombarded by the French in 1684, and by the British in 1688 and 1745. Genoa was taken by the Imperialists, December 8th, 1746; but their oppression of the people was such, that the latter suddenly rose and expelled their con- querors, who again l>esieged the city the next year, August 17, without effect. Genoa lost Corsica, 1780. The celebrated bank failed 1750. Tho city sustaineear from each other N.E. by E. and S.W. by W., tho distance between them, forming the entrance to the harlior, being about 850 fathoms. The light-house is without the port, on the west side, near the extremity of a point of land, and contiguous to the bottom of tlie new mole. It is a lofty square tower ; and as it stands on a high rock, and is painteil white, it is visible in clear weather at a great distance. There is also a harlior light at the extrem- it}' of the new mole. There is no difiiculty in enter- ing the hartwr ; the ground is clean, and there is plenty of wat •, particularly on the side next the new mole ; care, however, must be taken, in coming from the T.'oit, to give the light-house point a good ofBng. The following is a statement of the ressela that ar- rived in tlie port of (ieiioa, proceeding from British dominions, during the year 1868: Slilp«. Urltlah veiBols (satlliiu) \Wi Urltish steamers M Total wis Turn. 88,061 S I,91T FORXIUN VlS^LS, STilM. Tont. Sardinians 146 8T,I68 8vmllsh and .Norwegian 40 18,239 Dutcli 25 8,?81 Fruncli 20 0,114 Pniaslsn IS B,(W8 NeapollUn « g,138. RiiMisn T ifiti Anicrlc»n T !,491 Varlons nntlmis 86 7,889 Tot.I SliB IT,80l Total from Bi'ltlsli domlnliii , niiilcr all tittfrt. B39 alilpy, 14T,18» Ions. STATf HUNT OF Tna ENoi.isn Vbssklb that IKTKBED Till I'ORT or (IKNUA I OKINO Tlitl VlABS I^Bl-'6Si Ylan. s.llinrr VaxU. Tom. 4s»ftr f.T,ll9 4«,0' I8r>& mw I8BT I8r>8 iilT 1S1 1M in -•3 Tit 51 ll,IS2 8t),BS:l ;)i,siT 'iM 244 234 22« 240 01,124 flS,.')01 0S,T91 5T,M8 U'.i,8S4 Fifteen or twenty years ago tho number of vessels annually arriving in that port from UritiNli dominions could nut be reckoned at mora than 109 to 120, most of tliem of small toniiuge. Steamers now arrive from London and Liverpool with considerable regularity, generally about two or three a month, eacli steamer bringing from 800 to 1000 tons of mercliuiidise, at very high freights. The iin|iort from Great Britain of iron (wrought and pig), and coals, and coke has greatly in- creased of lute years, especially silica so many rail- ways have liecn made in Piedmont. Tho figures giv- en above present several noteworthy paints. They show, in the first place, a greatly increased substitu- tion of steam fur sailing power ii: the British mer- chant service, as far, at least, as tho port of Genoa is concerned. In 1851 the tonnage of sailing vessels coming to that port was nearly 11,000 tuns larger than in 1858 ; but in 1858 the tonnage of tho steamers that arrived there was 19,650 tons mora than in 1854. One also observes the tendency to the employment of larger steamers, the 54 of Mi'i licini; more than 2^ times the tonnage of the 28 of 1854, The increase in the trade in British bottoms lietween British ports and Genoa is shown to havo licen steady mid considerabin during the last five years. In 1x54 it amounted to 61,124 tons, and in 1858 to 69,881, showing an increiise uf 8760 tons in fuur years. The high figure of 68,500 tons, to wliicli the tonnage jumped in 1855, is doubt- less to lie attrilinteil to the war, tliat living the year in which the Sardinian troops went to the Crimea. Tlio increase in the nuinl r and tonnage of Sardinian vessels arriving from British ports has also been very considerable of late, as apiiears from the following statement : Bakuinias Vissrls f«om naiTisii noMimoNS that ab- «1T«I> AT UlIfOA IM TIIK rOI.I.OWIHO YEARS. V«tTi. VmmIi. Tom. 1S61 60 13,790 IS.S5 40 ii.TSl 1880 Rl 16,82* 1887 9T 8I,4S9 1888 146 87,lta Genoa is tiic entrepot of a large extent of country. Tier commerce is conalderaliie, and has latterly been increasing. The imports principally consist of cotton and woolen stufl's; cotton wool, mostly from Egypt; corn from the Black Sea, Sicily, and Barliary ; sugar, salted fish, apices, coffee, cocliincal, indigo, hides, iron, and naval stores from the Baltic; hardware and tin platei from England; wool, tobacco, lead (principally mcr- noA ia sseU tliun that Oils larger the trade noa is luring 61,124: use of G8,500 [Imibt- e year imea. iliiiian very owing lintry. Iieen fcotton 1 Iron, U tin Ipally GEN 181 am tnm Spain), wax, etc. Com, barilla, OallipoU oil, cotton, valonia, aponge, galla, and other products of the countries adjoining the Black Sea, Sicily, the Le- vant, etc., may in general be had here, though not in so great abundance as at Leghorn. Tho abolitiog of the various duties and custom-house fees formerly charged on the transit of goods through Genoa and the Sardinian territories, has bad a ver}- beneficial influ- ence on the trade of this port, particularly as regards the importation of raw cotton fur Switzerland and Mi- lan, as well as of the different descriptions of colonial produce. AoooDST oir IBB raiNoiPAi. Aaiiotra or Exfogt non Oknoa, wrrn Tiicia Paten, tbm om Boabd, im Ital- JAK AMD Enolish Momkt, Biu Joni, 1858.* Artioltl. FriMa lo lUlUa Prices Is -Ml"* money. |En«U.l. mon.y|"^J,7„* Llvi«a. —130 s — 10£ —105 *M 7 44 8 S S lb. 80— T 6 8 11 8 4 4« 13 4.5 19 41 ID 89 15 10 88 9 28 6 59 19 2 4 3 1 19 8 1 19 8 8 IS 7 2 fi 6 6 9 2 4 2 2 11 88 8 !» 8 58 4 55 18 71 4 8 n ft 2 owt lb. ewt ton. imp. qr. u ewt lb. cwL lb. 253 gal. 476 shts Cheeso, Pannossn..60 kll. 13S Citron, preserved. . . " 7B — Cri-am of Tartar.... " 80 — Essences: lomon....ikil 6 60 — bcrgamot " 8 50 — omnge " 3 50— Oalls; Turkey, blue *bIuo* green... 60 kll. 170 — Gum Arabic : plokcJ . i kll 1 Inserts. 50 kll. 76 Hemp: BoIogi:a...l00kll.l«« Sdandlst " 104 cordage, Ist " 96 —98 " 2d « 91—93 Forraro cordage. " 76—88 Plodioont, 1st... " 66—0 combed « 180 —140 Linseed, Sicily and Sardinia " 28 60—29 Black Sea " 25—26 Eg.iptlan " 25—26 LIquorlcu paste, Ca- labria 50 kll 36 —88 Sicilian " 52—68 Manna, In flakes Jkll. 7 50— Inserts " 8-0 Madder roots, Levant "50—0 Opium, Turkey " 15-0 Oil. Ocnoa, super bar. 115 — Oalllpoll " 72 — Tunis " 75 —76 Sicily "78 — Saidlnia "92—98 Papcr,Floretta,14lbs. p 10 roams 44 — 47 Paper — Al Masso, p. 10 80 — 88 17 lbs. reams Quicksilver ^ kll 72 —74 Kags,linon, iBt. 5ukil. 4 25— " 2d " 81 90— ■' " 8d " 2l> 2,'>— F'.io, lUllan " 22 20— Silks, raw Genoa and IS — 18 Piedmont i kll. white and yellow " 88—84 OrganzlnsIS— iO.. " 40 —41 I " 211—23.. " 88—39 22— 26.. " 86 — iW Trama, l9t " M -84 " 2dand8d.. " 80 -83 "owing, block " 26—0 a«»orted " 27-0 Waste, Ist end 2d. " 8 50— 6 Wool , \iz: Morocco, washed .M kll. 100 —110 Tunis " 127 —181 Tansarock&Odessa " 95 —102 Un.la merinos half washed.... " 114 —126 HongasI " 64—78 Morocco unwashed " 66 — 68 Tniils " 67 —61 Groins, vl/. ; W heat Polish soft., hcot, 16 50-1? (iiilaoiondl'.ralla.. " I.") — IS Ilarlctta " 18 .V)- 19 lioineltt " 14 60—15 hanl Tangnrock... " 17 —17 Mirlnno(>le " 16 60— Indian Cforn.OalaM " 12 —12 * From tho Circular of '}rants, Ralfour & Co., Leghorn. Oentian (Gor. Enzian ; Kr. Gentiane ; It. (lenziana; S\t. Jeneimta ! KuB. Knzian.; ',nt. (lenlinna), the. roots of two iilpino plants, Ointiawi I'llea and (lentiimn pur- ^mrea found grc ring in Switzerland and Austria, the 6 3 3 8 8 8 258 1 86 15 11 17 8 1 12 9 1 11 6 1 VI 6 1 I 1 16 8 1 II 10 1 1 7 4 1 Ii. 10 1 06 9 38 11 30 v) 637 6 69 6 86 3 4 1 16 10 2 6 3 1 16 7 2 1 6 I 19 3 1 9 7 cwt. lb. imp. qr. Apennines, the Pyreneas, »Mt In Unftit hmsfim, HmM brought to this country cotm fm» Qfifmmf, thtv •re in pieces of various lengths miA thiftHUD*, iwiiitta, and wrinided on tba ontsidA. »P»4 (WWW *itll It brownish-gray cuticle. TMy l(»V« m pSfttf 8ll»f «!«( and the taste is intensely hitter, wfttwMt MttH HHUMI* oua. — Thomson's Dupentalopf/, Oeode«7 (Gr. yi/, and imu, I liMit), WUttuWf »(«= nifies the division of the earth, in whMt <««H<>« H h synonymous with hind-survayms i J»Ht ft (s MsImH^ employed in a more general Mtm U> i»mt« tll«( ftrt of practical geometry wblcb has (m iis t)^A$d MlH 4(1= termination of the magnitude »b4 fijJHfS m\mf ttf the whole earth, or of any given uurlWf) iif ih ((Hff««e, In this sense it comprehends all (hA g»iilWifUiil\ tli trigonometrical operations that Wf iwcstsry (lit iHtn^ structing a map of a country, HtaftSHriHJJ tti« l«llf$til!i of degrees, etc. In order t« coiistfiMit ^n ikmir»l« map, or determine the form 81)4 dlnU'Hsi'mii itf » (WUfM tr}-, it is necessary, in tba first fUm, U) (i^Ultmim iUn absolute distances between tlia mv»flt\ ^tUiHtl §t points; secondly, to determine i\m mUmtilS fljf tlie lines thus measured, that is, tb«lr nHUniUm with f»> apect to the meridian ; and thirdly, tba dlffwitflraii (tt latitude and longitude of the stjttiwn**, 'flw tftWftl' tiona necessary for determining tlje fi)/e«)M((i rt(st«fl««*i, comprehending tlia measurement of A l/*i«', tll« «(*» servation of angles, the computstlw »f tlw sl^tcs «rf the triangles, and their redifctlun U) tbs mm kvel^ arc called the geodesical or geodelicol nmf ii^i\imi> i white those which are required for detarmfnmji i\w smiHHtb* and Utitudes are culled the astrummlml n^Ui\im, The determination of the figure and dimsmWll^ "f tlM earth is a problem of very great im))orMH»i« Ul «'tf(W= omy and geography, and has ttccordinijly »t »)i ti»B*S been a subject of much interest U) nwihmuii-hm f but it is only since toward the mid4l^ u( (b*' If4r4 w? bsvs et geographical knowledge is from \\i»mf, lU 4#Wfil(«(l the shield of Achilles as representing Wm Wfth, ftHf- ronnded by the sea. — Iliad. Ha wucHratPly dc^ribss the countries of Greece, islands uf tbA Aff'bilK'k^M, and site of Troy. The priests taught ib»t Hi# tCHIuls of Apollo at Delphos was the centre of tll« WW(1< Anaximander of Miletus was tba inventor uf f{gti'- gruphical maps, alwut 568 B. c. HipiwrtlMW »tt*ini|H» ed to reduce geography to matlieinatii'^l \m>>i'^ »\miii 135 B. c. It was first brought U> l'^HriM)« \& (Im Moors of Barbar}- and Spain, about a. i'.. VUi\ ,~itt^mi' LET. The invention of the mariner's «win))A<>b4ft«W ('iiltini'iM to illustrate his brother's theory res|)ecttng tt WCf U*i general ; either embracing such truths as unly iifUltig to the earth considered as one wboU, ur e>l«nt1iH(4 ^' particulars which belong to and distinjjyiftb (Imj n«¥= eral countries spread over its surface, In wbij>b<>S: ever of these two aspects the subject iia rt'ijftrik'd, H vast field opens to tho view of tlie ulii-erveri In liflmt to |;ive n full and accurate de«cri|itiun n( tb" fDtlU, it would be requisite to consider it in refisr>fn<<' Ut il^ motion, figure, and niagiiltuda ; in referen* x t'' IN f^\H-' tion to tlie other bodies of the universe, uiii) muff ^K- pecially to the planetary system uf wbifb it foffH!) H part ; in reference to its surfai'e, us diversilimit tiy iitni\ and sea, mountains and valleys, lakes and rivfffi i in reference to the materials wliiih I'oinposu its i.'rH«-i, »fl4 to its internal structure ; in re fe'euca Ui t\w iwAstitUti^ls GEO m GEO of ths ■tmosphera with which tt ia aarrounded, and the •ITcicta arising from the Tarlationa In atmospherical preaaure, temperature, and humidity. Nor would It be rnou|{h to consider the earth only as a mass of In- ert and unorganl 1 matter ; It would be ncccssarj- to regard it in Its relations to vegetable and animal life ; and to trace the phenomena which these, In their endless variety, present In Its various divisions and {)rovinces. It would still further be necessary to view t as the alHKle of man himself, and as modified by his existence ; divided into states and kingdoms ; adorned with cities, and all the noble monuments of civilized life. Such Is an outline of the picture which geography, in the most unlimited meaning of the term, should exhibit of the globe. To fill up this picture in all Its parts. It would evidently be necessary to call in the aid of the whole circle of the sciences. But the de- ■cription Is uauully of a less extended character, being conflned chiefly to the more obvious and striking features of the various regions and countries of the earth. In the wide.range which the sulijeet presents, sev- eral divisions and snt)divI»Ions nro sugjjcstcd by the different views in wliicb the earth may Iw consliiercd. The three following divisions are the most important : 1. ifaihematiial (Ifniirnphy, which illustrates, on astronomical principles, the figure, magnitude, and mo- tion of the earth ; teaches how to determine the posi- tions of places on its surface ; explains the construction of globes, with their appliciitiow to the solution of problems ; and shows how the whole or any portion of the earth's surface may, on the principles of projection, be delineated on a map or chart. 2. Phyglcal Geoyniphii, whii'h treats of the mutual relations of the diver.,itlp(l objects found on the surface of (he earth, includinj' the atmosphnre liy whicli It is aurrounrted ; and explains the causes, whether of a chemical or mechanical dcncrlption, that produce the modifications and "hanges whicli arc continually taking place in them. 3. J'oliliciil, or Uist'irirnl (irnf/rnpii/, which descrH)es the earth as divided into countries, occupi,'?d by vari- ous nations, and improved 1)V human art and Industry. It traces the circumstances and character of the differ- ent races and tribes of mankind, explaining their social Institutions, and ascertaining the place whicli each occupies iv the scale of civilization. From this gciieral amingeinent of the subject, it is evident that geography depends for its rank us a sci- ence on its intiiniitc connci tlon with various lir.mclies of knowledge, wtiich, taking their rise from Investiga- tions institatcd in^efereiicc to the nature and mutual relations of the objects on the earth, or connected with it, furnish those accurate views which must be obtained before any thing like a precise description can l)e given of the globe we inhal)It, or of any portion of it. U'ith regard to what belongs to Physical fJeography, we musf refer the rcailcr to the articles I'llYsic.M. (iKOO- BAJiiy, .MiSKKAi.oc.Y, MicTKOiiot.oiiY, etc.. In the new edition of the /•'m-i,t: Ilril. What lielongs to Political or Historical (Jeogr.iphy will l>e found under the names of the respective countries. The fidlowing article will be limited to a view of the progress of Geo- graphical Discovcrv. I'mgreii nf deni/rirplimil nlfcnrenj. — There ire many circumstances in tlie condition of man which connect him so closely witli tlie globe which he Inlialt- Ita, as to render absolutely necessary to his existence a knowledge of at least the neighborhood of the fpot where his lot is cast. It 's from the certh that he must derive the means of sul-'I.Utncc and aconiinoda- ■ lion, the materials on which his Industry Is to be ex- erted, and those olvjocts In the exchange of which commerce consists. In every stage of his piogress, therefore, from barbarism to civilization, he must em- ploy some attention and observation, in order to dis- cover In what respects the ol>jects with which ho Is anrronnded are qualified to contribute to the anpply of his wants, and to hia comfort and convenience. Even while he roams Ihe forest In the savage state, he must make himself acquainted with many circumstances, a knowledge of which is necessary either to give him success in the chaae, or to direct him in retracing his steps to the place where he has fixed his dwelling. But it is not until men have united In society, and that neighboring communities have begun to hold mu- tual Intercourse, that those feelings and passions are effectually aroused which stimulate to the arduous pursuits of geographical discovery. Commerce and war, with the spirit of adventure which usually ac- company them, have, without doubt, been among the first causes of geographical research. In the train of these have followed the workings of avarice and the aims of ambition. As the human mind has advanced in its career of improvement, curiosity, with an eu- largement of views and desires, has been called into action ; and voyages have been undertaken for the ex- press purpose of discovering now countries and explor- ing unknown seas. In tracing the effects which these causes have pro- duced ill tlie gradual inci-ease of geographical knowl- edge, it will contribute to distinctness to keep In view a threefold division, which the sulijeet naturally as- sumes, namely, anrieni geography, extending from the earliest period of history down to the time when, the Koman empire having been overrun by barbarous na- tions from several quarters, Kurope was overwhelmed in the darkness which ]irecedGd the revival of learn- ing ; the geography o/the middle ages, extending from the revival of letters to the f'.ftrcnt'.i century, when the discoveries of the I'ortiigiiese be ^;u to lay a wider foundation for the science; ami mmhm geography, which embraces the most recent discoveries, and ia progressively improving by the accessions which It Is receiving from the labors and science of modem travel- er.4 and navigators. The I'hreniclans are thn earliest commercial peojile of whoso discoveries we have any correct accounts. This people seem first to have explored the coast of tlic Mediterranean. Their navigators at length extended their voyages through the Straits of (jades, now called the Straits of (jlbraltur, entered the Atlantic Ocean, and visited tlio western ciiast,H of Spain and Africa. In many places to which they resorted they planted colonies ; and sought, by Instructing the luhal.'tants. In some measure. In their arts and iiiiproveincnts. t'l open a wider sphere for their commerce. The learned lloeliart, led by the analngy between the I'hcenielan tongue and the orioutal languages, has endeavored to follow the tracks of the I'hccniclans, both along the shores of the Mediterranean and those of the Atlantic. These analogies are not always sure guides ; but there seems no reason to doubt that Cadiz was originally a I'hdnlcian colony, and it Is not likely that this was tl.i only one formed liy that enterprising people. The Arabian (iulf, or lied Sea, offered to the Phco- nlclaiis another Held of naval and commercial exer- tion, to the improvement of which the distance of Tyre, the emporium of their trade, was the only oli- staclc. This induced them to make themselves mas- ters of Rhlnoerura or Kiilnocolura, the port in the .Mediterranean nearest to the Ked Sea. Commodities purchased in Arabia, Ethiopia, an- 1118- the iticB id tho inii- rii'd .rid. ini- tlie I.U.- hoir Hod wblla bU •UUdc* with Iltram, king of Tyre, enabled him to command the nklll »t tlin T'hu'nlcliinH fur the conducting of the voyuge. l'»it>lng thniiiKh tlie Straits of lialwlmandal, thoy carrlod on cominerun in the In- diun Ocean ( and no dlitant were the cnuntrlea to which they traded, that the voyage occupied no leM than three yeira. But tliouitli the .fnwit Ihut fur a time en- K»K''l in tha punuitH uf trndn, yrt tlin tendency of thoir inntttutlonit, which wnrn nx|iruiiidy denljfned to preserve them a •e|uiriitn [wople, wim unfiivoruble to tho development of the I'liiPinerclal iipirit wliicli their monurcbs wlahed tu fiMter aiiiiinK thcin. Tbl;, Joined with the division of the kingdom on the death of Sol- omon, proved fatal to their rUiiig grnatncnn an a com- nierciiil people, and excluded them from ranklnj; amon)( the nutioHH who have Mintriliuted to the advancement of )(eoi;rapbicul knowledife, It In iwrhapa lm|>o8Kiblo to fix with ct-rtalnty the liniltK wblrli iHiunded thcgeo- f{rapblculri^iii'iiri'lieii«fthu)'h(i!nlclami,(maccountofthe dilHcuity there iitof amilgnliig the preclmi places marked out liy the names then given tii the I'oimtrtss to wbicli they traded. The length of time occupied In tho voy- otfB, and the nature of the cargoes brought homo, with a few otlier cjrciimiitajii'eii of the some vague kind, are the only purtUulars afforded to direct us In tbo deter- mination. 'I'hiis, the country of Opiilr, to which the Phoenicians navigated the ships of Solomon, must bo ascertained by tl)« facts that the vriyagc thither iind homeward oci^upled three years, anil that the cargo consisted of " gobl, and sliver. Ivory, and apes, and peacocks." Among tlie various opinions which have been entertained respecting the posltlcm of this distant c.iimtr.> tho most probable appears to be thot it was situated in the eastern coast of Africa, iis far south as Sofala. To this quarter every Inillcatlon seems clearly to point ; ind whatever objections may appear to stand 1 '. tho wuj , in consldi-ratloii of the remoteness of the region, ii.id the dinicultles to be eucouiilered, these admit uf being answered by n reference to tlie length of "ime reipilted for the voyage, and to the wealth, naval skill, and ample re»ourie», nt tho command of tbo monari'lM engaged In tfie trafltc. The regicjiiB always ijioken of lu Scripture ns the most remote with which the Hebrews ind I'bdTMans were acqua'ntad, are Tarslilsh, Opblr, the fsles Shoba and Dedun, the r'vcr* (log, Mag^ig, and the North, Without entorlni/ Into any disciissiiiti, we may give what appear to b.- the must probable concluslcns with regard to tho positions of the ( iiinliles to which thcM- iionics wore ap|ilied. iarnhlsli !s » country from wlilcli two voyai^es are Sfikfo of In Scripture n« being made ; one by the MedltcrMneun, bringing iron, sif- vor, lead, ami tin, ''lo produce of Spain and flritaln j tho other by tiio l.r i Sea, brlnglii;< gold, l-ory and otlier p.i)duction» '•( tropical Africa. Thc^' two '.ly. ■a;;es, though at first they apisar Imongruous, if sup. piiscd to be iiiode to ihe s« ' e country, may bo reconcile! by supposing that Tarshlf n Is fundamentally ('ari(ir.j.;e, wfiich monopoll^^ed a'lii.idt entirely th" (■ imnicrcc of Spain and Ilritain, and vmu the inedliirii ihroiigh which tho com.nodlties of the We«t were dlslnbufedj and tliat the name of this gr'ut African metropolis was ex- tended to the whole of the continent of Afrlc!, The Isles are Hie wli(do southern coasts of Fiir-ppe, consist- ing citlier of real Islands or peninsular tracts, Shoba is tlie southern [wrtlon if that part of the coaot of Arabia which borders tm the lied Sea ; while Ilednn lies u|Kin the opposite coiuit, that tsirders on the Pernian (iulf. These countries rose to commercial Importance in conseqileiico of the viibiiilile cnyimodltlps which were lnipor,ed Into the former from the African coast, und Into the hitter from India, 'i'hence arose the trafllc carried on by "the com|inniei of Slieba," or caravans, aad by " tho traveling companliis of Oedii- iilm." The Ulver was the name always applied to the KuphratcH. ^iog, Magog, and the North, appear to Ij« the high liible-land in tlie Interior and north of Asia Minor, Phrygia, Galatta, CappadocU, und Papblogo- nla, regions in which may be recognized the peculiarly rude and formidable aspect which belonged to the countries to which in ancient times the names In ques- tion wore applied.' See Encyclopcedia of Geography, by H. MuuRAY, Esq. Tho Carthaginians, a Phmnlcian colony, retained In full vigor the commercial spirit of the parent State. They did not, however, attempt to divide with Tyre tho wealth and power wbb'h she derived from the mo- nopoly of tho trade carried on in the Arabian Gulf. They directed their eflTorts to the opposite quarter, and sailing through the Straits of Gades, pushed their researches far beyond tho bounds which had been reached by the mother country in this part of tho glot>e. They vl.sited not only all the coast of Spain, but likewise that of Gaul, and penetrated at length as far as the south-western coast of Britain, where they ob- tained tin from the mines of Cornwall or in traffic with tho natives. Nor was it only toward tlie northward that they directed their efforts ; tliey explored also the regions southward of the Straits, and sailing along tho western const of Africa almost as far as the northern tropic, they planted i.olonies, as tlie Phoenicians of Tyre had formerly done, with a view to prepare the natives for carrying on commercial intercourse. The Atlantic Ocean was destined to conceal for ages from tho inhabitants of the old world the immense regions which lie lieyond it. But tho Carthaginians extended the boundarj- of navigation westward by the discoverj" of the Fortunate Islands, now known \iy the name of the Canaries. Tlio enlargement of views gradually generated by this spirit of rommcrcial enterprise led at length to voyaf;es of which discovery was the .ipecial object. The circumnavigation of Africa was one of tlie earliest attempts of tliis kind made Iiy the ancients. The di- rection whi,)li the iiiiisttakea beyond the Mediterranean on tho one hand, and the Red Sea on the other, sug- gested the idea of a peninsula which it might be pos- silde to sail round. This voyage was first undertaken by the Kgyptians ; a people cscccdingly averse to engage in naval affairs, but who at this time were ruled 01 er liy Nei ho, a monarch whose active spirit prompted him to engage some Phoenicians to d-.«cend the Arabian Gulf, and, coasting along Africa, to en- deavor to return by the Straits of Gades, Herodotus narrates in a few word.i the result of this enterprise, which was undertaken ulioiit 004 years before the' Christian era. lie says, "the I'liirnlclans, setting sail from the Kcd Sea, made their way Into the south- em sea J and when autumn approachc ' thoy drew their ves.«els to land, sowed a crop, and waited until It .v»s grown ; when they reaped it, and agoin put to sea. Having spent two years in this manner, in the third year they reached the Pillars of Hercules, ond returned '" ^M^ P'l reporting what does not find belief with me, liut may perhaps with some other person ; for they said that in passing Africa, they had the sun on their right hand, in Ihis niunri'jr Libya was first known." This passage has given ri.«c to inu, h controversy among the learned. Hut the voyage bere .«o liriefly descrlbeil does not seem to involve any impossibility, not with- standing the then infant state of navig'ition \ and the circumstances which the historian objrcts to as incred- ilde, is the very point, which, frim Its coincidence with what we know .should have happened, renders the story more worthy of belief, Xerxes, king of Persia, according to Herodotus, gave a similar commission, atiout 480 years before the Christian era, to one of his satraps, named I Sataspcs, who, for heinous offense, had lieen condemned to die. If successful in the ncioinpllsti- ' ment of this voyage, Sataspes was to escape a cruel death. But the difTiculties were too great to lie \ sunnoiinted by a navigator iirouglit up amid the lux- i ury and indulgence of the Persian court. Having GEO m GEO procured from Eg)'pt a Teasel and crew, lie paused tlirnugb the Straits of Gsdes, ontered the Atlantic Ocean, und, liending Ills course toward the south, eoojited tbn continent >( Africa, until, after rfoveral months, he probably reached the cott<4t of Saharii. The frightful and desr'.ute shores along which lie sailed, and the tempestuous ocean vhich beat against them, combined to fill his mind with alarm ami to ■hake his ■-eaolution. He retraced hia course t.i the Straite ; and hoping, perbaps, thac the labors lie lind undergone in the partial acconipliiiiment of the tiisk imposed on him would be accepted by his royal master as a sufficient atonement for hir? offense, or that the oAcnse itself might in a great measure be forgotten he returned home and presented himself before Xerxes. Tlie cause which he assidiied for the failure of the ultimate object of his missicn was, that he hod er coun- tered a sea so full of herbage that bis passage was completely obstructed. This r janon (the grounds of which have never been satisfactorily explained, thougli it h(M been alleged that obstacles of this description ociiir in that part of the sea which lies between the Cape Verd Islands, the Canaries, . nd the coast of Africa) appeared so ridiculous to Xerxes, that iia ordered tli>i ■entence of death by cvucifixion, which had been pro- nounced upo« Sataspes, to bt immediately executed. But the most celebrated voyage of antuiuity under- taken for the purpose of discovery was the expedition under Hanno, fitted out by the authority of the Senate of Carthage, and at the )>• ,iic expense, and that with a view of attempting a omplete survey of the wcutcrn coast of Africa. Of ail the voyages performed by the Phnenlcians and Carthaginians, this is the only one of which we have an Authentic narratiue. Mercantile Jealousy prevented these two great commercial states fh)m communicating to other nations the knowledge which they acquired of the remote regions of the earth ; and from this cause, when the maritime power of the fonnor wos annihilated by Alexander's conquest of Tyre, and the empire of the latter was overthrown liy the Koman arms, all monuments of their great skill in nuvul otfairs «ppc.ir In a great measur;: to have per- ished. Even the account of tliu voyage of Ilanno (I'rripliit Iltmmmit) has been considered by its learned editor, Mr. Dodwell, as a spurious work. Hut the arguments of M. de Montesquieu .ind of M. de Hou- galnville appear fully to establish its authenticity, .which the learned world ik w generally admit. Ilanno set sail with a fleet of GO vessels, so con- structed that, according to the mode of ancient navi- gation, he coulil keep close in with the coast. We are told that. In twelve days ofter leaving the Straits of (todes, he reached the island of C'erne ; that proceed- ing thence, and following the direction of the coast, be arrived, in 17 days, at a bay, which he culled The We»l Horn. From this he advanced to another bay, which he named The Smith Horn. The objects which nre descrified as having been seen by Hanno in his progu'ss belong to tropical Africa. But hi atlcnrjting to ascertain the places which he visiteil, or (lie utmost distance which he sailed southward, much difficulty and uncertainty are experienced. Bougainville hup- pests Hanno to have reached the Gulf of Benin, and contends that this limit, di.stant as it is, can not he regarded iss lieyond what may be conceived to have I been accomplished by the .iiost skillful navigator of i antiquity. Major Rennell shortens the distance con- siderably by conceiving the voyage to have oeen ex- tended no further southward than Slierbro Sound, u little oeyond Sierra Leone. He thus obtains tlie ail- vantage of avoiding a difficulty involved in the by- : pothesis of M. de nougainvillc, namely, the supjiositioii } of ancient ships having sailed upwa.d of 70 geograpb- ; ical miles in a day. At the lame time, the arguments | which «u|)|>ort the our hypotbesiB are equally appli- i cable to ihe other. j According to tha rIewB of M. tiosselln, however, I I the voyage must be confined to much narrower lim- its southward than oven those assigned by Major Pc^nnell. He supposes it to have terminated alwul tlie Kiver Nun — an opinion which he supports by al- j leging that, hi such a voyage, the progress mtist neces- sarily have been slow. The Carthaginian navigator hid to encounter all the obstacles and dangers incident to a course held along a shore, and in a sea, which were squilly unknown. Me must have found him- self impeded by the requisite examination of every part uf the coast, as well as by the many precautions which the sattty of the fleet under his commari mnst ! have rendered coi'rtaiitly necessarj-. WItli regard to I the circumstances given in the narrative which iippear to (joint to tropical Africa, Sf . Gosselin supposes that the same aspect of life and nature may, at that dis- tant iieriod, have belonged to M(.rQcco, then thinly (jeoplcd by the rude native trib^ , which is now spo- ut which also awakened the ambition of private adventurers. Kudoxus, a native of C'yzieus, being sent (-n a mission to Ale::andria, at that time the seat of naval enterprise and geographical knowledge," his ardent mind, natu- rally biased to these pursuits, was aroused to action liy the .spirit which prevailed in that city. He began his career under the auspices of Ptolemy I'^.iergetcK, the reigning Egyptian monarch, who fitted out a fleet, and placed it under his command. According to the destination assigned him, Eudoxus descended the Arabian (iulf, and proceeded probably a far ,s the southern shore of Arabia. Thence be appears i ? have returned after o prosperous voyage, with a valuable cargo of aromatics and precious stones. But of this wealth lie appears to have been deprived by Euergetes. After the death of this monarch, which in a short time took place, his widow Cleopatra sent Eudoxus on another voyage, in the course of wliich he was driven liy unfavoralde winds on the coast of ICthiopia, w'lcro he was kindly received l)y tlie inhaliitants, and carried on with them an advantageous trafflc. After other vicLssitudes of fortune, he was induced by circum- stances which occurred in his adventurous life to leave the court of Egy,it, and rcp,i.r t the commercial citj- of Cadiz, in Spain, and there to fit out an cxvedition for the purpose of African discovery. At .ifassilia (Marseilles), und other maritime places which ho passed on his waj' to Cadiz, he took care to make known his views and hopes of success, and to invito all who were actuated liy any spirit of enterprise to nccoaipany him. He succeeded In fitting out a ship and two largo boats, on board of which he carried not only goods and provision.^, but artisans, medical men, and even playeri on musical instruments. This was no doubt proceeding on a magnificent scale : but his crew was ill calc dafi d to second his lio'.d undertaking. To avoid the ilangerof stranding, Eudoxus was an.xious to keep the o|>en sea. His companions, however, alarmed at tiic swell, i'urccd him to adopt the usuai mde then followed of saiiing along the shore— -a meuauru which led to the disaster which Ke had antict- GBO m GJflO patad. With one y«uel of > lighter construction, on boanl of which wu put the mora valuable part of the cargo, Endoxut pursued hia voyage until be reached a part of the coast inhabited by a race of people that appeared to him to speak the same language with those whom he bad found on the oppns te sidf of the I'tontlnent. Judging from thin circumBtiinc ■: tuat he bad ascertained the main object of his voyage, he returned and endeavored to obtain the assistance of Bocchus, king of Mauritania. Suspecting, however, treachery on the part of that monarch, he again had recourse to Spain. Here he was again successful 'n equipping another expedition, consisting of one largo vessel lltted for the open sea, and another of smaller size for the examination of the coast. This was a judicious prepa- ration for the accomplishment of the oliject in view ; but with ragard to the issue of the voyage no accounts of any authority have been preserved. Such are the leading circumstances connected with the V >yages of Eudoxus, which are narrated by Strabo ; and, notwithstanding the skepticism and severe criticisms of that geographer, there is really nothing to which the cundid reader can reasonably refuse his Iwlief. Frejudices, founded, for the most part, on hii own want of information, led Strabo to treat likewise as faliulous the relation of the only ancient voyage having Europe, and more particularly the British isles, for its object, of whicli we have any detailed account. Pyt'ieas, a Mossilian navigator, undertook an expe- dition al)out 320 years before the Christian era. He ■tucred northward ; and after examining the coasts of Spam anil (iiitil, he sailed round the inland of Albion ; and, stretching still further to the north, he discovered an island, the Ultima Thute of the ancients. What island tills was, the learned are nut agreed. It has been supposed to he the modern Iceland; tut this implies too great an extent of open sea for an ancient navigator to traverse ; and besides, six days, the pe- riod during which lifl is said to have navigated to the northward of Allilm, lefore he made his discovery, is too short a time In iilniit of his reaching Iceland. Others, among whom id Malte-llrun, have considered Julliiiij ns Ultima Thulc. Hut it should bu kept in view that Pytlicus uiiifcirmly regarded Thule as Brit- ish, a character wliich he I'luild scarcel}' conceive to belong to Jutland, nnulng be rould have reached that peninsula only liy a long coMr«e along the coasts of Germany, which inunt have impressed on his mind the idea tlint he had left far behind him every thing be- longing to Britain. (In the wliole, Shetland seems best entitled to beconsidered as tl e ancient Thule, and suits well witli the appellation which I'ytheos gives it, when he expressly cal)^ it the " furthest of the Brit- •ins.' Strabo pndea ors to throw discredit on the state- ments of I'ytheas, by starting objections long known to lie of the most groundless description ; and it is un advantage which the traveler and ni'vigatur ))ossoi(ri who describe faithfully the grand features of nature, that, however prejudice may dim their rep'tation for a time, yet will their accuracy us well as veracity at lengtii, \n the progress of knowledge, appear, and ■ecure for them the respect aiid applause of mankind. At the same time, it must be admitted that, in describ- ing what hu saw beyond his LUtimn Thuh-. the state- ment given by I'ytheas, as reported by .strabo, as- sumes a somawhat fabulous cha>'acter, lie asserted, tt seems, that beyond Thule there conmienced what was neither earth, sea, nor air, but a confused blend- ing of all the three. But even here some allowance b to be made for the workings of iinaginatiou under very |iecuUar eircumstuiices, and a readiness, not un- natural, to Udievft reports wliich reprtseiittd him to have reached the extremity of the habitalile globe. If bis language is nut t(eciaUy from that carried on with India, which he found to be wholly in the hands of the Tyriuns. With a view to secure this commerce, a^ soon as he had completed the conquest of Egypt, he founded the city of Alexandria, and thus established for it a station preferable in many respects to Tyre. After bis final victory over the Persians, his march in pursuit of Bessus, who had carried off Darius into BactriaPu, often led him near to Indk, and among people accustomed to much intercourse with it, from whom he learned mauy things concerning the state of the country, that served so to confirm and inflame a desire which he had long cherished, of ex- tending his dominion over those regions, that he was induced to conduct his army from Bactria, for the pur- pose of invasion, across that ridge of mountains which form the northern barrier of India. After passing the Indus, Alexander directed his march to the Ganges, which, from the accounts he heard of it, and of the countries through which it flows, he was eager to reach. The route which he found it necessary to fol- low, in consequence of being successively engaged in hostilities with various native princes, led him through one of the richest and best-peopled countries in India, now called Punjab. In his ultimate object, however, he failed. His march being performed during the rainy season, his troops had already- suffered so much, that, notwithstanding the high degree in which he possessed all those qualities that secure an as':cndancy over the minds of soldiers, he was unable to persuade them to advance beyond the banks of the Hyphasis, the modem Beyah, which was accordingly the utmost limit of Alexander's progress in India. By this expedition, Alexander first opened the knowledge of I ndia to the people of Europe ; and as he wag accompanied, wherever he went, by skillful surveyors, Oiognetes and Baeton, who measured the length and determined the direction of every route taken by the army, he furnished a survey of an exten- sive district of it, more accurate than could have been expected from the short time he remained in that country. The memoirs drawn up by his oincers like- wise afforded to Europeans their first authentic in- formation respecting the climate, the soil, the produc- tions, and the inhabitants of India. Though Alexander did not penetrate to the Ganges, his expedition prej)ared Ih. way to the knowledge of that magnificent stream. For soon after, Seleucus, one of bis successors, sent Megasthenes as his ombos- sador to Palibothra, the capital of a powerful nation on the b,inks of the Ganges. The site of Palibothra was probably the same us that of the modem city of Allahabad, at the junction of the Biver Jumn.. with the Ganges, This embassy brought new and opulent provinces of India into view, an acquaintance with which served to raise still higher the idea generally entertained of the value and importance of the country. The island Tiiprobane, so celebrated among the an- cients, which appears, notwithstanding some great mis- takes with respect both to its extent and position, to be the modern Ceylon, seems not to have been known in Europe even by name betore the age of Alexander. In consequence, huweve'-, of the enlightened and active / GEO 19t GEO enrioslty with wMcli be explored erery conntiy which he anhdued or visited, dome knowledge of it was nt length obtained ; and, after his time, it la mentioned by almost everj' ancient Rcogmplier. While Alexan- der was attempting to penetrate Into India, a numerous fleet was assembled by officers whom he had left on the banks of the Hydaspes, the modem liehat or Ohelnm, with orders to build and collect as many ships as they could. The destination of this fleet was to soil down the Indus to the ocean, and f*om its mouth to proceed to the Persian Gulf, with a view of opening a com- munication between India and the centre of his do- minions. When Alexander reached the banks of the Hydas- pes on his return, he committed the conduct of this expedition to Nearrhus. The voyage down the Indus derived splendor from the greatness and magnificence of the armument, which consisted of an army of 120,000 men, and 200 elephants, and of a fleet of nearly 2000 Teasels. Alexander himself accompanied Nearchus in his navigation down the river, with one third of the troops on boani ; while the remainder. In two divisions, one on the right and the other on the W. of the river, accompanied them in their progress. Kavlng reached the ocean after the lapse of nine months, Alexander left Nearchns and his crew to pursue their voyage, and conducted his army back by land to Persia. A coast- ing voyage of seven months brought Nearchua, with the fleet, in safety, up the Persian Gulf into the Eu- phrates. It was at the mouth of the Indus thut the Greeks witnessed for the first time, ond that with as- tonishment and terror, the ebb and flow of the sea ; a phenomenon scarcely jjerceptlble in the Mediterranean, to which their navigation had formerly been confined. In the progress of the voyage they were also struck with surprise on observing phenomena belonging to the midsummer of the tropics. At noon objects were observed to project no shadows, or to project small shadows declining to the south. Their attention was still further attracted by the new appearance of the aky. Stars which they had been accustomed to see high in the heavens were now seen near the horizon. Some stars to the north disappeared, while other stars formerly invisible were seen In the south. The opening of a communication 1>etween the Red Sea and tha Persian Gulf was with Alexander another great object of ambition. But though with this view he seems t« have sent expeditions down both seas, he failed in his attempts to accomplish this project. AmoHij the Romans, navigation and commerce, the handmaids of geographical science, were never made objects of pursuit, except in so far as they w«re found to be ncccsrarj- to forward their schemes of universal dominion. Their eontiuests opened indeed the West, as those of Alexander had made known the Kast ; and it might be truly said of that great people, that as they were the conquerors, so thej'were the surveyors of the world. Everj' new war produced a new survey and Itin- erary of the countries which were the acenea of action ; so that the materials of geography were accumulated by erery additional conquest. Some fragments of the itin- eraries thus composed still remain. The most mem- orable Is that whi^h bears the name of Antoninus, and which may t)e described as a mere skeleton road-l>ook, arhibiting nothing more than the names of places, and their distances from each other. The .Jerusalem Itinernry, which details minutely tl.e route from fiordeauTt. to that bolv city, is of the same descrip- tion. A more remarkable monument, however, is the PenlingeriitH Tal/'f, which forms a map of the world, constructed oi: the most singular principles. The map la twenty feet long snd only one foot broad, so that we ct riO.Hiiy conceive how Incorrectly the proportion of the dlfferunv pirts Is exhibited. Along the hlgfi rfiad which traverscM the Roman empire in the general direction of east and wi'.st, objects are uihmtely and ncenrately represented ; hut of those objects wbiah 11* to the north and south of it, only soma general notion is conveyed. The Peuttngerian Table serves aa m apeclmen of what are called ftifura Pieia, tha " paint* ed roads" of the ancients, Intended for the clearer direction of the march of their armlea. While tha Romans by their aurveys contributed much to increaae the masa of materials out of which the structure of geographical science was to be reared, they never attempted themselves to combine these materials Into one harmonious system. They Imbibed In no drjen sea their highway. This course was from Ocells, at the mouth of the Arabian Gulf, to Nelkunda (Nelisuram), on the western shores of the Indian conti- nent (the coast of Malabar), which seems to have been the utmost limit of the ancient navigation in that quarter of the globe. The extensive regions which stretch be- yond this to the east wore very imperfectly known by the reports obtained from a few adventurers who vis- ited them by land. If we now bring into one view the amount of in- formation possessed by the ancients respecting the habitable globe, wo shall find that it was extremely limited. It was at those places on the earth where the human mind displayed greatest activity and enterprise that this knowledge was naturally accumulated. Pro- ceeding from these stations, the boundary' which sep^ rated the known from the unknown part of the world was gradually enlarged ; but the regions comprehended within It constituted still but a small portion of the whole. lu Europe the extensive provinces in the east- ern part of Germany were but little known, while the whole of that vast territory which now forms the countries of Denmark, Sweden, Prussia, Poland, and Russia, was buried ir the deepest obscurity. The in- hospitable and drear)' climes within the arctic circle were yet unexplored. In Africa, little was known be- yond the countries stretching along the Mediterranean Sea, and those bordering on the western shore of tha Arabian Gulf. In Asia, the rich and fertile countries beyond the Ganges, whence the commerce of modern times has drawn the most valuable commodities for the comfort and embellishment of civilized society, were known, if known at all, only by the most vague and uncertain report. The immense regions on the noith occupied by the wsndering tribes called in ancient times by the general names of Sarmutians or Scy- thians, and which are now inhabited by virious tribes of Tartars, and by the Asiatic subjects of Russia, seem never to have lieen penetrated. Add to this, that the fertile and populous regions within the torrid zona were imagined to be uninhabitable ; and we have am- ple proof that the geography of the ancients was very Imperfect. Having thu.s fur given a succinct view of the pn^ GEO m GEO gmatre steps by which the e&rth'n axatnce, eontldored merely as tructt of territory inhabited liy men, gnulu- aily liei^ame known, it wili lie proper next to trace briefly the ailvnnces made toward urranKioK '"'" " 'y^ tematic form Mie materials accuniulatod. Science re- quired that (lie relative pimitions of plac-vx, with their distances from eocli other, nhoiild IJo aBccrtainey the species of animals and plants produced in each. Thns the appearance of the negro, the rhinoceros, and the elephant, suggested to them the line of division where the torrid zone began toward the north, and ended toward the south. But instead of this vor}' vague method, another was soon adopted, which consisted in observing at places the length of the longest and shortest day. This was de- termined with some accuracy by means of a gnotmm, a metliod of observation much used by the ancients. An upright pillar of a known height being erected on a level pavement, bj' observing the lengths of the me- ridian shadows, they were enabled to t. ice the progress of the sun from tropic to tropic. The most ancient ol>- tervation with the gnomon which we meet with is that of Pytheas, in the days of Alexander the Great. Py- theas observed at the summer solstice at Marseilles, that the length of the meridUm shadow was to the height of the gnomon as 2iai to 600 ; an observation which makes the meridian altitude of the sun at Marseilles on that day 70° 27'. The merit of the invention of the gnomon in Greece is ascribed to the astronomical school of Miletus, and particularly to Anaximander and Anaximencs. Thera is reason, however, to Iwlieve that this method of observation was originiilly invented by the Egyptians ; and that Thales, who traveled into Egj-pt, carried thence the knowledge of it into Greece. It has even been con- jectured that the Egj'ptian pyramids and oi)eli3ks were intended for the same purpose with the gnomon ; and, though it would Iw extravagant to imagine that this was their sole uso, this opinion ap|>ears to l>e coun- tenanced l)y the fact of their Iwing placed in the direc- tion of the four cardinal points. Tho determination of the length of the meridian shadow at the solstices for different parts of the oa-.th, by observations made with tho gnomon, is important as l)eing the iirst step toward connecting geography with astronomy ; and, when combined with just con- ceptions of tlie globular figure of tlie earth, leads, by a simple train of thought, to the motion of latitude by which the position of a place is fixed relatively to north and south. The position with regard to east and west is tho only other element necessary for fixing the absolute situation of the place on tho surface of tlie earth. It might have licen supposed not to be more than a reflecting mind could easily accomplish, to reach the conception of botli these elements, and to apply them to use. Yet so slow was the progress toward the apprehen8i{m of tho prmciples on which an accurate system of geography ndght be founded, that from tho days of Thales and Ids immediate successors, who flourished in the sixth century before the (,'hristian era, there appears to have iieeii little done f.ir the im- provement of geography, as a scienop, until the estal)- lishment oC the famous astronomical school of Alex- andria, Pythagoras liad ir'deed maintained the true system of the world, by placing the sun in the centre, and giving the earth both a diurnal and annu'il revo- lution ; but this doctrine was so ni\i.;h in advaooe of the age in which he promulgated it, tliat it wa.« soon lost siglit of. Eratosthenes was the first who reduced gflography to • TvgtiUr system, and laVl its fonndntions on olear and solid principles. Under the patronage of the Ptolemies, he had access to the materials collected by Alexander, his generals and successors, as \i(i]\ as to tho immense mass of documents accumulated in th« Alexandrian library. At an early [wriod of the liis- tory of astronomical science, the vulgar opiniim that the earth is a flat surface, with the heavens resting upon it as a canopy, was rejected ; but it was nut at once that distinct conceptions of its globular flguro weVe acquired. It was only as astronomical observo^ tions increased that the doctrine of its sphericity was fully est.ildishod. Tliis ))oint had been gained when Eratosthenes began his laliors; and what ho endeavor- ed to accomplish was to delineate, in strict conformity with this principle, tlie known parts of the earth's surface, AVith this view, founding his system on the use of the gnomon, he supposed a lino to lie traced tlirough certain places, in all of which the longest day was known to be exactly of the same length. This lino would evidently be n parallel to the equator. But though his method was correct in principle, the want of accurate observations rendered it uncertain in prac- tice. The line was supposed to comprise all the lead- ing (wsitiona which lay near it, though tliey did not actually come within its range. Its western extremity was the Sacred Promontory of Iberia (Cape St. Vin- cent) ; thence it pa.ssed through the straits of Gades. Proceeding eastward, it passed tlirough tho Slciliaa Sea, and near the southern extremity of tlie Pelopon- nesus, and was continued through the island of Kliodes, and the Bay of Issus ; whence entering C'iliuia, and crossing the Euphrates and the Tigris, it was extended to the mountains of India, and terminated at the re- mote city of Thina!, situated on tlie Eastern Ocean. Tho parallel thus drawn was understood to pass through all those places where the longest day was 14J hours. It stretched the whole length of what wos supposed to be the haliitaldo world, and measured about 70,000 stadia; a distance corresponding, accord- ing to tho estimate of Eratosthenes, to about 140 de- grees, which is nither more than one third of the circuit of the glolie. This first parallel drawn through Rhodes was ever afterward preferred as tho basis of aiioieiit maps ; inas- much as it was traced through the middle of the Med- iterranean, along the coasts of which were situated the principal nations of antiquity. Following out tho same happy thought wliicli he had thus succeiisfully made the groundwork of his system, Eratostiieues was induced not only to trace other parallels at certain intervals from tho fir^t, as one through Alexandria, another through Syone, and a third through Meroe ; but also to trace, at right angles to these, a merulian, passing through Khodes and Alexandria southward to Sycno and Meroe. As the progress which he thus mado toward the completion of what ho had so skiU- fully conceived, naturally tended to enlarge \nii ideas conceniing geograpliical acioiice, he attempted what seemed a 8till more diiKcult unilertakiug, namely, to determine the circumference of the globe by the actual measurement o^ a segment of one of its great circles. The method he pursued has been clearly pointed out in the article AsnioNoMV, Iluci/. llrit. There is a differ- ence among ancient authors respecting the result ob- tained by Eratosthenes. Tlie great majority, however, state it to lie 252,000 stadia, which give exactly 700 stadia for a degree of the equator, and hoi stadia for the degree of longitude upon thu parallel drawn through Khiides. The knowledge of the circumference of the earth is a necessary element in the construction of maps ; and hcuce the most emhicnt of the ancient astrrnomioal geographers made ropeated endeavors to detennine it with accuracy. Possidonius, by an astronomical ob- servation, determined the urc of tho mcriilian between 1/ GEO fW GEO Bhodu ud Alexandria to be a forty.«lghth part of th« whole circiimferenre. With regard to the distance lietween thene two place*, MOO stadia were the rvputed distance ; hut Kratnslheno* had made It only SifiO stadia upward of 170 years l)efiirfl, and Iwtwixt these two Possodonlus had to make rholce. The former uamber gives 2-10,000 stadia for the whole circumfer- ence, the latter 180,000 stadia. Of this last result, which gives SOO stadia ftor a degree of tho equator, Possldonius is reported hy Straho to have apjiroved. For want of the knowledge of the true length of the stadium, it is now impossible to judge of the actual quantity assigned either by Knitosllienes or Possldo- nius as the measure of the earth's <'lrcumr«ronce ; hut the great uncertainty almut the distance between the points of observation In the case of the determination of the liittnr astronomer renders Ills conclusion of no value. Notwithstanding the soundness of the principles which had now been laid down for tho de'linention of the glol>e, much remained to lie done. In tlie wnyof ob- Bervatior, Iwfore an accurate representation of tho whole, ur a portion of the earth's surface, could be given. Doth the latitudes and longitudes of the on- clonts are erroneous ; more especially the latter. This is what might lie expected at that early period, nut in setting out from tho Sacred Promontor- of Ilieria, the meridian of which the ancients mai'e their lirst meridian, the hours in longitude accumulate, as we ad- vance eastwuni, with a regularity, as well as rapiJit)', which is very surprising. Tho regularliy of tlieir in- crease induced M. (iosselin to conclude that they were to bo attributed, not to the imporfectiim of independent observations, but to some general cause, which he en- deavored te assign by inuigining that Krutosthenei had access to some early map, found probalily hy Alexander or his generals in sonic country In the Kast, where atilronoiny had lieen sHcTen»fully cultivated ; and that misappreheni^ions respcetiiijt the principle of delineation employed, which M. (iosselin supposes to have been that on whii'h the plane chart is constructed, had led him into a regular system of errors. In the plane map the length of a degree of longitude is sup- posed to lie the same ot all distances from the equator, liy taking for granted that Eratosthenes took hln dis- tances fnim a map of this kind, on which the parts of the globe had lieen occurately laid down, liut tliat ho divided the stadia expressing these distances, not iiy 700, the number of stadia In a degree at the equator, as he ought to have done, liut b)- .ViS, the number corre- sponding to the parallel of Khodes, M. (iosselin ol>- tains results which liave a wonderful coincidence with the positions actually given by l''ratosthenes. These results, however, are deduced from a hypothesis which is unsupported by any evidence, except what may 1k' supposed to arise from this coincidence. A more proliable solution seems to lie that Eratosthenes deter- mined his longitudes frq, Under the guidance uf sound principles of iclence, however, it was now certain that these inper- | fectiona would grat'iially disappear. The improvements introduced into geography by | KratostheOM wvre perfected In principle hy Hippaiu chus. This celebrated astronomer, who flourished l«. tween IGO and 1!'hristian era, was the first who undertook the arduous task of forming a catalogue of the stars, and Axing their relative |hmI> tions. Ills object was to transmit tositioiis of places according to th length and shadows of tho gnomon. Strabo, indeed, even justilies hia neglect of the astronomical principles introduced by Hipparchus. " A geographer," says he, " is to pay no attention to what is out of the earth ; nor will men engaged in conuucting the afTaini of that part of the earth which is Inhabited, deem the distinction and di- visions of Hipparchus worthy of notice." The true principles of geogniphy being pointed out by the application o' lutituile am' '. ingitude to places on the earth, the wny was opened U the improvement of maps, which, with the single ex. option of the map drawn by Eratosthenes, had hitherto been little more than rude outlines and topographical sketches uf the different countries. No ma|ia more ancient than those formed to illustrate Ptolemy's geography have reached modem times; but the earliest of wliicli there is any account are those oi' Sosostris, of whom it is said, that having traversed great part of the earth. Iiu caused his marches to be recorded in maps ; anil that he gave copies of these ninps not only to the JCgy ptlaiis, but to the Scythians, whose astonishment ho thus greatly excited. Some have imagined that tho ,Tews made a map of tho Holy Land when they gave the di Jcwnt portiona to the nine tribes at Shiloli. Tor on that iR'cusion, im we are informed by tho sacred historian, men were sent "tj) walk through the land, d to dusoribe it;" and when they had acoompUshed the oliject into seven jiarts, in a book," they returned unto Jushuu. Whut is here said, OEO m GEO bow«Ter, do«i not fiiUy deiennlnl ninp of the then kn< wn world. It huH further Ijiieu imagined to lie the Bunin with that rofernd tn liy IIipp:irchuK under the deniKuation of Th' indent Map, ami which in 8ome few paitlculara he preferred to that of Kratosthencfi. Hut some idea of the nature of the mapn t:' those early days will ho lest obtiiliied from the map of Aris- tanoras, kin^ of Miletus, which is minutely described liy Ilenidutu.H, Thti historian tells us that this map, which was traced on brass or copper, Aristagoras showed to Cleomenen, king of Spartu, in order to in- duce him to attack the king of Persia, even In his pal- ace at Susa, for th purpe,M i„ point of authority. Hut Pto- lemy un >u'. diBlcult and luborious task of comparing and reducing Into one A}'lt«m, which ilionld possess the order and beanty uf science, this appar- ently incongruous mass. He converted and tranl- lated the whole into a new mnth imatical language, expressing In degrees and minuten the latitude and longitude of each place,, accorillng to the principle) laid down by Illpparchiis, butwhicli had been allowed by geographers to lie useless for upward of 2A0 years. It Is in IHolemy's work, which consistti of eight Iwoka, that wo find for the Hrst time the matlieniatlcal prin- ciples of tho construction of maps, Iniih general and particular, as well as of several projections of tha sphere. Notwithstanding that the light of accurate science thus directed the steps of the Hrst geographer of an- tiquity, he was far from reaching the precision at which he aimed. This arosft from tho imporfectlon of the original materials upon which hia work Is based 111 reference to its details. With regard to the remoter Imurdaries of the then known world, In all lt» quarteri', a wonderful advancement In knowledge had been made sinie the days of Eratosthenes and of Stralio. But still that additional information was not fitted to make up for the want of astronomical observations, by which alone accuracy could be secured. Besides, In relation to places situated beyond the limits of the Ro- man empire, and therefore out of the range alike of astronomers and surveyors. It was almost Impossible for Ptolemy not to ccmmit mistakes. Thus his errors arose from the ignorance of the age ; and are of such a character as to admit of being removed only au op- imrtunities are afforded of obtaining the requisite ilata l>y the strict application of the princlplet derived from mathemntical and astronomical science Ptolemy' adopted the measure of a degree at 500 stadia, according to tho standard of Possidonius, in- stead of following the measurement of Eratosthenes, which gives 700 stadia to a degree. But H. Gosselin has accused him of an error of a more serious kind ; because, if really committed, it wonVI have indicated a strange neglect of what a geographer should make his first care. This error consists In assuming ona measure for the degree of latitude (the measure of Eratosthenes, 700 stadia) and another for tlie degree of longitude at the equator. Such a hypothesis would ovidently be Inconsistent with the globular figure of the earth. It maj' reasonably be doubted, however, whether M. Gosselin's accusation is well founded ; for, though it seems supported by the fact, that while Ptolemy has changed materially all the longitudes of ICratosthenes, the latitudes along the great line remain the same, and are in general correct, this circumstance 111. ^ lie accounted for eufT.ciently from other causes. Rhodes, and several other jioints of this great line, were fixed witli regard to latitude by observations ap- proximating to the truth, while tho elements for de- termining tlie longitudes were derived entirely from the itineraries. To the north and snutli of tho great central line, which alone was fixed upon sound data, errors in latitude accumulate as rapidly us those in longitude are found to do in proceeding eastward. Due of the most remarkable errors in tlie geograph- ical work of Ptolemy is the great length assigned to the Mediterranean. Reckoning from the Straits of Gades to the bottom of the Bay of Issus, where Alex- andrettii, or Scandcroon now stands, he maltes the dif- ference of longitude no less than G2 degrees, which is upward of 20J degrees above the truth. This amazing error, which affected all our maps more or less until tho beginning of the last century, was produced in consequence of his having put too n)uch confidence in tho supposed surveys of different persons of reputation recorded by Stralw, and who appeared to confirm the accuracy of each other's computation. According to their united testimony, the whole length of the Mcdl terranoan was about 2C,.^00 stadia, which, being con- verted into degree! of longitude accoraing to the GEO 7oe np/i nwthfld of IHoUmj', ot illowing 400 lUilla to a dcRren of lon|{ituilii on the puraHnl of Ithndnn, kIvs about W° 1«'. Thin Ik 4" Ifi' miini timn what «re nWon by M». rinii!!, whom tu thU partlruUi' tolnmy itriotly fnl- I'llny qiiot#« from A^rlppa a r.impiitatlon o; In- Irnifth of the Mrilltrmindtn, which mnkea It ■ ' 'r Homnn mlli-" j liiit in qiotinK it h» aildii s iiUK|e- tween the»« two erroneoue romputatlonii, and to liavn adopted fl'i*^ for the differenre of longitude in quention. Mut there ia another ancient coniputntioii quoted also hy Pliny from Polyl)iuK, arronllnx to widoh the length of the Mediterranean i« Htatcd to he 'i,AiO Ilo- man mllea. Had Itolemy followed thia eiitinmte, he would have obtained for a ronult 41° 4', which la not far from the truth. Thus wo «e« thiit tho circum- atiinccfi imder which Ptolemy wrote, rendered it im- po»»il>Ie for him to avoid miatakea, and that ho might tx) misled even when more accurate rcaulta wore within hia reach. The gro:it olmtacle with which the ancients had to contond, was the finding of the longitude with accu- racy, a prol)lem for the scdution of wliich it was long before there was discovered any method sufficiently exact. This accounts for the erroneous longitudes of Ptolemy, and more eApecially for the length of time, even many centuries, during which the remarkalde error, with regard to the length of the Mediterranean, remained undiscovered and uncorrected. We have now traced the history of geography from the earliest period of which we have any information, to the time when It assumes a sclentllic character. We shall conclude our account of ancient geography by shortly noticing the principal geographers of an- ticjuity, some of whom have not yet liccn mentioned, w;dle others have only been quoted In tracing tho rise and progress of the science. The intimate connection lietwecn geography and tho science of geometry and astronomy, rendered the former im object of attention to many who anciently cultivated the latter. AVo have already mentioneil Anaximander and Anaxhncnes, of the school of Mi- letus. I>emocritus, Kudoxus of (^niilus. and Parme- nldes, are also rcimrtcd to have improveout HO years afterward ; by Poly- biue, (ieminus, and Possidonius. Kratosthenes wrote throe tiooki on geography, some passages of which Struiio criflclces, though he frequently defends him against Illpiiarchus, wlio appears to oppose his opin- ions with some degree of affectation. Pol3-liius also wrote on geoj^raphy ; as did likewise rieminus and Possidonius, who are frequently quoted by Strals). Polyldus, according to (ieminus, argued with consid- erable acuteness for tho |iossibility of the torrid none being inhaliited ; and ho even niMuced pluusilde argu- ments to prove that the countries under tho equator enjoj- a mure temperate climate than the eoimtiies do that are tuated near the tropics. We miKt not hero omit a geographer and geometer who lived aliout the time of Alexander the (treat. This was Diccarchus of Messina, a dinciplo of Theo- phrastus, who wrote a descriptiic verses, of which some fi-agments yet remain. Hut what chiefly renders him remarkable is, that he meas- ured geometrically heveral mountains, to which an excessive height had l)oen before assigned. With Picearchus we may notice another geometer, Xeiia- goras, a disciple of Aristotle, r'.entioncd liy Plutarch in his life of Paulus i£mllius, who occupied himself in the measurement of mountains. Ila found Ihs lislghl of Mount Olympus to he ]S stadia. In loma iif til* latter periods which prcieiled tho (Christian era, tliura were several writers on geography, as Artnnildorus of Ephesus, who wrote a geugraphlccal work of i>i«y«i| 'ooks, of which nothing remains) Ncymitus of Chin, 'Uthorof adescripllcm of the earth In lainldc v«rs»>, which remain In a very mutilated state | fsldorus of Charax, who gave a description of tha Parthian enu pire ; and .Scylax of Caryades, author of « voi <)(« round the Mediterranean, which la itlll astanl, The works of all these geographers are, howavar, but small In comparison with the geography of Ntralm | a work in 17 Imoks, which has conindown to us eiillra, This is one of thu most valualde works of intiquily, lH>th fnun the spirit of discussion which runs through it, and tho numl>er of curious particulars which Ilia author has c(dlectcd from dlfTerent geographers Nlio livsil in the reigns of Augustus and Tllstriiis, and was nearly cot', nporary with Pomponlus Mela. This latter geiig, rapl.or wrote a work Dr Niln Orbit whlili, Ihoiigli iillU more than a bare suuuiiary. Is vuluulile, aa It givua us • sketch of what was known In his time reipactlMg tli« state of the haliitnlde globe. Ileslili'^ Mala, Konia produced, in the most flourishing era of Its lltarutura, another eminent geographer, Pliny. I(a davnl«d tw» books of his I'xtcnsive work on natural history, ton system of geography. Ills intimate connection with the imperial family, and with many of tha most «ml> nent commanders of tho time, ap|iears to liavo glv«i| him access to all the military nieusurcnmnt', as w«ll as to tho general survey of tho Itoman empire. Thus furnished with a greater store of authentii: muterlula than any former writer, ho bus introduced a great numlier of itinerary details, Hhich are for tho iriiMl part accurate and valuable, .iulius Holsnua has alsii treated of geography in his I'u/i/hiilnr, a compiliilion "ufllciontly valualde from the number of curious pur. ticulars wliiili are there c(dlectcd. Murinus of Tyro, was another geographer who appears to have liceii rlia, tinguished, though his works have periiihed. Kv«n under the Iloman empire Tyre continued to lie itia seat of an extensile commerco ; indeed the coiiiiuer> cial relations of her citizens ap|iear to hav« exlinded over a wider |iortion of the earth's nurture tli m ever, The enlarged materials furnished liy thn leiigthttli«i| journeys of his countrymen, which l>rought tiiein evan to the confines of China, Marinus collected, and Hoiiulit to apply to them tho astronomical principles of ifllt' parchuB, so that he mi^ht give to geography a iihm' and more accurate form. Ptolemy, whom Itfarlniia preceded by a short time, employs a groat part of his lirst Iwok in disoussin;; the meaus employed by Ilia Tyrian geogmpher for lixing tho relativa |Mpailioii of places; and from tho references and extrmlK it ap> pears that the system of Mariniis partook largely of tho imperfections of a first effort. The enlarged and scientific views of Pfidcmy W« have already considered. .Some time after I'tofeiiiy lived Dionysius, commonly called the Prrirf/tlio, from the title of a work in verse composed by hini, ii;i(nc|y, his Perie{ir»i>, or Survey of the World. This work was translated into I.utin verse iiy PrlHcianim, and aftenvurd by Avienus. There is, besides, a dcsirlp. tion by Avienus, of the maritime coasts, in iaiiildo verses, of which there remiiin almut 700. The iWKi, culty of procuring tho small and scattered pliM«« of must of these authors, with those of a few otiixrs not here enumerated, induced the learned IIiuUoii ti r//|, lect them Into one work, consisting of four voiiinixa octavo, which were published in the years )«0X, 170'i, 1712, under tlio title of (leni/raphiai rrlrrit Hei'ifilnret Ortrci mitiiirft. The originals aro accompanied with I^atiii translations, and notes and dissertations on eaub by Dodwell. This Is a very valuable cullectlou of 191 GEO I III! I'llf S- nphy ilurinif tht mMdle *|(ra. Kn>m tho lUj-fi nt I'to- Umy until the ravival of inttani in Kuropv, Mttlx wim don* fur it! Milld Impruveinunt. Thn ealumitivii thitt •r« liinn ovcrwhelmnd thn Kumnn omplrn, were foU luwnl by • gtnaMl iiitollectuiil ilnrkneiifi which iiettl<>d down iin th« wand and xxtinKuiiihed oven the lm|i«r- fert Itnnwiedge poiiiu>iiwd liy the ancient Keiigrapherii. While liiirbaroua uatioiijt poured in from nevernl qiiar- ter<, iirt and aclence cciiiumI to lie cultivated, Tho union by which the Kotnan pnwer had liuund together niim- klnd 111 iijt now di»i>ni\ li, Kurope wan dividt-d into imali mid indep«nd< cominiinitii-ii, whii •ptH-tlng the kituiil coiirn' aulml.ited lietwt' to rcinota rogiooK uli ^ tioiiA, thrir cumiM' Uniinuwii. Amid tl'^t ;n(ii .nce 0|>eii througli tvlii i It One clraumatunce, lioW' tercoiirau with foreign for the inont part, lioa'lle ' vague conceptiona re- ther, while no inter- itiera. With regard '1 loat ; their aitua- mosc their namea, were ' lint few rhannela iild lie obtained. ited commorclnl in- iHi-i liom lieing altogctiier aiiajiended. The opulence and luxury of Imperial Itonie had long giviin life iind energy to commercial enterpriae; that atimulua wna now withdrawn; hut Conataiitiiiople atlll ri'initiiipd, the lii'e science made in their hands toward preciel*n woe alow ) for they copied and retailed all I'tnleniy's priiicl|ial errori. Htlii, in ail the countries that were under MohanimiMiiiit dominion numemui oliseri'ations were maile, whuli, tliough not always strlctiv corrct, were entitleil to iie cons' ' m « stfp l«yoiid the cnl. uiationa made in«r> !; I'ci $!•• Itinerarieeby the Alexandrian geograpb".'» r i/'i I •- ginning of the ninth century, under I- iiii,->i. V- mainon, who may rank among the i ii:»r:n.>. injlei patrons of -iclniire that ever Hlled a til ine, tb>\ !.»;<• ured a det;reH of latitude on the plains of Hlujar, or Hhinjar, near Ualiylon, with a viuw to determine the circumferenco of the enrth. The tallies of Aiiulfuda and lUug lleg, and of Na/,ir Eddin. edited by (iruivlus, and repuliiished by Hudson, fumlah materials that are still of use In tile construction of the maps of the inte- rior of Asia. Thn progress and success of the Moslem arms re- moved the oliscurity In which many countries had until then lieon concealed, as well as tlie barliarlsra in which tiiey had been sunk. And even lieyond tiie limits of the Mohammedan worM they pushed their researches, liy sending missions Imth to the east and to the west, which they explnri \ to tiicir remotest limits. At that time Europe remained ignorant of the Improvements made by tiie Arabians, though she was destined in suliaequent ages to perfect their discoveries. At length the long |ieri(id of barbarism which ac- companied and followed tli" fall of the lioman empire, during which tlie traces of whatever had embellished society, or contriliuted to tho comfort and convcnienco of life, were almost entire v effaced, drew to a close. Industry began again to sued its blessings on man- kind ; and Italy was tho country where its benign in- fluences were Hrst perceptible. Having from the operation of various causes again obtaineil liliurty and independence, the Italians soon liegan to feel tlie im- pulse of those passions which serve most powerfully to arouse men to activity and enterprise. The reviv- ing demand for tho comforts und luxuries of life led to the revival of foreign commerce. Tiie vuluublo com- modities of the Eost were at first obtained at Constan- tinople. But the exorbitant price demanded at that mart, in consequence of the circuitous route by wliich they were conveyed thither, induced the Italians to resort to other ports, as Aleppo and Tripoli, on tlio Syrian coast, and at length to Egypt itself. After the Soldans had rnvlved the commerce with India in its ancient channel by the Arabian Gulf, Venice, (icnoft, and Pisa, rose from inconsiderable towns to wealthy and populous cities. Their trade extended to all the ports ill the Mediterranean, and even beyond the Straits to the towns on the coasts of Spain, Franco, tlie Low Countries, and England ; and from tiieao points they diffused through Europe a taste for the luxuries and enjoyments of civilized life, which they at tho same time furnished the means of gratifying. It was not long ere an event occurred, the most ex- traordinary, perhaps, in the history of human society, which gave a new impulse to the European mind, and forcibly directed its view eastward, to the regions of Asia. Under the influence of a high-wrought enthu- siasm, the martial spirit of the Europeans was aroused, and vast armies, composed of all tho nations of Cliris- tendom, marched toward Asia on tho wild enterprise of delivering tlio Holy Land from the dominion of In- fidels. The crusades, liowovcr blind the zeal from which they took their rise, had a very favorable influ- ence on the intellectual state of Europe, and prepared » ■ I IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) t!ii 1.0 I.I 2.0 us lU u 14.0 u& FliolDgraphic Sciences Corporation ^ ^ ^^/v 4^ 1-25 III 1.4 1.6 ^5 lilies ^ 4 < 6" ► 23 WEST MAIN SIMET WEBSTER, N.Y. USSO (716) 172-4903 if. :^,iT GEO 708 GEO it (br NoelTing tha light of acimee which w«i aoon to dawn upon it. Interesting regiont, Imown hitherto only by the^fcantf reports of ignorant and crtdulons pilgrims, were now made the object of attention and research. Not only was the way opened for the Eu- ropean nations acquiring a correct knowledge of the Holy Lund, with the kingdoms of Jerusalem and Edes- sa, founded by the Vtctorions crusaders, but the exten- sive regions over which the Saracens and thftTurks iiad extended their empire liegan to lie explored. Search was now made in the writings of the ancient geographers ; nor is it improbable that some light was dorived even from the Arabian writers. Religious real, the hope of gain, combined with motives of mere curiosity, induced several persons to travel by land into remote regions of the East, far beyond the coun- tries to which the operations of the crusaders extended. Prompted by superstitious veneration for the law of Hoses, and by a desire of visiting his countrj-men in the East, whom he hoped to find possessed ot wealth and power, Benjamin, a Jew of Tudela, in the king- dom of Navarre, set out from Spain in the year 1160, and traveliug by land to Constantinople, proceeded through the countries to the north of the Euxino and Caspian Seas. He then journeyed tov.-ard the south, and traversed various provinces of the further India, until, having reached the Indian Ocean, he embarked and visited several of its islands ; and at length, after 18 years, returned by the way of Egypt to Europe. In his progress he had acquired much information respecting a large portion of the globe, until then al- together unknown to Europeans. Various missions were sent l>y the pope and by Christian princes, for purposes t.}i>"1i kd tliem to tra- verse the remote provinces of A'iu. Father John de Piano Garpini, at tho head of a mission of Franciscan monks, and Father Ascolino, at the Iicsu of another uission of Dominicans, were, in the year '246, sent by Innocent IV. to enjoin Kayuk Khan, the grandson of Zengis, who was then at the head of the Tartar empire, to embrace Christianity, and to cease from desolating the world by his arnis. In fulfilling the commands laid upon them by the head of the Christian church, the mendicants had an opportunity of visiting a great part of Asia. Carpini, having taken his route through Poland and Rursia, traveled through the northern provinces as far as the extremities of Thibet, while Ascolino, who appears to have landed some- where in Syria, advanced through the southern prov- inces into the interior parts of Persia, Father William de Rnbrnquis, a Franciscan monk, having been sent in the year 1263 on a mission t>y St. Louis of France, in search of an imaginar}- personage, a powerful khan of the Tartars, who was reported to have embraced the Christian faith, made a circuit through the interior parts of Asia more extensive than that of any European who had hitherto explored them. He had the merit of being the first modem traveler tliat gave a true account of the Caspian, which had been correctly described by the early Greeks as an in- land separate sea; but a notion afterward prevailed that it was connected with the Northern Ocean. .liu- brnquis ascertained that it had no connection with the ocean or any other sea. The account of his journey was so little read, however, that the old error was re- peated in books oi* geography long after his time. While the republics of Italy, and, above all, the State of Venice, were engaged in distributing the jew- els, the spices, and the fine cloths of India over the western world, it was impossible that motives of curi- osity, as well as a desire of commercial advantage, should not'be awakened to such a degree as to impel some to brave all the obstacles and dangers to be encountered in visiting those remote countries where those precious and profitable commodities were pro- duced. A considerable number of persons according- ly an recorded as having penetrated a greater or less depth into the Interior of. Asia. But the fame of all the other old travelera is eclipsed by that of Marctf Polo, who has always ranked among the greatest dis- coveren of any age. This extraoidinary man was • noble Venetian, whose family, according to the custom of his country, engaged in extensive commerce, Noc- olo Polo, and Mafleo Polo, the foiler and uncle of Marco, were merchants, who, in partnership, traded chiefly with the East ; and, in pursuit of their mercan- tile speculations, had already visited Tartar}', The recital of their travels en their return fired the youth- ful imagination of Marco, then l>etween 17 and 18 yeara old. Having, When in the East, gained the confidenc ) of Kublai Khan, the great conqueror of China, at whose court they had resided for a long time, they were sent back by him to Italy, accompanied by an ofiicer of his court, that they might repair to Rome as his emluissadon to tho pope, of whom and the poten- tates of the western world, they had given him an ample account. After many delays, they were now, about the year 1266, to set out on their return to the coiht of Kublai, Iiearing the papal lettera and benedic- tion ; and it was resolved that young Marco should ac- company them. After a journey that occupied no less than three and a half years, and in the progress of which they passed through the chief cities in the more cultivated parts of Asia, they reached Yen-king near the spot where Pekin now stands, where they were honorably and graciously received by the grand khan. Struck with the appearance of young Marco, the khan condescended to take him under his protection, and caused b ward tha Aaore* IsIm. When we consider the dia- |MM«« at which the** two groups of islands lie from th« land, the former being upward of 800 miles from tb« «oa«l of Africa, and the latter distant 900 miles A'om any continent, it may be concluded that the Por- tMHU«s«, when they entered so Imldly Into the open s«aa, had made no inconsiderable progress in the art «f navigation, ItMt brilliant a* is tha lustra which these discoveri** «b«4 arottttd th* Purtugue** name, their glory would have iMMt still more dazaling had they seconded tha ttrofonnd view* of Christopher Columbus, which led Mm to the discovery of the New World. That illns- (riottg man and skillful navigator, by revolving in his mind the principles on which the Portuguese hali of the most vexatious kind, that he obtained 'iifi patronage of Ferdinand and Isalwlla, who then ffiiverned the united kingdoms of Castile and Arragon, ami was liy them put in possession of the means of carrving his schemes of discover)- into exf.cution. With no more suitable an armament for his great en- t«r|irls« than three small vessels, having 90 men, mostly sailors, on iioard, and victualed for 12 months, he sailed from ttie port of Paios in Andalusia on the ikl (Uy of August, and steered for the Canaries. Tak- ing then his departure from Gomera, one of the most westerly of these isiiinds, he stretched into unknown s«Hs I and holding his course due west, reached Guon ahani, one of the Bahama Islands, on the 12th day oi Ootolier, After employing some time in making fur ther discoveries, he returned to Spain to announce the success of his undertaking, the fume of which soon stiread over Europe, and excited general attention. It was no easy mutter to determine what relation the liewly-dlscovered countri's itore to the regions former- ly known. Columl)us's own views on the sul>ject were In strict conformity with the idea which liad taken so Arm a hold of his mind, namely, that India might lie readied liy sailing toward the west. He Imagined that the islands he had visited were some of those which were said to lie contiguous to the remote shores of Asia, In this opinion he was confirmed by thii coincidence which he thougiit lie could trace l>e- twaen certain names given to places by the natives and the appellattoni known to belong to countries sit. GEO 800 4119 utod in Indi*. H« thoogbt ha could iMOgulM, in tha Answer given to U* Inquiries after the iltomtfon of MM mtnei which jrielded gold, the nam* Cijmtge, hj wldch Marco Polo and other travelers in the East des- ignated the island Japan. Ignorant of their langaoge, and unaccustomed to their pronunciation, be even supposed that they spoke of the great khan; and hence concluded that the kingdom of Cathay or China, dascribed by Marco Polo, was not far oiT. The same erroneous opinion was stljl further riveted in his mind, by what he supposed an Identity lietween the animal and vegetable productions of the East Indies and those of the countries wliich he bad dUcovered. His second voyage led to the discovery of several more of the group of islands now called the West In- dies, a name given them In conformity with the orig- inal notions of the discoverer. It was on his third voyage that he discovered the vast continent of Amer- ica. Having unexpectedly found the island of Itlnl- dad, with the neighboring land, he encountered, before ha was aware of danger, the adverse currents and tumultuous waves occasioned by the resistance which the waters of the Orinoco oppone to the tides in the ocean. His attention was thus forcibly called to the Immense body of water which Is here poured into the Atlantic. This he was convinced was vastly too great to be supplied by any island ; and hence be con- cluded that he had now reached the continent which he had sought through so msny dangers. The American continent, in its noithem portions, Iiad been discovered in or before the eleventh century. Toward the close of the ninth century a Norwegian pirate, while attempting to reach the Faroe Islands, which had already been visited l>y the Iribh, was driv- en by storms to the coast of Iceland. This led to the flrat settlement of the Norwegians in Iceland in 876. From that time the Faroe Islands and Iceland may be regarded as intermediate stations and starting-points for attempts to reach the northern shores of America. Greenla:id was early seen; but it was not until 983 that it was peopled from Iceland. Colonization was carried through Greenland in a south-western direction to the new continent, and for some length of time an inconsiderable intercourse was maintained with the newly colonized countries. But a strong line of sep- aration must be drawn between this early discovery of some parts of the high northern latitudes of Amer- ica, and the discover}' of its tropical regions by Co- lumbus in the close of the fifteenth century. In consequence of the uncivilized condition of tb't peo- ple by whom the former discover}- was made, M well as the nature of the countries to which it was lit.^ited, it produced no important or permanent results in rela- tion either to commerce or science ; tho latter, on the other hand, has been attended with events of the utmost importance to mankind, as it has proved the opening of a new source of wealth, glory, and knowl- edge. The discovery of the new continent in the west, like the original discovery of its northern re- gions, may be said to be accidental, inasmuch as the object which Columbus bad in view was to find a western passage to India. But the expedition under Columbus possessed this distinguishing feature, that it manifested the perfect character of being the fol- lowing out of a plan sketched in accordance with the principles of science, and intelligently conducted to a successful issue. The tenacity with which an ingenious and enter- prising mind adheres to a scheme which it has once proposed to itself as an object of pursuit, was strik- ingly evinced by Columbus, whose thoughts still dwelt with eagerness on his original and favorite plan of opening a new passage to India. It was not enough that he had astonished mankind liy finding a new con- tinent; he conceived the idea that beyond It there might lie a sea extending to the coasts of Asia, and that by diligent search soma strait might be found wUeh woaU eondnot blm into tbli im, or mm imw row nock of land, by oroMlng wbleh It mlgbt b« reached. To datafmliw tU« importaat poini, though hitherto his services had mat with tho nott uawortny returns, though years cropt upon him, though won out by fatigue and brokan with inflrmltiM, bo atlU undertook with alacrity another voyago, By • lucky conjecture be directed bla oflTortt lowonl tho oast wf the Gulf of Darlon | but bo soarobod In vain for o strait ; and though ba frequently went on shoro and advanced into the country, ho novor ponotrotod to fal as to enable him to descry the groat noutbom Ocean. After the first steps had boon taken, tbo pmgroM ol discovery over the globo was aotonUblngty rapid. No expense or danger daterrod ovon private adven- turers flrom fitting out flaoti, erosaing ooaons, and on- countering the rage of savage nation* In tho most distant parts of tha earth. lioforo Colnmlius had reached the continent at tbo mouth of tho Orinoco, Newfoundland had been diacovorod b)' CalKit, a V«no« tian by descent, but sailing undsr tho auspices of Kn« gland. He had also coasted along tho proiont territory of the United States, perhaps a« fltr oo Virginia. In the next two or three years, tbo Oortoroals, a daring family of Portugoeso navigators, began tho long and unavailing search of a passage round tho northsrn ox* tremlty of America. Tbay sailed along tha coast of Labrador, and entered the spacious iiiUrt of Hudson's Bay. Two of them unfortunately iwrlslied In thU enterprise. In the year IMl Alvarac (.'sbral, a T-.tr* tugnese navigator, destined fur India, having stood out to sea In order to avoid the variable brooxos and frequent calms which he was sure to most with on tlio African coast, to his surprise, cama ujiun the shores o. an unknown country, the coast of llravll, which ho claimed for Portugal. Aroerigu Vespucci, a Klorcn' tine gentleman, who bad already sailed aWng a great part of Terra Firma and Guiana, now made two ex- tensive voyages along tbe Urazltlaii coast, Hoon after his return he drew up and transmitted to one of i\\f countrym<>c -ccount of his adventitrM and discov- eries, in >^ i.isinuated that to him lielimi^sd th« honor of ' *irft discoverect the continent In the New Wor.. .. lis performance, which was tha first description published of the new-discovered countries, circulated rapidly, was read wltli admiration, and bO' came the means of procuring for its author tho bigli honor of giving his name to tha wliole continent. Not many years elapsed l»ifore the conjecture of e expected ; for all maps should 1)e considered as unfinished works, in which there will always be sometMng to be corrected, or sometluag new to be inserted. At the period of the revival of letters in Europe, the latitudes and longitudes as given by Ptolemy were universally received with implicit confidence. When checked, however, by actual observation, they were found to diflfer materially from the truth. The lati- tudes in many instances were found, very erroneous ; that of Byzantium, for example, exceected the trutli by two degrees. As nearly the same excess was found to exist in some other cases, many geographers, nnwilUng to renounce the authority of Ptolemy, con- cluded that this difference had arisen from a change Ebb having taken place in the poaitloa of th« aarth't asl% in consequence of which the latitudes of all the plaoH in Europe were Increased. The progress of obeerva* tion showed that this opinion waa untenable, and that before geography could rest on a sure basis, a general revision of ancient graduation was indispensably nac< essary. The only observations employed by the aa cienta for determining longitudes were those of the eclipses of the moon ; but it was found that the results derived from this source could not be depended on. In the year 1610, Galileo, having discovered three of Jupi- ter's satellites, pointed out the use which might be made of their eclipses for finding longitudes. But this meth- od, which gives the greatest degree of accuracy, was turned to little account, until 16S8, when Cassini pul>- lished his tables of the revolutions and eclipses of these satellites. Three years afterward, by means of simultaneous observations made by him and Picard at Pari), and by Tycho-Brahe at Copenhagen, the differ- ence of longitude of these two important points, which had been long a matter of dispute, was finally determined. Since that time, other accurate methods of finding the longitude have been discovered ; and the instruments employed in observation have been brought to a high degree of perfection. The refine- ments and improvements of modem science have been brought to bear upon the great problem of determin- ing the figure of the earth, which, though nearly, is not exactly spherical. (See Fiovrb or thb Earth.) The labors of scientific men to obtain accurate results on this subject, have contributed much to the improve- ment of geography. The expeditions sent out under Maupertuis to the arctic circle, and under Condaniae to the equator, afforded an opportunity of makinj; various observations of latitude and longitude in re- gions of which no delineation resting upon proper data had hitherto been given. Within the last 60 years, trigonometrical surveys of France and England have been executed, which have nearly completed the delineation of these countries. Much advantage has accrued to geographical science, in point of accuracy and precision, from the application in modem times of a sound and judicious criticism to the immense mass of materials which had been accu- mulating for ages. The labors of M. d'Anville, in the 18th century, were employed with great success in this department. He undertook the revision of the whole system on which the delineation of tlie world, and of the countries into which it is divided, had hith- erto been made ; and by unhesitatingly rejecting ever}' particular that did not rest on positive authority, he removed many false or uncertain feotureu, and clearly distinguislied the known from the unknown parts of the globe. Major Rennell has slullfully ar- ranged and illustrated the important materials collected respecting India, Various authors have in modem times cultivated another interesting field of inquir}', the comparison between ancient and modem geog- raphy, and the tracing of the rise and progress of early discovery. These researches were diligently pursued by Vossius, Bochart, and other learned men of the 17th century, and with still more success by Ken- nell, Vincent, and Mannert, who appear to have pushed them as far as they admit, though much dark- ness still rests on some parts of the inquiry. Gosselin, notwithstanding that he has applied to the 8Ul)ject a great extent of investigation, as well as much skill and force of criticism, has failed, on account of the peculiar views in which he indulged, to make any solid ad- dition to the science. The discoveries made by the Spaniards and Portu- guese had greatly increased the stock of geSgraphiciil information. Still much remained to be done. The desire of finding a short and convenient route to Indio continued to supply a stimulus to exertion in the way of discovery. The English and Dutch made extra- ordinary efforts, and encountered fearful dangers and (3B0 tof 619 tfMwton, irith tha •zpaefotian of flndhig • puaag* by flia B«(th-eMt, along the northarn shores of Asia. A coast beset wtth the ieea of the polar seas prssented, however, obstacles too fbrmtdable to be overcome; though recent researches show that no barrier of land Intervenes. But there was still another quarter where an attempt might be made ; and to this point the commercial nations of Europe Mled not to direct their efforts. The jealonsj- of Spain long prevented the other European States from visiting the north- western coa«t of America, so that they remained igno- rant of the vast breadth to which the continent spreads out as it advances toward the north. They adopted, Indeed, the opinion that, like the southern extremity, the northern terminated in a point or cape. This left room to hope for a north-western passage Into the Paciilc Ocean, by sailing round the imaginary cape. The English took the most decided lead in the explor- atory voyages to which these views gave rise. In the reign of Queen Eliiabeth, Frobisher and Davis were sent out OB three successive voyages, which led to the discovery of the entrance into Hudson's Bay by the former navigator, and of the entrance into Baffin's Bay by the latter. These two capacious basins were afterward discovered by the intrepid navigators whose names they bear. In sailing round tlio great sea which he had discovered, Baffin mistook the great opening Into Lancaster Sound for a mere gulf— a misapprehen- aion which checked for a time any further attempts in that quarter, as navigators were led to expect success only through the channel of Hudson's Bay. In 1631 Fox explored a part of that great opening on the north of Hudson's Bay, called Sir Thomas Roe's Welcome, which seemed now to hold out almost the only ho'pe of accomplishing the object sought. The assertion of Middleton, an officer in the service of the Hudson's Bay Company, that he had discovered the head of the Welcome to be completely closed, and the circumstance of two other navigators, who were sent out the follow- ing year, failing to effect any thing, produced an im- pression on the public mind that the passage so long ■ought had no existence. The discoverii s of Cook in the North Paciflc Ocean, where he found the American coast stretching away In a north-westerly direction. Joined to the circum- stance that, when he penetrated through the strait discovered early in the last century by Behring and Tchirlkof, which separates America .'rom Asia, the coast appeared there to extend indeflnitely to the north, seemed not only to conflrm the conclusion that no passage into the North Paciflc Ocean was here to be expected, but also that the American continent extended northward in one unbroken mass, perhaps even to the pole. The groundlessness of these views became apparent when, in the year 1771, Mr. H"ame, who had been dispatched by the Hudson's Bay Com- pany to explore the limits of the coast in this direction, sailed down the Copper-mine River, and discovered its entrance into the sea ; and again, v her, in 1780, Sir Al- exander Mackenzie traced also to the sea another river about 20 degrees further to the west. Thus were there fhmlshed strong grounds to believe that the pole was ■nrronnded by an ocean which separated the northern coasts of Asia and America, nuking these two conti- nents altogether distinct from each other ; and that through this ocean lay the long-sought course which would certainly conduct the navigator who should suc- ceed in forcing his way through the ice and storms of the polnr regions, from the Atlantic into the North Paciflc Ocean. The determination of this great geographical ques- tion, so long agitated, has recently called forth the utmost efforts of the British government. In 181R an expedition wts sent out to Baffin's Bay under the command of Captain Ross, without leading to any important result, as he was led to conclude that no npenhig existed. Laneaster Sound had, however. foroibly attracted the attention of the late Sir EdwaWl Parr}-, at that time lieutenant and second In command ; and on returning with a new expedition under hia immediate command, he succeeded in penetrating through Lancaster Sound, which he found gradually to widen till It opened into the Polar Sea. He found a chain of large Islands to lie parallel to the American coast ; and among these he continued his navigation until the accumulation of ice in the straits and chan- nels through which he had to pass stopped his further progress. This circumstance induced him to make hia next attempt through Hudson's Bay, by the channel of the Welcome, which had as yet lieen but imper- fectly explored. Here he succeeded in reaching a point considerably beyond that at which Middleton had represented the bay aa terminating. He found at length a narrow strait communicating with the Polar Sea, but so incumbered with ice as to preclude the hope of its ever affording an open passage. He was therefore again sent out to renew his efforts in the first direction, where he hod already obtained partial suc- cess. But the ol>stacles which ^ had formerly been unable to overcome still continued, and prevented him fW>m making any material addition to his former dis- coveries. While these skillfully-conducted voyages were In progress, Sir John, then Captain Franklin, was sent ont at the head of two successive expeditions by land, and, by actnal survey, ascertained three fourths of the Iwundarj- coast — ^hls operations termin- ating at a point lieyond the 149th degree of west longi- tude. On the other hand, an expedition nnder Cap- 'tain Beechy, sent to meet Captain Franklin on his second toilsome Journey, passed the Icy Cape of Cook, and penetrated nearly as far as the lS6th degree of west longitude, leaving only seven degrees, or 160 miles, between the farthest point t'liis reached and the utmost limit reached by Captain (''ranklin. The results of this investigation appeared to prove that the whole of the northern uoost of Ami^rica extends in a line not varying much from the parallel of the 70th degree of north latitude. The problem of a passage l)etween the Atlantic and Paciflc Oceans, to the north of the American continent, has now been finally solved ; but this discover}', so well fitted in Itself to afford sat- isfaction to the British nation, which has alwiyrs takeh the lead in such enterprises, has been made under cir- cumstances of a very saddening kind. In 1845 Sir John Franklin and Captain Crazier were sent out on a voyage of discovery to the Aretic Seas. No tidings having been received of this expedition, it became, after two or three years, a subject of painful anxiety and suspense. Hence various expeditions were .fitted out and sent in search of the missing voyagers, to suc- cor them if still within reach of human aid, or, if oth- erwise, to ascertain their fate. In the course of these praiseworthy endeavqrs. Cap- tain M'Clure was appointed to command the Inreati- ffotor, under Captain CoUinson of the Enlerpriie, and proceeded with that officer to Behring's Straits in the early part of 1850. When on the eve of sailing. Cap- tain M'Clure emphaticall}'' declared that he would find Sir John Franklin apd Captain Crazier, or make tho north-west passage. The latter part of this pledge he has, geographically speaking, redeemed ; but the im- penetrable mystery which firom the first enveloped the fate of these gallant commanders, remains the same. Captain CoUinson failed in his attempts to penetrate the pack Ice that season, and so was separated fh>m Captain M'Clure, who, notwithstanding a signal of recall fram Captain Kellett of the Herald, the chief officer on that station, dashed onward with a Iwld determination to force a passage to the north-east — taking on himself all the responsibility of disobeying orders. Fortunately his daring has been crowned with success. He rounded Point Barrow on the 6th August, 1850; continuing his course eastward along the co»st, he reached Cape Parry on the 6th Soptem- OBO 803 080 / bar, whMM he (tMTvd throngh a elunnal cdlad Prince of Welei't Stnit ; which, running noith-eut, ■ppaared a meet promiilng coune for reaching the ■e> louth of Melville laUnd. Near the northern ex- tremity of this ttrait, the Invettigalor waa frozen in from the 8th of October, and remained stationary during the winter. Partiea being sent out to explore, tl was soon ascertained that the channel opened into Barrow's Strait; and thus was the existence of a north'Weat passage esUblished. On the 14th July, 1851, the Inveitigalor waa again fairly afloat, the ice having opened without any pressnie. The great object now to Ira gained was to pass through the strait ; but notwithstanding their utmost exertions, the expe> dition was completely arrested by strong north-east winds, driving great masses of ice to the southward. Thus baffled. Captain H'Clnre resolved on running to the southward of the island forming the western boundary of Prince of Wales's Strait, which he had named Baring Island, and then to sail northward along its western side. This navigation, in which he was subjected to many delays and encountered many formidalile obstacles, he accomplished, and succeeded in reaching the north side uf the inland on the 24th of September. Had open water existed to the east the rest of the passage might have been easily performed in this way, for Barrow's Strait lay before them, the navigation of which, from their position to I^ncaster Sound, was known to be practicable. The hopes of this intrepid navigator were destined again to be dis- appointed. On the night of the aliove-montioned day the Invtstigntor waa frozen up, and at this point, in latitude 74= 6' N., and longitude 117° 54' W., they had tiieir winter quarters in 1851, 1852, 185.9. In April, 1852, a party crossed the ice to Melville Island, and deposited there a document giving an account of their proceedings, and of the position of the Invetti- gator. This document waa happily discovered by the officers of Captain Kellett, who had l)een the last per- son with whom Captain M'Clure held communication when he entered the ice on the west, and was now, singularly enough, the person to rescue him at the expiration of three years on the side of Melville Island on the east. Steps were immediately taken to com- municate with the party in their ice-prison. Lieutenant Pirn lieing appointed by Captain Kellett to the service. Eventually it was found necessary that Captain H'Clnre and his gallant companions should abandon their ship, however unwillingly ; so that the naviga- tion of the north-west passage has not yet been accom- plished. The discovery of a new continent greatly enlarged, as we have seen, the views of mankind respecting the constitution of the globe. But imagination, no longer limited in its range by the nation of a circumambient ocean that could not lie passed, soon gave rise to the belief of a southern continent, which was supposed necessary to baliince the land in the northern regions of the earth. The immense body of water that was found to occupy so large a portiim of the known regions of the southern liemisphere gave ample room for supposing this unknown continent to be of vast dimensions. It waa imagined that it might eqnal in e.xtent, as well as in wealth, the American continent. Nor was it considered necessary to exclude it from the map of the world till its existence should be proved. It appears in all the early maps as an immense mass of land surrounding the south pole, and presenting to the ocean one unbroken coast. The discovery of cer- tain great insular tracts in the South Seas, which, (h>m ignorance or their true nature, navigators might mistake for continental promontories or portions of coast, no doubt at first gave some countenance to the belief of the existence of antarctic land. But the de- lusion was gradually dispelled before the light afforded b}' further discovery. The Portuguese, in less than 20 years after their passage of the Cape of Good Hope, pnabed their luearchas to the most nmola islanda In the Indian Ocean, including Jitva and the Molnccaa. They appear also to have observed soma part of the coast of New Guinea. The Spaniards, during their early and adventurous career, put forth strenuoua exertions to explore the Southern Ocean, and several of the groups of islands scattered over Its surface were discovered by their navigators. In 1607, the Dutch having wrested Java and the Spice Islands firom tha Portuguese, established in them the centre of their Indian dominion. A great maritime power being thus placed so near to the northern shores of the largest portion of land on the globe that is regarded as un island, it became almoet Impossible that New Uollaud could long remain unknown. It was discovered early in the 17th century, and was long supposed to form a part of the great southern continent. Van Diemen, the Dutch governor of India, sent out several vessels succcHsivoly to explore its coasts, Hertog, Carpenter, Nuytz, and Ulaming made very extensive observa- tions on the northern and western shores, but found them so dreary and uninviting that no settlement waa attempted. In the year 1642 Abel Jansen Tasman was commissioned to proceed on a voyage to ascertain its extent. On the 14th August he sailed fro>n Uata- via, directing his course first toward the Isle of France He again set sail on the 8d October, and proceeding southward and eastward, beyond the limits reached by his predecessors, he discovered and doubled the south- ern extremity of Van Diemen's Land, to which ha gave its name ; but he failed to discover that it is a separate island. Pursuing afterward his course east- ward, having reached about 42° 10' S. lat., and 170° E. long., he found himself in view of a high and mountainous counti?', which he named Staaten Land, but which is now known as New Zealand. He sailed along the coast toward the north-east, and after being detained l>y the variableness of the weather, he re- sumed his voyage and returned home by the Friendly Islands, discovering many islands in his progress. He arrived at Batavia on 15th June, 1643. Tasman's voyage proved that New Holland was no part of the southern continent, even if such a continent should be found to exist. Cook, who had been appointed in 1767 to conduct a voyage into the South Pacific Ocean for astronomical and geographical purposes', sailed southward in 1709 in quest of the unknown continent. Lofty mountains were seen on the fith October, and it was supposed that the oliject of their search was found. But the land proved to be New Zealand. This land he circumnavigated, and found that it consisted of two large islands separated by a narrow channel. After six months employed in this manner, be directed his course westward, and reached the eastern side of New Holland early in 1770. By his extensive operations in that quarter — ^having run down the coast from lat- itude 38° to its northern extremity at Torres Strait — he left little more to be done there in the way of dis- covery. Passing down New Holland and New Guinea, he continued his voyage by Timor and the south coast of Java to Batavia ; whence, after repairing the ship, he sailed for England, and reached the Downs on the 12th June, 1771, with his crew weakened and reduced in number by the fatigue and hardships of their long voyage. By this voyage it was proved there was no such continent as that supposed to exist to the north- ward of 40° south latitude. But as many ingenious and well-informed men still adhered to tlio opinion that there did exist a southern continent, government determined to send out a second expedition under Cook, to make such an exploration of the Pacific Ocean in the higher southern latitudes as should finally and satisfactorily settle this much agitated question. Cook was instructed to circumnavigate the globo in high latitudes, prosecuting his researches as near to the south pole as possible, and to traverse every part of the Southern Ocean where the supposed continent GBO 804 GEO Mold pomiblr Ik. Tb« •xpodMon nnad from r\y- month Itth Joljr, 1773, (nd qalttod Um Cap* of Oood Hop* Kd Novambtr. Pnrraing hia eonra* aaitward, Cook, during thna yaara, amplo^ud tha atammar montha In thoae ngioni (oorrMponding to onr win- tar month)), in navigating liigh latitodaa toward the South' pole, and the winter montha in adding to hIa diacoveriea in the South Paclflc Ocean. Notwithttand- Ing, however, that he raried hia eourae, and tra- Teraed in every direction which he thought afforded the alighteat likelihood of finding land, and actually got ao far aonth aa 71° 10' of latitude, he waa unnuocesa- fill. Having thua acrupulonaly anii completely ac- compliahed the object for which he waa sent out, he directed hia ooarae homeward. He had encompaaaed the globe In high latitude*, and waa led to conclude that the aouthem pale la surrounded only by ialea and Arm flelda of ice, to that the hypotheala of an anatral continent had no foundation. He reached the Cape of Qood Hope 22d Blarch, 177&, and anchored at Spit- head on the 80th July, having, in the apace of 8 years and 18 days, sailed 30,000 leagues, mostly In inhos- pitable cllmatea and unknown aeas. In the course of thia and his former voyage the aame great navigator saonred glory to hia eountr)- and to himself by llke- wia* completing the survey of the great Pacific Ocean. Soma of the intereating groups of Islands scattered over Ita vast surface-had already bean made known by the previous voyages of Byron, Wallis, and Carteret. Cook fully traced tha great chain of the Society Isl- ands and the Friendly Islanda. He determined also the form and relations, not only of New Zealand, but of New Caledonia and other lands and islands in that region of the globe. The extensive island of New Holland has recently become daul>ly interesting from the important relations which now subsist lietween it and Europe. In the year 1788 the establishment of a British colony on the east coast paved the way for a more complete survey. By the different expeditiona undertaken from 1795 to 1799, chiefly under the direction of Bass and Flinders, the east coast, together with Van DIemen's Land and Baaa's Strait, which separates tbat island from New Holland, were adetjiuitely explored. In 1801 an expedition was sent out by the British government under the command of Captain Flinders, for the pur- pose of surveying a large portion of the coast. These surveys were prosecuted with unremitting ardor and perseverance. At the same time that Captain Flin- ders waa carrying on his survey, the French captain Baudin was employed on the aame service, and in some parts the discoveries of these navigators intermingle. Some additional oliservatlons have more recently been made; and by these various expeditions the whole coast of New Holland and Van Diemen'a Land has been accurately surveyed, the position of every point has been ascertained, and every inlet and bay has been traced to it.i termination. The strong presumption which the researches of Captain Cook in the Southern Ocean furnished of the non-existence of an austral continent, seemed to leave no room to expect that any further doubt would be entertained on the subject. Lieutenant C. Wilkes, commander of the expedition fitted out In 1838 by the government of the United States, for the exploration of the antarctic regions, has, however, claimed for his oountrj- and for himself the honor of at length discov- ering a continent within the antarctic circle. While this claim is pertinaciously adhered to, no distinct and unequivocal proof is produced that the continent alleged to have been seen by tha American expedition has a substantial existence. No continent or island was landed on; and, on the other hand, it is sup- posed that the British expedition, under the command of Sir James C. Ross, sailed over the very spot in south latitude 66°, and east longitude 168°-166°, where Lieutenant Wilkes anpposed he saw mountain- oua land. Thia latter axpadltlon waa fitted out by tM British govanuaant, (tor aclantlfle purpoaaa, in 1880, and arrived in Van Dieman'a Land In Auguat, 1840. Tha Fnnoh government had Ukawla* sent an expedi- tion into the southern saaa, under tha command of Captain Dumont d'Urville, about the aame time. To avoid intarfeiancaa with this Vrench and American dia- coveriea, Sir Jamaa Roaa determined on a more east- erly meridian— that of 170° £.— in which to endeavor to penetrate to tha aouth. Tha expedition sailed Awm Hobart Town on 18th November, 1840, and on 37th December encountered a chain of Iceberga. On tha 6th January, 1841, they entered the pack-Jca, through which having forced their way, the ice having at the same time somewhat slackened, they found themselves on the 7tb January again In a clear aea. Soon after 2 o'clock, A. M., of the 11th January, they diacovered land, which, as they advanced southward, waa found to extend continuously ftom the 70th to the 79th degree, with several adjacent Islands, This land they called Victoria Land. It presented to their view rangea of mountains whose lofty peaks, covered with eternal snow, rose to elevations from 7 to 10 or even 12 thou- sand feet above the level of the ocean. The inter- vening valleys were filled with glaciers, which, de- scending from near the mountains' summits, projected in many places several miles into the sea, and ter- minated in per|)endicular cliffs. The rocka breaking through iu a few places their covering, afforded the only indication that land formed the nucleus of thia, to appearance, enormoua Icelierg. On the 28th Janu- arj', when they had nearly reached their highest lati- tude, about 78° S., they found that what appeared when first seen at a distance to lie a high Island, was a mountain 12,867 feet in height emitting flames and smoke in great profusion. This volcano lies in lati- tude about 771° S-1 ond in longitude about 167° E. From the most eastern point of land at a cape not far from the foot of this mountain, an icy barrier waa found to extend eastward as far as the eye could dis- cern. This barrier was a perpendicular wall of ice fh>m 160 to 200 feet in height, and stretched 260 miles In one unbroken line, as was found on a second visit to the same interesting locality in February 1842 ; nor were they able to turn its extremity, so as to reach a higher latitude. At a point where tha height of tha barrier diminished to about 80 feet, they perceived from the mast-heads that it gradually rose to the south- ward, presenting the appearance of very lofty mount- ains perfectly covered with snow, but with a varied and undulating surface. And hence Sir James Ross, with nearly all his companions, felt assured that the presence of land there amounts almost to a certainty. Still, Sir James is of opinion that the recent discoveries In the antarctic regions made by the French and Amer- ican navigators, and b)- himself, do not prove the ex- istence of a great southern continent, but rather of a chain of islands. In tracing the history of geographical discovery, it can not fail to be observed that while discovery by aea admits of being pursued with great advantage, on ac- count of the rapidity of its progress and the extent of its range, it does not supersede the slower and more confined operations of the discoverer by land, which are no less necessary to make known the inte- rior features and circumstances of the different coun- tries. The British dominion in India has led to much addi- tional information respecting the interior of Asia ; infor- mation which is, however, in many respects, only the revival of ancient knowledge. The great mountainous chain which forms the northern boundary of India, has been traced and found in many places to tower to such heights as to exceed the Andes, long supposed to be the highest mountains in the world. The source of the Ganges, and that of the Indus, with the early couraes of these great rivers, have been found to be OBO 805 GBO •/ ■MuM qutt* dllhnntljr fW>in what had bmn MppoMd to bt Ihalr pOiltlon hy modern geoKraphera. The 0wuilt«ln city of TImbuotoo and tha great central river, the N.^^r. TImbuctiio has been for many centuries the grand em- Kirlum of the central trade of i\litca, and hence there \» prevailed throughout Europe, ever since the rise of discovery anil commercial enterprise, a strong de- sire to visit It, and to establish with it a Mendly Inter- course, The discovery of the luurse and mouth of , tha Nlgar has now o|)ened up to commercial specula- tion what It Is hoped will give a ready access to Tim- biietiK) »» welt as other places of traffic. The in- terest with which. III a geographical point of view, however, the Niger has bean regarded, has arisen from tha ramarkalila nature of the regions through which it Hows, and still more from our Ignorance, combined with the various and contradictory riuBors which were so long abroad, respecting Its course and termination. Herodotus la the earliest author who affords any Ideas Appllnabla til this subject. He mentions an expedition Into the Interior of Africa, undertaken by some Nassa- nioiilan youths, who, lielng made prisoners, were car- ried to a grant city luhaltlted by negroes, and situated on tha banks of a river which flowed from west to east. This stream he conjectures to be the remote aourse of tha Nile, but the particulars given appear to leave llttin doubt that It was the Niger. A simitar byputhasU was adopted by Strabo, Mela, and Fllny, likntlfylng the waters of these two great rivers. But PtoUniy, whose residence in Alexandria afforded him ample means of Information, rejects altogether the Idea of any communication between them. He do- scriliei the Niger as terminated on tho west by Mount liiMdrui ^Mandlngo), and as giving rise to taveral ex- tensive lakaa aa It proceeds In Ita oouraa. Hla stata- inenta do not, however, involve any thing positive aa to the direction In which It flows. The Saracens or Arabians are the next great xiurce of information ; for, in the course of the disacnsions which took placa among their dynasties in northern Africa, large iHidles crossed the desert and founded kingdoms on the east- em part of the shore of tlie Niger, of which the king- dom of Ghana was the most splendid. According to their testimony, the Niger flows from east to west, and discharges Itself Into the see, liy which they un- derstood the Atlantic, or great circumambient ocean. With regard to its source, they generally regarded It as the same with that of the Egyptian Nile, identifying the two rivers in the early part of their course. Some were of opinion that the waters of the Niger did not reach the eea ; so that they must have supposed them to lie discharged into a lake. The system adopted by modem Euroiieans was derived from Leo Africanus, who retained the delineations of the Niger as flowing from east to west, and falling into the ocean ; but, in- stead of deriving it from the Nile, supposoroad estuaries of the Senegal and Gambia, concluded that one or Iwth gave egress to the waters of the Niger. In the lieginnlng of the 17th century, the French and English, having each formed a settlement, the one on the Senegal and the other on the Gambia, were induced by the hope of gain to seek a route up tliese rivers to the city of Timl>uctoo ; and in this enterprise they proved the falsity of the opinion which had been so long held. The streama were traced so near to their source as to become little more than rivulets ; while the explorers were still far from the great central emporium of Africa, and from the great plain through which the Niger was under- stood to flow. This result led the two great French geographers, Dellsie and D'Anville, to construct maps in which the Niger, after the lapse of so many ages, was again represented as flowing to the eastward. In- stead of a single stream pursuing a course across the whole breadth of Africa and falling into the Alantic, D'Anville distinguished three rivers — the Senegal, flowing westwai'd ; the Niger, flowing eastward into a lake in Wan)< ' r:: ; and another river still further east, and flowing ' t opposite direction. The data on which this schciii- rests were never fully made public. Still new doubt was thrown around this subject by the reports colloctei hit ly increaaed. Theae circuniatunrea pre- pared the way for a more auoceaaful attempt than any hitherto made to explore the interior of AfHca, when Major Uenham anm the aouth, at a distance of six days' Journey, or about 80 geographical miles. Another important discovery made in the interior of Africa within the same time ia that of Lake N'OamI, by tha missionary tha Rev. Dr. Livingston, accompa- nied by Mr. Oswell and Mr. Hurray, It seems to be situated alMut 10° south latitude— about &60 miles N,N.W. of Kolobeng, tha acene of Dr. Livingston's missionary labors, and the head-quarten of the Ra- qualn tribe. These and other explorers have made us in some measure acquainted with an extensive aystem of rivera, between 10° and 22° S. latitude, running eoatward, which, when further research ahull have made tham ftolly known, may be found capable of l)e- ing rendered subservient to commercial intereourse with the surrounding countries, and to their conse- quent civilization. Dr. Livingston haa lately returned (h)m his explorations to the north of I^ke N'Gumi. An important expedition to central Africa, headed by Mr. James Richardson, left Tripoli In Manh, 1860. It was sent out under the orders and at the expense of the British government. The object of thia miasion was to survey Lake Tchad, and to explore tha neigh- boring countries. Tba scientific interests of the expe- dition were intrusted to two German gentlemen. Dr. Barth and Dr. Overweg. Instead of traveling from Tripoli across tha desert with the great caravan, the mission formed a small caravan of Its own, amounting to almut 100 persons, nnd as many camels. The jour- ney from Tripoli to Murzuk and thence to Ghat is less interesting than that from the latter place, where they entered on entirely new ground- But even in the for- mer part of tha maroh many important discoveries were made, as the travelere selected new routes not before explored, and thus rendered every part of the Journey subservient to the purposes of the mission. At Ghat their personal danger was increased to such a degree that they found it necessary to trust for pro- tection to the friendship of the sultan of the KeloCs, in whose country they ware detained about three months, during which time Dr. Barth made an interesting Journey to Agadez, while much vaiualile information was also collected by Mr. Richardson and l>y Dr. Overweg, who had remained. At tha close of 1860 the party reached Zinder, where the three travelers sep- arated, each proceeding with his foilowen by another route. Mr. Richaidaon took the direct way to Kukm, GEO 807 GSO / ■•t far from lh« khorM of I^a Tchsd, and th« eapiul of the •Diplrs of Uornou. At Kuki all tha thna hii|Miil anain to iiiaat vary •imn aftarwanl, liut tliU hnpn wa* diaappointed. Mr. Kkchardann wmi of a weak conttl- tution, yat hli health appoareU t(> •uflVir little from the fatigue of rnMiInK "i< dnaert ; but ha aunk before ha raachtd Lake Tuhad, whlrh wuk the termination of hia mlHlon, aad from which ha wa* to return by diraci road to Irlpoll, Ila dleiurney from Kuka, dur- ing the night intervening between the 8d and 4th of March, It4.il. Thuii waa added another name to the large numlwr' of thoM who have fallen a iaorillca to the oauM of African dlicover)-. The two aurviving travelora, undaunted liy the proapect of danger, propoaed aa the plan of their ope- ratluna to approach the Upper Mile, aa soon aa they bad explored the vicinity of I^ke Tchad, provided they ware aupportad by the Brltlth and Pruaalan gov- ammonta ; and to lie ready even to puraue their re- aearvhea from Kuka to the Indian Ocean. The route in a straight line to Mombaa lies nearly aouth-eaat ; but from all they could learn, the route more to thn aouth. In the direction of Luke NyaasI, seemed more practicable. The gigantic Journey which they thus aontemplated, lay through many powerful kingdoms, densely peopled, Intersected by numnrous rivers, very fertile, and abounding in foreata, but where the roost formlilalile oli«tacleii were to be «xp«uted from the war- like diii|io»itlon9 of the sumiuniling nations. In the mean time they proMCCuted with zeal the Im- mediate objects of the mission, embracing every op- portunity of collecting information. On the '39th May, 1861, Dr. Barth started from Kuka to visit the kingdom of Adamana, which, from the accounta he had received, he judged to be the most beautiful coun- try of central Africa. Ha reached Yola, the capital, on the 22d June, where he was permitted to reman only throe days. He whs kindly received, however, lioth by the sultan and by the inhaliitants, and at his de- parture waa treated with consideration and honor four days' Journey before roachhig Yola, he had to orosa at the point of their junction the two principal rivers of Adumana, the Benueh and the Faro, the lat- ter lielag a tributar}- of the former. The Benueh he describes as the largest and most Impoaing stream which be bad seen since leaving Europe. He found it half a mile broad ami alM)ut 10 feet deep. The dis- tance of the source from the point at which he crossed it was said to be nine days' Journey. This magnifi- cent river is In fact thi upper course of the Tchadda, which itself falls inci t).'> Quorra or Niger, not far from ita mouth. TIic discovery thus made of the ' identity of the two streams, the Benueh ■>;:< the Tchadda, has opened up a way of access to the very heart of inner Africa, which seemn destined eventually to become the line from the west along which the blessings of commerce and civilization are to flow to the surrounding nations. The consideration of the immense importance of following up this discovery, and of the advantages which might be expected to ac- crue from it, suggested the idea of sending out a steam- boat expeditk>n from England to ascend the Tchadda. Former attempts to reach central Africa by ascending the Quorra hud been attended with very disastrous consequences. But the expedition which left the British shores in May, 18i)4, to ascend the Tchadda waa eminently ancccssful, while not a single life was lost. It reached the mouth of the Quorra in the be- ginning of July, and, entering the Tchadda, ascended the stream to within about 60 miles cf the confluence of the Benueh and the Faro. Thus it baa beeen fully prored that this important river la navigable to Yola, the capital of Adamana. While Dr. Borth was prosecuting this journey bis IbUow-traveler was employed in surveying Lake Tchad. Tbi* lake it described aa an immense marsb, the only portion lit for navlgatloa being a deep channel foruad by the Klvar Shary, which pours into tha lake a vast volume of water. What Major Denham boadewsribed as nmali islands, were found to be extensive meadow- lands of much greater aurfaca than the lake ItMlf. Tha explorations of Dr. Overweg led to resulta con- siderably at varianra with whut had baan reported by Denham i but tha discrepancies ara perhaps mora apparent than real, and may Huil thair explanation In the fact that tha lake U augmented during the rainy season to an tmmensa Ixxly of wuter ; but'dutlng tlie season of drought is so much redui'ad by evaporation as to appear at times to be almoat dried up, In the course of the summer v( 18A2, Dr. Ilarth, setting out f^om Kuka, mode a Jnumey hi a aouth- eaatorly direction toward the Nile i and ao near did he approach to the eastern boundary of tha basin of that great river, that he waa able to collect Information likely to throw light on soma Intricate queatioua con- nected with it. Ho succeeded ulso in exploring u |)or- tlon of UaglrmI, a powerful kingdom between Ijtke Tchad and the Upper Nile, which hud never before been vialtod by any European. In uniting, by means of his Itineraries, Baglrmi with Oar FOr, he has com- pleted a line of direct routo across central Africa from the Quorrrn to the Nile ; and thus fkom the Gulf of Guinea to the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean, Dr, Overweg left Kuka at the sumo time with Dr. Barth, but took a south-westerly direction toward tha Quorra. Between the end of March, the time of hia setting out, and the end of May when be returned, he successfully performed an Important Journey, which brought him within ISO English miles of Yacoba, tha great town of the Feliataha. Dr. Barth's Journey oc- cupied a considerably longer time ; and it appears that Dr. Overweg'a anxiety to await the return of his com- panion, which was not until the '20th August, Induced him to remain at Kuka, notwithstanding the danger to l>a apprehended from too long exposure to the influ- ence of the unhealthy season. The consequence was, that his constitution became so seriously affected that, though he set out Immediately after Dr, Barth's ar- rival, on an excursion to healthier regions, yet the advantage derived proved only temporary. He died on the '27th September, 18&'2, at Madu&ra, al ut tea miles east of Kuka, and near Lake Tchad, As It was known that the travelers had expected to be ready to start from Kuka toward the Indian Ocean in August or September, 18&3, it was intended by their friends In England, that before they left Kuka they should be Joined by an additional fellow-laborer to take a part in their arduous undertaking, Dr, Vogel, an astronomer and botanist, was accordingly sent out accompanied by two chosen volunteera from the corps of the Sappers and Miners. By a singular coincidence, on the very morning on which Dr. Vogel and his com- panions went on board the vessel which was to take them to MaltB— LoMoiTCDB— Tub Earth. Ocorgetown (formerly StabrDtk), the capital of Britlah Guiana, la situated on the east bank of the !)»■ merara, at ita month, which la there abont three miles wide, in north lat. 6° 49' 80", west long. 68° U' 80". The town Itself is one of the prettiest in the West In- dies ; and its streete are wide and straight, intorsecting each other at right angle*. The houses are of wood, with open verandahs in fh)nt, and neatly painted In cool and quiet coloi^; they are shaded and almost hidden by trees and shrubs, and look more like a 4ol- lection of villas than a town. The street aloag tha river sM*>-whera all tha atorsa and aha|ia an slt«ata4, and whera buainaaa la ehlafly Iranaactad — forms, Iriw> aver, an exeepllon | Ihaia every thing la phtia, hara, and baalneaa-lika. The ships lie alongside the whaifli or at a abort diat^nca In tha atraam, which la ala« crowded with numerona amallar veaaala engaged In tha bland trade, or In bringing prodaoa firom the mora diatont ealataa. Tha hall of tha leglaktlve coannil, courts of Juatlce, enstom-bouse, treasury, and all tha other public oMees, ara In one bnUdIng of ooasldarabla extent and archlteetaral iMaaty, with shady pnrtiooa, and marble-paved galleries or verandaha auppurted oM caat-lnm columna. The chief uf the other public edl» flcea ara the cathedral and nhurchaa, aaveral liberally malnteiuad hoapltela, liarranka, market-place, and ica- houae. Bolow tha town la tha " Kort," as It la called, but which looka more like a green field, with a fow gna* pointing toward tha aaa, and a honae or two fur • aingia ofHoer and a doaan artillerymen, rupnktion, (IHAl,) Sft.SOfl. 0«orii«, lies between 80° 80' and 85° north Ut., and liatween N0° AO' and l«l° 6' west long. Iwmk Oraenwicb, and between 3° 51' and 8° 47' wea* long, ftrom Washington. It la 800 milea long flrom ' north to aouth, and 'IV> broad, contoining 58,000 aquara mllea. Population In ITIH), wua 8'i,684| ia 7800, l«!l,(Wtl I In INK). '.IA'i,488 1 in 1H30, 848,»«9 1 |« IHIIU, AIU,.'>(I7 j ill IMU, A<)1,8»2; and In INAU, 000,644. Tha 8tote In 1860 waa divided Into VA countlea. AVir/y llutotyo/ Uiorgia.—Vnttt tha year 17IIS, tha torritory of the Htate of Georgia waa Included In tha namea of Camlana and Carolina. Kor promoting It! aettlement, King Oeorge II. aeparatad from Carolina the territory lietween tha Kivers Savannah and Alli^ maha, and erected thia territory, by a charter of tha 9th of June, 1782, into an independent and aeparata government, which waa called in honor of that king, tha province of " (Irorgia." It waa probably fhim tha beginning, tha intention that thia colony should gu aa far down aa the 8t. Mary's Kiver ; for the patent aaya " It should go so far south as tha southernmost hranch of the Altumaha Klvar." And on the maps of that time we see that it was then believed that Altemaha Klver had a aoutliern branch which conducted into .St. Mary'a Kiver, and the mouth of thia river waa therefore conaidered also to be tha mouth of the Altiu maha. The boundarlea were, however, in later timet actually conducted so fkr south. With this exception the limite of the province of Georgia suffered no changes on the coast, though in the interior tha changes were great. Theae interior changes have, however, no relation with our hydrographical ra> searches. — Kohi.. From tha ocean, for a diatanca of seven mllea, thera la a chain of Islanda intorsscted by river, creeks,' and inlete communicating with each other, and forming an inland navigation for vessels of 100 tons' burden along the whole coast. These Islands consist of salt marsh and land of a gray rich soil, which produces sea-iaiand cotton of a superior quality. The coast on the main land for four or Ave miles is a salt marsh. Back of this there Is a narrow margin of land, nearly reaero- bllng that of the islands j these are partially or wholly overflowed at the ratum of the tide, and conatitnte tha rice plantetlons. Then commence the pine barrens, which reach fVnm 00 to 90 miles from the coaat. Beyond this is tha country of sand bills, 80 or 40 miles wide, intorsperaed with fertile tracts, and extending to tha lower falls of the rivers. Black walnut and mulberry* trees grow abundantly in this soil. The foreate pro- duce oak, pine, hickor}-, and cedar, Deposite of iron ore are widely difTused throngbont the 8tote ; gold ia found in the northern part ; granite, marble, lim^ stone, are quarried in many plaoea. There «-ere in this Stote in 1860, 6,878,479 acres of land improved, and 16,443,900 of unimproved land ia fvms I eash value of farms, #96,758,445, and tha valna I \ \ ORO sot QIO of iBpUmrali m4 aiMhliHiry, #>,M4,150, MMrdlag tu lb* olHoUl nport of lh« (Itnana, V. H. I.iv* /lltxk, llnr—4, He. — llonai, Iftl.Ml | mm* mi4 mulM, 07,879) mlleli m>wi, BM,9'in| working oam, 7fl,9M I othtr oatlU, AHD.OIU i »h—f, 000,480 | (wlnt, 3,iaM,t)l7| Tolntof llv* ■tnek, #9A,7im,4ltt i oriUufli' larwl anlmoU, ^,»tW,U2. AgrieuUmnl I'rodyft: ore'.— WhMl, I,OM,SM bwlt- •In I rjra, 68,760 1 IndUn rnrn, IIO,'i,77fl i prodnno nf raarkat Kardma, $70,600 I iMunda nf liulter mada, 4,040,660 1 of ohaaM, 40,976 I auftar, hogahaada, 1*49 | mapla augar, 60 Iba, | iii(dMa«a, 310,160 gallonai liMawax ond honay, 7m,. M4 poonda i wool, pounda produced, 98O,0ltf | sotton, 4!il>,001 balaai flax, &,IW7 pounda | allk ooooona, HIH | liopa, 861 pounda | tolHU'on, 498,IM4 t liay, lona of, 911, ■ 449 1 elovar-aaad, iWi huahaU g nihor grumi iMdl, 49N | lliix-a««d, (im huahala | and war* maila 7tMi gallona of wina. Valua of homa-mada manufaoturaa, 41,HHH,tNM, Tha rivara ara th« Havaniiali, 6(8) niilaa long, Uiund' Ing tha HUta on Iha nnrth-aaat, navlgalda Air ahlpa 17 miiaa to jtevannab, ami a part of tha year for •laom* lioati !t60 mllaa to Auguata \ tha Altaniiiha, which la navigahia for large veaaala 19 mllaa to llurian, la formad tiy tha Junction of tha OvonM and tha Ocniul- gea, and la navigahia for ainopa nf HO tona by Ilia former to Uublln BOO nillMi fn>ni the noun i the (>gee> chM iHX) mllaa long, and navigable for aloopa 40 mllaa. ninl Wver, whioh rlaM In Um MTth-waal part of Ik* Male, and after a oouraa of mora than 9(M) mllaa, Jola* IIm Chatktiioocliee, (brraing tha Apalaihliwla. 'I'h« CluUahau<'hne, on the waal Imrderof ths N«al«, whIoh It nevlaahla »)8I nillM by ataainboat to (;c *^ hafwta. TMHMf* OUana. OlUriil Toniuf*. 1 OdwmU. roNlaa, Tulal, Total. AaMriiaa. riinl|«. RilbUrad. KorulM aid Sept to, 1091 1899 1898 1894 1890 1890 189T 1898 1899 1880 ToUl BaptSO, 1881 1889 1888 1884 1880 1888 1887 1888 1889 1840 Total BaptSO, IMl... 1849 Omoa., 1348» June 80, 1844 1840 IMO 184T 1848 1849 1860 Total June 80, 1801 1869 1868 1864 18SB 1886 60.979,990 ^4Na,919 4,970,880 4,0I9,TM 4,990,989 4,800,OIUI 4,204 4,9i)l,f'M 8,104,1/0 4,981,810 ^8a6,090 $46,089,10* $8,909,818 ^015,>(88 6,970,040 1,507,897 8,s|tO,074 lli,7?9,9fl() 8,9l1^04t 8,8(ttl,HH9 ^970,4»a 0,809,959 ~ir00(,6lH 989,591 670,700 001.888 848.806 880,998 819.009 8118,009 880.490 9x9.480 $6,178,994" $899,940 958,417 818,990 540,iO9 898,049 078,999 774,849 770,068 418,987 491,498 41,468 8B,n6() 86,404 80,797 98,898 87,905 41,019 90,514 47,408 eu,894 874,687 48,«« 49,7^1 _ 40,099 9 40,916 88,109 48,k78 41,090 96,801 01,604 44,070 14.066 9,746 11,079 19,064 6,047 8,068 10,04* 9,589 9,7M 9,4x6 8,985 0,046 101,161 99,048 91,5*7 98,989 91,760 90,970 U,09» 99,868 90,750 19,408 48,966 4,899 9,188 178,498,949 $8,690,017 4,999,151 4,699,401 4,988,800 4,057,480 9,7lM,U08 9,719,149 8,070,416 0,807,806 7,561.948 $8,696,018 4,800,907 4,599.401 4,988,805 4,507,485 9,70'<,IKW 9,719,149 8,070,410 6.857,806 7,661,948 $9,109,980 4,999,090 7,871,888 4,808,875 7,818,019 8,091,088 ■H,I>H,969 $449,007 841,704 907,489 800,084 9IHI,8«)1 9U.\496 907,180 917,114 871,094 686,904 $8,147,916' $791,547 474,990 008,981 8110,951 978,710 074,940 899,017 90,196 81,450 48.IIOn 98,574 40,410 18,498 1M57 17,871 81,150 91,089 "960,896 84,968 99,888 88,084 95,896 60,140 68,491 900,986 80,980 80.909 49,088 88,901 8^960 44,748 87,661 81,891 68,718 "1,594 9,809 .1.. 6,888 $44,869,196 $9,188,879 4,999,010 7,871,888 4,807,075 7,510,519 8,091,088 $1,609 $1,1,0 "fOo 409,840 84,748 40,0(9 48.448 40,404 89,998 88,810 19,869 11,898 * Nine montbi to June SO, and the flical year flrom thii time beglna July 1, Principal Porti of f>«orgia.— Rninawlok, city, and port of entry, Ut. 81° 10^ north, long. 81" 86' weat. It hu a (pacioua and commmUovis harlwr, having 18 feet of water on the bar at the loweat tide*. It la alt> uiited on Turtle River, 14 mllea alwva the bar. The eummerca of the port io amall, la 1060 being only 754 tona, It la prupoaed to make this a naval stntinn, and tn oonatrunt a railroad from tbia oity to Pensacola. Hnviinnuh, oity, nnd port of entry, aituated on the right bank of tha Savannah River, 17 miles ftom its mouth, lut. IW° 4' 60" north, long. 81° 8' 18" west. The barbur li good, Veasels drawing 14 feet water GER 810 OBR some up to the city and Urgar Temela anchor at Five Fathom Hole, four milea below the city. The com- merce of the place ranka next to Mobile, and is the most important port, except Charleston, from Bal- timore to tlobile. The greater part of the trade of Oeorgia centers at Savannah, the principal articles of which are cotton, rice, and lumber. The Savannah Kiver affords great facilities for internal commerce; and this river is connected with the Ogeechee Kiver by a canal 16 mile« long, which terminates at Savannah. The tonnage of the port, in 1866, was 81,686 tons. See Strvbns's Hut. Geo. ; DsBow's Jiev., viii., SO, X. 65, 248, 876 ; Ab. Am. Sev., xxiU. 211 (by An- DRKw NoxTos), xxiv. 466 (J. Sparks) ; Ixvil. 291 (by C. W. Upham) ; So. Quar. Sep., xiii. '•70, xviii. 34, iii. 40 ; Ck. Kxam., xxlx. 118. Oormany. — This name was given by th^ Romans to a country inhabited by various tribes of different names, but nearly alilie in manners, customs, language, and religion. But they comprehended under it not only the country now called Germany, but also DenmarlCj Norway, Sweden, Finland. Livonia, and Prussia. The modem inhabitants call themselves Dtultch, and their countr}- DeutseUand ; but, as to the origin, meaning, and primar}' application of both names (German and Deutsch), German antiquaries are far ttom being agreed, though most of them seem to be of opinion that German is a genuine Ueutsch word, compounded of gtr, or gerra, a spear, and man, and consequently meaning spearman, or warrior. Deutach seems to have been known to the Carlovingians, and it first occurs in a document of the year 813 ; but it is only since the time of the Emperor Otto I. (a.d. 936-7.S) that it has been in use as the general name of the German nation. The Rhine on the west, and the Vistula on the east, seem to have been generally considered as the bound- aries of Germany ; while on the north it extended along the ocean and the Baltic Sea, and on the south was terminated by the Rivpr Danube. But Huch boundaries were by no means definite ; for many Ger- man tribes inhabited the southern banks of the Rhine as far as the Scheldt. Siliiation and boundaries. — Germany may be con- sidered in two points of view, either politically, as the country included within the limits of the Germanic Confederation ; or ethnologically, as the countr}- in- habited by the {wople who speak the various branches and dialects of the Deutsch or German ninguage. In the latter respect, the Deutsch or German nations are found to extend in a compact mass along the shores of the German Ocean and the Baltic or Kast Sea, from a point between Cuinis and Gravelines, near the Straits of Dover to the Gulf of Riga, and from that long line of boundary soutliward, with dimensions continually narrowing to the Alps and the Adriatic Sea. Politically considered, Germany is situate be- tween 45° and 54' 60" N. lat. and 6° 43' and 20° 60' E. long., bounded north by the German Ocean, Denmark, and the Baltic Sea ; east by West Prussia, Posen, Poland, Gallicia, Hungary, and Croatia ; south by the Gulf of Venice, Italy, and Switzerland ; west by France, Belgium, and Holland. Its whole extent, including rivers and lakes, is abont 246,770 square English miles, which is about the 16th part of Europe, the 216th part of tlie whole dry land, and the 800tb part of the whole surface of the globe. face of Ike countri/. — The southern and the central parts of Germany are occupied ))y numerous ranges , of hills B.id mountains, sometimes separated only by narrow valleys, and elsewhere forming largo elevated plains or table-lands, while tlie northern portion of the country sinks into a wide sandy moorish plain, but little raised above the level of the sea. The Tyrol and the south-eastern provinces of Austria are occupied by liranches of the Alps, which present long narrow valleys, dismal precipices, cataract*, and gla- ciers ; and the northern border of m an elevation of about 2200 feet, near the source of the river, to alwut 860, on the borders of Hungary. In passing through Bavaria the valley expands into a plain oi' consideralile extent, which, at Katishon on its eastern bo.der, has an elevation of about 1000 feet, and gradually rises as it approaches the mountains that surround it. Further north the middle region of Germany is occupied by various ranges of hills, ter- miiuting northward in a line drawn through the towns of Aachen, Duren, Krefeld, Dortmund, Soest, Paderbom, Bielefuld, Teklenburg, Benthcim, Furste- nau, Behburg, Hanover, Braunschweig, Magdeburg, Dessau, Halle, Weissenfels, W'urzen, Meisseu, Baut- zen, Goerliti, Liognitz, Breslan, Ramsluu, and Ro- senberg. These hills form a series, o^ elevated valleys and table-lands, the most remarkable of which is the valley of Bohemia, which has all the appearance of having hmn a lake liefore it was drained by the burst- ing of its mountain barriers. This region is much diversified by picturesque scenery, and aliounds in verdant and well-wooded valleys, watered by clear streams. The banks of the Meyn, the Fulda, and the MoscUe, are remarkable for their varied scenery, and the valley of the Rhine unites the grandeur of a tine landscape with the appearance of a highly fertile country. To the northward again of the hilly region, the country sinks into plains, which full very gradu- ally from an elevation of almut 800 feet at the foot of the hills to the level of the sea. These plains extend through Lower Silesia, Lusatia, Brandenl>urg, Po- merania, Mecklenburg, Holstein, Hanover, and the lower part of Westphalia. To the west of the Elbe the flat country is almost entirely destitute of trees, and presents only a succession of level tracts, covered with heath and Juniper, and of moors consisting chiefly of deep beds of turf intersected by rivers which flow in depressions from 100 to 200 feet l>elow the general level of the plains. To the east of the Elite the country is more sandy, but the sandy trscts are cov- ered with pines, and interspersed with fertile spaces of sometimes considerable extent. The beds of the rivers also are generally wider and less deep than in the western part of tho plain. Through the northern part, of this plain a higher tract may be traced fVom west to east, from Oldeslo in Holstein to Schwedt on the Odor, aliout 70 miles from the sea. Eastward of the Oder it continues for some distance due east, then gradually approaches the sea, terminating on the l>anks of the Nieracn near Grodno. It seems to have formed at one time the shore of the sea, and it is on its northern sides that are found those numerous erratic blocks or Iwulders that have attracted so much of the attention of geologists. Though it does not rise into hills, it forms the water-shed IJetween a num- ber of small streams that run direct to the Baltic, and others that run southward to the Elbe, tho Oder, and the Vistula. To the Alpine region belong the terri- tories of Liechtenstein, Tyrol, southern Bavaria, Sty- ria, Salzburg, Curinthia, and Iliyria ; to the middle region, Baden, Wurtemberg, Hohenzollem, the great- er part of Bavaria, the northern portions of Austria, including Bohemia and Moravia, Hessen, Nassau, Luxemburg, Schwartzburg, Reuse, Saxony, and An- hult ; tc the loe, Oder, Ktsch or Adige, and Rms, some of which will Im) found deicritied under their own names. lAkn. — The chief of the (ierman lakes la tbe Roden Set, or Lake of l/'onstance, andry ; and in Uanover, Brunswick, Bohemia, Saxony, and some parts of Prussia and Austria, it is scarcely inferior. Generally speaking, agriculture is the rrinclpal occupation of the Germans, particularly In Bavaria, Wurteml)erg, Baden, Hesse, Nassau, Hanover, Brunstviek, Oldenburg, Prussia, Anhalt, Hulsteln, and Mecklenburg ; while in the Saxon duchies, Schwartzburg, and Rcuss, some districts of Prussia, Bohemia, and the kingdom of Saxony, manu- factures employ at least an equal, and in some cases even a greater, number of the people. Tbe greatest contrast in respect of agriculture is to t>e seen in Mecklenburg and Wurtemberg. In the former, farm- ing is conducted on a large scale ; in the latter, as well as in other provinces, the land is divided into small parcels, cultivated by small proprietors or ten- ants, who follow ancestral usages, and are unprovided with means to make any improvements, by draining or otherwise. In the former the S:hlagwirthKhnJi prevails, according to which one imuiCise Held is cov- ered with wheat, while another is covered with oats, a third with clover, a fourth is being |dowed and harrowed, and a fifth is feeding b°rds of cattle, the common size of farms being bo much as 500,00U square ruthe, or almost 2000 acres ; in the Utter, every thing is grown checkerwise, in small patches, more like gardening than fanning, the usual size of Wurtem- l>erg farms being only from 6 to 20 square rathe, or from l-40th to 1-lOth of an acre. There are three systems of husbandry at present practiced in Germany. In the first, called the three- field huslHtndry, while one field is sown with winter corn, and another with summer com, a third lies fal- low ; but sometimes, instead of a fallow the third field is sown with green crops, peas, potatoes, etc. In tho second system, called tho four-field husbandry, the principle is that the same field shall not be occupied two years together with corn, without at least one fallow intervening; as, for exomple, one year, rye; second, clover; third, outs, or barley; I'liurtli, pota- toes ; fifth, again winter com. This is also called the rotation system (^Frmhlirechselwirthnchnff). Tho third system, called the Schlnif or Koppelirirthachaft, prac- ticed in Holstein and Mecklenburg, divides a farm into a number of iar^fe parcels of equal size (^stuche, koppeln, or tchlige), which, after several years' continuous l)earing of grain or other prmluce, are allowed for sev- eral years more (8 to 7) to lie fallow, or in grass for summer pasture. Fur these two countries this system is found ver}' suitable, fur tho population there is com- paratively thin. In the different provinces of Germany different kinds of com obtain the preference, und are most cultivated, as in the following list, where the different articles follow each other in the order in which they are named. Bavaria— :K,ye, outs, barley, spelt, wheat. WurtetiAerg and Hadett — Spelt, oats, burley, rj-o, wheat, maize. Uette — Rye, barley, oats, wheat, spelt, QER 812 OER matw. J/eoUMiwy—Whftt, barley, lye, oato. Brutu- mek — Bariejr, lye, wheatJoats. In Geimany gtnerally, and in HecUanbnrg in pai^ tioular, the production of grain ia greater tlian the conaumption. Assuming the productiveness of the kingdom of Saxony as a standard, Germany could maintain abont 64,000,000 of inhabitants, or 12,000,000 more tlun at present. The cultivation of the potato ia now largely extended, patticuiarly in Prussia. In the north-east of Germany, buclcwheat is also culti- vated ; but the cultivation of oil plants, peas, beans, turnips, and other roots, flax, hemp, and hops, is not lai^ enough to dispense with the importation of these articles. About three fourths of the Germans are em- ployed in agriculture ; and many parts of the countrj' are crowded with small proprietors or tenants, who necessarily live in a state lower than that of hired lalrarers. Of the great bulk of the people the food is of the poorest kind — rj-e-bruad or potatoes ; and it is chiefly owing to this general misery tliat Germany can export com in most years. In bad seasons the dis- tress ia sometimes dreadful ; the agricultural popula- tion having no means of procuring foreign supplies — nothing to give in exchange for bread. Naturally, in accordance with climate and other physical circumstances, the production of wine and fruits (Obst-und- Wtinbau) is greater in the south and west than in the north and east. The districts on the Rhine, the Lower Maine, and the Neckar, are the best ; but, even in the south of Germany, there are districts, as in Old Bavaria, between the Inn and the Leech, that are less productive of fruit than even Mecklenburg and Brandenburg. In both quantity and quality, however, the south excels the north, where the best kinds of fhiit only ripen with difficulty. The principal places for the production of wine have been already noticed. The quantity is estimated at about 8,000,000 of timert, worth about 18,000,000 of Ihalert = about ^£3,000,000 sterling yearly. The cultivation of forest trees is now more scientifically practiced in Germany than in any other country', and the care of the govern- ment is now directed to the restoration of the forests, which, till recently, were completely neglected and left exposed to every kind of destructive agency. In all the States likewise, institutions for the promotion of agriculture, in all its branches, have been or are being formed. The relative proportions of ground oc- cupied in agriculture and other natural productions in the diflierent States is shown in the following table : BUM. tura. WiM. Qirdn. ln». d",;-;. •^~ Wo.«l ruid WhU. AostrU Prussia BararU Wartomberv. Baden ilease. Uecklenburg. ,i answIelL . . Nataau Baxony Ilanorer, 84-0 48-0 41-0 M-O 8S0 60-0 780 85'0 WO 1-3 0-5 0-4 1-6 I'S IT 1-0 1« 8-0 2-6 0.2 0-2 2H) 1-4 fii 6-5 14-0 12-S 9T 11-0 9-0 6-0 1&'5 110 60 6'2 6'4 12 2'S 80 60 26-0 24-0 80-6 80-8 82-0 88-6 80 82-0 40-0 26-0 16-0 18-5 9-0 T-0 8'0 11-7 80 6-0 2-0 2-8 40 460 TO Germany is suitable for the cultivation of all the kinds of useful plants that belong to the temperate zones ; and, owing to the equality of the climate, they are spread over all the country. The highlands of the middle region, as well as the northern lowlands, grow the different species of cereals ; and in the east- em part of the latter region there are tracts of land which will bear comparison with those that are called theigranary of Europe. Wheat, rye, barley, and oats are the cereals most generally cultivated ; but in some districts to these are added spelt, buckwheat, millet, cmmer (Triticum dicoccum), einkom {Triticum mnno- (Mcciim), and maize. The potato is largely cultivated, not merely for food, but for the purpose of diatUlation mto brandy. The following table shows the absolute qnantltlas (in English acres) of the ground so occupied : Meadoira. luid. WIlM. I Wood! Wd land. Koraata. Austria 16,822,812 8,217,162 802,110 416,782 18,S6fl,887 Prussia 118,867,681 8,074,181 498,9Se 88,421 8,S66,86S Bavaria 8,826,«41 2,689,024 218,86« 79,4871 6,622,17(1 Wnrtemberg. 2,048,H8» 686,869 He28 64,847 1,498,86S Baden 1,444,62.') 801,129 84,896 88,807 1,227,641 Elect. Hosao. 876,22s 28fl,7.^7 447,90t 78f 04S168 0. D. Iloase.. 976,861 266,881 866,898 28,841 «8,^107 Nassau 488,»9< 121,128 4,416 9,462 498,827 Saxony 1,S88,989 412,876 104,09(1 4,416 1,181,121 Weimar. 4H944 81,88(1 18,294 478 22.%214 CobufKOoths 278,887 84,696 T,6Tfl t • • . 140,046 Altenbnrg.. . . 212,697 28,972 10,124 • >• • 66,889 Melnlngen. . . 249,187 48,628 18,247 226,476 Hanover 2,752,418 1,600,184 168,488 1,802,08! Brnnswick. . . 840,08« 74,440 18,771 299,666 OWonbnrit... 464,989 186,190 27,126 .... 282,099 Mecklonb'K tichwurlii 2,242,261 28T,088 40,874 872,834 Mock. Strclitz 42.5,S2(I 48,628 7,87C 18,\888 Luxemburg. . l!Hl,«60 61,828 10,098 ijw 199,294 Llmburg..... 182,666 164,022 8,201 82,804 UoUteIn 1,40,S,79.S 816,686 28,284 .... 167,807 Lauenburg. . . 178,481 29,660 4,418 29,660 Other States. Total... 1,186,686 287,201 86,827 1,198 .•)92,727 90,861,61816.174,454 2,318,944 692,787 40,841,488 Great attention has been paid for the last 30 or 40 years to the breeding and rearing of all sorts of useful animals, and every encouragement and facility have l)een given by the governments to the improvements of tlie breeds. The following table, fVom Winder- lick's De.uttchland, shows the number of the prin- cipal tiindg of stock in the German States, in or about 1848: Btitei. Iloraei. Cillle. Sfceep. Rwln«. Austria Prussia Other BUtes.. |P ofofof 4,774,800 11,866,400 9,082,800 1,2116,200 1,271,000 8,044,800 Total.... 2,726,000 1^976,000 26.168,000 6,601,000 Mttali axui Afineralt. — The whole Austrian territory produces yearly alwut 7000 marks of gold, whereof Ave sixths in Hungar}' and Transylvania; silver, 180,000 marks, whereof three fifths in Hungary anil Transylvania ; copper, 16,000 centners, whereof four fifths in Hungary and Transylvania ; iron, 2,(JU0,000 centners, whereof only one seventh in Hungary and Transylvania ; quicksilver, 6000 centners ; lead, 110,- 000; cinnabar, 1000; zinc, 12,000; tin, 960; coal, 7,500,000; salt, 6,600,000; cobalt and nickel, '<;0,000; arsenic, 1800; sulphur, 18,000; alum and vitriol, 160,000; graphite, 85,000; and about as much sul- phuric acid. Of the German provinces, Bohemia produces silver, tin, iron, vitriol, and coal, tlic last equal to three fifths of the products of the whole em- pire; Austria and Styria produce half of the whole quantity of iron ; lUyria, the quicksilver and raa«t of the lead ; and GalUcia, most of the salt. Prussia.— No gold; 23,000 marks silver; 40,000 centners of lead ; 86,000 of copper ; 280,000 of zinc ; 7000 of smalt; 8860 of arsenic; 86,000 of vitriol; 4,500,000 of iron; 46,000,000 of stone-coal ; 11,000,000 of brown coal ; 1,760,000 of salt ; and stone quurries to the value of 1,600,000 thalers, ■»< ^£240,000. Silesia produces zinc, iron, coal, arsenic, vitriol, and sulphur; Saxony, silver, copper, iron, etc. ; the liliine provinces, iron and coal ; Westphalia, coal, and some metul ami salt. Nearly 8,000,000 tons of coal are extracted yearly from the coal-lleld on the bankn of tlio Uulir ; end 4 miles above Bonn are the large brown coal mines and alum works of Friesdorf. The produce of the other States amounts to al>out 60 marks of gold, and 125,350 marks of silver; 1,200,000 centners of iron ; and the various otiier articles above mentioned in comparatively small quantities. ifanufacturet In many branches of manufacturing industry the Germans have reached a high degree of excellence. QemMn linen is knowa to the whoU GEB 818 GEB world ; and the llneni of BUltfald and HllaiU In p«r> ticnlur are eqnally valued in Amartoa ai In Kun»|M, Of late years, however, the introdufitliin of aolUm, and tho high pricea obtained for corn, hava ton'laii greatly to lessen the cultivation of lUii, wliiitb wat ff*rm«i1y • pHnolpal staple of agricultural industry, and th« linen manufacture has suffered in consequence. 'I'll« fiillinf Ing tabta is given as a sumnuury of the trad« iit the Cuntoms Unioa in each of the six years IMtttlMMd, via, ! T«ui. POP^U- Vdiuof lupiirti. Vslwrf t/MM Total VtlM. Rate l^ad Colbn iBpnUO. Cdlton Yarn lmp«rl«l at 1I9)< par 100 PouDda ol Colloa. 1860 29,800,066 29,876,768 20,989,649 80,402,882 82,682,178 32674,265 UMut. 18l,«n«,IS4 186,604,781) lu«;48l,«;iT 208,9UI,U89 269,110,058 81bT»4,»TB iT'f,u4iriiA l<>0,OM),»O| m,m,m 8»4,tA0TIIA no* 607 411 iJUkt,. — T4,««4,440 M,T!I7,»S0 |OA,%!l^40l» l2l(lT«i7(Ki l«7flM>0 Uullan 4tW,«H 1,700 447,739,840 471,106,001 r.*l,,• Splriulng and wuavtng, . . , , , , , , , Spinning and weaving. .,..,.,. . Hplnning and waaviog, , , , , . 1 , , , Weaving ...,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, Calleu nianufiwiturit, .,,,.,, ,1,/ , Spinning ,,,,,, Spinning and wosf ing Spinning and waaving, , ,, , Spinning and weaving. ,,,,,,,./ Hplnning and weaving, ,,,,,,,, , Hplnning and weaving, ,,,,,,,,. Hplnning, weaving, and prIhIiHg, Spinning..,,, ,,,.,,,,.,,,. Hplnning a nd wea vlon, ,.,,,,.,, 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II 1 1 1 1 1 III I WamiiH tio,onn 30,000 «0,OIIO M,nnn 12,000 (M,ooo 80,000 ««,oon 80,0)10 IHI,000 13,000 WJm 4,000 16,000 Marnttarof Waavlaa l.ootnfl. 1100 9TS 'mo 26" Caaiui of Sharia tuutd. Klorlai. 1,200,000 660,000 1,08S,000 B,Ono,flOO 604,000 $1,200,000 1,600,000 1,20(1,000 $1,00(1,000 1,000,000 600,000 2,000,000 700,000 620,000 700,000 $1,000,000 1,060,000 $1,200,000 400,000 $600,000 Capital of-ohleli paid up. Par Can I. All All All IB All Projected 60 All All BO 20 All All All All 20 80 28 AU Dlvldandi in iflss-'se. ViV None "t 14t Cammmtrce. — The commerce of Qarmany has alwuya been extensive ; Ijut tlie abolition of tlm liiiiiiiiiitrahlM state custom-houses and tolls, and tlw luilg'UOlltiniUtil peace, have given an iininenso impulse U) Its aottvitv, Germany exports corn and tiniiier tu Kngliind and tlw Netherlands; linen to Spain, Portugal, i'uland, Uu*' »l«i America, and Africa; woolen cloth to Western Aalrt, (tnd even to China; iron wares to every port of Ktimps ; and lead to France. Tlie exportation of fat iJAtlle to Kngland is also becoming a great trade. Large fairs are held twice or thrice a year in Leipzig, tlw two Fraiikforts, and Brunswick. See Fairs. An Accoust suowiho thk I'iioi'obtiom oc tuk l(8»w»ifM ii¥ TUB (l»SM/m Customs Union raibid in tok' Dii'rBKEn BTATM HE8PECTIVFLV, IS THR Yb»B 1851, AVP TH8 llMlf «iai)tl(ll» YUnHROV AOCOSmKU TO 1'OPUI.ATIOK.* StAlei. Popalallan, Amount of «<,mm»n aroai moipla. li»twn4iiU««, lElport And IraiMll iliill<-i flatahl* 1" ^a.-h 1(at« afr.irillnir lo lla papulation [mport, Alport, and transit dutlvipavable tn piwh Htalp, arronlinK lo tto pfiitutntion. Balance dn« to or from the common tnai which each Stale hai had To pay. To receive. Prussia 16,669,153 189,788 4,620,6.10 1,804,431 1,803,M8 ],8«fl,599 781,684 862.917 1.014,9.'>4 247,070 425,686 29,728,885 Tlial«n.» 16,572,020 77,114 1,210,680 2,119.847 848.,Vi7 K/lfiif, 488,046 412.808 801,798 880, 14J) T4,8»9 861,4*3 32,545,687 ThaNrj, W,IMT,47« l»,4tfl< «iM,«tfl J,Wft,3aT HM,4>>a (1411,266 mm tWI,7»il iM«;>iiA TI,»lo " gO,flfl«,«4rt \iimm fl,OMAI« 1,274,161 1.214,8^7 «lft,llfi mm 166.176 »1fl.«0» -rhalcra. 344,208 8,341 68,468 39,786 31,825 16,070 8.611 10.193 16,981 8,684 6,038 -DiAlan. 11,455,686 129,816 8,099,009 1,808,897 1,286,712 981,185 500,693 690,576 698,671 169,709 391,889 Thalera, 8,111,161 TSis'toi <»°289 649^541 Thaleri. 186,oil 3,166,031 899J66 6H009 ' 157,434 1 191,871 806,489 219391 4,610,763 1 i ... ,1 Luxemburg Saxony Wurtemborg Iloasc-Cnssol IIosse-Dnrnistadt. Thurlntilan States. Brunswick Frankfort, t Total ~4i6.8orbed in Oldenburg t Iifl847, Anhalt^Atbm bNWM annaxad to Anhalt-Oesaau i and in 184V, tb« two princes of IlohencoUem abdicated the governmant of tlielr iitatei in fkvor of their kinsman, the king of I'russta. Co)^e oration Is represented by the Diet, wtiloh U cimipiHied of the plenipotentiaries of all the Stat««, and Is tha constitutional organ of its will and action | but tha Diet has no power' of self-action, the planl|Nit«ntlarlas that compose it acting only according to the special Instructions of their rcs|>ectlvH suverelgns | and there is no central executive govenunent t4) carry Its reso- lutions into effect. In fact, It has Iteen found that there is no power of Insuring the combined airtinn of the members for any object or purjiosa wlintever, either civil or military; though, having many Intentst* In common, and the territories of the smaller Htates, In multifarious parcels, being so Internilnglsit that with most of them separate action would be Inipimsllilc, they naturally follow the same course of polli'y, nidillllad by the influence of the powerful nulghbors at whosa merey they would seem to lie. The management of the ordinary business of the bund Is Intrusted to an ordinary and permanent Diet, at wlikh the plenipo- tentiary of Austria presides ; but there are only 17 votes to be divldrd among the HA Ktiitits, Austria, Prussia, and the larger Htates having one each, and only six being allotted to the smaller Htates and citlea. When fundamental laws are to Iw made or changed, when measures are to be taken that relate to the fed- eral act itself, when changes of organlo Instltutlona or other arrangements of general interest are tn b« adopted, when war or peace Is to b« made, or when a new member is to be admitted, the DIat iHrcomei a general assembly, h plenum, in whieb 7U votes wen orginally distributed among the niemlwrs in classes, Austria, Prussia, Bavaria, Haxony, Hanover, and Wurtemberg, having each 4 i live others having each 3 ; three having each 2 ; and the smaller Htntus each 1 vote. The Diet holds its sittings ut l''rankfort-on-tlio- Maine, and has ostensibly ut Its dls|Hwal, In terms of the federal act, a numerous arniy,.of whose constitu- tion and efficiency we have already given an account in the article Kuroph. Da» KumpaUche Slaafen Hj/item, ate,, Von Dr. Heinbich Bbroiiads; vol, iv, of his Altf/emeine Lander und Volkerkunde ; Diu Deulufhf ImiiiI lind teine Bewoher, Von Caki, WlMliKUI,li:il, l^lpiilg, 1862; DeuttchUind uml ilni ubrif/e Kumixi, Von l)r, Freiiierr FRiGrinicii Wii.hkim Von Kkiikn, Wies- baden, 1854; UnieeriiU l^zikun, etc,, Von II. A. PiEnip, Vierteb Hand, Altenburg, lN5n, articles DEOwciii.Axn, etc. — W. .1. & J, I,-_ik, See Ht;NT's Afag., Ix., 1)99, xl., 4»1, xlv., 159, 227, xv., 225; Wettm.Rev., Iv., 277; Edinb. Hev.,\x%\x., 64; Living Age, xxx., 281); Fur. Quar., xxii,, «(«); Hr. and for. Rev., iv., 169 ; ff. Am. Rev,, II. (K, Kvkhktt), 1, vill., 55. Oerman Silver, sometimes called white copper, or pakfong, is an alloy composed generally of copper, zinc, and nickel, the proportion varying nccordlng to circumstances. When tlioy are Intended Ms u substi- tute for silver, they are ; copper, 60 parts ; nickel, 26 ( and zinc, 25 in the 100. But the pro|Hirtlons in the genuine German sliver urn us follows ! copper, 40.'! ; nickel, 31.0; zinc, 25.4 ; iron, 2,0, Oeropiga, or Jerapiga, a factitious liquor Im- ported from Portugal, and used in the adulteration of wine. A pipe (about 106 gallons) of this conitKiund la said by Mr. Consul Johnston (o contain about 1)6 gaW A;-,. OHE 816 GIB / Ions of brandjr at 25 degreea over proof, the other con- (tltuenta being coloring and sweetening mattura and unferraented grape-Juloe, But the proportion of aplr- Its and the description of the other ingredients which enter into its composition, and which are sometimes of • very noxious characfnr, vary very ^videly in differ- ent aamplea. Generally, however, giropiga may be said to be strong, sweet, and high-colored. Besides being mixed with port, sherr}-, and other wines, it is substituted in various beverages, espacially in the United States, for spirits and sugar. This villainous compound is allowed to be imported at the same duty as wine, provided the proof spirits in it do not exceed SB per cent, of its quantity. It is also permitted to be mixed in the bonded warehouses in the doclts with wine in the same proportions relatively to its strength as brandy ; that is, when it is only half the strength of the latter, double the quantity may be used, and so on. This license has been much, and, as we think, justly, objected to. There can, of course, b« no check, and, perhaps, no good objection, to the compounding of wines in I'ortugul ; but one nhould think that the fiicilities for adulteration in the shops of the dealers are here quite enough without legitimating the practice in the docks. It is difficult, indeed, to see what purpose can be served by this indulgence, unless it l)e to execute and facilitate the commission of fraud. Gercpiga being confounded in Portugal with brandy and here with wine, the quantity exported from the former and imported into the latter is not easily ascertained. It appears, how- ever, that in 1848, 481 pipes were sliipped from Oporto for England, and 1063 pipes for the United States. See Parliamentary paper. No. 814, Session 1855, etc. Ohee, a kind of butter much used by the natives of India. It is prepared by boiling fresh-/ be preserved for many months. Ghee is an article of considerable commercial import- ance in many parts of India, though from its atrong smell and flavor it is considered unpalatable by Euro- peans. See Butter. Ohent (Lat. Ganda ; Fr. Gand ; Flem. Gend; Ger. Gent), a city of Belgium, standing on the Rivers Scheldt and Lys, whose numerous brunches traversing the town form canals in all directions, and so intersect each other as to partition the town into 26 islands, which are connected by 42 largo and 46 small bridges. The number of fine promenades forms another striking and pleasing feature of Ghent. Of these the most re- markable is the Coupure, formed by rows of trees extending along the Bruges Canal. In general, the town is well built, and occupies a larger area than most European towns, in proportion to the number of houses and the population. The general aspect of the city, without being highly picturesque, is very agreeable, The cotton manufacture is extensively carried on in Ghent, employing about £1,800,OOU of capital, engag- ing upward of 20,000 persons, and annually producing •bout 1,000,000 pieces of plain and printed calicoes. Sugar-refining is also extensively carried on. The other important manufactures are common and talile linens, flannels, aerges, woolen cloths, silks, ribbons, lace, thread, liosiery, wax-cloth, oil, chemicals, armor, mathematical, physical, and surgical instrument, hard- ware, bronze, and crystal, carriages, paper, tobacco, blue, atarch, delft, etc. The important branches of trade are in com, oO, seed, Flemish linens, and Wine About 20,000 pieces of linen are exposed for sale evei^ Friday ; and the annual fairs are very numerously fre- quented, besides the horse-fairs held in mid-lent and on 23d July. The great general fair is held in August. The governor of the province resides in Ghent, which is also the seat of a tribunal of first resort, as well as of a court of appeal, which has jurisdiction over all the province of Flanders. Ghent also gives title to a bishop, and is the head-quarters of the first of the four divisions of the army of Belgium. From 1792 to the overthrow of the power of Napoleon, Ghent was the capital of the department of the Scheldt. In 1814 Flanders became part of the kingdom of the Nether- lands ; and the same year the treaty of peace was signed here between Great Britain and the United States, which put an end to the war of 1812-16. In 1815, on the return of Napoleon from Elba, Louis XVIII. took refuge in Ghent; and in the revolution of 18!)0, tids city, with the rest of Flanders was com- prised in the new kingdom of Belgium. The cit}' seems now a; prosperous as ever, and is increasing in popu- lation as well as in all the elements of wealth and power. Ghent is in lat. 51° 3' 12"N., long. 3° 43' 51" E., at the intersection of the railways connecting Lille with Antwerp, and Ostend with Malines, from which towns it is respectively distant 42, 32, 38, and 38 miles. The population in 1851 waa 106,704. Gibraltar, a famous fortress near the southern- most extremity of Spain, and contiguous to the nar- rowest part of the Strait, to which it gives its name, joining the Atlantic and Mediterranean. Lat. 36° 6' 80''^N., long. 5° 21' 12" W. It is situated on tlie west aide of a rocky mountain or promontory, the Mont Calpe of the ancients, projecting into the sea, in a aontherly direction, about three miles, l)eing from one half to three quartera of a mile in width. The south- ernmost extremity of the rock is called Europa Point. Its northern side, fronting the isthmus which connects it with Spain, is almost perpendicular, and wholly in- accessible ; the east and south sides are so rugged and precipitous as to render any attack upon them,'even if they were not fortified, next to impossible ; so tliut it is only on the west side, fronting the bay, where the rock declines to the sea, and the town is built, that it can be attacked with the least chance of success. Here, however, the strength of the fortifications, and the magnitude of the batteries, are such, that the fortress seems to l)e impregnable, even though attacked by an enemy having the comnund of the sea. It was taken by the English in 1704, but the fortifications were then very inferior to what they are at present. Toward the end of the American war, it was attacked by a most formidable armament, fitted out jointly by Spain and France ; but the strength of the place, and the bravery of the garrison, defeated all the efforts of the combined powers. Population about 16,000, exclusive of the troops, which usually amount, in time of peace, to about 3,000. Ti-ade. — Gibraltar is of considerable consequence as a commercial station. Being a free port, suliject to no duties, and few restrictions, she is a convenient entre- put for the English and other foreign goods destined for the suppi}', principally through illegitimate chan- nels, of tlie. contiguous Spanish provinces. Its im- portance, in this respect, increased rapidly during the 10 years ending with 1840 ; so much so, that while the declared value of the various articles of British pro (1 06 ; the current dollar being estimated at ^ hard dollars = 70 cents. Keals and quarters of both hard and current dollars an the same, being, the former, =4^,, and the latter 1 l-12d. Accounts are kept in current dollars (pesos), divided into 8 reals of 10 quartos each ; 12 reals currency make a cob or hard dollar, by which goods are bought and said ; and 8 of these reals are considered equal to 5 Spanish reals vellon. Gibraltar draws on London in effetive dollars of 12 reals, and Tx>ndon on Gibraltar in current dollars of S reals. The exchange of Gibraltar and Cadiz, and other cities of Spain, is in hard dollars at a per centage, which varies considerably, and mostly in favor of Gib- raltar. Weightt and ifeamret are those of England, except ing the arrolxi, = 26 lbs. English. Grain is sold by the fanega, 6 of which moke 1 Winchester quarter. Wine is sold by the gallon, 100 of which are equal to 109'4 English wine gallons. Tlie commercial relations lietween the United States and Gibraltar are regulated by enactment of tlie im- perial Parliament, and are bunlened with but few re- strictions, beyond the usual port charges, harbor and police regulations, quarantine laws, and a tariff of duties wMch comprehend not more than five or six ar .:.v.^: '.'!'4lC^^^ .'jira'jiii"**.- OIB •ir Gm .ax except I by the Wine [> 109-4 SUtes the im- few re- Mr and ,riff of sixar tides of Import. Of late yearn, the general navigation and commerce of Gibraltar have gradually decreased, owing mainly to the fact that the Mediterranean and I^evant marlieta, which heretofore chiefly supplied their wants from Gibraltar importations of Kast and West Indian and United States' produce, now import direct from the places of growth ; thus diverting from that port the large importations which, in former years, constituted Gibraltar the great d6p6t for all foreign produce destined not only for these markets but also for the markets of Spain and Portugal. Other causes have also contributed to bring about this general de- cline in the trade and commerce of Gibraltar. In former years, the commercial prosperity of this fortress depended largely on the success of smuggling into Spain ond Portugal — a business which for many years gave brisk and highly remunerative employment to a great number of small vessels under 100 tons' burden, and augmented the amount of foreign importation largely beyond the ordinary demands for home con- sumptions or legitimate commerce. This trade having become too hazardous, is now altogether abandoned, so that the commerce of Gibraltar may be said to be lim- ited to the actual retail wants of the fortress, and the demands of an unimportant trade with the adjacent coast of Barbary, The following tablo exhibits the tonnage and number of vessels from the United States, arriving at and clearing from Gibraltar during the years 1852, 1863, and 1854 : TIASS. INWARD, OUTWARD, DIRECT FOR THK UNITED ITATES. V«ueli. Tonnft(;e. Viiaittli. ' TuniUMre, 1858 ; 1868 18M . 80 65 7,321 5,242 12,189 61 i 19T6T None, 1 None, 1 1 197 1 Total 110 1 24.753 68 1 19,964 1 The value of the exports and imports from and to the United States and Gibraltar, during two years, will be seen from the following table : Import* from OlbrRlur. |61,7St 69,678 Yran. 1858... 1864... Eiportl to OlbrRlUr. (236,014 627,772 Total, 768,7S6 121,457 It will be perceived from the above tables that our exports in 1854 more than doubled those of the pre- ceding year. This is accounted for by the increasing demand for articles of American produce and manufac- ture, to keep up the supplies for the coasting trade of Gibraltar, chiefly with the Barbary States and the eastern and western coasts of Spain and Portugal. The merchandise which constitutes the groat bulk of our exports to Gibraltar is of the growth and produce of the United States, and, with the few exceptions al- ready adverted to, is admitted free of duty. Yet, not- withstanding this exemption from all import duties, and the great increase of our exports in 1854 over those of 1853, the United States' consul at Gibraltar, in a recent dispatch, informed the Department of State that " Gibraltar does not offer any greater advantages to the merchants of the United States in the sending out of produce, merchandise, or articles of any kind, than other markets of Europe ; indeed it has been of late years a very insignilicant market, and offers very little encouragement for any extensive operations." Navigation and Commerce. — The number of sailing vessels entered and cleared at the port of Gibraltar in 1864, either for commercial operations or for supplies, was 8017, with an aggregate tonnage of 698,718 tons. In 1853, this general movement comprised 4899 ves- sels, with an aggregate tonnage of 801,976 tons, show- ing a decrease for 1854 of 482 vessels and 103,262 tons. Compared with 1853, the increase was chiefly with Spain, Morocco, Sardinia, the United States, and Tus- cany ; and the diminution with all other countries, but more notably with England, Russia, and Turkey. Thn increase in the movements between Gibraltar, Spain, and Portugal was owing to the tact that man^ vessels being unablo, by reason of political diflicultiei, to prosecute their voyage to the Black Sea, entered the ports of these two kingdoms freighted only with salt. Besides, the exportation of grain ftom the porta of Spain was larger than in former years. The In- crease with Morocco was attributed to the privilcg* then granted of exporting grain from that regency. The decrease with England, Russia, and Turkey, is ex- plained by the interruption which the war occasioned to the general commerce of the Black Sea. Vessels of the United States, as well as those of all other na- tions, are exempt from tonnage duties or taxes in the port of Gibraltar. They are subject only to a small impost, called "■ light daties," of 60 cents each vessel, for support of the light-house erected on Enropa Point, and also to the following rates of anchorage dues. [Vessels of war of all nations are exempt from all port charges]. Btinsrc-riKied Toasol, with three mssts ..each $10 00 Brlg-rlj[go(I voMol " 8 00 Schooner, nloop, etc. " 600 Small coostlnjf-vossel " 4 00 A particular description of the merchandise import- ed from the United States, with a corresponding tabla of duties, will be found annexed. Hum, whisky, spirits, etc., in casks, whether in bottles or otherwise, if the full contents of the casks shall exceed 10 gal- lons: CtnU. Botasss each 60 Pipe, or butt, or puncheon .. . . " 43 Hegahead . " SH Tloroe " 14 Quartnr-cask <* lOi Cask loss than a quarter-cask, being liable to the wbarbge toll " 5} Tobacco, in hogsheads or kegs, as commonly im- ported from the United States of America, or in rolls, as imported from Brazil, viz. : Hogshead each 48 Keg or roll not exceeding H cwt " 8i Boil or keg, ftom IJ— a cwt " 5i Koll or keg, from 2—5 cwt " 18^ Kegs exceeding 2 cwt., nnd rolls exceeding 6 cwt., to pay wharfage each ns hull' a hogshead ; and, in case of disputes, the tobacco is to be weighed at the expense of the merchant. Gibraltar, Bai/ of, or as it is sometime called, Alge- cina Bay, is bounded by the rock of Gibraltar on the one side, and the head-land of Cabrita on the other. Its greatest length is about eight miles from north to south, its greatest width about Ave miles from east to west, and its circuit nearly 40 miles. Its depth in the centre is about 110 fathoms. In spring tides the wa- ter rises in the bay about four feet. Algeciras, from whose name the bi^y is sometimes called, is a fortified Spanish town on the west side of the bay, over against Gibraltar. Near it is the beautiful little island called Isla Verde, Green Isle. Gibrttltar, Straits of, the narrow channel which sep- arates the south of Spain from the north of Africa. The width at the narrowest part, between Cabrita Point and the opposite shore, is 13 miles. We have an excellent chart of the Straits by Don Vincente Teftno de San Miguel, with the additional observations of Captain II. W.- Sm}-th, K. N., from which it appears that there is a continual current ffowing from the ocean in the middle of the Straits, which has a velocity var}-ing from three *o six r^iles per hour, and is 3^ miles in breadth. There are t>ro lateral currents, which have a mean breadth each oi 2\ miles ; but they change their direction with the changes of the tide. At the time of ebb tliese lateral currents have a veloc- ity equal to that of tlie central one. The depth of the Strait, in the meridian of Cape St. Vincent, is 100 fath- oms ; but, in passing upward, the channel regularly and rapidly deepens, until, opposite to Europa Point at Gibraltar, the depth of water Is 1000 fathoms. It is •vl OIL 818 GIL Nmarkable, that thongh ths oceanic camnt at the Stralta, and that of the Boiphorua at the UardanallM, oontiniully pour their waters into the Mediterranean, ita level ia not ralaed. But Dr. Ilalley, long ago, ■hov:ed that the evaporation trom iti lurface wai fully equal to maintain it at the iama level, notwithstand- ing those additions, and timt of tho rivers it received, Tlie current is sufflcientiy strong to lje dangerous to vessels sailing Into the Atlantic, and ran only ha over- come by a brisk wind from the Levant. CoMMiaoa or tri Uhitmo Htatis with Oiisaltab, raoM OcToaia 1, 1810, to July 1, 18M, Tiara <»llD( Iiportb ta|iorU. Wkaraof Uim ww In Bullloa ud l|iaoU. Toanaf* Clffand. OomuUr. I roNlfa. Tout. Tolsl. (iporM. ImporM. AamUu. Fnralga. Bept,80, 1831 1821 1818 1824 181S 1816 1827 1898 1829 1880 Total.... BeptSO, 1881 1882 1988 1834 1886 1886 188T 18t8 1880 1840 Total.... BeptSO, 1841 IMl linos 1848 JanaSO, 1M4 1S46 1846 1847 1848 1949 1860 Total.... June 80, 18.M 1869 1868 1854 1886 1866 $966,111 696,708 876,604 034,401 861,788 692,896 1,010.999 899,411 801,181 818.148 $818,688 6i^074 1,028,272 0M,446 941,981 l,06^826 864,387 606,719 160,180 870,160 $1,469,746 1,160,781 1,908,876 1,868,847 1,808,714 1,747,911 l,90^886 1,406,180 461,962 888,898 $1,134,268 490,878 477,769 693,844 748,646 677,806 828,963 666,678 347,471 90,028 W9,l»0 ^ooo 8,804 1,110 146,187 10,800 8,000 86,000 10,671 69,880 $608,810 88,661 181,698 811,871 101,704 89;378 87,891 68,708 7,880 20,984 1^847 22,988 17,288 30,863 24,148 20,790 26,446 8,701 18,480 V.ioi 684 931 68 91 $7,60(S7M $429,087 428,833 678,076 606,708 668,681 686,198 861,081 609,818 802,347 643,»t4 $7,000,318 $166,786 18^074 164,670 188,786 966,000 99M77 108.870 162,871 148,887 267.110 $14,601,061 $894,873 618,907 787,616 790,488 818,681 860,876 664,901 761,189 1,060,684 900,464 $6,168,686 $160,817 270,868 182,608 100,691 160,200 246,978 107,178 1^614 99,178 89,867 $809,343 $30,000 88,616 800 74,988 6,697 17,034 9,698 9,866 $1,689,8(16 $8,600 8,320 3,800 94,947 4,460 ■"888 "460 206,469 11,703 14,989 18,811 12,998 1M94 14,523 10,887 11,496 18,861 11,813 2,766 "481 1,870 690 400 1,120 1,873 1,911 3,164 877 $8,642,919 $1,020,931 466,987 318,861 602,462 426,107 463,141 866,860 810,4)10 728,819 186,807 $2,061,180 $08,989 11^9A1 88,197 77,421 168,664 130,661 M,0S6 61,646 78,467 60,481 $7,691,049 $1,119,920 682,898 366,448 679,883 689,671 893.892 420,886 871,946 802,286 946,789 fiiiiliil 1 $171,484 $liS3i8 8,460 47,890 44,648 9,790 16,920 18,038 41,088 $49,676 $20,878 18,471 13,331 184,771 17,868 13,118 6,941 13,873 11,691 '8!3i9 9,836 13,139 7,660 10,780 791 1,76S 1,668 2,413 1,097 ijis 779 1,840 806 13,461 1,063 1,802 1,380 624 1,802 118 $4,688,816 $177,004 329,802 169,414 446,448 328,868 372,623 $62,629 49,167 06,670 81,827 128,879 66,403 $6,668,118 $230,433 27^769 186,014 627,772 848,744 429,016 $398,886 $73,604 106,9.^3 61,784 60,678 66,641 88,126 $196,086 $6,,'SS0 16,000 44..'i00 12,741 26,400 $46^671 V,876 101,033 8.900 7,679 6,242 12,189 S,063 10,MO Olid, or Oulld, a company of merchants or man- afacturers, whence the halls of such companies are denominated Gild or Guild Halls. See Guild. Oilding. First practiced at Rome, about 145 B. c. The Capitol was the flrat building on which this en- richment was bestowed I'linii. Of gold leaf for gilding, tho Romans made but 750 leaves, 4 fingers square, out of a whole ounce. — Pliny. It consequent- ly was more like onr plating. — Truster. A single grain of gold may now be stretched out under the hammer into a leaf that will cover a house. — Dr. Hal- ley. Gilding with leaf gold on boh fimmomac was first introduced by Margaritnne, in 1273. The art of gild- ing on wood, previously known, was improved In leSO.— Haydn. Gilding is the application of a superficial coat of gold on wood, metal, and other materials. The beau- ty and durability of gold render it the most valuable of all ornamental substances ; but, on account of its weight and high price, its nse in these respects wonld be exceedingly limited, were it not the most extensi- ble and divisible form of matter, so that it may be made to cover a larger surface than an equal quantity of any other body. Metals are usually covered with gold liy the process of tnater gilding. It consists in perfectly cleaning their surface, and then, in the case of silver, for instance, rubbing it over with a solu- tion of gold in mercury, called amalgam of gold : the vessel is then heate- sequently applied, to adhere ; heating and burnishing are then resorted to as before. Brass and copper but- tons are gilt in this way; and tho requisite quantity of gold is so small that twelve dozen buttons of one inch diameter may be completely gilt upon both sur- faces by five grains of gold. Other kinds of gilding are performed by gold leaf, which, if intended for out- door work, is laid on by the help of gold tize, which is drying oil mixed with calcined red ochre ; or, if for picture and looking-glass fVames, they are prepared by a size made by boiling parcliment clippings to a stiff jelly, and mixed with fine Paris-plaster or yellow ochre. The leaves of books are gilt upon the e forth, tmrit been gilt by a proceia in Whlnh, after th* artlclM have lienn properly cleansed by a w«ak asld, thoy are Immerneil In a hot solution or nitnvmurlata nf Knid, to which a considerable ex- e«H of bluarhonata iif potash has lieen added ; In the OOUfM ut n ftiw seconds they thus receive a beautiful and pemMnent coat of itotd. OUaad-trM, tha Balaun of (Amyria gllead- «nal«), la a native of Arabia, and growi spontaneously In thw mountalna nf Yemen. Although not indige- nous to Judea, It was cultlvateer- nnt buds, loaded with aromatic resin. The great value set upon this drutf In the East is traced to the oarlltiat agv*. Whim Aloxnndur the Great was in iTudeii, a spoonful of the balsam was all that could be oalleiited on a summer's day i and. In the most plenti- ful year, the ((rent royal park for these trees yielded only six Kniliins, It was consequently so dear that It mild fur double Its weight in silver. That of the liest iiuallty la aald to exude naturally, but the infe- rior kinda ut the present day are extracted by boiling tim branchaa. It la at tlrst turidd and white, of a •trong, pungent, ngreoable, aromatic odor, and of a •llgtitiv liltter, ncid toate ; upon being kept. It becomes lliln, limpid, of a greenish hue, then of a golden yel- low, iind nt length of the consistency of honey. This tiiilaiim Is lilgliTy prltrd among eastern nations, par- tli'ulitrly liy tiio Turks titiA Aralis, both as a medicine mid nn odorlfvraua unguent and cosmetic. It has b««n highly extolled aa a powerful anti-septic, vul- nerary, and provontlvo of the plague. Its great •carclty, huwevar, has prevented it from coming into use niniing K.iirnpean and American practitioners. It is «xtr(et up In a pyramidal form, and fumialied at top with a tackle wlilcli la worked by n windlaaa beneath. The name gin la alao applied to a machine with which the flbrea of cotton are dlaentnnKM, by meana of a ierloa of revolving apikea. Thla operation la termed ffinnlng. Sue Cottom MANurAcrunis. OHngar (der. Inwrr; Du. (Irmher; Vr. Gngembn; h. Xrnten) ; Sp. Jtnjihrf ; Agtngibre ; Kua. Inhiv ; Lot. Xlttj/iberi I'era. Zungfottlj Arab. Zingibetl), the roots of a plant (^Amomum Zingibtr), a native of the Eaat Indlea and China, but which raa early carrle:l while gingrr i while the Inferior roota, which are acalded in boiling water before being dried, aro denominated blofk ginger. Preserved ginger la made by acalding the green roota, or the roots taken up when they are young and full of sap, till they are tender ; then peel- ing them in cold water, and putting them into a thin •yrup, from which they are ahtfted into the Jan in which they come to us, and a rich syrup poured over them. Dried ginger has a pungent, aromatic odor, and a hot, biting taste. It is imported in bags, each containing al)Out a cwt. The white bringi the higheat price, Iwing more pungent and lietter ltavore<). The external characters of goodness in lioth sorts of dried ginger aro, soundness, or the being free from worm boles, heaviness, and llrmnesa ; the pieces that are ■mall, light, and soft, or very friable and fihroUs, should be rejected. The liest preserved ginger is nearly translucent ; it should be chosen of a bright yellow color; rejecting that which is dark-colored, flbrous, or stringy. — Milbuhm's Orient. Commerce! TllOMSON'a Ditpentatorg. The ginger plant could without doubt !« grown to advantage in many of the southern States, The amount uf ginger annually Imported into the United States Is valued at upward of «elow the upper limit of the •urToanlUng Tegetation. The following •ft Um irnonjniu for • gladw io aoine diffenitt Un- guages and dUlacta: In French, glacier / Oerman, glelKheri Italian, ghiaccityaf Tyrolese, ferni in (Ja- rinthia, il:>]cttcr atudiod than In Switxerlund and Savoy. The icy niaas of the glacier of Iloaaons ut Chaniounl — which deacends immediately from the highest part uf Mont Illanc, liut lies, aunmiur and winter, in the valley at a height of no more lliun II500 Engliah feet (the height of perpetual anow living alwut UOOO feet), where it Is emlwsomed among luxuriant wood, and is almost iu contact with com-flelda — exhib- its a apectacle which nime who have once seen it can forget, and which attracts mure iniereat and curiosity the mure carefully it la cuiiaidored. The lower glacier of (irindnlwalil, deacending to IMOO feet, U another familiar example uf the aame phenomenon. In the arctic regions true glaclora alao exiat, which, descvnd- lug the valleya (often uf groat width and little inclina- tion\ enter the sea, and, breaking off, supply the "■outing Ice-islanda or icelierga, wliich frequently drift into comparatively low latitudes. These glaciers do not essentially differ flnim tlinae of Alpine countries. The diniinutiun uf temperature as we ascend the blopes of mountains, is indicated by successive tones of veget.ition, and Anally by the occurrence of perpetual anow, Thoa in the high mountains uf the AnJea and Himalaya, littwoon the tropica, the commencement of perpetual snow la found at (Vom 15,000 to 18,000, or even 19,000 feet, according to circumatances ; while In aouthera Europe, the level la from 8UU0 to 0000 feet, and in Norway (Vum 6500 tu UOOO feet, according to the latitude and the diatunce from the aea. It was first shown by Ilaron Humboldt and Vun Uuch that the limit of perpetual snow depends principally un the temperature of the summer, and not upon that of the wliole year. It has been ulraady explained that an accumulation of snow, oven ftro .en anow, dues not constitute properly a glacier. A glacier is a mass of ice, having its origin in the hollows of mountains where perpetual snow accumulates, but which makes its way down tuward the lower valleys, where it gradually melts, and it terminates exactly where tho melting, duo to tl:e contact of the warmer air, earth, and rain of the valley, compensates fur the bodily descent of the ice fmni the snow reservoirs of the higher mountains. From this it is evident, without any formal measurements, thiit A olacikr is iub ix MOTION. Geographical Dittribution o/ Glaciers, — Glaciers aro not peculiar to any countr}' or region of the earth. It may be that there are extensive snowy mountains wholly devoid of them, as is supposed to lie the case in tropical South America; but oven this exception requires confirmation. There are peculiarities in the form of mountains, and still more in climate, which, as we shall see, favor the formation of glaciers, or may even totally prevent it. «}laagO«r, a great commercial and manufacturing city uf Lanarlishire, in Scotland, situated ontlie north- em bank of tho River Clyde. According to the deter- mination uf Dr. Wilson, the latitude and longitude of the Macfarlane Observatory, in the college garden of Glasgo*, are 65° 51' 82'' N., and 4P 17' 61" W. Glasgow is therefore nearly eight miles further south, and 1° 1' further west. The diflference between the clocks in Edinburg and Glasgow is 4° 27' 4". Glasgow owes its present greatness to its advan- tageous situation on a fine river, in one of the richest coal and mineral districts of tho empire. Originally, however, the Clyde was much incumbered by funis and shallows, and for a lengthened period it served rather to excite and disappoint expectation, ttian to confer any real commercial advantage on the citv OLA 821 GLA advan- richest ginuUy, \y funis served than to le citv In 1663, after Mveral other schemeo had fnllod, the muKliitrates of Olnii|[nw purchaud the K'ound on which I'ort Glasgow (16 miles down the river) now stands, where they formed a hnrhor and a graving dock, the flrst work of Its kind In Scotland. For a conalderalde period the intercourse Iwtween Glasgow and its newly-acquired port was principally carried on by land carriage ; but from 1065 attempts were every now and then made to deepen the Mver. In lflH8 a quay was formed at the Droomielaw i but even so late OS 1775 no vessel drawing six fact of water could reach Glasgow, except ot spring tides. At length, however, a plan, proposed In 17C9 by Mr. Oolburn, engineer of Chester, for deepening the river to seven feet at neap tides, was adopted, since which time, by the continued use of numerous dredging machines a depth of tmm 16 to 18 feet of water at high water neaps haa been ol>- talned. In the year ending the noth June, 186-1, 25 ships drawing 18 feet of water, and ■! drawing 10 feet, camo safely to the Broomlclaw, while the largest steam vessel afloat, the Periia, of 6,600 tons' liurden, was launched In 1855 into the river, alraut one mile below Glasgow, and came up to the liarlwr to receive hor machinery. The work of deepening and straight- ening the river Is still vigorously prosecuted. Six dredging machines and two diving bells are in constant employment. The river, for seven miles below the city, is very much widened, and fonns nearly n straight line — the sloping bunks, formed of whinstone, being constructed in imitation of ashlar. The accommoda- tion for shipping at the Kroomlclaw, or harbor, is now also very greatly extended. It comprises about 48 acres of water. The quays extend al>out two miles In length, are amply furnished with sheds for goods, cranes, etc., and have the important advantage of being directly connected, by means of the General Terminus Line, with the various railways that centre in the city. The parllumentiir}' tnistccs for manag- ing the river have, also, acquired ground on the north side of the harbor, on which they have power to con- struct extensive docks. They ma}', also, construct a basin on the south side. The total expenditure on the river and harbor, In- cluding works, purchases of ground, etc., down to 1854, wos above X2,000,000, of which about .£1,600,000 has been raised as revenue. The influence of these improvements on the shipping and trade of Glasgow has been most striking. At present, a greater num- ber of sailing vessels ond of steamers belong to Glas- gow than to any other Scotch port, and the harlior Is constantly crowded with ships from foreign ports, coasting vessels and steamers. The steam-packets belonging to the Clyde that ply to Liverpool, Dublin, and Belfast, are among the finest \essel6 of their class In the empire. In all, there belonged to Glasgow, on the 3l8t DecemlMsr, 1854, 601 vessels of the aggregate burden of 192,895 tons. The Clyde, upon which the city of Glasgow Is situ- ated, is one of the principal rivers in Scotland, and has Its rise among the mountains that separate the conn- ties of Dumfries and Lanark. The length of this stream, from its source to its junction with the western sea, is about 100 miles. Along its whole course it is beautified by magnificent natural scenery and embel- lishments of art. Its banks are crowded with the abodes of industry and a thriving population. The site of Glasgow occupies both sides of the river ; and though at the distance of above 80 miles from the influx Into the sea, the tide, which flows a consider- able way above the towe. gives it a command of trade and means of ready conve}'anco for commercial pur- poses to every quarter of the globe. See articles Clyde, Great Bbitain, and Scotland. The first steam-engine in Glasgow connected with cotton-spinning was erected in 1792 ; but it was not till the beginning of the present centnrj- that any con- aiderable quantity of yam was spun in Scotland, In 1860 the number of spindles •roplnyed In cotton-spln< ning, connected with or depemlent on Glasgow, amounted to 1,686,096, and the cotton oonsuuied amounted to alxiut 46,000,000 pounds, or 120,0out that period this manufacture received a new impulse, and began at once fairly to develop Itself. From 1821 to 1830 there were 88 steamers built, with a tonnage of 4,200 ; from 1831 to 1840 there were 94 steamers, with a tonnage of 17,623 ; from 1841 to 1860 there were 167 steamers, with a tonnage of 81,447 ; while during the three years from 1851 to 1853 there were 206 steamers, with a ton- nage of 141,713. The present magnitude of this in- dustry may, however, ijo I)e8t appreciated from the fact that during the years 1853 and 1854, the then 82 ship-builders on the Clyde had constructed or contracted for no fewer than 266 vessels, including both steam and sailing, having an aggregate tonnagt of 168,000, for which also marine engines were con- structed or in progress, of 29,000 horse-power; the average of these veascla being 630 tons, and involving the enormous cost of nearly ^£6,000,000 sterling. The whole number and tonnage arriving at the har- 9LK Mt GLA bar of Olugow darlac Iha jtmui ISM-iaM, wm m follow! I r"~ ~iTal».i viiiVu; ■fl4M tmttm. 1 Tmk. N«. TMUf>. ■•'"M,. Ti'RMf*- 1 lAM 1 IMO - -4.4.iir— iu.«u- T.tMl 4hI,»M ^W ri,»4« It.lM MHIWT 1 tW) ^H»T Mt.caM (.ItM *iTII,tM IWi (^ B04,OM ll,^>10 1,0(K),*>4 Tb* profnm and piMtnt onndttlon i>r Ih* river mil harbor, howerxr, ar« probably Iwtt •xbllilUil by tha following al)ntraot of tha rav«nue of tba truat at ilx dillkrant parloda i IMO.. im.. isno.. w,w« IMO tvt,m lUO 64,MH 1W4 H6,ll«0 / aaraArr ArroOMT or trr tot*i, Nvaaaa or AaaiVAU nr HAiuxa and HTaAH Vmhu AKiiraD at tiia liAauoa ur Olaauow, Kkiiiun and CoAnwiia, m Toa YiAa iMDiitn Jena SOtii, 1804. r«MU> iaWlif iWMI V«Mb< aalllil IMU|», vhmIi. ▼•■Mil. toMMf.. vmmU. f*M«tl. I7n.l.r'£j' ^,W4 'ii:n« ««»— HJK) 01 *6 40- an l,4IW m (IN)— tfO M S7.1 60- HI) M» l.MM 4110—480 U8 7« w— UN) Ht» l(,4l)« 4M)— AMI) M fi lOO-IBO SNA i,M BmV-flOO 4M 1 1BO-*)0 »W •iW (KH)— TOO 84 6 100-lAI) W)-800 BO Ml TOO&upwd. Total 84 « Ifitt u,m] I'ort Cknrget, llarhor, or Qiiny l)uu. — On all vra- ■ala arrlvinK at the harbor of OlaaKow, Vd. p«rreKl*tcr ton I except on iteam-vpuala trading on the Hiver Clyde within thu ('umbraen, or naviKBtiiiK the Criiinii Canal, which are charged Id. per r«KUter tun. Un all vesieli remaining in the harlwr for any period ex- eeedinit 24 lawful daya. Id. pvr ton per week. Wt'ighmif-diift. — Each cart, wagon, or other carriage* load, or wi>ight, not exceeding I'i cwt.. Id. each; ex- ceeding 12 cwt., M. each. N. II. WolghlnK-duea, not exigll)le when the correct weight of the gmul^ la fur- nlahad. Crani; Dun, — Kach holnt not exceedlri; 12 cwt., 8d. ; ftwm 18 to 16 cwt., 4d. ; from 15 to 3o .«t., 6d. Each ton of machlner}', and other articli-< exceedii,; 1 ton, le. ; hemp per ton, 6d. ; marble uii., la. ; tlml)flr do., (M. Taking out and putting In machlner}', etc., of •teamlmatii, fhim .£3 2i. to i,'H li»., according to the number of hoiita and trouble. Cranesmcn'a time per hour, or part of an hour, 6d. Chargua fur water sup- plied by the Clyde Truateea to vesaela in the harlwr, viz. : Veaaela under 25 tons regiater, (kl. each ; 26 tone and under 60, la. each ; 60 tnna anil under KM), la. I)d. each ; lOO tona and under 160, 8a. isach ; lOO tona and under 20O, &a each ; 200 tona and under 300, 8a. each ; BOO tona and under 400, 0s. each ; 400 tons and upward, 10a. N. U. Steam-Teasels regularly auppliod oftener than once n week, to be charged half the alH>ve rates. Maa- ters of Teasels requiring water, will obtain orders, on application, at the weighlng-boxea on i'^ quays. PUmki and Slagt$, — For loading or diachuit;lng ves- sels, la, each pUnk or stage per week. Rhonet. — One penny for each wagon of coal loaded, with la. extra on each cargo for removing the rhone to and fVom the vessel. Halltut. — The Clyde Trustees remove ballast from vesoela on either aide tlie harbor, at a rate not ex- 7e«ding la. '|ier ton, and anpply clean atone ballaat at ''s. per ton. The Kiver Clyde is divided into three . ifea, and th« f.illowing are the tonnage Uuea exigible U> > >eh, via. : The first stage extenda from Stockwell- litRK. indge to (I': Old Ferry &*■ Henfrew, being alwut iW: ;> - '« to tl.M eistof tha jiresent ferry, and the duea OBr;o'«t' \;Ar',<-i or conveyed thereon, ore two tbinla of tne lOT-Oige dues exigilile I.'/ the trustees. The aecood t-'.tffi extends ftom :>ia Old Ferry at Renfrew to the mo ith of Dalmuir Uum ; and the dues exigible thereon are one aixth of the tonnage duea ; and the thM atage extends from Uolmuir Uum to Newark Castle I and the dues exigible Ihanon tN oaa aisih part of the liinnaga dues. Tha abovo la tlia whole charge unm Ikr mMji fur tha voyage la and iml U a ship mII m baliiixt. tr aha lootls an outwani cargo, the tonn«,<>i ilima thrm.it will lie charged acconllngtu the rates arwlliel above. ]'4« rkaryu /or lighli are aa follows, vu. . ni'rthori) lights, t4ovo the river or tonnage rates on the cargo. AWronre tn the Jlivtr. — Aa a guide to marlnera, it may be mentioned that vessel.^ of 19 feet draft of wa- ter can arrive at the harbor of (iluNgow, and that vea- aela drawing 17 feet are considered regular traders, Veaaela drawing 16 to Id feet may always arrive and depart without touching the bottom. At the ontruuca to the river, veaaela are placed under the charge of pilots, who are well acquainted with the channel, which ia well marked with beacona and buoys. It may be considered that the river ia deepening at the rate of one foot in orory five years. A ahlp on reach- ing the mouth of the river bod beat commence as- cending at half-tide. Tliero are no particular uaagoi connected with th> i rbor ,t Glasgow beyond tboaa adopted on moat i' ' ' ori< viid barboia. Lights are permitted in the lu. i-ir .' ;ii< a.m. to 10 r. Glasgow may < Hvi't t<> 'i . litan in hi ..i- merce and rnani '■.^.v m ottoj icuhin herself the bus- nesses and tradta ui almost every other town and city in the United Kingdom. It hence follows that while one branch of nunufacture or trade may be dull, another may be prosperoua, and accordingly Glasgow duea not feel any of thoao depresaiona which so fk'equently oc- cur in places which have only one or two brunches of manufacture or commerce. The great industrial oc- cupations of Glasgow are its cotton-spinning and weaving ; Its collieries and Iron manufactures ; its iron ahip-building and machine-making, and ita chem- ical manufactures. According to Dr. Strang, the con- sumption of raw cotton in Glasgow in 1864 was almve 1,900 bales per week, of from 4ii0 to 440 |)ound8 each, and the number of |)owor-looina dependent on Glas- gow wtt« from 20,000 to 27,000, producing daily al«out 700,000 yard* of cloth, In the west of Scotland, ot nt\ 898 OLA wkUib Oluffiiw b lh» Mni I mart, th«r« mn, U IMM, (l,44N,l)IM) lim* ut riwl ' " from Ih* piU, ^ wlilrh J,lAi,M)U liins wnrii ' nauiii. I In lh« m«nafbi>. turn iif piK iniii, mi,2lli> in Mia ciinvvriinu "f \M Itnn Inlii initll««l>l« Imh, nikkiu^ in all, |,NM,IMO lon'i i*miI In I'linnai'tlon with tha man ifMlOn of Iron, whllt nn.'til tuna wan alil|i|H'it, ami l«N,MI'i Inn* Mnl )>•. yiinil tha liouniUrlaa l>y ralUaya, laavlnK for tlix manu- fai'liirlnK cnnaumptlon ttnil»tUniiiniiri >< (llaaguw ilUtrlr't 'i.H/ill.i'J? tuna. 'Ihn priHluoa ut \<\n mill In tha riiiinllaa of Laniirk anil Avr, In 1M.VI, ninniintail In 717,1100 tiina, lr2,ttM tonau/whirh warn alilp|iai|illraol tnriirul|{n coiiiitrlaa, 'iU4,IU4 tuna wara aant viMalwUa rruiii tliii (!|yila, I'lirt UuniUa anil tha waatarn (mrta nf thu I'lyila aatiwry, whil* 'i'i,NII,'i tuna wura aant away l lilii Iriin iliirln|{ Ihn aiiina ynitr wua niiiniiriirtiirail tii tha dxti-nt iif rj'i,'ttHI tuna, Tha valiin iif tha wlmln riiitl iinil Iron liualiiaaa to thu iliatrlct In W>i iiiiiy l>n rai'k- onril ut alxmt i:4,N7'i,INH), of which i'l-,U7:i,0()0 wua |«iil In wnK«a In tUI,IHlO parnuni, Tha i-huuili'ul iiriKlui'ta of (ilikai;i)w ara miiltiriirlmia, cnniiUtlii)( of aulphurlt', nmrliitli!, nitrli', ami iii'Ktln Bclila anil thair viiriiiua aalta | lilaai'lilnK-iKiwilttr, •oilu, Hiiiip, I'Uilliaiir, liluhniinatit uf potiiah, aiixitr of liMiil, lixlinii, aiilta of animoniii, alum, priiaalata of |Hituah, niipthii, pitch, oil, animitl rhiirriml, liono tnr, cri'iini of turtur, nti.',, oto. Thu wiirka of Nt, Kulliix, altiiiilti in the north-tiaat quartar of (tlna){iiw, ninalitutn perhiipa th» InrKiiat vlieinioul aatiililiahinont In thii worlil. Tliey cover ulKiut Vl iicraa of Krounil, ainploy nlaiva IDIM) men, conainnlnK anniliilly ulioiit 3(),l)0l>ulation. — If tlie fore^oInK talilea ^tve aoniu lilea nf the advance of GluaKow aa a ciimmorclul anil nianil- fttcturin)( city, the foUowin^t talilo of ita prottreaaivu IMipulation during the preaent century will ruiiiler thia more apparent : Iha ampir*. Mng In Ihia raipart anr|ia«aad r>afy by IJvarpoitl, (.ontlon, and Hull. Y..r>. Halai. r«iMiM. Tiilat. IHII ..•* . . . ( ~ AijW W , , 1111,400 1ti»l (W,lt9 TS,B84 UT.IVtS l^l IM,T»t lOMjIlll «l»ll,4'ifl I>^l ll).S,8ia U7.H9U 9sll,ll-.'J KM UVSl l»;l,ii'» WT.IHIl In 1Hd5 tha eatimiited population of (llaaKow and Ita snlmrliii waa aliout 400,000, havlntf lioon nearly quintu- ploil in 60 years ! Ci'sToMB DiTipji coiLKorro AT (Jlahiiow, and Tiia NllM- iir.n \\\> Tii^^iAOa or tun Siiii-a iiki.onuiki> to tiir I'liHT IX Tna V.iKNTIO!(IB YKAKa, All "I ot or tua iiaoi.Aarn V MAaiirAiiTiiaaa ur tih. \t,,, w raoM lll.Aailow, I'oier <||.amiiiw. a l«MI, msa, ARD I'M, ii^wpai'Tivai < aaooifi or OuaToaa KuiirA >,.i tHM P<»n IN TM AMiva Y>Aa l*BOl.M;ra AXM ■■f •iiir»iM« AiavtM >• rail At aACN or I W •■] ilHirU if iiiitri' (ii»»« ir..,i . il^tn lA^liiitl i lrl«tl pyru4i« •>r>,4M Nn, nf Rlilpi. Titimaa*. an i2,0tlO B» 4,Kyu BS e,iio4 111 HIIN4 SHli 4(I,»TS m R4,H«5 Ml TI,M7U 4Ta 111, Alio ft«I w.mya mil WiMM hiK •• Ika Cl,.l., lllaatfiiw. ,,T I'oi't (lliia^ow iDkuiiihIi.... TiiUI AaMaat •# •uti«w» .f«tli "ti»«. •<•»,*! I I ■(*).«l»l Kl.tiKifl ' il • '■■■;, II M«.UA4 4311, 1 M) ,'i 1 11,1)74 '*4 wn tmlH>Tl«y mixhiit tiiKiiiliKr amvie Hurt nf Hilicaoua i-arth, ai Ano aanil, or |Kiunilail Hii , witli mn alkali, niii'li aa ainta, pot-aah, or |iaarl-aali. nil Hiilijiwlliift them In a atronK iieat, lly Ihia nmaiia 'lixy are inidted Into a triinapa- rant, aoft, lenacloiia i ^a, thai may, whi-n hot, Im funned Into tliin plate iiciit and aliaped in every |ioa> aliiln way. Whan ' »<' it lieioinna lirlttle, and la de- noinlnaled Klaaa. Lithu s-e, minium, Imrax, Ihe lilaok oxyd of inunKancack, etr. irn Kiimelimaa uaed in tha inanufucturfl of itUaa, ai >r>lin^ tu the pur|iuaea to which it la III lie applied. Tha kliida "f xluaa, anil leir Ingredienta. iiro atated liy Dr. I're aa followa i " There arn Are illallni-t klml" liirvil t I. KIlut irlaaa, or K'aaa ni uf pure aiiita i II, I Irowii ulaaa, tin ■• Iflaaa, a euaraii winiluw i(l«aai ' lllaaa. " 1. flint (llau, to tiaiiinil limm waa iirlKliialty imiployeil In thii fi now iiinile of Ihe fiilliiwlnK ninipiiKi r Ktaaa at preaant mannflie- uii \ i. I'late Klaaa, or Kloaa oat window Klaaa; 4. Itroail '. Ittiltlc, or coarae iffoan thii alllcooiia InKrudli'tit ul uround lllnta. It Ii The riialon la ae- f soda, procured bjr . Ia euiployed aa tlio Ulaagow now miika as the fourth exporting jiort In raru. rurllled Lynn aand 11)0 liUliartie, or red lead 60 I'urine.l I'earloah 80 "Tnenrreel IhoKreen eiili>rdnrlT<-l from combnallblo mal. I«r, or ixyil ef Iron, a little black -vd of inanKniioae la lidded, ntid aonietlinea nitre and arw' noinplialied iiaiinlly In alnml lln boura "t. /Vrt/il Ulllu (Imid cnrbonale dernnipoaliiK conininn anlt wlili iMiarln' Hiix. Tile propnrllon of the u.AtorlalH , Pure aaiiil 48'0 Dry aubcarhiinate of loila — SA-5 I'uru iiulcklline 40 Nitre I'B Krokoti plate iilaaa . 251)— 1000 Abniit 7U parte of Kood plate gluaa may I 'im off from thcae luaterlala, "II. fmipn, or /Ilia ITfnrfotp f//oa« Tli - la made of aand vllrltled by Ihe Impure biirllln inanufaetiir i| by Incineration nf aea-weed on the Meotoh and Irlah ahon «. The moat ap- proved oonipoaltlon la, By liw.««ara. By w«lf bU Kino and pnrlHcd i SOO Heat kelp Kroiind 1 : 850 " 4. llnad ndiaa,— Tbla la made of a n-inlure of aoap- bollera' waate, kelp, and aand. The flrat Inirrcdient conalata uf llinu uaed fur renderlnH the alkali of Ibe » np-boller caus- tic, the Inaiiliiblo matter uf ttila kelp or baril i, and a quan- tity of aalt and water, nil In n puaty atate. 1 ie proportions nereaoiirlly vary. Two of the wnato, one of y. p, nnd one of aaiid, form a pretty good broad glass. Tli y are mixed together, dried, and fritted. " n. IMIlf IHiwt la the iioarscat kind. It la mado of soap- era' waate and river aand. In proportions which practice must deterniinu according to the quantity of the waste; soma aonp-bollers extracting more aallne matter, and othera less, from their kelpa Oommon aand and lime, with a little com- mon olay and sua salt, form a cheap nUzture for bottle gtaia." GLA 824 GLA Historical Notice) with rttpeet to Gltut. — The mann- fiictnre of glass is one of the very highest beauty and ntilitr . It is most probable that we are indebted for this wonderful art, as we are for the gift of letters, to the Phccnicians. According to Pliny (//it. ffat., lib. xxxvi. , c. 26), glass had l)een made for many ages, of annd found near the mouth of the small River Belus in Phoenicia. " The report," says he, " is, that the crew of a mer- chant ship laden with nitre (fossil alkali) having used some pieces of it to support the kettles placed on the fires they had made un the sand, were surprised to see pieces formed of a translucent substance, or glass. This was a sufficient hint for the manufacture. Inge- nuity (aatnta et ingeniote solertia) was immediately at work, to improve the process thus happily suggested. Hence the magnetical stone came to be added, from an idea that it. contained not only iron, but glass. They also used clear pebbles, shells, and fossil sand. Indian glass is said to be formed of native cr}-stal, and is on that account superior to over)' other. Phoenician glass is prepared with light dry wood, to which copper and nitro are added, the last being principally brought from Ophir. It is occasionally tinged with dilTerent colors. Sometimes it is brought to the desired shape by being blown, sometimes by being ground on a lathe, and sometimes it is embossed like silver." Si- don, he adds, is famous for this manufacture. It was there that mirrors were first invented. In Pliny's time, glass was made iii Italy of fine sand on the shore between Cumas and the Lucrine liay. If this bo a correct description of the glass of India in the age of Pliny, it has since frllen off verj' much ; Indian glass being now about the very worst that is made. At present, the Hindoos manufacture it of fragments of broken glass, quartz, and impure soda, an article found native in many parts of India, particularly in the south. The furnaces ate so bad that they can not melt our common bottle glass. — Hamilton's Mysore, vol. iii., p. 370. The glass of China is much better than that of India, though still very inferior to that of Europe. The general term glasi is emploj'ed by chemists to denote all mineral substances which, on the ap- plication of heat, pass through a state of fusion into hard and brittle masses, and which, though not al- ways transparent, exhibit a lustrous f'-acture when broken. The glass of commerce, however, to which our remarks are restricted, or the transparent and arti- ficial substance whicli is usually distinguished by the generic name. Is produced by the igneous fusion of silicocius earth with certain alkaline earths or salts, or with metallic oxyds. The etymologj' of the word has been much disputed. It is derived by some from the Latin glories, ice, its resemblance to which is thought to have suggested the title. Others have remarked, that the common Latin designation of this substance is vitrum ; and as the Romans applied this term in com- mon '.f 1th the word ghntum, to the plant which wo call wood, they have deduced it from the latter of these, either liecausc the ashes of this plant were used in the manufacture of glass, or Iwcause it exhibited some- thing of the bluish color which is procured from woad. Glassum, the name given to amlier l)y the ancient Gauls and liritons, has also been assigned as the origin of the word. But none of these etymons ap|)ear very satisfactory. The most plausilde theory is that which derives the tenn from the Saxon verb glis-nian, or the the German ghissrn, sp' .ilere, which are probably con- tractions of the Anglo-Saxon ge-lijran, to shine, to be bright. This view is in a great degree contirmed by the sense in which the term glass and its derivatives are employed l)y our older writers, who frequently apply it to shining or glittering substances, without reference to color or transparency. In the most remote ages the art of blowing glass into bottles, making it into vases, coloring it to imi- tate precious Btones, melting it into enormous masses to make plUors, rolling and polishing it into mirron, and tinting it into parts, were all perfectly well known. For its origin we must look to Egypt, the parent of so many collateral arts. The stoi}' of the Israelites hav- ing set fire to a forest, and the heat becoming so in- tense that it made the nitre and sand melt and fiow along the mountain side, and that they afterward did artificially what had been the result of accident, may be set down as equally fabulous with the story of the pirates, who are said to have landed on the sea beach, and wishing to make their cauldron boil, piled up some vitreous stones and placed on them a quantity of sea- weed and blocks of wood, causing so strong a heat that the stones were softened and ran down on the sand, which, melting and mixing with the alkali, became a diaphanous and glassy mass. The fictitious . character of both these stories is proved by the simple fact that it requires the most intense furnace heat to insure the combination of the sund with the nitre. Under these circumstances we ore justified in be- lieving that glass-making had its origin at the same time with the baking of bricks and pottery. Tho smelting of ores, too, required a furnace sufficiently intense to fuse tho silicates analogous to glass, and hence it may be safely inferred, that in the age when melting and working metal was known, the art of making glass was also practiced. In the book of Job the most precious things are compared to wisdom, but still more precious are gold and glass. The Hebrews must have become acquainted with glass while in Egypt, and in consequence of their proximity to the Phoenicians ; and it is now generally believed that these two nations had the merit of originating and establishing its manufacture. The Athenian embassa- dors, in order to give an idea of the m^^rfuiticence dis- played at the court of the great king of Persia, said, that they drank in cups of glass and gold. Some writers affirm that the Egyptians in some instances sealed up their dead in a coating of glass, and glass- houses are said not to have been uncommon in that wonderful countrj'. Some outhors ascribe, with very plausible reason, the discovery of glass-making to the priests of Vulcan at Thebes and Memphis, the greatest chemists in the ancient world. The Egyptians aru also known to have made enamels of divers colors which they applied on pottery, magnificent specimens of which arc still extant, and are called Egyptian porce- lain. Those uro chiefly covered with l>eautiful blue or green, and groups of flowers or designs are traced in black. Glass beads and other ornaments mat'io of that substance, skillfully manufactured and beautifully colored, have been found adorning mummies, which are known to be upward of iiOOO years old. It is certain that Tyre, Sidon, and Alexandria, were long celebrated for their glass, and furnished the greater proportion of that used at Rome. Under thn Roman empire the Egyptians still preserved their superiority in the art of glass-making, and it is said that Aurelian caused them to pay their tribute in that manufacture. Adrian mentions that he hud received drinking-glasscs of various colors from a priest of a famous temple in Egypt, and gives instructions that they are not to be used but on tlio greatest occasions, and on the most solemn feast days. To these places the art was ex- clusivcly confined for some centuries, and was an article of luxury, being chiefly in tho form of urns or drink- iug-cups of the most elaborate workmanship, and ex- quisitely embellished with raised, chased, orornamonted figures. The Ilarlierini or Portland vase, composed of deep blue glass, with figures of a delicate white opaque substance raised in relief, is a splendid speci- men, and was found in the tomb of Alexander Severus, who died A, D, '28.^, The art of glass-making seems to have been intro- duced into Italy by tho Romans after their conquests in Asia in the time of Cicero, and tho first glass-works there were said to have been near the Flumiuian Cir OLA 825 GLA CM. It It highly probable tlut thcM workmen were imported from KKypt. The um of glnns aeemn rapidly to have Inereaited, and to have bernmo very common, for we And an emjieror In the third century of the ChHitian era uylng, that he was diagnsted with ao low and vulvar an objeirt aa t(Um, and that he would only drinli from veaaela of gold, liy thia time the manufacture of gluaa wa* ao conaidorable that an im- post waa luid on it, iind It was extensively employed in the decoratluna of liiiiidinga, while In glusa mosaics were combined the most brilliant colors. Uluai was manufactured at Home Into variona arti- cles of convor.ieiico and omamrnt. lliny mentions that Nora gave fKHM) aostercea (i'0O,0OO according to tho ordinary method of reckoning), for two giaas cups, each having two hanillns I These, however, must have been of an imnienae shie and of oxciiiisite work- manship; for glass was tlien in common use for drink- ing vessels, and waa used oven In tlio form of iHittles In which to keep wine. — Afart., Jipiff., lib. ii., 22, 40, and lib. Iv., NO. From tlie circumstance of colored glass licoda and am- uleta having lieen found among Uruidical remains in this country; It liaa benn argued by I'ennant and others that tho art of making giana wna known in Ilritain before its invasion \>y the Itomans. It can liardiy, however, bo believed tiiut a people who had made very trifling advancea in civillzatiim, and who, it is known, were entirely unaci|uainted with any other art, should bo found not only 'unversant with the manufacture of glaas, a complicated and lilghly ingenious process, but sliould excel In It ; for thn licnds and amulets spoken of aro of exquisite workmanship, and Ijeautifully col- ored in imitation of tlie rarest and most precious stones. There seems little doubt, therefore, that tlie ancient liritons procured these In thu course of trafBc with the Syrians, who visited the Island as we do those in the South Seas, to drive a trade with their savage inhaidtants in toys and trinkets, giving them tiiese in exchange for skins or otiier natural productions. By whatever means, Imwevcr, tliese oniaments came into Britain, it is certalu tluit they were In extensive use, thougli principally for religious purposes, long prior to the Uoman invasion, as they are found in barrows or tu- muli of a niucli older date. One at Stonehcnge, in particular, on Iwing opened was found to lie filled with them. Glain Ncidyr, or Druidical glass rings, generally aliout half as wide as our tingcr-ringa, but much thicker, hiivo freituently licen found. The vulgar superstition regarding tlinse was, that they were pro- du(!cd l)y snakes Jiiining tlieir heads together and hiss- ing, wiien a kind of bubble like a ring was formed round tho head of them, which tho others, continuing to hiss, blew on till it caino off at tho tall, when it im- mediately hardened Into n glass ring. Success was thought to attend any (me who was fortunate enough to find one of those snake-stones. Tliey were evidently Iwoda of glass em[>loycd by the Druids, under the name of ciiurma, to deceive tlie vulgar. They ore usually of u green color, but S(min of tlicm aro blue, uud otiicrs variegated with wavy streaks of blue, red, and white, (iluBS utensils have been found in Hcrculaneum, which city was destroyed by an eruption of Mount Vesuvius In tlie relgu of 'I'ltna (a. d. 711). A plate of glass also foimd there has occasl(med mucli speculation as to its uses. Slitillur iilatos, to which Pliny gave the name of t'lVccm rimerin, seem to have been employed, in a nuinuer not very well understood by us, as panel- ing for tlieir rooms. It is disputed whether or not glass was used in llerculaneum for windows. Dion C'ttsslus and I'etroniua Arlilter concur in their account of tlio discovery of nmliealdo ^ ductile glass by a celebrated Roman architect, whoso success in the restoration to liji |iosItion of a ]mrtico which leaned to one side, had rouaod tho envy and Jealousy of Ti- berius, and occasioned his banishment tiom Borne. Thinking; that his dUcovery would disarm the empe- ror's wrath, the artist appeared before him bearing a glass vessel, which he dashed upon the ground. Not- withstanding tho violence of the blow, it was merely dimpled, as if it had been brass. Taking a hammer from his breast, he then beat it out into its original shape ; but instead of giving him tho reward which he had expected, tho emperor ordered the unfortunate artisan to be beheaded, remarking, that if his discovery were known, gold would soon be held of as little value as common clay. This is probably another version of the story told by Pliny, of an artificer who made the same discovery, and whose workshop was demolished by those who had an interest in preventing the intro- duction of an article which would lower the value of gold, silver, and brass. Although it might not be justi- fiable to give unqnuliticd disbelief to these stories, yet the knowledge we at present possess would restrict the possibility of such a discovery within the narrowest limits. The union of the properties of malleability and vitrification seems to be incompatible. Some me- tallic substances, by the application of intense heat, are reduced to the state of glass, but at the same time lose their malleability ; which fact would seem to im- ply that it is impossililo to communicate the latter property to glass. The extraordinary stories above mentioned have, however, been rationally enougli ex- plained by modem chemists. It has been observed by Kunckel, that a composition having u glassy appear- ance, and sufficiently pliant to be wrought by the hammer, may be formed ; and by Neumann, that, in the fubion of muriate of silver, a kind of glass is formed, which may be shaped or beaten into different figures, and may be pronounced in some degree duc- tile. Blancourt in his VAH de la Verrerie, mentions an artist who presented a bust of ductile glass to the Cardinal Richelieu, minister of Louis XIII. But he does not seem to have been more fortunate than his predecessors ; for ho was doomed to imprisonment for life, for " the politic reasons," as Blancourt with much simplicity observes (we quote from the translation published in 1G99), " which, it is believed, the cardinul entertained from tlic consideration of the consequences of that secret," which no doubt led him to fear lest tlie established interests of French glass manufacturers might be injured by tho discover}'. F'rom expressions used l)y Blancourt in other parts of his work, we think, that by malleable glass, such as was produced by this artist, he understood some composition similar to those which Kunckel and Neumann discovered, and was not very exact in limiting the term to tliat vit- reous substance which wo now generalij' understand when we speak of glass. Tho precise period at which the making of window glass came into practice is not nuw certainly known. The Roman windows were filled with a semi-trans- parent substance called lapis specularis, a fossil of tho class of mica, which readily splits into thin smooth laniinie or plates. This sulistance is found in masses of 10 or 12 iiiclies in breadth, and three in thickness ; and, wiien sliced, very much resembles horn, instead of which it is to this day often employed l)y lantern- makers. The Romans were chiefly supplied with this article from tlio island of Cyprus, where it abounds. So good a substitute for glass it is sold to have been, tliat, besides being employed for the admission of light into tlio Roman houses, it was also used in the construction of hot-houses, for raising and protecting delicate plants ; so that, by nsing it, tlie Emperor Ti- berius had cucumbers at his table throughout the whole year. It is still much employed in Russia in- stead of glass for windows. There is no positive mention of the use of glass for windows before the time of Lactantius, at ttie close of tho third century. But tlie passage in that writer 1 which records the fact (fie Of\fs bei, cap. 8), also GLA 826 GLA Rhowa that the hpU iptcularu atill retained its place. Glass windows are distinctly mentioned by St. Je- rome, as being used in bis time (a. d. 422). After this period we meet with ftvqnent mention of them, Joannes Phiiippinns (A. D. 680) states that glass was fastened into the windws with piaster. The Venerable Bode asserts that glass windows were first introduced into England in the year 674, by the Abbot Benedict, who brought over artificers sicilled in the art of malting window glass, to giuze the church and monastery of Wearmouth. The use of window glass, however, was tlien, and for many centuries afterward, confined entirely to buildings ap- propriated to religious purpDses ; but in the 14th cen- tur}' it wns so much in deniaml, though still confined to sacred edifices and ornamental purposes, that glazing had become a regular trade. This appears from a con- tract entered into by the church autliorities of Yorli Cathedral, i.> 1338, with a glazier, to glaze the west windows of that structure ; a piece of worlc which he undertook to perform at the rate of sixpence per foot for white glass, and one shilling per foot for colored, Oliiss windows, however, did not l)ecame common in England till the close of the 12th century. Until this period they wore rarely to be found in private houses, and were deemed a great luxury, and a token of great magnificence. The windows of the houses were till then filled with oiled paper, or wooden lattices. In cathedrals, these and sheets of linen supplied the place of glass till the 8th century ; in meaner edifices lat- tices continued in use till the 18th, The glass of the Venetians was superior to any made elsewhere, and for many years commanded thu market of nearly all Europe, Their moit extensive glass- works were established at Munmo, l< .small village in the neighliorhood of Venice ; but the produce was al- ways recof^ized by the name of Venetian glass. Bo- ron von Lowhen, in his Analyiit of NMlity in its Origin, states that, " so useful were the glass-makers at one period in Venice, and so great the revenue accru- ing to tlie republic from their manufacture, that, to encourage tluted wholly to the prudent management of D'Agincourt, France. — Early in the 14th century, the French government made a concession in favor of glass- making, by decreeing that not only should no dero- gation from nobility follow the practice of the art, but that none save gentlemen, or the sons of noblemen shonld venture to engage in any of its branches, even as working artisans. This limitation was accompa- nied by a grant of a royal charter of incorporation, conveying important privileges, under which the occu- pation became eventually a source of great wealth to several families of distinction. England. — It has l)een said that the manufacture of window glass was first introduced into England in the j-enr 15')7. But n contract, quoted by Horace Wal- pole in his Anecdotes of Painting, proves that this arti- cle was made in England upward of a centurj' before that period. This curious document is dated in 1439, and bears to be a contract lietween the Countess of Warwick and John Prudde of Westminster, glazier, whom she employed with other tradesmen, to erect and embellish a magnificent tom)> for the earl, her hus- l)and. John Prudde is therel>y bound to use " no glass of England, but glass from beyond seas ;" a stipu- lation whicli, besides showing that the art of making window glass was known and practiced in England in the 15th century, seems also to indicate that it was inferior to wliat could be olitained from abroad. The finer sort of window glass was made at Crutched Friars, I^ondon, in 1557. In the year 1035, Sir Bobcrt Max- well introduced the use of coal fuel instead of wood, and procured workmen from Venice ; but many years elapsed before the English manufactories equaled tlie Venetian and French in the quality of these articles. The first flint glass made in England was manufac- tured at the Savoy House, in the Strand ; and the first plate glass, for looking-glasses, coacii-windows, and similar purposes, was made at Lambeth liy Venetian workmen, lirought over in 1070 by the Duke of Buck- ingham. From that period the English glass manu- factories, aided l>3' the liberal bounties granted them in cash upon glass sold for export, became powerful and successful rivals of the Venetian and French manu- factories. The bounty on glass exported, which the government paid to the manufacturer, was not derived from any tax by impost, or excise, previously laid j for all such were returned to the manufacturer to- gether with the liounty, thereliy lessening the actual cost of the article from ih to .lO per cent., and enabling the English exporter to compete successfully in foreign markets. This bounty prjvision was annulled during tlio prcmiersliip of Sir Robert Peel, together with all thu excise duty on homo consumption, Scotland. — The art of glass-making was introduced into Scotland in the reign of James VI. An exclu- sive right to manufacture it within the kingdom, for the space of 31 years, was granted by that monarch to OLA S97 OLA Lord Georg* Hay, in the yw 1610. TbU ri«bt M» lonUhip transferred In 1627, for a conf likmlila num, Ut Thomas Robinson, mercbant-tsllor In hmiUtit, wIm) again disposed of it for i,'2M, to Hir Uiihurt UnnimW, vico-adrairol of England. The flnt nmimtim^ry nl glass in Scotland, an extremely ruds one, WM *»• tabliahed at Wemyss in Fife. Ilsguliif works Y/ffit afterwards commenced at Preatonpans, l.>A glass, however, w^^ not conlined to (Jreace iiiMt Itrtly, It rapidly appeared in Gaul. Gregory of Tours, In tfio sixth century, also tells us that tlie church of Mt. t tints of the rooming sun. Tliere are niiuiy gijod ruiiiMtlls for supposing that tlie art of coloring glaxs Is lumvtiS with the art of glass-making itself. It is certttill thitt the art was known in Egypt at least IXI'M) years «go, Wo have already mentioned the Iteaiitifiil litiitittiims of precious stones, found adorning uiumiiiius wbirit M» known to have existed for that time. We meet with frequent mention of specimens of eiisterii workmitn. ship of consummate beauty, upon whii'b grunt vmIiih was placed. The works of Coylus and Wjiikelliiaiili furnish some striking instances of ancient skill in thn formation of pictures l)y means of delicate glass llbms of various hues, wliich, after lieing littad togidhlf witli the utmost nicety, were conglutinated liy fusion into a solid moss. The art of coml)inlng tba VMrbtilit colors so us to produce pictures, audi as is now |>rN<'< ticcd, is comparatively of recent date. The Narlifst ■pecimcns of tliis kind of work iliscovur it llclltbilis oiuing of different pieces of gUis, dllfarwnti/ iU%«A, ind •miiff«d so aa, by a BpecleR of mosi^c work, to |ifMtilo« the figure or figures wanted. The various pliMiM Mrs held together generally by a vein of lead, rim Upon the bock of thu picture, precisely at their Jlimdlon, Nee article Glass, En. Brit. ; Ube's Diet, falnlttl Oltui,— In England, Et. Wilfred, who lived tmrty In the 8th oentur}-, is said to have been the first to hitrtKliice painted glass windows, and for that pur- pose IiimI workmen brought from France or Itoly. The llrst iittlnted glass executed in England was in the time »f King ,lohn j previously to this, all stained or paint- wi glass was Imported from Italy. The next notice of It (luuiirs In the reign of Henry III. The treasurer of that tnnnnrcli orders that there be painted on three glass windows in the chapel of St. John, a little Virgin Mary holding the child, and the Trinity, and St. John ttlK Afiostle. Some time after, he issues another man- dato for two painted windows in the hall. Even at tills onrly period, however, England boasted of em- inent native artists in glass painting, among the first "f whom wss John Thornton, glazier, of Coventrj'. This person was employed in the time of Henry IV., W ih«t dean and chapter of York cathedral, to paint tlin OAstem window of that splendid edifice ; and for (hw Imntltlful and masterly workmanship which he cx- hllilt4 • . 3'.7,H10 13S,L'49 l):i,fl-il 101, 4J0 22,f.81 r*,i4i 7,fi6;i 2!i,>i4l 151,740 ,^2,010 11>,754,43'.I 0.'i;,747 $l,0t8,li0'J MAMVf AOVonitis or (Ilasb, ito , in thk .''tate of Kew ifomt IK Tn« Yr,AO 1S65.— [Official.] Olaai- ruttlnff Kil.b. Ibhm«nt8. Glan Macufac. lorlol. GUn- slainitiFT Kslnb- lisbtiienU. ^lOnlicr iif oslnljlislimciits 7 T $04,000 14,440 52,000 131,000 106 20 88 7 21 3 $47.5,450 70,500 802,000 080,000 890 57 100 25 2 $86,'(io"o 2,,'>00 22,700 57,000 B5 ■■■■9 • liipllal In fcsl estntn,,.. Usellal In tool», cir Value (rf raw mntiTl»la , , Vnlae nt maniifsctiircs , , Women einplojreil liirts employed Unitfil fHiilrn. — The manufacture of glass was intro- diKied Into the American States in 1790 by Bobert lltiwes, n cltl/.cn of Boston, who erected a factory in the tlien forest of New Hampshire. The chief aim of Mr, (lewes was to supply window glass, but he did not BiK'cced, Anotlier attempt was made in 1800, when a ht'Utty was liiiilt in Boston for making crown window tflas^ t but tlil^ wm also unsuccessful, till a German littiuod Lint, in IHua, took charge of the works, vfA GLO 828 GLU the State of MassacbuMtts agreed to pay the proprie- tors a bounty on everj- table of window glass they made ; after which the manufacture was carried on snccessfully, the glass steadily improTing In quality, and becoming famed through all the States as Boston 'window glass. The same Companj', in the year 1822, erected new and more extensive works at Boston, The mystery attached to the art of glass-making, followed it into America. The glass-blower was considered a magician, and myriads visited the newly-erected works, looking on the man who could transmute earthy and opaque matter into a transparent and bril- liant substance, as an alchemist who could transmute base metal into gold. Since the manufacture of flint gIsM wa* introdnced into the eastern States, there havu lie«n above 40 companies formed from time to thnn, nearly flO of which have proved failures. There are now 10 In operation, two of which are at Kant (,'iiHilirldgn, throe at South Boston, one at Sandvtliili, throe nmt Now York city, and ono at Phlludol|>lilu, -IHiOOO tons of coal, 0500 tons of sllex, 2A0M tons Nth, nitri<, ntc, and 8*00 tons of lead are annimllv consiinicd In the iimnii- facture of flint glass. In tbo vicinity of I'lttsliiirg, in the western States, are nine inanufucturles of Hint gloss and 10 of window glass, and In the river towns are 15 window glass factories, Tlia following stHto> mont of the Imports of glass Is from oflkial sources, Impoktations op Olass AND MaNUPAOTURES OP Glass INTO TUB U SITED States pob tiir pisoAb Viiam KniiixU ttOTM Junk, 1S56. WhuiM Imporliiil. SilTtred. PalnUngi on kUsi. porcelaiM, and colorwi. PoHihcd plat.. .Manufae- rurei of, not iMcl- Glau ware. Watch eryalali. Dolllai. Daniljiiluu, Bruwl, Frown, and Col. Plain. DoIIan. DoUari. Dollan. Dollan. Oollari. Dollar!. Gros«. Uollara. Uroii. IMIan, No, Doilari. "R(, Inf. ISiRr.. Danish W. Indies 56 .... Hamburg 28,607 iKiso ""s 8,298 l'7;9i7 12,017 128 "688 ■b',791 'r,M7 mim V,i29 Bremen 260,940 8,620 200 40,515 80,110 9.847 9,007 "225 "720 4,287 11,294 46,910 1U,HN2 61,1)19 2,860 Holland 883 178 778 .... 805 1,692 i^mHirn Belgium 1;S? 46S 87,871 1,044 88,487 22,799 .... 19 126 ..», 1 • i , m,m Kngland 23,067 130,816 88,746 4181 11,496 16,042 26^939 1,881 «,77il \^»,»^^^ 6A,U12 Scotland 821 68 40 '661 2,442 , , >., , Canada 499 60 .... 15 120 1 1 ,>,, British N. A. Poss ^ .... 77 .... 10 » , i ,. British W. Indies. "iB .... ""7 '"24 (•II ■ 111 , , , , , • .. British Honduras, 7 80 , ,» , France onAtlantlc 16,2fl2 V,i68 2H995 29,188 l'0J85 18,789 "827 'im. 11,682 69,808 82,927 '6,S8I a«S,12A 80^074 FrancoonModlt.. * • •* .... 25 .... i 61b 1,976 , , ,, ,,,, t t • 1 Pbllipninolsla... Cnba • • • * • • > . 56 .... ' 1 t t • , , ,, , , , , , , , , t • t • .... "is .... .... • t •• • • • • 12,5811 501 Porto Rico 182 .... .... • . . I , , , , ,, , , 1 1 « 1 Portugal .... .... "60 426 fill 1 * . Tuscany * '"io ■■"6 42 406 • . ., , . , , 1110 10 Austria .... 4,m ■ • • • . 1 . If, Turkey In Asia. . . .... 185 ,. . , • >•• XII ,,,. , , , , Hsytl ""s Mexico .,.. !!!! • • • ""8 "■j» , , , , , , , , '..',, .... Now Granada.... .... 78 .... "ioo "'io ■"27 J , , , , , ■ III (Ill , , . • Venezuela .... " "2 7 , , , , 1 F > 1 • • 1 • , Chill .... .... .... 1,&6<) «46 , , , , . . . . Ecuador. , ■ • . • .... '"12 • . . • , , , , till , . , . China. 64 16 108,410 19,414 iB;M7,9a4 4Hi*M^ Total 8S0,T2O 43,67S 1 478,205 80,978 74,976 16,104 •80,036 1S,902 O.ViW 87,lSii Gloves (Ger. Ilandschuhe; Fr. Ganiz; It. Guanti; Sp. Guantes; Rus. Riikainzii, Pertschatki, Golizii), well known articles of dress used for covering the hands, usually made of leather, but frequently also of cotton, wool, silk, etc. The leather u.scd in the manufacture of gloves is not, properly speaking, tan- ned, but prepared by a peculiar process that renders it soft and pliable. Some sorts of leather gloves ail- mit of being washed, and others not. It is, however, impossible to obtain any trustworthy accounts of the numbers produced. Gloves are sometimes sowed by machinery ; but this is done only to improve the work by rendering the stitches more correctly equidistant, as it is not cheaper than manual lubnr, I.imcrick used to be famous for the manufacture of a soit of ladies' gloves, called chicken gloves. I.iirge quanti- ties of cotton gloves arc made at Nottingham and Leicester. The use of gloves is of Iiigh antiquity. There is reason to believe the ancient Persians wore them, since it is mentioned in the Cyrojvrdia of Xenophon that on one occasion Cyrus went witliout his gloves ; and we know they were used by tlie Greeks and Ro- mans in certain kinds of manual labor. During the middle ages, gloves weri worn l)y ecclesiastical digni- taries and others as a mark of distinction ; but as civ- ilization advanced they gradnalij- Ijecame common to all classes of the community. The glove manufac- ture has long been an important branch of industry. The materials employed are very various, including the skin of the chamois, kid, lamb, lieaver, doc, elk, and other animals, besides cotton, wool, silk, linen thread, etc. Glove-leather is prepared by curing the ■kins with alum, which renders them soil and pliable. The kid gloves of Franco continue to nirtliitnin tliclr superiority over tlic kid gloves of llrltlsli iiiakc, and are verv l.irgely lni|iort«d Into tills country. This also holds true of the ordinary Freiicli Ifatlinr, the durability of which, combined wIlli superiority of style and fitting, has occasioned the ■■'reiicli iKiots and shoes to bo preferred to those of British maniifai'tliro. Machinery is sometimes employed lij sewing and jHilnt- ing leather gloves, though only on a very lliiiltiid nciila In this country, almost the whole being made by llio iiand, and for the most part by fenialits ; but In I'aris it is much used, and is said to Imvn liml the elTcct of reducing the price of gloves 110 pur (tunt. below thell former wholesale prices. Olue, inspissated animal jelly, much used as a ce< ment, especially for wood. It Is iiiiidB from various animal substances, according to ttiu uscil for wlih'li It Is designed, (^'oinmon glue Is prepared from the par> ings of hides, hoofs, and other olfal, which are llrst digested in llmcwatcr to free tlioiii from griinso and all extraneous matter, then washed In water, and after- ward l)oiiod. Tlio viscid solution tiiiis obtained Is first strained through u wicker basket, and then gent* ly evaporated to a proper .consl«ten} square inches. These leaves are only 1-282000 of an inch thick. But tho gold leaf with which silver wire is covered has only l-12th of that thickness. An ounce of gold upon silver is capable of being extended more than 1300 miles in length. Its tenacity is considerable, though in this respect it yields to iron, copper, platinum, and silver. From the experiments of Seckingen, it appears that a gold wire 0'078 inch in diameter is capable of sup- porting a weight of lo0'07 lbs. avoirdupois without breaking. It melts at 32° of Wedgwood's pyrometer. When melted, it assumes a bright bluish green color. It expands in the act of fusion, and consequently con- tracts while becoming solid more than most mctuls ; a circumstance which renders it less proper for casting in molds. — Tiio.mson'8 Chemistry, Gold is, next to iron, tho most widely-diffused metal on the ' ce of the earth. It occurs in granite, the oldest rock known to us, and in all the rocks derived from it ; it is also found in the vein-stones which tra- verse other geological formations. From other metals it is readily distinguished by its reddisii-vcllow color, and from metallic compounds of a similar tint by its high specific gravity, which varies from 19'2 when it is fused, to 19'4 or 19.5 when it is hammered. Its chemical equivalent on the hydrogen scale is generally taken as 08-iJ, but some prefer to double this and make its atomic weight 197, Its symbol is An, from the Latin A uiiim. Unlike the great majority of tho metals, it docs not rust, i. c, oxydize in the air, neitlier does it, if pure, tarnish by exposure. In this respect, it con- trasts strikingly with silver, which, tliough indifierent to tho rusting action of oxygen, is rapidly blackened by the sulphuretted hydrogen of tho atmosphere. Ex- posed ,{ilding tarnishes, but only because it is alloyed witli silver and copper, on which this prejudicial gas can act. Gold is readily crystallizable, and always assumes one or other of the symmetrical shapes, such as tho cube, or regular octahedron, which characterizes the simplest cryatallographic system. It is softer than silver, and nearly as soft as lead, so that in tenacity it is inferior to copper, silver, iron, and platinum, and a wire 1-lOth of an inch in diameter will support, with- out breaking, only 191 lbs. On tho other hand, it is the most ductile and malleable of tho metals. One grain can be hammered into leaves sufBclent to cover 66f square inches, and the thickness of the gold-leaf GOL 830 GOL win not then exceed 1.283000 of an Inch. When of this temper it ia transparent, and tranaraita a faint but l)eautiftU bluiah-green light. Gold mclta nt a high white heat, and remains unchanged in the hottest fur- naces. In the focus of a lens, however, it is vaporized by the sun's rays ; and the oxyhydrogen blow-pipe or a large voltaic battery can also develop heat sufficient to volatilize it. It contracts in the act of solidifying from a state of fusion, and can not, in consequence, be made to receive sharp impressions by casting it in molds. Coins, accordingly, and plate are stamped or embossed, and afterward ebased and carved, if neces- sary, by catting tools. Gold does not dissolve in any of the ordinary acids, such as the nitric, sulphuric, hydrochloric, or acetic, but a rare acid, the selenic, can dissolve it. Its best solvent is a mixture of hydroclilorio acid, with some oxydlzing agent like nitric acid or oxyd of manganene, which causes the hydrochloric acid to part witli its chlorine. If the gold be in leaf, chlorine at once unites with it, and the resulting chlorid is readily soluble in water. Bromine acts in the same way on the metal ; ar,i it may also be dissolved by boiling it with sulphur, -(jutash, and water. The older chemists speculated on the possllillity of Moses having dissolved the.golden calf of the Israelitos in this way. Gold is also joluble in mercurj-, and advantage is largely taken of this property of quicksilver to dissolve the precious metal from its ores. The gold-amalgam resulting ftwm the union of the meMls is also extensively employed In gilding. The most important chemical compounds of gold are the following, in referring to which the equivalent of gold is taken as !)a-fl. The chlorids are two in number. The sesqni- chlorid, AujCls, is prepared In the mode above men- tioned. It forms orange-red crj-stals, but in aqueous solution appears yellow. It is very easily decomposed by heat, light, organic substances, and all dooxydizing or reducing agents. A solution of this salt in sul- phuric ether is sometimes used for gilding steel. The aqueous solution is employed in photography, and from it nearly all the other useful preparations of gold are made. When this salt is heated cautiously to about 892° Fohr., it loses two tliirds of its chlorine, and becomes the 6ul)-ciilorid AuiCI. The oxyds correspond to the ehlorids, and are ot)- tained from them. The only important one is the sesquioxyd Au,0], prepared liy precipitating the cor- responding chlorid by magnesia, and washing the precipitate with nitric acid and water. This oxyd is of a yellow or brown color, and by solution in potash, in cyanide of potassium, or sulphite of sodn, forms a liquid which is used in gilding. A solution of the oxyd in hj-posuiphite of soda is employed to pro- tect and make more visible daguerreotype portraits on silver. The sulphnrets of gold are not important. Gold is readily identified by chemical tests. When its color and specific gravity can not he appealed to as means of identification, its liehavior with the stroniJiT liquor re-agents is had recourse to. It resists the solvent action of the most powerful acids or alknlies taken singij', but at once dissolves in nqtm rei/in (a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids'), or in any similar liquid containing free chlorine. The resulting solution is tested— 1. By adding to it a solution of prntofuiphate of iron. This causes the gold to sepa- rate in the condition of a verj* fine powder, which re- mains for hours suspended in the liquid, although it is more than nineteen times heavier than watar. The finely-divided metal appears t)rown liy reflected, and bluish-green liy transmitted light, and if dried and lublied liy any smooth solid, acquires the characteristic color and lustre of the metal In mass. 2. By neutral- izing the solution \iith carbonate of potass or soda, and iHiiilng with excess of oxolic acid, when the gold sep- arates in highly characteristic splendent flakes 8. By adding to the loludon diluted, a few drops of solution of protoohlorld of tin, when a rich purple preoipttato falla. Very minute traces of gold may be discovered in this WB}-. The precipitate, which has gone for cen- turies by the name of Purple of Cassiug, appears to bo a compound of oxyd of gold and oxyd of tin (AuiO, SuiOf). It is used to stain glass ruby-red, and to give to porcelain and enamel a rose-pink, crimson, and pur- ple color. Gold is found only in the metallic state, sometimes crystallized in the cube, and its derivative forms. It occurs also in threads of various sizes, twisted and in- terlaced into a chain of minute octahedral crystals | oa also in spangles or roundish grains, which, when of a certain magnitude, are called pepitai. The amatt grains are not fragments broken trom a greater mass ; but they show, by tlieir flattened ovoid shape and their rounded outlines, that this is their original state. The specific gravity of ii itive gold varies from 13-3 to 17'7. Ilumboldt states that the largest pepita known was onb found in Peru weighing about 12 kilogrammes (26) lbs. avoirdupois) ; but masses h.ive been quoted in the province of Quito which weighed nearly four times as much. Another ore of gold is the alloy with silver, or argental gold, the electrum of Pliny, so called from its amiier shade. It seema to be a definite com- pound, containing in 100 parts, 64 of gold and 86 of silver. The mineral formations in which this metal occurs are the crystalline primitive rocks, the compact transition rocks, the trachytic and trap rocks, and al- luvial grounds. It never predominates to such a degree as to constitute veins liy itself. It ia either dis- seminated, and as it were impasted in stony masses, or spread out in thin plates, or grains on the surface ; or, lastly, planted in their cavities, under the shape of filaments or crystallized twigs. The minerals com- posing the veins are either quartz, calc. spar, or sul- phate of barj'ta. The ores that accompany the gold in these veins are cliiefly iron pyrites, copper pyrites, galena, blende, and misplckel (arsenical pyrites). In the ores culled auriferous pyrites, this metal oc- curs either in a visible or invisilile form ; and though invisible in the fresh pyrites, becomes visible by its decomposition j as the hydmted oxyd of iron allows the native gold particles to shine forth on their reddish- brown ground, even when the precious metal may con- stitute only the five millionth part of its weight, as at Rammelsberg, in the Hartz. In that state it Ivis been extracted with profit ; most frequently by amal- gamation with mercury, proving that the gold was in the native state, and not in tliat of a sulphuret. Gold exists among the primitive strata, disseminated in small grains, spangles, and crj'stals. Brazil alfords a remarkalilo example of this species of gold mine. Beds of granular quartz, or micaceous specular iron, in the Sierra of Cocaes, 12 leagues beyond Villa Rica, which form a portion of a mica-slate district, include a great quantity of native gold in spangles, which in this ferruginous rock replace mica. Gold has never been observed in any secondary formation, but pretty abund- antly in its true and primary locality among tUo trap- rocks of igneous origin ; implanted on the sides of the fissures, or disseminated in the veins. The auriferous ores of llungarj- and Transylvania, composed of tellurium, silver pyrites, or sulphuret of sliver, and native gold, lie in masses or powerful veins in a rock of trachj-te, or in a decomposed feldspar sub- ordinate to it. Such is the hicality of the guld ore of Kiinigslierg, of Telkebanya, between Eperies and To- kay, in Hungar}', and prol>ably that of the gold ores of Kapnick, ieisoiiaiiya, etc., in Transylvania; an ar- rangement nearly the same with what occurs in equa- torial America. The auriferous veins of (iuanaxuuto, of KenI del IMonte, and of Villiilpando, are similar to those of Schemniti!, in llungar}', as to magnitude, rel- ative position, the nature of the ores tliey include, and of the rocks they traverse. These districts have im- pressed all mineralogists with the evidence of th« GOL 831 GOL action of volcanic Are. BrelsUk and Hacqnet have (lencribed the gold mine* of TrnnBylTania as situated In the crater of an ancient volcano. It is certain tiiat the tracliytes, which form the iirlnctpal portions of the rocks Including gold, are now almoat univeTually re- garded as of Igneous ur volcanic origin. It would seem, however, that the primary source of the gold ii not in these rocks, but rather in tlie slenltes and greenstone porphjTJes below them, which In Hungary and Transylvania are rich in great auriferous deposits ; for gold hus never been found in the trachyte of the Kuganean Mountains, of the mountains of the Vlcen- tin, of those of Au"ergno ; all of which are superposed upon granite rocks, barren in metal. Finally ; If It be true that the ancients worked mines of gold in the Island of Ischia, it would lie another ex- ample, and a very remarkable one, of the presence of this metal in trachytes of an origin evidently volcanic. Gold Is, however, much more common In the allu- vial grounds than among the primitive nnil pyrogenous rocks just descrilied. It Is found disseminated under the form of spangles. In the sllicious, argillaceous, and ferruginous sands of certain plains and rivers, especially in tneir re-entering angles, at the season of low water, and after storms and temporary floodx. It has l>een supposed that the gold found in the beds of rivers liud l)een torn out by the waters from the veins and primi- tives rocks, which they traverse. Some have even searched, but In vain, at the source of auriferous streams, for the native l)ed of this precious metal. The gold in them l)elongs, however, to the grounds washed by the waters as they glide along. This opin- ion, suggested at first by Delius, and supported by De- Iwrn, Guettard, Robitant, Balbo, etc., Is founded upon just observations. 1. The soil of these plains contains frequently, at a certain depth, and in several spots, spangles of gold separalile by washing. 2. Tlie beds of the auriferous rivers and streamlets contain more gold after storms of rain upon tho plains tiion In any otlier circumstances. 3. It happens almost always that gold is found among tho sands of rivers only in a very circumscril>ed space ; on ascending these rivers, their sands cease to alFord gold ; though, did this metal come from the rocks alwvc, it should 1)6 found more abundantly near the source of the rivers. Thus it is known that the Oreo contains no gold, except from the Pont to its junction with tlie Po. Tho Ticino af- fords gold only lielow the Lago Maggiore, and, con- sequently, far from the primitive mountains, after traversing a lake, where its course Is slackened, and Into which whatsoever it carried down from these mountains must have been deposited. Tho Rhine gives more gold near Strasliurg than near Basle, tliough the latter be much closer to tlie mountains. The sands of the Danul)e do not contain a grain of gold, while this river runs in a mountainous region ; that is, from the frontiers of tiie l)ishopric of Passau to Efferding ; but its sands become aurit'crous in the plains below. The same thing is true of tho Kms ; the sands of the upper portion of this river, as it flows among the mountains of Styria, include no gold ; but from Its entrance into the plain at Stcyer till its em- bouchure in tho Danulie its sands liccome auriferous, and arc even rich enough to 1)6 washed with profit. Tho greater part of tiie auriferous sands in Kurope, Asia, Africa, and America, are lilack or red, and con- sequently ferruginous ; a remarkable circumstance in tlio geological position of alluvial gold. M. Napoiiio supposes that the goiil of these ferruginous grounds is due to tho decomposition of auriferous pyrites. Tiie auriferous sand occurring in Hungary almost always in tiie neighliorhood of the l)e(ls of llijnitea, and the pet. rlrtcd wood, covered witii gold grains, fouml buried at a depth of 65 yards in clay, in the mine of Vorospatak, near Abral)anya, in Transylvania, might lead us to presume that the epoch of the formation of the aurif- erous alluvia is not remote from that of the lignites. The same association of gold ore and fossil wood ocean In South America, at Moco. Near the village of Moro have been discovered, at the depth of 20 feet, large trunks} of petrified trees, surrounded with frag- ments of trap-rocks. Interspersed with spangles of gold and platinum. But tlie alluvial soil affords like wise all the characters of the basaltic rocks ; tiius, in France, the Ctizo and the Qardon, auriferous rivers, where they afford most gold, flow over ground appar- ently derived from the destruction of the trap rocka, which occur in »Uu higher up the country. This fact had struck Reaumur ; and this celebrated ol)server had remarked that tho sand which more Immediately ac- comimnios tlie gold spangles in most rivers, and par- ticularly in the Rhone and tiie Rhine, is composed, like that of Ceylon and Kxpuilly, of black protoxyd of iron and small grains of rubles, corindon, liyacinth, etc. Titanium has liecn observed more recently. It has, lastly, been remarked that the gold of alluvial formations is purer than that extracted from rocks. Principal Gold Mines, — Spoin anciently possessed mines of gold in regular veins, especially in the prov- ince of Asturia- ; but the richness of the American mines had made thom to be neglected. The Tagus, and some otlier streams of that countr}-, were said to roll over golden sands. France contains no workulde gold mines ; but it presents in several of Its rivers au- riferous sands. There are some gold mines in Pied- mont ; particularly the veins of auriferous pyrites of Macugnagna, at the foot of Monte Rosa, lying in a mountain of gneiss ; and nltliough they do not con- tain 10 or II grains of gold in a cwt., they have long defrayed the expmise of working them. Un the southern sIo|)e of tlie Pennine Alps, from the Simplon and Slonte Rosa to the Valley of Aoste, several aurife- rous districts and rivers occur. Such are the torrent Kvenson, which has afforded much gold \>y washing ; tho Oreo, in its passage from the Pout to the Po ; the reddish grounds over which this little river runs for several miles, and the hills In the neighlwrhowl of Chivasso, contain gold spangles in considerable quan- tity. Ireland, — In the county of AVicklow, in Ireland, a quartzose and ferruginous sand was discovered not long ago, 'ontaining many particles of gold, with prp- ilas or solid pieces, one of which weighed 22 ounces. No less tiian lOOU ounces of gold were collected. Strilseriimd. — Tliere are auriferous sands in some rivers of Switzerland, as the lieuss and the Aar. In (jermany no mine of gold Is worked, except in the territory of Sal/.liurg, amid the cliain of mountains which separates the Tyrol and Carinthia. Hungary. — The mines of Hungary and Transylva- nia are the only gold mine.s of any importance in Eu- rope ; they are romarkal)lo for their position, tho peculiar metals that accompany them, and the prod- uct, estimated at about 1,430 pounds avoirdupois annually. Tlic principal ones are in Hungary. 1. Those of Konigsberg. The native gold is dissemi- nated in ores of sulphuret of silver, which occur in small masses and in veins in n decomposing feldspar rock, amid conglomerate of pumice, constituting a portion of the triicl'.vtic formation. 2. Those of IJor- son, Schmeitz. And, 3. Of Felsobany ; ores also of auriferous sulphuret of silver, occur in veins of sienito and greenstone porphyry. 4. Those of Telkelianya, to tlie soutli of Kaschau, are in a deposit of auriferous pyrites amid trap rocks of the most recent formation. Ill Transylvania the gold mines occur in veins often of great magnitude, six, elgiit, and sonietiines forty yards I thick. Tliciw veins liavc no side plates or wall stones, I liiit aliut without intermcdiato ganguea at the primi- '■ tive rock. They consist of carious quartz, ferriferous i limestone, heavy spar, fluor spar, and sulphuret of silver. The mine of Kapnik deserves notice, where the gold is associated with orpiment, and that of Vorospatak in granite rocks ; those of Ofl'enbanya, QOL 8 ZklatAA, and ^agy-Ag, where it ii uaoclated with tellurium. The lait ia in a sienltio rock on the limlta of the trachyte. Northern Europt.—la Sweden, the mine of Kdolfon in Smoland, may lie mentioned, where the gold occura native and In anriferoua pyritea; the veins are a brown quartz, in a mountain of foliated homatone. In .Silierin, native gold occura In a hornutone at Schlttiigonbcrg or Zmeof, and nt Zomelno-garak in the Altai Mountains, accompanied with many other ores. ifM»«a.— The gold mine of Berezof In the Oural Mountains haa i)een long known, consisting otparlinlly deeumpoted auriferous pyritet, dlasomlnatod in a vein of greasy quartz. Ahout 1820, a very rich deposit of native gold was discovered on the eastern side of the Oural Mountains, disseminated at some yards' depth in an nrgillaceous loam, and accompanied with the tltbrii of rocks which usually coni|iose the aurife- rous alluvial soils, as greenstone, serpentine, protoxyd of iron, corundum, etc. The rivers of this district possess auriferous sands. The product of the gold mines of the Oural, in 1845, was 11,808 pounds avoir- dupois, and in 184B, 11,827 pounds ; that of Silwria, in 1846, 87,576 pounds, and In 1846, 48,868 pounds. In these accounts the pood haa been reckoned at 86 Iha. It is Iwlieved that in 1847 and 1849 the yield was still larger, hut it must since have materially fallen off, aa it is stated in JSrman't Arrhiret that the yield In 1861 will not exceed 20,000 pounds troy. In Asia, and especially in ita southern districts, there are many mines, streams, rivers, and wastes, which contain this metal. The Pactolus, a small river of Lydia, rolled over such golden sands that It was supposed to contain the origin of the wealth of Croesus. But these deposits are now poor and for- gotten. Japan, Formosa, Ceylon, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, the Philippines, and some of the islands of the Indian Archipelago, are rich In gold mines. Those of Borneo are worked hy the Chinese in an alluvial poll on the western coast, at the foot of a chain of vol- canic mountains. Little or no gold comes into Eu- rope from Asia, l>ecause its servile inhabitanta place their fortune in treasu.e, and love to hoard up that precious metal. Numerous gold mines occur on the two slopes of the chain of the (Dallas Mountains in the Oundfcs, n province of Little Thilict. The gold ilea in quartz veins which traverse a verj- crumbling, reddish granite. Africa was, with Spain, the source of the greater portion of gold possessed by the ancients. The gold which Africa still brings into the market is always in dust, showing that the metal is obtained by washing the alluvial soils. None of it ia collected In the north of that continent ; three or four districts only are re- markable for the quantity of gold tlicy produce. The first mines are those of Kordofan, between Darfour and Abyssinia. The negroes transport the gold in quills of the ostrich or vulture. These mines seem to have l)een known to the ancients, who considered Ethiopia to abound in gold. Herodotua relates that the king of that countrj- exhibited to the emiiassadors of Cambyses all their priMoncrs bound with golden chains. The sccon'. and chief exploitation of gold dust is to the south of the great desert of Sahara, in the western part of Aft-ica, from the mouth of the Senegal to the Capo of Palms. The gold occurs in spangles, chiefly near the surface of the earth, in tlie bed of rivulets, and alwayn in a ferruginous earth. In some places the negroes dig wells in the soil to a depth of almut 40 feet, unsupported by any props. They do not follow any vein ; nor do they construct a gallery. By repeated washings they separate the gold from the earthy matters. The same district furnishes also the greater part of what Is carried to Morocco, Fez, and Algiers, by t!ie caravans which go from Timbuctoo on the Niger, across the great desert of Sahara. The gold wnich arrivei by Sennaor at Cairo and Atoxsndria 12 GOL ^ comes from the same qturter. From Mnngo Park's deacriptlon, it appears that the gold a|)angles are found usually in a ferruginous amall gravel, buried under rolled pebblea. The third apot in Africa where gold is collected ia on the south-east ouast, between the 25th and the 2'2d degree of south latitude, opposite to Madagascar, In the country of Sofala. Some per- sons think tliat this was the kingdom of Uphir whence Solomon obtained his gold. There is little gold lu the northern part of America. In IHIO, a mass of alluvial gold, weighing 28 pounds, was found in the gravel pits t,S thu creeks of Kockhole, district of Lebanon, in North Carolina. South America. — PrevloBsly to the Important dis- coveries in Caiifoniia, Brazil, Choco, and Chili, were the regions which furnished most golil. The only contributor of Chilian o(>jecta to the great exhibition waa one who forwarded a lump of gold ore weighing U cwt., which waa brought up from a deep mine on the back of a miner, from a depth of 45 yarda beneath the surface. The gold of Mexico ia in a great measure contained in the argentlfenma veins, so numerous in that coun- try, whose principal localities are mentioned under the article Silver. The silver of the argentiferous ores of (fUanaxuato containa one 860th of ita weight of gold ; the annual product of the mines being valued at from 2,640 to 8,800 llis. avoirdupois. Oaxaco contains the only auriferous veins exploited as gold mines in Mexico ; they traverse the rocks of gneisa and mica slate. All the rivera of the province of Caracas, to ten de- grees north of the line, flow over golden sanda, Peru is not rich in gold ores. In the provinces of Iluaiias and Pataz, this metal la mined in veins of greasy quartz, variegated with red, ferruginous spots, which traverse primitive rocks. The mines called paces de oro, consist of ores of iron and copper oxyds, containing a great quantity of gold. All the gold furnished by New Grenada (New Co- lumbia) is the product of washings established in allu- vial grounds. The gold exists in spangles and in grains, disseminated among fragments of greenstone and porphyry. At Choco, along with the gold and platinum, hyacinths, zircons, and titanium occur. There has been found, as already stated, in the auiif- erous localities, targe trunks of petrified trees. Tho gold of Antioquia is 20 carats fine, tliat of Choco, 21 ; und the largest lump or pepita of gold weighed about 27| pounds avoirdupois. Tho gold of Chill also occurs in alluvial formations, Brazil does not contain any gold mine, properly so called ; for the veins containing the metal are seldom worked. It is in tho sanda of the Mandi, a branch of the Itio Dolce, at Catapreta, that the auriferous ferruginous sands were first discov- ered in 1682. Since then they have been found almost everywhere at the foot of the immense chain of mountains, which runs nearly parallel with tlie coast, from the 5th degree south to the <80th. It is particularly near Villa Rica, in the environs of th« village Cocites, that the numerous washings for gold are established. The pepittis occur in difiercnt forms, often adhering to micaceous si>ecular iron. But in the province of Minas tierues, tho gold occurs also in veins, in beds, and in grains, disseminated among tho alluvial loams. It has been estimated in annual prod uct, by several authors, at about 2800 pounds avoir du|ioi8 of fine metal. We thus seo that almost all the gold brougiit into the market comes from alluvial lands, and ia extracted by washing. The gold coin of the ancients waa made chiefly out of alluvial gold, for in those early times the metullurgic arts were not sufiicientiy advanced to enable them to purify it. Thu gold dust from Bamlrauk, in Africa, is of 22^ carats fine, and some from Morocco is even 23, The gold of Giron, in New Grenada, is of 28} carats — being the purest from America. " For thoie who traffic in gold," GOL GOL uy» ilnmtiolitt, tl li •nfflolmt to know the pUoa when iht mntiit hM Ixnn oolUotad, to know its titlt." iMrniiTATioKii or MAXitrAarnin or Hold and Siin* iN'ru Tim Ukitii) Mtatm, rua tui Ysae mouia Jvnt «wm>im. VKHII llinWTIIi, n»inbiir|| , nminmi , . iminmi irallmiit,... lliliiliiin,,, Knitlniiil,,, Monilmiil,., OmimU,,,, Kriiinti (Ml Atlmi. VrMinitiiiiMwIlli Hardlnlk TuMimiy ,,,,,, AuatrU,,,,,,, •wOriinitiLi.'!! OMn» Totil MAUVMrniM or auu AMD IILfAM. (•II, Ihi, DTillnn. I, 'inn 1II,IITIV n,ta» IMM N,n4 and •ll>ir i»r. ln,6»7 4,V4A Jcwalrjr, real or ImlU- llou of. Tililui 1^9 89,140 198 N 331,848 70 MM 1V8,4«II It 189 i,hi 1,786 B04 itSM DolUn. Dolli 68 1441 60,488 98 1,933 S,1M 60 78 1,907 T,96S OIkor. win. 119,989 198,911 ■■"6 1,SS4 9,671 "iss 877 868,966 AMIuroa of, not IMUrt. 977 4,980 41 80 41,968 96 90 91,890 "904 867 "u ■lit 9,188 77,748 NlW (liil.li — NlNll YiiAiui 1849-1B68. rBonucno.H UALiriiKNiA, ViimmiA, anu Nkw Sourn Walu. I'HOIIIIOTIIIH or OOID IK VlCTOBIA. IN )*VM 1HA4 INMI IHM! Tiitnl (iNlHiatt Troy, ' ijiWki 1,7Wl,IKIII 9,478,IMIO y,HIIII,llllti H,9lHi,illHI lt,lllll,IIIK) ll),fiftJ,IH)(r AiMrUlnatl tClpHHi, C440,IKKI fl,t8A,n(MI 8,1164,11011 8,9A^II90 11,808, IMN) 12,648,000 TT,Ho;ouo Marfrlnal AdJillmi of 10 |irr rrnt. £41,000 614,1100 866,000 R96,i)00 1,180,000 1,9M,000_ '4,743,000 Valuo of Total Produce, X484,UO0 6,748,000 9,680,000 0,080,1100 12,W8,000 18,007,IWO 62,189,000" PHdlMinTlott or Ooti) ii« Nbw South Waim. V»Ar*> (MiMaa Troy, 1869 1868 IWH IN6A 1866 Total Y.ara, "liar 18A0 1861 im 1NA8 1«M INM 1866 T6titl I84,INK) 09M,(HI0 l,AOl>,IMHI 990,011(1 ftV.lNMI g »,OOII_ wOiijiiir Aacorlalnfil KaiHirli. £468,000 8,600,000 1,781,000 778,000 910,000 100,000 'iJisapoo' MariHnal addition of 10 (Mr rent. £47,000 860,000 178,000 77,000 91,000 _ lo.two^ £698,000 Value of Totol Produce. £616,000 8,9*0,000 1,969,000 860,000 931,000 110,000 £7,696,000 I'koutxmoN OP UoLD IN Calipornia. OHHeet Troy, ' 4*V*'0^ 1,480,1810 9,l|A7,ll trinslc value. A suddenly-increoard supply of no other commodity would produce effects so decided and rapid, for the simple reason that (say) a tenfold quan- tity of no other commodity could find an inntuataneous ai\d impatient market. The llnrra-Burra copper mine in South Australia, for example, might have become ten times as productive as it had been prevk>usly, without producing any effects more violent or rapU than, first, an increase of dividend to the shareholders ; and, gradually, a fall in the price of the kinds of ma- chiner}- and hardware in which copper is the i^ncipal metal. "In the next place the rise of two or three hundred per cent., which occurred at once in the gold countries in the prices of all kinds of foreign commodities, was speedily corrected by the impulse imparted, almost in a single day, to the resources available for increased production in those foreign countries. And, after the first excitement had abated, the increased production has continued year by year, because the effective de- Dund, in the form of new gold, has continued in the gold countries, yeur by year. ]3ut tliere has been this most im|)ortant collateral effect, viz., that, year by year, the circle within which the demand for commo<> itids goes on increasing, is a circle of rapidly-expand- ing area. Originally, but for a short time only, it included merely the gold countries ; it then embraced those particular districts — Lancasliire and Birmingham for example — best able to meet the most urgent de- mands for special articles ; it then became extended to the distrkts which supplied tlte raw materials of those articles ; and pursuing the same order of pro- gression, the area of the incTea.sed demand for com- modities, or what is a better term, the area within which increased incomes are expended, is necessarily wider in each succeeding month. The same general reasoning applies to the process by which the wages of labor have been reduced in the gold countries by means of immigration. "The discovery of the new gold was, in its imme- diate region, the same thing, practically, as rendering lulior four times as effective as it had been in the pro- duction of those commodities not merely possessing intrinsic value, but instantly exchangeable all over the world for all other commodities possessing intrin- sic valoe. The immigianta drawn to the gold coun* (K>t •M GOL Mm by th« prMpwti of high wagti and luddtn Ibrtanc, ti«n«f«md, In lonMi npedflc proportion, the hmaftti of thli IncrrsHd efflrai'y of l*hor to th« conn- Mm fVom irhcnr* they atarted ; and In two roo Wat Men In thin coantry In IRAS-lft&fl, a prndlglouoly- Increaied price for emigrant veaiioiii, anil therefure for the lervtres of all parionii cnnnectfil with iihlp-linlld- Ing ; and, in the lecond place, by leavInK Iwhind them racanclea which could only be aupplied by the alxorp- llon of lalKir previously a burden in lome form to the eommnnity, a* was alao teen in 1HA2 and 186A by the diminution in the number ofdettitute {lenona relieved under the Poor I^w. " We aeem to arrive, then, at a further generaliiia- lion, namely; (1.) That within the gold couptriea the elTectt of the dlncoveriea have Iwen to create, rap- idly and largely, acciimulationaof real wealth and real Ntonrcea. The adult population of thoae countriea baa been tncreaaed three or fbur fold whhln at many yeara. The erection of houaea, the cultivation of the ■oil, the reclamntiona of waate landa, the rnnatructinn '»f railwiiya, the embeilinhment of towna, the provition cf harlKira and docka, the foundation of achoola and nniverxltiea, and, more conapicuniia than all, the ealabtlKhment olmoat at a aingle stride of an ennrmoua foreign trade — in a few worda, the vigorous prosecu- tion of everj* enterpriae, and the swift advancement of every art which can render a country opulent and ttowerfui — are results which havo been nearly all W!comptiahcm, and something very mnch beyond, the liarren addition of a considorable percent- age to the previously-exiating amount of metallic clr- eulatlon in this and other countriea, and haa alao iccomplished changes far more important than any barren increoao (merely by reason of 'enlarged quan- tity) In the pricea of cnmmoditiea. It is, moreover, manifest, unleaa all the previous facts and reaaiminga are erroneous, that the real and vital changes which have taken place, are additions to the real wealth of the world, liy means of greater production and more active enterjiriae ; and that the elementa of cireing four ftngera square, which Is three times the thickness of the onlinary leaf gold of the present time. The ancient Peruvians made very thin slier • of gold, and nailed them together on the walls of their temples of worship ; on the rtilllns of the Tlieban mummies, specimens of original leaf- folding are met with where the gold Is in so thin a (tate that it resembles modem gliding. Tim art ae^ms to have been practiced In India, judging from the rude ipecimena of gilding at TIppo Saib's palace at Ban- nlore. In modem times it haa bet n practiced la the eapitala of tb« priDolpal oomniOTaUl oooMriat tt En. ro|Mi. In England It waa coaHiiad to J<«mdon untU within the present century. It hat been introduced into HootUnd and the United Stales of America within tliat period. It la now practiced In several towna In Kngland, and to a small extent In Imland, at Dublin only. The manufacture being attendant u|H>n an ail- vanced atata of the arts. It is only found In old estalc llahad countriea, and la not yet practiced in any of the British colonlea. From the ixlttence here of soma now obsolete tools, almilurto thoae at preaent In uae at Paris, It would appear to have traveled to Fngland tnxa that quarter. The art lias nowhere lieen ao per- fected aa in I^ndon ; but of late yeara, from inter- course with English gold-beaters, efforts liave been made on the continent, with the aid of Knglish gold- baaten,' skin, to rival the extreme llnauest of tlio En- glish product. The ordinary size of a leaf of gold la Ol inchea, for the production of 2000 leavea of which from 18 to 19 dwta. of gold wera allowed to the workmen fifty years since in London, but now, owing to the improvement in the quality uf the skin, and superior skill on the part of the workmen, not mure tliau an average of 16 dwts. are required, and with very skill- ful workmen R la aomeilm>-? accomplished with 14 dwta, 'I his, however, la noi o lie taken aa any teal of the extreme nialleablllf y ir litute a pile an Inch high ; the same number of leav4" of paper would form a pile half the height of the Monument ot' London. The silver, though apnad over a much larger suface, was thickest, owing to tlia difference In Its speclilc gravity; but, calculated by weight, ailver is the moat malleable metal with which we are acquainted, considerably exceeding that of gold. Thia experiment does not, however, determine the extent of the mulleulMlty of either metal, as the means employed to test It were found to full before there was anv appearance of the malleability of the metala being exhausted. The gold uaed by the gold-beater is variously alloyed according to the variety of color required. Fine gold is commonly supposed to be Incapable of being reduced to thin leaves. This is an error. It la objectionable for commercial purposes on account of Its greater coat. It alao adheres on one part of a leaf touching another, thus caualng a waste uf labor by the leavea being spoiled ; Imt fur work expoaed to the weather It Is much preferalile, as it is more durable, and does not tamlsh or change color. The specimens of gold leaf exhiliited by Mr. E. 8. Marshall, gold-lienter of Ix>n- dun, at the great exhibition of 1851, and for which the prize medal waa awarded to him, were twelve in num- l>er, and embraced a regular gradation in color flrom red down to nearly white, viz., red, pulo red, extra deep, deep, orange, lemon, deep pule, pale, pale-pale, deep party, party, and tine gold. The deeper colors were alloyed with from 12 to Ifi gra. of copper per oz., but without any silver, as any aWoy uf silver with this quantity of copper would considerably impair the mal- leabllit}'. The middle colora contained from 12 to 20 gra. of ailver, and from 6 to 8 grs. of cupper to the ounce ; the paler golds contained from 2 to 20 dwts. of ailver to the ounce, but no copper, fur the same reason that the lUver wat omittad in the red golds. GOL Tkf proMH of (old-bcatiog i> tbui condoctcd. Tb« gold luving baeo dluytd according to the color d«- «lrad, it U m«lt«d In • crucible, at a higher temperatura than la aliuply neccMary to fuse it, as itn malUablUty la Improved by ex|)09ure to a greater heat ; luddeil cooling duel oot interfere with ita malleable pruper- tlea, diOerlug in thia property from tome other metult. It ia then caat into an ingot, and flattened Into a ribbon of 1^ inch wide and 10 feet in length to the ounce. After being flattened it la annealed and cut into amall {tiecaa of about 6 gr^, each, and placed between the eavea of a cutch, which la about half an Inch thick and 3| InvheA aquare, containing about IGU leaven of a tough pa|>er manufactured in France, Komierly fine vellum waa uwd furtbia pur|>oae. The cutch ia beaten on for about 20 udnutea with a 17-puund hammer, which relwunda by the elaatlclty of (he aliln, anil luvea the Ubor of lifting, by which the gold ia spread to the aiie of the cutch { eucli leaf is then taken out, and cut Into four pieces, and put lietwein the skUia of a sliiider H inches square and fths of an Inch thick, containing about 700 skins, which have been worn out In the tiiilshiug process. The shoder requires about two hours' beating U|Hm with n i)-|K)UDd hammer. As the gold will spread unequally, the shoder is beaten u|>on after the larger leave* have reached thu edges. The eifect of this it, tliat the larger leaves come out of th« edges In a state of dust. This allows time for the smaller leaves to reach the full size of the shoder, thus producing a general evenness of sUe in the leaves. Each leaf Is again cut Into four pieces, and placed between the leaves of a mold composed of o^ut 000 of tlio llnest skins, 6 inches square and {ths of an Inch thick j this is the Inst and most difficult stage of the process ; and on the fluenea* of the akin and Judgment of the workman the iierfection and thinness of the leaf of gold depend. During the flrst hour the hammer is allowed to fall principally upon the centre of the mold. This causes gaping tiacks upon She edges of the leaves, »he sides of which readily coalesce and unite without leaving any trace of the union aftor being boatan upon. At the second hour, when the gold is about the l&0,000th of an inch in thickness, it for the flrst time permits Ihe transmUsion of the rays of light. In pure gold, or gold but slightly alloyed, the green rays are transmitted ; and In gold highly alloyed with silver, the pale violet rays pass. The .nold requires in all about four hours' beating with a /-lb. hammer, when the gold will have arrived at the ordinary thin- ness for the gold-leaf of commerce. It is theo taken out of the mold, and the rough edges are cut otf by slips of the rattan flxed in parallel grooves of an in- strument called a wa^on, the leaf being laii' upon a leathern cushi(m for that purpose. The leaves thus proiwred are placed into a book capable of holding 2b leaves each, which have been rubbed over with red ochre to prevent the gold clinging to the paper, and is used for gilding picturo-frumes, books, and IVr numer- ouH c'her ornamental purpose?. The dryness of tlie cutch, shoder, and m'.ld, is a matter of extreme delicacy. They require ( j be hot- pressed every time they are used, although they may be used dully, to remove tlie moisture which tliey ac- quire from the atmosphere, except in extremely frosty w father, ■vhen they acquire so little moisti'rs hat then a diinculty arises from tbclr ovcr-dryness j the bril- liancy of the gold is diminished, and it sf reads very slowly under the hammer. On the cont.'ar}', if the cutch or shoder be damp, the gold will become that which is technically termed hollow or sieve-like ; that is, it is pierced with innumerable small microscopical holes ; and in the moUls in its more attenuated state it will become reduced to a pulverulent state. Tills con- dition is more easily produced in alloyed golds than in fine gold. It is necessary that each skin of the mold should Im rubbed over with calcined gypsum (the GOL flhrlnated variety) each time tba mold mar b« um4. In order to prevent tha atlheaion of the gold to tba sur- face of the akin In the process of beating. IhntUl (IM ia gold leaf carried no further In the proccifa tlian that of the cutch, and shoulil be perfectly pure gnld. Uy the alwve process silver Is lieuten, but nut BO thin, the inferior value of tha .iietal not render- ing it conimerciully desirable to bestow so much lal>or upon It, Copper, tin, line, palladium, leatl, cadmium, platinum, and aluminium can be beaten into thin leaves, but nut to the extent of gold or silver. iShrll (lold, used In painting and illumhiating, U made by grinding golil leaves with honey, and after- ward aeparathig the honey from the powdered gold by means uf water. When the honey is washed away, the gold may be put on paper or kept In shells. When used, It is commonly diluted with gum water. The (iemian gold powder, prepared in this manner from the Dutch gold leaf. Is generally used ; and when It Is well secured with varnish, it answers the end in Japunners' gilding tolerably well. OdIJ Size, for burnished gilding, is prepared of li puunds of pl|io clay, \ an ounce of red chalk, i of an ounce of black lead, 40 drops of sweet oil, and 8 drams uf pure tallow. The cluy, chalk, and black load are to be ground very flne, separately. In water, theu mixed together; the oil and tallow are next added, and the mixture is ground to a due con- sistence. (lold Thread is formed of flattened gold wire wrap- ped closely over a thread of yellow sUk, by means of a wheel and iron bobbins. Gold Wire is made by taking a cylindrical ingot of silver which has been su|ierflclally coated with gold, and drawing it successively through a series of holes in a hardened steel plate, each of which is a degree smaller than the preceding hole, and proceeding thus until the requisite degree of fineness is attained. It may be observed that in this process, however flne be the wire, its gilded surface exiilbits no flaw even when viewed by the microscope. Flattened gold wire \» t\M same wire after it has been passed between rollers of polished steel. Gold Cooat, coast of Africa. The wiiole coast has been arbitrarily divided into Ave parts : 1. The Sierra Leone district, from Cape Verga to Cape Me- surado. 2. Malugueta, Pepper or Grain Coast, from Cape Mesurado to Cape Palmas. 3. The Ivory Coast, from Cape Palmas to Cape Three Points. 4, The Uold Coast, from Cape Three Points to the River Volta. 5. The Slave Coast, or Benin district, from the liiver Volta to the Cameroons. Gold Coast, a country of Guinea, west Africa, ex- tending along the Atlantic Ocean, from the River Volta on the east, to Cape Lahu on the west, and bounded north by Ashantee, It was discovcrod by the Portuguese, who founded an establishment at Foit Klmina in 1482. The English first settled hero in 1KC4. The countr}- is fertile ; deer are plenty in the interior, and fish along the coast. Legislature of the British settlements composed of a governor and a legislative council r.f four members. Salary of lieu- tenant-governor, XiW. The principal European es- tablishments are C.^pe Coast Custle, Accra, Axim, Dixcove, Elmina, and iho establishments lately ceded by Denmark to Great Britain. The following returns to Parliament (as published by th« I.andon Shipping and Mercantile Gazelle'), show the increase of e::ports to the West Coast of Africa, and of importations from the same coast : Ynri, EtporU. Iniportt, T..1.I. 1850 1S51 i!63U,429 654,.%48 NS8,725 901,401 958,809 £605,a.'>8 704,810 707,034 749,878 905,6U4 £1,'J45,887 l,41»,!i53 1,440,749 1,680,776 1,861,448 1S52 K%3 1854 flOL 898 aoL ThU U indopandtnt nf lh« BrIlUh mlonU* of Hlnmt l.«on«, the tnii* nf which amnnnlMl in lf)M In 11,-1 'il,- MA, »m\ of thii Britlnh pou«ulnni nn Iha Oulil CimiI •nrt th« Rtvtr OrnnliU, ■mounting to #l,M7,'iMA mora i and nf IhoM at th« Caps of ()ont<> "f ov«r #-Jfl,Onn,000 In IHM, for the wantiirn i-oant of Afiira pnlira. It haa nf lat* b«i«tw»«n tha llnltad Htatca and the WMtcrn roa*t of AfHra, tn affoni Kraatcr fai'llltlaa fur rommarolal Intarcnurra ; and the pUntln^ of a«tt)«- mrnta In th« Intrrlnr, aa now prnponml, romnia fron< tha malariona lnttu«ni-« of tha rnaal, fUmUh atldltioojil rvaaona for (laniavaring In lliia laudalila daal|;n. Ok>ld Dlsoovary m tVi/omi'ii. In Naptmihar, 1H47, ona Captain Hiitar or fliittar waa a Im>I(I, proapar- oui, cntcrprlnlnK, lnl«lli)(ant aattlar In l.'ppar Califor- nia. Ila waa a SwUa hy l>lrth ; ha had aarvcd Charlaa X. aa ona of tha HMm fluanl at tha Tulllarlaa ; ha •mlifrated to Mlaaourl aftar tha Iloiirlion revolution of 1N80 ; ha ramovrd thani-a to the ( tragon territory In IMIMI ; ha made a further advance, In IHilO, tn California, where he liulll a fort named New lli>lvatU on the River Hacraniento; ha Kradually acruinulatad around bim 4U0U oxen, lAOII horara and mulea, 'JIMM) aheap, a vaat acreage of land undar ({'oin cropa, and two trad- InR veaaela In the river ; he had hU fnrt aupplled with 12 place* of artillery, ami defondad liy a Karriaon of 70 men ; and ha wua thua. In all prohiililllty, the wealthleat and moat Influential man liayond the KiM'ky Mountain*. The mnnth aliova named waa an Import- ant one to thia lM)ld raptiiln, and to the world at larfta. He contractail witi a Sir. Marahall tn conatrui't a aaw- mlll near a pine foi<>at. The aupply of water to thIa mill waa ao altuateil as tn woah down much mud and gravel from tha higher couna nf tha atreani ; and Mr. alarahall, watehinK the prngreaa of hia worka one day, ■aw aome glittering partlclaa in thia mud. He forme(l hIa own conclualona of the nature of theae ahlning mnnela ; and having ahown anma of thom tn the cap- tain, it waa agreed tn keep tha matter a accret fnr a time. Such aecrets, however, do not keep ; they trill not keep ; It waa aoon nolaed abroad that nni.ii huil bean diacovermi at the American fork of the Sacra- mento, and a gnld fever thereupon tiprang up. A few lalmrera collected aome of the gold-duat, and took It for sale to Sun Kranciaco, at which town the .Sacra- mento enters the PaclHc ; hundred* flockeei-auie ahnt)Ht uhundnned. Ck>lden Fleece, In Mi)tl>alogy, the fieere of the ram upon which I'hrixiia and Helle croaaed the sea to Colchis, and which, lieing sacrillccd to Jupiter, was hung upon a tree in the grove of Mars, guarded l>y two brazen-hoofed bulla, and a monstrous dragon that never slept. The fleece wa* carried off by .laaon anil the Argonauts. Many authors have endeavored to ehow that this fable is an allegorical representation of some real history ; while others explain It by the profit of the wool trade to Colchis, or the gold which was gathered in the rivers of that country by means of fleeces. Oold-Laoe. Gnld-lace is a thin covering of gold applied to a surface of silver, which again has a found- ation of silk. The silken threads for making tills material are wound round with gold wire, so thi( kly as to conceal the silk ; and the making of this gold v. '.re is one of the most singular mechanical operation* Im- aginable. In tha first place, the rcllner prepares a solid ro(N> square Inches to an ounce, pasaa* next into tha hands of the gold-lieater. The worklng-to' vellum leaves fniir inclios square ; they are beuten for a long time with a ]Minderous hammer on a snimitli marliie slab, uiitit the gnld ha* thinned and expanded tn the size nf the vellum. How the workman manages so as to beat all the pieces equally, and yet beat none into hnlas, he alnne can answer ; it i* one of the mys- teries nf hia craft. The gnld is liberated from Its vel- lum prison, and each piece cut into four ; the 150 have thus liecome tiOO, and those are interleaved with (iUO pieces of gold-beaters' skin, which are then packed into a compact muss. Another beating then tukcs place — mora careful, mure delicate, more precise than the former— until the gnld, expanded like the silk-worm, as fur us it* envelop will admit, requires tn be again released. The leaves urn nguin divided into four, by which the ;-«(l. Hm (ini.D Dbatimo. Oold-w«l|hlng Maohln*. Mr. (^oitnn'i nut' chlue Mrm«, Ivy gtnanl cununi, to Im ilii«m«il th* mmt (Idlt'iitii aver y*t coiMtrurtail for wi'IkIiIdii ki>M coin. Ita |inclalim la Initeail moat axqiilalla. In tha traiiaactiona liatwaan tha Hank iit KnKlunil knil tha nulilic, tha walKhInK iif kdIiI coin liaa Iman * moat anx* l»ii> ail < tailloua pnii-aiia. Aa liatwaan tha liank ami thi< mint, tha Uhor ia not ao mlnuta i for 'ton aovar- xiKna haInK D'at aci-urataly walKhail, all tha rii|Ually dellcata, or tha liability to arror on tli« pirt of tha w«ighori< may not have Iwen exactly ci|ii'il. An ax- |M>rt waiithar could \i»lgh about 700 aoviaan ahlpptng In the indlas use cubit's of It. It undergoes no pr«|iiirntbin but that of spinning and twisting I no material aliniiar to our tar and pitch. In- diapenaabia to the preservation of hain|>en c art lietween S. lat. 'iO° and 34^', and K. long. 18° and '.28', It is bounded on the north by the Orange and the (iarlcp lllvers, on the east by the Kivor Keiskamma and Kafraria, on the south by the Houthern Ocean, and on the west by the Atlantic. Its extreme breadth is fron\ north to south about 450 miles, anil Its length from east to wcxt about 6U0 miles, Ita area ccntainlng ulHiut '230,000 fiquuro miles. The country rises from the sea by a series of terraces, of which the supporting walls arc nearly parallel chains of rugged and barren mountains Intersected by deep ravines, the beds of streams, feeble or dry in the summer, but rushing down in torrents in the win ter, Tlio nrst of these mountain ranges of which Drackeniitein, Hottentots' Holland, and Langc Klouf fiirm a part, nms from the north-west round the colo- ny toward the oast, whore It tnrminutes in the pro- montory of Ca|ie 8t, Francis. Between It and the seu, on the west coast, the country is sandy and ster- ile, but on the south and cast coast It possesses .some good aoll, ond la clothed with vegetation. The sec- ond great chain, containing tho Karroo Berg, 011- pliaut'i River, Cold Bokkeveld, and Zuurbergen GOO 838 000 MoantaiiM, luni parallel to tba ilnt and termlnateii near the mouth of the Groat Fish River. Its average height ia alwut 4000 feet, and its greatest about 6500. Between this chain and the first the surface is varied, some parts consisting of arid plains and hills, others uf good arable soil with a large portion of excellent grazing land. The third great range ulso runs nearly parallel to the others, and includes the Kammies Ber- gen, Roggeveld Bergen, Nieuwveld, and Sneeuw- Bergen Mountains. This is the highest part of the colonjr, and from it tho land gradually descends to the Orange River. Between this range and the second is the vast desolate plain called the Gi«at Karroo, near- ly 300 miles in length east and west, and about 90 in breadth north and south. Its soil is a sand mixed with clay, and particles of iron : all soil of a similar character in other parts of the colony is called karroo ground. These mountain chains are mostly composed of sandstone resting upon a base of granite, which are the prevailing roclis, the next in abundance being clay slate, grauwackis, quartz rock, and dnlerito. In some parts the ironstone is traversed by veins of red iron ore. Deposits of coal are said to have been dis- covered in Kaiirland and Victoria division, and copper ore has been found in some abundance in Namaquo- lond. The Rivers, with exception of the Orange River, are small ; they all more or less partake of tlie character of mountain streams, having numerous falls, and being low and feeble !u the dry season, but swollen and rapid in the rainy weather. Tliej- aro of course not navigable, and their mouths are mostly l>arred with sand. The Knysna, the Cowe, and tho Briede are however accessible, for a short distance from their entrance, to small vessels. The chief rivers are, on the west coast, the Orange, the Elephant, and Great Berg Rivers ; on the south coast, the Briede Knysna, Sunday, Cantoos, Groat Fish, and Keiskamma. The only one of them deserving special notice is the Orange River, which rises in Kutlilamba or Dracken- l)erg Mountains, flows for nearly 1200 miles generally in a westerly direction, and discharges itself into the Atlantic, forming the northern boundary of the col- ony. It is on the whole a noble stream, and in some parts its banks are shaded by huge willows. The Soil.— It is considered that about two fifths of the colony consist of arid mountain ridges and sandy ^ains, unfit either for agriculture or pasture. The remainder is not generally fit for agricultural pur- poses, although it contains some very fertile spots ; a large portion of it, however, especially in the eastern part, affords excellent pasturage for cattle and sheep. The coast is indented by various bays and inlets ; few of them, however, afford convenient harbors. Saldanfaa Bay, on the west coast, is one of the most extensive and secure havens in this part of the world, but it is rendered comparatively useless by the want of a sufficient quantity of fresh water near it for the supply of shipping, Simon's Bay, hear tho bottom of False Bay, is a good harbor, and is used as a sta- tion for the royal navy. Table Bay, though some- what protected by Robben Island, is little better than an open roadstead. It affords shelter, however, to ships during the summer months, but in the winter, from May to September, it is very unsafe. Algoa Bay is an open roadstead, but it is the chief port of the eastern province, and is much frequented by ships, wliich in certain winds can lie in it safely. Mossel Bay and the Cowie are also resorted to by small ves- sels, but they a:« little better than open roadsteads. The climate is generally milder and drier than that of England. December, Januarj-, and February are the summer months; June, July, and August the winter. In the western part the summer is dry and clear, but in the east it is wet and stormy. In the vicinity of Cape Town, the highest temperature is abont 84°, the lowest about 40°, and the mean of the year about 68°. In the motmtainoM districts and elevated plains, the heat of summer and the cold of winter are greater. Tlie vegetation of the colony Is remarkably rich and varied. Some of the finest botanical specimens that now adorn thd gardens of Europe have been de- rived fh>m this region. In no other place do bulbous plants and heaths exhibit so many beautiful varieties. Besides a number of other ornamental tribes, there are some plants which might be used in medicine and dyeing. The aloe, however, is the only one which has been Made an article of export. The most re- markable trees are, the silver-tree, which only grows in the vicinity of Table Mountain ; the Protea ; and in the eastern province, the Euphorbia. Thei« is on the whole a scarcity of indigenous timber, though there are In some parts extensive forests. Some of the native woods furnish materials for nimlture and the wood-work of houses. The oak, fir, and other European forest trees, have, however, been long since introduced, and thriven very well ; some of them have attained a great size, and their wood is extensively used. There are few Indigenous fruits, but most of the fruits both in the north and south of Europe, such as grapes, figs, oranges, mulberries, apples, pears, peaches, nectarines, and others, are grown in abund- ance ; but strawtftiries rarely come to perfection, and the gooseberry can not be raised. In regard to the zoology of the Cape, there is little to distinguish it from the rest of Africa, under the head of which will be found sofficient Information on this subject ; we may, hdwever, notice the domestic animals of the colony. Sheep, cattle, and dogs, of an inferior breed, were all possessed by the natives on the discovery of the country. Horses, asses, mnles, goats, and Inferior breeds of cattle and sheep, have been introduced, and thrive well. The Merino sheep, in particular, has proved a valuable acquisition to the colony. Among the game birds are the bustard, called bj' the Dutch the pouw, and a smaller kind called the coran, wild duck, teal, snipe, and partridge. niiiory. — This Cape was discovered by Bartholo- mew Diaz, the Portuguese navigator, In 149R, who first landed at Algoa Bay, having, after exploring the west coast, been driven out to sea by a storm, and thus accidentally doubling tho Cape which he saw on his way back, giving it the name of the Cape of Storms (Cabo Tormertoso). The King of Portugal, however, gu'e it the more auspicious name it still bears, as its discovery afforded a hope of a new and easier way of reaching India, the great object of all the maritime expeditions of that age. The great navigator Vasco de Gama doubled the Cape in 1497, and carried the Portuguese flag into the Indian seas. His countr^'men, however, attracted by the riches of the East, made no permanent settlement at the Cape, although they frequently touched there on the voyage to India. But the Dutch, who, on the decline of the Portuguese power, established them- selves In the East, early saw the importance of the place as a station where their vessels might take in water and provisions. They did not, however, colonize it till 1650, when the Dutch East India Company directed Jan Van Rleheeck, with s small party of colonists, to form a settlement there. The country was at that time Inhabited by a people called Qualquae, t>ut to whom the Dutch seem to have given the name of Hot- tentots. Tlie Kiebeeck settlers bad at first greut diffi- culties and hardships to endure, and their territorj- did not extend beyond a few miles round the site of the present Cape Town, where they first fixed their abode. They gradually, however, extended their limits, by driving the natives back or reducing them to serfdom. These colonists, although under Dutch authority, were not wholly of that nation, but con- sisted partly of jiersons of various nations, especially Germans and Flemings, with a few Poles and Portu« by I calle gen< Hut witi coui tine seal pie, (UU nui Th. tl>e GOO 880 GOO nd of ind game. Thajr war* for tba matt pert people of low station or indlfftrant character | thara wu, howevar, a small number »f a lilKlier claaa, from whom waa aalectad a council to aniilit tha goremor. About the year 168U tba European populatkm waa increaiad by a number uf the French r«fuKK«« wholaft their country on the revocation of tlie edict of Nanteii. Our limits forbid our attempting Ut tra<:a the hlntory of the Cape Colony during tha leni^thened parlud It'remained un- der tba Dutch government. We may, however, men- tion aome of It* pniminent Incldentu, the effects of which are viiiil)la in the eolimy to this hour. lat. The Dutch, partly tiy ao-valled contracta, p,irtlr by force, gmdually de|irlve4l the Hottentot* of their country. 2d. They reduced to alavery a large part of that unfortunate people whom tliey did not destroy. Sd. They iutruduccd a nunilxtr of Malay* and negroes as slsvea. 4th. They (.■stalilistied that narrow and tyrannical sy*t«m of polier«ted by Sir Benjamin D'Urlmn, and have, up to this time, re- mained faithful allies of the British. Their number may be about 26,000. The exact proportion which the wliite papulation of Dutch descent bears to the British is not known ; but there is no doubt that it still greatly preponderates. We have called the people Dutch for sake of conve- nience, as they speak that language, but many uf them are descended from Europeans of other countrie»^-a considerable number from the French refugees. The latter have lost the language, but still retain the names of their forefathers, such as Du Plesais, De Vil- llers, Marais, and others. The British and their de- scendants require no special remark. Trade. — The following table, giving the amount of imports and exports in several years, taken at inter- vals, exhibits the progress of the commerce of the colony : y.«ri. iDiporu. Ex|N)ru. shlppU.,. 1886 £541,038 732,^94 944,036 1,277,101 1,651,691 985,266 £862,280 77.^,060 694,920 637,252 1,004,884 691,352 ig|i|| 1840 1849 1850 1868 1864 These exports do not entirely consist of colonial produce, but partly of goods re-exported. The value of colonial produce alone exported during 185.S was f 732,245, of which f 297,846 was from Cape Town, and ^£435,899 from Port Elizabeth. The amount of tonnage, however, of vessels entering Table Bay is much greater than that entering Port Elizabeth, on account of the larger number of Indiaraen and other vessels calling at the former for provisions ; but the actual trade of the latter is much greater, as shown by the exports. The fidlowing is a table of the chief articles of col- onial produce and manufactures exported during 1863, from Cape Town and Port Elizabeth respect- ively : p. Ell>. Aloes Argol Beef and pork Batter. Copper ore. . . Corn and roesi Barley... Beans dc peas Bran Flour Oats ■Wheat Feathom Fish (cured).. FralM (dried). 2^250 2,.S09 1,860 1,519 Ca|M Town . £1,546 1,161 3,709 642 8,463 1,061 1,577 2,865 29,7K> 18,709, 2.50 3,809 898 9,876 20,274! 1 Port 1 Ellubeth iHldos £9,186 Horns 1,022 iHorses , ilvory 12,148 Mules OIL jOost skins 'iik Soal skins..... Sheep skins... 2,827 Spirits, brandy Tallow 1,887 Wlnc.Conston- tla ...;.. .... Ordinary.. .... IWool 890'687 Cspe I Town. £7,304! 1,8831 8,414 75 894 666 12,626 69 11,969 8,852 494 66 26,799 110,498 The most important export is woi.1 . and the follow- ing table shows the progress of the expo.t nf this arti- cle : . : • Port EUuib«th. Cam Town. 1838 S9,758Ibs. 78,8»» lbs. • 1843 1,«20,880 6.een very great. The wool exported during the first six months of 1864 was \-alued at £221,866. In the same months in 1866, at £297,886. The wine for the same months re- spectively was valued at £13,426 and £88,169. Wine was once the staple export, amounting in seven yrars to between £80,000 and £100,000. The quantity pro- duced is supposed to be as great as ever it was, but it has found a more profitable market within tha colony. Tha wool of the eastern and middle districts is indU rectly exchanged for the wines, dried fruits, and flour of the western division. Copper ore is a new article of export. For the first six months of 1864 this export was valued at £4,720 ; In 1866, at £14,179. The revenue of the colony is derived chiefly from the customs duties, stamp and auction duties, and a direct tax called transfer dues, at the rate of 4 per cent, on the purchase money of all landed property sold, whether I>y auction or privately. The expendi- ture is for payment of snlnries of the officials and other disbursement!) incidental to the support of the civil government. The military' expenditure is at present borne l>y the imperial treasury. The subjoined table shows the progress of the revenue and expenditure : R«r«nii«. Eipandllnr*. 1839 £130,808 £126,889 1842 226,261 226,026 1852 289,482 252,495 1868 808,472 268,111 The construction of good roads of late years, by the judicious employment of the convicts, the establish- ment of road boards, and other measures for the same object by the late able Colonial Secretary, Mr. Mon- tagu, have tended greatly to develop the resources of the colony, and to increase its commerce and revenue. — E. B. CoKHiBCK or TUX Umitid Statis with tiik Caps or Oood Hopc and Bsitisu South AmKiaAH Possxssioiis, rBOH OcTOBia 1, 1820, TO JuLT 1, 1866, VMntDdlor Ktporta. Import!. Wharoof Ihera wh Id BuIIIoi •nd gpMie. ToDlMfe CIoftNd. DomeXle. Fonlgn, ToW. ToUl. Eiportnl. Imported. Amerlr«a. Fonlgi. Sept 80, 1821 1822 1828 1824 1896 1826 " 1897 1898 1899 1880 Total.... BeptSO, 1881 1832 1888 1884 1886 1886 1887 1888 188* 1840 Total.... Sent 80, 1841 1842 *mo*. 1843 JnneSO, 1844 1846 1846 1847 1848 184* 1860 Total.... June 80,1851 1852 . 1868 '" . 1861 1886 1866 $M60 91,154 tiik $"6;i80 97,587 $68^875 46^669 ^186 $8;66o "iss 800 "482 425 :... $27,804 $7.668 M,S65 86,218 28,898 92,718 88,879 83.81* $6,483 $2,521 4,6i7 197 $88,787 $7,862 2,521 60,666 90,736 28,898 22,718 93,899 86,018 $116,620 $l8j6o 4'l',760 28,736 98,799 12,084 48,069 89,8*4 $5;090 $8,500 $766 1,295 "207 1,600 716 1,650 465 1,064 2,278 660 "i89 "160 $880,166 $51,824 8bl053 82,988 83,748 28,718 106,172 100,388 H429 143,219 $12,256 $1°9;9S9 $842,411 $51,824 sb'ms 82,988 88,743 93,718 106,179 190,277 M,429 148,219 $966,401 $17,166 98,815 81,199 29,166 26,439 81,686 86,041 60,431 71,298 72,206 $6,020 $4;6oo l'6;c>89 $766 '1919 8,420 958 "406 1,68* 498 2,296 9,287 1,670 9,728 1,919 299 153 152 827 613 9S8 881 664 902 $665,924 $161,891 224,236 867,231 992,628 443,476 896,780 $19,989 $l',7i8 8,141 7.880 8,887 81,471 $685,868 $161,891 223,964 870,873 999,968 4»2,811 418,251 $419,429 $123,228 190,790 802,803 448,903 418,688 488,694 $19,589 .... .... $919 $1,800 87;io9 11,631 14,444 2,501 4,848 4,706 8,869 ^65« 7,078 The commercial relations of the United States with the Cape of Oood Hope colony are now dependi^nt on the regulations of a legislative council and a house of assembly. Those Iwdies assembled, for the first time, duriiTg the past yecr (1H64), under the name of the Colonial Parliament of the Cape of Good Hope. Ex- ports fVom this colony consist principally of aloes, ar- gol, hides, horns, whale oil, goat and sheep skins, wine, and wool. Chief imports fh>m the United State* are spuits, soap, stationery and books, sugar. timber, wine, tobiicoo, hardware and ironmongery, sundries. Nnmlwr of American vessels entered the ports of the Cape of Good Hope in 18fi8 : Vessels, 45 ; tannage, 16,278. Number of American vessels cleared from the same ports in 18.53 : Vessels, 22 ; tonnage, 2,180. Port Regulntloiu, Dutiea, etc Kntrance or clearance of a vessel, (1 44 ; landing or shipping cargo of a vessel, f 3 60 ; clearance of a coaster, $0 86 ; manifest of export c.irgo, ifO 36 ; permit to land or ship meiw GON 841 GOS ehandise under rolne of ^86, fO 18 1 slmv* |M, |0 M, A wharfage duty is also charged on all good*, w»r«it, or merchandise landed. An export duty is charged on all ttapUi llllptNWl from any of the ports of the Cupa | but tba ewporUir i)f any quantity of good Cape wine shall ha «utltl«4 Ut enter, duty free, one gallon imperial meaaura itf tiAfiin of the strength of Skye's hydrumatar, In r«a|Met »( ever}' ten gallons imperial measure of wiiia m> *K' ported. For the accommodation of shipping, tank' boats are always in readiness with (orca-jtumfm mtd hose, carrying from 20 to 40 tons of watar A priK tective duty in favor of British produce and nmnufmi' tures exists at the Cape porta ; and the aJ viUurtm of 12 per cent, on all goods to which no apaciAi! Auiy U assigned, is reduced to 6 per cent, in favor of CIraat Britain.— Com. Digett U. 8. See Cai>k oV iit)Mt Hope. Good^vln Sanda, a range of sand-banlM \y\n% about four or five miles oflT the east coast of Kunt, IM- tween the North and South Forelands, Tltay M» about ten miles in length from north to south, an*l vary in breadth from one and a half to thraa iiiiUtfi, They are divided into two portions liy a narrow t'\\m\- nel, navigable by small boats. Thay are in many places dry at low water, and from their shifting ftiui loose nature are very dangerous fur shipping, liit< teen them and the mainland Is tlie roailsttiad («rMM4 the Downs. These sands are said to have at nm tluw formed part of the Kentish land, and to have htmn sul** merged about the end of the reign of Williain Ituflis, or the beginning of that of Henry I. Hevaral ligllt* vessels are fixed here as beacons | and during foggy weather gongs are sounded every ten minutas, Oontdves, a sea-port of Ilayti. 'VUan ent«rwt this port in 1849 and 1860, 182 vessels, niuaoMriog in the aggregate 29,801 tons ; and thera claarad )M7, with an aggregate of 30,19G tons. TIta forinar \mm- perity of this port resulted from the imniansa ipMnti' titles of ebinisterre (cabinet-maker's wood) aiMt dj'O' woods, which accumulated at the mouth of tlw Artibonite from ever>' [wint of its coursa, prior to tlw independence of Dominica ; but such is tlia iilmilgo that has taken place, that, to-day, it 8xbil)itl« w'.ir^HTy the shadow of its former commerco. Its u»|Mrtii, with their average quantities and valuus, ara i->lM»iiil)it4 as follows : QlWllttlsl, Ezporta, Kll'fi. Coffee 6,m,sii tlin la«t-nntniid are in bottles, then the additional duty niuiit Im piilft for the bottles, according to the tariff, tti« saina as if they were shipped empty, for themselves, 6i If any vessel, entered at the inward cusltmi' houses at Gothenburg or Soderkoping, only to pntM through the canal from sea to sea, sliiiuld dls«liarg* any part of her cargo witliout tlie most (trdsalng nfl< cesstty, either in the Klver Getha-Klf, or any of the lakes, or on the canal, such vessel to be fiirfailpd, and the master subjected to the penalty of the law for tho unlawful importation of goo• divldwl, two fifths In equal shares to the informer and thus* who prnVH tho illegal fact, and three fifths to the canal (imslon fund and the board of customs, also In eqnnl aharos. There are other regulations, exemptions, iind prIvU leges applicaljle to vessels iMssing tlirough tho (jlnthlt Canal, between the lialtic and the North Ht», which, as they are given in full in tho " Dif/fil iflh Kfiftinff Commercial Rfgulations of Forrign t.'niinlri's," trans> mitted to Congress from tlie Treasury !>e|wrtment In 1888, and have been modified liut slightly, if at all, since, ar« not inserted in tills volume. They may li« found in that work, under tli« caption " Hwmlen." The whole length of this canal is thus estimated I „ ^ Hwfdfiilt hiIIm. From Gottenburi to tho Lska iif Wetioni, through tbo Kt\«r (lutlisKir and tlia Canal of Trollhacllr. HJ | Across tho Lakeof Wcimrn ,,, 11 Throufih tho Ootha ('anal S) Tbrouxh tlio Ijikos of Wlkan, Buttensjoo, and Wottcm ,,, A| i From tlio Luko of Wotu-rii to the Hsltlfl, and throngh tho Lakes of lloren, Boxen, and Asplongon , , , , 44 A Total liver 1Rs« to the city, but lie In the river or hartior, *i » short dis- tance from the shore, go(/e payable " a certain time after date," tliree days of grace are added : a bill drawn on the 27th of August, payable "two months after date," is therefore due on the BOth of Oc- tober. So if a foreign bill be drawn at one, two, or more " usances," the days of grace are added to the usance. The usance between London and Paris is one calendar month. A bill drawn in London on Paris "at one usance," on the 2d Januaij', is consequently due on the 6th February. The number of days of grace varies in different countries. In France none are allowed. See Dayb of Grace. Orain, the name of the smallest weight in com- mon use It is the 24th part of a pennyweight troy, and the 20th part of the scruple in apothecaries' weight Grain Markets. There were received at Balti- more during the j.ast year (1856) 3,440,000 bushels of wheat, 4,081,000 bushels of com, 847,300 bushels of oats, 228,200 bushels of rj-e. 926,000 barrels of flour were received. At Buffalo, N. Y., the receipts of flour were 1,143,- 085 barrels ; of wheat, 8,848,117 bushels, and of com, 9,846,790 bushels. At Oswego, N. Y., 114,143 barrels of flour, 8,437,927 busli U wheat, 3,548,621 bushels of com. At liicago the receipts of grain of all kinds were 24,00' 00 bushels, and the shipments about 20,000,000 busher We f ve below a table showing the comparative Importaii' of the principal depots of the world ; from which it will be seen that Chicago and Bufl'alo rank nearly equal, allowing for the increase of one year in the former place. Enough is shown to make evident the greater importance of some of our new prairie cities over the old established grain d^pdts of Europe. Chicogo, in 1823, was described by Major Long, In his " Expedition to St. Peters," as a " village presenting no cheering prospect," and one not promising much in commercial importance. Wb«.t. IndUn Cora. ns:;:""! Toll. Uiuhell. Uu>Ucj]>. Uiikh«l». lluihoU. 18M. Odessa ^000,000 .... 1,440,000 7,040,000 Oalacz & ]]ralla 2,400,000 5,fi00,000 3211,000 8,320,000 Daiititc 8,080,000 1,828,000 4,409,000 Sr. Pstombnrg. 7.200,000 Archangel RIU« 8,«44,360 6,88V,899 3,419,.551 9,528,000 4,000,000 12,902,310 Chicago Chicago .. .IStW 7,115,260 7,517,026 2,000,03S in.fiiw.sis BoUlmore..l8.'S6l 8,440,000 4,081,(K)0 1,075,500 S.58l),500 Buffalo.... " 8,*11),117 9,846,790 .... 16,088,907 Oswego.... " 8,488,000 3,643,,'.20 11,931,520 Oralna of Paradise, hot, acrid, aromatic seeds, produced on the coast of Guinea, and supposed to he derived from two distinct species of plants, viz., the Amomum Grana-paradisi of Linnseus, and the /4. Mele- ffuetta of Roscoe ; perhaps, also, from others. They GRA 844 ORA •r* of a gimay dark-brown color, are longer and rounder than the aeeda of the true cardamom, and have a alight flavor of camphor. Theae aeeda are much esteemed sa a apice among the Africana, but are chiefly employed to give a flctitioua atrength to tjeer and spirits. Aroheu's Economic Botany. Oranada, a town of Central America, State of Kicaragua, on the north-weat banic of the Lalie of Nicaragua. By meana of the Lake and the River San Juan, it communicatea with the Caribbean Sea, and thus carries on a considerable trade. Population about 12,000. Granary, a building to atore com In. Granaries are generally built of brick, with quartera of timber ^vrought in the inside, to which the boards, with which the inside of the granary must be lined, or nailed so cloae to the bricks that there may be no space left for vermin to harbor in. There is an advantage in having many stories, because the shallower the com lies the bettor and more easily it is turned. The two great requisites in the erecting of granaries are— to make them sufficiently strong, and to give theni an exposure to the most drj'ing winds. In many parts of England, particularly in Kent, com is treated in the following manner: To separate it from dust and other imparities after it is threshed, it is tossed with shovels from one end to the other of a long and large room ; the lighter substances fall down in the middle of the room, and the corn only is carried from side to aide, or from end to end of it. After this, the com is screened ; and being then brought into the gran- ary, it is spread about lialf a foot thick, and tumed from I Ime to time, about twice a week ; the screening of it is also repeated once a week. This sort of manage- ment is continued about two months, after wh.ch it is laid a foot thick for two months more ; and during this time it is tumed once a week, or twice if the season be damp, and now and then screened. After about live or six months, it is raised to two feet thickness in the heaps, and then tumed nnce or twice in a raontli, and screened from time time. After a j'car, it is laid two and a half or three feet deep, and turned once in three weeks or a month, and screened proportionally. When it has lain two years or more, it is tumed once in two months, and screened once a quarter ; and however long it be kept, the oftener the turning and screening are repeated the better will the grain be preserved. It is proper to leave an area of a yard wide on every side of the heap of com, and other empty spaces into which the com may be turned and tossed as often as re- quired. In Kent, two square holes are made at each end of the floor, and a round one in the middle, by means of which the com is thrown out of the upper in- to the lower rooms, and so up again, that it may l>e the better tumed and aired. The screens are made with two partitions, to separate the dust from the corn, which fulls into a bag; and when suliiciently full, this is thrown away, while the pure and good corn remains behind. Corn hiis by these means been kept 30 years ; and it has been observed, tliat the longer it is kept the more flour it yields, in proportion to the corn, and the purer and whiter the bread is, the superfluous humid- ity alone evaporating in the keeping. At Zurich, in Switzerland, corn has been kept 80 years, or longer, by methods of similar description. The public granaries at Dantzic are seven, eight, or nine stories in height, and have a funnel in the midst of each floor, to let down the com from one to another. They are built so securely, that though every waj- snrrounded by water, the corn contracts no damp, and the-vessels have the convenience cf coming up to the walls to be loaded. The Kussiann .ind others preserve their corn in subterraiu'iiii gninurit's of the figure of a sugar-loaf, wide l>i>|ow and narrow at top, the sides be- ing well plastered, and the top covered with stones. They are careful to iiaVe the com well dried before it is laid into theae store-houses, and often dry it by meana of ovens, especially T7here the anmmer dry weather i* too abort to effect thia sufBciently. This method of storing grain has been practiced in many countries from 'emote antiquity ; and in Sicily, in particular, at the present day, many of the granaries are simply ex- cavations in the calcareous rock. Some recommend that the roofs of granaries should be composed of tiles, because in the worst seasons, when the regular apertures can not be opened with safety, there will always be a considerable inlet for fresh air at their joinings, and also an issue for the ex- halations given out by the grain ; while others prefer a very close roof, as of lead or zinc, for the perfect ex- clusion of insects and vermin. If there happen to be any windows to the south, care must be taken tu shut them in moist weather^ and in the time of the hot southern winds. There must be no cellar or other damp place under a granary, nor should it ever be built over stables ; for in either of these cases the com will certainly suffer by the exhalations — be rendered damp in the one, and ill-tasted in the other. M. Duhamcl and Dr. Ilailes have recommended various contrivances for ventilating or blowing fresh air through com laid up in granaries or ships, in order to preserve it sweet and drj', and to prevent its lieing attacked by weevils or other insects. This may be done by nailing wooden bars or laths on the floor of the granary, about an inch distant from each other, when they are covered with hair-cloth only ; or at the distance of two or three inches, when coarse wire-work, or basket-work of osiers, is laid under the hair-cloth, or when an iron plate full of holes is laid upon them. These Uths may l>e laid across other laths, nailed at the distance of 16 inches, and two or more inches deep, that there may be a free passage for the air under them. The under laths must come aliout six inches short of the wall of the granary at one end, on which a l)oard is to be set edgewise, sloping against the wall ; for by this disposition a large nir-pipe is formed, which hav- ing an open communication with all the interstices be- tween and under the bars, will admit the passage of air l)elow forciblj- through a hole at the e.\tremity, and consequently carry off the moist exhalations of the com. The ventilators for supplying frosli air may be flxed against the wail, on the inside or outside of the granary, or under the floor, or in the ceiling ; but wherever they are fixed, the liandle of the lever that works them must bo out of the granary, otherwise the person who works them would be in danger of suf- focation when the corn is fumigated with burning brinv> stone, as is sometimes done fur destroying weevils. Small movable ventilators will answer the purpose for ventilating com in large bins in granaries, and may easily be moved from one bin to another. If the granary or corn-ship lie very long, the main air-pipe may puss lengthwise along the middle of it, and con- vey air on both sides under the com. In large gran- aries, double ventilators, laid upon each other, may be fixed at the middle, und near the top of the granary, that they may l)e worked by a windmill fixed on the roof of the building, or by a water-mill. The uir is conveyed from the ventilators through a large tmnk or trunks, reaching down through the several dours to the bottom of the granary, with branching trunks to each floor, by means of which it may bo made to pass into a large trunk along tho adjoining cross-walls ; and from tliese trunks several lesser trunks. al>out four inches wide, brunch off at tho distance of three or four feet from one another, and reach through tlic whole length of the grun.iri', their further ends being closed. Seunis of one tenth or one twelfth of an iucli should also be left open at the four joinings of the lioards, whei-e they are nailed together, that the air may pass through them into the com. In some of these lesser trunks th « may be sliding shutters, to stop the pas- sage of the air through those trunks which are not covered witb iron, or to ventiUte one part of the gran> ORA 849 GRA •T7 more bfiakljr than othera, u then may be occa- iloD, There ahonld also be wooden shatters, hung on hinges at their upper part, so as to shut close of them- selves ; and these should be fixed to openings In the walls of the granary on their outside ; by which means the}' will readily open to give a free passage for the ventilating air, which ascends through the com, but will instantly shut when the ventilation ceases, and thereby prevent the admission of damp from the exter- nal air. The ventilation should Im) made only in the middle of dry days, unless the com, when first put in, be cold and damp. Granite, a compound rock, constituting the lowest of the geological formations, according tr older g-eolo- gista ; but it has lately been found resting even on secondary formations in the Alps. It (essentially) consists of quartz, feldspar, and mica. Its great dnra- bilit}' ns a material for Imildiiig is attested l>y many of the ancient Egyptian monuments, in which the stone exhibits no appearance of decay even after a lapse of 8000 years. There are some granites, however, which shako and crumble down in a very few years, particu- larly those in which feldspar predominates. This rock becomes refractory to work after it has l)een some time quarried ; and it is usual to keep it for some time under water before It is wrought into ornamental objects. Oraiiulation of metals, an operation simply per- formed by slowly pouring the melted mass through an Iron cullender into water, which is kept in agitation by means of a bundle of twigs. By this method metals may be reduced to minute grains. OranviUe, the ancient Orannonum, a fortified sea- port town of France, department of La Manche, at the foot of a steep, rocky promontory' projecting into the English Channel, 30 miles south-west of St. L6. It is surrounded by strong walls, and the streets are nar- row and steep. The only remarkable building is the parish cburi'h, a venerable Gothic edifice. The harbor is spacious and secure, but dry at low water. Works, however, are now in progress for the improvement of the harbor generally, and for the construction of wet docks. The inhabitants are chiefly en|;aged in the coasting trade, or in the cod and oyster fisheries. Ship- building is also carried on. It has a tribunal of com- merce, a hospital, public baths, and a naval school. Granville was bomljarded and burned by the English in 169,'), and partly destroyed by the Vendean troops in 1793, Population, 8347. Orape-shot, in Artillery, consists of a quantity of shot piled round an iron spike which is placed in a strong canvas bag, the whole being firmly corded to- gether so as to form a cylinder adapted to the calibre of the cannon. It differs from canister or case-shot in that the latter kind is composed of balls packed into a tin canister ^ith a wooden bottom. drapes ',jer. rraaifn ; Fr. Haitini; It. Grappoli, Orappi j Sp Ubaf, Hacimos ; Lat. Uvai), a well-known fruit produced from the vine. France, Spain, Portu- gal, and Italy, as well as some parts of Germany and Hungary, produce grapes which yield wines of various qualities and flavor, many of them excellent. We im- port green grapes from Lisbon, and other parts of Por- tugal, Malaga, etc. They are brought packed in jars, and secured from damage by means of sawdust, plen- tifully strewed between the layers of fruit. The grapes grown in Great Britain in the open air are much smaller, and by no means so luscious, as those of foreign countries ; but those raised in hot-houses are quite equal, if not superior, to the latter. Grapes are imported not only in tbeir natural state, but dried and preserved, in which latter state they are denominated raisins.' [See Raisins,] The most valuable grapes grown in the United States are from the Catawba and Isabella vines, which are natives of America. Those grapes are of a purple color, and have as luscious a taste as the best grapes of Europe, A smaller grape also abounds, called the fox grape, which, although not OS pleasant to the taste, i* very mnch tued in a dried state, and is also preserved in large quantities. See Wine, Graphite {ypa^u, I vrrito), otherwise called j)/i/ni- bago, and often improperly black lead, is a mineral car- bon with a slight admixture of iron. It may be made artificially by exposing iron with excess of carbon to a violent heat for a considerable length of time, when a real carburet of iron will be formed ; whereas in the native specimens the iron :ind charcoal are only me- chanically combined. The finest graphite occurs at Borrodale In Cumberland, and is appropriated exclu- sively to the manufacture of pencils. The coarser varieties are used for making crucibles and portable furnaces, for which purposes this substance is peculi- arly fitted from its infusibility ; and it is also much used for giving a gloss to the surface of cast-iron goods, as well as to diminish friction between rubbing surfaces of metal or wood in machinery. Grapnel, or GrapUng, a kind of small anchor with four or live 6ukes or claws, chiefly used to secure small boats. Grass Clotb. The following extract from the Re- port of Mr. Nathaniel Wilson, curator of the Botanical Gardens at Bath, in .Jamaica, describes the successful introduction into that island of the China grass-cloth plant (Me Rhee of Ataain), and the propriety of turn- ing to profitable account their numerous indigenous fibrous-yielding plants, which are at present quite neg- lected: "I have now the happiness of recording my entire success in the cultivation of the China grass- cloth plant (Jioehmeria nii-ea), introduced in 1854, and a more valuable introduction could not have been made. I find the plant thrives here with a luxuriance equal to any of our native plants, and probably with more «'igor than it does in its native clime. This plant (as is now well known), produces the best fil>re for tex- tile purposes with which we are acquainted, and, ac- cording to undonbted authority, is worth in the Lon- don market from jCSO to ill20 per ton ; which is surely sufficlent to render the plant worthy of all the atten- tion we can bestow on It, If new staples for general and profitable cultivation be desirablj, I have no hesitation in saying, that, by its spontaneous and lux- uriant growth, a more desirable and appropriate plant for tropical culture has never before been submitted to the notice of the public. I have 86 of those plants ready for distribution, and could, by a small expendi- ture, increase the number to any reasonable extent. Gravesend, a municipal borough, river-port, town, and parish of England, county of Kent, on the right bank of the Thames, 20 miles E.S.E. of London. Area of borough, including Milton parish, 1541 acres. Population of Gravesend and Milton, 16,G33. The older part of the town, near the river, has narrow streets, the upper town is more open, and has many tasteful rows of houses and detached villas ; the sum- mit of hill, on which it is built, is crowned by prospect- towers, commanding views of the Thames, and is a favorite holiday resort. Former trade consisted in supplying ships with stores, vessels from London being obliged, until lately, to clear out here. Its mora re- cent, and still rapidly increasing prosperity dates from the establishment of steamboats, which run to London in two hours, and during summer, especially on Sun- days, bring immense crowds of visitors. Many also of the wealthier class of tradespeople reside here. A railroad, to unite with the London and Greenwich line, is in course of formation, and will unite with one which passes through a tunnel, upward of two miles in length, and connects the town with Roches- ter, distant ab"ut seven miles. There is a ferry across the Thames to f ilbury Fort. Market, Wednesday and Saturday. The borough is a polling-place for West Kent. The town was burnt by the French in the time of Richard II. On its west side are the garden and suburb of Boshervillc. GRE 846 GRE ' Oreat Britain, the mmit connMnrahla ot all the European iiland«, !■ situatml Iwtween 60 and 58} dr- groes of north latitude. It \n Iwunded on the north by the North Sea, on the eaat by the German Ocean, on the south by the Knglleh Channel, and on the west by St. George'* Channel and the Atlantic Ocean. Prom north to Miuth it extends almut ft80 miles in length | Hi greatest breadth, from the North Foreland in Kent, to the Und's V.nd In Cornwall, is almut 870 miles \ and its superficial area is computed at 87,500 square miles. The figure of this island is IrmKular, soma- what resembling that of a wedge, to which indeed it was compared by the ancients, from its gradually nar- rowing toward Its northern extremity ; and Its whole line of coast Is deeply Indented by bays, creeks, and estuaries, which, notwithHtanding its boldness and mg.- gedness in many parts, afford safe and commodious harbors. From its geographical position, therefore, no less than from its natural advantages, this island teems to have been destined by nature to become the seat of a great and powerful nation. Its eastern coast forms a waving, continuous, and rarely-broken line, bat the western coast Is extremely Irregular, and deeplj- indented with many bays and arms of the sen, interspersed with numerous Islands. The south-east part of Britain Is a level, alluvial sur- face; the centre, undulating and hilly; the western and north-western, mountainous and irregular. In the north and west, pri'nari' strata and granite rocks prevail ; In the middle districts, coal, lime, salt, and ironstone are abundant; and these are sucoeoded in England, on Its east and south-east valleys, by oolite chalk and the newer geological formations. A mount- ain range, mor4 or less elevated, extends from south to north of tho island, running through Cornwall, Devonshire, Somersetshire, and thence through Wales, varying In elevation from 1600 to 8600 feet. Another branch extends ftwm the Cotswold hills, Gloucester- shire, and runs through Derbyshire, Staffordshire, Yorkshire, Cumberland, Westmoreland, and North- umberland, with elevations from 2000 to 8000 feet. Sue Mding these are the Cheviots, the Lammermoors, and the great Grampian range, which intersect Scot- land, and whose extreme altitude is measured by Ben Nevis on the west, and Ben Hacdhui on the north- east, both attaining an elevation of upward of 4800 feet. The most considerable rivers are the Severn, Medway, Dee, Mersey, Clyde, on the west coast, and the Thames, Trent, Humber, Tyne, Forth, Tay, and Spey, on the east coaa t. The prinoipol Ukes are thoM of Cumlterlond and Westmoreland in Enghmd, and Lochs Ixiround, Tay, Murce, etc., in 8(wtlau('. The principal bays and estuaries are the Bristol Channel, Canligau Bay, Lancaster Bay, the Solway Firth, Firth of Clyde ott the west, and the Thames' mouth, the Wash, the Humber, the Firths of Forth, Tay, Mur- ray, and Cromarty on the east, while on the south there are Falmouth, Plymouth, rortsmouth, and other important bays and harbors, 7'he JiritiiA ItlamU include Ireland, the Isles of Wight, Anglesea, Man, the Scilly IsUnds, Bute, Ar- ran, the Hebrides, Orkney, and SJietland Islands. The climate of Britain is greatly modified by its insu- lar situation, the extreme* both of summer and winter temperature being much less than that of corretipoud- ing latitudes on a continental surface. The mean annual temperature is about 49° Fahrenheit. The extreme summer heat seldom exceeds 80° Fabr., and the winter cold, with rare exceptions, does not extend beyond '25° to 82°. The annual fall of rain averages all,li« 102,490 81,121,967 «,&58,8&7 III MlllUl« Al*. I In « 82,.')9(l,429 20,047,402 4,784,486 262,000 67,824,877 20,9()fi,«71 AerM to m pcrtoii. P«raoiM 10 • 60,922 at,824 7,898 894 90,088 82,612 Total Oreat Britain and Ireland' 18,602,776 I 18,974,ta< ■"87,676.824 i 7&48ii;b48 ' 192,560 IJS 6-9 4-7 1'8 S-7 8-9 382 92 18S Ha 21 The British population Is spread over a great mul- titude of islands which rise between the Atlantic Ocean and the North Son, the large Island of Great Britain being the chief of the group. This Island is sur- rounded by the Isle of Man, Anglesea, the Scilly Islands, the Isle of Wight, the outlaying Channel Islands, the Shetland Islands, the Orkneys, and the Hebrides. 600 Islands have been numbered, but Inhab- itants were only found on one hundrtd and tevenly-fivt islands on the day of the census in 1861. The British Isles extend over 11 degrees of latitude and 10 degrees of longitude ; consequently, in the most northerly of the Shetlands, the night in the summer solstice is three hours shorter than in Jersey ; and the sun rises and sets on the east coast of England 47 minutes before it rises and sets on the West coaat of Ireland. In the earliest period of our written hlstorj', these islands were peopled by Celt* ; Britain was their holy island, and the seat of their schools and most sacred groves. The isles of Anglesea ami Man, both known under the name of Mona to the Romans, were the seats of tht Druidic hierarchy and worship, loua, or Icolmkill, a small Island in the Ilebrities, now contain- ing 604 inhabiunts, is celebrated as an early seat of Christianity. It wcs the station of St. Columba, who founded an order of missionaries there, and thus con- tributed to the diffusion of Christianity over Britain. The celebi .ited ruins on the island consist of a cathe- dral, a nunnery, and St. (.Iran's chapel, together with many ancient lombs and crosses. This island is often visited by tourists to the western Highlands, and is only 10 miles from the far-famed Staffa. The population of the Island of Great Britain in 18S1, was 20,636,867 ; Ireland contained 6,653,867 in- habitants ; Anglesea, the next most populous in the group, had 67,818 inhabitants ; Jersey, 67,020 ; the ORB 84T ORE Iain ftf M«n, iJ.M \ th« (old of Wight, S0,334 1 OimrnMy, !>V,7A7| Lcwit, 22,nlH; Skye, -21,A2Nj HliiitUiiil, miUldi Orknxy, Ifl.OflN; UUy, 12,8»4| lliitM, Wm t Mull, 7'IHA i and Ar ' , AMA7 ; 17 iRlanda I'oliUiniil II pdiiiilutlixi rHiiKlriK . .. 4008 to lOat ; &2 limt It iHttiiiliitliin riiiiKliiif fniin IM; to lOA ; ami the rMiiuliiinK 11'; lnli»lilt«il l^laiiils ranKod friini a popula- tliiii of \>'i itownwnril, until iit liiiit we come to an laland inhiililtiiil by linn aiilltnry man. /'iV/iAinf,— 'I'lio nhlre la nn important lulMllviaian nf till) klngdnm i eiivh baa a lord-lieutenant, who It itUii kmiitir lit llin iiruUlvea \ a nhorifr, an under-Bheriir, mid Juatliieii iif Ijin peace, all appointed )>}' the crown ; •ai'h alilrn linii nUo a oounty trcanurer and a clerk of thN (WMi'ii, •Ni'li appointed liy the lord-lieutenant; and • ciilmty fiiirntinr, nltcted l>r the freeholder*. The nveniin of the nlilrta la chiefly derived from rates atruuk liy t*i* Jiiatlnea of the peace in countiea at quartar aeaalima, niirf la for the moat part appropriated III liinlntiiliiln)( lirldifea, lunntio aayluma, Juili, pria- (innra. mid iKilliie. Tim tcrma "hundreds" and " tylliliiKi" hod tlieir origin in n aystcm of numeration, •lilt wlmthfr Ihi'y reprrsonted iienona, fumiliee, or tioldlnuN, la dintcult to determine. In process of time, whiit wiia (inre n nnmhir became n fwim<>, and for a long pnrliHl tlin teritia have cenaed to nieusure either area or popiiliithm, as U evldoncod liy the fact that the hlinitreda In th« survey after the" Conquest, and the liUiiilriMla stilt reiialning, illirer widely in both ele- mtint', and, moreover, the present hundred is dlRemnt In extniit In the various counties ; for instance, in (lldlKwsterslilrn, the hundred contains on an average 2I»,«U0 Avtmn ( In Herefordshire, 40,000; and in Shrop- ahlrii, (l»,IMm. The h(da was the lot or share of the first antlier, 't'hii SKSsliinal dlvlalona eristinir In all the counties iif Knulimd and Wales, for the purposes of special and petty aiiaainna, are In general based on the hundrtda and iiUinr ttnclent county sulMlivlsions. The Justices Imvn |Hiw«r to niter those divisions for the convenience of liiilitltiK anaslons, but they have no authority to olter tliii iini'itttit hundreds, There are fiOO sessional divls- lulia In K.ngland and Walea, end for the purpose of oaaixii and Jiill delivery, cl;(ht circuits, beside the JiirUilk'tlon of the ventral criminal court. A Saxon liiiryli, or borough, was a hundred, or an assemblage of kunilri'da, surnninded by a moat or wall. As ancient bornilgha ftdl Into decay, new ones sprung up, and mnny t^iwna not formerly boroughs, havu l«en created iHiriMighs for piirtxisea not very intelligible. The afTiiIrs nf munlclpiil boroughs are administered by a niayiir, niderniei, , and other functionaries.' Tim lIHI refnrme' boroughs in Kngliind and Wales Pimtiilii II tdtiil piipi.liitlon of 4,8'1.'),'2(;9 inhabitants; Hill uiipiilMtlun of «l range under 5000 ; 43 from 5000 tii'lO.OOO ( AH from 10,000 to M.OOO; 14 from 60,0(10 to 1(111,0(10, 4 from 100,000 to 20(1,000; and 3 above 21)0,0011, The I'lV// of London is still unrcformed, and therefore nut Included in these. Scotland contains 8.1 riiynl iitiil municipal burghs, having a total papulation (if 7/12,777 luliiibltnnts ; Bfi have a population under MMKIi 10 from 6(MI0 to 10,000; 11 from 10,000 to 70,000; iindl, MH.OflO. The nilniir aiib-illvislons of townships, parishes, and mitnnrs, were re'dlstrlbuted by William the Conqueror, Hftiir the battle of Hastings, and apportioned among the I'hieftalna In hia ormy. The ecclesiastical districts and dliiceses wore designed exclusively for spiritual p«r|i«siest description. Of wild animals, the fox, badger, wild cat, (toat, martin, otter, squirrel, hedgehog, donnouse, mole, mouse, hare, and rabbit, are the principal. The wolf, bear, beaver, and wild ox have liecome extinct fur several centuries. The stag and fallow deer are still abundant in mveral localities. The great bustard and capercailzie are the only birds known to have. Iiecome extinct In Ilrltaln. The bittern, eagle, and other liirds of prey are becom- ing dally more rare. Groat liritain is the most favored country In the world for the development of mineral Industry-. Fuel, the indispensable agent In the treat- ment of metallircrous ores, and the most powerful ele- ment In the production of motive force, is distributed unequally throughout England, Scotland, and Ireland. The coal formation in those three divisions of the Brit- ish empire, occupies rich and widely-spread basins, several of which, especially those of NewcastleMin- Tyne, Scotland and Wales, lieing near the sea, are en.tbled to export the coal to those places where the metalliferous ores ^xist in aliundance, but where, a* in Cornwall, the absence of fuel renders their being worked both costly and dilHcult. The ores of iron, abundantly distributed in several of the coal basins, add greatly to the value of these. Each one so cir- cumstanced has become the centre of a metalliferous district, where numerous works produce iron at a |irico 80 moderate os almost to defy competition. The insu- lar position of Great Britain, which facilitates the shipment of coal to the places where it is required, i* equally important in tran.sporting the iron by sea to any of the sea-ports of the world. These highly-favor- able causes have given great development to the operations of coal-mining und the manufacture of Iron, and especially since the application of cast iron for the purposes of constructing railroads. The quantity of cast iron produced in 1850 was 2,260,000 tons. The quantity of coal raised was estimated at 34,750,000 tons. These sources of wealth in coal and iron, which are alone sufficient to place a country at the head of min- eral Industry, are not the only ones possessed by Brit- ain. Nature has given it m'.nes of copper, tin, and of load, of great richness. The annual production of copper is 12,000 tons ; of tin ore, 11,000 tons ; and of load, ,')8,701 tons. The coal-beds of England, con- tained in the carboniferous system, arc found in North- umberland and Durham, South Yorkshire, Nottingham and Uerliy, South Lancashire, StalTordshire, Warwick- shire, Anglesca, Flint, Salop, Worcestershire, Glouces- tershire, und the northern part of Somerset, South Wales, and near Whitehaven in Cumiierland. Iron is found in inexliaustible quantities in all the formations. Lead is found cliicfly in the mountain limestone ; cop- pet 'n the gnmit i and older primary stratified rocks ; tin in (Cornwall and Devon. Salt springs, yielding large quantities of salt, are found In Cheshire and Worcestershire. An to mineral treasures, the eastern counties of England, to the south of Yorkshire, are remarkble for containing no mines, either of coal or metal. These valuable deposits are found in the more uneven districts of the north and west. The following table presents at one view territory belonging to Great Britain, its area in square miles, and the last census in every portion attainable : ! ORE 848 ORE TllsnOIT ■■LOHOIRO TO GlIAT BUTAIH. lla U t, proTlHM, «r «olo«l«l. ItniUnd W.1.II BcollMiil Iiiludi In Brltbh uu Th* ■rniy, a%ty, and Brifib M>ain«n Iri>Und lltllitoltAd nibralUr M«ll». Goto Tutal Kuropean ponMUlons l\.—A/iHenn Poutiilom. Blcrr* Loono Oold C'oMt •ottleiiitut Cornando Po H«UI(!iiionU on Iho Qunbl*. . . ftt, Hrlona Aacennlon (!«pe or Oood Hope NaUl „ «* 'rillm Til. '>)rchellM Total Afyinn pOMtulona. .. Ill,— AiiaUc Poututoiu. Cejrlon lloncKong (treaty In 1849)... India. Bengal and Arra pretldonelos. Hrrar, ceded to Bongal, 18S8. . Madnu prealdency Bombay preildenoy HuiJab... Vtttlements In .'^artber India, Hlnfanorp, cte Btatet dependent on Bennl. . . Mailraa.. " Bombay XrtA TnXitg. 81,894 894 n,44S 5 ll 97 itn,«ii| 87S 6,000 400 19 H 44 1I0,9M 10,000 7M 80 18tl,4&l <«lt»IU, Iwl MMUI. lesi iwi IHfil 18A1 18S1 18M \m 1847 I^buan Aden . . Total Aalatlc poueaslona I and dcpoudencles l\ .—American Po—uriont. ilndion's Bay Territory Canada East Canada West New Brunswick N. Scoila, Includ. Cnpo Breton I'rlnro Kdward's Island. Newroundlmid Labrailnr (attached to New- (bnndlandl Vancouver's Island Wttt Indian Pottettlon*. Ilondunu. Bermudas Jnmnlcn The Bahamas Barbadoos Orenada «t. Vincent St. I.ncia Tobago Antigua Montscrrab Barbuda Dominica. Ht. Christopher NliTlS. The Virgin Inlands. Turk's fslnnds 14,448 80 808,000 78,489 144,t>*l» 19(l,li«» T8,4t7 1,875 477,»M 80,887 56,890 95 8 1,858,910 9,4S0,000 991,989 147,889 97.700 18,748 9,184 85,918 6.000 8,000 «3,T0O 47 8,400 6,500 168 109 181 195 140 108 47 10 975 70 90 90 484 9,090 900 98.600 600 1849 18,991,888 1,«U^791 9,8SH,T49 148,196 189,490 8,588,867 9,180 16,008 108.140 15,180 97,798,891 40,471 17^000 l,411,(iSl 98,87J 71,768,869 4,850,0(10 16,aS0,496 10,48.\017 4,100,988 901A10 89,685,476 4,691,980 4,818,099 Trinidad Bay Islaiids British Oulana. . Falkland Islands Total American possessions. '9,998,068 X.—Atutralian Potstetioiu. New South Wales. Victoria. Western Australia. Hoolhcrn Australia. Van DIcmon I.and New Zealand Auckland Islands Norfolk " Total AastralUm possessions I Grand Total 1859 1H59 1851 1851 1»«8 1861 1848 1851 iMO 1861 1S51 IS44 IWI 1860 1H44 1S50 1850 1848 WW 1861 18U laM 1818 84,500 100,000 800,000 l-Nnoo 86,000 1861 1869 1860 1860 1860 1850 M. \500 4,181,888 169,019,078 180,000 890,261 96J,0(H 198, SOO 978,117 69,678 101,006 100,000 9,000 11,066 11,092 379,690 9^399 186,980 2M,997 2T,ii48 94.688 18,027 88,190 7,800 1,600 28,900 28,183 10,200 56,089 6.122 69,814 400 127,695 _JMH» "8,488,877 19T,16S 200,000 7,000 at,N83 70,164 22,400 ^S0,705 194,997,280 Aa AoaoDRT or tib DioLaaao Vaici or rai Kxroan TO aAOii O01.011T ANii DaraNniRCT or Tita Bamsii OaowN iR lAmi or riia Tiiau YiAaa u>dko 6th jANIIAaT, 1N50, 1861, AKO 1859. Brlllik ooioiiUa • Heligoland t.'hannul IslamJa. (Illinillar Malta and Ooio . Ionian Islandi^.., Kurnp*. I'ossesslons on R. Gambia ^ii'rra Ix-ono (loM Coast Fernando To. l>o»s4h prod- uce and manufactures cxiwrtcd to the Brit- ish colonies and de- pendencies. 7,469,807 19,618 816,648 1,880,847 81K62I 108^484 9,080,468 61,798 997,860 1,894,981 979,280 41,121 978,106 YIM94 819,668 99,484 29,.,6flO l,8;l»,8S8,260 _572,fi77.790 8,571,804,970 40.150 80,247.180 iV-W,790 169.617.120 11,958,945 10,000 ■203,662,786 704,898,400 { 8,774,465,0001 ORB 84t ORB Th* national dabt at the Ravolntlon In 1AM amount- ad to .£AA4,36tii jAXUAar, 1868, MOOMa. Ouitomi Ci«,1S7,190 KxclM 1^7»1,78B Htamni 6,921,198 Taiei 8,669,M7 Propertrtox B,«52,7:» Potrofflce «,44»,827 Crown Laudi. Hinall branrhot nf h«reilltarT rarenne . . . Hurpliii fi>«a of rfffulatoil oflAoea Honey rvroivml from the Eut India Com- £any, and linprew uioneye, ete ler eoureea. 8AH,2«S 14,861 110,097 lB«,n6 618,704 Total £67,75(^570 axpanniTvaa. Public debt £27,994,688 Cl»llll«t 898,688 Diplomatic Mrrlca 161 ,666 OuurU ofjoatlce 1,089,878 Nary..... 6,62.\»44 Army 7,018,166 Ordnance 2,491,798 Annultlei and pendont 868,709 Balarlea •nattar poaturage, posaeasea an extenaiva AoooDNT or TUB KxTaNT or Land in rnr. Unitcd Kinodoh uiioaa thi raiHcirAL 1862->t3: Tna ATxaAoa Uatb or Paoonoa rea Aoaii thr total I'aoDuci; Tua Ahocnt or 8bcd; Tna I'aonvcr VNDaa DauiroTioN or BtcD ; and Tna total Valvb or auon I'aouuca, Um of aaki^oat, with numeroua harhora, a natural an4 wali-deflned frontier, which no InvaiiinK army van |iasa on foot, a gaen won- derfully great. Tlin llritiah ialea contain aliout 76,- WKI.OOO of acrea, i>f whirh uliout two thinla ara in cultivation, and mor<^ than one third waata or uncul- tivated. Alxuit hull iif the waste land ia in Scotland, where the cultivattui aoli fciruia litlio more than a fourth p«rt of the total area of tha country, while in Kngland it forma about 07 per rent., and in Ireland 70 jMr cent, of tha aurfaoe. So great, however, haa baan the prO)(- rasa of agricultural improvement, that, though the population has doubled itaelf within tha laat fifty yeara, the production of foo. 2ea. 20a. 28a. 40a. 2l9. aos. 1 M. 4. 20,696,428 6 6,248,672 4 7,714,286 2,250,000 4 26,000,000 78o',6flO 8,760,000 Barley Oats and rye Boans andpeaa Potatoes, tumlpa, and rape Clover 27,625,000 1,187,500 1,800,000 6,0CHI,000 150,000 Fallow Hops., Gardens Scotland. Wheat, 11,400,000 860,000 460,000 1,200,000 60,000 100,000 200,000 460,000 . 450,000 «7,48>,388 18 2,088,021 It l,»,V),i)0O 6,000,000 175,000 7,700,000 7^000 625,000 Barley Oats. Beans and peas Fallow 9,087,600 1,200,000 1,120,000 11,000,000 7,572,917 1,000,000 988,884 9,166,667 11,100,001 Putatoea Turnlpi Clover. Flax 6,000 [£16 per aero. 85,000 £16 per acre Oardena Ireland. Wheat 8,290,000 400,000 820,000 2,200,000 1,400,000 800,000 140,000 25,000 Qii«rt«r«. 8 £8 per acre. £16 per aero. £12 per acre. 17,468,021 11 2,000,000 1,119,999 12 9,166,667 11,200,000 2,100,000 800,000 Ilarloy Oats.. Potatoes 18,820,000 Fallow Flax Oardons Total 4,785,000 19,475,000 ^^8S6,66e 12 49,982,600 7,666,724 42,265,776 110,788,974 16 Maniifacturei. — In tho order of their importance, we begin with cotton. The history of this manufacture, which now employs more hands than any other within Britain, and furnishes above one third in value of the Huu whole exports, is remarkable. The raw material is of vegetable origin, and ia obtained from the internal coat- ing of the pod or seed of tho goisypium, of which there aie several varieties — some growing as a tieo or shmb, ORE 960 ORE Mui othirt ■■ *n annual b*rt>ac«oii> plant. It la from Iha laltar that Iha far Rraatar part of tlia aupnl^ It oik talntil I anil far tkia lupply Itrltalii In aiitlraly (ia|itnil«nt on othar ciiunlrlM, Outlun ifriiwi In India, ami wnulil undoulitailly thrlva wall In many of the rulimlai ; liut tha praianl lupply it ilarlvcil from Ilia Uiillail Hialaii of AmarUa. In lo far, thnrarura, at ranarilf tha raw niatarlal, Uritain hat nu advantaga In IIm markat ovar othar eompatllora I but har luparlorlty linratoriirc haa Iwan In Ilia adinlralila parfnctinn of Ihn marhlnarj' ain- ployml. Tha Invanlloni of Arkwrluhl, llarKrtnvai, Cuniptcin, anil I'artwrlKliI, havn u\v»n iirlvtnltKi-a lo a vuuntry poairitinK, "l>* Kritulii, cxh«u»lli'» llililt iif roal, vatt arcuniiilatlunt of nipllal, ami a itunun iiinl iniluitrliiua popiilallon. For axlcmlnl liifiirnialliiii In r«t{ar(l to tbota Invantlont, tot (.'oTToy and Wiioi.. AocovKT or Tua aa*i. oa naiii.Aaan VAi.va I'NiTan KiMoiHiM ixrokTKU to KoaiKi ISM, INST, arioirviau Tui < ovrtbiu aairrao roa aAim. or Tua TAaioiia AatKiLia nr Tna MAnrrAiiTtiaa ann laoDcca or tni I CuuNTBiia nuaiaa aaoii or Tua YaAat INU, IfttT. INr>l. lNf>4. ixfiA, to wHiuii TUBT wiu airoaTais a«i> tub Valoi ur Tuoai AaasALLt Rttula, Niirtham porta " Hflulhrm porta <<« vlananil Norway Itoaniarii , PiuHia llaiMnrar llanaaTiiwiM Ilollanil Java and Runutra Haliclam t'rauc* Aticerla Rent^Kauibla Portilaal AaorM and Mailolra Spain and thu llalaarla Ulanda. ('anary iHland* Faniando I'll tlulw Hililpplna liUnda RardlnU Austria Tiiaraay Papal HUtaa Twumolllaa <}rP4<7,« l,7ftl,*ll 304, siO a,ftr7,«2i l,uirj,4f(9 79«,4«7 «,4n4,M9 'i.Vt,()14 IKW,577 161,B(t7 1IW,TO7 O'AIW) M2,1DI 4()A,Htn l»^,s.'!(^ I4:i,4«i S,»:i,014 1-11,1)47 2,li'-.',(i77 l,fH4,170 ^47»,ll« «!l,f>«3 Sfi,aM 4'AR11» »B,ni9 4&,i05 ToUl of foreign countrlM. ,IU,-i41,o;il 4li,U'Jh,blt< M,U4U,M8 01l,UU.>,rj'^8 WI,lllb,'^lU K.,Ma,MO fib,l)mi,VliU f.l3,7S4 48I,'.'>«1 8fll.44!l «2ii.,iHin a,st.s7ri7 '/.■^i7,»fia 7,MM,M)^ l'JSIi7ft fs»s(i,K7(l l!l7,*ii« 1,N70,«74 li,(>iii.:if.a 40H,O77 lo,(l^^()(l9 it.s:i,'j|« »!il,llh7 117,419 nMifis 98,m2 2fl,fi71 l,nnj,7M 7NI,(mH 1,l(MI,ll'il n!)7,iiM R,IIMi,'i'iH 4,fi6N,'iUl r>VI),NlA t,707,(mn a,HrAiiA'* 'ii,«H 11,V70 l,3ftll,7!M lK4,n«'j 1,IM,MNI lln.iim ll\Rlrt 1,0IH,(1IH1 miN,(iu7 t4rwi,uiii 717,7111 «'j«,mi7 147,0111 iivi.wn 1K2,4«0 4^lta7 ll4(l,ltlM 1,4M,II71 i:i:i,»ii7 l7,!iiN,nfi<) (iSf,,X!)N IMI,1«N a7S,401 8,m'.',7'^H W4,lia8 74«,44!l l,8IIO,a«5 l,^'^^,loo K»«,«7» «w,Kai l,0H«,19a i,' I,4«I,M1 l4^*IS 6,7llNVr.ll 1N9 aM,Min 22,878 4,n84,M7 1191,323 9«I8,32« i,3»ti,44a 1,(140,011) l,4in,478 B'.',r98 '.'fl,i,.'.'.i,tK ;ia,:in(i,4:m 37,ll.\247 T4,448,72« I 97,1KI,T'.'0 i■r,lis^,llS.'> lin,HiM,948 122,1.^^,2.H7 133,310 800,479 Ml, (107 3M,344 4,120,377 2n,'i,(IO(l 1,873,397 »,9U',ft7B H0n,04ft ii,ao7,4a» 420,18(1 1,844,338 93,44n 4n,ri8ii 1(A444 71),(W> 13ft,72ft ■ •If £ «,W2,I72 200,3119 l,(K)l.|i(HI hh(l,:i4(( l,7rift,ii8 1,0»8,2M »,0(HI,2I2 fl,37f,ir^fl 74fl,:p79 l,7Vft,32B 6,199,792 2II,><78 10,1S7 l,4/iN,imo IKI.AOti 2,(aio,34r> 107,104 l(i,sl(l l,714,oiin M4,232 l,;ifi0.076 l,lo\7in t"'(l,'.'s(l II i:.,|(i8 1," ii.iiia ■.iio.'.'iin 8,10(1,108 202,408 093,348 1,899,017 14s, MKI 19,182,(131 f)7o,022 2H9,02ft M'<,(KI9 870,750 23,731 B, 447,666 riir>,97a l,2!l7,ll.V8 i,rv^'i,i(ia 1,171,'<00 1,73«,H1I6 7(lfl,M7 1,01^,1168 M7,44n orir>,i2o 440,300 2M,321 4,3'.rs04n lf8l.4"l 2,3«i,7H7 11,020,146 72nj71 18,060,109 004,211 1,803,128 91,748 Mi,.%76 223,4115 8ri,8S0 SuMiiAXT or THX iHrotT Tbaiii axi) ExroBT or PaonirriB and MANi-rA4 1 1I«,701,(M1 1 18»,i20,aiS8 122,060,107 24,l«8,tiM 140,174,»0) (fKft ROl HUE (Kuu/ru.— ThU U th* mntt •nolcnl, tnii wm fhr I nntiirloK thii gnti itapli miiniifai'tur*, Tlia tlni'lit of llrltiiin furnialiMl woo) iif iMiulUr nxi'iilUiiiK, anil In ■liunilani'ii fur horn* iliMiuml, ami « \»tg9 aiiriiliia for ax|Mirti>tlon. Though ttm ■nuniir.ic tiir* i iii nut Uiaat of an itxlenilon Uko that of rniioti, It Imlil* Iha iiaat |>Uoa tu it i anil Iwlilm workliix ■ '''* )(■"<*'*' I"*" ofthawmil )(rown in llriLiiii, ilruw* lartc'ly on ntlinr roiintrirn fur aililitloiml iiu|i|>ili-», In tlii> llnnr liruail- elothi, llrltalii liiti foriiiiitalilu c uiiipiitlturii in tb« lli'l- (lana, from wIiuku forrfntliam llm llritnni may Iw uiiil to hava Uarntil thia l>run>-li, an>l nlno In tha Haxona i liut In othnr l>rancbKH uf tha wuhIkii munufactura tlia UritUli aiiparlority la daclilwl. Tha rhixf •oala of thn Woolan munufartiira In KnHlanil ara Yurkahira, l.an- caahirr, (iloui-aatarahlrv, ami Wlltahlra, Iha lattar IwinK th« niuat ili»linKiilahi>il fur liruaili'lotha | Nor- folk for wuratail atiitVa; l^iraati'rahira ami NuttlnK- hamahira fur woolen hiMli*ry ; liiiinkata ami llnnnala bava uumaroua liKUilitlpa; hut for tha llnnr qiialitlaa Iba w«at of KaitUnrt ami aavflnil uf tha \V»l>li iiiiintiaa •ra moat it^ahratnl. ('Hriwla of iivrry i|Uiillty anil pattern arn axtenalvaly miula at Klililarniinatar, (!ln>ii- ceatcr, Wori'i-atar, H<\, hut thimn of Wilton anil Ax- minatxr urn ao auperlor aa to aulfur llttln liy coinpar- iMm with tha caloliratril fnhrlra of Turkey ami I'arala, •ni, ihuddy la made Into fluahlnKa, druKK«t, pilot anil other Kraut I'oata, curpi'ta and tiililn I'uvcra— > ■ome nf the hiat ut KFiat Imauty. 1'ha prinripiil aeat of the ahiHidy trade la Dewaliury, alnnit elifht nilloa from I.eeda, The woolen munufiictiiha uf Ireland la on a very limited arnle, Itring cunllned t<> ii few liroad- cloth factorlea neur Dulilin und Cork, ami a few klanketa and flunnela, the furnuT in Kilkenny und tha Utter ut WIckluw. S >rM.. Ii «» made uuiidi more progreaa. The~ li'iiliuri;, ami alau u numlier of tmall tonii~ il'i,,^ tlio f(n)t uf the Oulilla, fur narrow cloths if vi'virnl varictiea, tartuna, aliawla, plulda, etu, | Invi'rnn- fir TartanH ; and Huwii'k for honlery, t.iwit in Kntflund the apinnin)( uf flax la carried on to a gteiLt extent, but ita manufui^ture Into cloth la comparatively limited. A cunsldurnble ipiuntlty of diintask und diaper in made ut llarnaley, I.inen la the )(ruat staple uf Ireliinrt, und wim lonK, in regard to textile fubrica, the atuplu alao of Ncotlund. In the former, extraordinary mcuna were employed to fimter it. It early flxed ita seat in the north, purticulitrly near lielfuat, and there the gmd chiini;ea whli li have taken place In the mode of in imifucture, by the aiib- utitution of apinning-miila and fucturlea fur the iIuiiii'k tic wheel and loom, appear only to have lixed it mur. permanently. Almost the only form Into which fl.i\ Id muDufuctured In Ireland ia plain linen, chinlly aiiirt- Inga. In Scotland the manufacture uaauinca greater variety. Iteaidea plain linen, it hua mamifucturva of Oitnaburgha, aheetinga, aull-cloth, aacking, etc., prin- cipally at Dundee ; and of diaper und duiniiak ut Duin- fermllno. The staples of both tuwiia are by far tha most important uf their kind in llritain. Silk. — Here the raw matcriiil is, like cotton, entirely of foreign production. Tliia is a great brunch of maiiii- facturs, in which, at least in liner fabrics, llrltuin niust yield the palm of superiority tu ttie Krcti' li and liolgiuns. The number of BUk-milla ia cunaidurublu, and conflnad chiefly to Knuland. Paialay la almost tha only town In Scotland wliera It ia curried on tu a great eatxnl, and even there tha shawls uf unrlv.iieil I xci'ilrnia are gxnxraily a inixad faliric uf allk aud wool. The I liliif sxata of tha silk trade In K.ngland are, the ill>lrl< t of .Spltalatlaid in Londun, Manchsaltr, and Covantry. Ilaalilaa the miiniifai tiirea nlreiuly tnantionml, thar* la a great niinilier tthli h, tliuugh separately uf leaa iui- purtanca, aliaurb lininanse sums of capital, exhibit many uf the moat wonderful a|iei'liuaiia of human in- genuity, and give aubalalence tu mllliuna uf tha |Hipu- latlun. VV'n can du little iniirn than name tha most proinlnant. Of Irnn, tlie lirat priiceaa ia convarting oraa Into inelals ; and thence the adilltiunal atep of convarting It frum Ita llrat smelted state Intu inalleabia Iron, whanie, by undergoing a new process, steel ia pro- diicuil, Vast pMceases riiniain behind, and constitute nuinaroua brumbes of tnunnfuctnre under the general nam* of hardware. Snverul uf the articles produced arn nf grant bulk and magnitude, and many of Ihsm ara an aniiiii ua tu be uiinost inicruscupic. Tu the fur- nier claaa belong iron bridges -no longer auapenaion only, but tubular— una of the structurea of this kinil now apana thn Menul Ntralt ; Immense steam engines, and machinery of every kind, adapted tu ail tha lin- priivamenia of the age. t )f thn minor articles of hard- ware, tha artisans of Nhellleld and nirmingham pm- iluce a great variety | and uf the precloua metala, plate, Jewelry, and watchea are made extenaively, but no- whera mure perfect than in I.ondun. I'im'oiain, claaalc In ahapea, gurgeoua In colors, and exquisite in liaalgna | and thn |Hitleriiia uf Htuil'ord are fur-famed. The nninufucturea uf glaaa, too, wrought into nuine- roua forms uf beuuty and utility in the establishment* ut Nawcastln and South Shields, excite the admlru- thin. Another manufuctura ia that of paper, of vast extent, and Its processes exhibit some of the highest triumpha which human Ingenuity has yet attained. In cunnectbin with it are various manufacturoi of which It iniiy be considered aa directly or Indirectly the source— type-fuunding, printing hooka, etc. The manufacture uf leather, in> 1 'iling ita variuua aubdi- vislona of tanning, curryin^ hufl, glove, and harness, milking, with numerous minor branchea In which leather la employed. The value of tth* prodiiri* auil mauufUcturoa of the llnUi'il Klnifiluiii ixportcil tVuin (Ireat Brll/!ii aiiil IrulamlloriirelKn parts, acrarillrig tu ',10 real or ilwlarml value, amounted In IHl'Jto jei)Sffll,nOi In ixr.l tliey bail rtiiii to. T^.Ma.TiW or which wore si>ni to the I.'. Status. . i:U,8li<,9T6 Tu tbii varlnns llrlitsh ilepenilcncjes.. IV.filHsVdO Tu llraill BM'I South Anurlcan Status. 8,tM9,nS i>H,liWl,9(H " I'rum which il appears that the United States of America cimsunio nearly one lifth of our ex)H0,U8 18^610 10 81 (0,678 18&,6«2 in,091 287,761 • . . • 171,0(1 287,761 878,04T *•*•!!! 11,187 9,415 889,184 472,187 86,698 <0,<95 <•>• 86,628 60,6(6 410,1T7 680,980 1 . •• . 410,178 6(0,980 54,900 48,486 61,900 48,486 ."■?I2 16,881 • ... 87,270 16,681 443,181 608,887 15 4 442,197 608,8(1 108,871 144,866 • • > • 108,871 144,866 ??•!«? 116,690 98 (28 89,856 117,813 78,634 120,989 1 .... 78,686 110,989 l,9n,819 910,986 9,174 .... l,979,6t8 910,986 151,086 191,406 4,419 4,488 166,606 196389 8,417,019 8,469,787 148 1,786 8,417,167 8,471,479 107,608 1AW8 .... .... 107,609 195,988 684,281 638,021 .... 684,281 688,091 57,189 67,409 10,618 14,196 67,767 81,604 '•?!*''^ 10,659,120 4,848,477 4sl76,284 11,972,042 14,886,864 461,171 588,097 461,171 688,097 ai^iss 478,404 26 26 865,161 478,479 95,200 181,295 724 68 96,924 181,848 868,628 179,86» 1,291 1,469 864,916 281388 59,777 10,089 .... 69,777 10,089 8,850 146,198 .... 8,860 146,198 48,045 49,298 .... 48,046 49,2(3 124,166 286,701 6,661 8,864 280,818 240,066 403,488 241,109 1,586 1,146 406,024 142,256 82,475 118,000 . > .. .... 82,476 118,000 74,317 108,678 1 6 74,819 108,688 24,772 81,899 66 . 66 24,828 81,447 1,818,469 8,889,587 141,114 144,774 2,964/t88 4,084,861 26,872 17,678 .... .... 26,871 17,678 166,887 146,581 T 28 166,844 246,564 1,296.200 1,281,666 1,695 .... 1,298,896 1,281,656 70,886 90,646 .... .... 70,886 (0,646 104,084 182,637 .... 1(0 104,084 182,927 74,062 75,811 .... .... 74,062 76,811 68.69S 119,711 .... • ... 88,696 119,712 9,844 16,008 .... 9,844 16,008 287,559 146,246 .... 287,659 245,245 62,274 86,118 t .. . e . • • 62,274 86,118 16,810 84,906 70 200 16,880 SM06 910,098 1,158,706 10,288 18,968 940,886 1,172,674 1,701,866 1,461,209 9,256 18,848 1,711,112 2,474,662 1,286,169 972,752 1,286,169 972,762 814,168 466,006 1,0(1 826,249 466,006 14,678 20,761 .... .... 24,678 20,761 65,768 91,930 1 66,760 91,930 92.986 177,621 92,986 177,621 198,767 260,825 68 i,68« 198,826 262,611 66,898 86,910 .... .... 66,898 86,910 50,669 66,890 294 883 60,858 66,663 46,986 68,917 877 892 46,868 68,609 88,.V11 61,889 1 88,662 61,889 1,919,757 2,842,674 160 861 1,919,917 2,843,626 71,784 60,828 1 .... 71,786 60,323 341,910 258,089 .*•> .... 841,910 268,082 804,3; 7 490,586 .... 804,817 400,686 298,259 888,980 1,686 12,424 800,794 846,864 623,812 686,581 .... 87 623,811 686,668 12S,746 186,489 8,912 128,746 189,894 873,S01 888,071 849 80 874,160 883,161 260,707 860,692 40 61 260,747 850,753 87,077 99,719 8,169 2,641 90,246 102,264 110,623 91,605 16 87 110,689 91,6t2 M,156 88,379 .... 64,165 88,879 90.476 14»,657 T8 .... 90,648 1H667 886.104 666,077 T 160 886,111 666,227 422,087 878,624 .... 422,6.37 873,624 38,601 62,345 664 1,005 89,265 58,360 238,749 804,979 4,761 6,628 248,610 310,607 68,867 88,778 68,867 88,773 770,677 1,161,686 6 1,861 770,681 1,158,986 113,310 188,987 1,696 622 114.906 186,6T1 69,666 2,729,843 660,817 829,866 1,398,489 848,886 926,268 684,006 18,914 470,241 9,789,237 868,872 1,070,668 129,404 6/i60,183 54^896 116,069 287,215 460,089 340,788 66,646 146,970 68,694 64,206 702,602 246,613 900,116 66,884 80,811,094 2,469,143 719,7!»6 61,428 4,664,187 14,660 6K624 8,308,717 1,064,880 82^122 1,902,941 860,099 1,170,923 666,251 24,619 865,908 10,822,872 618,419 1,236,216 144,216 7,118,482 69,709 90,»:7 248,702 638,816 196,824 93,122 199,729 65,661 72,607 1,178,689 806,703 1,142,296 94,920 28,881,818 8,111,708 1,210,678 128,886 6,840,466 'l°,447 "sos 82 '6,142 76 647 722,991 44 45,664 8,246 76,870 • ■9 19,292 461864 40,863 146,886 1,974 14,478 8,896 61 76;8,W 1,684 6,444 '14 80 ^741 264 766 720,469 2 14,188 4,892 83 1,887 ■■i«6 160 10,787 169 «!\m 47,620 166,185 1,703 1,004 2,359 85 110,467 24,971 64,113 2,729,848 660,317 830,174 1,898,621 848,386 9^^268 689,147 18,989 470,788 10,482,218 868,416 1,116,282 132,660 6,686,053 64,896 116,069 887,215 460,048 240,788 86,988 146,970 63,694 64.206 749 966 287,874 1,046,600 67,303 80,825,572 2,46.3,038 719,777 01,423 4.730,740 14,660 71,168 ?:M 326,122 1,902,966 360,179 1,170,928 671,993 24,888 866,658 11,042,341 618,421 1,260,849 148,608 7,118,514 69,709 92,164 248,703 639,013 196,484 111,90* 199,898 66.661 73,607 1,246,908 868,238 1,297,461 96,622 28,832,817 8,114,567 1,210,758 128,886 6,460.938 8«aiut , .,,,.,, Bilk, tww Md wMto " tbrown , ■* maiiuCMturaoriiKtlsMutCblns.... » " ofKuroiN),«ta SUM (nd fun ..,, Spelter Spirit*, brtndr " Oon«Ti , " rum ....,,,, ^* ' niolMiei.. ...... )...««*«...«.... Tdlov , T«r , Tet^ Tcatb, eleplunU' Till..., Tobiooo And enDir. Turpentine VilonlA Wateliee Wu, beei' Wlula-flni Winea Wood And tlmbar, yli, ; Teatc itATea Tarn, woolen or allk. All other artlclat Tottl ofllefakl TAlue of Import* ttom 1 (toraign ptrta £108,408,896 £117,281,764 £6,987,014 £5,905,071 £109,845,409 £12.%186,886 A> AccoDHT or TUi Vaidc or Tua Ixroin ixto, and or tui Expobts nou, Obeat Bbitaiii and lBirf.AifD, tlVRINO KAOn or TUB THBBI TbABS BHDINO Tni 6tu Or JaMUABY, 1863. aRKAT 8KITAIN, UNITED KINODOM. ValMof iMaorti tali) ant BfiUlii. 1868108,408,895 TALva or aaroan rsoM aaaAT aaniia. PfiNliif. m4| Forolan mantirii'tuft* ao4 rMmla) uftiM (Inll« total of i;'t!l,174,000. The imports for the same year amounted to £24,060,000. In 1862, the British and Iriah ex|inrts to forel^^j countries were £72,049,367; to the colonies, £20,430,869 ; total, £92,- 479,736. The imports for the same year amounted to £109,346,409. The total number of vessels, their tonnage, and numtier of persims navigating the same, were, in 1862, 84,402 veisels, 1,226 of which were pro- pelled by steam; tonnage, 4,424,392; nivigated by 243,612 men and boy*. The total length of railroads authorized by ParlUimont up to the 31st December, 1851, amounted to 11,062 miles ; capital, £368,428,000. The total length of railroad* completed in Great Britain and Ireland at tha end of the year 1863 was 7774 miles; cost of conttrnctkm, up to July, 1863, £263,636,320, e«|ual to (1,816,000,000. An almost in- stantaneous communication by electric telegraph has alio been eitablUbed bhroughoat great Britain and Ireland. Of other asaociated industrial companies, the Investment* are, In mining companies, £0,978,747 ; go* companies, £6,41 6,295 ; insurance companies, £6,000,000, The gross revenue of the post office for the year ending January 6tb, 1862, wo* £2,422,168 ; the cost of management was £1,804,168 ; the net rev- enue, £1,118,004. The total number of letters in 1861 wo* 860,647,187, of which 36,612,640 were in Scotland, and ii6,0S2,782 la Ireland, The payment made to the various railroad companies for the convey- ance of mails for work done within the j'ear, was £166,676, and £87,272 for work done In previous years. The total number of money orders issued in the year 1851 was 4,661,026 ; the amount, £8,880,420. In 1851, the persons employed were, in England and Wales, 13,912; in Ireland, 1927; in Scotland, 2190, and in the colonies, 939. The total amount paid to these persons waa £727,120. BrUith Ezporti in 1868, — A return has been issued by the Board of Trade of the declared values and official values of British and Irish produce and manufactures exported from tiie United Kingdom in the year 1858, specifying tlie amount to each country and colony. From this document the following tables have been compiled, showing the order in which the various communities of the world rank as her customers. The total is £116,631,998 rea' value for the year 1868, against £122,006,107 for 1857, and £115,826,948 for the year 1856. The progressive advance in the foreign export trade for each year from 1801 to (he year 1858 is fully shown in the copious table on page 856. From 1843 to 1857 the exports to the United States had increased from £6,013,000 to £19,182,000; and to ten foreign markets from £24,016,000 to £58,237,000. The tabu- lar returns (pages 858, 854, 855) show important results for the years 1853, 1854, and 1855. With regard to foreign countries, the eflfects of the chronic pressure which has continued to prevail in the New York money market have again been shown in a diminution of tha 6RE 854 ORE 7alvi or THi Pkodvoi jlko If ANinrAI,0M SO.ilO 4&,8»4 2*4,845 181,719 44,014 T0,188 49,888 l,869,6iS 46,476 144,068 148,407 28,2SI.0i» e,eM,6SS 1,1M,790 849,406 46,064 89,741 879,418 2,074,117 2,691,242 4S,(«0 92,400 8i,S72 29.726 98,490 6,606,148 6,208 808,160 ,«,079 84li,S»« 4,280,126 1,140,100 1,248,860 44,222 02,409 122,919 484,899 49,710 249,099 44,029 146.830 42^705 67,970 6.849 06,488 221,101 01,895 19,898 1,001,846 81^649 68,618 411,090 800,184 88,604 1,080,720 12,601 26,788 80.142 04,770 79,n7 T92,2N9 1,4-XI40 8,729,609 1,S61JS87 £77.780.091" £77,809 478,082 20,089 038,087 2,760,094 048,927 187,021 187,118 60,287 1,280,628 28,867 94,230 401,711 1,808,641 41,961 67,300 446,844 849,660 72,687 109,626 64,212 1,602,762 97,424 221,626 870,740 20,307,986 6,890,608 1,887,911 406,008 60,010 48,664 017,8(2 4,106,189 87,888 174,788 17,801 89,691 8S,S87 10,802,090 6,082 872,940 66,708 1,676,208 4,706,889 1,104,989 1,980,817 69,441 48.038 17.\870 616.311 00,005 824,169 69,627 8.82,448 727,301 M,877 1.812 189,999 271,129 48,960 23.74,'i 2,044.289 412.260 97.828 204.141 618,498 301,627 140,859 1,213.612 19,669 46,82ff 40,1194 07,037 119,906 488,812 l<4.'i6,7S6 10,iro,7S8 2.342,467 IRELAND.' UNIfU) KINuImM.' £16 617 889 2,207 028 4,361 6,081 "284 45 29 "719 98,474 770 "782 29 2,4.S9 2 12,088 2,847 "i07 940 "i46 409 68 455 872 28.128 2,466 10 V,487 1,660 410 8,000 1 "'■io 60 "si 26 00 410 40 2,870 "T77 20 8,795 128 08,480 V,825 R2.3.'IA I8U. ISM. £70 £69,241 899,286 27,648 79 880,808 1,602 1,246,677 1,547 898,847 1,470 49,012 218 160,294 .'638 87,929 6,784 754,627 .... 20,624 681 107,898 851 289,488 690 1,704,088 20,110 463 46,613 75,812 898,819 486 132,494 , , 46,014 180 70,865 6 49,862 1,829 1,872,114 66 46,478 4,776 14^924 10,920 100,446 9,263 28,228,482 6,654,6.'» 409 1,101,897 10 800,896 46.066 89,887 693 878,827 800 2,074,180 1,800 2,691,697 161 48,000 92,460 81,872 29,726 80 98,867 42,782 6,684,276 1,171 8,718 858,180 60,079 2,842 844,709 1,098 4,281,786 88 1,140,060 219 1,251,860 44,528 62,40* 26 122,908 17 434,959 49,715 676 249,130 279 44,055 14 116,880 85 4'A705 67,970 072 6,764 1 66,628 1,0M 828,976 61,890 20,670 72 1,661,866 7,614 824,444 88,366 4,800 66,548 884 411,718 800,184 8.3,604 18 1,080,726 .... 12,661 26,788 19 80,142 86 64,TTB ■79,m TOO 840,769 1,480,140 1.894 8,780,904 83.428 1,418,921 £77,879 478,082 26/)8* 688,616 2,766,696 000,474 188,491 187,886 61,676 1,2*1,867 2836T »4,911 402,062 1,8&4,881 41,961 •7,818 620,606 8.19,996 72,687 169,790 64,21T l,604Jt91 »7,489 226,402 891,666 25,817,249 6,895,608 1,338,370 466,018 60.016 48,664 518,540 4,156,494 8,665,061 87,649 174,788 17,851 89,591 8.\967 10,846,422 7,758 872,940 66,708 1,678,090 4,75?,432 1,154,977 1,980,586 69,441 48,033 170.890 616,828 60,006 824.845 69,906 8.32,462 727,886 M,87T 1,684 140,000 272.178 48,966 28,746 2,044,861 419,879 97,828 208,441 618,882 801,627 14<>,869 1,218,680 19,669 46,820 40,113 07,062 119,900 484,512 1.466,788 10,172,182 a870,890 1'98, 709.618 '£2»6;268 I £224,098 ' £78.076,864 £98,988.781 exports to the United States. In 1854 there waa a decreaae of i:2,248,0o8, and a further falling olT of £4,092,28.3 is now oliecrvable. The amount to Ger- many baa been swollen by the overland trade to Rus- sia, the augmentation being £1,222,776. France ex- hibits the extraordinury increaae of £2,8i)7,368 — equal to 9b per cent.— b result due partly to the purchase of war materiala in this country, and partly to moditina- tions In her tariif. To Turkey, as might have Iraen expected, the exports have more than doubled. Rus- tla ii of oouna antiraly nut of the lift, but tba coo- signments to Balaklavaand the other ports In her own possession amounted to nearly £600,000. Among the countries which show an improvement are Sweden and Norway, Brazil, and New Uranada, the difference in each of these cases being large. The trade with Syria and Palestine, in consequence of the war, has experienced a great development. The exports direct to the DanubUn Principalities, which declined from £179,010 in 18&3 to jtl6,402 in 1854, stand in the pres- ent return at £46,387, Belgium, Greece, Italy, Mex- ico, Peru, VtnezueU, and China, are oU on the favur- GRE H6S GRE kble side. Spain slinwa a fulling off. Th* Rlv«r I AytM «nd llrnguajr liotii preaenting • great decline. Plate trade experienced a lieavy reaction, lltMmM | I'wrtugll and benmaric liuvo been stationary. , IiiroRTS INTO AKP lUpoiTS tunu THN I'NiTKti KiNolioM fanM Ignl to 186^ imoldsiti. Vtan. Oflilal ValiK, 1 Real V.lua. | ImpoTli. KiporM, 1 tmpatU, Kipona. 1 FriHluc* Mil MMufAC(HrM '(•-/(•I Hroduca And M«niir«<^(ur«i Ponign wid Colunlal KarclmiidUa. Total uf Iha L'lli(«4 Kingduni. H6,ltW>,IN)4 al (ha VnlOd Kinitdom. Eiporta. 1801 BI,7S6,262 24,921,61*4 io,m,u(> .... •] t tiMordi not romplelo for lliew xtara. X t 1802 I»),82«,2iO 2B,6S2,M» ;»."«,(•<» S*'!'*'*!! .... 1 .... 180S 26,622,6:16 20,467,631 ••S'K'ill *''2il'JK5 ,,,. f .... .... 1804 21,819,632 22,«ST,8«0 1!'*S!'JW ltl,«10,M» .... J .... .... 1806 28,561,270 23,878,941 T,«8T,6fil »i,im,m 88,077,144 .... 1806 20,3:Kt,«5S 26,861,879 T.TK/.Mfi »H,M4,I44 , J , , 40,874,' S3 .... 180T 26,734,425 2S,3'J|,2I4 T.«7ltJ»« H\,IMi4,V4n 4 4 1 t 87,246,8.7 .... ISOS 26,T!IB,640 24,011,215 e,88T,i>«l m^\m If 87,'-7C,102 .... 1809 81,75(1,667 !I3,64.',274 i'/.i>«4,( Ml 4»,mi,m 4 « • < 47,371,89.1 1810 89,801,612 84,061,(101 V^MtkM 4«,BW*,tM 4 4 f 4«,438,68i) .... 1811 26,610,180 22,681, 400 «,««il.T<» •in,m,m f > ' 4 82,890,712 .... .... 1818 1813* 1814 26,163,431 29,608,508 e,T(T,n6 mtm^m «444 41,710,964 .... .... 83,766,264 84,207,281 )e,M8,««i IM^MM t* 4* 48,494,219 .... • . • > 1818 82,987,896 4.',8«0,ii17 )6,T4«,Wil M,«tti<,»ri 4 4 , t 61,610,480 .... 1810 27,431,6114 86,714,681 i3,m>,l¥) *<,Hift,*tl • • <4 41,(63,980 .... .... 1817 30,834,299 40,111,167 |ll,«'.i«,(«4 Ml,4WI,MI . , . , 41,817,640 .... * . . • ISIS 8tf,SSB,182 4',702,0(W tO,«A0,>«IT IMMm,M)A . • • • 4fl,470,86!J 1819 3(1,776,810 83,634, 176 li,«04>llt 4»,4ti«.#Wl < • < 1 16,211,4"! .... 1820 8-.',47 1,766 38,393,76'* |n.«XI,1l2 4»,t4(»,»<0 #< . . 86,428,' 69 IS21 30,837,712 40,''»2,49'.) 10,6'i:>ft AL'^ilM 4 i . . 86,6,V.,8(i2 .... • • . > 1832 30,631,141 44,'242,632 «,227,WIT tiii,m,iMi 4 . 4 • 86,966,023 1823 36,71)8,438 43,826,607 S.im.mili rfiAmiti.it 4 4 14 86,(;67,(i41 .... 1S24 87,468,279 48,780,4(17 iu,mi,im W,(if(/,,«fti( 1,44 88,422,404 1825 44,208,803 47,18(),6'.iU 9,160,4m rKl^1'^,\^■l 14 14 8S,870,'46 .... .... 1826 37,3I8,«)0 40,966,736 Ii(, 182S 48,167,443 8'i,786,08U »,»W,Mli M,^M,mh 1,44 86,8 2,767 1829 43,996,286 66,217,' 62 |0,6'iO,l«> M,«iM,tn « • • • 86,842,6.3 .... .... 1830 46,300,473 61,18 ,3(4 «,A48,»U4 m,v»ui# 4 t ,4 88,271,6 r 1881 4'.>,7i7,8a8 60,t86,3li4 10,T4B,I2« TI,4»i,4W) t4 4 4 87,164,372 .... . . . • 1882 44,610,646 6 ,0-;6,278 ll,044,«0 T6,(»T«,(4«l t 4 t . 86,46n,6:'4 .... 1833 AO'14,426 6I,9»7.367 »,«8!UM WAf M« If 80,667,848 .... . • . • 18H4 4'.i,3(14,7a3 73,836,'.'8I U,B»2.«ST w>,m,'im 14 4 4 41,649,1I<1 .... .... 1S35 49,02:>,334 78,360,(iM I2,W.T24 {it,\m,uii If 47,872,'/70 .... lS3a 67,2 '6,048 86,220,144 lif.IWI.TI* BT.JI1,*rt 4 4 14 68,2{>8,979 .... 183T 61,762,288 72,64(,(l71 IU,eil6,40T «8,fT«,A» f 1 42,000,248 .... .... 183S 61,268,(113 92,48 ,967 12,711,612 m,m,m 4 4 4 1 6o,061,7.'i7 .... 18^9 6-2,048,121 97,3114,666 I«,7(«,t»0 ll«,((*(»/M 4 . » . 58,288,680 .... 1840 «7,49-2,710 10'2,T(I6,850 I3,TT4.I6A (i«,*»),«ift 414, 81,406,480 .... . • • • 1811 64,444,268 102,179,614 14,TVB,»T» ll«,«0«,«KlT « < . I 81,684,623 .... • . • ■ 1842 65,263,286 1(10,266,380 |;i,fiW>,42« ((»,»4IV«« 4 14 4 47,891,028 .... 1S13 70,214,912 1 17,876,(69 IB,IA«,2iM »»(,,mm 4 < • « 68,894,292 .... 1S45 85,297,8 18 134,r>»8,684 !«,2T9,8l"i (W»,'i 172,844,161 lin.8iia,n48 23,393,406 130,220,383 1S5I 136,215,849 266,1)96,713 80,m,»W !M«>4,f>itl MT,n4«,838 122,066,107 23,853,765 145,410,872 I85S .... ,.., .... . . /. 110,631,9('8t| .... .... " Kecorda deatroyed by Are. t Tliia Rmoiint, aa thii <>>|iarta for 1888, la d«i1v«4 Umn (Iw t«l0St returns for eleren moDtbs, and adding thereto a sum equal to the exporta for November. Tlie commercial clianges in Great Britain during tlie ycnr 1858 were not very important. Antuflg Hw prominent clianges were: I. "An act to HmHn4 (Im lawa of Eiiftiand ami Ireland affecting Ufv\a mv\ itmu mcrcc." The object of this act U to assiniilittx tlw) lawd of England and Ireland to thos« of Ki^xtlitMil, and thereby remedy the inconveniencs now fuit \iy lit* commercial community in matters of cuniniuil ui^t'tir* rcnce in the course of trade. II. "Treaty of cmiiI' mcrce and navigation between tlie United KiimdtXIl and the republic of Cliili." III. " liaiurns uf lriwt<« and business to bo made up to the 3lst.of MHrxh, tl*« terminus of the financial year, instead of, as iMtrntft' fore, to the Slat of December." " Treaty of lunmrntm between the United Kingdom and tlia Swia* <'uiifi>4' erMtion." " Differential duties on the trade and idil|i' ping of the Two Sicilies to be aboliahed." I'rogret* nf the Uritith AfercimliU ifi'rlti' tim'H 1849.— In 1849 there were 9298 auillng VMS«U migmvA iti (h« home trade, 6612 In the foreign trade, and 1897 (Mrtly In one trade nnd partly in the other. In 1856 tht> linme trade employed 9390 sailing vessels, tho for- eign irmU WIfiO, while tliose engaged partly in one tradd nnii partly In tlie other numliered but 970. This gives an Increase of 92 in the first class, and of 1447 in the mii'imi], while In the mixed class there was a decrease lt( 1*37, or fiearly half. The 8tati.itics of the steam Iritdi" give results very different. In 1849 the home trade i!lii|>lnyed 312 steamers (exclusive of river ves> M>ls), tlie foreign trade 82, and of those engaged in fmrl In Itoth trades there were 20. In 1856 the nuni- wrs were respectively 817, 42'2, and 42, showing that whilt the liiinie steam trade had increased scarcely 2 |M MFABATt.^a BuTua moM FoBUOH ViMEU, A-.JC Steah rEoM Bailimo Vmieu, ANn nnniNSVMMiiiw tn« Teade wrru EAcn Codntet, in the Yeab ISSB (in oonitnuatiun or rAELiAMEXTAEY PAr«E Nu. *9, uf l)lk.":./K iHAtM), 8« i*n ^ •■•7 DeaniEik FmHla Oernuny UollEOd Belflum CbEnnel IslEnda Fnoee PortngEl, AEorea, *nd Madeln. . BpElB End CEDErtei, OibralUr ItElUn StstcE MeIU IodIed IsUnds Oreec* Turkejr WEllEcbIa snd HoldEvU. 8yrU. AMcE.. AeU... Amerte*: BrltUh Northern Colonies. BriUih Wut Indies. . Foreign Weit Indltr United SUtee OiitrEl End Socthern BtEtes. FElklEnd lelEiids Arctic Beglon*. , . . . . Wl»l« FlEherlea Tot»J Btenm.. SEUIng. BteEin., BEtllng. SteEm.. SElllng., BteEin . . SElllng., SteEin.. BEtllng.. BteEm.. SElllng., BteEm.. 8«Ulng.. BteEm.. SElllng.. BteEm.. SElllng.. SteEDi . . SElllng., BteEm . . BElllng., SteAm . . SElllng., BteEm . . BElllng., BteEm . . SElllng . SteEm . . SElllng.. SElllng.. BElllng.. Stenm.. BElllng.. BElllng.. Btenm.. BElllnp., Stenm.. SElllng.. SteEm.. SEUlng.. SteEm., BElllng. Btesm . . SElllng.. Bt«*m., Bal'Ing.. Bteam . , SElllng., SteEin . , BElllng.. BElllng., SElllng.. SElUng.. INWARD. Bblp.. « 1,T90 88 m 18 no 101 84 "ms 432 1,li« 82S «58 »0 84S 816 1,026 1,076 a,m t» 607 1 S16 86 S4 ss 464 48 6S 01 17a 941 a 98 47 068 16 884 4 1,877 600 15 150 7» 441 16 61 11,618 18,4i, 8»7,V76 11,888 44,814 8,185 18,614 44,188 T,M6 1H8S5 158,0(6 101,124 146,617 188,800 8^515 40,441 61,5M 111,608 1(0,168 80S,44( (,856 61,886 408 05,450 14,M7 8,766 14,111 16,087 6^888 ^778 10,268 80,674 66,815 41,106 (68 5,877 86,410 168,438 14.179 476,(88 1,7(1 776,446 811 184,017 88,517 48,114 86,854 166,408 11,781 n»,dn 662 liiiiis ^055,84S 8Upi. 1,881 1 1,089 1,765 1( 1,120 11 2,578 124 1,788 184 1,146 126 480 10 4,867 "i7( 12 251 ""8 "267 "16 6 28 "277 815 "'i4 "sii ■"68 "448 "'42 1 28( 27 889 "l71 21,248 ToilMf*. 877,764 1(0 100,187 4,7(( 157,789 2,488 41^194 41,«6( 164,150 Ufit S16,6M 1(,2I8 70^(67 '8,648 1,697 410,180 22,644 1,610 82,1(8 "iio 67,265 °8.490 1,111 4,867 6^600 '8^146 81,698 44^ 226,758 HOOg 250 60,N« 873(0 6(7,807 n.sso 118 8,P87,768 KvrwAnit, M 1,858 164 1« 126 W 406 "iJT 419 1,146 606 9I« 189 271 810 1,166 1,491 2,651 28 «26 I 1,014 »T 174 18 108 1 ITO 40 SI 60 246 V8 a •• 44 681 41 1,516 f 1,819 611 96 904 86 860 16 690 8 9 67 tm* 12.925 996,M7 l»,)tT9 11,916 8,990 ]9,80« ii,imi 76,7T» 150,954 908,794 176,06« iiwa 65,779 i8.m 68^819 T4,T9« 97540* 801,791 8,451 6)*,7R» 600 174,401 I5,tT« 9l,7t« 14,877 iKfim 766 41,600 M,IW 8,740 no,408 fi8,4R« I2.4W 1,766 7,944 87,4« 178,109 96,RM 789,49* )«M 587,167 8*1 168,748 44,854 66,949 88,4m 470,lt4« 17,9fH 189,989 l,8t« 574 ujm 5,ll»^ I i,ow "i»T t'Jm 1,708 117 l,9ii4 185 612 121 200 15 4,061 "648 II m * 67 1 575 "ii* ill 65 "oil 50 "'» "*60 "408 "'92 "'44 "m9 M 1,175 "«M 1 ri«,io» Jt»MHf«, T,io6 900,010 14»>iT (,804 599,(57 2,860 (0(,T*6 81,860 1(5,484 88,484 47,740 17,8«« 28,695 1,597 I41,«9t 94,0** 1,97* llt,««l «0 1I,9M 150 180,129 44,657 8,686 17,680 1M,994 tfi» '1,997 6r,Ml kJm l'l',M in,n» 4(,8(7 9n,(o* 11* 4,284;iir jrean "ince 1842, In that year 914 vesaels, having an aggre);Ete tonaagaof 129,929 tons, were built ; in 1866 the number was 1160, and the tonnage 244,678 tons. la 184£ the sailing vessels numbered 95viui iiwriNuifisMixa yw*. a^DS ValMll. EMM) V>Ht VMHh. «<«« V>wl>. IflBlxrorVMMll. Tottoaf*, NiimWr of Mm ijnrlojrid. NiuakarofVaawb, TofUM^f, *e* IN **• »44 560 184( 1,S«T " 1,487 148( 1,0*8 (70 281,(51 911,841 94«,656 147,867 156,800 12,716 10,291 8,670 6,876 7,184 90 42 1» ilifl 1800 1801 1861 Ig0( 6RE 867 ORE VESSELS EMPIX)YFD IN THE FOREIGN AND COAemNO TRADE OP TIIE UNITED KINGDOM. An Aooount ov tiir Nuhiiir and Tonnaoe or VnsiLa, niaTiNouiBiiiNo tiir CouNTMn to which tiiit iiilonokd, kdteiikd INWASI) AND ri.KAWIII ODTWARIS WITH OAKIIOM (IMmDniNO TIIIIII RKnCATED VOTAOBa), IN Tilt SIX HoMTlM ■NDIMa SMa Jimt, 186S, DOMPABni WITH Tuc ootBUPONDiNU PnuoM or THE Yrahs 18M Ai,0<1T 1,089,982 1,112,583 1,350,210 8O7,06n 744,492 3,981,264 1,117,573 1,189,485 1,008,444 818,656 608,730 816,722 26,883 8,634,036 5,45:1,423 4,861,5^8 4,286,406 3,n!16,'27S 2,B'n,e53 2,178,958 1,986,823 l,Sl2,fi.16 1,730,782 1,548,361 1,6<19,29» 1.'.>II7,S5'> 1,174,430 036,619 631,871 535,870 691,425 760,528 641,670 428,161 295,281 414,811 409,478 893,074 249,792 175,981 84,(156 67,485 20,506 14,725 4,520 8,997 - i,525 830 1,927 23 46S 20. Denmark 886,760 21. Western coast of Africa. . . 787,520 22. Syria and Palestine 703,875 23. riiillppinc Islands 634,234 24. Sweden 850,699 26. Norway 441,7M 26. Mexico 667,311 27. Papal State* 818,797 2a Central America 813,371 29. Greece 200,666 80. Wnllachia and Moldavia.. 201,466 81. Morocco 148,809 32. South Sea Islands 01,827 S3. Algeria... 19,406 84. Capo Verd Islands 16,540 85. TunU 1,08!J 86. Porila 626 87. African porta on Red Sea. . 5,232 38. French poaaessions in India 8,060 39. Eastern coaat of Africa . . . 2,072 40. Tripoli 893 41. Ijidrono Islands 830 42. Uourbon 175 43. Celebes .... 44. All other places 140 Total 1S67-'6S «T22,006,107 X116,0U,33t Dtcline in the real Vnlue of the Expotii. — The great increase in the official, and the comparative decline ia tlie real or declared value of the exports, since 1816, has given rise to a great deal uf irrelevant discussion. It has been loolced upon as a proof that English com- merce is daily becoming less prosperous, whereas, in point of fact, a precisely opposite conclusion sliouid be drawn from it. The rates according to which the of- ficial values of the exports are determined were Hxed as far bacli as 1G9G ; so that they have long ceased to 1)6 of importance as affording any criterion of the act- ual value, their only use being to show the fluctuations in the qunntities exported. To remedy this defect, a plun was formed during the earl}- part of Mr. I'itt's administration for keeping an account of tlie rcnf val- ue of the exports, as ascertained bj* the detlaraticns of the exporters. The circumstance of a manufactur- er or a merchant selling a large or a small quantity of produce at the same price affords no criterion by which to judge as to the advantage or disadvantage of the sale ; for if, in consequence of improvements in the arts or otherwise, a particular article may now be produced for half the expense that its production cost ten or twenty years ago, it is obvious that dou- ble the quantity of it may l)0 a.Torded at the same price without injury to the producers. Now this is the caso with some of the most important arti- cles wliich arc exported from England. Cottons and cotton-twist form a full third or more of her entire exports; and since 1814 there has iicen an extraor- dinary full in the price of these articles, occasioned partly l>y cotton wool having fallen from about 1*. 6rf. per lb. to about 5.ach were the cose, does any one imai;ine the exportation would continue 7) nearly four times the quantity of cotton goods and yam which she ex- ported in 1814 for about the same pricu. See Cotton UAKDrACTURB. The commercial interests of England long suffered ftt>m the inextricable confusion of her maritime laws. From the Revolution down to 1786 some hundreds of •eta were passed, each enacting some addition, dimiii- ution, or change of th" duties, drawbacks, bounties, •nd regulations previously existing in the customs Mr. Pitt has the merit of having first int vmluced soma' thing like order into this chaos. Under h\i auspices •II the separate custom-duties existing in 1787 were repealed, and simple and intelligible ones substituted in their stead. In the report of the Lords' Committee on Foreign Trade in 1820, it is stoted that the laws under which the commerce of the country was regulated amounteU to upwanl of 2000, of which 1600 were in force in 1816. After this report was printed, Mr. Huskeyson introduced great reforms into the laws afTocting ship- ping and navigation. And since his time the repeal of • vast number of custom-duties and the many Im- portant and beneficial changes effected by Sir Robert Peel, have vastly simplified the commercial legisla- tion of England. Various improvements have also been introduced by the late chancellor of the excheq- uer, Mr. Gladstone ; and the Customs Consolidation Act of 1863 has brought the various laws relating to the cu.itoms into a concise and simple form. It com- prises tlie whole law respecting the importation, ex- portation, warehousing, smuggling, etc., of goods, with the regulationf to be observed in the coasting and colonial trades, etc., and is at once brief, compre- hensive, and so clear as to be level to tne comprehen- sion of those least acquainted with such matters. Besides condensing and simplifying the vaiHous laws respecting the customs, this act has also introduced some most important changes. The merchant is now no longer obliged, when successful in a suit, to pay his own expenses, as was formerly the case ; i.->r are goods in dispute now detained till the point be inquired into and decided, but are given up on the amount claimed lieing deposited. If the claim is found to have l)cen unjust, the sum overcharged is returned, with interest at the rate of 6 per cent., and the expenses of the auit. The merchmit may also, if he consider himself aggrieved by the decision of the board, have the case brought into open court before ■ commissioner, where he may meet the officer, »■ learn by examination the real facts of the case. The evidence so taken is reported to the board, who may thereupon confirm or modify their decision ; it being optional with the merchant either to abide by it, or to carry the case before a competent tribunal. If the duty or penalty olaimod be under £100, or the case be of a simple kind, it may be tried before magistrates, county courts, or other inferior tribunals. Skipping — In order to promote the shipping inter- est in Britain the navigation laws we^-. passed, which were long cousidered the safeguards of British com- merce. By these laws certain enumerated itrticles, which in fact comprehended every thing that was of importance in commerce, could be brought to her shores only in British ships, or in the ships of the country of which the goods were the produce, or in ships of the country from which the goods were to be brought. Experience proved that these restrictions which were intended for tho lienefit of British commerce, operated only as fetten upon trade. By the act passed in 1849, the restrictive provisions of the old acts were repealed, from and afterthe Ist of January, 1860. Great alarm was created among the shipbuilders and others, by the change, which, as they apprehended, was fraught with ruin to the trade and commerce of the country ; but instead of that, the trade increased more rr.pii'ly than before. The amount of tonnage built in 1849 was 121,266, in 1861 it was 149,609, and in 1868 it was 203,171. The increase has been more remarkable in steam than in sailing vesseL : in 1850 the number of steam- vessels built wa. 86, and their tonnage 8886 ; Id 1863 the number of steam vensela built was 168, and their tonnage 46,216. Another circumstance which is le- markable, is the recent extraordinary- substitution of iron for wood in the construction of steam vessels. Of the 168 built in 1863, no less than 117 were iron. Pr. Strang, in a communication made to the British Association in 1862, states, that during the last 7 years there have been constructed, or were construct- ing, in Glasgow and neighborhood, 123 vessels, 122 of which were iron. At Greeaock and Fort Glasgow, during the same period, there were constructed 66 steam vessels, 18 of which were of wood and 68 of iron. The " merchant shipping act, 1364," which came into operation May 1st, 1856, contains some import- ant changes in commercial I'egulations. Sections 20, 21, 22, 23, and 2t, institute new modes of meas- uring ships ; and as all American ships hcroaftcr to be measured in that country must be measured uc- cording to one or other of its provisions, and pay dues (in the tonnage thus ascertained, it Is a change largely affecting our vessels. As far as the present short experience of it denotes, the effect, as a gen- eral rule, will be favorable to such as are sharp or with fine lines, and unfuvnralde to such us are full built ; but it may reasonably be supposed that most new vessels will belong to the former class, and it will bb seen (section 27) that the measurement of ships already measured is not compulsory, but may be made rn application therefor. By the 29th section, the commissioner of customs, with the sanction of the Treasury, may alter or modify the modes of measure- ment. Section 102 requires from every master, clear- ing outward, a declaration of the nation to which the vessel claims- to belong, and authorizes the detention of the vessel until it is made. Section 329 contains important provisions respecting the shipment and car- riage of dangerous goods. Section 853 renders the employment of duly qunlified pilots compulsory ; but, under section 332, any pilotage authority, by by-law, made with the consent of her majesty in council, may exempt the master of any ships, or classes of ships. from l>eing compelled to employ qualilird pilots. Part 8 remodels the law relating to wrecks and salvage, and contains sor'-e important provisions, particularly as regards foreign vessels, and salvage services by government vesself The remainder of the act is composed of laws, or parts of laws previously in force, the object being " not so much a change of laws as bringing existing laws into a consolidated shape." The last of the series of acts which completely changed the commercial system of this country was passed March 2.')d, 1854, and opened the coasting trade to for- eign vessels ; and England has obtained by treaty the concession of the coasting trade of Tuscany and Sar- dinia. By a minute of the Lords of the Treasury-, in September, 1856, it was announced that the transfer should then take place of the control of the Commiaion- ers of the Customs to that of the Lords of the Admi- ralty. Since that period the control has vested in the Admiralty. — U. S, Consular Neturm. The subjoined tables give a complete view of the shipping belonging to the different ports of the Brit- ish empire, and of the navigation with foreign coud* t'ies, in 1862 and 1868. GBE 8d9 ORE A. BniTiic or tni Ndhmb amd ToMif aoi or Bailixo Vimiiu Riohtiiiid at eaoii or tub CoLOMin or nil Unitio KiNODOM (mPIOTIVKLT i DIITmUUIBIIINU TUOSB UNDH AND TUUtH uBOTI FiriT ToMI BUOMTIB, OH Till tlsT DEvKimiiH, 185B: A •luiiAi Kktukm ur Stkah Vuuru add Tiima Tomnaoc. Totlr. uiuNa rUBBU. ■TBAU \ BMBU. 1 UmlarM-ona. AboxMloni. Unil.rloiom. Abo.eMIOM. 1 V.mli. ToDllAg*. V.imU. ToDiumt. VaueU. ToonftfA. V«imU. ToniUMia. A/Hoa. Bathurat 49 11 r 60 169 65 106 88 117 468 257 429 1,107 213 80 26 16 46 75 11 18 12 85 8 84 81 185 14 88 17 928 270 228 1,747 8,805 1,684 8,778 884 2,400 18,774 8,628 10,668 62,999 6,003 1,191 626 888 484 1,798 18 Hi 246 838 628 228 205 836 8,900 421 868 878 14 8 46 49 141 55 221 38 89 490 487 375 1,778 188 4 9 4 ""» 1 7 1 8 4 81 80 9 8 1,270 746 6,8ai» 7,844 86,821 7,827 31,088 6,844 1,918 49,780 78,181 108,029 135,989 19,881 411 788 219 1,054 69 "m 656 97 182 80S 2,615 2,754 670 188 .... « 1 8 1 83 10 8 191 44 69 40 T89 858 96 ■■'48 6 1 1 69 14 '■"l "in 1,48T 460 68 g« 8,664 1,688 "'B7 ■■■«9 Blorra Loono. Capo of Good llope Mi»iirltl"« Aiutraliii: Melbiiirne Holiart Town . . . , AmfriC'U (SritiAh Xorthsi .. JoUmiM,) New Brumwtok Nova Hcotla and Cape Dreton .... BMUh WeH InOUt. Antlfiiia Barbadoca Montsorrut Navis 8L Chrl'itODhor. St. Lucia St. Vincent Trliiiilai' Buhaiiioa. . ... B^rlileo A» Account or the Nukbeb ( r Vmseib, with the Amount or their Toknaoe, and the Number or Men and Bova U8UAI.I.T tMPLOVED IN > . . 'OATISO THE SAME, THAT BELONGED TO THE SEVERAL PoET» Or THE BbITISH Km- rlEE, ON THE 81ST DECEMiIER, 1861. 1S62, AND 1863, EEaPECTIVELT. On I je aut Dmrnbtr, 1801. En^ar.d .....[ I9,4(U Scotland 3,.%S7 Irolcnd 2,2i)3 819 8,201 Isles of Guernsey, Jersey, Ic Man British Plantations Total 84,244 2,808,052 586,266 262.411 60,615 669,741 Men. 145,222 29,.^S7 14,155 5,798 46.166 On ttio Slit PeMmber, 1B6S. V.s.el). 19,600 3,460 2,1'C 863 8,316 240,928 I 84,402 ToniiaK,^. Men. 2,907,999 63,"),008 2.M,997 61,274 665,114 4,424,39^ 147,2,52 89,612 18,902 6,978 46,868 213,518 On the 31it Deceoilwr, IRSS. Vesieii. TonnitfB. Men. 80,073 8,451 3,819 660 8,701 8,160,653 559,141 269,384 61,046 734,218 85,8U» { 4,764,428 162,181 89,563 14.083 5,701 62,366 253,896 A BrruBN or the Nuvber or Vessels, with tuiib Ton- NAOE, DISTINOniSUlNQ StEAM rRO.M SaILINO VESSELS, that WERE Built and Kgoisteked in the United klNIIIIOM, DISTINUUIBHINU TiMOEB FROM IrON VESSELS, IN the Year 1868. TtMBRR. i IKON. | V«U<1>. TonnBfTe. Vouli. Tunimge. Sailing vessels SteaiD vessels 68.5 36 671 146,330 3,306 10 11T 8,676 a,910 Total 149,686 127 63,486 Thro following table is an abstract of the number of vessels and tonnage entered inward and cleared out- ward at ciK'h of tlio 12 principal ports of the United Kingdom during the year 1854, and also a return of the declared value of British and Irish produce and manufactures exported from the respective ports to foreign roiintrios and British possessions during the lomo year. Port.. IHWASD. OVTWABO. Vf*»fl«. j ToniiRKe. VeiKeti. 1 Ti.nnBjte. 10,943 'i.llBt.SM 8,174 2.127 410 Liverpool Hull,. 4,403 2,7s9 694 8,048 878 1,0S6 614 877 837 401 204 2.19.\4M 5114,348 162,5.38 441,193 262,27<1 180,586 126,482 141,162 71,608 .S7,«28 53,837 4.M1 1,884 296 6,671 861 808 914 179 148 825 128 2,161.266 374.S89 101.278 1,122,126 279,663 V1,r>46 266,619 •71, .578 44,793 62,671 33,988 Bristol Newcastle Southampton Lelth Dublin Cork Belfcst Total 26,814 6,846,,VH 24,524 6,697,0^ An analysis of the calculations upon which these tables are based would doubtless show that the real difference between Liverpool and London is much less thou it appears above, a large proportion of the trade of London being carried on by coasting vessels making short trips. The export returns are thus stated : London £22,880,278 Liverpool... 46,719.177 Hull 10,003,122 Bristol 761,718 Newcastle... 1.6.>1,C61 Southampton 2,334,141 Lelth 627,697 ; Glasgow £4,906,657 Oreoiiock.. . . 664,608 Dubll , 41,478 Cork 148,096 Bellasi 23,765 Total £89,860,073 Showing that considerabl}- more than one half the entire foreign trade of the 12 principal ports of Great Uritain goes from Liverpool. From the statistics of Glasgow, published by Dr. Strang in 1855, we learn that the tonnage of steam- boats built on the Clyde during 30 years, from 1820 to 1860, amounted to 103,270, while in the 3 years 1851, 1852, 1853, it amounted to 141,713 in 206 vessels which were almost entirely of iron. And to show the magnitude of this great department of Scottish indus- try, he adds that, during a period of 12 months, em- bracing the greater part of 1863, the tonnage of all vessels built in the ports of the Clyde was U4,1M tons, whereas the total tonnage of vessels built in London m 1853 was only 62,745, and in Liverpool, 45,682. In the years 1853-4, there were no less than 260 vessels built at Glasgow, including both steam and sailing vessels, with an aggregate of 168,000 tone. ORE 8«0 GSJR A Bnvm or mi Nrntan ahd Tomhaoi or BAiuiia Tnaiu RuuT»n> at aAan or tui Pom or U»at naiTAnr AKD IllLAHO, INOLUniXa Tn* ISL* Or Man and TIIR OHAMNDL ItLANM; DltTINaUiaillKU TUMI VNDKI AND TUCIM AioTi firrr Tomb Kiuutrb, oh thi 81aT Uiokubii, 1858: auo, a similab KirURN or Htiau Ytwiu and .1UIB TlXNASI. ' rorU. •Aama V«u«li, ; TwiHtf. >nuu. Abon M lou, VimYt. 1 TonMg.. ■TIAN t—MU, Wloiu.' I'Ddtr M lou. AbOTC V> 1,197 1,898 4,986 480 1,865 18T 257 T,687 8,824 1,151 17 1,170 8,228 1,458 1,889 8,019 1,098 14,611 1,098 117 1,769 8,196 561 1,979 8,164 116 766 9,658 698 7,894 871 4,221 81007 2,564 10,091 1,848 1,880 1,767 408 546 1,027 3,688 578 2,776 2,116 60 431 2,614 818 1,649 401 980 1,008 88 9,88'} 128 44 19 118 29 77 49 69 14 129 298 86 92 20 18 69 69 47 268 ""21 146 78 81 14 109 T 6 74 896 14 124 64 218 111 68 1,786 86 2,109 18 18 112 48 88 70 695 15 69 64 68 200 75 T4 41 87 62 45 98 184 45 768 62 85 186 881 94 14 S8 79 65 341 181 79 83 90 280 11,247 5.901 8,800 17,880 8,111 9,061 8,286 11,476 1,848 61,854 28,506 6,128 8,742 1,488 1,096 4,068 7,907 M86 28,201 'im 19,688 7,864 10,885 8,424 10,096 900 868 15,200 26,041 1,251 1«,777 M71 48,488 11,180 5,479 704,841 8,819 654,694 1,861 1,754 18,669 4,741 16,088 8,494 147,789 1,406 li,878 (.,846 U97 86,759 18,429 8,885 8,929 8,485 7,745 4,657 11,088 82,079 6,216 101,104 11,177 10,744 27,880 108,891 14,801 2,688 8,881 7,226 6,487 69,274 81,859 10,796 2,718 18,894 82,991 " "l 1 "ii 1 T "■'l 1 7 1 1 1 " "l 1 ""l 1 1 4 6 ""ii 6 "m 8 116 1 '"l ""l 1 89 ••••j "4 1 4 5 1 4 "m ""a IS 88 6 1 ""1 1 8 1 8 ""1 6 ""is 11 "aoe 49 179 "'88 17 140 13 22 19 "u 9 "■49 54 27 71 114 "ill 191 "878 61 3,759 17 "'26 "'84 48 1,624 "'67 "iws 22 142 145 10 154 1,646 "265 556 671 141 19 "so 81 65 87 70 ■"is 87 ""1 1 "m 1 1 ""1 1 4 " "1 ""8 ""i ""7 3 "to 4 7 101 "m 5 ""1 ••■•, ""1 ""1 ""8 4 ""1 ""4 "is 1 " "6 ""2 " "4 2 ""a "iii 74 8^718 88 187 "isi 58 907 "u "904 "807 "680 1,080 'i,m 4*1 1,035 14,825 109;598 2,123 "iw 1,226 "■52 "266 "iso 768 "ei ■ 726 1,864 68 "eii "122 "879 481 "282 Arandel Banittabia BmuniBrU Berwick Bldeftord Boaton Bridgewitar Bridport Briatol Ctemarron Cardiff.... OaidlgKi. Ourllale Chepatow Cheater Colobeater Cowea Itertmontb Deal Dorer Eieter Falraonth FtTeraham Fleetwood Fowoy Folkatone. Oalnaborough Oloueeater Ooole Hartlepool Harwich Hull llancaater Liverpool Llanelly Lyme Ibldon Mllford Newcaatle NewbavoD Newport. . . I'adatow Plymoatb. Pdole. Portamoath. RocheUer. Bye Halnt Ives. Bcllly Bhielda Bhoreliam BoathaiuDton Btookton Truro WelU Wbilby WUbeMh WoMlbridve Worklfiffton Tarmouth % Total, England 6,588 19 18 17 16 49 29 26 78 84 904,195 689 884 704 486 1,C66 942 888 1,817 1,161 12,448 211 61 94 26 96 44 1 51 284 2,771,806 46,411 18,698 18,409 4,471 11,848 4,891 576 8,487 65,466 604 1 1 11,514 41 25 ■94 648 7 4 ""1 ""2 ""7 102,138 8,116 802 "m "259 '1,886 SCOTLAND. Aberdeen Alloa Arbroath Ayr. Banff. DamtHea Dondee 1 1 GRB 861 ORE A Iwviw or THi Mviitii amd Tokvioi or Baimno Tm' • Bkomtiiid at iack or thi Font or Omat BuiTAni Ann Unlanii, iiioi,vbik» tiii Uli or Man amd tbi C anhki. Iilaxm; DiniiiasiaiiiNa tuo«iuiid» ahd tuoii .:ii.'>ii Virrv Tooi HiHintii, ox Tin Sin Dmbhbu, tU8i auo, a tiiiiLAB Urdek or Btiam Vwiiu AHD TiiKiii TiiKKkaik—OonUniMd. lAILIMS VMalu. nuM V mil. AboT.MIou. rmt. Undtr U l«u. AbuTa MU'U. Ui4>r Wlou. V»«li. Tonoao. Vt»U. Toomg*. VmmU. Tonufi. V., to.n.i.. 1 Ilrouibi Ibrwird T8 9,744 889 ■■eajMs IT 610 91 96,961 OIhiiiiw 8 940 997 6,209 88 18J 7,966 60,677 4 a 81 4T B 13 747 1,966 1 iMnnnck iiv*rniiM 169 4,198 It 6,686 9 686 rvliin 41 1,194 77 17,714 • •. . 8 476 KIrkMlilr KlrkWdlf, as 9,020 86 7,0»6 • • • • • t • • 1 63 29 660 91 1,926 «llh 79 9,850 103 39,007 18 374 i^ 8,673 Mrwlok Inn(rii«« , M 1,281 8 766 ,, 10 487 SS 14,869 • • . • 1 76 •erlh 10 816 44 4.263 1 19 > 116 'nlurliPiiit, 8 246 40 9,486 .... '■■A Oliiaiinw m 1,449 16 4,897 1 U 19 3,181 Hliiriiiiway 49 1,181 14 1,477 • ••> .... • .•1 Htmtiriwr,., ..■ Wink 28 MS Id 1,981 .... Wl»t . . . Mm 159 B,428 829 76,^'W 3 38 10 3,1 W (lolnralim . . . , 11 279 • • . • • ••• • • • Ciirk 1S8 8,696 228 41,626 7 314 16 i^l Driiiihiiilit Duliiln 7 198 41 6,166 • 1 • • • • • • 6 1,73 r 291 8,407 127 21,688 8 119 48 "•K! liiiiiil.Mk, ,.,,....., A 181 18 1,431 1 24 3 841 Minicrfii'k,'.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 19 8S9 8 •^ .... B9 1,761 40 lC.ul6 1 801 iMniliinilnrry 10 2oC 14 4,171 8 126 4 1,881 Nowry 73 2,401 89 6,298 .... • • • • 8 871 Kuw 9 69 16 6,786 .... .... HklliUitriii• HIlKit 18 401 19 8,789 1 44 1 67 1 HtrniiKl^iril 83 1,068 21 2,406 • • • « .... Trull 12 806 4 729 .... WntorAiril ,.. 60 1,621 94 19,964 ■ ■ •■ 19 6,701 Wemiwrt WullfllMl,,, 4 87 1 190 * I • t 2S 1,006 70 7,660 .... TdUl, Inland 1,087 818 29,721 7,423 1,()61 80 109,419 2,947 6M 104' 29,670 1,197 M» lit Mnti 6 OliAniiul liliiidft 907 6,449 286 48,748 1 01 4 271 Cummfrmd /nifmnurie bflween Great Britcun and the Vnilnl flliileii,~'f\t» (teflnlte treaty of peace between til* Unltiul HtAtdit and Urant Britain, in 1783, contains only (mil Ktlpiilutinn In any manner relating to com- m«rvliil Intorcdunn, Article vlii. provides that the MvlKitdiin nt ttia Mlnsisalppl, from its source to the oilman, KJliilt forever remain free and open to the sub- UiutD hC Ornat llrltain and the citizens of the United ntHt*i4, It wan not until Vft vhnt commercial inter- eournfl li«lW(i«n the two riaf'ons v. as deflncd by treaty dtlpwItiHimii. Tii« trrn'y of that year regulates trade iMtVi tertlnn to Urilliih IntKrenta, and curb the IllUi'h yet further. Among the proviaiona uf the new net of lUtiO, it woa declared that no " auKor, ti>l>ai'co, cuttdn, wool, imligo, Klngar, funtic, or other dyeing wlan, African, nr Amxricim colo- niaa, ahull lie ahipiied from the miiil rdlimiea to any place but Englanil, or to iir>mo other of hia mujcHty'rt auid plantationn." Wbutvver rvluxntionH woru per- mitted in the operation of tlieiio nnvi^ntifm luw» in the Murth American colonirn, the rnitvd Statoa iMcame iulijected to them in all tliolr rigor immediately on aaaumlng'an independent exiatoncp. In the langiingn of Lord l^vrrpool, " The connection which had ao loi';} aulialated lietween Oreut Itritiiln anil the countripa now forming tho United Slatea of Ampricu wan finally dlH- •olved liy tho acknowledgment of their lii'U'peiulence In the year 17t<3 j the ancient cominerclid »yKtnm arlit- Ing out of that cimnection <>f coiinir ended with it ; and tha Uwa liy which the trade of thexe countrlcH, con- •Ideid aa colonlea, bad hitherto l)oen regulated i-eoaeil to have effect," Tho king, liy and with the advh( and conaent of U» privy council, waa, however, vested with authority to regulate tlie future commerce lic- twaen (treat Ilrituin and tlie United Statea. Tlie llmt order in council issued after the independence of the United Stute.H hud lieen acknowleilged liy (iroat Urit- ■In, estalill«hed the following regulutioni : f'irtl. That any gooda, the iin|iortation of which into this kingdom is not pnihiliited I13' luw, being tho growth or production of any of tho territorio.H of the United Stotp» of America, may be imported directly from thence into any of the ports of the kingdom, not only in Drltish ahipa, owned by llritish aubjecta, and navigated according to law, but, uUo, in sbipa built in the countriea lielonging to the United States of Amer- ica, and owned by the subject!! of tho aaid Statea, and whereof the maater and three fourths of the marinea, at leaat, are subjects of the United States. HtcomUy. That any goods, being unmanufactured (except flsh-oil, blublier, whale-tins, and H|iermacoti), and also any pig-iron, bar-iron, pitch, tar, tur|)entlne, rosin, potash, (leiirl-ush, Indigo, masts, yards, and Itow- iprlts, being the growth or production of any of the territories of the United States of America, may lie imported diractly from thence into any of the porta of Great Britain, upon payment of the aamo dutiea aa the like sort of goods aie, or may be sulijected to, if im- ptirted from any Itritish island or plantation in Amer- ica i and that the excepted articles, ns well as all others not enumerated, the growth, production, or manufac- ture of the said United States, shall lie admitted on tho payment of tho same duties as aru levied on sim- ilar articles when imported from the most favored na- tion, except such nations only with which treaties of re<'iprocity have lieen established. Thirdly. It was ordered that goods and merchanhe growth or manufacture of these States, or of any other of the United States ; and such vessels, so loaded, were, together with their cargoes, made subject to seizure ond condemnation. The legislature of Pennsylvania vested in Congress a power to prohiliit for 16 years the importation or ex- portation of all merchandise in vessels belonging to or navigated by tho subjects of any nations with which Congress shall not have formed treaties of commerce. By laws passed in Massachusetts and Hhode Island, Congress was empowered to prohibit the importation of British M'ast India produce in British vessels. Another law was enneted, in Pennsylvania, imposing a duty of 4e. (id. (currency) per ton on the vessels of every nation with wliich Congre'^s had not made treaties of commerce. In Mar}'lund, a duty of Is. per ton was imposed on all foreign sliip|iing except British, and on British a duty of 6s. |)er tun. In 17H8 Virginia passed a law imposing a duty of (js, |)er ton on British vessels, and half that amount on all other foreign vessels. In North Carolina the discrimination was still greater ) the duties on British vessels entering the pons of that State being 6s. per ton, while that on all other foreign vessels was only Is. )ier ton. The import duties of the diff'erent States on British cargoes were equally characterized by a similar spirit of retaliation. New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Virginia, Marj-lund, South Carolina, and Georgia imposed discriminating duties, varying from 6U to 100 per cent, on British cargoes over those levied on aimiUr merchandise imported in other foreign vessels. The effect of these countervailing nnd retaliatory measures can be traced in the following tables ; Value of British exports into the United State*, ORE 898 ORE vpnn M vrtfff of ilx ywn hernra th« war of Imlo- |Mnil«nu«. andliiK with 1774, 4>in,llil,77U ; iif nix ytntn ■ndlnK with 17N0, tll,201,4H(l ; annuul ilecraaM tinea th* war, ti,\>Vi,'M. Annual vuliin iif oxjiortii ftmni tli« Dnitril ^italell to Oroat llrltiiin, U|u>n an nveraKn of nix }-«ara iMfiire tho war nf Indaimmlenue, ending with 1774, $H,4in,2Nl I of alx yeufii ilnre Ilia war of inile|>«ndcnp«, #4,1)01 ,4A'i2 ; annual daorvaa* alnca the war, 4>4,04H,HW. A cloM analyain iif tii« nfBi'ial raturiia of trade dur- Inx thia perhnl will ahow that tobacco and rice warn the artlclaa upon which tbia decmaaa chiefly fell. The quantity nf tnhuroi ex|iort«d to Kniflund derreaaed annually, upon an average of alx yearM, 44,774,46M irnunda, valued at i)'i,708,HtlU t and the annuul decraaae In rice exported to Kn){land from the Unlte cwt., valued at $IVI3,»2II ; makinK a total decreoae In toltacoo and rice of 9!l,741,71l> The ton- nn|{n emplorod In the trade during the < wo perlot>naf{e of veaaeli annually clearing from (ireat Ilrltuin for the United Htatea, (jn an averuKe of the yeara 1770, 1771, and 1772, 628— «l,!)fil. Num- ber and tonnage of voaaola annuxlly entering Britlah porta from the Tnited Statca, on » like average, 69!) — 1)1,540; total, 1327— 178,41)1. Nuuilierand tonnsfjeof Britlah veaaela clearing from llrltiah port*, annually, on an average of the years 17H7, 17HR, nnd 17H9, 272 — 66,7Hri. Number and tonnage of United States' vea- leU clearing, annually, from Britlah porta, on like average, 1&7 — 25,726. Number and tonnage of Britlah veaaels clearing from the United States for Britlah porta, annually, on an average of the years 1787, 17R8, and 1789, 201 — 52,595. Nuralwr and tonnage of United States' vessels clearing from the United States for British ports, annually, on o likn average, 16.1 — 26,504; total, 853— 160,060. Showing a decrease, dur- ing the periods compared, of 474 — 12,822. Thus, In the very Infancy of our commerce, the dis- astrous effects of restrictions, and of the retaliatory measures which they provoked, were exhibited as well in the spirit of conmiercii.l llliberality and antagoniioii which tliey engendered between the two cou' '-loa, as in the gcneial decrease of navigation and t' ..^. That the object as well as the effect of the vnrljus orders in council relative to the trade between (ireat Britain and this county, Usued from 1783 to 17^4, was to par- alyze the efforts even then mrde in the United States to comjiete for a portion of that trade which England had, long anterior to thia period, wrested from II"'- lund, and now seemed to regard as legitimately lur own,'cun not lie doubted. A British statesman (Ix)rd Liverpool), in a work on thia subject, published in 1792, remarks : — "That this Increase in our shipping is to be ascribed to our naviyalion tystem may be made to appear from recent experience in the application of It to the trade of tbo United States. When those countries were part of our plantations, a great portion of their produce was transhipped to Great Britain and our West India Islands in American bottoms ; they hud a share in the freight of sugars from those islands to Great Britain. But since the independence of those States, since their ships liave been excluded from our plantations, and that trade Is wholly conjineil to Hritlsh- built tbipt, we have gained that share of our carrying trade fTom which they are noiv excluded, and we more- en er enjoy a considerable proportion in the carriage of the produce of the United States." The commercial policy of the United States, from the very infancy of the government, has been to en- coarage reciprocity, and freedom of commerce with all nations willing to adopt a aimilar principle. In the report from the Treasury Departmaet on the anhjaol of commerce, aubniltted todongresa In ITDI, the ba- als of a commercial system waa suggested, in which the Secretary argueil that duties lm|Hiaed u|ion im- p4irta would be iliaailvantageous In bulliling up trade. " Instead, " llie r«|H>rt aiUlt, ■■ of emliarraaaing com- merce under pile* of regulating laws, duties, and pro- hibitiona, it should be relieved from all its ahacklat, in all parts of the world. Would even a single nation liegin with the United States thia system nf free com- merce, It would Iw advisable to liegin It with that na- tion." In the spirit of thia suggestion, the United States, soon after the peace of 1783, pro])osed to enter into treaties of commerce, not only with Great Britain, but also with Krance, Spain, ami I'ortugal. Kvery overture, however, to that end, was, uniler varloua pretexts, rejected; and It wa.i nut imtll Ave yeara after the adoption of our present (Ninstitutlun that Graat Britain could be induced to lialen to any propoahlona on the part of the United .States, having in view the equalization or reciprocity of commercial relations b«- twecu the two nntluns, — Sr.YnKiiT'.s Statinlicnl .Inno^, page 58. Under the operation nf their navigation laws, the pnMtuctlcms of Asia, Africa, and America, could only be importoil direct from the places of their growth in British vessels. As res|iects the United States, this restriction was sua|iended, as already oli- served, by orders in council, and proclamations issued in pursuance thereof, until the treaty alread}' cited was ratlAed. The following tables exhibit the details nf the Im- port and export trade between (iroat Britain nnd tho United States fniin 1795 to 1807, and from the latter year to 1815, when a convention of reciprocity waa entered Into and ratlfled between the two governments : ICi|HirU from 1 Import* Into [ Eip«'rtl from Imnortttnto Yurt. Ur. .1 Hrllalii tjrrat Urtlain Y,4WI 179M li7,9(II.R45 s-.uiit.imo IhiM 81,9«a,l!ll) N,»7,H»8 17»B m,toa,7B() o,flU4,J().^ 1805 88,788,828 S,8SS,T80 1800 «»,4a7,»70 1I,T89,«16 181 IS 48,065,610 l).BU»,4'J0 The preceding table is derived from British author- ities; and though it exhibits a varlinico in almost every instance, more or less, from the United States' iifliciiil reports, it is believed to approximate the actual value of the imports and exports in the Knglish mar- ket. Krom 1803, when the stipulations of tlie treaty of 17'.)4, relative to commerce, expired, there waa no treaty regulating the commercial intercourse between the two countries until 1815. It Is true a treaty was agreed to, December 31, 1806, between RIessrs. Mon- roe and I'iuckney and tho commissioners appointed by Great Britain for that purpose ; but so restrictive were some of its stipulations, especially ns respecting American commerce with the East Indi.-!, that it was rejecteil by the President, witliont hav mg been sub- mitted to the Senate, notwitlistandiiig it contained a stipulation for an e(|iialization of tonnage and other duties in tho intercourse between the Uniteil States and the dominions of Great Britain in Europe, This principle was recognized and odmitted in tho commer- cial convention of July iW, 1815, entered into between tho two countries, with the limitation, however, on the part of England, to her dominions in Europe, Prior to tho adoption of thia treaty, the United States passed an act repealing all the discriminating duties of import and tonnage in regard to the vessels nf such nations as should extend similar favors to the shipping and produce of the United States ; thus carrj'ing into prac- tical working,- and recommending by legislative e x- ample, the suggestion of Sir. Jefferson already quoted, that if " even a single nation would begin with tha United States the system of free commerce, it would be advisable to begin It with that nation." We recur, however, before proceeding to trace the operation ol GRK 864 ORE IU« ooarMtlon In lb* luhMfiuaDt raturnt of irtda, to IIm UbiM, rtaumlnn at the ymtt IMM i RtMrti ftffin 1 Importe lalti Yliait. Iiri«4 HffltalM llrffM NttlalM U.ik. v.» InuallMll* IWM ;»««,niA,(IO l»,ttM,l«0 U*H7.)lin iwn l)«,MI,aOII IHIM i«,Mi,ii*n 4,l>ll,7|ll IM« U,tWt.ll« I !,»««, AM imu N,IM«,IMA tll,or«,(MB IKBp«*rt* IVnm UriM Nrllala la lti< I'. 1. tilt mil INIH ItIS I M,«77,IMtt IM,AIA I N,«H«,AOA Imin.ti ■ fittu H'ifaiN ftnailtnl.' • III^T.OTB «,47U,7(IU iivmI hv ir«. IIMIIA ll,l«ll,4«i In flcylMrt'i atalMi-nl Aunali wt llnil • mlniiU •nalj-aU uf tha lr«d* li«twMii ilia Unltatt 8Uta« and Oraat Uritain during tha yaan daalgnatad In tlia pra. Tloua taldta. In thu y>*r 17011, i>x|xirta fWim tha ITnltod Sutai Ui Qraat llritain wrra anliniatvd, In a re|Mirt iif tlin H«o- ralary uf tlin Tnaiiury, uiid»r data Oacainlier 211, 179S, at#l>,.1l!;i,llil, and Ilia imports Into tlia United Ntutn* /rum OriiMt liriuin at ^\!>,-l»h,Vin, Iraving a UUnco In farur of Uraat UrIUin of ta,»tt,OI2. From 17011 to IHOO, tha amount of manufarturaa iiii|Kirted into tho Unitad Htatea rnim (iraat llrituin axi'rudad In valua tha amount nf ■iinllar ax|)ort< to all tha nationt la Kurupa, aa will ba uan (Vuui tha fidlowtntf tabl«, taken firom Uritlih ratunu : jiufk«liir»i •■parlad U»m Qraat Brtlala la 1: vm. una. Natlnna In RnriM, ..|i7,ivw,iiaii .. !N,W1.»tA .. «0 . . in,5MI,SIA Tb« <'n>i>4 llaltt tlil.'W*,AtA I7,I>44,44A I4,44<.'<a. faftura* and produea. rortlfa aiMl •olunlal aurrkaullM. j|j,177,«5n K.Stn.HlA l,'iA7,t4A 8UA,IIHS l.nn.ivM 1,4M,M6 iaft,i»a BrtlUh raanu- flMluraiaad VriMluea, l^wrt-lsn aiHl ecilualal marchanitlM. »fto,*)o,wa" 4.S,lll)i).ft2fl AO,01H,»H0 4A,4*),H78 7S,H74,7AB (W,6iUl,H75 46,11 ;,6»A IWIA It)!!) 1107 1S(I8 ISO* JNIO 1811 |Afl,(lft7,mA ril.|IH7,440 M),«M.A«A W.tm,m& 64,IIOII,7(KI »,!W6,«6A ♦*lflJM4,710 216,lilO,SHO so'j.inra.iisA 1(04.4(IM.HM 2AI,ila,N)A M»,H7'<,17i) 174,AHfl,4(»A The aggregate vali'e of British manufactures and produce pxporte04,041,G5O, making an an- nual average of t214,HU;i,0!).'l. Tho aggregate value nf foreign and colonial merchandise exported from Great Britain to the United Status during the samo period was t8,78°2,070, making an annual average of $1,2&4,&82 ; the aggregate value of similar ox|)orts to all parts of the world, including the United States, woa #382,209,160. The preceding Hgures exhiljit many interesting facts relative to the trade between the two countries, during the period which intervened between 1703 and 1816. The exports of foreign and colonial merchundiso from Ureal Britain to the (Inited SUtei show that England enjoyed but a small share of our carrying trade | while a comparison batwaan th* totals of doniaslli- inanufacturaa axportail to the Uiiltmt Htatas, and to all other parte of tha worbl, will ex- hibit tha lm|iortaai-a to (Iraat Itrltain of unraatrlvtoil comroanlal liitoniiursa with Iba Unitad Htatas. The affact of tha raalrlntlve and ratalUlory maoaurst which war*, at thia pariiMl, adopted by both countrim, isVvan mora fully lllustratrd in Iba tonnage emplnyinj in thia trade by each, ni»|i«ctivrts ; of these only 60 were under th* British flag ; and uf the 676 vessels that cleared from British ports in thi- same trade, only 3U were British, These statlstica which ar* rhietly compiled from Seyliert, show an augmentation of toniiug* in th* Unitoil States, and a diminution in the tannage of (irie there treated as llrilish ships, it should be answered, that this demand can not be admitted even as a sub- ject of negotiation," Hence, but little could be ex- pected from the treaty of 1704, In which this principlo woa carried out to the fullest extent of rigorous re- striction ; and hence, also, the series of regulating orders, acts, and counter>act8, which were mad* tlie instruments of commercial wurfurv between tho two countries for upward of a quarter of a century. It would lie a tedious task to jiresent even a synopsis of the difTeront restrictive and retaliatory measures adopted by the two governments during this long period. Were it ev«n otberwi»e, it would b« auper- ORB 868 ORB Inouii to go Into rolnuta itnUtln, *• th* laglaUtlon of Ixilh gnvrrnnianta iliiring thia parlml, m wkII •• lla •ITcrta upon th« rommarcit of the two ■■oiinlrl«a, iir* (iii'i'lni'tly a«t forth In tli« formnr Mimrta laaiiml ttnm thIa Depnrtmanl. It will, tlii>r«for«, aiifflpit tn ritftr tn thu laliUa of trmlx unci tonni>K« tlrrmly ulv»n, na th* Ixat llluatra- tinn tlut ran )>• olTnml of thn ii|H tion uml support of two of KnKlunil'a |{riintin, Mr. I'Itt anil NIr Kolinrt I'nel— hua illaaiputail tha fiillaclna upon whii'h paat InKlalutlon waa liiiaoil, nnil liua iliMiiiinntratpil almuily, In th« lirliif pnrloil uf llvn yearM, thiit Kn){liinil ran boat cotnpnta with thn innr- chuiit-iiiarinn of tha world liy plucInK tlia trmUi of ovpry port In h«r vaat domlnlima, l''uro|Hiim and ludo- nlul, for thn ahlpa of all enuntrlea, u|Mm tha footing uf an unroNtrli'ted rouatlng-tmdn, A lllwrul tarltr of itutlea, oaprclally u|Hin artlrlna uf prime neceaalty among tho grrat maaaea of her iwopla, oven ihould they lie cluaaeil In the category of luxu- riea, la ull that seem* now wanting to |ierfei't the prcaont commercial code of thIa {mworful kingiliiin. Thn proaent duty on raw toliaci'o la, at leaat, l(MH) per cent, aliove prime coat. The commercial I'linvnntion of IHV), iM-tween Great Britain and thn United Ntatea, wua limilt'il to four years. The aocond article of thia treaty provides for an equality of dutlna on lm|)orta and tunniige in tho porta of the I'niteil Htutea and the porta of the lirltUh territorlaa in Kuro[ie. With re- RfMict to im|iorta, thIa equality of dutlna appliea only to artlclea lieing the growth, produce, and mnnufuitiire of the reapectlve countries. The liiteruourHo between the United States and the liritlxh West Iniliea and American colonies Is not to he alTectnd liy any provis- ions of the convention ; " but each party la Ui remain in complete posaesalon of Ita rightu with rna|iei't to such Intercourse." Under the atipulatlona of this convention, the vessels of Ciroat llrltiiln are exempted from the payment of the rxlra tonnage ami lin|Hirt duties, only when they arrive fhiin, and their cargoes are of tho growth, produce, or maniifucturo of, thn Britiali dominions In Europe ; and tlio veaaela of the United States, In like manner, aru adnilttml Into llrit. Ish |Mrts on terms of equality as to tonnage .inil im- port duties, with British vensela, only whmi their cargoes consist of merthiiiiillHe the growth, produce, or mniiul'acture of tho United States. The elTei't uf this convention, espedally of its restrictive cluuana, upon the shipping interentH of (ireat Britain, formeii no exception to the general rule, that all shackles upon commerce ultimately recoil upon those by whom they are impdpd to by the British K.vnrnment ra- a|iactlng thi< trade with her American colontea. A recapilulatiim of the varloua ac a of Purliiiinent and ordera in council, us well as the general hlatory of the commercial untagonlam and reci rm-ul oxiluainn which inarkiiil Ihia pei'iid, belonga more properly to the di- gest of our ciM' inorcial re ona with I' Kngllali cidonint iHiaaeaaiona. It la true, it would iF be difll- cult to tracn thn inHucncn of thia contro ' in the cuniinercini legialution, more (lartlcul 'i rnliitlon til Ibii tnrrlir reguliitiona of iKith counti s liurlng the entire |ierloil of Ita contli«iince. Still, tho general aiiliM't belonga to a r«vle< > .r trade with the rnlo. niea of (Ireut llrltain, ami li tlmi portion of this digest refnrencn la inailn. It has been already stilted that, In thn convention of tMVI7, It waa agreed thut the provisions uf the con- tention of IHl/i should lie Imlnllnitely extended and continued { but that It ahniild bo competent, neverthe- leas, to eithnr of the purticx, on giving 12 months' no- tice, to annul and iibrogute the said convention. No auch notice haa been given by either party, and, con- aequently, thn conveution III remains In force. Since that periiHl, however, the lominercial {lolicy of (treat Britain has totally changod. The vast pile of naviga- tion laws which I'ontriliutod to build up her naval IMiwer, and extend her (commerce to every corner of the globe, has lieon swept away by tho reforming hand of a i.iorn lilierul legislation ; the whole frame- work of her turill' |iollcy has been demolished ; tho heavy duties on the various classes of raw material hava lieen removed ; und, with the exception of a few n 'i-a on which, for revenue pur|M)ses only, heavy dutlea !■■ ■■■ '"' \ retained, the raw produce of the world la lm.il,,".' :ii tho store-houses of her manufacturers, uninouiiUn'red with those custom-house charges which, before this period, absorbed ho largo a share of the prof's of their iniluatry und skill. The act of \'l and lit Victoria, chapter 29, pu.ised on liin 2lltli .lune, INID, introduced this new eru in the ctiinineroial liUtory of (ireat Britain. The leading provlaliina of this net, as well as of the various acts, orders in council, proclamations, etc., which it super- seded, will be found at length in a report from the De- partment of State In IHfi.'), entitled " Ex. Doc. No. 52, Heniito," pages 1(1. Section 21 of this act declares that It hIihII come Into operation on the 1st day of Jumiary, IXAO. Thus, at length, the limbs of British commnrco wore freed from the pinions by which it was fettered for upward of two centuries. The vis- lona uf Mr. Pitt were realized in the lilieral policy of Sir Roliert Peel's enlarged and enlightened statesman- slilp. This act establishes the comprehensive princi- ple uf admitting Into tho ports of (ireat Britain, or Into «ny BritUh poHiMlona, gooda of anj- sort, in a ahlp of IT ■:•■: if GRE 866 ORE any countr)', from an}- part of the world. Such pro- hibitions and reatrictioni, however, aa were, before the paMoge of thiH aot, deemed necesBary either for the safety or for the protection of revenue and mercantile interests, still remain in force. The following are the prohibitions and restrictions which affect the commer- cial relations of the United States with Great Britain : Books, wherein the copyright sliall be first subsist- ing, flrsv composed, or written, or printed in the United KingdoiJi, and printed or reprinted in any other coun- try, OS to which the proprietor of such copyright or his agent shall have given to the commissioners of cus- toms a notice in writing that such copyright subslsla, such notice also stating when copyright shall expire. Coin, viz. : False money or counterfeit sterling ; sil- ver coin of the realm, or any money purporting to be such, not being of the established standard in weight or fineness ; extracts, essences, or other concentrations of coffee, chicory, (ea, or tobacco, or any admixtures of the same ; malt. Prints, indecent or obscene ; paint- ings, books, cards, lithograpliic or other engravings, or any other indecent or obaouue articles. Snuff-work : tobacco-stalks stripped from the leaf, whether manu- factured or not I tobocco-stolk flour. RiaisTiBSO ToNNAOB or Tua Britibu Kmfibb, 1801 TO 1867. HBW TnalLS BDILT AHB ■BOlaTBKBO. | Ymn. Total in BrilUh Kmpira. Veiir •ndini! llh jKQUiiry. tnilod Kingdom. Ch.n„.),.).„a., 1 p,J„1''J,-^. 1 erKEllX,™. VeiaU. Tom. Vaualt. Tom. Voii«eU. . Tom. VhmU. 1 Tont. 1 VmmIi. Tona. 1 1801 1802 1808 1804 1806 1806 1807 1SII8 1809 1810 1811 1815 1816 1817 1818 1819 1820 1821 1822 1823 1824 1826 1826 1827 1828 1829 1830 1066 1281 1402 991 1001 772. T70 663 606 685 870 864 1183 1274 10S3 1059 1126 8S3 872 78:) 847 1I7S 1639 1719 1440 1.".21 1160 122,693 187,603 1S^849 »5,079 86,584 69,198 68,000 67,140 61,390 84,8:il 116,(l;)8 97,949 128,.')4!) 117,4110 104,429 101,367 112,173 84,582 74,847 07,144 8(1,028 14:1,741 204,1124 207,083 168,946 14'),013 116,872 1831 1832 1833...... 1834 1836 1836 1837 1883 1839 1840 1S41 1812 1343 1844 1345 1846 1847 1848 1349 1S50 1361 185-2 18.-)0 1864 1356 1866 1857 730 743 783 711 780 860 079 036 1039 1217 1370 1111 914 693 639 St>3 S'lO 933 847 730 639 672 713 798 803 1008 ms 76,632 83,8)2 90,130 83,212 100,367 116,636 86,509 181,171 1.57,2,55 131,301 21I,S8:< 16:>,67S 129,920 8.1,096 94,9.15 123,2.10 l-.6,35) 14b,8;i4 122,.V)2 117,9,53 133,695 149,637 167,491 203,171 196,942 823,200 2,V),472 20 IS 26 IT 20 66 110 69 63 61 T8 81 87 83 42 87 83 48 iU 41 86 80 30 82 2-1 28 46 1879 1858 2785 2969 2343 6087 812T 4751 4204 0603 8775 8731 8346 2276 1881 1630 2143 4000 3383 8313 R838 2926 2983 4067 4761 S894 5065 367 876 886 ^ll 426 465 Mi 610 006 703 771 008 668 4'.-4 826 083 745 T66 0.')6 601 714 Oso 077 723 7.52 714 721 82,719 34,290 4i),8i7 52,476 65,317 03,230 60,604 7), 308 711,947 109,026 143,'2,«8 lB-2,8.57 7.'i,6i)2 6.5,904 69,857 90,606 118,559 165,313 101,983 12S,8ii4 124,1 83 141,116 138,830 15. -50 188,272 104,968 I67,!>41) 1117 1186 1146 1169 1231 1371 118:1 1518 17W 1981 2219 1860 16'20 1230 1286 1528 1686 1787 1533 1462 1439 1383 1419 18.53 15 -.2 1370 2045 11(1,130 1 19,9.17 18'I,8I3 114,047 Uk3,527 184,'62 166,240 407,328 241,4(16 295,928 803,3,52 801,11)6 203,937 141,277 166,733 21.'i,fll5 241,0,'i0 10^237 227,928 24,5,130 262,48:1 298,670 809,304 889,788 889,975 492,002 433,477 NoTC— Till! Navlgatluii Laws were rcpenled on January 1, 1^50. Tho presont Keciatry Act cuiuo into oiniistiun May 1, 1856. >OOBBaATB NUHBIR OF RBUI8TBBKD ▼BHBka BXISTINd ON TUB KBOIHTBY. ViBr eiidloit Sill IHNmtMr. TnUI In Brillili Kmplra. Your •iiilinK Slit D«««nilMr. Unliad Kingdom. ,„ ii.i.„.i. 1 Brlllnh 1 Tolnlln VmuIi. Tom. Venolt. 1 Tom. VM«b. Tom. I VMMb. 1 Tons. VoNseU, 1 Tom. | 18(11 1303 18(15 1817 1808 1309 1810 1811 1812 1818 1814 1S15 1816 1817 1818 1819 1820 1821 1822 1823 1824 1826 1826 1827 1828 1829 1830 19,711 20,893 2-2,a'il 22,290 22,646 28,070 23,703 24,10(1 24,107 23,640 24,418 24,860 28, 8M 26,.'!48 2.\507 26,492 26,374 26,0.T« 24,643 24,642 24,776 24,'280 24,626 23,119 24,(t9r. 23,4'i3 28,721 2,038,2Ki 2,167,863 2,2S:;,442 2,281,621 2,324,819 2,S(18,468 2,426,014 2,474,771 2,473,799 2,514,4S4 2,6] 6,965 2,6S1,276 2,733,940 2,634,'.i8« 2,674,468 2,666,396 2, ""•,59.1 J,.'!6l),203 •2,5 1(1.. 144 2,5)6,;6I 2,8.W,5S7 2,5M,6SS 2,635,644 2,4611,690 2,518,191 2,517,000 2,681,810 ! 1S31 1832 18.33 1831 1835 1836 18.37 1338 1339 1840 1841 1342 1848 1844 1848 1846 1847 1843 1340 18.50 1851 1S62 1883 1864 15BS 1386. ia57 18,942 19,143 19,158 19,417 13,737 19,823 19,930 20,300 21,0.17 21,938 22,747 23,207 2.1,162 23,2.53 ':3,621 24,0112 24,409 24,832 25,071 28,138 2.\194 25,228 26,748 2.%9S6 2,^115 25,3,15 26,219 2,190,457 2,236,980 2,283,8,W 2,274,702 2,320,067 2,312,846 2,296,227 2,383,484 2,5.11,006 2,724,1(17 2,386,1)26 2,990,349 2,957,437 2,904,166 8.073,M7 8,143,323 3,261,^53 3,344,764 8,427,140 8,.504,94( 3,601,729 3,6:is,flfl4 8,969,158 4,184,686 4,28'!, 908 4,304,460 4,491,377 6118 521 Ml 62£ 6J8 665 600 612 6.T3 671 714 747 746 703 767 76J 791 806 S3t 846 819 853 860 873 333 343 878 83,399 35,330 37,448 87,653 .19,6.16 36,903 37,294 37,276 89,630 44,166 48,773 60,671 50,144 60,226 49,643 51,462 53,668 8!),045 63,318 60,1 Si) 60,618 61,274 61,046 04,066 62,426 62,496 67,863 4792 4771 4I1S6 8080 6211 6433 6601 6697 6078 «30S 0831 6,361 T088 7804 74'2» 7729 7783 8034 8188 3804 3201 8!I16 8701 9101 9744 9316 (".(91 857,608 8.56,203 803,276 403,745 423,468 442,897 4.57,497 469,342 497,798 848,276 6T7,081 B73,4.'iO 531,806 59.>,3J59 B90,,331 617,327 644,603 651,.T51 668,157 60f,S}^ 669,741 665,114 734,218 794 520 901,219 946,4,30 973,147 24,/42 24,435 24,335 2,\0,55 25,611 25,320 26,037 26,609 27,746 28,|i63 .10,0.V2 : 1,816 80,983 81,820 81,317 32,499 32,933 88,672 84,090 84,2*3 84,244 84,402 85,803 .^^9.io 8^692 86,012 87,08^ 2,681,904 2,618,068 2,rt:i«,577 2,716,100 2,733,761 ■>,792,640 2,791,018 2,390,601 3,01)3,433 .1,311, '.18 3,512,480 .';,619,>iBn 3,.5,S8,387 3,637,231 3,714,061 8,317,112 8,959,624 4,082,160 4,144,115 4,232,962 4,332,035 4,424,393 4,764,4^2 6,(143,270 5,250,6'i3 8,31.',433 5,531,a37 These tables contain an account of the number of ships, with the amount of their tonnairt, built nnd reg- istered in each year, from 1801 to 18.77, belonging to the British empire, the colonics Included, and of tho number and amount of tonnage existing on the 01 st of December in each year during that period. At the present tiini! these tables have a very special Interest. In 1801, 1802, and 1803, the quantity of shipping built was greater than In any three years up to 1820 and tlie two succeeding years ; but in the following five years, up to 1832, there was again a great decline. From that time there was a slow but steady increase, hut with considerable fluctuations down to 1848, tlie last year before tho repeal of the Navigation Laws. Froin that time tho increase has liecn most rapid, tlie quan- tity built In each year hoving risen from 227,028 tons in 1849 to 423,477 tons In 1857. The repeal of the Nav- igation I-aws took effeci on tho 1st of .lanuary, 1850. Including 1857, we have, therefore, had eight years' experience under that law. The aggregate amount ORE 867 ORE of BHttih uhlpiifng hullt dnrini; that period hai been 2,775,898 tons, at • yearly nrerigo of 846,!)87 tons ; while In the eight precedlnK years the ships ballt were only 1,807,049 tons— a yi^arly average of 226,8«1 tons. The most strlliin(( feature In these tables Is the sta- tionary character exhlhlted for the first thirty years. Tlio second table shows the <|nantlty of shipping owned In each year, and the number of men cmploye. Toni. Tom. T.in.. Tom. isu. . . . l,lMfl,«T(» niMi,i>iii 2,4111,180 t,875,8M 571,418 2,447,208 3,722,5^6 1,137,929 4,8(in,4!M 181ft,... 1,INI8,IMI fl(i«,2Tl 2,0411,421 2,105,070 071,0110 2,777,300 4,0118,828 1,327,961 6,426,787 mn.... i,uiia,wm (I17,MT 2,2M,4«7 1,1)87,704 32!1,!)42 2,317,730 3,954,0»l 647,519 4,002,203 \m.... 2,iMO,«7ft 401,7112 2,IM2,4(I7 2,24!),'.'0« «!IC,lfl4 2,04.'),370 4,499,881 797,9.')0 6,287,8.37 IRIS.... 2,4n7,7T« 7«4,MI a,1fl2,21ift 2,401,007 071,842 3,l,283 2,6T.'),1.^2 4,487,082 717,080 5,206,302 1*.'2.... I,li«),ll27 4AI/,iril 2,1:12,77s .;ii,2flO 4.^7,.142 1,9911,802 3,202,887 926,693 4,129,580 1*2S.... l,74n,KM» r.82,)KHI 2.»2.1,8frf> l,r^lo,»7fl 503,571 2,110,547 8,287,835 1,146,567 4,434,402 18M ... 1,7»7,IIHB 7r/.l,(172 2,000,701 1,0r.7,27O 740,729 2,403,990 3,451,360 1,500,401 4,970,760 lmt>. . . . 2,I4«,{II7 iir/.i,:ii2 11,102,021) 1,7113,842 90«,n«6 2,099,903 3,937,169 l,8flf>,378 6,802,637 isao. . . , ),tlR(l,iliin A;it,im 2,044,740 l,7a7,42r> 092,440 2,429,805 3,llS8,(ir>5 l,3S0,5,'i6 5,074,011 Wil.... 2,08(1,8(18 7(tl,8S,3fl8 2,800,615 4,292,189 1,517,196 6,799,385 IMl..,. 2,nHT,!122 874,Win 3,241,027 2,300,731 89(1.061 3,190,782 4,009,063 1,770,G.W 6,438,709 1882 ... 2,l«H,|i*l fl!HI,07(i 2,820,!iti0 2,22!),2«(l O.'il.iiO 2,880,492 4,41N«49 1,291,202 6,700,461 ii«i;i.... 2,l8.'l,8|.i 7tt2,(P8n 2,1)4(1,8110 ^244,274 7.'K8,fl()1 8,002,876 4,428,083 1,520,686 6,948,774 Wi. , . . 2,2U8,Wlli a'i8,iii)ri 8,132,108 ■J,21)fl,326 8f.2,827 .3,149,152 4,,W4,588 1,080,732 6,281,320 laift,,.. 2,442,7:14 8flfl,mm 3,300,724 2,410,041 90,'.,270 8,.3-2.5,211 4,802,075 1,772,260 0,034,935 18:16... . 2.Wlft,t7ll (IW.HWI 3,41)4,372 2,r,31.W7 1,0.16,120 8,r)«fl,B97 6,0.37,060 2,024,019 7,001,069 IKtT, , . . 2,)tl7,llW l,00f.,MO 3,r/i3,infl 2,M7,227 1,030,788 3,1>S3,966 5,104,893 2,942,678 7,207,071 I8:t8. . . . 2,78:s«s7 1,211,(100 3,mi7,0.'.1 2,870,280 1,222,803 4,099,039 5,661,628 2,484,469 8,096,092 Il-iW. . . . 3,llll,f).'jO l,33l,ll«fi 4,433,0ir, 8,01)0,011 l,il99,090 4,494,707 6,198,201 2,729,401 8,927,722 1*^10. . . . .1,l!)7,Ml l,4(10,2(t4 4,rtf.7,7itn 3,2»2,3M 1,4RS,8SS 4,781,872 0,490,485 2,949,182 9,439,067 1*41.... 8,IWII,2lt 1,201. ion 4,002,310 3,420,279 I,;t30,sn2 4,70»i,171 6,790,490 2,028,057 9,418,547 1812. . . . 8,W4,72f> I,20f.,»0!l 4,000,028 8,370,270 l,'Ji2,17fl 4,027,446 6,609,996 2,467,479 9,127,474 1843. . . . »,ft4&,:i4U I,ll01,lifi0 4,847,21)0 3,636,833 1,.341,4:!3 4,977,200 7,181,179 2,043,383 9,824,602 1844... . 3,(J47,4li;t 1.402.1118 B,Otl),flfll 3,802,822 l,444,:i40 5,297,109 7,.'.(10,2S5 2,R40.494 10,340,769 1*1,%. , . , 4,3I0,IIIK> l,7;'li,07« fl,04r.,71S 1,230,451 1,790,130 0,031,587 8,540,090 8,631,215 12,077,305 18411..,. 4,2(t4,7II» l,8(«,282 0,101,015 4,808,410 1,921,166 6,314.571 8,68);,148 3.727,488 12,415,586 184T.... 4,I»42,IIIH 2,2r>!l,li!l» 7,11)0,0311 4,770.370 2,312,793 7,083,103 9,712,404 4,506,732 14,279,196 1818,,., >,Mn,f.;i3 1,11(10,412 o,rrtr),!)«i 4,724,027 2,060,054 6,780,081 9,289,660 4,917,066 13,300,020 'H8,38fl 2,lKm,70H 7,872,004 4,882,400 8,225,614 8,108,104 9,820,870 6,159,322 15,980,198 1*2.... 4,U:t4,8iU) 2,(IW.f.*» 7,887,447 5,061,100 3,191,.S96 8,242,702 9,986,909 0,144,180 16,130,140 iwi:), , . , r.,(W,,ll4!l «,887,7(i:i ^n43,100 5,212,1)80 4,234,124 9,447,104 10,268,323 8,121,887 19,390,210 ^•tyl.... r.,S74.f)ftl B,780,i'lft 1), 10 1,300 5,870,208 4,i:t7,428 9,607,721 10,744,810 7,924,238 18,609,087 ISM, . . . ft,27«,7!l2 »,fl8(l,4.17 8,0M,2iin ^,«4^«4o 8,889,31)1 9,538,231 10,919,733 7,569,788 18,489,470 ISfitt,... rt,»!io,7ir> 4,102,4111 io,rioa,i;i4 0,555,060 4,480,869 11,036,915 12,945,771 8,648,278 21,689,049 1*)T,... u,8^'l,7ll^ 4,1)21,4114 11,47M!H) 0,840,402 4,803,101 11,703,593 13,694,107 9,4S4,066 23,178,793 From ific, hut lie Inst From e quiiu- i2H tons ic Nftv- , 1850. years' imount ItETtMlNB' HIIOWIMK Tllr Tc>T»l, NltMim OK HamSII BKOISTKBED VESSUB UMPLOTSP IS TBAmNG IW, FROM, AND TO GbKAT illllTAIN ANII IHKI.AIIII, 18 TIIC, YkAIM 18.M, 18,M, 1855, 1860, ANO 1857, WITH TIIEIB TONNAOF. AND NUMIJEB OF MEM. 18f>3 . . , 18f4 . , l.W) . . 18.56.. 1867.. MI'lllll Vawla. Nnnibor of «.„„.,„ 17,507 10,809 17,074 18,419 18,429 3,511,827 3,510.450 H,7()I,214 3,H'W,022 8,480,119 Numtiar of Mm, in5,(NKI 140,523 147,288 151,080 •.M,4S4 Bleam Vaanela. * NfltiilMtr af Vinelt. 039 t>38 7r4 «fii 899 TonDagfl. 218.200 212,0:17 28S,9.')fl B31,0,'>5 831,.3fl8 Number of Men, 17,619 1.^894 21,249 22,838 24,953 Total Sailing Vaaiela and Stoaniara togathar. Nnmbar of Vesiela, 18,206 17,407 17,828 19,270 10,328 Tonoaga. 3,730,087 3,729,093 3,990,170 4,156,077 4,211,482 Numbar of Mao am. ployed, ezrhuiva of Maitera. 172,625 102,410 168,637 173,918 176,887 * Itlvor alcnmen are not incluiled in this return. If gooda bo roniovod from any ship, quay, wharf, or otiicr place, previous to the examination thereof by the proper officer of the customs, iiiiloss under the core or autliority of such oDli'cr j or If goods entered to bo wiirchouseil, or re-war«hnnsed, shall bo carried Info the warehouse, unless with tho autllnrlty or under the cnre of the proper ofllror, and In such manner, by such persons, wi'liiii such time, and by auch mads or ways as the olHcar shall direct, such goods shall bo forfeited. All goods warehoused shall bo deposited in the pack- ages in which they shall have been imported, except such goods ns nro permitted to be sliippod* on tho quay, or bulked, sorted, lotted, packed, or repacked in the warehouse after the landing thereof, In which case tliey shall be deposited in tho packages iu whii-h thcv shall bo whon the account thereof is taken by the ' 'I'ho temporary transfer of gouds from one package to anolller. ORE 808 GRB proper officer ; end if auch goods are not ao deposited, or if any alteration shall afterward be made in them, or in the packing thereof in the warehouse, or if they shall be removed without the presence or sanction of tho proper officer, except for delivering under the proper warrant, order, or anthority for that purpose, they shall be forfeited. AH goods deposited in warehouses shall be cleared, either for home use or exportation, at the expiration o' Ave years from the date of warehousing, or within such further period and in such cases as the Commis- sioners of the Treasury shall direct, unless the owner or proprietor of such goods be desirous of re-ware- housing them ; in which case they shall be examined by tho proper officers, and the duties due on any defi- ciencies or difference l)etween the quantity ascertained on landing and the quantity then found to exist, sub- ject to such allowances as are by law permitted In re- spect thereof, together with the necessary expense attendant thereon, shall be paid down, and the quan- tity so found shall be re-warehoused in the name of the then owner or proprietor tjiereof, in the same manner as on first importation. If any warehoused goods shall not be duly cleared, exported, or re-warehoused, and the duties due on the deAciencies shall not he paid down at the expiration of five years from the previous entry and warehousing, or within such further period as shall be directed, the same, if worth the duty, after one month's notice to tho warehouse-keeper, shall, with all convenient speed, he so'd either for home use or exportation, with or without tht! consent of the warehouse-keeper, and the proceeds thereof be applied to the payment of the du- ties, warehouse rent, and charges, and the surplus, If any, be p»ld to tho owner or proprietor, if known ; but If he can not he found, the surplus shall be carried to the crown's account, to aliide the claim of such party on his appearing and making it good ; and if such goods \>e not worth the duty, then, after one month's notice, the same may be exported or destroyed, with or without the concurrence of tlie owner thereof, or the proprietor of the warehouse, as the commissioners shall see fit ; and the duties due upon any deficiencies not allowed by law shall be paid by the proprietor of the ware- house. The commissioners of customs may ]>ermit any goods to be taken out of the warehouse without pay- ment of duty, for such purpose or for such period as to them shall appear expedient, and In such quanti- ties, and under such regulations and restrictions, and with such security, by l)ond, for the due return there- of or the payment of the duties, as they may direct. No warehoused goods shtiU b<> taken or deUvered from the warehouse, except upon due eMry for exportation, under tho care of the proper officers, or upon due en- tr^- and payment of the full duties for home use, ex- cept goods deUvered into the charge of the searchers to be slilpped as stores. In such quantities as the col- lector or comptroller shall allow, sutijcct to the regu- lations of the commissioners. Upon the eIlt'-^■ of goods to be cleared from the warehouse forhi .iie vtre, tlie person entering the same shall deliver u bill of entry and duplicates thereof, in like manner and form, and containing the same par- ticulars, as are herein before required on the entry of goods to be delivered for home use on the landing thereof, as far as the same may bo applicable, and shall pay down to the proper officer of tho customs the full duties thereon, not l>elng less In amount than according to the account of the quantity taken by the proper officer on the first entry, except as to the fol- lowing goods, vi<.. tobacco, wine, spirits, figs, cur- rants, raisins, and .- and 17 Vict., chap. 107), shall be received for any timber or wood goo(ls In bond, for a less quantity, at any one time, than 5 loads, unless such wood goods shall be delivered by tale, in which case the entrj' may be passed for any quantity not less than 240 pieces ; and no less quantity shall be delivered In virtue of any such entry, at any one time, than 1 load of such tim- ber or wood goods, or than 90 pieces, if delivered bj' tule. No pack or parcel of playing-cards imported into the United Kingdom shall be sold or kept for sale, without being separately inclosed In a wrapper pro- vided by the Commissioners of Inland Revenue, with such device thereon as they may direct, and securely fastened, so that such wrapper can not be opened with- out being destroyed ; and persons selling or offering for sale any pack or parcel of playing-cards not separ- ately inclosed, etc., shall he liable to a penalty of £10 ($50), and the goods to seizure. The first and immediate effect of these lilwral re- forms, introduced by the acts and regulations Just cited, and briefly condensed so far as they relate to foreign commerce. Is, that a large bulk of our trade with France is now caaried on by means of traniit through English ports. This branch of trade in 1851 increased the commerce and shipping of England to the exten m" '»ii,41.9,195 (£2,282,6,19), and in 18.52 to tho extern .)t ■?! 2,822,145 (£2,564,429).* The in- crease in Bruitii tonnage in 4 years after the passage of the act (12 and 13 Victoria, chap. 29), was as high as 700,000 tons, and the number of sailors was aug- mented to the amount of at least 20,000. Thus Great Britain herself derived the first fruits of a policy so comprehensive and liberal. The only restriction — if we except her tariff duties which bear with special rigor upon one of our leading staplesf — which the act of 1849 has left untouched, was that which related to the coasting trade of Great Britain an'', her colonial dominions. Tn 1864 (March 16), Lord Stanley Introduced in the House of I^iords his bill for the repeal of the regula- tions which then governed the coasting trade of Groat Britain. He was of opinion that it would be a narrow and foolish course of reasoning,' to make tho commerce of Great Britain In any way dependent on the fears or inexperience of other nations.' " We should," he re- marked, "goon fearlessly and Independently In our course of Improvement, and show our confidence In the principles we advocated by the sincerity and ener- gy with which we enforced them. By the repeal of tha laws of this country with reference to our coast- ing trade, there was no doubt that America would, in time, see that it was to her advantage to hold out to us the same l>eneflts we extended to her, and other countrigulitti>a «iM|i|j)y<A utth* jects foreign ships engaged in the umstiiiK tr«w1«, In respect uf stores and as to other custuiU'lfmiM r»^u\^ tions, to the same laws to which liritinb »M\i», wlictl so employed, are now Bul)Ject. Hactiun third mimWmt foreign with British ships as to all du£s, dtttM'S, Mini charges whatever, the employment of pihtt", mu\ «» Ui all restrictions or extra charges whatovar uf |(riv«t« persons or bodies corjiorate. Hoctiuii fourth NUhJActi* foreign steam-vessels, carrying pa«ii«ii{[;srs In tin* coasting trade, to tho provisions of tiM «it«AnMMVit(/t' tion act. The fuliowing is a summary of th« fiAmn applicable to British vessels engaged in tlw *!OHfillHf( trade, and, by virtue of the act uliuvs citjHny,^t gninl* shall be unshipped from any sliip arriving I'liuatwiia, or be 'shipped or water-borne to Iw ahip|w4 on Hun- days or holidays to \m carried coastwise, or unUa* In the presence or with the authority of tha \m)Wf uffi* cer of the customs, or unless at tite timas «im( |ilH<'«a appointed, the same shall be forfeited, an4 tha nwalar of tlie ship shall forfeit .€50 (it25()). Af otter to keep a cargo-book, aiul pe.miltUi fiir /iiIm entriet. — The master of every coasting ship anitll lt<«<(i a cargo-book, stating the lutmes of tha ship, tlia niila- ter, the port to which she belongs, uml, on uiU'.U voy. age, of the port to which she is bound i nnii at itwry port of lading, an account of all gixxla taknn on iMxtrfi, stating the descriptions of the packages, tha ijnontl' ties and descriptions of the goods, whatltar |M<'ki«l iir stowed loose, the names of the ahipiwrs and mm- signees, so far as such particulars are known, «tn. and provisions, taken by passen- gers fi;r tliclr priviite use, or small quantities of shop UimiU taken by tradesmen, passengers on board such tcaaela, are to lie considered as baggage, and exempt ttiim coast regulations ; as are also exempt packages, live llsh, chipplnga of granite, cobble stones, whin nUilUM, help, Kentish rag stones, flints picked off land, pebbles, gravel, and chalk, faggots or bavins for bak- ers' Mse, hay, straw, fresh meat, soap, ashes for ma- nure, ('4ial-«shfls, iron-stone, and all stone quarried in the country, hones for manure, brinks and British tiles, slates, native timber, and wood fur pit-props and aleejiefa, also china clay. It is not known positively bow in»ny nations have so far reciprocated the coast- ftiK trade tirivtieges thus granted by Great Britain te foreign nations. On the 6th day of February, 1865, 'I Mwany entered into a convention with Great Brit- ain for Ihnt purpose. The first article of this treaty stllitilates that the subjects and ships of each of the Mifh Mrtitracting parties shall enjoy in the dominions m ORB 610 GRB and torritoriei of the other thp same tighti with re- spect to the coarting trade and shall be treated in every case with roi;anl to that trade in the same man- ner aa native lahjects and national vetsela. A sim- ilar treaty was negotiated with Sardinia, March 22d, 1856. So long, however, as the restrictioi. s with respect to the colonial coasting trade contmue in force, it is very doubtful whether any of the great commer- cial niitlons of the wc-ld will \te disiwsed to abolish or relax their present coasting trade regulations. A« respects tlie United States, there would b« no equiva- lent whatever. The fffeet of Ae act of 1854, opening the coarting trade of Great Britain to foreign oe/iM/*.— During the month ending July 6th, 1852, the tonnage entered ipward (in all British Eutopean ports), in the coasting trade was I,044,8C2 tons. For the same month in 1858, it reached 1,097,472 tons, end in the correspond- ing month of 1854, it was 1,009,884 tons. The clear- ances outward (in the salne trade), for July, 1852, were 1,181,561 tons) for July, ]8.'i8, 1,196,188; and tor the same month in 1854, 1,1!j9,513. With but one or two exceptions, the whole of the tonnage giveu above was British ; a fact which a comparison of the figures representing this trade during the same month In 8 consecutive years, as given in the British official returns of tmdo, will at once exiiibit. The following condensed summary will explain the regulations which must be complied with by every vessel, from the i>eriod of arrival in port until her discharge is completed ; and with respect to exporta- tions, the necessary proceedings fVom the entry out- ward until the vessel's final clearance, will alsc be indicated. They are presented son:ewhat at length, so that a comparison betireen them and tne United Ststes' custom-house regulations and laws may be the mote easily made. Importation, as legally defined, takes place imme- I'iately the importing ship comes within the limits of the ]>ort, and the "time of a ship's arrival" is that at which the report thereof shall or ought to have been made. Exportation is, in like manner, determined to be'the time at which goods shall Im shipped on board an export vessel ; and final clearance, tbe time of her departure. Tho master of every merchant vessel, within 24 hours of entering tlio port of arrival, is bound, under a penalty of £100 ($500), to report his cargo tn the chief ofHcer of customs. The chief officer of any ship in commission from her majesty or any foreign State, having foreign gooda on board, is re- quired, in like manner, to deliver an account in writ- ing under his hand, and to tho best of his knowledge, of the description and particulars of such goods. Be- fore, however, the master is allowed to report, he must declare before some person duly authorized by the postmaster-general, that he has deliv>-red at the post- office all letters that were on l>oard his ship. And, likewise he must, under a penalty of £20 ($100), and the further snm of £10 for each alien not included in the dsclamtwn, truly declare to the number of aliens on lioard, or landed from his ship. At the time of making bii* rtpoit, the master is to deliver, if re- quired, to the collector or comptroller, the bill of lading, or a copy thereof, for every part of the cargo, and to answer snch questions as shall be put to him, as to the ship, cargo, crew, and voyage. The master, officer, crew, or passengers retaining letters after the delivery of the ship's letters at the post-office, shall forfeit £5 ($25) for each letter; and fir detaining letters alter demand by the officer of customs or per- son authorised by tbe postmaster-general, £10 ($50) each. So soon as a vessel has reported, the importers, a^nts, or consignees of the cargo, having been ad- vifeU by receipt of bills of lading, or other iatimation, may each enter their several goods. A LiMtude of 14 days ia allowed by law for this purpose ; bt t, in order to clear the vestal more tpeedilg, ,|((ht entries nra pwi mitted to the master or owiu-r of uriy ship lying alung- aide the legal quays, or sulferaucv wluirvoa, south of the Thames from London bridge eastward to Ifi.ck- head— the reguUtlons and kigaT provisions given In the summary ara those that aie fulidw«ri at tbe |iort of London, but the general re^ulatlous are the same nt other ports — und^r such general il4>ii;:i'iptliin as Is con- tained in the report, fur any giKxIi) lliut nlmll not liaVk lieen entered by the owners tlmreuf withbi fnrty*«l({ht hours from the day of tbe r«|Hirt ''iir sarlhir, If u briefer limit cf time be set forth in the bill i/f iadlnf;;, uinn condition that perfect entry be uuiila by tho proprietor within one month from tlis iUt« nf landing, (ioods so circumstanced are only IbtbU to wii/ur* from Inaccu- racy of '3ntr}' after tlie bi|M« of • mulitli. When u value is required to be stutvil, tba Importer or bis ax'^t is to subscribe a declaration vvrlfyhig «U(ili value; iind false dculurutions remler the party making iliem liaUe to :» pendty of JiW) (♦&00). The foUuwing tibnlar stattiuieiit exlilblts tbo pott charges at tbe principal |)orts of KngUnd, Hcotland, and Ireland, condensed from ofUcUl authorities i Ijonr Dtrm. NiDiM and nutnlMr ol llfbu. 8«llly Eddvatone Mllfiri! I'ortlaiul St. B«CB Fuolness Csskets Nore W.ill FIstholm Lizard Nvcdics & Hurst. . Offers Halsbro' iQooilwln Sunk [Klsmbro' jSouth Slack [Fern [Burnham jLowestoft. . Alrt Lundy Spurn {Lldeford Bar., Bardfcy I'sk Lynn Well... Boacby Uood. raldy Nssh Halsbro' North end South Sand Head Forelands. Falmouth harbor, . $0 tM pervesMi, « " 24 » 24 •• UOIprr'lon.. INHllfl) nn4 farwin |ir1vti«f«il f •MffU ((C»r Ma. ..((Tontnurton. . ,' « (mi pet ton, !M iisr viW'Ol. 4H •■ 2t '■ 24 » ,. 0«lp«rtim,.., 24 per yvim\, iio| p«r Ijjii,,. 00* " iiui » , , , 0V'\ •' ,,, Vi p»r vtiMtil, st llrldf^Hwatort.. OOJ pur ton 04 » 00* » ml » II 24 pjr yoyitica on tluiuntonu vu««allu8t) for each light, except as above, with a duty of 2-4 cents on every " entry, cocltet (a duplicate shipping bill), or warrant," when from foreign porta, but not otherwise. The charters of most of these private light-houses authorized the levying of higlier fees from foreign than from British shipping. When England, therefore, entered into reciprocal treaties with foreign powers, the government bad to mal(u these light-houses com- pensation for the diminution that consequently toolc place in the charges on foreign ships. The Trinity comoration, however, has long since surrendered its right to such compensation, and the act 6 and 7 Wil- liam IV. forbids such compensation being made there- after. Pilotage, — Pilots are estal)li8hed, in various parts of the Icingdom, by ancient charters or by particular Statutes. The most important of those are those of Trinity House of Deptford Strand ; the fcllowstiip of the pilots of Dover, Deal, and the Isle of Thanet, commonly called the Cinque Ports pilots ; and the Trinity House of Hull and Newcastle. A corporation for the regulation and licensing of pilots in Liverpool was established by 6 George IV., chapter 73. The law provides, also, that no vessel in the coasting trade is to pay for less than eight feet of water, nor any vessel to pay for odd inches under half a foot. No coasting vessel, inward or outward bound, of the bur- den of 100 tons and upward (unless she be in ballast), is to refuse a pilot, at option, as thn master or owner is to pay full pilotage if one be offered. Harbor and Dock Sues — Foreign Trade. (Per act 51 George III., chapter &.) — All parts of Europe to the northward of Cape Finisterra and to the westward of tlie North Cape, and without the Cattegat and Baltic Sea, and including tlie islands of Guornsej'', Jersey, Aldemey, and Sarlc, the Faro Isles, and Iceland, 18 cents per ton. All ports within the Cattegat and Baltic, including the whole of Sweden, tiie White Sea, and all ports to the eastward of tlie North Cape ; all ports in Europe to the southward of Cape Fiuisterre, without the Med- iterranean, Newfoundland, Greenland, Davis's Straits, Cinaries, Western Islands, Madeira, and Azores, 24 cents per ton. All ports on the east coast of North America, the West, Indies, the enst cuast of South America, to the no.il\ward of Rio il' la l^lata, inclusive; all parts of the west coast of A f i ica, and islands to the northward of the Cupe of Good Hope ; and all porta within the Mediterranean, including the Adriatic and Black Seas and Archipelago, the islands of the Archipelago, the islands of St. Helena, Ascension, ar"! the Cape Verd Islands, 36 cents per ton. All ports in South America to the south of Rio de la Plata, in the Pacific Ocean, in Africa and Asia, to the eastward of the Cape of Good Hope, 3G cents per ton. For more complete information respecting the port charges, etc., of the varions countries above mentioned, see articles under the heads of those countries. AtKhorage — Municipal Corporation Grant by Purchase from King Charles the First. — On classes one, two, and three, 24 cents per vessel. Classes four to seven, 30 ccntu. Vessels wind-bound, exempt from dock-dues only. The preceding table will be better comprehended by giving a pro forma statement of port charges for a vessel of 600 tons, entering at and clearing from th« port of Liverpool : Inwabd. ri1atage,1Troet,at9s £T 18s.0d. Row-boat hire In the river and warping Into dock 1 B Lights, Sjd. per ton 11 18 Dock duos, Is. 4)d. per ton 84 T Discharging cargo, about 20 Total £75 (is. Id. Odtward. Loading cargo, supposing ship to carry 7f)0 tons (from lid. to Is. per ton), say Is. per ton SXt lOs. Od. Lights, Sjil. per ton U 10 T riToUgc, IT foot, at 4b. per foot ... 8 B Clearance 110 «88Ttl 800 ISSOO 98 00 $861 n Total £68 188. 7d. 1180 00 5TG0 1A8II S04 t2&8 86 Port of London — Tonnage Sates. (Act 4 and 5 Wil- liam IV., chapter 82.) First Cliiss. — For every vessel trading coastwise between the port of I^ndon and any place in Great Britain, Ireland, the Orkneys, Shet- land, or the Western Islands of Scotland, for every voyage both in and out of the said port, one cent per ton. For every vessel entering inward, or clearing out ward, in the said port, from or to Denmark, Norway, Lapland (on this side of the North Cape), or from Holstein, Hamburg, Bremen, or any other port of Germany bordering on or near the Germanic Ocean, or from or to Holland, or any other of the United Provinces, or Brabant, Flanders, Antwerp, or other ports of the Netherlands, or from or to France (within Ushant), Guernsey, Jersey, Aldemey, Sark, or the Isle of Man, for every voyage, both in and out of the said port, one cent per ton. For overj' vessel entering inward, or clearing out- ward, in the said port, from or to France (between Ushant and iSpain), Portugal, Spain (without the Mediterranean), or any of the Azores, Madeira, or Canarj- Islands, or any of the United States of Amer- ica, or of the British provinces or colonies in North America, or Florida, there shall be paid for everj- voy- age in and out of the said port one cent and a half per ton. For every vessel entering inward, or clearing out- ward. In the said port, from orto Greenland, Gibraltar, France, or Spain (within the Mediterranean), or any country, island, port, or place within or bordering on the Mediterranean or Adriatic Seas, or from the West Indies, I/iuisian.-t, Mexico, South America, Africa, East Indies, China, or any other country, island, or place within or bordering on or near the Pacific Ocean, or from any other country, island, or place wlmtseiver, to the southward of 25 degrees of north latitude, for every voyagu, < <^:h in and out of the said port, one cent and a ha' "T ton. Among otiio i ■ emptions, this charge does not apply to vessels going in or out of the port of London wtien in ballast. Tonnage Dues charged by the Londor. Dock Company, First class. — Vessels from any port in the United Kingdom, Isle of Man, Jersey, Guernsey, Aldemey, Sark, or other European ports outilde the Baltic, be- tween the North Cape and Ushant (Haralmrg, Bremen, and 'mbden excepted — see second class), with liberty to V. d Cor any port, 12 cents. Second class. — ^Vessels from H ni' "- : Bremen, and Embden, with liberty to reload >• , my port, 12 cents. Third class. — ^Vessels from any port iu the Mediwi- ranean, with liberty to reload for any rort, 18 cc U Fourth class. — ^Vessels from all other ports or \ V-.-.'-.n whatsoever (with the exceptions after mentioneu); with liberty to reload for any port, 18 cents. Vessels loading for any ports or places in the third or fourth classes, not having discharged their cargoes in the docks, 18 cents. G)m 872 GRE PS asft '"ass '-»'» • rl . t-i »H Ft rt r-l ^ _ - ^, . . _'b- «o to rH - 4 e o c. ?^ 3> to o Ok » r; «i 00 ^ o n f*t»t^in«oi*cor- nee ^ ""^ ^ w ri ^lOWI-lOtOaOAHtftA > n h> »• 9* b- CO cn«ioc9c. :v^«9oemeieiotoc'«>o»<;9»o» (•• e ^ 03 9' T £ 00 OD 00 »« O S» C^ »« A 00 W UO 00 ■■* M f» ; - f^ t-i* 1-^ ^ •■■ ,-. w^ r^ ill si ^ ■1" 90 ;:- 4. $ ■? .':»<.> 00 oi ea ' ■: to tc to V"4» to ■« o» ■>■; © i. • : I- ;■. «* oc ■;■ vM » * i'. ■ ,■« M o c» f-1 o» uo << r - tp-* _:, »c r>«9teo.<9 99toscrHtfi'^»-i©«o« Tfi .n ^. D «■*■*" ic .-•»oO'*«*ieo»oo*-iK5rt PlLOTAai. I'mmorlo To or from Mrfbol* HoLb— The dlituim it M* whar* 1 lUwke Koiwl* or the North Mua of Dtmllng- - ton bein west toiith-wost to the northward of Kllnsot North Olllf The (lUt«nco >t (e* whnro) Kllnsc* North Cliff boors Tls-^ko Roads or west norih-w< sL i,: ii,. i <'irliiiitby Koads. northward of t!io .icw sanrf '.Vhitc llooth UM» buojr.orthe tiorJnu liibt- ; Thc>.<'''"f Kli._ vosselatth; ■vitmi'i'i; oi the toi -.ijii'U-Hiili.. RlvorIIU!:ii'?> .J Outcranl— British ii\:\ frUa Orlnwby Roads. |0 60 Whito Booth KMs. 84 ThoportorKlnn- ton-upoo-HuU. . 1 BO Oflt U 60 00 reasolii hi brUlast (■ H '* '.'Ith ear)'3es. "(I There aro other InoiintMoraMr i-hurafps levl«d at tlil ij '. t . ■; buoyai. t and beacorniM, wMcU m? s In: ';■.■ i loant \r. nuu n. t, andai' . qually lev i 'ipun Br aro omttt^.l. S. GOTLAND. ■ LOT DUES. OLAsnow A p ftitKsooK.— From any place '.lotwoen ^ f theCmnbray ilKht and the Glocho't llh'ht, or from r, I aiiehoni(;e at Faudln Rolld^ Kootbesay Bay, or 1-. Quarantine Station, lit>ly 'ock or Greenock Hoaus 'j ard moorln,<8,aml tcfllio I foreign privileged vessels from outside of til : 'inks over bar per foot $0 tH From Innldc bank.t over bar " ^^ From bay over bar. " 8li From I'oolbeg to banin " 11 Outward " 44J Vessels In ballast, aul vessels under SO tons register, ara exempted There aro "tlior charges and dncs payable to tho corporation f>r prosorvliii^ and Improving the port; but u they are small In amount, and equally applicable to Brltisb vessels, they are omitted. PILOT miw. CoKK.— /"/'COT^pri.'! io Octobtr 1.— Vessels under 8« tons la 88 Vessels fi-on; »0 to 120 tons 8 84 120 •' 160 " 4 80 " 190 " 220 " 6 28 The largest vessels mav gut to Passage; vessels draw- ing II feet may get up to Black Rock or Cork at spring tides ; vessels ilmwl:ig 11 to 12 feet get Into Cross Haven, wblch Is within tho entrance of Cork Haven. Larger vessels must remain at Cork or Passage for pilotage, to "Ahlch points the same rates aro levied on Aiuertcan as on British vessels. PILOT DVVH. Forelga linde. Cowtert, BuLrAST. — From JJef^at to GarmoyU or WMttlMUM JttMdt, or vic« vtrta. — Vessels under 100 tons tS <^ Vessels of lootousandnnder 198 10 So »7 20 840 9 60 12 00 14 40 IB 80 1» 20 21 60 22 80 20 20 26 40 28 80 10 8 .0 are sundry wharf and other ' ;tre equally levied on British as on 1. \«8 give the principnl charges on ' '. vessels entering ai or departing fromthfj'Oi '^■ 'i^uated. For minor details, reference 12a " " 180 12 00 ISO " " 200 14 40 200 " " 280 16 80 280 " " 800 19 20 800 " " 880 21 60 880 "X 400 24 00 400 " " 480 28 20 480 " " 100 -JS SO 800 » ' o60 n 20 680 tons an(. o, its .1 88 60 . . ..VAOE. 1, oer ton On vessels from fin . Coastwise Besides the tmti minor p "' charge': (breign yr ., • '. The p' ■■■•I British f ,■. i.f!v!! ORE 873 ORE b made to the cooaular returns from the dilTerent ports raspactlvely. The foreign trade of Great Britain, dur- ing the year ending January 6, 1H64, employed !i6,;<08 vessels, with an aggregate of 7,797,660 tons, I'ho grons amount of custom duties received the same year was £22,410,808 ($112,0«6,5'10). The exports of British and Irish produce and manufactures during the same period amounted in value to £87,367,806 (iii486,- 786,580). The official returns for 1854 exhibit the fol- bwing facts : Imports to snd from flroat Britain and Ireland In 1884 £1.62,691,618= |7<2,957,6«6 Szports to aud from OreatBrltaln ■»nd Ireland in 1884 116,888,704= 579,168,820 ImporU to and fk-ora tlio U. B. In 1881 and 1856. . 1261,448,520 Kxnorts lYom the United States of fbrelgn goods $26,158,868 Exports Aom the United Htates of domci.tlo manufoctnre 80,427,187 Exports ^om the United States of otiier produeo 142,828,948 Exports from the United States of specie and buUlon 54,247,348 Total 1276,164,844 The largest amounts of British imports from foreign countries were from the United States, viz., £29,796,- 690 («148,977,960) j from France, £10,684,727 (i»63,- 178,685) ; from China, £9,125,040 (#45,625,200); from Russio, £9,055,603 (#45,277,616); from IloiUind, £6,- 788,172 (#33,665,860) ; and from Spain, £3,694,601 (#17,972,605). The largest amounts exported to for- eign countries were to the United States, viz. : £21,- 127,631 (#105,638,155). In this amount are included onl}' such articles as are the produce of the United Kingdom, exclusivo of colonial and foreign products. The lilce exports to France amounted to £3,176,290 (#15,876,450) ; to Holland, £4,578,084 ($22,865,170) ; to Hanse-towns, £7,418,715 (#37,068,576) ; to Bra-;il, £2,891,840 (#14,459,200) ; to Victoria, £6,741,315 (#28,- 706,675) ; to New South Wales, £3,648,072 (#18,240,- 860) ; to South Australia, £1,146,113 (#5,730,565) ; and to the East Indies, £9,127,656 (#45,637,780). The principal imports were grain and flour, cotton, wool, wood, timber^ deals, and staves ; wine, butler, tea, and tallow. The principal exports were cotton goods, cotton yam, woolen goods, linen, silk, woolen yam, millinery and haberdasher}', apparel, hardware and cutlery, iron, unwrought and wrought, earthenware and potter^', cools and coke, and tin. The number of vessels entered at ports in England during the year 1863 was : British, 10,345, with an aggregate of 1,933,711 tons ; foreign, 16,609, with an aggregate of 2,958,048 tons. Of the above, there entered the port of London 8033 British, measuring an aggregate of 661,842 tons ; and 6058 foreign, with an aggregate of 910,662 tons. The entries at Liverpool were : British, lu..> veaaols, measuring 488,405 tons; and foreign, 1682 vessels, with an aggregate of 787,003 tons. The number of vessel" engaged in the foreign trade entered at ports in Scotland during the year 1853 was : British, 1863, with an aggregate of 402,872 tons ; foreign, 2503 vessels, measuring in all 289,752 ton?. The total number of vessels that entered the ports of Ireland during the year 1853 was : British, 1169, measuring 284,892 tons; and foreign, 1195, with an aggregate tonnage of 237, 19!^ tx>ns. In the ports of the Isle of Man nnd ihe Ciia.it rl islands, there entered during the .tiiv _ ur: in tlif urmer, British vessels, 7; aggre- ^ .to toii ..-;■". 9tt;j: foreign, 31; I'^'gregato tonnage, 8494; in tht> lattcr British vess'tls, 1072, with an ag- gregate tonnage i^ ) .141; foreign vessels, 213, with an aggregate tonnago of 14,862. The i utai i imber of steam- vostt'ls that entered the porti- it the United Kingdom during the year 1853 was : Bi ' ish, 3&68, witli an aggregate of 1,171,911 tono; foreign >ressels, 5°il, with tn aggregate of 158,81^ tons. The numbev of steaio-vessels that cleared f;om all the ports of the !Jnited Kingdom in 1853 was : British, 3694, with ^a aggregate of 1,067,381 tons; foreign vessel, 507, measuring In all 168,184 tons. In 1864, the oflloial value of imports into the United Kingdom was £124,- 888,478 (#621,692,890) ; and of exports from the Unit- ed Kingdom £29,821,656 (#140,108,280). A new system has l)ccn introduced Into Great Brit- ain of giving in the annual relums of trade, the " real" Instead of the " oRlciul" value of imports and exports. The standard of the latter having obtained, without any change or alteration, for a period of more than 200 years, could be of but little benefit in computing the value of the foreign trade of Great Britain, and has been adhered to so long solely for the purpose of supplying data for general comparison. The real value of the imports and exports above given is thus 8tat"d : import,8, £152,591,618 (#702,957,5«5) ; exports, £115,833,704 (#679,108,620). In the preceding pages, the laws, regulations, nnd customs of a permanent character, which constitute the commercial legislation of Great Britain as respects her intercourse with the United States, have been suc- cinctly stated. Various modifications In tariff duties, navigation laws, etc., have necessarily resulted from such changes in commercial legislation as are in- variably incident to a state of war. These have, in substance, been noticed elsewhere, so far as they have come to tlie knowledge of the Department. They are, however, generally limited in iheir duration, and are designed either for financial or protective purposes during tlie continuance of the present difSculties with Russia. It is not deemed necessar}', therefore, to lengthen this digest by any detailed enumeration of such modifications, for the reason that it is to be an- ticipated* that all such temporary modifications, de- manded by the exigencies of war, will ere long have been superseded by the permanent commercial legisla- tion of the United Kingdom. In 1787 there were imported into Great Britain 22,600,000 pounds of cotton, obtained from the follow- ing sources : BritUh West Indies 6,600,000 Froncli and Spanish Colonies 4,000,000 Dutch and Portuguese Colonies. 4,200,000 East India, procured from Ostond 100,000 Smyrna and Turkey 5,700,000 From tho United States The following tables have been compiled from the officml reports of the United Stetes' Treosury Depart- ment, and are submitted for the purpose of illustrating the commerce between the United States and Great Britffin, especially with reference to our leading sta- ples, during a period of 26 years. The first talile exhibits the quantities and value of cotton exported from tho United States to Great Brit- ain during the period indicated. Generally speaking, the imports of cotton into Great Britein are concen- trated at the port of Liverpool. This is shown by the annexed table, exhibiting the importe of cotton into Great Britain in 1852 : iDtO Liverpool London Hull and Bristol. . Scotland Total 2,205,733 48,700 27,200 76,700 2,867,888 Tuns. 86.\000 8,000 6,000 _ mooo_ ~89TuoO The imports into Liverpool of raw cotton during a period of 10 years, ending with 1852, were as follows : Yt.r,. B>1m. Toiu. Year.. llalai. TODI. 1848 1844 l£t5 1844 1847 1,857,697 1,490,984 1,652,7^1 1,181,194 1,087,068 260,000 248,000 970,0 ..0 130,000 182,000 1848 1840 1*«0 i''>l 1852 1,548,000 1.7)«.;i«1 1,578,100 1,748.946 2,205,783 '!f2.000 288,000 263,000 291,000 865,000 The countries from which the cotton was imported in 1862 are given in the following talde, which will also serve to show the relati^'o importance of Liverpool * This bu been retlUed stao? U)« »hoT« ww rrittaa. .■i^ cnxB 874 GBB U e«mp«i«d with other Rritiah portii, m the gnat em- porinm of the cotton trade : Iniportad (Vora Into 1 Ititu Iiv«qio*),i LoiMlr.tl, Into Hull. " 11,700 14,000 "uoo 8 4MW) "ioo «flO 48,700 00,111)0 11,000 8,(KH) "aoo moo I,7«9,'il8 a21,4l8 189,S»S 1H1>7 12.A80 ^807,888 Before giving the general talile of exports uf this staple to Oreat Uritain, the fallowing summary, con- densed fn)m n troatlso on the cotton crop of the United States, etc., recently puhllacd, will prove interesting. Previous to 17»1, Great Itritiiin olitiiined her supplies of cotton fi-ora the West Indies, South Ameiica, nnd the countries around the eastern parts of the McdltiT- ranean. In 1784, there were 71 bags shipped from Oknioal Biiumabt or tob Total Ihtoht, Expodt, and ISM, 1889, the Unltad States to Great Britain, ssd then soiiM. on the ground that America could not produce so much. See (^nrroif. In 18SH, Great Britain exported upward of 147,000,- 000 pounds ; of this upward of 82,000,000 were derived from the Unltad Hlater,, and over 60,000,000 from India. llie returns of trade for 18S6 show tliat notwith- standing the war, the consumption of cotton in Great Britain from 1st January to lUst August was 1,449,1)80 bales, against 1,28U,20() for the same period in 1864, giving the large Increaso of 1GU,7R0 bales. The stock In Liverpool on illst August, IHfiS, was 269,320 bales less than on the illst Augait, 18&4. From the Kast Indies, (iicit Britain Imported — PmitldR. In 1S80 ia»,2no,(HHt " ls8a H4,Wi,i»i " 1H63 180,481,496 Stock or Cottox ik Tns Uhitid Kinodoii, Droimbiui 81, AND 1881. Stork, Due. 81, 1S62. Import In 1883 Export In 1SS8. Stock, Doc. 31, 1833 Shou-lni; the (IoIItctIcs fbr~| liouioronsumptlonfrom I the porta of (It. BrItalD ( to bavg boiu, In 1k83. . . J Or, por week in lS.t8 " mvj " " IRfll " " 18M •■ " 1849 OBtAT aEITAIN. Tu lnl. B«i«i. 6S7„tS0 2,2fry_U i,m,i»i 849,000 Arufrloui. I ftnrat. HalM. 860,770 1,888,842 it,872,6al 717,8X0 170,000 1,888,081 85,070 80,770 81,970 39,140 80,820 l,7ls,812 80S,870 llaUi. 183,910 488,897 618,787 181,600 270,680 1,409,442 27,110 I 29,030 24,400 20,710 24,010 196,887 rj8o 8,1/90 8,740 8,410 2,420 And from Liverpool . Or, per week In 18,U. " " 1888. " " 1881. " » IMO. " " 1849. LiriarnoL. ToUI. Silei. 877,810 2,028,824 2,A00,'084 ii59,600 2,847,084 897.600 1,149,884 88,640 88,100 80.140 20,670 28,840 Alliorlri Blliil. 888,820 1,461,186 l,T»9,»8a 172,100 1,827,!<86 280,170 l,841,u86 28,800 27,980 28,880 19,180 22,980 8)I8,M7 176,870 162,477 8,120 2,030 8,080 2,490 1,940 I Takiic KxmBrnxo thk Quantities ano Vai.ck or Haw CJoTTON expohtxd rBoM tub United States to Oreat Britain and Ireland, from 1880 to 1888, uoTil Years inclusive. Iron. Qutnllly. V»lae. 1 Yetri. Qiuuitlty. V«lue. 1180 Pouniln. 209,830,421 Dc.llnn. 20,678.083 I 1843 Ppiiiid.. ! r>..IUn.. 884.84.'S,604! ftV^M'T 1831 220,81 0.ftlO 20,117,885 ; 1844 480,729.2221 89,r.9I.aM lS8i 229.0O7.272 ■fi.iiU.aiO 1 1848 OO.'). 141.786' 35.fii-8,V''.t 1888 28S,241,74« 20,284,970 1 1840 340,188,007j 27,707,717 18.'U 2.HT'2't,'iOa 8«,007,6M • 1847 351,268,7119 ,Vi,841,2C,"i 1885 270,0S4.4(l0l 4.vn 1,411 1.84,8 tl,15» 1888 441,887,948! 45,787,087 1S51 «7n,«4,^,120 49,7,^(1, -.'i4 1889 aiO,7,Vt,9BO 46.074,579' 18,V3 752,878,780 6».fl00,209 1840 494,9I.'),090 41.948,8f>4' !«« 708,890,49,81 74,6*1.210 1841 849,.W0,248 85,«84,00.')^ 1884 090,W7,Ol7 04.736,401 1U2 «7»,C17/U9 .10,11)2,417 1885 07,8,498,259 57.610,749 the annual consumption of tobacco in the United Kingdom, tnd duly levied on the samu : lured and tuni. Tobacco Trade between the United States and Great Hritain. — It is ascertained, by British statisticians that the yearly consumption of tobacco in Great Britain and Ireland amounts Ui '.f'),U00 tons, .about one half of which it is supposed is smuggled, owing to the exces- sive duties (upward of 1000 per cent.) levied on the article under the tariff system of that kingdom. The quantity of segars and snuff imported does not exceed two or three hundred weight per annum. The follow- ing table, compiled from parliamentary returns, shows tlie Import.s of toliacco into the United Kingdom, and tlio quantities entered at each port, during the year 1860: roTU, London Liverpool IlrlstuI OIa.i»ow Dublin Belfast Nowcastle. . . . Cork Llinorick Lelth Preston Chester Bhlelds Watertbrd Londonderry : Southampton Other places, lesi than 100 tons each Vol. Tvin. 4,762 2,766 780 631 604 877 841 270 iRS 288 179 1881 1471 8 1471 .. 182 .... lift .... a « 4.1 ioiv Tolal. Duty. Ti.iii. I Pound>. I l>ull>n. 4,881 1,7.VJ,9SS 8,704,940 2,70al 980,082 780| 27,\488 6H2| 228,701 007 - S7T 841 270 288 239 179 188 147 182 116 18 907 Total.. . . . . . 12,000' 90 ! 12,780 4,903,160 1,877,428 1,1, -.,806 1,077,838 666,688 602,230 476,810 488,030 422,670 316,.^60 279,810 260,125 2.88.860 204,960 40,976 21,^867 lH8,ni 120,444 98,862 91,004 84,814 68,312 66,908 62,028 48,070 40.999 8,198| 820,7n{ 1,603,886 4,500,741 22;8(I8,705 PorU. Utt. Muufvtr'd and Msari. ToUl. London Tom. T,6SS 6,8T0 4SS 414 200 140 8 Tom. 433 148 ■"t "66 4 Tons. 8,120 7,016 436 431 200 196 Bristol ftlasgow , . i , . Lelth Southampton... Other places Total 1.' ,00' '1 694 10,894 The following return, t iismitted to the House of Commons, for the year endini^ January 6, 185n, thows The following table, exhibiting the exports of toliac- co from Great Britain Air IS.Vi, will sliow the quanti- ties and destination of I hat article supplied by England to foreign countries, relativel}' to the quantities iin- portpd. Total quantity imported, 15,700 tons, or 86,- 168,000 ll0^nd.^, Total QnAMTiTT Expoitbd. Hhdii. W. ".oast of Africa. 1,726 II Uolland 927 2faat«. Ran So' ,i)^t!»n . . Alexaudrla. Bahia Antwerp Bio do .'snelio. Olbraltar. 134 110 63 61 86 Ilraamsn 81 Hhdi. Cbrlstlana 20 Oronthotm IT Soneira] 15 Ouornscv 14 Liberia 10 ysloofMan 84 Sundry places 23 Total. .2,603 The foregoing ta' ' ^hows that in 18.52 there were exported ft-om Great Uritai- 'out 2,602,000 lbs. (al- lowing 1000 lbs. to tae Wiu. ' the a5,108,000 lb« imported, showing the onJii-.i "^d for consult;. tion to be 82,5fl«,W0 IbJ. ORB 9tB GRE lUn. 1,940 ,160 ,486 ,806 ,886 irere (aJ. lb. in;'. Taili i.'4 2(18,024 19,426 1II7.2V0 115,1150 1,015,244 9,467,076 9&'i,744 96H,Ht6 869,777 1,601,788 1,581,994 1,878,«65 2,0-iO,121 lS9,71'i Valuo. iv.ll.n. 1,.'>M,194 4,981,951 479,821 121,169 96,884 25,841 1,184 69',5io 1,886,647 1,887,848 1,008,466 1,242,787 84,815 74^4S6 152,882 M 86,677 15,104,574 6,119,876 6,077,220 1,779,862 4,673,009 6,808,878 ^79^818 18,715,111 1,58,1,089 Ilo«r. Itarnili. too 96 117 608 "ii 8,610 2,001 6,H86 4V1T 41,188 8ll«w, i*OUIM|l. 6,787 864 86^161) 29,580 2.Vi2i 1,716,820 8,0,^1,014 4,6.'.7,20O 5,289,440 6,12,1,462 6,1124,156 8,899,409 5,598,227 «,2.H618 4,19,1,806 2,421,486 1,481,876 6,800,288 7,612,622 llldM. Nuoitier, 28,627 288,158 18,420 88,000 89,064 12,721 17,976 69,748 2.1,069 \616 8,817 4,288 6,781 8,8sa 88,107 41,179 67,068 34,481 7,008 1,083 861 8a8 19,807 VlllM. , ,1teb,roain| •Dd turptntlnfl, . V>lii. Uillan. 140,4IM Burrfli. 128.125 r>..ii.n. 261,726 40,766 159,190 8I^964 66,080 172,062 400,064 m,.m 171,888 408,260 182,(186 181,921 4.14,669 56,866 151,407 489,811 90,566 197,824 781,288 189,642 218,180 788,881 78,444 2111,794 679,076 18,696 176,721 606,218 17,924 191,448 470,460 88,507 201,789 482,870 168,697 918,568 675Ji74 881,769 145,006 871,686 777,906 270,817 618,184 8.14,2.14 £H(i,26S 6^9,364 1,864,341 80.1,2.14 968,275 1,269,976 245,779 632,810 806,804 282,026 686,739 l,8lt(l,6S7 817,417 724,680 828,780 866,980 911,981 896,788 28,1,786 761,408 764,848 846,417 945,284 1,84»,8«8 841,518 1,099,682 1,(H4,426 461,528 1,60.1,683 9,900,907 421,118 l,llli),860 * Also, In 1866, 67,149 tlcrcct. A Vmw or Tim T8am< butwrkn Obeat Bhitais and that Poktios or iir.R North Amkiiioak CoLO.MEa Kow is- •K.t'liKn in TnK Vinru Stathi, fehu 1697 to 1774; and hetwdek Okkat Britain and tii« Unitkd Btatm, rNoM 1776 rii 1820 — il nIM 8lAt#l, ♦ I,l08,72(r Kiporti lo Iha Uolled Slatci, rem. linporm from SlAlOl. RtporU to til* Uull«d Stut«l, Yean. ImtMrlfl IVoin lit United 8tAle>. EiporU to th« UnlMd StaUi. y/.im. . .: «707,766 W. 1789.... ♦8,757,890 «8,479,846 W, 1780.... 98,815 4,146,860 ', m*.... 1,180,276 2,290.4il6 W. 1740.,.. 3,692,080 4,060,910 W. 1781.... 499.895 4,278,606 '. 1699.,.. 1,876,9^5 2,019,696 W. 1741.... 4,561,016 4,427,400 W. 1788.... 188,200 1,883,660 '. 17(1(1,.,, 1,976,105 1,721,705 W. 1742.... 8,296,140 4,000,265 W, 17S8.... 851,206 6,016,600 '. 17(11,,,, 1,546,676 1,719,185 W. 1743.... 8,404,08.1 4,146,026 P. 1734.... 8,746,645 18,897,360 V. 7(12,,,, 1,618,910 98«,060 W. 17+4.... 8,387,625 8,204410 P. 1786.... 4.467,980 11>»1,116 W. 17(111,,,. W, 17(11,,,. 1,021,480 1,481,050 ■W. 1745.... 2,772,156 2,676.265 P. 1786.... 4,-116,695 8,017,880 1,609,170 7M,X90 880,4*5 W. 1746.... 2,797,506 8,774.888 ''■ 1787.... 4,468,190 10,070,560 W, 17(111,,,, 1,458,615 W. 1747.... 2,803,.170 8,683.860 P. 1788..., 6,118,946 9,430,710 W. 1T(N1,,., 935,875 808,466 W. 1748..,. 8,583,180 4,160,370 P- 1789,,.. 6,850,996 12,626,500 W. 17(17,,.. 1,421,998 2,066,886 P. 1749.... 8,817,620 0,162,980 P. 1790.... 6,956,360 17,158,390 W, 17(18,,,, 1,482,178 1,200.928 P. 1760.... 4,078,848 6,505,420 P. 1791... r),971,160 21,127,286 W. 17(81,.,, 1,«22,6'i0 1,847,985 P. 1751.... 4,178,260 6,166,840 P. 1792.. .,198,635 21,867,090 W. 1710,,., 1,849,080 1.468,800 P. 1758.... 6,(120,015 5,740,.845 W. 1798... 4,970,200 17,578,405 W, 1711,,,, 1,628,490 1,488,1,15 P. 17.18... , 'W,700 7,2M,780 W. 1794.... .. 128,006 19,299,366 W, 1712,,,, 1,829,865 1,548,455 P. 17.14..,. 5,038,810 6,881,400 W. 1796.... 6,-, .i(KO "0 270,690 1 V. 1718,,,, 1,M6,110 1,429,785 P. 1756.... 4,697,770 6,,564,990 W. 1796.... 10,404,'.., !" '70,160 '. 1714,,,, 1,978.876 1,667.220 W. 1756.... 8,296,786 6,760,890 W. 17P7.... 6,877,(.«" . ..<8,996 ;. [jift,,,. 1,486,285 2.256,810 W. 1757.... 8,0M,420 8,141,750 W. 1798.... 8,918,C > il 901,846 '. 1716.,,. 9,121,946 2,010.285 W. 1758.... 8,8.Vi,600 8,66;i,44i5 W. 1799.... 9,094,7 ti6 Jd,2 2,790 '. 1717,,,, 2,130,450 2,698.385 W. 1T59.... ^,199,546 ll,727,2i:0 W. 1800.... 11,789,615 89,427,970 W, I71X..,, 8,287,868 2,136,676 W. 1700.... 4,1.19,725 J8,5M,785 W. 1801.... 18,532,690 87,687,660 W, 1719.,., 2,.116.876 1,96.1,010 W. 1T61.... 4,47,1,155 8,609,485 P. 1808.... 9,617,520 26,647,460 w, jao.,,, 2,840,940 1,598,526 W. 1768... 4,588,070 6,9ai,080 W. 1808.... 9,570,490 26,864,055 W, 1721,,,, «,46li,855 1.669,,125 P. ]:i8.... 6,78.1,645 8,898,740 W. 1804.... 8,267,885 81,992,130 1'. I7IM,,,, 8,1««.4Ho 2,128,626 p. 1704. .. 6,682,255 11,865,625 W. 1806.... 8,882,780 85,788,885 '. 1728,,,, «,«08,810 li,067,965 P. 17.i5.... 5,801,495 9,862,565 ■W. 1806.... 9,999,420 48,06r,810 '. l7'/t,.,. 2,318,406 2,807,«.'K) V. 1760.... 6,283,046 9.218,916 W. 1807... 14,287,610 89,606,600 '. mn.,.. 2,07'<9.'.fl 2,748.465 P. 1767.... 6,670,890 9,72^,99(1 W. 1808.... 4,181,710 19,960,895 ', 172(1,,,, 8,63 ^K'^S 8,7lW,V)0 P. 1768.... 6,8(M,205 10,990,090 W. 1869.... ll,026,6,Vi 26,938,066 '. 1727,,,, 11,186,(126 2,514,685 P, 1769.... 6,862,820 6,864,985 •W. 1S10.... 18,078,025 89,066,586 '. 1721,,,, »,(«6,02fl 8J)S9,815 P. 1770.... 6,477,426 9,774,876 W. 1811.... 11,547,075 7,169,146 '. 1719,,,, 8,620,42(1 8,144,795 P. 1771.... 6,742,100 21,007,876 W. 1312.... 6,470,760 20,677,060 '. It80,,,. 8,8(18,980 2,(V87,806 P. 1772.... 6.8'.!v,,.-li) 18,456,900 W. 1818.... oyed bv flrft. .•!6.5I5 '. 1781,,,, H,26l,815 2,684,845 P. 1778.... 6,tt7 1,605 9,987,295 W. 1814.... 118,105 '. II«2.,.. 8,ri9S,180 8,666,270 P. 1774.... 0,902,125 12,995,880 W. 1816.... 11,861,440 69,682,605 '. I7fl«,,,. 8,848,176 8,7M,460 W. 1775.... 9,767,005 985,600 P 1816.. . 11,931,120 88,999,5.85 '. 1781 ,,, B,ilB0,75O 2,781,876 W. 1776.... 628,215 282,1,10 P. 181V... .'.O' ^ 'X 31,866.140 '. 17H(..,,, 8,9«1,»ian 8,8*1.880 W. 1777.... 68,060 293,966 P. 1P13.... 1 , : , , ,V' 41,917,180 '■ I7IW ,, 8,499,880 9,794,810 Vf. 1778.... 89,970 187,920 P. 1310.... ■ t,! , ',--H« 21,603,476 ', 17«T, ,, 0,876,916 8,412,180 ■W. 1779.... 117,985 1,768,500 P. 1580.. . 18,230,710 19i601,810 '. I7IIH,,.. 11,1(11,200 3,756,860 COMfAKATIVB BfATRJIRNT or Till! CoMMKROB OF TIIB tjNITr.D STATKS WITH GREAT BRITAIN, XXHIBITINa TUB VALUK OF EnI'dNtlt TO Attl ImI'UR^ from each CoI-NTRT, AND THE ToNNAOK OF AMERICAN AND FOBEION VESSELS ABBITINa mm AWtt DxrABTDio TO BACH Country, dorino tub Years designated. irlaMi ~m::: ::::.:... COMMERCE. ISAVIGAtlON. 1 TALUK or BXPoaTM, VlLtJa OF lUPOHTS, AMinK-AN TOKNAOa. POHKION TOIfNAOa. ptmluf... ' |.-on.l«ti (irodnca. Total. Entered tho United Klatei. cleared frou the IT. Stataa. Entered the United Staler, Cleared from the U. Blateg, rffm.iw 44,!l21,Sf,,s 8fl,'.!fl(|,9H6 07,768,741 76,648,294 68,78S,?3" 109,581,613 11(1,8(13,056 117,H7S,996 18»,»16,8H7 132,998,861 |4, 822,180 1-ii"'603 : 123 8,ll'',l,013 l,9Mi,876 4,.f ■,,648 8,414,403 4,7(»,P20 8,428,275 6,»t0,402 a,mfiu ♦49.0,16,459 40,216,471 87,295857 76,720,758 78,590,170 78,178,878 117,946,015 115.,';.19,976 121,.il2,2n 146,i>5,\880 139,592,869 ♦41.500.908 4;!,1)57,740 07,697,628 61,84,1,119 61,154,53s 890,060 883,827 497,278 460,808 nnoTAa 890,990 891,120 607,613 608,1,13 060,1*1 466,865 (M2,216 651,460 605,108 690,108 863,065 242,761 226,652 444,890 87.5,285 665, «39 654,Ur,3 631,847 8M,164 658,967 696,064 876,008 220,718 191,261 417,251 810,085 421,006 809,886 80^888 487,766 476,74* 47N68t 298,610 vm ■ i-'-, 1 i^h'* ,, ,,,^ Jg 75,159,42i 518,766 9,8,847,8.S6 648,299 90,623,339 776,971 130,267,!M(1 1 lURoal 1«4 UM 146,488.637 106,648.'. ft 860,996 ; 905,703 i C<-f^^M. ORE 876 GRE Tasu MKnmif* ma (iVANT)Tiii* awd Valpi or TniiAroo (iiaw\ Ikbiah Com, Foii, Bacon An Laid npom* rHOM Till tfNITlin HtATU to OmiAT IUiTAIN and IULAND, FIOH 1880 TO llfiA, HOTII YllAM KCIXDtlVII. Y.wi. IHiilAI 1 4■< 1,6^11 17,106 48.664 04,663* MAIM A u*etm V«lu.. IBM M,T8S 86,8m 18,814 W).6M 17,»N.' I» 'v.O ' , '• 8l :I80 17,186 4^1.181 8«,9«« 11,000 89,181 86,I6» 17,948 19,740 13,801 91,807 80,916 18.698 17,696 N,18< 17,684 14,108 1,«ail,»TI 1,881,886 l,84^400 1,109.107 l,9H7.ii-J() .•', i.is 1,OS.'1,.70 1,160,9117 1,771,118 8,1110,080 8,408,880 1,011,110 8,48'<,4'«) l,146,»«l 8,607.760 Iliull.li, 01,416 190,988 811 8,140 "808 "■« 180 Oil l()4.H4l 11,048 118,660 M),oi8 18,1,6SM 1,191.rtMI 10.016,010 0,061,110 11,896.1 1'l r;,i»47 1 . ; ii89(i7ri') 1,608,S40 0.96.\8,'iO 0,980,18 i 1,64« 1,860 601 T,480 4,994 1,N|B 11,461 400 667 l.KI 1,061 16,894 160,174 606,818 8.Vt,lH9 96,18)7 080,016 14.867,1110 19,ll\461 08.1.M),460 87,877,769 14,710.169 8.107,998 18,197.879 88,890,737 80,140,161 "mo 144,1100 8.480,781 4,06l),4*« 8,076.KO0 0,6N7,678 Mll.Bsi 17,79N,770 17,7''M,841 !l,Sh«|,l|(l« S1,6H'J,091 6,6'18,7»8 8.976,114 9,710,186 16,710,141 10,849,911 fkllan. 10,8IM 1,888 19,878 10,997 198 114,1 1,198 40 88 141 110 80,117') 187,ll'.'l 800,'2»« 648,700 497,066 7611,116 8,471,01)7 0,1S.H,'.>,19 6,I«'M94 4,8t 1,989 1.087.1101 1.078,199 1,189,094 6,198,894 0,918,110 I8R1 18111 1888 1884 1N8B 1886 1H87 , 1888 1889 .. 1li40 1841 1841 1848 1N44 iMA 1816 IHIf 1««8 1849 I8A Isfil 18A1 I8m 18»4 IsAA • 0,679 ticrcoa worn TtRi.8 KXiDntTiKn Tim Importd intis and Kxpoktr rRIIM THH Un)TKD KiNOlXIM Of OlIKAT HrITAIN AND IrK- LAND, rROU 1801 TU 1808, INCI.t'nlVK, I)R8IIINKn TO IHUW TIIK lir.NKRAI, FURKKIN 'I'llADE GIT THAT KiNUDUil DUR- ING TUB PkHIOD DIUHONATKD, r>An. 1801 ISOl 1808: Ism 1800 1806 1807 180N 1H09 ISIO 1M1 1811 1818 1814 1810 1816 1817 1H18 1HI9 1810 ISll 181-.' 1813 1814 IvW 18161 1117 Valat or Ini-I pOTti Inl'i Oi«TotAl •iliorta. VnlUd Klii«d. I I)na«™. I IVIIsri. 108,981,8(8)1 176.1ia,l,'W) 149,iai.n,V) 19l„'Vll),9fl() 188.118,4sO, 141,.'iOO.n80 189.'''7,760| 10\18O,l,V) 14l,' 1,800, 150,1(81,1100 184,41S.1»0 167,897,170' 188,671,110: l.W,()77,68n 18S,ii77,7llOi 101,989,9.'i0 10S,,W,7S0 281,818,1611 I9.\008,0(10| 117,096,680 181,MO,91<) 188,990.600 180,817,105 19,^,107,810' Rerorf', ile>lr!..,«) h» Hr«, [ liK,71C,81ii, 167,S6.^•^.'^5 1 114,986 tfSO, 298,lli',7.'W 187.108,0111 140,989.100 •54,171,490 ".'51.010,0^5 ia4,42.\910| J6;,S01,6»0 1B8.R84,000 217,894,900 161,lU8.2,'iO, 144.707,688 1M,9611.«)10 207.807,165 101,0M,7O0 267,800,490 178.991.160 261,151,560 177.811,890 194,676,160 111.04t,i'l,'> lSl,6OO,910 189,069,400 liiS.llO.nO 214,040,165 l,')0,2(k).770 I iViiliio of lin-, (YvAri. iwrU Inio lh«' ToIaI eiporll. iVullrdKlnrl.l , Dollar>. { 1818 120.HS7,110 1S19 219,976,480 1880 281,501,860 1881 148,68i).140 1881 118.0,")1.780; 1*18 219.711,180, HUM «4«,H28.665 1H85 '^40,146,6701 1886 186,4811.110 1887 '178.811,410' 1S8S 806,49O.06.'i 1889 810.140,60.^ 1840, S37,408.,'>00 IMi 822.111,840 1842' 8in.26«l,4:)fl^ 1843, 801,074,,'V60 1844. 877,146,970 1840 416,487,040 1946 879.67(1,110 1947, 461.609,830 1948! 467,78.'..070 1849, ,M9,878,():i5 ]8,'y)'0'>''801,|i 1901'0j8,:(»0,6*. 1 18,02, 046.7'17,040;i 1808 610,496,060' DollAn, 883,678,170 884.1181.6.80 849,.N)8,740: 807,1(12,4.VI, «9O,80O.71o: atfft.ioo,.'),^); 411. 'J9l,lV4fl' 4.V.,798.910| 488,009,2Sll| 418.S97,s»0 .'.■.'0,827,89,'-| .'.ll',9.'W,29ll Oil,4O0,070; 6il.014.480 069,2ll».ni(l! 609. 1(M, 78.01 729.7.88.170 70I.!H9,OIO| T'AOAISO 780,h6O,(H(i 704,980,100 900,0(16.1170 9s5.54'<.8,90 ,071,914,060 1,097,7'.'H,495 ,110,881,120 TaULR KXnlRITINO 1 i; ^M.)CNT It flOLO ANll ll.VER Coin and IIl'luon kaiuktkd from tiir Unitkd Statib to GrCAT nuITAIN, rROM 1980 TO 1805, UOTU Ykaks INCLUSIVK. TMr.. isao VaIik, .,.. 110,104 .... 61^7l8 .... S76.4SI Ymi. i 1818 V«lnf. 1881 1889 1 1844 1.^^ ' 1846 1847 1848. 2,811 !!! 1,080 ()47 1888 ..-- 1884 1888 10,000 1886 IS49 1850 tm,866 868,667 188T .... 619,180 !."! 846^790 1,900 957 1888 1889 1840 1981 IM 1968 1904 1805 ... 11.' 1,608 ... " T,87» 8,881 .899 1,788 1841 1849 .... 1,116,719 1 .... 099,491 1 Zatci and Regulatioru Pelat've to r(u.ieniff -s' Uagga;r in inijlaad and the Untied States, Explain 'A and Com- partd. — The laws and Treasury orders refijulating the adnilMir>n of baggagp. personal eflTects, etc., into the port* ef Great Britain and of the United State*. respective]}-, are based upon principles so totally dis- similar, that a comparative view of lx)th can only be presented by exhibiting a synopsis of each. The pol> alio oipurtoil In 19,00. icy of Groat Itritain would seem to he to restrict the privilege ot f ire tntry to such articles of irearin;/ ap- parel HI han been icom, and not made up for the pur- pose of being lutroduned into the country, free of duty; while the regulntinns in force at the difTcrent ports of the United .States e.\l[iliit a spirit of the uU most lilieraiity in thiit regard, enabling pa.iscngen, whoso " linggngn and personal clTects" have been hon- estly made U[i, and faithfully manifedted, to proceed to their destination, without delay or cost, or being huI>- Jected to tho many thousand vexatious aniioyniices which a less liberal policy, in regard to " passengers' baggage, personal ell'ects," etc., must Inevitably pro- duce. Tho American policy ov " is subject is, lii"-lile», higlily benedcent to the lur^^ classes of eini^-.ints who seek on asylum on our shores, lltorully carrying with tliem their " bed and boggage," their weaving- looms, spinning-wheels, and other articles and imple- ments of handicraft, all of which are admitted, under the tariff act of 1846, free of duty. In tho United States, the admission of personal bag- gage, etc., is regulated by scliediile one, Tariff Act of lH4(i, and of various decisions of tho Treasury Depart- ment subseqeuntly issued. The several provisi'.,ns of the almve-nnmed schedule, and of the Treasury decli- ions, may be clossifled as follows: 1. Household ef- fects, old and in use, of persons or families arriving from foreign countries. If used aliroad by them, and not intoided for nny other person or persons, or for sale, free. 2. Wearing ap|>arel, in actual use, and other personal effects, not merchandise ; professional boolcs, implements, instruments and tools of trade, oc- cupation, or employment of persons arri\ing in the United States (provided that this exemption shall not extend to or include mucliinery or other articles Im- ported for use in any manufactur'.ig establishment, or for sale), free. 3. Petjonal and household effects (not merchandise) of citizens of thr United States dying al>roud, free. The exemption from duty contemplated by law in the tirst clause, above cited, must bo con- lined to such articles aa are generally used in house- lieeping, and which had actually been In use liy the indi- vidual or family while living abroad, and not imported for sale, barter, or traffic. The exemption from duty of wearing apparel, and other personal effects, provided for in the second clause quoted, must be confined to such articles as are generally used on or about the person, and not conaideied aa merchandise ; the arti- cles admitted under this clause to be limited to an ox- tent not exceeding in number, quantity, or value what is usual for a traveler, or other person, to wear, keep, ORE •w GRB the .11 not 8 im- nt, or 9 (not dying plated con- ouse- indU rarted duty vided ed to t the I arti- n ex- what "Hkeep, or Mrry «Uh him (br hia own u»'. i ne prof«ulon*I booki, lniplem«ntH, Innrumciitt, ain' loola of trvdr, oo- cu|Hitiuii, nr employinunt, enumurntHl In (h« Hume tUuM, am limltad in iiuiiilHtr, i|iiiility, nUil vnlii* tn what tbn collactor mny I'onxider rcii^Hnalile and prupnr fur llm |i«ni»ii to wlinin thvy lirl»n)(, in hi« profMaion, occupation, tradn, or amploymeht ; liut the term " im- plemnnU and tool* iif triiilc," uiidrr mi rinminatiun'n to lie conaidercd at rciniprelirndinK any muclilna or ar- tluU lu lie worked liy other than manual power. Hfijulntioni <'KK<'l!o i" lialile to seizure. Such gowla inuat lie reg- ularly reported and entered, and tli« regulations of the law strii'lly complied with. If any paasungor ahull, upon being questioned l>y the proper otHcer of customs, deny that lie or ahe has uny goo<>ggage as may be liable to duty, can either aliandon the same, or they may be left in the queen's ware- house for six months, in order to give their proprietors an opjiortunity of taking them back without payment of duty.— Bebdkll's British Tariff, 18M-'6, pp. 82 to 67. RtgHlationt rtlalire to tMt Kntrn nf ('•««*/< info tk4 Pirrlt ,)/ llrrat Britain and »/ tkn llnitnl Htnlrt nifit- parrd. — Ve««el« entering any [airta In (Ireat Krltaln are subject ' the following regulations, via. : H« miiia aa u veiael hiii reported, tliii iin|M>rt«rs, agenia, tir con> n'llfwvii (if the cargo, having lnuii utlvlaed by rec«l|it of liilla rif lading, or other Intimation, may each enter their several goort Ilia cargo to the chief odi' cer of cU!'red at the |Mist-iit!ice all letters that were on board his ship. AikI likewise, he must, under a |ien- alty of iJtlOO, and the further aum of i)50 for each alien not induiled in tlu> declaration, truly declare to the number of aliens on lioard or landed from his ship. Uooda generally are lialde to seizure for being landed without entry ; and packages uncleared from the ipieen's warehouse are sold after the expiration of the following periods, viz. : Merchandise, U months ; pas- sengers' baggage, months ; and shl|>8' surplus stores, 12 nionthii. If, after tlie arrival of any ship within four leagues of the c(iiist of the United Kingdom, bulk shall be Imiken, or any alteration made in the stowage of the cargo of such ship so as to facilitate the unlad- ing of any part of audi cargo ; or if any part lie staved, destroyed, or thrown overboard, or any pack- age be opened, unless accounted for to the satisfaction of the cuminl.Hsloners of ciiatoma, in every such case such master sliuil forfeit the sum of 9&()ll. For will- fully making a false report, or if the particulars, or any of them, of such report lie false, the maater sliall forfeit the aum of $500. (16 and 17 Victoria, chap. 107,) By the act of Congress of March 2, 1799, masters of vessels are required to produce n manifest of cargo on board, on the arrival within four leagues of the coast of the I'nited States, to such ofHccr of a revenue- cutter, or other oiti r of the customs, aa ahull tirst cuiiio on board such v. sael. <'>r 'lia inspection. Tlie law re- quires that the nianifif-t 'sail lie in writing, signed by the master of s>uii ^ f-ael, and shall contain the name, description, biiUd, a'ln) true tonnage of such vessel, the place to which she belongs, with the names of tiie owner or owners, the name of the master, the names of the places where the goods shall have been taken on lioard, and the places within the United States to which they are respectively consigned, particularly noting the goods destined for each place respectively, and a just and particular account of uU tiie goods so laden on board, whether in packages or stowed loose, of any kind whatever. The names of the passengers on lioard, specifying the number and description of packages belonging to each, together with the remain ing sea-stores, if any, are to be truly stated. If any goods be imported in any such vessel without hav- ing a manifest on board, agreeable to the foregoing direction*, or which thall not be included therein, or ORB 8^8 ORK •h»ll mil iffM* thnvvrltb, th* matttr ut tush vawi-l •hitll fiirfult and poy ■ mini nf inoiMj *i|iiiil tn tlin vnlii* of lliu )(iiui>lon)(ln^ or ivnilKiiutl t» th* mutar, mati>, olHiKrn, or enw of mn-li vniiul, ahull Im riirfnitnl. No jiililitiun, nriiiiura, anb- ■iltutlon, iir nUiirollon whutaovcr, oan Im muiln In th« manlfeat of thn ciirKii of any auoh vcaatl after hiriil)(ii port, th* inaatrT la tn report to the roU lector H ilhin 'it boiira after hh iirrlvul ; anil within V4 boura tberoaflur further to r«|Hirt, in form, all the par- ticiilart requlrvd to Im Inaerted in hia manifaat, and shall declare to the truth of aur'.i manifeat. No v»a- iela iiermitted to enter until the muater ahull have de- liverml ail letter* diracted to perinna within the United 8tatoa. Merchaiiernilt from the proper offloera of the cuatuma to lin forfi'ltml ; ■nd the matter and mate, each, forfxlt 4ilil0(). ll«fora departure fur a forci^ port, the manter 00. CiJottinl i'ostrjtiotu nftlrml llrhain. — Ai ■ neosa- wrj' preliminary to a olear exponitloii of the l»wa and reKuUtionn which govern the exi«tin(( ronimeR'lal rn- lationx lietwern tlio United Stntea and the rolonlnl poiwjanioniof (iroat Britain, it will lie neceaaary to tnico • lirief ntruapectlTe glance at the rUo and pro^reaa of American commerce, from the earllect Hettlement of the colonies down to thn preai'nt period. AltlioiiKh tbnae preliminary nnnarka will be moro e^peciiilly addreaned to the commercial lnt«raoune lietween the United States and tiie colonial poAa«Maloiia of (ireat nritnin in North America, they will equally apply to all the other posaeations of that (lOWer thrnuKhout the world, by reoiton of the K«"iirAl appll(^ation of that lllieriil and enllKbtenetl ayatcm of commercial policy sdoptetl by the Hritiah I'arliiinient In ItMU, and Inau- gurated as the future commerciul law of tliut Idngdom on the lat day iif January, IHAO. From the earliest settlement of thodlflTcront colonies on tJie North American continent by the Kovemmenta of the Old World, i system of colonial leKixlation, similar in effect, and oppressive In o|M>ration, wiu com- menced by each, respectively, prohililtlng nil commer- cUl Intercourse with any other than the mother coun- try, and rendering the infant colonies dependent on her alone for the supplies necessary for their suliidst- ence and comfort. The effects of auch a policy were soon exhibited in the anomaloua and destitute i ondi- tlon to which the earlier colonists were reduced. Car- rying with them, as they did. Into the newly di^ covered wildorness of the western continent, that adventuroUH and enterprising spirit vrhich lisd le ham li)' a rtmonttrnm:* iiKulnat thia oppresaivo imlicy, to wit: that "the ilrltiali Ainnrlcun coloniiw had n* right t4> mako even a nail for a horae-ahue. " " In nnd out of I'arlianiant," aitys the 'I'muaury raport of 18111, "as a ladliical right nnd as a national privilege, an alisolutn niono|)oly wiia deninndud for supplying thn colonies with every article of consumpton, and of tranajairting tli« wluiin of their pnului* to Europe." Ill thn chiirter of Virginia tliorn was an sxpniss at.ipulation «iu|iowering the colonials to earr> on a di- rect intercoiirne with foreign at.itea. 'ibis privilege naturally draw their attention Ut the cultivation of tha soil, and t4) the produition of auch artldi'H an would h« most likely to iind a foreign market, anil yield them auch returna aa were moat suitable to tliuir condt> tiKraaa th«y hail inada (irjiir to tha llavululiiiii, 'I'lix fnllow* Idk tiilile •shililta tha extent nnil valun of IhU Iritila In 17UI): Impiirta, D1!I,(HIO,OUO i ax|Hirta, tV2,tHm,(MH totiil, i|i'.>ri,(HKl,lK)n. or Ihla aKKr»Kiit« of trivl*. tliat wllhtlm Waat liullaa atMxl thuai Kx|Hirta, •U,7(J0,Ul, |ill,il&0,OI)0, At tlio conimancainant uf tlia rnvulutlimary war, tha (xilanlra anjnyail tha prlvilnKa of IrailInK with Kn> gUnil, tlin lirltUh Wnit Indlea, ami that part nf Kurii|M aouth pf ('aps KinUterra i anil thoUKJi oppraaaail liy unjuni axartlona, anil burilenail liy llllliaral rimtrU'tlona, tbay not only lontrlbuteil tu tlia waaltli anil inuturlul pnMpKrIty of tha niothor rountry, liut )t»y awry proinUa of thrivInK, anil iwhiavln^ u naina of tliiiir own,— l)K How'a htvif.u: During the mvnlutlunary witr, all conimpKliil u|Hiru- tliinx were iius|)enili'il, luiil thu pi'iuii of 17MJI fiiunil tha trndn of tha new thirteen iniluponilrnt auvaralKnthia In It mont foiililn iiiiil liuiKuUhlnK ciinilltinn. Thalr Inilu- p«nil«ni") miiila th«ni a furiilun I'uuntry to tha North Ainerli'au anil Wont Indlii colunloa ; unil li}' u rlKuriiiiH ayateiii of colonial non-inteniiurac, tliny waru i:iit ulf from all trailo witli those who were thnir niitiiriil oiiin- inerviiil nei|{hb<>rM, unil, prior tu the l<«vi>lutlun, tlinir moat pn>tltal>le ciistoinurH, The oxhuuatoil conilition to whii'li the auvi'riil Htataa wore now rtnluceil remlerod the (Imt few yeiira aftor the (ioao of the w»r a purlod of thii moat IntonMi aolU citude. The cnnfedi'ratoil Statea were fully aenallile of the abaolutu neceasity of opviiinK ii riiriilKn trade, and eaiwi'ially of reviiverInK their liiit intt^ioiirae witli the Uritiah Woat Indies ; liut every pru|H>aitiun to that end, nrf;i'd thro.if{h tlieir uccrodltetl ndiiiateri, waa mot liy a decided rcfuaul, Aa early a.i 17H3, Mr. I'itt, then Clmncellor of the Rxchequer, propnaed a liill In tile liritlali rurllainenl Imaed upon the lllieriil principle of " iidiiiittiiix to all the |Hirta of the Ilritiflli diiininiona Ainerieun veaaela loaded with g(>m\», tlie growtii or producu iirtlieHe |tlie United] Mtatea, on the aauio terina ua llritinli vcKKela and Kuoda," Imt thu pro|H)aitiiiii at once atiirtled tlie feare of the Britiali inorchiiutH, wlin, witii the aid nl' Lord Xortli, Mr, Fox, and Uird HhellleUI, aucceuded in transferrin); the wbolo auliject to the diacrotinn nf the kin;; amlliiH council. The conaei|ueiice wua, tbiit an order wua immediately isaued, nut only excliidiiiK American veaaela from all particl|iittion In the ciilniilul trade, but prolilbitlni; the ex|iortution from the United Staten of provleiona and flah, even In UritlaU liottuuia. Two yeara after Mr. I'ltt'a uiiaucceaaful motion for reciprocal trade lietween the domiiiiuua of Orvut llrlt- ain and tha United States, John Adaina, American minister at the court of St. Jamea, waa inatriiuted tu renew the propoaitinn ; but it met with no mora fa- vorable reception than It did In 1783, I^rd I.iverpoul declaring " that it could not lie admitted even us a subject of negotiation." In 1789, another ofTort was made by the United States to negotiate with Great Ilrltuin a cummercliil treaty, particularly with reference to tlie culnnial trade, bused upon principles of u more liberal recipruc- Ity. Mr. Morris, then in London, was eapttcliilly in< structod to effect, if possible, a negotiation uilmltting American productions, in American bottoms, Into itrlt- bh North American possessions, and bringing. In return, the productions of those colonbis to our own ]iorts and markets. The result of, these renewed efforts was communicated to the govamment of tha Unitail Htates by Mr. Murria, In bla dlapati h of Hep tenibar IM, 17IH), and was. In nffmi, that no urruiit^e- inaiil by treaty loiitd be niade, h'rum thla iwrliKl down to the year IN'.'}, thn port' of tha llrlllah Aiiierlian ndiinlea wan virtually i'!ii»eil ilgalnat the nimmerre iif thu United Htiitea, aMiiie alight relaxationa having been grantad, almtlng, however, to no imneptilda extant, thn alringunry of thn ineiiaiirea luloptiiil by tlie Itritlah riirliumiint, with a view to riinllnii, within tiie very nurrownat Kmlta, the iniii- iiierrlal entnrprlie of a lountry In whiih, even at that early imrliid, ahe dnarrlnd a future rival for niiiritlme aiiprrmuey, Theae roUxiitloiia (lermiltttd u dlrei't trailn with llin llrltiah Weat India laliinda in lertiiin •|Hii'illiid artii'lea, and under inrtaln ruatrlctluna, but were not accepted by the United .Statra. During the iHirlod whh:h elupaed lietween the yeura 171)0 ami M'i, aevnrul elforta were made to place our trade with the Uritiah Ameriian colonina upon u bnala of eipiulity I theaa elforta proving frultleaa, the Uni- ted Hiiitna ibiternilneil to aiilitnit no longer to u |iolicy ail detrimental to her euniinercUl pniaperity, an iibatl- nateiy perhiated In, and liitliurto reainted only by tha unavailing fnne of dlploinutiu runionalranco, ll«riiro reanrtlng, however, to any extreme mcaaiirea Tor tlui projier vlndieatloii of our rommercial rights tlin government of the United Stiitea, atlll anxloua to avert, by ineuna iif coiiciliutiiry legi^jhitinn, a total aus- \ii'iialiin of trade and conimerru witli (ireut llrlt.iin and her American lolniilea, unnounieil, by act of March 8, INKi, the prini'lplea upon wliirh nlin wua dcairoua of muintiiining cuinmerciul ri'lutiona with ull foreign nationa. Tliia ui't re|H'aliiil nil diairiminuting dutlea of im|io»t and tiiiinugit on foreign veaaela in regard to all loiin- triua whirli sIiimiIiI adopt a niinilur policy in fiivor of the United Htutea. Tliia fuir and liberal pro|ioaitiiin waa fiiilowed liy a convention between (Ircut lirituln and the I'nited Htutea, In which the provialnna nf the net referred to were adopted, ao far aa they were applii iililo to the trade lietween tlie United >Statea and the do- inlnliina of that piiv er in Ktirope, hut refusing to place lier colonial trude on the aunio buaia. A more extended notice of tiiu iiroviaiona of tliia convention, more jiriip- eriy came under tlie preliminary remarka on the coii- merrlul reiatlona of lu ^'nlted Status with (ire. i llritain. It will aulllca to obarrve, in thla pi.."e, I'lit the roatrlction reajiocting colonial triido waa I'' I H ' aubjei't of a apeclul atipultttion. In the fuUowiii ' .i i' viz, ! " Tile intercnurao liotwoon the XTniu ^i and his llrltiinnii'- mujeaty'a puaseaaiona in tlie W < IniUea, and on tlie cnntinont of North America, aim. not bo iiffeeted by ony of the provisions of this article [article 2 1, Imt each party sbull remain in poaaesdlon of ita rights with respect to that intercounio." Thu act of April IH, 1K18, was the commencement I'f llui meanuroa of retaliation by wliirii the govern- ment of thn United States had now determined to force (ireut llritain into a,mare juat and lilieral ayatem of ciiiiiMiercliil legialutinn, by excluding from American porta all alilpa iieloiigiiig to that nation cnining from liny colonies to which vessels of the United States wore not admitted. The aocond section of this act required bonds to be given In the cuae of all Ilrltish vessels departing from porta In the Unitemitted with reference to the legislation of that period, both in Great Britain and the United States, will sufHciently explain the discrepancies. Staiemknt KxniniTiNo the Valiii! or Imports and Ex- I'OUra TO AND KBOM THE UNITED STATES AND THE BkITISB AuEBicAN Possessions, diirino the Years specified TEAM. BEiniH WHT INDIES. H. AHEEICAH rOMIUlONf. Import*. Exports, Iniporti, Eiporti, 1821 |»27,84« «265,102 |490,7U4 »2,(K,»,791 18M 8ft>\MT 462,141 628,817 1,898,878 1823 1,844,931 1,827,967 463,779 1,827,208 1824 2,T.'W,06T 1,771,008 714,!44 1,782,989 1S26 2,487,122 1,647,U4« 619,884 2,56«,0»2 1826 a,2M,412 2,110,802 358,950 2,5sa,7»5 1827 895,207 690,877 445,113 2,830,748 The foregoing tables will exhil)it, at a glance, the injurious effects consequent upon tlie different acts of retaliatory legislation resorted to and enforced by both nations during this prolonged and unyielding contest. Other tables will tie introduced in the proper place, showing the value and extent of trade between the United States and the British colonial possessions sub- sequently to the year 1830, when a policy, based upon the just principles of reciprocal benefit and generous competition, succeeded the illiberal and unwise meas- ures iiy which the commercial intercourse of both countries had, for nearly half a century, been diverted from its natural channels. It will be recollected that by the act of Congress of ] 823, passid as soon as could be after the Treasurj' cir- cular of September 14, 1822, already referred to, had been issued, the claim to an e(|uality with Great Britain as to duties on importations into the colonies was reasserted, and the terms of the President's proc- lamation of August of the same year were affirmed. Great Britain could not be induced to yield this point : her object being to enable her to ' ' protect the staples of her own subjects, by levying discriminating duties on the like proaacttons of foreign countries." With- ORE 881 ORE ont nneh finpoati, Iha IlritUh govcrnmrat contended " that th« production* of hnr Nurtli American coloniea would be totally excluded from the market* of the West India Inland*, a* they rould not poi*ltily com- pete with aimilar production* of the United Htates," Thia deterininatliin, and theae diacriminatInK dutlea, led to the refuaul liy (!on)(r«*a to accept the terma on which the port* of the Hritlah coloniea were opened to American trade \>y the a<'t of 1H26. The conditions an which tlii* trade waa offered were not deemed ailinlaailjle, Inuamiich a* they demanded that the commerce and navlKatlon of Great Britain, and her po**e**lon» abroad, with the United Htatea, ahould be placed on the fmitlng of the moat favored nation ; while dUcrlminationa exiated in auch colonial poaaessions, not only unequal aa raapected Great Brit- ain, but exclusively applicable to the commerce of the United Matea. Theae different acta are recurred to for the purpoae of elucidating more clearly the illilHiral policy and narrow Jealouaie* which pr'r«ane, the American minister at London, in purauance of Inatructlana to that effect, propoaed to the KritUh cabinet " a reatoration of the trade between the Untied Htatea and Great Britain, with apecial reference to her American (loaaeaaions, upon a liasi* of reciprocal concesaion, and announced the willinKnes* of hi* )(overnment to accede to the term* prescribed by tlic a<;t of Tarlloment of 1825." In o|)enini{ thIa negotiation, Mr, McLane Introduced the propoaitiun which he waa authorl/.ed to aubmit, by referring to " the niiauiidcriitandlnKa and jealousies which hod hitherto i^haracterizcd the commercial rela- tions of lH>th countrie*," oliservInK, " that it waa the Interest of botli Kovernmetits to extin)(nlah theae causes of mutual bitterness ; to correct the errors which may have interrupted the harmony of their past inter- course ; to (Uscuril from their commercial regulations measures of hostile raono|Hily | and to adopt instead a generous aystem of frank and amicable competition." Such, in Mr. Mclif till* sulijei't. It must uoceaaariiy be tinal ;" u declaration wlilili, iloubtless, contributed somewliiit to the satisfactory nnd liberal art.ingement which soon followed. In aiitu'lpation of a final and satisfactory adjuat- nient uf this iiuestlon, ami, ut the same time, to mani- fest the lilM-rai spirit which aiiiiiiated the government of the United HltUm in It* solicitude and willingness nt all tiiiiea tu tcriiiinate a contest ci|ually detrimental to the ciimmcrcu nf both nations, an act was passed in May, 18:10, cliitiiiiig the i'rcsident with [lOwer, on re- oelrliiK satisfactory evidence of th« wUllngneaa of the Kkk Britiah government to accede to the piopoaition Bub< mitted by Mr. McLnne, to faaue hia proclamation rati- fying tho terma of that proposition, an(t tendering to Britiah vessela engaged in the colonial trade the advan- tages which it secured. On the 17th of August following, Mr. McLane waa officially notified by the Earl of Aberdeen, that hia government was prepared to accept the terms on which it waa proposed to relax their colonial aystem, and per- mit a direct trade between the United Statea and the North American posaesaiona, and only awaited the neceaaary action on the part of that government to promulge the requisite ordera to that end. Accord- ingly, on the 5th day of October fallowing, the Presi- dent, by virtue of the authority conferred on him by the above-mentioned act, issued his proclamation, de- claring that the act " concerning navigation," passed on the 18th day of April, 1818, the act supplementary thereto, passed on the 15th day of May, 1820, and tlie act entitled " An act to regulate the commercial inter- course between the United States and certaui British ports," paased on the let day of Klarcb, 1823, were ab- solutely repealed ; and that the ports of the United States were, from the date of the proclamation, open tx) British vessels and their cargoes, from the islands, provin>'e8, and colonies of Great Britain, on or near the North American contioent, and north-east of the Unit- ed States. These several acts, it will be borne in mind, consti- tuted the whole system of retaliatory measures adopted by the government of the United States, during the co'iMnuance of the commercial controversy now brought to u close. Corresponding orders in council were also promulged by the British government, giving full validity to the arrangement, and placing the United States on an equal footing, with respect to colonial trade, with the other nations that bad eompfied witlt the act of 1825. The commercial intercourse between the United Statea and the American colonial fiosaessious was now established on a basis, in some respects, it is true, re- strictive, but still sufficiently liberal and broad to in- spire -with renewed energy the commercial interests of the nation, and direct them in the more equal compe- tition on which they were permitted to enter. Nearly 50 years before this period, the policy to which uireat Britain now gave her assent was si^gest- ed and urged with great earnestness bj' Mr. I*itt, then Chancellor of the British Exchequer. His proposition, already noticed, was to the efl!ect that Americua ves- sels loaded with goods, the growth or produce of the United States, should Le admitted to all the ports of the British dominions. Every administration, from the formation of thia government down to the year '^830, directed its be^t energies to effect a negotiatioii with the British government, recognizing this princi- ciplc ; but ' hether from a real desire to protect and foster its uwn navigation and commerce, as was avowed, or to repress tho spirit of commercial activity which, from the very earliest period, had characterized the United States, every nlistucle that diplomacy could create, and every aophiatrj' that ingenuity could sup- ply, seemed interpo.'icd whenever the question was pressed upon the attention of the British cabinet. How disastrous this restrictive policy proved to the commercial interests of both countries, and espccially to those of the West India colonies, which naturally looked to the United States for the necessary supplies of subsistence, may be gatliercd from the tables already given. The increase of the total trade of the United States from this period may be sliown as follows : CoMMfiRrE or THE Unitkd States. GxportA. Im|)Ortii, IRfin »7a,849,.W8 |70.S76,920 ISaS 121,698,.'i-7 ]4»,89.\742 ISW 132,085,946 107,141,519 The progress and almost incredible augmenta- tion of this trade under the new arrangement may I W% m QBE 882 M seen from the following comparatlre statement of imports end exports ; OfnoiAL Valuk or luroiin and Expobts or tub UsmD States to and pkcm thk Britmu Noktii Amkkioan AMD WnT India I'ouiissiuns roR 1880 AND 1840, ax- SFIOnVELT ; SIIOWINO, ALSO, TUII INOBBASB or TORHAOI DDBIHO THAT PBBIOD. u jBrlt N. Amor. pogseulons. . iBrtt. W. Indies. IMPOBta. XIPOIITC. isto. 1940. 1830, 1S40. I$660,8fl8 lS8,S7t »»,OOT,T«T 1,M8,1<5 18,786,878 1,901 t<,098,«!0 2,968,584 From the foregoing table It will be seen that the ag- gregate trade with the British American colonies in- creased during the period designated from $4,436,676 to $8,601,017, or nearly 100 per cent. ; and the increase in the trade with the British West Indies in the same period was equal to 2400 per cent. This vast increase in the value of the trade neces- sarily supposes a corresponding augmentation in the amount of tonnage. As illustrative of the elastic and enterprising spirit of American commerce when freed from the sliacldes of illiberal restrictions, and permitted a fair competition, on eqnal terms, in addi- tion to the preceding table, the following statements, exhibiting the augmentation in t«mnage under the new arrangement of IH.SO, will prove interesting. The average tonnage which entered in the United States from the British, Swedish, and Danish West Indies during the years specified was as follows : Tom. In 16S8, 1S2«, and 1880 88,688 In 1882. 114.661 Increase. . J6,018 The average tonnage which departed from the United States for the llritiah, Danish, and Swedish West Indies, in the same years, was as followa : Ton*. In 182S, 1829, and 1880 91,485 In 1883. 184,986 Increase 4.3,651 During the first fjeriml. vis., 1828, '29, '30, the prin- cipal trade to the itritisli West Indira was indirect and circuitous; during the latter 18.T2), under the new arrangement, it was direct. Similar results followed the liberal policy of 1830, in the trade of the United States with the North American colonies ; and, as we are now approaching a new era in the commercial inter- course lietween the I'nited States and these colonii], the advent of which was announced by the repeal of the Brilisii navigation laws in 1849, the following tables are intt'ixluced for the purpose not only of exhibiting the augmentation in that trade during the two periods, but also of indicating its probable future increase under the beneficent effect of the late reciprocity treaty. The average tonnage entered into the United iStates from the North American colonies uuring the years specified, is as follows : Tons. In 1R2S, 1829, and 1880 36,804 InlKSS 182,672 Increase 86,868 The average tonnafjo departing from the I'nited States to North American possessions, the same years, WB1 as follows : Ton». In 1828, 1829, and ls80 10S,.S70 In 1838. »11,»»8 Increase ]07,»H The following is a summar}' of the foregoing tsbles ; Ton*. {■crease »f tonnasc enUrert In 18.32 from the W. Iiid, 26,0H Increase of tonosge from North American posseutons 86,8ils Increase of tonnage departed to the West Indie*. . . Increase of tonnage departed to the N. Amer. pos. Teal. 43,661 107,978 ToUl 112,886 Total 151,B»» It will have already been perceived, from the fore> going tables, that so soon as American commerce was liberated from the thralldom of oppressive and prohilv itory restrictions, it at once challenged a competition with the flags of all nations in supplying the markets of the British West India and North American posses- sions, and in maintaining with them a profitable and an extensive trade. Indeed the benefits resulting flrom the measures adopted in 18B0, not only to the United States and Great Britain, but to the West India and other Amer- ican possessions, became so manifest, in the vast in- crease of capital, tonnage, and the value of trade, and the commercial relations between the two nations had become, year by year, so closely united in the bonds of mutual interest and of a more enlightened policy, that it is not surprising that the British nation received with much favor the first advance, taken by Sir Kobert Peel, toward the system of free trade, which now con- stitutes the basis of British commercial legislation, and, in its results upon the general prosperity and wealth of that nation, fully vindicates the wisdom and foresight of its distinguished uuthur. Prior to 1847, American exports to the British colo- nies were burdened with double duties — those imposed by the British Parliament, styled imperial duties, and those prescribed by the local legislatures of the difler- ent colonies. The revenue derived from the former was, at all times, inadequate to meet the expenses of the colonial system ; and, in consequence, the British civil list was annually increased by large appropria- tions for colonial purposes. The embarrassed condi- tion of the British finances at this period co-operated very opportunely with Sir Robert Peel's predilections in favor of free-trade policy, in inclining the British gov- ernment to receive favorably his proposition to aban- don all control over colonial tariffs, and throw their foreign possessions on their own resources. This measure was at once adopted ; and in the season next succeeding, the Canadian legislature abolished the discriminating and prohibitory duties on imports in- land, thus placing the mother country in the same relative position as foreign nations. The abolition of the British corn-laws next succeeded in this liberal policy ; ond, in 1849, the crowning net of Sir Robert Peel's life — the repeal of the British navigation laws — consummated the s^'stem of measures introduced by that statesman, so far at least as that system affected the intercourse of foreign nations with British colonies throughout the world. By these several acts of imperial legislation, the compi jhcnsive principle wa» established of uilmitting into Great Briain, or into any British possession, goods of any sort, in a ship of any country, from any part of the world, subject onl}' to such prohibitions and re- strictions as were deeme^l necessary, either for the safety of the State, or for the protect'-,'- of revenue and mercantile interests. Undr. the class of absolute prohibitions, the follow- ing articles are included, vh. : gunpowder, ammu- nition, nrns, or utensils of war, except from the United Kingdom or any British ppssession, and l>ase or coun- terfeit coin. These are prohibited to be imported into the British possessions in America or the Mauritius. Other prohibitions and restrictions will lie found es- piclally set forth in Part ll.. Com. Rel. U. S., 1857. The only imposts to which tlie commerce of the United States with the colonies of Gieat Britain is now subject, are the colonial duties imposed by the local leg* islatures of the respective colonies ; and these apply, with some few exceptions, which are noticed in their proper place, equally to Bkitish importations and Brit- ish Ijottoms. These duties are generally very moder- ORB »M ORE ate, designed solely to me t the neeeiMrj' AltpMlM* Af thr colonies, and are at least one third l«s« th«n th« duties levied in the United Mates, un slmilur d«Mi.>ri|*' tions of merchandise, by the tariff act of tftWi We have noticed the woni^erful progress fiMt I*t«ll4/ increase in the value and tonnage of AmerUmn f4iltt' merce with her colonial neighbors which fotlowttd tlio negotiation of 1830, and the subsequent ai'ts und ri>niu lations of the British government. Kuiji suu;m of the nMi«t li'wnt and unrestricted character has lieen aduptad, wMt'h, to a great oxtcnt, places commercial inter<'/>urstaiilfj>h«"t « free trade between the colonies above named and Urn United States, in the principal raw staples itt iuiiU countries, and concedes to the citizens uf tlia luttttf among other privileges, "the rigbt to iiiivlg»t« tlw Kiver St. Lawrence, and the Cu.iaU in ('iina ant, without iwing restricted to any distan<'n the Magdalen Islands, fir the purpoM of drying their nets and curing tlieir tisli," The third article of this treaty provides tiuit th« ur- tides enumerated in the following 8clieilul«. iMing (tin growth and produce of tlie aforesaid British wUiiMn "f of the United States, shall l>e admitted InUt HHuh utHHi' j trj', respectively, tree of duty ; Schedule. — Grain, Hour, and lireuilstuffs of all lilM4it \ ! animals of all kinds ; fresli, Kmolced, and suited \mt>l» t cotton, wool, seeds, and vegetables ; undrii-d fruits, MM fruits; tish of all kinds; productsof lish.anduf alli/tbAr creatures living in the water; (xiultry, eggs ; hijhio, furs, skins, or tails, undressed ; stone or uiarlitM io it* i crude or uuwrought otutc ; slate ; butter, > luunw, tfti' I low ; lard, boms, manure ; ores of inetsls uf alt kUuU , | coal ; pitcii tar, turpentine, asiies ; timber iind luiMl»eing abandoned by the British Treasury, by the net of 1847, already referred to, ar« now wdtt- peiled to support themselves ; and tlwir tariff im manufactured articles is the principal sourc« of rtv* enuo nn which they must depend to meet tM' twayy loans and support tlicir respective govemnuints. Tlie same tonnage duties are payalde upon thlp« or Imats of the United States of Ami:;'ica im|iortinb' gmnht into Upper or Lower Canada, as are or may \m {i4^Mbttw»en thr United Stiles and Brit- 1* Sorlh Amerlean imsmissiuns in ISJH fr^pBrtd In l.anada \n 1865 (lS.7-20,344 i''.rtA to nihrr Britiih Aaerlcan •nfitlfiss 9,08t>,«76 8,937,560 •ti3,494,4a9 Tntal 27,806,020 tt«t)«nfts from Canada in 1866 (12,182,314 iHiUnfli. ffnm niher British North Aw'f'ean poasesalons 2,954,420 Tntal Halanro nf trade In favor of the Uni- idd Kt,»l»» In isryi (12,009,286 Tntal Irads hstween the United States and Brlt- Itti Norin Amerloao possessions In 1856 Tntal f«ni| lbl| hides, tallow, nitre, wool, anndrlM |TW,V1I Books, cotton ironi, Indian ram, •otttti'il' (iMda, vhoat. other artlolai Mt,«» Total. 14,071,834 ExroETs TO r*KAnA i» 1881. Principal Artt4;l«'* — Coffee, suKsr, molasses, tea, tobaeco (manufactured and unmanufactured), whisky, irlne, and salt 1,083,468 Fr.iita (green and dried), spicea 102,806 Horses, grains, chec> j, salt meat, pork 49,800 Tanned leather, t)II, paper, mesa-pork, rice, csn- dlaa, cotton and leather manufactures, manufac- tures of India-rubber, Iron and hardware, ma- chinery, and wool 4,11(8,040 Broom-corn, burr-stones, coals, hides, tallow, other articles 645,560 Books, cotton-wool, maize, philosophical appa- ratus, settlors' goods, wheat (and Including 1631,000 in bullion) 1,384,028 Total 18,363,751 Total exports |8.363,75l Total imports 4,071,534 Balanee in favor of the United States (4,292,217 Total of imports Into Canada from Great Britain in I8.M, in round numbers 12,000,000 The same from the United States 8,000,000 Diirerenei' against the Unite'. States $4,000,000 Imports into Canada from sll countries In 1851, in round numbers 21,000,000 Of which from the united States 8,000,000 pifferpnce between the value of imports Into (!(in- ads from the Untied States, and from all other countries $13,000,000 ifrom the foregoing it will be porceived that the im- ports into Canada from the United tStutes, in 1M51, w .e only one third less than those from 'ireiit Ilritaiii, and nearly two fifths of the whole imports from all other countries. Ihfobts IK 1852. Produce of the mines $2,U)6 Produce of the aeas fA288 Produce of the forest 1,840,106 Animals, and their pro. 1^,.. W, Importa Into Canada, from all nttiODI, In lUO, In round numbers , , ,,,,...,.. A1,000,00'1 Of which, from the United fltatei 11,7S!(,1 W Difference jllO.if 7,152 Imports into Canada, in 1853, were tiniisiiall)' heavy, exceeding those of »hn precadfng yflar tl2,(K)fl,f)(Ki, Tlie tables will show that ffrnat /IrlUfn supplied mute than one half of the whole j whiln thfl exports froi.i the United States, though oxreedllig tlp( » (if the pre- ceding year upward of |'8,000,00<), did not iniiltitiiln. with respect to Great Drllnln, the rathi i.t Wi't. Imports from Canada up to .Kllli iFuna, 1iM (ae- cording to the t.'nlt. d Htatos' Treosiirir refwrtl,. $6,721,539 Exporta to same dale , 17,800,706 Exhibiting a balance In fuvur uf Ilia I,, HUles iit, . ♦IO/i79,l«7 BeTore dusing these rcinurks, It Is priipef lo ohsprvo that the preceding tallies and lali'iilatinna hitvn \m\n prepared with miK li c are, with a viuw U> fMi;ilsh accu- rate data ill ci, 1848. embraced in the third article (" sohedule") of the Re- ciprocity Treaty, Foreign vessels are not permitted to carry goods or passengers from one port of any British possession in Asia, Africa, or America, to another port of the same possession ; though by the act 17 Victoria, chap. 6, the coasting trade of the United Kingdom is opened to the vessels of all nation -i. The foregoing regnlations, etc., apply with some slight modifications, to all the other colonial posses- sions of Great Britain in North America. They will not, therefore, be agiiin referred to, moM OoTOOEB 1, 1820, to Jitly 1, Ye«n endlnf Sept. 30, Ib'il 1822 1828 1824 182» 1826 1827 1828 1829 1880 Total... Sent. 80, 1881. 1882. Jnne 80, 1881 1862 1888 1864 18S6 18M Rxportl. Domeitle. (2,021,449 1,881,278 1,818,118 1.773,107 3,AB8,224 2,664,1 6S 2,797,014 1,618,288 2,724,104 8,660.031 (23,388,763 (4,026,892, 8,869,802 4,890,081 8,477,709 8,900,645 2,466,415 2,022,474 £,484,087 8,418.770 |36,538,H»6" (6,292,290 8,950,148 2,617,005 8,861,188 i,HUMII 0,012,666 5,819.667 6,899.959 8,011,783 8,116.840 Furalgn. (2.812 16,286 8,847 2,617 1,740 24,384 88,660 66,886 40,806 18 6,842 (818,879 (86,446 46,0a3 81,003 67,567 147.S48 194,851 290,512 283.604 144.68 204,088 (1,445,028 (864,273 240,166 107,417 1.8.'.4.717 1,209,200 1,888.767 2.106,876 1,9)f2,6y6 257.760 801,874 (60.056,606 (8,224,588 2,6.')O.IS4 8,893,575 4,698.771 5,8,VS,878 7,619,909 (B,547,S06 (861.280 1,181.822 1.912,968 2,572,;i88 8,229.7*8 626,199 Totnl. (2,024,261 1,897,559 1,821,460 1,776,724 2,589,961 2,588,649 2,880,674 1.674,674 2,764,909 8,786^78_ (23,704,147 (4,061,888 8,614,835 4,471,084 8,6a5,276 4,047,838 2,651,204 8,218,988 2,728,491 8,868.464 6,098,260 (87,980,9lf" (6,656,568 6.190,809 2.724,42-2 6.715,908 6,054,226 7,406,488 7,986.548 8,882.666 8,869,648 8,618,214 (69,603,811" (4.W),788 8.791.256 5,311.848 7,266. IM 9,086,676 3,146,103 Imports. ToUl. (491,628 626,817 468,874 706,981 610,788 050,815 446,118 447,669 677,542 650,808 (8,869,486 (864,909 1,229,626 1,798.893 l.,548,788 1,436,108 2,427,571 2,:!59,268 1,.%55.,570 2,166,146 2,007,767 ,(17,877,016 (1,968,187 1,762,001 857,696 1,468.718 2,020,065 1,987,717 2,848,927 8,646,467 1,348,798 2,88s ,992 (li;706,885 (1.788.651 1,820 880 iMVl.VH 2.206.02) 2,954.42,0 3.t.22,224 Whereof lh,;r« wm In Bullion ftul Specie. Kiported. (462,250 1,021,291 126.772 826,2.58 128,821 (2,864,837 (26,900 16,961 14,704 4fl0..')00 68,>i.733 32,283 160.01 >0 480.208 18.800 11,600 (1,746,144 (198.100 69,076 86,334 711,244 489,095 251,900 480,276 555,900 38,044 (2,864,963 (30 112.5.')3 20O.,821 48,976 64.212 4,000 Imparled. (89,417 158,226 219,749 298,840 218,896 221,994 154,8C7 179,944 241,287 252,279 (2,036,083 (277,197 M2,745 817,830 652.2,88 197,400 546,474 448,602 460,712 481,782 780,171 (6,146,216 (475,891 763,069 408,645 446,995 914,461 628,048 868,451 960,146 47,630 38.598 Tonnage Cleared. Amerlren. 118,097 90,977 62,776 68,961 61,520 76,191 60,878 68,801 98,016 117,171 783,507 79,864 05,066 219,408 19,8,989 8e<;,582 291,981 882,284 261,286 888,506 867,078 (5.640,726 j,«01,874 404,472 828,815 202,607 606,365 077.935 868.568 667,895 859,791 122,641 7.8,298 4,884,077 (44,677 108.235 56.395 122,809 88.940 ! 266.481 68,148 I 29.8.781 18,418 ] 276,683 83,807 ! 826,647 ForeiKn. 12,028 9,180 10,189 10,108 11,145 10,658 10569 14,267 88,089 94,776 146,292 248,779 828,120 415,406 428,191 440,002 i<8.3,l5« 878,772 401,605 8,262,299 417,986 417,409 288,092 516,281 612,004 678,878 528,515 681,271 409,877 521,112 Britith Provinces. — Uiiiler the impetus communi- cated liy tlio Treaty of Reciprocity, tlie trade of the L'nitcd Scutes with the Canailus Iiuh groatiy ini reused, notwithstanding the formidable ilimiiiution of nearly $'",000,000 in our exportation of foreign goods. Tlic aggregates for the last two ypurs we have arranged > i follows, for' purposes of comparison : liiT" ^ ISH. (18,194,788 6,688.463 7,619,909 626.199 17.488,197 :l.822.^^4 (60.889,770 "Fif.STl.iir Domestic produce exported to 1 the C«M lias 1 Forclgi. (jcods Doinostlo proiluco o\portcd to 1 tho I,<.wor Provinces f Fopt'ijtn poods (9,950,764 8.769,580 6,8Si,.378 8.22«.7!W 12,182.814 2,011.420 (42,939.784 (80,909,688 Imports iruin tlio Canadas Imports from thcLowcr Provinces Totbi trade ,., Total trado with tho Canadas .Total ti-ado wUb tbo Lower 1 Provinces f (12,087,069 { (11,968,382 { The total aggregates of trade during the last five years, are as follows : 1862 (16,519.805 1858 20,601,246 1854 88.494,820 1S85 42,0.89.7,84 1866 50,830,770 The chief articles of export and their values wer« for 1865 and 1P58 : O'.:, soap, and oanules Fish Manufaotutes of wood .Vsval stores Beof, pork, bacon, lard, tallow and hides IJnrses Wliont, flour, and corn Flee. Tobacco and snuff, Whisky. M.iltti^es Furniture Hats Bhoes and leather Glass Books and paper Salt. Manufactures of cotton " Iron Coal GRB 886 ORE Oreat Clrole Balling ; the manntr of condact- • iR a ship in, or rather protty near, the arc of a great circle thiit pasraa through the xenlth of the two places, ▼iz. : fh)m whence she came, and to which she is bounit. Oreeoe. The continent of Greece, Including AI> banla and Macedonia, is nearly shut in on the north by a chain of mountiiins known anciently by thu names of Khodope, Scomius, and Orbelus ; it is boumled on the west by the Adriatic and Ionian Seas, on the south by the Mediterranean, and on the east by the iEj^can Son, or ArchipeluKO. It extends from 30° 10' to 42° 40' of north latitude j and from 19° -15' to 24° 40' of east longitude from London. Its length, from Cape Mntapan to Mount Orlielus, or Argenturo, Is 4.')0 English miles ; its greatBst breadth from Duraz.zo to Cavale, at the foot of Mount Pangivus (a branch of Rhodope), 2i)5 miles ; and it embraces an area of 57,- "SO square miles, exclusive of all' Its islands except Eubcea. Hut, as our ideas of the extent of the ooun- trj- imve always a refer nee to those ancient States which comprised but very minute portions of its sur- face, it is necessary that its dimensions should be de- scribed more in detail. The countrj' recognized as Greece before the rise of the Macedonian ix)wer, comprehended the Morea or Peloponnesus, Attica, Kubwa, Bccotia, Phocis, Doris, ifltolla, Acarnania, Thessaly, and Magnesia; and even several of the States included within these limits had little or no share in those splendid actions which have shed so much glorj- over the country. The sur- face of Peloponnesus, which included seven different States, is about PJOO English square miles ; that of the countries just named, without the peninsula, in- cluding I'jibcea, is 14,800; and ijoth together amount to 2S,»00 square miles— an extent of surface not ex- ceeding two fifths of England, or one fifth of the lirit- ish Isles. If to this we add 1(:,000 bquare miles for AIlMniii or Epiris (including the basin of the Drino), 18,000 for Macedonia, and 1000 for the Cycladcs, the whole surface of Greece and its Islands will 1)6 58,800 square milea, which Is almost exactly the area of England. AVhile Greece preser\ed its inde- pendence, however, all these territories were never united Into one body polili, , nor vras their confederated force ever applied to the prosecution of any common enterprise. The communities whoso warlike achieve- ments and brilliant career in arts and philo.sophy raised the Grecian name so high, occupied but very minute portions of the country ; as th« following table de- duced from measurements will show : Erj. »l. iiillp*. Attloa, Inoladluf; Megarl.< and HalBmi^ bnt not Eubipa. 1,1!>n B intla 1,M0 Loconla (without M«>sstii)i&) 1,720 Acliala (the tivolvo cities with thoir territories) 1,140 Attica, besides [lossess'ng at one period Gubiea, had many colonies in ihe Cyclades, Thrace, and other parts ; and 8parta held Messenia long in subjection ; out, in great stro-glei, .iiese colonies and de]jend- encies ofUn slinok off their allegiance, and the parent State was obliged to rely on its own resoiiroej. Such H J the energy of these small communities, that At- tica, which scarcely supports, at present, a population of 50,000 souls, sent out sometimes (.-olonies of 10,000 men at once {Dioii. Sir., lib. ii.) ; and Sparta furnished eo.OOO soldleis to fii;ht the Persians at Platoia. The territories of Corinth, when she formed a separate State n ore much smaller than any of these ; her wealth and pow-ir depending -hiefly on coninicrce. Greece forma a long and rather narr!)» peninr.ula, tingularly indented on three sides by arm>" of the .-eii , and having a greater profiortion of its suil'jce occupied by mountains thon any other country in Europe of equal extent, except Switxeriand. It has been justly observed, that those physical features which distin- guish EuMpe from tiie other qnarters of the * Id belong, in a peculiar mauaer, to Greocc, auJ -liilin- Kulsh it in the same proportion' ia the other parts of Europe, Of these arm* of the sea, tha most consid- erable ore the Gulfa of (^oiitessa, Salonica, Volo, vGgl- na, and Nauplla, on the east ; those of Kolokythia and Coron on the South ; and those of Lepanto and Arts on the west. Of the mountains, the first in ordor are those which pass along the northern frontier. Mount Argentaro, the ancient Orbelus, placed at the northern extremity of Greece, near the 49d degree of latitucle, may be considered as the centre of the whole system of mountains in European Turkey. Money. — The drachm, which is tha unit of the cur- rency, is alKiut 8)d. English money. It is divided into 100 equal parts called lepta. There are copner coins of 10, 5, 2, and 1 lepta, the only Greek money that circulates In the country. The silver co'va, of 50 and 25 lepta have been melted down or oxi>orted. Those of 1 drachm are very rare. Those of 6 drachms are now only to be found in Turkey. The gold pioceu of 20 drachms, called othos, also. have disappeared. Weights and Measurei. — A very complete scale of weights and measures was established by the govern- ment in 1836 ; but the people adhere for measure of length to the pique =< 27 inches. Then for weight— the principal nvn known, even in the capital, is tho oke, a Turkish v eight equal to 2 lbs. 12 oz., which la divided Ipto 4(X) dramia = IJ Eng. drams. Tho cantaar or quintal is generally 44 okes =» 121 lbs. The kilo or quilot of com is 22 okes, or 60 lbs. The land measure Is the stretna e>iU4l to about one fourth of an English acre. Cultivated Land. — It appears that nut half the sur- face is susceptible of cultivation ; and at least two thirds of the cultivated, and four fifths of the uncultivated soil belong to the State. One groat disadvantage to agricul- ture is the scanty supply of running water ; but tha peosants are very dexterous at taking advantage of tho smallest rill to irrigate their tillage. Money rent is little known ; the lands being farmed (m the metayer system, according to which the landlord receives a certain pro- portion of the net produce — usually a third. He has frequently to furnish the seed, and sometimes tho oxen for tillage, the cost of which, with high interest, is deducted from the profits before any division is made. On this system, there is little inducement for the proprietor to expend capital on tmprovemeuis ; still less is there for the metayer, who has no interest in the land bej'ond tho season. Consequently, inclosure and drainage are scarcely thought of ; and the stones having never been removed, lie so thick together that in some places it is scarcely credible that they can have accumulated naturally. The dwellings of the peas- ants are extremely poor, consisting of stones and frag- ments of tile and pot terj- held together by mud. Glasa casements are rare even in provincial towns ; and in the country cottages the light Is most frequently ad- mitted only by the door-way. Produiiimu. — The arable soil of Greece Is devoted chiefly to the cultivation of com, vines, mulNrrf- trees, and fruit trees. Wheat, rj-e, barle)-, and maize, succeed pretty well in the stony districts where the mold is but a few inches deep. Oats render but a middling crop, and the poiliiig. It ia at firat exceedini;ly diaa)P'eealile to the taateg but the nutivea prefer it to the choiceat heveragea of France and Spain ; and even foreigners become reconciled to it with uae. Next to the vineyards aa a source of revenne are the mullwrry plantationa. There la a demand for ailk in every market in the world, and the climate of Greece affords facilities for an unlimited extenalon of this branch of industry. The south of the Slorea gener- sll)-, and all the Islands of the iT.gean Sea, are adapted for it, and hero the houae of almoat evcrj- peasant la in part given up to the rearing of the worm. The spawn or eggs are nestled in the Ijoaoms of the women ; and the worms hatched in spring are ulmndnntly sup- plied with the young mulberry lenvos then shooting. The cocoons are placed in the sun, and the heat kills the worma. In 18.'i(J some Greek merchants, who had resided in the ailk diatricta of Italy, introduced Italian workmen with their funiilies into the Morea, to improve the mode of winding ; and a few years have greatly advanced this branch of Industry and placed it on a Arm and extensive basis, giving promise of a lucrative and increasing trade. Two ailk-throwing manufacto- ries have been catabliahed at Athens with great suc- cess. (I'or further partlcidars aee Aiicy. Bril.) The Monileur of Paris of l«th and 1/th October, IHbR, pays a high compliment to the quality of the Greek silk in the I'aris Exhibition, which gained the first prize. The olive next clainia attention. Being indigenous, the trees are found in a wild state in every direction, and seem only to require grafting to yield excellent fruit, (irafted olive-trees are very numerous ; and many people live all the year round on little but olives, indiflferently pickled in l)rinc. Tlie oil is ex- tracted in the ruderit manner, after which it is either run into cisterns or jars. There is a Ijrgo consumption of it in the country, nothing else being used for light, and a great deal being consumed in food and cookery ; but still there remains a good quantity for exportation. Cotton succeeds well wherever it is sown, especially in the plain of Argos, and in the islands. It does not form an important item in the exjwrts, owing to the large consumption of it in the countrc. Madder thrives well in the northern districts. Greek tobacco is said to be of good quality, and to have a delicious perfume. It is cultivated at little expense. The cultivation of fruit trees might bo n profitable branch of industry. The iigs of Attica have not de- generated since t'le olden time ; the apricots, the pomegranates, oranges, and lemons are delicious. I'irst among its natural productions may )/e men- tioned vulonla, the cup of the acorn of the Qiirrnti A',giliips, an oak, of which cons;deralde forests exist in the neiglit>orhoed for England and It- aly. Anotherspeoiefofoak — the (iuerciu coeeij'eni, com- monly called galls — grows in great quantities on Mount Tiiygetus, and breeds the insect known as kermes. In the process of drying the insect assumes the appear- ance of a small brittle bcny partly filled with powder, whiob, fr^im time immemorial, has caused some to Vmk npon it aa the berry of the plant, while others consid- ered it to be a awelling caused by the puncture of > particular kind of Hy. It ia used in dyeing the red Tunis caps both of the Greeka and Turks, and a good deal is exported to Timis and Alexandria, The dried leaves of the lentisk, also, under the name of I'voiri) (jivyyoii, are uaed by the tannera In Greece and the I^evant. Turpentine la ol)tained In large quanti- tiea from the pine forests of Mount Oithieron and other districts. Notwithstanding the immense clearances made by the ravages of war and other causea, Greece containa 2,800,000 acres of forest, filled with timl>er trees of the Ixiat quality ; yet wood is bought uliroad for house and ship-building, as for want of roada those forests can nut bo worked. The shepherds make a practice of setting fire to the coppice woods, in order that their docks may find some tender sprouts tf> crop in spring. It is not unusual in the neighl)orhood of Athens to find large black (Hitches covering half a square league ; and If an explanation bo required, the answer ia, " Only a shepherd who has been making pasturage for his ahoep." The principal places of trade are Syra, Patras, Pi- rieus, Kalamata, and Nauplia. The trade of Patras is ehiefiy import ; Hydra, Spezzia, and Galaxidi, come more properly under the denomination of ship-owning porta. The ex|)orts are chiefly the articles we have enumerated, with others of minor importance ; the Im- ports are chiel!- iron-ware and woven fabrics ; besides coft'ee, sugar, and apices. The carrying trade is very considerable, especially among the islands. Some of the Greek vessels are between COO and 700 tons register, and a good many from ;!00 to 400 tons ; but the great majority of them are boats of six or seven tons, having a largo hatch in mid-ships. (See /'«c^. Jlrit.) It is customary for a slilp-owner to bargain with a captain and crew, taking up a certain sum at interest, generally secured on Iwt- tomr}' bond ; with this money a carge is purchased on the ship's account, and the profit is divided between the vessel and the crew, the latter sharing among themselves according to their special agreements. In this way the Greeks carry on extensive apeculiitions in corn whenever bad harvests or other circumstances present openings in the ports of Turkey, Italj-, Spain, or France. Besides this, they export the various pro- ductions of Turkey, Greece, Egypt, Persia, and south- ern Russia, to London, Marseilles, and Trieste. The great advantage which the Greeks have over foreign- era in prosecuting this trade is that of having relations and connections in the interior on whom they ran rely for the collection of small parcels ; and thus they avoid the impositions of agents and the profits of middle- men. The Greek trader despises nothing, fand will gather a few bags of rags, or a ton or two of bones and horns, while he is chartering .50 vessels to load with com and tallow. Then the same vessels supply Tur- key, Persia, and Greece with the manufactures of En- gland and Germany. The extensive Greek establish- ments at Manchester for purchasing, examining, and packing goods, attest the importance of this branch of commerce. They havo almost quite superseded the English traders here, chiefly from their thorough knowledge of the countries to bo aupplied, and their readinesa to execute the smallest as well as th» largest commissions for the shopkeepers of the East. The Greek trader slips in everywhere, neglects no buai- neaa, disdains no expedient, and changes his flag as often as he finds it his interest to do so. The Greek government does nothing for maritime tr.'vle. There ia but one light-house on tho coasts ; and, notwithstanding the shipwrecks that are recorded every winter, the ministers turn a deaf car to the ap- peals of the mariners. A similar neglect is shown concerning the means of internal communication. There are only seven roads, amounting in all to a length of 30 leagues, and this is in a countrjr where g ijiatil ii i ii' nte » '■• 01^ 881 ORE tha State ownii mora thun half ths land, whnm «vlc- tinni an nanily olTei'ttHl, iinti whfira th« i>«uiiBntii an willing to land thoir handa ft)r works of public utility. Iharv Is no highway from Athens to Sparta, or to Corinth, or to Patrus, which, owing to the trade in cnrrants, Is iMcomtng th« romniercial capital. The banKing and exchange operations form perhaps the most remarkable part (if thr commercial system. The national bank was founded nt Athens in 1H42, the capiUl being In the first inst:ince fixed at r>,000,00n drachms. Branches have since lieen opened at Syra and Patras. The exchange operations throughout the country- are mied chiefly l)y the triinsitctiuns at Athnns, where bills on I^ondoii, Paris, Marseilles, Trieste, etc., are negotiated with facility. The most serious hin- derance to the progress of industry In Greece Is the high rate of interest. The legal rate is 10 per cent, for ordinary loans, and 12 per cent, in com^iercial busi- ness. High as this Is, most of the loi ■» rie effected at still higher rates ; and the government can not sup- press the usury. From a statement Inserted in the Speetatfur d« I'Orient of Athens, it appears that the bank has paid interest to the shareholders, flmin 1849-64, at 8^ to 9^ per cent, per annum ; that its capi- tal amounts now to 6,000,000 drachms, and a reserve fund of 400,000 drachms to provide against emergen- cies.— K. B. The manufactures of Greece are few and simple, the ralue of the raw material being little enhanced by the labor ; yet the peasantry are entirely rlothod In cotton and woolen fabrics of their own manufacture. The capotes, not only of the Greeks, but of the whole mari- time population of the Mediterranean, are made of a woolen stuff, the peculiar manufacture of the Wal- Uchs ; and Kalanuta is famous for a silk gauze, highly prized in the East for bed-curtains. Embroider)- in gobl, ■liver, silk, and cottoi., is brought to great perfection ; and marble-cutting and sculpturing have made great progress. At the great London Exhibition of 18.')1, the embroidered dresses in i«d and gold, and in blue and silver, were highly praised. The samples of mar- bles were not in a condition of manufacture to demand much notice as specimens of industry. Commenda- tor}- mention is made, in the report, of lithographic stones from Messina, samples of steatite (the French chalk of commerce), of u line natural cement of puz- znolan, of varieties of flexible sponge, niid some other objects. In the Ixmdon Exhibition of 1M51, only four medals were given for various productions of art and manufacture from Greece. The following statistics show that the progress which the Greek nation has made is highly credit- able, though at the same time showing that the pro- ductive powers of Greece ate not fully developed. Statistics or OtKtcs. 1.— Gi'LTiVATCD Lamo IX 1854, Strvnuun. \ for Cereal 8,«4»,87o " Olive-trees.... Cattle. Sheep and goats... 1,600,000 Ozen 180,000 BuflUoes. 3,000 Hones «0,«oa Mules. 80,00U Aues T.OOO Tetal ^889,000 PsoDuca. Kllu. Wheat a,M9.«0« Barley l,lit8,S0O Indian com «,8ao,noo Malie 281,900 Oats ft ether kinds ofcereol 1,168,000 Ok».. Oil 1,000.000 wine 18,800.000 811k -0,000 Curranta. 80,000,000 Valonia 14,000 Wool 1,500,000 Total 8,282,800 11 ToUl 79,884,000 PaaSONS tMI-IX1T •; Ota*. l«il 48,281 1851 60,7n 1888 60,710 1854 1885 70,000 1— BTATnticn or Bilk. Av«raf« prtM pt r ,ik*. Dn, hn. Ml,947 = 2ll'64 1,999,070 = IW-91 1,774,068 = 8118 1,868,018 This proves not only an increase of production, but also an Improvonient in the quality ; for, though the quantity has nearly doubled since IN&l, instead of i^ ducing the price, Greek silks are &0 per cent, dearer. 8.— CoHMKHoiAL Maty Or OKnoi. Viuali. 1821.. 440 1884.. 2,881 1888.. 8,870 1888.. 8,269 1889.. 8,848 1840.. 8.884 1848.. 8,4(19 Ton*. 61,449 Vnnala. 1844.. 8,414 1813.. 8,884 1H48.. 8,988 18,10.. 4,016 1851.. 4.827 1882.. 4,iM 1858.. 4,148 Tont. 146,708 let, lull 268,288 288,201 257,093 247,861 247,991 8S,602 89.U2 110,690 in7,68.S Wo have no accounts of IS.'il ; but there is no doubt it will show ac increase on 18SU, in consequence of the permission of the czar for the Greek flag to enter th« Danube. 4. — POPUIATIOK. 1821 87^000 1 1882 712,000 1848 888,000 I 6.— Ihpopts and Kxpoan or Okkicr. 1882 1,002,000 1888 1,041,000 1884 1,142,000 Kijportf, 1881 W.9»8,'l95 1882 10,s'02,212 188* 8,9^3,'JiK) 1884 6,799,211 ImtNirta. 1831 1862 24,982.181 186? 10,209,060 1834 21,270,1S3 The minister of finance states that the great du- cieose in exports for the lant three years is owing prin- cipally to the failure in the currant crops, the result of the disease in the vino. Of the 18,995,195 drs. exported iu 1841, 8,:)i>9,196 drs. were of (.'orinthian currants alone. In 1852 the export of currants were 2,844,058 drs. only, or nearly 6,000,000 less than 1851 ; in 1853 there is no account of the currants exported inserted ; and in 1854 only the small amount of 9046 drs. are included in the amount of 6,799,211 drs. CoDNTKim Tkadino wirn Gaaaor., Cnnntrlaa. England America Austria. France Turkey Bussla Italy Kgypt and Candl* Ionian Isles Oikor conntrloa. Value In drachmas.. Im poHi. Dra. 8,870,888 142,182 4,810,124 1,812,482 8,065,809 819,497 456,141 674,912 1,87^000 2,492.770 25.807,690 Riporia. Dra. 7,020,174 185,478 2,I>S 9,781 940,184 804,667 18,881,202 ' It will be seen from tiiis exhibit, that England h°.s the largest commerce vUh Greece of the count' ie$ enumerated. Turkey, hoAevcr, ranking first In amonnt of imports. The commercial relations of the Un'wd States with Greece are regulated by treaty of December 10, 18i'7. This treaty is liased upon principles of entire reciprac- ity In navigation and commerce between the two conntries. Its principal stipulations are, that tie ves- sels of each nation, whether laden cr In ballast, from whatever place they come, shall be treated, in the ports of the other, on their entrance, during their stay, and at their departure, upon the same footing as na- tional vesselfi coming from the same place, with re- spect to the duties of tonnage, light-houses, pilotage, and port charges, as well as to the perquisites of public oflcers, and all other duties or charges levied in the ntme or to the profit oi the government, the local au- thorities, or of any private establishment whatever. Whatever merchandise may he lawfully impfirted into either nation by its own vessels, may also be imported in the veiieU of the other, from whatever place they .^ai» ' Y ORB 880 ORE lUt re- ibt ha ,he m- olt 196 ;lie \y nt ly he °4 93 In h m»y nofflu, wittinai piyliiK othor or higher 4ut. or rharUM, of whit^vnr kind or (Iflnoniiiiiitlim, lovlen in til* immti iir tn thn (irnflt or thn Rovemment, Mie local mithorltli'i), Ktn., tlinn when lm|Mirteii in national vtn- mU. Hlmllur nqniillty in ntlpulnted with nrnpect to uxiHtrtii. Nil {irolilliltliinn to be entnlilinhed in either iiMthm U|HiM thn |ir(«lii>'till or Indiiotry of the iithnr, iMitfiia mii'li priihlliil 'i'l«. KtiRland 14 «1 Tiiacany 7'M Other eounttlet.. lom other country. All priv liountien and drawlini'i <' ill iinmi'illately liecome d r irrnl'irti, the growtli ll"i(«a (if trnniilt, ni: > allownd (n either mitli eummon t1 WW* ti>'M,'fi(l I that of ex|Hirta a little over $RO,Oir In 1HM there entered ;'I2!! vessels, measuring '14,lG(i tons I and cleared, 2N7 vessels, of 'l,'i,OOH tons ; mak- ing a total of OOO vessels, with an aggregate tonnage of Hll,17'l tons. These vessels were under the Greek, Turkish, I'jiglisli, or French flags, ranking in number III the order, resiwctively, to whicli thej- are named, 'I'he lili|Hirts of all kinds into Pineus in IS.'il wci ti>'I^,i'ill, and In the year 1852, i;!7&7,020; showing a decrease In IMfi'i of i|il07,'IOO. Tlitlicr ports of tlie archipelago tlie imports of foreign nations. The numlier of veraela entering and clearing at this port annually, is about 6775 measuring 870,000 tons. The merchant marine of Greece in 1R53, was 4.120 vessels, measuring an aggregate of 247,616 tons. Of these there wore — VeMfN, Ten*. Under 80 tons 2,S8fl 19,696 80 tons and ovor, ot wliicli DM t were from 200 lo SOU tons. . ( 1,876 227.036 Total OS above 4,280 247,001 Pnvt Charges. — In the porta of Syra, Nauplla, Pitmus, Marathonensis, Pylos, Calamalu, Navarlno, and Patraa — On vessels under 6 tons Free. " of 20 " 9 llptas=U cents. " above 20 " 12 " =2 '• In the other ports: I Vron on vessels under 6 tons ) '"■''• of 20 " 811ptas=l cents. " above 20 " 9 " =U " Permit of departure : I «« ii„i.. _ ai „„„t. On vessels of .■>- 20 ton. f ** "P**» - ^1 """t*- " 21— SO " .. 1 dra<.hma=lfl.l " " 61—100 " .. 2 '• =831 " For all other charges, port regulations, etc., see Con»"liir Kcturn, " Athens, Greece, February tith, ) 'i55." — Com. Relations, U. N. The average price at wliich currants are sold is i' , .' 50 per 1000 |)ounds ; and the average returns, or rather gross receipts, ore annually about $700,000. The exportation of olivc-ol". '" •|)0 70,000 Corfu 8,9(KII 18S,100 8,000,200,000 Santa Maura, Itliaca, Cuplia- 1 I I «nnfj> Ionia. and Paxo (-[j-- i_^- ! •"• I 8"'"™ TNitaT;^^.. ........ .ij8,211^25(l,289_6,60fli^^ The average annual price is $9 60 per barrel, which would raise the amount derived from olive-oil, if the whole amount were sold, to $3,135,000 per annum. Great efforts have been made to promote the cultiva- l''>ii of tobacco in I .'«e islands, but with verj- doubt- . I success, owing to the want of soil adapted to the plant. Corfu, Cephalonia, and Santa Slauni nr« the only islands on which it can be raised ; but the quality is inferior, and even the quantity is so inconsiderable (hat cargo«.< if tobacco are regularly imported to supply tlie consuraj Mon of the islands. Among the articles of inijiort, sugar and coifee are those in which American bottoms could, were the navigation dues equal, suc- cessfully compete with the Kuropean flags. In 1853 ORE 890 QUE ' tafftrlntu th« liiU ini|K.ited (Urert fn)iii llrn- |K>rt«cl reached 1/200,(100 nolUnd ulem imported 90( ■ndii. Tho entftn la uiiull^ Cll, III IN^i'i the 'lUintlt.v pouniln. The u«iiiil exports of the United Stuten, whk'h reach the Inniun repuldic, are cufl'ee, miiin, i>e)(arji, tobacco, and manufactured articl«», nui^h »» furniture, cotton , etc., the annual value of which can not lie accurately aacertalned. In 1HA2, the vuluo of cnlhe, rmln, nffun, an, IIH) 02, on which the Ionian tren»ury rerelved, in duties, •700 (M. The exports from the same port to the United States wens Lbi. Villus, Eiportriuly, im..Cnmints 870,419 |W.1M il\,m» 1SW.. " 4I1,T4« IMTil 2,T«1 Under a a^-ntcm nf commercinl e(|unlity with privi- leged niitlona, the United Stiitea' (1:1(5 ''""'d auoceaafully compete with the flags of all other nntiona In the Im- portation of wheat, flour, Indian corn, rice, seii-liread, •alted meat, and salted (ish, tobacco, augur, uoffw, nnd timlier. As regards the quaiititlos nf these xtnplea, respectively, which might And a market in the Ionian porta, there arc no data acressilile upnn which to base ■ny calculation. These staples, however, are always in demand in the dlfl'erent ports of the Ionian ropuli- llc j and nn approximate estimate as to the quantities which might, with safety, be annually exported from the United States to these markets may be formed fVom an ofBeiul return fMm one ])ort (Xante), in the ptissessinn of the Department. Tlils return gives the aggregate value of these staples annually consumed in that consular district at i{:il),.'i'.'t<. Wheat, Indian com. cured liah, coffee, rice, and timber occupy the first rark in these s( .jilr-;. In W>'], tliera (^ntfi oii ni the different porta of the Ionian Isles I'.if,'' ■■■■<»):• it, ifiasuring. In the aggregate, 163,5.52 tout; iii; " >j.i,ui:l l.WS vessels, with an ag- gregate of U?. Ti.';- tons 1 making a total movement of 'i'i"') vessiii, iu'! .'!i'ft,320 tons. An analysis of the Uiule in 185:<, ..'^ . uipared with that of the pre- ceding year, will show i: decrease of, entered, 160 ves- mIs, measuring an aggregate of 25,U79tans; and of cleared, 101 vessels, with an aggregate of 22,7.50 tons. The numlier of vessels under the Ilritlsh, Austrian, and Oreek flags diminished ; the latter showing tlio greatest diminution. The value of imports 'a 18,58 was as follows : Fmnr*. For coniumptioo. 17,0T0,B«« WareUoused. 8,2W,0i0 * Total «8,n88,20fl Value of exports ; Friin.M. Domestic products. «,«i;..l«0 Foreign '• 7,S«i,lt70 Total 15,6S2.S0O Compared with the trade of 1852, the imports of this year show an increase of 3,777,900 francs, and the ex- ports an increase of 6,286,0(X) francs ; or a total in- crease of 9,00-1,500 francs. Of this incr' ase, cereals, logara, and tissues of cotton and wool, all from En- gland, bore the principal part. In exports, the in- crease fell almost exclusively on olive-oil and currants, if we except 1,695,800 francs, the value of various lilnds of tissues re-exported from the different ports of the islands. The value of soap and wine, also products of the islands, show an increase of 356,000 francs. In remarking upon the chief products of the Ionian Isl- ands, it is stated, in reference to the soap manufactured at Zanto and Corfu, that, for some time past, they have used in its preparatloa a kind of chalk imported from England in the vessels of tliut kingdom. The aae of this earth in the manufacture of soap deteri- orates its quality, and wil'. result, unquestionably, In throwing " altogether out of tbo fbrtlga market. The trniie of IMM gives the f HAll, these llgurei show an increase -(it, enter, 'i uiui cleared, 15 vessels, with an aggregate increase of 3,007 tons. These all onteretl, with the exception of 1 vessel of 1,781 tons. In 1854, the value of trade was : laroais.— For cnnsuinptlon ID.ftJN.noo . Wsrchonsed. I>,IU«,IHH» Total «s,»i)4,(KK) FraniM. ExroETS.— Donieslle prodnota 0,Wll,17.t Foreign " MSm.ttIi Total 1T,M8,400 The total trade of 1851 was thus 40,70,1,800 fr.iiics. In comparing this witli the llgures for 1853, un Increase Is shown III imports of 5,471,700 tti'vcf, nnd uf ex- porta, 2,180,100 francs J inaklnga total I'lcreuso of 7,057,- 800 franca. In imports, about three llfths of the Increase In value fell uixm grains, tbnugh in ipiantity there was a decrease of 35,000 hectolitres* compared with 1858. This was occasioned by the high price of grain of all sorts. The remaining two llfths of the increase fell upon cattle, coff'ee, sugar, tissues of cotton, and miscellaneous articles. The nations that supplied the islands in 1854 were, chiefly, Kngland, (iomiany, (irecce, Turkey, and Kussia. France sent crj'stals, lildcs, sugar, tissues, wines, and sundries, to an amount, in value, of about 2,000,000 francs. The sugars were shipped from the reflncries of Marseilles, and weru liorno under the Greek flag to C'orfu. In exports, olive-uil, soap, winu, and some other secondary products of tho soil and in- dustry of the islands, were the cliicf articles which exhibited un increase over the returns of 1853. Not- withstanding the bad yield of currants in 1854, over 6,000 hectolitres of wine were oxportcuy, or rather, what we wonM now venture to de»i„'nate lln/- fin't .SVii, from thiHW of the opponite nhoret, n> an to limit Oreeniimd to tl.n rountry on the euntern nide of that great ehannel. From Cape Farewell, in Int. ri9° I!)' N., It Htrctehoa on the went niile In a north-nnrth- wentetly direction through Smith's Sound, and then mora eanterly Into a hl»(h northern latltuile. On tin- other Hide, the Orcenland coast runs limt n< nh- nnrth-eanterly, then north-ea-terly, and finally (so fur aa yet traced), in a northerly direction, l>endlnK ea»t- ward in the 76tli and 7(ith parallcln of latitude. It axiHinds from (Jape Knrowell, the southern [Hiint, np to latitude 71)°, where it attiiinii a width nf about IXX) niilen, which In pretty evenly maintained to the north- ern extent of our ronearches on the enntern side. Tills side nf (ireenland has been denominated I'J4st or Old (Jrcculimd, the other WcmI (ircciilnnd. In Kenorul, the discoveries which have been effected In this qu.'irterof the nlobe have renuUcd from attempts mttiio to discover a north-west passajje to India throuxh the ,\rctic Sou. The existence of such a communica- tion Is a subject which from time to time has occupied the attention of the Uritish Kovemment for the last three centuries ; and nlthoujth much valuable infor- mation had l>een obtained by means of these voyages, tbc ureal proldem remained unsolved until the very re. ent researches after the fate of tho lamented voy- aij^r .Sir.lohn Franklin, when Captain .M'Cluro, in liis researches, vU l)ehrini;'s .Strait, eastward, determined the fact of a aea coniniimlcatiim between the I'aciflc and Atlantic Oceans. I'hls ho effected by Bailing till within sijtht of (Captain Parry's discoveries at Mclvlllu Island, and tlienco cuinpletini; tho personal transit by Ice-traveling nnd voyanin({ to tho shores whence he had departed. Hut beyond the dntenninn- tlon of the (feographlcal fact, it was fimnd, us had been confidently predicted, that no practical use could be made of a channel so thickly encumliered with im- penetrable, or all but impenetrable, ices. Greenland vas first discovered by an Icelander natned (iunbiOrn, who was driven l>y storm upon this coast, almnt tho beginning of tho 10th centurj', nnd carried buck iptelli);ence of Its existence to Iceland. Toward the end of the same century — according to Bome writers in 9H;i— an Icelandic clilof named Kric Raude, or Kric tho Red, havini; killed another power- ful chief, and beln){ abli);ed to quit the country, de- termined to follow up (iunbiorn's dlHcovery, After having spent two or three years In e?:plorln(» the country, he returned to Iceland, giving an exaggerat- ed accoimt of the freslmess ..id verdure of the country, which he called (ireenland. In consequence of this, a fleet of 25 sail was eciuipped and sent out, l.iden with persons of both sexes, cattle, and other neconsa- r!e» for forming a settlement. Only about the half of the vessels reached their destination ; but other ad- vcntu^rs setting out, not only from Iceland, but from Norway, the Orkneys, nnd other Islands, in a few years a considerable colony was formed, nnd a regular trade ostabllsbea. The real position of these early ad- ventures has been a suliject of much learned investi- gation and no little controversy. But it ueems highly probalile that the original colony ot Greenland began al>out the southern promontory, near Cape Farewell, and gradually extended Itself along the coast in a nortbdlnavlans pushed •' "ttlenients to the northernmost parts of (Ireer,- trlklngly attested by a ciiriinn mor.innent 'iscovered In 1X'2I. It cniHlsf. .if a stotie ca .n\ti characters, which wasfoimil stand- in groimil on the Islaml of Kinglktorsoak, ,,ar.illelof7ll°. in centuries the commercial Interco'irse bo- t«> !and and Norway was kept up ; bnt alH .;iM'ilng nf the l.'ith century all inter- coii .. and the unfortunate colonists were cut of)' 111 till rest of mankind. The Esquimaux, the natives of the country, whom in derision the Nor- wegians culled .Scriellings, or Dwarfs, on account of their diminutive stature, attackei°, and called tho place Godthaul), or Good Hope. Since that time the Danes have established numerous settlements upon the western coast of Green- land, lying between 80° and 73' N. lat. Tho whale fisheries luve greatly contributed to the advancement of the colonies ; and from the intimate Intercourse which is now kept up with Europeans, their condition is at present more flourishing than at any former period. The seal fishery is also of great importance to Greenland — the flesh of the seal forming their com- mon food ; and from their skin is made their boats and clothing. See articles Fisheriks and Seals. There are, at present, 13 Danish colonies in Green- land, besides some smaller establishments termed fac- tories. For administrative purposes, they are formed into two inspectorships, called respectively North and IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I Ui»2^ 12.5 2.0 us U IM L25 mu IL6 A" O Hioliographic Scieoces Cxjrporation ¥^ ^^ «<^. 'i? V> ,"v ^>. > '^. 33 WIST MAIN STRUT WnSTIR.N.Y. 14SI0 (716) •73-4503 \ ;i y;-" \ .,t.. im flamk OiMnlMi. iMUiOfNnlMaiiMMHtlifinr. M. 67", ud ««nipri«M iilii mImlM u foitoin i JuHutbMb, or Jnllwiii'aHAM' rradtflMbMb, •r|Fri>4*rii>'iiil GodlhMb, or Oao4 Imm, , LnkkortopMn , UoUUlibarii ,,,,, Hop* TaW,. ItimM, CttblM, « 8? _ JuUmahMb I* tlw niMt Mttthwn m w«tl m th« mut impoit«ii( of tlwM, Iti dluMfit sstofld* to th« nort fontbam point of QrMnlMd, Statmbuk, Mid \m- vond It tat lomm 4Mmm nlonf tta« M»f iid«. At Pbkniaut til* Dmim enfty m m «j«t«n»lvi mmiI flib- ny by oimim of iwta, stu. In H» vkbiity It tb« tto- nviut itatloii of U«bt«HW)ta, found«4 in i/fil. Ood< thaab if tbo rMld«nM of tiM Innptstar of Mouth Oteanland i und In tbo vl«lnity !i tb« Mof«tliMi s«t- tlenunt uf Ktw UtrrnbHt. l bUng lagar loavaa, and ba* ona of tb« lM«t and lafaat harbon in tba oountiy. North tinanland Itwt north of N. lat. 67°, and compriM* i«¥«n solonia* a* fvl> Iowa I EcedMoiduie, or Rawla'i Vnmn ChrUtUiubHb,orClirt>l|u)'> i(uM faeobibsTn, or Jwob'a tl»v«fl BIttenbonk aodbavD,or a«o4 iiaran Omanak ,,,,..,,,,,,,,,, ITpamiTlk.. . , ,.,,,,,,,,, Total ,, Egadearalnda, in DIaoo Bay, waa f mndad \iy C«t>" tain Egcda, and namad in mamnry of hlit fatbif, Hana Egade. It eompriaaa a numtiar of lartfa and imnlt islands, bnt the pronar lattlamant ii on th« Inland of Aosiet. Batwaan thia und Fox (filsnd ni«jVO«) th«r« ia a vary aacura harbor. K ({f»»t many »Mla are oaaght hera, aapMsUlly in nats | but th« lHill«otlng of aldar-down forma tha meat important Itraneh of Indita- try. Godhavan, or Oood Ha¥an, in tna wmtbam ««- tramlty of tha iaUnd of Dlaeo, N, la>, 0® W , la th« aeat of tha inapaator of Kortb OrsBidftnd, and has a coal mina, which suppllaa tlia nthsr a«tti«nMnts on Diaco Bay with that artiola, Omanak ia not«d for Ita ratanatva aaal Hahary, wblab la oarrlad on liy tha Graanlandara In their baijalta nramall >io«t«, and npon the ice, and by tba Uana^ with n«ti wbioh aro let down the openinc* betwaan tha i«». 'Hwfg are hare ooal minaa which supply tha Bobmy. TTpamlvifc Ii tha moat northern of theaa sotonioa, \w\n^ In about M, lat. 78°, and though of raeant formatbm, it is already ona of the moat important In Mortb (Iraanland. 'fha poptt* latlon of Oiaanland on tba Slat of y««*tmb«r, IMA, amounted to %,1S&, betna H,m nativaa, and iU Danes; and in 1861, la fAMm at l),4IICt, of whom 3M ware Danes, This inoludaa only tluMo «ul«j««t to the Danish crown i of those that may bt suattarad over tha country, no oonlactnra aan b« fermad, We shall now giva » brtaf ontlina of tba diaoorary of the Tarions sactbms ot tba ooaat* of tiraanland, with occasional rafarsnoas to faaaar«bas about proxi- mate landa with wblob tboae on Oraanbind were mare or less miaad up. This will Itiad ua a^aln to notice the enterprises of tba Utb oantury in ««arah of a passage by the north-west from tiM Atlontio Into tba Paclflo Ocean. During tha reign of Qnaan KUaabatb, VMblsbar, a distinguished English navigator, made aavaral veyagea to this quarter of tha gbtna. In IA77 ha disoovarad tha straits which have JM«n ealiad aftar him. In the year 168S, Davis, another abb) saaman, eama In alght •f high Und, wbbib ha caiUd Mount Kalalgh, sup* poaad to Us somawhar* on lb* wait «f tba ttrclts bwr> lag ihadlsooverer's name. In 1810 Hndson discovered tha straits and the bay which are called after him, in whloh he experienced a disastrous termination to hia aaaful career. To certain rocky islands lying afawit tha 64th parallel, he gave tha name of Isles ot Gcd'a tearey. He also disravered two capes, one of which waa called Digge's Cape, and the other Willonghby Cape. In 1616 Baffin, one of the most dlsthiguUhed ol onr Kngllah navigators, discovered the large expanse northward of the Strait of Davis, now known as Baf- fln'rBay. Skiing in a little vessel of only about 6S tons' burthen, he effected one of the most extroordt naiy voyages on record. Under the imperfect appli. anaes of the age for navigation, Baffin, with one small vessel, circumnavigated to Smith's Sound, on tha north of tliat bay or sea which, northward of " Hope Sanderson, the furthest land Master Davis reached, lying between 72 and 78 degrees," was an utterly ua. known region ; thus adding some 1,100 miles of discov> eries, reckoned by the mere coasting-line, to the knowledge of these ice-encumbered shores. His ex- ploration northward reached, it would appear from tha brief bnt graphically-toId story of his voyage, as given among the PUgrimagf of Pnrchas, as high as aboot 77° 47' of latitude, where he obtained a clear view into Sir Thomas Smith's Sound, which he describes as run- ning " to the north of 78°, and being the greatest and largest in all the bay," For 200 years from the time of Baffin, the knowledge of this greet failet (excepting some limited and cnpub- llsbed Information obtained by occasional enterprises of the whalers) had not been advanced. In the year 1818, however, in consequence of information, we be- lieve, coinmanicated by Captain Scoresby to Sir Jo> seph Baolca, the admiralty fitted out two expeditions ; ona cf which, under the command of Captain Ross, was destined for the discovery of the north-wesi; passage; and the other, tX the head of which waa Captain Buchun, bad for its object to attempt a voyage across the pole. On the western side of Greenland, the first-named navigator discovered a high mountain- ous region to the north of Upemivik, to which, from national predilections, he gave the name of the Arctic Highlands, It is little else than a mass of rocks, in- termingled with immense bl(X:Iu of ice. He then pro- ceeded toward the northern extremity of Baffin's Bay, which he explored as far as the ice would permit, looking from a distance into Smith's Sound. He sur- veyed the coast generally, ascertained the positions and the appearance of the land, the situation of tha islands, and the general configuration of the great in. let, from the 78th down to the 66th parallel. Th« discoveries of Baffin, which some had disputed, wers thus signall}' confirmed ; for while the form of the bay as given mainly from conjectural applications of Baf fln's descriptions, was found to be thoroughly errone- ous, the several deep inlets and other remarlubla features of the coast-line, as noted by this admirable voyager, were not only easily recognized, but the lati- tudes and more strildng particularities were found to be characteristically correct. But the limited period of a mere summer's voyage having left several points in Ross's course defective and inconclus' .'e, especially »^ to the supposed closing up of Lancaster Sound by uuutinuous land, another expedition was sent out the year following under Cap- tain Parry, who succeeded not only in passing through this famous inlet of Baffin, but in discovering % navi- gable channel among islands extending far westward, which was successfully purxued for about 80 degrees of longitude lieyond Ross's furtlwst. But as these r». searches, with the general body of the discoveries since then made, fall Iwyond the limits of our present article, we must refer, for an abstract of them, to the general account of the AncTio OcBAir. The chief additions to our knowledge of western Greenland which remain to be noticed, consist of certain como-. ORE tions of tha cout-lio* inddeaUUy insda by th« erly exploring axpaditlons, and mora accurate tnfor- matlon of Sndth'i Sound and the coaati immedlataljr beyond, reanlting from Captain Inglefiald'f voyage in the summer of 1862, and firom the very toceeirful and intereatlng American exploration, still farther north, nnder Dr. Kane, in 1868-{). Cbptaitt Inglefleld, in the Imbd, fitted out by Lady Franklin, having the advantage of an auxiliary steam power, made an advance northward of Baffin's furthest of about 60 milea, reaching within Smith'a Sound to 78° 28' N. lat., and obtaining the view of t sea ex. pandlng again considerably Iwyond. The exploration of thia new expanse into the main Arctic Ocean (with which the Greenland Sea in the east, and Behring's Strait in the west, communicated), by the second American search-expedition under Dr. Kane, completes our sLetch of the progress of discov- ery on the western aide of Greenland. This hardy and intelligent adventurer, in a little solitary vessel, the brig Adnmce, pushed his way through Smith's Sound in the month of August, 1668, and crawled along shore within a cram of dangerous ices which all but tilled the passage, to a position higher in latitude (about 78° 40') than had ever before been taken as a wintering station in these western regions by Euro- peans, In this position the brig was frozen in, early in September, and so remained throughout the succeed- ing summer, and with so little prospect of release as to occasion her abandonment, after a protracted adher- ence to her of above 20 months. From this high position in latitude, explorations (furthered for a time by the effective aid of their Es- quimaux dogs) were perseveringly made, and reward- ed by residts of the moHt interesting nature in geography, hydrography, and glaciology. The coast of Greenland, forming the eaitem boundary of Smith'a Sound, was traced northerly and easterly, until the exploration was diverted by a stupendous glacier of a vast extent, with a precipitous face alraut 600 feet in height abutting the sea. The geographical discov- eries were pushed still- further toward the pole, and new lands OS high in latitude as 82° SO' added to our charts. The lands on the two sides of this channel were found to be connected by apparently perpetual ices, having, •t the time of the examination, an open Bea beyond entliely free from visible encumbrance, whose waves were dashing with anblime action and force against the face of the icy barrier. Here an area of about 3000 square miles was seen entirely free from ice, the commencement and margin, as lus been inferred, of an open ut[freeising polar sea. On this question, how- ever, which comes in more fitly for discussion in our article on the Polar Regions, we here only remark, cautionarity, against fi premature conclusion, that Captain Scoresby, in his account of the aictio regions, describes an open sea, which he himself once observed and navigated, to the northward of Spitzbergen, run- ning about E.N.E. and W. S.W. for 300 miles within the latitudes of 80° and 81° 80', and having an area of fTom 16,000 to 20,000 square miles, or from five to six times the extent of that traced by Dr. Kane ; yet this apparently open polar ocean was found to be bat a mid- glacial sea t Besides, the extreme lowness of the tem- perature in Dr. Kane's case — being the lowest, in the mean, ever observed on the face of the globe — afforded suSic' ^nt evidence that there could be no such sea re- maining open to the pole, beyond an incidental lake. It does not come within the scope of our present arti- cle to dwell on the particular facts, and incidents, and processes of this admirable research by Dr. Kane, ex- cept to notice the falling in with Esquimaux living in i, region further north than any they had before met with. Agreeing, as these natives in their general characteristica do, with other Greenlanders, they were found to have incidental peculiarities in their habits and mode* of living. They employ dog-sledges of 808 great afflciency and speed, but have no boats or kayakd They surround tbemselvea in wiifter with walls of mosa, and, at that season, live mainly upon raw walrus flesh —habits of life which, for the season, Dr. Kan* and his party found it expeditnt, and, after a little expe- rience, not unpleasant, to imitate and adopt. Under this new dietary education, raw walma flesh soon be- came palatable ; and even tallow candles, when they could be tpand for such a purpose, were pronounced by the chief of the expedition to be very good 1 Use> ful and friendly as these natives were in their inter- course with Dr. Kane and his Mrty, they nnfortnnately possessed the infirmity (shall we call it i) too charac- teristic of the Esqnfanauz, of an insatiable hal)it of self-appropriation — stealing nnscropulously whatever they could manage to secrete, equally regaidluss of the damage to the owners, or of any possible use of the articles to themselves. We may add that Dr. Kane, in the Advaiux, started on his expedition fh>m New 7ork on tha 81st May, 1868, having along with him, in crew and associates, seventeen men. Three of this linmber, the cook, the carpenter, and a seaman, died in the arctic regions, and the remainder returned safe to port on the 11th of October, 1866. The party left their vessel still fast in the ice on the 20th of May, and traveled over the ice to the navigable waters of Baffin's Sea, whence by means of their boats they proceeded to the settlement of Upemivik. They there took passage in a Danish trader; and when, in the progress southward, they reached Lievely, in Disco Island, they met with the expedition of Lieutenat H. J. Hartsteln, wliich had been sent out by Congress in search of them. As to the etutem tide of Greenland, all our accurate knowledge, except a few particulars referring to the coast near Cape Farewell, is of recent attainment. A coast-line, indeed, of the more southern parallels was to be found in our charts of the arctic regions, and in maps by Egede and Crantz, traced to a consjderable extent, with an elaborateness of flexure that would indicate real and careful examination; but subsequent researches have by no mea-.is verified the supposed configurations. Northward of the 70th parallel of latitude, all the geographical information we had of that coast previous to the voyage of Captain Scoresby (now the Rev. Dr. Scoresby) in 1822, consisted of the not very definite notification of certain points of land discovered by the adventurous Hudson in 1607, with a few touches on the ooast, n nd notices of land being seen by whalers, chiefly Dutca, in 1654, 16t53, and 1670. In 1822, how- ever, captain Scoresby, while engaged in the Green- land wliale fishery, and successfully pursuing the commercial object of his voyage, penetrated the ic^ westward, as he had previously provided for attempt- ing, to the coast of eastern Greenland, But the posi- tion of the coast, and its line of direction, were found to be widely different from those ascribed to them in the charts, whether English or Dutch ; for the real place of the land in latitude 74° was found to be from 8° to 16° of longitude farther west, and the line of direction from 69° to 74° 80' N. by E., instead of KE., or E.y.E., as formerly laid down. The first land seen by Captain Scoresby, stretching from N.W. by N. to N., extended to about 74° 30' N., the nearest headland being estimated at 60 milei' dis tance. This was on the 7th of June, and so early in the season as to prevent any near approach to the coast, from the intervention of a chain of heavy field ice northward of 73°. But after tracing a proximate outline of the mjre northern part of the coast. Captain ScoTOsby was gradually enabled to approach the shore as, with the advance of the season, he proceeded south- ward ; and, in the course of the exploration, succeed- ed in landing on four or five different positions between the 70th and 73d parallels. The coast from 74° 80' to 69° 10' was generally surveyed, and names were given to the more particular headlands, islands, and inlets. ORE 804 ORE Two very ranuriubla Inlsta wen ol>s«rr«d md par- tially cziiniiud, one in latitnds 72°, which waa named Ihtvg'i Bound, and the other in 70° 16% whieh received the name of SconAf't Souml, &n account of the flrst examination of it erer known to have been made having juat bem accompliahad by the navigator's hther. In this way, single-handed and without cost to the coontiy, some 000 miles of new coast line (reclc- oning its various flexures and Inlets) were added to our Greenland ahaits ; and much novel information on the geography, hydrography, and natural history of those regions was communicated to the public in the Journal o^M« Voyage, which appeared in the succeeding spring. One circumitance of geographical interest it may be proper more pstticalarly to notice, viz., the conviction conveyed to the mind of Captain Scoresby by his ob- servations on the corrent setting into Davy's Sound and Scoresby's Sound, that these fine expanses of water, which, in certain westerly directions, were dear of ice or land to the utmost extent of virion, were actual, channels of communication tietween the Sea of Greenland on the east, and thkt of BaiHn's on the west.' Hence, the great probability of the supposi- : tion abeady noticed, that Greenland consists of an osNmiAi^ of Islands. . In the ^ear 1828, Captain Clavering, in command of the Gnper sloop-of-war. Under admiralty orders for pendulum experiments, advanced on the same coast as that first approached by Captain Scoresby ; and, being about a month later in the season, was enabled to get close in shore, and to enter a considerable luy in Ut. 74°, supposed to be that originally discovered by Gael Ilamkes, a Dutch navigator, in 1654. The line of the more northerly part of the coast, as laid down by Scoresby, was now corrected, ar 1 new coast lines, in- cluding Shannon Island, with dottings of headUnds reaching from 74° 80' to 76°, added to our charts. Southward of Gael Hamkes's Bay the coast was traced pretty close along to Cape Parry of Scoresby, and then finally left. The general conflgoration of the coast, excepting some 10 or 15 leagues in the furthest north, seen by Captain Scoresby only in the distant horizon, was singularly verifled by Captain Clavering's Inshore researches. For though the first explorer was not able to approach the land between 73° SO' and 74° 80' N., nearer than from 40 to 45 geographical miles, the positions ascriijed by the two navigators to the head- lands of Gael Hamkes's Bay, and other leading points (with Jaclcson's Island, which had been first laid down at about SO miles' distance), proved to bo all but Identical. This coast presents many remarkable and interest- ing features. On the Liverpool coast of Scon-oby there is a mountainous chain of 3000 to 4000 feet in height, forming precipitous clIfFs, which terminate in numerous pealu, cones, pyramids, or "series of perpen- dicular serrated points. In the interior were seen peaks supposed to be almost twice the elevation of the loft}' coast. The coal formation of Jameson's Island, In Scoresby's Sound, was among tbe most interesting of the geographical particulars observed. The final researches, which terminate onr descrip- tion of the eastern coast of Greenland, were those made by Captain Graah in the years 1829 and 1830, by order of the king of Denmark. The leading object was to search for the lost colonies, and trace the coast, if practicable, in tmats, (h)m Cape Farewell up to lati- tude 69° N., the southernmost point discovered by Captain Scoresby. The expedition consisted of two women't toatt of the country, rowed by women, carrj'- ing the Danes of the party (Captain Graah and three others), and attended by five men in their kayaks. From the sonthem island. Cape Farewell, up to lati- tude 65°, the coast was found to trend about N.X.E. ; and from thence, for 60 to 80 miles (as far as they were able to trace It), the line was about N.E. The highest point on Captain Graah's chart extends to 66° 45 , leaving the interval of about 340 miles (in a noidi- eaataily diraotion) yet nnoertiiied and nnknowti. Tkt , pressing of the ice in close contact open the land pr» vented the ftaither navigation of these eastern shores. Onanook, a se»-port town of Benliewshire, Scot- land, on the. south bank of the Firth of Clyde, 22 miles below Glasgow, in N. Ut. 55° 57' 2", W. long. 4° 45' 80". In troat of the town there is a fine and extensive bay, formerly known by the name of the Bay of St. I«wrenoe, from a religious house that an- ciently stood there. Behind the town the land rises hito a pictureaque ridge of hills, about 800 feet high, between which and the l»y Greenock stretches for up- ward of 24- miles along the shore, but its breadth is inconsiderable; Its name is supposed to be derived ttom the compound Gaelic word OriamUff— Orion sig- nifying ann, and Aig port or bay— the bay being directly apposite to the rising sun. Various acts of Parliament liaving reference to suc- cessive enlargements and alterations of the harlwrs were Awm time to time procured as the increase of trade rendered such necessary, so that now of tlie original erections scarcely a vestige remains. In 1785 a diy dock waa built in tlia western division of the old harbor, the expense of which waa defhiyed by snl>- soiiption; and in 1818 the magistrates and cooncil contracted for and built another, and greatly larger, entering iVom what is now known as the East Indi* Hariwr, and which was finished in 1824 at an expense of X20,000. On the 2«th day of May, 1805, was laid the foundation-stone of the East India Harbor ; and almost cotemporaneously with tills largo addition to the dock accommodation of Greenock, a general im- provement and renovation of the quays and breasts of the older portions of the hariwr were undertaken. These works, which were very extensive, and in- volved an expenditure of upwurd of £120,000, were not completed till September, 1819. The steadily increasing tnide of the port rendered a furtiier extension of dock accommodation alMolutely necessary ; and in 1840 an act was procured for the construction of an entirely new harbor and dock. Six years subsequently the work was commenced on a site directly - the East India Harbor, and on the 17th Octol>r'. :jie new dock was formally opened Wider the di . a of Victoria Hariwr. It consists of a tidal basid, covering an area of about 6 acres, and exceeding 80 feet in depth. The east and west walls are each i68 feet long; and the outer quay wall, divided by the entrance, 160 feet wide, is 176 feet long on the west, and 60 on the oast side. The average width of the quays on the east, west, and south, is up- ward of 86 feet, and on the north, toward the river, it is 70. The depth of water within the basin is 26 feet at high tide, and 14 feet at low water. The whole work, which is of the most substantial character, cost upward of ^£120,000 ; and, as a tidal harbor, has not, in respect of its size and depth, its equal in the world. On the east side a massive crane, capable of lifting from 70 to 80 tons, has been erected ; and here many of those gigantic steam vessels, for which the Clyde has Iwcome universally famous, are fitted with their engines. A crane has also l)een erected at the East India Hariwr capable of lifting 40 tons. The old graving docks having become altogether in- adequate, the harbor trustees have recently purchased, for upward of .£30,000, several acres of ground adjoin- ing Albert Quay, and here it is in contemplation to construct a new harbor, with the requisite dock ac- commodation for repairing the largest vessels. The following measurements show the extent ft the e» isting dock and quay accommodation ; Albert qnsy tnd slip (M llneaf feet Vest hartMT and quays 8,940 feet, girthed. ' Entrance to harbor 180 ** wide. Custom-honse quay WO " " Eastlndlaharborandqnaya.... 8,200 " girthed. Kntianoe to harbor 170 " wide. Victoria harbor and qnaya. 8,900 •* glrthi4<,,;» Kntrancetobatbor IBO » wld*^ * ORE 808 GRB Tht Mrilcit timda imiiii to hsva been In heninn, ■ad It If itiU continued, the •mount onnd uinnuljr areraging aboat 19,000 barrels. Trading in tobaoco naa idM oafriad on at a very early period. It wai flrat brouglit from tlie colonies, and tben exported to the continent. The Greenland whale-ilshing com- oiancad as far bacic as 1762, but it never rose to be of any importance, and is now discontinued. The American war greatly interrupted the progress of OrMUock, as the principal trade of the port was then with that country; but after the pea«e in 1788 it speedily revived, and within the seven foUo^ving years the shipping trade was tripled in amount. At present the principal intercourse is with the East and West Indies, Australia, and North America. Newfound- land and South America have abo employed a consid- erable quantity of shipping. The graduid increase of trade is shown by the following tables : AcooviiT or Tna oaoss Beoiipt or CtrsTom at thb Post or OasaitoCK dveins 1728, ahd vasiods svasaounrr •^— 188» alt^OM 18M asMTT 1648 «>r,«8S 1801 ,..,. 410,«« 185S 429,&aS f ITSS £IB,S31 V'< 18N ,i.,.. 811,087 18M M84494 1881 n«,008 The stationary state of the duties of lata years is ascribed partly to their reduction, and partly to the improvements effected in the navigation of the Clyde, which enable vessels that formerly had to load and unload here or Port Glasgow, to ascend to Glasgow. AcoouMT or TBI Ndmbib or Bboutibed Vusels bi- LONOIMO TO tub PobT OF OBEINOOK DUBIHO TUB YlABS 188S, 1884, ISa, AMD 18SS. No. Tom. ' law. 241 S«,OM 1884, 8«7 40,788 184B. 428 82,741 1848. 418 T8,9»8 Of these last, 14 vessels, with an aggregate of 2012 tons, were steamers. ACOOONT or THB .('iTHBEB AlfO TONltAOB OF VbHBLS TBAT BBTEBED AMD OLBABED FBOIC ASD TO FoBEIOB PoETS IH VABIODS Yeabs SIHOB 1784. nnrABD. Brilbk. Foratgn. BrilUh. rortirk No. Tom. No. ton;i. No. Tom. No. Toiu. 1784 ta <,8«t 4 880 68 7,227 8 6?0 1804 18A 80,302 2S 6,199 105 81,896 20 ^966 1824 188 48,162 11 8,(M 188 46,867 » 2^699 1884 277 69,818 10 2,078 284 71,698 8 2,140 18S8 274 HBTB 44 18,764 168 66,680 45 11,976 • f In 1880, 684 vessels, of 67,884 tons, entered, and 796 vessels, of 81,988 tons, cleared coastwise at the port. In 1853, 674 sailing vessels, of 88,828 tons, and 214 steam vessels, of 89,611 tons, entered, and 162 sailing vessels of 8662 tons, and 102 steam vessels of 10,762 tons cleared at the port. The opposition to the mo- nopoly of the East India Company originated wtih the merchants of Greenock in 1812. — E. B. Oreenwioh Hoapltal, Greenwich, England, Is a royal foundation, erected by the mnnificance of William and Harj' (originating, as is generally be- lieved, with the queen), by letters patent of the 26th of October, 1694. The hospital occupies the site of the old palace, called Greenmck Uouu, which was from very early times a residence of our sovereigns. Edward III. had a palace there. Heuiy IV. resided much at Greenwich, and his will is dated from his manor of Greenwich. It was ^{ranted by Henr}' Y. to the youngest son of John of Gaunt, and reverted again to the crown on his death (26th Henry VI.). Edward IV. took great delight in the palace, and en- larged it at much cost. He granted it to his queen, Elizabeth. It afterward came into the possession of Henry VII., who enlarged and lieautifled it, and re- sided much there. Henr}' VIII. was at great expense to render the palace worthy of his sumptuous court. He called tiiis his manor of plaaaaunce, and held there many graat banquet* and nyal oaremoniea. Queen Elhabeth made maay additions to tha bnlldlng, and resided much there. Jamas I. laid the foundation of the HoHM <{fDtlijiht, which afterward became tha res- idence of the governor of the hospital, Charles I. resided frequently at the palace ; and his queen fur- nished, with extraordinary magnificence, the building begun by his predecessor. At his ileath It was taken possession of by the offlcer* of the Commonwealth, who excepted it, for their own use, firom the general ordinance passed July 16th, 1649, for the sale of tha crown lands; but upon theb subsequent necessities for the support of the navy, it was ordered by the House of Commons, November 27th, 1662, to be im- mediately sold for ready money. Preparations to give effect to this order were made, and some small part of the out-buildings was sold. The palace and park were, however (with other of the royal pahtoes), assigned by the House of Commons for Uie accommo- dation of the Lord Protector, and happily reverted to the crown on the restoration of Charles II., by whom the- west wing of tlie present hospital buildings was added, aa part of an extensive design. (Uastbo's UUlorji of Kent.) The palace remiUned in the unfln- iahed state in which Charles 11. left it, when it waa assigned by the patent of William and Mary to certain of the great officers of the state, as commissioners for ita conversion into a hospital for seamen. This was followed in the succeeding year by a patent, dated September 10th, 1696, which recited that the object of the institution was to make some competent pruvitiion tliat seamen who, by age, wounds, or other accidento, should become disabled for further service at sea, and should not be in a condition to maintain themselves comfortably, might not full under hardships and mis- erias, but might lie supported at the public cliarge ; and that chUdren of such disabled seamen, and the widows and (Children of such seamen as should hap- pen to he slain in the king's service, might, in some reasonable manner, he provided for and educated. The patent appointed Prince George of Denmark, several of tiie great officers of state, nobility, bishops, and others, to be commissioners for these purposes ; and required them to consider how they might be best carried out, and the palace liest converted for the charitable object to which it was assigned, and also to frame for his majesty's approval a charter of foundation. The government of the hospital has l>een continued in similar commissions in 8ul>sequent reigns, and the most distinguished persons have betin appointed com- missioners. George III., by his charter of Uecemlier 6tb, 1776, incorporated the commissioners, vesting the goods and revenues of the hospital in them, and gave to them and their successors a perpetual succession. The revenues of the hospital have l)een derived from several sources. William III., contributed by grant £2000 a year toward perfecting the work, and author- ized the commissioners to receive voluntary gifts and subscriptions in aid. Above £60,000 had Iwen ex- pended, on Queen Anne's accession, upon the build- ings, which though still very incomplete, were so far in a state of readiness that, in December, 1706, 100 disabled seamen were taken into the hospital. On the 1st of July, 1708, the numiier amounted to 860, and the income was estimated at £12,000 a year; half of which was applied to the maintenance of the sea^ men, and tha other half to the completion of the build- ings. The revenue of the hospital in 1849 (for which year the latest accounts are printed), was — Nett produce of the estates £29,>T 9 Bentsin Oreenwioh 2,681 Interest on Invested property 82,491 From eonsolldstod nind. In lion of mercbant-sos- men's ■lEpenees. 20;000 Freightage of treasure 10^408 Other siosll contingent receipts. Including sale of £8,000 stock io purohsse river frontage. 8,786 TotsL £148,888 GBE M6 GBI Aad tbe •xpeadlian for the auM jtn BMWhold *ad eoBtlnnnt (xpcBiM, oomprUbif th« nulnUiunM, elolhlng and illowuea to 8,T10 MBiioiMn and VT nnmit, with mIvIm uid wigM to the •aboidlBtt* ofllMrt u4 (•rruti, nd ill works and npaln, SllMTU ObargelbrtbarajriliiartlKhoall, 18,aW. Sttwm, 1860. Orvanwioh OtMarratoiT' Built at the aoUo- iUtion of Sir Jonaa Uoore and Sir Cliriatopher Wren, by Charias II., on the aummit of FUmatead-biU, so called Atom the great aatronomer of that name, who waa the flrat aitonomer royal here. The EngUah be- gan to oompnte the longitude from the meridian of thi* place, 1675 ; some make the date 1679. This ob- iorvatory contaiaa • transept circle by Trougbton; • transit instrument of 8 feet by Bird ; 3 mural qnsd- nints of 8 feet, and Bradley's aenith sector. Tiw telsaoopes are 40 and 60 inch acbromatics, and a 6 fsat xcflsctor ; and among other fine instruments and ob- jects is a famous camera obacnra. Gto-eaade. A hollow ball of iron about 2} inches in diameter, charged with gunpowder and furnished with a proper fuse ; it ia often called a hand-grenade, being thrown from tlie parapets of besieged places upon the Invaders beneath. Oraaluun, Sir Tbomaa, the founder of tbe Royal Exchange and of the college called by his name in London, was bom in 1619. His father bad amassed great wealth and attained great eminence as a mer- chant and bill-broker in the reign of Henry YIII., and resolved to train his son to succeed him in his business. After a thorough education at Calus Col- lege, Cambridge, young Qresham was apprenticed to his uncle, a knight and a distinguished member of the Merchants' Company. Under Edward VI., Gresham was employed on tbe same services as his fkther had performed for that king's father, and in the course of Edward's short reign he made no fewer than 40 voy- ages to Antwerp on tl ] royal business. By his finan- cial skill and foresight he rendered gt sat service to the revenues of tbe English crown, which he rescued ftom the extortions of Dutch and Jewish capitalists, and introduced with great effect the practice of rai^ ing money from nativt money-lenders, in preference to foreigners, who exacted a ruinous rate of interest. Mary and Elisabeth continued him in bin employ- ment, and the latter knighted him in 1559. Ho had now amassed an immense fortune, and built himself a splendid bouse in Bishopsgste-street (wliich, after his wife's deatli, was used as Gresham College, and the lite of which is now occupied by the excise office), where be lived in great state, and where, by command of Elizabeth, he often entertained the ambassadors and visitors of rank that thronged her court. To these circamstanc^s Gresluun owed bis title of the "Royal Merchant." During bis repeated visits to Antwerp, Qresham bad seen and fully appreciated the value of a general place of rendeivons for the merchants of the city. Anxious to introduce something of the kind into Lon- don, be offered to build a suitable bouse if the citi- sens would furnish a site. A piece of gr«nnd was accordingly Imught, and a building on the model of tbe Bourse of Antwerp was erected and ready for use In 1569. In the following year it was opened in state by EUsabetb, who, by a trumpet and herald, pro- claimed it "The Royal 'Exchange." This building waa bnnud down in the great fire of London, but waa afttrwaid labuUt on a laiga r leaU and at a eosl of nearly XM.OOO. In 1888 this edlflee was dettrmred, like its pradkoessor, by fire ; but on tlie same site a new exchange, of tu greater dimaaaioas aad mon splendid in style, was opened in 1844 by the Qoaon, in state.— E. B. Orindstoaea, flat circular stone* of different dUmeters and thickness, mounted on spindles or axles, and made to revolve with different degrees of velocity, employed to polish steel srticles, to give an edge to cutting instruments, etc. Grindstones not in con* stant use an commonly turned by winch liaadles ; but at Sheffield and other places, where polislied articles aad cutlery are extensively manufactoied, large nuat> hers of grindstones, bebag mounted in bulldin0i ap- propriated to that purpose, called grind or blade mills, ore turned by straps, acting on their axles, the mov- ing power being eitiwr water or steam. The atoua l)est suited to form grindstones is what is called a sharp-grit, it being chosen finer or coarser-grained ac- cording to tbe purposes for which they are destined. The inincipal grindstone quarry in England ia at Gatesliead Fell, bi the county of Durham, where they are produced in vast numbers, not only for home use, but for exportation to all parte of the world. But those principally in use at Sheffield are mostly quar- ried at Wickersley, hi Yorkshire. They are classed in 8 different sixes colled /oott, according to their dimensions, as in the following table : OluMUr. ThlcklMh No. IB •chaldron. IikU.. iKhH. Ifoot 10 9 at S foots. 14 n 97 8 ** 90 4 18 • 4 ** 98 4 9 ** 80 5 B 6 ** 49 a 8 7 ** 60 e U 8 " M 8 1 A grindstone foot is 8 inches ; the size is found by adding the diameter and thickness together. Thus, a stone 56 inches diameter by 8 thick, making together 64 inches, is an 8-foot stnne, of 8 inches each foot. Besides the above sizes, grindstones are made, when ordered, of any intermediate dimensions ; many are mode much larger than any of the above sizes ; some as large as 76 inches diameter, and 14 or 15 inches thick, which are a great weight, a cubic foot weigh- ing 1 cwt. 1. qr. 14 lbs. — Rkes's Cgclopotdia ; Bai- I/Ey'b Survtg of Durham, p. 48. Grinding is an unhealthy and dangerous employment. For some purposes, the stones are made to revolve with an ex- treme degree of velocity, which makes tliem occasion- ally fly in pieces. But the greatest annoyance to which the grinder is exposed is from bis inhaling the minute particles of stone, and of iron and steel, that are always flying; about, particularly in the process termed dry grinding. Contrivances have been sug- gested for obviating this serious inconvenience ; but whether it l>e owing to their unsuitableness, or to tbe carelessness of the worlunen, none of them luve suc- ceeded in practice. — Treatite on Irim and Bteel, Lakd- neb's Cgdopadia, p. 298. OlinncU Ztand, a tract of Terra Firms, ia the Arctic Ocean, the south coast of which trends in a western, and finally a north-weston direction, was discovered by the American Expedition, in search oi Sir John Franklin, September 21st, 1850. Of this interesting discovery (which the British explorers in this region modestly claim, and call it "Albert Land"), Dr. Kane, the journalist of the American Ex- pedition, thus spealu : September, 21, 1850.— We have drifted still more to the northward and eastward. A relinble obaervatiun gave us iat. 76° 20' 88". Apparently we are not more than 7 miles ttom the shore, which is still of the cliaracteristio limestone of the lower channel. Ter. race* of shingle are rising one above another in regn. 4ftr 897 QUA lar inoeentoa. tbtiy follow the euTTO-lIke iiraep of tha indanUtioiu, Eittnuted bjr «j-e, the height of tba appermoit ih about 40 feet above the water line ; bnt I was of eonne unable at that diitanc* to com- pare the levels of the luccesslre ledges with those observed between Capes Spencer and Innes on the op- posite side. About tea-time, we saw a set of bill-tops to the north b}r west, apparently of the same conflg- uration with the hills around us. The coast of Com- wallls Island now receded to the westward, and an intermediate space, either of water or of very low beach, separates it from the new land to the north and east of us. Whether this be a cape from a northern Terra Incognita, or a new bend of tha opposite shores of North Devon, I am not prepared to say. We toolc sextant bearings. From this date we may claim the discovery of that land, which we were able afterward to define satisfhctorily. " Grinnell Land," as it was afterward named by oar commander, was thus discov- ered nearly 8 months before it was delineated and named by Captain Penny in May, 1861. September 22. — This day of rest (Sunday), which opened with clear, cold serenity, gave us an opportu- nity of seeing the onvisited shores oi Wellington Channel, Our latitude by artiflcial horizon was now 76° 26', or about 60 miles north of Cape Hoth- am. Cape Bowden on the eastern side hod disap- peared, and on the west a dark projecting cape from which we took our sextant angles, was seen bearing to the west of south. To the northward and west- ward low land was seen having the appearance of an island, although it may have been connected with the shore by an unseen strip. Its eastern termination was more elevated. The bend of the western shore was now clearly to the westward. It was rolling with the terraced shingle beaches before observed, and ended or apparently ended, abruptly. After and be- yond these to the north, without visible land interven- ing, were the monntain tops which terminated oar view. These were two in number, one higher than the other. A third summit, more distant than the others, was seen by me Arom the mast-head, bat the bases of all these, as is often' the case with distant mountains, could not be traced to the horizon. Without the aid of a known height, and in an atmosphere so decep- tive, I could not venture to give their distance in miles. Lieutenant De Haven estimated the middle peak the nearest and most conspicuous, at 60 miles," Here Dr, Kane is direct and positive. He is not compelled to resort to " a division of opinions," nor a " first idea," nor an " if," He is pUin and outright. He says — "Grii(xbi.l Lakd, as it was afterward named by aur commander, was thus discovered nearly 8 months lAfofe it nas delineated and named by Cap- tain Penny in May, 1861," Lieutenant Griffin, commander of the Seteue, in his narrative of De Haven's voyage, is as clear and pos- itive as De Haven and Kane, as to the discovery : A succession of southerly gales occurring, we were driven, with all the ice in sight, up Wellington Chan- nel, until we reaofaed the latitude 75° 26', From that position mneh new land was seen, A range of high mountains very justly received the name of Grinnell, A channel leading to the north-west was named after the distinguished gentleman at the head of the Na- tional Observatoi}-, Mr, Maury, Capes and islets never before setn, unless by the missing navigators, were named. By gazing on that which was entirely nnw to man, the spirit of enterprise iMcame animated — ^we felt disposed even then to load the sledge, and toil slowly in the direction of the monntain range. Captain Penny, the following spring, without knowl- edge of our having been ahead of him, gave English names to the above land, calling Grinnell Land, Al- bert Land; Uaory Channel, Victoria Channel, et«. The mistake, as soon as it Is explabed, I inppoae will be comcled on tha EngUali chart*. Uentenant OiUHa erred in hi* suppbsitioc. Th* "mistake" was sufficiently explained liefure Penny's, or Arrawsmith's, or any other chart of the Arctic Dl*- ooverie* hi 1860, was published. The Lords of tha Admiralty received oflicially an explanation of tlte "mistake," more t.haa two months prior to thedste of the Admiralty chart, of April 8th, 1862. Their " mis. take" has not yet been corrected. They still adhera to the name of " Albert" land.— Colosbl Forcb's PtmpUtt ans, and French, have likewise their groats, groots, groschen, gros, and the like. In England in tha 8axon times, no silver coin larger than a penu}- was strucit, nor after the Conquest till the reign of Edward III., who about the year 1861, coined grosses or great pieces, which went for fourpence each; and so the matter stood till the reign of Henry VIII,, who, in 1604, first oohied shillings, Ohx>ats, oats deprived of the huska Gkrosa, the number of 12 dozen, OroH ^Velght, in commerce, the weight of mer- chandise and goods with the dust and dross, as also of the bag, cask, chest, etc, in which they are contained; and out of tliis gross weight allowance is to lie mod* for tare and tret, Ouadalonpe, or Ouadelonpe, one of the lee- ward group of isUndg in the West Indies, and one of the most important colonies of France, and situatedl in north lat, 16°' 20', west long. 62°. It uonsista properly of two islands separated from each other by a narrow channel, about five miles in length, b}' from 80 to 100 yards wide, and rith depth sufficient for vesseli of 60 tons. This channel, called La Xiviere SaUe, or Salt River, runs nearly north and south, and has a large bay at each end, that on the north beuig called the Grand CvUde-Sae, that on the south the Petit Cut- dt'Sae. The western or larger island, ealled Guada- loupe proper, or Bane Terre, is 27 miles in length, by 16 in breadth ; the eastern, or Grande Terre is nearly 30 miles long, by from 10 to 12 broad. Guadaloupe proper is of volcanic formation, and is traversed m north to south by a ridge of hills having a medium hdght of 2296 feet. Its principal peaks ore La Sou/- friire, an active volcano 6108 feet high, and Grotee- Montagnc, Deux ifamellet, and Piton de Bouillante, ex- tinct volcanoes. It is copiously watered by numerous small streams, two of which, the Goyade anU tLe I*- zarde, are navigable for small craft. The soil !a fer- tile, and the surface is agreeably diversified by hill and dale, wood and garden. The products, natural and cultivated, are those of the West Indies gen- erally. The principal town, Batae Tent, stands on the south-west coast. It is the residence of the governor, and has some fine public 1)uildings, fountains, and gar- dens, and has about 6000 inhabitants. Grande Tern, unlike Guadaloupe proper, is marshy, sterile, and flat, nowhere rising more than 116 feet above the sea. Its chief town, St. Louii, or Point ^ Pilre, the former capital of the island, is at the south entrance to the Salt River, and has an excellent harbor. It formerly con- tained about 16,000 inhabitants, but was almost en- tirely destroyed by an earthquake on 6th February, 1848, on which occasion 4000 of its inhabit.^nta per- ished. The climate is humid, and hurricanes and earthquakes are frequent. The rainy season last* flrom the middle of July to the middle of October. The chief exports are sugar, molasses, rum, cotton, coffee, dye-woods, and copper. The sugar crop amounts to about 60,000 hogsheads annually, A considerable quantity of fish is taken in the neigb- borlng seas. The government consista of a governor, with a (irivyoeiiBdlof 6, and* colonial oooBoU of 80 GUA 808 GUA namben. Ttia govcrament of Ouadaloape oompriau bnides that iiUnd, thoM of Mant-aahnle, Datrmle, lAt Samtu, and the northarn portion of 81. Martin. Mmw-ilalaM* lie* 14 milM louth aouth-aait of Oaa- daloupe, and ia aboin. 12 mllei In length bjr 8 in braadth. It ii traversed ftom north to south liy a range of hllli mnning parallel to the east coast, where it presents a fl«nt of high and predpltons roclis. The west and north tides of the island aro levil ; and parallel with the former Is a narrow lagoon, 7 or 8 miles in length, sep- arated from the sea by a low narrow tract of land. The island abounds in woods, particularly the wild cinnamon-troe. Ita principal towp, Grmdbourpy or Bau» Ttrrt, standi near the south-w«st point. Du- tinde, or Dutada, lies about 4 miles east from the south-east extiamity af Grand Ttrrt, and is about 8 mttes kng by 8 wide. It rites flrom the sea with a steep ascent, and then extends In a table-land, which consist* of limestone rocks, in which many carems occur, but it it without water. The soil fai some places is of a deep black mold, and fertile | in others It Is sandy and unproductive. The only anchorage is at the Anu-Galet, on the east side of the island. />« Bainttt are a gronp of rocky islets 6 or 7 miles sonth of Ouadalonpe, and consist of lofty and tteep peaks, soma of which are united by flat ground and ridges of inferior elcTation. The two largest are called Ttrrt (f'«m a dull red to a dirty white, and it has a strong smell and a fat, unctuous feel. At an average, it may weigh fVom 60 to 60 lbs. a bushel. Humboldt waa either the first, or one of the first, by whom this important sub- stance was brought to Europe ; but it was describud at a much earlier date by Ulloa (Koya^ au Prrou, i. 481) ; and has been used as a manure by the Peruviana from the age of the Incat downward. Verj- different opin- ions have been entertained as to ita nature and origin. Many have supposed that ij was a peculiar mineral or earth. Ulloa, however, wat clearly of opinion that It consisted of the excrements of the sea-birds which are found in prodlgtons swarms all along the Peruvian and Bolivian shorea ; and there it no longer any doubt that such is the case. The localities where the deposit is principally met with being within a rainless region, it it accumulated with a rapidity of which we have no idea. Guano is of very different qualities : some au- thorities give the preference to the whitish varieties, which are believed to be more recent, while others prefer the red. According to Klaproth, a quantity of guano represented by 100 contained, urate of ammonia, 16 parts ; phosphate of lime, 10 do. ; oxalate of lima, 12f do. ; ailieo, 4 do. ; common salt, } do. ; sand, 28 do., and water, organic and combustible matter, 28} do. ; but its composition is found to differ verj- materially. The best is that which contains the greatest propor- tion of ammoniacal aalts. Guano has not been long introduced ; and there is a good deal of discrepancy in the statements that have been put forth as to its operation. There can, how- ever, be no doubt that it it a moat efficient manure, and that about 2 to 2^ cwt. per acre of average guano, mixed with alxiut two thirds the annual quantity of farm-yard manure (which it required to keep the toil loote), will produce, when applied to land that is well drained, nearly double the ordinary quantity of pota- toei. In turnip husbandry, splendid crops are pro- duced by the agency of guano only ; but in this case from 4 to 6 cwt. per acre should be applied. ,It has also a powerful influence in improving crops q[ com and the pasture following such crops. The effect of guana is very materially increased by Its Iwing covered up to soma considerable depth as soon at it is laid on the soil; and top-dressing is certainly the most wasteful way in which it can be applied.— (friVate ir{formation.) It is, in fact, the most vUuable of manures ; and under such circumstances it liecomes of importance to learn the probable supply of the deposit, and the price at which it nuy be imported and sold in Europe. Unfortunately, however, our information on both theie pointe is less complete than might be desired. Since it began to be largely exported to this and other foreign countries, an apprehension began to gain ground in Peru that the deposita would in no very long time be wholly exhausted ; and as this would oc- casion the ruin of those estates along the coast of Peru, and the department of Arequipa, in which guano has long been extensively used at a manure, government hat bean called upon to avert this cataatrophe by pro- hibiting ito export. We are, however, well convinced that thit apprehension is entirely groundless, and that the deposita are in fact all but inexhaustible. At present, guano it principally obfadned from the Chincha GTTA 800 GUA IlUndi, oppmlta to PUco, In Lowtr Para, In tbont Ut. 18° fiS'^B., and long. 76° 80' W., and the Loboi liUndi, oppotlta to Lambkyaqa*, In Upper Peru, in Ut. 6° to 7^ 8., and Inng. f)l° W. It hu been lUted by Sir B. H. Wifion, late Rngllih coniul at Pen, that though abont 800 tonii a year are anppoied to hare been carried for centurlee ft«m Chlncha, the principal bland of the group to which it gives Its name, to the opposite coast, there is still upon It the enormous quantity of 17,000,000 tons ; and, supposing this esti- mate to be tolerably accurate, we may safely reckon the entire mass of guano In this group at from 20 to 25 millions of tons I The stock of guano on the l^bos IsUnds, though not so extensive as that on the Chin- eha Islands, la yet very large. And, exclusive of these, there are other Islands whence gdkno Is shipped for Areqntpa, etc. Deposits have also been discovered on the coast of the main land, especially near La Mar or Cobya ; so that, making every allowance for exag- geration, the supply of guano may, for all practical purposes, be regarded hd Inexhaustible. The Islands where 'be guano Is found being unin- habited except .>y those employed in its shipment, it would, but for the interference of government, cost nothing save the expense of putting it on board and the freight home. But the governments of Peru and Bolivia were either so little aware ef the value of the article, and of their duty to their constituents, nr so corrupt, that they sold, In 1889, to private parties (Messrs. Qniros, Alller, & Co. of Lima), for a mere trifle ($60,000), the sole right to ship guano for the term of nine years ; so that these parties had It in their power to exact any price they pleased for the article. This contract was, however, too ruinous to be allowed to continue, and was canceled by the Pe- ruvian government In 1841, on the ground of enormous public lesion, and of ignorance of the value of the privilege that had been conceded. For some time af- ter this the trade was comparatively free, and large quantities of guano were imported in 1844 and 1846 ; but the monopoly system has been agnin revived. There can not be a doubt that the Peruvian govern- ment would gain largely by throwing the trade in guano open under the condition suggested above. And wo do not know that any thing could be devised th.'t would be more likely to prove advantageous to ou.' agrieultura and shipping than the carrying out of such a plan. Perhaps the best way to effect an arrangement of the sort would be to purchase one or more of the gu- ano islands from the Peruvian government. And if the latter should perversely decline to agree to such a sale, or to modify the present monoi^oly system, the question of her right to appropriate such valuable de- posits, and to. deprive others of any equitable partici- pation in their advantages, will force Itself on the public attention. Should such be the case, it will probably be found that the claim of the Peruvians to the exclusive possesion of the guano Islands la of a very questionable description ; and that in grasping at all they may not Improbably lose all. Lobos de Afuera Is fully 60 miles from the nearest point of the main land. And it seems rather too much for a government like that of Peru, without any thing worthy of the name either of a menantile or warlike fleet, to pretend to hinder others from carrying away the dung of wild birds from an unoccupied rock at so great a distance from Its territories. No guano has ever been imported equal to that flrom Peru. And unless it come from a rainless region it Is worth comparatively little ; for otherwise the ammo- niacal salts, which are a most valuable portion, are either partially or wholly washed away by the rains. Quano Is found In the caves fi^qnented by swallows, pigeons, bats, etc., in Java, Sumatra, and other places in the Eastern Archipelago. And not being exposed to the rain, it may very probably be of good quality. The reader will, perhaps, be surprised to learn that large qnantitle* of gnano havt, of lata yMn, beaa im- ported into Spain, It Is principally employed In ma- nuring the hufrtat, or low rioh grounds of Murcia and Valencia. Hitherto it has lieen mostly sent at second- hand from England. But very recently the Peruviana have begun to export it on their own account to All- cant, Valencia, etc., and have established agents In those towns for Its sale. Lboatioh or thr Umitbu States, ) Lima, April, 18, 1866. ( SiR! In reply to dispatch No. 46, dated the 18th ultimo, I have the honor to Inform you that neither the governments of Spanish America nor their citiient have the privilege of purchasing guano trom the Chin- ches, or any other islands belonging to Peru, at a cer- tain stipulated price, by tnaty , through municipal regu- lations or sufferance. All the guano exported from Pern Is shipped for account of (he government and sold in for- eign markets, under special contracts, by agents, who receive a commission for chartering vessels, and on the sale of the article. No exception is made in favor of any foreign nation, or its citizens, Peruvian citi- zens are permitted to take from the Chlncha Islands and " Pabellon Pica" without charge a sufficient quan- tity for the agrieultura of the country ; but the gov- ernment is very careful to prevent any portion of it being exported. The following is a translation of the provisions of the " commercial regulations" of Pern In relation to this subject. See Dispatch No. 98, April 18, 1862 : Chapter 1, Article 14th. " It is not permitted to an- chor in any of the anchorages at the islands, the prop- erty of the Republic, without a written license from the government." Art. 15. " Vessels which load with guano for abroad will do so only at the Islands of Chlncha. Those loading it for the agrieultura of the country will take it from ' Pabellon Pica' or from the said islands." Chap. 14. " Exportation." Art. 114. " Guano can only bo exported In vessels chartered by the government or its agents." Chap. 28. " Confiscations, fines, and other penal- ties." Art. 218. " Vessels anchoring at the anchorages of the islands the property of the Republic, shall be con- fiscated; and if '"I'-Mes guano should be found on boa'd, their cape r Lnd craw shall be dellvend over to justice, to betri : i „ guilty of robber)'." See also the decree 3t Don Manuel Menendez, act- ing President of Peru, of the 21st of Maroh, 1842, for the stringent formalities to be observed by Peruvian vessels going to the Chiuchas or " Pabellon Pica" to load with guano for the agriculture of the country. — Documents to dispatch No. 114, dated October 25, 1862. A reference to my dispatches, Nos. 169, 164, 172, 187, 218, 240, and 255, will show still further that no favors are granted In the exportation of guano from Peru to other nations not enjoj-ed by the United States. You will perceive, therefore, that the representation mode to the Department mentioned in dispatch No. 46 Is entirely erroneous, and must have originated in mere rumor. I Inclose a copy of a letter fi'om a gentleman In Are- quipa to a friend In Lima, showing the manner of iisliig guano in the agriculture of that district. I have the honor to be, sir, ' ' °' ' Your obedient servant, J. Ramdolfr Clat. To Hon. Wm. L. Habct, Secretary of State. Arequipa, Marck 20, 1856. Dear Sir : We here reply to your note of the IStli instant, asking for information relative to the manner of using guano in this district. Guano brought from the Chlncha Islands to Islay is there sold to the chacraros (fanners) round Arequipa at ttom four to six reals the fanega : the fanega QUA 900 GUA w«igh« Ave MTobM, or about ISS Ibi. Tha prioa rariw from foiu to als raali t at prtMnt tba latter prloa la aaksd. TbU would mako tba EnglUh ton woitb about #18, or My £3 lOi. In Ulay. It la applM tu two crop* only, iiiiUxa (Indian com) and potato*!, carefully by tha band. The malie, when tha pbuit ii about two inontbi old and alMUt thrao fourtha vara high, inui hnlf a handful la applied near eaoh root. A larifar quantity la aaid to lie preju- dlcUl, by " burning the plant." The guano I* then covered with earth, and a amall quantity of water (by itrlgatton) la applied " tu llx the guano." If the atat* of tha loii doea not abaolutely require It, no mora water la applied until after alx or eight daya. Tba quantity required fur each " topo" of MOO varaa (about It acre) ii four fanogaa, or aay fiOO Iba. For potatoea the quantity raquind la tha aama and la ap- plied much In the aama nuuiner aa regarda the age of the plant, and a amall quantity of water " to Ax the guano." The atalk of tha pikato la then about one fourth vara In height, and tha earth heaped up in ridgea the aanie aa in Britain. A peraon inaerta a apade In the top of the ridge bealde each plant, while the woman followa pour- ing about half a handfbl of guano into tha hole thua made, and covering It with earth, lo that the ridge re- mahu the aame aa liefore the application of the guano. To wheat tbe application of guano is not approved, principally, v* believe, on account of tbe rankneaa it producea in the atalk, thereby delaying the ripening of the grain — a point of great Importance in landa when they count on obtaining two cropa a year. TuoMAa Rbukct. The New Guam Jtl*lng greater, and tbvir balilta* tiona being more In tba interior uf tlia lalanda. Tli* apeoiea of Plotua and Uhynoopa are vary rare | tlioia of Larua mora numerous. The Htomaa only vlait the lalanda to lay their eggsi but their numliera are «t var}- great that they muat uontrlbuta In a great meaa- ure to tbe formation of guano. Tha 8|>li«nbcu« abounds lo tbe southern island, whiidi la Inlmiiltad, These birds, not being able to fly, liullow out liulilt«> tlona for themaelvea in tha guanu. The liirda whiolt produce tbe largeat quantity of guano are tha I'uflU , narlas: their number is iaualculaUa,— }'«ar Uoah r/ FaeU, 1867, p. Stll.— A'c/i'ni. FKU. Jmr, The vast deposita of guano (called Auano— a term of IndUn origin— by the I'eruviaaa) vn tha Chincha IsU and', ull uded to In the commenoement of tbia artlola, form the chief basis of the foreign trade of Peru, especially with the United States. It baa lieen deemed not In*- appropriate, therefuro, to append, lu dntail, suidi oflU clal and other reliable information on this subject aa U In the possession of tba Qovammant. Acooruing to • report mad* by a vommiaalon •specially dfputed by tha FaruvUn government in 1868 to lurvey ttta Chlnolw lalanda, the quantity of guano In the depoaiU at that* iaUnds was 13,876,100 Kruvlan tona, equal to U,> 060,068 tons English | the northern bdand containing 4,189,477 tona, tba middle laland U,60A,IM8 tons, and the aouthem island 6,080,676 tona. This estimate, If correct, would, at tbe present rate of ex|Mirtetlon— aogr about 800,000 tons \Kst annum— uflTurd tu the murkota of the world a supply of guiinu fruni tlie Cblnchas for about forty years | after which period recourse might be bad to the Loboa and other lalanda, In view of tba fact now generally conceded, tbut land which has been once manured with Peruvian giiutiu, will always ra> quire that stimulant, it may be Intcrcatlng to aauortein wlut prospect there would be of procuring a permanent supply, sufficient to meet the agriuultural wants of tha world, at other deposits, ur In other cuuntrlna, suppos- ing that the eflbrte of acienoe may not auuceod In dis- covering a aubatituto for that popular furtlllanr, The facte bearing uponthla inqulnure copied orcondented firom officUl reporte of tbe Peruvian government, or, ftrom official communicatiuna to the I)«|ittrtment of Stete of the United Stetea, and may, tbsrefure, b« viewed as generally correct. Guano has been found along tba coaste of Peru, Bolivia, and Chili | but tha princitial dapoalta are upon the three islanda of Chincha, near Pluco, and tha lA>boa Islands, between La.-nbayaqua and I'alta, In Pam, ^ The supply of guano at the Chincha Islands, alona, tnm whence only tha exportetion is permitted, can not be exhausted during the preNnt century at least. The quantity existing at tha Loboa is estimated, from a recent survey made by an American onginaer, to b« not less than 2,000,000 of tons, and of a quality aqual to that of the Chinch* Island*. Quano is also found in many spote along tba coast of Bolivia. Pacqulca, in tlia desert of Ataoaroa, is tba prlnoi|>al liolivlan port for shipping it. Tba guano is, bowaver, so mixed with sand, or so buriad and Inaoeattlble, a* to b« nearly valueless. It is Ilka mining to gat It (Vom under the sand, and ooste Arom #11 to (iltt par ton to put it on board. Tba flrst cargoes aant froai there cost about #7 per ton i and only JI4,7M ton* have baen shipped during tha last Ave year*, of which 6,910 ton* was the quantity exported in 1817. It i* baoomlng daily more scarce and expenaiva, and may ba sat down aa of Uttla importonoa, and not UhaW to intarftra with the guano of Peru. Tba prasant Brltlih oontroctor* Trith tha PeruvUn govommanl have oUo an itnaxplrad oontract with BoUria, nndtr wUeh th^r held «a »• OUA dot QUA , tolM cintirt prlvtlcn ftir the ftirihw ahlprnfiit of abont 10,000 tonii. Th«y pratcnd th»t, If Ihn rnntnrt wiire completed, theiw would li« nonit left. The Ut« Knllv- Ian govarnmtnl, howuvtr, endeavand to olitain a tmall loan on Iti guano, hut no olfrr waa made, upon any terniai thui ahnwinK the little entaem In which the article U hrld, and how little danger there la, fbr the moment, of competition with that of Pern. Ouano, It may h« aald, doea not exlat In Chill; the amali quantity of Inferior quality that waa Ainnd there, on the liordera of the deaert of Atacama, being ex- hauated. Coneeming the altuatton and character of the de- poalta of guano (huanenu) In the repuhllo of Peru : nearly the whole coaat of Pent, firom the 6th to the 21 at degree of aouth latitude— the point at which the Rlvor I^« emptlna Ita watera Into the Pacific — atforda depoaita of guano of excellent quality, In prodigloua abundance, and promlaing Immenae revenue. The fbrmatlon of the lalnnda and cliffH on which the guano ia accumulated la generally prtmitlre rocka, compoaed of granite, hornblende, gne'aa, quarti, and faldapar. The guano la found In layera or atrata, more or leaa thick, and In a horliontal direction, though aometimea they are ao Inclined aa to l>econie nearly vertical — a phenomenon which, aa In the undulating layera, In- (lucea the belief that the foundation haa undergone Bubterranean changea aubaequent to the formation of the depoaita. Aa It la obaervable In aome of the de- poaita, that the guano Ilea under maaaea of alluvia iVom 2 to B yarda in depth, containing Impreaalona of marine ahelfa, which, In their turn, are beneath auper- poaed guano, alao covered with aand, it la probable that they are of a date anterior to the deluge, or to the partial catarlysma and commotlona that the globe haa aince experienced. The depoaita are, for the most part, covered with a top-cruat from 4 to 6 Inchea thick, though, occaaionally. It la even B or4 feet deep— called by naturalista " raliche," compoaed of aalt and aand. No experlmenta have been made to try the effect of thia aubatance upon vegetation, but it probably con- talna a great proportion of ammonia, and la ao In- timately connected with the guano, that, although thIa manure la found In the depoaita without the cruat, yet the caliche la invariably an Indication of the existence of guano. The color of guano in the depoaita variea fh>m white to bright red, paaaing through the inter- mediate ehadea of light grey, dark gray, and brown ; the last of which ia mixed with excrement of the aca- Uon, and la of little uae to the agriculturiat. The ape- citlc gravity of guano nnums ''o be In direct proportion with ita color and quant' tj, .3 the dark gray and rcil- diah are the heavleat. x'or thla reaaon. It is difficult to •acertain exactly the weight of a cubic vara of guano of different colore. The variation In the experimenta having been fVom 1200 to 1600 pounda. It waa deter- mined to assign the weight of half a ton to the cubic vara of guano. To facilitate the examination of the goano depoaita, It ia proper to divide them into three grand aectiona; the ^ufAem, embracing the coast flrom the boundary of Bolivia to Arica ; the central, com- prising thoae between Arica and Callao ; and, finally, the northern, including the remainder between Callao and Paita. Southern Dqmnt. — Chipana. — The deposit bearing thia name la situated in 21° 22' 8. lat., and con. alata of a table rock between 26 and 80 varas above the level of the sea. Its greatest length Is 367 varas, by 181 varos in breadth, making a superficies of 46,767 square varas. The vara equals 88.38i En- glish inches. Huaaillat Thla deposit Ues In 21° 18' S. lat. It contains four valleys, or quebrn^, in -which the guano is accumulated; the superficies Is 168,242 square varas, or 8,626,010 cubic varos of guano. Puttia de Loboi.-^ salient point hi lat. 21° 6' S. is called by this name. It ia composed of mica and granite. The gnano llei In the valleya, or ^ehrmtru, in layera, whose mean height la (Vom 16 to 20 vnrna, The length of the deposit la about 1600 feet. Tha anperflriea la equal to 1IW,670 aquare raraa, or 2,021, • 680 cubic varas of guano. I'nMlim lie IHca. — The tent-shaped appearancia and nximity of thia hill to the village of Pica have given hia name. It la altuated In lat. 20° 67' fl. Tha guano of thla de|ioalt la found in crevices of different depths, the an|ierflclea being 240,801 a<|uare varaa, or 6,060,000 cubic varaa. Puerto IngUt (Kngllah POrt) la at a little upward of a quarter of a mile lyom the Pabellon, on a small pe- ninsula, tha form of which indicates that it waa an Island In remote ages. The guano In thla de|Hialt forms an eminence upward of 600 varus long, by 260 to 800 varas In breadth, giving a superficies of 160,261 varas. Taking these data together, with the mean height of the bank, the qiuntity may be estimated at 2,686,020 enbic varas of guano. IilanJt oflquique anil Palit'oi. — To the north of tha Pabellon and Puerto IngMs, in lat. 20° 40' south, lie the iahinda of Patiilos and Iquique— tho latter in tha bay of that name. Both were important de|>0HitB In bygone ages, but they are now exhannted, and, as they contain only the small quantity dally left by the birds, it la ail now. Notwithatandlng the scarcity of the accumulation, tho farmers of the neighborhood take ail the guano away periodically ; and, as the re- generation of the depoaita, which, for more than two centuriea, supplied the wants of a great part of the country, ia thus prevented, It would be well to pro- hibit all acceaa to theae lalanda, and other laleta alni- Ilarly aitnated on the coaat, ao that the blnla may reaort to them without disturbance, and reaerves of manure lie created for time of need. Punta Grande. — The promontory situated in latitude 20° 28' south, at four leagues' distance from Iqnique, Is called " Punta Grande," and the guano in this dc- poait ia found in aeveral valleya facing the sea. The nucleus of the locality Is compoaed of quartz, inter- sected by veins of feldspar, more or less compact, with a calcaerous auperflciea. Punta Orande, liein^ In proximity to the.llorro of Tarepaci, which ia a kii 1 of aandy mountain, the guano in the deposit is covered with heavy layera of sand, so that it would require considerable excavations to obtain it. For this reason, these are called "subterranean deposits;" and it Is difficult, on that account, to estimate the quantity they contain. Nevertheless, in the opinion of experienced persons, the amount must be immense. There are many reasons, also, for believing that these deposits were nscd In the time of the Incas ; and, notwithstand- ing the extensive excavations made up to the present time, there are many deposits still untouched. The quality of this guano is very /air, the dominant colors being reddish and ashy. Other Depotitt. — Besides those already described, there are smaller deposits of white, fresh guano, upon different rocks and points between Iquique and Punta Grande ; and at Pisagua, a small landing-place to the north of the Funtu, from which the manure Is takkn for the use of the coast. There are, also, localitlea belonging to individuals ; but the quantity in them is so inconsiderable as not to merit particular mention. The total quantity of guano in the southern deposits, or huanerat, mentioned above, may be estimated at 16,842,814 cubic varas, or 7,921,407 tons of guano, as exhibited in the following table : DipMlli. Cuble vHH. Tom. 061,804 3,825,010 2,921,680 6,»»0,000 2,^8^020 S80,<08 1,012,006 l.MHi.TOO »,»TB,000 1,899,610 HuanlUas . Pabellon do Pica Puerto logics Total i3,848,8U T,92t,40T Central DepoiU.—Tha threa magnificent deposit* GT7A 909 GI7A ' A)nM Avni Pitcf) — RoniitlkuU In llMmMlvM th* mlildln ha- tmTMi for, iillhiMi||h nom* mwiura U fuuiiil on th* cliff) of CiirTKlii* and VUJoi, and nn th* imall UlanJ of llallaata, it U found upon piilnta vlillil/ Inarcna- •IliU, and tha (ntln quantity doaa nul amount to 10,000 tnna' walght. Aa no ona la Ignorant that tha lalanda of Chtncha form tha richaa of I'aru, and that tha giuno aant to foralgn niarkata U axtractad from thani, and that tha quantity acuuniulatad thar* la graatar than In all tha huanrnu rollactlvaly, It la daamad wIniiMllila to enlarga ivmewhat upon tha pro- duo* of th«n lalanda. Tha Chlni^ha Ulanda, when eomparad on* with •nothar, dlffar Tsry lltti* in their g*n*ral character. They rli* gratluaily ftam tha t«* to a point or rldg* which la about 100 varaa (or 100 faat) alwv* th* l*v«l of th* ocean. Th*lr g*ologlo«l atructur* conalata of wall charactcriiad Kranit*, and tha guano la found da- poaitcd In parallal luyera or atrata, varying pt timea to undulating. Tha predominant itolom are An.'* gray, light gmr, aah colorad, dirty whit*, and rwldiah brown. Th* oolor, howovar, doea not appear to b* Indlcatlv* of th* quality of th* guano, aa th* aama fvoundatlng principle *xiata, whatever may b* the oolor of the coating. Naverthelaia, the llght«r-col- or*d guano contain* the greater <|UiintUy of ammonia. Pun amnioniA haa l>**n found at the Chinchaa, wh h aubatanc* la naarly whit*. Notwithatanding that nearly all th* kunntnu are oorered with « mechanioal cruit called " caliekt" (ual- culua), thoa* at th* Chincbaa are an exception to the general rule, aa the guano la pure, even at the aupar- (Icea ; and the thnuaande of biiila which proiluced theae Telna of wealth built their neata in 'excuvationa mode by them in the depoaita. The depoaita in queatlon were ineaaured In 1M42, by Don ionb Villa, and ulao by Sellor Kivero four yeara later. The former calcu- lated the quantity at &0,000,000 ton* ; the latter re- duced thia eatlmate by two third* ; and to explain th* CttUi* of the cnormou* difTerence betw**n their calcu- lation*, h* aay* : " The mean height of the eaMent point* nf the i*land i* 10 varaa, and of the part* at the grwktait dlatance ffom the ehore, 20 varaa ; and It la only in th* caiitral part* that the depth of the guano la 40 varaa. Sehor Villa lolioved that tlin amount of th* ancGoaalv* cutting*, up to th* principal one, waa 40 varaa, whereaa it did not exceed IS ; aud to thia he added 40 more, for the principal cutting*. A grand vlatake ; for, admitting it oa a probable term on which to baa* a calculation, it were required that thia central cutting ahould extend In a uniform layer to the ver}* ahora, prsaanting a depth of 80 vara*. And, not con- tent with tbta hyperlwle, he added that there were point* *tUl higher, where, according to hi* opinion, the guano must be 100 vara* deep, or more, when the iaUnda themaelvea are scarcely as high above the level of th*oc*anI" After making these obierratlon*, and adding that he hod excavated at the Imttom of the deepest cutting only three Tama liefore coming to the roch, Mr. Rivero gives the following as an approxiraat* cstimati> of the qoon- tity of goono contained in the three islamls of Chincha : Osb4i nnu. Toac Horthem laland 18,900,000 or 7,100,000 Mlddl* 1MOO,000 ■• «,4Bfl,000 eontharn 8,400,000 " 4^00,000 Total. M,SOO,000 '• 18,280,000 ThU stateraant, therefore, shows that the Islands of Chlncha contain, upon a reasonable admeasurement, at leatt 18,260,000 ton* of guano. Northtm DtpotUi. — These are, without doubt, infe- rior to those already described, as they are, for tha moat part, upon amall iaiands, very low, and con- stontljr beaten by the winda from evnry quarter; and the Uy*rs of guano or* naoally not very (ieep, and are fVequentlr mixed with oond. In thair present stata, tha Northam Depoaita would yield hanly aufll' lant guano to aupply th* foreign ilfiiiand for a vary fvw yaar* | but the quality I* good and th*y have iH'i-.im* th* r**ort of th* innumarahle cloud* of liirda which, frigbtanad from tha xiutb and centra by the inrreoaea rommerc* along th* ooaat, have taken reftig* In thoa* ■olltary piaca*. Thia |iart of tha cooat U ileatlnml to renew the aouraaa of public wealth, whnn tha spring* which are used tn-iUy shall Im> dried up and aiihauated. The laland* to tha north may li« dlvldrd Into four hsada, and the Lolwa il* Nlarra am llrat in Importance, Th* Ia>Im)* lie HIarra lie 'if> miiea aouth-weat of I.am- bay*qu*. In latitude fi° 6' 80" aouth. The group conalsta of ona large ialand, and thra* (rocky) email l*let* ot^acant to it. The principal Island I* an im- men*e oval, narrowing toward tha centre and north. The rock* are only partially and vory unoquully cov- ered with guano j the deposits lieing interrupted by points of rock unil ravinea. Katimating togntber all the manure found in different part* of thn laland, on tha polut called " Punta Oorcobada," and the point opposite the lalet " Felix Gonaalea," tha quantity la about 1SO,000 cublo varaa, or 75,4AO ton* . A high promontor}' upon the ialand i* called the " Punta Cor- cobada," ttom ita peculiar *bapa. The auiHirflcea I* extremely irregular, and contain* a large quantity of nhitiah guano, ap|iarently of recent furiimtlnn ; the atratuni is not deep, but la of very line quality. The structure of this locality Is very favorable fur the ac- cumulation of guano ; and as, In addition to this, it is protected from the winds, and as, moreover, the birds congrogata to It In graater numbers than to any other place in the section now being descrilied, there la every reason to hope that It will liecome, in time, a vein of great Importance. Th* superficial extent of the Punta Corcobttda la 118,040 square vara*, or 224,7fH) cubic varaa, equal to about 112,nf)0 tons of guano. liland l and •outh'WMl. Tha ftirmallMl la lUia | •«|i«flliiUa vtfv Irragular. Than la an aliunilaniia ul niiann, In all ■lipoaranoa nilxad wllh Iha •■I'ranianI iif Ma-lkina, (IiiIhii), which ara vary nuiiwMua. liiinianM KiHilia nf blriU (rhially illrara) frai|iHint lhi»a Ulaiiila. S» Iha Uiirtharn U not aaally auuaMllila, tlia |iiilillii «ni|lnaar could only iarvav Iha MUtham oiia, Ai'i'itrdlnn In hia aatlnittU, tha lattar haa an araa of 'illJ,IMoAi« Maria, 11° 4'; Mairouue, 11" 'ifi'\ IVaDatliiraa, 11 46'; Lai Hormliiaa, 11° 6ii'| Kl IVIado, 11" IIA', The (|uantltlas of Kuanii cmitalilad ill Ilia nuntiarn depoalta la ahown by tha folliiwinK titlila i of Ika marhata of tha llnltad IHataa and KnaUnd 1^ •hiHit M yaara,' al tha praaani rata of axpo*talion. Oaaaati, Tabu or iu Oaroana ot Ovaro. Dtpoclli. Luboa de TIana I^iboa lie Foera, or de AfUara. Ouaiiape Farrol Total OllM« vmw. RMl',4M fll,4ilU l,7iM,ill' T'*it», 7»,>NM Hll.TlW M4,l«l It may be added to tha fora|(iilii|{, that, mniorillnK to the report' of a uaw uumiiliaaioii H|i|iulMt«d In axuni' ine, survey, and rep4irt u|ian Ilia Kunnu iImihmUii, It appears that there ware not iiMira Ihait M,INIII,llOn tniia of guano remaining at tha (Jhlnulias in INftl, tTllls estiinata. It baa been stated, waa Ulliliirrillad d«sl|||n< The Peruvian guvarnniaiit ban lint yet nffl Malhan., Oa«M>... Niirlbara.. Total.. Cklpana Ilvanlllaa HanlaiU Loboa..., l>ablea... Puarto Inglv* N'nrth Itlaud. Mlildla " Hooth " Loboa (laTlarra.... I^iboail* Vuara.... (luaAapa . Farrol l,»ltJM 1,4«0,IM >,>T^000 I,W1,AI0 T.IHM.nM «,IAO,IWa 4,«(W,II00 «TItti iiiia,TM T9,IIIMI edly.J dally published tids report, but Iha liifiirmHlInn has been given In the Peruvian lie wsptt|i searches of tvlence may discover in other substances a fructifying principle, which will serve aa a substituta for this singular product." Tha guano from the Islands of Lohos has bean re- cently anulyxed liy Kir. lUymondi, an Ituliun chemist i>inpl«,vi>d liy the Peruvian government for tlie pur- pose. Annexed is n statement showini; its composi- tion as nnintiHred with that from the islands of Chin- clia, friitn Patagonln, "nd from Saldanha Bay. Tha strengtii and value of g ino are estimated by the pro- portion of ammonia and pliosphates it contains. That from the I.ohos Islands, therefore, according to the analysis of the three samples, \3 more valuable for og- riiiulturHl purposes than that of Patagonia or that from Haldhana Day. It is the policy of ths Peruvion government to discredit the I.«bos guano, so that it may lie kept out of the market until the deposits un tlie (,'hiucha Islands shall have bean exhausted. Tha samples employed for the analysis were, consequently, taken from near the top of the Lobes deposits, and ara no. a fair specimen of the product of the islands. Tba lower layers are, undoubtedly, of better qualltj'i and although, doubtless, inferior to the best from the Islands of Ohincha, it is stiU more valuable than ANAin M Of OVAXO. raoM Ma unissnss, * aon ma ttiioi. 8r RarinnKll.t raou PATAOOHI*. HA BAT, 1 Ur AailanM,* TaST." Br AadatMO. by KtfiAlnitoo Water Organic matter and ainmon- lacal salts ,,,.. M-l« «II-4K 1^ »'I10 AT1M IW'Wfl Sfii iilAO tl'IK) MINI II DO '4^ 1«'M M'flO 41 ■« \tv 9'M 18-85 8«'W 11-T4 8«'T4 1-60 94-8« IS-St 41-87 9-TO T-M I'M 9-Sl U-4T T-85 S9-M 88>6T 14-47 0^7 Phosphates. , . , Alkaline salU Band Llnm , Sulpburlo acid Fioportton of ammonia if'wj 1 iiitr • Ohsmtot of the Suyal AirtoalMral laalaly of loettuid. t Chemist of Lima. QUA 904 GUA The foUowiEg UU« azhibit* the nuitob«r of torn of PeravUn guano exported to and mM in Um UniUd States and Great Britain during the yean 1861 and 1852, together with the ezpensei of agency, ftwigbt, etc., and the net proceed! to the Peruvian treaaury i Baui or Piavviuf Od4iio dcuno tub Ybahi 1961 anu 1859. Tom. Grou fa|l>M«, — m — prtif«*ili. In 1861. United States.. Great Britain.. ToUl Tit 1861. United SUtes.. Great Britain.. Total S2,0IS 68,868 11,015,485 8,974,690 MT9,019 9,196,085 $548,45t M4irSo6 110,t»l 4T,B1» 141,«fl« H9»0,O75 ««,168,9«t 8,816,186 $9,698,704 $946,918 8,889,996 $9,891,871 $1,907,048 9,976,140 i4,18<,1l«8 189,495 $8,468,096 $4,986,918 The total importation of guano, into tliu United States during the eight years ending June 80, ISfifi, was 496,047 tons. The largest importations were fh)m Peru, and the smallest from Africa, In 18&4, the im- portations of guano nearly quadrupled thofco of any preceding year, and exceeded those of 18S& by 1H88 tons. The number of American vessels and their ton- nage dispatched fVom thb Ohincha Islands each month in 1853, and each of the flrst six months of 1854, Is stated as follows : January. I ^68. . February March April April May.. June- Total In six months.. July,1868 August Beptomber October. November December Total In six months. . Total for the year... Jannaiy, 1854 February March AorU. SSy June. Total in six montbs. No, of rt««la. 4 8 18 16 18 69 U IT 1» 80 38 908 98 99 11 11 10 91 Toimitft. »,(M» ia40 1I\87H 11,144 10,850 41,iH9~ 14,494 10,696 19,896 99,681 16,474 19,968 96,968 1^967 16,166 66,471 10,004 7,668 4,659 '190,718 The numlwr and tonnage of foreign vessels from the Chinctia Islands to the United States during the same periods, and the countries to which they Im- longed, is given as follows : CountriM, TseaT British Dutch CbllUn Bwodlsb----.. Hamburg Total tor year Wu.of vmmU, 26 4 9 1 1 Toaui^. 12,9M 1,018 1,008 846 400 16,695" CountriM, 1864. BritUh Swedish Norwegian..., PeruTlan Dutch TotalOmo's. V«M*U, TMimiif*, 8,416 969 879 840 645 iri'TJts' Sale, exportation, etc., oj" guano. — As the system of exportation and sale of guano is complirated, and nut generally understood in the United Stuii-a sale which, had it not been ■ubiaquantly annulled byjudichd proceedings, would have placed tha agrlculturistt of the world at the mercy of an irresponsible monopoly of individual ttock-Jobbers. The flrst guano contract was thea made with tho Peruvian government by the same par- ties whoso purchase of the islands had Just been can- oeladi and in less tlian a year this contract was merged in another made in February, 1842, providing fur a loan oi' (626,000, in consideration of the exclu- slvo privilege of shipping 126,000 tons within 5 years. In July, 1847 (after the expiration of the flrst con- trnot), another was made by the same parties, provid- ing for a loan of $600,000 in cash and $1100,000 in scrip (a(|UHl to (015,000 in cash)— in all, $700,000 giMxl money— in consideration of the privilege of ex- liortlng only to Kurope 40,000 tons within six months. In Ueoomber, of the same year, a third contract was entered Into with the same parties who had nego- tiated the two former, by which, in consideration of the privilege of shipping 100,000 tons of guano, a new loan was eflfected of #860,000. The princ::'il stipu- latloni of this contract were as follows : The' loan waa to bo pold— #400,000 in cosh, and the bidance in monthly payments of $60,000, the contractors were to enjoy the exclusive privilege of exporting to any or all parts of tho world 100,000 tons, register meas- urement—equal to nearly 140)000 nctnal measure- ment, The time allowed for the shipment of the 100,000 tons was limited to 18 months from June, 1H4H, allowing an extension of the time (without exclusive privilege), in case a sufficient number of vessels could not lie chartered to convey the whole qiwitlty within that period. The guano was to be lioniilgneit directly to the contractors in England, or to their agents elsewhere. The guano was to be sold for acMiunt of the Peruvian government, the contmctors Iwlng autliurized to charge tho usual commission and guaranty (about 4 per cent, on gross sales), and an interest of 6 per cent, upon all expenses, includhig frolghti ndvanomi In Kngland or elsewhere. The pay- ment of tho loan of ^60,000 (the pound sterlhig lieing computed at $6), with interest at the rate of 1 |i«Tcent. per month, is provided for: flrst, from tho balances of account exitting in favor of the Peruvian govamment on the books of the contractors (that is, baUnces urlshtK from tho former contracts) ; and sec- ond, ftam the net proceeds of the sales of guano ship- ped under the contract ; one fourth part of the net prooeetis to lie accounted for in the scrip of the gov- ernment, at par value, with the interest added. This ■erip, with the accruing interest added, cost the con- tractoni, it Is stated, almut 10 cents to the dollar. How much the contractors realized from this con- tract of Uecember, 1847, can not well be known. The following estimate, however, has been made ■ OroM sales of 180,000 tons of guano, at $60 per ton ($6,500,1100), ou which the commission, at 4 per cunt., WM $260.00(1 Kstlm;,t«(t not proceeds, at $90 per ton, of which onelburth partwu accountod fur to tho gov- ernnient In Its own scrip, coating tho cuiitrset- ors (With Interest adilcil) about 10 cents per dollar, IvnvliiK a pro'^it of 00 per cent on the whale aiiiount-Huy J«.'iO,000 685,000 I'rubnblo kaIm In oschango (at $6 per pound stor- lint) St lesst 10 per cent, on total net proceeds —say on $9,800,000 960,000 Total estimated proflL $1,106,000 It apiiaari, then, Uwt (bo total loan* on guano, and .■..i'...i:'-lj,.'i;.lL;dij£kii! CfUA 006 GUA tha nnmbar of tons contracted for, np to the year 1848, wen : Tou. Febrnarr, 1842 tCSSfiOO, with privilege Of 126,000 Jaly.IMT 700,000 » « 40,000 Deeember, lur.... 880,000 " " 100,000 ■";:';J ' Total loans, . . . . |2,O7fi,O0O Total gaano. . 860,000 Subseqaently to the contract of December, 1847, another was made, by which the consignment of all guano shipped to England and the continent of Europe from December 18, 1849, to December 18, 1661, was conceded to the same parties ; and a stU! later contract was entered into by the Peruvian min- ister in England, on behalf of his government, guar- antying to the London house of Gibbs & Co, the consignments of all guano shipped to Great Britain and the continent of Europe, with the exception of France and Spain, from December 18, 1861, to De- cember 18, 1866. By these latter contracts, loass were made, at different times, amounting, in the ag- gregate, to about $2,000,000; the last lean of $1,200,- 000 being rt a reduced interest of 5 per cent. In both the last contracts, the London house of Gibbs and Co. were made the agents for the payment of the Peru- vian l)onds held in England, amounting in 1860, l>ack interest, etc., to about $20,000,000. For the pay- ment of this debt, one half the ; .ocneds of the guano sold there is now appropriated. T^.e consumption of guano in Great Britain and on the continent of Eu- rope ia estimated at about 90,000 tons annually. The first shipment of guano to the United States was made, it is stated, in 1845. In 1846, the Peru- vian government contracted for the building of a war steamer, and appropriated the proceeds of 6,000 tons ti> the payment thereof. In the contract with Gibbs & Co., of December 22, 1847, it will be rememl>ered that the exclusive privilege of shipping guano to all parts of the world was conceded to that firm. This was the first contract by virtue of which guano was shipped to the United States. Upon its expiration (December 18, 1849), the Peruvian Congress, by an act of January 26, 1860, authorized the Executive to contract for a loan of $384,000, to be paid from the sales made in the United States, and the Min- ister of Finance advertised for proposals. Bids were immediately sent in from five American houses of undoubted responsibility. One of these bids pro- posed the purciiose of 60,000 register tons of guano at the Gtiincha Islands, at $20 per ton, to be ship- ped within 6 years; advancing the loan of $384,- 000 at 6 per cent, interest, with the usual articles regulating the commissions, exclusive privilege, cliar- tering vessels, etc. This proposal, guarantying to the Peruvian government $20 per ton (oil previous contracts not yielding to the government more than $16 net), was the most advantageous that had been made so far ; yet it was rejected, through the influ- ence of European competitors, and the loan was ad- vanced by the house of Gibbs & Co., at 6 per cent, interest, to be repaid out of the proceeds of sales in Great Britain. There had been no formal cession, since the termi- nation (December 18, 1849), of the contract of De- cember 22, 1847, of the right of the market in the United States, until the contract made with Barreda and others. Special licenses have tieen, from time to time, granted by the Executive to Gibbs & Co. ; and this firm have therefore continued, through their agents, to control the consignments as much as ever. The Peruvian government seems nnwiUing to enter into any arrangements either to sell at a fixed price at the islands, or that the article should be sold in the United States at a fixed price, and that a snfHcient supply should bo always in the market. The coun- tries to which guano is exported from the islands, by virtue of these several contracts, are: the United States, Great Britain, France, Spain, the Mauritius, Chins, the West Indies, and Venezuela. In the Uni- ted States, the agents are Barreda & Brother in Bslti- more, and J. W. Riley in New York; Great Britain, Messrs. Gibbs ft Co., who also have the agency in Belgium and Sardinia ; for the Mauritius, Kend^ & Co. ; for Spain, Murrieta & Co, of London ; for China, SevUla & Co., of Lima. The agency of the West Indieii is intrusted to Barreda & Brother ; and tliat of Venezoola, under a recent contract, to Don Leocadio Guzman, the envoy of that republic in Lima. All these agents are paid commissions, var^'ing from 6 to 7^ per cent., for selling guano, freighting vessels, etc. They are also allowed interest, at the rate of 6 per cent., upon all snms of money advanced to the gov- ernment. These contracts claim a general interest in the Uni- ted States, as throwing light upon the complicated system which regulates the exportation and sale of guano; but the contract for supplying the United States themselves, possesses more immediate interest to the consumers in this country, and demands a brief additional notice — the facts and statements 1>eing copied or condensed from reliable sources. , The contract between the Peruvian government and Messrs. Barreda & Brothers, for the. exclusive export and sale of guano in the United States during 5 j'ears, was concluded on tiie 22d of August, 1861. According to its stipulations, the agents are entitled to charge 6} per cent, commission upon the gross product of the sales, in full for all their services as agents in selling the substance, chartering vessels, guorantien, etc. They are allowed six months to render an account of the different sales made by them ; which term is absolute, unless good cause can bo 8ho\vn for delay. They are also authorized to charge 6 per cent, upon all money advanced to the govern- ment. The consumers in the United States have com- plained that the enormous profits which accrue to those interested in the contracts with th' Peruvian government for the sale of guano, have ?x>rabined with other causes in keeping up the high price of the article. The chief ground of these complaints seems to be, that large profits bei/ond those leg'timately in- cident to these contracts are realized in "^he sliape of interest, premiums, etc., which are paid in the first instance by the Peruvian government, but finally fall upon the consumer of guano. These extra commis- sions amount annually to a heavj' charge upon Amer- ican shipping, and must necessarily tend to keep up the cost of guano to the consumer. In 1860, for in- stance, the amount of Peruvian guano exported to the United States, as stated from Pemvian returns* was 137,135 tons register, or about 164,562 tons' weight. The freight on this, at $17 per ton, amounted to $2,- 797,664. Five per cent, on this would be $139,877 70. This added to about $16,000 commissions, or port agency in Peru, would make a total of $166,887 70 levied as extra commissions, not authorized by the contract, as is complained. These facts bear materially upon the consumption and sole of this useful fertilizer in the United States. The interest felt upon the subject luis been evinced, as is well known, by large and respectable conven- tions of citizens concerned in agriculture, which have Ijeen held in various sections of the country, and by propositions introduced into Congress, having for their object such legislation as would lead to special nego- tiations with the government of Peru respecting tlie mode of exportation and sale of her great staple, f * The United States' Treasury Report on Commerce and Navigation for 18S3, gives only 26,862 tons ; but for 1854, makes the number of tons 163,662. t As one of the results of thcso movements, may be named an act of Congress, approved August 13th, 18tS6, "to author- ize protection to be given to oHIsens of the United Btatei who may discover deposits of guano." .^ QUA 900 GTTA No dapMitt of gum, wbleb will st all eotntMfe vtth those of Paru, Mam uyitte bsv« t)««a dl»«ov* end, althougb mart »xUmilv» Axptenttidiit hiiv« t)««n proMcuted ; nor dosi *e[enw WMlffl X«t to tt«v« (Hid- cecded, though Invsntlvs akill bi* Iwfiti tit«hml to ids utmoat, in mMuficturlntc ft nutwtitutfl wbktb would nnptriade the naa or Inwar tba iirka of tb« l'«r«rtfln fertilizer. Indaad, the v»ry kunt mntrtt nnhlbtt rather an appreciation in it« |*rlea, Hn4 « mu« InrroHM In it« conBaniption,— 6'um, Ao/„ U, H, Ovaruity, in law, an nt4i|{Ntkin un(1«'rt«keti \jy one party that another •hall imy at porfitrm that for which he la or may Iwcoma lf«hl« to ft ihlfd party, tn mercantile traniactiona in tieotland (t may \m donsti' tuted in any way by whieb tba wmnatlt tit \\vt t^muH' ty obligant is truly and f^aaJv n«igidla(« a Mil, In- advertently giving up funda of tba |irln<'lpat d«t)tor ^r which he bad a right uf Vsn or retention, or re- nouncing any security over bla a«tNt«, In like man- ner, If he compound with, or diacbarga tba principal debtor, without tba concurreniMi of tba guaranty obli- gant, the guaranty is at an and ) axc^pting under a commission of bankruptcy in England, or a sequestra- tion in Scotbind, where tlia cradlM' mat', by acquies- cence, allow the principal debtor tland of Yucatan, Us axtrania tatltudea are 13° 89' and X8° Vi' N„ and longlttid«a WC* J»' and 98° 22' W, It la bounded (m IM north by the Heklcan State of Yucatan, on the west by Chiapa, on the south by the Pacific Ocean, south-east by the npnblic of Salvador, east by Honduras, and north-east by the Qolf of Honduras, and the British Honduras, or Belise. The total area of Gautimola Is about 49,000 square miles. It is. divided into 17 Departments, and con- tained, according to the returns of 1862, a population of 972,000, distributed as follows : D«p«rtin«iiU. PopaUtiooi. Oootlnula....'.. S9,B00 Bseatepeb 44,600 Chlmaltenaogo.. 56,400 ganmaroo 80,100 Bocblltepee 88,800 Kscnlntfs 15,800 AmatltUn 88,000 Santa Ross. 86,000 MtU W.800 Bolola 84)300 I DspartDMiita. FopnUUcnu. Totonlcapto... M,T0O Onegneteningo 64,800 gnesaltehsngo. 66,800 hlqntmula... 78,000 Vera Pax 6,200 Salami 109,800 Isabel 9,000 Total •71,000 The surface of Guatimola is wholly mountainous, the main chain of the continuation of the Andes tra- versing it from south-east to north-west at an incon- siderable distance from the Pacific shore, and branch- ing oiT in various ramifications toward the Atlantic ; forming many valleys, bat inclosing few plains. Along the main chain occur numerous volcanoes, all near the Pacific. The culminating point of the sur- face is in N. lat. 16° 80', between the towns of Toto- nicap&an and Gueguetenango. The eastern border of tiie plateau descending to the Gulf of Honduras is cut by deep valleys, which extend to a great distance, and In some places advance to the very shores. The country lying to the west and. the north-west of the Golfo Dulce Is a low plain, while all between the plateau and the Bay of Honduras is a succession of ridges and valleys. In many places the shore is rocky, with rocky barriers lying off it. Numerous streams drain this State. The most im- portant are, the Lacantun, forming part of the Mexi- can boundary ; the Motogtia and the Polochic, which fail through the Dulce into the Bay of Honduras. The most important lakes are, the Dulce, advanta- geous for foreign trading vessels ; the Amatitlan, 18 miles south-east of Guatimola, is 9 miles by 3, of great depth, and is much resorted to as a bathing-place by the inhabitants of Guatimola, from Februar}' till^ April; near it there are several mineral and hot springs ; the Atitlan, 80 miles north-west of the city of Ouatimala, is about 20 miles long by 9 broad, sur- rounded by lofty beiglits, including the volcano of Atitlan, and is remarkable for its very greot depth, and l>eing without outlet, though several small rivers enter it t the Paten, near the Avntiers with Yucatan, •bout 80 miles long, and 9 brood. The climate of the table-land is that of perennial spring, the thermometer scarcely varying throughout the year, and it resembles very much the climate of Valencia in Spain in almost every porticular. In the northern part of the State, in what is called Loi Allot, the highlands, the overoge Is lower than any other part of the country. Snow sometimes foils in the vi- cinity of Quesaltenango, the capital of this Depart- ment, but soon disappears, the thermometer seldom remaining at the freezing point for any considerable time. In the vicinity of the city of Guatimola, the range of the thermometer is from 56° to 80°, averag- ing about 72° of Fab. Vera Paz, the north-eastern Department of Ouatimala, and embracing the coast below Yucatan to the Gulf of Dulce, is nearly 10 de- grees wormer. This coast from Belize downward to Isabel and San Tome is hot and unhealthy. From May till October is the rainy season. Thunder pre- vails in June, and terrific storms fTom the south-west sweep along the Pacific coast in August and Septem- ber. Earthquakes are very frequent. The soil is generally very fertile, producing excel- lent rice, and all the cereals in great variety and abundance. Agriculture, however, is in a very back- ward state from the want of enterprise and the igno- GUA 90fl GUA nnee ut t'M ueople, as w«U u trom the want of roada. As articles of commerce, the most important products •re cochineal and indigo. Cotton, racao, sugar, va- nilU, tobacco, and coffee, are grown in considerable quantities. The table-land is almost destitute of trees and even bushes, except on the decltyities of the hilly .ranges which bo extensively traverse it. Trees of ▼ery large size form extensive forests on the lower lands along the Pacific. These are a source of great natural wealth. Among the trees the most valuable are the cedar, mahogany, Brazil, Santa Maria, pi- mento, guuiacum, etc. ; and abundance of medicinal plants are also found and turned to some account. The vegetation is luxurious and vigorous along the low tract by the Bay of Ilondurrs. Sheep are reared in considerable numbers, especially over the northern districts, and their wool is used for native manufac- tures. The horse is small, hardy, and handsome ; and mules are numerous, Iwing the cliief beasts of burden. Pigs and poultry are very abundant, and of excellent quality. Salt is manufactured along the coast of the Paciflc. Jasper, marble, and brimstone, are obtained in con- siderable quantity in tlie vicinity of some of the vol- canoes. Lead is worlced by the Indians in Totonicap&n, The manufactures are mostly limited to those for do- mestic use. The cotton manufacture, once extensive, is now confined to the Departments of Guatlmala and Sacatepec. Coarse woolen cloth is now more manu- factured, especially i/er^a, which is made into a pecu- liar blaclc called poncho, in which much taste is displayed.— £. B. Since 1847, Guatimala has been an independent re- public, and in 1851 a new constitution was adopted, by virtue of which the President is elected every four years; to whom, in conjunction with an Assembly General, composed of 59 members, the powers of the government are confided. It is divided into 17 De- partments, and its capital is Nueva Guatimala. The great commercial staple of the republic is cochineal, of which upward of 20,000 bales are annually produced. In addition to these articles, considerable attention has been given of late to the cultivation of tobacco, sugar, coffee, cotton, vanilla, and indigo. Gold, silver, and other minerals have been found in several sections of the State. The exports consist of cochineal, indigo, segars, sarsaparilla, mahogany, cocoa, hides, dye- woods, and some silver. The total value of exports amounts, annually, to about $1,880,000, and the im- ports to about 12,000,000. The commercial relations between the United States and Guatimala are regulated by the treaty of March 8, 1849, and by the local legislation of that republic. The treaty is one of peace, amity, com- merce and navigation, and stipulates for perfect equal- ity and entire reciprocity of commerce and navigation. Each nation extends the same privileges to the vessels of the other that are applicable to its own. The right of residence, commerce, and trade is extended to citi- zens of each in the territories of the other, with the same rights, privileges, exemptions, and restrictions, which apply to native citizens — the coasting trade excepted, which is reserved to the parties, respectively, according to their own separate laws. The high con- tracting parties moreover adopt, with respect to each other, the principle that free ships make free goods. The treaty is to continue in force during 12 years, and contains the usual provision of one year's notice after the expiration of that period. The local regulations of Guatimala are altered from time to time by decree, sanctioned by the executive officers, and promulgated nnder authority of the President of the republic. The latest decree of this character, of which our Govern- ment is in possession, modifies the tariff of 1837, so far •s it relates to tonnage duties. It bears date May 6, 1852, and Bubjolnod is ft translation of its provis- iona: Article 1. Eveiy vessel which shall anchor in the ports of the republic, no matter whence it may come, shall pay a tonnage duty of two reals (26 cents) for each ton of measurement. This measurement shidl be ascertained lh>m the register, the certificate of natioiv ality, the patent or clearance under which it sails. Article 2. Shall be flree of tonnage duty — let. Small vessels engaged in transporting merchandise from one port to another of the republic; 2d. Vessels which anchor in ballast to take in water, provisions, or fruits of the country, provided they discharge no cargoes ; 3d. Vessels of war, and regular mail or steam-packets, provided they do not discliarge merchandise over 20 tons; 4tb. Merchant vessels which, exceeding 160 tons of registered measurement, discharge not exceed- ing 20 tons of merchandise ; 5th, Vessels which re- ceive on board, for exportation, produce of the country, excepting cochineal, as provided for in decree of March 81, 1849. Article 8. This decree shall take effect trom and after the first day of July, ensuing. Guaiimala, la Antigua, a city of Central America, in the re|iiiblican State of Guatimala, and about 27 miles W.S.W. from Guatimala la Nueva. It stands in a wide and fertile valley, at an elevatijen of 5820 feet above the sea-level. The place was abandoned after the earthquake of 1773, which partly destroyed it ; but it now contains a population of nearly 20,000. There is collected here a considerable quantity of cochineal ; and there are some insignificant manufactories. Ttie cit}' is regularly laid out, but a great part of it is still in ruins. Prior to the earthquake the population amounted to alwut 60,000. Guatimala la Nueva, the capital of the republic of Guatimala, in Central America. Its situation is in N. lat. 14° 86', and W. long. 90° 80', at the extrem- ity of a plain 22 miles in length by 7 in breadth, with a deep ravine on three sides, and elevated above the sea 4970 feet. The form of the town is quadrangular ; and the streets are wide, straight, and clean. On ai> count of the frequency of earthquakes the houses are only one story in height. The Plaza or Great Square measures about 160 yards on each side, and is sur- rounded on three sides by colonnades. Here are the principal buildings in the town — the cathedral, the archbishop's palace, the old royal palace, the College del Infantea, and the various government offices. In the centre stands a large and elegant fountain. The town is well supplied with water brought by pipes from the mountains upward of two leagues distant. Beside the cathedral, there are 26 other churches and chapels ; and, beside the Plaza, several other squares, each with a fountain in the centre. At the south side of the city there has recently been erected a fort mounting 20 guns. There are several private schools in Gtuitimala ; and several printing establishments, whence two weekly newspapers are itsued. Thompson, in his Official Visit to Guatimala, states that " the mean heat" of the city of Guatimala " dur- ing the day, from the first 6f Januar}' to the first of July, is 75° of Fahr. ; at night, 63°. In the summer months the average may be taken at 10 degrees higher." Fruits, vegetables, provisions, and all articles of ordinary consumption are abimdant, at moderate prices, while many descriptions of British manufacture are as cheap as in Britain. The manu- factures are muslins, gauze, cottons, earthenware, porcelain, jewelry, segars, etc. The inhabitants are courteous and hospitable to strangers, but live very much apart from each other, their only recreation being their incessant religious processions. The suburbs are occupied mostly by ladinos (mulattoes) and Indians. The buildings of this city were begun in 1776, three years after the fearful earthquake of 1773, which completely destroyed Old Guatimala, the former capital. The population is variously estimated ttom 86,000 to 60,000. GUI d08 Gtn Oaara, the fhilt of the Fiiidium pgriftrwm and P. p«miferum, nat. ord. Myttaeaa, the pnlp of which is made into* jelly of BpecaliariydalioioM flavor. This ■weetmeat i« Imported in considerable qoantitiai tton the West ludk*. OnayaqaU, a city and port of Columbia, on the western coast of South America, Ut. 2° 11' 21" south, long. 79° 48' west. Population 20,000. The town Is iituated on the banks of the river of the same name, about six or aeren leagues ttom the Isla Verde, or nine league* ftom the Isla Pnfia, in the Gulf of Ooaya- qnil, oppodte to the mouth of the riv«r. Ships bound for OnsyaquU generally call at the Isla Pufia, where expert pilot* may be had, who carry them up to the town by night or by day, according to the state of the tides. The town is old; but as the houses are of wood, and it ha* fireqnently snflbred flrom Ores, much of it Is comparatively modem, and has a good appear- ance. There la a dry dock on tm south bank of the river, where several sliips of a superior construction have lieen built. The district in which Guayaquil is situated has for a considerable period formed a part of the republic of Ecuador or iGquator. Like the other South American States, it has been subjected to per> petually-raourring revolutions; but Guayaquil has, notwithstanding, continued to enjoy considerable com- merce. Its principal article of export is cocoa, of which large quantities are shipped ; and next to it are straw hats, timber, tolxtcco, hides, Iwrk, etc. The principal articles of import are manufactured cottons and hardware, silks, wfaie, flour, etc. The following tables show the commerce and navigation of Guayaquil : AccoimT or tdk Quaktitiu and Valcis or tux pbincipal Articlks or PaoDnoa ixpobtio raox Qvataquil, ih 1840, 1860t AND 1861. ArtlclM. is«a. 1 iBto. ISil. i qiiHUUn. Vdmi. 1 Qnantlllea. V«lu«i. Quanlltki. Valuaa. Coeos lbs. Straw hata dos. Tanned hides sides Tobacco quintals Timber loits Mangles. polos Flax? ?!lba Orchllls quintals Tamarinds " Bark '• Total value 14,020,446 21,101 22,867 2,128 8,248 1,412 17,166 706 180 714 £180,408 78,866 6,871 0,289 1,418 62 668 1,236 280 1,499 11,171.818 26,886 26,400 1,622 7,671 8,468 7,668 1,240 176 1,046 £111,718 06,800 8,400 8,800 \ 8,610 200 8,100 200 6,600 0,667,068 86,864 17,118 2,808 1 16,244 1 10,027 860 1,188 867 2,688 £100,000 107,700 6,100 12,400 16,800 700 60 2,000 600 14,000 .... £284,020 1 £»a626 1 £287.800 1 . -. J Account or toe Muudsb, Tonnaos, Cukws, and Values or tui Cabooks or tub Yessku or bacu Kation entxbxd AND OLKARKD AT THE POBT OT OUATAqUIL, IN 1861, nAM. SNTKUID, OLBAKID. V«Mh. ■ *0I». Crewi. Value ofmrKoei VeueU. Tom. Cr«TC. Value of e«r(fo«s British. 7 61 88 8 2 8 10 9 4 > 8 2,026 2,060 8,700 1,266 140 860 8,100 1,800 000 860 860 107 860 880 70 11 28 170 80 66 24 26 £88,000 88,100 20,000 26,100 1,200 2,000 66,000 86,800 20,000 16,000 18,000 7 61 88 8 2 8 10 4 2 2 2,026 2,060 8,700 1,266 140 860 8,100 1,800 900 860 860 107 8C0 380 70 11 28 170 80 66 24 26 £41,000 26,600 22,000 19,000 6,200 8,200 82,000 40,000 18,000 17,000 18,000 Poraviau Chilian BDonlsh French Danish Total 181 16,061 1,811 £274,700 181 16,061 1,811 £287,800 The Guayaquil Biver is the principal in western Ecuador. It is formed by the union of numerous atrcams flrom the Andes, and becomes navigable for commercial purposes at Baybahoyo or Caracol, 70 or 80 miles from its mouth — river boats ascending to one or other of these places according to the season. Be- low Guayaquil the channel is impeded by numerous rocks and small islands, while at its mouth is the lar- ger island of Pana. Where tlie river falls into the Pacific it is known as the Gulf of Guayaquil, the ex- treme points of which ore 70 miles apart, * QvLKymmm, a sea-port town of Mexico. See Mbx- Ouayni, Zia, the principal sea-port town of the republic of Venezuela, province of, and 11 miles north north-west of Caracas. It is an unhealthy situation, and is closely surrounded by high mountains and rocks. The chain of mountains which separates it f^om the high valley of Caracas descends almost di- rectly into the sea ; and the houses of the town are backed by a wall of steep rocks, leaving scarcely 100 or 140 fathoms' breadth of flat ground l)etween this wall and the sea. The town is poorly built, and con- tains no edifice worthy of notice. The port is nn- iheltered, bnt has good anchorage in fh>m six to thirty fiithoms, and is well defended by land Iwtteries. Its chief export* are coS'ee, cocoa, indigo, and Mdes, with •ome oottoB and sugar. Population about 8000. Oolana, Ouyuia, or Ohiayana, an extensive territory In the north-eastern part of South America, comprehending in it* widest acceptation all that extent of country lying between the Bivera Amazon and Ori- noco, between hit. 3° 80' south, and 8° 40' north, and long. 60° 22' and 68° 10' west. It is bounded on the north by the Orinoco and the Atlantic, east by the Atlantic, south by the Amazon and the Rio Negro, and west by the Orinoco and the Cassiquiare. Its greatest length Arom east to west is about 1200 miles, and its greatest breadth alwut 860 miles ; estimated , area 700,000 square miles. This vast territorj- is divi- ded into Brazilian (formerly Portuguese) Guiana, Ven- ezuelan (formerly Spanish) Guiana, and Colonial Guiana. The two former, comprising about five si.xtbs of the entire region, are now included within the limits of their respective countries ; while Colonial Guiana is that to which the general term of Guiana is now commonly applied. It is subdivided into British, Dutch, and French Guiana. Guiana, BritUh, the most weiiterly of the three col- onies, is l)oanded on the north and north-east by the Atlantic, east by Dutch Guiana, from which it is sep- arated by the River Corentyn, south by Brazil, and west by Venezuela. It lies Iwtween north lat. 0° 40' and 8° 40', and west long. 67° and 61°, and has an estimated area of 76,000 square miles ; but the posses- sion of much of this has l>een disputed by Brazil and Venezuela. It is divided into three counties, Dome- rara, Essequibo, and Berbice, so named from the three principal rivers which drain them. Demerara, situ- ated between the other two, occupies the centre of the seaboard for nearly 90 miles. To the north-west the county of Essequibo stretches along the coast toward the swamps and forests of the western frontier ; and to the soutli-east lies the county of Berbice, and the the Negro, Col- by the Is sep- il, and 40' lan an posses- ill and Dome- ) tbiee situ- of the !8t the toward ri Wd cnrc The entlr* cout of Britlih Gnlaiia b low, and goi- •ndly bordered with • uaAj fl«t extondhiK Ikr out to M«, DO tlut Teasels drawing more than 12 feet of water Clin not approach within three or four miles of land. The rivers, too, deposit at their mouths large quan- tities of mud and sand, and are thus inaccessible to vessels of large size. Extending from low-water mark to a distanje of Ave or six miles lni^(*, is a tract of rich allnvial soil of recent formation. This is sno- ceeded \>y a flat narrow reef of sand -running exactly parallel with the present line of coast. Here remidns of stranded vessels aad anchors eaten through with rust have been found, indicating that within a com- paratively recent period it bad been washed by the waves of the Atlantic. Running parallel to this reef, at irregular distances, varying from 10 to 20 miles, is a second and higher range, composed of coarse white sand ; and which, at a period more remote, probably formed the sea limit. In the wet seasons the inter- mediate tract between these two reefs becomes the bed of extensive savannahs ; for the creeks being then nnable to carry off the torrents of rain which fall, over- flow their level baniu, and inundate the surrounding country to the depth of Ave or six feet. On the re- turn of dry weather the waters gradually subside, leaving behind them a thicic layer of decayed grasses and aquatic plants which had floated and flourished on their surface, and these in time produce a vegetable mold of considerable thickness. Beyond the second reef are swampy plains. Intersected by sand-reefs, and extending to the mountainous regions of the interior. The high land does not rise immediately from the plain to a great elevation, but begins with a range of sand hills of from 50 to 200 feet abov« the plain. Behind these the high land stretches out In level or undulating plains, rising here and there into eminences. About north lat. 6°, a mountain chain, an offset of the Ori- noco Mountains, and composed of granite, gneiss, and other primitive rocks, runs from west to east through this territory, forming large cataracts when it Is crossed by the rivers, and rising ftvquently to the height of 1000 feet above the sea. About a degree further touth is the Pacaralma chain, which, in like manner, runs fiora west to east, and is of primitive formation. Its highest point, called by the natives Roralma, in north lat. 5° 9' 80", west loP)r. 60° 47', is 7500 feet above the level of the sea. Ihe plains south of this range are in general level, ana forsa exten- sive savannahs, covered with grasses and plants. The Sierra Acarai Is a densely wooded chain of mountains forming the southern boundary' of Guiana, and the water-shed between the basins of the Amazon and the Essequibo. sThis chain rises to the height of 4000 feet. The Oonocou, or Cannucu Mountains, running south-east and north-west, connect the Pacaralma with the Sierra Acarai. The principal river of British Guiana is the Ksse- qulbo, which rises in the Sierra Acarai, and after a course of at least 600 miles discharges itself into the ocean by an estuar}- 20 miles in width, in north lat. 7°, west long. 58° 40'. In' the estuary of the Esse- qulbo are a group of beautiful Islands partially cul tivated, the principal of which are Varken, or Hog Island about 21 miles in length by 3 in breadth, Wakenaam and Leguon, each about 12 miles by 8, and Tiger Island, about half that size. The entrance is difficult and dangerous, even for vessels of small size, on account of the banks of mud and sand. Its course lies through forests of the most gigantic vege- tation. In north lat. 3° 14' 85", It forms a great cata- ract, named by Schomburgk, King William's Cataract. In north lat. 8° 67' 80", and west long. 68° 8', it receives the Bupunoony, which has a course of about 220 miles. At various points of its course it forms rapids and cataracts which impede its navigation. About 60 miles flrom ita mouth occur the last of these, Um Falla of Eubally, aftar which it porsiMf ita course GTJl through the low alluvial plain. In this part ef Itt course It nceives the united waters of the Cuyunl and the Massaroony. The Demerara, or Demeiiuy rlaaa probably near north lat. 6°, and after a northward course nearly parallel with the Essequlbo, of more than 200 miles, it enters the Atlantic near north lat. 6° 60', west long. 68° 20'. It is navigabU for 85 miles, and at Its mouth at Georgetown It k more than a mile and a half across. Further east runs the Berblce, whoa* source is probably about north lat. 8° 40'. It Jolna the Atlantic by an estuary flva miles in width, 10 ' miles north of New Amsterdam, and in north lat. 6° 21', west long. 67° 12'. It is navigable for 165 miles from the sea, by vessels drawing seven feet water. The Corentyn which forms the eastern boundary of British Guiana, and probably has its source in the Sierra Acarai, flows generally northward and tiklU Into the Atlantic In north lat. 6°, west long. 67°. It Is navigable for boots for 160 miles. The mineral productions of Guiana ara necessarily bst Imperfectly known. Clays of various kinds, including excellent pipe-clay, aro found near the coast. The chief rooks an granite, porphyry, gneiss, clay-slate, sandstone, etc. Traces of iron are found iu various parts ; and gold has been recently (in 1852) discovered in considp erable quantities on the upper Essequlbo. The climate of Guiana is more healthy than that of most places in the West Indies. Its salubrity has been much Increased since the occupation of the coun- tr>- by Europeans, the gradual clearing and cultivation of the surface having done much to mitigate thoso diseases so fatal in a low, manhy, and hot region. The hurricanes so destructive in the West Indies ara unknown here, and gales ate unfreqnent. Thunder- storms occur only during the rainy seasons ; but, like the few occasional shocks of earthquakes, an not at- tended with danger. The year is divided into two wet and two dry seasons. The long rainy season sets In about the middle of April, when light showers be* gin to fall. The rain inureases tiU the middle of June, when it falls in torrents ; in the beginning of July these heavy rains begin to decrease, and In August the long dry season begins, and continues tiU Novem- ber. December and January constitute the short rainy season, and February and Maroh the short dry season. The winds during the rains are gener- ally westerly; in the dry season they blow mostly from the ocean, loaded with moisture, and thus render the heat less oppressive than it would otherwise be. The thermometer seldom rises above 90°, and rarely falls below 75° Fah. The mean annual temperature at Georgetown is 81° 2'; the total annual fall of rain averages about 100 Inches. The vegetation of Guiana is most luxuriant. The interior is thickly wooded with valuable timber, with the exception of the swamps of Berblce and the savan« nahs. Tlie trees ara of great size, and many of them are valuable for their timber, or their fruits, or as dye- woods. Medicinal plants, including quassia, gentian, the castor^oil plant, and many others, are abundant. Amotto, so extensively used in the coloring of cheese, grows wild in profusion on the banks of the upper Corentyn. The largest of the water-IUles, the Victo- ria Regia, vras first discovered here by Mr. Schom- burgk on the banks of the Berblce. The hai-arry, an indigenous plant deserving of notice, is a papilinaceous vine, the root of which contains a powerfid narcotic, and is commonly used by the Indians in poisoning the waters to take the fish, which are not thereby dete- riorated. The domestic animals are the same as those in England, and the wild animals are those common to tropical South America generally. Black cattio here attain a larger size than In Europe, but their flesh is not so tender nor so fine flavored. The wool of the sheep is converted into hair. Game, chiefly deer, range the upper savannahs. Tigers, little inferior in size to those of Asia, but diffisrent in ohaiacler, beiag •* GUI 910 GUI ■ nraly known to attack man, abonnd; at do alio Jagoan, which prey upon th« h«rds of wild cattle and horsca that gnie on the extenaive plalna among the mountaina. Among the other animals are the tapir, armadillo, agouti, ant-bear, aloth, and a great Tariety of monkej-a. Lixarda, anakea, and alligatora are namerooa. There are aeveral kinds of pnrrots, ma- caws, and humming-blrda ; alao the flamingo, mnacovy dnok, toucan, spoonbill, and vampire bat. Trouble- some insects are numerous, as might be expected from •the swampy nature of the coast diatrlcts. The rivers and coast abound with a great variety of flah. Th« cultivated portion of British Guiana ia merely • Barrow strip along the sea-coast, and for a few miles up the rivers, including a portion of the islands of Essequibo. The whole surface of the coast lands bcr ingon a level with high-watermark, when these lands are drained and cultivated they consolidate and b«- come fully a foot below it, so that the estates require to \ie protected from inundation by dams and sluices. Each estate has, therefore, a strong dum or embank- ment in front ; while a similar erection at the iMok or inland boundary, as well as on each side, is requisite to keep off the immense body of water accumulated on the savannahs during the wet seasons, and which, if not repelled, would rush down to the sea carrying every thing before it. The state of his dams, there- fore, requirea the planter'a unremitting attention ; not the slightest hole or leakage in allowed to exist in them, and by law their willful Injury is considered felony. One inundation destroys a sugar estate for eighteen months, and a coffee one for six years. " The original cost of damming and cultivating is ftally paid by the first crop, and the duration of the crops is firom 30 to 60 years ; so that though great capital is required for the first outlay, the comparative expense of cultiva- j tion is a mere trifle compared with that of the West India Islands, notwithstanding that the expense of works, buildings, and machinery, may be treble or quadruple, being built on an adequate scale for half a i century of certain production." — Geog. Jour., vol. iv., ' 823. Inalde, and at the foot of these dams, are trenches 12 to 18 feet wide, and 6 feet deep, running round the whole plantation, and into these, smaller trenches and open dnina oonrey the water that falls npon the bnd. These large trenohea discharge their oontenta Into the sea through one or mora sluices, which are opened m the tide ebbs, and shut against the returning flood. The staple productions of the colony are sugar, cof* fee, and cotton. From an official table of the exporta of British Quhna from 1826 to 1861, we find that In 1827, 16,004 bales, of cotton were exported^ but from that period this ctiltlvation gradually gave place to sugar, and in 1844 ceases to appear in the table as an article of export. Since 1861, however, it seems to have received more attention, for among the exports fh>m British Qulana into the United Kingdom in 18M we find 1008 cwt. of cotton. CoflTee, fh>m npward of 0,600,000 lbs. in 1880, gradually feU off to only 8198 lbs. in 1861. As to sugar, making a due allowance for the difference of seasons, the quantity exported re- mained pretty steady from 1826 to 1887, the year pre- ceding the termination of apprenticeships — averaging about 66,000 hhds. ; but in the year following that event it fell down to nearly half its former average, being in 1839 only 88,270 hhds. In 1846 it had sunk aa low aa 26,201 hhds., owing in a great measure to a pro> tracted* drought through a great part of that season. In 1861 43,084 hhds. were exported. In proportion to the sugar obtained the quantity of molasses is large, owing partly to the defects of the common process of preparation, liut chiefly to the fact that the soil ia ao rich an alluvium, and so abundant in alkaline and earthy saline matter. Little of the molasses is boiled down into sugar in the colony ; it is chiefly made into rum, or sold to the refiners, by whom it Is much prized. In 1861 the quantity of molasses exported was 9630 poncheons. Although the rum produced in this colony does not equal in character that of Jamaica, it yet oc- cupies a respectable place in the market. The quan- tity exported in 1851 was 16,846 puncheons. With respect to the cultivation of the sugar cane, by reason of the lowness of the land and the plan of drainage in use — namely, that known as the open-drain and round- bed method— the system of cultivation remains exactly as in the times of slaver}', ever}* part of the operations of culture being performed by manual labor. The follow- ing statistics have been compiled from official sources: ComiXBCE or tub United Statks with Buitisu Guiana, rtoH Ootobsr 1, 1838, to July 1, 1866. ttmnilot- Kiporte. Import!, Whmor Uioro wu la BuUlon and Spoclo. TomucoaMnd. DodimUc. ForalgD. ToUI. Tolil. EiporUd. Imported. Amorican. Forolsn. 8ept80, 1884 1636 1886 1887 1888 1889 1840 ToUI.... Sept 80, 1841 9 mos. im'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. June SO, 1844 1848 1846 1847 1848 1849 1860 ToUI.... June 80, 1851 1858 1868 1864 1866 1866 •lo^2u 64,248 106,076 42.886 14^5S3 84,906 118,896 1523 218 638 •10^2t4 64,348 105,076 42,885 146,064 86,124 119,434 •31,434 ^696 92,019 6,344 86,048 14,316 10,978 ;::: •460 198 1,110 M88 21,200 3,716 10,100 81988 6,611 4,113 6,999 4,892 6,849 "680 749 498 1,763 278 1,283 t016,7Sl 1881,833 116,901 116.146 807,053 416,867 661,668 631.908 695,114 662,316 602,776 »1,278 11,269 2,462 696 2,1*4 1.881 l,6»t 1,816 1,366 8,769 92.668 •618,029 •882,601 118,458 116,840 809.316 418,748 668,803 628,719 606,479 666,074 62^489 •196,513 •18,228 16,004 48,043 9,886 7,957 12,661 19,196 34,264 25,890 14M1 •ijsoo •41,811 •10,767 12,906 41,816 7,808 4,900 1,475 18,026 12,308 4,679 600 81,890 8,837 ^884 6,146 10,470 19,826 17,701 18,493 16,141 15,064 11.643 6,046 1,618 3,946 2,094 2,868 2,801 8,664 1,848 1,336 1,678 2,637 |4,>71,163 1640,564 743,986 798,841 718,096 824,119 871,766 889,728 •8,734 18,381 88,868 1,168 818 8,497 •4,810,891 •644,288 780,667 887,704 719,249 824,989 876,263 •189,667 •44,313 43,943 64,633 47,488 107,180 161,574 •23,800 •eiirro 32,600 •108,678 •H824 28,000 1,974 68,477 3,000 ,117,181 12,001 12,128 14,426 13.131 18,611 13,571 84,008 4,220 3,712 3.181 3,161 1,982 8,828 An export duty is charged In the ports of these col- onies on their staple productions. Both in Honduras and British Guiana, American vessels enjoy ail the privileges extended to the vessels of the most favored nation ; and, as the following tables for 1864 and 1853 will show, American commeroe is generally on the In- crease. In 1864 the United States imported fh>m Hon- duras : Indigo (41,889 pounda), valued at $34,842 ; mahogany, $88,459 ; dye-wood, $11,678 ; hides, $8706; black pepper, $1055. ' A total of $137,740, or nearly one half of the entire imports from thia colony for that year. From Britbh Guiana, the leading Imports ia ralgn. 278 1,618 9,946 2,094 1,868 i,801 1,226 1,578 t,587 1,068 iHon- 4,842 i ^8706; oesrljr >Tth«t irts is QUI 18M w*M o.d and tcnp iron, coppar, brftM, hidai, •ugar, and rum, amounting to noarly ^,000, of which coppar alone reached tlA,616. Damarara con- tains a population of 74,922 whites and frea blacks. Berblce contains a population of 21,680, of whom 31,000 are ftae blaolu. The following comparatlva statement exhibits the trade between the United States and the^two colonies, Demerara and Barbioe, of which British Qnlana is composed: Imports from the U Biatos ExporU to the U. BUtes. , Balance In fltvor of the United States Total tiado between the V. S. 4t Brit Oalana 1887,704 64,888 1778,171 •901,987 1719,149 47,489 1671,760 $766,788 |8M,981 107,180 1717,761 1982,112 The following table will show the comparative im- portance of the trade of the three Ouianas with the United States during the year ending June 80, 1866 : ■MTMID IRTO V. t. OLBABBD noU IT, M.\ VaiMll. Tont. VaiMli. Tuna. British Oulana 9 4 1 1,246 701 191 28 8 8,888 668 Dutch ** French " Dvtch Guiana. — Dutch, or Surinam, lies between British and French Guiana, being separated from the former on the west by the River Corentyn, and from the latter on the tast by the Maioni ; on the north it has the Atlantic, and on the south Brazil. It lias be- tween latitude 1° 80' and 6° north, and longitude 53° 30' and 67° 80' west, being about 800 miles in length, from north to south, and 260 in extreme breadth. Area, about 38,500 square miles. In phys- ical geography, climate, productions, etc., it differs but little from British Oulana. The principal river is the Surinam, which flows northward through the centre of the terrjtor}', and falls into the Atlantic after a course of nearly 800 miles. It is navigable for large ships for about four leagues ttom its mouth. Along the coast, and on the banlu of the river, are many settle- ments and plantations ; and the higher partd of the country are occupied chiefly by the Maroons, the de- scendants of runaway negroes. In the last century they were very troublesome to the colonists, but they ^i!- GUI have now adopted mora settled habits. Slarary liM been recently aboliaheil here by the Dutch govern- mant, hnt in lieu of compensation, the slaves remain apprenticed, and work without wages to their proprie- tors for 12 years. The colony is ruled by a governor appointed by the crown, and a council elected by the freeholders. Justice Is administered by a supreme court, courts of minor Jurisdiction, and a court of in- heritance and orphans. Tho receipts in 1850 amounted to ^£89,486 ; the expenditure to £85,664. On 278 planta- tions, consisting of 866,648 acres, 48,815 acres wera under cnltivation. The chief productions are sugar, rum, molasses, coffee, cacao, and cotton. Its chief trade is with Holland. Imports, in 1861, £171,806; exports, £286,162. At the close of 1850, the colony ■umbered 61,080 inhabitants— of whom 12,401 were Europeans and Creoles, 8000 bush negroes, 1000 In- dians, and 80,679 slaves. Of the religions sects, the Moravians amounted to 17,988, and the Jews to about 680. The live stock consisted of 168 horses, 69 mules, 6564 cattle, 8156 sheep, 454 goats, and 4664 hogs. The army consists of 610 men of ^1 arms ; and the navy of 11 vessels, chiefly small. Paramaribo, the capital, is situated on the right bank of the Surinam, about 10 miles from its mouth. It is built in the Dutch style, with wide and straight streets, planted with orange-trees ; and the houses are generaliy two stories in height, and built of wood. Population about 20,000. A little north of the town is the fort of Zeelandia, where the governor resides, and where are also most of the government establishments. Surbium was declared a free port by proclamation dated May 1, 1848. Accounts are kept in doUare of 8 reals, or 50 stivers (100 cents), and in pounds ster- ling. Exchange on London, $4 80 to $4 85 per pound sterling. Aves island, one of the leeward group of the West Indies, between 15° and 16° north latitude, iMlongs to the Dutch government. In the year 1854 extensive deposits of guano were discovered on the island of Aves, by two American ship captains, but we do not as yet learn that any shipments have been made from it. Coffee, the product of a possession of the Netherlands direct from such possessions, or from the Netherlands, imported into the United States in a ves- sel of the Netherlands, is admitted free of doty, under the treaty of August 26, 1852, CoMiuBca or m UxrriD Statxs with Dutcb Ouiani, raoH Ootobeb 1, 1882, to Jdlt 1, 1856. Ymti sDdtDir EipoTti. iRiporti, WbatMf llura wh Id BuUIos ud Spade, Tonnage Cleared. DonMitle. Foreign, Toul, Toul. Exported, Imported. American. ; Foreign, Sept 80, 1888 1884 1886 1886 1887 1888 1889 1840 Total,... Sept 80, 1841 1841 9 mo*. 1848 June 80, 1844 1846 1846 1847 1848 1849 1880 Total,,.. JaneSO, 1881 1862 1888 1864 1885 1986 t93,6l6 27,228 30,205 59,815 64,618 68,776 58,868 .62,118 •2;860 1,.V96 2,078 2,808 •92,515 27,238 80,206 61,676 66,113 70,843 61,666 62,118 •49,826 67,579 31,420 83,471 44,976 64,354 49,008 87,766 !!!! •1.744 1,286 "200 8!8»4 10,106 6,378 4,718 6,637 6,729 2,i77 76 »448,687 » 187,900 101,066 24,680 66,930 47,787 66,846 48,840 11^501 104,013 97,014 •8,881 •ijw 1,872 1,189 888 1,517 52 5,426 •462,368 •87,900 101,066 24,680 71,772 49,609 67,934 44,228 117,018 104,066 102,439 •867,9V0 •85,793 74,764 82,588 49,144 41,847 88,674 69,866 51,297 68,281 71,048 .... •8,180 •400 2,678 276 !!!! 416 1,418 41,962 5,496 6,464 8;066 7,363 6,740 4,610 4,381 5,958 6,369 4,982 2,263 117 "817 1,000 864 •706,566 •88.491 88,962 108,389 58,746 287,968 818,661 •16,186 •5,682 7,282 17,694 7,678 10,648 7,856 •720,760 •91,073 91,284 126,088 61,423 248,006 821,616 •607,281 ♦89,673 66,733 180,681 104.286 206,688 262,793 •i2,66o •6,087 22,145 8,162 53,269 4,027 6,262 6,218 3,927 6,114 6,610 1,798 624 944 402 180 "MB This colonial territory of Holland comprises an area of 10,400 square miles, and contains a population of nearly 6&,(M)0 souls. Its chief products are sugar, coffee, cotton, cocoa, rice, capara, fine woods, gums, drags, timber, and molasses ; the last ranks next to sugar in value as an export. The quantity of sugar 1^ cm 012 wn Mmnally •zpottod if lUtod at aboBt 36,000,000 poundi, •Bd of coflbe at abont 4,000,000 poundi. The annual average production of the leading ita- plea of thii colony ai« thus given t Sagar, 28,018,168 Iba. ; coffee, 1,866,870 Ibi. ; cocoa, 1&1,360 lb(. | cot- ton, 766,828161. ; mm, 82,188 gall. | dram (a kind of brandy), 227,96& gaU.; molaiaea, 1,210,468 gali. An- nual average valne of leading staplei, tl,600,000. The value of imports into Dutch Ouiana in 1868 •mounted to $810,474, ihowing an increaae over the im- ports of the preceding year of $71,478. Of tho total amount, there were bom the Netherlands, $460,482 ; flrom the United States, $178,286 ; and from other countries, $176,756. Tho exports amountod to $1,812,- 118 ; showing $101,268 increase over the exports for 1862. Of this sum, $844,108 wen sent to the Nether- lands, $201,794 to the United States, and $260,221 to other countries. The principal articles imported into Surinam from the United States ara salted Ash, amountfaig, in 1B68, to $68,892 ; salted and smoked meat, abont $60,000 per annum. The imports into the United States flnaa Surinam are sugar ($181,052 in amount inl862), molasses ($68,888% and rocoa ($82,026 in 1868). In 1868, there arrived 201 vessels, measur- ing 86,868 tons. Of these, 66, of 18,960 tons, were under the Dutch flag | and 21, of 8196 tons, American. In the same year them olearaid 190 vessels, measuring in the aggregate, 86,868 tons ; of which 66, of 17,847 tons, were Dutoh ; 81, of 15,150 tons, American ; end the others under the English and other flags. An analysis of the trade of Dutch Guiana shows that the United States has about one fourth of the whole com- merce of the colony. f'tvnch (ruiami it the smallest and most eastern of the three colonies, known as English Ouiana, Dutch Guiana, and French Guiana. It lies between 2° and 6° N. lat., and 61° 80' and 64° 80' W. long., being bounded on the north and north-east by the Atlantic, east and south by Brazil, and west by Dnteh Guiana. It is about 260 miles in length, ftam north to south, and varies in breadth from 100 to 160 miles. Area, 27,560 square miles. It has a coast line of 200 miles, extending from the Maroni to the Oya- poc. The low alluvial tract along the coast is of great fertility. The mountain chains run east and west, and are almost wholly of granite, but do not attain a great elevation. The country is abundantly watered, and the coast-lands appear to be less un- healthy than in British Guiana. The vegetation of Ouiana is very luxuriant, and the interior is thickly CoMvasoa or thk Unitrd States with Fbrhou wooded with tree* ralaable for their timber, fhnta, and dye-woods. Medicinal plaato, including quassia, gentian, th* caetor^jil plant, and araotto, used In ool- oring cheese, ara all abundant. The Island of Cayenne, at the mouth of the Oyak, is about 80 miles in circumference, and is separated from the continent by a narrow channel. The road- stead at the mouth of the Oyak, though small. Is the beat on the ooaat, having everywhere flrom 18 to 18 feet of water. The capital, Cayenne, is situated on the northern side of this island, and contains 6,220 in- habltanta. The new town is well built, and has good streete; the government house is in the old town. The harlmr is protected by a fort and several battarles. The colony is divided into two districta, Cayenne and Sinnamary, and 14 commiines. The govemir^nt is vested in a governor, a privy council, and a co onial council, composed of 16 members, elected by t) e col- onists. The cultivated lands are estimated to be about one eightieth of the whole territoiy. Besides the sta- ples of British and Dutch Guiana, ita productions com- prise pepper (including Cayenne, which is so called from the island of that name), cloves, cinnamon, and nutmegs. Trade Is chiefly with France and ita col- onies. In 1864, the official value of the imports Into France flrom French Guiana was £20,000; exporta, £192,000. The French first settled in Cayenne in 1604 I the British and Portuguese captured the colony in' 1809, but re8tore porta are chiefly from France, being about 2,675,000 franca in value. The import* from other countrle* amount to about 660,000 franca. The exports are of th* value of 8,128,000 franca, and are nearly all ship, ped to Franca. About 40 French vessels, of the ag- gregate burden of 7000 tons, usually enter, and about the same number clear from Quiana every year. Some 20 or.80 foreign vessels enter and depart each year. These statistics are not exact, but probably approxi- mate nearly enough for practical legislation in refoN ence to them. GhlUd (from the Saxon guildan, to pay), signiAe* a fhUemity or company, because every one waa gildare, that is, had to pay something toward tlie charge and support of the company. A* to the origin of guilds or companies in Britain, it was a law among the Saxons that every freeman of fourteen year* of age ehould And sureties to keep the peace, or be com- mitted. This led to the formation, among neighbors, of associations, each consisting of ten families, which became bound for one another, either to produce him who committed an offense, or to make satisfaction to the injured party ; and that they might the better do this, they raised a sum of money among themselves, which they put into a common stock, and when one of their pledges had committed an offense, and fled, then the other nine mode satisfaction out of this stock, by payment of money, according to the offense. Be- cause this association consisted of ten families, it waa called a dectnarj/ ; and hence arose other kinds of fra- ternities. Bnt as to the precise time when these guilds had their origin in England there is nothing certain to be found ; since they wore in use long before any for- mal license was granted to them for such meetings. It seems to have been about the close of the 11th century, according to Anderson {llittory of Commerce, vol. i., p. 70), that merchant-guilds, or fraternities, which were afterward styled corporations, came first Into general use In many parts of Europe. Madox (Firma Burgi, chap. I., sect. 0) thinks they were hardly known to our Saxon progenitors, and that they might probably have been brought into England by the Nor- mans, although they do not seem to have been very nomeroua in those days. The French and Normans ni^ perhaps have borrowed them from the free citiea Umk of Italy, wh«r« trad* and manafaotOM* .touiiahad at a much earlier period, and whare snch eonuanaitia* appear to have been first in na*. The** guUda ait now companki or a**ooiationi having law* and oidan made by themielvea, In virtu* of authority flrom th* prince to that effect. See Uild, Guild tu the royal burgh* of Scotland, la atill aaad for a company of merchant*, who ar* fraanaa of tha burgh. Every royal burgh has a dean of guild, who la th« next nuigiatrata below tha provott. Ouild, Gild, or Geld, i* alao uaad by ancient wrltan to aignU^' a compeniatlon or mulct for an offenae. Qtliaca, a gold coin formerly atruck and currant in Britain, and ao denominated because the gold of which tha flrat apecimen* were atrnck (lemp. Car. II.) waa brought from tha coaat of Guinea ) and far a like reason It originally bora the Impression of an elephant. The value of tha guinea varied greatly at dlffaraat periods, but latterly it wa* worth 21 ahilUag*. It* weight waa 6 dwts. i)-412& grs. On tha latroduation of the tovtreign — first coined in 1817— th* old guiaa* coinage waa gradually aupeieaded. OuinMt, the name assigned to a large tract of country on the west coast of Africa, commonclag at Cap* Varga, in about 10° N. lat,, and terminating with tha Cameroon Mountains in the Gulf of Biaha, The*e are the limits more commonly given to what ia called Guinea; by aome they are greatly extended, *o as to compriaa tha whole of the Portuguese settle- ments south of the equator, under the name of Soath- em Guinea, while the coast north of the equator i* called Northern Guinea. The term Guinea is not of African origin, or at least not among thoae to whom it la applied. There Is, ac- cording to Barbot, a district of country north of the Senegal known by the name of Genakoa, the iahablt- anta (if which were the first blacks that tha Portu- guese encountered in their exploration* along the coast in the 16th century ; and they applied thla nam* indiscriminately afterward to all the black nations which they found further south. In the two succeed- ing ceqturies it waa applied in a more restricted sense to that portion of the coast which is now better known as the Gold and Slave Coasts ; owing to the fact, per- haps, that this region for a time offered a larger num- ber of slaves for the foreign market than any other part of the country. The natives here acknowledge this term as applied to themselves, but it was undoubt- edly borrowed in the first instance from the Portu- guese, The physical aspect of the i^uuntry, as might be in- ferred from the large extent Vi o have under consider- ation, is very variable, but is characterized every- where by excessive richness of natural scener}*. In the region of Sierra Leone, Cape Mount, and Cape ' Mesurado, the eye rests on bold headlands and high promontories covered with the richest tropical verd- ure. In the vicinity of Cape Palmas there are ex- tended plains, slightly undulating, and covered with almost every variety of the palm and palmetto. On the coast of Orewiss the countr}- rises into table-land* of vast extent, and apparently of great fertility. The Gold Coast presents every variety of hill and dale; and as we approach the equatorial region we are sainted by mountain scenery of unrivaled beauty and surpassing magnificence. The inhabitants consist chiefly of the following tribes : — The Vais, the Manou or Kru, the Kovakeras or Avekroom, the Inta, the Dahomey, Ashanti, and the Benin. There are no large or extended political organizations, with the exception, perhaps, of the Idngdoms of Ashanti and Dahomey, and neither of these has a larger popiilittion or greater extent of ter- ritory than the smaller kingdoms of Europe. For the most part, the people live together in independent communities, of not more than 8 or 10 villages, and with an aggregate population of &om 2000 to 26,000 VC; ■_-a.^-:Lu>- mn^ mf QVh tf M,QM. In Umm AMbnal tommantttM tbi^ har* m mltlM (bflM of law, bal an gor*ni«d for tha ) part ky eaf«aia tradMooal aMgat thai Imt* baaa down nroai {MMrauon t'* ^auavatiiNit ifoaU* Mooanky b tha only fbrm of goTMitmnt aahanyMgad aaMmg tliam t bM, f hm eloaaly leruti- ■hwd, tMr inUiM ttiow nMMh mora of tha nopaUr aad patriarcul than of tbo monarchical aianMnl. Thay ara auaatlally a (lagan ptople ; bat in their ■•• llglraa Bottom and Idolatroni worthip thay diflbr rary ■■ell ftMn each othar. Thar* are many dacldad Iraoaa of tha Jawiab origin. Amonr thaaa amy be ■paeMad tha rito of dromncMon, whioh, with that ax- eapthm af tha Kra or Manoa ihmily, if, wa beliave, ■nhrertal ; the dlrMon of the trlbei into ftunlUea, and la ioma eaaet Into the number of It ; bloody ■aoriflcee , wHh the iprlnkltng of blood npon their altart and door-poite t the obaanrattoa of new moons i a ftmnrf aad tpaoMed time ibr monmfaif for the dead, daring wbleh parkd they thava their head and wear tat t ere d elolhest demonjanl pee e eieioni, purlfleationi, and Tarlont other niagei of pntable Jewlih oriifln. Raepeetbig the natural product* and trading eapa- blHtiea of the eonntiy, the artielei exported coniiat ehiedy of ginger, gum, mendobi (nuiiiea gni'u, * tpedes of Med), palm-oil, ioma Wory, a wood mttt tor Sling, called camwood, and which ii worth in En- nd about £15 Meriing a ton. V«>hIi yiiiting that eoait take on board — it Sierra Leone, or on the ooaii of Malagaeta, between Cape Mewrsdo and OajM Pal- mai mme Mack aailon, called krumen, who ar* of great use in doing the heavy work on board, and for boat aervice ; thus (aring the European feamen from expciing themMlrea too much to the aun'i rayi, etc. The earrlcei of these krumen are recompensed with two or three pieces of cotton cloth per month each. Their chief food Is rice, wh'ch may be purchased at a vary aheap rate on the coast of Malagneta ; the prioe of a " km" (a meuure of capacity weighing about M Iha.), being a fltthom and a half of cotton cloth, or any other artkle of proportionate valne. On the coast of UalagoeU (Grain Coast), tha arti- cles received principally In Iwrter are rice and millet ; also ivory, palm-oU, and camwood, especially at Mon- rovia, tha capital of Liberia. At Sierra Leone, the pepper-tree (.called malagueta), is cultivated on an ex- tensive scale, and its ftvit— -Guinea pepper — after beittg dried. Is purchased In large quantities by the Aniarieans, and Imported Into the United States. English muskets, gunpowder, rum, and tobacco, are the principal articles of traffic on the whole of the coast as far as Onim at the bottom of the Bight of Benin. At Jaqne Lahoo and Jaqne Jaqae, two considerable towns, sttaated at the extremity of the biglit formed by Cape Frimas and Cape Three Poiats, commences the trade In gold-dust ; here also a considerable quan- tity of pdm-oii and some ivory are found. After passing these towns, the European settlements com- mence. The flrst are Great Bassam and Assine, be- longing to France, and situated at the months of the rivers of tlie same names. Five leagnes to the west of Cape Three Points, Is the small Dutch fort of Axem ; and on the other side of the same cape Is the English port of Dick's Cove. From Cape Lahoo to Acora, and to all the Europesn settlements on the coast, tha monetary standard is the " ake" (ackie) of gold-dust, whieh weighs iialf a dram English, and Is worth neariy 6s. The kru on this part of the coast is almost double that assigned to it on the coast of Mala- gneta — avenging £50, more or less- Between Dick's Cove and the castle of St. George of the Mne (0. Jorge da Mina), are situated the tmall farta of Serunde, Sanca, and Commando ; after which wa eoma to the Arat large European settlement, vis., the castle of St. George of the Mine, belonging to Bnttaad. The oaatla if a Portuguese ttmetun, and waa fciMarly the MotI ImpaHMl af tka PoitogMM eatonlsa an this aoaat. Mast t* It Is Cana Oeaat Cas- tle, bahmglni to Rngtand, and titaaM In alghl of tka Armar. Tha neat pUaa Is Annamabaa, a iinall Kn- gllah tort, Airmariy ahandonad, hat whan for soma years past trade has bean again hi soma dagraa dara If oped. To thia fort saeeaad atbara In ralna, as Wina* bah and Assam. MUlat Is found In ahnndaneo at Ihasa plaeas, aa wall aa palm-oil and geM4Ml. Proeead- Ing along the eoast, wa oama to IIm giMt KngNth set* tiement of Aaom, where there ara at prstaat two fortfaasee. The Arst, that of Ht. Jamas, wai bnllt by them many years shiaa i fha saeand, tNM of Ohilf* tianbnrg, was purchasstl from Deumarh. lofctber wMh all Its possessions on that ooast. In tlia year IHAO, Than follow tha small settlamenis of NIngo | after passing whioh. Cape St. Paul, a llttia to tha east of Rk) da Volu (•• Hatam UWar"), k duublad. From Cape St. Paul to OnIm or Images, many negro towns or vilUgae ara met with slatlanaii along tha coast. These oommunieata with aaoh othar by meant of the lake situated at no groat distance Inland tmm the beaoh | and then tha ford eonvargai to Iha prin- cl',^ points, which ara Quita, lN>po-paqneflo, AJuiia, - forto Novo, and (>nhn. Tha trade wbleh formerly aonrishad at all those plaoaa wa* that In slave* i but for some years past that In palmmll, or tkif4m, bat grsatly davaloped Itaalf, the qnantHy prnduoad amount-' ing-annually to mora than 7000 Ions, which ara ship- pe*] to England, America, and Pranoa. (In this sectlAn of the coast there are no Kumpean aatabllahmenlf, properly so oslied ; but at AJuda, Porto Novo, and Onim, there are factories i and European* are also resident in the country, and traffiii with vessels, a* they do at thoae establlshmonU. The trade of tha Beaia, Brass, Bonny, Calabar, and Cameroon RIvtn, ' Is all hi palm-oil, and oarrlad on •xctutlvaly by tha English. Onlf of OhiiB*!. Tha Ontf of Guinea fnrma a oaldran and a fttmace, and apreids out over the Sooth Atlanlio aa air-chamlxr for naatlng ap In winter and keeping warm tha axtr»4rop;eal region* of South ' America, Ever}' traveler has remarked npon the mild olimaU of PatagonU and tha Falkland Islands, " Temperature la high southern latitudes," says a vary close observer, who Is co-operating with ma In oollsot- Ing SMterials, " dtflhrs greatly ftom tha tamperatara In northern. In southam latltnd** thert laam to lia no extremes of heat and cold, as at tha north. New- port, Rhode Island, for Instanoa, latHttd* 41° north, lone^nde 71° west, and Klo Negro, UtMuda 41° wnth, and longHuda 68° west, s>i a :/■ •s»%l. :-.13-' inUM nth) •rtir tpm* itwMn bttntoa- \ ^'<:^-' urit srHK^iM ANPnHivT ^ UBUT. Mdcmr iKS./r. n ii». T Rin.AHATIIM Wh4nl^0fMnAm^r*»»t4mtJrihrM^ttti-ti't'*ttHli^ I 111 / r*^ *.« I'mrt rf( n» I fif/nimil if Hew ami •IrUI ^.">^"""*U-,. I 'In,, jr. y aiTL 015 GUL Ida Channel and on Ita south irith the Caribbean Sea, through the Channel of Yucatan. The Gulf it tnt from banka, and containa only a few araall rock}' ia- lands on the coast of Yucatan, with the Florida Reef near its eastern extremity. The shores are low, and generally lined with flat sandy islanda, not far from the land, and numerous lagoons. There are few har- bors ; and the rivers which full into it ara obstructed by lATa at their mouth, which render them all, except the Mis'suaippI, nearly inaccessible for vessels of large draught, k current of water entering the Gulf (h)m the Carlblwan Sea is soon divided into two portions, the one running east along the coast of Cuba, the other west, in a curved line through the middle of the Gulf, round toward tho Florida Channel, whera it meets the other current, and the two united form the Gulf Stream (see Atlastic). The temperature of the Gulf of Mexico is 86° in summer, and 6° higher than that of the ocean in the same parallel. At high tide, the Pacific rises several feet above the level of the Gulf, and at low water it falls as far below it. The depth of the marine basin which holds the wa- ters of the Gulf of Mexico is, in the deejiest part, altout three quartera of a mile. The officers of the United States' ship Albany ran a line of deep sea-soundings from west to east across the Gulf ; tho greatest depth they reported wiis about 6000 feet. Subsequent ex- periments, however, induce the belief that the depth is not quite so great. AVe should therefore have, by stopping up the channels between the Gulf and the Atlantic, not a sea-level in the Gulf, but we should have a mean level between evaporation and precipita- tion. If the former were in access, the level of the Gulf waters would sink down until the surface exposed to the air would be just sufficient to return to the atmo- sphere, as vapor, the amount of water discharged b}- the rivers — the Mississippi and others — into the Gulf. As the waters were lowered, the extent of evaporating surface would grow less and less, until Nature should establish the proper ratio between the ability of the air to taku up and the capacity of the clouds to let down. Tlius we might have a sea whose level would be much further l)elow the water-level of the ocean than is the Dead Sea. — Maury's Pht/n. Geog. Oulf Stream. There is a river in the ocean. In tlio aeverest droughts it never fails, and in the might- iest floods it never overflows. Its banks and its i)ot- tom are of cold water, while its current is of warm. The Gulf of Mexico is its fountai-.i, and its mouth is in the Arctic Seas. It is the Gulf Stream. There is in the world no such majestic flow of waters. Its current is more rapid than tho Mississippi or the Amazon. Its waters, as far out from the Gulf as the Carolina coasts, are of an indigo-blue. They are so distinctly marked that their line of junction with the common sea-water may be traced by the eye. Often one half of the vessel may l>e perceived floating in Gulf Stream water, while the other half is in the common water of the sea ; ao sharp is the line, and su?h the want of af- finity between those waters, and the reluctance on the part of the Gulf Stream to mingle with the common water of tho sea. — Maury's Phi/n. Geography. Various causes of the Gulf Stream have been as- signed. At one period, the Mississipiii River; but this hypothesis was soon exploded, for it is estimated thai it would take lOCO such rivers, as the velocities of the river and Gulf Stream are about equal. The most plausible hypothesis yet advanced, and the one which seems to ho entertained now as true, is, that the mo- tive power is due to tho difl'erence of temperature be- tween tlie equatorial and northern parts of the ocean. This dllTorence would give a cause commensurate with such an effect as the Gulf Stream, and is the only one yot advanced where the cause and e .. ct approach equality. It is probable, however, that thia is but one of the many forces lirought to bear. The forcea varying from the potent one mentioned, to others " light as the nphyr." And, in many euea, foiOM produced by the Gulf Stream react upon it ; as, tnm the difl'crance of tamperatura of the north and south, aided by the Golf Stream in aome caaaa, aie produced the trade winds, ao these trade whida have no slight effect upon the Gulf Stream. To form aome idea of the magnitude of the atrsam, we can take a croaa aection at Cape Hatteras ; approx- imately, it may l>e given as 76 miles wide and 700 feet in depth, with a velocity of three knots an hour. The stream incomes smaller in its program north, yielding portions of its heat on its way, and so allowing por- tions of the stream to assimilate with the rest of the ocean. As the Gulf Stream is but a current of water of high temperature from the south to the north, it would b« natural to suppose its course would be from south to north. This would l>e the case were it not for the ro- tation of the earth to the east, for a current starting from the equator, having a velocity of 1000 milea an hour eaatward in common with the earth, when ita current reaches latitude 60°, when the velocity of the earth is only 250 miles an hour, it will be so many de- grees of longitude east as the difference of velocities would foroe it, minus the retardations. This would Im BufHcient to explain why the course should be north- east, independent of the effect of the contour of the continent. The course and dimensions of the Gulf Stream may l>e readily seen from the accompanying chart of Maur}''s, (See Plate II,) The amount of water farming the Gulf Stream, and going north, must \m returned into the fountain-head, the seas near the equator — and ao we have streams or oceanic currents going south equally as important in their effect, and giving as interesting phenomena, but not as readily observed, because they ara urufer-cur- rents, and not as appreciated Itecauae they moat afi^ct other parte of the world. The water from the north flowa to the south in many comparatively amall under- currents, and rises to the surface at various points, taking for their general course the African shore, and making a circle uniting with the Gulf Stream in the Caribliean Sea. For the same reason that the course of the Gulf Stream is north-east the returning currents are south-west. One large returning current crosaea the Gulf Stream near the Banka of Newfoundland, bringing icebergs which melt in contact with the warm stream. The depoalts have formed, and are forming, the Banks of Newfoundland. The influence of the Gulf Stream, like the distance of the fixed atara, can lie conjectured, but we fall as much abort in one conjecture as in tho other. Our complaints of a variable climate would njt be without foundation were it not for the beneficial influ- ence of atreama of water f;om the tropics, giving ns warmth and moiature; making the climate of New York in winter equal to a place in a latitude 10° aouth, and in summer giving the health of a place as many degrees north. Maury says : " No part of the world affords a more difficult or dangerous navigation than the approaches of our north- em coasts in winter. Before the warmth of the Gulf Stream was known, a voyage at this season from Eu- rope to New England, New York, and even to the capes of the Delawara, or Chesapeake, was many times more trj'ing, difficult, and dangerous than it is now. In making this part of the coast, vessels are frequently met by snow-storms and gales which mock the seaman's strength, and set at naught his skill. In a little while his bark liecomes a mass of ice, with her crew frosted and helpless ; she remains obedient to her helm, and is kept away for the Gulf Stream. After a few hours' run, she reaches the edge, and almoat at the next bound paaaea from the midat of winter into summer heat. Now the ice disappears from her; tho avu 9i«; GUM MOlor htOm hU itiffMMMi UmlM In UtfUi wtOtn ) fenlhii; kirawir ln¥igonita4 »ii4 rwfrmlWMl wKh tli« KonUl wannth about bim, li* nwlliMW MUt linKltude to the storm-tssssd roariiwr, stid witning htm that land Is near, saves him often, Cemttmim UmU, deflninK It as tha InterchaRKe of i!omm»dlti«M, is h«lt all Imltatlnn of tha Gulf Straam, 'fim (M( Ntretttn, takhiK the heat of the tropics ti) i'n< shivfrinK tiMflhmt^, and the ieabargs of the north u, tlis favarisb natlvo of the tofrid ■one— giTing beat to soma, f<»»d to fttbars, and In some way alfacting all. OuiB«, R«*in», OhtRprfffln*. tn oommeree, tha term i{uni Is not only «p)illad to gnm* woporly so called, but also to rasins, aiid ipinuf^finn, Hut thoiiKh these substanoas have iHaiiy t>rfiti«>rti«s In commnn, they are yet suAiniantly di«t(l«it, I. Gim is a thick, transiwrant fluid, that Iswes spon- taneously trem certain »pa«l«» of (ilants, paMlciilsrly such as produce stona^^utt, as ptttm Httit ciiorrv-treeB. It is very adhesive, and grmUittty hardens Iry enpoo- OB to tha atnuMpbara, It Is nsHatly ohtalned In dmall pieces, like Uars, inodarittwi)' hard and somewhat Irfittle while cold t so that it ««n Im r«duc«d liy pnnmllnK to a fine powder, Wlwn \mrit, It Is colorleas i hut It has commonly a yelliiwiuli tifia» | It Is mit def^tltnte of lustre I it baa no small t its tasta Is lttsl|di| > Its speHflc gravity varies from l'8l«l te l'4S17 ) It readily dis- solves in water, but is Insotttlda In atmhol, Onm Is eztenaively usad in tha «rt#, pattlcidarly In calico- printing, to give i>oniii»t«n«a Ui th« colofs,' and to hin- der them from BpraailinK, It is nImi Mwd In painting, in the manufsctura of ink, in ntwiifinx, «t«, Tbe only im|)ort«nt gUDis In a ('omtnM'rIal point of view, are gum Aralde and gtim M«na^Hl t hut Uo is popuUrly, thougti im^afiaily, rankwl among the l^ma. f> : 1. Gum Arabia (¥r, tlmim» ArMifUt ; It. Onmma Arabioa; Oer, Avablii'ht ffiimmli Arali, Toth), the produce of tha Aeo»Ja mra, a traa ijfowinx '" Arabia, and in many parts of Africa, 'I'lis (jHt" «)i«de« natiirnlly from tha trunk-Md lirant'has, and hsrdmis l)y expos- ure to the air, •'1'ba mora sidkly the tfwi appears, the mora gum it yields ( and Iha hoWof the weather the more proliiiu It Is, A wat winter and a cool or mild summer are imfsvoralda to «iim,"-^JAf:KBos'« Morocco, p. 84. It Is in irrsgHlHrly<«haped pieces, hard, brittle, and samMraniiitwrimt, Whpn pure it Is almost colorless, or of a pala, yellowish hue i being insipid, inodorous, and dl«sally on its whiteness and soluliiiil.y, ImressInK and diminish- ing from i,'l Ifis. ti) i* or AM per «wt,. accordinn as the article has moraorlasaof (Itaseitnalltles,— TiIdmron's Di*pm»niitry and I'rmUn /n/imntiiiim. The Kgt/ptian Hum Amiih Irtt (AcwUt r«v») which ■(Tords tlie finest gum Ar/»lil« of fm»m«H\«, Is a native of tha sandy deserts of Aralda, Ktfvpt. and the west- «rn u«rt 01 Asia ; it also grows ahnndantly In Hsrbsr)- and other parte of AfriiL'a, psrtii'tilarlv In the Atlns Mountains. In Mor<«'j/i, or iiaflMry, where the tree is csUed AUiUh, it rises to a Italght of several feet, having a crookad et«m, I'ovarad with a smooth, gray bark, wbila that of the I'rani'has Is of a yellowlsh- graen, or purpliah ting" At tlw h«M of the leaves, there are two opposite awl-ahaped spines, growing nearly erect, and having a slight, glandular swelling below. The wood is hard, and takes a good polish. Its seeds, which grow in a hard coriaceous pod, resem- ble those of the lupine, yield a reddiah dye, and are used b}' tanners in the preparation of leather. The gum exudes spontaneously from the bark of the trunk and branches of the tree, in a soft or nearly fluid state, and hardens by exposure to the air, or to the beat of the aun. The more sickly tbe tree, the mora gum it yields ; and the hotter the weather, the more prolific it Is. A wet winter and a cool or mild summer are unfavorable to the crop. It begins to flow in De- cember, immediately after the rainy aeason, near the time of the flowering of the tree. Afterward, aa the weather liecomes hotter, incisions are made through the bark, to assiat the exudation of tbe juice. Tbe gum, when new, emits a faint smell, and when etowed in the warehouse, it may be heard to crack spontane- ously for several weeks ; and this cracldng is the surest criterion of new gum, as it never does so when old. Several kinds of gum, yielded by different treea, are occasionally to be mot with, but that which is com- monly substituted for it is brought from the Island of Senegal, on the coast of Africa, and is called " Gum Senegal." The Mattic tree {PUtacia lentiicui), is a native of the south of Europe, the Levant, an(! the west of Asia, and probably could be cultivated with success in California, and perhaps in some parts of tbe South. This tree, which seldom exceeds 12 feet in height, with a trunk 10 inches in diameter, is covered with a smooth, brownish b.irk, and produces the resin known in commerce under the name of " mastic." It is cul- tivated in various parts of continental Europe, par- ticularly in Italy and Portugal. 2. Gum Briluh. — ^An excellent artificial gum is now largely made for tbe use of calico-printers and others, and is sold under the name of British Gum, or dextrine. It is made by roasting starch, and tbe manufacture is very skillfully conducted ; starch has hence risen in manufacturing importance, wliile giim Arabic (a much more expensive article) has been to some extent super- seded. Not only has starch become thus applied to new purposes, but the starch itself is obtained from a greater variety of sources tlian heretofore. The old customary mode has been to obtain starch from wheat or other grain, by a process of fermentation, which is not applicable to rice ; but excellent starch is now o1>- tained from rice and from sago, by improved chemical methods, and the starch is bleached to a degree of, great purity, 8. Oiim Senegal, principally brought from the island' of that name on the const of Africa, is obtained from various trees, but chiefly from two, one called Vereck, which yields a white gum ; the other called Kehuel, which yields a red gum ; varieties of the acacia gum- mi/era. Gum Arabic is very often mixed with gum Senegal. The latter b nearly as pure as the former, but it is usually in larger masses, of a darker color, and more clammy and tenacious. It is the sort of gum principally employed by calico-printers. — Thom- son's Chemitlry, Thomson's Dispenmtory, Ainslie'r i/riteria Indicii, etc. The trade in gum Senegal is principally in the hands of the I''rench. II. Iteiint, for the most part, exude spontaneously from trees, though they are often obtained liy artifi- cial wounds, and are not uncommonly, at first, com- bined with volatile oil, from which they are separated by distillation. They uro solid substances, naturally lirittle ; have a certain degree of transparency, and a color moat commonly inclining to yellow. Their taste is more or less acrid, and not unlike that of volatile oils ; but they have no smell, unless they happen to contain aome foreign body. Thoy are all heavier than water, their specific gravity varying from 1-0182 1.1862. They differ from gums in being insoluble in .J...;,...::.. CIW* 91^ GUN Wkter, tr1l«tlMr c«M or hot ; while the$- »H, with ■ few exceptiona, solabla In alcohol, especially when as- sisted b}' heat. When heated, they melt ; and if the heat be increased, they take Are, burning with a strong yellow flame, and emitting a vast quantity of smoke. Common rotin famishes a very perfect example of a resin, and It is from this substance that the whole genus have derived their name. Rosin is, indeed, mqnently denominated resin. The principal resins are Ammi, Elemi, Copal, Lae, Labdanum, Matiic, Roiin, Sandarach, Tacamahac, etc, ; which see, under their respective names, — ^Thomson's Chmutry. Ill, Cum-rcnfM, a class of vegetable substances consistini; of gum and rasin. They differ from resins In this, that they never exude spontaneounly from the plant, being obtained either by bruising the parts con- taining them, and expressing the juice, which is al- ways In a state of emulsion, generally white, but sometimes of a different color, or by making incisions in the plant, from which the juice flows. The juice, being exposed to the action of the sun, is cunilcaseii and Inspissated, till it forms the gum resin of com- merce. Gum-resins are usually opaque, or, at least, their transparency Is inferior to that of resins. They are always solid, and most commonly brittle, and have, sometimes, a fatty appearance. When heated, they do not melt as resins do, neither are they so com- bustible. Heat, however, commonly softens them, and causes them to swell. They bum with a flame. They have almost alwa}'8 a strong smell, which, in several instances, Is alliaceous. Their taste, also, is often acrid, and always much stronger than that of resins. They are usually heav'er than resins. They are partiallj' soluble in water, but the solution is al- ways opaque, and usually milky. Alcohol partially dissolves them, the solution tieing transparent. The most common gum-resins are, Aloes, Ammonia, Euphorbium, Galbanum, Gamboge, Myrrh, OUbataim, Sagdpenum, Scammony, etc. ; which see, under their respective names. — Loudon's Ency. of Agriculture; Thomson's Chemittry. Gum-tree (Ifytsa hiflora), or Twin-flowered Nyssa — ^known also as the "rupelo-tree, yellow gum-tree, sour gum-tree, Peperidge-trcp, wild pear-tree — in an uncultivated state, seldom ri'ies above 40 or 50 feet, with a trunk 15 or 20 inches in diameter. The tfysta bijtora begins to appear in the lower part of New Hampshire, where the climate is tempered by the ocean ; and, in progressing southward, it is found most abundantly in the easterly parts of New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. But in Virginia and Carolina, it Is more sparingly produced, and, as in the north, it always occurs in moist ground or in watery places. Tlie K^sia hijlora holds a middle rank between soft and hard-wooded trees. When perfectly seasoned, the sap-wood is of a slight reddish tint, und the heart- wood is of a deep brown. Of trees exceding 15 or 18 Inches in diametor, frequently more than holf of the trunk is hollow. The ligneous fibres which compoBe the body of most other trees are closely united, and usually as- cend In a perpendicolar direction. Bnt, on the con- trary, the trees of this genus exhibit a constant pecu- liarity of organization — the fibres being united in bundles, and are interwoven like a braided cord. This property gives it a decided superiority for certain uses. In the parts of the conntrj- where it abounds, it is emploj'ed for the naves of wheels destined for heavy burdens. It is also employed for the heads of the shafts of wind-mills ; and, sawn Into boards, it is used for lining carts. Wooden bowls are made of it, which are heavier than those made of the tulip-tree (£irio- dendroii), and are less liable to split. From the irreg- ularity of the fibre, the " gum-tree" Is not admitted as evidence in the courts of Pennsylvania, in establishing boundaries to lands, etc., from t! j numtrar of years which have elapsed since the trees have been blazed. As fuel, this wo«d bams slowly, and diffiuat • graat heat. — Bbownb's Treei of America. Oun-OOtton. Cotton is one of the nmneroaa forms of lignlne, a compound of carbon, oxygan, and hydrogen ; but when it is snl)jected to the action of nitric acid, nitrogen, which exists In most explosive bodies, enters Into its composition. The action of nitric acid on lignlne had long attracted the attention of chemists ; but the nearest approach to the formation of gun-cotton was made by Pelouze, who, in 1SS8, writes in the Compte* Remdu» of the properties of a sul>- stance named Xylddine, from ^Xov, wood, discovered by Braconnet in 1888 : " It is very combustible, taking fire at 866° Fahr., burning with great rapidity, and almost without residue. This property has led me to an experiment, which I think susceptible of some application, especially In artillery. By plunging paper in nitric acid of sp. gr. 1-6, leaving it there the requisite time for the acid to permeate the paper, which is usually accomplished in two or three minutes, then withdrawing it, and lastly, washing it In water, we obtain a kind of parchment impermealile to moist- nre, and extremely combustible. " In 1846, Sch<^n- bein exhibited to the British Association at South- ampton specimens of cotton, which appeared to be as explosive as gunpowder; but it was not till April, 1847, on the enrolment of the patent, that the method of preparing this cotton was known, although, in the interval. Otto of Brunswick, Morel of Paris, and Bottger of Frankfort, published recipes for making explosive cotton. Schon'oein's method consisted In mixing three parts of sniphuric acid, sp. gr. 1-85, with one part of nitric acid, sp. gr. 1-46 to 1-60 ; and when the mixture had cooled down to between 60° and 60° Fahr., clean rough cotton, in as open a state as pos- sible, was immersed In the acid ; when well soaked, the excess of acid was drawn or poured off, and the cotton pressed lightly In order to separate the principal portion of the acid. The cotton was then covered over and left for half an hour, when it was pressed and thoroughly washed in running water to get rid of all free acid. After being partially dried by pressure, it was washed in an alkaline solution made by dissolv- ing one ounce of carbonate of potash in a gallon of water. The free acid being thus got rid of, It was pat into a press, the excess of alliallne solution was ex- pelled, and the cotton left nearly dry. It was then washed in a solution of pure nitrate of potash, one ounce to the gallon, and being again pressed, was dried at a temperature of from 150° to 170°. It was stated, that three parts of the gun-cotton thus pre- pared were equal in force to eight parts of Tower-proof gunpowder. Gun-cotton has also been employed in blasting, especially on the Manchester and Huddersfield railway in Standedge tunnel, and on the works in the Stour Valley, neur Birmingham. It has l)een stated that gun-cotton produces a much greater effect, weight for weight, than gunpowder, in the proportion of five to one. This seems an exaggeration ; bnt the disrup- tive eflTect really ueema to be greater from gun-ootton ; and as It gives no smoke, in oonfined situations the workmen are enabled sooner to resume their work. Cotton gains considerably in weight by the above treatment, but is scarcely changed in color or In gen- eral appearance, if the process has been carefully con- ducted ; it is, however, harsh to the touch, and gives a crepitating sound when pressed by the hand. It dif- fers from common cotton bj- Its electric excitability, the slightest degree of friction causing it to b« power- fully attracted and repelled by other bodies ; and also by its action on a ray of polarized light, which it does not depolarize like ordinarj' cotton. It explodes at a temperature of from 850° to 400°, with such rapidity as to interfere with its practical application, for, if applied to the purposes of artillery, it may burst the gun before it has tima to move the shot, and ioa.b st li GUN 018 GUN the products of its ctmbastkni m>ka H also objection- able for fir»4inns. Among these products water may be mentioned, and, should not the cotton have been well washed, nitrous acid. Another i^reat impediment to the use of gun-cotton in its hygrometric condition, for if exposed to a damp atmosphere, it will in an hour or two absorb a considerable portion of moisture. Many attempts have been mode to apply it to mining purp< )es on nccount of its enormous force, and the small quantity of smoke which it produces ; liut the objections tu its use are numerous, the most fatal objection beinj^ its liability to spontaneous ignition. Nevertheless, gun-cotton continues to be an object of great interest, on account of its application to the beautiful art of photography. When the cotton is prepared in such a way as to burn slowly, it is not liable to spontaneous ignition, and in this state it is perfectly soluble in sulphuric ether, which the more explosive cotton is not. If the etherial solution called coUodum, be poured on the surface of cold water, a paper is produced which is prepared for the use of the photograplier. This paper is a very active electric, and is perfectly soluble in ether. Collodion has also been made use of in snrgeiy, by applying the ethereal solution to a wound, when a thin delicate artificial ■kin is formed by it, which perfectly excludes the air. In the preparation of gun-cotton, nitric acid is the active agent in the formation of xyloidine ; the sul- phuric acid luu no direct action on the iignine, its use being to retain the water abstracted from the cotton, •nd prevent the solution of the compound which takes place to a greater or less extent in nitric acid alone. The purit}' and exact stren,. gr, 1'424, with 104 parts by weight of sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1-833. On trying the effects of various re-agents on gun- cotton, Mr. Hadow found that it could be perfectly restored to the original cotton, without loss of form, by means of an alcoholic solution of hydro-sulphuret of potassium. On this, and other points connected with the chemistrj- of gun-cotton, we must refer to Mr. Hadow's paper, published in the Trantactiont of the Ciemical Society, — E. fi. Ghinpowder (Ger. Puher, Schieupulver; Du. Btuhniid ; Da. Krudt, Palver ,• Sw. Krut ; Fr. Poudre ; It. Polverti Sp. and Port. Polvora; Bus. Poroch ; Pol. Proek; tM. Pulvit pyriut). This well-known inflam- mable powder is composed of nitre, sulphur, and char- coal, reduced to powder, and mixed intimately with each other. The proportion of the ingredients varies very consiJeralilv ; but good gunpowder may be com- posed of the following proportions ; viz., 76 parts of nitre, 16 of charcoal, and 9 of sulphur. These in- gredients are first reduced to a Hue powder separately, then mixed intimately, and formed into a thick paste with water. After this has dried a little, it is placed upon a kind of sieve full of holes, through which it is forced. By this process it is divided into grains, the size of which depends upon the size of the boles through which they have been squeezed. The powder, when dry, is put into barrels, which are made to turn round on their axis. By this motion tlie grains of gunpowder rub against ^ach other, their asperities are worn off, and their surfaces are made smooth. The powder is then said to l>e glazrd. — Thomson's Chemiitty. Dr. Thomson, whose learning is equal to bis science, has the following remarks with respect to the intro. dnction of gunpowder into warlike operations ; " The discoverer of this compound, and the person who first thought of applying it to the purposes of war, ate un- known. It is certain, however, tliat it was used in the fourteenth centurj'. From certain arcliives quoted l>y Wiegleb, it appears that oannons were employed in QtnuBj before the year 1872. 'So liacei of it «an b« found in any European author previously to the thir- teenth century ; but it seems to have lieen known to the Chinese long Iwfore that period. There is reason to lielieve that cannons were used in the liattle of Cressey, which was fought in 184C. They seem even to have been used three years earlier, at the siege of Algesiros i but before this time they must have been known in Germany, as there is u piece of ordnance at Amberg, on which is inscribed the year 1803. liuger Dacon, who died in 1292, knew the properties of gun- powder ; but it does not follow that he was acquainted with its application to tire-arms." — Tuomson's CAtnt- ittry. The invention of gunpowder is by some ascribed to Bertholdus or Michael Schwartz, a Cordelier monk of Goslar, south of Brunswick, in Germany, about a.d. 1320, But many writers maintain that it was known much earlier in various parts of the world. Some say that the Chinese possessed the art a number of centu- ries before. Its compositior, moreover, is expressly mentioned by our own famous Boger Bacon, in his treatise De NuUilate Magice, which was published at Oxford in 1216 Haydn. Composition oyCunpoicder. — The present composition of the Chinese gunpowder corresponds so nearly with our own that the difference is nearly insensible ; but whether it had arrived at that degree of perfection in their ancient periods, we have no means of knowing. Neither can we Judge of its nature and power as known to the Arabs. But in our own country it was late in arriving at its present state of perfection ; nor do the various proportions given by one of the earliest English writers on the subject, argue much in favor of their chemical knowledge. Peter Whitehome, who wrote in 1573, gives numerous proportions, without seeming to be well aware of their respective values ; and, respecting some of them, it is easy to see that they wero scarcely fit for squibs, much less for the purpose of projecting shot. Such is nitre, sulphur, charcoal, equal parts ; while, in the very opposite ex- treme, we have nitre 12 parts, sulphur and charcoal, of each 3 parts ; and, still worse, nitre 27 to 3 of the other two ingredients; or nitre 48 parts, with 7 of sulphur and 3 of charcoal. Here, such as these com- positions are, want of experience can scarce!}' bo plead- ed, as they are not better than those given by Nye in 1380. In France, also, the composition, at no very remote period, was — nitre 60, sulphur 16, charcoal 34 ; from which it varied to, nitre 67, sulphur 18, gharcoal 20 ; and to nitre 84, sulphur 8, charcoal 8 ; these dif- ferences being supposed to be necessary for the larger cannon, and the smaller progressively, the lust being their musket powder. But as we can not afford space to describe the grad- ual progress of improvement in the composition of gunpowder, we will state tlie proportions at present ii use in different nations. They do not materially differ from each other, although it is unquestionable that they are not all of equal power. Nlira, Sulphar. Charcoft). Koyal Mtlla at Walthsni Abbey.. France, NstlonsI Establishment TS T6 Te» 68 TS T5 7878 78 76'4T T6 78 TS-7 10 lS-6 9-6 20 12 S 11-8 12-63 Ifl 12-78 9 10 9-9 IS 12-5 13'& 13 Vili 18-fl ]8-fi9 U 10-78 15 14 14-4 French, for mining Ilnltcil Suies uf America Prussia KussU Spain SwItMrland, round powder Without any knowledge of the law of definite pro. portions, and even before that law was known to ex- ist, each nation had experimentally hit upon nearly the best proportions of the three ingredients, namely, 1 equivalent of nitre, 1 of sulphur, and 3 of charcoal , Qr 76 per cent, of nitre, 11-77 of sulphur, and 13-23 of GUN 010 GUT ehtteosl. la practice the proportioni UMd for the manufacture of 100 lb». of gunpowder are — naltpetre 77^- lbs., eulphur 10| lbs., charcoal 16 lbs. =~ 104 lbs., the extra 4 lbs. bring allowed for waste. The proportions in the commercial gunpowder vary indetinitely, according to the views of the manufac- turer res|)ecting the marlcets, the price, and other matters. Cheapness being the leading object where it is only made for sale, and the nitre lieing the only ex- pensive article, the proportion of this is diminished, and those of the other two ingredients increased. We have uever met with any specimen in which there was less than (>2 of nitre ; but we have reason to believe that some of the inferior kinds do not contain more than 50. For the use of miners it is also made with a low proportion of nitre, producing advantages in min- ing not intended by the malceTs, whose only oliject is to manufacture a cheap article. But the proportions of all the commercial powders are very inconstant, even when furnished bona Jide to the government. — £. U. Ounny (Hind. Tdl; Ben. Gutti), a strong coarse sackcloth manufactured in Bengal for making into bags, sacks, and packing generally, answering at once the two purposes for which canvas and bant are used in Europe. Tlie material from which thii article is manu- factured is tho libre of two plants of the genus Cor- chorus ; viz., Cirrdiorua olitoriua, and Corchorut cap- su/aru (Bengali pa<); both, but particularly the first, extensively cultivated throughout Lower Bengal. Be- sides a large domestic consumption of gunny, the wliole rice, poddy, wheat, pulses, sugar, and saltpetre of tlie country, as well as the pepper, coffee, and other foreign produce exported from Calcutta, are packed in bags or saclu made of this article. There is also a considerable exportation of manufactured bags, each commonly capable of containing two niaunds, or about 160 lbs. weight, to Prince of Wales Island, Malacca, Singapore, Java, anil Bombay. In 1841-42 there were exported from Calcutta i),!)30,89!> gunny bags, of the value of 499,426 rupees (^£49,942), and Od,412 pieces of gunny cloth, worth 483,321 rupees (i:43,332) Wal- WOII, Boxburg ; Seview of the External Commerce of Bengal for 1841-42. Ouns and Fowliug-pieoes, Three European nations are distinguished for their production of these arms — ^tbe English, Belgians, and French. Small arms for war and for the chase are manufactured at Birming- ham, the one with due solidity, the other with refine- ment of workmanship. In respect to Belgium, Liiige is the Birmingliam of that country, and manufactures guns on a very large scale. The Belgians, on account of cheapness combined with good execution, sell a great quantity of small arms to other nations, particu- larly to Russia. France, for the manufacture of small arms fur war, is now perhons more advanced than any other nation. St. EtieQue is the town principally em- ployed in the manufacture of muskets ; but Paris pro- duces the most finished weapons, combining all the perfection that can be required for precision of firing and beauty of ornament. Sbarpe's rifles are manu- factured in the United States in large numbers, also a variety of small arms. QoJlter, Edmund, an ingenious English mathe- matician and iQachioist, was born in Hertfordshire alwut the year 1581. He was educated at Westmin- ster, and afterward at Christ Church College, Oxford, where he graduated. Tliough he took holy orders in 1614, mathematics, which had been his favorite study from his youth, continued to engross his attention, and in 1619 he was chosen to the chair of astronomy in Gresham College, where be remained till his death in 1626. Of Qunter's written works the chief are his Canon Triangulorum, a table of logarithmic sines ana tangents, extended to seven decimal places, and forming a sort of complement to the logarithms of natural numbers by bis colleague Brigg. Gunttr'i Lint, • logarithmic line, astuUy laid down upon scales, sectors, etc. It is also called the ject in degrees. Guttier'i Scale (generally called liy seamen tho Gun- ler), is a large plane scale, usually 2 feet long by about 1^ inches broad, and engraved with various lines of numbers. On one side are placed the natural lines (as the line of chords, the line of sines, tangents, rhumbs, etc.), and on tlie other side the corresponding artificial or logarithmic ones. By means of this in- strument, questions in navigation, trigonometry, etc., are solved, with the aid of a pair of compasses. Ounwale (pronounced gunnel), the uppermost wale of a ship or boat, or that piece of timber which finishes the upper part of the hull. The raised work above this is called the bulwark. Outenberg, or Outtemberg, Johann (whose real name was Gensfleisch), was bom at Sorgenlocb, near Mentz, in 1397. It is now generally admitted that to him Is due almost the entire credit of invent- ing the art of printing by movable types. The respective claims of Fust, Gutenberg, and Schoeffer, are fully discussed under Fust. — E, B. Gutenberg, after a life of much suffering and hard- ship, died at Menfz in 1468, in great poverty. Pos- terity has done him the justice denied him by his cotemporaries. The statue by Thorwaldsen, erected in his honor at Mentz in 1837, furnished an example which has since been followed by many towns in Ger- many. The Gutenlwrg Society keeps his name in memory by an annual festival. No liooks are extant that are known for certain to have been printed by Guten!^ rg. The famous Mazarin Bible, Donatcs' Grammar, and the Calholicon of Janua, are believed to have issued from his press. See Printing. Outta Fercba. This valuable substance has only been known within the last few years. It is the concrete juice of a large tree (Itonandra gutla), grow- ing in certain parts of the Malayan Archipelago — hitherto chiefly obtained from Singapore. The first specimen of the inspissated juice which appeared in England was presented to tlie Society of Arts in 1848, but two or three years elapsed before a just sense of the importance of the substance began to gain ground. In 1846 the importation of gutta porcha into England amounted to only 20,600 lbs. ; in 1848 it had reached 3,000,000 lbs. ; in 1862 it amounted to 30,680,480 lbs. — a rate of increase which gives serious cause to doubt whether the supply will long be adequate to meet the demcad ; for it is unfortunately the case that the trees which yield gutta percba are not only limited in their growth to certain districts, and less abundant in quan- tity than india-rubber trees, but they have been sulv jected for several years to the barbarous and wasteful mode of cutting down the trees for the sake of the sap. Whatever European industry may be able to do in' checking this destructive system, and extending the cultivation of the gutta percha tree, there is yet reason to doubt whether this slow-growing tree can be reared in sufllcient quantities to counterbalance the havoo alread}' made. The /eonandra gutta belongs to the natural order Sapotaceee, and is the only tree which yields gutta percha. It rises to the height of 60 or 70 GUT 920 GUT ft«t, Md the trunk ii 8 or 4 fe«t In di>inet«r. The tree flouriabea In alluvial soils, st the foot of hille, and •WMthnM forma the chief part of the Jangle in auoh •ttnatloiM. The foliage la of a pale green on the up- per part, and oorend with reddiah-brown hain !)•• Death. The wood is aoft, Hbroua, apongy, pale in color, and traveraed by longitudinal receptaclea or rea- erroira Ailed with the gum, forming ebony-black linea. Thia gum haa many of the propertiea of india-rubbor, but it has also special propertiea of its own which ad- mit of ita being applied to naea for which caoutchouc ia not adapted. It poaseases the same indestructlbil- ky by chemical agents which makea india-rubber so valuable, and it haa also the peculUrity of becoming soft and plastic on being plunged into boiling water. In thia state it can be molded into an}- dealred form, which form it permanently ivtains on cooling. The great convenience and utility of such a substance Oould not fail to strike the natives of the countrtea in which it is produced ; and accordingly, we find that, long before gutta percha l>ecame known to Europeans, It had l)ecQ fabricated by the Malays into whipa, ba- (ins, jugs, a!ioeB, etc., thus at length exciting the attention ol travelers, and leading to the introdnction of some of these articles 4nto Europe under the name of india-rubber, or, earlier still, of maier-tpood. The honor of having drawn attention to ita real na- ture and uses ia due to Dra. U'Almeida and W. Mont- gomerie. The latter, writing from Bengal, remarked on the ordinary name of the plant thus : — " The word ii a pare Malayan one— ffutta meaning the gum or oon- crete juice of a plant, and percha the particular tree fkora which this is procured. The eh ia not pro- nounced hard like k ; but ll^e the eh in the English word perch." In 1843 Dr. Wm. Montgomerie, of the Indian Medical Service, oliserving certain Malay knife and kria handles, inquired the nature of the material from which they were made ; and ftrom the crude na- tive manufacture inferred at once the extensive uses to which the gutta percha might be put in the arts of Europe. He purchased a quantity of the raw mate- rial, sending from Singapore part of it to Bengal, and part to Europe, and suggesting some of the uaea to which he thought it might be applied. The qiuntity aent to England secured to him at once, as the dlacov- erer, the gold medal of the Society of Arts. The surgical uses of guttn percha were early discovered by Dr. Oxiey of Singapore, who declared it to be "the l)est and easiest juliatance ever diacovered for the man- agement of fracturea, combining ease and comfort to the patient, and ver}' much leaaening the tronble of the aurgeon." Outta percha arrives in lumpa or blocks of several pounds' weight, but these often contain impurities, such as stones, earth, etc., introduced by the Malaya for the sake of increasing tlie weight. The purifica- tion and preparation of this substance on a large scale are conducted as follows: — The lumps of gutta are aul)jected to the action rf a vertical wheel, on the face of which are fixed three knives which, as the wheel revolves at the rate of 800 revnlutiona per minute, cut the lumps into thin slices. Theae are then softened in hot water, and thrown into a rotating machine, where they are further reduced l)j- the action of jagged teeth. From this machine they agoin fall into water, and are farther cleansed. They are then kncadej« Vinj.i; ••^'iM) ,rH^:i...i it. ■,,.'. '"» IV) .»ii III Ij ni r .j| ..iC.ll!. . I .,|J f'XrriU ..■lll.l'j'l I' ' 1 ' /lo-' ■!,< , rr-\ .■I r ■•'■ H. ■'-'.■■ n .vt ' ilso Haokhay Carriages an carrltges utatlontd in the streets or other pulilic places, and bonnd to cany such persona as require their serrices, for certain rates of hire according to the distances traveled. They have generally been licensed by authority, and subjected to cortnin regulations, Intended to exempt strangers, and others using them, from fraud and imposition. Tt may be doubted, howeirer, whether these regulations have had any good effect ; and whether the public would not be as well accommodated, at least in nil large towns, by throwing the business open, and trustlDg to competition to rectify abuses. Hackney coaches at« of French origin. In France, a strong kind of cob- horse (haqnenie) was let out on hire for short Joume3's : these were latterly harnessed (to accommodate several wayfarers at once) to a plain vehicle called coche-h- haguenie: hence the name. The legend that traces their origin to Hackney, near London, is a vulgar error. They were first licensed in 1662, and subjected to regulations, 6 William and Marj', 1G94.— Surrey of London. The number plying in rx>ndon fixed at 1000, and their fares raised, 1771. The cabriolets are of Parisian origin ; but the aristocratic taste of English- men suggested the propriety of obliging the driver to be seated on the outside of the vehicle.— Hatdn. Hainan, a large island in the Chinese Sea, lying south of the province of Canton, to which it is an- nexed, and separating the Gulf of Tonquin from the Chinese Sea. It is separated from the southern ex- tremity of the province of Canton by the Strait of Luichan, 15 or 16 miles wide, and lies between K. lat. 18° 10' and 20° 54', and E. long. 108° 25' and 111°. It Is about 160 miles in length by 100 in breadth, and has an area of above 12,000 square miles. The in- terior of the island is mountainous ; some parts of it rise above the snow line, and it is inhabited by abo- riginal tribes. The Chinese inhal)itant9 are mostly descendants of emigrants tnym Fokien, and are agri- cultural, trading, or piratical in their vocation, accord- ing to circumstances. The soil is mostly sandy, but some of the plains, particularly on the west coast, are of great fertility. Timber constitutes its most valua- ble product, the sides of the mountains being covered with extensive forests of sandal, rose, brazilctto, ebony, and other trees. Its other products are chiefly rice, sugar, tobacco, indigo, cotton, sweet potatoes, and various fruits. Wax also forms an important article of export; it is produced by an insect called the pelatchung, or white wax insect, when laying its eggs. Hainan is divided into 18 districts. The cap- ital, Kiungchanfu, is a verj' populous town, at the mouth of the Limn River, on the Luichan, and has an excellent harbor. Several of the other towns are verj' populous. The island is said to contain about 1,600,000 inhabitants. Hair, Human (.Ger. Ifaare, Mennehen-haar ; Du. Ilair; Vt. CKtveur ; It. Capelli umani ; dp. CabeUot ; Lat. Capilli). " Human hair makes a very considera- ble article in commerce, especially since the mode of perruques has obtained. Hair of the growth of the northern countries, as England, etc., is valued much beyond that of the more southern ones, as Italy, Spain, the southern parts of France, etc. Good hair is well fed, and neitiiertoo coarse nor too slender; the bigness rendering it less susceptible of the artificial curl, and disposing it rather to frizzle ; and the smallness mak- ing its curl of too short duration. Its length should bo about 2fi incliee ; the more it falls short of this, the less value it liears," — M. Uair of Btatli (Ger. ITaare, ITnhattre; Da. //air; Ft. PoU; It. and Sp. Ptlo; Lat. P<urlM U In 2i mlirn lon(f, »nd about one half mile wide. Population 1H52, 2fl,00() j 1854, 80,000. The bent mark In aaUing for Halifax ia .Sambro Ught-hoiiae, on n amall Ulond olf the cape of the ume name, on the west aide of the entrance to the harbor. In Ut. 44° 80', long. 08° 82'. The llifht, which ia fixed, ia 210 feet above the level of the aea ; and a de- tachment of artillery, with two 24-poundera, la upon duty at the light-houae, firing at regular intervala dur- ing the continuance of the donae foga with which thia part of the coaat ia very much Infeated Coulier, 1'a- Uet dfi I'vkcipaUa l'o$Uiont (Irogmpkiquei, p. 78. The courae Into the harbor for large ahipa, after paaaing Sanibrp light, ia between the main land on the weat, and McNnb'a island on the cuat. On a apit project- ing from the latter, a light-houae haa been conatructed ; and when thia ia aeen, ahipa may run in the harbor without fear. The harbor ia defended by aeveral pretty atrong forta. Shipa uaually anchor abreaat of the town, where the harbor ia rather more than a mile in width. After gradually narrowing to about one quarter of that width, it auddenly expanda into a no- ble aheet of water, called Bedford liaain, completely land-locked, with deep water throughout, and capable of accommodating the whole navy of Great Britain. The harlwr is acceaaible at all timea, and ia rarely im- peded by ice. There ia an extenaive royal dockyard at Halifax ; which, during war, la an important naval «tatk>n, being particolarly well calculatnd for the ahel- ter, repair, and outfit of fleeta cruising on the Amer- ican coaat and in the Weat Indiea. Mr. M'Gregor haa taverely, and, wo believe, justly censured the project for the removal of tlje dockyard from Halifax to Ber- muda — Cmn. Did., ISoC. Tratk, rtc, of Halifax ami ffova iSc»orta consist principally of colonial produce from the West Indiea ; all aorls of manufactured gooda fkorn Great Britain; and of flour, provisions, etc., ttom the United Statea, in part for exportation to the West Indies. In 1826 a company was formed for mak- ing a canal across the country from Halifax to the Boain of Minaa, which unites with the bottom of the Bay of Fundj'. The navigation will lie formed, for the moat part, by Shubenacadie Lake and River. The legislature gave £16,000 to thia undertaking. The excavated part of the canal ia 60 feet wide at top, 36 feet at bottom, and will admit veasela drawing 8 feet water. It aeenis very questionable whether this canal, if constructed, will he protitalilo to the shareholders ; but it will add to tho trade of Halifax. There are two chartered luinking companies at Halifax. Ac- counts are kept in pounds, shillings, and pence. The pound being equal to $4 United States' currency ; the shilling, 20 cents ; and the weights and measures are olao the same as in England. Al)0ut 120 large square- rigged vessels, and about the same number of large schooners, with several amaller craft belong to Hal- ifax. The steamships conveying tho mails to British North America, ply between this port and Boston (Haas.), semi-monthly, and Liverpool. The fare to Halifax or Boaton from Liverpool, including provisions and steward's fee (but azoluding winet and liquors), 140 dollars. On arriving at Halifax, passengsrs wei« formerly conveyed by coaches across the peninsula to I'Ictou, whence they were carried by ateamers to Quolieo and Montreal. The only commercial changes in the province of Nova Scotia, during the year ending 80th September, 1855, were those caused by the acceptance of the " reciprocity act," or treaty, made between the United States and Great Britain, and agreed to liy the provincial legialuture in December, 1854, whereby many products of the Unitec) Statea are now admitted into the province from tho United States free of duty. Hams. See Bacon and I'oiik trade. Hamburg, a free Ilanseatiu city, on the north bank iif the Itiver Kll>e, about 70 miles from ita month, lat. 68° 82' 61" north, long. 0° 68' 87" east. I'opMhk. tion in 1886, including the suburbs of St. George and St. Paul, but excluding tho territory attached to the city, 148,754. Hamburg ia the greateat commercial city of Germany, and, perhaps, of the Continent. The Ellie, which may be navigated by lighters as fur as Molnik, In Bohemia, renders her the entrepdt of a vast extent of country. Advantage, too, has been taken of natural facilities that extend still further her inter- nal navigation ; a water communication having been established, by means of the Spree and of artificial cuts and aluicoa, between the Elbe and the Oder, and between the latter and the Vistula ; so that a consid- erable part of the produce of Silesia destined for for- eign markets, and some even of that of Poland, ia con- veyed to Hamburg. See Canals. There ia, also, a communication by moans of the Steknitz Canal, with the Trave, and, consequently, with Lubec and the Baltic. And ahe has been connected by means of rail- ways with Berlin, Hanover, Brunawick, Kiel, etc. Vessels drawing 14 feet water come up to the town at all times ; and veaaels drawing 18 feet may come aafely up with the spring tides. The lurgeat vessels some- times loail from and unload into lighters at CuXhaven. The trade of Hamburg embraces every article that Germany either sells to or buys Oom foreignera. The imports consist principally of cotton, wool, stuffs, and yarn ; wool, woolen, and worsted goods ; coffee, which is the favorite article for.speculative purchases ; sugar, silk, and silk gooda ; tobacco, hidea, iron, and hard- ware, indigo, wine, brandy, rum, dyewoods, tea, pep- per, etc, ; very large quantitiea of coal are imported from the United Kingdom. Being brought from many different places, there ia a great variety of quality in the grain found at Hamburg ; but a large proportion of the wheat is inferior. Soma of the barley ia very good, and fit for malting. The oats are feed of vari- oua qualities. With the exception of co^il, the exports consiat of the same articlea aa the imports, Hamburg not being a centre of consumption, but of distribution. In addition to colonial produce, British manufactured goods and grain of all sorts, they include wool, clover- seed, bark, spelter, cattle, butter, salted provisions, rags, wooden clocka, and toy a, linena, and all iiorts of German manufactured goods, Khenieh wines, etc. Moat sorts of Baltic articles, such as grain, flax, iron, pitch, and tar, wax, etc., may generally be bought as cheap at Hamburg, allowing for difi'erence of freight, as in tho ports whence they were originally brought. It will be afterward seen that the total annual value of tho import and export trade of the port (including that of Altona, the merchants of which conduct their business on the Hamburg exchange), may be estimated at above £50,000,000 sterling o-yoar, or upward ; and, aa the largcat portion of this immense trade ia in tlie handa of the English, it will be neceasary that we should be A little fuller than ordinar}' in our details in regard to this great emporium, Hamburg was visited by » most destructive fire in May, 1842, But, notwithstanding the heavy losses that were in consequence incurred, and the paralysis it occasioned in trade and industry, the shock was less severe (ban might have been anticipated. The system HAM 028 n4M fire in losses ralysU as less system of mutoal Insunnc* hkving Uen generally adopteil, the proprietors of houses, uiid other property were subjected to a tux, to defray the Interest uf n loan of 82,000,000 marcvbanco raised to Indemnify the suffer- ers, and to enulile them to reliulld their houses. And we are ){I<*<1 to hnye to stiito that all traces of the de- vastation have nearly disappeared ; and that hero, as ill most other places exposed to a slmllur calamity. It has led to a great Improvement of the town, which is now lietter liullt, and more eonimodlously laid out than formerly. llauiburi^ owes its commercial distinction princi- pally to its xituation. Inilred, the resources of Ham- burg, as well as the other Hanse-to>vns, so far us they are dependent on their terrltiirhil llniltK, are of but little consequence. Their trade is, as it were, passive, depending entirely for its maintenance and activity U|)on the commercial movements of other countries. The city of Hamburg has but a very liniiteil territory surroimding It, comprising tlie adjoining district, the towns of Uergdorf and le, and some detached portions of the territory enclosed by the Danish and Hnnoverinn dominions. These, together, constitute the republic of Hamburg. Tlie area is about li'lT square miles, and tlie population 188,054 souls ; of whom 116,800 live In tlie city j ](i,781 in St. George ; 10,157 in the faubourg of St. Paul ; and 39,- 800 in the country around. — Cum. Rel. U. S. Che River Elbe is tlie chief commercial artery which gives life and energy to the trad'i of Germany. It rises in Kohemia, near the Carpathian Mountains, and, Bowing through that country, receives the Jloldau and its tributaries, and the Eger. I^eavlng Bohemia, this noble river flows by Dre.', an arm of the sea, and has ever so been considered by all the European nations in their oftlclul acts and intercourse. Even at the great Congress of A. d. 1815, when the commerce of all the German r'vers was regulated, the Lower Elbe and Stude dues were especially omitted for the reason as- signed — that thej' were neutral lealen, and the ' dues' were sea tolls. Hence, in my opinion, it rests alone upon the same foundation which the Danisli Sound dues do, or which the old Trlpolitan trlliute did, and no other ; and if the former Is, and the latter was, ille- gal and unjust, so are the Stade dues. It should bo liorne In mind that Denmark has tho territory on the right bank of tho Elbe below Hamburg, and Hanover on the left bank, except at Oiixhafen, where Hamburg owns some territory. Neither Hanover nor Denmark has ever contributed one dollar to tho im- provement of the navigation of the Lower Elbo ; but, on the contrary, have ever declined to do so, while Hamburg has ever borne the whole burden of making such improvements, and keeps them up at her own expense. In this respect Denmark has decidedly the advantage over Hanover, for slie has done some- thing to add to the safety of the navigation of the Sound." A British writer, of great commercial experience, iii: m HAM m f HAM layi, In raferane* to thi* Elba loll, " In tqnlt}*, the du- 1 plloUg* (brm(lntalnln|th« ntt nAvlKHiInn of thi R1h« ties levied ut SUde ihould Im hereifter in amuunt I and iliould only lie Inipoaed fiir that |iiir|iniie on the tun' only equal to the exp«iiMa of light-houiei, buoye, and I na((«afveiieli, and palUlnto thi Hanoverian rreiiiurv," CoMiiiaoa or ll*Miivau in 18BT. c. i , , - Ar,!..!.. '"^ VMMh. AiHtnillii China Dutch Uwl Indlea Blmiah Singapore BrilUh Eaotlndim Kail Mul of AMea OapeofCkxid llone Wert cowil of Africa Canary lalaoda Madeira KiiHlan poiMMlona In America CallftimU Weil const of America Argentine Confeiloratlon and I'aragimy . Rraill Dutch Guiana Vnneiuola New Omnoila Curacoa fH. Thomaa and I'orto Rico Havtl Ouoa JamaIcA West cf«itt of Mexico United HUtea BrItUh American Province! Iceland Rurmlan porta on the White Sea Norway Sweden Ruxilan porta on the Raltlc Hoa PruHlan porta on the Baltic Sea Mecklenburg Denmark Schluwtg Ilobiein Heligoland I^wer part of the Elbe Bremen and theWeaer , PniBfllan porta on the Jalido Oldenburg h'Att Frlealsnd Netherlandi Belgium Oreat Britain and Ireland France Portugal Spain Gibraltar French porta on the Mediterranean Sardinia Tuacany Pontlflcal State* Naplea Sicily Trieate Venice Ionian iHlanda Greece KuKHlan porta on the Black Sea Aala Minor Total, 1857 Of which there were {{;^=;|-: 6 11 & S 18 6 t IB T5 T 108 ■i 14 04 48 a 20 78 2 82 40 18 43 2 14 fid l» 42 583 3 02 1,0112 15 881 152 010 523 10 270 2,080 14 1,700 M8 120 147 22 41 IMl 82 575 8,118 1,355 10 107 234 9,075 013 28,888 1,1156 841 874 100 85 57 12 24C 180 i5 86 _51,74« 47,100 4,040 ^ 6 2 II T 10 1 •i T 40 04 119 2 20 4 I 41 12 21 ■/'t Ti is 1 II. 12' fO 02 111 8 24 Hi T 40 42'i 80(1 111 Wl IM 184 01 2880 182 27 84 1 18 i 'i 1 Jmti 8112 1021 l.llt 'oi'j 1106 207 MT 1,NI0 48 "iiii 1,148 «,l«0 5,701 18,458 189 1,072 U28 40 fl,f80 <08 1,998 l',oi5 20,719 4,818 4H 1,542 18,010 0,280 »,709 2,029 50 906 1,042 118 8,020 8,mi8 6,670 IMI 1,482 1,000 9,709 0,500 262,4V6 14,005 1,440 8,1110 NO 281 008 118 (Ml 'iio VTT DO N '410,014 27MIo( 186,018 264 NO 101 oi 84 80 87 201 « 80 108 027 028 1,740 in 266 38 807 86 288 127 2,188 4H0 5 152 1,092 OM Nl8 412 10 12H 228 19 600 1,400 8INI 49 221 866 1,722 020 20,880 2,153 200 460 11 87 82 to 18 in 86 7 (.l.Kl 1)7,100* 18,984 ' The loat la equal to 0000 Iha. " By a resolution of the Sennto and citizens, passed on tho 22d of December, 1856, the export tWMD lUiuburg, New York, Naw Orlcaoi, Ualveiton, •nd InilUnuU, 8. VWe Urga threa-muted aliliMi, owned hy k pri- vate coiiipauy, are engaged In the direct trade between Hamburg and New York. 4. Two tbrea-maitail ihlpi, alto owned by a prlvaia conipiiny, ply Iwtween Hamburg and the porta of North •nd South America, aa they tlnd a market. TABLI ailOWIMU Tilt NnMBRB AND ToNNAO* Of VfMIU aaLONUIBU TO llAHUUaU IN TUB YXARK arKciriKii. Ytvn. V*»mU. Tunnunt, ISM !« «»,»?« Ig45 »0B BO.OHI 184)4 tM8 (W,M1 ISM 408 W,«»i Btatburnt bxiiihitino thi NATinATioN or IlAMaiiao dui- ■ NO 8BTR!eT of vessels, 17, and total tonnage, 7,810. Cargoes consisted priiicipally of, — Inward. — Arrack, seeds, cassio, dyo-wood, India- rubber, rice; sugiiT, tamarinds, pot-ashes, household goods, cotton, honey, ginger, whalebone, tol)acco, clocks, segars, preserves, tortoise-shells, guns, rosins, hops, oil, machinery, raisins, shoos, coffee, tirpciitine, furs, sarsaparilla, piano-fortes, and generul nurchnn- dlse. ' Oulimrd. — Passengers, pig-lead, plates ■}t spelter, willow, succory flower, cinnabar, glue, gypsum, rags, tow, worsted yarn, woolens, wormseed, hair cloth, glass-wure, china, hardware, iron-ware, sheet-zinc, m'< on fsports to not more than one eighth of 1 per cant, ad valorem. The following articles are exempt both from import and ex|iort duties : apparel of trav- elers, brought In liy the respective parties, or by > special permit of the Director of Customs, bark uii- ground, barley, lionea, bronze metal, buckwheat, cop- per fur sheathing ships, broaa, old, also in plates or sheets, coal, stone, gold and allver bullion or coin, open samplea of gnoda under 70 pounda' weight, ex- ported and then ra-im|iorted through the tame gate, llnent, with or without cotton mixture, linen bagging, malt, oatt, oil cakes, potatoes, printed matter, mualciil and scientiflc maps, rags, woolen or cotton, rape-seed, r}'e, wool, sheep's and lamb's raw, wheat, ziuc, crude. The following articles are free of import duties only : articles not exceeding 6 marcs-banco ((1 75) In value ; those also subjected to excise duties not over 20 marca- banco In value ; timber, staves, fl re-wood, and turf. Those free of export duties are, all articles under 20 marcs-banco (|7) in value, regardless of quantity ; all manufactures of the city of llamburg; all provisions for the iDimndiate use of vessels lying In the harbor ; articles not exceeding 100 pounds In weight, and not of greater value than 100 niarcs-bancu. Trantit Vu- tiea. — All goods re-exported within three months from the date of arrival, are free of any transit duty, if yet in the hands of original Importers.^ (/. 8. Commercial I)ige$l. Money is generally reckoned In Hamburg in marcs, 10s., each of 12 pfennings ; and Is of two sorts, ianco, and current. The former consists of the sums In- scribed In the books of the bank, opposite to the names of those who have deposited specie or bullion in the bank, or got It transferred to them at the rate of 27} niarcs-banco to the Cologne marc of line silver. The value of the marc-banco, taking silver at 6s, an oz., is, consequently. Is. S)d., which makes tlie par of ex- chauge IB marcs lO^s. banco per ill sterling. Banco is worth about 2<1^ per cent, more thin currency ; tha agio varying from 120 to 125f. Speaking generally, the value of the current marc may be taken at Is. 2^d. or Is. 2d. sterling. The silver coins current hi Hamburg are, specie dollars (of which 9^ are equal to a murc- Cologne, flne silver) ; Prussian current dollar (14 dol- lars to the marc line) ; new 2s, 3d pieces (18 to the marc lino) ; Danish grob. current, and Hamburg cur- rent (84 to the marc, fine). The gold coins comprise ducat9=:9s. -Id. sterling, Louis and Frederic dollars. The agios of these different coins, with banco, con- stantly vary. Hamburg has for many years censed to coin monies, with the exception of ducuts and the smaller coins. Afeaiurei and Weights. — A new regulation of these was effected by an ict passed on the lUtb January, 1843. There are in Hamburg three different sorts of pound weighlt. 1. The bank or silver weight (for- merly the Cologne weight). 2. The commercial weight. 3. The apot'iiacary weight. One pound bunk, or silver weight, 18=2 niarcs ; 1 marc (Cologne) is 233-85489 grains, or 48G5-57 Dutch As. =100 marcs '=^62'nd64 Englisli troy pounds. The old relation be- tween the commercial weight and bank weight, by which the commercial pound is equal to 33 6-32 oz. bank weight, I'as been confirmed by the late act. 1 centner=112 com. pounds ; 1 pou!ad=82 oz. ; 1 oz.=> 4 drachms ; 1 drachm=4 pfennings. By the United Slates' Commercial Digest the centner is made equal to 119'504 avoirdupois. 100 commercial pounds=106-838 English pounds avjirdupois ; 48'4609 kilogrammes ; 8G'6365 pounds Yionna; 96.9219 pounds Qerman cus> J HAM §i() HAM tomi union. On* " nrhlirpfiinil," In roniinKrrc —'i) ccntnitrn, or 20 " llcupfuml" of M pniinilii nnr h, or 2H la Ukcn at 'ii-i iHiunili ; but with rominon houpa, kt 'JMU iHiunila nutl. /mu/ Affdtiirf.—'rhn lUmburK foot, dlvldml Into 12 inehaa of H pnrta rm-h'»>0'2Ht)57 niKtri>»»-I'J7-0,'Hl PariaUn llnM^U-2H» KnulUh Incbia. Urncv, 100 lUmburn fMt-lV»()2l Knullah fwt j 2HnS7 lT«n.h mutrM; Bl'.HO? I'ruMlnn or Rhrnlah htt\ 90 «li4 VU «nna fxft. Th« lUmliurK rll (abort rll)~^2 llnniliur)( ffet. Oft'71114 mc.tr»«-"V>iVI072 I'nria llnea. 100 lUni- buru «I1«— (12W1 Knullah ynnla. Ths nmbiint vll (or lonK ell) nio«t commonly uaed In lUmburK, In meuurcment of placr-Koll0 faia ; 1 raa«T:'3 hlmp- tenj 1 himptenurgfa«*'3'lH-l.'t*=10>*'81 im|H!rial quarter*. The mode of mca*uring fp'ain ha* hitherto been liy the metre* throwinK or pitchin;( It Into the fasa, and HtrikinK "f^ tbe aurplua with a wooden roller pre**ed lightly alon^ the np|)er odne ; bnt an alteration i* ox|)ecteil on a new com law, now projected, coming Into operation ; there will proI)ubly Iwa new fa*a nicaauro (of 40,')5 Hamburg cubic Inches), equal to the I'ruaalan acheflel. In practice, 1 Ham- burg but la taken at 11 imperial quarter*, 81 hectolitre*, 67 Prnaaian achelTela, 25 Daninh l)arrel*, and 16( Kus- Hian chetwert*. The coal barnd contain* (when the 1453 Hamliurg cubic Inchea of head or lieuped moaa- ure i* added) 1(S,4:)8 culiic inchea. The Hamburg ahip laat, or laat of commerce, really weigh* (lOnO pound*, or 8 tona (not 4000 pound*, aa la generally atated). Navigiitinn nf the Kibe, Pilvlnr;e, etc. — Tlio mouth of the KI1)0 Is covered with sand-bank*. The channel leading to Cuxhavcn la iHiunded on the north by the Vogel Hands and North Grounds, and on the south liy the Schaarhom Sand* and Neuwerk Island. On tlie latter there are two light-house* and two lieacon*, and on the Schaarhom is another beacon. The light-house* on Neuwerk Island are about 700 yard* apart ; the most aouth tinguish iier by day tVoni the Hrat algnal ahip ; and during the night aim exhiliita lirn llglit*, one IH fan| almve the other. The dlatancn ft'om the outi'r red liuoy to (Juxhaven ia aliout Itl mile* ; thence to (thick- atatit the riiurae I* east, 28 mile* ; fnini tha latter to 8tade the course is aoulh-eaaterly, 9 nilir* ; and thi'n eaatarly to Hamburg, 18 nillc*. 'I'bc ihannel thn>ugli- out ii markril with blaik ami wliite liuoya, which ar« numbered ami apecllled In the iharl'). The black nnea are to be left, in passing uptlie river, on the atarlioartt or right-haml ale arranged, an ex|My having at tlie Hagatatf an adiiiiral't flag, and a long streiimer flying nt the top. If tha pilot Iwat have no pilot on iHianl, or if the weatlier lia so bad tlial the pilot can not loava her, she lower* her Hag, and then tlie ve**«l coming in must tail, witli tha *lgnal for a pilot hoisted, to Cuxhaven, and heave to there, wliere nhe I* certain of getting one. See Ki.hr, There are no docka or quays at llamliiirg ; nnil it ia singular, conaldering tlie great trade of the port, that none have iieen coiiHtructed. Veaael* moor in tha river outside of piles driven into the ground a short distance from shore ; and in thia aituation tliey are not ex|ioseil to any danger iinles* the piles give way, which rarely happen*. There I* a sort of inner harlior formed by an arm of the Kllie hhich runa into tha city, where amuU craft lie and di ,cha.'>{e tbeir cargoea, Ijirger vessels load and unload from tiielr moorings, by mean* of lighter*. Th«*e carry the goods front and to the warehouse* which front f.lie various small amit and channels of the river, and the canal* car- ried from it into different part* of the city. Tha charge* on account of lighterage are extremely mod- erate. Port Chiirgft. — The charges of a pulillc nature pay. able liy vc*sel* entering the port of Ilamliurg, unload- ing tnd loading, are pilotage and laatage. The sep- arate items of which are given in the following table* 1 I'ilotar/e Earned. — 'I'lie pilotage fee* are earned if vessel* arobrouglit as faraa Kreyburghor(ilOckstadt, and when from stress of wind or weatiier, which sel- dom liap|irns, the Ilamliurg pilots take the ves*el to Wittenberg or Neuniiihlen, they are to |iay, without distinction. Mare* riirrflney, 4. ttir. To Wltlonborg 1 14 rt Nonmnblcn 1 8 91 U Pilolai/e all the tray, — Kor pilotage the whole way from Cuxhaven to Hamburg there I* no talile of rates, for, generally speaking, the Hamliurg pilot* do not take vessel* up beyond lioesche. Pitolngei and Ijitlage. — The Ilamliurg pilot*, gen- erally speaking, take charge of vessels only from the Ked Iluoy to Kreylmrgh or (JlDckstadt. Half Pilotage only. — lu case the Hamliurg pilot* enter a vessel only within the lirst buoy beyond the Koas- hackcii. Strungfly, or Cuxhaven, half the aliove-mon- tioncd jiiiotage is paid. Also half pilotage must bo paid at all event*, whutlier the vessel has taken a pilot from the pilot galliot or not. From iloetche to Hamburg. — Vessels are generally piloted from Uoesch to Hamburg by Danish or Hano- verian pilots, to whom It ia customary to pay three marcs. 1IAM 997 IIAK gon- tho tiMtttf nntt ruihm-kim— Vhnrffi.—f^tMAi and ath«r furalKit y»»—U |wy Ihn •mil* «■ llamtiurn vi>»- ••U. t'lir I'laArltiii III Hint I'UwrlllK nill, tin ii«|iHriiU rharK*'! itra iiiiiilii i vlallliiK llm |Hirl U I'linalilKrnl ■> i»M- vn)M|(ii, uml tlix I'tiiiraiK nil vxiiwla am palil aa fill- Iowa: V'lir vnaaala arrlviuT wKli rarniiaa from Ilia un- dariKvntliiuad pUuva, y||, i jrally Uno- three (ThaKaal IniHaa |Wii>t Imlli'i, Nurlh aail Nuiilh Aiimrlaa., iri)rtuval, N|mIii, anil llm Miii|lliirraiii>an. mil- ri'>t of iliu Kiiriiiii'iiii iiiirta. , , llollaul, hUal l''rl.'>lanil, Ilw Wawr, K/- ilrr ami Jiiilainl .,..,, For VL'Hiila iinilir W nviiiinaralll iMta I wUhiMil ilUlliii'llon ,,,, ITi tim ; Ijiit It iiiiiy lia tiikmi at alimit II iir i\ In I, lliit in ll:iinliiirt{ nil viiaaa|» ara iiiiintiireil liv tlm har- Inir muatcri uml It U U|il«il tliny itn Mill laka raliirti car- giira, VoMola urrivlnn In liitllaat amt i1(i|i«rtltl|( with a rarKo |iny hiilf thn iiIiiivh lHalii||a, Hii'itnlltiK tii tliair dcatlnatliiii. Kxi'luilvu nftha ahiivfl itiiaa, which nrn all ri>niiirk.ilily iiimliirutii, vaaauja nitiilnn '" til" I""* "' IIiimliurK uru iilillgi"l In |iay I'urtalM 'lliaa In llaiMivnr, ciillud Htiiilo or llrunahniianii ilima, Haa fmul, Cutliim-himm Uri/iilultain.-lh} II vaaaal'a nrrlval at Huiiiliurtc thu lirnker rajHirta h«r In tllM I'llatnttl-hnitaa, and given liU guitritiity fur |iayiiiatit nf thattiitlaa, atiil ilnlivrfK hnr |ia|Mira i ami, ii|MMt a rai'al|it Mnit |iM- (liired rnrtliu Stadu diltiaa liy tha tiNtinvarllllt aiitmir- itiea at lliiiiiliurg, tliu vtiaaal U allnwad tn Utilnad, I In r!i|iilva living la not iiaarly an prevalent * anuria of liankru|itry liara aa In Uinihm and niher plarea, Hen l.'iim. Hii. I'. H.t IIii:«t'» Mrr. May., «»lll., 177, XV., 177 ! Wtilm. H'V., xxxvlll., tll7. ■ammook or Hamao, CNpan. humtini—n word of Indian orlglnX a kiml of hanging lied, wiilih ia au»- pcnded lietween troea nr posts, or twu hooka. The triia Indian hammock la a long narniw net iiiotla of strong cnni, and tarmlnatnd at each end by amall ro|>ea for aus|Mnillng it. The Imnnnock usnl on lioard alilp conalsta of a pleiw nf stout canvoa, aUiut six faal long and three broad, gathered at the emls and auo- |Hinded by corda. The iullor'a haminwk Is an oblong place of hempen cloth | at each end uro fantenvd sev- eral amall lines, meeting In a grumniat or iron ring : tlii'sa form the r/ri/'>. The whole, having mattresnea, pillows, ate,, plucetl In It, is hoisted up Into its place by amall mpva called laninrJi, lietween two battens or aen>ws In tha beams of the deck over head, uliout nine fnat dialant asunder. The hammock Is a very agree- able bed, i'S|wclally in cnhl weather) but some little practice Is reipilslta at tirst in getting in and out auc- ceasfnlty. During thu d,iy, the huinini" k*, lushed up tight III the form of cater|iillara, are stowed in the nettings along the upper eilge nf the bulwark. Kampton Roaoa, Va., u branch nf ('h«sa|ieake Hay, nff the mnuth of James Klver, lietween OhI Point (,'omfort on the north and Wllioughby I'olnt nn the smith. It Is suHlcirntly deep for the largest ships nf war, and is nn important naviil rendezvous. On Old I'olnt Comfort, there have lieen ceded to the I'nited Htates iM acres ; — a fnrtlllcation called Kort Mnnrne has been erected, which mounts 885 guns, j^enerally HI and 4N-pounders, 180 of which are under Immli-priMif cnvera. On the np|Hmite (lolnt, one mile distant, la Kort ('alhniin. Ihe foundation is made by throwing In stnnes, and it covers about seven acres. This fort Is designeil to mount litif) guns, 'U'» and ',W», and nearly all under cover. These completely command Ihe entrance to llamptnn Koads. On thu north i<.de of the entrance Is Old J'oitU C'om/urt /.iyht, lat. 87° (>', long. 71)° IH' W., showing a I'ixed light un a white tower, and clovatcil 10 loot obove the surface of the sen. On the south side of the entrance the W'illoiighhi/ flpil l.iijhl Vfntel shows fixed lights, elevated, the one n'l and file other 41 feet above the sea-level ; and here Is n fug-bell also. The channel Icadi.ig from the Ciipps nf Virginia to Hampton Koads is reduced ut Old I'ninI Cnm/iirl to a narrow width. The shoal water, iiiiilor the action of the wa and tlie reaction of the bar, Is kept in an unremitting ripple ; whicii circumstance has given to this place the name of the /tip llnp». MandkerohlefB. Handkerchiefs, wrouglit and edged with gold, used to lie worn in England by gen- tlemen in tlieir hats, as favors from young ladles, tlio value of them being from live to VI jienco for each, in the reign of Kllzabeth, liwH. — Stow'h (,'hnm. Ilund- kerchles were of early manufacture, and are mentioned in niir oldest works, Handkerciefs of the celelirated Paisley manufucture were tirst made in that town in 17 lit. Handspike is a stong wooden bar, ii.sed as a lever tn move the windlass and capstan in heaving up the niH'lior, or raising any lieavy weights on board a ship. The bundle is smooth, round, and somewhat taper; thn nther end is square, tu lit the liolcs in the head of the capstnn, nr barrel of thn windlass. Hang-Chau-Fou, an important city of China, capital of the province of Che-kiang. un a plain near Ihe River Tsientang, about 40 miles from its mouth, •nd 140 miles south-east of Nanking. It is sarrounded If 'PI ■•im HAN 928 HAN bjr high and atrong walli, uld to be nine mtlaii In cir- cumference ; and adjoining it are very oxtennlv* nub* nrbs. Tlie Govemor-deneral of Clie>l(lang and Kit- Uen reaidea in thla city, and alao the governor of the province, wliich, wltli their courta anil troopa, in ad- dition to \ta great trade, render tlila una of the moat important and riclieat citica in the ttmpire, A portion of tlie apace witiiin the walla U divided off for tliii ac- commodation of a garrison of 7000 troopa. The Uranil Canal has ita aouthem tarmiimtion here, In a large irregular tMuin. The atreeta are well paved, and the ahopa and warefaousea are large, and well atured with gooda. There are numeroua rich templea and elegant public buildinga ; and altogether, thla city preaenta the appearance of great wealth and •pUindor, it la noted for ita ailk mannfacturea, whieli employ a large portion of its inhabitanta. The population ia aaid to be ubuut 1,000,000. Hanover, a kingdom in Germany, formed out of the duchiea which formerly belonged to aevorol famU lias of the junior branch of the houaa of lirunawlck, In the course of the tevolntlonury war, under the In- flnenee of I^rance, the dukedoma of Davnria, of Haxony , and of Wirtemburg had been raUed to the rank of kingdoms ; and when the overthrow of llonitpurte waa accomplialied, the dukedoma which had c<>nipo««il the electorate of Hanover were thought by the allied powers of auffleient oonaequence to lie elevated to the same dignity, aa, with the additlona then made to them, they were nearly equal in extent and popula- tion to the other portiona of Germany whiiae rulera had received that rank. It auoordlngly aaaumed that grade in 1814, under George III., and wua acknowl- edged as Buoh by all the powers of Europe, The kingdom of Hanover lies between lat, 51° 18' and 83° 62' N., and long. fl° 43' and 11° 45' K. ( and is bounded on the north by the German Ocean, north- east by the Elbe, which aeparataa It from Deinnark, Hamburg, and Mecklenburg, eaat and aouth-eaat by Prussia and Brunswick, aoutb-west by Ilaaae-Caaael and Piussia, and west by Holland. The liounilurlea In- clude the duchy of Oldenburg, which ulnioat completely separates Hanover into two large portiona, the connec- tion being maintained liy u imrrow atrip of land, not more than aix miles in width, aouth of the duchy, A amall porti6n in the aouth ia separated from Hanover proper by the interjection of part of liurnawiuk. The entire area amounts to about 9,404,44(1 acres, or 14,7H8 «(|uaro miles, as foliowa : ProvlDMt. I Ettentin j KnaH«h trnt. HanoTvr. . . . Hildcabelui. Luneburg. . . SUdi- Osnobruck.. Aurlch Clausthal . . . ToUl 1,48!i,6»8 1,102,081) S,T«D,M9 1,6T4,IM9 l,M0,»t8 787.968 1M,112 FnpuDitliMl (q fNiimWof D«c.l»»l, 9i4<>4,44« l" H40,INW 97»,ilM 861,»nfi 18S,tll« B6,71» "2.8l"i)T958 {ilWAllIni ItrillMo r 4H,44ft ntftn 4i<,win 44,(IH1 41.0-JT tl<>,0'J4 H.HDII r "WW,7U« Thje whole of the kingdom of Hanover dlpa toward the north, and the couraea of all the rivera aru In that direction. Theae are, firat, the Kllie, which borders a large part of the dominion, and receives Into It the Ohre, which rises in the province of Lunoliurg j the Aland and Jeetze, which come out of I'ruaaia, and are navigable liefore they terminate In the Kllie ; the II- meneau, which becomes navigable ut l.unoburg ; the Eate, which is navigable to Iluxtchude ; the I.llbe, navigable to Homburg ; the Schwinge, by which vea- sela reach Stade ; the Oste, which iHiasea Hurliurg, and is navigable to Kirchostera ; and the Medum, which runa through the Hodelu-land, and admlta large resaels as high aa Ottemilnrf; aecoiid, the Weaar, which enters the dominion of Hanover ut MOnden, be- ing there fanned by the junction of the Fulila ami the Werra. It is navigable fur barges from the »|iut at which its name commenceai and it recelvea in Ita MUTse the Hamel, tb« Allar, tba Oertae, tl>« Ltilne, the BOhma, the Eyther, the AVamme, which, in the lower part of Its course, takes the name of Leaum, the Gneate, and the Uunte ; all of which are Hanover- Ian rivera, and continue their united course till they are loat in the German Qcean, near Bremen ; tlUrd, the Ema, a river rising in the Pruaaian province of West- phalia. After entering Hanover, it recelvea the wa- tura of the Aa, the Haae, the Else, and the Leda. Be- fore reaching the sea, it falls into the Dollart, near Kmdon, which la the principal sea-port in the kingdom. It la navigable for flat-bottomed vessels from Rheina downward, and for acn-golng ships trom Halte and Wvener. About 1,200,000 thalers ($87,000) have been expended In improving the navigation, and it has be- rninn In conaci|uence a very important channel for the Inland trade of the countr}-. Fourth, the Vecht, a river of short course, rising in the Prussian province of Woatphalla, and terminating in the Zuyder Zee; Iti princl|ial importance is derived from a navigaiile canal, which commences at the city of Munster, and is the channel of aome trade through the Vecht to Am- sterdam. Though Hanover ia generally a aandy soil, it has aome aiuall freah-water lakes. The Dummersee, in DIvpholtz, ia aliout 12 miles in circuit. The Steinhu- dernioer, in the province of Kalenburg, Is about four niilea long and two liroad; and the Dollart, at t)ie month of the Ema, which is rather an estuary than a lake, ia 12 milea acrosa. The canala are all of short courae. The Aurich Canal, between Aurich and Eni> den, la 15 miloa long ; thn Bremen Canal, between the Oste and the Schwinge, serves both fur draining and fur transport ; the I'apinburg Canal, between Papin- Imrg and the Ema, is unimportant. Manufacturing industr}- prevails less in Hanover than In tlie other States of Germany. Linen yam and doth are the principal branches. Woolen cloths are made to a considerable extent in the aouthem part of the kingdom ; and thla branch of trade has lately been Incroualng. In the west stockings and gloves are made. Cotton-spinning has also increased, but is still Inalgnlllcant, and the same may be aaid of silk. Potteries, tile-works, and tobacco-pipe works are nu- meroua. Tliore are nine glass-houses, and 52 paper- mllla, which produce yearly about 20,000 bales of paper. Wax Is bleachetl to a considerable amount, and there are numerous tobacco factories, tanneries, brew- eries, vinegar worka, and brandy distilleries, the pro- duco of which last haa of late ver}- much increased. I''ast Kricsland producca gin. The most thriving branch of industry however is that of nietul wares. The whole imputation of the Hurt^ lives by the mining and forginK of metals, excavating coal, and manufacturing wixiden articles. Founderics and forges, and works of Iron, copper, lirass, wire, silver, and lead, vitriol and sulphur, are in the utmost activity. These mines and associated works support about 35,000 persons. About 20,IH)0 workmen were .-cry recently employed in tlie 1 Inrt/., and the yearly value of the produce was 5,000,000 thulera (4;750,000 sterling). The latest returns give the following quantity for one year, for Hanover and Brunswick together : gold, 82 oz. ; silver, !iiR,83S oz. : Iron, i)77,H12 cwt. j copper, 540; vitriol. 6400; quick- silver, 640; coal, 2,100,000; salt, 842,000. Aa may lie supposed from the small quantity of sur- plus production, the trade of Hanover is not extensive. The principal |Hirt, Enulen, has some export and ini- {lort trade ; but from the state of the roads between that place and the more populous parts of the kingdom, more nf Ita trade passes through Hamburg and Bre- men than through that city. Besides the more cnn- aldoralile articles made from flax, its honey, wax, feathers, and large quantities of timlicr, are sent to Hamburg and Bremen. AVool, horses, and cattle, wheat and other grain, liuttcr and cheese, tobacco and mineral productions, are among the chief exports. Uopa, rape-aeed, oil-cake, fruit, ttama, and sausages, .±'.i;J's=^4tV;j.-.i; HAN 029 HAN tl.e ),000 8ur- sive. im- ecn ,om, Bre- con- IVU.X, it to ittle, and urtB. form aho Articles of export of small amonnt. The im- ports consist principally of English manufactures, colo- nial produce, fruits, wines, jewelry, and sillis. As the roads to the great fairs of Leipsic and Frankfort pass through Hanover, the transit of goods for these used to create a pretty large commission trade, and give employment to many wagons, horses, and men, as well as to the barge owners. These, however, are now in some degree superseded by railways, the city of Hanover having become a central station, from which these diverge in different directions to IIaml>urg, Drnnswick, Hildesheim, Dremen, and Minden. Han- over has joined the ZoUvfrein or General Customs Union from Ist January', 1834. The commerce between the other States of the Ger- man Customs Union and the United States is not of much importance. The linens of Hanover alwa3's find a ready marliet; and, were interposing import duties in both countries modified or altogether abol- ished, the linens, raw wool, lead, rape-seed, hemp, and flax of this kingdom would bo much more extensively exchanged fur American rice, sugar, tobacco, and sim- ilar produce. The direct exports from the United States to Hanover in 1852 were, besides staves and flour (in value i|115), 186 hhds. of tobacco, valued at $5,791. The value of exports from Hanover, via Humliurg and Bremen, in 1833, was $15,8-11, and the exports from the United States direct to Hanover were 143 hhds. tobacco, valued at $6,290. All other American exports found their way to the markets of Hanover through the ports of Bremen and Hamburg. The value of exports from Hanover in 1855 was $44,- 277, of whicii there reached the United States via Bre- men $4.1,40!), and via Belgium $868. The tobacco annually produced in the kingdom of Hanover is val- ued at about $50,000, from which about 2,500,000 lbs. of smoking tobacco is annually manufactured. Were the ZoUverein duty on tobacco abolished, as it has been on raw cotton, the cultivation of tlie inferior quality produced in Hanover would not only cease altogether, Itut her tobacco manufactories (346 in 1843), would be multiplied, and the manufacturing industry of the kingdom more profitably developed. The prin- cipal sea-ports of Hanover are Emben, Harburg, and some minor ports or shipping places on the Weser, in the district of Anrich, or that part of Hanover west of Oldenburg. The Hanoverian trade from the Elbe centres at Hamburg, that of the Weser at Bremen. The commerce of the port of Harburg, on the Elbe, has, within a few years, assumed consideral)le im- portance. In 1849 the number of vessels arriving at this port was only 49. The following exhibits the results of three years, ending with 1854 : See Elbe River. Veueli entered. Vain. ises. 1888.' 1854. sai Veuf Is cl«and. 574 1,082 1,027 The preceding summary indicates the rapidly in- creasing commerce of this port. The vessels chiefly come from the countries of northern Europe, but some even from the Mediterranean. Thus, in 1854, there proceeded from the Mediterranean ports 580 vessels under the Hanoverian flag, 152 under the British flag, 135 under the Danish, 81 under the Dutch, and 3 un- der the French flag. Of these, 266 entered, and 679 cleared in ballast, or with partial fireights. The re- maining vessels were laden chiefly with wood, stone, oil-cakes, and sundries. The marine service of Har- burg consists of 1 three-master, 6 barks, 3 brigs, 2 brigantines, 1 schooner, and 6 smaller craft ; making in all 19 sail, exclusive of one bark on the stocks. Tlie river (Elbe) arrivolg, during the same period, were: Bsltuni. In IMS 2,918 4,079 1862.. 1888.. 18M.. Nhh 4,226 6jm Notwithstanding this rapidly increasing prosperity of the port of Harburg, and Ae bommorcial facilities which it receives from the Hanoverian government, Hamluirg, on the opposite side of the river, is the principal centre of .'ianovcrian trade. Within the past ten years the number of vessels belonging to Han- over has tripled in this port. In each of the years 1852 and 1858, there arrived 1.100 vessels under the Hanoverian flag, measuring, in the aggregate, a ton- naj{e of about 15,000 commercial lasts, of 6,000 pounds each, or an aggregate of 44,000 tons. In the naviga- tion of Hamburg, Hanover holds the third rank as respects tonnage — the tonnage of the port itself rank- ing first, and that of England second. The freights in 1853, in Hanoverian bottoriis, exceeded those of the preceding year 100 per cent., and many years the freights are threefold greater than those given for tlie years immediately preceding. The Hanoverian flag participates proportionally in the general foreign trade, and enjoys a considerable share in the movements with trans-Atlantic countries. In 1854 the number of Hanoverian vessels in the port of Haml)urg largely exceeded that of any former year. It reached as high as 1,330 vessels, measuring an aggregate of 20,336 lasts, or nearly 60,000 tons, entered, and 1,317 vessels cleared. The smaller craft, exclusively engaged in the river trade, are not com prised in these totals. The commercial movements at the port of Emden in 1834 present the following rciiults : Thalera (j^old). Imports 1 ,71 8^)60 Exports, direct. 1,4>M,()81 " Indirect 596,388 Total 8,765,489 8,765,469 thalers equal to $2,965,306 The thaler (gold), or Bremen thaler, equals 78J cents. The import trade employs 5,895 vessels, and 4,107 vehicles for the land trade. The imports consist chiefly of cereals, butter, and cheese ; and the exports are mostly of the same character. These latter em- ploy, for the home trade of the port of Emden, 391 vessels. England, Holland, and Belgium are the principal countries to whicli the exports from this port are destined. The mercantile bouses of Emden en- gaged in the direct trade between that port aud the Russian ports of the Wiite Sea, the Baltic and the Black Seas, own about 3,000 tons of the marine service employed in that commerce. The cultivation and manufacture of flax, hemp, etc., yielded, in the export trade of Hanover, in 1853, 8,500,000 francs, or nearly $1,700,000. This sum exceeded the value of similar exports in 18.52, namely : of flax exported, 724,000 francs ; and of tissues, 1,070,000 francs. The tissues of Hanover are in high repute in foreign markets ; and at the German Industrial Exposition, held at Munich in 1854, they wore favorably noticed. As the cultivation and manufacture of flax and hemp constitute the chief agricultural and industrial wealth of the kingdom of Hanover, the annexed talile, show- ing the quantities of tissues manufactured, and their values, from 1840 to 185i) — a period of 14 years — is compiled from the official returns of that government ; 1S40., IMl., 1842. 1&48., 1844. 1S4S. 1846. 1S47. 1848. 1849. ISftO. 1861. 1862. 1868. Tliaiies mtinnfiictured. I'looc. 214,692 217,7m 217.')44 , iiis;mi I 198,176 208,785 192,251 228,608 195,486 288,609 249,448 241,7,^3 219,246 807,094 Bill. 18,189,174 18,295,214 18,848,188 16,6:10,619 10,667,666 17,188,187 :\508,626 18,0Ut,685 10.891, ''88 19,228,02., 20,800,677 19,065,446 17,876,866 16,986,978 ValiiM. 1,4S9,S12 1,^M,828 1,474,730 1,«62,.'»6 1,2S8.622 1,826,269 1,811,891 1.564,776 1,327,726 1,686,112 I 768,686 1,64(,,:'>« 1,460,116 l,it6,ti6S HAN 930 HAN Tba ell otitaatrnfiiM ISntftiitb ItK/ltM 1 13 pfennings wl groaohan | H grtmihtn^i thNl«fa^78 rents. The tUauss wnd yuma itt Untun/^ ntn exported di- rectly from H«nov«rtitit tnirtn hir Krlenland and the countriea l» lnw the l'4l««, MwwtMt Mttd Norway, Meck- lenhurg, llulUnd, m\A th«> Mt4t«i!> of the /ollverein. From ilraiiMi), fur N»w Vofh, Italtlmore. Havana, Bt. Dumiiigo, I'urtu Klco, VntUi V,»\m\\o, i^guayra, VeneziieU, Msxlu), iiii4 i\m V.mMy \»U». Fropi Hamliurg, fur tlw ctthnu ami cotintrlea above deaignatad, and wIm fur llraitti, Mew Orleans, Cuba, and tha West (ndiaa. Effective merchant miirlnti if/" t/mofef In 1865.— Sail- ing vessels I tut«l, 701 1 i>t(nriif(»t« tonnage, 64,741 tons. Coasting and rlvvr i^niftl total, 1,H!J9| aggre- gate tonnage, ail,l'.tl (unit. Meam veeaelsi total, 8 ; aggregate tJtnnoge, Ml Utiu, Effective merchiinl tmflup ijf IMiUffi in 1866,— Sail- ing veaaalsi tot«l, )f)| AtfKr#({ttt« ((mnage, 6,102 tons. Steam veasoU ! Mitl, 3 1 i«|(4r«)$al« t4WH«)^e, 810 tons. Adjacent to tba tuwn uf ntaik, on tli« fclt>e, stands tha caatla of Drunahanwn, twM wliirli a vessel Is sta- tioned to receive toll mi all vpssets passing up the river. American veaiMla |M»»ltijj up to Hamburg are anbjected to vexattima and tmntmin duties at this point, sertoualy, and in vf»U(l»m of lite treaty of June 10, 1846, with lUnuver, iiflii(>t)n)( American commerce with that port. liMnburtf \m<\mtty and the Hamburg flog an exaroiit frwffl any duty at ilrunshausen. ArrandJjMBwnU, Luneburg. .....r Sttdn WMt Ffiealwd! MT «%««(•*, "OSjirtlM 0.|i«Jl]r. tM4l67 134 m Mo 10,442 M»C. i8,8oa Total m The 8d aectUm, urttola i,nt t)m treaty of 1846, Is in these words I ''And furrttsf, it Is agreed, that no higher or other toll altnU lie levied or collected at Brunshausen or Htiwle, m\ tlw Illvcr Wl*, upon the ton- nage or cargoes of v«««#la iit ttw 1?ult«-d States, than is levied or collected Mjndt tll« t((nu«f

    y land, and partly for the protection of navigation from the pirates who infested the Baltic and the coasts of the North Sea, this League bus liecomo Justly cele- brated in the early history of the civilization and gov- ernments of modem Europe. The first and principal members of this Confe-'Tacy were Hamburg, founded by Charlemagne toward the close of the 8tli, and Lu- bec, founded about the middle of the 12th century. " The wild, enthusiastic expeditions of the Crusaders, in the 11th and subsequent centuries, the introduction of the distillery into Europe in the i2th centurj-, and the conquest of the Teutonic Knights of the Cross in Prussia and Livonia, were," says the author of "Lex Mercatoria," "among the causes which originully brought forward the navigation and trade of northern and western Europe, and combined in forming this celebrated association." The disorders 'o which most parts of Europe, iind particularly the coast of the Baltic, were n prey, during the 12th and following centuries, first invited the cities of Lubec, Hamburg, anl Bremen, to unite in this Con- federacy. Soon, however, they were Joined by most of the trading towns of Europe. The cities wlilch were estal)Ushed along the coast of the Baltic, and in the interior of the countries bordering upon it, eagerly sought admission into a League which guarantied them ample protection against the robber-princes and l>nr- barians by whom they were surrounded. London, Rouen, Bordeaux, St. Malo, Bayonne, Marseilles, Barcelona, Seville, Cadiz, Lisbon, Antwerp, Dort, Amsterdam, Bruges, Rotterdam, Ostend, I.)imliirk, Leghorn, Messina, and Naples; Bergen in Norway, Novgorod in Russia ; all tlie towns on the Elbe and Weser ; Emden, Cologne, an I other cities, succes- sively united with this fonnidable association, until it was able, in a war against one of the northern powers, in the 14th century, to call into active service 40 siiip-s of war and 12,000 troops, exclusive of seamen At this period, several of tlie European powers, especially the kings of France and of southern Europe, becoming alarmad at the extraordinary and fonnidable progress HAN 981 HAN of an auooUtton, irhose merchanta, tndcn, and emis- saries were fonnd In every port, city, and Tillage thronghout Europe, and whose decrees were pro- claimed as the supreme law in their respective domin- ions, withdraw their towns and their merchants t(om a League which threatened to annihilate their sover- eignty and give laws to the world. It has been urged, and with much force, that the decline of the Hanse-towns was owing mainly to their having become warlike, instead of remaining alto- gether commereial. There can be no doubt that this was, at least, one of the causes, and, perhaps, the pre- dominating cause, of their decline. Everywhere they claimed special concessions and special privileges. They demanded and obtained the entire custodianship of Bishopagate, one of the principal entrances to Lon- don ; and when certain privileges were attempted to be withdrawn from them, they boldly declared war against England, and immediately drove her vessels Arora the Baltic, until Edward IV. restored them all their privileges, and even exempted them, in mari- time cases, firom the authority of the admiralty court. Referring to the treaty concluded with the Hanseatic League, at this period, McCuUoch remarks : " The privileges of the merchants of the Hanse-towns were renewed, and the King assigned to them, in absolute property, a large space nf ground with the buildings upon it, in Thames-street, denominated the Steelyard, whence the Hanse merchants have been commonly denominated i,he Association of the Steel3'ard, It was further agreed that the particular privileges awarded to the Ilanse merchants chould lie published, as often as the latter judged proper, in all the sea-pnrt towns of England, and such Englishmen as infringed them should be punished. In return for these concessions, the English acquired the liberty of freely trading in the Baltic, and especially in the port of Dantzic, and in Prussia. This treaty," he adds, " settled the difB- culties with the Hanse-towns on terms which were any thing but honorable to the English." In T641, even when the power of these cities had declined, and their organization had become comparatively dismem- bered, we again find them converting their merchant vessels into ships of war, and disputing with Denmark her pretensions to tax the commerce of the world at the castle of Cronberg. Indeed, it may be remarked, in passing, that the Hanseatic League never quietly submitted to the pretensions of Denmark in the im- position of the Sound tax upon the commerce of the Baltic. Prior to the treaty with Sweden in the Mth century, the coltoction of this toll was successfully resisted by the League. Being then in the meridian of its great- ness, it ol)tained, on its own terms, a free passage for its ships and cargoes through the Sound — a privilege enjoyed until Denmark, perceiving that the Hanseatic League held her authority in utter contempt, deemed it judicious to invite other nations to engage in the trade of the Baltic, permitting the vessels of England and Holland to pass through the Sound on the pay- ment of mere nominal tolls. This was intended to strengthen the arms of Denmark in any conflict in which her abrogation of the privileges enjoyed by the League might involve her. Lubec, in the name of the other Hanse-towns. ineffectually protested against this encroachment upon their long undisputed sovereignty of the Baltic, and demanded the immediate exclusion of the Dutch Arora that sea. Their power, however, was now declining ; their demand was refused, and we find them, in 1560, submitting to a convention with Denmark for the adjustment of the question of the Sound dues, resulting in the treaty of the Odensee between "the king of Denmark and his subjects on the one part, and the right honorable Hanceatlc cities and the merchants thereof on the other part." So rapid was their decline ftvm this period, that when Denmark, three yean after (he conclusion of this treaty, made her war with Sweden a pretext for in- creasing the Sound dues against the Hanse-towns, in violation of the stipulations of that treaty, the latter, being now shorn of their former power, were compelled to submit. Toward the close of the 17th centur}-, the Hanseatic League may be considered as having ceased to exist in a federal capacity. But, about that period, individual cities whicli formed the League, especially Hamburg, not only regained their former commercial splendor, but, since that time, have gradually risen in wealth and prosperity. The progress of civilization in Europe— the (li.scor- eries of the passage to India bv the Cape of Good Hope and of America — tlie rise of Holland, and the conse- quent rapid commercial progress of the Dutcli — these causes combined opened new and hitherto unknown channels for navigation and commerce, and created changes in the commercial world fur which ancient trading establishments were neither adapted nor pre- pared. Thus wc see that the decline of tlie League was mainly brought about by that very progress of improvc- r nt which it had contributed so much to prumuts. Ihe Hanse towns, especially Hamburg and Bremen, have established in every part of the world possess- ing any commercial importance numerous mercantile houses, under the management of merchants of great intelligence and energj*. These establishments con- tribute largely to the prosperity and augmentation of the foreign commerce of the Ilance towns. Of the 343 houses and comploira which represent the com- merce of Germany in foreign countries, 227, or two thirds, belong to Hamburg and Bremen. There are 37 Hanseatic commercial houses in Mex- ico, of which there are In the city of Mexico, 11 ; Vera Cruz, 11; Tampico, 4 ; Mazatlan, 6 ; other places, 6. In Guatemala, 1 ; Cuba, 14 ; Porto Rico, 3 ; Hayti, 6; St. Tliamas, 4; the other Antilles, G; Venezuela, 23; Peru, 5; Chili, 8; Brazil, 29; other German houses in South America, 21. In the ports of the La Plata — Hanse houses, 2 ; other German houses, 8. In Ecua- dor — German houses, 2, In China and Chinese India — Hanse houses, 7 ; other German houses, 7. In African ports — Ilunse houses, 9 ; other German houses, 2. Value or lurooTS and Extoktb or Bbehin in toe Yiab 1867. ImiMrts. Great Britain and Ireland R,S83,333 France 2'29,e»T Belgium I07,34S Holland 4S1,713 Sumstra and Java 978,782 Denmark and colonies ', 7,4,'>6 PruMla , 6,411,316 Austria »87,60« Other German States 22,006,333 Rumlaand Poland I,647,4n0 Sireden and Norvajr 223,704 Spain 171,508 Cuba 8,880,072 Porto Rico 782,802 Manilla (imp. 81,947) and Canary) -^ .-k Idlands / ^ Italy 127,334 Portugal and colonies 22,105 Switzerland 8,000 Turkey In Europe, litoT* (exp. 624) 64,760 Levant 85,124 United States 18,205,688 Mexico 665,182 Haytl 918,753 Venoiuela 680,242 New Uranada 2,186,384 Dmzll 3,029,862 Arpentlne Confederation 183,064 Chill (SJMil), Uruguay (1870) Central America (imp. 4664), Peru 116,011 Jamaica 471,749 Other English colonies 4,801 Kngliah Knot Indlex 8,060,863 Kaat and West coasts of Africa ... .... China and Southern AuBtralial onniin (exp. 93,088) / >=W,11W Sandwich Islands 100,978 FlBheriea 86,648 Eiiuipment of the fleet .... Kipotti. 6.'V'<,054 116,327 174,322 770,867 33,186 70a,S0B 0,686,029 8,030,699 26,283,752 1,901,049 1,266,026 20,889 572,431 200,629 63,916 65,783 28,036 496,147 6,298 800 16,610,946 216,681 113,448 274,863 14t,679 180,040 2.%209 4,029 60,462 28,320 60,920 6,762 40,797 98,329 76,086 777^68 Total in gold tbalers 74,004,780 62,609,472 HAN 932 HAN BTATmam ■xmBmRa tbi NiriiaxB or Banbi Vissxu THAT PAaStD TUC BOUND IN 1861. FUfl. Wliincd ud wUtkar. No. of VMtatf. VaUnfli attb«3oaDd. Lubeo Hambnrg. . . . - Bremen. Foreign From the North Sea " Baltic... From the North Sea " Baltic... From the North Sea " BalOc... From Lubeo 63 60 88 48 19 16 16 81 86 IT 8« 100 Fmnci. 84,876 18,670 18,844 12,863 24,708 6,800 .... 1 From Hamburg To Hamburg From Bremen To Bremen From 1849 to 1861, 446 veaasls, under the Hanse flag, passed the Sound, and paid 196,170 francs for tho privilege of saluting the castle of Cronberg. The number of Hanse vessels which passed the Sound in the years 1862, 1853, and 1854, is stated as follows : 18S9. 1 1853. lau. 65 T 108 88 87 186 40 84 186 1 Bremen , Lubeo Total 181 268 803 The aggregate amount of Sound dues paid by the Hanse-towns from 1846 to 1861, both inculsive, was : francs, 471,354 =s $89,557; annual average, francs, 78,659 = $14,926. In conuection with this subject, it is proper to add, that arrangements are now being actively brought toward consummation, which will exercise a marked influence on the foreign commercial movements through the ports of the Uanse-towns. These have for their object the opening of a route between the North Sea and the Baltic: 1st. Across Schleswig, by the con- struction of a railroad between Tonningen and Husum, on the one side (the west of Schleswig), and on the other, through Flensburg (on the eastern side) ; and 2. Across southern Sweden, by steam navigation on the Gotha Canal. It need not be added that either route will supersede the passage of the Sound and the impost which is there levied — yielding to Denmark so large a portion of her Sound^dues revenue — and must necessaril}*, to a great extent at least, divert from the latter route the transitage through the Hanse-towns destined for the Scandinavian countries and thosn bordering on the Baltic. The steam navigation of the Gotha Can»l has been granted to an English company, denominated " Navigation Company lietween Hull and St. Peters- burg." This company commenced the construction of four steamers in 1853, at the shipyards of Alotala two of which were completed toward the end of that year, and the other two Ir 1854. These steamers are even now insufficent for the heavj' freights offered for transit, and it is understood that others will soon be added to the line. The railroad referred to has also been granted to an English company, which has long since commenced operations. When completed, it will place I.iOndon within 80 hours' distance of Flens- burg. The commercial relations between the United States and the Hanse-towns are regulated by the treaty of December 20, 1827. This treaty stipulates entire re- ciprocity of trade and perfect freedom of commerce l^tween the two high contracting parties, no matter from what country or port the vessels and cargoes may come. The sixth article stipulates that it shall be wholly free for all merchants, commanders of ships, and other citizens of both parties, to manage, them- selves, their own business, in all the ports and places subject to the jurisdiction of each other, as well with respect to the consignment and sale of their goods and merchandise by wholesale or retail, as with respect to the lotdiog, unloadlog, and tending off their ibipii United SUtes.. .. B-T u . H-T U .. 1-6 tt ,. 8-T (( .. 1-a " .. 1-T submitting themselves to the laws, decrees, and usages there established, to which native oitizena are sub- jected ; " the}-, in all cases, to be treated as citizens of the republic in which they reside, or, at least, to bo placed on a footing with tho citizens or aubjects of the most favored nations;" and all favors granted by either party to other nations, to become common to the other party on equal coaditions. The policy of allowing to the Hanse-towns, by treaty stipulation, the privileges of their flag to all vessels owned instead of built within their dominions, as in the treaty been the Hanse-towns and Great Brit- ain, has been a question of considerable doubt among eminent merchants of the United States. By virtue of this stipulation, the Hanse-towns bring to the United States the productions of the different States of Ger- many, and carrj' back, in return, the cotton, rico, and tobacco, with which the store-houses of these towns, especially Bremen, are always supplied. The effect of this privilege has, undoubtedly, been to throw almost the entire carrying trade, from the United States ior German markets, into tho hands of Hanse ship-owners. This Is more particularly true %vith respect to tho port of Bremen, as appears lh>m the following summar}* of the navigation returns of that port. The vessels engaged in the trade between the United States and Bremen were; 189»-1880 Bremen ST 1881—1886 " 4-T 1886—1840 " 4-6 1841-1846 * Hanse-towns. .... 6.T 1846—1860 " 4-6 1861—1868 " 6-T The Cotton Trade. — Cotton and tobacco are the lead- ing imports of the Hanse-towns from the United States. The value of the former Imported during the 12 months ending iTune 30, 1856, was nearly $3,000,000 ; of the latter, more than $2,500,000 ; while the value of all other domestic produce imported into Bremen and Hamburg from the United States was upward of $9,000,000. The export of cotton from the United States to the countries of northern Europe commenced some 60 years ago. In the year 1800, Holland, including the territory now known as the kingdom of Belgium, received 79,694 lbs. ; in 1855 the aggregate quantity exported to the two countries was 17,160,967 lbs. In 1803 Norway and Denmark first imported American cotton, amounting that year to 184,193 lbs, ; in 1856 the aggregate quantity exported to these two coun- tries, including Sweden, was some 7,000,000 lbs. Prus- sia and Sweden began importing cotton from the United States in 1604. Russia, in 1809, received cot- ton from the United States, I'or the first time, and to the amount of 500,000 lbs ; while in 1853, the year prior to the commencement of the late war, the ex- portation to that country amounted to more than 21,000,000 lbs. The Ilanse-towns received cotton from the United States prior to the year 1800 ; and the progress of the trade with those cities, which is exhibited in the subjoined statement, strikingly ex- emplifies, in connection with the remarks which have preceded, and the general statement which follows it, the rapid and powerful advancement of the king- staple, not of the United States only, but of tho com- mercial world. The following statement shows the quantities of cotton exported from the United States to the Hanse-towns every 10 years, for a period of 51 }-ear8, hom 1806, to 1856 : IlM. Iul806 182,C 1816. 1,846,288 1825. 877,109 In 1886 2,683,147 1846. ]T,204,094 1966. 80,809,991 Tobacco is borne in direct voyage from the United States; not so, however, with cotton, in the carry- * The Hanse-towns are given for this and the following periods ; Bremen and Hamburg being united under the of- flcUl data, under that designation. Bremen, however, aver- ages more tba^ three fourths of the navigation betwoen tho United Stitw and tta* Bwtc-towni, f HAir 038 HAN Cut 1,094 1,991 I United carrj-- ing trado of which Qreat Britain has b««n for many yean an active competitor. Entering the ports of the United Kingdom free of duty, her merehant flag can rcinlizc a profltable trade in its re-exportation to the various ports of continental Europe. Thus the Hanae-towns receive their supplies of raw cotton not only from the United States, in the direct trade, but also in tlio indirect trado, from English ports and otiier entrep6ts of Europe. The annual average quan- tity of cotton exported from the United States to the Ilunse-towns, including Prussia, during the four years from 1851 to 1854, both inclusive, was 24,811,620 lbs. j wliile the annual average exported from Qreat Britain during the four years ending Decemljcr 81, 1864, was 80,663,990 lbs. Tile annual average quantities of cotton exported ttom the same countries, respectively, during the same perimls, to other nations of northern Europe, exhibit similar results. These facts are illustrated by the subjoined statement, and suggest a strong argu- ment for the serious consideration, by the navigation interosts of tlie United States of such measures as would be liliely to promote the direct exportation TaBVLAU COJIPABATIVE StATKMENT, SHOWINO TUB AVBBAOK QuANTITIBS OF COTTOS PbODUOKD, CONSUMED, AKD EXPOBTED BY THE USITED STATES, WITU THE VaIDES 0» THE QUANTITIES BO EXPOBTED ; AND THB ATEBAOE Quantities op Foreion Cotton iupobted into and expokted fbou tue United States; toubtiieb with tue cuERENT Prices op Cotton in the United States and Great ISritain, bespkctitelt, dueino the fiest Thbeb Years op each Decade, for a Period op Stxtt-thbee Years, pbom 1792 to 1854, both inolbsivb. of our great staple ftrom our own ports, in onrown vessels, to those of the countries by which it is con- sumed. COHPABATIVE StATEHENT SnOWINO THE QUANITma OF CoT ton exported to oebtaik countries of noetuebn Europe prou the United States and Great Britain, :voods, fresh fruits, grass, hay, iron (old or crude), lead ore, oil cakes, ores, potatoes, slates and pencils, sulphuric earth, timber (hewn), wood, ebony, mahogany, and timber for carpenters. HAN 084 HAN Oomiuoi or tub Unitid Statb with tm IIahbk-towns, nou Ootobik 1, 1380, to JrLT 1, 1861. Y mdliif Eiporia. Import!, WhatMf Ihm wai U BuUIob Toniug* ClearM. DomnUc. Fonlgn. Toi.1. Toul. bport. Imfozt. AmcricMi. Foreign. Sept 80, 1881 1888 1988 1884 1886 1886 1837 1888 1889 1880 Totil.... 8*1*80,1881 1888 1888 1884 1886 1886 1887 1888 1889 1840 TotiJ.... 1 Sept 80. 1841 ! 1843 tmoa. 1818 Jane 80, 1844 1848 1S46 lft|7 1848 1849 1860 •■•t«' ■ TotiU.... JnneM, 1851 1858 1858 1854 1856 1886 «I,6R^606 1,644,886 1,588,864 a6«,888 1,144^474 979,818 l,698,9n 1,804,888 1,998,176 1,649,782 $697,088 860,789 1,537,086 1,003,890 1,976,569 1,187,884 1,819,214 1,190,918 1,278,984 72.V48 $8,188,644 2,806,015 8,169,489 1,868,278 8,121,083 2,116,697 8,018,186 8,996,251 8,877,160 2,874,880 $990,166 1,678,767 1,981,026 2,587,880 8,789,686 3,816,548 1,688,668 3,644,898 8,274,876 1,878,878 $i;86o iim $190,166 59,161 40,679 76,980 1,973 88,859 1,966 18 8,844 13,488 17,808 16,780 19,6M 11,088 17,360 18,610 25,274 38,686 81,968 14,738 4,091 M67 11,747 9,978 6,4.S8 4,087 8,707 11,868 10,894 10,268 $14,791,468 11,818,341 2,486.642 2,108,110 3,608,671 2,771,890 8,168,418 2,6«8,857 2,626,808 2.067,6a', 8,867,968 $11,677,009 $779,931 1,662,670 795,186 8,066,108 766,886 1,211,464 1,192,592 665.843 733,469 880,496 $26,468,477 $2,693,172 4,088,218 2,908,296 4,689,674 8,588,876 4,868,882 8,764,949 8,891,645 3,801,067 4,198,489 $81,064,468 $3,498,301 3,86,5,096 8,827,786 8,355,866 3,841,948 4,994,820 6,642,281 2,847,358 4,849,160 2,621,498 $61,860 $48;«i« 12,638 12,108 206 $480,948 $8,628 6,880 8,300 17,067 1,808 1,807 18,785 10,211 6,185 898 180,088 17,147 18,468 9,296 16,710 V^ios 6,957 8,866 4,803 17,849 60,819 17,487 2^778 27,168 27,127 87',286 48,666 84,M2 29,993 42,324 186,607,008 $4,110,665 8,814,994 8,898,948 8,174,488 4,106,997 4,P0H,816 4,068,413 8,s."i,),676 2,710,248 4,820,780 $87,070,489 $8,405,966 6,195,987 7,409,816 10,041,596 9,1.W,169 18,188,985 $10,674,680 $460,061 749,619 892,984 892,204 888,098 600,805 260,226 465,109 604,682 886,742 $86,181,688 $4,560,716 4,664,613 8,291,982 8,566,687 4,946,020 4.608,620 4,I8«,6.3S 4,821,785 8,814,930 6,806,628 $86,633,964 $2,449,964 2,274,019 920,866 2,186,386 3,913,687 8,149,864 8,622,186 6,898,280 7,742,864 8,787,874 $68,468 $5,800 606 266^786 813,776 118,706 $68,161 $89 4,062 285,267 86,204 "iis 8.842 48,619 106,886 14,123 16,779 13,937 12,749 18,016 8,148 12,127 15,737 28,386 21,156 890,220 46,147 54,060 42,078 50,656 69,007 60,807 66,634 80,109 44,264 68,016 $5,014,924 $641,491 681,080 610,788 1,444,662 975,081 1,050,886 $42,716,868 $6,047,447 6,876,967 8,080,068 12,086,268 10,130,250 14,289,371 $40,289,888 $10,008,364 8,171,411 13,843,485 16,960,898 12,360,118 14,488,512 $099,178 $679,116 932,188 1,867,809 8,668,819 1,466,818 1,442,498 *872,186 $2A906 59,319 6,144 io,iio 7,752 164,163 16,696 27621 26,995 28,766 84,686 64,488 547,776 69,734 87,500 86,281 108,320 112,607 100,844 The following pay one sixth grote ()er centner: Ashea (not ley), birch, brooma, blood, bottle cases, bricks, cement, chaU, clay (brown or stone), earth (common), earthenware (common), faj-ence (common), glass (brolien), glue, leather, offul of tanneries, gravel, guano, marl, mill-stones, oyster-shells, potters' earth, sliell-lime, stones (hewn or not), sugar-bakers' clay, sugar scum, tiles, tombstones, trees for planting, turf, fire-wood, hoops, shingles, materials for basket-makers, and posts for fences. Goods not exported after three months, by paying 26 per cent, of the transit duty, may have a further prolongation of three months. Hamburg — The tariff is that of December 29th, 1861. Sfoneyi. — 1 marc-banco = 16 shillings = 86 cents. Wiightt and Meamre». — 1 centner >= 119.504 lbs. ; 1 pfond => 1.067 lbs, avoirdupois. Duties oa Import*. — These duties amount to not more than ^ of 1 per cent, ad valorem ; and the dutiei OH exports to not more than t of 1 per cent, ad va- lorem. The following articles ate exempt both from import and export duties : apparel of travelers, brought ii by the respective parties, or by a special permit of the director of customs ; bark, unground ; barley; bones; bronze metal ; buckwheat ; copper for sheathing ships ; brass, old, also in plate or sheets ; coal, stone ; gold and silver bullion or coin ; open samples of goods under 70 lbs. weight, exported and then re-imported thmngh the same gate ; linens, with or without cotton mixture ; linen bagging ; malt ; oats ; oil cakes ; po- tatoes ; printed matter ; musical and scientiflc maps ; rags, woolen or cotton ; rap^-seeA ; rye ; wool, sheep's and lamb's, raw; wheat ; znic, crude. The following articles art- 1 ree of import duties only : articles not exceeding 5 man s-banco ($1 76) in value ; those also sulijocteil to excise duties not over 20 marcs- banco in value ; timber, staves, fire-wood and turf. Those free of export duties ore : all artideB uudet 20 marcs-banco ($7) in value, regardless of quantity ; all manufactures of the city of Hamburg ; all provis* ions for the immediate use of vessels lying in harbor; articles not exceeding 100 lbs. in weight, and not of greater value than 100 marcs-banco. Transit duties. — Ail goods re-exported within three months from the date of arrival, are free of any transit dutj', if yet in the hands of original importers. Xu&ec.— The tariff is that of December 6th, 1861. Moneys. — 1 marc = 16 schillings Lubec courant = 28-79 cents. Weights and Measures. — 1 ship-pound = 2J cwt. of 112 lbs. English, each=280 ll>8. 1 lispound=14 lbs. Duties on Imports All goods, whether of foreign or home production, pay one half of one per cent, ad valorem, as given in the invoices, except the following articles, which are free of import duties : Transit goods re-exported within three months after entry ; effects of travelers ; household furniture used ; wool brought for the Lubec fair, and delivered at the wool warehouse ; goods on board vessels not consigned to Lubec ; wares on board ships entering the port of Travemunde in distress. Goods where the value can not bo ascertained from the invoices, will be estimated at the Lubec market prices. Articles of wood, as timber, boards, shingles, planks, masts and spars, staves, and fire-wood, pay, always, one half of one per cent, on the Lubec market prices. Articles which pay an ad valorem duty, if their value does not amount to 26 marcs ($7), are free ; from 26 to 75 marcs ($7 to $21), the duty is levied on 60 marcs ($14) ; from 76 to 123 marcs ($21 to $35), the duty is levied on 100 marcs (28), and so on. None but citizens, or their agents, have the privilege of clearing goods in the custom-house. American ves- sels, however, are exempted from this regulation. — U. 8., Com. Bdations ; WCviAMCU^a Commercial Diclion- atii ; see, also. Foreign Commerce Unitetl States, and Q^^'teri^ Smew, vol. vU., p. 180, '^.i^ii^^Uiii^^J^ HAR Mt HAR from arket ngles, pay. larket ty, « free; icd on $35), None !ge of n ve«- r-U. iciion- , mi Harbor, Havon, or Port, a pleco of water com- municating with the aea, or with a navigable river or lake, having depth aufflcient to float ahips of consider- ablo bunien, where there is convenient anchorage, and whore ahipit may lie, load, and unload, acreenod from the wind», and without the reach of the tide, Qualitiea of a good Harbor. — There is every variety In the form and quality of harbors. They are either natural or artiflclal ; but, however formed, a good har- bor should have sufHcient depth of water to admit the largest ships at all times of the tide ; it should be easy of access without having too wide an entrance ; the bottom should be clean and good ; and ships should be able to lie close alongside quays or pisrc, that the ex- pense and inconvenience of loading and unloading by means of lighters may l)e avoided. Ships lying in a harbor that is land-locked, and surrounded by high grounds or buildings, arc, at once, without the reach of storms, tides, and currents, and may, in most caoes, be easily protected from hostile attacks. Bar harlmrs are those that have bars or lianks at their entrances, and do not, therefore, admit of the ingress or egress of large ships except at high water. These are most commonly river harbors — the sand and mud brought down by the stream, and driven back by the waves, naturally forming a bar or imnk at their mouths. The designing of harbors constitutes confessedly one of the most difficult branches of civil engineering. In making such designs, the engineer, in order to avail himself of the advantage which is to lie derived from past experience, must endeavor to the best of his power to institute a comparison between the given locality and some other, which he supposes to be in pari cam. Perfect identity, however, in the physical peculiarities of different stations, seldom, if ever, ex- ists, and all that can be done is to select an existing harbor, which appears to be as nearly as possible sim- ilarly circumstanced to the proposed work. In considering the subject of the construction of harbors in exposed situations, the first and most im- portant subject deserving our attention is the destruc- tive action of the element with which we have to deal — what are its energies when excited by storms, and what the direction of its forces on the barriers which have been raised to control it ? Smeaton, in his history of the Eddystone, when speaking of the objection that might bo raised against the necessity for using joggles in the masonry of that building, says, " When we have to do with, and to endeavor to control ihoie poweri of nature that are sub- ject to no calculation, I trust it will lie deemed prudent not to omit in such a case any thing that can without difficulty be applied, and that would be likely to add to the security." This statement of our greatest marine engineer, indicates the propriety of careful'y collecting any facts that may help uu t J a more accurate estimation of those fo'ces which be regarded os being " suliject to no calculation." We shaU therefore state a few facts which have been recorded of the destructive powers of then, waves in inland lakes, and in the open, ocean. At Port Sonachan, in England, where' the fetch is under 14 miles, a stone, weighing a quarter of a ton, was torn out of the masonry of the landing-slip and overturned. Mr. D. Stevenson, in hia Engineering of North America, describing the harbors in Lake Erie, mentions having seen one stone, weighing upward of half a ton, which had been taken out of its bed in the pier at Buffalo, moved several feet and overturned. The Comte ue Mar- silli, in his Hittoire Phgtigve de la Mer, published at Amsterdam in 1726, states that the highest wave observed by him on the shores of Languedoc in th« Mediterranean Sea, where the breadth is about 600 mUes, was 14 feet 10 inches. At the month of a harbor on the German Ocean, with a fetch of about 600 miles, the writer had olwerved fur him the height of the waves during south-easterly gales, and on one occasion the result was lUJ feet from the crest of the wave to the trough of thb sea. In deeper water, and with a north-easterly gale, there is no doubt that the waves of the German Ocean will attain a height considerably greater than this. In Novem- lier, 1817, the waves of the German Ocean overturned, just after It had l)een finished, a column of freestone 86 feet high and 17 feet base. The diameter at the place of fracture was about 11 feet. In the Atlantic Ocean, Dr. Scoicsby stated, in a communication to the British Association in 1850, that during several hard gales he had measured m»ny waves of about 80 feet, hut the higliest was 43 feet from the hollow to thi crest. Waves of such magnitude could scarcely, how- ever, reach our urtiUcial harbors, from the shallow- ness of the water near the shore. To these facts it may be added, that of a block of 50 tons' weight being moved by the sea at Barrahead, one of the Hebrides ; and what is far more extraordinary-, blocks of nine tons' weight have been quarried, or broken out of their beds in $itu, on tlie top of the Bound Skerry of Whalsey, in Zetland, which is elevated 85 feet alwve the level of the sea. The Bound Skerr}' atid neigh- boring rocks, which are in the German Ocean, cer- tainly furnish by far the most wonderful proof that has yet been discovered, of the great force which is developed by the billows of the ocean when suddenly checked by opposing rocks. It has been stated (in the Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburg") that, from observations which were made with the ma- rine dynamometer (a self-registering instrument de- signed by him for the purpose), the force of the waves of the German Ocean, during hard gales, had been found to be 1) tons per superficial foot at the Bell Rock ; and of the Atlantic Ocean to be 3 tons per superficial foot at the Skerry vore Light-house. But thesu results may still l>e far short of the maxima. As the marine dynamom- eter has been ofteh found useful in indicating the force of the waves in situations where harbors were to be built, it may be proper to give such a description of it as will enable any one to have it made. DEFD is a cast-iron cylinder, which is firmly bolted at the protecting flanges G, to the rock where the experiments are to be made. This cylinder has a circular flange at D, L is a door which is to be opened when the observation is to he road off, A is a circular disc on which the waves impinge. Fastened to the disc are four guide-rods B, which piss through a circular plate 0, which is screwed down to the flange y,t^ 345tT8>10U ISinehM. -H I I I I I I" I I 1 Flg.1. EAR 988 EAR D, Knd (Im throngh tha hol«i In the imttom E F. Within tho cylinder there la attached to tho plate C a powerful steel ipring, to the other or free oud of which u faateiind the amall circular plate K, which again is •ecurod to the guMe-rods I). There are also rings of leather, T, which slide on the guide-rods, and serve oa Indlcea for registering how far the nxls have lieen pushed througli thb holes in the Iwttoni, or, in other words, how far the spring has been drawn out by the action of the waves against the disc A. In comparing an existing harbor with a proposed one, in order to ascertain the dimensions which are necessary to insure stability, perhaps the most obvious element is what may be termed tho line of maximum expomre, ci.-, in other words, the line of greatest fetch or reach of open sea, which can he easily moasured from a ehurt. Hut though possessed of this informa- tion, the engineer ftill does not Icnuw in what ratio the height of the wnvo increases in relation to any given iocreaite in the lino of exposure. As thir inquiry is one of groat moment in the prac- tice of marine engineering, and haa not been in any way investigated, the writer haa for some time back been making occasional observations on the subject, when favorable circumstances occurred. These ob- fervutinns hr.vo Iieen but limited in extent, and can not be regarded aa deserving of confidence unless in cases whe argued tliat theao arn extreme caaoa, and that such high velucltiea In the currviit of the tide are seldom met with. This ulijn^tlon hiia, no doulit, truth In It ; but ttlll the tendency is ahown, unit though the relocitlea may lie leas In other qunrtcra, there may yet be quite enough to destroy the condition of itagna- (lon which the oaclllatory theory luiaiiniea. The break- ing of waves at aoa, and the exiatence of rayea, aeem to prove beyond queatiun that waves of tranalation are poaaiblo In the ilce|)est water. Is It not also a prolulilo cane that wavca which have been roHcctod by a vortical wall, and have (irreapective of the queation of tide currenta) combined with tlie advancing waves may then become waves of tranalation, poaaesbing all the ele- ments which endanger the stability of a sea-work ? Or, ■gain, how much more damage would result to a vertical wall than to a alopo nf Ickmo stones, from the sinking of the foundationa, or from their getting underwaahcd l)y the reaction of the waves ? It therefore nppeara that the mothod generally resorted to of forming deep water barlwrs of masses of ri-lible atone with long slopes, so as to form an artlllcial beach fur the waves to aiiend on, is, In most circumstances, tha beat and cheapest kind of construction. We incline, however, to the adoption of an upright wall, founded on the nibble as a basis (similur to that at Cherbourg, about to be de- ■crlbed), in preference to long pavem the north, in which direction the line of exposure is only about 21 leagues. These facts wo obtained during a recent visit to Cherbourg, under- taken for the special purpose of ascertaining the phys- ical characteristics of the place. The attempt to make out a parallelism between Plymouth, which faces the Atlantic directly, and Chorbonrg, which is compar- atively land-locked, can not, in our opinion, stand the test of a candid inquiry. Other comparisons may be referred to which have Iwea advanoed on equally untenable groonds. Tbiu, tha old nier of DunUary, whhih U varllcal, and hai stood wall, has iHHin comparml with tha talna walls of Kingatown liarlior, which now protect Dunlaary, and which have often rocvivvd much dMiiiage, The all- im|Mirtant eUniiant vf depth nf water haa lipnn In this in- stance entirely overlookccl ; for at Kingatown there la a depth of 27 feet, while I tuiileary l> all but dry, An nliie writer on tlie aame iiiiritio rj-nlii, In comparing dilfer- ent aea walls In the Kirth of Korth, has. In like man- ner, not Bufllcieiitly adverted to the great dilfarences ill the depths oppiwite the works to which he refers. An lm|Hirtaiit advantage of the sloping wall Is the amall realstunca which It iilTera to the Impltigliig wave, but It ahoi.ld alio lie iHirne In mind that the weight resting on tlie face atonea In a talus wall la decreaaed in proportion to tho aine of tlie angle of the alo|ie, If we supiMiae the wuvoa whicli aaaail a sloping wall to act in the horizontal plane, their direct impulse, when resolved Into the force acting at right angles to the sloping surface of the talus waM, will be prop» vertical angle of Incidence or angle of ele« vation of wall | >/ >» aziniutliiil angle of Ir.clrtence | /= horUoiituI forcu exerted on unit of surface at right aiiglea to the linn of hurlior wall | h » height of greatest aaaalling waves | /« A(»ln ^ain^';». The above expression naalgna, wa think, too great a reduction, as tho motion of tlie particles may not be horizontal, and no account la taken of the effects of friction againat tho niiigh atirface of the masimry. Ex|ieriiiienta era theruforti wanting to dutormlne the constant for correcting the tliooratical results due to this expression. Parabolio J'roflle.—Mr, Scott liussell recommends the parabolic curve as that best suited for the profile where the oliject is to breiik tlie waves, and not to re- flect them, as Is the case in sloping breakwaters. This curve possesses, according to Mr, Kusaell, the advan- tages of superior strength, of economy In the mate- rials, of breaking the wavu early, and uf continuing an uniform action over tlia lotigeat period of time. When the tide Is low, the toe of tho slope, which springs out of tho foreshore and forms tho vertex of the parabola, would4 we fear, b« found rather weak, and perhaps difficult to form. On the whole, we rather incline in suob cases simply to throw In the materials, and to allow tha sea to form is own slope. According to Sir John Itennle (^Account nf Plymouth Breakwater), rubble breakwatem with slopes formed at the angle of repose, worn adopted by the reeks In the moles of Tyre and tJarthago, and by tho Itomuns at Athens and Ilallcarnuasua. The same design was also followed at Venice, (Innoa, Kochelle, linrtelona, and other places. In this kingdom the first example on a large scale which we flud Is at Ilowth.' Kings- town, Holyhead, and the noble breakwater at Ply- mouth, were afterward carried out on the tame princl- EAR 989 EAR EI«, and chiefly nndar th« dlnotlon of the Ut« Mr. tcnnla. The gnat nktinniil hsrhnn of rafuff6 at pnaent in proKp«r, at Dover, Aldemey, and Jeney, are more neurly vertical. t'ormt of Wall) J\tr Tidal Ilarbnri. — Having now oonalilered the few facts of which we are In poeneeeion, r«)(anllnf( the disputed nature of the Impulse of the waves in deep waters, we shall direct the reader's at- tention to their etfects In shallow water. Those In deep water were chiefly wholt waves, and reganled by many us lieinn purely oscillatory, while those In shoal waters ore bresidnft waves, and therefore ref^iirded by all IIS waves of translation. We have hitherto been considering brxukwaters entcted In deep water, and which were constantly exjiosed to the waves j we now turn to piers and sea-walls which nro placed within the ran)(e of the surf, and which are pxposod to its force for a limited periole. We know two cases In the (lerman Ocean where, in consequence of want of width In the pier, coupled, In one Instance, wltli Insuflicient workmanship, the Inner or quay-walls were observed llrst to bulge and full, before the sea- wall was Injured. One of these piers measured 26 feet 4 inches, and the other 24 feet, on the roadway. 2d. The vertical upward force which may act on any projecting stono or protuberance. 8d. The vertical downward force of the water which results either firom the wave breaking upon the toe of a talus wall, or from the wave passing over the parapet, and falling upon the pitching Ijehind, so as to plow It up. 4th. The back-draxight, which tends by reaction from the wul^ to plow up the soft bottom, and thus to under- mine the lower eoursus of the work, or perhaps by mctim to pull out the face-work. AVo may conclude ftora the above, that the points which require to be carefully attended to are— 1st. The contour and qual- ity of masonry of the wall Itself j 2d. The parapet, which, if not of sufficient height, or built in a proper direction, leads to dumage in the pitching behind it ; and 8d. The foundation-courses, in the design and conHtrnctlon of which, if similar precautions be not at- tended to, underwushing of the bottom may in some situations take place, so aa to leave the lowest courses without protection. We shall in the flrst place consider how far those remarks are applicable where the bottom is solid rock. Such a supposition will render unnecessarj- any pre- cautions arising from the wasting of the bottom, and, caterit paribut, there does not seem to be any reason for preferring a talus to a vertiral wall. The question of preference in such a case will in the main depend upon the kind of material which can lie obtained. Should the stone be scarce or costly, and the quality such as to warrant the introduction of masonry of the best description, the vertical wall may be found to be the most economical. Where freestone is to be used, it is not only desirable that it should be got in large blocks, but that the face stones should possess consid- erable lurdnesa. This precaution is particularly nec- essary in selecting the stones, for the lower courses, and especially where the beach consists of hard gravel. For the same reason, it Is highly important that all stones which are subject to decay fh)m atmospheric in- fluence should be either entirely rejected or assembled in the upper courses of the parapet. Whera the materials ara al)undant, but of an un- workable nature, a long tulus wall will generally Ik found most economical. Kor such walls the rate of slope must depend very much U|hiu the expusur* of tlia pliicn, and u|inn the pleotifuln4issof riililile-stone heart- ing. The eunlly-dressvil and naturally Hut-bedded nuUerlala, wlilih thu strutlllud rock.'< of the secondary' fiirmntion vi'iy often furnish, arc (iH|H)clitlly u|iplii'nlile for the construction of vertical wulls i while the un- couth blui'hii (if the primary and igneous I'ormntlons are bettor nuiiiil fur talus walls. Such rocks as gne- iss, the schJHt.i, liiisultH, greenstones, aiuygdulolds, and the tougher kinds of granite, ara lient lltted fur this purpose. With soma uf those rocks the angularity of the pieces, and the excessive difficulty of dritimlng, render It necessary to assemble them witliout iiltnust uny alteration of their sliu|iu, liy an udupt'atiou uf tlicir salient and rc-entrunt ..ngles, so as to make a kiml of rundom rublile face-work. In this kind of work, mortar is very seldom employed. The parapet gen- erally conainis (if squared masour}', surmounted liy a lieavy cope, and it should in every case be set In good lime mortar. Where the materluin are light and of small sixes It is desirable to equalize the action of the sea over the whole work, and not to conceutrute It against any |mr- ticular place. Mr. Kussell states that the cycluidal form was recommended for this purpose by Franz tierstner, of Bohemia. The only instance with which we ara acquainted of the adoption of this curve was in a sea-wall erected at Trinity, near lidinlmrg, by the lute Mr. Kuliert iitevenson, in 1822. It hus been al- ready stated thiit Irrespictivo of the quality of the masonry, tho two points in the structure which are weak or dangerous are the top and bottom of the wull. With a rocky Ixittom the risk of failure ut the founda- tions is removed ; on the other hand, where the shore consists of rotten rock, moving shingle, or sund, it Is obvious that provision must be made for both those sources of evil. In fact, If wo consult the hist'>r}' of our harbors, we shall And that by fur the most fre- quent cause of damage is the reaction of the sea against the shoru. The general slope of a fragmentary beach must de- pend upon the size and nature of the particles and the force of the sea. The dissimilarity between the slopes of a beach near the levels of high and low water, ari- ses from a decrease in the force of the waves, owing to their being broken before they reach the high- water mark. Tho great object, therefore, is to design the proflle of our wall so as to alter as little as possible the symmetry of the beach. Whore isolated rocks or large boulders are seen projecting above tho surface of a sandy beach, there will generally be formed around them hollows, corresponding in dopth to the kind of obstruction which the rocks present. The princijial point in the design, therefore, must be to avoid great and sudden obstructions to the movement of the water. The best form which could be adopted in any situation would of course be the same as the cross section of the beach itself, but this would answer no possible purpose ; and, as the wall is to consist of heavy blocks of stone in- stead of minute particles of sand, it is clear that a much steeper slope may be odopteil than the profile of contervaney of the coast, provided the lower part of the elope be flattened out so as to meet the sand at a low angle. The action of a bulwark is to arrest the waves before thoy reach the general high-water mark, and to change the horizontal motion of the fluid particles to the vertical plane, or to compel the waves to destroy themselves on an artificial beach consisting of heavy stones. To prevent underwasbing, the two following requisites shonld therefore be as far as pos- sible secured: — 1st. The foundation courses or bot- tom of the wall should rise at a very small angle with the beach, so that their top surfaces may be coincident with the profile of conservation of that portion of th« HAR 040 HAR iMaeh nut at whirh thn wall aprintrii '(I' Th* nnt1ln« of thn wnll nhDIlId Im mirh im %n itllow thn wnvii tn piiiin onwnril withniit any kiuMi'ii rliprk till It nhnll hnvx r»nrhp(l thn itninKC't [iiirt nf thn wnll, whIrh »h(iiilil Ixi an fur frnm thn fiiiiinlnllon na |Kiind tii think that a hiirlznntiil, or nnarly hiirUmilal, wall, I'cmnwtnd with a vi'rtli-al imn by a i|iiadrant of n ilroln, may lie fiiunil miltald*. Siirh a fiirm will provi-nt, to n mniildi raldn nxtnnt, thn daiiKnr iif martlon, hy iaii»lii({ an altnratlim In thn form of Ihn wnvn nt that part wlmrn thn wall l« nfronn'- •ut and at the ({rnatniit dintani'n from Ihn ton or rurli- coiirno. Whnrn thn niatnriala urn almndant and of a roiiKhnr naturn, n i-yrloldal wall, with vnrtlral and hnrlionlul tan)(nnta, aoninwhat nlmilar tn that nrnrtnd at Trinity, to whUh wn have already refnrreil, may Im ■Hoptnd with advanta^v A npnrlal ratitlon may nut Iw out of plaon mgardlnn elayny liottomn. Many am a|it to «Hppo«o that thnm can Imi no Imttpr foundation than clay ; and It la Indnnd tniB that mimn klndu of hanl rlay form n aatlafactorj' iulmdl. Ilutthnrnamothnraof a >nftnrklnd, and p^r- mnatrd liy naiidy Im>iI«, which arn nxtmmnly trnai'hnr- oua. If them lin thn ullj^htoiit dip snawanl, thnm In alwaj-a a rink of any plnr that may Im liiillt on auch n bane alippluK '""Illy into thn una. Thia hojda pk- ppcially trim of Inland lorka, wbnrn thn aiilea vnry oftnn alope aiiddnnly. In onn inatanen, thn partlciilara of whii'h wn ); t im thn aput ahiirtly after the accident, a pli r linllt c a dnyny bearli, alopluK tmlow wntnr at the riito of oiin in 12J, aiiddnnly tm^nn to movn, and after two hours it hud iilippnd acnwunl UiO feet, and had liy that time doacendcil liodily a height of iH feet, thn top of thn pinr lieinf( tlien no lean than 211 feet be- low low- water aprin^ tides, Cunntmiinn of Ilnrbort.—Owr apace will not admit of ciiir Kolnjj much further into the aubjnet of the con- •truction of harlmra than thn fnw remarks wo have aire idy made, A knowled)(e of sncli matters may, to •omo extent, be acquired by a careful peruaal of the published histories of marine works ; but, after all. It must lie confessed that thn only valuable teacher In this wide practical field Is fxprrimf. It Is, in truth, Imjioaslble to lay down any (fenera! rules of (guidance IS to matters of this kind. All that .in tie done with- in our space is to notice very briefly s"nie of the mom Important metho'« .Icriiww i,/ Itamt-i/dtr Hnrbnr published In 1721, «iiere it wa< lirst applied by him hi harbor works. The dlvinp-helmet Is a moat useftil •nd convenient modltli^ation of the diving-liell, and is now verj' generally eiBpIoyed. Of late years, the use of btUm as a substitute for backing has Iwen intmdiic ed. This iirtlflcial concrete Ib sometimes used in enormous masses. Wo have seen at Chorluinrg bloe again similarly employed. The proportions used at Cherbourg liy M. Kelieille were two of sand or fine gravel to one of Portland cement. We may also mention that the method < f assembling ■tones on their edges, inateail of on their beds, which formerly wai in use in some old Scottish harbors and aea- walls, as at St. Andrews, Prestonpans, etc., de- lerves to he more generally known and adopted from Its superior strength. Thepro|Ki8aI of Mr. Bremner, of Wick, for putting in th« fcosdationa of low-water piers also merits no- tice. Mr. Dmmner pm|io«na tn eanitmci. In Mm* »^. Joining place of ahnlter, nnonnoiis pontoons of limber, on which Ihn under parts of the work an: built, iinil af> terwani floated to the deaired s|»it in favoraldn weather, and camfully grounded. Nucli a pliiu might, w« have no doulit, be founil economical and Ulehil In aoinn litii. atlona. .\tr. Hrnilrrn Mrlhml.—Mr. Kenilel has introdiii-nd an improveil method of iMenililiiV)( thn ;i> iliiit or rubble used In thnconalrm tlunof large lim>ik> waters; this inethixl hn employed at Mlllbay I'ler, near I'lymoiith, in 1N:M, in a depth of IW feet ; linil hn li a| present caiTyIng out the same principle una atlll larger scale, in thn construction of thn breakwaters at Holy, head and I'ortland. Tlie improvement ronaiats in ile> IHisltlng tlio rough materials fnini stagings elnvaled • considerable height aliovn high water. The stones ar« brought on thn staging In wagons, through thn lioltomt of which tliny are discharged into thn sea. Tiie prin* cipin on which the stagings arn designed Is that of oft'uring the smallest ponsiblx resistance to tlie sea, thn under-atrui'ture consisting of nothing more than single upright piles, tlinre lieing only one linn of piles for each roadway. Ilnrhovt iif Iti/iiflf.— Mr. Kendel itates : " I use no tlmlier braces of any kind, us thnsn ufTer morn resist- alien to thn ana than strength to the staging. At l'ort> land, Kngland, where any nccidunt would lie a serious evil, owing to our nmploving convicts In the quarries, w« stay tlin piles with iron guys, fixed tn Alitchel'i crew nUKiriiigs, and also truss tlie outer piles in each row with iron rods. (V'o also fix the piles In th« ground with n screw. At Holyhead, h< wever, wa only attach to each pile boxes tilled with si nill stones, for the purpose of getting them into a vorti<-al )iosltlon, and use nu stnys or guys of any kind. The su|)nr- atructuni consists simply of bulks of timber, with ralll laid on thoni to carry I he wagons. Thn iiiles ara plucod In rows !I0 fovt upnrt ; and thn ease and certainty witli which the staging is constructed Is such tliat a length of ilO feet, Including the screwing tn of the lilies, the laying down of tlio roadways, and all minor works necessary' to make them tit to carry thn wagons, never occupies more thun onn working day and a half, and often less. The length of thn piles that wn nrs now using varies from H4 to 90 feet, thn depth of wa- ter at tioth Holyhead and Portland lining about It fathoms. " Of the strength of thn stage you may Judge from its carrying on cacli roadway as much as threo wugons, weighing' in the gross 12 tons each. The advantages of thn stiging are obvious. It contritiutes greatly to the cunsoliilutlon of the stone, it makes a greater length of breakwater to bo under construction at the same time, and it enatdcs the deposits to lie carried on with- out interruption almost in thn heaviest weather. Al an instance of this, I may remark that my resident ut Portland informs mn thnt the wagons and locomotives were engaged yesterday ut a time when such a .sea was running tlint large liodiea of spray worn thrown fi.'i feet above the water-level. As a proof of the facilities which tlie stage alTords for rapidity of construction, I should state that we have deposited this year at Holy- head, where free lalior Is employed, nearly 1,000,000 tons of stones. The loss from ucddent to the stugn Is comparatively small on its first cost, and when spread over the coKt of the wliole work it is a mere trifle. I find the sea-slopes are, in the deep water and exiHised parts, from five ami a half or six to one between six feet above high-water, and from 12 to 15 lielow low- water, from which point they rapidly tiecomo atiout one to one. The inside slopes are never mure than ono and a quarter to one, and seldom more thun ono to one. The mutcriuls are excellent for our purjiose." Aldemey,JerKy, Dover, amll'li/inovlh. — Mr. Wulker has also contributed some facts connected with tha construction of the great works now going on at J«^ lun 041 HAR u to iRth nme dth- Ai it at lives was feet itlcs m, I -oly- 1,000 {« Is road I nMil six low- It >uut I one lone. Iilker the iJttS my, AMi«m*y, mA lh>v«r. At Aliturnsy, whii'h U ■ very •xiiosml |il*<'», tha hili>. up t>i I 'J runt liulnw low- water, li riirnieil hy ttimaii tiiriiwn, iir rallior ilnipiMMl, In rrmii liitri(»*. I'|< to lnw «at«r, (lie tturk In all ■lone liv illvlMK-lieliMnf*, III* wall la Tarixl nllli K"*'<- Itn, liiiikiiil with iiliii Ii4 lit hrlim iiiarlo iif anilil, nlilliKle, ami riirtliiiKl i'«nii*iit. AIhivm |iiw-wali- |Mt, .Inrany U miii'li III* aaiiia aa Alilierty is varlciuitiy poaausaeil h) harhora of ililTerelit forma, anil ilcpcmla inuiih upon the rulatlva wliUha of the en- trnnoii, nml of thu (nttirhir, the il^ptli of water, the shn|i« of the entrance, ami tlia rnlalhm helwann the ilircetiiin of its opaniiiK aii>l that of the Una of imrimiim tspiwire. The only forrouhi of i h wa ara awafa la that hy the writer In »^ iiulo i illn, Npik I'hii. .Imirnul, 186H), whicli III) apprtialiimthill (Ml by lliu formula may not lie aliaoliitely curre^ I thIa >trill hn no nlijui'thin wliern the ohjei't la roerv, til o)«aln a foinparatlve valuni aa, fur exam- ple^ V. 'omparlng one i|ual|{n for a liartaif with aii- uthiT. When thu piera are lilijli anoiiKli to aereen the tuner area from the wimt, wlieru tha iloptll la uniform, the widtli of entrani's nut very Kreat In comparlaon with the width of tha wave, ami whiin (ha quiiy wnlla are vertkul, and the diatanna i)ot leaa llian M feet — let H = \w\ii\\t in feet of waves In the open aen. X ^ ri'duccil helifht of waves In ftiet at pinca of ob- servation In the liiti-rior of the Imrlior. b =■ lircniltli of entramui to hiirhor In feet, B=lir(!udth of harlior at place uf iilia«rvatl"" in feet. D ==■ distance from mnutlt uf Imrhor l- MirvatluD ill feet. TliU formula baa been founil to n\yu ifooit a|inrof(lma- ttons at several liarlKira wliare the halifhta of thti Waves were registered. When II la aaauMiail aa unity, ir will represent the rtiitwtivt jmuu /• of tha liariiiir, in altiia- tlons whore the highest waves iroas (ha tiarlior month at an oliHiiua angle, * further raitutithin la dun Ui this cauM. We have baan unabU to Unit aujr obMfyattoiM that have lieen m«« 'I'heaa nni't however Ik r«Karileil aa hut approxima- thiiia. It la olivioua that as tlie wave may Ihi iletlei'ted IhroiiKh more than lllli)^', dm curve repreaeiitInK the rediirtloii miiat lie apiral ; hut mora ohservatluna ara wanted to ileterinlne uf what kind. Ikiomn are hiKS uf tlmlair piiii'eil ai'MHS the mouth of a harbor, or the eiitranie to an Inner liaaluoi ilock, havluK their enita secured by proJectinK Into KriKivea I'lit In the masonry on each aide of the entrance. The leioina are dropped into the ^Movea to the numlier of from 10 to '.III, or aa many more iis will Inaura cloae ciintiu't of the hiwest one with a alli-pleie placed in tha bottom of the harlHir, without which precaution tha swell Is found to enter the harlMir from liehiw tha liiHims. I(y thia contrivance, which forma a lein|Kirary wall, the waves are coinplotely checked and prevented from apreadhiK Into the interior basin. 'I'lie longest Ihioiiis we have neon are iiliout 4fi feet ; and In soma placea, as at Hartlepool and Heahniii, in Durliainnhire, they are taken out and in by steam-power. ThouKb perfectly suovrssful in their tramiulllixInK elfect (pro- viiied they are kept In contact with the sill-piiicv ut tha Iniltoni), booms are not suited fur the niuutha of har- liora where there is much IrulUc, as tlie shlppinK and unahlpping of so many lo((s of timber can harilly take b'sa than a quarter of an hour — u delay which mlitbt In may onaeii he attended with serious conaeipieiicns. It is very ileslrablu, anil In some cusex essential, that there b« cithei' a cunsiderablo Internal urea, or else a separate liiisin opjuMito the entrance for the waves to destroy or tpmd themselves. Much a basbi shnuhl, If possible, he made so ns to proserva a portion of the iiri)(iiial sliore fur thu waves to break ii)Min ; and when ciri'iimatunces rvndcreil f hit im|iossilile, there should at louat be a Hat talus i' wo or three to one. Tulua walls of one to one, ,ir steeper, will not allow tha waves to hreiik fully, liut will retlect them in such a manner as might in lome cases make the entrance dif- ficult, or even iluii|,'i'rous, of access, ami the liortluige within unsafe. I'hcre are many instances uf harbors lieing mattTiully injured liy the ea'ction of ii lUiiy-woU across a lieai b whore (lie waves wero formerly allowed to expettil titcir force. It may be observed that when there is .111 inner harbor or atilling-basin, the elliptical form seems to !>•' the most promising. I-et one fuciia be supposed ti' lie on the middle lino of the entrance, and to coini'Mii with the point from which the wavea i'l expanding into tlie interior radiate as from a centre which lliey do approximately) ; and if the other focus is sltiiiitni) Inland of high-water mark, the waves will tend < raassemble at the landward focus, and on their K ••ill be destroyed by breaking (ut the lieach. This appears from the well-known property of the ol- lliwc. that if two railii t-ectores bo drawn from the two fill to any point in the curve they will make equal an- gl> witli the tangent at that point ; and as the angles of incidence and rellectinn of a wave from any olistacle are practicallj" equal, each wave will bo nearly con- centrated at the fucus opposite to that from which it emanated. Inilinfriminate Deepening. — Anotlier causo of disturb- ance in harbors, w'lich is often not suAlidently consid- ered, is the indiiflen quite aucceitful, were rendered noceii- iar>- by the fVequont dred|{lng of the vliannel ut and near the entrance. Artificial Scouring,— T\u pretarvation of the depth of harbors where there ia a tandenuy to du[Hiatt In oiten attended with great diifliiulty and expenne. Where the deposit of silt ia contlned to the apuva between high and low water marka, the acuurlnK ^y nxotis of salt or fresh water is in general viimparatlvely easy, but where there is a lioi outside of the entrance the cose becomes moat materhilly changed. The niBcacy of the scour, so li)ng as it la not lin|iey conduotlog the water in iron pipes to the Iwr, n plan which the author proposed in 1848 for Ilynisb harbor, but the expense was considerable and the auoceaa doubtful. When the volume of water lilMirated ia great compared with the (Unut or channel through which It has to pass, the objection baaed on the atagnancy of the water originally occupying the channel iloua nut hold to the same extent as when the acouring la to be produced by a sudden finite momtnlum. In thu one caae the acour- ing power dependa almjiiy on the quantity llliornted In a given space of time, while In the other It depnnds on the propelling head and the direction in which tho water leaves the sluice. Mr, Koiidei's schema for Birkenhead was on tho former principle. The flrat example of artitlclul acouring in this country acems to be due to Smeaton, wlio uaod it elTectuully at Itamagate in 1779. At Bute Dockti, CardllT, Wulea, dealgned by HIr W. Cubitt, the acceaa to the outer liaalil la kept (i|i«n most successfully by means of artitlclul acouring on n gigan- tic scale. The entrance was cut through mud bunks for a distance of about three fnurtlia of a mlln seaward of high-water mark, 'i'lie initial dlachurgo whrn the reservoir is full, ia stated to lie 2fiUU tons |H'r minute. The writer has known even ao limited a discharge for an hour or two as one ton a minute, proe afterward stated roganllng the llnbllity of timber to speedy destruction from tho marine worm, and to iron by chemical action, It la obvious that float- ing structures of wood, connected by Iron and moored by iron chains, can not possibly bo of lung duration. If to all theae sources of evil wo add the risk of their being broken by the sea, we think the case may bo utmost reganied aa hopaleaa. No doubt green-heart might bo employed so as to resist the ravages of the worm, l)ut its high specific gravity and ita great ex- pense would prove bars to Ita employment, Sutpetuion Pi «. — In aomo altuutiona where there la a long shallow ,. m forming acoumuUtiout cf .saud, allt, or gravel. These advantages ai«, however, much n. duced by the great wear and tear conaeqaent upon the perishable nature of the structure. The late Sir Sam- uel Brown erected two chain piers, the one at Brighton, and the other at Newhaven, near Edinbnrg, both of which are atUl in eziatence. Adixmtagti qftwo £tUraiice» to a Harbor. — In every situation where it is easily practicable to moke two en- trances to a harbor, it will be found well worth the extra expense, provided they can be so placed that the one shall l>e available when the other has l>ecome difil- cult of access. In harbors which liave but one mouth, vessels are often detained for a great length of timn by the continuance of the wind in the direction which throws a heavy sea into the entrance. Whereas if there are two entrances situated as we have supposed, vcsaels are at once able to take their departure by the sheltered side. At the port of Peterhead, the north and south harlrars were some years ago united by a canal, according to the writer's plans, and there the advantage has been of the most marked description. Vessels can now clear out as soon as loaded, either by the north or south mouth, according to the state of the sea. Some caution is necessary, however, as the run la apt to extend from the one harbor to the other unless there lie a considerable area. Harbor Hepairt. — There is generally much prudence required in tho alteration or repairs of existing marine Works. The risk of having tho whole structure de- stroyed by a gale coming suddenly on while there is an open breach in the works, must be obvious ; and in one instance, where the exposure of the place was great, and the evil was a hidden one, the' writer could not recommend the facework being disturbed. The cause of failure in this instance was supposed to be the decay of the Imcking, which havmg deprived the face-stones of support allowed them to l)e driven in- ward by the force of the waves. Instead of removing the face-work, the only recommendation that could be given was to Inject the whole pier with fluid cement, so us, if possible, to render the mass monolithic. An alternative of this kind is obviously of very doubtful success, and can be regarded as nothing short of a last resort, for there is but a small chance of getting the Injected fluid to permeate the whole mass of the pier. The system of permeating the masonry with fluid matter could, however, be employed with more chance of success in thejormation of a pier, while each course lies open to view. In 1844, at a harbor that had stood for very many years, two or three faulty stones had lieen incautiously taken out of tho. facework by a mason who intended to replace them by others, when a sudden gale came on, and nearly the whole of the work was leveled with the beach. As an example of the suddenness with which the ouatern coast of England is visited by gales, rnd as in- dicating graphically the relative eligibility of tho sum- mer and winter months for carrying on harbor works, we givo the accompanying diagram of the heights of waves, as observed for the writer, liy Mr. William MIddlemiss, resident engineer at Lybstor harbor. (See next page.) 7'imber Piert. — In landlocked bays, where a deep- water landing-place is all that is required, and where the bottom is sandy or soft, timber may be eniploj'ed with great advantoige. Even in exposed situations, timber can also be used, but the fatal disadvantage attending "its employment in most places whore thoro la no admixture of fresh water, is the rapid destruction occashmod by marine worms. The damage occasioned to harliors In this way is noticeiy well, although suffering at last. The kyanizing fluid and other preparations have been tried, but were not found to be of permanent service. In addition to these experiments on timl>er, no fewer than 25 different kinds and coml>inations of iron were tried, including specimens of galvanize! irons. Al- though separate specimens of each were tried in places where they wore always under water, and also in places where they were alternately wet ond dry, yet all the ungalvanized specimens were found to oxydize with much the same readiness. The galvanized specimens resisted oxydation for three or four years, after which the chemical ' action Tvent on as quickly as in the others. Green-heart timber is now generally had recourse to ■ in places where the worms are destructive. It ap- pears to have been first used by Mr. J. Hartley of Liverpool, who published in tho Minutes of Inttitulion of Civil Engineers an account of its virtues in 1840, as ascertained at the Liverpool Docks. Its cost is con- siderably greater than memel or than most of the other timbers generally used. Memel logs for the inner piles of piers might, perhaps, from their not being ex- posed to abrasion firom ships, be clad with green-heart planking at those parti which arc ox|>osed to the worm. Copper sheathing and scupper nailing are often and successfully employed as protections for piles in exposed situations, Srenminij or scorching the wood, and afterword saturating it with train oil, also forms a partial protection. It is much to be regretted that timber is so ex- pensive in Great Britain, and that some simple and economical specific against the worm has not been discovered for protecting memel and tlie cheaper kinds of pine. The grand desideratum in the harbor works, which is the want of continuity in the structure, would then be supplied. It follows, from the known laws of fluids, that each individual stone in a pier which is equally exposed throughout its whole length, is subject- ed to a force which it can only resist by its own inertia, and the friction due to its contact with the adjoining stones. The stability of a whole hydraulic work may therefore be periled by the use of small stones in one part of the fabric, wl ile it is in no way increased by the introduction of lieavier stones into other parts. By the use of long logs of timber carefully bolted together a new element of strengtii is ol)viou8ly ob- tained. A pier could be erected almost free of sea risk if constructed of rectangular or other shaped prisms, consisting of logs of timber treenuiled and bolted togetlier, so as to form boxes, say 10 feet square and 30 or 40 feet long. The interior of the Imxes would be filled witli ruljble or beton. The first layer would be arranged across the pier, so as to fit the irregularities of the bottom, and al)ove that, they might be arranged lengthwise of the pier, so as to form its outer and in- ner walls, the space between being filled with common rubble or beton. In many ports the original depth has been decreji.seu by the deposit of silt, sand, and gravel. This is, in- deed, a great evil, and ore which unfortunately is most difficult of cure. So obscur* and apparently ca- pricious are the causes whicli lead to the formation of shoals, that in the present state of our knowledge it would l)c little short of gtiachery to lay down any gen- eral rules for the guidance of the engineer. In fixing on the site for a harbor, all existing obstructions should be examined to ascertain whether there be a tendency to deposit, and the works should be kept as fur as possible from places wliere the tendency is most strongly developed. The agents which occasion Imra at the mouths of harbors are the waves, the tide cur- rents, and land streams, where tliey exist, Ifivera are often more pernicious than beneficial in tlieir effects, especiull}' wliere they intersect a gravelly soil ; but in some cases the descending gravel may l)c suc- ccssfull)' intersected by the erectiim of weirs from which the accumulation? must 1)0 from time to time removed. We agree with Sir II, De la Beche in be- lieving that the bars at the mouths of rivers are most generally formed by the constant tendency of the waves to preserve tlie continuilij of the beach profile. It is, therefore, not to be wondered at, tliat heavy gales should distort and fill up the narrow trench which the back waters cut in gravelly or sandy beaches. The erection of breakwaters on each side has undoubtedly a good effect in protecting the chan- nel, but still a bar is very apt to form outside of the breakwaters. In some cases the depth of the track might probably be maintained by driving, on each side of the mid-channel, dwarf piles to which contigu- ons wallings should be attached so as to confine tho current at low water, Tho timber frame-work should not project more than a foot or two above the bottom, which in some cases might be planked. This, how- over, is but a hint, and has, so far a« the author is aware, never been tried. The principle on which th( proposal is based is that of contracting the low-watei BAB 944 HAB- •IubimI to • HmMUt widttt thin that of the high-water fibiutlHil, •n4 tbtM by 6ning th«r low-water liack, to pravant » tottmim niutnmi, The iame principle waa uio\tM iiy tiM) wribir wttli Rucrenit In eontroUbig and flsiug tba fnniuuUrinun ut « xfavelly river, which la auhjact U) very nmitlmt tuni hmty frenhcts. Tiia vnu4)wmii Tani,*! hmhwh tfia mrrtKHKT kinds or Vluuii wuwtt wt,Hlt M/lcn titu nviUKirt or Uxi-rrimknt AT TDK IUU< iUlll* m IHllrflri1 • for " Vm, m«; Tn. Mu. Yn, «o7 Oru«»-lw»ft., ,,,,,„, ,,„,,,,,, .... 18 Q TBalPwofld,,, ,,.,,.,..-.,, ^ .... 18 0' ** A '«' ^ f»»# 1 III lilt 1 HI 1141 Trsanatl oiimmLi ', ', 1 ', ', ', ', ' ', ', ', ', ', 4 7 li'o ::: so B |li«>f-WIW«| ,.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, m t .... 18 Trf .liull of llHJM^ifood 8 Aftkan Oak,,, ,,,,,,, „,,,,,,,, 4'ii 10 ... " " 1,111111, mil, Hill 6 «' KndUb ".,, 1 1 s'i !;; Tt M 9 4 4 T ... Ih«(»b »'!,','.',\'',',','i'.'.'i'i'.'.'i','i 1 5 ... Kpgibb "kraniMd,,, , Aw«rt«w<>*l(<,,,,,,,........., 4 7 10 9 11 4 7 " » im^'.'i'i'.'.Hi'i 1 « 4 81 8 tUllao " I'liiiiiiiiiiiiii, 1 1 s'a !!! PaiiUta •• „ ,,,, 1 1 9 A *<-m\\ » ,,,,,,, 1 4- aalHfl •♦„,, ,,,,, 9 4 i"8 '.'.'. V\»>M'Mt»»„,,,i,iiiiiii,iii,i,i 9 111 » ,„ 1 A 6"6 '.'.'. BrItUb A*l( » 8 ... A.b 9 11 4 8 KngtIibKIm , .,,„,, 9 11 4 7 " " -.,, , -,.. 1 1 1 A SeoUb » ,,,,,,,, 8 8 Amerii-'aii " ,,,,/.,/.,-., 1 e 8 1 Canada il"* i««M«tM(*»ii*.,,,; 1 A 8 Manwirif,,, 1 A 5 Ittgu »,,,,, ,, 1 1 1 A Uantala " ,,,ii,ii,, 1,1,1,1.1,, 1 1 1 A ... Morway" V ' llaiilB B«4 I'Ifi* ,,,,, 9 4 9 9i 8 1 4 8 " SkymSwA „,,.,.. 9 4 4 7 Plt«bl1»« -.....' ,,.,1,., 9 4 4 8 " .,.. .1. 1 A| 9 A VlwfMl»l')M#„„,„ „,, TelW » ,,-.. 1 1 1 A 1 1» 1 A ... Bad •* ,„ 1 1 1 A ... (Jawilla » --■ 1 11 1 A Aniorlean VmIImw »'(«#, - 9 4 8 7 » Ini'MM irnnwalla » Bwtn«acayluK birt Hitwly 6 y¥»t» and 7 uiontlis after being laid down, « MiKb 4id i|>'i>lifle's Treatise on Building in Water, Dublin, 1776; Royal Tidal Harbor Commissions' Reports, Captain Wash- INOTOM, Tendon, 1846-6 ; the article on Tides and Waves in the Encyclopedia Metropolitana, by G. B. AiREY, Astronomer Royal; Report by Commissioners of Harbors of Refuge, with the Protest, by Sir How- ard Douglas. Good harbors are of essential importance to a mari- time nation ; and immense sums have been expended in all countries ambitious of naval or commercial greatness in their improvement and formation. British Harbors. — Portsmouth, Milford Haven, and the Cove of Cork, are the finest harbors in the British islands, being surjiassed by very few, if any, in the world. Of these, Portsmouth is entitled to the pre-eminence. This admirable harbor is about as wide at its mouth as the Thames at Westminster Bridge, expanding within into a noble basin, almost sufficient to contain the whole navy of Great Britain. Its entrance is unob- structed by any bar or shallow ; and it has, through- out, water adequate to float the largest men of war at the lowest tides. The anchorage ground is excellent, and it ia entinly tnt from tnnkaii locks, sMid-banka, HAR 048 HAR |ow- bari- Ircittl witish ■nee. lb as Ithin 1 the nob- gh- krat lent, nki, or any similar obatructiont. The western side of the harbor is farmed '>y the island of Portnea ; and on its sonth-wostem extremity, at the entrance to the har- bor, is situated the town of Portsmouth, and its large and important sulmrb Portsea. Here are doclcB and other estnlilishments for the bnilding, repair, and outfit of ships of war, constmoted upon a very large scale, and furnished with everj- convenience. The fortifica- tions that protect this great naval d6pAt are superior, both as respects strength and extent, to any other in the Icingdom. " Thus," to use the words of Dr. Camp- bell, " it appears that Portsmouth derives from nature all the prerogatives the most fertile wits and most in- telligent judges could devise or desire ; and that these have been well seconded by art, without consideration of expense, which, in national improvements, is little to be regarded. Add to all tliis the strildng excellence of its situation, which is scch as if Providence had ex- >re8sly determined it for that use to which we see it applied, the bridling the power of France, and, if I may so speak, the peculiar residence of Neptune." Portsmouth harbor has the additional and important advantage of opening into the celebrated road of Spit- head, between the Hampshire coast and the Isle of Wight, forming a safe and convenient retreat for the largest fleets. Hilford Haven deeply indents the southern part of Pembrokeshiie. It is of great extent, and has many subordinate bays, creeks, and roads. The water is deep, and the anchorage ground excel- lent ; and lieing completely land-locked, ships lie as safely as if they were in dock. Cork harbor has a striking resemblance to that of Portsmouth, but is of larger extent ; it has, like it, a narrow entrance, leading into a capacious basin, affording a secure asy- lum for any number of ships. Plymouth, which, after Portsmouth, is the principal naval ddpot of England, has an admirable double harbor. The roadstead in Plymouth Sound has recently been much improved by the construction, at a vast expense, of a stupendous breakwater more than 1,700 yards in length. This artificial bulwark protects the ship lying inside from the effects of the heavy swell thrown into the Sound by southerl}' and south-easterly winds. London stands at the head of the river ports of Groat Britain. Considering the limited course of the Thames, there is, probably, no river that is navigable for large ships to so great a distance from sea, or whose mouth is less obstructed, l>y banks. London is mainly indebted for her unrivaled magnitude to her favoraldo situation on this nol)Ie river; which not only gives her all the advantages of an excellent port, accessible at all times to the largest ships, but renders her the emporium of the extensive, rich, and populous country comprised in the basin of the Thames. The Mersey, now the first commercial river in the empire, is tnore incommoded by banks than the Thames ; and is in all respects inferior, as a channel of navigation, to the latter. Still, however, it gives to Liverpool very great advantages ; and the channels being well buoyed and marked, the largest ships have little diffi- culty in reaching the port. The principal channels are laid down in the map of Liverpool and its environs attached to the article Docks, Encg. Brit. Bristol and Hull are Irath river ports. Owing to the extraordinary rise of the tide in the Bristol Chan- nel, the former is accessible to the largest ships. The Humlier is a good deal impeded by bulks ; but it also .s navigable as far as Hull, by large vessels. The Tyne admits vessels of very considerable burden as far as Newcastle. Sunderland, at the mouth of the Weir, is the principal ship-building port in the United King- dom and has, after Liverpool and London, the greatest amount of shipping. The shallawness of the Clyde from Greenock up to Glasgow has been a serious draw- back upon the commercial progress of the latter. Laigs sums tuiv* been expended in attempts to con- tract the oouiM Md to deepen the bed of the liTW) Ooo and they have been so far successful, that sbtps draw* Ing 19 and even 20 feet have come up to the city at high water. In 1852, 74 vessels drawing 17 feet of water, and 18 drawing 18 feet, arrived at Glasgow, which is now one of the principal commercial ports In the empire. Generally speaking, the harbors on the east coasts, both of Great Britain and Ireland, are, with the exception of the Thames, verj- inferior to those on their south and west coast. Several harbors on the shores of Sussex, Kent, Lincoln, etc., that once admitted pretty large ships, are now < :ompletely choked up by sand. Large sums have been expended upon the ports of Yarmouth, Boston, Sunderland, Leith, Dundee, Aiwrdeen, etc. Dublin harbor being natur- ally bad, and obstructed by a bar, a new harlrar hat been formed, at a great expense, at Kingstown, with- out the bar, In deep water, — See Tides. Portt. — The reader will find the principcl commer- cial harbors described in this work (it considerable length under their respective titles. The principal French ports for the accommodation of men-of-war ore Brest, Toulon, and Cherbourg. The latter has been very greatly Improved by the construction of n gigan- tic broi'.kwater, and the excavation of iuimense basins. Besides Cadiz, the principal ports for the Spanish navy are Ferrol and Carthagona. Cronstadt is the princi- pal rendezvous of the Russian navy ; Landserona, of that of Sweden ; and the Holder, of that of Holland. NUMDUR or IlASBOnS IN TUB DIFFmiBNT STATES ON TH* Coast, and tue fuincipai. ones on Kivehs to tub IIeai or Tide. SUtea. No. of tuirbon, Maine 62 New Hsmpshlro 8 Massachusetts 51 Khode Islaud 7 Connc.itlcut 33 New York 27 Now Jersey 14 Ponnsylvsnta S StAtci. No. ofhu-borh North Carolina 62 Soatb Carolina 21 6eorf;la 15 Florida M > Alabama 4 Mississippi 19 Louisiana 88 Texas li 189 Delaware 8 Maryland 11 Total 488 Virginia 22 Table SnowiNO the Suobe Line or States on the At- lantic Coast and OuLr or Mbxico. Maine Now Hampshire. Massachusetts. . , , Rhode IslaDd..., Connecticut Now York New Jersey Pennsylvania Delaware Maryland Virginia North Carolina. . . South Carullna. . . GoorKla. Florida Alabama. Mississippi Lonlslana Texas Total , I* i1 427 18 209 66 14 114 118 "29 44 148 2!I9 192 76 1,020 83 42 Mllet. 1,699 87 866 168 289 886 702 186 1,003 786 1,649 856 410 8,005 234 206 616 1 1,696 868 1 1,2»1 il II MII61. 427 24 882 282 1,074 1,057 161 100 506 8,401 1,090 032 708 468 860 818 137 986 432 hi III ^^ H Mllei. 2,026 60 1,074 208 263 1,000 620 "i65 1,062 883 1,848 543 466 4,025 817 248 2,211 1,687 Mllri. 2,468 74 1,906 440 1,827 2,067 971 106 671 4,468 2,678 2,780 1,260 954 4,885 8,147 2,069 14,286 I 18,851 83,187 Total northern . Total Bontbem. . Mllao. 9,334 28,808 Total 83,187 For full description of the various harbors In the United States showing depth of water, accessibility, shoals, lights, etc., tlia reader is referred to the cities described separately in this work. See article Coast Sdrvbt : see, also, Hobt's Mer, Mag., iz., vol. U., 309; South. Tit. ifeu., xz., p. 25, voL xL According to an act of Congress, 1818, tlw Presidmt HAB 94« HAB of the United States, with the consent of the State anthoritlea, ii authorized, for the di-fense or aecnrity of any of the ports or harbors of ihe United States in time of war, to sinit hullcs and other impediments at the mouth of such harlwrs, to prevent ^he ingress of the enemy. Uohlap's Digeit, p. 600. Harburg, a sea-port town of Hancrer, province of Laneburg, on the ieft XmnV. of the southern branch of the Elbe, opposite Hamburg, which stands on the right banic of the northern branch of that river. The distance between Harburg and Ha' \burg is al>out 4) miles, and regular steam communication is maintained between them at least six or eight times a day. Har- burg communicates also with Hanover by a railway, and carries on a conftderablo trade, chiefly transit, be- tween Hamburg and the countries soutn of the Elbe. It has manufactures of linen, hosier}', soap, starch, re- fined wax, leather, etc. It is a place of some strength, being surrounded by walls, and defended by a citi^ei. Population, 6600. Hardneu, that property in bodies by which they resist abruion from the impression of any other suli- stance. The method pursued in constructing tables of the harduess of different substances is by observing the order in which the articles tried are capable of cutting or scratching one another. The following table, extracted from Magellan's edition of Cron- stbdt's Mineralogy, was taken from Quist, Bergman, and Kirwon: Sardonyx la Occl. smcthrat,.., U Cryetal 11 Comollan 11 Oreonjaspor 11 Kod. Ycl.do 9 Schocrl 10 Toarniallu 10 Qucrti. 10 Opal 10 ChfTSOIlto 10 7rfollto 8 Finer. T Calcareous spar. . . 6 Gypsum 5 Chalk. 8 Hftrd' Sp«c. gm/. 2 6 2-7 20 27 2-7 211 «'6 %■« 2-7 2(1 8-7 2'1 8-6 2-7 2-8 2-7 Hard- 8|i«o.| neti. yniv. j Diamond, Ormus.. 20 8'7 Pink diamond..... 10 8.4 filnlshdo 19 8-8 Yellowish do 19 88 Cubic do. 18 i-i Ruby 17 42 Pale Ruby, Brazil. 16 88 Rubrsplnoll 18 8-4 D'p blue sapphire. 16 88 Ditto paler. 17 8 8 Tonpz IB 48 ■ftLltlsh do 14 8'B Bobem manu- facture is one of the most important carried < i Great Britain, and from tiie abundance of iron, tin, and cop- .per ores iu the country, and the inexliaustible coal mines, it is one which seems to be established on a very secure foundation. The late Mr. Stevenson, in his elaborate and excellent article on the statistics of England, in the Edinbnrg Encyrlcpadia, published in 1816, estimated the value of all the articles made of iron in Great Britain, at X10,000,000, and the persons employed in the trade at 200,000. Mr. Stevenson es- timated the value of all the articles made of brass and copper at 4)8,000,000, and the persons employed at 60,000 ; and he further estimated the value of steel, plated, and hardware articles, including toys, at £i,- 000,000, and the persons employed at 70,000. So I that, assuming these estimates to be nearly correct, 'the total value of the goods produced from different sorts of metals in England and Wales, in 1816, mtut uve unonated to the sum of £17,000,000, and the persons employed to 820,000. There is reason to be- lieve that tills esti-nate, in so far, at least, as respecti the value of the m>mu£aoturc, was at the time decided- ly too high ; but at this moment it is most probalily within the nu>r)r. There has been a very extraordi- nary augmentation of the quantity of bar and pig iron produced within tho last 16 years ; and the rapid increase of Birmingham and Sheffield, as well as of the smaller seatf of the hardware manufacture, shows that it has been increased in a corresponding propor- tion. We have been assured, by those well acquainted with most departments of the trade, that if to the iron and other hardw re manufactures of England be added those of Scotland, their total aggregate value can not now be reckoned at less than £17,600,000 a year, UiTording direct employment, in the various depart- ments of the trade, for at least 3(M),000 persons. Fall of Prices. — Owing partly to the reduced cost of iron, but incomparably more to improvements in manufacturing-, a very extraordinary fall has taken place in the price of most hardware articles during the last 13 01 18 years. In some articles the full exceeds 80 per cent. ; and there are but few in whicli it does not exceed 3C per cent. In consequence, the poorest individuals are now able to supply themselves with an infinite variety of commodious and useful articles, which, half a century ago, were either wholly un- known, or were too dear to be purehosed by any but the richer classes. And those who reflect on the im- portance of the prevalence of habits of cleanliness and neatness, will readily agree with us in thinking that the subst!ti''icu of the convenient and beautiful hard- ware and earthenware household articles, that are now everywhere to be met with, for the wooden and horn articles used by our ancestors, has been in no ordinary degree advantageous. But it is not in this respect only that the cheapness and improvement of liard- ware is essential. Many of the most powerful aad indispensable tool.i and instruments used by the la- borer come under this description ; and every one is aware how important it is that they should be at onco cheap and efficient. See Cutlery and Iron. Dr. Friedenberg in his German translation of Bab- bage'a Economy of Machinery and Manufactures gives some curious information concerning the Berlin cast- ings. Such are the fineness and delicacy of the sep- arate aralKtsques, rosettes, medallions, etc., of which the larger ornaments are composed, that it sometimes requires nearly 10,000 of them to make a pound weight. The gray iron from which they are made may he taken as lieing worth about Gs. per cvt t ; and the following table drawn up from the price-list of a Berlin manufacturer, a few years ago, will show to what ~'' almost incredible height this value per cwt. is increased : Buckles, 8i Inches long by 2^ broad. Neok-chalna, 18 Incbiis long by 1 I broad. In 40 pieces \ Bracelets, 7 Inches long by2 brond, i In 72 pieces pairs f Diadems, 7^ inches high by 5t brood Serliino points, 2\ Inches long by H broad Sevlgne csr-rlngs, 3 Inches long by (i broad, in 24 pieces. pairs Bhlrt buttons. NumlMr to l«wl. 2,640 2,810 2,090 1,100 9,020 10,4S0 88,440 I'rice *aoh. fpercw! ■. d. 2*0 6 8 6 16 6 4 6 6 8 8 sao 880 907 2,029 2,748 2,04S We here find that iron in the form of shirt buttons commanded a market at a price nearly 10,000 times as great us that which it sold for as gray iron ! And about the year 1H20, when the fashion was at its heiglit, the value was still greater; for these iron ornaments then mM for nearly their weight in gold. The great saleable value of these productions has led to a result similar to that which so many other branches of in- dustry exhibit ; obscure manufacturers make molds from the ciists which others had been at the expense HAT Mf HAT / (ce-Ust show uo per I'rice I llpcrcwftl X sso m 1 1 2,029 i 1 2,948 I buttons |mes as Ami [lieiglit, ainonts great I result of in- molcla kxpeas* of dealgnlng and modeling, and prodace inferior and cheap specimens tnm those molds. The real Berlin castings worthy of the name (snch we may presume as those which graced the Great Exhibition), mnst always command a litgh price if sold at all, from the ex- traonlinaiy core required in their production, — Dodd's Curiositiet of Induttry, London, 1866. Haixttonloa, a musical instrument, consisting of a number of glass cups fixed upun a revolying spin- dle, and made to vibrate by fHction applitsJ t'' their edges. Mr. Packeridge, an Irishman, is said to have been the ilrat to use a set of drinklng-glasses, fixed on a table, and tuned to form a scale by putting more or less water into each. They were made to sound by passing a wet finger round their edges. These were improved by Mr. Delaval, and still further l)y Dr. Franidln, and were called "the musical glasses." Their tone is swee*^ and melancholy, and of a peru' .ar timbre, which produces a painful effect on the nerves of some persons. It appears, however, that the use of mu- sical drinking-glasses was described in a worlc (Mathe- malitche und Philomphische Erquichitunden), published by G. P. Harsdorfer, at Nuremberg in 1677. What was called a harpsichord-harmonica, in which finger- kej-s like those of a piano-forte were used instead of direct contact of the fingers with the revolving glasses, was invented by Rolling at Vienna, and Klein at fret- burg. Another harmonica was invented by the Abate Mazzucshi, who employed the friction of a hair-bow to produce the sounds of the glasses, A stringed har- monica was invented at Augusta, in 1788, by John Stein, an eminent organ-builder. It consisted of a double stringed (wired) piano-forte, combined with a sort of spinnet, to he used together or separately. Its pfTects are said to hive been remarkable. Harp, it {?, traced to the earliest nat'ions. David played on tlie harp before Saul. — 1 Sam. xvi. 28. The lyre of the Greeks is the harp of the modems. The Romans had their harp ; so had the Jews, but it had ver)' few strings. The Cimbri or English Saxons had this instrument. The celebrated Welsh harp was strung with gut ; and the Irish harp, like the more ancient harps, with wire. Harpaginea (apvayri), in Ardiqaity, grappling- irons which were fiung witli violence ogainst the rig- ging of an enemy's ship, and, when entangled there, were used to drag the ship within leach, so that it might be boarded to more advantage, or destroyed. Harplnga, the fore part of the wales wliich en- comp.tss the liow of a ship, and are fastened to the stem, being thicker than the after-part of the wales, in order to strengthen the ship in this place, where she sustains the greatest shock of resistance in plunging into the sea, or dividing it, under » great pressure of sail. Harpoon, or Hprping-Iron, a spear or javelin \iscd for stril(ing whales, etc. Tlie gun-harpoon is a weapon used for the same purpose, but it is fired from a gun instead of being tlirown by the hand. It is formed entirely of nietal, and has a chain attached to it, to which the line is fistened. See Scoresby's Arctic Reijiom. Ilarpooner, the man that throws the harpoon in fishing for whales. Hats (Ger, Hate ; Du, Hoedm ; Fr. Chnpeaux ; It. Capeiti; Sp. Sombreros ; Rus. Schlopu), coverings for the head in very gene, • ' use. They are made of very various forms and sorts of material. They may, how- ever, be divided into t'/o great classes, viz, those made of fur, wool, silk, etc., and those made of straw ; the former being principally worn by men, and the latter by women. Hat is a term of Saxon derivation, from haet, a cover for the head. It is sometimes called castor, from its being mude of the fur of the castor or beaver. As a piece of dress, the period of its intro- duction is not certain, although it may with great probability be referred to the early distinctions of Roman Catholic dignitaries. Frois^art chronicles, that it waa " said . to the cardinals, Sirs, advyse you if ye delyrei* ns a Pope Romayne, we h» content, or els we woll maika your heddes reeder than your hattes be ;" from which, and ftrom many other doco- ments, it appears that at this period, as well as for some centuries after, hats were generally of a scarlet or red color, and made of " a fine kinde of haire matted theglther." A " hatte of biever," a'oout the middle of the 12th century, was worn l>y some one of the " nobcls of the lande, mett at Clarendom ;" and Frois- sart describes hats and plumes which "'ers worn at Edward's court in 1840, when the Garter order was instituted. In the diary of Henry's secretar}-, there is " ane scarlet beever hatte" presented on New Year's day, 1448. Even at this early period hats were of varioni shapes, both in the crowns and tb-> brima^ the latter being chiefly bioad, sometim^^i au.rowing toward the back, and a little bent up and scooped in front. In Henry's priv}' pnrse expenses, during his congress with Francis I. in 1620 or 1521, there hi " peid for a hatte and plume for the king, in Boleyn, xV- ;" and in Wolsey's inventory, taken on his resigning the great seal to Sir Thomas More, there are no fewer than five mentioned. The fashion of this article was then much more diversely capricious than even now, as will appear from an extract from Stdbb's Anatomie of Abuses, published about 1685: "Sometimes they use them sharpe on the crowne, pearking up like the spile or shaft of a steeple, standing a quarter of a yard above the crowne of theire heads ; some mr: ;, some lesse, as please the fantasies of their i.-;'onstant mindes. Othcrsome be flat, and broade on the crowne, like the battlements of a house. Another sorte have rounde crownes, sometimes with ')ne kind of I ande, sometimes with another ; now black, now white, now russed, now redde, now grene, now yellow; now this, now that ; never content with one colour or fashion two dales to an end. And as the fashions be rare and strange, so is the stuffe whereof their hattes bo made divers also ; for some are silk, some oi velvet, some of taflfetie, some of sarsnet, some of wool, and which ia more curious, some of a certaine kinde of fine haire ; theso they call bever hattes, of xx. xxx. or xl. shil- lings price, fetched from beyonde the seas, from whence great sorte of other vanities doe come besides ; and so common a thing it is, that every servyng man, countreiman, and other, even all indifferently, doe weare of these hattes." About the beginning of 1700, the crowns of hats were mostly round, much lower than before, and had very broad brims, resembling what are now occasionally called Quakers' hats, the protusive Incumbrance of which soon suggested the convenience of their being turned up in front ; fashion dictated the upbending of another side or flap, and ultimately a third, so that by this progress, in 1704, the regular three-cocked hat became the order of the day, when feathers ceased to l)e usuall}' worn. Near the middle of the 18th centurj-, a round-edged but flat- topped and full- birimmed hat got into very gen>>ral use, and the flat and other cocked hats now dwindled almost into a mere distinction of real or assumed rank. 26 years after this, a very near approach to that of the present times became fashionable, and, within 10 years, altogether superseded the ordinary use of the cumbrous and antique cock. Plumes, jewels, silk loops, rosettes, badges, gold and silver bands and loops, have at various periods ornamented this article of dress ; metal bands and loops being now esteemed proper onl}' to naval and military "men of honor," and the humble liveried attendants on state, rank, and official dignity. The opera or soft-folding hat is the only relic at present in general use of the hats worn by our grandfathers, although it is not improbable that the mutations of fashion may re-introduce the elegant Spanish hat as the precursor, perhaps, of various other styles, as well as the cocked hat, which are not yet entirely discarded. In the Great Exhibition of 1851 several very novel m HAT fit HAT styles of hkt wen introdaced by exUbiton. It U remarked in the Jury Keport respecting them that " in nn article of fashion and of auch conatont use as hat«, it doea not appear to be easy to cliange the habita and taatea of the wearera, or to induce them to adopt a new coatiuno." Until recent tlmea bata were chiefly produced hy the nrt of felting, an art which uome perfonr auppoae to hare l)een practiced li} the nationa of antiquity. It \» thouglit that Uma coacta, uaed fur aoldiora' cloaka and for Lacedemonian hat<<, wna felted wool, but uthora atate that it was only knitted wool. In Koman Catholtc countriea, St, Clement is the reputed inventor of felt. This personage is aaid to have put carded wool into hia sandala to protect bis feet during a pil- grimage, and that the effect of the moisture, warmth, nnd friction converted the wool into a felted cloth. The hatters' annual festival is on the 23d November, 8t. Clement's day. Hat-making embraces two distinct kinds of manu- facture, viz., of/elted and covered bata — the covering of the latter lieing generally plush, felted hats com- prehend two classes, differitig chiefly in the materials used in making — the processor t)eing nearly identical. The lower class is marked by inferior ingredients, unmixed with boaver, and embraces icoo/, plated and ihurt nap hats. Wool liaM are made entirely of coarse native wool and hair etilTened with glue. Before the emancipation act these hots were largely exported for negroes' wear ; but the manufacture is now almost extinct. Plotes have a nap or pile rather finer than their body, and are sometimes waterproof stiffened. Short napt are distinguished from platei by additional kinds of wool, viz., hare's back, seal, neuter or nutria, musqiuuh (Muscovy cat), and are all waterproof stiff- ened. The second class may bo said to comprehend two orders, called ttiifmi beaver hats. The first includes mottled and stuff bodies. The latter term is not used generally, as all atiiffa are understood to Im of this sort when mottled is not expieased. Multl'l bodies are made chiefly of line Spanish wool, and inferior rabbit down or coney wool . Stuff bodies consist of the 1>est hare. Saxony, and red wools, mixed witli Cash- mere hair and silks. Stuff hats are napped, thnt is, coveiMd with pile of mixed seal, neuter, hara's back, inferior beaver, and musquash. Heaver hats are, or ought to Iw, napped with beaver only; the lower- priced qualities with brovm wooma ta!M, •If. From warohouso Not fVom warobonse. Hau, »pi, ■odbopneW, •Ml, bnldi, pUlU, ele. HaU of Air oriUk. |7M "260 n,is4 7,878 4,444 2,879 160 4»e 709 2,5(V1 "760 6,(108 2,805 8,821 "295 t(IO,176 «27.847 82.828 i-fit^turtiof Ulk. t206 2S8 80 118,488 2»,7M 1,814 1,187 2,fifi4 1,710 6B 1,680 47 1,494 V,4B6 699 1,095 81 1,042 8,947 955 2,853 Hull of twim-lflftf. t2,02« 148 7,678 2,962 645 1,789 80 820 198 84 19,067 1,088 120 189 1,080 8,784 1,478 2T 601 2,866 1.065 1,429 9,619 870 "B68 120 "'40 $14,117 llAtmnil boBiieU. 120 114,487' $14,117 120 HlATHMaNT SnOWINQ TIIR FoKKIGN lUTOKTS Or IIaTS INTO TUK UNITEE STATES FOa THE YxAR VNDIXO, JiiMR Sflrn, 1856. _ Silk and manu/Aclortt of tllk, Wh«DM Inportcd. .Danish West Indies Hamburg. Bremen Holland Dutch West Indies Dutch OnUna Be turn England Scotland Gibraltar Canada. Other Brit. N. Amer. Pos British West Indies. British East Indies. Frouce on the Atlsntio France on the Medltorranoan^ . Spain on the Atlantic Spain on the Midlterranoan. . . . Philippine Islands Portugal Tuscany Other ports in AlHca. Mexico Central Bepublio New Oranada China. Total Ihls and bonnet*. Hal*, cap*, and boniidt*, flat*, braids, blall*, ate, of^ 1*^' born, straw, thtp, orgrasa, $28 2,881 454 .16,629 275 79,987 282 31 "267 2,558 $16,684 964 51,468 87 101,649 2,248 6,468 SSI ,823 1,427 8,,'*S6 6,262 48 16,965 2(15 887,798 616 149 16,811 3 82 51 8T "81 184^769 $102.ti27 I $221,705" Straw Uatt. — It is most probable that the idea of plaiting straws was first suggested by the making of basket* of oziert and willow, alluded to by Virgil, in hit HAT 940 HAV 48 m 2S « R6 6'i 48 66 »» 16 49 n 1 8 1 S8 1 M ST PI 69 95 na uf s Is said to be (1861), little short -)f 200,000. In 1827, the resident populatbm amounted Co 94,028 ; viz., 46,621 whites, 8,215 free colored, 16,847 free blaclcs, 1,010 colored slaves, and 22,890 black slaves. The port of Havana is the finest in the West Indies, or, perhaps, in the world. The entrance is narrow, but the water is deep, without bar or olwtruc- tlon of any sort, and within it expands Into a magnifl- cent bay, capable of accommodating 1000 large ships \ vessels of the greatest draught of water coming close to the quays. The (Jty lies along the entrance to, and on the west side of, the bay. From its position, which commands both inlets to the Gulf of Mexico, its great strength, and excellent har- bor, Havana Is, in a political point of view, by far the most important maritime sti:tion in the West Indies. As a commercial city, it also ranks in the first class ; being, in this respect, second to none in the New World, Xew York only excepted. For a long period, Havana engrossed almost the whole foreign trade of Cuba ; but since the relaxation of the old colonial sys- tem, various ports, such, for instance, as Matanzas, that were hardly Icnown 80 }'ears ago, have become places of great commercial importance. The rapid extension of the commerce of Havana is, therefore, entirely to be ascribed to the freedom it now enjoys, and to the great increase of wealth and population in the city, and generally throughout the island. JUJO/OVSaaHQXYaC MA^^A3S•A. aMtpstm StucmSkifHurOsu Slual cSiaOs smOriv SJomtkOiomtaCimeen ieXOna ShaiiHSanSllanh e.ClmtJ)Taf/l'ora»Jlami.-i3lilU1ir0U Caxab^, XTu. SoanauUftanflnn.inJitaiansoflmo'YarMijr "SJrdliDjaal/to aluBf K tUttnEngUsh* HAV 980 HAV The iDbnrb K«gU U on tha oppoilte tide. The Mora and Punts cutlu, tha former on the eatt, and the latter on thn weat side of the entrance of tha har- bor, are strongly foi>'.!!td, as is the entire city; the citadel is also a place of groat strength ; the fortifica- tions have lieen erected on such of the neighboring heights aa command the city or port. The arsenal •" dockyard lie toward the western angle of the L .J, to the south of tlie city. In the city, the streets are narrow, inconvenient, and filthy ; but in the sub- urb*, now aa extensive as the city, they are wider and better laid oat. Latterly, too, the police and cleanli- nesg of all parts of the town have been materially improved. The advance of Cuba, during the last half century, has iMen very great ; though not more, perhaps, than might have been expected, from its natural advan- tages, at least since its ports were freely opened to for- eigners in 1800, It Is at once the largest and the bent situated of the West India Islands. It is about 605 miles in length ; but its breadtl^ from north to south nowhere exceeds 117 miles, and is in many places much less. Its total area, exi^ «ive of that of the numerous keys aAd islands attached to it, is about 88,000 square miles. The climate U, generally speak- ing, delightful ; the refreshing sea-breezes preventing the heat from becoming excessive, and fitting it fur the growth of a vast variety of products. Hurricanes, which are so destructive in Jamaica and the Caribbee Islands, are here comparatively rare ; and, when they do occur, far less violent. The soil is of very various qualities : there is a considerable extent of swampy marshes and rocks unfit for any sort of cultivation ; but there is much soil that is very superior, and capa- ble of affording the most luxuriant crops of sugar, coffee, maize, etc. The ancient policy of restricting trade to two or three ports, caused all the population to congregate in their vicinity, neglecting the rest of the island, and allowing some of the finest land and best situations for pi>. th'g to remain unoccnpled. But since a different and more liberal policy has been fol- lowed, population has begun to extend itself over all the I. oat fertile districts, wherever they are to be met with. Still, however, only a very small propirtlon of the best land of the island is under cultivation, and its products and population might be doubled or trtbUu with the utmost facility. The first regular census of Cuba was taken in 1776, when the whole resident pop- ulation amounted to 170,370 souls. Since this period the increase has been as follows : 1791, 272,140 ; 1817, 651,998; and 1827, 704,867; exclusive of strangers. We subjoin a CLASsincATioN Or THi PoptrLATiON Or Cuba AOOoaniHO TO THE Cknbvses 07 17TS AMD 1827. WhIUs Freemulattoes Frea blacks Slaves Total isn. IW,80»;Tl,0ei| 170,870 MftW. j Fflin«l«. I Tola). 168,8i» 14S,8«a 811,«S1 2S,059 «9,45« 87,514 23,904 2S,079| 4S,980 16)).290| 108,652, a9«.»4a 408,»0Si 800,S8^ 704,487 Another census was taken in 1842, according to which the population is said to amonnt to 1,007,620, viz,: whites, 418,291; tne colored, 162,838; and ■laves, 486,491. But it is alleged that both the slave and white population, especially the former, is under- rated in this census, and that the population is, at present (1861), Uttle, if at all, short of 1,430,000 or 1,460,000. The rapid increase of the slave population is princi- |)ally to be ascribed to the continued importation of ■laves from Aftica. In some years, since the peace of 1815, as many as 40,000 bladis are believed to have been imported into Cuba in a single year. Spain had indeed agreed by treaty in 1820 to abolish the trade ; but thia treaty was little lietter than a dead letter, and it la only since 18S6, when a more efScient treaty with Spain waa entered into that tha trade has auti tained any considerable diminutian. But though It li« no longer under the Spanish Hag, it is continued, though to a much less extent, under other flags. At present, however, not more than from 2000 to 8000 negroes are supposed to be annually imported. But though it were to be wished, as well fur the interests of the Island as of humanity, thut the further importa- tion of slaves should be put a stop to, we are not uf tho number of those who think that it would !;« good |M)llcy rashly to agitate the question of the emancipation of slaves in Cuba. Their treatment in that island, us in all the other colonins of Spain, has always been sin- gularly humane ; and the results of their emancipation In Ilayti and the British islands have not been such aa to offer much inducement to the authorities in Cuba to take up this dIfHcult question. It may, no doubt, be forced on their consideration ; and the emancipation of so many slaves In their immediate vicinity will mate- rially increase the difficulty of maintaining the exist- ing order of things. Under these circumstances, good policy would seem to suggest that timely provUlon should be made for the gradual bringing about of that emancipation which is, perhaps, inevitable, coupling it, if that be practicable, with some schemi for insuring the supply of some sort of compulsory labor. Whatever opinion may be formed of slave<7 in the abstract, we believe it would not be difficult to show that It has contributed, in no ordinar}- degree, to the rapid advancement of Cuba, Industry will always be proportioned to the strength of the motives by which it is occasioned ; and In countries like Cuba, of grea: natural fertility and under a tropical sun, where a half or more of the articles indisiHinsable in Europe would l>e useless, it wore absurd to imagine that the inhab- itants, supposing them to be free, should exhibit the persevering industr}' of free laborers in the temperate zone. The dolce far niente is in such countries the summum bonum ; and we believe it will be found that the extensive cultivation of sugar, and of most other commercial products within the tropics, depends on the maintenance of slavery, or of compulsory labor of one kind or other. The people of England may lie but little affected, at least directly, by these consider- ations, and may, therefore, on the principle of Jiatjua- litia- mat cielum, think themselves warranted in using their influence to enforce the abolition of slavery wherever it exists. But to the Cubans, Brazilians, the inhabitants of the southern States of America, and a host of others, this question is of the lust im- portance. Were the slaves emancipated, not In la >v merely, but practically and in fact, the probability is that neither Cuba nor Brazil would, in a dozen years, export a single cwt. of sugar. Why should they do so any more than Haytl? The blacks, were they really emancipated, would bo able to support them- selves in that state in which they wish to Uve, without engaging in any thing like the severe labor of sugar planting ; and under such circumstances it would lie a contradiction to suppose they should engage in it. But it might be difficult, perhaps, to show what good con- sequences would result from such a change. It Is at all events clear that the commerce of the world and the comforts of all civilized nations would be seriously impaired; and it is by no means clear that the condi- tion of the blacks would be sensibly, or at all, im- proved. Besides slaves, the planters employ free lalwrers, mostly of an Indian mixed breed, wiio work for moderate wages. These, however, are little en- gaged in the fields, but in other branches of labor, and particularly in bringing sugar from the interior to tho shipping ports. The articles principally vvported from Cuba are, sugar of the finest quality, coffee, copper ore, tobacco, beeswax, honey, molasses, etc. Of these, the first Is decidedly the most important. But, exclusive of the exports from Havana and Mo- tanzas, considerable quantities sugar la shipped from I 1847 1S48 1849 ISSO ISfil IS.W 18S8 18&t 1855 EAV 961 HAV hdMa- froni Clmfuegoi, Nuevltu, HoIkuId, ManL4nlUa, and other portii ; and ii good deal U alno shipped without entry or payment of duty. We may, therefore, safely add 10 per cent, to the other quantities for tlie omissions now referred to ; whloh will make the total expoi U in 1846, 'Km.SUOiOOO lbs. or 180,000 tons. Since then the pro- duction has considerably Increased ; and the total ex> ports may at present (1856) bo safely c'imated at above 836,000 tons. The consumption ti tne island is supposed to amount to about 20,000, so that its total produce may be taken at from 800,000 to 860,000, tons Next to sugar, coffee was the most valuable vego- table production of Cuba. Its cultivation increased, for a while, with unprecedented rapidity. In 1800, there were l)ut HO plantations In the Island ; in 1817, there were 779 ; and in 1827, there were no fewer than 2,067, of at least 40,000 trees each ! In 1804, the ex- portation from Havana was 1,250,000 lbs. ; in 1809, It amounted to 8,000,000 lbs. ; from 1816 to 1820, It averaged annually 18,180,200 lbs.; and in 1827 It amounted to 86,887,176 lbs. I The exports fron. the other ports Increased with equal rapidity, "hey amounted, in 1827, to 14,202,406 llis.; making, the total exportation for that year 60,039,681 lbs. But the subsequent low prices, or rather, perhaps, the greater attention paid to the culture of sugar, not on'l^ checked the further Increase of the coffee plantatloni, but made several of tliem be abandoned. More re- cently, however, the increase in the price of coffee and the low price of HUgar has occasioned a reaction, and the culture of coffee Is again extending. The es> ports of It In 1848 amr-mted to 17,364,426 lbs., to which 10 per cent, may bo added fur deficient entrlti. Tobacco dilTors much in quality : but the segura of Cuba are esteemed the finest in the world, (^e To- nAt'co). Formerly, the culture and sale of this im- portant plant were motk'>polUed by government t but since 1821, this monopoly has been wholly relin- quished, there being no lo iger any restrictions either on the growth or sale of th i article. The cultivator pays a duty, which, however, is to a great extent evaded, of 1 per cent, ad valo 'em upon his crop, In consequence of the freedom t'lus given to the busi- ness, the culture and exportati in of tobacco are both rapidly extending ; so much so, that the value of the produce of tobacco in 1840 wai estimated at above 6,000,000 dollars, being considoru ily mora than double the value of the coffee produced. Molasses, rum (tafia), wax, and honey, are also largely produced, and form Important articles of trade. See Cuba, 8tateme.-(t or Impobts at tub Port or Havana, fbom Jancary 1 to Srptbmbrii 8(i, 1888, somparid witi' tiii SAMR, fob tiik samb Pkrioiib, IN 1884 AND 1868. [Fboh Oustom-Uocsi Knuu: IS.] Couatriet. United SUtcs.... Hpsin Uther Countries. . Total United States Brlllsh Provinces. . Eurnptan Total United States... South America. . United States. British ProTlnoes.. Total Spain Floub, Barrels. LUMBEB, M foet. ■I Lard. J Quintals, l Hud. suooKB.j Number. ( Oil. Jars... a. 11 .4. lau. 8M 109,484 2,808 117,610 178 120,882 1 II i 120,827 10,004 888 121,027 8.015 109 10,908 10,892 8,124 64,477 68,68« 48,636 87,810 46,020 49,064 87,819 40,020 49,064 808,888 177,786 100,998 Kics. Quintals. >risii, J ntals. I GoDrisii, Qui ■ ■ Jerked berf. I Quintals. 1 Box SIIOOKS. I Number. ( Wine. Pipes.. 77,906 98,948 29,746 26i;696' 19,241 29,188 11,787 60,1 W' 188',789 668,498 89,287 607,782 26,874 IIM. ItiS. "is;ii9F 28,420 1,474 l'A892 18,199 28,171 9,289 60,629- 180,477 888,740 12,788 898,498 28,294 60,089 28,488 7,092 96,689 21,249 24,940 10,811 66,81< 148,477 886,781 , 20,091 I 400,824 16,408 Number and Tonnaox or Vessels wnicii entebed tue Port op Havana pbou Jan. 1 to Sept. 80, lt>S6, N»llon»llly. No. ot veawli. fm 8l'S 9i liO 18 18 Toaaagt. 299,127 87,827 89,675 29,967 8,217l 1,842 Nitll..nsllty. ,««?.' iT«»°^- American Spanish llrltUli French Boigl»a Dutch Danish Bremen Hombiiru Other nntlonn Total 12 14 4 42 8,040 4,498 860 9,8191 1,406 482,867 The table which we subjoin gives the amount of American, Spanish nnd Knglish tonnage employed, with the per centage which each comprises of the en- tire commerce of the port : Ym™. Amerioan. p«r ct. Spullh. p«r cl. Urillih. per CI. 1840 128,848 88 96,888 29 08,206 21 1847 151,174 40 100,888 27 72,278 19 1848 170,817 44 107,707 28 66,214 17 1849 200,069 49 106,188 26 66,274 10 1880 298,299 67 107,280 20 65,186 12 1881 814,046 80 114,216 20 68,308 10 18152 808,120 69 114,888 23 M,427 11 1858 804,133 67 111,029 21 58,824 11 1884 886,993 60 111,823 20 69,586 11 1885 879,827 01 120,881 20 49,968 OS This table shows that the American tonnage em- ployed in the Havana trade, has increased threefold during the lost ten years, and that its amount, rela- tive to the entire tonnage, has nearly doubled, whila both the Spanish and English proportions have dimin- ished in relative importance, and even the absolute amount of British tonnage employed in this business, has fallen off more than 25 per cent. The only other nation which enjoys any considerable share of thU trade is France, The French tonnage in 1646 was 7,213 or 225 per cent, of the whole, and in 1866, 38,- 622 or 6^ per cent. It would appear from these facts, that the United States are raplilly advancing toward a comparative monopoly of tlio carrj-lng trade fl-om Havana. The rates of freights for the last ten years have been subject to great fluctuation, rates to New York varj-ing from 4 rials In September 1849, and August 1855, to 19 rials in March 1854. March and April seem to have been the most favorable months for American freights, and February and March fur Eu- ropean. The ^-early averages of freight show that while 185-1 saw the rates at their highest point, 1866 found them depressed almost to the lowest. From March 1855, when the rate to Cowes and a market was £5 123. i»l, and to New York 19 rials, there was a reg- ular and rnpid fall, hardly checked even by the spring months, l(K) ysnli ; 140 ▼■nu»100 French dls or auneii ; 81 viiru»il0() UrH> bant (Us j lUH v«ra»a>160 llamburK tllii. 1 fWnnKa ^8 IiumIivU nearly, or 10() IIm. Hpiuiish. An armlta of wine ur apiritii>^4'l KnitUah wine KHllon" noitrly. A ho/fihoad of •u^'ir-— iJltiO Ibo, ) k ba^ uf coffeao-i ISO Ihs, I a hoKaheuit uf ni»lai ally higher. There is no oLstaclo wliatever to the estuiilishment of foroignora as mtirchunts In the island. The law says that those who are naturalized In Spain may ftwely carry on trade with tlie snnio rights anil obligations as the natives of thn kingdom, and Hint those who have not been natunillzed, or have a legal domicile, may still carry on trade under the regula- tions stipulated in the treaties in force between the respective governments j and in default of such con- ventional regulations, the same privileges are to bo conceded as those enjoyed l)y Spaniards carrj'ing on trade in the countr)' of which such foreigners are na- tives. In practice, this last condition is not much attended to; as foreigners are allowed to e8tal)llsh themselves as merchants without any Inquiry as to the rights and privileges enjoyed by Spaniards In the countr}' they come from. As to manufacturers and mechanics, the only difficulty tliat can arise regards their religion. On entering the island every stranger is required to find security in the following terms : " I am responsible and Income security in ever}' case for the person and condact of A. U., arrived from C. in the ship D., binding myself to present him if called on by the government, and to conduct him at my ex- pense to any place that may be designated." This security is easily obtained, and, in fact, encourage- ment is given to mechanics, and white people of all classes to settle In the island. After landing It is only necessar)' to apply for a letter of domicile, and to pre- sent a cartlflcate that the applicant is of a respectable character, and professes the lioman Catholic religion. Free colored people, however, by a royal order of the 12th March, 1837, are prohibited from landing under any pretense whatever; and so rigorously is this order •oforced, that such persons, though acting as seamen, •re, on their arrival, taken out of the vessel In which they have come, and are kept In custody until her de- parture, when they are compelled to proceed again on board and leave the Island. The business of a broker k exercised under a royal license, and no foreigner is eligible to the office unless naturalized In the form pre- torllied by law. In ever}' commercial town a certain number only is allowed, corresponding with the popu- lation and trade of the place. In the great cities, the business of merchant is often combined with tluit of planter; and sometimes, also, the importing merchant keeps a shop or storo, where he sells his goods liy ratiUl. The foreign merchants are generally regarded •8 transient visitors, who go there for the purpose of accumulating such a fortune as may enable them to live with soma degree of comfort in their own country. Aa a class they are not considered wsalthy, but they •re almost all in the full enjoyment of credit. Tbe mnoontila eapllal, m wall aa th« proprietary wealth of the island, may Ix lald to ba oimoantrated in the hands of the Craulu. Whan tha emigrants from tha Peninsula maka fortunes in tha Island, thay seldom think of raturning to Kuro|M, Nao Ouma. H»T«n. (iiarm. lu^m.) Tha same as karbor. See article llAiiHiin. ■■▼r«, or Havra Aa OH'SO*. • commercial and atrongly-fortlllsil Miit-|H>rt town of Franca, on the Kn- gllah Channal, near tha mouth of tha Hnlne, on Its northern Itank, lal. 41)" 20' 14" N., long. 0° 0' 8H" K. Population, In INAI, 2M,UM, to which may l)a added S,IKXI or tl,0U0 morn for the vrawa of tha ship- ping conntantly In the port. It waa a saying of Na- poleon that " t'ltrii, ItiiHtn, //< //oere, ne furmtnt qu'untti imt» I'iUn, itiml lit Ntint ut la fframle rut." llavre lieing, In fact, tlio sea-port of Paris, most of the colonial and fondgn prnlucts destined for its consump- tion are lni|>ort«d thltliKr. Nearly double the quanti- ty of goods, estlniiitad by weight, Is annually Imjiorted at Marselilas | but tha total valuii of tha lm|iorts at Havre amounts vary nearly to that of those at the former jMirt, The principal ltii|>ortB am cotton, sugar, colfue, linen thread and Ihien gooor anri prevents tha nccmmulatlon of filth, sand, etc. Cape do la llavn, forming the northern extremity of thfl Seine, lies N.N.W. from Havre, distant about 2J inilos, It Is elevated liUO fniit almve the level of the son, and Is surmounted by 2 light-houses 60 feet high. These, which urn II2A fiint apart, exiillilt powerful fixed lights. Tlioro Is also n lirlillant harlior llglit at the en- trance to th« port, on tha oxtrnniity of the western Jetty. Havre has 2 ruaearliy ('i>iii|iaia N.X.E., the abip may bo brought to nn unohor. " lleaidoa tho live buoya herein deacribed, :)na of leaser dimonaiona haa been mooted on the ahallowa of tlia inner roodate^l, at al)out five cables' length W.N. W. of tho north west pier head. Veaaela of light draught of water ciiining to nn aii< hor in that part of the niad, ahould give this buoy an offing of at leaat one cable'a length." Moat part of the gooda imported into Ilnvro are den- tined for the Internal consumption of Franco. The coaating trade haa increoaed very largely of late yenra, OB la proved by the groat incroaae of French win«a, Boapa, and other produce imported at Paris from Havre, instead of being aent to the capital by land. Tho ceasting veaaela transfer their cnrgnea partly to ateam- cra and partly to lar^n barges, called chalandt, which are towed by stoaiu tugs na far oa Houon, and thence by horaeq to Paris. The foreign trade of the port is also verr extenaive. There annually enter the port about 800 ahtpa from porta out of Europe. Lines of sailing packets are catabliahed betwcin Havre and Now York, New Orleans, etc. A regular intorcourao by meana of steam packets la 7 tt up with London, Southampton, and other port' The entrances to the basina are too narrow to oxmit the paaaoge of tho largest steamera, which have, in consequence, to re- main in the outer port imperfectly sheltered from the winds. Indeed the poit is at present inadequate to the proper accommodation of the great iind growing trade of which it is the centre, and ext naive works have been undertaken for its improvement. There belonged to the port, on the Slat December, 1851, 868 sailing vessels of the aggregate burden of 71,363 tons, ana 32 steamers, aggregate burden 4,259 tons. The onstoma duties which in 1837 produced 18,123,093 franca, had increaaed in 1861 to 26,164,000 franca, The Moneys, Weighh; and iteasuret of Havre are the sitiue aa those of the rest of France ; for which, see articles Bobdeaux, Coins, France, and Weights AKD MEASnBES. Pilotage, — From the outer roadstead 28 firancs per 1st 100 tons ; 26 francs 2d do. ; 23 franca 8d do. ; and the pilot to be fed. If the vessel be boarded nearer the port the charge is lessened accordingly. Boats, flrom 9 to 30 francs ocoonUng to the diatance. Port Charge*. — With coals, 75 per cent, per ton In dock ; 87^ do. in harbor. Qeneral cargo, 2 fVancs 60 centimes if in dock ; 1 franc 66 centimes if in har- bor. Salvage dues, 6 centimes, and 10 per cent. Tonnage do. 66| centir es and 10 per cent No charge for lights, buoys, or beacons. BallaH delivered alongside. — Clean, 1 A'anc 95 cent- imes per ton; common do. 1 Anne 14 centimes do, The ton of clean ballast may be estimated to weigh about 16 or 16 owt. Tha ton of coranion balUit, about 20 cwt. i a cart marked \ metre la one tun ; a cart marked 1 metre la two tana. Coat of removal of ballast landed fhvt'. . 10 for a vesael from oilier eotintrlea. . 6fl| per ton and 10 1 for voswls with p<'r cent . 87^ iicr ton hni Lor duea, . T5 per ton dock dues. J . 1 05 per ton harbor duos, with other cargoes. . 3 BO per l^n dock dues with other carg'a. . A per ton aalvogo duty, Jc 10 per ct. . 1 2A stamps. From 8 fr. 56 0. t. 13 ft. 16 c. for clearancos aoooraing to his ton- nage. One third of the pilotage in If tho vessel Is In ballast. Ono half of tho pllouga la If the vessel takes good*. 9 6 6 80 ' 8 60 per ton of goods landed. 36 " " shipped. Pilotage In. u Boataofhelptn.. Weighing anchors. Weighing chains. . Haulers. . Bridges Ballast nnahlpned , " ahlpped. . . . Board of health.. Tonnage dues. from ?:uropo. cniils only and l-'iOth of their cargoes with hrieks or grindston ^s. Pilotage out . Protoat before the court Afflrmatlon before tho court Gunpowder shipped and unshipped... Brokerage In " out " on bal- last 13 measoremsBt m HAV M4 AOOOVNT ur TRi ANxirii. Urnim or Oomi iktii IIatbi, WITH Ilia AaniiAi. I*ti.iii TM»iu>r, at UN Tiiii Hint I)>i-iiMiiiiii i<< *!< II Yitii, ranii IMI to ml, amu inomtiri, in ♦ Kiu«». «■ roimiM. HAV Tmm. iBIMtl. Mm. Itwk. 'M,*n,NS itn,|iM,W(i lUI HMl.Ull u^'(W INAO n,MIII,MM) m» iin,HU,iM) »\HWt,IIAU A,IW«,H4(> IMH Vll,»lA.AIO ll),(IM,4IO 6,IIIA,I)00 IW l«,)M1S0,(«I0 B,AlKI,IMII) ItM 'i«,IIUII,IMH> U,IUU,IHN) »,Mll,IK)U 1MII 1 II.HIHI.IKIII ITJIMMNM) ll,IKIII,IK)0 IHM i»,iiMi,nn() IW.IWI 1,000 H,WNt,ll IM 1 t,IIIM),INN) iA,nfii),iMii) l,TBO,000 JH* i»,:iWi,iino 8tUH4,flnil ti,Tno,uflo IMT iH.na».niin «l,4lll,8llO R,ll»t.l«IO INM IT.TDH.Mn lA.ITI.fttf 4,il7MMU iMin 1A.4«i,iino 1».N«),WH) a,ii*),oo<) INM l^|y)(l,n()fl l:),l)N(l,()(M) 8,7«l,0OO IMW U.onn.mm 1.\« !«• in,iiM),()no 1S,9HO,(H)0 ii,imo,oi>o IMH i<,«)n,ooo 1MI0O,U0O 1,800,000 AcoovNT or III* AiiiiVAL mroin or Cotton into ItATH, WITH THIS Aknitai, Salki Tiimidir, and Tna Htoi m ON IIaNII on Till DliT IlKI millEK IN lAUU Y«AI rSOM 18B1 to liiltl, llnTII INOMIIITI. Y«Arf. 18M IWI IH*) IS4» 1H44 IWT IMd lH4fl INI4 IH41 \H\ 1881 I Impnrt*. T.r..T 89e,floi iio(i,«7n 8U,Nii7 IW7,I7H all7,oa^ 2(17,ft«0 B2ft,l»llft ltHl,'JS7 li7ll,il.Ml 8'2n,!lt\,%| H70,4i7, Ilft7,sa7| H70,1IW 80S,»48 B.i«n 898,771 ■m.m, 80M,41I7| IMM7S 1W,485, 2ni,.ioo 8ft",4iW' »M.tf>\' H44,»a7 8M, 141, -»,(W7l 0,1 B(I 1,0481 Bloak. Ymh. S8,8}|fl i 1011,171 114,U8ft _?.•'"■_' 11.1". I 1I«,71« Ifll.BlM) l«H,As(l 117,700 1111,4111 lim,n»H mfl,i!i>. 1IM,NI1 1I»,I|N|I 1H.\4H(I 1111,111ft 1IM,1T4 lti8,ft8A Jmk, ltal>i. mi,(sno mi,floo 4A,A00 l«,soo 1-J,IH)0 ; i 'W l.,i/<)0 IH.IMIO 4n,ooo 17,(100 17,IHI. 18R1 8»,11T 14,117 11,400 1889 40,880 Bl,'<80 1,800 1851 18,106 17,018 , 1,400 1888 88,89(1 47,190 7,000 ISAO 11,740 17,1.W 190 1887 ai,7Ni 41. IM 800 I*W »«,4K) 41,710 ,700 1886 4,Ms7 41.7S7 11,800 1*48 88,006 19,066 11,000 18.16 M,M9 8H.M9 »,000 1847 87,880 68.880 7,0IKI 1H84 69,480 00.480 11,000 1H4« 68,000 68,600 1,800 1SS8 60,800 8l.;l(K) 8,000 I'MS 60.IWO 68,800 8,000 1881 40,000 87,000 4,000 1844 49,1100 6'*,6fl0 6,000 1881 88.480 8it.480 14,000 1M8 U,100 M,10lt 14,000 1880 40,810 Ao,8«IO 44.S10 11,000 1*41 64,000 60,000 14,000 lf«10 tVUiOO 7,000 1841 84,7(10 81,160 14,000 isia 60,770 61,170 10,000 1 1840 61,900 46,900 9,800 1 Price! of Commoditiei, Duty paid and in Bond, Du- tut, Tarei, Commercial Allowances, etc. — Tlieu Import- ant particulars may bo loamed by the inspection of the subjoined price current for the 2fith of May, 1853. The duties on some of the articles mentioned in it will, most probably, at no very distant period, be varied. But the other particulars embodied in it will always render it an important document. Duty nUd. Fr. cl. Fr. ct. Aibes, per tSO kIL I'ot, New York 41 0— 4.1 do. Chu BR 0—88 in Fearl, A merino 4T 0—48 Puty on nett weight : by French vessels from Eoropesn ports, francs 90 cent. ; flrom elsewhere, 8 francs 16 cent. By foreign vessels, 11 firanes 66 oent. See exceptions at Mote A. Commerolal and eustom-hoase tare i 12 per oent. Beeswax, per t kU. North American yellow. ...186—1 0—00 WestlndUfalr 1 BO- 0—00 lao- 1 76 0—0 In Bond. Fr. el. Fr. el. 0—0 0—00 0—0 90— 1 16 DO— III 80— M 0—00 0—0 0— 0— 0— 1. 1 in 1 T B7— TO nn— 60 IW— 71 60- TO 0—00 0—00 0— 0—00 o < Duly oa peas wslghl i ysllow, by rrsneb vssssia fhiu Ea ropean ports, Bt cant, i ftrsm sIsawlMr*, 4 141 aenl. ■•• NoU A. l.'oromsreUl lam i ri>sl. DMrPild. h»MS. .... Fr. cl. Fr, ct, Fr. cl. Fr. cl. (.nrnln«ai, per J kll. •Ilrrr (Tnm ord. to Nne Ol— 4 15—6 hliM'k, ditki 0—0 4 T»— 6 in Duty im nnlt wsl|hl i by Vrsnch thhoIs from pUcaa oiil •(f ICiirapn, 17| cent, t frnin nlMwliiirs, 86 rititt. Iiy furi'lKH VMSt'la, 81) cunt. Hae Nut* A. (;ustf, per i kll. m Domingo, from ordl- loO-OO 06a_T0 Torto lllco llavann, from ord. In line.. Ijigilyra and Port Isabel. ... Klu, unllnarr te A. Custom-house tare : on casks, 11 per oent i on bags, 8 par cent. Cointnerrlal tnru : on caaks, real ; on bags, 1 per cent. \ on Mocha coffee the tare runs from 4) to Hi kll. upon bales of T6 to 100 kiln. Copper, American, t kH 1 *!>— I ''8 0—00 Huaalan and British 1 60— 1 66 0—00 Duty oil groia weight : by French vossela from European ports, 1 1-10 cent ; from clHewhoro, 11-10 cent Dy foreign reasels from any port wtmt<;ver, 1 13-10 centa (Deo Excep- tions at Note A, Commercial tare : reuL Cotton, per i kIL Upland OTT— ■! Mobile TT— 1 NewOrlesns OTT— 1 Rea Iiland 1 BO— 8 I'omambuoo 1 0— 1 IB Duty on nett weight: on long or short staple, by French vessels from the French colonies, 1) cent i from Knropoan ports (Turkey excepted), 16) cent : from the East Indies and countries beyond Cape Horn, &| cent ; from other countries, 11 cent . lly foreign vcsseU (except from Turkey), 19) cunt. lly French vessels from Turkey, 8) cent. ; by foreign vus- icls from Turkey, 1.1 3-S cent See Note A. Cuatom-houw tare : on United Stales' eotton, t per cent. : Brasll cotton, 4 per cunt ; on St Domhigo, In bales, 6 per cent ; on Cumana and Caraccas, T kll. per leroon above 40 kll., and 6 kll. per seroon, at 40 kll. and under. Draft : 1 kll. on Sea Island and Bengal ; 3 per cent on Brazil ; 3 kll. on all other descriptions In bales exceeding 60 kll., and U kU. upon balea under 60 kll. Flour, American, per barrel .... — anms, Senegsl, per ) klL 80u- 90 t^Gt India, copsl scraped Shell-lac, orange 66— Tl ditto.gamot BO— TO dltto,fiver BB— 68 Duty on Senegal, gross weight i by French vessels from Senegal, 6) cent ; from European ports, IBf cent ; from elsewhere, 11 cent Bytforolgn vessels from any port what- ever, 16) cent See Note A. CommercUil tare ; on casks, real ; on bags, 1 per cent. Duty on copal, grou weight per BO kll. : by French vessels from the East Indies, BB cent ; (Vom olsewtacre, 11 ft'ancs. By foreign vessels flrom any port whatever, 16 flrancs BO cent. Bee Note A. Commercial tare : real. Duty on ihell-bc, nett weight ! bj French vesiols from tb« 0—00 0— 0—00 0—00 0—00 IT 0—0 (^- 0—0 0-0 0—0 0— u\v 9S5 HAV rcncli jpoin 1 anil trloii, cunt. 1 VCB* «nt. : per Te40 It on ng60 .0 .0 n ,0 rO .0 . I from I from nrhat- loBBOU By I cent. itbs ■(Mt IniflM, VMiM mhI. I frsm tUrwhtm, IH nral, Kr f"' ■Iflii vhmkU ttnm Mif pttt •k»l«Tar, «| Mill. Ha* Nola A. I'omiiiKri'lal Ural raal, IKii ralil ft, al, rr. al, fr. a«. IIM.'a, |i»r t I'll- Miiit.ArrMiiiuiii>>. MiiKiiit ArrMiiii!...!.... MV-. man I'nrnainbiim MM MkU, I n m n an 0— » ft— Hill .laiialrn.,.,., ft IM TD ft— II I'trihaiiMia anil raramma... fl M- ') TO n i»^ n o v..* iirlaana, arat •allml, ,. n n it . il llui|r >in vriHH wkIkIiIi hr I'i'ani'h rraarla frmn r.iirnpaan nirla, l)t 'aiil. I friiin alMwfiara 1| aaiil. Iljr ftiralin raaaala rmm aR|r pari whalavar, n\ aatiL Man Niila A. PIva bull hlitaa ara ailnillli<4 aiiinn* Inn hlilaa wUhoul allow- atii'ii, anil I kll, la allnwril r>ir ararf liiill hlita alxira tliat numliiir In lliu aalanlnf IK i »lian mora llinn Itllhn allowaiiao laaohilliliinal, llopa, Aiiiarlaan, IMI MM mi— n n 0- n llnly ml nail walKlill iiy li'rani'li vaaaala frnin any porl whalavnr, lilt fraiina par Ml lill, lly rnrul^ii raaaala, DA t- nca It aani. Him S.iln A. Onminaralal lara i nil Imlaa, f par aant. Iloraalialr |wr | kll, lliiaiiiia Ajiraa, mliail fton ollH o 0— ft o iiiiiau , n n II 0— ft II liiily ml ariiMi waltflil i Uf frutiah VMaalit M-lOO emi. Ilr llirnlilii vuaaiila, •t\ aaiil, Ha* Niita Ai I'lininiiirnUI lara i raal, Inillirii, piir I kll, llaiilial ft ft-> ft n aiiparllna vlulnl *n4 bliia.ll Un— II Ml aiiii'itiia rliilal aiiil uiirp,,lfl W -In M) a..'.. ..I..I..* 1 r. r , -. Aiiu vliiliit anil piirpia, Hiiiiit vliilal inlililla vIuIdIii,, ,iiiii Una rud.,,, n,, , tfiiiiil rail ,, ,, ),i, ,, Kniid III Alia i>n|ipar , . , . nrillnary lii Inir aiippar, Jara , Xiirpali II I II i< I Mulru ,,,,,, ,,,,. Manlllii ,,, (laraniiaa , , , . , , , ■ , 1 1 1 , , (liialuiiiala Hnra*,, m,,,, aiiliru wllaiita,, , ourtaa. , , , , , ordliiar)! aii4 luw,. II Tft-IO ft » Ifu-v m 1 \k— H n , n To~ n II t ft- T III , « lit— A TB (I Mt- ftilft I T ft -II in , n ft— a ft 4 Ml ft Tn 4 lu. A nn ,4 Ol- T II » TfV- T W A W - A Bft N ft . A Tit , 4 «n - 4 Tft ft— ft ft- 0- ft n— ft ft— ft - ft ft— ft 0- ft ft— ft 0— ftl^'o ft— ft ft— ft n^ ft— ft ft— n ft— erdo. ■ (l-MW) B4 0-84 60 «— ft ft 11.1 0— .14 ft-ft lift ft— :i'2 0— ft III ft— M n 0— ft ft lis ()— ft ft 0—0 t» II— 111 0—0 ft w ft— S8 II 0- 1) !i» 0— M Iiiiljr on iinll traltflil I hy Kranoli riiaiala from placaa of growth out u( Ki|rii|i . '■ o Duly on Halt woIkIiI i liy l^nmuli iwnapli from ■.. ';ujt Indlea, 1 11} cunt, i frmii alanwliurn, 41 1 cniil. Ily fornlgii rcnacla from any port wliiilavur, N) imiil, Hm K«iiiiplloni at Note A. CoiiiniiircUl and miaininlimiaa tarn i real, Lead, Aimrlean, iii-r lift kll, , , , , , « ft— ft BpanUli aii.l llrlilali W ft -M ' ft ft— o Duty oil uroa* wbIkIiI i liy kraiiiili »ii»»cIb from any port whatever, I franca TB a«nt, Ily fHraliili *.i«cla, franca 85 eent. S«e Rota A, Pepper, IlKht, par t kll « T8-- tfl ft- ft ft halfli ayy T« - Aft 0— ft Duty u.i nnit weight I liy ll'raiHili vcmcla from the Ii^aat Indlea, and from iiniiiilrtaa woat of tlopa Horn, M cent! from claowhere, 44 iiuiita, Hy fnrnlKii vitMHila from any port whateyer, ftT) i;uiit, Hea Nnln A, Ouatom-houaij tare i oil lwi|a, A par wtil. ComiiiercUl Ura i on aliiKlK liaita, I par cent, riroimto, oar 1 kll, .lamaloa ,,, ,, I) ft-, ft ft Tft— . TB ToUgo ,,0 ll-^inM 0B4— Duty I by Freiuili ▼eaaal* Oiim Ibn Kaal tnaie), and from eoiinlrioa wuat of tlapa Ham, I4| lm^. | from elaewhere, 49+ cent. By foreign vuaaala, Afli unt. Tarca : aa fur pepper, Quercitron, Iter BO kll, Philadelphia, Jaliwrt,.,,,,, 11 (lft-)4«0 ft 0_ o Baltimore 1« B«=^ll Duty on groM weight i by Vtmuih vawMl* from Buropom porta, A franea M cant i fmrn other munlrlaa, I frtna* W rnni. Ily foreign raaaala from any porl wbatanr, 4 franta IMV r«iit. Nca Note A. Commarelal tare i IK par cent on caakai I par aanl. on baga, lliilr fM. >a ■«i>4. rr. .1. n. a). rr. al. ^t. al. Qulekallrar, par ) kit ft ft- ft llnly on groaa wrighl i by French yiiaaela from any porl whateTcr, 1 1 cunt i by foreign Towela, lH lift eenta, Ihia Kx- eeptlona al Nnta A. INinimarclal tarai real. , HIcc, Carolina, ISM, par Aft kll. .lA BO— .11 BA ft 0- ihmgal, white IB 0— 1« VA 0-00 Duly on groaa weight i firam IndU, by French Tcaaala, i cent ; by foreign vcaaela, 4 franca Wi cent i from elaewhere out of F.iiropa, I franc AT^ cunt, i fToin Kuropean porta, U franea BO cent Commercial Uri I tl par eant on oaaka, and 1 per oent on baga. • Baltnetrc, F. t., per BO kll f> 0- ft IW ft— AT ft Nllrala of aoda ft 1^-0 S« BB— '.'A ft Duty on groaa weight i by French veaacla from Kaat Indlea or the Mouth H ",a, 65 cent i from Kuropean porta, 11 ct-.nt, Uy foreign reaai^la from any porl whaterer, U franca 7B cent, i by foreign Tefii la from counlrlca out of Kurope, 4 frmica I'J) cant ('omnieri'Ul tare : A kll. per double b \^^ of the niatomary form, for a, . . etre. For ii' >a of aoda. 'J per cent, and J per eant. allowance for dam i.u of baga. HVIna, deer, each 00— Oft fto_ft0 Duty per Bii kll. on . -'>v^ ir. ighl: by French vcaaela from any port whatever, BC, '-^ul Uy foreign veaaela, U0{ cent Hi'o Note A. Hpellcr, p," BO kll. 18 Duty 11' , ,. . rolghti 5| cent*. perBO , Sugar, |H Ml kii Miirt nnd (l.'..d. bonne 4o. .60 lUvu a, whits yellow brown Porto nico, Cuba b. 4o ft Uraill, whito ft brown and yellow Manilla Duty on nctt weight! foreign augara by French veaacli from the KaHt Indlna almvo typo, 81 franca ItB cent. ; at and under typ, 20 franca TO cent i from Kuropean porta, H franca ltd i -nt. more! from elaewhere, above the typo, 1)8 fruiicai at and under type, 81 franca it> cent per BO kll. IOe. ituiuded. By foreign veaacla above type, 41 frnnca SB cent ! at and under typo, 80 franca cent ; from everywhere, per BO klL, lOe Included. Cu^tom-huuae tare ! on cheata, 12 per cent, i on alnglo baga, 2 per cent : on double baga, 4 per cent Commercial tare : Havana and 8t Yago cheata, 13 per cent. ; Braitl, IB per cent i on caaka, IB per eent ; tiercea, A per cint : barrela, 10 per cent i 2 per cent on Uracil, and B per cent on Manilla baga. TuUow, Rnialan, per BO kU OO 0—64 ft ft- New York 0—00 PlaU m 0— «0 0—0 Duty on groaa weight : by French veoaels from any port whatever, 11 franca. Uy foreign voasela, 14 franca 30 cent Oee Note A. Commercial tare : 12 per oent Tom Japontca, per BO kll. brown 4A 0-60 0—0 yellow 40 0— BO ft- Duty on groaa weight : by French voaaelB from East Indies, B^ cent i from Kuropean porta, 10 franca 80 cent ; ttom elae- where, 12 1-10, By foreign veaacla, 2'i cent See Note A. Commercial tare ! real. Te**, Imperial, per t kll 0—0 Ounpowder ft 0—0 Hyaon 0—0 YoungHyaon 0—0 Ilyaonakln 0—0 Pokoe ft 0—0 Bouehong U Pouohong Duty on nott weight : by French veaacla from the Eaat Indlea, 824 eent. ! from China, 66 cent : from elaewhere, 2 franca TB cent By other veaacla from any port whatever, 3 franca 30 cent See Note A, Cuatom-houae and commercial tare : real. Tln,atraltandbanca,p.B0kU.110 0—122 BO 0—00 Brltlah IIB 0—120 Bonth American 100 0—110 Duty on groaa weight ! by Frencb veeieli) ttom th« E«al 0—4 0—0 2 10— B BO 2 0— B 60 a 0— B 1 0— 2 60 1 80— 2 60 S 6ft— 8 1 25—4 BO 10—20 HAW 058 HAY Indlci, 6^ eent i from olMwhara, 1 flniM 10 omi Bjr fonlga TciMla ftrom Rny,port wlmtonr, 9 fnnet SO WBt par, 8U kU. See Ezcepllona at Noto A. Commerelal tare i on CMka, reaL Diiljp I'alil, In ll-0 Polar and north-woat 9 fiT— il DO 0—00 Duty on groaa weight i liy Froneli riiMiila from nnjr port whateTor, 10^ cent. Ily forulnii riiwiila, lUt eaaU Commcroial tare i roal. Allowanov, U per cent, on ilulii. Wooda, per fiO klL Logwood, (JampMOllT 10 0— 10 M 0—00 Ilonduraa T M^ 0—0 St. Domingo « SOl. T 00 0—00 Fuallc Cuba » 0—19 0—00 Cartlingenit BO— T M 0—00 Sta. Martha 1« 0~m 0—0 * Pomambnco HO 0— TB 0—00 Jacaranda 0—0 0—0 Dntjr on groaa weight i nraall, hy Frennh tmmI* fTnm Kii- ropean porta, 4 franca OB emit, i from olpwwhcre, il franca IS eent By foreign Tonicli, franca AO cent. Other dyo-woodi by French veaada from the French colonint, 44 cent. ) from European porta, 2 franca TB cent, i from olaiiwhore, HH cent. By foreign vcaicla, 8 franca 80 cent. See Nolo A. Allowance, 1 to 2 per cent ExTLANATonT RniASKa.— The nbOTC diitlca Include the ■nrtax of 10 per cent, i the cnatom-hoiian adnilti tho ronl tare vhcnerer the Importer deairea it, iV'ofe A The treatiea of reciprocity entered Intn with the eountrioa hereafter mentioned, intrudum tho following do- Tlatlona Trom the aljovu ratea of duty i ITnited Stateii.—T\n> produce) of tho United Htatea, except that of tho flaherlea, direct from the ITnlled Stale* In t'nited States' TCBsela, paya the aauiu duty aa If Imporlfld by Fraoch Teaeela from the United State*. Bmzila and Afcafco.— The prodnee of the llraislli and Mex- ico, Imported direct In national veaaela, iinjoya nlao the above privilege. SngUmd.—'Ttia produce of Africa, Aula, or America, Ini- portod from any country whatever in Dritlah voaMiia, or from uiyportofthoBrltlah dorolnloiialn Kiimiw nllher In Frpniih or foreign Tcaaola can only b« adraittod In Iwnd for re-export- ntlon. The aame regulation la applicable lu all Ktiropnan prodnoe (except that of Oreat Urilain and II* poaaaBHloni In Europe) Imported by BritUb veaaela from otiiar port* than Uio*e of Oreat Britain or it* poaaomiona In Kurope, The weight of 60 kilogramme* I* eiiiwl to 110) pound* En- glish, or 100 pounds Engliah are i»|iml l» in Hfi-\n» kllogram- moa, and the cwt equal to BO TV-IMi kllogranimi a, Cr«(lt7.^Four and a half month*, uxceptinn enlTe. , pi- mento, peppera, qulckatlvar, attd rUyed tugnra, whieh are ■old at H moBtha, rnd wheat at 'H month*. CMtiO, and plaeu beHotul Iht Numta Itlanit Alt natural produce, r-igar excepted, ImixirUid direct, by French vecmda, from countrlea situatod boyiuul the Strait* and the Hunda lalands, either to the north of the lid degriio of northern iutl- tndc, OT to tho eoat ol the IflOlh dagrcin iif malem longitude, U admlttod at four fiftha of tho lowest rate* of duty of tlie tariff, the French adoniol duty alone exoaptej, Hawkem and PedtlUeri. li la imt vor}' sakv to distinguish Ut . een hawker* and |i«i1(llerii, ButU •re a ^ort of Itinerant retail dealer*, who carry about their wares from place to place | but the former are supposed to entry on Iwilnoaa on « larger ecale than the btter. HB^*rse, The part of the Imw* cln«n to the raldrs. The cableg pass through the hawii'-Mni which are made in the tlmben, and In tlie hau'ti>-iHfCi> outalde. When the ship haa two anchor* down, and the caliloa diverge from each other, the hawse I* *ald to h« dear when crossed by the ship turning half niiind, there la a erou in the hawse. Another cruts niaktm an flbme / then 8 round turn : in the lost two itaae* tli« Imwae In said to be foul. The prooeea of disengaging the rabln I* called clearing hawit. The danger of a foul hnwie Is, that if it comes on to Mow tho cable* can not he veered from their friction agnlnat ea<'ti other. This term also denotes any small distance o-heod of a ship, or between her head ami the anchors, employed to rids her ; as, a reseel *ails athwart the hawse, or an- otioii in the hawse of anotiier v«sm1. Freihemnff haten Is veering out a little cabR to ex> pose a new surface to the iHction in the hawse-hole, or across the cutwater. Athwart hawie implies across the bows of a vessel at anch: r. BaWM-holea, the holes in the bows of a ship on each side of the Bt4>m, through which the cables pa84ine of tho ship to which It belongs. It is used for various purposes, as warphig for a spring, etc. Hay (Ger. /Tew; Du. Homf Fr. Foin; It. Fimo; 8p. Ileno; Let. Fanutni), any kind of grass, cut and dried for the food of cattle. The great object in pre- piirlng grass for hay is to preserve the green color of the grass as much as possible, and to have It juicy, fresh, and free from all sorts of mustlness. The hay and fotlder crops, including the dried blades, shucks, and tops of Indian com, as well as of the succulent com plants and other green forage, cultivated solely for soiling, or for drying into fodder, chopped straw, the hatdm of beann, peas, potatoes, etc, which are by no means inconsiderable, are far the most valuable of nny in the United States. The culture of hay Is at present principally confined to the eastern, middle, and western States, from which the southern markets are mainly supplied in the form of pressed packages or bales. In the earlier settlement of the Atlantic States north of Virginia, the cattle of the inhabitants >s-ero chiefly dependent upon the wild, indigenous grasses — such as the white clover, herd's grass (red top), wire gross, Indian gross (andropogan), and the coarser harlj- age of salt marsheE, beaver meadows, and other swampy grounds. In the middle and southern col- onies they foraged upon the v> '1 herlwge of the coun- try, In tlie same manner as the existing cattle do on the buft'ulo grass of Louisiona, Texas, New Mexico, etc, OS well as on the leaves boughs, and fruit of trees. The princlpol indigenous grosses which have been suc- cessfully cultivated In tho United States arc — the Ken- tucky blue grass, the red top (herd's gross of Penn- sylvania), the white clover, and the fowl meadow (or bird gross), the latter of which formerly (rrew in abund- ance around Massachusetts Bay, and was much rel- ished by tho cows, horses, hogs, and goats of tho eorly settlors, and upon which they thrived. Pboddction of Hat ik tub UsrrBD States. Alabama. Arkansas Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Illinois Indiana Iowa Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massaohusotts. — Mlcldznn Missouri Now Hampshire... Now .(« rf.oy Now Yiirk North CarollDs — Ohio Ponnsylvania Itlmie Island South (iarollna. . . . Tennessee Vorinout Virginia. Wiaconsln ToUI CloTur ■rgd. Bushftlfl, 188 90 18,841 468,875 Other 1 leedi. I H.y. ISM. Uushrli. MT 486 2,629 1,408 2 428 182 8,427 14,830 18,820 11,951 842 9,098 8,280 21,481 2 97 9,097 9,214 16,217 2,661 1,002 6,0S6 16,»8» 9,285 619 4,846 829 8,071 •is.aso e»fs,\ 8S,222 96,498 B7« 1,276 108,197 87,810 125,080 63,918 1,828 8,708 876 80 ^096 9,118 760 14,986 2»,r«7 98.428 438 6,008 Tout, 82,685 8,976 616,131 80,159 2,510 28,449 601,95» 408,280 89,056 118,747 26,752- 756,889 167,056 651,807 40i,9S4 116,925 6»8,S54 435,950 8,728,797 146,658 1,448,142 l,8t2,970 74418 20,926 74,091 866,158 869,098 275,662 IMO. 416,978 ,18,805,870 12,718 6S6 420,7114 22,4S8 1,197 16,(170 164,932 178,029 17,958 21.1161 6'J!,.S,'S8 106,687 569,895 180,805 49,IIS3 496,107 884,661 8,127,047 101,869 1,022,087 1,811,648 68,449 24,618 81,233 886,789 864,708 80,988 10,248,606 I Among the foreign cultivated grasses In this coun- try, the Timothy (herd's grass of New England), HAY '•nkg preeminent. It ig g»id ♦„ i. name Of TimotKyttom ifa Zt ^t^^" ^^^"^^ ">« land, Mr. Timothy Han^^n , ', j""^!'^^' into Mao- and is cultivated MTfavorit,,''«""^''°^E»8"''nd, Parta of northern EuroLrh'" J" .^'^'«'<'n »»mlngo, orHlBnanlni- 967 HAY Wds,- a;r err °^ '^"™s miles, andin breafthfroXt^J^n"'.' *" ^''*- «90 N,twee„ lat. 17° 87'and ?OOo' Jf ai^ll'^"'.^ ''"""«'' MI M ?'' '* 28' W. It V ^:i,""^^^«'«'een long. Highland country bv th» „ *• ""^"^ ^ayti, or the -f which it alSin/s,"es; Xin'r "»« -"-ntalns The country was form'erif dWdK' "*""'.'" ?"«• tords, who were the earliest F„! ''''*^" '''^ Spw- the French. The line of II^*'"' colonists, and these two divisions coJm.nT,"""*"' ^'"«'> «eparat^ the Pedernales or FlTn" Sl^d ""! ""J"" ^'^^ '^m fa« direction to the RiverM^. ^""^^^^ in a wav. The countiy to the welt of f ^- ff "" "'"' ""^h side f^'onch, while that on^rh ""' ""« helonged to th. part of the island 8?^^;"" '°™""' *^« SP«»i«h ooun ,y was in the pofsession nfilf' ." P""'"" "^ the divlsjon being reckoW 220 Jf •' ??"'""''« ; their breadth, of which, though a cTn,^ '" 1°«*'' "^120 i" of mountains, these are fald\„ k "^f/^ble part consists W.ty to the champaZ eou°^ ".' '"'""'"■■" ^ eapable of cultivation d^' """^ *° be equallv extrenjei,. irregnU^fi'lJ''''^"?"!' division isV"^ trated by theGulf of G^Ve^V-"".'' '" '^'^P'rpenJ^ ni'les in length whil. i fv' """^ " in >ome nartriTn nearly of thrme"a-:f«« i' ".?' «« " i» A great part of the coast of th, ??"'''' ^'^i«ion. dangerous, affording b« »„ ii i? "'"'"' " «>cky and overtaken by "toHnlsC^Ptf^' 'belter '"Vessels tho southern shore are notMni * »bipping.p,ace, on which lio exposed to the " „!!? "T than open bays autumnal months. The h ' k ' T^ hurricanes of the erly thought so comm^ioS^dlf'"' \°^^Soto^- •hallcw to admit vessel of lari^"!!' '"" ''«'«°'"e too the Bays of Neyba and fW. 7*'"' «■»«» harbors former flows thj Bi^er myba^^^'fi' """V ^nto the gmdually wldem.toneariys^ leagnes across, and it «>" bay is the safe and -. • °" 'be east side of On the ''outh.ea.Zoi"'l,fP'«"''"» Port of C8,de« *hich, in point of ,i::ia^, J« ^t B»y 0' SamanT; taportaat on the U^" S^"""' « ""e of the most *'*P* Safflwl, which fc^rtroTpoS^-liSlTlrr '"'"'beBayo, of Samana, the dC^ f' 1 ?« ^^huid or peniSru^i by bulwarks of rocks^aVand U '' ""^'^ ^ «='<««» ^ mg left clear, with a s^e a„d'dt" "f""™ "'^J' b^ the shore of Samuia and wve '?^'^'"'' between This bay is about 60 mUes lon^^^ . ^^^^"^^ i'iands. eveo' side by a fertilTcoVnti' ^"^Jf """o-nded on poses of trade, WithinVi, ■* ' '""«d to all the nn, «-ts might .^.IcTfSrp^-f this 4 K «'vor Yuna, alter bclna. iL Perfect security. The m^indering 'through th^rct^fni'^ '^\ ""^^^^ aJd falls into the Bay of «L P^"* »' La Vega Bea] 100 mUes. bZ EcosslT "^o" » «°""« "^ nfaA fitnated on the north sTdeof'th/n^"-"'' >' 'hlTS s a dangerous rocky pWe Th'^'°'"''' "^ Samana, the coast extends about 60 mMT* '" ^'"«rto Ph,S f ection, and in thfa^ace stands ^i' """b-westerly has only U feet depth of water Ih'-'^'T ^"y- »hich 'gation. The harbor of pl^.- «? " "^ ''''^^"It nay. «rod by Columbus? the entrfn" ^ "" '"^ «"' nous, but fertile and well t^ ',*""'''• *' monnt- mmes both of silver and 'ron'^h'''"'"^ containing the island is mountZli^^" ^^ ^P^n^^h part of other part, the cSSX fa ZZT f^' ''bile in Plams. These are genmUy^n ."l!' """ "'"^-^ve ered with herbage, orS wo^ .'" of nature, coy- and the most if^S'foS' tr"''"*« ^'"^^ tersect the island in two n^w , [*" mountains in- .«est. From these econKnd -•'"/" ^™'" """' "» •rregularly in differpn?^'''^ ."^ P""*"*' ""idges diverce and fertU^e "all y^'-^uh Tumr' '"""'"« "^^^^ highest mountains of tl 1 • 'V"^«™'» streams. The Of Cibao, riser toe *hU°t of "J-.r;'"'"'^' '"0- level of the sea. To the nLh f^.. '**' "bove the valley called Ve™ R, 1 ^"h of the capital is thn far thi; ,arglt':n^S St i^^^'.^r' "'"■'''' ^ t extends to the old French «ne of H ""• ^^''''™^'' i' this part it is drained by the rjv«, r^'-''''''"' "nd in where the River Yuna flows for tb ""'" ' ^ «''« «"'t, 't projects to the head of the R»„ f e '"""O ""H dramed by numerous smaUer ^7 "^ ^'"°"°"' """i ia ■n various directions TWs valleT""' r*""" ""'' " tend in length about 140 n.'i ^ """^ bo said to ex. to 30. Other pS Z^f]' ■""• '" breadth from^ fertility, and of easy acce'sf 'e ?'''''°',: ''"' "^ ^^nai terspersed among the 1,',!* , *'^'"''"" ''oand in- ward from San r)„mf„ ""ountalnous tracts. West isthevaUeyoftheR2'^,*"?"« "■' «°"">em co.' to Ocoa. HemheZ[„^'";r:,rf"?'n«'-™mNii:!; ■a not so well watered a in theltJ. ' •"" *'" "Country and; an incovenience whch^!"""'.P'"*' of the isl- eattle during the dry months F„"rth"^7''" "^^ 'be ward and to the north otoervaHr "■ '", ""' ^«»'- »hore the land, as in this falL? • ^' "'* '"und ; but "ected by range's of mountain, fi /' .«^«'rwhere inter- general sketch, to descrirnarilli ?Po.''»'ble, in any auccession of h U and d«I„ Jf- .."^.'"'j' 'bat continma the counto-. Eastwarf ^i^m theT^t' "^ "^"^^ mense plaim, called Usnl^t k?!.'*' "« "'"^e Im. avast extent on. dead loXV.'"'' ""'^^ o"' ^ '"^^ »- «•• 'y^ -Si. Sa^j-X^ HAY 988 5AY wM« M|MnM «f WAtiflff gnm, which la occasionaUy Hvitnitm by mttttml (Itimp* of ahrahg. These plains oeeHpy itimmt mtt Nhlh pntt ot the Island, extending nmly t9 it» »#H«rn imtt, being a distance of mora tiMff 00 mtt**!, hy nUiut m wide. They form an im- mcns* miuni imiXUmf mvertA with paatnre for vast bsrds of r mvuful A»yit, nni] in the morning hoar-frost is freamnt. 'Hw «<#«»«<(, ns in tropical countries, are il(vM«4 teto tlw w«t «tid the dry. The rains are peri- odleul, (•n4 ftW b#«*(i!rt l« May and .June, when the rivart, wht«b Hi rrthsf tlntes scarcely supply water for • emittn^md Hrnnm, overflow their hanks, and, with an fmp«tW>«M Ummit, sweep over the neighboring pbiin», 'flie ^Um»t« of fian Domingo is unhealthy to mfitmma, »«rlH(j to the violent heats and heavy rains ; Bn4 Umiy M meifil.>, h(rwover bright their original polftb, mon ♦'ofltffk't a tarnished appearance. This is mora i)li«ar4'»ble im the sea-coast, which is also more wnhanltby tbMtt the interior of the island. Hurricanes »ra »M)t fre<]tnmt, but In the southern parts of the i8Un4 ylfltant K«len of wind, generally preceded by a cb>8ena9« itnii fiMltrfness In the atmosphere, frequently oamr, Thai* however are not attended with such ht»i a<(»iii HH the llHlTlcAnes in the Windward Islands. ltimfii,~\'\w ("bind ii( llaytl almunds in rivers and smuUer *ttmm<>, wbb'h f(»w ffwn the raotmtains in the (ntarlor, in 4lff#faHt difectlons, to the sea. Of these the pr|)u.>ip«t »t» ttle Ifaina, the Mgua, the Nizao, the 07.mm, tlw Kaybft, the Ocoa. the Vane, and the Santia- go or Bivar nt mmU (^f l»tl, Nflar tlie south part of the Vf»m\i Jina of demarcation Is the beautiful Lake of ||8nrij)Hilb), wl»i«« • i(j»in on linen which is indeiilile. Different kin4« of amimum are found, as also of several other woods miii tlia »»n,« tufopertles, which grow nnno- nA ^nA »#nialeS3 In those Uhexpiored forests. The ^.ii>ro%yUm m irmuwimi, remarkable for hardness, as ita mmn im|ilia ; bla trea, wiiidt grimD to tha height of 70 'ot, ^l^tl m. J culant la«va« at tlie t*/p, In the co) igent . b<" it', th' i ttrtUt i»limA Uut «atf»M»tMf cotton, aad r.< ''.— The prinoipal articles of import ne pro- visions : sucli na flour, rice, mess and cargo boef, fisti, itc, and timber Arom the United States ; cottoa goods of all sorts, Irish and Sotch linens, earthenware, cut- ler}', ammunition, etc., from England ; wines, satins, liqueurs, jewelry, toys, haberdashery, etc., from France, and linens, canvas, gin, etc., from Holland and Germany. The destruction caused by the excesses which accompanied the revolution explains a part of this extraordinary falling off; but the greater part is to be accounted for l)y the change in the condition of the inliab- itants. The blacks, being no longer compelled to labor, end regarding with abhorrence the culture of sugar and the other occupations in which they had been princi- pally engaged, sunk into a state of idleness and apathy, The condition of all the great branches of industry that were formerly carried on became, in consequence, most deplorable, and the commerce of the island was reduced within the narrowest limits. Its successive rulers have endeavored, though with little success, to brfaig aliout a revival of industry. The Code Rural, enacted for this purpose by Boyer, 1826, is exceed- ingly stringent, its pnucijial provisions being in fact copied from the regulations as to slaves embodied in the Code Noir. But even this code had little influ- ence i and as a proof of the low state of indnstr}- in the island, we need only state that sugar has wholly disappeared from the list of iixports, and that tlui ex- ports of coffee and most other anicles seem to he sta- tionary or dimmishing. And this result is, after all, only what should have been anticipated. To expect that half-civilized Africans, nnder a burning sun, and without t^e wants or desires of Europeans, should be equally industrious, is to expect what is contradictory, and all but absurd. Commerce with the United Slates.— Thne being no treaty between the United States and Hayti, the com- merce between the two countries is governed by such local laws and regulations as may from time to time be enacted. These are always subject to changes and alterations, sometimes so sudden— decrees of to-day inpeE-seding the laws in force but yesterday — that commercial interests, especially tliose of the United States, have been, in many instances, most seriously affected. The United States' commercial agent, in a dispatch to the Department nf State, written in De- cember, 1849, thus refers to this ruinous uncertainty of Haytien commercial legislation: "There is one subject to which I beg for a moment to draw your attention ; that is, the siiddon ciu..nf{ed in the laws af- fecting commercial interests. 1. Within the last six months we have had the closing of the ports of Aquire, St. Marc, Miragoane, Port de Paix, and IVVnsed Hainault. 2. An additional duty of five per cent, on coffee, and of seven per cent, oa logwood ; and, lastly, we have had those modifications in the monopoly law. ♦ • * Almost all these measures were enforced on the day of their publication, merchants only being apprized of the intentions of the government by a vague rumor. With such hasty legislation, the most careful and discreet are entrapped, and thug all calcu- lation defeated, and frequently heavj- loss entailed." Advices more recently received represent but little amelioration in this uncettled state of commercial leg- islation. It is true, American commerce has been placed on a much better footing than it enjoyed at that period. Up to June 25, 1850, a law was in force suIk jecting the vessels of all nations that had not acknowl- edged tlto independence of Hayti to an additional duty of 10 per cent. The independence of the empire not having lieen formally reco oiized l>y the United States, American vessels were brjugbt within the operation of this law, and could not, in consequence, compete with the vessels of such notions as had satisfied its require- ments, even in exporting to Hayti our own staples. In January, 1860, the Stol;: Department was officially htformed that this reciprocity duty of 10 per cent, ad- ditional, was, by a law then lately published, applied to American merchandise brought In vessels of any other nation whatever. This wag an advantage to our ship-owners, as one or two vessels, under foreign flags, were then running as packets from the United States to Hayti, and also from the adjacent islands, bringing American goods under the preference of 10 per cent, over /..•••'fcan bottoms. It placed the Amer- ican flag on an equality with that of ather nations in the carrj-ing trade of our staples exported to Hayti ; and an increased American tonnage engaged in the trade, and a general activity in the commercial move- ments between the two countries were immediately perceived. StU), American commerce in this quarter had to en- counter a difficulty no less, if not even moi'e, foimida- l)le than the discrimination just abolished. This was a decree and, accompanying tariff, which took e.Tect January i, 1850, the Sd article of which was in these words : " The articles designated in the tariff, annexed to the present decree can not be sold above the pricei fixed by said tariff." Articles 4, 6, and 8 run thus : " There shall be established in each of the ports of Port-au-Prince, Aux Clayef, Cape Haytien, Jacmel, Gonaives, and Jeremie, warehouses, into which shall be put in d6p6t, after having regularly passed through the custom-houses, such articles of merchandise as are desiguLted in the tariff annexed to the present decree." * • * "Coffee shall only be d.'videu among importers of articles included in the tariff, which division shall be made pro rata, according to the uc- quired rights of each." « • * » Xiie government reserves to itself the right of retaining, out of the quantity of ccflfea declared for division, a certain per- tion, to be disposed of according to i,he necessities of the moment ; such portion shall not, however, exceed one fifth of tae existing quantity." The low tariflf prices fixed upon most American goods, and those to the Haytiens of the first necessit}-, when contrasted with the more liberal prices assigned to the merchant dise of other nations, almost paralyzed for a time American trade. A dispatch from Aux Cuyes, writ- ten at that period to the Department of State, uays : "AVhile the citizens of France are scarcely affected in their importations to Hayti, the Americans here im- port, and our merchants at home export, scarcely any .trticle that is free." Htill, In the face of these anno}'- anccs, and despite the embarrassments which tliey must have occasioned, one half, at least, of the foreign trade of Hayti is in the hamls of American merchants. Naturally indolent, and unhappily deprived of all legislative stimulus to in.'lustr}- -md labor, the natives have lost that spirit of "emulation and agricultdral enterprise which conducted them to a comparatively high state of prospetity under the administrution of earlier rulers. The degree of this prosperity, thna attained, may be inferred from 'be following stiste- ment, ei^hibitint^ the quantities and values of the produce expoited from St. Domingo to France, from January 1 to December 81, 1790. The figures and other data are derived from a rare st&tietical chart, published in France, by the government, that year, entitled " Tableau de Donanea et du Commerce de la partie Franpoiae de St, Dominmte." The tree population of this portion of the island in 1790 was :— whites, 38,3(30 j blacks, 8370. The num- ber of negroes employed in labor was 465,000, The navigation returns show tho number of vessels entered to hi^vo been 768, with an aggregate measurement of 56,748 tons ; and the number cleared 721, measuring 68,ji21 tons. The total value of agricultural property, including negroes, stock, etc., in the French division, in 1790, is stated at tbout $208,297,600. The number of coffee pUntations was 2810 ; of cotton, 705 ; of in- dlgo, 8007 ; and of cocoa, 69. HAT 061 HAY ndin Inum- Tho Itered Jntof luring «rty, [islon, abet bfin- QvAicTRin jutd Talvb or PBCDroi ixromD raou 8t. DomNOo (oMianT rEOM tuk Poitiok kow cohpiiiu) winiiH Till umn or Bayti), noM Janvabt 1 to Daonini (1, ITM, waiu a Cou>mt or Fsanoi. ProdMU. 8uKsr,wblt«. pouadt '• brown " Coffee " Cotton ** Indigo " Cocoa " Strap Jan Tafla kegs HIdea, tanned tldea " raw number TortolM-shell pounds Mahogany and Campocbo " Value In colonial cur. (Ilrres) Value In British money Value In dollars. QoMtilUi, 98,in,MS 68,1BI,180 S,2S^1M l«0,«l< lfiO,000 n,tm 7,887 e,18« ^000 1,800.000 Viluca Id lIvniF 87,070,781 4»,041,M7 BI,8VQ,748 17,fi71,«)8 10,87S,li0 180,000 1,947,181 SI,B1< 78,870 »8,S48 B0,000 40,000 l»»,401,acco, which were staples of export in 1789, hod entirely disap- peared from the table in 1849 ; the exportation of cof- fee and cocoa had (if we except two years) remained nearly stationarj-, while the exportation of logwood had vastly augmented, ^ 1 that of cotton bad greatly diminished. The qnauiities of the article last i .med, imported from Haj-ti Into the United States du» ' tise five years ending June, 1855, was as fallows : — JH51, 12,000 lbs. ; 1852, none ; 1853, 215,799 ; 1864, 196,127 . 1865, 189,214; exhibiting an aggregate of 613,140 lbs., and an average, each year, of 122,628 lbs. The quantity of oolflTee exported in 1850 was about 46,000,000 lbs., while in 1851 it exceeded 50,000,000 lbs. ; and In 1852 the quantity produced must have reached 66,000,000 pounds, as the fifth part thereof, claimed by the government, amounted to 11,200,000 lbs. As regards tobacco, since the political division of the island, its culture and its trade are in the hands of t\f» Dominicans. There is, b,.wever, considerable traffic in this article at some of tk« porta of Hajrti ; but It is imported by the coasters ft'om the ports of the republic. In view of the stuMstlca of Haytl, thus pre- sented, it is evident that the movement of the countr) has lieen vastly retrograde nnce it vm a possession of France. In 1789 it exported, as wc have seen, 160,- 000,000 lbs. v.f sugar, and nearly 1,000,000 lbs. of Indi- go ; in 1849 it exported none ; in the former year it ex- ported 77,000,000 lbs. of coffee, and mors than 7,000,- 000 lbs. of cotton; in 1849 the exportation of thu former amounted to less than 31,000,000 lbs., and of the latter, to little more than 500,000 lbs. ; while the total value of exportations from Hayti, which, in 1789, ar; given at 206,000,000 francs, 40 years later were but 8,600,000 francs 1 A foreign resident at the cap- ital of Hayti, in view of these facts, writes as follows, under recent date : — " This country has made, since its emancipation, no progress whatever. The popula- tion partially live upon the produce of the grown-wiid coffee plantations, remnants of the French dominion. Properly speaking, plantations after the model of the English in Jamaica, or the Spanish in Cuba, do not exist here. Hayti is the most l)eautiful and the most fertile of the Antilles. It has more mountains than Cuba, and more space than Jamaica. Xowhere the coffee-tree could better thrive than here, as it especially likes a mountainous soil. But the indolence of the ne- groes has brought the once splendid plantations tc decay. They now gather the coffee only from the grown-wild trees. The cultivation of the sugar-cane has entirely disappeared; and the island that once supplied one half of Europe with sugar, now supplies its own wants from Jamaica and the United States." The following statement exhibits the general navW gation and trade of the port of Cape Haytien dnring the year 1841, and the sh,-ire thereof assigned to tbe United States : NatloDi. United Btetes. British Haytien French Oerman , Total No. of 40 19 8 11 11 84 Vklu€ of ear Ifoea iQward. "|i!88,900" 145,480 M4S 186,410 119,545 ♦662,670 No. of TOIWU. 49 16 1 Value of aar-i Soaaoatwiard |ini.iao 16t,«B5 1,120 189,780 856,MB 813,850 The trade of tbe port of Gonaives, during the some year, is given as follows : Nalloni. British French Danish. Hamburg United States. Total No. of veiseli.. 13 10 Valaa of car- (^oailnward 16,996 17,525 Bslllut 1.420 49,850 65 I •75,790 No. ofiVatnaof cap. tcsmIk gooaaotward (91,765 78,270 48,490 18,985 161,930 62 I (394,8! rtie British vessels engaged in this trade came fttim Turk's Island, Nassau, St. Thomas, Trinidad, Barha- docs, and Demerara, and were freighted with dr}--goods, hardware, crockerj", beer, uricks, and provisions ; but, as these islands are supplied chiefly with the articles lost named from the United States, it is evident that, unless, under positive prohibilions, or under restrictionB equiv- alent thereto, the United States can at all times control the foreign trade of Hayti in this species of merchan- dise, which the natural ' °i. . .::o or general aversion to agricultural labor of . '" .' ^ tiens necessitvtos them to seek from other natiou", u'.d renders as in'li.'pensa- ble to their comforts, if not lo their ve'v existence, in 1855, as in 1841. The following table exhibits the f( " .,' navigation of Hiytl for a period of six years, 1 ,mi ..dil to 1862 both inclusive : Yfarn. 1847. 1848. 1849. 1850., 1851., 1853. Ve«scl>. Tom. 880 180,478 678 98,370 1,065 16^990 1,160 1(2,933 897 I17,81T 898 18»,SW ^-: ^ riAV ee? HAY .t..« Tabui ■xinBni>'a rtm Natiohi to wbioh biloksid tbb Vmmuut murumo uc tbb Tbadb or IBM amd 1880, —I MttloOL IHi. I lUO. VuuU. Ik 144 114 S68 10 88 11_ i,oes 4,848 2l),707 il,A(l 81,TM A80 a,08« 1,648 186,120 V«u with thiu ii (i)ii'. but aa uicr i,jyst, says : " Favored by their proximity to Hayti, the Amerkaus are letermined on reducing the price 01' their suit provisions, their flour, soap, etc., to so lew a flgure, that European competition is out of the qucUion. They export from their warehouses at Kcw Yurk,* at low prices, winee, hardwares, hats, caps, French silks, I'jiglish manufactures, etc. They also furnish tbe Haytiens with the oils and pastes o> Italy, and monopolize the snle of candles, tapers, cheese, .ind timber itncky, for thc^c f. 'i.iehold furniture, thetf rico, anJ tiiSiscco. The in-i . f.urers of New Er!;.'..iM(! Nt* "!■ ik, -1 Pani) yU: t j, 'lavc already seared an (>x(«n.(lini>vii>'>U!ture (1,862,623 Fort'lgn proOnce aMi mkt 'Jticture 268,621 2,126,484 Total tUu« of oon)-.u ■!..... $4,080,11? " The o:^i>, wilh a population of 8,000,000, imiwrted from the different ports of tie Union, in 1851, less by $336,- 607 than Hayti.* The trade of the United States with the latter country is, therefore, more profitable than that with Mexico ; indeed. Americin vessels gen- erally return in ballast from Mexican ports, or go to other States in search of freight ; whilo in Hayti thiied for this measure is, that his inaiesty witav rn the attention of bis people more to the cult; .'«- ' Tliere Is an error In the text in reference to our trade rith Mexico for 1881 rho book from wiiich the fl|{iireB are taken, makes this difference $18,189 moro tlun Is given ' Above. Thus, total traJe with Hayti In V ., $3,737,26^ ; to- tal trade with Mexico In 1861, $3,886,C,v' Jiffcrence In favor of Hayti, $380,606 ; difference as per text, $836,607 ; errcr In «zt, $18,189. HAr ^ ~~— -^^I!l!?»" Octoum 1 1820 ™ t ra- ro«iiurT~rT~-r- ^LilVort.. "''"'*'''»•'•-" In BullloTj ■ - i= Sa II mm s rwr Sept SOl Iftni *">!n'I,iMr »I7,068,414 fiiiniTfTSCrt— t— ^^^^-— ''^'^if I 3888 llUJ? 14^048 i'flllfla? ''828,019 mUi JI'*™ 88 274 1M0-... ffi"* 181 294 iii?'?S hm,762 m'?tI '-940 17 1« M-«».g— •J.S Si a S *« W f?r« Nil 11 It's lite" Tonnage dntr * '""e. and as follows . t i "'*y "'rive in, naviTTTT^ ^^ — -^^^^—-^ AdmatrTtS;-;.-. ^ tSM M "^^J^'^go tees. "' P"^' '^ '""M | per cent, ami HAY 964 HAY ■a aitabUihed ttrilT, whether they ba broojfht in native or fureign nhipa, with the exception of those from the United States, which pay an additional 10 per cent, on the amount of the duties. Goods con- tigued to native meKhants pay oniy 16| per cent. The following articles are duty free in all bottoms : Shot of all sizes, grenades, howitzers, bomb-shells, and other projectiles of artillery ; iron and bronze cannon, mortars, muskets and bayonets, carbines, pistols, and cavalry sabres, briquets, or short swords for Infantry ; machines and Instruments for simplifying and facili- tating the cultivation of the soil, and the preparation of its products ; horses and cattle, mules, asses ; gold and sliver coin; classical and elemuntury works, •awed in bonrds, or bound in parchment, for the in- tlruction of youth. The following Is a list of articles absolutely pro- hibitad, without reference to their place of growth: Mahogany, logwood, llf^um vita, fustic, coffee, cot-, ton, wool, cacao, raw and clayed sugar, rum, tafla, syrup, molasses; canes, whips, and umbrellas, con- taining swords, stilettoes, or other arms ; books and other works opposed to good morals. Besides the export, there Is also a territorial duty levied equally on the produee of the soil, whetlier ex- ported In national or foreign ships. The export of the following articles Is strictly pro- hibited : Gold and silver coin, side and flre-arms, mu- nitions, and other articles of war ; old or new Iron, copper ; horses, brood mares, mules, asses, and wood for ship-building. The coating trade Is entirely confined to llaytian citizens. The following tabular statement exhibits the foreign trade, import, and export, of Cape Ilaytien fur the year ending December 81, 1862 : Statimhnt or Ivroan AT OaPB IlAYTllIf, raov jAKDAar 1, TO Uioaiiaia 81, 1851. rut. Whar* from. 1 d f 1 wri.L. ABMDnt In- Tolcei, HpanUb curranpjr. Tnliil Invotcsi, 8p«nl«h cur. Mlicy. Dtilln pdd, SpwiUh «ur- r.ncjr. Nokor ? 'i 9 1 s 13 i 4 1 i 1 14 1 i 'i 'i 8 1 1 1 1 9 i 1 3 8 8 87 4,880 119 159 150 Ilollsn. 311,6»1 60 ' 8,808 89 40,910 04 ^63,06«90 9,888 68 2,637 00 83,404 63 4,000 00 18,788 00 30,666 15 IXiUut. ' 390,000 89 [93,966 24 66,606 88 88,770 10 i 84,463 IB 840 00 DolUn. 46,826 80 10,435 94 { 18,148 46 10,907 16 11,868 60 8,638 87 816 96 Hanover OMenbnrf CHdenliarg Danish 40 4,884 410 109 887 180 117 llfxmhuriz . . Uauiburg Danish... v. ■.'.■. ■.".■. COAltWlM u Franco Freneh u t 6 8 8 » 8 8 1 1 1 1,178 796 610 Coastwise 8t Thomu M Mvorpool CoastwlM.. 1,406 8,079 309 198 49 887 383 Kncllsh Danish... , Haytian Hamburg ' Bagllsh 18 1 1 3 8,050 188 14t 817 Belgian English Sngllsh Turk's Island 4 4 691 1«5 Total « 89 97 13 88 11,869 .... 443,088 76 101,537 17 Cape Ilagtitn. — This port has not yet entirely recov- ered from the effects of the earthquake of 1842, nor has its general commerce regained the high rank which it held prior to that period. Still, its naviga- tion is not unimportant. In 1850 there entered and cleared 65 vessels, with an aggregate of 8609 tons more tbun In 1849, In 1829 the imports at this port amounted to 2,500,000 francs, and in IH.'iO to .S,,<)43,lfi8 francs. The large bulk ot' this trade is in (lie hands of American merchants, A French statistical work, referring to this fact, offers two >' iilanations of tho great preponderance of American irude, not only at this port, but in Ilayti generally, as follows: "The United States conduct alKiut one half of the f;.>reign navigation of Hayti. In 1850 their progress was k\c- celerated beyond all precedent, showing an augment i- tlon over 1849 of 121 vessels, with an aggregate of 16,000 tons. The facility with which tliey open with their neighbors a credit which is often refused them in Europe, together with the efforts of their propagandists of diff' 'tnt sects scattered over the island, is emi- nentl iavondile to the increase of American influ- ence. If there were even any plausibility in this enggeit'jn, it would prove, perha's, more than the author intended ; fvr, unibitlous as France confessedly is, and has ever been, to extend her commerce, and foster her mercantile interests, even by restriction.') and discriminations, which are now almost universally discarded, the assertion of her statistician, above quoted, would impl}' that this source of American commercial preponderance in Hayti was not available to her ; but some other cause must be looked for, in view of tlie fact, that, while American merchants do sometimes — nay, very frequently — " give credit" to their con- signees ind purchasers in Hayti, ihey invariably pay cath, or its squivalent, for all their exports. For such articles as are monoflolized by the government, the Haytian law is peremptorj* as to that mode of payment. The other explanation assigned is more reasonable. It is in these words : " Always on the look-out for new sources of trade, the Americans purchase at Cape Haytien red-peppers, and orange and lemon peul. This new branch of trade, as well as the purchase of '3, has succeeded beyond expectation. Many houses r.t New ' rk receive full cargoes of these descriptions of n. r . c, actually pr.anation; and, taking i to be true, as there i: ". ' P"" . 'Pecie, of Iieath-o,/,"^""" °' r™ "^'ho common plant covers man,- hul^n ?" °^ Linn '* • ;^here the grasses and c ""rs do „,m 'P; '° '='"""ri'"' "ate in the spring '^'o^ era do not begin to grow till 4*-tt"; th:\tr;tr'"''-^-^-- '- anchor by the capstan otZnTj 1 'f *«"^ "P ">e «h-P.orpunheroveronore"?irt ' '"/""'* *"^ "-o <» Amw rau^rf/ (tight) or turn /h «" " » '•»'' ! «l»o or chain applie^l it^C'om" ligh^ '*" «» ""> -P« SooUannnsl^'^^b^utlSS'i!?."! '•?•»«■ Of fwtwecr, ,7. lat. fijO „„d,oV*'/,'«n'l8 or islets, lying and r 62". Their !„ . . "^ ' ""<• "^^ lon.812 64 j I 07 I T,«)t 4t I I 0< r4« >08 ^:!?i!^^^m'\l^r " miles , its a«a i" «) C F„llTh '** f^"""' '•'"gth ogy of St. Helena is In'tVlfi ^^ '"' J!'''*'- The gcol- consldewd as the Wgh.st 'e "if ' r ^^' '"«"" """r b« a ns traversing the South Art ?• '' ""'»« <" mount- «Wy and extinct tertiary votf'"' "J." '' """' Pfobl been unable to fix "Sh'^exa.fn "^ .^'^'osist, have position. T^. „„,„.„ '%"'" "» chronological the oon.fl>o„ '^.^^ '""'"' have prXed out the ,.;,.. .. ■.^J't:"'" "> conspicuous th,t.ugh. Pfriol, as !. has evilntr,etXd ?' » ""^ "">»'• ing conformation. ^ '"'"'^ '^^f "ffes its exist. S%^^rp««" « tt;,s""^r^^^ ritat eto^^-ll^jf the"\-herL"om^tr.a from the side, " heViTlft' "" """ -«S the open country tUt«n^l^l "'**" oppressive. In miM, "carcel^sTho 7n"v ""^f r™ V"""" »"^ During some season, the hi^h^f 1 " '" ^''«'«nd. mometer during the Humm„?r, '^'"' "'''•' ther- ■nterior; and the or^.W ra„' ^"""'^ '^' '" «h, 85° to 56°. ""y ""«• during winter from S"i% w DEL Mf HEM IroB ort bM bean found, but the Marolty of fMl pr»' vviiU it from iMing »in«ltMl. (!oliv(|{W(K>d redwiHul or »l.':H), " 1 I.. I'll i)(a-trae, of which the but two are v'V ' dura'' u u. 'iuIMIiik tiiiilmr, Onkn, cyiircNii, and pinaitcr, have been intioduRed Into the plantation*, ■nd thrivn w«ll. The fernii of St. II«lmm are nuniar- oua, and the myrtle groviH to the b"lt(ht of ill) feet, The cotton plant ulao thrive* very well. Fruit* rl|Mn beat In the valley* near the couat, but cvnry farm pn>- duvea In al>uiidaiii:o the common fVulta and veKetubla* both of the tropical and temperate zonoa. The at- tempt* to tsrnw cereal* hnvr not •"" rded. Of the 7M «peciea of planta iwa. aeaaion. In 1663 the Dutch successfully attacked the island, but In a few months were driven out of it by the Engliali. Aguin, in 1 ui, the Dutcli recaptured it, through the treachery of the planter* ; liut it was almost immediately recovered by an Engliali squad- ron, under Captain Munden, and again restored to the East India Conipan}'. A* the traile of the East I.ulia Company increased, the importance of the island be- came daily more apparent. Hut the chief bbtorlcal interest of St. Helena cen- tres in I^ngwood House, the residence of the exiled Emperor Napoleon from 1815 till hi* death, May A, 1X21. The house in which the emperor lived haa IM90U allowed to fall grailually into decay ever ainca his body was ramov ^ to France in 18-11. — Uruokk'm liiitorji of this laland ••/St. llrleaa; Jon.vgoM'H Ao- couuto/Sl. Helena; liEATitDx'g TracU reliUive to the JtUtud of Si. IleleHo, etc. In 1»06, the population was fX'ii; in 183's 4881 (comiv .d of I'JOl white*, UU in tl •> civil and militar}' eatalili>liments, 1074 .-laves, 7211 free colored, 412 Chinese, and 24 Lascars) ; in 1H39, 42U6 ; in 1849, the total military force amounte>I to •bout 1600 regular troops, beside* four volunteer com- panies of white and black niHltia. Soldiers ore acime- tin\es pUced at St. Helan to undergo a ac.soning previous to being sent to India ; and thi* island and the Cape of Good Hope ure the princii>al stations to which captured slaves are brongit, and employed in public works. H«n Oate, Her/ Oatt, merly a dangerous ' in the River, l>etween C « im li- near the city of N . k. I iui; rocks, which cortiuu tlie v orooked channel, uiuaaioning strong eddy currents, dangerous to vessels at certain times of the tide. The oiiHunel has been deepened by blasting the rocks, so that there i* now 21 feet of wat'-r at low tide through- out it. Holm, implies the mechanism of the steeiago, eapac'olly the tiller ; as, to put the helm a-ttarboarj, i\\ to put the tiller over to the right side ; a-jtorl, to tbe or HuTl-Oat«, for- - trait called the East iid and Long Island, s formed by projed- 1 ter to a narrow and left sUa I «/, to tha waathsr alda | dmn, to the Urn akla, RalmUBU. The man who steers, A gooil iMliiiaiiiau opiwawi In time tlin tendency of the ship tu ilevlatii from h«r course liy a *niall motion, which ho ralaxe* aa swin a* the alTei't U felt, and thua disturfia her aailing aa lltMs aa txiaaible. A bad helmsman giviia her too nmili helm, anci k>->'|M her (lerpetUiiUy yawing from one aide to the other, The stei-ruge, thnrHfcjrK, I* of the titmoat conaenuence In chase. HamlOOlCi llm Cimiiim mai'tdulum of liotiinista, la an umliellifiirou* |iliint (maiic'iiaing narcotic ami (lower- ful (HiiaonoUB |ir>>|icrtle*. It in >v readily be (listin- giilahod from iiicial other timlieliiferoua plants by the nunieniii* ilark purple aiHit* which cover It* immilH Blein and leaf atiNka, and by the strong heavy odor, riiaembling that of mice, which it exhales. The poi- sonous pro|i«rtii'S realda In every |iartof the plant, iiiul are owing t Boun- tiea were |iaiil to encourage It* cultlviition in li "ll , and ever}- exertion should lie made liy the government and leglalulure to aecompllsh such a national xkI, In 1786 tliere ware iin|iVi'r John Sinclair. The annual ImiHirtntiona of these article* now amount te, for the pur- poH of beliiK nwDufacturud Into cloth and cordage. Tnm - '» "•»• HIn.),./, lenmrnv t» „ "•«". Hf.vorie. ln..?,i,"T •"""'""""•«" *Wch It I, ,,,p„,rt In Kjf'i J5 '; ''"•,'* »••• «•• «o meret, ,t,.. Kyp'— Mit.Bini, ', fVtoK. tVim- •nd «h« extent t„ »hi,,, ;'"«"' '"'n ■•«.. lnt„ um, •«'! In.p„r(,t|„„ „t h; '" "'m'nl-h lh« ron,„m,,tion <^»/';" '.;mp tr!:^/:' tllK'^r-. -"•> respect „ ""«;• form, s verv lm.?L . ' ""' '"'♦v : temp ,.1,1, |-J„ J, ,'«'■"; '! '■""'""rol™ 'heir 4ent,.'"'?,r:';«"'J" '^O-'Se.l'kc'eot, 'n'.^'T; "pe<.k, pe, bere!,:it:X 'o "I'!'r'"« ''4 « fi^ '-Kt,lt'!^t.«£-^^^^^^ er, and owner, and " .e ite """t' "' *■" "e'ector, biSi with 7h ""■ "'""« "'the ,eleo^,' """P*'' «" »ne Sr" K .lis r^v'~?^" ™ "' being of an equal irreen !^ i '^•' hemp «„ it, «"«ter port.o„':f'3,'';„^f '-» ^""'-'n".'. il qnalUies and colors. ' ^ '' """"over of mix"" •nd flax «lyt:qu^d°L'e: """"""^ <" »-? Jfon, agents usually eJ",lr"'^ "^I'enence and atten to this business, by wH 1"''" «on«t.ntly occuZd «f g«Wng satisfaction to thii:^ ''?''« 'he best chance ' «hou«hthe hemp issl f , .""^""'P"'' i l^cause .T •» ng to the qua^nti y „th'l''y '^"^ -elector '■ wh^hitmust'beeZuted e r'th""" "■" '^'^^^^ ^v^n™** I" """ ""»« "Ort, ThS''! "^ <"*«" great WV somewhat increased -but h" -^"S*" "« ''» 'his "I picKea out in oleanini. h._ , * "e part separated rt is generally mX un fn?' 1 "'"**' *«»P « •' which are ag^in.^l, "" M^!!°." ''""•''<" »' 1 iC' largo bundles, each^!?,.!''PP*'' hound togethiTin' Particular cai mttT' "keVt„'^"\^ ""'^ »- fa fine drK weather, if it «» 'V^, '"""P """ «« 8«t wet, it heats and is to- HEM wiy •Mi«d. Po, ,hi, „. hen-p o, fl„ ,. furnUhed" h" V'? '«"•'' '•'■Ing fa. ting .l„„m. ||„n,„ 1,^1' „,, ™*''' '" Prevent It. ,- ^ which mnrt.™ the o,H,rat^„'f „'",?"" "' *'"'•'••. hemp are hl^es, In til rnth;'!/?,"* '^• I"'-'-"' «ml ,h. early part „r A2"n\f*!'J' •'•'"•. -'"Iv, Nort! >"'"? "••" Kreu.es'^i;,"',! "•'"•"'' «•' thi^ N<'rth America Iwlna nrinri^.M . "*P<'rtatiou to ■"»• Again, the prices of '^"•'"'"'''^'''' »' "'I, »,Z ,"""«h„f .Sept^mlH,',,";,"' ''7"/re '"west l„ th^ "«-. opulent he„,p.„,„V,t„7,*;^" " ?':'' ''- "'»' 'he ■nonth to their own . ountrv. i„ ". "' "'" «"'' "^ ""Is ^ha-'s for the ensuinrverr """'"'" """" ""* l-«r «'"*»ive for. fac ured a kind of cloth „ f ° "P^ermis I, „„„„. ""' ves. It .1.0 affo d, the ^^''T'," "»• ""■"•'g the ""hie c„r,l.«e which the Ih""' "'« """"^"1- Arch|pelaBo7ield\h !."'■'«•"""'' Pro.lucts of th, navigators under the nam?„"n? '"?"' readers and •q"«"ir applicable to caE «„„ ,""" * '"'"• «"'' i» "'»« rlggi„^..._^. J'}ll'^«^ '« "tandin^ or run- »»mp (Indians o- ^ ^"'"/"'"'/o, vol. i., „. 4.0 °f'hafUfS:^,,::::;«Cf^^'*--Sun;'cons1;ts plant from th. cr^nJrZ"^'''l*'!^»ymno,-,„t «tat«d, is never uaed by the ^1, ",'"''''• »» already ™rdag„. Sunn is grown ;„„"'"'<»' 'o' cloth or doostan. The stro.fZT Jhl, ."""' P'"""' "f Hln- "P«,«ies is PToduc^TTcw^';, ""'."''''' ""raWe periods of the late war wheTthT l^: ""'"« "-oso Haltio was interrupted, anS he '.""""" ""'"• "•« prce large quantiUes 'of ,„Srw ""7 "" """"'«"« after the intercourse with thrrw" '™P«rted; but the importation of su,Tn cea 'd , "'' """"'<"^' »;lthi„ the last dozen yea«Th/rh!'"''""' ^'""'- «" tXhr^""" •-- ^' tho^Zenarrj choth ;d';:'hu"„?cc^:::::„'- pi-t,, ced th. ,>'.; m fact, the material of thtu ''"*''''''"'' '■''"'«- I «un ij' oioth are made. It fe Jhi »"^"J' ''»«■' an* i 'l-it- >. !,igh a price a, Zn u """'-^ "'""Kb not i'"n wita flax, tow, and Sa i ^^^ '"'» "'""'Pell- swur and other carnets ImI ' ","" ""nxfacturrof goods, and such Xl&'T.'^"'™"''''""'" other ';or these purposes in Dundee \"A ?""»i^elr used for cordage and other articL ."' " '' """"itable manufactured, from it, l.V; • "'" *''''^h hemp i, rotting in water. The nn^^ ^'»«° "'''ted, and Prices, have Auctua^d vT^"^ rtl'T"^'"' ""^ 'he dozen years; but from flzTo ^riV"*"* "" '«"' a fa.r average price. When ««/ • .*"; "PP«'"» to l.e oountrK, in 1815, the ori™ ^f . ! ""'roduced into this £iO a ton. It was theST ^"'^ ^"i*-! from i;35 to did not, in factTeginSi com:!!'*"^ ''"•" "'H «nd era! us, as baggi„gVl827 „r Jsl/"^' """« "'«' ««°- ;;"i!i~rdi,,,.wLii,rJ^^.°/f,~m|H>iv«nt tilirn i mid thom umiiiiii M'lin'i'lv iiliy liailt til th* pnilNilil* aupiily nfthp K'*** frum liiillii. Vullun in Hiuiia.- Nmt t4i tli« i-ultiira iif ivniiili •ml th* raarliiK of ilmixiilli' aniiiiiil*, thn ciiUiira of flax anil hainp, hoth an IrxtlU plnntii anil a> nlraitinoua gralna, h the moat im|Mirtanl liranch of KuMlan hua- bandr)'. Tha gTum valun of than* pnidiirta anmunta, •t • vary nuidarata mtlmatc, to aUiiit AA,A(M),nO(l of iilvcr rouiilaa dt-dl.AdO.lMKt) g and iKith aoll anil cllinala are rxi-ardlnKly favorniila to Ihnlr rultiirn throughout a grrnt pjrt of thn Finpini. Aa Ihnlr proiluotlon Kroatly •xceeda tha wanta of thn hiimfl nianufuHum, th« ax> lanalon of their rultura rnapntlully il«p>inila on tha bciltty with which tliay llml un outlet In the fonil|(n market. Flax and hemp have alwaya formed two of the prlnH|iul export* ; and, if to thaae we add oleaK> InouH Kraiiia, whinh runalat principally of the leedi of hemp and Hux, «• ahall And thut the export of these three artli'lfa, taken aa a whole, exrneda In value that of any other pnidurt. Fn the rourKO of 'H) yeara, from iW2't to 1H40, Incluilve, there wi-re liut four, nanielv, IHiU), 18U1, lH4ti, and 1H47, in which the ralue of ex- ported cereal* waa Kreatar than that of thaae. From tha cuatnm-hcuae returns, we tinil that, during the period In i|ueatlan, tha total value nf exportt for Kui-opcnn < nmmeron amnunted to tl,4V7,AHm Egypt and other parts of Africji aliont 200 tons of flax and hemp, an amount comparatively insigniflcant. Notwithstanding the heavy blows continuously dealt out to it, liy the increasing use of cotton goods, tiia linen manufacture still maintains the foremost rank In Russia, in point of extent and imporunce. It la not, like the cotton manufacture in Great Britain, tha United States, and other countries, concentrated la targe establishments, which strike the eyd by their sixe, their mncbinery, ami the numbers of workmen collected on the premises ; but, conducted within the modest walls of the peasants' cottages, it is diff'nsed over the whole length and breadth of the land. There la scarcely a villsge within thn wide limits of the em- pire, where the wheel, tha distaff, and the loom are not to be found. With regard to the extent of thia species at indnstry, it is averred that linen forms one of those articles of prime necessity which no individual in Russia, rich nor poor, can entirely dispense with. Reckoning only 10 yards, 28 inches in width, for each inhabitant, per annnm, it would require for the popu- lation of 6&,000,'ia apaolal attantton of lh« Rusalaa goTan» I ment. \ Oullur* m Iht (fnllr^i tf>ii/i>«.— During the iaat half ' cantur)' graal affiirta have liean made in KuMpa, and, |tii aimiii extrnt, of late, in thn I'nitrd Htatas, t< in- \ oraasa and iiupniva tha prtHluctlmi and manufacture iif I flax and hemp. Kiinnarly they were rmisldar^d na in- dlaiieiiaable nnipa aninng our pluiiten ami fumiara, Imt their uae has iiaen au|iers«ili donment of the culture of hemp in that State, which there is no reason to suppose has taken place. Tha discover}' of new methods for separating tbo fibrous from tha woody parts of the flax plant ha^ '" «••• « 'Mir.'i«Jl. *T."" ••'•""I'm i„ |„ „,M,.„ ^It J3w,:; ;;;; t^lXXui ffi'^* "eWde,, where the „1 "' " ■ '''-"^Iv... to ,h. PMl.4, "*" "«t", ««.! 1« 1»,6 ^,„ ;^X ;" ^"/'f' ""'""'n* are often p'nJ'- '"■'',""'^'' »>""' th^ HID 070 HID w* hart no partienUr •athorttj' for It, yat, m rery few young barring* ara found In ou^ Mai daring win- tar, it aeaina mo^t certain that tlicy muit return trte4 of 987i> cwt. and 160 liarrels. In 1856, 11,747 iKiats, manned by 41,i>02 liahcrmen and l)uya were employed in the shore- curing department i ami the total numlier of persona engaged in the ticboriei waa 91,155, iieing an increase Hldaga (flidagium) waa an extraordinary tax pay able to the kings of England for every hule of land. This tax was levied \a money, provision, armor, and other articles ; and v, hen the Danes landed in Sand- wich in 994, King Etbelred taxed all bis lands by hidea, so that every 810 hidea furnished one jack and one aaddie, to arm for the defense of the kingdom. Sometimea the word hidage was used to sifrnify exemp- tion from tbat tax ; and this immunity was also called hidtgild, and interpreted, from the Saxon, a price or ranwm paid to save one's skin or hide from l>eating. Hidea (Oer. //ati/e ; Du. //uui«»; Fr. Peatix; It. Cuoja I Sp. Pellejot, PiUet ; Bus. Kothi), signify, gen- erally, the skins of l)easts, but the term is more partic- ularly applied to those of large cattle, such as bul- locl'.s, cows, horses, etc. Hides are raw or green ; tbat is, in the state in which they are taken oif the carcase, or dressed with salt, alum, and saltpetre, to prevent them from putrefying ; or they are cured or tanned. The bides of South America are in tlie high- est repute, and vast quantities of them are imported. iHFOaTB or KiDIS IMTO THR rnITSD STATES FOa 1S5(L ISBI, 1&'^. Now York BoRton and Salem Hhlladclplila and Dalttinorc. Other places Total...; IB91. 5,368, 0-M 1,762,862 86T,fl!5 107,314 a,IISa,29:; «,ii),0(B r-,c29,n29 " 7B'.',r,82 3,2'JU,B88 8»4.-.'J8 W)fl,t01 ai'soasi iC4,6(8 10,UDII,0:;0|V,Sg4,353 GZIKKAL STATFMENT OF THE FOBEION l.MI'OBTS OF I'AW Hints AND Skins into the Inited States for the Veak endino June UOtii, {Saa. Whence imported. I>iltllHll Went llld. t 17,010 llambiirB 205,805 Itromoii 58,412 Oiilcli Weat Indies 211,015 Iltltcli Guinnn, . ,. 5G0 nutfh East Indies. 0,11^3 IlelRlum 143,31rt r.ngland 3:m,TT7 - • ■ 5,514 7T6 704 10,603 04,171! 10,«T8 Scotland O'braltnr Dritlsli N. A. I'OB. . lirltli^h West Ind.. Dritlah Ilonduras. ^ ^ . _ ^. Ilritlal) Guiana . over "the preceding year of 850 lioata, 1240 flabermen i g""" "• f • A- 'J's. and 10,821 persons in the totiil numljer employed, j };i:„|2'i.'a,t Ind* ' The TaiuL of iHiats, nets, and Uiiea amounted in 1856 Kranre on the At! to i:818,4H4, l)clng an liu'rwasa, aa compared with 1864, French (inlana . . of *'J1,0C4. See FiailBitiKa, i ^''»"' "" "'« *'"''■ Ak ArrousT or Tii» Wr.ioiiT or TUB IllOB) imtohted ihto England in each of thi. Five Tbaes endinu wrrrt 19»«, Ki-K(iiFViMO rna Ooiintkibi wnaKoa Tita Hioes wee e impchted, and the Qi tantitiks bro-tqiit from each. I lUdea tuned. Uweil. eucrlej, or dreiied. 1 4.12 417,13a 1,084,448 29.279 1,069 l,l!>5 Whence imported, riillippine lalandft. t 54,760 2,923 4,042 75,072 286,780 6,608 diba. Porto Rico Snrdlnin I'oTis in Africa. . . . Ilnyll 8an Pnniingo 41,104 Mexico 416,000 (Jcntral Rrpiibllc. '.■4,862 New Granada 428,446 Venezuela 1,088,064 Drazil 1,114,-81 Urngniiy .Vi0,052 Iliionos AyrcH 1,013,0S« Clilll 2I(«,423 Peru .'!9,009 SDndwlcli Islnnda. . 82,948 AD otlier placea . . . V.',81I3 Total, 1867-68 f,88»,S68 ^untrlee from wbleb imporledi Ruaala Deni.iark Hruosit Hanseattc towna.,,, Holland Belgium Channel lala., for. pr.xl. France Morocco British Boutb AfHea. . , liritlihEabtlnilies... Frencb poa. In Inilla.., Java Philippine lalsnda British Auatralla Drltiiih North Aniuries. Br.W IndloaJfcOulans trnltod Htaloa America U.'Xico ,,..,. Central AinorUa. . . New Ursnoila Venesueta iBrazll jUruKuay iBuiMiiif Ayres jChlll Peru ;b«r paria Total iPer MI4«* iw»t tanned, liiwed, curried, or In ar.y w»jr dreued. ' \Hi. '" "" ' Owl,, »,7T4 20-i «,I7II O.lvi 4,IWT I.IV* »4n » m H7D4 1,421 •i,m 9,tl<«4 1,161 T.in 10,Til 6o4 ),785 M4 1,210 SIMM '08,M9 4,776 T4 1W.9 4,686 m I Ma. Ml* 706 \m (1,678 <,78« "772 im «.T6<« 2,01>0 I.Mfl tjm 21,106 1.1)24 7,i»a 862 41 m i.jiifl 17M41 1I1.V8I 114,477 401 t,inm 1.668 6i?."!WV _ia4»._ ""dirl". ll,9«7 I2« 1,622 8,492 3,167 2«8 214 12 820 »,7a8 71,017 784 1,826 aV,M4 4,800 8,889 283 486 760 710 ill)7,IM> 1,016 820,947 4.HA9 894 1.826 1H60. 18,792 1,434 8,008 10.415 6,822 854 28« 1,104 1,4,686 10,246 261,668 976 2,014 8,092 1B41. 1.1... 184,141; .... I 8,876, 49,521 104,960 18,581! 16,626: 880,076' 28,852 981 109,711 1,879 H8 86^000 28S,6M 1S48. I n- 81,9.58 66 45,590 104,316 17,419 4,786 466,066 147,168 I8M1. 1 1861. Lbi. 12,438 4,68'- 53',2i9! 187,200 28,481 3,062l 716,964 ■'i68 240,866 870,864 649,821 44,116 746 296 112 8,586 49,048; 4.%984 1,040: Lb>. 28,820: 8,700 4b",248' 118,88* 28,715: 19,891 i 619,340 8,510 207| 658, 847,591: 11 °5'74G 87,189 I l.b>. 56,683! 8,«4»: 66,114 107,7641 19,8(«> 38,832 694,2051 ■■761I 994,6101 V.OTO 981,0001 202 68,988 112 72,688 9l986 fl7H;962 l~M,92r "072,107 I 1.512,208 1,271,862 1.78J.442, 1.896.798 i2,'iao,901 :ftl HIO 114 '641 ,079 ,«ao 202 IT r.a »,fl»6 6,901 ' BiATniiirr tHOwmn thi Nvmbik asd V^litb or Hidh SXPOBTID FHOM TIIR UNITED StATKS FUB TUK YkAK KNIIINU JCNK 80TII, 18A6, Whtthar eiportcil. Rkmburg Bremen Holland Belffluin England , rjcotlaud lialta Canada Other Dr. North Am. Poa. British ICast Indloa Franco on tho Atlantic. . . Franco on the Medltcr... . French North Amer. Po»,. Caba , Austria Austrian Pos. In Italy , Hayti , Total DomasUo, 843 1,101 20 1.267 8,7«1 . 8fi2 8)^226 1,H86 610 4,757 60 1,000 426 1,806 4,879 ino 6,660 20,032 610 48"720 2,836 686 18,256 146 2,000 666 ForelKi). Doll«ri: I 1,279 681 "■iso 74,824 1,800 4,692 13,170 40,13^ I 1101,174 I tlol,»24 High Seas.' The high seas mean the water uf the ocean without the boundary of any country, and they •re within the exclusive jurisdiction of the admiralty up to high water murlc, when the tide is full. The open ocean which washes thi se.vcoast is used in con- tradistinction to arms of the sea inclosed within tho fauces terra, or narrow headlands or promontories ; and under this head is included rivers, harbors, creeks, basins, liays, etc., where the tide ebbs and 6ow8. They are within the admiralty and maritime jurisdic- tion of tho United States ; but if they are within the body of a county of any particular State, the State jurisdiction attaches. The extent of the jurisdiction of the district courts of the United States, as courts of admiralty and mari- time jurisdiction, was verj- fully examined, and with great ability and research, by the Circuit Court of the United States for Massachusetts, in the insurance case of De I.ovio 0. Boit. It was maintained, that in vory early periods the admiralty jurisdiction, in civil cases, extended to all maritime causes and contracts, and, in criminal cases, to all torts and offenses, as well in ports and havens within the ebb and flow of the tide, as upon tiie high seas ; and that the English admiralty was formed upon the same common model, and was co-extensive, in point of jurisdiction, with the mari- time courts of the otlier commercial powers of Europe. It was shown, by an expottion of the ancient lasos, that Lord Coli.u was mistalien in bis attempt tu confine the ancient jurisdiction of the adniir; I'y to tlio high seas, and to exclude it from the narrow tide-waters, and from ports and havens. The court agrend with the admiralty civilians, that the statutes of 13 R. II., and 15 K. H., and 2 H. IV., did not curtail this ,m- cient and origiiiol jurisdiction of the o.'imlralty, and that, t'onsistMitly with those statutes, the admiraltj- might pxerc.se jurisdiction over torts ond injuries upon the high seas, ai. I in ports within the ebb and How of the tide, and in great streams below the first bridges : and also over uU maritime contracts, as well as over all matters of prize and its incidents, It appeared, from o historical review of the progress of tlie con- troversy for jurisdiction, which lasted for two centu- ries, between the admiralty anil the courts of common law, that the latter, by a silent and stcidy ir.,'.rch, gained ground, and extended their limits, :!!'.tii they acquired concurrent jurisdictiln tide waters, where one mi^;ht see fnnn one land to tile other what was doing, were within the body of the county, and under the exclusive juritdiction of the common Hw courts. On tlie seu shore or coast, high »rd low water 'nark d'''ermined what was parcel i .of the ie», and what was the line of di^'ision between I the admlmlty and the courts of law ; and it was held, that it ought to be so considered by parity of reason, where the tide ebbs and flows, in porta and Lavena ; and that the admiralty jurisdictiop oxtands to all tide waters in ports and havens, and rivers beneath the flrst bridges. It was admitted, however, that the common law originally had jurisdiction on the high seua, concurrent with the admiralty ; and that in cases manifestly within the admiralty jurisdiction, both civil and criminal, the common law now claimed concurrent jurisdiction. — Kent's Com., vol. i., pp. 899, 100. Crimes on the high seas, such as piracy and rob- bery, ore, by the laws of the United States, punished witli death. Persons charged with such crimes must be tried at the port where they first arrive or are brought. Accessaries shall also suffer death. Con- cealing a pirate, or harboring property taken by a pirate, is punished by imprisonment not over three years, and flue not over #500. For revolt on ship- board, or abetting a revolt, seamen will be imprisoned not over three years, and fined not over $1000. — Dun- lap's Digest, pp. 75, 76. Highway. In the civil law, the banks of public rivers and the sea shore were held to be public. Hi- paimm publicus us'ts est ; littorum quoque usus publiciu est Jure yentium. The law of nations was here used for natural right, and not international law, in the modem sense of it ; and it is stated in the Insti- tutes of JusTiMAM, that all persons have the same liberty to bring their vessels to land, and to fasten ropes to the banks of the river, as they have to navi- gate the river itself. These liberal doctrines of tho Koman law have been introduced into the jurispru- dence of those nations of Europe which have followed the civil, and made it essentially their municipal, law. Thus, in Spain, the sea shore is common to the public ; and any one may fish, and srect a cottage for shelter. The banks of navigable rivers may also be used to assist navigation. In the French law, navigable or floatable rivers, as they are termed, have always been regarded as dependencies of the public domain, and the lands on each side subject to the servitude or bur- den of towing paths for the benefit of the public. Sir Matthew Uale, in his De Jure Marls, concludes that individuals bad a right to a tow-path for towing vessels up and down rivers, on making a reasonable compeiisu- tion to the owner of the land for damage. In the jeor 1789 it was decided in England, 3 Term Sep., "253, that tiiere was not, and never had been, any right, at common law, for the public to tow on the banks of navigable rivers. It was admitted, that on many navigable rivers, ther') was a custom to tow on the banks ; but the privilege in that case rested on the special custom, and nut on any common law right. The statutes which have given a right of towing ou parts of tlie Severn, Trent, and Thames, ore evidence that no such general riglit before existed. In New York it has been adjudged, after a very able and thorough examination of the question, that the public have not the right to use and occupy the soil of an individual adjoining navigable waters, as a pubUc landing and place of deposit of property in its transit, against the will of the owner, although such user had been continued upward of 20 years, with the knowl- edge of the owner. On the othtr liaiid, it is held in Missouri, that navigators and flshcrmen are entitled to the temporary usn of the bunks of navigable rivers in that State, though owned by private individuals, for the purpose of landing and repairing their vessels, and exposing tlieir sails and merchandise. But this use is for transit nt purposes only, and under re!>trictions. It is a settled principle in the English law, that tlie right of soil of owners of land bounded by the sea, or on navigalile water, where the tide ebbs and flows, extends to Iiii^h-water mark; and tho shore below ciramoa, brj not extraordinory, highwat«r mark, aiM 912 HIM hAmfflt Ut ttM Mdt* M truniM for the public ; and In Kflf(t»n/1 thd crnwti, and In thia country the people, Imvo (Imi HimtUlt^ proprietary interest in the aame, tbnilKtt It m»y, hy gtunt or proscription, become pri- S»i» \mt\mny. The public have, at common law, a t\\iH U) »«vtf(«{« oyer every part of a common nav- \H»^)U f\y tt(« T(1*»s(B cnrtfses of the fl'><)ve-named rivers. A tuvofim mHUm iit the Himalaya nowhere presents H»« inip*iifitni'« lit a simple range, but of several more ef l*« pnfil\M chains, separated by valleys of ,yerj' gruitt <)(tj((h ttnd steepness ; this is liecause the sec'ond- Kfy mtiiff thiti ramify north and south from it are of arunt Unifih, lireadth,' and complexity, and fW)n: hand- Wf( til the Pdet nr to the west, often run for many miles |»»frf)l*l til imn ntiirther and to the main range, besides li»\»\t \»Ui emltl(*rtitnt fffjtt ihan Is nsually supposed. On refer- mum Ui tfm map iit Asia, the wate.shed of that conti- nent will l»* found to follow a torinous line, running 4U{K»n(tll/ from the pen the snttrres of the Indus and Ilrahmapu- U», whence II trends westerly to tlie source of the 0«||«, (tnd then again north-easterly along the Altai Ui tUf WMth lit f/*ke Ilulkal, till it l>ecomes the lablo- wA M«Mnt«ln«, and finally tenrina'es In the prolonga- t\im ut that fonge which traverses tji-! country of the T<'hMkt<'hl, I.ate and interesting Information respect- Um these plaini can Ije focmd in llufs Tmreln, 184.'i. All the great rivers of Asia rise In this watershei! , tiuHUi hiim h< western slope flow north into the l'en, and hot — rice being cultivated there on the very confines of eastern Tibet. So also the Indus at the western extremity of the chain is usually de-; scr1l)ed as fiowing through a defile ; but though its valley to the west of Kashmir Is contracted and rug- ged, and overhung by stupendous mountains, it does not In this respect differ materially, if at all, from the remainder of its Til)etan course ; nor is the fall of its lied lietween Iskardo and the plains of the Punjab greater in proportion to the length of its course than it is above that town. The branches or secondary ranges of the westeni Himalaj'a are so long and lofty, that some difference of opinion exists as to which of them should be most appropriately considered as the continuation of the chain between the peak of Kailas and Kasnmir ; and we have considered the line of watershed between the tri'iutaries of the Indus to the north, and the rivers that flow to the plains of India to the south, to lie the axis of the chain, since it both indicates the lino cf mean greatest elevation, and Is the only definable axis in a geographical point of view. Of thv, secondary chains we shall speak at length in connection with the rivers they inclose. Their direction is often perpen- dicular to the main chain, but they are so often ob- lique, and even parallel to the main chain, especially at their upper parts, that where very lofty and heavily snowed, they are freqently taken by local oliservers fur the axis of the Himalaya itself; an error to wliich may be traced that misconception regardii>^ vje rela- tive amount and duration of the snow on the northern and southern slopes of the Himalaya, which has led to BO much fruitless controversy in India and F.iirope. The general direction of the Himalaya throughout its length of UW miles, is east tnd west, but it trends northward from tlie centre toward its westei ii extrem- itv, it« extremes lieing respectively in N. lat. 2S°, E. long. 91')°, and N. lat. 35°, E. long. "8°. Its breadth varies iii .VBerent parts, but has lieen accurately as- certained in the western portion only, where It devi- ates but little from 1!)0 miles. It has been stated that the mountain ranges of the Himalaya and the Knuenlun have no special existence as chains apart frvmi the general elevated mass of Til)et, and that that rugged country forms the summit of a great or rainy, interior or intermediate, and Tibe- tan or arid Himalaya. The tropical bolt extends from the Terai to 6000, and even 7000 feet in the humid cen- tral provinces ; and to 8000 to 4000 in the extreme western. It consists of a luxuriant forest of Malayan and insular types of trees in the eastern provinces, which to a great extent disappear to the westward, where they are partially rej.iaced liy Persian, Egyp- tian and Afghanistan types — among these trees the pulnis, plantains, tree-ferns, sal (.S'Aorea robiiatn), sissoo (^lialbfrijia siunii), toon (Ciilii'la Tiiona), ami some oaks, are the most conspicuous, and commerr'i liy the most important, especially to the eastward. The temperate lieit extends from 5000 feet to the upper limit of forest, which varies from l'i,000 to 13,- OUO feet, according to the dry.'iess of the climate, it HIM 973 HOG tho nee of iiTiit ibo- rom cen- eme yan iceB, ard, ;yp- "tlio iSSOO |ome ' the Uhe [13,- It abounds in Ecropeao, Levantine, and Chineae gsnara and even species, with but fevr Mala,"an mountain ones ; of these the European are most abundant in the western provinces, and the Chinese and Japanese in the eastern, where are also a few American genera, and some belonging to the Malayan and insular mount- ain flora. Among the most conspicuous plants of this region are oaks, birch, maple, apple, hornbeam, poplar, ash, cherry, alder, celtis, pine, juniper, yew, willow, and pines (^jibiet, WMiana and Srunoniana), which abound throughout the range ; besides which, there are to the westward of I.ipal, deodar, Pinus Gerardiana, hawthorn, cypress, horse-chestnut, olive, myrtle, evergreen oak, sloe, black poplar, and many other European genera and even species ; while to the eastward, laurel, magnolia, rhododendron, larch, Abiet firutumiana, and chestnut, more especially prevail. The alpine belt, which commences above the forest region, ascends in extreme coses to 19,000 feet; it abounds in Siberian, Polar, and European alpine plants throughout tho whole extent of the chain, tlie European species and genera being most prevalent to the west. Several himdred common English plants are also natives of the Himalaya, and especially of the temperate and alpine zones ; and the total num- ber of flowering plants inhabiting the whole range probably amounts to 5000 or 7000 species. Cultiva- tion in the Himalaya is carried on as high as ti,000, aud ever. 15,000 feet, where summer crops of wl'eot and barley exist in Tibet, but quite exceptionnll ' ; also buckwheat, turnips, radishes, mustard, potato :s, and various pulses, are grown abundantly between 8,000 and 12,000 feet, as summer crops. Rice, maize, millet, and other tropical cereals, are grown below GOOO feet, with buckwhent, and various species of chenopodium, yams, capsicum, egg-apple, legumes, and sugar-cane. The Himalayan fruits cultivated by the natives in the eastern and central provinces are plantains, or- anges, pine-apples, walnuts, inditleront peaches and apples ; in the western, excellent apples, pears, apri- cots, iKiuches, cherries, mulberrle?, grapes, and wal- nuts. The cultivation of tea is now successfully carried on, on a large scalr> in the western Himalaya, at elevations of 2000 to 5000 feet, and mi^jht probably be pursued with more or less success in all paits of the chain. The timber trees of the Himalaya are extremely numerous, but few of them nre of great value, and some of the best inhabit ir .^^oes-iible regions. The sal (iSAorea robtuta), is decidedly the most valuable ; and, from growing at the foot of the hills, close to water-carriage, is the only onn much felled for export. The toon (Cedrala Toona), and sissoc Dalbenjia Sit- too), are ulso exported from the same regions ; and the deodar and other conifers from the north-western provinces. The otiier pines, the walnut, oaks, an>'i tht) chestnuts, mostly produce inilitTerent timber ; but, though there are exceptions, the use of tliese is prin- cipally conflned to the neighborhood where they grow. Of ornamental woods, few are known, and none are in general use. Bamboos prevail everywhere, and rat- tan-canoa to the eastward. Owing, probably, to the humid climate, the woods of European genera are, niniGst without exception, inferior to those of their western allies. Teak is unknown in the Himalaya ; and the other woods of eastern Bengal and of both the Indian peninsulas are either confined to the mala- rious forests of Assam, or are ai'.ogether absent. The vegetable economic products are also very few and un- important — such as spices, gums, resins, oils, waxes, fibres, aud other textile materials. Of drugs, the baneful aconite and hemp are the best known ; infe- rior rhubarb, and a few bitters of secondarj- iinixjrt- ance in the pharmacopoeia, are al?o collected for export. Attempts have been made to cultivate drugs for the 036 of the Indian medical establishments, but hitherto with very limited success. Wild madder is exten- sively collected and exported, as are bamboos, canes, and a few other products: and latterly potatoes in Sikkim, There is no doubt that the vegetable riches of these extensive regions are but very little known, and are capable of immense extension ; but hitherto the efforts have been limited. On the northern or Tibetan parts of the range the trees are extremely few and small, and confined to willows, poplars, juni- pers, elieagnus, and tamarisk ; and of bushes, the well- known dama or furze, that supplies fuel, is the most familiar to travelers. — E. H. See Quar. Kev., xvii., xxii., xxiv. ; We$tm. Rev., xxxvii., 294 ; Monthly Ree., xcv., 225, 409. In mineral products the Himalaya is rem^;''kably poor, so far as is at present known. There is nothing which can compare in abundance or value with the mines of the Ural, Andes, or European Alps. Bed bcematite is worked with profit in KumaOn, and cop- per exists in Nepal and the Sikkim hills. Iroif (dis- seminated), occurs in various places, and graphite is common. Salt, borax, and soda are procured in abundance in the dry climate of Tibet, where they are articles of commerce ; there also gold-washing is carried on upon a most limited scale. Gold is known to be extremely abundant in many parts of eastern Tibet, where, however, the jealousy of the Chinese government prevents its being worked. Slates, lime, gypsum, lead, sulphur, and magnesia, are also Him- alayan products. There is a surprising and almost total absence of gems, or minerals of rarity or beauty in the Himalay r ; garnets, actinolites, and tourm i- lins, are porhaps the only exceptions of frequent oc- currence, and these are of the coarsest description. Hot springs abound, chiefl}- at elevations of 10,000 to 18,000 feet ; they usually emit sulphuretted hydro- gen gas, and maintain temperatures of 100° to 130°. There is no active volcano anywhere in the range, nor any traces of extinct ones. Some of the districts, especially toward the north-west, have been visited l)y violent eaitbquakes, but these do not appear to be connected with any endemic phenomena; they have generally commenced far south of tho Himalaya, and have been proprgated across the range. Remarkable local subsidences and elevations have occurred in the valley of the Jhelam in Kashmir, which have been descril>ed by Dr. Thomson. Hobart Town, situated .'n the southern part nf tlie island cf Van Dieman's Land, on the west side of the River Donnert, near its jimction with Storms Bay, in lat. 42° 44' S., and long. 147° 28 E. The water is deep, and the anchorage is good ; and a jetty has been constructed accessible to the largest ship; . Hogs. The prevailing breeds of swine in the middle, northern, and western States, are the Berk- shire, the Leicestershire, tho Suffolk, the Essex, the Neapolitan, and the Chinese. Ironi these and other varieties various crosses have been produced, tho more important of which are the Bylield, the Wobnrn, the IJodford, the Grass, and the Slaekay. The Neapoli- tans are iiarticularly well adapted for a southern cli- mate. See De Bow's Rev., xii., 67; Hu:)t'.s Sfag., xiv., 371. See United States — LiVK Stock of. We give some statistics showing the number of hogs packed in the West in 1850-5], also another table comparing tho number packed in 1855-56 and 1856-57 : Where racked. 1 851— 69. Ohio 4(11,075 Indiana 859,761 Illinois 174,671 Iowa, 27,500 Missouri 5S,16S Kentucky 199,800 Oreon and Cumberland liivors 8,500 Total 1,288,076 Total dcUclency.lSBl-^a. 1950-tl. 44.S,4I8 848,754 257,686 70,600 107,274 206,914 24,000 1,467,896 1,888,976 183,021 H0<3 OOMrAinoVr or Tire HraBiB op Hoob paoibd in 18SS4 wrrn tub Ni mjih packkd in 18M-T. Wb«r« Packed. lafiw— 56. Oblo 088,«97 Kentucky. •t8R,8lk IndUrw 488,S8t llllnoln 481,a8.'' Missouri 196,9t)4 low* 1TO,»7« TenneuM :9,4O0 WiMondn 80,UOO 19M-BT. 488,OtS 849.^12 810.(129 MX'iOi 148,!M4 ]0«,843 42,811 (hrsnd totals. 2,489,31)9 1,818, VIS 'I 1,818,463 Total deflcleacy, 1888-5T .... a71 ,084 This deficiency, comparcil w-:h last season, U equU to about 27 per cent. As regnrfls the falling off in wci^lit, having exam- ined the returns received with reference to this point Terj- carefully, the following is the result. We obtained the comparative weights from 12] places, and And that the aggregates of similar num- her of hugs packed at these |ilacea, each seodon, are as follows: . 1 , ' " ' 'J' ' , P..,inr|>. ]85»-« ,.,.i , i »ll.6«I,28fl 1868-7 M»,14«,440 Deflclcncy, 1868-67 18 474,820 Assuming this to be a fair inil' .ition of the compar- ative weight of the whole n'.mber packed, according to the returns, we place the fallin;; off in weight at 7 per cent., which Is slightly less than the above figures Indicate. Adding this to the falling off in number, the total deficiency is swelled to 31 per cent., as compored with the business of the season .') t>G. The crop, then, as compared with a few previous seasons, stands as fallows : See Pork TiiAi>ii. 81 per cent loss than that of. 1S6S-6 6) " •* " " ISIM-.'S m " » " " 18,'.8-4 4{ " " " " l(j.')2-3 The following figures show the average weiglit of the bogs packed in Cincinnati during 186G-57 us com- pared with last : . Puiindi. 1886-6 s\enigo weight 204 1886-7 " " 286i The following table shows the whole number of hogs packed in Cincinnati each season since 1833, heing 24 years Yean.. No 1808 86,000 1S84 128,000 ISS.-) 161,000 1836 1«8,000 1887 108,000 1888 182,000 1839 190,000 1840 95,000 1941 itojm 1842 S»l,00« 1848 S50,000 1844 840.000 1846 196,000 YMn. No. 1S46 806,000 1847 a.'W.OOO 1848 475,000 1849 410.000 1860 808,000 1861 834,000 1962 862.000 1868 861,000 1864 421,000 18£J5 a.'i6.78« 1866 4ilfv')96 18.^7 811,612 Hogshead, a measure of capacity, containing B2J g«i;.>ns. A hognhead is equal to j a pipe. See Weiohts and Mkahi'kes. Holidays are understood to bo those days, exclu- aivB-of Sundays, on which no regular public business Is transacted at particular public offiiH's. 'I'lioy are either fixed op variable. I'anka and public offices are only closed on fixed holidays. In England, the holidays observed generally are, (Jood Friday, Queen's Birth-day, Conmaticr, Day Clone 'IS), I'rincc of Wales' Birth-day (November 9), Christmas. In the United States, tlie holidays are. Fourth of .luly. Thanksgiving Day (November), Christmas. At New York and some other cities New Years' day is also observed, end at Kew Orleans, .lanuar)- 8th. ■•guv, i>r Hague, Cape de la, e, bold headland of f'mnce, f, •ii.ny the north-west extremity of the Department ii Munche, Id miles north by west of Cherbourg. ' iff this |)oint the combined English and Dutch fleetJi ilvfvated the French 22d May, 1092. nor, Hold (Sax. hfiMan), the inside of the bottom of th* ship. It is divided into ccmpartments by bulk- heads across ; and contains the ballast, water, coal, and wood, provisions, anil cargo. Holland is a European kingdom, formed In part c'f islandi>. but chiefly of that part of th<) Continent where the mouths of the Rhine are divided into several branches before it enters the German Ocean. This district is said to have owed the ancient name of I a- tavia, by which it was known to the Romans, to one Bu. 1 ; but at what period he nourished Is unknown ; and the name is now scarcelj' used excepting among the poei i of the district. By accounts collected from the works of Caisar and Tucltus, we le—n that the an- cient tribes who inhabited this porjloi. of E',.T0pe hud been able to maintain their independence In spite of tlie attempts made to subdue them by the Teutones, the Cimbri, and other nations, who had conquered the rest of what was then called Gaul. The IJutavii-ns, says the last of these historians, excelled all tlic other people on the Rhine in military spirit. When sub. (lued by the Romans, they ),pid >'' nite ir sol- diers ; an)'>minlun of the wateis. The motto on the arms of one of tlie provinces, " Luctor-«t-Kmergo," still de- scribes the struggles of tlin invincthto Hollanders, re- (jnitite for maintaining (he ground liicy stand upon. A destructive inundation occurred so lately as March, 1866. The rivers, augmented by tlie snows of winter, hurst through the dykes in several pmriuces. A fourth part of Oeldcrland was submerged. The v liole prov- ince of South Holl ind was in the most imminent dan- ger. Tl have a pojiulallnn of. 1«,1T8,187 The colonies In Amerlc*— Surinam and the Islands of Cura^oa and 8t. EustotliluA 90.681 The colonlt>s In AMco— Elmino, on the coast of Oalnea 100,000 Total 16,668,7 1 '■. FopulaUon of Holland 8,208,2f i ToUl subjects of the King of Netherlands.. 19,871,9M The population hus increased by 60 per cent, in 67 yean at the following rotes : Ytrwt. Populat'uii. 1796—1818 166,422, or annually, 1818— ISaO 880,821 188(>— 1s4t) 28«,52J ' 1840—1850 187.887 ' 1796—1858 1,101,868 ' The nunilier of the inhabitants of 87 cities in 1853 wa» 1,11)3,559, and of the country 2,0,19,873. The pop- ulation of the principal cities at the same period was the following : 8,760 25.866 23.652 18,783 19,822 UltlM, Pop. Amsterdam 247,730 Eott«rilam 90,898 The Hague 75,276 Utrecht 6fi,710 loyden 87,106 Orontngen 86,126 CltlM. Pop. Haarlem 27,770 MoestrlchC 26,919 L,euwarden 24,461 Nlmefcuen 22,009 Port 21,906 Bois-le-dao 21,862 Climate, — In respect of climate, Holland labors under many disadvantages. In winter it is much colderthan England, and ihe wntent are frequently frozen for three month.1. Even the Zuyder-Zee is sometimes frozen over. The temperature lias lieen sometimes aj low as 23° below jiero of Fahr,, and sometimes as high as 102°. In summer, cold nights often succeed to days of intense heat. The climate generally ii variable. 'tlie. atmosphere, especially in the western provinces, Is loaded with moisture, and there agues, dropsies, pleurisies, and rheumatisms, are frequent. Gelder- land is the healthiest province, but all the eastern side of tlie country is comparatively salubrious. Holland is frequently subject to violent galee of wind, which, •when they blow from the west or north-west, are apt to cause inundations of the sea. Agriculture. — This remarkable country largely re- Trarda the. stciil and labor of the agriculturist. The south and central provinces are thi most fertile. As hae been shown above in one of the tubles, there are •till exten.'ive tracts of uncultiv.-ited land, although much hf.f been reclaimed of late years. Ttie farms in th? best parts of Zeeland vary in extent from 166 to 880 aci«8 each. In South Holland the proportion of pasture to arable land is al>out 2 to 1. In Kriesland the qnnntity of ^- iure is more than eight limes that of arable land, in Gelderland there are large planta- tions of appl'^, pear, and cherrj'-trecs. Tulips and hy- acinths are Bxten«ively cultivated in the neighborhood of Haarlem in fields of several acres each. I'uise and garden vegkarge herds of beautiful cows yield great abundance of the richest milk. Uuttcr and cheese of the best quality are larel}' exported, and bring great wealth to the peasantry. The Dutch horses are good, and well adapted for draught ; the best arc those of Friesland. The breeds of sheep, however, are not particularly good. The statistics of 1853, December 31, give the follow- ing numbora for the whole kingdom : Horses 286,662 1 Horncii etttle. 1,286,974 Sheep 826,061 Bwlne. 288,900 In North and South Holland, Groningen, and Utrecht, there are made 140,000,000 lbs. of cheese an- nually, the home consumption of which does not ex- ceed one twentieth. This large quantity at its average price produces .£1,800,000 sterling annually. The value of the butter is about £2,000,000 sterling more, of which tlieir own consumption amounts to one tenth. Butter and cheese figure among the great articles of the industry and the commerce of Holland. It appears from one of the published tables, that from 18i),S to 1850 the export uf butter has constantb' increased, so as to have been quadrupled in half a rentur}'. From 3437 tons in 1803 it arrived at 11,931 tons in 1852. The export of cliee.'te was 9823 tons at the beginning of the century. In 1852 it was 19, 646 tons. For 1864, instead of a general statement such as the uliovo, we have found indications regarding particular com- modities, the trade in which was very active. '1 he imfiortution of raw sugar in 1854 was 108,546 tons, against 102,101 in 1853. The export of raw sugar rose to 55,.')36 tons, being 4420 tons mora than in 1853. liie importation of coffee from Java, on the other hand, was less in 1854 than that of 1853 and 1852. In 18,52 it was 1,073,838 bags ; for 8353, 938,680 bags ; and for 185-1, only 928,230 bags. The trade in indigo, how- ever, was progreseing. Tho imports in 1854 wore 14,130 chests, against 10,20u in 1853, 8600 in 1852, and 55!K) in 1851. The importation of cochineal was equally Increasing : 1535 chests in 1854 against 868 in 1851, Tobacco held also a principal place in the im- ports of 18.H. There were received 13,550 ban-cla of; HOL 911 HOL from Maryliind, and 8110 firoin Virginia. Tin fh>m Bancs funiiflhed 18?,8C4 blocks. The trade in wool revived, and that in cotton assumed consideralJe Im- portance. The trade in flax waa IGll tonii in 1864. In 1060 it had not reached !(44 tona. Tims it had been quadrupled in Ave roara. The account of exports is not, for the same period, so favorable. It givea, indeed, the first notice of di- rect trado with Australia ; but the result of this new enterprise was not encouraging. Holland exported its agricultural pnxlnce, however, in groat quantity. In 1864, the export of butter was 14,244 tons against 13,261 in 1858. That of cheese was nearly 26,.'>40, being 982 more than in 1H68. That of cattle, 77,198 head of oxen. In 1853 there were 83,074 oxen and 204,148 sheep. Shipping. — ^Tfae following account U given of the shipoing : CltMrtd toir»rd. 18M., isst., 18S3.. ISSS.. RMpi. , (Lesi «,960 T.48T 0,883 ],0»»,«71 1,16«,U0 l,«49,T!i8 1,1B1,293 CUftred oatwmrd. Shtpa. Toiuuiss. T.DSl 1,186,664 7,177 l,2t6.iS68 7,7'a 1,817.425 7,03S 1,216,869 The Netherlands' and fomign ships were, 1863, in the following proportion : Cletrod inward. ClMr«d onlwitTd. ?],ff. . . ■ , 8hlp«. Tom. Hhlpi. Turn. Netherlands... per cent *H Uk 47i 48 Foreign " BOi SBJ m 67 To have a full view of the trade of Holland, we must not only learn its state as carried un by sea, but also by the rivers, which carrj' a great amount of it. Tables Lave been published of the merchandise which arrived, and was forwarded by way of the Rhino, in 1864. There was an increase above 1853 of T2C0 tons from Amsterdam to places on the Rhine, and of 12,328 tons from the Riiine to that city. Coffee, rice, and the oleajjinous grains are foremost in this progressive in- crea«e. The export of rice to Germany has had a re- marltable increase. In 1842-'52 it was only 8fl66 quart- era per annum. In 1853 it was 46,459. The quantity of grain sent from Amsterdam to the Rhine in 1834 was 15,600 tons. The vessels engaged in the river navigation were in 1853: cleared [nMTftrd. Cleared outvrttrd. V«mU. Ladon 16,978 In ballast.. 2,213 V'eiidli. Tonnn^. 9,844 787,1(18 8,187 631,976 Tonnwre. 1,1.34,748 148,680 with 127 wood-rafta, measuring 24,,328 cubic ells. Tho proportion of these belonging to the Nether- lands was : Of laden vessels 8,879 4,616 Tonnage 611,578 Inward- " 876,009 outward. The remainder belonged principally to Belgium and Prussia, and, in smaller proportions, to Hanover, lladen, Nassau, Hesse, Bavaria, Frankfort, and Wurtemberg. On the 31st December, 1863, the merchant fleet of HolUnd counted in ail 2037 vessels — 239,601 lasts burden. There were 142 frigates = 66,142 lasts; 334 barks = 93,091 lasts ; 06 brigs = 8439 lasts ; 168 schoon- ers = 13,4.S6 lasts ; 783 koff^ ^ 46,465 lasts ; 2,'>0tjalk8 => 7269 lasts. The number of steamers belonging to the Netherlands in 1837 was only 30 with 58 engines of 2201) horse-power. In 1863 tiere were 100 steameis, with 118 engines of 691' ho'se-power, not including those of the roj'al navy. It is stated in the tables that, independently of the Netherlands' trado, there were employed during 1858 in the carrying trade be- tween foreign parts, Netlierlands' ships which made no less than 2266 voyaged, with 207,204 laiits of lading. The Dutch consuls at foreign ports furnislied the data cf this enumeration, which was made in 1853 for the ilret time. In connection with the groat emigration to the gold-fields of Australip, more than 50 Dutch «liip8 were freighted in different British ports for that dis- tant countr}' during tho first eix months of 1854. To these detaiU, gathered from the atatistical publi- Qqq oatlons of tho Dutch government, by which it has been attempted to convey an idea of the present state of the trade of Holland, we will only add one remark, that with the exception of the old East India Company's monopoly above mentioned, the commercial policy of Holland for a lengthened period was mora liberal than that of any other nation, The same enlightened pol- icy, if partially departed from during recent years, has been again cordially entered into after the recent ex- ample of Great Britain, A law enacted on 1st Septem- 1854 abolished the import duties on a great numlMr of articles of merchandise ; and the Netherlands' tariff, thus modified, equals, if it does not even surpass, in liberality all other tariff's in existence. It has evi- dently been in consequence of this enlighicned policy, having for many generations been generally under- stood and practiced by the Dutch government, that a country not more oxtensivo than Wales, and iiaturally not more fertile, recovered, indeed, in' a great measure from the waters, and kept from beiug again submerged, by constant watchfulness, and a heavy uxiiunditure ; accumulated a population of more than 8,000,000; maintained wars of unexampled duration with the most powerful monarchies ; and besides laying out immense sums in works of utility and omaiuont at home, lent hundred» of millions to foreigners. Not- withstanding thoir want of native timlwr and iron, they are abimdantly supplied with all the materials of carpentry, >;hip.building, and manufactures. And though their commerce, notwithstanding its revival in later years, is much diminished from its earlier pre- eminence, the Dutch, even at this moment, are the richest and most comfortable people of Europe. The following is a budget of receipts and expendi- tures of the national revenue for 1866 : KavKNux. Dlnict taxes (land tax, provincial taxes, patents) . . £1,597,878 Excise 1,895,871 Stamps, reiiilstrations, liypotbeo successions 968,625 Import, export, and navlgaMou duties 852,66t Duty on pawnud gold and el' vor wares 19,1,^8 Domains 108,975 Post-office 120,838 Lottery 88,888 Sporting and flsblng licenses 7,083 Duty on mines. 96 Diverse revenues 102,476 Interest of national debt contributed by Belgium.. 83,883 iDterest at tho charge of the colonies. 900.000 Balance derived from colonial adnilnlst'n. at homo 391,667 Derived from sole of the national domains 77,864 Total revenue, 1866. £6,099,266 E.XrEMDITURI. King's household £66,667 High departments of state. 4J5,683 Department of fureign alTalrs 40,884 Department I'f juslloe 212,226 Home dep.irvinent 471.642 r^hnrclu'S and Jewish synagogues 141,1,<0 Koman ("athullc church 49,246 Department of marine 634,716 Interest of national debt 2,985,686 Department of nnanco 680,159 Department of war 978,750 Colonial department 9,646 InoMontal espeasea 8,833 Total eipendltore, ia56 £6,119,670 Thtj following table gives the receipts and expendi- luie of the diffierent provincial governments for 1865, and of the communes for 1854 : Comlnundi, 1854. North Brabant... Qelderlend South Holland... North Holland... Zceland Vtreclit FiicBland Ovorysael Groningcn Drcntho I.loiburg Total Provincial, 1«,6. I Eijwodj. 1 (ur«. Recalpta. £60,92»| £60,a»8 ll,25Si 11,366 '- -" 19,988 'J0,825 9,848 .\««S 28,77 16,429 26,721 4,661 _6r £211,060'£210.4B2 Receipts. ~"£96,828r 119,670; 866,725 421,02s' 76,981, 59,71?: 124,861' 92,804; 109,681^ 19,868: 61,171 £l,680,a noL Mt HOL fn conaeqiipnce of the provincial »naa,l2'iS ■ 'al £8,866,628 Rvp»flillliin>, i;6,ff86.U« 170,6(16 1,624,806 £(*,(l8H,Am On tlie'iVth Auguat, 1751, William IV., Prinoo of Orange, presented to the States deneral of llollaml a remarkable memoir on tho state of that republic, which la still preserved In a work entitled " /.n Richene de la HoUandf," published In tendon In 1788. That pnnce requested the opinions of several leading merchants, and others of large mercantile experience, on the fol- lowing questions. Az. : 1st. What Is tho actual state of commirce ' and If the same Hhould be found to be diminished and fallen to decaj", then to inquire ; 2d. What arrangements and means may support it, and, if possible, restore it to its former profperlty and grand- eur? These questions elicited a statument, or, more properly, on clalwrate and longthy report., on the causes by which the trade and navigation of the I'nit- ed Provinces rose and flourished, Thia report is ilU vided into three heads, viz. : 1st. The natural mid physical causes ; 2d. The moral causes, and, 3d. Tho accidental, adventitious, or external causes. Under the lirst head arc classed the advantageous altuation of the countiv, near tho sen, and at tho mouths of large navigable rivers ; its central situation, which rendered it tho general market to whiih the merchants of northern ond southern Kumpc were ac- customed to bring their merchandise, and exchange the same fur such gixMls as they wanted. The slerll- ity of tlio country, and the consequent want, it is rep- resented, have contributed in animating tho spirit, seal, industry, and genius of the people to seek iu for- eign countries those things which tliey most need at home ; ond this could only be effected by means of trade. This they were enabled to do by the great •bnndun<^e of lish in tha neighboring sea, which fur- nished an equivalent for the exchange of tliose things which the barrenness of their own country-, and tlieir limited extent of arable lands, denied them at home. Among the moral causes, the report cited the invariable maxim and fundamental law of the State, which permits the free exercise of all religions, and regards toleration in this respect as tlie most effectual means of attracting foreigners from adjacent countries, and, by that means, to augment the popukiion of these provinces. The con- ■tont policy, it is remarked, of this republic has been to make this conntr}' i^ safe asj'lum for persecuted and oppressed foreigners ; and no alliance, no treaty, no lolicitatiun of any potentate in the world has ever been capable of destroying the protection and security ac- corded to those who have sought its refuge. This fun- damental maxim of the republic has caused many peo- ple to flee from the oppressions and persecutions exer- cised in other countries, and to seek refuge, as wsU as employment, bringing w'th them not only their money and their valualile effects, liut also their industry. They have established nianj' trades, manufactories, and arts, notwithstanding thj first materials fur the said i ' manufactures were almost wholly wanting in the Neth- erlands, and only to^ procured, at great expense, | from other countries. ! The constitution and the form of government, and the civil liberty thus extumled, funiish another cause to I which the growtli of trade and the prosperity of com- merce are attriliutcd. Tlie wisdom an>l prudoru^e of the administratiun, the courage and firmness of tho councils, the fidelity with which contracts and engage- ments ware xmi to Ix Ailfilled, art also classed among the moral causes under which their cximmerce had readied so high a degree of prosperity and splendor. Among the accidental or external causes are enumer- ated the civil wars In Franca, and afterward In (Icr- many, England, and other countries, whicli contrilt. uted largely to the encouragement of the manufacturing industry of Holhind ; while the religious persecution in Spain, Drabant, Flanders, and other states and em- pires, also contributed to the advancement of its com- merce. After dwelling at length on these tliree lieiids, thia "lelehrated report then discusses the actual statfl of the trade of the country, ami shows th'it the first two— the natural and moral caiuies — still remain un- changed; while the third— tho accidental and external causes— had almost entirely disap|ieared. Persecutions in other countries had ceased ; indolence and contempt fortrade had given place to industrj' and commercial enterprise ; their own example had been imitated by England, which for a century had been stroiiiing legis- lation to attract tho trado so lon^ enjoyed by the re- public, and whirn now prohibited the exportation of the wool which formerly fed the factories of Holland j while many other countries had successfully lntr(' duc.i those branches of industry which in former da^ i h:>d flourished in the Netherlands alone. The great niiiiilier of shops which had been closed in the iirincipal towns, especially in Amsterdam ; tho difficulty of procuring seamen to man the ships ; tho flourishing commerce of Hamburg and otl.cr towns. which now supply Germany with all kinda of colonial produce, of which Amsterdam was formerly the gnat emporium ; the extinction of Dutch commercial houses in Spain, and of Dutch trade in the I.,evant : all of these were cited aa proofs of the present decline of tho trade and commerce of Holland, This report, of which a lirief sketch has thus bciii given, closes witli a recom- mendation to permit all raw materials to be entered free of duty, as well as all foreign goods placed in en- trepot, or for transit ; basing this recommendation up- on the maxim, that the lighter the burdens were, the greater would be the trade. Nearly 200 years prior to the date of this report, tho revolt of iiie Netherlands against Spain commenced. The Duke of Alva, then the Sjiunish governor of the Netherlands, was defeat- ed ; all the Spanish ships on the coast of the Nether- lands were destroyed ; several Spanish towns were taken, and Spanish troops were expelled from tho cities and towns of Holland, Zealand, and West Fries- land, whose citizens joined in the revolt, nnd swore allegiance to the Prince of Orange. In 1579, the famous union of tiy States of Holland, Friesland, Zealand, and Utrecht was formed at tho latter pUco, and a solemn compact entered into to unite at one confederation, and, aa such, to advise of peace, war, and taxes, and to maintain personal and religious lilierty. Ovoryssel and Groningen soon af- ter joined the union ; and, in n few years, these seven United Provinces became tho most powerful repuldic which tho world had seen since the decline of ancient Rome. From tills period until the treaty of Westpha- lia was signed (10J8), we find the Dutch growing ta\t- idly in power, commerce, and wealth ; sending their ships toeverj- quarter of the glolie ; successfully resist- ing the Spanish and Portuguese flags, on whatever sea they chanced to encounter them ; capturing tlicir ves- sels ; expelling them from tlie Molucci.s ; forming trad- ing establishments in the Persian (fulf, and thence along the coasts and isles uf IndiK to .lupan, iiuil es- pecially at Tcylon, .lava, ai;d tho Moluccas. In one of these naval encounters (1().58), the Dutch captured a whole fleet of Spanish gallc<>ns, bringing home, as the prize of victc.rj', precious metals to the value of 10,000,- 000 guilders. Tlie vessels and seamen employed iii these naval adventures were under the management of tiio Dutch Kast India Company, wliiili frequently ."ealized from the rich captures and costly cargoes — HOL 979 noL ■plrnn, rlnntmon, and other KMt IndU prod lotloni — nit hl((h as nzjf per cent, on the capital atock !nve«t«d. A Woat India Company was also organii 1 al)Out tiio year 1 021, Grl((liuiliy for tho pur|HiHe of di Ing the Pnrtiigiieae out r. Drazll, and the Spaniards out of I'tiru, in which they were not so aueceiuiful as in their Kant India adventures. Tlioy captured, however, the Spanish fleet In those seas , acourcd and plundered the cDsats of Cuba ; took pussrseion of Pemambuco and tlio inlands of CurK9oa, 3t. Kustace, and others, which th'jy still retain. The first check ti t1' is extensive and almost undis- puted dominion of the sea, which the Dutch expe- rienced, was the i jlebrated navigation act of tlie litimp Parliament. .*i' ci ' omwell, and 10 yenra after- ward legalized by Cb ' i3s II. Tlie Dutch, at this poriod, enjoyed a profitable carrying trade between Kigland and her Amiirican colonies. Ily this act, it WI18 provided tlut no mm 'handiae, the produce of Aaiu, Africa, or Am ''lea, should be imported into England in any ' ut Ei jh-built ships, commanded by an En- glish master, and navigated by a crew three fourths of whom should be E' 'lUhmen i nor any fish exported from or imported ii ' i England or Ireland, except of Engllih taking. As might have been, and confessedly wos, expected, a war soon after broke out between Holland ond E.iglnnd, exclusively nnvul, which was carried on with the utmost desperation on both sides. After several fierce and bloody engagements, tlie Dutch wore defeated, ind wore compelled to sue for peace. A treaty followed, imposing the most liumil- iatiug terms upon the hardy repulilic ; among others, that " of striking their flag, and lowering their top- ualls, whenever the Dutcii ships thould meet any of tlio ships of war of the Er lish commonwealth In the Brit- ish seas." Severn othor 'vars occurred between the Dutch and EBaed upon the principle of entire reciprocity and perfect freedom of commerce, and applies, with all its privllegej, to the intercuurae l>atwaen the United States and the col- unlee anil dominions of Holland lieyond seas. It re- serves to Holland the right to levy dlacriminatlu^^ duties of lni|iort and export in favor of her direct trade with such colonies and dominions ; but should American vessels engage in such direct trade, they are to enjoy perfect equality with the national flag. The Uiiiled States is also at lilierty to continue to bivy the discriminating duty imposed l>y the tariff of IH-IO on tea and coffee, in favor of the direct importation of these artiides from the places of their growth, but alao without diacriminatlr.g between the flags of the two countries. This treaty is to continue in force two years, commencing six weeks after its ratldcation, with the usual Vi months' notice by either party will- ing to terminate its action. Before the date of this lust treaty, the reciprocity and freedom of commerce ' lietween the Netherlands and the United States a|>- plled only to the direct trade between tho two coun- tries. All restrictions, not only as regards entire reciprocity and perfect equality In the direct trade between the two nations and their flags, respectively, but, as It resoects our trade with the Dutch colonies, were by this treaty abolished, and the two flags were assimilated (the coasting trade and fisheries excepted), on every aea, and in every port. Navigation Imics, — The laws amending the Nether- lands legislation with respect to navigation were pre- pared in 18-18, hut not proy commerce, Tlio countries of Europe which still retain their medi- eval commercial policy — and, indeed, those on our own continent which have iiiherltetlon I' >» of nelghhorinK ((nvemmentii. The lenillnK fealuru of the new navigation lawi of the NetherUncln may lia ^fathered ftam the following eunimary. It erohraota the chief banea upon which they reit i 1. Unconditional rrpaal of dlicrimlnating favora grunted to the Dutch flag, l>y •upproHtion of tlia rulaa allowing to thia Hag preference alH>vn foreign flaga, :>.. Condlllonal •fmllarity of flag in tlie navigation to and from the Netherlanda coloniea. II. Mlpulatlnna by law concerning the trade and navigation In the colonlea of the realm, carried on by other natlnnn of the world. 4. Repeal of the Intenlicilon to grant Netherlanda reglaters to foreign-built veiiela, by ad- mlttanie for registry (naturaliaation) of inch veaaela nt a duty of four per cent, of their value. A. Diminlah- ing of import dutleii on principal materialii for ahip- huiUling. 6. Sanpenaion of the ihippinq liulin on th* Rhine and Ynnel. 7. Total abolition oftrantit diitlea. The principal object of all theae meaaurea i« to pm- mote trade, by relieving navigation, na much aa |hm- aible, of the Impedimenta agalnat Ita development which reaulted ttom paat legialation. The general ayatem comprohenda a plan of eatabllahing, in one general law, inatead of by complicated treatlea of com- merce with the different natlona, the principle nf Im- mediate and unconditional "free navigation," and, consequently, the general and unconditional asaimlla- tlon of flaga, by granting to the veaaela of all natlona the privilegea enjoyed by thoae of the Netherlanda ; reserving, however, the right of retaliation, ahnuld cir- cumstances render its exercise ncceaaary, which, In most cases thnt can happen, will \m limited to an aug- mentation of shipping tnxei*, or of import duties ) and saving, alao, certain reNtrictions and conditions relative to importations from Netherlands colonies. In fine, the navigation laws of Holland are framed so aa to open, as far as possible, all Netherlands porta for ahlps of all nations; "to proclaim," as announced In the official exposition, " a renewed adherence to the lilieral commercial policy which the Netherlanda was the flrat nation to adopt, in order to stimulate other natlona to abandon all ayatems of protections and prohibitions ; to abolish all exclusive protections of the Netherlanda flag, so that our (their) navigation may, with good success, keep pace with that nf other natlona, and our (their) commerce may not remain 1>ehind In the newly- opened competition resulting from the repeal of the navigation laws of England." Under the regulatloni condenacil a)>ove, as well as under the treaty with the United States of 1852, the American flag \* assimilatei] to that of toe Netherlands in the colonial trade. In- deed, in all rt^apects, without bny condition or qualifl- cation whatever, the flags of both nations enjoy antira and perfect equality. On the 6th of August, 1844 , the then Secretary of the Treasury addresaeil to collectors and naval officers circular in.ttructluna, in which the following paragraphs occurred : " Th.' charge d'afhlrea of bla majeaty tlio Kind of the Nether. anda haa preacnied a complaint that thn duty of VA per cent, ad valorem, levied upon coffee imiwrted from the ports of the Netherlanda, la lu contravention of the aubUatfnK troattea between the United Statea uuA the KlnK iif the Nolb- erltnda ; seeing that, by llio ninth article of the aot of liMl, coffee Imported In vcasela of the United taatil Ini- i.< Ircular Hrat referred to, A dlfl'urent cnnr.trurtlon would give to thn veaaela of Holland an advantage over Anio '-an vessels en- gaged In the same trade, aa already intimated, of 20 tier cent,' nn advantage which could hardly have been Inliinded to lie given by any treaty with a foreign (Miwer. All ambiguity or doubt on this subject is removed by Ilia tariff act nf 1840. Dnder the provls. luna nf that act, however, the Netherlands flag still enjoys an advantage nver that of the United Statea in the coffee carrying trade. Thus, scheduin 1 of thn act provides, that "coffee, the growth or production nf the |Kiaaesalona nf the Nrthcrlunda, imported frnm th* Netlinrlnnds In American veaaels, or in foreign vnaaels entitled by reciprocal treatlea to be exempt front diacrlniinating dullea, tonnage, and other charges," ahall lie free, 'I'lie nxpnrt duty on colTee at Java, is 12 per cent., half of which is remlttcil in favor of direct lm|inrtatlnn to the NetherlnndH In national nr nquallxoil Iwltnms. Consequently, a Dutch vessel, carrying ,Iova coffee from Holland Into the United Ht'itea, can undersell the American Importer who brings It Into |i«r f-iitit, Woven hbrlca ^■iti iUiUnnd atlgkr I'M Varna, TIB Coffeu tMI par cent, Oralns 4*4 Raw sugar 454 Live animals. 4-09 Butter. a»9 The total general commerce of Holland in 1863 (ini|Hirts and eximrts united), amounted to $2.')7,000,000, showing » dlmlniillon, when compared with the pre- ceding year, of »;,41),m)0. Tho diminution In exports fell principally upon ali- mentary products of the flrat necessity, and was caused "by the general had crops of the year. The slutre nsalgnail In the commerce of this yeor amounted to i lm|Mirts by ao»-to the Dutch flag, $49,391,732 ; to the foreign flag, ♦42,013,132— giving to the Dutch flag 111 the Import trade, 68| per cent. ; and to tho fnreign flag 4«j^ per cent. In the expoH trade, tho Dutch flag had $29,H20,014; the foreign flag, |80,- •70,14*— glvltigthe Dutch flag 49, and the foreign flag 61 |ier cent. The total Imports of the Netherlanda in 1854, as apiMiitn from th« Htatiilical Year Hook ofHoUand, for tliat year, tmounUd to 860,484,000 florins, or 4142,- 60)1,000 i itwwiog Ml increan over the importi «f HOL 081 noL Into total l*t 154 ■■09 1.99 1868 bO,QOO, |e pre- Inn ali- waa Tha bunted 1,732; ■Dutch |to the |le, the 180,- ifl»g Jb54,«b Ind, for 1i»U2,- LrU «( UM of $14,178,000, and over the Import* of 1862 of #18,808,000. The total export* the name year, a* Kiven liy tha lanie aothorltv, amounted to H0N,7H(),(M)0 tlorlna, or 4128,A12,()()0; shiiwinK an lnvreaiio(>vt '. 'I'he chief artirlt'K p: to Ilollnnd are cotton, The leading imports into the United States from Hoi land ore gpirit* (principally gin), coflee, madder, •pice*, pictureH, puintinx*, aeKarfl, tin, etc. There entered in 1858, in Piitch porta, from foreign countries, 6892 vuaaels, measuring 1,004,2118 tons ; of which number 70, meiuiuring 26,7n.'> tons, bore tlie flag of the United Htutos; and 18 vessels, under the Dutch Hag, •ailed direct from our |H)rta witli American produce. During the «im« year, there cleared from the Nrtha^ land* tn fbrelgn oountrie*, 4,418 ships, measuring 77«,H«9 ton* i of whlcli there were uniler the Ameriiatoh Raff I A KnifMali nim ftiA " Frnnrli flag m •• Sweillshtlag 1 ToUl l.fKW S04,m» Since the new navigation lawa of Ilnliaml came into operation (August H, IM.^O), the marlliiiiu commerce of that lilngdom has been distributed asalu)wii l)y tha fol- lowing talda : lUI'OETATlONS «\ Sr.A. Fi>«». i«4«. laso. lui. Dntob 5(p«rct, SSporct Mperct. Koroign 41 " 4S " 4« ' EXI'OKTATKIMH HY SUA. FllWri. IM9. IHIO. lUI. Dutch M por ct. Mperct M per ct Foreign 4« " « " 4» " IBS*. AS per at U '■ tsu. 49 per cl M » l'i>UMF.RCa OF THK Unitko Htatks witk 1IoI.la.io, fbom Octobbr 1, ISW, TO .July 1, l»ft6. Inn •Ddlsf . 8cpt.80, 1811 1H^2 1828 18M 1819 1826 181T 1S48 1829 1880 Total. Sept 80, 18M1 . 1S.12. 1H88. 1884 1SS8. 1880. 1887. 1888. 1889. 1840. Eiporti* DODWlll'^. Fortlfs, Total.. Sept. 80, UMl ISia uios 1848 Jane 80, 1844 1848 1848 1M7 184S 1849 18B0 ToUl.. June 80, 18.M. 1863. 1K68. 1854. ISSS. 1886. (1,9M,.M3 2,0T7,8«S 1,642,»II0 l,807,r>14 1,486,408 1,97(),100 3,8H9,8S1 1,808,707 8,()»ft,8S7 8,8M,S51 (28,381,M8 11,707,21)8 2,282,792 1,084,883 1,80.5,536 2,345,030 2,498,090 2.035,589 ^,55^979 1,077,852 _8,8A2fl4 '»22,TO8,Mir $2,237.44* 1,09«,.127 2,517,921 2,763,780 2,097,091 1,88.\89S l.RO.^.^W 2,tM,82S _2.18S^101^ »22;80S,778 $1,911,115 2,201,848 l,08!),7a8 2,299,710 1.920,309 8,501,110 $11, ,789,091 514,088 409,110 017.831 .800,839 ,899,857 888 950 809,040 889,330 07JS^7 ?17,67l $211,800 1,870,490 722,409 I,2^S,I.88 187,080 680,479 1.322,980 898,209 29.5,051 911,0«0 $8,405,814~ $277,478 880,088 288,140 181,028 268,267 109,074 129,9.16 271.513 242,027 416,564 $2,611,010 $284,054 204,651 21.5,773 142,950 203,015 89,818 Tutsi. $8^094,105 8,001,051 5,052,140 2,11^345 8,798,807 8,870,060 8,228,831 2,219,413 8,98,5,187 4,030,078 $85,700,119 $1,920,152 5,103,282 2,350,782 3,623,074 1,.533,010 8.184,575 8,358,615 2,0.M,24S 1,073,003 8.850, 310 $80,868,9t7 $2,614,922 8,023,820 1,986,467 2,698,944 8,022,047 2,290,709 2,01,\331 1,800,903 2,B97,8N5 2,004,669 $14,976,788 $2,199,109 2,497,529 2,199,406 2,442,666 2,118,984 8,530,428 Importl, $11,438,698 $989,837 1,360,608 1,166,860 1,128,956 1,590,570 l,a2.S281 1,886,076 1,180,897 2,149,732 1,074,754 $14,352,477 Wtwnof thfre wu lit BulUun and HpvrlH. 740 4,300 16,451 $2^,018 $5,000 26^178 8,612 260 800 '$86,880" ,088,021 ,007,481, ' 480,823 ,810,081 954,844 ,a59,697 ,247,209 ,417,908 .501,048 ,680.067 The general navigation and trade of Holland, con- tldering its comparatively limited area, presents a spectacle of commercial greatness unequaled in the world. In 1852, its general Imports reached $129,087,- 82.1, and Its exports $108,993,854. In 1863 the imports amounted to $128,420,691, and the exports to $109,120,- 660. This commercial prosperity nearly equals that which the Netherlands attained in Its palmiest days, when Beawes said of it in his Lex Mercatoria: "It $12,314,032 $2,052,706 1,03.5.516 1,625,170 1,695,970 1,829,700 2,420,479 $28,900 $28,900 $2, fmJW 1.58,051 :i2,701 2. 'J,551 15,085 151,380 85,008 181,283 17,308 J2,197 ,4^10,621 $16,041 4,70t 6,440 00,071 60,608 82,461 9,512 2,388 466 $182,891 $11,720 230 1,.500 2.062 14,662 $31,180 Tofinic* Cleand. 82^112 9,21» 18,759 10,302 15,2M 16,978 22,567 1,904 8,371 6,938 7,171 6,151 11,960 22,788 12,029 12,881 11,929 101,709 224,091 194,181 i 26,014 22,918 20,780 19,004 17,208 24,977 produces hardly any thing, and yet has wherewith to furnish other people all they can have need of. It is without forests, and almost without wood. There are no mines or metals, and yet there is found as much gold or silver as in New Spain or Peru ; as much iron us in France ; as much tin as in England ; and as much copper as in Sweden. The wheat and other grains that are there sowed hardly suflice for nourishment to a part of the inhabitants ; and it is, notwithstanding * 1 S :t«' IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I I^IM 125 ■50 ^^^ n^^B Vi ^ 12.2 !Sf 144 ■" lU IL25 1 1.4 i i 2.0 1.6 J^ 7^^ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14SI0 (716)872-4503 4^ HOL 98> HOL Arom hence that tha gicataat part of Ha naichbota receWe them, either for their aabaiatenea or trade, la flae, it aeema aa if the epicei grew there ; that the oila were gathered theito ; that it nourMiad the precloa* Inaeeta which apin the (ilk, and that all aorta of druga, for medicine or dyeing, were in the'naniberof ita prml- ncta and of ita growth. Ita warehonaea are ao full, and ita menAanta aeem to eaany ao much to atrangera, orthst atraBgeiaoometoload in its porta, that than ia not • iikj, and it maf be said a moment, that ahipa do not eama ia or go ont, and ftaquently entire fleeta." Saeh waa the pietore dmwn of the Netherlanda is 1670. Ita praaeat oommarcial omdition, though dif> ferent in every other reepect from the Netherlanda of that period, ia quite aa proapeiona, and reats upon • baaia more aolid and aecnie. Tabu uaiaiTuia tbb Tuva or tub Coii«a«oa or ma NnBBaLAKBa wim FoBuaK KAnom is 18S8, m FLoaiaa [Floun TALUtD AT FoaTT CaHia DiBTOD STAna' OraaawoT]. AoiWU BeWam.. BraiU BrcaMo. .'..!!!! CaUibrnJa. OUaa , , Cuba :......;;::: C«a9«a......i..;........,i.., Benaaik. ....^., Franea i..., Oreenland, «to Great Britain Hambug, Haaarer and (Mdenbnnt JaTa,e«iL " Canarlea, O. ofO. H.,K IndlM, Aala Boman Btatea. . . , CoaatofOalnea LnbM Heckkaborg i The Two 8lclll«a Unitwl Stataa Norway AuatrU PUIIpplae bles Portogal Bnsila Ruala (Black Beat SardlnU America Bnrlnam The ZollTcreIn Toaoany Turkey, Greece, etc Sweden, Snria Not known Wieeked. Total florlna Or In dollan 15,164,698 4,678^ 1,U8,S«S lv411,i6T t,81T,S8> m,6n 1,M8,8I» i3,5n,m 88,617 87,8*^881 4,819,687 4,»S,(»5 6I,7W,871 a,8IW,4M 19301 418,945 79,618 in,Tn 1,164,146 6,746,580 4,695,908 1,898^581 851,810 611,861 15,916,640 2,648,668 184,451 686,066 4,489,066 64,180,663 479,066 1,716,488 482,977 687,844 88^661 821,061,719 lia,410,<91 60 80,684,9M 2,149,148 760,406 8t«lin 9,017,582 86,408 (,023,601 *,186,»4 88,617 44,809,681 l,9n,961 8,687,718 61/04,164 2,996,908 18,492 418,490 28,080 816,881 327,864 4,824,610 8,801.226 621,960 73,162 407,689 14,628,969 1,774,889 91,508 204,688 2,723,146 27,668.881 802,815 1,668,286 806,162 101,627 610 82,649 204,945,186 81,978,054 40 Q«Mnl tfuu. Mr«HUl mm 14,112,814 40,866 11M40 »jm 169,780 812,080 1,607,861 11,687,690 78,9ffi;64e 7,814,011 8,889>84 81,808,7O4 160,784 271,966 180,8M 40,007 182,906 1,800;914 6,877,189 68i;441 4,478,060 8871676 8,488,848 276,886 1,809,967 678,612 1,263,820 100,146338 1,693,898 8,419,046 877,669 667,084 272,801,666 109,120,666 40 468,061 19,60«,72« 16,78« 766,286 102,9*6 1,904 169,169 169316 796,085 4,7M,066 46,49eid78 M74.884 1,61B3*1 18,481,184 167,818 149,148 6^480 17,084 107,124 1,718,181 8,81«',646 518,916 4,284,994 220^627 2,170,266 174,678 1,716,880 404,704 977,579 81,660,695 1386,667 8379.178 289,862 281,667 154,648,180 61,867,264 00 TnHlt. 181367 4,419,091 18380 116358 26,406 688 461 62,716 2II3I6 6,988,686 17,478378 1,189,157 764,628 8,817370 1,411 3,718 ^462 11.078 l\78t 77,808 1,567,698 162,616 188,066 niiia 1,267,982 1,667 98,077 163,908 184,741 68,486,138 166,786 89,768 188317 876,417 118,168,606 47368,40140 The cuttivation of tobacco in the Netherlanda ia aub- ject to no raatrictiona, with the exception of the ex- clae duty, to which, like all other product*, it ia liable. From 1800 to 1900 morgans (equal to from 8600 to 8800 acres) are annually devoted to tobacco. The tobacco land is situated in the provinces of GuUderland, Over- yssel, Utrecht, and Zealand. Tha average quantity of tobacco produced on each morgen is about 4600 lbs. The total crop is estimated at fhim 8,000,000 to 9,000,- 000 lbs. per annum. The quantity reserved for home consumption is about 2,000,000 lbs., of which Smoking tobaoco, about 160,006 Snatt 700,000 Ooven for segars 400300 Besides the above, the Netherlands export to for- eign countries about 6,000,000 Iba. of tobacco — in the leaf, 6,000,000 lbs., and manufactured, 1,000,000 lbs. lie following table shows the annual tobacco ex- port trade of Holland : TheRhenlth provtncee .7680300 ' Boaala and Great Britain 400300 Swdlnla. 160,000 Horway and Denmark , 80,000 Naples. 80,000 Boman Btatea. (0,000 flpatn and Portugal 80^000 Tha tot«l qOanttty of tobacco grown in the Nether- lands is distribntad aa follows : Fer the maaalkotare of sanff aad ohewtag tobaeoo. 1,875,000 Tor aagais aad segar covers 1,776,000 AvMig* prioa of the fonuMr, Cram 14 to 82 florins for common ; 80 to 90 florins for the best, per 100 kilo- grammes. Average price of the latter, tton 14 to 83 florins for common ; CO to 90 florins for tlie best, per IC J kilogrammes. The planters of Ambem, and some uther districts, have, during the past few years, ap- plied themselves to the raising of a ver}- light, clear, yellow tobacco, for segar covering, for which they ob> tain a very high price. For this purpose they employ a very active fertilizer, with a view to the large and rapid growth of the plant, which they dry by the sun with great akiU and management. The average quan- tity of foreign tobacco annually imported is from 23,- 000,000 to 26,000,000 lbs., chiefly from the following places: Kihamntan Tarlnas. 120,000 Manilla. 75,000 Coforabia 80,000 Brasil 80,000 Havana. 60,000 Tobaeee stems.... 146,000 KlIofimMM. Maryland 5300,000 Kentneky. 1,760,000 Virginia 1,400,|tatatlon. Osrmany ofihn tha principal mar- feM fof tm Dutch tobacco trade, though considerable a««ltlif«» ars axported to tha Levant, Italy, Anitrla, Mfftttffl, ttonmark, Surinam, etc.— Com. Hd. U. 8. WtAftutnif xkatrntina nn l(adino Staplu or thi VnrftHt llT«tM, Ain> Tiiaia amraonrs Valuu, ax- ■ fcmrto TO HoLLAHO » Tsa YaAia arEOirwD. ^nsisoir whaletMiM , Wood, lumber, and Umber,, natal (tores PotinA iNwrl asbes. te.'r:"*. aod lard. lire and other grains. . . Hl««.... muiti TOMMO * inaoahetored. titlfi'ts 'o/twni'e'n'tine!. e,BTi 24,4T« 45,101 l^«)« 4,ai» 1«.64S «,441 62,189 fiO,37e ii^HM fi«7,48a 1,8S0,88« 7,816 4,»G0 25,619 H686 1,S05 77,468 60,888 84,064 1,800 S,66« 88,789 98,780 418,488 1,068,789 4,829 8,278 71,219 Th« fo'lowlng comparative statement exhibits the «ff<)«ttv« inmehant marine of the Netherlands on the Slot t)l«mhtMr, 1892 and 1858, respectively : itt$, .......... Ho. orvessels 1,971 meunrtng 448,864 tons. IgM,. „ " " 2,087 " 479,202 " Yh* following summary shows the classification of |ill« VmmIs given in the preceding comparative state- IMfltl '^P gafks.. ........... Brl^fllinM!!!!!! (Mioowsrt. Other Vessels ... . Slesfn boats. Total VmmIi. 141 »6 56 2 184 1,829 18 1,971 111,176 1*4,200 14,412 488 91,564 188,084 8,950 141 112,284 884 186,183 66 16,878 1 488 168 26,871 1,810 189,046 15 4,452 448,864 I 2,087 I 479,au2 U. S. Foreign Con. lloUy«tr«e. Otogmphy and Jliftoty.—lb'i Ilex aqHi/hUum, or European holly, is indigenous txes for druggists, and for small screws. When perfectly seasoned, it is ver}' hard and unyielding, which renders it well adapted for pulleys used in ships. It may be dyed of various colors, so aa to resemble many foreign woods. The bark may be employed fur making bird-lime, in a similar manner as that of the prece^g species. Medicinally it ia emetic and cathartic. The berries, taken to the num- ber of 16 or 20, will excite vomiting, and will also act as a purgative. The emetic holly is found in moist, shady places, from Virginia to the Floridas, and was introduced into Britain in 1770. It was cultivated by Miller in the physic garden at Chelsea, and in several oth ^r collec- tions in the neighborhooid of London, till the severe winter of 1789, when most of the plant." k ore destroyed. Other plants were afterward raised from seeds in that country, and have ever since resisted the cold of ordi- nary winters without protection. Tha leaves and young shoots of the cassena are inodorous, the taste sub-aromatic and fervid, l)eing useful in stomach fe- vers, diabetes, small-pox, etc., as a mild emetic ; but the " black drink" of the Indians is a strong decoction and a violent, though harmless vomitive. At a cer- tain season of the year they often travel a distance of some hundred miles, from parts where this tree doe* not grow, to procure a supply of the leaves. They make a fire on the ground, and putting a kettle of wa- ter on it, filled with leaves, place themselves around it, and with a wooden vessel holding atrant a pint, commence by taking large draughts, which, in a short time, cause them to vomit freely. Thus they continiM drinking and vomiting for two or three days, until they are sufiiciently purified, when they return with large quantities of the leaves and boughs, to their homes. The leaves and young shoota of the Ilex cas- sena and dahoon, and of many other shrubs, appear to be substituted indiscriminately by the Indian* for making their " black drink." In North Carolina, it is said, the inhabitants of the sea-side swamps, having no good water to drink, disguise-its taste by boiling in it a little cassona, or other plants of a siUiUar nature, and use it constantly wann, as the Chinese do their daily tea. Thi* circumstance gave rise to tha opinioa HON ii^ HON that this ipeoie* wm the Hax Paragturiensls, and wm •mneousljr called " Paragoay Tea."— Bbowmb'b TV. nf America. >'" Bolm. (Sax. and Danish.) An island, or fenny plaee surrounded by water. Two well-known islands in the Bristol Channel are called the Steep Holm and Flat Holm. Holy AUlanoe, The, a league formed by the principal sovereigns of Europe after the defeat of Na- poleon at Waterioo. The basis of this alliance was drawn up by Alexander of Russia (September 26, 1815), and received the signatures of Francis of Aus- tria and Frederic William of Prussia. Its name, which was dictated in accordance with the popular religions enthusiasm of the time, was fltly expressive of the vague principles of religious charity and peace on which it profbssed to be based. It gained strength by the accession of England and France, but thence- fvrward became an alliance simply for the establish- ment of existing dynasties in Europe, as may be seen from the declaration of November, 1819, and from the results of the Congresses of Troppau, Laybach, and Verona. After the secession of England and France the holy alliance became practically obsolete. See jVortk Amer. Rev., xvii. | For. Qiiar., vlii. ; £ut a mile from the mouth of the river is the lagoon, a magnificent sheet of water, extending for several leagues in a northerly direction. In many places lofty hiUa ascend from its margin, HON 085 HON )■ 'P. otwrtopping Urge Tallcya and wood ranges of greet extent, where the Jaguar, capybara, armadillo, large weasel, opoainm, racoon, and several species of deer, abound. Among the feathered tribes there arc num- bers of quails, plovers, pigeons, pheasants, and wild turkeys. The deficiency of streams among the mount- ain ridges is supplied by the presence of large marohy spots or shallow ponds, the banks of which are fre- quented by almost every species of water game. Fish abound during a great part of the year in these ponds, but the latter dry up in the season of drought, and then vast flocks of sea-fowl congiegate around them to prey upon the fish whioUiave been left dr>- by the evaporation of the waters.VThe alligator is also a tn- qoent visitor; and, to partake of this repast thus jearly provided for him, he has been known to tra- verse trackless wilds, and make long journeys into the Interior, The rapids of the Manatee commence about 8 or 10 miles ttom the lagoon, and the high rocky banks of the river assume a romantic and beautiful appearance. Further on there is a rapid of about a quarter of a mile in length, and of considerable accliv- ity. A duster of beautifbl caves, through which the river winds its way, and beneath which the traveler must pass, Is next reached. They have been described as equally singular and grand. *■ These magnificent natural excavations of the mountains are semiciroular at the entrance, and about five yards in diameter. Within the cave the arch rises to the height of 100 feet, and leads to another low arch, which being passed, • second cavern of large size opens, beyond which is a third with a circular orifice, through which the river >. ters. During the floods the mouths of the caverns art filled with water, which boils up with prodigious fur}', and thus detains travelers many days before they cau pass through the caves or tunnels. In the rainy season, as the water increases on the upper < inland sides of the mountains, the river forces its passage through the interstices and openings in its sides with tremendous noise, forming an indescribably grand cascade of from 40 to 50 feet high, issuing from a hundred orifices." Of the other rivers of Honduras little is known. Productioni.— The country is technically divided In- to the Pine and the Cahonn ridges. The soil of the former has a substratum of loose reddish sand, and its iudigenous products consist of those varieties of vegeta- tion the assimilative powers of which are strong and perennial. Extensive prairies expand over this soil, and the pine, from which it derives its name, is extremely abundant. The soil of the Cahoun ridge consists of a deep loam, capable of growing everj' species of Euro- pean as well as of tropical aliment. Its fertility occa- sions the growth of much brushwood, and it is covered with the wild cotton-tree and other giants of the ftorest. Fruits, spontaneously produced, are exceed- ingly abundant, and consist of oranges of excellent quality, shaddocks, limes, mangoes, melons, pine- apples, water-melons, avocato pears, cashew, cocoa- nuts, and many others. They are all found in the neighborhood c# Belize, but an sometimes brought in' large quantities fkom more elevated plantations. The mahogany and logwood-trees are at present the staples of Honduras. The former is found best in elevated situations ; and growing generally solitary, it is dis- cernible at a great distance, from the yellow hue of its foliage. It is cut down at about 12 feet fkt)m the ground, and when felled the logs are dragged to the banks of the streams and floated down in rafts. The boughs and limbs are said to afford the finest wood, but it is the size that is principally looked to in com- merce. The logwood is found in low swampy grounds, growing contiguous to ftesh-water creeks and lakes, on the edges of which the roots, the most valuable part of the wood, ramify. They are felled during the dry season, and carried off when the wet season has Uid the ground under water. There Is another valu- able tree colled the Pintu oeeidmlalu, which grows ttt the height of 60 feet, and covers many thousand aont of country. The pine-wood contains an immens* quantity of tar and turpentine, and is consequently highly inflammable. In this respect it is very vala- able to the poor, who make torohes of it. It likewla* powerfully resists decay, and is in consequence much used by builders. The cahoun or cohoon-tree yielda a valuable oil, which, when unadulterated, is almost colorless, destitute of any disagreeable taste, and whan burned as a lamp oil it emits a beautiful palish flame without smoke or smell. There an various other kinds of wood of beautiful vein and close texture, such as iron-wood, clay-wood, rose-wood, palmaletta, and the like. Among minerals, strata of fine marble and formations of alabaster are known to exist. Sev- eral valuable specimens of crystals have been found, and gold has occasionally been detected in some of the streams. Lalioring Creek, which lies on the Belize, about 100 miles inland, is remarkable for the petrify- ing prope.ties possessed by its waters. They have also a powerful cathartic effect on strangers, and when applied externally to ui ulcer have a healing property. The country abounds with all kinds of animals fit for the food of man. Except in very rough weather, the supply of salt-water fish of excellent quality is abund- ant. The common green turtle, when in a healthy condition, is a staple commodity in the market. The hawksbill turtle la often five feet long, and weighs from 200 to 250 lbs. Belize, the capital of the settlement, stands on a low flat shore immediately open to the sea, and guard- ed by numerous small islands, densely covered with trees and shrubs, and so similar as to render the navi- gation extremely difficult. It is further divided into two parts by the river, which is crossed by a substan- tial wooden bridge of 220 feet span and 20 feet in length. The part of the town which is situated upon the south or right bank of the river, along the eastern edge of a point of land, is completely insulated by a canal on its western side, which runs across from a small arm of the sea, and bounds the town on its south side. The houses are about 600 in number, and are in general well built, spacious, and even elegant. I hey are for the most part constructed of wood, and raised 10 feet from the ground on pillars of mahogany. The streets are regular, and cross each other at right angles. The main one runs in a north-easterly direc- tion to the bridge from the government-house, which is situated on the south-east point or angle of the island on the right bank of the river, and bounded on the south and east by the sea. Behind the government- house is the church, on the east side of the main street. The whole town is embowered in groves and avenues of the cocoa-nut and tamarind-trees. Fort George is situated about half a mile from tlie river, on a small low islet. In the neighborhood of Belize the natural heat of the climate is tempered by the sea breezes that prevail during nino months in the year, so that, even in the hottest season, the thermometer seldom rises above 83° Fahr., and during the wet season it sinks to 60°. In June, July, August, and September, heavy and frequent rains fall, and these are the most unhealthy months of the year, from the decomposition of animal and vegetable matter in the adjacent lowlands and swamps. There are various classes of society in the settle- ment, including Europeans, colored people, Indians, and Mosquito men. The blacks of Honduras are dis- tinct from the aborigines of the country, being of Afri- can descent. In general they are inclined to indulge those low propensities which are exhibited in a state of iMirbarism, Having beroad savannahs, and the mountain plateaux are covered with forests of scattered pines, relieved by occasional clumps of oak. Upon the northern coast, in the broad plain through which the Ulua and Chamelioon flew, the conntr}' la so low as to be occasionully overflowed for considerable distances. Here grow immense forests of oedar, mahogany, caiba. In- dia-rubber, and other large and valuable trees, thickly intarspstsed with palms. Further to the eastward on the same coast the heavy forests are confined chiefly to the river valleys, and give place at short distances Inland to sandy savannabs, covered with coarse grass aad clnmps of pines and acacias. The alluvions of tbe Pacific coast are also densely wooded, but not ex- tensive. At short distances Inland they give place to nnmerott* savannahs, studded with clump* of acacias, and covered with ^rass ; but the pine does not appear here except upon the slopes of the hills, at an altitude •r abent 1300 Met. The valley* of the riveia on both ooasta are thMdy wooded i but a* they aaoead toward the interior, vegetation diminlshe*, and Is nduead to a narrow Mnge of tree* and bushes upon their imms- dlate banks. These valleys in the high interior coon- tiy often expand into broad and beautiful plains— half savannolis and half woodland — where the palm and the pine flourish aide by side. The mountains wliicb rise around these valleys are ascended by terraces orowned with forasta of pines and oaks, and covered with grass. The summits of the mountains some- times rise in peaks, but generally constitute broad table-lands, more or less undulating, and often spread- ing out in savannahs, trumrsed with long ridges of verdure and green twlta oMraes. Wood».—Ot the vegetable productions of Ilonduns the mahogany-tree stands first In importance, and, from its vast ^ze and magnificent foliage, la deservedly entitled " king of the forest." It Is to be found in nearly all parts of Honduras in the valleys of the various streams. It Id, however, roost abundant upon the lower valley* of the rivers flowing into the Bay of Honduras, where the eortet (cutting) are chiefly car- ried on by the Spaniards. A fixed sum is paid to the government for each tree cut down. Rosewood la common on the northern coast, where it is beginning to form an article of commerce. Lignum vita abouncU in the valley of the Ulua, on the river banks in the plain of Comayagua, and in other parts. Among the numerous dyewoods for which Honduraa is celebrated) may be mentioned fustic, Brazil wood, yellow Sanders, dragon's-blood-tree, Nicaraugua wood (a variety of Braali wood), and the anotta. Among the gun and medicinal trees, are the gnm-arablo4ree, copaiba-tree, oepal-tre«, liquid amber, castor oil, ipecacuanha, and the Hevea tiatlica. Among the more common of the others are the long-leaved or pitch-pine, cedar, ceiba or sllk-cotton-tree, live oak, mangrove, iron-wood, cal- abash, various kinds of oak and palm, lime, lemon, orange, cocoa, pimento, citron, tamarind, and .guava. Sarsaparilla is obtained in great abundance and of su- perior quality. The sugar-cane grow* luxuriantly on the plains and among the mountains, at elevations of 8000 to 4000 feet. CoS'ee, indigo, tobacco, maize, wheat, rice, and potatoes are also grown. Th» HottduroM Jnter-oceanie SaUaaj/. — At a recent meeting of the Liverpool Chamber of Commere, Mr. William Brown, a member of Parliament, gave many interesting particulars in relation to the Honduras InteNoceanIo Railway. The distance l>etween New York and 8an Francisco, vi&. Panama, is stated to be 6234 miles, whereas the distance vi& Honduras is only 4121 miles. Difference 1103 niiles. The distance from Liverpool to San Francisco viA Panama, touching at Kingston (Jamaica,) is 7712 miles ; viil Honduras, 6881 miles; saving of Honduras over Panama, 881 mile*. The distance from Liverpool to Sydney, vi4 Honduras, has been calculated with care, and found to be 11,820 miles. At an average rate jf steaming of 12 miles per V^ur, and allowing three days for cooling and trans-shipment, the voyage could be performed In exactly 48 day* and 12 hours. We *u||iui'i '^ ^^^ °f distances : MUm. From L'rpwL N. York. Uvenmol to VvnX 1,820 1,860 1,820 100 9,810 8,960 4,120 4600 9,760 7,«80 718» «,004 9,869 8,670 1,901 4,661 (,881 8,021 18,541 18,111 11,881 19,841 10,««8 T,010 8,881 illl 6,861 10,781 10,861 8,011 9,060 7,908 4,260 6,671 Fayal to Bt Thomas. Bt'Thomss to Puerto Cahslios Puerto Oaballos to llay of Fonseca . . Bay ofFoDsesa to Ban Franelieo. . . . " " " Bandwieh Islands. Bandwtoh Islands to Cantoa " " "Shanghai » » " Jeddo Bay of Fonwea to Melboorae " " " Bydoer » " "Auckland " » » Osllao " » " Valpaialjo New York to Bay of Fonseca by rsll- on Ulo. Spai norti foun itth two< coast remc bay, is no depti ■nd I HON •It HON 9,060 7,90B 4t260 6,671 The time MwMn New Tork and Sui Fimnoiioo, ri4 Ilondaru, U eitinutted at Id dayi and 4 boun. Thli calenlation is based on an aMumption cr 20 milee per honr by rait, and 12 miles per hour by steamer. Captain Fitzroy, in an official report, alludes to the live distinct lines that have been proposed, and thus proceeds to refer to that by way ot Honduraa : " Lool(ing especially to European commnnioation, It' may lie observed, that a main or trunk line of steamers, calling at Jamaica, in traversing the West India Arcbipel^EO, would find a suitable terminus at Port Calwlloa, In Honduras Bay, where the north end of the railway Will be ; and that Fonseca Oulf, at the other end, is in tlie region of steady winds, uid w«ll situated Tor a direct track across the Paeiilc Ocean, either to China or Australasia. The climate, produc- tions, and population of Uonduros, are more in favor of such a work, as a railway fh>m sea to sea, than those of any other part of the great Isthmus, without exception ; but, as the length and elevation ore great, these difficulties should be well considered. " 1, As to. length. This is a question of 160 miles against 40 (other things being equal, which, however, they are not), Involving first cost, constant expense, and comparative local advantages. The continnal outlay on the Panama Railway, consequent on th* nature of the locality, and many pileninf ported stnte> turea, is great ; while in llundurns, there will be com- parative durability of works, Fuel mnst be carried to Panama flrom distant ports, but it alionnds near Fon- seca Qulf. Bain prevails In the eastern part of the Isthmus of Panama, much more than it does in Hon- duras, where the climate is such that European trees and fruit thrive on the higher grounds. " 2. With regard to the elevation, which seems at first sight rather deterring. It should be borne in mind that the greatest incline or gradient proposed is 1 la 88, and only for a short Interval, In a county where Ice or snow Is unknown; the general gntdients being remarkably easy. Also, that as the country lies favorably, the line running along vallej-a, near rivers, and without crossings of aqy consequence, it is likely to be an economical line In this respect. All requisite materials, as well as native labor, are on the spot ; and the Honduras wood-cutters are well known." A company has been taiXy organized in England with reference to this groat enterprise, and among the direc- tors are some of the most prominent citizens of Liverpool and London. For a comparison of the advantages of the different transit routes, see Tbahsit Routes. CoMmEM or TBI UinraD Statis wna HoNDtrau, OAMrsAonT, kto, raoii Ootobse 1, 1880, to JirLT 1, 1856. Ymtb endlDf Xiponi. Imporli, WlurMf Ihira wu !■ Bullloa ud Spwla. Tonnal* OlMrod. 0o«sall«. renin. Total. TotaL Eiport. Import. FoKlfD. ADMrian. ^•"•'^'•IIS:::::::: :-^ffi::::::; t«,-.*iK i8jt:;:;:::: Ji'i-.ii' .■-• 1888 1 : , 1889 1880 Total.... BeptSO, 1881 1888 1888 1884 1886 1886... 1887 1888 1889 1840 Total.... Sept. 80. 1841 1842 9mos. 1848 June 80, 1844 1815 1S46 1847 1818 1849 1860 Total.... Jane 80, 1861 1863 1858 1854 1866 1866 199,896 138,115 311,388 167,060 67,886 IS^Ml 6m 12,698 8I>,182 1106,880 127,948 100,053 1H866 88,513 • 'im 3,871 8,289 6,482 (306,725 351,068 811,486 851,425 80,839 HS84 8,831 80,983 80,564 •216,076 28V,885 817,097 348,446 88,188 17,947 1,760 64,847 ' »6;o6o ^S60 •80,590 187,664 86,169 61,047 87,081 17,488 6,576 46,117 1,478 6,009 6,447 7,570 5,890 1,801 1,048 808 479 687 1,280 1706,775 146,888 6^469 70,622 66,072 184,708 109,888 99,694 89,896 181,861 188.096 •670,888 •18,782 17,897 28,724 89,876 87,561 86,016 12,168 19,800 89,889 68371 •1,376,118 •59,966 82,856 99,346 95,448 - 178,264 14^888 111,852 109,196 811,900 190.466 •1,181,140 •44,463 84,168 101,615 149,599 174,960 215,898 508,684 801,148 161,087 168,858 •11,560 •451,698 •80,508 68,813 48,689 71,780 89,797 79,187 114,908 76,481 111,114 36,569 1,449 3,677 1,697 4,041 11,007 4,236 6,086 9,406 6,434 6,048 8,649 •988 97 "807 666 1,818 2,168 1,605 8,861 1,708 «I66,358 «141,864 18T;889 92.378 197,495 188,494 83^494 961,898 949,648 191,347 171,984 •891,978 •51,852 86,648 16,804 41,524 61,421 64,688 40,619 44,181 84,620 16,551 •1,878,881 (198,846 168,987 108,683 239,019 839,916 890,082 801,917 896,889 336,967 188,586 •1,446,648 •388.844 808,868 186,688 843,843 804,818 807,997 197,282 18^684 263,417 178,690 •1,600 11,920 7,699 2,078 Kooo (680,096 •187,788 98,607 74,608 104,189 74,677 80,458 91,488 10^439 109,006 46,744 43,910 6,409 6,679 7,486 7,914 8,869 9,620 6,946 ^486 6,216 4226 11,687 1,010 "708 807 668 607 607 1,833 898 1,953 11,947,341 •818,806 . 893^ 818,855 471,488 850,000 •897,688 •28,869 69,259 68,006 68,728 01,526 88,789 (3,346,089 •887,168 362,073 881,860 368,641 628,950 888,789 •2,056,981 •174,626 861,646 268,298 288,954 889,974 882,117 •28,191 •16,610 17,437 8,000 17,000 4,995 2,000 •998,n7 •15,693 88,394 28,887 48,380 lllls28 61,788 3,983 5,020 6,111 4,168 6,882 4,938 8,490 6,186 8440 8,880 8,681 ^786 Principal Porit. — ^The principal ports of Honduras on the Atlantic are Puerto Cabello, Omoa, and Trux- illo. Puerto Cabello, the first port established by the Spaniards on the northern coast, Is In lat. 16° 49' north. Cortez, in his expedition into Honduras, founded • settlement here for the purpose of making It the grand entrepot of New Spain. For upward of two centuries It was the principal establishment on the coast ! but, during the time of the buccaneers it was removed to Omoa, because of the large size of the bay, which could not bo properly defended. This bay is not less than nine miles in circnmfiftrettce, of ample depth — ^two thirds of it being firom 6 to 12 fathoms^— ud has secure holding-ground. It is p>)rfectly pro- tected from the N.N.E. and N,W. winds, which m those that prevail on this coast. The port of^Omoaj is small but secure, and is defended by a strong fort. The anchorage is good, in ftrom two to six fathoms. TruxlUo is situated on the western shore of a noble bay, in lat. 16° 55' north. Population In 1842, 2500 ; 1000 whites and Ladinos, and 1500 Cariba. The chief exports of British Honduras to the United States are mahogany and varioni descriptions of dye- woods. Copper, scrap-iron, and other old metals. The following statement exhibits the valne of the trade between the United States and Hondura*' during the years 1853) 1864, and 1850, npto Jan* 80tb of < year: HON lUS. 1U4. UU. Import* AromnnltodStatatllMlJIW |Ma,Ml |Bn,9IW bportitoVBlMBUlM.. M8,m 188,904 8W,fT4 ThU trade, alttiongh amtll uid Imgulir, and ap- panntly fh>Di thli axhlbit not Increaaing In value, ia very fltvorabla to the United Statu, aa li ahown by lb* exceaa of exporta to over the imports from Honduraa. Hon« or Bonc-Blmta. Theae are varloua alaty- stone* wrought Into the form of atralght alaba, and naed for whetting or sharpening the edges of tools af- ter they have been ground. They conalat chiefly of the following : 1. JVormiy rag^one, the coaraeat variety of the hone-sUtes : it gives a finer edge than the sand- stones. 2. ChartJtji Fortst itont, which Is used as a substitute for Turkey oil-stone. 8. Agr ttont, iScoIck tlone, or tiale stone, used for polishing marble and cop- per plates, but the harder Kinds for whetstone*. 4. Id- wall or Welsh oil-stone, used far small artlclea of cut- lery. 6, Devonshire oilstone, for aharpening thin-edged broad tools. 6. Cullers' green-stone, ttom Snowdon, which is very hard and close, and is used for giving the last edge to lancets, etc. 7. German raznr-honf, used almost entirely for razors. It la obtained from the slate mountaina near Ratlsbon, where It forms a yellow vein In the blue slate. It Is sawn Into thin slabs, and cemented to a slab of slate, which aervea aa B anpport. 8. Blue polishing stone, a dark alate of uniform texture, used by workers In silver and some other metals, for polishing off the work. 0. drag pol- ishing stone, somewhat coarser than the blue. 10. Welsh clearing stone, a aoft variety of hone-alate naed by curriers for giving a fine edge to their brood knives. 11. Peruvian hone, tor sharpening large tools. 12. Arkansas stone, from North America. IS. Bohe- mian stones, used by jewelers. Turkey oil-stone Is superior to every other substance as a whetstone : it will aurade the hardest steel, and is sufficiently compact to resist the pressure required for shatpening a graver. The black variety Is some- what harder than the white. Theae atonea are Import- ed from Turkey in irregular masses, seldom exceeding three Inches square, and ten inches long, and are cut up by means of the lapidary's splitting-mill and dia- mond-powder, then rubbed smooth with sand or emery on an iron plate, inlaid in wood, and secured by glaz- ier's putty. Sperm or neats'-foot oil, or some oil which does not readily thicken, should be used with them. Oil-stone powder is used for grinding together the brass or gun-metal fittings of mathematical Instru- ments, and alio Instead of pumice-stone for polishiug luperlor braas-work. The fallowing analyses throw an interesting light on the nature of poUslJng-stones : HON OoMFAaATrra Tabli or tub PaoDoor or Bimwax akd lIuMiT IM BAOii Btat*, 1840 AKO 18M, AOooaDMO TO Tub nniTBO Statbs OBNsrs. Aliunl- Ba. SlUe*. Una. 1 Iron. W«ler. •li. CvboD- Polish, slate. Bohemian St. rnrkoj bone 4-0 10 8'tt 88-5 «6'8 TO-0 no 8-6 1-0 18-88 8-8 4-0 lO-O 14-0 1-5 10-88 Honey (Du. Honig, Honing ; Fr. Miel ; Ger. Ifomg ; li-Uele; Ltt. Mel; Rus. J/e(f,' Sp. JfiW), a vegetable juice collected by bees. " It varies according to the nature of the flowers from which It is collected. Thus, the honeys of Minorca, Narbonne, and England are known by their flavors; and the honey prepared in difiTerent parts even of the same countr}' differs. It is •eparated from the comb by dripping and by expres- sion: the first method aflbrds the purest sort; the second separates a less pure honey ; and a still inferior kind is obtained by heating the comb before it is pressed. When obtained from young hives, which have not swarmed, it is denominated virgin honey. It It (omatimes adulterated with flour, which is detected bgr mixing it with tepid water : the honey dissolves, while tha flour remoina neariy nnaltered."— Taox- MW'a /)up«iwa}■ the English, the potato of Europe and the fruits of Canton and Macao have been introduced, and, lately, many European seeds have been sent out. The land-tortoise, a few small deer, and armadiUoa, and several kind* of tcokea, oro found on the island. The climate of Hong the of rtz, for the rice, flax vil- the nton any oiie, l»of long; HON 9m HOO / Kong, llkt that of Mmm, it not ganwnlly nnhedthy, though flroni Iho nnmtroui death* that ooourrcd In 1843 ■nd 1848, thtt WM loppoMd to b« the oue. Suhae- fnent yeara, howeyer, have shown that the clinute here is no more prejudicial to health than that of varioui other taetem tropical ponaeaalona. Hong Kong wai flnt ceded to Britain in Janiiar)-, 1841, and again by the treaty of Nankin, in Auguat, 1842. The govern- ment la administered by • governor, aided by an ex- ecutive council of three members, including the com- mander of the troops. There is also a legislative council, presided over by the governor. The govern- ment offices are at Victoria. The following table exhibits the progress of Hong Kong ftrom 1848 to 1868, Inclusive : T«Bn. Pepulalloi, ti. eliuin of troops 184« 18B0 18S1 1809 18&8 11,SU 2»,60T M,m W,9e8 8T,056 8».01T RcTtBM. 1!W,0I)1 98,tlT m,im W,T91 S1,8S1 «4,T00 ParUanoBtary ■TMt. £S6,noo 8S,oao 20,000 l^Mo ia,ooo »,900 EiptoaUnra. jm,tt» 84,814 »i,115 84,T« 8^418 With reference to these six years, the governor re- marks, " that the call on the home government for a parliamentary grant has been reduced een printed, which possesses considerable Interest, as it describes the exact position and pros- pects attained by the colony shortly before the break- ing out of the war. It consists of a dispatch from Sir John Bowring, inclosing a copy of the last annual report made to him by the Colonial Secretary on the progress of the island. It appears that the place has benefited not only by the increase of the Chinese trade during the past few years, but by the effects of the rebellion in promoting emigration from Canton. A consequent improvement was observable In the charac- ter of the Chinese population ; and many of the natives, growing in wealth, had also grown in respectability. The increasing disposition to settle on the island was manifested especially among the better class of traders ; and the general tendency to prosperity was further stimulated by many of the chief commercUl houses in China, l)oth British and American, having lately made Hong Kong their central point of establishment. " The development of steam navigation," it is said, "the rapid extension of trading relations with Australia and Coliforina, the increase of trade on the coasts of China, the opening of Siam, and the security which the flag of Great Britain offers against piratical attacks, are among the causes which have led to these results." The population, which in 1848 was only 24,000, amount- ed, at the beginning of 1866, to 72,600. Owing to the happy fact of the absence of any custom-house, there are no means of furnishing statistical details of the imports and exports, but the signs of an active and rapidly-Increasing trade were everywhere visible, and were corrolwrated by the rate of interest being as high as 86 per cent, per annum ; although the latter circum- stance is partly to be attributed to the comparatively needy condition of the small Chinese traders. The government-house has just l>een completed, at a cost of ^£16,000, and many other public improvement* were in piogreu. Although the existing Jail huUdingi an pronouncad totally Inadequate, it waa only because laft- cenie* and petty offenses had Incnasad with the influx of population, crime of the more serious khid being ran. The impression as to the nnheaithlnas* of tha colony seem* to be disappearing ; and notwithstanding the Urge Increase In the number of inhabitant* in the year 1866, the town of Victoria was found very favor- able for fonignera. The Chinese consider the placa not more inimical to health than the towns on tlM main land. Many improvements remain to be effect- ed, which would doubtless add much to its safMyi but the revenue, even at its recent rate of increoaa, would admit only of moderate undertaking*. To meat all requlramenti, the Colonial Secretary ravived a suggestion for the Impoiitlon " of a differential duty of, say, Id. per lb. on teas shipped for England from Hong Kong." Sir John Bowring, however, in har- mony with the views now universally established among commercial men, declined to support the no- ommendation. Honlton, a municipal and parliamentary borough and market-town of England, county of Devon, near the left bank of the Otter, 16 miles north-east of Ex- eter. It consists of one wide and well-paved street, along which runs a small stream, supplying the town with water. The houses have generally a neat and re- spectable appearance, having been mostly built since the destructive flres of 1746 and 1766. The parish church, about half a mile trom the town, was built by Courtney, Bishop of Exeter, about 1482, and is remarlutble for a curiously carved screen. A modem Gothic churoh stands in the centre of the town. It has a free gram- mar school, national school, hospital, and several char- ities. The serge manufacture was formerly exten- sively carried on here, but now its chief manufac- ture is Honiton lace. Honiton is governed by a port- reeve, and ntnms two membera to Parliament. Pop- ulation in 1861, 8427. Honolulu, or Honoruru, the principal town of the Sandwich Islands, and the residence of the king, is situated on the south side of the island of Woahoo, in lat. 21° 18' 12" X., long. 157° 65' W. It forms an entrepot for European and Indian goods, whence they are reshipped to America, It is also a gener i1 <> jdci- vous of whaling vessels \ and sometimes f "V. of them, each fh>m 300 to 600 tons, are at anchoi ' •:> .- t> gether. In 1851, 446 merchant ships arrived at :he port ; in 1862, 285 ; and in 1853, 194. The imports in 1863 amounted to (1,240,976, and the exports to $272,588. Population about 7000. See Sandwich Islands. Hoogtaly, an extensive district in the province of Bengal formerly called Saatgong, situated principally between the 22d and 23d degrees of north latitude, and extending a considerable distance along the right bank of the River Hoogbly. It is bounded on the north by the district of Burdwan, on the south by the district of Hidjelee, on the east by the River Hoogbly, and on the west by Midnapoor. This district consists of low flat land, vei^- fertile ; but that part which is nearest to the sea is ver}' thinly inhabited ; it is called the Snnderbund, is swampy, covered with wood, and re- markably unhealthy. The right of the East India Company to the district originated in the treaty con- cluded with Meer Cosin in 1760. Hooghlg, an ancient, and formerly a large town in the province of Bengal, situated on the western bank of the Hooghly, nearly 26 miles above Calcutta, and supposed to have been founded by the Portuguese about the year 1638. During the Mogul government, It was a town of great consequence, being the port of the western arm of the Ganges, where the duties on merchandise were collected. It very soon drew away all the trade from Saatgong, which hod been before the government port of Bengal. During the prevalence of the Portuguese dominion in India, UoogUy was fwr. J'{v^i^d3'iif.dAt.i^^^i:<\^^£3iML{iEi;^C;«^r.~f''-- HOO i tHM, tad eonllanid lo flouriih tin Ih* fnt IflM, «h*a U wu attoekMl bjr oMar of th* (mparor Hhah Jchan, and, aflar • ilaga of thraa monthi and a half, wat lakan by tba Mogul traopa, 1000 of the PortuffucM Mog klllad, and 4400 men, woman, and ohildran, takan pflionan. Krum thti parM llnoghljr l)aoanM lh« iroparial port. Aflar IbU pariod arary cneonraRa- manl waa (ivanto oommar«a t and Hooghly, which waa eallad Bakbahy Bandar, baeama a graat comnwrolal amportum balwaan Kunpa, Penia, Arab^, and India. In 16M hoaUlltlaa eommancad bctwaan tha Kngllab and tha Nawaab. An action aniuad, in which tha Mawanb'a troopa war* dafaatadi and at tha aame tima tha town of Hoogbly wax cannonadad, and AOO hooaaa bninad. In 1700 tha liaat India Company'! (Mtory waa tranafbrnd ftrora Hooghly to Calcutta. Tha popolation of Hooghlv la now aathnatad at 18,000. Tha town ia iitoata on the Una of railnMuI racaatly conrtructed firam Caloutu to Burdwan. E. Ions. 88° ti', N. lat. W> 54'. 1/ooghlj/ River, properly the Bhagirutty, a river of Bengal, formed by the Junction of the two weatamnioiit branchaa of the Oangeaj the Coaaimbaiar, and tha Jellinghy. Thia b tha port of CalcntU, beint; tha only braaeh of the Qangei that la navlgatwl by Urge ▼eimla | yet the entraaoa to the river ia rendered ex. tremely dangerona aad dUHcult, by reaaon of nnmeroua aandbank* in It,' which are frequently ahifting, There ia Indeed a rumor adoat that tha river it'gradnally lilting up, and muat eventually ceaaa to be navigable. Thia would prove a fearftal lilow to the trade of Cal- cutta, and the propoud remedy i« to connect the Klver Mutwal with the capital by railway or ihip canal. During tha prevalence of the aouth-wext monnoon, when a strong current leta In from the Hay of Bengal, the extraordinary phenomenon, termni by Kuropeani the " Bore," occasionally preienti itself. It rises in waves 13 or 16 feet high, and rushes in at the rate of 20 miles an hour. It commences at Ilooghly I'oint, where the river flrst contracto itself, and ia perceptible above Hooghly town; and though the distance ia above 70 miles, it traverseii thl^ space In al>aut four hours, running along the apposite dank to the Calcutta aide, whence it crosses at Chitpoor, about four miles above Fort William, and rushes with great violence past Bamagora, Duckingsore, etc., ftwquently over- aetting boata and driving ships from their anchorage. At Calcutta it sometimes occasions an instantaneous rise of Ave feet. The tide does not rise more than 80 miles above Calcutta ; and during the rainy season ita bflaence Is checked by the large liody of water that comes down ths river. The Iluoglily contains severnl kinds of good flsii, particularly Ciprimn Anjana, the mango fish, or Polifnemui pnrajoxui, and prawns ; and it alwunds also in crocodiles and sharks. It Is alxiut three quarters of a mile broad at Calcutta, and 8 or 10 miles wide at the mouth. It Is only navigable for ships as high as the tide reaches, and the upper part of It is neariy dry during the liot season ; yet there are few rivers that can boast of a more extensive rommerco, ita banks being studded with numerous towns and vil- lages. It is esteemed by the Hindoos to be the most aacred branch of the Ganges, and it is on this account that those who can not afford to bnry their dead throw them Into the Hooghly.— E. B. See Calcutta. Hookah, an oriental pipe used chiefly in Turkey, by which the smoke of the tobacco is mode to pass through water in order to cool It and render it more grataful to the mouth. Hoom, a fortified sea-port town of Holland, prov- ince of North Holland, on the Zurdcr-Zee, 20 miles north by east of Amsterdam. It curries on a consid- erable trade, though in tliis respect it is much inferior to what it once waa. The exporta are chiefly butter, cheeae, cattle, herrings, and other kinds of pro .Isiona. The monufacturaa comprise woolen cloths, carpeta, at*. SUp-baUdiog and the h.jrring fiabery art azten- HOP stva^ oantad ea. II kaa a naval aoUaiph la WW diaiiavafwt llaam waa the Urth-plaea of Bohoutaa, who ' Cape Horn, and named It after Ua : aiiva ttiwn | aad of Taamaa, tha discoverer of Van Dlaawa't Land aad New ZeaUnd. I'opalatkm alMWl VOOO. HOMi((>er./Wrti; V\i,llnpp»i Vt-HauUmi II, luppiJi, BnucaiMi; tip. Ohlmt Hua. CAm*/,' UI. Humutut tupultu). The kiip is a perennial rwitotl pUnt, of which thara are several varialUa. It hto an annual twining stem, whieh, whan luppartad on twias, or traaa, will reach the height of fram lit to m faal or mora. It la a aatlva of llrilaln, and must |iarU of Europe. When the hop waa first used tnt praaarvlni| and improving beer, or eultlvated fbr that |iur|HMa, la not known ; l)Ut Its culture was Introduesil lulu Kii« gUnd from Ilandara in tha reign of llanry Vltl, Hope are first mentioned In the 8talute Hook In l/UW, Edward VI. ; and it would ap|iaar tnm an act passeii in leon that hope were at that tima exlanslvaly eultU vated In England. Waiter Blithe, In Ida Imprttvtr Im- proftd, published In 1040, Iwa a vliapter upon jiiipruva. nient by plantations of hope, in which tlicrc la llils striking passage. He observes, that " bops ware thnii grown to be a national oomuiuilUy | but that II was not many yeara since tlia famoua oily of ly allfla and vkuka Im- provement." After the hops have liain pluked and dried, the brightest and finest are put Into tha |iovkaU or fine bagging, and tha brown into uuorsa or liaavy bag- ging. The former are chiefly used in the brewing uf tine ales, and the latter by tha porter brewers. A pocket of bops, if they be gijod In quality, wall ulirtiil and tight trodden, will weigh about 1| owl. i mid a liitif of hope will, under the aame oondilions, weigh Mlatul 2} cwt. If the weight of either exoeads or falls iiiuiili short of this medium, tliera Is reason tu susiinvt that the hops are of an Inferior quality, or have bavn ImdIy manu£ictured. The brighter tne uulur uf Ilia lliilis, the greater is the estimation in wblvli Uiey are liald, Karnham hops are eckoned best, Tha BN|iense uf funning hop plantations in Great Britain Is vary greal, amounting in some instances tu from .£70 Iu i'lUO an acre; and the produce is very uniiartain, the (irup being frequently insufficient to defray the expensas of cultivation. According to Anderson's Annalt <\f t'ummfi'd), \m\* were introduced tfouk the Netherlands InUi ICnglaiid A.D. 1624, and were used In brewing | but the ph^sU clans hr 'ing represented thai they were unwlicdesnina, Parlian int was petitioned against them as bring a wicked weed, and their use was |iruhllilled In 15'^M, At present there are between 60,(NI0 and (10,11011 auras, on an average, annually under tliu culture uf hous III England. They ore grown chiefly in ilennird, Kaill, and Worcestershire. — Hayuv. llopi produced in the Umttd Slalet,mmK griitlfyltl|| increase has taken place In the culture uf tills useful article. The gain has been nearly 300 jiar vent. Al- most the whole of the increment, however, Ims liean in the State of New York, which, from less lliiin half a million of pounds in 1H40, now pruiliices ninri* than two and a half millions, which exceeds five ntnd Haan Hbbwino. AU li««n I half [thitn until! kctloD jNeW If hIo, Ki th« Tho bf »!«, ]inlUr tiktoi Mi Ttrrllerlct. "AWHM«i.T7rr.T:::::r. ArkMHt V Oolginbl*,Dlttrletor., OonnMtlent. Dclawtrt , omki*. : IlllDoV Indlu* lew* Kontuoky ,, LouUUnt Uilne MtrrUnd. lltMMhUMtU Mlahliui, MlulMlppt... MlMoan....! Maw IIusiwUn. New Jonay Now York North Ctrollm Ohio I'oniMylrinl* Bho ■ • 15 M H4 tfin BM 14» Mt m SA)t 17,741 M,TM S8,M1 S,M1 88 4,ao« 741 118 115 40.IM 88,940 l.HTO l,HftT lll,6»ft IHTM 10,««B 11,881 in IM 4,im TH» UT.in 24a,41S 2,188 4,881 9,68a,«»» 447,1B0 ».M« 1,008 «8,T81 «l,l«fi n,m 49,481 w 118 M OS 1,0tS MM 888,018 48,187 HAM 10,ft»7 IMSO 188 8,4te,0SO l,U«,eoi Boriion {iptiu, I bound), the plane of a gnat circuit which dividea the upper or viiilble from the lower or inviaible homiipbere. See (iEouitAi-iir. Horn (Ua.Uoomt Vt.Cvmei Otr.Uom; Lit. Comu), a lubatsnce well known to manufacturers. Horni are of very considerable importance in tho art*, being applied to a great variety of uaeful puriiosea. They are very extensively need in the manufacture of handles for knivea, and in that of apoons, combs, lanterns, snuff^boxaa, etc. When divided into thin plates, horns are tolerably transparent, and were form- erly used instead of glass in windows. Qlue ii some- times made out of the refuse of horn. The projecting weapons on the head of the ox, the iheep, the antelope, and tho rhinoceros, consist of a ■heath of horn on a core of bone. Horn is composed chiefly of coagulated albumen, gelatine, and a small portion of phosphate of lime. It is essentially dis- tinct fhnn bona and Ivor}' ; the antlers of tho stag, al- though sometimes called liorns, consist entirely of bono. Modifications of horns may be noticed in tljr scales of the armadillo, the plate armor of the torto<<", the spines of the porcupine and bedge-hog, thto quills of birds, and the hoofs, claws, and nails, of animals. For manufacturing purposes, the horns and hoofs of the bull and cow are in request, and there is a large import of these trom South America, southern Africa, and from Kussla. The horns of the bison and buft'olo, the chamois and the antelope, are used fur the better kinds of work. The mannfactnrer first detaches the bom fh>m the bony core, by macerating the bom In water for a month or six weeks, when tho membrane by which the bom is attached to the core putrifles and allows the two to be separated. The ash of the cores makes •xoellent cupels for the assay of gold and silver. The ■olid tips of the horn are sawn off, and are used for handles for knives, for buttons, etc. ; the other portion of the bom is cut into short lengths, or soaked whole In boilmg water, or heated at a fire, the effect of which Is to soften it, and allow it to be spread out nearly flat. TheJhU are' next pressed between warm and greased Iron plates, tlie pressure var}-lng according to circum- stances. If intended for lanterns, the pressure is con- tinued ontU the bom separates into distinct plates; these are placed on a board covered with hide, and loraped with a knUa having a wire edge. Some of the BhaTiB(s wUob come off are somatimaa dyed and eul into Various forms, and are so sensitive aa tu curl up by the warmth of the hand. Tbay are aold at toy- ahop* undar the name of "sensitive leaves." After the scraping, the sheets of horn nra polished with a woolen cloth dipped In cliarcnal dunt and water, next with rotten-stone, and lastly with horn sbavings. The eflkct of heat and presnure ou llglit-volorsd horn la to render it transparent ; but must of the aitlolea made of horn are colored artificinlly l)y Imlling the horn in infualona of coloring matter. If the horn lie intended for comba, the preaaure must be moderated, or the teeth will be brittle i if inteudnd fur drinking cupe, the horn is cut into lengths, si'iilded, roasted, end molded in a cone oi wood, and a woiMleii plug is drives into It fur pressing the horn into the nxiuirrd shape. After this, the cup is turned and |Niiished at tlie lathe, and a groove Is cut to receive the bottom ; this cut out of a flat piece of horn by means of a crown saw, and the bottom of the cup having been softened at the lire, the disk la forceil Into the groove, and the horn con- tracting in cooling makes a water-tight Joint. For knife-handle and similar works, the horn is cut nearly to the required form, end is molded in dies with the assistance of heat and a powerful surew-piess, The work la flnishod by scraping and bufling with Trent ■and and oil, or rotten-stone and oil. Horn is some- times used as a vehicle for applying iiolishing powders to the flat works of the watchmaker. In the Great Exhibition of 1H61, there were sundry small articles of chamois honi, consisting of brooches, sliirt-buttons, rings, and wutuh-keys, liy a Swiss exiiibitur ; tJHre were alsu some transparent horn paintings from Ham- burg, and a pair of pulialied ox-horns from Port Natal, with the head complete, measuring from tip to tip 8 ft. 4 in., and 21 in. circumference. The liest ci'llec- tion of articles in horn-work was, however, from Turkey.— E. B. Bom Mannteoturu. Horn is employed for all the purposes of tortoise-shell ; nnd its much greater cheapness gives it a more extendam 1,800,000 to 1,400,000 hones employed for various purpose* of pleaaur* *nd utility. They may, probably, be worth at an average from £10 to tVi, making their toUl value from X18,000,000 to ;(10,HOO,UOO sterling, exclusive of the young horae*. In the United States, there wero, In the year 18(0, 4,a3fi,IIM horaea, the largeat numlwr (4611,000) being in the 8ute of Ohio. See Cnuui Rrport U. S. He* alao, lIxiTKii Htatu, Aim ittock of; Living Age, x., 806, xxi., 411 ; Ulnar, tUv., xxvlil., 26. Th* moat reliable and valuable work on the horse, 1* by Fkamk FuBRSTRR, 8vo., New York, 1HS7, The flnt animal* brought to Am^.tca ftrom Europ* were imported by Columbus, In hi* aecond voyage, la 1498. He left Spain aa admiral of 17 ahipa, bringing a collection of European tree*, plant*, and seeds of various kinds, a number of horses, a bidl, and several cows. The flnt horses brought Into any part of th* territory at present embraced In the United 8tat«a, were landed at Florida, by Cabe9a de Vaca, In 1627, 42 in number, all of which perished or were otherwis* killed. The next importation was also brought to Florida, by I)e Soto, In 1689, which consisted of a large number of horses and swine, among which war* 18 sows, the progeny of the latter soon Increasing to several hundred. The principal breeds of horses, adapted fur speciflc purposes, in the middle, northern, and western States, are the Norman, the CanadUn, the Morgan, the Conestoga or Pannsylvantan, the Virginian, and the Kentuckian. For carriages of heavy draught the Conestogaa ai« regarded by many aa the best. For the saddle, dranght, and other uso- ful purposes, the Morgan* ar* highly priied, especUlly in New Yorli. For roadston, the Normans and Cana- dians ar* firequently sought. For blood, th* Virgin- ians and Kentucklans generally teke the lead. Horse Xaatitadsa. On the polar side of th* lones of calms, bordering the north-east trade-winds on the north, and bordering the *outh-east trade-wind* on the south, there is a broad band extending up into th* polar ri/ions, the prevailing winds within which are the op^josites of the trade-winds, viz., south-west In the northern and north-west In the southern hemi- sphere. Th* equatorial edge of these calm belt* is near the tropica, and their average breadth is 10° or 12°. On one aide of the*e belte the winds blow pev- pctually toward th* eqnator ; on the other, their pre- vailing direction is toward th* poles. They are called the "horse latitudes" by seamen. These calm xonaa vibrato up and down with the trada-wlnd lones, par- taking of their motions, and following th* daclination of th* sun. Along the polar borders of th*** two calm belto (§ 190) w* hav* another ragion of pradpita- tion, thongh gen*rally tlM rains h*r» ar* not so Gon- ■taat ■• Ui*7 u* in Um *i|aatoiial aalmf. Tl*" // HOfl Mi Hon ptMMutlon MU Iba troplosl aaimt U novtrthottM •ufllmnl lo mark tho hmom i for whoMvar thw* oalm ioiM«, u tiny |o from north to M>aih with lb* mh, Ictv* a Klrnt paralUl, tha rainy Maion of that parallal, If It Im In winUr, 1* mIiI lo ooninianoa. Hanoa wa may axplain tha rainy Maaon In Clilll at tha wulh, and In California at tha north.— MAunv'a Pkgt, il*aloa, built on tha Uland oallail Khana ; and thoia bulldlnga whii'h, at a latar parloil, wore ererted near (he temple of ilCiculapiui, for lick peraun* coming In learoh nf health. It wa* pomlldy a alnillar Inttllullon whii-h Antonlui built at Epidiurus. Another appear* to have exUted on the litaml of tha Tiber, at Home, to which tick ilarei were lirought to li« healed. Iklhtt- da (hou*e of mercy), with live porolie*, wai a place In Jeruaalem to which the aiek were brought to await the moving of the water*. Alu, the Tiiitnn iftrilnrum at Honiu appear* to havo lieon n honpttui for inrnlid*. lloapltal* fur the poor and *lck are prominently chnr- aotarialio of Ckrlttlanlty. Ho early «* tka CoanaO af NUe, A.D. BM, they are apokaa of aa cowmoaly known. The trM oelel>ratad hoapltal waa that of CaMMoa, a.d. S70-W0, riably endowed by tha Kmparor Valani. It waa of laiinanaa dimanalona. After It followed tka lloapltal of Uhryaoetom, at t'onatantlnopla. In tha ninth cantary there ware M hoapltala In Home alone. A foundling hoapltal waa Drat eitabllahed at Milan, A.u. 787 1 a laaaratto about tha aama time In Oonetail< tinople I and an orphan hoapltal In the aama city, a.it. HHM), by AlexluB I. lloapltal* are now unlvaraalty eatablUhed In all parta of ChrUtxndom, and appropri- ated for all eUaaa* of tha oonimunity and for all kind* of dl*aaaei, Hoa Unaaxwn h IIoiwtai,. — Lhing ilM, xvill., 174 ; /WM*r'«A/aiHi a«rvl«N. Midklu. Chits* 1 «>«"»- Ta4»l«l- HMpllnl HoQ8i 914 0,109 8,649 4,920 19,800 10,160 12,768 88,260 4,867 lT,8Se 11,804 14,819 19,885 T,045 11,039 6,976 10,268 1,751 46,603 '614 MuauhnMlU .... llhoilK laUnd l!(>nniH)tlrut Now York N«w Jemey nmnaylvanta DeUware Maryland Dill, of C'olumMa. . VlrjrlnU North (Jarolloa.... South Carolina. . . . MUaUolppl Horlcla MlaMurl Ohio MIchlRan Indiana minola v.... lowe Wlaconaln Kentucky Tonneuee (lallfomU Orvgon Waalilngton Terr. . ToUl year lS67-'8 " » 188«-'7 10,703 9,72'i 0,444 10,006 $2s;i,48s 263,629 $41,201 30,600 !|ll»,710 16,479 116,660 21,6*4 881 809 $!!66,020 843,084 $164,161 167,325 Houaaa ia the name of an extensive portion of Central Africa, which, along with Bornou, bear* the general name of Soudan, or Land of the South. It conaiata of various petty kingdoms or states, which oc- cupy territory stretching east and west from the upper couno of the Yeou nearly to the Niger, the boundaries of which on the south, and norlh, and west, have now fur the flrst time been determined by Dr. Barlh. The dominant people in Houssa are the Fellatas, this country forming, In fact, a considerable portion of the empire of Sokoto, which again comprise* the eastern part of the Fellata dominions. Kano, the capital of a province of th« same name, Rrr ' and the principol commercial city of Houssa, la situ- ' ated in N. lat. 12^ 0' 19", and E. long. 8° 80'. It i may contain between 30,000 and 40,000 inhabitants, of whom a great portion are slaves. This number Is exclusive of strnngers, who crowd thither during the ; drj' months from all parts of Africa. The city is of I an Irregular oval shape, about 15 miles in clrcumfer- I ence, and surrounded by a clay wall 80 feet In height, having a dry ditch on both sides of it. There are 14 gates made of wood, and covered with sheet iron, and these are regularly opened and shut at sunrise and sunset. A platform inside, with two guard-houses be- low it, serves to defend each entrance. The housea 'J: I 9 HOU 8tin HFA t withlii tiM wdb do not ooenpymen than neoriy black. Both men and women pay considerable atten- tion to their dress, which among the wealthy inhabit- ants is rather showy. In their domestic habits they are regular, orderly, and cleanly, and the slaves are generally well treated. The Mohammedan is the pre- dominant religion, and considerable attention is paid to keeping up an .appearance of it. Prayers are reg- ularly said five times a day in the Aral>ic language, wliich both tile male and female children of the better tort of Fellatus are taught to read ind write. Their marriages arc celel)rated without any pomp or noise, and such contracts are of a less arbitrary nature than we find them to be among the inferior races of man- kind. Captain Clapperton makes the following re- marks regarding Iloussa : — " The government of the Fellatas in Soudan is in its infancy. The govern- ors of the different provinces are appointed during pleasure ; and all their property, on their death or re- moval, filla to th« tnhan. Tha apimiatmeat to • vacancy is sold to tha highest bidder, who ia generally a near relation, provided that his property is sufficient to enable him tn hid np to tha mark. Ail the inferior offices in the towns are sold in like manner by the gov- ernors, who also tucoaad to the property of those petty officers at their death or removal. A great deal of marketable property is claimed b}' the governor, such as two thirds of the produce of all the date-trees and rther froit-treas, the proprietor being allowed only tha remaining third. A amall duty is also levied on every article sold in the market ; or, in lieu thereof, a cer- tain rent is paid for the stall or shed. A duty is also fixed on every lobt that is dyed blue, and sold. On grain there is no aiity. Kano produces the greatest revenue that tha sultan receives ; it is paid monthly, in horses, cloth, and cowries. Adamowit pays yearly in slaves ; Yacoba in slaves and lead ore ; Zegzeg in slaves and cowries; Zamfra ttie same; Uodeja and Kotagum in horses, bullocks, and slaves ; Cnshna in slr.ves, cowries, and cloth ; Ader, or Todela, in bul- locks, sheep, camels, and a coarse kind of cotton cloth, like what is called by us a counterpane." Of the number of negroes and Fellatas who inhabit the coun- try of Houssa no correct idea can be formed Much additk>nal and more precise information on these coun- tries may be expected from the pen of Or. Berth, that energetic traveler, who has so thoroughly explored these regions, , The exports era principally civet and blue check tobet called sharie, which are manufactured l)y tha slaves from NyfH, of whom the men ara considered as the most expert weavers in Soudan, and the women as the best spinners. The common imports are brought from the borders of Ashanti ; and coarse calico and woolen cloth, in small quantities, with brass and pewter dishes, and some few spices, from IfyfB. The Arabs, from Tripoli and Ghadamis, bring unwrought silk, ottar of roses, spices, and beads. Slaves are both exported and imported. A great quantity of Guinea com is taken every year by the Tuaricks, in exchange for salt. The market is extremely well supplied, and is held daily from sunrise to sunset. On the north side of Sokoto there is a low marsh, with some stag- nant pools of water, between the city and the river ; this, perhaps, may be the cause of the great preva- lence of ague, as the city stands in a fine airy situa- tion." Sokoto is described by Dr. Barth as fanning nearly a regular square, and having 8 gates, not 12, as for- merly supposed. .Sokoto has a mixed population, tha Zoromana forming the chief portion of the inhabitants. They are, unlike the tribes of pure Pullo or Felian origin, very industrious, and are excellent workmen in leather, iron, and gebbega or cotton-stripes. The articles of iron made at Sokoto ara the liest in all .Sou- dan ; and Dr. Barth purchased some specimens of beautifiil workmanship. The Zoromana are the prin- cipal inhabitants of the town, while the Syllebana, a' ver}' interesting trit)e, different from, but united with the Fellatas from time immemorial, inhabit the vil- lages round the town. — E. B. Houstoo, a city of Texas, United States of Korth America, capital of Harris county, and the second commercial city in the State. It is situated on Buf- falo Bayou, at the head of its steamboat navigation, and -15 miles above .ts mouth in Galveston Bay. It is the principal shipping port for the cotton, sugar, and maize, of the ailjacent oounties. Fop. (1853) estimated at<'000. Huallaga, a river of Peru, rises in the Andes, near lut. 11 -'''10' south, and at l.ndon merrhanta in <]ueat of a ahortar paa- aage to China, than that l>y the Cape of Good Hope, In that year he penetrated aa far aa the 8*id degree, beyond which hia paaaage waa barred by the Ice, In the following year, he altered hia niurae, eaatward, •nd, coaating along Spitzliergen, reached the Htraita of Waygatz. Unable to force hia way any furthar, in that direction, he again returned home withrmt eflhet' ing hia purpoae. In 1609 a company of Dutch maf' chanta aupplied him with the meana of again attamitt' ing a north-oaat paatage. Again the Ice atoppad hia progress, and Hudson, abandoning bla original plan, aailed away to America, where he diacovereii the great river which now hears hia name, and at tlie mouth of which New York is situated. Hearcity of provisions drove him once more to Kngland, which ha reached on the 7th November. In the following year (1610), he aailed iVom London on the forlorn queat nf the north-west paaaage. In the end of May his sail I ors mutinied, and the revolt waa only quelled with great diffloulty. In .lune ho entered the strait and bay now called I)}' his name, and was in liigli hnnen that he lud at last solved the mystery that hail lui Iliad 80 many inquirers. Stricter investigation, however, showed him that he had been caught in a oul-da>sae, and as summer was now drawing to a close, he found himself compelled to winter on those inhospitalde ahora* with a mutinous crew, and a very scanty stock of prO' visions. Commander and sailors were alike out of temper at the bad success of the whole expedition, and heart-burnings and diasenaions embittered the winter bivouac. On the way home in the summer of Hill, the crew again mutinied, and taking poaseaaion of the ship, they turned adrift Hudson and auch of the craw as remained faithful to him in an open Imat, and with a scanty supply of provisions. What was the fate of the boat and her crew ia unknown ; nothing waa ever heard of them. The detaila of Hudson's progress are given at length in Purchas's Pilgrim, and in II ARBia'v Vogagtt. See Sparks's /tm. Btbi;., vol. X. Hndaon'B Bay, a large sea of North America, lying between 51 and 69 degrees of north let., disco v> eredinl610 by Henry Hudson. See HcDaoM, IIbN' BY, and Polar Keoioxs. A charter for a company, incorporated under the name of the Jludson'i Hag Company, waa obtained in the year 1670. Sea Vv» Trade. Hudson's Bay Territory. The first internal explorers of the vo^t region surrounding Hudson's Bay were traders from Canada while it was yet in the possession of France. Canadian traders had, pre* viona to the conquest, ascended the St. Lawrence and Ottawa Kivers to their sources, and had formed estali^ lishments on the great lakes. From the north-western end of Lake Superior, they threaded the intricate com^ munication which leads by lakes, streams, and port* agea to Lake Winnipeg, and thence penetrated soma distance up the Soakatcliewan liiver, where tlieir moat distant estaliliahment was situated, in nortli lut. 61'^, west long. 103°. These enterprises were, in a great measure, suspended by the struggles which ended in the conquest of Canada by Great Britain. In 1767 • party headed by a British suliject, again penetratod to the Saslutchewan. The Misainipi, or Churchill liiver, was visited by Mr. Joseph Frobisher in 177A, and l.ak* Isle>a-la-Croase, in 1776. In the year 1781, the fur trade had reached the limits of Lake Athaliasca, nearly 1000 miles beyond the most distant {)oint attained by the French. These explorations were greatly extended by the establishment, in 17BB, of the North- West ('am- pany of Montreal — an association formed of the lead. lnR ifl4lviduiil« «tt<(«K«d In tbk traflk— who, in tiM aMrtf«itl« pursttlt ut the fur trade, anlendad tlitilr »»• t»l)ltsiim«H(i« to IIm) Arctic ( 'Ircle and (be Pacitte < li-ean. Tba «b«rtM' itf iIm lludwin's llav (.'ompanr, ooHfofrlNK tb« )iN«>luiiivi) litfbt of trade with tba indUiM, baviiiK liMll tfntflt«4 wltnoilt the sanction uf PariUmant, im Kanarally \mm b«ld Invalid \ and It wm prnlwldy the drawl, dwIhk io ibis defeul, of altraettnc ptibliu oImm'' vatbm di Ibnir (irrHvedlngs that Induced IIm Omiatny fur many f»»l» to connne tlvir truding «t«(l«M NtmtM* •ntirely (n tb*« coasti In 176U, a cautury after tb« d«Ki of tlmir ubarler, their farthest ar • rivf r ItllwInK \*A» ihe a«« t tiamait In tlwir service, to proci-ed overlaiul for tluit rivar which h« bait orders tu survey, if piNMlbU, down to its »niliou«ihur»'^ti «nterpris« in wbivb, after twe \inmnm»»M itttemhts, he suoeeded, raaebtng tba Ms (it tba iflftulb (if tlM Cupuermliie itiver on tlia liMb My, Mli, bHvtllM been thus the Arat to aatablUb t*i« °;iat«Hiii* iif H Hfiat Nnrtliern Ocean, waahing th« ill' ran of Miirth Aitierka, Mr, llearne'a Juurnala and uimrt* warfi bnwev«f, withheld from the pubiUi for naitrly ',^0 s»»tn aftdf the dute of bia journey. On tb« uaptHra ii^ V»ti ijhuruhlli by the I'rencb tbaa* diMU* iMaiiM fii|| iiiti:,ivar«r wer« fully reoognir.ad. To tlia anpadi' tioni) iiliit nitm«*l we owe (he Hrst socurate gaograph' inal dullniiatlnn nf llila eatenaire region, frMiii tlia shores of llmisoti's llay na far as M'Kan)!i«'a Klvar, Of (jia iiumAty west uf this stream, and e»t«ndlng m far an ItUMtlitn America, a careful survey baa been iMitra ra««nlly it«i«|fUt«d l;y Profeaaor A, K. Ubl>t«ri=tbe w/tintry im tlie euat side Iwing cimaiii- tirad aulttclfntly iirotecteil from rival traiiera, by tbt eatitlilliibmantii nr the two Companies alrsaily formad there, awl auuh vagu« rightn aa might lie claimad un- der tba iibarti era idaimaii undar It by the Company, an addreaa to thu i^riiwtt hut been rrcnntly moved by the liou«t of Comiiiunii, fur nn Itiqulry (which la now pending) ini<< tba kgality of tlm very wide and anomaloit* powaraat praaunt iiiiNrcl»i>d by the (,'otnpany. Tba tarritory «mbrH««d within the present operatimM of tba ilHdwin'n Hay Coinpsny may lie roughly atti- mated at naarly 4|(NiU,M00 of square miles, or aoin*' wliNt graalar than ibe entire extent of Kurope, Tbia vast arua, whiiib U (<Dd the coast of Labrador; 2d. The Southern department, which inclndes the country along the north ihorea of Lake Superior and the nouthem shore* of Hudson's Bay; 3d. The yorthem department, which compre- hends all the establishments north of this as far as the shores of the Polar Sea ; and 4th. The Columbfai de- partment, including the territory watered by the Co- lumbia and other rivers west of the Rocky Mountains. The departments are divided into a number of districts, each under the direction of a superior officer ; and these again are subdivided into numerous factories, forts, poets, and outposts. In a geographical view the Hudson's Bay territories may be divided into four great natural regions — 1. The Columbia or Oregon Territory, a county of varied features, extending ftom the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific ; 2. The wooded region, occupj'ing the country from Canada northward along the shores of Hudson's Bay, and extending along the valley of the M'Kenzie and Peace Rivers nearly to the Arctic Ocean ; 8. The prairie region, situated between the forementioned di- visions, and occupying the valley of Saskatchewan and Red Rivers, and the upper waters of the Missouri and Mississippi ; 4. The strip of sterile country along the northern shores of Hudson's Bay and the coast of the Polar Sea, familiarly known as the Bcrren Grounds. Of these divisions the wooded region is the most extensive and the most valuable for the purposes of the fbr trade ; all the finer skins which find their way to the I^ndon marttet, being obtained ttom it. It hat, in conseqaence, been long occupied and thor- oughly worked by the trading-posts and agencies of the Company. "The Indians inhabiting it are in gen- eral a mild, inoflTensive race. Long familiarity with the whites, and the habits of tradl^ have produced a fHendly feeling among them toward Europeans ; and their desire to supply them with the commodities of trade rendera them by far the most valuable and in- dustrious class of the population of the Hudson's Bay . territories. The relation of the Company toward them is an extremely simple one : the Indians hunt and trap for the fure which the Company receive, giving in exchange such articles as are suitod to the simple wants and tastes of the natives. Trade is carried on by means of a standard valuation, based on the market price of a l>eaver-skin, and hence denominated a made beaver. This is to obviate the necessity of circulating money, which is quite unknown in any part of the Indian country. A beaver-skin is considered, in the Indian trade, equivalent to two, ^hree, or more skins of inferior value. The rates .it which the skins can be obtained under the complete monopoly enjoyed by the Company render the fur trade proliably one of the most lucrative species of traiHc in the world. It is difficult to form an estimate approaching to ac- curacy of the population o' uie Hudson's Ba}- territories. From 40 to 60 diflferent tribes, speaking distinct dialects, have been enumerated ; but the discordant estimates even of the oldest and most experienced residents in the Indian country forbid all idea of arriving at any accu- rate estimate of their numlien. They probably do not exceed 160,000. Their numhen are, by the most trust- worthy accounts, rapidly diminishing. Through the benevolent exertions of the Church Missionary and other S< ieties, missions and schools have been estal>- lished in various parts of the country east of the Rocky Mountains. These missions, supported entirely from tlie funds of benevolent iKHiles in England and Canada, afford the only means of education hitherto availalde to the inhabitants of those remote regions. The climate and soil of the Hudson's Ba3- territories, except in the extreme northern districts, differ little from those of Canada, and are equally adapted for col- onization. On the banks4if the Red River, flowing into I^ke Winnipeg, a small settlement has been formed, ooattfting chiefly of retired servants of the Company, with their families. The colony now anmbm • pop> ulation of about 10,000 soula ; but from Its isolat«4 position, the bulky nature of such exports a* could ba ftamished, and the long and dangerous navigation to Hudson's Bay, there is bnt little probability of it« rising to commercUl importance. The necessity for creating a new penal colony fuf England has caused attention to be directed to the ad» vantages which soma portions of Hudson's Bay possssf for such a purpose ; and at the same time it is urged that these sections of conntry would be thereby brought within the cirole of civilization, and th« resouroes of the whole ragion opened out for man's enterprise ; while it would be the means of subverting that exclusive monopoly of the Hudson's Bay (^om* pany, which has proved so prejudicial to every liritiab interest, and is antagonistic to the spirit of the age in which we live. At this moment it Is unnecessary to pronoiincD whether such a colony, located in some nortbam portion of Hudson's Bay, would be prejudicial to tb* interests of Canada. It is urged by the Canadians that, under the charter, the Hudson's Bay Company originally only ilaiuied around Hudson's Bay, and did not extend their claim* beyond its limits until about 100 yean after the d*t« of their charter, which was made in 1670, between that year and 1690. The Company discovered that the charter was illegal und nnconstitutional, and p«> titioned the imperial Legislature for the confirmation of that charter. An act of Parliament was passed, conferring it for a period of seven years, and no luiigtr. In 1697 the charter had ceased to exist, and has never again been renewed. Nevertheless, under cok>r of that charter, about the year 1800, they set up a claim to the possession of all that country lying this side of the Rocky Mountains. Let our readere choose tba epithet which will most truly characterize the nion> strous imposition, which has the audacity now to claim possession of a countr}' which the very words of the charter itself excluded from the operation of tlie supposed grant — and which only professed to give suelf " lands, territories, etc.. as were not poiietsed bg tht subject of any ChriiUan prince or State, 84 year* prior to the date of this charter, Louis XIII, of Franc* granted a charter to a company called the Company of New France, granting them the exclusive trade over that very country which the Hudson's Bay Company now assume to claim under the illegal and invalid charter of Charles the Second, and the Frencli pos- sessed, enjoyed, and traded throughout that country, which was always recognized as within the dominion of France until 1763, when Canada was ceded to the British crown ; and it was not until aliout 40 years after, that the Hudson's Bay Company had tba pre. sumption to set up a claim to that country wliich hod lieen won by British blood. Canada maintains tliat the whole country' is a portion of Canada, und us such should be thrown open to her people. See Blackwood, Ixiii., 869 ; Monthly Rev., Ixxxvii., 66 ; Uem. Jlev., xil., 346 ; Living Aye, xxiii., 688. Hudson, a river of the State of New York, though less in its length and in the amount of water wliirli it discharges than many others, is one of the must ini» portant in the United States. The Hudson, proper, rises by two branches in the Adirondack muuntuins. The eastern branch from the north passes tliruugh Schroon lake, and is sometimes called Schroon brunch ; and the western has a circuitous course tntxa tba north-west, and is considered as tlie main branch or Hudson. About 40 miles fVom the source of each, they unite In Warren county. After a course uf 16 miles south, the Hudson receives the Sacandaga, on the line between Montgomery and Saratoga counties, The Sacundaga rises in Hamilton county, and first runs south-east and then north-west and west, to ita junction below Jessup's Falls. The Hudson then run* HUL m HUL over p»ny nv»lld untryi iniDion to tba ytara IS pra> li iM timt nucb ■Icwood, , »»■, tbuugb hl.h It 9st Im* >rapar, iitiiiiM. Ii rough raiu'b I (in tb« iich or eacb, of IS ii, on tuntiM, flnt totto I ruM io the «ait of sontb, 16 mUei to Hadley Falls ; it tban turns to the north-east 20 mtles to Glen's Falls. Its direction Is then nearly south to its entrance into Xew York Bay. 40 miles bolow Glen's Falls It Teceives from the west the Mohawlc, its greatest tributary. From the junction of the Mohawk to its month, is ahont 170 miles. The length of the Hudson, from its entrance Into New York Bay, is a little over 300 miles. Ho straight is tbis river between Albany and New York, that the distance is less by water than by land. The tide flows to a little above Albany. It is naviga- ble for the largest ships 118 miles, to Hudson, and for stooM and large steamboats, 146 miles above New York to Albany. Small sloops also proceed to Troy, and through the dam and lock to Waterford, about 8 miles fnrther. Throiigh a considerable part of its MUrse the banks are elevated, and in some parts high, fncky, and precipitous ; particularly in its passoge thtoagb the HIgblanda, 63 miles above the city of New York. The scenery on the hanks of the Hudson is klghly picturesque. The city of New York owes much of its prosperity, and its pre-eminent advan- tages, to this uoble river, connected as it is by the Erie Canal with the great lakes, and by the Champlain Ca- nal with the St. Lawrence River. By no other route can an e<|ua11y favoralde water communication be had ■with the great West. There are many large and flour- i»h'ng towns on the Hudson. The principal on the east aide are Troy, Hudson, and Pougbkeepsie ; and on the west side Albany, Catskill, and Newburg; tiesldes many others on both sides. Its waters were the theatre of the first tuccemful attempt to apply steam to the propelling of vessels by Fulton and Liv- ingston, In 1807-1808. As a naviga)>Ie medium of eommerce this river is unrivaled. During the year 1860 there passed yVom the interior through its channel, why railroad conveyance along its basin, products of the forest valued ot $10,000,000 ; agriculture, $38,000,000 ; manufactures, $4,000,000 ; merchandise $663,000 ; and rarloas other articles, $2,300,000 ; showing a grand total of aliout $64,000,000. The total value of the various kinds of property sent from the seatward, via the Hndaon River, in 1860, amounted to $74,000,000, and In 1861, to $80,000,000, while that of the year 1860 Is estimated at $160,000,000. See Lake Trape. Uiithon River Navigation. — Table showing the open- ing and closing of the Hudson River in each of the {last 16 years : TMn. <^n«d. OloMOd. Qiy* opeQ 1M9 Febrnsry 4... Nov. 23 8U8 IMS April IS... March IS. . . Dec. 10 242 1M4 " IT 278 1845 Febr'ry S4... " 8 288 im March 18. . . " 14 275 1M7 April T... March 29... » 2.5 268 ms '' 27 292 1S49 " 19. . . " 26 286 l8(ifl 10. . . " IT 232 IWl Febr'ry 25... " 14 293 IMl March 28... " 28 270 28... " 21 274 19M IT... " 8 266 ISM " 2T... " 20 263 18M April 10... " IT 261 Hulk, the name given to an old ship laid up as unfit for fnrther service. Mull, the body of a ship, exclusive of the masts, rigging, etc. Hull iloim, expresses that the hull of the ship is concealed by the convexity of the sea. MtlU, or Klngston-upon-Hull, one of the prin- dpal cummerclai towns of England, is situated on the north hank of the Humlier, at the mouth of the River Hull, 36 miles south-east of York. It is a municipal and parliamentary borough, and though locally in the Rast Hiding of Yorkshire, is a county in Itself. The Mtudmit name of this town was Wyke, or Wyke-upon- Hull. For more than a century previous to 1269 it WM • plaoa of oonslderable mercantile importance, ar.d possessed fhmi the Abbot of Meaux, who waa lord of the manor, the privilege of holding a weekly market and a yearly fair. The town of Hull is ad- mirobly situated for trade. Vessels of the largest size can come up to the town ; while the Hull, Ouse, and Trent, affluents of the Humber, with their tribu- tary streams and canals, afford facilities for trade with a large extent of country. It is also connected by railways with all parts of the idngdom. These advan- tages have besn improved liy the activity of the in- habitants, so that Hull ranks as the third port in the kingdom, the value of its exports being inferior only tc those from Liverpool and London. The site of the old fortifications is occupied by docks, and thus the old town is surrounded with water from the Hull to the Hum))er. The old harbor was that part of tba River Hull which faced the old town ; but, as it was found to be inconvenient for the shipping, an net was passed in 1774 for forming a dock, now called the old dock, which has its entrance nt tlie upper end of the old harbor. It is 1703 feet in length, 264 in breadth, and 24 in depth. Between 1805 and 1809 another dock was erected, called the Humber dock. It communi- cates with the Humber bv a lock, and is 914 feet in length, 342 in breadth, and 31 in depth. The accom- modation becoming insufficient for the increasing trade, another dock was constructed between 1826 and 1829, called tlie .Tunction dock, from being formed on the land that intervened between the old and the Humber docks, and thus forming a connection between them. It is 914 feet in length, 842 in breadth, and 81 In depth. The locks are 120 feet long, 36 broad, and 36 deep. The two bridges ocross tlie locks are of cast iron, and 24 feet wide. The railway dock, near the terminus of the Hull and Selby railway, and the Vic- toria, to the east of tiie citadel, are of recent construc- tion. The following table exhibits the area and cost of the different docks : Doekf. Area. Old dock 10 'i fi Hnmbor dock 9 8 24 Junction dock 6 5 Rallwaydock 2 8 9 Vlctorladock 20 1 3 Co>t. £78,830 2.18,086 165,038 115,000 470,000 Total 49 112 £1,056,449 A considerable quantity of shipping is also accom- modated w^ithin tlie old harbor, which may be com- puted at 10 acres of tidal water. A timber pond of 9 acres was constructed in 1863. The quays around the docks are spacious, and are entirely surrounded with warehouses and deal yards. Hull has of late years become a principal steam-packet station. Steamera sail regularly to and from London, Leith, Aberdeen, Newcastle, Yarmouth, Hamburg, Rotterdam, Copen- hagen, Antwerp, etc. Hull is the principal entrepot of the Baltic timlier trade on the east coast of Britain. The staple imports are ^mber, deals, grain, and seeds, sheep's wool, tullow, hemp, (iax, hides, iron liars, green fruit, bones, madder, bark, turpentine, cattle, sugar, etc. The chief articles of "xport are cotton stuffs and twist ; woolen gooout 60 miles long, and short- ens the passage by about 200 miles. The Bega Canal, near Temesvar, is rather a river than a canal. The Adriatic touches only the south-western extremity of the Hungarian kingdom, the sea-coast being variously called Hungarian Datmatia or lUyria, the principal porta being Fiume, a flourishing town inhabited chiefly by Italians, Buccari, Port-re-Xcngg St. George, Tub- lonz, and Carlopago. The whole coast is mountain- acres: HUN' 999 HUN OAK, and in Mm* parti iteep, and espoied to rlolcnt sooth winda. The fertility of the Hungarian mil and the variety of Ita prodnee are universally known. Besides the different species of corn and maixe, raised in great quantities, Hungary produces hemp and flax, various Icinds of delicious apples, pears, and plums, two sorts of melons, rich crops of tobacco, and, lastly, a great variety of wines; while tlie vast pastures and oak woods afford ample sustenance to herds of homed cat- tle, sheep, and swine. Wittei. — Among the vine-hills and gardens, culti- vated since the 18th century, and which occupy no inconsiderable part of the Hungarian soil, the most valualile is the Hegy-alja, or southern promontory of the Carpathians, and which comprehends the Tokay mountains situated round the town of that name. The whole promontory occupies above fiO English square miles, of which only one-third is under cultivation. The Tnkny wino is of a crj'stalline yellow, and some- times greenish, color, and is known under two names — the Aiubruch, the stronger, containing more of the es- sence, and the Mailat. The whole annual produce is 180,000 gallons. Next In rank to the Tokay Is the Menes, a red wino of the county of Arad ; and Inferior to It, thouKh by no means Inferior to Burgundy, are the red wines of Erlau, Szeksard, Vlllany, and Buda. Among the yellow table-wines, particular mention may i)e made of the Nesmcler, Somloer, Badaesoner, and Ermelcker. The county of Simla is, moreover, partic- ularly famous for its red wines, the most known of which Is found on the Fruska Gora mountain. No less famous are some of tlio Croatian wines, marked by a spirituous flavor, as well as the wines of Transyl- vania. The total produce of wine, Transylvania not included, is estimated at 328,748,000 gallons. We give here the statistics of the year 1840, wliich stood as follows: Horses, 1,000,000; horned cattle, 4,260,000; 8heep,17,000,000; hogs, 4,000,000. In Tran- sylvania the numbers were tliese: Horses, 397,388; liorned cattle, 800,000; sheep, 2,000,000; hogs, 350,000. To this abundance must be added a great number of domesticated fowl, especially geese and turkeys, and a variety of game, such as ducks, partridges, pheasants, etc. The rivers alraund in carp, pike, and sturgeon — the Theiss being reckoned tlie richest; the peculiar Hungarian fish called /u^ns is only found in the Ba- laton Lake, or Flatten Sec. Some of the waters yield trout, and larj^e quantities of leeches. The approximate amount of the productive soil, botii in Hungary and Transylvania— in the latter of whicli the forests form more than one lialf— is, according to tlie Austrian official tables, 40,200,000 j'.icA, or 57,204,600 English acres, of which 10,431,700 belong to Transyl- vania. The relative division is aa follows, in English acres: AcrM. Soil under tlllRge. a2,flr.l,4"8 Viiioyarda l.CBI.iiBJ Pastures Forests AcrM. .... 15.6112,299 .... 15,880,680 Heaaow 6,T11,7<3 In the above numbers is not included the military frontier, the productive soli of which occupies about 6,000,000 acres; the forests forming one third. Tlie produce in com is, Hungary, 281,000,000 bushels; Tran- sylvania, 30,000,000; nriiitury frontiers, 12,000,000; toUl, 323,000,000 Englisli bushels. The value of the natural products is estimated at £29,000,000, while the value of the crops in England and Wales is esti- mated by M'Culioch to be only ;£83,656,071. MineraU, — The mountains, which arc partly worked by the government and partly by private enterprise, contain metals of almost every kind— viz., gold, sil- ver, iron, copper, lead, antimony, zinc, alum, orpi- nicnt, tellurium, and many other minerals, l)csidcs coal and salt. In the neglected state in which the gold mines are kept, the produce is only al'iut 2400 marks. The sliver mines yield 65,000 marks. Of great importance are the copper mines in the Banat ; the richest vein, however, is at BchmOlnitz. Those in Traitsj-lvania, at Damokos and Deva, yield 1200 cwts. The produce of lead is estimated at 26,000 cwts. The iron mines are found chiefly in the counties of OOmOr, Sohi, Ung, and Zips; the average produce of the former ueing 260,000 cwts. The -richest rock-salt mines are in the county of Marmaros. and tlie total produce amounts to upward of 800,000 cwts., a quan- tity which, however great, is far from suflicient for the wants of tlie country. Several places yield also soda, saltpetre, alum, and potash. Pit coain, which till very lately, and liefore the introduction of rail- ways, had Iteen entirely neglected, lie deep in forma- tions almost unwrought. The total produce is 1,000,000 cwts. The value of the mineral produce in Hungary is £872,000, that of Transylvania £169,000; the mili- tary frontiers yield almost nothing in this respect. It must bo added tliat Hungary possesses also precious stones and marble of vof ious descriptions. iltmufaclurea. — The chief articles of manufacture are cloth, linen, and silk stuffs, carpets, leather, iron wares, and chemical products, including alum, salt- petre, and potash manufactures. All these are as yet in an incipient state, especially cloth manufacture, if it be considered that in wool Hungary is the richest country in Europe. Linens are chiefly manufactured in the north. Tho county of Zips produces about 6,000,000 yards. The largest silk manufacture is at I'estb, giving employment to between 400 and 500 men. Of greater extent are the leather manufac- tures ; but even of this article much is imported. The most productive iron-works are in the county of GOmOr, among which are particularly distinguislied the manufactories of Pohorela, and Vorosko, belong- ing to the Prince of Saxe Coburg, The whole iron produce of Hungary is estimated at 500,000 cwts. per annum, half of which belongs to GOmflr. In several counties there are potteries and glass-works, some of which, as at Uebreczin and Papa, produce 20,000 liowls weekly. Soap is chiefly manufactured in Szege- dln, Kecskemet, and Del)reczin, the last of which pro- duces 7000 cwts. annually. The distilleries are mostly in the north, among the Sclavonic population ; and tlie breweries, 300 in numlier, are situated round the large towns of mixed population, as beer is no favorite drink with the Magyars. Sugar refineries have also of late risen in several parts of the country; but this article also requires importation. The cigar manufactories, introduced within a very recent period, had imparted a new impetus to the cultivation of tobacco ; but tlie introduction of the tobacco monopoly at tlic end of the late war at once extinguished this brancii of indus- try. TVode. — The inferiority of the roads, only compen- sated to some extent by two railway lines, and steam navigation on the Danube and Tlioiss, but espeoially the- restrictive commercial system of Austria, sufli- ciently accounts fur the insignificance of Hungarian commerce, both foreign and internal. The centre of commerce is the capital, Pestii, situated on tlie banks of tiie mighty artery of tiic kingdom, tlie Danube. The chief feature of internal trade is the exchange of products between the northern and southern districts; the former sending to the south minerals and timber, and the latter carrying to the north grain and cattle, an intercourse facilitated by the great number of rivers navlgalile to vessels and boats of small freight. Tlie annual fairs licld at Pesth mark the culminating points of commercial activity, tiie chief marketable article tieing wool, of wliicii, according to Fenyes, upward of 120,000 cwts. are sold annually. The other towns of commercial importance arc — in the south, Becse, ex- porting to Austria; Kiume, the Hungarian littorale, and Scmiin, communicating with the Turkish prov- inces; in the west, Waitzen and Presburg; in the north, Koshuu and Eperies. HUB 1000 HYD /Mporto.— Th* tbIm i,( importf , both ftom Auitria ud othur couDtrlu, was, in the lama year, 68,614,487 florins, or ^6,861,448. Foreign countries, it must b« added, enter only for one fourth of this intercourse, the rest Iwlongs entirely to the Austrian dominions. ' Since the end of the late war the custom-duties lie- tween Hungary and Austria have been abolished. In how far this change haa hitherto affected the commerce of the former, would, in consequence of its abnormal political state, be difficult to decipher, even it the re- quisite data had been made public. As difficult would it be tu form a sure estimate of the revenue and ex- penditure of Hungary since the late war, as both rest on momentary arbitrary measures undertalien either as precautions against revolutiim or in consequence of the periodical sickness of the Auntriun flnances. Am- ple data, however, are extant as to the public revenue and expenditure of Hungary before 1848. The chief lonrces of revenue up to that date were — the house- tax, war-tux, the toll duties, the crown and fiscal do- mains, and salt revenues, which, with the minor sources of income, such as the lottery, the post-office, and the mines, yielded, according to Fenyes, £8,- 400,000, a sum less than that of Lombardy, but more than sufficient to cover public expenses, in conse- quence of the internal organization of the counties, where the salaries of the constitutional officials were but nominal. In the new regime a not unimportant item in the public revenue is the tobacco monopoly introduced into the Hungarian dominions by an im- perial edict of November, 18A0. By tills edict no one may cultivate tobacco, except by previous permission, specifying tlie place and mode of cultivation, each owner being obliged to deliver up his produce to the government, which determines its value. The mon- opoly in itself, no less than the domiciliar}' visits to which it gave rise, greatly injured this thriving branch of Hungarian industry. A great many, indeed, have in consequence of this given up its cultivation, dispensing even with its use. — E. B. For commeroe of Hungary, see Hunt's Mag., xxL, 191 (Cassali) ; Db Bow's Review, xiii., 433 ; Racet of Hungary ; Nor. Am. Rev., Ixx., and Ixxii. ; Ch, kxam., xlviiit, 44. Huron, Lake, one of the five great lakes of North America, lies between Lake Superior on the north- west. Lake Michigan on the west, and Lake Krie and Lake Ontario on the south and south-east. Its shape is BO irregular that it is difficult accurately to deter- mine its exact dimensions. Its length from north to south is 2C0 miles, and 1I>0 miles in breadth from east to west, in its widest part, but exclusive of the bay on the north-east, it is only 90, and its circumference 1100 miles. Its principal indentations are Saginaw Bay, extending into Michigan, and two others ; one immcdiutely north of Manitou Islands, and the other soutli-east of them. The latter, called Georgian Ba}*, is about 170 miles long, hj 70 broad ; almost u separ- ate sheet of water, divided from Huron Ijy a nearly continuous series of iiilands which are closely connected by the great peninsula of Cabot's Head, and with Point do Tour, the easternmost caiie of northern Michi- gan. Manitou (or Great Spirit) Island is the largest of the group, and Drummond Island separates another sheet of water ttom the main lake, 80 miles long and 20 broad. The boundary between the United States and Canada passes along the middle of the main Hu- ron 225 miles, and between I.essor Manitou and Drum- mond Islands, by what is called the Middle Passage, and curves round to the north and west 25 miles, to the entrance of St. Mary's river. The elevation of the surface of Lake Huron above the surface of the ocean is 574 feet, or loss than that of Lake Superior by 68 feet, or than that of Lake Michigan by 4 feet. Tb« greatait daptb toward ita wait ihora if at laait 1000 feet, and its mean depth 000 feet, or about 800 feet below the level of the AtUntic. Sea Laum. Hnrrioana (8p. Huracan), a violent ttonn, gene- rally accompanied by thunder and lightning, and dia* tingttished fh)m every other kind of tempest by the vahemanco of the wind, and the sudden changes to wliich it is subject. Hunieanas prerail ehiefly in the East and West Indies, the Isle of France, and in some parts of China. The following graphic description of the usual phenomena attending tha West Indian hur- ricanes, from the pen of Edmund Burke, may be in- teresting to the reader : " It is in the niiny season, principally in the month of August, more rarely in July and September, that they are assaulted by hurri- canes, the most terrible calamity to which they are subject from the climate. This destroy* at one stroke the labor of many years, and frustrates the most ex- alted hopes of the planter, and often just at the mo ment when he thinks himself out of the reach of fortune. It is a sudden and violent storm of wind, rain, thunder, and lightning, attended with a furious swelling of the sea, and sometimes with an earthquake ; in short, with every circumstance which the elementa can assemble that is terrible and destructive. First they see, as a prelude to the ensuing havoc, whole fields of sugar-canes whirled into the air, and scattered over the face of the country. The strongest trees of the forest are torn up by the roots and driven about like stubble. Their wind-mills are swept awaV in a moment. Their works, their fixtures, the ponderous capper boilers and stills of several hundred weight, are wrenched from the ground und battered to pieces. Their houses are no protection ; the roofs are torn oflf at one blast, while the rain, whicli in an hour rises 5 feet, rushes in upon them with an irresistible violence. There are signs which the Indians of these islands taught our planters, by which they can prognosticate the approach of a hurricane. It comes on either in the quarters, or at the full or change of the moon. If it will come on at the full moon, you being at the change, observe these signs. That day you will see the sky verj' turbulent. You will observe the sky more red than at other times. You will perceive a dead calm, and the hills clear of all those clouds and mists which usually hover about them. In the clefts of the earth, and in the wells, you will hear a hollow, rumbling sound, like the rushing of a great wind. At night the stars seem much larger than usual, anu surrounded with a sort of l)urs. The north-west sky has a sort of menacing look, and the sea emits a strong smell, and rises into vast waves, often without any wind. Tha wind itself now forsakes its usually steady easterly stream, and shifts alwut to the west, from whence it sometimes blows with intermissions violently and irregularly for about two hours at a time. You hare the same signs at the full of the moon. The moon itself is surrounded with a great bur, and sometimes the sun has tlie same appearance." Hydrographical Charts or Maps, usually called scu-churts, arc projections of some part of the sea or coast fur tlio use of navigation. In these, are laid down all the rhumbs or points of the compass, the meridians, parallels, etc., with the coasts, capes, islands, rocks, slioals, shallows, etc., in their proper places and proportions. Hydrography, the art of measuring and descri))- ing the sen, rivers, canals, lakes and the like. With regard to the sea, it gives an account of its tides, coun- tertides, soundings, bays, gulfs, creeks, and also of the rocks, shelves, sands, shallows, promontories, and harlwrs ; the distance and l)earing of one port from another, with every thing that is remarkable, whether out at sea or on the coast. llassi Pierre loss of until trode, project tinique Engla tions . the gov his und Cliarlee Savann the mei ties) at Mr. Tuc after at On til made to "any, foi tended I ously to the open era! ente end abaj period h 1001 ICB usuaU}' , of the Bse, are capen, proper :-itI**''-' ■"■'!■''"','"' 'I ' • ''■* "•< i.-.'J jf^rit ' ^•iii .,. . ,:-:.:';..> ll Xo0. The sale of ice and mow pnaerved in tlie MTerns of VeBUvitu and on the more elevated parts of .£tna, hoa long been a considerable branch of trade in Naplei, Catania, and the adjoining towna; but it was reserved for the Americans to cany the trade in ice to an extent which could not previously have been anticipated. The extreme heat of the summer in the New England States occasions a natural demand for ice, which the extreme cold of tho winter gives the means of supplying. The ftesh water lakcn adjoining Boston and other large towns being deeply frozen in winter, large ice-houses are filled with the ice taken from them, which is retailed in summer at a low price. The practice had not, however, been long established till it occurred to some ingenious speculators to attempt to realize a profit by shipping ice to the southern parts of the Union and the West Indies : and tlie speculation having succeeded, the trade was subsequently ex- tended to the Spanish Hahi and South America, and more recently to Europe, India, and China I The business iias, in fact, become of the first importance ; numerous companies and a very large amount of ton- nage being now engaged in the ice trade from Boston. And owfaig to the greater slciil and economy with which the business is at present conducted, the ice which used a few years ago to cost 6 cents per lb. in New Orleans and Havana, ma}' now he had for 1 cent ; and there has been a lilie fall in its price in India and other more distant places. An immense warehouse has recently lieen constructed at Calcutta for the re- ception of the ice brought by the ships, whence it is (upplied in the quantities required for the public ac- commodation. This singular fabric has triple walls, five distinct roofs, incloses aljout three fourths of an acre, and is fitted to hold upward of 80,000 tons of ice 1 It is said that a similar d^pot is about to be formed at Canton. The Ice Trade of the United States.— The ice trade of the United States was commenced l>y Mr. Frederic Tudor, of Boston, in 1806. This gentleman, having previously sent agents to the West Indies to procure information, determined to maice bis first experiment in that region. Finding no one willing to receive so strange an article on shipboard, be was compelled to purchase a vessel, the brig favorite, of al>out 130 tons, which he loaded with ice from a pond in Saugus, llassnchusetts, t)elonging to his father, and sent to St. Pierre, Martinique. This first enterprise resulted in a loss of about $4600, but was, nevertheless, followed up until the embargo and war put an end to the foreign trade, at wiiich period it hod yielded no profit to its projector. Its operations had been confined to Mar- tinique and Jamaica. After the close of the war with England in 1815, Mr. Tudor recommenced his opera- tions by shipments to Havana under a contract with the government of Cuba, which enabled him to pursue his undertaliing without loss, and extend it, in 1817, to Charleston, South Carolina ; in tho following year to Savannah, Georgia ; and in 1820, to New Orleans. In the mean time it had been tried again (by other par- ties) at Martinique and St. Thomas, and failed, and by Mr. Tudor at St. Jago de Cuba, where it also failed, after a trial of three years. On the 18th May, 1833, the first shipment of ice was made to the East Indies by Mr. Tudor in the ship Tus- cany, for Calcutta, and since that period he has ex- tended his operations to Madras and Bombay. Previ- ously to 1832 the trade had been chiefly confined to the operations of the original projector, although sev- eral enterprises hod been undertalien by other persons, and abandoned. The increase of shipments to this period had been small, the whole amounting, in 1832, n! 'I. ,l„:, .I'!- : ,f .j't'tiic-iV .'•< to 4,8fi2 tons, which was taken entirely tnm FI•t^ Pond, in Cambridge, and shipped by Mr. Tudor, who was then alone in the trade. Up to this time tlie ice business was of ■ very complicated nature. Ship- owners objected to receive it on freight, fearing it* effect on the durability of their vessels and the safety of voyages ; ice-houses at home and abroad ware re- quired, and the proper mode of constructing them was to he ascertained. The liest modes of preparing ships to receive cargoes were the subject of expensive and almost endless experiments. The machines to cut and prepare ice for shipping and storing, and to perform the operations of hoisting it into store-houses and low- ering it into the holds of vessels, were all to be in- vented, involving much expense and vexation. Many of these difficulties have now Iwen overcome, and since 1832 the trade has increased much, and appears des- tined to a still more rapid increase for some years. It has also been divided among many parties, and its methods liave l>een further improved, and a knowledge of them more widely difl'used. The ice lias been chiefly taken from Fresh and Spy Ponds, and since 1841 mainly transported on the Charlestown Branch Railroad, whi'^h was constructed for that purpose. Quite recently, ice establishments Iiave been made at most of the ponds near Boston, and it is probable that in a few years the products of all these waters may be required to supply the trade. Jn the year 1839 the great quantity of ice cut at Fresh Pond, and the consequent difficulties which hod arisen among the proprieters, as to where each should take ice, induced them to agree to distinct boundar}- lines, which were settled by three commissioners, viz., Simon Greenleaf, Levi Farwell, and S. M. Felton, esquires, on the principle of giving to each the same proportion of contiguous surface of the lake, as the length of his shore-line was to its whole border. Tliia settlement was made by partition deed, executed by all the own- ers, and recorded in the registry of deeds of Middlesex county. Published maps were also placed in public institutions and private hands. These maps show the direction and length of the Iwundary lines of each owner, and the area. Thb arrangement has been of great advantage to the parties, and enabled them to secure more ice than could otherwise be taken from a pond of equal extent. The shipments of ice from Boston coastwise for the year ending Decemlrar Slst, 1847, amounted to 61,887 tons. The ice shipped to foreign ports during the same period amounted to 22,591 tons, and was sent to the following places, viz.; Havana, Matanzas, Trin- idad, St. Jago, Cuba, Martinique, St. Thomas, St. John's, Mayaguez, Porto Rico, Guadaloupe, Barba- does, Trinidad, Antigua, St. Vincent, Nassau, Jamaica, Pemambuco, Demerara, Honduras, Vera Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Mauritius, Isle of Bourbon, Manilla, Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, Ceylon, Hong Kong, Whampoa, Bo- tavia, and Liverpool. The freight paid during this year is supposed to have averaged as high as $2 50 per ton, at which rate it would amount, on the 74,478 tons shipped abroad and coastwise, to $186,195. There is a great variatior. in the cost of securing ice and stowing it en !.oiird vessels, caused by winters favorable or otherwise for securing it, and by the greater or less expense of tho fittings required for voyages of different duration, or by difference of season when the shipments are made. Taking all these contingencies into consideration, the cost of ice when stowed on board may lie estimated to average $2 per ton, which would give for the quantity shipped $148,956. There were in 1847 upward of 29 cargoes of provisions, fruits, and vegetables shipped in A*- lOB 1002 ICB A let to port* whn* otlMrwiia lach utlolet could not ba Mnl — My to Barbadoaa, Trinidad, Dtmerara, Antigua, St Vlncant, Ouadaloupe, St. Thomai, Honduran, and Calcutta— the Invoiced cost of which at BoHon would average about tSSOO each, (TZiSOO. To these items majr be added the proflti of the trade to those engaged in it, $100,000. ToUl returns, •M7,661. The ice trade has been without doubt one of the main it$j» which preserved the Calcutta trade almost exclu- sively to Boston, and it would do so fbr China if that country were in a more quiet condition. The (Veights paid to India by Mr. Tudor for ice amount to from 10 to is por cent, of the earnings for the whole run of the ship out and home, and it is earned without cost or deduction to the charterer or sbipH>wner. It Is probable that the commercUl marine of the United States has been materially increased by the operation of the ice trade. A large portion of the vessels formerly engaged in the freighting trade from Boston sailed in ballast, depending for remuneration on fr«ight» of cotton, rice, tobacco, sugar, etc., to be obtained in more southern latitudes, often competing with the vessels of other nations which could earn a freight out and borne. Now a small outward freight from Boston can nsaally be obtained fbr the trans- poitation of ica to those places where fk«ighting vessels ordinarily obtain cargoes. The ice trade has generally been onsaccessfUl to places where profitable return freights can not be obtained, because to such places a heavy fkeight must be paid on the ice, which it can not bear; and also because southern places which do not pn>du9e valuable exports, are usually unable to con- aune expensive luxuries. The methods and materials for preparing vessels for the transportation of ice have been various. Formerly their holds were sealed up at the sides, bottom, and top, with boards nailed to joist ribs secured to the skin of the vessel, and with double bullcheads forward and aft. The spaces thus formed were filled with refuse tan, rice-hulls, meadow-hay, straw, wood-shavings, or like materials. These spaces were made of a Uiiclc- aess proportionate to the length of the voyage, and with reference to the season. The immediate surface of the ice was covered with the same materials, ex- cepting tan. At the present time saw-dust is used almost exclusively for voyages of considerable length. It Is placed immediately between the ice and the skin of the vessel. This material is obtained trom the State of Maine, and before its use for this purpose was entirely wasted at the watei^mills, and, falling into the streams, occasioned serious obstructions, Puring the year 1847, 4600 cords were brought to Boston, ut -an average value of $2 60 per cord, delivered. The lumber is also wholly from the State of Maine. The value of it is, however, small, in the present mode of fitting vessels. Almost the whole value of the returns of the ice trade, including freight, is a gain to this conntr}'. The ice itself, the labor expended on it, the materials for its preservation, and the means of its transportation, would be worthless if the trade did not exist. The prices at which ice sells hi places where there Is competition var}' constantly. In Havana, where it is a monopoly, it is sold at 6^ cents per pound, and there the trade has not increased since 1832, when the ship- ments were 1112 tons, while at New Orleans, where it has been sold at from half a cent to three cents per ponnd, it has increased during the same period from 2810 tons to upward of 28,000. At Calcutta the trade commenced, in 1883, with a shipment for that year of 301 tons, and the price has never been above 6 cents per pound, and is now about 2} cents. The export to that place had increased in 1847 to 3000 tons, but probably less than one fifth of tliat quantity is actually ■old, owing to the great length of the voyage. Ice being shipped and used at all seasons,' large itotehouMS are rtiquired to preserve it. Exclusive of iM-houMB on the wharvea at East Charlestown and East Boston, in which Ice la stored for short periods, there had been erected in 1847, and previously ; At Fresh Pond, In Cambridge, lee-boasaa capable of eontalnlnf 8<,T!I9 AtBp* Pond, In WestCambridca SaoOO AtUttlePood " " &4no AfWenhsm Pond 18,000 AtMedAird Pond 4,0ii0 At Eel Pond, In Maldea a,iiOO At Horn Pond, In Wobam 4,000 At Sunuer's Pond 1,SOO Total 141,881 The ioe-hous«a now in use arc '>uilt above ground-. In southern countries, where ice is most valuable, they are constructed at great expense, usually of brick or stone, and the protection to the lea consists In air spaces, or in dr}', light vegetable substances inclosed between two walls. In this vicinity, on the borders of the lakes, where ice is least valuable, they are usually built of wood, In which case they are of two walls, formed by planing two ranges of Joists upright, flramed into plates at the top, and placed in the ground at the bottom, or (Vamed into sills ; these two ranges are ceiled with boards secured to that side of each range which is nearest the other, and the space be- tween the two boardings filled with reftise tan wet from the yards. This wet tan Is fh)xen during the winter, and until it is thawed in the spring and sum- mer, little waste occurs ; afterward the waste is more rapid, but, as a large portion of the ice is shipped or otherwise used before this takes place, the) loss in quantity is small, and, occurring before the expenses of transportation have been paid, is of less pecuniary moment. In one instance, brick has been used in the construc- tion of an ice-house which covers 86,000 feet of land, and the vaulta of this ice-house are 40 feet in depth, and its walls are four feet thick ttom outaida to inside, inclosing two sets of air-spaces. Such a construction is more costly, but has the advantage of durability and safety fhim fire, to which ice-houses are much exposed from the fVequent juxtaposition of railroad-engines, and the light, dry material used about them to cover and otherwise preserve ice. At first, the Implements of husbandry only were used in securing ice, but as the trade became more important, other machines and dif- ferent methods were adopted, and abandoned when better were brought forward, or when the increased magnitude of the business required greater facilities. More ice is now secured in one favorable day thun would have supplied the whole trade in 1882, Ordi- narily, before there has been cold enough to form ice of suitable thickness, snow falls on its surface. If this occurs when the ice is four or more Inches in thick- ness, and the snow not heavy enough to sink the ire, it can be removed by using hones attached to the "snow-scraper;" and under such circumstances this is the method in common use. But if snow fulls so heavy as to bring the water above the surface of the ice, it is removed, after it has congealed into snow, ice, with the " ice-plane," which takes oflT alraut two inches deep and 22 inches wide of its surface. This machine is drawn by two horses, and is guided by in- serting its "guides" into grooves previously made with the "ice-cutter." The chips made by it are scraped olT in the same manner as dry snow. These preliminary expenses are often very great; fre- quently, after much expense has been incurred to re- move a body of snow or snow-ice, the weather be- comes warm and spoils the ice on which so much has been expended. And, on the other hand, if it is not done and the cold continues, there will be little or no increase of thickness to the ice, which is equally a disaster. When ice has been formed of sufficient thickness, and freed from mow and snow-ice, it is reduced to blocks of uniform size, ordinarily 22 inches square, by the " ic« cutter," This mMbia* it similar to a car- IGK 1003 lOB onstTuc- of land, n depth, o inside, itruction Ulty »nd exposed Ines, and )Ver and lenU of It as the and dif- |ed' when increased facilities. lay thun ;. Ordi- fonn ice [ace. If in thicli- the iop, to the Inces this low fuUs irface of jto snow. Lbout two M. This fed by in- sly made Iby U are These leat; fre- red to re- lather be- [much has It is not Itle ot no lually a Ithickness, leduced to Iqnaie, by 1 to » car- pentor't plow, weapk that It hu • oerle* of cutting- 1 chlMlt, on* auocMding another, and deepening the graoTa. It If drawn by a hone, and cut* at one paaiage about two inches deep, and If the ice requires to l<« planed to remove snow-lee, the guides of the " inow- plane" are used in grooves of this depth, but when grooves are required to split from, the " ic»«atter" ohould be drawn two or three times through each. These grooves should be parallel to each other, and to make them so, the " ice-cutter" has a guide, which is placed in the last groove made. When the grooves in one direction have been made, others at right an- gles with them are produced in the same manner. After thi* has iieen done, one groove at the end is opened, and also the two outside grooves ; a wedging- bar is theu' stricken into the groove next the end one, and at several places along its length, which detaches It easily flrom thu moss ; then the same l)ar is forced, with a slight blow, into the transverse grooves, which reduces the ice to very uniform square blocks. The blocks of ice thus formed are l)ruuglit to the receiving- doors of the ice-houses (which are built on the imme- diate borders of the ponds), either by placing them on sleds, or floating in canals cut through the ice. Various modes of elevating the ice ore in use ; the endless chain, in combination with the inclined plane, has been successfully used, and also the common pile- driving steam-engine; but at present horse-power is more used than any other. The ice is placed in the houses in regular courses, every block exactly cover- ing the next below it. When a vault has been filled, it is immediately covered with wood-shavings and the receiving-doors fitted up, to prevent waste, until the contents are required for shipment abroad or use at home. The weight of ice for shipment is usually de- termined, at the wharves, immediately before being put on shiplx>ard, on scales which have lieen constructed for the purpose ; and this single operation settles the weight to b« paid for by the party for whose accou,nt the ice is shipped ; the amount duo for freight on ship- board, for transportation on the railroad, and that which is to be received by the owner of the ice. — American Almanac, year 1849. The aggregate of freights paid for ice shipped In Boston in 1856, was $2 60 the tun, clean and clear to the ship-owner ; therefore he received from this trade last year $365,000 (a large interest), and prol>ably more profit than any other interest whatever in the busi- ness. Railroads and wagons were paid $100,000 ; lo- l>orers, $160,000 ; towns, for taxes of ice privileges and ice in store, $1500 ; and wharves $20,000 to $25,000. There are 93 wagons and about 150 horses employed in distributing ice in Boston and vicinity ; 60,000 tons are thus retailed, supplying 18,000 families, hotels, stores, and factories. The tons of ice prepared for market, its value, capi- tal invested, and number of persons employed in this business in Massachusetts, in the year 1855, are shown in the annexed summary : New Tork, up to this time, haf exported but little Ice, being chiefly engaged in proeuKng an amount suf- ficient tot Its domestic supply. New York city and vicinity is, for the most part, tupplled with lea by four or Ave Joint-stock companies. The amount of Ice placed in storage for the winter of 18M-7, by these various companies, is estimated u follows t Knickerbocker Ice Co wSjM "^ New York and Brooklyn Co, M,OW ( People'sOo 90,000 Independent Co 90,000 FsisalaCo T.OOO Total nT,000 The Knickerbocker Company, which engrrssei • large proportion of the business, is a consolidation of three separate concerns into one company, with a capi- tal of $300,000. Its supply of ice is 'derived from Rockland and Highland lakes. The New York and Brooklyn Company obtains its suppler from the Hudson - River at Athens; the Independent from the same place ; the People's from the same river at Catskill ; and the Passaic from the reservoir at Jersey City. Erpoti TVode.— The export of ice during the year 1866, from Boston, has l>een ai follows : Tom. East Indies 14,880 Pern l,m Csllao 6,744 Melbourne, Australia. MS Sydney, N. 8. W 680 Valparaiso 014 Ouyaquil 1,028 Ceylon 4«I Rio .Janeiro 1,T61 llavaoa. B,801 Demerara. l|lno Montevideo 8(8 Kingston, Ja I,ira4 Asplnwall 9S7 Cardenas 429 St. Thomas T78 BuenosAyres B80 Bnull 48 Barbailacs. 8T7 StJaeo 44B Matonias <0& NewOronada 890 Lagolra. 218 PortoCabello BO The total capital invested in the ice bdsiness is $700,000, and the total quantity gathered 897,000 tons, about one third only of which is exported. Exports or Ice from tbk Unitkd States, roa lAca YiiB MDWO Jpiia 80TII, 1888, 1854, and 1865. idV*. Tlii>. 12,069 7,706 4,606 620 02,M0 681 92,Ufrl 1,191 8,416 960 8,189 88,402 2,!S22 848 1,066 245 4,630 68 a628 14,186 2,982 900 9,966 V>liw. $4,099 "686 108,8 is OSS 12,236 4,409 1,675 869 1,600 26,278 916 800 2,460 4^768 184 11,071 16,286 4,906 858 ""i9 076 Tom. 1,528 2,180 781 9,094 997 8,880 496 428 271 997 7,646 "286 8< 20 180 8^109 6JM1 1,687 606 64 197 OOO 988 808 ♦176.0661202,118 41.117" V»Ju«. $3,888 6,478 8,000 90^897 2,969 14,471 1,606 1,070 900 8,200 91,1(1 ■'b78 770 820 470 '9^972 17,449 6,647 1, 176 896 2,iH)0 CoO _ 9,494 From this statement it would appear that the Brit- ish East Indies absorb the largest quantity of ice ftom this region, Cuba next, and Pern the third in impoit- ICE 1004 lOE MM. At praMnt th* tcgragaU ii rtty trifling, hut u fMt M In* HlleU b«coniM known in louthern ell- m»IM it will be mora ipiiraciittd, «n p«rni*ntnt article of export from Boiton, where the •hipmentf are principally made. Uy reference to the prfice,«B1 104,4«) ' Pnnch Wtit Indiea 480 1,100 Cub* »,B0» «9,ltl PortoRlco 884 1,IM Srrpt no 1,400 ■xico 100 180 MawOraaada 681 1,KTS Braall 8,110 »,0«0 J^m 1,000 t,ntO Ecuador 840 4,n00 landwloh Iilandi 400 1,400 China MB 1.T10 ToUl, ISfiS 3V,48l 11X1,615 The foreign export of ice waa from the following porta: I'eiiobacot, ate Ilnston New York Other porta Total, a yeara. IM«. TuM. m 41,414 i,B6a B 43,IB0 isr ToMI. 177 4A,8KR 1,016 17 BI,B.i!t lutt. Tmii. I "Viiiii 3*1, 1 ill 1,567 ft B»,4H1 iji;7ii 101,47'i 7,110 ftO «lUit,l>10 — For Ice-housea, see Cabkt's ifiu., xll. 176. Ice Trade, etc., aee Hunt's J/ier. Afng,, v. 444, xl, 877; Jour, of Set., ill. 179, iz. 186, xlvl. 179, xlviii. 87.1; Fankff' Mag., ill. 406; Am. £clec. ill. 807, 512(Loti8 AnAS.117:), Ir, 1. Zoebergs. The accumulation upon elevated altu- ttions of frozen enow produces tboMi moving maasc s of ice called glacUn. In the Alps and in Norway these glaciers, coming down to a mild region, melt ■way ; but In the arctic regions they often flow into the sea and produce Iceliergs. They are of all sizes, ttom mere lyagments to upward of half a mile In diam- eter, and of all weights, from a few pounds to 100,000 tone. They rise aometlmes ISO feet above the water, ■nd this Is but an eighth of the whole mass. Icebergs ttom each pole have approached nearer the equator than 40° north and south latitude ; they have been met with in the neighborhood of the Cape of Good Hope. Many of these icebergs originating on land, present the same phenomena as glnclors. Hence, upon near Inspection, they are found to b« loaded with the debris which, as glaciers, they scraped olT the mountain sides, past which they flowed to the sea. This debris contains masses of green-atone, clay-slate, gneiss, granite, etc. In the polar circle, where the flnating masses reach to hundreds of miles in length, thoy are called ice Ulandt. The ice-ilinHittt appearance produced on the horizon by thone Ice Islands when stationary, and which indicates the existence of an ice Island before it is itself visible. Zoe-boatS, boaU so constructed as to sail upon ice, and which are very common in Holland. They go with incredible swiftness, sometimes so quickly as to affect the breath, and are found very useful In convey- ing goods and passengers across lakes and great rivers. Boats of diffisrent sizes are placed in a traverse form npon a 2i or 8 inch deal board. At the extremity of each end are fixed irons, wbick turn up in the form of skates. Upon this plank the boat rests, and the two ends serve as outriggers to prevent oversetting, whence ropes are fastened that lead to the head of the mast in the natnf* of shrouds, and olhara pasMd thrAUgh • block across the bowsprit, The ruddar la inaitn iimit* what like a hatchet with the head plaoeil downward, which Ivjing pressed down, cuts the lee, and Mrves all the purpoeea of a rudder In the water, by iiiabllng the helmsman to steer. Xo« lalands, a name givtn by sailors to a graal quantity of ice collected Into one huge solid tnnss, and floating about the seas nuar or within the piiliir cir- cles. The motion of tlie lesser pUcat Is as rHpId as the currents; the greater, which are aomellinss Son leaguea long, and 00 or 80 broad, move slowly and majestically; often llx by the tide, liiitiinvabi* liy the power of the ocean, and then produee near the horliinn that bright white a|i|iearaiios called the {i*-IiUhL The appruxiiiialion of two great fields priiducer n mi;*! slii- gular pheiionienun ; it forces the lesaer (If the Isrni run be applleil to pieces of severnl acres xiuiire) nut of the water, and adda it to the surface i n sei'oiKl, niiil oftan a third, succeed*, so that the whole roriiis an itgurfgiite of a tremendous weight. These float In llie si'n like so many rugged mountains, and are sdiiiel lines hOO nr IKIO yards thick; but tho far greater part Is i' ti) Kovi-ro III llui ill- Imiii, li'iw- 1 wn* m the proportion of births to deaths, the respective num- bers in 1852 being 2485 (of which 383 were illegitimate) and 1487. The whole population Is employed either in farming, whichoccnples about three fourths of the men, or In fishing'. Other employments do not exUt, nor is there any other class of people or townsmen, aave the small number of merchants in Relklavik and the other trading establishments. Everj" branch of industr}- Is therefore domestic, and confined chiefly to articles of clothing, such as coarse cloth, gloves, mit- tens, and stockings. The peasantr}- are generally in- genious, and manufacture such simple pieces of furni- ture as their cottages require ; some also aspire to mako trinkets of silver, and articles ffom the walrus' tusks. The trade of Iceland has never, till the pres- ent time, been managed in what modem science points out as the most advantageous way. The Danish gov- ernment long had a monopoly of the business of this remote dependency. For many years, whilo this was abolished, Danish merchants had a preference to trad- ing, hy virtue of higher duties exacted fVom those of other countries. It was not until 1856 that the for- eign merchant was encouraged to come to Iceland by a perfect equality of terms. The only place in the island untitled to be considered as a port Is Relklavik : only a few trading stations exist elsewhere. There is an annual export of from 1,000,000 to 1,200,000 pounds of raw wool, besides about 200,000 pairs of knitted stockings, and 300,000 mittens, or gloves without fin- gers. The Iceland sheep have remarkably fine fleecea of wool, which the farmers. In the spring of the year, take olf whole ; their weight being usually fWim four to five pounds. The other principal branch of Indus- try In Iceland Is fishing, which must he considered aa in a thriving state. The fishing-banks around the island abound In coiid (leMitliiiilr r«rttk. llMjr M« eoTtrad wMh • ooan* kind of ||r*M, whleh frowi lo III Miomoiu tlu, Th* Mill of lh« hl^ih kad " mU- Iiir" prslrlM U, In gM*ral, only of Mconil-nU qokllly, •nd ■bonnrfi In iprinR*. <)rkp».vln«t •» iilmnduit. Th* prairUi fnrnUh *■ Inaxhaiwllbl* Mniniar nngt for catUs. KroM th* txciixlinK Aatnma of Kima of lb* plaint, lb* mini tliat Call am allowad In itaiinata, and Ihua nndar lb* iltuatlon unhaaltby. Th* UramI Pralri*, wbloh U lb* UrK*rt trait of tbia dnarripllon, U probalilr th* hlHbaat tablr-land li*twr*n th* MlMli- •Ippl and th* Waliath. It cxtanda trom th* oounly of Jaekioii, In a iiortb-aaat ilircotlun, tu th* IniquoU oouBly, and varlaa In hroadth frum I to upward of I'i mil**, AKbaunb paaalnfi und*r on* nanM, It dii*« not MUilil of on* ilBKl* tract of lankrn up Into Hvaral rtachr* of pralrln Kmuncl, with itrlp* uf wood mnnlng hctw»*n th*ni. It 1* rioh and fartllo, ■nd Mvaral Mttlcroantu hav* li*«n located on Ita bordar, which li avary wh*r« nklrtad with wimmI. Th* pralrlai, g*D*r*lly, ar* not pUntlfully nupptlvj with Umhar, most of tham b*lnK only lnt*nip*r«*d with KToap* of tnsM, or iklrteil with ntiipK of fiinut. Much of tb* youoff woimI la (lc*iruy*d by th* annual winter burning of tb* cnum* k'***> which oirart at latit two thinl» of th* pralrl* land. In •prinn Ih* prairi** again b«com* profuaaly d*ck*d with th* greateat rarlaty of beautiful and delicat* flower* of avcry hu*. Illlnol* la dlatant from th* aea, but la well provldad with river*. Nearly three (tourtha of ita Iraundary la formed by navlKabI* rivera; and on the notth-eaat It baa Lak* Michigan for upward of )!0 milaii. The MlaaUalppI, which forma Ita entire wcatem, and the Ohio, which forma the aouthem boundary, give com- mercial accesa to thoa* valleya which Iwar their namea. The Wabaah, a noble atreain which iHiunda the Htate on th* eaat for more than IHO mile*, la navigable for more than that diatance. For Internal communication, the Illinoia, which belonga entirely to thia 8tate, la navigable at all aeaaona for ateamlioata fur 260 nillea, lo La Salle, where navigation ia stopped o<%aalonally by the little raplda, and where a canal branchoa oft, connecting the river with Lake Michigan. The pi i i- cipal IrlbuUriea of the Illinoia, which ia Itaelf formed by the Junction of th* Kankakee and the Uea Hlainea, ar* lb* Fox Klver, which riae* In Huron Territory, and haa ■ coura* of tJUO mil** li*fur* It Joina the IllU noia ; the Vermillii)n Klver, which falla iut it from the Bouth-eaal ; the Sangamon from the eaat, the Mackinaw from the north-«aat., and the Spoon Klver tntn the north-weal. Thea* are almoat all navigable for ci]ect to ftequent ani' aud'*' ° tn^e*. In the aouthern parta of the State °h* sutn. ^ amt ia ^fvy oppreaaive and enervating ; ar.'.< i« ii' . >vcaaio .rally relieved liy freah breeze* from the prii'r'^sr 'n .<'',ut«r the anow falla to • considerable dejith, atij lli^i occasionally fur three montha ; and many of '.he Aven remain fi oMn for the aam* length of iime. In aom* parta of the State only ■ few inches of snow falls, and it quickly dls- lUlnola p aaaiassi • vaal •mtoot of arabU land. Th* soil, allboagh varied, Is g*n*rally highly uruduetlv*, and for agricultur*, it haa b**n i-un*id*rvd *» unauN pasaad by any HIat* In Ih* Am*rlr*n mnfadaracy. Tha soil in " th* bottoBW," or along Ih* rivar valUys, aui'h as thos* of th* KiM'k lllvar, th* SangaDWm, and Ka»- kaakia, conalata chltHy of tWh alluvial dapoaita, and Is ao priMlucllve *a fraquently to yield W buahel* uf wh*at or iuO buth*la of In* olitaiasd. In IHftO, th*r* w*r* 76,!tOM farms In Illinois, conUlnlng S.uao,- M& acraa of Improved ground. lni|iorlant and valuabl* mln*rala abound In this 8tat*. Ditumlnoua coal occurs In almost *v*ry county | and In aom* inatancea may lie ol)talned wilhuut exca- vatlim. Vaal lieda ar* found on the blulTs adjacent to the "American Ikittom;" and It has been reported that antbracit* coal has lic*n found In the cdiinty uf Jackaon, Hut the gnat coal region la an extenaivu tract which extonda quit* acroas th* Stat* from MIS' auurl to Indiana, and from Iowa lo Kentucky. Trun has been found In the southern part of th* .State, mid la said to be plentiful in the northern. The great lead region la ahur*d between Illinoia, Iowa, and Wlacon- ain. Ualena In tha nnrth-weai la nearly aup|>orted by thia mineral. Silver haa alau beau found in the weat part of the Slate, and cupper ia obtained In aeveral pluciB, Th* other mineral* found her* ar*, sine, gyp- auni, qukrti, cryatala, etc. Mannfacturtt, tic. — Ther* w«r* lii th* Slat* In 1860, 16 W'liilen factoriea, with a capital inveateil of (1M,500, eiiiiil ^ ^ng 124 males and 64 femalea, manufacturing H ji ,': J yarda uf clotb, tnd l:i7,0OO pounda uf yarn . 1 ing 8112 peraona, and making 4,160 tons of castings, etc., valued at $441,186; 2H0 flouring and grial mills, 487 taw mills ; M printing offices, 10 daily, 4 tri- weekly, 94 weekly, 2 semi-munthly, 7 monthly, and I quarterly publicutluns. Total value of manufac- tured articles, 16,200,000. There wer* in January, 1866, 2,216 milea uf railroad in operation, and 1,046 milea in courae of oonatruclion. The internal trade uf this State ia becoming cun- siderable, and Incraaaing in proportion to llio means of inlamal communication. Ita direct foreign cum- merce is amall, and ia chiefly with (Iroat Ilrituln. C'u¥MEaaa or ma Mtatx or Ilu>> 4, raou 4i?ro«aa I, 1S47, TO July 1, isJ''. 1 2_ ■*'*■*•• iMroanT ~ f .... 1 , A ~l' TBAk I. tkillUUif. Tuisl. hwl • ttO" IST 169,1110 |S1,1U0 ♦i "" 1HI» 4l,8in 41.M)S 4,8.. but ISM 88,411 8^41T »,7M »14 i,7i« 1«M 17,6«t 17,6«S lts705 1S51 111,aK 114,giU 4,«B7 1,018 ■'ii5 l«n M.H2S 61, IBB 4.881 8,408 118 IWW re.iw 7»,tW T,M9 1,188 IMM 100,1146 MI.OM 7»,844 8,014 "708 i»ias Mr,osi 547,(168 64,601 81,464 i.ei« 18,VI 1,84A,21!1 1,84.\228 177,4M 7M80 19,811 Illinoia consist of 100 counties, which contain a number of thriving towns, many of which are increas- ing very fast in population. Chicago is much the largest, and bat cunnocted with it lUe greater part of tha troflio of the SUte. Population In 1860, 20,963. In 186U it Is said to have increased to upward uf 60.0u0. In 1856 the population wat eatimated at 100,000. The capital of tba State ia Spriagfleld. TMM 1007 IMM ning con- ki« meant klgn com- Min. 1,TM "ii5 118 "to» 1,916 19^ [contain a 5 increas- Iniiich the br i>art of 0, 29.963. Ipwnril uf luiated at Wd. Th« (bllowtnn taliU •hnwa Ih* dtemnlal IncmiK* of i th* impulatlon In Iht NiaU •Inr* IHIO i ino 1MI> 1*4U IIM WUrti."' M.rwt 4T«,SM M«,1M [ rm •..I..NJ. -lU-i..— T.j.1 Ilk MM l,«T MM fir J4T Ml Nod*. 1117,. 4Ill,K Ml,l!0 Th« aalcinUblnK Krowth of th« HUia of tlllnola and iU iirnnilalng contliUon, In IHfift, ma; tw amii f^im lh« following raturna tcanamlUad to tha Auditor of Iha Hlala i Artlaka. Namter, ItonMa (^«M |M,S«4,>llf N•>tealf|.^. t.ITO.SIW H,«l».ftW h V:"'rv:jr^:;: 1IH,«M 1M,4N 4,TM.«» T4fUI44 Mann... 1.MT 1M.IM M.'rrhanilli.- M Rankort' prniMTtf t,AI^IM4 f Miuflirliiriiil arllaloa,.. NM,MII M iiify ami ernillla. t4,fl71,iMO I'lDMla, ttook^ titn, Klfl.WA 11 IK iiinirratt'il [iraiwrtx Dnluotlonii. n.wnMt ■,7M,aM I'arminal proprrlj M,MT,l|gS Tow n Iota 119,1105,9(18 Uiida fOt,l»t,l78 Tha proKrata arhloh tlia Rtata hai made, even within a alnglu yaar, may Imi i«»n from the following com- pariaona of totala for tha Uat two yaara : PcraoMl MraMrtv, 1WA. .. |9^»n,'/ilA 18A4.... T9,MA,»M l4l~l>. 19114.194,170 ril,4AI,884 Parvniwl prnMrljr, l«IMti m4 lou, |IWt,WH,4^ hen Its railroads under construction are llnished, Illiii. .« will be surpassed for Its rBilriiad communication by but few States In the Union. .Tr. migration. Progrrtt and Eximt of Immi- gralivn to the United iStatei. — Wo will review the progresa and extent of immigration to tha United States of America prior to IHIO, the year In which the present official hist»ry Iwgins. As, on this point, no authentic inforiuation exists. It must be de- termined by such evidF^ce aa statistlclana of that period possessed, and by tlie relations then existing between the United States and the countries from which persons emigrated. The t-unrot of emigration commenced its flow from Fngland, Ireland, and Scot- land, and from Germany throup--. the ^ rpnrh and Brit- ish ports. It was subji- ' to many 8uclii:ition8 during a part of this time, hut < ' i have arrivwl In tha United MtlM fhtrn ftirelKn i- in In IMS, I>r. Adam Heylwrt, mem- bar nif tkn House (if KepreMntatlvfit from l^annaylva- nla, In bla excaadlngly vali ,M<> " 'neuii.nl Annnli" of Iha United Stataa, wrote to tlu. i ,;!' win^ ■StK'li "Thoup-'> wa admit that 10,000 fhralfpiirM ,iay have arrived m tha United (Mates In 1794, we can not allow that they did ao, in an mgiial numlier, In any prsuadlng or Bul>aei]uent year until IH17 {" ami ha aaaumaa that AOOO persona arrived In tha UnllatI "^intaa from fnr«|j(n countriea In each year fmni 1700 to IMIO ; tn faliii and to the BUthoritiea he i'iinantte No- vember of the same year. Issued by Krsoc« dec) 'iring the llritlah lalea In a atate of blockade. To lese reatrictlona on commercn, and, conaequently, on iha unobstructed paaaaga from ICurope, aucceeded the I lU lah orden In council, and the Milan decrea of Nu '- leon. In March, 1809, the United SUtea' law w i« passed prohibiting, for an» year, Intercouna witi'i (iteat Britain or Knnce. In 1810, the Napoleoni< decrees were annulled, and tha commerce of the Unit- ed States had, in IHll, fairly commenced with France, but only to bavo their vosseia full into the hands of the British, Preparations wera now making for active hostilities, and, on tha IHth of June, 181*2, war was formally declared by the United States to exist with Great Britain. The German emigration sensibly felt this unfavor- able condition of affain. Inasmuch as the Germans embarked principally at the ports of Liverpool and Havre; facilities for migrating thence to this country being more numerous, and the expense of the voyage less onerous. Thus, from 1806, was the stream of emigration pent up at its fountain. In February, 1815, peace was concluded between tha United States and Great Britain; and after sevorul months requisite to restore tranquillity, and to secure the confldenoe of those desiring to leave the Old World, the tide returned to its flow, and, with a speed greatly accelerated ; as, from authentic Informntion, collected principally at the several custom-houses, it appears that, during the year 1817, not less than 22,- 240 persons arrived at ports of the United States fh>m foreign countries. This number included American cillxens returning from abroad. — Sbthbrt's AnnaU, p, 29. In no year previous to that had one half so many foreign passengers reached our shores. Many sufferings were incident to a voyage across the At- lantic in a crowded emigrant vessel ; and there were no laws of the United States either limiting the num- ber of penons which a passenger ship or vessel should be entitled to rarri-, or providing any measures for ths health or accommmlation of the paasengen. The subject seemed to deserve the immediate attention of Congress. In 1818 (March 10), Mr. Louis M'Lane, of Delaware, reported to the House of Representatives a bill " regulating passenger ships and Teasels," which was read twice and refanred to a committee for inT«*« IMM 1008 IMM (tgatlon Into til* inbjed. In Dacamber, 1818, the subject wu brought before Congress by Mr. Thomas Newton, of Virginia, who oxplained the necessity of its passage. It was read a third time and passed by the House. After receiving amendments from both the Senate and House, it was finaily passed and ap- proved March 2, 1819. In compliance with a require- ment of tliis act, collecton of the customs have reported quarter-yearly to the Secretary of State the number of passengers arriving in their collection dis- tricts, by sea from foreign countries ; also, the sex, age, and occupation of such passengers, and the coun- try in which they were bom. Annual reports embrac- ing that information, have, in conformity with the same act, been communicated to Congress by the Secretary of State ; and, as before indicated, from these reports chiefly, this historical sketch has been compiled. The country having the largest emigra- tion is, doubtless, Ireland ; for, in addition to the 747,- 930 persons arriving from the United Kingdom, known to have been bom in Ireland, it is safe to assume that of the 1,348,682 others, l>om as indefmitely stated in " Great Britain and Ireland," arriving in the United States, 1,000,000 at least, were bora in Ireland alone ; thus making 1,747,930 as the total Irish emigration. See Khiouation. Next In numerical order comes Germany; England, third ; and France, fourth. The emigration of Chinese to this countr}-, was very inconsiderable until 1854 ; previous to which year, the aggregate number known to have arrived was only 88. In that year, however, 18,100 came to the United States ; and in 181J5, 8626 ; all of whom, with the exception of a single passenger, landed at the port of San Francisco; 15,950 were males, and were designated in the returns of the col- lector as " laborers." As regards passengers from British America, the fact may be deemed worth}' of mention, that many of them, especially of those arri\'tng during the last four years are known to have come with the intention of returning, and not of residing in the United States. The numl>er of such can not, however, be determined. Finally, to the 4,212,624 passengers of foreign birth arriving in the United States since September 30, 1819, may be added 260,000 as the numiier of immi- grants who arrived prior to that date ; making the total foreign arrivals from the close of the Revolution- ary War to December 81, 1855, 4,462,624.— Brom- WF.Lv'a History of Immigration. New York : 1856. To this large number may be added, as variously esti- mated, from 600,000 to 1,000,000, who emigrated to the western States through Canada. Total Nraaia or Passsnokiui, DisTiNonismNO ALtiNs fbom OTIIKKB, ABllIVINO IN rUK U.NITKD States bt Sea, from FOKBION OOUMTBIKS, FKOil SBrTEHBEB 80, 1819, TO Dkokmhbr 81, 1S56 Ymti (iidlic TOTAL*. or WHOU WKBI ALIBMI. 1 M*lai. F.m.l«;. Rex not ■Ut«d. TdUI. Malei. F«nuilea. 1 B«I m.t 1 tliiKd. TulAl. SeptemberSO, 1820 6,44T 2,680 1,184 10,811 4,871 2,398 1,121 8,836 1881 6,866 1,988 2,840 11,644 4,651 1,686 2,840 9,127 1828 5,818 1,149 2,082 8,549 8,816 1,018 2,082 8,911 1828 6,818 1,044 1,908 8,265 8,698 848 1,908 0,354 1824 6,268 1,661 1,818 9,627 4,706 1,893 1,818 7,912 1824 9,206 8,829 823 12,858 6,917 2,959 828 10,199 1820 10,218 8,633 67 13,903 7,702 8,078 57 10,837 182T 14,165 6,479 1,188 21,777 11,808 5,989 1,188 18,S75 1S28.....«. 19,446 10,677 61 80,184 17,261 10,060 61 27,332 1822 12,988 5,470 6,105 24,518 11,803 6,112 6,105 22,520 1880 7,514 8,575 18,748 24,837 0,4;j9 8,185 18,748 23,322 1881 15,01 T 7,968 28,880 14,909 7,724 • • * • 22,6.33 18.S2 85,599 18,7.12 • t • • 64,851 84,596 18,5a3 51,179 Deo. 81 (Smos.), 1882 4,691 2,612 100 7.803 4,691 2,512 100 7,303 1888 42,548 17,877 .... 69,926 41,646 17,094 .... 58,640 ; 1834 40,T80 23,180 4,088 67,948 88,706 22,640 4,029 e5,.366 isa^ 80,752 17,791 178 48,716 28,196 17.027 151 4,1,374 1886 61,459 28.689 824 80,972 47,865 27.663 824 76,242 188T 58,408 28,706 2,8iV) 84,959 48,837 27,658 2,850 79,810 1888 24,504 14,900 1,765 45,159 28,474 13,685 1,756 83,914 1882 48,200 26,454 la T4.666 42.932 25,125 12 08,069 1840 5S,998 88.153 51 92,207 62.888 81,132 51 84,060 1841 68,815 88,814 170 87,805 48,082 82,031 176 80,289 1812 67,124 4,3,475 881 110,930 62,277 41,907 881 104,.166 Bept 80 (9 mos.), 13« 83,172 23.354 8 56,529 80.0C9 22,424 8 52,496 J844 4?,897 85,867 84,764 44,481 84,184 78,015 1846 69,179 49.811 1,406 119,896 i.\inr, 48,115 1,241 111,371 1840 90,974 66,778 807 168,619 87,777 0,1,742 S07 l,H4Ifl 1847 189,167 99,325 090 2.39,482 186,086 97.017 905 23I,06S 1848 186,128 92,S83 472 229,488 138,906 92,149 472 2'.;i!..V27 1849 179,256 119,916 612 299,688 177,232 119,280 512 207,024 ISM 200,904 113,392 1,083 816,884 106,311 112,63,'i 1,038 810,1104 Dec 81 (8 mos.), 1830 88,292 27,107 isl 65,.'i70 82,990 26,805 181 50,976 KM 245.017 163,745 66 408,828 217,181 162.219 00 879.406 ]i»2 28.\TS1 160,174 1,438 897,848 212,469 1,17,606 1,438 871,003 1858 286,782 164,178 72 400,9S2 207,958 100,615 72 86S,045 1854 284,887 175,687 , , 460,474 250.177 171,0.10 427,8.33 1868 140,181 90,283 12 280,476 115,807 81,567 3 200,877 1856 185,808 89.188 .... 224,490 116.846 84,590 48,408 200.4.36 4,413,(r8b 1 ToUl 2,849,289 1 1,809,398 48.701 4,707,883 2,600,926 1,708,720 Legal Righii of Naturalized Citizem in the United Btattt. — Aliens naturalized agreeably to the nets of Congress, are not prohibited by th" Constitution of the United States, the enjoyment of the same rights, and to the same extent as naturul-bora citizen.i, with the singlo proviso that no person shall be eligible to the office of President or Vice-President, except a cit- izen native-born, or a citizen of the United .States at the time of the adoption of the Federal Constitution. Congress can make no law to prohibit the free exercise of their religion; nor to aliridgo their freedom of speech. The right of security in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and leiznret, is not denied to them ; nor are they prohib- ited the purchase and ociMipation of lands owned by the government. 'I'lie ('onstitutions of the several States concede to those naturalized citizens, who take up their residence within the States, in general tlif ~.imo rifflits as are enjoyed bj- persons born therein. Among tlp'so rights may be meiitinncd tliat uf voting and of being elected to office. Seo Kmiokatiox. Brom- WEl.i.'s Sketch of Immigration, See No, Am, liev., xl., 457 (by A. H. Evebbtt); Am, Whig Rev., vl., 455, 63.1, vii., 4la (by O. C. OARDINF.B) ; Niles's- Regis- ter, xiv., 880, xviii,, 157. Upon the subject of Gor- man emigration, gee No, Am, Rev,, il., 1 (by Kuward Everett) ; xx., 191 (by J. Sparks). Immigration to the United States, see DeBow's Review, v., 243, TSD 1009 IND rngUnd, Chinese tU 1854 i ir known boweve', 55, 8526 ; Bsscnger, )50 were f the col- srica, tlie i many of 1 last four tcntion of ed States, sterrained. e!gn birth ember 30, r of immi- laking tha lovolution- 14.— Brom- :1856. To iously eati- nigrated to ,Y 8ea, fbou Tula). 5.% :a 12 3S 81 «« 72 103 8,895 9,1 2T 6,911 6,854 7,912 10,109 10,83T 18,'(75 27,«.S2 22,r)20 28,822 22,6S3 Rt,179 7,8(18 69,640 65,366 A374 76,242 79,3-10 38,914 08,089 84,066 80,289 ln4,r)65 62,496 78,615 114,371 l.")4,416 231,069 2•26.^27 207,024 810,00-t 69,976 879.466 871,003 36s,046 427,'«S 2(M1,877 200,4:?6 "4,413,060" ands owned by „f tlie several izena, who tako roneral tli.' -.""O 'herein. Among ,f voting and of ATios. Bkom- . Am. Her-, "l-i Rtv., vi., 455, NiLHs'8- Rei/i" subject of Gor- , 1 (by KoWABD ). Immigration Review, v., 243, xm., 466, HiWT'g Mer. Mag., vUl., 1B7, *\v,, m | Fbazbr, xYi., 662, 683, zxvUi., 4201 mn, Rev,, vil. 186, xlv., 40, xlvii., 204, xcii., 268, x»ix,, B16 1 W»rt- mimter Rev., iU., 449, vi., 842, xxxv., IHt, «|,, 69, 101; Quar. Rev., llv., 216, xxxvll., 689, »»1|(,, 878 ( Hlaeheood, xv., 483, xx.. 470, xxl., 877, »»)ll,, M, 616, v., 623, vi., 78; Knick., xvl., 589. Importation and Exportation, the bringing of commodities from and sending them to other euun' tries. A ver}' large portion of the revenue of n aimu meroial conntry is derived from customs dutlM, ttt from duties on commodities imported from ahro»4 ) ttiut drawbacks being given on many, and bounties on A few, articles exported; the business of importwtion and exportation is subjected to various r4ri<9it was naturally reputed to bo the seat of imntfinsA riches, and ever}' romantic tale of its felicity and glory was readily believed. In the middle ages an eiftfiik sive commerce with India was still maintained throHgll the ports of Egypt and the Red Sea ; and its preeioui produce, imported into Europe by the merchants of Venice, confirmed the popular opinion of its high tfa finement and its vast wealth. After the discovery of a passage to India by the Cape of Good Hops, (lie same ideas still prevailed ; and the maritime statM of Europe contended with their fleets and armies for tll« dominion of the Asiatic seas, and for the comniBrca of the countr}'. The Portuguese, and afterward tils Dutch, made important conquests, and carried on in extensive trade. In later times, Great liritain and France appeared on the field as competitors fur tin) prize of Indian commerce and dominion, aiui wers aU lowed to establish factories on the coasts for tUa rscsH' tion and the store of goods. These were gradually converted into military posts, defended by soldierii and cannon ; and in due time those two powers were ranged on opposite sides in all the wars and politics of IndiAi This contest terminated in the triumph of the Dritifl) arms. France lost her prs-eminonce on tile continent of India ; and her great rival, enlarging her |iowars on every side, gradually rose to greatness and dominion, and now rules with undisputed sway from tha llinnt' laya Mountains to Cape Comorin. This vast extansion of the British power in the East has opened tlis way into the interior of India. It has tended greatly tt) enlarge our knowledge of tliis distant region ; and if more accurate inquir}' has reduced tlie marvelous talas of its glor}' and greatness withm the bounds of sobrt' ety and truth, Hindoostan, the seat of Industry, of asBunnca, and of the arts, when Europa wm iitnll in Sss ItartMiiiim, lh« sMns of many armtful r«votutloiiii, from th« Muhommod Invasion till tt< tmnumi \iy tilt HmUm ut DrltHJii, and InbaLiied by • imo| mil* M wldn field for interesting Inquiry und «|Mi!uliitiMt, (if tlt«) following account of this InternnUng «!<;imtfy. W« ^mlplm to dpscrllje— I. Its geograpliy ami natural ftiattirss ) itiHtiti continent i on the wcat th« ffitlitniin rangtt, a wttltiltMittioH of the Hufeld Koli Mountuinif, iilvi8K into tha owwi (in tlie Wfl«t<-rn and eastern tumnU of lliiidoontafl, ill AliUMt north latitude 24° and 22° ; and to tits notitb tits eoitittry Is eontraoted Into an Irregular triAnglii, proJscllllK itito the tiidlaii Ocean to Within sight (!«• grsfi* of tlis equator, or about 1000 miles, and on all liidsK inclosed liy the sea, The nxtensivs riigion tiItU' Mlsrt wiliiln tliBSfl limits Is nearly comprRliBiidsd 1;*- twesn fliti !ttli and srnh degrees of nortli latitiuli), »ml btitwti^n lbs longitudes 06° and 09° Ba»ti i»ii(1 Iti liitlgtil fttm the northern barrier of tita IlimMlaya Ikfnuntttin!! to Cape Comorin is alwut lUOO, whil« In lirsmHb it may be estimated at 1800 tnil«», (Itoiigb, owing to {b« If regularity of its figure, It Am» niA, «%■ ussd l|4Mi,clfi7 English square iniiss, KlttiloiiistAn Is of an extremely divsralllsd itii(M«t. and i!iMii()fpli'-ti(ls within its bounds all tbs vurlfttioii of (ililHilte, of Mil, and of natural scenery, front tlin li«r« Slid llftiied fork, and lofty mountain buried under Kt«f« nitl tiHowi*, to the low and fertile plain, scorched by th« (rniib'itt Klin, and the seut or luxuriant vegntiitlon, TltM illvtifsiU' in the aspect of the country hint given rine d) tite ndlowing territorial dtvUbins, nmnnly i 1, Ni>rtliern Hitidoostan, whicli cainprebendu tbs Hima* layit Muiintflliin on the north, witb tbstr lowsr ritng«g of iiillit stfetching southward to tlia plains of tits In- itltA unit tiie Ganges, and extending front I'suhfiwuf ami CMsbinere on the west, to Uootan and Annam on tits sitnt. 3, Hindoostan I'roper wlih'lt sxtuiidii iioutk< want SI* far as the Nerbudduh Itlver, wbsrs ttis i)«e- i!itn diitntnencei), and which includes tbs biwnr (irov< iHesn of UengHl, the north-western provincss, togetfaar with Omle, luatwa, or Central India, tbs Punjnli, dtU* sMt, Minds, and Cutcb. 8. Tba D«cc»n, bounded on tlis ttiirth by the Nerbuddah litvsr, and on tbs aotttb Tlv tlls llivefs Krlshmo and TooinbudM, cont|irsli«nd« tits Isfgef portion of the presidency of llontlmy, to- H^tUpt Willi Orlops, the Nizam's dominions, and tits (mr- ritory-.. NHi<|iore. 4, India south of the Cnibmaltivaf, ifoiitpfelieiiijing th« territories under tb* admlnliitra- (inn of tits government of Madras, togstbsr with th« n»(iv« »ta(M »f Coebin, Travaoflort, ftiid lbs Uyiutn IND 1010 IND The Himalaya Moaotalna contain the aourcea of the great riven which 6ow through the hiiming plaina of Hindoostan. The deep valleya between the mountaina are the channels through which the waters flow from the higher grounds ; and, hy the melting of the snow, those streams, suddenly swollen into torrents, and rushing down the declivity, woric out a deep and nar- row channel among the rocks, where, imprisoned as it were between steep and perpendicular rocica, they roor and foam amid precipices, or in dark and unfathom- able glens, exhibiting, in the conflict of their troubled waters, all the great phenomena which belong to riv- ers, namely, the cataract, the rapid, the boiling eddy, and the dangerous whirlpool, and only sut)side into smoothness when they l>reak out and spn'id over the plains. Huge rocks were seen by Dr. Gerard whirled along with flrightful velocity ; nothing visible but an entire sheet of foam and snray, thrown up and show- ered upon the surrounding -ocks with loud concussion, and re-echoed from bank to liank with the noise of the loudest thunder. Across these streams are thrown rude bridges made of ropes or of wood, the usual ex- pedient by which rivers are crossed in all mountain countries. Where the breadth of the river is small, the passage is effected by one or two fir spars laid across from rock to rock j but where the space is wider, a bridge of ropes is constructed, on the princi- pie of the chain-bridge. In attempting the passage by one of these rude bridges, a carrier who accom- panied Fraser in his journey to the sources of the Ganges unfortunately lost his footing and fell into the water. He wos instantly swept down the stream to its junction with the Bhngiruttee, atiout 50 j-ards, " when his head," says the traveler, " appeared for a moment, and his load floating beside ijim; but ,'ho foaming current of the Bagliiruttee here tumbling over large rocks with a mighty roar, seized him and hurried him along with its tremendous torrent." Northern Hindoostan varies in its climate and in its aspect with the height of the ground. The lower ranges of mountains, though they scarcely reach the level of perpetual snows, ..till retain the sublime fea- tures of alpine sceuerj' ; namely, the rugged and bare mountain, the craggy rock, white, gray, red, or brown, springing up iq fantastic forms above the general mass ; and the deep and suddenly descending chasm, with the foul torrent foaming over its rocky t)ed. The luxuriant foliage is wanting which embellishes the lower hills ; the rich and smiling valley is not so often seen ; while the forests of dark brown flr fring- ing the mountains and the hallows impart a sombre and unvarying appcirance to the scene. At a lower level the country improves ; and though it still exhib- tts the mountain and the precipice, the intervening valley is clothed with verdure, and the lower hills with the most magniliccnt forests of large and lofty trees, tiic open country with roses. Jasmines, and other lovely or odoriferous shrubs, and with the most luxu- riant alpine plants. The valleys throii^li which flow the head waters of the Indus and the Ganges, namely, the .SutloJ, the Patiur, tlie .lumna, the Baghiruttee, the Alkananda, with their tributaries, exhibit all the va- ried and sublime scencrj' of this romantic country. The valley of the .SutleJ is hemmed in by brown and baricii mountains, steep and rocky, without the grand- eur of lofty precipices or fringing wood. The hollows through which it receives its trilmtary streams are dark chasms, without cultivation ; the heights crowned with forts, but without any neat villages surrounded with trees to relieve the adjacent desert. The banka of the .lumna, on the oi .er hand, though rocky ann wild, are wooded and green, and tlie sloping faces of the hills fertile and well cultivated ; and even at Its source, the countrj', however wild and picturesque, is Btili not nearly ao dreary as the valley of the Bhagi- ruttee. The features of the landscape are here lofty, ra{(gad, and inaccessible, with less of the beautiful i than of the inblime and terrible. A plaaaing oratriMt to this wild scenery is presented by the smiling v«lUy through which the Pabur meanders, checlcerwt m It is with pasture and crops, and the bankii and tlw Milt clothed with cultivation, villages, and wood. Hml'Ii Ik tire usual aspect of the lower valley of nortliArM ilift' doostan, the height of which is for the moat part trum 8000 to 6000 feet above the plains. The dilteranca litt. tween the northern and southern axposuies iif till* mountainous country is remarlcable, not only it) tlw formation and structure of the hills and roclis, but in the vegetation. The country on its aoutlisru fwu in of a brown and dusky color ; the grass altoH «r)4 parched ; the hills rough and lumpy, with rock* MmvU ing through the ground ; the lower parts Imrn id wood ; and above, the Weymouth pine, witli » ftttr stunted larches sprinkled among the rocks t wlilla tlw higher parts are spread over with oak, iwlly, iin4 alder, their leaves of brownish green, harmoni/,iiig with the burned appearance of the bills, aii4 givJHg « sombre hue to the whole scene. On the northern »%^ posure a rich color of dark green is diffused over llu> whole landscape ; the rocky sides of the glens Mrs bolder and grander ; and they are clottwd with nuUUi forests of larch, silver and spruce flrs, whieb shri»u4 from the view the highest and steepest cliffs, " All," says Fraser, " was rich and dark ; and bare «n4 titers a glade opened, or a high slope extended from tJM base of the rock, or projected l)etween two streams, of a bright beautiful green shining throfigb the minim forest." This difference between tli* northern «(4 southern exposures is strongly martuid all oin (lis hills. That strip of flat country, about 20 miles in brss4tli, which lies at the base of the great Himalay* fm\i>>, dividing it from the plain of the Ganges, is mlUil Terrae or Terreeano. It is covered with thick fof»a\» and low swamps, and, though fertile, it is so unliaMi^ that it is little cultivated. Bishop Heber graphi«4ll)' describes it as a long, black, level line, eKt£n4lng Hi the foot of the lowest hills ; " so black and levitl," li» adds, " that it might seem to have been drawn wKli ink and a ruler." This flat docs not extenil tMntlier north-west than through a portion of lUiMleunil, where tho healthy cultivated country reaches ft tlin foot of the hills, which rise abruptly from the milAy flat beneath. These low hills are watered by stretnis from the higher mountains, that rise to tlie level nf 1500 or 5000 feet, from which the lower range is fre.- quently separated by flne valleys of some lengtli, which are called doon by the natives, answering U) t\m .Scottish name or strath. Tlie hills which rite lmyma finally rmMfk"'l of this singular and interesting country, (bat llmijilt it appears from the plains to l)e divided iiiti» ilistfnfi ranges of terraces, it is really a vast KulhuHlim ii( mountains lieaped in masses one uIiovh aiwrfher, wftll-- out any order or plan that can l>e dibcoyerwl, until the height of land is readied at tlie great Hlimlttyn ridge whicii extends from beyoml tlie source« wf itm Indus in a continuous chain far into (^bina. Tho following are the chief rivers of llin4o«it(#H, with tlie length of their respective courses t" the M<4 i Indus, 170U miles ; Brahma|)ootra, IWU) | (j«nti«illl, 1500 ; Sutlege (to the Indus, 900), UW j <;ii^luiu (t<> the Indus, 760), 1250 ; Gunduck (to the limtnn* iM), 980. In the Deccan, and south of lu4i«, (he liini»\/»ff, IND 1011 IND 860; Slatiis,700; Nerba^dab, 700 ; Mahanuddy, 660 ; Tuptee, 460 ; Cavery, 400. There are few coasts of such extent so destitute of islands and harbors as that of Htndoostan. With the exception of emerged sea-banks and mere rocks, Ceylon is the only island near its shores ; and on the eastern coast, Masulipatam, which admits vessels of 800 tons burden, is the only harbor for large vessels between Trincomalee, in the island of Ceylon, and the Ganges, which is free from raging surf. To this Inconvenience Madras, though an im- portant British settlement, is peculiarly liable. On the western coast, the only harbors capable of admit- ting large vessels are Bombay and Kurachee, in Scinde; Mnngalore admits no vessels drawing more than 10 feet. Iliadoostan comprehends -within its bounds the op- posite extremes of heat and cold. The plains rro burnt up with intense heat ; while winter, with every intermediato variety of temperature, prevails in the mountains. Philosophers have in vain endeavored to fix the point of perpetual congelation under differant degrees of latitude. Thoy have, indeed, framed a graduated scale of the respective heights at which, ac- cording to calculation, this point should begin at cor- responding distances from the equator ; but theory is here at variance with actual observation. The climate of mountainous tracts depends so much on localities, and the particular course of the winds, as tn baffle all gen- eral speculation. Hence, on the Himalaya Mountains harvests of grain are found, where, according to hy- pothesis, the ground should be buried under deep snow ; and trees are seen to ilourish in the regions of perpetual winter. Captain Webb, in ascending the Himalaya range, saw around him, at the height of 11,030 feet above the level of Calcutta, rich forests of oak, pine, and rhododendra, the ground covered with vegetation as high as the knee, strawberry-beds in full flower, and currant-bushes in blossom ; and in 1818, at the Niti Pass, 16,814 feet in height, philosophy was again at fault, as the ground was clear of snow, though above the line of perpetual congelation, and many quadrupeds were feeding on the grassy banks of the Sutlcge. It was remarked by Dr. Gerard that vegetation attained a higher level on the northern than on the southern face of the Himalaya ridge, whei< the extreme height of cultivation Is 10,000 feet; the limit of the forest, 11,800 feet, and 12,000 feet that of bushes. On the northern side cultivation rises to the height of 11,400 feet; in other places to 13,600 feet; birch-trees to 14,000 feet; and tama-bushcs, which form excellent fuel, to the height of about 17,000 feet. In northern Hindoostan, great and sudden changes of temperature occur, which is the cause of pulmonary affections. Dnring summer, the thermometer, which Is often In the morning at 32° or under it, rises to 70°, 75°, and 80°, or upward, during the day ; the winters arc, however, uniformly severe. In this also, as in other liilly countries, the traveler may be fainting to- day under a tropical sun, and shivering to-morrow amid the rigor of perpetual snows. From the banks of the Sutlege, where the thermometer frequently stands at 100° and 108°, three days' climbing will carrj' him into the regions of winter. In the plains of Hindoostan, the heat during the greater part of the year Is unintermitting and intense, except where it is modified by the ranges of mountains, or the table-lands toward the west. The seasons hero are commonly divided Into the hot, cold, and rainy. The spring and the dry season throughout the valley of the Ganges last about four months, the heat gradu- ally increasing with the season, until, in May and iluno, the thermometer rises to 100° and frequently, In the interior, to 108° and 110°, when it is almost In- tolerable even to the natives, and still more so to Eu- ropeans, who resort to various modes of alleviation, such as the aacua iatlij, which is a frame of wood In- terwoven with twigs, between which is distributed a hyer of a particular kind of sweet-scented gram This being hung before an open window, in the quar- ter of the prevailing wind, and constantly moistened on the outside by a water-carrier, diffuses a rehashing codness. FejetaMe produce.— Hindoostan comprehends all the known varieties of the vegetable tribes. The mount- ainous tracts of northern Hindoostan produce all the Alpine plants, and the various species of European grain, fruits, and flowers. Deep woods cover those lower ranges of mountains, in whicli are found the pine-tree of various species, " the tallest, straightest, and most magniflcent, " says Eraser (Eraser's Journal of a Tour through the Himalaya Mountains p. 139), he ever beheld, the larch, the silver, and the spruce-fir, from the 1)ark and twigs of which resin exudes In abun- dance ; the yew-tree, several species of oak, holly, alder, sycamore, and birch, with mnlberr}- and chestnut-trees. Here is also found the mimosa-tree, from which is made the catechu or India-rubber : the resinous part of this fir, cut Into slips, answers the common uses of the lamp. These noble forests extend over Immense tracts, and would afford inexhimstiblo supplies of timber if they could be transported to the proper market. Fruits in great variety are also produced in this elevated region, such as apricots, peaches, and grapes, apples, pears, currants, raspberries, blackberries, and strawberries ; roots, such as turnips, carrots, garlic, and onions ; flow- ers and plants, as roses, both red and white, lilies of the valliy, jesmines, butter-cups, yellow, blue, and white, cowslips, and sweet-briar, with numerous other beautiful and fragrant plants. The vallej-p exhibit, according to their altitude and temperature, the pro- ductions of Europe or of the tropical countries. At the height of 6000 feet appear the oak and the pine ; at that of 3000 feet rattans and bamboos of enormous di- mensions ; in some parts the pine-spple, the orange, and the sugar-cane, grow to maturity ; in others, bar- ley, millet, and similar grains are produced. The lower part of these hills Is the seat of the saul forests. The lower valleys yield rice, sown broad-cast, maize, wheat, barley, pulse of various kinds, sugar-cane, cot- ton, Indian madder, a large species of cardamum, be- sides other productions. 'The pastoral tribes of north- ern Hindoostan feed considerable flocks on the lower hills and valleys ; in summer they climb the Alpine countr)', and browse on the herbage adjacent to the region of perpetual frost. Rice is t'le great staple of agriculture throughout Hindoostan, in the plain of the Ganges as well as in southern India. It is sown at the approach of the rains, and it Is gathered during the rainy season, about the end of August ; the last crop Is sown during the same season, and Is gathered in the beginning of De- cember. It is esteemed the l)est, not being equally li- able with the other to decay. The diversity of soil and climate, and the several seasons of cultlvotlon, have given rise to inrmite varieties in this species of grain. When the ruins fail tliroughout Hindoostan, which occasionally happens, the rice crops are apt to be deficient to a degree altogether unknown in the well-regulated agriculture of Europe, where the sever- est scarcity hardly ever rises the price of com more than three times its usual rate. But the famines of Hindoostan leave thousands without subsistence, and fill the land with scenes of misery and death. In the great famine of 1769 it was estimated that 8,000,000 of the people perished ; the air was so infected by the nox- ious effluvia of dead liodies tliat it was scarcely possible to stir abroad without perceiving it, and without hear- ing also the frantic cries of the victims of famine, who were seen in every stage of suffering and death ; whole families expired, and villages were desolated ; and when the new crop came forward in August it bad no owners. Bengal has been less liable to famines sine nis period, but they have frequently occurred in other parts of India. Rice thrives well in the inundated IND 1012 IND : track of the Ganges, and in southern Hindoostan, es- pecially on the low lands of the sea-coast ; higher up the Ganges, wheat and barley are more generally culti- vated, also in the high grounds and elevated table-lands of southern India. Other kinds of grain are cultivat- ed, such as Indian corn ; and groat varieties of pulse and coarse grains, such as peas, beans, chiches, gram, vetches, and ruggy, w*iich is the most important crop raised in the dry field, and in some parts of southern India is the subsistence of all classes, in others of the poorer classes. These are importunt articles of culti- vation, OS they have each their particular season, and thrive even on poorer soils. Maize is the general produce of poor soils in hilly countries, and is com- monly cultivated in the more western provinces. Mil- let and other grains are also cultivated, and vegetating rapidly, in every season they till up profitably for the farmer the short intervals between the other modes of cultivation in lower Hindoostan. Sugar is every- where cultivated, and at little expense by the Hindoo cultivator ; and as the sugar of India is no longer sub- jected in the United Kingdom to an unequal import duty, there is reason to hope that the produce of India may compete not only with the sugars of British colo- nies, bat those also of Cuba, Brazil, Siam, and Ma- uilla. Though formerly unlinown in Elirope, sugar has been produced in India from the remotest times, and was thence transplanted into Arabia, whence it has been introduced into Europe, Africa, the West In- dies, and An'crica. It grows luxuriantly throughout all the valleys of thr Ganges, and in the plains of southern India, and could be produced, with the help uf European skill and capital, to meet any demand. It thrives more especially in Buhar and Benares, and in particular districts of Bengal. Opium is the pecu- liar and staple produce of the province of Bahar, and is also extensively cultivated in Malwah, and in other parts of Hindoostan. It is a precarious crop, produc- ing alternately high profits and heavy losses. The liquor extracted from the poppy is collected as it ex- udes, and is then placed in pots, where it is dried and formed into lumps, in which process it loses from one tenth to one eighth of its weight. The opium produced in Bobar and Bengal being monopolized by the East India Company, and bought at a fixed price, is a con- traband article of trade, and its cultivation is confined to certain di'^tricts. Within Bengal no one is allowed to cultivate the poppy, except for the goveniment. In Malwah a treaty was entered into with the dilTerent rulers and chiefs, by which the monopoly was extend- ed to that country, and all tlut was produced delivered to the Company, at the rate of tliree rupees a seer, which is two pounds. But so great was the discontent excited by this extension of the monopoly, that, at tlie desire of the chief, the treaties were rescinded in 1819, 1820; and the trade in opium and its cultivation is now free in that province, and everywhere throughout India, except in the Company's dominions; but as Malwah is completely surrounded by British territory, a large revenue is derived from the high duty levied on Malwah opium, in transit to Bombay for exporta- tion to China. Malwah opium equals that of Bengal, and is brought into competition with tlie Company's opium in all the foreign markets, and especklly in China (see appendix to the report on the East India Company's affairs, p. 15). The cotton plant has from time immemorial been one of the staple products of Hindoostan, and is indigenous from Ceylon in the south to the Himalaya Mountains. It is cultivated exten- sively throughout Bengal, and in the interior prov- inces, on the banks of the Jumna ; also in the Dcccan, and in southern India, whence it is impoitcd into Ben- gal, and into Hirzapoor, and the district of Benares, where it is manufactured. Flax and hemp are also cultivated in several districts both in the north and in the tooth of India. Silk was long the exclusive prod- uct of India and China, Silk-worms ore now reared principally in the district of Burdn >n, and in the vicin- ity of the Bhogirati and the Ganges, and for about 100 miles down tlieir streams. Four crops of mulberr}'- leavcs ore obtained in the year, the last in December, A considerable quantity of silk, of a coarse kind, is ob- tained from wild silk-worms, which do not feed on the mulberry, and are found in the forests of Silhet, Assam, and tho Deccan. Indigo was originally a product of India ; and the plant was afterward carried to South America, whence Europe was for a long time supplied with this dye. The manufacture, on which the quality of the indigo depends, was very unskillfuUy conducted until the year 1783. Since this period it has been so much improved by the skill and capital of Europeans that it is now a staple article of commerce ; and in Bengal the value of tlic produce in 1864 amounted to £1,701,206. Indigo is produced generally throughout the plain of the Ganges, and in southern India, but chiefly in Bengal. Tobacco, formerly unknown in In- dia, and introduced from America probabi}- about the l)eginning of the 17th century, is now extensively cul- tivated in every part, chiefly however in the northern provinces, and more rarely in the south. The tobac- co grown in the Mahratta territories is most esteemed, particularly that which is produced near Bilsca, a town in Malwah. Bengal does not yield good tobac- co ; but the Company's territories in Guzerat, being principally of a rich black soil, are considered as pecu- liarly suitable to its cultivation (see letter of the Sec- retary to the Court of Directors, to the Secretary of the India Board, &th September, 1828). The Hindoos having been already in tho habit of inhaling the smoke of hemp-leaves and other intoxicating dbrugs, readily adopted tol)acco as a more agreeable substitute, and it soon came into general use. Their recent knowledge of it appears from their having no name for it which is not a corruption of some European term. Pepper, though of inferior consequence, is a valuable product of soutliern India, especially of Malabar. It is produced from a species of vine, which is made to twino around tlio jack-tree. It bears fruit about tlio third or fourth year, amounting to from three to seven pounds' weight, and yields two crops in the year. The areca-nut and betel-leaf, universally chewed by the natives, thrive in the low grounds, where water is abundant; and cardamoms, a spice in great repute. The universal and vast consumption of vegetable oils in Hindoostan, for food, or unguents, or for the lump, is supplied l)y the extensive cultivation of musturd- seed, linseed, scsamum, palma, christi, besides what is procured from tho cocoa-nut. The first rii)cn in tlio cold season, the sesamum during the rains, or soon af- terward. The forests in the low plains of Hindoostan, of southern India, and those which cover the western range of tho Ghauts, and more sparingly the eastern Ghauts, abound in the most valuable trees, applicable to many importont uses. The extensive woods in southern India supply the teak-tree, valuable for ship- building ; and in Malabar, extensive tracts of waste land have within tho lust few years been converted in- to teak plantations by the government. Saul, sissoo, toon, and bamboo-trees abound ; the last of which yield a medicine mucii used by the native doctors, ond which sells for its weight in silver. There aro many species of tlie palm-tree, with its luxuriant and spread- ing leaves, of which tho produce is extremely useful. The cocoa-nut-tree is, in some provinces, an important article of culture. Tlie kernel is used for food l>y the richer natives, either in the raw state, or dressed after various fashions ; and it yields by far the finest oil in India, if the nut be fresh, and the oil quickly used. Extensive tracts, many miles in length, are planted with tlio cocoa-nut and betel-nut palms. Many other species of timber are found in the deep recesses of the woods, of which Dr. Buchanan, in his account of Mysore, gives a particular deacription, with the botan- denc idle i ever /«( tcrcoi priva only three brong on hi! merca In D( f72,0 with I dia Bt( new anlte( IND i6fi IND teal name* of the dlfTerent treea, and to his work we refer ; observing, generally, that the woods consist of over}' description of timber, black, heavy, and strong, and adapted for the beams and posts of houses ; other kinds are white, hard, and durable, and adapted to all the purposes for which strong materials are required ; some are beautifull}' grained, and take a fine polish, and are well suited for furniture, or exude resins and gums of a sweet scent, that are used In temples for ln> cense ; the wood of some kindles readily into a clear light, and Is used for torches (see Journey from Mad- ras, through Mysore, Canara, and Malabar, vol. 1., p. 26). Other kinds of wood are employed for dyeing. Tlie sandal-wood Is valuable for its perfume, and for the essential oil which it yields. It requires a strong soil, and it is 12 years before It attains the proper size for being cut. The billets of wood are prepared by being buried in the dry ground for two months, when the ants eat up all the outer wood, leaving the heart, which is tlie sandal. The deeper the color, the higher the perfume. The best sandal-wood of Hin- doostan is now in possession of the rojah of Mysore, who succeeded to a small portion of Tippoo'a domin- ions. Animah. — Ilindoostan, from the great extent and inequality of its surface ; Its stupendous and snow-clad mountains, and its vast and wojued j.lains, Ij'ing un- der a burning sun, comprehends all tlie most interest- ing forms of animal life, more especially those animals of the tropical regions remarkable for ferocity or size, which have been the subjects of scientific research as well as of popular curiosity in all ages, and which find ample cover in the deep woods and jungle-covered wastes of those tracts of the countrj' which have been desolated by tyranny or war. However much the following statistics of th^ finan- cial concerns of tlie British Eastern empire may bo at voriance with the exaggerated ideas entertained re- specting It, as well by a large proportion of the people of England as by foreigners, it will excite no surprise in the mind of any one who has ever reflected on the subject. It Is due, indeed, to the directors, to state, that though they have occasionally acted on erroneous principles, they have always exerted themselves to enforce economy in every branch of their expenditure, arid to impose and collect their revenues in the best and cheapest manner. But though they have suc- ceeded in repressing many abuses, it would be idle to suppose that they should ever entirely succeed In root- ing them out. How can It bo imagined, that stran- gers sent to India, conscious that they are armed with oil the strength of government, placed under no real responsibility, exempted from the salutarj- Influence of public opinion, fearing no effectnal exposure through the medium of the press, and anxious only to 'accumu- late a fortune, should not occasionally abuse their authority? or that they should manage the compli- cated and difficult 'aflTairs of a vast empire, inhabited by a race of people of whose language, manners, and habits they are almost wholly ignorant, with that pru- dence, economy, and vigilance, without which it were idle to expect that any great surplus revenue should ever be realized ? TnJia Company, th'. East. — The first commercial In- tercourse of the English with the East Indies, was a private adventure with three ships fitted out in 1591 j onlj' one of them reached India, and after a voyage of three years, the commander. Captain Ijincaster, was brought home in another sliip, the sailors having 8elzele of contributing to the support of the line throughout every part of it. In tho other case, nearly the whole country to be traversed, by the most favored of the projected routes, is destitute not only of the means of affording even a partial support to the route when constructed and put in operation, but in a great meas- { ure incapable of furnishing even the timbe' necessaryj for its construction and repairs, the fuel necossar}' for locomotives, or provisions for the men who must bo employed in running them. The great lever, however, by which England will, in a greater ratio than ever, increase her power in the East, will be the railroad tyttem. And in this policy rapid strides and important results have lieen already accomplished. Ai early as August, 1855, it was stated in the HoOM of Commons that the East India Com* pany had sanctioned the construction of one road 690 miles in length, to be completed in the }-ear 1856, with a guaranty of 6 per cent, dividend liy the Company. In other words, private capitalists having subscribed the roquired capital, the Company therefore gave a guaranty of 5 per cent, income, upon a capital of 120,000,000. Other roads have been projected, and are now in course of construction, with an aggregate line of over 3000 miles. From one extremity of Brit- ish India to the other, the magnetic telegraph Is in full operation. The intelligence carried from Engluml to Bombay, was, as far back as April, 1855, transmitted to Calcutta by telegraph. The three grand trunk railroads are : Longth, mtlfli, 1. From Calentta to Feshawnr 1,428 «. " Calcutta to Bombay 1,002 8. " Bombay to Agra 784 ToUI.. 8,1I» 40OO miles of telegraph wire are now set up in In- dia, and in constant use. In the construction of this immense line of wire, 70 large rivers were crossed. In one case the cable over a river miiasureg 15,840 feet, and in another over two miles in length. In order to carry out the views of the British gov- ernment and of the East India Company especially, a standing army of 289,000 men (European and native), is maintained. It requires little foresight to show that it is in India (at present) and in China (hereafter) that tho Britisli power will for many years be developed to an extraordinary degree. With the aid of capital, now abundant in India, and witli the further aid of railroads, manufacturing machinery, steamships and steamboats, the magnetic telegraph, and cheap labor, the commercial and political power of Great Britain will soon overshadow all others. The subject fur- nishes points of inquiry and consideration, which should be duly weighed by the statesman, the mer- chant, and the philanthropist. We have all looked with astonishment upon the vast commercial changes that have transpired in the world within the past 20 or 30 years. Science, genius, enterprise, and capital are yet at work transforming, modifying, creating. America has witnessed groat transformations wUhin that period. It would seem that Asia is likely to undergo equally important changes, through the means of the British govern- ment and its thousand agents. There is no reason why the United States, availing themselves of the newl3--enlarged field of operations in tho East, should not find a profitable market for their manufactures, and further employment for their shipping. Metals. — From the wild and inaccessible n.iture of the country in many parts of Hindoostan, its metallic products are but imperfeotly known. It is found to produce all the metallic ores, as well as diamonds and precious stones, and other mineral substances. Gold is generally found in the sands of the mountain streams, and is extracted i)y washing. The head streams of tho Ganges l>ring along with them parti- cles of gold, which in Rohilcund are collected by a particular caste of people. It is found in various parts of Mysore, particularly nine miles cast of Boodicotta, where the country is impregnated witli it ; also in tho Nielgherry Mountains ; and in great quantities in all that tract of countrj- that lies west ; and in the adjoin- ing Koondanud and Ghaut Mountains. This whole tract, including the niountttins, and comprising a space of 2000 miles, contains gold. Unrefined gold is regu- larly exchanged by many of tho mountain tribes of the north for the produce of the plains. It is estimated that aimut 1000 men are continually employed in col- lecting this precious metal. Cop|ier is produced in the provinceof Delhi, which the natives collect either on tho surface or with very slight excavations ; also in the Raj- poot principality of Jeypoor in the jirovinve of Ajmeer, IND 1019 IND nature of its mctuUic is fouml to iamomU ani nccs. Gold mountain The head . tlicin parti- Uected by » various parts ■ Boodicotta, , j also in the intitics in all .n the ttdjoin- Thia whole ■Uing a space gold is regu- tribes of the is estimated iloyed in col- oduced in the ;t either on the ilsointheRaj- ice of Aimeer, ■nd in other parts of the game province, there are capper qiinea, and in the Camatic, abont 40 miles north-east from Cuddapuh. The metal is found in layers about two inches, and occasionally two feet thicli ; they are coated with ochre, and arc in (general flat, as if they had undergone compression. The ore exists in nearly a metallic state, without any admix- ture of sulphur, arsenic, or any other substance that requires separation. The best ores yield 60, and the worst 6 per cent, of pure metal. The granitic mount- ains of Nepaul and northern Illndoostan contain much iron, load, and copper, with n little gold in the river courses. The copper mines are quite superficial, the ore being dug from trenches entirely open above, so that the work is laid aside in the rainy season. Iron ore Is found in many parts of Hindoostan. There are mines of iron in Lahore and in Ajmeer. In Orissa many of the natives are iron smelters, and most of the iron sent from Halusore to Calcutta is produced in this district. In llejapoor the working of iron furnishes em- ployment to many of the inhabitants, who extract it by a verj- rude process. At Porto Novo, in the British district of South Arcot, in the presidency of Madras, extensive iron-works have been erected by a joint- stock association called the East India Iron Company ; to whom also belong the iron foundery works at Bey- poor, in Malal>aT, on the opposite coast of the penin- sula. The ore smelted at these establishments is found in great abundance and of excellent quality in their respective vicinities. The Mysore countrj- aiwunds in iron. There are also forges for manufacturing steel, which are minutely descril)ed by Dr. Buchanan in his account of the Mysore country.* In Coimbetore and in Malabar the iron mines give employment to a con- siderable numlior of persons. The process and ma- chinerj- for extracting the iron are very imperfect. Iron mines were formerly worked in the district of Hogllpoor, but they have been long neglected. Rich iron ores are abundant in Cutch, The ore is gathered in baskets from the surface of the earth, and yields 2a per cent, of iron j and the steel which is made from this ore is the finest in the world. Lead is produced in various parts ; also antimony, plumbago, sulphur, alum ; and there are inexhaustible supplies of coal, though the mines are not worked with any effect. Coal Is raised in Burdwan in considerable quantities and of a line quality. Saltpetre is produced in Bengal and Bahur, though its manufacture does not go beyond the eastern limits of the latter province. It might, however, be attended with success in Bengal, where the tendency of the soil to its production is vory great; ana there might be manufactories of salt in almost every part of the countrj', but they are re- stricted by the Company's monopoly. In the My- sore plains the wells are salt, and the ground is frequently covered with a salim efflorescence. A range of hills, extending from the Indus to the Ilydaspea, yields the famous rock-salt of Lahore, of which they are almost entirely composed. f Many quarries are found in the hilly districts, which produce fine stone, that is cut by the inhabitants into pillars, flags, statues, and used for other ornamental purposes Dr. Buchanan saw several fine-grained speci.i:eus of granite, also a black stone used in the construclion of llyder's monument, and a beautiful green stone which takes on a marble polish. The kills of Guzerat con- tain marbles exhibiting many colors and qualities; and marbles are seen in the various tombs and monu- ments of ancient art still remaining in the countrj', finely ground and of different colors, white and yellow witli red veins, and green clouded with yellow and black, of which the quarries havo never been discov- ered. • Journey from JMiidnM, vol. t, pp. 170, 180 ; toL 11., p. 189. t See tho obBorvattons of Lieutenant Bnmes on the com- mercial relations of the Pui^aub. Diamonds are no longer found in tho celebrated mines of Golconda, but they are still gathered in the bed of the Krishna, and in the province of Gundwana. Near the confluence of the Hebe and the Mahanuddy, 18 miles beyond the town of Sumbhulpoor, after the rains, the natives find diamonds in the red earth washed down from the mountains. The matrix con- taining them is a clay which has a red appearance like burned bricks. Tliere are diamond mines in the south of India, about 7 miles north-east of Cudhapah, on both banks of the Pennar Itiver. These mines have been worked for several hundred years, and occasion- ally yield largo diamonds, which are either found in the alluvial soil, or are recognized by their sparkling among the gravel after it is washed and spread out, or in rocks of the latest formation. The grounds are leased on behalf of the government to private specu- lators at a moderate rent. In Bundelcund, also, the table-land which surrounds Pannah, wherever the ground is of a gravelly nature, produces diamonds. The soil is from two to eight cubits deep, and diamonds are found intermixed with small pebbles, though not adhering to them. A verj- few diamonds in the course of a year repay the labors of the workmen. The dia- monds found are mostly under the value of 500 rupees, or jt'SO, though some reach the value of from 500 to 1000 rupees. They are weighed and sold to the mer- chants residing at Pannah, and are by them carried to all parts of the countr}'. The workmen are allowed three fourths, two thirds, or a half the diamonds they find, according to their size, and any man is at liberty to dig ; but the business is less prosperous than form- erly, and tho workmen are poor. The diamond grounds are strictly guarded against the contraband trader, and the least delinquency draws down the prompt and barbarous vengeance of the rajah. These are supposed to bo the diamond mines mentioned by Ptolemy. Their annual produce was estimated, in the reign of Achar, at eight lacs of rupees. In 1750 it had fallen off to one half; tho amount, compara- tively insignificant, is divided between the rajahs of Pennah, Banda, and Chirkaree. The other varieties of precious stones found in India are the ruby from the table-1 nd of Mj'sore, the berj-l, the topaz, the chrj'solite, garnet, cat's eye, etc. Thero are cornelian mines in the province of Guzerat, in tho wildest parts of the jungle. They consist of numerous shafts worked down perpendicularly, about four feet wide, and several of them to the depth of fifty feet. Some of them extend at the bottom in a horizontal direction, though not to any distance ; the heavy rains cause the banjcs to full in, so that new openings are alwaj-s made at the end of the rainy season. The nodules weigh from a few ounces to two or even three |iounds, and lie close to each other in abundance, not in distinct strata, but scattered about. They are of various colors when they are found — of a blackish olive, like common dark flints ; others of a lighter hue, with n slight milky tinge ; though it is quite uncertain what appearance they will assume after the process of turning. They are carried to Cambay, where they are cut, polished, and formed into the fine ornaments for which that city is so highly celebrated. Beautiful jaspers and agates are also found in this district, and in other parts of India. Manufactures. — In every country the nature and quality of the manufactures must depend on the con- dition of the consumers, and among the despotic States of Asia these naturally consist of two classes : 1st, of the great and powerful, in whose hands the property of the country is accumulated, and who are compara- tively few ; and, 2dly, of the mass of the people, op- pressed under native rule, and sunk in poverty. Such, accordingly, has been from time immemorial tho state of Hindoostan j and its manufactures, which are neces- sarily adapted to the use of these two classes, have always consisted of exquisitely fine fabrics of cotton, IND 1010 HID for the nae pf the imperial court or of the njahs and princea of the coantr^-, or of coarse ttnftn fur the com- mon people ; and to such perfection have they attained, that the modern art of Europe, with all the aid of its wonderful machinery, has never j-ot rivaled In Iwauty the product of the Indian loom. Yet the Hindoo workman has no advantage from ca'pltal, from machin- ery, or from the division of lalwr ; he prepares the raw material with his own skillful hand, in all the various stages of its manufacture ; his loom and all his im- plements are of the rudest construction ; and yet, hy patience, perseverance, and unusual skill, he pro- duces an article which Is prized all over the world for its inimitable richness and beauty, as well as for its durability. The native artisan distinguishes at once these fino fabrics from all counterfeits, l)y the eye, the touch, and the smell. In the district of Dacca are chiefly fabricated plain muslins, variously denomi- nated, according to the closeness or fineness of the texture ; also (lowered, striped, or checkered muslins, denuminatod from their patterns; and the thinnest sort of muslins, for the manufacture of which the province Is much celebrated, ns Is Coromandel in southern India for its calicoes and other piece-goods, of the most brilliant end durable colors. Other kinds more closely woven are fabricated In the western parts of Bengal ; and another sort, of a more rigid texture. In everj' district. Coarse muslins. In the shape of turbans, handkerchiefs, etc., are made in all parts of Ilindoostan ; and in its northern provinces, plain and '.low-red muslins, but of Inferior quality to the beauti- ful (ai'rics of Dacca. In Moultan ore manufactured silks which pos.scss a strength of texture and brilliancy of hue that have secured for them a preference in the Indian market. They are woven into shawls and scarfs, which are in great demand, and which the In- dian manufacturer in other parts has never been able to rival, either in color or durability. Carpets are also manufactured in this province, though they do not eijual those of Persia. Various articles of calico are made, which still retain their India., denominations, as khasuhs, which are manufactured north and east of the Ganges ; cloths of nearly the some quality are made near Tanda in Oude. Near Luckipoor, on the western frontier of Benares, in the neighborhood of Allahabad, and also in the province of Bohor boftoes are monufactured ; sanoes In Orisso, and in the district of Midnapoor ; and a similar cloth under the some de- nomination in the eastern parts of the province of Benares ; woven silk and taffeta, both plain and flow- ered, in the ncigliborhoooxes of ivory and bone. Throughout southern India manufactories of cotton silk are generally established. In tho northern Circars the principal part of the East India Company's invest- ment of piece-goods was formerly provided. This country, extending about 600 miles along the coast of Coromandel, from the Kiver Kistnah to the borders of Cuttack, has from very early times been tho seat of an important and extensive manufacture of cotton piece- goods, of which the description of calicoes known as Madras long cloths and sulempores are the chief, and, with Masulipatam dyed handkerchiefs, and other kinds of goods for the African and West Iivlia trade, have, until lately, been in great demand. Masulipatam goods have, however, for some years been entirely super- seded by the manufactures of Manchester and Glas- gow ; and in all appearance the northern Circara will at no distant period of time be deprived of the manu- factures of white calicoes also. A great change has indeed been brought about in the manufactures of In- dia by the introduction of British goods, which, in many branches, have supplanted those of tho coun- trj' ; the poor Hindoo, notwithstanding tho low rate at which ho works, is thus undersold in bis own market by the manufacturers of Manchester and Glasgow; and this competition of British goods nearl}' ruined the native manufacturers of India, deprived the workmen of employment, and reduced them to great distress ; so that the directors remark concerning the Indian trade, that " it exhibits the picture of a commercial revolution, productive of much present suftering to numerous classes in India, and hardly to bo paralleled in the history of commerce." Commerce. — Hindoostan, from its great extent, and tho diversity of its soil and climate, supplies tho mate- rials of an extensive commerce. Its internal (rode is great, while its rare and precious products are ex- ported to the remotest regions of the world. An ex- tensive commerce takes place between Bengal and the other maritime districts, and the western provinces of Hindoostan, consisting in the cx|M>rtatiun of grain from the com districts, in exchange for salt, a great staple ; for betel-nut, sugar, raw silk, silk and piece goods. From the native .States of central India Mai- wah opium is sent down to Bombay fur exportation to China. In Bengal the culture and manufacture of opium are conducted under a State monopoly, and the produce is transmitted to Calcutta, whore it is disposed of by public sole. The holy city of Benares is a great mart of trade, in which are oxclianged tho shawls of the north for the diamonds of the south, and for tho muslins of Dacca and tho eastern provinces : and it has besides, very considerable silk, cotton, and fino woolen manufactures of its own, the produce of which is exchanged for other commodities. Through tho northern provinces of Delhi and Lahore a groat trade is carried on between the hill countries and the plains. The Inconsiderable town of Hurdwar or Hardiwara, being a celebrated place of Hindoo pilgrimage, is b ally from : elephan From India pato in the East it certii Wo kno» silk, wh that it commod matics, cious an etc., and ported in commerc metropol ried on fi Sea, whe mans, th( sail, and, west moi Ocoan for reached their voyi mandel IND 1017 IND sxtcnt, and IS the uiate- lal trade is cts arc ex- a. An ex- jral and the irovinces of in of grain alt, a «'"»' and piece India Mal- portation to ufacturo of oly, and the t is disposed es is a great D shawls of and for the ices: and it )n, and fine fiee of wWeli 'hrough the J great trade d the plains. Hardiwara, [timage, i» » great commerclol eniporlam, to which muUItndei re- sort for the purposes of trade, at well as from piety. This great annual concourse takes place In the spring, when the produce cf the northern and western coun- tries U exchanged for the manufactures of the lower provinces. The principal articles brought here for sale from Cabul, Candahar, Moultan, and the Punjiiub, are horses, mules, camels ; some of tliese from nallc, Uokhara, and the countries on the northern side of the Hindoo Ooosh Mountains ; a particular species of to- l)acco, antimony, assafoctida, dried fruits, such as apri- cots, figs, prunes, raisins, almonds, pistachio nuts, and pomegranates ; from Cashmere and Amrttsir, shawls, dootas, and pattoos j spotted turbans, looking-glasses, toys, with various maiiufucturos in lirass and Ivory from Jcypoor ; shields from Rohllcund, Lucknow, and Silhet ; bows and arrows from Sloultan and the Doab ; rock-salt from Lahore ; baftas and piece-goods from Rahn, a large city in the Punjauli. The country of Marwar also supplies many camels, and a species of flannel called loo. In exchange are brouglit from the British provinces Kharwa muslins, mushroo or sarsnet, and woolen cloths, the coarsest of which only find a market. In this fair, Dutch and Venetian coins are current ; and some toys of European manufacture wore seen exposed to sale by Mr. Wolil). The north- ern merchants liy wliom It is frequented assemble at Amritsir in caravans alx>ut the end of Fol>ruary, and pursue their route in an easterly direction through the territories of the protected Seikh powers. Still further to the north and west the provinces of Lahore and Moultan export to the countries to tlie west of tlie Indus, sugar, rice, Indigo, wheat, and white cotton cloths, hides, etc. The imports aro swords, horses, fruit, lead, and spices ; and into all tliese countries European goods are imported from the lower prov- inces. The southern provinces export to Bengal, pep- per, betel-nut, sandal-wood, and cardamums, teak timber, etc. ; while they receive in return salt and rice, cotton cloths, and articles of European manufac- ture. A very considerable coasting trade is carried on be- tween the different parts of Ilindoostan. Bengal ex- ports to Madras and the coast of Coromandel, grains of dilTerent descriptions, sugar, saltpetre, molasses, ginger, long pepper, oil, silk wrouglit and unwrought, muslins, spirits, and provisions. The returns ore salt, rod wood, line long cloth, izarees, and cliintzes. From tho Malabar coast the imports are sandal-wood, coir ropo, pepper, cardamums ; and the returns are gener- ally in the annual supplies which Bombay receives fi'ora Bengal. From Bombay are brought teak timber, elephant's teeth, lac, etc. From the reputed wealth and precious produce of India foreign nations were always desirous to partici- pate in Its trade. Prior to Alexander's expedition to the East it was scarcely known to the Greeks, nor is it certiin that they had ever seen its productions. But we know that these were brought to Home, especially silk, which so allured the vanity of the Roman ladies that it sold for its weight in gold. Other voluable commodities of India, such as calicoes, muslins, aro- matics, ivory, diamonds, pearls, and other gems, pre- cious aromatics, the pepper of tlalabar, turtle shell, etc., aud some dry sugar and indigo, were also im- ported into Alexandria, the chief emporium of eastom commerce, and were naturally attracted to the great metropolis of the ancient world. This trade was car- ried on from Myos Ilormos, the chief port on the Rod Sea, whence, after the conquest of Egypt by tho Ro- mans, the annual fleets, sometimes of 120 vessels, set sail, and, under the propitious influence of the south- west monsoon, boldly stretched ocross the Indian Ocean for tho western coast of Hindoostan, which they reached In about 40 days j and afterward extended their voyage round CapeComorin to the coast of Coro- mandel and the mouths of the Ganges. The high price received for these eastern luxuries in Rome en- couraged the merchants to provide larger vessels, and a band of archers to defend them againat the pirate*, who then, and until very lately that they were extir- pated liy British ships of war, infested the western shores of India. The commodities of the East being landed at Myos Ilormos, were carried on camels to Coptos, the seat of a flourishing trade, and thence by sea to the Nile, whence they reached Alexandria by water carriage, and were re-shipped to the different ports on tho Mediterranean. The produce of India was also brought to Europe by other routes — namely, Ijy the way of Palmyra, then a flourishing city, and thence to Rome and other western countries, through the ports of Syria; or across the Himalaya Mountains to the Oxus, thence to tho Caspian, and afterward to tho Black Sea, and Anally to Its ulterior markets In Europe. But though there was a demand in Europe for the produce of India, there was no demand in In- dia for tho produce of Europe ; and bullion was the only article that could be sent out in excliange. The annual drain of gold from Rome and its provinces for Indian goods was estimated by Pliny at 600 sestertla, equal to about .£400,000. In the convulsions which followed the decline of tho Roman empire, the trade of tho East was successively engrossed by the Persians and Arabians. The latter. In the year 636, built the city of Ilassora, which soon grew Into a great com- mercial mart ; and to this place, and to Ormus, long celebrated for its vast riches and Its trade, the splceries and merchandise of India were brought, and distrib- uted through the various ports of the Mediterranean. After tho expuii^iou of the cr^isaders from Syria and Egypt, Alexandria again became the chief entrepot of eastern produce, whencn it was carried to Italy by the Venetians and others, and distributed throughout Eu- rope. But tho discovery of a passage to India in 1495 by the Cape of Good Hope changed tho course of this trade, which now entirely left the Italians, and was engrossed liy the Portuguese for nearly a century without any molestation from European rivals. At length the Dutch and the English became their com- petitors, and established joint-stock companies, with the exclusive privilege of the eastern trade. But their anticipations of profit were not realized. Tlio preat distance of Europe from India, and the want of an C(iuivalent for its produce, precluded any extensive intercourse ; tho trade accordingly bore a very small proportion to the trade of the country ; and being bo- sides cramped by monopolies, it never attained its natural growth. In 1773 the average exports of Brit- ain to India amounted to about i:489,000 a year ; in 1793, on a like average, to about a million a year ; and it does not appear that a greater trade was carried on with India from any other part if Europe. Tho com- merce of nations Is limited to the surplus produco which they can mutually exchange; and, from the groat distance between India and Europe, this surplus produce was long conflncd to those few articles which, containing a great value In small bulk, could bear tho expense of a long voyage. The demand was also alto- gether on tho side of Europe, and its trade with India consistett merely in tho purchase, with bullion, of a small quantity of precious articles for the consumption of tlio rich. Tho progressive Improvment of industry in Europe, together with tho entire opening of the trade to India and China since the year 1834, has oc- casioned not only a greater exportation of British goods, but a change also in the nature of the trade. It is not 80 much the produce of the labor as of the cli- mate and soil of India, which no ingenuity oan supply, that is in demand in Britain ; and, accordingly, while tho import of Indian manufactures has fallen off, that of tho raw material, and many varieties of vegetable produco, has increased. Thus the Importation of cot- ton piece-goods — namely, white calicoes and muslins—' which amounted in 1814 to 1,266,608 pieces had de- m IND 1018 IND •ntMd in 1868 to 428,294 plec6« i nhUe within tlie ■una period tlia iniportution uf cottun woul liud in- cnuuMd from •2,HM,MH Iba. to lHl,aU'J,Ug4 Ibx., and tlis •zportatlon of oottun umnufucturef in a aliiilliir riitio. Kven tba inuoniparHbla mualina of Uuocu aru in leu daviind linca tlie introduction of I)rlti«li kooiIk. Tlma, in tlia proureaa of tlia trade lietween India and Ku- ropa, tba farmer country, notwitliatandinu ita Ijoaated waaltli and superior Induatry, lias taken the lowaat place, exporting her rude produce for the manufactures of the riclier country. Thia is the nature of the trade carried on iMtween Uritain and America and the coun- tries in the north of Europe, and is a sure index to the respective progress of the two countries in wealth and improvement. Those countries which can not manufacture their own rude produce send it to Britain, which abounds in capital, and still more in art and in- duKtry ; and Iwth countries are benefited, tho poorer country exchanging its surplus produce for a supply of manufacturea of which it is In want, and the rictier country the produce of Its overflowing capital for a supply of the raw material wbicli its own soil docs not afford. This is now the relative condition of Groat Britain and India. The farmer having outstripped the latter couutry In industry and wealth, sends out a sup- ply of cheaper goods than the native workman cun furnish ; and so prodigious have been tho Improve- ments in macbiner}', that the raw material of cotton is imported from India, and being manufactured In Britain, is ra-export«d and sold •( » chua|iar rata than ir can ha made at hi,ig mul successfully prMI» 4,'ixV,|sll 1840. A,0I4,HIIV mi Mllfl,M4 iMi h.llM.Ulll lii41l t,U1MV Vtan, ixU,,.. txIA,,., IUKI,,., 1*47,,, . IMN,,,. IHIU,,,. INM.,,. M\.,.. IsM,.,, RilHtrli. . i!r,»ri!i,i79 . '1.477,148 . il,4Jll,4(M . M.TUIUDH . .-M'J.IIO . .,M«,1I*I :<,1'i7,IIM . 1I,'M,79II . 7,'i8iV)7g Impoxts br Hikdoobtan. 1884-4S 188D— to 1844— 4S 184»-A0 1880— Bl 1881-68 1882—63 MERCHANDI8E. 1I«D(>1. £ 1,»(H),t80 8,Stl,691 B,98.'»,990 Rjwt.no e,116,-J01 7,OS7,40B 4,993,674 'Midru. & 603.290 (W3,807 l,04fl,S94 906,1)04 897,S2;) 906,4.S5 Rt0,631 Bombtty. 1,758,688 l,Sflfl,iW7 3,778,1 -,1 4,110,718 4,.%4.\764 4.21)1,647 4,2H6,8M UnlKd Kingdom. £ 2,082,221 4,2S9,4S9 7,9,^2,179 7,67-',»SO H.827,»II2 !»,236,7i9 7,2A073 (.tUitr ' Aountrlel. £ l,.'i78,H«4 1, Ml ,747 2,H0I,8S6 2,72(1,0(17 8,880,798 8,018,700 2,W«>,7H3 Total mir- cliaihlU*. « 4,261,106 6,S3l,2nil 10,7ft4,06,') lll,2UU,8i>i ll,^'W,7llH 12,210,490 B»(al « 616,224 1,22iI,7hiI 1,^11,11118 1,2U,N68 U>Ms'. 2,* 10,070,H6|i 8,81).., ',7 THICAKUNII. MaI. Mulraa. Bombay. TOTAL. United uihc. Klntdom. cuQiilrlt*. £ £ £ £ ^ 1 4,092,043 886,107 8,016,268 8,056,978 4,986,447 6,800,928 1.228,467 «, 838.8.82 8,969,981 4,892,708 9,822,197 1,641,462 r..li6.M2 7,240,619 9,849,592 10,14S,)I3« 1,272,S,H4 5,H9I,876 7,026,470 10,2A-iiH 9,997,.^27 1,866,976 6,899,645 8,104,)I16 10,060,1. '18 10,423,970 1,6.'W,S08 1 7,796,474 7,18^.888 12,740,517 10,788,884 2,121,613 7,6))4,4)M 8.428,298 12.086,38» ToUI liiir- (■hitiillit. ij ■" T.')03,4J« 10,S|I2,7I8 10,590,212, 17,i)12,29tl| 18,1)14,1 (0| 19,879,2,'>8l 20,464,688' gr 66,nM 90)i,(i|7 1196,5411 85l,'.Mi8 276,il'J9 2ri)i,5'ts mul trowsers, with riiunti hats, aliiixa, and atni'kliiMn." At Bcnares.ho fouiid " Kngllali liarilwnrti, BW)irdH, shloldsi, and spears, from I.iiiikiuiw niid Monghyrj nnd tlio.to European luxuries nnd »i|illicr tracts which are removxi] from Iho niiiln artery of the Ganges." At Nuaaii«ralm)|, In tho phivlme of llmir, the same traviilor iniiiitbina Ihiit " I'ngllnh cotton cloths, both whita Hml prlntxil, nrn to bn met with commonly in wear >iinoilg thn p)i)i|iln of the countrj-, and may, I learn to iiiv aiirprlai<, bn bought l)cst an(l cbeapast, as well as «|| kitida of hiirdtturii, crockorj-, writing desks, ctit,, at i'ullnn, ii largo town nnd celi-- brated mart in Marwar, on Ihn n)lgo of thn desert, several days' Journny w«»t )if .toudpoor, wlit-m, till very lately, no Kuropniin was over known to have penetrated." In aliort, It a|i|i«ars that Itrltlah and other European inunufai't)irna| from tliolr nunllty nnd cheapnass, are avflrywliorn In ilxiniind. They pene- trate into the ronixteat )llatrl)'tK of Aala | nnd now ttiat (b« tcrmiiifttlon uf tba Kast India Company's Inil Pegrn. l^Mrr. I849--S0 1880-81 1S8I— ,82 1883-64 1864-68 The Brit the domini which politi we maintai IND 1010 IND thkd n eX' I ikiid t(l« (i( K anil m iiin> ,\ Iholr D wm- iiil witn , ItiiUik lii'fiire n IHIO nntit iif m eora- nrtiitliin tlio fut- iiduuitAU innoiTiK. tn.ita rilil.'J'J'* r.i'j.un .■WT.tlW J i,9»n,(Uii n,7W,4Tl 1 "^ ' fl,H8i,Hn Tolnl. s," , ll»t,740 47(1,M1 ' l.Km.Hll) I ' .J71,'2U 1 Ml. '2^9 ; lllti.(H8 ! ., c'Wlilfon of III Jiickflii &w\ V'klnU"." At Jri nnil Hi""'' lli'li urn iliiH.v Itn from lu-mf ■nil, iiiiil ""'"r I iirtory "f ""' iiii'P of Ilcrar, TnnlInU cotton ■ lin met with _' ttin countr)-, [lHht bout and luro, crocVor)-, lown nnil celc- litf tho desert, lir, vfheri", till Inown to have Itt llrltlKli and \\x qunllty nnil I 'Ihey ponc- Ltft, una now pu Company* monopoly, which took pUo* In 1884, hu Utd open Hlndooatut to the oepltkl and enterprUe of Britain, •xparienoa prove* that an equal demand fur them may be anticipated in that country. The prccod- In^ talilai contain a view of the extent and vuluo of the trade of Indlu to all parte uf the world. The ex- ceiiii of exports over Imports arises from the necessity of maklnK annual remittances to Great Dritain to de- ft'ay the intore^t of debt, and to meet the expenditure of the home government. AocoirnT o» THi PBiNOiPAL Importi imto OaiAT BarTAiir noM IHDU IK Tuaai Yiam, rauM 1861-fi'i to 18(U-ft8. Ooffiae IbL MH^W Cotton, raw " 81,104,'.'2a QUKBlllUt, Vftlu* Id lUrllaf . Aooooin nr tni QntKTiTin and xeriAxtn VAitn or Till PRINCirAI. ASTI(M.ni SIl'nsTSII rsliU OstAT Hsif AiN Ti) India in Turki Yiam, raoM lSAI-«il to Iftftl-M. AntoUi. q iiwiiniM. I IsH-n.T imV-m". Orsln cwt. IdiHko lbs iTorjr owt Lac " Pepper lbs. Piece-goods Cotton pieces Bilk ■■ ^ Shawls. Rum gsllons 8llk,raw lbs. Saltpotre cwt 8uitar " Wool lbs. HlxcoUsnoous Total merchandise. " treasure. .... Grand total ■I.IIIT 8,198,9»« fi,UU 8il,44.s 1,918,978 i!08,Tl» 4U.s,H()4 7,49(1 %24,48. trrallaK. £ 2,809.207 2,.W2,0.S3 2,147,505 2,80,5,003 2,420,181 2,412,693 Nat Ravatiuai, Charf^fl of (../Iteotloii. Civil, liidl (■lal, nillllary, and marine char^eR. £ r £ 2.1,888,880 8,242,280 28,801,0071 8,800,015 2.S,645,1.5:r 8,817,6,57 24,4.56,48.5 4,104,158 2.8,949,060 4,248,9,80 24,241,478, 4,607,400 To'al c^ari ea in 'rj a. £ 17,041,829 10,8flS,000 10,789,8,54 17,229,,584: 18,480,908; 19,258,875; CharKP. dl, bunad in Enffiand. £ £ 2.),2S8,505 2.760,9.87 20,16*',015 2,717,186 20,007,6111 2,500,377 21,8-^8,0901 2,09T,4SS 22,730,894 8,202,289 23,760,341 3,018,847 To till charges. Surplua. Deaeil. £ £ £ 2.8,034,602 854,387 22,886,201 416,868 ..*• 28,118,888 681,265 ...• 24,081,178 424,267 25,998,188 .... 3,044,117 20,786,188 2,548,710 The British possessions in India are intermixed with the dominions of various nativu governments, with which political relations, varying in nature and degree, Me maintained. The following table exhibits the rel- ative area and population of the presiden ;ie9 of Ben gal, Madras, and Bombay, and those also of the native States of Hindoostan, and also giving the area and population of the separate provinces of the presidencies. \^ I :rli'i UaIouii , illrllUli Mlitlrwnrrah.. niitbulUli, LuiMlUiiah, *nil Ti'rrlliiry lalily h'>liini{tni{ tu Helkli rlil(>fti Nurth-ttAAtiTU fr<>ritti>r, Inrliiilliii AiMiii, fit«. Arnctii SoiUli-wciitf^otitliir, In- iliiclliii: Huriibiil|iiirK, ('t)ula NitiMHiri*, •t4<, . Vftintnro M 1,111 1, (M* Total Itcitiilatlon I'rovliin^A.. Nuii-ltoKulalliin Din IrlcU Total Ondfl. Hvdtrabail, niio. pal, llliurtpori', Hi'ln- dlait, mid llolkar'n Donilnloni, eto. Cochin, Mynoro, Tra- ranooro, ote Oiiji'rot, Culch, Cola- pore, oto French (Poiidlchorry, etc.) I'ortuguuw (Ooa) M.IKKI . mfiH\) ' m.vn ■ i*,w Vtf.lil ti,fi«i(< . 7'J,UMI I. 1,61)11 4UtUl I Iil,'i4.>' [ I Mil IHft.llW I'Jil.lllV l,Mft .VW.KM .80S 1,1*1,1 mi. Mi «.«'i7,4A(l 4,«,^,lltl7 9ot,Mn 8S,250,9M 4,7A3,»T5 }61,l I 00,B7»' 4,4«0,87o' ^ INS 171,J17 1,0(10 818,2112 Amthact or Tni Foiiooino. Brlllih PoB- icaloBl.... Natlre Stales- Foreign Ea- ropcan Statu! ' Total of Bengal Madras liombar Kanln. BettlemenU Bengal { fitl3,,'»4 I Ar«A la MWn, tiillffi. ^4lW,TiT l.'W,«l)2 12i).ii(l,t l,ft7B Mad rat. Bombay.... Kroncli Purtuguoae. IiidU BI,H02 lHi4 U Populftllol 90,K»U,ll,'l(l 22,:Ull,fl»7 ll,init,ll«T 20'i,MU ai,M9,'<02 4,7.%9,»7ft 4,4 10!il IND flxail priM, mUI*U liaforahiuiil, Mid navtr klUnJ to Um o|iIuiu (gvut. ThiD (jiolit i>a till* pric* la tu untt UmI th« iMMuaatt will cultivate it wlmraver it will grow. 'I'll* ruult wait an Incrgaw uf |iriHlui:tioii, wbUih iucraiiMd tlu •ulim (u atwut A0,UUO i.li«ita. A>MTii*irr Vm* or Tim niTHNAk ('umtiaoa or Umual. iiir<>an, IMI Opium fall ! th« chcata whi, h lw,| lirougtil 1060 ru- |>wa aoia for fiJW ru|i*ga, mi.l th« iIlffwrHHLa In ((uiknlll^ m> \ouift t'iiin|MinaatM for tlia (liffiranio in prlca. Thu tuat* of opium, Ilk* tlin taatt of tubacop, B*v«r Imvm Ita vutarl«a. OMMim. Oraal nrllain Kraniw Norlb Ainorlo*, Mulraa Cowl ('Kvloa Malillviiaanurb4jii I'apii ami Ht llolon* Hamburg Oailli Aniatunlaui TrlaaUi Onnoa Other piaroa Total, Company'a nipeaa t,m,iMi t,W,ilM »,Kt,i«W4 fhl.iWI l.llti.DU'i it,;mmio 7,W.»i.% t4,lt».4Xl ii l,M.IVU (W,W.MU>l lll,|.VJ 1.4117 H.ni.lMVI N,«I,V»8 7,iW.V(h'V 86,HMI S,4»,«H.1H4 Thu oilier priiiclpiil porta are — Ilomliiiv, a aea-piirt on the wwatern cuaat of Ilriliali India, lut 1X° 5(1' N., lonit- ^'i" bl' K. It la aituutod at the aouth-eaaterly •xtraniity of » amull laland uf auinn name, aepurated from tlio main land l>y an arm of tlio aeu, forming, vritb tlio cuntlKUoua lalanda of Colabuli, Hulaette, Ilutcbera' and CuraiKuh, one of the licut harlinri in India. I'ha entraiicu U nearly three miles wide, and liua a depth of from M) tu 40 foot. Madrua Ih the accond liiltiah Indian prPHldoni'y, and frincipul |Kirt on the weatem t'oaat of the Buy of Uengiil. t la without port or harlior, lyiiiK doae to an open mail- ■tead, and the ahore having a conatant aurf. A rapid current ruiia alon^ the coaat, and typtioona are com- mon. iMT^e ahipi anchor aliont two milea from ■hure, in the roada, in from 40 to GO foct of water, and lighten are used to load and unload froi|{lit. Singapore, a Uritlah sottlnment on an l.sland of the •ame name, at the oaatern oxtrpmity of Malacca, kt, 10 17' Ti" N., long. 103° 61' 46" K. United Stain and the F.iut Indiet. — The commercial Intercourse of the United 8tatoa with the territories of the East India Company is regulated liy the different local governments tliorcof, under thn aupreme control and approval of the (jovomor-Ucnernl of India In coun- cil. The reguliitlona prnscrilied by these authorities are not of a pormunont character, being liable to niodl- Hcations and clianges whenever, In their opinion, such become neceasary. To present, however, the true iiaais upon wiiich this intercourse rcata, it will bo neces- sary to refer brii^lly to the treaty stipulations aulwlst- ing between the governments of the United States and Great llritain ; premising, that prior to the convention of London, signed on the M of ,luly, 1815, between the United States and Great Urltain, the commercial In- tercourse of the former witli the East India posses- sions was regulated, as was that of other foreign na- tions, by a general clause in the Company's cliurtcr, providing that " vcMsela of countries in amity with Great Britain may imiKirt into, and export from, the British possessions in India, such goods and commodi- ties as may bo specified in rules to be prescribed by the KiL«t India Comimny ; provided that such rules uhall not be inconsistent with any treaty now [then] made, or which may be made between Great Britain and any foreign State in amity with her, or with any act of Parliament for regulating the aflfoira of India." By the conTentlon above referred to, and the subaequent nn wa.lill-M. 4,fl|o[l4B 4^1)7,481 7il,x4,tf»l IV,IW,iUO l,Ali,'ilO llii,illi'J >«,7i.niii w,m.nu7 44.iM,|il7 A,vt,7n« 8,'M,I7,U77 B,li),IU4 6'<,U7I 14.ttl,Mi8 lft,».\'ill7 (l.iiil.sdft «,II\A>IA Run. Ti 'it,uU l,47.«';t 07,l()() A40 7,14s in,M,lT4 All,87U U^SOO TMd. 4i7Mn,1M 4N.ii7,481 !«,H4,IN4 l4,no,«l4 tl,07.>l4il 10.7 1, rmi iJ.ni.ftUT 4l.m,()77 ft.M.iHiT ■,i'J,i7.i;7 H,l«,Mt *<,tf71 8n,4ii.iiA7 l«,.M,(t(l7 (l,0HI 11.11,748 17,Hl.>tVI l,ilo,018 H,M4.;il« 7,(MI,l"lil 71..Vi8 1.4U.ni4 l,|H,nM l,All8 «i,ifi» B,14,T7,W«4 conventliin of October, 1818, continuing the former, it waa stipulated : lat. That veaaola of the United .States shall be iid- initted and lio»pltalily received at the principal settie- inents of thn liritiHli dominlona in the East Indies, viz. : Calcutta, Madriis, Bombay, and Prince of W'alea' laland ; and the citizena of thn United Stato.t may freely trade between the aaid anttlemonts and the United States, in ail articlca of which the importation and exportation, reapectlvely, to and from the said territories, shall nut bo entirely prohibited ; and, 2d, it was provided, that the citizens of the United States shall pay for their vessol.n, when admitted, no higher or other duty or charges tlian ahull bo payable on thu vessels of tho most favored European i^i 'ion. And they shall pay no higher or other duties oi cnar^os on tho importotion or exportation of the cargoes of said vessels than shall bo payable on thu same article when imported or exported in tlio vessels of tho most favored nation ; and, ltd. It was expressly agreed, that the vessels of the United .States shall not carry any article from the said settlements to nny port or place, except to some port or place In the United States of America, where the same shall bo unladen. This convention Is still in force, and regulates tho commorclal intercourse of the United States with the East India possessions, except as to paragraph II, which has been susperseded by the repeal of the British navigation laws In 1849 ; the effect uf which has been to open tho ports of Great Britain, and of all her colo- nial possessions abroad, to " goods of any sort, in a ship of any countr)-, from ony part of tho world." By an act of tho imperial Parliumeiit, entitled 1,1 Victoria, chap, xxlx., sees. 8, 4, 5, C, the Govcrnor-Oonoral of the East India possessions was clothed with full powers to admit, whenever ho aiiould deem it advisable so to do, to tho coasting trade in tho East Indies, tho ves- sels of all foreign nations. This privilege is now en- joyed by every flag. With these two exceptions, the convention of 1818 is still in full force, and constitutes the only guaranty which tho United States possesses of equal privileges with the most favored nation in its intercourse and commerce with the East India pos- sessions. Notwithstanding the express stipulations contained in tlie treaty above referred to, that the East India Company should prescribe no Togolations " Incon- sistent with any treaty now made, or which may be made, by Great Britain, with any nation in amitjr . ' ■« IND 1022 IND I with her," It haa, on more than one occasion, been represented to the Department of State that the ofQ- cera of thU Company do not consider themselves bound by the commercial treaties which exist between the United States and England." The dispatch from whicli the foregoing extract is taken further says, that " the speedy settlement of this question is deemed of paramount importance to the commercial interests of the United States," Ko case, however, having been presented to the Department, beyond the niilied asser- tion of the quasi independent sovereignty by the offi. cers of the East India Company, the necessity has not yet arisen for an examination of the grounds upon whicu this claim is based. As the question may, how- ever, hereafter embarrass the commercial relations of the United States with this portion of her Britannic majesty's possessions, it has been deemed proper to present the facts in relation to it, which have come to the linowledge of the Department. See Commercial Relations U. S. CoMMXaca or tde Unitrd Btatxs wrrn toe Bbitisu East Imdiks raoM OcToBiB 1, 1820, TO July 1 1886. Ywn eldlnf Eiporu. loiporti. Whtraof Ihira ww In Bullion and S|»el<. Tontu^ ClearM. Domeitle. Fonlri. ToUI. ToUl. Eiport. Import, Amerloftn. Forelpi. Sept. 80, 1821 182,088 $1,984,190 $1,966,279 $1,680,799 $1,884,949 8,027 1622 67,979 1,90^,865 2,086.344 8,272,217 1,980,876 8,847 1888 10,642 807.7.88 818,880 8,26^961 888,062 896 1824 «4,a54 927.718 962,070 441,967 782,886 .... 2,920 1826 206,450 794,629 991,079 1,766,494 666,623 4,124 18M 24,226 418,042 442,269 2,610,006 854,667 2,080 .... T827 82,717 1,019,788 1,061,450 669,066 872,188 2,490 «... 18S8 64,199 795,692 849,991 1,642,786 660,080 .... 8,441 .... 1829 89,070 477,629 646,699 1,229,569 297,801 8,050 . 1880 Total.... 93,731 658,128 646,957 1,878,297 160,641 $500 4,029 .... 1625,457 $9,195,880 $9,811,807 $17,492,692 $7,881,048 $500 89,298 Sept 80, 1831 tl82,442 $676,390 $807,982 $1,644,273 $486,027 ^ $82 6,481 181)2 189,218 839,286 628,4,^3 2,688,988 212,886 11,000 6,916 1883 180,156 199,848 824,999 1,882,059 90,910 2,700 6,785 19.14 199,602 206,941 406,643 2,298,012 147,825 872 6,655 .... 1886 864,417 8*9,641 754,058 1,697,893 529,123 • ■ ■ ■ 10,899 .... 1886 289,815 4-»,481 724,776 2,954,476 861,925 10,520 .... 1881 120„^91 82,907 203,669 8,041,9(2 18,950 1,290 8,487 .... IS.'iS 820,505 2.H402 679,907 676,.')81 279,921 .... 8,884 1839 246,845 887,597 694.412 2,185,162 891,72.'. 10,557 1840 Toul.... 2S0,4(a 861,791 682,196 1,952,461 815,007 1.697 6,742 t2,279,495 $8,266,269 $5,545,703 $20,608,687 $2,758,699 $17,641 78,816 Sept 80. IMl J,M2,8»4 $Wn,867 $903,201 $1,286,641 $878,650 $40 12,647 1842 899,979 2^8.925 6s8,S04 1,.'S80,861 202,1580 2,951 9,079 i.m 9mos. 1*48 237,5V6 140,186 377,712 689,777 87,839 , , 6,416 June 80, 1841 aSS,413 (W7,.TO 67,\966 892,792 274,107 60 10,479 .... 18« 297,831 I-Stoo? 4(1,399 l,276,.^34 76,168 > . . * 10,814 1946 270,600 99.772 870,872 1,861,846 78,920 1,479 10,979 706 184T S87,7.8.1 135,4,54 878.237 1,646,457 100,132 2,800 12,294 1848 610,2S4 1,'>6,715 666,999 2,069,6:12 66,298 • • ■ • 15,ii54 612 1M9 882,962 76,!<62 409,.'S24 2,036,254 249 21,020 827 1880 Total.... 602,613 150.946 $1,951,797 6')9,469 $.%61 1,672 2,695,010 85,400 .... 29,889 2,1.98 $8,659,975 $16,414,912 $l,'»-85,823 $6,820 186,970 4,942 June 80, \^\ (512,906 $17.''>.494 $699,390 $3,a86,835 $80,671 49,210 2.964 1842 605,189 89,360 604,199 4,225,041 550 .... 62,76:) 7,7.90 18B3 60.8,S'i6 6:!,M2 607,399 8,.V9I,726 45,727 60,461 6,809 1854 667,198 69.219 686,412 6,378,821 29,721 46,812 585 1865 714,119 199,144 912,26:) 6,457,878 6.'),424 .... 80,729 4,742 1866 691,998 75,631 767.629 7,0Wi,911 80,700 OS.a.Vi 9,482 The whole number of arrivals in the United States <>\rom the East Indies during the year 1856 were 2'2G. In 1855, 168. At Boston, 133 ; New Yorlt, 82 ; Sulcm, 7 ; Philadelphia, 2 ; Providence, 1 ; Savannah, I, At Boston, in 1856, 133. In 1855, 100. From Cal- cutta, 77 ; Manilla, 22 ; Cape Town, 9 ; Sin};a|>ore, 4 ; Padang, 4 ; Peuang, 2 ; Bataviu, 2 ; Mauritius via London, 1 ; Foo Cliow Fow, 2 ; Whumpoa, 1 j Ilong Kong via New Yorlt, 1 ; Padung via New Yorit, 1 ; Singapore via Rotterdam, 1 ; Canton, 1 ; Canton via London, 1 ; Sumatra, 1 ; Shongliae via Now Yorli, 1 ; Calcutta via London, 1, At New Yorlc, in 1850, 82 (of which 60 belonged to Boston and ports east of New Yorli). In 1855, 59, From Manilla, 15 ; Shunghae, 14 ; Singapore, 12 ; Foo Chow Fow, 9 ; Calcutta, ; Ilong Koug, G ; ^^1lalnpoa, u ; Penang, 5 ; Canton, 4 ; Calcutta via Loudon, 1 ; Foo Chow Fow via Havana, 1 ; Swatow via Ha- vana, 1. At Salom, in 1850, 7. In 1855, C. From Zanzibar, 6 ; Penang, 1 ; Manilla, 1. At Philadelphia, iu 1856, 2. In 1860, 4. From Cal- cutta, 1 ; Calcutta via London, 1. At Providence, 1 from Zanzibar. At Savannah, 1 from Calcutta y'xk Liverpool. Clearance). — The whole number of clearances in the 'United States for thi East Indies were 161. In 1865, 172. At Boston, 90 ; New York, 40 ; Salem, 8 ; New Orleans, G; Providence, 3j Philadelphia, 2; Balti- more, 2 ; Mobile, 2 ; Portland, 1 ; Newlmryport, 1. At Boston, in 1?56, 96. In 1855, 75. Fo"r Calcutta, 28 ; Batavln, 10 ; Cape Town, 14 ; Manilla, 6 ; Bom- bay, 5 ; Hong Kong, 4 ; Calcutta viii Buenos .\yrcs; 6 ; Madras and Calcutta, 8 ; Akyab, 3 ; Madras, 3 ; Sumatra, 2 ; Singapore, 4 ; Calcutta vii London, 2 , Calcutta vii\ Liverpool, 1 ; Zanzibar viii Providence, 1 ; Pedang, 1 ; Colombo, 1 ; Whampoa, 1. At New York, in 1856, 40 (of which 24 traded from Boston and ports east of New York). In 1855, 50. For Hong Kong, 9 ; Calcutta, 6 ; Shanghae, 4 ; Capo Town, 3 ; Canton, 8 ; Batavia, 2 ; Calcutta, viii Bue nos Ayres, 3 ; Sumatra, 2 ; Bombay, 2 ; Mauritius, 1 ; Sing- apore, 1 ; Anjier, 1 ; Akyab, 1 ; Slam, 1 ; Padang, I. At Salem, in 1850, 9. In 1855, 8. For Zanzibar, 7 ; Batavia, 1 ; Penang, 1. At Now Orleans, 6. Last year, 24. For Calcutta vi4 Liverpool, 5; Bombay viii Liverpool, 1. At Providence, 3 for Zanzibar. Last year, 1. At Philadelphia, 2. Last yuus 4. For Calcutta, 1 ; Manilla, 1. At Baltimore, 2 for Capo Town. L.'ist year, 8. At Mobile, 2 for Calcutta. Last year, 0. At Newlmryport, 1 for Calcutta. Last ye,ir, 0.- At Portland, 1 for Calcutta viii Buenos Ayres. Last year, 1. See Anna!) Brit. Leg., July, 1856, p. 25, " Territories Anaesed." IND 1038 IND 6 n 9 1,129 ;a 79 ..•• 14 The British East India poBsesstona ambrAW «n aW moat boundless extent of territory, e«tfi|td)ni{ tmn tllS Himalaya range of mountains cm tho north to tim ocean, including nearly the whole of the paiilMUMlA i)f Hindoostan, tho island of Ceylon, and that iwrtloit of Burmah lying between 20" of north latlttms (tlMltlm Bay of Bengal. These vast possessions wra sut)|Mi*f«t to contain a population of 162,000,000 iif souls, Tll8 Kast India Company's possessions comuriss t\w Mtvttmt presidencies of, 1st, the Bengal pre8filoni* to the United States are wool, oil-seeds, bidos, ni^dl< ilM al drugs, sandal-woods, gums, spices, horns, inill){o, ivory, coir, saltpetre. The prim'lpul export*) from \\m United States to the East Indies are, toliat'i'o, imvill stores, provisions, ice, and miscellaneous ntarvlmnilUf*, copper, pitch, tar, rosin, pine-lmards, and spurs, NuiH" ber of American vessels entered the port of CitlfiuttA in 1852, 65; tonnage, 3-l,840, Numtinr of vsshpIs cleared from Calcutta in the same year, 101 ) tonMll|4*', 69,340. In 1853, 109 vessels front the Unita4 HtitlMH entered tills port. See Calcutta, Hf.}mMi, mv\ Great Britain. Imports from Calcutta, 1851-18B3, Iii9fiinfi1i | vsllW of exports during tlie same |)eriod, tl,iuO,lii/!l j AjijiKr- ent balance against tlie United Htates, |:M,|Hn,ll7il, This heavy balance apparently against tjia (!nittrln)limtlM)i duties on all its manufactures, in favor of siniikr nwt= chandise imported from the mother country, Atnctl-- can vessels usually enter the ports of (^Jsluntt* find Bengal in ballast, for tho purpose of tal(in|$ lit H liom- ward cargo, Bombay. — Exports from Bombay the sanw »s from Calcutta. Tho samo description of nierelntniliso la im- ported from the United States. Tliu following MWffcet prices at Bombay will show tliat the artlclos s|Hit'|||)j|1 might enter advantageously into Aniorluan o>(|iort'<, not only to that port, but to the otiier ports in (lift East Indies : Copper slieathlng sells i«t uf) riiptois, iif $27 25 i)er cwt, ; duty, 10 per cent ; annual imports, 400 tons. Copper bolts sell at 50 rupees, or f 2<) ppr t'Wl,, duty, 10 per cent. ; annuil imports, 700 tons, I'lti'li, 4 rupees == $1 50 i)cr barrel ; annual Imports, lIHHI barrels ; duty 10 per cent. Tar, 1 rupBas -^ ifi fif f barrel ; annual imparts, 'J20 barrels ; duty, 10 \m ami, Tonnage duty in Boml)ay, 1-10 rupee, or mM[y (t cents per ton. T^ight-liouse dues on ships from iA' 20 rupees = from $7 50 to $10, according to tho mtdlFC of the cargo and time of tho year. The ruiieo is val- ued by Pope at 46 cents : consular returns front Itom-- bay value it at 60 cents. Pilotage is regulated by tlie season, Itlt4 U HA foU lows: Tll« folWIng (abia exlilldts tho trii4« of ttit t7nlt«d 8t«t«i! *lth the East Indies ganorally i tSA|/ort« to tml Indies ; l^W), |>«jni.(illo mannroctures iftKI,<*fi(( rofiHKd " mfiVt ISM. N,II» , , Tnt*! MT,l»« Importi tmn , , , «,jmi,7M "Vfueli of Fro m Se|il. to June. Frij Tons. 100— 800- 400— 500— 000— TOO— 80O- 900—1,000. 1,000—1,100. 1,100-1,200. 1,200— 1,800. 1,800—1,400. 1,400—1,800. 1,800—1.600. 800. 400. 600. 600. 700. 800. 900. I Kup "Er= llolla.a. 28 00 »v= ^t' K, = 27 28 m == 40 110 60 = 80 110 H.') - mth 68 = 82 28 9rt -^ 46 00 70 -= 38 00 m - 47 «6 78 = 8T28 too Aoim 60 = 40 00 108 - MW 88 = 42 28 11" - 6AINI 120 = 60 00 nft - Vt «6 180 = «8 no 188 ^- 77 1(6 140 = 70 00 tOfi - tettH IM = 78 00 176 - 17 1*8 160 = 80 00 m -- lit 170 = 65 00 196 -- Tho above rates are regulated by tha louitl uiiv^riu meat of the Company's possessions, and this pilots iiri* legulnrly licensed. See articles BoxRAir and Ft by ib« Aitlittie Afi'hipelngo and Australiii, lioimilxd fin thn itnnth lij' H 11(18 drawn from the V,a\m of (1ih»1 ||ii|m to Hniin' Mfrnlt, divlilfld from the Atlantic liy Afripu on the yttti, Mn\ Inclosed by the countries of Asia on tho north. It t from (h'tolier to April. Tempests are g«>n«rfil nt thn periods of chitn^a, and lietwaeii hit, 6^ tnd 40* t>. violent huf- ricnnen ffeiiuenlly occur. Zfldlada, one of the United HfA^* at Nitrth Amer^ icit, Is hounded east Ity the MtatA of Oiilo, south by the fliver (ihio, which separates it ffimi Kentucky, west by {llinois, from whicli It la partly separated hy the WnliHsh lllver, and north by Michigan nod l.nko Michigan. It lies between !I7<' 61' and MP 40' N, hit,, and HO" W and «H'' 2' W, hint?, VMmw length fi-oiii noftli to Boiith, 270 miles ( grsiitniit breadth, 176 inllei*- Area, 33,«0!i sfjuarn nilhis, llldlnti/i may be generally charact/ large sandy hills, which rise to a liei( is everywhere bealtliy. Dr. Owen, speak- ing of the geological position of Indiana, remarks, that "it posstjises all the elements of extraordinary' fer- tility." The richest soil is tliat of the river bottoms, where it is very deep and exceedingly fertile. The most productive are those inclosed by the river hills, v/hich run parallel to the Ohio and other rivers. The extensive valley of the Wabash is a tract of this de- scription. Behind the river hills, a table-land spreads out, forming what may be called the interior of the country, and here, instead of the bottom-lands, or river valleys, there are vast prairies. The soil of these is not so luxuriant, but is such as amply to repay the expense of culture. Evcq the wet and marshy parts of the State admit of being brought under culti- vation. Indiana ranks fourth of the States of the Union in the absolute amount of Indian com raised. It also produces large quantities of wlicat, oats, and Irish potatoes, as well as a fair proportion of the other productions common to the western States. The number of farms in Indiaua under cultivation In 1860 comprised 93,896 acres, and the extent of im- proved land was 5,016,5-13 acres; of unimproved, 7,746,879 acres. The value of the farms returned was $135,000,000. The orchard produce was estimated at 1322,000, and market-garden products, $71,000. The chief minerals of Iniliana are coal, iron, lime, marble, freestone, and some copper. Of these the flrst is by far the most important. It has been estimated that the coal beds of Indiana cover 7700 square miles, and are capable of yielding 50,000,000 bushels to the iquare mile. One coal deposit commences in Perr}' county, and extends north-west into the county of Vermilion upward of 150 miles. The manufacturing capital of Indiana in 1860 amounted to $7,941,602. The value of raw material, etc., consumed in the year had been $10,214,337. The products were valued at $18,922,651. There were on June 1, 1850, 4326 industrial establishments, producing annually to the value of $500 and upward. Of these, 2 were cotton factories, 23 woolen factories, 19 iron works, and 368 tanneries. Indiana has no direct foreign commerce, but it has a considerable transit trade, and exports large quanti- ties of agricultural produce. The facilities for inter- nal communication are great, and tspldly increasing. The principal canals are the Wsbaab an4 ^1« C/itm\ between Evansville, on the Ohio, and ToMw, un fwtiM Erie, 467 miles, of which 379 miles are fn Jiulimm i and the White Water Canal, 6M miles long, uniUnit T^awrcnceburg, on the Ohio, with llagernUtwi), tn 1853 the State had 756 miles of rtilrond ei)nn/U4i"1, and 979 in course of construction. The firimiimi fitiU roads centre in Indianapolis, and radiate from tUnt, # jty in all directions. See Db Bow's lien,, (,, fill, yjj 246; Bankers' Mag., ill., 164; UvuT'a AUr, M,,,,, xxi., 147. ' Indian Ink. A species of ink used (n VMiavm fin the lines and shadows of dra^tingn. It Is yf\nmiti\\f manufactured in Cliina, and there used P\m»» Ui im a compound of fine lampblack and sniiual nilU), ^«# Ikk. India-rubber. Also called cso<}t«boH«, (trH brought to Europe from South America, Mttvufftt plants produce various kinds of elastic: gmn ; hut thttt in commerce is chiefly the juice of the Slnlijmla /'HfiM^ tica, or syringe-tree. Incisions In tb« mrk nf tltU ' tree give vent to a liquid which forms UMli^uiiiinr, No substance is yet known which is so filMtU, Mn4 nt the same time so exceedingly elastic ; {t imfm fwt Uti' der the form of a vegetable milk, from ineiaUm^ mmU in the tree, and is gathered chiefly in tlw tfOM ttt f»)H, because it flows then most abundantly,—.!/, Aliufiiitf, The most astonishing and useful dtsu«v«r^ iif (ti^ 19th centur}', after the practical a\i\)\\i»t\i>n itf nittnm and electricity, is the employment of JndhMrMlftw fur manufacturing purposes. The flrct kni>wMi;N ti( l( is due to La Condamino, a French pbilijswjilMsr, mUii Itt 1730 was sent by his government to Vem to nwiwm an arc of the meridian. The tree whiet) ^lrf^4m'tli^ rubber or caoutchouc (as it is called by tlix Mtty#i> the operation of forming it into sha|ies uni imi>U\nf( it, This inost be done at once as the milk iOOH eimguhto^, A fire is made on the ground, of nuts of ttm Wf»«^>ii palm tree, over which Is placed, inverted, mt ««r(hti*l pot with a hole In the Ijottom wUeniJt issws m jH iif pungent smoke. Molds are made either itf i'-\tty iir wood, which are dipped into the milk, »n4 tlwf \miM of this nut, no other smoke producing » nUn'thf wffcH upon the gam. A lielt of forest trees »nt»fU\ersedcd. It is worth while, however, to IND 1026 IND remark, that tndigo did not make its way into general nse witliout encountering much opposition. The grotctrt of tooad prevailed on several governments to prohibit the use of indigo I In Germany, an imperial edict was puliliahed in 1654, prohibiting the use of indigo, or " devil's dye," and directing great care to be taken to prevent its clandestine importation, " be- cause," says the edict, " the trade in woad is lessened, dyed articles injured, and money carried out of the country I" The magistrates of Nuremberg went fur- ther, and compelled the dyers of that city to take an oath once a year not to use indigo ; which practice was continued down to a late period. In 1598, upon an urgent representation of the States of Languedoc, at the solicitation of the woad growers, the use of indigo was prohibited in that province ; and it was not till 1737, that the dyers of France were left at liberty to dye with such articles, and in such a way, as th^y pleased. — Beckmann, vol. iv., p. 142. Let not those who may happen to throw their eyes over this para- graph, smile at the ignorance of tlieir aneesters — Afu- tato nomine, de te fahula narratur. How much oppo- sition is made in most countries at this moment to the Importation of many important articles, for no better reasons than were alleged in the 16th ceiitur}- against the importation of indigo I Indigo is produced in Bengal, and the other prov- inces subject to the presidency of that name, from the SOtb to the 80th degree of north latitude ; in the prov- ince of Tinnevelly, under the Madras government ; in Java ; in Luconia, the principal of the Philippine Isl- nnjls ; and in Guatemala, and the Caraccas, in Central America. Bengal is, however, the great mart for in- digo ; and the quantity produced in the other places Is comparatively inconsiderable. Raynal was of opinion that the culture of indigo had been introduced into America by the Spaniards ; but this is undoubtedly an error. Several species of indigo/era belong to the New World ; and the Span- iards used it as a substitute for ink, ver}- soon after tlie conquest. (llvMiiOhm, Nouvelle JCymifne.) For the first '20 years after the English became masters of Bengal, the culture and manufacture of indigo, now of such importance, was unknown as a branch uf llrit- ish industry ; and the exportu were but trifling. The European markets were, at this period, principally supplied from America. In 1788, however, tlio atten- tion of the English began to be directed to this busi- ness ; and though the processes pursued by them be nearly the same with those followed by the natives, their greater skill, intelligence, and capital give tliem immense advantages. In their hands, the growth and preparation of indigo has become the most important employment, at least in n commercial point of view, which can be freely carried on in the country, the cul- ture and preparation of opium being a monopoly. The indigo made by the natives supplies the internal de- mand ; but a portion of that which is raised by them, with all that is raised l>y Europeans, is exported. In tiie Delta of the Ganges, where the best and largest quantity of indigo is produced, the plant lasts only for a single season, being destroyed by the periodical in- undation; but in the dry central and western prov- inces, one or two raltoon crops are obtained ; and owing to this circumstance, the latter are enabled to furnish a largo supply of reed to the former. Btatkuent of tbk Qkantitv aso Value or Indigo suirpen feom Calcutta in 1830 — 31, 1840—41, 1881—52. CoontriM. 18SO-3I. 1840-41. 1851 —M. Quantity. Valug. Quantity. Valts. Quantity. Valne. Great Britain Fy. niAundi. 86,741 28,151 6,899 10,089 660 248 "'88 RUMPA. 86,74,100 28,16,100 6,89,900 10,98,900 66,000 24,800 '8,360 Fy. maunda. 84,205 20,260 4,822 5,053 687 "iim 73( Knttees. 1,65,81,074 40.86.266 9,46,868 9,64,414 1,27,499 4'l',2M 15,775 Ind. maiinda. 80,679i 24,79 U 8,761) 6,887* 207} 'l',687) Kiipro. 1,27,18,127 89,6S,162 6,97.297 6,81,194 22,795 2,7's',961 ;Franc6 IXorth America, 1 Arabian aud Persian Gulft. .... fBwedeD Bremen Elsewboro. Total 1,26,566 9,444,24H 1,26,66,600 1, 15,268 ( 8,601,567J 2,27,11,602 l,17,604j 9,688,371 Ton*, cwtf. lb«. 4,800 12 27 1,82,10,536 Being In pounds . . " tons Shipped Ibr Britain onljr. . Ton*, cwte. ]bfl. 4,216 8 65) Tuoi. cwu. Ibl. 8,889 19 69} "'2,805 6 88} 2,866 8 861 2,965 8 95 It deserves to be remarked, that since the opening of the trade, Indian capitalists have betaken them- selves to the manufacture of indigo on the European method, and that at present a considerable part of the whole annual produce is prepared by them. The cul- ture of indigo is very precarious, not only in so far as respects the growth of the plant from j'ear to year, but also as regards the quantity and quality of the drug which the same amount of plant will afford even in the same season. Thus the produce or 1825-26 was 41,000 chests, while that of 1826-7 was but 25,000 chests; and in 1842 the produce was only 79,000 maunds, while that of the following year was no less than 172,249 maunds I The price of indigo in India, increased for a while, ir. a far greater ratio than the quantity In 1813-14, the real value of that exported from Calcutta was £1,41)1,000; but in 1827-28, al- though the quantity had increased but 20 per cent., the value rose to £2,920,000, or was about doulded. There was no corresponding rise in the price in Europe, but, on the contrary, a decline ; and the circumstance is to bo accounted for by the restraints that were then placed on the investment of capital in the production of colonial articles suited to the European market, the consequent difflcuUy of making remittances from In- dia, and an unnatural flow of capital to the only great article of Indian produce and «xport that was supposed capable of bearing its application. The consumption of indigo has varied but little in England during the last 10 years, having been, at an average of that pe- riod, about 2,000,000 lbs. a year. This stationary de- mand, notwithstanding the full in the price of the drug and the increase of population, is principally to be ascribed to the decreasing use of Idue cloth, in tlio dyeing of which it ia principally made use of. Its consumption in France is about as great as in Britain. Besides the exports to Great Britain, France, and the United States, a good deal of Bengal indigo is ex- ported to the ports on the Persian Gulf, whence it finds its way to southeni Russia. It is singular that it is not used by the Chinese, with whom blue is a favorite color. The indigo of Bengal is divided into two classes, called, in commercial language, Bengal and OuJe; the first being the produce of the southeni provinces of Bengal and Bahar, and the last that of their northern provinces and of Benares. The first is, in point of qualit}', much superior to the other. This arose at one time, in n considerable degree, from the practice wliich prevailed in the northern provinces, of the European planter purchasing the wet fecula from the liyot or native manufacturer, and completing the processes o; curing and drying the drug. This is at present in a great mcasuro discontinued ; and the OuOe indigo has, in consequence, considerably Improved in quality. Itf of a plant, and plante bleof worth £1,500 sary ( would fore, ■ affordi freque engagi that< Cult ment, first for it, 'f very 63 used to esteem are de] 12year taiaed. IND 1027 IND inferiority? ts probablj? more the result of goil and cli- mate, than of any difference in the sliill with which the manufacture is conducted. The following is believed to be a pretty accurate estimate of the annual production of indigo in India, in maunds of 82 lbs. : I>49. IMS. 1 1844. 1841. 1848. 1S41. 1848. 1 1841. list). 1851. Avtroge. Bengal Tlrhoot Bonares Oude Total.... MsuiKli, 42,120 12,810 18,980 ^(i90 thundi. 108,288 41,470 12,878 9,668 Maundv 97,046 28,482 16,869 6,860 Ibundi. 80,584 21,816 16,712 9,800 Maundi. 68,277 11,418 18,783 7,886 Maundi. 72,010 18,880 11,060 7,480 Minndi. 88,420 27,412 10,118 8,620 Mtuurti, 82,520 22,800 9,SS0 6,600 MHUtidi, 70.860 21,960 12,000 8,012 Mnundi. 74,(100 81,000 11,000 9,000 Mauiuli. 77,481 28,163 18,776 1 7,826 1 79,000 1 172,249 { 148,207 127,862 1 101,823 110,000 126,866 121,270 112,822 128,000 121,899 1 In addition to the exports from India, incUgo is ex- ported from Java, the Philippine Islands, Central Amer- ica, ond other places. In 1846 the exports from Bata- vta amounted to 1,663,869 lbs., and, we believe, they have varied but little in the interval. In 1860 the ex- ports from Manilla were estimated at about 460,000 lbs. According to Humboldt, 1,800,000 lbs. of indigo were exported fh>m Guatemala in 1825. But if so, its pro- duction must have fallen off greatly in the interval. It does not now probably exceed 600,000 lbs. in all Central America. Indigo is also produced in some of the West India islands, but in small quantities. Good indigo is known by its lightness or small specific grav- ity, indicating the absence of earthy impurities ; by the mass not readily parting with its coloring matter when tested by drawing a streak with it over a white surface ; but above all, by the purity of the color itself. The first quality, estimated by this last test, is culled, in commercial language, ^'ne blue ; then follow ordinary blue, fine purple, purple and violet, ordinary purple and violet, dull blue, inferior purple and violet, strong copper, and ordinary copper. These distinctions refer to the Bengal indigo only, the Oude being dis- tinguished only into ^ne and ordinary. The indigo of Madras, which is superior to that of Manilla, is aliout equal to ordinary Bengal indigo. The indigo of Java is superior to these. We subjoin an account of the prices of Bengal in- digo of medium quality, at thu quarterly sales in Lon- don, from 1847 to 1861, both inclusive : Yearn. February. Mav. July. f>ctob«r. >. d. 1. d. I. d. 1. d. 1861 6 2 6 2 4 10 4 4 1850 4 8 4 6 4 9 6 6 1849 8 9 4 4 4 1*18 4 1 8 7 8 6 8 7 1847 4 8 4 4 4 S 8 For further information as to indigo, see Colk- brooke'8 Ilutbandry of Bengal, p. 164 j Milbdrn's Orient. Com. ; Wilkinson's Commerce of Bengal ; Wilson's Review of do. ; evidence of Gillian Maclaine, Esq., East India Committee, 1830-81, etc. The fixed capital required in the manufacture of indigo consists cf a few vats of common masonry for steeping the plant, and precipitating the coloring matter ; a boiling and drj-ing-house ; and a dwelling-house for the planter. These, for a factory of 10 pair of vats, capa- ble of producing, at an average, 12,600 lbs. of indigo, worth on the spot about .£2500, will not cost above £1,50U sterling. The buildings and machinery neces- sary to produce an equal value in s- g;ar and rum, would probably cost about £4000. This fact, there- fore, without any reference to municipal regulations, affords a ready answer to the question which has been frequently put, why the planters in India have seldom engaged in the manufacture of sugar in preference to that of indigo. Cultivation of American Indigo. — At the present mo- ment, and for ihe past two years, the supply of the first quality indigo has not been equal to the demand for it, and that demand is constantly increasing. Some very excellent indigo, well adapted for making ch)'mic, used to l-e obtained from Guatemala, but the kind most esteemed is the first quality of Bengal, for which we are dependent on a colony of Great Britain. About 12 yearn ago the best Bengal indigo could easily be ob- tained, but at present it is almost unknown in the market. A spurious artii;lo, however, much resembling it, is abundant, but it does not possess one half the coloring matter of the genuine, and yet it is sold at a retail price var)-ing from Cs. to 149. per pound. Our object is to direct the attention of our southern plant- ers to the cultivation of the indigo plant, and the manufacture of the best kinds of indigo, for the infe- rior kinds are by far too plenty. About 60 years ago, and within that period, some very fine qualities of in- digo used to be cultivated in £.juth Carolina ; its char- acter was much higher than the finest Guatemala or the best Bengal, but it is now unknown in the arts, to the great regret of calico-printers, dyera, and leather- dressers. In the fermentation of the indigo-plant so much oxygen is absorbed, that its manufacture was found to be very injurious to the health of the negroes on the plantations. This was one reason for giving up its culture; and another, and perhaps the strongest, was the higher profits derived from the cultivation of cotton. It appears to us now, however, that with ex- ercise of sufficient care, the health of the negroes may be maintained as well as in the rice culture : also that the price which could now be obtained for it would be very remunerative. There are hundreds of persons in our country who would rather pay $2 per pound for tho best kind of indigo — that quality which wos manu- factured at one time in South Carolina, or the kind that was sold for tho best Beng.il 12 years ago — than that which is now sold for 75 cents per pound. We think these considerations ought to induce some of our planters to engage in the cultivation of the finest quali- ties of indigo. See Hunt's Jt/er. Mag., xiii., 227 ; Jour. ofSci., xviii., 237 ; Ency. Brit. Statement snowiso tub Expoets op Indioo feom toe UnrrED States for the Ykab ehdino Ju.ve SOtii, 1856. Whither eiport- Danish West Indies. Hamburg Bremen England Gibraltar Canada Other British North Amer. pus. British West Indies Canary Islands Cuba Turkey In Europe Ilaytl San Domingo Mexico Uruguay. Total From warehouse Not fW>m warehouse . 286 84,660 14,071 764 796 8 6,548 200 8,805 1,037 1,180 106 665 1,017 92,829 43,324 49,208 Val ue. $130 21,844 21,761 18,071 802 852 10 1,909 219 2,448 984 852 72 661 1,081 t70,866 140,842 80,324 Statement snowiHa the IsirOEis or Indioo into the United States fob the Yeae endino June 80tii, 1886. W^henpa Imported. Holland ... England Canada Other British North Amcr. pes.. British Honduras. British East Indies Philippine Islsuds. Cuba Mexico Central Bcpubllo Mew Qranada. Voucznela China. ToUl Founde. 261 608,198 890 224 42,629 622,108 407,899 408 1,000 1,928 6,610 146,370 176 1,732,290 "Van; 1194 868,278 845 138 82,211 416,122 123,421 462 1,028 1,484 4,867 116,198 10 I $1,068,748 IND 1028 IND ZndorMment— rAe law of /ndortment, and the Right! and Dutiet nf an Indorier. — Only a nolo or bill payable to a payee or order, Is, strictly speaking, sub- ject to indorsement. Those who write their names on the back of any note or bill, are indorsers in one sense, and are sometimes called so. The payee of a negotia- ble bill or note — whether he be also maker or not — may indorse it, and afterward any person, or any num- ber of persons may indorse it. The maker promises to pay to the payee or his order ; and the indorsement is an order to pay to the indorsee, and the maker's prom- ise is then to him. But if the original promise was to the payee or order, this "or order," which is a negoti- able element, passes over to the indorsee, and he may Indorse, and so may his indorsee, indefinitely. Eacli indorser, by his indorsement, docs two tilings ; first, he orders the antecedent parties to pay to his indorsee ; and next, he engages with his indorsee that if they do not pay, he will. What effect an indorsement of a ne- ^tiable note or bill, by one not payee, before the in- dorsement by payee, should have, is not quite certain. Upon the whole, however, we should hold, with some reason and authority, that where such a name appears, .IS it may be made to have the place of a second in- 'lorser whenever the payee chooses to write his name over it, it shall be held to be so intended, in the ab- sence of evidence ; and then, of course, it gives the payee no claim against such a party, because a first indorser can have none against a second, but the sec- ond may have a claim against the first. But evidence is receivable to prove that the party put his name on the note for the purpose of adding to its security, by liecoming responsible for it to the payee. And then, if he indorse the note before it was received by the puyoe, the consideration of the note attaches to him, and he may be |ield either as surety for consideration !>r as a maker. If he wrote his name on the note af- ter it was made, and, at the request of the payee or other holder, he is bound only as a guarantor or surety, and the consideration of the note being exhausted, he is bound only by showing some new and independent consideration. No one who thus indorses a note not ne- gotiable can be treated or considered precisely as a second indorser, whatever be the names on the paper before his own ; but any indorser of such a note or bill may be held to be a new maker or drawer, or a guarantor or surety, as the circumstances of the case Indicate or require ; but either the origiml considera- tion or a new one must attach to him to affect hlra with a legal oliligation. If the words " to order," or " to Iwarer," are omitted accidentally and by mistake, it seems they may be af- terward inserted without injury to the bill or note ; and whether a bill or note is negotiable or not, is held to be a question of law. By the law-merchant, bills and notes which are payable to order can be effectually and fully transferred only by indorsement. This in- dorsement may be in blank or tn full. The writing of the name of the payee — either the original payee or an indorsee — with nothing more, is an indorsement in blank, and a blank indorsement makes the bill or note transferable by the delivery, in like manner as if it had originally been paid to bearer. If the indorse- ment consists not only of the name, but of an order above the name, to pay the note to some specified per- son, then it is an indorsement in full, and the note con be paid to no one else ; nor can the property in it be fully transferred, except by the indorsement of such indorsee ; and ha may again indorse it in blank or in full. If the indorsement is paid to A B on/y, or its equivalent words, A B i^ indorsee, ! ut can not Indorse it over. Any holder for value of a bill cr note indorsed in blank, whether he be the first indorsee or one to whom it ha* come through many hands, may write over any nam* indorsed an onier to pay the contents to himself, and this makes it a special indorsement, or an indorse- ment In fun. This is often done for security, that is to guard against the loss of the note by accident or theft. For the rule of the law is, that negotiable paper, trans- ferable by delivery (whether payable to bearer or in- dorsed in blank), is, like money, the property of who- ever receives it ^ good faith. The same rule liax been extended, in England, to exchequer bills, to pul)- lic bonds payable to bearer, and to East India ))onds ; and we thinit it would extend here to our railroad and other corporation bonds ; and, perhaps, to all such in- struments as are payable to bearer, whether scaled or not, and whatever they may be called. If one has such an instrument, and it be stolen, and the thief passes it for consideration to a bonA fide holder, this holder acquires a legal right to it, because the property and possession go together. But if the bill or note be specially indorsed, no person can acquire any property in it, except by the indorsement of the special indorsee. It is said, however, that this precaution protects only t''e party who has thus made himself a special indorsee, and that the former parties remain liable in the same way as if the indorsement continued blank. At one time this acquirement of property in negoti- able paper was defeasible by want of proof or care j that is, if a holder lost his note, and a thief or finder passed it off to a honi fide holder, the property did not puss, if the circumstances were such as to show neg- ligence on the part of the purchaser, or a want of duo inquiry. But this question of negligence seems now to be at an end, and nothing less than fraud defeats the title of the purchaser. The written transfer of negotiable paper is called an indorsement, because it is almost always written on the back of the note , but it has its full legal effect if written on the face. Joint paj'ees of a bill or note, who are not partners, must all indorse. An indorser may always prevent his own responsibility by writing " without recourse," or othir equivalent words, over his indorsement; and any bargain between the in- dorser and indorsee, written or oral, that the indorser shall not be sued, is available against that indorsee, but not against subsequent indorsees, without notice. A bill or note may bo indorsed conditionully, and nn acceptor of a bill so indorsed, who paid it before such condition is satisfied or complied with, has been held to pay It again after the condition is performed. Every indorsement and acceptance admits conclu- sively the signature of everj- party who has put his name upon the bill previously in fact, and is also pre- vious in order. Thus an acceptance admits the sig- nature of the drawer, but not the signature of one who actually indorses before acceptance, because ac- ceptance is in its nature prior to indorsement. If a holder strike ont an indorsement by mistake, he may restore it ; if on purpose, the indorser is permanently disoharged. If the plaintiff, in his declaration, de- rives his title through all the previous indorsements, all must be there, and proved. But a holder may bring bis action against any prior indorser, and fill any blank indorsement, specially to himself, and sue ac- cordingly; but then he invalidates subsequent indorse- ments. The reason is, that ho takes from them all right to indorse; thus, for example, if A makes a note to B, and B, C, D, £, and F, indorse it in blank, and G, the holder, writes over C's name, " pay to G," it is as if C had written this himself, and then G only, could indorse, and, of course, D, E, and F could not, as they were meio strangers. And a holder precludes himself flrom taking advantage of the title of any party whose indorsement is thus voided. Nor can be strike out the name of any indorser prior to that one whom he makes defendant ; for, bj' so doing, he deprives the defendant of his right to look to the party whose name is stricken out, and this discbarges the defendant. On* mav niake • note or bill payable to his own order, and -ilone it in blanli; and this if novr very to a I and ( able i it. and ored, indors bill ( liands A transfc action bill or the ba; no trai to the ignorai After should indorse livcred deliver or note riagc, 1 a bill , mandec ment of technici and defi by indo Parso> articles Kkm'( ^ag., V, IND 1020 IND that Is to or tlieft. er, trans- iror or in- )• of yrho- rule hi\H Is, to pul)- lia bonds ; Uioad and II such in- r scaled or If one has . the thief lolder, this da property or note l)e ly property al indorsee, ■elects only iai indorsee, in the same ly in negotl- [Jof or care ; lief or finder jorty did not to show neg- want of due :e seems now fraud defeats jr Is called an •8 written on legal effect if llor note, who indorser may y by writing it words, over tween the in- it the indorser that indorsee, rithout notice. )nnUy, and an it before such has been held formed, ulmits conclu- 10 has put his lud is also pre- iiduiits the sig- jnature of one ce, because ac- rscment. If a listake, he may is permanently leclaration, de- indorsements, a holder may ser, and fill any If, and sue ac- «quent indorse- from them all if A makes a rse it in blank, pay to G," nd then G only, id F could not, lolder precludes ho title of any ided. Nor can aer prior to that by 80 doing, he ook to the party discharges the able to his own in now very eoninon In oar commercial cities, becanse the holder of such a bill or note can transfer it by delivery, and it needs not his Indorsement to make It negotiable fur- ther. A transfer by delivery, without Indorsement, of a bill or note payable to bearer, or indorsed in blank, does not generally make the transferrer responsible to the transferroe, for the payment of the instrument. Nor has the transforree a right to fall back, in case of non-paj-ment, upon the transferrer, for the original consideration of the transfer. If the bill were trans- ferred In good faith, in exchange for money or goods ; for such transfer would bo held to be a sale of the bill or note, and the purchaser takes it with all risks. Btt It seems not to bo so where such a note is delivered either in payment or by way of security for a pre- viously existing debt. Then If the transferrer has lost nothing by the reception of the note by the trans- ferrco— because if ho had contlnaed to hold the note, he would have lost it — there seems to bo no reason why the transferree should lose it. We have no doubt that such a transferrer may make himself liable, without indorsement, by express contract ; and that circumstances might warrant and require the implica- tion that the bill or note so transferred remained, by the agreement and understanding of both parties, at the risk of the transferrer. And every such transfer- rer warrants that the bill or note (or bank-note) Is not forged or fictitious. An indorsement may be made on the paper before the bill or note is drawn ; and such indorsement, says Lord Mansfield, " is a letter of credit for an indefinite sum, and it will not lie In the indorser's mouth to say that the Indorsements were not regular." The same rule applies to an acceptance on blank paper. So, an indorsement may be made after or before acceptance. If made after a refusal of acceptance, which is known to the indorsee, he takes only the title of the indorsor, and is subject to all defenses available against him. A bill or note once paid at or after maturity ceases to be negotiable, in reference to all who could be preju- diced by Its transfer. So, where a bill drawn payable to a third person, by wliom It is indorsed. Is dishonored and taken up by the drawer, it ceases to be a negoti- able instrnment ; for tho drawer has no title to indorse it. But if one draw a bill payable to his own order, and indorse It over, and, upon the bill being dishon- ored, take It up, he may indorse It again, and this last indorsee can recover against the acceptor. And if a bill or note Is paid before it is due, it is valid in the hands of a subsequer. - honifide Indorsee. A portion of a negotialile bill or note can not be transferred so as to give the transferree a right of action for that portion in his own name. But if the bill or note be portly paid, it may be indorsed over for the balance. If an action b- brought on a bill or note, no transfer during the peniency of such action gives to tho transferree a right of action, unless he was ignorant of the action; then the transfer is valid. After a hol'er's death his perconal representative should transi'er. But it seems that If a note needing Indorsement was indorsed by the holder, but not de- livered, the executor can not complete tho transfer by delivery. The husband who acquires a right to a bill or note given to the wife, either before or after mar- riage, may Indorse. One who may claim payment of a bill or note, and of whom paj-ment may also be de- manded, or one who is liable to contribute for the pay- ment of a note, can not sue upon it. But if only the technical rule— that the same party can not he plaintiff and defendant — prevents the action, in may be avoided by indorsement over to another before maturity. — Parsons' Elements of Mercantile Law, ch. ix. See articles Bills op Exchange; Story on Bills; Kent's Commentariu on American Law; Banker's Mag., vols, v., vi., vli. ; En. Brit., article KxcnANOB ; BAyunr on Bittt; Manmljbr Notaries Publie. Indna. This great river of Asia haa Its riao In Thibet, at the north of the Kailaa mountain, regarded In Hindoo mythology as the mansion of the gods, in about lat. 82°, long. 81° 80'. It first Ukes a north- westeriy direction for about 4C0 miles, when it is joined by the river of Dras, which, rising In the mount»in« of Cashmere, and receiving several streams both from the east and west, discharges a considerable volume ol water at Its confluence. At Makpon-I-Shagaron, in lat. 86° 48', long. 74° 80', the Indus emerges from the mountainous region, and turning south (a course which It thenceforth continues to tlio sea), takes it." way through the country north of Attock. Close above this last-mentioned town, and at the distance of 870 miles from its source, tho Indus receives on the western side the great river of Cabool. Both rivers have a large volume of water, and as they meet amid numerous rocks, the confluence is turbulent, and at- tended with great uproar. The town of Attock Is sit- uate alwut 1000 feet above the sea-level, and about 17,000 feet below the source of the Indus, which falls, therefore, 16,000 feet In 870 miles, or at tho average rate of about 19 feet per mile. The length of its channel from Attock to the sea Is 942 miles, and, con- sequently, in that lower part of its course, it falls little more than 1 foot per mile. For about 10 miles below At- tock, the river, though In general rolling between higli cliff's of slate rock, has a calm, deep and rapid current ; but for 100 miles farther down to Kalubagh, It becomes an enormous torrent. Lieutenant Wood, describing; this section of its course, observes, " It here rushes down a valley, varying from 100 to 400 yards wide, between precipitous banks from 70 to 700 feet high." From Kalabagh southward, to Mittunkote, distant about 860 miles, the banks, either right or left, are In several places so low, that the first rise of the river covers the country round with water, extending, as the inundation advances„as far as the eye can reach. On entering the plain, the water loses its cleames^l. and becomes loaded with mud. Two or three mllcf below Mittunkote, and about 490 miles from the sea, the Indns receives the waters of the Punjnud, the channc'. which conveys the collected stream of the Punjauli. Above the confluence, the breadth of the Indus is le-is than that of tho other river, but In consequence of the greater depth and velocity, the former has the greater volume of water. Wood found that the Indus, near the confluence, had a breadth of 608 yards, a vcloclt\ of about five miles an hour, a depth of 12 or 16 feet, and discharged 91,719 cubic feet per second. The Punjnud had a breadth of 17G6 yards, a velocity of about two miles an hour, a depth of 12 or 16 feet, and discharged 68,965 cubic feet p:r second. Below the junction, the Indus in its lowest state is 2000 yards wide. Its aspect in this part Is well described ty Major Boileau. lie says, " At tho place where we crossed the Indus, almost immediately below its junc- tion with the Punjnud, its stream is 2047 yards, or nearly a mile and a quarter in breadth, at a place where its width is unbroken, either b}- islands or sand- banks. The banks arc very low, and the water very- muddy, having just began to rise from the melting snow at its sources, nor Is the stream of very great depth, except in tho main channel ; but with all these drawbacks, it is a miignificcnt sheet of water, a very prince of rivers." Below Mittunkote, the river passes In succession the towns of Sukknr, Bukkur, Sehwan, Hyderabad, and Trlecal. Tho last mentioned of these towns is situate in lat. 26° 9', long. 68° 21', and here the delta commences ; all the country below it, and contained between the Fulailee branch on the east, and the extreme western bram 'i of tho river, being, with little exception, alluvial, and obviously deposited by the stream. At about five miles below Tatta, ami 60 miles from the sea, the Indus divaricates into two great branches, the Buggaur, which flows westward, and the Sata, which maintains the previous course ul INK 1030 INK the Indas southward, and la, in atrictneas, the contin- iiutiun of that river. The lower part of tlia delta is intersected liy rlvfra and creeka in almost every direc- tion, like the delta of the UungeH ; but it so fur dilTera from the latter, that it haa no trees on its surface, the liry parts being covered with brushwood, and the re- mainder, by much the largest part, l>eing noisome swampa or muddy lakes. It is remarkable that the influence of the tides is not felt at a greater distance than UO or 65 mileen estimated, at the rate of four miles an hour, tliough varying greatly at different places. From the sea up to Ily- ilerabad, the Indus is in general about a mile in iiraadth, varying in depth from two to live fathoms. I'he river begins to swell in the middle of July, from the melting of the snow, and continues to Increase until the end of August. The most eastern of the tistuaries connecteu with the Indus is the Koree Mouth, from which, proceeding westward, the remain- mg creeks or estuaries most worthy of notice, occur In tile following order: The Seer, Mull, Kaha, Kooke- wurreo, Kedywarree (discharging the waters of the Satu), Ilujamree, Jooa, Durbar, Pitteoanee, Coondee, Pitty, and Glzree. The spring-tide rises nine feet. The length of the navigable part of the river from the sea to Attock, has been ascertained by measurement to be 942 miles, that of the upper part is about 870 miles, making a total length in round numbers of 1800 miles. The average c'eclivity of the water-course from the locality of the source to Attock is, per mile, 19 feet ; from Attock downward to Kalubagh, a dis- tance of about 110 miles, it is 20 inches ; from this place to Mittunkote, a distance of about 850 miles, it Is eight inches, and thence to the sea six inches. Tiie Indus appears destined to become an important channel of commercial comniunication.-,-E. T. Ingot, a mass of gold or silver melted down and I'ust in a mold, but not coined or wrought, A large portion of the gold received from California at Now Vork is put into tbb shape for more convenient ex- l)ort. Ink (Du. Ink, Inlt ; Fr. £ncre i Ger. £>inte ; It. litchiottro; Lat. Atramentum ; Rus. Ttchemilo ; Sp. Tinta ; Sw. Jihk). Every liquor or pigment used for n-riting or printing is distinguished by the name of ink. Common practice knows only black and red. Of black there are three principal kinds: 1. Indian ink ; 2. Printers' ink ; and 3. Writing ink. The In- dian ink is used in China for writing with a brush, and for painting upon the soft flexible paper of Chinese manufacture. It is ascertained, as well from experi- ment as from information, that the cukes of this ink are made of lampblack and size, or animal glue, with the addition of perfumes or other substances not es- sential to its quality as an ink. The ftne soot from the flame of a lamp or candle received by holding a plate over it, mixed with clean size from the 8hre .' ni, when dried, is very brilliant, and when to be u . ^ an ink, may be mixed up with a little gum water. After tho writing hecomea dry, it should be burnished with a woirs tooth, r Ink is prepared In the same manner. Indelible ltd: — A very good Ink, capable of restating chlorine, oxalic acid, and ablution with a hair pencil or sponge, nui}- be made by mixing some of the Ink made by tho preceding prescription, with a little gen- uine China ink. It writes well, litany other formulas have been given for Indelible inks, hut they aro all In- ferior in simplicity and usefulness to tho one now pre- scribed. Solutloii of nitrate of silver thickened with gum, and written with upon linen or cotton cloth, pre- viously imbued with a solution of soda, and dried, la the ordinary permanent ink of the shops. Before the cloths are washed, the writing should be exposed to tho sunbeams, or to bright daylight, which blackens and lixoN the oxyd of silver. It is easily discharged by chlorin and ammonia, A good ^lermanent ink may be made by mixing a strong solution of chlorid of platinum with a little potash sugar, and gum to th'cken. The writing made the'ewith should be passed over with a hot smoothing iron to tlx it. By decomposing vanadate of ammonia with infu- sion of galls, a liquid is ol>taincd of a perfectly black hue, which flowa freely from tho pen, la rendered blue by acida, ia insoluble in dilute alkalis, and resists the action of rhiorin. Whenever the metal vanadium shall become more abundant, as it probably may ore long, we shall posses" the means of making an ink, at a moderate price, much superior to the tannate and gallate of iron. To prepare the above vanadic salt cheaply, the cinder or hammerschlag obtained from the Iron made at Kkersholm, in Sweden, or other iron which contains vanadium, being reduced to a line pow- der, is to be mixed with two thirds of its weight of nitre, and one third of effloresced soda. The mixture ia to be ignited in a crucible ; cooled and lixiviated, whereby solutions of tho vanadates of ])otash and soda are obtained, not pure, indeed, but sulliciently ao for being decomposed, by means of sal ammoniac, into a vanadate of ammonia. This being rendered nearly neutral with any acid, constitutes an excellent indeli- ble ink. Indelible Ink may be prepared by adding lampblack and indigo to a solution of the gluten of wheat in acetic acid. This ink is of a beaut'ful black color, at the same time cheap, and can not b' 'emoved by water, chlorin, or dilute acids. M. Herbt-ger gives the fol- lowing directions for its preparation : Wheat-gluten ia carefully freed from the starch, and then dissolved in a little weak acetic acid ; the liquid ia now mixed with so much rain water that the solution has about the strength of wine vinegar, i, e ,, neutralizea 1-16 of its weight of carbonate of soda, 10 gi-a. of the best lamp- black and 2 grs. of indigo are mixed with 4 nzs, of the solution of gluten, and a little oil of cloves added. This ink may be employed for marking linen, as it does not resist mechanical force, Ink, indelible, of Dr. Traill, ia essentially the same as the above. French indelible ink consists of Indian ink dilTuaed through dilute muriatic acid, for writing with quills, and through weak potash lye for writing with steel pens. Xed Ink. — This ink may ■..'« made by infusing, for three or four days in weak vinegar, Brazil wood chip- ped into small pieces ; the infusion may be then boiled upon the wood for an hour, strained, and thickened slightly with gum arable and sugar, A little alum improves tho color. A decoction of cochineal with a Uttia water of ammonia, forms a more beautiful red of the same kind may be made by dissolving carmine In weak water of ammonia, and adding a little mu- cilage, (.Veen Ink — According to Klaproth, a line Ink of this color may be prepared by liolling a mixture of two parts of verdigris In eight parts of water, with one of cream of tartar, till the total bulk bo reduced one half. The solution muet be then passed through a cloth, cooled, and bottled for use. Yellow Ink Is made by dissolving 8 parts of olum In 100 of water, adding ii5 parts of Persian or Avignon berries bruised, boiling the mixture for an hour, straining the liquor, and dissolving it in 4 parts of gum arable, A solution of gamboge in water forms a convenient yellow ink. By examining the dilfcrent dye-stuffs, and consider- ing the processes used in dyeing with them, a variety of colored Inks may be made. China /nX:,— Proust says, that lampblack purlfled by potash ley, when mixed with a solution of glue, and dried, formed an. Ink which was preferred by artists to that of China. M. Merim6e, In hia intereat- Ing treatise, entitled De. lapeintiire b, I'huile, says, that the Chinese do not use glue in the fabrication of their ink, Init that they add vegetable julcea, which render It more brilliant and more indelible upon paper. When the best lampblack Is levigated with tho purest gela- tine or solution of glue, it forms, no doubt, an ink of a good culor, but wants tho shining fracture, and Is not so permanent on paper as good China ink ; and It stiffens in cold weather Into a tremulous jelly. Qlue may be deprived of the gelatinising property by boil- ing it for a long time, or sul>jecting it to a high liieat In a I'apin's digester; but as ammonia is apt to be gener- ated in this way, M, Merlmie recommends starch gum made by sulphuric acid (British gum) to be used In preference to glue. He gives, however, the following directions for preparing this ink with glue. Into a solution of gluo he pours a concentrated solution of gall-nuts, which occasions an elastic resinous-looking procipitato. IIo washes this matter with hot water, and dissolves It In a spare solution of clarified glue. He filters anew, and concentrates it to the proper de- gree for being incorporated with the purlfled lamp- black. The astringent principle in vegetables does not precipitate gelatin when its acid is saturated, aa is done by boiling tho nut-galls with lime-water or magnesia. The first mode of making the ink is to be preferred. The lampblack ia said to be made in China, by collecting the amoko of the oil of sesame. A little camphor (about 3 per cent,) has been detected in the ink of China, and is supposed to improve it. Infusion of galls renders the ink permanent on paper. Sympathetic Ink. — The best is a solution of muriate of cobalt. Printers' Ink. See Ure's Diet, for full details. Blue Ink. — Mr, Stephens's patent blue ink Is made by dissolving Prussian blue in a solution of oxalic acid. The blue should be washed in dilute muriatic acid. M. Homung has given the following aa tho boat formula for blue ink: Mix 4 parts of perchlorid of iron, in solution, with 7'60 parts of water, then add 4 parts of cyanid of potassium dissolved in a little wa- ter; collect the precipitate formed; wash it with sev- eral additions of w.^^er ; allow it < o drain until it weighs about 200 parts ; aud to this 1 p^rt of oxalic acid, and promote the solution of the cyanid by shaking the bottle containing the mixture. Tlie addition of gUm and sugar is useless, and even appears to exercise a prej- udicial effect on the beauty of the ink. It may be kept without any addition for a long time. — Urg's Dictionary nf Manufactures. See Indian Ink, Inkle, a sort of broad linen tape, principally manu- factured at Manchester and some other towns in Lan- cashire. INS 1033 INS Inlaid worlc. Th«ra am m*ny pretty and rarlad klndi of inUld work manufactured frnm KiniiU fk'agiii«nt« of miltodal, Ther* in the Mnrqurtrie (ir inlaid caliinet- fumiture of France, conaintinK In inlnylnK wood* ot a great variety of tinta, In the form of flowera, omamenti, etc. The liuhl, or linul-wnrk, I* alio nf Krench Inven- tion, wherein metuli are Inlaid upon a ground of oliony orturtnlne-shell. The elalwrute fierman cnliinets, madu of olmny, aro inlaid with precioun ittonea and vuriouH woods and metaln. There in tiie Motatc inlay, in which the piocea inluid are extremely small, und of which ex- quisite hnxes ore mode by the Hindoos ; witness, too, the marvelous Spanish table at the (Ireat Kxhibitlon of London In 3,000,000 of pieces. The Parijiitlrie, or inU:d flowering, which difTera from Marquetrie chiefly in the Iwldar scale of the designs ; woods of different colors being cut to pattern, and inlaid, There is the novel and beautiful process nf inlaying articles of fur- niture with iMirccluin ; the inlaid portions are rot merely pannelh and pilasters, liut painted (lorceliiiM flowers and other ornaments. The I'ieira Dura is a kind of art curried to great peifection in Tuscany : its cultivtion in that country has for a long |)criod sup- fWeA .. 't of the palaces of Kiirope with works in pietra dura, which rank among the finest examples of decorative furniture. InaoWenoy and Bankruptcy. The flrst In- solvent Act in Kngland was passed In 10-19, but It was of limitets are less than X8()(), may petition the Court of Bankruptcy, and propose composition, and have pro tern, protection from all pro- cess against their persons and property, 6 Vict., 1842, Act amended, 8 Vict., August, 1844.— Hatdn. Bankruptcy. — Biockstone defines a bankrupt — " A trader who secretes himself, or does certain other acta tending to defraud his creditois." But an intention to defraud is not now held to be cs.sentlal to constitute a bankrupt ; who may be either simply an Insolvent, or a person who la guilty of certain acta tending to de- fraud his creditors, ISSOLVKNCV, — Analysis of the Laws of bankruptcy. — In Groat Britain, insolvency is applied to every clots of persons, while bankruptcy is exclusively applied to traders. In foreign countries, insolvency is the general denomination. Bankruptcy is declared when there Is ony degree of criminality. The law of bankruptcy of England is consolidated In the 12 and 13 Vict., c. 100. In America, various attempts were made for a general enactment for ull the States, but with no success. The act of Congress on the subject, { " 1 in 1841, was re- pealed in 1843. Special insolvency laws exist, of which an abstract i* given hereafter. In Scotland, the bankrupt law is Included in the 2 and 3 Vict., chap, 41, The French law of the 28th of May, 1838, has modified the Code of Commerce of 1807, Article 437 permits declaration of the insolvency of a trader after his df ceare. The law of Scotland authorizes the seques- tration of estates of a deceased debtor. The same ii permitted in Portugal. In England a Court of Bank- ruptcy is instituted, which may adjudge the creditor a bankrupt. In Scotland the same is placed with the Lord Ordinar}-, In France the same authority Is given to the tribunal. Acts of bankruptcy may be committed In England in various ways. All acts made previous to adjudication of bankruptcy are valid, if they are entered into ioni fide on the part of the cocttfictlng party. In Fnince, the following acts, made within 10 daya preceding the opening of the in- solvency, are void: 1st, Acts transferring property gratultnuily i Id. Paytnalil of dalits not due, and of tlioaa dua anttled otliKrwiiMi than with rommnrrlal ef- foc»jj Hd. All uiortgHgna, antlclirioe, or awurlty, nin- sentad to fur aniarliir dalita | and, laatlv, »ll acts what- ever made by the dabtiir with a tlilnl party wlio was cognliant of hU having BluptHid (Hiyment. Artiiies 63 to Al of tha Pruanlun I'lidn contain also alMillar In- structions, Tliii Nimnlsh i'oiIm IIhus IMI days | the I'or- tugueae coiIk, '10 iliiva | tlm Dillch cm, n, two ninnlhi previous to tha inaolvmiry ua tli« time during wlilch tha Inaidvent could Miit allanutn hia property gratui- tously, or endow hi* clilldrnn, or transfer nr tnortgnge his real eatatn, The Duti'h cinlu daidiiraa void tha donations ninde by the Inaolvant ut uiiy llm» whnm h« knew his affulrs uinbarraaaud, although th« donuten Wua hnnAfiilr. Tlin Ruasian code prolillilta llin wIPii and children of the In- aolvent to recinlni tliu ilnnutlniia mads to them. Ily Articlu MM, lliii priipttrty t'ngagml by the Inanivent, and not yet sulci, nuiy lin riMlit an Interim fhitor nnd ii trustee, and also three uoninilaaliiiiiira, hi France, thn agents cre- ated liy the cmla 1NII7 liavn lieen suppreaaed, and at priment them are no morn than iimvlaliinarv nsslgnoea, who copllnuM their fiinelliin* till the conlirniatlon of the setliuinent, or till tli« fiirttintlon of the contract of union, 'I'hii Triliuiml of ( -'ommnrcn of I'arls haa formed u fixed number of iiaalgneea, to whom Is conflded the maniigement of nil liaiikruptelna, In Hpalii, the IrlliiinMl dealgnatna a commiaaloner, noiulnaliia a trunti « for llin proiierty of the Inaidvent, and calls the cMdltora, who ciiiuisn anmn assignees, who are to lia taken from among the creditnrs, or their atioriiKya, In Knglnnd, thn coinmlaaloners of bankruptcy urn juilgea, •iFi'etnd by tho l.ord Chancel- lor, one fur eucli dlalrlet, All Inglalalton provides for tiie remuneration of tli" iiaalgnena, trualeea, or adiniii- istrutora ; those remunitratlona urn flxed liy Art. Mtm, Spanish code, J'ortugtiKsn eoile, Kuaalan code, etc., etc, eitlier upon a ileterttiliied share, or the receipts wliich they have ntali/.ed, or liy remuneration, valued by the tribunal, Tha Hpiiiilali In prolilbta an attorney from repreaenting morn llmii onn creditor | and the Portu- guese code pridillilta it crndltor from representing an- other creditor at Ilia meetings, In order that an liiaolvettt may obtain a settlement, there need bu, In l''riiiieii ntid In Itussia, a tnajnrity nf tlie creditor* and tliran fourth* of the debts. In Scot- land, u majority and lliren fifths of tho delita. In Spain, one mora tiMiii tlm half of rredltora and three liftlis of the debts, Tlm wlfn of tho iaaolvent has no deiiberativu voice timrit III tlm resolutions relative to the settlement, In llollnnd, In Portugal, In Wurtcm- burg, and according to tlm onlltmnco of Bllboa, the two third* of ordinary creditor* and three fourths of debts, or the tlireu l^iiirtli* of the creditors and two third* of the delita imial Im added toguther, Tlie Prus- sian code, which divide* tlm creditors Into six clas.scs, exacts the majority un *utii ntiil clasaea i In case of di- vision of claaaaa, tlm aelttcmetit may bo adopted liy the one und rejected by iiiiotlmr i but if tho division is Impracticable, tlm lUelarntlott nf division shall be equivalent then to a refusal, With respect to the confirmation, Iwtli In Franca nnd In Spain, it can only be pronounced eight day* after Ilia settlement iias been nlitained. The (tisietttlng creditor*, according to tlic Spaniiih coda, can not form oppoaltlnn tu It, unless on occount of defects In the foriMs of calling the meet- ings, on account of culluslon, ur of want of legitimate rights In the partht* voting, or of fraudulent exaggera- tion of their debt* | ami In Holland, when the assets exceed the sum eiiterad in thn settlement. The Dutch coila and the French law render the conflmiation obligatory u[Km all tbe orvditon both abacnt and INS 1083 TNS pNNiit, Md (rtn upon thoi* who have nnt b«en calM. Tb« rlRhtu of fflralKn creditnra ara f(en«rally r«KU- Utad by traatim, Prufmia, or l>y the rl)(ht of reciproc- ity, Auatriu By the French code nf civil procndure, two months are ffranted to creditnm realdinR in Kn- gUnd to prove their delita. liy the Sardinian rode, iuch delay la throe montha. — (!om. hm nf the World, by Lkomb Lkvi. I^ndon, 1860. 3 vola. Unittd Utatei. — There is not any bankrupt ayatem In exiatence under tho government of the United States. An act of Congress was passed on the aulijnct In 1841, but It was rcpealvd in IHIII, . Tho several States are left free to Institute their own bankrupt ayatem Inaolvent lawa prevail tlirouglmut the Union. In the Statea of Maine, Now Ilumpshlru, Massachu- setts, Virginia, and Kentucky, thny are confined to the relief of debtors charged in execution. In New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Tennessee, North and South Curnlina, (ieorgia, Alabama, MIsaissippi, and Illinois, the Insolvent laws extend to delitors In priaon on mesne or Hnal proceas. In New York, Connecticut, Rho created by tlii' l»vying of an attach- ment, to the exrliision of any judgment obtained by any creditor, lipforo Judgment is obtained by the at- taching creditor. VIII. IHinoiii. — Attachmenta are Isaued by the clorka of the circuit court, when affidavit ia filed that the defendant baa departed, or la about to depart, out of the State, or conceals himself, so that proceas can not be served upon hiro. IX. Indiana. — The property of an inhabitant of the State may Ih) attached, whenever be Is secretly leav- ing the State, or aliall have left the State with intent to defraud bis creditors. The property of a non- resident ia liable to attachment as in other States. X. Iowa. — Tlie plaintiff may cause any property (if the defendant, which is not subject to execution, to be attached at the commencement, or during the progrena, of the proceedings, whether the claim be matured or not; provided an affidavit is Hied to the effect that the defendant is a foreign corporation, or acting us such, or that bo Is a non-resident of the State, or (if a resident) that he ia in some manner about to dispose of or remove his property out of the State. XI. Kentucky. — 1. The plaintiff may have an uttacii- ment against the property of the defendant when tiie latter is a foreign corporation, or a non-resident of this State ; or, 2, who has been absent therefrom four months ; or, 3, has departed from the State with in- tent to defraud bis creditors ; or, 4, has left the county of his residence to avoid tiie sorvicti of a summons, or conceals himself that a summons can not roach him ; or, 6, is about to remove bis property, or a material part thereof, out of tho State ; or, 6, boa sold or con- veyed bis property with the intent to defraud his creditors, or ia about so to sell or convey. Such at- tachment is binding upon the defendant's property in the county from the timo of the delivery of tlie order to the sherifT. XII. Louisiana. — A creditor may obtain an attach- ment against the property of bis debtor upon affidavit : 1, when the latter ia about leaving permanently the State liefore obtaining or executing judgment against him ; 2, when the debtor resides out of the State ; 8, when be conceals himself to avoid being cited to an- swer to a suit, and provided the term of payment have arrived. In tho absence of the creditor, the oath may be made by hia agent or attorney, to best of bis knowl- edge and belief. XIII. Maine.— \xt this State, an original writ may be framed either to attach the goods or estate of the defendant, or for want thereof to take his body. All goods and chattels may be attached by the creditor and held as security pending any suit against the debtor. Such a writ will authorize an attachment of goods and estate of the principal defendant, in bis own bands, as well as in the hands of trustees. Real estate, liable to be taken in execution, may be attached. i! .1.-1 158 ioa4 INS XIV. tfarylani—K cmdltor may nlitiln an allach- mant, whrthtr h« Iw a cilUm of Miirj Inml nr nnt, UKulnit hi* cluljtiir, who i« not a litlr.iMi of thin Nliitn, uiiil not rraicllnic thcnln, \t any rltltrn of thn Stntx, \»'\n^ Inilalitnil to aiiothnr dtiiKii lliprrof, aliiill iiitu- nlly run away or almnmil, or unirrtly ri-movn lilin>in ilnhtii ju«th« (Irfvnilant U|Hin JiulKnicntn or ilnirixo n-nilxml or panaxd hy any court of thiit Stulp, ami Juil)(nii'nl nt nini'.rninatlon thnrror may lj« huci, an U|)on oth»r ilelita attach the ^oihU ur eatnte. All real eittate, or kimhIh and chatteU that are lialda to !>« taken In execution, may b« attached niHin the orli{lnal writ, in any action in which any doht or dama)(eii are recoveraliie, and may l)« held aa nccurlty to nathfy auch Judifinent aa the plaintilT may recover. XVI. MicMyun, — The );rounda of attachment in tlila Ntate are, 1, that the defendant haa aliKcon ri-'aident of tlie State, or liaa not reaided there thr •' months immediately precedinK tlie auit ; ft, that the defendant ia a foreign cor|iorati«l tu lioiiove tliat the debtor will remove with hia elTecta out of the Mtate, or baa removed. XVIII. Miitouri An attachment may bo laaiied liere when the debtor ia not a reaident of the .State; or, if a resident, when hn abaconda, abaenta, or con- ceals himself; or is about to remove hia pro|Mjrty, or fraudulently convey it, with a view to liinder or delay his creditors ; or, 2, where the debt waa contracted out of the 8tate, ami the ilebKir haa secretly reiniovud his elTects into this Htate with intent to defraud. XIX. fi'ew JIampthirt. — In this State a writ of at- tachment may be Issued upon the Institution of any personal action ; and will hold real and iMTaonal pro|)- erty, shares of stock In corporations, pewa In chunhes, and the franchise of any i onmrution authorized t. > re- ceive tolls, until the perin.l of thirty days from the time of rendering the judgnK nt. XX. SewJeriry. — An att;K hment mar issue at the Instance of a creditor (or in his aliM^nce, of his af^ent or attorney), against the pn>petitloner unless he reliiu|uiahos his security for the common benetit of tliu creditora. The aaaignmunta and diaclmi'goa in these inaolvent caacs are to be recorded liy the clerk of the county in which they wore exociitoil. No debt or duty tu the United Stutea ia affected by any such dl:^ charge, not oven as to the remedy by Impriaiinment ; but debta and dutiea to the State, except taxea, are placed u|Hin the same footing aa debts to individuals. )l. The nsaignment uf the insolvent passes ail his interest, legal and ei{ultabln, existing at the time of execulinK the ttsaignment in any estate, real or per- sonal ; but no contingent interest passes unleaa It shall liocomo vested within three years after making tlie as- signment, and then it passes. I'roliabiUtles couplcil with an interest are assignable ; but not bare |iossibil- Itics, such as the ex|>ectancy of an liclr. Tlio assign- ment does not affect property hold by the debtor in truat ; nor does the aaaignment by the insolvent iius- l)and affect the property settled to the separate use uf thn wif« free and dear of her husband. 7. The insolvent liiachargcs apply only to debts ex- isting when the petition, inventory, and schedule of debts are presented, and not so as to cover debts con- tracted between that time and tlie time of the dis- charge. 8. The property assigned is distributed rataiily among all the creditors, subject, nevortheleaa, to exist- ing leical liens and priorities existing before the as- aigniiiient ; and under the New York inaolvent laws, a crniiiliir can not become a petitiiming creditor in re- apect to any debt secured by a legal lien, unless he praviousl}' rellnquishei that lien for the general benefit of the creditors. 9. The attachment-law of New York is a legal mode, by wblcb, a title to property may be acquired by operation of law. When the debtor, who is an in- habitant of New York, absconds, or is concealed, a creditor to whom lie owes ijioo, or any two, to whom be owes $li>0, or any three, to whom he owes ^300, may, on application to a judge or commissioner, and on due proof of tha debt, and of the departure or con- cealment, procure his real and personal estate to be attached ; and on due public notice of the proceeding, if the debtor does not within three months return and satisfy the creditor, or appear and offer to contest the fact of having absconded, or offer to appear and con- test the validity of the demand and give the requisite security, then trustees arc to bo appointed who liecumo vested with the debtor's estate : and tbey are to col INS 1080 INS I th. itor lit Ini- lull of tlir«n rnfumil will iaprovliiliin. aliliin liy » in ciiriKiriita ;o tliii rmiul- iiy ai:t an A iniwls fur till uninimt full- lie Kum net- Itor Imvln^ u ler uiilemi hu liiMiellt of tlio I'Uni 111 tli'i"" 1 cUtW of the No ilolit »r any »ueh iH^- niirlnonmoiil i Bpt tiixeii, are IniUvlduiiU. imnnen nil hi" it the tiiiK' "f p, roiil or por- uiiIpsh It shuU imkiii|4 the »«• lilltien coupleil bare (lomlhll- Tlio u»»lnn- th« debtor In iiiHolvcnt lius- Icpiirato U9U of |ly to debts ox- ii'd schBdule of r debt* con- uifl of the dls- Hbutcd ratably jhclcBS.tocxlst- J before the tts- |»olvcnt laws, a , creditor in ro- ' lien, unless he 1 general bcnelit fork is a legal Lay be ocquirod fr, who is an In- lis concoiiled, a ly two, to whom fi lie owes ^300, nmiBsioner, and lepuTturo or con- Val estate to be j the prococdinR, Jinths return and Ir to contest the Xppear and con- live the requisite liti>d who becumB , they are to col l*ct init mH It. and ••(tie controverslM, and make divi- dends «inon)( all bla creilltcirK, in thu nuHln prutcribtd. 10, Kroiii the time of 111* notice, all •alea and »•- illinmenta by the debtor are deilareil to \m void. If lb« dalilor reaiiloa out of the Htate, anil In itidabted on • contract made within the Ntale, ur tii a creditor reiii- dinii within thn Ntiite, nltlloiiKJi upon a contract made ulaewhere, hia property is liable to l,e attui bed and ■old In lllie inuniier j but the triiatees aie not tu be aii- polnted until niu* months after publi i notice of the proceedlnKa, 11. I'crlaliable ((oods, iitlier than vessels, when at- tached iindvr the AbacoiiilInK Debtor Art, may be lin- medlatelv "old and convurteil Into money | and If the iherllT, under the attachment, teliea pro|ierty claimed by third persona, he Is tu auiiiinoii a Jury and to take their ini|ulaltlon as to the title to tlie pni|ierty claimed. \'i. If any American vessel lielonKinK to the debtor bo attached under these pniceedinxa, it nmy be re- leased on the claimant of the vessel )|lvlnK security to pay the amount of the valuation of the vessel to the trustees, or tu the debtor, as the case may be ; and if It lie a foreign vesaoi claimed by a tlilnl per- •on, the attuchln)( creditor must give security to pros- ecute the atlacliinent, ami to pay the dainaK«s if It •hould appear that the vessel beloii)(ed to the claimant. III. A creditor, having an unli(|uidatcd demand rest- ing on contract, is u creditor within the Absconding Debtor Act, and competent tu apply for the attach- ment. Any creditor may proceed against on abscond- ing ur (Hincoalcd debtor, lioing an Inliabitant of the State, or against any non-resident debtor. If the con- tract wus made in Now York j but If the contract was made elsewhere, then the creditor must bo a resident of the State. M. Attachment-laws against the property, real and peraunul, of absconding and non•re^^ident debtors pre- vail throughout the several United States, but those stutiito laws are not uniform on this |xiint. XXII. A'orlh Carolina — An attachment may Issue on the complaint of a creditor, his agent, attorney or factor, against the property of a debtor when ho has removed, or is about to remove, privately from the State, so that the ordinary process of bit) will not reach him. XXIII. Ohio. — 1. A creditor rocuro, licfore or after thu maturity of the claim, . , .ittachmcBt against the property of a debtor, wh>'ti> Uie latter Is a foreign corporation or a non-rcsideat , "f if a resident, when he has ali8conde>l, or left the cuumty of his residence, or conceals himself • or ■« »bouli to remove or convert his property, with a vi.. » to defraud his creditors. 2. When the debtor f r:iiid «.ioutly contracted the debt, or Incurred the obligui Mn. XXIV. I'euiuijl' .mill.— In this State the writ of do- mestic attachment issues against any debtor, lieing an inhaliitant of the State, if he has absconded from his usual place of ahwjo ; or shall bavo remained absent from tlie State, or shall have contined himself in hia own house, or concealed himself cWewhoro, to defraud bis creditors. No second attachment will be issued against the same property, unless the ilrst be not exe- cuted, or be dissolved by the court. A writ of attach- ment may lie also issued against the property of a foreign corporation or a non-resident. In the latter case, the attachment inures to the beneflt of the at- taching creditor only. In the former case, it is for the benefit of creditors at largo. XXV. Itkoile Inland.— \n this State a writ of at- tachment is tlrst levied against the body of the de- fendant ; and if ho can not be found, then against hia goods and chattels. The property of foreign corporu- tiuiis and debtors is also liable to attachment, at tho suit of a creditor. XXVI. South Carolina.— A writ of attachment will issue, at the instanco of a creditor wherever resid- ing, against a debtor when he is a non-residenk— or against a citiun who has been abaeni more than a year ami a day i or when ha abaiunds or la removing out of th-i county j or conceals bimaelf so that the unllnarv nrw^eaa of law can not reach him. XXVII. Trnnrtttr. — When n debtor has removed, or Is about to rviiiov* out of the county privately, or absconds or conceals himaidf, un att.ichmrnt may b« obtained against bla property, iit thu suit of a creditor, ur Ills agent, atturney, ur factor. In the caao of non- resident debtors, having any real or pnriiunal pro|i«rty in tlie State, it is reiiulriil, In order to obtain an at- tacbment, tu file a bill In chancery, XXVIII. Trj-iu. — Original attachments are Issued against tho property of a ilebtor when ha Is not to be found In the county ; and the property attached shall rrmaiii in custody until llnal Judgment. Attaidiineiit win also lie when the defendant la a non-resident ; ur when a reaident is about to remove out of tho State ; and whether the debt lie matured or not. XXIX. Vrnmmt. — Writs of attachment may Issue against the goods, chattels, or estate of the defendant, or fur want thereof, against hli Imdy, before or after the maturity of u claim. Actions iigiiliint nun-rosi- ilenta, ur when tho defendant baa iibscunded fruni the State, may lie commenced by trustee process, X.YX. lVri/mi((,— Tho property of the defendant, If a nun-reslilent, or n reaident who is about tu remove himself ur elfects from the State, is Uablu to attach- inciit. An attachment In such cases will bold before tho claim is due and payaldo. XXXI. Witfomin. — An attachment will hold against the property of u delitur when he has abacunded, ur is about to abscond, from the State ; ur has fraudulently assigned, disposed of, or concealed Ills effects ; or re- moved Ills property from the State ; or when the de- fendant Is a non-resident or a foreign corporation, XXXII. Minneiiita. — A warrant of attachment may bo issued against tho property of a defendant when u foreign corporation ; or, when not a resident of this Territory ; or, 3, has left the Territory with Intent to defraud his creditors. Thus it will bo seen that in all tho States thu prop orty of non-residents and foreign corporiiti j is liable to attachments at tho suit of creditors, iiure Judg- ment is rendered ; likewise against domestic debtor:! when thev have absconded from the State, or have fraudulently convoyed, or are about to convey, sell, as- sign, or Bocreto their effects. In sumo few States, however, even this conditiim is luU essential before a writ of attachment will issue. In tho States of Alabama, Massachusetts, Connec- ticut, Maine, Now IlnmpsbiK, Vermont, and Rhodo Island, the creditor may have a writ of attachment against tho property of the debtor ut thu first institu- tion of a suit ; and without any ground of fraud or fraudulent intent -such property being held by tho attachment until the terniinution of the Gult, or until judgment ; the plaintiff in such cases giving bond or security to indeinnify the defendant for any loss or damage Hii;' tho order to tho sberifT. The reach 1 will f'iis.l tho Americon law on this sub- ject fully illustrated in "A Treatise on the Law of Suits by Attachment in tho United States. By CilAS. D. Drake, of the St. Louis Bar." 8vo. Published by Messrs. Little & Brown, Boston ; to which work wo are indebted for tho present abstract. Cn the sub- jects of insolvency and bankrupt laws, see IIokt's .Iftr. 3tag., v., 360, iv., 22, vi,, 419, vil., 261, 362, viii., 294, xxi., 513, x.xii., (}4, 195, 811; N. Y.Rev.^Va., 440; Am. Reg., ii., 74; Weitminsttr P'V., xlvi,, BOO, lij., 419; Dcm. Ha:, xiii., 286; No. Am. Rev., vU., 25; Nit.Ks's Register, xix., 403, xxi., 243, 882 (JoHK SBBQEAliT), 407 (AkDRBW StEVBHSON), .iff nil] ,1'' : , INS 1086 INS Inraranos, a cnntract of indemnity, by which one party engages, for a stipulated sum, to insure another Bgainit a risk to which he is exposed. The party who taltes upon him the risk, is called the Innircr, Atnirer, or Underwriter ; ond the party protected by the insur- ance is called the Insured, or Assured; the sum paid is called the Premium; and the instrument containing the contract of indemnity is called the Policy. Insurance on Ships and Merchandise. — Suetonius conjectures that Claudius was the first contriver of it, A.D. 43. Insurance was in general use in Italy in 1194, and in England in 1500. Insurance pol- icies were first used in Florence in 1623. Tlve first law relating to insurance was enacted in 1601. Insur- ance of houses and goods in London began in 1667. This was the year following that of the great flre of London. An office was then set up for insuring houses and buildings, principally contrived by Dr. Barton, one of the first and most extensive builders of the city of London. The first regular office set up in London was the Hand-in-Hand, in 1696. A duty was laid on insurances of Is. 6d. per £100 in8ured,"in 1782 : this duty was increased in 1797, and whs variously altered since. The date of the first insurance office in the United States has not been ascertained. — IIayds. This article has been divided under the general heads of: I. Insurance COeneral Principles of ). II. Insurance (JIarine). III. Insurance (Fire). IV. Insurance (Life). I. Insurance (Generai, PRtNciri.E3 or).— It is the duty of go\-emment to assist, bj' everj- means in its power, the eflTorts of individuals to protect their prop- erty. Losses do not always nriso from accidental cir- cumstances, but arc frequently ocasioned by the crimes and miscimduct of individuals ; and there are no means so eflfectual for their prevention, when they arise from this source, as the establishment of a vigil- ant system of police, and of such an admipistration of the law as may be calculated to afford those who are injured a ready and nhcup method of obtaining everj' practicable redress ; and, as far as possible, of insuring the punishment of culprits. But, in despite of all that may be done by government, and of the utmost vigilance on the part of individuals, property must always be exposed to a variety of casualties from fire, shipwreck and other unforeseen disasters. And hence tho importance of inquiring how such unavoidable losses, when they do occur, may be rendered least in- jurious. The loss of a ship, or the conflagration of a cotton-mill, is a calamity that would press heavily even on the richest individual. But were it distributed among several individuals, each would feel it propor- tionally less ; and provided the number of those among whom It was distributed were very considerable, it would hardly occasion ony sensible Inconvenience to any one in particular. Hence the advantage of com- bining to lessen the injurj- arising from the accidental destruction of property : and it is the diffusion of the risk of loss over a wide surface, and its valuation, that forms tho employment of those engaged in insurance. Though it be impossible to trace the circumstances which occasion those events that are, on that account, termed accidental, they are, notwithstanding, found to obey certain laws. The numlier of births, marriages, and deaths ; tho proportions of male to female, and of legitimate to illegitimate br hs ; the ships cast away ; the houses burned ; and a v t variety of apparently accidental events, are yet, when our experience em- braces B sufficiently wide field, found to be nearly equal in equal periods of time j and it is easy, (Irom ob- servations made upon them, to estimate the sum which an Individual ihoidd pay, either to guaranty his prop- erty bom risk, or to secure a certain sum for his heirs at his death. It must, however, be carefully observed, that no confidence can bo placed in such estimates, un- less they are deduced from a very wide induction. Suppose, for example, it happens that during the pres- ent year one bonse is accidentally burned, in a town containing 1,000 houses ; this would afford very little ground for presuming that the average probability of flre in that town waa 1 to 1,000. For it might be found that not a single house had been burned during the previous 10 years, or that 10 were burned during each of these years. But supposing It were ascer- talned, that, at an average of 10 years, 1 house hud been annually burned, the presumption that 1 to 1000 was the real ratio of the probability of flre, would bo very much strengthened ; and if it' were found to ob- tain for 20 or 30 years together, it might be held, for all practical purposes at least, aa indicating the precise degree of probability. Besides its being necessary, in order to obtain the true measure of the probability of any event, that the series ef events, of which it is one, should be observed for a rather lengthened period, it is necessary, also, that the events should be numerous, or of pretty fre- quent occurrence. Suppose it were found, by observ- ing the births and deaths of 1,000,000 individuals, taken indiscriminately from among the whole popula- tion, that the mean duration of human life was 40 j-ears j we should have but very slender grounds for concluding that this ratio would hold in the case of the noxt 10, 20, or 30 Individuals that are bom. Such a number is so small as hardly of average. When a large number of lives is taken, those that exceed the medium term arc balanced by those that fall short of It ; but when the number Is small, there is comparatively little room for the principle of compensation, and tho result can not, therefore, be depended upon. It is found, by the experience of all countries in which censuses of tho population have been taken with consideroble ac- curacy, that the number of male children born Is to that of female children in tho proportion nearly of 22 to 21. But unless the observations be made on a very large scale, this result will not be obtained. If we look at particular families, they sometimes consist wholly of boys, and sometimes wholly of girls ; and it is not possilde that the boys can be to the girls of a single family in the ratio of 22 to 21. But when, instead of confining our observations to particular fam- ilies, or even parishes, we extend them bo as to em- brace a population of 600,000, these discrepancies disappear, and we find that there is invariably a small excess in the number of males born over the fe- males. The false inferences that have been drawn from the doctrine of chances, have uniformly, almost, proceeded from generalizing too rapidly, or from deducing a rate of probability from eurh a number of instances as do nut give a fair average. Hut when the instances on which we found our conclusions are sufficiently numer- ous, it is seen that tho most anomalous events, such as suicides, deaths by accidents, the number of letters put Into the post-office without any address, etc., form pretty regular series, and consequently admit of being estimated a priori. The business of insur.nce is founded upon the principles thus briefl}' stated. Suppose it has been remarked that ot forty ships, of tho ordinary degree of sea-worthiness, employed in a given trade, one is annually cast away, the probability of loss will [ilainly be equal to o«e fortieth. And if on individual wish to insure a ship, or the cargu on lioard a ship, engaged in this trade, ho ought to pay a premium equal to the l-40th part of the sum he insures, exclusive of such an additional sum as may be required to indemnify tho insurer for his trouble, and to leave him a fair profit. If the premium exceed this sum, the insurer is over- paid ; and if It fall below it, he is underpaid. Insurances are effected sometimes by societies, and sometimes by individuals, the risk being in either case diffused among a num1)er of persons. Companies formed for carrying on the business have generally A large (ubscribed capital, or auch a number of propii- nw 1091 INS eton, 88 enables tbem to r»iM, without dUlmUf, whatever lums may at any t\m» \m rm\uit»A t0 malU good loasex. Societien of tbia aort do nni limit tturlr risks to small sums ; that is, they do out utim fwCttM) to insare a large sum U|H>n a bIi!|i, 4 (Mmtsu, M life, «t<'< The magnitude of their capitals »ffur(i» tli«m lli« means of easily defraying a heavy li )Wtl4 liy the insured shall exactly balance tl)s riiilfS iiiiiurrwt \iy tll« insurers, and the various necessary ex|i#MtiP!l to wllioh they are put, including, of course, tlieif Iffortt, it U necessary, as previously remarked, tliat tito |)Stt«^i«ni'« of the risks shonld be pretty eKitansive, U i«« nut, however, at all necessary, that eitlier party kIinuIH i«^ quire into the circumstances tliat lead to i\m»» «v«tltK that are most commonly mads the sulijstit of itiHUr- ance. Such a research would, iildeeii, l«* entiraty fruitless : we are, and must nscsssarity I'imtimm io i)«, wholly ignorant of the causes of their immrnni'^, It appears, from the accounts givspj by Mr, tknfuit' by, in his valualde work on the Ar«tl8 lintfirm*, ttmt of 686 ships whicli sailed from tlw ?ari/MW port* of Great Britain for the northern witalo (jshnry, Autinu the four years ending with 1817, eight WMf« lost (yu\, ii., p. 131), being at the rate of one ,i|il|i out of evsey 73 of those employed. Now, 8U|)|)i)iiin({ till* to iiB about the average loss, it follows dwt tll« (/fvioium required to insure against it sltould lia }'70 per i[irewi ov«f a considerable number of ships, his profit doc* H(*t d*-- pend upon chance, but is as steaily, nni tmy \m M fairly calculated upon, as that of a tlMtnuCwtHfef of H merchant ; while, on the other hand, tlia illdiviitUAls who have insured tluiir property havo ejwoijrtwt it from any chance of loss, and placed it, A* it Wtirt<, in A state of absolute security. It is easy, from the lirief statement now mM<1«, to perceive the immense advantages resulting t4) nAvigA< tion and commerce from the practice of marinf* insilf' ance. Without the aid that it alfords, twn\mui\*e\y few individuals would be found dl^lMtitiit to cxpwM their property to the risk of long and haxardou* voy* ages; but by its means insecurity is (iiotngwt tut s«' curity, and the capital of the merclmnt, wl)o*8 nJllwt are dispersed over every sea, and enposed U) »\i the perils of the ocean, is as secure as that of the Agriatii- turist. He can comliina his nieasures anii urtM^v III* plans as if they could no longer lie alfwitiiil \iy tU'fU dent. Tho chances of shipwreck, or of hi** by Unfofc^ IMQ occotrances, eater not into his natoulAtiotM, lt« hw parcbaaed aa azamptlon fram tb« Htf««t« ef «ueb ettuattlM I and applies bim««lf to ttwi proMcutlon of his business with that i!onlldttm'« noiI energy which nothing but a feijUng of security v»n Inspire. " Les oh»nees ''.3 la navlgatluii eiitravalunt In commerce. I>e tjMme des asmirances a p«r(i i il a I'onsutt^ les sal- sons I II a port/i ses regard* nur \n ttier ) II a interrog6 ce terrible iUmmt \ II en a iugi t'Inconstance | 11 en a oresfientl les orages ; II a i\iUi la |Hillti(|U« I It a reconnn l«s ports et les c/>tes de* duuK inoiid«* | it « tout soumis k des calouls savans, h d«» thWI«* Hpiffoxlmntlves 1 et It a dit au commer';ant haliile, am iiavigateur Intr6pide : eertes, II y a des ihi«a*tr>i* xiir lituiMel* t'hiimnnlt^ no pent que giinlr 1 nwls quant k votre fortune, allez framlilssez les mers, d/!ploy«/, votro A«tlvltA et voire Industrie 1 Ja me charge do vo* ri*qu««, Ahn, Mes- *l«urs, s'il est pemils do le diro, t«* qiiatr* parties du moflde se sont ruiiprooiiAss,"— C'wife de Cummene, Kx- poti dm J/oliJ'-, llv,, ii, Besides insuring against tli« p«ril* of the sea, and losses arising from accident* t'AMH«il l>y the operation of natural causes, it i* conimiin to Insure against ene- mies, pirates, thieves, and ttv«n tlio fraud, >nd u* it L* IIaIiIo to change, very sud- denly, great cautUtn i* raquirad on tlui part of the un- derwriters. Provision may also be m«i1«, liy mean* of Insurance, sgfllnst loss by lire, ami almost alt tlie casualties to which property on land i* *ulij«v^, But, notwithstand- ing what has now lieen atntiKt, It must li« admitted thnt tile advantages dorived from th« practice of Insuring Against losses by sea and land aro not altogether un- mixed with evil. The security wlilcll It nflurds tends to relax that vigilant attmniMn to the protection of property which tlie fear of It* loss i< oure otherwise 1 1 excite. This, however, i* mit it* worst effect. The records of our courts, and tlia «x|)«ricnce of all wlio are largely engnged in tim lm*ln«** of Insurance, too clearly prove that ship* Imvo b«iutions, accumulated at com- pound interest, would amount to, supposing the in- sured to reach the common and average term of human life. Though he were to die tlio day after the insur- ance has been effected, his family would be as amply provided for as it is likely they would bo l-y his accu- mulations were his life of the ordinarj' duration. In ail cases, indeed, in which those insured die before at- taining the average age, their gain is obvious. But even in those cases in which their lives are prolonged beyond the ordinarj* term, they are not losers — they then merely pay for a security which thej* must other- wise have been without. During the whole period, from the time when they effect their insurances, down to the time when they arrive at the mean duration of human life, they are protected against the '|ty fitf Ummii ««. tually sustained ; but the poesesaion of h nmmt^y affnitut, loss, in the event of occidant, U tutMmU, mtM*ti Uf induce every prudent individual U> \murit Mh pfiifitift ty. The cose of life insurance is in Ihiit r«tp«!t (ttfferwtt, When established on a proper fuoting, m» tmifn mmn which those pay whose lives »%emA t)w *ttlm#l«4 dii^ ration is but the voloa of tbs pnviitim tmautiiy, In order to adjust the terms of an inanrmim tUiA Urn pnHy insuring may neither pay tM0i(ti( He- curacy, the expectation of Ufa «t my *H{«, «* it« moan duration after such age, may >m rtmWy k»rn4tA (frmt them j and hence also the valita u( «n mtmUy, lit tim assurance on a life of any age, Tbuii, 1« tiwt t«l(l« of mortality for Carlisle, framed by Mr, MiltM*, of the Sun Life Office, and which is beliavwt t'( r^lfH9m^ tim average law of mortality in l£ngl«n4 with vufy cfitisW. erable accuracy, out of 10,000 |)«r*w«, biifn UiKKihtif, 4000 complete their 56th year j wiMi It furHmt #|(j*««M, that the number of such imnom wb• poors (Tables Interest ami* A»«(»'tT(M), ih»t th« present value of $100 to ba reenivmi UiyUHfD hMjce Is $67'550 ; consequently if its feiwjpt im mmU to lUpmi upon the probability that » Ufa mm M ynitu irf sjje will fail in the 66th year, its nramnt V»l«« will I* r»fc duced by that contingency to -'^-^f-Hli'm, Th» present value of |100, receival.ls Ufwrn thff life iit » party now 66 vears of age, termUmiUig (tt tl(« ft/th nt any subsequent year of liis Ufa, up Ui m nDtrmilf lim- it (which, according to the C'«rlUI« iMn, f* thfl IftJHh year), being calculated in this wity, Itm (SMm of the whole will lie the present vulm of |!JW*, feivhtthU whenever the life may full ; that is, iif HM in->tltei\ upon it, supposing no additions wura nmtU to It for the profits and expenses of the innUftirs, More compendious processes «rs rumifUiii til fiif cal- culating tables of insurances «t All ugfi i liKt the obovo statement sufficii-ntly i||i)6tf»|t»ayiiient of » sIhjjI* aitlli nhcii it is eff°ected, but almost always by this fmyiliflit lit an annual premium during its conflnMMHCC, th« ficH hclng paid down at the co lunenienifint lit lUn itiaiifHnee,* If the Table of Mort ility »dj)(>te4 by th« itl'ltfufn fair- ly represent the law of mortality firnyttWiii^ huiiihk the insured, it follows that wlien » \mrty Ul<>umi lUie^t tint attain to the average age miJiritiu^ Ui (ht fnl>)e, the insurers will either lose by him, iir IfliU/," if^n Ihafl their ordinary profit ; and wM), im (lit idhnf hand, the life of an insureti party is iirntim^Kii tDtyiitlii the tabular average, the profits of tl(« innilfi'fi* (tf« fiftfpdf' tionally increased. But if tlwir liiie|n/'!« I* i:ii ttst*^- sivo as to enable the law of avfntiia fiiUy tii npp^yi what they lose liy prematurH ij«»lh will Iw lr»l«ncee law of insurance became, in a far greater degree than any other part of English law, a branch of that national or publiclaw, of which Cicero has beautifully said, " Ifon trit alia lex Boma, alia Athenit, alia nunc, alia potthac, ted el omnrt gentea et omni tempore, una lex et aempitema, el immorUJit contitiebit, unutgm erit communi* i/uan nagitter et imperator omniuM l>eus." — Fragm., lib. iii., de Republici, Insurance against fire and upon lives . is of much later origin than insurance against perils of the sea. The former, however, has been known and carried on among us, to some extent, a!: least, for nearly a cen- tury and a half. The Amicaldc Society, for insurance upon lives, was established l)y charter of Queen Anne, in 1706 ; the Royal Exchange and London Assurance Companies began to make insurances upon lives, in the reign of George I. ; and the Equitaldc Society was es- tablished in 1762. But the advantages of life insur- ance, and the principles on which the liusincss shoiid be conducted, were then very ill understood , and tlie practice can hardly bo said to have ol>taini.d any firm footmg among us, till the Equitalilo Socieiy, by adopt- ing the judicious suggestions of Dr. Price, began its career of prosperity ab nt 1775. Notwithstanding the «> sample of England, li.e insursix;^ has made compar- atively little progress on the Continent. It was, in- deed, expressly forbidden by the French ordinance of 1681 (liv. iii., tit. 6, art. 10) ; l>y tlio regulations as to insurance issued .\t Amsterdam in 1612 (art. 24) ; and it is doubtf li whether the practice be not inconsistent witli the 334th art. of the Cade de Commerce, though it Ix! now extensivel}' carried on in F'rance. Hut wo are inclined to tliink that ibo want of security, more than any fwsitive regulations, has l)ecn tlie principal cause of the little progress of life insurance on the Conti- nent. II. Insitrakob (Mabinb).— There are few persons who are not acquainted, in some degree, with tire and life insurances. The security wliich tliey afford to individuals and families is a luxury which nobody, in tolerably comfortable circumstances, is willing to be without. Hence the great increase, in our days, of companies professing to afford this security ; and hence the knowledge, on the part of the public generally, of the nature and principles of the engagements into which these companies enter, llut marine insurance is a subject which is of immediate interest only to merchants and ship owners ; unless, indeed, wo should refer to that small portion of the coniniunity who have occasion to transport themselves beyond seas with capital and elfects for purposes of colonisation, or to fill some official situation. Hence the comparative indifference, on the )>art of the public, as to this sub- ject. The general principles, however, of all insur- ance are the same ; and in treating of marine insur- ance, it will be necessary to notice little beyond such topics as are peculiar to that broncli of the liusiness. Individwd Inturert, or Uttderwrilert. — I lie first cir- cumstance that can not fail to strike the general in- quirer into the practice of marine insurance in this countr>-, is that, while all fire and life insurances are made at the risk of companies, which include within themaeWei the daalrabU nquisitei of security, wealth, and numbers, a larga proportion oi marine insurances <- made at the risk of individuals. Prohibition of Companies Till 1824, in Great Brit- ( in, all firms and companies, with tlio exception of the two chartered companies, the Royal Exchange and London, wore prohibited by law from taking marine insurances. Toward the latter end of that year, the prohibition was removed, and the business of marine insurance was placed on the same legal footing as other descriptionii of business, AVhile the restriction lasted, the two chartered companies did so little busi- ness that marine in^turance miglit in fuct, be said to bo wholly 'n the hands of in'liviiiuuls. These companies were so much higher in their premiums, and so much more exclusive in the risks they were willing to un- dertake, ihan their individual cumpetitur", that even those merchants and ship owners, wl]o would cheer- fully have imid some trifling considi ration to obtain the greater security of a company, were obliged to resort to individuals. And it was only when the repeal of this absurd restriction was proposed, that the companies showed, by defending it, that they set any value upon tlieir privilege. The undcrwiiters at Lloyd's joined them in this opposition ; and pamphlets were written and speeches made, to demonstrate how much merchants and ship owners would suffer, were tlie law to allow them the free use of their discretion in insuring their jiroperty ; and how much mure con- ducive to their interests it (.as, that they should bo forced up to Lloyd's, to pay premiums to individuals rather than companies. Hut these pamphlets nud speeches are forgotten ; and wo should be sorry to wound the feelings of their authors, or to trespass on the patience of our readers, by referring to them more particularly, ^fod■) nj'comiuctiug Business. — Wo shall now give an account of the arrangement in England for conducting the business of murine insurance, as well l>y individu- als as the companies, Hoyd's. — The individual underwriters meet in a subscription room at Lloyd's. Tlie joint nff.iirs of the subscibers to these rooms are managed by a coiinnit- tee chosen bj- the subscribers. Agents (who are com- monly styled Lloyd's agents) are appointed in all the principal ports of the world, who forward, regularly, to Lloyd's, accounts of the departures from and arriv- als at their |)orts, as well as of losses and other casu- alties ; and, in general, all such Information as may lie supposed of importance towanl guiding the judgment of the underwriters. Tliese accounts are regularly tiled, and are accessible to ill the subsciiiiers. Tlie principal arrivals and losses are, besides, posted in two liooks, placed in two conspicuous parts of tlic mnin ; and also in nnotliPV book, which is plaicd mi an adjoin- in;,' m, for the use of the public at large. Tlir roo reopen from 10 o'clock In the morning till 5 o'clii' li in the afternoon, but the most considcralile part of the business is transacted lietwccn 1 and 4. Those merchants and ship owners who manage tlioir own insurance business, procure blank policies at the government oilieo, or of their stationers, which they till up so as to meet the particular object in view, and submit them to those underwriters with whom they are connected j iiy whom they are subscribed or rejected. Each policy is li.mded about in this way until the amount required is complete. The form of the jiolicy and of a subscription is subjoined to this ar- ticle. The premium is not paid to the undcnvrltcr in ready money, but is passed to account. >'or does the underwriter debit the account of the person to whom he subscribes a policy with tlie whole amount of the premium, but with the premiiiin less 5 per cent. AVhen- Bver losses occur which more tban absorb the premi- um i on any one account, the underwriter is called uiKjn to pay the balance. But should the underwrit- er's account bo what is called good, that is, should the premiums exceed the claims, be seuds round, durhig INS 1041 INB meet in a aff.iirsoftlie liv n coimnit- jvvho arc coni- Ited in all the la, regularly, }in and arriv- otlier casu- [on as may lie khe jui1t;mcnt live rctjularly [lilicrs. The posted in two |of the roniii ; Ml an ailjoiu- lart;e. Thr [iiorning till 5 •ousidcralilc cen 1 and 4. manage their [olieies at tlie ,, which they Lject in view, k with whom subscrihed or in this way The form of picd to this ar- [mdcnvriter in Kor Ams the irson to whom imount of liio rccnt. When- ,tl) the ptemi- rriter is called [he underwrit- is, should the round, during the ipring and anmmer, to collect fh>m hii variooi debtors either the balance of hU laat year's account, or n oney on account, acoordini; to his judgment ; but upon what he receives, he makes an idlowance of 12 per cent. An underwriter, if prudent, therefore, be- fore he consents to receive, will not only look to the goodness of his account, but to the probability of its continuing so. Iiunrance Broktn. — Many merchants and ship own- ers do not transact their own insurance business. They give their orders for insurance to others, who nndcitake it for them, and are responsible for its proper mansgement. Those latter persons are called insurance brokers ; and some of them manage the business of a number of principals. To them, like- wise, are transmitted the orders for insurance tram the ootports and manufacturing towns. They charge the whole premium to their principals, and their profits consist In 5 per cent, upon the premium, 12 per cent, upon the money that they pay to the underwriters, and \ per cent, tluit they deduct from all the claims which they recover from the underwriters. It is proper to remark that tliis is the established or regu- lar profit; but competition has occasioned numerous deviations from it by the brokers, many of whom con- sent td divide this profit with the principals who em- ploy them. The insurance brokers are not unfre- qnently underwriters also. Principles of i$a/fa^.— Salvage is a compensation for maritime services rendered in saving property or rescuing it from impending peril on the sea, or wrecked on the coast of the sea, or on a public navigable river or lake, wliere inter-state or foreign commerce is car- ried on. The amount, according to Che maritime law of Englanvl and the United Statet, rests in the sound discretion of the Court.upon a full consideration of ail the facts of tlie case. It Renenilly far exceeds a mere remuneration piv open et laboit — the exceos being in- tended, upon principles cf sound public policy, not only as a reward to the particular salvor, but also as an inducement to others to render like services. " If the property of an individual on land be exposed to the greatest peril, and be saved liy the voluntary exertions of any person whatever; if valuable goods be rescued from a liouse in flames, at the imminent haziird of life by tlie salvor, no remuneration in the shape of salvage is allowed. The act is hi;,'hly meritorious, and the service is as great as if rendered at sea ; yet the claim for salvage could not, perhaps, be supported. It is certainly not made. Let precisely the same service, at precisely the same hazard, be rendered at sea, aud a very ample reward will lie liestowed in the courts of justice. If we search for the motives producing this apparent prodigality in rewarding services rendered at sea, we shall find them in a liberal and enlarged policy. The allowance of a very ample compensation for those eervircs, one very much exceeding the mere risk en- cuun;ered and labor employed in efi'ecting them, is in- tended 08 an inducement to render them, which it is for the public interests of humanity to hold forth to those who navigate the ocean. It is perhaps diff '!ult, on any other principle, to account satisfactorily >. the verj- great difference which is made between the retri- bution allowed for services at sea and on land. Nei- ther will a fair calculation of the real hazard or labor be a foundation for such a difference ; norwill the lien- efii received always account for \t."— Wreck end Sal. oage, by Martin, New York, 1858. Sale of Premium. — But little need lie said upon the ciroumstances that influence the rate of premium de- manded by the insurers. It must be self-evident that premiums will vary accord iig to the seasons, the quality of the vessel, the known character of the cap- tain, the nature of the commodity, and the otateof our political relations. All these, of course, are matters npoc which each individual must exercise his own dis- cretion, partly firom general experience, and partly U u D firom particular information ; exaggeration of risk, and consequent exorbitancy of premium for any length of time, being out of the question, where so many indi- vidual underwriters, in addition to the csmpanies, art in competition with one another, and where the mer- chants have the means at band of effecting their insur- ances abroad. W'> have already taken notice of the intelligence of vnich Lloyd's is the focus. In addi- tion to this there is a subscription register book for shipping maintained by the principal merchants, ship- owners, and underwriters. This book professes to give an account of the tonnage, build, age, repairs, and quality of almost all the vessels that frequent our ports ; and, although exceedingly defective iu many respects, is a material assistance to the insurers, who have no means of ascertaining by their own observa- tion the particulars of one in a hundred of the ships they are oalled upon to insure. Contract of Imurance. — Having thus given a gene- ral outline of the mode of transacting business be- tween the insurers and insured, and the means used to enable both parties to come, as near as possible, to a due estimate of the risk to lie insured against, our next step will be to explain the nature of the contract, and the bearing of its more important clauses. It is unnecessary to state that the object of those who are engaged in commerce, or in moving articles of merchandise from one part of the wbrld to another, is to buy at such a price that, after paying all the ex- penses of transport, the tale price may leave them a surplus in the shape of profit. If there were no such contrivance as insurance, merchants would be obliged to calculate upon the probability of the occasional loss of their property, and to regulate their transactions accordingly ; but it must be obvious that enterprise, under such circumstances, would be very much crip- pled. Now, insurance, in as far as it approaches per- fection in guarantying the merchant against all loss, except that of the market, sulistitutes a fixed charge for uncertain and contingent loss, and enables him to confine his attention exclusively to price and quality, and to charges of transport ; in which latter, of course, tbe premium of insurance is included. As, however, ia practice, insurance is by no means a perfect protec- tion, either to the merchant or ship owner, against all loss that may occur in transitu, there is, even after in- furance, some contingencies remaining to be taken into consideration ; and we do not know that we can do better, by way of explaining the contract of insur- ance, thun state, as briefly and succmctly us possible, what are the losses against which the merchant and ship owner are not protected by an insurance effected in this country. 1. Acts of our ovm Government, — All losses arising fram the acts of our own government. Thus, if an em- biirgo were laid on vessels about to sail for a particular quarter, and the merchant obliged to unload his goods ; or if his goods were condemned to De de- stroyed in quarantine ; or purposely destroyed at sea by some of our cruisers ; no part of his loss would be made good by the insurer. The insurer in this coun- try, although liable for the acts of foreign powers, is not liable for such acts directed against the property of their own sulijects. Thus, if French property, in- sured in this country, were confiscated by the French government, the owner would have no remedy against his insurer. 2. Breaches of Ike Revenue Lfics. — All losses arising from a breach of the revenue laws. It may be ob- served, that if the owner of the ship, by his act, ex- pose the goods of the merchant to loss, the merchant so injured, although he can not recover from his insur- ers, may claim from him. It may also be observed, that if the captain of the vessel, by his act, to which neither the owner of the ship nor the merchant is a party, expose the ship and cargo to loss, the insurers, in such case, are bound to maJie good the loss ; tba li'fil INS 1042 AR9 liMimn b«lng liable for all damage arising ftt>m illegiil acta of tlie captain and crew, auppoaing the owner of the ahip not to be accesaory. The illegal acta of the captain and crew, contrary to the inatructlons and without the consent of the owners, are termed " bar- ratry" In the policy. See Barratry. 8. hrtachtt of the Lme ofNationt. — All losses aris- ing fVora a breach of the law of nations. Thus, If any port Is declared by a foreign power to be In a state nf blockade, and such blockade is acknowledged by our government ; and if a ahip, in deflance of that no- tiflcation, attempt to break the liiockade, and is taken in the attempt ; the insurer is not licble for the less. It wilt otten happen, when a port la under blockade, that the profit is so great upon goods introduced In de- fiance of the blockade, aa to tempt adventurers to break It, and to enable them to aflTord a ver}' high pra- mium to insure against the risk. But as policies for such an object are not acknowledged in our courts ot' law, when effected, they are nnderatood to be policies of honor. The same kind of pelicy is adopted by under- writers, to protect foreign merchants who prefer Insur- ing In this country against capture by our vessels. 4. ComequtRca of Deviation. — All losses subsequent to any deviation Arom the terms of tho polic}'. Thus, if a merchant. In a policy on produce from the West Indies to London, warrant the ship to sail on or before the 1st of Angust, and the ship sail after that day and be los' , the insurer is exonerated. Or, if a merchant insure from London to Lisbon, and the ship call at Havre p.id Is afterward lost, the insurer is not liable. It w'ii be understood, of course, that the owner of the ■hi( is liable to tho merchant for any breach of con- tract on his port, as well as that the Insurer is liable for the barratry of the master ; a deviation on the part of the master, not intended for the benefit of the owner, and contrary to his instructions, iwing consid- ered barratry. Should the owner of the goorolMt«4, (s dMcribM in the following clinu of the policy: " Corn, fish, salt, teed, floir, and fln;il, ara warnnbid tter. fVom average, unless general, or the ■hip ly stronded ; sugar, tobarco, hemp, flax, hides, and sktnn ara warranted free from average under 6 per cent., unless general, or tlie ship be stranded ; and all other goods, also the ship and freight, aie wrnunted free tnm average under 8 per cent., unless general, or the ship b« strcnded.'' The language employed in this clause, being teehnic-J, requires explanation to render it intelligible to the general reader. Average is a name applied to certain descriptions of loss, to which the merchant and ship c "..er are liable. There are two kind^ of average, guneral and particular. General Average comprehends all loss arising out of a volun- tary 3acriflce of a part of either vessel or cargo, made by the captain for the benefit of the whole. Thus, if a captain throw part of his cargo overboard, cut from an anchor and cable, or cut away his masts ; the loss 60 sustained, being voluntarily submitted to for the benefit of the whole, is distributed over the value of the whole shin and cargo, and is called "general average." Particular A verage comprehends all loss occasioned to ship, freight, and cargo, which is not of so serious a nature as to debar them from reaching their port of destination, and when the damage to the ship is not so extensive as to r^uder her unworthy of repair. Losses where the goods are saved, but io such a state as to be unfit to forward to their port of destination, and where the ship is rendered unfit to repair, are called " partial or salvage loss." The leading distinction, between particular average and salvage loss is, that, in the first, the property insured remains the property of the assured — the damage sustained, or part thereof, as the case may be, and as will hereafter be explained, being made good by the insurer ; and in the second, the property insured is abandoned to the insurer, and the value insured claimed from him, he retaining the prop- erty so abandoned, or its value. Particular Average on Goods. — A few cases illustra- tive of the method of stating a claim for particular average will best explain the nature of this descrip- tion of loss, and will at the same time show the reader what the practical distinction is between particular average and salvage losr. The property insured we shall suppose to be a liahed practices. The ii.erchanta go on from year to year complaining of the losses to which they are sub- iected from this awkward contrivance, while no steps are taken to improve it. To show that the principle is equitable aa between the merchant and hia inaurer, we subjoin one mora statement, where tha damage is taken at 100 per cent. 10 ewt. of rice, If sound, would have pro- duced 75 00 Leas tttigbt onlOcwt. StSOO $00 00 . 2600 BolBjr totally spoiled did produoe nottalnK. The merchant being still liable fbr the freight. Making his loss. fTB 00 He reoelros |6U only IVoui tbo Insurer. 10 cwt of sugar, If aound, would have pro- duced; ITBOO Less freight on 10 cwt 28 00 160 00 The barrel being washed out produces nothing. The merobsut, however, not being liable to pay fhilgbt ills loss Is only |60 00 Which ho recovera from the Insurer. It will bo observed, that in each cose the Insurer pays |&0, or the run sum upon which he receives the premtuin. When whole cargoes, or pu.-»ls of goods of consiil- arabla value, are insured, the .'ecause, although Ua collateral security ia destroyed by a peril of the •M, hia right to racaive freight remaina unimpaired, | and it la against the loaa or Impairing of thit right that the inaurer protects htm. Particular Average on Ship: — Particular average upon ahipa U a anbject aomawhat more baaet with difflcnltiea. There is scarcely a ahip that makes u voyage of any length that does not sustain some dam- age. Thn cUnse in the policy warranting the ship f^ee from particular average under 8 per cent,, unless stranded, protects the Inaurer from the constant recur- rence of petty claims ; but in addition to this, it is the practice to class the damage that a ship sustaina in tlie prosecution of hor voyage under two heads ; ordinary damage, or wear and tear ; and extrannlinury damage, or particular average. Tha aplitting of sails, the breaking of anchors and cables, tha upsetting of wln receive (deducting bit share of con- tribution), the flreight to which he would have b«''j entitled up'- .. .je same delivery of the goods. a. Remuneration of services and other charges. When a ship loses her anchors and cables, very large sums are frequently a" rded to boatmen who vsntura off to her with new ones at the imminent hazan' of their lives. A ship disaliled at sea is towed into pet by another, and remuneration for such service I.' awarded according to the value saved, the detention occasioned, and the loss sustained. The ship render- ing the service may bo laden with fish or fruit, that may be totally spoiled by the detention, or may be in ballast. A ship captured by the enemy may be re- captured by a man ,t war or armed merchant vessel ; here, again, salva^ e is awarded according to the cir- cumstances of the cose. All these chargea are gen- eral average ; that is to say, must be distributed over ship, freight, and cargo. When a ship, with her car- go, la driven on shore, the expense of attempting to get h*-- off is gennral average. If she can not be got off wl. lut discharifing, the expense of discharging is ^ merak average ; nut the expense uf getting the ship off after the cargo has been taken out falls exclusively upon the ship. The warehousing of the cargo, and other expenses incurred for its preservation, are charges exclusively upon the cargo. The expense of reloading is borne by the freight. Whbn a ship puts Into ])OTt In distress, the pilotage inward is general average ; the pilotage outward la i charge upon the freight. This distribution of charges has settled into a tolerably well established practice ; and upon this principle claims are settled at the offices. 4. The money required to meet the above charges is sometimes attainable without expense. If the acci- dent happen near home, and the ship owner be respect- able, he advances the money and recovers from the various parties oncerned so soon as the accounts can be made up ; or if the accident happen in a foreign port, where the owner of the ship is well known, the captain's bill upon him will sometimes be received in ps}-ment of the charges incurred. But where such facilities do not' exist, the captain is empowered to pledge his ship, freight, and cargo, as security to any one ho may prevail upon to supply the necessary funds. This pledge Is termed a bottomry bond. By it the captain admits the receipt of the money ; con- sents to the payment of a premium (which varies with the distance of the port of destination, the risk of tha voj'age, the lespectablllty of the owner, and the neces- sities of the captain) ; and assigns the ship, freight, and cargo, as security for the repayment of the money advanced and the stipulated premium. Should the captain consider the bottomry premium demanded of him exorbitant, or should he deem it preferable in other respects, he may seU a portion of the cargo for the purpose of raising such money as be may stand in need of toward the proseftion of bis voyage. The expense of raising the requisite funds, whether by commission, by bottomry premium, or by loss on the sale of the cargo, is charged to those parties for whose Interest the money is required. Thus, If a ship, hav- ing struck upon a rock, puts Into port in distress, and Is obliged to unload to repair ; supposing the particular average upon the ship to amount to $600 ; the gen- eral average, consisting of assistance into port and expense of unloadin<;, $200; particular charges on freight, consisting of expense of reloading and pilotage outward, $100 ; and particular charges on cargo, con- sisting of warehouse rent and repair of packages, $200 ; and the expense of raising money should be 20 per cent. ; — those sums would be severally increased by this addition, and would be raised to $600, $240, $120, and $340. See Bottoxbt, BBsroMDBMTU. 104« INB It itlll Nmtlni to b« Inqnlrad In what proportion tht gtneral averag* ii tu b« paid liy th« difliirant own- an of th« ottgo, and tho owner of nhip and frvtiiht. Almoni nil gane'al uveraKM are adjn-ittil it the ihlp'! port »f deatlnatlon, and the valuet »r Mm ahip and carK" ure taken at what they would produxi In their actual Ktate upon arrival, and the freight, aciurdlng tu what ia actually rooeWahle, leaa the wagea uf the ca|>- tain and crew ; the general average being di»tril>utad In proportion to theie valuaa. Hliould the curgo lie altogether wotthlata, it can not lie nude to ((intrlhiita ; and ihould the wugee of the crew exceed the freight, then the freight ia not liahle to contriliute. In caae of Jettiaon, the purty whoae property liui lieen aacrl- floed fur the gnnnriil lieiielit rcceivea Indemnity on the same principle ; the value to which ho in cntittad lieing what his property would have produced ntii, auppoaing it to have lieen aold on the arrival of the verael— the fame value aerving for the liasia of hli propcrtlim of coDtrlbntiuri. 8nmn few caaea occu. where the general •venige la adjnatpd at the port of departure. Thui-, tf a ship, outward Iwund to tlie Britlah culoniea, cut ttom an anchor and cable in the Uowoa, or Incur other general average on our own coaat, the inaurancea lieing principally effected In thia countr}-, it ia the cuat age funds are raised by bottomry', the party advancing them takes the ship, freight, and cargo, as security, and charges a premium to cover the risk of the ship's oon-arrival at hnr port of destination. And thus, ou such an occasion, a aubaequent total loaa relieves the Insurer from all liability to average. 'Ihe law and customs by which averages are adjusted vary in dllTer- ent countriea ; but the inaurer in thia country ia only llalile for the averages adjusted anconllng to our laws. The merchant, however, whoae goods arrive at a fur> •tgn port, is obliged to submit to the Jaws of that port. He may thus be a conalderablo loser i paying general average according to one law, and receiving from his insurer according to another. And ho never can be a gainer, because, before he is entitled to re- cover from his insurer, he must prove that h« has paid to the owner of the ship. Tills is one of the many inconveniences to which mercantile men are ex- posed, which can not be removed without, what it may be hoped will gradually take place, an assimilation uf the commercial laws of different countries. Proof of Ltiu. — 'The policy of inauranca Is the In- strument under which the merchant and ship owner claim indemnification for all losses tiiut are not spe- cially excepted. The proof that the loss has been sustained must also be exhibited ; such as the title tu the vessel and cargo, and the evideucb ul' the captain and crew to establish tlie circumstances out of which the claim arises. If A were to insure his vessel fur the space of 12 months, and at the expiration of 11 months were to sell hia ship to B : A's interest in the vessel having ceased, su also does his insurer's lialiiU ity ; and B, If he wish to be protected, must make a new insurance. Proof of ownership, therefore, is an essential prtiliminary to the recover}' of a claim, lu general practice, no difficulty arises from this, because the fact of ownership is sufficiently notorious. The bill of lading is, in most cases, satisfactor}' proof that the cargo was on board, aa well as of tha amount of flight. Valutd and optn Palicu$.—U an iosurano* for #10,000 be effected upoa 100 bhda. of aogar, valued •( #100 par hbd., *ha hill uf lading, showing that the vsa. asl batulillaliiia the Intertat at • 10,OOU, and tlw policy la (i value, the la to tho policy ia an liNad. that li« Is nslther to gain nor loae by the tranam tiiin In tha event uf the veaael's loaa, aupiios- ing Ilia inauratiiw t, It la I'lnar that every illOO Insurance cuvara Ull,7'/ uriglnni coat, thiit la to aay, protects tho inarcliant from loaa to thai extent In case uf tha loss of the vaaani, If then, we aaaume tlie invoice of tha goods ahlp|i«d to In< 40,01X1 ruiieca, or, at the exchange uf ,lU(i, |Mon the two ttrat ^>ol- idea would have been liable for a total loaa. Aiiii» another; but we ahould aay that the law, in inaurance caaoa, ua in the diapoaal of the property of deceaaod peraona, oii)(ht to be the beat Koneral diagioaitlun, leaving to In livlduala the right of raodillcation according to puitu iilar circum- atancex. Return fur Douhh tntmaiuc — Bcaidos return» for aliort interoat and over-lnaurunce, tliuro nre return* for doulile inauruiicn. They are, in fact, to all Intonta and purpoaea, the aaine thing. Double inaurunce ex- lata where the party, through forgotfulneaa, makea an Inaurance upon hia property twice over; or where the ahlppera and cuuaigneea of gooda, when uncertain of one unother'a iutontiona, effect each an inaurance upon them; or where the captain of s veaael in foreign parta, fearing leat hia advicea ahould not reach hia owner, elfecta un inaurance upon it, and the owner at the same time, acting with equal caution, effects one aUo. The obaorvationa alreaily mode upon returns for ■hart intereat, and U|)ou the ditrerence between our laws and those of other countries, apply with eqnal force here. We have now gone over all the principal topics con- nected with marine', assurance. Those who per- this article with ordinary attention will, we hope, ^ain a tolerably clear insight into the principles ami prac- tice of the business. £ut a perfectly familiar ac- quaintanca with it can only be acquired by thoaa who are daily conversant with its details. Analysis of the. General Late of Insurance.— The in- vention of roaritiroi- Inaurance is due to Italy, and it came into un at the close of the 12th or the beginning of the 13th century. The term "policy" la derived from the Italian Polizza, which aignlfies any note or memorandum in writing, creating an evidence of a legal obligation. At that time the Italians were the oar- riers of Europe, and by their means insurance was introduced into other countries. A colony of Lom- bards was settled in London in the I3th century, and conducted for a long time almost exclusively the for- eign trade of the kingdom ; and it is to them that the tradition of England attributes the introduction of Insurance. In the reign of Elizabeth a court was con- stituted to treat of causes relative to policies of insnr- ance In a summary way. The court was formed of the judge of admiralty, tho recorder of London, two doctors of civil law, two common lawyers, and eight merchants, empowering any five of them to hear and determine all such causes arising in London. But the court, on account of its restricted character and other causes, fell into disuse, and cases of insurance are now decided by trial in the courts of common law. The contract of insurance is essentially a contract of in- demnity against the perils of the sea. The various codes differ in the objects prohibited to be insured. Thua tha French cod«, oidinance of BUboa, Spanish oode, Danish, Two iUoillea, Koman States, Ionian IsU ands, Lombardo-Vnneto, Sardinia, ilaytl, and Oreros, prohibit insurance on freight of good* on boani, ex- cepted proUta, wages of seamen, and maritime Interest on loana on bottomry. While Ureut UrIUin, Uolliind, Portugal, Trusala, Malta, United tHatea, and Ham- burg, pormlt theiu. K«-lnaurance is prohibited in Ureat Uritaia. In Orsat Urilain mariners are forbidden to Insure their wages ; but a I'uptiiin of a ahip can in- sure bis wagea, or any Intereat at part owner. An in- aurance on money lent to the capt.iin, payable nut of the freight, la Illegal. Ho are wagor policiea ; and it la the same in Maaaachuaetta. Article 8HJ> of the French code authorise* the assur- ance on the whule or on a part iif the objects which may be inaured; but in Spain and ilenniarii tho goods can not be inaured fur more than nine tentha of tlieir value, and in Spain, no mure thiin four llftha can be inaured on the value of a ahip; at Malta the inaurance can nut exceed aeven eighths; In Prussia it miiy be mail'> for the cost price, or for the value of the ship ; but III Holland and in Portugal the entire value may be insured after tha vessel has set sail. In (Irea't Britain no polli y can be made fur a longer time than for 12 calendar months. The duration of risks for a ship continues in (ireat Britain until 24 hours after she haa moored at anrliur in KiifHty. The aame In the United Stutea and at Malta, According to the Pruasiun code, payment ought to be effected within two months after the notice of the damages; after this time interest commences to run. The law of Ureat Britain being mostly similar to that of America, it haa lieen thought necessary to vary the moile of treating the various subjects; so illegal in- surance, rights of agents, concealment, and reprencnto- tluna have lieen enlarged on In the law of America, while for these, as well as fur r,\l others, the reader is particularly referred to the law of (ireat Britain. The general spirit of the law of insurance is beautifully illustrated in tha following language of the French jurists at tha close of their report to the council of State on the title of insurance in the code of com- merce, and rendered by Uuer in his work on insur- ance : " Marine Insurance may justly be deemed one of tha noblest creations of human geuius. From a lofty height it surveys and protects the commerce of the world. It scans the heavens ; it consults the sea- eons ; it interrogates the ocean ; and, regardless of its terrors or caprice, defines its perils and circumscribci its storms. It extends its cares to every part of tho hab- itable globe ; studies the usage of every nation ; ex- plore . ever)' coast, sounds every harbor. To tin- sci- ence of politics it directs a sleepless attentloi . ; it enters tho council of monarch* — watches the deL aera- tions of statesmen — weighs their motives, and pene- trates their designs. Founding on these vast materials its skillful calculations, secure of the result, it then addresses tha hesitating merchant : ' Dismiss your anx- iety and fears ; these aro misfortunes that humanity may deplore, but can not prevent or alleviate. Such are not the disastcra you dread to encounter. Trust in me and they ahall not reach you. Summon all your resources, put forth all your skill, and, with unfaltering courage, pursue your adventures. Suc- ceed — your riches are eularged ; fail — they shall not be diminished. My wealth shall supply your loss. Rely on me, and, for your sake, at my bidding, the arm of your enemies shall bo paralyzed, and the dan- gers of the ocean cease to exist.' The merchant list- ens, obeys, and is rewarded. Thousands, tempted by his success, follow his example. Those whom it had long separated, tho ocean now unites. The quarters of the world approach each other, and are bound by the permanent ties of mutual interest and mutual benefits." — Lbvi's Com. Law of the World. We extract from Duer's Marine Insurance the fol- lowing Law of Insurance in the United States : INB 104P IlfS " 1. iDinnnM !• • onntrsot of Indtmnlty *ff*l**t lh« parlli of lh« ita. 9. A policy muni ipo'lty, III, lb* ptrtUi iMtwMn whom, tn>l cm wboM Mrounl, lh« Iniuranr* la mad* ; 'id, tha ciiiiKldKrallon or pnnnlam paid ; Iki, the aulijcct Inaurad | 4th, tha amount Inmirad i Ath, tha risk Inaurad a^atnat ; and, Ually, tha voya^a or puriod of tiraa during which tha Inaurancfl la to con> tinua in foroa. >. Form anil KXaciillon of tha conlraiit. Tho nnlfonn and ifanariil i>rui'tl<'a of m«>rt-hantii may Ik contldomd aa avidanca nt thn Irxal nccpmilty nf a writ- tan contract. A aiiaeitlcation of the riaka in an aaaan- tiul part of Iha contract. I. 'I'hn |iollclf-a uiad In tha dilTunint Htatat of tha Union dilTar mat«rlally | and in Now York lb* forma of the policy in una for tha dllTar- ent aubjni'tji of InnuriinRo ara dintlnrt and ivparatfl, ft. Tho iiuliacrlption of the Innurar In alone auftl'iiant. Whan tha inauranre la matle liy an Incorporatnd com- pnny, the axeoutlon of the policy muKt Im atteated by the offlrera danlfpiatod for that purpoa* by Itii chartTa or by Ita law*. 6. Whan a policy haa in fact liaan ex- ccutad, and nolioaof ita exo ution haa l'!-llnlt« Impnrt. The usage, if prnvcil, will guvern the conatriictinn. 20. If by a general pructlc «, tha voyagn or tr.ide to which the Insurance relates has been pursued In a certain course or manner that the terms of the policy, in their ordinart nterpretution, would not embrace parnle, evi- dence may be admitted to prove the pxi-tunrn nf the usage. 21. A usage that cnn alone bn iillowed to con- trol the inter])retatlnn of the policy, or viiry tlin legal rights of the parties, must bo general, uniform, nntnr- ious, reasonable, and consiatent with thn terms of the policy, and, to a certain extent, with the rules of law 0/ Illrgal Innirnncti. — Hreach of Afunicijnl /.nwi, — 2^. The invalidity nf an insurance, as an implied violation of tha laws of trade, may nriae fmm the character of the gooda ex|M>rtvd or iinpnrted, the na- ture of the trade, or the breach of anmn atatutnry pro- vision relative to tlie navigation of tlin »hip or conduct of the voyage. 2;l. When the oxpnrtatatinn or Im- portation of the gniHls shipped ia prohibited, the Ille- gality affecta nut only the policy upon the goods them- selves, but equally those upon the ship and freight, since the voluntary reception of the gonds by the mas- ter is as much a violation of law as their shipment by the owner. When the prohibited act renders the sub- sequent voyage or trade illegal, it vacates tho policy. 24. The Illegality of a voyage, arising from the transportation nf prohibited goods, is never permitted to affect a distinct policy upon the lawful gmMis of a different owner. 25. Where the goods insured by one policy are all of them lawful, the insurance is valid, even when the assured, as owner or otherwise, is In- terested or concerned in the transportation of unlaw- ful goods by the same vessel, but otherwise when in- cluded in an entire policy. M. The contract is entire when the goods insured (whether tho insurance be general or specific) are included in one gross vuluntlnn ; but where an insurance it specific upon different k.nda of goods, and a separate value is affixed to each denomination, the contract is distinct. So where the policy is open upon different kinds of goods. 27. An insurance in one policy for the owners of a ship la not devisable ; but the illegal act of one with- out the knowledge or privity of the others, has the same effect In voiding the entire contract as if ail had concurred. But the contract will not bo regarded as entire when the insurance is made by a common a({ent on account of several persons whoso interests are seve- ral and distinct. 28. When an entire voyage is ille- gal at its inception, the illegality runs through and infects every part of it. 20. When a particular trade Is prohibited by the expnsa terms of a treaty to 191 t049 INS vhUh lk« MaU within whn** jiirtiHtl.?(lnii th* policy In oiruRUd U » ixrty, thn rlfni't 'J thii prohlliUlim, whi'th«r ipnanil •• to trail* nr limit :il t4) purtii'iiUr cuminodUlM, U pnrliidly thn •Hnifi m if it warn liy • muDiclpkl Uw, an act of I'trlliiniiint, or iif CiinKraii*. Kv«ry voyag* in rnntrtvuiili'in of tlia trtaty in IIUkiiI, and tvary Inituranofl u|>im auili ii voyiiK*, wiiatnvtr Imi th* lulijai-t or Urina artly voiil. 8« (-ovnraii liy thn pollny, la not luf- fioiant to randar th« innuranre valid wheii tha axpni-t- atlon la not raaliand, and tha voyn)(n Ih undartaknn and proaacutad in dnHancn of the pnivliilona of thn law. Hfctiim II. A'ni'my'a J'rvpfrli/. — M. ICvory inaur- ancn upon pnipnrty iialila to conliacation aa prizn nf war by thn ifovnmniant of thn country to which thn inauranca IwionK*, la of neoeaaity invalid. An Inaur- anca mada in a iialligarnnt country upon thn p^)p«rty of tha aulijacta of an oppoaite liolllKarent, la void, flU. Uooda in the courae of trunaportutlon from a nniitriil country to a lieliiKeroiit, if they arn to Iw delivnrnd to, and iMconia the pni|i*rty of, a l)elli)i(erent immpdintidy on their arrival, are uonaidflrml ua hia unmU during the voyage (in iiintrt'), and aa auch are buliject to cupturn and contiacation. Srctiim III. AVm.y'a Proprrty—Domieilti.—M. A merchant la a political menilier of the country into which, liy hia reaidenco and liualncaa, he la incorpo- rated i he la a auliject of the government that protei'ta him la hia purauita, that hia induatry contributea to support, and of whoaa natural rnwurcna hia own meana are a conatituent part. 81). When the proiwrty of a foreigner who, at the time of ita ahipment waa ilvinn in a boatile country, la aeized aa that of nn enemy, the captora are not bound to prove in the firat inatanc'e that hia place of realdence waa hia actual domicile. The preaumptliin of law ia in their favor. The animiu mn- nendi, the intention to remain, the Inw imputes to him, and to redeem hia property from the noxioua im- putation, ho muat give auch evidence of hia intention and plana ua ahull be effectual to destroy it. Uli. The national character of iiersoua who reside in a foreign countr)-, in a public or representative capacity, is not chuni I d or alleeted by ttieir residence, whatovrr may be its uuratiou, or by whatever circumstances indica- tive of the intent to render it permanent it may be ac- companied. But if a foreign consul engage in com- merce, he is immediately stumped, with respect to that commerce, with the national character of the coimtry in which lie resides, and from which his trade is con- ducted. His character of consul affords uo protection to bis mercantile adventures. 37. A native suliject can not acquire a foreign domicile by an emigration from his own country during; the existence of hoxtlli- ties (JIanrante beilo) so as to protect hia trade during the war, either against tho boiligorent claims of liis own country or against those of a hostile power. Ilia native character ia wholly unclianged by his changn of residence. 38. The nature of the trufho or busineLS in which an individual is engaged, may stamp upon him a national character wliolly independent of that which hia place of residence would alone impose. Section IV. Trade with the A'twiny.— 39. The pro))- erty of a subject is in all cases liable to confiscation in a court of prize when it ia found engaged in an unlaw- ful trad* M intercourse with the ports, territories, or •ubJediS of the public enemy ; and the property of a subject of a State allied in the war is iialila under tho like oiroumstances to the same penalty. 40. To ren- der the importation of goods from an enemy's port an lUegal trading, it is not requisite that they should b« tha fhilla nt any purrhasn, barter, eonlract, nr nnRO- tiatliin in the nnainy'a inutitry, after hontllit>' hud commnncad. Thn nulling of thn vMsnl with th* triHHia on tHwird aftnr thn party had knowledge nf thn war, complntoa thaotrnnun, atainpa tha cargo with an illpgal charactnr, and aubjacts it, during Ita transportallim, to a rightful aaiiurn. 41. To rnndar a trmln with th* nneniy unlawful, It is not necnsaary tliat thn commu- iiicallon with thn ennniy'x country ■hoiiid Im immadl- ate and direct, A circuitous trailn ia llabln to th* same abuana, ami Invcdvaa tiie •anin political danger* aa a direct one, anil Ihnrrfnrn equiilly fulls within th* intenllctlon and prnulty of thn law. Vi. If un Amer- ican V4'SH benefit it was original'y gruut <, A licensn to an alien enemy, whe'lior by nami> or general words, removes all his persu. d disablllt ■ 41. Tli* 'd* for which the protection of a licensn is ciuimed mist corres|Hmil with those that thn IIcimm* enumer. . ir doacribna. When a license autliorlzes the ii t> >tloii of gomls from an uniiniy's country in un enei 1 v' 1 jhip, the proti'i linn intended tii l>e gmntcd, although con- fined ill I rnis to the goods, by '■ > conntrucllim of the law 11 extended to tho vessi .. 1 .' ii national char- acter of the ahip, as describei' In tl..- licence, is, in most cases, a condition necessary to lie fulfilled to se- cure the pmtection that is desired. Sniiint V. Hreach nf Nrutralitg. —4i. The dutlei of tt subject or citizen of tho neutral iState are, 1. To aliHtuin from every act that tends to thu ussistancu of either of thn belligerents In the prosrciitiim of the war. 2. To abstain from ever}' act that tuiuU directly to re- lievo one of tho belligerents f'lm the pressure and effect of the opposite liostilities. 3, To offer no resist- ance to the full exorcisi) of the lielligercntH' rights of visitation and search, anil to resort to no means for eluding and defrauding the rights of capture. 40. Krom the moment that a ship, with contruhand arti- cles on lioard, quits her port on a hostile dpstinatlou, us a general rule the offense is coinplctu and tho cap- ture legal. To Justify the capture, it is enough that tlie immediate object of the voyage is to supply the enemy, an '.'lat the contraband is certainly destined tohisimmei-i liu - \nien a party efTecta an insurance after the risks have commenced, if he has an interest at the time in the subject-matter of the policy, the contract may be so framed as to entitle him to recover fur a loss that had in fact occurred Iwfore his own title was ac- quired by insuring the goods " lost or not lost." 62. An agent emploj-ed to procure an insurance can not himself become the insurer. 0/ the Deicription of the Parties in the PoUcy. — 53. The names of the immediate parties to the contract, that is, of the individual or company agreeing to m- snme the rislcs, and of the person effecting the insur- ance, must be mentioned in the policy. 64. When the in~urance is made by an agent, the parties really assured may be described by general words ; nor is •ven a general description necessary, if the party effecting the insurance describes himself as "agent" In the policy. Where the person effecting the insur- ance describes himself as the agent of a particular person, the policy, by its necessary < instruction, inures only to protect an interest of the party thus named as the principal. 66. When an agent effects a policy in his own name on account of a third person, who is named, or describing the assured by general words, an action on the policy for the recovery of a loss may be maintained in the name of the agent, or in that of the party really interested. But where the agent is a naked trustee, having no lien in the policy, and no interest of his own that was meant to be pro- tected, he will not be allowed to maintain the action in bis own name, if it appear that previous to the com- mencement of the suit his authority as agent had been countermanded or revoked. 66. Although each part- ner has a right to insure the partnership property in the name or on account of the Mrm, yet where the in- surance is expressed to be on his sole account, it must be limited in its application to his individual share. When the separate interest of a partner, sep- arately insuring, is equal to the amount insured, he can have no motive for averring or attempting to prove a partnersliip property. 67. When the interest of the party in whom the interest is averred is proved, and an authority from him to insure, or his adoption of the contract is also proved, it is an inference of law from the terms of his policy that tlie insurance was effected on bis account. But when the proof establishes that his interest was not intended to be covered, it forms an insuperal>le bar to a recovery. 68. The interpreta- tion of every policy that is effected Ir- an agent under previous instructions, must hn controlled by the inten- tion of the principal in every case where evidence of the intention can properlj- be received to determine the construction. The general words of a policy de- scriliing the assured, have always received a liberal interpretation. 59. The policy may be so framed that the insurance sliall Iw inseparably attached to the property m^ant to be covered, so that the successive owners, during the continuance of the risks, shall be- come in turn the parties really assured. Of the Atiiunmenl of the Policy and of the Rights of the Aaaigwe. — 60. Although a jiolicy of insurance in its usual form is not assignalde in law so as to enable the assignee to maintain an action upon the contract in his own name, it is in all cases ossignuble in equity, and vests in the assignee a beneticial intererit, varj'ing in its extent according to the purpose for which the assignment is made. 61. Althougli the rights of the assignee of a policy are equitable in their nature, it is not in a court of equity, when a loss has occurred to which he claims to l)e entitled, ind the underwriters refuse to pay, tha* he must seek lelief. He has a full remedy in an action at law, in the name of the as- surer. 62. The assignment in writing of a policy of insurance does net vest in the assignee a perfect title, except as against the assignor, unless it is accompanied by an actual delivery of the instrument itself. The policies in use In Boston contaiu special olansea n. stricting their assignment. Of Intunmci: effected by an Aget'i, — Of the Authcr- ily of an Agiitt to Insure. — 63. The necesaity of prov- ing either the original authority of the agent, or the subsequent adoption of his contract, is expressly af- lirmed, or necessarily implied, in every case in which a question us to the authority of the agent has arisen. A prior authority conferring on the agent the right to insure, is either express or implied. An express au- thority may Ym written or verbal. 64. The author- ity of a single partner, and of each partner, to insure the partnership property in the name or by general words on account of the Arm, or to direct such an as- surance to be made, is established and undoubted. 65. The right of a part owner to insure is limited to his own individual share. 66. The master of a ship has no general authority, but has an implied authority in special cases. 67. When a consignee has an inter- est, he may insure the entire property consigned to him ; but a consignee who has no interest, ai;d no lien whatever, upon the goods consigned to him for sale, has no right to insure them on behalf of the consigner, unless specially instructed, 68. A general agent may insure ou behalf of his principal, unless restricted in his discietion by the express instruction of his princi- pal. The authority of the agent, express or implied, may be revoked by the principal at any time before the terms of the insurance have been settled by an agreement with the underwriters. 69. In the United States a u.sage prevails to cover all shipn. its by a general standing time policy on good.., so as to em- brace not only all outward and home shipments made on their own account, but all shipments made to them from foreign ports, upon which they are di- rected to effect insurance. AVhen there is a sub- sisting policy in the above form, a direction to insure, once given, is in its nature irrevocable. 70. Wiicn an agent accepts an order to insure, or omits to give notice of his refusal, he is of course bound to its execution. When the principal has funds or effects in th] hands of his correspondent, the application of which rests in his own discretion, he is justifled that they will be applied liy his correspondent to pro- cure the insurance that he directs. 71. When the agent has no funds or effects of his principal on hand, but, b}- an established course of dealing, has been in the habit of executing the orders of his principal to effect insurance, and of advancing t! e premium, he is Iwund to execute all similar orders that be may re- ceive from him, until he has given him notice tliat this cours'j of dealing must bo discontinued. 72. When a consignee receives a bill of lading, with an order to in- sure its contents, if ho accepts the consignment, be must execute the order. lUe law regards the trans- action as entire, and the acceptance of the l)enolit as a tacit promise to discharge tlie duty. 73. Tiicse rules are subject to exceptions. The agent can never be bound to effect an insurance that, from circumstances that could not liave t)een known or anticipated when the order was given, instead of securing an indemnity to his principal, would tend to his certain prejudice and loss. When the agent, when he receives the order, knows, or has just grounds for believing that liis cor- respondent is insolvent, or is threatened with insolv- ency, the acceptance of the trust rests in his own dis- cretion. Vet, should his apprehension prove to he groundless, he should be called to justify his conduct, by proving that the information on which he has acted was credible and trustworthy. The obligation to insure that arises from a previous course of dealing, can only appi; to insurances similar to those that the agent had been in the habit of effecting. 74. The con- fldence reposed in an agent is strictly personal { and he can not delegate to a third person an authority that, l)y the intention of his principal, was meant to be exe- cuted by himself alone. INH 10«1 IKS Sbotioh III.— (y /tuuranett by wluntafu ngmti, and their Adoption.— 76. Altimuith tllA uAmition nt « voluntary inturance ia naeattanfyiotllUkt ifm wdtroct Tilid against the principal, an4 \>tmi( ui iUt udo^lon to warrant the recovery of a Urn* ttaitUiiit th^.tnnurer, we are not to infer that tlie agent wtw* Htfrnt^ t'w policy is at liberty to rescind bis own lumtrm't, mum ptouf either of his want of a previous mtiwfiljf, lit (if tlut re- fusal of bis intended prinuiiMls t(t ntify bi« Mi. 70. There are, however, two citsss in whUiU, m Ddceptloin from the general rule, tlw viilMntjtry MlifCB*, wImB hit insurance has been rejmtod, may jitmy uU\m to te- cover back the proniiun» ba Ims (N«i4 1 Ut, Wb«ti lis ■Uscloses to the underwriters tJMtt (h« iniiUMttco Is made without authority, aiui tb( surance under these circuutotaiM^*. U «X«lU(My duly nuthnrliied. The party for whom the insurMflt^A Wi*s iHt<t and anfurra » Mitiiract that would not have l)een valid if m«te by bw pnptfuit di- rection. 78. When tlia agent iiwfiily »nei>«iU » «tr«n authority, the principal is mmiwM If b» fall to gite notice of his dissent witliin a PfaMmabk tilttt) »(t«t rS' ceiving the information, Of the Dutiea of Ayenti in Iheir Ifehthmt with Iheir Principals, and with the Jiitu)>i>fii,=HK Kvefy ««ent who is entitled to receive a w)iil(i«B!*«tbm (lit bis serv- ices, is bound to eiercisa not only (Iw s(tm« dare ami diligence that be is accMstoiiied to i>m\i\iiy l« bis own private affairs, but all tlia H»r«, ami rtllljjfinw, and skill that the transaction ot (ba |Nir(i«iilnr business with which he ia intrusted, anwrdlHtf Ut Its iinturs, may be reasonably coi)stri(e4 to f#(}Hlf«, SO, A person who undertakes fi ^Ifm-'t an Inmnmum for another, should maks proper iw|uirbl» uh Ui (b« clr^ cumstances and standing of tin* ininfUM to whom he wishes to apply, and to im mnM to mUvt tliose whose credit is established and Hn()ia(illi(i(l ( but when he acts in good faith In niakblb' tlia «itl«utloii( and has exercised the nucesuury oawtioB, Iw in ivit, K«n«ral!y speaking, responsible for tlM ultimitt^ Mtvency of those who subscribe that (wliuy, unbiM bn teeeWn a del credtre commission, i mm tbU f l(l« lb« toluntary agent is not exempted, 81, WlH>n tb« ngMtt, employs a broker to effect the polliiy, aa Im in alwayit justllled in doing, when such is t'ia Hsaga frf tll» tilaoe where the contract is road(>, it ia to tiM (llw fsilon of the broker that tbe choiiM of tl^-" Insttrura l« Intrusted ( and for his fraud or neglect in Um eKa, ia juatly linuutMbl* to him, f<2. An agent who baa elfaiitod » |Kilb eflTect a «««onia resulting from his omis- sions. HO, When thtt ombislon or act of the agent that vitiates tlia contract «Mn li« Justly Imputed to his fraud or bis nauUnt, h$ la poraonally liable for the resulting damaKBt but where 1( proceeds from his want of the rtt<(uUlt« akill, there are cases in which e(|uily demanda soma dlntlnctiuns. 87. A mercantile agent who was neltlier aulliorlxnd to Insure nor has effected an inauranca, may yet render himself liable as an insurer, liy « fabio representation, not to the un- derwriter, but to bla prlnvipal, If the nature of the misrepresentation b> au«b aa to Invalidate a policy founded on It, elfacled liy tlie {irlnclpnl, or on his be- half. The nuist Important and responsible duty of every agent in effecting an insurance, Is to take care that the (Hilicy shall tia no framed as efTcctiially to cover the property and rl»k#, which he is directed to Insure, or which, wli«n nut acting under a previous order, be believaa anil represetiti himself to have in- sured. 88, WIten an agent acts under cle?T and positive instructional and viulntes them In the term and form of tlia Inaurani/e that lie effects, his nogll>. gence, it is manifest, U still more culpable and renders the agent iwraonally liable, llut when tho order is plain, the guwl faith iif tint agent will not protect him. Hil, Even when an agent acta grntultously, without tlie hope or expectation of a reward, yet, if ho enters on tbe execution of an order to Insure, he must follow its terms, and by bia iimlaiiiim tlenc« of the intentions of tba party dlrtcting (b« iiwttrancet. 93. If (he agent ms 10S2 im finds it impracticable to effect an Insurance according to the terms of his instructions it is his duty to give immediate notice of his failure to his principal. When an agent has separate orders to insure on the same voyage, and against the same risks, the property of several persons whose interests are several, should he elect to cover the whole property in one policy, he most be careful so to frame the contract as to secure to each of his constituents the same indem- nity to which he would have been entitled had his property and Interest alone been covered. 93. An order to insure is either discretionar}' or positive, and when positive, is either general or limited. The order is discretionary when the election to insure ' or not to insure, is committed alisolutely to the dis- cretion of the agent ; and in such a case if the agent determines not to insure he is responsil)le only for his good faith. The order when positive is general when it describes the property and voyage, but gives no di- rection as to the risks to be covered nnd imposes no limitation as to the premium. When the order Is thus general the duty of the agent is fully discharged by his obtaining an insurance in the usual form of the policy at the place where the insurance is made, 94. When the order to insure contains no direction or restriction as to the amount of the premium to be paid, it is the duty of the agent to effect the insurance at all events without regard to the premium ; and if by lim- iting himself to a smaller premium he defeats an insur- ance, he is liable, with the exception, however, that where the funds he has or he is to advance should not permit him to enhance the premium sufficiently, he would be excused, 96. Special instructions must be exactly followed by the agent. When an agent is di- rected to insure a certain amount, it is his duty to pro- cure an insurance, if possible, to the full extent of the sum required ; but if he can not, he must execute the order ss far as he can. 96. An insurance is not wholly void when the agent exceeds the premium to which he was limited. A contract made by an agent who in its terms exceeds his authority, is never wholly void if the excess may be readily ascertained and separated, 97, Asa general rule the order imless otherwise express- ed, may be construed as intended to refer in its execution solely to the place of the agent's residence ; but circum- stances may doubtless creute an exception and impose a duty that the order does not in terms require, 98, Where an agent who has effected a policy retains its possession with the consent of his principal, his agen- cy is continued. His general dnt}' is to enforce the rights and protect the interests of his principal in all matters arising out of the contract. If a loss, partial or total, has occurred he must collect, arrange, and submit the accessary proofs, adjust and settle its amounts, demand and receive its paj-ment. If in order to sustain the claim of the assured for a total loss, an abandonment is necessar}-, he must take it on behalf of his principal, must take care that it is prop- erly expressed and is delivered in due season, and he must be careful to preserve the requisite evidence of all his transactions, 99, The most important and re- sponsible of the subsequent duties of the agent is to collect, receive, and pay over the losses that may oc- cur and fall 'no under the policy, and l>y his negli- gence in the lischarge of his duty he may readily incur a heavy lialiillty since he is necessarily bound to pay all losses, that l>ut for his neglect and delay might have been recovered from the underwriters. Payment to the agent to discharge the underwriters must be i>'. actual payment made in good faith, not the aiiowanc of a credit. 100. An insurance agent or broker who . authorized to receive a loss, has no authority to accept r credit in lieu of a payment in money, nor can the un derwriter in such a case allege his own ignorance of the trust that is violated. When the agent is a cred- itor of the assured and the nature of his debt gives bim a lien on the policy, that lien will attach on all moneys that he may recelv* from tim n^dttrwtUtt «fl. der the policy, and he h«« » peff««t tii(Hl (« frt«((l such moneys to his own i»» w> fur M m»y 1m ncee*. sary to satisfy his claims, l)y giving Am »'f«l(j Ut th« assured ifor the amount, Tha eriflft litvoti \iy (h« agent extinguishes the debt U» tfw nmUffA, »iv\ iW-u charges the insurer, 101, A mttUnmii m hkmiH between the underwriter and tl»e agsKt U t'imr\u'>Ue nti the agent himself, 102, Tlis ag«nt sImjhM inmrnW to his principal, full and just mn'tmnti of *tJ Ma tM/isso. tions on bis behalf, keep bim »4v(»«4 tif «ti metir. rences connected with the Iniltnmm \iy wWt (wrMblA (miy to the person in wlioaa name Hi» imiinmx h d/fccted, 104, If the agent intends by tint iHstiftiim lit th(t spe- cial clause to extend his lieM im »^t^ i'»ntm fidvanres or a balance of accounts, to w(»M( tlw \n\it\Utilfi U not annexed by law, the eUeniHim, U mtt imttuifiml try the principal, is a fraud upon bis iijdtt§i »ii4 whefa no such intention exists « priMtim llmittn^ (tie pay- ment of a loss to the agent »1»m tmy itpmnte in em- barrass or delay the remedy of ttm Hmitttm, »t<4 i>huttl(t therefore, without his consent, ffvor tm fHMftwl, 0/ Ike RighU of Ihe AgrtUr-^lOfi, A» »KKflt has a lien on the policy! and nw»r«»v«f, hm Htilluirity to maintain an action in his own «*BW fitr lh« temvtty of a loss ur'ier the policy, Jf«), An Smw»nt« bfohef has a li. •■ n ilie |x)ilcy «giiiM«( UU StnmmWttte em- ployor, n ' i^ms for bis atmmMim* »«/! f/remittms, but for the general balanc« iif bix imunmm tuxtmtit. If the broker, when Ije eAWM (It* \mSyy htttrw, irt had reasonable ground to l»li«y«, b) \)y bfffl im wcoont of the pro|>erty assured, but »\m lii thtt gmm»i finUnre due to him, or liecomiug diw «fbtl«i Uut tmiUf in in his hands in bis account with Ma ptini'iplH, the pflvl- lege of lien embracing •Uiws »ri»iltu iriitit lAitct dis- tinct trausactiims does not a%tmu\ tit nut mi-Vfuftr^, th« voluntary or the gratuituUK ttgmtt A utmM'iti iitti Is not limited to moneys actually |mI4 lif tbff n^mtt iif (hen due to him, but einliraces alt Mn imiiitntiiiiliif ImMllties on behalf of his principal tfiiUi^ irtit iif bis Huency. 109. But a general lien, ualrM hy tt tifmiiiti Hfinrtnent, does not embrace all tlie e%U>ting iUniMftii' find liiihili- ties of the agent ugaiH»t bW iiriiuifmi, iiiit ttiiy such as relate to the business or (tiin>U>ym*iit In which tha agjr.' H enf;aged, and b»v« gmmu iitit tit t)(« fplatlon in *Mji ii:ploynuiOt iietwewn btw awS biii principal. 'V. 'lSa obligation of tlte iimt uttif'ttfa f'|IIAll.V im all mjnty.i i»-«; ed hy bim muUirtIm (miii'y, 'tint tiKmi vr^iivir i. j !l( n when ha vulMMt^Hlfdcllv^f* (he iiollcy to ;.!< pri'i'i; al or to bis oniitr, nf mtii^ b« («»tt« with 111) nMsseh"! n wrongfully, as by fM^itiK the (nrlicy . . .M ox I property. Ho lie iiwy «»)*« b(« lien by an nxpress or implied agreement, VVb#N tb« ptiiiry enmn again into his possassion, bU iim U fofltrnt in all Its original extent, Tba iittn u( n mitri-uMii nguM at- taches on the policy io tb* piMmmkn «( (Im broker 117, be pi half plete fendt Whe namt sponi «ign hast act thori ance INS 1063 INS whom he had tmploved to eiTeot the Insnnnce. 111. The Revtaed Statutes of Xew York limit the right of aet-oe deemed material simply on the ground that if communicated tliey might have excited a suspicion of danger in the mind of the insurer. 124. The as- sured will not be allowed to protect himself against the charge of an undue concealment by evidence that he had disclosed to the underwriter, in general terms, the information that lie possessed. Where his own in- formation is specific, it must be communicated In the terms in whicn it was received. The information pos- sessed by the assured may not be material in itself, INS 10S4 nparateljr considered, yst may be of such a clmraoter that it woald probably lead to farther inquiries on the part of the underwriter ; and If the result of the in- quiry wonld show the information to be material, it must be communicated. Its concealment, whether fraudulent or innocent, will vitiate the insuran^je. 126. When the insurance is " on ship or ships," omis- sion to disclose the name will not avoid the policy un- less the concealment was rendered material by other facts. The voluntary i/;noriiPce of the assured, whether the result of flraud or of gross negligence, vill not be allowed to excuse him, but as evidence if a concealment vitiating the policy, will have tht same effect as his actual knowledge. 126. Wher« the assured utaploys an agent to effect the policy, it is his duty to communicate through him all the facts that are requisite to be disclosed. The duty of the principal is the same whether the author- ity of the agent be general or special. The conceal- ment of a loss by an agent who is bound to give the intelligence, violates the implied understcnding on wticb the contract is founded, as a similar conceal- ment by the principal. Concealment of material facts when the policy i^ altered, renders the policy void. 127. 'Where an underwriter seeks to protect himself by a re-assurance, he is bound to communicate not only all the representatli ns made to himsrlf whf'n he woscrlbod the policy, but all tiie knowledge and in- formation he had subsequently acquired. In England and in the United States the knowledge of the as- sured, or of his agent, is never presumed, but must hn established, in all cuses, by positive evidence. 128. The information usually necessary to be given, may be distributed under the following general beads : 1. The state and condition of the ship or property in- sured, 2. The nature and extent of the interest insured ; and, lastly, the extraordinary perils arising from extreme causes to which the property has been or will piobably be exposed. The assured is not bound, in the first instance, to make any representa- tion as to the condition of the ship at the commence- ment of the risks to which the policy relates. 129. Although uot by the terms of the contract, yet in judgment of the law, stipulates that the vest^e' vf i or shall be seaworthy, and it is on the truth of this im- plied stipulation, and not of any representation of the assured, that the underwriter relies, and the policy is founded. Hence, a policy, where the siilp is unsea- worthy, and the fact is known to, and suppressed by the assured, is conclusive evidence of a meditated fraud. The same disclosures must be made by the as- sured if any facts are known to him which would just- ify a reasonable suspicion of the honesty of the mas- ter. As the warranty of seaworthiness relates solely to the condition of the ship at the commencement of the risks that are covered by the policy, if the as- sured has received anj' advices relating to the state and condition of the ship since the commencement of the voyage insured, he is bound to communicate them. l:)0. Condition and quality of the goods. When no inquiry is made by the underwriter, the assured is not bound to disclose the state and condition of the goods when shipped, nor where the insurance is on goods generally, is he bound to disclose, in the first instance, the particular character and descrintion of the goods that are meant to be covered. Go^ds lashed on deck are not at the risk of the underwriter. Whether they were insured in special or general tsrms, they are not protected unless the fact that they are thus transported is stated in the policy, or unless the "lode of transport- ing is sanctioned by a usage of tmAi, the existence of which the underwriter is bound to know. When goods laden, or to be laden, are insured in a time policy, such a disclosure is not necessary to be made. The same when the insurance is on successive ce-^oea on a trad- ing voyage to successive ports, the hoice of the port at the discretion of the assured. ' Title or fnifeil q/* the Attured.— 131. The assured is not bound to communicate to the underwriters the particular natuit of his interest in the p'nnerty In- sured ; but in some cases, as when the insurance is on freight, bottomry, respondentia, eto., the nature of hia interest must be specified in the policy, and in others, its disclosure to the underwriter is nocessarj', in order that the terms of the policy may be construed tu em- brace it. The decisictt.>t on this subject in the Arneri. can courts are very conflicting. 132, When letter* marques are intended to be used, although for tb.e limited purpose of chasing and capturing vessels that may be mci. in the courtie of the voyage, it must l)e disclosed, 133. Information of the fact, or of the day of sailing, although known to the irssured, is nit iu all cases to be given to the insurer. When the ship is known to have performed a part of the voyage in- sured, she may not l>e out of time when the policy is effected in reference to the whole voyage, yet may be so in reference to the accomplished portion ; and, in such a case, it is the duty of the assured to communi- cate not merely the original time of sailing, but all the information he had received relative to the course and progress of the voyage, 134, However material may be the facts known to the assured, it is plair.ly unnecessar}- to communicat" them to the insurer, if they are iu faut already known to him. Proof, there- fore, of «^he actual knowleilge of the underwriter is in all cases a complete answer ti a charge of conceal- ment. The assured is not bcim 1 to make any coiamu- nication in the first instance respecting facts which the underwriter ought to know, i\nd of which, for this rea- son, the law imputes to liim the actual knowledge. The piesumption of law in the cases comprehended in thable existence of the particular risk that he agrees to assume. When he thus consents to assume the risk in its most aggra- vated form, he can not just'y complain that facts showing tliftt such w.is its real extent were not dis- closed to him. 139. Tho assured is not bound in the first instance to communicate any facts that era cov- ered by a warranty exp.'ess or implied. Ho is not bound in the flrsi. instance to communicate facts that are only material, as showing the existence of a risk which is excepted from the policy. He is not bound to communicate facta that tend to diminish the risks vaiidil mine I ofani laws as ini War. Of statem ing to otherii of the surer, estima nsnall bthe Btructi the poi facts; tions, sentati divide aUve facts specifl Thee prope; dence tion, INS 1065 INS M ihty would othenrtse b« understood by the inaorer. 140. The liuurer has the right, upon inqniiy, to be informed of all facts within the knowledge of the assured, that in the exercise of his own Judgment he may deem material to the risks, or important to be known, as a guide to his own discretion. Where the insurer is not to be charged with an equal knowledge, the assured, either without, or upon inquiry, is bound to communicate all the facts, that his knowledge or in- formation embraces, that are material to the risks, or may be deemed material by the insurer, but he is not bound to communicate his own conclusions from the facts that he must disclose. 141. The following are cases in which the effect of a concealment is not to vitiate the entire contract, but merely to exonorate the insurer from a loss resulting from the risk con- cealed : 1st. National character of the insured. 2d. Liability of the propertj' insured to capture and deten- tion. 8d. Liability to seizure from breach of foreign laws of trade. 4th. Want of necessary documents. 5th and lastly, the use of false or simulated papers. National Character of the Atmred — 142. Where the Insurance is made in a neutral country, a full dis- closure of the national character of the assured in the first instance is necessary, not to give validity to the contract, but to cover the risk, so as to charge the un- derwriter with a resulting loss. The assured may be the subject of a nentral State, and legal owner of the property insured, yet, an equitable interest, rendering the property liable to hostile capture, may be vested in a belligerent subject. As such an interest creates a risk not contemplated by the parties, it must bo disclosed. 143. Even when the policy contains a warrant)' of neutrality, and describes the assured by general words, facts not disproving the warranty, yet showing that the property is liable to seizure as enemy's property, are necessary to be disclosed. 144. Liability of prop- erty to capture or detention : The voyage or trade to which the insurance relates may be interdicted by the law of nations, by the special provisions bI 1 treaty, or by an unjust ordinance or decree of toe belligerent power, or by arbitrary rules or decisions that prevail in the courts of prize. 145. Where the voyage or trade on which the insurance relatit, is 'prohibited by the municipal laws of the foreign countrj' to which the ship is destined, or where the risks are to commence, a concealment of such an extraordinary risk discharges the insurer from a con- sequent loss, without affecting in other respects the validity of the contract. 146. The rules that deter- mine the validity of an insurance, embracing the risks of an illicit trade, or trade in violation of tho municipal laws of a foreign county, are suljstantially the same as in rejpect to an insni:ince on goods contraband of war. Of Representations. — 147. A representation is a statement of facts, circumstances, or information tend- ing to increase or diminish the risks, as they would otherwise be considered made, prior '..: ; ■ execution of the policy by the assured or his agunt, to the in- surer, in order to guide his Judgment in forming a Just estimate of the risks he is desired to assume. It is usually ro' ".o by parole, or by a writing not inserted in the policy ; but when the intention as to the con- struction is sufficiently declared, may be expressed in the policy. 148. Representations relate either, Ist, to facts; 2d, to the information ; or, lastly, to the inten- tions, expectations, or belief^ of the assured. A repre- sentation of facts is a positive roprcsentation, which is divided into affirmative and promissory : when affirm- ative, they assert the past or present existence of tho facts to which they relate ; when promissory, that the specifiei event will happen, or act be performc ',. 149. The evidence of a positive representation of facts, may properly be received in all cases. The rules of evi- dence in respect to the admissibility of a representa- tion, are anbstantially the same as in respect to a uiage ; and, in many cases, the representation, when proved, becomes, like the usage, a part of the contract. The words of tite representation are to be strictly and literally construed, but are to be understood in their plain and obvious meaning, in that which it is most probable they were suggested to the mind of the insurer. It will be construed to embrace all the facts, the existence of which, from the terms nsed, would reasonably and probably be inferred. 150. When a representation is so ambiguous in its terms, that it may be understood with equal propriety in two diiferent senses, it is the duty of the insurer to seek an explana- tion ; and when such a representation is understood l>y him in a sense different from that intended by tho assured if he had omitted to inquire, he will not be permitted to aver its falsity. A representation of future facts, although positive in its terms, may in some cases be Justly interpreted, not as an undertaking for the truth of the facts, but as referring solely to the expectation or belief of the party. When a represent- ation of future facts is inconsistent with the terms of the policy, it is not to be rejected. The policy remains the sole evidence of the agreement; but the repre- sentation may be operative, l)y construing it to refer to the intentions of the assured at the time of making it. 161. The words of a representation must be construed in reference to the usages of trade, or in their tech- nical and commercial sense. A representation may supersede a usage and an implied warranty. Where there are several underwriters on the same policy, a representation to the first is construed to extend to all, so that each, when it proves to be false, may avail himself of the defense. This rule is strictly confined to the cases in which the representation is made to the underwriter whose name stands first on the policy. The terms of the rule are restricted to underwriters on the same policy, and it is confined to cases in which tho representation to the first und jrwriter was favorable to the risk, and to such cases the rule exclusively applies. 152. Where the subscription of the first underwriter is obtained under a secret agreement that it is not to be binding, and for the sole purpose of decoying others to insure, the exhibition of the policy thus subscribed is the asser^on of a falsehood, and the contract is void. A representation once made is binding on the party, unless it is altered or ^thdrawn before the insurance is effected. The completion of the policy is thcrefora the time to which the representation is construed to refer. 153. A representati-n, to be binding, must b^ material, and, to discharge the insurer, must be false wholly or partially, id, according to tho character of the represcntatio ' >'se in fact or in the event. It is not necessary' thut . hu facts represented should be ma- terial to the risk, that is, should affect or change the value of tho risk, considered in themselves. The ma- teriality required is not absolute, but rela^'.ve, and its test is the actiuU or probalde influence of the facts represented on the mind of the insurer. In Judgment of law a representation is falpe when il fails to corre- spond with the facts that it afiirms or stipulates ; and hence i falsity is either intentional or accidental. 154. \-'' 11 the representation, whetl'r ."rmative or promiaBory, is made with an intent ' - ■'"'. 've, the fraud in all cases vitiates tho contract ; ii . ' ' ,: produce this effect is it requisite that tho falsity Bh;,uld be en- tire: partial falsity, when intentional, is equally a fraud; and an inquiry into the materiality of tl'' charge, as affecting the character and value of tl.f risks, would never be allowed. 155. When the falsity of the representation is accidental, its effect upon the contract will depend, first, upon the nature and extent, and next upon the period of time to which it is to be re- ferred. The falsity of the representation, when entire, in all cases dlschar(,es the insurer ; but such is not its necessary consequence when it is only literal or partial. The substantial falsity of a representation, in cases exempt from firaud, does not always render the con- ^$ \ INS 1056 INS i^'iliii tnot wholt" void. When the reprerintatlon Is false when maiU, or at the commcrncment of the riiki, auch U the nece.iAar}' etTect, bal Aiien the policy haa at- tached, and the repreaentuti •<. ia fulaiflod by a eubse- quent event, the breach do<^ nut, by a retvo-active force, render the p.^ticy void b ita ori^^in, 156. When the assured had r : 'lersonal kiii>»led);e of the tacts he desires to represtiii, and is unwilling to bind himse'T by a positive itatement, he may quulify the rervresent- ation by adding, that it is made from the infui matioiuty it ia to give i'u intelligence. li',7. Tl<« assiuvd u reaponsible when the policy is in- (Jucid byDalsersp/.^santationofliisoHnagent. Where tlio i.isijrert, or his .ijteiit in his naive, declares that he Int 111! to lyit'UBu. '.Trtaln course, oi i>prform certain act I ,'i.v'r;!blci iljfl risks, l^f: his enWre liberty to change '.he itiv i'>asv,ii (i«< i^rcl ; lut if the represent- atioii >s !i>adn ivi.ii w actuni intent tu deceive, the (rati''! vi'ie'-? ihn ';;ntr;itt. Wl:9re the party seek- ing tlio iux'-jd. :e d«clai'<: his own expectation, or that t'k' hb> p:\ii'Ji, for a totiil loss, | an abai. is indispensable. The main genera) dsctrinea respecting abandonment being entirely in- corporated into the English law, it would be useless ',o i insert tbem at length. Ifll. An abandonment onR3 I rightfully mode is binding and conclujivo between the parties, and thn rights flowing from it become vested rights, and aro not to be divested by subsequent events. The right to abandon is to be tested by the ac- tual facts at the time of the abandonment, and not ^i,'ii«3 nf .h<<, '.argo. Op an t elated abandonment of :l;e sLip. i',. freight nvmed previ;.ui to the disaster is t.) be ru.'^ii/ed by t ke owni-r or hi% repre? > ? taiive, th': insurer »i' >y^ frnistH, anii u^w. tioned J. 10 rata iV . rro, anil •:'.•, Ireigh-: lUbBti-iuinrlv to be turned ftjoes to Mie insurer on the ship, Sectii.r. '/. Ofth. iiijuitmenl of Partial r^wec— 168, In an open poli':,^ , the actual or market ^-.^xie of the »\>hy.'A i .sured is to ha estimated at the time of the commencement of the risk. IfU, Th^re art two kinds of indemnity thr.t may lawfully be obtained im- iler (/. contract of hisumriut. The first Is • , pay wli t the go. -i I would ..ave sold for if t.'^j' iisd cached tue ji'Lice of tliei! dei-tirution ; a^id the valiift xliere con- sists a' thn prime coals iind e^:peD<<«ii O:' thi, out- fit, tho freit;t>t aii,I cspimsec at ■ ^joit o.f Iclivery, and t'K proi;t or h)88 .-i-ising txwn ±o state of the market. This puts tLc in. iired in the same situation as if no loss had hap).fOuea. The other kind of indem- nity is to pay only the first cost of the goods and the expenses incurred ; and this places the insured in the .situation he was before he undertook the adventuro. 165. The aetiuil or market v.iluo at the p<>it of de- parture may frequently lie different from the involee price or prime cost, and tvhen that happens, or can he ascertained, it is to be preferred. 166. If goods ar- rive damagitii at the place of destination, the way tu ascertain tlio quantity of damage, either in open or /ulued poU.:ittf is to compare the market price or gross Hmoimt at wbMi the same goods would have sold if sound. There is a material difference between the adjustment of . (lartial loss and of a general average, since the former i', adjusted according to the value at the time and plnoi; of departure of the vessel, and tbe latter according to the value at the foreign port. 167. In settling losses under the memorandum in the policy which decliires 'articles free of average under, suy 4 per cent., if a partial loss to an article be found on survey and sale to have been 5 per cent., tho insurer pays tho damages and the expenses. If under 5 per cent., he pays nothing, and the insurer bears the ex- penses. The expcnsea are like costs of suit, and full upon the losing party. The expenses are not taken to make up the 5 per cent. 1Ij8. With respect to leak- age, tho rule in cases free from special stipulations is, that the insurer is not liablo for waste occasioned by ordinary lealuigo, and only for leakage beyond the ordinary waste and produced by some extraordinary accident. The practice is to ascertain in e:\cli case what amount of leakage is to be attribute I to ordinary cas!59, or the fault of tho insured, or 1)U . litonago, and what to tho perils of the sea ; and, in pursuing his in- quiry , the season of the year, the nature of tbe arti- cles, tho description of the vessel, tho length of the voyage, and tbe stowage, aro all to be considered. 169. An adjustment of a loss can not bo set aside or opened except on tbe ground if fraud or mistake of facts not I. . >vn. In making tiic adjustment in the u.'*: 1 . )SJ, the rule is to apply tho old iiia- . ' *.lif< pajment of tho new, anil a dedu ■ ' new for old is made whether the vea- i, 170. The insurer is liablo for all I expenses attendant upon an accident ' the vessel into port to bo repaired ; and in . » of the general periuission in the policy tared to labor for the recovery of the prnp- (<.■ 'M insurer may be rendered liable for tr cx- . ; . i'lr.iirred in tho atteiupt to recover tiia lout ,ii-0|., i'. i,' .Hi'dition to the payment of a total loss. ;^ (A. ■.. 1 o//'remium.— 171, The premium paid by the i :., is in consideration if tlio risk which the i'l-p-i- imes, and if tho contract of insurance be Tc. i'' :< ^^c, or the riak ha,', not been commenced, case of a terials t tion of I ael be . : t; 1 lai • Shi- Merchant [National, -•i'PtUllc. Shoe A I fiuffolk.. United L iWarren . |Wiuh[ngt Clua of d (Missing V, ^'ban'd o.- |lMturneil |ArrIvcd <• fitrs-.ded, pisinantle punk by l( Burned oil P'rack byl ! .^f -1. ^- -mi^ ms 1067 mm the Insured b entitled to a return of premium. If the Inaurance be made without an}- interest whataoever in the thing insured, and this proceeds through mistalce, misinformation, or any other innocent cause, the pre- mium is to Im) retumeeen run the premium must l>e returned. 172. if the Interest has not htea run, whether it be owing to the fault, pleasure, or will of the insured, or to an}' other cause, the premium must t>e returned for the consideration for which it was given fails. 178. If tlio veJSbl never sailed on the voyage insured, or the policy became void by a failure of the warranty, and without fraud, the policy never attaches ; but if tho risic has once commenced, though the voyage be im- mediately thereafter a))andoned, there is no return or appnnionm.ent of premium. 174. And if the premium is to l>e returned, the insurer retains \ per cent, by way of indemnity for his trouble and concern in the transaction. 175. The insurer retains the premium in aU cases of actual fraud on the part of the insured or his agent. So if the trade be in any rr.^pect illegal, tho premium can not l>e reclaimed. If the voyage be divisible, there may be an apportionment of the pre- mium, but not unless the risk were divisible and dis- tinct in the policy. If the voyago and premium be entire, there can be no apportionment. It is requisite that the voyage, by the usage of trade or the agree- ment of the parties, be divisible into distinct risks; and, in that case, if no risk has been run as to one pai-t, there may be an apportionment of premium. — See DUER on Marine In$urance, Losses of the Boston Stock Insurance Companies. — According to the annual report of the insurance com- missioners, the following were the issues of the various stock insurance companies of Boston for the year end- ing November 1, 1856 : Oompaalet. tAmorlcan... . Boston Boylston City lillot Tremoiit Franklin Hopo Manuiiicturcrs' Merchants' Merclisnts' Marino . National '!tv'ptun(" Bhoe JcL. Dealers'. Suffolk United States iWarren IWashlngton |«,070 08 8,044° 88 17,68.1 08 18,»24 4S 83,473 95 9,8U S7 27,f!)»"28 17,851 63 17,7i3'89 n.'UiB 08 107 9-2 40 00 880 00 G'.IS 66 1,292 06 ♦187,179 70 197,638 80 828,440 06 26,5.85 2.1 188,013 44 90,81)1 27 l.'3$,241 94 12:1,718 66 18i,21H 23 488,405 94 .8,929 20 11S,6.31 28 78.442 62 101,283 91 2)i5,909 06 Total 1142,255 78 197,628 80 441,484 94 17,68:j 08 18,024 45 82,472 95 86,900 82 188,018 46 117,870 60 156,098 67 12.8,718 66 14S,981 67 445,658 97 4.087 12 1 18,671 28 74,822 62 101,985 47 237.201 11 As the commissioners observ-e, the past year or two have Ijcen unusually disastrous to thu marine insurance companies, who, in most cases, pay a portion of their losses from the reserved funds of more favorable years. The North American Company reports no losses, either fire nr marine. Tlo i uiual report of the Boston B", of 1 ,— ",( represents tho following losses, etc., til' I -ear It!' '■. Clus of dliuUn. Missing vessels. . /iban'rtorcond'd- Kcturncd In dlst's Arrived ("an iiired, Stranded ColllMons Put I, leaky Dismantled Sunk by lo Burned or Mured Strack by Ughtn'g .■ita,. 6 { lU I 85 I 98 I 101 I 146 Xxx 435 202 I 233 Batis or InniANoa ix tuc Vrnno Btatio, ForU. Atlantic ports, ttom, to ports in Europe, not in the Northern Sea.. ..." ". " " In the Northern 8e» AfHca, to or from, (toneral llsblllty '* out and home Apalschlcolo, to and from Bermuda, to or from Braills, to any port Buenos Ayres, direct " " and Montevideo Bahamas, to o. tram Batavla, or any one port In the Indian Ocean . . , " out and home Canton, direct " ontandbome Cuba, any one port Calcutta, out " out and home Cadis Charleston, Savannah, and Darlen, to or from . . Denmark Domerara or Surinam, out or home France, to or from '^ out and home Oreat Britain or Ireland, to any port, out or home " north of tho Thames " and back to tho United Btetes ^ Dry Roods, homo " Hardware, home Gibraltar HallfiiX, to or fl'om Honduras, to or from IjHIuayra Lisbon, to or f^om Madeira and Western Capo de Verd Islands " " " outandhonio Mainga. Trieste. " andbaektothe UnltedStates Manilla, out and home Mobile New Orleans Mobile or New Orleans, from either " " " to ports la Europe not in tho North Sea. " 11 u In the North Sea Ocracock Bar (over) Porto Oabcllo Klo Janeiro Pcrnambnco Russia, different seasons St Domlnio, out or home 9an FranclBco Smyrna or Constantinople Spanish Main, any one port, or between tho Orinoco and the Sabine " " outandhome Sumatra, port or ports in, to or from St. Croix and St Thomas, to or from Turks Island and back Valparaiso, out or home '* out and home Vera Crui Tamplco •• Wilmington, N. C, to or from. To tho coast of Patagonia, per annum To tho Pacific, viiysgo round North of Onaysqull, and not north of 8. Francisco To tho Brazil Banks, " " " " Windward Islands. " " out and home California Oregon CoiSTWisK Risks. To or flrom any port in Maine, not east of Portland " " " " cast of Portland li-8 J!: If-U II. Fire Insurance. — It is impossible to estimate tuo highly the value and importance of insurance, and the benefi'j conferred on mc.nkind by the invention, whether it be considered m its orig^-al character aa a protection to the mercliant who adventured hia prop- erty on the bosom of the treacherous deep — against its many perils — or in its more modem applications, aa a guaranty against loss by Jire, and its further interest- ing adaptation to tho assuring of life. Considering that maritime insurance was well Icnown, .ind insur- ance on life understood and practiced, to a certain ex- tent, in several mercantile countries by tho middle of the IGth century, it appears extraordinary, when we call to remembraoce the devastations and distrees oo- II ■ill |»r> M''' •'^i<*4"^*' ira 1068 INS tuioiMd by Jin in Great Britain, that aonie meani thonld not have been adopted at an earlier period to reader luch calamities leaa ruinoua to Individualn, par- ticularly wlien a plan, vrliich apiwara eventally to liave formed the basin of tlie present insurance companies, was suggested so early as 1600. In that year, a person proposed to Count Anthony Ganther von Oldenburg, that, as a new species of finance, he should insure the houses of all his subjects agalhst fire, on their paying so much per cent, an- nually, accor^ling to their value ; but the prospect of gain so tempting to most persons, could not induce the Count to adopt the plan. He thought It good if a company was formed of indlvlduiils to insure each others' houses, but he doubted thnt it could by him be "honorobly, Justly, and irrepronchfuUy instituted without tempting I'rovidence — without incurring the censure of neighbors, and without disgracing one's name ■nd dignity," adding thut "God had without snch means preserved and blessed, fur many centuries, the ancient house of Oldenburg, and lie would still he present with him through his mercy, and protect his subjects tiom destructive fires." This plan appears not to hove been again thought of until the fire of 1666 had laid the city of London in ashes. In consequence of this calamitous evcut, the cit- izens l)egan to see the importance, and indeed wecea- lity, of erecting their buildings of h material less susceptible of Are thun hitherto; also of adopting a regular system of precaution against future uccidcnts, as well a,s of devising some scheme for mutual pecuni- ary protection and relief. Various proposals were accon'ingly submitted to the Court of Common Coun- cil of the city of London, between 16G9 and 1680, for the mutual relief of such as might have their houses destroyed by fire— the most notable and accoptulile of which was t)y one of their own l)ody, Mr. Deputy Newbold. But If wo miiy Judge from the len^'tli of time tiiut elapsed ere the worshijiful committee made their report to the court, we should conclude the adopting of the proposal to have been attended with serious difficulties, and in verification of the old prov- erb that " delays are dangerous," during the period between the first presentation of Mr. Ncwbold's pro- posals to the Lord Mayor, and the final report of the committee, to whom the matter was referred l)y the Court of Common Council, several private individuals associated themselves together, and submitted to the good citizens of I.nndon a "dcsijtn for insuring houses from fire," and on the ICtii Scpteml)er, 1681, a notice or advertisement was issued from their " oJUce, on the baek side of the Riii/al Eschy the chnm- her of /xHx/on, in lands and good ground rents, for the performance thereof." Much amusing pamphleteer- ing and advertising in the Omette took place between the advocates of the corporation scheme, and the " in- terested" in the sale insurance office on the back side of the lioyol Ex i„inge. The jounial. J the Court cf Common Council in 1681, 1682, and j68.1, record the signing of many fjoli- cies, and bear aiimsing evidence of tlic zeal and pru- dence of the fire insurance committees in promulgating the benefits of the corporation scheme, and combat- ing the antagonistic pamphlets issued by their com- petitors. As the fruit of this pamphleteering Agitation, the subject was brought under the most serious considera- tion of the oonit on th« ISth Norsmber, 1682, as ap. pears l)y a minute of that date ; when the court evinced a much greater anxiety to relinquish than they hiul to undertake the design, and directed the discharge of existing contracts, with the prepayment of the money which had been advanced. Notwithstanding this resolution, however, contained In the foregoing minute, we find several policies sub- sequently passed the common seal, on the 6th March and Sd May, 1683. After this, the city discontinued Issuing policies, and having had a quo warranio brought against their char- ter, tvery exertion was used to ol>tain a surrender uf the existing policies, and thus release the city laads from the incumbrances thereon. The last matter taken into consideration, was the petition of Mr. Newbold, the author of the design which turned out so unsuccessful for remuneration, fur the time, troulde, and expense he liad been at, which was referred to a committee who reported on the 13th October, 1696, and on the 8th December fol- lowing it was " resolved to give him the lienellt of making two persons free of this citie l>y redemp eon, paying to Mr. Chamberl.in to the citie's use uf fortie- slx shillings eight pence a-piece, the said persons to be first presented and allowed of by this court." This was the fate of the " City's Design and Undertaking for the insuring of Houses from the evil of I'ire." The " interessed" in the rival office became, of course, f^eatly elated, and their success led to the formation of several other companies or mutual Insurance socie- ties, for protection against fire. In 1696, tlie lland-in-IIand Fire Office was estab- lished by abo\it 100 persons, who afterwards formed a deed of settlement, enrolled in Chancery January 24, 1698. This office is remarkalde at tlio present day for its aije, and is the only surviving one of those of that period. Up to the year 1706, the protection afforded l)y fire insurance societies was limited entirely to houses (buildings'), but in that year the^iSun /■'ire <>Jfice was projected by one Charles Povey, for insuring merchan- dise and household goods (as well as houses) from fire, and was the first office to extend the benefits of insur- ance )>eyond the confines of London. This office has for very many yea.j "stood first on the list in amount of business. There is also a stamp duty of Is. on each policy. ])y far the greater number of the above are joint- stoclc companies, who insure at their own risk and for their own profit, and are represented by agents in all the principal towns of the kingdom ; the remainder are joint-contribution, or mutual insurance societies, in which every insurer participates in the profit or loss of the concern. — E. B. Practice of Fire Insurance. — The advantages ot Jlre insurance are too well known to require any ver)' elab- orate description. A manufacturer or private individ- ual can, l>y the payment of an annual sum (premium) proportioned to the risk, secure himself against loss in the event of hi.'i manufactory or dwelling-house, or ♦,'ucir contents, being destroyed l)y fire. Tht Imw of Fire, Insurance in the United States — Of thi vsual subject and form of this insurance. — We have .loen that fire is one of the {)erils insured against hy the common marine policies. It is usual, however, to Insure building and personal property wliich is not to be wat'- ' orne, ogoinst fire alone; and this is what is commonly called lire insurance. The general pur- poses and prin' . ^his kind of insurance are the same as those c. . r'ne insurance; and tbn ",aw in respect to it 'li,i". ■ ■. r:< in those resj . in that degree in wfiic'i i Uc difference is made ne,„l^. iry by the sul)ject-n, ■ , r jf the contract. It wil; be proper, therefore, tc , „nfine ourselves in this chapter, mainly to the statement of these differences and to consider those general principles which have already INS 16S9 INS been dlaousMd, only bo far bh thli may he neceaaar}' for tho coinprchcnaion ur Illustration oi' tha peculiari- ties which belong to Are insurance. This kind of in- surance la sometimes made to indemnify against loss by fire, of ships In port ; more often of warehouses, and mercantile property stored in them, still more fre- quently of personal chattels In stores or factories, In dwelling-houHcH or bams, as murchandise, furniture, I)0flk8, and plate, or pictures, or live stock. But by fur the most common application of this mode of insur- ance is to dwellliig-housea. Like marine Insurance, it may b« effected by any hidivldual who Is capable of making a legal contract. In fact, however. It ia al- ways or nearly always In this country, and we sup- pose elsewhere, made bj' companies. There are stock companies, In which certain persons own the capital, and take all the profits by way of dividends. Or mu- tual in which every one who Is insured, becomes thereby a member, and the nett profits, or a certain proportion of them, are divided among all the mem- bers in such a manner as the charter or by-laws of the company may direct. Or both united. In which case there Is a capital stock provided, as a permanent guar- anty fund, over and above the premium received, and a certain part or proportion of tho nett profits ia paid by way of dividend upon the fund, and tho reaidue divided among the insured. Paiisons on ContracU. Of late years the number of mutual fire Insurance companies has greatly Increased In this country, and probably by far the largest amount of insurance against Are is effected by them. The principal reason for this is undoubtedly their cheapness ; the premiums required by them being in general, very much less in fact than in the stock ofllces. For example, if the in- surance Is effected for se iren years, which Is a common period — un amount or percentage ia charged about the same as, or a little more than Is charged as the s'jock companies. Only a small part of this is take ' in cash; for the rest a premium note or bond la - u, promising to pay whatever part of the amount may be needed for losses, which shall occur during the period for which the notu is given. More than this, therefore, the insured can not be bound to pay, and it frequently happens that no asBcssment whatever Is demanded ; and sometimes where the company ia well established, and docs a large business upon i jiird prin- ciples, a part of the money paid by him is n'lunded when the insurance expires, or credited ti- him on the renewal of tho policy if such be his wish. The dis- advantage of these mutual companies Is, that the pre- miums paid, and premium notes, constitute the whole capital or fund, out of which losses are to be paid for. To make this more secure it is provided by the charter of some companies, that they should have a lien upon the land itself on which any insured building stands to the amount of the premium. But while this adds very much to the trustworthiness of the premium notes, and so to the availalillity of the capital. It is, with some persons, an objection, that their land ia thus subjected to a lien or incumbrance. — Ibid. There is another point of difference which recom- mends the atock rather than the mutual company. It is that the atock company will generally insure very nearly the full value of the property insured, while the mutual companies are gei.-jrilly restrained by their charters from insuring more ^han a modei'ate propor- ■in, namely, from one hn!f ■ three fourths of the wed value of the proercy. It would .follow, ■ ■■ ::ofore, that one insured by i,. mutual company can ■ ; h- i"\\y indemnified again ' loss by fire ; and may not be ';uite so certain of getting the indemnity he bargain.^ for, as if he wei e insured l)y a sto' k company. But thi" last reason is, practically, of v^ry little im- portance, and the lownessof tlie p.eiaiums effectually overcomes the other. The nieJiod inl operation of fire insurance have become quit: uniform thn '< iiMlesa It would be on a marine policy, that a memorai. lum made on the ap- plication book of the company b) *he p-o^ident, and signed by him, was not binding, wher^ ■■.',.^ p" ' *.y to be insured wished »h . jiolicy to lie delay? ' .n i a differ- ent adjustment of the terms could be slICIc I, .tnd after some delay, was notified by the company to call and settle the business, or the company would not be bound, and he did not call ; because there was here no consummated agreement. So, too, a subsequent adop- tion or ratiflcation is equivalent, either in a Are or mar'nn policy, tu the makini; originally of the con- trail; with this limitation, however, that no party can by his adoption, secure to himself the beneflt of a policy, if it had not been intended that his interest should be embraced within it. It is quite common to describe the insured in marine policies, by general ex- pressions — as, "for whom it may concern," or, "for owners" or the like ; but °uch language is seldom if ever used in Are policies, tl t n '- ■ ' 'I'^inp' apeclflcally named in them. — Ibid. It may be remarked, '''»'■ Cm i^recting of a Are in- surance ia not so often doi.e through the agency of a broker, as that of marine insurance ; nor is it so usual to pay nothing down, but to give a note for the whole premium. If, however, the insurance company has an express rule to that effect, it may be waived ; and this waiver may be express or implied, from the conduct of officers of tho company who have the right to act for it ; and their admissions bind the company. — Ibid. On the Inlereit of the Insured. — As to what interest in the insured is sufficient to support an insurance, the pri .pleisthe samo in Are as in marine insurance. Any legal interest is sufficient; and if it be equitable in tha sense that a court of equity will recognize and pro; ect it, that is sufficient j but a merely moral or ex- F ' ".lint interest is not enough. Hence, one who has ouly made an oral bargain with another to purchase hia house, can not insure it ; but if there bo a valid contract in law, or if by writing, or by part perform- V' INB 1000 INH ■noa, it U anforcwlila In •qnil)', the purckaiMr IMJ iniura. So he nwy, ulthouKh then b« m ntlpuUllua, th* braacb of which ba^ > 'h>i <'untriict vuiil liy lla tcrmt, if the othrt '. '' ' \t the cumlltluii anil enforce tlin nira, . ■', , i il'ilitor ualKii hU |jniperty to • c liin ile'ita, hi u m >i.i iniunliln liitnmat in It until tliu (!. hta are jiald, or until the property lie aold, ThH was ao held where it apiwared that the pmpsrty wi>u'J pay the drbta, and leave it aurplua fur the aaaigiiur; but we ahuuld expect the auma ruling where tiiia waa not the caae, altbouxh, in thia inatunca, there had lieen proviotuly a verdict fur the pluiiililf, and u new trial for want of evidence of audi aurplua, — Ihid. Of Reiiuurance. — Reinaurance la equill,' 'a\' " Are policiea aa in niarino policieH, ami in gapxral la fioverned by the aame rulea. Tl: - reiiiauraiii's in an naurance, not of the riak of the inaured, for that la a merely ideal thing, but it la an iiiaurance of tliu prop- erty originally inaured, in which tlie flrit inaurera have an inaurabie interest. If a common policy be uaed, with no other change than the word reinaurance uaed inatead of insurance, all ita requirenieiita are In force. If, for example, in caae of loaa, thin prujierty requirea a certificate from a nioglHtrate, un to cliaractur, circumatancea, etc., that luuHt be furniahod by tliu re- Inaured. But if a aultabio certificate were given by the party first inaured to the original inaurer, uml lie tranamit the aamo forthwith to thoae who inaure liiin, that ' . enough ; and ao it would be with notice, pni. liinin.iiy proof, and all similar rei|ulremeiita. And an iniurer who olitaina reinaurance, la bonnd to communi- cate I in addition to whatever elae shoubl I.'' atuted by one uaking insurance), ail the information lie hua uiin- caming the character of the party originally inaured i and a material cnncoalment on thia point would avoid the policy.— /All/., page 51G. Oj' Double /naurance. — Double insurance, although sometimes confounded with reinaurance, ia eaientliilly UfTerent. Ky this, the party origlnaliy insured be- comes again inaured ; liut by reinsurance, the original inaurer is inaured, and, as we have scon, the nrigiiml insurer has no intere.jt in, and no lien u|M>n, tlila pol- icy. If, by a double insurance, tlie insured could pro- tect himself over and over agaii, lie might ruovur many indemnities for one loss, 'lis can not lie |ier- mitted, not only liecause it is opposed to tin' first prin- ciples of insurance, but liec^xise it wonKI tempt to tnai, and u i'. .; it very eii'y. This offi t may Ini ob- viated in two ,>'.i,v:< : one, liy cunsideilu,^ llio sucoml Insurance as operating only on so much of tbn value of the property insured, as is not covered liy the first j and then, as soon us tbo whole value ia covered, wlictlier liy the first or by 'lubsuquent policies, any further insur- ance has no clTect. A second way ii>, li<' loiiaidrring the second insurance as made jointly with tlie lirat ; then only as much would lie paid on miy ioa.4, on many insurances, as on one only; but this puyniciil ia itl> Tided ratalily among all tlie insurers. All 'he pollriiia are considered as m-iking liut one ilicy ; timl tlicre- fore, any one insurer who pays ' tliun lii- pro|Htr- tion, may claim .1 coutributiu, l: other" wiiu wuru liable.— /ill/. In this country Pre policies usnally coui.> n expreta and exact provisions on this subject. 1 lisy vary somewhat ; but, generally, they icquire timt any other insurance mu:iii7 mi tiif;M m mt.HMi mi IM«,4rai INI' ll'29 : 7 l,ft(NI I |4.lill« > r.-.Bso ; ri«,7S6 I 7g,OA9 I «»,on4 s wi,m\ ( 77,996 ( M,481 I IHI,'i'*t ' 49.'485 I 29,916 I 7«,160 I 67,920 I (i«,lS9 ' r4,740 ( 07,948 I Mi,996 1 47,207 I n4,4i6'< B3,9S4 "i 66,819 ( 82,2&0 »%\ lOO.wi 061 47,11110 IHli 40,'/09 U2 10,76400 lUO.IHH) 87 84,11,'Ki no •111,(111(1 (Kl «6,lli9 41 49.W16 '/4i I10,hl|:| l«l 4(1,4211 af !A,nti\ 11, 87,971 11: 40,!i(lii t;.. 61,44,'. 7J 82.624 21 106,614 nil 108,01111 on 81,474 2!l so.ono no 7,mHi uoi 26,sl4 00| 84,072 76' 2n,lCi 481 67,2S9 9U! 86,609 611 8l.'2tll 881 21,600 00 2S,o6o'oo| 80,060 61 1 40,692'6o 48,220 62< 40,727 09 I)/ Ailjiiilmrnt nml t.oti, — In'S| 21,600 00, 26,000 OOl 80,060 B7i 40,692 00 48,220 B2l 40,727 09 iur«ri<. Thtra U one wide dllf«r«ni'u between the prineiple of ailjuatment of « marine |Miliuy, nnil of a Are policy. In the former, If > priipurtion only of the value la inenred, the Iniurnd ii eontlderpd an hi* own InKurer for the reildue, and only an ci{uul pmiwrttnn of the loM ia paid. Thou, Ifon a ahlp valued at f 10,000, $5000 he inanrrd, there U n loaa iif one half, the In- •uren pay only one half of the auui they Innuro, Just aa If mimo other |iarty had Inaured other (ftOOO, Hut In u rtro pidiry, the lo^urara pity In all oaiea the whole nmiiiint wblvh la lost l>y the Are, provideil unly that It diKis not exceed thu amount which they Innure. It Is luild that K«n«ral average claintes iir provisions are In- ■ertod in lire policiea In England, liut are nut known here. Still, in one rasa, the prinriple nf general aver- iige was applied. Blankets were used liy the aaaured, with the ronsent of the insurers, to protect the liuild- ing f'lim a uour Are j thry did this efTectunliy, but were thcnuelves made worthless, and an action by the inaured against the iiisurer^, for this loss, waa sus- tained by the court. — Ihid,, p. 537. fii/e Auuranrf. — It Is curious to observe that life aaauranee, which hiis ao fiivorable a liearing on our social and moriil welfare, may be said to have origin- ated from the study of the laws of chance, us observed In tlie experience of the gambler. It will be remarked, however, that the one is the very antithesis of the other. In life assurance, the individual is tnei from risk by union for mutual protection with his fellow- men. The gambler takes the single risk upon him- self, and his average, if ho obtain it, can only arise from the duration of his play. In fact, thu man who baa the opportunity cf assuring his life, and does not do it, is the gambler, taking the single risk upon himself, TImt the one practice took Its origin, however, from the ibservation of the other, there can be no doubt ; the earliest mathoniutical publication on probabilities, being a little tract of Cliristian Huygens, written in Dutch, but afterward translated Into Latin, and ap- pearing under the title " I)e Ratiociniis in Ludo Aleie," in the Exercitatiotui Gfnmrtricm of Francis Schooten, printed at Leyden, IG.')?. Two other mathematicians, however, who preceded Iltiygons, really laid the found- ation of the science, although ho wrote the flrst sys- tematic treatise on the subject. We refur to the famous Pascal, and Fermat hia friend, a magistrate of the Parliament of Toulouse. Dut as the history of the general doctrines of probabilities is given under that head, we must conAne our remarks to the history of that doctrine as applied to the duration of life, and the progress of life computations. It has been usual to commence the history of life contingencies with the little volume of "John Graunt, citizen of London," who published observations on the bills of mortality in 1662 ; but Mr. Ilendriks has given the means of more remote speculation on the subject. The psactlce in the days of Herodotus was to reckon three generations equivalent to a centur}-, and the cen- sus of Vespasian, as noticed in Pliny, distinguished cases of extreme longevity. But wo do not find any thing like an observation on the subject until we come to the calculations of the Proitorlan proifect, Ulpianus, one of the most eminent commentators on the Jus- tlnUn Code, who gave a table of the estimated present worth of life annuities, with reference to the require- ments of the Falcldian law, which rendered it neces- sary to put a value on life-rents and other similar provisions. Ulpianus, however, took no account of interest, so that hta calculations are more expectations of life than life annuities, and In that view Mr. Hi.n- driks says, " The old Roman jurisprudence gave far more correct views of the comparative value of life at different ages than the modems possessed, in a popular way, until nearly the close of the 17th century." Ul- pianus's calculations {Pandtct, 85-2-68), compared with certain Swtdlih ..toserratlons given by Dr. Price, arw as follows s *f". •IMkkolai lib. nr. Prt,., A(«fl, IklUstfUlluiM 1 RMMaUfc. tui». , r>iu«i~. Jill- Mftk its li-li DIrth— iO B (T'll 90— J6 94 10 «Kin Ml* 9.1-JV) 9S IB 1!«-74 mcM 80-1)8 99 90 mi'Kr, 80 -01 «B— 40 90 e» 104fi 47— 1« «B T-8» H-mt 48—49 70 B-81 «i« 49-BO 7B 4'0« 4I» BO-B,'^ BB-6(I . 60 auil upwaril. It seems abundantly evident that I.Mplanus's esti- mate must have been based on actual idisiirvations In some form, but the nonuins must have had a miserable c.hunce of life in old age. From that period we have nothing to attract atten- tion till the inth century, when Dr. (or Sir) Thomas Wilson, who died in 1581, published his Diicuurir upon Viurif. which contains illustrations of endowment transactions on the lives of children, but the life con- tingency (wrtiun seems merely incidentally introduced with reference to questions as to usury. In 1661, M. Cleirac, the author of I,n tu tl CoU' tumi dr In ^frr, notices the Guidon, " a French produc- tion, formerly compiled for the bennilt of the mer- chants trading In the noble city of Rouen." This work is nearly 800 j-ears old, its author's name is un- known, but it is a most curious document, in conse- quence of the reference it makes to assurance matters. From Mr. Ilendriks we give the following translation, omitting Clulrac's notes : " 1. In other countries, where the bodies of people may be captured and reduced to bondage, there are various usages for the insurance of the body and life of men, whether they be of free condition, or slaves, which customs will not be mentioned here, because in France, men of whatsoever nation are of frank and fne condition. " 2. Notice only will be taken of what is practiced In this country by those who undertake distant voy- ages, as to the coast of Italy, Constantinople, Alex- andria, or other like voyages in the Mcditerrannnn and Atlantic ^eas, on account of the fear which they have of the galleys, fustet, and frigates of the army of the Turk, or Corsair'^, who make a trafflc of the sale of Christians, who r, iiicy capture as well on sea as on land ; which creates ' ' c ;iiion for the masters and cap- tains of this (luntvy vi>, n they undertake such voy- ages, to stipiitatc « ith iheir merchant freighters, or others, for the .-estiti'Uon of their persons, in case they are captured ; and this they can do even for the peo- ple of their crew. " 8. In such a case, the master must, in the policy, estimate his ransom, and that of his companions, at so much per head ; declare the name of the ship, the stay or touchings which it will make, the duration of each sta}-, and to whom the ransom is payable. The insurer is bound to pay the sum insured for the ransom 15 days after verification and certiAcation of the captlv- ity, without waiting for the usual two months' delay ; and without other formality of seeing freightage, bill of lading, or charter party, it will snfHce to produce the attestation of capture and policy. " 4. Pilgrims going to the Holy Sepulchre of Jeru- salem, or on other distant voyages, may effect insur- ance for their redemption, valued at a given amount. Description shall besides be made of their persons, names, surnames, country, abode, age, and rank ; and, INH 1043 ms iiionorar, limit ihkll (m nuii* u to within what tlm* ihiiy unilartkk* to makn and irrompliiih Ih* royag* : th« loiiKnt parloil iiliiiU l>« of lhn«i yaiin inclunlva, tlon whktMMvar. In imlt.ttiim of thu |irm-mlinK, thoo* without ulniltllnK r.\ni«i «t iilnatii, or otlixr ilrtnn- who uii'lnrtaka Jouriiwyn or vuwa for a lanKtIioiiad imrlod, or • paaaa^a from oiia country to anothar, may iimura fur tlmlr miiiioin. " t. Anothar kind of iixuranca la mudti liy olhar na- tion* upon tht li/f It/ m, ,, in ens* of Ikrtr lirrrair upon thtir voyitgr, to pay rartahi aiuna to their halm or crod- Itora. Crtiditom avan may Inanra thidr dabt«, If their dablor rrmoM from imr amnlry la antithrr ; tha aania can b* dona l>y thoaa hiivlnn raiita or |nin«lrin«, «o ■• In caaa of thiir Jrrnur, U> ffmlinur to Ihnr hnirt f i/c* ptn- lion or ml lu fa/iy 6a Hw In iKm. Whinh »r» all atlp- uUtlonn forliidclim, la ut(aln>t good nioraU and cua- toina, from which andlami abuaaa and dacaptlona aniao, whanca thay hava Iwon conalrainad to alxilliih and prohlliit tha aaid u««t{fii ; which la alao to be pmhib- Itad and forliiddiMi In thia country." Tha moat renmrkuble fratura of thai* timai waa tho condamnation of, and lagialatlon aRainat, tha pructlce of amiuranea In many countriaa. Not only in Knince waa it aaaumcil unrocoKni/ahla by law, but in tha Natherlanda' ordlnaii' e of Hbillp II., and la the civil itttutaa of Oanoa (,15X8), in which laat It ia declared that " aecurltiea, bomla, or wngara may not be made, without the licenno of tha Hanute, upon the life of tha pope, nor upon the Ufa of tha emperor, nor upon the life of kinK*, canlinala, dukea, princea, blahopa, nor Ujion tha life of other lonU or peraona, in conatituted dignlliea, ecclealaatical or aeculnr. Neither may they be made upon the acqulnitlon, loaa, or change of lonl- ahipa, Kov^rnmentn, kingdoma, province*, duchlea, citiea, lundi, or places ... nor upon any other trana- oetlon having the i|»ciea or form of a Iwnd, aecurity, or wogcr Ceadimmii leeuritati; itu parlil) ; but all are undartt(M>d and are forbidden." The 24th article of the AmKtcrdum ordinance of 15!tH prohibits insurance of the life of any person, and likewise wagers upim any voyage or frivolous purpose j and tha Kottcrdani ordinances of lew and 1835 repeat the latter injunctions. The 10th article (7'iVrr C), of the great French marine ordi- nance of Louis XIV., dated l(i«l, aaya, " We forbid the makirit^ of any insurance on the life of men ;" but the 11th article excepts those who redeem captives, and guruDtees tha price of the redumption assured upon the persons, if tlie redeemed on his way back perish bg other mtaiu than tuilural Jrtilh. " Kven later than the 17th century," adds Ilendriks, " life insur- ance was regarded in France as obnoxious. In 1788, there remuinod a spirit of opposition to It. Kmerlgon, whose work on assurance comprises more than 1300 quarto pages, devotes one pai/e to the subject of life assurance, and that short space to the purpose of at- tacking the system." But we must now pass on to a more interesting pe- riod, when we are called on to consider the conflicting claims of great names, with reference to the origina- tion and practical application of the doctrine of annui- ties, as derived fhim the study of tha laws of chance or probability. John da Wit, the grand pensionary of Holland, sub- mitted to the States-General of Holland, in ICTl, a trea- tise on the valuation of life annuities, and on the l>asis of that document, it was resolved to grunt life annuities for the purpose of raising funds. Tills treatise Hr. Hendriks characteriies aa " the first known production of any age treating in a formal manner of the valua- tion of life annuities," and the scientific world are much i riitebted to him for the restoration of this docu- ment, which was inserted in the resolutions of the States of Holland and West Friesland of the year 1671, and which had remained as good as lost for 180 years. In the preparation of thU document Da Wit waa no doubt aided by tha preceding labon of Faical, Farmal, and lluygana, and ha had no doubt tha ad* vantage of obsarvatlona on the duration of Ufa aninng (Mrsons to whom tha Htata* of llnlland had prnvlounly granted annultlaa ; but, lndr|ienil«ntly nf tin- >irlg|. nallty of tha deaign, we nmiit give lilm the cntlra credit of having diacovrrad a correct prim iple un which tha value of • Ufa annuity might U calcu- lated. Da Wit's traatiaa la headed, " Valua of l.ifn Annui- ties In I'ro|M>rtion to Itadaemable Annuities." Ha couimencca with pointing out the dinVrrnce lirtween a " radeemable annuity," »r. he lernm It, at 1 per cent., that U a |iarp«tulty at 25 years' iiiirchase, or (lerpetual investment at 4 {ler cent., ainl u life annuity ; esti- mating the value of the latter in the most favombla ciri'umstances as " really not lie|{iw, but certainly alHive Iti years' purchase." lie then gives soma pra- llniiiiary observations on the doctrine of chances, and afterward applies the principle to the calculation of un annuity value at a particular age. His calcula- tions are simpllfled and explained as follows by Mr. Hendriks : " t'irti, Out of 128 lives, aged say .1 years, 1 Is sup- posed to die in every half year of the llrst 100 half years, or 2 per annum for M) years, leaving 28 alive, aged 58 years, ut the end of the tenn ; out of whom 1 dies In every U months, twing O'OO per half year during the next '20 half years, or I'.'lll per annum for 10 years, leaving ID'UO alive, aged f)3 years, at the end of the sBcimil term ; of whom 1 dies In every year for 10 yeurs, being O-.') per half year during the next 20 half years, leaving 5'<>0 alive, aged 73 years, at the end of the tliird term ; of whom 1 dies in every year and a half for 7 years, being 0'S3 per half year during the next 14 half years, leaving 1 alive, aged 80, at the end of tho fourth term ; which survivor does nut live over another half year. Hecoiuili/, Out of the 128 lives, those who die In the resiiectlvo half years between the nges of 3 and 80, will receive an annuity certain in half-yearly instalments, for n term equal In ccmtinu- ance to the number of completed half years eliipf*ed between age 3 and the date of their death ; therefore, the sum of tho present values of half-yearly annuitiei certain, for the corresponding terms multiplied In the numbers dying within such respective terms, gives the present worth of all the annuities which will be en- Joyed by the 128 lives, 1-128 of which represents the present value of tlie single life annuity at age of, say 3 years." We have dwelt ot some length on the discovery of De Wit, as It has not been available previously in any account given of the progress of life calculations, our best writers in this country, from the absence of any precise knowledge In regard to it, having passed it over with a slight notice. On the continent, however, the labors of l)e Wit have l)cen more highly uppreci- ated. Tho Marquis of Condorcet, in his Diicourt Pre- limitMtre, gave him thu credit of l)elng "the Hrsi mathematician who thought of applying calculation to political questions." " It teat he uihoflrtt eaiayrj to Jix the rate of life annuiliet according to the probabili- tiei of life given by the tablet of mortality. Upon politics, upon the true Interests of nations, upon tho freedom of trade, he had very superior ideas to those of his age; and we may say that his premuture death was a misfortune to Europe as well us to his country." We cun not conclude our notioe of De Wit without mentioning tha name of bis fellow-laborer, if we may so term him, the Durgomaster Hudde. We had ut one time rather a painful Lnpression left on our mind, arising out of the terms of Iludde's certiflcate to tho report of De Wit to the States-General, and other ob- servations by Mr. Hendriks, but wo are glad to find, from the ooirespondence subsequently brought for- ward, that they were fellow-laborers in the same field, and that Uudde himself was a man of science. and hav of i reuo IrJ CfS 1008 INS W* h»v« now lo intntion lb* Krat puUlihid work In whli'li mi alloinpt la inailu to form UliUi of mortnlity. W« alludo to III* work of John (iraunt, whoM n»iii* baa Iwcn al.aady iiiaiillon«i|. It waa |iuUiahail In lOOl, anil I* til* llrat Iwok uii tli* nulijait of lif* olHwrvatluna la a ilUtliic:t trnuilis, It la «iitltlii'a ami ilitii|ipeiiran(« of the pliiKua, but from 100.1 tlia n-corila wcro coiitinui^il unlnlorruptcilly. Oruiiht pulil particular attviilion lo tlioae weekly ie> turn*, unci, with * auKUcluua nppraciution of tliair value, rediiccil the reaulla into table*, " In order to the mora ready compiirln(( of onu yrar, auaaon, purlah, or other division of the city." Iln analyiea the bllla themnelvea, nml drana certain concluaiuna with great adroilneaa, Klvlng llio flrat acmblaiice of a table of mortality in the arranueiiK-nt of di-utlia In decade*. The work piia-ird tliriiu|{h live cdltiiinK, tho laat under the ■uperliili'iiilonco of his ri-lallvo .Sir William Petty, who himiielf paid aiiine uttcnlinn to the aulject, hav- ing publiahed t.'»iii/i on I'uHlintl Arilhmrtic cimetmini/ Ikt I't'tpli; lliiutimji, etc, nf hinjun and I'arit; Funy conctrning Iho MuU'iplientiim "f ifuidind, and the (Jrnwlh nf the (.'ity nf London ; t ibteriatioiu on the t)Mm llUls nf iloilMy, etc. ; mid hiacourie vn Ihi- plieate I'nipurtlon, read before tho Uoyul Society, 1071. From Ihia lime till lfi!)3, when tlio celebrated Ur. Ilalley'a iiivesligullona and calculationa appeared, there is little to attract attention, A act. of tablea wui publiahcd during tliia interval, entitled Tablet fm' li^neifinij an'l I'urvhiuing nfthe l.eniet nf Cathedral Churchei and Caligii, etc.) also Tablet fnr Ktntwing and I'urchanng nf l.ieet, etc., bearing ihu impnting title nf "Sir limte Seuton't Tablet;" but we learn from Mr. Kdwin James Farrcn's hiatorlcul Ktiay an the Itise and Karly I'rogreti nfthe Doctrine nf Life i'on- tiiigtnciet in England, that Sir Isaac Newton being then at Cambridge (Lucasian Professor t-ice Harrow), it ap- pears to have been thought politic to obtain his sanc- tion or imprimatur as to the correctness of tho tables, and "his original cognizance of the work appears to have been to merely conllrm the (Q.E.D.) correctness of a aingle table relative to the established usage of renewing college leases." In No. 190 of the J'hiloiophical Trantacliom, 1693, Dr. Ilallny pnbliahad tlia rcault nf hia Invratlgatlnns iiniUr Iha fulluwlng tilb- 1 " An l-Jtlniat* of Ihi' I)e- grara nf Miirlallty nf .Mankind, drawn from ruriona ialdaa uf lli* lilrtba and Fuin-ruls at the ritv nf lira*- lau, with an atlampt In uncertain ti a j.rlc* of Annul- tina upon l.tvaa, by K. Ilailey, 1(.8.H. ' Additlninil liifnrnialinn Mill also U found In th* Ailuiiri'il Tablft ,if W. 1. 'rii.,iiiaini, F.K.S.K., Itt68, and in the vi-ry vulimljlK 'I'uhlrt ,nd I'oimuin f'r tin t'omimlalioii if life t'lintiiiyrni in, nf Mr. IVler (Jruv, published In IM4U. In nmi-luiiun. Ilin nami'S nf Kd- ward Sung, Pi'ter llurdy, Humml llrown, Chiirlca Jallico*, Wlllliim Wond, \\ illium Urcliaid, nml It. II. Todd, may be aclacled for tpacial iin Ice frnin llic Iniig list uf calcniatora uhu huvu advam-i d varluua ileparl- menla of Ih* science. Muili valualle Infnrmalion on th* subject will also be fnund In tlin .UTr.niEsr, etc. life Intuinnre in the I'nited Ntolen. — We inpy from the Itcpoit nf lb* Mulnul I if* Insurance Company of New York, of lH6fl, the rriiiarks of the Aclnnry (Mr. iSlicppnrd llomana), on the ex|ierienc* of that inslilu- tiun, one uf the oldest l.lfu Companies in the I'nited Stuli'Bt The cluae of the third <|iilni|Ui>niiiiil perind hinco the formation of thiiicn!npaiiy, The number odivei cxpused to mortality are cai 'nli , separated from the number of pu/iciei, ai/< no . itn .i laljor has been spared In making the varir s -I Trv:! tions and deductions ns complete and ace r.tt ■'» r ■ sible. The annual experience of the V.1 c >. >, in- has been noted separately for each of the liueei, ura ending February 1, I86tt, as may be seen by lefe. n'^r to the following table: Anhdai. KxpitBiiNoii OF Tna Mutual Lira Insusanoc Cositamt of N«w Yo«k— 1813-'57 ikciusiti. Y«r. BipuMa lo HorUllly tn th« Campaiiy fur on* whota Year. Pmbabla l.i»i bit Com- pany'* T«bl*. Actual Lon. Probabia Loai by Carliala j Tabla. | Numbflrof l.lrai iind Fraclloni of LIvm. Amount. Ni"iib.r of IXalhi. Amount. Nunib«r of lltalbi. Amount Numbar of IKalhi. Amount 1S48 IftU 1*16 1846 1M7 1W3 1M9 1S60 1861 185-J 1S&3 1884 1855 1866 1857 Total. . 263-61) 633-79 1,276-16 1,993-53 2,666-14 8,606-38 4,613-48 ^-297-94 6,672-98 6,780-17 «,181-07 6,720-07 7,260-76 8,186-60 8,893-24 900,710 2,312,278 4,346,709 6,226,630 8,123,ftt6 10,707,613 13,'29O,20O 16,127,796 1N807,144 16,718,402 lS,6OS,'i0fl 20,728, 'WO 22,870,264 26,148,107 29,121,868 2-962 7-715 15539 24-934 83-660 44-166 60 861 07-320 72-131 76-277 83-318 92 127 100-600 118-874 128-876 11,401 29,708 M,618 80,4.16 106,741 140,014 173,986 200,201 218,790 228,061 267,197 289,339 821,332 807,014 408,790 "5 2J 28 27 04 71 49 67 72 85 SI 76 90 18,'otio 18,100 09,400 00,160 94,20l) 176,060 154,040 101,100 203,100 207,200 281,600 207,860 204,266 82.3,100 2-809 7-297 14-771 23-628 81-738 41-799 63-481 63-618 67-970 71-649 78-018 86-861 93 063 106-599 116-198 K^dO-i 27,119 51,026 7^80» 100,392 181,988 103,86» 138,891 200,296 218,924 289,681 269,294 298,490 840,985 379,818 68,617-79 211,069,018 814-377 2,882,033 760 2,81!,646_^ 866-939 2,692,464 These results are deduced from observations om< bracing ever}- variety of age, term, and climate, which constitute the company as a whole. The comparison is, therefore, not strictly just, inasmuch as we should expect that the mortality among members residing in the South or California, and who pay an extra premium, would prove to lie greater than that prevailing among members residing in the New England or Middle States, INS 1064 INS who are insured at the regular table rates. Each class, larm, and age, however, will be considered separately la the sequel. It will ! > i > t dual, and II. conibined ,,, C'lais II., Including VI Olaaa III. alons , , , , ClaaalV. alone .,.,.... Claaa V., Including VII , Whole (iompansr , , , , , Whole Company, "CarlUla Tablu" ,, , "Mutual Beneflt," " " _»--«L_ W » m m 481 m iw m »»=»," ISA m m U-tfT w M m m m «->* I, Hll4 K. combined, it is in all cases less than tb»l eM§A for hjf the company's table. Kxpectatwnnf Life.— Verhtpa tlia ni'ist fntfrsSttflSfS' suits of the experience of this compsiiy AfS SOntAltWd )h (Im column headed » K*p8«t«tlefl et Life," l.y which W8 wny nnd for avery aK« lh« (ifliffllmf life, or the lll(ml)er of years whitli, taking »h« \mmm with an- other, »» may expect to Ilv6, lly imtim at tlio fol- lowltlg talile we may coinpara IImm iiutiilwro from our ewH talilen, with liiose accurdliij} to iom« of the more ««iebrflted I'.nglish tables of mortality. ExpgOTATIoa Oir Um MMUmnS W MfftMHT TikBI.ES or MOKTAMTT, A,.l. Halani OHM, c. out. Mulnil l,lfa Eip«ricnce, 8>(l> Eip.. rl«.ice, •4- ;-iu<4 & s 4wl«ifcl« Knauau rsiiiiri>i.r KoJinrrM. rt«i«, 41 li) H4'«! 27 20 It) on liilli) »-«8 Mmm. fll !!«•((« lUli. Kllloll, «o. 1. No. J, H. T,*(!. Htttm, 20 30 40 50 60 TO 4010 3313 24 33 1974 13(16 8 St 44-76 36-00 38 04 2166 14 55 864 8S'46 .12-18 25-71 IS -40 1366 8 66 -ti'4) 84 •4.1 •27-^8 2fl|ti I3-T7 «-64 4144 1(4 »4 ST'rtt 8(')t UK4 41 M «T4fl •id V,i mm l«fS 8lt mm Hlll» mm 20 03 8hi 8ii'»l V«-43 1087 1360 866 ■(Oi'-i «8T0 'M4I 19 40 is-«» " in n ~ t»l9 Iftflt W'il ;i»'ii ato 27 » 213 ir.o »4 'iVe here find that our adjusted eyparisn^S giv8l A higher expectation of life at all ages than t\M §0111' pany's theoretical table, and also liigliar tlian Ally I^H' glish table below the age of 70, except tfia " Vrl^fldl^ »(*c|ptles" aetorrtlng to Nelson, wlileti U uniformly higher at all ages. At and above the ««« of 70, the ojipectntlon by Beveral English tal/lei b higher than ih«t slwwn by our own experlenee. A OOMPABATITE TABLE OF THE RaTKS Of TB8 RO«li#f(fl *WH f(lt(P,(0!< Un InSDBANVR OOWI'AKIM nOJKS tlVHUtM tn TO* tfNif«H 'r,iiktm. Is 13-30 14-90 17-40 19-80 83-40 27-80 82-00 40-00 63-60 72-00 ^3 I ■K 18-40 20-80 22-90 26-40 28-60 82-30 87-00 turn 66-90 66-90 14-40 16-80 20-40 23-60 27 60 82-00 37 SO 48-30 64 -SO 78-40 lO-hO IS -70 21-40 24-70 28-30 !)'J-70 SS-fiO 46 80 63 80 74-20 f'i'W intia MOO 8210 06d 6ft -vi «8-()0 8it-(i«l fti'ti (ITI* 4fi'!il M14 74-30 li IB.W n-4'i 19 -W) 22 -SO 20 60 316<» M'lO 4710 mm ^.i 1611 10 -80 2:t(W 26 87 !M-7;t aHiH 46 44 67 68 Jft'flO 1710 2fl'W 23-(IO moo »2H0 87*1 17110 l^l'IO 22 70 SO'fiO M-m fit 00 47'iifl M-40 70-40 'Wm 17-70 20-40 'i.l-flO 27 60 (12 00 87 30 4') 00 07 80 15-00 17-40 20-40 24-00 27-80 33-00 40-00 6000 66-00 81-00 1511 17-30 19-89 23-02 26-87 81-73 88-04 46-42 67-58 19-70 22-10 241N) 28-10 32-10 i!7 30 44-20 B4-S0 67 20 •B? 13 00 14 80 17-10 10-90 23-00 27 Sit 82-00 89-10 60(10 66 'iO IT -TO >iim 84110 8T-fW 46(10 16M 1T10 STftO ftT«i vim ¥ P ft to ao-40 2)t-(Cl jITwi »3(io »7»o 40-00 M-Wi 70((0 Noit_Tho rates gf those conipanl«i. wUU » »»af ('» Sfe «««.-i)«ft)elIiatlnfr rsi.«. ralM." I, lti'.i» l«20 IN 00 21 ■») 2ft (CI «'«I0 >MI4I 40.70 flow irm' 1660 l!l-i() 2Mi(( 2i'i;ifl I'dn .'1410 4«'I0 BilftO (Who 20'4'> 23 60 27 60 32'IPO »7',I0 40-00 r.7'80 70-00 Thn otlu>™ «rii "partldpfllliiK or tniilual Life insurance in (he United fitates is as yet In ll» buslnesn oiiccessfuily. [ii (Jreat nrltoln )lil* liiforma- {nfancy, os far as regards the Mlewt, but the mMHi<» tlwi Is nbtaldcil from f w.i nmireat, vh,, tlio piipcrlonrn is rapidly gaining favor with all elasscs itf ||ie cmn-- ntiialnlng P(i r<'|iort» of (ho rcKl^lror-ttcnei- henelita in this country are dail." increasing, HM\». I al which nrc ndriuidly iuri.|ii lo I'lirllnnniht, Irom the ticsof life and mortality are tliefoundntion upon which | compfirntivcly small m-.tn of t|;« llrltMi Islen, nnd the the science of life insurmca Is eracurt, and mllMhte In- ] escidlcKt ttyntum of nppoin.'nii'nU by Ihw Kovcrnmrrt formation regarding tie relative valna of tifa In dlf^ of Ks =c|cntllio inon. great iidvMntag't lit dcriviid. The feront climates and at each age is of tlia greal^H Ini-- ' dpcunnlnl census of (ireat llrtlain Is lahcn In ime .!«;/ portanoo to a life company, in order to proi(««tii« Its ! wliii h at once '.■Ibnliialcs ono of itio most fruilf'ui INS 1066 INS soup'es of error; and by having a registrar and corps of ussistnnts in liis office regularly educated an complete the enumeration at (Im mmwt iu n dtty, ut even a few davs. Si'MnraiB OK TUB anndal Aoooirars or Lira Insuranoe CoMPAHira doino iiubinkss in tiib ftrtTH or fifw Ytnuf, nm *«• Ybar 19S7, INOLOUINO Rats of Oroanizatihn, NuMiira nr llM.iriKS, Amoii.nt at Kisk, AiiHi'i), Uni'f4tVlk t'm Voar. 1S43 ! tS4S ■ 1S4« i 1S4T ' 185') ■ isno I isaa ft:)'i 111 6-3J (Ml ftsa 1004 IBS S8- 7U0U 1,Tt!)4101 'i,67S,in2 l,'.l«.i,65') l,3in,H7rt (•^0,76') ■.',!t45,00l) 2,r.37,900 3,ir),44S 7-i3,1.W $'J|,4TS,S.')7 At Rlik at and of tha Year. Nombar of Polleiaa. f^ttftntVfltlftluym, PramiuuH and lijurusl oot^Mfb. 10,3111) 2,881 3,S36 6,3al 8,ti29 3,100 2,478 2,440 800 1,083 4U,5U8 $3i,48l,3iKJ . S,SS4,190 12,77-l,»8S I 17,4'.'3,177 20,1!)7,1«4 4.0ftl,IM|{| 7,S02,!ll!8 4,0flt,'*24 l,21»,81l 2,11)1,081 $110,021,014 •ifll.lfti I asi.of/ i Wt,hH') i 7:),;i47 2 'i.tA4 lH4,'.iil,Ttl 24,170 23,INI2 $2,»9i,7i3~ •$4,086,909 9«0,T4T 804,820 i,7.80,«4< I,692.IW3 108,781 "287,635 "341.011 ••1B6,6»J _ ^•14^,249 $lt,i«3.95( *«4t'«*, j rmat. f(»«.)*» I mm* I f<».-f,:-Mt ! "J:U<,W1 Mutual Life of New Y'ork New I''.nt.'land Mutual, IJoston.. New York Life Mutual lleneOt, Newark, N. J., Connecticut Mutual, Hartford . American Mutual, New Haven. .Manhattan, New York (Tnited SuitP!«i New York Knickerbocker, New York Ma.i.*. Mutual, SprinjjfieM 09-5 08-2 13-2 OS -4 07 1 208 13-0 101 27-5 IS -5 Par Cent of Claima on Income. 27-2 81-6 32 4 28 fi 841 B'.)-7 18-2 81 a 06 09-7 Percent of Caih Aareta on Amount at Ki'.V 154 10-3 06-8 099 07-9 04-2 08-7 12-8 00 '8 PcrtVot ofu^lJW A. WU on 4WW^t atUiili. 04 ^ 05 'i m'a oil) III 6 mn * Includes '-^ deferred preiuiuni account and Intere-'t accrued," as returned by the otlter eninimui^. t Inr ludlng $i2,332 interest on dividend* pulil during the )ca/. t I'lcludlng lihiAsnA* pitiii, i Includinj; $10,0011 lntere>pectlvely the amount paid for expense..' i>f miin*u>»lim)HilUt (iif tlMno by death for each $100 of income, wiiile the last three coliuuus rcprt.-ent the t^^'fets (cash, rjedit, «ad t^kttt, rp^pfHif^fi for each $lm) of amount at risk. I.i/e Infirnnce in deal ISriln'm.—^aVmg a Rcnerol retrospective glance ut the subject, thorn nro several points which arrest the attention. Of the existing ollices only three were nslablislied between 170. and ]7(i2, .1 period of fifty-six years, vrhlcli gives an average of (me office in nineteen years. In the next period, from 1762 to IS IB, embracing fifty four years, fourteen offices were estulilished, being an average of one office in rather more than fnur years. From 1810 to 184.">, a period t,f twenty -oiglit yoar.«, the growtti U far more rapid, being at the rate of noarly tliren offices each year. We may reino.k iiere, by way of explanation, that inasmuch as tlie Joiiit-stucli Companies' Act only came into operation in September, 1844, we takn it, f.ir ordinary purposes, as commencing with 184.1, and calculate accnnllngly. Since wo have began to be "critical" with the offices, wo may also note oho or two other peculiarities. One of these is, that some periods in assurance history seem to have lieen far niiiro ctmgenial to the growth of good offices than other pcriixis, oftentimes not very far remote. 1806 furnishes us H ith our first example, llie offspring of that year were botli numerous and strong. IM^.I (jlffi* n f\\\\ more notalde example. IH2'I, Midi mitt nni^\Mim, d.n much to 1)0 proud of; whilu \>iift \U'Atii'Hi\ Dumf (rfl'i'! best companies of tlie Oi.ldeii Ago. fMlift H Uani ( ten yeirs, 1836 placed two n'>ltli)ii)nmi>\im*imlhi'\ht; and !8.1G furnishes the inual mrt.tblx imtmiiK ii( nut point to be found on record. 'CIlM (lii'lHrc ))»s Its coti- verso. iScne periods in uesiiraiiicK tUniitiAfigf <*cf(i ( . have been l)eset witli dilficijllles, Himthm»ifwlnc(id >■ weak and puny offspring, of whMi tl^t KfnuUtr parf have King since departed this life J )•*i\vuii muny at th" unsound compaides inU> ruli)i)u« 1i,/,t, INT loai INT Interest U the annual sum or rate per cent, which the borrower of a capital agrees, or is bound, to pa}* to the lender for its use. " Inter6t ; loyer d'un capital preti ; ou bien, en termes plus exacts, achat dea serv- ices productifs que pout rendre un capital" (Sai/, torn, ii,, p. 480, ed. 4mo). It was generally supposed, pre- viously to the middle of the last centur}', that, in the event of all legislative enactments regulating the rate of iutorcst being repealed, its increase or diminution would wholly depend on the comparative scarcity or abundance of money ; or, in other words, that it would rise as money became scarce, and full as it became more plentiful. Qut this opinion has been successfully controverted, first by Mr. Joseph Mussie, in a tract puli- lished in 1750, entitled " An ICssaj' on the Governing Causes of the Rate of Interest ;" and, second, with bet- ter effect in Hume's Essay on Interest, in 1752. And it bos Iwen «i>own tliut the rate of interest in advanced communities is not determined l>y the abundance of the currency, but by the average rate of profit derived from the eniploj ment of capital. No doubt it most frequently liuppcns tliat louna arc made in currency ; but tliis is of no consequence. There is obviously no substantial diiference l)etween A fiirnisliing B with 100 busliels of com, or 100 yards of cloth, to be repaid at the expiration of a specified period by the delivery of 101 or 105 bushels, or 101 or 105 yards, or with as much money, at 4 or 5 per cent., as would purchase the com or cloth. And it is easj' to perceive that, us crowds of passengers may be successively conveyed by the sumo carriage, so tlio same sum of money may serve to negotiate un infinity of It -s. Suppose A lends to X IJIOOO, with wliich the lutter buys from P an equivalent amount of commodities ; tliut U, having no use for the money, lends it to Y, who pays it away for produce to C, who again lends it to Z, and so on. It is plain that X, Y, Z have received loans of commodi- ties or produce from A, B, C worth (Aree times (and they might have l)ei'n worth 30 or 300 times) as much as the money employed in settling the transactions. According as the supply of currency, compared with the business it has to perform, is g reuter or less, we give a greater or less number of guineas or livres, notes ur assignats, for the article we wisli to obtain. It is not, however, by the fact of the price of such articles being liigh or low, l)ut by tlie advantage or profit which tlie borrowers expect to derive from their possession, that tlio interest or compensation to be paid la the lenders for tlieir use is determined. It may, periiaps, be supposed, in the case of goldsmitlis and jewelers, tlmt wlien the quantity of metallic money is increased, tliey will ol)tain tlie raw material of their business witli greater facility. Hut this is not always the case ; and tliougli it were, it would not in any degree affect the rate of interest. No coins are ever sent to the melting-pot unless the currency bo de- graded or depreciated ; that is, unless it be deficient in weiglit, or relativ< ly redundant in quantity. And it is plain tliat the inducement to offer u high or a low rate of interest for loans of money, which it is intended to worl{ up into plate or other articles, will not depei.d on the supply of such money, l)ut on tlie (iroiit to be derived from its conversion into goods — a circumstance wliolly imconnected with tlm scarcity or abundance of coin. It tlierefore ap|)ear3 tliat, spenliing generally, tlie rate of inl.rest depends on the profit that may bo made by employing capital in industrious undertaliings, and not on the price paid for tlie articles of which it con eists. The latter are affected by every change in the value of money, whereas the former is little, if at all, affcctfd by those changes, and is determined liy the pro'luotivenoss of industry. A low or a high rate of profit is uniformly accompanied by a high or low rate of interest. Money, as every one linuws, is clieaper In the United States and in Australia than iu Kn- gland ; but tUo ordinary rate of profit being higher, in- terest, despite the lower value of money, is also higher. Extraordinary as it may seem, it is nevertheless true, that during the half dozen years ending with 1856, the current rate of interest iQ San Francisco, where bull- ion is 80 very abundant as to be almost a drug, ho* varied from H to 2 aui 3 per cent, a month, or from 18 to 24 and 36 jier cent, per annum. And though it were allowed that from a third to a half of this rate should be viewed as a premium to compensate the in- security prevalent in California, still the residue would amount to three, four, or live times tlie ordinary rate of interest in England. In further corroboration of tliese statements wo may mention, that the low rate of interest in Holland during the greater part of the 17th and whole of the 18th century, was not owing to any jieculiar abundance or cheapness of monej-, but to the high rate of taxation, and the dilKculty of investing capital with profit. And to this latter circumstance we owe the low rate of interest in this country toward the middle of last century, and at several later periods. It is not, in aliort, by the amount or value of the cur- rencies of different countries, Imt by the means which they respectively enjoy for tlio profitable employment of capital or stoclc, tliat their profit and interest are governed. Tliat a rise or fall in the value of money can have no direct influence over interest is plain from the fact of the interest being itself paid in the mone;, that has risen or fallen. But, at the same time, a ?udden in- crease in the supply of money may undoulitedly have a temporary effect in depressing interest. Importers of 'ullion may not be alile to lay it out advantageous- ly in purchases, and may, in .'onoi ^uence, lie disposed to liave it coined and lent, thoi.^li .it a low rate. We incline, Iiowever, to thinic that the influence of consid- erations of this sort is but iiicon?iderable. Lenders will not take less for loans than the borrowers aro will- ing to ofl'er, and the offers of the latter nmst be deter- mined not merely by the amount of money seeking investments, liut partly also, and in a still greater degree, liy the profit that may lie made by its em- ployment. When there is a rapid influx of money, loans for short periods are usually obtainable at low ratci. This, Iiowever, is not generally tlie case wi;h loans for lengthened periojj. The leiiders are will- ing to .'.ccept a reduced interest for a sliort term, till thoy can look about for some more profitable mea.; 1 of investment. But the interest on loans on mortgages, or for lengthened periods, is always propor- tioned to the rate if prcfit at the time ; and, supposing the security to be unexceptionable, is but little aficct- ed li^' any thing else. The profits made in industrious undertakings nre, for thi i-'ost part, distributed into omss and m II profits. Tlius, if from the total returns, whether unnual or otherwise, obtained in any business or employment, we deduct all sorts of outlays necessarily incurred in carrying it on, ncluding the wages or remuneration due to the undertakers for their skill am' trouble in su perintipuiing tlio business, and a sum to coiiipensote the ri-ks provided against l>y insurance, tlie residue is the nett profit of, or return to, the capital employed. And it is on this latter portion that interest depends, or rather with wliich It Is usiiaily identical. Lenders liaving nothing to do with tire employment of capital, are not entitled to any peculiar advantage timt may arise from it. Hut tliey are cntitlcil to all that can fairly lie considered as the return to the capital they have lent, after tlie risks, salaries, and necessary emol- uments of those who undertake its employment are deducted; and this much, speaking generally, they will get, and no more. Whatever else may be real- ized by tlio employment of capital in industrial pur- suits belongs to the borrowers, and forms the fund out I of which tlicy are remunerated. In coming to tliis conclusion, we are supported by the authority of Mr. Tonke, " The rate of interest," says ho, " U the INT 1068 INT meMuro of the nett profit on capital. AU returnj beyond this on the employment of capital urn renolv- alile into compensatlona, under dixtinct headK, for risks, troubles, or skill, or for advantages of situation or con- nection." (Considerations on the Stutn of the Currency, p. 12.) Whatever, therefore, may at any lime occa- sion a sudden glut of money or capital n\ay lower the lata of nett profit and interest. But that > <>ry circum- stance, by increasing the d«(niand for capital, uill eventually- raise the rate to its proper level ; and the glut liavmg disappeared, profits on interest will de- pend on the productiveness of industry'. Besides such variations as are proportioned to variiu iions in the ordinary rate of profit, and which e(iually aftiect all loans, the rate of interest varies according to the security fur the repaymeni; of the ])rincipal and the duration of the loan. Henco the powerful influence which the character of the borrower, the purpose for which he borrows, and the nature of the business !a which ho is engaged, have over interest. Careful, skillful, and Intelligent parties always borrow, orteris Itaribus, on lower terms than those of an opposite de- scription. 'Hie spendthrift, the idle, and the unskill- ful, can with dilficulty obtain loans on any terms ; and those who deal with them, and stipulate for a high rate of interest to cover their risk, frcriuently find that their guaranty is inadequate, and that they would have better consulted their own advantage by lending to respectable parties on the usual terms. The nature of the employment in which liorrowers are engaged has also, as now stated, a powerful effect in determin- ing the rate of interest. Wherever there is risk, it must l)e compensated. A sum lent on mortgage over a valuable estate is not exposed to any risk. Hut a sum limt to a manufacturer or a merchant engaged in a hazardous business, is exposed to a high degree of risk ; and th(! interest payable on the latter, inasmuch as it must include a premium to compensate this extra risk, may be twice or thiee times as much as that paid on the mortgage. We should mistake, however, if we supposed that this circumstance places those who carry on parti<'u- larly hazardous businesses in a lomparatively disad- vantageous situation. Competition will not permit, taking every thing into account, a greater nr a loss amount of nett profit to l>e perinanontly obtained in one lirai'i'h of industry than in amither. The produce re- alized by those who engage in employments of more than ordinary hazard is generally sold at prices that yield the orrlinary rate of profit, with a surplus suf- ficient to guaranty their stock against the extra risk to which it is exposed. Were it otherwise, every body would decline placing their property in a stale of coni- pavativo danger, and undertakings of .-i hazardou.'. na- ture would not l»e entered into. Hut it very fieiiuently happens, that the manager of a hazarilous branch of industry, paying from 10 to 12 per cent, for loans, rea- lizes larger nett profits than the purchaser of an estate with money borrowed at 3 or 4 p cent. Supposing the security to lie equal, capital lent for a fixed and considerable |)eri-id always fetches a higher rate «f interest than that which is lent for short pe- riods, or which raav be demanded at the pleasure of the lender. There are but few modes of safely em- ploying loans of which the duration is so uncertain, so that they are frequently w-orth s ery little ; ami hence the ratii of Interest is, in the majority of cases, in part ■t leant, dotermin'"d by the length of the loan ; for, when that is con'-iderable. It may be productively era|ib>yed in a variety of businesses, in whicli it would ant therwise be prudent ti> imett it, at the sametinn thjvn the borrower has time t>i prcp;ir«- for its repay- mfikt. But this princijile has "b1\ < «Hglit influence «\^r loans tor terms beyond three, or, nt most, five | yoirs ; for a loan for either of these t»rnis, hot espe- cially the latter, may be emplovcd in a «roat variety of ways, and would bring nearly ..s much interrft us it would do were it for 10 or 12 years. It is further to be observed, that largo classes of borrowers prefer the less interest whicli they get for advances at sliort dates to the higher rate which they ndght get were thej for longer terms. .Most people wish to have the full command of their ca|iital. Merchants end manu- facturers who lent im mortgage would in so far iliiprivo themselves of the means of extending their busmess, and of speculating. And ''ough sometimes, perhaps, this might bi, for their advantMi;e, yet the tlattcring opinion which most people enteri:,in of their own sagacity and gO(i g tempest, and be able to sell out before a |ii:blic bankrujitry. ilt is eviilent, from those statements, that in addi- tion to tlie security for loans and their durati(jn, the rate of interest will, to a considerable extent, depend on the facilities afforded for enforcing or carrying out the stipulatiims in contracts. Ar''. hence a main cause of its reduction as society is more and more improved. Generally, it maj- be said that a speedy, cheap, and effectual process for securing the payment of delits, has a powerful tendency to lower — and a slow, costly. and ineftVctual process, to raise — the rate of interest. In most countries, extraordinary means are taken to compel payment of bills ; and this is a principal cause of the low rate at which they are commonly dis- counted. The easy enforcement of contracts consti- tutes, in truth, an important portion of the security for a delit. By a good security, is not meant a guar- anty that a loan will ultimately bo made good, but that it will be punctually paid when due ; or, if the loan be of a kind that a little delay in its payment '3 usually given, that that delay will not be exceeded, and that it will be paid within the customary term. \ security whidi should insure the final payment of a debt, but which should not insure its payment when due, 01 shortly thereafter, is not a good, l)Ut a liad secur- ity. It is indispensable to the transacting of business safelj', cheaply, and expeditiously, that there should 1)0 as little dou'it as possible either in regard to the payment of loans or the term wli^n they are to lie paid. If cither of these points be doubtful. Lie lender will insist on an indemnity for the consequent risk. And it therefore appears tliat the summary proceed- ings taken to enforce payment of bills, and such like debts, are in truth and reality more for the advantage of tlio borrowers than of tlie lenders. They reduce tiie rate of interest ; and the hardship, such as it is, which they occasionally inflict on the liorrower, docs not occur in one case out of live hundred ; while their pow- erful influence in depressing interest tells In every case. t/rpfci-.— In (irooce the rate of interest was not regu- lated by law j and it couseqmntly varied with all the causes of variation above alluded to. Generary, how- ever, it was what we should reckcm very high, amount- ing, in mo.st cases, to from 10 to 18 per cent., and upward. This high rate of interest was not occasioned by a high rote of profit, but by the uncertainty of the laws, and the facilities which they afforded to fraudu- lent debtors to defeat the just claims of their creditors. The Interest on money lent on hollomrij. or on the security of tho ship or cargo, or both, was rated .it so much per voyage. It therefore depended on the plac« to which the ship was to sail, tho season of the ycar> INT 1060 INT , 0('l'i\S linty iif the ti) frauilu- ir creditors, or oil the riiteil lit HO in tlic i)liic« if the yean the chance of meeting pirates or enemies' ships, etc. Usually it was extremely great, varj-Ing from 30 to SO or (JO per cent. The bankers and money-lenders of Athens, though of low origin, being mostly freedmen or aliens, appear to have lieen considered as eminently trustworthy, and entitled to the public confidence. But they were, notwithstanding, quite as unpopular, and fur no better reasons, as the Jews and Lombards of the middle ages. Wo are surprised that so learned a writer as Bueckh should have l>een so mibued with the vulgar prejudice against them as to state that they drew upon themselves " the merited hatred of all classes." lie should have known that it has not been the covetousness of bankers, but that bad lawf admin- istered liy interested judges, by making loans insecure, and driving parties of the highest respectability from the l>anking business, have been alone to blame for the exorbitant usury of ancient as well as of modem times. Had contracts lieen properly enforced, the |.ri)li.il)IUty is that interest would have been as low in (Jrei'i n as in England. — Boecku H Public Economy of Atheii', vol. i.,f>\). KM -191. Altimtila til limil the rale of interest have railed it. — Instciid, however, of leaving the rate of interest to be adjusted by e free competition of the parties, on tiia primiple.s tlius briefly e.\plaine(l, or endeavoring to reduce it by facilitatin;,' tl'o enforcement of ccintniets, most governments liiiva interfered, eitlier entirely to priihiliit the takiug of interest, or to fix certain rates wliiili might lie legally exacted, while any excess over tliein was decl'red to be msmi//, and proliiiiited under the severest penalties. In the ages in which these enactments had thoir origin, the precious metals were the only species jf inoiiey, and were considered quite peculi;ir. lieing u.sed in a double jap.icity — as stimdiirds by wliich to a.scertain the values of differ- ent articles, and as tliu eiiuivalents fur which they were most frequently exchanged — tlii^y inquired a fiictitiuiis importance in the estimatior not merely of tbe vulgar, but of persons of the greatest discernment. The fact, that to buy aud to sell Is merely to barter one commodity fur unutlier, to exchange a quantity of cor [, or cloth, or beef, for a quantity of gold or silver, anil vice i-emi, was entirely overlooked, The atten- tioi. was gradually transferred fniin the money's worth to the money itself. And the wealth of states and of individuals er cnt, ' It is, therefore, plain that if the moans talvcn to put down usury wero not wholly rejiponsiblo lor its existence, they, at all evenis, added largely to its amount. Tliese conclusions do not rest on theory only, but are supported tiy a wide ano wero genorally of tlie patrician order, not only of the interest, but of the principal itself. Uejieated instances ocourrcrt to sliow tliat tlie.ie were not mare empty threats ; and tlie patricians inilcmni- lied themselves, by :i corresponding premium, for the dangers to which they were exposed. " Dcb conti- nuels changements," says Slontesqiiieu, " soil par des ioix, eoit par des plebiscites, naturaliserent h Rome Insure j car les crcunciers, voyant le peuple leur de- liiteui, lewr legislateur, et leur juge, n'curent plus de couliance dans les contrats. Lc peuple, comme un debi- tcur decredite, ne tentoit i lui prefer que par des gros [irofits ; d'autant plus que, si les ioix no venoient quo de temps en temps, les pbiintcs du pcuplo etoient continu- eiic", e^ intimiduieiit toujours les crcanciers. Cela (It que tous les moycLs honnetes de pretor et d'emprunter fiirent aliolia Ji Rome, et qu'une usuro affreuse tou- jours foudfoyoe, et toujours renaissante, s'y otalilit. I.e nial vei.„ient de ce quo les'choses n"avoient pas 6t6 menages. Lea Ioix extremes dans le bien fi'Ut naitre le mill extreme ; il fallut payer (wnr le jpret do I'argent, et pour lc 'knger des peines do la loi." — Esprit dta htis, liv. xxii., c. '21. In Moliammcdan countries, notwithstancyng the proliil)'tion in tlie Koran, the ordinary rate of interest is at least thioo or fo\ir times as great as its ordinary rate in Europe. " I.'usuro -.ugmente dans les pays IMaliomcfans ii projjortion do la scverite de lu defense : k- preteur s'iudimnise du peril de ia contravention." Il)id., liv. xxi., c. 19. During tiie n'iddlc .iges, when interest was excessively high, the rate of profit was probably little, if at all biglicr tha.i at present. But it sliould 1)0 observed that a very great maj'irity of tho loans of tiicse ages wero but little influenced iiy its amount. Tliey were not nia '" to bo invested, but to tic s|pent. The greiit liarons a.nl other landed proprie- tors were the principal liorrowers. .*."it in I!) out of every 20 instances, tlio sums wldi'li they liorrowed ' were expiiiiled in tho maintenance of cMwds of idle i retainers, in warfare, or in prodigalities of some sort or otiiur. And while the borrowers belonged gener- ally to what wo should now call l!>e spendthrift class, and thero were no eflic'ont ineaus (/•■ compelling them to abide by their engagements, tho lenders wero but few In number, and mostly Jews and Italians, the cb. Jects of the most unreasonable prejudices. Under such circumstances. It would bo folly to suppose that the rate of interest shnnld depend In any conslJerat)le degree on the rate of profit. Tho numbers, position, and character of tho borrowers, compared with tlio fewness, position, and character of the lenders, and the risk to which tho latter were exposed in entering into such transactions, occasioned tho «>/,es8lvely high rate of interest. Of the 50 and even 100 per cent, which borrowers then frequently e.igaged to pay as interest, not more than 10 or 12 per cent, can properly be said to have Iteen given for the productive services of loans. Tho rest must be considered as occasioned partly by the extreme scarcity of disposable capital and the carelessness of the borrowers, and partly, and princiiMlly, as a honu» to compensate the lenders lor the imminent hazard of losing the principal. Xnt/lauil. — In England, as in most other countries, Christi:tn8 wore, after the Conquest, absolutely pro- hibited, both by the civil and tho ecclesiastical law, from bargaining for inter'-st, But as ,Iew8, according to the Mosaic law (Deuteronomy, chap, xxiii., v. 20), were allowed to lend at an interest to a stranger, its exaction by them was first connived at, and sulise- quently authorized by law. And the same privilege was afterwanl extended to tho Italian or Lomliard merchants. In conseiiuenco of this exemption, many Jews early settled in Kngland, and engrossed a largo share of the trade of tho kingdom. But despite tlieir industry and general good conduct, tho prejudices against them, and against the liusiness in which they wero mostly engaged, wore so very strong that they and their families wero regarded as slaves of the crown, by wliom they wero plundered, to an extent and un- der pretenses which would now appear incrcdilile. To such an extreme, indeed, wero these oppressive practices carried, that a particular office, called tho erifteqiier of the Jews, was cstablislied, for receiving the sums extorted from them in fines, customi, tal- lages, forfeitures, etc. They were, in consequence, oldiged to charge an enormous rate of interest, or, as Madox exjiresses it, "to fleece tho sulijects of the realm as the king fleeced them." (Maddx's History of the Exchequer, vol. i., pp. 22t 2fil, 4to, 17(i!).) And hence, while only from 7 to 10 and 12 per cent, inter- est was paid in i iiuntries where sounder principles pre- vailed, tho rate charged in Kngland was ,1, 4, and even 5 times as great. At Veron.i, in 122H, the interest of nionej- was fixed by law at 12^ per cent. Toward tho end of tho Mth centurj-, tlio repulilic of (Icnoa paid only from 7 to 10 per cent, to her creditors; anl the average discount on good liills at Barcelona, in li;).5, is stated to have lieen about 10 per cent. But wliilo interest in Italy and Catalonia, wluro a consiilerablo degree of freedom was allowed to tlie parties bargain- ing for a 1 lan, was thus comparatively moderate, it was, despite its total proliiliition, incomiiaraldy liigher in Franco and Kngland. Mattiiew Paris nientioiis that, in tho reign of Henry HI., the delitor paid 10 percent, every two months. And this, though impos- sible as (• general practice, ma,' not have been ven.' far from tho average interest charged on the few loans that were then contracted for. (IIai-i-aji's Middle Ages, vol. iii., p. 102.) But in tho end tlio I'isordera occasioned by tliis rain- ous system tiecamo so olivious, that, notwithstanding tlie deeply-rooted prejudi es to the contrary, a statute was passed in IMfi (;!7 Hen. A'lII.. cap. 7), legalizing interest to tlio extent of 10 per cent, per annum ; lie- cause, as is recited in the words of the act, ilie stat- utes "prohibiting interest altof;cther have so little force, that little or no punishment liatli ensued to tho offenders." In the reign of !Mwiird VI., tlie liorror against interest seems to have revived in full force ; for, in lfif)i, the faking of any was again prohibited, " as a vice most odious and detestable," and "contrary INT 1071 INT '•) receiving onii, tttl- cquenco, or, as of the lUttorij And inter- ilos pre- nnil >'vcn ;urcst of :ir.t the (will uni the , ii, i-i;!"), !ut whilo il(t(/rulile Inirgiiin- ilcniti', it liiniier nii'iitions . liil 10 ;li iinpos- ocn vcn' few loans Middle tlii? rflin- [stiimling a stiitnte cualizing mm ; !>eared on the face of the deeds that the Icniler had secured the principal by effecting an assurance of the borrower's life. During the greater part of the French revolutionary war, the usury laws operated to the prejudice of all classes of borrowers. The greater extent and high interest of the public loans, the facility of selling out of the funds, the regularity with wliich the dividends were paid, and the temptations to speculation arising from the fluctuations in tlie price of funded property, diverted so large a portion of the floating capital of the country into the coA'crn iif the treasury, that it was next to Impossilde fur private indiviiluals to Imrrow at the legal rate of interest, except from the trustees of public companies, or througli the influence of circum- stances of a very neculiar nature. Hence, the prupri- etors of unencumbered freehold estates, of which they hud tbu absolute disposal, were very generally oldiged, when they had occasion for loans, to resort to those destructive expedients which had formerly been the resource onl}- of spendthrifts and persons in desperate circumstances. Committee on Umrt) Lawt. — The evidence annexed to the " l{c|)ort of thn (lommittee of the House of Conimons, in 1H1«, mi the Usury Laws," sets their impolicy and pernicious influence in a clear light, Mr, Sugdcn, now I.ord St. Leonard, stated that when the market rato of interest was alvjve the legal rate, the landed prupriutor was compelled to resort to some shift to evade the usur>- laws. He had " known annuities granted fur three lives, ut 10 per cent., upon fee-simple estates, unencumliered, and of great annual vulue, in a register county, lie hud also known annuities granted for four lives j and more would have been added, but fur tlie danger of equity setting aside tlii transaction on account of the inadequacy of the con- sideration. I..atterly, many annuities were grantcil for a term of years certain, not depending upon lives." On being asked wliether, were there not laws limiting tlio rate of interest, better terms could or cuuld nut have l>een obtained, he answered, " I am decidedly >f opinion tliat better terms could have been oljt 'iiied ; for there is a stigma which attaches to men y, bo lend money upon annuities, that drives all rupoitublo men out of the market. Some leading men did latterly embark in such transactions, l)ut I never knew a man of reputation in my own profession lend money in such a manner, although we have ttie best means of ascertaining the safest securities, and of olitaining the best terms." "The laws against usury," says Mr. Holland, of tlie house of Messrs. Daring Brothers and Company, " drive men In distress, or in Aant of money, to nmc'.i mure dLsustrous modes uf raising it than tliey would adopt if no usury luw.s existed. The man in trade, in want of money for an unexpected demand, or (iisa|)- pointed in Ids returns, must fulliil liis engagements, or forfeit his credit. He might have borrowed money at G per cent., but the law allows no one to lend it to • " Connilerationt on the Batt of Interetl," den, Esq., PumpMeUw, ToL rUL, p. 278. by E. B. Sug. I him; and ba must sell soma of tha commodity ha holds, at a reduced price, in order to meet his engage- ments. For example, he holds sugar which is worth 80s. ; but ho is compelled to sell it immediately for 70s. to ihe man who will give him cash for it, and thus actually l)orrow8 money at 12| per cent., which, had the law allowed him, he might have liorrowod from a money dealer at 6 per cent. It is known to every merchant that cases of this kind are common occur- rences in every commerchil town, and more especlidly in the metropolis. A man in distress for money pays more interest, owing to the usury luws, than he would If no such laws existed ; because now he Is obligojl to go to some of the disreputable money-lenders to Iwr- row, as he knows the respectable money-lender will not break the laws of his country. The dbireputable money-lender knows that he has the ordinary risk of his debtor to incur in lending his money, and he lias further to encounter tlie penalty of the luw, for Imth of which risks tlie Iwrrower must pay. If no usury laws existed, in common cases, and wliere a person is respectable, ho might obtain a loan from the res|iectit- ble money-lender, who would theo only have to caUu- late his ordinary risk, and the coiK,iensatiun fur the use of his money." Thn committee admitted the force of this evidence by agreeing to tha following resolutions: " 1st. That it is the opinion of this iMmmittue, that the laws regu- lating or restraining the rate o^ interest have l)con ex- tensively evaded, and liave failed of the clfect of im- posing a maximum on such rate; and that, of Into years, from the constant excess of the inaiket rate uf interest al>ove the rate limited by law, tliey have addt'ii to the expense incurred liy Iwrrowors on real security, and tliat such borrowers have lieen compelled to resort to the mode of grunting annuities on lives ; a mode which lius been made a cover for obtaining a liigher rate of interest than the rate limited liy luw, and has further sulijectcd ilie borrowers to enormous charges, or forced tUem to make very disadvantageous sales of tlieir estates. 2d. That it is the opinion of this committee, tliut the construction of such laws, as applicable to the transactions of commerce us at pres- ent carried on, have been attended with mucii uncer- tainty as to the legality of many transactions of frequent occi' .'rence, and consequently l>eon product- ive of much embarrassment and litigation. itle cni'it li.Ht* bi'ng excluded from the n >rket, borrowtTA . obliged to renort to thou of an inferior churactei, i »■ -. In addition to the pro- mlum for the risk of enterfi into an illegal transac- tion, received an indemnlflcation for the oJium which, in inch c. 8, alwayn attache! to the lender. It is idle to attempt to secure individuals against the risk of im- position In pecuniary more than in nr.y other species of transactions. And, although the object had boeu desirable, it could nnt be obtained by such inadequate means. The usurj- laws generated the very mischirf they were intended to suppress. Instead of diminisli- ing, they multiplied usurious transactions, and •i^gii' vated the evils they were designed to mitigate or remove. Nothing can lie more unreasonable than the clamor against money-lenders, because of their exacting a comparatively high rate of interest from •> odigc'' ind spendthrifts. This is the most proper ..nd etiivieut check tl ■ 'an 1)0 put U|Kin oxtr ivagance. Supposing t' vciirity of a prodigal and an industrious man to h I 'ii, 'v equal, and this is but seldom the case, the cop- i iVs* who lends to the latter in preference to the former, confers a service on the community, lie pre- vents those funds which ought to be employed in sup- porting useful lulwr, am' in adding to the puldio wnlth, from being wasted in frivolous or pernicious puiMuits. But i^rhaps it will be said that this is mistaking the object of the usury laws ; that they were not intended to force capitalists to lend to spendthrifts on the same terms as to industrious persons, but to protect the prodigal and unwary from the extortion of usurers, b, making any stipulation between them for more than a given rate of interest null and void. Hut why all this solicitude al>out the least vaiuaiile class of society? Why fetter the circulation of capital among those who would turn it to the best account, lest any portion of it chance to fall into the hands of those who would squander it away ? If tlie prevention of prodigality be of sufficient importance to justify the interference of the legislature, prodigals should be put under an in- terdict ; for this is the only way in which it is possible to restrict them. It is not by l)orrowing money at high interest, but by contracting "tod a real grievance. The wisdom ol" an act of Pariiament which should compel the uhderwriters to insn-e a gunpowder magazine and a salt warehouse on »mo terms, would not be very evident. Yet it Wo. id not be more absurd than to enact that the same rate of Interest shall be charged on capital lent on goml, on Indifferent, and on bad securities. " It is in vain, therefore," to use the words of I.,ocke, "to go almut effectually to reduce the price of interest by law, and you may as rationally hope to set a fixed rate upon the hire of houses or ships, as of money. He that wants a vessel rather than lose his market, will not stick to have it at the market rate, and find means to do it with security to the owner, though the rate were limited by law; and he that wants money, rather than loso his voyage or his trade, will pay the natural interest for it, and submit to such ways of con- ve^'ance as shall keep the lender out of reach of the luiV," ("Considerations of the lowering of interest and raising the value of money, 1C91," works, vol. ii., p. 7, Ito, 1777.) The case of Holland furnishes a striking proof of the correctness of the theory we have bcfn endeavoring to establish. The rate of interest •as been, for a very long period, lower in Holland tl.iin anywhere else In Kurope; and yet it is the only couiitrj- in which usury laws have been altogether uii- kuown, where capitalists am allowed to demand, and l)orrowers to pay, any rate of interest. Strictly speak- ing, this applies only tc the state of Holland previously to the revolution in 1795. The enactments of the f'odo N"" (deon were subsequently introduced; but it ap- ■ ^f'. frou. tho report of the Parliamentary Commit- tf^' 1 the usury laws, that they have not lieen acted n\' >i. Notwithstanding all the violent changes of the f i)vi;iii. "-nt, and the extraordinary disturliance of her ti mcial concerns since 1790, the rate of interest fn l.oUand has continued coiHpaiati\c.y . ..idy. Dur- ing the whole of that period, jiersons who could offer unexceptionable security liave been able to borrow at from 2 to SJ^ per cent. ; nor has tlio average rate of in- terest cliarged on capital advanced on the worst spe- cies of security over exceeded 6 or 7 [H-r cent., except w .en the government was negotiating a forced loan. It. t. in this country, where tiie law docLired that no more than 5 per cent, sliould lie taken, the rate of iii- tei t 'or money advanced on tho licst landed security varieil, in the same [leriod, from 5 to 16 or 17 per cent., or above /ire times as much as in Holland. In France llie usury laws were abolished at the Revo- lution ; and it is stated tliat tlicir aliolition was not at- tended liy any rise of i"'cre.st. — Stokch, Keonumie. Polil ■ ': , torn, iii., p. 187. According ta the Code Na- poleon, only t) pel cent, is allowed to be charged on commercial loans, and .'i per cent, on those made on the security of real property. There is, how- ever, no difficulty in evading the law. This is usu- ally done by gi^ mg a boniia before completing the transaction, or, wiii< h is the same thing, by framing the obligatir!i f'l r the debt for a larger sum than is really advanced iiy the lender. None of the parties pp-'icularly interested can be called to swear to the of snch bmius being given ; so that tho transaction iininipcacliable, unless a Shird party, privy to the ■jei ' lemeni of the alfair, be produced as a witness. — E.1!. ' .. . ader is referred to M'Ccli.ooh's £i»fiy on /nto'- es' 'Hi ^I'xchange, pub, in Eankeri' Mag., N«w York. (XT 1074 TADLRS or INTKRKHT AND ANNdtl'IKN, nfT t— T««u Mowiao ml Amooiit Of (1 iwrioriD at UoMpnimii inTiiaMT, «t I ,l,44,r.. tl,T t,l, AND 10 ria (Jut., AT Tui IMO or »"»•» VlAK r8»M 1 id W. r». • pacMnk 4 par (tM. 4 l-tft-u. 1 p*r Mnl. I ft tnl, 1|wr*iiNl. 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IMAGE EVAB.UATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) A V /./ yjk .»* -^ v.. ^ 1.0 1.1 l£i|M |2.5 |50 ^^" ■■■ Ui lU §2.2 iM 12.0 us lU L25 nil 1.4 I ■ m 11 1.6 6" ^ ^ '/, '^^ '^ Hiotographic Sciences Ccrporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. MS80 (716) S73-4S03 ■^ I»T 1070 BBT - TABLES OF INTKBKST AND ANNUITIES. Ith-JlAna Mowns nn Amouict or ah Amfom or ft rwrn Aiihuii, unorui at Oomfouiid Unuatt, at 8,4,44, B, t, T, 8, (^ ARD'IO m Cnnr., at tbi xhd or bach Tba> noM 1 to Sfiw YMn. « par MIL 4p>ro«t. 4 l-l fr erat. 1 pir omt. • p«rMDL 1p«ro«aL • perMiil. • pnoul. M pn mU. 1 iooAUo i-oonooo 1-OOUOOO 1.000000 1-000000 1-000000 1100000 1-000000 1-1)0000 * t-oaoooo t-04IKW0 •«45000 1-060000 3-060000 1-070000 1186000 SHMOOOO 3100000 8 SINOtOO 8181600 8-187036 8-161S00 8-188800 S114900 S146400 8178100 81100UO 4 4-1888>T 4-846464 4-S78I91 4-810186 4-8T46U 44)9948 4-606118 4-578118 4-64100O S S'SOtlSt 6-416888 6-4T0716 6-536681 S-6ST09S e-TeoTS* 6-866601 6184711 6-1051110 6 6^468410 •'6S8976 <-T16899 6-801818 61T6818 7-158891 7-889039 7-688885 7-715610 T T'OSMOt T-886184 8-018158 8-141008 8-888888 8-664031 8133808 9100485 9-487171 8 8'8tt886 8-114886 8-880014 9-648109 9-8»r468 10168808 10-686638 11-0884T4 11-486838 • 10158106 10-688796 10-601114 11-036564 11^491816 18-180Tt5 11177989 13-487568 K-vam 18-679477 10 11-4«8ST« 11-006101 11-188108 18«TT898 18-816448 14-486561 15-193980 16187425 11 ItSOTTM 18-486861 18-841^ 14-906T3T 149T164S 16-788699 16-646487 1T-B602t8 18-581167 It uinoao 16-085806 16-464081 18-91T13T 16'86»941 17888461 18177186 tO-14OT80 31184384 18 16'61TT80 16-6M888 17-168918 1T-T119S8 18-888188 10-14064-f 81-495897 11163386 84-621712 14 1T'0868M 18-881811 18-981109 18-698688 31-016066 11-560488 14114930 16-019188 17-974988 15 iS'Snesu 10-088688 10-T84064 11-6T8564 181T69T0 16-138038 97-168114 29-360916 81-771482 16 S0-15638t 81-884681 11-T19887 88-65T491 15-6T8518 87-888054 80114388 83-008899 86149780 IT 81T61688 88-69T6I8 14-741TIIT 36840866 18111880 80-840117 88-750336 861TST06 40-544708 IS SS'414486 86-645418 16-866084 18-183886 80-906668 88199088 87-450344 41-801888 456991T8 11 35-116868 8T-6T1888 18-068568 80-689004 88-T59990 87-878965 41-446368 46118468 61-168080 M S6-8T0ST4 89-T78079 81-871438 88-066964 86-T36g01 40995491 46-761964 51-160110 6T1T4999 SI S8-6T64S6 81-969908 SST881BT S6-T19861 89101T3T 44-866177 60-433911 66T64580 64103499 St SO-SSOTSO 84-347970 SS-SOSSTS 88-606114 48-893390 49-006739 65-456765 t3-ST88S8 Tl't03749 28 8t<4Bi884 86-617889 SS-tSTOSO 11-4804T5 46196838 68-486141 60-898296 68-581988 79-548024 M 84-486470 SO-088604 41-689196 44-601999 508186TT 68-176671 66-7647S0 76-789818 88-497837 t5 86'4IWt64 41-645008 44-566310 4T-T2T099 54-864513 68-349088 78106840 841^96 98-847059 S< 88-658048 44-811746 4T6T0645 61-118464 50-166388 68-676470 79164415 109-181765 8T 40-T0>684 4T-084814 60-T11834 64-669126 68-T06T66 74-488838 87-860768 108-718186 131198948 S8 43'«8«tt8 48-967688 68-998888 68-401588 68-518118 80-697691 95-888880 113 968117 134109986 Sk 46118890 68-966886 6T-438088 63-833T13 78-639T98 87-846539 103-965986 134180856 148-680980 80 4T'5T6416 66 084888 81-007070 66-488848 T9-058186 94-460786 1181S8311 186807688 164-494033 81 flO-OOMTg 68488S86 64-T58888 TO-TeOTOO 84'8016TT 103-073041 118-845868 149-6T531T 181148435 8S B8-609T59 61'T01469 68-666346 75-298839 90-889778 110118164 184118537 164-086geT 801-187767 88 66'0n841 66-ine68T T1-T66336 80-068111 97-848166 118188435 146150610 1T9100816 811151544 84 6TI801TT 68-85T909 n-osoaso 85-066969 104-188756 138168766 16H-626670 196132844 146-476699 SB 60-468088 T8-698185 81-496618 90810807 111-484780 138186878 172-316804 115-T10766 171034368 8« 88-875944 TT-698814 86-168966 86-886328 118-130667 148118460 187-102148 886134738 399-126805 ST 661T4888 81-T0S146 91-041844 101-62S189 137168119 160-887403 108-070880 368176948 880-088486 88 60-10844* 86-9T0886 86-188306 107-709546 185104106 173-661030 330-315946 382-629788 8641484S4 8t Til-484888 S04U9I50 101-464434 114-095028 145«68458 185-640893 238141331 S0916646S 401-447773 40 T6-401260 96-086516 lOT-OSOSlS 110-799774 164-761966 199-635111 869-056619 887-883445 442-5925M 41 T8'66S»8 99-886586 113-846688 187-S38768 166-047684 114-609570 18D-781040 869191866 487-351311 4t 80-083186 104-819598 118-924789 186131751 176-950545 880-681140 804143538 408-628183 687'636»92 48 86-488888 110-018888 136-176404 143198888 187-507577 14T-TT6496 838-588006 440-846669 602-4U0602 U 88-04$408 116-412877 181418848 161-14S006 198-758083 166-180851 366149646 481-5S1TT6 662-040761 4B •8-T18361 181089898 188 849965 169-700166 312-748614 885-T48811 886-605617 525-368884 T18104837 44 »6'6iil46T 126-870568 146-098814 168'686164 134-60S135 806-T51T68 418-426067 6T4-186031 791-799321 4T 100-886901 188-949890 168-673683 178-119433 341-086613 839114386 468-900153 626'363T61 871174853 48 104'4088M 188268806 161687908 188-036898 396-564529 868170098 490-183164 684180411 960-172S.<)8 4» 108-540U8 145-888784 169-85086T 198-426668 372158401 878199000 680142787 T46-866648 1067-189672 SO 118-786867 168-667084 lT8'5ae028 308-847996 390-385905 406-528929 678-770166 816-083666 1168103529 51 uT-isons 188-778767 18T-68S665 310'816395 808-756069 486185055 680-671769 888-4410T6 1281199882 51 181-696I8T 167164718 196-9T4T69 283-856165 838181423 467-604871 671-826610 970-490778 141fl-4293'.>U 58 186-84T0S1 174-861806 306-838684 846 498974 848173808 501180819 736-081551 1058 834943 1652-4722,')J 64 181-187485 188 845859 31T-1468T8 158-778938 870117006 587-816443 785-114075 1155-130083 1708-719417 55 186-071680 181-16eiT8 t8T91T959 373-713618 894-17202T 575128598 848128101 1360-001796 1830-5!)14ri 58 141-1S876S 199-806540 389 1T4368 387 348249 418-823348 617148594 917-887058 1874-500067 2009050.V)? 5T 146-888881 908-T9TT69 350-98T110 803-719662 444-951689 661-450646 998164011 1499109063 2277-616ilL'4 68 161-730088 818-149678 164-329380 818H91445 4T2-648790 708-752191 1078-646144 1636-183518 3SO«-877l!Jii 50 167-««KM Wi-876659 3T6-0T459T 886-794017 508-007718 759-364844 1150-466756 1788-299686 275S-014!liB 80 168.038487 887-990696 3S9-49T994 868-588718 583-123131 818530888 1158118296 1944-793188 3ftJ4-31(Wlt.> 81 168-945040 I48-5108I8 808-525862 ST3162904 566115872 8T1-460810 1854470860 3120-323439 8S3919Sim «l 176-018891 159-450726 818-184008 891'8T6049 601-082824 983'46949T 1468-327988 3313-697583 36T4-2273;JS 68 181-868798 170-898754 888-502283 413-469851 688-147798 999-812851 1681-984237 3521840811 4042'65U6-i'> 64 137701707 182-661904 849-509880 484093844 677-436661 lOTO-199216 1709'4ffi9«6 3749-809989 44»7-916(i>5 66 194-888758 194-968881 866137831 456-798011 719-082861 1146-755161 1847148088 3998183474 4893-70Ti51 66 80rt«n41 807-767116 888-718588 4S0'63T918 768127883 1238-038038 8369184486 6884-07'97-i 6T 808-197628 881-0TT8IIO 401-986867 606-669807 810-031503 1814183988 3166-710164 8664156685 5928-4S5776 «g 116448651 884-980918 481-076281 681958298 859-622793 1408-039283 3830146977 8886-148634 6516-8.'»43:)4 68 89t-906S68 848-817749 441-028617 559-560968 918-200160 1507-602033 2517166785 4286-903000 7169-517789 TO 880-694064 864-890459 461-869630 668-538511 967182170 1614-184174 2790-080074 4619128180 7387-469968 Tl 888611886 879 862077 488-663815 618164986 ■'017-008100 1718-138566 3888-686480 6085158266 8677116525 Tt 846-66T148 896-096960 506418387 660102638 1089 6-28586 1850193216 8174-781898 649i)-139060 9545133177 V« t69-06786V 4l8-8984«8 660-307067 6S4 447<n M67871 4-819477 6'076691 4-111864 4'91?M4 tiwitl ««WM tlSSiii 8-7(0787 4486861 8480188 »00106B 6'89170l 6786878 6-6<8a81 A'WMif '901970 9fMI9M 4'86841( TDIMM 6-781746 6-0*6886 6-468118 6-309r»4 ^>M|iM 749999 ft^^ ffiS T-786100 7-485881 7-168790 7-107833 6^8016M I'MwN 'fMiM 6-580108 8110896 7^913718 T711736 T860U8T T'oSHb HiwSi MiTm (-M4667 •'162614 8-7604n 8-688917 8-306414 t'88687B m 7i9i9«4 « (-496061 •■154004 »«8ti074 9-118581 8-668261 8-886844 m 6-81(6(8 10-684065 9-986648 9-688961 9-398673 8-863688 S'ttf jpi 7108866 11-196078 10663188 10412825 9-89S641 9-394«84 11*740409 IjtSSm 7-86(6(7 11-087986 11-118887 10^789646 10479668 9-71334* 9'i079i4 7(06080 IIMIIOI 11-658896 11^384016 10437770 10-106806 '444449 ''19199 ' SSlSSi ifmuvi 18-166118 11-166669 11707191 11-174066 ia-4n360 9*749909 *fii99 ' Sottas 18-768618 13-659197 12169993 11-689587 10-887608 10'0(I9097 '97t9il ('TMMft 8301418 14-8187M 18188989 11'593294 11-086811 11-168116 iO'ftWWff tms S-MOllA 8464930 so 14-877476 18-&9«8i6 18-007936 18-468310 11-469991 lO'MMU UltSUt 8(18564 n 15-416014 14 019160 18-404724 13-821158 ll-7640n lomim 0;M««M tmu* ('6486(4 u 16-986917 14-451116 18-784426 18-168003 ll'04ie6« t -otrnt «'44I48» 8771640 t* 16-448608 14-856841 14.147776 18-488674 11-SO8870 (Mjlt^ 9'bWtOl 8-818918 M 16-985541 16-146968 14.495478 JM98641 11-660868 (villi »'«84744 as 17-41814S 15.t!1080 14-828209 14.093945 11-788866 ll'JWftii 9-077040 M 17-876841 16-«S1769 16-146611 14-876186 18-006161 }1S»{«» 0'i09v79 • N89T9 (1(0946 ST 18-817081 16-819686 16-451808 14-648034 18-810684 w«w ittiimm (387338 28 18-764108 16-668063 16-742874 U-898117 18-406164 t urui iwmm 9406667 » 19-188465 16-983716 16-021889 15-141074 I8-A90731 JliTTBT* {HMUM l«i»81M ('869606 80 19-600441 17-898088 16-288889 15-378451 18764881 u-4m*i i-WTTH utiiim •■496(14 81 80-000438 17-588494 16-544391 16-598811 18-910068 t|;6818l4 !S ioinmat (479018 8t 80-888766 17-878668 16-788891 15-803677 14-084048 »'4««H0 9-636876 88 10-766791 18-147646 17-022882 16-003549 14'380Mft wtrnto «'4«4Mt (-569481 84 11181887 18-411198 17-346758 16-198904 14-868141 14-49(li48 1' 19994 0'M7M6 9608676 86 81-487110 18-664618 17-461011 16-874194 KMmi 1' 4509 10M6Mt 9-614169 86 11-881168 18-908181 17-666041 16-646858 14-680987 . 8(1 1«;«1TM (-676608 8T 83-167886 19142679 17-862240 16-711887 14-786780 W;U701T •'706917 as ^^^498468 19-867864 18-048990 16-867898 14846019 Ollffl •'783651 8» 81-808115 19-684486 18-229666 17-017041 14-949076 l'M4«l« »-t66«66 40 18114773 19-792774 18-401684 11-159086 16-048897 ttmm lOWMO •-779051 4t 18-411400 19-998061 18-666109 17-394868 16-1(8016 tnmm iwm lO-TMM* •■799187 41 8S-T01869 10-186617 18-718560 17-488808 16-834648 ii^imt •'817897 48 18-981901 80-870796 18-874210 17-646913 16-806178 19*509909 9wMlO tmm t'Maigs U 14164174 10-648841 19-018888 17-668778 16-888183 J9'967909 9*077^4 iH-mm • •491)89 45 84-018718 20-710040 19-166847 17-774070 16-4B668( wmm 9'1(f94't9 lA'Mllvr •'.169808 4« M-n5441 80-884664 19-188871 17880067 15-514ST0 wmm ()8r4«« iwwmiai IS 9476180 4T 15-014708 11-041986 19-414709 17-981016 16-e8»038 18>«9M«I 41IIIM 94960)8 48 16-866707 81196181 19-686607 18-077156 16-650017 18-710474 9896936 4> lS-601667 81MI478 19-651898 18-168781 15-707572 l8-76679» l«'94SM4 •406196 80 lB-719764 81-48219U 19-76-2008 18-365936 15-761861 la-MOTM iim^ lOIMKtSS •'914814 51 1&'<61887 21-617486 19-867960 18-888977 16-818076 U-tSMTS M'iStl^ «'»7401t • 911669 58 86-166140 81-747581 19-969880 18-418078 . 16-861898 K'gWIM )('(7tAo6 «'»*«!I40 •'•3«599 68 86474990 21-871675 80-066345 18-498408 16-9069T4 ' fl-tf^llW HIOMM •-988999 64 86-677600 21998967 90-169181 18-566146 15-049976 19*910795 mum •-•41X17 55 86-774488 18-108611 30-8180-21 18-688471 15W0648 19*999999 i*mt4 I'OlimK •-•47107 5« 86-965464 88 819819 80-883034 18-698646 16-018814 ICMHM fmm It-UMOll •■981916 5T 87160986 83-886749 80-414887 18-760619 16064S19 i»*»»m }«-»444#t u-mm •■966896 68 17-331006 38-4a96e7 80-493886 18 619642 16-0(6960 141KI84W lamiiui IHlMllS •400860 6» 87-505881 81-618480 80-566783 18876764 16-131118 uwm t'Mmu 11043410 •408S78 80 17-676664 11-618480 30-688081 18-939890 16161488 14<08»Ul mmn ti-«4fnn •467167 81 1T-8I0<58 38-714894 10-706841 18-960876 16-1(0086 it^mmt \imm lOMWS •470148 n IS-OOOMt 38-801788 80'771&88 19-088634 16-317008 16-341468 U'l«i(40 tmum I'Dbim •472847 68 1S-16567S 82-887891 .30-888993 19-O7000O 1'0»*»71 •476816 64 18'80t478 22-968549 30898778 19119114 16-8664T0 nmm iiimm 9477568 66 1S«18M 98-046682 80'«Sae79 19-161070 16-88(1(8 i^mm ll'Ofo«»T •4710O7 66 18-8«5040 88-K18I0 81-006788 19-301019 168104(8 U'Wm l^ m UK 9481461 6T 88-78S04( 33-194048 81-066107 19-839066 164806M u-mm •488147 68 18-867083 88-368607 31-108286 19376801 16-34(678 14'14((80 9'4mm6 ■ \nf 94^ ' tmuna «> 88-997114 38-880896 81-156801 19-809610 16-8(7617 U'UMir l«'4«*itM» wmtm •486071 70 19-1184U 88«M516 81-303118 19-848677 16-884644 U'ltOHW H-mm i'0SM4» •-•97888 71 89446040 88-466864 31-346040 19-878978 I640061S 14't«8A6« MMm ii-o»Mao •488«W 71 11-866087 8S6166SI 31-388077 19-408788 16-416678 14'l76Wt )i'4M»7r •40635 78 89'48066T 83-678780 81-888808 19483179 16-4K791 U'lt841li \tm •490487 74 MTMM6 88-687635 81-866797 19-460318 16-44SI(( U'llOm ivmnu t'ttmi 76 38-680408 91-408684 19-484970 16-466848 wtim ll;4ffl««4 l-OWITM •■••1188 76 8»-807e(8 88-7S1168 81438684 19-509496 16-46n(l U'tOttOA ilWMM •■9M8&1 77 8»-«iom 8S-7T996S 31-478616 19-638863 16-47(089 wmim ll'Mor li'O90M9 •••8601 78 80-009910 38-836868 31-904396 19«S6098 1646(«e« 14111(774 14-11754} li^S •4M48 7» SO-10«78« 38-878008 81-635786 19-676184 16-4(9679 il» •4M480 80 80-100768 S8-916893 81-665846 19«96460 16-609181 li'mm D'OMIM* •4^6118 81 SO-lllOOt SS-WITIOS 81-598638 19-616677 16-6111048 14434171 H'mm 9*479479 |l-l«l«W •itIflMS 81 80-S80686 3S<«^78M 81-680700 19-688978 16536460 i'477i99 •4«M6« 88 aO-466668 340(8787 31-M66aS 18-651407 16-6848(6 umitt 9'47i97§ Ml •■WWW 64 80460086 34-073873 81-671890 19-668007 16-541888 14-88711 t^* 0'99o949 85 ao«u6t S4-10e681 11-6«6110 19-688616 16«48(47 u-i4m 'ism. INT 1071 lUT In Hamburg the nto of Intartst ii qoIU mmttM' od { or, if tUai* bo a written Uw reftnining it, it bw become obioleta. The rate, therefore, varies accord' ing to clrcomatances. Occaaionally It ha> been at 7, 8, and even 10 per cent. ; and in 1799, a period of great mercantile embarrassment and insecurity, it wa« as high at 14 per cent. Generally, however, the rata of discount on good bills does not exceed 8 or 4 par cent. — Rtport on Uiury Lawt, p. 40. In Russia the legal rata of interest is 6 par cant> But as Russia is a country capable of much iiuprova' ment, and where there are very great facilities for tba advantageous employment of capital, the market rat* of interest is invariably higher than the statute rata, and the law is constantly and easily tvaiai.—Rmort oa l/iurg Laui, p. 46 ; and Storch, torn. Ui,, p. W7> The previous statements apply only to ths cases of interest arising out of loans made by one party to another. But there are cases in which interest m»Y became due without being stipulated for, by unnecasr saiy or unjustiAabte delays in the payment of del>ts, or by trustees, agents, or other parties coming into possession of property belonging to others, etc., and in these it Is necessary to obviate litigation, that tba in, terest to be charged should be fixed by Uw. This legal rate had better be somewhat below the ordinary market rate, and may be adjusted from time to tinia us circumstances may require. But, except in cases of this sort, there is no more reason for interfering tu regulate the rata of interest, than there Is tot intafr fering to regulate premiums of insurance. Dutmction ofii ' ipfe and Compound ItUmit. — When a loan ia made, it is -anal to stipulate that the interest upon it should be regularly paid at the end of every year, half year, elt.. A loan of this sort is said to ha at simple Interest, It Is of the essence of such loan that no part of the interest accruing upon it should ba added to the principal to form a new principal ; and though payment of the interest were not made wlien it becomes due, the lender would not be entitlad to charge interest upon such unpaid interest. Thus, sup< pose (100 were lent at simple interest at 5 per cant., payable at the end of each year ; the lender would, at the end of three or four years, supposing him to bava received no previous payments, be entitled to tl( or $20, and no more. Compound Interttf. — Sometimes, however, money or capital is invested so that the interest is not paid »t the periods when it becomes due, but ia progressively added to the principal ; so that at every term a nair principal is formed, consisting of the original prin^l' pill and the successive accumulations of interest upon interest. Money invested in this way is said to b« placed at eompotmd uUereti. It appears only reasonv ble, when a Iwrrowir does not pay the intereft he baa contracted for at the period when it is due, ttiat ba should pay interest npon such interest. This, boNT' ever, is not allowed by the law of England | nor is it 'allowed to make a loan at compound interest, But this rule is easily evaded by taking a new olillgatton for the principal with the interest included, whan tlw latter beconles dae. Inveetments at compound inter' est are also very fkwquent. Thus, If an individual buy into the funds, and regnlariy buy fresh stock with the dividends, the capital will increase at cowpowtd interest ; and so In any similar case. Caktjaiion of Inlerett. — Interest is estimated at so much per cent, per annum, or by dividing tba prinai' pnl into 100 equal parts, and specifying how man;' of these parts are paid yearly for its use. Thus 5 par cent., or 6 parts out of 100, means that $5 are paid for the uaa of «100 for a year, tlO for the use of ffUO, $2 50 for the use of f ftO for the same period, aod so on, liany attempts have bean nude to oontiiva axpadi' tloua processes far calcnUting interest. The tumV' ing is one of the best : Sappoea it were required t« find tba interest upon tl72 for 107 daya at 5 par MRt. ntn feriM wtMt t§ tmiM ht •ritlnnatleal book* • dMiMa nk «t thr«t ^tmtkm, and would be stated h follow* ( fi, IAHr«> //, /,, tiiifM. mxM tkn mxm-^ht interest required. Ilanca U> #»4 ttm inUifiitt ut any sum for any number of day* ut nny Mt« fW ««»(., mottlply the snm by the numimr of Atkjfit, m4 (Im prnAnei liy the rate, and di- ^\Hti[»ym,m{mt/,m)i «Im qtwtlent is the inter. **t nx|H(nNii> WIm) IIm Mt« is ft per cent., or l-20th of tha yiimAmi, ail (iMt \» reqitired Is to divide the pfodfWt f>f (Ha imn tH«MfA\«i hf the days by 7300 (fif^, tba ^y» Iff • ymif, MNMfrfled by 20). Five per cant. platflad, oH)f tb« m4 0f tabl«M, Tb« WMb tlHum k, «f(«f the 81 st of December, the must wawl d*l« t« irMeb aeeonnts cutrxnt are mode wp, *n4 intMmt «frf#«l«t«d. It Is desirable, in calcu. litiftg UtUirmt m lUmOhUi enttimt, to he able readily to 0n4 (b« Humtmr of tinfn from one day in any month t« »Hy 4l/ bl H»y «(lm MMntb. This may be done witb tb« KfSHtmii mm \if means of the following uble : T4»M rm mmwfimiim tM* Mcaam or Dais rsoH aht imn MAt m «M« f a^a to aar oinaa Day. x I 1 11 i i i' 1 1 1 1 i 1 M m m m m m 918 944 974 806 885 ^i m §1 mim m m lf4 946 976 80« 886 » u M mi mm iSi 9IR 94< 97« 807 887 4' tf M umm M «» 947 977 80S .sas 6 w H mmm m 917 24« 978"! 809 889 t w W »t,m.m m 918 94V r,i j 810 810 f w M In m]m m m 960 im 811 841 «" m #f m m.m m an 261 981 812 812 » # m #» mm m 99"j 2.W 282 818 848 W 4i m untim m m 999 •2M 988" 814 844 »i If 49 4* » tm m m m m m m m m 914 964 9.W 2S« 816 846' 285 818 846 » 44 » m'm iM m 995 96« 29« 817" 847" u « njim iM m m Hi 967 287 818 848 u>~ 41 14 : m m m IM 997 969 288 819 849 f«" 4f iimm m m iff 998 26» 289 820 860 »r ¥r Miffff.W m m m 9«0 990 821 861"" 1* m 11 («»|M m m m 9«1 291 822 862 (» M' ii UW m m m 981 2«9 999 828 868 9D fii 19 m (ft m m 989 m 9«8 894 86t «t M m Hi i4i m m m 9«4 8»4 886' 856 w ir if iHi m m m iSi 9«6 9i5 89« 866 m H Mlyl(» i«f iU M 986 9M 99< 827 867 a » wl iU i44 m ax nit 9«7 99T 828 868 «fi w H m m m m 98* 9<8 998 899~ "869 w w m tu m Iff wf 988 9« 999 880 800 »r m ftr m ur m m m "970 too 881 861 it M «r m m m m m 971 Ml 889 '862 ,, w Iff m flS *f«lMl' 979 809 8CS 868 W - «» m iS9 18^^1949 978 808 8S4 864 »f «» '"_' »riT^!*f§Tfti8 ■• 804 ^.. 886 11^ tbi# t«bb* M«f be readily ascertained the numlwr of my» ttim imf f(iten day in the year to another. Vm ittnUum, ftim tb« jxt of January to the 14th of AttHmt (Afli mi Uti dayx Included), there are 22G ilay*/ 'f« Ha4 ber of dayi between the 18th of March and the 19th of August, deduct firom 231 — the number in the table opposite to 19 and under August — 72, the number op- posite to 18 and under March, and the remainder, 169, is the numlrar required, last day included. In leap years, one must l>e added to tlie number after the 28th of February. Whan interest, instead of being simple. Is compound, the first year's or term's interest must be found, and being added to the original principal, malces the prin- cipal upon which interest is to he calculated for the second year or term ; and the second year's or term's interest lieing added to this last principal, makes that upon which Interest is to be calculated for the third year or term) and so on for any number of years. But when the nnml>er of years is considerable, this process becomes exceedingl}' cumbersome and tedious, and to facilitate it tables have been constructed, which are subjoined to this article. The first ofthe8etable8(p. 1071) represents the amount of tl accumulating at compound interest, at 3, 3), 4, 4|, up to 10 per cent, ever}' j'ear, from 1 }'eaT to 86 years, in dollan and decimals of a dollar. Now, suppose that we wish to know how much (500 will amount to in seven years at 4 per cent. la the column marked 4 per cent., and opposite to 7 years, we find tl'31.6981, which shows that $1 will, if invested at 4 per cent., compound interest, amount to $1-31. 5931 in 7 years ; and, consequenti}-, $500 will, in the same time, and at the same rate, amount to $600X1°81.6931, or $657-96.6. For the same purpose of facilitating calculation, the present value of $1 due any number of years hence, not exceeding 85, at 3, 3), 4, 4|, up to 10 per cent., com- pound interest, is given in the tables, pp. 1074-1077. The use of these tables is precisely similar to the one above. Let It, for example, be required to find the present worth of $500 due 7 years hence, reckoning compound interest at 4 per cent. ; opposite to 7 years, and under 4 per cent., 76-291781, the present worth of $1 due at the end of 7 years ; and multiplying this sum by #600, the product being $879-96.89, Is the answer required. These taldes are in part from Tablet nfln- tertU, DiicouBt,and Annuitiei, by John Smart, Gent., 4to., London, 1726. They are carried to eight decimal places, and enjoy the higiiest character in England and on the Continent, for accuracy and completeness. The original work is now become scarce. Akhditibs. 1. ilnnuiViet certain. — When a sum of monay is to be paid yearly for a certain number of years, it is called an annuity. The annuities usually met with are either for a given number of years, which are called annuitiea certain ; or they are to be paid ao long as one or more individuals shall live, and are thence called contingent anr.uitiet. By the amount of an annuity at any given time, is meant the sum to which it will then amount, supposing it to have been regularly Improved at compound inter- est during the intervening period. The present value of an annuity for any given pe- riod, is the sum of the present values of all the pay- ments of that annuity. See Jones on Annuiliei, London, 2 vols., 8vo; fncjf. Brit., 8th ed. ; Bankkrb' Mag., vols, v., vi., vii., New York, 1864-1867 ; J. R. McCulloch, Et- sojw on exchange, Intereit, etc., New York, 1867 ; Ai- mrance Sfagazine, London, 1864-1867 ; Jteporl to Britith Parliament on Utwrg Laiei ; Stobch, Kconomie Poli- tique, ill. ; Madox, History of Ike Exchequer ; Contid- erationt on the Stale of the EngliA Curreneg ; Humb's Euag OA Interttt ; Etiag on the Goeeming Cautet of AtRaUof Interttt. The uses of these tables are numerona, and they •(• easily applied. Suppose, for example, it were requirad to tell the amount of an annuity of $60 a year for 17 years, at 4 per cent., compound interest. Opposite to 17 (Table, p. 1074) in the column of yaara, and under 4 per cent., is 23-69761,289, being the amount of an annuity of $1 for the given time at tb» given rate per cent. ; and this multiplied by 60 gives $1184-87.66196, the amount required. Suppose, now, that it is required what sum onH must pay down to receive an annuity of $60, to con- tinue for 17 years, compound interest at 4 per cent. ? Opposite to 17 years (Table, p. 1076) and under 4 per cent., is 12'16&66,886, the present value of an annuity of $1 for the given time and at the given rata per cent. ; and this multiplied by 60, gives $608-28.8448, the present value required. .When it is required to find the time which must elapse, in order that a given sum, improved at a speck fied rate of compound interest, may increase to soma other given sum, divide the latter sum by the former, and look for the quotient, or the number nearest to it, in table No. I., under th? given rate per cent., and the years opposite to it are the answer : thus, In what time will $528 amount to $1087-27.94, at 6 per cent., compound interest? Divide 1087-27.94, etc, by 623, and the quotient will be 2-0789, etc., which under 6 per cent, in table I,, is opposite to 16 years, the time required. If it had been required to find the time in which a given annuity, improved at a certain rate of compound interest, would have increased to some given sum, the question would have been answered by dividing, as above, the given sum by the annuity, and looking for the quotient (not in table No. I., but) in table No. III., under the given rate per cent., it would be found on a line with the time required ; thus, A owes $1000, aue the present Value of the annuity. This statement is enough to show the principle on which all calculations of annuities depend ; and this also was. In fact, the method according to which they were calculated, till Mr. Simpson and M. Euler In- vented a shorter and easier process, deriving fiom the value of an annuity at any age, that of an annuity at the next younger i^ There is a nonsiderable discrep- ancy In the sums at which dilfennt authon, and dif- ferent bssuranoe offices, estimate the present value of lifs aonnltlea payable to penons of the same age. This doe* not arise fkom any difference in the mode of cal- culating the annuities, but ftom differences In the tables of mortality employed. These can only be ac- curate when tbey are deduced (h>m multiplied and careftal obiervations made, during a long series of yean, on a large body of persons ; or when the aver- age nnmben of the whole population, and of the deaths at every age, for a lengthened period, have been deter- mined with the necessary care. It is to be regretted, that governments who alone have the means of ascer- taining the rate of mortality by observations made on a inffldently Urge scale, have been singularly inatten- tive to their duty In thii respect. And until a very few yean dnoe, when Mr. FInlayson was emploj-ed to oalenlale table* of the value of annuities txmn the age* of the nominee* in pnbllc tontines, and of Individuals OB whose live* government had granted annuities, all that had been done fai thi* eonntry to lay a solid foun- dation on whioh to eonitmot the vast fabrio of life In- surance, had been the work of a few private persons, who had, of aonr*e, but a limited number of obeerv»- tlon* to work upon. The cdebntad mathematician. Dr. Halley, was the fint who oalcalaledV table of mortality, which he de- daeed fk«m obtervatlons made at Breslau, in Silesia. In 1724 M. de Mdvre pabllshed the first edition of his tract on Anntutla on Uvtt. In order to facilitate the calculation of their values, M. de Moivre assumed the nnnoal decrements of life to be equal ; that Is, he sup- \ that oat of 86 (the utmost limit o( life on hi* by- potbesls^ person* bom together one would die eveiy year till the whole wen extinct, ThI* a**umptloi> agreed pretty well with the true value* between 86 and 70 yean of age, a* given in Dr. Halley's table ; bat wa* very remote ftam the truth in the earlier and later period*. Mr. Tbomaa Simpeon, in hi* work on i4nmit ities. But at the period when this table was calcu. lated, the mortality In London was so much higher than in the re*t of the country, that the value* of the annuities given in it were far too small for genenl use. In 1746 M. Deparalenx published, in his Sttai tur let PnMnUtit de la Durie delaVie Hunnine — a work di*. tinguished by Its penpieuity and neatness— tables of mortality deduced from observations made on the mor> tuaiy reglsten of several religious houses, and on list* of the nominees in several tontines. In this work, separate tables were fint constructed for males and fe> males, and the greater longevity of the latter rendered apparent. M. Deparcieux'i tables were a ver}- great acquisition to the science, and are decidedly superior to some that are still extensively used. Dr. Price's famous work on Atmuitiet, the fint edition of which was published in 1770, contrlbutedpowerAilly to direct the public attention to inquiries of this sort, and was. In this respect, of very great utility. Qf the more n- cent works, the best are those of Mr. Bally and Mr. Milne, which, indeed, are both excellent. The Utter, besides all that was previously known as to the his- tory, theory, or practice of the science, contains much new and valuable matter ; and to it we beg to refer such of our readen a* wish to enter fully Into the subject. The table on which Dr. Price UM the greatest stress was calcuUted ftom the bnhal reglsten kept in the parish of All Saints, in Northampton, eontaining little more than half the popoUtion of the town. There con be no donbt, however, as well from original defects in the oonstruction of the table, as fh>m the improve- ment that has since taken place in the healthiness of the public, that the mortality represented in the North- ampton table is, and has long been, decidedly above the average rate of mortality in England. Mr. Mor- gan, Indeed, the Ute learned actuary of the Equitable Society, contended that thU U not the case, and that the society's experience shows that the Northampton ta- ble is still remarkably accurate. But the facts Mr. Morgan disclosed In his " Views of the RUe and Prog- ress of the Equitable Society," p. 42, published in 1828, are quite at variance with this opinion; for he there states, that the deaths of persons insured in the Eqitable Society, flrom 60 to 60 yean of age, during the 12 yean previously to 1828, wen 839 ; whereas, ac- cording to tlie Northampton table, they should have been 6461 And Mr. Blilne has endeavored to show (Art, AnnuUiei, new ed. of Snay. Brit.) that the dis- crepancy U really much greater. The only other table Used to any extent in England for the calculation of life annuities, is t^at ftamed ny Mr. Milne, from observations made by Dr. Heysham on the rate of mortality at Carlisle. It gives a decidedly lower rata of mortality than the Northampton Table ; and there are good grounds for thinking that the mor- tality which it represents U not very different from the actual rata throughout most parts of England; though it can not be supposed that a table founded on so narrow a basU should give a perfectly fair view of the avenge mortality of the entire kingdom. In life insurance, the fint annual premium is al- ways paid at the commencement of the assurence, and the othere at the beginning of each year, so long as the party assured surrives. Hence, at the beginning of the assurance, the whole of the annual premiums payable for It exceed the value of an oqual annuity on life by one year's purohase. And, therefore, when the valua of an aasurance is present money U given, INT 1081 INT imiam i» *^* larance, and , M long u le beginning il premiums ,1 wnuity on Bfore, when ley it given, to And the eqnlralent annual premlnm daring the Ufc, the whole preaent valoe must be divided by the nnm- ber of years' purchase an annuity on the life ti worth, increased by 1. Thus, for an aesnrance of ^100 on a life of 40 }-ean of age, an oflce, calculating by the Carlisle table of mortality, and at 4 per cent, interest, reqnire* tfi8'446 in present money. Now, according to that table and rate of Interest, an annuity on a IKe Just 40 years of age is worth 16-074 yean' pur- chase, so that the equivalent annual premium Is uiiiirT =W"826. The annual premium may, however, be derived directly from the value of an annuity on the life, without flrst calculating the total present value of the assurance. See Mr. Milnes Trtai, on An- miUia, or art. AnnuWui, in new edition of Ency. Brit, "In order to exhibit the foundation upon which tables of life annuities and insurance have been founded In this and other countries, we have given, in a portion of the preceding tables, the rate of mortality that has (wen ofc^eri-iid to take place among 1000 children bom together, or the numbers alive at the end of each year, till the whole became extinct, in England, France, Sweden, etc., acconiing to the most celebrated anthori- ities. The rate of mortality at Carlisle, represented in this table, is less than that oliserved anywhere else : the rates which approach nearest to It are those deduced from the obervations already referred to, of M. De- parcieux, and those of M. Kersseboom, on the nomi- nees of life annuities in Holland. In order to calcu- late from this table the chances which a person of any given age has of attaining to any higher age, we have only to divide the number of persons alive at such higher age, given in the column of the table selected to decide the question, by the number of persons alive at the given age, and thd fk'action resulting is the chance. We have added, by way of supplement to this table, Mr. Finlayson's table (No. VI.) of the rate of mortality among 1000 children bom together, accord- ing to the decrement of life observed to take place among the nominees in govemment tontines and life annuities in this country, distinguishing males from females. The rate of mortality which this table ex- hibits is decidedly less than that given in the Carlisle table ; but the lives In the latter are the average of the population, while 'those in the former are all picked. The nominees in tontines are uniformly chosen among the healthiest individuals; and none but those who consider their lives as good ever buy an annuity. Still, however, the table is very curious ; nnd it sets the su- periority of female life in a very striking point of view. Tables VII. and VIII.- give the expectation of life, ac- cording to the mortality observed at Northampton and Carlisle ; the former by Dr. Price, and the latter by Mr. Milne. ' The next table. No. IX., extracted from the Second Report of the Committee of the House of Commons on Friendly Societies, gives a comparative view of the results of some of the most celebrated tables of mortal- ity, in relation to the rate of mortality, the expectation of life, the value of an annuity, etc. The coincidenca Iwtween the results deduced from M. Deparcieux's ta- ble and that for Carlisle, Is very striking. And to render the information on these subjects laid before the reader as complete as the nature of this work will admit, we have given tables (Nos. X.-XV.) of the value of an annuity of £1 on a singe lifb, at every age, and at 3, 4, 6, 6, 7 and 8 per cent., according tot he North- ampton and Carlisle tables ; wo have also given tables of the value of an annuity of £1 on 2 equal lives, and two lives differing by five years, at 8, 4, 6, and 6 per cent., according to the same tables. It is but sel- dom, therefore, that our readers will require to re- sort to any other work for the means of solving the questions that usually occur in practice with re- gard to annuities ; and there are not many works in which they will find so good a collection of the lablti. W« •ubjoin one or two examples of the mode of nsing the tabirs of Ilfis annnitiea. Snppose It wen required, what ought a parson aged 4ft, to give to a* cure an annuity of tW a year for life, interest at 4 per cent., according to the Carlisle table ? In Table No, XI., nnder 4 per cent., and opposite 4S, Is 14-104, the value of an annuity of «1, which being multiplied by M gives $706-20, or the value required. According to" the Northampton table, the annuity would only have been worth $614 15. The value of an annuity on two Uvat of the same age, or on two lives different by five years, may be found in precisely the same way. Some ques- tions in reversionarg life annuities admit of an equally easy solution. Thus, suppose it is reqnired to find the present value of A's interest in an estate worth $100 s year, falling to him at the death of B, aged 40, InteN est 4 per cent., according to the Carlisle table ? The value of the perpetuity of $100 a year, interest 4 per cent., is $2600 ; and the value of an annuity of $100 on a person aged 40, interest 4 per cent., is $1507 40, which, deducted fiain $2500, leaves $992 60, the pies> ent value required. A person aged 80 wishes to pur- chase an annuity of $50 for his wife, aged 26, provided she survives him ; what ought he to pay for It, Interest at 4 per cent, according to the Carlisle table? The value of an annuity of $1 on a life aged 80 Is $16-852 ; from which subtracting the value of an annuity of $1 on two Joint lives of 25 and 80, 14-989, the difference, 2-518 X 50 =125-650, the sum required. For the solu- tion of the more complex cases of survivorship, which do not often occur in practice, recourse may be had to the directions in Mr. Milne's Treatise on Annuities, and other works of that description. To attempt explain- ing them here would lead us into details quite incon- sistent with the object of this work." See Com. Diet., art. iNTaRBST, by J. R. M'Cdi.locb ; Banters' Mag., N. Y., 186S-6; the Interest Tables now in use in New York city, are by Delisser, Six and Seven per Cent. 4to $4 ; Price, Svo ; Oates, 8vo. Invo'oe, an account of goods or merchandise sent by merchants to their correspondents at home or abroad, in which the peculiar marks of each package, with other particulars, are set forth. The revenue laws of the United States require two consular certificates only to invoices of foreign mer- chandise imported into this country (the owners of which reside abroad)— one authenticating the invoice, the other as to the value in Spanish or American dol- lars of the currency in which the invaice is made out. Where consittar certificates to invoices of goods des- tined for the United States are required, they are to be granted only by the consular officer within whose consular jurisdiction such goods have been manufac- tured or prepared for exportation. A practice, it is understood, has extensively prevailed of transmitting invoices to a consular ofBcer at the port of shipment for the usual consular certificates, whose certificate must often necessarily be given without due knowl- edge of their accuracy or details. Thus, invoices of goods manufactured or prepared for shipment in Switz- erland have sometimes heretofore been sworn to at Havre; invoices from Lyons have been verified at Marseilles ; and those from the Prussian provinces of the Rhine, at the ports of Holland and Belgium. It is manifest that great abuses must spring from such a practice, the meaning and intent of the law being to require those who have an accurate knowledge of the contents of invoices, and the prices of goods compris- ing the same, personally to depose to their valuation. All consular officers of the United States are strictly enjoined to conform to this rule, nnd report to the Treasury Department any violation of it which may come within their knowledge. Under the provisions of the act of Congress of 1st March, 1823, the invoices of all imported goods subject to ad valorem duty be- longing to persons not residing in the United Status, must 1)0 swom to and verified by consular certificates ; the oath must be taken by the owner or manofacturei INV 1082 INV of the goodf , or • mmbar of th« flrm owning or m«nn- fkctaring them, and not bjr • dark or other inbonllnata. In >11 CHca whore the oethi to InvoioM are not token before the United States' ooninl, but before aome pnbllo offlcer duly authorlied to admlniiiter oathi In the country wher* the goodi ahall have be«n pur- ehaaed, the oflolal ooftiflcate of anch offlcer mual be authenticated by • conaular offioar of the United Statea. If there be no conaular officer of the United Statea in the country fVoiB which the merohandlae ahall bavo been Imported, the authentication muat be exe- eatad by a conaul of a nation at the time In amity with the United Statea, If there be any aach reaiding there. If there be no auch conaul, the anthenttca' tlon mnat be made by two reapectable merchanta, If any auch there bo, realding at the port from which the merohandlae ahall have been Imported. It la proper that the oath taken by foreigner* ahould be adnilnUtered to them, not only In their own lan- guage, ao that they may fully understand the nature and import of it, but alao In the form practiced In their own country, which would probably be conaidered by them aa mora solemn and of a mora binding natura than If administered in a form to which they have not been accustomed. The attention of conaular officera ia alao directed to the 8th and 11th aectkms of the act of Congresa of the lat March, 1828, In which it will Im seen that a consular certlflcate ia required in ail eas«8 of involcaa of gooda exported by the nutnu/ac- turen thtireof, in whole or In pari for their account, notwithatonding another owner in part may reside In the United States. This provision of the law of li!28, there is reason to lieileve, has been hitherto over- loaked in many instances. If a consular offlcer ascer- tains and has reliable evidence of the falsity of an oath, administered either by himself or by a local magistrate whose ceititicate he has authenticated, he should notify the Treasury Department, which will transmit to him the original invoice and oath, to he used, if deemed expedient, In a prosecution for peijury. It la to be remarked that, by the act of 8d March, 1801, invoices of all goods imported into the United States mbjecled to a duty ad valorem are required to be " made out In the currency of the place or countiy from whence the Importation shall be made ; and shall contain a true statement of the actual cost of such goods in such foreign currency or currenciea, without any reapect to Mie value of the coina of the United States, or foreign coins which now are, e, by law, made current within the United Statea in such foreign place or country." Hence, invoices of free goods are not required to be made out in the currency ot the country from whence the goods may l>e im- ported ; but whenever invoices of auch goods may be made out in the cumncy of the country, and said cur- rency is depreciated, and its value not fixed by any law of the United Stntea, a consular certlflcate of the ralne of auch currency mnat, as before intimated, ac- company the same. There is nothing in the law or instructions of the Treasury Department to prohibit invoices of free goods from being made out in the currency of the United States, or that of any other country where !t« value is fixed by our laws. Involoea of ad va'onm or free gooda, when made out in a foreign deprecU^M currency, or a currency the value of which ia not fixed by the laws of the United Statea, whether the Importer or owner residea in this country or abroad, must in each case be accompanied by a conaular oertifioate, showing the value of such currency in Spanish or United Statea silver dollars. Applications are fre- quently made to the Treasury' Department for perraia- alon to enter merchandise where the invoices ara not accompanied by the needfUl consular certificates in the cases where such certificates are by law required. That Department has heretofore) acted with great len- iency and indulgence in such canis, but esparienoe has ibown tba nacasaity for a mora rigid eoana in future ; and, in all cases when auch conaular certlHcutea ahould accompany the invoices, any penalty which nuy be incurred for want of them will be regularly enforced. Conaula abroad, by dna attention and vigilance, can do much toward checking and preventing Um numeroua ft»ada which are undoubtedly practiced upon the rev. enue, if they will report to the coUectora of the cua- toma of the United Statea all thoae Invoices where, in their opinions, un'lervaluatlona have been made, and by otherwise keeping the collectora or thia Department generally and fully adviaed on thia aubject ; and they are earnestly requested to do so, and to consider it one of the most important services which they cun render In connection with the faithful collection of the rev- enue. An erroneous Impression exists with miiny for- eign ahlppers of goods to the United States, that the consuls befora whom the oath to invoices is either taken or verified have no power to examine the details of such Invoices, but simply to verify the fact of such oath being taken befora them, or by an oflicer in au- thority known to them as such. Thia la not the fact ; and conaular oJBcera nre expected before verifying in- voicea to aotiafy themselves of their oomctness. For the purpose of carrying out a particular system of nvenue duties, the government of the United States requires that the accuracy of certaiq invoices should be ascertained and verified ; and a nikHinable time for consuls to accomplish that object, by an examination of such invoices, con not be Justly denied to thom. Consular officers ara not supposed to ))e practically uu- quainted with the market prices or value of all mer- chandise within their district, or of the precise weights, tans, measures, bounties, etc., Included therein ; but inquiry and experience will soon enable them to ren- der efficient aid to the raVenue officers of the United States, by aacertaining errora or fk'suda, and promptly informing the Traaaury Department, as well as the collector of the port to which the goods may be des- tined, of ever}- instance where an exporter persists in refusing to correct his invoice, when apprised of its defects, and that It will bo subject to revision at the ouatom houses of the United Statea. CERTIFIOATG TO INVOICR Fortlgn Owiwr'a oath, whtre gooUt, vartt, tr menhandUe, haw teen aetuatly purehdted. 1, ■ , do solemnly and truly swear, that the gooda, warsa, or merchandise described in the Invoice now produced, and hereunto annexed, were actually purchaaed for my account, or for account of myaolf and partners in the said purchoae: and that said Invoice contains a true and faithful account of the actual cost 'hereof, and of all chari^s thereon ; and thai no diaeounta, bounties, or drawbacks, are contained in the said Invoice but auch aa have been actually allowed on the aame. Sworn to and aubacrlbed before me, at ', the — day of , A.i>., 18 — , and of the independence of the United Statea the : and I do further certify, that I am astis- fled that , who aubacrlbes the foregoing oath, la the peraon he repreaenta himself to be ; that he is a credible peraon; and that the atatemenla made by him under said oath (or afflrmatton, aa the coae may be) are true. [ua.] U.S.Coiuut. CERTIFICATE TO INVOICE. Ft reign mmm/aeturer or oimer's oath. In catet ul^^re gooii, u area, or tnerchandite, have not teen aetuallypurchatei. X, , of , do aolemnly and truly swear, that iUa mvolee now produced, and hereunto annexed, eon- tatna a true and faithful account of the goods, warea, or mer- ehandlaa therein described at their market value at , at the time the same were (procnrad or man-factured, aa the eaae may be), and of all chargea thereon ; and that the aald invoice eontatoa uo diaeounta, bounties, or drawbaoka, but such aa have been actually allowed. Sworn and aubacrlbed before me, at , the — day of , A.D. 18—, and of the Independence of the United Statea of America the > and I fUrther certify, that I am satisfied that — — , who subsorlbea the foregoing ION 1088 ION ,cal«l inwy jrcod. t, can leroo* lerev. lecurK •re, In and by rtment id they r It one 1 render he rev- any for- that the # either le details [ of "uch er In »u- thefact; Ifylng In- eaa. ar system ted SUles :es should « time for ;amln»tlon I to them. Btlcally uc )f oU mur- se weights, leroin ; but hem to ren- tho United id promptly well at the may he "le»- [r persists In prised of its vision at the nunMndiM, irear, that the B inToleo no* purchased for lorslothosaid 10 and faithful ,an{cs thorcon ; 1, are conUlned lUy allowed on Zl^t — day I of the United pat J am aatla- regolDg oath, Is he Is a credible blm under said true. lu where gooit, Uypvrchaeed. 1 truly swear, ) annexed, con- wares, or mer- ■tlueat 1»* •futured, as the ,d that the said 4r,wbaoks, but ..-ffte — d«y Xo^of the United |oreert«y.»h»'' Ibes the foregoing nd to wtk, Is ths f«sa k« rsprsssBtt himself to bti that h* Is a ■ndlbls parson i and that the statements made by him under said oath (or sfllrmatlon, as ths case may be) are true. [L. ■.] U. B. bumuL Connitttr CerHJItaU «/ (As saliis t^f eumney. I, , consul of the United Stales of America, do hereby certify, that the true value of the currency of the .— — - of , In which currency the annexed Invoice of merchandise Is mads out. Is — — — cents, estimated In American or Spanish silver dollara Ionian Zaluids, the name given to the islands of Corfu, Puxo, Santa Maura, Ithaca, Oephalonia, Zante, Carigo, and their dependent islets. With the excep- tion of Cerigo, which lies opposite to the south-sastem •ztremlty of the Moroa, the rest lie pretty contiguous, ■long the western coasts of Epirus and Greece i the most northerly point of Corfu twing in Ist. 30° 48'^ 16" IT., and the moat southerly point of Zante (Cape Kteri, on which there is a light-house) lieing in iat. 87° 88' M" N. Knpsali, the port of Cerigo, is in Ut. 80° 7' 80" X., long. 38° E. The area and population of the difTerent islands may be estimated as follows : Itbnca ArMlBH.mllN It u> a ttfiM. Populalhm In ISM. Oorfli 1016 1640 5-60 4'SS 8N 4-M I'M T»,891 70,870 41,9M 18,966 11,164 11,886 Mil CephalonU. Zante Banta Msura i Ithlca and Oslamos Faxo and Anttpaxo ToUl 4}'l!je M0,690 • This Is equal to 1001 'E English square miles of 60-15 to tbs degree. Soil and Climatt. — These ore very various. Zante Is the most fruitful. It consists principally of an ex- tensive plain, occupied by plantations of currants, and having an air of luxuriant fertility and richness. Its climate is comparatively equal and line, but it is very subject to earthqualtes. Corfu and Cephalonia ore more rugged and less fruitful than /ante; and the former, from its vicinity to the snowy mountains of Epirns, and the latter from the Black Mountain (the Mount .lEnoB of antiquity) in its interior, are exposed in winter to great and sudden variations of tempera- ture ; the ftost sometimes damaging to a great extent the oranges and vines of these islands and those of Santa Maura. The latter is, in the hot season, ex- ceedingly unhealthy — a consequence of the vapors arising fitim the marshes and the shallow seas to the north-east. Cerigo is roclcy and sterile ; it is subject to continued gales, and the current seldom permit its waters to remain unruffled. These islands have undergone many vicissitudes. Corfu, the ancient Corcyra, was famous in antiquity for its naval power, and for the contest between it and its mother state Corinth, which eventually terminated in the Peloponnesian war. Ithaca, the kingdom of Ulysties ; Cephalonia, sometimes called Dulichium, from the name of one of its cities ; Zante, or Zacyn- thus; Santa Maura, known to the ancients by the name of Leucos or Leucadia, celebrated for its pron^ ontor}-, surmounted by a temple of Ap roeroa with the republic. This treaty was acceded to by all the representatives of the allied powers, then negotiating at Paris, and by the Grand SulUn and the King of the Two Sicilies. The ports of tho Ulands ara Corfu, CephalonI, Zante, Santa Maura, Ithacn, Cerigo, and Puxo. These are free ports, at which all kinds of merchandise may be stored In designated warehouses, tne of any duties or charges, except rent, portage, and other minor expenses, which are regulat- ed by special tariff's. There is no treaty between the United States and the Ionian republic, and the com- msrcial Intercourse between the two countries is sub- ject to the various restrictions which apply to non- equalised vessels. Tho restrictions are higher tonnage duties, light duties, port charges, etc. The following items will Illustrate these discrimina- tions : Charges for clearance, Including bill of health, muster-roll, anchorage, and light duties, on an lonhin or equalized vessel of fVom 260 to 800 tons, 98 10 ; chargPH, etc., including as above, for a non-equollzed vessel of from 250 to 800 tons, ^10 84. Other restrictions and discriminations exist In favor of equalized flags, especially in the transhipment of merchandise from one port to another, which confer such advantages on vessels coming under this cate- gory, as to preclude all competition on the part of those belonging to the other class. Merchandise tranship- ped, as above, in the farmer, is exempt ttom every ex- tra charge ; in the latter, three fourths of the original duty is exacted on all merchandise paying speclHc duties, and Ave per cent, on such as pay ad valorem duties. These discriminating duties amount, in the aggregate, to about 14 per cent, against non-privileged vessels. There entered, In thvyear 1861, Into all the Ionian ports, 1436 vessels, measuring 169,114 tons; and there cleared 1401 vessels, measuring 164,780 tons ; making, in all, 2836 vessels, measuring 833,924 tons. The flags of these vessels represented 14 different nations, among which the United States Is not includ- ed. Indeed, it is but seldom that a United States' vessel is fpund in any of the lonUn ports, nor can we look for any direct trade lietween the two countries so long as the present restrictions exist. Their removal can be effiected by treaty or convention only ; and nego- tiations to this end, under the constitution of the Ion- ian republic, must originate at London, as all diplo- matic questions and conventions between these islands and foreign States must be conducted by the govern- ment of the protecting power. Manufacturtt, etc. — Those islands possess few manu- factures properly so termed. The wives of the villanl, or peasants, spin and weave a coarse kind of woolen cloth, sufficient in great part for the use of their fam- ilies. A little soap Is made at Corfu and Zante. The latter manufactures a considerable quantity of silk gros-de-Xaples und handkerchiefs ; the art of dyeing is, however, ton little studied, and tho establishments are on too small a scale. The peasantry, in general, ore lozy, vain, delighting in display, and very supersti- tious. Those of Zante and Cephalonia are more in- dustrious than the CorHotos ; In the flrst, particularly, their superior condition is probably to be ascribed, in part at least, to the nobles residing more on their es- tates in the country, and contributing, by their exam- ple, to stimulate Industrj'. In Corfu, the taste for the city life, which prevailed in the time of the Venetian government, still operates to a great degree. The Corflote proprietor resides but little in his villa ; his land is neglected, while he continues in the practice of his forefathers, who ^ireferred watching opportunities at the seat of a corrupt government, to improving their fortunes by the more legitimate moans of honorable exertion and attention to their patrimony. In this respect, however, a material change for the better has taken place during the last 20 yours. Impqrtt of Grain, efc— Great part of the land Is ION 1084 row li*M ondar (hort tonani, on th« mttaftr ij/itrm, th« traant paying half tha produca to tha landlord. OwIhk to tha natiira of the mII, and tha •nparior attention (tvan to tha culture of ollvaa and earranti, the itaple prodncta of the blanda, moat part of tha grain and cattle required for their coniumptlon la imported. The hard wheat of (Meaaa i« preferred, and large tuma are annual!)' aent to tha RUrk Hea In payment. The Par- liament, in Marrh, 1H;1.'I, repealed the dutiaa on the in- troduction of com i and the grain mono|ioly of Corfu, which had liaen eataliliahed in favor of govemmrnt, In order to provide agalnit tha poaalbility of a general or partial aoarcity, waa then alio auffered to expire. Thaaa two aourcei of ravenne, while they exiated, did not probalily produce teei than ;e30,000 annually. They are aimilarly dependent upon Ureecn nnil Turkey for auppliaa of butcher'a meat ; a email numlier only of iheap and goata being bred in the ialanda. Oxen, whether for agriculture or the alnu)(hter-houae, are principally brought from Turkey. The iMevea eaten by tha troopa are aix weeka or two niontha walking down ftam the Danube, and the provincea that akirt it, to tha ahorea of Epirua, where they remain in pai- tnre until fit for tha table. erpotH.—tht ataple exporta ftam theaa lalanda are oil, curranta, wine, aoap, aalt, and Valonla. The flnit la produced in great abundance in Corfu and Paxo, and in a leaa quantity in Zante, Santa Maura, and Uephalonia. Corfu haa, in fact, the appearance of a continuoua olive wood ; a conaequence, partly, of the extraordinary encouragement furmerly given to the culture at the plant by the Venetiana. Although there la a harveat every year, the great crop ia prop- erly biennial ; the tree generally repoaing for a year after ita effort. (In Franco and Piedmont the period of inactivity ia two and thrre yeara.) During Ave or six montha, from Octolier till April, the country, par- ticularly in Corfu, presenta an animated appearance, peraons of all ages being bually employed in picking up the fruit. The average price may be about ;C1 11a. per barrel. Under the old Venetian system, the oil could only be carried to Trieste. It ia charged with an ad valorem duty of 18 per cent., payalde on the ex- port. The quality might be much improved by a little more care in the manufacture, the trees being generally finer than in any other country. Curranit, originally introduced from the Morea, are grown in Zante, Ceph- alonia, and Ithaca, but principally in the 6rat. The plant ia a vine of amall size and delicate nature, the caltivatlon of which requires much care. Six or.aoven yean elapse after a plantation has been mode before it yields a crop. In the beginning of Octol>er, th*; earth abont the roota of the plants is loosened, and gathered up in amall heaps, away from the vine, which is pruned in March ; after which the ground is again laid down smooth around ; the blight ca||ed the " brina," and rainy weather in harvest produce great mischief. The currants are gathered toward September, and after being carefully picked, are thrt/wn singly upon a stone floor, exposed to the sun in the open air. The dr}-ing process may occupy a fortnight or longer, if the weather be not favorable. A heavy shower or thunder-storm (no unfttquent occurrence at that sea- son), not only interrupts it, but sometimes causes fer- mentation. The fruit is then only At to be given to animals. Should It escape these risks, it ia deposited in magaiines called " icraglie," until a purchaser casta up. The exports of these islands are raiaina, olivet, olive- oil, honey, soap, silk, and ivine ; and the imports are coffee, sugar, wines, brandy, grain, cured flsh, manu- factures of wood, wool, cotton, iron, etc. Currants and raisins constitute the heaviest articles of export fivm these islands, the annual produce of currants amount- ing to some 12,000,000 pounds ; but of late years the ? inducers have had to contend with diseases called ' tha blight," for which sqipbur has proved to be the only efflclant remedy. Notwithstanding tha partial failure of tha cnipa ttom this itausa, fur fniir i'iiii»«(iu« tlve yean, the exporta of uurranti In INAA almw un an- tiva and remunerating trade, The following auinmary for thia year will give auma Ida* of the aatant iif tba currant trade of tha rapublio i «\H«T I AWitW ,,,, tl,Tiw,n(in WA,4M| M(,lli IIIO,ll(MA,IIW,(NI» BiAfOiSf tOilllNI llMMNI T,MV,ll(Rl 8aU may Im ohtainsd in oonaldarabia quantltlna In Corfu, /ante, and Hanta Maura, for axportalloii | iha latter island alone produced It until the lata ai't iif I'sN liamont, which provided that govarnmant ahoiiid 1*1 tha aalt-pana in ail the ialands to tboaa lilddnn who should offer, by aealed tenders, to aupply i( at Ilia low- eat rate to the consumer, paying at tha aama lima tlia higheat price to government. No export duty la charged upon it. These itatanianta show tlint liciivy dutiea are levied upon tha ex|Hirtat|im i>f tlii< ndiiila products of tha islands— an objaiitionabla syat4rt/ In the Ionian Islands, such as exists In manv iitlinr ruda countries ; and, sup|NMing it wera daslrafda In liitrn* duce such a tax, the complicated atata of prn|i«i1y In them, the feudal tenures under which It la linM, iind the variety of uauges with respect to It, op|Nwi< nil lint Invincible obstacles to its lni|Msltlon on fair and aqiiat principles. At the same time, too, a large aninunt of revenue is required to meat the exiienaas of thv giral and local governments, to maintain an elHiilMiit |hiIIc«, and to prevent amuggiing and piracy, Jlowavitr, wa can not help thinking that soma vary matarUI rntriMich* ments might be made firom tha axpandlturti i iitid It I* to this source, more, perhapa, than to any iillinr, that the inhabitsnta muat look for any real or affaituitl r«< lief from their burdena. The Dutiei cm Krporti from tba Ionian laliiiida an regulated by acts dated 8th >funa, IHIIft, 'MU April, 1837, and 20th May, 1847. Oil and uurratit^ piiy Ig per cent, ad valorem. Wine (axoeptlng timt nf tha (.'ephalonia Wine' Company), iwr cant, nd vitlimm. Soap, 8 per ;'. II '<,.her artlclea fraa, N, il.~()ll alilptMil in vessels inutii' lo^iian colore for the pur|ui»« ut lining conveyed from one Island to another of tha Htalaa must pay only 7 per cent, ad valorem. Account or ma Kivsaua or Tiia loai^a Isi.Axiia iw titftt AMU 1SS2, spKcirviNo Tiia pirraaaNT Iratw, anii tun Amount or xaou, DnllM. Customs Export duty — On olive oil " currants " Island winea Import duty— On fcrelzn wines and aplrits, , " tobacco " grain ,, Stamp duties Bale uf gnnpowdsr (monopoly) , , Becolpta for tariff dues— Hraltb Office PoatOffloe , Executive Police Judicial....' Free port warehouso ronls. , , , , , NfortgsKe and rci^strotian dusa. . Printing offloe rerolpis Freights of gov't atrsni pookets, Becolpta for publio lustruotlon , . MIscsllanoous >••..,,.,. Total It«nas< In nil. m,m "ttiifjM- H«vfHr •Uinpt. IlMitli offlea, burettot ind llght-hauMi. Pott ofllcM Kxacallv* polio* OonrU of Juitloe CoDllniiont oxModltnn of i{«n- •nl tnil lood lOToramonU. . . ToUL IMI. HMH 811 4I,«I» l^«M ll.m l.tM 1.BH1 4^ 1,8» MT 1,4(0 1,8M «o,(na eik,o»t 4,7W 4«,4<0 1A,IMM 1I,4W l.M'i m S,«48 4M 1,8W 888 1,*4> t,0«> 14,484 iil8Ml» AoooKiiT or TNI QUANTiTin AXD Valvm or Tni rilKOI- rAL AnioLU expuktid riuH tui Iomiaii Islahw ID IBM. ArlJtiM tiporlffd. QuaBlUlM. 9Ut« oil bar. of 14 Imp. ul OamuiU. Iba Win* bureli BplriU " M( bathdi HldM number Oaikt of onmnU. " B«rrel*n>r oil Incbntti 9o«p. Iba, All otber artlolai Foreign manulkoturai ToUl Harcbandlaa In tnnilt. V>lu<. IIT.ITD £61,6AS r,8«a,»o8» 7^0I4 SD.MJ 9,A1S 780 Sb4 100,797 1,14fi 6,1187 1,788 8,77» 1,889 6,140 089 l,9»l,687 16,608 18,871 S.»?5 8,717 189,879 99tl,4M * A Torjr bMl leuon. In flirorabla yeut the nporti imount to 1^000,000 or 16,000,000 Iba. AooouxT or Tni QuANTiTin and Valdm or Tin TARiout ARTICLM IHPOITRD liITU TUB lOMIAK laLANDf IN 1SB9. ArtUUi Troduee, angar. Iba. Coffee " Orura, guina, eto. £ Mannnicturc' £ Rawallk Ibi. lUwcotton " Wool " Hemp and flax ** Btavea Ibr largo eaaka. No Iloopa " " " Iron Iba. Timber £ Firewood paaal Wheat. ktloga. Indian corn " Barley and oata " Beana and other palao ... * Potatoea Iba, Klce " MaccaronL " Flour " Blwulta " Cberae, " Butter " Bait moot " Stock flab and baecala " Bottarsa and Caviare " Bardlnloa and anchovlea. " Onlona and garllo roll. Dried ftulta, £ Poultry. No. Wlnea, foreign barrela Splrite. " Horned cattle No. Iloraea, mnlea, and aaaes.. . . " Sheep, goata, and piga ■* Tobacco Iba. Eye klloga. All otber artlolea £ Total Valnoofmerchandlao In tranatt ^iiantltlM. 1,B8^807 W BO,AU 28,834 69,588 8«9,S79 816,070 200,880 0,641 028,889 167,823 78,658 18,»<4 1,181,084 801,797 371,M4 879,817 81,828 474,469 71,707 28,746 1,088,610 60,018 1,244,826 0,614 17,i07 632 1,164 9,066 2,028 816 80,142 200,621 "vail £80,788 1^617 10,986 114,468 88 1,866 980 1,148 6,706 2,410 17,251 8,708 201,646 28,180 6,761 8,248 4,887 0,210 2,M8 8,269 818 6,764 2,8S6 82.1 0,102 4,280 16,964 2,660 4,869 069 4,209 8,200 83,741 9,678 9,071 0,804 6,828 19,878 686,288 108,123 Portt. — The principal porta in tlie Ionian republic are Corfli and Zante, in tlie islands of tlie same names, and ArgostoU in Gephalonla. The city and port of Cotfa lia on the east side of the laland, on the canal or obannal between It and the ..(ipoalto ooalliienl, whieh ia here aliout live miles wide. The oiladel, which ptnjecu Into the aea, ia funii^liad wUh a light- house, M(l faet hlxh | the laUer b«in({ In lat. 89° 87' N., long. 18° M' K. The town la but indlffeiantir built. Population aliout 1H,U00, excluaive of the mill- Urj. The fortlflcations are rery strong, both toward the sea and the land. The canal has deep water tbrottgbout I Its navigation, which Is a little diffloult, has liaen much racilitated by the erection of a llght- huus* on the rock of TIgnoeo In the northern entrance, where the channel Is leas than a mile In width t and by the mooring of a floating light off Point Uschino, In the southern entrance. Hhlps anchor between the small hut well-fortifled laland of VIdo and the city, in ftom 13 to 17 fathoms water. The port, or rather gulf, of ArgostoU in Cephnlonls, Use on the south-west side of the island. Cape AJi. forming its south-weatem extremity, is in lat. m° h' 40" N., long. 20° SB' 80" E. Cape Han Nicoio, forming the other extremity, it about 4} miles from Cape Aji i and between them, within abm seven to eight miles inland. The town of ArgostoU lie's on the west side of a haven on the east side of the gulf formed by Point Stature. The situation is low and rather un- healthy. Population about 6000. Its appearance and police, particularl}' the latter, have been much Im- proved since its occupation by the Kngllah. There Is deep water and good anchorage ground iu most parts of the gulf. The beat entrance is between Cape San Nicoio and GuardUni, keeping rather more than a mile to the eastward of the latter, on account of a reef that extends N. E. and S. W. from it nearly that distance. The port and city of Zante are situsted on the east- em side of the island, in Int. 87° 27 N., long. 20° M' 42" £. The city, the largest In the lonUn Islands, extends along the shore for nearly H mile, but it Is nowhere above 200 yards in breadth, except where it as- cends the hill on which the citadel Is erected. The stylo of building is chiefly Italian ; and the Interior of the city displays every where great neatness, and even a certain degree of magniflcence. Population estimated by Dr. Burgess at a^ut 20,000. It has a mole or Jetty of con- siderable utility, at the extremity of which a light- hoiue is erected ; and a lazaretto, situated a little to the south-west. The harbor is capacious. Ships an- chor opposite the town at tiom 600 to 1000 yards' dis- tance, in from 12 to 16 fathoms, availing themselves of the protection of the mole when the wind is ttom the north-east. When the troops took possession of Zante, in 1810, the fortlflcations were found to be in very bad repair ; but immense sums have since been expended upon their Improvement and extension. In 1853 66li,817 tons of shipping entered the ports of the Ionian Islands, of which 27,010 were English. The others were Ionian, Greek, Turkish, etc. Money. — Accounts are kept in sterling money, or in Spanish dollars and oboli, 100 oboli being = 1 doll, b 4s. 4d. ; a doubloon = 1 dollar.— Tate's CantbUt. Weighti. — English weights and measures are some- times made use of, though with Italian denominations ; but the following are most generally used : The pound pt$o grotto, or great weight of 12 oz. = 7884 grains Troy ; 94-8 lbs. = 100 lbs. avoirdupois. The pound pt$o loltile, or small weight used for precious, metals and drugs, is l-3d lighter than the foregoing ; 12 oz. peso sottile corresponding to 8 oz, peso grosso. The oke, used in the southern islands, weighs about 18,900 grains Troy, or 27'10 lbs. avourdupois. The Levant cuntnr, or quintal, should contain 44 okes. I'he migliujo (lUOO lbs.), for currants in Zante, is 1 per C'jnt. lighter than for other articles. Meamrei of Length.— Tte Venetian foot is 12 onu6 = 13} inches English. Passo = 6 Venetian feet. Braccio, for cloths, etc., a 27 8-16 Inches English. low loefl i**<>> t**** quality whaat. Santa Maura : oailo of M crivalll, 4 •> S moH. I 1 cadi) — Hf huahalt KiiulUh. Ithaca i 5 baalla w 1 ntoftglo. Carl|(i> i chllA, tha maaaura of ConMantlnnpla, — 1 hnihel KnKlUb. Win* — (.'orfu and Paxo i m i|uartu«il •- 1 Jar, and 4 Jart -• 1 harral — IH KniilUh wtna Kallani. (^aph- •lonla and Ithaoa i 8 quartuecl — I iKx-cal* | t Imc- eall — 1 laocbio | li Mcchio — 1 liarml — ID KnglUh galloni. Zanta t IS 1-S qnartnooi -• 1 lira i 40 quar- tacel » 1 Jar t 8 jara — 1 barrel » 17 6-8 Kngllah wina Rallona. flanta Maura t M quartuecl •• 1 rtam- nu { « atamni =>» 1 barral » 18 Knifllih wina Kalloo*' CarlKo : 3 »gt»t*n •> 1 boccia | 80 bocelo -• 1 liarral ^ IB KngUah wIna nllooa. OH. — Corfu and Paxo ; 4 qnartuecl •• 1 mlltro | 6 mlltri —1 Jar i 4 Jara — 1 bairal — IH KnglUh wIna Kallona. Caphalonia i 9 pagllaiil — 1 barrel — 18 Kii((lUh win* gallnna. Zanta : 8 lire, or 8 Jan nf 46 quartuecl each — 1 barrel M Enf(llih wine gallona. Santa Maura : 7 etamiil =— 1 Iwrret •» 18 Kn^lUh wine gallon!. Ithaca ; 1.1 pa((llBi«l •» 1 barrel •» 18 Kn- glUh wtna gallniia. Origo : il4 Imiia °« 1 barrel •«■ 14 O'S Engllah wIna gallona. Mn/(.— (Jentlnajo, alwnt 4000 Iba. Venetian peiio grouo. Aim«.— Corfu, meaa- ura of 4 Engllah cubic feet. In compiling thia article, we have cnnanlted, lieaide* the worka referred to above, the Voj/ag* llitloriiiue Pit- Uwftqu*, etc., by Saikt 8advk«ii — a dlfruae but valu- able work. The aooonnt of /ante, in the laat volume (tome ill., pp. 101 378), la particularly good. We have alao looked Into the Vnyagt en drStrr of Sono- VAITI, 8 tomea, Paria, 1801 ; the Archive du Commercf ; the I'aptri laid ie/on the Jirilith f'inanee Committee, etc. See Wettm. Rev., xxxvlli., 418 ; MimtUy Kev., Ixxxlll., 238, oil., 188; Qnar. Xev., xxix., 80; Chrii. ifoc, xiv., «36 ; Com. JM. U, 8., vol. i., 457, vol. 11., 171. Iowa, one of the United Statea of N'orth America, Ilea between north lat. 40° 40' and 4:i° m', and weat long. 90O 13' and 86° 63'. It la Iwunded north by MInneaota Tenrltoiy, eaat by the MiaalaalppI River, which aeparataa It fh>m the Statea of Illinoia and Wia- conaln, aouth by Miaaouri, and weat by the Mlaaouri and the great Sioux Klvera, the former of which aepa- ratea it timm tha Indian Territory, and the later from MInneaota. Greateet length fh>m eaat to weat, 807 milea ; graateat breadth, 196 milea ; aioa, 60,914 square mllea. The aurfac* of Iowa la somewhat elevated and gen- erully undulating. It haa no monntaina, nor even hiUa, of any great height. Table Mound, a co.ilcal elevation with a flat summit, three or four miles from Dubuque, la perhapa 600 feet high. On the bordera of the rivera there are frequent " bluffa" whiob are generally from 40 to 130 feet high. The higheat ground in the State la a plateau in the north-west, called Coteau dt* Prairiei, which enters it from Min- nesota. The southern part of tha State abounda with groaay lawns and verdant plains, Intersected by nu- merous rivers, the chief of which are the Den Moines, the Skunk, the Iowa, and the Red Cedar (a branch of Iowa) Rhrers which flow in a south-east direction into the Miaaiaaippi. The banks of almost all of these rivera are akirtcd with belts of wood. The diatingulsh- Ing feature, however, of Iowa Is ita unique and admir- ably dlversifled prairies, sometimet spreading out into vast plalna. Tha entir* Mai* b wuMd " a ralllag prairie" by th* aattlara, Aram th* rasMlhUoo* Ita aur- fkcc Iwara to tha rolling awall of th* ncaan. From the abaanc* of wootl, tha acanary baoomea waariaum* and twoa. The aoll of Iowa la in gmteral hrtlla. N»«r th* oonflna* of the Cuteau dca I'ralrlca the country Ik hilly and dea In ninncrtlnn with tha load. Thit minoral nrnun In •oma "dlgKlnK»" alao, In a Mat* nf carlKinute, and In iithan, a* a lulphiirtt, Cuppar U fuund In tha aam* lix'allilai aa line. It haa ra«antt}r Iwan dUrnvarad In Cadur county In cnn»ldi>r- •Ilia quantltlM. Iron-ora la abundantly dlKtrllmtrd, but aa yat, only a iiniall quantity of It haa liaan con- vartad Into inatal. In tha Kadloifical aurvay of the State above referrrd to, It U affirmed that It* reMurcaa •nd eapahllltlea are auch that 10,000 Inliorera and mlnera mlifht he pniAtahly emp1oye- con- ilderabl*. The facllltlea which it poaaeaaea, lioth for Internal trade and forelfpi commerce are ver}- abund- '1, and In a abort time will be )(reatly Increaaed. A railroad of IfH) milea In length haa lieen projected lie- tween Dubuque, the capital of the lead-mining diatrlct, and Keokuk, the chief port of the State fur foreign trade. Keokuk, Davenport, Lyona, and Duliu(|ua will alao ihortly be connected by rallninda with the lnte< rior. Dealdea theae, which will radiate thmugh the State In varioua directinna, the grand trunk line la propoaed to be carried from thia city weatward to Conncil niulTa on the Mtaaourl, and will form a part of the great Paclflc line which la to terminate at Han Francijco, In California. Through Iowa will aUnpaaa a branch of the great chain of north and aonth ralt- rottda connecting St. I^uia with the extreme settle- ments of Minnesota Territory. When these are com- pleted, iKith the home and foreign commerce of the State will be Indeflnitoly Increased, Congress has given 1,800,000 acres for the improvement of the Des Moines River, as far as Des Moines City— to be made navigable for large steamboats. In July, 1856, there were 108 miles of ruilrnod flnished, and 1110 propoaed, for which Congress, in May, 1868, appropri- ated 4,8*^0,000 acres. The valley of the Des Moines River contains at present half the population, as well as half the agricultural wealth of the State, and its pros- perity may for some time depend as much upon the improvement of navigation on this river, as upon the execution of these projected railroads. The Des Mvines rises in' the Coteau des Prairies, In the south- west of Minnesota, and flowing through the State In gen- eral in a south south-east direction, divides it into two nearly equal sections, and after a course of 400 miles, falls into the Mississippi at the south-east extremity of the State, about four miles below Keoknk. Iowa has many other Interior rivers which are navigable for va- rious—some of them for consideralile— distances. The Skunk is more than 200 miles In length, and flows through a fertile countrj-. It pursues a course of 150 mites in a south-east direction nearly parallel to Des Moines. The Iowa, from which the State takes its name, has, in general, a south south-east direction, and after a course of upwards of 800 miles, discharges Itself in the Mississippi by two mouths, forming a delta, the sides of which an about six miles long. It Is navigable by steamboats at all seasons, to Iowa City, 80 miles ftrom Its mouth, and for boats of light draught much farther up. TIib Red Cedar (a branch of the Iowa), Is navigable for 60 miles. The Wapsipinicon, the Makoquete, Turkey, and Upper Iowa Rivers have courses varj'lng In length fh>m 100 to 200 miles, and an MTlgable for distances of SO to 60 mUer They flow In a« aast or south-Msl dIrMthm Into IIm Mlanfk slppl. The (iraat fllnnx, an ihiportant IrltHltary •# tha Mlsoonrl, fnrms the north-west bnumlary nf Ik* State I its length U Mtlninted at IMN) mliet, The Irliki utarles nf the Missouri In itiU Sui* are nf minof Im- pnrtance. The Mississippi hn.-iiars the Mtata A>» ll« whole length on the east, and Is navigable In lima uf high water for steamtxMts, to tha mouth of th* M. Tetars, in Minnesota. IpaoMuanlui (Vi. /i»n,uaitJka i Oar. Amtrimf Mc*« irrcAvMrsW ; It. Iptriwinmt ; I'ort, Ciim iU> torn' am, IpnaruntAa i 8p. Iiimicutina, Hiiii it' ufri), Iht mot uf a perennial plant (CriiAiulu i/ccncuiiaA/i), gruir> Ing In Kraall and other parts uf Houtb Anierliia. It Is fhim Ite color usually dennmlnatatl whilr, gntf, ut (uK-colond, and ftnwa. Mttle of the lint variety U found In the shops. Tha gray and brown varlelltt an brought tn thia country In baloa from lllu .Unaira Both are In short, wrinkled, variously beiil, mul imnt lorted pieces, which break with a nsiiinii IruitMN, The gray Is about the thicknaaa nf a small i|Ulll, full of knots and deep clroular flssuras, that nearly reaeh down to a white, woody, vaaoular uoni that runs throagh the heart of each place | tha eatemal part Is compact, brittle, and looks smooth i tha brown Is smaller, mora \Trlnkled, of a Idacklsh-brown volnr on the outside, and whitish within i the white Is woody, and has no wrinkles. The entire nnit Is IriiNloruus | hut the powder has a faint dlsiiKi^anble mlnr, Til* taste Is bitter, sul>-aiTid, and extremely niiuaanus, IR choosing lpe<'acuanha, the larger roots, wlilih ara ii(im> pact and break witn a resinous fraoturn, having • whitish gray, somewhat semi-transparent apiieitraniM In the outside cortical part, with • pale strawtKilored medullar}' fibre, are to lie prahrred. When iHiundml, Ipecacuanha forms the mildest and safest tinietln in tha whole materia medicH. Though proliably employad in America from time Immemorial, it was not Intro- duced into Europe till the time of Louis XIV,, when one Urenier, a French merchant, brought lAO |Hiund* of It ffom Spain, with which trials were made at tha HAtel DIeu. Ilelvetius first mada known Its usa in dysentery, for which I^nls XIV. munlfloantly rawurdad him by a douceur of 2fi,000 francs. — TlliiMsnN'a Itif peiualory ; Tiiomhon'h Ckemulry, Ireland, one of the largest of tha Kurnpean IsUrnls, Is situated to the west of Great lirltaln, frnni which 11 Is separated by a narrow channel called tlie Irish N«* and St. George's Channel on the east, and is bnundad on Its other sides by the Atlantic Ocuun, througb which it can maintain a direct communication with tn* continents nf Kurone, Africa, and America, Tha ad* vantageous position, the fertility of tha soil, and III* salubrity of the climate, have conferred upon Iralund commercial facilities which are cupalilu of I: dng greatly increased. Ilow far these natural udvuntagas have been made available toward tha iiitarnal tin- provement of the island itself, and the gunerul bsiiallt of the empire of which it forms an important part, niuy lie best ascertained from the following iletuils of Its history and statistics. Ireland la rhomlioidal In shape, and placed at til* eastern extremity of the Atlantic Ocean, which wasliai its northern, western, and soutliern shores, while Us eastern coast Is separated from the adjacent Island of Great Britain liy the Northern Channel, which at una point Is only 13Jr miles wide, tha Irish Baa, about tllO miles in width, and St. George's Channel, wbu-h Is (III miles wide between Dublin .ind IIol>hsa(l, and miui''' what less at its southern extremity. Its geugraublCMl position is lietween N. bit, 51° 2fl' and bft'^'il , iind W. long. 5° 20' and 10° 26', comprising, tli«i»fofa, 3° 55' of lat., and 5° 6' of long.— tha degraaa of lati- tude being the same as those under whiob are aituatad the dissimilar climates of Beriin, Hamburg, HotlaN dam, Leipzig, Warsaw, i>art of Hudson's Vityi (b* 8tn,..luuk,i. £4,306,418 ■ 8,247,177 2,588,265 1,868,720 11/489,6:5 ProvlDMB. No. of Bwonlei. No. of PftriihDi. Or«r>blolu4. OfnHulllT- •ltd lud. OfpUnl*. tlanii. Of towni ud Tlllagei. OfwftUr. ToUI ana. LcliisUr Munster Ulster 124 T6 TO 47 1,(108 884 SSI 809 8,981,188 8,874,613 8,407,589 2,810,000 781,886 1,908,477 1,764,870 1,906,008 15,569 14,698 8,790 8,877 51,624 1B1,8SI 214,936 212.SM 4,876.211 6,064,579 5,475,489 4,802,048 Connangtat Total 810 2,681 1 18,484,800 «,1»^T85 874,481 42,92ft «8ft,825 20,808,261 Several coal-fields exist in Ireland, resting on a limestone basis. In Ulster, the district of Coal Island, in the county of Tyrone, produces coal of gqpd quality, extensively used in the nelghliorhood ; the small coal- field at Bollycastle in Antrim, is of no economical im- portance. The province of Connaught affords beds of coal in Leitrim, Roscommon, and Sligo, but rarely ex- ceeding three or four inches in tbic)(neas. The Mun- ster coal-lields are in the counties of Cork, Kerry, and Limericlc. The chief coal-district, however, is that oi Leinster, in Corlow, Kilkenny, and the Queen's County. Tills coal, as well as that of the Munster district, is anthracitous ; that of Connaght is bitumin- ous. The native cool is only used in the districts where it is raised, and neither the quantity nor the quality has l>een found such as to intorlere with the importation of coal from Great Britain, which probably exceeds 1,000,000 of tons annually. More notable in Ireland are the unstratifled igneous rocks, of which many varieties are found. Trap-rocks exist in various parts of the countr}', but more espec- ially in Antrim, where they are found in great variety. The basaltic columns of Fairhead and the Giant's Causeway form one of the most interesting geological districts in the British empire. The trap-rocks often repose on tiie indurated cluilk of Antrim, especially in Kathlin island and at Cushendole. At tlie latter place beds of trap and the chalk alternate. Of quartz rock, the chief development in Ireland is in Mayo and Don- egal ; it appears, also, in the peninsula of Howth and Dublin, the summits of the Sugar-Loaf Mountains, and Bray Head, in Wicklow, and in the district of Forth, in Wexford. No tertiar}- formation has been discov- ered in Ireland, except the clays containing lignite or wood-cottl on tlie southern sliore of Lough Neugh. The elevation of the surface of Ireland Is stated in the fallowing table from the Land Tenure Commission- ers' map : Sqimre mllei. Between ses-levcl and 250 feet In height 18,242 2,V) and 500 feet 11,797 " 6110 "1000 " 5,797 " 1000 "2000 " 1,699 Above 2000 feet In height 82 Total 82,6091 The highest peaks in the chief mountain groups are : Foot. Carntusl. M'Ollltcaddf's I(eek^ Co. Kerry. . . . 3,414 Lngnaouilla, Wicklow 8,089 Sliovo I)onard, Mourno Mountains, Co. Down . 2,796 Mulres, Co. Mayo 2,689 Comerngh, Co. 'Walerford 2,697 £rrigsl, Co. Douenl 2,462 Troitan, Co. Antrim 1,810 If the possession of numerous fine bays and iiarbors made a country great as a commercial and maritime power, Ireland would be second to none in Europe. Pre-eminent even in Ireland is the magnilicont harbor of Cork, securely land-locked, protected by strong bat- teries, and used as the only naval station on the Irish coast. Baltimore Harbor, Skull, Cape Clear, Crook- haven Duninanu* and Bantry Bay, are all nf auilicient depth and capacity for large vessels. On the western coast are Berehaven, Kenmare Kiver, Valentia, Ven- tr}-, Smerwick, Brandon Bay, the estuary of the Shan- non, Galway Bay, Roundstone Bay, Ardbear or Cllf- dcn, Ballynakill and Killery Iiarbors, Clew, Blackrod, and KilliUa Bttys, with many others of loss importance. On the northern coast are Milroy Harbor, and the fine gulfs of Lough Sw.iiy i\nd I.ongh Foyle. The eastern coast has been lest ^ vored by nature, and furnishes only one bay, with sufiicient depth of vater for the largest vessels, that of Strnngford. The Buy of Dub- lin, which is much exposed, contains tiie fine artificial Harbor of Kingstown. Belfast, Xewry, Drogheda, Wicklow, Arklow, and AVexford, have all been con- verted into ports, but are naturally doiiciout in the requisites for good harbors. Between Wexford and Cork is the fine Estuary of Wutcrford, formed by the confluence of the Rivers Suir, Nore, and Barrow. Al- together, Ireland possesses 14 harbors for tlie largest ships, 17 for frigates, from 30 to 40 for merchant ves- sels, with many good summer roadsteads, and an in- finity of small harbors for fishing-boats. The islund» oflT the coast of Ireland are numerous, but generally of small size ; the largest are Rathlin and Tory in tlio north ; AchiU, Clare, the South Arran Islands, and Valentia, in the west ; and Whiddy and Cupo Clear in the south. Ixikes. — The lakes in Ireland are numerous. Lough Xeagh, in Ulster, is tho largest inland lake in the United Kingdom, and is only exceeded in Europe by Lake Ladoga in Russia, Luke Vtncr in Sweden, and the Lake cf (ioneva. According to the Ordnance Sur- vey it covers 98,255 statute acres. Tho River Bann, passing through it, affords tho moans of lowering its surface, which Is '18 feet above tho sea at low water ; but as its deepest part is beneath the level of low wa- ter, total drainage would be impracticable. Tradition states that It was once dry land, and that tlie tops of buildings may at times lie seen in it — n legend whiili has been made use of by Moore in one of his melodies. Lough Neagh contains but one islet, Rum Island, re- markable onl}' for a round tower, and as contributing to break the sameness of the surface of the lake, whicli, being surrounded by shores almost as level as itself, and generally bare of wood, has little or none of the picturesque beauty wliich renders Lougli Emu and Killarney so delightful. Its vicinity to tho five coun- ties of Ulster, Antrim, Down, Armagh, Tyrone, and Londonderry, each of which its waters touch, presents great advantages for internal trfti», ItK coHntit an •tuddod with niiniuriiuii mittta ilfl4 v(1l«» of mticli Iwan- ty, Louiili (^irrib and l^m^ Maitk, in tha w«Kt itt Connaugbt, are aeparatod froni amh otfMir l/y an luth- mua not more than (I mllna liro»Ml, 'i'\m (iitmur nt thnm lakea covara an ara» of in,m m'nm, utid the latter, 22,319. It dlachiri^aa jta w«t«p« lnt«« Oalway liay tiy K abort but broad and rapid rlvtir, wbti^h aktrta the town of Oalway, Ita |bv«| la Itiit U tM adore that of the aea, and worka Imva |/ifl« bwn Id ptnKttM to connect the navigation of tlta I/ay with that of the two great lakea abuvo it, Mnaiia lii i'iniim't\iiK them liy water coniinunk-'ation l)»a n<»t y#t liaiti fflhi'tml, Fur- ther north, and aliont it ntilxa frmtt tlallitia, la the nar- row Uka of r^oujb Conn, 12 mil** imiK, 'tha lake* of Killamey, in Kerry, Iwva Umg tmn celaliratod for their plctureaijue aiensry, 'I'li^yaw atnall aa com- pared with the larger lak<>« of |r«UHd | the lower lake covera S0«1 arH dlrccdon, wparatlng Connaught from Iad an4 Kerryliead, la 8 miles wide. |( la imvigabia for lar/^c veaaela to Lim- erick, and for veiaala of anialbir t<»nnaK« to within 6 milea of ita source In l^mgh Allf n. Ita centre length measures 2-10 niilaa, anil in mmmmmim'ii of the amall amount of ita fall, wkkb tbwa iMi i>ni'«lni>t«r anil Mnnator, unite again near the city of W«t«rford, Tha Waney rUea in the mountains of Wb^kbiw, anil amiitiiw Itaelf Into St. George's Channal at Wv^tittii, Tli« ttirym, fa- mous for Its hbitorb.'al rai'olbii'tbina aa well aa firr Ita Jiatural advantages, iiaa ita aoMrt'as In tha (antral ele- vated plain of Uinster, and, (liming nurtb-eaatward, fella into the Iriab Haa at Mrogliada, TIm) llann rlnea ta tha Mourn* Muuntalna, rtwwa northward throngh I/>ugh Mtagb, and, aflar aa|HiratlnK tlia i oiintica of LondoiMUfl7 (Dd Autrlin, flow* iuki tlM AtUotlo at 2ki Bq, DiitM* too :. -185 LllToy -im Blsckwater, N -Mi Maine and Inncy. 'Ml Fcslo and Oalle •4T9 Konghty. -478 Ovooa •2S1 Bandon -iiS Lagan -ilT Avonmore '2M Ooleralnc. The Foyle is formed by the onion of the streama of the Poe, the Moume, the Finn, and the Derg, which, flowing from different parts of tho interior of Ulster, diacharge their combined waters into Lough Foyle near liOndonderry. The Erne, which flows from Lough Erne, boa a short but rapid course to the Atlantic westward, and discharges its great body of waters into Donegal Hay, over a lodge of rocka riaing in feet above the level of the ordlnar}' tides. The other rivers, though numerous, amounting nearly to inn, are email, and mostly confined to the countiea that give them birth. The Liffey, which rises in tha monntain-land of Wicldow, and, after a circultoua coorae through KUdare, discharges itself into the Iriab flea, Is remarkable for nothing except that the metro- politan city of Dublin la seated on Its bunks. The extent of country forming the basin from whence each of the principal rivera derives Its supply, Is aa follows : Sq.DlllM.! flhannon 4-M4 ' Barrow, Noro, and Bnir S-400 Oalwar, Includ. Loughs (kirrib and Mask.... 1-374 Erno l-.Vi« FoTle l-47« Bann and Maine 1,208 Blackwater.B IISIS Borne and Blackwatci 1-08A M(^. 1-088 Blanoy. -815 Ireland wna once so thickly covered with timber oa to receive the name of the Island of tho Woods. Dur- ing the early periods of ita connection with England, Its extensive and Impenetrable forests formed a main obstacle to the progress of the English troops. West- minster Hall is said to l)c roofed with oak cut in the woods of Shillelagh. Numerous trunks of large trees aro constantly found In the bogs. Even In mountain tracts, devoted for a long succession of years' to the pasturage of sheep, timber trees shoot up spontane- ously wherever the land is secured from the Intrusions of cattle. Many pbices, where the vestige of a plant- ation la not to 1)6 seen, retain names of which the word " wood" forma a component part ; and in localities where the most attentive culture will not suffice to keep any tree or shrub alive on occonnt of the western lilasts, large trees are found Imbedded In the boga. The diflerent kinds of timber foOnd In the Iwgs of Ire- land are confined to onk, fir, yew, holly, sallow, and birch. Two centuries ago, when Ireland was covered with foresta, there were numerous small Iron-worka, in which wood charcoal was employed, and vast quan- tities of wood used until tho country was grodually stripped of Its supply, and the -working of iron was consequently abandoned. The extension of agricul- tnriil Improvement, and more especially the timber act, which gives the tenant at the expiration of big lease, a pcfunUry Interest In tho trees he has planted, are gradually removing tills defect, the consequence of ages of disturbance and desolation ; but trees In large quantities are generally found in Ireland only in the vicinity of tho residences of the gentr}-, except la some favored spots, which are well wooded. jt/ifKTo/ii.— Ireland Is reputed to contiim much lead; copper, and Iron, but notwlthstondlng many attempta to work tho metallic mines discovered In the country, few have l)cen found sufficiently productive to repay the necessary outlay of capital. Toward the closa of the last centur)-, gold was discovered, accidentally, in the streams flowing from the Mountain of Crogban Kinsela, on the confines of Wlcklow and Wexford. The metal was found In lumps and small pieces down to the minutest grain. Many of the peasants having rulnml tbcmsolves by leaving their proper occupations to join tho search, the government, to put an end to the fruitless quest, took up the enterpriae, and only relinquished It after satisfying the seekers of Ita worth- lessnesa, " The gold la asaoclated with magnetic iion- (tone, aometimei in mauea of half a hundred weight IRE lam IRB •Iio Iron pyrit«8, brown and red hematite, 'woIArwt, manganeiie, and fragments of tinstone in cryatala, together with quartz. From the nature of these at- tendant minerals, of which most are known to occur in the quartz veins of the adjacent mountain, it was hoped that by tracing up the rivulets to their sources, and laying bare in various directions the underlying rock, the metnlliferous veins might lje discovered, from the disintegration of which the sand and soil of tho bed of the streams had been produced. All such trials prowd useless, and the question as tn the source from whence the gold in those streams in Wicklow has been derived, remains still unanswered." — Sir R. Kane's Industrial Resource! of Ireland. Copper ores are dis- tributed throughout the clay-slate districts in a great number of localities more or less abundantly. The principal mines are those of Ballymurtagh, Conoree, Cronebane and Tigroney, and Ballygahan, in Wick- low county ; the Knockmahon, Kilduane, Uonmahon, and Balinasisla, in the Waterford district ; AUihles or Berehaven, Audley, and Cosheon, and SkuU, in the south-western district ; and the mines of HoUyford and Lackamor, in the western district. The total quantity and value of copper ore from Ire- knd, sold in Swansea, where it is smelted, vete, in Tom. V>lua. ;T..m Ton. ValiM. 1886... . 21,819 £168,846 1847... .. 14,857 £96,880 1S40... . I9,5S0 127,911 1848... .. 12,808 82,089 1848... . 17,609 117,626 1849... . 10,426 68,704 1844... . 18,597 77,622 185a.. . 10,021 e^.wt 1846... . 18,480 97,122 1851... . 10,577 77,718 184«... . 17,471 108,078 1852... .. 12,171 104,828 Lead is more extensively di&used through Ireland than copper. The granitic district of Wicklow contains nu- merous veins ; the principal are tliose of Glendalough, Glenmolur, Glendasaue or Luganure, and Ballycorus. The claj'-slate districts also yield numerous Indications of this metal, but few of the mines have proved profit- able. Those still worked aro at C'lonligg, Kewtown- ards, and KathmuUen, in Down county ; Bond and Newry, in Armagh county ; Castleblayney, in Mon- aghan county ; Kenmare, in Kerry couuty ; KUbricken and Ballyhickey, in Clare county j Shallee, in Limer- ick county ; and Bantry, in Cork county. A vein at Clontarf, near Dublin, was worked until the mine was filled with water by the ingress of the sea. At Bally- corus, where the lead ores from the mines of the Min- ing Company of Ireland are smelted, the qiuntities of ore worked up in 1851 from Luganure mines was C74 tons, which produced ICO tons of lead, equal to nearly 69 per cent. The proportions uf silver to a ton of lead are generally found to be, from the mine of Luganure, 8 oz. ; Caime, 12 oz. ; Ballyhickey, 15 oz. ; Shallee, 25 oz. ; KUbricken, 120 oz. ; Tollyratty, near Strang- ford, 10 oz. The average of silver extracted from the lead ore raised by the Mining Company of Irelu'~'l in 1851, was 7 oz. to the ton of lead ; the total quantity 8860 oz. ; producing £1029 6s. 8d. Native silver was found in a bed of iron ochre in Cronebane, but the deposit ha< been long since tx- hausted. Sulphuret of silver was found in the loud ore at Ballycorus some years since, and the Mining Company of Ireland have resumed operations to prove this valuable discover)-. Tinstone has been found in the auriferous soil of Wicklow, but no veins or work- able deposits have been discovered. Other minerals, useful in manufactures and the arts, and found in quantities in various parts of the country, are mang- anese, antimony, zinc, nickel. Iron pyrites, alum, clays of various kinds, building stone, mnrtilo, flags, and roofing slates. Mineral springs, chiefly chaly- l>eate, are numerous in many parts of the country. Those of chief note for their medicinal qualities are ut 'Mallow, in Cork, resembling the hot wells of Bristol j Ballynahincb, in Down ; Swanlinbar, in Cavan ; Cas- tleconnel, near Limerick ; and Lucan, near Dublin. The following is the result of the different estimates and census inquiries into the number of the popula- tion of Ireland at various periods : y«»r. Pan. 1662 Sir William Potty S.'ictOOO 1672 " » 1.820,000 1695 Captain Sonth 1,084,108 1712 TbonusBobbs 2,099,094 1718 " " ; 2,169,048 1728 " " ; 2,817,874 1726 " " 2,809,106 1781 Established Clergy 2,010,221 175* Tax Collectors 2,872,684 1760 De BafKho, HIbern. Domiulcnn 2,817,884 1767 Tax Oolloctora !i,544.276 1777 " " 2,690,5,'i6 17S5 » " 2,8tt,982 1788 Oerrals P. Bushc 4,010,000 1791 Tax Collpctora 4,206,612 1792 Dr. Beaufort 4,088.226 1805 Thoniiia Ncwenham 5,895,4.^6 ISlI I'srllimentary return 5,937,856 1821 " " 6,801,827 1881 " " 7.767,401 1834 Commissioners of Public Instruction. 7,948,940 1841 FarliamcDtary return 8,178,124 1851 " " 6,552,886 Few countries in the world have increased in |iopu- lation so rapidly as Ireland during the first 40 years of the present, and the conclusion of the lust century. Arthur Young, in his Tour through Ireland, in 1766, observed that it everywhere evinces the marks of a rapid increase of population. It is generalh' supposed that the number of the people increases in the rutio of food and comforts, and that an increase of jwpuliition is a convincing proof of the advancing prosperity of a nation. The effect of the failure of the potato crop in depopulating tho country would show that the pop- ulation of Ireland had outstripped the progress of wealth, and the increase of industr}', and had reduced their wants to the lowest point without procuring an addition to the comforts of life corresponding to tlie increase of the population The following table exhibits the population of each portion of the country, according to tho census of 1821, 1831, 1841, and 1851, together with the house accom- modation at the latter period : ProvioM*. tni. tni. mt. IBSI. Funlllai. Houiei Id 1811. | Ual«. FeniAt*!. Toul. IiduUlad. VnlnhaLlliKl. TouJ. Built. Build- Inif. Trflnster Mnntter Ulster Cdnnangbt . . Total 1,767,492 1,936,612 l,99s,494 1,110,229 1,909,718 2,227,152 2,286,622 1,848,014 1,978,781 2,396,161 2,886,378 1,418,859 818,462 904,657 976,288 496,105 859,129 952,7,%5 l,oa^,473 514,106 1,672,591 1,V)7,412 2,011,75« 1,010,211 0,6r.I,970 821,991 820,2,'iO 880,781 184,080 258,002 267,116 851,878 169,808 17,566 19,860 20,647 T,605j 65,rt8r 5112 473 ^SI 1,884 276,160 280,949 873,0(54 177,198 1,118,856 6,001,827 7,767,401 •8,175,124 3,190,507 8,861,468 1,207,002 1,040,294 The chief impediment to improvement in the con- dition of the peQple of Ireland during the present cen- turj' has been the redundancy of the population. In a country almost wholly dependent on the cultivation of the soil, there wore in 1841 as many as 335 persons to each square mile of aralde land. Perhaps, with the exception of China there was no other counti^- in the world so densely peopled, and certrinly none where the population was so disproportloned to tho means of emploj-ment. This great density of popu- lation was necessarily accompanied by an extreme competition for land and employment, with the ab- sence of all inducements to the acquirement of skill, and in consequence of the low rate of remuneration for labor, and high rents, the impossibility uf any ac- cumulation of capital in the hands of the cultivators of the soil. The following table shows the density of the population in 1841, and its remarkable decrease in 1861 •. IRE 1001 '•-I T0I*1- '~276j6()l 296,949 878,()S4 1,118,8561 Insity of popu- 1' an extreme , with the ab- Imont of skill, I remuneration lutv of any nc- £ cultivators of ■e density of the ^crease in 1851 •• Tabu gnownra TnaDiwtiTT oy PowrL*tio» in IMl, Ann m hwaiiiamii timm»u» in 1861. Leiniter. , , . Monster. . . . Ulster Connaught. Total.... Rarftl popalatloo. >B«I. 1,681,108 2,009,230 2,160,698 1,888,686 7,089,669 I8II. 1,191,684 1,466,099 1,749,707 926,269 ^388,709 tin, olfti fHH w III* ofiiiir* iiAtr, MuabU Im4. 347 882 4C6 886 M8 189 218 330 241 Ou«r«w« iMtwavn IMl-SI. 114 m 146 MIlMfMlninifsliiMilai, M Ilia Milln I tnHH pafnimion). ■nalliKliiilliit Ik* I mu m m m w IHI, 1« m m m Number or Pusoms iit OcnnPAnoNS in 1841 and 1861, CLASSirillD AOCOBDlMa AS PRODnOEBS, MAMUrACTUEEES, AND Traders. ('••fMiM tow, 4ft (to Ml, lUI. OMmw ' b«iwt«fi IMI-M. m 9M 219 20T m ilio m 285 147 89 87 44 60 201 49 Oe«up«Uoiu. 1841. Hlntsterlng to (bod : Producers 1,864,141 Msnnftctnrers 18,995 Traders. 86,986 Total 1,904,071 Ministering to clothing: Cloth mannfttcturers. 669,224 I/eather-workers 67,883 Olathes>makars 167,993 Tndors. 6,269 Total 901,824 Ministering to lodging, eto.: Workers In stone 80,204 " wood 64,036 " metal 44,197 Miscellaneous 28,786 Traders 2,098 Total 164,866 Ministering to health 6,871 " charity 2.'>3 " Justice 19.641 " education 16,314 » religion 7,192 Total 60,671 nnclaiislfled: Ministering to arts 8,495 " trade 59,549 " traTcllng..... 18,976 Miscellaneous 409,409 Total 491,423 lUI. 1,461,776 18,086 62,103 1,681,914 378,228 49,900 367,225 11,184 606,682 37,177 48,196 46,083 30,749 6,265 146,469 7,148 1,398 36,362 17,407 8,898 61,713 2,674 64,470 48,748 .894,-i08 494,995 Oenoral total 8,511,860 3,841,6-28 Ireland is naturally, both from soil and climate, n pastoral conntr}'. and it was not until the commence- ment of the last century that efforts were made to in- troduce an attention to tillage on an extended scale. Primate Boulter, when one of the ImtOs Justices, pressed stronglj'- on the British frovemmcnt the neces- sity of enforcing a tillage system ; and for this pur- pose proposed a law, in 1727, to compel landlords to till fire acres out of every hundred in their possession, exclusive of meadows and bogs ; and also to release tenants to the same extent fh>m the penal covenants against tillage, inserted in their leases. Mr. M'Cul- loch observes, in his Statistical A ccoimt of the British Empire, that the luxuriance of the pastures in Ireland and the heavy crops of oata raised, even with the most wretched cultivation, attest the extraordinary fertility at tlia twll, IHfimu mmthn eUy soils, sandy soils, chalky itnd gnvnWy mM», and several other de- scriptions «f soil mtmtm In Kntjland, are seldom or never met with 111 (rKliii«4, whlcli affords no great diversity tu eom|«r«l with (iwiti Dritaln. Mr. Wake field dascrtlM* tll« miIIm of treland as follows ;— •■ A great |iortloii (if tim mill itt Ireland throws out a luxu- riant ImrliitgB, iiprin^\»g frtiM a calcareous subsoil without Kpiy viiiipilittinihk (lojith, this Is one species of the rUill Mill of Irsland, »tU\ It found throughout RotcomiDoii, in Mittw fMrts of (latway, Clare, and other dlalrlcts, HiillMt |iU<'<>ii exhibit the richest loam I ever snw tMrn«d up with a plow t this Is the case throughout Maiith In pHrtlflMliir. Where such soil oc- curs. Its furtlKty Is wi i>(mii|ili'Uiitls, that it appears as if nature hiut (Idturinlnwl Ui coiiiilefaut the bad effects produced hy ttia (')Mm*y Kysl^tii of its (3ultlvatars. On the hanks nf tJM |i'iirKU« HHil Mlintilinfl, the land is of a different kind, liut mimtty fmiUHHWe, though the sur- face presents ttm »\i\mtitni<« of marsh, These dis- tricts are (iiilled enummti th« ^ulMtratum Is a blue silt deposited by Hm mn, wlih'h s««ffl» to partake of the qualities nt the H|ifi«if utrntum, for this land can be injured by no rt^jith of lilowl«((," The praviilmit soil ti« a ftiflllfl loam, resting on a rocky But)str«tum, ('hi«i|ly of ll«n«ttwi«, The depth, though in genafMl nut tfrwtt, tit In some parts such as to admit of » fresh vwrtitlik wold being repeatedly thrown up liy shw««»1v9 plowlnKs to a greater depth. This occurrence is most utrlking in Meath, and in the district of tha wmntUis of Tliipernfy and Mmerick, long distinguished liy tli« HNm« of the Golden Vale, from its eKtriMirillimry ffrtllity/ In some parts, par- ticulariy in (Jitlwav, tint rock shows Itself alwve the surface in ridges lik« WMVtm, the Interstices lielng fliled with rieli moUl, wltlt>h tiroilui<«<4 d thick, clone sward, extremely grateful to Dh«K|i, Large tracts of grazing land similar to the Mownii In t^ngtand are unusual ; the only tra^^t of my tixtunt of such descrlptkin is the Curragh of Klldiirti, which Um lipen used, time im- memorial, for » sha#p witik, The nmiintalns are capa- ble of tlilttga ta « Min4,- 800 acres, and in \m, H,WI!;,rilll lu-tm \ and the pro- portion per eant, of iiillivi^ed and uncultivated surface, ate,, nt thosa two |iarloilK was as follows : FroTincM, Total ar«a In ■tatute aeiTi. PivMwi of wrCK«, Arable land. UneulllTalail. tUoMan. T««a<< Wattr, Propnrlton per eenl. Proportion per rent. Propordoo per aeal, VmymUn ffi HHI, Propvrtlnn per eeul. 1841. 1 IStl. 1841. 1 1841. 1841. IHi( (tiHtH, Tabui auowiMO iH« XsTiHT o» LiMD o»D»K Cbom Foa lAOB CooiiTr AUD f»ernum fl» tttbMIt, a 1«M ilMlMB, ▲HD THC NCHBia Or ACSXI UNDKE lAOU IfUHm Ot (>IUH>i LelniUr. |18M 18SS Inereaae or deoretse I InLeluter... ' Mnoiter. I18M Iner«a*e or deoreaie In Munater. } \^' w^ iBcrrase or deereiie I in Ulater. I Connanght | j^J , inereaae or decretao I { in OoDnengbt ) ITOUI IIS* I Inereaae or decrease { I in Ireland I Wkiat. Aer*«. 187,698 IH. 13,8TS 151,570 16T,7M l». <,1M 65,501 70,1»7 Ine. 4,580 89,018 Inc. Mil 411,184 445,509 Iw. 84,»5 OtU. Aer«i. 6S8,65« 66tl,077 Dm. 4T9 880,946 IlM. 1^7«7 841,879 890,171 tH. 48,799 985,891 294,461 Inc. 8,570 9,045,998 9,117,966 lu. 72,667 Bvlcjr, bare, ry«, bMU, Aem. 197,841 115,586 Dm. 11,756 185355" •M67 Dm. 7,849 89,496 «78 19,811 19,198 Dae. 118 987,154 967,5«S Dm. 19,689 FotAtoai. Aeraf, 904,890 906,006 iDC. 8,186 956,449 164,944 Dtc. 1,506 818,167 Oac. 19,729 197,496 200,418 Inc. 9,918 989,660 981,629 Oac. 8,181 TtnAft, ken*. 106|tM Inc. 9,045 Ili9l9 194,948 Int. ,10,066 "86,8»r 100371 Ik. 16,088 82,179 86,887 8,208 829,170 866,497 lu. 87,827 Dm. w »m Limen. — The same legislative measure which was intended to discourage the woolen manufacturer stated, that "if the Irish turned their industry and skill to the settling and improring of the linen manufacture, they should r«ceive all the countenance, favor, and protection for its encouragement, and promotion to all the advantage and protlt they might be capable of de- riving from it." This declaration should not lead to the inference that the manufacture had been previ- ously unknown or disregarded in Ireland. On the con- trary, the use of linen was so prevalent among the higher orders, that sumptuary laws were enacted to check its excessive use. The unfortunate Earl of Strafford seems also to have anticipated the views of the British manufacturers on the subject. Instead of extinguishing the woolen trade by exclusive duties, he labored to foster that of linen. He imported flax seed in large quantities from Holland, and held out pre- miums to induce Flemings and Dutchmen acquainted with the manufacture to settle in Ireland. On tliese laudable objects he spent upward of ^£80,000 of his private fortune ; and his example was followed by the Duke of Ormond. Still, however, the woolen manu- facture prevailed, particularly in the south and west, where the climate and extensive pasturage for sheep insured a copioos and aheap supply of the raw mate- rial. In the same spirit, an act was passed by the En- glish Parliament in 1696, to encourage foreign linen manufacturers to settle in Ireland ; and with that view all articles mode of flax or hemp in this country were admitted into England duty free — a privilege which is estimated to have given that branch of trade an ad- vantage of 25 per cent, over other nations in the English market. The Iririi Parliament responding to the sentiments and wishes uf that of England, prom- ised that " it would heartily endeavor to establish the linen and hempen manufacture, so as to render it use- ful to both kingdoms ;" adding, that " it hoped to find such a temperament in respect to the woolen trade here, that the same may not be injurious to England." The "temperament" here announced was evinced most effectually by laying prohibitory duties on the export of its own woolens, thos accepting the compact on tiM pact «r Inland, and givlag tha conntiy an !»• eontrovertlblo cWffl Hp0fl ¥/fit(knd tsr » pefpvtmi en- couragement of tb»t hrmtnh Mrliifh w*i to (« nurtured in lieu of the n«tur»l HHpif uf »h« I'tmtitff, In fur- therance of tlie mB»t»H^ m»timUf HKfm<4 m between both kingduiiis, a tmnni >i( tttHfi'ii (of lh« ertfotirage- ment of the Mmn nmntifmiHm #m« esUlbJifvhed in 1710, oonsistinti of » m»tt)«'f>tf MftMuals of Influ- ence in eiu:h provJww, I-'jmW i(>» im ftnu were all mode by hand. Wftb mtti «f tWM tririlfig Mceptions, not a spinning fm^Utry wiu> Ui im «*#«. In Mtt there were upward of 70, In l»J!*, wHb !(<« «*irtence of bounties on the e«uort uf \ini^», Hn4 b#Mt/ dtrtles yment of linen-weavers \)y eprtoHsivM in»n»t»«intm», and con- flnhig them to tba »«r» pf«Wi»* iif w»«*l/ig, was or was nut mors adv»Ht««itb, and tb* w#r«lMMt wtw disMMd of it, wen the sama MMiSmA ( M wtMiitMf M would ba more proAtabIa t« aKw ll« lym^iim «f kna tlw trade. The fwUowlM %iMm lAtiiW tb« val|>. Vm, Ton's*, V... TonV". 4*1,800 40,216 IM.Ws IH.O.W l^^^2 "20T,028 BoUUt. ■ Cork Dublin Umeriok.... WBterfoid.... Otbar porta.. TotBl 07 61 81 89 29 78 17,968 14,969 Wfia 11,208 8,099 70,700 24 6 22 ■9 7,921 1,842 7,244 2,887 81 64 26 88 98 48 10,472 18,691 9,184 19,419 8,974 18,928 12 16 18 4 18 11 8,048 8,906 1,210 8.8(8 9,616 160 187 187 99 61 226 22,608 28,068 21,780 22,668 10,819 88,007 206 2» 175 98 90 837 88,167 80,164 81.MS 24,994 20,186 5'',166 69 61 81 29 94 85 819 18,840 11,422 18,886 6,878 6,149 28,026 74,25i 211 207 ISl 71 88 2(« 945 809 90,866 60 19,844 1 220 69,968 69 17,477 860 144,636| 1.186 218,156 ACOOUNT or TUB TONNAOB BBLONUINO TO AND RROUTRK'n AT TUB Irish Port* at DirrcRENT Triennial Periods, wrru TUB Inoebarb between the First and Last FBBIODe. NaoMofpoxt. Yarn. 1140. IMl lau. I IBbIIIbb... 'Beldut... iCoIamlne. 'fork . Drogheda.. Dubllt In Dundalk. jOalway. lUmerlok Londondarry. . . Newry Mm. Sklbberean Sllgo Btnngfbrd Tralce Walerford Weatport Wexford Otber porta Total Tonj. ioV,.i49 14.607 94,742 42,247 26,186 32,720 18,080 60,848 9^098 8,291 I84S,I8M, Tom. 164^462 ll'5,689 14,092 105,101 42,sri7 88,607 86,018 9,858 66,647 2(,68a _ I 40,288 669,294 6817981 Y»n, 184a. I84T 1848. Taarf, 1849, 1880, 1881. Tonf. 902',0il 2,795 14,\127 19,287 126.288 7,971 11,448 48,1.'» 27,844 36,714 86,824 14,296 "979 81,926 781 95,818 11,280 Inenuo bctwMn flnl period! 11H-88- W.ntidlut IwriM, Ton*. 162 226,414 1,080 149,485 20,524 128,182 8,918 12,170 89,6(8 2-8,888 80,748 28,871 8,049 18,112 6,626 8,180 09,287 624 27,080 >i. 218,852 186lfl41 17,528 89,007 86,236 20,527 18,261 19,766 '2^040 60,808 20^205 781,948 i Klfi-a 1 627,871 KUMBBB AND ToNNAOB OF VE8«EL8 EUPLOYBD IN TUB In- tbrcoob«b bbtween Oeiat Britain and Ireland, WBIOU BNTBBED InWABD AND CLEARED OUTWARD WITU CABOOBB, AT TUB P0BT8 or TUB UNITED KlMUDOH DCB- INS FODB TBABB, ISM. 1 1818. 18M. VcMeli 1 Tcmugt. 1 VmiiIi 1 Tonnm<. VeM«1l Tonnage, Inward,,., 9,4O0|t,762,197 Outward... 18,676!2,400,906 9,840' 1,98 1,089 19,9442,694,655 10,006 2,042,1461 20,8862,819,8961 Theae tables exhibit the great preponderance of the croag-cbannel trade, which has been greatly augment- ed (Ince the introduction of steam navigation. The earliest attempts at establishing a company for this purpose were made in Dublin about the year 1816. Two small vessels wore fitted up, but the construction of their machinery was faulty, their dimensions were too small, and the effort proved abortive. The cross- channel trade, with the exception of tliat in coal, is almost wholly carried on by means of steam-vessels ; but since 1825, when the trade between Great Britain and Ireland was placed apon the footing of a coasting trade, no separate returns have been made out at the custom-house of the quantity and value of the exports and imports. Fuherie: — The coasts of Ireland abound with llah ; and Sir William Temple observed, " that the Usher}- of Ireland, if improved, would prove a mine under wa- ter, as rich as ony under ground." Arthur Youur ulr.o remarks, " that there is scarcely a part of Ireland !iut what is well situated for some fishery of consequence ; and that her coasts, of innumerable creeks and river mouths, are the resort of vast shoals of herrings, i-oU, ling, hake, and mackerel. Keveime. — Uefore the arrival of the English, tlio revenues of Ireland were paid in cattle ; and even after that period the custom prevailed for several centuries in the parts less subject to foreign influence. Traces of it have been met with so late as the reign of Kliza- beth. The new government, under the English, in- troduced the method of raising money by subsidies. John exacted a subsidy from the Irish clerg)-, and es- tablished the court of exchequer for the general man- agement of the revenue. The same method was continued during tho reigns of Henry III., and the first Kdwards ; but tho income thus e.ttracted from tho lieople proved so inadequate to meet the expenditure, that recourse was had to tho legalized extortion of coygne and livery, which was tho levying of iimn's meat and horse's meat for the soldiery in time of serv- ice. The amount of the regular revenue, in tlio TuXga of Edward III,, is stated by Walsinghani and Holing- shed to have Ijeen £80,000 ; but Sir John pavis, who collected his information from the pi|ie-roIl8, and other authentic sources, reduces it to £10,000, Tho most remarkable fittancial measure of Kichanl II. was a tax upon absentees- In 1433, the eleventh of llcnr)- VI., the revenue was reduced to £2,889 18s. Cd., while the expenses of the government were £2,.348, 16s. lljd., thus exceeding the income by £18, 17s. b\i\. At the latter end of the same reign, tho Duke of York, wlien sent over as lord-Uentenant with extraordinary pow- ers, not only obtained the whole revenue, but stipu- lated for an additional supply from England of '1,000 marks for tho first year, ond £2,000 for every year thereafter. Edward IV. raised money by the imposi- tion of duties on all merchandise sold in Ireland ex- cept hides. In the IStb year of Henry VII. a duty of one shilling in tho pound was laid on all merchan- dise imported and exportad, except wine and oil; and 4(I M,H«S IH.UW IRE 1006 IRB / • t«x, by way of lubaldy, of 18«. M, on every hide of knd. During this reign the revenue leldom exceeded ;C6000. Henry VIII. increased the revenue by the suppression of monasteries. The laws against al)sen- tees were also enforced. During the first 16 years of Elizabeth, the revenue was jel20,000, or ilSOOO per annum, white the expenses amounted to .£490,779, 7s, 6^1. In 1699, at the close of Tyrone's rebellion, i.'600,000 were spent in six months ; and Sir Koliert Cecil affirmed that Ireland had cost tlie queen £8,400,- OUO in ten years' time. In the paciflo reign of James the customs increased from £00 to £1)000, and at the close of bis reign to /:./700. The wardships nnd other feudal rights prodwoed about £10,000, notwithstanding which the income was inadequate to the expenditure. To defray'the expense of the army, an order of bar- onets was established l)y which £98,600 were raised, in addition to which £247,433 were remitted from En- gland to clear off the debts incurred l>y Elizabeth. The Irish Parliament granted the same king a sultsidy of 29. 8d. in £1 on every personal estate of £3 annual value, and 4d. in £1 on ever}- real estate of £1 value ; an act of liljerality with which James was so much pleased, that he declared " he would hereafter hold bis Irish 8ul>jectB in equal favor with tliose of his other kingdoms." In the succeeding reign Strafford raised the customs to four times their previous amount. In the same reign the first mention is made of an excise tax. Thurloe, however, in his state papers, men- tions that the revenue for two years ending in 1G67, amounted to £137,658, while the ex|)endituro was £142,609. When the Irish Parliament met after the Restoration, it granted, first, an hereditary revenue to the king, his heirs, and successors ; second, an excise for maintaining the army ; thirl, the subsidy of ton- nage and poundage for the navy ; and, fourth, a tax of 28. oacli on hearths, in lieu of the feudal hardens, which were tlien almlished. After the Revolution, the information respecting this important element of na- tional statistics iiecomcs more precise and satisfactory'. The revenae, tma the landing of Schomberg in 1689 till the end of the reign of William, was as follows, the total on the previous military expenditure of the war with James having amounted to £8,861,666 : Ye«r. RaTaniM, lASD £8,NM 1690 93,910 1891 2T4,9»9 1601 898,926 1698 444.188 1694 480,uB4 1695 488,804 Yekr. ll«r*nue. 1696 £618,584 169T 548,967 1098 60I,84« 1699 701,989 1700 766,630 1701 697,986 1702 6S1,»8« During the earlier part of Anne's reign the income exceeded half a million, but in her latter days it was less productive. In the reign of George I. the state of the revenue continued nearly as in tlie preceding reign. In that of George II. there was a surplus, which was applied, not always judiciously, to public works. Tiie national del)t of Ireland, incurred by an excess of expenditure beyond the income of the coun- tr}', increased with great rapidity toward the close of the last contur}- and till the year 1817, when it ceased to form a separate item in the public accounts, in con- sequence of the consolidation of tiie British and Irish exchequers. Its progressive increase since the Revo- lution is exhibited in tlio following table : Public Drdt or Ibeland. 1716 £16,106 1720 87,811 1780 2211,780 1740 290.983 17,'SO 205,117 1762 228,488 1770 £629,888 1780 1,067,8«5 1790 I,.'i8«,067 1800 22,245,190 1810 75,240,790 1817 184,602,760 The following table gives an account of the gross revenue levied in Ireland, in each year from 1840 tn 1863; distinguishing the expenses of collection and the other payments out of the revenue in its way to the exclicquor ; also an account of the amount of repayments into the exchequer on account of advances for public works, employment of the poor, distress, etc., in Ireland, for the like period. Gross Urvkshr lkvikd in Ibkland, is baoh Thar moM 1840 TO 1868. mVR.XUB. CHAROla. Yeifi. Total Chargei. Paymcnla on account ot' Public Works, ate. OUUtAIullBg. Groii rvvenne. Tul.l Income, C)ulrs«B of COlluClIliD. PayinauU lo the Eichoquflr. Pftjrmenu on Recount ol Kevenue, BAlaneea at Ihe vnd of the year. account of llavanue. 1840 £220.509 £1,107,860 £4,H2S,8T5 £542,716 £85,808 £8„559,462 £19fl,8S9 £»,32S,875 £858,683 £8,913,100 1841 190,889 4,118,689 4,S09,07S 587,(115 85,U8 8,586,192 199,628 4,809,07s 438,411 8,969,688 1842 199,628 4,156,892 4,8M„52I1 536,707 87,256 8.5«2,492 220,065 4,850,,^2ll 871,377 8,984,889 1848 220,065 4,01)9,062 4,310,127 6.U''88 86,650 8,574,017 172,827 4,819,127 884,794 8,959,711 1844 172,827 4,406,509 4,67i),8:t6 52S,700 .%%,488 8,84.5,200 169,983 4,5-9,:W6 420,470 4,265,780 1845 109,988 4,667,462 4,8i)7.40(l MO, 124 JH.654 4,096,8.W 160,769 4,«a7,400 394,305 4,491,158 1846 166,769 4,919,622 5,086,891 538,851 1M,017 4,389,821 179,208 5,036,891 870,238 4,710,104 1847...... 179,208 4,4.V4,462 4, '.065 546,499 8,5,500 8,840,920 21O,0S6 4,683,065 514,491 4,8.W,4«1 4,827,505, 1S48 210,686 4,,W1,95S 4,7i)2,(Wl 668,701 85,764 3,970,44^ 159,781 4,732,6H a^7,117 1849 159,781 4,291,S07 4,451,Ws 54,5,9,V9 88,141 8,711,804 1,58,1.85 4,4SI,WS 621,1.% 4.832,459 1850 156,185 . 4,257,686 4,41.8,8211 018,741 86,S18 8,613,911 144,8.51 4,418,320 505,021 4,118,932 1851 144,852 4,882,000 4,526,!»2 661,821 84,072 8,672,883 157,,574 4,526,861 360,195 4,642,195 1852 167,674 4,424.785 4,582,359 561,207 83,019 S,820,H« 167,946 4„532,389 406,829 f'?3S"* 1353 167,946 4,752,288 4,888,444 530,718 30,460 4,118,449 156,821 4,336,444 445,889 4,504,888 N«TT Rkvenuk OF Ibeianu in kacu VEAB FROM 1840 TO 1861 , DISTINGDIeilED UNDER TIIE DIFFEBKXT HEADS or liErENUE, Yean. Cnitomi. Kiella, Stampa. Properly and Incomo tax. Poit Office. MlieelllH neons. Imprest nnd other .M»m>y8. Repa.vments of Ailrtinoes for I'uUIr Works. Total. 1840 £2,080,159 £1,177,407 £482,723 .... £0,6M £6.929 £,^531 £358,68.3 £4.018,100 1341 1,999,257 1,097,918 425,771 7,411 6,385 488,441 8,969,688 1.342..'.... 1,949,884 1,110,342 491.8.11 8,000 5,248 2,210 371,378 8,9ai,869 1848 1,960,498 1,082,722 621,931 .... 8,000 5,069 1.077 894,794 8,959,781 18+4 9,12\\49 1,147,940 646,898 .... 16,000 6,590 2,088 420,470 *'^?5'!22 1845 2.091,851 1,408,471 559,569 22,000 6,847 0,310 881,988 ^i3l^ 1*43 .... 2,258,143 1,487,080 678,787 .... 29,000 6,003 5,388 352,649 4,692,468 1847 2,009,183 1,152,982 667,996 69,000 6.099 40,160 494,924 4,825,344 184S 2,069,778 1,821,915 682,924 89,000 4,3.85 2,000 804,927 4,275,875 1849 1,941,129 1,231,643 502,078 26,000 6,088 8,923 621,156 4,882,469 1850 1,827,289 1,312,123 462,691 .... 5.744 6,063 605,021 4,113,982 1351 1,864,268 1,343,911 451,N84 6,000 9,000 4,470 827,499 4,000,682 1852 1,856,160 1,478,092 474,874 .... 7,782 8,829 .466,829 4.236,615 1858 1,924,611 1,708,621 474,480 27,976 7,206 8,681 475,445 4,621,870 1864 1,862,103 3,208,580 458,813 649,011 10,000 6,203 4,813 861,281 6,4»»,807 The circulating medium in Ireland was, until lately, subject to a groat variety of alterutions. Without en- tering into the disputed question of tlio existence of a mint in Ireland established by the Ostemen or Danes, the first certain account of a mint there is that estab- lished in 1210, by King John, who caused pennies, - tuM^nnlai, Md fltrthinga to lie eolned and made ear- rant by prneUmitlon. Further coinigM were made V Henry III. and by Kdward I., who added the title of DoMiMua HiaiRinH to that of Knx AitoMB on hta Irish colnnue. It cnnnisted of groata, half^nce, and farthing*. The first important alleratlon an to value waa in the latter part of the reign of Kdward III. who caused the ounce of eilTer to be cut into 2ti denlen or penniea, Instead of 20, oa Iwfore, which caused the depreciation of 8^ per cent, in the Irish, as compared with the Ilritish currency, which existed un- til thk final assimilation of the two currenclea In 1836. Henry VI., or rather the Duke of York, his lieutenant in Ireland, hail minta in Dublin and Trim, In which both silver and copper money were coined. In the lieglnning of the Hubscqucnt reign of Ed- Tfrard IV. the value of silver coins was raised to double their previous amount. The consequence waa an enormous increase of price in all the necessaries of life ; to remedy which, the Irish Parliament enacted, that the master of the mint should strike. In the Cas- tles of Dublin and Trim, and in the town of DrogheiU, five kinds of silver coins ; the gross (or groat), the demi-groes, the denier (or penny), the demi-denier, and quadrant (or farthing); eleven groats to weigh an ounce troy, and each, undipped, to puss for fourpence, A few years afterward, the price of silver was again raised ao excessively, that the dilTerence between the Irish and English groat was 50 per cent. In a pound of bullion. In the reign of Henry VII. the difference between the two coinages waa one third. Soon after the accession of Hcnrj' VIII. the coin in Ireland was 10 clippen- don. , By a proclamation in 1637, tlie name of Irish money was ordered to be alwlished, and all payments were reduced to English sterling money. About 1672, amall change was so scarce In Ireland, that towns and private dealers were obliged to issue copper tokens. Jame II., on his arrival in Dublin in 1688, issued a proclamatien, by which the English guinea was to pass current at .£1 4s., the crown-piece at fia. Seing rated at £4. Alwut the •ame time, in consequence of the scarcity of small change. Wood obtained his patent for the issne of a copper currency, which was prevented by the literary exertions of Dean Swift in his celebrated publications called the Dmpier't Letten. In 1780, the acta of Par- liament prohibiting the carrying of gold or ailver into Ireknd were rapealed. At that time the tbIm at preoloua metals In circulation •■ specie, or hoarded, waa estimated at £8,000,000 Irish. Mo Auther legis- lative change took place until the oaalmtUtioa of the Irish and English currency in 18W, previously to which, however, the want of a metallic circulation waa BO severely felt, particularly during some periods of the French war, that private bankers and traders is- sued notes or tickets fbr snull sums, f^om 5s. down to twopence-half^nny ; and also copper tokens. The •vlla of this combined pressure of the scarcity of legal and the abundance of counterfeit coin, was ultimately remey the Issue of stamped dollara estimateeen discontinued. Uy means of navigable rivers and ca- nals, Ireland possesses extensive inland navigation. For the details of the various canals, see C asau. The railway from Dublin to Kingstown, which was opened at the latter end of 1834, was the first, and for several years the only railway in Ireland. Bants. — The entire banldng liusineas of Ireland, un- til 1783, was in the hands of private individuals, who often issued notes to an amount not only far beyond their respective capitals, but exceeding, hi a great de- gree, what the wants of the country required, or its credit could support. To remedy the evil effects of a system so pernicious, a national bank was established in that year, with similar privileges to tlioae of the Bank of England in respect to the restriction of more than six partners in a private bank. The injury that Ireland has sustained fVom the repeated failure of banks may be mainly attributed to this injudicious regulation. The loss that the country has suflTered by the failure of banks may be described in s few w6rd8. On the ex- ttas lODT mfl lilrjr of Uia Bank of IrtUnd's charter In 1888, it wh aontinutd hy act of Parllamrat from year to year an- til 1846, ainca which time It haii been regulated by the new Banking Act, 8th and IHh Vict., o. 87, acoording to the foliowing prinelplet : — The bunk to continue the banker of government, which Is to pay for the 10 lub- ■eqiiant yean 8} per cent, on the debt It owea to the bank. The proceedings of the establishment to be under the Mun* mla which baa been applied by Pat> llament to other banking institutions, anil to make weekly returns, similar to those of the Hank of En- gland nnder the new act, containing a full develop- ment of Its affairs, the amount of Its bullion, and lbs variations In the quantity. The Joint-stock banks now doing business .ire as follows. There marked (*) do not Issue their own notes : Bank of Ireland •Hibernian Jolat-Bioek Co., Dublin. . Provlnolal Dank of Ireland Northern Banking Ca., BelAut Belhst Banking Company National Bank Ulster Banking Company, BelAut. . . Clonmol NalloosI Bank Carrlok-on-Hiilr National Bank •Royal Bank, Dublin Whaa InithuliJ. 1788 1894 1826 1825 1827 1886 188A 1836 1886 1886 No. <( braiiehM. ~~K~' 1 88 11 99 46 18 1 CaplU). SifiOOfiOO 1,000,000 9,000,000 600,000 600,000 1,000,000 1,000.000 80,000 40,000 1,044,950 Cipllal fiU «p. PaMap [Mr ihftru. £8,(H)O,00O £100 260,000 98 540,000 95 150,000 80 126,000 98 460,000 91) 187,000 It 16,986 li 4,069 li 900,176 10 RvMrrwl tuad. fi7rfl;()Si~ 63,000 162,210 60,778 40,826 60,000 £8,788,428 897,667 848,440 881,611 761,757 811,079 66,418 »t,0S4 Tua AHNuai, Avaaaoa or ran sstrral Basks oi ISSOB IM laSLASD fOa THt YlAsa 1846 TO 1364. Tmii. all ib* banki, ' upwanj. Nolal umlir il. Toui lua« opori. Import. Aawrlcaa. Forelsn, 8*t.80,1821........ 1898!!!!!!!! 1324 1826 1826 1827 1828 1829 1880 Total.... Bept8a,18Sl 1882 1888 1834 1888 1886 1337 1888 1888 1840 Tetal.... BepL80.1841 1842 Imos. 1848 June 30, 1844 tm 1346 1847 1848 1818 1880 Total.... June 80, 1861 1852 1868 1884 1866 1 1866 1880,577 770,176 714,087 818,689 1,247,660 775,187 687,190 804,460 827,728 261,687 •4,068 87,644 8,678 20,668 6,884 "sio 866 •393,646 no,176 761,681 812,206 1,268,218 781,821 637,120 885,260 828,091 161,687 •686,154 806,091 647,788 481,876 612,272 672,904 650,129 711,011 363,611 881,888 •198 4,426 a. . • •2,638 ^978 "283 19,812 18,168 12,982 20Atl 19,438 14,486 8,247 6,626 4,8,33 4,604 2,201 2,047 2,478 1,761 1,821 1,868 1,838 8,780 2,502 2,670 (6,080,004 •680,841 152,813 120,4S9 180,914 408,601 848,845 9,898 8S585 880,710 217,762 •78,916 •4,ii5 "189 •7,009,808 •689,»41 167,028 120,482 180,108 408,604 847,689 9,803 88,685 880,719 217,762 •5,762,071 •161,664 491,391 im,2S0 974,712 642,890 608,866 181,776 76,169 160,639 08,349 •4,618 •8,899 117,657 7,888 1,701 1,406 9,620 4.272 2,335 551 472 1,862 2,732 21,368 2,806 l',S48 243 760 240 181 166 882 861 •2,807,608 •60,872 * t 40,063 . 108,602 42,591 108,471 1,077,008 12,807,693 9,879,201 8,9ie,8»2 1,026,081 •8,158 1,180 6^468 81,483 1,803 99,.'S26 42,603 •2,405,766 •60,871 49,968 209,631 42,691 108,471 1,082,471 12,420,186 2,880,604 8,988,863 1,067,724 •21,805,427' •699,888 573,850 028,064 1,082,509 1,542,484 4,874,780 •1,687,668 •Sl,921 109,700 48,685 88,084 104,857 86,n4 680,240 415,828 876,703 298,783 !!!! •S2;ih 116,946 26,920 1,891 681- 832 101 1,412 14,748 124,600 17,410 58,901 10,014 8,827 "880 2,187 786 837 6,804 101,067 84,778 46,165 92,072 •21,260,774 •508,688 678,250 618,812 1,006,017 1,908,688 4,800,021 •104,653 •1,200 100 89,272 36,486 832,861 74,709 •2,188,610 •935,988 169,588 1M,118 119,888 162,283 89,032 !!!! (199,110 225,280 8,142 4,116 8,439 0,120 19,827 85,786 216,687 12,618 9,460 14,966 14,481 W,6«l 10,030 Savings-banks were introduced into Ireland in 1810. The greatest amount deposited was in 1846, previous to the years of distress consequent on the famine ; and the fluctniitions which have since taken place appear In the annexed table : Yeare. Depotltori. 1846.... 88,421 1346.... 98,863 1347.... 80,851 1843.... 48,611 184*... 46,549 Amooat, £1,921,581 9356,817 2,410,790 1,834,996 1,M0,3T8 Tear*. Depoiltori. Atnoant, 1360.... 47,887 £1,181,788 1851,... 48,661 1,847,017 1359.... 62,141 1,447,816 1858.... 65,680 1,686,010 - The intemni traffic of tho country is carried on chiefly by wlieel-carriage roads. Their condition, lx>th as to lines of direction and mode of construction, is excellent. Materials for the construction and repairs of roads are very generally distributed throughout the whole island, either in quarries, ridges, and masses of gravel, or in the beds or channels of rivers and streams. The limestone, which is tho general sub- stratum of the greater part of the country, is the Iwst material for their formation ; and the system Imown mo 1008 mo nndn th« iuom of macxUmiiliiK wm Ioiik an' auc- ceufully prkctlced on mnny of the liuiilInK lliicn of ro(Ml in IrnUnii baftire It wiu thought of in Ciniat llrititin. Til* proxred* Mul condition uf tlia Iriali railway •}•• lem from Iftau to Iftfrt, Ineluilve, nuiy Ixi wiun in the following titliUi, comiiUad 'rum tbs Uoknl of Tnda Ueturni i ■Ollt JUM, IIU Iba lit Jnnuary In No. of |xu.ii(.n. Rmlpto. 1 from ftu- •■niicni. «2A,81« HI.VOl 88.818 81,400 80,171 41.002 M,919 Bfl,B4M (12,608 104,709 l(l,t,4(IO I4B,^H1 91I.Mt8 2V0,(I0I 8:iu,o;ii 48.\»10 887,989 891,871 Friim £U» 44 970 807 414 480 2.112(1 0,M(i9 8.9s« 14.08(1 lH.2i4 W,(IOO (K 1,915 127.402 1M.IP."|» 10s,|,"19 218.01 10 949,810 8,^9.H04 Toul, 'i88',49r 81,018 88,588 84,716 86,518) 41,4(W 8(1,789 68,11.10 71,404 1 19.808 19il,718 Is4,881 971,808 418,(MW 814,01)5 5*4,0(19 (179.5 II) 881,809 874,477 1«W(l&iuo(.> 1H87 « « il St 8S HOI 209( 428 MS M) AM 771 84S 1,287,800 1,184,428 1,218,979 1,841,908 l.HftH.Tdl l.82V.lfi4 2.01ta. Inde|icndent of the value wbiih would lie derived from the roots of this jilant, it would l)e highly dcsiralile to cultivate it fur the purpuses of ornament, in uli parts of the country where it would thrive. Iron (Dun. Jem ; Du. Yzer ; Fr. Fir ; Gcr. /'/jirn ; It. Fcrro; Lat. /Vrrunt, ^/iirn ; l'u\, Zflazo ; I'or. />r- ro ; Kus. Scheleto ; Sp. Ilierro ; Sw. Jem ; tir. S/dfpof ; 8jn8. Luha; Aral). IMerd; Pors. Ahun), tlio most aliundant and moet useful of all tne inctuls. It is of bluish-white color, and when imiishcd hiia a gruat deal uf brilliancy. It has a styptic tastb, and emits a smell whan rubbed. Its liarduess exceeds that uf nin.'it other metals; and it may lie rendered harder than must liodieB liy lieing converted into steel. Its (pccllic gravity varies from 7'0 to 7°H. It la attracted by the magnet or loadstone, and is itself the substance v'liich constitutes the loadstune. Hut when iron is perfectly pure, it retains the magnetic virtue for a very short time. It i» malleable in every temiierature, and its malleability incrrascs in pro|iortluu as the tpm|)«rature augments ; but it can not lie hammered out nearly as thin as gold or silver, or even cop|ier. Its ductility, is, however, more perfect ; for it may be drawn out into wire as fine at least ax a human hair. Its tenacity is such, that an iron wire 0'07H of an inch in diameter is capable of 8up|)orting 649'25 lbs. avoir- dupois without breaking. Hutorical Notice, — Iron, though the most common, is the most diflicult of all the inetola to obtain in a state fit for use ; and the discovery of the method of working it seems to have been {losterior to tlie use of gold, silver, aud cop|)er. yVe are wholly ignorant of the steps by which men were lead to practice the process required to fuse it ■nd render it malleable. It is certain, however, that it waa prepared in ancient Kgypt, and some other countries, at a very remote epoch ; but it was verj' little used in Greece till after the Trojan war. (See the admirable work of M. Goguot on the origin of I.uws, Arts, et«,) Iron woo found on Mount Idu by Uoctyles, owing to the (bruli of tbo mount having UIng burnt by lightning, 14U'i n. c.—Arumklian Mwhln. 'l'h« Greeks aaorilw the discovery of Iron to thamsalvas, and referred glass to the' Phuiiiloians i but Musaa r«> lates that iron was wrought by TulHil-Cain. Imii fur. naces among the Koiiiaiia were unpruvidad with b«U lows, but wore placed on eniinviicus with the grata in the direction uf the prevailing wiiidi, Hwuillsh iruii U very celebrated, and Dauneniora is the graiitiiat iiilim of Sweden. llrltUh Iron was ciut by Italpli I'ligii uml I'ater Ilaude, in Sussex, in IMit. — Itri/mrr'i t'lulrm. Iron-mills were llrst used fur slitting iron into burs fur smiths by (iiKlfroy Itocbs, In 16'JO, Tinning of Iron was llrst intriHluced from Uohanila In IIIHI, Tlmra are upward of 8(M),000 tons of iron producnd uniiuully In Kiigland. — l/ai/dn. There are many varieties uf Iron, which artists distinguish by particular imimis| but all of them may lie reduced under one ur utbar of the throe following classes ; nitt or i>ig inm, ii>niiitjlit or f'tji iron, and ilrrl. 1. Cast or pig Iron is the Aaiiiu given to this metal when llrst extracted from Its (ires, Tile ores from which iron is usually obtained ur« I'um. |iused uf oxyd of iron and clay. The objuit of tliu manufacturer Is to reduce the oxyd to the iiintulllii state, and to separate all the cla,v with which it is ciiiii- bined. This is eifected by a (leculiar prucuss | and ilm iron, being exposed tu strong liaat In furnuciis, ami inelteil, runs out into mollis prepared for Its racoptluri, and ubtiiins the name uf cast or pig Iniii, Tliu iiut iron thus ulitaiucd Is distinguisheil liy inaiiiifactiirorN Into dilferent varieties, from its color and utiior i|iiiil|. ties. Of these the following are tho must rumarkiiblu i WhilK cast iron, which is extremely hard and brilliit, and appears to be ciini|iuseil uf a congeries uf niiiiijl crystals. It can neither be Hied, liured, nor liunl, iiinl is very apt to break when suddenly houted ur ihmiIiuI, llmyut mollMKnitt Iron, so called from the lii(ii|uiillty of Its color. Its texture is granulated. It Is miuli softer and less brittle than the last variety, and niiiy lie cut, bored, ami turned on tho lathe. Cannons uro made uf it. J/liick cast iron is the must unei|uul In Us texture, the most fusible, and least cohesive, uf tliu tlil'uu. Wrought or soft iron is prepared from i^ast iron bv a process termed a rellncmoiit or llnery. 'I'he wroiiglit iron manufactured in Sweden is rockuiied the llne>t in the world. Steel consists of pieces of wrought Iron hardeiifld by a peculiar process. Tho Swedish iron lm|Hirliii| Into this country is mostly used in tho muiiiifacturii uf steel. — Tiiiimson'n Cheminlri/. Uses of Iron. — To enumerate the various iism uf Iniii would re(iuiro a lengthened dissortiitloii. No one nliu reUects for a moment on the subject I'liii doiibl Hint iU discovery and employment in the shape of luuls mul engines has been uf tlie utmost impurtuncu to iiinii i and baa doiio more, perhaps, than any thing elsu tu ac- celerate his advance in. the career uf iiiipriivuiiiniil, Locke has the following striking observalliins uu tliU subject : " Of what conse(|U»ncH tho discovery of uim natural body and its properties may be to liiiiiiuii IU'd, the whole great continent of America is a cuiiviliiiiig In- stance : whose ignorance in useful arts, and want uf tho greatest part of the conveniences of life, In a iiiiiii- try that abounds with all sorts of natural plmily, I think may be attributed to their ignorance >if what wiis to 1)0 found in a verj- ordinary dospicalila stumi-l mean tho mineral of iron. And whatever wu think of our parts or improvements in tills |)art of tliu wurlil, where knowledge and plenty seem to via with uiicli other, yet to any one that will seriously rolluct upon it, I suppose it will appear past doubt, that, weru tlui use of iron lost among us, we should In a fuw ages bii unavoidably reduced to the wants and ignorance of tlio ancient savage Americans, whose natural anilowmniits and provisions came no way short of tlioso of tb« niiml flourishing and polite nations ; ao that he who llrst >..^.iwliJ*-,-..viiVi«j mo 1000 IRO i>i iif Iron IIIIU will) llml ll« oIh unit III IIIIIM I IIIIIHlll. ijii thin ry ijf ciiiii IIIIUII lil'Xi Itii'liiKlii' wmit lit ,11 u iiiim- [il'irily, I Wllllt HU« tliliik <>f Jill vvirrM, wltli uiicU lluct U|lllll ^ wuru tliii w UK'*" '"' ilL'u ')( tlin ilowiiiKiitt f tba niiiiil who Ut»t m«4« UM of that on* rontcmptthU mineral, ttuij ba truly atylail the futhar of art* iinka obtained most of their iron through tho PhoB- nli'liiiia from the aborea of tlio lllui-k Sen, and from La> coniii. It would be Interenting to trace the gradual nilvnticns which have lieen made in the reduction of Iron, from ita discovery to the jireaent time ; to inquire Into thu circumstances which led to the successive clinngea In the proceaseH, find into the principle on wlilch thuBo changes were founded ; to examine into the dUrerences in the products which from time to time etiailed, and to notice tho Influence of these conditions on llio extent and progress of thn uiunufiicture. Our knowlodgo of theao cliangcs, however, Is scanty and lni|K'rrni't, and we can only conjecture what was prob- alily Ita riirly progress. The furnaces which were tlrst empbiyed for smelting iron were probably similar to Ihonn now called nir-bhmmeriet. They were probably simple conical structures, with small openings below for the mliiiiaslon of air, and a large ono altove for the eacnpn of tho products of combustion, and would be erected on high grounds in order that the wind might aaalat ciiinbuation. The lire Lielng kindled, auccesaivo layera of ore and charcoal would lie ]ilaced in it, and tlie heat regulateil by opening or closing the ajiertures below. The process of reduction would consist of the de- oxydntlon of the ore and the cementation of the metal by long continued heat. The temperature would never rise sulBclently high to fUse the ore, and the lirodiict would therefore be an Imperfectly malleable iron, mixed with scoriai and unreduced oxyd. It would then be brought under the hummer, and fash- toneil into a rude bloom, during which process It would lie freed from the greater portion of the earthy impur- ities. Hy such a process us this the Komans probably worked tho iron ores of our own Island ; scurln), tlie refuse of ancient bloomeries, occur in various localities, In aoiiie cases identitleil with that people by the coinci- dent remains of altars dedicated to tho god who pre- ■Ided over Iron. Blungo Park saw a rude furnace of this kind used by tho Africans, and, indeed, with some modlllontions, It is still retained in Spain, and along tbe cuHsta of the Mediterranean, where rich specular eras ara worked. Th* advantages of an arttflclal blail would Boon iMcoma manifeat, and a pair of Iwllows, or a cylinder and piaton would soon bn applied tu tlie ciinatructiiin mentioned almve. limner roproaeiit* Ilephoistua aa throwing the muteriala from which the ahleld of Achillea waa to Im forged into u furimci urged by '20 twlrs of liellowa (i^On-ii). The inhabit- unta of MaiUguacar smelt iron in much tho aanie way, their blowing apparatus, liowever, conaiating of hollow trunks of treea, with loosely-tltting iiiatoiia, The furnace corraaponda to the i/iMt-bloomer}', and hua, l>y aucceaalve Improvvmonta, devolu|ic(l Into the blast furnace, now alinoat unlveraully UMcd, and Into the Ciitiilnn Jorge, atiil einpliiyed in aimio dlatrlcti. The appllcutliin of the liluat would olTcr ciinsidoruMo advantages ; It would obviate tho noceaalty of an ele- vated site, place the tomperuturo mure ImmedUtely under the illrnctlon of the smelter, iind render Iho whole process inoro regular and curtulii, Tho mcthoit of roduction rumalueil the same as before, but the proiluct would dlllVr considerably, fur whenever the lilast was sulHcieiitly powerful, the iron would lie J'uieJ, a partial curburatiiin would take place, and tho resulting metal would be a s|iecics of steel, utterly useless to the workmen of those days ; hence, it seemi necoaaary to infer, that a rudo proccaa of ridlnlng was Invented, the metal lieing again heated wltli charcoal, and the blast directed over its surface, Iho curlion would lie burnt out, and the Iron become tough and Iiialloable. Tho processes might perhaps form two auccesaivo stages of one o|ieratlon, us at present prac- ticed with tho Catalan forge. The increuaing demand fur iron, and tho progress of internal communication, would lead the smelter to in- crease the size and height of his blooniery, and this, probably, would lead to a very unexpected result. The greater length through which the ore had to de- scend, would ]iridiing Its contact with the charcoal, and u higher state of carburatlon would ensue, the prmluct being cast-iron — a compound till then perhaps unknown. From the time that cast-iron became tho product of the smelting furnace, the rellnlng would be made a separate pruccss, requiring a separate furnace and ma- chinery. It would soon be found also that, as tlio furnace Increased In height, the pressure of tba su|ier- Incumbent mass would render the materials so dense as to retard the uacent of tho blast, mid thus caii^o It to become soft and inefficient; honcu tliu internal but- tresses called bu»hea wore lirst introduced to support the weight of tho charge, relieving tlie central parts from the pressure, and permitting tho free ascent of the blast. While the good quality «( tlie Iron and the regularity of tho process were thus insured, increoso of quantity was the result of improvemouts in the blowing apparatus, which was now enlarged and worked by water-power. 'With these modlllcatlons, the furnace was tho same essentially as the blast-fur- nace now employed, though not so largo ; Indeed until tho Introduction of coke ut a much later period, tho blast-furnacn seldom exceeded 16 foot in height by G at the widest diameter. The more perfect operation of the blast-furnace allowed the reduction of the heaps of BcorliD, which luul been gradually accumulating during tho period that tho bbist-bloomcries had been in opera- tion, and which contained 30 to 40 per cent, of iron. A new species of proi)crty was thus created j oxteuslvo proprietorships of l)anish and Roman cinders were formed ; large ileposits of scoria;, which fur ages had kihi concealed beneath forests of decayed oak, were dug up, and In Dean Forest It la computed that '20 fur- naces, for a jieriod of upward of 300 years, wore sup- plied chtelly with the bloomory cinders as a substitute for iron ore. At what period tho complete transformation of the blast-bloomcry into the blast furnace was effected, it ia impossible to say. It was probably in the early port TRO noo mar of Ihii Kth etmtnry, m irc flnd that In thn 17th lh« •rt of CMtlnK I;"' »rrlv<(! •>» n rnnililrmlili' l'i{r«< of pvrfrrtlon, i; lil«riitil» I'.MMrt tnul* »r inti-lnm orm»ln» of two lilint nirnni'i-*, which formerly lirlonKril to Iho liin)(* nf Knifliinil, Imt Oiry hnvK liron iiiit of hlaat »lnr« th« i'onini«nriiin«nt of thu iitnit()(l<< Imlwwn rhnrlM I. anil hia Parllainrne, Cnli'iilntlng from lh<> lKhlMirhooi|, whlc-h apjiriir to ham lain nni1l»tiirlxiil for thf laat two rrntiirlM, Mr. Mmhrt hn« at'empf ■■! to rtriloce ih' of KilwanI VI. I'p to ehla pnrliKl wc o>i .iiinml ». . the only mat«rlal nmrloyml In ■ Itli 4 •'|)»r»ii.iii-' but the want< of u ronolanth I' > Ann |» pulatbii not IrM than thn j(rile to ita aucceHafuI adoption. I)(nnmncn of the esuaea of failure operated long and nerioualy, liut all difflcultlea were at length aurninunted. An enlarge- ment of the height of the fnmace prolonged the con- tact of the ore and coke, and at InHt the iMnpIoyment of the ateam-englne and Improved l>lnwing apparatus rendered the Idoat much more |)Owerful and regular, and gave that im|ietua to the manufacture which haa ciiiiawl (ireat llritain to take the (imt mnk in thia branch of indu«try. The drat great improvement in the blowing appiv ratua waa the anlietitutlnn of large cylindera, with cbwely lifting piatonA, for the bellowa.' Tlio enrlleat of any magnitude were probably those erecte r ng live distinct e|KH-ha In the hiatorv of thn Iron Iriiilc 'th»Jlrrt dating from the employirent of an artlHilal bloat til accelerate nimbuslion. The tntmtt iiinrkril by the employment nf cuke Air reduction, hImiiiI the tear liM), The ikini dating from the InlnidHctloti nf the ■team-engine, and nn account of the fucllltlns which ' 'hat invention has given Air raising the ores, piiinpln|( I tiie mines, anppiylng the furnace with a copious and regular blast, and moving the |Hiwvrful fiirge and ndl- Ing machlner)', we imiy safely attribute this era In the genius of James Watt. 'IheyiiNrt/k epoch la liiillcatad by the Introduction of the aystem of puddling ami nilU ing, very anon after the einploymenl of thn sli-iim* engine. The ,f{ffA, ami last — though not llie least lm|iortant epoch In the history of tlila manufatUure— la marked by the application of the hot-bloat — nn inven- tion which hoa Increased the pnxluction of iMn four- fnld, and has enabled the inin-moater to smelt other- wise useless and unreducible ores ; it hoa alMdlahril the processes of coking and roasting, and haa given facili* Ilea for a large and rapid pro. .Specular iri'n ore, peroxvit of Iron, Kei Oj. This Is rich and valunble, and has been workeil from a remote ontii|ulty in Kllia and Npaiii. It is fnunil chicliy in primary iiiiii trnnsi- tlon rocks. 8. Ki'd and brown hnmatltes, liydratpil |i»Mxyd of Iron. These ores occur in liotyroiilal riidi- oting mosses, in Cumberlaud, Ireland, America, nnd "thcr plucoB. 4. ( 'arlionato of iron. This ore occurs mixed with large quantities of argillaceous, carliim- oceiius, ai>d siliciiius substances, forming the large de- posits nf .:lay->ron-stoni< and blackbamis, from which miMt >if the l^1n of this country la obtained. I'hese strata re g»>i«rally found in close proximity to the "Sl measures. .Ml the above ores are more or Icsa saixed wi'h silica, alumina, oxyd of manganese, etc., and it may not Ih' uninteresting to glanco at their geo- graphical distribution in Run |ie and America. Tke United Kini/ilnm. — tireet Hritoin possesses |)ecu- liar and remarkable advanta^'es for the manufacture of Iron. The ores are found m exhoustlcss abundance, usually interstratllted with the coal for their reduction, and in ok»« proximity to the msuntain Umeatune, llxias hy !• I'rotoxyd'., Poroiyd of Oxyd uf uia Aluniloa.. Mairnesla. \Uma Il'otash.... Hoda Hulphnr . . , , Phosphoric 1, <'arbaiilo aoi j»lUca ' Carbonacoou loae ToUI.. 1101 tbtM •iMDlial lV|l|I^^Pv*o*" '* "'"■'*' abuniUnra, nr •u iicttr t«^th»rai^^i tka mK-Mmty r«liitahli> priHlavthm. Ihe i^'Tm prtiirU pally i>)«pl».v» laY-tmnHotivii anit ' arljoiialva of liUcklMiwIo, whli )i »n tuiuuX tntamtiatilM with t^ <'i>al ftvlda of A.vr^hlrx, l«<"iirk«liir>' .Stirii|mliin>, IMritth WalM, uui otlur |«rt>, awl thi' vii''\ lu rich- HMD lit (lllhifmit liiralltiM, Hliii|{ ti> p Hi n tlA.I tha amount of aillca, ulay and iitlirr ("< 'ttcr witli whii'h th«7 tr* aMuelatvd. 't'ba < li' "iit- poallliin of thrva varlntWa of tha (ira li"'"! m I ihln U kIvi .1 by *'uli|ulu)un, na folluwii fratoa.mt afteot. . HiTlOH Alumina Umf 'llMnvKia Part)xyd of Iruri nitiinilriima matter.. Nlphiir Oiyd urinaiiitanaao. UoUtura a«a loia. . . •|Vi*l Nil. 1. N 1 ^ . ;i. Aiim 4J;l:i :.■■■« IIM7 nam ■ '•* 1-40 «'«! ■,r. O'lW 4'M SIM am 177 «■«) 0118 ll 'Ul 1 »M i " tl OIM (I'f (MX) Oi 01X1 141 tM 6i» llJOWt iiM ' par comlihi ' with tlie limn M carlxmatn nf |in>K, aa wi ax witli ilie (irotoxyil of irtm. M. Ilnrthicr kWo- ■i:i'ur4')i. : t» Dr. Ure, the following it«tal,>'K|ii nf the l>:4igi ll Olid Wvlih Ironatnnea of the «m»I rooi> urea: MikWiUli (M. ()r«. Dl«ll.v Rkk lIMorbubMa. 81 W TM 68'M I'M iiaa brlinlti >n MolublareiliKiuu.. Porovilofiran Umo Sow 8'40 WOO 0-00 UT'OO I'M ToUI MM ftt'N M'tt 1 CaloalatinK the arouant of oarlionata of iron and metulllo Iron iodkatwl by the abov* aaalyaea, we have: 4ll'4fi rOaV^nate of Iron. 581T~n WW iMaUlilolron..... 4J16 | _ Hl-M The richneaa of tlie abovu Irunatonea would liii about 811 per I'i'iit. of Iron cent, of the 0T« U < ! the fullowing aaau,> ore, aa under : In thfl proci'HS of roaatinKi '<2H |ier '^ipntcd. Mr. Mitt'hel kIvca ulao uf clay-irunatune und bluckbund Ct»y inin»toa«, UUrim, In'luMl. VlviiU.idi;..V:- bonatB (>•. ilO-IM4 ■741 17W 14074 •MT -Sttl Trace. Trace. ■098 114 14000 ttnt 10-940 1'4S0 lobooo I'rotoiyd af Iron Poioiyd of IroB Uxyd of Dianganaia Alumina Maicneala Uma I'otaih .. Boda Hnlphur ,, MilM 8-744 •»T« 1'84» ■9M •410 •S74 •«T» •S14 '8M 81-14K (040 Phoaphorlo aold ••••...* I^'arbonlo aold •. SlUca Carbonaceous matter Loaa [ a-iso 1 Total 100-000 In North Lancasbtn mnd Cumberland, the red hainiatite orei are now extr ii»ively worked, and K'^t quantities are yearly shipptv from Whitvbaven, Ulver- Rtone, etc., to tHtatfordslilrtv South Wales, and Scot- land, for mixing with the poorer argl'lueeoua and blackband orea. In Cumbvriand, North LaiiuaBblre, no leas than 646,098 tons were raised in 1864 for this purpose, and the greater portion was exported from those districts. In additloa to these ezporta, about 2S,000 to 80,000 tons an amdtad by tha hot blast at Cleator, in the naighborhood of Whitehaven. It prodacM a itrong and dacUle iron, eoniidered Ugbljr valuaMa (br mlalni with the waakar Imnn TtiaM oraa have liaen carfully analyivd, and oontuni i I'rrnyd nf Iroi. . Hlllra Aluihliia I.lmt MainotU. WaUr •■■••f I ■!•••■•* . ■« . Iraaa, .IM« Total , Or about H par eant of mtlallla Iran. Th<* roll ,winu table kIvm lb» '>tata of tha trade Is IH5U , (ha particuian are extn ii dlri'itlon of Mr. U, ' Hir III roiitxoHion with il.ii MuHiim of I'ractlral •Im,^ ' l^indon. Tb<' i«)rtiin(B which lirotlan4 K-iu I'd In rafereno' to the Imn iiianufaitura It i:i\U otrthy of ni- ,ia i j ''nulanii: Nort tib«rlanil, Pur iuu, 114 Vo'kihlra.... iporfcy. tra , 'Laaaav nM mnbarlanit "rfhr' vt,(f» I'-hira. ^^tanWra... WAi.aa: iitakira, danbtgluhlro. 'ruorcaaatdro. Annweito dlltrlrt. lorgansUro andMon- .uulnahlro Bituuilnii'us diatrlct H*'OTL«NO.' >ii.- '.Ire.... ■nttea. No. of Woika. n 1» IH 4 N'l. of I Nit. itf tunntftt I Kntmt . trteUd. In tltMt. » 1» 10 lot M ft too M T 11 DA 41 17 iISs "Tm 95 a IM B » 91 100 CI) .J 1« "mT T.i.l |it„ .lo.'t In !..«*. I'iTAKI 111,11011 MT.IVId IV4,Mnil ll,V«il Iron of An Iron III I ■«'t»nn with the almve, we Inacrt the (bllow- -i>m Mr. Kenynn IllackweU's pa|>i:r on the iiry of firont llritain, read licri< aeon that Oreat Hrituin priMliii'ca as much crude iron ua all othur coun- trlca put foncfher ; and ii great portion of Ihiit iron lieing converted into bara and platea, indicutca a luri^a and important article of production. An urtiiio of imuieriae vuluii to thn country — of K'eut duniund at homo und abroud — und Justly entitled not only to Im- provemcnU niil economy in its manufacture, hut to tlie generous aupgiort of a liberal und un oullghtvned government. Previously to IH^ir), the Imports of foreign Iron into Ureat Uritiiin uauully varied from 20,000 to 'i&.OOU tons a year. Uut ut tliut c|>ocli tho duties on foreign iron (20s. a ton on iron in bars) were repealed ; and there haa ainco linen un inoreuae in the imports of Swedish bar-Iron, which is ea|>ecialiy well lUted for being mada into steel. The imports of »U sorts of foreign iron amounted, in IM'J, to 29,ISII(i tons, whereof 2ri,0a0 torn were from Sweden. I'erliaps in nothing haa tlie fall of price, conae(|uont on tho diminution of the cost of production, tliiit liu* tnkon place since the peace of 1016, been mora con- apicuuus than in hardware. At an average, articlei of Imrdware are at present (1H67) full &0 per cent, lower than in 1820. And it may be safely afllrmod that there are very few descriptions of articles to which a fall of price would have bem m advantageoiu. IRO 1102 IRO AooouKT or THi DirmiNT DntiRimoNB or lion (inolddixo rawiOKanr SniL) izroEnm raau mi KinODOM DUKINO 1860, SPKOirtINU TUE QUAMTITUB SUIT TO TUl UirrKHUT COUHTSIIS.* Vnmm Coontrief to wbkll Mportcd. Flf Iron. Bolluid rod Iron, Cut Iron. Iron WrooKht Iron, t1i. Anrhon [ gfapiwU, Hoop*. flic. -. Old bon Ul all oUi' for r>- er loru muiufRC- (■ic«pt tun. orananeiO. Rnssla. Sweden Nonr»y Denmark I'riiMla Mecklenburg. Hanorer. Oldenburg Hnnscntie Towns irolland Belgium riiannel Islands France I'ortugal, Aiores, and Mailelra. . . Spain and tbe Canaries Gibraltar Italy Malta Ionian Islands Qreece Turkish dominions, excluslro of Walluchla, Moldavia, Syria, Pal- estine, ami E^vpt Wallaclila and Moldavia Syria and rulustine Egypt Afgerln Tunis Morocco Western coast of Africa. Britisli possessions in S. Africa . . Cape Vord Islcnds. St. Helena and Astcnslon Isis. . . . Mauritius Ili itisli territories in £a.st Indies. lava. Philippine Islands, Cbhia, including Hong Kong.... KrltUii settlements in Australia. . South Sea Islands Ilritish North Amer. colonies Britisli W. Indies and Ur. Guiana Foreign West Indies United States of America Mexico Central America. New Granada VoneKHoIa Ecuoilor Brazil Oriental republic of Uruguay. ... Buenos Ayrcs rhill Pern Falkland Islands Russian settlements on the north- west coast of America Total Ton*. 819 280 1,460 7,5T1 10,9B9 21 1,898 318 T,870 18,103 23 bl2 11,T18 887 4,«41 7,460 8 801 70 190- MO 200 S'io 1.102 10,894 16 269 87,021 4 10 ],M0 2S0 fiO Toni. 449 463 171 2,263 1,422 284 fi29 278 7,868 8,786 21 592 1,085 4,649 1,812 8.11 22,184 1,996 805 1,081 8,060 1,608 165 879 9.18 282 161 2,745 1,883 " "1 617 82,319 1,9(6 846 603 4,80.') IS 45,893 812 6.475 260,841 1,731 130 1,065 711 65 2,942 14 1,M6 6,446 840 Tons. 8 "142 422 93 114 470 69 1,991 417 100 42 846 2,282 876 160 "i-ifl 8,557 653 141 16 Tom. 616 410 9S 1,309 681 707 168 25 6V8 869 8 65 29 M 12 1,620 282 12 2 1,583 255 18 f • • • 20 14 n [.... 141,1172 '442,998 80 18 'm 407 5 62 4,848 a%3 1,M1 46,i 200 100 7 2,207 85 2iiS 1,498 888 2,895 27 1,,'543 487 1,808 1,400 1,470 19 88 2 29 12 25 49 5 147 996 28 28 479 49 804 8 124 Torn. 264 8 41 40 10 IS 27 53 88 '"65 20 12 1,295 10 Tuna. 192 08 6S8 675 10< 49 7S 8 950 811 48 227 216 200 727 107 1,067 163 6 206 658 67 735 187 62 15 4*3 8 2,riS3 1U2 123 12,882 4 4 18 2 7 729 14 160 178 87 12 82 807 (» 180 1,512 1,821 '"m 476 1,40S 1,878 00 8,415 142 109 146 228 297 5 120 16 5 6 449 289 100 8,818 140 78 191 910 2 1,980 878 849 7,.349 200 9 23 18 "690 24 881 141 84 Toiu. 9 1 T 65 1 1 "lit 94 162 08 41 89 83 1 1 5 215 22 1 8 26 130 ■'"a 258 669 66 10 13 1,677 8 2,016 1,112 804 697 40 23 78 60 81 430 19 106 196 62 4,034 1 26,927 I 80,606 1 9,267 54,808 \ Itifi-S \ 10,692 Torn. 868 7fi 999 84T 949 160 344 98 6,201 4,708 120 193 1,080 682 1,020 21 2,3.34 100 10 149 758 820 26 192 61 10 "iflO 069 « 4 461 8,i)78 198 212 28 1,606 8 0,854 1,003 752 10,894 82 64 00 20 14 840 67 489 412 277 7 Turn. "io 952 6,665 171 1,183 10 25 3 7,079 5 100 65 "476 » 14 0,825 70 17 II 26.436 21,092 | * Cwts. and lbs. are omitted in this table, but are allowed for in the sninmlng up. In Ireland there are vast deposits of iron ore of great richness, though as yet hut little worked. Some of these, such as the ores worked nt the Arigua mines, and the Kidney ores of Bnlcarry Hay, yiel(l as miicli as 70 per cent, of iron. If these mines were worked more extensively, and if jwut fuel were used in the smelting operations, the iron would probably be of the very best quality, and might rival the famed .Swedish rharcoal metal. Of this there is now every reason to hope, as the establishment of railway rommunication, with almint every part of Ireland, will open out the immense peat bogs of that countrj-, and facilitate the introduction of vegetable fuel for the reduction of the ores, and create a large and important addition to other branches of Irish industry, France possesses an abundant supply of iron ore, hut on account of the scarcity cf coal, the manufac- ture has been greatly restricted in extent. The intro- duction of railway communication is, however, rapidly removing this difficulty, and the operations of smelt- ing are greatly on tho increase. The railroad has enabled the French iron-master to substKute coal for charcoal in the reduction of tho iron ores, an 1 6 100 1 65 "476 tl 14 6,825 70 17 11 40 ■"5 6 5rrio>M I trade of France. Any perum In tlia l«(lH (lonvtmutt with the imperfect iniu-'liinery mill prui'vitxwi i/f (Im Irrm manufacture aa it exluted In l'r«l|i'*,nti cwt. ; in 1853, 170,037 cwt. ilavaritt proilMcwl ill ixtm, 668,107 cwt.i In 1853, l,074,in7 iwt, AuniriH, Irt 1830, produced 1,437,830 cwt, pig iron, aii4 l//l,0»r cwt. cast ironware in 185-1, 4,)/>I,505 imi, piji itim, and 682,440 cwt. cast iron ware, 'i'lia prodllii lit nil the furnaces in the States of lliu ^ollvvri'lo WNi(pio malting rapid progress, and alreaily outatrlpa F.nglaild ill (llf building of locomotivea. Not a aiiiglii lot (iiiMiilvn Ik now sent from Knglaml tn (iuriiiHliy on (iwfrtlMrt Ac- count, while numbers of them ara aailt from livrillNiiy to France and Switzerland. JCKtonalvw lroii--f»iiiHl«<(1cK and machine-shops are to lie found ill llvrlin, Vli'lilin, Slunich, Augsburg, ICaalingun, t.'ai'UrulMi, MH'iiu Chnpelle, Itubrort, llanovur, cli', 1,'p fi ilaililitfy I, 1854, one cstalilishment in Iturllil liuti aloiiu torrti'd out 500 locomotives, and ilUlO liayii Ihikii UlliU In all In Germany since 1841. (jcrnian cutlury la lllicwiiMi beginning to compete with the i'Uigliali, u>|M«<|ally Irt the West India and South Aiimrlcaii iiiarki'ii, 'll»« sugar plantations of tha Went Indi*', hIiI' ll (nrmi'tif obtained their harvesting linpluincnM fioiii I'.rt^lnii'l, now import them direct from (iuriiiaiiy, Prussia. — Valuable deposit* of tliu l/lacMMrt/l 'irtd clay carbonate ores ara found int'^mtratlliwl wiili iliii great coal-field of Uuhr ; and the liog-lrort and liifirta- tl^-e ores are found in conaiderablu profuaUin In llli^rt- ish Prussia and otiier parts. In l'p|i«r Nilsala, on tho Vintula and the Oder, largo dujiosiU of mhiI and ifoli are found in ]uxta[iusltloi), and ara workwi Ui n i^oii^ biderable extent. The consumption of Iron Is not «o great «a In Vrittii'i; tiiough it is increasing rapidly, as iiiuy |w iiiii,«8I to 1,()68,G60 tons; in Westphalia, from 140,320 to 830,014 tons ; in Silesia, from 663,739 to 050,(Mi9 tons ; In lower Saxony and Thuringia, from 51,963 to 70,076 tons ; in Prussian Brandenburg, from H,IM to 12,731 tons; and in the Upper ZoUvereui from K,730 to 12,063 tons. In Auntrlu, all the iron is smelted with charcoal or cnrlamlxed neat, and is, in consequence, of the finest ((llallty ; I* may bo ai>|>licd to every description of manufuctLr. , ' mm the most ductile wire to the Imrdest steel, Ti ; 'vluction Is, however, small. Tlie ores are font u jii llungarj', Styrio, Moravia, and Upper WIesla. In Ui'lyium, both coal and iron are found in equal nlinnilnnce, and are worked at Charleroi, Liege, and at otlicr places. The ores, which are chiefly hromatite, are derived from the limestone at the base of the coal measures. The siijierlorlty of the Swedish iron has long been acknowledged, and till recently it has been unrivaled. Tills arises not only from the purity of the ore — the magnetic nxyd of iron — but in consequence of its Ireing smelted with charcoal only. The quantity is, however, restricted, as the iron-masters are allowed by law only a certain number of trees per annum, in or- der that the forests may not be totally destroyed. i'jimX doe.i not exist in either Sweden or Norway. In 1814 some experimental researches were under- taken by Mr. Kairliairn of Manchester, at the request of tlio Siildiine I'orte, in regard to the properties of Iron made from the ores of Samakoff in Turkey. The ores were strongi}' magnetic, and contained, according t-o hiitnns anil others, C2 to 64 per cent, of iron. They consisted of : 0(,e atom Iron 2f + one atom oxygen 8 = I!6 T«o atoios Iron 56 + three atoms oxygen 24 = SO Iron.... H4 Oxygen 82 116 Home of these ores have been smelted with char- coal, and some very fine siwcimens of iron and steel priHiiiced. 'i'lie manufacture is, however, in a langnid stiite in Turkey, and although smelting furnaces, blowing apparatus, forges, rolling mills, etc., were (ifcpared and sent out from this couniry, they are to a great extent useless among a people wlio have deeply roofed prejii(li(cs and Imliltual inactivity to overcome, and every thing to learn in all tliose liubits of industry which liiiiicate tlie rising prosperity of un energetic and an act'fvr ).co|ile. Amiriiit. — Uoth the magnetic, hscmatito, and clay- Ifotisfones abound in tlie United States, The nuig- lictic ores worked in New Kngland, New York, and New .Jersey ; tiie ha'inatito in I'ennsylvania, New Vork, New .lerscy, and otiier localities ; but the greater part of the manufacture must eventually establish itself In the valley of the Mississippi, west of tlie Alleghany range, where vast deposits of coal and iron exist, though lit present but imperfectly known or developed. The ores in most of these districts ore smelted with a mixture of charcoal and anthracite, and the iisiihI liiiicslone lliix, and produce a very ex- cellent (juality of iron, in another portion of this arti- cle (see p. IKii'i) a full account of the iron ores of the United States is given. In Nova Scotia some of the richest ores yet discov- ered (recur in exhatistless abundancb. The iron manu- factured from tlicm is of tlio very best quality, and is minal to the linest Swedish metal. The specular nro of llie Acadian mines. Novo Scotia, is said by Dr. I re III he a nearly pure pcroxyd of iron, containing 99 per cent, of the |ieroxyd, and about 70 per cent, of iron. When smelted, 100 parts yield 75 of iron, the increase Iti weight being duo to combined carbon. The rod mo 1104 nto on Dr. Ure state* to be analogons to the kidney ore of Cumberland, and to contain : S-0 Peroxyd ot Iron 8S8 BlUea S'S Water. 6-0 78 "■ 100-0 lOO-O " Tbe Acadian ores are situated in the neighborhood of large tracts of forests, capable of supplying almost any quantity of charcoal for the manufacture of the laperior qualities of iron and steel. Several speci- mens of iron from these mines have been submitted to direct experiment, and the results prove its high powers of resistance to strain, ductility, and adapta- tion to all those processes by which the finest descrip- tion of wire and steel are manufactured. The difficul- ties which the government have hud to encounter, during the lost two years, in obtaining a sufficiently strong metal for artillsr}-, are lilcely to be removed by the use of the Acadian pig-iron. Large 'quantities have been purchased by the War Office, and experi- ments are now in progress, under the direction of Lieu- tenant-Colonel Wilmot, Inspector of Artillery, and of Mr. Fairbaim, which seeoi calculated to establish the superiority of this metal for casting every description of heavy ordnancd. There are also some verj' rich ores at the Xictau mines, as the following analyses by Dr. Jaclison show. They contain impressions of SIl- nrian tentaciilites, spirifers, etc. : Peroxyd of Iron BlUca Carbonate of Ume Carbonate of magnesia . Alumina Oxyd of msngsnese . . . . Water * Oftia from oiTff n, " mn, p earboiutcuflliii Brown Ore, ■onuwhat mayiwlk. 70'20 14-40 B-60 2'SO 6-90 ■40 -00 100'2O ■20* 10000 M-40 19-20 B-40 8-20 1-20 4-40 2-40 100-20 ■m 100-00 As our limits are circumscribed, it will not be neces- sary to extend this section furtlier ; suffice it there- fore to observe, that in all countries nature has, with a beneficent purpose, interlaid and interstratifled the whole surface of the globe with this useful and indis- pensable material, and it would ill bcspealc that high intelligence with which man is endowed if ho did not avail himself of, and turn to good account, the im- mense stores of mineral treasures which are so pro- fusely laid at his feet. Fuel. — The inquiry into the properties and compo- sition of the ores of iron, and the processes emploj'ed for their reduction and subsequent conversion into bars and plates, would be incomplete unless accom- panied by descriptive analyses of the fuel by which they are fused. Indeed the results of the operations of smelting, puddling, etc., are so intimately depend- ent on the quality of the fuel employed, as to render a knowledge of its constituents essential to the manu- facture of good iron. Charcoal was at first universally employed in the manufacture of iron, and on account of its purity com- pared with other kinds of fuel, and its strong chemical affinities and consequent high combustibility, it Is of Terj- superior value where it can bo olitained in large quantities at a moderate cost. This, however, is rare- ly the case, and hence its use is restricted within very narrow limits in most countries. Charcoal is the result of several processes, in each of which the ob- ject is to increase the amount of fuel in a given bulk. The wood l)eiiig cut into convenient lengths, and piled closely together, in a large heap, the interstices l)eing filled with the smaller branches, and the whole cov- ered with wet charcoal powder, is then set on fire. Care Is taken that only sufficient air la admitted to consume the gaseous products of the wood, so aa to m ai n ta i n the Uglt tMnpentnn trithont needleialy con- imming tbe carbon. Aftar the whole of the gaseous products have been separated, and the carbon and salts only are left, the access of air is prevented, and the heap allowed to cool. Another and better process is to throw the wood into a large close oven or furnace, heated either by the combustion within it, or by a separata fire conducted in fiues around it. By this process, not only is the yield greater and of bistter quality, from tbe slower progress of the operation, but the products of the dis- tillation may b^ preserved and employed for a great variety of purposes. The following results of some experiments l)v Karsten, show the dift'erence in yield of very rapid and very slow processes : Toung oak . Old oak ... . Tonngdeal. Old deal.... Young fir... Old fir Mean.. Charcual producetl by Chari-oal nrotluced by quick c arbonliallon. \ ilgir farponlmlon. 1654 15-91 142S 14-06 16-22 15-85 15-88 25-CO 25-71 25-25 2500 27-72 24-75 26-67 These, on the average, give for the quick processes 16-8, and for the slow 2d-C, being in the ratio of % ; 1-67, or 0-fi7 in favor of the quick process. Peat — This material seems likely to corns into use for smelting iron in countries such as Ireland, where neither coal nor wood ara found in abundance. It is purer and less objectionable than coal, and if properly dried, compressed, and carbonized, would prove a very valuable fuel for the reduction of such ores as wo have already described in the section on the iron ores of Ire- land. It is carbonized in the same way as the char- ring of wood. Coke, — Uefore the introduction of the hot-blast, thi.? material was used to a very great extent in the manu- facture of iron ; it is prepared from coal in the same way tliat charcoal is prepared from wood, the opera- tion being called the coking or desulphurizing process. The heaps do not require so careful a regulation of tlie admission of air as those of charcoal, on account of the comparatively incombustible character of the cuke. Sometimes the heaps ore made I irge, with perforated brick chimnies, to increase the ilraught through the mounds ; at other times they are formed into smaller heaps, and the conversion takes place without the in- tervention of fiues. The more usual and economical plan is, however, the employment of close ovens, by which process a great saving is effected, the yield being from 30 to &0 per cent, in the one cose, and from 60 to 75 in the other, according to the nature and qual- ity of the coal. The following table of the heating powf r of various kinds of fuel, from Knapp's Chemical Tecbnology, is not without interest ; in practice, however, only a portion of the absolute heating power is made avail- able: Fotl. AoUiorily. Ponndiofwalpr biatcd from 0" to too* c«-ii(if{. by 1 lb. of rui-1. Cbarcoal, Arorago Bertbler. . [orlfflth.- 68-fl 62-7 66-6 2S-0 60-7 5^-9 66-6 64-3 BS-9 BO-8 611 61-6 B6-4 58-2 71-6 BO-8 69-1 67-4 Peat from Allcnin Ireland, Upper " " " Lower Pressed " Kramont * Champ do Feu Coke, Rt Ktlenne Bertii'tor.. {•Bertbler- Bertbler.. ■* f Bertbler • •Bor' ler " Bossegos " Klvo do Olor Cosl, brown, mean of 7 varieties. . ** cannel, WlffsD '* cborry, Dorbysblro " " Lancasbiro *' Durham Qos coke, Paris " mean of 6 varieties... Coal. — The hot-blast aas enabled the iron-masters to ue t$M coal in the blaat foniMMt, the great heat of Derby] Malleal of WTOUgl ders an 'j esting, cast iron ; nearly twi ™«ny cast lightness " *speciali "c.^s is not "f rigidity 'ubular or "le constr ficsms, one 'ron wliich «f construe ■"", and ce 'imit of its 'hat degree «nbject den ■"ill we deri •""ttile, and "s consider! brittle, and ««e cast-iroi «own,that ma iios no ade avail- toondiot"'!" Ib.tled from ()■ I to \00« "«y*; ■by I lb. ot (ml. 1 02 -T »i 2S-0 BO 7 R8 9 6B-6 G4-3 5S-9 Bfl-8 641 61 ■« &64 MS 71 ■« KO'S 69'1 6T4 the Moradlatr eamnt of the prodnoto of eomboatloii coking 11 u U falU In the ftirnuco. The snlphnr bow- ever, and other deleterious ingredients, do not appear to be so completely got rid of as when the cool is used in the shapo oi' coke; nnd it appears probable, that even with the hot-blast, the separate process of coking might b« •drMttuMoiMt)' vnd, m MMtal «f tlw greater purltv of tba \mn yriAumH. The foUowtng tobbis, imktM (tim vwlotu son/ces, give the coropoaltbm vf tli« UKutnt kiwis of fuel, all of wblob are appUcubl* to tiM r«dH«tioti ami fasUm of the iron oraa i Splint Ck>aL. (Janneleod. U Cherry eosl. Caking coal. Newcastle, Wylam. OUagow Lancashire, WIgsn Edinburg (parrot coal,). Anthracite. , Peat. Loulltj'. Newcastle, Jarrow Glasgow Noweastle, Oaresflold . . . Durham, South Hetton. Swansea. Sooth Wales.. Pennsylvania. MassachnsotU, Worcester. Vulcalre Long. CbaihpdaFeu. Gappage Kllbeggan Kllbakan Speciflo frtvlly. i-no 1-S66 1-aos 180T 1'819 1-318 i-ies 1-26S I'M* l-iSO l-iU 1269 1-848 l-STO 1-461 Cvbov. I llydrefts. ~fSW 70-90 T4-8SS S%9U 64-7S 72-M 88-7l» 67-WT 74-48 84'84« 81 -SOS 87-tfiS 88-874 76-28 »2'fi6 tO-ES 94-05 90-45 94-89 28-86 6708 68-09 67-79 61-05 61-04 61-13 «•« 4-M 6-180 6-491 31-66 8-98 6660 6-400 19-40 6-048 5469 6-98* 6171 4-18 2-880 9-600 8-880 9-480 2-660 0-990 6-680 0460 6-110 6-85 667 "ir/K;. '|im4 u^ turn 10'4« IS-Tg 9a«ff wm 1«'I6 8-480 U-99* 5-416 f>'6I» _4«I» f-TM fiik m tlldbardsoii, 'fhOHlMMl, (Its, Itlsbsrdsoii, Thmtimu. Bl«h«f(]saii, TfumiKofl, IReintstilL AIMHSlfH. OvMtnan. ]t«|flUMl& [otentMti. [li»gfl*«1L Vr, Km*. According to Knapp, peat contains firom 1 to 83 per cent, of its weight of ash. In coal we have the follow- ing ft-om Mr. Mushet's analyses ; Speelle jr.vlly. Carbon. iUhal. VollUla mtUcr. Welsh fhrnaceceal.... U 1, " , , . , " slaty " ':'.'.'. Derbyshire ftarnace coal cannol " 1-887 1-893 1-409 1-964 1-278 88-068 89-709 82-175 52-882 48-862 8-488 2-800 6-725 4-288 4-688 8-800 8-000 9-100 42-830 47-000 And again the analyses, from Overman, of the ash of coal, may be quoted, as showing the constituents contained in the ashes derived from combustion : Snipbste of lime 80-8 time 3-8 Sllex 14-2 Ctj-doflron ' 1-7 Alumina 0-0 Total.. 100-0 3-6 "-6 ^•7 0-0 8-2 100^ ^fdlkdb^« Iron. — The greatly extended application of -wrought iron to every variety of construction ren- ders an investigation of its properties pecnliftrly inter- esting. It is now employed more extensively than cast iron ; and on account of Its ductility and strength nearly two thirds of the weight of material may in many cases be saved by its employment, while great lightness and durability are secured. Its superiority is especially evident in constructions where great stitf- ncKs is not required, but on the other hand any degree of rigidity may \ie obtained by the employment of a tubular or cellular structure, and this may be seen in the construction of wrought iron tubular bridges, beams, and iron shops. The material of malleable Iron which is making such vast changes in the forms of construction, can not bnt be interesting and imiwrt- ant, and considering that the present is fur from the limit of its application, we shall endeavor to give it that degree of attention which the Importance of the subject demands. From the forge and the rolling- mill we derive two distinct qualities of iron, known as "rti-shoH" and " cold-thori." The former is the most ductile, and is a tough, fibrous material, which exhib- its considerable strength when cold ; the latter Is more brittle, and bus a highly crystalline fracture almost like cast-iron ; but the fact is probably not generally known, that the brittle work* as w«U, and ia m ductile 4A under the baromar, as tba otb«r, wb«fl »i • Mgh tan- perature. United Siaiei,— Iron was first tHii4« In America In the province of Virginia, abowt tfia ys«f 1716, and the ex- ample was quickly followed by lh« iffifvlnt'es of Mary, land and Pennsylvania, Thin o(»»m{fltf lit « new source of wealth waa a subject of iftmi diltbifiMiibrtl and Im- portance to those who were tHt«rc»t«4 In tb« pfospetity of the colonies, presenting to tlwir vlow, at no distant date, a prospect of huUiieHiliitivii lit fiir«l|(n countries for the supplies of tboie niont smwHtial aiiicles, Iron and timber, EzFOKTS or laoH raoM THK ^ml^mAtl Pl.jkMtAtlo«s. Ytftri. 1717, 1718 together ,,, 1799— 1786, average,,,,,,, 1789—1748 " ,,,,,,, 1760-1765 " , 1761-1776 » m InroKTs or Imm, Twin. 1711— 171S, svarsga ,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 1729—1788 " ,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, No further rotums wsrn pHliltitlisii, ft*M. 9,819 In 1810, Mr. GalUthi, til* Hsiwtsry iit the Tfeaa- ur}- of the United States, |)rttii) port on the manufactures, in wltkli, mmmK many other branches, iron, and the nmnufitt'tur#it of Ifdli, are men' tioned as being flrnily estitlilUllMt, SMIiplyill^t, In sere* ral instances, the greater, aiiif In «I1, a i«>nsld«ral)}e portion of the conBuinptimi of tlia riiitfil Ntat«ii, " The furnaces, forges, aiul bltioiMfrltiit of the United States, amount to fiiiO, of wliiiiji tiM Ht<*t« of New York furnishes 69. The annual value of Inm and lt port, mines of this metal war* workad In Mew llamp* shire, Vermont, Bboda btond, }l«w Yerk, CMiii««ti> mo 1108 mo cat, New Jemy, FtmuylymnU, VlrglnU, and Korth CftfolilM. According to tha >■ Stetlstlcal AnnaU of the United Statu," by Adam 8«ybert, founded on official docu- mcntt, tlie mannfactura of iron in tlie year 1810 «a« aa fallows : 168 furnaces, making 5»,908 tons of iron ; 880 forges, maldng 24,(41 tons of bar-iron ; 816 trip- hammers ; 84 rolling and slitting-mills, which re- quired 6500 tons of iron ; 410 nailiries, ia which 16,- 727,914 lbs. of nails had been made. Blanufacture of iron, value, 914,864,526. From abstracts of reliable statements it appears that the whole quantity of iron mude in the year 1830, computed in pig-iron, amounted to 191,686 tons, pro- duced from 289 fhmaces, two fifths of which ware made in Pennsylvania. The average quantity of hammered iron imported from 1821 to 1880, was alwut 26,200 tons, and of rolled iron about 5600 tons, making together 81,800 tons, rained at 91,762,000. The whole quantity of ham- met«, mgmitM, ,,..,,, ,1,1,1, .-mt m.m-] BiooBjs. .,,,,, ,,,„,,,,, « mMt] ^*Yti4, MiflW, Average wages l>er luuwtb, fttr, i\, Wwrt((d(H#o«( made, 278,044 tons i valiw, ♦J«,T47,W, Or» ,. Coif coE Iwuwn (/¥ tNHMt iikm. Vw. lSt6-l»l»,»fii>f»tu. .■,,„, ,„,,i, ,,..,,. .. 15,0»T l>ila-m •* III. mil,,, 11,1. III.. 18»4-)^ " ,,,,,,1111,1111111.... .. ll,88» .. 17,491 tmh-im » ,,,,,,,iiii„„.ii... .. 48.680 i(i*(— )fc« * III, iiiiiiiiii, 11,11 .. 74.S4« X«4H-(*i4 *• i„i,,,iiiiiii„i,.... lM6-»«# *• ,11111111111,1,111.... .. «8,(r99 .. 1S1.602 am,.,,,,, ,,,,,„,,„,,,,,, „,ii,,..... .. 8«7,'<«3 18R1. ,,,,,,„ ,,,,11111111,11...... .. 46t,.V>l tm...... ,,,,,,1,1, 1,111,, II...... .. 601,168 Inyaim or Utttfim tt/k»imtt» md CtiTtaav. V««n- iMFlartd fnliit, J8*(— 1»M, ltVlfriHll»i.iiiiiiiiiiiiiii... £49S.M1 im-t»W » III, ,,,,,, ,111, 1. 1.... 808,608 18W..,,, ,,„,,„,,„,,,,,„„, „,,;,.... 1,049,908 t»bl,r,,, ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ,1,111.,... 1,080,487 WW...,,.,,,.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.,,,.. »e8,4»l This t«l>U slwws tim fw|«Mt« to (wve reached the laoH MAHvrAcniKia or TBI uaiTap urtrm tn VUi, ■TATU. CUT-IHOM. ttmnaii, wvHwtif tint inHotlinff ifitn- Wil 6p*rtfIonj. Mo.ofAiii)Ac«i.|Tafii pro4ac*d. •JSl!l'iS&. r»w fn4mM: Ctflul iDniM. Ifalne 18 IB 48 6 S8 U 186 M SIS 2 IS 4S 8 4 14 1 6 S4 IT TS 7 4 S IS 1 6,m 1,8S0 «,8SS 4,126 6,495 6,748 S9,088 11,114 98,890 IT 8,876 18,810 966 1,250 494 80 1.400 16,129 29,2.16 85,286 810 158 160 601 8 I « «T 44 14 120 80 169 5 IT 62 48 » W b It »» 1 ■4 m »m IT, m t,m "in iM» "ill l«.«W gm MO i ''% 898 788 «l,4*« 2.0M l.fM l,t49 4ffl 248 41 m 145 2,266 ?.1W m til 8 1186,960 98.200 1,2«2,S76 22,290 677,8110 661,160 2,103,418 1,721,820 7,781,471 86,200 796.660 1,246.660 94,961 118,800 JJOOO 9,600 867,000 1,614,788 449,000 1,161,900 67,700 40,800 T9,000 60,800 4.000 Ilasaacbnsetts Bhode Island New York New Jersey Pennsylvanta Delaware Maryland Vlr^nls North Carolina South Carolina Georgia. Alabama TennesBoe .... Kentucky Ohio..... Indiana Illlnola Ulssourl Michigan.. . . Wisconsin ToUl 804 286,908 m itfMf iMiM - mA*i 20,482,181 It is not easy to strike the true medium, the best policy, between the proper fostering care by protec- tion, due to the iron manufacturer, and, at the same time, not to restrict the construction of railroads, and, as a consequence, the growth of new States, by con- fining by high duties the supply of iron to the pro- duction of our own mills. The reduction of duty on inn, by the new tariff, from 80 to 24 per cent,, will, nndoubtedly, have some effect on our iron maoufac- tnrea ; but rather to limit the profits, than to reduce the production or number of mills ; the present prices nt* ample to give Urge profits to home manufactun, even if a swull d*^(H# ftitUmn the reduction of duty, Tha fruH immHfiU'Uiftt iif lh« United .states is only a questiMi )«f Hmt>, Itnti «ti *«ty great amount of that rash artkla U ftuw mfmf»i ia bring it to that point where It wttl t^tui th« irnA tit the world, and liecome the stapUiitt mA mml yfiifitnhh Irranch of American iadustry, A (jrwtt tUin(tf Instr action Is to be derived from tUa ritmfU >tf Hm Utm maonfactnro in England. The toWuwitm Ut nit «Mfa«t froM one of the most re- cent) » TImaIw fm tiM mmt fWrt to the demand from the UnitMd HMm, ttM faTMi inA» «f sooth Staffordshire life. into th< new am become neiit 01 of courf (jree, an favor of trade, i policy ( ductive that CO compctf capital i of legis and cou by our i Since iron I mo HOT IRO m»y be reported w mnch more healthy than it waa a month ago. By the laat two or three American mails there have been brought ipeciflcations which, in their number and value, form a atrilting contrast to those received during many months past. These show that the American mills are able to supply only a very small portion of the demand of the States ; and are demon- strative that with bars at £8 instead of ^£9, a trade might lie carried on with America to an extent tliat would be restricted by nothing else than tbo powers of production attaching to tlie British worlcs. The Periia, whose letters were delivered on Saturday last, was especially valuable in respect of such specifications. In the past fortnight, however, the ' nialce' of south Staffordshire has not been by any means so large as under such circumstances might have been expected. This has been occasioned by the unusual circumstances of large masses of machiner}' at several works having been stopped by brealcages, whicii have all happened within a few days of each other. By the end of this weeic the preparations that have ensued will lie com- pleted, and if there should not lie a recurrence, the next fortnight will I>e characterized by the utmost animation at the works of the principal iron-masters of the district. The large American demand will make the inconvenience greater than is now lieing felt by most of the makers of mallealile iron, from the exceed- ingly short supply of hosmntite ore of sample suffi- ciently fine for the purposes of the puddling furnace. If this deficiency should last much longer, it will cause some little anxiety in cases where those descriptions of iron are in demand, in the manufacture of which pounded calcined cinder is not an efficient substitute. There are no complaints of a shortness of supply of those coarser samples of red ore used in the blast fur- nace." — London Engineer, Feb. The supply of the liest quality of iron is decreasing in England, whereas in this country we are but begin- ning to develop and become acquainted with our best ores. " Iron MountaUi" and " Pilot Knob" in Missouri, contain iron in immense quantities, and of a purit}' of ore not to be found but in two or three mines, and limited in amount, in Sweden. And Kentucky has undeveloped iron ores to a great extent, and of un- common puril^ . We ought to export rather than im- port iron ; and in less than twenty years we shall do so, unless some wonderful mineralogical discoveries are made in the British Isles. No State in the Union is so vitally interested in the iron trade as Pennsylvania. Iron, in all its different varieties, forms one of the chief sources of State wealth. The ore aliounds in several sections of this coiiunonwealth, while furnaces dot the hill-sides and vullcys, giving employment to numerous laborers, and producing thousands of tons of iron, which are trans- ported to other States, and serve to enrich all who are interested in its manufacture. Each year science op- plies iron to more of the common uses of ever3--doy life. It supplies the material for ships ; enters largely into the construction of houses ; forms part of all the new and improved agricultural implements j and thug becomes a rival to timber in the mechanicel depart- ment of our countrj'. This increasing consumption, of course, must increase the demand in a parallel de- gree, and if Congress will but legislate wisely, and in favor of home labor and capital, as exhibited in the iron trade, it must prosper in the future. It is surely the policy of our country to foster this branch of her pro- ductive industry. It is liy wise, judicious legislation, that comparatively young countries are enabled to compete with older and more practiced ones, where capital is abundant and labor cheap. This is the kind of legislation demanded by the iron trade of this State and country, and we hope that such will be extended by our national legislature. j Shice the commencement of the present year, the iron market of this countr}- has been marked by pecu- 1 liar circumstances. East of the Alleghany mountains the production of pig iron exceeds the quantity manu- factured during the same period of any previous sea- son. A still greater increase is also locked for during the remaining months. There is now on hand a con- siderable quantity of the stock of 1866, accumulated in consequence of the severity of the winter prevent- ing iron from being delivered when ordered, P^it a singular fact is, that with all these apparent diaw- backs, the price steadily and firmly advanced to the highest quotation, and sales have been greater in the early months of this, than in the same months of any other year. More than 60,000 tons were contracted for in this city, in the month of April, to be delivered during the year. This is a ver}' heavy business to be perfected so early in the season, and since then the quantity has been swelled to a much higher figure. Importations of pig iron, especially Scotch, have been decreasing for the past year or 18 months. During the six months ending December 31st, 1855, the importation of pig iron from all foreign ports only reached 29,839 tons. This is less than one third of the amount im- ported during the previous 12 months. This is a cheer- ing indication, and the decrease in the importation of foreign pig iron will give a fresh impetus to our home manufacture, which is much needed in many sections of the Union. The long and aevere winter prevented shipments of bar iron from Pittsburg in the usual quantities, conse- quently there has been a heavy accumulation of that particular stock at that place. It was estimated that in the month of April, there were 85,000 tons of bar iron waiting sale and transportation at Pittsburg. In despite of these facts, however, the various mills are in full operation, depending upon the heavy trade to carry them through the season. The general prosper- ity of all the western interests must keep up the de- mand for iron, and if so the stock will not be too heavy. It is computed that 280,000 tons of pig iron will be produced in the West during the present year — this, of course, includes western Pennsylvania. From the districts of Alleghany, Hanging Rock, and Clarksviile, about 200,000 tons will be sent to market. There will be a decrease of charcoal pig iron in the present year, when compared with the production of 1855, of 55,000 tons. The product of new coke and raw bituminous coal furnaces will, however, make good at least 15,000 tons of this deficit. The amount of anthracite pig iron consumed in the West in 1855, was 33,000 tons. There will be an increased amount needed during the present year, if we may judge from the contracts made for supplies from Susquehanna. We give below an Interesting article from the ■' Iron Mas- ters' Keview," showing the amount of pig iron con- sumed in the places named in the West ; and also the quantity and value of railroad iron imported into the United States, from the 30th June, 1839, to the 30th June, 1856. It is well worthy an attentive perusal by all those who are interested in tlie iron trade of the United States. In the lower part of the Susquehanna district, the furnaces have mostly produced for the western mar- ket. There has lieen considerable irregularity in their operations, partly on account of deficiency of coal and the late opening of navigation. The new furnaces — Dudley, Keystone, No. 2 Cornwall — and several furnaces wliich worked little, if ony, in 1855, will prolmbly increase tlio proer, during which the product may be closed in by winter, we have 104,500 tons for the market for this year, less than already contracted, !I7,600 tons ; leaving unsold for this year's delivery (im this district in 1856, approximated to 106,000 tons — equal to a reduction of stocks, of 19,000 tons. The stocks on the 1st of January last approximated to 20,700 tons, and on the 1st of January, 1866, to 39,000. The total production in this district in the year 1866, wilt ap- proximate to 106,000 tons; assuming as a basis the data alwve given, which will prove reliable, save as it may be affected by accidents in manufacturing, or by a change in the market. The production in the 14 weeks past has not averaged 2100 tons — several Atr- Dacea having but recently been put in blast. The oemimpdon of nrila within the patt otn* months has' graatly inoreaaad over the average of the previous year. The importation in the six months ending December 81, 1866, amounted to 89,854 tons ; or 60 per cent, more than in tho average of the priv viout 12 months. In the six months named, Amer- ican mills produced about 70,000 tons. As the returns of last year's liarvest are now exerting their greatest Influence upon the general prosperity of the interior, railroad enterprises aro much encouraged. If the pmin- ised peace of Kurope is fully re-inaugurated, there is no doulit that with an average harvest the present year, our railroad extensions will b« greater tlian In any pe- riod heretofore. In addition to the requirementH for new roads and extensions, the older roads are progressively needing a greater amount of rails for renewals, whera in moat instances heavier rails are put down. It is wor- thy of note, that a large portion of the old rails taken up Is used In other manufactures, to which this description of Iron Is regarded l)y many as being better adapted. The increasing amount of this stock, which comes in com|)etition witli pig iron, Is worthy of special consid- eration. Capital is wanted in Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, Missouri, Tennessee, and other States, for the more vigorous and mora profitable workings of the ex- tensive iron ores of those States, FioDironoH or Pio laoN m Tna Unitkd Statis, aoookdino to tui Cimsus or 1860. Maine N. Hampshire Vermont .... Maswohusetts OonnectlcuL. Nev York. , New Jersoj, Pennsylvania Maryland.. VIrglola... N. Carolina Georgia Alabama. -, TeDDcaseo.., Kentucky,., Ohio Michigan . . . Indiana Illinois MiMonrl. . . , Wisconsin. . ToUl. dplisl i DolUn, 1 914.000 l| 2,000 SClr'WO 480,000 13j 326,600 18! 606,000 10 »67,000 80l R,ftT0,42S 18{ 1,480,000 29 618,800 2 215.000 »l 20,000 81 11,000 23| 1,021,400 2ill 924,700 a5 1,609,000 15,000 72,000 6S,000 619,00(1 15,000 Tod*. 2,90r .VM) T,676 97,909 86,490 46,S3S 51,'266 8T7,2S8 99,866 67,819 900 6,189 1,838 88,810 72,010 140,610 2,700 B,200 n,noo 87,1100 8,000 coal aHd, Ooktsnd eliArcoal Valm of jMW mate. rUl, lu«l, No. of hand! Enllni wani I *"?*;, Tons. "ioo 20 20,8«5 816,060 14,088 89,992 177,167 21,780 se'iso Biuhels. 918,970 80,000 826,4871 1,888,000; 2,9"0.(K10, S,000,0T4, l,«8I,()00l 27,«0.M90 8,7U7,8(M) 1,311,000| 180,000 430,000 146,000 160,000 4,676.269 \42»,80« 188,000 810,000 170,000 180,000 Dnllani, 14,919 4,900 40,176 184,741 2S9,'W5 821,027 as2,707 y,7aA427 .M)0,725 1.^8,807 27,900 26.840 6,770 254,900 2«0,1.^2 080,0871 14,0110 24,400 1S,.100 97,867 8,280 71 10 100 268 148 606 600 9,985 1,870 1,116 26 185 40 1,718 1,846 2,416 . 25 8S 150 884 60 87717,846,425 1,.179.809 (Hfl,24a ,'U.KA286'7,00,\'is9' 20,29sll5042M))5J784 .... I . . ' 664.7.Vi 259.7(KI 12.748.777 j'l h Dollan. t>oli. 1,662 .. 18t 2,208 7,288 8,967 12,62.1 12,720 201,0811 4(1 27,896 14,289 9« 208 22 9,a'i8 15 700 21,958 m »7,8«5 47 59,129 875 2,290 8,810 8,1111 1,800 "**•• l-roduou, Dol'n. Doll. 22 UO IS 00 22 08 27 59 26 80 00 121 20 91 666 U 20 14 12 766 86 8 004 40 17 445 00 17 60 .. 12 8l'8 11 20 284 70 24 48 96 00 26 00 22 06 94 28 80 00 TOBI, 1,484 900 8,200 12,287 18,420 28,092 94,081 285,702 48,641 22,168 400 900 622 80,420 24.246 62,668 660 1,850 2,700 19,260 1,000 20,000 19,900 40,l)6o 96,000 98,000 ^000 41,900 10,000 ia^ooo Valaa of • nilre produou. Oollai 86,010 6,000 68,000 295,128 41.\609,780 889,814 820,950 1,488,391 19,500 489,511 691,448 28,114 6,986 8,000 886,616 180,9001 604.4981 4,426 24,509 Avorn^o wairoi |)i-r riKinrli. I Ml Doll. .82 00 .81 05 , 29 60 ,26 00 .31 69 .20 00 .27 79 7 27 69 .24 19 . 28 38 .28 62 110 87 II 856 00 _, . 20 00 78i!B516 205 00 198>..'82 06! 708,. 38 61 1 22; 227 454 00 lor,., 80 00 7 50 5 88 Wn.ugli Tuna. 110 2,»<5 6,720 9,660 6,825 18,636 8,162 182,606 660 10,000 16,828 860 90 100 10,848 8,070 14,416 175 963 Valna of ulher product!. 5,1100 195,000 219,560 Valua of entlr,' pruilurln. Dollars, 10,1011 16.'!,11SII 42S,.'l'.'ll 222,4'iil 667..')(W l,42.'i,!li;9 620,'i7.'i 8,902,907 56,000 771,4)1 1,2,'S4,995 66,080 15,894 7,500| 670,618 299,700 1,076,192 11,7001 68,7001 T otal ! 42914,496 , 920 861,491 88,84tl 78,787 688,068 14,810,898 9,698,109 18,1797»i, 1 978,044' 468,800:16,747,0741 STAnUIKIlT jllatnburg. KiRlsnd,,! ''«n«d«,,,. I'lher Br, No Irtilsh West rtlish Austr mi,b Eut I jmnce on th( French Nortl, Chiba (Mhcrporti'l Moxico Centi^l Ripaii »6W Granada. Pern |Sandwlch'lsli Total From wai Not from IRO: 1109 IBO PioDnoTioif or Ito> Cauimos vt nia Umno STAna, I860, DolUn. 88,016 6,000 68,00 814,(iOll| 27,0001 Diillnr'. , 10,400 lOlVJ'^li 42S,;v)0 222.4"' ,„„, 067.5W ■^ ' 629.27S 8,9I«,907 55,000 I 771,4:(1 1,2.U996 ' 66.9S0 15.8S4 7,5001 670,618! I 299,700 1,076,192 ' 11,700 68,700 M*lne N.IItmpshlre Vnrmont . MasMchuflottx Rhode IsUnd ConnooHcuL New York. . Now Jeraoy. l>enn>ylrtnl> Dol»w»ro .... Maryland Virginia N. Cirollna.. 8. Carolina... Ocorglo. Alabama. Mbtilsslppl. . . Louisiana.... Toxaa. TenncMeo . . . Kentucky.... Ohio. Michigan Indiana Illinois Missouri . . . I . Iowa. Wisconsin... California D. of Columb. 25 26 26 68 20 00 828 4ft 820 18 16 M S 6 4 10 8 8 2 16 20 188 68 14 29 6 8 15 1 2 CaplUl lanitod. DolUrl, 150,100 282,700 290,720 l,49»,O.VI 428,N0O 580,800 4,622,482 5»8,2JS0 8,422,024 878,500 859,100 471,160 11,500 185,700 8\000 216,625 100,000 26^000 16,000 189,500 602,200 2,00.1,650 195,450 82,900 260,400 187,000 6,500 116,850 5,000 14,000 PIf Iron. Tow. 3,591 6,678 5,279 81,184 8,918 11,896 108,945 10,666 69,501 4,440 7,220 7,114 192 169 440 2,843 1,197 1,660 250 1,6S2 9,781 87,»6 2,494 1,968 4,818 6,100 81 1,371 75 645 Oil) ■uial. Ton*. 245 500 274 8,861 '887 8,212 850 819 205 1,848 '"'6 60 200 "is 2,800 6,050 2,000 Total.... 1,39117.416,861 845.558 11,416 9,860 190,891 2,418,750 10,816,855! 23,541 48| .. . MlMral Msl. Tom. 1,819 l.ftSO 1.066 12.401 4,670 7,592 22,7.^6 6,444 49,228 4,967 6,000 7,878 100 "248 8,206 250 24,690 2,649 80,006 901 182 1,412 2,698 '695 25 80 Cok* Mifl •kareoftl. BiuhsU. 14,000 20,500 198,400 8,500 4,0(KI 30,600 181,190 175,800 276,866 80,(100 7I.W)0 6,875 4O.%,50O 9,800 SL.SOO 92,000 18.200 482,7,50 856,120 16,200 29,600 12,500 "200 2,700 Vilua of raw mate. >,8.W 9,449 No. '668 '666 bolhrl. "l',S88 1,467 Pounds. 8^966 4,«9T 91,016 8^894 "sio 198,701 Dollnn. "197 208 1,419 "990 "iio 6,459 Pounds. "660 '8,700 ~"»,250 Dollars. 66 '865 48 1 " Canada Other British North Amer. poa.. Britlth Au.ttralla Phlllppino Islnnila. Other porta In Africa Hayil Uexloo Now Qranada JChlll Whale Fliherlea Total 81,410 2,086 868 8,940 159,078 8,656 From warehoaie 18.810 19,600 1,008 1,0TT 868 6 8,065 175 83,854 125,717 1,716 6,940 '8 7110'! ^^"^ 1 Not from warebouM '560 60 1 Iron Mountain. — Iron Mountain is situated in St. Francis county, Mo. The land on which it lies was a grant by the Spanish govemmeut, when this portion of the south-west was in possession of that govern- ment The grant was conflrnied l>y the Congress of the United States in 1836 ; but on account of the diffi- eulty of transportation, and of the impreaaion that the CT* could not be smelted, this inexhaustible supply waa permitted to remain unproductive until 1851, when the Iron Mountain Company waa formed and proceed- ed to the erection of furnaces. The mountain is a flattened, conical shaped hill, with an average eleva- tion above the surrounding valleys of 228 feet, the base of which covers an area of about 500 acres. The ore is the specular iron ore, and is remarkably pure ; its average yield, in the furnace, being 56 per cent. From surface indications, and from all explorations made, the whole Iron Mountain seems to Im mode uf iron ore. Almost the entire surface of the mountain is covered with iron ore, the particles increasing in size OS you ascend toward the top, until on its summit are found disconnected masses, many tons in weight. and often six or eight feet in diameter. To what depth the iron ore extends below the base of the mountain, has never yet been ascertained. An artesian well was attempted to lie bored by the company, at the base of the mountain, and after attaining the depth of 180 feet, roost of the way through iron ore, the work was abandoned. Wlien the boring ceased, the auger rented in a solid mass of ore ; so that there is ore under the ground, as well as above it. Imports if Iron intD the l/nited States. — The United States, next to England, may he considered among the leading iron producing countries in the world — EnglunJ producing 3,600,000, and tlie United SUtes 1,000,000 tons per annum. Assuming tlio average price of Iron to lie 927, or oven $30, we produce annually to the value of i|27,000,000 or *30,()00,000. From the follow- ing table it will be seen that our imports of iron niid steel manufactures havo gradually reached nearly the same sum. The imports were in 1849 115,088,961 1880 17,668,8tf8 1861 18,876,768 1869 90,661,599 1868 |S0,895,7as 1S.')4 81,819, IS4 18.Vi aV'iT.I.Stl.'i lSi« 24,680,262 Btatiiixkt snowiNO the Imposts or UANCrACTURSS Or IBON l!ITO TUX UMlTKn StATXS FOR Junk 8»Tn, 1866. TUX YXAR r.sui.sc) Whaaao Importad. Caporbonnatwlr*. NalU, splkis, lacks, •!<. Chain eabUs. MIII-SBws, cross- out and pll.sarrs. Anchors, and paru { thoroof. j Bwedlab West Indlea Pounds. ■^67 8,811 190,698 '2',i70 91,680 Dollars. "99 244 8,864 "'67 "606 Pounds. '6^800 1,960 1.186,468 1,104,989 9,400 14,910 6,878 l'7',BM ■^660 OolJars. "88T 91 48,008 74940 888 1,298 978 "b91 "i84 Pounds. 9,050 l'2',8.M 16,569,722 80,100 67,415 86,118 4,066 9b;460 11,518 Dollars. 976 "447 476.994 9,840 1,807 S,4T8 88 .... ■'699 118 No. 2b',8S8 ""8 9 Dollars. 5^872 ""a 8 Pounds. 844;290 9,966 600 62,690 's^OflO 877 Uill.r.. 8'7',iBi) 507 22 9,043 1 '119 2B Ifambarg England Scotland British Woat Indlea British Honduras Fr^-ioo on the Atlantic... ... PnrtngaL Maxloo New Qranada. Pern Mm Total 156,876 4,899 9.299.6D6 i2T,8T9 18,860,7881 48^S48 90,848 MOMA 991,198 89,8IM Britlab ' IFrance t Cuba... Central ] Cbloa Whej Ij^aala... ^wedon an Swedish fl Danish Wc llainb'nrg. ^rotncn.. Wolland...— Dutch £aat J«'ginm.. J^iKland.. Pcotland. Ilreland... Mnada . . . giber Br. « gritlsh Wci iHtlsh Hon fritlsb OuU British pos. British knsi [franco on tl P»ba K^rto Rico, gape do Vol ^nitrla K">«r porta i fc,«'.na 677' tTAmtnrr imwna n» Urom or Uknvrkonm JttKB SOrii, or laoK nrre tn TTiriTm Statm, ioi na Tiai imiiM Mukiu u4 rifci. MM ipMia*!. 8M>«w, NMdlal. Cutlarj. MNIMUlwimtot, Ml ■r«ia«,852,785 198,820 478,523 18,223,489 846,^ 81,887,858 1 814.848 1 ' ' 1 Btatiuknt siiowiNa Tin iHPoan or tue MAHnrACTUKn or Irok ahd TcAii iNDiNO JvKi 30rn, l$5a, StEKL INTO TBI UitiTiD Statw ros mi pig Iron. Uldsnd •crap. Railroad Iron. t'MI, Bboar, and Uorman tlool. All olhor. 1 Pruula CwU. 4,081 4,891 600 862,170 749,415 89,879 20,701 8,090 '/'/ 1,640 .... DolUn. 8,500 '4I637 654 369li88 788,188 87,967 23,695 6,884 CwU. ""s 1,716 "'67 78,688 68 6,050 40,016 20,121 44,874 171 9,584 1,202 128 4,986 ,1,944 84 l,i44 176 495 1,260 18,185 1,950 18 161 1,610 Dollan. ""5 1,481 "■43 81,6«8 65 4,742 26.476 13.572 27,049 97 4,407 905 84 8,075 7,125 8 101 "789 191 947 1,138 9,861 940 81 144 1,860 Uwu. .... .... 2,922,685 1871689 Dollars. 5,79bl387 SS8l687 CwU. '9I686 ""4 225 161 8,980 "47 168,295 "'i2 9S) "886 "" DolUrt. iblieo "68 2,365 1.474 86,484 "420 1,638,286 "iii 628 81469 Vwu. loslsis "224 "■59 "'68 ■"88 1,911 .... Dollan. S2'8loil "67* "861 "m "488 9,029 Sweden and Norway. . . Swedish West Indies... Danish West Indies.... HolUnd Dutch Eut Indies. Pdfftnm England Canaila Other Br. N. Amer. pos. British West Indies.... Britlth Hondaraa. British Oulana Rrltlsh pos. In Africa... British Aastralla Franco on tho Atlantic . Cuba I' 11 "! M Porto Rico Cape do Terd Islands. . . {Sardinia. KmMt Other ports In Airica. . . Haytl. San Domtnro Brull. Pern, Sandwich Islands China. ToUl 1,180,289 1.171,085 147,769 186,112 8,109,914 6,179,280 165,894 1,698,855 105,186 t<89,968 IRR 1112 IBI •lAMiiam Miairat* *ai lirosn or DoHwno laoH (law aitd iiamrraimrna) taoii tua DamiB •?*«■, tot tM TsAB ■aoiMU Jtraa Mm, 18(6. ^ 1 WUltar nrcrtt4. RaMltn pnMML In North America, , pwedUh Weat IncIlM Mf. Bw. Halla, UMIaia, All •ili» imMi',! Cwu. lB,ji8 "ioo OollM. 26^666 "mn ""• "ioo 101 ""* .... .... "'ii "w '"m "'is 8,816 DuUm. "is "mo ii,6ii 411 "28 "iii "497 "ioo "ioi 11,881 ~*7foo H;4B0 liMO "mo 60^^10 6,000 647,417 4I^N74 80,416 1,000 6tS4W 10,600 6V,noo 41,6110 7,800 V,1(I0 40.000 1,887,480 70,740 'ijm 14,100 16,60b 10,0(H) lislni 148,900 11,600 l!i6,701 8,600 68,40(1 48,900 41,100 811,144 66,.M0 1,866,116 167,800 I.goo 119,710 8,600 7,681 6,T86,6S0 IhUoi, 810 1,«T 'iio "'is 'l,A80 166 11.771 19,828 1,818 U9T '8,167 410 'l,896 1,766 111 898 1,000 7'8',iAB 9,79T "ii4 A89 1,160 A75 °l',668 6,406 471 8,711 867 1,681 1,066 1,768 1,691 1,798 62,689 2,868 71 6,871 780 800 288,888 iMIwi. "iio "'io "6i« 180 176,698 61,190 886 16 1,914 86,881 106 "if» l,6i4 101 '"so "m "h47 18 144 1,161 ' 'm 'l',4i4 178 lAO 1,94'^ 1,001 ~a*«;8j6 m t,mt 8,661 11,768 6,6M 847 l,«W 9(16 HH 81,141 116,1711 lll,f»B M»H All 1,HII,AIVI >«,flfl6 18,88^ i;701 Hx 7,MH 101,807 I8,4(l| 149 Ml W IKHI llu,4ii6 878 6(1 116 'l.NA* l.MMt IMIT 19,1116 Km^iiHU |N,9I1 178,(1(81 IH,W6 16,666 HI,1»6T 1H,N6I 68,778 611,810 76,689 84,811 8>6,7I1 1 buli.h W«it IndUi Iliiuburg. Urflmun Holland Dutch WdtlodlM Dutch OaUnA Dutch KMt Indlcl, Ilclfflnm Scotland kllbraltar Malta Othar Brltlih North American poa. Brittah WMt Indloa '... HrttUh Honduras Hrltbh Oulana Britli > ixwwulona In Aftlca HrltUii Auntralla BriCih Kast Indlci Fi'a. " on tho Atlantic Franco on the Mediterranean French Wert Ini'los French Gulaiia Hpat'i on the Medltarranoan Cuba I'orto Kloo. ..™ - .'' Portugal "is 16,788 "800 iVilA Madeira Aiores Aualrlan poMesaiona Inltaljr Turkey In Asia Other Dorta In Africa lUytX, t$an Uouiliitfo Mfiitco (^>«ntral ReDabUfl. ..« New Onnftda Veneiuela Braall Buenos Arrea ChlU Pera. 'Mandwlcb lalanda China. Whale FUberlea ToUl Iron- Wood (Ger. KisenhoU ; Du. Yitrkoul ; Fr. Boi$ dtfer; It. Legno di /em ; Sp. Plo hierro; Lat. Sidtrozyton, Lignum ferrtuin), a species of wood of a reddish ca.4t, «o called on account of its corroding aa that metal iloes, and its Iwing rtmarkalily hard and ponderous — even more so than eliony. The tree which produces it);rows principally in the West India Islands, and is lileewiso very common in South America, and in tome ports of Asia, especially about Siam. Irrawadi (Krivati, " the great river"), one of the great rivers uf south-easlarn Asia, is supposed to rise in Tibet, near lat. 28° north, long. 97° 30' east, flows generally southward, traversing the Burmese Empire throughout, and enters the Indian Ocean (Bay of Ben- gal) by numerous mouths, east of Cape Negrais, in lat. 16° 20' north, long. 9fi° east. Principal afflu- enta, the Ning-thee, Mogouny, Bhamo, and Lung- tchuen Kivers. In lot. 17° north, it separates into nu- merous arms, which cover the whole kingdom of Pegu with net-work of ramifications, and the Rangoon and Bassein branches form the east and west boundaries of its delta, a region comprising upward of 10,000 square miles, covered with teak forests and grass jimglcs, in- terspersed with some rice-grounds. The main stream from the head of the delta to Yedan, above Ava, va- ries from one to four miles in breadth, and may always be ascended to Ava from the sea by vessels of 2U0 tons, which, during the rains, can reach the influx of tka Hogouny Biver, 800 milea from the oceaii. It b usually navigable fur canous as high as Bhamn, lia>!d«a which town and Ava, Amarapura, Nakulng, Yitiiilitliu, Pagahm Mew, Prome, Ilentlmda, Uastein, Mid lluit' goon, are the principal places on its luinks, lalnglass (Uer. Ilauienilaie, UuuMiun; I'r, Ciilh ttepoittun, Curlock; It. Culu ili peiiY ; lt(i.4. KIri vllliltl, Karluk), one of the purest anil flnest of tlin hiiIiiiuI glues. A variety of gelatine, sninotlines ci 'tail ifklhi/- ocoila, or flsh-glue (from lxt'i(,njlih, and «« ^'hi, yliie), prepared from the air-biig, swimming-bliidih : , iir Miiiiiit of various flshes. The Kussian and HilHir.iii laliiuliiaK is most esteemed ; it Is chiefly obtained frt-ni sturgeiiiin, a family of cartilaginous flslics uf the genus /I eiiitnuf. The swimming-bladder is cut up, washed, hihI IIikii t>;:posed to the uir, with the inner silv^'y meiiiliriiiia upward. When dry, this menibrano l> . iiniivtiil by beating and rublung ; tha sound ia the; prH|iiirKi| In various ways. For funning what Is ci'led /ni/ Islii' glass, it is merely dried ; for long and ihiirt Ha)ili), It U twisted between three pegs, hito the 8)iu|Hi of 11 liuraU' shoe, harp, or lyre ; fur booh isinglass, It is fiildml Ilka the sheets of a l)ook ; for ribbon Isinglass, it la rullod out. The swimming-bladder of A , tlurio uf tha ( 'aa- plan Sea furnishes leaf isinglass of llirea >|iialitl«a, known as JIne.Jiritt, JirtU, and tfcomli. A , //litili'H- ttitdlii uf the Caspian and Bliick 8eaa and tlioir (rlliu- tary rivers, furniHhas caviare from its nia or uvnry, while the swimming-bladder yields staple and lfi{f l i ln g l a i i. The varietiaa of atapU ara PtUrimvh Ailra- [SL 113 ISO Man, »aA AtlnMtm JlriU, uteonrli, ap unit. Ii' Viirlall«» (if Imfnti lAmtJirtlt, irromlt, uml thinlt — tli« lint* formlnK th« llnniit Ivuf known in coinmcrrn. A . ru/nu* nnil A, tlMUiu alio yield Inlnglau. Tliani in » Itinil known m Itamnvfg Uaf, ftwm Tanganrwl, but thin U Infarior ; there in alio the titan* U(\f, aalil to lie (ihtained from a «mitll Hah, and krotki itinyliitt, which U made intn umiill niemliranoui diiikii. I>inf{laiiii i» alio iirnriirpil from Hiliirit i/lanit. For jnirtr, pipf, and lump ItinKlaan, the awimnilnK-liliuldnr i( dried un- o|ien«d, and the varivty known aa Sibrrian purtt, of moderately good quulity, ia greatly in demand. Uraiiliun lalnglaia ia obtained from I'ara and Ma- ranham, but the tlahva whiuh produce it liave not been iinmed. For the variety known aa pipe-JInail, the awlmmlng-blaiblen are dried unopened, and made into jilpea 10 or 12 Inohea long, and from i to 'H inchea iiroad, and are aometiraea dlHtenilrd with air. Lump Itlnglaai ia farmed by placing two awimniing-bladdera aide by aitle, and for koney-cotab ialnglaaa, the largeat lump iainglaaa ia aplit open. Tliere are niao varietiea of Ulnglaaa from New York, from Hudaon'a Hay, and from the I'^t ludiea. In Holdavia a Tiirtety la pre- pared ftom the akin, atomach, Inteatlnea, and awim- ming-bladder of the aturgeon. Theae are cut small, ateeped in cold water, and ainimorrd. The Jelly thua pro«ar. Wine, coflTee, nnd other liquids are also clarifiea by isinglass, but sole-skins and hartshorn ahuvings are often used as BUbstitut s for it. lainglass forms the uUhesivo ma- terial in court-plaster, for wliioh purpoae a aolution of iainglaaa, mixed with tincture of benzoin, ia bruahed over black sarsenet. Isinglass dissolved in spirits of wine or common gin, and gently simmered by placing the bottle in a vessel of boiling water for about an hour, forma diamond cement, or white JiiK-glue ; gum ammoniac is sometimes added. Panes of isinglasa. Instead of glue, are used in France instead of horn, for lanterns, and also for lump-shades, etc.— E. B. Isle of Bourbon. Merchandise fVom Europe, or any country faoing the Mediterruneap, is inadmissible to th* established entrepot of this island, nnlesr di- fectly imported from French entrepots, or the place «f pioductlon ; but merchandise of any other origin may be Imported under any flag. This Island la aita. ated In the Imliun Ocean, between latitude 'm° AU' and 21'' 21' S., 4 tU milea euat of Madagascar. It ia of an oval ahape, greateat length 40 miles, greatest lireadth 27 milea. Population ubtiut 100,000. Area, 1)00 square oiilea. It la Inter ted by two mountain ridgea, with volcanoes. Thero are many amall rivers, but none navigable. The valleys of any conaidorabla sine are not numerous. It has no safe harbor. The climate is healthy and pleasant. From December to May la the hot and rainy season. The aoil la very fertile. In 1830 the aurface waa distributed into aliout (15 parts of cultivated land, 14 parta of paatur< age, &A parts of wood, and 07 parta of waste lands. The cultivated parta encircle the Island, and press up the slies of the interior mountains. The articles pro duced are the sugar-cane, coffee, cloves, cocoa, tobac- co, and groin ; of these, the sugur-cane, gruin, and coffee are moat largely produced. The flsheriea are excellent. They er-iploy about 600 peraona. The flah taken aell in the ialand for about (80,000 per annum. la 1H4H the population consisted of 108,000 aouls. They have numoroua brick and lime kilna, tanneriea, forges, founderies, tin-ware fuctoriea, breweriea, and munufiK'turea of palm-leaf bagging. The principal ar- ticles of ex|Hirt are raw sugar, coffee, cloves, dye- wooi|° ; of Kaaan, under tha aama parallal, only 'i". Tha wintar of i'akin In aa rl||i>roua na that of .Stockholm.— Hum- BOMiT'a f'rm/mrHM Atiiitii/iifi. Ilthmua, a narrow nnck or allp of land which connacta two rontlncnta ; nr Jolna a panlnaula to tha tarra rtrma, and aaparataa two aaaa, Iha mnat cala- brated latliinuaaa urn, that of I'linnmaor Darian, which Jolna North and Nouth Amaricn; that of Huax, which ronnecta Aala ami Africa { that of Corinth, which unltna tha Murca with waalarn (Iraaca; that of Crlm Tartary, otlierwlaa called Tnurira ('hrrmnrtut ; and that of tha I'anlnaula lb>manu, and Kriaao, nr the iathmiia of tha ThracUn (^haraonanua, twelva furlonK' broaelnt( that which Xarxea undertook to cut through. Italy. The nama finlia waa originally applied to t°a* axtrcmii and of th« paninaula, aoulh of a llnu drawn from the (!ulf of S<|ulllaca, >Sluiii Srylnrrin, to that of Htu. Kufpinia, >Vinu< Trritxrut. Ily tha time of Thucydldea, in the fith icntury n.c.tha upiiallution had already extended to Metapontum on the eaat, and the Poaldonian (iulf on the weat conat, thua IncludinK the whole of modern Calaliria, unm many puaaagca in the claaalca, waa already employed, In iiimmon accepta- tion, to dealgnate the whole country from the Alpa to the Sicilian Struita. The official acceptation waa dropped aa aoon aa Auguatua, In hia diviaion of Italy, Incorporated Uguria, C'laulpine Uaul, Venetin, and latria. The origin of the name haa been referred to varloua ■ourcea, all equally uncertain, (ireck and Koman tra- dition deduced It from the e|H>nymoua hero Italua, a iuppoaed (Enotrian or Pclaaglc chief; while Timoiua, followed by Vurro and Oeliiua, derived it from Jtalm, which In olil (ireek algnlHed an «x, from the quantity of cattle bred in the country. (Iracia, niim untiqua, nt icribil Tini(ru>, Iniirni rncnhnt 'IrnJni'c, a quorum mulliludinr it pulchrituiUne rt /triu vitulorum, llnliam dixerunt.* The word Vituliia (calf) and Itatui were, acconling to Kcatua, aynonynioua ; and on the denarii struck by tlio 8al)eillun nationa during the Social War, n.c. 90-88, there occura the word V'itelii for lUly. In early timea Italy waa alao called Satumia from the Latin god Satumua, (F.notria from an ancient chief CEnotrua, and Auionia from the Auaonea, tho Aurunci of the Komans, who oceupieeen synonymous with Ilnlia in Its origioal acceptation. The Greek poeta applied to it sometimes the name Ifeiperia, on account of its being to the westward of their country. The Germans called it WadtUand, because the parts nearest to them were inhabited by the Gallei or Walles ; and in their pres- • Vorro, De At limtiei, 0. 6. ant lanKuage iha nam* of WaalahUnd la atlll ntalnad by th* riimni'in pmpl*. Tlie lofllesi rang* of nimintalna in Kuropa on th* nortb-eaxf north, and luirth-weat, and th* a«a on avery <■•! r aid*, form tha natural iKiundarlea of llah . Ilia Alplna ihnlii, axteniling In a aemirlr- ciilnr form fmni tha .lullan Alpa at Iha head nf ih« Ailrlatir to tha Maritime Alpa on tha (Iulf of (innon, liivldaa It on the nortb-eaat from liiyria and the TvmI, on tha north and ncirth-w»«t from Mwilaar. land, anil on tha weat from Krance, where the llivar Var (\'arut) forma Ita ImuniUr)-. From thia Alplna range, which may l>* caiia tian kingdom, th* limlta of which are at the l*iin«o, nortli-eaat of Aqulleia. Along thn north iiiid nmlh- weat frontier the iiniita of Italy have at different tiiii -i undergone various, though Inatgnillcant chungea ; for the Alpa, though preaenting an unbroken line on a db'tant view, are ao deeply indiinted with vulleya aa to m.>ke a natural lioundiiry posailile only by foilewing the watershed, a course never or aviiioni iidopteii In political arningemonta. Hut even the wulerahed would not mark tlie limits of different nationiilitlea, as valieya which, by this criterion, should not belong to Italy, are Inhabited by an Italian race ; and German or French is a|>i)ken In distrlcta which should be included in Italy. Tlie Italian peninsula is situated between the pariii- lela of N. lilt. 4«° 30' and 37° b\', and K. long. U° M' and 1H° W'l' ; if the Islands are Included, the southern- most iiarullel of lat. is !)i° 40'. Its length in a direct line from the foot of the Alps near Aoata to the Capo di Sta. Maria di I.eiiiia {lapygium J'romimlorium) is about 1100 miles, and to the (.'apo dell' Arini (_I,m, MlHnn, rrtrnpanvlla, LlroM, Vatli-nnu, l)*\\» Ariiil, iin th« woU ■hnr* i Npartlviinlii, Uliiiiti), Niii iir Cnlonn*, Alica, Ltiii'n, Uargann, on tli« •oiitli-fiiit mul rMt •hiir*. 'I'ha (KUiit and |H>|iiilatl<>ii cif llnly, lrii'luilint( Ita bUnila, *ra ahowii liy (lia fi)lliii*iriK IaIiIk, which la to lia cniiaMarait M maralr a|>piu«(matlva. In atima nt tha nialaa, Iha ratumt i>r |M>|iuUlkm art nol inuuh al< InmlMl In) anil, with r«|(anl lo Ihalr araa, Ihar* 1h fraat illacraiiniK'y iMtwmiii Ih* varloiia aulborlllM, ThU talila, hnwavar, haa Im«.i iiimiillml fnmi Ih* Htiial anthanllc itaU, RaaMrfikallaliM. elaJ; imiIm. <,MI) 4,«S0 T.nno T.IKII l,«IW MM ' dr.!*! .... i'-i...i..i ,., «,*tft,nM «,'4IKV,M0 S,»M,IAI) MW.MA ft,fillH,ITH H.iiiin,iiijii l.NiT.mxi ima.iKH) TniNi «n.i«i,i)jH WM.WI ItKMU l'*|fll«l ffllU*. Naplat. ralirma. Tarin. I'aillari, Miran lliima, Kliirwiiiia. Muil.na I'arina. i« Marina, AlaiMli). Valatt*. Kinrlam nt (h* Two llalHatl NalPlca Hl.lly Kltifilnm or MarilInU; I'lailniiinl ami Klvli'ra ■ ■iaiKl cirHarillala, , M t4 M tl m tl J HMI »,IM 1MWT i,ni) I'J.IHI) «,;h4 i.im ,.T|J t"T>«,(ll4 I^niUrilo VvuKilaii Klii|iluiii Papal HiMi'*. -, Oranil Dnrhr iirTiianny dnrluillnf LuaaM Ilurliy iif Minima Dui'hv itt I'aniia Ui-|>ulfH. Martno. Total ('orali'a, bi'luitylng to Kraiioa 1 1 114 Malta anil Uoii), bg|aiiK>n( lu Knfland ToUl M mu .... Tha moat iletiKi'ly InhiililtKil Stiitn la thiit nf I. una, whirl) i-ontulna A'.',') inillvliliiala for every mtuiira mile ; next to it rum* the T.uinlinnl provliU'Ka. The mnat thinly Inhnhitnit piirt'i urn thi> ('anipat(na nf Kmne ami the Inlitnil of Niirillnia. Italy huK ninrii pnp'iloua town* tliun any nthnr State of Mtiroim of thn aiiine ex- tent. Nnplva hiiK inorn than .|narta of the country. AcciirdhiK to the gen- erni acceptation in the peninnula, nortliem Italy Is underatood to include Piedmont nnd the Ittvlera, I.om- liaMy, the Venetian, Parma, Si.)ilenn, and the States of the (!hurch, as far as nn imaginary lino from the Gulf nf Spezln to Kuvenna; central Italy includea Tuscany and the rest of tlio .States of the Church ; and southern Italy the kingdom of Nnploa, The division in more common use among natives la into upper and lower Italy, the former applying to the por- tion north of the Apennines and to the Itlviera, the latter to ull tlio rest of the peninsula. , The face of the country is much diversiflod \>y mount- ains, of whiuli those forming its northern and north- western Imundary have Iwen described in thii worli under the article Am'h. A second range of ii ount- ains, running through its whole length, determ'nes its conllgurntion and its piiysical character. V i.m the earliest historical times they were called Apeuninn — a name suppimed to lie of Celtic origin, from If i contain- ing the root Pen, which in Coltiu dialects signifies heiglit or head. The Apennines may lie regarded as a great offshoot of the Alps, from which they branch off near the Gulf of Qenou; hut as there Is no regular break in the chain, much dlfferxnce of opinion has prevailed as to the point of their real commencement, Pidyblus ex- tends thn Apennines nearly as far as Marseilles; Strobn, un the contrar}', extends thn Maritime Alps to Vado, und states that the Apeimlnes begin nearOenoa. The Littpr opinion has been adopted by the best mod- em geographers, who llx the Junction of the Maritime Alps and the Apennines In the valley of the Bormida, west of Savona, whore the range, which does not ex- ceed the height of 1300 feet, presents the nearest ap- proach to a break. All the rlvera of Italjr tr« gubjnct to sudden and very heavy HikmIs, and with Iha exception of thn I'o, tha Adige, and the Tiber, have their volunia of water greatly reduiml in summer. The iniignlHrant amoiinl of tide in the .Mediterriuiean rendera moat of them ua*> liisa for navigation. In a country extending through 10 ilegreea of lali> tilde there must be great differencea of cllinata, and consei|uently of vegetation and agriculture, from |k»I> tliin alone. Ilesldea that, however, the idimnin of Italy la modlfleil to auch a degree by the rangea of thn Alpa und A|iennlnea, and by the air of the ana along ita coasts, as to render nseiesa any iliviiilim into regiima according to the claaslllcatlon of Naiissiira. In thn plnlna of Loinbardy and Piedmont, and the other ler- ritorlei to the north of the Apenninna, which are In- cloaeil by mountains on every side but the euat, Kuli. renheit's thermometer In winter deacenda lo 10" | snow lies snmetlinos a fortnight on tlia ground, thn lagoons at the mouths of the rlvera are fruion, and slight night fmsts appear early In November, and some years as lute as April. Delicate plants do not thrive except in sheltered situations, but the niul> l)*rry-trees Hourish, rice la grown, and tlio pattiirea are rich. Houth nf the Apennines, that part of Tua- cany and the .States of the Church which Is near their main range Is subject to great cold, but westward, and along tlie Kivlnru, tlio temperature grows mlhler, snow seldom lies long on the fields, niiii the climate la suitable to the growth of thn olive ami tlie orange, Hut it is when we reach the central range of thn Apaii- ninei that we <1nd the coldest districts of Italy, In alt the upland valleys of thn Abrur.r.1 and of nannio, snow begins to fall early in Noveinoor, und heavy storms occur often as late us May ; wiiole comiiiunl- ties are shut out for montlis from any intercourso with their neighbors, ond sumo villages are so long buried In snow that regular passages are made between tha different houses for the sake of communication among thn inhabitants. The district extending from thu south-east of Luke Fiiciiius to the Piano di (Mnquenii* glia, and inclosing tiin up|ier basin of the Hungro and the small lake of Scanno, Is the coldest and most bleak part of Italy south of the Alps. Heavy falls of anuw In June are not uncommon, and it Is only for u short tima toward the end of July that the nights are totally ex- empt ^iim light fVosts. Yet, less that 40 miles east of this district, und even more to the north, we llnd thn olive, the flg-trpe, and the orange, thriving luxuriantly on the shorea of tlie Adriatic from Ortona to Vasto. I n the same way, while in the plains and hilli round Naples snow is rarely seen, and never remain) long, and the thermometer seldom descends to tha freezing point, 20 miles east from it in tha fertile valley nf AvoUino, of no grett eUvation, but encircled liy bl^b ■f- ■■yji'ji^',- ISA 1116 ITA 'moantabu, light ttottt are not nncommon u lata as June ; and 18 mile* further east, in the elevated re- gion of S. Angelo da' Lombardi and Bisaccia, the in- habitants are always warmly clad, and vines grow with difficulty and only in sheltered places. But nowhere are those contrasts so strilclng as in Calabria. The shores, especially on the Tyrrhenian Sea, present almost a continued grove of olive, orange, lemon, and citron- trees, which attain a size unknown in the north of Italy. The sugar-cnne flourishes, the cotton-plant ripens to perfection, the date-trees are seen in the gardens, the roclcs are clothed with the pricla used as articles of commerce with other countries. As Italy produces abundance of wine, and conse- quently needs neither beer nor corn-spirits, no barley is needed for these drinks, and scarcely any is culti- vated. Oats are but little grown, but almndance of beans of various kinds are produced. Rye, the common bread-corn of the far greater portion of Europe, is only raised in a few spots in the ver}- northernmost parts of Italy, where it is made into bread for the poor i while those of the higher classes there, as well r.s throughout the whole peninsula in the cities, make use of wheaten bread. Rice grows in many parts, in fact wherever there is a sufficiency of water to insure a good produce, at such distance from towns as not to be injurious to tbo health of the inhabitants. It is a part of almost averj' meal in families in easy circum- stances, but is scarcely used by families who are in circumstances that require the practice of great parsimony. A great variety of lupines are used as food, especially in the soups. In some parts of the mountainous regions, chestnuts are a substitute for com as long as they last. Fruits are plentifully used, particularly figs, grapes, and melons, as food ; while the cheapneas of onions, garlic, tomatoes or love-apples, and capsicums, render them valuable as condiments. The potato, which in the other parts of Europe has been ,w much extended of late years, has been hut partially introduced into Italy ; and, where it is culti- vated, it occupies a very small proportion of the soil, lettuces, asparagus, endive, artichokes, and several kinds of turnips and of carrots, are everywhere grown. Animal food i.^ far from being extensively used. The oxen yield in some parts excellent, in other verj- indifferent meat. The mutton is neither good nor abundant, but has been much improved of late years. Swine fumish a plentiful supply dur'ng the winter months : they are also prepared as bacoi. e preserved beyond one year. Tho vines are not so much grown in vineyards as in the liodge- rowB ; a system which doubtless injures the quality of the wine. In the southem parts, however, where the vines aro grown in low vineyards as in Franco, the wines aro of a mora fierj' quality, and though prepared with little cara, they only require to be better known to be etteamad 'jy foreigners. ITA 1117 IVO The minenli of Italy am of mnilll VUltM) »nti tboiigh ininea of gold, Bllvar, «n([niI dominkm* itfld tlM Nmpott' tan territory, aome vitriol and mUmimy in I'ftrirtM, and aulpbnr in the itisnd uf Nioily, lit mutiy (flaoea there are excellent marhia (|UHrri«l«, titit tMMit near Verona and Currara, AUhaator U fuMtid lit mntiy itt the mountaina. The aait manufifitMrnd on )h« m«- ahore, and from aaline aprinKa, I* mHim tltxn la r«' quired for the home conauiiipttiH), and a lafK* (|««ntitx might l>e exported. Direct trade between tiia Uiiitwl Nl»lt«ii «tt4 lt«ly la conducted through the porta of \mt\mm, tUnim, and Palermo, to which may Iw odiM tixt AHatrtan ^itt (it Trieete. Exporta to Sicily, Hardloia, a«4 Titaiiany, in 1854, amounted to |4tl»,l 111 I wIiIIh Ut TriMt« they reached, during the aume year, ♦l,7fil,7*(, 'J'iMt *«lu» of cotton exported to Sicily, Sardinia, and Toacany, durlnft the aame year, waa $179,0931 to Trieete, it reached $1,870,403. The value of tobacco exported to Hloily, Sardinia, and Tuacany, in 1854, was $144,- IW3 1 to Trieate, it roachad the aum of $259,252. A large portion of the exportu to Trieete, however, are puruhaaed there for the German markets, that port (loaaeaaing imuaunl facilities aa a leading entrepAt for many of the Statea of German}'. Many American veaaela clear from the porta of the United States with (largnea deatined for the marliets of " Italy general- ly i" at leaat aiich would aeem to be their mode of clearance, from the cuatom-houae returns ; and the av- erage annual value of cargoes thus destined, exceeds the whole amount of cargoes for designated points in the Italian peninsula, except Trieste. The following table exhibits the value of this triangular trade for • period of 86 succesaive yeara : ComiitEcii or rnii ITmitko 8t*t»« wiTt* IfkM ilHilMMgn MAVtk to Octobib 1, 1838), taoM Ootobbe 1, 1820, to Ji;i,t 1, 1960. Ynn •a4lii( Kflioni. 1 1.^. Wfatraor then wh Id BulUon j -.«.».». Cl»r^ noiMWM, rml0,, TiHat, Total. Kipoit. Import. Amerleu). Sept. 80, 1821 1822 1823 ,, 1824 1828 1826 1827 1828 1829 1880 ToUU.v. Sept 80, 1881 18:)2 1883 1834 1836 1886 1887 1888 1889 1840 Total.... Sept 80. 1841 1842 Bmos. 1848 June 80, 1844 1848 1346 1847 1848 1849 1880 Total..,, June 80, 1881 1882 1868 ISM 1868....... 18156 ♦410,171 640,714 U6,W4 76,8W 66,606 8|,»2ii 74,4(7 279,620 «i»,76« (26,289 ♦»,2H1,»06 ♦871,6)6 70,864 106,786 178,6 »6 13»,47rf 206,268 8l8,6l-«,184 (,067,906 6«l.8i<< 616.A89 timi,m «lll,«l m,1t*i Ml.'rll ttnm i*,«i(*,fwr 4W/*7 «V>,»4I mfitA M»,«7 «('),(A« W,iM,r*(- »I7,»21 t,M6,9t6 1,«6n,rt«1 Mn4,a«9 IM^rtfl ♦ (."MM.JIO (,7fi).70fl 4*t,«20 (978,448 r662,098 1,369,440 1,029,439 l,464,02il 1,120,749 1,013.126 1,607,417 1,409,688 940,264 ♦2i5',66o 88,692 ♦886,211 271,944 215,197 70,303 100,084 74,259 102,692 67,582 1,200 2,570 8,802 10,066 6,057 6,111 7,016 8,208 5,891 6,615 T,081 6,626 "461 "767 "418 ♦1,704,364 1,619,796 999,184 1,422,063 1467,977 1,970,246 1,827,181 944,288 1,182,297 1,167,200 ♦68,692 ♦660 ♦1,201,482 ♦87,988 4,400 1,200 18,805 14,004 2,614 88',oi8 6,728 67,672 67,812 9,120 6,042 6,056 4,482 4,844 6,868 2,637 8,041 1,016 8,071 1,646 "882 426 306 268 8,581 1,810 1,838 2,602 11,000 1,267 1,402 1,117 941 914 ♦14,284,896 (1,161,286 3*4,664 1,096,926 1,301,677 1,189,738 1,279,986 1.616,100 1,660,S9« 9,106^7 fl2,6?8;62fl ♦i(.0B1,«97 1.234,906 •63,714 #1,728 1,773,488 1,686 866 ♦060 ♦8,780 16,000 ♦180,769 ♦8,841 1,414 V,861 2,400 18'476 7,719 8,000 4,023 60,871 6,282 7,867 8,380 9,M0 6,984 1,196 ♦19,760 ♦42,288 26,519 2,898 4,179 8,6)1 "237 768 The commerce of Italy has sulfarad tiiim ttiM «!«« rangement of the government i uihI MltlcotKh favtif* ably situated for a large troilu, the iiMirelmnl tiiaiine la •mall, and conflued almost eutirvlv U) i^oaallnK Vfiaa«la, Import* In 1862 , ,,,,,,, \»itiH%t^ E»porta ..,,, IO,m/»l» The 8cut¥ \,mmnn, "oi'-t;."' txi" vzT 1852 f^mm) Mmm 1863 ii6,*«Maa) li/ivmin 1868 142,26'l,orw NiTiQiTioH or Tna I'oaw ov Civir* Viwwhu ami) iir K*i:u»k (1862), Vuiili. Roman,. . Foreign. Total.. 'Kim 187,728 l,0ft; 1,281 :,«e very largo ; and if to the quantity of ivory required for Great Britain, we add that required for the other countries of Europe, America, and Asia, the slaughter of elephants must, after every reasonable deduction is made, appear immense ; and it may r ell excite sur- prise, that the breed of this noble animal has not been more diminished. The western and eastern coasts of Africa, the Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon, India, and the countries to the eastward of the Straits of Malacca, are the great marts whence supplies of ivory are de- rived. The imports from western Africa into Great Britain, in 1810, amounted to 1933 cwt. ; the Cape furnished only 97 cwt. The imports during the same year from India, Ceylon, and other eastern countries, were 2418 cwt. The Chinese market is principally supplied with ivory from Malacca, Siam, and Su- matra. The chief consumption of h ory is in the manufac- ture of handles for knives ; but it is also extensively used in the manufacture of musical and mathematical instnunents, chess-men, billiard-balls, plates for min- iatures, toys, etc. Ivory articles are said to be manu- factured to a greater extent, and with better success at Dieppe, than in any otiier place in Europe. But the preparation of this beautiful material is much bet- ter understood by the Chinese than by any other peo- ple. Xo European artist has hitherto succeeded in cutting concentric baMs after the manner of the Chi- nese; and their boxes, chesvmen, and other ivory articles, are all far superior to any that are to be met with anywhere else. * Statkhrnt Bi'ovtNa iH« Impoits or Ivoet ikto tor tiKITKD BlATKS FOB TUB FUOAL T«AK ENDING JUNE 80TU, 18S6. Whtnca loiported. MMuhelorea or.jI'uiiaiMliKlund.l Russian Powes. In N. America- i2'.oi8 «,!iS8 i;8«T s.iso lOS t898 «^6S8 ai,945 SOS 188 960,278 1T8 88 England British Poisesslons in Africa. . . Kitnce rurtuml PorUIn AlHca Clitna... Other places Total %iijm 1820,100 aiilorical JVbdce.— It Is a curious fact, that the peo- ple of all Asiatic countries in which the elephant is found, haTe always had the art of taming the animal and applying it to useful purposes, but that no such art has ever been possessed by any native African na- tion. Is this owing to any difference between the Asiatic and African elephants, or to the inferior sa- gacity of the African people ? We incline to tliink that the latter is tlio true hypothesis. Alexander the .Great is believed to have l>een the first European who employed elephants in war. It appears pretty certain that the elephants made use of b}' the Carthaginians were mostly, if not w holly, brought from India ; and that they were managed by Indian leaders. Some of the latter were captured by the Romans, in the great victor}' gained by Metellus over Asdrubal. See, on this curious subject, two very learned and valuable notes in the Ancient Universal Uittory. Bcfpon's Article on the Elephant is a splendid piece of compo- sition. Rendering Ivory Soft. — The various mechanickl and chemical processes connected with the manipulation of ivory, are among the most interesting peculiarities of art. In rendering it soft and transparent, small pieces of the article are laid in strong phosphoric acid until they become transparent, then rinsed in water, and dried in pure linen. When drj- It is tnmslucent and hard, but softens as often as it is dipped in warm water or milk. The time of immersion in the acid differs with different pieces of ivorj-. If certain parts are to retain their original character, they are covered with a varnish before immersion. The acid probably acts by forming an acid phosphate of lime out of the buric phosphate which constitutes three fourths of ivory. The process of hardening ivory, which has become pliable by age, consists in boiling it for some time in a solution of gelatin. Vegetable Ivor,, is now imported chiefly from tlie River Magdalen into Europe and the United States of America ; in some years no less than 160 tons of it have been imported into England. The '- nuts" may be purchased in the toy-shops of the British metropo- lis for a few pence each, but when bought in large quantities, they are obtained at a much cheaper rate. In August, 1854, 1000 " nuts" were sold in London for 78. 6d. The ivory plant is confined to the conti- nent of South America, where it grows between the 9th degree of north, and the 8th degree of south lat- itude, and the 70th and 79th of west longitude. It inhabits damp localities, such as confined valleys, banks of rivers and rivulets, and is found not only on the lower coast region, as in Darien, but also on moun- tains at an elevation of more than 3000 fert above the sea, as in Ocana. Among the Spaniards and their de- scendants, it is kno>m by the name of Palme de Mavfil (ivorj- palm) ; wWle its fruit is called by them Cabc.a de Negro (Negro's head) j and its seeU, Marfil regelal (vegetable ivory). The Indians on the banks of the Magdalena term the plant Tagva, those on the cotist of Darien Anta, and those of Peru, PuUipunta and Uomero. It is generally found in separate groves, seldom intermixed with other trees or slirubs, and where herbs are rarely met with. — Botanical Magadne, May, 1866. Ivoty Blaok. The mixture of charcoal and phosphate of lime obtained by burning bone, is sold under this name, and, like other forms of animal char- coal, is very effective in depriving certain substances of their color. j*l.-».^^x_^-,ife.^. Si^irt-j^^%.-l^^jAr-.-^ 3AD 1119 JAF peo> tnt is aimiti I such n na- il tha or sa- think er the in who certain jinians a', and ome of e great See, on raloable DFFOS'S compo- iciil and ipulation uliaritles nt, small loric acid in water, anslucent J in warm tlic acid lain parts te covered 1 probably out of the fourths of which has it for some y from tlie d States of iO tons of it nuts" may ih nictropo- ;ht in large heaper rate, in London to the conti- between the of south lat- ngitudo. It ned valleys, 1 not only on ilso on moun- ift above the and their de- Ume de Marfil ■ them Cabtza Marfi regeKii banks of the on the coast 'uUipunta and >arate groves, r slirubs, and itcahWrtS":""' bone, 19 »<"" of animal char- *in substances J. Jack, In nautical language. Is a flag of colors used In making signals. See Flags. Jaomel, a sea-port of Hayti. This port, consider- ing the scantiness of its supplies for foreign export, enjoys a considerable share of the navigation of Hayti. , It forwards to Port-au-Prince most of the merchandise It imports, especially the large quantities of flax and silk textiles which it receives by the British steam- packets. The first rank in the commerce of this port, formerly held by the British, is now transferred to the United States. In the movements of 1860 there were under the American flag 60 vessels, out of a total of 161 ; under the English flag, 46 (including their regu- lar ro}'al mail steamers) ; and under the Prench flag only 6. The trade and navig.i » ion between the United States and the port of Jaciiiel during the last sis months of 1864 is given as follows : — Number of ves- sels, 30 ; average tonnage of each, 140 tons ; value of cargoes inward, #661,590 32; value of cargoes out- wan], not given in official returns. Cargoes inward consisted of provisions, lumber, shingles, and assorted goods. Cargoes outwaiH of coffee, logwood, lignum- Titffi, fustic, braziUtto.' Jaoobus, a gold coin, worth 25s., and so called from King James I. of England, in whose reign it was struck. There are two kinds of Jacobut, the old and new; the former valued at 26s., weighing six penny- weights ten grains; the latter, called also Carclui, valued at 23s., and in weight five pennyweights twenty grains. Jaoquard, a peculiar and most ingenious mechan- ism, invented by M. Jacquart of Lyons, to be adapted to a silk or muslin loom for superseding the employ- ment of draw-boys, in weaving figured good';. Inde- pendently of the ordinary play of the warp threads, for the formation of the ground of such a web, all those threads which should rise simultaneously to pro- duce the figure have their appropriate healds, which a child formerly raised by means of cords, that grouped them together into a system, in the order, and at the time desired by the weaver. This plan evidently oc- casioned no little complication in the machine, when the design was richly figured ; but the apparatus of Jacquart, which subjects this manoeuvre to a regular mechanical operation, and derives its motion from a simple pedal put in action by the weaver's feet, was generally adopted soon after its invention in 1800. Every common loom is susceptible of receiving this beautiful appendage. It costs in France 200 francs, or (40 in this country. Jade, an ornamental stone, of which there appear to be two varieties, common jade or nephrite, and taiU' twite or jade tenace. Common jade is a silicate of magnesli, oxyd of iron, alumina. Its specific gravity varies from 2'9 to 3-0 ; hardness 7'0. Its color is leek green, passing into gray. It is very tough, and icarcly fusible before the blow-pipe. Nephrite was formerly worn as a charm, and was supposed to be a core for disease of the kidney, whence the name from vc^pof, kidney. From its toughness it has l>een used for the blades of hatchets by the New Zealanders, and other savage nations. Humlx>ldt speaks of jade stones being an article of trade among the natives of the north and south sides of the Orinoco. Jade is much used in Turkey and Poland for the handles of knives, daggers, swords, etc. ; and in India, ornaments and trinkets, delicately worked, are made of it. In China, the jade is of a whitish color, and is called yu. It is formed into vases, rings, and other articles. A great variety of jade ornaments ttom India and China ap- peared at the Great Exhibition of IR&l. Such articles *n veiy costly, on account of the extreme difficulty of working thb refractory (lytwUnM, liut It lias b««n suggested that mort»r«, p«»tk<«, mhiI mmu other objects required by cbemista, i'omM \m HmtiMfi(«t«feitrn«li«n, (wt It takes only ■ greasy, not a brilliant iHtlUb, Saussurite is » dniililn •lllcfito iif nta^nesla, lime, and oxyd of iron, with MU*i tlti* sword, ntid the town burned. Having sulis«i|iiiintl)' hci'iime ttie refuge of pirates, the plaia was utterly lUntrnymi, Uradoally, however, it beiins again to lmv« risen to importance, for, during the reign of thii Chrtfitlait smperors, It was made the seat of » btftliapri*!. In A. I), 690 It was taken by Omar, In tlia t'rusaitfit it was taken by Baldwin I,, and ill IIM! ratiken It)' Haladin, In more recent times (t was «tJiri»t(>(l liy Napoleon in 1797, when 600 Turkiuli nrliMiimr!* were put to death. The harbor of Joppa has always h«en dangerous, owing to its exposure to the sea, and, Mnu flow nearly choked up with sand. vio>ii«i|» ttn iiUHgm to keep at a distance from tha shore, Notwitlistanding all tha danger and difficulty of Undlni;, lUtppn has for man^ centuries been tim resort of |iil)(rlnis on tlidr way to Jerusalem. The town cIiIji(I)' faces the north. The buildings are surmounted by Atllmmi di.mes, which rise in rows above one aiiotli«r like terraces, on the steep face of tlia emin«ni'.t on wtiii'li the town Is built. The summit of the height is crowned with a castle ; but though the general sttlMtton of the town Is thus somewhat pictureai)us, it* appearance on tloser Inspec- tion is mean and liimifortles*. A wall 12 feet high defends the town on tlia Ulidwaril side, and two forts protect tlie harlior. Joiipa Marries on trfole In cotton, soap, fruit, coral, etc, 'I lie fruUs, consl«tln)i of water- melons, oranges, leniniii, etc, «row well In the sandy soil of the numerous nelglitHirtii); gardens, It Imports rice from Egypt. Tlifl inhahttanl!! consist -it Turks and Arabs, Itonwnists and iireeks, with some Arme- nians, as may be inferred from the three mosques, three churches, and three ArnMiilttn convents to be seen in the town, A Urittsli consul resly De Candolle. It has since, however, been placed in the genus Exogonmm. Tlie true jalap (Krogonium purga) has a tuberous perennial root, a smooth, twin- ing, annual stem, a salver-shaped corolla, with long cylindrical tube, a calyx of Ave small, unequal sepals, and herbaceous stems. Its leaves resemble the ivy, and its beautiful red flowers open onl}' at night. The dried tubers of this plant supply the drug jalap ; these, as found in commerce, rarely exceed 1 lb. in weight ; they are oval in form, and covered with a dark slcln or cuticle. _ Internally they are yellowish gray, with deep brown concentric circles, and are liard and difficult to powder. Inferior sorts are more irreg- ular in form, and are called tpurioun jalap, or, from their shape, cocked-hat jalap. Some roots are much Korm-eatm, and are so called ; but as the insects do not touch the resinous portions, such roots are avail- able for extracts. Four kinds of jalap are known in commerce, two genuine and two spurious ; first, dark, heavy, resinous tubers ; secondly, lighter colored and less resinous ; thirdly, white or fake jalap, pieces of which are occasionally mixed with the true ; and, fourthly, _/a/o/)-j(im\tmni w«f/ Having, with the Mos> quitA 'i'gtfUtiff, dmttM Ibd Htlhjtet tit dispute Iwtwccn tiroat IMMfn »h4 IIh) t/nitml Mates, arising out of the CUyt(»n--ilMiw«r tfWrtf , ihttf hav* (1856) been consti- tutad «« ttm tMffUttry #«/W the retmblic of Honduras, with itruvliMX ittiHilik AlMfMtkm, th« erection of forts, and t(M» imf4i4miUtH tit nUtety. iitnmim wm iti!>4':4tiinf«4 liy Colombns on the 3d of Mi»y, Wi, mMk ttmtiiinf alnna the south of Cuba, during Ui» - priHulmn Urn nlmtCf i'tiiutntmi called the nearest land »A«r \m am y a tempest, in which ha bxHt tWH sWjw.. i4t M tmy on the north side of the isl- and, whi«b h" nrntwA ftta. GI(rti« (now St. Ann's Hay), wb«ra h» ritn hU fftniiitlittg vessels ashore in a small inH Dtili tmitM fitm Obflslwpher's Cove. Tlie ship- wre«k«4 mUfiimi* #«f« fWflved with the greatest kindni'M ity tMtt f ((4ii»rt#y and here Colum)>ns remained upward i)f» fmr #w«iti«^ ih^ return of messengers he had 4i»(«fci|wi4 tii ilvittidof Kirrtrtnar of Ilispaniola, as » w»« ihim fniM, JWrtnji this time he suffered miM^h ffnm 4imim, hh W*11 as from the mutiny of his folbfwer^, wfcwi ufim wisfondnct alienated the In- dians, #n4 fffiiViikf'i lb«M f« withhold their accus- tomed eMM/)w<«, miii he dfttlwfously worked upon their su|wr«ltitl"n by ttfitfltiontiiititig an eclipse. J}y |';8«|MJVii'l ♦((# ««ff*«s Wete treated, according to Hsrrisra, with «ffM,s(«#l h«Wf(«lfy. That his successors did n«t (mfttttc Mm Ul this respect is proved by the astoundiffi; (itt>t, «((*(„ nf the Indian popidation, at this tinxt eatUmtM ul tftita 00,000 to ] ((0,000 souls, not a d«i»r«n4#pt lit Mm s«* «*lsied In 1655, when the isiiind (4i inUi tiw hittuh iit the English, nor, is It suppi(»»4, (ttf mutiy * ffiHtlfr Irefore. After a short sway, KsiiiMivci dl^4 Iff fkfUH d'Oro, a town founded l)y liinmf tm Ht, Ahn'n Way, wMch is supposed by some U) If**** imm tki*tiH»i an account of the ravages of ants, by t4h4»fi t4i Unfit lieen destroyed during an in Vtittt 1M!t, iHego Columbus, visiting iimMm ttm» Ui»p»Vi(A», tutine.tid tm the River Cobre, JAM 1121 JAM Inland to the aonth of the mountain range, St. .Tago de la Vega, St. James of the Plain, which gave the title of marquis to his descendants, and is still the official capital, under the name of Spanish Town, At some distance westward, on the coast, was built Oristan, which is now called DIuefielda. Down to 1596 the hlstorj- of Jamaica is onl; - record of the rapid disap- pearance of the Indians, under the Spanish yoiie, and of intrigues at the court of Spain, liaving for their ob- ject the dispossession of the descendants of Columbus, whose rights wore, however, successfully defended, and eventually centred in an heiress, through whom they passed by marriage to tlie liouse of Braganza, reverting afterward to the Spanish crown, in conse- quence of the revolution of IGIO, which placed John, duke of Braganza, on the throne of Portugal. Long anterior to this last event, the union of the crowns of Spain and Portugal, under Philip 11., in 1680, occa- sioned an influx of Portuguese colonists into Jamaica, who contributed much to its strength and prosperity, but were usually on indifferent terms with Spanish settlers. Attention had at an early period been paid to agriculture, the cotton-plant was extensively culti- vated, and the sugur-cane, vine, and various kinds of com and grass had been introduced ; and whereas a small species of dog, called the alco. was the only do- mestic quadruped linown to the aborigines, horwf, horned cattle, and swine had been imported from Ilis- paniola, which multiplied amazingly, and a flourishing trade sprang up in lard and bides, as well as tobacco, sugar, and ginger. The population, according to the return of 1855, consists of 181,633 males, and 195,800 females; but this is based npon the last census, that of 1814, when the population was returned at 380,000, of whom 16,000 were white, 68,000 colored, and the rest black, of whom about 1200 were maroons. Since then upward of 40,000 people have died from cholera and small-pox, and about 2000 have emigrated to Navy Bay to work on the rail- way over the Isthmus of Panama, a portion of whom only have returned. The careless treatment of chil- dren by the negroes, and their almost invincible re- pugnance to pay doctors' fees, which has necessarily reduced the number of medical practitioners, prevent the natural rate of increase ; and the waste of public money during the protracted dispute between the Council and House of Assembly, has caused the num- ber of immigrants imported to fall very short of other colonies. We find, in consequence, that while 49,000 arrived in British Guiana between the years 1840 and 1852 only 14,000 were brought to Jamaica. The fol- lowing returns have been made by the Emigration Commissioners of Immigrants introduced into Jamaica from 1848 to 1855, both inclusive : Emanclpadoes fh)m Havana 276 Blerra lione 1,870 St. Hcloni. 8,198 Madeira 879 China 472 Total.. 6,195 Besides which there were still in the island 1684 coolies who had arrived before 1847, and a considerable num- ber of recaptured Africans, The criminal returns of this population are remarlcably favorable ; tho num- ber in prison throughout the island on the 31st De- cember, 1855, was only 683; and Sir H. Borkly reports that the numbers convicted of crimes in Jamaica when compared with British Guiana were as 18 to 83. The revenue of Jamaica was estimated, in a calcu- lation made in 1830, on an average of ten years, at £490,000 currency, or about .£327,000 sterling. . This was independent of that raiaed by the vestries for parochltl purposes, which amounted to about i.'300,000 currency, or ^£200,000 sterling. Tho public revenue of 1841 was £226,989, IBs. Bd.; the parochial, ^£177,- 491, 12s. lOd. rterling. The public ezpendUnie, I'S&l,- 4B 415, 16s, Od, ; the parochial, .£160,867, 16s, 8d. In the year 1854, owing to tho suspension of the import and rum duties, and consequent large accumulation of tax- able articles which had paid nothing to tho treasury, the revenue fell to .£116,624 sterling, while the expen- diture was X197,6,S8. In 1856 tiie following return was made: Income. — Ordinary revenue, ;C199,647; casual revenue, £20,771; total, £226,419. Kipendititre:- - Ordinary expenditure, £198,461 ; casual expenditure, £49,643 ; total, £243,105. In tho same year the local or parocliial taxes amounted to al)out £80,000. In the budget for 1856, the following estimates of the rev. enuo and expenditure for tho current year were pre- sented to the Jamaica I^egislature : I:)C0iiE. Import dues £128,000 Ituiii duties. 80,000 Stamps 11,000 Tonnage dues. 11,000 Fees 1,000 Htockand hereditaments 16,000 House tux (dlsallowud) 0,000 Land tax 6,000 Interest on guaranteed loan In Colonial li'k 1,000 Total income £206,000 ExpENDrruRK. Collection of revenue £20,105 Parochial Hems trnnsrcrrod 14,053 Church ostnblishniont, 29,898 Administration of Justice 20,292 Police 28,465 Governor and Privy Council 4.460 Lejislatlvo Council 2,064 House of Assembly 8,845 Executive comniittce 8,,820 Sanitary establishment 10,120 Education (disallowed) 6,000 Printing. 4,000 Public works 8,500 Llght-housoa 1,000 Prisons 17,700 Insolvent deposits 2,000 Interest on loans 88,411 Miscellaneous, including £800 for mllltia, £800 to geologist 3,646 Total expenditure £206,765 By an act of the Assembly in 1864, the Council fund of £6000 a year, originally granted in 1728, ceased, and it was provided that £25,000 should be raised annually as a permanent civil list, for tlie purposes of the gov- ernment of the island, and a further sum of £30,000 for the interest on, and repayment of the guaranteed debt. It is difficult te fix the value of the movable and immovable property in Jamaica, once estimated at £50,000,000. The latter, however, that is, the land with the buildings on it, is periodicallj' valued for tax ation, and the hereditament tax is raised upon a sum equal to 6 per cent, on such valuation — that l)eing, ac- cording to an arbitrary assumption, the nett revenue of the land. Though the tax is paid upon many prop- erties on which the cultivation has been given up, and which produce no revenue at all, this sum was fixed in 1850 at £693,382, 48. 3d., on an estimated value of about £11,500,000, Since then the decline has been rapid ; and when it is remembered that the full in rata- ble property in the next year exceeded £2,000,000, there can be little doubt that the difference in value since the prosperous days of Jamaica amounts to at least 80 per cent. For many once valuable estates no purchaser could now bo found on any terms. It is on record that 231 sugar estates have been abandoned, besides ?43 coffee plantations, and 132 grass pens. It is notorious that the paper circulation, which amount- ed to £268,816 in 1844, has dwindled to £70,000 in 1855. It is clear, therefore, that though the public and parochial taxation has been reduced from about £800,000 cunedcy to less than £300,000 sterling, it U much more burdensome to the tax payer now. Indeed, when it is considered that the value of articles ex- ported, expensive as they are to produce, does not reach £1,000,000, it \a evident that the estates in th( JAM 1122 JAM •ggrogate yield no rental at all, but are moiutained by Bon-residont proprietors poaaesiied of other meann, wlio •re unwilling to abandon the hope of future improve- ment. Even supposing the whole money expended in raising these articles of export amountwl to little more than double the public revenue of the country, a pro- portion, liighly taxed as tlio island is admitted to be, quite beyond belief, it would follow that after pay- ment of production, expenses, and taxes, little or no surplus would remain for the proprietor ; but such ex- penses must in reality far exceed ^£000,000, and cim' only bo provided, as before observed, by those propri- etors who have otiier funds at their disposal. It is necessary to explain the two forms of calcula- tion to which reference has been made — currency and sterling. The former was an arliitran* mode of reck- oning, unrepresented liy uny coinage, employed until the year 18-10, by which .£140 currency equaUed nom- inally .£100 sterling ; but a premium of about 18 per cent, was paid in addition to place this sum in En- gland, so that upward of £tCiG in Jamaica were needed to pay 4.'UK) in England. In 1840 an act passed cs- tablislilng the English computation, fixing the pound sterling at $5, or £1, Vis. 4d. currency, and making English money the legal tender. Spanish and Portu- guese coins are still current, the highest being the doubloon, or ounce, worth obout £i, 6s. 8d. Before this date, a "tivepenny," worth 3d, sterling, was tlie lowest coin. There is still no copper, und the lowest coin is the silver throe-hnlfpence, coined especially for Jamaica, and culled a prxMllul, as intended for the pay- ment of agricultural luluirers. In former days, the only paper currencj- consisted of i.sland checks issued by the treasury. There are now two banks of issue, a branch of the Colonial Dank, and the Hank of Jamaica. A third, the Planters' Dank, has l)cen given up since the trade of tlie colony declined. The present issue is usually from .£70,000 to ilSO.OOO. Savings banks havo abo licen cstaldished in the island. • The commerce of Jamaica depends almost entirely on its agriculture. It has gradually lost the greater portion of the transit trade in consequence of the re- volt, and subsequent disorganization of the Spanish colonies on the mainland, tlie establishment of St. Thomas as a free port, and the rapidity of steam com- munication between Europe and the American coast, which diminished the advantages of an emiwrium in the West Indies. Its agricultural prosperity lias de- clined in equal proportion, tliotigh, from different causes, the value of its staple having been depreciated by successive acts of the Imperial Government, where- by the differential duties, under the protection of which the scheme of emancipation was originally intended to be carried out, were discontinued. In 1840 ]<^st India sugar was admitted on equal terms into the Dritisb market. FoUr years afterward the same udvant;igo was conceded to foreign sugar, the produce of free labor; and in 1846 to slave-grown sugar. Protection has also lieen removed from molasses, coffee, und cocoa. Under these circumstances, the want of ade- quate labor hati prevented Jamaica competing witli those countries in widen, ^rom slavery and otlicr causes, there is a sufficient supply. The following tables illustrate these observations : Ycart, Vftlue of Import*. V»liia ofeinortl. 1809 i;4,06S,H97 £;I,0:J3,2:U 1810 4,808,887 2,808,8:9 1888 864,094 887,276 1864...^ 408,A20 082,816 The exports consist of her own products only, the imports include those intended for re-exportntinn, as well as those taken for home consumption, which ox- plains why. In the flourishing era of the transit trade, the balance should bo apparently so much against Jamaica. The exports, too, are entered at tlicir vnluu in the place of growth, while to imports are added charges for freight, etc. The small imports of 1854 were partly owing to the goods imported in anticipa- tion the year before, when the duties were not levieil. The same cause accounts for the small quantity of mm exported in 18.'>8, and the excess of the two fal- lowing years, enough for two 3'cars'home consumption having liecn entered in the same year duty frfeo. Tlia following talile gives the trade and navigation report for 1855: AaniVALS in Jamaici. im 1855. From X.'\^'. "»"• V..u.ofin,p.«.. ()rc»i llrlutn Unltucl Stoles.... Colonial 128 94 14B 127 48,1)201 .... 1 i 18,784| .... iBrtt. £194,019 15 6 15,4!W .... For. 405,437 12 4 11,81)4 .... ! Foreign Total 488 84,062] 4,823 ] £899,607 7 10 DuPAnTDRKa FROM iTamaioa in 18.15. I No. of I ihlpi. I Ton- itairo. Oroat Britain . Unltnil States. Dolonlos Foreign countries Total 128 77 68 240 8S,997 18,602 8.847 20,(114 608 I 86,8liO 4,462 Value of export!. £l,0O3,:!25 9 5 of which 9M,128 10 j represented Island | produce. , Of the ships in this list 40 were ships of war, -l-l steamers, and 38 colliers. iMroRin INTO Oreat Britain from ,Tauaica of thr Principal Articlrn of Nativb Produor in IS17 and ISiVi. Year, Sagnr. Rum. Mol... Colas. Cofioa. 1 CoUOD. PIroanto. ' Ulinor. Arrow- tool. Uirwoml MrIiok- A fuitio. 1 any. l'^^'- "'.""•"■""■>■• 1817 1888 C.u. 1,400,500 450,282 (iaili. 2,706,969 2,109,291 Cwl.. 96 IJ». 14,668,588 6,667,108 CwM. 260 I-lx. 1,021,674 2S0 I.b.. 1,627,812 7,666,680 i.t«.n tb.. 340,878 » 799,793 87,900 Torn. 11,819 11,844 1'rin«. 1,896 F.-c'l. 147,929 I.l.>. Lbi. 1 UM>. 82,011 1 • 1 • .... 1 81,686 6,487 Dm. 960,218 Dm. Pec. { !)«<<. 697,678 95 I 8,996,485 Dar. 260 Dotf. { Inc. 1 Int. 1,021,894 6,088,968 459,423 Dar. 276 82,011 1 .... 1 .... •No return. The largest sugar crop waa in 1806, which exceeded 160,000 hhds. ; that of 1856 did not i«ach 30,000 hhds. ; ihat of 1866 had fallen to 20,000 hhds. The largest coffee crop was in 1814, and exceeded 34,000,000 Iba. The great increase of pimento is unfortunately ac- icounted for by the rapid spread of tlie tree, which grows wild in Jamaica, over lands formerly nnder cnlti- .'vation. Since 1862 a small quantity of copper ore has been exported, amounting in 1854 to 37 tons. Ilesides these principal articles, there is exported a small quantity sf tamarinds, cocoa-nuts, succades, shrub, eliony, lignum vitic, and lancewood. There are five mining companies in Jamaica, all in their infancy — the Clarendon Consols, and Wheal Jamaica, in Claren- don i the Port-Royal and St. Andrews, and the Ellen- lie and Dardowie, in St. Andrew; the Portland Min- ing Company in Portland. Of these the first two are at present the most promising. The principal iuiport!< into Jamaica are salt pork and lieef, salt lisii and oil, butter, lard, cheese, com, coni-nieal, oatmeal. Hour, biscuits, rice, tobacco, wine and beer ; hardware, cut- lery and ironmongery ; ready-made clothes, l)oots and shoes, and dr)- goods of all sorts ; soap, candies siul- dlery, and harness; shingles, lumber, wood-hoojis, and voals. Importt into the hUmd of Jamaica from the Uniltd Statet in 1854.— Hour, 13,823 barrels; candles, 7!)11 boxes ; buttar, 2378 kegs ; lard, 2577 kegs ; pork, 1433 barrels ; hams, 20 barrels, W casks, 11 tierces ; clieeso, 108 boxes; meal, 2611 barrels; com, 2191 bags; JAM 1123 JAM feiportl. li-h I ii 10 : ml Island | )duco. rtlanil 5Iin- lirst two aro ipal imports lisli and o\\, meal, flour, rdware, cut- is, boots anil candles sivd- wood-hoops, ., the Unilf'i andles, 71)11 ,; pork, 1133 rces ; clieese, '2191 bagBi bread, 977 h»ml» ; beef, 241 barrel* ; C08l», 8801 tons ; 'umber, 83,186 feet ; rice, 1642 bags. Approximate value, WOO.SIS. American vessels engaged in trade with Jamaica in 1852, 194 ; in 1853, 164 ; from all European {lorts, in 1852, 119 ; in 1858, 155. The commercial resources of this island may be seen from the following tables of exports for three years, 1860-1852 : * Sugar. hhds. jKam ponchoona I Molasses casks jGliigor. lbs. IMmento " Coffee " 1811. 1861. 84,414 16,6flO It 994,000 6.4ilf<,flOO 7,127,000 Port Regulationt. — On every vessel entering Ja- maica, there is levied under the customs-tonnage act, a port duty of 24 cents per ton. I.ight-house duty, 6 cents per ton. Hospital tax — vessels from out of the tropics, 8 cents per ton ; from within the tropics, 4 cents per ton. Health officer's fees — on a ship or bark, $2 88 ; on a brig or brigantine, $2 16 ; on a schooner or sloop, $1 44. Harbor duos — ship or bark, $7 08 ; brig or brigantine, $5 76 ; schooner or sloop, $3 84. Jamaica embraces an area of 5520 square miles, and contains a population of about 3C,fl00 whitos, and 312,000 free blacks. Total population, 348,000. Pilot iJttea m the porta of Kingston and Port Jioi/al, — /n — 3.oO tons and over, $23 04 ; 250 tons and over, $17 28 ; 160 tons and over, $14 40 ; 100 tons and over, $11 62; 100 tons, $5 04. Out — 350 tons and over, $15 30 ; 250 tons and over, $13 44 i 200 tons and over, $11 52 ; 150 tons and over, $9 60 ; 100 tons and over, $7 68 : 100 tons, $6 72. These charges are reduced when the vessel enters or clears from Port Royal only. There is a steam communication between England and Jamaica, and fiVe versa, twice a month, in 19 days. The Royal Mail Steam-packet Company's ships leave Soutliampton on the 2d and 17th of each month, call- ing at St. Thomas, Porto Rico, and Jacmel, in Hayti, and reach Kingston on the 2l8t and fitli. Thoy leave a);ain for England on the 27th and 12th. iking the course of post about 44 days. Thoy aU once a month between .lamaica and Honduras ; ne of post 10 days. There are frequent opportunities be- tween Jamaica and Havana, and the United States. In the island there is a post twice a da)' between King- ston and Spanish Town, and a communication twice a vcck between these capitals and the country districts ; besides expresses, on the arrival and departure of the iimil packets. Jamaica being on the direct route frum England to Nice ragua, can scarcely fail to share in the gromng importance of the States of Central America. Kmancipation, — Hitherto its history, since emanci- pation, has been discouraging to the friends of liberty. The negro on whom the cultivation oi' the island de- pends, has gradually retired from labor, and retro- grailod in the social scale. This does not ari.sc from any hostile feeling toward the whites, with whom ho usually lives on the most amicable terms; it is the natural result of removing all restraint from a people low in civilization, and consequently with few artificial wants, in a country where land is superabundant. The Jamaica negro can earn enough on a sugar planta- tion in a few weeks to buy a small patch of freehold land. The wood upon it forms his cottage ; the vege- tables which grow almost spontaneously support him in tolerable comfort. When his little property does not require his core, he works from time to time for hire ; but as plantation after plantation is abandoned, and the country returns to its primeval forest, he is confined more and more to the society of his own race ; and though not more addicted to crime, is rapidly re- ceding into a savage state. During slaver)- the dis- ■enting ministera possessed great influence over him; he now prefers the established church, becaaae It coati him nothing, but he cares little for either. Not feelinu the want of education, he does nut seek it for Mo children, whom bo prefers employing in bis own ser- vice. Hence, neither churches nor schools are wanted in Jamaica, but congregations and scholars. These observations are contirmod by the last returns, which flx the diminution of children in the schools in 1854, as compared with the previous year, at 2000, and show this decrease to be Ibss conspicuous in those l>elonginK to the established church of England and Scotland, than in those of the Baptists and Independents. We can scarcely blame the negro for following the bent of his inclination ; l>ut it is evident that under these cir- cumstances, unless there is a large and immediate supply of immigrants, to meet the expense of wliose introduction, averaging at least £10 per head, there are no available funds, all society will cnme to a speedy end, and the island become a second Huyti. Already the enormous depreciation of projKrty has caused the ruin of so many, that the name of Jamaica proprietor, once used proverbially to indicate wealth, is now associated with poverty and distress. Jamaica is of a long oval shape, and has been com- pared to a seal with the head pointed to the west. Its surface is beautifully diversified with hills and valleys. An elevated range, called, in the eaitcm or highest part, the Blue Mountains, and terminating in Dolphin Head, to the west, runs longitudinally through the isl- and, and other high i Mgus insersect this chain. On the south the mountains are generally steep, with gigantic spines or buttresses rising from the plain at an average distance of 12 miles from the sea. Though difficult of access they are traversed by bridle-roads in various directions to the height of nearly 6000 feet ; and several passes, or gaps, as they are called, of great altitude, connect the two sides of the island. On these elevated ranges the coffee attains the greatest perfection, and above, dense forests ascend to the highest peak, composed chiefly of beef-wood, as it is called from its color, and satin-wood. Under their shade the tree-fern grows to the height of 15 feet, and the flute-like note is hoard of the solitaire, a bird only found in these wildernesses. On the north side the mountains approach the sea closely, but more gradu- ally, their conical forms are gently rounded, and in St. Ann and Trclawny the lower slopes are shaded by pimento woods, the indigenous ' rowthof the island, and elsewhere by orange groves, n dngo, and cedar forests, above which frequently towers the gigantic silk-cot- ton tree. The shady valleys between were once occu- pied by cacao walks, now destroyed ; and on the low- lands, near the sea, were formerly the indigo-works, long since abandoned. Here aro now the sugar estates, in which the dark green of the cane is varied by the golden tint of the guinea grass, and the cabbage and cocoa-nut palms shoot up in long lines close to the water's edge, from which they aro separated by a fringe of mangroves, growing below high-water mark, and the beautiful l>ut poisonous manchinecl. The waving field of cdnes is broken at intervals by the white cluster of buildings composing the sugar-works. The mill, the boiling-house, with its tall chimneys, and the stables, stores, and bookkeepers' houses sur- round a large court-yard. Above, on on eminence, is usually the proprietor's mansion, and close by, though completely buried in the broad foliage of the plantair and banana, the negro village. On these plantations during crop the scene is most onin.ited. Bands of negroes, with cutlasses, attack the rows of canes which tower above their heads ; wagons, drawn by oxen or mules, in endless succession, carry the canes to the mill ; women and children hurr)' with the dry stalks to feed the tires ; and the shouts, without which a negro seldom does any thing, announce afar ofi', in th;!i clear atmosphere, the neighborhood of a sugar estate. It ia here, too, that the traveler sees most clearfy the JAM 1124 JAM dtollne of th^ countr}-. At each end of tho island, In tlia parlthea of Hanover antl Portland, ho may Journey fl>V mtlea through deserted plantatlona. Ridges, over- grown with guuva liushei, mark the tite of the com- flelda ; rank vegetation filla the court-yard, and ovon bunts through the once hospitable roof. A curse leoms to have fallen upon the land, as It this genera- tion were atoning for the sins of the past. For while we lament the rulu of the present proprietors, we can not forget the unrequited toil which, In times gone by, created the wealth they have lost, no.' that hapless race, the original owners of the soil, v.hoso fate sad- dens the darkest [i»ge of history. The sugar estates resemble generally thone of tho other Islands, but Jamaica has a featu'f ■> peculiar to itself. In the centre of the island, and toward the south and west, are largo plains, or table-lands, at an elevation of about 1000 foet, covered with a luxurlr.nt growth of guinea grass, dotted with groves of tall trees, and, at greuter intervals, with v/hite houses and villages. From an eminence the whole country re- sembles A series of English park.';. These are the pens, or grazing fnrms, where horses and cattio of most ex- cellent quality are bred, lliey are chiefly In St. Anr, Manchester, St. Elizabeth, Ht. James, and Ilunover. The climate, nt tliis elevation s well suited lu ii Ku- ropean population, who ct ..ui work on tliu suyiir plantations, but may with safety bo cnipluyed on tiio light and htialthy duties of the farm. The view of the island from the sea has long been celebrated. Soon after leaving Cape Tiburoii, the western point of Haytt, the Dluo Mountains are in sight, and along the south coust of Jamaica, from I'nint Morant to Kingston, the Inhabited plains, slopiii); gradually up, till cultivation terminaliis in forest, pre- sent an aspect of no common beauty. From Fort Nu- gent, which Is conspicuous under a stcoi liill, to Port Kcyal, runs a narrow s>indy promontory, culled tho Palisades. Here is tho great cemetery, where so many victims to yellow fever lie buried thnt tho name Ims become proverbial ; and this neck of land incloses the harbor of Kingston, which Is entered by i, most Intricate channel between Port Koyal and Port Henderson, ami beyond which the capital Is seen strolcliing norlliward toward tho amphitheatre of the Liguana Hill.i, and pro- tected by the loftiest range of the I31uc Mountains. N'UMBIB AMD ToRN40a Or VuSfLS IHTntED AND rLIAStD, riOH AKD 10 VABIODS C'OUMTaiES, IH BAOH Or THE VeaDS 1864, 1866, AMn 1866. CraMm. CLiiam. _ . - - . ._ IU4. IMS. IU(. IU4. 1816. mi. VmhIi. Tom. VmmIi. Tom. VaMli. Toai. VeMwIi. Tom Vludl. Tuns. Vnuli I T„ni. United Kingdom Ilrltlih colontcfl United States 163 149 141 108 48,368 12,706 22,044 9,717 122 146 04 127 43,I>2'J 18,436 18,784 11,8114 126 188 141 89 4I>, 4» ' 50'.'7 125 , W'^t-i 184 1 IS.DTG 4811 1 iH,8vr Other foreign countries Total 651 UU,8t)4 488 163,662 408 80,680 611 1 83,723 608 NUMBEB AMD TONHAII OF VESSELS, WITU CABOOIS AND IN BALLAST, AT JAMAICA IM T:iE YlAB 1866. NaUondltx of Vr|o«l Ill BlIlHt. Tola). Wilht ftrgoci. 111 Billut. Tolnl. 1 VCHOU. Tom. Vemli Tom. Vtutk Tom. VwMll. Tom. 01,175 6,913 16,030 183 260 178 768 2,4.13 1,V85 380 4in 407 297 103 196 Vei '••};, 25B 7<,tS(l American (U. fitatei).. 104 162 145 1 9 21 32,080 14,864 2>,801 183 246 269 1,4«9 1,794 1,731 662 197 413 "282 224 230 8 6 6 2076 86» 679 'isi 108 161 1 9 4 22 6 2 1 3 "i 4 7 84,1(16 16,223 28,480 183 246 263 1,460 1,926 1,731 662 197 418 "282 224 230 1(6 03 103 1 8 1 3 24 D 2 1 a 1 2 2 6 Ananlah Portuguese Oldenburg Norwcurian Swediai Danish New Onuisdan ...... St Domlngan Total 4TJ 77,443 21 3246 493 80,689 3 60,746 483 NVMBEB AMD TOHHAaB or Vessels emtebed and olzaekd, with Cabgoes and in ISallast Yeab 1856. AT EACH rOBT IN TUB Port.. CISAKIB. WIUi C>r(oM. In Ballut. Toui. With OriiuM. In Ballut. Total. 1 VmmU. Tom. Vnula. Tom. VmoU. Tom. V.r.1., Ton.. Vauoli. Tom. VmmIi. Toi]». ' Kingston 827 4 2 3 81 « 8 62 £1 2 3 12 r 63,067 1,391 178 802 8,606 1,138 686 6,877 683 466 8,079 1,98.1 9 "i 1 "i "b 4 799 'isi 339 MS iiso 669 836 4 2 4 83 6 9 61 39 2 8 16 7 64,456 1,891 178 083 8,034 1,188 686 6,877 4,136 683 1,696 3,648 i,:.6 149 8 3 6 7 17 7 26 81 8 34 64 16 16,683 2,098 206 1,716 1,247 2,819 1,720 M3» 4,201 1,002 7,678 10,799 4,688 74 '13 "i n 21 "s 12,64/ i,°643 "144 1,310 2,210 "288 2J3 8 8 6 20 17 8 37 62 3 87 64 18 20,i-5 2,CP9 205 1,716 2,7V0 2,S12 1,873 6,730 0,477 Port Mnrmnt Port Antonio Aunotto Bay 1 ort Marls ■ . , . . St. Ann's Bay Rio Bueno Falmouth ............ Lucca 1,002 Savanna la Mar Black River 7,003 10,799 4,6113 Old Harbor Total 479 :;,448 ^21 3246 493 1 80,6811 1 860 6(1,746 123 18,140 483 78,«i0 Tain or I>roBTS and Eztobtb ik eacb or tub Yeabb 7354, 1858, 1856. Taan. IMPOKTC. ■ipoata. 1 Prodaca of tha Unltad Klas4om. Prodnca of fotalsn Counlrlaa. ToMI. Jamaica Predaea. Unllad Klnidom Produea. Colonial and foreign Produce. Product from the WarahoMta. Total. 1864- 188a 185< 4!87l),S97 494,010 Ul,148 £484, 867 44o|788 i.'864,094 St9Jt07 Ml,886 £866,170 983,124 881,078 iC47,66l 81,828 28,467 iCl 2,806 6,046 6,621 X6,779 12,888 18,986 X93L'316 1,003,820 935,0I>8 JAM 1125 JAM 18M. "1 Tulnl. mtli. Tuni. li'i il'J,:4.'. 109 V'fiW IBO 51,f''i t ir;i 10 :i;! t i> 4 1,li'>i' 24 2,4..3 1 S,1W 2 CC'J 1 SSii a 41 » 1 40" 2 '2.>i 4 u'j,', 7 22IS TbT 1 is'*^" I I'OET IS TUB tol«l- /■null. ■'■»"•• . '2'3 29,J'5 8 2,11!"' 8 idB IJIB 20 2,T.'0 IT 2,St2 8 1,RT3 8T flJ89 62 C,4JI 1 3 1002 87 T,903 M 10,T99 15 ♦,5a9 4SS ToUl. jtoa.'.aro 1,003,320 936,068 Some parts of Jamaica, particularly near moraaaes, ore oxtromoly unhealthy, and there few escape inter- mittent fevers, or " fever and ague," as It is catled ; liut in general the climate Is fuvorahle to those who live carefully, though when the yellow fever comes as an epidemic, whicli happens every seven or eiglit years, it carries off all alike. It U, however, rarely known at an olovation of lOflO feet, and In some of the hilly districts, especially the Santa Cruz Mountains and Pedro I'lulus, there aro remarkable Instances of longevity among the English settlers. The annual mortality among the white troops for twenty years wuling 1837 was 130 In the 1000, or a seventh of tho entire force. Since thej' have hoen fed on ftrosh pro- visions, and more especialy since thoy have been on- camped on high ground, this has been reduced to 34 per 1000. Of late years the cholera has made Its ap- pearance, and committed extraordinary havoc ; and since emancipation, small pox baa been more preva- lent, on account of the negroes neglecting the vaccina- tion of their children. Tlio vegetable productions of .Tiininica are fur too numerouo to be described. There aro forest trees fit for every purpose, from shlji-hullding to cal)in«t-making, among which the ballata, rosewood, satiuwood, mahogany, lignum vltio, lancewood, and ebony, uro connplcuods ; but tho scarcity of lalior makes It cheaper to import planks ready sawn from Amorl>;a. Tlie logwood, tlio trunk of which rosom- hlcs tho clustered colunms of Gothic architecture, and tlio fustic, ore largely exported for dyeing. The .lamaica cedar {Cedrela oilurata), with ash-like leaves, Is valuable for the Interior of houses, as its scented wood keeps off hisects. Tho silk-cotton tree (CVi'ia Ilombax or Kriotlenihon) Is one of tho largest in Ja- maica ; Its silky pods are used to stuff pillows, but, fninj want of adhesion In tho fibres, Is useless for manu- I'acturo, The pimento is indigenous, and furnishes the allspice. Tho bamboo, the coffee, the cacao or choco- late tree, are well known productions ; the last, how- ever, is disappearing, and tiio export has ceased. Several species of palm abound, the macco, tho fan palm, and screw palm, but the noblest is the palmetto royal {Areca olevacea), the green top of which is called tho mountain cabbage, and oaten as a vegetable. Tho cocoa-nut Is tho most valuable of all this trilie. The mango, which overspreads tho island, forming a splen- did forest tree, and affording food for man and bcist, was introduced l)y Rodney, who took It from a French ship; tho bread-fruit by tho famous Bllgh in 1793. The papaw has tho peculiar property of rendering meat tender. Tho lace-bark tree, found near Maroon Town, has an inner bark of so delicate a texturo that ladies' drosses have been made of it. Tlie guava, from which tho delicious pre?er\'o is made. Is a weed of the country, and the fruit when raw scarcely eata- ble. The palma christi, fron\ which castor oil is made, is a very abundant annual. A new species of silk- worm (the liombyx Cijnthia), which feeds on Its leaf, has lately been Introduced from India, by the .Jamaica Society of Arts, founded by .Sir C. Grey. Tho sun- ilower is sometimes cultivated for oil. A variety of the Cactus Opuntia, on which the cochineal feeds. Is com- mon, and from which, as well as from the Insect, rccfnt experiments have proved that a dye may be obtained. English vegetables grow in tho hills; while the plainti produce the plantain, cocoa, yam, cassava, ochra, beans and peas of various sorts, gin- ger, and arrowroot. Maize and guinea com are gen- erally cultivated, and tho guinea grass, accidentally Introduced in 1750, has overspread the whole island', and forms the most wh':lesorao and slrengthenlng food for horses and cattle. The principal fruits are tho orange, the shaddock, the lime, the grape or cluster fruit, the pineapple, noseborry, granadllla, star-apple, custard-apple, mammeo sapota, mango, banana, grapes, melons, the avocado pear, the bread-fruit, and tamarind, though the lost three would be more correctly ranked among vegetables. There ts a botanic gardon iic.n Kingston, and a finer one at Bath, when many now naturalized exntirs were first planted. The sarsapiu rilla Is erroneously supposed to grow in Janiaicn, though It Is classed In the customs' returns thorn among the imports. It is lironght from the Hpanlsh main, and re-exported by the Jamaica Jews, in whose hands the trade Is g hence it Is cniind .Tamaica sarsapa- rllla. I'he sngnr-oane was cultivated at an early pe- riod In Jamaica by the Spaniards, and was to much extended by the English that, In 1071, we read of sugar works scattered over tha whole island. There are several varieties, the most valualde being the one brought from liourbon in 1700, which is of a bright yellow ; and the Mont Blanc, of three sorts, wliito, violet, and blue. Besides which is the ribl)an-cane, beautifully striped with various colors, « hich is coarse and dry, but more hanly than the other sorts. Tiio statistics of the sugar and coffee cultivation have lieen given elsewhere. There are many beautiful flowers in the Island, tho most remarkable uf which are the aloe, the yucca, the datura, the mountain pride, tho port- landia ; tiio cactus and cereus trilie, the various kinds of convolvulus and Ipomoea, anle varieties of ferns grow In the mountains, and orchids in tlie woods. The pastures are infesteil by that interesting mimosa, the sensitive plant. It is eaten by sheep, liut is armed with minute thorns, which make troublesome wounds in tlieir feet. There are many beautiful insects, among wiiicli the fire-fliea are most remarkable. There are fourtatn sorts of I.ampi/rida or Hre-fllee, besides the Klnterida or lan- tern beetles, which are larger and more luminous; but neither in flowers nor Insects is Jamaica so rich as more southern islands. To compensate for this it has no venomous serpents, though alwunding In harmless snakes and lizards. A large lizard, the Iguana, is con- sidered a delic.icy, as are the land-cral> and tortoise. The scorpion and centipede aro poisonous, Imt not very common or dangerous. Ants, mosquitoes, and sandflies swarm in tho '— 'inds. Bees, among which is a stingless variety, aro numerous in the woods, and produce excellent honey. It is a popular error that in the tropics flowers have no scent and l>lrds no song. The datura and orange are among many instances to the contrary in the former case ; and as to the latter, Gosa enumerates some twenty different song birds in Jamaica, among which may l>e mentioned the Jamaica nightingale, a kind of mocking-liird (Aferula Jamai- censii), and a species of huii'ining-bird (^Afelluvifa humilis). Parrots and pigeons are common, and the wild guinea fowl ; also a species of goatsucker, called the mosquito hawk, and n gruat variety of water- birds, among wiiich is the pelican and a sort of alba- tross. The crane, heron, plover, snipe, ortolan (or rice-bird of Carolina), and quail, aro migratory. The aura vulture, or turkey liuzznrd, called the John Crow, Is numerous, and valuable as a scavenger. By its Instinct the concealed body of a murdered man has more than once been traced In Jamaica. The sea and rivers swarm with fish ; among the larger ones are the shark, tho nurse shark, the boni*^^ *he sword and saw-fish; besides tho snapper, mullet, king-fish, Spanish mackerel, the flying-fish, etc. The cachalot is found. Turtles abound ; and the seal and manatee, or river cow, are sometimes found, and the crocodile (called erroneously alligator). Jamaica, when dlscov- ered, contained but few species of animals. Besides the alco, there was tho utia or Indian cony, the musk rat, the armadillo, monkey, agouti, peccary, opossum, ami raccoon. At present the only wild animals are the wild hog (an African vaTioty, introduced from the Ca- naries), a kind of deer (the cariacou), goats, rats, and mice. Tho rats commit serious ravages among the canes, and those which feed only In the cane-flelds are by some esteemed « delicacy. This species, called the JAM 1126 JAP Chnrlei Pries rat, w>a intnxlucml to daatroy a nmalliir '«y haa liitely been introduced from Enxliinil, with a view to nizo nnd lione. Tho inuleii are luritc, hnrdy, nnd na|{acioUK, iinil much UAcd for mouutaln-ridInK, an well «» for curry inx b^i^KUKO ""'l workinK ■"> the eitatea. The Klicop nny the ne({n)eii, liut they are very mi»- chievoua in suKar and coffee iilantutions. Tlie Cuha bloodhound la uaed aa a wutcii-' low, entirely without springs, and overgrown with low stunted shrubs. These islands are favorite breeding-places for turtles, immense shoals of which animala frequent tho low aandy shore for the purpose of depositing their eg8»- Jftmea, Capt Tbomaa. This English navigator waa employed by a company of merchants of Bristol, in connection with one l.uke Fox, in 1C31, on a voy- age of exploration for the discovery of a north-west passage. Sir Thomas Koe presented him to Charlea T., who greatly encouraged the enterprise. He sailed from the port of Bristol on 3d May, and wintered on an island in Hudson's Bay, In latitude about 62°, flrom whence he proceeded noitbwaid as far as 65)°, when hia further progresa waa prevented Ity (he ((rant accumulation of ice, lud hn relurni'il bi Kiiulunit, where he arrived 22(1 Octolier, Il).')2, I luring INm nn- suing year, he puliliahed hia ■■ Ntrniige itinl DiiiignriMia Voyage for the Diacovery of a North-weal I'lmaugn In the .South Sea." lie muilii sciniu dU< iiverlii* oti llm coant of Hudson's Hay, to the western alila of wlili h country he gave tho name of Srw Wain, In linniir nf the prince, afterward Churina II. Ilia Joiirniil ciiii- lalna much curioua and Intnresting nuiltur iiiiiiii'iIimI with the aufl'etrlngs of hlmaelf and his iiiinpiiiilnMa during their sojourn on the Isle of I'linrUoii, Japan. Tho empire of Japan coiiNlala of a iji/ilu of Islands lying off the eastern coast of conlliinntnt Asia, and extending south-east und northwiiat lii'(wi'«ii north Int. ill° und 48°, ami enit long. \W and ITiO'', Inclosed between this chain of islunda nhd lhi< iippn. site rnaxts of (,'orea and Muncliu Tartiiry, la tlin Niiii nf Japan, which cummunlcatea by means of »lmlta wllli the Chinese Sea on the south, the Pacilti' Oiiiiiu „\\ |||„ cant, and the Sea of Okhotsk on tho nurlli, To llm east, Japan has no nearer land than Calirnnilii, ridiiii milcH off; the neareat part of China la about liOiiilii'a, and of Kamachatka 270 miles dlitunt, Thi< tiTiu Ja* pan la probalily a corruption of tlie ('liliiioe miuiii, Ji-piin-quo — I. e., Kingilom of the Nuurco nf l|ii< Hun, or Kastcm Kingdom. Marco Polo, who wiia tliu llr>l to bring intcliigenco of this country to I'limpii, and who acquired hia Information in ('hinu, calla It /,(. pnngti. Tlio Japanese name la Nipon, or NIfdn i,r,, Sun-source. Tho empire is divided Into Japan proper I'oHalalJMg of the three largo islunda of NIpon, Klu-aju, and Mitkniil', and the numerous small iHlunda. Nipon, IIm< liiri(i'liiiid nf Kiu-siu, or Xiiiio, about '200 niilea In lengtli iiml nluiiit 80 in average breadth, thus containing nil ari'U nf about 16,000 square miles, Lying iiortli-uaat of Klii- siu, and eastward of the soutliorn oxtrenilly of Nl|iiiii, is tho island of Sitkokf, or Sikoko, about UiO inlli'^ In Ungth by 70 in average breadth, It la aupariiti'd from Ni|H)n by a long stru.t In some parts not iiiorx tliiin a mile in width ; and from Kiu-siu by llungof'lianiii'l, which is about 30 niilci broad. North > >i'|>< arated from Yesso by tlie Strait of Piiiihi«ii, and I hi' three southernmost of tho Kurilo laluilila^-Kiiiiuahlr, Iturup, and Ourop — belong to Japan, The amnil islands which nurruund tlii-an urn giMiiT- ally rocky and barren, but oicaslonully rbli and fiiill- ful. The entire number of lalunda ciiin|ilfiij lln' empire of Japan is estimated at aliovo IHOO, ami IIik area of the whole empire at not leaa llian IVO,i|iiii square miles. The coasts are dilllcnlt of a> n, imt only from the multitude of rocka and Ulntii wlilili Im- set the passages, but also from the sHverii gali<« wlili li, more than any other part of the ocean, Mgllntn llii"" narrow seas. Several dangerous wlilrl|i(iola alnipfer roniarka, tliiit niitiiiii seems to have deaigncd tlicau Islanda to lie a nntt nf little world, secluded and indepondunt from tlin n nl, 08 well by rendering it dangeroua to itpproacli llnlr shores, as by endowing them plentifully with every thing necessary for luxury and comfort, mid tliiia I'li- obling them to subsist without any coiiiliDtii'a with other nations. The Jupuiese poUu^, wkkb rigiiHy JAP 1127 JAP iiri'ii iif ,.( KIm- ,( S\\MI, fid Mill'" I" iriili'il ffiMii iri< tliiiti II Clmnni'l. 'nI|iiiii, iiimI llin lilft!" n nllllilri'. II a liri'll I) ullii'fii |i"r- li'li !• ""I'- ll, mill llii' Kiiiiiiolilr, iirti «"iii''- •li mill fiiill- ll)i'i"lllU III'' (iiiK, mill III" lull) IVn,i)iiii f (i''''t""*t ""^ U wlili'li I'"- |{l||l'« will' III |l«ltllt" 111'"!' o\» iilmiiii'i'iir tli'it. niiliii" |,i< II flirt iif iim III" t"'' iprimili lli'lf y Willi I'vifV ItDll till'* ''"' iiiiiitii'i'ii wH'i »hl«U rinwiy forlildii iill Intcn'oiiriiK with iitriin({«r«, in other i Imim- ntiini'uii iiii|iriii'tiriililii, hiiH Iiitii ((rcntly fai^llltiitiiil liy thn lnter|i8t or hiiow nt Siinoda it- Bclf, and tho not unfroquent riiinn, with the over ne- rcsHiiry fogs, (jivo an occiiaional Iiiimlility and raronojiH ill tho atmoaphoro, which are chilling to tho iienacs, and inimt lie productive of occaslnnal iiiHammatorydin- oaeoH, such as aro fre(|iiont In tho sprint; i>nI 'I'ltB 5 ! mwM JAP 11S8 JAP MW •noiiiih to convlnra tilni that U wm nkllfUlly wiirkiiil. IIkIiik liUiimlnnuii, it in, fur iliimoatiii pur- poMD, KxiK'rnlly <'iiiivtirt«ni Mii-vritttr tiy itn luinkllirul iiml HXiwnilva finH'i'ni. ily MtiiriitlnK liiuawii nf Kiinil with nni-wiitcr n th« nun, II ntniim ly« U uhtiilni'il, whlili Is aftnrwaril liiiiliiil In imrthan tmmIh, anil ylnliU iin cxprnaivo nml lmpim< niurliito of aixla. Ni> illiiniiinilK liavx Imcn ruiiiiil, hut iitfiiti'D, rurnnliuni, iiml Jimprrii urn mot with, •oinH uf tliiMn i>r Kruttt Iwauty. I'ltiirln, rrHi|Uiintly of Kreat alan and Iwiiuty, am flibwl up on nearly all (Hirta uf tha cuatt. VijiflMt Prmlurli,tn$. — Thii vi-n'talilo priMluctloni of iliipnn ara, fur tlia numt part, thimn luninion to turn- panita r»nlon«. Timlicr l«, liowuvcr, mi araria, tliat BO linn In (wrniltted to cut ilnwn ii trf« wlllioiit |mruii»- •Ion fViim thn mnKl«triit«, nml only on tonilitlun of planting; a roiinK niii> In Itx nlimil. Tln' iiiiMt comniun Airtist trni'H am tli« llr ami cdilur • tlm latter KrowlUK tu iin linmnnaii hU(>, liolii;; miuintluiKH more than IH fb«t ill iliiimi'tar. in thn imrthi'm puria of tho nmplro two aiieclra of oak arii founil whirh illll'ir from th(i«« of Europii, i'ho ai'orna of oiin kinil urn liolli'd and ii for fund, and iirr xaid to h« Inith imlutulile and nutrl- thiiiH. Tho inullierry Kniwa wild In Kn>at uliuiidancr, and tho varnii' Hiiuth, thu liamhoo ciinn, tlioUKh a tropical plant, i I'ound rithnr In the wlhl or cultivated •tiitr, and U liir^idy uard in the niiinul'iictorlfla. Th« I'amphnr-treo la of j;ront value hero, and liven to a ^'rrat af^y. Hiidxihl vialtuil one which Katinpfor had deacrilied aa having been aeon liy him lid") years before. It waa healthy, and covurud with folhii-o, and had a clrcnnifiTcncM of liO feet. Thn country people make the camphor from a drcnctlon of the root and ateina cut into Hinall piecea. (Jheatnut anil walnut treoa are lioth found. Anions tho fruit trees ura the orange, lemon, flg, plum, cherry, and apricot. Aniiimlt — Kxtenaive cultivation luavea no room for wild animala ; and tame anlinaU, not being naed for fowl, are not multiplied beyond the felt necoaalty for their aae. 'i'ho horaoa are aniall, but hardy, active, and of giHxl liottom. William AdauH, an Kngllah mariner of the time of ,lameH I., deaciiln'a lliem ai " not tall, but of the ai/.o of our inlddlini{ nag^, short and well truat, snuill headed and very full of mettle, in my opinion far dkcelliiiK tlio Spaniah jennet in jirideand atomaeh." Uxen anil cowa are only uaed in plowing and carriage, milk and butter not being uaed aa articles of food Iliiiraloes of an extraordinary »i/.e, with hunches oi\ their luicks, like camels, are u.'l- vantagu If the natives were permitted to eat their flesh, or know how to mnnufai^ture their wool. Tliny have n few swine, koiit cliieHy for trading with the Chinese, among whom they are in great demand. Doga are to bo found in largo numbers in the half du- meaticated state in which they generally exist iu the East. This is not true, however, of ou« i^pecittH, ro- lemblhig somewhat an Kiiglish 8|uiniel, which ia con- •idered so valu/ilde aa to form (iiirt of every royal Japanese present. It is conjcctureil that tlio Knglish variety may liave sprung from some presenlecl by th« emperor to the king of Kngland. The wild animals are bears, wild boars, foxes, monkeys, deer and hares. Kats and mice are very common, as well as two small ijieclcs of weasel or ichneumon, which live, half tamo, tinder the eaves of bouses. Wild fowl are very abundant, consisting chiefly of gseao and ducks, which migrate in great numbers to th« shores of .Inpan in winter. Numerous species of pigeons are tu be found, and woodcocks, pheasants, anipes, larlu, etc., are cbiumou. There ore two spe- cUs of pheasant, and one of laiacock, peculiar to Japan, Doim'stic iRiiiltry are kept by the uatlvea alniuit aolrly for ornament or ainuaenieiit. .Some of the leptllLi urn of large aUe, and, along with thn liiaeit Irllica, urn dreailed for their deadly and destructive [mwera. Thn ahnllow bays and creuka urounil the Mumls swarm with shoals of flsh, which, indeed, niintlllitio nearly the wbide animal foiHl of thu Japiine^e, nnd furnish them plentifully with oil fordomeatle pAr| In their coarse taste, the liiteatinea of thr whiiie, »ii,| even (he refuse of blubber, are coiialilered good unoii^'h for food. Thn ,la|>aniei« are thn boldeat und lunat ex- pert iif all Asiatic llshermen. Their lUhliig voyngea extend to thn rigorous aeas of .Sagalien and Kurilea in purault of herring, with which they manure tliclr mt. ton Held*. They are the only Aalatlc people Ihiit pur- sue the whale. The women are said to be rxpert divera for shell-llsh, with which the shorei of .l.ipin aliuund. Xiilirm. — The .Fapaneae are described aa an aitlve vigunilis people, of the middling al/.e, and Ihelr boillly and mental (aiwers more closely assimilated to I'.nro- jieana than Aalatlcs. The laimmoii people, aiconlliig to Tliunlairg, urn of a yellow color, which Hoinetlinea bordcra on brown, and aumetiiriea on white. The In. boring claanea, from the exposure of the upper piil'la of their liodles in summer, have their naturally fair cnni- jilexloii deepened Into brown. Their dark brunn eiea are oliluiig, small, and sunk deep In tho head, 'ihu eyelids forming a deep furrow gives them tho iippeiir- anco of being kneu-alghted. Their heads iin\ liirge, und their necks short, their hair black and glimxy witli oil. Their noses, without being Hat, are yet nillier thick and short. Dr. Aliialle gives a somewhat dlirer- ent account of their complexion. lie repreaenta thnii as perfectly fair, and indeed bluoming, thiiu|{h this seems to apply chlelly to the women. Thunbcrg nUo mentions that thu deai endants of the ntdcat and no- blest fiimllies of the princes and lords of the empire are suiiiewliat majestic In their alia|io and countciiunii', being more like Kuro|>eiius : und the ludies of di'tinc- tiou, who seldom i'" m: ihnoiM'n air without being coverlid, are iii „ .te. SleUdd, apeiiking of the inhabll Kiii-siu, corroborates this view, and says tint ac women who protected themselves from the In.' ui of the atmosphero have generally a lino und wtiitv skill, and the cheeks of the young girls dis- play .1 hlooimlng carnatiim." The married women of .!» 11 dye their teeth black, by means of a corroalvu > ii>^isitiim, so powerful that by mere touch it burns th» ileah Into a purple gangrenous spot, and in spile of the utmost rare in its application. Invariably tiilnls the guuia, destroying their ruddy color and vitality. " The Japanese women, always excepting the disgust- lug black teeth of those who are miirried, are not ill- looking. The young girls are well formed, and ratlur pretty, ami have much of that vivacity and self-reli- ance In manners which come from a conscioii^iiess of dignity, derived from tho comparatively high reganl in which they are held, fn thn ordinary mutual in- tercourso of friends and families tho women have their share, and rounds of visiting and tea-parties are kept up as briskly in Japan us in tho United Stiites."— .1 nwrican ExpciUtion. iMni/uaije. — Superficial obeorvation led to the belief that Japan was colonized by the Chinese ; but a moro accurate knowledge of tho physical characteristics und languagQ of the people has rendered this o|iinion unten- able. Indeed, the Japanese themselves consider it a high disgrace to be compared with tho Chinese. Or. Ainsllo states that the only occasion on which he saw a Japanese surprised into u passion, and, forgetting his habitual politeness, lay his hand on his sword, was on a liomparison being made between the two nations. The structure of tho languages of the two countries is essentially diflferent, that of .lapan being polysyllabic, while uU the dialecta of tho Chinese are monosyllabic JAP 1190 JAP thn lii'Vu'f jut 11 nwro oriatirs unci nioii untcii- nsWet it 1 inose. I'r- lilch ho ?aw ■jjjcttint! 111!* ird, wii» »n wo nntions. countriPH is ,„lv«.vll«l'lc. onosyllalilo. It l< Iru* IhAt, llkn thn IaiIii In Furop* durlnK lli« mlililln iiK<"t "■■ niaiiiUrin illalntt nf til* t'liiiioMi Id In 'IM iiiiiiiiiK lli« Ifitriii'il liiTii, »» III Ciiniii, Tiiiiiiuln, mul xlavwhoni ; iiiiil Iikiki' iniiliy ('liliii'aii wnnU Iiiivk Ijiiiin liitniiliii'iiil liilii thn Jii|>iini'>ii iif tliaaii imly make* tlia ulriiitiirjil iiriint, I'll* fami, nr prliiiitlvn liiiiKUntfu of Jfi|iiin, Ik umiil In (Hintry niid wnrku of liuht litiirit- tur*. Tim Kiit/f, or (,'hliiiHa liinuiiiiKf, nllKlilly v«rli>il ill |ironuiii:littiiiii, U I'mployiMl l>y tlM/xKini or prii'tU In tlii'lr rnll^louK liciok^. Tliu viiiKur Iiiiikuhkc "t llm I'liiiiitry li « nilxturu iiftlin twn. ('Ih.hm mlliiitlcii liiivn lint liiiiMi tmi'iiil liiitwucn tliv t'nmi nl' ,lii|i;in nnil miy nlliur Aaliitlo liiiiKUiiKr. Ily huiiii>, ut IniHt, it b tlioUKlit t'l l>« iiuiiit ttimliiKiiiit totlix lunKiiii|{ei nf llio THrtiir riirii, tn wliirli, In njiitn cif illviTnilv In pliVHiiul (:h»riictt|iulatii)n nf .fiipiin, nil our inriiriimtlon rmtji ninrvly on coiijii tiiri'. Nonin untliorltlou iiitliiiutu it iit niorit lliun lil.iKHl.lKK), whiio othcri innkti It nioru tlmn timr or llvn tlmpn tliiit iiiiiciunt, All trumlnrH who hum vlnltcii th« country iHinrtfatiniony to tlin popiiloniiiinHH of thn |uirlii vislteil hy thrni. 'riiim, Kaiinplrr, who (uiMHod four tlmcA over thut piirt of thn country Iwtwfcn Niiniiniikl unci Yodilo, »iiy« — " riio country la (Kipuioua Iwyonil ox- priiHnion, iinil onn would acann think It |ioHHildi> thiit, bcinn not umatur Ihiin it la, it Hlimiid iinvcirtlicioaH main- tain unil aiip|H>rt iiucli a vuat innilmr of inhjiliitnnta. The lilxhwaya ore mi iiliiioat contlnuvd row of vI11ii({iih imd liiirnha, You ai;«no eoniii out of onn liiit yon (inter luiotlicr j mid you may travel many nilliw, ua It wiiri", III ono atrciit without knowing It to lia coniimaod of dilfurent vlllaijua liut Ipy tho dirtVrciit natiin that were fornmriy kIvcu them, iind wlilcli thoy oftcnviird retain tlioujrh Joined to onn nnothrr. It liaa many towiia, the chief whorcdf may vie witli thn moat ••on- aiiinraldo in thn world for larnencaii, ningnHlconco, and tlio niiinliur uf inhalillanta." 'I"li'» men of ail clnasoH nro excecdlnniy cnnrtooui, •till uthoUKh in<|iilaltive aliont strauKcrH, ni'Vnr hoconio oir»uaively iiitrnalvo. Tho lowur people urn evidontly In Kroat dreud of their auporiora, and urn iiioro rnacrvnd in tlioir proannoo tliiin thny wonM he If tlicy worn left to tlioir natural inatlncta. Tho rl|{id nxclualvenoaa in regard to forol^nera la a law ini'rely enacted hy the Uovornincnt from motiv -s of policy, and not a acntl- uii'iit of tho JapancHO in'oplc. Their habits arc social amon|{ tlioinaelvna, and they frenunntly intorininulo in friendly intercourac. " Tlie Japaneao," says Kiuin|i- fer, "nro very Induatrioua and Inured to hardahlpa. Very little will aatiafy tiioin. They (jenerally live on planta and roota, tnrtolaea, sholl-llah, aea-weeda, und tho like. Water is tliuir conimou drink. They H" liare-lieaded anil |pare-lon(jod, They wear no shirts j thny have no soft pillows to lay tlieir lieada on, l>ut Bleep on the ground, laying tlioir heads, instead of a pillow, on ft piece of wood, or a woodun Imx somewliat depressed in the niiddlo. They can pasa wholo ni({lit9 without sloeplnn, und autfcr nil manner of hardaliips." Tha following apparently very correct jJctiuw of tiiia lieijplo is given hy an anonymous writer of thn reign of Klizalieth : " The inliabitants show a notablo wit and an incredihlo patience in suHering, labor, and sor- rows. They take groat and diligent caro lest either in word or deed they should show their foar or dullness of mind, and lest they should moke any man (wlioao- evf r he Iw) partaker of their troubles and wants. They covet exceedingly honor and praise ; and im)V- erty with them lirlngeth no damogo to nobility of birth. Thoy suffer not tho least injury In the world to pass uii revenged. For gravity and courtesy they give not place to tha Spaniards. They are generally ntfahle and fall of compliments. • They are very punc- tual in the entertainment of strangers, of whom thoy Will sarioualy inquire even trifles of foreign people, as of thair mannan, and such Ilka lhln(«. Thry will u aiHin I'Hw a lloili iia omit one ceremony in wdeoiiiliiK • friend. They iiaed to give and receive Ihu i up al Olio ancl tl ther'a haii.la, and la'fora tho iiiniler of thn liouao liKglna to drink, ho will |,roiri*r ll up In ovtry one of hia guiiata, iiiskiog ahow lo li.ivo lliein begin. I'lah, roots, ami rlcn urn llutlr coninion Jupk- nta i and If they i haiicn to kill a hen, dui k, or pig, which la but aeldoin, they will not, like thiiria, unt ll alone, but their I'rlenda will bn piirtiikera of ll, Al. though eaaentliil'N an nbatenibMH and aolier peopU, Ihey am nut avi i |ilea iinr of aground rent. There uppeara i, be no tan oil artldea of cniiaumptinn, no capttutliii I ix, und iin tranait dntioa. The oultlvatora of thn »i i' apiwar In bo morn vllluiiia, simply occupants cnlti , i,{ ua inula- vera. In lands belonging to tho crown, the proporllnii of tliRcropconalderod rent la four parta in tun, and In thu rest six In ten, moat commonly thn latter, riiaaii proportions apply to ovory kind of crop— corn, puUea, and cnttnn. Tho land, in order to determliiu tlio rent, is surveyed by sworn uppraiaors twice a year, oiicii bo. foro tho seed is sown, and again immediately li< fniii Imrvost. Those thut cultlvntu untllled grniiiid liavii the whole crop for two or throo years, Aiiimig their many excellent laws relating to agriculture, oim In, that wiiosoovnr dons not cultivate his ground I'm tlin term of ono your forfeits Ida posseaaiou. It would a|H pear, from tho proportion of crop taken aa r<'iit, lliiit tho impost on tho land does not luaterliilly lUl'ir fmiii that ussuiiiGil 08 land-tax under tho Moliammoduii gov- onunont of Ilindoostan, and continued in sonin place* by ourselves. This will enable us to iimko an u|>|iroiC' imato cstiniato of tho rental of Japan- thut la, of the principal source of its public Inconio. Lis, of cunr n, will suppose a similar couilition of Hoci> ty und latn of populutinn in Japan und tho country with wliiili It Is compared. Let ns take, tlicreforo, the samo Indian ter- ritories by wliicli we have attempted to uatiiniilo Miu |M>pnlution. Those have, iu round numliera, u popula- tion of 40,000,000, and yield a land-tax of X 111,(100,(100. This proportion woulil give to Japan, with Its imtl. mated population of 10,000,000, a rental of iinarly i;8,700,000 to bo divided lietween tho Imiierlal govern- mcnta, feudatory priucos, hereditary nobles, unit the soldier)'. To tho rent of lauds Is to bo uddod thn ground-rent of tho houses, which is said to be at the rata of Is. Hil, for each futiiom of fioiitago, without regard to depth, unless it exceed lo fathoms, when tho rate is doubled. Whether tho impost applies to all houses, wliorovor situated, or only to those in towns, is not stated ; but if the former bo tho cuso, estimating each luiuae to have an average of live inbniiitants, and also five falhoma of frontage, would give tho income from this suiircu til more than X3,30O,000, or, adding this to tha luoil-reul, 1 m I i' I :?'■;■' m JAP 1130 JAP would make the annnal revenue of the empire about £12,000,000. The Japanese being chiefly dependent on the soil for inbsistence, have arrived at a high state of perfection in the arts of agriculture. Though a great part of the countrj- is hiily or mountainous, and the soil in general rather poor, yet almost every available foot of land is cultivated, and very abundant crops are raised. Where the land is inacct ssible to the plow it is cultivated by manual labor. Lilie the Cliincso, they pay groat at- tention to manuring and irrigation. As animal food constitutes hardly any part of their sul)8istence, no pastures or meadows are to lie seen. Rice constitutes the main object of agriculture, as it forms the l)rcad com of the people from one end of the empire to the other. Its cultivation extends to the island of Yesso, and as for north as 45 degrees of latitude. The rice of Japan is linown to excel every other in Asia, and this may not bo owing exclusively to its skillful cultiva- tion, but partly to the climate and the distance of Japan from the tropics. From it the inhabitants distil a drink called saki (a kind of rice beer), in very general use. Wheat and barley are grown, but the former is not in much use, and the latter is the chief provender of cattle. Rye, maize, panic, millet, and the Cynom- ms corormmt are also raised. Beans and peas of different kinds are cultivated in great abundance, par- ticularly the bean Dolichm snja, from which soy, a kind of sauce, prepared by toiling and fermentation, is made. Among esculent roots and pot-herbs the fol- lowing arc successfully cultivated : tho bata, the po- tato, carrot, turnip, cabbage, radish, lettuce, gourd, melon, and cucumlier. The fruits are gencrlly those of Euroiie, as the orange, lemon, peach, flg, pear, chestnut, walnut, and cherry. The tea-plant in Japan, as in China, takes the place of the vine in the temperate regions of the west, and of the coffee in tropical countries. " The tea shrub," says Ka-mpfcr, " is one of the most useful plants growing in Japan, and yet it is allowed no other room but round the borders of rice and com fields, and in otlior barren places unfit for the culture of other things." In a few places the plant, according to Sie- bold, receives more attention ; generally, however, hardly as much as our hawthom hedges, and thus the leaves are unfit for the consumption of strangers. Its use, however, is universal among the natives. It was introduced into this countrj- from China in the ninth century. Tobacco was first introduced by the Portu- guese in the early part of the Ifith . I'ntury, at)out the same time that it was introduced Into England, and it is remarkable that fie Japanese emperor instituted a persecution against its-i growers and smokers at the same time that King .lames issued his Counter Jtliiat, and with as little effect in arresting its use. The plants cultivated in Japan for textile purposes are cot- ton and hemp in the northem islands. The mulberry is grown for the silk-worm. In husbandry cotton ranks next in importance to rice, and fumishes mate- rials for clothing the great mass of the people. Manufactures. — In the manufacture of cotton fab- rics the Japanese display considerable skill, but in this respect they do not equal the Hindoos. Their best silli is said to be superior to tliat of China, In the manufacture of porcelain, too, they are said by some to excel the Chinese. Specimens of great beauty and delicacy, at least, have been produced, though some assert that, owing to the exhaustion of the best clay, such articles can no longer be manufactured. Like the Chinese the Japanese have long practiced the manufacture of paper and glass. Formerly they did not know how to make the flat pane for window glass, and probably what they do make is of an inferior q-a.»lity, as they still purchase thick mirror glass ftwm the Dptch, to grind Into lenses. Paper they manufacture in great abundance, as well for writing and printing as for tapestry, handkerchiefs, etc. It is made of very various qualitlea, and some of it Ii a« soft and flexibla as cotton cloth. Indeed, that used fur handkerchiefs might be mistaken for cloth, so far as toughness and flexibility are concerned. This paper is made of the bark of the mulberry (Aforus papyrifera) by means of the following process : In December after the tree hat shed its leaves, they cut off the young shoots, about three feet in length, and tie them up in bundles. They are then boiled in a lye of ashes in a covered kettle, till the bark is so shrunk that half an inch of the wood may be seen projecting at either end of the branch. When cool the bark is stripped off, and soaked in water for three or four hours until it becomes soft, when the exterior black cuticle is scraped off with a knife. The coarse bark, which is full a year oid, is then separated from the fine, which covered the younger branches, and which makes the best paper. The bark is then Iwiled again in clear lye, continually stirred with a stick, and fresh lye from time to time added, to make up for the evaporation. It is then carefully wasiied at a running stream, by means of a sieve, and incessantly stirred until it becomes a fine pulp. For the finer kinds of paper this process is re- peated, a piece of linen being substituted for the sieve. After being washed, it is beaten with sticks of hard wood on a wooden table, till it is brought tc a pulp, which is put into water and dissolved aud dispersed like meal. This is put into a small vessel with a decoction of rice and a species of llibiicus, and stirred until it has attained a toleralde consistence. It is then poured into a larger vessel, whence it is taken out, and put in the form of slieete in mats or layers of grass straw. These sheets are laid one upon another, with straw l)e- tween, and pressure is applied to force the water out. After this they are spread upon lioarda in the sun, dried, cut, and gathered into liundles for sale and use. The well-known lacquer ware to which Japan has given name, is unequaled for beauty and durability by that of any other nation. We have ourselves of late years imitated, t)ut certainly not equaled it. They display considerable skill in working the metals. In wood work, caskets, caliinets, and the like, they are un- surpassed. Some of tlieir swords are saiiiia wonld \m apt to imagine the whole niitliin li*l wHlwl thpfe, and all the inland part* were Mi i\»\Ut doiwH «nd emjpty." This wu« aaUl \m yearn i»g«, mV\ \i urn* he nafely bh- Bumed that the unlnt(irru(itMl (**« wlfflh tli« fottnlry Iian since enjoyed lni« mit )Mltia)rf)d ltd tmnmerclal prosperity. 'J hat the JmrnHKim «r» A <'/mim«fclnl peo- ple may be inferred from (Iw i/rd«r, «««(«*«», and pro- priety with which uvury tMitK I'lmnrHi'A with their trade in conducted, 'Chey Imvit uiM, »llv«f, and cop- per money, an well at bllbt r*f VHiihtiliUK, Tlielr »hopii have signs, and tltelr umiiU aw jw('fc«d and labeled with a truly mercantile mrit m)t\ umlimt, The foreign Interi^urne of .IttiiNti *m, fnwe than two centuriei, ami till within llw laiit f«w yearn, iiolely confl. ed to the Dnh'h and I'Mmim, Kvmi with these the trade wan limlU'd, hwing wKh H»fl l»t(tc)i for a eon- siderable time restri.ted »» it ulimln ulilp annnally, and with tho Chineite to t«n j«nk», Tll« ifMfmrU and Im- ports were even linilled «» li) ¥«ltw, «((d the dnlcn and purchases (Ued liv « turiff of tim -(nhiinon gorerti- ment. Tho Dntcli were ('((Hliiwd ((/ Ihp Kmalllslnnd of Uezlma, in tlw Imrliorof Nagawilil, which In only about frlO feet in lungUi by m in unlrptne Irrendth. A small stone bridge minmi* Urn l^lund witli the town of Nagasaki, and a Klroiig .fapflficnn «iinfd was always stationed here, mi >, nor value. The former of these, however. .. ■. ^i jiig, and the latter roundish, for the most part thick, but aome- times, though seldom, flat. These pass in trade, but are always weighed in payment from one individual to another, and have a dull leaden a))pearance. Sent is a denomination applied to pieces of copper, brass, and iron coin, which bear a near resemblance to our old farthings. They differ in size, value, and external appearance, but are always cast, and have a square hole in the middle, by means of which they may be strung together; and likewise have always broad edges. Of these are current, sjumon seni, of the value of 4 common seni, made of brass, and almost as broad as a halfpenny, but thin. The common seni are the size of a farthing, and made of red copper ; GO of them =• I mace. Doosa seni is a cast iron coin, in ap- pearance like the last, of the same size and value, but is so brittle that it ia easily broken by the hand, or breaks in pieces when let fall on the ground. The seni ar$ strung 100 at a time, or as is most commonly tho case, 96 on a rush. The coins in one of these parcels are seldom all of one sort, but generally con- sist of 2, 8, or more different kinds ; in this cjtso, the larger ones are strung on first, and tlion follow the smaller ; the number diminishing in pro|>ortion to tho numlier of large pieces in the parcel, which are of greater value than the smaller. The schuit is a silver piece of 4 oz. 18 dwta. 16 grs. Troy, and is U oz. fine, which gives ita value £1 5s. 3d. The name ia Dutch, referring, probably, to its shape, like a boat. }Vtightt. — These ore the candarine, mace, tael, catty, and picul, thus divided: 10 condarlDea — 1 nioco. 10 niaco = 1 tool. 16 tacla = 1 catty. 100 rattles = 1 piciil. The pIcuI -T* 125 Dutch lb«., or 133^ lbs. avoirdupois. It is, however, said to weigh only 180 Iba. Measum. — The revenues of Japan are estimated by two raeasurea of rice, the man and koif ; the former contains 10,000 koifa, each 3000 balea or bags of rice. The long measure is the inc, which ia about 4 Chinese cubits, or 6^ feet Rngliah nearly ; and 2) Japanese leagoes are ciy the Dutch director, Kocketracker, was placed on their grave: " So long as the sun shall warm tho earth, let no Christians l)e so bold as to come to Japan ; and lit all know, that the King of Spain himself, or the Cliiistian God, or the Great Saca, if ho violate this comniaiiil, shall pay for it with his head." The Portuguese have never since been peraitted to renew their intercourse witli Japan. The first formal edict in favor of tho Dutch was is- sued in 1611, and the privileges of trade which wcro then conceded have continued, modified at various times, to the present day. In the earlier period of this trade, return cargoes ctmsistod chiefly of silver and gold, Japaneso copper being then but little known in Europe. This latter article, however, soon became one of the leading staples of'Japanese o.xport trade. In a work, entitled " Notea of tho Voyage of the Mor- rison from Canton to Japan," published in 183!), tho following reference to the Dutch trade at this period ia mado : '• The Dutch wcro now left in solo possession of the trade with Japan ; and, since tlint time, it ia well known, their monopoly has never been disturbed. Their subsequent political intercourse has been limited to an occasional mission from Dutavhi, and the visita of the Dutch chief of tho factory to Ycrto, formerly made annually but now once in four years. Charlevoix mentions emboaaics in 1664, 1656, and 1650. It waa while the second of tliese missions was at Yedo, that two thirds of that city and 100,000 of ita population were destroyed by fire. It remaina to trace, briefly, the use the Dutch have made of the monopoly to which they have so long aspired. Of the assortment JAP 1188 JAP •od value of their import cRrgoea, in the 17th century, we have little or no account. Their returns had lieen in Bilver, chiefly, nntil 1641, when the directors of the Company suggested returns in gold. Japanese copper was at this time in little estimation in Europe, iiecause little known ; but afterward, on a rise in value, it he- came an importan^ retAm, The first order for 20,000 picnls was sent out 'n 1665." Various restrictions and prohibitions have l)ecn, ftom time to time, imposed upon Dutch commerce by the JajKtnese authorities. The imports and exports were limited, and the number of vessels was finally restricted to four, three, and two, as before the late treaty. ' The profit! realized by the Dutch from this trade buve never l>een accurately ascertained. The author already cited, referring to the restrictions im- posed by the Japanese government, remarks ; " Un- der these circumstances, the trade, wliich had yielded an annual profit of 600,000 to 600,000 florins for the 80 years previous [to 1714], would no longer pay the charges." Efforts hove been made, ot different pe- riods, by the English ond French governments, as well as by that of the United States, to open commercial intercourse with Japan ; but, with the exception of the very limited concessions granted l)y the treaty of 81st March, 1864, between the United States and Japan, and concessions nearly similar allowed to the British, by treaty, subsequently ratified, nnd :he priv- ileges granted to the Dutch by tlie treaty of 1865, without success. Some years since, Russia endeavored to establish commercial relations with Japan ; l)Ut the proposal was declined, and the envoyf were ordered not to return again on pain of ucul'i.. The treaty, already referr d to, l)etween the United States and Japan, which was concluded March 81, 1854, ratified August 7, 1854, exchanged February 21, 1865, and proclaimed June 22, 1856, is as follows : " The United States of America and the empire of Japan, desiring to establish firm, lasting, and sincere friendship between the two nations, have resolved to fix, in a manner clear and positive, by means of a treaty or general convention of peace and amity, the rules which shall in future be mutually observed in the intercourse of their respective countries ; for which most desirable object the President of the United States has conferred full powers on his commissioner, JIatthew Galbraith Perry, special embassador of the United States to Japan, and the august Sovereign of Japan has given similar full powers to his commis- sioners, Hayashi, Daigaku-no-le a perfect, permanent, and universal peace and a sincere and cordial amity between the United States of Amer- ica on the one part, and the empire of Japan on the other part, and between their people respectively, without exception of persons of places. Article II. The port of Simoda, in the principality of Idzu, and the port of Hakodado, in the principality of Matsmai, are granted l)y the Japanese as ports for the reception of American ships, where they can he supplied with wood, water, provisions, and coal, and other articles their necessities may require, as far as the Japanese have them. The time for opening the first-named port is immediately on sip;ning this treaty ; the last- named port is to be opened immediately after the same day in the ensuing Japanese year. [_N'ole. — A tariff of prices shall lie given by the Japanese ofli- cera of the tilings which they can furnish, payment for which shall he made in gold and silver coin.] Article III. — Whenever ships of the United States are trynwi iip|Mlnt«4 to rttMve thrnn ) whatever articlei tha ihlpwrM^kM m«tn may have preserved shall like- wlM be rMtor«d, «tt(l tiM eApenses incurred in the res- cue and tupitort »f AtflnrlMtls and Japanese who may. be (but titrowrt Hjwn tlt« shores of cither nation, arc not to b« rtfwM, Aftleki IV^Tliose shipwrecked persona and othar nWmm itf the tJniUd Statjs shall ba free as in o(b«r mmtittlM, nnd not snlijeoted to con- finement, Imt nhM I* (mPMul.le to Jnst laws. Article v.— ShlpwrB»lw4 fflKB and of her citizens of the United States, taioixiraflly HvIh« at Hlmwla and Ilakodude, shall not Im subjtw^t Ui stkh restrictions and confine- ment as tbiu liuf-b «h4 f»vl»(on», (tortl, and goods required, shall only lie \m»'»nti throii^b the agency of Japanese officers aiifnintM (tit thrtt toifpose, and in no other manner. Artfido IX.^^It Is agreed that if at any future day the is'>*^itm»iil lit Japan shall grant to any other nation itt flMltotlM, tiflvlleges anu advantages whicli are not b«rMn gtuntm to the United States nnd the citizens thwrwof, that th^se same privileges and advantages shall \m gtmtmi llh<ir the vessel in sight intends entering the harlMr ur nut, If it may be the dosire of the master of the said vhht sel to enter the port, the pilot shall conduct her to a»(» anchorage, and, during her stay, shall render svary assistance in his power in facilitating tlw piocuri'' mont of all the supplies, he may require. Tlia prixw* for supplying water to American vessels at timw\» shall be 1400 cash* per boat-load ^^the casks Iwiog (uf^ nished by the vessel). And for wood delivered on board, about 7200 cash per cube of 6 American f««t," The foregoing is a full summary of the coiicessiuns granted to American intercourse by the treaty with Japan of March 31st, 1854. As a means of u|«eMJiii; commercial relations with that empire, its provi»i«i)» iiave proved inefficient ; but, before submitting any iw. tice of facts that have come to knowledge of the l)»p»rt' ment relative to this subject, it is deemed approprM* to give the laadiug provisions of the treaty entered inUi by Greut Britain with Japan. The first article of tliis treaty opens ibc ports of Kangasuki and Hakodode Ui British vessels to repair a>jd obtain supplies only, U opens all parts of these pc-ts ; but, as respectu amimi'- age, vessels must conform to the instructions of the loi.'«| govemr.^ent. Safe an-', commodious places ore to be designated for the repair of vessels. Wurkinen, mih terial, and other necessary supplies to be furnislied hy the local government, in accordance with a tatiff Ui Ite agreed upon, which shall regulate the manner of (My^ ment. All officiciul communicatiuns to be condu<.'ted in the English language, as soon as the Japanese «hall have acquired a knowledge of that language. A pla»l) *t Medsuma Sima, which will be inclosed l)y a stone W4li and suitably protected. The second article stipulates that at each of the ports of Nangusaki and of iiako- dade, the regulations of the port shall be observed i but the Japanese government will see that titese regu.^ latioDs shall be such as to create no difficulties and )»-- terpose no obstacle whatever to the general object of tho treaty, which is essentially designed to fox-ilit^te amicable relations between Great Itritoin and Jaiian, The third article declares that only vessels in 4)1' tress or dismantled can enter other ports than KaNg^- saki and Hakodade, withuu! nerviission of the JajittDese government; but ships of war possess, as a iteceMiary attribute of their public character, the general right t<' enter all the ports of friendly powers ; while, however, this right shall sulfer no prejudice or restrii'tion, tl*e vessels of war of her Britannic majesty will iM>t enter Any other than open ports, without necessity, »«r without offering proper explanations to tlie imneriftl authorities. Tbe fourth article |)rovides that l>>itish ships and subjects in Japanese ports shall conform* Ui tho laws of Japan ; and that if an) snliordinste Britiiih subjects commit offenses aj^ainst tli' laws, tliey shall be delivered to their own officers for punishnu'nt ; and that if superior officers, or commanders of shi|)ti, fhall break the laws, it will lead to the chisingof the |M>rt« specified : but it is not intended by this article that Uhy acts of individuals, whether high or low, previoyely unauthorized or subsequently ulsapproved of by )»«r majesty tho Queen of Great Britain, can set usiiia tl*e I'onvontion entered into with her majesty ulone by his imperial highness the Kmperor of Japan. The fifth article secures, in the fullest sense, to British shipsaiMi subjects, in every port of Japan, cither now o|)eu or hereaftet to bo opened, an equality, in [wint of advaiM tage and accommodation, with the ships and suijjei.'ts or citizens of any other nation, witlwut prejudjji.'«, however, to any peculiar privileges hitherto cun^eiled to the Dutch and Chinese in the irart of Naugaw»l»f, * 600 copper cash are equal to 4S cen^ff (urbitrary vuliui). The currency of Japan Is sf mllar to that of Cbbu, iu whLi.'h I Uel - 10 mace - 100 .landarwns - 1000 casta - |1 48 L'. H, currency. If, t1mi>ti>fl>t »ilf otfMT nation or peopl« he now, or huti'itfUtf, MrmittMl to enter other ports than Nang» Hhi mh4 ttHhtnimU, (tt to appoint consuls, or to op«a tr«4'«< "f («*«)«/ Hliy advantage or privilege whatever, tiritMt eUp* mi sobjccts shall, as of right, enter upon tiMi mtinfllt^tit lit ih« Slime. The sixth article declares VM Vt¥ im^^i\m shfitl )>« exchanged at Mangasaki, wt \mMi i)t im wmjesty the (jueen of Great Britain, I»ff4 im tmUM «f his highness the Emperor of Japan, wftbfH a ihntilhK frnm the 14th day of October, 1854. 'f )t# mirnfim «t )(«n««saki communicated, in Octo- imf, \l*i»i, Ut Mr JNMtti fHerlIng, the following standing (Mrt ttl0l\iuUmi i Amhi.h 1. Ships shall anchor within twM *\m», »m\ (fMffi nwalt the direction of the guv- >'t»t>f, i, Hii f)te-«rms are to lie discharged. A. No ff^r^m Ui \mn\ m my ct the Islands. 4. No soundings U) \m ttthm, luif tf((«ts to he pulling about. 6. Should »»y i>ifMNmNMie«tJ(ms tie desired, a boat of the upper 'imtrfit iiImII Im t»Ueti ; Imt no communication shall be IfAlft #)tl« tmfl'UitlH boats, and no exchange of articles i»lm pim-ti, (If ifnAiii^ (tt any sort. 'dm »(**♦« '*'«((( according to the law of Great >l»p)»i, hH KimltiHluien and other officers shall oliey tliA imilt4>, Hiui (frders shall lie given to tiie crew that ibn Hfofmniii Uw shall not lie broken. An HffUh^in^ntt made suliseqoently to the conven- tUm t»Uh (if««t liritaln, requires that British ships, iuWHAUtK to irhil ildpHII, shall be provided with a doc- Ultmit in pf(t(if (if their nationality, and as a check mu»t (((# ('(/tiAiU-t (it vessels in Japanese ports ; and her fm^^f^ ti/iKieflimetA has directed a form of cortilicute (if (f^'tftliiUm Ut im adopted, which has been accepted ttj itiiiUfiKiiity >iy the .bipanese authorities ; an'l mer- dlwfft s)*iw* iiftMn% in Japanese ports are to submit tlM^if Wrt(rt««t« »f registration to the officers to be up- |«/fWU'4 1^ th« Jajxihese aut'iorities, and to permit litem Ui limk4( swch exttacts from it as may seem good U> ti>CM, M(lt(< <>tK-h siiips can be admitted to obtain f/Hhtifit Htui 9(t(,'{ilie». Her majesty's ships of war are ink U) tic (rt(/*i(i«rt with such documents; but tho wrt}<»t(» in (iiiiitHnndi upon proper oppbcation, will »lfimi *)( fm«(tP.aitie Information regording their sbljis. iMUlui tf*t «(soi recently forr.ed a provisional trmly mUl illtMn. bnt it is sti>ted that the liaUh gov- vfrnnmi wHhhoJds It from publication. The Singa- pif« fflHKif» )/JV« the following summary of its provis- Vma "'itmlUlUh ate no longer limited to Uecima, l/Hd may ftwily feiuitt Ui Nns-gasaki and the immediate wijsfd^/tlw^fft. The Island of Decima is placed at the dii«*»(«l iif iJw f)((fth, and the buildings thereon sold t" UoHhuA, This island will serve ns an entrepot for (1^ UnMli i^iwfi tlie» can land their goods without imytHOnt uf rtirt)«» «r search. The keys of tlic wuter- g#(U<( m(\ (ifiiu* (iittef(it warehouses will roniaiu with t.\m ttXiiU (tiitif tm^Utt. The usual duties will not bo ^iiimicd MMtil tiiMnh are brought to Nangasaki. Tho tf^U mitt Itie Dutch goveinment remains on the (m'ncf (iH4inK, ttee exer -ise of religion and right of Itami N liiHiHiiUd f(> the I)utch. There shall exist, if-iHvfofWitidf /rcwiom of communication with other *)*i(« fnicfili^ (If rfepartin { from tho roads. A delini- li*« ttmty 1» to iie he "..fter concluded: but, until iUiti tskfi) iiiiH:e, itie present agreement la to becon- ^j4#f«4 in hfi-e," 'Hm Htui*(t in, in sUbstaiiee, all that has been pub- iiniuid fniuiiae to th« (.•onventi(m between Holland and ,hpm i Imt, ««()( the definitive treaty, iilluiled to in Hni Ufsi lutfXliiilph, shall have been entered into, the mpir<:imff^ (*t»een the two countries will be of the mnte iimilnd clintncieT that has hitherto existed. la- timi, tim i(/*)**Wse e<-ince an almost invim !ble repug- mmm Ui iiti^illK their (xirts to foreign commerce, and, (» iMf inMptUnlian (if treaties, concede nothing be- ywl^d Wifrt in t'recifically granted. Thus, the term '■ iflHpufUfy fesiflcrtte" in tbe treaty with the United HM^n, M B(i nhidiy interpreted that citizens of this rnmiff, *Jw d«sl»«d to J»nd «t one of tho open poits, JAP 1136 JAP )cca pub- llaml anil ilcd to in into, the of the toil. la- ile rcpug- rco, and, tiling bo- tho term United 1 of this ID polts, were ireqnlred, before belnR permitted to g» af bore, to state how long they intended so to reside ; ud intima- tions were given tlmt "four or five days" would be ■■ufflcient to satisfy the words of the treaty. In one case, the applicants, whose object appears to have been to reside permanently at one of the open ports, for the purpose of eatablisliing a diput for the supply of whaleahips, were infonucd that, until they stated the exact number of days they intended to stay on shore for " temporory residence," they would not be permitted to sleep one night from their vessel. On the 17th August, 1855, tlie American schooner Wilmington, Brown maste-. ' New ^ndon, Con- necticut, arrived at Simodt. from Hong Kong, with a miscellaneous cargo, supposed to be suitable for trade at that port. Shortly after casting anchor, some 15 or 20 officers came on board, and desired to know on what business the vessel came into port. They were in- formed that she brought a cargo of American com- modities, which the captain wished to sell or exchange for goods of Japanese manufacture. They then in- formed the captain that they could not trade ; that the people at large would be much pleased to do so, but that the emperor had positively prohibited all commer- cial intercourse, under penalty of death to the oflTcnd- ers. A letter was addressed to the governor of the city of Simoda, which was re'.'J-aed in the same en- velope, with a verbal message to the effect that he would ^ot be permitted to land a single article for trade, nor could he present any fur trade on shipboard. Wood and water i^the former at $5 per cord) were offered ; but fresh proviiions, it is stated by tlio cap- tain, were refused. The vessel was, night and day, surrounded l)y guard-boats until she cleared from the bay. The Wilmint/ion then proceeded to Hakod.ide, wliere she met with more Ulieral treatment, but per- mission to trade was refused, as at Simoda. Tlie only provisions to be purchased consisted of beans, tur- nips, scallions, and such vegetables. The cattle the Japanese look upon as sacred, and will neitlier sell nor kill them. The captain and crew were permitted to go ashore and visit wherever they pleased. They were also exempted from the vigilance of guard-boats, as well as from the constant attendance of guards, as at Simoda. It seems evident, tlierefore, so far as appears, that, under the prpsent treaty, the .Japanese government will not permit any trade to be carried on; noi' is tliere much probability of the trei 'y receiving any more lll)eral interpretation than that given to it by the ofliuials at Simoda. It is, as the Japanese aver, a treaty of peace and amity only, strictly guarded against any concession or clause under which Amer- ican citizens could claim the privileges of general trade Com. Jlel. U. S. To America undoubtedl}' belongs the credit of hav- ing lieen the flrst to re-establisli commercial relations with Japan. The increased traffic in this part of the world, particularly between eastern Asia and north- western America, and the importance of the whale- fishery in the Japanese seos, had rendered it very de- siroble to have free access to at least some of the ports of Ja^an. Repeated attempts had been made l)y En- gland, Russia, and the United States, but without success, when at length the United States' government resolved to make an effort worthy of the object, and accordingly fitted out an expedition under the com- mand of Commodore M. C. Perry, The commodore sailed from Norfolk in the Mississippi war-steamer, on tlie 24th of November, 1852, to be followed as soon as possible by the other vessels of the expedition. He arrived in the Bay of Yeddo on tlie 8th of July, 1853, with four vessels, two war-steamers, and two sloops of war, and after some negotiations he delivered the let- ter of the President, promising to return for an answer in the apring. The rest of the year was spent at Loo Choo and China, and on the 12th gf Fobruarj-, 185i, the squadron reappeared in the Bay of Yeddo, having by this time been increased to nine vessels, three steam-frigates, four sloops of wor, and two store-ships. A treaty was concluded on the Slst of March, in terms of which the ports of Simoda in the island of Nipon, and Ilukodade in Yesso, are opened for the reception of American ships, where they will be supplied with wood, water, provisions, coal, and other articles, so far ns the Japanese possess them. Ships in distress, or from stress of weather, may enter other ports ; and seamen shipwrecked on any part of the coast are to be aided and carried to either Simoda or Ilakodade. Ship- wrecked seamen and others temporarily re»iding at these ports, are, at Simoda, free to go anywhere within the limits of 17 English miles from a small island in the harbor, and in like manner at Ilakodade within 12 miles. Ships of the United States are also permitted to trade under such regulations as shall be temporarily established by the Japanese government for that pur- pose. All the privileges that may hereafter be granted to any other nation are to bo accorded to the United States, On the 7th of September following, an En- glish squadron, consisting of a frigate and three steam- ers under the command of Kcar-Admiral Sir James &. i-ling, entered the harborofNungasaki. The primary object of this visit to Japan was to search for Russian vessels, but it was also intended to attempt to cstab- lisli friendly relations lietween the two nations. A treaty was entered into, the effect of which is to open absolutely and at once to Brtish ships of every de- scription, for effecting repairs and obtaining fresh water, provisions, and other supplies, two of the most convenient harbors in .Fapan — Nangasaki and Ilako- dade ; to open inferentialiy to British ships in distress any otlicr port in Japan it may be expedient fur them to seek shelter in; to secure eventually to British ships and subjects in every port of Japan which may liereafter be open to fureignerrt, equal advantages with the ships and subjects of the most favored nation, ex- cepting only the advantages at present accorded to the Dutch and Ciiinose. It imposes in return for these concessions, no other obiij^atlon on British ships and subjects than that of respecting the laws and ordi- nances of tlio ports they visit. More recently the Russians have succeeded inobtaiuing a similar fuuting in Japan. See Jiiici/, Jiril., 8th. edition ; Hunt's Mei: Mag., i., 208, xxxi., 231, G2«, xxxiv., 120, 742; Xor. .\m. Jiev., X., 33 (by N. IIalk) ; Qiiar: liei'., xxii., 107, lii., 159, vi., 357 ; Pkkky's .fapan '^xped., 1354 ; i»ii- ing Age, x., xiv., xxiii, ; IJe Bow's Rev. ix., 444. Japanned Wares (Oer. Jppmtische ware; Du, Japansch lakicerk ; I'f. Mareluindisu da Japan';, arti- cles of every description, such us tea-trays, clock- dials, candlesticks, snuff-boxes, etc., covered with coats of Japan, whether plain, or embellished with painting or gilding. Japanning, a species of lac-varnishing, in imita- tion of the lacquered ware of Japan, which, with that of China, is esteemed tlie best in the world. The ware may be lacquered upon wood, metal, or papier-machi grounds, A description of tlie process as practiced in China may 3erve to explain the .sources of superiority. The article, if of wood, being made very dry, light, and smooth, is primed with a mixture of o.x gall and rottenstone, which is rubbed smooth before the varnish is applied. The varnish is composed of 605 grains of guin-lao in 1200 grains of water, to which are added 38 grains of oil of Vamellia sasanqaa, pig's gall, and I'j grains of rice vinegar. The ingredients are well mixed in full daylight, when the varnish gradually deepens into a brilliant black, A very thin coat of this varnish is applied with n flat hair brush. The article Is left in a steamy heat, and is then rubbed down in water with very fine pumice. A second coat of lac-v.arnish is next applied, and the polishing is repeated, which two operations are con- tinued until a perfectly even and brilliant lurface is JAP 1136 JAV MtalneJ, a flnor quality of lac betiiK aned for th« later coats, nf which thero are n«vi>r \e»» than three, nor more than 18. The o))Ject \a ornamented liy an i.rtlgt, who draws the deai)^ in wliite lead, enf^raven it, and Alls up the details. The article is next painted with the camphorated lac of Kouangsi, which serves as a bails for tho f;'losed for Beveral days to a gradnally increasing heat In the japanner's stove. The articles are then finished as tv form, and nrc again atoved, ufter which the cracks are stopped with putty or wliite lead. For bl.-'k J wnned works, a ground of ivory-black mixed with dark-colored animi varnish is applied. This is dried in the stove, and coated with viruish three or four times, the work being stoved be- tween every two coats. For colored grounds, the var- nish mixed with the proper color is laid on in one or two coats, and the work is conipleted by several suc- cessive vamtshings and drj-ing'i. Onlinar}' painters' colors ground with Unseed oil or turpentine and mixed with animi) varnish are empIo}'ed for various black or brown surfaces with gilt eject Itself. A gold ground is formed by varnishing the work with japanner's gold size, and when nearly drj' but still clanLiiy, covering it with gold dust applied un a piece of wash-leather ; the effect of such a ground when highly varnished is very brilliant. Japan work is ornamented with drawings or engrav- ings, on the principle of transfer, for wliich purpose tlie engraving is printed, or the drawing executed on fine paper previously prepared with a coat of isinglass or gum- water. When this is Ary it is placed face downward upon the japan ground, which is covered with ii tlilii coat of copal varnish. A sponge dipped in warm water is then applied to the back of the paper, which dissolves the Isinglass, loosens the paper, and leaves the print on the work. Another method is to execute the print on an elastic composition of glue, etc, which receives tho impression well, and can be laid down at once on tho japanned surface. The whole of the pro- cesses require so much drying, that stoves ore requi- site to hasten tho work.* The great demand for japanning Is for works In papier mache, to which article we must refer for fur- ther information on Vie sul)ject. Common articles of furniture are sometimes slid to lie japanned, therel>y Implying that they are mor>! duralde than common painted articles, 'fhe term as thus used la, however, incorrect, since the colors employed on such common works are only mixed with turpentine instead of oil. For ispanniog worlu in mvtal, they Bte cieaoed wltii turpentlne'Ho get rid cf ^^reose ct oil, unless the oil shoald be linieeid. In which case the articles are stored until the oil becoqcB quite hard. Japanning is then performed In the usual manner. — K. U. Jaaper (Oer. Juipitt ; Du. Jatit ; I'r. Jatjie ; It. Diatpro I 8p. Jatpe ; Kus. Jiuchma). T'.iis atone, is an ingredient In the composition of many mountnins. It occurs ns'tslly In large amorph jus masses, some, times \t\ round or angular pieces ; its fracture is couch- oldul J specific gravity from 'J to 27. Its colors ore various; when heated It does nut decrepitate; it is usually di-, . 'od Into four species, denominated Kgyp- tian joepar, stMped jusjicr, I'orcelain jasper, and com- mon jasper. It is sometimes employed by jewelers In the formation of seals. Java, the first In Importance, although only the third in magnitude of the islands in the Indian Archi- pelago, llos between eiwt long. 105° VI' and 114° •!', and Huuth !at. 6° 52' and H° 4U'. In form It is long and nan'ow, l>eing 066 miles in length from east to -.rest, by from &C to LIC miles in breadtli. Area 60,'i*iO square miles. Tn the north-west it is parted from l^umatra by a strait, at its narrowest part only M miles wide, and with islands lietween ; and to the' east from Hall, by a strait of no more than two miles broad, Un its low, and in some measure sheltered north coast, Java has a good many islands, by far the largest and most i-nportant of which Is Madura, sepa- rate from it by a strait at one part only alioui a mile wide. On the bold precipitous south cua.st there nre very few islands, and only two of a considerable size, ISaron and Kamlranagan. Tlie coast line of Java, wliicli Is about 1400 KngUsh miien in extent, has many bays on its northern coast, l>ut it is not deeply pene- trated by any one of them, so that it has properly no harbor but one, that of Surabaya, formed between the main Islanil and Madura, where the strait that divides them is still narrow. Tlic southern coast is still less indented. Here there are two harbors only, Padiitau — Inconvenient and unsafe — and Chal.ichap, formed lietween the main island and Kambangan, lioth out of the way of intercourse, and little frequented. On other parts of the south coast there is no safe anchor- age, while dangerous surge rolls in on tho shore in all seasons. With tho single exception named, the ports of the northern coast are but open road.steads, with good anchoring ground ; but the want of land-lockiii harliors Is not felt so near the equator, where hurri- canes are never expm 6 to IS milea In depth. The geological formation of Java la eminently vol- canh. A range of mountalna runa In a longitudinal direction through the centre of Java, the peaka of which vary from the height of near 4000 to near 12,- 000 feet above the level of the aea. No fewer than 48 of thoae peaka are vnlcanoea, 20 of which are in a atate of greater or leaa activity. The cratera are aometlmea of great extent, and their walla illustrate the Btructure of the mountalna, which la either vertical and irregularly columnar, or diapoaed In oblique or horizontal atrata. Java haa no cxtenaive collection of water, aalt or fresh, and no large lagoona connected with the sea. There exist, however, o few beautiful mountuin lakea. One of thoae lies within the mountain Wilis (" the green"), which parts the pinina of Madiyun and Kadiri, and la known by the name of Gaial. There Is a sec- ond in the province of Cheribon, Isnown by the San- Bcrit name of TiUaga, or the reservoir ; and a third la in the province of Paauruhan and called BaHunila, or the blue water. In Jova, however, there are several extenaive marahea, which, in the aeaaon of the rains, become lakes, arc navigated, and have fisheries. The rivers of Java, especially ca its northern side, are nu- merous J but from the form of the ialand, they are of amall size. None of them ore navigable for vessels of burden, and few even f»r boats beyond tho reach of the tide. They are all, more or lesa, obstructed by mud or aand-bara at their mouths. Though of little utility for trade, they are excellently adapted for irri- gation. Few of the rivers of Java have specific names, but take their appellations generally from tho placea they paaa by, and change them with every new one, a circumstance which may, perhaps, be owing to their small size and great number. There are, how- ever, a few exceptions, in some of the larger, aa the Stoya, a river of the province of Baflumaa and the Praga, with ita tributaries the Eloa Rivera of Kadu, all debouching on the southern coast. Climate. — The climate of Java Is what may be ex- pected in a narrow sea-girt countr)' between five and eight (legreea aouth of tlie equator, having plains al- most on a level with the sea, and inhabited land 50110 feet above it. The wet season begins with October and ends with March, and the dry with April and ends with Septembsr. The monsoons are those of the louthem hemisphere, the north-western corresponding with the wet season, and tho south-enstem with the dry. "■ e setting in of these monsoons is irregular, and, e . a during their prevalence, there is some drj- weather in the wet, and not unfrequentiy rain in tlie dry. At the equinoxes, when the monsoons change, the weather is very nnsettled, and most tempestuous at the commencement of tho winter solstice in Septem- ber and October. Thunder-storms are then frequent, and often destructive to life. Land and sea-breezes are experienced within 15 miles of the northern and southern coasts, and in particular localities of its east- cm and narrowest extremity tho aouth-oaatem mon- soon blows with great force across tho whole island. The temperature, so far as the seasons are concerned, is equable,. Near the level of the sea, which is that of the great alluvial band, which runs along the northern eide of the isiaud, and of the wide plains of the interior, Fahrenheit's thermometer seldom falls lielow 70°, and seldom rises alrove 90°. According to the elevation of the land, every variety of temper- ature is experienced from this lost to 6° btlow the freezing point. Snow never fills, even on tixe highest peaks ; but on these at the height of winter, in July and August, ice a few lines thick la formed, and hoar frost is seen every morning, called by the natives, poison -dew (&mbun'npa8), from its pernicious effect on vegetation. In the inhabited mountain valleys, at 4C the height of 4000 feet, the thermometer la uiually about 20° below what it is at the level of the tea. Here la experienced a climate agreeable and congenial to the Kuropean conatltutlon ; and here, the coma, fruita, ttowera, and eaculent vegetablea of temperate reginna, have long lieen acclimated. In point of aalu- brity, the climate uf the high landa of Java la luez- ceptiunable, and that of the low, containing the mass of the population, la generally equal to that of any other tropical countr}-. In a few spots of the alluvial band if the northern coast, s.ich as Batavia and Cheri- bon, deleterious malaria have occasionally prevailed, ariaing from the neglect of canals and water-couraea, or .'rom theae '■eing obatructed b}- volcanic dibrla ; but theae are exceptlona, aa ate also a few foreat tracta of the interior of the island. The extensive cultivation of rice by irrigation might have been expected to genera erate malaria, but such is not the case, nor has it over been alleged to have done so in the country Itself. Tho elephant ia not found In Java, nor doea there exist any evidence of its ever having been indigenous, and tbis is the more remarkable aa it ia abundant in Sumatra. The animal, however, was known to the Javaneae for ages, and waa probably imported occa- aionally for the use of its princes. Java has one rhi- noceros peculiar to itself, and dift'ering even from thoae of Sumatra. It i.i an animal easily tamed, and when so, gentle in ita habits. Il«8ides the donieaticated hog, Java has two wild apeciea, the iSiim t'rrruca' inferior quality and no migratory species frequent the rivers for spawning aa thpy do on the rivers of the eastern side of Sumatra. Shell-fish are very abundant on the northern coast, especially oysters of excellent quality, and prawns, tlio last being much used by the people in the shape of the condiment called by the Javanese traai. The fisheries of the exposed soutiiem coast of the island are unimportant. Java, whetlier the inlialiitants be of the Javanese or Sunda nation, is peopled by the same race, the Malayan. This is characterized liy a short ond squat person, the stature being about two inches less than that of the Euro|)can, tlie Chinese, the Hindoo, the Persian, or Arabian. Tho face is round, the mouth wide, the choek-bones high, the nose short, small, never prominent as with the European, and never flat aa with the African negro. Tlie eyes are always black, small, and deep-seated. The complexion is brown, with a shade of yellow, not so dark as with the majority of Hindoos, and never black as with some of them. Fairness is, indeed, in estimation with the Javanese and others of the same race. The hair of the head i3 abundant, always black, lank, and harsh, or «t Sii, JAV 1188 JAY navar aoft or Mky. The hair on other part* of th* body in either iiaanty or altof^ther wanting. The l>«ard conaiata only of a few ihort atra^lini; hain, and there is none at all on the breaiit or limba. The Javaneae, peraonally, are not an afcile people, and mall* very indifferent runncn or wreatlers. Aa to moral character, the Javaneae of the present day may be described aa a peacealile, docile, solnr, simple, and Industrloua people. The practice of runnini; a muclc, so frequent with the other cultivated nutinna of the .\rchlpelago, is of very rare occurrence with them. ■Tnva waa populous, and to a consiileraliie de)iTee .jiv- illzed for many ages Iwfore It waa known U Euro- peans. De Harroa ilcscrilMis the Javanas-., at the arrival of the PortuKuese, aa what they stlli are, " the most civiliaed people of these parts" (gtntei ih mai$ policia). They were then found carrj-Ing on trade from Sumatra to the Moluccas ; they fumiahed bread- corn and manufacturea to the less advanced nations in return for their rude protluctlons, and they hod effected conquests or settioments in Malacca, I'liiem- bang in Sumatra, and in the two fertile Islands of Ball and Lomboc. In fact, it is certain that the .Tavanese were, at this time, a far more civilized, probatily even a more numerous people than either the Mexicana or Peruviana, who Iwcame known to Kurope nearly at the same time. The essential part of Javanese civ- ilization seems to be of native origin anil to have sprung up in the Island itself, altliough it suljscquently received consideraliie accessions liy intercourse with llindoostan. With the exception of the people of Bali and Lom- boc, the Javanese are the only nation of the Arclii- pelugo that can be aald to ba almost exclusively agricultural. With the exception of the fishermen of the northern coast, and a small proportion of artisans, the computed ten millions of the population of the island is directly or indirectly engaged in agriculture, and have made a reapectalile" progress in it. To regu- late the processes of agriculture, the Javanese have a rural calendar still in use. This consists of a year of 860 days, beginning with the winter solstice of the southern hemisphere in the end of June, and divided into twelve seasons of unequal length, varj'Ing from 23 to 41 days each. It details the times for clearing and preparing the land, for sowing, for transplantin,';, and for reaping the different crops. The native terms by which the seasons are named, are, for the most part, the ordinal numbers of the vernacular lani.uage, while the adaptation of the seasons to the latltide of Java sufficiently show that this calendar Is a Javanese invention, and not borrowed from strangers. Irriga- tion, in so far us the rice crop is concerned, multiplies the productive powers of the soil from live to tenfold, according to the abundance of water, and the facility of using it, and haa l>een carried to such an cxt'^nt in Java that the majority of the aralde land of the island consiata of rice fields. The perennial streams and rivers, aa they descend from the mountains, are, l)y means of embankments and trenches, diverted into ■mall fields surrounded by low dikes, which can be flooded or drained at pleasure. Tbe process of form- ing such lands is expensive and laborious, but when once formed, they are easily preserved. When the water for irrigated lands is sufHclently abundant and continuous, two crops of rice are raised within the year, and in some cases even three within fifteen months, the sun being hot enough to ripen rice in every season. The husbandman may follow his con- venience as to the time of sowing, and in contiguous fields may be seen at once sowing and reaping rice, with every intermediate stage of the growth of the plant. When the water is not sufficiently copious for two crops, the rice is sown in the wet or hot seoson ; and in the dry, or cold, crops considered of secondary value are produced, such as pulses, oil-giving plants, and cotton. No manure is ever appli^ to irrigated Iimda, nor are fallows practiced. Dry or upland arable la of small value compared to Irrigated land, Un the beat drj- landa rice is occa- aionally grown, but more generally tliaae landa are used for such crops aa pulses, oil-giving plants, cotton, sugar-cane, and tolwcco, and on the mountain-slopes, at an elevation of 2000 and SOOO feet, fur coffee. 1-. the most fertile parts of Java, which, from the neigh- borhood of the high mountains, are usually also the most picturesque, the scenerj- is at onoe agreeable and nugnificent, and certainly fur grandeur and beauty excels ail that may be seen, even in Italy, that cuuu- tr}- which in summer liears the nearest resemlilunce to Java. In such situations we have mountains 10,000 feet high, cultivated to half their heiglit, the valleys below having all the appearance of u well-wuternd garden. When Java first became known to Europeans, ita principal agricultural products were rice, pulses, sesame, ground-pea, and other oil-giving plants, in- digo and cotton, with palms and indigenous fruits. European intercourse has added to these, muizc, to- bpcco, and coffee. Tbe quantity of its great staple, rice, which "t produces, can only be estimated. With the exception of a s.nall quantity of mulza, r< ■ Is the only bread-corn of the Javanese ; and, t'.urt -e. If we take the consumption per head at u ',• artcr, or 448 lbs., this, on a computed population of 10,000,000, will make the total anntUkl produce the same number of quarters. The export is, at present, too incuusidoro- ble materially tc affect this computation, fur in 1M48 It amounted to no more than 217,000 (|uarterK. From the first appearance of Europeans, ami no doulit for many ages before, Java was the greatest granary of the other countries of the Archipelago. Itccoiitly the extensive culture by corv6e lalior of such products as sugar, coffee, and indigo, under an idle and pernicious hypothesis thnt some peculiar commercial advantage to the State belonged to their culture, has greatly in- terfered with the production of corn. The ex|H>rt of It has consequently diminished, and the price materi- ally risen ; the consequence of which has lioen, that countries Immemorlally supplied liy Java, now draw their com from other places, such as Ball, I.umboc, SLim, and Arracan. Afechanic Arts. — The state of the mechanic arts among the Javanese Is far Iwlow that of their agricul- ture, i)Ut stiU in advunce of that of the other nations of the Atcliipclago ; and with the exception of textile fabrics, not below that of the Hindoos. About thirty different crafts may be enumerated us practiued among them, the most important of which are the black- smith or cutler, the carpenter, the kris-shcutli maker, the coppersmith, the goldsmitli, and the potter. Uoth bricks and tiles are, at present, largely made; and excellent bricks are found in the remains of many ancient temples, proving that the art of manufacturing them has been known for many ages. Coarse un- glazed pottery, similar to that of llindoostan, is also made ; and the names of the different so.-ts all lielong to the vernacular language. Beyond the manufacture of this coarse article, tbe Javanese have not ailvnnced — aU their Iwtter pottery having been fur ages received from China. Their skill in carpentry is displayed in house and boat building, in the fulirlcation of agri- cultural implements, and of the hilts, shafts, and scabbards of warlike weapons. The ordinary dwell- ings of the peosautr}' consist of a rough frame of tim- l)er, thatched on the coast with the leaves of the nipa palm, and in the interior with grass; having walls and partitions of split, flattened, and plaited l>amboa work. They are always built on the ground. The dwellings of the upper classes differ, chiefly, in their greater size, with the exception of the palaces of the princes and bichor nobility. Boat-building is an art extensively practiced all along the northern coast of Java. Their boats vary in form and size from mere fishing canoes to vessels of fifty tons. The building Jttvn work I The and nothinj works falirical wliich Javanc chiefly staocat; way in Some ili.imott ftill mi portatio first arr The ton, rat made fr other t] known and pn dyeing, domesti nations variety Mnsistlil "tripes, I with th| Javanei sists inl doth ncf JAV 1189 JAV of ahlpt li, at preunt, carried nn under the dtrectiort of European*, the workmen, however, being all •lavaneM. When Ruropeana became flmt acquainted with the Javaneae, they were ponnenaed ot veaaela of large iiiiie, well entitled to the name of ahipa. The agricultural implements of the Javaneao are, like thoae of nearly every other Asiatic people, aimple and rude. The .'avaneae of the preaent day have no nrchitec- tur« thai deaervea the name, and apart from the tem- ples of thi ir ancient worship, no relief) renisin of any kind of don e«tlc architecture, of liriJgea, o' reservoha, or of emban'cmenta of riveia, such aa are found In the country of 11,9 Hindoos. Tlie rcmuina of tho remark- able edifices -onnected with the Hindoo religion are abundant ; bu. it la aingular that an improved archi- tecture cenaed srith thut religion, and that no Moham- medan struttuT I of solid materials or beauty has been constructed sin 'e tho adoption of the Itlohammedan reli);ion toward i he end of the IBth century. It is in woriing the metals, however, that the Javanese have n ost excelled, and as they acquired this comparative excellence without possessing any of the metals them! elves, but having all of thom Im- ported, tho fact may 1)8 considered oa evidence of com- paratively advan :cd civilization. According to the Javanese, the flrt t rank among artisans la to bo as- cribed to tho blacl smith, or at least to the cutler. Tho moat esteemed product of his skill is the dagger, the well known kria. ."^.very man, and hoy of 14, wears at least one kris os port of bis ordinarj- dress, and men of rank two, and sometimes fbur. Even ladies of high rank occasionally wear one. Swords are used only in native warfare, and are much less esteemed than the kris, the national weapon. The Javanese spear, a plain ptko with an iron head, la a formidable weapon, from its long shaft of from 12 to 14 feet. Some of the Javanese krises, from their antiquity, are highly ap- preciated, and when lold bring enormous prices. The Javanese had also, before the arrival of the Portu- guese, a knowledge of gunpowder and artiUerj-. De Uarros, in describing an expedition which invaded Malacca in 1613, says, "that It was furnished with much artillery-, made in Java, for," adds he, "the Javanese are skilled in founding or costing, and in all work in Iron, lieaides what they have from India." The Javanese, although they manufacture gold and silver ornaments of consideralde beauty, execute nothing equal to the filigree work of Sumatra. In works In brass, their chief excellence consists in the falirication of musical instruments, a full band of which is known throughout the Archipelago by the Javanese name of gamalan. The instruments consist (.hlefly of l)ars, constructed after the manner of tho staocatu, or of the gong, a word which haa found Its way into our dictionaries and is genuine Javanese. Soma of these gongs have been made three feet in di.imotcr. Musical instruments of this description are still manufactured in Java, and form an article of ex- portation, aa, indeed, they are said to have done on the first arrival of the Portuguese. The only textile material of native produce is cot- ton, rather a coarse article, and the only kind of cloth made from it is a atout durable calico, the muslins and other fine textures of continental India being un- known aa mauufacturea. The proceases of cleaning and preparing the cotton, of spinning, weaving, and dyeing, are all carried on by women, and are purely domestic operations, as is the case with all tho other nations of the Archipelago. The usual mode of giving variety of colors to the web la the simplest possible, consisting in weaving the previously colored yam in stripes, checkered or tartan patterns, so frequent with the other tribes, being against the taste of the Javanese. Another mode peculiar to this |)eople con- sists in covering with melted wax the part of the cloth not intended to be dyed before putting it in the rat, lh« procea* nKeaaarily reqalrfaig npntillon tt proportion to the numl)er of colon intended to b« given. Tho only material, l)eaides cotton, from whioh cloth la made by the Javbneae la silk, ,^od aa th<> art of rearing thn aUk-worm haa never been aurceaafully introduced into Java, the raw mttrrial has always 1)een imported. At preaent it h imported from China, an inferior silk, fWmi which a coarse cloth is wrought with the same implements aa that of cotton. Papar li a manufacture peculiar to the Javanese. It is of the nature of the papyrus of the ancients, nnd not of tho iMiautiful and ingenious fubrl^^ which the nations of Europe acquired from the Araba of Spain, and ao long known to the Chinese. Two language* are spoken in Java, of the aame general structure, belonging to the same class of tongues, ad having many words la common, yet ea- sentially differing from oach other. These are the •Tuvanose and .'' la. The Javannse haa I>ecn Im- memorially a writtva language, and its alpliuhet has extended to the Sunda language. InHcriptiDiia on stone and brass carry us l)iick in its history to the I'ith century. The written character is of two descriptions, that fhund in ancient inscriptions, and that at present current. They seem, however, to be essentially the aame, and not to differ more than black letter flrom modu'n manuscript. Iliatory. — Java was unknown even by name to the civilized nations of ancient Europe, and even to thoae of tho middle ages. It Is first named b}* Marco Polo, who, in his Junk voyage from (/hina to the Persian Gulf, passed through the northern part of the Archi- pelago about the close of the Iflth century. He glvea the name as Ciaua or Java, but hia information being mere hearsay, la In other reapecta erroneoua. Thus, mistaking probably the products of its commerce for Its indigenous productions, he enumerates among the latter cloves and nutmegs, and gold in quantity " exceeding all calculation and belief," although it produces nono at all. No sooner liad the Portuguese reached India by the Cape of Good Hope than the name became familiar enough to Europeans. L. Bar- thema visited the islind apd remained fourteen days in it, hut hia account io obviously false or worthless, for he describes parents as selling their children to be eaten by the purchasers, and himself as quitting the island in haat« for fear of being made a meal of. Edoardo Barboaa, although he had not visited it, describes its productions, its trade, its manufactures of arms, and the persona, dress, and manners of Its inhal)itants, with much accuracy. Pigafetta, although his information respecting it was derived, as he tells ua, himself, from the old pilot who accompanied him from the Moluccaa, la even more correct than Barbosa. How verj' little, however, was really known of Java by the early Portuguese of India, is to be seen from what De Barros, master of all the Indian archives, saya of it in his Third Decade, published in 1663, no less tbdn 62 }'eara after the conquest of Malacca, i\nd several years after his countrymen had visited (.'hina, discovered Java, and traded with both. Ho makes it consist of two Islands, Java and Sunda ; and his work contains a rude map, in which a great river, or rather a strait of the sea, is represented as dividing them. This he calls the River Chiarao, which may possibly be the Chitando of the Sundas, a considerable stream at theeastem boundary of their country, and which, in their language, signifies, " boundary water or river." It was in tl>c reign of the second prince of this dy- nasty, that tlie Dutch mado their ^rst appearance in Java, under Iloutman, in 1595. In IGIO they obtained permission from the Sunda prince of Jacatra, to build a fort near the spot on which now stands tho city of Batavia. In 1619 this ibrt was besieged by the joint forces of the princes of Jacatra and Bantam, aided and abetted by the English. It was relievd by a Dutch fleet under admiral Koen, and the aaaailanta defeated JAV 1140 JAV uMl driven off. ft w«» nfUr IhU •▼«nt that th« nime of lUtavlii tiMt ({lv»n to the fortreu wan iimtowiMl on tha town. In WW Ratavia wa» healoKcil hy a nunwr- oiia arm}- tKnt aKainut It bv the rt<[gn\nK prlni'i of Matawm, with thn hr,p« of «xp«lllnK thn Dutch from tha lalanil ; Imt hv thn nklll ami coiiraKn nf the Kiinv paan ((arrlion, thn rudn anil illaonlerly hont waa liafflful nnil roiitnd. Krom thin time the hUtory uf .lava ii properly that of Itn Kuropenn conquemni. No (!on- ■Idarahle territorlul ncqiilnltion, howevor, waa made until ]a77, when the Dutch olitutned a rrsrilon of the principality of .Ini'iitrn. Krom that time n\< to the year 18,10, ever>' wur rnrried on liy them with the na- tive princcii, whether as principaUorauxiliarlea, Inva- riably ended in a rei4«liin of territory to the former ; •0 that, at preRont, hanlly one fourteenth part of the iaiand In in powerwlon of niitive rulers, und even that l« entirely triiiutitry and dependent, Krom the year 1074 to Wm, thn Dutrh, aa prinripala or nuxilliiVieii, luive been enKJiffnd in nu fewer than four Kreut ware, all of Ion({ durutlcin ; one of whleh, Iw^un In 1074, laated for «4 yeara ; one in 171K, laated for 5 yoara ) one in 1740, for 1ft yonra ; and one in 11*25, for 5 yeara i ■0 that, of one thini part, at leaat, of a period of IBfl yenra, civil war ra)(ed in the inland. The Durch have dirliied their pomcuaions in .lavii into 20 pruvinrea or reKidenrns, e;i,7,')0 ; and IncludiuK' Madura, .1,51)1,500, This estimate was made shortly nfler a civil war of five years' duration. In 1756, imnieiliately after the llnost parts of the island had l)*€n the theatre of a civil war of 15 years, an es- timate was made which pivo .lava only 1,941,911, or Including Madura, 2,001,011. This would seem to ■how that In less than !I0 years a decreiise had taken place exeeedinit a million and a quarter. At thn close of the last century, estimates of the population were made, which raised the joint population of Java and Madura to .1,5.V.l,fill. This was after a continued peace of 45 years ; and shows, compared to the last estimate, an increase exceedinn a million and a half. In 1808 nnothor estimate was made, and by this, the number wan made II,7I)(>,000. In 1MI5 a census was attempted during the tem|)orar)' occupation of the En- gUsh, which raised the population of .lava to 4,100,001, or Including Madura, to 4,015,270. In 1820 a census waa taken which gnvn the populatiim at 5,40.1,780. 10 yeara later, nnotlier was taken, and this raise tlia late NIr Htaiitfciril halfles, the liritisb lieulaiiaut-giivarNor uf .lava, under the supreme government of India i and ha carrlarj hU bold and valuable innovutluiia into elfticl with a cour- age, industr}-, and peraevuruni.v antllluil to the grealeal praUe. The financial aystaui which h« adoplad, how. ever, waa nut so lia|ipy, In so far aa Ilia lanil-laa wua concerned, fur it pruceiidad on Iha prliiolpla of tlm .Stains entering diraclly into an •rraitguiiwnt with each individual occupant of a few acres, iii Iha ii««« of ./ava proliably nut fewer than half a ni,lllon, rniler tliii system, the tux was paid eilhar In monev or In kind, at the option of the occu|Nint ) and baliig gniierallr paid in (he latter. It followed that the goviecial purpose, Hy ihia liiipotltio iimaaure, the Dutch guvernniunt Iiuh liucofua, oiicn more, a cul- tivator, a trader, • nd necessarily, friiin its position, to a ccrt'iin extent, a monopolist trader, The evil elfei t< of such a aystciu on that wealth, wlibli U thn oiily ^■lurce of public revenue, must liu oiivr h to every enlightened stutosniiin. The actual amount of the tix on runt or land-liix remaining to tbu Dutch guvurniiiuiit, aftnr iliMluctlii^ exeinptiuns, waa. In lS4il, allowing '.'Oil. to lhi< llorlli, i.'8:)5,551. To this, liawHver, la to Iw added ii sum nf i;20,2l.''> -'jr iho quit.,rant8 uf land sold at various llincq in fee-simple tu Euro|ieana, with other llenia of the Mature uf a land-tax, aa the runts of I'lirtaln llsh-iiuiid'i, or stews, amounting to X'27,ltO:f, making thn total l,inil- tiix realized X889,12H, Nu account la ranilered of re- missions on account of land a|ipruprlateil tu thn I'ulhirc of produce for government, but a few facta are stated which will give a toluraiilu nutlun of tint extent to which thia very barbarous ayatani la larrlnd, 'i'lio number of Javanese fuinlllea from which I'litibn labor was exacted for tlia culturu of iiolfe*, In IN-lt, was 45.1,289, and for that nf sugar, Indigo, and ciiliiatnon, !15U,9u5, making the total uumliur, excluaive uf those employed in the cultlTutlon uf tea and iiochlneal, which is not elated, 70-1,244 families, uqiilvulent to a popula- tion exceeding tliree mlUiuna uiid a half, or 40 |iarts In 100 of the entire population of the K,urye(l, iia above ((iven, and from the numlwr of treeii, whirh amounted In 1841 to U.-Ill,l)-J.t,4«0. The taxeii on connumptlon are multlfarloua, connlat- InK of inoniipollea, vxeUea, cu»tomii, traniilt ami ninrkitt dutlea, taxei on Huheriea, and on the ilaiiKhtflr of cat- tle. The chief monopollei are thoie of tlia vend of nplum anil mU, In *M3 the flnt of thcne amounted to x;»6,n;Ul, ard the liut to i'!WI,15'J. Tho monopoly of opium la at tnce productive and unexceptionable In principle. That i n lalt la, of courae, a |Hdl-tax, which uinounta to about 4*. on each family, and la only leaa oneroua than our own In Itenital, from the aalt of Java, the produce, chiefly by aolar cvaporatlcm, of Ita north- orn coaat, lieinjc l>etter, cheaper, and more cci>noni- Ic'iliy diatrlbuted to the consumen than that of lt«n- gal. Another niono|)oly la that exercUnd in certain cavea prxlucln;; the naculent awallow-neata, and thla, ai* the liirda are the chief manufacturer*, and atranftera the chief conaumera, la an unexceptionable aource of revenue. In 1H4.') Ita amouni wai £24,'J71. The aale of limber from tho teak foresta, which are the exclu- aive pro|>erty of the Kovemmunt, conatitutea another monopoly, of whirh the produce In the aame year was X42,141. Theae different itema make the tiital revenues ariaing from nionopollea £1,247,201, In the public ai'iiunta the monopoly of tho tin of Iluncu la set down ii.* .lavaneie revenue, and . tated at the aum of XibO,- 0(K). Aa tiie revenue of Java alone auppllcs the funda with which the mining; and Hmeltln)( la carried on, thia branch ia thereforo <'orrectly enough Included In the flnancittl resourcc.i of that ialund. The export and import duties of Java in 1H43, in- cluding port charges, amounted to i,'ttin,840 : und thu market, transit, and ferry dues, came to £282,072, The tax on the slaughter of cattle wua £!)9,!>41, and that on flah and flaheries £27,911. It ia not necessary to add that the two last, aa taxes on nocoasaries of life, arc injurious Imposts, A stnmgo want of attention to an obvious principle la evinced liy the Ktiro|ioan gov- ernment of Java, connected witli tho ^1-i j;hter of cat- tle. Tho slaug'iiter of tho l)ufl'alo ia i i casly prohll)- ited, with the avowed object of incrciuiing the num- ber of this animal for the l)enelit of agriculture, Tlic certain effect of the prohiliition, however, must of I nurse b« the very reverse of what Is intended, for the reariii ; of these animals. Is surely discouraged, not promoted, liy depriving the owners of a market for tlio old, JTnperfect, or au|«'rfluoua (ini'S. The expenses of the govomracnt of ' 'va In 184H, were given at tho aum of £6,291,006. Thus, then, the expenditure "xceeded the amount of the tuxes by tho enormoua aum of £3,082,249, to lie made good by the contingency of proflta on produce remitted to Kurope. Tho civn charges came tj £827,825, the niilitar}' to £720,319, the naval to £138,840. and tho extraordina- ry expenditure, on account of Sumatra, to £220,070. The expense of dispatching government produce, ex- clusive of frei)!' t and charges, amounted to £75,212, while the interest of the pulilie debt, nearly all incur- red in 27 years' time, came tu £1,018,403, or about liulf of that of British India, with 120,000,000 of inhab Hants, and which it has taken a century to incur, Trade — The Intenial trade of Java embraces that of all the Ketberland possessions in India, aa it is the en- trepot for the whole of it. It includes also a largo remittance for the public revenue in the shape of pro- duce, as colfee, sugar, indigo, tin, and spices. Jikva and the other Dutch possessions were delivered over by the English in 1810, with a considerably improved commerce, and certainly, at all events, with a, dear field for the MtaUubuent of a liberal tytUm, The opportunity baa assuredly not been taken advantan (if. Itoubia duties have lieen Imposed iin all goods imptirted under * foreign Hag, and other C4>ntrlvanc«s of the exploded nirrcautile ayatein have lieen had r«. course to, In onler lo give truiln ii direction to Holland, a cnatly expedient, Injurious to the colony, and of no auhatantlal value to the mother country. In IHM, and within eight years after the reatoratlon, a new Koal India (!umpany waa act up as one of theae contrivances, the Handel MaatachuplJ or trading anaociiition. This aaaoclaiion ia nieri'lmnt, Bhl|Hiwner, agent, for the salt of the government produce In Kuni|)e, carrier of thla produce, and farmer of aome liranch( 1,IW,»M 815,041 MiJM ni,8M im Ktorlri,, 27.J»V,5Wi 8,71 IS. I, M) liW.Wi fl,«ls,7M l,9t4,UA I.IHM.ftW los.ua 1IA8,>M 8«U,in5 ISM. ""Kl.irlm. «,AI8,IMA 4,IW7,7t« 84t).0»8 *t,wa SlI.OTl SH,»84 MM* 9ri9,7l» The previous statements show that the produce and trade of .lava have increased during the last 12 years with a rapidity unlinown in an}' otiier ciiUuiy, Cuba, perhaps, excepted ; and if the resources and capabil- ities of thia noble island bo fully developed. It Is (juite Impoasilde to say how much further her trade may be extended and her resources developed. Prinnpal Port, — Batavia, n city of the island of .Tuva, tho capital of tho Dutch possi'ssinns in the Kost Indies, and the principal trading port of the Oriental Islands, lut. 0° 8' soUth, long. 100° 50' cost, on the north-west coast of the Island, at tho mouth of the .lucatrii River, on «n extensive bay. Tho harbor lies brf ween the main land and several small uninhab- ited Islands, which, during the north-western mon- soon, alTord sufficient shelter and good anchorage. Population in 1842, 53,800, including about 30O0 £u- ro|)eans ; tho rest are (,'lilnoso, .luvunosc, Malays, etc. It is liuilt on marshy ground, und intersected by canals in the Dutch style. It is defended by a citadel and several batteries, and has a considerable garrison 'and marine arsenal. Other authorities represent the population of Batavia, in 1832, at 118,000 ; viz., Euro- peans, 3000; Chinese, 25,000; Aborigines, 80,000; Moors, 1000 ; Arabs, 9000. Batavia has a bank, with branches at Saniarano and Surabayo. This place waa long considered very unhealthy, but has been much im- proved by drainage. Moan tcminrature of year, 78°. The Jacatra ia navigable by vessels of 40 tons two miles inland ; ships of from 300 to 400 tons anchor In the bay, 1^ miles from shore. Batavia is the great commercial emporium of tho Asiatic Archipelago, and absorbs by far the greatest proportion of the trade of Java and Madura ; the annual exports of which islanda amount to G0,3(i«),000 florin* ($25,123,000), and tka imporU to .30,000,000 florins ($12,000,000).— E, B. See Quar. See., vi,, 487, xvil., 72; HoNX'Bjfer. Mag., ii., 328, xxxiii., 3C9; Ed. Rev., xxxi., 895, In 1853 the foreign commerce of Java and Ma- dura amounted to $17,712,241 for general imports, and to $28,677,183 for exports. The Import* and u- JAV 1142 JAT porta durtng tbt> y*»t •xc««l«d thoM of tli* praccdtng tb* N«th«rl«n j Hntatl, for lni|xirti, H.'iA \wr rent of th« wholn i and t*r ••ViV4,4HU, or 'il.M.'l par iitnl. ; tliui •xhilillInK tba for txportii, 7A.()U |Mr cant. Th« Iraita with Iha tlnllnd inoit prx'ttcitl llluitrittiun »f th« Incrviulnti trvl* of Htatan with i Iim« UUniU, ilurlnn th« uniii yur, WM th«M riuh aud fartlla Inland*. Tha thara aulKnad lu ' l.liU of Iha wlioU. OiMaaara or THa Uarrau ittATaa with riia Uvtru Ktti Inuim, rwu iiirroaaa I, IWi), to Jult I, lilM, 1l,MI,N(lH 9W.ATI l,Tnil,tsl lWN,(illt l,iM«.»->4 Ill4,iml l»T,I4» 818.177 t7Mlt l()7.'i«8 |7,4HS,44»" ii,fiM>r l.l'il.lill t,«iit.lnl 7llll.1INft l,A<7,U(i« 4iM,44 774,>M1 ft-l,H» 1,4t4,'iM 1,I)7II,IKN 84>*,474 48A,»I1I 4H>I.Aftll I III lliillUi 'la. haywua. 4ll»,llw) I47,4.-M A|:l,AM fM.UI I l>l,4tt'J UI,iUi« IHI.-HJ) |«.4I)»,7U taiV.HOA IMH,«7t 7Bll,Wn im.\m WKI,8>M l,477.»ilii 1I»,M0 W.IIOO $A,IHlil,MM I4I40.87A 4'J8,AIM 477,»iW 8'*n,ii7A l,lll«,4*H 7l)(l,7»il IHA.HtlS 80»,|s4 87l*,«'i« 17a,7'M $4,<»A,u8-4 111 18,000 1JH,«71 «»..^77 8M,8'iA At,AI8 8N,440 1 Oil, 1 10 Hi.noo 918,400 |T,17J,488 881,600 l,'V«,4JU) 148.MOO 8H,NlO 87,170 Tl,000 11,800 14V 14,H0is| l,AIA »1A Hi HJ41 ltl« 11,818 (4«,{>6» 18,000 1I,>A0 111 l,HO0_ ir,87t 1,:I8« 17,660 Mill ' MIt 4,890 8,814 T.fM 8.1'«1 1,1411 i\,mt I, IMA l,AOI ^7,«9A ^4w :,m 7,477 Milt 10,478 18,»AH M41 II,4JIU ll,»U l .^lfi 96,141 8,814 794 1,890 4,llri8 4,A91 8.879 6,870 4/i76 8,888 4,071) 41,6i«" 8,016 8,»49 8,M6 8,888 N,40t 10,!)77 r»i<|a. I,1M WO l,4M 8NI) 1, 4 IS 8411 "417 7,!H0 m M 11,449 1,488 8,llin " 4,7,'sa 6,«.M 14,ii« 6,ll0A 4.:lli| H,-lA:l 1,141 TVirfjf.— The tarllT reguUtloni of Java ar« divided Into nix different claioaa, viz, : Claia 1 reUtea to du- tiea on wines and iplritK, etc. ; claaa 2 reliitea to dutioa on cotton and woolen gooda ; claaa I) relatea to aundry Inipnrta from Kuropn, America, and the <'a|)e of Good IIo|ie ; cliian 4 preacrilwa the dutioa on the priHiucta of the Indian ArcJiipelaKO ; claaa 5 rolatea to nierchiindlae heinit the produce of countrlea eaat of the Cape of Go

    t>m and to the aariie placea Id veaaela of the Ketherlanda. The bountiea, drawbacka, or other privilegea of similar denomlnatiou, which may ba there granted on goo'oi," Tablb (xuihitino thi NAvioATinii or Till! laLAKM or Java and Madura in ma YcAoa araciriKD, NUIoaalll^ V.M.T. laiil. lll«r<,l. VmmUi cJ«mi«1. j \»n. 1 lau. 1 bntcb. l,8t» M 1» l,S8d TT 14 17 ( 18 W 11 loo 1,170 1,8K 48 • II8S Engllah French Ht'lRlen r; 10 10 1 \% 1 4 T 1 1 IB 61 r2,048 10 10 8 17 t 6 10 1 1 11 6S 1,011 ' in 11 1 11 1 •i 18 A 1 19 m 1,'isil llroini'D l'ruK«lan Swedish Kuaalai) l*ortiiffueS4* Clilnue illitii Other Anlatlo conntrloi . , Total From the preceding table It appeara that In 186,1 the United Stiitea just trebled In one year the nunilier nf veaaela bearing their ting in thot remote corner of tlic globe. This la to be aacrihed to the lilieral cnmmcr- cial treaty of 1862, equalizing the United States' and the Dutch flags In the colonial trade. The subjoined tariff of dutiea of the ialand of , lava hiis been prcparoil from a copy printed at Batavia in 1844, with modiUca- tlona and changes down to ,Tuno, 18,'i5, tranamitted from tiie United Statea' consulate at that port : Pitrt Chargfi at Java. — The harbor duea are one half a rupee per ton ; but a ship having once paid this charge can touch either at Snmarang, Soerabnya, or go to a foreign port ami return, if within aix montha fTnin date of payment, without further expense, Shipa cau Koraei lUi.. Imii, Iron 1 Jl'Wl.l. I.UIIlli. I-eathi' I-eaJ. . Llnii_ Musloa Naval ■ <>liliiiii I'rovN l'a|>ii, IVifiii, rnlnit, Plcluri Po'li, a_ ■Stool Ir ■Stool , Stoiiu 1 Bogars, finath i, jSailillei Silver. Silk am Balt,pn Tin and Tobaccffl JAV IMS JAV bOII 4Kfi I J«M. 11 I 1 I 14 1 83 » I 1 10 M Uekof ulit Hinaln In thu niaili, and c*n ««mmuiilc*l« with tlia uluira, ni'ilv* |inivUlimi, wntiir, ati!., wllhuul cbargK of iini'hiirMKn fiiiti, Tli* roftiln irii miiith i>f • line drawn fniin tb» HhnniiUnil to tlin N>i|itiiii« abuol. All Uttim niiint Imi tininmllitlply ilrllvtml iit lh« I'ua- toni-hiiUM', rxi'«|it I'liimlKiiroi' Ivttura, miil auih »* mty h» Intunilril fur til* i'a|itiiln or >u|i«roitrKala Ih<|iiiii|Imi| tii Ili'lUnd, ami ■III uthvrit. I'ndartlia Dutrh llaif ara iHimiiridiandml tha Hate iif AaUtlu |irln>'ai whlih ara plaiiad iin thn aania fuiilInK at thn Dutih flaif. Tha imuiid In Ihia tarllf la tha uld AuiatKriliini |Hmiiil. '|ii tha ilullaa In tha tarilT, A |M>r I'anl. In aililaU fur bfaakwalai. att Oiioiia ImpiihtkI) inth Java. Dutch In Dutch T'Uala, wlib oorlllli>atlly ri'latlona autial^r From <-i>iiiilrli'a bi'twnun wlilrh ami lluiiaiid friunilly raia- tliHia till nilt auttalat I'rnni llulrli Iiiilla and Ikvuriiil HIalna In (liu Iiiiliau Ari'bl jii>laKii Kniiii il«. Ill Duti'h Indian ri-Mnit, provlilad Ihajr hava nui linK'»n| at an) .' iri'luii iinrt All I ■ I'liuntria- i>«»l ur tliu Capa of Uowl Ilopa, uioapl (') utQ ifiioiU In ('litni-M' Juiika Kali III July. IIA par cant. . I'Jt " M " ftn " 'iS par oant . , 111 " »5 » .. On appraUiMl valiia, % nllnn lii larllT tt prii'i'a, lormolud uviirjf llirau Miuiiljia, On appraliail ralua, a'-aordinf \a Iba iUHkal ' prlpii iif the ila/. Onlnviilcavaluu, wllhivlitllliihiifllliiii I'l .iir Appralianiiinl acanrilliin In niaiki, nlii., 4 p, «(, Aa ahiive, 19 per rent. Direct fioiii llnllaiiil, in Diiti'li viiaaula, fraa, tn Dutrh vesseia, with certllliiato, ata.,11, p, at Al above, 19 per rent. Ai above, li per lunt. \tt aboTu, 19 |Hir caat. Direct from Holianil, In Duleh vtaaola, A p, a|, I Dutch Hour poi^ked aiiurdlng In tlni tariff uf ( 1S9S, 19 per c.nt. In Dutch vesaela, with cerlincale, "In , 19 p, at, In Ilutili veoaela, with nertifli'atu, elii,, 19 p, el, As above, 19 pur cunt. As aboro, 19 per cant. Aa above, I'i nor cent. Direct from llollaiid, In Dutch reHnli, I p, at, In Dutch vuaaela, with curllfleale. ulii,, |V p. nl, Direct ^o^l llollanil. In Dn i tuMols, 6 p, lit I In Dutch vcMl!l^ with • ,>i|lliial« uf Dilt«b r origin, t'J pur cunt. AS above, free. Direct frcni Holland, tn Dutch veisala, A p, «t, Direct (Vom llnlland, In Diilch vuaaala, 19 p rt in Dutch vesmMa, wllh mrtllleale, elit , i'i p, al, Direct fVoni llollaiid. In Dulch vuMirja, \i a, nt, In Dutch vouula, wllh cerllflcal*, «t>' shell , Tobacco, Java. Tin Tripang. Wax Wnod, aondol wood eapan wood tioods not mentioned above, being the producta of the In dian Archlpt^lairo Oooda, the maximum import duty on which is 2A or ii4 per cent IlaUWila:;. All other goods. Jeddo, Jedo, or 7edo, the capital of Japan, and the largest city in that empire, is situate on a gulf, on the western si'^.e of the island of Nipon, in N. lat, 35° 82', E. long. 140°. It stands on4 large plain at the head of the gulf, which is here so shallow that vessels generally discharge their cargoes a league or two below the city. Jeddo is said to be 7 miles in length by 6 in breadth, and to have a circumforen i of 20 mile*. It is not inclosed by walls, but is inter- sected by numerous broad canals and ditches, having on each side high embankments, on the top of which are planted rows of trees. A river of considerable size flows through the town into the harlwr. The houses are small and low on account of the frequency of earthquakes. They are built of wood with thin clay walls, and are divided into rooms 1)y paper screens. The floors are covered with mats, and the roofs with shavings of wood. Being thus entirely composed of combustilile materials, flres are frequent and destructive. As tlie families of princes, lords, and nobility of the empire are obliged to reside con- tinually at Jeddo, there are numerous houses of a su- perior class. These, however, anj only one storj' in height, aad have no towers. They are distinguished tmm the other houses by large court-yards, stately gates, and fine varnished steps leading up to the door. There are besides numerous temples, monasteries, and other religious buildings. The imperial palace is near the middle of the town, and is said to be more than eight miles in circumference. It consists of several palaces or castles, with large gardens and orchards. Besides being the residence of the court, Jeddo con- tains flourishing manufacture^!, and rnrries on an ex- tensive commerce. The population is variously esti- mated from 700,000 to l,fiOO,000, and even more. See Japan. Jeremle. This Is the smallest port in the island of Hayti open to foreign commerce. The anchorage at Jeremle is to dangerous that scarcely a year passes without one or more shipwrecks, or other serious casu- altiea, being recorded. In 1849 there entered and 4 per cent 4 " 4 » Under Dutch Has, t per cent To Holland, in Dutob vcsaela, |1 40. Under Dutch flag, 3 per cent. Holland, in Dutch vessels, ing bond fhr the dllTerence. Under Dutob flag, $1 40, I In snms Ices than $300, for owner's use, free, I provided permission be obtained. 1 Under Dutch flag, one half those duties. To Holland, in Dutch vessels, one half these duties. Free. IS per cent (3 80 per tub. 4 per cent jPerpicolormTo Holland, in S'utc^ vessel's, 8 per cent eiv- 1 ibe.,Up. ot. •--».—.. ru r» ISM. "^ United SUtea.... Franco 1,064,1)00 244.010 348,1100 118,000 ColTee Pon.id.. 4,S93,919 641,871 e,439,oe9 S4,600 8,138 Cocoa Great Britain.... Denmaric Campocbe Wax. Jersey, the largest and most important of the En- lish Channel Islands, is situate in the Bay of St. Michael, 13 miles west of the nearest coast of Knmco, and 65 miles from the nearest point on the Kngliitb coast ; N. lat. (St. Helior's) 49° 11' 8", W. long. 2° i'. It is 12 miles in length, from east to west, und 7 in breadth from north to south, and has an area of about 40,000 acres. The north coast of the island is rock}', l)old, and precipitous, rising sometimes to tlie height of more than 200 feet above the sea. The Channel Islands are cokisidered ns lielonging to the crown, but en, forming no part of the reuini, so that they are not represented in Parliament ; and Acts of Parliament, as .uch, have no legal force as regards them, unless they are tlieretn specially named, or un- less the acts, in virtue of an order of council, are regis- tered on tlie records of the Islands. In their iuHtltu- tiona, customs, and laws, the people still retain much that is Norman ; and, in this respect, Jersey bus re- tained considerably more of the old institutions and of their free spirit than the sister island of Ouemsoy. Tbu people appear to have at all times enjoyed much freedom and great privileges.— E, B. Jet, or Pitch Coal (Uu. Oil, Ziearte bamtleen; Ft. Jait, Jaytl ; Gor. Gagat ; It. Ilogata, Luttrino ; L»t. O'agut, Gagaitt), of a lilat^k velvet color, occurs mns. sive, in plates ; sometimes In the shape of branches of trees, but without a regular woody texture. Internal lustre sbhiing, resinous, tort; rather brittle j easily ion 1145 JOI 4i9i),919 1 W1.8TI ,4'29,«n» 5i>H) 8,148 I Irino ! Lttt. ccurs in»B. )ranche» of Internal flrtnBlbU | iMciAi) gnv\ty I'A, ft I* wuA tat foci, and fur muklny vmimIn nihI uriulMxiiicii, In PruaiiU it U caIM tiliMik untimr, «ii4 i* (ittt Inbi rowrl«i ind neckUcaa, It fa dittillKulnlMl tiy Ha ttttllUncy.uid concboldAl fr»vlur»,-^'l'uimmKi'ii Vhemiitif, Jatasm. (M ('M^rftAN. J«tt««, tlw U*rii«r Mtiwto rmind th« atllta under > pier, in eartitln tiM l^rMtca* Iwlntf tli» aame with atsr- ';..,;; conalatlny of » atndtK f'«iiilni( "f (Imlier Oiled Willi ttonea, wbitlk, iir iftlixr HMtnfklii, to preaerve the foundotluna tit tlw \fWrit (ntm inittry, Jetty-lMUd, » mitm Hnunliy uUtm In the royal dockyarda tu tliitt p«rt »( » *(mff whkh projecte be- yond tba rsat | but imtm (/HftbiiiUrly the frtmt of a wharf, tba abU uf wbbf the Homan la- diea, tlut I'llriy tba dbbtr aaya he a»w I^ollla Taullnn wearing urnauMint* wbbh Wfre volued at i|l,005,0Wl. Jewsia were wont in VtMum iiy Akmh »(irel, In UM. Tba manufactura waa wKt«ftaivel^ encouraged In En- gland in lOHb. Him liohlt, Jib, a Urga triaiitfMUr aall, Itetween the fore-top- maat bead and tita tnHiiH UU«lum mUmi jllvboom), which project* Iteyumt tlia JMwaprtt, Jidda, or Djldtf*, A M^ -'g almut two milaa from tba abor«. '! he ImjaiHa from E|{ypt and Aliyaalnla wimprlaa mmi, flee, (rtitter, augar, clothlnn, oil, t*.bay ah)|>a to Suez, whence they lind tliair way l<» llie Mediterranean porta, or by caravana to Mai<«i» aiKl Medina, from which cltlsa they ara dia|Niraa4 to Wyria, Aala Minor, and Turkey, Uataa, and tlia cabtltrated balm of Mecca, ara brought from tlia fntflfbrt' firf ahlpment. Next to grain, tba moat Imjairtailt article of trade la perhapa coft4i8, wbbb la olitainxd in large ((iiantitlea from Mocba, Tba numlair of v«ject thus presents considerations stretching far Iwyond the boundary of the mere laws affecting the rights and obligations of individual part- ners into the field of politics and history. It is at once obvious that these arrangements, by which the wealth of indefinite numbers can be concentrated in the hands of a few, are capable of creating a political influence which will have more or less the character of a ruling or governing power, accordinr^ to the strength of the otherwise constituted authorities with which it may come in contact. It wui> by this sort of concentration of the wealth of many in the hands of a few that aome of the religious societies of the middle ages Ijecame formidable rivals of the monarchies ; the Society of the Knights Templars rioting conspicuously above all others, and threatening to establish a sort of corporate empire, presiding over the Kuropcan mon- archies. Subsequently the Jesuits, in their govern- ment of Paraguay, aftbrded evidence of the power at the command of clover men regulating a common fund, which alarmed crowned heads no less than the usurp- ing tenor of their doctrines. The great union of tba Uanse Towns, before which the robber monarchies and aristocracies of central Europe fell, was again an in- stance of the power of concentrated wealth when measured against pure monarchical and aristocratic authority ; and the expanding resources of the repub- lic of Venice, and of other wealthy oligarchies, seemed to be raising a new ruling power which would grad- ually absorb and supersede the old dynasties, whether autocratic or aristocratic, by which nations were ruled. The expansion of trade by the discovery of America and a new passage to India, and still more perhapa the recasting of the political st&te of Europe by the Itefurmatlon, broke up these great concentrated masses, and distributed the power of collective we.ilth into amuller groups. Still the influence of joint-stock aa- aocialions has ever, from time to time, arisen in formi- dable rivalry with other forms of political power, aomotimea creating an effectual barrier to political op- pression, but at others threatening the lil>erties and Just riglita of communities by a spirit of aggrandize- ment and rapacity. Perhaps the most curious single instance of a struggle between concentrated wealth and a ruling dynasty will lie found in the historj- of Kussia. The merchants of Novogorod increased in wealth and influence until they liecamo a virtual re- publican government, gradually absorbing under their influence the surrounding territory. " Who can resist Ciod and the great Novogorod?" I>ecame a saying of m L .III ■m Si j JOI 1146 JON th6 16th centniy. The Grand Dukes of Mnacovy commenced b ■}'8tematic war against the royal com- pany of merchants, and it seemed for some time a question whether Russia should be ruled by a commer- cial conipnny or an autocracy. After many scenes of cruelty and rapacity, the latter prevailed. Hut tlie influence of Novogorod was not entirely extinguished until the foundation of St. Petersburg drew the north- em trade of Russia into a new channel, where it came effectually under imperial control. British history affords many incmora)>le instances of the influence of joint-stocic operations. It I)ecame the policy of the crown, from Queen Elizal>eth's reign down- ward, to cherish commercial coml)inations, as a balance ■gainst the power of the aristocracy, and sometimes the body thus started with a stocit of exclusive privileges acquired an influence dangerous alilce to the authority of the crown and to the rights of the subject. The Kussian Company, which hud been licensed just be- fore the accession of Elizabeth, acquired so much Influence under her fostering care as to spread its transactions into Persia on the one hand, and embark in the whale fltheiy of Spitzbergen on the other. This potent body was in use to send eml)assadors to the Grand Duke of Muscovy. But his successors, the czars, were not inclined to encourage such fellowship, and gradually enfeebled the haughty corporation by restricting its foreign privileges, and encouraging the rival company of Holland. The celebrated Turkey or Levant Company was chartered in 1581. Just 18 years afterward was formed, under far less pompous auspices, that East India Company which has been destined to rule over a greater empire than that of Julius Ciesar or Charlemagne. See India. Many African and American companies were formed in the 17th century, and created much excitement by their aggressions and rivalries. The Scots, excited by wit- nessing the enterprise and prosperity of England, in which the invidious navigation law of Charles II. pro- hibitearked. If it were any consolation to And their neighl)ori! guilty of greater follies than their own, the British of that age might And such consolation in a view of the French Mississippi scheme. The corporate power thus created not only professed to absorb the trade, finance, and banking of France, but projected the creation of a transatlantic empire, which, from it!" centre in Louis- iana, should gradually absorb the American conti- nent. Since the passing of the Patents Act in the reign of James I., the crown alone was precluded from grant- ing powers of trading monopoly in royal charters, ond the companies which, since that period, have obtained an}- monopolies in England beyond those created by the simple instance of their large capital, have held their powers from Parliament. The crown continued to grant monopolies in foreign trade till 1698, when, in the celebrated question of the old East India Company, the practice was c ondemned by a vote of the House of Commons. A remarkable instance lately occurred of an attempt by some enterprising men to curry out a nroject something like that of the Bast India Com- pany, independently of authority either from the crown or Parliament. It was represented that the islands of New Zealand were admirably suited for cA.iii'»'"*^jWt^ii!i.r-*-.-:^.ini<-i JUT lUT * JUR torjr. ernes «d as ty of itants If it Ityof at age "rench mated ;e, anil n of a LouU- conti- •eign of 1 gront- crs, and ibtnined iated by ivo held ontinued when, in lompany, House of curred of irry out a idia Com- from the I that the ;ed for cdl- ihedtothe iccupancy. ion on the ) encumber nent of ad- ced the idea ent British nd the en- ■e enforced, I them, who lossessed of without its •e of Anglo- rtion of the leemed hard the colonies, e were many ■noes, among ,8, that when vould attract power, from 1 interference lent in formi- J, the British though " The mi, and aftcr- osal of large mblo in com- tained by its intricate dis- governmcnt nek companies ng, insurance, •ater and gas, he head of all, is tlio form in ■ have of late known the no historj- and bund under its iral affairs, is a he East Indies. and differ in to the different del ,nd be methods of naval architecture used by the nationi to which they belong. Their sailn are frequently made of mats, and their anchors of >od. Journal, a day-book, regii-tor, or account of what passes daily. Journal, in merchants' accounts, li a book in which every particular article is posted out of the waste-book, and made debtor. This Is to be very clearly worded and fairly engrossed. Journal, in nmiija' tion, a sort of diary or daily register of the ship's course, winds and weather, together with a general account of whatever Is materiiil to bo remarked in the period of a sea voyage. In all such journals, the day, or what is called the '24 hours, terminates at noon, be- cause the errors of tho dead-reckoning are at that period generally corrected by a solar observation. The daily compact usually contains the state of the weather; tho variation, increase, or diminution of the wind ; and the suitable shifting, reducing, or enlarg- ing the quantity of sail extended ; as also the most material incidents of the voyage, and the condition of the ship and her crew ; together with the discovery of other ships or fleets, land-shoals, breakers, soundings, and the like. Juan Fernandez, or Mas-a-tierra, a rocky island in the Pacific Ocean, about 400 miles off the coast of Chili, of which it it is a dependency. I.at. 3.9° 45' S., long. 79° 2' W. It is 18 miles Ung anrl l! miles broad, rises to 3,000 feet above the ocean, has steep shores, and a desolate appearance from the sea ; but in its north half, in which is Cumberland Bay, are some fertile valleys, producing figs, grapes, and sundal wood, cork, and other timber trees, and it is leased from the Chilian government by settlers from the United States and Tahiti. The solitary residence here for four years of a Scotchman, named Alexander Selkirk, is supposed to have formed tho basis of De- foe's well-known tale of " Robinson Crusoe." Mas-a- fuern is another rocky and precipitous island, lying to the west. Lat. 33° 49' S., long. 80° 27' W. Juniper. The juniper-tree l)elongs to the natural order Coniform, and is useful both for its wood and Its berries. The Virginian species, which is called ml cedar, affords a light and lurable material valuable in ship-building. It attains the height of about 30 feet, ami grows well in barren soil. 'I'he berries used fur flavoring gin are obtained f^om the Juniperut commu- nu, and about 20C Inns of them are annually imported to this country, liiiv tre also used for imparting pungency to b.cr. Wii.'n roasted and ground, they afford a substl'nite fur rotfee. The oil of juniper is an important in(,i<;<'.i<"nt >, varnish for pictures, wood- work, etc. "The bin' i have also a diuretic property, and are used In medicine. The heavy duty to which they were subject in England was abolished in 1845. Junk, in nautical language, a name given to any remnant or piece of old cable, which is usually cut into small portions, f.r the purpose of making polui.-, mats, gaskets, sennets, and the like. See Jonk. Jute. Jute is a remarkably beautiful fibre— soft, silky, and easily, spun ; and if to its other advan- tages were added those of strength and durabilty, it would probably supeisede all other flbrous materials. But it is as rapid in its decay as in its growth, and is, In reality, the most perishable of fibres. From the period of its first production in the clear state, it slowly, and of its own accord, changes its color, losing the beautiful pearly white, which at first disiinguishee it, and assuming successive shades of fawn-color and brown. At the same time, its strength proportion- •Uly dtffllnUli«!), C^iroHffistances hasten or retard th!« iamy, »mt iiMiUtura )t Im'M«)lon.- K. Kaleidoscope. This optical bMUiipntnt, wMnU combines mirrors, and produces • tymuiHriml re- flection of I'eautiful images, was inveutad hy Ih, Brewster of Edinburg ; it was fint suggested ill IHti, and the in8trumHi, imd graduated at the University of Pennsylvania in lMi/#, first in the college and suiiscquentl.v in the puuliu'wl ^ psrtment ; and when he started upon his attivn HHrfff of adventure, he was esteemed a gooii ciasiiii!«i luMitf, and a good chemist, mineralogist, a6tr«iiuill«r, nwl surgeon. His frame, even in Iwyliood, was Mimt^i, and, with a view of strengthening his constitwtiiufi, Im ■olicited an a;ipointment in the navy as surgmm, tuui obtained it, and was attacued ti> the tint AmarumH iWM bossy to China, This position gave him an i>iiftinit#-- nity to explore the Philippine Islands, whijuli ||« effected mairl}' on foot. He was tlie tirU mitn wtti) descended Into the crater of Taei, lowered imm tUoit 100 feei liy a bamlxm rope from the overbaugint; tUff, and claml>€ring down some 700 more through titft «m.- riie, he made a topograpical siietch of ttia int*rii>f itf this great volcano, cidlected a bottle uf suluiiMTiW^ acid from the very inouth of the crater, and, althougli he was drawn up almost senseless, be brought witii him a sketch of this hideous cavern and the it\tiu-\tmn* which it afforded. Before returning hiNiie irmtt t\tU expedition he had ascended the lliuiaUyns, vivifvul Ceylon, the upper Nile, and all the iavtlM>b)gi<'«I f#.- gions of Egypt — travershig the route and niakinjj ih» acquaintance of the learned I^psiu^ who wi¥> iiwn prnseruting his archa!olo,^ical rssearclus, II« n\m ifH^ Torsed Greece on foot, and retuincd to the I-'nitiad M4l«« through Europe. Soon after bis arrival b« was afj^in ordered on duty — this time to the western m4it i4 A'lica. He now attempted to visit the islava muH* of Wbydab, but having ttiken tlie Afri/:«o tA him to be the possessor uf lion-like courage, ^ind tii M most generous and nolde heart ; but be fell « vUiim tti one of the fevers rf the country, and v'.s vary ntiiif dying. When he reco/ered and returna>i, be tran itH-' ployed in the Coast Survey department, from whUU Utt was transferred by the Secretary of tlia Unvy Ut tUt> post of suijreon on the (iriiinull Antii: espM|)tiiiw, His history of that expedition gave hint a high \>i»U tlon as an author. Not yet satisticd, hitv/H^w, tut scarcely gave himself time to recover from tb« HnrtU shipa of that cruise, liefore he set on fout tb« mftHut Gruinell or Kane expedition, the resulta i>( wttM) nave lx>en pronounced by the higlie*t f-itn- r*tt aM~- thorltles as among the wonders of the [irmuntl i-rniufy. Dr. Kane died of consumption, at Havana, Vnimmrf 16th, 1867. Sea A rdio Kxplnraiiuiu anil IJft «/ Hirnt, Kanaaa Territory extends from the :i7tb lUnftti' of north latitude to 40 degrees north, and dim itm west boundary of Missouri to tba crest of tb« Uituky Mountains. Area, l'22,OMO »{uare miles. Orwiiue-i irf the main branch of tly tluc H/tnuti, ittit by head lirapches of the soutli fork of i'|«t(ii of Kk.- Iiraska Kiver. .Surface level, consisting >if an im»t*»i>* plain, with a gentle s1o|hi from tlie base uf tlia W»ky Alountaina to the Missouri border, and tba al>ril|it de- scent from the mountain ridge to the Inuu of ittumt 1fi miles in width. The soil is variuua, tUik «ilv»M tmit • Um Sm^ lMr/(«Hng th« strenmi, some fertile prairie Ui¥U nwi (Cttetitive sandy plains, but those are of suf- Ii« )«M( IWtilK/ to furnish nourishment to immense b#rflir Itf (Ii« American bison. It was formed into a , 'futf^iff iif the act of Congress of May, IS.')!, to- HHtiXf wilb the Territory of Neliraska. Kt A§il, » stnall anchor used to keep a ship steady , MrMU »(m tVles in a harlxir or river, particularly at the t t#fn ti( lh« tUUi, when she might otherwise drive over , Im'T ptituiifnti anchor, and entangle the stock or flukes , *Hh il«f ikmk cable, so as to loosen It from the ground. , 'tilU U *M(fm)()e« (rf the sides by transoms, as the keel itiftm »tn\ unites the Imttom by timbers. The keel is IftmaWf composed of several thick pieces placed UtiHUmftfKf which, after lieing scarfed together, are \tn\M\ tltiti flinched upon the npper side. hdilf Mffli a strong thick piete of timber, bolted to <(«' MUim (it the keel, which is very useful in pre- utif^iliK iU Urnet side. The false keel is provided #b«H tite (h)ck pieces which form the keel can not be f/faaafnti UfK« enough to give a sufficient depth there- t», in fafge ships of war the false keel is composed Iff t#w JdeceSj called the upper and hwer false keels. Tlw UfWtlH plank in a ship's bottom, called the gar- liiiiifit uli'i'ttti, has its inner edge let into a groove or (■■(**«««). cut longitudinally on the side of the keel. 'f Im ^\iiU (it this channel is therefore regulated by the ttli^d^l^s^ nt the garlward streak. — E. A. KKal^lMtlllng, a punishment inflicted for various itHellam in the I)nt"h navy. It is performed by sus- fttwitltii the culprit by a rope from one yard-arm, w':' < yfifJtnt of lead (;r iron upon his legs, and liuvi , tK'-tiUrt *oyii fastened to him, leading under the sliip i i#il(or forming ^iUl intMVft «T counterpart of the keel, bo..,; 'iiid upon t(w< mi/MIe of the fore-timbers Immediately over the kftii, unit serving to bind and unite the former to the (lrt<*r, tiy means of long bolts driven from witliout, Hnd f'tlMebed on the upper side of the keelson. Tlie fc«*l!W«, like the keel, is coiniHised of several pieces mottml together ) and, in order to fit with more sccur- itj' «(*rti tlie floor-timbers and crotchets, it is iiotctied littitlll nn Inch and a half deep opposite to eacli of those f^cffi, thereby scored down upon tliem to that depth, *»bcm It is secured upon them liy spike-nails. The tiififo lit which it is tormed are of only lialf the litKHitlh und thickness of those of the keel.— K. A. KtliPi H sniistance composed of different materials, y( #bi«ll ih« fossil or mineral alkali, or, as It is com- at an averag most probabl Tliis resuli kelp shores, 'ho lubor^ri < feg^ ^ I Icecpi - neccssii.ip , „, The hi«li pric "es of (iie la supply of bnri "«» on it an, vestige of a gi tilings would t "y it while it government w to some of thi *", merely tl cwental advan Kelp u chit KEL 1149 KEN monly termed, aoda, ia the chief. Thia ingredient renden It useful in the composition of lonp, in the manufacture of alum, and in the formation of crown nnd t)ottlo glass. It is I'ormed of marine plnnta, which, being cut from the roclca with a hoolc, are collected and dried on the beach to a certain extent ; they are afterward put into kilna prepared for the purpose, the heat of which ia aufflcicnt to bring the plants into a state of semi-fusion. Thej' are then strongly stirred with iron rakes ; and when cool, condense into a dark blue or whitish mass, very hard and solid. Plants about three years old yield the largest quantity of kelp. The best kelp has an acrid caustic ta.ite, n sul- phurous wior, is compact, and of a dark-blue greenish color. It yields about 6 per cent, of its weight of soda. — Barry's Orlcneg Islands ; Thomson's Dltpm- tatory. The manufactuie of kelp in Great Rritain, ia, or rather vat, principally carried on in the Western Islands, and on the western shores of Scotland, where it was introduced from Ireland, about the middle of last century. Toward the end of the year 1815, the kelp shores of the island of North Uist let for f 7000 a year. It liaa been calculated that the quantity of kelp annually manufactured in the Hebrides only, ex- clusive of the mainland, and of the Orkney and Shet- land Isles, amounted, at the periout nt an average of the 23 years ending with 1822, tlie price was f 10. — Art. Scotland, EiUnbnrg Eneyclopitdia. Unluckily, however, the foundations on which this manufactieen perfectly the same, in so far as kelp is concerned, unless the high duty on salt had also been maintained. It was the repeal of the latter that gave the kelp manufacture the coup y the latter method. The manufacture is now almost ex- tinct. Shores that formerly yiel was occasioned liy the e^ ^ "■ cies of tiie late w^r, .hich, Ijosides obstructin.' *,l supply of barilla, ' government to lay bif»h Jn ties on it and on ...it. The proprietors had \i'i '-,' vestige of a ground for considering thatsucli asts'c of things would be permanent ; they did right in profiting by it while It lasted ; but they could not expect that government was to suiiject the country, during peace, to some of the severest privations occasioned l)y the war, merely that they might continue to enjoy an ac- cidental advantage. Kelp U chiefly used in the United States as a n '- nnn, and for thl« purpose ia very Taloable. Large quantitiea are thrown on the beaches after a storm, and the Gulf Stream const.wtly brings it to our shores, from whence it ia carted by our farmers to their fields, and allowed to decompose. Kentledge, the name sometimes given to the iron pigs cast in a particular form for ballasting ships, and employed for that purimse. Kentucky, one of the central United States, ia situated between 36° 80' and 89° 10' north lat. and between 82° and 89° 40' west long. Its length is about 400 miles, and its breadth 170 miles, containing 37,680 square miles. Population in 1790 was 7B,667 ; in 1800, 220,959 ; in 1810, 406,511 ; in 1820, 564,317 ; in 1830 688,844 ; in 1840, 779,828, and in 1860, 982,- 405. The State is divided into 100 counties. Surface, /fwi7. etc. — A tract from 5 to 20 miles wide along the Ohio River, through the whole length of the State !s hilly and broken, but has a fertile soil. The msrgin of i;he Ohio for about a mile iu width, con- sists of bottom lands, which are overflowed when the river is high. Between this tract of hilly country the more mountainous eastern counties ar.d Green Kiver is a fertile tract, frequently denominated the garden of the State. It is about 160 miles long, and from 60 to 100 wide. The soil is excellent, the surface gently undulating, and the forest-growth, black-walnut, black- cherry, buckej-e, paw-paw, s!igar-maple, mulberry, elm, ash, cotton-wood, white thorn, and an abundance of grape-vines. The country in the south-west part of the State, between Green and Cumberland Rivers, is called the " baiTens." In 1800 the legislature of the State made a gratuitous grant of this tract to act- ual settlers, nrder the impression that it was of little value, but it proves to be excellent grain-land, and also adapted to the raising of cattle and swine. The whole State below the mountains, has, at the usual depth of eight feet, a bed of limestone which has fre- quent aperturea through which the waters of the rivers sink into the earth, causing some of them to disappear for a time, and others to be greatly diminished in the summer season. The rivers have gt net ally worn deep channLis in the calcareous rocks over which Ihey flow. The precipices formed by the Kentucky are in many places stupendous, presenting perpendicular banks of solid limestone 800 feet high, above wliich is a staep and diflicult ascent several times as hijih. In the south-west part of the State, between Green and Cuin» berland Rivers, ore several iemarkul)Ie caves. One called tlie Slammotb Cave, 130 miles from Lexington, on the road to Nashville, has licen eNpIorcd for a dis- tance of eight or ten miles. Iron ore and coal, aro widely dift'nsed, coal especially occujii^s an extensive field. Salt springs arc numerous, an ! mineral springs are found in many localities. There . '^ro in this State in 1850, 6,tC8,270 acres of land implo^ cd, and 10,981, 478 of unimproved land in farms ; cash value of farms, $155,031,262, and the value of implements and ma- rhiner^-, $5,1 J,037 ; live stock— horses, 315,682 ; asses ' ' mu'es, 65,609; milch cows, 247,476; working ;-.., ■!3,274 ; other cattle, 442,763 ; sheep, 1,102,0J1 ; -t ., j,891,163; vail'- of livestock, $29,661,436. .ipricvltural Produ 13, c/c— Wlieat, 2,142,822 bush- els ; rj'e, 415,073; Indian corn, 68,672,591; oats, 8,201,311; barley, 95,.-}4? ; buckwheat. 16,097; peas and beans, 202,574; poi, ■ 1,492,487 ; sweet pota- toes, 998,179 ; value of ] •■ . j . j of the orchard, $106,- ?30 ; proilii of market guruens, $303,120 ; pounds of butter mnilo, 9,947,523 ; of clieeso, 213,954; sugar, 284 hhds. ; maple 8ugar,437, 10 • pounds ; molasses, 30,079 gallons ; beeswax and homy, 1,158,019 pounds ; wool, pounds produced, 2,297,4,33 ; cotton, 758 ; flax, 2,100,- 116 ; silk cocoons, 1201 ; hops, 4303 pounds ; tobacco, 55,60], 196 ; hay, tons of, 113,747 ; hemp, 16,432 tons ; clover seed, 3230 bushels ; other grass aeeda, 21,481 ; flax seed, 76,801 bushels ; and were made 8093 gallons of wine ; value of slaughtered animals, $6,462,698. i 'iil '^ *. KEP llftO KER The Ohio River, by ita varions winding*, borders thii State nv th« north for 037 miles. Cumberland and .V.»nnf. .iju Klvera pasa thrflUffh Us western part as they ftppro...'°i thni.' entrance into the Ohio. Cumberland rises ill t'x '■•.stem part of thh State. The Hlg Sandy Is 'JW v.»i; 1 inTig, and for a conslderahlo distance fnrms '!iab-ji.iv. 1 1-.. ''itveon this Stiite and Virginia. It isnav- i:ft,h\t It" v' m iVir b .its. The Kentucky Klver rises In the r'ninli.'iland Mountains, and after a rourso generally through a (l«ep rocky bed, fulls into the Ohio 77 miles sboTe Luuisvllle. It Is navlghle for steamboats HO miles to Fran'i'.fort. Licking, Grncn, and Salt, an other consiileruble rivers. The Slississippl runs on the western bnnjar. Tonnage of the State, January, IH''^, VilCi , composed entirely of steamboats. ■fanu/r,- luret, rtr.— There were in this State In 1«60, % '>i)lton factories, with a capital Invested of (641,000, employing 20C males and 807 females, producing l,0"?,0il4 yards of sheeting, etc., and T'^ft.OOO pounds of van;, valued at f 440,0i)6 ; 27 woolen factories, with a cayit il of $200,320, employing i«'J males and 81 fe- males, manufacturing 878,084 yards of cloth, valued at $424,644 ; 24 establishments making pig iron, with a capital of $1,027,600, employing 192^ persons, pro- ducing 28,600 tons of pig iron, etc., the entire value of profiiicts, $G!!9,0a7; 20 establishments, with a capital of $602,200, employing 678 persons, and making 6888 tons of eastings, etc., valued at $744,816 ; 4 establish- menU, with a capital of $176,000, employing 183 per- sons in manufacturing 8070 tons of wrought iron, valued at $200,700 ; 820 flouring and grist-mills 862 saw-mills, and 390 tanneries; 61 printing ofHces, 9 daily, 6 trl-weekly, 2 semi-weekly, 38 weekly, 1 semi- monthly, and 7 monthly publications ; total copies printed annually, 6,582,838. There were in this State January 1857, 83 banks, with a capital of about $12,000,000. There were in operation Januar}', 1856, 288 miles of railroad, and 462 miles in course of construction. The foreign commerce of Kentucky is very small. Effort is being made to increase it, and also the foreign commerce of some of the other western States, by giv- ing facilities for the direct importation of goods. At several of the western cities, line custom-liousds have been built ; at St. I^ouis and Clnclnnsti, and at others, I^iouisvillo and Dubuque, it is proposed to erect them. There arc no records of the foreign commerce of Ken- tucky prior to 1835. Since that time it has been as followii : FoRKiGN Croffiii « or KrNTU< »v. Y««n. 1 T£»|K>ru. ' 1 IXiineitle. Imporlf. UitilctTuiiriMu. 1 EiuolM. Sept 80, 1838, to 1 eoptl)0,lMO.. 1 Sent sn, IS40. to Juiif :w, 186(), July 1. \\ '{ addeu divinity to his studies, he aciiuircd consiilcrntii" celebrity u» a pruacfior ; but, relinquishing the clerical gown, he succeeded, iii 1594, in obtiining the mathematical chair in the university of Cirat;!. in Styria. In 1598, havinir professed the Proti ST , ,1 faith, ho was remove.l from his office, but was soon recall'"l again l>y the S* 'tes. In 1600 he ac- cepted an invitation from Tycho, urging him to set- tle at Prague, and assist him In tht prosecution of astronomical researches, under the patronage of the Kmperor Kodolph. ''he death of Tycho, anil Kepler's own illness almost inime"t on his introduc- tion to the emperor, he was requested to complete the tables his late ftrlend had begun, which were to bo called the BoJolphine Tablet, This work, which occupied him during the greater part of the remainder of hi.4 life, he carried on and completed in 1627, amid the incun ■ venlences and difficulties which arose from the irregu- lar payment of his pension, and the other expenses attending the undertaking. His health now again failed, and as a means of restoration, together witli the desire of obtaining the arrears due hlra by the emperor, he went to Katlsbon ; but the fatigue of traveling and mental uneasiness threw him Into a sickness wnich closed his life, soon after his arrival in that city, in November, 1630, Ills published works on astronomi, cal subjects are numeroua, besides which he wrote on chronology, geometry of solids, trigonometry, logo. rlthms. and dioptrics. To this great philosoplier the world Is indebted for the diseovery of the true figure of the orbits of the planets, which he demonstrated tc be ellipses, together with those principles of planetary motion generally denominated "the laws of Kepler." Kennes (6er. Scharlachbeeren ; Du. Grein Hichar- lakenbeiitn; It. (irartn, Chrrmes, Cremeae, Cocchi; Sp. (Irana Kermet, (Jrana de la cotcoja), an insect {CiKciia illicii Lin.) of the same species as the true Mexican cochineal, found upon the querciu ilex, a species of ouk growing in Spain, France, the Levant, etc. Uefure the discovery of America, kermes was the most esteemed drug for dyeing scarlet, and had be|:n used for that purpose from a very remote period. Ueckmann inclines to think that it was employed by the Phoenicians, and that it excelled even the famous Tyruin purple. (//m(. nf Invent., vol. u., p. 107, Kng. ed.) From the name of coccum or coccua, cloth dyed with kermes was culled cocctflum, and persons wearing this cloth were suid liy the Romans to be cnccinali. (^Mart., lib. 1., ejiig. 97, lin. 6.) It is singular, however, notwithstanding its extensive use in antiquity, that the ancients hud tlie most incorrect notions with respect to the nature of kermes ; many of them supposing that it wus tlie grains (grana) or fruit of the Her. This was Pliny's opinion ; others, after him, considered it in the sauie light, or as an excrescence formed by the puncture of a particular kind of fly, like the gall-nut, It wus not till the early part of last century that it was linally and satisfactorily established that tlie kermes is really nothing but an insect, assuming the appearance of a l)crry in the process of drj-ing. — The term kermes is of Persian origin. The Arabians had been acquainted with this production from the earliest periods in Africa ; and having found it in Spain, they cultivated it ex- tensively as an article of commerce, as well as a dye drug for their own use. liut since the introduction of cochineal, it has become an ol>ject of comparatively trifling importance. It is still, however, iirepanul in some parts of S|>ain. Cloths dyed with kermes are of a deep red color; and though much inferior in bril- liancy to the scarlet cloths dyed with real Mexican cochineal, they retain the color better, and are less liablu to stain. The old tapestries of Brussels, ami other places in Flanders, which have scarcely lost any tiling of their original vivacity, thougli 200 years old, were all d v ed with kermes. The history of this ;.roductiou has been treated with great learning by ..jckmann {//tat. of' Invent., vol. i., pp. 171-191, Ist ed, trans.) ; and by I; Uancroft {Permantnt Culurs, vol. 1., pp. 398-4. ). Kersey (pro; ibly a corruption of Jersey, whence it originnily came), a kind of coarse cloth, usually rib- l)cd, unit woven from long » lol. It is diiefly iiianu- fuctured in the north of Knghind. Keraeymu-e, on the other hand, is a thin stuff, gentirally woven plain from the line t w.)ols ; and ht-ice it hn.j been inferred that these two terms, whose meaning is so distinct, can not be referred to the same origin. Kerseymere is said to have derived its appellation from Cashmir, a country which produce* the finest wool, and is consequently lai ^' -^m^^-^ KEY 1151 KIA Dibit celabrated for the works of It* loomi. In England it is prlncipuUy manufactured in the weitern district. Ketob (It. caicchio), an old English term applied to a vessel equipped with tv;o tnaats, and from 100 to 230 tons burden. It was nearly synonymr.us witli the modern term yacht, licing used chiefly \)\ embassadors or other distinguished personages in voyages from one place to another, and was furnished with all tlia appa- ratus necessary for defense or aggression. Key*. The invention of them is ascril)ed to Theo- dore, of Samos, by Pliny, about. 780 D.c. liut this is an error, as keys are mentioned in the siege of Troy, 1198 B.C. Keys were originally made of wood, and the earliest form was a simple crook, similar to the common picklock now in use. The ancient keys now to be found in tlie cabinets of the curious are mostly of bronze. Tho late Francis Douce, Esq., had some of remarkable shapes, the shaft terminating on one side by the works, on the otiier by a ring. Keys of this description were presented by husbands to wives, and were returned again upon divorce or separation. Kei/s are certain sunken rocks lying near tlie surface of the water, particularly in the West Indies, from the Spanish cai/o (an islet rock). The keys, su called, off the Florida coast, are prolific in wrecks of the larger class of vessels. For an account of these wreckti, see articles Kkv Wbst, Florid.v, and Wkecks. Key West. Prior to 1821, when Florida belonged to Spain, wreckers from the Bahama Islands constant- ly cruised along the Florida reefs, and saved large amounts of shipwrecked property, which they carried to Nassau. In 1821 the country was transferred to the United States by Spain ; and soon after that event a few houses were built, and a small settlement of Amer- icans was made by John W. Simonton, Pardoif C. Greene, and others, on the island called by the Span- iards Cayo Hueso (Bone Island), and by the Ameri- cans Key West. In 1822 Congress established a port of entry at this place. The 'jettlers built wharves and storehouses, and were very soon in a condition to re- ceive and store goods, and repair and refit vessels of moderate size. In 1825 Congress prohibited the car- rying of wrecked good.i found on the coast to any for- eign place, and required all such goods to be brought to some port of entry in tho United States. This broke ipthe business of the Bahama wreckers, and Key West became the central point for the business of wrecking on the coast. In 1828 Congress established a court at Key West, vested with admiralty jurisdiction. The jmige was empowered to license wrecking vessels. This court was abolished by the admission of Florida into the Union in 1845, and a District Court of the United States was eiitablishcd in its place in 1847. The judKe is authorized, as in the act of 1828, to license wrecking vessels. The act rends : " No vessel nor master thereof shall be regularly employed in the busi- ness of wrecking on the coast of Florida without the license of the Judge of said court; and l)efore licensing any vessel or master the judge shiili be satisfied that tlio vessel is sea-worthy, and properly and sufficiently fitted and equipped for the business of saving property lihipwrecked and in distress, and that the master there- of is trustworthy and innocent of any fraud or miscon- duct In relation to any property shipwrecked or saved on laid coast." Kt has been held liy the ju. Value. SaIvak*. Totftl Eipensei. 1848 4l $1, 282,1 lOU $125,000 $20,I,U6(» 18« 40 1,806,000 127,ST0 21!',169 isao 30 920,800 122, S31 200,S60 }Ki\ 84 1160,«00 7.'>,S.'>0 105,000 1862 23 s;6,iioo 80,112 103,000 1853 67 1,073,000 174,350 831 SI 00 1864 Ml 2,46',',600 82,41:0 211,808 1866 80 2,814,077 100,495 190,910 ISNi 71 2,000,000 103,117 2C2,i:64 1867 Total.. r,9 1,837,050 101,890 181,772 4119 $l6,'il»l,427 $I,1K),'.'11I $2,lv5,334 Kiakhta, a Russian settlement of more than a cen- tury old, a little to the south of Luke Baikal, and con- stitutes, with the Chinese frontier town, Mnimaclien (which is in immediate juxtaposition), the emporium through which the whole of tlie overland tea for Uussia passes, and it is from this fact that this place acquires its present importance. Il is by this channel that the article originally reached western Europe. The only country which has an interest in sealing the Chinese sea-board is likewise the only one which enjoys, and has long enjoyed, the privilege of being represented at Pckiii. Ever since the year 1727 the Russian govDriimont has maintained an establishment in that capital, the members of which are changed regularly every ten years. It originally professed to 1)0 for tlic spiritual liehoof of the descendants of some Siberian settlers - ho had been carried off about half a century before from the upper valley of the Amoor, 1 4 I Ml }>'' ■\m M mm KIN 1152 KON bat the mdialoii itltl continuoii, althongh the ilty has ceaMd ; ami, while uutlientic infurnuitlon rel- ative to the reaourceii and the ulminiHtrutlon of the Celeatial Empire in derived throuKli tliin channel by the foreign olBce ut 8t. retorebur|{, no doubt wluit- ever opinions are current at Peltin of the powers of western Europe owe their shape and color to the same ■t(ancy. — Umdon Timtt. Kidderminster, a manufacturing town of En- gland, county Worcnster, on the Oxford, Worcester and Wolverhampton railroad, and on lioth sides of the Stour, near its confluence with the Severn, 15 miles north uf Worcester. Population, 18,4U2, Kidder- minster was noted for its woolen manufactures in the reigu of Henry VIII, The fabrics now nuule are car- pets and tiui^r rugs, with some bombazines, button coverings and waistcoat pieces. The carpets are un- rivaled fur excellence of worlimanship ut the low prices charged. In 1838, upward of 2000 looms, and 4000 Iiand6, wero employed in this manufacture. The StttlTurd anounds, 8 ounces, 3 pennyweights, G-365 grains Tmy, or 2 pounds, 3 ounces, 4 dramchann, 16 grains avoirdupois weight English. As the most common things of daily consumption are sold by weights in small quantities, a great difficulty arose in introducing this part of the system ; and the old de- nominations of weights have therefore been idlowed to remain, with some modilloation in thi'ir actual value, taking the hilogramme as the Imsis. The kilogramme is divided into 2 livres, the livre is buI>- divided into 16 ounces, the ounce into 8 gros, und the gros into 72 grains. The new livre, therefore, ex- ceeds the old one (poids de marc) l)y 2-100th8 ; so, to reduce kilogrammes intr oM i^ ^asure, it is necessarj' to multipl}- by 2 and add 2 1 Mhs. In the decimal system adopted in France, the prefixes for muUipli/ing are Greek, and for dividing are Latin. Thus : Deca means 10 times. Dccl ,. :< 10th part Hecto " 100 •• c>ir' 100th " Kilo " i.noo " M i,000th " Myria " 10,000 " , therefore, the miingrai...aa, cent<;'ramme, dec ^jru-.i: !, Gramme, decagramme, hectu'cromme, kilo{,'rama a, and myrlagramme, as the nain'-s of the various weights. Kino (Fr. Gomme de Kino ; G or. Kinoharz ; It. Chino), A gum, the produ" ■ .-. ws that grow in the East and West Indies, AtHca, :(•, -ny Bi-y, etc. The kino now fomd in fiu Bhoi« ." L-y Dr. A. T. Thomson to coma ftam Iiulia, and to bo the prodnca of the tumelea gamhir. The brancfasi and twigs aro bruised and boiled in water. The decoction ii then evapoiuted until it acquires the consistence of an ex- tract, which is kino. It Is imported in cheats contain- ing tnm 1 to 2 cwt. i and on the inside of the lid of each chest is a paper, inscribed with the name of John Itrown, the month and year of iti importation, and stating that it is the produce of Amhoyna. It is inodorous, very rough, and slightly bitter when lint taken into the mouth ; but it afterward impresses a degree of sweetness on the palate. It is in small, uniform, deep brown, shining, brittle fragments, which appear like portions of a f the /lend, a large, flat piece of timber, fixed ndgewiso upon the foie part of a ship's stem, and sufi- porting the ornamental figure or imago placed under the bowsprit. The knee of the head is a phrase peculiar to shipwrights, as this piece is always culled the cut water by seamen, if we except a few, who, afr"c:tlng to lie wiser than their brethren, have adopted this ex- pression, probably on the preso ' . ' I 'on that the other is a cant phrase or vulgarism. Carling-Kneet, in a ship, those timbers which ex- tend from the ship to the hatchway, and bear up the deck on both sides. Knivea (Ger.J/eMtr; Du. Jf(<»«»; Vt.Couteaur; It. Collelii; Sp. Cuchilloi; Rus. Nothi) well known utensils made of iron and steel, and employed to cut with: they nre principally manufactured in London and ShcSicld. Knives oj o :iade for a variety of pur- ]>oses, as tlirir different denominations imply; »uch as table-knives, pen-knives, oyxter-knivc <. pruning- knives, etc. Although England at prssciit excels ever}' part of the world In the manufuctiirti of knives, as in most branches of cutlery, the finer kinds were imported until the reign of Elizabitii. It is stated liy Mr. Ma*;pher8on {Annalt of Com., A.i>. 15G3), that knives were not nmde for use in England till 1563 ; but there can be no doubt that this is an error. Thry had been made, though probably of a rude and clumsy pattern, for centuries before, in the district called Hiil- lamshire, of which Sheffield is the centre ; the cutlers of ix)i;don wero formed into a corporation in 1417.— Manufaclurea in Afelal, in Labusek's CijclopmVa. See ilARDWARE and Cutlery. Forks were in use on the Continent In the 13th and 14th centuries.— Voi.- TAiKi-;. This is reasonably disputed, as being too early. In Fines Mortson's Itinerary, reign of Elizabeth, be says: "At Venice each person was served Q .■•» his knife and spoon) with a fork to hold the me \\ while he cuts it, for there they deem it ill mmners hat one should touch it with his hand." Thomas Coiyate describes, with much solemnity, the manner of usi.ig forks in Italy, and adds, " I myself have thought It good to imitate the It:lian fashion since I came homo to England," A.D. IGlx. Kdnlgeonrg, the capital of east 'russia, in lat. 54° 42' 11" "^ ., long. 20° 'i^' 15" E. Population, in 1846, 75,23'. KOnigaberg i.; situated on the Prcgel, which fle '■ » i3 the FrU ch« .ilalf ■ Fresh Bay, a large KON 1108 KUR lake having frum 10 to 14 foet water. The liar at the mouth of the l*ri>gel has only from 10 to 11 feet water, to that veaielH nf more than thnt ilruu((ht of water rrciuire to lie lightereil to romo up to KOniiriilieri;. Plllau, in Int. 54° im' »»" N., lonn. 19" 82' 80'^ K. on the north liile of the entrance from the Daltii; to the Frlache KulT, in properly the |iort of the town. V/ithtn thene few years, a llght-hoUKe has lieen erected un a rilling ground, a little to the nouth of Pilliiu, the liin- tem of wlilch in elevated 05 feet alwve the level of the Ilea. I'ho light la fixed and brilliant. The entrance to the Imrlior is marked by buoys ; those on the lurlionrd side being surmounted by small flags. A Uothic build- ing, 120 feet above the level of the sea, has licen erect- ed to serve for a land-marli ; at a distance it looks like a three-maste « Succory root " ■^ea " ' lOi Imperial quarters. -1 20 to a ton. ■liiate " <^:, CO, mannfkotared " (Tobacco leaves *^ rTarand pitch " iTralnoll " IVInegar " Wlno " Woolen ware. " Wool, not European . . " Sundry Imports of varlons descriptions ) : Total value of Imports 614 20 1,422 82 5,968 816 7 2,087 190,800 58 7,868 1,218 8,414 188 2,i04 10 Vrtiiii •It othtr qiutntl- lli.!. Vtlnnllli •Urihif. I 18,6^9 I 296 I 918 I 224 I 64 I 14,694 526 582 860 1,178 9,568 11,666 4,068 1,198 1,922 81,225 1,289 718 2 544 4,2811 75^089 4t2 24 1,493 13,951 80,718 l,.t90 1,486 28,128 1,998, 829 87 486 76 119 148 49 161 1,688 "ii6 7 176 80 666 IT 907 8,575 861 4,908 8,018 14,463 I 785 24,948 9,642 4,894 183 1.896 2,841 1,111 14,267 2,1.50 971 175, 17,406 145 09 960 I 4,906 146,847 1,837 10 125,348 9,642 88,8481 4171 7,020l 8,072; 22,601 68,610' 959 1,201! T,««T 1,180 11,810 11,804 6,287 l,25li 106 4,847 1,875 2,280 2,882 9,087 77,296 10,4.86 84,749 9,662 S^686 2,094 490' 179 88 18,000 8,722 2,167 218 696 8,060 976 11,770 9,870 24,436 1,654 1,50,418 7, 13,4471 121,023 217 2,051 2,841 1,111 14,867 4,293 971 17,(M1 2141 960 651 9,2801 17,046 3,888: 8,346! 5,162 487, 81,768 2,839. 720' 7,600, 1I'<|.886 Afonei/, Weighta, and ilemurtt, same as at Dantzlc j seu Dastzic. Kuraohee, or Karachee le principal soo-port town of Scindc, on an inlet ui the Indian Ocean, 18 miles from tho west branch of the Indus. Lat. 24° 47' 8" N., long, 66° 66' 2" E. It stands on a low, anndy shore, and a few years ago consisted, wifli its extensive suburbs, mostly of straggling huts ; but the latest accounts state that it has been almost rrliuilt, and greatly improved since it has become a British possession. Its trade and consequence are rapidly augmenting. The harbor is the only port along this coast for vessels drawing more than 10 feet water, and is sheltered by Cape Mimorah, four nUles lonth-weit. -' .5 ■: .„:1.;...l 'in-:'! i; i;:;i '^ «I» LAB 1184 LAB L. Ijaboring of a thlp, imiiHn* pituliInK or rollintt henvily in nturliuldit mni, iiii ctrt'ct liy wliirli the iimstn ■ny thi< nillin)( muiiiiii th>* niiint^ < Hay. l.ahrador I* thus detached (n>m the arctic land*. Init In nevertho- U'Hn a country an frozen, denolate, and liarren, an tliono on the went of Hudf>on'» Hay. The coasit ah>n)( that HpaciouH inland pea i* called Kant Main, and the < II- mato there U pceiillurly rigorous. Tlie whole nnrfaco of L»l>rn(h>r, Indeed, ia ax nterile and naked an any part of thn glnlie. The prevailing; features are roiki", (wainpa, «nil « ter ; and vegetation apjH'ani a* tlie lout effort of exp'nuK nature. Small, Kcranwy |io|>- liirn, Htunted Urn, ireepinK lurch, and ilwarf willown, thinly Hcattcred in thn nouthern parts, constitute the wholo of tho trees. Ilerhs and fjrass an? also in shel- tered places to Im met with, liut in tlie must northerly parts only varieties of moss and liidiens are to Ix" found. Til. whole iif the interior, from the as|)cct of whir ha» li I cxidomd, and from the re|Hirts of the Esipiiumux III ' other Imllans, s«'ein~ to lie liroken up with rivers, s, ami rocks. I !■ ■ prevailing; rock continuous ti i.' sea-shore of Labrador, is gneiss. On this, at I, 'An ■ li Loup, the most fertile part of the country, a lied or old red sand- -tone, aliut 200 feet thick, is supcrliui il, and oxtemN aliout half a mile inland. Here, also, us on other parts of the coast, the ajipearances nf the cliffs and ol the land near them, ai'd the rolled n ses inlanil, which have evidently been ex|iuBed to ilie action i^ tl sea, sceui to |)rove that the latter ha-- ' onsidumMy r led. On tho coast ol fjtiirador the » inter is extremely severe, the tliermometc often falling .10 dc|;reeB Iw- ' low tho freezing |Kiint ; and although the houses of the Moravian missimiaries are heated liy lar^e east- Irou stoves, tho windows and walls are all tlio winter covered with iee, and the heii-ilolhes froive to the walls. Rum is fmzen in the air as rapidly as water, and rectified spirits soon hecouie tliick like oil. From Uecemlier to ,Iune, the sea is coiiiplntidy frozen over, and so intense is the cold duriii|r the winter months, that traveling is sometimes attended with the most painful consequences. Tho siiinmer months, a^faln, are oxtrcmly hot alonj{ the coast, the thermometer rising to HC, degrees of Kuhreuheit, when swarms of miisquitoes iufest the air. The climate is not insal'i'irious ; and, notwithstand- ing all its disadvantages, Lalirailor is of considorulilo importance to fireat Ilritain. No countr)' is lietter provided with large, convenient, and safe liarhors, or supplied with hettcr water; and vast multitudes of all those kinds of fish common to tliu arctic seas alxmnd on tho coast. Herrings are very fine and plentiful in August, but there is no weather to euro any kind of fish after the loth of So[itomhcr. The rivers are fre- quented by salmon and sea trout ; and pike, barhcl, eels, river trout, and the like, are likewise found In them. On the numerous islands which arc scattered along the east coast, multitudes of eider-ducks and ather water-fowl breed. Those of large size have deer, foxes, and hares upon them. On the continent the wild animals are principalljr iMars, wolves, foxes, and otters; beavers and du«r am not liunierouii, ImiI their furs am rematkalily clou mid liiiuutilul, I hi< birds of thu country am tlm whlU-lnlUd i|m [. ally in swampy pla In winter the;, ciilat In u stato of torphlity, from which they «r« aroiKcd by (|hi solar heat or artillcial warintli, I'liii iilMUioiiinniin of the aurora Isirealis is unconinionly brllllani In llils re- gion, and exercises a vary nmrknd InlliiviMn oviir tlin compass, \o accurate account iif tliu Imdii of t,aliiiolor can be olitjiined, as Iheru uru no cus(oiii-l>oii«va or publlo ullicers in thu country i but thu following tisdinatn is probably as close un appruniniatloii as 4'sn Iw uiadn to tliu annual value of tliu ai(|Hirts I III Newniunillaud vawal* ,,,,,,,, *' Nova HcotU " , " Aiiierlcaii '* " Cnnadlaii •• , " VuMuUownsd»reli»rt«rsn,iM)il Hrltl"!) miliJectK are at pnaont re- quired (liiriii)( thn INIiInt; >im»i>ii, In tlin cutuhliiK, lur- liiKi o'kI tranji|iurtin({ tim vurloua product* of tlivso rumota i«iim, Htatutic* or FniimiH. TlK) IpriMliiCitill jiJ •d. No. |iluiafaiU.|'t'l«rcM. 0,110 elMMo .... li,ao() I Tiii.mH) a.iiin id.nflo TuM. 1,649 Italian, i.Mo'.mm 1'ha HuhlnK eatnhliHhiniintii of the KnKli"h uiiil .fer- ley nipri'lmntn iire rictnniilve and W(dl rondiicted. They II Fit Kii^nKed In the end and nalmnn rtnhi'rlen, and In the taklnit of aeiiU. In the )-ear 1N,'II, the value of thoir •hlpinvnta tn Kiiropo wan npwnrd of iti!ll(l,000. The iiunilier of tliimn rominnnlul houaeH In from 111 to 12, who miinii({« thi'lr huslnem at Nowfoundhind, elthor liy the tenipor.iry pri'»«nco of Junior pHrtnen or cliirk.H, or l>y renldru; iifjniitji. The |i«ople of Now- fbundland, averring- that the French ami Americana hav.) drtvon thoin fr their own " hank-tinher)'," re- aort to Laliriidnr. I : t'\ employ 2IH)or iMXI veaaela. A part make two voyii^-cs in a aeoHon. The llrat faro la commonly cured on the conat ; but the second ia c»r- rieil home willioiit dryln({. ."Some of the nierchanta of Newfoundland ahip both cod iind aalmon directly to corrc»pondciita in l',uro|ie ; while others order their cuptiiiiH to return tn the ialand and unluilo their llnh and oil at their own wurohuuaea.— ^ poaaea^inn of the Kngiiali It waa uninhalilted ; but its situation is such that, provilt'd it lie moderate- ly healthy, it can iiardly fail to l)ecmne an important emporium. It Ilea near the beat route for ahippiu); from the .Straita of .SiiiKaporo to China, and, while it ia extremely well aituated for carrying on trnile with the west and north coaata of Uomeo and the Pliilippinc Islanda, it will aerve aa a harbor of refuse, and aa a convenient station for the ateamera and other ahipa of war required tn put down the piracy that haa lieen, tn tlie nr»'at injury of commerce, carried to so );reat extent from the jmrts and rivera (d' Uomeo, and of Hiiine nf the ailjacent- islands. In this respect, ita aliuadaiit aup))l y of coal will be of the greatest acrvice. In w.'ir, tlie ]>oasesaion of I^)>uan will give to the Kn- glisli entire command of the Chinese Sea. — liitooKH'a Jii'ininl. Uomeo, or Hruni, on the adjacent shf canoes. The steauicr which cnnveyail HIr Jamea Orook* to nomen, when I.abiian waa ceded, anidmnid in the main atrert, in the centre nf the town I " The greatest novelty at llru- ni," wiya Mr. Marryat, fmm whom we have iKirrowed these detaila, " la the HoatinK l>azaar. Them are no ahnpa In I lie city, anil tliu market Is held every day in cannua. Thi'ae cniiie in at aiinriae every morning from every part of the river, laden with freali friiit, tnbac CO, pepper, and every other article which ia produced in the vicinity ; a lew Kuro|iean prndiii ti.ma, auch aa handkerchlei'a, cl|eck-<-otton prints, etc, alau niuka thoir apliearance. Cungregatcd in the main street, the canoes ur« tucked together, fnrmiiig lanes, through which thn purchasers, in llieir nwn caiioea, pudille, se> lecting and bargaining for gnoila with aa much cnnv*- nioncu aa if the whnle were transacted on term Jirmn, Iron is hero ao valuable that it ia used aa ii'ioney, 100 Hat piecea, an ini;h square, are valued at a dol- lar ; and among tlie hiwer classes these iruii pieces form the sole coin. They are unstamped, »oara tn liu at liberty tn cut his own iron into mimey ; l>ut wliether auch la really the oaau, I can not vouch." — .Makhyat'h JImiieo. Hut though dellcient in iron, the gnid iiiinea nf Ilor- n'-u are auid to be nf the ricliest description. Mir Stumford Itallles •istimated tliat in his lime about il'.',li00 Cliiiinsu laluirers were emplnyed in these miiieit on ttie west coast of Ilurneo ; and it ia not easy to say Imw prwluctive tliey nilgiit liccome were the miners in u cnnditiim tn prnsui ute their undcrtuklnga in safety, and tn bring the resources nf science and nf capital to their aid. Antimony is also found in abundance in Uorneo, capeciully in the district nf .Sarawak, uf which .Sir ilames llrooke ia rajah ; and the diamonds nf Uor- neo rival thnse nf India and llruzil. Uut independently nf ita coal, and "f ita precinua and other metala, its vegetable products might alone fiirnisli the materials of an extensive commerce. Tlie sagn-paliii grows in gnfat iierfection in many parts nf tlie isluml, and sugo ia i,irg,urt ; and sugar. pep|>er, and all the products of tropical regions, might, with .i little care, be raised to any extent in most parts uf tills vast island. The numliers and ferocity of the savages by whom it ia oc- cupied present, indeed, formidable nlistjclca to ita im- provement. Uut civilization is lieginning to make its way among them ; and, thou^jh pruhaidy slow, its prog> rcsa can not well im arrested. Lao or Oum Lao (Ger. Lack, Gmnmilack ; Fr. Liicijuc, (lomme luiquis; It. iMCca, dommnlacca; .Sp. (iiiinalitea; Uua. L(iia,(Juminllac, when in its natural state, incrustiug loaves and twigs, is called stick lac. It is collected twice a year ; and the only trouble in procuring it is in breaking down the leaves ani branches, und carrj'ing them to market. Whcu the twigs and gtiolu oio large, or only pottii^y coV' 'ife I :l| LAC 1116 LAC •r»il, tli« !»<• I« frfquently ii>>|iiirutail from them, h It »\yi»\» out(ht tn lui whini r«(t I'olor. Whon hi>M iiKaln>t llin ilifht It nhniiM lodk lirttflit, unci wlirii lin>ken nliiMild u|i|mir In illii- ni(ind-lik« pciliiln. If it I* not Kiithoml till ttm In- •ucta havo Irft tlii'lr i'hIIk, It licoinicii piilo, iuhI plcri'dl at tliH tup ; Hiiil It In (if littlv UM an II Ayr, tlioUKh pruU itlily lH>tti>r fur a vunilKh, /mc i/yc, /(»• liitr, or inlr lai\ I'onniitii of the colnring mutter i>xtr»i'ti'i1 fruni the ntlck luc. Vurloiin pnn'cniwit huve Iwpn uilnptrd for thin piirponn. It in formed Into •null nqtiurii r«ki>« or pli'ii««, like thojt* of IndiKo. It nhould, wlmn broken, look durk-colorml, ahlnlnK, •mouth, and conipuit ; when (craiwd or pe of u lirl({ht red color, upprouihliiK to tint of cirmlne. That whiih it nundv, li|{ht-. talneid duntliie tllun hamp, ua tliu sea-wiiter, iiia|i>ii« laUnda are well »u|>. bllecl with Hah, anil carry on a Iraile with the sui.dl ahclla y a roynl onlnn- nance In France, passed in ItillO, a murk wus ustub- lished upon the thread lace Imported I'rum this country and from Flanilvrs, and upon point lace from Genoa, Venice, and other I'ountrins. Pillow, or Thread Ijit-e, is made by placing a per- forated patteni on a hard stuflfed pillow, and tlie tlircuJ required Is wound upon bobbins with a groove In the upper part for retaining the thread ; while, to form the meshes, pins are stuck in tho cushions, and threads woven or twisted round them, the pattern showing the points of insertion for the pins, and also tho directiim for the gimp, which Is interwoven with the lino thrcmls of the fabric to form the pattern. At the comoicnco- ment of the work the bobbins are arranged on one side of the cushion, and are brought to the front side, two pairs at a time, and twisted together. The woman holds one pair of bobbins in each hand, and twi.its them three times over each other to form tho sides of the mesh, the adjacent bobbins of each pair are next interchanged, so as to cross thesu threads over ono another to form the twttom of the next. Supposing tho four bobbins to bo marked 1, 2, 3, 1,— No. 1 is twisted round 2, and No. 3 round 1 ; thcao. In order to cross 2 and 8, are interchanged, so that 1 and .S and 2 and 4 come together, and at the next twist these pairs of threads will be combined. As the meshes or half-meeheg are formed, they are secured by pins. These fonr bobbins are now put on one side of the cushion ; two more pairs are brought forward, twisted and crossed as before, and these operations are re- peated until a row of meshes is formed of the required breadth, when the bobbins are worked over again tu form another row. From 48 to 60 bobbins are re- qniied
    cr- iiivo ill 111" ,) fiiriii the ,(\ tliroiiils Kiw'ini? the , ,\irci'tion 1110 thri'UilK comuiciicp- [cJ on one front siile, riie woman and twists the fii•, fttrmiitly ratplayml « Ir.rK^ nnmbar ot irnin*n Hid ehlMran In thn cniintldi of lUdfunl, Racklngli»m, Northampton, itnil Oxford, hut thit dnmand for thU hind of wlilto thread Urn fiillMl, and Idaok lun* took It* |il«rii. Ilimilon lar» dllTani fhim pillow lac* In hav- ln(( thn pnttnm madn Mpiiratdly, Thn nmamnnta wpm formnrly rnnHnml to ulnipla tprlK* and linrdnrH ; htit thn hhrlcii now prtnlurnd iihnw ciitrtm* dnllcary nf nxerullon, with Iwauty and taata In dnali^n i flounr- inga, nhawli, aearfa, handkcrchlefii, Iwrthnn, «ti<., now Tury in prica fmm 10 to VnO Kulnnaa. The llnnitnn lacn dhtrlct extonda about HO mllna alonK the coani, of Devonnhlrn, and alwut 12 mllna inland. In IHftt frnm 7000 to WHK) peraons w«r« omployad In tha manufac- tnT«. Hrilith poini, Inmhnur, and f.imen'rk lacni are chlnfly imitation, and arn proiliirnd In ahawla, urarfli, dremnri, court trulna, anunrlnK*, lappets, He. nrltliih point l« madn chiefly In the nciffhhorhnnd of Ix>ndnn, tambour chiefly at Inllnf(ton, roKKlrnhall, and NottlnRham, while Limerick lace la pncullar to Ireland. Illack lace* now occupf a connlderable portion of thn atten- tion of th« trade. Thn raont cnlebrateil lacea have lieen claaaad aa— 1. limmli, the moat valniible. There are two kinda : Brumrh grontul, having a hnx- a((on meah, formed by plnttiiii; and twisting four throada of flax to a perpendicular line of mcnh ; /?ni«. uh mm ground, made of ailk i monhca partly atralght and partly arched. Thn pattern Is worked separately, and act on l.y the needle. 2. Sfechlin ; n hexAKonal mesh, formed of three flax threads twisted and platted to a perpendicular line or plllnr. The pattern Is worked In the net. 8. Vdlfncitvnfi : an IrreKular hexagon, formed of two threads, partly twli...'d and platted at the top of the mesh. The pattern la worked in the net almilar to Mechlin lace. 4. Litle: a dia- mond meah, formed of two threnda platted to a pillar. 5. Altnfim, called blond: hexagon, of two threads, twisted similar to Buckingham lace ; considered the most Inferior o' any made on the cushion. 6. Alen- ;o» point! f< ^ 'of two threads to a pillar, with oc- tagonal and <. hes alternately. In the miinut'. . 'ace, France takes tho lead j and It Is .a|- i:i!.:l band gU<-i ■ ,>iovm. • ' iW.OOO ft'mul.' oO all :i,; bins .'tm .1 .'I •]!' piiVii th . ic i ' o"'" i ■ ■'mn'ii hr. .■."' n tnna ihr»;i.l. ani. «ilv r t' i.ioi /'(Nd made >rltli I Is worth from ^tHi.' the production of lace by ■ that countr}' to upward of It la all made with bob- npt at Alen(;'on, where ' he ma'orlals used are 't'< , wool, silk, and gold V .iii'nfon la the only lace lnud-jpun thread; this thread 00 per pound. White lace Is now chiefly maae w! a cotton thread, No». 120 to 320, The principal aeat.i t the manufacture are — Caeii and Bayeux, Chantilly and its neighborhood, LIUo, Arras, Mireconrt, Puy, B illeul, and Aloni;on. Each of these districts has its own peculiar style ; and although the lace may be made in the same way, and with the same material, In all these districts except the last, yet each Is easily recognized. Silk blond originated at Caen, and was so called ftom being made of nndyed silk of a nankeen color : the finest white or the finest black silk is now employed. Caen and Bayeux excel all other places in the production of piece goods, and manufacture shawls, robes, mantles, etc., more exten- sively than any other districts In the world. By means of a stitch called rucroe, the women of the de- partment of Calvados join sereral parts Into one piece so cleverly as to defy detection, oven with a magnify- ing glass. Most of the Improvements and noNelties in lace-making originate at Mireconrt ; it produces the same kind of lace as Lille and Arras, vIj!., clear found- ation, fondt ctair, and also /on de champs, In white thread, also a lace resembling the Hr ca11"d Tui- pun. Flowers are also made, and sewed i.i^ji. t'lc tremely fine net called Bnuaela net, closet, r^: bllng the Belgian fkhrln. The wliMit and fkaapril Krrnrh lace la pmlucMl at Hayeiii, Helgium la tlm gnat rival of ITranea In the manu- facture of Urns, thn I'hUf vartcliaa of whiab are known aa Hrunrli, .\frrhlm, I'li/rnnonnM, and (Immmimi. Ilrusaela prixlucts two daarrliitlnni iif l«r«, known nt /mini (t I'aiguillf, ami llnmelt pluil, iU» una moda en- tirely with the naadU, anil tlin oihar nn Iha pllktw, The flneal kind la niwU of vary Una Ma« Ikraail, and •ome of cotton. It la ramarkalily tofl and e\»»r, bill vary costly. Mnchim larai are mad* «l MallMt, Antwerp, tU'. Thay arn niada In one placa on Iha pil- low, and thn tlowera ara ■iirrouinUd liy a pUII thread, which dasigna tl a iiutlinn, and has tlia affact nf aiii< broldary. Valenoiannaa lacaa ara iiiaila chlally al Yprea, Menin, ('nurtral, BrUKaa, (Ihant, Aloal, and their respaictiva naighlKirhwHU, aaidi lumn liavlnil Its chaructnriatin peruliaritlra by whirll lla prmtiiiillnlis am identified, Yprat prudueaa laiwa of Iha llnv*! square gniunds, varying in prlca fmiti Vi iianla ty maclilnary, Nona but llalglin fingers are akiUod In this art. The yury lliiRiit anri nf this thread is made in llrusseli, In damp uiiilargrniiiiil cellars, for it will break by contaot wilh the dry nir above ground; and it U obtained In good condlllntl only when made and kept In a humid, siibtarratianiis atmosphere. There ari numbers of oM llelgUn tlirnad- makers, who, like spiders, have puasud Iha beat partitf their lives spinning In cellars. This sort of iMctipallnn naturally has an Injurious elfset on the haalth, and th« eyesight of the operatives Is impaired at an aiirly iin«, In former days Mechlin was renowned (ot lis Ini<« manufactures. I'or a century and mora It (i«ld »ii« premary In the markets of Kurops, and tha Maolilln lace ivas considered the iierfectlon uf Ihiit arllritt, ciitu manding by fur the highest prices, and bciiiK tlltnuturcti uf a large revenue to its fabricators. It tm», linW' ever, fallen ofT very canslderably of lata yaaril In tup* ply nnd demand. While this lace U not so Una «a tttill which is mudo at Brussels, it Is mush mora durabjti, and therefore of more Intrliislo value as an arlli'lo nf use. In rcgiird to lace not produced by hand, tliiit which is known ns bobbin-net may be said tii »lir|m"S every other branch of human Industry In ttl» cnni- plex ingenuity of its nmclilnery, oita of tlie "nfuiUUt^ (Vame8,"as they are termed, ' aing aa iniicit bajnlld lliti most curious chronomete' ' i niu; '.illcity of ni8elwn< leal device is that Is bi: Bobbin-net lace owes Ity of the threads, ni'l By Increasintj the - given ppr j '. lb.,- Ittcj is f cd thur-. r upw' . of ,-t!)i, .ii'. . The-.n ;.., '/•"'.■' ■" i w ' .ir ion hamUaaw, 'I. .t}' threads, which are afterward drawn out. In well-made lace the meshes are slightly elongated in the direction of the selvage. Ornaments, consisting of separate flowers, '>prigs, etc., are worlced in by a J:icquard apparatus attached to the frame ; bijt M the xrnaments nre all necessarily connected by the thread oi gimp which forms them, the connected '.bread is afterward cut out with sci8.sor8, by children employed for the purijose. Whoro the machine pro- duces only one plain net, the pattern is worked in .by hand, the lace-runnor l)cing guided by a lithogranhic pattern placed under the net. When the embroidery is complete, it is examined, defective parts are marked by tying the lace in a knot, and these are restored by a distinct set of women called lace-mendert. In addition to the bobbin-net machine for making lace, there is also the warp machine, invented about the year 1776. It was suggested by the stocking- frame, in which only one thread is required, while in the warp-frame there is a thread to each needle. The flrst articles made by it were silk stockings, with blue and white zig-zag stripes, or Vandykes, us they were called, fh>m the name of one of the four claimants to the invention of tho warp-frame, the other three being Englishmen. Aluut 1784 a Nottingham mechanic greatly improved the warp-frame by the application of the rotatory motion, and the cnm-wheels to move the guide-bars, still known as Dawson's wheels. The im- proved frames produced oflicere' sashes, purses, braces, and other clastic toxtilo fabrics, the manufacture of some of which still continues. In 1798 a new fabric was produced from tht warp, and employed for sailors' jackets, pantaloons, and the article known as Berlin, so much used for making gloves. Warp machines were the flrst to produce ornamental patterns on '.uce, such as spo.tj, bullet-holes, etc., which had been pre- viously embroidered or tamboured !)y hand. The bobbin-uet machine, invented in 1809, soon became a formidable rival of the warp, and influenced its tor- tunes in various ways, until 1889, when the Jacquard apparatus was applied to it, and so much increased its capabilities as to introduce into Wm warp-lace trade of Nottingham a new class of products of elaborate do- sign, such as shawls, scarfs, mits, falls, laces, etc. Of late years the tieist machine has been employed on sim- ilar goods, and has to a great extent superseded the warp. <^'reat improvements have also been intnxluced in the Luglisa methoc^s of drrssing lace, ospocially in silk goods. Many new kinds of elastic fabrics, in gloves, in silk, and other raalcrials, have lioen intro- duced. Velvet, and velvet in combination with lace, have also liecn produced at the warivfrnroo. A t the time of tho Great Kxliibition there were about 1400 warp-frames in operation, namely alH)ut GOO in I^ices- tershire, alwut 400 in Uerl>y8hu'o, and alwut the same number in Nottinghamshire. T!io employment in tho various branches was estimated as filiows : 150 ma- chines engaged in thu production of blund, and other lilk laces ; 150 in cotton tattings, A.')!) in I^oicester hosiery, etc.) 100 iu lace gloves and mits, 150 in woolen cloth, hosiery, purses, and various fabrics for gloves, etc. The frst machines were almut 16 inches in width; they are now, in the Notiing'iam trade, from W to IM inches in width, and in tl e I^icester hosiery tradn, from 44 to "3 Indies. The number of persons employed in tlio warp trade in Great Ilritain, in 1861, was estimated i,t 10,000, and the rapital in- retted at f 1,300,000, making a return per annum of $8,600,000. In the Gruit Exhibition was exhibited a power machine, capable of producing (working 12 hours per, day) 800 racks per week, which, when dressed, would bo equal to about 120Q square .vards. A yard of 4.quarter white silk blond, which in 1830 cost 60 cents, can now be had for 12 cents. Gold and Silwr Loot. — The textile fabric known as gold or silver lace consists of warp threads of silk, or of a mixture of silk and cotton, while the weft or shoot is a silk thread covered with silver, or with silver gilt, as the case may be. The production of this thread is a remarkable illustration of the extensibility of gold, and of the ductility of silver. The silver preferred by the wire-drawers is that which has been separated from ."-gentifcrous galena, this licing less brittlo than the 8iiver obtained from purer sources. From 400 to 600 ounces are cact into an ingot about 2 inches in diameter, and from 20 to 24 inches in length. This is made red-hot in a charcoal Are, and hammered until sufficiently reduced to pass through the flrst bole of the draw-plate, the hammering incrcasLig the tenacity lind elasticity of the metal. After the bar has been reduced by passmg through 10 or 12 holes, it is pkned, in order to remove any imperfections from the surface wlich would interfere with the perfect gilding ; the lilemishes are readily detected by the reflection of a sheet of foolscap paper slightlj arched, and placed over the bar. The bar is now gilt, by placing on it u number of gold leaves, varying from 10 to 80, accord- ing to the richness of the wire required, tho higher qualities being used for military' purposes, and pearls and bullions for cml)roidering, while the lower qual- itiss aro used for liveries, tlie ends of muslins, and fur skein threads exported to India and China. The (^old leaves ure placed in a row, side by side, nearly the length of the bur, on a pteco of cartridge paper : the liar is tlien gently placed on the leaves, pressed close, and the edges of tho leaves raised up until tlio silver is entirely covered. Tlie bar is next enveloped in paper tied tightly round ivith cord, and placed in a charcoal Are, where it is Icfl until it becomes of a bright red heat, the paper not burning, but iiecoming red with the metal, when it slowly consumes, after which tho bar is withdrawn. While still red-hot it is burnished witii a blood-stone or with South Sea ax-stone, for the purpose of uniting the gold and tho silver perfei^tly. When cold tho surface is covered with wax, and tlie bar is drawn into wire tlirough graduated steel dies, and, after one or two annealings, flnishod by drawing througii perforated rubies, so Hne that from an ou'ice ol meti.1 a wire a mile and a quarter in length is pro- duced. At tills point tho wire has not ■^a rich und deep a shade of yellow ns U required, but Uiis is given by winding the wire roind a copper cylinder, with the addition of a small (lortion of wax, and filling tho cav- ity of the cylinder with red-hot chartoul iiiudo from birch-wooil, the effect of which in to deepen the culoi , and render it i,erniancnt. Tho next proeens is tu flat- ten the wire by iiaxaing it lietween a couple of steel rollers, one "t ten, and th.' other of four inches in di- ameter, made of the flnesi steel, and of exiiuisite pol- ish. They are manufactured in Khenish Prussia, at a cost if f 600 fur a shigle pair of rollers. The tliittcned wire is wound on small bobbins, which arc placed in the contra of circular riiigc, attached to a luir over a spinning frame. On the front of tlie frame nre bob- bins of silk, thn tb'eads of which pais through the centre of the ring to which tho reel of wire is tixed. Tho whole is set In motion, and while the turead is lieing twisted, the ring with tho wire revolves round the thread in the opposite direction. In this way from 30 to 40 threails aro covered u* once, the result being a resplendent flexible gold thread, adapted to the pur- jMises of liice-making, embroidery, etc. Of this thread, although golil only appears, pnilialdy iMOths nf its , bulk is silk, while of the remaining 1-lOth only 1-oOth [ part is gold. See details on this subjocv in the Journal liulsil iiy till as (III PMr|«(i »r«lly SOU ui m>, is com W(jl,,. .,,,,,.,,, 117,408 f2e,S4fi HfkTiiMkii'i' DHitwim* fun UrriHtn or tAcmi akd Eu- NMiMfKKiM iiftii tim Ifniriio Statm roR tui Tiab mmvit il»«« )(i*fH, 1^, WlwM* Imi/vMi >l»mbun,,,,, ,,,,,,,, ftraimn,,, ,,,,,,,,,,,, Kalliifli),, ,,,,,, ,,,,,,, U«linHMi, ,,,,,, ,,,,,,, Kni2 95S488 1,728 288 7,210 2,724 •4,864,888 Lnoqun, ur h»eiun, s yellow vamlHh, consiHt- fllK of » i«iliiH»xin b<'liiw((ln« to this class, frmn Cashmere and La- Uru, niu it,iniirlt4bh) for the elegance of their patterns. Ladlilf, biU of, Hee tlil.i. OK i.i>mifa. Latlon, 1(1 imiiticiil biiigiisge, the state of a ship wlitil elm U chaCKwl with a «ilght or quantity of any tort of nuiriih»n4is« or Hher materials equal to her tumiugM or i(Mf«l«M, If the cargi with which she is liuhiil \m nKirmndy hM/y, her burden Is determined •ly tllfl WflKltl of the kikhIs ( If It lie IlK'ht ..he carries as uiut'li M sIm can stow, tliat she may be fit for the puriwKK. itt n»vi(j)itl ..:, duy. The process of t)rewing this peculiar and popular bier differs, we are told, very much from that employed in making common ale or beer. The only materials, we learn, are malt, hops, and water, but the quantities employed, and the mean tenipcriture observed, are a secret to all but the initi- ated. An inspection of the diflTercnt breweries, T,-ill show that a studied care and cleanliness are exercised in all the operations. Fermentation, wli'ch In common beer is upward, we are told, in the insiince of lager- bier, is the reverse, or downward ; but as it is the na- ture of all fermentation processes for the " workings," as tliey are termed, to ateemt for a certain period lie- fore they finally settle, we are inclined to believe this " downward fermentation" an ingenious joke. In order to stifle further inquiry. The word lager, in German language, meana '' reft, repose," an attetrtlon thia pe- culiar drink requires in order to secure u ripening or maturity of perfectness ; and from this word the bier derives its prefix, hger: The lager-bier annually made in New York city and subur!>3 la estimated at 85,000 barrels, a number we are inclined to lielleve beneath the actual average. The entire city consumption, however, of this bier from all parts, is computed to \ye not less than .1,075,- 000 liarrels ! The city retailers numlier about 200O, exclusive of the large hotels and restaurants, which alone consume from )50fl0 to ^6000 worth anuuiiUy. In the city of St. , .o.iis, Missouri, there were drank, ffom Ist March to September 17, 1854, more than 17,- B00,000 glasaeg of lo^r and common beer, and the cutire stock of 24 brewerlea of that district was com- pletely axhanated. Philadelphia has 22 breweries ot lager-bier, and the stock accumulated during the fall and winter of 1865, waa valued at $600,000 wh^leaale ! The city of Cincinnati hoa 7 flrat-clasa and 22 accond- clasB breweries ; the value of the " plant" (machin- ery, tubs, etc., etc.) of the former is estimated at $150,000 each. The flrat-class breweries average each about 4000 barrels per year. Most of them have largo excavated vaults for stocking or lagerlng this l)icr. M. Von Beck's store-cellar, in the rocks at Rondout New York, which will contain 30,000 casks, cost $15,1 000 for excavations, etc. The brewing of lager-bier usually commences about October, and is then deposited till the succeeding April or May, when it is considered to be in " fine condi- tion." The Cincinnati lager-bier breweries en)ploy about 260 brewers, and as many othera as assistunts, etc., etc. The salary of a good foreman is $1000 per annum and house-rent ; his assistants receive from $30 to $50 per' month. They commence operations at four A. M., and got through in from 9 to 10 hours. These men are remarkalde for good health. Some of these cstftbllshmenta make 9 brewings a week. The fall stock of Milwaukio lager-liier, in 1856, waa fullv 00,000 barrels. The western lager requires to bo of a stronger quiility than that made in the northern brew- eries. Of the bencflcal qualities of this bier, opinions are far from unnnimoua ; the partisans in favor of the bev igo profess that from 10 to (!( glasses per day may be drank with impunity I Wliile the editor oi th,i Xew York Scalpel, in his issue for October, 1856, as- serts that its continued use produces the most injurious eflocts on the human constitution, and which, if per- sisted in, induces disease and gradual decay, mentally and pliysically. IiagOOn, from the Latin lacuna, a diti h, means a morass. The name is given particularly to those creeks which extend along the coa.st of the Adriatic, in the present government of Venice, and which are formed by water running up in the la.id. They con- tain many islands. Venice, for instance, is built on CO of them. In some places they ore deep ; in otlier" N., Ion. 67° 6' 45" \V. Population 8000 ? In 1810, ilie population is hc- lieve">' duced, the permission to sail is signed by the goynrilor and harbor master. If the vessel take I'argo on l)o»rd, then the same formality, as to vi»ltln«. in pursued, »• on tlie entry of a vessel. Goods Imported are slHI»»t invariably sold upon credit ; those exported ure, on H)« other hand, always sold for ready money. The terms of credit vary from 2 to 6 months, or more, iiwnk' ruptcy is very rare. We subjoin a statement of the principal expert* from La Guayra daring eacl' if the 5 years endlnif the 5th October, 1847. YenneniUnKiUi October. 1848 1844 1846 1848 1847 Coree. Ooroe. Collun Qii'int'ii BIO 285 767 240 1,128 iiuger. ] ladigo. HI4«, QatnlaU. 147,474 182,US6 122,912 151,97."l 126,812 Fenetru. 28,624 S8,I89 29,418 82,476 87,876 (luinl>J<'(iiilii '!• 8,2«R 1 l.i»74 2,5l)S 1 7il2 5,153 4o» 4.582 51T 7,040 8til 8(,«i4 4»,77H Duties received at custom-house. La iimym, 1842-43, $831,848; 1843-44, $722,116 j 1844-46, $7!*6,- m-, 1845^6, $891,602. Tonnsgfl duty Entrance fuo Anchorage Captain of norths fee Interpreter 8 foe Forniit to discliarge and stamp. . Heallh olliccr's fee Munlclpol charge for water Municipal bill of health. Foritilt to load and stamp, Certificate of sea worthiness. . . Total Value In sterling money. , K»IU>iial. ! |>rt.11.y»d). I $:i7 50 4 00 12 00 8 00 2 OO im 400 40 00 2 00 1 12J 2 00 tl08 76 £17 16 tl6o UO 6 00 16 0<) 6 00 4 IM I m 4 00 40 l» 8 00 1 t2i iiOO 1232 ■« «88 14 A ship introducing n cargo, and sailing In ballnst, would be liable to all the above charges, with the autmfMm ftf ili« l««t two. The charge for water is Utffwi wlthmit fptfard to tonnage; viz., sloops and iM:lM«m«fs, tm p«ch, Iirigs, $30, and ships, $40. Ton- ii/)({« umid/iyod )n flm foreign commerce of La Guayra, f'tr six moiielw of 1«S0, 30,417 tons. See VESEZCiEr.A. XiAfiUM dl T«nnlnoa, or Iiaguna di Car- nMn, (t Kfl(i-(Krfl (iti the south shore of the Gulf of MtnUttt. nt»t« ft on the gulf has from 12 to 14 fiWt W«{«f it^fr thn linr at the entrance to the lagoon. V»iW*l# tt( ^fBKt^f draught load and unload by means of IfKhtofi, (Mltr^ldi* the bar, in from 3 to 4 fathoms, with gfHA UiA'Wn^ ((round. To KMff Itf t'lift Hun in over the bar with Xical- »««« I'olfit, bertflrig by compass S. J E., till Point Mdi'fftut Sm»rr«(J«, \imfi\ (it faealtb, etc., about $25 each vessel. WilfHt kcHvIh^ dlfect from a foreign [lort pay $1.50 per Urn tor tf/flHrtgo dues. See Mexkm. Statevint of the Expoetation or Dvkwooiw nwn fUH l'«l('f W i,k»tink trt Trhmihos buriso hie Yeabs 1880, 1851, AND 1852, 81-ECIFTI.VU ALSO TUE VtMKIS l» WHICH fHHf WHIIH UHfPtt) AHV the PoBTS TO WHICH TUET BELONOED. Forte. Liverpool lUavre lluniburg Cork and market 'Bonlesux iNew York {Uremon jMarseilles. Antwerp Stettin...- lOenoa jPetorsburg Boston 'No>»OrleiM Barcelona. Iiibraltar and market Klslneur and market Cailli! Nantes Havana Ijincaster Cotto , In ballast to sundry port*. Total 18U. 19 17 12 16 8 4 1 9 1 9 2 8 3 1 10 101 Logwood. Qufnlulf. 07,728 99,678^ 42,369 70,94flf 26,849 20.280 4,51U 14.029 B.m n,7<» HfiU 000 ' 1,600 'i^ioo Qiilmelf; 1,8SU ■i;4t4 ""n 4,440 484,611 8,»tt VnHdil, f" n ft 1 w n •t •i 8 I J » J i 'i _» "aSfwei., mm fm U4I T,4»1 '4Mi «ff/<»r 1S59. 1 ""-(■„...- Vf..i,lj. Logwo.,(l. Ku.llc. On'"'.;.. 4.491 MO 7r'i97 'l',it7 21 16 14 7 7 4 6 5 6 Qiiinliil!<. 96,S1H 88,708 47,877 80,010 17,0^S 81,071i 44,327 81.584 84,610 (jiilntsli. ■i',6oo 8,084 2,012 12,277 '"60 "40 4 16,608 '"}. 9 9 1 1 8,4611 1,000 2,480 1,114 .... 1 1,678 '.'.'.'. 1 1 8S94 8,973 ■.'..'. .'.", • >••< .... Mm" 104 468.0591 19,677 Lahore, an extensive province of Hindoostan, alt* j tiM fndlK/ The pi'lncipal geographical and territorial uated between the thirtieth and thirty-fourth degrees I nuMlvlshitw Mf« the Pnn^.. comprehending otlier of north latitude. It has been estimated at .140 miles ' m(ti'/f noMlvlslons , »nd the Kohistan of Lahore, in length by 200 in avefage breadth. It Is l)ouiidfd lll«« U (oltlvated in tlie narrow valleys, but the in- on the north by Cashmere and the course of the In- MAimtU .i#l«l«t (;hlefly on wheat bread, and peas dus J on the south by Delhi, Ajeueer, and Koultan ( liiiidf llii<( » thi< )< soliji. Pines and willow-trees grow on the cast by the mountains of northern Ilindoostao t i uft tll« •l(ff((«« *) tttt llfx umitiit as they passed through the diflbreot t»triUiri»i* iit ti«« petty Silins. It was iu cons«(|U«nc« mfnii4 Ui H\H' doostnn Proper by the difficult and nvmt^mtum fi/UUi of .lumlioe, Nadone, and Kerin»i;e»i, 'Hm ^)kl) iliiffn^ however, discovered thtir error, eB4 tmnjf itf iiivim heavy and vexatious duties ha-e lawn fwjH^Wj ( Htui by a moro stricl aduiiuistrutiuu of jUttUn', I'lmMt^m has been restored to the merchants. Tlw ftMpiiHf> Itf Lahore to the coimtries west of tha ()#4m* »rti, itUtiHf, rice, indigc. A-hcat, and cotton cli/tlw, 'fim j»rt(#*rt<* from Cicse counti-ies are, swords, tvtr^ii, (mH, J«w(, and spicca. The exporta to C'asbnure ar« uxHfty th« sani3 as t.> Persia, the imports bviug tihawl', M f'ltiHjf of clotlis, saffron, and fruits, Witi* kiiUintAlt (I«a mountainous district o^ I^hure, (tlM MtMiit^Hi* ii( Punjab exchangu tlotli, matchlocks, iiMi4 Uttfii4i^, dif iron and ct'T r small c»niiiM;dUf«s, ifrmt thti m/tHU are im Ifihur, fndiifo, «aj(, Ittn4, ifm, liorit-- pell' I '■• ifii h'th, and t.iimi- '/'/i« nitiiiitU lu the 80U, V rses, capjels, .si/g*^, riwi, wUm til4U, matcbl ickfi, swi'i'ds, and Ijows and arf"W4, Z. re, the capital city of the l>' U)y, tifiHnU !»-• dia, o aiueut of tlic Kavce, }n ,4;, Hf'' ati' »,, long. 7» .a eatiimM itt, ffiilli UKlf 000 to 120,000. It is inth>sed by a tUiMu \m l.t defenses, the outer lining abuvt / Wil** itt litiuH. Streets narrow, filtliy, and muvihuif ^■fllWI^«4i hou.'u.s of lirick, end lofty, /t Im UUUl)/ Ufg* Mill bandsonia mosques, ami around (t (i-r mt^lt^ ntiti'-' ttfP extensive Moliammrdun ruins, with Um hitf UmUiit tliR Emperor Joliaugirc, and the gar^tM "f Mliill ilfllMII. Hero are also many Itiudiw (emptes, »it)(--«Hfrt/lj«i4 niarliets, and a itadel, containing Um (w(a*« »/f ()/* Silib Boverclgiu). Under tlu; U-^gMl iwiwriin'.- <)/# city was of much gre.ter ext/nt, /« /7(*, it Mi tlU to the hanils of Alinicd 8hali ; in HUH Uuilifff )i)ildll was invested governor und rajah. AfUtr Hm liuitl ih- feat of the Sikba, in 18'1U, I^aiiore UUD lakftl luiattiii- sion of liy the Urit'«li. Lake, au extensive s . uniulatlon uf wnU>f *ilinU}r Burniunrted liy land, and iiaving m 4imi im imiiW- diatc conimuniiatiun witl. tlia ocean, i)f with Ullf Hflt*, or having so only by means of rivers, Mfc«« tHU 14 various l this class. TlwrM nff H gfi'ltt many others beside in At^i'; ai^d H'intli Aiiutfii-Hititl^ tains I.kVo Tit4c".cs nhicii iiaa u/i itfflir4, nHhitlnh It receives very considerable rivers UlUi Ur Huih iakfi upiiear to belong to the Interior uf Uftmt (^"liitu^ft i they are j/laced on eleviitcd plains mhUh Unff Im ««*' Bible declivity toward Iha sea, ai^) tUUh >ii» i«*cript4i>>» imimumtiv^ tfith tim M« ) but the fact that the surfaceo of some of thb ttuiat r«marKable of them, such as the Caspian and the !>««<( Sea, are depressed below the level of the ocean, it (|ntt« sifflciont to explode this hypothesis. I'or »W« there any communicatian, however small, the «c««m tcmild flow into the lake till it brought it to a l«t«l «lth Itself. The true explanation seems to bo (iMit H quantity of water equal to that which rum In is eds a", its Iwttom ; for as soon as water Is Wrtfpctly saturated, and cap bold no more salt in so- iutkm, the latter must fall to the bottom. Some of file large Asiatic lakes are dried up during summer, llt-A their beds appear lined with an incrustation of Huh, All the groat American lakes consist of fresh Wntut ) lliose ( f Europe arc either fresh or slightly sulfrte i but the Caspinr Sen, and various others which «(* situated in plains full of salt, or in tracts of couu- hf *((ef« suit springs abound, are almost invariably imtitpgnnleil with that sulstance. Some lakes arc liiiiu saline anrt alkaline, im i:. the case with the Xat- Hitl liaUen in I.owor Egypt, flu y derive their appel- lation ttiiui their aboiiiiling in .-oda which is there calif " irons, and natron, the nitre of tlie Scriptures. S*rt«e bikes produce a pil'.liy substance. In the i.^iand lit trlnldsd there Is one 'u the surface of which au eiiiitmoUK iiuiintlny of bidinicn, fit fr,f naval purposes, fs liiiieiteif. J/cposits .if various kii rls besides those jm«/rt«tated scert to ov e their origin to lakes. Hng iflitt irtt, (ft hydro-phosphate of iron, is often founil in (tttch siNntions as to show that it biis been deposited ttiitn the waters 1 1' lakes j and in some countrii's it is ((/Heeled from the sldci' and bottoms of lakes once in « (ettaln /lumliei of years, (,'alcarcous springs are ttdwetous, and when tl c waters of these collect in a IkiII(/n.; !iin(ers and tuflas are deposited, so that the lakes #((«(( Piniaied present extensive d.'posits of that niin- (rtnl. The travertine employed at liomo lor Imilding, (« (I liike or spring calcareous deposit of sinter and tuffa. Lakes, Oreat American. 1 he following are the prindf al lakes forming tho great chain of inland n«vl(pitlon, extending from tho St Lawrence Kiver to fho head of Lake Superior: //(/•f Onlitrio, in hlia|io, approaches to a long and Hdrrow ellipse, bebrj about 1!)0 miles long .lud 60 wide, »ith « coos*, line of about 180 miles. Its surface is iM feet alxjve tide water, and .'illO feet below the sur- face of Jrtilie Erie. It is in many places over COO feet deep, so that ifs lK)ttx)m is ladow the level of tho At- latttic. In every part it has suthcieut depth for the largest vessels, -md :s rarely fro-ion, except near the shov'i. There are many gooii harbors on the lake. It reeeivea tho water of Ni;:gara lUvcr, tho outlet of the other American Lakes; aUo. the Genesee, Oswego, !(n<1 lllac.k lUvors. It la connected witli the Erie Ca- ItM \rf t-he Oswego Canal, and has by 'Mi means u (llTdft water communication with New York city. /.a/«« />'«! which is aituated 066 feet bIjovo the aea, LAK VM LAK louf? ftnd id 5,"! wide, surl'iU'n is iw the 8Ur- r COO feet of the At- ith for the L near thi> Dluko. It itlct ct the „, Oiwegi), 10 Krie Cn- lucana u city. ■0 the ae&t 080 feet above the level of Lake Ontario, la abont 26fi miles in length, from 80 to 60 miles in breadth, and between 600 and 700 miles in circumference. Its mean depth is 120 feet, being the shallowest of all the great lakes, and most easily frozen, ltd watei's are also, on account of its shallowness, more veadily agitated l)y storms, cansing its navigation to be therefore more dangerous during stormy weather. Disasters, involv- ing large loss of life and property, are not of unflre- quent occurrence on the lake, toward the close of navigation, liefore the rigors of winter have put a final stop to all active lake trafBc. The shores of this lake present features verj- similar to those of Lake On- tario ; the banks of Lake Erie lieing generally bolder and more elevated, and composed chiefly of cloy and sand. The more fertile parts are at some distance from the banks, throughout the extensive plain of table-land beyond. Tliere are several good natural harbors along the shore, formed chiefly by the mouths of deep creeks or streams, and protected from the ac- tion of storms and c.rent of the lake by strong pro- jecting piers. Among the harbors of Lake Erie may be mentioned Port Colbome, situated ot the entrance to the Welland Canal, at the foot of Lake Erie, and a little above the commencement of the Niagara River. A little further up is the harbor of Port Maitland, at tlie month of the Grand River. This is a very fine and copacious stream, navigable for small vessels a considerable dis- tance, and possessing much fertile land and pleasing scenery along its banks. The shore of the lake for some way above the mouth of the Grand River pre- spnts many delightful and fertile settlements. Among the harl)ors further up the lake ore Ports Dover, Bur- well, and Stanley. Port Stanley is perhaps the moet flourlsliing of these harbors, being the port of one of the nio.st populous and enterprising liistricts of this part of Canada, and situated near the centre of the great fertile peninsula. Tlio l)ank8 of Lake Erie are hero high, and of a sandy character ; but off tlie im- mediato bank, and extending all the way tlirough the extensive tract of country to the town of Goderich, or Lake Huron, a distance of 80 miles, the soil is of the best rith many islands, severol of whicli, near its entrance into Lake Erie, are lisautiiully wooded. Tho towns of .Vmberst- burg and Sandwich, and tlie small iillage of Wind- sor, are situated along tiie Couada side of this river. Opposite Windsor, toward tho upper part of the river, and where the bonks nonow to al)OUt three ti'iartnrs ol a mile, is the American city cf Detroit, in the ^-.ate of Michigan. Lake .St. Clair, which forms thi con- necting link, by inean.s of tliu St. Clair ami I etrnit j Kivars, between Lakes Huron, Blichig^a, and Erie, is] the smallest of all the lakes, and exceedingly shallow for the larger class of vessels passing through it. It Is from 20 to 30 miles in length, and alwut the same in breadth. Its average depth is about 20 feet, but the principal channel used by vessels passing through it is much shallower, especially in drj' seasons, when the mud of its JbUa is stirred to the surface not unfre- quently by large vessels. The chief stream which it receives from tho Canadian shore is the River Thames, which is navigable for lake vessels 22 miles from its mouth, and the banks of which are exceedingly fertile, and mostly well settled. Much of the land bordering on the lake is low and marshy. In the upper part of the lake are several islands, the principal of which is Walpole Island, about 10 miles long, and from 3 to 4 miles wide. This island is inhabited by a stray |)or- tion of the remnant of Indians still existing in small and decreasing numbers in Canada. We are now at the entrance to the River St. Clair, in length about 30 miles. There are several thriving settlements along the fertile and beautiful banks of this river. Toward the lower part, amid a cluster of wooded islands, the banks, with somewhat of a flat appearance, are cov- ered with luxuriant timber. Further up, the land rises, with finely sloping banks and cultivated farms. Near the head of the river, and pleasantly situated, is the flourishing town of Samia. iaie Huron. — Tho River St. Clair now opens to the wide expanse of Loko Huron, of about 1000 miles in cir- cumference. This vast sheet of inland sea is tlie second in point of size of the great lakes, yielding only in this respect to Lake Superior. The surface of Lake Huron is about 30 feet above the level of Lake Erie, and 595 feet above the level of tlie Atlantic. The length may be estimated at 250 miles, and its breadth 160 miles, inclusive of the Georgian Bay, a large wing of the lake, extending along the north-eastern shore for a distance of about 100 miles. The mean depth of Lake Huron is 900 feet, and its greatest depth 1000 feet near the west shore. This lake is ' 'id to contain the almost incredible number of 32,000 i., anda, principally along the northern shore and at the north-western end, varying in size from mere rocky reefs and pinnacles to large and cultivable islands. Tho Great Manitoulin, the longest of tlie islands, is upward of 75 miles in length, and varies iu width from 3 to 23 miles. The waters of the lake are remarkably pure, clear, ind cold; in these respects resembling the great upper Lake Supe- rior. The surface of Lake Huron is about 32 feet lower than that of Lake Superior, ond it is very nearly OS deep as that lake. Tlie nature of tlio banks of Lake Huron vary vciy much. In parts they are low and sandy, in others formed of clay ; they rise to a height of about 120 feet, while again the shore of this inland sea presents a bold, rock)', iron-bound coast, having groat depth of water to the base. Numerous streams descend on all sides into the lake ; unl among its rivers moy bo mentioned tho Maitland, Severn, and River Franifois. Tlio lake, which is rather subject to storms, is deficient in good and natural harbors, the principal of which, along tho eastern coast, are Gode- rich, at the mouth of tho Maitland, Saugeen, and Penetanguisliene ; and on the western shore tl-e best places of shelter in heavy weather are Tliunder Bay and Saginaw Hay. Lake Huron possesses tho advantage of bemg re- remavkaldy centrally situated with respect to the other groat lakes. With Lake Erie, as we have seen, it is connected by the Straits or Rivers St. Clair and Detroit, and the small Lake St. Clair. Lake Ontario, the lower of the lalses, is oven open to it by the River Severn, Lake Simcoc, then by a short portage, a cliain of lakes, and Trent River. Lake Siracoe, thus situ- ated between Lake Huron and Lake Ontario, is a very beautiful lak'-, about 30 miles in length and 20 In breadth. The neck of land south of Lake Simcoe from UoUond Rivei leading to Toronto is, it will b« I LAK 1164 LAK remembered, about R6 milen; and axaln, north of I/okc SImcoe, from the narrown of this lake tn I^iike Huron, tho portago Is only ahout 14 mllen. The new railway now cutting tlirough tills nof k of tlio penln- spla weiitward, situated lietweim tiio Lakes Erie, On- tario, and Huron, will greatly facilitate the growing Intercourse l)ctw«en the shores of Or lario, as well as all tho countrj- lower down along the banks of the St. Lawrence, and also groat part of the United States, with the regions of the great upper lakes, Huron ond Superior. This direct course will no doul)t he much preferred to tho circuitous route through Lakes Erie and St. Clair, and tho connecting rivers. Lake Huron, hesldcs, communicates with the Otta- wa, and thence with the St. Lawrence almve Montreal, by means of French River, Lake NIpissing, ond tlin River Mattawa, Into tho Ottawa. This Is the route adopted generally liy the north-west traders In pro- ceeding to the remote parts of tho countrj', and It is also the one by which Kuroponns first penetrated the West. The distance from Montreal by this route to Lake Huron Is fully more than one half shorter than that l)y the St. Lawrence. From Montreal to the Georgian Hay, the disfunco is estimati-d at 400 miles, while by tho St. Lawrence the distance Is upward of 10rt. ance. Lake Superior, which Is tho largest sheet of fresh water on tho face of the globe. Is the most remarkalilo of the great American Lakes, not only from its mag- nitude, Imt also from the picturesque scenery of itj liordem, and the interest and value attacliing to its geological features. " As a mining region," continues br. Jackson, who, as United States' geologi.st, was in- trusted by his government to survey tho territory, " it is one of tiic most important to tliis country, and is rich in veins of metallic copjier and silver, us well us in the ores of those metals. At tlie jirescnt nioiiicnt it mny lie regarded as the most vuinalile mining district in North America, with the exception only of the gold deposits of California. The whole coast of Lake Su- perior is rock-l>ound. Mountain masses of consideraljle elevation in some places rear themselves from the im- mediate shore, while stoep precipices and friglitful crags oppose themselves to the surges of tlie niiglity lake, and threaten tiio unfortunate mariner who may lie caught In a storm upon a '.eo sliorc with almost in- evitable destruction. The northern or Canadian shore of the lake is the most precipitous, and consequently most dangerous to tho navigator. Good hurlHirs for ves.sels of moderate capacity are comparatively few, liut there are almndance of coves or ijoat-harlmra formed by tlie countless indentations of tlic rocky coast. In remarkable contrast to Lake Huron, wliicli is thickly studded witli islands, there are very ('ew islands in Lake Superior. Agriculture may be truly said to have not yet com- menced to tamo tiio great and comparatively unex- ploreil wilderness around the shores of Lake Superior. The forests of 8tun*»d spruce and (ir-trces along tlie immediate coast of the lake are said to utVord a very inadequate idea of the agricultural resources of the shores of the great queen lake. Tlie cold air from tho lake, says Dr. .Tackson, affects only the vegetation near its shores, while further inl.ind the temperature more resemtdes that of the settled parts of Canada. The native forest trees, and also the flowering plants, as well as the agricultural produce where clearings have been made, are believed to afford very satisfac- ton,- evidence on this point. The forests are filled with excellent timber for building purpoc'S; tho white I dimens: are niti interest hringin/ abundai exteiifit descents never he above th Lake 1 America, and betT northern Straits 01 miles in v its nortlie Michigan. lies wholl; long, andi lfi,081 squ Hay, a lar cast, Gran It Is ostimi is elovutcd few gooil hi eago, Jlilw are Michigi Josepli Illy, Grand Jiivt and Severn] CoIImUi Verniont..' Cbamplnin., OsH-oiratchi, '-ape Vliico, : .Saclcctt's Hi ; OswcKo j *jeiiesoo. I Alogara.. i Buffiiln... I Prosnuo I,i,; j Cuya^iofjj., I Saiidiuky . . I Miami Detroit....; Moekliiac. ! Mllweultle. . ( Chfcavo i Total..., Inie Trad,' canal navigatii Lac and Chici hracing the lar tion in the wi condensed foru jl^ko Snperior.. I ' Huron.. 1' ?,'• t:lalr. : J'-rle.... " Ontario. . nirer St. La„r Quwi,. fc«chlno "•^nuharnols...';, 'Cornwall , . j If;'"franJ'8 Polntn |S*P''"''»t... .]) iMntlroquls..!}' I'Jdlons. . , |Wel!ind..'.'::.;|-' The gr6«t Ink LAK lies LAK vhite tnd yellov pinea, partieularlj-, Iwing of Urge ditncnsloiu. " The tributary rivorH of Lake .Superior are numerous." nays Mr. 1. I). Andrcwn, in hi« very interesting re|)ort to the United States' Senate, " and, bringing down a largo volume of water, afford su[>er- atiundant water-power for manufactories the mont exteujiivo in the world, though, from the precipitous descents and numerous falls and chutes, they can never be rendered navigable for more than a few miles above their mouths, except for canoes." I,alce Michigan, one of the Ave great kkee of Xorth America, lies between 41° 88' 5»" and 46° N. lat., and between 84° 41' and 87° 8' W. long. In the northern pnrts it communicates with Huron by tlie Straits of Michilimackiniic or Mackinac, about four miles in width in its narrowest part, and by which and its noitliern part it separates tba two peninsulas of Michigan. Michigan Lake is the largest lake that lies wholly within the United States, being 830 miles long, und, on nu average, 60 miles broad, containing lfi,081 Bquaro miles, or 10,808,000 acres. It has Green Bay, a large branch on the north-west ; and on the cast, Grand Travorso Bay and Little Traverse Bay. It Is estimated to be on an average 000 feet deep ; and is elevated about 'MO feet above tide-water. It has fow pood harbors. On the west side are those of Chi- cago, Stilwaukle, und Green Bay. On the east side are Miililgan City, .St. .loseph, at the mouth of St. Josepli Uiver, and Grand Haven, near the mouth of Grand lUver. It is navigated by many large vessels and fievemi steamboats, which ply from Buffalo to Lake Erie and ChIca(;o, stopping at t]t« intermedfita plttceH. It uff'jrds great facilities for transportation. The lake has pure and clear water, and .iMiumIs with excellent fish. There are several islu'iidfi on its north- ern part. It has 23 light-houses and 1 beacons on its island" and coosts. The Illinois utid Michigan CauftI connects the navigable waters of ttie Illinois Kiver with Lake Michigan. Commerce of the /.oin.— These lakes arf estimated to drain an entire area of 336.516 square i..iles, and discharge their waters into the ocean throu),;h the Kiver St. I^nwrcnee, which is rendered navigable from Lako Erie downward to all vessels not exceeding 130 feet keel, 2« beam, and 10 feet draiiglit, and the free navigation of which for American bottoms was recently acquired by the concession of reciprocity of trade to the Canadian government. The whole trafjic of these great waters may lie now unhcfitotingly stated at 1^326,000,- 000, employing 74,(K)0 tons of steam, :,nd 138,000 tons of sail, for the year 1851, of 215,000 tons burden. The entire numluer of vessels und crews of the in- terior trade amounts to 140 bottoms, and 5,837 men, in excess of the whole ocean and coast navy, though tht tonnage employed in the latter Is sm8.llcr by 7,775 tons. However remote the period, of the discover)', ex- ploration, and partial colonization of these wilds and waters, any thing like practical navigation of them for commercial purposes was unattempted until after the commencement of this centurj'. In 1G79 a French craft indeed was launched at Erie, Pennsylvania, for the expedition of the celebrated and unfortunate La Salle. ToNNAor OP THE Luke I'lMfte, 1964. CoIImUoii dblritU. Vermont Ver. ChampUln N. Y. 0»«"C)!8tohic " Cape Vlncouu " Suckctt's Harbor » OSWCRO " Geiicsce " Niagara " Buffalo " Prcfnue Isle Pcnn. Cuys'insa Ohio Saudttsky " Miami " Detroit Mich Mackinac ** Mllwaukle Wis, Cbicaio 111. Total Owned In dUtriou, ToCDftg* cuteivd. Sl'Jiun 8,340 t»lT 1,9S6 "848 4,8S3 429 100 22,48S O.Ml 11.861) 78 I.IM 21,044 1,741 as7 707 Sail tomiii((p, 6!J2" 8,291 576 2,486 6,763 21.941 287 60« 28,620 2,249 24,716 4,7S5 3,0(W ]S,475 1,409 2,6,'i9 22,896 T7,0«l 1 188,914 Kurclyn. SMatn, "~6«742r go,4S4 206,084 427,467 108,616 228,842 160,000 76,072 18,498 «S0 4,643 1,494 652 1,484,779 17,490 8,185 47,124 ' 'ilil W5,681 1,620 964 11,705 1,0.S9 24,269 4,760 1,644 I Stfani, 9;fi«6" 8,899 00,962 12,478 1,060 7,269 27,900 14.1,778 4S,460 "873 2S0 464,W2 1 897,587 10,7.W 20,769 6,657 V,6iM SiS.OOl 8,714 1,S44 23,75,1 781 10,^92 746 7,860 428 174,619 TooiiHge clonred. Slolini. ~M'jm 90,436 218,1)69 427,457 161,376 267,594 160,000 76,072 l!i,162 i 18,774 !1,205 "17,020 8,185 46,205 V,SS5 327,172 1,620 904 Forel(pi. SU-am. S*II. 2,070 2,086 15,690 1,396 1,609 9,821 8,899 89,366 12,473 1,060 7.2.'>9 27,900 146,773 48,6 ;i "926 830 6V,727 7,002 20,759 6,657 V,9.34 83,768 8.714 1 -Ht 22I.W8 721 9,019 1,800 6,546 _2,1S3_ J^82S .... 428 1,482',548T438,S62 J898;702 "l(K),010 Lake Trade. — ^Tho great chain of river, lake, and csnal navigation, which extends westward to Fond du Lnc and Chicago, a distance of about 1400 miles, em- bracing the largest extent of inland water communica- tion in the world, the following t.able exhibits in a condensed form : Lni(tb. 1 Bnadlh. D.pih. over Mfc! *"»■ Lake Snperlor " Mlchlirau " Huron " 8t Clair » Erie 42(1 320 270 25 2.'iO 190 700 MMpi. 120 70 146 18 46 40 i crt. 600 1.000 350 20 70 500 Feel. 800 673 57s 670 664 234 81,100 21,900 18,750 800 9,800 7,S0O " OnUrio BlTer St Lawrence. CauaIi. lAchlno Benuhnrnols.. . . {(Cornwall iFsrrand's Polni iRapldrist..., Point Iroquls jOAlops jWelland I.aiiKtli. UOei. lU 28 CAN.VLS. Deplli. 10 10 " 10 10 10 10 10 10 SiiTJ? KeelT" 200X46 200x48 200x45 200X46 200X46 200x46 200x46 ISOxjMt' Lockftg*. 44} a2i 48 4 '\' 8 830 T 1 2 1 i Atlantic Ocean ; but in pro|)artion afford much grcator facilities for commerce, in consequence of the advan- tage of great length with less width, and of greater proportion of shore line. Tlie country forming the shores of the lakes can not be surpassed in general productiveness l)y anj .sec tion of the Union, either in variety of important commodities, or in quantity pro- duced per square mile. Tim extent of tlie commerce of the lakes may 1)C estimated by the commerce of the lake Dorts. During the pa.st 15 years the value of the trade of the lakes has »\. lulled "from ^05,000,000, in 1841, to $608,310,320, in 1850 ; and the whole of this grand aggregate, with the exception of $42,260,060, set down fur .Sackett's Harbor, Cape Vincent, Oswo- gatchie, Genesee, and Niagara, came through the fol- lowing ports : BuBRilo.. .. $303,02-3,000 i Ohlcaifo.... a23,S9S,00fl Cleveland.. 162,185,000 ! Detroit .... 140,000,000 Milwaukie.. J81,0O0,00O MaumcOj... 94,107,IH» yanduBkp. . . ,V.),966.000 Oswego 140,2.>J.VK)0 The grtat l«kw are »bont l-25th of the area of the With the exception of Buffalo and Oswego, these arc all ports of the north-west, whose trade has lioen the result of its d'n-elopuient during n very brief poriinl j and the great bulk of the trada of Buffalo and (Jawogo is derived from the same cuise. The tonuage employed .-vn the great lakes ia thomi M '\ LAK 1166 LaH tt tli« fbllowing tebU, and (Iom not Ineltid* any ooeui or rivor tonnage i Tmu. ininoU 1,743 Wlacunstn l,4fil Michigan 7,848 Tom. Ohio 'Uko tonnage) 1 1,86« N«w">'>rk 3aM« Total KvtJ Thla Is l-12th of the total tonna^^e ovrncd by the I7nitenles, will rap- idly develop the resource.) of Canada and the N. States. VALua or Kx roars raoa TUa LAxa Ports, 1n56, CgllMlloD dlilrlrlt. 0™dl««dlb«!. t«l,.. 1, ,„„,.„,,« AfBTnimtii valmt vr torti\gn tr«iie. j (1,1188,989 1 1,04!1,2S6 W«,168 98,747 78,099 4,992,228 962,694 0'i9,769 1,121,454 18,870 615,670 174,716 92,771 21.1.V)6 1 8,067 12'r,M6 EiporU. Impnrto. Kiporti. Impuiu U24,818,623 8,W2,739 17,654,107 670,8i8 88,147,088 8,J'09,489 , 86,m;mi666 22,'m,oi6 80.886,580 27,1177,807 5,000,000 24,125,610 81,184,528 Vermont Vcr. Champlaln N. Y. Oaweffatchio " t90,868,42« 919,537 80iB',2&S 11 '71,071 48il^«S4 80,674,976 1,601,867 19,026,487 6,469,669 7,847,808 6,961,480 3,000,000 4,664.707 ^859,47^ $8,48M96 3,434,145 497',86» 6,088,086 286iei4 87,472,108 2,2il7,6S2 22,804,150 1 6,9^5.857 22,987,772 20,416,867 8,000.000 19,.'Mkl,yi8 2.'„82.\063 j (767,592 1 74'»,0O9 618,648 82,889 21,980 8,307,81 , 918,61.4 686,784 618,948 15,415 381 ,086 09,088 66,804 115,014 ll'6^i86 1366,417 304,284 214,620 61,868 66,119 ■ '4,413 4»,04<) 10.8,983 607A "> 860,6.; 76,628 26,470 98.641 8,907 6;8il ^'ap^ Vincent " Sackett'a Harbor " Oswego. " Oeneaee '' Nlanra. Bnlilo Presqno lalo r< .n. Cuyahoga 0.. Banduaky " Miami " Detroit Mich. Maoklnae " Mllwaukle. WK Chicago 111. Total 1183,017,476 $182,465,988 1 t8,3O7,750 (8,913,147 (814,478,468 (13,I1!I,K77 Total coasting A for. trade. .... 1 .... 1 .... 1 Marine Louet on the Ltkes for the i'ear 186C. — Tlie Report to the Board of Lake IJndcrwriters is unnuuliy published, showing the dia^xters and losses on the lakes. The losses during 1856 are shown in the fol- lowing summary- : Loss or PaoPKBTV. May steam and sail,. June " " ** . July, " " " . August " " " . Boptombcr.... " " " . October " " " . November.... " " " . December.... " " " . . (142,600 , 118,,™ , 266,180 67,760 842,iiIO , 882,089 1,0.^9,8M . 159,M0 Total loM, steam and sail. In 18.56. (8,08S.874 " ' " 1865. 2,797,889 Increisod loaa in 1866 (211,08.5 Losses In 18.M (2,187.825 " 186a. 85l,8.'>0 " 1862. »!ll,01S » 1861 740,515 1850 541,440 Loss on steam hnlis (782,800 " cargoes by steam 616,800 Total load by steam in 1856 (1,878,100 1856 l,«92,T0O Decrease In 1856. (814,800 Loss on sail hulls (868,615 " i-arfjoea by sail .. 6»7,0»» Total loss by .wll In 1866 (1,.'MiO,774 1S65 1,106,189 Increased loss In 1866 (556,685 I.oM (ir Lira. Loss of life.... I«S4. 119 isu. lis ISM. 4U7 SY.vorBis or thk Marixk Rkoistrr or thk IIoaiiu or Lakb Undkkwuitrbs op VKHsp,i.a IN Commission un the Lakki in Tua Fall <•¥ 1856. ~Vei«.li. Hteamers... Propellers.. . . Barks Brigs Schooners.... Total.... 107 185 f.6 lll8 860 Jj260_ TonniiK''. 62,868 54,675 21,778 27,045 175,880 C..I, V.lii,7 (8,820,41X1 2,741,21)0 ! ('p1W,S(KI ' ■iil.hSO 6.4,SJ,100 I 889,786 (l2,'.l4t,:iSO This shows an increase In the loss of lito during tlie past roar over that of is,">'i of 28!l. The increased faciliti?': for saving wrecked pro|;erty has lessened the actual amount of losn on pn>|)erty in distress at least 28 ]>er cent, dnring the past severe season ; ils the proportion of total losses to the v,-hol« number of disaster" will show when compared with 186£. For Commerce nj" the ImI.ps, see South. Qunr., xix., 420 ; South. Lit. Mist .. (Maurv") ; X>t: bow'.s Krr,, vii.,279i Chrii.Kmti ... !*, ; isii.i.iMAN'a ,/o«i'., x.,83 (AoA.'fsiz); Hunt's.'' ,.,vlii.; Am. Whi;/ Her., \i., 400 ; Andrews' Hepon o, "olonial and Ixike Trmle. Lamar, formerly <\iitijA, a sea-])ort of the repub- lic of Bolivia, the ci ..jvant Upper I'eru, on tlie west coast of South Amcricn, iat. 22° 39' W S., loiij:. 'ro^ 1'!' W. Population 5000. In ISita Lumur was ile- clared a free port, and in it centres almost the whole foreigu trade of tlie republic. Its situation is, how- ever, very nnfiivomble. It labors under a grcit wnnt offresh water; nni! if ibllged to import nil its provlslon.s b}' son, either from Valparaiso on the one tinnd, or from Arica on tlie i ;'">r. The Desert of Atiionm.i lies between it and the internal und populous part nf the country, where tli. ' wns of Potosi, C'oclinliunili.i, Charcas, etc., aro situated. Tlio produce imported at Lamar is conveyed across the desert on the i'ncks of mules to the interior ; the golii and .silver of the mines being brought in the same way to the port to be shipped. These, with ^opjier, saltpetre, cliinchilla skins, and wool, form ' principal articles of iximrt. .Saltftetre is found in large iiiiautitic.i in the desert ; the copper is found near the coast, and, owiiif; to the scarcit.y of fuel, most part of it is exported ir. the uhiipe of oro. P.:ru possesses a lon(j ni>rrow strip of laud, stretching along tlio const of the Paciiic frmi Arcquipii to the Bay of Pica, ■«-liieli ^i glit nntural'y to belong to Boli- via, being, ii: fact, the litl ral of the latter. Tho Bolivian Kovr-i.m'nt has set on fviot various negotia- tions to ii ' ' '' cession of this tract, which, be- sides gT< ■*'■ .ovlng tho frontier of the republic, would, rt ' I 1 ••nil', render her mistress of Aricn, which id in uU Tesp« ,' r much better fitted than Lamar foi LAM 116Y LAM becoming the entrepAt of trnilo. Hitherto, however, thcno negotlntluMi have provnd glmrtive, no that, ■■ alreiuly ntated, I.iimiir nt prenent etiKroniieii niMt part of the fnreiKii trade of the State. We subjoin the de- cree cnniititutini; I.amar a free port : 1. From and after the lit nf Jidy of thia prcaont yrar, I8S8, Port Lan»r •liiill bo uliaoliituly freo aud open, % Veawla of CTory natlufi may entfu' thlM port, aud reiiintn na long aa thoy plflBM, wli'.hbut being auljecttid to any tax whatrver, olthor on entrance, or during their itay, ur on thoir doparttiro. D. Thoy ihall bo free Iron all dultes of nnchonige, tonnage, ■hlfting, unloading, or reloading of riirgo, depoHlt, atorage, or any otlier of whatever dtnondnatlnn. 4, (looda may bo de- poilted In private warehoiiaea, without any intervention on the part of the government, K. The euitom-houae of Fort lAiuar la auppreaaod. In .tta atead wilt be a commlaaloner'a offloe, for thu purpose of di.itrlbuting permits for the trana- portatton of goods into tlie lutRrior. 0. Whenever goods are to Iw sent into the Interior, they must f rat bo submitted to the commisaloner, together «dth the liiroico corresponding. T. The oommlasloner will legister thoin in a boolc, to- gether with their valuation, made by two merehanta of the place, and the name of their mmo'S, of the person to whom, aud the plaoo where they are to be sent This Is to b« signed by the person enti^rlng the Ro. Tho goods must not bo carried by any uiuccustomcd roads, but only through Calamu and llio public thoroughfares ; and whenever they pass through any place at which a guard or comndsslnnnr Is stationed, the per- nillB must bo exhibited. In order that their arrival with their seals unbroken may bo ascertained. 10. Merchants, either in person or by a repniscntative, roust produce to the commis- sioner of the port a certlflcuto of the delivery of the goods at the custom-bouKa for which they are destined within six months from thi day of their entry ; in case they do not, they must at the end of tiiut period pay the whole of the duties on thorn. II. From and after tho Ist of Jul/,lt<38, all goods on tercd st Port Tjsmar shall pay a duty of only 5 per ceni. over aud above that of half per cent to the cousulado. 13. The duty of 6 per cent, shall be paid thus: at tho port, 2 per cent, on the valuation made as aloreauld ; and the o. her 3 at the cus- tom-house In tho interior for which tho goods are destined, In each case, one half at tho end of 8, tho other half at tho end of & months. 13. All goods carried from Port Lamar by land to any of tho adjacent republics b'imH only pay a transit duty of '2 per cent. U. A duty of 2 per cent shall bo paid on three fourths of all gold and sliver money entered at any of ttio custom-bouBos In tho interior for exportation through Port Ijicar. IB. It Is absolutely prohibited to export gold or silver in bullion ur plate, except in small quantities for the use of the person carryUig it out. It will be sciziid wherever it Is found on this side the districts of San Antonio, San Vln- cente, Atoca, Agna, do C'astilla, T,equapat«, or the lino of tho canoL Id. All hardwire for agriculture and mining ma- chinery, Instrnmsnts of sdenco or the arts. Iron, atoel, qulck- silver, and moral txioks, may be introduced free of duty into the republic, and productions of Bolivia may bo exported like- wise free. 17. A premium of 2 por cent on their valuo shall be allowed on the exportation through Port Lamar, of casca- rlila, wool, tin, cocoa, and coffee, in tho shape of remission from duties to tho amount on goods carried into thu Inte- rior tnra the same port Tho remaining articles of the De- cree -ro of a purely local natnre. Seo BOLivi;i and Psau. Lamb-skinB (Gcr. Lamnufelk ; Kr. Peaux tTagen- fiux ; It. Pflli agnelline ; 8p. PieUe» ile cardens). The value of lamb-skins varies according to the fine- nesii, brilliancy and color of tho wool. Black laml)- skins are more generally esteemed than those of any other color. English lamb-skins are seldom to lie met >nth perfectly black; but since the introduction of Merino sheep into this country, many of the white fleeces have, in point of quality, arrived ot a pitch of perfection which Justly entitles them to be ranked with some of the best fleeces in Spain. Tho importation of laminkins is Immense. Eight tenths of tho whole quantity are supplied by Italy. Thoy ore mostly used In the glove maaitfaotuxe. ZiMaip (Oer. Lampi ; Fr, Lampe ; It, LucmtM ; Sp Lampnra ; Kus. Lampadu), >n instrument used for th« combustion of liquiil inllumnmblo b. 1(11. I.ain|is with horn sides were the invention of Alfred. Luuips were in general use through the streets of London up to th* close of the 18th oenturj-, as wore ttainl>eaiix, which were carried iiy link-linys. London strcits were tirat lighted by oll-lampa in lli8I, and witli gas-lamps In 1814. The domestic lamp is now of elegant manufac- ture; of this kind is the Argand lamp, brought into general use in England in ITHA. — Hnydn. It is unnecessary to give any description of instru- ments that are ao well known. We may, however, re- mark that the discover}' of Hir II. Uavy, wlio, liy covering the flame with wire gau?:e, lucecedud in pro- ducing a lump tliat may be securely used in coal niinui charged with inllammiible gas, is one of the most in- genious and valualilo that has ever iieen niado. The following extracts from a communication of the late Mr. Huddle, an able and well-informed coal engineer, evinces the groat importance of Sir Humphrey I)avy's invention : " Besiiles the facilities afforded liy this in- vention to the working of coul mines alxiundiiig in lire- damp, it has enalilcd the directors and superiiitendpiit to ascertain, with the utmost precision and expedition both tho presence, the quantity, and i irrect situation of the gas. Instead of creeping incii liy inch with a candle, as Is usual, along tlie guilerics of the mine 8US|iected to contain iiro-dump, in order to ascer- tain its presence, we walk lirmly on with tlio safe lamps, and, with the utmost conlidomo, prove thn ac- tual statu of the mine, liy oiiaerving iittentlvuiv tho several appearances upon the lliimo of tlie lamp, in aii examination of tiiis kind, tho cause of uccidpiits n lilcli hapjicned to tho most exiicrienccd and cautious minors is completely developed ; and this has hitlurto licin in a great nionsuro matter of mere conjecture. It is not 'lacessary that I should enlarge upon tlie ii:itiir:il advantages which must necessarily result frmii an in- vention calculated to prolong our supply nf mineral coal, liecause I think tiicm obvious to every rellecting mind ; but I can not conclude witlioiit expressing my highest sentiments of admiration for tlioi.e tiilcnts which have develojicd the properties and coiitrollcd the |iower of one of tho most dangerous elements which human enterprise has hitherto had to en- counter." The lamps now used for light-houses are highly in- genious, and lieautiful. In the first place. It is neces- sar)' to dlstinguisii between two systems — tho vntDjitric ami tlie ilwptrlc — tho former depending on the retiec- tion of light from u mirror, and the latter on the transmission of liglit tlimugh a lens. If a large lump were placed on tlio top of a light-house, witli glass roof and windows ail around it, the ilglit would shine in every direction, losing its intensity by being so mucli dill'iiaed ; liut by the use either of mirrors or of lenses, all the light Is concentrated to one defi- nite direction ; its energy is increased by lieing cir- cumscribed in range. In the catoptric system, nu- merous concave reflectors are placed at definite angle* round a central lamp ; they are of silvered copper, and are kept exquL^itely liright ; and they all contrive to reflect the rays out seaward, witiiont allowing any to waste their power landword. 'i'he dioptric system in- volves tlie use of powerful convex lenses, tlirough whicli the rays are focalized in a definite direction. If very largo, these lenses wotdd bo difiicult to make and costly to purchase ; but it has been shown iiy Brewster and Frosnol, that a compound lens raa}' be built up of a number of pieces, provided the curvatures are well adjusted. Around thousands of miles of coast, LAN Ilfll LAN whtra tn« annual wnwka nra from 700 to ftOO, aod tlm proparty luat ainountu tu inilllunt atKrlinu. tha lifiht- hoiUHii have |>aaiif il tlirnUKli many ^ttg HKhtly-burnlnK Ar)(anil lamp, with iHincavK iimtallii' i> ,01 tur ' hahinil ; than the ion- vex lena, to fociiUze tlie rii\ a liy trannniUiiiiin ; unil than the lent liuilt up plecvniaal, au that the llicht may appear ulniont aa one Vii^t lumiuoua pillar. 8-I)lack ii< proy auflerinK thn fliinin to play UKuinnt a metalline cover, wlilch impedea the comliuatloii, not only l>y condurtinK off parta of the heat, I'lit liy (ilintruuting tlie current of uir, Ijtmp- Mack. Iiowevor, ia prepared in a much cheaper way for IliA (Iciiiiinda of trudo. Tho linga wliich reniiilii aftpr the (!li(|uati>m of pitih, or elite amull piecva of fir-wood, \re liurned in furnuct..: m( a peculiar vonatruc- tlim, tlie amoke of wlilch ia made to paaa tImiUKli a long horizontal Hue, terminating in a cloae lioarded clianiber. I'he roof of Miia chunilier ia mado of coame cloth, through wliicli the current of air eacapea, while tlie aoot reniaina Uuk's Diftiotuiry, Laud, in ae^t languiigo, niuk<>a part of aeveral coin- pound terma ; tliua, A/.vi'n.v Ihe land, denotea that motion of a ahip which increiiaea itn distance from the coaat, ao aa to mako Uap)i«ar lower or ainalleron account of the Intennediate convexity of the sea, linuini) Ihe /am/, ia produced liy the mollon of the veaael toward it. I.11111I it thiit In, algnilies that another part of the land hindxrx tlie alglit of that the ahip came from, Ixmii to, or »o far from aliore ttuil it can only be Juiit discerned. I.nwl turn, a wind that in almoKt ull hot counlrlen blowa at certain tiinen from tho nhore in the night. To set thn hud; that iit, to aeo liy the coinpntiH how it bears. Ijind-brfrze, a I'urrcnt of oir, which In niiin,\ porta within the tropici, particularly in tho Went lii- dicH, regularly h-u from tho IuikI toward tho fva. dur- ing the night, aiic! tliix even on opponito pointa of tlie coast. iMtui-locked, ia aaid of u hariior rvliich if envi- roned liy land on all aides, so ua to exclude the prospect of the sea, unless over some intervening land. If n ahip ix ut anchor in such a place, she is Kald to rido land- l- lactlona aa far aa ,f{lttrn nillas 011 aai h sldn uf i-varj railroad, while tha Ini'mann In Ihn ininlintnn gov. ernniviit prlia iif tha Malnnil lands la cimllnrd to thii »i> iiilla limit, I ha ptdlli lands, In all the almva. iiuiiind hi t««, pnrtii ulnrl' n |„wu, Alaluiinu, MNols. ippi, l.ui. iana, Wi> lieon sold "r prB-«iii|il< feat that thn aalactioin rang", mora or lens, t« ||i on each side of thaiti> 'I price, thiirpfora, dm ' ' inilea on each abla. inch, that thn iiiily grcas tu uiaka ttiHwi >i Miiv large lioldar of umx ' to enhaiiiai tha vulua iif I I'ld Michigan, having •It extant, it is niniii- •mwl rallriiniiii will Uiiilt of ir, miles w In the inliiiinuni III 4 width of nifif In irlvn up the iirgii. 'il'li moved Con- would actuate ' give away part III . for If the land Is Milt iinprovail In value fur tli« fiili extent of the in niilea, what right hava Cuiigrnss to make such u grant for auch a niaaoii } Tha inimniiMi diinallnna vf pulillii lanil 'nade of lata yuara by Cungruss to loriairatiiins wllMii thn new Htatea, have awakmiad Ilia atlvnllon of llii< people of the old Hlutua tu thn sulijact, and of Virginia, capeiially, where the Imrdcn of Inaiitliiii for Inti'rniil Iniprovc- nients has liimit grniltly InirnHscd. It strikes u.'>, tlicrcfore, tliut 11 iirli'f rnciirrancfl to the history anil ciiiiditiiina of tha limurn iif Ilia piilillu domain may bo of general liitnrnut Ml tilio IIiiik, At thfi ciiiiiniHiicaiiuint of the llevoliitlonnry Vfnt, there belniiguit to aolllH of thn Ntates large triirl< of wild and uiiupproprliitcil lands, while In others none such exlHtnil ; thn Nliilxa piiMcs'lng no such lands, cluiincd Hint n» thn war was waged with united inciins and «i|ual Kiicrilli ««, tlin waatn lain > wlilcli mlglit lie ciiiii|uered from lliu cimitiy should Immihiio cmnuion property, and, uiulnr lliH rni'iiininnndaliuns of ('on- gresM, Hull Ocliibnr, I'M), " lliiit tile uiiiipprnprliited lands which might bn indnd to Ihn I'nltcd MiitcK, liy any partlciiliir Ntaln, |iiir»liaiit to tli« rccomincniliition of Congreaa of the Titli of Neplninlier hist, shall lie dis- posed of for th« ciminiiin Imnnllt of the I 'oiled Stiite.i." Virginia promptly inada it ccmIcui of her viml do- main north of Ilia lllvnr Dido, out I'f which six Slates have aliica liunii foriiinil. Thn ronillliiui of her ccssiun (adopted siilwtNiitlully liv otiinr Hlates) wiis, Hint all the lands conveyad " shall Im considered ns a mmmim fund for the ||>« and liiwerlesa unleaa they unite conllolly fur their connooii protection. Thi< wliiiln amount iif mon«x which would have Rono into the Treaaur «i»ion« of Mr. t'layV . period of aeven yee' for e«i:h year, t7" ''Irglnla, under the; pro- ~ *nm l».\i to IHUU, a been *4,369,16», or On 8ei>lcmb«r 4, lH4i, an act wai paaaail to appro- priate tha prococila of the aalae of the public land* amonK the a«v«r«l Htatea. The llmt nectloii provided that from ami after the »Iat of December, 1841, there alioulil " li« alloweil »niA pulil tu each cif the (State) of Ohio, Incliann, llllnola, AUIiai.na, Mlaaourl, Mlaala- aippl, Louiaiana, Arkanaaa, ami MIcblK'in, over ami above what eicli of Ui« said yutes la entitled to by the terms of tlio coui|>acts entered lato betwe»n them and the lloiud Statea, upon their admisalon iuto the Union, the auni of Un |ier centum upon the nett pro- ceeila of the saira of the pulillc lunda, wlii' b, subaa- quent to the diiy iifureaalil, ahull lie madi- within the limits of each of aaid >Slatea reapoctively." Wn give below a atatemeut, aliciwInK the qoantltlea of public land disposed of, and also tliu i|uantitles vacant. Btatbhsrt or tu, toiAa s 'bvhii. Pvilio Land, Statss ian TKaniTiiniin dr riia V. B., tiis Uoartitt or Lav II Diaroka. • or. and thi Qvamtitt ■BHAiHina vaoant, oh tui ilOrH or JvNa, 18M. IIAIM aaS Tnrilariai. Ansa. Sarvtyad ap (0 JunalO, Uainrrajrad. Onnd for Sala. RoM. saHBVATiinia foa- Sallim ' ladlaM. .iSKTS;"* Ohio Kq. nill.». 119,964 11.1,809 M,4in 6^0H7 tM,948 ti)7,»97 41,846 M,4S1 M,198 09,368 66,080 68,9941 188,990 141,880 186,990 136.647 »t6,984 187,928 849,488 136,988 67.030 Aflr*,. 1 A<^rM. ♦9.^,H78,»60I6,770,9M •31,6:17,760 91,487,760 8.1,469.400 il.M«9,4ao 4l.0O.M,68O,41.W)O,89» t.'W,O'.'/,.V*l31.0!W.818 Aer««. Aer#i. 16,770,984 94.487.760 A«ni. 12.890, 890i)8 16.lt0O.860'87 ll»,(«lli,ll90'B9 16,V,M,V1T07 1.1,«HH,3i'l-lM 11,847,367-81 4,rtW).198'80 11,117,7141» 4,ia6,.Vil'85 1,B83,996'66 lu,90.8,ft07-4.'i Arr-. Aap-i. Apr*,, 1 34,316 l6ni!oTR 8minaT«'Ooi 98,040 191,639 48,n.'*i> 93,040 46,080 46,080 411080 1«6,3OT-7I 48,9n9 6» 2-^,687 -61 3,.542,878i)2 977,619«4 109,'8OO'83 99'7'4» 119,188 84 167,894 -97 149,109«l| .... niw'-76i 10,8((0'00 llllnola .... Kfti4M,96'i 24,783 41, 1n6,6.V4 88,707 81,908,3811 .... 198,899,677 9,4il9,l6S;l9,28l,l6l .... ,»t,l 16,710 f.'7,713 89,619,409 12,6;1»,4.18'I8,876,6I6 1,830,7«0,1!«,660,6I4 7,176,96934.1:11.419 Mlaaourl Ulaalaslppl Loiit«lsna , t9;i,Hllll,tV80 96,461.4111 86,198.IVIO 88,406,790 87,981,690 8.\89l,900 84J)tl,860 190,947,640 90,776,960 119,688,900 80,990,080 158,087,760 190,970,730 919,160,830 BO.fti 1,190 49,899,800 9»,8ll.\680 M,0'M,979 86,168,610 88,979,009 90,999,063 88,816,480 17,8IM,891 10,991,401 10,67MI1S 8,»»7.679 617,730 2«o',li77 179,189 1,679,690 MIckiifsn Arlianaas Florids lows , *. WlAconaln 9,066,91936 46,080 Csllfbrnta 110,036,489 8(Vt01,8'27 116,691,191 80,872,860 l,%8,0«7,760 120,0,10,1148 '.n 8,98 1,1 81 79,248,480 49,892,800 2,8oa',7io l,682,(i87'-67 SU,4»t'M 498-76 ' * 1 .... Oregon Wa^tiliiKton Now Mexico Utah Kanass Indian Total 9,9I6,7&9 1,418,081.990 .... 1M,8U»,180-81 423,826 ^,40o,72^•^l H^MB/idS-TS Btatkhent or tiic Absas or tub sbvbbal Pobuo Land Htatis aki> TRnniTnnir.H, tub Qitantitt or Land ma- rosBD or, ano tub Qoantitv kkwaikino vacant, on tub SOtii or Jvnk, 1866.— OoiWimMd. IMatandTarrlterlai »OMAT10n AMD aBAMTI VOK— Itilartial ImprovemeDU. Ohio Indiana IlllnoL'" MlMourl Alabama. . . . Mlssltwlppl.. Lonlnisns... Michigan.... Arkansas . . . Florida lows Wisconsin . . California... y.nncsota. . Orcifon I 6;692,134i WsslibiKton 4,.MA,A3<) Now Mexico.... e.836,956 UUh I 6,681,777 Nebroaka 12,175.668 Ksnsoa. 4,400,063 Indian T27,62S 678,867 1,001,798 1,222,179 92.1,804 2l,M9-46 880,624 833,124 1,113,478 ».I2,M0 9,0974« 954,.'iS2:20,924"22 961,224; 1,004,714; 6,766,404 6,089,244 1,»48,00V77 1,609,961-61 600,000-00 6fl0,000-0fl KOO.000-00 600,(K)0-flO 800,01 10 -OO l,2.VI,0fl0-0O 600,000-00 600.000-00 11,866,798 -22 1.060,871 99 500,000-00 |a4U,000-00 CToaHrmtd prlvAt. claliiii. Arr*», 36.11)0 821),>i81 .Hwamp land!. Vacant pablla laada. Atb |8-.>,42S 11,816,1119 l^s,9o2, 51,88;l,41« l,M62,4SJi I 3,85a,4M 31:l,.-ls7 12,896 0>i<,0s8l I 2,7IW,S24 ■2,003,914 [10,686,676 l-i«,711l! 7,178,736 118,4,11118,401,130 S,781),-8» 1 10,790,787 .... n.499,716 86,881 19,650,000 Total |e«,48S,572|44,971-ll: 10,878,988-89 18,190,806 279,799-07i 50.830 87,8-i5,099-88 8,9-rt,(W8 49,787,358 48,M8 80.1107 611,668 13,878.021 9,'3i)3.0H8 ,1,542,891 6,444,994 11,889,778 1S,443,08IM 1S,.15,8,188 T,688,B9« 18,648,429 118,683,436 82,599,6118 113,918,241 76,444,0.16 149.210,804 118,889,013 200,934,747! 76,861,068^ _42^892,80(jj i,077,9l»,S35( * Includes reserves under deeds of cession.- t Includes the quontUy of 541,625 ocros of tho Dos « Is tho estimate of the Des Mdnvs Klver Grant, w I licported by the State's autboritlca. Land-waiter, nn officer of the English custom- house, whose duty it 1.1, upon landing any merclian- dlse, to taste, weigh, measuru, or otherwise examine the various articles, etc., and to talie an account of the anmc. They arc likewise stj-lcd searchers, and «re to attend, and join with, the patent searchers, in oiecution of ail coclcets for the shipping of goods to be exported to foreign parts ; and, in cases where draw- Wlu or bounties are to be paid to the merchant on 4£ -t Exclusive of Chickasaw cession. Moines Ulver Grant above tho Ksceoon Fork, ithin this Territory. 1 Estimated. the exportation ct any goods, they, as well as the pat- ent searchers, are to certify the shippin,.; thereof on tbo debentures. Laniard, or Lanyard (from Lanier, Fr.), a short piece of cord or line fastened to several machines in a ship, and serving to secure them in a particular place, or to manage them more conveniently. Such are the lanyards of the gun-port, the lanyard of the buoy, the lanyard of the cat-hoolc, and others. The principal IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 1.1 1.25 ^ lii |22 :£ |i£ 12.0 u Ml 1.4 11.6 Photographic • ScMices Corporation // is. < ^ ^ ^C7 23 WEST MAIN STRUT WEBSTIR.N.V. MSM (716)I72-4S03 o^ LAP au9 tAP UnyMd* OMd in a iblp, howerar, are thoM employed to extend the •hniade end itayt of the mutt bjr their eommnnieatlon with tke-dead eyes, to u to fmni • toit of mechanioal power reiembllng tlut of a taokle. Tbete lanjttdt ere flxed in the dead-eyat at followi : one end of the lanyardt it thnut through one of the holet of the npper dead^ye, and then knotted to prevent it from drawing ont ; the other it then patted throogh one of tlie Imea la the lower dead-eye, whence ntorn- ing upward, it it inierted through the taoond hole in the upper dead-eye, and next through the teoond hm France for the Paciflo with the Botunh and Astrolabe under hit command. The latt direct intelligence received ftom him wat ftnm Botany Bay, in March, 1788. Several expedltinnt were tnbte- quently dispatched in search of Perouse, but no certain information was had until Captain Dillon, of the East India ship JUHorck, ascertained that the French ships had been cast away on two diflSsreat islandt of the New Hebrides— a fate authenticated by various artidet of the WTRck of these vetseli, which Captain Dillon brought with him to Calcutta, April 9, 1828, 40 yeart af terwaid. Lapiduy, a name given to the artist or ar- .san whose busineat it is to out, grind, and polish gems, small stones, etc.. for the purposes of jewelrj', and also for mineralogical specimens. The name, derived from lapidariut, pertaining to ttonet (from lapu, a stone), would seem to include the various modes of working or finishing stones in generul ; the technical use of the word, however, is limited at above noticed. Iiapia Xi«Biili. See Ultbanabinb. Ziapland, the most northerly country of Europe, It bounded north by the Arctic Ocean, louth by Swe- den, east by the White Sea, and weit by Norway and the Atlantic Ocean. Its limita an not very accu- rately laid down by geographers ; but it teems to be divided from tbe rest of Scandinavia by a line nearly corresponding with tlie polar cirele, in latitude 66° 82', and is consequently almost entirely an arctic region. North Cape, its most northerly point, is sit- uated in N. lat. 71° 10' 16", oonsequently its length Ihtm north to louth, it about 880 miles, and not 600, as it usually stated. From Cape Orlov, on the White Sea, to the Atlantic on the west, it extends about 700 miles ; but betl jes this continental territory, thnie are a vast number of islands, which are included in the general name of Lapland. The whole country is di- vided into three parts, called Russian, Swedi.-th, and Norwegian Lapland or Hnmark, and is recognized by the Swedet and Norwegiant by the name of Lapmark, mark lignifying, both in Swedish and Norse, land or tract of country. The very early writers, howeve-, do not notice any country under the name of Lapmark, while Finmark is alluded to, though not with such clsamess as would admit of our defining the exact ex- tent of country which went by that appellation. It has been conjectured that, in former ages, the parts of the north now known by the names of Swedish and Kuitian Lapland were dittinguished as Russian and Swedish Finmark previously to the period when the Finns obtained the name of Lapper, or Laplanders. Finmark, which forms the meet northern part of thia wild and extensive tenitoiy, constitutes one ex- tremity of the kingdom of Norway, to wiiich it now beloagt, though doubtlett In ancient timet U wat a wpantf ktai^om, govamed by it« own Mvara^tnt- Ita tmiaat boandaiy »b the wait It Iioppaa, the And itlaod ia Flamark, aod wUch forma a line between tt ondHha NaidUodt, a part of Norway tomatimes erto> aeontly confonadad with Iiapland, On the north, wett Md norMHaatt it it watbed by the Polar Ocean, while to the eut It it bordeted by Rnitian Lapland, which alto, with Nordlaod, bonndt it to the toutli— the boundary line iMtwean the two oountrlet being tiia Biver Taaa. Ita extent from north to south— tlut it, Arom the bordan of Ruitiaa Lapkiid to the North Cape — it nearly three degreei of latitude ; ita greatett breadth bafgg firom wett to eatt, namely, from the wettem sidt of Faroe to the coast above Waranger, near the bordart of Rutiiaa Lapland. At the eattero extremity of Finmark there it a contidaiable ttoct, to which both Norway and RuttU lay claim. It ilea between the acknowledged bonndariet of each of theia powert, and being now coniidend at neutral ground, it f^ to the Laplander of both countriet to hunt and fish in. This district extends a little to the westward of Bngefiord, stretching nearly south to tiie F.nara Lake, where it bends to the east, and afterward to the N.E., where it Joins the coast. . Russian Lapland Ilea to the touth and eatt of the debatable ground above mentioned. The river Muonio, which for a consider- able portion of ita early course receives the name of the KAngftmtelf, conrtitutet the boundary between Sweden and Russia. The !cirol» of Kola, and the northern part of eastern Kemi, constituted at one time Russian Lapland; but, by subsequent treaties, two extensive districts, all tho Lapmark of western Kemi, and the gteater part of the Lapmark of Tomeo, have been ceded to RussU. Thus nearly two thirds of the regions inhabited by the Laplandere are included in the dominious of the Emperor of Russia. Swedish Laplanu, the most southerly division, occupies the in- terior part of the country to the west of the River Tomeo — the maritime district of Nordland, a portion of Norway, being situated between it and the North Sea. How much of the northern part of Sweden it entitled to be called Swedish Lapland, it is impossible to say. If the arotic circle be token as the boondaiy Ihie, only that portion of Sweden called North Both- nia can be considered as lieionging to Lapland ; but Pitea Lapmark and Umea Lapmark ore sometimes mentioned at forming part of the latter country, and these are situated in West Bothnia. The cause of error may bil traced to the cireumttance of these no- madic tiibea fkequently inhabiting, at least for a por- tion of the year, districts of country far down in the interior of Sweden and Norway. Thus, in the latter country, the Roraas Mountains, situated between CbristUnia and Drontbeim, an inhabited, during summer at least, by a family of Laplanders, with the never-failing herd of reindeer. - But the exact bound- ary line is not ver}' material, as it has reference only to difierent portions of a tract of oountiy which is under one government. There are numerous lakes and rivers in I.apland. Of the latter, several take their rise in the Koelin Mount- ains, and flow in various directions into the Atlantic Ocean or the Gulf of Bothnia. The principal rivers' of the country are the Tana or Tama, which takes a noith- eostom course through Finmark, and empties itself into a imy or souitd of the same name | the Alten or Alata, which it very rapid, forcing its way throagh the mountains of Finmark in a north-westerly direction, empties itaelf into a bay of the same name ;■ the Tomeo, which issues from a lake so named, and, after being enlarged by a number of streams uniting in one chan^ nel and running nearly due south through a long course, falls into the northom extremity of tb^-B^thr uian Ottif at Tomeo ; and the Muonio, which rises from the Killpit Jaure, at the foot of the alpine chain of Norway, it a contiderable stream, and constitutes the boundary line between Sweden and Russia, till it .wjittM.irith |he|^ver.fi^r9M, when the latter marks tte LAP iXVtl '^Mf rUmttft of tiaar aoBiit(9> i* fU•^a«^lr4^ TiMi» m* •Ito other itren wUpk Uliit 'Mb xiM ia.Lailiad, and CiUlMo tk* OuirorBoUmlivMeltMi tt*J>W«, EitM, Kalix, amd othen. In K«a«I«ii LapUad Omm an MTwal eoBsidanblB straama, bat tlMM bara not baan ■o weU daflned, nor haa this part of Td baan ao ftilty daanrihad u the otheti. The Kaau takai ita riae amo«^ the Keml UonntaiM, «ita«t«d saar .the centie of the eonntrjr, and tout into the Onlf of Bothnia. It haa many Imroaing catanota, of wU«h ti»e TaiVnl Ke^, or the fall o( tha lMavana,ria the only im» wbioh the adreatnroiu boatm«n.narer attempt to unit. The iVuM, or holy atrsam, la the outlet, of .the . great lake Enara, flowing thence to the Arctic Ocean. . The east- ern declWitiea of Buaiian Lapland are watered by the Paaoit which diKhaigas itself into the. White Sea. The Taloaui falls from a great height^ enters th« Lake Kola, which name it aftwwaid. takeS) and falls into Kola Bay, on the Arctic Ocean. Beside these,, there are numerous other rivers wbkh traretse.the country in various directions, and either give xise to lakes, or issue (hmi them. : FMtry. — The coast Laplanders support themselves entirely by the fishery; wlUch is astonishingly pro- ductive, 2000 pounds' weight of cad>fish being caught in a day by means of linea idone. From the great .number of small Russian vessels which fkequent the coast at certain seasons, they And a ready s^ for the fhiits of their industry, roceivipg. in exchange chiedy meal, brandy, tobacco, and the like. Wlules are abundant, particularly what is called the fin whale, wluch is long, active, swimming with great strengtii and speed, and consequently difficult to capture. Mantffacturtt. — In their manual arts and manufac- tures, that is, making the various utensils which their mods of life requires, the Laps display some ingenuity. Their sledges and canoes are very strongly and closely put together, so as to be entirely impervious to water. They t||i hides with the first inner bark of the birch, make strong cordage and thread of the sinews of the reindeer, weave coverings for their tents, luiit gloves, fashion wooden utensils for domestic purposes; and the women prepare the sUds of foxes, fawns, otters, and other animals f<>r sale, by stripping off the mem- braneous parts, and curing them with fiBh.4>il. Kussian Lapland begins at the Waranger Fiord, un- der X. lat. 70, and extends as far as the White Sea. Admiral LitlLs, in surveying its northern coast, in tlie years 1822-3, has noted down many interesting par- ticulars, from which we derive the following notes : It may appear surprising, but it is nevertheless true, thst this coast, navigated for three centuries by like first maritime nations, was, liefore Admiral Litke's survey, less known ff> us than many of the most dis- tant and uninhabited parts of the globe. Vessels trading to Archangel had, for a long time, only the Zttfabtl of the Dutch for a guide. Litke, June, 1822, iMgan his survey of the Lapland coast at Cape Orlov, hi about X. lat. 67'>. This, the eastern extremity of Russian Lapland, consists of high, steep, and bare locks, NearSviatoiNoB(inN.lat.68°)tbeooasthaa sn inviting appearance; the south side of the islands, or indentations, being covered with l>eautiful turf, wild lack, and a number of strawlwrries, but there were no bushes. On the main sliore, however, were seen low dwarf birch and juniper busliea, and numer- ous tracks of reindeer. During summer, as Admiral Litke was here informed, there is no land route through Lapland ; and all who are then necessitated to travel —as, for example, clerjgj'men, the Judges, or officers of judicial courts, etc — pass by tinaktt along the shore, by stations, from Kola, round the whole penui- sula, as far as Kandalaksha, in the extreme north- esstem point of the White Sea. Between KandaUk- sha, however, and Kola, they manage to travel in the usual manner. A little to the west of Sviatoi Nos is the month of the Yukanka River, which is navigable An!tfaiwt<»|Mff;p«fi mOwivp, «FhMimfd*mfiiwc«, a9dpr«5rentnavigathtB,eva«i(aTsin«l|boat<. ,*Oa.this Uftbank ef thip (ivarlieaaJiaiiar,Tttl»|«„eall«d Ae Yukaaka Lodgai fbr fU plaoea of the Lfpanfa, boUi f«F summer and wjtaitsK leildeaea, ar* called by ttje Busaians jMjOiti (hNlgfa). About 30 milea north-weat fhua Tnkanka |^ Chemi Nos, or Black Cape ; a^id ne«c it, Nok^av Isla^d^i earlier oh^rta, called ^agel, or NaopL 9«n Admtna Litka fbnnd that the.nteedle showed ao Taflatkq. Qn the main ahore, near Nokaev Island, tlie prineipal fishes caught are salmon, Ub, poltut, and jitUM. The ptthehanht (saad-^vl) is caught in a remarkabla man- ner. Some timebeforeebb,the Lopares set about dig- ging up the wet sand dose above the jrtrand line ; with almost «v!ery step th«y dig out such a 9sh, to icUcb, however, they must not allow a second'* time, aa oth- erwise it woidd lie sure to dig itself in agaii>,.and ea- capo. As soon as they perceiye it, therefore, they seise i^ with a handful of sand, and throw it violently on the ground, the fl«|), thus stunned, are cellected in baskets or casks. , It is strange that tbia fish. is found only at ebb during the day, and never at night. The people of thii place had also some sheep, which Lad abundant food in the adjoining pastures. The chief iaUad on the coast of Russian Lapland is Kadin-not Kilduiq, as the Dutch call it—and lies U miles east fron^ the qiouth of the Kola Bay. It is 9 miles long, and 1} to 9} miles broad. Its shores are high and precipitous on the north side, and terminate abruptly in a perpendicular rock on the west, while on thesoutlMwst side it slopes down gently to theses. The appearance of the south coast is most peculiar, rising as it does in four most regular terraces, forming an amphitheatre of 600 feet in height,, with a flat, table-like top. This coast is everywhere clothed with the richeet verdure, forming a most striking contrast with the iwre granite crags on the msia shore. Tlie island consists of primary- slate, and thus differs from both tu* islsnds and the inaln shore to Uie south-east- ward, which show only granite- Kola, the capital of Russian Lapland, is situate at the confluence of the Rivers Kola and Tuloma, about 80 miles from the sea. As determined by Ur. Rssu- mowski, who, in the last century, observed in this place the transit of Venus over the sun, the latitude of thd city ia 68° 52', the longitude 33° 1' east from (>[i!::Rwidi. It iippears that Kola was founded long before 1568, as English and other mariners traded ilready about the middle of the 16th century to Kola as to a well-known place. It was at first only a vo- Uuh (capital of a district), became under Peter the Great an oHrog (fortified place), and since the founda- tion of the stadtholdership, the capital of a goverq- ment. The place extends 530 fAthoms along the River Kola, and 175 fathoms along the River Tuloma. Ex- cept a church bnllt of stone, all tiie houses are of wood. The streets are paved with planks. On the bank of the KoU, near the centre of the tcwn, lies a wooden fort, being a square with Ave towers : since the rupture with England, in the year 1800, the can- non of this fbrt were removed to the prioiy.of Solowez, in order to put the latter in a state of defense ; and slpce then, the walls of the fort serve only as a fence for the cathedral, and the towers ore transformed into storehouses. The number of inhabitants of both sexes was estimated by Litke, in 1822, at about 800, but recent official data show that it was, in 1849, only 642. The officials and merchants of Kola live in a style varying little from that of the capital. In ex- ternal appearance. Kola Is that of a clean town ;. and the houses, consisting frequently of two floors, are neat. The view of the town from the nortb-^sst is most charming ; it stands on a high, and abrupt bank, from which a wide plain extends, bordered on three sides by high hills. The principalltrade of Kola is b\ fish, particularly in bib (frtAa) and pak\u.. The K» mp tin UP Imn in Mt tiMMMltw tapmi hi fliUBg. im Atittfo 4» ilw b)r taitH>. aoiilx Am Um BomIui lih«n tndinf M Ikt Laiuad cmM, Mtfl)^ ftmn tha Horway Mill «r WadiA, wavAlnM, HwiunMfcM, ■ad- even mm TroMft, to WbMi MfU th« KaImm ■!• parmtttad to axpori abeitt IQOO teMit*rt tttj* Hoar evai^ Tear. Kola Mtf goto ArrfMttgtl to butar thMr cargo of Mk fM vim VaHoOt moMluMdlM thajr require, and •omo of thMh vaotiM (0 tatwii A«mi the latter place oa tholr Wtim hmM M lata aa Oateber. Whne the nan of Kola an th«a otmnlNI, tbahr wIt«i and daugh- tan do not raaMrin Mk. nar ema In littla boati to Mm laiMrfa lo gatbor wowiitfa, the berriea of Ruhui MoOM WO rw. A boat eoatalu iiiaall}> bat one yenitg mUI ablo nun, and flMm 19 to M women. Among the Iflanda near tha Bar of Kola, tha Korellae lalanda are oonaMond to glira tna batt prednoe of monahka ; they Ma lit* nHat wait ft«m Mia morith of the bay. The Kok woman, howarar, will go itUI further, to Motov Bay, and oran to th hnd naa a poputatton of only about 13,000.— E. B. Xi« VUta Tha Argentine Republic, or " La Con- fadaraolon Argmtfau," compriaes the provbioea which, with Paragnay and Uruguay, now independent States, at*d, UMMPSpanlMirttle, the vice-royalty of Bne> oonitUi ■oa Ayr**. It* area k the largest of the South Amer- ican rapubUca, and Ita popnlatkn to th* square mik the sa«Uest. It oonaistaef 18 provfaMea, oompritfaig an area aatinialed at TM,000 square mtlee, and contains a popukMon of about 74M,<00 souk. Other estimates reduce thk number to 694^000, while the " Almanoch de Gotba" te 186S givea a total number of about 1,000,000, of whom l,300,0u0 are oreolea, Spaniards, and meatiaoa, 100,000 snt^ugated Indiana, and 8S,0OO negroes. Withk a few yesrs, Buenos Ayrce has with- drawn from the confederacy. With tte exception of a portion of tha extenslTe pkins, called p 1 Amarienn, 44 roond tripa t 1 Britbh, 17 ; 9 Oriantal, 88 ; and SBrutlian, 14. tIm ikiHng-veiwls engaged In tha aama tnda, wen 9 tinxmin, under tha Orient- al flag, witteb mide 43 roand tripe ; and 3 achoonera add 3 brlg«ntinaa, under the flag of Bnenoa A^raa, which made 40 roond tripa. Tha following table ihowa tha akpoita of Bnenoa Ayree for alx jmn, ending 1864. ConrAn^nvn •rAtanain' ainiBtniis mm XzroiTAiion or Sifru PpoDuoie or raa Stat* or Boaiioa Aiaa to ALL <;ouina»a. »«■ 1848 n> 1851, aorii iMOLinirB. [Uaub vr raoii "Kajarao KexAOwnoo DaL brAoo db Bu«ii«a Auvi."] . OiaM Britain. liilHph/IKl'., I /I \4 Mm. th^Btrtea.. : ,.,.;-/„,,, • '^; ■1 KtH I) B»*aaa,)^.,^.j»,.. '••mIjw liiiiHi ixii . -ni-r. leita 18H 1M4S 4MM S.'SS MMM mm «a,4t« 810^858 ai8,4«> ISM 18« 1880 \^ 18B8 18B« Dq>kM«. ^}& 188.1«4 81M8B 18^880 lTft37« 8885T 188(818 81MU 88,198 T,TM 1,908 am 1,818 i«84 8,088 4.888 «lll1,88t utua T89^0 888^888 Hon*. m T,»«T 8,1M Mas 1,888 s; 1,081 M41 188 8,008 18^14 14,08? 885 1,808 lion 18,880 8,88* 1KT87 V,800 8,811 ia,5n 14,888 1,0(8 40,888 a; 480' 88,878 817,888 887,888 88^877 818^ t«,788 88,808 80344 87,888 4M« Sim 81,878 «7,1«B SB,S4B ,84,flTS 01,041 188,784 187,184 iX 88,180 88,845 4,948 88,848 08,014 74,411 18,118 18,788 9,888 6,911 9^088 8,881 0,891 8B0,1I» 780,040 «li,818 418,741 409,480 "TBST 198,045 '^ 88,000 108,808 188J94 114 7,»4 10,418 8,718 1,497 11,718 IM 107 880 1,854 4,198 7,678 10,888 1^107 7,188 44,418 18,888 80 "m 1,846 1,481 1,887 6,608 1,118 447 6,178 197,851 84,817 118441 118,800 4,888 1,881 8,916 0,884 M80 8,887 8,080 871 iS& 8,888 1,118 Tip 1,874 .8,176 8,011 18,008 IIM* 8,018 9,808 848 818 086 480 1 ■■4 'iS5 1,070 ^ 8M 170 871 1,188 186 T 88 "i a 1*4 148 8 417 IJB6 ,8.818 184 IS 1S8 18,818 18,018 88,849 11,441 74 11 1,914 1,604 1,880 Ml i;W8 iJm 914 MU 808 :«8 887 1^ 841 »4t 478 SM 101 181 909 718 1,010 718 1,101 145 41 11 « 15 8 48 s» 808 188 sa» 88 187 879 160 n 95 8 18 'io 1,817 888 1,888 800 1,174 191 MS HI 4M 18 88 11 Tan*WM4WiM 17480 11,000 19,115 18,860 18,978 90^1 Sit 884 !* 188 608 144 181| 890 100( 880^ 101 MS 1»» 1,081) 1,410 46 87 1 44 16l{ 187 407 7| ISi 47li MS 1,797 1,400 1,M7 1,801 8,118 1,801 18,624 11,090 t9,94« 80,111 10,668 88,879 bnAdl. 81,060 17,887 4,096 8,918 84l8 9,746 760 s» 1,808 981 976 "40 884 4 871 88 84 1,994 149 878 678 1,860 176 401 119 688 04 19 401 150 188 100 "449 1,881 1,767 1,118 1,101 «<1 811 64,814 i «S,8«0 l».8fi0i P,4«7 16,&6»| • TiMte are erabraead nnder ox aad oow. SiAtauDT •xmannrv nia aDAKUTiBi or DOiiBiTio Paooufla Bxroarte ndw 'ink Towi Or Bdsios Aran, rioii 1648 in JW BtanKODBmno moan nroann *o nn UimtD BtAn*. ^ MklM. ::::.:.. ....:..M. , BaI 150 188 MO ■■44» 1,881 I \,nt i,l<8 «,101 M 911 I 1 »,8«0 in,w*, 1»,SB04 I 9,4ST I 15,58»l nlud BtOM. \ TJoiooo 763 MM «S»,1M, 1,8«S 8,4"' 19S| W 8,01« 144 LAP im LAP Wutiamnn «r Foaiwa Mimbait Vhhu vmog. BiTiD AT Tui Pout or Bdinm Aths, raoM lUI 1804, DimiiaDnyiiia toon imom tn uamn titAnf Flag. Twn. Wnm UnlUdSliUn Ymn. riM •U Milan. UduSstitoi Iftll 801 41 1884 10« St isn lU 7S 1887 118 40 im» 140 80 1841 488 M 1814 811 148 1848 875 75 18*ft 87S 101 1844 618 88 1R80 187 88 1841 6M 88 1881 107 77 IHfiO 440 87 188* Its es 18S1 4T1 8« 1888 1*4 (1 1851 488 6T 1884 Ml 87 18S8 8U rnknown. 1885 118 n 18S4 884 IS The aggngits ralue of eaigoei from tho United 8UtM imported into the port of Buenos Ayres during tlie year 1851, wu CeOO.Ul; 18«3, i6t9,915; 1868, (497,888. The aggregate Talae of exports from the port of Buenos Ayres to all countriea in 1864, is stated liy French anthorlties, as follows : tmatt. ONatBtttsln.... 10,080,568 UnltodStatoi.... 1,188,788 Spain 11,t6.\88B Hum Towns.... 5.18«,»07 Vrsnee 6,86«,861 Budlola. 8,71«,«oe Brnll 1,786,171 Bslsiun 888,188 Dtamaric 847,840 Bwodsn. 817,604 Norwajr 15,460 From statements pulilishsd by the minister of finance of the State of Buenos Ayres to the legislative cham- bers, on the revenues of the customs, it appears that there was imported in 1654, of merchandise of ever}' description, in value, as follows : Sundry •rtlcle^ paying 6 per cent duty. ,..,.... i6,67Tj540 Bnndn •- ■ -■ ■ ■ . .~-». Bilks,! KAOoTer 104,881 HaUsnd. 1,888,647 Portngsl 11S,0W Arsrntlae Hepnb. 888,081 Uruguay 111,088 PruBls 49,858 TwoBlctlles 80,788 Total bancs.... 61,887,071 Total dollars... 19,744,648 Sundry srttcles, paying 10 per cent, duty 1,497,987 Bilks, paying 19 p weighed witliout permission of the captain of the port. 4. Pi- lots on bringing vesseb up in the roads are to inform the captain what artioles are necessary for their perfect safety, and in case of there being any wanting, nport it to the captain of the port. Pilots neglecting to do so will Im punished with the rigor of the law. 6. If, in a gale, the anchor of any vessel should happen to drag, or the cable part, either on account of said cable not corresponding with the size of the vessel or the anchor, or from rottenness, said vessel will be respon- sible for ail the damages occasioned thereby. 6. Any vessel from sea, tliat may anchor in this port without applying to a pilot, will be liable to pay all damages that may occur, and can not claim redress if she, in any way, sustains damage. 7. Any vessel at anchor with her boats astern, and not hauling them along- side upon seeing another under sail, so as to give a ftee passage, CSM not claim for the damages she may suffer, and shall be obliged to pay for those occasioned; 8. T/(o vessel at anchor in the roads can heave ballast, or any thing that does not float, overboard ; and if such be provedto have lieen done, the act will be punished according to law. 9. No vea- sel, excepting on her arrival, can salute in the inner roads without ol)taining permission of the captain of the port. Those which do so will suffer the penalties the government may determine on. 10. All boats, belonging to merchant vessels at anchor in either roads, shall put off ttom shore one hour after sunset. 11. AU boats that may be found on the iieach, from the time of firing the evening gun until daybreak, will be ssiaed, and ^e crew punished according to the gravity of the case. Pilot Den or tuk Post or Bnairoe Atbis. Sllnr doUsn. . .. 150 .... no •• 140 lo .... 160 V«Mli4nwli« SUnrdoUan. 10 {net, pay 40 11 3"^ 60 VanMli Srawlog 18 » 70 14 » 90 16 " 110 80 " 1 U » 1 AU vessels, excepting packets, requiring a pilot to enter the inner roads, pay $200 cnrrenc}- (equal to f 10 United States' coin— the currency dollar lieing, at present, equal to 5 cents. United States). When leav- ing port, whether taking a pilot or not, they pay f 200 currency ((10 United States). Any vessd that may enter the inner roads without a pilot, wishing to be moored or to change anchorage, pays flOO currency («5 United Statea). Port Charget. — Tonnage dues per ton, entering (cur- rency), di = to 07} cenU, United Statea ; TiiitaDd rogulatkin, (7 = (0 85 { stamps for opening nglsttr, . LAt 1176 LATT Me., $M mm tint. Tomaca duM, olMrinf , $1} mm ) t «Nw Uat, •12 — $0 60 1 bOI or hwlth, $• — •OU, •0 80. B/ lb* fbUowlog Uw, paiMd by tb« Senate and Chambar of Repraaentetlraa of Buanoa Aym, and ofleUlljr auiioanMd undar date of Septemhor 6, 18M, tt win b* iMD tbat T«ai«la of friandly natloni anjoy Iba ■ama privikgei, and are labjeet to tbe lame te- ftrlctloM, aa national Teiiela :— " From the date of tbo praiant law, tbara will not be ■ largad in tba porte of tba State of Buanoa Ayraa, to tba raatali, of fHaodljr natioka of mora tban IM torn, for tonnage dnai, port dnea, pUotaga, aalvaga In oaaa of damage or iblpwraek, mora tban will be cbarged to Argentina raaaala." Tbia Uw plaoaa tba vaaiala of tba United Statoi on an aqnallty witb tboaa of Buanoa Ayrei | wblle, under an old Uw, tba ablp'a regiitor ia teken aa evidence uf ber meainrement. For a more extended account of tba eommarca of La Plata, aae article Branoa ArRna. Oimp*B4. Itmu-^lk. UDlMd HUUi. UlMr«d ftooi Iha U. 8IMt. 1845 118,864 8(18,708 ' SttJUS 888^ si8,oer 818,8» 8S8,nO 810,788 Km sMas 84^811 4M,»I8 881.110 888,811 IS"??? Illliliilll 788,818 841,808 1;M •,081,087 8,188,841 1.144,871 S,S4^067 11,408 8,888 888 it,n8 18,880 18,881 18,4U 11,887 11,145 11.B8S ■ io,wr 4,184 8,187 »8«. 181107 11,841 18,711 10,748 8,l»8 18,084 i,888 887 "714 7,388 18,081 11,006 4,871 4.741 1,6«» 707 848 V,400 ^4«l 8^880 0,186 4,881 !m8 1,880 1,810 1848 184T 1848 1848 1800 18BI uta ]8B« IM IBB By a recent treaty with Brazil, tbe fV«a navl(j[atlon of tbe Puraua and Paraguay is secured. Tbe tariff of import duties adopted by tbe Argentina Republic ia based ortthe per cent, ad ralorem principle, breadstuflb ezcapted ; wblle export duties ara chiefly speclflc. — Com. Relatioiu, V. S. Xiaibovd, among seamen, tbe left band side of the ship when yon stand witb }'onr fkce toward tbe bead. ZiHTOh. In the catalogue of soft timber used in ship-buhding, the larch or hacmalack is not the least usafbl— the Utter name is the aboriginal. It some- times attains an altitude of 70 feat, but ia usually found fkom 40 to 80 feet. It ia generally of straight growth, but quite tapering. It grows rapidly, and te of great strength ; and its durability exceeds that of the oak. It U distinguished for the closeness of ita grain, is rery compact, and of rtddisb color ; and for knees and top-timbers of resseb, particniarly steam- vessels, is unequaled. This fact should, bowoTer, be retained, tbat tte strength U quite out of proportion to ite density ; benca, we say, tbat it sbonid always be fastened with aqnan iron ; under such ciroumstances it b superior to oak. This timber is extensively cnl- tifated in Europe, and Is not a ran specimen of veg- etation in th3 Mew EngUnd States.— QBiifiTTR'a Sk^ buaden' Mamial, y. Y., 1866. ZiUoan, native IndUn sailors, many of whom an in tbe service of tbe East India Company. lact, an nncertain qmmtity, vai^-ing in dilTennt countries, and with respect to different articles. Gen- erally, however^ a last is estimated at 4000 ponnda | bu* ineie are great diacnpancies. The folUwing quantities of dlflbnnt articles make a Ust, viz. : — 14 barreU of pitob, tar, or ashes ; 18 dozen of hides or skins ; 12 barrels of codfish, potash, or meal ; 20 cades, each of 1000 herrings, every 1000, 10 hundred, and every 100 five acore ; 10) quarters of cole-seed ; 10 quarters of coan or rape-seed. In some parte of EngUnd, 21 quarters of com go to a last ; 12 sacks of wool ; 20 dl<^ers (every dicker 18 skins) of leather; 18 barreU of unpacked barrings; 10,000 pilchards ; 24 barreb (each barrel eontainfaig 100 lbs.) of gunpowder ; 1700 lbs. of ftathers or flax. L(ul ia sometimes nsad to signify tba burden of ■ ship. Latosn Ball, a long trbmguUr sail, extended by a Uteen yard, and ftvqnently used In Xeb«ei, Polaeret, Settet, and other vesseb wUcb navigate in tbe Med- iterraneaa Sea. Latt, Lattu (Fr. LatlMi Ger. LaUm; It. C:'v of strength and durability; but its trunks ai th niy found, of late, of tuflScient dimen- sions to randc it available for these purposes. When bruised, the leaves diffuse a strong odor, resembling that of the sweet bay (Latirm nobilU), and may, like them, bo employed in cookery. — hroime't Trett of America. Ii*^ John. Law's Bubble was the most ruinous speculation of modem times. The projector, John Law, of Edinburg, raised himself to the dignity of comptroller-general of the finances of Europe, upon the strength of a scheme for establishing a bank, an East India and a Mississippi Company, by the profits of which the national debt of France was to be paid off. He first offered his plan to Victor Amadous, King of Sar- dinia, who told him he was not powerftal enough to ruin himself. The French ministry accepted of it In 1710 ; and in 1716 he opened a bank In his own name, under the protection of the Duke of Orleans, regent of France ; and most of the people of property of every rank in that kingdom, seduced by the prospects of Im- mense gains, sul)scribed both in the bank and the companies. In 1718, I^w's was declared a royal bank, and the shares rose to upward of twenty-fold the original value, so that in 1719 they were worth more than 80 times the amount of all the current specie in France. But the following year this great fabric of false credit fell to the ground, and almost overthrew the French government, ruining tens of thousand of families. It is remarkable that the same desperate game was played by the Couth Sea dlrectore in England In the same fattd year, 1720. — Hut. vf France, Noun. Did, Law was the eldest son of William Law, and wai r..^;i'v«;i-l^--.j4 w^.:-'^uir- li^iiXJi^'i: LAW IITI LAW Iwm M EdMmrf In Ih* monlk oT April, 1871. IIU falhw rollowad IK* pfohMiM of (oMiintth or bankar, with 10 much lucevM, thai h* wu (nabltd to pnrcbaM tht land* of LanrUton and Randlafton, whkh altar- ward daacanded to hi* tn. Tha latter wa* eduoatad at KdlnhofK, whar* ha U laid to have made lome pnig- nti in lltcratura | but the bent of hli Keniua haTinf led bim to ttnd.v arithmetic and geomatr}', ha attained ■ooh prollclenoy in theaa branchei ai to he able to ■oire with fadilty the moat Intricate prublanu ) and ha llkewiae made hlmaelf maater of alipbra. Law raaMed for aereral yean abmad ; lint at I'aria wheN he acquired gnat dexterity In all gamea of chance, and afterwani at Genoa and Venice. One cauae a»- ilgned for hia leaving ParU, wai hl • eaad«BMnown un- der the tHle, " Editto Politico di Xivlgazione Meroan- tile Austrlaaai" attended thereafter by some other ordt- ttanoes. The whole, however, 1* far from being a perfect system of comraeKlal legislation. The •• Editto I'olit- ko^" wbtcb tmbMoes the most extensive and the wisest provlaioas la rsgard to oaptAlaa anil aaanen, contains nothing oa the subject of tValgkt-eaatmct*, of bot- tomry-hond, and insnnneee. In th« abaeace, there- fore, of legialative decision, rsferanca Is at prasaat made, on the shons of the Adriatic, to the Frmch " Or- doananca de la Marina" of ltW3, Theee diAreat laws an already of somewhat ancient data, and are by no maana adequate to the new wants of commerce. W* ara led to this conclusion l)y the fact that of lata there were lieing prepared in AiiHtria two projei^ of law, tho object of which waa to embrace in the one the Interest* of inland commerce on wlikh a great part of th« new cod* of Hungary haa bean baaed ; In the other, all the maritime legislation. Neither the on* nor the other has received the legislative sanction. 8. Badtu, Onmd liwkf ^.— From the 1st July, 1809, the French code has lioen in force within the Grand Duchy of Baden, Though the text of this has not been altered, and the same older of artiolaa has been maintained aa far as article 306, numeron* addition*, under the form of articles supplementary, have been introduced, particularly in what ralatea to commission, carry ing-traile, and hills of exchange. Wa have inserted only these additional regulations. The civil code of the (jrand Duchy of Baden, under the liead of " Property," contains important provisions In regard to literary property. The second book on maritime commerce wa* necessarily retrenched. The fourth, on oommerclal juitsdiction, also haa not been reproduced, 4. Bavaria. — Bavaria has no commercial code, nor even a commercial legislation, applicalila to the whole extent of it* territory. In the provinces where the Coda Napoleon ha* been maintained, that is, in Khenish Bavaria, the Code de Commerce is equally in force. In a similar manner, the districts which formerly be- longed to Prussia, such as the principalities of Ans- pach and Bairentb, Incorporated into Davaria in 1803, have preserved the Prussian legislation. There are, tlierefore, none but the ancient provinces of Bavaria which are governed by apecial laws. This legislation, in what concorna commercUi right, ia extremely im- perfect. In moat coaes, it is true, tlie defect is sup- plied by the common law of < Ii^rmuny and liy the civil law, but the documents mo- , important and complete, are three statutes : the flrst Itnown under the name of the statute for Bavaria of 24th Novemlier, 178S, ex- tending to all the provinces of the kingdom by tho laws of nth of September, 1826. The two others, that of 1778, for the city of Augsburg, and that of the ICth February, 1722, for the city of Nuremberg. We tind in these three enactments regulations not only in regard to bills of exchange, but respecting merchants, brokers, partnership, and factorage. 5. Bttgium, Kingdom nf. — The commercial code of France, without any modification, baa continued to regulate affairs of commerce in Belgium ever since the year 1811, the period at which a political separation between the two countries took plnce. The same ju- diciary organization has been in like manner continued. The single e.xceptiun is, that a law has been enacted in Belgium (25th March, 1841) ordering that the tri- bunals of commerce shall give final judgment in causes that may come before them to the amount of 2000 francs, whereas in France the law of the 25th May, 1838, fixes the competency of the tribunals in the flrst instance at 1500 francs. Royal edict* have named commitfsions cliarged to prepare projects of law for the revision of the legislation In regard to bankruptcy, suspension of payment, partnership, civil or commeN olal insurances, writs of captim, mortgage seiaure of real estate, accounts of law, expenses, marriage contract, possession and division of property. A law has been in progress on the proper Interpretation of article 442 of tlie Code of Commerce, It was diaeossed in the Chamber of Repiesentattvea in the eeaalon of 1842, but 170* ntjected by the Senata. LAW 1180 LAW C Brmil, Jfeyi ' rn le of a bankrupt, and to determine the dividend payable tn the reapective creditors. Commercial alfaira have no special tribunal. They are carried liefore the ordinary courts ua well In flrat inatance aa in oaaea of appeal. Three lawa, tha one of lith October, 1819, relative to the public exchange (la Bourse), and the corporation of merchants, and the other two of the 1st March, 1831, and 19tk May, IHJU, on the freedom of commer- cial transactions, and on tha restrictions to which in certain eases they may be liable, ara not of sufficiently general Interest to have a place given them here. There are certain articles of produce aubjected by the Senate to a tarilf, in which trading is not considered as a part of commerce, and only legal process of a civil character is allowed. 10. Dtnmarh. — The enactments relating to com- mercial Jurisprudence in Denmark are not at all numerous. In matters of exchange the ancient ordon- nanet of 1768, has been replaced by a later act of legis- lature of 18tli May, 1835, which repeals all preceding deeds with the exception of that of 2Cth June, 1834, relative to some particular branches of tlia law on bills of exchange, the rescript of 22d March, 1769, and the proclamation of 8th November, 1799, lu which •re found regulations for bills upon the West Indies. The maritime law of Denmark contained in tke code of Christian V., 1688, continuea itiU in foroe. We ehould have eanAnad onrsalvaa lo aa aaalysis af Ihee* ragalalloiu wkloh uiesase only a kislorlxal InUrsst | bM we have Ml tiia propriety of JoIbIbk »IiIi Iheni •a analvllo view of all tha later euaetments and lawa which have served to complete, at this day, Ihia «»i clanl monuateat of maritime Jurlsf rudanoe, anil which we are enalileil to present by the aasistanca of the ex* celleni abetract of M. I'uehln. As to bankruptcy, there exists no law which gives precise ami tlxed rules, Ordonnancee of very ancient data, the meaiti ing of whioh king custom has determiaed, conitituta, on this auliject, the legislation uf tha country. || would have been a matter uf great diflcully to'glve a copy of Ihaae hail nut a valuable document, due to tha labors of M. Orstadt, Attomey-iieneral in tlie Iligli Court of Copenhagen, aad generally iatoaded fur the use of the French Consell d'Etal at the time nf tha diseutiiions on the projet de iol on liankruptiv (pub> llshsd 38th May, 1NA8), eualded us to preaeut an ab* street which will lie found as exact as it U aubstanlUkt and wail arrangnd. 11. /Vance — France had, under the admlniitratloa of Colbert, united, or rather euer, I84fi, there remained 7,983 cases to be ujjudi- cuted i 8,804 cases which were considered as terminated l>y compromise or abandonment, were brought liefura the court In 1846. These, united to the 307,379 new cases, form a total of 319J^9 cases to be adjudicated. Of this number &9,82S have been aaljudicated contra- dictorily, and 116,808 by non-appearance i 403U luive been submitted by tha tribunals to arbitratlun, and 82,705 have been erased from the register as termi- nated by compromise or abandonment; 7078 only were left unsettled on the dlst Decemlwr, 1846, or hardly 8) per cent., while the civil tribunals left un- aettied at the same epoch 36 per cent, of the civil caaea brought liefore them. Of the 174,641 adjudic»< tiona rendered in 1846 by the tribunals of commerce 84,569 only, hardly one fifth, were auaceptible of ap- peal. The special triliunaia of commerce buve 1 court and 1 president only ; the number of judgea varies from 1 to 10, and that of the aumigatea from 2 to 16. Tha triliunaia of Parla and Lyons have each 10 Judges, and of surrogates the Arst 16, the second 6 j 8 tribunals have 6 Judgea and 4 to 6 surrogstes ; 1 only haa 5 Judges and 3 surrogates ; 96 have 4 Judges and 2 to 4 aurrogataa ; 106 have 3 Judges and 2 to 4 surro- gates ; lastly, 7 have 3 Judges and 2 surrogutos. In 1840 the tribunals of commerce of Paris had dis- patched 50,376 coses, or more than one fourth of the toUi number. The tribunals of commerce wliich have dispatched most oases after that of Paris, are those of Lyons, 9841 ; Rouen, 4914 ; Marseilles, 4396; Bordeanx, 4137 1 Touloue, 8738 ; that of Limogei, LAW 1181 LAW ISOTi n oUk«r trlli«n*ti h*r« •dJudtotM upon 1000 lo toot) OMM I 11 Iribanali ciimpaMd af I In 4 JudgM hay* dlnpalcbMl narh AO par j»u, tnil lA nthan hara tarmlnatad ttom M lu 100 only, Thar* war* ramlarail, In 184A, no Miitanrvii liy arhllntlon In ilUpataa ha- twaan iiartiiiin, 1*10 i>r wM<-h with tha a7I7 partnarahlp* of arary kind. Tha grafflar nf tha triliiinal of tha Halna alona haa raealvad 860 partnanhip daatia, almoat tha third of tha total nambar. On Klit Panmhar, 1H4S, thara ra- malnad A9*I4 lianMroptelaa to }m llquldr.tad. In IMfl, A70A n*w nnaa wara opanail ; IWKM iintr hava liaan tar- mlnatad, and 61fi8, or almoat two thlnla of tham war* laft unialtlad at tha and of the yaar; 1013 hankrupl- daa hava liaan tarmlnatad l>y • ■i'"ppoml«a \ lOfll hy llqntdatlon* ; 8'iO havi- liaan cloaad ny In iifflclanp}' of capital; laatly, tharn Imvn lMi«n darlarad IM Judg- menta of hankriiptrlan, Th« triliunal of mmmarca of tha K«ln« ban terminated H90 liankmptclaa In 1840, that of Kouan 10.1, of I.yont 1111, of flonlaaux 00, of Manalllea SI. Tha paanive debt of AAO bankruptnlaa which terminated In IK-iO, by agreement or liquida- tion, did not exceed MOO franca i it varied fVom lUXW to 10,000 In 441 bankruptclea ; from 10,000 to M.OOO In 12(1!! i from R0,000 to 100,000 franca In 270; lartlv, It BXrneited 100,000 fruncn In 1107. The amount of the active debt of 2043 bankruptclea liquidated waa 61,- 810,891 franca ; namely. In eatatea, 19,H5A,111 franca; and movalilea, 81,001,280 firanca. The total amount of the paaalve debt waa 148,514,671 fhinca ; mortgaged debt, 10,2r)7,540; privileged, 8,001,687; and ordinary, 120,Itf*S,40't franca. The loaa home by the ordinary credltura waa, on an average, 76 per cent. The divi- dend obtained haa Iwen more than 7(> per cent. ; In 84 bankruptclea 51 to 75 per cent. ; In 02 from 26 to 50 percent. ; 1 1 604 10 to 25 In 12(8; and 1 per cent. In 412, In 186 bankruptclea the ordinary credltora have received nothing; the aaseta li«ving been abnorhed by mortgaged and privileged crwlttiifn. I.aatly, the divldenda of 78 bankruptclea terminated try compro- miae have not been, indicated, aa the assets could not be realized Immediately. CvuH of Apptal. — In com- mercial matters the number of Judgments susceptible of appeal have lioon in 1840, 84,560. 2511 appeals were made, namely, 7 appeals for 100 Judgments less than in civil matters ; 1777 appeals only were adjudi- cated upon, 1212 Judgments (68 per cent.) hare been conflrmed ; 1665 (82 per cent.) modlfled in whole or In part; 602 appeals have lieen negatived. CounnI of PruiHommet. — 68 councils existml, 4 of which did not ■it In 1846. The 64 councils have had on hand 21,254 cases. The partiea hare withdrawn 8158 cases before they were eettled ; 16,140 have Iwen conciliated ; 1762 remitted to the 'bureaux-general, ani' 106 to the Judge of peace. 12. Frankfort. —tht ancient ordinance of Frankfort (26 May, 1780) relative to various points of com- mercial law, such OS partnership, commission, and brokerage, haa always continued in force. The Sen- ate had in 1811 prepared a project similar In great part of Its prorlalona to the French code, but which, finm national feeling, was not adopted in 1814. In 1827, a new project of • code of commercial law waa pub- lished, for the pnrpose of being submitted to jurists and to merchants. This project, however, has not hitherto received any leglalatlre sanction ; so that the ordinance of 1730 still remains as law. There exists In Frankfort no special Jurisdiction for commercial matters : they are brought before the ordinar}' tribu- nals. There Is a court of appeal, • mtuloipal court, •ad • monidpal or terltorial balllwlok. The supreme eourt of apiMol slu ol Uheo. lu JartadlotlM aitaaab to all tha free citlea »f (lermaay. 18. llrrai Hnlam.—Th» marranUla law of Kagbwl It almoat antiraly fo "f Heldaxbalm, Verden, Haya, DIepbolti, Oanaliraab, and I.anjar. A myal ordinance of Oeorge IV„ dated tMM Jtily, 1«!», conflmiad It. It la atlll the axlitlng Uw, In tba other parti of the kingdom there axlat*, with tba axcaption nt tha ragnlatlon In billa of aai'bttnga, of tha aama data (2M July, 1823), no law wbBtavi*r, liaaring on commerce. Actloni are deter- mined by uaam and oommon Uw. The new penal code adopted In llanovar, IIMO, flxaa tha penalties estab- Ibbed In caaaa o( iMinkrupttiy, All commerci:)! differ- ancan ara brought liafora tha ordinary trilmnala. In moat in«lane«», howavar, thay are terminated amica- bly by arbitramant, nr thay are decided by the mnni- ci|«l court which ordalnft arcnrding to common law, or, utberwlaa, acta In tlia capacity of a court of equity. 17, llantl, ItKpuhlin »/*.— Tha republic of Hayti has had, (tnca 1828, lla cncb occupation In the Khenlsh prov- inces. With regard to the other provinces such as Markanliurg and Hesaa-Huperleura, commercial leg- Ulation Is r«gulst«d as much as possible in conformity witli th« Krt'Mcli law, with tlie exception of the town of Offanliai'h, which had a speclil ordinance on the exchange, uf date 4tli March, 18',;d, the same as that of Frankfort, There ara tin tribunals of commerce in tha (Jrand Duchy i commercial disputes are submitted, aa In most parts of Qermany, to ordlnar)' tribunals. 10. Ihuf KUdoraH.—'ihtM ordinances only, and of ver)- nbl data, exist In this Htate on commercial mat- tars I tha Aril, of IfHh May, 1747, on bankruptcies ; tba sacoml, of !21st Novemhitr, 1788, on partnerships; tba third, of 14tb tlecnmlier, 1796, concerning com- mercial iHKiks, Although these three ordinances serve only U> estsMUh prinrlples aheady recognized, and C4,nt«b> only a var>- limited numbk.r of provisions, yet wo have tbiiught It nacesaary to reprodpce them. In- dependently of those ordinances, wblob are far from forming a sulHclent Imdy of commercial law, they geo- erally refer either to the rrench code which baa been bt furoa for some time In tbbi country, or to the com- OMHi kw of (termany, 20. UoUaml.—Tkt «od« of Holland came into oper- atien tha Itt October, 1 888, It paaaed ua|!er a savaN oideal, and it waa delayed through the nvolution which causei her separation (Vom Belgiom. 21. iroA«iuoUmi-0'earing on this subject, they are guided by thi regulation of Ham- burg. As for bankruptcies, the subject b so obscuro and uncertain that it is now fifty years since mer- chants demanded some regulations; but difficulties, apparently insurmountable, have hitherto prevented any improvement. Still there exists a project pre- pared in the name of a commission by the Syndic Bncchoia, a distinguished jurist. This project is to lie submitted to the Senate. It seems that it is composed of more than 150 Arts, and that it approaches the French code in its spirit and as a whole. The title I. of the Third Book of the Stadtreoht contains some provisions (till in force (the rights of creditors privileged, cred- itors distraint, etc., etc.), but which have reference more to individaals in gwieral than to merchants. . The "Bourse" of Lnbeo is regulated entirely by that of Hamburg, for the course of exchange, money and pub.: lie funds. With respect to jurisdiction, oommereial affairs are submitted to the civil tribunals of three dif- ferent degrees, of which we will give some details. 26. Lucca, Ducky of. — An' ordinance of 6th May, 1840, declares that the French code of commeree shall continue in force in the Duchy of Lucca. 26, Luxtmburg, Grand Ducky of. — ^The French code of commerce has not ceased in the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg. Simply a decree of King William, of 8d April, 1817, modifies the articles 615, 640, and 641, It suppresses the tribunals of commerce, and it orders that commercial disputes shall be adjudicated by the ordinary tribunals. 27. Malta. — Much confusion exists in Malta, in the application of the laws in regard to commerce ; a want otjixitt/, which gives occasion to constant complaints. Their only guides are the " Ordotuiattce qfFmtek Ma- rine" of 1681, and other old authorities, such as the Code, or " Pragmatique," of the Grand Master Manoel (which is only snlwidiarily in force), or the code of 1784, of the Grand Master de Rohan, which Iraars the name of " Municipal Law," and is at present a very general anthority. Subsequently to the date last given, proclamations emanating from the diflbrent governments which have succeeded each other in Malta, and in particular that of Britain, since 1800, have introduced or remodeled certain rules of juris- prudence in regard to various points of commercial equity. The result has been a sort of common law, generally adopted in practice, and acted upon by the tribunals. To promote this object, a collection of ail commercial usages in the fbrm of a manual, has been pabliahed by gentleman of the legal profession; it btara the title of " Cimpmdu it Diritta Cmmmtih JfobsM (Malta, 1841)"--Compendlum of the CommaP' eial Law of Malta. This oollection pieianta m abridged view of the principles of Maltese legislatiwi and Jurisprudence, in the absence of any thing Ulu • regular system of commercial law. It is a snbjaet of regret that the English government has not foUowad up its plan in giving a code to the Ionian RepuUlo bjr promn^ing a similar one in Malu. (We undw stand that the civil code for Malta is already prepared and printed.) On the subject of bills of excliaoga, tba want of legal arrangements has been peculiarly fdt> In the mean time, the regulations In regard to roari* time commerce, borrowed obiefly from the Fnnoll shipping lav,', enter much into the necessar}- dataiif , and form the principal part of the commercial law c^ tlia island. In the matter of bankruptcy, the ordinanea* of 1815 have established certain principles wbisb, In the form of procedure especially, have l)een on|y imperceptibly modified by later enactments. Tbasa regulations treat l>ankruptcy as in England — Clwp> XVI in which it is ttated, that should any dlAaiil. ties occur in regard to procedure, reference should Im had to the law of England. The judiciary organisa* tion, which dates from 1679, was terminated by the constitution of 1814. The maritime consulship was tlien reformed, and the name of tribunal of commarca imposed. Begulations were at the same time enacted for its suitable efficiency. The commercial code so many yean under consideration, was revised by the oounaU in 1847, en the recommendation cont()ned in the abia Report of Andrew Jameson, Esq., Advocate, SberiAT. depute of the county of Edinburg. A commission w»a also named to revise the code of civil procedure, ln> tended to remove many obstructions and deUys in tba administration of justice. — Pavliamenlary Heport, 1840. 88. MecklenburgSckieerin, and MechUnburg-StrtliiM, Duckiet of. — ^There ex-sts in these Duchies no pecu- liar law relating to ipmmerce. The only authority throughout their respttUve provinces is the common law of Germnny. Rostock, however, has a municipal law pecnltar to itseh'. A decree of this city was passed, 19th Decemifer, 1827, relative to bills of exchange, 29. Modena, DucKj of. — The duchy of Mudena has no code of commerce. Reference is mode to the opin- ions of the most celebnted writers, such as Cosaregi and Ansaido, and still more to Azuni, Baldasseroni, and Cassiani. In the absence of legislative enact- ment, in regard to commerce, the civil code is also most frequently appealed to, which in commercial dif- ferences alone permits to act by executory process. 80. Natmm, Duchy of .—TUX the present period tbara existed In the Duchy no law relating to commercial rights, and the ordinance of Frankfort on bills of ax- change was the sole authority. The government has, however, recently promulgated the project of a eon- menial code, extending to ever}' subject that might be contemplated by it. This project, which has been aided by the valuable ciMiperation of Messrs, Voi- pracht and Bertram, is in a great measure a repetition (as to the text almost always so) of the regulations of the code of Wurtemburg, of those of the ordonnance of Saxe- Weimar (20th April, 1819) on bills of exchange. Though the above projet has not yet been discussed at an assembly of the States, there is every probabil- ity of Its being adopted In its present form, at least without any material alteration. We have accord- ingly inserted it in due order. 81. jVoneay.— Civil and commercial legislation re- main in this countr}- the same as in Denmark. Its union with Sweden, in 1814, produced no alteration. Two laws only were carried In the last Storthing (Par- liament) in 1842, The first, of date 4th August, on bills of exchange, given in its proper place, the second, of 29th June, and which has received the royal aasant. This law, however, being merely a regulation on tha right of engaging in commerce, which it limits, with LAW 1184 lAW yny ftw exctptioDS, to the dtUmi of comnMiebd town*, we ngard u not coming within the legal depart- ment we had anigned ounetvea ; we therefore omit it. There was recently in force a regulation in regard to exchange of Copenhagen, 16th April, 1681, aa pre- ■ented by M. Nonguier. This regulation has been replaced in Denmark by the law of 28th May, 1836. In Norway it has hitherto undergone no alteration ex- cept those of the recent law of 4th August, 1848. The maritime law of Norway is the same with that of Denmarlc. The code of Chriatian, promulgated in ■ 1683 in Denmark, and in 1667 in Norway, is still in force. 82. Parma, Placentia, and Guatlalh, Duchieto/.—lbe commercial code of France, which had been introduced into these duchies, still continues in force. Only the dvU code of Parma contains regnlations in regard to Ulla of exchange. These remain the sole distinguish- log documents of commercial character. 88. Portugal.— On the 18th September, 1888, an or- dinance of the King Don Pedro sanctioned a code drawn out by a Jurist alone, and which, derived in great part from the Spanish and Dutch codes, has taken from them tke most enlightened provisions, and added oth- ers, especially on the institution of the jur}*, for com- mercial matters. 84. Boman Statu. — The commercial code of France, mppressed in 1814, when the French ceased to occupy the Roman territory, has, notwithstanding, still con- tinned in force in some of its provinces, and in 1821 was formally Ik-established throughout all the Papal States, by an edict of Pius VII., under the title of Provisional Law of Commerce. Certain modifltatlons, however, of minor importance, and which were to re- main only until the completion of a new code, were introduced. This code has not yet appeared. The edict of 1st June, 1821, contains, moreover, several enactments which liave for their object the better or- ganization of tribunals of commerce. In regard to this point, however, the legislative and Judiciary regu- lations of 10th November, 1884, contains, in sections three and four, new provisions. The decisions of the tribunals of commerce may be carried Iwfore the ordi- nary courts of appeals. The new law, however, has not revoked a papal statute of date 27tb February, 1890, re-establishing a court of appeal at Ancona, and of which we have aieo given a translation. The edict of 1st June, 1821, contains, besides, diffennt Judiciary enactment!), several of which have been borrowed from the English code of civil procedure. Into the exam- ination of these we felt it unnecessary to enter, the greater part being presented in the new legislative and Judiciary law. 36. Rutria. — As early as in ITOO, Peter the Great conceived the idea of collecting all the ukases pub- lished since the code of 1649, but co-operation was wanting to carry it into practice, Nicholas completed this important nndertalUng. The iwod was published with the ukase of 81st January, 1826. It is a com- plete digest where the old laws are inserted, yet con- forminf; them to the progress of legislation and Euro- pean civilization. The commercial part, forming the 11th volume, occupies an important place ; it includes mora than 20ooks of merchants, partnership, brokerage, failures, there exbt no other special regula- tions. The Prussian code Is followed, or, as In other parts of Germany, actions are decided by usage and common law. There is no special tribunal of com- merce in the Grand Duchy. It is proper, however, to remark, that, during the continuance of the wool- fiir, which is annually held in AVeimar, in the month of June, a commission is named by the 1)urgomaster, composed of two memliers of the municipality and several merchants, for the purpose of deciding upon diffarences that may occasionally arise. There being no commercial town in the Grand Duchy, no Bourse (place of exchange) has been regularly established. Each city has Its particular regulations in regard to fairs held in it. 40. Saxony, Kingdom of. — The government of Sax- ony are at present occupied in the revision of the an- cient legislation, and in completing it by new laws. As yet, however, there exists no commercial code, not *T«n ir, the fom of a "projet," The tribonals are 4F guided by ancient statutes and ordhiancea, whleli, where no enactments exist, are considered as possessing uniform authority. Various reguUtlons have passed In regard to brokerage. Their respective dates are 7th March, 1818, 21st September, 1888, and 14th April, 1882. In regard to payments and bankruptcy, the only legal authority is the ordhiance of 20th Decem- ber, 1766, promulgated in Lusatia In 1788 ; this an- swers, however, verj- Insufllclently for the present rsquirements of commerce, and government are pre- paring to replace It liy new enactments. The ancient tribunal of commerce established at Leipsic, by an ordinance of date 21st December, 1682, still exists, but simply as a local court, and without any effort being made to establish other tribunals upon a common prin- ciple of judiciary organization. Such is the present state of commercial law in Saxony, to which the gov- ernment are now endeavoring to apply a remedy. In addition to other means for this purpose, M. Kinert, one of the most distinguished jurisconsults of the country, has latelj* received an order to review the re- cent laws, so as to bring them still more into unison with tho increasing demands of commerce and in- dustry. 41. Sckwarlzburg, Rudolitadt and Schwartzburg^on' derthausm, Principalitiei of, — As in the greater num- ber of the minor States of Germany, so in the above principalities, commercial differences are brought be- fore the ordinary tribunals, and are decided upon ac- cording to common law usage, or oven the laws of the neigblraring States, Saxony, etc. The former ordi- nance of Ist Septemlier, 1787, respecting failures, has been replaced by another of 1st Deceml)er, 1836, on the same subject. 42. Siciliea, Kingdom of the Two. — ^The French com mercial code was introduced into Naples the 28th May, 1808, when the throne was occupied by King Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte. The laws, having undergone • general revision at the time of the Restoration, a new code of commerce for the Two Sicilies was made public 26th March, 1819. It forms one of the parts of a body of general law, arranged under the five heads of civil, penal, and commercial law, and civil and crim- inal procedure. This code of commerce contain* nearly the same regulations as that of France, on the basis of which it has obviously been founded, and which long practice besides has sanctioned. 43. 8pmn,—ln 1827 King I'"erdlnand VII. nomi- nated a commission charged to frame a code of com- merce ; and on the 30th May, 1829, a royal ordinance sanctioned the new code, wldch was to come into force the Ist January, 1830. 44. Sweden. — For bills of exchange in Sweden there are two ordinances, of 1st February, 1748, and 12th June, 1816. The text of them has been given by M. Nonquier in his treatise. It appears, however, that these ordinances have been insufficient for the wants of commerce. Accordingly, on 20th May, 1835, there appeared a new law regulating inland bills. This law, which Id perfect in itself, and may be considered as the common law of exchange in Sweden, forms, with the ordinances already mentioned, an extremely remarkable body of laws. In relation to maritime law, a complete occount of it, as it formerly stood, may be found in the collection of M. Pardessus. He haa given *,here the ordinance of 1CC7, being an abstract of the Ilanseatic Recea Maritime Consulate, etc. Kn- merous changes, however, have since been made in this ordinance, certain articles having been retained, while others have been supressed or modified. On the present state of the maritime law of the north, the work of M. Poehls may Ije regarded as of the highest authority. A law, very minute in detail, was is- sued in regard to failures, in 1818. This has been more recently replaced by a new law of date 12th March, 1830, having regard to somq modification* made in it ia 1835. In regard to Juaticiary oTgaaUar LAW use LAW tlou, It li ittflolMt to note that, genorslly, the acttle- nlMt of coniMrclal dUpntas devolves on the civil tllbunalt. The oviy exception! are proceedings reU- tlvt to bllll, or arising tnm disputes which may have •rlMU bttwara ship-owners and the proprietors of the oargo, or th* captains, or between captains and their tiamtn. Actions in regard to these are within the eomp$Uacy of the municipal courts. The same tribu- nali take oognliance of ordinary failures. If the bankrupt la a noble, the case is brought before the courts of Justice. To these also an appeal lies trom tba daolsions of the municipal trlbnnals. When there it loom for appeal fl'om an inferior district court, it may be carried In the second instance before a superior one I and In the third (6naUy) before one of the three high oourta ot the realm. 45, Swluertand.—Eich of the twenty-two Swiss cantons U sovereign and Independent, ruled by its own laws. There exists, however, in the greater part of thain, no commercial law whatever. Matters of com- merce are treated as other affairs of civil life, with all the mitrictlons and Impediments which have been the f^lt of municipal legislation. In the Canton of Ge- neva, the French code. Introduced provisionally after the events of 1814, seems now to possess the authority of deflnltlve law. No change has been made in it, txeept In what regards the mode of legal procedure, delineated In the " Code de Procedure," arranged by M. Bellot, and promulgated 1st January, 1821. A law of 12th May, 1817, giving a new sanction to the French code of commerce, established those changes already adopted In France, and introduced into the art. 160 a provision having special reference to Geneva, namely : '' The loss of right mentioned in the art. 160, shall take place against the bearer of a bill of exchange, at one or more days after sight, or months or usances after sight, drawn from the Canton of Geneva, payable In foreign countries, who shall not exact the pay- ment or acceptance within the time prescribed by each of the preflxed dates." In the other French Cantons of Switzerland, the same French code, though not expressly enacted. Is frequently, in the absence of other legUUtlve authority, the guide, or Is at least appealed to as a rule of equity. The Canton of Vaud has published a law on bills of exchange, the 4th June, 1819, which is chiefly ex- tracted from the French code, and which has been also adopted in the Canton of Friburg. In 1818, the Council d'F.tat of the Cnnton of Vaud had prepared a report of a code of commerce to be submitted to dis- cussion, but It was rejected in 1841, by the Grand Council, The Canton of Friburg, in 1840, presented the proitt of the first book of the " Code de Com- mtret ; It has not yet, however, undergone discussion. ItOitly, Keufchatef has recently published some com- mercial laws. The loglslatlon in the German Can- tons Is extremely Imperfect. The least defective sys- tem of meroantua law is that of Basle, In which, in addition to an ordinance on exchange, of 14th Decern- tier, 1808, there are to be found various regulations in regard to mercantll* books, brokerage (26th Dec., 1822 1 April, 180S and 1817) as well as some old regu- lations (1710) relative to the ranking of creditors in a case ot bankruptcy. The latter also still retain some degree of authority, and are therefore not without Importance. Recently, In the Canton of Berne, the dlscunslon as to the propriety of maintaining the codes of France in the French portion of the Canton, seems to have led the way to important reforms, having for thiiir object the revision, not only of these codes in certain articles, but of the entire legislation of the country. This legislation is composed of very ancient laws, which could not be Included in this work. The law on bankruptcy, of 22d December, 1820, contains ■one very remarkable provisions. The new civil oode of Lucerne embraces various regulations on com- inilil matters. Zurich possesses an ordinance on bills of exchange, of date 16th Hay, 1805. St. Oall, an ordinance on the same of 18th July, 1784, and a law of 11th October, 1832, on 'commercial accounts. Lucerne follows the ordinance on bills of exchange of St. Gall ; Soleure, tliat of Basle ; und Friburg has the same law aa Vaud on bills of exchange, of date 24th June, 1829. In the German Cantons the defects of commercial law are supplied partly fiom the civil law, but chiefly by usage. Commercial disputes are deter- mined before the ordinary tribunals. A law on bank- ruptcy, of 18th May, 1818, for the Canton of Zug, contains some curious regulations in regard to religious establishments, 4n favor of the bankrupt himself, who preserves the right of redemption over the sale of his real estate, and against his family in certain cases. There still exists at Schoffenhausen a committee of commerce which traces its origin to the year 1703; shnllar ones were to be found in several cities in Switzerland. Its members were elected from the mercantile body, and were appointed to watch over every thing that concerned the commerce of the city. In 1806 it was erected into a tribunal of commerce for the decision of all mercantile differences. It is much to be wished that Switzeriand, especially in regard to commercial affairs, were possessed of a common legis- lation applicable throughout the whole extent of the confederations. It Is possible that the late reforms in the civil and the criminal codes of the Cantons indi- vidually, may lead evf qtually to this resnlt. In cer- tain cases, indeed, tha Cantons have already felt it necessar}-, amid the multiplicity of statutes and usages, to adopt certain measures of a general char- acter, by federal conventions or concordats. Thus, in a case of bankruptcy, by the concordat of 15th June, 1804, confirmed 8th July, 1818, every Swiss through- out all the Cantons, enjoys, on ranking as creditor, the soma rights with the inhabitant of the Canton in whose jurisdiction the bankruptcy has been declared, both in regard to preferable and to ordinary- claims. No seizure can take place of the movable property of the bankrupt, except for the common interest. Three Cantons only — Schwitz, Glaris, and Appenzell — re- fused their adherence to this federal agreement: their particular legislation seems to oppose it. By another concordat, 7th June, 1810, confirmed 8th July, 1818, the Cantons have mutually decreed that all the effects of the bankrupt, wherever found, must go into the general mass, without prejudice, meanwhile, to the claims of the present holder. In the case, however, of the body of the creditors contest ing either the properly of deposits, or a mortgage or ownership security situated in a different Canton from that in which the bankrupt was domiciled, the claim must be carried before the competent judge in that Can- ton, where the said effects, mortgage, or security, were fonnd. By virtue of art. 14 of the treaty of alliance . between Franca and Switzerland, Frenchmen and Swiss are respectively exempted, in pleading before the courts of each other's country, from the obligation to furnish a "judicium aolci." The Court of Cassa- tion, 0th April, 1807, and the Court of Colmar, '28th March, 1810, have specially determined to this effect; and the law may be considered as fixed. 46. runif.— There is no commercial law in Tunis. Usage and particular articles of agreement direct the decision in those cases of dispute that may occur be- tween native traders. Every trader keeps a book in which he registers his purchases and his sales. Tho native Mussulmen and Jews know no higher fonn of mercantile book-keeping. There are few countries, however, where oommercial probity is found more prevalent. ' And tliough cases may occur, in which the confidence of the creditor or the equity of the judge are attempted to be worked upon, yet such are pro- portlonably rate, when compared with similar instances among nations where the written laws of commerce are of a more definite and extended character. LAW Si 47. Turltf.—Tht geographical pultion of Turkey was destined to form thU rich oountrjr into an essen- tially commereial power. But tlie, natural indolence of its inhabitants has prevented It tnm reaping the advantages which nature had lavished on it. Their foreign trade is almost exclusively carried on by strangers, who enjoy, by virtue of diplomatic treaties, the privilege of payiiig dues of customs of smaller amount than those which are exacted from the Mus- solmen and Rayas, and possess the righ:, in cases of differences with other foreigners, of appealing to their own international laws. The Koran is the common law acceding to which causes among natives are al- most always decided. It is no matter of surprise, therefore, that there exists no special law ai>plicable to matters of commerce. Those enactments which seem to t>ear the nearest rc^mblance to such, are scat- tered throughout the general code — a collection of all sorts of laws ; to whi(£, moreover, the idea of religious sanctity is attached, and which have been brought together by various doctors for the purpose of regulat- ing religious services and public administrations. The collection of highest authority is that which was com- piled by order of Solyman II., from 1620 to 1666, en- titled Miiltelca Ehbar. This code has been translated by Chevalier Mourudja di Hossen, a native of Con- stantinople, of honorable Armenian family, and drago< man (interpreter) to the emlnissy of the King of Swe- den. The work appeared in France, the first two volumes in 1798, and the third in 1824, under the title of " Tableau General de I'Empire Ottoman," and pre- sents an accurate exhibition of the laws which govern that vast empire. This code contains a book on com- mercial matters, but the laws embraced in it refer rather to principles iMaring upon civil contracts,, and adapted to Mussulman manners, than to commercial right, properly so called. Under the administration of Ahmed-Fetclii-Pacha, in 188i), a project of a com- mercial code was prepared on the model of that of France. The fall of that minister, however, has in- definitely deferred its publication. As to commercial jurisdiction not falling under the rule of common law, actions in regard to it were determined at Constanti- nople and in the principal sea-ports of the Levant, by the chief officer of the castom-house (chef de la douane), aided by several assessors chosen from the leading merchants of the place, Mussulmen, Rayos, and freemen. This court, however, had been sup- pressed in the capital, and the Ministers of Commerce, similarly aided by assessors from the same class of merchants, have for some time taken cognizance of all commercial affairs. It was the wish of the Porte that disputes between Ottoman subjects and Euro- peans, should be carried by petition before this tribn- nal without the presence of any European assessor, and subject only to the interposition of the interpreter of the embassador of the respective country. The en- tire diplomatic body were opposed to this, and the min- istrj- of commerce has been abolished. The former order of things has now been re-established, and the Grand Dooanier (the officer already mentioned) pre- sides as formerly in the tribunals. Its decisions are final. " A cause," aays the religious code, " legally examined, discussed, and determined, can not again be brought into courts the law having pronounced against all appeal." The judgments which it pro- nonnces are not founded on any well-defined usages. The code of France is generally the rule to which, in their private transactions, the Rayas, who hold a seot in the tribunal, are accustomed to defer. The tribunal of commerce is not the only tribunal existing in Con- stantinople. There are other tliree, namely : 1. The Arz Odassei!, a supreme tribunal where formerly the Grand Vizir presided, now the Cheik-ul-islam (mufti), before whom, without appeal, diflferences of every kind uedetermfaied, save on commercial and maritime sub- J«t«. 2. The tribunal of the Cadis j the Mehkeim, a If:';:!.;,. . law sort of court of peace or conciliation. 8. The court of the commandant du port (governor of the harbor), Leiman-Odassy, who, assisted by several captains, judges of all maritime questions, insurances, ship- wrecks. Jettisons, etc. Commercial differences between the subjects of the Grand Seignior and those of foreign powers who are residents in the Ottoman empire, are determined summarily in presence of an interpreter of the legation, or of the consul of the nation to which the foreign subject belongs, sometimes by the decision of the custom-house authority, sometimes by that of the Pacha. In consequence of foreign treaties, every process Involving a sabject exceeetween the subjects of foreign powers, a decision is given by the consuls of the respective parties, assisted by merchants of both nations. The Turkish tribunals decide on ac- tions brought before them by the commentaries of the Koran, of which there are four in number, namely, as follows : the Hanafi, the Makki, thaCAa/(y, and the BambuU. These have never l>een translated from the original language. The Hcmafi is followed at Constan- tinople and tliroughout European and Asiatic Turkey ; the Maleki, in Barbary ; the Chafiy, in Egypt ; the Hambuli is no longer used; the collection entitled MuUeht Ehbar is known over the whole empire. 48. Tuicany. — The "Code de Commerce" has al- ways, since it was introduced into the Grand Duchy, held its position as law ; and with the exception of the suppression of the tribunals of commerce, which, not- withstanding, have been continued in Florence itself, it has undergone no alteration of any importance. The article 117, however, of the judiciary reform of 1838, has annulled the.regulations of article 61 of the French code, relative to obligatory arbitration in mat- ters of copartnery. An ordinance of 6th Septem- ber, 1814, with a view to prevent the facility with which persons not engaged in trade sign bills of ex- change, authorizes only bankers, merchants, and trad- ers, to draw bills of exchange. In cases when on such bills there should be the signatures of others than mer- chants, the ordinance grants only a recourse against them through the civil procedure. Another ordinance of 23d November, 1818, prescribes certain measures proper to shorten the procedure in matters of bills of exchange. Lastly, a third ordinance, of 20th Decem- ber, 1824, declares that the words value exchanged, in bills of exchange, shall be considered aa a true cause. We may also announce an important resolution of the jurisprudence of the court of Tuscany, by which a fail- ure does not destroy the provision of funds for a bill of exchange ; a question much disputed in France, and which the Court of Cassation has adjudicated upon ip. a manner contrar}' to the judiciary decisions of the tri- bunals of Florence, by decrees of 7th Februarj', 1816, 30th July, 1832, and 20th March, 1841. We may add that the article 130, of the new Sardinian code of com- merce, contains a regulation in conformity to the juris- prudence of Tuscany. An ordinance of 6th August, 1827, has made alterations in regard to insolvency and bankruptcy. It confers on the Advocate Fiscal (pub- lic prosecutor), or his substitute, the same powers with those of the public minister of France. The same or- dinance proceeds thereafter to abrogate the enactments of article 587, of the French code of 1807, relative to those cases in which proceedings might be taken against a simple bankrupt. The court above men- tioned in Florence consists of two merchants who are judges, two surrogates, one judge, a professional law- yer, and n " greffler." The judges-consular are chosen by the principal merchants ; the list of nominals is laid before the Grand Duke for approval. The Judg- ments awarded by this tribunal may be carried hy appeal before the tribimal " de la vote," and finally before the council of justice. All maritime cases are LAW 1188 LAW nndar the JoritdictloQ of the " bureau de k Merine," at Leghorn. lo the other provlncei of Toicuiy the trlbnniUs of commerce have been snppreued, and the Gogniianee of commercial affUn tranaferred to the «1tU Jn^^, whoee Jorladtetton b unlimited. 49. Viittd Stattt.—TiM commercial law of the United Statee b, In general, the lame with that of En- gland. The prineiplea connected with it are almost always traeeable to the latter soarce ; modifled, how- ever, by the legislation of individual States, as well as by the decisbns of the ftderal court of the Union, and other inferior tribunals. English laws are not valid as such. They must be sanctioned by legisla- tive enactment, or introduced by a cour^, as an expo- sition of principles common to the two nations. Each State has a separata commercial legislation. This is fonnd<)d either on express statute, or on decisions of court. But as the decrees of the dUbrent courts have a sort of authority of themselves, and as, in addition to this, questions In relation to commerce emanate fh)m general principles, or consist only In determining the proper Interpretation of the contracts, commercial law may be said (o be the same, or, at least, to vary very inconsiderably throughout the Union. Numer- ous questions on commercial aflklrs are decided by the federal couAs of the Union (district and circuit courts), held for the purpose of talcing cognizance of civil dis- putes between inhabitants of different States, and of all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction. The final revision of the decisions of these courts In gen- erally competent to the Supreme Court of the United States, which, differing ftom the Court of Cassation In France, judges both St regard to fact and law ; and the decrees of which, while not constdend as deter- mining the principles of legislation or jurisprudence, have, indirectly, great influence In giving uniformity to the decisions of Inferior courts in the several States of the republic. Thongh each State is in Itself Inde- pendent, yet laws of a general and uniform character may be enacted by Congress. For example, article Ist of section 8 and section 4 of the Constitution of 1787, provides, that Congress shall have the power, in the matter of bankruptcy — a subject of so grave In- terest in America, and affecting so deeply public credit — to enact laws that shall Ira obligatory on all the States, and take place of local enactments, whatever these may be. TTnder a general view, the tribunals must form their decisions on the basis of four suffi- ciently defined elements : 1st. The common or imper- fectly written law. 2d. The statutes of the particu- lar State*. 8d. The legislative acts of Congress ; and 4th. The decisions of English courts and treatises on English jurisprudence to which lawyers are permitted to appeal, as rawon icrit, professionid decision reduced to writing. There are no tribunals of commerce in the United States. Commercial or maritime ques- tions are determined In the first Instance by the ordi- nary courts appointed in each State. There are many exceptions, however, viz, ; 1st. Of maritime civil causes such as seamen's wages, mortgages, salvage, engagements of vessels, etc., in general, of every nal action against the vessel, or even in certain cases against the cargo. 2d. In the case of seizure of the ship or cargo. 8d. In regard to patent* for discovery, rights of authorship, etc. ; and 4th. In an action in- tended by a citizen of one State against a citizen of another. In all these cases the jurisdiction devolves on the federal court of circuit or of district. Though the judges have no political privileges, they possess each in his own sphere, great power; Inasmuch as they may reftue to apply thA law on the ground of unconstitutional im|nYiprlety in particular cases brought befbre them— an ingenious but sure method of fixing the character of imperfection on a particular law. In order to place In one view the documents oeeessaiy to give uie most perfect view of American legislation on th* yhIoui matter* contained in a com- mercial code, It WM necessary to have recourse to the best aeoredUed •xpoeitiona and commentaries, and to which the American* themselve* attach the highest authority. The author generally followed, as the most accurate, is Chancellor Kent, whose Commnta- ria on American Law, presents an admirable and gen- eral view of commercial legislation. With reference to bankruptcies, the Congress having made use of the power gruted to it by the Constitution, voted 19th June, 1841, a general law for all the States of the Union, which cams in force 1st February, 1842. See iNSOLVEKOr.. BO. Waltaehia and MoUavia.— These principolltles are ruled by laws, originally a mixture of Roman law and usage. More recently the laws of the Lower Empire came into force, and retained their authority to a pe- riod not yet remote. The position of the two coun- tries, pressed by the great powers which surround them, has led them to feel the importance of stability In civil legislation. For this purpose there have been established organic regulations, with a view to protect the citUeus against the usurpations of the governing authorities, as well as to rsnder secure the rights of the principalities against their powerful protectors. A desire has been felt also to preserve the traditionaiy usages which are the expression of national habits, though sometimes these usages are not perfectly in harmony with the French legislation, which has beon adopted as the leading authority. The aristocratic principle Is maintained in all its rigor in their laws. As the primary element in that principle is the pres- ervation of the great estates, the law confers on pa- rents, according to their rank, and, falling these, on Inhabitants of the locality, a preference In the right of purchase, and also a power of redemption on the sale of immovable property. In the cose of encroach- ments on contiguous property, prescription is not admitted. So jealous indeed are the inhabitants in preserving their estates intact that the property con- veyed in dowry by the wife (such is the rigor with which the dotal system is carried into execution), is fireed from obligation to a leasehold by the simple fact of marriage, if the husband refuses to confirm the lease ; a regulation greatly tending to shackle and dis- courage the labors of the agriculturist. In 18-10 a commercUl code was laid before the General Assembly, containing, with a few alterations, the same regula- tions with that of France. It has 696 articles. After having been adopted by the General Assembly it re- ceived the sanction of the prince, June, 1840, and was to come into force 1st January, 1841. OuaoMouMioAL Tablb or Comhkboial Laws. Dtfa, Tltl<. Covmtrlii, B.C, HarlHine Law of Menu India. • B.O. Maritime Law of Burgee India. General Code of Malacca India. B.C. IiawonContr*ct,Usury, Factor, Ex- change, Debtor and Creditor, Fartnardiip, Books of Commerce, Maritime B.C. Lav on Bankers, Debtors and Credit- ors, Maritime, etc Bth oent Antani Brevlamm of Alario II., a Court of Admlraltjr at Amalfl for all Nations trading In the Mediter- ranean and Constantinople etb oent Excerpta Juris Orientalis ad Rem Nantloam PertUientIa tth cent. Jus Navala Bliodlomm. . . . 940. The Gelanlng on Shipping 10«8. Maritime Mv of Trani llth eent The Maritime Law of VriUlam the Conqueror 1150, Ststnles of Bleswick Maritime Lav. 1180. Statute* of Aries. 1188. Code llta Oonstttatnm Usns 13th cent Maritime Law from the Book of the Assises, and from the Usages of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, oy the Conrt of Borgesaea [From this doeuaient it appears that ether lawa were enaoted on oom- m*i«* in generaL j J*n**Iem ISth con Qreeee. 13th cen Home. IStbcen ISlh cen Amalfl. 13th oen Eastern Empir* 13th cen Rhodes. Norway. Two SloUles. 18th cen 180S, U England. ,< Denmark. . 1803. M EVance. Lnbee. 1303. H Pis*. ISOt p, 1306. A ■ i ' ' About About M18 or LAW li^O LAW 1!70. «lw> dated mt and 1»S.]., UarlUme Stetuta, extract ifom the from itatute of liTl. Maritime Law, extraoted Pragmatlo liTl Marltlnie Law, extracted from the ' OultUMngtUigh of the King Hag- nut m4. Hartttme SUtotei ms. MarlUme statute! 1280. Maritime Law, extracted from the lont-iog Code. 1282. Maritime Law, a Uonitltutlon. 1983. Maritime Law, a Constitution. 1283. Maritime Law, the Recognottrunt Pnctrtt 1284. Maritime Law, from the Statute of. 1286. Letters Patent of Kdward L on the Contribution of Jetlnn 1236. Maritime Law, extracted from a Conitltntlon of Jacob I 1288. Prannatlc of the King of Aragon rolatlTo to Shlpwrccka 1283. Pragmatic of the King of Angon rdatlve to Flratei 1202. Maritime Law, extracted from the Statute of 1293, Maritime Law, from the Aren Curia marit. 1290. Maritime Statute About 1300. Maritime Law of Bremen.... 18th cent ConMtMo SoHetaNi Navtum. 13th cent Maritime Law, extracted from the let and 2d Skraa 13th cent Maritime Code. 13th cent Maritime Laws, extracted from the General Codes. . . . IStheent Maritime Code. CnitncoUMiioAi, Tabu or OoHHnoiAL Law»— 0i>iiMimm((. Dal«. tltlfl. 11th cent Maritime Law known under the name of Rooles or Judgments of. . 12th cent Law of Orlgi'a, or the Code of 12th cent Maritime Law of the Bnrgha of ISth cfnt Maritime Law called Blar Kerar-Ratt 1814. CItU SUtutes of. 1238. Maritime Im the Establishments of 1303. Maritime Law, extracted from the Establlahmenta of ,, . , 1303. Maritime Law, extraeted from the EsUbllshments of 1303. Maritime Law, extracted from the Establishments of 1301 Pragmatlo of Maritime Law 1306. ArUeles of Maritime Law About 1816. Extract from a Maritime Statute of Genoa About 1316, MariUme Law, extract of a Statute of Bassari 1818 or 1S19, Brevt partm KUtantani (CsgUa) Colony of Pera. Dalmatla. MontpeUler, Bad. Bremen, RimluL Catalogna, Hamburg, Genoa. Uand of Sardinia. Island of Sardinia. CntonoLoeiOAL Tabu or Comkbioial Laws— AmMiiusd DrMa, This, CotolllM, About UM, MariUme Uw, extraeted from the Statute of the Oily of Wlsby, 1880. Extract from a Statnte of Genoa (Sept 14) 1880, PrMlece tor the Chartera (armateur in course) 1881. MariUme Law, extract from the Statute of Pbaro Island, of Leuloainthe 1888, MariUme Statute of Genoa (Jan, 11) 1888. MariUme Law, extract from thu Skraa. 1888, Extract from an Inqniry on the MariUme Law of ., 1889, MaritlmeStatntoof Oenoa (Not. 10) 1840. Maritime Law, extracted from the Coutnme of 1840. MariUme Ordinanoa of the King of 1841. Maritime Statute of Oenoa (gept 6) 1841, MariUme Ordinance relaUre to Uie (}ansuls of Barcelona 1848. Ordinance of the Haglstntes of Bar- celona on MariUme Law 1848. Begntatlons of Consular Procedure. 1846 or 184T, Maritime Law, extracted from 6th Toluma of the "OlTll Statutes" 1864, Ordinance of the Xing of Angon on Men.of-War 1861 Ordinance of the King of Aragon on Narlgatlon In Times of War 1886, Ordinance of the King of Aragon on MariUme CourKS 1869. Races of the HanseaUo League.. . . . 18T8. Extract of the Inquiry of Queenbor- ough OD the Maritime Law, 18TT, MariUme Law, extract from the Statute of Lerant 18T8, Reces of the HonseaUc League. 1880. Reces of the Hanseattc LMgue 1831. RcgulaUon In the Consulate of Bar- celona 1386. RegntaUon for the Consulate of Bar- eelona 1890, MariUme Law, extraoted bom the Coutume. 1391. Reces of the HsnseaUc League 189T. MariUme Statnte 1899, Pririleges of the Grand Admlnl. . , 14th cent Maritime Law, known under the name of Jugementa de Damme, or Laws of Weatcapelle 14th cent Body of MariUme Law, known under the name of Contolato del Man 14th cent ArUcIes of MariUme Law 14th cent MariUme Law, extracted from the GompUaUon of the Law of Lubec, published by Brokos 14th cent Maritime Lav, extracta from the Statute of 14th cent Maritime I.aw, from the Olril Statute of Catoro 14th cent Ghapten on the Armaments In Course 14th cent Maritime Law, extracted from the RccapltulaUon of the Ordi- nance of 14th cent Maritime Law, extract fremi the Lvre de Justice el de plet,\ drawn up hi France, 1406. Royal Cedtile, rpUUro to the Jurls- dlcUon of Judges, Consuls 1412. Reces of the Uanseatic League 141T. Rccca of the Hanseattc League 1413. Recce of the Uanseatic Leegue 1428. Lew on Averages (Juno 9) 1432. Privilege In favor of Judges, CoU' sulsof 1434 Reces of the UanseaUc League (June 6) 14.14. Reces of the HanseaUc I^ckgue (Oot) 1436. Ordinance of the Magistrates on Maritime Police 1436. Ordinance on Insurances, 1436, Ord.'nsnco on Insunnees. 1 436 Ordli. wee on Maritime Poliea, i44l. Reces nf the Hanseatic Leagna 1441. Maritime Statute of Genoa 1442. Reces of the Ilanseatio League 144T. Reces of the HanseaUo League 1460. MariUme Law. extract of the notori- ous Role 1461 Rcccs of the HanseaUo Leogne 1466. MariUme Law, extract of alTflleltur 1466. Maritime Law, extract of a WiUtkiu 146T, MariUme Lav,extrao(of a iniMtHr, additions Diotilg. IstaBdofOotblMd. Gano*. CataloBta. Adriatio. Genoa. Appennda. Eugtand, Genoa. Island of OUroa, Aragona, Gaiarla, Sicily, Barceiana, Valsnsa Venice. ^,.,i Aragona. i< Aragona. Aragona. Uansa Towns. EngUnd. Genoa. Ilaniie Towns, llanse Towns. Alexandria, Dsniasco, ,.., Harlem, Hansa Towns, Ancono. Sicily, Low.NstharUBdn- Venlce. Bremen, Lubea Riga. Dalmatla. Catalogna, Seville, Barcelona, ' Ilanse Towns, llanse Towns, H insa Towns, Venios, Barcelona. Hansa Tovni. Hanaa Tovnsi Baroalona, Baroelona, Barcelona, Barcelona. HanseTovufr Genoa. HanssTovni. Hanse Towns, Bremen. Hansa Towns. Dantaig, Dantilg. LAW OnoROLoaioAL Tabu or OomiuoiAL La' DtH. IWt. AbaalltfT. ReinUttoiuonlfaritlmaNtr- IntloD. MM. Onllnun of th* IbgMntM on In> raimnoM 1461. OnHaHMo of ttaa ma«iitntM on In- 1190 LAW 14M. OrMMBoaooIunfMMHMulTS) 14T0. RoMi or th* HnnMnUe liMfluo. . 14B1I. R«eMortlnR«n(Mti«L«MiM(Mar) 14Mw Ordlamv of Um UtH^S— on In- 1408. llaritlme Law, ntnot fram Iho Statatii (Aprti W). • whiol 14M. Pngmatla, wbleh eoniUtntM • Con- 14»T. ll*rHlmeI««,extnet(tonUwa«n- enlC'ode t4n. Multlnie T««, tkxl* of Emmuoel. iSth coDl. Marittmo Utw, known nndor the MUM of " tr«VM MariHmu i* Amdtriitm, JRiAuytm, aUU' •m," ate. int Coi Voniao. HaaaaTowu. Ilanaa Towna. Banaloaa. Aneoaa. Bni|oc Hambarf. PortngaL Northara Mathar- 15th oant OompUaUon of Iha MarlUma ta» 15th oeni Maritima Uw. 15th oant. Marl'.tma Lav, cxtraalad fimn tha aioMm Anemitam urM«. 16th eent Addltlona to tbo Maritime Statutoa of IMT. 150T. Ilaritlnw Ordbianoa of the Offloan of tha Cm d» la Cvntnlaeim (NoT.M) 1506. MariUoM Uw, attrUmtad to tha KInf John 151ft Fragmado of tha King of Aragon nUtlTe to tha Vonauiar Jnrlalle- llona^ 1610. Maritima Lav, eztnot fhim a Stat- ute of (Jnna 91) 151ti Pragmatle eonearelna the Freight- ing of Bhlpa (Jaa. Si) 1511. MarTttroe Lav, extract Crom a 8tat- nle of (Deo. ID) 1518. Statute on Inanraaeea (Jan. 13). 1618. Statute on Iniaranoaa (Jan. IT) WU. Statute on Inaaraneei (Jnna 15). . . . 16KI. Maritime Lav, extracted from PrMlege granted I51T. Ordlnaaea on the Loading of Shipa (JulflB 1S2T. Staitute relatln to the Bottoaur (Aug. 18) 15(0. ReeeaoffhaHanaeatlc League. 1531. Maritime Lav, extnet ftrom a Stat- ute 1BS8. Ordtawaee of Bottomrjr 158T. Marlltme Lav, extraet from an Ordi- nance (May 18) 15S8. Addltlona to the Pragmatic of Jan- uary 81,1611 1588. ReguUtlon on the Police of theCon- tractatlon 1688. Ordinance for laenranee 1640. Maritima Lav extract of aa Ordl- 1641 1548, WUby. Oantaig. Aneona. Ancona. SarlUa. Denmark. Barcelona. Ancona. Burgoii. Ancona. Plorenee. Florence. , Florence. Oantaig. Vaniaa. Aniatardam. RaaaaTovni. Plaarow Dordrecht Brahant Bnrgofc Bnrgoa. Borgoa. Prnaala. Lubac Maritime Ordinance Maritime Lav, eztrtet of aa Ordl' nance (Jan. It). 1551. Maritime Ordinance (July 19) 1661. Extract of tha Maritime Ordinance CharleaV, 1566. Maritime Lav, extract of the Book . II. of the Criminal Statute 1666. Maritime Lav, extract fh>m the Ordinance of the Uontraetation. . 166T. Extract of a Statute ralatlTa to In attraaea(Oot) 'Genoa. 16(10. Maritime Ordhianee for tha Con-| tractatlon BUboa. 16(1. Maritime Code Denmark. Nelherlanda. NatherUnda. Spain. Oenoa. 'Serine. 16(8. Maritime Ordinaaoa (Oat 81). VUn. PoUeyof Inanranoa 1608. Lkv OB Bhipvreeka (June S). 1S08. Iav on Loading of Bhlpa and Ship- vracka , 16T0. Maritime OrdUiance (Jan. 10) 16T0. Extract on Bottomry Boada. I5T1. Beceaof theRanaaathiLaagaa..... 1581. Extract on iMuraaoaa of the tioa' tnme 1684. Edict on the Admiral^ (March). . , 1686i Lav on Bottomry Bonda (Aug. 4).., 1560. Lav on Shlpvraeka (Jane 18). 1680. Lav on Inanranoa (Sept. 18) 1688. Maritime Uv, eztnuied from the Slatntea vm. Maritima Lav, axtraeted fkom tha CirUBtatv«w, Nethorlaada. Ancona. Venice. Vanlee. Nether landa. Middelbnrg. Hanaa Tovni. Antvorp, France. Tenie^ Teniae. Tanlce. Lnbee. OmHimtd. Cnoxou)aiaAL Taili or OominouL Lav*— Cbfi«(iMi«{, 1888. Uv on Loading of Ship* (Nor. 4). . TenlMr^ 1581. UvonBhipvraeka, Dnohy of Urblao 15*r. Maritima Lav, extract from th* Statnlaaof. 18(8. Ordtnanea on Inanraaca (Jaa. 81). . . 1688. Maritima Lav, extraet Aram the a«- dant Statata of. 1688. Pragmatic of the King of Aragon ou the Ooaaolar Juriadiotion 1(00. Ordinance on Ineuraaaa (Sept 80). 18th eent Ooldonde lamer Klh cent Maritima Lav, extract ftrom tha Statute of. ( Itthoent. Hanieatio Bagnlattona on the Police of Bhlpa. I Kthcent Maritime Lav, extract flrom the Political Btatntaof. i Kth cent Maritima Lav, tnm tha Statute of the Court of Marchante 1(01. Statute of ElUabetb on Inaurance. 1(01. Lav on Navigation (Ang. 81) 1(08. Statute on Booka of Commeioe 1(06. Mercantile Lav, extract from the Id part of tha Oeneral Statute of. . 1(04. Pnsmatlo on Sallora (July IS), . . , 1(04. Ordinance on Inauranca l(05i Lav on loading and arming Ship* (ApriiK) : • 1(06. Ordiaanca on Iniuranee (June 10) . 1(08. Lav on the Luggage of Sallora (OctS) 1(08. Ordinance on Bottemry Bonda (Fob. 14) 1(08. Maritime Lav, extracted from the Statute of BonUkolo 1(10. An Act ooncemlqg MonopoUoa. . .... 1(10. Maritime Lav, ilbm tha Coutume of 1(10. Ordinance on Inaurance (Jan. M). , . 1(14. Ordinance on Inaurance (H>yO)... 1(14, Recea of the Hanoeatic League 1(16. Maritima Lav, from the Chaptera of the Court of I KIT. Maritime Lav, from the Coutume of ! 1(18. MartUme Lav, from the Btadti- tagh. I 1(10. Maritime Lav, from the Code of the Duchy of. 1(20. Ordinance on Inonranco (Dec. 6). . . 1(11. Declaration of the Maglatratea of Amaterdam on the Bottomry. . . 1(11. Ordinance on Inaurance (Sept. T). 1(11. Lav on Quarantine (Sept 18) KH. Ordinance on Inaurance 1(18. Ordinance on Bottemry Bond (Aug. 83) 1(13. Ordinance on Inaurancea 1(14. Lav on Inaurance (March 11). . 1616. Ordinance on Inaurancea (Jon. 1 1682. Lav on Prorlalonlng of ShIpa (April 80) :.....' 1682. Lav on the Police of Narigatlon (May 1) 1 1633. Maritime Ijn, extract from the computation of the Pragmatic of 1(88. Extract of an Ordinance of Enchuy- oen on Inaurance 1640. Maritime Iav, from the Pragmatic of the Orand Maater. 1644. Lav on Bottemry Bond.(May 20).., 1666. Ordinance on Maritime Lav and Ju- rladicUon (March 16) 16(1. Ordhiaaoe on Insurance (Feb. 12). 1664. Act of Charlca IL on Marltlmo Lav and Juriadlctlon 1(6T. Maritime Code 16T8. Maritime Lav, extract from Statute of. 16S1. The Lav on Billa of Exchange of] Copenhagen (April 16) , 1(81. Ordinance on the Marine (Aug.). 1681. Regulatlona on the Marine (Oct 24) 1 1681. ReguUtiona on Bottemry (Jan. 80). . 1681. A Tribunal of Commerce citabUolicd (Deo. 11).,,, 1681. Lav on BUla of Exchange (Oct 2), 1681. Ordinance of St SebaaUan on the Cootraetatlon (Sept ID), 1683. Maritime Lav, from tno gonrral code, 1688. Maritime Lav, Code of Oirlitliin V. 1684. Ordinance on Inaurance (Nor, 22), , 168T. Ordinance on Inaurance. (Jan. 31), , 168T. Ordinance on Inaurance 16S8. Ordinance on Iniuranee (Jan 2D). . . 1(88. Ordinance on Insurance (Oct 2D). . . 1(88. Ordinance oa Iniunnoe (Jan. 26). . Oanlalg. Amaterdam. Culm. Barcelona. MIddelburg, Ouidon, Oaeta. Ranoe Towns. Sarona. Lucca. England. Venice. Hamburg, Hamburg. Tvo SioUIea. Rotterdam. Venice, Amaterdam. Venice. Portugal. Coritca. Great Britain. Ostend. Amsterdam. Amsterdam. Ilanae Towns. Sardhilo. Zulteotte. Sveden, Prussia. Amsterdam. Amaterdam. Amaterdam, Venice. Tvo Sicilies. Portugal. Tvo SicUIos, Venice, Amsterdam, Venice. Venice. Sardinia. Enchu;jen. Malta. Oenoa. Rotterdam. Flossing. England. Sweden. Riga. Denmark, France. France, Amsterdam, Leipxig. So-ony, Leipzig. StkMTij, St Scboatlan. Denmark and Norway. Denmark. Portugal, Amsterdam. Senate of Bremen- Amsterdam, PortugaL Amiterdam. 1TT4. 1TT6. irsr. Coil 1T88. ' m4. nD6. 18(1, Or 1801, 1801 On'l ISOK Un .(J| LAW 1101 LAW . ScbuUftK. 1TS6. Ordlranoe on Commerce (March 4) ITDS. Ordinance on BUli of Ezchango (Octl) 1T66. Additional Article* on Bankruptdea (Dec 4) 1TT3. Itegnlattona on DUIa of Exchange (Not. 6) 1TT4. Lawon Merchant Shipping (July 86) 1TT6. Lav on Tribunal! of Kxrhango and Commerce (Jnljr 82) 1TT6. Ordinance on BUIi of Exchange, 1T7V. On the declaration of Cargoea at the arrival and laillng of Ships (March 18) ITSl. Ordinance on BUli of Exchange. St OaU (June 18). 1T8S, Ordinance on BllU of Exchange (Sot. M) ITSO. An Act to explain and amend an Act on the Reiponelbilltj of Ovnen of Shlpi, etc, (Sept. 1) 1T87. Concerning the RegulaUona eatab- bllahed for obtaining a Royal Pa- tent of Navigation (Sept. 14) 1T88. Ordinance on Commercial Partner- ihips (Not. 21) 1T94. \ Maritime Loan (Dec. IB) ITM. Ordinance on Book* of Commerce (Dec 21) 18(11. Ordinance of Broker*. Bade (April 28) 1803. Ordinance on BUI* of Exchange (Aug. 81) 1801 On the deposit of Aooount* at the " Oreffe" In caaa of Bankruptcy (Not. 8) IBK. Law on BUI* of Exchange. Zurich (MayU) 1808. Code of Commerce (Jan. 1) 1806. Lav on BUI* of Exchange (Dec 14) . 1810. LawonBankmptoy. Bade (Dec 18) 1811. LawonBankraptcr. Bade (Dec 2), 1818. An Act to limit the responaibUUy of Ship-owner* In certain Cargoe* (Jnly 21). 181B. Regulation on Bankruptoy (Not. 1), 1815, Prooedure In matter of Bai' (Not. 1). ankroptcy flnovoMaiOAL Tabu or OommoiAL Laws— OmMMMii. Dm*. Tint. IMT. Praamatlo on MarlttB* Lav of arand-Maator Ptrdlo* (8«pkl). . 1890. Ordinance oa Inauranc* (Jan. 28). . . lTlhe«nt. Marltlm* Lav, exlrael tnm a eod* of Oeortla, by th* Prlao* Takhlang. ITth cmk Usaae* on euatom* of Olonn*. ITOB, All Ael (or glTlng like remedle* on Pronlaaory Note* a* I* nov upon BUI* of Exchange, and for tb* bet- ter payment of Inland BUla of Ex- change (May 1). ITIO. An Act for rerlTlng, oontlnnaney, and appropriating certain Dulie* (Maren 8) ITU. Lav on BUI* of Exchange (March I) mi Lav on BUla of Exchange (March 22) int. An Act to rednce the rate of Inter- est (Sept 28) 1T1& Lav on BUI* of Exchange (Aug. 1) ITlt. Ordinance on Bankruptoy. Bade. 1T21. AnAct for preTentlng trading to the East Indie* (June St) 1721. RegiUatlan* on BUI* of Exchange for the City of Norembnrg (Feb. 10), ITSl. RegnlatlonaonlnniranceaandATer. r(8ept. 1) nee on BUI* of Ezehange dgned by minor* and poraons not ennnd In trade (Sept. 4). . 1TS4. Svedbh (}ade 1TS4. AnAottoprerenttbelnilunouaprac- tlte of Stock-Jobbing Olune 1) 1T84. An Act fur aettllng the reapousiblli He* of Ovner* of Ship* (or the eels of M**ter*and Seamen (June 24). 1789. Ordinance on BUI* of Exchange (May 90) 1740. An Act to regnUte inenranee of Ship* and on Merchandise (Ang. 1). . . . , 1740. An Act for regulating Insurance up on Uto*, etc 1T4T. Ordinance on Bankruptcie* (May 10) 1T48. Ordinance on BUI* of Exchange (Keb. 1) 1T50. Ordlnanca on BUI* of Exchange. 1763. ReguiatlonouBankrnptcie*(Aug.8t) 1766. Ordinance on BiU* of Exchange (March 20) Malta. AmatardaB. Oaorgia. Franoe. Oreal Britain. Great Britain. Ilamhurg. Bremen. Great Britain. Brunavlck. Svltierland. Great Britain. Bayarla. Hamburg. Hamburg. Sweden. Great Britain. Great Britain. Frankfort. Great Britain. Great Britain. Ilessc-Electorate. Sweden. Saxe-Altenbnrg. Hamburg. Schwartiburg, Rudolstadt Austria. Austria. Hamburg. Augshnrg. Austrl*. Austria. Saxe-Cob. Goth*. Austria. Switxerland. BaTarla. Great Britain. Austria. Hesse Electorate. Denmark. Hesaa-Electorat*. Switzerland. Anhalt-Coethea Switzerland. Switzerland. France. Switzerland. Switzerland. Switzerland. Great Britain. Mdta. Malta. Obboroumioai, Taaui or OoMMUoiai Law*— CbuMmuA Date, TTUc, 818. Ordinance on Commercial Jnrlsdlo- Uon(Dee. 16) 816, Ordinance on Bill* of Kxchann (Feb. 12) of Exchange ' rcaumpUon of Specie Pay 817. Ordinance on Broker*. Baal* (Aug. 8) 818. On Bankruptcy. Bade (Feb. 11).... 818. Lav on Bankruptcy, Zug(Mayll) 818, Ordinanea on Brokar*. Lelpsls (M»rch7) 810. Code of Commerce (March 26) 819. Ordinance on Bllli (April 20) 819. Act for rcau meat* 811. An Act to regulate acoeptanca of Bill* of Exchange (June 1) 891. An Act for preventing Fraud upon (Jredltors, etc. (July 2) 821. Provisional roKUlalton of C merce (Juno 'ii) 811. ReguUtion on llrnkers (Juno 20) 811. Ordinance on IliUs of Exchange (July 18) " 821. Law on Merchant*, Basle (Doc 28 828. Law on Bankruplales (March 20). . 828. Lav on Bankruptdea. Berno (Dec 12) 824, Regulation on Brokerage (Dec 16) . 826. An Act to amend the Law* reUtlye to Bankrupt* (May!) 826. Ordinance on BUI* of Ex. (May 18). 826. An Act to alter and amend the Law for the better protection of the Property of Merchanta (Jnly 6), 820. Code of Commerce (Jan. SI ) 820. Hay tian code (March 28) 820. An Act for better regulating co- partnerahip of certain Bunker* In England (May 20) 827. BUls of Exchange payible on Good Friday or Christmas Day (Apr. 12) 827. Ordinance on BiUs of Ezcnange (Doc. IT) ,828, On BUls of Exchange (Jan. 21), 828. An Act for rendering a written mem- orandum necessary to the validity of oertaln promisee and engage- ments (May 9) 880. Code of Commerce (May 1) ,830. EslablUhmer.t of a Tribunal of Ap peal at Anoona (Feb, 2T) 830. Law on Bankruptcy (March 12) 881. An Act to prohibit the payment In certain tndes of wages In goods, etc (Oct. 16) 882. On the establishments of Broker*. Drcadon (April 14) ,881. An Act for regulating the protesting for nou-paymont of Bills of Ex- change (Aug. 9) 831. Bankruptcy amendment (Ang. 15). . 832. Law or commercial Arms, partnor- shlv3, female property Lucerne (Off.Jl) ;831. An Acr to csUbllsh a Court In Bank ruptoy (Oct. 20) 838. Bank Charter (Ang. 29) 833. Code of Commerce (Sept. 13) .833. Ordinance on the evidence resulting from Books and Papers of Brok en (Sept 21) 834. Slavery abolislicd in Jamaica 834. Law on the Organization of Justice 884, Circular on Bankruptcies. Berne (Sept 17) 834. Legislation and Judiciary Regula- tions (Nov. 10) 836. Law on Bills of Exchange (Hay 20) 836. Illegal Securities (Aug. 31) 836. Weights and Measures (Sopt 9). . . 836. An Act to amend the Law touching the Letters-patent for Invention (Sept 10) 886. Regulation of Partnership (Dec. 28) 836. An Act for declaring the Law aa to the day for proacntation for pay- ment o.* Bills of Exchange, etft (Aug. 13) 83T. Joint-stock Companies (July IT). . . . 838, Joint-stock Bank Partner* (Aug. 14) '"* Imprisonment for Debt end ln*olvent Act (Aug. 10) 8,^'<. (;heap Postage Act ,839. Law on Bills of Exchange Vand (June 4) 1S39. Lawon theoonflrmatlonof theClvU Code aud Code of Commerce Berne (June 22) OMIIlltS, Hambui, Swadaa SwitiarlaiML . Bwltaarlaad. SwUatrUnd. Saxe. Two SIclU**, S*ze-Wdm*r. Great Britain. Great Britain. Great Britain. Roman Stat**. Lubec Hanover. Switzerland, Urunawlck. Switzerland. Hamburg. Great Britain. Denmark. Great Britain.^ BusaU. Haytl. .„ Great Britain. Great Britain. Rostock. Bremen. Great Britain. Spain. Papal State*. Sweden. Great Britain. Saxony. Great Britain. Great Britain. Switaerland. Great Britain. Great Britain. PortngaL Saxony. Great Britahi. Greece. Switzerland. Roman State*. Sweden. Great Britain. Great Britaia Great Britain. Hamburg, Great Britain. Great Britain. Great Britain. Great Britahi. Great Britaia Switzerland. Switzerland. LEA OmMWOiMieAi Taili or Comhuoiai, La« rw<. tlUa. I law. An Ael for Uit batter protcotlon of^ 1192 uu MrtiM dullng with paraoM UabU lo thi Ihuikrapt !.*«• (July 10). . ISat. EiempllugMrlarnnilliof Rnlunim, •to., from tht opantloD of uu Lav rabtliif to Utury (July K)). . Oraal Drilatn. IMO. Aamlnltr Court (Aug. T) Orut Britain. IMAi On Ilankruplclaa (Au|. T) Ilanorer. IMS. Not Factor'a Act (Juna BO) Oreat Brltala IM4. Lav on BUU of Ezebanga (Aug. 4). . Norvajr. IMS. An Aet for the relief of IneolreDt Dabtora (Aug. 13) Oreat BriUln. 1843. Bankniptey Amendment Aet (Aug. U) Oreat BriUln. IMS. Oode of Commerce (Dec. HO) Sardinia. 1844. Bank Begulatlon Aet (July 10) Oreat Brilnln. 1844. Deblora' and Credltort'Arrangemont Bill (Aug. «) Great Britain. 1844. Inaolreneir, Bankruptcy, etc., amend- ment (Aug. 8). . Jolnt-atock Bank Act (Hopt. D), Act Oreat Britain. Oreat BriUln. Oreat Britain. Oreat BriUln. Oreat Britain. Oreat Britain. Oreat BriUln. Svcden. PruHla. PruHia. Oreat BriUln. Oreat BriUln. PruiaU. PruiaU. 1840. 1840. 1844. 1844. Dullea on Cotton abolUhe'd. ifUn. Navigation Act (Auit. 4) I84^ Sblp-regtatry Art (Aug. 4) 184B. Harohant Beamen rrolectlon (Ang.8) 1846. BeguUtlon on Commerce e-.d Hanu ncturea (Dec. K, 1848. Ordinance on Partnenhip 1844. Ordinance on Tribnnale of Com- merce 18. Com Lav reform 184T. Act for relief of IrcUnJ (1'8,000,()0)) 184T. Amanduiant of Reglatratlon, eU. ; Jolnt-itook Company' a Act, eto. (July «) I84T. Bankruptcy and InaoWency Jurie- dlctlon Act (July 23} 1848. Butpeniloa of Bank of Franoa legal- laed (Harob IS) 1848. An Act to coiiaolldato and amend the I.avi reUtWe to Inaolvont Debtora In India (June 9) 1848. Jolnt-itock Company'a Winding-up Act (Aug. 14) 1848. An Act to empower the Commlulon- era of the Court of Bankruptcy to order tho releaie of BankrupU from Priaon In certain coaes (Aug. 81) An Act to amend the Lave In force for the encouragement of Brlllab Shipping and Navigation (Juna ttO) Bankruptcy Lav Coniolldatlon Act (Aug.l; 1849. Bankruptcy Amendment Act (Aug. 1) 1848. Jolnt-ttock Company'! Winding-up Enactment (Aug. 1) 18tT. Inetitutlon of Tribunalaof Commerce (April II) 1848. Uv on BUU of Ekchange for all I.clpElg (May 1) 1850. A SUmp Lav on Bllla of Exchange, Sbarea, Policy of Ini. (June 5). . . . 1980. NevSUmpAct 18B0' County Court Fxtenaton Act IBfiO. Mercantile Marine Act 1854. Repeal of Unnry Lava (Aug. 6) Bee CoHHDiciAi. Law or ran Wokld, by Laom Lsvi. Xiasaretto. Se« Qdaraktime. Lead (Ger. BUg, Blei; Da. load. Loot; Fr. Plomb; It. Piombo; 8p. Phmoj Biu. Saitutz; Pol. Ohm; Lat. Plumbum; Arab. Aniik; Hind. Sim; Pen. Hufti), one of the most useful metals. It is of a blu> ish white color, and when newly melted is very bright, but it soon becomes tarnished by exposure to the air. It has scarcely any tnste, but emits, on friction, a pe- culiar smell. It stains paper, or the fingtrs, of a bluish color. When taken internally, it acts as a poison. It is one of the softest of the metals { its specific gravity is 11*36. It is very malleable, and may be reduced to thin plates by the hammer ; it may also be drawn out into wire, but its ductility is not very great. Its tenacity is so small, that a lead wire 1-126 inch diam- eter is capable of supporting only 18-4 lbs. without breaking. It melts at 612°.— Tuomson's Ckemutry. Lead is a metal of much importance in the arts. Its durability and malleability make it very suitable for the roofing of buildings, the construction of gutters, and such like purposes. It used to be very exten- tivtljr employad in the formation of water-pipes and Franee. Pmsaia. Pmiila. Prusala. PniaaU. Prussia. IreUnd. Ireland. Pmssla. Oermany. Franee. Oreat BriUln. Oreat BriUln. Oreat BriUln. Oreat Britain. cUtanif. But though water hai no direct action on lead, it flullilatea the action of the external air ) and hence the lead of oUtemi and of pipes frni" which the air Is not antirsly exelnded becomes oxyilued, and Is covered with a white crust at the point where the sur- face of the water comes into contact with the air. In- asmuch, however, as this oxyd ii extremely delete- rious, lead pipes and cistern* ore now very generally supersedeplioations \ and frequently not a little, by the disraputable wine merchant, to stop the prug. ress of acetous fermentation. Wine thus fwlsoned may, however, be readily diatlngubhed ; a small qusn. tity of the bicarbonate of potass producing a white precipitate, and sulphureted hydrogen a black one. Pure wine will not lie alfeeted by either of these teats. " The oxyd of lead enters into the composition of white glass, which it renders clearer and more fUsihle ; it is also used in glaxing common earthen vessels; hence the reason that pickles kept in common rod pans become poisonous. Lead, with tin, and a small quan- tity of some of the other metals, forms pewter ; with antimony. It forms the allo^ of which printing tj-pes are made." — Jotcr'r Chemulry. Mines of this valu- able mineral have been wrought In England from the ■ira of the Romans. It does not, however, appear that it was obtained any where except in Derl)yiihlre, till 1289, when it was discovered in Wales ; and the fact that silver was foimd Intermixed with the Welsh ores having transpired, gave a new itimulus to the business ; but in other respects the discovery of silver was of no use ; the quantity obtained being InsufB- cient to defray the cost of its separation from tho lead. At present, the most productive English load mines are situated in Northumberland ; in Cumberland ; in tho western parts of Durham ; in Yorkshire; in Der- byshire, and in Comwull. The Welsh mines are prin- ci,)ally situated in the countiej of Flint, Cardigan, and Montgomer}- ; those of Scotland in Ayr, Kirkcud- bright, and Lanark ; and those of Ireland, in Wick- low, Down, Limerick. Lead mines are also wrought to considerable advantage in the Isle of Man. We subjoin an abstract deduced from the accounts fur- nished by the Museum of Practical Geology, of the QuANTiTixa or Lxad Obi and Lxad pboouood i» Obiat Bbitaiv, IK 1858. iMd. Tom. England. l.«*don. Tou. 3,411 Wales 18,818 Ireland 4,488 Scotland S,488 IsleofHan 8,415 Total 81,188 43,818 18,7(18 8,328 3,881 1,885 (M,0S1 '* In 1862, 14,124 tons of lead were Imported, and 26,- 648 tons (Including 2,967 tons foreign), were exported. It consequently follows that the produce of British mines is sufficient not only to supply the home demand, but to furnish a surplus of 9,467 tons for exportation. Pig lead was worth, in the London market, in Septem- ber, 1853, ^£22 10s. 6d. a ton. In 1832 it was only worth jCIS 10s. a ton. " Lead, when first extracted from Its ore, always con- taini a certain portion of silver, varying from a few grains to 46 oz. or more in the ton. When the silver mixed up with the lead Is sufficient to repay the ex- pense, it is usual to separate it, which is effecteil by the process termed refining. The lead of some of the English mines, especially those of Cornwall, and, also, of the Isle of Han, contains very considerable quan- tities of silver, and our readers will, perhaps, be sur- prised to learn that it has been estimated by the highest authority that, in 1852, the United Kingdom famished no fewer than 818,826 oz. of silver, worth, at 6s an oz. £205,080, obtained tiom lead." 1844. 184S.I 184«. 194T. 1848. 1848.1 1850.1 1851.1 1851.1 1858. [ 1854,1 lS55.r LEA 1108 tMk Lud. Toiu. 48,818 18,708 8,128 1,881 1,885 Th« eoommpllon of Itad In Fnnc* hai gnMy tn- crmMd within the lut to ynn. In 1862, tbout 80,000 tonii of or* wan lin|)ort«10thi w •Uelppl. Their pnxluce and that of the other mlnea in the Union, may, perhapi, average from 1)1,000 to 1*,000 toni a year. Lead ore ii alio found In abund* ance In MUnourl, Ak Aoooukt or BaiTiin Liad a»d Latn Oaa aiponao rioM THa UsirraD Kikodom i« 1869, DMTixauuaiiia tn UouNTaiaa to whioh it wa» ukt, and ma Qdaxtitim tciiT to aAoii. OowlriM lo whUk •iporM. LuUora. n.-i^r.U.4 ■IMI. Uikuf. ■•iIIm4. WIUUIM4. ToUl llTom. Tiiw. awM. io'o i«"o 109 ■«"o 'i'o TnM, flWto. 990 969 486 90T 989 9,»t4 179 71 80 91 84 109 1,811 91 9,109 488 888 998 89 8,488 499 9 107 16 40A TnM. twta. 8 88 ii" 9 1 ■49' 11 1 T 98 WW 18 8 147 419 68 4« 88 104 10 IS 4 lis toiw. PWU. 181 T 88 4 18 4 69 B 94 18 90 B 18 18 98 8 OlS ois t i's 1 IT fi 1 T 18 11 1 T 10 4 118 8 tum. «wte. 41 8 10 A 18 19 189 8 1A7 11 107 6 1 T 68 9 8 19 6 10 4 18 8 9 9 160 18 T 6 T 8 88 14 9 IT 99 10 161 4 89 6 "oh 9 10 171 9 VoBi. awu. 17 19 169 16 A 4 48 4 9 IS i«9'l8 7 4 "oio 7 18 99 19 960 9 1 18 9 19 160 18 179 19 88 19 98 B 106 1 194 4 4 18 18 IS 4 6 914 10 Tmu, flwia. 9,106 9 BA4 4 98T T T19 1T 4T1 9 89T 10 9,989 496 S 18T 1 esio 199 S 98 19 96T 4 1,918 9 48 9 9,908 4 T9B A 1,978 8 878 1 168 16 6,764 1 877 10 94 8 149 8 98 1,069 16 98,681 9 lUnnuirk ProMUi llanMtlfl Towni, , , IlolUod Beklam pfHOM PortagAl, Aloroi, aod Haaolrt. Kfjoi. Weitern ooait of AMca. IlrlUib poiMuloiu In B. Afrle*. Uritbb lerrltoriot In E. Inillei. Java China. Ilrltlili MttlemenU In AiutnUla llrltlah North Am«r. oolonloa., Ilrltlih Woat Indlea Forolif n Weat Indloa Uulled Btatei jnull ITniffUAV. .chiT^:;:;:::;:::::::::::::: Pern. Other plaoua Total 1»6 0' ' 18,841 1,866 47^18 1,H1 16 1,781 1 The annexed table nhowi the total product of the lead mines, and the average yearly price atOalena, lUlnola. Ttan. I n(lMil. 1849. 1848. 1844. 1846. 1848. 1847. 1843. 1849. lavi. 1861. 18S1. 19)W. 18M. 1866. 1666. 447,909 669,161 694,673 778,499 T81,4flS 771,866 681,069 628,986 668,6^9 4T4,11I! 408,628 426,814 418,617 480,866 ToUl pouad*. 81,8M,(i80' 89,148,270 48,797,040 64,494,860 61,188,910 61,096,910 47,787,880 41,026,880 89,801,930 83,188,060 28,608,960 99,807,880 29,668,190 80,19^660 Pilu. ~tfii~ 984 9 80 9 98 1 89 8 17 814 8 6T 420 4 18 4 13 660 6 60 6 TB 600 * Bstlmated at 96 per cent less than 1866. The following tables show the quantl'.y of lead of Western production received in the port of New Or- leans fh>m 1844 to 185& inclusive, and also of foreign lead, paying 20 per cent, duty, imported Into the port of New York, from 18^19, Ao first year of late Importa- tions of this staple, to 1856, both inclusive : Ttan. ilM«lnd U Now Olouu, ■ad muoUy birworded to BonhenicltloaofU. 8. roralipi lood Imporwd Into iftw York. 1844 iillii Fuuiida. 9s,sTs;66o 80,004,140 48,461,120 88,461,000 87,918,160 66,948,900 40,827,140 41,181.680 1846 1846 184T 1848 1849 1860 1981 1889 1888 1864, 1S55 1866 Estimating the American lead to weigh 70 pounds each pig, and the foreign 140 pounds each, which is deemed about the average of both. LiAD uodVxd at St. Loun moM Wrsrbh Minis. Tmo. Fin. Poiitidi. 1864. 806,827 = 21,470,890 1886. 818,67T = 22,09T,890 • mH... 904,666 = 14,82M10 In 1844 the Oalenu mines produced 01,40-1,860 pounds of lead, and the price at St. Louis was alwut 8 cents per pound. In 1856 they lauded at St. Louis 14,8'i5,020 pounds — less than one fourth the supply of 12 yean prevloua, and the price was about 6^ cents per pound, thus being more than doubled. In 1864 there was imported Into the single port of New York 66,046,900 pounds of foreign lead — more than the Ga- lena mines ever produced In any ono year. Doubling the price, doublin){ the demand, has reduced the pro- duction to one <|uarter, and it is certain that In 1867 the western manufacturers of lead will have to pro- cure a portion of their staple from imported foreign lead in the Atlantic cities. BtATIMINT BZIIIBITINO nil FoRIION iMPOaTATIONS AND KxPORTATioNS, Dounxio Gxpoan and Hojir Con- sumption or FoREiox Importations or Lead, and TUB MANUrAOTVRia TIIRBIOF ; AISO HoMR CONSUMP- TION OP FoRiioN Importations, h»8 Domkstio Kx- roRTo, or Lbaii, and tub Maxupaoturks or Liau, AND Domkstio Kxpobto, tKSS IIomb Consumption or Foreign Importations or Lead, and the Manupao- TURKS TIIKBBor, POB TUB L.UT BBVBXTXBN YBARS, AND TUB Annual Aybbaqb tuereop. Toart. 1840.... 1811.... 1842.... 1848*... 1844.... 1848 ... 1846.... 184T.... 1848.... 1S49.... 1880.... 1861.... 1869.... 1863.... 1861.... 1868. 1866, Arersgo Fortt^ Inporta- tloM. Dollorfl. 20,866 6,9S0 818 217 108 6,488 7,192 S0,25T 1,187,426 1,824,188 1,284,672 1,619,757 2,102,487 2,866,168 1,6H284 864,880 Porei^ •xporti. Domeitle oxporti. I)nnan. 84,090 626, 47 192 111 11,601 61,876 164,240 181,644 60,687 98,117 90,688 189,878 64,941 Horn* eon - smnplion of forelfn Imporu- tloni. Home oon-i ..^.j. Imports- Dollan. 6,1 Dollan. 89,687 117,194 540,117 491,786 605,256 857,06(1 624,796 188,6T8 6,488 92,017 T.on 48,894 T4,786 85,4791,126,849 28,100|l ,869,891 tiuiu. lei« donifuitlfl aiporta. 81,862 1,990,070 1,841,699 [coiuiltltp- Hon of funlita liiipuria tloiu. DolUn: 89,087 111,808 689,409 499,766 606,900 867,060 6i4,T96 188,140 84,946 61,1941,161,0181,100,884 .. 19,eo4|1,669,100 1,889,496 .. 48,8832,074,870 2,081,018 . . 19,681;2,4T6,59&2,46^9M .. 88,140,9,414.666!9,M1,616 .. 193,038' 948,480 1,406,498{ 889,048 * Tho year 1843 is given for nine months only, in oonse* qnonco of a change tn the fiscal year. LIA 1104 HA ttAtamm laovia* ni laroMi or £m» nrio va D«rrw •*««« toa tn Tbm •fvai ■wnmbWMlIndlM.. IHuitoh WMt IndlM. . . WlwM* laiystttrf. Iliubttii. , msmtn. . . llollud lliilch UulMa,,, lUlrtnm KnjiMd Iteotlud ,, Olbriltar Ctncda nibar BrllUh North Am«r. dim, Hrllbh Well IiHlIu HrltUh Uiiiint KrwiM on tbo AtUiitIo Kranco un Iha MMllt«rr*a«u Krunpli Wi>it Inillni Itptln nil tho AtUiitla DmlnonUiii MMlUcrruiMD., (iabfc PortnBlco. Htrillnl*, Matloo N«w OiMkdt. Vtnaiu*!* Taui nf,kw,ilMMH4 lU. 4,bW a,7sa «IT,Mt 40»,7M 191 1,1AT,U7 W,tMa,u7a (.iiw MW •4,flOT T0I,M4 l«,«ll> i,»M,im 18,n7ll,N7 •,777 l,4tl,7»« «,«4MM i,7U 800 8a,tw 1,0»I,7M B(0 ij l5 0&4'r4,SD§ Dalian. M 100 1»,IMH « M,4M t71l,ll< ■■i»7 KM 1,811 W,SI« 4M 4I5,NW 77 W,IU ll«7,A«> m S4 1,«W w IB TWolT f n mit, I ~ bdiaii! "T-"n<< .... .... I(N0M •48,(10 M 4M 188,«8« 14,M4 U '■'•1 8^887 MT( DmJwi. 8M ••n>,liM. ii«i H i <. ISIUn. 44«,10« »4,Ubi'" I ijm •81 °MI 1 'Hit 'lit "ii EiroNTi or Liad rtoa Tut Uiiitid Btath, roi Tin Tiam ■hdwo Jvm SOrn, ItOS, i M, lUS, ard 18M. Bl^orMlo lUI. IM 4. lut. 1 Rnifand r«m4t. 8,«M 10;8>0 J?" 1,9I» MM) M>1 .... lK,lbn. 400 807 11 100 8M 4U halOs. 48,000 ••1,844 60,000 aiit 81,'«I4 S1,M« 800 1,000 m 1,075 l>i>llar>. 1,700 14,t18 B,»40 Ml •,«M M4( 445 70 7B 14B Fowdt. ««;im 1,710 mt ' ' bi'< vly of ,■■ ; lead wu more than adequa'n In .b« — I r" ilo- mestic demand. Up to 1847 the < 'An.:' y Increased in productiveness, an - ^ m increase in consomptlon. Sincd ..... i your the con- lumptlon has been in advance of the home supply, and the manufacturers on the seaboard have had to pay comparatively high prices for the raw material, the western States now manufacturing nearly all the pig lead they produce. Out of 60,000,000 pounds of pig lead Imported into New York in 18M, only about 8,500,000 pounds were American. The duty on pig lead, by the tariff of 1846, was 20 per cent, ad valorem, and at the time that act was passed, it protected all domestic intaresta, for we produced as much lead us the country consumed. Since 1848 we have been obliged (o Import the bulk of our consumption, and all consumers and manufacturer! are therefore injured, while foreign manufacturers ore benefited by the duty now Imposed un »ue article. Our manufacturers are •hut out of all foreign markets by the enhanced price t Ineludtnc Venesasla. t China. which the duty of 20 per cent, putt upon their gond.^. The manufacturers ask only that pig lead should Ik put in the free list. It is their wish that all artlili's manufactured from pig lead should remain as at pres- ent, under a duty of 20 per cent. The manufacturers of articles from pig lead ask no more than the >Sei:rc- tary of the Treasury has repeatedly suggested in Ills annual reports — " that the raw niateriuls use5 per vent. L6B£ ' sounding. The common hand leaj weighs 11 ll>s. with about 20 fathoms of line. Thn leadsman stands somewhere on the side of the ves.tel, leaning against n band for the purpose ; lets thn leml descend near the water; then, swinging it "ver liin head once, or twice. If the ship Is going flist, > brows it forward. The line if marked at 6, 7, 10, 1). 17 uml 20 fathoms. The numbers between are called drrps: thus, "by the mark 7," "by the deep 9,' Inili- cates 7 and 9 fathoms. MThen the depth Is gre "t, tli-- deep-sea lead of 28 lbs. Is used. Tho ieod is ilrof,"- 1 from the fore part of the vessel, the line Iw-ing p«f ^\ outside all. It Is generally necessary li leave the ship to. See Socndinoh. I(««gue, a measure of length, used in reckoning' distances by soa. The sea league Is three nautical or geographical miles, or the l-20th of a degree, and con- sequently about 8-46 English mUea. The commoa LEA n»5 lEA iMHl l«Hi>* I* * <"l>-known Utnarwry uMiura en Ikt mmMIii' 't of Ewoiw, I hi' ilv ta rrantM. 'I'lia Krancb, howO' ' '> two (Uttint't l«ilf ii*i : ik» XtgnX iMMllnK 1m(U" (litur 'in fiott''), oontaiwInH ''*"*) toiMa, knd ri|iul tu i'41 Kn||li«li miles ; uiil ii luii^u* uf 'ib tii (hii li'id 1 . ,tiitMl' ">nt lirnvlimt, 't'h* wi> I U mIiI to Iw d«Kv«l r^>lu tti C'dtlu iMch, ttiiHf I ui« iU«t«ncM havitiK Iwcn iu*rkem ahore generally allowed for tha Juriadiu- tlon of a country to extend In flaheriaa, ate, ; and ulao tha limit of oautral water, In which a fugltlvie thip la •af*. Haa FiaiiKRiu and Nhutram. Hea Itii.H. Leak, at aea, la a hole in the ahlp, through which the water cornea In. A ahlp la auid to tpring a Irni, when ahe i>egin« to leak or let in the water, 'l'b« nunner of atopping a leak la to put into It a plu^ wrapped in oakum and well tarred, or to inaert a tar- pauling cluut which keep* out the water, or to nail a pteua- of Bh**t-l«*d on th* plac*. Seamen aometimes •top a leak by thruating a place of aalt beef Into it. The eca-water, anya Mr. Doyle, living freahor than the brine imiiilied by the beef penetriilna Into Ita liody and cauaea it to iweil ao at to liear atrongly againat the edgea of the broken plank, and thereby atop* the in- flUK of the water. A ready way to Qnd a leak In a ihip ia to apply the narrower part of a apeaklng- trumpet to the ear and the other to tha aide of the ahip where tha leak U auppoaed to be ; then the nolaa of the water ruahing in at the leak will b« dtatinotly heard, and thereby diacovered. Leakage, in commerce, an allowance In the cua- toma, granted to iin|wrten of wine for tha waate and damage the gooda are auppoaed to receive by keeping. Laathar. The akina of varlouB anlmala, in their ftreah atate, are Hexlble, tough, and elastic, and ap- pear tu b« admirably adapted to the purpoae* of cloth- ing. But In drj-ing, thoy become hard and homy, and, on expoaur* to muiature, putrid. The art of reatoring the auppla qualitiea to akina, and rendering them dura- ble, apiieara to have been diacovered at an early |ie- riod of man's hLitor^- ; and the word letUAer, from the Saxon lilh, liihe, or laher, indicates the quality of aup- plenesa. LeMher 1* formoil b}- the (themical union of the ikrmit, coriuin, cutii, cr true akin of an animal, with an aatringent vegetable principle, known aa ton- am, or (annic acid. The word (an, from the French tannrr, to tan, appears to be derived from the low Latin lanart. Leather may, however, lie prepared by Im- pregnating the akin with alum, oil, or grease. In the animal hide or akin, the outer part, which Is covered with huir or wool, is called the epidermu or cuticle, below which ia the reliculated tinue, and then. In con- tact with tho fleah, ia the dtrmit, or true skin, which ii the only part which admits of being tanned. It varies In thickness In ditTerent parts ; the mane, the bock and the rump, being thicker than the belly. The skin is converted into gelatin, or glue, by the action of boiling water. Varietif. — Leather tanned is generally divided into three kind*, namely, hidtt, kipt, and tkiiu ; and these I'i'ld different varieties of leather, such as butti and haekt, which are made of the stoutest and heaviest ox- bides. When bides are tanned whole for sole leather, tltar ar* «all*tttu lb* l'«iM*a Kingiliim ftam South Ainariia uinl Ulfarvnl ptitta ot Kuru|w, fruuith* (^•IH' of li'Mil ||o|M, llur«v«iu, A*«, (oif akina are fttilK>rt*'th«r ia mail* from butta or bai'ka. Biiir leatbar waa .'irmarly made ri<'i» tb* lilJe nf th* t vilfalo, liiit it ia now fiiniiahail bv lb« < w-lifale. uid ia na*d cbietly fur aniillera brlta. H"'' ' * ':hl<:ker than cow-bide, wliUe llmi •<( the liull> 'ti>rn>»iU- at*. ('alf-«4iin >iip|jliea the grt>i*l 'tnil 'hu up- |Mr |-''l thin, chiui, laatlwr lamli-akina ar* uacd forglos. .'lat uii.i liid-aktna form a light Ixalhar of itna tin m i , il>s;r and iintainpe am usually lAanoyni', or draas. in Mil , horw! bill* la pmparail ^r h*riMta-'"<>rk, etc., 1 nainci I itmuaO -..li-aklB uaed ftir imiiort ' vin of lambs that dL« auon after their birth m I inaa dreaaed with the wool, and lire iiaud I'l" s^ gi vos and ahoaa. The beat kid-akina arc '' aui/th of France | thoy are alao impivrted I niu. >, Switzerland, Italy, and Ireland, li ' 1 thill IIS soon a* tho kid begins tu feed on herbugo. '* akin iilferH In nneuean^uul delicacy , and la no ion ' aulta li> for the beat gloves. Tlix best murocco leuti ia mil" from .Swiss guat-akina, eiiutlior kindialV' Moguil' r nnd ICaat IniUan goat-altina, which are oiinu mode to black morocco, known iia " black Spaiial ieathiM ' from the circumstance ''the first suppllev Imving iicKii obtained frum Spain. The leather fTort' the Cap' ihevp-skln is nearly equal to murocco. Ili|v- i lililes are imported fruni louth Africa, and ii'il with oak bark, they uiuko an extremely (impact loathor. / MateriaU, — Tho vegetable substances used have of lata years become almost as numor- orietles of hides and skins on which they popotaiii when til thick aU' TVinnii' , iu tanning ous as till are employ''^. The active vegetable principle, tannin, varies soro< «hat according to the source from which it is derivi'i: but it is always marked by an aatringent taat", a blii"«h-black, or ibirk-green precipitate, in aqueous solu ous, by admixture with a sulutiunof one of tho salts ' peroxyd uf iron ; while, with a sulutiun of gelatin, i' ;ivos a dirty white or brown precipitate. A colli aqueoi. wlution of tannin, mixed in certain pro- portions with 10 of gelatin In the form of glue, sli*, or Isinglass, . nis a substance which la known »» tanno-fftlatin, V ich nuybe formed by the application of heat into u viscid elastic mass, resem1>ling India- rubber. By ttio action of ether, containing; a little water, on gall-nuts, pure tannin may be procured. The etherlal Bol>.:tion separates by repose Into two lay- ers, the lower on-, which is of an amber color, being a solution of tannin in water; while the upper layer 'contains gallic ai I, mixed with other substances. On gently evapuratiii_- the aqueous solution, nearly pure tauniii Is procured to the extent of from 83 to 40 per cent, from galls. >btained in this way, it is a shining, porous, uncr}-stalli.:able mass : It Is soluble In water, and then exerts the properties of an acid. By expos- ure to air it absorbs oxygen, and give* off a carbonic acid ; two new products, gallic acid and ellagic acid, being formed at the expense of the tannin, the latter being insoluble. Tannin may be precipitated from its LEA iwrf LEA wlutloDI by mlphuria »nA »ome other iiclde ; by boil- ing tha pnclplUM with Kninhiiric ndd for a f«w min- uttt fn « dllHta lolittlnii nt thn tmme arid, gallic ncid is farroed, and crynttlllzM In cooling. Onllic acid ex- Uti In galUniitt, anmoch, valloncii, tea, and other anl>- itancM, and iimlmlily arluc* from the decomposition of tannin. It o rnlny a portion ot tha tannin may be washed out, and the bark l>e thus deteriorated. There Is no doubt that tho peculiar excellenca of the Sole leather of Kngland Is due in great measura U> the superior oak bark which Is pos8e8se fermentation. Iim, or divi-divi, is tho pod of a Mouth American shrtib, Cirmlpinia Coriaria. The pod la dark-lirown, aliout three Inches long, and curled up as If by heat. U Is rich In tannin, tho whole of which Is found In tho rind below the epidermis. Vallonea, consisting of the acorn cups of Quercui ■^-gUnp», or prickly-cupped oak, growing in the Morea. A smaller kind, called cnrnnia, containing a larger pro- portion of tanuin. Is for tho most part used by the silk dyers, About two [siunds of vallonea are required for making one pound of leather. Vallonea and onk bark may \m mixed together with good effect. Cat- tehu, eulrh, Terra japimkn, or terra, are the inspissated aqueous extracts of tho liark, wood, and leaves of the Araria CiUeehu, and Unrnriagambirr. The two vari- etiea arn known In commerce as catechu, or gambler, and cutch \ that from llombay Is richer in tannin than that from llengal. Afumhitltm Is a name given to the fruit of several Kast India trees ; the husk, being the tiortlon vatuabln to the tanner, is separated by l>rui»- ing the nut which It Incloses. Mimoia or Wattkbarh ta furnished bv dllSirent species of Mimota growing in Australia and New ;;«aland. Cork-tree bark is the inner bark of ttia cork oak, the outer, or dead bark being the well-known sulwtance, cork. It Is oiitained from Corsica, Hpaln, and • few other countries, and oontalns twice as much tannin as average oak bark. Lareh bark la somatlme* ni«d for tanning sheep-skins, and WiUov harh tot kid and Ismb-skins The last, named bark is used in making Russia leather, but its peculiar odor is given by means of the oil of birch-tree bark. In addition to the tannin contained in the above substances, there are muoilaginons, coloring and other matters which have an influence on the kind of leather produced. The tannin itself may also vary in difTerciit materUls ; thus catechu and divi give a more porous leather than oak bark or vallonea, while larch bark gives a very inferior leather to that prepared from oak bark. The coloring matter in some excellent tanning materials prevents their use, since It is the custom to sell both upper and sole leathers of a yel- lowish-fawn color, and any thing wliich interfered with the production of this tint would be objected to ; thus, catechu and cutch would be among the cheapest of tanning materials, were it not that they impart to ti>e leather a reddish-brown color, which would in no way interfere with the dressing or currj'ing. Statemknt enowiNO Tna Exports or Leatiikk frou the llNn-KD States for thk trah rkdixq Jcnr 80, ISM. Whlll)«r exported. Russian Poss. N. Amor. Danish West Indies. . . Hamburg. Bromon Holland Dutch West Indies.... Dutch Onlana Dutch East Indies. .... Belgium England Scotland Canada British M. Amer. pes.. British Wosi Indies. . . British IIon(iur!'27 1.142 2,6M 1S,5«7 I 14.M5 I 17,2ST 80.432 4,109 1^60,967 I 18». 1 l.J.-lV.M!! 486,031 6l»,490 L 90,818 086.2'26 28 5,986 ll^OSSV^oJ he linlr "' 1 is mostly In prcpar- ns follows: •at-ir'alcr, or tie wot skini I of the tan, piodaoM an ink dye ; stale urine Is then applied to the (kin, and when dr}', the stuffing is applied, i he grain Is raised, and when dry the skin is whitened, bruised, and again grained ; after which a mixture of oil and tallow applied to the grain side, completes the process, Vamuhed and Enamded Leather. — For many years it was found difficult to cause a bright varnish to ad- liure to leather without cracking, an effect which is now produced by means of boiled linseed oil, mixed with vegetable black and Prussian blue. This oop* position, of the consistence of a thick paste, Is rubb«4 upon the surface of the leather, and then dried •( » temperature of from 150° to 170° Fahr. The process is repeated from 8 to 7 times, and when quite dry, tlia varnish adheres very firmly, and will bear considera- ble flexure and tension without cracking. By mikiug colored pigments with the varnish, enameled laatbsr of various colors may be produced. STATiuurr snowiHO tuc Impoets or LtATUsa and MAMvrACTUBSS or Liatuio, into Tua Uhitid Statu roa *ui Ykab khdiho Juki SOib, 1856. Whenn Importwl. TtoMd, b«iid, >ol«, kdA uppir. SUoa taimed and dnauil. Sklran. BooU lud iho«i. OIoT6« for man, woman, and eUldran. "IfMuibturaa o( balhar uH apaolM. Prassl* "! PoUDiti. DulUn. 1,659 796 42 1 40 048 2,551 68 101 89,l8t 1,585 "m 54 100 65 278 19,465 84,687 82 "■40 10 1 " 24 18 197 426 "28 DolUm. 606 6 191 7,272 29,888 625 1,081 288,400 19,804 "896 286 658 289 8,408 47,402 878,985 188 "i64 44 18 "288 74 914 2,797 "820 DoHn. "239 ll',085 ■ •' ■ 2,825 Dollm. 1,779 54,780 i2;658 rain. "828 1,065 710 86|265 "461 80 98 "120 221777 514 "■40 ""6 8,921 Dollui. ]',208 1,985 2,018 85^656 "486 81 228 "154 40,210 888 "'79 ""5 6,950 Doian. "is 1^696 118,261 ""9 14V,998 100 ""so 8,8io ItelUn,. "'68 79,866 660,010 "■75 6981641 174 ""68 I'oiess Dullwi, 62,889 l,06fi 04-1 79,028 408 49 .,2J4 21 168:640 91 "688 "B8J 2,624 Swedish West Indies. . . . Danish West Indies 18,890 108,611 411,887 7,190 'im 1,646 3,848^480 6,085 "497 970 1,065 866 446 150 "250 12,645 29,594 8,411 42,702 141,168 1,888 1,947 608 1,669',889 8,316 "886 820 "211 71 171 60 ""69 Bremen Holland. Belgium England Scotland Malta Other Br. N. Amer. pes. . British W. Indies. Drltlsh Oulana British Australia British Ea-st Indies Franco on tho Atlantic.. France on the Moillter. . . Philippine Islanils Cubs Portugal Two Sicilies. Turkey in Asia. Other ports In Africa — Oontni Ropubilo llraiil Clilll China Total 4,519,651 1,918,987 99,561 758,758 18,539"" 69,212 166,821 1 188,872. 279,8«l 1,844,660 810,24.1 | STATISTIOS of Till TANNEKin IH THI UNITED STATES, ACCOBDINO TO THE CENSUS Or 1850. No. ol lan- nariaa. Maine New Hampshire Vermont Massachusetts. Rhode Island Crnnectiout Now York New Jersey Ponnsylvanla Delaware Maryland Virginia North Carolina South Carolina. Georgia. Florida Alabama Mississippi Louisiana Texas Arkansas Tennessee Kentucky Ohio Michigan Indians Illinois Mlssou.l Iowa Wisconsin California Diat of Columbia... Capital Invaatad. 218 16.3 152 246 10 115 942 1! l,0i 16 116 841 151 91 140 4 149 92 15 22 51 894 275 706 60 148 14 8 1 Dollara. 782,747 441,975 166,679 846,250 125,052 1,877,725 42.900 860,500 5,025,148 672,857 8,6411.818 9l>,,H50 628,900 676,988 251,0Kt 184.886 No. of hldaa and tkltia. 816,884 750,220 10,571 122,455 1,707,862 101,485 926,450 26,060 169,585 189,200 77,806 55,000 262,856| 81,484 9,400| 2,100 200,670 145,616 88,800 88,860 42,100 490,320 79,088 62,815 lO/W) 9,850 16,450 166,944 768,455 196,200 ,840,8S9 844,280 236,000 72,865 514,997 141,549 188,878 60,825 228,09,i 120,667 20,850 6,340 78,950 29,800 50fl 120 26,000 6,000 sffi 81,850 109,696 44,330 293,000 14,861 67,110 871,894 120,731 293,798 12,9.V) 68,810 74,573 24,0,35 13,880 21,705 1,200 13,922 0,780 2,850 1,750 8,S,M 4.3,429 69.830 228,493 23.600 57,070 21,575 44,498 850 14,900 )i:200 Value raw Diataria). D-illam. 892,348 543,779 857,946 2,811,178 40.615 4.53,854 6,065.221 428,687 8.169,809 99,620 72.5,612 498,926 191,237 181,679 185,604 4,800 1.58,247 111,474 26,440 18,624 85,230 896,159 587,147 1,118,080 203,450 405,888 129,907 247,956 10,745 98,880 200 25.600 Nu. of hftiidt M„„,i,i- «... amplovad. iMM-'My »'»"■ Malea. Fain. { Malt'i. Fvm. ^ ^im Total r6i2M,18,900,557|6,128,970 |2,668,865 il9,613,237J 20,909 102 1 410,21^ 970 2,968,865 !l2,257,940'82,8«l,79? * There are about 6,000,000 sheep, goat, and other small skins dressed annually which aro not inchidod in tlie abore table, 82 81 787 502 890 1,510 88 407 4,014 405 .... 2,978 2 108 .... 479 .... 900 372 1 264 .... 402 .... 12 .... 457 6 266 8 51 8 63 1 110 .... 915 6 877 2 1,826 .... 206 .... 886 2 240 .... 412 6 28 .... 75 .... 8 .... 10 .... Dollar*. 17,229 11.787 8,807 41,245 929 10,027 10.3,171 8,946 54,7S4 2,,588 8,034 18,64J3 5 291 8,667 7,107 189 7,-00 4,924 930 1,007 1,814 14,3-38 14,417 8.\S80 6.782 l^199 5,145 8,806 543 1,710 60 m 410,214 Holla, 28 293 No. of aidaa of laalhar, akliu, etc., pnnliicad. Sklni, |»l(lca lealb, 81.850 109.595 44,330 293,000 14,861 67,110 871,894 120,781 293,799 12,950 68.810 74,678 24,085 13,880 21706 1,200 13,922 9,780 2,850 1,760 8,851 43,429 69,880 228,493 23,600 57,070 21,575 44,493 850 14,900 4,200 682,668 888,158 250,104 1,500,440 21,142 241,910 8,415,724 9,804,0001 - 724,4661 6,27^492| 163,742 830,1701 1,103,189 1,« 900,4211 567,466 8,519,12ffl 76,0- 781,01 878,400 155,610 110,000 162,968 4,200 1,58,066 104,680 21,000 18,700 32,900 888,888 892.400 688^560 144,780 283,098 101,650 241,334 10,680 59,600 240 10,000 804,877 852,5851 2«l,H8il 86I,6S6 9,200 885 9111 220,407 65,112,') 52,06d 78,77* T46,48« 986,267^ 1,964,591 86:i,98(y 714,8ld 244,02« 466,2411 24,- ' 175, ,2411 ,520 940^ Thin LenUur. — The process of tanning differs con- siderably in tho mode ot reatment, with the kind of skin, and the result desired, A large number of thin leathers which are intended to b« dyed, an tanned in ▼arioiu wajri. White UUhen ue not Unned, but tawed ; or treated with alum, salt, and some other mat- ters, Wash leather is dressed with oil, or shainoyed. But whatever may \m the subsequent treatment, tba preparatory steps somewhat resemble each other, whereby hair, woOl, gtoMe, ud other nurttm, an 1198 \ LEA ranoTed, and the akin ia reduced to the state of a gelatinous membrane called pelt. The hair is removed from kid and goat-skins by meuns of cream of lime ; the -vTool is generally removeil by the foll-morgers be- fore the skin is passed to the tawers. Foreign, lamb- skins, which are received with the wool on, are washed, scraped on the flesh side, and sweated In a close room, until, in consequence of the putrefactive fermentation, the wool can be easily removed. After this, fatty matters are got rid of by subjecting the tUni to hy- drostatic pressure ; they are next worked at the beam, and pared into shape, treated with lime, and next with dogs' or pigeons' dung if the skins are to be tanned, and with bran and water if they are to be towed, the object l)eing in either case to get rid of the lime. Dur- ing these operations the skins are worked a few times at the beam, and ore finished by washing in clean water. ExpoBTS or LiATUEB AHD MAHurAOTDBUS Or LxATnia, raoM Till Umited Btatis, tob rati Teass XHoao JnitE SOni, 1858, 18M, 18&&. KiporUd to Bwodtsh West Indies Danish West Indies Dutob West Indies. England Scotland atbraltor. Hondunu British Guiana British West Indies Canada Brltlih American colonies. Australia Bilquelon and Brit £. Indlea. ronorlffe Cuba Spanish West ladles Madeira Cnpo do Verd Islands Haytl Mexico Central American Bepubllc... New Granada Tencinela Brazil Urngoay Argentino Kepubllc Peru Chill China. South America generally West Indies generally AMca Indlan-Ocean South Seas and Paclflo Ocean. Other places Total Exports Lnlbn. BooUand I aiiMi. Foiuidi. I Pain. 878 ....■ 7,SM (1,8T» 9,289. .... S;il,872 86 168,7201 •■•• 280 8,8«6! i>,98l> 723i 8,628 8,6Si: 18,B8« 179,676 70,671 190,297 118,822 468 126,452 160 Valiu. 1,160 11,866 684 6,266 600 "264 8,882 260 60 1,560 14,704 25 85 60 22,794 1,248 5,214 6,809 a,250 10 4,272 7,960 7,729 6,824 780 2,886 800 OnlUrt. 78 7,682 1,688 86,071 26,500 62 4,461 2,964 18,486 101,878 121,645 198,788 190 261 8,562 145 64 88 19,870 1,861 6,089 7,880 4,213 68 4,oa5 6,524 8,678 7,685 8^824 1,146 2,950 840 22,628 26,228 LMllur. Poundi. 900 14,045 16,266 641,689 883,967 Boot! and aliou. Pain. 24 9,238 8^275 6,476 6,680 1,925 626 9,068 17,188 l,172,661j 440,709 1 678,708 490,008 266,990 4,100 19,295 "260 18,241 3,266 3,490 116 19,840 1,110 4^600 9,084 6,8 25 1,768,1)06 106,842 165,495 42,791 1,748 48 "268 14,816 1,803 1,946 7,669 2,694 2,182 25 5,483 8,880 80,683 1,0110 62 °2,sio 27,876 5,885 465,680 ValM. Dullan. 183 11,546 3,695 87,081 58,678 l'0J44 1,176 17,693 271,447 219,563 84,868 0,598. 59 886 800 16,255 1,446 8,368 9,817 6,526 3,191 76 6,869 10,818 28,227 1,829 75 3^672 S(>^i46 9,163 698,723 Pounds. 618 80,937 16,027 457993 194,289 12,080 2,734 13,077 388,790 417,636 80,860 10,299 1,500 1,800 10,539 1,800 I2I60O 3,667 8,600 lV,66l 2,147 17,840 1,400,885 Dullan. 117 6,868 2,854 79,400 3,148 718 1,859 75,885 74,660 6,245 216 "274 2,760 250 '2,080 "425 804 2,818 621 238,887 BooU ard Sho«i. 18,088 8^763 8,046 8,870 27,081 112,484 161,487 88,868 840 946 4,872 8,218 18,828 8,665 2,174 1,082 18,004 27,S5« 72,696 8,283 "446 4,025 8l',782 5,856 616;i04 Dollar!. 4,m im 8,886 24,746 206,488 172,011 130,064 640 "865 946 4,062 8,026 4,331 11,798 7,518 3,008 1,658 13,780 86,503 64.878 8,502 "M2 4,628 3:i240 _6.H72_ 768,889 Morocco. — Morocco leather is prepared by tanning goat-skins with sumach, and dyeiu); on the grain side. Inferior moroccocs are prepared from sheep-skins sim- ilarly treated, for which purpose eai.'h skin of pelt is sewed up into a bag, the grain aide outermost, dis- tended with air, and placed in a mordant of tin or alum. They are next placed in a warm cochineal bath for red, indigo for blue, orchil for purple, and are worked by hand until the dye has properly stnick. For certain colors the tanning precedes the dyeing. The tanning or sumaching is carried on in a large tub, containing a weak solution of sumach in warm water ; another and stronger solution is contained in an ad- joining vcsse', a portion of which, together with some snmnch leaves, ia poured into the bag ; some of the weak solution is then added, the bag is then distended with air, and the skin thrown into the vat. In this way aliout 60 skins are treated, and arc kept in mo- tion a few hours in the sumach tub by means of pad- dles worked by hand or by iiiachinerj-. The skins are then taken out and lieaped up on a shelf nt the side of the tub, the pressure thus produced causing the liquor to escape slowly through the pores of the skin, the bags being shifted about from time to time. The bags are next passed into a second vat containing a stronger solution, where they remain for 9 hours. The bags are now opened and washed ; line red skins being fin- ished in a both of salTron. Ail the skins are next struck on a sloping board until they are smooth and flat, and in order to improve their appearance in the cunying, a little linseed oil may be rubbed on the grain side. They are then hung np in a loft to dry, when they become homy, and are in the emit, at it is called. They next pass through much laborious fric- tion with the pommel, and with a glass-lmll ; while the peculiar ribbed appearance of morocco is given by means of a ball of box-wood, on which is a number of narrow ridges. Sheep-skin morocco is prepared f^om split skins ; the skin-splitting machine resem- bles in principle that already described, only as the membrane is thinner certain variations arc required. Instead of stretching the skin on a drum, it is passed between two rollers, the lower one of giin-mctal, and solid, and the upper made of gun-metul rings ; while between the two rollers, and nearly in contact, is the edge of the sharp knife, which Is moved by a cnnk, as nlread}- mentioned. When a skin is introduced between the two rollers, it is dragged through against the knife edge and divided, the solid lower roller sup- porting the membrane, while the upper one, being capable of moving through a small space by means of its rings, adjusts itself to inequalities in tlio luem- brone ; where this Is thin the rings become rtcprcased, and where it is thick they rise up, so that no part es- capes the action of the knife. The divided skins are not sewed up Into bags, as from their thinness they can be sumaclied quickly. In preparing white leather by tawing, the pelt is made as pure as possible ; the best kind of leather being prepared from kid-skins, while sliecp or lamb-iiklns make the inferior kinds. They are first fed with alum and salt in a drum or tumbler made like a huge chum ; aliout 8 lbs. of alum, and 4 lbs. of salt being used to 120 skins of medium size. The alumina of the alum probably forma some definite compound with the gela- tin of the skina , wblla the salt serves to whiten them. 1840... 1841... 1843... im*.. 1844... 1845... ' 1848..., 11847.... 1848.... 1849.... 1850.... 1861.... 1868.... 1868.... 1854.... l'«5.... 1856 [Vearly avorag( • Year IsSl Of » change In t T For but six See Hides, the T'nited St Ledger, t nierchants an( """It is plao the Journal, different count •W IsCOHll Li LED 1199 LEE When teken ont, the aUna are washed in water, then allowed to ferment in bran and water, to remove the (urplua alum and aalt, and to reduce the thickness. Tliey are next dried in a loft, and became tongh and brittle, but they are made soft and glossy by means of a dressing of 20 lbs. of wheat flour, and yolks of 8 dozen eggs. By rotating the oklns in the drums for some time the dressing U absorbed, and scarcely any tUng but water remains. This dressing is usually repeated, and the skins are hung up to dry. The beautiful softness and elasticity of this leather is now given by manipulation. The skins are first dipped in clean water, worked upon a board, and staked upon a stretching, or softening iron, consisting of a rounded iron plate fixed to the top of an upright beam, by which the skins become extended and made smooth. They are finished by being passed over a hot iron. Stateukkt xxaiBrnNO the Foreion Impokts and £x- PUITS AND DOMKSTIO EXPOBTS, TOaRTHKR WITH THK HoHi Consumption or Forf.ion Importations or LKATIIF.R, and TUS MaNOFACTDRES TIIEREOr, FOR TlIK LAST SRVRNTEKN YxASS, AND THE TeARLY ATERAOB niEBEor. YcM-i. Forrlcn Imporlituoni. Porclfpl •iporu. DotDMlIo «tporu. Home con. ■ampllon of toreiga ImporlalioDi. 1840 Dollnri. 642,498 809,884 912,686 287,217 779,407 979,886 1,180,064 1,060,819 1,890,492 1,460.126 2.107,620 2,816,663 2,627,911 8,816.262 8,661,204 8,069,860 4,588,122 Dullan. 14,248 22,608 10,268 8,446 6,216 40,263 6,193 2,880 6,692 18,099 16,066 26,049 28,787 40,670 82.688 188,700 73,297 DolUr.. 23.3,917 282,272 191,427 142,137 248,197 844,464 873,188 278,672 210,578 161,201 198.599 472,147 447,325 680,156 909,605 824,912 1,319,076 Uollnrt. 628,260 797,851 902,882 288,771 778,191 989,628 1,124,871 1,063,488 1,383,600 1,447,027 2,091,464 2,789,614 2,604,124 8.275,612 8,678,671 2.981,160 4,461,825 1841 1842 184a» 1844 1848 1846 1847 1848 1849 1860 1851 1862 1858 1864 1866 1856 Yearly average. 1,849,148 8l),860 897,227 i 1,818,298 * Tbe year 1848 represents but nine months. In conse- quence of a cbango In the fiscal year. Statement xxhibitino the FoRF.roN Importations and KXPORTATIONS, DOMESTIC EXPORTS AND IIoME CON- SUMPTION OF FoREioN Importations or Hides and 8K1NS IN THE United States, for the last Seven- teen Years, and the Yearly Averaok thereof. Y««rt. For«lffn tmportAlloui. Foreltni eiporu. Domeitlo exports. Home oon- ■umpllon of forflen Importationii, 1840 1841 1842 DoIUr*. 2,756,214 8,467,246 4,007,616 2,619,815 tl,629;948 4,262,069 8,607.800 4.790,081 6,964,3.36 4,828,119 6,919,391 7,620,272 8,046,016 8.088,292 Ooll«ri. 64,762 7,628 78,622 108,688 101,044 67,632 170,798 804,089 101,921 DolUn. 112,500 46,699 53,187 60.340 62,659 111,636 14J!,323 131,894 86,145 28,890 71,940 66,624 65,421 Dollars. 2,766,214 8,893,276 4,008,064 2,612,297 1,529,948 4,262,069 8.379,694 4,720,209 6,861.200 4.722.075 1848* 1844 1846 1848 1347 1S48 1849 1860 1S61 1852 1868 26,9.VS 6.861,769 28,622 7,440,479 861,032 7,74;l,927 101,174 7,961,369 1854 1S6B 1656 Yearly average. 4,819,465 109,184 91,806 4,782,088 'Year 1648 Is given fur nine months only, In consequence ofa change in tlie llscal year, t For but six months. See Hides, for the imports into, and exports from, the United States, of hides and leather. Ledger, the principal book of accounts kept by merchants and tradesmen, wherein every person's ac- count is placed by itself, after being extracted from the Journal. For an extended summary of the laws of different countries regulating the keeping of accounts, see Lbokb Levi's ^ommerctal Imv> q/tht World. Lee, an epithet used by seamen to distinguish that part of the hemisphere to which the wind is directed from the other part whence it blows, and which is ac- cordingly called to windward. This expression is chiefly used when the wind crosses th« line of a ship's course, so that all on one side of he' is called to wind- ward, and all on the other side to leeward. Hence, under the lee, implies further to the leeward, or further from that part of the horizon whence the wind blows. Under the lee of the shore, means a short distance from the shore which lies to windward. This phrase is com- monly understood to express the situation of a vessel anchored, or sailing under the weather-shore, where there is always smootlier water and less danger of heavy seas than at a great distance from it. Im lurches, the sudden and violent rolls which a ship often makes to the leeward in a high sea particularly when a large wave strikes her on the weather-side. Lee side, all that part of a ship or boat that lies between the mast and the side furthest from the direction of the wind ; or, otherwise, that part of a ship which is pressed down toward the water by the effort of the sails, as separated from the other half by a line drawn through the middle of her length. That part of the ship which lies to windward of this line is accordingly called the weather side. Thus, admit a ship to be sailing southward with the wind at east, then is her starboard or right side the lee side, and the larboard or left the weather side. Leeward Ship, signiflos a vessel that falls much to leeward of her course when sailing close-hauled and consequently loses much ground. To leeward, toward that part of the horizon which lies under the lee, or whither the wind blows. Thus, "Wo saw a fleet under the lee," and " we saw a fleet to leeward," are synonymous expressions. Lee-way, in navigation, is the deviation of the course actually run by a ship from the course steered upon ; or it is the angle formed between the line of the ship's keel and the line which she actually describes through the water. In consequence of the action of the wind or currents, a ship is generally impelled aideuai/s as well as forward, whence tbe direction of her motion is different from that of the keel. Leevrard Islands, a name fi^quently applied to those of the West India Islands lying between N. Int. 1.5° and 19°, and W. long. G0° 30' and 65° 40'. The group comprises the British possessions of Antigua, Dominica, Montscrrat, Nevis, St. Christopl'-r's, An- guilla, Barouda, and the Virgin Islands, whi are nil included under one government. The French, Dutch, Danes, etc., have also possessions in the group. Tliere ara 23 i.ilands, besides numerous islets, having in all an area of about 1700 square miles, and a population of about 321,000. Leeoh-Fishety. The demand for the medicinal leech Qlimdo medicinalis) is so great as to afford em- ployment to a considerable number of persons in catcii- ing and selling the aninnil. It is common throughout Europe, America, and India, inhabiting lakes and ])oaIs. Norfolk supplies the greater part of the leeches brought to tlie I.«ndon market ; but some are taken in Kent, Suffolk, Essex, and Wales ; and large quantities are imported from Bordeaux and Lisbon. They aro caught in spring and au'umn by people who wade into the pools and allow them to fasten on their limbs ; or more generally the catchers beat, as they wade in the surface of the water with poles, which sets the leeches in motion, and brings them to the surface ; when tliey are taken with the hand, and put into bags. As they come to tlie surface just before a thunder storm, this is rp,,'arded a good time for collecting them.— TiioM- SOS. Wo extract from the Gazette dej llipilaux the following interosting account of the fishery of leeches at La Brenne, in France : " The country abont La Brenne la, perhaps, the most unin- teresting in France. Tbe people aro mlgeral)lo4ooklng, Uw T.inr. 1200 LEO mNU wrttttitd, tba Uh Ja«t m bad— bat tha leechea tra'tA- nlnbU. If (Tar r<»> pu* throngh I« Bnmie, you will aea a OMtl, Ml* and atralglit-halrad, with a woolan cap on hi* batd, Mtf Ma laga and arma naked ; he walka along the bordera of ■ marah, among the apota left dry by the aurroundlng watera, b«l partleularljr wharerer the vegetation aeema to preaenre tha aaMaaant a«U nndlatarbed ; thla man la a lecch-flaher. To a«« nim fron a dlatanee— hla woe-begono aapect— hla hol- low afa«— fala llirld lipa— hla aingnlar geatnrea— you wonld taka him fl>r a patknt who had left hla sick bed In a fit of de- llrliim. If yon obaeire him OTery now and then raiaing hla laga, and eianilnlng them one after the other, you might anp- MNM hlffl a fool ! but he la an intelligent Icoch-flaher. The laaehaa attach themaelTea to Ma lega and feet aa he movea among tbatr hannta ; he feela their preaence from their bite, and galbera them aa they clnater about the roota of the bull- rnahai and aea-weeda, or beneath the stonca ooTcred with graan and gldey moaa. Borne repoae on the mud, while othera awim about, but ao alowly that they are eaaily gathered with the hand. In a fayorable aeaaon, it la poaalble, in the courra of threa or four houra, to atow ten or twelve doaen of them In tha little bag which the gatherer earriea on hla ahoulder. Hometlmea you will aee the leech-llaher armed with a kind of ap««r or harpoon s w Ith thla he depoalta pleeea of decayed an- imal mattor In plaoea frequented by the leechea ; they aoon gather round the prey, and are preaently themiielTca gathered Into a little veaapl half full of water. Such ia the leech-flBhery In aprlug. In aiimmer the leech retires Into deep water ; and tha fiahera hare then to atrip naked, and walk Immeraed up Ut tha chin, gome of them have little rafta to go upon ; these rafta are made of twiga and ruahea, and It la no caay matter to propel them among the weeda and aqnatlc planta. At thla Iwaaon, too, the anpply In the poola la scanty ; the flshcr can only lake the few that awim within hla reach, or thoae that tot entangled In the atrnctnre of hla raft It la a horrid trade. In whatever way It ia carried on. The leech-gatherer la con- atantly mora or lesa In the water, breathing fog and mist and AUd odnra from the marah ; he l( often attacked with ague, catarrha, and rhenraatlsm. Some indnlge in atrong liquors to keep oif the noxIniiH influence, but they pay for {(Jn the Old by dlaordera of ollur kinds. But, with all its ^rblddtng meullarltlea, the leech-flahery givea employment to many iiandai If It be pernicious, It Is also lucrative. Besides sup- plying all the neighboring pharmaderu, great quantilica are exported, and there are regular traders engaged for the pur- pose. Henri Chartler is one of those peraons; and an im- portant personage be ia when he cornea to Meobecq, or Ita Tkinlty I hla arrival makca quite a ftte — all are eager to greet him. Among the Intereating particulars which I gathered in Ii« Ilrennn relative to the Iccch-trade, I may mention the fol- lowing: One of the traders — what with ills own fishing and that of his children, and what with his acqulaitlona from the earrlera, who aell quantltlea SMond-Aond— waa enabled to hoard up IT^KOO leechea in the courae of a few montha; he kept them dcpoaited In a place where. In one night, they all iMcame frozen en inasae. But the froat docs not Immediately kill them t they may generally be thawed Into life again. They eaaily. Indeed, bear very hard usage. I am told by one of thfl carriers, that bo can pack them as closely as be pleases In tha molat aaek which be tiea behind his saddle; and ■Sffletlraea he atowa hla cloak and boola on top of the ••ek. The trader buya hla leechea pfle mile, big and little, green and black — all the aame; but he afterward aorts them for the market Thoao are generally accounted the beat whieh are of a green grotmd, with yellow atrlpca along tha body." A trort published at ParU in 1846, by M. Joseph Martin, leech-merchant, contains a great variety of curious and Inatructlve details in regard to the natural hlatory of leechea, the trade carried on in them, and the frauds of the dealers. They are, we believe, much more extensively used in medical practice in France than In Kngland ; and, at all events, their consumption in the former seems to \m quite immense. Notwith- standing the exhaustion of some of the marshes and ponds In dlRerent parts of the country, whence sup- plies of leeches were formerly procured, great numbers art still obtained at home. By far the larger portion of the necessary supplies Is, however, brought from abroad i princloally from Germany, Spain, Sardinia, Turkey In Europe, Algiers, Asia Minor, etc. In the Fmich oustom-hoQse the imports ore estimated at 600 leeches per kilog. ; but M. Martin affirma that 1000 iMchM do not, at an average, weigh more than a kilog. IltM* th* nabm Mid TUBM of tka iMohM Ivportad into Franc* dui^ each of the Ave yean ending wUh 1847, wlUbe: Ywii. 1848 1844 1846 1846 184T NomUn, Mfordinf to offlelsl Rvtunii, U,(I07,6M 16,882,878 18,848,488 18,731,646 11,790,840 N(ifnb«rt eorrtflted. 86,91^89!l S0,4«6,84« 27,<8e,9<0 86,448,000 88,681,680 OOtUI Valu. Frun. 638,881 466,980 416,804 881,047 868,710 See De Bow's Sev., xiii., 80. Leghorn, a city and sna-port of Italy, in Tuscany lot. 48° 88' 5" N., long. 10° 16' 45" E. Population, in 1851, 84,000. Leghorn has an outer harbor, pro- tected by a line mole, running in a north north-west direction upward of half a mile into the sea, and a small inner harbor or basin. The water in the harbor is rather shallow, varying from 8 feet in the inner basin to 18 or 19 feet at the end of the mole. The rise of the tides ia about 14 inches. Ships lie within tlie mole with their stems made fast to it by a cable, and an anchor out ahead. The light-house is built on a rock a little to the south-west of the mole. It is a con- spicuous object, being about 170 feet above the level of the sea. The roadstead, lies west north-west of the harbor, l)etween it and the Melora bank. The latter is sandy, lying north and sonth, 4 miles in length by 2 in breadth, the side . nearest the shore lieing about 4 miles from it. It consists, for the most part, of sand and mud, and has from 8 to 3} fathoms water over it i but toword its southern extremity it is rocky ; and there, on some of the points which project above the water, the Melora towct has been constructed to serve as a sea-mark ; it l>ears from the light-house west one half north, distant about 4 miles. The best course for entering the roods is to keep to the northward of the Melora bank at about a mile from it, and then, having doubled it, to stand on for the light-house about 2| miles, anchoring in from 7 to 9 fathoms, the light-house bearing south south-east one half east 4 miles olT. Tlie entrance by the channel to the south of the Melora bank is also quite safe ; but it is not so suitable for large ships as that by the north. During southerly winds there is sometimes a heavy sea in the roads, but the holding-ground is good; and with sufficient anchors and cables, and ordinary precaution, there is no danger. The lazaretto lies to the south, about one mile from the tower, and is said to be one of the best in Europe. Track, etc. — The comparative security and freedom which foreigners have long enjoyed in Tuscany, still more than its advantageous situation, render Leghorn the greatest commercial city of Italy. Its exports are similar to those from the other Italian ports ; consist- ing principally of raw and manufactured silks, olire oil, borax, fruits, shumac, valonia, wines, rags, brim- stone, cheese, marble, argol, anchovies, manna, juniper berries, hemp, skins, cork, etc. Leghorn platting for straw iiuts is the finest in the world ; and large quan- tities are imported into Britain. See Hats, Stiiaw. Besides the above, all sorts of articles, the produce of the Levant, may be had at Leghorn. Recently, how- ever, this trade has fallen off j the English and other na- tions who used to import Levant produce at second hand fh)m Italy, preferring now, at least for the most part, to bring it direct from Smyrna, Alexandria, etc. The imports are exceedingly numerous and valuable, com- prising all sorts of commodities, with the exception of those produced by Italy. Sugar, coffee, and all sorts of colonial produce; cotton stuffs, yam, and wool; com, woolen stuffs, spices, dried fish, indigo, dye- woods, rice, iron, tin, hides, etc ; are among the most prominent articles. Ships with corn on board may un- load within the limits of the lazaretto, without being detained to perform quarantine ; a circumstance which has contributed to make Leghorn one of the principal dip^t for the wheat of the BUck Sea. Hard wheat, partlculaily tnia Taganrog, ia in high estimation here •ndiiillMotliwItvUHiiNHto. It U particulMljr well $107 i bought there discour per cen general cent Mocha 30 to crushec packag 18 per c rosin, ; the pri( Three A ish doll loons, ©per 1 Inie horn, 1 taking whole bUity thepov 6,000,0( govemi thebai im 1201 LEI fttad tut mMng ▼•Tmlodli, maecaronl, *te. The gor- eminent do not publbh any offlctal aeeount of the Im- porta of Leghorn ; and no mereantUe circulars that we have been fortunate enough to fall in with lupply the deficiency. Monty. — Down to 18S7 accounts were principally kept In peize da otto noli (or dollars of 8 reali), the pezsa being divided into 20 soil or 240 denari ; but tills money has been discontinued since the above date, and accounts are now Icept in {ire Toscane, The lire of 100 eentesimi is worth 7'82d. ; so that the par of exchange with London is 80-69 lire per £1. The lire is divided In 20 soldi dl lira each of 6 eentesimi.— Tate's Can- but, p. 87. Weightt and ifeamn$. — The pound by which gold and silver and all sorts of merchandise are weighed is divided into 32 ounces, 96 drachms, 288 denari, and 691-^ grani. It is => 339-542 French grammes, or 6240 English grains. Hence 100 lbs. of Leghorn = 74-864 lbs. avoirdupois ; but in mercantile calculations it is usual to reckon 100 lbs. of Leghorn ==i 77 lbs. avoirdu- pois : this, perhaps, has arisen from taking the tares and other allowances, as to which there is a good deal of uncertainty, into account. Thus it is found that tho English cwt. seldom renders more than 140 or 142 lbs. at Leghorn, though it is = 160 lbs. ; in the instances of logwood, tobacco, and a few others, it does not ren- der more than 135 lbs. The quintal, or centinago = 100 lbs. The contaro is generally 160 lbs. ; but t, cen- taro of sugar = 161 lbs. ; that of oil = 88 lbs. ; of brandy = 120 lbs. ; of stock-fish, and some other arti- cles = 160 lbs. The rotolo = 8 lbs. Com is sold by the sacco or sack = 2-0739 Winch, bushels ; hence 4 BucliR = 1 imperial quarter, very nearly. The liquid measures are : 2 Meziette = 1 Boccalo. 2 Boccale = 1 Finsco. 2nFlascbl = 1 Barile=13 English wine gallons. The barile of oil is 16 flaschi, of two boccali each = 8-83 wine gallons ; it weighs about 66 lbs, avoirdupois. A largo jar of oil contains 30 gallons ; a small one 16 ; and a box with 30 bottles = 4 gallons. The long measure is the braccio, which is divided into 20 soldi, 60 quattrini, or 240 denari ; it contains 22-98 English inches. 165 bracci = 100 English yards. The canna of 4 bracci = 92 English inches. Credit, Chargei, etc Goods in general are bought and sold for silver money; between whi :i, and the money in which bills of exchange are bought, there Is a difference of 7 per cent, (agio) against silver; i. «., $107 in silver are equal to if 100 in gold. On goods bought or sold (unless it be in eflective money, where there is no discount) there is, generally speaking, a discount of 8 per cent. ; on all cotton manufactures, 4 per cent. Charges on sales, including commission, are general'.y from 6 to 8 per cent. ; on fish, 8 or 10 per cent 7'ar««.'— Cinnamon lb. 12 to 14 per half bale ; Mocha coffee, 6 to 7 per cent. ; indigo seroons, lb. 20, 30 to 40 per seroon ; sugar Havana, 14 per cent. ; crushed, 42 per cent, oi real ta-e of package ; loaf pacliage, and 4 per cent, for paper; Brazil uf 19 inches, 18 per cent, upward 20 per cent. ; tobacco, 10 per cent. ; rosin, 12 per cent. For most other articles specified in the price current the real tare is allowed. Exchanget, Three Monihi' Date. — London, liv. @ per £ stg. ; Span- ish dollars, ^6 lis. ; Paris, liv. @ per 100 francs ; doub- loons, £101 ; Genoa, liv. @ per 100 Ln. ; Trieste, liv. & per 100 C. Flor. In 1836 a Joint-stock bank was established in Leg- horn, with a capital of 2,000,000 lire (£«6,666 sterling, taking the lira at 8d.) in shares of 1000 lire each. The whole of tho capital is paid up, and the responsi- bility is limited to the capital. The managers have the power of issuing promissory notes to the extent of 6,000,000 lire. These notes, though received l)y the government, are not legal tender. The operations of the bank ate confined to the discounting bills of ex- 1 4G diaaga not having mora than foor moatha to ran, aiid to til* purchase and sale of foreign coins. The rate o. discount is fixed at 6 per cent. The superintendsne* is veated in a director and eight regent*, nominated by the shareholders ; and the government appointa a cont' ' missary and three censors (fh>m among the share holders), who exercise the highest authority, to secun obedience to the statutes. An annual report and InJ- ance-sheet is produced, and ia accessible to all shor*. holders. The maximum amount for which notea ara issued is 2000 lire^X66 13s. 4d. steriin^ ; the lowest, 200 lireojCe 13s. 4d. steriing. It is a profitable eaUb- Usbment ; its shares are at a considerable premium, and it has every prospect of success. luroan or laa LxamifO AaTiotia nrro Laonoaii, DimiHa na YrAKS I860, 1861, 1861. ArtifllM. Bngar, Havana . . lbs. " crushed ..lbs. " loaf lbs, " Brazil ....lbs. » E. L * Santo* Coffee lbs. Cotton lbs Tepper lbs. Indigo.....^ •*"»•• * ( seroons isn. issi. 8,400,000 18,874,000 18,600 603,000 1,61-^800 8,028,000 211,600 898,600 162 128 1,149,000 7,686,000 6,000 186,000 129,000 4,489,000 660,700 686,000 128 181 IMI. I 3,610,000 16,182;000 87,000 89,000 966,000 8,610,000 188900 886,000 278 111 AooouNT or Tui NuHBia, Tomnaoi, and Caswa or thi HancnANT Vkbsrls wuicn bklonokd to xacs HAaii- TtiiK Division or Tuscany in 1860. MtriUun DlTldOM. Legbom... Orbetellc. Isl. of Elba Vlaregglo. Total. Vm.I Tom. CrawiiV«a 108! 2,67?, 134 818 163 2,284 1,438 98 2,713 &i7 ljv« 867113 940 T»ni. jCraw 14,674 4^663 8,613 4981 8,4911 8,782213 22,849 1,809 "790 S41 2,440 Toi*l. Vet.) Toiu. |Cr*w». 2211 17,361 124 813 2U' 6,947 162| 6.834 711181,840 3,166 Mo! 3,328 688 6,222 CirsroHS Dotiks RaoaivxD in tub Oband Duoht oi Tdsoant, in 1843, 1S49, and 1860. Import.. Eiport.. Transit.. Total.. 1848. Uvrei. I X Livrei. 3,411,749 118.729.8,614,281 2a6,4M 7,888 274,010 81,92-2^ 2,780 100,781 I8W. Uif. I t 120,4764,660,4M 166,848 9,184 297,71« 9,9>t aB53 79,7981 2,660 8,780,161^ 124,888 8,989,042; 182,0686,087,974| 167,982 Zieipsio, or more correctly Leipzig, one of the four circles into which Saxony is divided, comprises the north-west part of that kingdom, and is (wunded on the north and west by Prussia, south by Saxe-Alten- burg and the circle of Zwickau, and east by the circle of Dresden. Area, 1386 square miles. The countr}- is generally level, and lies lower than any other part of Saxony. It is most elevated in the south, where some offsets of the Erzgebirge appear, but do not at- tain any great height. Leipsic belongs to the basin of the Ellie, and is principally drained by its tribut- aries the Elster and Mulda. The soil is fertile, and in general well cultivated. The principal crop ia com. The rearing of cattle, and especially of sheep of a supe- rior breed, is much attended to. Tobacco is exten- sively grown. There are no metals ; but limestone, marble, potters' clay, fullers' earth, and peat are abundant in various parts. The manufactures in th'i circle are fiourishing, and include woolen, cotton, and linen goods, and eartl">nware. Population (1855) 454,262. Leipsic, or Leipzig, the capital of the above circle, and the second city in the kingdom, ia situate on an extensive and fertile plain, on the White Elster, here joined by the Pleisse and Parde,-72 miles W.N.W. of Dresden by railway. The fortifications which for- merly surrounded tiie town have been converted into beautiful walks and gardens. The houses are chiefly old-fashioned stately buildings, frequently six stories in height, tjesides three or four additional ones in the pyramidal roof, and exhibiting much carved masonry, The streets are narrow, and from the height of the houses, have rather a ^gy appearance, but ore well LEI 1202 LEI yti««d and «I«mi, Th« mibaibt, homnr, of irlileh tkwa an four, «• of neont data, and mora ngnlarly baUt. Laipiie ii conncotad bj nilwajra with Dnadan, Magdaburg, Barlln, and Altanbnrg, and ii tba oantra of a vary axtanaiva trada. Tha calabratad Laipiio lUn an held thriea a yaar— on tha lit of Janoary, at Eaatar, and at Michaalmas. Thay ntoally lait for thraa weeks, and an attended by merchanta fVom all parte of Germany, England, France, America, Rniala, Italy, Greece, Turkey, Fenia, etc. The goode com- prlaa all klnda of woolen, linen, and cotton itulfe, aiUu, laoe, hardware. Jewelry, watchei, toys, paper, booka, leather, etc. llie value of the goods brought to these fain in the year 18fi5 was estimated at about |S5,000,000. The atreeta and squares .of tli" city are occupied by temporary liootha, in addition tu the ordi- nary shops, while the popuUtion of the place is nearly doubled. Topulation in 18&S, 69,986.— E. B. An AooouMT or ma QvAHTrnaa or Oooos, rta Mahu- yAOTuaa oa PaODCoa or ma Statm or ma Oibham CoaroHs L'moH, BBOuauT to Tna I.airaio FAiaa im Tua YiAS I8BT. DMtHptioa of a««4l. Cotton msnufscturei Iron nianuflu-tMniii Yam, cotton, *nd woolen . Olan mannfsr.tnrca Wood msnufacturcs Hardwama Initrumenta tealhtr Leather ntnufactures , . , . rinen Paper Porcelain Furs Silk manufietiires Ulxed sillc nmnu&ctures . Woolen niannfacriires . , , . Straw ninniifiictureii Other articles Eaater Fair Michaelmss Fair, , . Total N«W-«Mf'|i rain. CABtotra. tia89» S,SS-J 1,614 ],WT aon t,S03 323 18,118 TP8 B,TT8 1,TM i,on Tia 1,801 488 8S,3S1 121 14»,10S i«8,n« S»T,680 ■aalar fair. C'antnan. 8»,013 4,643 8,188 8,ITT 1,618 S,!I64 1,848 80,184 8,892 12,14T 8,891 8,547 1,826 8,086 1,488 46,006 406 1,938 149,108 Miehaaloiaa Pair. Cantoara. 81,699 ^708 8,797 8,783 8,770 9,188 1,447 8e,'266 2,8ST 14,889 8.907 8,888 8,148 8,796 1,708 68,641 876 1,16T 108,778 Xaeitb, although an independent burgh, may be eonaidered tha aaa-port of Edinburg, tnm which it is only about a mile and a half distant. The Water of Leith, at its confluence with the Firth of Forth, di- vides tha town into two parte, called, raspeetively, North and South Leith. The first mention made of Leith is in the charter of erection of Holyrood Abbey, bunded by David I. in 1128, when it is styled Inver- leith. The magistrates of Edinburg obtained a grant of the harbor and mills firom Kobert I. in 1829, and they subsequently purchaaed, from Logan of Bestal- rig, all the other rights and privilegaai The chief manufitctures of Leith are ropes, sailcloth, locomotive enginea and machinarj', glass, eoap, ale, refined sugar, and oO^seed cakes. Iron and timlwr ship-building ia also carried on to a considerable ex- tent. Various efforts have ftvm time to time been made to overcome the natural obstacles that lay in the way of Leith aa a shipping port. In 1720 a dock waa formed on tba east side of the river, and in 1777 a small quay called the custom-house quay was built. Between 1800 and 1817, two wet docks were con- structed, each measuring 760 feet in length by 800 in width, and having a united area of about 10 acres. In 18i)l two great additional works were undertaken, viz., an addition to the old or east pier of 600 yards, and the formation cf a covering bulwark, by means of which the water in the channel was deepened about two feet. There were still, however, only 17 feet of water over the bar at its month at high-water spring tides, and no vessel of above 400 tons could enter the harbor without lightening. Further Improvements wan commenced in 1848, and completed in 1866. Tbaae iadnded the formation of tha Victori* Dock, equal fat extent le either of tha otiian i thi new west- era pier and low-water landing allp ; the extension of tho eastern pier 1000 feet seaward. The length of the east jder ia now 8680 feet, and of tha west, 8128 feat, They are unsurpassed by any In the kingdom ; and, in addition to other important purposes, afford the means of a healthful and pleasant promenade. By means of these improvements, a depth of 26 feet water has been obtained in the new harbor at high-water spring, and of 21 feet at neap, tides. The Victoria Dock has 26 feet water at spring, and 20 feet at neap, tides, upon the gate sill, and two feet more within the dock ; and the two old docka have 18 feet at spring, and 13 feot at neap, tides. Vessels of upward of 2000 tons bunlen, of 820 feet in length, and 68 feet in breadth, can be accommodated in the Victoria Dock. Then are also five dry or graving docks at Leith, of the following dimen ' ins : No. or doaka. UagOi. WUIb. DtpUi of wuirl OTtrdogkillla at Uib-italar tprinf tidal. Ofloor. At top. OfSoor. Allop. Mgalta. 1 \ 1 ft. la. 160 178 166 117 6 ft la. 174 177 178 181 6 A. la. 460 880 869 410 ft. la. 70 6 680 49 6 61 ft. lo. 880 860 809 889 ~ ft. la. - 16 6 18 8 18 6 13 6 A new graving dock of greater capacity is proposed to be made on the east sands, and to enter the present new harbor a little to the north of the entrance to Vic- toria Dock. The following are its proposed dimen- sions : length of floor, 300 feet, at top, 880 feet ; width of floor, 46 feot, at top, 80 ieet ; of caiuon, 72 feet ; depth of water over sills at high-water springs, 24 feet 5 inches. Besides having regidar steam communica- tion with Rotterdam, Hamburg, Hull, London, New- castle, and the north of Scotland, Leith trades largely with the Baltic, Mediterranean, Xorth America, and Australia. The exports an principally coal, iron, apUits, ale, paper, linen yam, etc. Of coal and iron the quantities exported during the last three years were as follows : Ezroan, To May 161b, 1864. « 1868. " 1866. Coab. Tofla. 89,778 86,098 80,898 PIf-lroe. Toaa. 84,078 88,094 19,880 Mallaabia Iraa, Toiu. 8,008 1,196 8,858 The principal import is grain, of which the quantity Imported during the last three years is given in the following table. After grain and timber, the chief articles of import are hemp, flax, wool, linseed, oil- cakes, guano, agricultural seeds, butter, cheese, fruit, corkwood, wines, spirits, oil, sugar, tea, etc. iHroBia. Taara a>dla(HarIlllu 1854., 1866., 1866. Qia. 877,866 871,917 864,006 Baca k tar'U 80,68T 46,893 86,700 BalUaaad olbar porta. Loada 86,850 19,689 86,644 North Amarffft. Loada. 10,647 1^884 18,089 NoKBsa AND ToNNAOa or Vasaaia AaaiviNO at Lsito, roB TUB Tbabs indiro Hay 16x0, 1864, 1856, 1866^ 18B4 1866 1866 BrfUak aallllif aaaaala. No, 8,406 8,314 8,889 Toaa. 198,986 198,481 194,739 Britlak Blaam vaaaala, Poialfa Taaaala. Torn, 89,111 86,068 88,064 Tona. 87,468 78,461 81,138 Total. No. I Tona. 4,918 309,499 4,7561867,964 4,693 868,941 Nuhbkb and Tonnaoe or Vessils bailino rOB TDK TlABS BNDINS MaT 16TII, 1854, fRoM Lbith, 1865, 1866. Yaan. 1864 1856 1866 Britlak aalllng Teaaala. Britlak itaam Taaaala. Forelga veaaala. ToiaU No. 8,410 8,816 8,808 Toaa. 191,800 194,881 19^887 No. 680 625 688 Ton*. 87,604 85,899 87,668 No. 8(8 778 848 Tona. 85,218 78,486 88,686 No. Tona. 4,882 8M,022 4,719 358,669 4,773 871,475 The amount of customa duties received at Leith for tba laat four years were: 1868, ^£486,916; 18M. ljt!k 1303 LEN llallanbU Im. Tan*. 1,008 1,186 9,85'i Nortk 10,MT l^J8* 18,089 Tom. MX |4,756l857,»ft, ' ' .8l868,Ml| £4S6,408; 1855, £462,917; and 1856, £498,172. Th« vessels registered as belonging to the port on Slst De- cember, 1859, were : salting vessels, of and under 60 tons, 71; tonnage, 2218; above 50 tons, 80; tonnage, 17,058 ; steam vessels of and under 50 tons, 14 ; ton- nage, 289 ; above 60 tons, 2S ; tonnage, 6654. The recent war with Russia has checked the increase in the trade that would otherwise have resulted from the greatly enlarged accommodation. — E. R. Lemon* (Qer. Linumen ; Du. lAmotntn ; Fr. Li- mom, Citront ; It. Limoni; 8p. Limonn ; Port. Limiti; Bus. LimonU; Arab. Ijim/hi), the (Vuit of the lemon tree (Cilrua medica, var. /?. C.). It Is a native of As- syria and Persia, whence it was brought into Europe : first to Greece, and afterward to Italy. It is now cul- tivated in Spain, Portugal, and France, and is not uncommon in our green-houses. Lemons are brought to England from Spain, Portugal, and the Azores, packed in chests, each lemon being separately rolled in paper. The Spanish lumons are most esteemed. Like most of its tribe, the lemon produces under culti- vation a great number of varieties. Several are known in commerce. The principal are : the Wax Lemon (Cilrui Limonum cerietcum of Kisso) ; this is the tmimth-peeledone, most generally found In the matkets ; its rind is thick. The Bignette Lemon {Citnu Li- monum Bignella of Risso) is a thinner-peeled fruit than the wax lemon, less oval in shape, and more blunt at the point ; the color of the rind is less clear, and is usually tinged with green. It is cultivated more largely than any other variety, as it yields a larger quantity of juice, and is a most abundant bearer. The Clustered Lemon (Citnu Limonum racemosum of Risso) is the least oval of the imported lemons, but the nipple- like point is fully developed. The rind is thick, and has a bright yellow color. The pulp is less agreeable thon the varieties previously mentioned. One or two other varieties, as the imperial and Gacta lemons, are occasionally brought to this countrj', but not In any conaidorable quuntities. Lemon Juice, or Citrlo Acid (Cer. Zitznmen- mft ; Fr. Jul de limon ; It. Agro o Sugo de limone ; Sp. Jugo dc limon), the liquor contained in the lemon. It may bo preserved in Irattles for a consideralile time by covering it with a thin stratum of oil : th..s secured, great quantities of tlie juice are exported from Italy to different parts of the world ; from Turkey, also, where abundance of lemons are grown, it is a considerable article of export, particularly to Odessa. Tlie discov- ery of the anti8corl)Uttc influence of lemon juice is one of the most valuable that has ever been made. Thu scurvy, formerly so fatal in ships making long voyages, is now almost wholly unknown: a result that is entirely to be ascril>ed to the regular allowance cf lemon juice served out to the men. The juice is also frequently administered as a medicine, and is ex- tensively used in the manufacture of punch. Lemon Peel (Ger. Zitrontmhalen, Limontchellen ; Fr. Lamet d'icorce de citron ; It. Scone de limone ; Sp. CourtezM de citrd). The outward rind of lemons is warm, aromatic, and slightly bitter — qualities depend- ing on the essential oil it contains. It is turned to many uses, and, when well candied, constitutes a very good preserve. In Barbadoes, a liqueur, known under the nsnie of Eau de Barbade, is manufactured from lemon peel, which the inhabitants have tlie art of preserving in a manner peculiar to themselves. Both the liqueur and the conserve used to be in high repute, cspectall}' to France. Lending-bousea. That it should have once been conceived unlawful to exact interest for the loan of money, will not appear surprising when it is consid- ered that at an early period the occupations by which a man could support his family were neither so numer- ous nor so productive as in modern times. As money, therefore, was at that time sought to remove imme- diate necessity, those who advanced it were influenced by benevolflnoe and friendship. Bnt oir th* astMMloa uf trade, arts, and «iannAictui«i, money lent prudlMwl muoh more tlian what was adequate to th* bormwar'i daily support, and therefore the lender might raaion- ably expect from him some remuneration. To tb* lending of money upon interest, according to tha earik est accounts, succeeded tho practice of eatal)|lahin( funds for the relief of the needy^ on condition that thajr could deposit any thing equal in value t» doubl* tbt sum borrowed, for which they were to pay no Interest, But, as upon the one hand, tha idea of exacting ln> terest for the loan of money was odious to the iueni> bors of the Catholic church In general, while, on the other, it appeared proper, and even necessary, to pay interest for money to be employed in commerce, tbt pontiffs themselves at length allowed tho lending, houses to take a moderate interest ; and, in order not to alarm the prejudices of those to whom the measur* was obnoxious, it was concealed under tha nam* of being paid pro indemnltato, the expnssion mad* usa of in the papal bull. It appears that lending-houses, which gave monny on receipt of pledges at a certain interest, are by no means of recent date ; for many houses of tills da- scrlption, in Italy at least, were establislied In the lAtb century, by Marcus Bononiensis, Michel a Caroano, Cherublnus Spoletanus, Antonlus Veroellensls, Bar' nardinus Tomitano and others. The lendlng-housa at Perugia established by Barnabas Interamnensls WM inspected in 1485 by Bernardinus, who augmented It* capital, and in the same }-ear established one at AssUI, which was confirmed by Pope Innocent, and visited and improved by its founder in tlio year 1487. Ha likewise established one at Mantua after furmidablo opposition, having procured for it tho sanctiim of the Pope. The same person also founded londing-housea at Florence, Parmn, Chieli, and Piacenza, in doing which he was sometimes well received, while at otheni he freqnentl}- met with great opposition. K house of this kind was established at Padua in the year 1401, and another at Ravenna, which were approved of and confirmed by Pope Alexander VI. Long after the period here referred to, lending-housea were established at Rome and Naples ; that of tha former city having been opened in 1589, and that of the latter proliably in the following year, A lending- house was established iit Nuremberg, In Germany, about 1618, the Inhabitants having obtained from Italy the regulations of different houses in order to select the best. In France, England, and the Netherlands, lending-houses were first known under the denomina- tion of lombards. Similar institutions were formed at Brussels in 1G19, at Antwerp in 1620, and at Ghent in 1622. Although such liouses must bo allowed to lie of verj- considerable utility under certain circumstances, especially when Interest is not allowed to be exorbitant, yet they were always odious In France. One wa«, however, established ni Paris In 1626 in tho reign of Ixiuis XIII., which tho managers next year were oliliged to abandon. The mont de pleti In that city, which has sometimes had in its possession forty ciuka full of gold watches which had been pledged, was eii- tablUhed by royal autliority in the year 1777, as we learn from the Tableau de Paris, published at Hamburg in the year 1781. — E. A. Lengthening, in ship-building, the operation of catting a ship down across the middle and adding a cer- tain portion to her length, it is performed by 'sawing her planks asunder in different places of her length on each side of the midship frame to prevent her from being too much weakened in one place. The two end* are then drawn apart to a limited distance, which must be equal to the proposed addition of length. An in- termediate piece of timber is next added to the keel, upon which a sufHcient number of timbers are erected to fill up the vacancy produced by the separation. The two parts of the kelson are afterward united by an ad^ LEN 1204 LET 4ltl(mal plactf, irhkh li nored down npon tha floor timbora, and M many baama ai may ba necesiary ara flxad aoroii tha ahip in the naw Intarval. Finally, tha planka of tha aide are prolonged ao a* to unite with Mch other, and thoea of tha ceiling are refitted in tha aame manner, by which the whole proceafi ia com- jdeted. Lentil, the aeeda of £rnim Uiu (natural order le- rnmotm). Tha lentil ia cloaely allied to the tare, and probably the moat ancient of all the food producta which man derivea from the pea-tribe. The nd pot- tag* in Oen. xxv. 84, ia the amsll lentil decorticated, M it ia aold at the preaent day in the baxaara of India. Pliny mentlona two liinda of lentila grown in Egypt, ime rounder and l)lacker than the other. Theae were, nrobably, only varieties reaulting from cultivation. Three anch are cultivated in France, where, aa in moat Boman Catholic countriea, thia liind of pulae ia exten- ■Ively naed during Lent ; to which aeaaon, aa aome aup- poee, it gives its name. The lentil ia a native of Europe, Aala, and northern Africa ; or, at all events, it ia nntu- ralliad In thoaa parta of tha world. It ia cultivated oc- casionally in aome parta of England, but chiefly aa a foddor plant. , The ripe aeeda are very nutritious, and contain a large proportion of gluten. They ara fre- quently imported from Alexandria for cattle-feeding ; while, for culinary purpoaea, the larger and lighter- colored varieties an imported from France and Ger- many, where conaiderable attention ia paid to their cultivation and harvesting. In Eg}-pt the lentil forms a large proportion of the general food of the inhab- itanta, and tha haulm ia uaed for packing purpoaea. The empirical pnparation called Revalenta Arabica, has been proved to be nothing but the meal of decorti- cated lentila ; a food by no meaua well adapted to all constitutions, especially thoae of infanta. The quan- tity of ataroh In the lentil ia very considerable ; and. In addition to the gluten, renders thia pulse one of the most nutritive of vegetalile food producta. Lentila ara, however, heating if used much. The ataroh, accord- ing to Einhoff, is nearly one third ita weight. Zietters of Credit. A letter of credit ia an open letter of request, whereby one person requeats aome other peraon or paraone to advance money or to give credit to a third peraon, named therein, for a certain amount, and promiaea that he will repay tha aame to the peraon advancing the aame, or accept bills drawn upon himself for the like amount. It is called a gen- eral letter of credit when it ia addressed to uU mer- chants, or other persona in general, raqueating audi advance to a third peraon, and a apecial letter of credit when it is addreased to a particular person by nauie, roqursting him to make auch advance to a third per- ron. If tha letter of credit be of the latter sort, there doea not aeem to be any doubt that it is an availalile promiae in favor of the peraon to whom it ia addressed and who makea the advance upon the faith thereof. But If the letter of credit be general, it is a matter of some doubt whether the writer ia bound to the peraon mak- ing advance upon the atrength of the letter. The question d^a not appear to have l>een ever decided In England, but it haa aeveral timea been thoroughly dis- cussed in the Supreme Court of the United States (iMwraton vs. Ataion, 8 Cranch, 492 ; Adami vs. Jonea, 12 Peters, 207), The doctrine was maintained in theae caaea that the letter writer Is bound positively and directly to any party niuking the advance upon the fuith of the letter, nut only where the letter pur- ports,' on ita face, to be addressed generally to any person or persons whatsoever who should make the advance, but also In coses where the letter ia ad- dressed solely to the person to whom the advance is to l>e made, and merely stales that the person signing the same will become his surety for a certain amount, without naming any person to whom he will become security. If it is obviously to be used to procure credit from aome third person, and the advance is made upon the faith of the letter by such third person. Formerly, and up to the years 1826 — 1830, remit- tances to India and China, for importations Into the United States, were made almost exclusively in Span- ish dollars. After that period letters of credit were liberally issued l>y the Bank of the United States, on their European correspondents, in favor of American merchants. This mode of remittance is made univers- ally from the United States. FoBMi or Lbttem or Credit, as used in New York, ahd as issued by the Western Bank op Scotland, roR Bemittances to India, etc. i ^nul laiBS Aew York, 7th June, 1842. •8 le! Siii Exchange for £300 Sterling. 2388 K. S. & Co. fllif i'^'S^I^ 5 i six Mentha after sight of this First of Exchange (Second ^ '^ S'^l =1^1 " -I "^ I '"* '"''■^ unpaid) pay to the order of Davis, Brooks, & Co. Three Hundred ill S ^f ►J 2 1 1* Pounds Sterling, value received, aa advised by t.£l5flv-fil®3 Your obedient servant. Geo. D. Carter.* Mo. To Messrs. Palmers, Mackillop, Dent, & Co., London. •The bill is indoraed, "Pay Ooorge D. Garter, or order.— Aiins, Brooks, "• To the . , > Western Bank of Scotland, ■ ■^■' Qlsagow. 'v •''■'',' ' ' ■■ LIB 130ft LIB miBD or ncaiHsa. Oltdbdali Bahx, Qlamow. By thm Cltdmd. '^ahk. Ko. lUl. 1S61. Vf» banibj ennRe to aooept *nd to pay tt matnrltx, tb« flrit iirgHntal Bill of tha Ml of Kxohanga, of which tha anneied li tha Third, to ba drawn bj you on ua, on or bafora tha for £ taj dterllnf, pajrsble In London at a date not leaa than and not exeaadlng dan' alf ht, pravidad tbla Uttet of Cradlt ba dellTerad to ua on acceptanea of thfl annaied Bin. For tha Cljrdeidala Banking Companjr. In N«w Tork it hM bean held (Hlll'a R«p., toI. v., 684) that tettars of credit and commercial guarantiei are not negotiable Inatrumenta. In Campbeli'i liep., iv., 393, it waa decided that a letter of credit^addreaaed to any person who should malce an advance upon the faith of the letter, is an available promise in favor of the perion malting the advance ; and it is considered as available if it lie a general letter of credit, in favor of any person who maices the advancement the faith of it. See articles Banks, Bills or Exchanor, and EXCIIANOB. Levant, a name derived from the Italian word for the south-east, and applied in the mfddlo ages to that quarter of the Mediterranean east of Cape Matapan, now generally applied to the coasts of Asia Minor, SjTia, etc. Levant, in geography, signifles any coun- tr}' to the eastward of us, or in the eastern part of any continent or country, or in that quarter where the sun rises. Iievee, an embankment on the margin of a river to confine it within it: natural channel. The lower part of Louisiana, which has been formed by encroach- ments upon the sea, is subjected to be inundated by the Mississippi and its various branches for a distance of mora than 800 miles. In order to protect the rich lands on these rivers, mounds are thrown up of clay, cypress-logs, and green turf, sometimes to the height of 15 feet, with a breadth of 30 feet at the base. These, in the language of that part of the country, are called Uvtei. They extend for hundreds of miles ; and when the rivers are full, cultivated fields covered with rich crops, and studded with villages, are seen several feet below the river courses. The giving way of these levees, sometimes occasioned by a sudden and violent pressure of the water, and sometimes by acci- dental perforations, is called a crevaite ; French, a dis- ruption. Lew«Chew Island*. See Loo-Ciioo Islands. Liberia, an independent Negro repuldic of west Africa, established 1823, extends along the coast of Guinea, between Sierra Leone and Cape Mensurado, from the Shebar River on the north, to the Oaraway on the south, a distance of 350 nniies, with an average breadth of 80 miles. Population 1850, 250,C0O, of whom 10,000 are f>ee blacks from the Uniied States, and the remainder aborigines, or captives released from slavers. The country has been all purchased from time to time by the American Colonization So- ciety, and its climate has improved greatly by a sys- tematic drainagt;, and clearance of woods. It is esti- mated that 2,000,000 inhabitants of the interior now ubtain supplies of European goods from this republic and Cape Palmas. Liberia, formerly a dependency of the United States of America, was recognized as an independent republic in July, 1848. Government vested in a president, vice-president, and a senate of members, and a house of representatives of 28 mem- bers, elected by all possessors of a real estate to the value of $30. About 60,000 of the population are said to use the English language, and children are sent from the surrounding countries, 400 or 500 miles dis- tant, to attend the schools of this State, which also supports two public journals. The sea-port and capi- tal, Monrovia, has a population of 9,000, • after sight, pay this Third of Exchange (First and Second of the same tenor and data unpaid), to tha Order of in London , r , .j , ,., . SUrltng. Value racaived as advised To The treaty concluded in 1852 between France ana the republic of Lil>eria was linally ratified in the year 1856. The independence of the republic was recog- nized successively by the United .States, England, Belgium, Pru.Hsin, and Brazil, from 1847 tu 1854. To this list France has at last added her name by the late treaty. The original colony of Liberia was founded by the American Colonization Society, under tha di- rection of its first President, Mr. Finley. It is situ- ated at the northern extremity of the coast of Guinea, and is about 870 miles in length. Its capital, Monro via, is on the former site of the principal slave-mar- ket on this part of the African coast, and stands as a living protest against the slave-trade, in the alwlition of which tha colony has been largely instrumental. In February, 1820, the first sliip-load of emigrants left New York for the coast of Guinea. They were 80 in number — forming 25 families — under the care of 8 citizens of the United States, a clergyman, a lawyer, and a physician. In 1847 Liberia emerged from its dependent colonial condition, and became an independ- ent State. In 1864 it contained a population of about 12,000 black colonists, chiefly Americans, and from 140,000 to 150,000 natives, whose social and religious condition is far in advance of that of their blood-thirsty and idolatrous ancestors. The capital is now a flourishing maritime city, bar- ing a fort, a light-house, a commercial market, a small marine, and schools, churches, newspapers, charitable associations, and other institutions similar to those in the United States. The Gth article of the constitution of the republic declares that, inasmuch as the essential object of its foundation was to open an asylum for the scattered and oppressed children of Africa, and, at the same time, to regenerate the people of the vast conti- nent of Africa, yet enveloped in the darkneis of igno- rance, none but persons of color will be allowed to be- come citizens of the republic. The exports of Liberia, consisting chiefly of palm- oil, logwood, and other dye-woods, which are trans- ported to England and the United States, amount to about (1,000,000 annually. Besides all the usual tropical productions, it produces Indian com, rice, the potato, sugar, coffee, and cotton. Gold is also found in considerable quantities. The cotton of Liberia, which has been highly approved in the Manchester market, has lately attracted much attention, and its probable successful cultivation promises to exert a most important influence on the future of the republic. A communication from a highly respectable and relia- ble source recently appeared in the National Intelli- gencer, the writer of which gave a decided preference to the cotton of Liberia over that of Brazil, in point of quality, cheapness of production, and facility of trans- portation to market. The subject deserves further and full investigation. Considered simply as an ex- periment in practical benevolence, Liberia deserves and will receive the protection of the great powers of the world. Whether or not it be destined, as some have thought, to work o\it the solution of the vexed question of slaver}' in the United States, it will yet gain the great glory of redeeming from barbarism and idolatry many millions of the human race. Trade ir the chosen employment of the great mass LIB 1200 LIB at the I.ttxrUni, and lonM of tham b*v« baan dtoid- «dl}' luconiful in thin vocation. It coniliti In the ex- clunK* of articlea of Ameririn or Kiiropean manufic- ture for the natural priHliictn of the country, of which palm-oil, oam-wood, and ivory, are the pijnclpal artl- ulM. Cam-wool is a rich dye-wood, and it l» brought to Monrovia on the iihouldere of the natives from a great diatance. It l» worth, in the European and American niarltetn, from tOi) to (80 p«r ton. The ivory of th!i region doe« not form an Important Item of com- merce. The Liberian merchants own a number of •mall vesaeli, liuilt by themielvei, and varying In ilia from 10 or 16 to 40 or fiO torn. Theae are navi- gated by the Lllierin aailora, and are conatantly en- gaged in bringing palm-oil to Monrovia, fhjm whence it la again ahipped in foreign vtiaela far Liverpool or Naw York. Under the general nama of Liberia are oompra- hended the territorlea of the republic and of the Mar}-- land colony, foundoil at Cape Palmos, The political juriadiction of the republic extenda ft-om Shebar, a point Immediately north of Oallenai, to Grand Sav tara, giving a coaat trov Mer of 3&0 milea, or, including the Maryland colony, o/ 470 milea, ninning into tht interior an average of 40 milea ; the whole territor) to the production of ao great a variety of valuable ataplaa. Tha port dr«i are, anchorage X2 10*. ; ligbt-houia I2t. U. ' The tonnage duea are 8i. U. per ton, added to which ■ oanaral permit and liranM to trada, coitiog ti. M. allow veaaala to traffic at porta of antr}- and alaawhtra within tha Republic. The Aflrlcan Koyal Mail Steamahip Compaiiy'i iteamera, which touch at thia port monthly for paanen- garaand fVeight, are exempt from all port and tonnage duea. Thoy vary from SOO to MO torn, and prove a great l)aon to ciinimerce, bringing out an ample supply of Mambeiitor cotton gooda. They charge for freight from England X6, and to England the aame per ton. During the year 1866 tha average market prices of the produce of this country have bean ai followa : Palm-oil *i IJ per gMlon. Caro-wood 18 per ton. I'<"7 4«neflb. Berivelloa oi 1 per II). At regards the produce not exported, it may ba iil!;ain remarltcd that for some time past the rice cropa 'lava been doflcient, the price of that grain having embracing an area of upward of 14,000 a<|uare mi]r«, i raacbed 9j. id. per buahel. Countr}' clotha from the The Juriadiction of the Hni^'land colony extenda fr^m j^'^'^f ),<'*"" "f^ *°^^ '■> 8'°"^ quantities fot- 4>, 'M. Grand Hesters to the River Han Pedro, opening a cuaat fh>ntiFr of 120 miles. These territories have, of la«« years, been considerably extended by means of pnr- chaae, the most important addition being the annexa- tion of Gallenas, formerly the point at which the slave-trade was moat extensively vonductnd. The New Jersey Colonization Society, established in 1826, is aaid to have recently purchased ttma the natives 160,000 acres In tha interior of Eaasa country. Tha population in 1850, aa eatimat^d by the Rev. R. R. Guriey, who waa sent out b^' govamment to obtain information in respect to Libei t //aa, in the republic, emigrants, 6,000; natives, l'*'/,000 to 200,000. In the Maryland colony, emigrants, 9000 j natives, 100, 000. The independence of the republic of Liberia haa been recognized bj- France, Belgiun-., I'ruaala, the Hanae Towns, and England; and, with tha latter countr}-, a treaty of peace, friendahip, and commerce, waa concluded, August 1, 1840. Treatica of friend- ahipj etc., have alao been entered into with aevara'. trtliea of the interior, containing atipulationa for the abolition of the slave-trade, and including new terri- tory within the political and judicial Juriadiction of the republic. The soli of the republic is capalde of yiftlding, in the greatest abundance, the moat valua- ble productiona of the tropica. Rice, cotton, tha sugar-cane, and coifee are claaacd among the ataplea of Liberia ; and com, cassada, yams, aweet potatoea, arrow-root, vegetables, and beana, of every variety, are among the productions of this region. It Is stated, on the authority of persona thoroughly acquainted with the resources of thia region of Africa, that no clime or country in the world will bring cofTee to higher perfection than Africa ; and, whether intro- duced at an early period by the Portuguese and Span- lards, or whether it is a native of the countr}', it has propagated Itself along a great extent of the African coast, without culture, for many ages. The com- merce of the republic with foreign countries consists chiefly in th<9 exportation of arttclea Bupplie60 1b». Earthen-ware 3,480 dnza. Tobacco 07 hhils. SplriU 4,r>3.i Kallii. Provlalona 2,02g bnrli. Lumber 12,500 feot. ExroBTS or HomoviA, 1868. ArtlelM, Quuilll;. Vuluo. Palm-oil 2,(161 tons. X39,7UT Cam-wood l24tona. 1,4S8 Ivory l,0801ba. 898 Total value X4 1 ,653 From the " Annual Statementa of the Tradu an<* Xavigation of the Unit^l Kingdom," it appears that the Imports into Great Britain from the western count of Africa — the limits of which are not particularly designated, though estimated to contain some 50,000, 000 inhabitants — consist chiefly of bar-wood, cam- wood, ebony, guano, gum-animi, gum-copal, untanned hides, palm-oil, orchal, elephants' teeth, and bces'-wax— the heaviest item, by far, being palm-oil, which averaged some 450,000 cwt. each of the five years ending with 1868; and amounted to 633,608 cwt., at a "computed real value" of jei,467,068, in 1854. The agfregnte value of imports in 1854 is given oflicially at i.'l,'>28,- 836. The exports, during the same year, the produce and manufactures of the United Kingdom, or of other countries,. consisted of arms and ammunition, wearing apparel, manufactures of cotton, wool, silk, iron, brass, copper, steel, and glass ; salt, soap, spirits, staves, coals, lieadt, unmanufactured tobacco, earth- enware, and porcelain ; of which the he.w!est items were cottons, gunpowder, guns, staves, and tobacco. The average " declared value" of cottons thus cxporteil, during the six years ending 1854, was 1'187,000 ; and iiiJr^:iJiie^,tii^k^!:iA'Jikis^!Vi LIB not LIB u» . No. of •f. ti««i. IN) V>* m lib m 1114 m n .64 10 tflJI Vtlua. X3B,T07 1,4S8 308 of iobtcco, tht •rtrait* quantity wu S,1SO,000 ponoort»(l In JHM ia Klvon at i;S6,7UU. The computad rani valun of all tunign axporta to wentarn Africa far tha auma yoar waa i.'17'l,07ll ; and of all dn- mestio ax|mrt», i.'iHll,()lM s lielni; mora than that of 18A8, and doulile that of IHbi — tha averaK* vvlua of each of the alx yaara ending with IHA-I, IxInK upward of £460,1)00. It la thua aaen thnt tha trade of (iraat Hrltuin with weatem Africa la ra|ililly Increuainif — amounting. In value,' in 1^5-1, to £1,D'JM,H06 Ini porta ; donieatic ex- ports, iltMd.HUH; foreixn nxporta, £174,0711; aKgregute (Importa and exportn) i:2,IMi),Hn7^iill J,741),lflS. And thia, ind«|>endflntly of the Uritiah colony of 8lerr.i I.eone, the trade of wliich amounted In INM to (1,421,- H6A ; and of the llrltiah puaaeaaiona on the (iold C'ooat and the Kiver erla, Tlie following table ihowB the trade of the United States with Africa dur- ing the leven yeara ending June 80, lf)65 : 1849T 1880. 1861. 1863. 1868. ISM. 1856. EiporlB. TtomTT 76«,9e< 1,840,8(4 1,248,141 1,610,888 1,804,972 1,87^».I6 IntporU. "»498J4i" 624,791 1,l5!f,l76 1,057,667 I,'2(l2,g36 1,886,660 1,887,627 Toui. (1,201,168 1,288.9S8 9,808,890 9,8fr'),798 9,818,819 8,191,639 9,718,489 From thia itateinont, it will lie perceived that, al- though the tigures for 185r> show a fulling off In that year, sj compared with 1854 and 183,"1, yet that there M a regular and very rapid advance from 1849. But, white the avercga value of thu trade of the United States with all Africa, during the six years ending 1854, is found to lie only #2,200,000; that of Gr<-at Urltian with vest Africa, alone, for the same period, averaged (l2,!l()0,000 ; and, including all of her Afri- can colonies and possessions, together with the etli- nattd value of her tratle on the eastern coast, it could not have averaged much less than #20,000,000. In 1854, the trade of the United States with " Af- rica Generally" rose to i)3,191,632 — a higher figure than before or since ; at the same time, the trade of Great Britain with west Africa, only, amounted to $11,719,185. Tl:e value of the unmanufactured to- bacco alone — derived mostly from the United States- amounted to near'y $300,000 of that total ; and the vi.luo of British fade with "Africa Generally" was, as has been sec;, more than $23,000,000, or nearly 8 times that of the United States. The establishment of a line of commeroUl steamers between the United States and the western coai-ing of the mails. 8. The transportation of merchandize. 4. The carrying of pilgrims on their way to Mecca. B. The carrj'ing, en the return voyage, of the pil- grims, who now assume the name of Hadjis ; the cer- tain and expeditious transportation of the fruit and other products of the Mediterranein ; and the grtiater facility afforded to passengers from central Europe to America, whoa* •x|niii»i^ > rat ^M k* diminished liy embarking tlM tf stead nf at tlie unuul weatii i. Falni-oil has liecumo, witliiii a i.n .ir», a |.l' .>f export from Liberia. Mora than M vesneis vtcr* freighted with the article at her ports. In 1835 ; wbila three years liefore, the quantity exported did not exceed 1*KH) gallons, at a cost of $1 per gallon. Tht quantity expiirted at tlie present time ia, at laaat, 700,000 gallons ; liut the price liiia fallen to 88 ccnta |ier gallon. The trade In ground-nuts, chiefly carried on with France, is liecoming of great iin|Hirtunc«. They are shipped In Imgs, and, wh m ground, supply a wholesome sulistituto for oiive-oll. Sugar, cotton, and coffee are, however, viewed as the great iiutural staples of proK*th*r th* nwxl pro- KKmIv* ■nil thn nKMt lUttDnary of th* continent*, It would Mjon Im an elfortiwl alil in that African axo- ilua fniiii th* Mill nf til* n*w wiirlil ti> th* anciant fatharland of th* ram, nf which w* now m* th* faint Iwiftnnlngi. Ita raaliaatton would inrolv* mim wido- raaohlng aad li*ii*llRlal raaulta than avan Ita warmaal fH*nda hav* *v«r hoped. Zilbraria*. In a volnm* on Pulilio l.ltirariaa of th* lTnlt*d Stataa, pulilMhad li.r tha Nmttliaoolan In- ■tltutlon, th* following itatlitlca ap|i«ar, olitaiiiad fur a larit* part fmin rxplim to clrrulara, and tharcfor* l*aa full than thuiw uf th* ccnaua : UhnlHM. Nn. VnlHHHI. atata Ubrartaa W m\mi Social LIbratUi*. IM «lt,«M t'nll««o MlirariM IM IVMI,II« Hluilciita' I.WirariM„ 141 tM,M» BanilnariM anil I'mfcHlanal Ubrartea WT KWI.INM BeUnllflcancI lllaturlcal HiH'lulloi' ill). M lgli,9\l\ Oaa«T LiaBABiaa or Kvaora la IKM, LlbrarUa, VoliiiiiM. • Part* National m*,000 • Munich Horal («IO,0«) Pvtcnbnrii Imparlal 444,000 • Loniliin llrltbh MuMum 4«ft,OIIO • CnpcnIiaKcn Boyal 411,000 • Berlin Royal 410,000 • Vltana Imparlal SIS,(N)0 • Drciulen Itnyal 800,000 Mailrtd National 100,000 Wolfcnbuttcl Dneal 100,000 BtntRaril Royal 187,000 PariiAracnal 180,000 ' • Milan Brcia 170,000 I'arli Ht OcnxrlKTe 100,000 Darmatailt Oranil Ducal 1M),000 • Floranra MaRllabaocblan IB«,000 • Naplca Royal , lM,aoo • Bruiaala Royal iWflM Roms CananaU HO.iNNI • IIa«iieK*y*L 100,000 ParhMaiarlD 1UO,UOO Rome Vatican 100,1X10 • Parma Ducal 100,000 TbcM marked thai (*) am entitled by law to a copy of (Terr book publUbad within tha HIatai to whiah they r*- •p*etlr*l]r belong. Xil«n. It haa been decided that no ahipwrlxht bai aHenupon avriirl fur the repaint, etc., done to thevea- Kel, when he |>artii with the (loimewilon of tho venrnl, and can only recover thv Mine from the ownera in an action for debt, aa ha in thia caa4>, as well aa tradea- inan, who have no lien upon the ahip, am auppoaed to hare glvea th* credit for the requiiitea required for the veaael to the ewner. In tnaritiine lien, the persona who hav« a Halm in the Admiralty Court in rem, and can compel reiinburement, conaiat of thoae who have rendered aervicea to the ship liy their lalior, aa mar- iner*, bjr pilotage, tonnage, aalvage, and by the loan of money as bottomry for repairs. The wages of seamen have tho fimt claim upon a vessel, and then come sal- vage, pilotage, tonnage, or Imttomry, llottomry, how- ever, baa a precedence over prior salvage, although it gives way to subsequent salvage. 8ir John Michel, speaking of lien, says : " Subjects which operate for the protection of prior interests are privileged over those Interests." Ueutenknt, of a ehip of war, the officer next in rank aad power to the captain, in whose absence he is accordingly charged with the command of the ship, aa also the execntlon of whatever orders h« may have received from the commander. Lieutenant (Boata. Sea LirB-PBBSBRVBita. Iiti>-yr» M rt»W. Altkeugh It too flvqnantly hap[i«ns that an acclilani which inatarialiy amlaiigiin tha life of an Inillvlilual, liaprlvas him, in th* m*«n- tiro*, of that pr*s*nc* of mind which alun* wiiuld enable him to tak* proper ni*aaur*s for his safety i ) at to have niaditated, in an Interval of Iclaur*, U|Min the Iwat laethiHl of proi^awliiig In i'*a* of emergency, muit tend gr*ally to diminUh tli* amiiarrasamant *nd con- hislon that commonly accom|iany tha acciilant, even If it should not li* thought n*c*asary to pniviii* any |iar- ticular apparatus fur th* piir|MiBc of escaping III* ilan. grr. Yliere are also niiiny ways In wlilch thosn who are not IminedUlely iiiviilveii in the diaaster may i»ii. tribute to the preaervHtion uf life, whether actuiitaii by interest, or by humanity only ; and the mode* of r*. Ii*f will tbersfon lie naturally divided intti tti* iWcr- nal and th* ttitmul, wh*th*r relating to Jim or to ihiftwrrrla. Jntemal /Vrc-A'e, with a hook or a loop ut tliu end, by which it may be fastened to a bed-poat, so ua to enable an active |Mu'(iiHM r/ Ikn HoeiHg Iff An$ fur IMIII, p. 144, w* luv* an ■riiniinl of • Nra-aMiip* Invantoil by Hr. Aitum YounK, lut which h« ncalvol * niaiUI fVoni lh« uiolrty. It »\>\m*n tn rnnitltut* by hr lh« nioat |K>rt«bl« iif UiliUm, c(iniUt- IRK of criHM ban or rouniln ronnm'tml by ropat, tnil havlnif thair amlt Attml liiK«thar, ao «a to form a poU, whirh la raaillly alavatml tii tha wlnilow | anil tha ruimila IwliiK Mparatail, ami tha hooka at Iha anil pro|>> arly tlxad to tha wlmlow-frama, tha whola forma Itaalf tato a vary convanlant laililar nf a nilxaallaat fixed on a wood- en bed, and laahad to the caak, and with ropea round It for the men to hold ; and it waa found i:hat 10 men were aupported by it with convenience in tolerably amooth water, the bung of the caak being well aocurod by cork (vol, xxxvi,, p. 69). The ballaat could be of very little uaa, and a caak aimply tied round with a tope, like a common parcel, would probably answer tho purpose equally well. It would, indeed, be pru- drni. for every ahip in a atomi, on a lee ahore, to have a few of her caaka well emptied and (topped, and tied In thia manner, Iwforo the actual occurrence of immi- nent danger, 8, In 87th volume of the Trantac- Uoni of Ihe Socitlji (p, 110), there la an account of Mr. Cook'a life-raft, conalating of a square frame with oanvai nailed acroaa it, aup|iorted by a caak at each comer, for which the gold modal waa voted to him. 4, It ia followed by a deacription of Lieutenant Rodg- er's lifo-roft (p. 112), which obtained u similar compli- ment. Thia raft has the advantage of requiring only inch materials as are usually found on board of every ■hip; oapstan-bars, bout-masts, yards, or any other ■para of numerate dimenaions, which are tied together ■0 aa to make a sort of wagon frame, with a large caak fixed on each side ; it appears to afford a very oonvenient support to the men, but It can scarcely poaaeaa any gfaal ttnngth Air i«al«lln( liw (bret ti Ika brvaliara, Mr. J. Ilrvmat, n ilergvman In Iha Orknaya, had rarnlvad a lordul from Ihn No. Idy In IHIII, for hia iiwth(Ml i,( •imvartlng any alilp > IhmI Into a llfa-lmat by pulling Into It II or 4 lanka laahml to Iha keel, whlcb la to havn rliig-Uilu lliia« of 4:il," ■•gnia to Ix coinpreheuded among thoao preparatlona which are to lia nia enia which may orcualonally lie »niployi>il with ailvan* tage. Tying n hut In a iHiiket-liundkarrhinf, and holding It aa a Hunt, haa lieun reciinmirnilixl by Mr. Dawaon In tha I'kilotnfihicnl Mtiffntint (mA. xx,, p. 1162) ; he advlana that the crown of the hut hIiouIiI Ik held downwanl, and obaervea that a atick ni^iy lie em> ployed, to enable ua to uaa 2 or I hiita at uiice ; but thia nielhaat-akina UHcd from time immemorial by the Ariilia, or the aeaU akina employed by the Chlliiina, hnvo the di»advaiv> tuge of lining ettally rent or torn by a roclt or ,i apur) an objection which ia also more or leaa uppiiiable to all aubatunces containing' uir; for example, to the air- Jackela described in Leupold'a Tknilnim I'unlijiciim, publiahcd aliout 1724, A float of a aemicirculnr form waa recommendey aoma experimunta which were nuiile with cork Jackets on the Thainea, together with Home comparative expert* menta on air-Jucketa ; and Dr. Wilkinson, in the Phi- luiophii-al Trimmtrliimt for 1765, descrlliea some experi- ments by which he aacertulncd that al>out " pound of cork was amply aufllcient to enable a man ol ordinary aize and mak« to flout witliout ofTort. It ia almc rk shav- ings to lie kept in readiness by each peraon j the Sea- iiian't Frifwi was composed of two pieces of cork, united by straps j tlu dilliuelta was a hollow vessel of cop|)cr, diviilcd Into cells ; a " marine spencer" lias been de- scrilied by Mr. Spencer, in the 16tli volume of the I'hilo- mphietU Miigiizine, consisting of a number of old corks, arranged so ns to form a girdle ; and in IHHU, Mr. T. C, Daniel obtained a gold moilal from the Society of Arts, for the invention of an apparatus of waterproof leather, surrounding tlie body, which, according to the testi- monia'iA ho produced, had saved the lives of some per- sons who had been sailing in a pleasure-boat on a river. In smooth water, it has been suggested that throwing a foot-ball, with a small weight tied to it, to the per- I son immersed, would often afford auf&cient assistance t LIF ISIO LIF / •nd, with rtii|i«rt to floatltiK, thtn Is no doabt that »n>' of tliK iiMil«titni:«i) which have lieon proposed woulil Iw miflli'lnnt If thny were nt hand ; bnt there is iinntlinr iilijurt;, to whiirh It Is neressnry to attend, in oiiM, and svnn In tnnitwrnte rllnmtes, that of support- InK « te only partially inflated, and th« valves to lie only half screwed up, so as to allow of tha i'M'»\m of the Inclosed air. Commander J. R. Ward, It, N,, cd in cork, at- tiMtlied so as \u be quite flexible, and to allow of the usual movements of the Isidy without inconvenience, whlls It proteifts the body agalr't injury fhim blows, •nd Is :• warm covering In cold weather. Various fnrnis of buoyant mattresses have been con- trivwt by Mr, l^iurle and others. As manufactured by Mr, Mllver, numerous waterproof tubes are partly dtstandiul with horse-hnlr, woidon flocks, or cocoa-nut fliires, so that, should one or more of the tnlies fail, the others may siifllce to sustain the required weight on tli« water. The tulies are made up into mattresses, pillows, and floats — the last to be placed under the ihwarts of bo;,ts. A mattress weighing 17 lbs. sus- tains In thn water 2K4 lbs. A pillow sustains 28 lbs. A mattress for emigrant vessels, sold at 9s., was proved at the Ornnt Kxhibitlon. ft sustained 96 lbs. In the water iliirlng ft days, without being injured. Floating mattresses are also made, filled with cork •havings, In the Oreat Kxhibltion, Mr. Khind had various mislels of deck seats and benches for steam- ors, ui conxtructed as to be readily formed into rafts, Mch of which was capalde of snstalnlng R persons. For the second obJe<^ which Is desirable to a ship in distrass, tliat of olitalnlng a safe communication with th* shore, it has been usual of late years to rely prin- olpally on tlie humane exertions of persons who may b« on tho i»iast, and who may have mode preparations for this purpose s and with this view, some instruc- tiuM fur properly ooi^penUlag lu the meuures to b« adopted with Captain Manby'i apparatus have been lilierally distributed to all ships when they received their papers from some of the British custom-huuses. There are, however, some simple expedients which may be adopted for this purpose by persons on lioard of the ship ; for example, the making a kite with a pocket-handkerchief stretched over a hoop, and caus- ing it to carry a cord to the lee shore, by means of which a stronger line, and at last a hawser, may bo drawn by persons standing on the beach. A line may also sometimes be carried on shore by a cask, allowed to drift before the wind i and a bag has been recom- mended to lie attached to such a cask, or to a buoy, in order to act as a sail, and to insure its crossing the surf. Mr. Cleghom •■ was also rewarded, in 1814, by the Society of Arts, for the invention of a buoyant line, having a heart of cork, to obviate the inconven- ience which would arise from its sinking and lioing dragged on the atones under the breakers ; but he ob- serves, that in heavy storms there is generally a cu^ rent along shore whicli renders the method nlnioiit impracticalde, (Trantactioiu, xxxii., p. 181.) A Mr. Wheatloy assures us, in Captain Munliy's A»»ay, that his own life, and those of 8 otlier persons, were saved, in 1791, by a lead line, which was curried on shore by a NewfonndUnd dog that he hap|iencd to have on board, whun two good swimmers had been drowned in the attempt to swim on sliote. It had oc- curred to Lieutenant Bell, in 1791, that a rope miglit bo thrown from a ship whicii had struck, l>y means u{ a mortur carrying a iieavy sliot, and upon the priuLi- ple of the gun harpoon ; and he showed the practica- bility of the suggestion by an actual experiment, in which a deep-sea line was carried to a distance of about 400 yards. {Trans. Soc. Arts, xxv., p. lilG.') He recommended that every ship should be provided with a mortar capable of carrying such a shot, and observed tliat it might be placed on n coil of rope to lie iired, instead of a carriage. The line was to lie coiled on handspikes, which were to be drawn out before the mortar was flred. In 1792 he received a premium of 50 guineas from the Society of Arts {Transactiom, X., p. 204) ; and he obtained his promotion in the Ordnance as an acknowledgment of his merits. The shot was to weigh about 60 lbs. or more, and the mor- tar 6 or 6 cwt. The experiments of the Freiicli artil- lery at Lafere weru subsequent to those of Mr. licll, though they have sometimes been quoted as tlie first of the kind. It has, however, generally been thought impractica- ble to manage a mortar witii uitect under tiie circum- stances of actual shipwreck ; and Mr. Trengrouse has preferred a rocket, as more easily tired, and as having a smaller initial velocity than a shot, so that the rope would be less in danger of being briiken liy the im- pulse. He found that a rocket of 8 oz. carried a.mack- erel line 180 yards, and a 1 lb. rocket 212 ; and in some experiments made under the Inspection of the Society of Arts, a rocket 1 J inch in diameter carried a cord across the Serpentine River in Hyde Park. The musket is provided with a valve, to prevent the escape of the materials of the rocket i and it is to be tired with a little powder, without wadding. The wliole appara- tus is packed in a chest, containing from 8 to 12 rock- ets, the musket, a life-spencer, a chair to traverse on a rope, a canvas bag, and a ball of wood to tlirow to a person swimming. Mr. Trengrouse was compliment- ed with a medal from the Society of Arts in 1820 (Vol. xxxviii., p. 161.) Jixtfmal Meant of Excape from SMpiirreek.—The means to lie employed by perscms on shore, in caoft of shipwreck, depend either in projecting a line dfjf the ship, or on the use of a life-boat. Mr. Bell hkd cursorily observed that a line might lie carried over a ship from the shore by means of his mortar ; but for the actual execution of this proposal, in a variety of oases, we are indebted to the meritorious exertions of 01 assistln advantage, over the vl in, it lirmll or rlgglngl lief of the I It is rendel hold, or slf Which It hif LIF 1211 LIF wreck. — The ore, in cM»» [ a line oft* Mr. Bell liW curriid over mortar ; but I a variety oJ exertions ol Captain O. W. Hanby, whoso apparataa, seeordlng to the report of a committee of the House of Commona, dated in March 1810, appears " to be admirably adapt- ed to its purpose, and to have been attended with the fullest success in olmost every instance." In conse. quenco of this report, Captain Manby wus thought worthy of a parliamentary reward ; and ho afterward published a description of his inventions, under the title of " An Essay on the Preservation of Shipwrecked Persons," 8vo, London, 1812. He had previously re- ceived a gold medal from the Society of Arts in 1808 (Traitsactiom, xxvi,, p. 209). His success makes it expedient to extract from his essay a detailed descrip- tion of the apparatus ; and it will be easy to make it somewhat more intelligible by a slight alteration of the order of arrangement : " The method of af&xing a rope to a shot, for the purpose of affecting communication, when projected ftom a piece of ortlnanco over a strand- ed vessel, was at length succeeded in, by introducing a jagged piece of iron, with an eye at the top, into a shell, and securing it by tilling the hollow sphere with Iwiling lead; and in another way, by drilling a hole through a solid ball, and passing a piece of iron with nn eye to it, as before described, to the bottom, where it should be well secured by riveting. To produce the means of connecting a rope tu a shot, and prevent its being l>urnt, and rendering it ' imtiiiibh' to the pow- erful inflammation of gunpowder, was the labor of inlinitc time, and the number of experiments to accom' pllsh it were numer- oils. Chains in every' variety of form, and great iitrength, break- ing, proved that it re- quired not only an elastic, but a closer connected body, - At length, some stout platted hide (flg. 2), woven extremely close to the eye of the shot, about two feet in length be- yond the mu2.Ele of the piece, and witli n loop at the end. to receive the n)pe, happily effected it. Fig- !■ "Vhis method is certainly desirable, as a rope may immediately [as] it is required, be affixed to the loop, and applied in service. Tlie form of the platted hide may likewise be woven by twisting it in the manner that the lashes of whips or rope are spun. There is anotlier method, by passing the rope through a case of leather, taking the greatest care that it ii so well se- cured at the e}'e of the shot as to leave no room for the tliffhieat play, as is represented by the annexed barbed ahot (fig. 2). Pig. ». 'When the crew of the distressed vessel are incapable of availing themselves of the benefits arising from com- munication, they having previously lashed themselves in the rigging to prevent being swept aw.ty by the sea, wliich is repeatedly breaking over them, and when, flrom long fatigue and the severity of the storm (on which occasions it too frequently occurs), they totally lose the use of their limbs, and are rendered incapable of assisting themselves in the slightest degree — the advantages of this shot are, that, on its being projected over the vessel, and the people of the shore hauling it in, it firmly secures Itself on some part of the wreck or rigging, by which a boat can be hauled to the re- lief of the distressed objects ; and l>y the counterbarbs it is rendered Impossible [that it should] give up its hold, or slip, while that part of the wreck remains to whtob it has scoured itself. Fig, 8, " Among the many that have been saved by thb shot, the following are testimonials of a Uii of tim cases ! ' We, the crew of the brig ffaney of Hunderland, do hereby certify that we were on board the said va«. sel when she was stranded on the beach of Varmnuth, on Friday morning, the 15th of Decenil)er, IHOII, nnd compelled to secure ourselves in the rigging to prevent being swept away, the sea running so higli over Ilia vessel. And we do further declare and certify tlwt Captain Manby, tiring a rope with a hooked sliot, *»• curely holding on to the wreck, enabled a boat to lie hauled from the shore over the surf to our relief, other, wise we must inevitably have perished.' TliU eertl. ficate is attested by six signatures, " Facilitating communication is at all times of tlil> portance ; but when the stranded vessel is in monUint> aiy danger of going to pieces, this point becomes » consideration of extreme urgency, I feel a perauaslun that this particular service can only be carried Into effect by a small and light piece of ardnani», the range of which is consequently very iuconsiderabla, when compared with that of a large and heavier pleea, as It is weight alone that conveys the rope. In ordar, therefore, to increase the powers of shot projected from a small mortar, its natural form must be varied, so as to give it additional^ ' preponderane.' The annexed shape, in the form of a pear (flg. 3), has been used with the greatest success ; for, by the incrsnsed weight, the shot's momentum and power over the line is in consequence considerably augment- ed in its range; and when made to fit the piece «« close as possible, a great increase of velocity ia like- wise produced from the decrease of windage. " Portability In the construction of a piece or ord* nance (as just descrilied) is the very essence of thi« service ; and communication with the stranded yetmX or wreck may be effected with a cord, by which cord u rope can be conveyed, and by that rope a hawser or cable sent to the distressed vessel ; for this purpose the annexed was con- structed (lig. 4). A person com- pletely equipped with every necessary apparatus to effect communication with a vessel driven on a leo-ahore * ♦ • Fig. 4. ' the horseman, fully equipped, traveled a mile and a half, the howitzer was dismounted, and the line pro- jected 138 yards, in six minutes. " The application of a small piece of ordnance llk«' wise offers particular advantages, capable of being em- ployed from a boat to go to the assistance of a ve.ssol grounded on a bar when running for a harbor, the na> cessity of which repeatedly occurs, and was twice wit- nessed at Blakeney, on the 10th of November, 1810, when boats endeavored to go to their relief, and were enabled to get out of tlie harbor on the ebli tide, within 20 j'ards of the vessel ; but it was found impossible to approach them nearer. Had such boats been provided with a piece of this description, and the same firmly secured on a stout piece of plank, l)y,the holes left at each corner of the iron bed, they might liave projecteil a small rope, coiled in a crate or basket, made to the form of the bow of the boat; and the persons in the boat, so provided, would not have remained tliu diS' tressed spectators of the untimely end of their fellow- creatures, without being al)le to afford them the small- est relief, although so little was then wanting for that dcsirul>Io purpose. " Although advantages have l)een pointed out in the use of tliese small mortars, it is necessary to be kepi in remembrance that they are produced for parttuuUr services ; as the nature of the coast, and circumstan- ces attending the distressed vessels, will direct what piece is best adapted to the undertaking. To enabU m i LIP 1212 LIF /■ the mind to form a Jadgmant of what can bo effected by other pieces, the foUowing are the minutea of ex- periments made with a &l-inch brass mortar, stating the quantity of powder used, and distance the ropes were projected against a strong wind, at the angle of 17° (elevation) : weight of the mortar and bed about aUO lbs. : Y«d*ofdMp- ■M Iln*. 148 182 Sin S49 2S10 riio " With a short 8-inch mortar, the weight of which, and bed, was supposed to be about 700 lbs ; the angles of elevation uncertain : Y(4rfli Tit twt>:h patent Buiid«^rlAtid rop,*, capftbl* of liftullng tha Ismat boAl from « Uma. UuocM of Vvdiorineli powd«r. ■nd half rap«. 4 184 6 IM 8 184 10 207 U 886 14 250 OmMMof Tirdi ofdsap. MftUw* 89 ... 89 89 .... 489 .... 479 88« ' ' Dirtctiomfor uting thi Apparatut. — When the rope (which should l>e pliant and well stretched) is brought on the beach or cliff opposite to the stranded vessel, the most even spot, and free from projecting stones, should be selected to lay it on, and great care be talien that no two parts of it whatever overlay or even touch each other ; nor must it be laid in longer lengths than (if two yards. But to project a small line or cord, it will be necessary, if it is required to contract the faiier to half a yard at most, to avoid the jcrlc received at the end of each right line. The best method, with such a description of cord, is to lay it on the ground in the most short and irregular windings, to relieve it from the pow- erful impulse. To prove the effect of the impulse on a rope, if it is faked in lengths of 10 or 15 yards,' it will brealc each time, as it then becomes a most powerful pendulum. These precautions are absolutely neces- sary to the success of the service, " The following has, after various trUls, been found a certain method of laying the rcp», and pbcing it into comparU ments." (French Faking, flg. 6 ) "A particular attention to this mode will never fail, with a good rope, when the impediments are removed that might otherwise obstruct its rapid flight. Its advantages are, that it will allow the e^ e rapidly (yet correctly, jutt bfjort firing, which is absolutely necessary) to pass over tlie different compartments, and at once discover if any fake has lieen displace'', by the storm, or l)y any other casualty or accident come in contact with another part, which would destroy its application by the rope breaking. " It muy likewise be coiled in the manner used in the whale fisher}', whale lair (fig. C) ; and in the method called chain faking (flg, 7). PlgR place it, but from the great anxiety of mind natural on these occasions, where the lives of feilow-crcitures are literally dependent on the correctness with which the rope Is laid; it is therefore extremely diflicult, in a moment of agitation, to determine whether any over- lay has taken place, an error that would infullihiy de- stroy everj- endeavor, and occasion even the futes of those whose lives we might be exerting ourselves to preserve. Could persons in the performance of this service be always collected, the two latter nictluHls would have a decided advantage over the first mode of faking, they being laid in a much less space of time. " As all these methods of laying the rope occupy time to place it with the care necessary ; and as it iius repeatedly happened that a vessel very soon after grounding, has gone to pieces, and all hands perislied ; it was necessary to produce a method of arranging the rope, so that it could be immediately projected as soon as it arrived at the spot ; and none proved so effectual as when brought ready in a basket (fig, 8,) la this Fig. 6, Flg. 7, It la, however, nocessar)* to add, that great atten- tion is required in laying it agreeably to the two latter methods, arising not only fn>m the arm being liable to get under certain parts of the rope, and thereby dis- Flg.8. case, the rope should be mpst carefully laid in alter- nate tiers or fakes, no part of it overlaying; and it should be well secured down, that in traveii'i); it bo not displaced ; but, above all, no mistake must happen in placing the batket properly. For exr uple, that tlie end of the basket, from which the shot hangs in the above figure, should be previously marked, and must lie placed toward the sea or wreck, that the rope lie deliv- ered freely, and without any cliance of entanglement. It will ba scarcely necessary to add, there will lie sev- eral tiers of the rope when laid. Tlie utmost care and attention are lequired in laying the rope in tiers with strict regularity, to prevent entanglement, " The next is the application of the mortar. If the wind is sideways to the shore, it must bo iwinted sufliciently to windward to allow for the slack of the rope lighting on the object, as the rope will, of course, be consideralily I ome to leeward by the effect of a strong wind, and by its lieing laid nt a low elevation insures the rope falling against the weathermost part of the rigging. While this service is performing, great care should lie taken to keep the mortar dry ; nor should it lio' loaded until every thing is ready ; when that is done, it should be primed ; but as it would l)e impossible to do it with loose powder in a storm, a tube is constructed in the simplest manner of common writing paper (the outer edge lieing ce mented with a little gum) in this form (fig, 9). ' It is filled with meal gunpowder, made into paste with spirit of wine ; wlwn in a state of drying, run a needle through the centre, and take care the hole is left oyma, for, on the tube being inflamed, a stream of flre darts through the aperture with such force as to perforate the cartridge. The mortar ■hould then instantly be fired ; flg- 9, and in order to lessen a difficulty that has often occurred in performing this service, a pistol may be used, linving a tin box over the lock, to exclude the eflTect of wind or ruin on the priming ; and the muzzle being cut [obliquely], dilates the inflikuimation, so as to re- quire but little exuctnesa in the direc- tion of the aim, " We will suppose the communioation to be secured, although it is scarcely necessary to offer any other assistance than that of a rope, as the inventive geniua LIP WH LIP of a sailor will aupply every thing else ; yet I conld expect the people on shore to get a boat ready for meeting the vessel when driven on a beach: it is the promptest and most certain method of relief, as well as the most easy tu be accomplished ; for by hauling her olf with the lope projected, the boat's head is kept to the waves, and not only insures safet}' by rising to the surge, but prevents her upsetting. When the rope r.ttached to the shot (not having barbs to it), is fired iver the vessel and lodges, let it be secured by the e on board, and made fast to some firm part of the Tigging or wreck, that they may haul olf a boat by it ; but should there not be any boat, tlien haul on board by the projected rope a larger one and a tailed block, through which a smaller rope is rove. Let the large rope Im made fust at the nmst-lieod, between the cap and the top of one of the lower masts, and the tailed block a little distance below it ; but, if the mast should have been cut or carried away, then it must be made fast to the loftiest remaining part of the wreck. When this Is done, there will be supplied from the shore a cot, hammock, netting, basket, hoop, or any of the numerous resources of seamen, whi 'i will run on the larger rope, and be worked by the [lecple on shore. If a cot be used, the men may be so securely fastened to it as to preclude all possibility of falling out, and then be brought from the wreck, one by one, in per- fect safety. " While communication is gaining, 3 stakes should be driven into the ground in a triangular position, so as to meet close at the heads to support each other. As soon as communication has been elTected by the crer.' of the vessel, and they have secured the line attached to the shot, made fast to these stakes, the crew will haul on board by it a large rope and a tailed block, through which a smaller rope is to lie rove, both ends of which (the smaller rope) are to be kept on shoro. When they have secured these on board, and the larger rope is rove through the rollers, let a gun- tackle purchase be lashed to it, then lash the purchase to the stakes. By the means of the purchase the larger rope may be kept at a At degree of tension ; for, if care be taken to slacken the purchase as the ship rolls out to sea, the danger of the rope being broken will be guarded against ; and on the other hand, if the purchase 1)0 gathered in as the ship rolls toward the shore, the slackness of the rope, which would prevent the cot (fig. 10) traversing as it ought to do, and plunge it in the water more than it otherwise would, will be avoided. " Supposing neither boat nor cot apparatus at band, first cast off the shot from the projected rope, and with a close hitch, let it bo put over the head and shoul- ders of the person to be saved, bringing it close under seize every moment for nspiratioo, after each surf liaa passed over the body. If circumstances compel re- course to this method, care must be taken to free the rope from any part of the wreck, and to jump clear away ; but should there be mora than one on board, each man should make himself fast in the same way, about 4 four feet from the other, and join hands, all attending to the same directions. ■ "For giving Relief to VetteU Stranded on a Lee Shore in a Dark and Tempeituoua Night.— It will be requisite, first, to devise the means of discovering pre- cisely where the distressed vessel lies, when the crew are not able to make their situation known by lumi- nous signals ; secondly, to produce a method of laying the mortar for the object, with as much accuracy as in the light ; thirdly, to render the flight of the' rope per- fectly distinguishable to those who project it, and to the crew on board of the vessel, so that they can not fail of seeing on what part of the rigging it lodges, and consequently have no difficulty in securing it. To attain the first object, a hollow ball was made to the size of the piece, composed of layers of pasted cartridge paper of the i' ickness of half an inch, having a lid on the top to contain a fuse (flg. 11), and it was then filled with about N) luminous balls of star composition, and a sufHcient quantity of gunpowder to burst the ball and inflame the stars. The fus^ | fixed in the ball was graduated, to set fire to the bursting powder ut the height of 300 yards. Through the head of the fuse were F'g- H. drilled holes, at equal [distances], to pass through them strands of quick match, to prevent the possibil- ity of any accident from the match falling out, or from its not firing the fuse. On the stars being released, they continued their splendor, while falling, for near one minute, which allows ample time to discover the situation of the distressed vessel. During the period of the light, a stand, with two upright sticks (fig. l-.i), (painted white to render them more discerni- ble in the dark), was ready at hand, and pointed in a direct line to the vessel. ' "A shell § Fig. 10. each arm, drawing It tight, obierving particularly the knot it on the breaitbone ; for, by having the knot in that position, on the people of the shore hauling the person from the wreck, he will naturally be on his back, consequently, the face will be uppermost to Tig. 13. affixed to the rope, having four holes in it to receive a like number of fuses (headed as before described), and filled with the fiercest and most glaring com- position, which, when inflamed at the dis- charge of the piece, displayed so splendid an Illumination of the rope, that itti flight could not be mistaken. " To get a Bool from a Beach over the Surf. — The importance of going to the relief of ships in distress at a distance from the land, or for taking off pilots, was viewed as of the highest consequence by the older brethren of the Trinity House, and offered to my partic- ular attention liy several distinguished char- acters. After numerous experiments to nc- ^^complish it in various ways, the mode fullow- ■■"^^ ing was most approved : — About 40 fathoms of 2}-inch rope, made fast to 2 moving anchors, was laid out parallel with the shore, at a dis- tance beyond the sweep of the surf ; to the cen- tre of this rope was made fast a buoy, of sufficient power to suspend the great rope, and prevent it from cimfing on the sand, rock, or stones, as well as embedding, a circumstance that has rendered it Impossible, on a sandy or shingly coast, to heave oat an anchor with a , . u LIP 1214 LIF njm to It tnm tbe shore. Ai thia service ahonM be performed In fair ireather (to be prepared for the •tomi), It mny be regulated with the greatest exact' nes«, and should take place at the top of high-water, that the upper part of the buoy may be at the full rtretch of its power, and only seen at that time. Should the shore be extremely flat, it will be desira- ble to place another set an a sufficient distance beyond the first, to Insure the operation of this method in any itate of the tide. " The royal mortar being brought'to the spot, la to he pointed In the direction for the buoy, and should be laid at a ver}' low elevation, but such as to insure the range ; for the more it is depressed, the less alack of rope there will bo from the parabola formed in the shot's flight; the basket with the rope ready laid (having a barbed shot to it) la to be placed in the front of the mortar ; on Ita being fixed, instantly haul the slock of the rope In, to prevent the effect produced on It by a strong tide ; which being done, let the remain- der be gently hauled in, to insure the sltot's grappling with the great rope ; when that is caught and hooked, • power will be acquired fully adequate to the service. Fig. 13. " As a cast-iron anchor appears particularly adapted to thIa method, and would be much cheaper than ham- mered, flg. 13 la a I'lan of one which the British Navy Board approved, iiml allowed me to cast at their ex- pense, for the purpose of making the experiment. When a vessel is in that extreme and periloua situa- tion, driven under a rugged and inaccessible cliff, and In danger of going soon to pieces, the most prompt methoe impossible for them to climb up a rock, or ascend it even by the aid of a common rope. The holds, thus spliced in, will support both hands and feet." Thg Report of a Committee of the House of Com- mons contains also a paper of instructions for the man- agers of ('aptain Manby's apparatus on shore, which are somewhat more miaute than the directions puli- llshed In his Essay. For example : — " If the wind be aldewaya to tbe shore, the mortar must be pointed •offlcisntijr to windward to allow far the alaok of the rope lighting on the object, as the rope will, of course, be borne considerably to leeward by the effect of • strong wind. The distance your Judgment decides the vessel to be from the shore ahould regulate tho charge of powder as stated in the acale, taking just a sufflcient quantity to clear the object : an attention to this will be mora certain of your effecting communi- cation, and guarding against the danger of tlie rope breaking, or any other circumstance that miglit pro- vent the aoccesaful performance of the aervice. The elevation of 16° ia to be preferred, particularly if the wind ia aldewaya, pointing tho mortar sufficiently to windward, as the rope would then fall itgaiuHt the weather-most part of the y tho officers and men of the coast-guard service than l>.v ordinary l>oatmen nnd fishermen, it has been aImo^t entirely left in their hands, and ia provided by tho Board of Customs. There ara in England 132 mortar and rocket stations ; in Scotland, 16 ; in Ireland, 22, Several inventions, or varUtions, in the Manby appa- ratus may be just glanced at, M. Q. Delvigne uses a howitzer instead of a mortar, while a portion of tlio line to bo carried is contained in th<<. projectile. Mr. Greener hrs a method of discharginfr a rocket, with a line attached, from a light harpoon gun. When dis- charged, the racket ignites, and ia said to prolong tho nmge to a greater distance than if the gun or tho rocket were alone employed. Captain Jemingham, R.N., lias an anchor of a particular form, wliich he proposes to fire from a Manby's mortar, in sufficient numbers to affonl the means ot hauling a life-boat through the surf. Mr. A. G. r^rto employa a war- rocket inatead of a Dennett'a rocket. LifMoalt,—Tbe lost description of the inventions missio Board lushed it in ; beachi of equ piece i . keel, i fegain with I roundc vented driven relieve andi Wale, ' every the( edge was ca Mr. boat a made c with ei a man could LIF 1216 LIF le inventioni to be conaidered, vlth regard to the preserration of lives in cases of shipwreck, is that of Ufe-liosts, which are of such a construction as to be Incapable of sinlc- ing, even when filled with water. The occasional adaptation of the common boats of the ship to inch purposes, b}' means of empt> casita, has been already noticed. But the boats now in question are supposed to be kept on shore at proper stations, and manned by active persons, who are in the hiil>it of exerting them- selves for the relief of seamen in distress, ilr. Henry Greatheod of South Shields, received a gold medal and fifty guineas from the Society of Arts, in 1802, and a parliamentary reward of £1200, besides further remu- nerations from tile Trinity House and from Uoyd's Coffee-house, for his invention of a life-lwat, which is described in the Tratuactiont of the Society, vol. xx., p. 283. The length of this boat is 30 feet, its breadth, 10, and its greatest depth about 8, besides a general curvature, which nearly doubles the depth, as reck- oned from the ends ; the convexity below being in- tended to give it a greater facility of turning, and a greater power of mounting on the waves without sub- mersion of the lx>w, which would increase the resist- ance, though it would not sink the boat ; the breadth h also continued further than usual fore and aft, in order to contribute to tlie same property. The gun- wale projects some inches, and the sides below it are cased with pieces of cork, amounting in the whole to seven cwt., which are secured by plates of copper. There are ten short oars of fir, fixed on pins to the gunwales, and a longer oar for steering at each end, both ends of the boat being alike. It is painted white, in order to be more conspicuous ; and a . trriage is provided, for conveying it overland when required. The description is accompanied by documents of the preservation of 200 or 300 men by the boats of South Shields and North Shields, which were built in 1789 and 1798 respectively. Mr. Christopher AVilson received a gold medal in 1807, for a life-boat with air gunwales, which was tried at Newhaven, and was sai'I to be lighter and more manageable than Mr. Greatli' ''s. (_Tran3aciion», XXV. 55.) " Little is required," vs Captain Manby, " to establish the importance and ' vantages that will result from giving every boat the roperties of a life- boat, particularly when taken into < nsideration that it can be produced at a ver}' trifling c^xpense." To illustrate the method of giving the properties of pres ervation to any boat— a man-of-war's jolly-boat, for example — we quote the description of the one which was fitted up to make experiments thereon, by per- mission of the Honorable Commissioners of the Navy Board. " To give it buoyancy, empty casks were well lashed and secured in it. For the advantage of keeping it in an upright position, launching from a flat shore, beaching, and to resist upsetting, it had billage boards of equal depth with the keel, and when a good sized piece of iron or lead was let into or made fast to the . keel, if any accident did upset the boat, it immediately regained its original posture. A stout projecting rope, with swellings upon it to increase its elasticity, sur- rounded the gunwale, served as a fender, and pre- vented it being stove in lowering down, or when driven in contact with the vessel it might be going to relieve. The boat thus described hud the plug out, and was filled with water until it ran over the gun- wale, when a crew of four, with myself, tried it in every way, and found from the buoyant property of the casks, it kept the Ixrat so much above the water's edge, that it was rowed with the greatest ease, and was capable of performing any service required." Mr. J. Boyce, in 1814, obtained a medal for his life- boat and safety-buoy, consisting of hollow cylinders made of canvas, painted and varnished, and connected with each other. It was tried on a river, and carried a man with safety (Trans., xxxii., 177); but surely it could not be tmsted among breakers on a lee shore. In 1818 Mr. Gabriel Bray obtainwl a silver modal for his invention of a boat tilled with alr-boxcs under the seats and along the aVv. (Vol. xxxv., p, 172.) Of late years the subject of life-boats has attracted considerable attention, I'rom the cbrcumstanco of the increasing number of vnrecks, consequent on the rocky nature of many shores, and the vast and increasing amount of our commerce. The exertions, too, of the National Life-Boat Institution have had a powerful influence in directing attention to this subject. This society, founded in 1824, is under the patronage of her majesty, and the presidency of his grace the Duke of Northumberland. The oliject is to assist every wrecked person in the kingdom, by such means as the establishment of life-boats and rocket-mortars at all the dangerous parts of the coast ; to assist in the form- ation of local committees at the chief ports ; to confer rewards in the form of meduls, votes of thanks, or pe- cuniar}' remuneration to all persons risking their Uvea for the sake of others ; and also to encourage the in- vention of new or improved life-boats, belts, rocket apparatus, buoys, and other means of saving life. This admirable society is dependent on voluntar}' sub- scriptions for its existence and support. That the so- ciety has worked with some success, may be judged of from the fact, that since its establishment It has lieen instmmenal in saving the lives of 9682 persons ; it has granted 79 gold medallions, and 556 silver medals, be- sides pecuniary rewards, amounting to jCOCSI. The attention of the public is also kept alive by the publi- cation of a journal entitled The Life-Boat, which, in addition to statistical returns of shipwrecks, contains information on everj' subject connected with the pres- ervation of life from shipwreck. One of the publica- tions of the society is a Wreck Chart of (he British latands, originally published by the Admiralty. A vessel wrecked on their coast is indicated by a black spot • , while a vessel so seriously damaged as to re- quire to discharge her cargo is indicated by -f- ; and the number of such marks at any one spot indicates the annual average of wrecks, which may be large because the const is dangerous, or because the trafBo is great. Thus, the mouth of the T}-ne shows a larger number of black dots and crosses than any other place ; the mouth of the Tees and the mouth of the Weir occupy the next places of distinction in this dismal chart: these three rivers being the outlets of the district by which Jx>ndon is supplied by sea with 3,000,000 tons of coal every year, giving employment to several thousand collier ships, which sail to and fro, and greatly add to the otherwise large trade of the Northumberland and Durham ports. The coast of these two counties indicates per annum 180 wrecks, sinkings, and serious collisions. The mouth of the Humber, the coast of Suffolk between Yarmouth and Southwold, the sandy shoals off the mouth of the Thomes, the Good.vin Sands, the Scllly Isles, Barn- stable Bay, and Liverpool, rank as the next dangerous portions of the English coast. The Welsh coast is also dangerous, especially Glamorgan, Pembroke, and Anglesea. Scotland, except near the Firtli of Forth, is comparatively free from wrecks, the western coast remarkably so, probably from being less exposed to the winds, which tend to drive ships ashore on the eastern coast. In Ireland, the east and south coasts present about an equal number of wrecks, the smaller number being on the northern and western. In the year 1855 no less than 1141 wrecks occurred on the coasts of the United Kingdom — about one hulf of that number Ijelonging to the east coasts of Great Britain. The loss of life from shipwreck durhig tl'.at year was comparatively small, being only 469, or less than one third of the loss of tho preceding year, the average loss per annum being between 600 and 700 lives. Passing over a great variety of proposals for life- boats, we proceed to notice the boat which the Life- boat Institution recommends and supplies to its sta- LIF 1216 tlont. Ita hiitory Is inttreiting. A few yean ago, a lanwntubls accident occurred to • South Shields life- boat, whereby twenty pllota were drowned. This in- dnceil the Dulce of Korthumberland to offer a rewnrd (br the best model of a life-boat. This offer was re- sponded to by boat-liuilders and others from various parts of the kingdom, as well as from France, Holland, Germany, and America, so that 280 models and plans were sent in. About 50 of the best of these were ex- hil>itrd by his Grace in the Great Exhibition of 18S1 ; and he expressed the intention of placing tho best life-l)oats, with their subsidiary apparatus, on all the exposed points of the coast of Northumberland, He also caused a report to be prepaiwl, accompanied by plans and drawings, with a view to elicit the best form of life-lmat ; for although the prize of £100 was as- signed to Mr. Beeching of Great Yarmouth, it was considered that a better boat might still be produced. Accordingly, Mr. James Peake, uHsistant master-ship- wright in her majesty's dockyard at Woolwich, and a member of the Life-boat Committee appointed by the Duke of Northumberland, wa3 requested to furnish a design for a life-boat which might combine as many as possible of the advantages, and have as few as possible of the defects, of the best of the models examined by the committee. A boat was accordingly designed by Mr. Peake, and bailt at the public expense in Wool- wich dockyard. Some modifications were from time to time made in her, in consequence of various experi- ments, and a trial of ker capabilities mad* In a gala ol wind at Brighton. The boat, with others of the same design, built at the cost of the Duke of Northumber- land, was placed on the Northumberland coast in the autumn of 18S3. In the course of the following win- ter, these boats were taken afloat on trial by the Soci- ety's inspector of lif»-boats, some of them in heavy seas and gales of wind, and the result of the trials was consii'.ered to be highly satisfactory. Other boats were therefore built on the same plan, and we may therafoie consider this as the model life-lioat. These boats have been, for the most part, of two sizes, viz., 27 and 30 feet in length, with 7J to 8 feet beam, and rowing from 8 to 12 oars, double-banked — their weiglit averaging two tons. But as such boats have l>een found too heavy to be managed in some localities, where boatmen are few, boati of less beam and weight, rowing six oars single-banked, but on the same design in other r». spects, have Iwen built under the denomination of second-class life-boats. The former class of boats has also been somewhat modified since the description of the boat was first published, so as to be reduced some what in beam, and to have less height, and greater sharpness of bow and stem, to enable them to be rowed with greater speed against a head gale and a heavy sea. They ore also built of fir, upon tho diag- onal principle of double planking without timbers, whereas the earlier boats were of elm, and clenched, or clinker-built. riR. IS. Fig. It. The accompanying figures show the general form and the nature of the fittings of the air-chamliers of one of these boats, 30 feet in length, and 7 feet 6 inches in breadth. In figs. 16 and 10, corresponding to the ele- vation nnd deck-plans, the general exterior form of the boat is seen, showing the sheer of gunwale, length of keel, and rake, or slope of stem and stem posts. Tho dotted lines of fig. 15 show the position and dimensions of the air-chambers within the board, and of the reliev- ing tul)es. A represents the deck, B the relieving tubes, six inches in diameter, C the side air-cases, D the end air-chambers. In fig. 17 tho exterior form of transverse sec- , tions, at different dis- ^t^inces, firom stem to ^^tem, is shown. Fig. -18 represents a midship fig, 17. transversa section, A b»- ing sections of the side cir-cases, B the relieving tubes, liored through solid massive chocks of wood, of the same depth as the space between the deck and the bu.it's fiuor ; C are spaces beneath the deck filled up, over six fpct in length, at the mid-ship part of the l>oat, with solid chocks of light wood, or boxes of cork, forming a portion of the ballast ; D is a section of a tier below the deck, with a movable hatch or lid, in which the boat's cable is stowed, and into which p.U leakage beneath the deck is drained through small holes with valves fixed in them. In some of the later boats a small draining tier only is placed, having a pump in it, by which any leakage can be pumped out by one of tho crew while afloat. The festooned lines in fig. 16 represent exterior life-lines, Fig. la LIP 1217 •ttachml roand the antlra langth of the boat, to which peraons in the water may cling until thej can be got into the l>oat; the two central liuei aia festooned lower than the othen, to l>e used a* stirrups, «o tliat a person in tlie water, by stepping on them, may climb Intc the boat. The chief peculiarity of a life-boat is its incapability of being sunic, In consequence of its being fitted with water-tigh^ air>oaMs, or compartments. One of the difficulties of li/e-boata has been to deciile as to the amount and diKtrtbution of such airetweon the deck and the Uoor; the bottom orifices being furnished with self- acting valves opening downwanl, so as to allow any water shlp|>ed to escape through.them. The deck be- ing pUiced at or above the load-water-line, any water which in above it will be above the outside level of the sea, 80 that the water escaiies from the deck by its own weight, and disappears in a few seconds. As a life- boat has very great buoyant power, it is important to her stability and safety to attend to the ballasting. The Greatheud life-bouts have usually no ballast, their great broudth of beam being relied on for stabil- ity ; but some of them have a tank in the midships be- neath the deck, wlilch can be filled with water. Beeching's life-bouts are similarly ballasted ; but ao- ciileBts, with loss of llfo, have arisen from a difficulty in filling the tanks, and preventing the escape of the water when full ; hence solid ballast is to be preferred. Mr. Peake's life-boats are ballasted with heavy iron keels, and with solid wood and cork ballast, stowed nnder the declu ; and should these ho stove in, and i the space Iwneath l)e filled with water, the wootl and the cork would supply extra buoyancy. A life-boat ought to be self-righting if upset, a prop- wty which, however, belongs only to Mr. Peake's and Mr, Beeohing'B boats, some boat-builders Gons!'leriiig that stability Is McrlHced thereby. Tha faot, btw> ever, has been established in the Hfe-bnat Juumat. that the means employed to produce self-righting ltda to the stability of a boat, and improve tier in otbir r» spects. The self-righting power is thus attained t 1, The boat is built with considerable sheer of gunwala, the bow and stern being from 1 foot laches to 'i hat higher than the sides of the boat at her centre, aud the space within the Iwat at either extremity, tu tit* distance of from 8 to 4^ feet ft-om the stem and starn posts to gunwale height, is then Imdosed bv a sautlonal bulk-head and a ceiling, and ro converted Into a wata^ tight air-chamber, the cubical contenti of which, fniin the thwarts upward, are sufficient to bear the wbula weight of the boat when she Is placed In the watar In an inverted position, or keel upward, ti, A heavy iron keel (from 4 to 8 owt.) is attached, and a nearly equal weight of light wood or cork ballast is stowed between the boat's floor on the deck. No other meaiw ures are necessary to bo taken in order to al^ut tli^ self-righting power. When the boat Is forcibly plawd in the water with her kee) upward, she it\ floutail un> steadily on the two air-chambers at Iww itiid stern i while the heavy iron keel and other ballast Iteing tlluii carried above the centre of gravity, an unstable equl. llbrium Is at once effected, ami the weight of the Iron keel falling over on one side, immediately restores tliu boat to her proper position ; in other words, aha self- rights."— rAe Life-boat, No. 22. Lateral stability ut stilTnesB, being the tendency to preserve an upright position in the water, with proportionate resistance to upsetting, is obtained by breadth of Iwam or by but. last — OS in Mr. Peake's boats, by an iron keel ami other solid ballast, and by flatness and length of flooi with moderate beam only. The other qualities to liu required in a good life-boat are speed, strength, and stowuge-room . all of which seem to hikve baeo well cousideied in Mr. Peake's bouts. A n«w description of life-boat, invented by the Itev, £. L. Berthon, M.A,, of Fareham, urn! ' 'lown as the Fareham Life-bout, has been made i ibjuct of u patent. Its novel feature is, that it i i|Mllila, m that it combines the property of the life-liu.it, with fa- cility of stowage In a small space. Hence, it Is well adapted for the use of chips, espechiUy large steamers, emigrant vessels, and troop-ships. Its fruine-work ii of wood, all the timbers extending tlie wluihi length of the boat, there beini; no transverse timbers or ribs, The timbers, four on each side of the stem and ^el- piece, are thin, flat, and deep, sometliing like a thin slice of melon; they are made without scarfing, by bending plank over plank till the required thickness 13 attained. They are jointed together at their ends, and to the tops of the stem and stein posts by u kimi of chain hinge. When the boat is nollupsed, these tiinbers stand side by side in vertical planes, like the leaves of a closed book ; but when expanded, tliuy stand apart in radial plunes, somewhat like the aug- ments of an orange. Attached to the edges of ail tliu timbers are water-proof coverings, of which there uru two, the outer skin being secured to the outer edguH, and the inner skin to the inner edges of the timbeiii, by which means the whole body of the bout is divlduij Into eight separate longitudinal cells or conipanmenti, which become filled with air on expanding the iiout, This is effected and maintubied by the bottom liounU and thwarts, which being jaiqted along tho mldillo Ime, are made to stand up at an acuta angle when the Iwut is collapsed, and fall down to straight lines when open. The inventor compares tho principle of oxteii. siuu to that of a curriage-head, the frunie of whiuli may be compared to the bout's timbers, and tho Joints to tho thwarts and stretchers of tho bottom boards t and as the leathern covering of the carriage shuts in when tho hciid is down, so the coverings of the Imut shut In between the timbers. Tho boat has rather u deep keel, bosidoa two bilge pieces on each tide, ami LtF 1318 LIF la araiy other ullent point the cuvefhig ti protected by wood or copper. The boat !■ lowerwi by the fbl- lowlng contrivance : Inaide the bulwarks la a large, flat, deaply.grooved aheave about 2 feet 6 inches in diameter ; it haa two deep, narrow g:roove8 cut nearly to it* axia, and In these are wound separately the ends of (he two ftills. From this sheave is a projection on which a fHction-atrap with a powerful lever is made to worli. This being placed flat against the I>n1warlta, the falls are brought to it fore and aft liy small shcaveii Mt In the top-rail ; thus the fVlctlon of the strap, when the boat la np, is enough to prevent motion ; but liy / llocliing the lanyard by which the leather la aecured, It may be allowed to descend rapidly or slowly, ac- cording to the preaaore applied to the break. Bis- Ing and falling derricks are substituted for davita. The average size of the Fareham life-boat ia ?fi by 10 fcet i it has 8 thwarts, besides seats round the stem, Ud will pull. If required, 12 oars, double-banked. CapWn Manby's proposal for throwing ropes from ihip to ship in cases of accidents may easily be under- stood from the methods which he employs for s■^vlng lives in shipwrecks. The lifg-bnoy by Lieutenant Cook, R.N. F.R.S., Professor of FortiAcdtion at Ad- dlscombe College, is related to the same class of in- rentions ; its object ia to preserve tlie life of a person falling overboard in the night, by meons of a floating light ; and It obtained him a gold medal from the So- ciety of Arts, In 1818.— TVofwrartion*, xxxvi. He obatrvM that a ship may often have to run half a mile before she can get about and lower a boat, so that it becomes highly desirable to afford a temporary sup. port to the sufferer. The machine consists of two Copper spherical air-vessels, with a square tapering tabe through each, made water-tight, and united to- gather by a cross-piece of wood, in which are two brus conducting tubes through which is flxed a par- pendicuUr tubular-ataff, with a brass ferule tt each and, and a copper slidiug-rod, neatly its own bngth, within it. Attached to the lower end of the rod is a flat circular balance-weight, bearing a chain by which the life-buoy is suspended, and a link which, when hooked to a atud in the lower ferale, Iwars np the rod and the balance-weight, but which, when unhooked, allows the weight to draw the rod about two thirds out of the staff. To the head of the i^erpendictlar staff is attached at night a ftise, on a brass ftase-plate, the ihank of which is seenred in a socket by a thumb- screw. The buoy ia secured to the ship by the chain only, the ring of which hangs on the hook of the rheave of the trigger-plate. Attached to the stem of the vessel are two iron rods cased with copper tubing, together with the screw-bolts, from which they are anspended ; just above the forked ata-r which keeps the rods parallel, at a proper distance from the stem. Is the trigger-plate, and the brass fuse-case which covers and protects the fuse on the head of the i^talf. There ia also a brass case for the lock or percussion- hammer, placed so aa to communlcaie with tho fnan- caae, by meana of the horizontal tube j all these, to- gether with the pulleys ancf guara-iron. ^.re flrmly attached to the atom of the vessel, insido of which, immediately opposite to the puUien, are fired the cups and handles, the one for firing the lock and lighting the fuse, the other for raising the trigger-bolt and dis- engaging the buoy from the ship. As soon as the trigger-bolt ia raised, the shrave revolves, tlie stop turns round, and the life-buoy alidea off the rods into the water, bearing on the kaad of tho staff a brilliant flame. The l>alance-weight, when no longer held np by the chain, drops upward of three feet below the cross-piece, prevents the buoy from upsetting, and Mr. MiUer'a aafety-polea for akatera, and Mr. Pri- or's mod* of preventing accidents in descending mines, are mentionee waj and use Topes fr 'ogethei "uimuni Mlesm be ancht and a br ■ more ej the L'nite ,1'iebti '"}' inann '". or fron; There are throughjui "erchandii These are i terms whi< indlfferentl Sea-Ziffii ni """'erf o» to '^i at once tie nig^t, in <^«ld do Hi, ..ouses is v< queries, rind endeavored rounded on writers, and Wactoij-hyn •"Mthen rnyti '[ght-honses ; "•at Cyclops "present a lio "' « accorts - 'ended to be •ne "nes tnnx •fe'criblng the "le fleet of U: ^Klopean isla, Etat6o/4tv r" "T/ tus admits, of being lighted and let down Into the wa- ter in the short space of five seconds. Lieutenant Cook is also the Inventor of a plan for converting boata used for ordinary purposes into life-boata at pleasure. pitched from a height on stone pavement ; it was rolled and bruised upon It, and several men used their utmost endeavors, with heavj' hammers, ta damage it, but all in vain. It was then set afloat, aM four strong men, There does P»''n». that nn, .'V other pc„„, '"■"e was conv. "concaable th. ""> fflJ-thology, nnc EM I'ilO Lia X its enor- [o rib», no ■ibitedi '' 1, and was Itber plato fated, WM lof » n»n four won. I from the Icuttet fli ^ steamers is. man Its, one of t It was [was rolled \,\x utmost I it, but all Irong men. palling with might and main, ran It, item on, at fliU ■peed, to th* stone wharf, again and again ; but at the close of the experlmenta, which would have utterly annihilated a wcHxIen Imnt, It was found to havo suf- fered no damage beyond a few dents and bruises, which a hammar set to rights In Ave minutes. The wagons were also experimented upon. The wagon was first placed In the water, with the whole of its running-gear attached, Including the pole, the weight, 17 cwt. 16 men ihen got in, their weight amounting to 2fi cwt., and brought the wagon to about one foot from the top. Attempts were then made to upset it in the water, b}' the whole of the men bearing down, first on one side, and then on the other, but all in vain ; the upper edge of the wagon could not lie brought helnw the water. Many other severe experiments were tried. Ihe advantages possessed by an army marching with these wagons, are manifold and delf-evident. The ( umbrous pontoon and brVAge train may he dispensed with, the ordinary wagons which must accompany an army supplying their place. On approaching a river, these wagons, full of men, may at once be driven across the water ; or if the stream be full and rapid, the wagon-liodies may be tal!.eii olf their running-gear, and used as boats, propelled by oars, or dragged by ropes from the opposite banic. Two wsK''n-l)ohouae erected for the uat nf the Irlah in their frequent early Intercoaraa With Spain. In conflrmatinn of thU opinion, he citea a aomewhat al>- acura paanage from /Kthlcua, the coamoKrapber. Tbii in all prol>alillity ia the tower which Humhaldt men- tlona In hia Narrative under the name of the Iron Towtr, which waa built aa a IlKht-hnuae hy Calua 8avlua Lopua, an architect of the city of Aqua Flavia, the modem Chavea. A llitbt-houae haa lately been eatab- liahed on thia headland, for which dioptric apparntu* . waa auppliad fhiin the wnrlihop of M. I^taurneiiu of Paria. See alao a curioua account of the trailitiona about thia tower in Soiitiiby'h lAttert from Spain and Portugal, p. 17. There la alao a record in Stralm, of a magnifloent light-honae of atone at Oapio, or Apio, near the harbor of Meneatheus (the modem Heaa Aata, or Puerto de Sta. Maria), built on a rock neariy anr- ronnded by the aea, aa a xoide for the abollowa at the month of the Onailalquiver, which he detcrllwa In terms almoat identical with thoaa aaa required, ■ml Hr, WIniUnUy, «rcain|uiiilfHt l>y hli wnrknirn, wnnt to the light-lioiiM to nttenil to their nxnutlon ; but th* itonn of th« 'Mih of that month carried awar tha whole erection, when the engineer and all hi > aa- ilitanti unhappily periahed. Tha want of a llf(ht on tha Kddyitona aoon led to a fatal accident ; fur, not lonx aflor the destruction of Mr. Wlnatanlvy'a li|{ht-hndon could obtain a new act to extend their pewan g and It waa not till tha month of ilaly, 170A, that tho eonntruction of a new light-houaa waa begun, under the direction of Mr. John Budyerd of London. On the 'iHth of .luly, 1708, the new light wna flrat ihown, and continued to lie ti'um- larly exhibited till the year 1766, when the whole fiili- ric waa deatroyed by accidental lire, after standing 47 ycnr*. But for this circumatance, it t> Impoaable to tell how long the light-houae might, with occaaional repair, have laited, as Mr. Rudj'erd seems to have executed hl.4 taaic with much Judgment, carefully rejecting all architectural decoration, ua unsuitable fur such a situ- ation, and directing his attention to the formation of a tower which should offer the least reuUtance to the waves. Tho height of the tower, which was of a cir- cular form, and constructed of timber, waa, including thn lantern, 92 fast, and the diameter at the baie, which waa a little above tha level of high water, waa 23. 1Vkt0r' Wmttr ' I « Pig. «. M to *» 40 XDDnTom UOHT, OOaXWALU VoR. The advantages of > light on the Eddyitone having been so long known and acknowledged by seamen, no time was permitted to alapsa before active measures were taken for its restoration ; and Mr. Smeaton, to whom application was made for advioa on tho subject, recommended the exoluaive use of stone as the material, which, both from Its weight and other qualities, he considered most suitable for the situation. On the oth of April, 1756, Mr. Smeaton first landed on the i-ock, and made arrangements for erecting a light-house of tUme, and preparing the foundations, by cutting the surface of tha rook into regular horlaontal henohaa, into which tlia atones wxre ran-fiilly iluvetalled or notched. The flrat atone was laid on I'ith .lune, 17&7, and tlis laat on the 24th of August, 1760. The tower measures UM fast In height, and -M fast in dIameUr at the level of the Hrat entire course, and tha diameter under the curnlce is 16 fe«t. The Arat 12 faet of the tower form a solid mass nf masonr}-, and the stones are united by means of atone Joggles, dovotiiilcd Joints, and oak treenails. It is remarkablo that Mr. Hnieuton should have adopted nn arched fonn for the lioom of his building, Inatcnd of emplnying these lloora as tie- walls fornieil of dovetailed atones. To counteract tha Injurious tendency of the outwani thrust of the arched floors, Mr. Smeaton had recourse to thn ingenions ax> pedient of laying, In cIrcuUr trenches or beds In tha atones which form the outsiile casing, sets of chains, which wore iiented by means of an apnllcatlon of hot lead, and becamo tight in cooling. The light was ex- hibited on the 16th October, 1760 ; tiut such was tha sUte of the light-room apparatus in liritain at this pe- rlml, that a feeble light ttam tallow candles was all that decorated this noble structure. In 1H07, whan the property of this light-house again came into the hands of the Trinity House, on the expir}- of a long lease, Argand burnors, and paraliolic retiectors of sil- vered copper, were substituted fur the chundolier of candles. Figure 2 shows a section of the Krk, which wiu only ilry Tdr > fitw huun it •|>rlnK-lla«n anvavatad, tha tint itona waa laid on tha luth July, IMIIM, at tha dapth of 10 faat ImIow tha bl^fh-walar of aprlnictldaa, and at tha ami uf tha aacund na«4>ii, tha hullilliiK waa 5 faat Ini'haa alMiva tha lownat part of tiia fiiunUa- tlon. Tha third aaaaou'a o|Mratiiins tarmhiutad l>y flnlahing tha lulld part uf tha atructurc, which la HO faat lu hal^ht | and tha whola of tha maaonr}' waa oomplatad In (ktoliar, IMIO. Tha lifdit waa lint ax- bibitad to tha publlu on tha night of tha lat of Kabru- uy, 1811. Tha dilHcuUlaa and haiardt of thia work wara chlaHy cauaad by tha short tima during whiuh Iba rtwk waa uccoaHllila twtwaan tha abliinx anil lliiw- Ing tidas ; ami among tha many eventful Ini'lilcntn wliluh randered thu biatory of thia work intareiting, was tha narruw oacapa which the engineer and HI per- sona mode from being drowned, by the riaing of the tida upon tha rock, before a boat oanie to their asnist- anoa, tha attending veaaal having broken adrift. This oiieumitanoa oocurrad bvfore the bnrraok-bouso was aracted, and Is narrated by Mr. Htevaunun In hia ao- ooant of the work, publUhed at thu expense of tlie Light-house Board In 1824, to whiuh we may refer for more minute information on the suliject of this work. Mid tha other lights of tha coast of Scotland. TiiFeet Fig. S. BU.L-I00K LISnT, SOOTLAND. The Bell-Rock tower is 100 feet in beight, 42 feet in diametat at the base, and 16 at the top. The door ii 80 faat flrom the base, and the ascent is by a maaslTe oopper ladder. Tha apartments, Including tha light- room, ara six la oumbar. The light la a r«Tolving red and white light, and la produced by tha revolution anie containing the tampa, la alaii appllt'lg. Ii ihown a aaction of tli« llell- Kock Mglit-house, and of the tani|H>rary liarrack-hiiii»n, which waa ramovoii on the cnmpletlon of the work. Tha entire cost of the light-house waa over Xiil,il:U, The in«at merit of Mr. HtavenKon, as architect of the Bell-Kock Light-houaa, lias In hia lM>ld nmcvptlun and unshaken lieiief in tlie poaalbiiity of erecting a lower of maaonry on a reef 12 niUea from the neareat land, and covered by every ti cord, "of the sense entertained by tlie Oomnilir8 of his distinguished talent anil indefatigable zeal In the erection of the Light-house," Tha most remarkable llght-housa on the coast of (m- land Is that of Carllngford, near Crunltold I'oiiit, at the entrance of Carllngfurd Lough. It wus built ac- cording to the design of Mr. George Ilulplii, tlio In- spector of the Irlsli Lights ; and was a work of an arduous nature, being founded 12 fout below the level of high-water on the Hawlbowllne Itock, which lies about two miles off Cranfleld Point. The llgure l> that of a frustum of a cone, 111 feet in height, and 48 feet In diameter at ttie base. Tha light, which Is fixed, Is (torn oil burned in Argand lump-t plhcoil in the foci of patdbollo mirrors. It was flrst exhibited on tha night of the 20th December, 1830. Sktrryvon Rocki. — The .Skorryvore Rocks, which He about 12 miles W..S. W. of the seaward point of the Isle of Tyree, In Argyleshlre, weP3 long known as a terror to mariners, owing to the numerous shipwrecks, fatal alike to the vessels and tbo crews, which bad oc- curred in the neigliliorhuoil. A list, confessedly incomplete, enumerates 3U vessels lost In thu 40 years preceding 1844 ; but how many others, which during that periuil had been reported aa "foundered at sea," or as to whose "■ fate not even nn opinion has Ijeen hai- II.-" i arded, may have lieen wrecked on this dangerous reef, which lies so mnoh in the track of the shipping of Liverpool and the Clyde, it would ba vain to conjecture. The Com- missioners of the Northern Light-houses bad for many years entertained the project uf erecting a llght-hou.ie on the Skanyvore ; and with this object had visltxd it, more eapealally in the year 1814, la ooropany with Thei over a E.N.E. dent su lueami composei glass by smaUthi of the to ■ndsomi through LIG un UQ Mr WalUr Knitt, who, In hU diary, i{lv*i • Kraphic doxrlptlon iif Iti lnh|i«cl. I h* iinul dllH- ouUr <'f UmllnK on Ih* riK'k, whirli li warn (muotli liy Ihii rontlnud batt of Atlaiitlu wavrn, wliluh rlaa with anillmlnlahail (xiwor from tha rt«*|> watnr naar U, halil out no chaarlnK pro«|Mcl ; anil It wta not until tha yaar IHIM, whan • minuta aarvay i>f tha ra«f waa or> darad by tha Hoard, that tha Ida* at mmmauolag thia formldalila work waa larloualy ainltranad. • ^ ■£ I'l'-i f- ■( t »ii» 1 . I.. . * .. I ..It ' III I I I ■^Gi^?-^ OoKW. M "^ ^^^i^^k^ 5 Hm.iI- — h- 8» 39 4t — t— Fig. i. BKKRUTTOKE I.IOIIT. The reef is composed of numeroua roeka, atretching OTsr a surface of nearly eight miles from W.S.W. to E.N.E. The main tatcltiu, which alone presents sufS- cient Rurfaca for the bole of a light-bouse, is nearly three miles from the seaward end of the cluster. It la composed of a very compact giuut worn smooth as gloas by the incessant ploy of the waters, and is so •mall thiit at high-water little remains around the base of the tower but a narrow band of a few feet in width, »nd some mgged humps of roclc, separated by gullies, througb which the sea plaja almost incqputly. The cutting of the fuuniUtton fbr the tower In thlt brag^ lar rilnly mass iiccupiail naarly two lumuiars i and tha lilastInK of the mrk, in so narrow aipaca, without any ihailiir rnini thn rlik of Hying uplintnn, waa atUadad with niurh haiiinl. Tha dasign fur lh« 8karryvora Light-house waa givan by Mr. Alan HUvanMin, and Is an stlaptatkin irf Hnieatiin's Kjlilyitona Tnwar to tha peculiar situation and Iha tln^uiiiiitancas of the cuu at tha Hkarryvore, with auoh ininllllrallons In the icnaral arraiiganianta and dlnmnalims uf tlia building a» tho nnUrgnl vinwi of the lm|Hirtanre of light-housaa * liloh prevail in the present day aeanieil to vail fur. The tower Is IIM fast U Inches M^b, and 42 feet in diameter at tha base, unil 18 foot at tha lop. It ion* tains a mass of atunn-wurk of about M,MO cubic feet, or more than ilimblr that uf the B«ll-ltix-k, and not much lau than ilf limtt that uf the Kddystone. 'I'lie lower part uf the tower was built by means uf jik-inmrt, and the upper part with thear'/Hilti, iireiile; and a balance- crane. The ah«ar-|N>lea wera simiUr to thofie used by Smeatoii at the Kdilyatune | and theji'i- craiiM and hy the Trinity House of London, who stnt a deputation »n Franco to inquire into their HMtura. In Hcotland, one of the (irst acts of the North- "m I/iglits WobkI, In 178fl, was to substitute reflectors in tba room of coal lights, then in use at the Isle of May In (he Firth of Forth, and the Cumbrae Isle in tha Firth of (;iyde, which had, till that period, l>een the y the size of the flame which is substituted for the point, that we are enabled to render even revolving lights practically useful. But for this alwrration, even the slowest revolution in a revolving light, which would be consistent with a continued observable series, such aa the practical seaman could follow, would render the flashes of a revolving light greatly too transient for any useful purpose ; while fixed lights, being viitible in the azimuths only in which the mirrors are placed, would, over the greater part of the distant horizon, be altogether invisible. The size of the flame, therefore, which is placed in the focus of a paral>alic mirror, when taken in connection with the form of the mirror itself, leads to those important modifications in the paths of the rays, and the form of the resultant beam of light, which have rendered the catopric system of lights so great a benefit to the benighted seaman. It is obvi- ous, from a consideration of the nature of the action which takes place in this coml)ination of the pnrabo- loidal mirrors with Argand lamps, that the revolving light is not only more perfect in its nature than the fixed light, but that it possesses the advantage of be- ing susceptible of an increase of its power, by increas- ing the number of reflectors, which have their axes parallel to each other, so as to concentrate the eflx!ct of several mirrors in one direction. The perfect par- allelism of the axes of separate mirrors, it is true, is unattainable, but approaches may be made sufficiently near for practical results ; and in order to prolong the duration of the flash, the reflectors are sometimes placed on a frame, having each of its sides slightly convex, by which arrangement the outer reflectors of each face of the frame have their axes less inclined in- wards ttom the radii of the revolving frame which pass through their foci. Pniportioni and Divergence of Paraboloidal Mirrors. — The best proportions for the paraboloidal mirrorif de- pend upon the object to which they nro to l>e applied ; as mirrors which are intended to produce great diverg- ence in the form of the resultant beam should have one form ; while those which are designed to cause a near approach to parallelism of the rays will liave another form. These objects may also be attained l>y variations of the size of the flame applied in the same mirror ; but it is much more advantageous to produce the effect by a change in the form of the mirror, as any increase of the flame beyond the size which is found to be most advantageous in other respects can not bo regarded otherwise than as a wasteful expenditure of light. The details into which a full investigation of this matter would lead us are quite beyond the scope of this article, and it therefore seems sufllcient to give the formulie which express the relations wlilch exist lietween the size of the flame, the reflecting surface, and the oomaponding divergence of the reflected ray. If A represent the inclination of any retlected ray to the axis of a paraboloidal mirror, e the distance of the focus from the point of reflection, and d the dis- tance from the edge of the flame to the focus in the d plane of reflection, we shall have sine A^s - ; and when e the flame in tlie given plane of reflection is circular, or has its opp^Ute sides equidistant from the focus of Lid 122K UQ Mirrori. noTH de- appUed ; diverg- uld have cause a fill have ;ained by the same produce as any is found m not bo iditure of igation of the scope it to give lich exist surface, reflected reflected distance d the dlt- cus in the and when i circular, le focus of flie minor, m iliall, hy potttng A' tot tliee Active dt- 1 ergenoeof the mirror haTe In 'he given plane, A'aJ A. When, therefore, great divergence, as in the case of the fixed lights, ia required, the prolate form of the curve is to be preferred ; and the oblate is conversely more suited to revolving lights. Power of Parabohidal ifirror*.— The power of the reflectors ordinarily employed in light-houses is gen- erally equal to about 860 times the effect of the unas- sisted flame which Is placed in the focus. This value, however, is strictly applicable only at the distances at which the observations have been made, as the pro- portional value of the reflected beam must necessarily vary with the distance of the observer, agreeably to come law dependent upon the unequal distribution of the light in the luminous cone which proceeds A*>m it. The ordinary burners used in light-houses are one Inch in diameter, and the focal distance generally adopted Is 4 Inches, so that the effective divergence of the minor in the horizontal plane may be estimated at about 14° 22'. In arranging reflectors on the frame of a fixed light, however, it would be advisable to cal- culate upon less effective divergence, for beyond 11° the light is feeble ; but the difficulty of placing many mirrors on one frame, and the great expense of oil required for so many lampa, have generally led to the adoption of the first valuation of the divergence. Manufacture and letting of /fc/cctT*.— The reflect- ors used in the best light-houses are made of sheet copper plated, in the proportion of 6 oz. of silver to 16 oz. of copper. They are molded to the paraboloidal form by a delicate and laborious process of beating with mallets and hammers, of various forms and ma- terials, and are frequently tested during the operation by the application of a carefully-formed mold. After being brought to the curve, they are stiffened by means nf a strong beazle, and a strap of brass, which is at- tached to it for the purpose of preventing any acci- dental alteration of its figure. Polishing powders are then applied, and the instrument receives its last fin- ish. Two guages of brass are applied to test the form of the reflector. One is for the back, and is used by the worltmen during the prodess of hammering, and the other is applied to the concave face as a test, while the mirror is receiving its final polish. It is then tested, by tr}-ing a burner in the focus, and measuring the intensity of the light at various points of the re- flected conical beam. Another test may also be ap- plied succr 'lively to various points in the surface, by masking the rest of the mirror. Having placed a ureen in the line of the axis of the mirror at some given distance from it, it is easy to find whether th% image of a very small object placed in the conjugate focus, which is due to the distance of the screen, be reflected at any distance iVom that point on the centre of the screen through which the prolongation of the axis of the mirror would pass, and thus to obtain a measure of the error of the instrument. For this pur- pose it is necessar}' to find the position of the conju- gate focus, which corresponds to the distance of the screen. If i i>e the distance which thd object should be removed outward from the principal focus of the mirror, d the distance from the focus to the screen, and r the distance from the focus to the point of the r* ndmr which Is to be tested, we shall have b= — as d the distance which the object must be removed out- ward from the true focus on the line of the axis. Argand Lampi. — Tha flame generally used in re- flectors is f^m an Argand fountain-lamp, whose wick Is an Inch In diameter. Much care is bestowed upon the manufacture of those lamps for the Northern Light-houses, which have their burners tipped with silver, to prevent wasting by the great heat which is •volved. These burners are also fitted with a slide apparatus, accurately formed, by which tha burner may he removed tton the interior of the mirror tt tb« time of cleaning it, and returned exactly to tli« wtim place, and locked by means of a luy. This arrMm^ ment, which is shown in figures 6, 6, and 7, is very important, as it in- sures the burner always being in the focus, and does not require the re- flector to be lifted out of its place every time it ia cleaned; so that, when once carefully set and screwed down to the frame, it is never altered. In these flgs. aaa represents one of the reflectors, b is the lamp, c is a cylindric fount- ain, which contains 24 oz. of oil. The oil-pipe and fountain of the for- mer is connected with the rectangular frame (2, and is movaliio In a vertl/)*l direction upon the guide-rods e and/, by wliieli it am be let down and taken out of the reflector by slinn' turning the handle g, as will be more fully wm»t- stood by examining fig. 6, An aperture of an elliptical form, measuring about 2 inches by 8, is cut in the up- per and lower part of the re- flector, the lower serving for the free egress and ingress of the lamp, and the upper, to which the copper tube A ia at- tached, serving for ventila- tion ; I shows a cross section of the main bar of the chan- delier or flrame, on which the reflectors are ranged, each being made to rest on knobs of brass, one of which is seen at kk, and which are soldered on the brass band /, that clasps the exterior of the reflector. Fig. 6 is a section of the r^ flcctor aa, showing the posi- tion of the burner 6, with the glass chimney b , ami oil-cup I, which receives any oil that may drop from the lamp. Fig. 6 shows the apparatus for moving tlie lamp up and down, so as to remove it from the reflnctor at the time of cleaning It, In tlia diagram, e, the fountain is moved partly dowDi id Fig. T, ^ shows the rectangular frame on which the bumsr If mounted, e, e the elongated socket-guides, / the r*«> tangular guide-rod, connected with the perforated i eots on which the checking-handle g slides. Lia 1228 UQ ArraitgtmeiU ofRtfieeU/n on (A< /rafm.— The modaa of arranging the raflaoton in the frame* an Bhown in flgi. 8, 9, and 10. It leema quite nnnecetsary, after what in said on the subject of divergence, ti do more than remarlc, that in revolving lighta t'lie reflectors are placed with their axes parallel to each other, so as to concentrate their power in one direction ; while in fixed lights it is neceasarj-, in or- der to effect as equal a distriliution of the light over the horizon as possible, to place the reflectors, with their axes inclined to each other at an angle somewhat less than that of the divergence of the reflected cone. For this purpose a brass guage, composed of iwc long arms, somewhat in the form of a pair of common di- viders, connected by means of a graduated limb, is employed. The arms having lieen Hrst placed at the angle, which is supplemental to tluit of the inclination of the axes uf the two adjacent mirrors, are made to span the faces of the reflectors, one of which is moved about till its edges are in close contact with the flat surface of one of the arms of the guage. The diflfer- ent arrangements of the reflectors will be more fully understood by referring to the figures. «0.t Hi- chandaltar, ; the flxed shrfi iu the centre, which snp< ports the whole, o, o the reflectors, and p,ptha fount- aiut of their Umr*. r> inv,! "=^^^r^ tlf. 8. lig. 8 shows an elevation of a revolving apparatus on the catoptric principle. In these figures, «n, shows the reflector frame or chandelier ; o, o, the reflectors with their oil-fountains, p, p. The whole is attached to the revolving axis or sbtft q. The copper tubes, r, r, convey the smolce from the lolnps ; s, « are cross biers wliich support the shaft at U ; uu is a copper pan for receiving any moisture which may accidentally enter at tue central ventilator in the roof of the light- room ; / is a cast-iron bracket, which supports the pivot on the shaft ; ra, n> are beveled wheels, which convey motion from the machine to the shaft. Fig, shows a plan of one tier of reflectors arranged in the manner amnloved in a fixed catoptric light; tm shows tiie Flg.». To the Dutch belongs the honoi ' ' '' revolving dioptric light of the first order, which wni; afterward erected at Start Point in Devonshire. Other countries I'ul- lowed, and the Report of the light-house Board of Atnerica, published in 1852, which recommends (sec page 1229 of this article) the adoption of Fresnel's di- optric system, and the bolophotal improvements, is a very full body of information on light-house subjects, extending over about 7oO pages. Even Turkey has followed in the train of improvement, and we believe that a light on the dioptric principle will shortly bo exhibited (if it be not already completed) from the Isle of Serpents. Fresnel, who is already classed with the greatest of those inventive minds which ex- tend the boundaries of human knowledge, will thus, at the same time, receive a place among those benefactors of the species who have consecrated their genius to the common good of mankind; and, wherever maritime intercourse prevails, the solid advantages which his labors have procured will be felt and acknowledged. When, however, this system was in its infancy, there were several objections raised to its adoption, which appeared to be of very considerable impoitance, though the experience of years has proved that they are not insurmountable, Tbs first, and probably the UQ 1227 UQ mMt impottut, WM tha lUbtUt}' of the lamp to ba ex- tinguished from tlie failure of the leather woric of the oU-pumpa — a most gerlQus objection, inasmuch as, ftom there being onljr one lamp, its failure implies tlie ex- tinction of the light. The means adopted to remady this have ber:i already described (vtds " meclunical lamp"), and an experience of 21 years in the Northern Light- houses has proved them to be sufficient for the pur- pose ; for during the whole of that time (although it has on aaveral occasions been necRSsarj- to light the spare lamp), the light has only on one occasion been totally extinguished, a casualty which was caused by the lieeper sleeping on his watch. The only otiier objection worthy of mention is the short duration of the flash in revolving lights, owing to the small divergence (6° 9') of the annular lens. This has b3en corrected by setting the inclined mirrors, or holophotal prisms, a little in advance of the great lenses, so that they precede, and consequently prolong, the priacipal flash. M. Degrand has also proposed to cut tbo whole apparatus by a horizontal plane passing through the focus, and to set one portion a few degrees in advance of the other, a plan which has considerable advantages, as all the portions of thv beam are more nearly of equal intensity. iSpherico-Ci/liHdric Lmtes, — Mr. T. Stevenson, more- over, suggests an ingenious method of remedying this evil, by constructing lenses whose alwrration in the vertical plane is corrected, while that in tlio horizontal plane may l)e adjusted to any determinate amount. In the application of this method of construction to the annular lenses they would be ground on the exter- nal surface as before ; but the internal surface would be a portion of a vertical cylinder of suitable radius. Thus each vertical section would be similar to that of a plano-convex lens as at present, and would refract the rays accoidingly, while the horizontal sections would be of a meniscal form, and would act only by the excess of their convexity over their concavity. Thus, by varying the radius of the cylinder, any amount of horizontal divergence may be obtained, and this without much increasing the thickness of the glass, at least in the case of revolving lights, in which a curve of long radius might be applied. Fuel of Light-houtet. — The oil, until lately, most generally employed in the light-houses of the United Kbgdom, was the sperm oil of commerce, which is obtained ttom the South Seu whale {Phyatter macro- ctphalut). In France, the colza oil, which is expressed from the seed of a species of wild cabbage (jBroMica oUraeea colza), and the olive ofl| are chiefl}' used ; and a species of the former has now been successfully in- troduced into the British light-houses. The advantages oi the colza oil are thus stated by the engineer of the Scottish Light-house Board : — " It appears from pretty careful pliotoraetrical measurements of various kinds, that the light derived from the colza oil is, in point of intensity, a little superior to that derived from the spermaceti oil, being in the ratio of 1-05C to 1, The colza oil bums both In the Fresnel lamp and the tingle Argand burner with a thick wick during 17 hours, without requiring any coaling of the wick or any ad- justment of the damper ; and the flame seems to be more steady and treet from flickering than that derived from spermaceti oil. There seems (most probably owing to the greater steadiness of the flame), to be less breakage of glass chimneys with the colza than with the spermaceti oil. Tlie consumption of oil seems in the Fresnel lamp to be 121 for colxa, and 114 for spermaceti; while in tha common Argand, the consumption appears to be 910 for colza, and 902 for spermaceti; and if we assume the means of these numbers, 515 for colza, and 608 for spermaceti, as representing the relative expenditure of these oils ; and if the price of colza be 8s. 9d., while that of sper- maceti is 6*. 9d. per imperial gallon ; we shall have a Mving in the ratio of 1 to 1-766, which, at the present rate of rapply for tha Northern Lights, would glw • saving of about ^£8266 per annum." Gat. — In a few light-houses which are near towns, the gas of pit coal has been used, and there are certain advantages, mora especially in dioptric lights, where there is only one lar.^e central flame, which would render the use of gas desirable. The form of the flame, which is an object of considerable importance, would thus be rendered less variable, and could be more easily regulated, and the inconvenience of tha clock-work of the lamp would be wholly avoided. But it is obvious that gas is by no means suitable for the majority of light-houses, their distant situation, and generally difficult access, rendering the transport of large quantities of coal expensive and uncertain; while in many of them there is no means of erecting the apparatus necessary for manufacturing gas. There are other considerations which must induce us to pause before adoptmg gas as the fuel of light-houses ; for, however much the risk of accident may !» diminished in the present day, it still forms a question which ought not to be hastily decided, how far we should be jubiified in running even the most remote risk of ex- plosion in establishments such as light-houses, tha sudden failure of which might involve consequences of the most fatal description, and the situation of which is often such that their re-establishment must b^ a work of great expense and time. Drummond and Voltaic. Lights. — The application of the Drummond and Voltaic lights to light-house pur- poses is, owing to their prodigious intensit;,', a very desirable consummation ; but it is surrovrided by so many practical difficulties, that it may, in the prescfK state of our knowledge, Iw pronounced unattainable. The uncertainty which attends the exhibition of t>oth these lights is of itself a sufficient reason for coming to this conclusion. But other reasons, unhappily, are not wanting. The smallness of the flame renders those lights wholly inapplicable to dioptric instru- ments, which require a great body of flame, in order to produce a degree of divergence sufficient to, render the duration of the flash in revolving lights long enough to answer the purpose of the mariner. M, Fresnel made some experiments on the application of the Drummond light to dioptric instruments, which completely demonstrate their unlitness for this combi- nation. He found that the light obtained l)y placing it in the focus of a great annular lens was much more intense than that produced b}' the great lamp and lens of Corduan ; but the divergence did not exceed 80'; so tliat, in a revolution like that of Corduan, the flashes would last only 1^- second, and would not, therefore, be seen in such a manner as to suit the practical pur- poses of a revolving light. The great cylindric refrac- tor, used in fixed lights of the first order, was also tried with the Drummond light in its focus ; but it gave colored spectra at the top and bottom, and only a small bar of white light was transmitted from the centre of the instrument. The same deficiency of di- vergence completely unfits the combination of the Drummond light with the reflector for the purposes of a fixed light, and even if this cause did not operate against its application in revolving lights on the ca- toptric plan, the supply of the gases, which is attend- ed with almost insurmountable difficulties, would, in any case, render the maintenance of the light precari- ous and uncertain in the last degree. There are many questions of much interest regard- ing light-houses which appear to open an extensive field of inquiry ; and it may be doubted whether some of them have received tiiat degree of consideration to whii li their importance entitles them. Among these we may rank the numerous questions which may \m raised regarding the most effective kind of distinctions for lights. Those distinctions may be naturally ex- pected to be of the most effective kind which strike aa observer by their ofipearance alone. Thus a red and LI6 rsas LIG whit* light, • NTolrlng and a flxed light, ot n appear- ancti which (TO ci nUtad to produce npon the observer ■ ftronger senie <>. their dilhrenca than the same ob- ierver would receive from light! the gole difference of which iiaa in their revolutions lieing performed in greater or less intervels of time. On thj other hand, the distlnctior ' derived from time, if the intervals on which the}r depend do not approach too closely to each other, appear to afford very suitaliie mesne for charac- terlKing lights ; and the numljer of distinctions «nleh may lie founded upon time alone are pretty numerous. Colored media have the great disadvantage of .-"bsorb- Ing light, and the only color which has hitherto been found useful in practice la red, all othen at even mod- orate distances, serving merely to enfeeble, without characterizing lights. In the system of Fnisnel, as already explained, all the distinctions are based upon time alone. Mr. Roliert Stevenson, the engineer of the Northern Light-houses, has invented twn distinc- tions, which, although they are produced by variations of the time, possess characteristic appearancft, suffi- ciently marked to enable an observer to distinguish a light without counting time. The one is called ajh^ fci; light, in which the flashes and eclipses succeed each other so rapidly as to give the appearince of a succes- sion of brilliant Bcintillations ; arkd the other has been called inlermi'tlent, from its consisting of a flxed light, which Is suddenly and totnlly eclipsed, and ajiuin as suddenly revealed to view. The effect of t'.iis light is entirely different fiwm that of any revolving light, both from the i^at inequality of the' intervals of light ud darkness, and also from the contrast which is pro- Weed l)y its sudden diiappearance and reappearance, which is completely dIHcrent from the prndunl diminu- tion and increase of the light in revolving lights, more especially in those on the catoptric principle. Tlie preut and still increasing numl)er of lights renders the means of distinguishing them one of the most import- ant considerations connected with light-houses. Lightt on the Co(w<.— 'Not less Important, and very nearly allied to the suliject of distinction, is that of the arrangement of lights un a line of coast. The choice of the most suitable places, and the assigning to each the characteristic appearances which are most like!}' to distinguish it tnm all the neighboring lights, are points requiring much consileration ; and it ougiit never to lie forgotten, that the indiscriminate erection of tight-houses vion leads to cc.ifusion, and that the ne edlnss exhibition of a light, by involving the loss of a distinction, may afterward prove inconvenient In the ease of some future light, which time and t' ' growing wants of traile .nay call for on the same line of coast. To enter st length upon this topic, or even to lay down the general principles which ought to regulate the dis- tribution of lights, w exceed the limits of this arti- cle j but in connecti. ith this it may lie observed, that the superintendiiiee of light-houses should be committed to one general body, and ought not to \tt left to local trusts, whose operations are too often con- ducted on narrow principles, without reference to gene- ral Interests. The inconveniences arising fVom intor- ferenca lietween the distinctions of the lights under one trust, and those of the lights under another, are therel>y avoided ; and the full advantage is olitained of the means of distinction at the disposal of Iwth. The considerations which enter into the choice of the iwsltion and character of the lights on a line of const are either, on the one hand, so simple and self- evident as scarcely to admit of being stated in a gene- rnl form, without becoming nie'« trui'ms ; or are, on the other hand, so very numerous, and often so com- plicated, as scarcely to be susceptible of compression into any general laws. We shall not, therefore, do more than very briefly notice, in the form of distinct propositions, a few of the chief considerations which should guide us in the selection of the sites and char- •cteTistk) appearance of the light-houses to be placed on a line of coast. For fiirther information on thla subject, see works mentioned at the enu of this article 1. The moat prominent points of a line of ^oast, or thode flnt made on over-tea voyages, should first be lighted; and the most powerful lights should be adapted to them, so that they may l>e discovered by the mariner as long as possible before his reaching land. 2. So far as is consistent with a due attention to distinction, revolving lights of some description, which are necessarily more powerful than fixed lights, should h« employed at the outpost/i on a line of const. 8. Lights of precisely identical character an'! ap|>ear- ance should not, if possible, occur within a less dis- tance than 100 miles of each other on the same line of coast, which is made by over-sea vessels. 4. In all cases, the distinction of color should never be adopted except from absolute necessity. 6. Fixed lights, and others of less power, may be more readily adopted in narrow seas, because the range of the lights in such situations is generally l«ss than that of open sea-li);hts. tf. In narrow seas, also, the distance between lights of the sauie appearance may often be safely reduced within mnch lower limits than is desirable fur the greater sea-lights. Thns 'hero arc many instances in which the distance separating lights of the same char- acter need not exceed 60 miles ; and peculiar cases oc- cur in which even a much less separatioq between similar lights may be sufficient. 7. Lights intended to guard resuels from reef^, shoals, or other dangers, should, in every case where it is practicable, be placed feaward of the danger itself, aa It is desirable tliat sea- men be enabled to nuU'e the lights with confidence. 8. Views of oconom}' in the first cost of a light-liuuse should never Ite permitted to intnrfere with placing it in the best possilile position i and, when fund< "re do- ficient, it will generally be found that the wise cuurse is to delay the work until a sum shall have Iwen oli- tained sufficient for the erection of the light-house on the l>est site. 9. The elevation of the lantern above the sea should not, if possible, for sea-lights, exceed 200 feet ; and about 150 feet is sufficient, under almost any circumstances, to give the range which is re- quired. Lights placed on high lieadlands are sul)ject to lie frequently wrapped in fog, and are often thereby Tendered useless at times when lights on a lo ver level might be perfectly efficient. But this rule must not, and indeed can not, be strictly followed, especially on a coast where there are man^- projecting clilfs, which, while they subject the lights placed on them to occa- sional oliscurotion by fog, would also entirely and per- manently hide from vt*w lights placed on the lower Ir.nd adjoining them. In snch cases, all that can be done is carefully to weigh all the circumstances cf tho locality, and choose that site fo.- the light-house wliioh seems to afford the greatest balance of ad'-anta -e to navigation. As might be expected, in questions of this kind, the opinions of the most experienced per- sons are often very conflicting, accr ling to the value which is set on the various elements uhich enter into the inquiry. 10. The best ])osition for a sea-ligl.t ought rarely to lie negleotccAe safely distinguished by colored media. In many cases, also, where they are to serve as guides into a narrow channel, the leading lights which are used should, at the same time, be go ar- ranged as to serve for a distinction from any neigh- boring lights. 14. Floating lights, which are very expensive, and more or less uncertain, from their lia- bility to drift from thoir moorings, as well as defect- ive in power, should never l>e employed to indicate a turning-point in navigation in any situation where the conjunction of lights on the shore can be applied at a reasonable expense. Britith and Iriih LighU. — English lights are placed under the Corporation of Trinity House of Deptford, Slroud ; the Scottish lights are under the manage- ment of the Commissioners of Northern Lights ; and the irish lights are under the care of the corporation for preserving and improving the port of Dublin, com- monly called the linllast Board. The last act of Parliament on the subject of light- houses formt) part of one the general title of which is, " An act to amend various laws relating io merchant shipping." It passed 20t)i August, 1863. The chief provisions which affect light-houses are the following : 1. The light dues of the United Kingdom are to form one imperiiti fund, under the control of the Board of Trade. 2. From this fund all expenses of erecting and maintaining the lights of the United Kingdom are to l>» defrayed. 3. The three boards which manage the light-honses in England, Scotland, and Ireland, are to render account of their expenditure to tho board of Triide. 4. The Trinity House, or English board, is to cxTcise a certain control over the boards in Scot- land and Ireland, and is to juuge of all their proposals to erect new lights, or to cliunge existing ones ; but in every case the sanction of the Board of Trade must precede the acts of each of the throe Iwards. — E. B. Ccmpariion of the Syttems of Lighting in the United Slates, France, Great Britain, 'tc. — To maka this com- parison intelligible, will require a brief notice of the ligbt-b"' ^e systems of France and Great Britain, with some rfc.aarka on the systems of other countries, before giving; p 3 extended notice of the systems of the United States' light-houses. France. — The administrative matters relating to ligl'.t-liouses, though hardly such as it would be pos- sible for us to follow, are, nevertheless, regulated with a system of order worthy of all commendation. As with us, CO light dues are exacted from shippmg, but tiie light-houses ore a direct charge upon the treas- ury, and supported by annual appropriations. The question, shall there be a light-house at a particular roint, is decided by a board consisting of naval officers, government engineers, and scientific civilians, The first dpcision settles that inquiry is desirable. The civil engineer of the Department where the work is to be pUced, report* hi* view*, with plan* and estimate* for it, which are laid before the board by their sef.rt- tary. If it now appears that the work should go on in the manner pro|)osed, the details of construction and the estimates pass to the general council of gov- ernment engineers (Bridges and Roads — ■' Ponit el Chau4tiu"j, and when approved are constructed bjr contract, under the tupervition of tit govemmeta en- ginetrt of the Department. These engineers also super- intend all repairs of light-houses. In some case* local boards are required, first, to examine and report upon the necessity for a proposed light, before the subject la examined by the light-house board. The administn^ tive details Wj In the D«partm .t State, mhiistr}' of public works, under which tho dilferent persons re- ferred to, serve. The general arrangemont of sea- coast lights, adopted on the report of Rear Admiral Rossel to the light-bouse board in 1826, Is based upon two principles : that one liglit of the brightest class shall nut be lost sight of until another is visible : and that such distinction shail be presented by the light, that a vessel nn nearing the coast, without very gross error in the knowledge of her position, can not mistake one light for another. 21 nautical miles was adopted as the distance of visibility of the brightest lights, and three classes of distinction were admitted, viz. : fixed lights, revolving lights showing a bright light, and an eclipse at Intervals of a minute an 1 .t half a minute. By placing the fixed light midway between the two revolving ones, of the different kinds, and at a distance of 42 nautical miles from each otiier, the essential con- ditions of the system would be fulfilled. In applying this practically, it was, of course, so modified as to conform to the general features of the coast, and to the wants of navigation. Between these brightest sea- coast lights, others of inferior power were arranged as required. Every light is placed under the inspection of a per- son called a conductor, who viiils it at least once a month, by night at well at by day, and is provided with keys of the building and of the watch-room, so that he can enter at all times, without summoning a keeper. The resident engineer of the Department inspects all the lights in his Department at least once a quarter, and the chief engineer of the Department once a year, and the secretary of the Departn.ent makes au inspection at least once in three years. The light-house keepers are furnished with l)Ooks, ruled, and with appropriate headings to the columns, to record the ol>servations required of them. Detailed instruct' ns for light- houses and beacons are distributed, which direct minutely their duty. Prior to 1822, Argand lamps with reflectors were used in the French light-houses. In that year, Au- gustine Fresnel put up the first lens light of his inven- tion, in the tower of Cordouan, at the mouth of thu Gironde, In 1826 the general adoption of the leys system was determined upon. In 1846 there were ou the coast of France, not including the colonics, 151 lens lights and 47 reflector lights ; and nearly all of the latter were merely beacon-lights. According to Mr, Ke}-naud's statement, not one reflector light will be left in 1862, in the class of lights of the first and second order. Experience, then, has led to the substitution of lens lights for the others, except as small harbor beacon-lights, requiring a small arc of tlie horizon to bo illuminated. The me- chanical lamp used with tho lens light ivas tiie johit invention of Arago and Fresnel, combining the idea of Rumford, of a number of concentric wiciis, accuri'ing to the intensity and volume required for the flame, and the idea of Carcel of keeping the wick from burn- ing rapidly, by making the oil overflow about it, by raising it with a pump, moved by clock-work. Sev- eral kinds of mechanical lamps have, from time to time, been presented for examination and trial, an- tio 1230 UQ •waHiig, gMiinlly, MtUhctorlly ; AdiM oatA in aoma of the nemt lights an called the " moderator lamp." The repair of 28 lamps of the first order lights, 4 of the second, and 13 of the third, amounted, in 1660, only to $:8S M. Ur. Frosnel suggests that if it be appiehended, that, on aroount of the distance of a light-honse frrmi the workshops, there may be dliHcnlties in regard to the repairs of the meehanical lamp, the appointment of a mechanic as light-house keeper, ond the supplying him with the necessary tools, will 'be a very simple remed}'. In the refracting light the diverging rays ttom the lamp are rendtired nearly parallel, bypassing through a glass lens. Several such lenses, forming the aides of a prism, surround tho lamp, the light fh>m which is thus refracted into a number of beam.') corresponding to the nnml>er of the faces of the prism, separated by dark angles. If this prism be made to revolve slowly alwut a vertical axis, there will he altemr.tions of light and darkness, as the beam from the face of the pHiirii reaches the eye, cr it is in the dark angle between the beams. The increase of the light to Its greatest brightness, and the decrease 3gain, will be gradual. A prism of eight sides, thus revolv- ing in eight minutes, would show bright flashes ni, in- tervals of a minute, and eclipses at the same interval. llie lens is made of a nnmlwr of pieces of glass, ground to the same curve, and fitted closely together. The building up of a lens in this way, of separate pieces, has t>een carried tn very great perfection, and the separate pieces composing it are of lienutiful clear- ness, polish, and precision of form. A drum of glass, oylindrical in its horizontal sections, and lens-siiaped in the vertical dire>4ion, placed about a Ismp which occupies its centre, will diflTuse all around the horiron the rays falling horizontally upon it, bending toward the horizon those coming above or below the horizontal line from the lamp, furnishing a fixed light of equal brilkiancy in every direction. A panel of glass, lens- shuped in the horizontal direction, being made to re- volve about this, would gis-e a bright Hash as the axis of the iens passed any partirular point ; and several of these thus mode to revolve, constitute • fixed light, varied by flashes. When the whole of the horizon is not to be illumin- ated, a reflector is substituted for the lens behind tho- lamp, so as to throw to tho firont the light which would otherwise he lost. Not to lose the light thrown up- ward by the lamp, a series of glass prisms is so nr- ranged as to receive the rays at the angle at which they are re''«cted, to throw them downward to the horizon. imilar prisms bel^w the lamp, serve to prevent the waste of the light which falls below the lens. This application of totally ^fleeting prisms, is claimed by Mr. Alan Stevenson, ot l?dinb«rg. There are four orders of lights, according to the range of vis- ibility, determined by tlie volume and brilliancy of the flame ; the first order corresponding to the greatest range. The number of wicks of the lamps, and the dimensions of the whole apparatus, vary, accordingly. In the dlfierent orders. The third and fourth orders are subdivided into two classes, corresponding to the larger and smaller size of the apparatus. The dimen- sions nf the lantern of the several orders, the number of wicks of the lamps, and other details, will be found in the table annexed. Fixed and revolving white lights are nsed to give six characteristic combinations : the simple fixed light; the fixed light, varied by bright (liashes every four, three, or two minutes ; the revolving light, with intervals between the flashes, or between the eclipses, of a minute or half a minute. By introducing a red fixed light, alternate red and white flashes, and a fixed white light with rod flashes, these combinations are extended to eight. Two fixed white lights, in sep- arate towen, ore nsed in t ttw cosea tor the sake of diitiaelioii. The loss of light by a deep, red glaaa, U stated by Mr. Stevenson to be as high as §0 per cent, of the whole. A pink French gi»H'< absorbed l)Kt f>7 per cent., but the color of the burner was not verj- decided. All parts of the illuminating apparatus for light-houses an supplied fkom a dAp6t and workshnps under the immediate dinctlon of the secralary of the light-house board. The distance to which a lii,'ht may be seen, its range of ^'Islbility (called sometimes simply its range), depends upon the brightness (Intensity) of tlie light, it» elevation above the general surface, and the greater or less transparancy of the atmospheie. Some persons, too, ran distinguish lights at c much grenter distance than othen. The range of a light, then, is not a sure test for comparing it with other lights. The value (useful effect) of a light depends on its brightness and the extent o. he horizon which it will illuminate. The brightness can 1>e ascertained by ex- periment with the photometer, tn terms of the light of a standard lamp as a unit ; the extent of horizon illu- minated, by simple measurement in degrees, minutes, and flractions. Hence the value of a light can be ex- prassed in numben : so many units of the stundiird lamp, multiplied by so many degrees on the horizon. If the light is not spraad uniformly over the horizon, it is necessarj- to estimate its brightness at different parts, and the space over which it extends. The value for each portion being thus found, the whole value is easily deduced. Theof}' will show bow much of a light from a lamp can be thrown by a given lena, or mirror, in a pnrticu. lardiraction; but as the degroe of perfection of these instruments would vary the result considerably, re- course is to be had to experiment in comparing differ- ent kinds of illuminating apparatus. Very cnrcful and often-repeated experiments have been made l>y M. L^onor Frosnel, late secretarj' of the light-housu board of France, for *he purpose of comparing the reflector and lens lights used in France. To appre- ciate them fully, it is necessary to follow the very minute details eiitored into, by meanuring the brilliancy of the light In the various divisions of the horizon, and finding its total value (useful effect) in estimating the value from different parts of the apparatus, and the allowance to l>e made for loss of light from tho construction of the lantern, etc. Without such a scrutiny, however, the character o! their author, as an experimentalist, is a guaranty for the accuracy of the results. They show the following comparison for lens lights of the different orders, and equivalent systems of nflector lights : 4th order, 2d \.L .ss ; economy 2^ to 1 in favor of the Ions light. 3d order, 1st class ; economy 3} to 1 in favor of the lens light, 2d order, fixed ; economy 8} to 1 in favor of the lent light. 2d order, ravolving; economy 4 to 1 in favor of the lens light. 1st order, fixed, economy 4 to 1 in favor of the lens light. The combination of nflectors, to be equivalent to the first order lens, is such as has never been made. The average economy of the light itself is about 3j( to 1 in favor of the lens system. To render these deductions strictly applicaMe to practice, they should be made under the precise cir- cumstances in which the apparatus is 'used ; but as they would then be made in conditions unfavorable to accuracy, it is usual to assume that, in practice, tho lamp is burning in the liest way, and thus to make the comparisons. To render them strictly applicalde to the lights of the United States, the oil, too, should be the same, and the manner of burning it the same ; or. If different oils wer« used, each oil should be burned under tho most favorable circumstances for it. These nmarlts, however, touch only the nfine- LIO 1281 LIS menu of Mm cut, and ihow th« detinblniMi of ex* pcrimcnta mada with the actual refleeton, lampi, and oil In uas In the United States, with the lenses and Uieir lamps, the oil licing the same. The question of the relative economy of the lens and redeetor lights dependfl upon the relative cost of the ligbt-uouse adapted to them ; of the Illuminating apparatus; of the rej^.irs of the building and appa- ratui , sa'.^ries of the lieepers | coat of the oil, and inci- dental expenses. In France two keepers have always been employed for the larger lights ; one ' T the other being required to be constantly on duty, bo aa never to leave the lights without attendance in the lantern or wati.h-room. With the new apparatus for the first order lights, in ordinary caaes, three keepers are al- lowed, increasing the expense for salaries about one fourth. With those of the other orders, there has been no increose^two keepers being allowed to those of the second order, and third order, ilrst class, using the mechanical lamp ; and one to the third order, sec- ond class, and to the fourth order lights, nslng the ordinary fountain lamps with Argand burners. The light-house buildings are of the same cost, except that an additional room must be provided for the third keeper of the lens lights of the flrst order. The 6rst cost of the lens apparatus is somewhat greater Ann that of the mirrors ; but the great economy In con- sumption of oil, turns the scale entirely in favor of the lena lights— giving, according to the calculations of M. Fresnel, made upon the prices in France, for a jmail light, an economy of nearly 2 to 1 in favor of the lens ; and for a large light (revolving light, sec- ond order), an economy of more than 1} to 1. The interest on the first cost of apparatus, and the ad- ditional salaries, inust make a large increase to conn- tertwlance the large economy in the consumption of oil, which, in France, we have seen to be mora than 8 to lln favor of the lens lights. The same grade of intelligence and education is statou by M. Fresnel to be required In the keepers of the two kinds of lights. The care of the mechanical lamp, however, requires more mechanical tact than that of a common lamp ; while the cleansing of the lens apparatus requires leaa time and care than the othem. The additional keeper of the large lights, and the providing of u second lamp in case of accident, is sup- posed to guard against the danger of the total extin- guishment, for any considerable time, of the single lights, which is the weak point of the lens system. A very simple alarum Is also provided, which, as soon as the overflow In the lamp ceases, rings a bell, giv- ing notice of any derangement in the machinery, etc., for raising the oil. Mr. Stevenson causes this appa- ratus to keep a bell constantly sounding, and to stop when the machinery becomes deranged ; belieying that he better secures the watchfulness of the keeper thereby. On this question M. Fresnel gives this very decided opinion — after an experience of 22 3'eait, sus- tained by the daily results of more than 100 lenticular lights of the flrst 8 onLers — " that they have been dis- tinguished by the re^arity of their service." The metallic parts of the lantern are made of gun-metal (bronze), the astragals being inclined to the vertical. The ventilation of the lanterns Is carefully attended to. The domes are of copper, painted white inside. There is a lightnmg-conductor, of copper wire strands, twisted like a rope, to each tower. The keeper's house, and the cellars for oil, are generally detached from the light-house, when practicable. The con- struction of light-house towers offers nothing for spe- cial remark, except that, as might be expected from the can ased in obtunlng plans for them, they are substantial and convenient, dry and well ventilated. Oil of colza (rape-seed), expressed from the <;eedg of a kind of wild cabbage (Jmuiica oleraiea), is the only oil used in the French light-houses. The colza give* a very white light, and the oil does not readily thicken by gold. U, Reynaud, secretary to (h« UghU bouse board of France, speaks of the raaulta of uoni' paratlve experiments on olive oil, mineral oU from bituminous schlsle, hydrogen, and mixtures of uur. gen and hydrogen, as having been uofavorabU. Tm oil Is tested before being received, by burning fur 15 or 16 consecutive hours in a mechanical lamp, #b«n, if it bums clearly, and makes little or iu> crust on til* wick, It is received. The oiiometer is ulao used in tb« inspection. At the principal ports a book Is keiit. In which masters of .vessels nay register their conipUiiit* in reference to the lighu on the coast. Their remark* are examined, and Inquiry made by tli* Inspecting *n« gineen. Table or CoMrxanoM or Ltns axd Biri.aiiTua huuiH roa Tua hfuihsnts or M. Laoaoa Fmiwiiii,, Ordtrofthi llfbU. CUu ind fliar- Mt«T of UghU, iPonrth, iThlrd.. Second, Second, First.. Second class First class.. Fixed RevoIvlDg.. FUod EqulVRlMil tyiun { VsltM- ofrin«cU)n, I yMful _ 1 u 24 llftUivUr, !?♦ so so IM » -1 J-4-1 l-S-l For a list of the principal French, Danish, Russian, and other Continental IJghts, sliowing the haiglita of power and elevation above the level, see tlie Ust part of this article. Gnat Britain. — The administrative part of tiM British lighthouse system is so peculiar, having grown up Irrogidarly with the expansion of commerce, that it does not require to be described in detail. 't'JM chief English lights are under the direction of tli« corporation of Trinity House, Deptford Stroud, liUU' don; and the Scottish and Irish lights under conimU> sbners. The expense of the lights is |iald !)>- duel coliticted from vessels of all nations, including Kn« gland herself. The British lights are divided, according to tlialr power and position. Into three classes — sea-coast, Beu< ondary, and harbor lights. Each district in England has a local inspector, and the membera of the Trinity House corporation also inspect from time to time. In Scotland, the engineer of the commissioners has the general saperlntandencjl of the lights. Noticoj in regard to lights are givun in several of the daily metropolitan papers, in periuiU icals perused by nautical men, and are posted at tiM custom-houses. The lights of Great Britain are principally still rs. flectir,~ lights, but tlie lens light has been iiitraduc«4 in m: i y of the most important pmitions, and is grad* ually taking the place of the other. Trinity House lenses, 1st order, 1( ; 2d order, 6 | 4th order, number not known. In Scotland, the proportion of lenses to reflectors U greater than under the Trinity House corimratlon. Mr. Stevenson says : " The Board of Northern Light* bouses are, excepting in a few coses, giving up th* use of reflectors, and substituting eitiier Fretiiel «r holophotul lights." (See letter of October if), 1861,) Quite recently three new lens lights have lieen sstab> lished in England, by the Trinity House board; thr«« others, of the ilrst, second, and fourth orders, respect* ively, have taken the place of reflector ligliti, and fourth order lenses have been introduced for barUtr lights. The first lens light in Great Britain was establinhed in 1835, at Inchkeith, near Edinburg, under tlie ckargt of Mr. Alan Stevenson ; the next at the Isle of May | and now the Scottish lights of the larger classes ani gradually being converted into lens I'glits, Tlie Trin* ity House, of Deptford Stroud, introduced tb« flnl lens light in Engbtnd, in 1837, at Start Point, In D«V> onshire. Mr. Herbert says : " The bydraallfi lamp l« universally ic use in the dioptric light* of tb* m a Car- Mi lamp, th« ditaclvantaga arising from tha usa of which la tha occailonal darangament of the machin- al}'." In Scotland, the mechanical lamp is nsed with the lana lights. When the ventilation of the towers ia not complete, the introdaction of I'rofessor Farra- day'a ventilating tubea over the chimneys of the lampa baa been found vary uaeftal. Tha consumption of oil ia Increased, but the light is also increuaed, and no flickering of the lamp can occur In the highest wind. These tubea are used in all the English light-houses nnder the Trinity House board. The oil of oolia is now txcliuivtlj) uwd in all the ligkU under (A« Triiuig Hnu* board. According to Mr. Stevenson, ito light ia a little more intense than that of apermaceti oil; tha consumption for a given quantity of light al)out the same, »"'iether the two he compared in a nieciuinl- cal lamp or i. common Argand lamp ; it remains fluid at temperatures which would thiclten spermaceti oil ; the flame appeara more steady, and hence the breali- age of lamp-glueses is less than with apennaceti oil. It is furnished in England at 8!) cents per gallon, which is 40 per cent. leas than the cost of apermaceti oil thei«. The auppiies of oil, wiclia, glasses, etc., are delivered once a year by a vessel lielonging to the corporation. There are two distinctive characters given to the reflector ligbta on the Scotch coaat, dif- fering from those already adverted to ; In one, by plac- ing the rima of all the mirrors on one side of a revolv- ing light, in ode vertical plane, and inclining their axes slightly to the horixon, and causing a rnpld rota- tion of the frame, a flash is produced every 6 seconds, which appears to rise and full ; the bright and dark intervals follow each other rapidly. In the other, an Intermittent light la produced by the vortical motion of circuLirdiaca in ftont of the reflectors, eclipsing the light for half a minute, and then permitting it sudden- ly to show out. In England, the coat ef ',he lens apparatus for a sea- coast light, lantern, and pedestal, exceeds that of the reflector apiiaratus nearly (,no fourth ; liut tliis disap- pears in the cost of towers and apparatus, and the ad- vantage is on the other aide when the charge for con- struction is turned into an annual interest, and the cost of illumination is considered. No difference ia mtde in the numtier or salaries of tho keepers of the lens lights in England. Two keep- ers are allowed to all large lights, because one la re- quired always to be on duty in the watch-room. Comparing the value (useful eflect) of the revolving lens light at Skerrj-vore, Scotland, with the old re- flector light at Incbkeith, Mr. Stevenson makes It in the ratio of nearly 8^ to 1, and the economy (econom- ical effect) in the proportion of 8} to 1. Spermaceti oil was used in these comparisons, tho result of which, aa to economy, is the same as was olitained in France. In the comparison of fixed lights, Mr. Stevenson makea the economy of the lens light rise to four times that of the reflector. Taking the interest on first coat of erection as an annual charge, and combining it with the cost of malntainhig the two kinds of lights, Mr. Stevenson mokes the economy of tho lens ayatem, for rtvolving lighU of the Jlnt orde,; to be aa 1-2 to 1, and for large fixed lights as 1} to 1. Argand burners and paralmlic reflectors are used In the Hritiah light-veaaels, l>oth for fixed and revolving lights. The lantenis are of copiwr, or of gun-metal. There are from 8 to 11 light-vessels in each of the districts under the charge of the Trinitj- Konse lioard, and in each district a relief light veasel ia stationed. A gong is used as a fog-alarm, in the Trinity House coqwration light-vessela. The lens system was early introduced Into Holland, where it has been entirely approved ; it has also been intr^nced into Sweden, Denmark, Prussia, and Raa- ala. The coIm oil ia also in common use. There is no caae whera the lens lights have b««n introduced, ia which raeurrence haa been made to the reflector sys- tem. From these data, ws«ra prapared to make the com* paiison required by the instructions of the Department, under the heads which It has pointed out, aa far as It can lie done without further experimauta. Tim ui^e of theae data will lie entirely safe, since the systems of reflecting and refracting ore compared un- der the mott favorable circumatancca fur eacli class. 1. {/ayVif ilffeel. — We hive Juat ahown that, by tha experimenta of Fnsnel and Stevanaon, the useful ett'ect of a lens light is to that of a reflector light of tlie sumi class, on the average, aa 8^ to 1 ; of course, tho !iulu. photal ayatem of saving some of tho lost lig).( in tlie various arrangements, increases tbU djspar! ,y. 2. Economy — Fivt Cost — lit pain — hum lilihj — Efi. ciencj), — ThU branch of the subject has been so ebbo- rated elsewhere in this report, that it is coaHiilcrod only necessar}- to remark briefly upon it in this place. Assuming that tho ligiita in tha two ayatema are tlie best of their kind : The economy of the third order lens light, in com- parison to the reflector light, aa near./ equcl to It iia poaaibie, is as 1 to 2-0. That ia, it requires more tluiii two and a half times as much oil, etc., for tho retlcctnr light, which is leas than one third as useful, as fur the lens light. The economy of the second order lens light, in com. parison to the refloctor light, as nearly equal to it as it is possible to be made, is as 1 to 4'07. That is, tlio lens apparatus is four tUnes as advantageous aa tha reflector light. The economy of the first order lens light, compared to that of the reflector, is 4-08 to 1 ; or that the ris flector is four times as expensive as the leus, or thut the lens is fonr times aa advantageous as tlie refiectoi light. " That if we take into account the flrat cost of cuii- atructlun and the expense of their maintenance, we will find, in respect to the efiuct produced, the now system (dioptric) is still from one and a half to twice as advantageous as the old." Tho repairs to the mechanical lampa employed in lena lights, amount to a mere nominal sum. No difficulty can be anticipated in getting pro])er keepers to attend to the lena lights. Men beloiigii:>{ to the claas of ordinary niechauiea or laborers, are a|>- pointed to take charge of tlie lamps in France. Kiglit or ten days will sufiice to instruct a light-keeper a the most essential parte of liis dut}', receiving lessons fniiu an inatructor conversant with all the details of tlic aervioa. The attendance upon the lamps can no Iou);cr be regarded with fear of ill conscqunnces. They have iMjen greatly improved, and are now believed to be nearly perfect. Thasa is nothing belonging to a mechanical lamp which coidd not be repaired by a watch-maker, and any person capable of taking^harge of u movulilo light is equally compoteiit to nnmage a leins light. While ex|Mjrience has fully proved that tho fears which were entertained of the extinction of the single lamp used in the lens lights are illusory, yet, should they still exist in un}- mind, any greater guaranty be absolutely required than experience gives, it would lie easily aflbrded by furnishing each of the three or four wicks of the mechanical lamp with a separate pump, rendering them thus, in effect, three or four Iniiips. By subdividing the wicks, thia might, if desired, lie carried still further, and the expense of the addltloiml pumpa would not add two doilara per annum to the cost of each first-clatiii light. The experience in rclu- tion to lonses has not lieen confined to any one coun- try ; even in our own, with but three statione, the results ore moat conclusive in their favor. Every first-class light ahould have two keepers, as in Groat LIO 1288 LIG oed, la at •)■*• 16 com* rtmnnt, tar aa U Ince tlie iTe(\ uii- cUu. t, bv the ful effect the uttii"' tho '.lolo- ).<, la the f- tilij—tlffl- 00 elAl)i>- on»ii\ero(i tiU ))liice. nB are the it, in coin- icl to it IIS more thnu 10 rclli't'liir , ttd for tlio ;ht, in com- altoit »!' it rbat is, tlio eoua as the t, compared that the r«- leu», or tliiit the rellectoi I cost of cou- teniimo, we the now littif to twice emiiloyed in n. tting proiwr en belongii.'? irers, are ap- iince. I'iglit keeper n the lessons from etails of the no longer lie They have Blicveil to 1)8 hanical lamp h.mal(e<'> and of u movable e^9 li(?l't- ,bttt tlie fears of the single ', yet, should guaranty bo s it would be , three or four iparate pump, t four lami's. if desired, be the additional annum to the iricnce in nU- any one coun- stntions, the favor. Kv<«5' ,rg M in Groat BrlUIn, etc. Such, however, In not the cue In the United State! | and In nial(in(( the comparison of coit, they have deemed it best to allow the salnr}' of an u- •iitant keeper, and the additiona* cost of hia dwelling- nvms. In making com))arative estimate* of the ex- panse of the lent and reOecto' ,(hts ; but in compar- ing the actual annual expenae of lights per lamp In thia and in foreign countries, no credit was given to the foreign light for having additional ke' era, and no charge made to our lights for deficiency of keepera. The Congressional Committee on Commerce aay : " It la not believed that dioptric liglita of the firat order ran be required at any point* except a few, and thoae the moat important outer aea-statlona. The ru- murka hereinafter mado in regard to the compurative cllicienoy and economy of Krcucli and American lights, and tlie letter of the Auditor, may suggest doubts of the propriety iif using any of the first -rder," Flmt order lights are, if poaalble, i lore neceuarj/ on our coatt than on that of any other country, and the Board can not, therefore, conceive tL.'a< good reaton could be ffiven for not introducing them. It Is true, we have nojirtt order lightt at preteni, but nmny are claimed to be of that cIom, fr/iilr ,' / are no belter than third- dau ones. It is deni ,iisi .ted elsewhere in this re- port, that the firtt o> x r lentet are abt utely neeeuary ; anil it is beyond question true, that no combination of the reJUctort can produce ajirtt order light equal in pover to afir$l order lent. Again, tho committee aay : " In arranging lights, useful effect and expenae aiiould be looked at in cue view. An outer or sea- coast light ahould have a ' purtee' or reach of light sullicleiit to give the approaching vessel, in all weath- ers, timely notice of danger. Any expense in fitting up lights to produce more effect is useless. A light extending its limit of visibility to tho distance of 25 miles, is as efficient and useful aa one of greater range. The mariner sees it in ample time to shape his course free from all dlfBculty." Tho Board concur in theso opinions, J3ut our lights are not of that character. The object of a light is to warn the ni^vigator of some hidden danger, or of hia ajiproacli to land, and to guide him clear of that danger on his way, or into hia dea- tbied port. It therefore becomes necessary to regu- late the power and range of a light, solely with refer- e'jce to these primary objects. If a light is placed on a " clear coast" merely to warn the mariner of his ap- proach or proximity to a lee-shore, or of his danger of running hia veasel on it at night, a power and range must be given with reference to the gradual or irrcgu- br soundings in approaching the danger. If it is in- tended to aerve as u guide around a dangerous point or shoal, then it becomes necessary tu give it such a range aa will Inaure safety to the vessel outside of these dangers under every circumstance ; such, for example, as a sudden storm, or a continued gale blow- ing on shore for many days. There are many points along the coast of the United States, with dangerous shoals extending many miles from them. To guide vessels clear of these dangers, lights of the greatest power and range are indispensa- ble. Take aa example the Nantucket Shoals, those between Bamegat and Cape May, off Absecum, and those off Capes Hatteras, Lookout, Fear, Remain, etc. The shoals off Cape Fear extend 20 nautical miles from the present light, which can only be seen under favor- able circumstances about 12 miles. The necessity for first order lights at all points where sea-coast lights arc required, is therefore indisputable. None of the lights named above have a sufficient range to warrant the mariner in running boldly for them. The lights on the Bahama banks are vaatly auperior to those on tho Florida coast. The idea that our lights are injured by the haze, miits, etc., etc., arising from the proximity of our southern coaat to the Gulf Stream, is therefore trroneoua. That there is nothing in the atmosphere along oar coaat calculated to affect the brilliancy and power of good lightii, which doea not exist on the coasts of England, Ireland, Scotland, France, Holland, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, etc., etc., la abundantly proved by th" ubaervations of intelligent inillviduala, who are acute oliaarvera of meteorological phenomena, and who have had their attention drawn to this par- ticular aul>Ject iii consequence of the great Inferiority of our lights, compared to those of the rest of the mar- itime worbl. The proper e'evation tu be given to flrat-clasa l.,(hta, U a suliject closily allied to, and in some degrei de- pendent upon, th.' general atate of the atmosphere in the vicinity of the particular liglits. Observation by i \teiligent professional persons, will always enable the 'ight-iiouse engineer to act under- standingly and deoii'o correctly in all H|iecial cases of this kind. Aa a general rule, it is considered by aide light- house engineer! in Ki rope, that on coasts where fog« prevail, a light shouM not have a greater elevation than 200 feet above the mean sea-level; but under other circumstances .iiy elevation, if desirable to afford a greater range to the light, may be given, which is not above tho egion of clouc' >. For a list of the pri icipal British lights, showing the height of tower and elevation above sea-level, see the last part of this art! de. No light dues are cha ged upon shipping In France, oa In Great Britain, Holl.nd, Denmark, Norwa;*, and Sweden, etc., but the whoU eetablishmeut is provided for as In the United States and Kussia. Tlie main- tenance of the light-house buildings is confided to the departmental or local engineers, and the expenses are defrayed from funds appropriated for the service of the department of public works. United States, Light-house System in Me.— The foUow- ng account of the condition of the liaht-housea in the United States, and the proposed changes to be made in the light-liouae system. Is extracted f^om tho Keport of the Light-house Board, made in 1851. "Tho subject of light-liouse illumination and Im- provement, although one of occasional discussion In Congress and in certain circles within the last 12 or 15 years, has not occupied the public mind to any great extent in this country, while in Europe generally, but more especially in France, England, Scotland, and Ireland, the ablest and most distinguished statesmen, philosophers, and philanthropists have devoted them- selves for the last 25 or 30 years to this subject, in en- deavoring to apply practically the aids which science and tlie mechanic arts have developed. Experimenta to ascertain the truthful practical tests of the relative useful and economical values of illuminating appa- ratus, combustibles, aud their accessories, in the most minute detail, have been made by Fresnel, Faraday, Stevenson, and other distinguished individuals; the results of their investigations have been published to the world, and their conclusions have served for the formation of a sy.stcm for light-houae illumination, ap- proximating to perfection. Legislation, too, has taken a prominent part in this important branch of the public service in Europe. In 1825 the French government adopted definitely the Fresnel system of illumination on the coasts of France, and took, aa the basis of their future light-house establishment, the programme pro- posed by the Board organized for the purpose, at the head of which was Admiral Rosael of tho French navy. "About this time the subject, which Sir Uavld Brewster had foreshadowed in 1811, was revived in England and Scotland, through Colonel Colby of the Royal Engineers, and Mr. Stevenson the engineer to tho Northern Lights, and the distinguiihed architect of the Bell-Rock tower. However, no important step was taken on tho English side of the Channel to introduce tha Fresnel apparatus imtil after a more careful and rigid 12.14 LIG •Xkmlnatlon had bean mild* )>y th« llf(hl'hauM «n- ginmr of ScntUnil, anil aftrr trlutx of riiiii|iaratlve UMfulncM and economy with that anil the rpflector ap- fiarutiin at the tnchkelth itHtlnn. In IMJM, a new HipiilKo waa given to the Hulijevt of linprnvement lii llKht-hDiine lllumlnatlim hy ltle machinery for converting •ucli fixed floating llghta as wore neceaaar> Into re- volving ones. "Although the lens met with much favor In En- gland, and has heen gradually getting into use, until nearl \ one half the sea-ciHiat lightK have t)«en changeil •ince 18:17, ntill Scotland has introduced a larger num- ber, in proportion to extent of coast, tlian the Trinity House corporation. Notwithstanding these decided Improvements In the llglita of (J rent Ilritiiln, another •elect ciinmilitae on light-houses was raised hy th^ House of Commona In \H46 ; and of the henetits arising from thla last report have heen the Intrmluctlon of a large numlier of lens apparatus, not only In (Jreat Britain hut also Into many of the colonies, and the ault- •tltutlim of the colza or ropc-soed oil In nearly every llght-liciuso in the kingdom. In canse(|uenco of its su- periority and economy compared to the liest »|)enn oil. Improvements In illuminating apparatus and construc- tion, ventilation, coml)Ustihlos, etc., Iiavo made rapid progress In light-house engineering In Kuropo j while in this country no attempt has Ijecn made to Improve the lights, with the exception of the act of (Congress approved July 7,^H38, and which was the result of the Teconimendation of the committee ou commerce In the Senate, as follows : " ' Skc. i. And by directed to cause two seta of dioptric or lenticular appararns— one of the flrat, the other of the second class — and also one set, if h» deem it expedient, of the reflector appa- ratus, all of the most Improved kinds, to be imported, and cause the said several sets to bo set up, and their merits as compared with the apparatus In use, to lie tested by full and satlsfactorj- experiments.' Under iku authority, a lens apparatus was placed in each of /the towers at the highlands of Navesink, and 14 out of rthe 15 reflectors were placed in the lioston light-house. , If ' the said several sets' were ' set up' and ' their mer- ;it|, as compared with the apparatus in use, tested by full and satisfactory experiment,' in confomlty to the act, the results of those experiments have not been made known. With this exception, and the authority of Congress 'to test Mr. Isherwood's plan of dlscrimi- natiag one light from another, and of determining the dUtaiiee of a vessel from a light,' which resulted in placing a seoond order lens in the tower at Sankaty Head, Nantucket, and the lights authorized by law to be constructed under the direction of tde Topographical Bureau (Brandywlne .Shoal, Parysford Reef, and Sand Key), no steps have lieen taken to keep pace in light- bouse improvements in this country with those of France and Groat Britain, " The twurd, after examining with a patience and a zeal which they believe this important branch of the public service to demand, the dilTercnt points to which their attention was-speeiully called by the instructions of the Department, have arrived at the following con- clusions, which they fuel assured will be found to be fully sustained by the detailed data in this report, and Its appendix, upon which they ure chiefly based ; " That the light-houses, light-vessels, beacons, and -buoya, and their aecesaories in the United States, are not as efflclant aa the interests of commerce, naviga- tion, and humanity demand i and that they dn nut compare favorably with similar aids to navigation In Kurope In general, but eapeclally with thtsie of Krsnni and Orent Britain, and their dependencies. That the light-house establishment of the ITniteil Ntntcs does not compare favoraldy In economy with those of (ireiit Britain and France. * * * That while the sups, riority of Kuropean lights to those of the llnitmi .'nt visitations for inapecthm and for deliver}' of supplies), render any Just comparimin of them in annual i>x|i2,U00, would not exceed tiW.OOO tof42,0<)0, making an annual saving of (.1 10,000 to (116,000. That In addition to the great Bii|«)riarity in brilliancy, power, and economy iif the lenses, compiirod to the re (lectors, they possess the great advuntiitjc cif duraliiiity to the extent of never requiring to lie re- newed. " The light-house system of the United States hii« grown up from small beginnings — only 8 lights in 17WI, and 65 lights in IH'iO— to the enlarged condition of :i;il lights In 1H51, and witliout those helps from orgaiii/.n- tion of which some other countries have hud lh« ad- vantage. Groat credit Is due to tlie zeal and faltiifiil- ness of tlie present general su|i«rintendent, and to tlic spirit of economy which he has shown. Tho system* of lighting, however, which '25 years ago were in giit- eral use, liavo gradually given way In more impniml onrs — more rfficimt and more economical. The gencnd condition of our lights Is not such as our commence ikiw requires, and not such as the improvements of tlio diiy can supply. In considering the condition of tlie ilil fcrent parts of the system In their order, these (mU will strongly appear, viz. : that waste of light, l>y imperfect apparatus, is waste of oil, niid must lio p^iul for In money. The navigator would be mo-e lienetitcil by a few good and reliable lights than by many imper- fect ones j Indeed, he would prefer no light at all tu a l>ad one. " Clauijicalion ofLighti. — A proper classification nf lights has many and obvious advantages ; in fact, it forma the liasls of the arrangement of liglits in a sys- tem. In England the shore-lights are ciussfd as »<.:- coast, secondar}', river, and harlior-lights. In Fr.incM they are divided Into six orders, according to the Aim of the illuminating app^iratus. The name of tho onlcr of the light In the French syncem suggests Its pur<>iHi', the range, the relative lirilliancy, the size and chaniiti"' of the parts of the Illuminating apparatus, and tli ' particulars of detail. That our own lights have nut been classed, will explain the many anomalies in the number of lamps, the forms of the reflectors, anil llio like. It is an admitted principle, that the degree ef divergency given to a light b}- a reflector for li;j;lit- house puriHises, should depend upon Its intended oli- jects, including range, etc., etc. j and yet no such prin- ciple has lieen applied In our light-houses, and a w:iste of light has been the consequence. Classification i< of little avail without other and mora Important qualities ; but it is nevertheless an essential of a system. Tlio following is an assumed classification of the lights of the United States, accordiiigto their present value and tueful offact, as compared to the lens : 1. One station with a first order flxed and a second i;hi^iiia0i,f. ■ f^^iV^'j^ii^SIIUji. U(i 1385 LIO ordarrcrolvIngUni light. Thia onmblnatlon NiuUn th« Ilghl only «quul to a Mcond nrdvr Ian* light. 3. One fitatlun with a Mcond onler HaahinK light (Icna), ThIa light la not fully cqnal to a aecimil anl«r lena, conatrnrted nn tha moat ■ppn)ve(l plan, In ronaaiiucnce of tha loaa of ll^ht by inotal placvil In the focal plana. 3. One atiitlon with a third order larger model lena light, conatrui'tml on the most approved plan. 4. One station with a rovolvliiR light, '21 2I-lnoh rBrtoct4)r», the nearcnt approximation to a flrat order catoptric light on the coaat ; Inferior to a aecond order lena light. 6. Three atationa with 18 21-Inch rafle^tora (flxad light) | not Iwtter than aecond ordir catoptric, or third order dioptrlo light e. One atatlon with aO 18-incb reAact- ora (two llghi!< In one tower), not li«tter tlun aecond onler catoptri", or third order lens llglit (larger mod- el). 7. Four atationa with IH 16-incli rellei'tora ; about equal to third order lena light (larger model), H. Two atationa with 17 21-Inch reflectora ; almut equal to third order lena light (larger model). 0. Nine atationa, 15 21-Inch reflectora ; not "qual to a third order lena llglit. in. KIght Ktntinn", U il-lnch reflectora j Inferior to third order lens light. 11. Fourteen atationa, 15 16- inch do. 12. Three atationa, 18 lA-lnch do. IB. KIght atttlona, 14 lO-lnch do. 14. Eleven atationa, 18 14- tiuiido. 16. Tliree atationa, 12 21-Inch do. 16. One atatkin, 12 Itl-inch do. 17. Four atationa, 12 16-tnch do. 18. Three atnllona, 11 21-inch do. 10. Twelve ptatlona, 11 16-inch do. 20. Nine atationa, 10 21.inch do. 21. F.ighteen atationa, 10 llj-inch do. 22. Forty atationa, 10 14-inch ilo. 23. Thirty-nine atationa, 8 14- inch do. 24. Twenty-oight atationa, 8 1 1-Inch do. 26. Two atationa, 8 IR-inch do. 20. Two atationa, I) 21-inch do. 27. Eighteen «tntiona, 7 14-Inch >lo. 28. Fourteen •tutiona, G 1 l-lnrh do. 29. Two atiitlona, 2 Ifl-ineh do. 30. Eight atationa, 4 14 and lO-inch do. Ill, Fourteen •tatim thia statement that there i» not a (Irat-claaa light of any description on the whole coast of the United States. The nearoat approximatlona are at the Highlands of Naveaink, composed of a first and second order light, and the revolving reflector light at Mobilo Point, of 21 reflectora. The three next in or- der are Sandy Hook, Cape Ilcnlopen, and Cape Henry, each fitted with 18 21-inch reflectors, and in towers of tt good elevation. The Boaton harbor light, fitted with 14 21-Inch English reflectors, proluibly now stands next on this list, although the apparatus is much worn, and has not had the care and attention it deserved. There are 236 fixed lights, 80 revolving lights, 2 fixed and revolving lights, 18 double lights, 2 triple lights. ''Average number of lamps per liglit-honse, in the Untied States, is now 9J ; in England (general coast), 13; in Scotland (do.), 17j! in Ireland (do.). 20; in Ireland harbor, 7|. The 41 light- vessels of the United Alataa are flttad wlthoat lampa (In tha nrdlaar}- a» captation uf tha tenn), and without rofleetora. Tha llghta are conaequently aeen at very abort diatanoaa, anij do Dot fully auliaarve tha ulijecta for which thay wara autli.>rlMd° liy Ccmgreaa. Argand lampa, with large parabolic reflectora, are amployed in (Iraat Urit- ain in light-vraaela. The Admiralty list uf Trinity llouie lighta for 1HI», showa that there wara at that time aeven floating ilgliti fitted with revolving appura* tua, lielonging to that corporation. " Vittimiivt CAanu'tera,— The diatlnctlva oharacten of the lighta of the United Htatoa, are;— lat, fixed llghta; 2d, revolving lighta; Bd, doulile llghta, or lighta In two towera ; 4th, llghta In three towers ; 6th, colored llghta. DiafinctlonH have lieen employed at 10 atationa frum two fixed lights, and from one Axed light, and one rovolvin.; light ; ami in three towari with two lighta, one above the other. Thero la but one triple light on the coast of the United Htutes, The Iwacons for ranges are not, of courae. Included la theae numl>era. Double and triple llghta are among the moct waateful modes of diatinction, and, it may b« added, the leuat eflraillve. Very little attention hoa been paid to distinguishing iiglita In the United Stntea. At points along tlio eastern coaat, many fixed lighta are seen at the same moment, without the means ot knowing any of them. The pro|iortian of revolving to fixed llghta on the entire couat, is 1 to 0-2, Tha proportion of all niodea of diatinction, Including mul- tiple and colored lights, is 1 to 6'2. " On the coaat of Maine there are 84 light-atationa ; of which numlior, 8 arc revolving, 1 two-towcra fixed and revolving, 1 two-towcra fixed llgiita, and the re- maining 29 are all fixed lights. In Now Ilampsbira there are 8 light-stations : 1 fixed, 1 revolving red and white, and 1 fixed, with 2 lighta in 1 tower. In Hai- sachusetta there uro 42 light-stations ; of which 6 are revolving, 11 fixed and revolving, 1 lena, floahing, 8 doulila fixed, 1 tripln, und the remaining 26 are fixed white ligiits. In Itliode Island there are stations ; 2 are revolving, ami 7 are fixed lighta. In Connecti- cut thero are 11 atationa ; 2 are revolving, and 9 fi.xed lighta. In Now York there are 41 light-stations; 4 are revolving, and 87 fixed lights. In New Jersey thero are 10 light stations ; 1 revolving, 1 fixed and revolving, 1 rod, und 7 fixed lights. In Pennsylva- nia tliere are 4 light-stations, und all fixcil llglita. In Delaware thero are 8 light-stations, ii all tha lights are fixed. The one on the breakwiit la called a rod and w hite light, by the keeper ; but as the light can not l>o aenn tiirough the dark red ehield-like ahadea, the white part only Is seen. In Maryland there are 1 1 ilght-stationa; 1 double fixed, and 13 sin- gle fixed lights. In Virginia tliere are 8 light-sta- tions; 2 are revolving, and G aru fixed lights. In North Carolina there are 11 light stations: 2 are re- volving, 2 douliIc fixed lights, and 7 fixed lights. In South Carolina I' I're are o light-stations ; 1 revolving, 2 double fixed li^'ht-l>eacons, and 2 fixed lights. In Georgia there uro a liglit-stations ; 2 revolving, 1 two fixed beacons, and G fixed lights. In Florida there are 12 light-stations ; 6 revolving, and 6 fixed ; one of the latter with red shades. In Alabama there are 8 light-stations ; 1 revolving, and 2 fixed lights. In Mississippi there iir° 4 light-stationa, and all fixed lighta. In Louisiiuia there are M light-stations; 8 revolving, 1 witii two liglits in one tjwer, 1 red liglit, and tho remaining 9 are all fixed lights. Of the re- maining 49 lights, on'., Iico are revolving. " The foregoing liglits are exclusive of the 42 light- vessels distriliuted along the coast, fonning an im- portant port of the light system, all of which ore fixed lights. From the Highlands of Naveaink to the fixed light on Dry Tortugas, a distance of upward of 1800 miles by the coast, there are only 3 prominent revolv ing lighta ; all the rest being single fixed ligbti. T'lit revolving lighta at Cape Cbarloa, at Ocracokc, Sapelo, LIO laaa LIO ■ad AmalU Ul*nd, sr* ant IncluiliiH in tbU ntlnul*, Imcsum Ihny an ralniir llghia, anil no': Han, ticppl liy vanMlii hounil liilii port' naar thilr location, lloily'a Ulanil la to tiadty plai-oil, anrtian of revolving to Axed lighta li 1 to 1.2. or 40 aea-coii t lighta, HI ara fixed white, 10 revolving, i rxvidving und lixed, II red fixed, and 1 (Ixiible flxod light; that la, one half are fixed, and tlie I'niiiitlning half are revolving, eti'. The Hcotch have 11 fixed white ; i revolving red and white i 4 revolv- ing, thowing lirlghtnat every mlnutu j 4 revulviug, and ahowing white lighta every two nilnutea ; 'i ilnulile fixed lighta ; 2 tiaahing once In every Ave aouoiiil < | 4 intermittent iighia, hrightoat ttate once In two nUn- utea j 2 Axed anil red | 1 double, revolving at the lanie Inatunt ; malting only 11 Axed lighta, out of lia, on the entire coaat of Scotland. In Irelanil there are Ave diatinctlona <'niployed : fl"-d white. Axed red, rovolv- Ing white, revolving red uiid white, and intennittiiot lighU. Ur 211 aeo-coaat lighta, 11 are Axed white, 7 revolving, 1 Axed red, and 1 Axed and revolving. " In France there are nine principui umliinutlona of lighta, poaaoaaing dislinctivo charucteriatica, viz.: 1. Fiaahea whicli aiicceed each otiirr every minute. 2. Flnahea which auccacd eucii otiier every half min- ute. 8. Fluabea aiternata red and white. 4. Fixed lighta, varied liy fluxhea every 4 ndnutea. 6. Fixed lighta, varied liy Haahea ovor\' 8 minutei. 6. Fixed llglita, varied by fhuhea ovury 2 minulea. 7. FIxcmI wliite lighta, vurimi by red flualiea more or leaa fre- quently. 8. Fixed lights. !). Doulile Axe, and which has been ateadily adhered to aince, of placing flrat order aoa-coaat lighta witliin the diatatice of 42 nautical milea of each other, there can be no great dIfBculty in obtaining a auflicient ' number of very niuriied diatlnctions for aeo-cooat lighta. The present advanced and progreasive state *' of nautical icienco ii also brought in to the aid aea fur wiiiili tki>y uru ilu- aigneil. They are not pravldiid witli iiioiirliiga aiii li ua they require, and there la nut auOicleut attrntlmi \iM to plaining them in their |iru|ier poaltlona. Tlie ilglita. In cunaaquenca of the Inferior Ianipa wilhoul rrjfndini, ara uf vary little use to tlie navigator. The iiiufr- tainty of finding the llght-veaaela in thnir propor |Hiai- tiona, by navigatora wlio have been acverui iiiuntlis ulmeiit fnim the country, pruducca a gencrul ilialriiit, wliii'li daatroya all reliance on them. " The filiating lighta of F^ngiand and Ireland ure built ii|iuii tlia bast modela; ara of auflicient tunnuga to be safe at tha pointa fur which they were liuilt; are ciinatructed in tha moat auliatantial niiiiiniir— of woml generally, but in aonie caaea of Iron ; uru iiiourid witii heavy anchors and chains, and lung acupcH. Thiiae placed to mark rhannela, aa tliu Nurtli-Wcnt light-vnssel at Llver|iool, are moored with long aiMipua of cable to a swivel, and liuve In, so that in swinging they do not change their iHiaittuns perceptibly. TIiimu lluiifiiig lighta are placed in the moat expiiaeii poaitiims ill llui Iriab or Ut, Oeorge'a Cliunnul, in tlio llritiitli (liuiinel. North Sea, and In the most ex|Hi«i'd p<>.>ition. The system of relief to tiio keepera and crews la an admiiabie one ; unu tliut iii- aurea a ftiitliful [lorfiinniince of tlio duties intrusted tu tiiKin, to the great advantage of navigatora. "The Fjiglish Aoating llglits aro Atted witii Argaiid lumps und parabolic reflectors — fixed, revolving, und double liglits. Tliey arc diatinguisiicd by day by cages of lioop-iron, balls, conos, flaga, etc., etc. Tlio name and number of each light-vessel are puintcd in large letters and figures conaplcuoualy on tlio Mas aud aterii. These lights from tiie superior apparatus employed ((them, and the great care and attention of ina|iections and superintendence, under tiie most rigid instructions in detail (.which are printed in large type, and hung in frames in the upurtmeiita), are very little inferior to the same class of reflector lights, witli equui elevations, on shore. Many of them can lio seen from the deck of a merchant vessel 12 to 14 miles, wiiilo those in tliU country can only be seen from il to 7 miles. Ilofractors havo been made liy Mr. Lctour- neau, of Paris, for light- vessels, which can not fail to lie productive of much lienuAt, and whicii aro, no doubt, destined to render floating lighta much niuro useful to the navigator than thoy have liitherto been, even in F^ngland, whore tiie best reflecting apparatus has been employed for many years. " AfuJf. of atcertaining Vlacfi nf JJ(/hl-Jfoutes,~'So systematic mode of determining where there should bo a light-house, or lx>at, seems to have been followed for any period of years, and hence the lights are so numer- ous on some parts of the coast as to be inconvenient, and on other parts are so few as not to supply, even mockraleli/, the demands of navigation. The princi- ple adopted by the French commissioner uf light- houses for pUcing lights ou the coast of France, will be found stated in another part of this report : steadi- ly adhered to, it has prevented the wasteful multipli- cation of lights, and has provided, gradually, those really necessary for facilitating navigation. "Platu/or UgU-Umtu, Light- VuttU, ate.— No an- Cll tl Ufl 1287 LIG Unutlc mathojt itp|ieiir Ui htva li«*n nmnrtcd to in m> Clin pUii* for ll|(lit-hi, llKht->i"*i>, IlKhtlnK nppn- nitua anil iilhxr «i'i'i-i«irUii, In tlm rnltnl Mlutna. Thn |ir*|iitr*tli>n of plmm for ll)(lil-liiiuiiiil tba pnipiiratlun of pUnii, (tc,, upon thfl iiffliora of thi* rorpii of to|ioKr«plii< nl anninmra. Thn iinoullail-for viirlvty anil tlie Im-nnvenlanra anil III- .iiliiptiitlnn of th« •tnii'tiiraa vlaltml !>}■ tha lloani, ihow how miK'li thfl Intarvimtlon of knnwli>ilK* I* raqiilmd. In (IUeiiaaa of IJKhtlnK. MIrrora liiidly inndp, iiiiikillfully iirriinK«alntinK, otp., > nae a waatn " light. Tho projier arriingemcnt of tho.vi mattera la tnu atudy and oii'iipiition of ii profvaalnn. The nnglnrt nf tho proper i-omlltlona la waHteAil. Plana of llght- houaea of difTi-rcnt i'hi«.ieN. with niodilleationa adapted to dinori'lit localltlea, would promote economy hy tho freipicMt repetition of th< imo piocea, whirh in :■ work, brick-work, lron-c;i iIiik, carpcnter'a-work 0" iler'a-work, and the like, la productive alwiiv of a decided economy. The Important aiilijpct oi" ..iarm ai||niila liaa not received tlio attention which It do- aurvea. In the Engllah llght-housea tlin ){"")( I" i»"'d liiatcad of tho IjoII, to give algnala in cnau of foga, and no iittvinpt appoura to have been miiilc in thia country to comparu tho viiliio of the two kiiidn of alarm aig- iiala. The fog-wliiatle. Introduced by Mr. Daboll nnil recommended by tho Hoard, haa been found to bo far niuro eillcleiit than the bell. Thn Hoard had ninple moans of forming correct concluaiona iia to the ndatlvc merlta of the two niodea of warning tho nmrlnor in fogs, and found no difflculty in deciding in fuvorof tho wlil»tle for iioaitlona whore It can bo put up. ' " Mr. Alexander Oordon, civil engineer, of Ixindon, proposed to tho aolect committee of tlie House of Com- muna on Ught-houaea, in 1HI5, that the gong employed on lioard of light-veaaela ahould bo aujieraedod by tho uae of ahrlU scream or wh '«tlo, such na tho railway whiatlo, giving It sound by a ! p!! ;■'», and having tho sound directed around the b" Ui-<; r.y reflectora, similar to those of Uordier JIarcet Sol i<)i1ectlng light. Tlio reflection of tho sound of tlio air-whiatio of Mr. Paboll is believed to be practicable !>}' the means suggested by Mr. Gordon ; at any rate, tho Importance of tha auli- jcct warrants the sr^tli expenditure which would be required to test It exjierlmeiitally. Tho discharge of heavy guns ba'> bien recommomlod, and would be effective if there wore sufflclent force at tho light- houses ».o load and fire them. They would always bo expensive, however, every discharge of a 24-pounder gun costing obout $1. The fog-ticUs examined by tho United States' Board wero not placed so aa to prixlnce the Iwst effect. That ot Boston harbor was inclosed in a frame building, the sides of which effectually dead- ened tho sound In two directions. It Is time that this subject received full and careful investigation by ex- periments under the direction of scientitlc men. He- lides this class of nignals, those intended to guide vessels entering into larred harbors, when (ft-om heavy weather or other causes) pilots can not be had, should be carefully systematized. The system should lie adopted of Captain Fenoux, of the French navy, depending upon the positions of a movable triangle flxed to a pole or mast, or to a light-house ; and that of Lieutenant John RodK*ra, ITgltad Htataa' navy, by a Hag, to h« uwA In a Imiit nr on ahor*. Hnrf-Uiata and llfn-iHuila alinuld be fnmlahml to certain llghl-liuuaa itntlona, and thn meiina nf readily providing cntwa fur tham In timo of n««d, bn fumlalied. Thoy ahonid Iw planned by, and ciinalriictml uiiilar tha dlrmtlon of, cuinintant |Mraiina, who wonlil atudy all tba dxtalla of their uan, and make It certain that wlwn requlmd they could be UuiicIkhI and effectively manneil. The truatees of the Uvor piHil Dock Company (Kngland) have, umler tha adiiil- rahie management of their vary able marine aurva) oi of that |»irl, a moat parfact ayatem for Ihii relief nf'tio' ahlpwrecked. "There are nine llfa-boata atutioiuHl at different pointa around the bay and |Hirt of Liverpool. The lioata are cnnatructed on the moat approved priuclpiea ; kapt I'U carrlagoa in tha lioat-lioiiaea near tha ahorn. and hnraaa proviiled to eimlila them to pnicaed to the moat f Ivantag'oua ap.it for launching. A gun ia placed ut each Btallon to auminon lliii crew, U-aidea • latreaa Haga placed at each ilght-hiiua<>, ilght-ahip, and telegrapli atiition. Thn arrniigement* are ao pee> fact that In many iiiatancea the lifu-lHiat haa uion manned, biunciwl, and on her way to the wreck In 17 or IN mini'tna from'e time the diatreaa signal woa inailn. I Ufe-lioata iro maiiiird liy pickod boatmen ofUverp ' ind picked liahermenabing thn coast, who realilr ■'." t i boat statlona, and who arc ruiiilliar with the li I', .a awoahwaya, tides and ciirrontn, in l,iver|Hiol Hay. I'liB whole nf tl' • iHiatiiicn are kept on constant and perinaii'int pay, i urn regiibirly mustered ami oxerdaed once a i>i. .; ,, and no ex|>en»« has lieen pared In rendtrlng tlie boats, their ixpiipmonta ami crows, as perfect as [maailile. Tiie Liverpool arrange- inenta are well worthy of imitation for many parts of our dangerous coaat (ea|ie<'laUy during the winter iiiimths). Tho necoasity can not too alroiigiy be urged for tho employment of more etlicioiit ineana than now exist at the pointa whero life-lioats liave been author- ized by law to lin placed. " l.iiiht-Hiuil» and their Atr^tiorii-f. — Tho llrat co.iut propriety, bu sulistitutcd. Tho ex|ierimont has been tried in Europe with perfect success. The advantages of iron over wood for the construction of light-vessels are self-evident. Uura- blllty, buoyancy, and economy of first coat, are the ad- vantages, without any conceivable disadvantages that could arise from their introduction. " The inferiority of those vessels seen by the Board, tho largo sums appropriated annually for their support and repair, and the small amount of usefulness arising from their employment, warrant the Board In recom- mending a lietter class of vessels ; to be built of iron, and filled with the best parabolic rullectors and Argand lamps, similar to the north-west light-ship at Liver- pool and those generally employed by tho Trinity House Board and Irish Board. Proper distinguishing LIO 1238 ■'■tr Lia miiriM by day, m w«U m tin distinctions of the lights at nlKht, •hiiuM not b« ncgiecttd, and the Board ran not lin Ixitter tlisn raeominend the Liverpool and other KnKllnh llght-vniiolii as proper models, in every respect wrurtby nf Imltntlim. There are many points on our M>ntb«m Mast, especially In the sound? and Inys, whsm xmall light-vessels are now placed, at which iicniw>pll« foundations might be substituted with great advantag* to the navigator, and In an economical point of vlaw. Mtructures on scfew-piles costing in the ag- IfreKMta muirh less than the light-boats, and affording a nu»m powerfnl and efficient light, would conduce greatly to the ofllcienry and economy of tiiis branch of tb* lighting service of the United ^>ate8. The appa- ratlM of tha light-vessels of this countrj' ir so far inferior that moat Intelligent and disinterested persons engaged In eommanta and navigation pronounce them useless, t'be example nf the Trinity House corporation, Liver- IHHil lights entMhllshments, etc., etc., in fitting up their iight-shliHiwIthVl-lnch pambolio reflectors and Argand •aitipil and burners, tins not ))cen followed in this coun- try. While the light-vessels of this counti}' are com- paratively nrelnss, those of Great liritain xcw in qany instances ci|ua1, and In all nearly so, to those placed in t.«m their moorings in En- gland, and are never takon away from their positions without previously placinf( a substitute. This branch 'if the lighting service of the country is probably the most defectlvi!, I'raperiy mi/delow, built, and moored, light-vessels, fitted with the best apparatus, and placed iindor the charge of compete)-, masters, v. ith ample I'rnws, governed by the most rigid rules and regulo- tbms, and subjected to frequent visitation and inspec- tbm, can alone subserve the great interests of naviga- tion, in this branch of the llgliting service. " Mnnnrr ami frequency nf Innpertinn — Ptrtont by mhom mad*, — All ex|ierience sliows that frequent in- N|w*,'tions of liglit-liouscs arc essential to maintaining •n elHcltint system. Those inspections, by competent '. jmons (engineers of the corps of Fonts et Chaustes) are rfarefdily provided for In France, by members of the Trinity lioiard In England, and liy the eng:<".. i of local aotabllshments, such as that of the Port and Bay of l posed by the Board, to produce these desiralilo and beneficial results. Jietter have/ewer lights and effective than many without efficiency. In the district of New York the collector employs an assistant, who is charged with the care of the lights, beacons, buoys, etc., nnd who has under his charge a small vessel for furnishing supplies, visiting the lights, replacing buoys when displaced, and the like. The zeal of this gentleman lias been survicable In the management of this district ; and were.it guided by good Instructions, and sustained by occasional visits of a competent general inspector, would produce still better results. "PoiitioM ofBeacont, Buoyt, etc. — As a general rnlo, only seamen familiar with hydrography, inj pilots, know what beacons, buoys, and sea-marks are required, and where and how they should be placed. The beacons, buoys, and sea-marks which would sufHce for pilots, with their accurate knowledge of natural and artlflcial objects available for safe navigation, are not always sufficient for mariners generally. Thoir object is nbt to dispense with the services of the pilot, but to iumish him with marks, etc., to provide for cases of emergency, when the vessel must enter, and may not be provided with a pilot. Small coasting vessels; carrying freights which do not pay well, ran not afford to pay pilotage. The necessity for the beacons, buoys, and sea-marks rccentl}' and at present provided for liy law, is inquired into and reported upon by the superintendent of the coast survey, on the eXK. 'nation of officers of the work, and by the chief of tho Topographical Bureau. They are then usuully placed by pilots or se.imen, but sometimes by the officers of the coast survey. When required to be removed on account of ice, or for repairs, or when displaced, they urn replaced by contract by the year, under the authority of the local superintendent. The duty of replacing buoys driven from their moorings is neither superintended nor executed in a proper man- ner. Tiie buoys are usually placed by pilots (who contract to perform the service) by compass bearings, ranges, or by guess ; and it has Ijeen remarked by tlic surveyors, that in many cases their places are so much changed in different years as to produce error, and even danger. The coast survey officers place thct- by the known positions of three suitable oiijects on shore — a method known as the three-pomt problem, measuring the angles with a sextant. This is the true mode of placing them ; and no person should be per- mitted to put them down who is not competent to use that instrument. When placed, it is indispensalde that their position should lie verified l>y a competent officer, that he should report In relation to them to the local or general superintendent, and that he should inspect their positions fh>m time to time, and always when, by accident or design, they have liecn moved. " Coloring and tfumhrini) Buoys. — Until the passage of the recent law (1850), in regard to coloring buoys, the local superintendents changed the colors at pleasure, often introducing the utmost confusion. Xo notice of such change being given to the general superintend- ent, no changes could lie made in the cliarts of tlic coast, and the worst consequence might have resulted. Wise legisUtion has checked this ; but it is still true, that the eramiuution of positions, colors, and num- bers, sliould be made by competent inspectors, and reported to the Department. Plain ns are tho direc- tions of the law in regard to coloring and numbering buoys, there hi known one important port in which the provisions of the law have been comiili'tely misunder- stood, so that a navigator running liy the buoys must put his vessel, If of considerable draught, on the bar. " Sufficient caro has not been bestowed upon the bnoyo generally, under tho law of 1850. The paint used for coloring has not Iwen, in any single Instance that the Board has seen, of the best quality. To cony LIG 1239 Lia oat the design of the act of Congreu, the red especUlly should be of tae beat quality of red lead, the bUok of the glossiest, aud the white of the purest white. Spanish brown and dirty black are difficult to distin- guish from eacli other. Such may Im seen almost everywhere ilong our entire coast. The spar-buoys, being the most common in this country, are inefficient ; diflicuit to give easily distinguished marks or num- bers, and from their peculiar shape, size, and improper mooring, are too often at such an angle with the sur- face of tlie water as to render them exceedingly diffi- cult to be seen. Can and nun-buoys are employed, but not to a great extent, and those used are much too small. The boat-1)uoys, used chiefly on the east- ern coast are very inefficient, in some of the rivers, barrel-buoys, equal in capacity to about a sixty-gallon cask, are employed. Iron hui vs have lieen authorized, by special act of Congress, for the Columbia Kiver, rivers in Texas, Hatteras Shoals, etc, The m()orings of buoys 'r. the United States are, as a general rule, very defective. The weight of the blodis of granite, or sinkers of iron, and size of chains, are not sufficient. Tor want of proper inspection, buoys frequently sink at their moorings, and part their chains. Too much cure can no he taken to guard against those casual- ties, especially in important channels: in rivers and on sand-bars, lodgments of this kind may destroy a valuable channel. The important duty of raising and replacing buoys should not he left to the discretion of contractors. The kind of buoys required, theSr ma- terial, etc, should all be provided for l>y comftetent persons. In regard to distinguishing them, the Board will elsewhere make further remarks. The numbers, as now placed upon the buoys, are verj' ineffective. The law in regard to coloring and numbering them, however, is deemed all-sufficient, " Notice to Mariners in regard to Changet. — This is a subject which, in the opinion of the Board, requires more attention than has ever been given to it in this country. It is not sufficient to publish changes in a local newspaper. They should be pulilished, as far in advance of the proposed change as possible, in all the loading commercial newspapers, nautical periodicals, and by placards in large type, with conspicuous head- ings, and distributed at home and abroad, at the cus- tom-houses, and offices of the differest consulates. In making changes, they should take place at the precise time designated, and nothing should prevent the per- fect fulfillment of the originally pul)lished design. Changes of lights in light-houses, removal or placing of light-vessels, should never take place with less than six months' notice : a year's notice would l>e better. Should a light-vessel break adrift, although replaced witliin a few days, a notice of 1)oth facts should ap- pear together in the same papers, and on the same placards, as the navigator might otherwise see the no- tice of the breaking adrift, and not the other, and there- by be deceived. This is one of the most important branches of the lighting service, and one that can never \m perfectly systematized without a corps of com- petent and efficient local inspectors. In this respect the Trinity House, Northern Lights, Irish Board, Liv- erpool Dock Trustees, etc, are good models. Notices of proposed changes of lights, buoys, beacons, and of new lights, are to tie found in every part of the glol>e, and always placed whore the navigator is obliged to go before leaving port — the clearance office, and at the office of the consul of his country. The admirable system followed by those independent beards, in all the minute details of the service, for the benefit of commerce and navigation, can not be too highly com- mended. Those who have been around the world, and visited nearly every principal port it conCaina, never saw a notice to marim-rs relating to an American light, except l>y chance, in some comer of a newspa- per, and that proluibly a merely local one, "Changei arising flrom casualties should bo pub- lished widely in the manner presoribad, mA it tiM same time reported by the local insiwctor to tb« [>•• partment. No changes should be made axoapt on tiM authority of the Department, which should itutbortw at least six months' notice, in all cases of Ugbt*> TIm looseness of tlie system in this country baretufur* In these respects is proved by tlie fact, that «ltlii)U|{b it circular was issued by the general sup8rinteiM)Mn this important, information from the local eu|Mirlill«ii4> ents, for the purpose of arranging a dsscri|)tlvii list uif them. So far only a few returns have Iweii ni»4ii, and some of these not full enough to carry out tlia da* sign, European light-house boards do not ponlim themselves to giving notice to mariners uf pru|iiNHt4 changes, etc., in their own lights, etc, but tlwi.y e»»im those in foreign languages to be translated, nitd IM widely disseminated us tlieir own. The Trinity IIuum) corporation of London causes the nutivas relating to lights, etc, on the French coasts, as well as m iMt own, to be published in the commercial iMjiers in tbi* country, " Relative Economy of Sejiector and l^nt SyiUmi,'^ Now, although the most decided results in favor rif economy are to be expected from the reformation of the minor classes of lights, we do not tlterafura uoU' elude that we should begin with them, beeauue liumaH' ity, and the more general interests of cunuDsriiS, mA the safety of our sliips-of-war, have tlieir claims, Uur ships-of-war, vessels engaged in foreign cumnwtrcs, nil that arrive on our coast ftrom distant vuyagiiit, an more liable to suffer from the inferiority of mt MW> coast lights, or higher class lights, than are our i!oa«t> ers from the deficiencies of the Inferli r clasiwis \ miwI, accordingl}-, it is along our exterior ci. t Ifnu tliat w« find occurring tlio greater number and the must diiOM' trous shipwrecks during the stormy seasons, " The minor lights are usually so muitipllad, and tJM localities inside of tiie general coast line so wall known to the navigators of our bays and rivers, that tliay em not often be at a loss for a secure harbor sumawlMr* It heavy' weather; whereas the sea-coust lights, at tilUMI comparatively few, and even dulicieiit in nuinlMil', and at others complicated by their suparalmnd»nu«i occupy positions full of danger to tlis navigator, it is, therefore, of the first importance to shi|is arriving on the coast from distant voyages, that tlie llgiit whli-'li they first make should be clearly visiliie at tlia urmtMt distance from the luud, and tliut it should lai m dis> tinct in character as not to be confounded with otlMf lights ; and it is not less important that wa should not delay giving to such lights all the perfection tltsy »n capable of receiving ; and having accoiuplisbail th(« purpose with respect to tlie most prominent awl im> |)ortaut, we sliould extend the improvement to tb* lights of inferior classes and of iqinor tmiiortant!*, although by so doing we were to save at tlia auts«t something less than if wo were to begin by rafurminf tlie minor lights, iiccause in the mean time our forelKII commerce and the navy might be suffering to Ml amount far surpassing that which might be saved to the revenue, " Mr, Alan Stevenson 'lys: ' In comparing tba A m4 dioptric and the fixed catoptric apparatus, tlia raawiM may bo summed up under the following lu>ada I " '1. It v. impossible, by means of any pnetk*! Lia 1240 UG combination of parabololdal reflectors, to distribnte round the horizon a zone of light of exactly equal intensity, while this may lie easily effected by diop- tric means in the manner already described. In other words, the qualities required in fixed lights can not be so fully obtained by reflectors as l)y refractors. " ' 2. The average light produced in every azimuth by burning one gallon of oil in Argand lamps with reflectors, is only about one fourth of that produced by burning the same quantity in the dioptric appara- tus, and the annual expenditure is .£140 8s. 8d. less for tlie entire dioptric light than for the catoptric light. " ' 3. The characteristic apiwarance of the fixed re- flecting light in any one azimuth, would not be changeination of para- boloidal reflectors. " ' 6. The inconveniences orising from the uncertainty which attends the use of the mechanical lamp, are not, perhaps so much felt in a fixed as in a revolving light, because the greater simplicity of the apparatus admits of easier access to it, in case of accident. • « . * • * " ' There can be bnt little doubt that the more fully the system of Fresnel is understood, the more cer- tainly will it be preferred to the catoptric system of illuminating light-houses, at least in tliose countries where this important branch of administration is con- ducted with the care and solicitude wliich it deserves. " ' The expense of fitting up a revolving light with twenty-four reflectors, ranged on three faces, may be estimated at £1208, and the annual maintenance, in- cluding the interest of t) '.'•■: i cost of the apparatus, may be calculated at £41.< -ic. .'i. The fitting up of a revolving liglit with eight ici. )->;<, and the diacatoptric accessory apparatus, may be estimated at .£1469, and the annual niaintenancn at X354 lUs. 4d. It therefore follows, that to establish, and afterward maintain, a catoptric light of the kind called revolving white, with a frame of three faces, each equal in power to a face of the dioptric light of Cordouan, an annual outlay of £63 18s. more would l>« required for the reflecting light than for the lens light ; while for a liglit of the kind called revolving red and white, whose frame Lcs four faces, at least 86 reflectors would bo required in order to make the light oven approach an equalit}' to that of Cordouan ; and the catoptric light would, in that case, cost £2*25 mora than the dioptric light.' " Convert these two sums into our currency, and it will tie seen that we have a saving in the first case of $309, and in the second case of (1089 per annum. "The eflTect produced bj- burning an equal quantity of oil in revolving lights in either system, may l)e estimated as follown : In a revolving light, like that of Skerrj'vore, having eight sides, each lighting with its greatest power a horizontal sector of 4°, we have 32° (or units) of the horizon illuminated with the full power of 3200 Argand flames, and consequently an aggregate eflfiect of 102,400 flames produced by burn- ing the oil required for 10 reflectors ; while in a catop- tric apparutu: like that of the old light at Inchkeith, having seven sides r' oni -^fleetor euvh, lighting with its greatest power u. '<■ .■t'n' ■>•' 4° 25', we have nearly 81° (or units) cf ttw Inriy: »n 'Si iminated with the full power of 400 y.y-uit ll»f.-i.^. :.r,d consequently an ag- gregate effect l'i,4'':0 'iuuib.'. .la the result of burning the oil required '' v s^ivnn r^^i<' -tors. Hence the effect of burning the -.•.'.. ■■ ■•'■AatM;. jf oil in revolving lights io either system "iii im ivpresented respectively by 16-7, 12,400^28,348 for the catoptric, contrastey the combustion of a gallon of oil. On the other hand, the power of a oatodioptric light of tho first order, like that lately established at Girdleness, may be estimated thus : The mean effect of tlie light produced by joint effect of both tho dioptric and catttdioptriu parts of a flxed light apparatus, may be valued at 450 Argand flames ; which, multiplied liy 360 degrees, gives an aggregate of 162,000; and if tliis niiantity be divided by 670 (the number of gallons liuniod by th> great lamp in a year) we shall have about 284 Argand flames for tlie effect of tho light produced by the com- bustion of a gallon of oil. It would thus apiMur, that in flxed lights the French apparatus, as lately im- proved, produces as the average efl'ect of the consump- tion of the tome quantity of oil over the whole horizon, LIG 1241 tm apwArd of fonr times the amount of light that is obtained liy the catoptric mode, altbongh in certain directions, opposite the axes of each reflector, the catoptric liglit is fully 60 per centum more powerful than the dioptric light, "But the great superiority of the dioptric method rests chiefly upon its perfect fulflllment of an Import- ant condition required in a fixed light, by distributing the rays equally in every point of the horizon. Henre, the saving for fixed lights in the same amount of oil, etc., appropriated for as before, will lie $91,071 94 ; saving on other articles, $22,226 07 : total saving per annum, $114,198 01. " It may, and probably will t>e urged, that a large portion of this annual saving will bu ab8orl>ed in the wages of additional keepers. In answer to fhat, it may be stated, that in the comparisons of reflecting and refracting systems in Europe, the same number of keepers is required for both, of equal class or order, and therefore the ascertained saving is a net annual gain. " In the United States, as a general rule, but one keeper (there lieing only 14 assistants belonging to an establishment of 301 light-stations, fitted with reflector apparatus) is attached to a light-station. To render the larger, or sea-coast lights efHcient and safe, two keepers should be attached to each station having a single tower, and three to thoso with two towers, whether fitted with reflectors or lenses. " However, as it "may i)e contended, that Inasmuch OS our reflector lights in general have only one keeper, and that the change to tiie lens system would require two to eacli light of the first or second class or orders,' It may not be inappropriate to see how many of the present lights on our coast would be required to be changed, and the increased expense for an additional keeper to each. From the north-eastorn boundarj* to the Rio Grande there are 38 positions which ought to be fitted with the most powerful first order lenses, " There are points iietween some of these first order lights, which ought to lie fitted with second order lens apparatus, making a total of about 60 lights of the first and second orders. An additional keeper for each, at the rate of $300 per annum, will be $16,000, " If this sum be deducted from the total already shown (which, on the contrary, ought to Ihs added to the present expenditures, to render our lights in that department equal to European lights), there will still lie an annual saving of $95,471 70, or $99,198 01, If additional evidence were required to prove so plain a proposition, that the refiector system is more expens- ive than the lens system in the proportion of 3'6 to 1, disregarding the great superiority of the lens system for all the useful purposes of the mariner, It would lie found in the action of the Trinity House corporation, of Deptford Stroud, London ; Northern Lights commis- sioners, of Edinbnrg ; and the Ballast Board, of Dub- lin, Ireland. " In 1886 the first lens apparatus was introduced into Scotland. " In 1837 the first lens waj Introduced into England, under the Trinity House corporation ; and since 1845 the first lens light was lighted in Ireland. " Now (1851) there are very few lights fitted with reflectors In Scotland ; the commissioners having abandoned >.he use of that apparatus, and substituted for it the Eresnel and holophotal svstem of Mr. Thomas Stevenson. The Trinity House (London) has upward of 20 lens lights of the first and second order, besides numerous fourth order harbor lights. Lens lights are also being introduced into Ireland ; the precise number, liowever, now existing there, is not known, as they ate not marked in their printed lists, and no information has yet been received from that board, " It is worthy of remark, that these three light- honse boards of Great Britain and Ireland, are close corporations, deriving their means entirely from light* dues levied upon the shipping of ail nations, including that of their own. They derive v pecuniary advan- tages from the government, ami >ie only under Its general control ; consequently their acts are independ- ent of Psrilamentary legislation, " If these boards had found the recommendations of the select committee of the House of Commons of 1845, to use less expensive apparatus and comliustl- bles in their lights, with a view to the reduction of light dues, had not been based upon sound principles, ° they would have had no inducement to follow them ; for whether the lights are economically kept or not, goohouses, "Notwithstanding the renovations of EnWish, Scotch, and Irish lights, and the erection of new tow- ers, fitted with the lens apparatus, a material redac- tion has lieen made of late years in the light-dues levied in Great Britain upon shipping. This may in some degree be attributed to the increased amount of commerce and navigation, and the more frequent and rapid intercourse between nations, by the aid of steam navigation ; but, it can not fairly be contended that it is wholly due to that cause, "These facts are undoubted, and the deductions from them. It is believed, will, upon the closest scru- tiny, be found to be correct, " Mr, Alan Stevenson says, ' It therefore follows, that, by dioptric means, the consumption of oil neces- sary for betweeen 14 and Ifi roflectors, will produce a light as powerful as that wlii.h would require the oil of 21 reflectors in the catoptric system of Scotland; and, consequently, that there is an excess of oil equal to that consumed by 10 reflectors ; or 400 gallons in the year against tlio Scotch system. But in order fully to compare tl o ndrimy of producing two re- volving lights of ! jun! poxjr, by those two methods, it will be necessir;- to tuk) into the calculation the interest of the fir t outlay in establishing them,' " It is worthy of rn'iiirk that the French were fol- lowed by the Dutch government in introducing lenses into their light-houses, " The subject of Intro '\icing lenses into the Scotch light-houses was brought liefore the commissioners of Nortliem Lights by the Knglneer* of that bod}', at the instance of General Colby, of the Royal Engineers, as early as 1824, The Siotcli commissioners directed their engineer to visit France, and report upon the lights of that countr)-. At the close of the year 1884, the board directed lenses to be imported for the pur- pose of making experiments. These experiments re- sulted in the recommendation that an Important light should be changed from a reflector to a lens apparatus. " it Is believed the powerful and unanswerable ar- guments contained in tho letters of Sir Uavid Brews- ter, in 1833, to the Bell-Rock committee, in favor of lenses, contributed greatly to the early introduction of them into the lights of Scotland, " Notwithstonding the numerous experiments from 1825 to 183-1, made by the Northern Lights commis- sioners to test the relative merits of the two systems, it was not until the latter year that decisive steps were taken to decide the question. * Robert gtevena«o. LIG 1342 LIO " In Ootojer, 18S6, th( nfleotlng ■ppsntiu of the TcrolWng light st Inchkeith was Tpmoved, and dioiH trl" apparatus substituted. " Ho great was the satisfaction which this eliange prodnceil, that another li^ht was Immediately changed tu a lens light. The second lens light erected in Scot- land was at the Isle of Ma; , in Septeml^r, 1686. "The Trinity House. Undon, fitted the Start Point light with a lens apparatus in 1837. " The Tarkish government employed an Kngllsh «n)(ioeer in 1886-7, to make experiments with the Vresnei lenses, Dmmmond's light, etc., to enable it to decide upon the best illuminating apparatus for the Boiphorus flrom the Black Sea. The letter upon this dulijert from William Konry B.wlowj Es.j., yhich wos reaT0- poan States. Onn first, two second, and one third or- dt^r, are the only lenses at present in the United States. " The three first named were procured in obedieiice to special acts of Congress, and the thiiu order was placed on the Brandywine shoal by the Topographical Bureau. " It is understood thnt the two light-towors now in the course of erection at Sand Koy and Carysfort Koef, under tifae direction of the Topo;p'»phical Bureau, are to be fitted with first order lensen. "Mr. Stevenson pays this ra.irited tribute to the distinguished savan whose system is now almost uui- venally aamired and adopted throughout the maritime world ; ' Frrsnel, who is already classed with the greatest of those inventors who extend the boundaries of human knowledge, wil^ thus at the same time re- ceivo a pisce among those benefactors of the specie; who have consecrated their genius to the common good of mankind ; and, wherever maritime intercourse prevails, the solid advantages which his labors havu procured will he felt and acknowledged.' "///HSUfKMum.~Ou a review of this subject, the adop- tion is recommended, as early as ])raclfcablf«, of the lens system instead of that of reflectors, as most etfect- Ive and economical. " It haa been shown that the Fresuel lens is essen- tial for sea or lake-ooast lif^hts of the (rst order ; that for those of the second order, or for secondary or Ijea- eon lights, including the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth oMers, the useful effect of a lens light is from 8-6 to 4 times that of reflector lights of the some class, ar.d that, economicaliy, the reflector lights are 4 times as expensive for oil aloue as the lens lights. " It has been clearly shown, in <1iscussin(; this mat- MT, that if it were possible to convert in a moment all the present reflector lights of the United States into tana lights aa nearly aa possible (though, in almost inrery- instance, they would b^ superior), rf equal or- il 'Tt, the annual saving, for oil and other supplies, vonld be #112,186 87, taking the appropriations of 1861-'62 as the basis of the calculation, with, at the aa*ne time, an increase of 8} to 4 times as much light from each lantern aa at preient. '■ If the estimates for 1862-'68 be taken as a hssin, then the annual saving may bo Increased (20,000, which will make the entire saving for one yem, with all the advantages to be derived from superior lights, $132,185. " Add to this sum $ 10,000, the mean of the value of the lamps and reflectors proposed to be taken from the light-houses, to l>e fitted first with the lens appa- ratus, and which would be required, under any circum- stances of improvement, for the 42 light vessels already existmg, and the sum of (172,186 may be put down as clear profit, with which ti' purchase lens apJMiratus for the first year. " By appropriating this sum, or as much of it as can be economically anJ judicious!;' employed in im- proving the sea-coast lights, thsrc will be an additional gain, at the end of the first year, in the di6ference in the cost of oil, etc., undnr the two systems, for all the apparatus procured with this saving. This saving will go on from year to year, on compound intercit, at the rate of 80 tu 50 per cent., until, in 6 or 6 yearn, should the appropriations be made as required to carry out gradually the system, we shall have lights equal to those of Franca and Qreat Britain k. brilliancy, useful effect, and economy, and apparatus that nl«- suffiiient to es connected .-ears. Lard to take the for which it Wlien those unprofitable. thsy -will not pnnae it beoanse the goremment may require a few thouaands of gallon )■ annually. We can not go wrong in tbla matter, in following the example of other countries. " Francd- introduced the rape-seed oil, from convic- tion of its superiority, England, Scotland, Ireland, and the northern powers of Europe generally, have followed ; first from motives of economy, and continue its use from the conviction that it ia not only more economical, but is better for light-house purposes thaa the best winter-strained sperm oil, the only kind used in most lights. Olive-oil has been introduced into the light-houses of Liverpool, England, at a saving of 40 per cent, over sperm oil, " In the United States, the oil (two kinds, ' winter and summer,' being used) for our lights, is not of the best quality. It is now nearly 60 per cent, higher in price than it was a/ew years since ; and with the pres- ent prospects, it must continue to increase in price so long as the demand is so great for it as at present. " It has been proposed that the 88 most important sea-coast lights should be fitted, with as little delay as possible, with first order lenses, and that the Argand lamps and reflectors taken from them (or surh of them as may, upon examination, be found to bn suf&eientiy good for that purpose) be used for fitting up the 42 light-vessels now existing, which have been pro- nounced by high authority comparatively useless in their present state. Several years would be required to effect this change, as the new lights authorized by law, amounting to 34, exclusive of those for the coasts of California and Oregon, require illuminating appa- ratus ; and as there are only two establishments from which the lenses could be procured for some time at least, it would not be prudent to demand a larger num- ber at once than could be easily supplied. " Having fitted the most important sea-coast lights with the best lens apparatus, as well as the newly authorized lights, by changing thereafter such only of the minor lights as now, or hereafter, require new ap- paratus, would in two or three* years place the light- house establishment of this conntr}- far in advance of its present state in efficiency and economy. " To purchase' Argand lamps and reflectors for the 42 light-vessels, would be to retrograde in light-house illumination at a first cost of $40,000 or $46,000, and an annual waste of $7660 for oil alone ; and of the supplies, to the extent to increoso the amount to $10,000, with apparatus which must be frequently re- newed, producing only trom one fourth to one »*ch never requires renewing. "Taking the estimate for 1652-3 f'o' rmintaining the lights of this country as a basis, t' ' ..resent sys- tem costs annually within a fraction oi « ^;Jj,000 more than the same lights would under the lens system. But in BO important and humane a branch of the public service as this is, upon the efficient and proper management of which depends, in a greater or lets ilegree, the loss of human life and property, in which every •I'li viduol in the land is to a certain extent inter ■ estrl ' ./•honally, mere saving of money, which is by no means always true econom; • should not be the only guide. The incalculable ber, .a to the seaman ; the merchant, who receives tho foroiijn products to gratify the wants of our citizens ; the plv-nter, who ships his cotton, tobacco, grain, breadstuffs, provisions, navnl stores, and the thousRnds of products of our clime, to the best markets, would seem anflicient to show the necessity for this change. " By those of our citizens along our gontbem coasts, from the mouth of Delaware Bay to the Kio Grande, who are now and have kykt been sufftring in conse- quence of a badly lighted coast, will this additional reason be beat understood and apprecUted. Their freight lists and beav}- insurances speak out truly on this point. " The $7,000,000 worth of property sent into Key West, and there adjudicated for salvage, within the six years prior to January, 1850 (lost to our citizens and our government chiefly), speaks trumpet-tongued on this subject. But this is not all. The wreck lists of Nassau and New Providence exceed by far those of Key West, " Let us light out coasts as France and Great Brit- ain have done theirs, and wreckers will be compelled to turn their attention to other means of livelihood, and the consumers of everj- class and grade will poy less for their necessaries and luxuries, and the planter, farmer, mechanic, will have smaller freight and in- surance bills to pay on their exports. " If we assume the necessity for changing all of the lights on our coast to lens lights, end give to each one of them its proper power and eOiciency, we should have about as follows : 86 first order lens lig'.its, cost- ing for apparatus $244,800; 10 second order lens lights, costing for apparatus $44,000 ; fil third order lens lights, costing for apparatus $113,400 ; 206 fourth, fifth, and sixth order lens lights, costing, in the ag- gregate, about $92,700; total amount nccessarj' to purchase lens apparatus for all the lights in tho United States, $494,960 ; deduct value of reflectors and lamps for light-vessels at present existing, and for proposed ones, $45,000 ; deduct value of present illuminating apparatus, lamps, reflectors, chandeliers, etc., merely' estimating the value of the old silver, copper, and iron, say 2500 lamps and reflectors, and 815 chande- liers, at one fifth tlieir cost, $50,000; deduct first year's saving on oil and other supplies, $110,000; total expenditure, $205,000 ; leaving at the end of the first year, with lenses, only a balance of $289,960; saving for four years, $440,000 ; making a gain, at the end of the fifth, of $150,040. " Thus, at the end of the fifth year the country will have gained $150,000 in money, including interest, and an annual saxnng of $110,000, the interest of which will moke it $117,600, and afford to the mariner lights equal to the best in the world, by which means every consumer and exporter will derive a pecuniary advantage; and those who go to sea, either fron: pleasure or necessity, will be doubly insured against shipwreck on our inhospitable coast. " To make the reform in our juesent light-house system perfect in its illuminatuig department, it only remains to introduce, in addition to the lenses, the colza or rapc-^seed oil, which will produce an additional saving, as has already been shown, of about $10,000 per annum ; making the grand total, in five years, of $200,000. It may be contended that, inasmuch as in- terest is included in the saving, it is but fair to allow it on the first cost, which will be, at the end of the second year, $15,397 60 ; third year, $8, ("97 60 ; fourth year, $2,197 60; making for interest, $26,392 80; still leaving a nett gain, at the end of five years, of $132,647 iO, without taking into consideration the saving from the rape-seed oil, if introduced, which would increase it to $182, 647 20 of clear gain at tho end ui five years, in addition to the annual gain and other advantages already stated. " But if we continue to employ reflectors, such as we hi ,. .'.' in use and are constantly Introducing into 01 ■ ! . ' >, we will not only lose the amount Mi- nually i-Llfii has been shown we should gain with lenses, but, in addition to that, these reflectors and lamps will require tv '.9 renewed once in 10 to if years, at t»c humanity and commerce will continue to sufiei fvi want of good and efilcient lights on our coast. ^^ Inspection. — Without a rigid system of inspection by competent persons, the light-house system can never be efficient or economical. The whole sea and lake coasts of the United States should be divided into light-house districts, with lesa regard to geographical iii' \ 'm LTG 1244 LTG ! (P- tlt:o io local Ilnea. For example, the New Tork (dis- trict should embrace all the lights from T^'. v i 'THl Including Block Island, Montauk Point, ct..., to the Highlands of Nave.iink, up the boj's, inel-.-dlAit th ■ Baritan, Hackensack, Pnssnic and Nurth Klvv, to the head of navigation. Thn Phllad'lihW ' ■ liciii- ward Bay iMotrict should embrace (he oast f.^iii :he Barrtegat to near Assateagvii", and up thn TSvU wure on both sides to the head of i..i Igation. '! fi ' ,'lall^:;i t or Cliesai ike B.iy dtstri f should . nl inc>i hV. r'le coast from Ais.tkague to Cape Henr.v. Hampton Roads and trll.iiii'.rios, and C", 'apeakellv ind tribu- taries, to tho Iv 1 ; ,.f navigation. The other districts s'loiUd be fornu. 'j.on the sum" pr.nclphis. In each :>ial instn i . Ion of the Light-House Board, comniuni''ated through their executive officer or engineer. " For this purpose, there would be required on the lakes two inspectors, and on the Atlantic, Gulf, and north-west coasts, including ai! the afjjacent navigable waters, from 10 to IS inspectois more, making the whole number required from 18 to 15 " I'ach of these light-house ilistricts should be placed under the charge of an mtivo and zealous offi cer of the army or navy, >ce, from their position and standing, of II falthf. ! uxoci'tion of their duties. The Bo,ird woiilj refer aa.i'u to the reports of the committee of the Senate iih: Kouse, already' pointed out in this re- in thi V. > ic >.i nt branch of the lighting service, mee'.i...' \ ' a (his 'jvommundation, the Board -r.ould ai'yi;' ','•.', light-keepers be examined, as naval engineers, midiibipmen, and cadets are, in reference to qualiflcattons for their apixdqtmenti ; that they should not be allowed to take charge of the lights without suitable preparation ; nor the more important lights without p^^portionlllly higher qualiftcutions; that such mev-'or.'igif.ol : id tidal observations be required of i tbem !< additio,. to the keeping of suitable registers lie necessarj' to superintend toe construction nnd renova- tion of light-houses.' " The Board are of opinion that this act is one cul- cti'.nted to produce the most beneficial results, in in- creasing the durabiluy of light-house structures, and consequently lessening, to some extent, at least, the present large annual appropriations for renovations and ri'pairs ; and they recommend that no new struct- ure tie erected, and no old ones be repaired, except un- der the superintendence of a comp'*-™! officer of tlin corps of engineers. " The Board are of opinion thit : -■ i.g tuii • O-. n of Congress iii^u the subje< ' .ruroving our lig. etc., much may iie done t- < . ttroducing a more ef- ficient and economical ad MuUtration of the establish- ment, by a rigid adheveii e to thu provisions of the seventh and ninth sections of the law of 1851. " Locating of Sea and fAike-coaH I.ighta.—Tba Board have adopted the same principle which has proved so effective >• the organization of the Fren .» system of lights ; nunioly, to place a pea-coast light of the lirst order, in general, every 42 nautical miles, so tliat, as a rule, one light will not be lost sight of until another 8 above the horizon. If it should be necessary to adopt only two main syftems of distinction for thesa lao 1245 LIO ' Ughtt Into fixed and revolving, then a fixed light ■holld be placed between two revolving lighta, suit- ably distinguished by flashes, etc., so that no two lighta of the same kind should be nearer tlian 84 miles from each other. Other dUtinctiuns, easily described In the published lists, and easily comprehended by navlgaturs, which would render all fear of mistakes arising flrom the want of proper distinctions illusory (without the use of colored media), can be employed. If, however, Mr. Babbage's system prove to be proc- ticable, and be adopted, all doubt in regard to distinc- tions of light will l>e obviated. The Board have adopt- ed an approximate programme, in this report, for the lea and lake-coast lights, the number of which is nec- essary to a full system. Of these many now exist, though not with the requisite range of visibility-. There are many locations where the wants of com- merce will not require such lights for many years, though necessarily included in a general programme. " At a full meeting of the Light-house Board, holden on the 6th of January, 1852, the following resolutions were offered and unanimously adopted : "Betolved, That it is the opinion of •'.his Board, 1. That the Ions or Fresnel system of light-house illumi- nation is the best at present known. 2. That the lens ur Fresnel system of light-house illumination is, in economy, brilliancy, power, and usefulness, supe- rior to the best reflector system of illumination in the ritio of about 4 to 1 ; or, in other words, that the lens system is about four times more advantageous than the best reflector system, and at the same time, at an expense, for oil alone, of only one fourth as much as the reflector system. 8. That the lea) system of light- bouse illumination is as well adapted to the coasts of the United States as to those of the rest of the mari- time world. 4. That while there Is no well-founded objection to introducing the lens system of illumina- tion into this country, there is every reason for doing so as rapidly as possible. 6. That the floating lights of this country are comparatively useless to the mariner, in consequence of the very Inferior apparatus em- ployed in them. 6. That the reflector lights of the United States are greatly inferior, in usefulness, power, and range, to the same description of lights in foreign countries generally, but especially to thosu of Great Britain." " The object of these notes is to point out certain im- provements in the use of existing light-houses, by which it shall become almost impossible — let. To mis- take any casual light, on shore or at sea, for a light- house ; 2d, Ever to mistake one light-house for another. The plan requires, in most instances, no change in the optical means at present used for condensing and di- recting the illumination of light-houses ; it adds slight- ly to the facility of observing them at great distances, and from its simplicity and generality is equally adapted to the use of all countries. Rovolving-lights must became fixed; but the mechanism already ex- isting for their rotation may, with little alteration, be employed for the motions required by the new system. The principle by which these objects are to be accom- plished, is to make each light-house repeat its own number continually during the whole time it is lighted. This is accomplished by inclosing the upper part of the gloss cylinder of the Argand burner by a thin tube of tin or brass, which, when made to descend slowly be- fore the flame, and then allowed suddenly to start bi. k, wui cause an occiiltation and re-app'arauce of IK light. Congress having auth' irized lights to be erected on a low of tbo most prominent and important points to aid the rapidly increasing commerce along tbut coast, which it is presumed will be fitted with appro- priate lens appo'.atus, in conformity to the 7th station of the act jf 1861, the Board have only added the ■ames of the remaining most prominent points of that to thii Uit, leaving the more detailed wants of this branch of the public service to be d«riU>lt«4 l)}r the operations of the coast-survey, now In rapii! [iron- ress for external or sea-coast, and uf iiopulatioii and interior communication for local lights, " Pdit Mamm /Jght-houK.--'rM» la a fixed llgllt, &3 feet alKJve the level of the sea, situated un the Miiith end of Petit Manan Island, Muiiu, lut, H" Ti' north, long. «7° 52' west. This liglit Is lilted wltli 12 l«lil|i» and 16-inch reflectors, to illuminate the wliola borl/,iiii, If the oppiirutus belonged to tb* first class, iustuad of, as it d'«9, to about the fourth, the greateht dUtunce nt which it could be seen, under the most favumbU ulr- cumstauces of weather, would be, from a vessal's ittmk 15 feet from the sea-level, about lU miles. If we titka into consideration the small size of the reflector', ttlld the small number of lamps fur so large su arc wf tb* horizon, it is fair to presume this light is sulduiii mun over 10 miles. Distant from thU light to the eastward are Seal Islands, 84 miles (two llxed lights), and (Ian. net Kock (flashing light), 16 miles at the mouth of the Bay of Fundy, belonging to tliu Ilritiah g tus, would servo to guide vessels bound to any uf tlui ports on the coast of Maine, from Frenchman's Hay to Passamaquoddy Bay, having the seo-coost lights uf Seal Island and Uannet Uock tu the eastward, hiuI Mount Desert Rock, distant 27 miles to the southward and westward. [Now become a flashing light (IH5i)),J " Mount Oeterf Ruck Liyht-houK,— \!\\\» light l» oil the keeper's dwelling, with an elevation of 60| f»«t above the level of the sea ; it is fitted wilb 12 l«iii|iii and 21-inch reflectors, to illuminate the whole hurlzini, Lat. 43° 68' 6" north, long. 68° w' we»t| It I* sit- uated about 20 miles S.8.E. of Mount Desert Island ( is 27 miles distant from Petit Menan light and i):i iiiUb* from Matinicus light (two fixed lights). 'I'hU light, with the best illuminating apparatus, cuuhl not Iw s««ii, under the most favorable circumstances of wuathur, a( a greater distance than 14 miles. The small nuiiilier of lamps for so great on arc, renders it llttlu Ixittsr than a fourth order light, while its elevation cull only give it the range of a light of that class, " A much greater elevation is required for this light, with the most powerful lens apparatus that can lie i>in\- structod. Vessels bound from the eastward Into any port from the ncighlmrhood of Mount Desert U) Pe- nobscot Bay, would run for it ; having iiioilii It as a first-lass light, it would guide them into the rang«s uf the different hnrbor-liglits along tbo coutt. Vtmn \Uk isolated position at the distance of 14 to IN miles from the nearest land, it is one of the most important |iulntl on the eastern coast for a flrst-chiss light, " Martinicua Rock lAi/hl-ltoute. — These lights (two fixed), are situated on the rock south of Martlnlcus Island, at the mouth of Penobscot lUy, They are placed 40 feet apart, N.N.W. and 8.S.K. on tlie ke«p' er's dwelling. Each light has 14 lumps anil 21'lni.'li reflectors, at an elevation of 82J feet above the lovol of the sou; 33 miles from Mount Desert Itock himI JiO miles from Seguin's Island light, lat. 43° 46' 'M" north, long. 68° 49' west. "Seguin Island Light.— Th\» is a fixwl liglit, 166 feet above the level of the seu, fitted with 16 lamps and 21-inch reflectors. This light is deficient In IlluniU nating apparatus ; with 24 lamps and 21-Inch pitraltoliu reflectors of ^be proper shape and finish, It could, uiv der favorable circumstances of weather, be seen IH to 19 miles. It is 30 miles from Martinicus Kock light, 'Ifl miles from Boone Island light, and 21 iniles from Moii> began and Cape Elizabeth lights. Ut, 53° U' UH" north, long. 69° 44' west. " lloone Island Light. — This light Is situated on tha west part of the small low islaml iMariiig its imine, oft York River, Maine. It is fitted with 12 lain|H) and U* iii.'h reflectors (fixed), with an elevation of 70 (nt above the level of the Ma, in Ut. 48° 08' Honb, Umf^ 70° 29' west. £10 1240 'SIQ " TKhtehh-'i Ithnd /.i^A/*.— Theac two fl»id light* •ra nttuatcd about two Riiles off Cap* Ann, (1tt«d with 11 lamps and ',- acrve the wants of the navigator. At the distance of aliout 12 milea it is obscured about three fourths of the time. Its present elevation, witli first order nppor.itus, would give It a range of 19 to 20 miles. I,at. 41° 20' 64" north, long. 70° 50' 26" west. Distant from Sunknty Head ?') milea, Montauk Point 8« milea, and Point Judith light 80 miles. This licht is not second to any on the eastern coast, and ahoul'i )•' fitted, wltli- out delay, with a first order illuminating apparatus. A glance at the chart will suffice, to seo its great im- portance. "htonta»k Point. Light-house. —IM. 41° 04' 10" north, long. 71° 51' 68' west. This is a very import- ant light, especially for navigators liound from Europe to New York. It is fitted now with only 15 lamps and 21-inch reflectors for a fixed light. Its reported elevation is 1 60 feet atiove the level of the sea, and with a first order npparatua would lie seen under ordi- nary circumstances almnt 20 nautical milea. Distant from Gay Head 47 miles ; from Fire Island Inlet light fiS milea. fly erecting a light in the vicinity of Oreat West Buy, Long laiand, midway between Montauk Point and Fire Island lights, the trade l)ctween New York and all port, to the eastward, including the whole of Europe, would le greatly benefited. " Lighti near f/renl H'eit Bag, Utng Itland, Ntxo York. — It ia proposed to erect a first-class light on Long Island, midway lictween Montauk Point and Fire Island Inlet, distant S3 miles, to faillitate navi- gators going to snd coming ' tlie eastward. Tho letters of packet and other 8hi[,;aa8ter- " Appendix B, will show conclusively the neoessl!; ' '(rhtinthia vicinity. " Fire. Itland Lnlet Lighl-hnHtf, ! n- ' /, ffexo York. — This is a moat important H,./: ,, . igators trading to New York. It may to a .> mark the eastern entrance to the Bay of New York. It is situ- ated on th« south side of Long Island, N«w York, east aide of nr« Tsload Tnlet, lat. 40° tlY 46" N., and TS" 18' 88" W. long. ; disUnt 37 mllsa fW>m tlit High, lands of Navesink, which mark the western entrance to the Bay of New York. This tower has an eleva- tiou of only 80 feet 8 inches, and lias only 14 Umps, and 21-inch reflectors for n revolving light. The range of this light, with ita present eleration and tho best apparatus that could be procured, would not ex- ceed 14^ nautical miles in ordinary weather. It is, therefore, clearly necessary to increase its height, and place in the tower the most powerful lens apparatus that can be procured. " Highlanda ofXait$ink IJghli, Ntu> Jertey. — There are two towers and lights at this station ; a first order fixed, and a second order revolving lens apparatua. The great importance of the lights on this point ren- ders it highly necessary, in carrying out the proposed plan of Improving and increasing tha number of sea- roast lights, that the second order apparatus should be changed for a first order one. These lights are now the beat iiu the coast, but are not, when comljined, equal to liotter than a second order lens light. With tlie present elevations of these lights above the level of the sea, and the aubatitution of a iirat order lens for the second order apparatua, navigators would be w r-anted in running boldly for them, and with the certainty of seeing them, under ordinary circumstan- ces, at the distance of 22 nautical miles. " Bamegat Light-houte. — This is a light in point of importance equal to that of Fire Island Inlet. It is situated 37 milea from the Highland lights, on I.ong Beach New Jersey, on the south side of Bamegat In- let. At present it is fitted as a fixed light, with 11 lamps and 1 (-inch reflectors, equal In power to almut a fifth order lens light. The numerous wrecks, involv- ing the great loss of life and property, attest tho truth of tho necessity for making this a first class sca-coiist light. The tower is 40 feet high, placed on a low l)each, giving it a range of probably \\\ nautical miles. The improvement of the Montauk, Fire Island, and Banieg,it lights, and the erection of a first class light near Great West Bay, Long Island, would render the approaches to New York Bay much safer than they are at present, and would save to our government and to our citizens many millions of dollars' worth of prop- erty, and prevent the untimely loss of many valuable lives. " Ahtecum Beach, ffew Jertey. — A sea-coaat light is abaolntely necessary in this vicinity to guide vessels, Imund north, clear of the Abaecum and Brigan^ino shoals. The coast here is verj' low, and difficult to distinguish, and the light on Tucker's Beach, near Little Egg Harbor, although fitted with 15 lamps and 15-inch reflectors, ahowing a fixed red light, from its little elevation (R!)} feet) is not seen further tiiun five to eight milea ; in addition to which the woods on the Absecum Ijeach to tho southward hide it from the mar- iner going north. A light should be placed somcHlicre in this vicinity, west of the inlet, and as nearly mid- way between Bamegat and Cape May light ua pos- allde. An examination of this coast by competent professional persons can alone decide the best site for a sea-coast light, " Cape Mag Light-houte, ."'-ir .Tr- vy. — The position of this light on the east aide of I 'f la ware Bay, and its contiguity to the dangerous bank known to navigators as the Five-fathora Bank, renders it of great import- ance that it should be of the first orde» 'his iao re- volving liglit, 88 feet above the lev ' ' 1 la, fitted with 15 lamps and 16-lnch refiectoi . tight has been shown to be inferior to the (i.ii,. . ;■. X"."- 'ight on B -6 Shoal, In the proporf i of thr c to one. tj •■> nt range, under the most favorab'.e cir- cumstances ot weather, is not greater than 14 J nimtical milea, and, with the present apparatus, it is doulitful If it can be seen so far by several miU>s. Make Cape May and Henlopen Ught* ">' : -der lights, with Lia Uil LIG •The position 5 Bay, and its to navigtttor» great import- ■"lii» is ft rc- ,>a, fitted ill, light has :..! W'^ 'igh' , of thr " to fftvorablp cir- in 14i nimtical it is doiiiitfal Make Cape lights, with proper elevationa, and navlgaton wHI be able to plare their veawU In positions for receiving pilots without the risk of shipwreck on the dangerous Five- fathom Dank, distant 10 m'lea from Cape May, and 20 miles fVom Cape Henlopen. With bearings from these two lights. Keen at tlifl distance of 20 to 2S miles, the navigator could always shape his course by tlii) most direct line Into the hay, ot for the breakwater. The light vessel authorized by law to be placed on the Five-fathom Hank is so often out of position that it is the more Important that these improvement* should be made. " Cape Urnlnpen /.igii-kouiie. —TM» Is one of the best reflector (Ixed lights on the coast, although in- ferior to tlia third order lens on Brandywine Shoal in the proportion of one to six. This light has an eleva- tion of 180 feet, and only reqaires a first order lens apparatus to make It equal to tho requirements of com- merce and navigation. The large amount of trade from Philadelphia warrants the proposed expenditure, and humanity would seem to dictate it as consistent with true policy and philanthropy. "Attattague Ught-houar, i-Vrymm,— This light is situ- ated on Assateague Island, between Capes Henlopen and Charles, in lot. 87" 54^ 86" N., and long. 76° 21' 45" W. ; a fixed light, fitted with only 11 lamps und 14-lnch reflectors. The shoaU of this low and danger- ous coast render the improvement of this ll)?ht one of paramount importance. By elevating this tower to 150 feet, and placing in It a first order lens apparatus, there will be no great necessity for any other sea- coast light until we reach Cape Charles (Smith's Isl- and). The very dangerous shoals extending along this entire coast, at a considerable dlst.,,ico from the low coast, at distances ranging from live to twelve miles, as shown fWim the recent su.veys by the const survey, make it the duty p» tho government to ca' ^e this light to be increased in jiower and range to 'e rank of a first i ■ ■ sea-coast light, withont delay. " Smith't I ,i,d Light-house, Cape Churtea.—Thh light Is placed on the north-east of Cape Charles, and at the north entrance of Chesapeal's C.py. Tliis vcr)- important li^ht has at present onlj 10 lamps and 21- inch reflectors. Tlio dangers at tlie entrance to Ches- apeake Bay render It extremely important that t.iis light should be increased to a first order one. The tower h''(> a,, elevation of only 55 feet, placed on a very low enaat, giving tho light, if in other respects good, a range of not more than 12 nautical miles, which It can seldom reacli iu consequence of the vciy inferior illuminating apparatus. This is one of the lights requiring the earliest attention of the light-house department. " Cape Henry I.Uj" i-iiome, Virginia.— IhU is one of the best reflector lights on the coast. It is situated on the south side of the entrance of Chesapeake Bav, has an elevation of 120 feet, and is fitted with 18 !» r' and2Unch refiectors. It being a promlnen'. le.i.ln.', mark for vessels bound into Chesapeake Bay, li,\., .- ton Roods, and their numerous tril)utarle8, everj- . rgu- ment would seem to be in favor of its speedy improve- ment, to render it equal to the best first class lights of other maritime nations. " Light-house halfway between Cape Uenry and Body's Island Light. — The large number of shipwrecks and the vast amount of life and property lost annually on this coast should be a sufficient reason for erecting and maintaining a first class sea-coast light on some eligi- ble site In this vicinity. The Body's Island Light is badly located, and insuffifi< nt in power and range to subserve fully the requirements of commerce and nav- igation. Vessels bound south from the eastward run to make l!iis coast, with thj view to avoid tho oppos- m^' cunints of the Gulf Scream, and, at the same tl-iie, to avail of the fi ciable currents within the 'imlM cf the cold w«U iMunding the Gulf Stream. The rend of the tuasts on either side of tho Chesapeake Bay Tendon navigation more dangerons than It wonlrt otherwise be ; and therefore it becoriinii the more Im- (Mirtant to light well the entire coait ftum Cape llat- terns to Cape Henlopen, " Ilody't lilaml Light-house, Norik Co»v,cllcd both by wind and steam run for soundings oft' this cape ; and it is of the first importance to navigators wishing to make quick passages, that they should siio this light in going south. At present it is of very lit- tle use, in consequence of its limited range. Navi- gators do not, as a general rule, rely upon it sufllciently to warrant them in running for it. It is fitted with 15 lamps and 21-inch reflectors, having an elevation of about 9^ ft et, which would give it a range, under fa- vorable circumstances, of 14^ nautical miles, provided the appa.atus for illuminating was ol' the best descrip- tion. There is no single light on the const believed to require renovation more than this does. An clevatinn ■f 160 (•-•■%, and a first class illuminating apparatus, are 111., ■ ^s; demanded, and without any nnnecesH.iri' Jelh' . ' .'ip, I miout Light-house, Nm^h Carolina. — This is at present a fixed light, fitted with 13 lamr-s and 21- inch refiectors, and elevated 95 feet above tho level of the sea. In consideration of the manner in which navigators have to follow liiii low const, this light be- comes, necessaril)', one of the important sea-coast lights, and rtijuires to l)e elevated and Improved to that extent. The shoals of this cape ar" "f such a character ns to render it a very important light. " .Veto Hirer Inlet, S'orth Carolina. — The great dis- tance from Cape Lookout to Capo Fear, and the dan- gerous shoals extcniiiii^ lo such a great distance from them, without any prominent mark intervening to guide navigators, render it necussar}', in making up a i,»Tierai plan for lighting tlie entire sea-eoast, to lu- ll a lirst class light, to be placed somewhere in the ;^inity of New Kiver Inlet. The coast between Capes Ilatteras and Fear forms a curve, but not to such a degree as to render a light near this point un- necessary. Although the necessity for this proposed light maj' not be considered as prossing, yet in a well- devised scheme it can not be entirely omitted. " Bald Head, Cape Fear, North Caivlina. — This light in its present position and with its present appa- ratus, etc., is comparatively useless. The iipparatus, 15 lamps and 21-inch refiectors, is inadequate to the requirements of the service of an ordinary sea-const light, while this is one of the 8i)ccial cases requiring e\.-aordinary means to in- -re anj' amount of good. The t.)wer is nearly 4 miles from the pitch of tiio Ciipo, and 20 nautical miles from 10 fathoms water, in a di- rect line on the end of the ' Frying Fan shoals,' which extend continuously from the pitch of the cape. The assumed elevation of the light is 110 feet, which, with good illnminating apparatus, would give a range, un- 1 'Pn- UQ 1248 ua itt tba mott fkronlile rlrcumiUnc**, of 17 to 17) nnutloal mllei. ()«nful olmrvatlon liai, however, •hown thnt It In very Mldom teen li milni | iinil then >iily rpumulilinK a Ktur of tho lifth or ilxth iiiHKxituil*. 'Ibln IlKht !• conaiilen (1 \>y tho |illot« as of very littlv, it Indexil i« at all, for the local piiriKwai uf tba harlior ; while it \» perfevtly clear that It Ih of n» value to the navigator In giiUIInK him around anJ <. clear of theae *hoal«, which, ii< the opinion of navlifii ton, are only exceeded In Importance hy thodo utt Nantucket. Thia llftht nhould either lie reiluotd to a mere harlwr liKht, ftli' I ' '''hU li^ht oi u limt-cloiif Bea-coaHt 1>K 't, oti • iiDt-uo^f light- «el plmcd on the nlinjilH, would tend greatly toward lucraaalu)! tho lafuty of / navigation. "t'npt Homain, Hiiulh Carolina, — The dangeroua •boala off this point render this an iuiportunt light tii navigators Iwund to ChurlFstou, and a* fur soulli oh Ht. Augustine, To save the current, nnd to keep out " of the influence of the current of tho Gulf Stream, navlgatum run for soundings olT the Ca|io Koniiiin shoals. A llrst-class light would tend greatly to less- en tho hazards of this navigntiun. The present light, lilted with only 11 lamps and 'il-inch rellectors, at iin elevation of only H7 feet, can not |je seen with iiny de- gree of certainty at a greater distance, under tlie must favorable circumstances, tluin aliout 14 nautical miles, which Is by no moans far enungli tu enable nnvigators to run their vessels with that tioldne.ss which Is essen- tial to success. This light, in iHiiiit uf |)<)wer, brillian- cy ai.d range, is not superior to a fnurth order lens. " CkarUslon IJykt-hoiiiie, i^oulh t'ltrolina. — This Im- portant light is titted with only 12 lumps ii, 1-inch ■ relliictors ; revolving, with an elevation of .ti.jut 126 * foot. Its greatest range ab)ut lU miles. Tho neces- sity fur a tirst unler lens apparatus for this light is too apparent to roi|uire more thun a liure reference to the chart. This light shouhl be changed to a lixed light, and the lights un cither side of it cliimgcd in their cliaruoteristlc distinctions, for the reason that it is used OS a range with the beacon-light for croxsing the bar. Revolving lights are not adapted to this pur|)08u, es- pecially wuere channels are narrow and the eclipsos of long duration. " 1/ Hilling Jtlaud, Georgia. — This point is one of the positions selected for new lights in carrying rut the gen< r il programme. Distant 33 miles from Clmrlus- tun, .Suuth Carolina, ind about niidway between the Charleston and Tybee lights. " Tgbee IJghl. — This is an important light both In n. general and local puint of ■ iew. For the over-sea voyacier along the coast, it is nf equal importance to tho. J generally un the cost (f>r lucal purposes, as the guid« to the entrance to S.ivannah Kiver. This light ut present is littod with lb lamps ard IC-ini 'i rctlcct- on, and h.is an elevation of 100 feet. This light, in const! erat ion uf the sameness in tho app nranco of the coast, should ■>« well distinguished nnd improved to the oxtciit of making it a first order light. " Su lo Iiland I.ight-hotue. —tUli light is 10 miles from 'I ee light, and comes into the list embracing the geri' ul programme. As a sea-coust light, its im- portance will appear clearly liy referring to the chart, and in a local puint nf view it is tho mark to guide vessels into the Important inland-waters constituting Doboy Sound. This Is at present a light fitted with 15 louip- and LVinch reflectors, elevated 71 feet abuve the level of the sea, und is revolving. Its greatest range now, will not exceed i:i| nautical miles. As a sea-coast light, it should be seen clearly and distinctly , at the distance of 20 nautical miles. ; " Amtl,n Iiland Light-house, Florida. — ^ThU light, ji. 41 miles from Sapelo light-house, Is another of the proposed SM-coost lights. It Is at present fitted with \i lampa and 15-inch reflectors j a revolving tight, having an elevation uf alwut 110 fi'vt, and a cunsoqutMil range for the best d«stTi(>tiim of upparutus, of 111 nuu- ticnl iiiIIm. The tower requires tu b« elevated, uml in other respecl.-. improved, to the extent of nuikiiig it a flrst-class sea-coast light. "HI. Auguiline I.ighl-houae. — This light, being 60 miles flora llie Amelia Island light. Is Included In the list of sou-roast lights. The present light is one uf u merely local cli.iracter, lieliig litted with only lU luiu|is and small reflectors. " Miimiuilii liar. — .V light is pi'upiiieil to be [iliii imI in this vicinity. Although its iiiiiiiediate necessity U not apparent, yet In time it will Ijecome necessury to erect a sea-i'uust light hnlf-way between .St. Augustine and Ciipc Canaveral. This point is M) miie» fruui ^i. Angusline, and 13 miles from Cap«< Canuvarui. "Cape Canaveral. — This Is one uf the prominent IHiints on tho coast, requiring the most |>owvrful h^h- cuust lights tn facilitate nuvigutinii. Duiigoreus shunis extend i' t cuiiHiderulile distancu off tills cape, rendering it still mure Important that a flrst ordc^r light should lie substituted fur the present very iiiefli- clent one. The present apparatus consists of 1& luiii|is und 21-Inch rellectors, revolving, in a tower nf only !>!> feet elevation. The present runge uf this light dues not exceed 12 nautical miles, and should bo In- creased to not less thun 20 nautical miles. " Cape Florida.— letwcen this and Cape Canuveriil it is proposed to erect '.i new sea-coast lights of tliu tirst order ; one near Jupiter Inlet is considered uf iiii mediate importance; and the other two ut dift'erciit periods, according tu circumstunces, and as tho oxpund- itures for light-bouse service on utlier |ioints may warrant. The Cape Florida light, nmrkiiig, us it iliie», a prominent puint on u must dangerous cuast, shoulil ncrcssari ' . be ut ;ii • most [lowerful illuuiinatiii„' up- purutus. The pi ' -iit apparatus is cunifioseil uf 17 lumps and 21-inc Sectors, with un • I -vutiouuf 70 feet ttbnve tho lev •' the sea, giving u r.inge uf nut more tliun 13 nautici. . miles. The currents and duii- geruus reefs along the I'lorlda coast, r> udor it of ubs»- lute importance that li ould be increased to tiie ruiik of a flrst-class seo-coust i>^lit. " Caryf/orl Rtef and ijana Keg Liijhls. — These two import'int lights are i. x in course of lunstruction by the officers uf the Tu|r );raphical Engin >:rs, to bo fltted with flrst unler lens apjuiratas. " Dry Hank. — This p>.« tk* bwl n. iMtnr-llght on tb« cuMt) bclni; revolving, Mid fltud with HI Uropa and 'il4nuh nflactnrii, Tha eUvilion of thia light Ixilng only Aft ttiH im r*iiK« U iiecuwirily rottrlctml vrithin tlm v«ry narrow limit* of only l!i nautlcul mllrs. Thin llxht, from it pn>p«r sUvatlun, could be awn nt ■ dlataiKa „f In to '^0 inllai. Tbli townr ahould Ixt alavntnd to at Iniut I j fnt, to randar tha light of M muuh impoitanca aa tha navigation in- taraHta of Holiila demanil, Thla light may ha eaaily miatakan for the one at Panancola, ami tbarefuva tha characterlatio ilintliictlon of one of them ahould lie changed. In carrying out tha gtinaral plan, It may become a qucatlon aa tii whetlior Moliiln Point or Sand laUnd light nhoiilil \m tin principal oraea-coaat light. " Paw o/ lh» Mittittippi, — Tbeae ligbta ahould be of tha Ural claaa, with aui^h elevationa aa will give them the rangea of at loaat 20 nautical milea. The preaent lightu are inefflcient, and unnecaaaarily expen- aive, without any commensurate IwneAta. Theae ligbta are of grvat importance to tha coinmarce of the Uulf of Mexico, and ahould lie rendered the mimt efficient in tho aborteiit apace of time. The reniainlog light* along the coiiat, embraced in the programme, are of minor iin|iortance, compared to thuae already enu- merated ; but ilcserve the attention uf thoae wliu are, or may be, cliargcd with the iight-hiiuoa aervice. Many of the |H>iiit4 along the cooat of Texiu require lights, especUlly at tho entrancea to the ports and bays, nt un early day, Tlie prominent |)olnts on the I'acilio coast ahould have lights without unnecessary delay, and no soa-coast light should be Utted except with llrat-claas apparatus. " lAiht CiHut. Chnmphin, Onlario, Erie, Huron, Michigan, Huperior, and Iktir Iribulariei or connecting link: — Tha shores of theae inland seaa belonging to the United States, are, ao far as the number of the lights is concerned, pretty well lighteil. There are a few important points which require lights of greater power and range tlian those now existing ; and aa com- meice and navigation increase there, a few additional •mall lights may bo required, to the extent proliably of 6 in Kfichigan, 1 in Ontario, 8 in Huron, and »ov- eral in Superior. The most of theae lights are mere pier-head beacons. A system arranging the lights into classes, and giving to each one a distinctive char- acteristic, is necessary. In Lake Huron, tho two im- portant lights of Thunder Bay Island and I'oint aux Barques, distant about 22 miles, and marking the en- trance to Saginaw Bay, are both fixed. " Many of these lake lights have more lampa and reflectors, although only requiring to have short rangea, than many sea-coaat lights on the Atlantic and Uulf coaats, Ualloo Island, east end of Lake Ontario, near the Kiver St. Lawrence, is fitted with 15 lamps and reflectors; in Lake Superior, Manit< u T>.Und, 15 lamps and reflectors; White Kieh Pol; it, 1'^ , -.oA Copper Harbor, 13 lamps and reflectors. TliMk- irin- cipal lights on the lakes should be flt'ixd vtlih third order lenses, of smaller or larger modt I, nicor'lmg to circumstances, similar to the one recautly placed in the Wagooshance Light, built under the direction of the Topographical Buroau. The fallowing may bo considered tirst-class lake lights, and should be of the third order lens ap|iaratU9, vln. : Galloo Island, Lake Ontario, tixed; Sodus Bay, Lake Ontario, revolving; Fort Niagara, Lake Ontario, fixed ; Dunkirk, Lake Eric, fixed ; Preaq' Isle, Lake Erie, fixed ; Cleveland, Lake Erie, fixed ; Western Sister, Lake Erie, fixed ; Buffalo, Lake Erio, Axed ; Point aux Barques, Lake Uu.'on, fixed; Thunder Ituy Island, Lake Huron, fixed ; Presq' Isle, Lake Hurm, revolving ; Point de Tour, Lake Huron, fixed; Wagooshance, Lake Mich- igan, third order lens ; Fox Isles, Lake Michigan, re- quired; South Manitou Island, Lake Michigan, fixed ; Mllwaukie, Lake Michigan, fixed ; Chicago, Lake Michigan, fixed; White Fish Point, Luke Superior, 4K fixed ; Capper Harlior, Lake Superior, Used | MaaJloa Island, Uke Superinr, fixed. "Of the 72 lighta on the Ukea and their tributarlM, t>H iti-e tixed and 4 revolving. '■ Aminijemenl into one .Sj/item in re/trtnee lo CUun Jicatiun — The following cUaslftcatlimof lighta la raooni' mended accoriling to their |K)«lti.in», usea, etc., etc. ; 1. Main coaat lights for tlw most prominent point* on tha coaat. 2. Secondary lighta for the inferior poInU on the coaats, and in brood suunda, bays, etc. S. Minor •ounda and bay*, and for harbors and river ligbta. 4. Range, beacon, and pier lighu. Also into alx clooaea, according to the dimensiona of the lighting apparatus and tlio range of the light*. All the main •eo-cooat llgnts should lie of the first order, and the claaaes to which the aecondary, aound, bay, harbor, river, range, iieocon, and pier lighU ahould belong, would be determined liy the light-house board, accord- ing to the locality, ob>icta for which placed, etc., etc. Thli applies to new lights, and to tha gradual replac- ing of the old ones aa they may rei^uire renewal. It la lielieved that many of thr. preaent lighta might lie diapenaad with if eflTectlvH .ne! were subitituteil for those now placed on import >nt points, but nut of suOl- cient power and range, w hi< > uuld in the end produce a considerable saving. "Dietinctice CAanicferi'WiVa.— Experiments will throw light on this important subject. The light-houses and vesaela, aa well as the lights, ahould be distinguished from each other by sight, as well as, in case of fogs, liy sound. Colors should only lie used for distinguish- ing small lights of short range, as river, pier, beacon, or range lights. In employing colored media at all fur lights, it Is important that the most approved modes, with the best quality of appliances, only lie used ; u duty which should devolve upon professional men. Mr. Stevens enumerates the number of distinctions of which reflecting lights ar>.> susceptible as nine: Ixt. fixed; 2d, revolving white; Ikl, revolving red and white; 4th, revolving red with two whites; Dth, revolving white with two reds; 6th, flashing; 7th, intermitting; 8th, double fixed light; 9th, double revolving white lights ; to which may be added, 10th, double, one fixed and one revolving. Of these, three depend on color and should be discarded, reducing the distinctions to seven. In the Scottish lights, by caus- ing a rapid revolution uf the frame, and placing the rims of the mirrors of each side in one vertical plane, while their axes are in a plane inclined to the vertical, flashes are pro^luced every five seconds, which appear to rise and sink. The intermitting light luddenly ap- pears, is steady for a short time, and then disappears suddenly. These changes are produced by the verti- cal mution of circular shades in front of the reflecturs. The difTerent characteristic combinations in the lens system, according to M. L. Frcsnel, are nine: Ist, fiashlng at tho interval of a minute ; 2d, flashing at the Interval of half a minute; .Id, white and red flashes alternating; 4th, fixed lights flashing ever^- five minutes ; 0th, flashing everj- three minutes ; fith, every two minutes ; 7th, fixed white lights with rod flashes ; Xth, fixed wliite liglits ; 9th, double ti.xcd lights. These are applied only to the first three orders of lights. In England tho lights are classified as sea- coast, secondary-, and harbor and river lights. In France they are divided into six orders, according to their range and tho aize of the lighting apparatus ; the first order being the largest, and the second, third and fourth orders being each divided into two classes, the larger and smaller, or first and second classes. The objections to colored lights are, the large absorption of the incident light, and the difltculty of distinguishing the color, Ked is admitted to lie the best color. A good red light is seen 16 miles, and sometimes 22. j Green lights from a powerful apparatus, in Mr. Stevenson's experiments, were seen 7 miles in very clear weather, and blue lights only 6. 19M LIO "Th* obJMtlani is rt<1 «r*; 1. Tli* giml Imi at Ugtil tiy aliMirptiun. A full nxl gUn UKtd u ■ chlm- nr.v lamp ■liaorlHid W) per i-ont. of th* whoU. A Krik Kronrh gUu iliMirlwd liiit 117 par c«nl. of th* [ht, but th« light wu nut churmrtariatlr. "2. Wliitn light* gn>w rcdilUh In « fng. In ■ r*- Ttttving light, ahowttig ■Ifmiiti'ly ml and white, Iht r*d l> nhiiorlicd at a lnu dlntanra than tha whita, and tba light may l)a mintaken fur a whita light iifhalf tha priiMl of ravidutlun. Twi) llxbta will anpaar lilandad In ona, whioh arn nut >«|iariitad liy at l»a«t 8' 18" i call I! ilie Mquirxd dlatanca Ixtwaan tha IlKht* In f««t, A tha ohaarver'a dUtanca in fi-ft, O half «if 8' IM". Than n "- 2 A tan. (). For 1 mila, II = ft HI faat, and for n milea If — . n x A'84. lauding, or rangn light*, ahould b< naarl}- on tha aama lOrrutlon, nii ai Iti cauia thani tn apjirar nearly, hut not (|ulta In nne. Tha dliit«ni'e Iwtwrrn them •hiiuld not Im leiii than one alxth of the dUtunco at which they are thua to b* uard. " (n forming a programme for lighting tha coatt, tha following conditlurifi nhould h« realized: 1. The moat prominent |iolnla ahould lie Drat lighted. 2. Re- volving lighta, a* more powerful than fixed, ahould ba used, when |>o*illJe, on the projecting polnta. A, Mglit* Identical in appearance ahouM not occur within 80 t4i ]dO mllaa of each other. 4. Diatlnctiona of color ■huuld not lie adopted except in cuaev of almdute ne- cesalty. 6. Aa few light* a* |>o*allde nbuiild lie ummI, not only for the auke of economy, liut to avoid con- fU*lon. 0. Diittlnctloii* of lighta depending on the •atiniatlon* of email dmrencea of time, of nppearance and dlaoppearance, ahoald never be reaorted to. 7. Ilarlior or local lights ahould generally lie flxed, and may h» illitlngulahed lijr ciilora. A. Floating light* •hould never be uaed whea flxed lighta can l>e em- ployed. ■'The ayatem propoaed Xry Charlea liabhage, Eaq., of I.ondon, and wliich lia* lieca communicated by Ita dUtiiiguished author to the Uaarn«itlon ) hut every llght-houae mu*t have auch ■ numlwr aaslgnad to it, that no digit occurring In the number denoting the aaverul llght-lwiuaaa neareat to it nn either aide ahall have the tame digit In tha aama plaoea of ligiira*. ** If Hva adjacent llght-haa*a* wars thus numliered i IMI, . ftI7, 243, h7«, IH2| •opposing a miataka to have oevufrsd In tha Ant 'inie of ceuBting 2411, ami that It had lieen reported totlm maater of the vaaaal aa 2Aa, h« would immeiliuteiy, on looking at hU numerical lUt of light-housea, iwri'iiiva that a miataka had lieen made In tha middle llgure; lierauae, in any general arrangement, 2fill woulil h*re been aaaigned to some llght-houae on a coaat very dla- tant fnim that on whicli 24H wua placed. In fact, two out of any three Hgurca would alwaya detect the error of tha third. "Tha occultation* would dUtlngnlah every llght- houae from all caaual lights, and their number would Identify the light. The whole Illuminating power would lie always employed, undiniiniahml by tha in- terpoalthin of colored glaaa. Theae light* would be more readily vlallde at a distance, Iwcauae It Is known that the eye perceive* more readily a faint light which I* Intermittent than an equal light which I* lixed. The Hoard regard thi* as the most lm|iortant proposi- tion for distinguishing lighta which has ever liccn made, and propose to make full experimental trials of it. In fogs, Mr. Habbage pmpoaea to make the pauaes between the atmkea of the gong take the placea of the occultatlons of the light. To give this plan » full de- velopment, all nations should unite in a ayatem of numbering for llght-houaes. Huch a co-operation might reasonably lie looked for, if the plan have all the suc- cess which Is now expected. " Bett mode of tucrrtnitimg the neeeuili/ for inlm- ilueing nnr JAghtt, fieneotn, etr. — l/>gialation la, of course, necessary to the eataliliahment of a new light. The recommendations of the l.ight-houae Koanl, of ofScers of the coast survey, of pilots, nnvigatora, and others, all reach the Committees of Commerce of the two llousas of Congress, through different appropriate channels. It does not seem practicable to pro|ioae any aptam of examination of sites which would nut lie ver}' expensive, while leglalation Is pending on the subject. A reference to the Light-house IJtianl, in doubtful cases, would secure the committees from recommending appropriations for objects whirli cer- tainly would not have the approval of pnifesjional men. The law of the last session provided for the ex- amination of sites, for which appropriations were made, by the officers of the coast survey, and a report by the superintendent. Aa tMs will leave a full knowledge of all the circumstances of the case, and he attended with very little expense, the same plan shonid be pursued In all future caaea. " liftl mode of iHpplgmg tine Lii/hlii. — When it has l)een shown, to the satisfaction of Congress, that new lights are required, and appropriations made for the purpose, the )ilans and spedflcations fur constructlnn, illuminating apparatus, distinction, etc., should lie made by the engineer of the Light-house Board. .Should a previous estimate have lieen made by this enj^inrer, for the Information of Congreas, generally, there will t>e required but little more than to fill up the details. The construction having lieen approved by tha Li|;lit- bouse Board, a contract should be entered into, acconl- Ing to law — based entirely upon the plans, drawing?, and spedflcations and estimates of the engineer — and tha building should be erected, and the lighting appa- nl|iiMi4a,' "' tba ^ng^ti cnr|iaoreng{ •be purpose, •«• approved •* "Uhject to " ^rW» of bouae Un»r^ | •ny exiating mInallBg app, •houM lie reqi "cnnlim4an In regard to the •Imllar to eboae light*. "fuherf, „f I •"'I llght-kee;;era atrucllon,, In the well as those necei •be establlshment- Inapectora and keei Great Britiln. '| tailed account of \\ •be duties contlneri description of the »nd the means to I the nmchlnerj-, etc itructlona, f„r the brace every p„|„t j, "«t only fl,, ,h, 1 •>ut«laoof theenul ""cted with the serl houses, llghUveaaef "P»clt;prlfte,iinr m*\ «nd are kept] [rames, .o that no 1 *"« duUilnl for lbs purpow, In nmfnnnlty to tho nth notlnn nf tha Ml a|iprov«mlttml tn tha hnnrd, which nhonld Iw paaaad upnn, and, If nppnivrd, tha nwaaaary lapa ahoiild be lakan tn maka tha n>|ialni, air., araonlInK to law j nr, in tha avant of tha cxpanaa >MtnK ton Kraat la admit nf Iha wcrka IwInK dona, axrapt liy a apot'ial appropriation, than Iha narcaanry aatimntan, axplana- tiona, rtr., ahnnld l>a prapnrad and anlnnltlad, thrnUKh tha Narralary ol Iha Trenaiiry, for tha cnnatdamtinn nf Conifraaa, II ahould alan Iw thn duty of tha Hoard to proeura all tha nacaaaiiry infnrmalinn raUlInK tn tha aalahllahmant of n«w lli(hta, alnili»hiiiant nf nl« ■imllar to thoae necaaaary in roaei of renovation of lighti. " Suhjrdt nf fnitrurliim to Jimplof/ftt. — Inapectort and llght-keepera ahould lie pnivldad with printad In- •tructinna. In tha form of munuala of lifatruttlnn, aa well aa thoae ncccaiiary to giilda tham in the police -if the eatalillahmenta, alinilar to thoae provided fur the ln*pectura and kvepvra nf li){ht-houaaa In Kmnve and Great Uritiiin, Thla manua' ahould embrace a de- tailed account peni; a deicription of tlie parts of the machinery employed i and the means to be employed, in case nf accident lo tha machinerj-, etc., until it can he repaired. The In- ■trurtinns. for the liKht-hnuse service nf Krance em- brace every point in the moat minute detail, and serve nf causing a Ihomugh axpariniintat axaiiiinalina In lia iiiada of the twn iiila (iniu and tha beat wliileib alralnail •|i«rm oil), liy frvfaastir Karaday, Mr. Alaa Htavanwin, and iithara Intaraatad in llght-houaa aarv» lea, by which it waa riaariy daniiinstrulatl that Ih* cnUa nil ka BU|wrlur, In avary aaaantlal partlrnlar, to the liaat winlar-itraina, fruni tlie Incrualaliun of Iha charred part nf tlie cnltun retarding the Huw of oil. In tha rape oil lamps the coal is bmkan and porous, and serves fur wick almost as wall aa the frash cuttimi but in tha a|i«rin oil lampa tha i:nal furma a hard, ran- tinuous ring, which seaU up the ends of Iha threads | aud tills, Willi the more cnnllned cnndition of Hit buniar, and tho greater distance nf the oil lianeath (from intentional diff«raiic« uf flow in the lamps), causes the apenn nil lamp tiaine tn fail In bright- ness, and ra<|ulres that the wick should be re-triinmad. * * * I lava inadu many careful experiinenta on the proportion of light pnitluced by the two kimla of lamps, in ever}- vase weighing the oil liafnr* and after cninbustlon, so as to know exactly the i|uiiii- tity burned, anil making, during the axperimenta, aliove 100 tomparisons uf the lights one with annthor. The rape oil lamps were always mure brillbiiit tliiin the sperm oil lamps, except, indeed, one or two rar« cases; but, at the same time, more oil waa liumi'd in them. • • * Krom 108 observations uf the lights, taken at such times as appeared filled lo give the best mean expression of Ihe light of the luiiipi cnmpared with the oil burned in them, the averago light of the rape oil Ump came out as one and a half, that of the sperm oil lamp I son says : 'In my la the light-hoUHes, Id. . to the propriety of r^iak the patent cnlzu '- ruary, at ' t iluptn.' u.i.l ili. . 'ptric lights, • • • ■'•.1 it,-iunl. I imrcc p ,it jf all tlie re. |iorts, as iL 'lOi, 'Inl 1 ' lin- il «. irs it needless to enter into any 1,1' •> il. gdnly-varying cir- cumstances of each .. ive, therefore, great satisfaction in briefly ' 1.. s follows, the very favorable conclusions at WMich 1 have arrived: 1. The colza oil possesses the advantage nf remaining fluid at temperatures wliicli thicken the spcrniuceti oil, so that it requires thu iippilcation of tlie frost- lamp. * * * U. Tlie colza oil bums, Imtii in tha Fresnel lamp and tho single Argand burner, with a thick wick, during 1" houra, without requiring any coaling of tho wick or any adjustment of the dumper, and tiifl flame seems to bo more steady and free fruin flickering than that from spermaceti oil. 4. There seems (most proliably owing tu the greater steailinesi of the Hame) to be less breakage of glass ciiimneys with the colza than with tho sperm nil. 5. The con- sumption nf oil, in so far as tiiat can lie ascertained during so short a period of trial, seems, in the h'resnel lamp, to be 121 for colza and 114 for spennucoti; while in tiio common Argund lump, the coiisuniption appears to be 010 for colza and 90'i for spermaceti, 6. If we may assume the means of these numbers, 615 for colza and 508 for spermaceti, as representing the relative expenditure of these oils, and if the r*'ce of the colza is 3b. 9d,, while that of spermaceti ' ^ 9d. ,feL <-»,! ^^ LIG 1252 LIO ptr Ifflptrial gallon, w« thall have a saving ia the ratio nf 1 to to 1-776, which, at the present rate of aapply for the Northern lights, wonid give a saving of •hont £9116 per aennm.' The evidence of these two dlstbigulshsd gentlemen is cnnclunive of the snperior- It/ of the colxa or rape-seed oil to the liest winter- atra!!;--! ..perm oil j and how much hotter than that ttwid in our lights, may be readily inferred without the al4 of experiments on so nice a scale as these employed \ty Professor Pamday nnd Mr. Stevenson, when it is ntm«mli«r«d that our lights are supplied with oil eallwl winter and spring or summer oil. That efficient tights along the consts of ail maritime countries are ••stmtial to a snfn -vigation, and the Ducceiafui prose- y ' eutlon of a liicrntive commerce, wijl not Ije contested; that all mere personal or locaf interests should give way to the genor'-.l good, is an assumption which will not meet with disfavor in this country ; and inasmuch us It is nf paramount Importance to the best interests of (he whole conntry, that our lights and other aids to n ivlgntlon shonld bo the best which money, science, anii the mechfloic arts \rill afford, it is, in the opinion flf the Hoard, tiie duty of those charged with this im- portant branch nsiers of every 10 may be represented l>y only 2 more signs than tliose expressing tlio value of the ten's place, giving a very great variety. A letter made to rcvolvo al)out a verti- cal axis, produces a solid of rovolution which is easily recognized as the sign fgr the letter, Fourteen of the twenty-six letters are adapted to charucteristic signs, as shown in the figures (A, IS, K, I, J, I,, O, 1', Q, K, T, \V, V, Y), Nino digits of the Arabic num- erals, viz. : 1, 2, 4, 5, (i, 7, 8, !), and 0, give easily formed and easi' ' recognized signs, us is shown in tlie accompanying plate ; and these the Board recommend for numbering buoys, excluding 3 as not sulBcicntly characteristic. In tlio English system of plueini; buoys, a red and black are placed on opposite sides of u channel, and the vessel runs between them. In our system only one buoy is placed on the starboard or port hand, and the vessel runs for tho buoy, keeping it close aiioard in passing. Tho Knglish system is most simple, and even the most economical. In order to render buoys available at niglit, various proposi- tions have been made for lausing them to appear luminous, but none iiave succeeded practically. Light- ing by gas is among tlio methods propeted. " Of Foj Signals, — During the prevalence of fogs, the lights wliicli ought to guide the seaman are often indistinctly seen, or entirely obscured, until ho lias approached too near tho danger ag^iinst which t'ley were intended to warn him. In cases of fog, light- 1263 LIO ■hlpa and Ught>hoiiwa «n, in lome instaneea, prorlded with gong< and bella, which sre than kept ooiutantly eounding. It is unfortunate that the means of wan- ing the seaman of his danger should extend to the bhortest distance when that danger is most imminent. The lights asually employed are visible at a distance of from 6 to 30 miles ; but the sound of a gong or liell is heard at a comparatively very small distance. When these instruments are heard, they merely indi- cate danger, but not its exact nature. It might, in dome cases, be of great importance that the gong or bell should indicate the number of the light-ship. This could be accomplished liy a ver}' trifling altera- tion in the mechanism. Instead of striking the instrn- iiient at fixed intervals, let there be pauses and a long interval lietween the number of strokes which succes- sively represent tie digits of the number of the light- ships, just in the same manner as has l)een proposed for light-houses. A light-house or light-ship whose numlier is 243, would be thus indicated during fog : two blows on gong, pause ; four blows on gong, pause ; three blows on gong, long interval.' The same mechan- ism which caused the occultai.ions of the light might produce the blows on the gong. The preceding ex- planations are sufficient to show that each light-house or light-ship, by continually repeating its own number, might render any mistake of it for a different light very nearly impossible. The great principle on which the system rests is to give numerical expression. to each light. If it be not thought necessary to apply it to every light-house, the most important may be chosen for its application. The expense of the altera- tion, and the amount of danger incurred by a mistake, will furnish the ground of decision in each individual cose. In proposing, however, a new system which has extensive I)earing3 on other questions connected with the safety of those who travel on the waters, it is desir- able that a general nnd comprehensive view should be taken of such of its applications as tite rapid advance in mechanical and chemical science justify us in supposing must take place in a few years. However partially the system may be adopted at first, a judicious foresight into its prob.ible applications may enable us, without any present inconvenience, to accelerate future im- provements, and to save considerable expense on their adoption. The following suggestions for improve- ments or applications, many of which are perfectly practicable at the present time, are offered for the con- sideration of those who may l)e called upon to carry out the NumerietU System of Light-houtft. They are not necessary for the success of the simple plan which has been already descrl ed, but may be adopted or re- jected without any interference with it, " SuggeMiont/or the Impnwemen >f Ligkt-houie Sig- naU, B\ioy$y ttc. — Telegraphic etmmunication during the night beUneai Light-homei, and Shipt in dittrtst. — Cases occur in which it is of great consequence that a ship should communicate with the land long liefor^; it can send a Ima^ ashore or enter its intended port. It may be the hi-oier of important intelligence. It may con- vey soiae person whose presence is essential for some great objec. The vessel itself may be in distress. The state of the element!) may render it impossible to send for or receive any assistance from the land j yet, even under such unfavorable circumstances, if direc- tions from skillful pilots, acquainted with the coast, could be conveyed to the ship, its wrei'.k might, per- haps, be prevented ; or, if driven on shore, having been directed to the least unfavorable spot, its crew might possibly lie saved. Such cummunicatic'n> i.iight easily be organized. There are already existing in the royal ntvy in the East India Company's service, and else- where, large dictionaries of numerical signals. These, it is true, are made by fia-s, or by bails ; but the same numbers may be expressed l)y the occultations of lamps. Any number, however large, may be ex- fteaaed by making the number of occultations corre- sponding to the flnt or highest digit, than A\am\nn I pause ; after which the numlier of occultations t»\fn- senting the second digit, then a pause ) and m Ott, always observing that, after the unit's figure b»« imm expressed, there must follow a long interval, " The plan for telegraphic communications wouM b# thus arranged : 1. LighUhouse repeating Its own imW' her. 2. Ship fires a gun, and hoists » light, to vM the attention of the light-keeper. 8, l.lght'huMMI ceaseAepeating its numl)er, uiiil becomes a •t«lt4y light, thus informing the sliip that It is obuirvad, i. Ship having prepared its niesssge, numericuUy »%• presses it by the occult»tions of its own Uinp, ft, Light-house repeats the message of ship, in order (« show that it has le arranged on movable discs, wltii^b may be placed in the mechanism employed fur oa.'M\U ing, even while it is repeating another massage. Many such discs, each containing a different iiiessaga, m%y be placed in the machine at once, and on touching any lever the light will continue repeating the corriiii|iuMl ing message. In case of a ship in dititruss, fur iii> stance, requiring an anchor of given weight. It may \m necessary to send to the Imrbor-mastar of tlie adjiiocot port to give the order, and to ascertain tl)a tim* WJMM it can reach the vessel. During this interval, tlm light-house will be repeating its own number, An electric telegrjph from the light-house to the dwelling of the harbor-master would save mucli time, and, In some cases, much damage. The gun tired liy tlia vea> sel might also be heard by the harbor-niastar | and Ilia attention then being directed to the telegraph light- house, the whole time might be saved. If avail hia own house was invisilile to the ship, but within view of the light-house, hn might, by means of a siwwil light, correspond with tiie ship, through the intfirvaiM tion of the light-house, repeathig the signals nf hutb parties. Colored shades might, if thought i sage. Besides, in the course of every tliree mimitaii, at least, the light-house would re|)eut its own numlwrr Thus tlie ship would always know that it was \n the presence of a light-house ; and if its reckoning did n"( enable it Identify the light, it could only remain in doubt during a few minutes. " Telgraphic Signals between Shipt at night. — Tb« «p« plication of tlie system of occultations to shl|M at lun may not perhaps be quite so easy as that wbltb ta proposed for light-liouses, but no ol)jectian liaa yat occurred which appears at all insurmountable, 'i'ha question of the position of the occulted light or Itgllta placed on the ship must be settled iiy practical man, aflor due consideration and experiment. It may, however, be suggested, that a light hid by a mast or sail may yet have its occultations made (lerfiu'tly a|>|Nt> rent liy reflection from another sail, If such a syslant of signals were adopted, fleets might sail in cuinpaiiy during the night, each repeating its own numlier i and LIG 12S4 VBjT % anj- ordm could be conveyed to any individual «hip. Specific lights have already hcen employed to distin- guish sailing-vessels from steamers, in order to prevent collisions. By adapting the system of occultations to one or more of the lights of steamers, their character would appear more distinctly, and at greater distances. Perhaps, indeed, it would Im lietter to have the dis- tinctive character of u steam- vessel indicated l>y a con- tinual enlargement and diminution of its light, mtlier than by an occultutinn. Two steamers alwi would have much leas reason for approaching each other, be- cause thoy could hold any correspondence by signals. They might also, by the same means, convey to each other their intended course long before they approach each other, " Of a univenal Dictimary of Sli/nnU.—'WYieWwt the system of occultations tje generally adapted or not, numerical dictionaries of signals have l*en fonnd absolutely nocessarj-, and have long l)ecn in use. The rapid increase Imth of ships and of steamers renders some common language for ail natifins almost ii mat- ter of necessity. The concurrence between adjacent nations in numbering their respective light-houses would he essential if any numerical system is adopted for distinguishing them. Such un opportunitj' ought not to be lost of rendering those discussions still more useful l)y attempting to organize a plan for a universal system ot numerical signals. The first step might, perhaps, lie that each nation should suppij' all ques- tions and answers that ships could ever require for their safety or convenience. Out of these, the dupli- cates lieing omitted, the first draught of the naval part of the dictionary might be formed. This l)eing sui)- mitted to criticism, would probably itself suggest many additions. " The questions shoul.l he ver' carfuUy translated into the languages of all maritime nations, and should be printed in columns for each language. A dictionary of tbi.4 l(ind, containing alwut 6(XKi terms in ten Eu- ropean languages, was published in 1849 by M. K. P. Tcr Kceliorst. The words are contained on about 200 douliie pages ; and since each word, of which there are usually about 25 in a page, is nnrabered, this work might be used as a numerical telegraphic dictionary. If a more general dictionary were undertaiten, other considerations arise, and the great questions relating to tie philosophy of language must ho examined with refurence to such a work. It wiii, however, be suffi- ciently early to enter on that tulijcct when any steps arc seriously taken to acfomplish so desirable an ob- ject. The coutinualiy increasing use of the electric telegraph rendnrs a universal language still more de- sirable. " Iki the Itlrnlification of a f.iyhl-hnuif, — A case has been more tlian once suggested to the author, to which it may lie desiral>ie to advert in order to point out the course of ex|)erimcnt which may lead to its removal, .'it certain periods of the year, and on ceru ',-. consts, there occur dense fogs. IJnder these circumstances, it lias happened that a vessel has, on a partial and momentary ofH^ning in the fog, insufficient to show more than a single >ccuitatie supplied wiih oxygen during fogs ; its expenditure being regulated by the oliscurity to lie penetrated. Possibly portions of ]iho8phorus might be burnt in oxygen, and the liglit-house would then express its nunilMr l)y a series ut fttuhes, and of pmuet between them. The new form which that body is now known to assume, might render itj a( plication to i\.\» purpose free from danger. " On Simtuit meilfir SignaU. — Uoth gongs aiid iieiU are employed as substitutes for lights during fogs. I am not aware of any series of experiments on the ilis- tances at which sounds of various kinds can be hearii. In a question on which so much property and so many lives depend, it is surely important to lie well informcil. The only resource is experiment. It may be remarked that the low notes of the gong might be confuUiided with those of the roll of waves hreaki'.g on the shore, while the slirill whistle of Che steam-engine will find a rival in the wind whistling through the rigging. The trumpet and the new and still more powerful instru- ment at the recent oxposition ought also to lie com- pared. " Again, although some of these may b« heard at greater distances in the open air, some nuiy be more easily adapted to have tlieir sound concentrated and directed, when placed in the focus of a parabolic mir- ror, or, perhaps, at the • ■ i of a long tube. Souud is LIG 1266 LIG trusmitted to coiuidenbis disUncM tbrongh water, and it has been suggested that this might be used in ease of fogs. But it seems probable that sound would he much interrupted in its progress from the constant motion of the waves; and if it were transmitted at a considerable depth, it might be diffl'-ult for a vessel to send down an apparatus to render it sensible. Experi- ments should be made on the distance at which sounds can be heard under water in various circumstances of its motion. If, during storms, the surface only is agi- tated, it might be possible to transmit sounds in the still water near the bottom to considerable distances. Thus channels might be traversed by telegraphic com- munications with a less costly apparatus than that of the electric wire. It ought also to be ascertained whether the forms of the instruments struck would enable them to project their sounds in particular direc- tions. Gongs, bells, and the firing of cannon under water, are among the sounds to be tried. " Whatever mny be the sound audible at the great- est distance, it will be necessar}- to ascertain what are the best means of producing it in greatest intensity — whether by one large instrument, or by many small ones. It seems probable that some combination of discordant sounds may be most effective, because it seems to be a luw of our nature that contrasts produce stronger impressions than uniformity. There is one form of sound the most disagreeable with which we are acquuinte<) ; it is said 'to set tlie teeth on edge.' What is the cause of this, unci does that highly obno.i- ious sound penetrate further than others ? If it pen- etrate as far as others, it will certainly be the earliest to he noticed, " Liijhta on Buoys. — The time is probably ni.' remote when lights will be placed on floating buo; s for the purpose of |)ointing out isolated dangers — as sunken rocks, shoals, otc, on which light-liouses can not be placed, or where the great expense may prevent them from Iteing built. They may also be useful to indicate the channels leading to some few ports of verj' great resort in order to render the approach of vessels possi- ble during the night. The lirst difliculty in placing lights on buoys arises from the necessity of trimming the lan-.ps, and of supplying them with fresh oil. Gidvanic processes seem to present u 8imi''\r difficulty. The chemical discoverirs of recent times, however, offer some liop^ of rvmoving it. By the destructive distillation of peat, of coal, and of shale, as well as by other methods, a yari^'ty of immliiiaticns of hydrogen and carbon have been obtained. Some of these only remain liquid under a pressure of two or three atmos- pheres. They posse's considerable illuminating power ; and by confining them in a close vessel, and allowing a very small aperturo for f heir escape in the state of gas, a jet of flame may ' i. produced, of uniform mag- nitude, and without the use of a wick, until the last drop of fluid has evaporated. If such a fluid couid lie produced nt a moderate price, '> quantity might l>e in- closed witliin the buoy, sufEciekit to last several weeks, if not months, " Such u light would bum withont the necessity of trimming, but it would require mechanism tu light it each evening, and to put it out each morning. Such mechanism already exists in many of our public clocks. If it is thought desirable, too, that it should :>ccult, so as to indicate its number, tha plan already described might be applied. Thus t! e buoy would contain two pieces of mechanism. The only remaining Jithoulty would Iw the necessity of visiting the light frequently in order to wind up the two instruments. This might probably be removed I))' having within the buoy a heavy pendu) jm, or perhaps two such, swinging «t right angles to each other. If the perpendicular mo- tion of the buoy could be secured, then the winding up pendulums must be maintained horiiiontally by means cf a powerful spring. These, by the action of the naves, would be continually winding up the springs which drive the mechanism. This might be ao ar- ranged that it would never over-wind them. Spirits of turpentine, binaole, and several other compounds, assume a gaseous state at very low temperatures. If the end of a tolerably thick rod of metal is heated by the flame of the lamp, und the other end conducts the heat to the bottom of the fluid, it is sufficient to pro-_ duce a continuous stream of gas to supply the burner' untU the last drop of the fluid is exhausted. Lamps constructed on this principle liiive, under various names, been in use for several years. If the fluid were sufliciently cheap, one of these movements might be dispensed with, by allowing tiw light to bum con- stantly during the day as well as the night. New forms would be required for such buoys. Probably a columnar form, weighted at the bottom, might give a steadier light amid the fluctuations caused by the waves. These buoys should be attached to their moorings by rings fixed at the centre of resistance. " 0/lhe Mechanimn necuiaryfnr OcculUiu, Lighta. — The period of time occupied l>y any occulting light in making a signal is so short th^t great accuracy in the wheel-work is not necessary. In light-houses the moving power may be a heavy weight driving a train of wheels. This must terminate in a governor, which presses by springs against the inner side of a hollow cylinder. AVhen the length of the time nccessarj' to indicate the number of the light-house is known, the governor must be so adjusted that some one axis shall revolve in the given time. A cam-wheel must be fixed on this axis, having its cams and blank spaces so ar- ranged as to lift up the tail of a lever carrj-inj^ the oo- cultating cylinder at the proper intervals of time. Each tooth of the cam-wheel will cause an occultation of the lamp l)y the cylinder, which is instantly drawn back by a spring. It is obvious that an axis m'ght l)e used whicn moves round in the course of two, three, or more cj'cles. In this case, the same system of cams would be repeated an equal number of times in the circumference of the cam-wheel. This plan is sufficient for light-houses which are not intended for signal sta- tions also. When signals are to be used, it is better to have a single cam on an axis which revolves once in the time which elapses from the end of one occulta- ti.in to the i-nd of the next. The effect of this cam will be, by acting upon a forked lever, to lift up the occulting cylinder. If nothing retain it in that posi- tion, the action of the spring on the lever will cause it to descend, and the cylinder, acted ou by gravity, will instantly follow. But if an arm is interposed which retains the cylinder, then the forked lever alone will be pulled back by its spring, and the occulting cylin- der will remain suspenilod until the next tun of the cam-wheel. The suspending arm which was inter- pOi^?d must itself lie governed by a cam-wheel, ex- pressing the number of the light-house. "When a signal is to be made, an adjustable cam- wh<::el is to be set to the proposed signal, and is to be fixed upon thaotxis carrying the constant number of the light-house. When the proper time arrives tar making the signal, it is only necessary to shift the axis, so that the adjustable cam-wheel shall be moved into the place occupied by the fixed cam-wheel, Tb« signal will now be made and repeated as often as re- quired, after which, the original position of the con- stant cam-wheel must be restored, it is clcav that any number of adjusting cam-wheels might be pre- pared for signals, and put upon the axis at once, so ; that u series of different signals might !» made in a very short time. Lights to -.nark the depth of water must have a heavy 6oat connected with them, wkich, at every foot of its rise or fall, must alter the numbei of occultations made by the colored light. It must, also, at the turn of the tide, change the color of the ! light. It is sufiicient for the present purpose to ob- I serve that the mechanism similar to that by which a I clock strikes different hours, might be ea[doy«d f«r LIG 1256 UQ tbia pnrpoM.. The xell in which the float iertarea ; tblt would render the riae or fall of the float more uni- form Telescopea are used fi>r ubaerving liffht-houaes. They h»v« a ainail magnifying power, bat a Urge aper- ture. It ia important that Ony ahonld be aa abort aa poaaible, for taking in a given visual angle. Poa- aibly, thoae oonatructed with a lens of rock-ciystal might bo employed with advantage, but upon thia aub- Ject, alao, experiment muat be made. Umx. Brtktm.* Portland Degutn WeatQuoddjr.. lUonhofan lil . . lOwl'a Hi-ad . . . Cue Kllzabetli. |l)lce'aH(iad...! lEagle lal. point |Buar Island Boston iTluttcfasr's lal. . CapaOod Oay Bead iflaiikaty Head. . Jufitpor Island, jf Jew London . . jKaton'aNcck... Montauk sandy Hook.... NarAlnk Cape Henlopen (!ap« Henry iUdUcad Cape Uatteraa. . Oap« Lookout . Cliarleaton Cape Uoinain.. . Tyhce llry Tortugaa . Cape Florida. . . Cape May RHOUSIf LIOHTS SoUly Longshlps. . Lizard Eddystone !«lart Point... Caaonota Portland. CoMPAnATiTa Elkvation or Foanuii amd Umitiii 8TATia' LiauT-Haoaa Towaaa, xtc 40 T3 T» M Mr S8 101 S6 »6 K 35 SS 68 86 4B 45 78 >4 18 S8 S8 85 TO S« 106 to 8« Mcedles ii. Catliarlno'a. (leacby Head. . Dangooncss. .. r*antb Puro^and 41 " » ! 8J North Foreland; TO Orford ' 8T fiovaatoft 48 • 48 Haiabromfa.. 85 80 IM 80 ITO MI 140 )40 IK 100 86 80 80 80 160 178 85 111 134 ISO 80 848 Hatsbrough . . . iCronur. ICbapel.'. !.!.!!' 48 Brum iFuunborough., Tynituout'i Inobkelth. . . tale of May. . It Bell Rock... Olrdieness. 3uchsnne99 . Klnnalrd.... Bkeirlof Tarbet, Noss Itiad, . Duniiet I'entland. . . . Start. jTj Snmburg. 180 ll!0 110 85 86 105 87 100 70 70 188 88 221 284 72 204 81 81 61 188 181 408 178 885 82 872 275 184 86 87 118 48 187 Ca|>e Wraili. . . . Glass Uarrallead Skerryvorc... I Liamore ( Khina of Islsy. . Kynlyre Pladda Mull Little itoss Corsowall Calf of Man.... Douglas IMOI.AND — WMT COAST. Bt B«ca Walney Black Itock,.. I^sowu Lynns Sktirrics Stock Bardscy Small's (Knck) 8t Ann's Houth Bliliuu... Caldy Mumbles.. . . Naah FUtholm Lnndy Trovoae Head. 100 100 67 120 45 80 10 80 85 r,o 80 Rork. ftwaah 80 88 80 70 88 65 40 65 US 60 118 60 86 54 68 78 44 17 86 40 66 80 46 77 100 «74 115 106 814 IM 880 840 110 8C 186 re 180 180 160 176 176 846 170 140 100 800 400 180 680 150 108 160 887 130 825 175 118 875 2S2 104 70 118 800 128 117 201 128 70 188 168 144 210 114 167 122 156 610 804 188 IKIIkradan Bkelllg. latL KKD- FaatoetUoek..... iCape Clear Kljaalo KInaalo Harbor., Hook Tower Tuskar Wlcltlow Bally l*oolbug.... CarllnffoidcKock) ('opoland.. . Maidens.. . . Inalatrabul.. , Tory Island., Kllfybcg..... Eagle Clare Island. . Arran ' a. Loophcad I tO {269 H.y. lion •bon tower. ■e* lord. r-t. fMt. 76 161 48 465 42 274 86 98 110 152 81 I'l'. 68 ^ U» 121 48 184 68 68 111 101 52 181 60 84 60 04 26 167 68 ■»(»r Panaa am. Aroona Jerahoft Rlxhiift Hela. Briisteriirt Memel. SwKDDH. Orsklir Oriinskir.. . . . Koraao I^nd.so.t rtlund Kullon..., . Marst;aiid . . , This list romprlsos ttU the moftt im- puriant lighU. BauiiCH. Oatend (2d order fixed) \vn MCTHKRLANDS. Wf-stkappeUnx'd) Scbouwon (lat or- der Icna) Oooree (flxod),... Briellolfliod).,.. !Egmonu-aan-zeo . Kykdulu IVlleland Toracbclllng. IIamovkriax. Borcum UAHBuau. Nenwerk (flxod). DAHii.a. 8kaw Anholt He&jel('ie NakkShored Kronborg Thun»e atoTMUskllnt Fakkcbolrg Hameren Lubec 110 183 118 878 87 146 170 148 808 186 154 151 177 142 69 188 85 147 118 100 144 128 880 NoBwaoiAN. FoDrder Jumfruland... 0x1)0 TheNaxe HarkJie (lunnarshong. Iloldlngsiio... Rondiie Qultbulmea. . Terulogeu.... Agdenwe. Villa Oen RusaiAK. Swalforort. , . . Riga. Fllsand ISm: tlon above :>Tii. Dagerort OdeO'^holm*. . . Pakorort Sourop Nargbon. ..... ticvel Hoglaiid Oufo HangsoDd,. . . Parkaloud... Euakar Odo&.ja. Polllnghe.... Tarkankoot.. Kheraon'M . . Inkerinan. . . . Takll I Baloiar.'ilak I r««t. 808 166 226 130 1« 113 103 151 145 180 288 97 292 216 14 iO 146 201 129 133 16^ 181 lUO lit 124 110 100 110 96 6-18 111 I4« 180 116 136 210 882 116 ' 107 I 172 1«» \% 115 109 420 860 168 176 * Tbia liat of 84 towera comprises those ofithc greatest elevatf ^n of the eo"-(i n"uibor of stations (286) on the coasts of the United States. Of tlie remaining towers (say °MI), the nu^Jorlty have n^ greati'r average elevation than t1 to 6^ feet while there are many having Icsr than 30 to 40 feet The European lists, on the contrary, comprisu uo^rlv all the sr. ooost lights. pr*m«. ScoTon Of the 34 nortbem llgbta in a* below : No. 0( ; Hum. lanpo A Isleoi'Hay 24 Bell Rock '20 (ilrdienoM 98 '• Bachaoneaa 84 Miinalrd Iliad 18 Tarbctncts 91 i'eatand Skerries (Vt) . . . . DO 8wnburK Head. 86 Dunnet Head 17 " Of the 27 northern lights in 1845, there werf 4 d!- oplric lights. (Itetiector lights.) 1 fltted witli 28 lampa and reflectors; 2 with '16; 4 with 24: 2 with 21; 2 with 20; 1 with 19; 8 with IH ; 1 with 17; 1 with 16; Lioirrs. I 1834, the following were fitted | No. of iSmpoSt Kaouton. Cape Wrath 20 Island Olasa 18 Barra Head 81 Liauiore 18 Islay 24 MullofKlntyre 90 MDllofOalloway IT One of only 8 Blxof jnly 18 4 with 12. In 1861, nearly all the northnrn lights tit- ted previously with reflectors and Argand lamps had be:n changed to Ions lighti and the colza or rupe-.seed oil introdiicod. Perfectly formed parnho ic reflectors, heavily plated with silver, and of largo ""lie, are employ- ed in the lights of Great Britain, chitlly 24 and 21 inihcs in diamotrr. Refle -tors are l)eing changed as rapidly aa puaail>le foi- lenacs, and the holupliotal .system of lenses and reflectors upon the plan of Mr. Thomas Stevenson '^f Edinl'urg. " Of the sea-coast lights of Ireland In 1845, 1 waa fitlad witi' 40 lampa and redeotora ; 1 with 28 ; 1 with 27 ; 2 with 28 ; 2 with 24 ; l with 28 ^ 6 with 21 ; 2 with 20 ; 8 with 1!) ; 1 with 17 ; 2 with Ifl ; 8 with J5. '- Floating lAghta. — 1 was fitted with 24 lamps and tefleotora ; 2 with 10. Lens lights are beiuij iiitru- I«Hefe, .,, Ilarre, 4iii Taucarvlll,- I'oliil lie ' I'olnte de 'La llotruf, ■fsloa t^hari (Iranvfli,., Cape Frth, lleau.v do i L'llle -lo It ''Tile .1 Uii l«t. MatlilcL jl'ortiec, 2d \Vlh do Sei Bic da Kaji, Belle III), 1 phaislroD, (Virdoaan, 1 f'apv Beam, Mont d'Agd (Mont Posfu! " There Wihlj, witiL 'e*t, range fejt, range fahge 18 range 20 range 18 range 18 range 20 , 'ion, range feef, range tnfllcient nautical ni{ have gener milea. Thi I'rniico. im 125T LIO lU 180 148 98 ,118 108 151 145 180 288 OT I 292 21S 4 ,iO 14« SOI 12» 188 1&3 I 181 ;loo 11" 12« I 110 100 no «« m 111 145 1 101 1 I n» ■ I iw 203 ' 128 115 1 10» . 420 860 168 1T6 1 tlio coasts of j6.-foet,wliIto tOMt lights. In 1845, 1 was ith 28 ; 1 with 6 with 21 ; i Ifi J 8 with IS- 24 lampa and Q being ii.tw- ditced intio Inland, and th« eolia or i«pe-(e«d oU inb- Btltated for wtnter-atraincd ap«rm oil. f XiiKrrT Hou» Cohpokitioii Ltaun in 1984. •^jKmiw Md ■hanutor Num. No. of roSMton. FLOATINO LldUTS. NevuTk M OoodwiD 14 Oalloiier 16 HalBborouKh It Stanftird t9 OallHtroain 16 Lynn WoU II No. or I "'"a"- 4ai'.?.J,i ^cllty, raTolTlni. 80 £(l(lrstone, flxcd M rortland, rovoWIng, SI Llnrd (8), fixed each IS Flomborough, revolving. 21 Biiuth Sbick, revolving. . . 21 Itcachy H('a60 feet, range 20 mllus ; 420 feet, range 27 rnlles , 3.15 feet, range 18 miles ; 266 feet, rang'; 22 mit«.s ; 286 feet, range 18 miles ; 888 feet, range 20 miles : 215 feet, rang"! 20 miles. Second or.lcr lights, 7W feet eleva- tion, range 18 miles ; IM feet, range 18 miles ; 150 feet, range 18 miles. Third order lights are given a snfflrient e'evation tn average a range of about 1,*) nautical niiled. Fourth nrd 8aA, AcooaDiKO to tuiis aaaraoTiTi Ei.avATio!ca . AMD Tuc KiavATioH or Tua Eye or ma Oaaaavia. K-iS.!- DlataMu DttUocfi HolghU In r>il. DhfanOM niilaoMi hi bglUh mllu. In Routieal mlUi. loKiVlllill iaUm. bmoUal mlln. 5 2-958 8-565 lid 18-874 18-03 10 4'1S4 8-638 120 14-490 13-58 16 6188 4-443 180 ifi-om m-os SO SfllO 6-180 140 1B-66S 18-67 86 6614 6-786 150 17-801 14-91 80 7-245 6-888 200 18-708 16-83 85 7-826 6-787 850 80916 18-14 40 8-366 7-865 800 88413 19-87 45 8-874 7-696 880 84-748 81-46 50 9-864 3-118 400 86-467 93-94 55 9-811 8-5(19 4.V) 88-063 84-88 60 10-246 8-886 60U SS-KO S5-«S 66 10-666 9-249 560 81-034 B6-90 70 11-047 9-593 600 83-408 3S-10 75 11-4o6 9-985 O.'M 88-726 89-25 80 11-88a 10-26 700 85-000 80-88 85 12-196 10-57 800 87-416 83-46 90 13-549 10-8S 900 89-836 84-54 95 lS-.<08 11-18 1,900 41-888 86-88 100 18-823 11-47 " ' The spheroidal form of th" narth requires that the height of a light-house tower should increase pro- portionally to the difference between the earth's radini and the secant of the angle intercepted between the normal to the spheroidal at the light-house, and the normal at the point of the light's oceultation from tba view of a distant observer. The eff'ect of atmospheric refraction, however, is too considerable to be. neglected in estimating the range of a light, or in computing the height of a tower which is required to give to any light a given range ; and we must, therefore, In accordance with the influence of this element, on the one hand, increase the range due to any given height and vice versa reduce the height required for any given range, which a simple consideration of the form of the globe would assign.' " If the distance at which a light of a given height can lie seen by a person on a given level be required, it is only needful to add together tlie two numbers in the column of distances corresponding to those in the column of lieights, which represent respectively the height of the observer's eye and the height of the lan- tern above the sea. AVhen the height required to ren- der the light visible at u given distance is required, we must first seek for the number corresponding to the height of the iih.server's eye, and deduct this from the whole proposed range of the light, and opposite the remainder, in the column of dLilnnces, seek for the cor- responding number in the column of heights." Statkuknt siiowiNO TiTR Incrkabe or Lens Lionia ur Feance sixcE 1834. Fre.scu Liohts. Clurvter of light*. No. In 1884. Lens lights 29 Befleetor lights 4o Total 74 In 1345. Ist order reflector lights 4 Ist order lens Hshts 81 2d " " 4 8d " " 18 4th " " 67 Total of lens lights 109 Koflector lights (small) 42 Total. 151 Ist order Ions lights, 8d " 3d » ■S'.h " In 1861. 6 16 Total of lens lights 126 Iteflector beacons 40 The lights of Alelers and the colonies are not Included In this Hit. An imperfect list of these, up to the latest dates, inoy 1)0 found In I'oi-e's Yealy Journal nf Trade SeveraV Important lights have been erected in Algiers uuring the paat year (.1356). , .,.,.,., . „. I; I I' I id M tiG 1258 LIG BTATunT inowiNS Tim nmiBn or htm Lisim i> i laTiifoi IN 1851. Lrns ArrAUATU*. Chtnu-ler of llghu. No. In 18 (A there wore llghta fltted with the flnt three • ordors of lena epptrttui tbronghout the world . IK) Bnullor mtadioptrlo lights 118 TotiU lens ll«hU 210 From 194S to 18S1 (six years), there were oon- stmeted In Paris and sold — lat order lens apparatus . as SO 8d " " 80 4th " " 8T Total In six jreara. 1S8 Total of the flrst three ardors of lena apparatns In use in 1851 218 Smallor lens lights IBS Total of lens llghto In ISal . Booka and Puhlii Documtntt of Reference. — The following works, Be|)orta, nnJ Documenta may 1>e con- sulted upon the subject of li|{!it-honsea, viz. : — Smca- ton'a Narrutivs of the Gddyslone Light-house : \Am- don, 1793. Stevenson's Account of the Kell-Kock Light-hoase : Kdinburg, 1824. M6molre sur un nou- veau syst^me d'6cIairago des Thares ; par M. A. Fres- nel, Ingonieur au Corps Royal dea Fonts i^t ClmubsAes, etc., etc., etc. : Paris, 1822. Bclidor, Ati:hitectnre Hydraulique, tome iv., p. 151. I'eclet, Traits de 1' £olairage : Paris, 1827. Admiral de Rossel, Kapport contenunt I'oxposltion du systime adopti par la Com- mission des I'haroa pour ecluirer lea cotes de France Paris, 1825. Treatise on burning instruments, con- taining the method of building large polyzonal lenses. By David Brewster, LL.D., F.R.S. : Eillnlmrg, 1812. Fanal di Salvore, nell'lstria, illuminato a gaz: Vien- na, 1821. On the construction of polyzonal lonses and mirrors of great magnitude far light-houses and for biirning instruments, and on the formation of a great national burning ajiparalus. By David Brews- tcr, LL.D., F.K.S. : (Kdinburg Phil. Journal, 1828, vol. riii., p. 160.) Account of a now system of illumi- n.ition for light-houses. By David Brewster, LL.D., I'.K.S. Kdinburg, 1827. ^iaggio di osservazione, or observations on the means of improving the construc- tion of light-houses ; witli un appendix, on the appli- cation of gus to ligbt-hfluees. By Chevalier G. Al- dini: Milan, 1828. Bodlor Marcet, Notice descriptif d'un fanal i, double aspect, etc., etc. : Paris, 1823. Bonlior Marcet, Paralmle soumise h I'art, ou I'^ssaie snr la catnptrique de rcchiiragc; Paris, 1819. Descrip- tion Sonimaire des Phares et Fanaux alium^s snr le.i cAtea de France : Paris, 1845. Stevenson's British Pharos: Leith, 1881. The Light-houses of tlie Brit- ish Islands, corrected at the Admiralty, to October, 1844. The Belgian, Netherlands, Hanoverian, Dan- ish, Prussian, 8we. Detail eatima- tif de la dcpense annuelle de la foumiture en hui'.e de colza n£co8saire au service do roclairago des Phares et Fanaux des cotps de la Manche : Paris, 1839. Clau- ses rt condilions de I'enterprise de r^Milainigo doa Pliares et Fanaux des cotes de Torinn, et de la Meditorraneo : Peris, 1838. Tablc.ia de service d« I't'clairage des Phares de I'ocdon : Paris, 1888. Detail estiniatif des diponses annuelle.4 du service de I'Aclairago des Phares rt Fanuux des coten de Fronce : Paris, 1889, 1848. Sous details du prix des diversoa fournitnres et des d6- penses k faire pour le service de I'^clairoge des Phares ot Fanaux dea cutea de France, 1838. Notice sur la compoiitiOB et 1m prix dea Phorea Lenticulairea, Cv toptriques ot Catadioptriques, parties optiquu ot m6ca- niqne, par L^toumeau et Cie., successeurs de M3(. Soliel p6re, et Frames, je'me, constructeurs de Pharei dioptriquos, systiima de M. A. Fresnel, Rue dea Pois- •onniera No. 24, prjts et hors la Imrriiire Poissonnicre, k Paris. Instruction sur I'organisation et hi surveil- lance du aervico dea Phares et Fanaux des cutes da France. Par I^onor Fresnel, ringj)nieur-en.>chef, dl. recti i;r, secretaire de la Commission dea Phares : Po- liti, 1842. Captain Leontey Spofareiff 'a New Guide lot the Navigation of the Gulf of Finland : St. Peters- burg, 1813. Colier, Gnide dea Marina : Par's, 1825. Stevensob's Sketch of Civil Engineering in America: London : 1838, p. 296. Report of the Select Commit- tee of the Mouse of Commons of Great Britain on Light-houses : Hansard, London, 1834. Report by a Committee of the Board of Commissioners, of the Northern Liglit-houses, on tlie Report of the Select Committee : Edinburg, 1836, Report of the Ommlii- sioners of the Northern Light-houses on the illumina- tion of Light-houses, by Alan Stevenson M. A. : Edin- burg, 1834. Report to the same l)oard, on the Inchkeith Dioptric Light, by Alan Stevenson : Edinburg, 1885. Report on the Isle of May Dioptric Light, by Alun Stevenson : 1836. Report on the Isle of May Light, by a Committee of the Royal Socinty (Professor Forbes, reporter) : Edinburg, 1886. Comptes Rendus Ilebdomadaires des S6ances de I'Acad^mio des Scien- ces, tome 18, p. 25 : M6nioire pr^sont6 h i'Acudi'inie des Sciences le 8 .lanvior, 1844. Note sur I'Appariil Cutadioptrique exccutee par M. Francois, jeuno, pour le Phare Ecossais de Scherivore : Conimi».suirea JIM. Arago, Mathieu, Babinet. Report of the Select Clom- mittee of the House of Commons of Great Britain upon Light-bouses : Hansard, London, 1845. Cuptiiin Denharo, R. N. Mersey, and Dee Navigation: Liver- pool, 1840. Encycloposdia Britaimicu, 7th edition: Kdinburg, 1842; vol. xx., article Sea-lights, p. 16. Circular : Instruction sur la Nouvelle Organisation de I'dclairage des Phares et Fanaux: Paris, le 2.') Juin, 1839. Circular: the samo subject : Paris, le 28 .luin, 1839. Circular : Phares et Fanuux ; Controle des con- sommationa en huile et do la situation des divers ap- provissionments : Paris, le 17 Mars, 1845. Documents H. It., 2d session 25th Congres.*, Noa. 21, 27, 38, and 41. Documents Senate, 2d session 25th Congress, Nos. 138, 159, 428, 375, 506, 258. Document H. R., 8d session 26th Congress, No. 24. Documents Senate, Ist session 26th Congress, Nos. 474 and 619. Docu- ments II. R., 2d session 27th Congress, Nos. 140, 193, 274, 811. Documents II, R., 8d session 27th Congress, Nos. 183 and 199. Documents H. R. 1st session 28th Congress, Nos. 38 and 62. Document Senate, 2d 80.«- sion iii]i Congress, No. 166. Document Senate, 3d sesslo'i 2Gth Congress, No. 190. Docnment II. 11., 3d session 27th Congress, No. 282. Document Senate, 2d session 27th Congress, No. 983. Document II. R., 2d session 27th Congress, No. 740. Document Senate, 1st session 26th Congress, No. 58. Documents Son- ate, 8d sejsion 25th Congress, Nos. 160, 131, 187. Doc- uments Senate, 2d session 25th Congress, Noi>. \W^, 254, 15. Memoir of Colonel B. Aycrigg, on the Ught-houses at Barfleur and Ostend; Document H. R., No. 190, 8d session 25th Congress. Amtrioan Review, vol. i.. No. 3: New York, March, 1815. Captain Cotton's History of the Trinity House, Xmm- don. Edinburg Review, No. csv., vol. 57, p. 180; No. cxxiii., vol. 61, p. 117 ; No. oxxiv., vol. 61, p, 279. Transactions of the Royal Society, I.iOndon: Drummond Liglit, Nautical Magazine, vols. 1 to 15 : 1832 to 1846, Encyclopojdia Britannica, 8th edition : Edinburg, 1856 ; vol, 6, article Bunting-glasses. An- nuaire pour I'an 1881, pr^enti uu Roi, par \o Bureau dea longitudes : Notices Soientifiques par M, Arogo, p. 151 et p. 172. Ex. Document H. R., No. 14, 2d session Slst Congress. Rudimentary Treatise on tl© 1260 LIO Ught-hooMii, by AUn Stavemon, 0. E., «te., etc,, •tc. : London, 1860. Account of the Sk^nryvore Light-house, with notes on the illumination of Light- houses, liy Ainu Stevenson, LL.!)., F.K.S.E., M.T.C. E., Engineiir to the Northern Light-huusa Buiird i Ed- inburg and London, 184H. K«port of the Franldin Institute ou th« Dlii|)tric System of Augustin Fresnel, for the iilununutiou of Light Houses : .hiurnnl l''r«nk- lin Institute, 1H4U, 1850. Account of the }Iolophi>tal system of illuminating liglit-huuses ; lieing c d^scrip- tion of the light i>f maximum intensity : by Thom- as Stevenson, K.U.S.K., F.K.S.S.A., civil engineur: Edinburg, iHul. Ex, documeut, lirst sessiun, 30th Congress, No. 27. Ex. document, special session Senate, No, 1. Instruction pour le service dps Fhares lenticuluires : Pnrii, 18-18. An account of the CBst- inm light-house tower on Gibbs's Hill on the Bermu- diu : by Peter I'aterson ; London, IHIiO. An account of the construction and fitting up of the new light- bouse on the Mora costlo at Havana, island of Cuba ; first order lens apparatus. Franklin Institute Journul, July, 1M7. Returns to rurliamcnt of Northern lights for 1844, 1846, 18-16, 1847, 1848, 1849, and 1850. Re- turns to Parliament of Uritinh Colonial lights for 1846, 1849, 1850, and 1851: London. Returns to Parlia- ment of Trinity House Corporation lights fur 1844, 1845, 1847, and 1848. Returns to Parliament of Irish lights for 1846 and 18-18. Returns relating to the use of colza oil in Grout Uritiiin, three cuhiurs, 1846, Cast- iron light-housos. Nautical Magazine: June, 1850, Light-house economy, Nautical ^Magazine : May, 1851. Light-houses of the British colonics and possessions abniad: by Alexander Gordon, M. Inst. C.E., etc, London, 1848. Parliamentary report on shipwrecks : IX)ndoii, 1843. William Ilerschel on the reflection of light from surfaces of tptculum metal, in thu Philo- sophical Transactions, vol. 90, p. 64 : I,ondon. An account of the construction and price of lenticular aea-lightH ; catoptric and catudioptrlc, optical and me- chanical portions. W. Wilkinsi London, 1851. Traito elementnire de Physique, par E. Pcclet : Paris, 1847." IJyht-hou»e Si/alem of the United Stitlfa 1850-57. — The rvcommendutions suggested in the Report of 1851, have been generally carried into effect. At the end of the year 1856, there were in operation, or nearly lln- ished, in the United States, 609 light-houses, light- boats, etc. The following extracts from tlie Light- house Board Report, under date November 1, 1856, will show some of the important ciianges that have recently taken place : " The general condition of the aids to navigation, at the date of the last report from this office, was such as to leave but little to be done toward completing the systematic plan of improvements of authorized aids to navigation along the coasts l>eyond the general routine duties of renovating and repairing existing structures, and of providing those aids for which ap- propriations had been then recently made. The system of buoyage and beaconage had been carried out as per- fectly, and to as great an extent as the means provided for that object would admit ; and it is believed that but few localities urn known to exist requiring ad- ditional aids of that kind. Renovation.* and improve- menta of light-honses and litrht-vosscls, in addition to the ordinary . ecessury repairs, have been niado as ex- tensively during the past year as the means provided and t^ t ;ierind of time for doing so would permit. A large nuuiber of lens illuminating apparatus has I>f en substituted for the old rcHuctors and fountain lamps, to the f;rent benulit and economy of the service. Changes are still being made as rapidly as the lens apparatus is available, having in each case due regard to the condition of the old apparatus in the lii^ht- honses requiring renovation. Now and Improved illu- minating apparatus has been placed in, or is in course of preparation for, such of the light-vessels as h.id Dot been roiitted at the date uf the last report. All the aids to uvigatloa, for which iipteUI upprupriatlang liave been made, bava either been coniplntad or cuirM menced, except those condemned iw being uuii*iiiiiiwr>' I'y tho proper authority, or thoM to the sltM of whMi perfect titles have not lieen obtained, Th« lute |K>riu4 of the year at whicli (Congress made appriiprlatiuiK h( its last regular session for new aids to navigullun, run* dered it Impracticable to commence many of the wofki this season; but preliminary rtep* have Unn tah#n for commencing those at the north eariy next •liring, and those at the south will be commenciid ami pru»< ecuted as for as possible during the ensuing wliitar. " The frequent inspectloii» of tbelights by im\i«itU>n and others, the instruction which tli* ka tions were promptly replaced, by means uf tile buoy vessels, from the duplicates kept on hand st different points along the coast, and no efforts were xpared iu have the light-vessels repaired and towed by atouniars to their sti^tlons with the least practicable delay. Mnm the light-vessels have lieen provided with Hervlue and spare moorings of the best description, but few uf tlimii have broken adrift from, or left even the moit eii|Hi««4 positions. The supplies have been distributed to lb« lights on the Atlantic, gulf, and lake cou»t«, by tliri'H supply vessels employed, with as much regularity, and as satisfactorily as could be expected In a service, tint successful |)erformance of which de|iends so iilllch upon the weather. The great diminutiou in the i|u>in' tity of oil required to lie delivered ut the Ug!it.i lltted with lens apparatus, will be the means, as the iiiitr apparatus is substituted fur reflectors, of facl|||(itln;( the operations of making dollverias ; and more i'ro' quent and regular visits will be made wllhnut lilcrnuii- ing the number or expense of the supply-vesu-U, " The officer in churge of the llglit-liouse service on the Pacific coast was instructed to lo»e no tinui In cuni' mencing the erection of the light-house at Dnipqun, In Oregon Territory, and it Is oxjiccted, from tlu ur« gent instructions from this office, and the y,eii\ unit energ}' of the olHcer in charge, tliut it will be built dm soon as the necessary materials can be cullecti'd ut tlltf site. The illuminating apparatus and lantern for that light reached the Pacific coast in July lost, In«trupriation bills, is (iSOO per annum ; but tlie difficulties which have lieen met with in obtaining the services of competent and reliable keepers for some of the lights at isolated, though important points, on that coast, and the frequent resignations of keepers after a short trial of the duties, lead to the opinion that the main cause of dissatisfaction with the service arises ftam insufficiency of the compensation in the present state of that part of the country." The annual report of the United States Light-house Board, under date of November, 1857, recapitulates the progress of the work, viz. . The systematic plan for an economical administra- tion of the light-house estaldishmcnt service, and for improving and perfecting those aids to navigation which had been authorized by the different arts of Congress subsequent to the passage of the law of August 7, 17itl<, which enacted " that all ex| enscs which shall aScrue from and after the liftecnth lay of August, one thousand seven hundred and ei^nty-nine. In the necessarj- support, maintenance, anlic piers, 'Srectcd, placed, or sunk, before the passage of this ace, at tho entrance of or within any bay. Inlet, harbor, or [mrt of the ITnited States, for rendering tho navigation thereof easy and safe, shall lie defrayed out of tho treasury of the United Stato," wos commenced liy this board under the direction, orders, and instructions of the honorable .Secretary of the Trett.2, under the authority of the act of Congress of .list August, 18.'>2. At thut lime there were 325 light-houses and lighted beacons, and 3S light-ve.isels, making an aggregate of 343 light stations and 371 lights of all orders or classes, dUtriduted in the waters and nlimg the coasts of tlio Atlantic, Gulf, and nortliwcstcrn lakes. A few l)U(iys and beacons were placed uliing tlio coast and in the bays and harbors of the roost prominent seu-iMirts, witli- out system or plan, and often misleading in.itead of guiding the mariner. There were no lights or other aids to navigation at that time in the harliors or bays on the Pacltic coast of tho United States. There are now on the Atlantic, Gulf, Ijjke, and Pacido coasts of the United States, 648 light-house and light-vessel sta- tions, witii an aggregate of 602 lights; also 81 lights remaining either to l)e condemned according to law, or to be built in obedience to tho directions of Con- gress, as soon as valid cities to the sites are ol)tainpd ; inakipg, after allowing for all probable condemwutioni and the discontinuance of such as time iius shown to be wholly unnecessary for the general interests of commerce and navigation, nn aggregate of 57!) light stations, including light-vessels, and 627 lights. The buoyage and beaconage, at thut time almost entirely neglected, is now, it is believed, unsurpassed in sys- tematic arrangement, in reliability, and in economy of administration. The number of buoy's and beacons may be put down, in round numbers, at not less than 4500 or 6000, with duplicates (and at nio.st places along the coast spare buoys) to replace those to bo taken up each spring and autumn for cleaning and painting, ond to replace thos^ removed or destroyed by ice or by storms, and by licing run into and sunk by steamers and nther vessels. The entrances to the principal harbors, and ship-channels lauding tu them, are marked by large nun and can buoys, made diietiy of iron, which have Iwen introduced witliin tliu l».tt four yeura. The previous reports from this office dur- ing the last Ave years have infiirmed tlie department and Congreis of the extremely dilapidated condition of the towert and buildings, of the inferior quality of the illuminating apparatus, and of the wasteful expen- ditures of oil, wicks, chinmeys, and other necessary •upplles, owing to the large number of lamps employ. ed at the different light-stations, many of which, witli proper illuminating ap|iarntus, wouhl have Ircurred less than one-tenth the cost for far more brillia.t and lietter adapted lights. The light-vessela were found to be In a state of inefficiency, some of tliem silent from their stations for months at a time, without nuh- stitutcd to occupy their places, with an inferior di si |i. tlon of lamps, consuming large quantities of n than live ' tinie.H as mucli light with this one-fuu ' part of tho oil required for the argand lamps and paraiiolic re- flectors. But even this comparison is too favoraljle to the stato of the light-house estaldishment as it existed up tc 1853, inasmuch us tlie apparatus was not, of its I kind, the best that could lie made, and also from the ' fact that the great majority of lights (those in the bays, sounds, rivers, and harliors) were fitted with a mucli larger numl>er of lamps than was necessary , even under I tliat system, attributalde, however, to tho great infe- riority of the apparatus, which, it would seem, it was attempted to remedy by increasing the number of I lamps at each station. The estimates for lf<53 gave ! 3003 lamps for the 3.11 light stations. Kstiniating at an average of 10 lamps for each new light authiirlzed ' or built since that time, the number of lamps to be fed with oil, to bo supplied with wicks and chimneys, and in pro|iortion to be supplied with the various articles j of expensive cleaning materials, would, vnder the oM system, have amounted to the large number of 5560 j lamps, requiring an annual supply of not less than |'222,400 gallons of oil, computing the consumption at 1 40 gallons per lamp, which is the minimum rate. The < cost of oil has been as high as $2 per gallon at tlio I warehouses of the manufaclurer, and has been esti- mated for the year 18o8-"5a at the rate of $1 GO per gallon. Tlie lights at Southwest Pass and South Pass of the Mississippi should be discontinued after the' coiiipletiun I of tho Southwest Puss screw-pile tower, whicli was au- tliorued August 4, 1854, and for Avhich S45,0UU was appropriated, leaving alxiut $70,000 to be upproiiri- atcd fur its entire completion before commencing tho x/ork. The annual appropriations for renovations, repairs, e*c., of light-houses, within the jirriod rcferrtd to, have lie en employed to the liest possiliie advantage in rebuilding such light-houses m were in imminent dan- ger of falling to pieces, and, where special iipprojiria- tions had not been made for reliuiUiing tiicni, in pro- viding the necessary improved and economical appa- ratus, fitting the lan'.trns and towers for rcooiving i them, and in placing them; ami with those means I alone the whole of thij light-houses existing in .lan- i uary, 186;S, have been provided with new appuratus \ of tile most approved kind, which combines the great- I est advantages yet discovered in tlie science of light- house illumination — of [lOwer, duialiiiity, and ecmi- ;omy. — See light-houte itcporta, 18i''U tu X858 ; oiso ' Cuaat Hurcey Report}, LIM 1261 LIM n9, repiiif'i rfferrtd to, IvantiiBe >» iiinent ila»- . iipiirup"^- .em, in 1'"'" inical ain"- ,r ri'ooiviiiK hose means ,iii(5 in .lau- «\iparatus ,i the (jreat- Ke of ligl>'- , and «>;'>"- ia58; also Uina, th« ritpital of Peru, on tha wut coMt of South Amfrlo, lut. 12° 2' 42' S., long. 77° 7' 15" W. Population variously entlmatml j but may prolv ably amount tu fh>m 00,000 tn 60,000. In 1fi24, Pizarni, marching; thmuKh Peru, wai atrurk with tho beaut} of the vaMny of Kimac, and ther«i ha founded a elly, and gave li the name of i'iwlml ih os Ket/rt, or City of the Xi' gn. Thin Spanixh name it retains in nil legal dnedn, but it In brtter known a» Lima. Awful earthquake;* occurred here, since solemn! ' commemo- rated by annual fusti ale, A.n., ISMO, 1680, 1687, and October 28, l',M6. In the loat it was almoit totally deHtroyed, as well as Calloo. ('uliao, the pert of Lima, la about alx miles wait from the lattei. The har)>or lies to the north of a projecting point o:' land, in the angle formed by the small unlnh^'>ite, ,)er ore, )>ark, soap. Alpaca wool, etc. Guano la found in large (|uuntitie8 on some parts of the coaat of Peru, but is principally imv«>rtcd from some sma'l islands, opposite tu Pisco, where it is found In vast quantities. The great value of guano as a' manure in now generally recognized, and it is hardly of less Importance as an article of commerce, no fewer than 80,000 tons having l>een imported in 1847. It was partly, however, Irought from (.'hill and other ports, as well as from Peru ; but that from tha latter is decidedly the best. Tho 'mports consist principally of cotton bluffs, linens, woolens, and hardware, prin- cipally frni,. .England ; silks, brandy, wine, and quicksi'lvtr from Spain and France; stock-flsh and flour from the ''nited States, indigo from Mexico, Paragutt)" herb from Paroguay, spices, dye-stuffs, etc. Timber for the construction of ships and houses is brought from (iuuyaquil. For moneys, weights, and measures, f>eo Pkru. Lime (Ger. " Ik; Fr. Chnux; It. Culeina, Calce ; Sp. Cat; Kus. '), an eartliy substaiire of a white color, moderateh .rd, but which is easily reduced tn powder, either b_, f^ 'nkling it with water ov by tri- turation. It h^n tt ii»: burning taste, and in some measure coiTod< ond destroys the texture of those animal liodies to which it is applied. Specific gra^.i,^ , 2'3. Calcium, the metallic basis of lime, was discov- ered by Sir H. Davy. Tliero are few ports of the world in which lime does not exist. It is found purest in limestone, marble, and chalk. None of those sub- stances is, however, strictly speaking, lime ; but they are all easily con ort id into it l)y a well-known process ; that is, liy plae. n; them in kilns or furnaces con- structed for the purpose, and keeping them for some time in a white h \' -a process called the bur^^ng of lime. — Thomson s Chem'iMry. The use of limj as mortar in building has prevailed from tho earliesi an- tiquity, and is nearly universal. It is also very ix- tonsively used in this country, ai\d in un infei or degree in some pai 's of the Continent and of Nor li America, as a mui ' ' to fertilize land. Mut It Is \ curious fact that the ase of lime us a manure is entire- ly a Kuropean practice ; and that its employment ic tliat way hus never been so much as dreamed of in any part of Asia or Africa. I.ime i'* of much importance in the arts, as a (lux in the suh Itiug of metals, in tha shape of chlorate in bleanliing, .n tanninp, etc. Lime and limestones may be ci 'ried and landed coastwise without any customs document whatever. Its con- »UD-^iUoi i.. 'li ' .'ountry is very great. XiijKC Jronitr; Ger. Citrone; Hind. A'cem- bo), a Biwclei of lemon {Cilnu medtca, var. S 0.\ which grows tu abundance in most of the West India Islands, and it also to be met with in lome |)arta of Franco, in Spain, Portugal, and throughout India, etc. The lime is smaller than the lenion, its rind Is naually thinner, and its color, when the fruit arrives at a per- fect sUte of maturity, is a line bright yellow. It Is uncommonly juicy, and its tiavor U estaemed superior to that of the lemon ; it is, besides, mors acid than the latter, and to a certain degree acrid. Limertok, the principal city of west Inland, and a parliamentary and municipal borough, river port, and county of itself, and capital county. ' Limerick, on an island in the Shannon, and on both banks of that rivar, being partly in county Clare, 50 miles from the Atlan- tic, uud 25 miles N.N.W. TIppeniry, with which town It communicates by railroad. L»t. 52'' 40' N., long. 8° 86' W. Area of liorder, 70,000 acres. Populs'lon 1861, 66,268. Inhabited houses, 6,566. Population of town, 68,274. There are numerous flour mills, but manufactories are very limited ; those of lace and Hsh- books are the principal ; the trade, consi.iting of Im- ports of British manufactures, coal, turf, continental and colonial proy Mark'Cutesby, in 1726; but it does not appear to have boen much cultivated. Tho Tilia A maficana alba is not met with east of the Hiver Dela- ware, but it is found in Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, Ohio, Kentucky, and Georgia, It is said, also, to gro r oi the liver Santee, in South Carolina, and on tho itis^issippi. It is remarkable, that, althougli this va/iety was known in France in 175ii, it should not huvo Imviu introduced into England till 1811. _ i Pnipertiee and Uiei,. — Tlie wood of the American I lime-treo, when drj', weighs S.") pounds to a culiic foot. It is very white, when grevi but becomes of u light- I brow^n hue, when seasonerf. It is soft, easily worked, and is often sawod into boards, which do not warp, like those formed of resinous trees. In the northern I parts of the United States, and in the British ptor- fe # LIH 19«3 LUf tncai, whcro th* tulln-tiM doc* not kboand, U I* UMd (br th* pancli of ruwlaga IkhUm, and tha iwata of chatra. In Kantucky anil tlia waati- .. ''^Utea, the wwmI of tha whit* Urn* la often aubal i.ii t Mr that of the white pine. In variotii parta of i •• . ■ try, It la tamed into ilomaatic utenaila of various kinda ; and la ■lao carved Into ImaKea for the heada of veaaela, and other ornamental work. The yoiinif troea are aome- tlmea out, and employed na raiU for rural fencea ; hut they are mil durable wlieii tliua expoaed. The wood la almoat uanleaa iia fuel, when K'*!""! heinK too full of aap, and of hut little viilue when drj-. Tho cellular Integument of the hark la H!|iarated from the epidermia, and, lifter lieing macerated in water, la formod Into ropea, after th* manner of mal.Ing them in Kurope, of the other apeclea. The liiirk wua ulao employeil by the I.enni I.cnap* Indiunn fur milking linea and ropea, aa well aa for coverinff their haliltutloni. The outer bark of the Tilia Americam !n rou^h und atrin^y, and the Inner portion viacid and awi^fi.. Thj ty'i^i and bud^ are very glutlnoua when cliowed, anc' alTiinl connideruble nutriment. In aever* wintera, when fodder la acarce. It la common for the farmcra of tho HritiKh American provincea, aa well aa tlioa* of Maine, New MampaUre, and Vennont, to drive their cuttle Into thn wihkR in the morning, and fell a iiuaa-woiHl, or other tree, on which they eagerly browse during the diiy. The wood of the Kuropean lime-tree, or linden-tree, 01 compared with Mint of the oak, the aah, and other timber treea, holda liiit an inferior rank, and is only used in such worka aa are not to be exposed to the altomatioiis of moisture und ilrynexs, It is of a palo yellow, or white, close-grained, soft, light, and smooth ; and, when seasoned, it ia not lialde to be attacked by insects. It is used liy piiino-fnrte-makers for sound- ing-lKiurds, and by caliinet-makcira for a variety of purposes, as It does not warp under atmospheric changes. It is turned Into domestic utensils of va- rious kinds, carved into toys, and turned into small boxea for a|H)thecaries. Tho most elegant use to which It is applied, is for carving, for whicii It Is supe- rior to every other wood. Many of the line carvings In Windsor Castle, Trinity College l.ii .rarj-, at Cam- bridge, and in the Duke of Devonshire's mansion, at Chiitworth, are of this wood. It ia said to make ex- cellent charcoal for gunpowder, even better tliun alder, and nearly as good as hazel, or willow. Ilaskets and crudleM were formerly made from the twiga ; and shoe- maki'M and gluvers are said to prefer pianks of lime- tree for rutting the tlner kinds of leather upon. The leaves of this tree arc collected in Sweden, Norway, Camiola, and Switicrland, for feeding cattle ; though, In .Sweden, I.innieus says, they oommunicate a ba«en tlimight of litfN' use, till M. Slissa, of i'aris, by triturating it, mixed with some of its flowers, suc- ceeded In procuring a butter, perfectly resemliling chocolate, both in tasto anil consistency ; but, unfor- tunately, it was found that the lime-tree cliociiluto would not kiiep. It has lieen suggested wiiutlier some of the American varieties of lilia would not prove successful in this particular. In England, there are many ancient lime-trees, planted In towns, liei iiuxe, In olden times, tlieir oilor was lonsidereil as purifying to tho air, and tu lie gooil against epilepsy. — Uhiiw.ne's Tnet of A mrrica. Line, in Ueometry, a quiintity extended in length I'tiiy witliout lireadth or thickness. It is formed liy the flux or motion of a |xiint. Line, in tlio art of war, la understood as tho dis|iosition of an army ranged in order of battle with the front extended out so that it may be flanked. Line of balllf. Is also understood as the disposition of a fleet in the day of engugeini'nt ; on which occasion the vessels are usually drawn up us much as possilile in a straight line, as well to gain and keep the advantage of tho wind as to run tlie same board, l/oriamlal line, In (ii'ngrapiiy, ami Astrono- my, a line drawn parallel to tlie horizon of any part of the earth. Kquinnrtial line In Geography is a great circle on the earth's surface exactly at the dist^ince of W° from each of tlie poles, and of con9C()nonce bisect- ing tho earth in that part. From this imaginary lino the degrees of longitude and latitude aro reckoned. In Astronomy, the equinoctial line is that circle which the sun seems to descrilie found the earth rin the days of tho equinox in Marcli and September. Meriiiian line, is an imaginar}' circio drawn through the two poles of the earth and any part of its surface. Iiinen (Ger, Linnen, lA-inwanJ; I>ii. hjnmmt; Fr. Toile; It. Tela, J'anno, lino; Sp. Lienza, Tela de lino ; Rus Polotno), a species of cloth made of thread of flax or hemp. The linen manufacture has lieen pros- ecuted in England for a very long period ; Imt tlioiigh its progress has been considerable, particularly of lata years, it has not been so groat as might have liecn an- ticipated. This is partly, perhaps, to be ascribed to the efforts that have been made to liolster up and en- courage the manufacture in Ireland and Scotland, and parti)' to the rapid growtli of the cotton manufictiiro — falirics of cotton having to a considerable extent supplanted thoao of linen. Linen Is a faliric of very remote antiquity. Pha- raoh arrayed Joseph in vestures of fine linen. — 6'en., xli. 42. This article was first manufactured in En- gland by flemish weavers, under the protection of ■Henr)- III. 1263. Before tliis period woolen shirts wore generally worn. A company of linen weovers established itself in London, 1868, and tho art of stain- LTN IMS LIN lag IIbmi liMMiw known In 167B. A culnny of fl«oU la lh« roign of Jiiniei I., and iiihcr l>rubyter(ani who flad ttnm porwcullon in that ciiuntiy In th« hucmkiI- Ing InKlnrliiua r*l){ni, plintail theniMlvaa In tha nortli- anKt part nf Iralunil anil than aitabllnlwd tha linen manuracliira. It wan lilicrally ancoura^Ml Iit tha Inrrt ilepiity Wantwurth. In ltl34. Ilsmp, lUx, linen, thread, and yarn, from Ireland, were permitted to Im exported duty free, lUUH. Tlilt law gave rlie to the Niibaequently Impmved Htate of the manufiirtura there. The Irliih l.lnen Hoard waa ettalillshed In 1711 ; tha Mnen-ball, Dulillii wna o|)enad, 172H| tha Board waa at lllhad In IH'.'x 'unfermllna In Ftfenliire, Dundee In Anicuaiililn' Tniiley In Yorkahire, are, In (ireat llrltaln. '>f the linen manufacture. MplnnInK U\ if thn ro It had lieeii lar)(ely lntroduceluced on the footing of a roasting trado ; and linena l>eing ex|)ortc(l and imported witliout any specific en- try at thn custom-house, no r "count is kept of their quantity and vulue. mciilch Linen. — In 17?7, a Hoard of Truateca was estaldished in Scotland for the superinteudenco and improvement of the linen manufacture. It is not easy to suppose that the institution of this Board could of itself have Imen of any material service ; but con- siderablo bounties and promlumi being at the same time given on the production und exportation of linen, the muniifactura went on increasing. Still, however, It did not increase so faat «a cotton and some others, which have not received any adventitious support, un- til machinery began to be extensively employed in the manufacture ; so that It la verj' doubtful whether the Influence of thu liounty has been so great as it would at tint sight ap|)eiir to have been. The regulations as to the manufactuii>, after having been long ol>Jected to by those concerned, were abolished in 1822; and the bounties have now ceased. Dundee is the grand seat of the Scotch linen manu- facture; and ita progress there during the last few years has been so extraonlinary, tliat the following details in resjwct to it ma}' not be unacceptable. The manufacture appears to have been introduced into Dundee some time toward the beginning of last cen- turj- ; but, for a lengthened period, ita progress was comparatively alow. In 1716 only 74 tons of flax were Imported, without any h^mp ; the shipments of linen cloth during the same year Ijeing estimated at about 1,000,000 yards, no mention being made either of sail-cloth or bagging. In 1791, the imports of flax araouilied to 2,444 tons, and those of hemp to 299 tons ; the exports that year being 7,842,000 yards linen, 280,000 yards sail-cloth, and 65,000 yards bagging. From thia period the trade began to extend itself grad- ually, though not rapidly. Previously to the peace of 1816, no great quantity of machinery waa em- ploy <-.l In spinning ; but al>out thia p<>riod, in oonae- quence, partly and princi|ully, of the lnipn>vem«ni of machinery, and |^ •xtenslve Introduction Into the manufacture, aud partly of the greater ragularlty with which ■uppilea of the raw material were obtained (Voni tha Northern |x)wars, the traila bugan rapidly to In- crtaae. Its progress hni, indeed, been quite astonUh- ing ; thu im|H>rtN of flax ami hnnip having Increoaed from about 11000 tons In 1814 to 16,000 tons in 1880, and 40,000 lona In 1846, of which at least »U,000 tona were spun by the ndlla in the town, the rent Ulng apuu in the vicinity, i li» value of the exptjrU of manufactured goods au'l yarn, from Dundim anwnnta at pruiant (1847) to from i;l,60U,000 tr year, Am AonooNT or thi QirAaiiTiaa VAaiKTiKs iir Uxaa Oihim »t uuiiiKo aioii or THI Foul Ti . '>,000, k OsnabuFK* HheotlDK*. jCotton baKKlng BuikItIih. Hall-cloth iHacklnK . llowlaa.. Sundries, Total lUI, |H^~ -TWC "St.. ri.f.1. Mwtl, I'ltMl. Tiun, »«,»« ll)0,4AI) 7M,Hl« 77,«M lai.M) IW.DftS li5'<,.'M6 t«l,»M 6ft,ftW 80,168 111.624 961 T.ltBft 13.AI1 l«,oog «H,S8S n.*M 108,010 11H,»M 160,1461 4^sw 67,177 174,76(1 1»»,»IT 40,»18 4^78a M'J,»»7 7H,181 ll,SftO ia,709 1i4,||7 774,Mi 1»,IM0 *U,im »IS,T07 7'a,l)10 It la not eaay to give any satisfactory explanation of the remarkable proifress ofthe linen manufacture at Dundee. Something miiit Ihs ascribed to the conve- nient sitiution of the port lor olitainiii^' supplies of tha raw material ; and more |i«rhapH to tlio manufacture having Iwen l<'iig cstaldixlied in the towns and vil- lages of Strathmorn, the Curse of Oowrie, and the northern parts of Fife, of which Dundee is the em- porium. Hut tliean circumstances do not seem ade- quate to explain tlio xuperiority to which she haa recently attained in lUU department; and however unphilosophical it may icm, we do not really know that wo can ascribe it to any thing else than a concur- rence of fortunate accidents. Nothing, in fact, is so difiicult to explain as the 8U|>eriorit7 to which certain towns frequently attain in particular departments of industry, without apparently possessing any |>ecullar facilities for carrying them on. But from whatever causes their pre-eminence may arise in the first in- stance, it is very diflicult, when once they h ive at- tained it, for otiiers to come into competition with them. They have on their side estaldisheil connec- tions, workmen of superior skill and dexterity in man- ipulation, improved machinery, etc. Kecently indeed the advantages in favor of old establishments have been, to a considerable extent, neutralized by the prevalence of combinations among their workmen ; but it is to l)e hopedtekt means may be devised for obviating this formid^|t evil. Value of Mumifncturt, — There ore no means by which te form an accurate estimate ofthe entire valuo of the linen manufacture of Great Britain and Ireland, Dr. CoUiuhoun estimates it at £15,000,000; liut there can not be the shadow of a doubt that this estimate was, nt tlie time, absurdly exaggerated. In the last edition of this work we estimated the annual value of the manufacture at £7,500,000. But it has increased very rapidly in the interval, principally through the great extension of the exports of France, and its valuo is at present (1847) certainly not under, if it do not exceed £10,000,000 or £12,000,000. But taking it nt the former amount, and setting aside a third part of this sum for the value of the raw material, and another third for profits, wages of superintendence, wear and tear of capital, coal, etc., wo have £3,383,000 to be divided as wages among those employed in the manu- facture. And supposing each individual to earn on an average £24 a year, the total number employed would be about 133,000. It may be thought, perhaps, that £24 is too low an estimate for wages ; and such, no «}| IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) v.. 1.0 I.I 1.25 118 u lAO IE 1.4 IIIII.6 Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WIST MAIN STRUT WnSTER,N.Y. I4SS0 (716) 873-4503 4 '^ \^ ^ A iV <^ ^. ;\ '^ ^^^ ^v V ■/^ ^ ■■■HJ--'.- . ft s> 6^ LIN 1364 UQ donbt, would b« the cue vera not Inland taken into the aTeran*. But as many penoni an thera employed In the mannfkctnra at very low wages, we beliere that £3i if not very far ttom the mean rate. The rapid increase in the exports of linen goods and yam, especially the latter, to France (see for an ac- count of this incnase the article Havbk), though latterly they have declined, is wholly a consequence of their comparative cheapness in this country, occv sl(med by our superior and cheaper machinery. And If the Franch really wish to rival us in this department of industry, they should endeavor, by ndncing or re- pealing the oppressive dntiee ')n iron and machineiy imported into France (which would, of course, propor- tionally ndiNe the cost of the spinning-mills and pow- er-loom factories), to place their manufacturars and ipinoers on something lilce the same footing as ours. In this way they might, perhaps, have some chance of rivaling us ; but the attempts -that have racently been made to bolster up the mannfactura by means of dnties, must necessarily fail, and will luve no elTect but to perpetuate exploded practices, and to promote the trade of smuggling;. The British exports of linen goods aro also increasing to most other countries, as well as to France ; and we are gaining on the Ger- mans in mon marlcets that are equally accessible to both. Hence the decrease of late years in the export of linens from Hamburg. Tlie improvement in the mannfactuTO of damasks and table-linen generally, which is principally carried on in Dunfermline and Kiriccaldy, has \)een quite as strilcing as in the other departments of the trade, especially since the intro- duction of the Jacquard mounting. In fact, tablo linen U now shipped from this countrj' for Germany ; ■o that the duty of 10 per cent, on the importation of German damasks and such like fabrics might be re- duced or npealed without the measure having any in- jurious influence over tho manufacturer. Tabulab VIEW or tub Fobbion £xp'>bis or Lines Ooods rKOH Obbat Bbitain roB baou Ybab raov 18C1 to 1SS2, botu imolusivb. TMin. Vain*. 18S1....£1,»8I,46S 1819. 18S8. 18M. 1815. 1818. 1817. 1,192,771 l,0»5.fi74 1,441,440 1,180,700 1,48»,«47 1,8»M8« 1818.... 1,000.083 18W. 1880. 1881. i.Ba'i.sst l,flW,2M 1,801,808 Y»n. V>la«. 1881...£1,SI»,478 1888... 2,139,080 1Sft4.. 1885.. 1886. . 1887.. 1888.. 1889.. 1810.. 1841.. 1842.. 2a>79,a68 8,108,778 8,645,097 1.006,761 8,566,486 4,2!W,452 4,128,1)64 4,81U,02t 8,871,800 YMrf. V«Iw. 1848.... £8,701,061 18U.... 1845.... 1846.... 1847.... 1848.... 1849.... 1360.... 18.M.... 18U.... 4,076,476 4,104,986 3,706,112 8,619,771 8,191,701 4,108,468 4,K46,080 6,067,096 6,867,871 Statbmbnt snowixa tub iMPOBts or Linbic ixto the llRITBD bTATBS FOB TUB YbaB BNOINO JuNB SOTII, 1866, PiSMHuquoddy.. Portland A Falmouth 01ouco8t«r BostonAChsrlestoWD Nl«gan. Oswegatchle New York Cliamplain n*pe Vincent Phlbdolpbla Delaware Baltimore Chsrleston Savannah Mobile Key Wot. New Orleans Texss. Salurla. Brazos do Santiago.. Detroit MlcblllmscUnao.... Ban KranolKO Total linen btcMhwl or uflblekcfiad. Hoilary toA ar- tleUi mad* OB f^fttnci. 11,951 16,788 64V,ig3 06 1 7,567,778 978,468 81 125,899 41,783 14,861 869 881,168 898 1,616 26 87,195 {9,849,600 H8B8 11 14 13 t4,921 BfwinflKturM nut ipcclfled. ti06 464,169 ""4 601,897 . 798 10 219,971 H671 1,671 400 8,848 12,861 997 ■"68 20 2^466 11,884,941 Consumption of Foreign Lineni, — According to the ntvnis of the imports and entries of foreign linens fbr th* Ibor ye«n ndfaig with 1844, the coaanmptioii of foreign linens in England is quite incnuidetable ; the real or deolarad value of those entered for hone consumption in 1844 oonld haidly amount to ;e40,000. Until recently, this manufacture liaa been negleetsd In the United States. Lately, however, mllla have been erected to test the profltableness of linen manu- facture. In Fall River, Mass., new mills have besn built, but not long enough in operation to give any statistics. UlMaad. The mannfaotun of linseed oil hu greatly increased within a few years, encouraging tiie itaiportation of seed flrom Calcutta and other places. The imports of linseed into Boston from Calcutta for the year 1856 were 1,887,944 bushels, valued at $1,841,719. The imports of linseed into the United States for the year 1856, amounted to 1,696,294 bushsb, of which 1,691,875 busiiels were firom the East Indies. By the official returns it appean that the imports into the United Kingdoms in 1856 amounted to 1,180,179 quartan of Ihiseed, and to 264,919 of npe-seed, show- ing a very great incnase in both caaes aa compared with the previous annual arrivals. Annexed are the official returns for the last 16 years, during which the consumption ci the manufactured artidei has made rapid .•tirides. 1B41. 1842. 1648. 1844. 1845. 1846. 1847. 1848. 1819. 1860. 1861. 1861. 1868. 1854. 1355. 1356. UnM«l. Ouartora. 8iS8,461 867,700 470,689 616,947 666,798 606.141 489,611 799,650 626,496 603,984 680,471 799,401 1,035,885 X18,648 756,900 1,180,179 RAp«-Med. Ouarten. 89,411 6^686 87,097 68,834 47,677 87,661 47,528 79,970 29,480 107,029 82,394 86,815 103,165 162,353 161,919 Ziiquorloe (Ger. SusaHoh; Fr. RiglUte, Racim douce ; It. Jtegolaia, Logorizia, Liquirizia ; Sp. Itegaliz Orozuz), a perennial plant (Glycirrhiza glabra), a na- tive of the south of Europe, but cultivated to some extent in England, particularly at Mitcham in Surrey. Its root, which is its only valuable part, is long, slen- der, fibrous, of a yellow color, and when fresh very juicy. The liquorice grown in England is fit for use at the end of 8 }'ean ; the roots, when taken up, arc either immediately sold to, the lirewers' druggists, or to common druggists, by whom they are applied to different purposes, or they are packed in sand, like carrots or potatoes, till wanted. The roots of liquor- ice have been introduced into the middle and southern States, and have thus far lieen successful. From the increasing demands for this root, it is probable that it could l>e cultivated profitably. The amount annually imported (and manufactured), is valued at about $300,- 000. Liquorice Juice (Succut Liquaritia), popularly black tugar, thf inspissated juice of the roots just men- tioned. Very n: tie of this extract is prepared in Brit- ain, iiy far the larger part of our supply i>eing im- ported from Spain and Sicily. The juice oLtjined by crushing the roots in a mill, and subjecting them to the press, is slowly Ifoiled till it becomes of a proper consistency, when it is formed into rolls of a consid- erable thickness, which are usually covered with bay leaves. This is the state in which we import it. Most part of it is afterward rodissolved, purified, and cast into small cylindrical rolls of about the thickness of a goose quill, when it is called refined liquorice. It is then of a glossy black colo.-, brittle, having a sweet mucilaginous taste. It is used in the materia medica, particuUtfly in colds, etc.— Thoiuon'b Chemittrg. 12«S LIS /I ZilaiMn, t1i« capital of Portngal, rituatad on Um north bank of the River Tagtu, the obMnratorjr of tlie fort being in Ut. 88° 42' 24" N., long. 8° 6' 60" W. FopoUtion about 340,000. The Moon aia laid to have given the name of Liilxia to this city wlien they conquered it, A.D. 716. It was made the capital of Portugal by Emanuel, 1606. Lislion was almost de^ ttro}-ed by an earthqnaiw, Novem))er 1, 1766. See JiifirlkqutUM. It iMcame a point of. tlie late war, and the court fled to the Braails, Novemlier, 1807, in which month (the 80th) the French army under Junot entered Lisbon, and held possession of it until the battle of Vimeira, in which they were defeated by the British, under Sir Arthur Welleslay, August 21, 1808. Insur- rection at Lisbon, August 21, 1881. Massacre at Lis- bon, June 9, 1884. See Piirtdoau Port.— The harlior, or rather road, of Lisbon is one of the finest in the world, and the quays are at once conven^ttt and beautiful. Fort St. Julian marks the northern entrance of the Tagus. It is built on a steep projecting rock. Jhers' la a light-house in the centre, 120 feet alwve the level of the sea. At the mouth of the Tagus are two large l>anks, called the North and South Cachop: There are two channels for entering the river; the north or little, and the south or great channel, exhibited in the ordinary charts. On the middle of the South Cachop, about 1^ miles from Fort St. Julian, is the Bugio fort and light- house, the latter being 66 feet in height. The least depth of water in the north channel on the bar is 4 fathoms, and in the south, 6. The only danger in en- tering the port arises from the strength of the tide ; the ebb running down at the rate of 7 miles an hour ; and after heavy rains, when there is a great deal of fresh water in the river, the difficult}' of entering is considerably augmented. When at such periods, there is a strong wind from the sea, there is a complete break all over the bar ; vessels moor up and down the river with open hawse to the southward. In some parts they may come within 200 yards of the shore, being guided by the depth of water, which, from near- ly 20 fathoms in mid-channel, shoals gradually to the edge. Trade, etc. — Lislran is one of the best situated com- mercial cities of Europe. But notwithstanding this circumstance, the excellence of the port, and the com- mand of the navigation of the Tagus, her commerce is comparatively trifling. Lisbon has a royal manu- factory of fire-arms and powder, and a cannon foun- dery; other manufactories comprise silks, porcelain, paper, soap. Jewelry, and trinkets ; none of these, ex- cept-tiw laM, is in a tlouriahing state. The despotism, intolerance, and imbecility of the goverement have weighed down all the energies of the nation. The law and police being alike bad, there is no adequate security. Assassination is ver}' frequent. Industry of all sorts is, in consequence, paralyzed ; and since the independence of Brazil, commerce has rapidl}* de- clined. Formerly Lisbon hod al)0ut 40U ships, of from 300 to 600 tons burden, employed in the trade with South America. But at present there are not above 60 ships belonging to the port engaged in foreign trade; and, of these, the average burden does not exceed 160 tons I The produce of Portugal sent to foreign countries, is almost entirely conveyed to its destination in foreign ships. The trade between Lis- bon and Cork, is, we believe, the only exception to this; it being principally carried on in Portuguese vessels, which take salt from St. Uljes, and bring back butter in return. About 200 small craft belong to the city, which are exclusively employed in the coasting trade. There are neither price currents, shipping lists, nor official returns of any kind, published, in Lis- bon. The principal exports are lemons and oranges — which, however, are very inferior to those of Spain ; whie, particularly Lisbon and Calcavella ; wool, oil, tanned hides, woolen caps, vinegar, salt, cork, etc. 4L BeaidM colonial produce, the priadpal importa ooaalM of cotton, woolen, and linen goods ; baidware, aarth* enware, dried fish, butter, com, ohecae, timber aad deals, hemp, etc. iTonqr.— Accounts are kept In rees, 1000 of wfcloh =ml milne. In the notation of accounts the milrees ate separated from the teea by a crossed cypher (0), and the milrees ttom the millians by a colon : thus, B«. 2:700 e 600=2,700 milrees and 600 rees. The crUp lado of exchange, or old crusado— 400 rees ; the new emsado=480 rees; the testoon=100 rees; and the vinten or vhitem°=20 rees. The gold piece of 6,400 ree8=86s. lid. sterling ; the gold crusado~2s. 8d. ; and the miliee, valued in gold'=67^. sterlbig. It appears, however, from assa}-s nlade at the London mint, in 1812, on modem silver cruaados, that the average value of the milree in siVrer may be estimated at 60d. or 6s. sterling. Weightt and ifeaeunt The commercial weights are, S ounce8=l mare ; 2 marcs =■1 pound or arratel ; 22 poundss^l arroba ; 4 anobas rol quintal ; 100 lbs. or arratels of Portugal=101-10 lbs. .avoirdupoi8=4&-896 kilbgrammes=94-761 lbs. o( Hamburg=92'918 lbs. of Amsterdam. The principal measure for com, salt, etc., is the moyo, divided into 16 fanegas, 30 alquldres, 240 quartos, 480 selemis, etc. The n:ayo=28-08 Winchester bushels. The principal liquid measure is the almude, divided into 2 potes, 12 canadas, or 48 quartellos ; 18 almudes=l baril ; 26 almudess>l pipe ; 62 almudes=l tonelada. The al- mude°=4-87 English wine gallons; and the tonelada =227} ditto. A pipe of Lisbon is estimated by the custom-house (British) at 140 gallons ; and this pipe is supposed to be 31 almudes. A pipe of port is 160 gallons, divided into 21 almudes of Oporto. Of meaa- ures of length, 2 pes=3 palmo8=:l covado, or cubit ; If covados=l vara; 2 varas— 1 branga. The pe or foot=12-944 English inches ; 100 feet of Portugal^ 107-8 English feet; the vara=43'2 English inches. For freight a last is reckoned at 4 pi()ea of oil or wine, ' 4 chests of sugar, 4000 lbs. of tobacco, 3,600 lbs. of shumnc. But from one place in Portugal to another, a tonelada is reckoned at 62 almudes of liquid, or 64 almudes of diy goods. Coffee is sold per arralu ; cot- ton, indigo, and pepper, per lb. ; oil, per almude ; wine, per pipe ; corn, per alqui^re ; salt, per moyo, Grain, seed, fish, wool, azd timber are sold on board. Weights and long measures are the same throughout PortU(( i^ gals, wine measure ; Faro alqui6re=3t gals. Win- chester measure; Figuiera almude=:&f gals, wine measure; Figuiera aiquiere=3^ gals.. Winchester measure ; Viunna almude=G} gals, wine measure ; Vianna alqui6re=8|^ gals. Winchester measure. Bank of Liahun. — This establishment was founded in 1822. Its capital consists of about £700,000 ster- ling, divided into 7000 shares. The shareholders are not liable beyond the amount of their shares. The bank discounts bills not having more than 3 months to run, ut 6 per cent. Its dividends, at an average of the 3 years ending with 1831, were about 6 per cent. It enjoys the singular but valuable privilege of hav- ing its claims on all estates paid off in full, provided the estate amounts to so much; other creditors lieing obliged to content themselves with a division of the residue, if there be any. Port regulaiiotu. — ^All vesseh entering the Tagus are obliged to come to anchor off Belem Castle, where there is an office at which they must be entered, their cargoes declared, from whence they come, and whether the cargo be intended to be landed in Lisbon or not : if not, the master applies for "/ranjuia," that is, foi LIT 1266 ■igfi^' lwT« to rrauin 8 dsyi in the port for the paqMiM of dltpMing of the cargo or of departing witli it. Two ewtom-hoiiM ofBcera are then aent on board, and if the Q^Tgo is to be discharged at Lisbon, tho vessel pro- ceeds to the castom-house, when the master raalies entry, delivering the manifest and bills of lading at- tached to the certiflcate of the Portuguese consul, at the port of lading, in order to identify the cargo. The officers put on lioard at BtUia are then relieved by two others, who rainain until the vessel lie discharged and vUitod by the custom-house searcher. The port dues have to \ie paid in different offices ; bat the ves- sel Is not subject to any other charges. AU goods sent on board for exportation must be ac- companied by a perniit from the custom-house. When the clearances are obtained, the papers an presented by the master, or the ship's agent, to the authorities at Belem, who deliver the signal t'le vessel is to hoist when going to sea. There is no regular warehousing and bonding sys- tem at Lisbon. AH imported dry goods are allowed to remain in the custom-house stores 2 years, and liquids 6 months, without being charged warehouse rent, provided they are intended for consumption, and pay the duties accordingly. Bnt if, after that period, they an then taken out to be exported, they are charged 2 par cent. duty. JWf Chargtt. — On a foreign ship of 800 tons enter- ing the port of Lisbon, with a general or mixed cargo, and clearing out with the same ; Koyal passport. 7,200 Potty expenses on entering *t the Custom house, about 'TOO Anohvrage. BOO Ballast clearance 400 Tonnage, 100 rces |icr ton 80,000 Ugbts, So rees per ton 16,000 Contrlbation to board of trade . . . 1/SOO Petty charges. 730 Blllofbealtb 240 Total fi6,2«0=£ll 68.00. Vessels coming with a cargo, or in ballast, and d" parting In ballast, pay 200 rees per ton lights, or times as much as if they sailed with cai'goes. Y sels coming with a cargo, and sailing with the snmd cargo, pay no tonnage dut}*. Commission — The ordinary ntos of commission are, on the sale of goods, 2^ per cent. ; M ereHere, 2^ per cent. ; on the value of goods landed from a vessel put- ting in to eifect'repairs, 1 percent. ; on ship's disburse- ments, 6 per cent. Insurances are effected to a triiiing amount. There is one national compuny for effectmg insurances ; but It enjoys little credit. Tares are not regulated tiy any certain rule. Those allowed are generally those invoiced or marked on the package. See Annuoire du Commerce Maritliiuf, p. 290; Kiei.i.y'h Cambist; Consuls' Answers to Circular Queries, etc. Zatharge (Ger. OlOtte, GISUU; Du. Gelit; Fr. Li- tharge; It. I.ilarffivio ; Sp. Atmarlaga, VUarjirio; Kus. Glet ; Lat. Lithargyrium), an oxyd of lead In an im- perfect state of vitrilk'ation. Most of the lead met with in commerce contains silver, from a few grains to 20 ounces or more in the fodder : when the quantity is sufficient to pay the expense of separation, it Is re- fined; that Is, the metal Is exposed to a high heat, passing at the same time a current of air over the sur- face: the lead Is thus oxydlsed and converted into Marge, while the silver, remaining unchanged, is col- lected at the end of the process. — Thomson's Chem- istry. Litharge is used for various purposes In the arte, by potters, glass makers, painters, etc, Idtre. The French standard measure of capacity in thd decimal system. The litre is a cul)ic decime- tre ; that is, a cube, each of the sides of which are 8-937 English inches: it conteins 61-028 English cubic inches, and is, therefore, rather less than our quart. four and ■ half litrw are a doaa approach to tha En> glish imperial gallon, LiT* Oak. Under acte of Congnsa, the PrastdaDt of the United States ia authorized to take measures for the protection of the live oak timber growing on lands owned by the United Stetes in Florida and elsa« where. Persons cutting or removing live oak, or red cedar, and other timlier iwlonging to the United Stetes (without authority), are subject to imprisan- ment for twelve months and to a fine: tha vessels engaged In such unlawful removal are subject to foN feitnre, and the captain to a fine of $1000. (Act of 1881.) See Oak. Liverpool, a borongh of England, In Lancashire, and one of the greatest commereial towns in the world. Is situate on the Hersey, along which it extends for nearly six miles. For five miles of this distenee a line or chain of docks runs parallel with the river, and from these docks, at intervals, streete extend yt right angles, tolerably direct, to the extremity of the bound- ary. These are crossed by #treete more or less par- allel to the river ; but as the town grew up rather suddenly, no great attention was paid to regularity, The boundaiy line, from where It touches the river at the south, to its termination at Bootle Bay, embraces a circle of about eight miles. As yet the extremities are imperfectly filled up, but in som^ places the houses extend beyond the line. History. — Local archiBologists have been eager to invest tlie town with the dignity of a remote antiquity i but their labors have not been very successful. In Doomsday Book the name does not appear, although sites within its present boundary are mentioned, Mr, PIcton, In his admirable paper on "Ancient Liver- pool," contends that the place mentioned as Smednm must have represented Liverpool, and that Smedone U identical with Smithdown, now one of the soutliern streets. This, however, is not likely, for Smithdown was remote txom ancient Liverpool, and on the soulji side of the Pool, then called Mersey Sea. The name been a subject of unsatistying contention ; for al- gh the final syllable pool is derived from tho lily, liver is of doubtful origin. In early times the . , xn. was called indifferently Lirpool, Lilherpool, IMh. pool, and Liferpole. F and v were commutabla ; but, in the most ancient records, the name is written in. differently Lithepol and Lithepole. Mr. liuincs, in his History nf Liverpool, is disposed to think that lithe must be accepted for sea, and thus the derivation will be the pool on the sea. Originally the place was only a small fishing village ; for the Mersey, up to u very recent period, was remarkable for its supply of salmon and other fish. The first authentic record of the town Is found in a charter of Henry II., in the year 11711, declaring that the estuar}- of " the Mersey shall lie for ever a port endowed with all the liberties belonging to a port of the sea, and that the men of I.yrpul, neur to Toxteth, may come and go from each side of tlie sea with their ships and nierohandise free and without obstruction," It is Hupposed that hia majesty In this charter had reference to the conquest of Ireland ; f>ir, not content with the bestowal of a barren privilege, he actually erected dwellings called burgage houses, the tenants of which were the primitive freemen of Liver- pool, These houses continued to yield a rental to tlia crown up to the time of Elizabeth, and constituted, to a great extent, the dwellings of the inhnblbints. In 1207 King .Fohn granted the town a cliarter, as ful- lows : " ICnow ye, that we have granted to all our faithful sulijects who have taken burgage haunes bt Liverpool, tliat they may have all the liberties and free customs In the town of Liverpool which any ntkor free borough upon the sea has In our territories. And, tlierefore, we command you, that, securely and In our peace, you may come thither to receive and dwell In our burgage houses ; in witness whereof, we transmit to you these our lettere patent. Witness — Simon de ««, wl fiillnai niunlci \mt\ done i An»(lii tils (In (ffrttio; ami till 'Ngbt cliantin nth«r pal m« inark«< Um flu LIV 1267 LIV PttMtini, M Wlficlimtor, the 28th d&y of Angnat, in thtt (Kh ftu of our reign." Tha flmt palpiilile atep in advuice talcen by tiie (own WM In tli« reign cf Charles II. A new world btil (h«n been opened to the enterprtae of the old ; und tilverpool Invited to ita port auch trade aa waa «r««(«d by the Infant manufactarea of Lancaahire, Yorkihlre, and Cheahlre. Aa the plantations in Amer- 1(11 InereMed, so did the ti-ade of Liverpool ; and froib in lirty period he^ merchanta took a prominent part In ilw akveHrade. She sent out ships to Aft-ica, con- Vayad their live burdens to America and the West Indtoi, «nd In return brought back to the Mersey the IHgir. Uthaeeo, and other produce of those regions. The KMgllsh merchanta and ship-owners hod competed »ae|Hmd«nce hud the worst possible effect on the pros- Mfity of Llver|iool ; and the late war of tlie French Itdvolutlon at first operated most adversely. Still, two clrcumsf antes obviated these bad effects. The great In- urmi»« of (Hipulation and trade in the United States of AinfricM created a demand for British manufactures, sitil these manufactures had nearly all to pass flrom the MoMey, which received In return the raw produce in- dlrsi'ily paid for them. At the close of the war Liver- |MHil was still advancing, but not so rapidly as within tlix last it) years. The population of the old borough III IWrt was 77,(;00 j in 1811, 94,000 ; in 1821, 118,000 ; In 1H;I1, 20i),OnO ; in 1841, in the new borough, 286,000 ; ami In Mii, 870,OOO. The usual rato of increase from iHftl to 1867 will have augmented the population to more than 400,000, and latterly It has gonn on in accel- srstfd ratio. I'roof of this is derived from the fact, (hat (he numlier of new houses erected in 1865 was \'M, while In 1860 It was 1703. frt«te qf the I'ort.— In 1750 Liverpool had only 20 S'lllIng vessels engaged in the continental trade ; now shn has treble tliut number, and fleets of screw steam- «M, wliloli constantly visit every port in the Mediter- rnticnn, and render the Mersey a medium of com- munication between France, Holland, Belgium, and Ain«rlca, The Kast Indies, too, have been opened to lilvcrpool enterprise. Since the alteration in the Oiim|iany's charter, and in the amount of business Ibine In the l';ast, Liverpool stands next to London. Amrtller trade she has almost monopolized — the Aus- trdliim trade. Her clipper vessels are admitted to be tile llnest In the world, and, in consequence, the eini- ifiidon (o (he antipodes is (ho largest from this port, and the return cargoes the heaviest ; for necessarily the freights are low, as more goods go than come, and t'll«fl|iti«s« Induces shippers to send their wool here fatiler tiian to Loudon, although London is the princi- pnl nisfhet. But Liverpool is now creating a wool market of her own. The first authentic account of tba nuitll>er of vessels entering the port dates from 1677 ; and the following retumt indicate it • gUnet tha progress of the trade : ITOT. . 1T80.. 1800.. 1820*. isao.. 1840.. isno.. 18M.. VauaU. 1,871 1,2«1 4,T4« T,8TT 11,114 1S,998 20,4AT fiU,886 Tonnaft. 480,000 806,098 1,411,864 2,44A.703 8,8811,887 4,890,618 Dock dullai. sa,au 8,IMS sa,8T« (4,419 »1,8S» 178,19* 911,748 896,801 * This la the lint year when goods were rated as well as ships. The custom-house revenue collected in the port was, In 1856, <8,676,844, 28. 8d., and 1866, i:8,824,177, 14s, 8d., showing an increase of X247,843, Tis. The last quarter of 1866 exhibits a comparatively further In- crease of £118,681 over the corresponding quarter of 1865. The town dues now produce more than £120,000 a year, and there is another impost culled light-dues, which produced in 1856 £9<.l,965, against £86,182 in 1865. These light-dues go altogether to the Board of Trade, and are disposed of as passing tolls, The greater number of vessels frequenting the port comes fVom the United States of America; for the great trade of Liverpool is in cotton, and the cotton supplied comes in largest quantities from the southern States of the Union. The following returns will give a correct Idea of the progress of this trade. In 1770 there were imported into Liverpool 6037 bagSfj^ bales 3 barrel* of raw cotton ; but since the improvements of Hur- greaves and Arkwright in spinning, the trade has greatly increased. Thus the importation was, in Poiindi. 1780 6,766,618 1800 66,010,782 1820 148,672,666 Pounds. 1880 261,961,461 1S40 6S3,4UO,000 1860 68^60U,U«0 In 1866 there were imported into Liverpool 2,028,860 bales of cotton. A large trade is carried on in flour, grain, and com. The Imports of these In 1866 were ;. ' Wheat qrs 1,870,161 il Flour sacks 2.12,704' Com ^' 897,407 || " ....barrel* 1,188,200 Two thirds of all this came A-om the United States, The quantity re-exported Is small. The total sugar imported in 1856 was 76,000 tons, of which 17,840 tons were from the British West India plantations, 18,656 fh>m Bengal, and 19,996 from Brazil. Docks. — For carrj'ing on a trade so large great facili- ties are afforded. In 1715 the first dock was con- structed with an area of 3} aA'es, This sufficed for 42 years ; but, at an interval of 18 years, another dock appeared, and within a period of 50 years Ave addi- tional docks were made. In 1826 the corporation tilled up the primitive dock in order to erect the custom- house on its site. In consequence of this proceeding, and the rapid increase of buildings, none of the docks run inland, but all extend along and parallel with the river. From 1830 to 1842, eight new docks were opened ; and from 1845 to 1852, not less than 14 docks and basins have been added. The total water space afforded by the docks is 200 acres ; and the quays measure 14 miles in length. The river wall Is 6 miles 200 yanls long; the total area of the dock estate la 712 acres. Ko other port can present any thing to be compared with the Liverpool Docks. One serious in- convenience, however, is, that running along the river wall, they interrupt the approaches to the ferries, and when the gates are open, stop intercourse for a short time altogether. To remedy tills, an Immense landing stage, constructed by Mr. Cubitt, has been placed at St. George's Pier, and this has not only promoted tha comfort of passengers, but served as a very popular promenade. Another landing-stage has been con- structed, three times the size of the former one, at a cost of £150,000. Means, too, are under consideration for facilitating approach to the ferries. Until 1820 there w u few warehouses on the dock quays. Tho warehouses are in general up the town, or at some dU'k LIV 1368 uv tone* ttma th* W*- Th* inconvtnienM of tbU pn>- Toked a lively agiution among the nMrchanU, and, through the great exertion of several meml-en of the council, the Albeit Dock was constructed and sur- rounded, like St. Katherine's Dock, London, by piles of ponderous warehouses. Stanley Dock has since also been surrounded by warehouses, and the new Wapping Docks are to have the samo advantage. Extensive as the dock accommodation is, it is nu longer adequate to the wants of the port. Several new docks are projected at the north end, on land reclaimed from tlie bay, under a certain understanding with the Karl of Derby ; and in 18M the vurporatlim became purchasers of the Birkenhead Dock and estates for a sum of ;C1, 148,000. But these docks, to l>e ren- dered avaUal)lo, will requiiv a further outlay of ^800,- 000. The constitution nf the dock management has nndergone sonic changes. The corporation having been the first projectors and supporters of the docks, were recognized as trustees of the estate. Under the act Slst George III. the committee consisted of 21 persons, all members of and appointed by the common council, and this continued until the passing of the act 6tb George IV., 1836, when the dock rate-payer* were first directly represented by returning 8 mem- bers to the committee; the council electing 111, In- cluding the chairman, and the council having a veto on the proceedings. This continued until the act of 1861, by which a committee of 24 is appointed — 12 liy the oouncil and lAby the dock rate-payers. The com- mittee appoint their own chairman and deputy-chair- man ; the chairman being, however, one of the 12 members elected by the council. The council have also a veto on the proceedings of the committee by a majority of two thirds. The care of the port is divided between the dock committee and the corporatirm. The latter constructed the light-house and built the Wal- lasey embankment, to prevent the sea encroaching on the district and impairing the channels leading to tlw river; and the former provide buoys, and a marine surveyor whose duty it is to note the shifting of the sandbanks, and give notice to the pilots and mari- ners. Shipbuilding. — There are several eminent ship- builders in Liverpool, but of late the greater part of the t:ade has l>een in repairing and in the building of iron ships. There are live building-yards on the Lan- cashire side of the river, and three on the other sida, Those on the Chesbirri* side combine graving with building docks, and, although there are several grav- ing docks on the Liverpool side, they are found to Im inadequate to the wants of the port. As might \m expected, a large trade ia carried on In ships. In 1866, 694 ships, of 328,991 tons were sold, and of tbesa one fifth were bought by foreigners. Liverpool is a place of trade rather than of manufactures, and those manufactures which exist are more for the supply of local wants than lor jfeneral purposes. An attttin|)t was mode to establish a cotton raauufactor}-, but witb* out success. Next to London, the corporation of Liverpool is de. cidodly the richest in the kingdom. At first her income was miserably small, and centuries passed without improving it; but in 1777 the corporation purchased from Lord Molyneaux, for i,'2260, bis re- version, expectant on the detenninution of bis lease In the town dues, and these rose gradually from 4,'20,0- it« Intarast uf monay Iforrvwad, and the cost of wofjk^wg. WItli the Increase of trade and weolUi, the bMU «/ doing busineM underwent a great chaog*. At (^ beginning of the present century the nerciiewt Im4 bU wHmtinii-bouse and warehouse Ijebtnd W« dwcUwgT bouse, TJtese maMloiM may now be seen in lltm^itf, street, Duke-etrcet, dael-strsst, and others, Immtg still. In tlieir arcbitecture, evidence of cost and i^mUt, although now mostly itevnted to meaner uses. iM years Uler the mercantile offices began (« g^mf alwut the Kxebangei mean buildings wcw U*)^- fornied into lordly edifices ; and as much as tmt w ^MOO a year Is now (llf&7) jiald for a suite of vwm m a slngb) floor. Much rente are, of course, UmfitiUtnn to an increase of ImiMIng* ) and In UK as wiu< h *4 £47 a square yard has been paid for buJbii«K-i*'M near the Tvwn-hall, All the opulent classes If v« m ttn> environs. Vp to the year 1838 Mew BrigbiUw wds « sand-bill, wltnout a single tenement os it ; m>w k i» covered with villas, 'llie villas r«vcr the hiUt *»i crowd tbe gorges, which extend from the Red Numu lUi Kock Ferry ) while on tbe l.encasltire side, Aigt>vr% Allarton, Vfiio\Um, Wavertree, Old Swau, Kw^ty .\»h, West Uerl«y, Walton, C'rosl>y, Litlieriand, WviU-r- loo, and llootle, have lieon entirely oo^upied by thx mansions and villas of the opulent people of Uvcrpuvl, The mercantile offices which have sprung up *rm»4 tha Kxcbange are remarkable for their ar<'b»teiiMf«>i Iwauty, »» well a* for their conveoivoue. W»t*r- street, from tbe Town-hall to George's Dock, praaauii * succession of such bulbllngs. On the site of tHw uU tower, tlie last remnant of the Castle, h^'Vi Iwtw eroded the Tower Buildings— a moss of iaim»tif>i-- bouses, ornamented li m M/w same street Is tbe Unbm Bsnk, a perfect .ircbU«cti^i'«| bijou I and a little further on, in Jaues-strevt, 41^ il>« top of Fenwlck-strcet, ii the North and iiuutb Witht* Hank, equally entitled to m^tice. In (.'»«t)c-tAr«'A4t stands tbe Branch Hank of Kngland, cons(f^«e4 i/}- Mr, Cockerell | and in tbe same street the Coww*r«^44 Bunk Buildings, erct^ed after Mr. Cunoingbm'o iqU-- slgn. North •lohn-stroet, which runs oiirvlM »Uk Custle-street, is entirely deviled to offices ; imi Ut Dale-street are situated the Koyai Bonk littMiinf, remarkable for iMildness of design. The I'ttti/m^-- bouse, which Ptands at the fotrt of Uouth-«tfe«|t, \^** built after a design of John Foster, at the «v4 tif £-m,H04, Tbe estimate was £t7r,,im ; sod Mm^ tbe bulMing Is an Imposing one in appcoriwtw, U U regarded as nut fully answering its purposes, |« frtmi of It I* a brunMi stntue of Iluakissoa, by Hiix^m.- I'art of tbe custom-house Is used as a dock-ofHc.atj mi another part of It as the post-ofBue; for »»M>^ i4 which is the building pnrtlcuturly suit»l>i«, 'ft> tt>t) east of tlie custiim-house Is the Huiiurs' lluiwe, vUMt U wlinirably ada|ited to the Intended ol^ject of |lhe Marine Board, and for a sailors' d^pM.— |C. ii llrmkuuttrr fiif /Jefrp«nl,—Mr. George U*mi», ('.■ ?.,, has projected for the port and barlwr of \Afi^f»tA a Jetty or lireak water, from the Black U»vk I'umt, «^ tbe entrance of the Mersey, on the (,'heitsuue of uuy«li8 (oeeaaionally inaccessible in stormy weather), »lt4 of the Bootle and Formby shores from the violent e/Teets of the prevailing winds. 8. The acquisition of fiaarly 3000 acres of valuable land, which will be in- closed between the new wall and that shore. 4. The talxable conversion of (h>m 80,000 to 40,000 acies of tttwd^brnks now rapidly accumulating and rising atiove lo\r water, along the whole shore In front of the Lea- sowes, fWim the Rock Point to the entranee of the Dee estuary ut Hilbre Point. 6. The prevention from enuring into the harbor of vast qnantltlaa of drift sand which come from the North Burbo banks, in south-westerly gales. 6. The prevention of many shipwrecks and loss of lives and property which occur annnally. 7. The reduction to a minimum of the great expenses now incurred in mainUining the lighU, buoys, Bteam-tuga, dredgers, etc., now employed In preserving the direction and depth of the sea chanilels, and which heavily tax the 40,000 ships and 4,000,000 of tons carried by them annually. Finally, the pres- ervation and improvement of the port and harbor of Liverpool, and which, like its neighbor, the estuary of the Dee, will lie entirely ruined if prompt measures ba not taken to prevent it. The following tablu showi the grain trade of Liverpool : tfoMfjlMaon or iMPoan or Obair, xtc- into Livaaroci. for I'wklvk Moictus kndiho QOtb SamiiBCB, 1863. 1858L 1854, 1^6^ ABO 1966. ^ •.=«>« Twfi. wasAT. wLoum. OATA. aM IrelABcl. ColMiUI. ro-ri|fc Brilbh. Forelri. 1 ColonlAl. HrlllAh. ; Fmlia. fMf ()iurtari. 30,080 83,147 3^e«6 89,385 68.817 (tuArUn. 91.730 47,651 48,021 4,948 66,857 QuArt«n. 476,799 880,770 76l,Ci6 891,007 1,017,605 SAckl. 81,584 85,^'M) 37,474 61,411 52,626 SAcki. 140,697 907,896 173,691 804,808 331,447 HAmlL 930,458 1,080,658 1,331,448 70,674 1,016,687 HArrnli. 78,055 8J5,826 77,707 11,163 181.816 QuArtttr*. 186.228 171,948 167.094 ia.211 183.371 Uu«rt«rl. 33,481 6,416 3,3(l« 1,612 4,731 iS»::::. ;;;!::::::;: ISM i8iie ««• COHPARISO f or Imports or Obaih, ito.. NTo Livaaroou— CunMniMff. Tmh. ■ABUV. ■ ■ANA. rSAA. OATIilAL. WDIAKOOftlf. INDIAH COSH MIAL. BrilUh. Fonlgn. BriUab. rorelsn. BrilUh. Fotelfn. BriUtli. Foraign. Foralin. 13*3 QuArlera. 33,103 • 39,069 16,941 12,396 QuArrcH. 28,896 18,034 3^858 10,891 14,189 QuArtert. 13.189 9,915 9,685 8,334 2,776 QuArtvn. 113,886 105,631 76,247 126,439 137,218 QOArten. 7,768 18,953 7,582 8,685 16,949 Ilipf LoAdi, 277,812 343,388 824.621 851,220 287.710 ilnArrera. 211,526 804.860 814,008 765.299 776.894 BAmlA. 713 333 87,410 4,382 3.699 im 18M is5:::::::::;::::::. 18M (kmpABlSoif or Exports or Grain, bto., from Livrrpool roR Twrlvb Montus rhdiho SDtu 8rptr)IBRr, 1852, 1858, , 1951, 1855, AND 1866. Ton. waiAT. nous. OATC. 1 BARLKT, 1 COAIIWIM AAd IralAnd FonigD. CoAUwlHADdlnlAnl. Foralf^D. CoAitwU*. Foreign, CoACtwIae. Foralga. 1853 QuArun. 197.607 180.468 116,258 88,477 10.3,933 QuArtert. 1,667 6,811 4,994 972 17,824 SAcka. 42,463 72,098 88,410 69,614 85,107 BArrala. 846.983 328,440 398,867 87,987 83,630 BAmJa. 39,246 36,684 13,330 16,585 89,095 QuAHfr... 750 9.896 3,034 1,048 893 QuArtera. 12,580 13,527 85,168 42,629 QiiArtttra, 987 627 7,263 2,989 6,061 QtiArtAra. 384 278 810 569 13M ■ 1354 185S J8«« Ck>xPARisoic or Exports or Orain, rto., from Livrrpooi.— 0)fl«ntMdL run. pub. OA™.At. 1 ..-A, COBB. i-"°-"Ar"| COMlwliA. Fonlgn. CoAatwtaa. Foreign. BHtlth and For»lin. CoAAtwtae. J Foreign. BrlU««(«.— The agent will aeo that Intelligent pro- feaalonal men are appointed aa aurveyora, and that in their survey and eatiroatea they diatlnguiali, aa far aa poa^lble, be- tween the damage auatalned during the voyage on which the veaael ia actually engaged and the daraagea or defecta exlat- ing prior thereto, and which are chargeable to the owner*. lie ia alao to take care that the wages of tho crow are not car- ried to the average account, cither directly or indirectly. When attempt) are made to condemn ahlpa aa nnacnwnrthy that have sustained damage, the agent la to uan every means in his po'ver to prevent such condemnation, if it la evident that the vessel may be repaired ao aa to enable her to prosC' cute her voyage. And In caae ahe can not be repaired ro aa to proceed, and her condemnation becomea unavoidable. It will then be hia duty carefully to Investigate whether the condemnation ia occasioned by any natural defect or decay. If a ahip nrrivca In a disabled atata at an Intermediate port, ao aa to be Incapable of peribrming her voyage, the agent la to offer to co-nparata with the aaaured O" hIa repreaentative In procuring a conveyance for the cargo to Its original destina- tion In the beat and most expeditions manner, and to pro- teat against any sale of the cargo for account of the under- writera unless unavoidably neeesaary. Salvage ftir Reeaplure.—U has frequently happened, when a veaael haa been captured and reeaptared, that, Inatead of the salvage being paid and the veaael proceeding to her port of destination, both veaael and cargo have been aold for the pay. ■sent of salvage, and the loss of the underwriters been there- by much Inersaaed ; but by an order of council, dated the SOtli April, 1818, a copy of wlilch la ftimlshed herewith, iirnvlalona • ,,^ -. , twve been made to prevent such a practice. It la, therefore, i eti, and left to move freely iBcnmbeDt on the agent to endeavor, upon every eecaalon. to taks such steps aa appear rwiulnite for iin adjualuii'iit of the salvage, ao that the veaael may proceed with iier cnrijo to hir port of daatlnatlon. Advaiietk for the amount uf aalvatia and charges may In most cases lie effectually aaciired by bills of exchange on Hie owners, whhih li tlia preferable mode, or by a bottomry bond on the vea^ul and cargo ; bnt rhmdd tho agent have reaaon to entertain any doubt aa to the Nccurtly of hia advaiKea, he may obtain an order from the Court for the aalu of ao much of the cargo aa aball be° aufflclsiit to pay Ihg salvage and charges. /Ibandoiiiiirnt.— In no esse Is the sRent to accept an ahnn- tloninciit of cither ahlp or gooda aa tho repreaentative of the iiiid'rwrltera, but leave the partiua who abandon to act upon their own roaponalblllty. Sta Damage on (looii When called on by conaliinpaa to aaeortaln damage, the agent la to act aa a aiirvoyor only ; and In thia capacity, to require the preacnce at aiineya of ihs niaater of the vessel by which the goods have been Imported, who ia tn sign the certlflcste of the damage. That In case of refnaal of the maater to attend, or that he be prevriiti'd at- tending, he is to be infonned that such refusal or allcKed caiiae of prevention la to be noted by the agent, which ho la required t<> do upon uny certificate he may grant; and In all porta where it ia cnatomary to dlschnrgo gooda into llKlitrra or craft under the Jurladletion of the cnsloiii.liousc or otlisr. wise, the agfnt la required to aacertain whether the pprsim in charge of ancli lighter or oralt haa demanded of tho iiiasler or mate of llie veaael dlacharging a certificate of, or himself ulven a receipt exprosaing any apparent ('aniage or defects In the gooda delirend over to iiini ; and whin auch provia to hi: the case, the agent Ih to iiiako a note of the aauie n|iuii his ^urvry, and procure the original, if practicable, or a copy of audi certificate, to accompany the vonchera ho. may furnish; and ho ia further deairod to ascertain and notify whether any and what Ronds wen^ laden on deck. The agent ia further to aee that the sound part of every packa;!e is aeparated from tiio damagoil, and partlcularlts the quantity of each in hia certificate, taking care, In the first Inatanco, to aatlafy lilniai'lf that tho gooda were properly Btowed, and that the daniigo was occasioned by scn-walLT wlillo on board. If tho agent be further called m by the cnn- algneea tn superintend and certify aalea, he will refer to lila original survey, which specifies tlie quantity damaBiil In each package, and take care tliat only tho damaged part or plerea be aold on account of the average. Tlio aale iiiust take plnrc within a rottfoiiable time from the period of landinu, olhir- wlso the underwrltera will be exonerated ; and In aurli com the agent ia not to act. A certificate ahoiild iiltiaya ho fMr- nlalied, to show what the market price, or value of tho Kno.It damaged, would have been at the timo of sale for ready mon- ey had they arrived without damage, taking the iitnioat rare to guard againat exiigKerated and fraudulent valuations; ami if part of the goods arrive In a sound atnte and are aold, a cer- tified copy of tho aale of that part ought alwaya to he furnished. When damaged gooda are to be aold, they should be lotted In auch quantitiea aa are beat calculated to fult purchasers In general, that the aalcs may be made aa productive as poulblc. feliould tho separation of the sound gooda from tho daninircJ not be aaaented to by the couhigneca, the agent Is to notify his objection to tho proceedings, and Interfere no further in the sales, or in certifying the facta. A discretionary power Is given to the agent of agreeing to a compromise for damage in caaea where tho claim la a, 1180 ; Imt this honor la accorded to Ko);er Dacon al)out 1207. The Italians diacovered that It could communicate its vir- I'jea to steel or iron ; and Flavio (iiojo, of Amalfl, was the Inventor of the mariners' compaaa. — llagdn. Loan*. Thoae for the service of the crown of En- gland were generally borrowed at Antwerp until after the reign of Klizabeth. In 1669, the queen borrowed je*iOO,000 of the city of Antwerp, to enable her to re- form her own coin, and Sir Thomas Gresham and the city of Ixiiiilun joined in the security. — Rapin. The amount nf the English loans, during four late memor- able perioda, was, viz. : Sovon years' war, 1755-1763 £.%2,100,000 American war, 1770— 1TS4 7»,(100,000 French Kovolutlonary war, 17911—1313... ll»,fiOO,onO War against Bonaparte, IbUS— 1814 .... ao«,80U,000 Besides the property tix. In 1818 were raised two loans of 21,mHl,(i<)fl and 22,000,(100 ; and it deserves to be recordeil, that a aubacriptUm loan to carry the war against France was filled up in I.ondon in 15 hours and 20 minutes, to the amount of £18,000,000, December 5, 1706. IiObos, or Seal Islands, two groups of guano Islands in the PaclHc Ocean, lying oflf the coaat of Pe- ru. The landward and northern group are about 20 miles west of tho mnin land, in S. lat. 6° 29', W. long. 80° 63', and conaixt of one large island, 6 miles long by 2 in breadth, with several rocky islets. The sea- ward group He about 38 miles from tho main land. In 8. lat. 0° 56', W. long. 80° 65', and consist of two islands of about the same size, viz., 1 mile long by 1 in breadth, and separated from each other by y pri- vate companies to obtain poaaoasion of them. On the north group there is estimated to be a deposit of guano of about 400,000 tons, and on the other islands of more than 2CO,000 tons. The only inhal>ltimtj are those employed in the shipment of the manure, and consist- ing chiefly of Indians and Chinese. Lobster (Fr. JCcrevime ; Lat. Cancer), a flsh of the crab species. The Scilly Islands and the Land's End abound in lobsters, as well as several places on the Scotch shores, particularly about Montrose. But the principal lobster fishery is on the coast of Norway ; whence it is believed about 1,000,000 lobsters are an- nually Imported Into London, 'Those of Heligoland are, however, esteemed the best ; they are of a deeper black color, and their flesh is Hrmer than those brought from Norway. Looh, The Scotch term for lake, which see. Lock, in Internal Navigation, is a part of a canal included between two floodgates, by means of which a vessel is transferred from a higher to a lower level, or from a lower to a higher. Look, Looks (tier. SchlSiter; Du, Sloient Fr. Serruret ; It. Serrature; Sp, Cerraiuriu, Ci.rajoti Riu. Samki), t well-known instrument, of which there are Infinite varieties. A great deal of art and deli- cacy is sometimes displayed in contriving and varjing the wards, aprlnga, bolts, etc., and adjusting them to the places where they are to be used, and to the occa- sions of using them. From the various structure of locks, accommodated to their different intentions, they aeqoin various names, as stock locks, spring locks, padlocks, etc. The grand diffloulty to Im oTarcom* In making a lock la to conatruct it ao that it may not bn opened by any key except Ita own, nor admit of being picked ; it ahould alao be (maseaaed of aulilclant strength and duruliility, and not lie too complex. Many inge- nious contrivancea have lieen proposed for the attain- ment of the desired security— several of which are possessed of considerable merit. Common door-locka are now uaually Inaerted In the wood. Instead of being, as formerly, acrewed to it ; and when so placed are called mor(Me*locka. Looast-tree, The Kobina proudaoacla, or com- mon locust, from the valuable pro|iertte8 of Ita wood, and the beauty of Ita foliage and fl(iwerB, ranka among the first trees of the American forvKts, In favorable •ttuationi, it attains a height of NO or 90 feet, and aometimei exceeds four feet In diameter ; but ordina- rily, it does not surpass half of these dimenaiona. On the trunks and large limlu of old trees, the bark Is very thick, and deeply furrowcii, but on young trees, not more than two or three inches in diameter, it is armed with strong, himked prickles, which disappear altogether as they grow old ; and in some varieties they are wanting even when young. "rhe common locust naturally alxiunds In the conn try west of the AUeghanlcs, as far as Arknnaaa, It Is also plentiful in tho Canadas, but is not found in digenous in the United States east of the river Del- aware, nor does It grow apcmtaneously In tho maritime parts of the middle and southern states, within the distance of 60 to 100 miles from the sea. It la planted, however, for purposes of utility and ornument, from Maine to Georgia. It was observed liy Michaux, that " the locust forms a much smaller portion nf the Amer- ican forests than the oaks and walnuts, and that It is nowhere found occupying tracts, even of a few acres exclusively." Hence' the tree, where It is met with, la often spared by settlers, 'as being ornamental, and comparatively rare, and old specimens, which formerly belonged to the aboriginal forests, are frequently seen growing In the midst of cultivated fields. Of all American trees that have ))een cultivated in Enrope there is no one, of which ao much has been said and dc le, as the locust. It was among the first plants t' 1. V'ure carried to that country, and it has been mo - ■ t^nsively propagated than any other, both In Brit, 'n and In France, where It has been al- ternate!}' exuUed and neglected ; and even at the present day, though the beauty of its foliage and flow- era is universally admired, and the valuable properties have enthusiastically Iwen praised and acknowledged, it is not' considered as holding a high rank as a timber- tree, or as being generally planted with a view to profit. The wood of the locust, which is commonly of a greenish-yellow color, marked with brown veins. Is very hard, compact, and suaceptilde of a brilliant pol- ish. It possesses great strength, with but littlo elas- ticity ; and its most valuable property is that of resist- ing decay longer than almost any other species of wood. When newly cut, It weighs 63 pounds 3 ounces to a cubic foot ; half dr}-, 66^ pounds, and when quite dry, only 48^ pounds, or according to others, only 46 pounds. According to &I, Hartig, the German den- drologiat, its value for fuel, when compared with that of the beech {Fagtia tykatica), is as 12 to 16, For dur- ation, he places it next below the oak (QueMus roiur), and next above the larch (^Larix europad), and^the Scotch pine {Pinut tylveslris). Barlow, In Wither's TreatUe, gives the strength of locust timber, as com- pared with other woods, as follows : — Teak (Tectomt grandis), 2462 ; Ash (/Voxinus excelsior), 2026 ; Locust (Kobuui pseudacacia), 1867; Oak (Quercus ro&ur), 1672 ; Beech (Fagua aylvatica), 1656 ; Norway spar (^6te< ex- celsa), 1474 ; KIga fir {Pinut syhettris rigensU), 1108 ; Elm {Ulmua campestrui), 1018, From some exper- imenti made at Brest, in 1823, the weight of tha to- LOO 1372 LOF out wood WM fonnd to Iw on* ilxth hMvlar Ihaa Uul or the KnitlUh oiik | Iti itrength u 1427 to H'iO i •Dd Ita •lutkity M n to 9. By expcriiiMnt* mad* In Ih* y«nl of the roy»l naviil mlleKP, it Woolwich, It •ppMM that the lateral atrpiiKth of the Inciiit tlinlwr, la reabtlnx fractura, i« Kreutar thun that of the Urltiah oak, in the proportion of KM) to 7A. Kroin all theae •xperlmenti, however widely they mar diRer In their reaulta, we may aafely conclude, thiit aound, well- aeaaoned loouit timlior " la heavier, harder, atronxer, more rl)(id, mora elnntlc, anil toucher than that of the lieat KuKliab oak," and conaequently la more auitabio for trcnalla. HIchaux remarka that, " if tlie trunka of the Iflcuat-trera ){rown in the north of I'ennaylrania, exceed IS inchea in diameter, when Ihey are cut down and aplit open, they are frequently fi)und to lie decaj-ed It the heart ; but that thia la not the coae with treea that have ip'own further aouth ;" which would tend to ahow that a poor aoll and a cold climate are not auf- liolent to produce gootl timber. There are, at leaat, three popular varietlei of the common locuat, diatlnguiahable by the color of the heart>wood, which may be deaeribed na followa : 1. Jted iM-iitl, with the heart ri'il, and la eateemed aa far the moat beautiful and dnralile timber. PoatH of thia variety, perfectly aeaaoned before they are aet In the ground, are eatimated to laat 40 yeara, or twice a* long aa thoae of the white locuat. 2. 6'reen, or VMm AoeiMt.-^Thia ia the moat com- mon variety, lieing known by ita grecniah-yellow heart, and ia held next beat in quality to the red locuat. 8. White iMcutl, with a white heart, and li con- ildered aa the leaat valuable of them all. All of the above-mentioned variationa are auppoaed to ba owing entirely to the aoll and aituationa in which they grow, being cauaed in a aimllar manner oa the varioua colore of the flowen of the hydrangea, which depend on the nature of the earth in which they are planted, and even on the color of the water with which they are irrigated. In naval architecture, the timber of the locuat la much eateemed by American abipwrighta, and entera, with the live oak, the white oak, and the red cedar, into the npper and the lower parta of the framea of veeaeli, though in very amall proportlona. It la con- aldered a« durable as the live oak and the red cedar, with the advantage of being lighter than the former and stronger than the latter. It ia uaed for trenails in the dockyards of Europe and the United States, in preference to any other kind of wood ; and instead of decaying. It acqulrea, in time, an extraordinar}' degree of hardneaa. In civil architecture, in thia country, It enters but little into the compoaition of houaes, on ac- count of Ita sea .-city, and Its value In abip-bnilding, and for posts of ural fenoea, etc. When employed in the construction of houaea, it is more particularly ap- plied for the support of the ailia, which usually consiat of mors destructible timber, and which, if they were placed immediately on the ground, would sooner de- cay. From the hardness of tlio waonit I* vary amall, gonalilfvrinff Ilia axtant of tarrltory, and in auiitainail prin(il|ially liy tha llaliarleii. Hnma cuttle, howavar, ■ra kapt in tha moit ■haltarail paiin of the Ulanri, whara ((nod paaturaga U olitalnad in tha aummar. BUiln, in tha Inland of ITlvo, la tha cliiaf villaKa of tha group, and hai communication with tha porta of tha main land by maana of a tteamar, which vUlti tha Ixv fodana In lummar. Kutiinated population of group, 4000. LOC, an app«ratu« unad to maaaura tha rata of a •hlp'a velocity throuxh tba water. For thia purpoaa, there are aeveral Inventiont, hut the one moat gener- ally uaed ii the following, called the common log. It la a pince of thin boani, forming the quadrant of a cir- cle of aliout inchpa nuliua, and baUncea by a imall plata of lead, nailed on the circular part, lo aa to iwim perpendicularly In the water, with the greater part immerted. Tha log-line is fimteneU to the log by meani of two leg*, one of which la knotted, through a hole at one comer, while the other la attached to » pin, flxad In a hole at tha other corner so aa to draw out occasionally. The log-line lieing divided Into certain apocea, which are in proportion to an equal number of geographical miles, as a half or quarter minute is to an hour of time, Is wound almut a reel. The whole is employed to measure the ihip'a head-way In the fol- lowing manner: the reel being held by one man, and the half-minute glass l)y another ; the mate of the watch Hxes the pin, and throws the log over the stem, which, swimming perpendicularly, feels an immediate rasUtance, and Is considered as flxed, the line being slackened over the stem to prevent the pin coming out. The knots are measured from a mark on the line, at tlie distance of 12 or 15 futhoms from tho log. The glass is, therefore, turned the instant the murk passes over tha stern ; and, as soon as the sand in the glass has run out, the line la stopped. The water, then being on the log, dislodges the pin, so that the board, ijow presenting only its edge to the water, Is easily drown alward. The numlier of knots and fath- oms which had run off at the expiration of the glass, determines the ship's velocity. Tlie half-minute glass, and dlviaions on the line, should be frequently measured, to determine any variation in either of them, and to make allowance accordingly. If the gloss runs 80 seconds, the distance between the knots ahould be 60 feet. Whoa it runs more or less, it should therefore be cui'i-«.< f. d by the following analogy: as SO is to 50, so in tho number of seconds of the glass to the distance between the knots upon the ir.ie. As the heat or moisture of the weather has often a consider- able effect on tho glass, so as to make it run slower or faster, it should be frequently tried by the vibration of a pendulum. As many accidents attend a ship dur- ing a day's sailing, such as the variableness of winds, the different quantity of sail carried, etc., it will be necessai;- to heave the log at every alteration, and even if no alteration be perceptible, yet it ought to be constantly heaved. The inventor of this simple but valuable device is not known, and no mention of it occurs till the year l(i07, in an East India voyage, published by Purchas.— G. A. Logaxitbins, so useful in mathematios, are the indexes of the ratio of numbers one to another. They were invented by Baron Merchiston, an eminent Scotchman (Sir John Xapier), in l(il4. The method of computing by means of marked piecus of Ivory, was discovered about the some time, and hence called Napier'a lines. The invention was afterward com- pleted by Mr. Briggs, at Oxford. ItOg-Board, two boards shutting together like a book, and divided into several columns, containing the hours of the day and night, the direction of the winds and the conrse of the ship, with all the material oernrrencea that happen during tha 24 koort, nr ftam noon to noon, togiir«t, Ih* Char, tiM Indra, Ihii Vlannx, Ih* 'I'hnuA, and Iha .Savra-Nan- UIm, Tci pravant Iha l^ilra fmm aiirfailliiK uvar Iha tow KraiiniU alonK Ita eciunw, It hfin iHwn Imrikatl In hy dykaa, liullt inurh alN)va Iti nrrliniiry luval. 'I'liana ambankniaiiU wara navar known to ((Ivn way )iravloiiii tn tha itr»*t ttnoiU of IH-IO. Thay )|ava way ut tha nama plaea during tha faarful Inundntlonnof .liini-, WM, car. rylnR away tha lirhlita and ytt\»g» of Miivciiinlunx, and inundatliig tha rominunna of \* Kiiha-axtrii nnil l.a (Jbapalla-aux-Nauii, raunInK a draadfiil Iiim of Ufa and pniparty. Tha moiitli of tha riviut nvan milaa wida, maaaurad fnim Nt. Naxara In Paiinlxiiur. 8hipi And Rraat dlfllvulty In taklnx tha mouth of the rivar, owing tn tha cx|M>«tHl natiira of itii poiitlon, •nd to tha numaroua aand-hanka which travrrxa it. Lombard, ■ tarm anciently iiund in Knuliind for a banker or money-lrndar. 'Iha name U derived frnm the Italian nierchanta, the Kreat nnurani or money' lendem of the middle u^ea, prlnrlpally from thn citiea fit lx>ralMnly, whu are aaid to have nettled in London in the middle of the 13tb centurr, ami to have tiiken up their realdenca In a atreet In the city which atlll lieara thair name. Lorolianl uaurera were aent to England by I'ope (ircgnry IX, to lend money to con- venta, communitiaa, and private peraona, who were not able to pay down the tentha which were collected throughout the kingdom with great rigor tliat year, 18 IIanr>- III., 12'2U. They hiiil officea in l^omiiurd- ■treat, which great lianking atreet ia cnlird after them to thia day. Their iiaurioua trunaactiona ciiiiaeil their expulaion from the kingdom In the reign of KiiKiilMth. Stowe, In hia Aurrry nf /Amiltm, aaya, " Then have ye Lombarde-atreet, ao called of the I^ngoliarila and other merchanta, atrangera of diverae natlona, aaaeni' bllng there twice every day. The meeting of which merchants there continued until the 'i'M of l>ecenil)er, in the year KUH ; y Pen- nant {/Amdim, p. 17) )»>cms most feaalhle, viz., IJgn, in Celtic, a lake, and din, a town. It could not, how- avar, have liean a place of importance at the period of Julius Cnaar'a invasion, aa It is not noticed in his Commetilarim. About 100 years thereafter, the Romans, under Claudius, took possoaaliin of the city, and called it Aaguata, in honor of that prince. It was erected into a pnnfecture ; and the Inhabitants, nom- inally citizens of Rome, were goveme copal aa«. Tha ilinita of theae walla have hann pnitty exactly aacerlainxil. They ciiininancHd naur the alle of the prraent Tower, exlemlad along the Miimrlaa and iiack of lloundadltch, acroM lll«ho|Mgiit«->lrni>i, in a atralght line, by l.onihin Wall, to <| thence aoulhwani to AliUragatii, prniMiaillng afterwiird liy tha back nf (Ihrlat'a llaepltal and Old Newgnta, paaaing liahind tha aita of Nawgala I'riaiin, anil ao reaching l.udgata i again pmceeding waalwanl to Iha Hirer Klort, and terininiitlng at a fort culli'il afterward Itiiyniird'a Caalle. Tlieir lompiiaa woa coniplatoil liy itnother wail along tlie liank of tim TImmea. Kxlnntof the walla fnnn and to the aide of the river, 'i nillna and 1 furlong) on the bank, 1 mile and l-10th| unlfnrni height, ii feet. Through gate* In theae wulla, riniila led tn different parts of the kingdom, Tlin gri'iit Roman Itoada, Watllng-alraet anil Krniln-atrttion> don aulTered aeverely till the Huxiina llxeil Ihi'inaalvea in the country. It la aalil In have liecunin then Ilia cHpiliil of tha Eaat Hiixon kingiliini) at iiny ml", it quickly regained ita former importunie, ami ia cull i\ by Venerable Uede a " princely town of Irmle, ' .Soon after the intruduotinn of Chrlalianllty, Did HI. Paul's, and St. Peter'a at Weatinlnater, Weru fuiinileil, When the Haxon mnnarchieB wera united In Ihii |Hnry VII,, ■ (IImum i-iiltim that point a row of houaea waa continued to the MoruUKh. 8uutliwark than ex- temlod liut a abort diatance along High-street; and thrra were amall icattered houaea from T'i»ley-atreet to llnraelydown. In the reign of .lamea I. liHrk waa Introduced ua a aulmtitute fur wood In London houaea, and the atreeta were llrat paved with atonea, Tha city wua aeverely vlaitnd l>y the plague In l(i04, and again In tlie reign uf Charles I. During the civil wara a majority of the corporutiun took part with the Com- mona, and the city treasury' waa of great iervlce to their party. After tha Reitoratiiin I^ndon Iwgan greatly to re- Tive ; but a aerloua ciieck waa given to It by the laat viait uf the plague, which raged from June till the end of Uecemlier, l, and destroyed nearly a third of the population, Thla was apeedily followed by tha " (irout Fire," which commenced 2d September, 'l6(ifl, lasted four days and nights, and In that time reduced to aalies live sixths uf the whole city within the •vulls. The ruins covered a apace more than a mile lung and half u mile broad; and the value of buildings und goods consumed was estimated at ten to twelve mll- ons sterling. But though severe at the time, this visitation contributed materially to tlio improvement of the city. It was built on a more commuout four years. From the time uf its re-cunstruction, few stirring events oc- curred. Tho first stone of St. Paul's was laid in 1675. The revocation of the Edict of Xantea in 1685 l)mught to l.ondon many French Pmtestant families, who peo- pled Spitaltields, and introduced the manufacture of ailk. The continued growth of the city in the reign of Queen Anne occasioned the act of 1711 for building fifty new churches, the cott being |)aid by a tax on all coaia brought into the Thames. The streets wore tlien first generally lighted; fire-engines were provided, and measures taken fur watching the city. In her reign, Clerkeu-.rell, Old-street, the lower part of Shore- ditch, Msrlborough-atreet, Soho, Bedford-row,- Red l.lnn-aquara, and • district nortll of llolhom, w*f* tnnaxad to tha nialropidla. In tha nilgn of (tmirga I. soma addillona were mnila to I,i>mlcin, riilally to tha north of Oxfonl-atraat and alMiul llark»lay->i|uara. In the ndgn of (lanrga II, aonia new |uiriaht'a were emi'tad, via., Ht. (laorga'a, lliiM>maliury ; Nt. Ann'a, LImahouaa ; .St. i'aul'a, Dapt- fonl ; and Ht. Mutthaw'a, llethnal tirnan. Thu HIvar Flaat wo* covrred, and a market built on it; (iroava- nnr-a<|uara, Wratudnatar Itridga, and Oraat (ieurgo- atraat, were liuilt ; and rouda wara funned in aavaral dlrw'tkma, tha principal one akirtliig tha nurtham part uf thu city from I'uiblington to laliugton. Tha accvaaiim of (ieorga HI. gava a fraah atimului to Improvement and axtanairm, A new bridg* ■! Blarkfrlara, with handal tlian ever, Docka were con- atrueteil, tha cnmmen i tho city rapidly augmented, the ground near the water aide was covered with liuilcliuga, anil, westward, Bedford, Kuaaell, and Brunswick 8<|uarea i|uickly aprung up. From the Kegency in IHll, London advanced in extent and ele- gance still more rapidly, Itagent's I'ark was fomieil, und surrounded by liumlsome terraces ; and within tha last few years the extensive and faahlunalde dlatricta called Belgravla and Tyburniu— the furmer to the south and the latter to the north of Hyde i'ark— have been created, und literally covered with liuuaea uf a high class. In IN&I there were llUi,uaa Inhabited houses In the metropolis, and there ura nn leas than 6300 atrcets enumerated in the Luuiion I'oital iluidt lor January, 1H57. The situation of Londnn, on the banks of a great tidal river, la also peculiarly favuralile I'ur a large city in a sanitary |iulnt of view, Tho subsuil is partly clay (the I.i7,52S The metropolitan district comprised within the li'ills of mortality includes, with the cities and boroughs embraced in the foregoing table, other integral parts of London, like Chelsea, Brompton, and Kensington ; and the suburbs, such as Greenwich, Wandsworth, Hammersmith, Putney, etc. In this view, the area of the metropolis is 78,029 acres, comprising 186 par- ishes and the present population may be estimated at upward of 2,500,000. Annexed is an account of the population of this area at the date of each census, commencing with 1801 : Yfftn. Population. 1801 958,868 1811 1,188,815 1821 1,878,947 Yoart. PopuUHon. 1881 1,664,994 1841 1,948,417 1851 2,862,286 But muny merchants and citizens, taking advantage of the easy access to the country afforded l>y the rail- waj-s, occupy houses at such places as Kingston, Esther, Walton, Richmond, Twickenham, Staines, Windsor, Keigate, Brighton, etc., making daily jour- neys to and from the city, so that they and their fami- ''^ lies are not included in the foregoing account. Commerce As one of the great occupations of its inhabitants, the commerce of London demands the first notice. The capital of a great empire, with im- mense wealth concentrated in it, having easy access, both l>y land and water, to all parts of the liingdom, and every facility of communication with foreign countries, Iiondon has become, with perhaps the single exception of New York, the greatest commercial city in the world. The commercial growth and prosperity of Ix>ndon are especially to be ascribed to its great river-port, the Thames. This famous stream has its source nithin the bordem of Gloucestershire, a little to the south-west of Cirencester, and becomes navi- gable at Lechlade, 138 miles above London. It is first affected by the tide alraut Id miles above the metropo- lis ; Imt before reaching this point it is swollen by junction with the Isis, Kennet, Coin, and Wey. The city corporation are the chief conservators of the river, and appoint a navigation committee, who super- intend the towing-paths, bridges, water-courses, and whatever relates to the river, as far as a stone a little above .Staine's Bridge. Higher up the supervision is divided lietween the city and a l)ody oliiefiy composed of the landowners on lioth sides of the river. The conservation of the river below London is also in some measure under the government of the city corporation, but the Trinity House has concurrent jurisdiction, and no ballast can be raised without its authority. The appointment and control of pilots, the placing and repairs uf land-marks and buoys to indicate the chan- nels, and the establishment of flo.iting lights, are also under the superintendence of the Trinity House. Close to London Bridge there is water sufficient for vessels of 800 tons burden, and the legislature has planed the shipping of the port, and their moorings, under the direction of the harbor-masters, nominated by the cor- porat'.jn, and approved by the Trinity House. The iinuositics, currents, and siioals in the river, and its varying depth, render the navigation rather intricate. The river pilots, who are a distinct class, conduct ves- sels to Gravesend, where they are relieved l>y the sea pilots. Down to 1800, the commerce of London, and the shipping interest, suffered materially from the crowded state of the river, and tlia difBoulties, delays, and abuses connected with the berthing and mooring of vessels, and the landing and storing of merchandise. These evils led to the construction of the West India Docks, which were opened in August, 1802. These, next to the Commercial Docks, the oldest in I^ondon, were formed in the gorge of the Isle of Dogs, on the Middlesex side of the river. They comprise the im- port and export dock (communicating with the river at Blackwall and Limebouse), and a dock of 19 acres for Iwnded timber. The export dock occupies about 25, and the import dock 80, acres. The gates are 45 feet wide, and admit vessels of 1200 tons. At the highest spring-tides the water is 24 feet deep ; and withii: the docks there is sufHcient space for (KM) vessels of from 250 to 600 tons. The import and export docks are parallel to each other, but divided by stacks of warehouses. There are sheds for sheltering the goods ; and the chief warehouses are capable of storing 170,000 hhds. of sugar, besides coffee and other tropical productions. The whole space occupied liy these docks and ware- houses is 2S5 acres. The Kast India Docks at Black- wall now belong to, and are managed b}', the same company as the West India Docks. They were com- menced in 180.S, finished in 1806, and were intended to accommodate the trade of the East India Company. They include an import basin of 18 acres, an export basin of about 9, and an entrance basin of 2} acres. The entrance lock is 210 feet wide, the width of the gates 48 feet, and the depth of water in the docks is never less than 23 feet. The extent of warehouse- room at these docks is comparatively small. The East and West India Docks are well inclosed and guarded, and the buildings are fireproof. The London Ducks, situated l>etween Katclilf Highway and the Thames, were begun in June, 1802, and opened in January, 1805. They consist of two docks ; the western, cov- ering 20 acres, and the eastern about 7 acres. The latter is entered from .Sbadwell, and the former near Wapping Old Stairs, and also at the Hermitage. The whole can receive 500 vessels of from 200 to 800 tons. The entire space inclosed Is 71 acres. The ware- houses are very fine; the most extraordinary licing that for bonded tobacco. The roof and pillars sup- porting it are of iron, and the whole building covers five acres of land, and is capable of containing 21,000 hhds. The company is governed by a body of direct- ors, of whom the lord maj'or is one. The regulations to prevent fire and pilfering are as effectual as In the East Indhi Docks. St. Katherine's Docks, situate between the London Dycks and the Tower, were ex- ecuted in a year and a half, and first opened In Oeto- iier, 1828. The whole extent of the property is 24 acres, of which nearly one half Is inclosed in the two docks, communicating by a basin. The entrance lock, riear Irungate Wharf, Is 180 feet long, and 45 feet broad, and admits ships of from 200 to 800 tons. The warehouses are very large and commodious, and the regulations and charges are similar to those of the other dock. Victoria Docks, the last constructed, were completed in 1855. They are situated in the Plaistow Marshes, immediatei}* below the East and West India Docks. The portion of this property ap- propriated i)y the Dock Company for their own pur- poses is about 200 acres, but the dock itself occupies but 74, and alK>rds 28| feet depth of water. The en* » IX)N 1877 LON • covers tnncA look «t Bow Orvck U DOO fMt long. Mtd SO wide. There U A hitlf-tlila liM>ln of 10 irnttii* \ and th« availabln warehoute (liMir I* Htaltid to Ihi U|iwartl of 11 acrei. The onmpuny hava aUn Nir tiommodltlei* more bulky than oottly, Tlieae dooka nro cintared liy a baain near l)og-and<|)uuk Htuira, Hom«tini«a ualled the Bant Country Dock*, and the niiiln body of the water within la divided into alx unei|iml part<, H«« DncKS. Parallel to »'..'« In the Hiirrey Citniil. having an inner and out( ' dn.^k at the entraiii'K In Kiithcrhlihe, by which ahlpa uio rei'ttlved, and alfititlng conmiunl* cation with the Croydon Canal. T!it< ltt^ world, To tile tirltlsh capital are brought the priKlm'ts, natural and artlflvlal, of ull soils and all cllmiitos, It ha* In nturn whatever the ingenuity and industry of man in any part of the globe can spare to exchange for what liU own I'oiintry does not yield. We can, thortifore, do llltlit mora than state the numl)er and »\*e of the ve*iitila that Itelong to and frequent the port, and the valua of the prouuce and manufactures of the United Kingdom exported from the same ; Account of ma NuMnaa *Nn To»rN/»Ma ok Vanaaw aa- LONUINO TU TUa I'liKT iir lillNOON ON IIIki' llacMMaKN, OoiltTlptlOll of v.i.nli. Under to mm, Alwtii to luMi 1 Vx.cll. ■tmi," V....II, TliMI, Salllni; Tossels. . Steamers Totol «1I 1 «i,Doa 1 mm l.alir 40ft a»T;SoB~ Account ov tor NuMHaa «aii TonxAoa ol» Vawaut WHicn iiATR RNTRsao THK PiiaT OK lioNOON KHOM Kciaaicia CoUNTUira ANO TIIK I'nl.liNf Ml, IN KAHn OK tlia f IVa Ykaiis enuino wito IWS, TpKrf, VoiMtU. Tiiimmr*- I \iinri, V.tMp|i y.iiitr.atiH m\. ... 10,841 8,1 T»,liM 1 »ft4, , , . , in,ii« 1S52 9,9S« «,lflO,I.M IWift t(,Tt« 1S53 11,708 ifiHtUa I Account or the NiiMiisa *aD ToaN*oa OK OoAstiao Vesseu) that KNTKaaii TON I'oBT or LoNlioN la ls6fi, uistinouibuini) Uhitisu raiiM Kioikion, DeMrtptlDn of HrllUli. l''llF«.|||fti 1 VftM'If. T^'tMWgH. V..w(.', J ir 1 if— 'I'lMIHNtfv. llifl l,ftO« Saiiliii? vessels.. 'steamers Total 1T,TH9 i.a»7 i»,n«« »,4«8,8Tfl 4i 1,4ft tl,IUio,ftir The conveyance of cnaln to London einployn a great deal of shipping. Tlioy are clilully brought from the north.«astem district of the kingdom, and are sold at the New Coal Kxchange, latidy eroctt"! In Lower Thamcs-street. Very large quantities of coal now roach l.(Midon by means of the railways which centre In th« metropolis. Accotnn or rna Ncuaia or Ships iaden wim Coal WHICH aNTcaao Tna Port Jf Loaooif in iaou Yka raiiM 184S TO 18S5 uioLvdiva. Yean. ShlM. ltM8 H,»9T 1M« 10,488 1841 11,811 1848 18,887 1849 19,074 1800 19,688 I Yon. Skill. 1851 ll.TW 1891 19,085 1858 19,111 1854 11,875 1856 10,7M DaoLAaKO Valuk or British and Irish Pkoudor and Manufauturks xxportrd from London to Forrion Countries and tub Colonics in 1866 and 186A. 1866. £90,91^519 186«. 26,966,088 Cnitom-hmiM. — The present custom-house, opened In May, 1817, stands in Ixtwer Thames-street, with its principal and imposing front, 48U feet long, toward the river, and occupies the site of a similar but smaller one destroyed by Are in 1814, as a preceding one liud been in 1718. The Long Room is a noble apartment, 180 feet long, 00 broad, and of an appropriate height, with desks on each side for the several officers ; the centre being left for such of the public as have busi- ness there. The other parts are distributed so as to suit the several branches of the office. The London customs establishment of clerks, tide-waiters, etc., amounted in 1850 to 2167 ; though as but 1020 were required for all the other English ports, it would seem as if the numbers here were excessive, Amodnt or Customs Duties collkoted in thk Port or London in 1$6S and 1966. 1886. £11,526,185 1866 12,287,619 Trinity Iloxue. — The Socifcty of the Trinity House has its chief establishment '-i a large and handsome house on Tower Hill, built by Wyatt in 1793. It was Incorporated in 1815; but from the terms of its char- ter, it evidently had a previous existence, and was then established at Depttcrd Stroud. Its privileges were confirmed by the chrrter of 1058, and its mem- bers are now partly men of high rank, and partly those remarkable for naval ''.nowledgc and skill in maritime affairs. Its duties as to pilots, light-housea, buoys, ballast, etc., have already been meutioned. In process of time this society acquired large property ; the net revenue under its management having in 1855 amounted to ,£204,195. Until the passing of the act iBtb and 17th Vic, c. 131, the society spent much of Its surplus revenue in pensions to poor and disabled seamen, or their widows and orphans; but this act transfers their revenue, as well as the charge for main- taining light-houses, etc., to the Mercantile Marine Kund, It would appear, from a parliaraentar}* paper lately published, that the Board of Trade expended in 1860 out of this fund ^£1388 as rewards for the salvage of life. The Trinity House contains some portraits of naval lieroes, naval trophies, etc. Mint. — The Royal Slint, also on Tower Hill, was removed thither from the Tower in 1811. The present building which is exteusive and well suited to its pur- pose, was completed under the direction of Sir R. Hiulrko. The interior is appropriately arranged for the manufacture of coin ; and the machinery combines great ingenuity and beauty. In consequence of the report of a commission in 1849, the old company of nioiieyers was abolished, and a scientlHc chief has since been allotted to this department, instead of a |Hdltlcal one. The amount of gold, silver, and copper inimey coined here in the last three years has been as follows: Account of the Total Vai.ub of Ooid, Silver, and Cni'CEa COINED at the Mint in each of tub Tuhrr Years endinu with 1850. Yf«r. "issr 1866 18&6 Total iilB,169,980 £4,858,529 I 9,246,266 6,476,060 £113,876 I £20.074.854 I 'y I LON 1278 LON Sanli. — ^The Bank of England, one of the moct at- tractive object! in tlie city, was fonnded by act of Parliament in 1694, and its huaineas was canted on for many yean at Grocers' Hall. In 1788 it was trans- fornd to Tiireadneedie-atreet, and soon thereafter the present hall and bullion office were opened. Be- tween 1770 and 1788 the fafade was extended, and two wings added, under the directions of Sir Robert Taylor and Sir John Soane. Under tlie 8U|>erintGnd- ence of the latter, the front and wings of the original structure were harmonized. The area of the l)anl[ is an irregular quadrangle ; the south or principal front is 365 feet, and the north -110 ; the east 246 feet, and the west 440, Its principal entrance is fVom Thread- needle-street, the other two from Bartholomew Lane and Lothbury, The interior contains several open courts, the rotunda, or circular room, numerous offices, committee-rooms, and private apartments for the resi- dence of olllcera and servants. The business is car- ried on by a staff of about 800 clerks, etc., whose salaries amount to nearly i:!!00,000. The bank has received nine successive renewals of its charter since it was first granted in 1604, and measures have l>een ti>ken in Parliament this session (the first of 1867) for tgain renewing it. The act of 1844, still in force, sep- arated the Bank into two distinct branches, viz. : 1. The Issue Department, devoted to its business as agent of the State in creating and issuing paper mone}', or bank-notes, convertible into gold on demand ; and, 2. The Bunking Department, whore the private business of dejMsit and discount is curried on. There are 60 privute and 28 joint-stock banks in the metropolis. Some few of the former, such as Child's, in Fleet- street, were established before the end of the 17th cen- tur}' ; while tlie joint-stock l)unka are all the offspring of the last few years. There is an establishment near Lombard-street, called the Clearing House, where a daily exchange of checks or drafts on city bankers is effected, and this process tends greatly to facilitate banking business, lioyal Exchange. — The Royal Exchange, colossal in proportions, and occupying a commanding position be- tween the Bank of England and Comhill, is a spot where great mercantile transactions are daily con- cluded. The first exchange was built by Sir Thomas Gresbam, completed in 1567, but destroyed by the great firo of 1666. It was, however, speedily rebuilt, and was opened on 28th September, 1660. Again destroyed by fire in 18il8, it was rebuilt, and completed in 1846 by Mr, Tite. The present building is quadrangular, and the interior surrounded by arcades. In the centre, which is uncovered and unprotected from the weather, stands a statue of her majesty l)y Lough. The out- side of the liuilding, except the grand western en- trance, is occupied liy small shops ; and on the upper floor \» Lloyd's, where the Imainess of murine insur- ance is conducted l>y underwriters. It has been esti- mated that, on an average, 2ri0,000 persons daily visit the exchange, but this can be little more than con- jecture. Merchants and brokers resort much to coffee- houses in the vicinity of the Exchange for tlio trans- action of bnsiness. Moat of the larger transactions are negotiated by brokers, who in general confine themselves to one branch of trade, with which they are thoroughly acquainted. Thus we have colonial brokers, insurance l)rokera, ship l>rokers, stock lirok- ers, liill or money brokers, etc. Near the Royal Ex- change and the Bank is the Stock Exchange, where real und fictitious sales aro made of property in the public fundii, etc, ; the latter for the most part being • species of gambling, I^ndon, whi'M conipnrcd with some of the towns in the north and west nf England, can scarcely be culled a manufacturing place ; yet the various articles pro- duced hero employ many thousand persons. The silk luui^'ifacture espec'uiUy employs a large number of hands. Originally introduced by French Protestant refugees, many of their descendant* atlll continue tha trade, which employed, in 18S1, 16,764 persons, of whom 8277 were females. The manufacture of Lon- don porter and beer is a much more lucrative businoHS, but a London breweiy requires a verj' large cupitul. Sugar-refining and clock and watch making also pre- vail to a consideralde extent, the latter chiefiy in a district called Clerkenwell, London-built carriages are generally considered the beat, as they are nndoul)t- edly the most elegant in the world. London enjoys a high reputation for the manufacture of numerous smaller articles, such as mathematical, surgical, and musical instrumenta, jewelry of the superior kinda, gold and silver plate, etc. The great number of those employed in house-building proves that the metropo- lis is still rapidly extending ; and though this liuainesi received a severe check during the late war with Rus- sia, it was only temporary, as evinced by the general resumption of building in the various outskirts of London. The shops in London are, generally speaking, well managed, and many of them are handaomelj' fitted up, eapecially those in Bond-street, Regent-street, and Oxford-street. The wholesale shops or warehouses are chiefly to be found in the city ; the retail ahops, particularly thoae on a large scale, being more gen- eral in the weat or faahionable end of the metropolis. The bazaars in London, each of which forms an aggre- gation of shops or stalls, are not now so attractive us they once were. They deal mostly in fancy goods, furniture, toys, etc. The four great eatablishments of the kind are those in Soho Square and Baker-street, the Pantheon in Oxford-street, and the Pantechnicon in Ualkin-atreet, Belgrave Square. The Burlington and Lowther Arcades contain many shops for the sale of the like commodities, Tablk snowiKO tuk Ark\ in Bquark Milks, and the I'oruLATioN or Tlie Metbopolib, the Numiikk op Boi'SeS TUESEIN, AND THE NcUUEa OF FAMILIES OC- CUfYING THE SAME IN 1861. ^Middlesex.. Surrey. . . . . Kent I Total.... .•ii 86 .S5 122" HolUM. ,1 Unin- Build ihAbited. iDg, 91B,279 in,6l8 7a.»44l 4,624 2(l,8 1()l 1,606 805,«*J, 16,904 = s25j Populn- 8,M6l 895,708 1.746,6m 1,1601110.0271 4S'.>,4W «09| 27,i560i_llU,2u2 4,810 588,680 2,86J,2a8i Account siiowino tub Nitmber or PKnaoNH over 20 Years ok Aoe in the Mktroi'olis in 1861, diktin- onisiiiNit THE Married rRoM the Unmarried. Sexei. Mules. . , . Females. OrtiiM nfff of $0 and upwnrd. Bathelori ■ml ■Irl 632.646 762,418 19«,W7 246,124 HuibHnda and wivr^ \VidowiT»1 ,iul wld"Wi. 893,624 ! 87,0tW 406,266 I 110,1128 From different qnurters we have gleaned the fol- lowing estimates of the annual consumption of ccrtuin articles of Ix)ndon food. All, however, may lie con- sidered applicable to the period of the last census in 1861: ■Wheat 1,600,000 quarters. Bullocks 240,0(KI head. Bliocp 1,700,000 " Calvce 28,00 " 1,0(10 " 1,000 " Jl.OOOlbi". , |,9!ir) bnrrola. YoiiO 11)9. 8,0(10 " hns uf these various bridges : Tabu saowraa Tna MAnauL, Cost, «to., of jna Bbidoes ovsb xna Tuahis, ih London and ns Vioimrr. Nfttiwa. of eom- plellon. MUtrlil. Co.t lMl»dln( Approftchei. Coat • idtulva of ApproscliM. £648,180 884,(100 1B7,M0 679,915 800^000 98,760 No>>li'rs.. Brick and stone pUrs... . Iron piers and roadway. . Ilnngerford Suspension. . Cholaes Suspension • ••> Tradt o/ 1866.— The East India and China Associa- tion have published their usual comparative statement of the number of ships, Iratli British and foreign, with their aggregate tonnage, entered inward and cleared outward with cargo from and to places within the lim- its of the East India Company's charter, from the 1st of January to the 81st of Slarch, 1866 and 1856. According to the statistics of the vessels entered in- ward, the return for the port of I^ndon shows a de- crease of 31 vessels and 8971 tons, the dilTerence between 197 vessels, with the capacity of 109,484 tons, in 1865, and 166 vessels, with a capacity of 100,618 tons, in 1866. Liverpool figures for an increase of 8 vessels and 14,339 tons, the arrivals in the former pe- riod having been 62 vessels, with n capacity of 39,364 tons, and in the latter 70 vessels, with a capacity of 63,703 tons. With regard to Bristol, there is a de- crease of 3 vessels, with an increase of 8U6 tons ; the arrivals in 1866 having been 10 vessels, with a capacity of 2917 tons, and in 1866 7 vessels, with a capacity of 8723 tons. The return for the Clyde exhibits a de- crease of 2 vessels and an increase of 722 tons, the difference between 8 vessels, with a capacity of 3414 tons, and 10 vessels with a capacity of 2629 tons. A review of these figures shows a net decrease of 24 ves- sels and an increase of 6452 tons ; the arrivals in 1865 having been 277 vessels, with a capacity of 165,179 tons, and in 1866 263 vessels, with a capacity of 160,- 631 tons. The principal arrivals were from Calcutta, Madras, and the Cape of Good Ho)ie. According to the statistics of vessels cleared outward, the return for the port of London exhibits an increase of 6 vessels, and 5905 tons ; the departures in 1866 having been 167 ve9.ieis, with a capacity of 94,784 tons, and in 1856 163 vessels, with a capacity of 100,689 tons. In the case of Liverpool there Is a decrease of 9 vessels and 11,197 tons, the difference between 98 vessels, with a capacity of 80,444 tons, and 8'J vessels, with a capacity of 69,247 tons. The figures for Bristol show a decrease of 2 vessels and 459 tons ; the departures in 1865 hav- ing lieen 3 vessels, with a capacity of 1641 tons, and in 1856 1 vessel, with a capacity of 1182 tons. With regard to the Cl}'de, the results show a decrease of 8 vessels, with 2534 tons, the difference between 25 vessels, with a capacity of 16,014 tons, and 22 ves- sels, with a capacity of 13, 510 tons. Taking the re- sult of the whole return, there is a net decrease of 8 vessels, with 8286 tons ; the departures in 1865 having Iteen 283 vessels, with a capacity of 192,913 tons, and in 1856 276 vessels, with a capacity of 184,628 tons. The principal decline has been in departures for Aus- tralia, Calcutta, the Mauritius, Java and Sumatra, and Arabia. For a full exhibit of the commerce of Great Britain, including that of London, see Great Urit- AIH, Long Island, N. 7. Situated in the south-east part of the State, and contains 1500 square miles, lying between the Atlantic on the south, and Long Island Sound on the north. It contains three counties-. Kings on the west end. Queens in the middle, and Suf. folk on the east end of the island. A cliain of liills runs from west to east, on the north of which the sur- face is somewhat hilly and broken ; on the south it is level. The north shore is somewhat bold; on tba south it is a l>each of sand and gravel, inclosing bays, with various inlets, admitting vessels of GO or 70 tons, and abounding with shell and other fish. At the eaist end is Gardiner's Bay and Island, and Montauk Point, a bold promontory, on which is a light-house. The north shore has several light-houses. Longitude. By the term geographical longitude, is meant an arc which measures the inclinations of two terrestrial meridional planes, one of which passes through a known place as a place of reference, tlie other through any place whatever. It is sometimes also defined as tlie distance east or west, along tba equator, of any place from a certain meridian. I.tm- gitude was determined by Ilipparchus at Nice, who fixed the first degree in the Canaries, 162 n. c. Har- rison made a time-keeper in A. d. 1769, which in two voyages was found to correct the longitude within tlia limits required by .e act of Parliament, 12th Anna, 1714 ; and in 1763, he applied for the reward of .£20, 000 offered by that act, which ho received. The cel- ebrated Le lioi of Paris, in 1766, invented a watch that keeps time better ; and the chronometers of Ar- nold, Karnshaw, and Br(jguet, bring the longitude al- most to the truth. Philosophers have sought tiie lon- gitude in vain ; but Newton has said it will yet lie discovered l)y u fool. The selection of a 8tati(m from which the longitudes of all other places are to bo roeli- oned is entirely arbitrary ; British astronomers and geographers have choson the meridian of tlie Itoyal Observatory of Greenwich as their_/iicii< meridimt. Tlie French and other continental nations refer the lon- gitudes of all places to the meridian of their principal observatory. The longitude of a place may bo ex- pressed in hours, minutes, and seconds of time, or in degrees, minutes, and seconds of s|)acc ; if it be given in either, it may be translated into tlie other. The reason of this is, that the earth revolves on its axis from west to east in 24 mean solar liours, thereby causing the lir-^t meridian to describe during that time a space equal to 3(i0^, imd therefore, in one hour, 15°. Ilence, if tlie plane of the first meridian pass at the present moment through the sun, then the meridian of n place 16° leeat of the former, will pass through the sun exactly one hour after ; if the place be 15° eatt of tho first meridian, the plane of the former will pass through tho sun one hour before the latter. The sun alway* LON 1280 LON panel the _m«ri- lem was rendered solvable, Harrison, in the 18th centurj', was the first who gave a Irue solution by a watch ; but the first accurate resolution of the prol>lem may be said to date from the discovery by Galileo of Jupiter's satellites, and his tables of their motions. The result of the problem at this period, as well as now, was, as Wolflus has expressed it, that the means might be found whereby the art of navigation might be brought to its utmost pitch of perfection. If the advantages of determining the longitude to a commer- cial and maritime people be considered, it will not ap- pear surprising that princes and others should have held out high rewards for a true solution of the prob- lem, Philip III,, King of Spain, saw its value, and in 1598 offered a reward of lUOO crowns to the person who would solve it. The States of Holland imitated his example liy a prize of 10,000 florins. In the year 1714, the British government offered a premium of jC20,000 for any method wiiereby the longitude might be determined at sen to within BO miles ; jC15,000, if the proposed method would give it to within 40 geo- graphical miles ; iHO.OOO, if it would determine the longitude to within GO miles. It was also enacted, that a reward of £3000 would be given to the inventor of any time-keeper which should enable a ship, during a voyage of six months, to keep her hmgitude to within CO miles ; £7600, if within 40 miles ; and £10,000, if within SO miles. If the method were by improved astronomical tables, the reward was to be £5000, the tables being compared with previous observations. France, also, in 1716, under the regency of the Duke of Orleans, offered a prize of 100,000 livres. In con- sequence of these rewards, many and various methods were proposed, the I)e8t of which, at least as respects frequency of observation and shortness of calculation, is the method of Lunar Ditlances. Jean Werner of Nuremberg, appears to be the first who proposed, in his Ptolemy's (leography, l.')14, a method of finding the longitude by the distance l)e- twcen the moon and a star. Tiie lunar method was also recommended by Oronce Fin6 of lirian^on, in his iHwk Ve Inveniemla lAmgitudine ; bj- Gemma Krisius, in his treatise Structura Radii Attronnmici et (Jeometrici, 1546; l)y Kepler, in his HuJnlphine Tables; and by Christian Longomontanus, in ills Aslronomia Daniea, loa. Gemma Frisius is, moreover, said to have at- tempted the longitude by a watch some time after 1630, Carpenter, in his Geography, 1036, says that the lunar method ia to be ascribed to Pierre Appian, a Oermin, bora In 1496, John Baptiste Morin, In IM4, attempted to improve the lunar method, and received, in 1646, a pension of 2000 livraa ; but bia improvemtnll were naeleai, as Paachal declared, owing to tb« ibipar" feet nature of the existing tables. The tables of celestial observations previous t« Flamsteed's time were imperfect and erroneous g tboM generally used were Tyclio Brahe's, or Kepler's, anil to show that they were of little value in determining the longitude, although invalualile in other res|wL'|w, it may be stated th^t Flamateed'a observed ditfnrinl fh>m Tycho'a computed placea by 6', C', or more j ami the tabulated distances of tiie latter differed from the observed distances of the former liy 16' or iO', wlifch would cause an error in the longitude of about 16'^, nr BOO leagues, Tycho's lunar Ouory, and tbu tablet grounded on it, were in error 12' and more, The un> certainty, then, of these tallies being known, us Wfll as the paucity of astronomical observations generally, a Frenchman, named Le Sleur de St, Pierre, contrived, in 1674, to get his pretensions to the discovery of the longitude brought under the notice of Charles ||,, nf Britain and the court. Commissioners ware uppoinliii), and St, Pierre's data necessar}' to work the probliim were as follows : — 1, The heights of two stars, und »n which side of the meridian they were ; 2. Tlie huiijlits of the two limbs of the moon ; 3, The height of the pole ; all to be given in degrees and minutes \ and 4. The year and day of observation, Flamstesd lieiiig in Ixindon at the time, was appointed, not only to ui^t as a commissioner, but also to supply the necatmry data. St, Pierre, having received the data wliinb he required, refused to work the pralilem, because lie hI' leged the observations given him were feigned, I'lam. steed, on this, wrote to the commissioners, asturliig theiv that the oliservations were genuine, and at tlis same time stated, that the longitude could not be solved by the conditions proposed ; liut if the tables of celestial observations, especially those i>f the muuii, could be rendered more accurate, llion tiie lungltmlii might be determined by them. On the letter belni{ shown to Charles, his majesty was startled at tliu »«> sertion of the computed places not agreeing witli til" observed, and said with some vehemence, be niuct have them observed, e.xamined, and corrected aiiuw for the use of his seamen. It was this simple ini:ldent which led to the formation of the Koyal ObservatJiry of Greenwich, the foundation of which was laid liy Flumsteed on the 10th of August, 1675 ; and It was in that building that Flumsteed iaiiored for 44 yuurs, uiu der the most trying circumstances, to correct existliii} tables, and to commence the Hriliih Culalni/iie, one iif the noblest monuments of Britisii perseverume, No valuulilc were Flamsteed's observations to Newton, that they enabled him to form liis lunar Iheon/, wIiIlIi ia now of such consequence in determining the iunxltuile, From the improvements made in watches by ||iiy> gens, Hooke, and others, previous to tlie year 1711, it was thought that the longitude would be solved by tills machine. Hence, after 1714, the best artiste u|i|ilied themselves to the construction and iinproveimnt nf watches, Henry Suii)-, an Knglishman, liut nisidiiit at Paris, tried in 1720 to determiiio the longUmln by ii marine, watch, but without success, Julian Lciiiy, one of bis pupils, would appear to lay claim tn prinr' it}' of invention ; but it lias never been disputcit lliul the honor of solving the difficult proldem of tliu loilKJ' tude by means of a watch belongs wholly to liurrium, This ingenious workman begun, at a very early period, to make experiments on pendulums inadu of ililtV'r>^Ml metals, in order to counteract the eff'eets of lieut iiml cold. In the year 1736 Ilarriaon was brought Into notice by a pendulum clock whicli he hud muds In 1726, and which, for ten successive yours, kept ronwrlt' ably exact time. This clock was tried in a voyitgii to Lisbon during August, 1736, when it corrected an «'' ror in the ship's reckoning of 1° 30', At the siMtclol ,Tr^r™i-- 'T. "[T ■ LON 1281 LON nqtMtl of the commissioners of longituda, who ad- Vtnecd him money, he continued his experiments on w«tohe« ft«m 1787 till 1711, when he produced three wdtohea, or time-keepers — tlie third the most accurate, ■nd about 4 inches in diameter. This watch, or chro- nometer, was tried in a voyage to Jamaica as to its practicability in determining the longitude. The trial was eminently successful : tlie difference of time as shown by the chronometer indicating Greenwich or rather Portsmouth local time, and the locM time of the place, being 4 seconds of time, which is equivalent to 1 nautical mile in the parallel of Jamaica. On the arrival of the vessel at Portsmouth, it was found that the error of the chronometer was only 1' 68*6", or iM''87fi for the entire voyage, which, in the parallel of Portsmouth, would be equivalent to 18 nautical tttlles, Since this error was within the limit prescribed liy the act, Harrison claimed the full reward of £20,< 000 1 but the commissioners, considering the matter in alt its detail, came to the conclusion that the watch was not yet sufficiently tried. In order, however, to testify their appreciation of the invention, they gave Harrison a grant of ^£6000, and requested him to im- prova the watch still further against a second voyage. This voyage was undertaken, in 1764, to Barbadoes; and that no misunderstanding might ensue, Maske- lynn and Oreen were also sent out to make the neces- Knry astronomical observations at that place. The dllference of longitude, as shown by the chronometer and that by astronomical observation, was 48" of time, which Is equivalent to 10' 45" of space, or longi- tude. In consequence of the success attending this and the former trial, the House of Commons ordered one half of the reward promised by the act of 1714, or i!10,000, to be paid to Mr. Harrison, the inventor of the longitude clock ; the other half to be paid him when watches, constructed on principles stated by him, should determine by trial the longitude of any place to within 80 nautical miles. Another condition an- nexed to the payment of the other ;eiO,000 was, that the Inventor should give on an oath a full explanation (rf the principles on which the watch was constructed. This was done most willingly, and Harrison delivered oter all his watches to government. The first watch made on Harrison's principles was that by Mr. Ken- dall t It was found to exceed the regularity of the best of Its models. This instrument was committed to the care of Mr. Wales, In his voyage round the world with Cnptaln Cooke, during the years 1772, 1778, etc., and tttch was Its success, that in 1774 an appeal was made lo the House of Commons to order the remaining sum to lie paid to Mr. Harrison, which was accordingly (lone, Harrison realized by his invention alone up- ward of i:24,000. Several other parties received rewards for their im- (iravements in chronometers. Arnold & Son received X8000, and Mudge £600. Since Harrison's time, remarkable improvements have been made in time-keepers, or chronometen, as they are now termed ; no one su3taining a good char- Hler that gains or loses mora than a single second in one day, llllt while watches were thus gradually being per- fscted, the tables of celestial motions were also at- t««il«i to, Halley, on succeeding Flamsteed as Mronomer-royal, continued improving what the lat- t«r had begun, so that for 1780, nnd consequently for the future, the Caroline Tables were presumed to give the true place of the moon within the compass of 2' of hfr motion. Hut however perfect such tables may Ik made, they will be useless without a proper instru- iwnt with which to take angles accurately at sea. Dr. Ilslley proposed to overcome this obstacle, by using on •hiplioard a telescope of five or six feet ; but the error Id siteh a ease would nearly equal 2°, or under the Ktuatof lh« longitude would be in excess or defect ibeirt 40 ItigUM. But in 1761 Mr. Hadloy communi- 4H cated to the Royal Society the nature of the utriaml, which he had then invented. The sextant is an ln< strument for taking angles at sea with surprising ac- curacy; its principle depends on the law of the reflection of light. This instrument was tried In sev- eral voyages with wonderful success ; but it* results were most accurate when used with I'rofessor Mayer's Tahltt of the Moon, computed for the meridian of Paris. Tliese tables first appeared in the Memoin o/' GMingen for 1742, and a manuscript copy was sent In 1765 by Mayer to the Boord of Longitude, setting forth, at the same time, his claim for some one of the rewards which he might be thought to merit. These tables were placed in the hands of Dr. Bradley, aa- tronomer-royul, who compared several hundred com- puted longitudes of the moon with his own observed longitudes, and never found a greater difference than 1''5. Dr. Bradley sliowed the commissioners the value of these tables. Mayer died in 1702; but having in the interval greatly improved his tablen, hU widow sent them in 1763 to the Board of Longitude, These are the tables which, in consideration of their value in finding the longitude at sea, were, by act of Parliament, honored with a reward of X5O0O, which was paid, in 17C5, to Mayer's widow. Dr. Maskelyne, astronomer-royal, was at the same time requested to improve and correct them as far as possible, so that they might be compiled, and form the baais of a hritith Nautical JCphemerii, or Almanat- ; and to print the same, in order to make the lunar taljles of general utility. The first of the series of the A'autical A Imanac and Aetronomical Ephemeria was published in 1766, under the superintendence of Dr. Maskelyne. It was published yearly by the Commissioners of the Board of Longitude. 'The Nautical Almanac has l>een greatly improved, corrected, and extended, under the able superintendence of Mr. Air}', the present astronomer- royal ; it is now published four or five years previous to the observations being made at Greenwich Observa- tory ; hence in long voyages the set of tables may L« taken out. In consideration of Maj'er having availed himself of Euler's lunar theory, the latter received from govern- ment jCSOO. The several methods for finding the longitude ore the following : To find the Longitude by a CArononKter.— Suppose that a chronometer is warranted to measure equal portions of time uniformly, and always indicates Greenwich local time; it is evident that, were this instrument carried to any station on the surface of the earth where also the local time is known, the local times of Greenwich and that place can be compared with each other. If the chronometer be carried to any station on the meridian of Greenwich, the chronometer and local time of the place will always coincide ; but if it be carried to any station west or east of the meridian of Greenwich, then the time as shown by the chronometer will he in excess in the former case, but in the latter in defect of the local time of the place ; the difi'erence of local times gives the longitude of the place from Greenwich. Tlie time may be converted into distance, at the rate of 15° to one hour. Chronometers can never be made perfect ; they require, therefore, to be daily compared with the heavenly bodies in order to ascertain ii their motion has l)een uniform. To find the Longitude by Lunar Eclipset. — Since an eclipse of the moon is visible to one half of the earth at the same time, this would seem to be an excellent method of finding the longitude. The different steps of the process are — to compute the time at which an eclipse is to happen at the place of observation, and to compare this time with an accurate chronometer show- ing Greenwich time ; or, in the absence of this, the Greenwich time of the happening of the phenomenon must be looked for in the Navlical Almanac; or it may LON 1282 LOir b« compared hy the observer (yom th* luaar UliUli, But this method of determiriininK the lonKlCiul* In r»rely used, owing to the difficulty of McertiitnlliK th* exact time of contact of the ])enunil)rs of the eitrth'* ■hadow with the moon's limb at the be|{lnnin|{ or eml- ing of the eclipse. Sometimes, indeed, two obMrvor* of an eclipse at the same place niny differ more than two minutes in noting the time of contact ; and huneo the error from this cause alone would Ihi ulmut four minutes of time, which would he e(|ulval«iit tn nmt\y 1" of longitude. It was proposed In tl|or Vhiliwiphli'iil Traiuactiont ot 1786 to diminish this sourt'e of error, by observing the contact of the eiirtli's shadow with iome remarkable spot on the moon's face, lint al- though this method were more accurate, the unfni- qnency of lunar eclipses at sea render* the method of little use. To find the Longitude by the Kclipiti nfJiipUtr'i Mil- ttUitet. — Ever since the discovery l>y Oalileo of Jiipl. ter's satellites the observation of tlieir ecllpMi Siy their primar}' haa been used as a method of finding the longitude. Tables of these eclipses were ran- Btructcd by Galileo ; and It was the disagraniMent of these tables with actual observation that led l{n»rn»r to the discover}' of the gradual propagstion of iJKht, See LiOHT. The first astronomical solution of the great problem of the longitude really dates from the discoverj' of these lecondaries, for the tallies of their eclipses were framed on scientlHG princlp|i>«, Th« three interior satellites of ,luplter puss throUKh his shadow, and are eclipsed at ever}' revolution | tlin fourtli, or outer one, at times e8ca|ies ecllpM, grar,t» the umbra, or is partially eclipsed. The conuiutwl times at which the eclipses are to liuppen at <>r«<>n' wich Observatory are noted In the Nautical Atmnruu; published three or four years In advance ; so that If these tables are in the hands of any one dUtunt from Greenwich, he has but to observe the eclipse, and mh culate the time at which it occurs, to fliid (Im dlffi'r- ence of the local times between (jreenwich and the place of observation, ar.d thus ascortuin the lonKltwIa. The times of immersion and emersion are noted willi much greater accuracy than the contact of tlie muon'N limb with the earth's shadow. But before these eclipses can l)e observed with oo curacy, a telescope of considentble [M)wer must im nsed ; and as it is extremely difficult to dlre'i a t«lit' scope properly on shipboard, the method is practli'aJjy useless at sea. Dut, again, particular caro I* r8(|ulri)d in obser^-ing ; for two observers at the same plaiw, with telescopes of different magnifying iiowers and apertures, seldom agree within a second or two of each other ; hence the mean of the results of linmitr' sion and emersion should be taken. Dut another source of error Is, that no two or mor« observers wlH agree as to the instant of the total Immersion, or of the complete emersion of the satellite ; henca the only cise in which this method Is practically useful In Ait- termining terrestrial longitudes is that In which th« instant of immersion and emersion are oliserved with the same telescope, and l)y the same observer, lines In this manner he will And the precise instant of tlie ait- tcUite's opposition to the sun. To find the longitude by Signali, — If tlie dlffinrani'O of longitude between two places bo small, It may Sm easily found by means of the bursting of a rocket, tha oxy-hydrogcn iimc-baU liglit, or the explosion of f{Mn- powder flred from the one place at a preiuncertAil time, and observed at the other place ; the lucul times of these places being accurately ascertained, tho longt* tude is known. These artificial signals, when fired from an elevated spot of country, may lie seen, when the atmosphere is in a proper state, at distances varj'- Ing from 80 to above 100 miles. An observer, tber«' fore, distant from the spot at which the rocket or otb«r lignal is exposed, has only to oliservo tlie time whan he sees it, and aifterward compare tbta time with tb« time whan the racket was set up, tka 4i« /./if.- rastKindlng to that of the event is lutowM, Uiiti tt/tt^- tttim lit (he places from that merUiim *ni »it» kmt^M.- It Is here supposed that tli« gradual ^t>\f*i^^ ,^ light leads to no appreciable error iu th« mmii (tiHm'tt Iwtween the two places, If the 'distance between the two platwa ha tm^/ii^.- ahle, and MNi rol^ i**:- raniftMl hours from w, w, y, s, tiw locej tim»» uf ti^ places along ttie whole Una AK are mii^t^ Ui im ttn.- curntely known. I^et then a eigoai iGe «i^^ lt^>M»'i and noted nt A and B, the difference ut tim** tif Ni*r N«irvfitt(tn, as noted by the vbronuiuet«r4 Mt itlMx*' i^n places, will give the longitude AH. IM, *ijMtt, mh-- olhttr signal lie sent up at x, and the tM#« t4 '', MImilar results will be found when eignvU w^ ^ifMl up from the stations y and at, to be obseryud «|t t' §)^'i fi. Hand Ki and. In this maniier, tb« wl*oie )w(iijii AK Imtwern the extreme stations van Im (vit)t4.- tit-< longitude found on this princijilv, uud tht HMXJk t/f 4.<.- diKfliig the most advantageous results fffm » i^/miAttn-- tlon (if all the oliservatioiu, is fully ttttM iiyMfJi^ lleriHdiel In the J'hilotnphical Truutaiiium, iftp)/ m ill* hiffiriMf nf lAmgititdet of(lre*nv^ich m»l t'ltrin, To dtlfrmine the l/mnilude by UuoiM'itlmUliit'iiii /ttari.'^'fiiU method consists in AoMog tin» Ut^fumf' lA the moot)'* right ascension in the ioUtfi^U Mi#i>''>w the tiftusage of the moon over tlie foart^n >4 <>r*»#-- wl«b and over that place whose longitude u m^i4fi.4, It is necessary to And the right »Aaen4mi4 littt ttn^ttfa bright llmti, and of a star selected on, or m m.*f Ml f^vu slide to, the tnoon's parallel of decliMe(t«<;W; »n4 AM diffxrlng much from her in right »»oeuiim ttt tim (#" morkllHns > then, tho moon's increase «4 ntfM x«*it-- skin lielng known, the difference of Utmpttt4ti U 4*i*i^- mined, Let T, for example, be the time wb«W tt)f ititii9lt> fiillgliteiicd limb triini>lts the ucridjau luf mf |^a distant from Greenwich ; I the tiioe t4 \»i*#g/i t,4 /t star over the meridian of the same piatve j Ut d^ # iic •be error of the clock in the counwi of tkf ii*f i tit^'tt 'H^n will lie the Interval of tiiue ni/tfisitui i»i»f-it two successive transits of tlie saiue et*f, .¥N4 H - »:- T— /™iMH)^i the difference of right i^t*■|e^^>m (4 1*** mfKm's bright limb and the star at ti>ti Uftt-^ tif tit" limb liclng on the meridian; and if Vi ihU tiitt fi^4 ascension of the star lie added, the ngM #m<>w4.a, *»«', of tho moon's lirlght limb wiww m the imiViUii U determined. Now the pro|x'r etars t^i ttn »ttf*n>4 fur this purtKise, as well as th« right iuii.-«#4i'# t4 1^ moim's bright limb when on the weri4M# t4 tif^Ht-- wlcb, are given for every day of tiUe yntf in ti* ,^'//>t~- llfiil Atmnnnt', from which the daily iftcr»W*Wt «♦ fiiU OMenslfm moy lie determined. iM a i/tt tb" tijlt4 *■•- censlfln of tho moon's bright limb whe« nm ftf WMTVt-- lan of (Irccnwich, e the iiuTcraeot ot right #i,»*#--i* in the time lietween two successive trw#^ M/^fiit* same mcrldhin | then, wliilc the mam, i/f Iw f'fMHi* motion, separates from the lucridiaM ik WiwwwM if an angle of 000°, its real motion in right »iif*#()/fN h i I and while It aeparates by an a«g;|l« «iprf t«liitiM LON 1283 U>K ftfitiee of longltade, the motton in right aacciMlon ia ti' — a' ; and therefore, supposing the change in right a— a' atcenalon uniform, the required longitudes^ .860°. e Where greater accuracy is required, the difference of longitude corresponding to the increase of right as- cension — a', must be determined by interpolation. This method Is contidered niie of the best which can he adopted for determining the longitude of distant places, when the observer, furnished with a transit in- strument, can obtain a landing, — Htmkr's Attron., 1840. To find the Txmgitude hy the pasmgts of the Sfoon over the Meridian. — If the sun, moort, and a stnr he sup- posed to be on the meridian of Greenwich at the pres- ent moment, then the next instant the three bodies will be separated from each other— the star will be found most advanced to the west, the moon least ad- vanced from the meridian, while the sun will occupy an intermediate situation. The meridian itself also leaves these bodies, but will approach them with dif- ferent degrees of velocity, and reach each of them after certain intervals of time. It will pass the star after the lapse of a sidereal day, or after having de- scribed 360° ; it will pass the sun at the end of a solar day, or after having described 360° 69' 8"-3 ; and it will pass the moon after a time=the sum of 24 hours and the moon's retardation for that time, or after hav- ing described an angle=the sum of 3li0° and the moon's right ascension in 24 hours. This always taltes places in the interval between two successive transits of the moon over the same meridian. So also a spectator on a different meridian will notice similar effects, but less in degree, and less proportional to the distance of his from the first meridian. The sun's right ascension will be increased (or the separation of the sun from the star), but less than 69' 8"*3 ; the moon's right ascension (or the separation of the moon from the star) will also be increased to the spectator, but less than its increase between two successive transits ; consequently there will be an excess of in- crease of the moon's right ascension above that of the sun's, but less than the excess that takes place be- tween two successive transits of the moon over the meridian of Greenwich. Wherefore, since the spec- tator at the second meridian may compute the respect- ive increments of right ascension of moon and sun that talie place between two successive passages of the moon over the meridian of Greenwich ; then, since he is also able to compute, by actual observation, the right ascensions of sun and moon at the times of their passage over his own meridian, he has determined the longitude. The spectator may choose the sun and a star, the moon and a star, or the moon and sun ; the two former are preferable. — Woodiiouse's Astron., 1821. To determine the TAtngitude by mean/ of Kclipfet of the Sfin, or by Occultalions of Stan by the Moon. — One of the most exact methods, and at the same time the simplest, for finding the longitude, is by means of solar eclipses and occuttations. If the commencement and ending of an eclipse of the sun, or the immersion and emersion respectively of a star ftom the enlightened »nd dark limb of the moon or of a planet, be observed, rt is only necessary to deduce the true time of conjunc- f iori for Greenwich and also for another place of obser- vation ; the difference of the times gives the difference of meridians, and therefore also of longitudes. Kepler employed this method, and it is one of the simplest.— Kept,f,r, Astron. para opt. The only inconvenience of this method is the large amount of calculation required. To find the Longitude by Lunar Distances ; that is, by the distance of the Moon from a Star or the Sun.— This method supposes that the face of the heavens is « dial-plate, the stars marks apparently irregularly distribntsd upon It, and the moon the hand moyabla among them and round the earth as a variable centre Three things require particular notice about this clock : 1. The intervals of place separating the principal and secondarj- marks from one another and from the mov- ing hand— the moon. 2. The exact amount of the eccentricity of the earth, the centre of motion of the hand. 3. The proper motion of Imth moon and earth at any part of their respective paths. When these data are properly known, the time as shown by thla clock may be read. The time as pointed out on thia dial-plate is generally read at Greenwich Observator}-, and tabulated in the Nautical Altaanac, 4 or 5 years beforehand, for every three hours. But this clock is supposed to be accurately seen by a spectator at tlie centre of the earth, and consequently, since observers are on the surface, the moving hand liclng rather near, and the marks immensely distant from the earth, it is evident that this movable hand will be displaced, or undergo a parallax with respect to the stars, which must be allowed for, ere the true place is known which she occupies in space, as seen from the centre of the earth. A reduction must also be made to the centre of the earth. The necessar}- steps for computing the longitude by this method are : (1.) Find by a sextant the distance between a star and one of the moon's limbs ; or, between the limbs of the sun and moon ; add or sul>tract, in the former case, the semi-diameter of the moon, and in the latter, the sum of the semi- diameters of sun and moon, which gives the distance of the moon's centre from tlie star, or that twtweon the centres of sun and moon. (2.) When two observers are making the observations, one should take the above distance, while at the same instant the other takes the altitude above the horizon of the moon and star, or of the moon and sun. In the case of one observer, he must take the altitudes immediately l)efore and after the distance has been found, and allow for the changes of altitude which may have taken place in the intervals between their observations and that of the distance. (3.) The true altitudes are derived from the apparent and observed, by correcting the latter for refraction and parallax ; the apparent altitude being the observed altitude cor- rected for the dip of the horizon and instrumental errors, (4.) The observed is also an apparent dis- tance, and must, like the altitude, be corrected for par- allax and refraction in order to find the true distance, (5.) Since the true distance is found, the hour, minute, etc., of Greenwich time corresponding to it will also be found by the tables of the Nautical A Imanac. (6.) The local time of the place of observation is now to be computed from the true and corrected altitude of a star or the sun, the sun's or star's north polar distance, and the latitude. (7.) The difference between this local time and Greenwich time gives the longitude. To find the I/mgitude by the Electric Telegraph. — This beautiful and ingenious application of electricity for recording astronomical observations is the latest method of finding the longitude, and was proposed l)y Mr. Bond of the Cambridge Observatory. United States. Mr. Airy, of the Greenwich Observatory, has also carried it into effect with great improvements. During the summer of 1847 experiments were made on the electric '.eIet,Taph connecting New York, Phila- delphi.!, nr.d Washin^on, for the purpose of determin- ing the differences of longitude between these three cities. A competent oliserver was stationed at each observatory. A continuous wire connected the three cities, so that telegraph signals might be exchanged between any two of them at pleasure. In some of tho first experiments, signals were exchanged be- tween Philadelphia and Washington, but it was found impossible to transmit signals from Jersey City to Washington, the power of the battery being inade- quate to that distance. This, however, was remedied on the 29th of July, when 20 clock signals were given at Jersey City, and moorded both at Philadelphia and LOO 1284 LOO WMhIngtoni 20 ilgnali wen given at PhlUdelphla and ncordaii at Jersey City and Washington; and 20 signals were given at Washington and recorded at Jcnay City and Philadelphia. Thus the compari- son of the three clocks was decisively made in a re- markably short period of time. The success of these experiment* amply repaid the flrst unsuccessful efforts. The differonce of longitude between Jersey City and Philadelphia is 40" 8> ; and between Jersey City and Washington, 12"' 8* ; omitting in each case the small fractional part of a second, which was ulti- mately allowed for. The distance between New York and Washington is 225 miles, and the time required to make a communication pass betwixt these two places was a ft'action of a second which can not be measured. Soon ofter a system of telegraphic wires was erected on the principal Knglish lines of railway, Mr. Airy had them put in conimunication with Greenwich Ob- servator}', his object being to give (Ireenwich lime on a given day to the United Kingdom. It was at flrst proposed that a ball should be dropped flrom the upper part of Greenwich Observator}', so as to touch a spring communicating with all the telegraphic wires in the kingdom, and then, by the striking of a bell, give in- stantaneously true Greenwich time to Liverpool, Man- chester, and all the northern towns. ]iut this method was found impracticable, owing to the non-completion of all the lines with Greenwich. On the 1st of Decem- ber, 1847, true Greenwich time was communicated di- rectly from tiie observatory to the several stations of the London and North- Western and Midland lines in con- nection with it ; but to all other stations of these lines special messengers were sent with chronometers indi- cating true Greenwich time. Hence, since Greenwich time is used over the whole of the United Kingdom, if the local time of any place be known, its longitude from Greenwich is also determined. Since submarine cables connect Greenwich with Brussels and Paris, and these again with the principal cities of Europe, Mr. Air>- was very lately enalded to correct the latitudes ond longi- tudes of their observatories. Hence, also, when the sub- marine cables which are to connect India, Australia, and America, with Greenwich, shall have l)oen completed, the true longitudes of the principal cities of the world will easily be determined.— E. B. See articles Lati- TDDB and Lo.NniTUDR, Earth and Deorkk. Loo-Choo Islanda, a group consisting of about 36 islands in the North Pacific Ocean, between Japan and Formosa. They He between N. lat. 24° and 28° 40', and E. long. 127° and 129°. They are small and insignificant, with the exception of Great Loo-Choo, which extends about 60 miles in a north-easterly di- rection, and has an average breadth of about 10 or 12 miles. This island is entirely encircled by coral reefs, which, however, do not appear above water. Along its centre runs a chain of hills, covered for the most part by forests of pine, and broken at intervals by rupt crags that bear seeming traces of volcanic action. Their slopes in many parts are covered with terraced gardens and fields of grain, and are watered by streams led in artificial channels. The valleys are well wa- tered, fruitful, and covered with a luxuriant vegeta- tion. The villages are almost completely hidden among groves of bananas, bamboos, banyans, and pines. Rows of trees overarch the roads, line the streets of the chief towns, and form a screen in front of the houses. There are large rich fields of rice, inter- mingled with crops of sugar-cane, wheat, millet, sweet potatoes, plums, oranges, cotton, and tobacco. The principal surface-rock is argillaceous, and is Inter- sected at intervals by peculiar ridges of limestone. The diiintegration of the former rock forms the chief ingredient of the rich adhesive soil which is most prevalent in the island. Situate within the range of the trade-winds, Loo-Choo has in general a mild climate, The domutic animal* are, geese, duck«, fowl*, plgi, goat*, a imall species of black ox, and ii nimble, and hardy breed of horses. Wild Iwurs ubuund in the extensive forests. A striking trait in the zoology of the Island is the scarcity of birds in the woods. The dress, customs, but especially the language, of the Loo-Chooans, indicate a Japanese origin. .Suh- pIcioMs of strangers, they arc, nevorthelcxs, gentle and hospitable. They are diminutive in stature, and in complexion resemble the ChMese. They Imvo dark eyes and black hair, plaited Into a knot on the crown of the head.; and the character of the halr-phi determines the sex as well as the rank of the wearer. The women wear single, and the men double hair-pini. Among the higher classes, these articles are made of gold or silver; among the lower, of brass, lead, or pewter. The highest grade of society Includes the spies and officers of the government, and also the mechanics and small merchants. Immediately below them are the literary class, who pass the most of their time in smoking tobacco and drinking tea, and arc supiiorted by the subordinate rank of field-laborers. The meanest order are the public slaves, possessing no personal freedom, and no civil rights. Subjected from mere infancy to perpetual toil, closely watched by spies, and prevented from all intercourse with strang- ers, the lower classes are spiritless, uncomplaining drudges, subsisting upon two tenths of the produce they reap from the soil. In the same slavish lulior the women also are engaged. The Loo-Choouns of one village seldom intermarry with those of another. Their dead are treated with great respect ; and their capacious tombs, built of white limestone, appear at a distance like cottages, checkering the hill-sidcH. The huts are generally placed in the middle of well-culti- vated gardens. Their floors, covered with thick mnt^, are used both for sitting and sleeping. A grcut part of the Industrial population are engaged in weaving the grass-cloth that forms the ordinary garment, and in turning wooden implements and covering them with lacquer. There are also manufactured tobacco, sugar, and small quantities of salt. Snki, a strung intoxicating liquor, is distilled from rice. All the processes of agriculture, and especially that of Irrij^n- tlon, are carried on with great success. The entire trade of the island is with Japan, and consists cliieliy of sugar, saki, and grass-cloth. The government of Loo-Choo seems to consist of an oligarchy of lllrruii subject to Japan. Learning is limited to a knowledge of the Chinese character and the Confucian classic.'i, and the principal means of disseminating it is home education. A few regular schools, however, are scat- tered over the island, and at Napaklang there is an ' advanced seminary. The Loo-Chooans have no na- tive literature. Their religion is a hybrid between Confucianism and Buddhism. Concerning the history of the island nothing certain is known, but tradition reports that it was once subject to three distinct sov- ereigns. The principal sea-port Is Napa, or Napa-Kcang, situ- ated in latitude 26° 13' N., and longitude 127° 36' K. Tho harbor is secure, and the port is now open to American vessels, for the purposes specified in the convention concluded July 11, 1854, and procluinicd March 9, 1855. The government of Japan having virtually disclaimed any jurisdiction whatever over the Loo-Choo Islands, a separate compact was entered into between the United States and tho kingdom of Ixw-Choo. It is as follows : " Hereafter, whenever citiiieng of the United .States come to Ixm-Choo, they shall be treated with great courtesy and friendship. Whatever articles these people ask for, whether from the ofllcors or people, which the country can furnish, shall be sold to them ; nor shall tho authorities interpose any prohibitory regulations to the people selling ; and whatever either party may wish to buy, ihall b« exchanged at reason- LOR 1285 LOT •bit prioai. Whenever >hlpa of the United Statei •hall come Into any harbor In I.oo-Choo, they shall l>e ■upplted with wood and water at reasonable prices ; but If they wish to get other articles, they shall be purchasable only at Napo. If ships of the United States urn wrecked on Great Loo-Cboo, or on islands under the Jurisdiction of the royal government of Loo-Choo, the local authorities shall dispatch persons to assist in saving life and property, and preserve what can be brought ashore, till the ships of that nation shall come to take away all that may have been saved ; and the expennes incunod in rescuing these unfortunate per- sona shall be refunded by the nation they belong to. Whenever persons ft'om ships of the United States come ashore in Loo-Choo, they shall be at liberty to ramble where they please, without hinderance, or hav- ing officials sent to follow them, or to spy what they do ; but If they violently go into houses, or trifle with women, or force people to sell them things, or do other !>uch like illegal acts, thoy jhall be arrested by the local officers, but not maltreated, and shall be reported to the captain of the ship to which they belong, for punishment by him. At Tumai is a burial-ground for the citizens of the United States, where their graves and tombs shall not be molested. The government of lA)o-Choo shall appoint skillful pilots, who shall be on the look-out for ships appearing off tlie island; and if one is seen coming toward Napa, they shall go out in good boats, beyond the reefs, to conduct her into a se- cure anchrage ; for which service the captain shall pay the pilot Ave dollars, and the same for going out of the harbor, beyond the reefs. Whenever ships anchor at Xapa, the officers shall furnish them with wood at the rate of 3600 copper cash (43 rents) per 1000 cat- ties ; and with water at the rate of 600 copper cash for lUOO catties, or 6 barrels full, each containing 80 American gallons." Loom (Fr. Afetier a tiiier ; Ger. WtbenluU), is the ancient and well-known machine for weaving cloth by the decussation of a series of parallel threads, which nm lengthwise, called the warp or chain, with other threads thrown transversely with the shuttle, called the woof or weft. See Jacquard, article, Woolkn MANIIFACTL-REa. Loroha, the name of a coasting vessel used in the Chinese seas. One of those vessels, sailing under British colors, was, in 1856, boarded by the Canton- ese, had her flag pulled down, and her crow forcibly carried off. Governor Yell refused either reparation or apolog}', and this led to the conflict between Britain and China during the same year. Lorlent, one of the five great naval ports of France, and the principal town In the arrondisse- ment of the same name in the Department of Morbi- han, is situated on the northern shore of the Bay of Biscay, where the Rivers Scarf and Blavct, after mingling their waters, fall into the Bay of St. Louis. It is a large and flourishing town, strongly fortified, tolerably well built, but not very clean, standing in an angle between two creeks, one of which forms the na- val, and the other the mercantile port. The port, which is large and commodious, is walled off from the town, thereby excluding all view of the water from the in- habitants. It is the seat of a maritime prefecture, of a civil tribunal, of a tribunal of commerce, of a col- lege, and of a school of naval artillery. The dock- yard is the first in France for the building and equip- ment of ships of war : there is accommodation on its slips for the simultaneous construction of 30 ships of war. It has on arsenal, a park of artillery, engineer- ing works, masting-sheds and forges, etc. There is a good trade in sardines, marine store;, iron, wax, honey, etc. The town is quite modem. Founded by the French India Company, in the reign of Louis XIV., in 1604, it was not till the time of the Duke of Orleans that the company took full advantage of the accommo- dation of Lorient. The greater portion of the town was then built, and the port fortified. In 17'iri II contained 85 frigates, besides a very great number of ships, averaging from 900 to 1200 tons burden. In the comparatively short space of 80 years Lorient hod risen to the first rank of towns. On the dissolution of the company in 1770, It was made oi^e of the sUtioni for the French navy. Its population ond shipping de. clined during the unsettled period of the Revolution, but since the peace of 1815 it has been more than re- stored to its former activity. Populotlon 25,700. Loa Angeles (ike Cily n/Ihe A ngrh), capital of Loa Angelos county, California, 850 miles south south-east of San Francisco, and In a direct lino 8,000 miles a little south of west from Washington. It contains a largo Roman Catholic church, and 1620 inhabitants. This city was founded in 1781, by order of the Vice- roy of New Spain, Balillo Frey, Antonio Bucareli v Ursa, and Is situated on the right bank of the Porciii- neula River, which copiously waters the highly fertile plain on which the city stands. Invited by a genliil climate, the inhabitants have converted this plain into a delightful garden, covered with all sorts of native fruits, but especially the vine, which is cultivated with care and extraordinary success (the product of 1853 amounted to 2,250,000 pounds). This valley, famous for Its wines and liquors, contains the missions of San Juan Capristrano, San (iabriel, and San Fernando, which but a few years since constituted the richest es- tablishment in Oalifomla, and numbered very nearly 500,000 head of cattle. Lotteries, in their highest application, are Insti- tutions for raising the revenue of the countrj- by grant- ing to those who voluntarily contribute the chance of obtaining a reversion of part of the money collected. This reversion is determined by lot. Tlie first men- tioned in English history began drawing at the west- em door of St. Paul's Cathedral, .January 11, 1569, and continued, day and night, until May 6 following. Its profits were for repairing the fortifications on the const of England, and tho prizes were pieces of plate. The first lotterj' mentioned for sums of money took place in 1630. Lotteries were established in 1693, and for more than 130 yeers yielded a large annual revenue to the crown. The Irijh state lotterj' was drawn in Dublin in 1780. All lotteries were suppressed in France by a decree of the National Convention, No- vember 15, 1793. They were abolished in England 1826 ; and an act was pa';..i:d imposing a penalty of £50 for advertising foreign r,r any lotteries in the British news- papers, 1836. AI)olished in Bavaria by unanimous vote of the deputies, October 19, 1847. They have long been abolished in New England : ^ New York they were prohibited about 1830. In nearly all the States there is a penalty against lotteries not specially authorized by the legislatures. Tho practice may bo traced back to tho Romans, wlio were accustomed, at least in the days of the empire, to enliven their festi- vals with the distribution of tickets, uniform in appear- ance, but entitling tho holders to receive articles of various value. Instead of granting largesses to the leaders of tho Plebs, the Emperor Augustus frequently distributed his gifs on the same principle ; and Helio- gobalus has the merit of devising in sport a plan fre- quently resorted to in fraud to avoid the penalties against lotteries in England, of making prizes really worthless take the place of blanks. In the middle ages tlie same practice prevailed at the banquets of feudal princes, who distribucd their presents economi- cally, and without the fear of jealousy, by granting lottery tickets indiscriminately to their friends. The practice soon descended to the merchants ; and in Ita- ly, in the ICth century, this became a favorite mode of disposing of their wares. In 1530 the " Lotto" of Florence was established for the necessities of the State, and the example was quickly followed through- out Europe. The first lotteries with numbered tickett were instituted at Genoa. Mercantile lotteries were LOT 1286 LOU Mtabtliliad In France, under FrancU I., In 1&30, end n litx levied nn oai'h ticket ; but tlieae wore lupplanted in IflOO by lotterii-i of money, under the direct control n( the king. The lint lottery eatuliliiihed in Kn|{liind wan drawn in 1.16!). It vonniated of 10,000 Iota, which wore fold it lUa. nuch. The |irlxeH were piocen of plite ; and the pmlits wore devoted to the repnlra of certain harbor* in the kingdom, The printed pUn of thbi •chenie U atill In jMiaaeulou of the Antiquarian Society of Louilun, In Uili u lottery was gnintod In behalf of the VirKinia Company ; iind in lUHU the >ame privilege woe accorded to a contractor who under- took to supply I^ondon with water. From i|iia time forwanl the Mpirit of guniblinK incrcui>ed ao rapidly, and grew lo atronx, that, In the rei|;n of Queen Anno, private lotteriea liad to lie auppreaaod aa public nui- auncea. Tlie tirat parliamentary lottery waa inatl- tuted in 170U ; and from thla period till 1821 the puaa. ing of u lottery bill waa in the programme of every aeaaion. U]) till about the cloae o' the 16th century the prizea were generally puiii in the form of termin- able, and aoniotimes of perpetual, annuities. Loans were also ruUud by granting u bonus of lottery tickets to all who subscribed u certain amount. This gam- bling in annuities, however, uespite the restrictions of an act paaacd in 1703, soon loJ to an appalling amount of vlco and miaery; and in 1808 a committee of the House of C'ommona urged the suppression of this ruinous mode of filling the national exchequer. In Octolier, 182G, tlio luat public lottery was drawn in Britain. In France, State lotteries have been aliol- ished, but they still exist in most of the continental States i uiid altliough demonstrably u source of loss to, those who embark in them, they are uphold as a very ready uiodo of procuring money from the poor, the miserly, und the adventuroux. Tlie liumliurg lottery affords the moat favorable representation of the a^'stom, as in it all the money ruiaero- prehended the ch belong now »ent -with thoir Ld the western V in Texa.-* their dominion in the rtoui'sin"*" ^"f |j_ When tlio |o the dominion \e, changing it to " i«s'«""' Mit efin to " TMcinna." Thny put th* laitim limit 'if their Mexican province* nnil of Toxim at tha Klver Mermcntau, quite near to the MhiaiHippI Delta; and tha waatem limit of the Kloridas waa, aa well at the llnie of tha KnKllah dominion In tha Muridaa (1700- 17m:I) aa after tha retrocesaiou of these provincoa to Npain (17MII), considered to lie at the oastemniost liranch of the MIsslsalppi (RIvlnre, Iberville and the I.nkea I'ontcharlrain, etc.)| en that during thU time (I7fi8-IH(KI) the name " l.un'nnn" comprised only a very amull part of the coasts of the Klexican Gulf. When the United Statoa acquired the dominion of Loultlana (lHI)'.i) this name waa at flrst quite extin- guished on tlie shores of the (iulf. The whole southern part of old Louisiana waa called "Tho Territory of New Orleans." The old numo was, however, revived again in the year IK 12, when a part of the old French ciiluny was admitted into tlie Union unounds ; wool, 1()',),897 ; cotton, 178,787; silk cocoons, 2U ; hops, 125 ; tobacco, 20,878 ; hay, 25,762 tons ; clover seeds, 2 bushels ; other grass seeds, 07 bushels ; and there were made l.'i gallons of wine. Value of home-made manufucturos, 189,232 ; of slaughtered animals, 1(1,458,090. Jilrrri, fie. — The Mississippi Uiver forms the honnd- ' ary of tho State for a considerable distance, and In its lower part runs wholly within tho State, and enters the (iulf of Mexico by several chuiinels. It is nav- igal>le for vessels of the largest size, Ked River enters the State near tho north-west comer, aid passes through In a south-east direction, discharging u vast amount of water into the Mississippi, 2:iU miles aliove New Orleans, Tho Washita runs iu u south direction in tlie north part of the State, and enters Red Kiver a little above its junction with the Mississippi, Kuyou La Fourche and Atchafalayu are largo outlets of the Mississippi, The other rivers and streams are the Slack, Tensan, Sabiue, Calcasieu, Mermanteau, Ver- milion, Teche, Pearl, Amitic, Iberville, etc, Mdtw/aiiiimi. — There were In this State in 1850, 8 establishments with a capital of 225,000, employing 8-17 persons, ami making 1,670 tons of castings, etc, valued at 812,600; 90 flouring and grist mills, 120 saw mills, 10 tanneries, 47 printing ofHces, 00 newspapers — 11 dully, 6 tri and semi-weekly, 37 weekly — and one monthly publication ; aggregate number of copies issued annually, 12,41li,221, Capital Invested in manufactures, $5,304,924 ; value of manufactured articles, $7,045,814. On the 1st of .lanuary, 1850, there were 7 railroads, with xil miles of track finished nnd in operation. The principal places in the State are Baton Rouge, tho capital. Now Orlean.s, .Tackson, St, Francisville, Opelous.as, Grand Coteau, Alexandria, Natchitoches, and Shreveport, There were, .Tanuary 1st, 1853, 7 banks in tho State, with an aggregate capital of $12,000,000, Tonnage, same year, 150,273 tons. Total value of exports of American and foreign pro- duce, 1862, $49,058,885, Value of Imports, $12,057,- 724, I^uisiana was first explored by the l^ronch, and received its name in 1682 from SI, La Sallo, in honor of Louis XIV., and a settlement was attempted in 1684, but failed. In 1G99 a more successful attempt was made by M, Iberville, who entered the Mississippi and founded a colony. His efforts were followed by Crozat, who held the exclusive trade of the country for a number of years. About 1717 he transferred hi* interest to a chartered company, at the head of which LOW 1388 TiOW wu lb* notoriniu John I.»w, whoM Mllnnal bank Miii MUtlMlppI •paculallon InroWml hdf Iha rrtnoh no- bility. In I7SI lk« rnmpany nulgnxl tha cnnrarn la Iba ernwn, whn, in I7vlnra lo Frann, tram whom, in lltua, tha tlnitad Mtataa pnnbaaail tha nitlrt taHtory tat #IB,000 000. Tha portion not' Intliulail in tlia Mala Ihrmail amnilUu. lion, and ku •ilmlllaii liili. Iba rclon in IMII, A uroml cnnati>...lijn w»< atloptad anil wani Into 4ipar». lion In llUft, anil Ilia third anil praMUl nna waa formad and ailuptad In IMl. t'oaaiua CoMMaaoa oi THa »TATa ur Loi/uuha, raoM Ooroaaa 1, 1*10, io iltfi,T 1, IIM, TMnnaii« M^ ImfmH. TMHfa <1mk4. DiMrl'l iMivf, OwailK, fmlo. 7tltt. Tout. AaHHm. 8r,iM« r»f«ii». «i;i«ir ibtiM...4. 1 *r£'.'iji,r^ tapt. M, IMI ♦«,»0T^ miMn- if.iU.iU «II,«T»,TII l«fl T,l«l«,4«l «7MH4 7,»7f*,*4A 8,«17,9«H I0,7I« IM8 «,TIW,4IU l.mW.Ml 7.77»,079 4,9WI,I«S rM,9M •MS l»*l «,M>.»M t,|ilft.it74 7,»9«H90 4M»,7M M,l»9 9I,99« • • ' IH'ift in.iMft.'jiM I.AIT.Mi) 19,n>i9,»94 4,9M.n84 M,«»f W.T7« ... 1 Iltl« l»,i)4.<,ftn« i,«IW,HT4 10,9N4,8H0 4,ia7JWl 8N,I44 «.»• 1 .... 1 .,., IWT lii.tiiV.HIM i,ia(,iM 1t,79it,W7 4M1,«4B li»,79a • *•'' .... 1 .... IHW liMM,iMII l,7H4.nM 11,»I7,40() «,9l7,NNt 86,841 8 ,781 I8W lll,Hl)H,l»8 1,4H7,H77 l9,»M,l)«fl «,NA7,«I» 87,»ft7 ■*179 , . imi) \*M1,14n «,44A,t)M 1Mn>(,«M 7,ftM,fM» IO«;OI7 i'8»|T ( • ■ > Total "U*,I«4,W- ^\K•m,»o» |I()S,877,1«9 $4»,IM8,9'M ' oH,IBl ■ 1 ^m ..., .... ■apt SO, IWt |I9,MS,M1 |8,M«.4M »1«,7«!,»H» (»,7M,«»8 ^0,..Mt iu"!!?* 11,40^ M,9«9 1M9 lilUMIH 9,49A.Hl'i lit,Mii,l»li) H,>l7l.(lft" NN.liM M>,WO I •*) lisa H,IWI,«ft7 ■i,ii(7,»lit 1\94I,!I7H »Mn>,' ■ 8«,n91 tiiflm ,, , II.. tiM M,TA»,lk)T 1(.7I»7,1»I7 ««,»7,BJ4 18,7fll,8llt 119,880 ■.1,899 , , , , till fW HI,1l«ft.0IA R,II<)A,WI« 8«,9ro,Mll8 I7,MI».H14 187,891 W,77H ,, , , 1 > • ( 1086 »1,*M,M!> 4,ilAil,tl«l< 87,17l»,H'iS r,il7,«4» 147,I«)H 48,110 • 1 • t .... IK8T . «i,iM«,ari> 8,7Vi,4W !l«,81«,m»7 14,'<'I|,0I9 t7^M8 4A,ft9a , , , , Iti IW. m),i>;T.KM 1.4»4,7U 8l,HO.;,94S «,4IM,*l,187 11(,IMM,1»4« 177.987 84,779 1 ■ • • 1... )S40 Total fll8A,iril),U»T l.llHM,Br7 «8il,MH,llit 84.9»«,M« |9H«,MI,Slft 10,878,190 Tl90,»UH,0«l 977,091 78,8M 6*9,074" ...• — Tffr' l,4lltl,<8V .... -'••*'• !Sa:.-::::: »n9,s44,9Sii 79,877 M,rM *1,0OT ir,4'i7,4'i9 »7«,797 9N.K4.I48 8,088,fl«O 944,110 78,««8 1 • • • • moa, IMH l«,aM.N4 78«.i>no 97.8tNI,4»t H,I70,01B 999,471 811,497 I • . • • «•• JoaaW, IMI mMiJiM 1,II66,47» m.4»n,mn 7,H9«,7H» 987,179 lOI.OtO • > 1 > ..•i IMfl 9fi,H41,811 l.niMM 97,IB7,4IW 7,8*4,897 148,MA 199,601 , , , , • f •. 1M« 80,T4T,ftlW W«,I71 8I,»7»,704 7,998,090 98ft,44a 110,091 > >.. .». . IMT 41,7»8,rtO« tm,8M) 49,OM,«8il 9.9'J9,9«9 974.111 188.708 • • I • ..* \MX .. M,8fiO,l48 i.aai.'iis 40,971,8111 9.8NII,489 987,HH7 MN.Oll • . i 1 III. 184j »«,M7,I1» iiA4,ni» 87,111 1,IW7 10.IIA0,a97 998,4M 194,984 • •>. . t • WM Total I7,«91 480,809 l'M,900 > * . * III. 18M 80,!)7«.aM 1188,498 80,8«ft,0i*0 1 H,(»i,8W B8«,747 180^16 1 .... ,... CcMur.^The following U the lumnury of tha ceniU8 returns of the State of I/iuislana for the year 1868 : Whitu |in|juliitlon of llio Statu 326,000 • f e8,n4>; ifMilfS According to this there are '2033 more colored person.) in this State, and 39,371 more trvu men than slaves. Now Orleans owns more than ono-foiirtli of the property, and pays more than one-third of I lie taxes of the State. That city is, however, allotted but one>l1ftli of the represontation. New Orleans is the principal port on the Mississippi, and the natural dipAt for the commerce of the great central valley. It is situated on the left banic of tlie rl-.r, 100 miles from the Gulf of Me.\ico, in lat. 2a ' 63', and long. 90° 7'. Its site is low and marshy, and in li.D summer and fall very sicldy. Lowell, an important manufacturing town in Mid- dlesex county, Massachusetts, on the rlglit bank of tlie Merrimack Kiver, at its Junction with the Concord. 25 miles north-northwest of Boston. Although the site of the town has considerable inequality nf surface, its streets are regularly laid out, and intersect each otiier «t right angles. The private residences aro spueiouK, and many of them elegant buildings. Among thu public ediflcoi, th* clilaf trt the courl-lidiiso, ilm mi.- chanics' hall, a hospital fur sick onvrulivi'ii, iiml n market-hnuso. Tha literary initltutk'ns of tlm lutvii aro very eflicient, and have lieiin of t'onnlilcnililn hitv- ico to the community, Tlie Mechunirs' AnaKuliitlon, incorporated in 1H2A, has a vuluulilu library uf nliuiit 60U0 volumes, and u sciuntlllc uppurutus I'whilu tlie city school library contains 9500 vulumes, ami in upen 10 all on a small voarly piiymont, The gront iiilvaiit- n.;" which Lowell enjoys for u in»' nfuuturliiu tnwn ■ J-i''"ed fron. o d ' of 00 iuet made liv llio Mit. I. 'I > k, and know iliu Tawluckot FulU, which, li; I. euns of canuls and locks, provides nbiiiidunco uf water-power. Dcsidea tliuna there is ii spiicluiiii ri'S- orvoir, placed on un elovutiun euatwiird uf tlm city, which furnislies an immonso suppl* of water at iiii times in case of lire. Tlio principal good* niiiiioriu'- tured here are cotton, wool, and iron. Tliu llrst Is made int* cotton, cloth and calico ; tlm micuikI Into carpets, cloth, and coarse stulDii and iron Into ma- chinery and wire fences, lieildei tlieso, liowovor, bleaching is carried on oxtenslvely, ns well *< iIm' preparation of dyes, glua, and other eisontluis o( tin- cotton and wool manufactures. In .Inniiary, IN.'i.i, there were 12 nianufuctiiring rompnnlim In l.imt'll, owning 52 mills, and working II71,N!)N splniili'ii, and 11,407 looms. Tiie agKraKata i|uanlitio« pruilui'i'd ev- ery week were 2,280,000 yards of cotton cliilli, illl.uio yards of woolen cloth, 25,000 yards of n.irpi'tliiu, mid lifty rugs. In the same year, |I4,AIK),II00 nl' I'liplinl was invested in tlio whole manufooturi's of the pliiro; white the number of hands employed amounted to LOW IIH RTfll fttiBftltf . Mil -IMt imI«- Kv«ry ittcntton ti p«M | by lhi> mill wneri tn th« hn.i.;)' and mnrallty of th«ir i>ti«r»»lvtm Iha rxtml of it" manufacturing farllltii'*. A trai't nf 4110 ncraa, ion. atitutlnic thn miMt rantral part nf Iha prvaant >-lty, wii« laid out In IN-il. It waa purchnaad fur il(Nl,(i aplndlea, and 1,U20 lonina, employ* l,tIOO malea, imd (Mft feinaleii ; manufacture) 1H,rought to tho proper strength ; and if it bo abova that strength the proprietor usually adds water lit lirfaiK II dnwn to Mw tUm/Utk TiMn la afiatto kind nf WiweriiiK i lW g (jte nMbrs nf •plriluuiM liquorit v.> the vulgar, br ra4wi.| i««f, whl»ih la «»•((>■ •liwii' by mc I ""f noma aildltliiu which give* a gri-4t<>i Uwarlty to thi. („irts of lliii diilrlfp., will deceive nil >lmt by thu priMif alone, in Ibit ciise, tha liest h ^i. of lliiiiiir< la bv th* eyn iind the tonuuK, iinl |.i by the iu.lriiiMdfil .ajlcl the hydroini'ter LubbVi 1 ciiuM'iii|i|uou* nnmo, Kivrn >'\ nalluni i„ thoae Willi uniw not the duty of .i k,.umiuii. l.iMtr', llnU U l\w. vacant "pace l>*tween the head ,.' i lowi>r ma>t ami th» eilgv of the lop. It i« «o Ipritt,..: from a «uppi"«»i"« that • luMicr, m>t carlnj< t» tru»t I urlf up thi^ futtwk Hhrouds, will prefer thai way uf m-"",, iotii thit top. Lub«0, onn of the free citle* of intvthem llannn If, and nominally tlio chief of the llanur' ' )wn«, it ""e capital of 11 siiuU tcrrltiir)-, is aituate cm i j;i.ntle Hrt, between th«' riverri Irave and Wakenil Ml milea f»oir. the Ml iith lit thi f.irmer HI TravemUndi'. and :i() mUts north' >Ht lif ll.umliurg. I.uliec i« the capitni [if *ha four IV " iir llam^rutlc town*, and thn seat of ttt»tr supri-iu ">urt of appeal, The court consist* of six niembci lue of whom I* chosen by each of the free towns : rankfort and llrcmen nominate the fiftli while III "Ixth is named alternately once Ivy Liiiic and twice v Hamburg. The president is ihraen ai niialU by i " lenutc!! of tho four towns. The present city of Ull was founded In 1148 by Adolphui II., Oount of 11. Main ami .SchauniKurg, by whinn It waa ceded In 11. to Henry Diik. nf .Suxony, surnaraed the Mon. In '.'.Ml It was made a free lmp< rial city by Frederic II. \t this time it was nn lmp< rtant com- mercial city, ml was rapidly Imreuiiing, In 1241 it entered into ti' ily with Hamburg', and tli "i laid tha foundation of li- llanseatic League, uf wiuich it lie- came the head Hi lit 12110. For four ceiitiirres l.ulieo continued in a ll<>< ishing condition, and Is miid to have at one time contu' tc., 88,424,913. Total, 123,037,477 kilos. Manufacturea represent 11^ per cent., colonial, or trans-Atlantic merchandise 9( per cent., metals 5 per cent., and all other imports 74 per cent, of the total trade. Statement ihowing the Steam Navigaiinn between Lubec a>ul the Baltic Portt, from 1849 to 1852 1849. — Between TravemOnde (the port of Luliec) and Copenhagen — voyages, 67; passengers, 1955; re- ceipts, 162,0-16 francs. 1850. — Between Travemunde, Copenhagen, and Gothenburg — voyages, 61 ; passen- gers, 2858 ; receipts, 194,788 francs, 1851. — Between TravemOnde, Copenhagen, and Gothenburg — voyages, 37 ; passengers, 8,415 ; receipts, 137,884 francs. 1862. — Between Lubec, Copenhagen, and Gothen- burg—voyages, 20 ; passengers, 8061 ; receipts, IM,- 360 francs. The merchant marine of Lubec in 1853 consisted of 63 vessels, of 13,300 tons aggregate, viz., CO sailing vessels, of 11,826 tons, and 6 steamers. The once ex- tensive and flourishing trade of Lubec had dwindled down to the mere shadow of its former greatness. The tardy communication with Hamburg (a city on which it depends almost exclusively for its commercial activity) by canal navigation, contributed much to de- press its commercial enterprise ; and, hence, its mer- chants have, for a long period, been strenuous and unremitting in their cffo'^s for the construction of a railroad that would connect them with that city. Denmark, however, jealous of any enterprise that would be likely to create a rival for tho trade of Kiel, which to>vn is also connected by railroad with Ilam- liurg, long refused permission to construct the contcni plated railroad across any portion of its territories. The dillicultips were, however, adjusted, the road con- structed, and duriiig the past few rears the trade uf Lubec lias risen to considerable importance. In 1850, before the connection by railroad was established, the merchandise which passed between the two cities amounted to l)Ut 26,000 quintals of 106-85 lbs. oac h ; in 185.1, after the railroad was opened, it ascended to 207,380 quintals, viz., 89,576 Hamburg merchandise, and 177,805 foreign merchandise, forwarded via Ham- burg. The United States has no direct trade with Lubec, such of its staples as reach that market Ijuing supplied either from Uamlmrg or Altona, chiefly tlio former. The tariff is that of December eth, 1851. Moneya. — 1 marc = 16 schillings Lubec courant = 28-79 cents. Weights and Measures. — 1 ship-pound = 2J cwt. of 112 lbs. English, each = 280 lbs. 1 lis-pound = 14 lbs. Duties on Imparls. — All goods, whether of foreign or home production, pay J of 1 per cent, ad valorem, as given in tho invoices, except the following articles, which are free of import duties : Transit goods re-ex- ported within three months after cntrj- ; effects of travelers ; household furniture used ; wool brought for the Lubec fair, and delivered at the wool wareliousc ; goods on boanl of vessels nut consigned to I.uliec ; wares on board of ships entering the port of Trave- mOnde in distress. None but citizens have the privilege of clearing goods in tho custom-house ; American vessels, how- ever, are exempt from this regulation. — Com. Itel. U, S. Lucia, St., Olio of the British West India Islands, Windward group, lying nlmut 30 miles north of Jlar- tinique, in lut. 13° 60' N., long. 00° 58' W. It is 32 miles in length from north to south, liy 12 in extreme breadth, and has an area of about 2;15 square miles, or 150,000 acres. It is longitudinally divided liy a chain of mountains, generally from 1200 to 1800, and in some cases 2000 feet high, deiively clothed with the finest timber. Tlieso are of volcanic formation, and assume tho most fantastic forms, abounding in deep chasms and pointed eminences. From either side of this chain branches of lessor altitude go off toward the coast, forming plains and valleys of various sizes. At tU aonti origin, e pendicul to the lie evergreo doej) an( througliQ coast, ar streams, is divi(lo( Joowarii most popi tors and ii and CapJB is also vei wood on ti climate is attract the to frequeni year. The exti 1864, and t Articli's. jCoeoaTTTTT^ Ooods, Brit' ini I ract....pack( LiiBWood 1 Molasses., a Kico •', Hum „| p«wr, M-.8.,'.'.u Othor articles. . I ^'otal value The total va cles of British live stock, Inn and tobacco), United Kingilo ■£26,4,13 from t\ general revenu duties on impor and other taxes, year was £ia,bi 24,«3, ofwhom 11,081 male and chief town of t about 3000 perst English settlers uriven off |,y t effected a settle when it was fln longed ulternutel "nment is admit the troops, a lie council, oonsistin pey-general, and IS also a legislati and five non-offlc secretary and att Md of which the ( LUO 12D1 LUM tt« soQthern extremity Ar« twu iiwuntitltiit of rokanlo origin, called tlie HuKitr l' nrtt uuvt^roil with evergreen fullAge, Hilfl limrk tlltl itlltnttlcn Ittln the (laep and benutifiil Itiiy uf HiMlfrli>r«, Tlie vuttevi tlirouglioiit the lalitnd, iiit wnll it* tlm (ilnlnii upon the coast, are fertile, lieliiK well witterpd by nuuioruua Btreuins, iind are under Kuiid nitHlvHtliiii, The iaiand ia divided into twu terrttiirlei)'=llnHii«t»rre, the low or looward pM llll,|)'JU tiiii),iiii.^ ISH. lUH'j.lllll (I.IIM 91,111111 fi<,il4t UIUI'J 7,414.100 10,350 17,410 tT.tfil Dim, lias The i]uantitteB and value of Artleli'S tot ported In 1864 wore ; Articles. Cocoa lbs Ooods, Brit. nianU' fact..,.packagos Loawood tons Molasses galls.! Klcu owl, Ituni galls. Sugar, M'-.s., ..owt. Other articles. .... Total voluo... .ifiti^m 1'" niiiini ..'!''.',, Ki««'i „|||',',l|,'j'. Slalea. «ilT £T;4yI tin 1,«S0 sm l.oftT I.IUifi 'v'itl tail 4i,4iiy 1100 ""rt i'.TiM »!4iloiTr t;rt,ii(lt «i.i(J4 1 The totjii value of Imports In JHSI (prltuilnnlly arti- cles of Uritisli inaiiufaotiire, lliiiir, dried tlili, liutter, live stocic, lumber, salted mewt, iillv« nil, wine, rice, and tobacco), was j;UU,!)(IO i beliig i'll.liml from the United Kingdom, .£'.'7,8«0 from llrlllsh tiolonlea, and £26,4!)!) from foreign Htiltes, The liett lltlloilllt of the general revenue in IHM wiis 4I14,II|IH| Iiii1m«, cuatotn duties on iinports, A'tHH'Jj on tonimuti, Xr\i | nai^caied and other taxes, i:tJH7'.t, The nett exppiidlturn for that year was £lB,6li5. '('lie total pupiiliillnii In IHM waa 24,183, of whom 480 w«ra male and fil7 ftmale whitea, 11,081 male and l'2,0!Ki feumlu persiins of milor. The chief town of the island is llttstrles, wlilidi tontalns alwut !)000 ppTsonH. Nt. Uiieiii was llrat uoloitlnnd by English settlers in ID.tt), but t\\»ne wertt auun after driven off by the Carlba, Almut JHtiO the French effected a settlement, and from that ilm« to iHllll, when it was Dnuliy captured by the I'.iigllnh, It be- longed alternately to France and ICngliiiid. Tint f{ov. emment is administered by the uuminaiidltiK nlllcer of the troops, a lieutenant-governor, and an executive council, consisting of the oolonl. ' secretary, the nltor- ney-general, and the second mllltiiry tilllcpr. There is also a legislative council, iinmposed of live (illli Inl and live non-oiiiciul niembers, in which the colonial secretary and attorney-gpnunil have seata and votes, and of which the commanding atHaer Is prealdviit. Th» laws of St. Lucia, except in so far as they have been altered by orders of council, are the laws of France, antecedent to the Code of Najmleon. Luff, the order from the pilot to the steersman to put the helm toward the lee side of the ship, in order to nialie tlio ship sail nearer the direction of the wind. Hence, luff round, or luff a-lec, is the excess of thU movement, by whicli it is intended to throw the ship's head up in the wind in order to tacli her. A ship if also said to spring her luff -when she yields to the effort of the holm by sailing nearer to the line of the wind tlian she had done before. J.uff Tackle, a ncme given by sailors to any largo taclile that is not destined for any purthmiar place, but may be variously employed as occasion requires. It is generally somewhat larger than the jigger tactile, althougli smaller than tliose which serve to hoist the heavier materials into and out of the vessel; which latter are the main and fore- tacklea, the stay ond quarter-tackles, and so forth. Lug-Bail, a square sail, hoisted occasionally on the mast of a boat or small vessel, upon a yard which liangs nearly at right angles with the mast. These sails are more particularly used in the barca-longas navigated by the Spaniards in the Mediterranean. Lumber. One of tlie distinguishing characteris- tics of the United States is the quantity of wood ond lumber they furnish. Of the well-wooded countries of the world, Russia, Sweden, Norway, and America, this countrj', no doubt, ranks as lirst. A discriminat- ing writer, Volney, once described tliis country as "one vast forest, diversified occasional!}' by cultivated Intervals." If this is less true than it was a century or even half a century ago, it applies in the main at the present moment. Kvcn the oldest States of the ITiiiun, such as New Hampshire, New York, and the (Jarollnus, are still famous for both the quality and quantity of their lumber. And Maine, that had some- thing like settlements before any other portion of New Kiigluud, is to this day the great lumber State of the land. Hence, perhaps, the name it sometimes gets — the I'Ine-tree State. The trees of any countrj' are valuable for at least four distinct purposes, for fuel, for shelter, for the food many of them afford, and for ornament. In the last point of view, which is gener- ally considered the least important, trees are of much consequence. England has obtained the name of an extensive garden, very much through its beautiful shade trees and shrubberj-. One half of the beauty of many of our New England villages would be lost in tho warm season without their elegant natural Bcreens in the shape of trees. It was Lord Bacon who said that " a tree in full leaf is a nobler object than a king In his coronation robes." No artist would ever think of presenting a line landscape without trees. And so important are trees regarded as objects of beau- ty and shade, that ornamental tree associations are springing up in different parts of tho country, whose objects are to adorn streets and highways with our Ireautiful elms, maples, and evergreens. It is stated l)y Michaux that in the United States there are 110 species of forest trees which attain a greater lielght than 30 feet, while in France there are only 18 of the same description. And we suppose that the comparison would be similar if extended to Great llrltahi, Spain, or Germany. No wonder, then, that our forest scenery so much surpasses that in tho west and south of Europe, and that Eurojiean travelers thliilc that it is worth while to cross the Atlantic to see our for?st scenery as painted by the invisible artist every autumn. Ho great is the interest in portions of Europe to pro- mote the growth of forest trees that associations have been formed in Germany and other countries to plant forests upon soil adapted to their growth. The vast UHlomit of forest trees annually used by such a coun- try as (Jrcut Dritain may be estimated by the fact that to build a (0 gun ship 40 acres of ship timber MO w- _i ■ LUM 1202 LUM qnired. In the Ugbt of such a fact, it may be aeen that it is none too early for the people of this country to exercise due economy with rcganl to the use of for- ests already existing, and to promote the growth of others — on the waste lands that already abound in va- rious sections of the country. STATXUliNT SnOWINO TUK ExPOBTg Or luHDKR (BFECirVINU TUB KXrORTINO DlSTBIOTS) rBOM TOE UnITXD STAT»>, FOB TUB Year ending Jitne SOtii, 1866. DItlrlcU. 8hlii|U«. Boftrdi, pUnki, .nd H«wn llmlxr. |0tll«r lumb«r 1 Otk bulc uid other dye. Allolhe,- maiiiiritciureB of WOtKl. "n..iu,77~ 19,2.'.S 510 5,C96 8,474 l^&W 1,047 419,6,57 6,554 27, IW 28,662 10,078 'iiio 21,8.54 410,404 "oil 22,489 2S,l,',o 11,139 42,061 10,671 50 87,7.58 4,905 34,458 84,840 ; 4,075 778,783 60,800 41„')79 164,579 200 ll'3',«io eV.iiii 8,613 "i25 'l',329 "iss l'9',822 7 2'3;640 usii 2,501,,5->:f Paasamaqnoddy MachiM.. ,. ,M. fen. 844 269 ""88 '"'63 256 '4,068 •"•65 "m 8,276 "151 ""s .... "2'5S1 "lis \\m "2,993 '6,738 6.684 5,8.56 ],8S4 ""'m 6,»43 105 282 11 8 '"74 lor ""7i4 "1,077 "'82 848 1,983 Dulr.n. 1,416 624 "'ti ■"83 639 12,261 " 276 "'882 11,880 "806 "ir Hsi2 "l",848 "8.995 l'3",660 T,%m 15,363 18,340 4,849 "i.57 19,826 781 928 44 40 ' '254 "533 '4',i92 '2,971 "247 1,640 9,717 M. 1.81. 8,486 3,681 "l",693 2 1,713 8,918 "2',i65 8,122 '"86 103 8ir 11,766 ""ia 419 157 199 44ollari. 4,692 601 "196 56;642 120,676 ••66 8,616 ••'89 •'78 243,572 1,401 •"868 1,446 66J24 1,229 •■728 9,880 '8,888 2,250 "'65 l'8',876 19^936 12's',938 1,520 "405 14,500 31,818 126 823 ' '2i5 25,389 48,264 DoJIsre. •6,508 • 'm 8,597 "600 350 87,694 763 8'l',480 8'4'S48 "660 Frenchman's Bay WIscasaot.. . . Bath Portland and Falmouth. 8aco Belfast Bangor Vermont Qloiicester Balcm Boston and Charlestown Fall Klver Now Bedford Providence Bristol and Warren Newport New London Sackctt's Harbor Niagara Buffalo Creek Now York PhTladolpl.la Presquo Isio fteorffetown, I). C Norfolk and Portsmouth Plymouth, N. Washington, M. C Ncwbern Beaufort Georgetown, 3. C Mobile Kev West .... St John's New Orleans Miami Pugct's Sound Bun Frandioo Total A"8 166,207 126,830 1,9»7,()02 1 84,260 234,959 i 803,684 121,080 This table shows the singular fact, that Chicago, the greatest luml)er marlcet in the world, exports directly no lumber to foreign countries. The State of Maine, as the head-quarters of the lumber and ship building trade, lias for a long time excited much interest. Tlie season for cutting the timber and bringing it to market commences in De- cember or earlier, and closes in March or April. According to a careful estimate of George W, Cram, Ksq., surveyor-general of lumber for Boston, the amount sold at that port in 18.'>4, was lill,900,000 feet. The descriptions were 40,000,000 of white pine lumber, 18,000,000 southern pine 26,000,000 spruce, 10,000,000 hard wood, 1,800,000 mahogany, 2,100,000 clapboards, 10,000,000 shingles, 20,000,000 laths, 4,000,000 hem- lock, 1,000,000 pickets. The following is a careful etiimate of the lumber boslness. The numlier of men employed in getting the lumber to market is 120,000 ; number of cattle and horses, 80,000; number of saw-mills, 3000; num- ber of vessels, 1000. Pine, spruce, and hemlock lum- ber is principall.v obtained fronj Bangor, Ellsworth, the Kennebec Kiver, Calais, Machias, Cherritield, Maine, and St. John, Xew Brunswick, wliiie tlie larger portion of the hard pine grows in Xortli and Suuth Carolina, Georgia, Florida, and Alabama. Pine and spruce, too, are brought from ('anada to Portland, and is thence shipped to this and other markets. The lum- lier secured from St. John is of a superior quality Lumber is obtained also from the States of New York, Ohio, and Michigan. The two last States furnish black walnut, cherry, asli, white wood, and basswood; while New York and Pennsylvania furnish a share of the some. The railroads bring to market, oak tinil)er from tfassachusetts and New Ilampshire. The south- em and western States grow a portion of the same, and fumisli considerable live oak. New Y'ork yields a large quantity of pine. Delaware and Maryland LUM 1203 LUM All ulher niiniifHctnrM of WOtHl, "DiilStT" li),2.')S 640 6,696 8,474 1,1147 419,667 6,554 27,1M 23,66'j 10,078 '4,4io 81,854 410,404 "611 22,439 28.150 11,189 42,661 i 16,671 60 I 87,7,W I 4,905 84,463 84,840 4,075 778,783 60,800 41,579 164,579 200 113^640 Mjilt 8,613 125 1,329 "135 19,822 23,040 14.811 2,601 ,5>3 anon sparingly. It U stated that the best hard pine for ship-building grows on the Alatamaha River in Georgia, and on the Waccamaw River in South Caro- lina. It is but a fow years since hard pine has been used in ship-building. It is now empioyed extensively in Mew England, and is considered as good for many parts of a ship as oali. During the year 1854 a com- mission house of this city sold about 23,000,000 of feet, to be used mostly in Massachusetts and Maine. It will be perceived that this house sold 5,000,000 feet more than all that was surveyed in the city for that year, showing how large a part of the lumber sold here is not surveyed under our surveyor-general. Formerly there was no hard pine obtained at the South except what grew immedaitely upon the rivers. But within five or six years the timber upon tlie margin of the streams has become scarce, so that now it is con- veyed for several miles to the rivers, and in some cases is floated 300 miles to some sea-port, from whence it is shipped to the North or to foreign ports. The reciprocity treaty that has recently been effect- ed between the United States and the British posses- sions in North America is quite sure to increase our luml>er trade, as Canada and the other provinces abound in this great staple. A few statistics will give some idea of the wealth and activity of the British provinces in this department. In 1832 the new ships built in the British colonies were of 32,778 tons bur- den ; while in 1841 the tonnage of the ships built amounted to 108,038 tons, and in 18S0 to 112,787 tons. Most of these ships were built for the British market. In the city or Quebec, according to Andrews's Report on Colonial and Lake Trade, there are about 25 ship- building establishments, and 8 or 10 floating docks. The vessels built there average from 500 to 1500 tons. In 1849, 114 vessels were built in New Brunswick, of 36,634 tons burden. Most of the ships built in New Brunswick are constructed in St. John and St. Andrews, DoHSSTio ExFoars or Lumbeb and Naval SToara raon THE U.NiTED States. I Btavcs, shingles, boards, etc. 12,678,149 Other iumbc Masts nnd .^'itrs Onk barknii'l dye. All manufactures of Naval stores, tar, pitch, { rosin, etc i Ashes, pot and pearl. 123,748 129,628 118,894 2,294,122 1,406,488 834,821 Total.... 16,986,845 isu. $5,122,884 166,178 180,622 96,863 2,837,270 2,066,806 822,728 $10,740,701 (4,609,666 677,669 806,643 99,168 8,688,420 2,049,466 448,499 »11,874,510: Statihext suowino rna Exposn or Lumit (avd m wnAT CouNTBiEs zxroETED) rEou THE United Stavm roE THE Yeae endino Juk» SOiii, 1864, Of these exportations, more than half of the naval stores go to England, and more than half of the lum- ber to Cuba. The ship-building interest alone of Massachusetts consumes a vast amount of lumber. In 1837 the ves- sels built in the State were estimated to be worth $1,- 870,(i49, and the agricultural and domestic articles consuming lumber were worth $2,952,317. The per- sons employed in this handiwork were 3950. The esti- mated value of ships built in this State in 1854 was $5,000,000. If the value of agricultural and other articles requiring timber advanced in the same ratio the value was fully $10,000,000 for that year. There were built in the United States in 1854, 1774 vessels of all descriptions, with a tonnage of 635,636. About a sixth of the value of the whole we And to have been built in Massachusetts. The value of the wliolc, then, in round numbers, may be stated at $30,- 000,000. It is true that the demand for vessels was unusual, and the prices obtained the same. What de- struction of forests was made by the ship-building of that single year I The lumber trade of this country is immense. It costs $30,000,000 a year to build our ships, and we may form some idea of the cost of all the buildings erected in the ci antry for a year, and then of the cost of all other articles made of wood, and of the cost of the lumber material required. WUUiir aiport^. Russia on the Bal- tic & North Seas. , Sweden and Norwoy Swedish West Indies I>anlsb West Indies., Hamburg Bremen Other Gorman ports HolUnd :.... Dutch West Indies. Dutch Oulano. Dutch East Indies. . Belffinm England Scothind Ireland Gibraltar. MalU Canada Other Br. N. A. nos. . British West Indies.. British Honduras British Guiana. British pos. in AlVlca British Australia.... Now Zealand British East Indies.. Franco on the Atlan. France on the .Mod. . French N. Amer. pos. French W. ladles... French Guiana. Spain on the Atlantic Spain on the Modit, Canary Islands I'hillppino Islands... Cubs. Porto Rico Portugal Madeira Capo do Verd Islands Azores Sardinia Papal States. Two Sicilies. Austria Turkey In Europe Turkey in Asia.... Other ports In Africa Hayti San Domingo... Mexico Central Republic Now Grenada. Venezuela Brazil Uruguay Buenos Ayres. . . . Chill Peru Ecuador Sandwich Islands. China. Whale Fisheries.. Tou. riolUn. 968 "'80 "897 12,161 8,116 1,118 ToUI. 781 6,525 841 iMk lixk All iiiwiT' '"'"'»'' I dy.. I in.,il, nnlUr. thilUr. Ik. lis.. ' 73 1,619 "m "305 1,128 90 20 2,882 "600 7,664 84,287 22,183 8,097 2,616 46,667 2,661 1,038 11,726 1,800 '3!,226 6,105 6,686 1,661 290 24 824 685 4,«71 646| 6,168 600 8,899 1,190 869| 4,400. 84,260 234,969 DolUri. I>uUu.. DvlUr.. .... MO 487 T28 • • . t «0,TI1 1,4M 6,194 tajim 18,261 9,834 fi«,104 44* «,l»l 24,104 10,28* 19« %m 4,136 4.84k 1,270 898 9,8.34 762 Vim 76,936 60,078 168,1m 140 6,566 18,1111 665 IK 897 1,TR« 44« l'4,8i6 i'o,s65 280,n«il 9,1165 464 67,IM 4,027 2,44il 62,4iW 166 tm 600 B,9I( 8,578 10,4« 21,660 iil*t,1W 6U 12,581 n,tM 98,557 16,27S %im 18,199 6,67(1 I.TBI 17( 8,liM 28; (111 8< t,4W 11,14< 162 4» 16,711 621 1,140 m I,9lM 851,286 4611 1,19T,WH 12,361 107,241 4; 614 4,TU« 861 &IC 4C 1,120 41 .. 200 40< 400 "m ■••• 140 "m 110 1,79 .... 2h,42t 8,os: .... 11,208 ■8,!i!H 1«,2«< 8,l4fl 6,051 28,981 18,560 8,081 87,841 2,26( Mil 7,5si! 11,783 1 :::: urn 83,B«| 1,972 2,000 4,831 1 .... 1»,B2« 1 .... 28,911 24,29! 1 8,8211 16,76.1 .... M.SKi 808,684 121,080 %'i>it\fm Lute, a substance used for making vessels or appara> tus air-tight, by closing the apertures of their joiuts, or for coating, so as to enable them to bear a higher teni' perature, or for repairing a fracture. Clay is the liasis of many lutes ; whence the term, from lutum, clwy, Among the principl lutes are SloicerhriJge clay, in iilie powder, made into a paste witli water; Windtor loam, a. natural mixture of clay and sand ; Willit'i lule, u thin paste made of a solution of borax, in boiling wa- ter, with slacked lime. Mixtures of borax and eluy also form useful lutes. What is called fat lule is » mixture of pipe-clay with drj-ing linseed-oil, Caustio lime furnishes, by admixture withorther bodies, a vii> riety of lutes. A mixture of lime and white of egg, or glue, forms a powerful cement. Iron cement is useful for making joints tight, as is also white lead ground up with oil and spread on strips of cloth. Among tba other substances used as lutes, may Ije mentioned moistened bladder, paste, and paper ; paper prepared with a mixture of wax and turpentine, linseed-meal, and caoatchonc. The last named substance 1* in •stea> LYO 1294 tYO •Ive use for making chemical Joints or elastic connectors, getting rid of that rigidity which, in a complicated arrangement of apparatus is so liable to lend to accident. lAtte, a stringed Instrument of music, long since su- perseded by the harp and the guitar, but for centuries very fashionable in Europe. The music for the lute was written in taUature. Luxury. The instances of extravagance and lux- nrj" are numerous in the history of almost all countries, ancient and modem, und many laws have been enforced to repress them. Ilorace mentions fowls dressed in Falernian wine, muscles and oysters from the Lucrioe lake and Circean promontory-, and black game from the Umbrian forests.— /.arrffKr. I^ucuUus, at Rome, was distinguished for the immoderate expenses of his moals. His halls wore named fVom the different gods j and when Cicero and I'ompey attempted to surprise him, they were umuzed by the costliness of a supper which hail l)een prepared upon the word of Lucullus, who merely ordered his attendants to serve in the hall of Apollo. This feast for three persons casually met would have sufficed for 300 nobles specially invited. In England, luxurj' was restricted by law, wherein the prelates and nobility were confined to two courses every meal, and two kinds of food in every course, ex- cept on great festivals. The law also prohibited all who did not enjoy a free estate of illOO per annum from wearing furs (see Funs), skins, or silks : and the use of foreign cloth was confined to the royal family alone : to all others it was prohibited A. D. i3.S7. An edict was issued by Charles VI. of Franco, which said : " Let no man presumeMo treat with more than a soup and two dishes." l;)IO. — Ilaydn. Lying-tO. A nautical term denoting the state of the ship when the sails are so disposed as to counteract each otiier, and thereby retard or destroy the progress- ive motion of the vessel. The fore and main stay-sails and mizzen try-sail serve verj" well for this purpose, as they cause but little way, and liavc suflicient power to keep the ship heeled over, and therefore steady, with her decks turned from the aea. When the sea runs very high, the lower sails are liable to be be- calmed by the waves, and therefore to siift"er the ship to roll to windward ; the maintop-sail is then Used. Iiyons (Fr. I.yoti, ancient I.ufldiiniim), the capital of the French Department of Rhone, and till recently ranking, in point of population and commercial im- portance, as the second city of the empire ; but the last census returns siiow that in tlie former of these re- spects it has Ijeen exceeded by Slanieiiles, It is situ- ated at the junction of the Saune witli the Rhone, and on the Paris and Marseilles Ruilwa}', 31(i miles from the former, and 218 from tlie latter "city ; lat. '15° 45' 45" N., long. 4° 49' 33" E. ; elevation above the level of the sea, 903 feet. The Rivers Rhone and Saone lie- ing l)oth navi{;al)le, it enjoys great facilities for trade ; but it is as a manufacturing city that it is chiefly cel- ebrated ; and in this respect it is justly entitled to the name of the French Manclicster. Tlie staple articles of manufacture are silk stufl'a of all descriptions, and which for richness and lieauty are unequaled. In this manufacture about 100,000 of the population are either actively or indirectly concerned. There are no exact .«tatistics of the silk maRufacturc at Lyons ; but the following extract from a letter bj' the President of the Chaml)er of Commerce at Lyons, dated December 10, 1S53, is said to give very nearly the exact results : " During the present year, and the two preceding, the manufacturers of silk at Lyons have employed about fiO.OOO machines (meliera), scattered over a district of aliout 40 miles. These machines have consumed about •2,.''.00,000 kilogrammes of silk (5,500,000 lbs.), valued at 1GO,000,OUO francs ($32,000,000) ; and the manufac- tnred stnlTs at 250,000,000 tnncs ((50,000,000), Tt ll estimated that the home consumption amounts f) on* fourth or one third of that quantity. The lialanea \i »%. ported to all parts of the civilized world i but l>y fur the largest foreign market is found In the Uiiit«<1 States." The silk manufacture in Lyons Is not nurrlad on In large factories, but on the domeittc syitam, In the dwellings of the master-weavers, each of wlijnli has usnally from two to six or eight looms, which, with their fittings, are generally his own property, I line self and as many of his family as can work are em. ployed on these looms, and frequently also one or mnrn compaffnnni, or journeymen. The numl)er of mi)st«r> weavers In the city and suburbs Is estimated to lia about 9000. The silk merchants, of whom there nm about 600 in Lyons, supply the silk and pntterna to the owners of looms, who are Intrusted with the t»»M of producing the web In a finished stntn, The wnaV' ing population, though earning comparatively gixiil wages, are an ignorant and degraded race, living In « disgracefully filthy state, and showing littla i|u«irs (o improve their condition. Few of the journeyn)»H «var raise themselves to be master- weavers. The silk iiinntl* facture was established here l)y Italian refugens In ilm middle of the 15th ccntur)'. It was nearly ruiiiHil by the revocation of the edict of Nantes, whicli dUpxrWil most of its best workmen to SpitalHelds, Ain»i«r works, potteries tan-ynrds, breweries, chemical wiirb«, boat-building yards, etc. ; but these are nil lrii>l|{ii|||. cant compared with its chief branch of Industry, Tlis commerce carried on by means of the rivers U vary considerable. The town Is built principally imi iIik tongue of land, or peninsula, between the Itlione iiint Saone, each of wliich Is crossed by eight or iiIiia bridges communicating with extensive suliurlii lyliijj to the east and west. The old portion of Lyons I'uri. sists chiefly of narrow, crooked, and dirty Btrnnlii, rendered dark and gloomy by the greot lieiKlit of ilm houses on each side, which are generally m^yun nt eight stories high. About three fourths of tt iKnliiry ago, the point of confluence of the two rivers wnn ri<« moved about a mile further soutii, and on the aiMlt|iin> al territory thus acquired the sulmrl) of I'urrui lie vtm formed. This has been laid out on a regular plan, unit now contains many elegant streets und nonie very agreeable promenades. The snl)urli of La ('rii|« Rousse, to the north of the town, and that of I'mir, viferes, on the 'right bank of the 8a6ne, aru ihiully in* hibitcd by silk- weavers. Those of RntttnuuK unit Guilbticre are on the left bank of the Ithoil", ilin best view of tlie town and neigliliorlioud Is obtujiii r| from the summit of the steep hill of FoiirviirMa, (m tlie right bank of the Saune. Tlie furtiliralloiH nf Lyons consist of 18 detacheil forts, arraiiKiil In a circle of 12^ miles around the town, crowning (lit, heiglits of St. Croix and Fourviercs, and of Criiix Rousse, above the suburb of tliat name, und inclinljiit; in its circuit tlie suburbs of llrotteaux and (Jull|iitlitri<, These fortifications are required mora to i|iit'ested in n senate composed of the bisiiop, the judge, and a few of the principal inhabitants ; but all real authority is in the hands of the Chinese mandarin resident in tlie town. The harbor Is on the west side of tho town, between it and Priest's Island ; but the water in it not being sufflcicntly deep to admit large ships, they generally iim hor in the roads on the other side of the peninsula, ftoin live to ten miles east south-east from the town. All vessels coming into the roads send their boats to tlio Portuguese custom-house on tho south side of th.i town. When a ship arrives among the islands, she is fcnerally boarded by a pilot, who carries her into lacao roads. As soon as she is anchored, the pilot proceeds to Macao to inform the mandarin of the nation she belongs to. If there be any women on board, application must be made to the bishop and senate for leave to send them on sliore, us th»y will not bo permitted to proceed to Whampoa in thg ship. As soon as the mandarin has made tha nei'es> sary inquiries, he orders off a river pilot, who lirlngs with him a chop or license to pass tho Uocco TlgrJH, or mouth of the Canton Kiver, ond carries tlie ship to Whampoa. The Chinese regulations do not permit any vussels, except such as belong to Portuguese or Spaniards, of which there are verj' few, to trade at Macao. Hut tlia Portuguese inhaliitants lend their names, for a trifling consideration, to such foreigners as wisli to bo assocl- ated with them for tlin purpose of trading from tha port. Independently, however, of this, vessels of other nations usuallv experience no dlfUcidty in oli- taining the conniviiuco of tho Chinese ofHcers to tlio landing or receiving of goods in the roads liy means of Portuguese boats. At intervals the prohibitory regulation is strictly enforced. Vessels of other mi- tions, if in distress, and not engaged in the contraband trade, are admitted into the harlior for repairs, on up. plication to the senate. The following summary exhibits tho diruct trails between tho United .St;itos and Macao during tlia j-ears 1854 and 1H.">5 — the latter year up to March (ith i Arrived, 3 barks and 1 ship, measuring 1828 tons, liidcn with rice, sundries, salt provisions, and nilscel. laneous goods. The return cargoes were chlslly Coolies. Port Charges. — The measurement duty paid liy Spanish and Portuguese vessel? is moderate. When n vessel has once paid the full amount, and is admitted on the list of registered ships belonging to tho port (limited by the Chinese to 25), she is lialilo only to a third of the original charges, on every sulisequent o«. casion of her entering, so long as she continues on the register. Portuguese vessels fioui Kuropp do not pos- sess this privilege, unless they be registered as belong, ing to a morador of Macao. Tlio rates of measure, nient duty, w. Ich vary, as at Canton (wlilch me), on three classes of vessels, are the following ; Dii vessels of 154 covids and upward, (i'223 t.icls per covid j on vessels from 120 to 154 covids, 5'72 tacla per covid | on vessels from 90 to 120 covids, 4 taels per covid. These rates arc nearly tlio same as those levied on Canton junks trading with foreign countries, and ought, in fact, to bo entirely so. The dImonMons ara tiikeii and calculated in the manner formerly praiflccd at Canton ; but the Chinese, at both places, speak not of the covid, Imt of the chang of 10 covids. lluwover, as this is only a decimal increase, it makes no dlllbr- cnce in tlie method of calculation. The following ad- ditional ciiarges, to be calculated on tliu amount of measurement duty, arc the same on every class of \ es- sets, viz. : 2 per cent, for inspectors ; 8 per cent, for difference in weiglit by the treasury Fcalos; 10 pur cent, for loss in melting ; 17 pet cent, for making sycee. Also the sum of 70 taels for the " public purse," or lioppo's treasur}'. In addition to these, the following are tho charges levied liy tiie hoppo (collector of customs), or his deputy : On .i 1st class vessel from Kuropo, i.'iO taels ; If lielonging to Macao or Manilla, 50 taels. On a 2d class vessel from Kurope, 240 taels ; if belonging to Macao or Manilla. 40 taels. On a 3J class ves.sel from Kurope, 170 taels ; if belonging to Macao or Manilla, 30 taels. Ships importing rice are exempt from tha measurement duty, and pay only $150, as fees to tho procurador of Macao and the ofticers of his depart, ment. Portuguese vessels from Europe, In addition to the measurement duty, have to pay to the Canton MAO 1296 MAC hong merchants a charge, termed lir tli* I'ortugtMMi, HanUtagem, or Consoo charge, wlilcli U uiiuall/ a matter of epeciflc bargain, varying front aliuut (tVHI on a vessel of 200 tons to (SUM) and uiiwaril un thimn of 600 tons, and of larger sizes. The I'lwrgtis mi goods carried tiy the inner passage, li«twe«ii CauUm ■nd Macao, being generally lets tliuu tliiise |iall( lieiiig su niui^li less than in native junlis. If the sliip iiwiuirs cuul4 manage their expenses so as to lie satisfied with imlv the same freight us is charged liy Kligllsb v nimU, It would probably induce many more Chineno ft m»k» remittances in this way. Opium. — The trade in opium In prohibited at Ma«fMi by the Chinese government, as well us througliuut III* rest of the empire. It was, uevertlieless, foriiMirly carried on to a great extent liy the Purtuguesti nii/ra- dores, or citizens, to (he exclusion of all others, oven Portuguese who were not citizens, Itut tills restrlo tioii, having occasioned the decline of (lie Iroiht, It was abolished in 1823, when the senate passed u reguhltioll throwing open the trade to all, witluiut distiiii'tiuii, whether Portuguese or foreigners { securing Ui tlie latter " hospitality and tlie utmost freetloiti In tb« speculations." At present, however, very littlx uplum is imported, in consequence, it Is saiil, uf tlie lixavy bribes demanded by the Chinese ofllcers, Ui Insure their connivance. The trade Is now prlii>'f|ially car* ried on at Lintin, about 80 miles from Mucoii, Import). — Goods imported pay at the I'ortuglMs* custom-house a duty of C per cent, on a lix«d valua- tion, besides some fees, and Coolie hire. Till folkiW' ing are a few articles extracted from the tarllf i Vslstll'm, 4 l.ftHI W'MS) O'^fSI IWI vm H iffm I 'MO 4 )■er pjkwl j U4*i, iti/m '2 taels 0-9 macs. The duties «u4 liWi^* '1M M/ti^i.-^. ancfl from Macao to Ontou are, fur (Xj/pirf, ^ tttttftt litti |ilcul) rattans, 4 6 mace (icr f^/atij imUi ftttt^ ,j^^ mace per picul. The homio's examiner charge* 90 i^tiU ptf k/itt i>i Um piculs, the largest quantity e)lo»iW| |« #« «,y^. veyed bv a single Iwat ; but tine um* tlMf^- i4 ftn taels Is levied, although tlie l;o»t th/mUt "t4/ ff^iiu M) piculs. The duty on exportjwg t!f*'4* (fi^ ('tin. Um to Macao is in some c«t>es k**, m t4ii^f /•■m^'n tttenUr, than the Whampoa duty. Tbw*, mtiti**it* tt, Macao pay $2 per KlO less thai* lu) Wtmmpm, *M descriptions of silk piece goods el»v ^/ Uij» iittfi. On the (rther hand, tea, paper, Cbm *#«, #(*,, f«A a higher duly to Macao thau to Wb*t)>f^m, fur de .lis as to the Wti/jhls, ilt/tmrKii, tt/t,, #^ ^ UacK •«. Caktom. Por further particulars, sue HJmn/ft^if'ii fr;,i^( l„,t',^ (/uifltrer, art. Macvi ; Mjl.«i>*if's MffUl, Hum.--, mi tlio A nylo-Ckinese Kuieiidar Cumfnuium U) fh* Mmttmif, MlK'OO, iWtVl, Macaroni, a species of wb«*te# f«iMl# (tiftmi iMti long, slender, hollow tulws, used imtmjl it* 4fit<»f4 with cheese, and in soups, lirutiti, H*; Hitf4fimi k the same substance as verwiuclU i tfyw tmit 4idfimft, lietween them being that tM iMt^ j» ttm/U iMa smaller tubes. Both of tlie« #rc f^^f0f(t4 itt (f^i greatest perfection in Naples, whtiftt mty (Htm (he favorite dish <^ all tt IH/tf-i^ S*«# j* (^ l*»t suited for the manufacture uf mfH^tft^i, lifitig mixed with water, it is kite»4«d hy fmm* i4 hin-^y WMKten bim'ks wrought by l«v#f*, fjjf U Mftimtn '» siiflident degree of tenacity; it U timtl fc^iswi, tty simplfl pressure, through a mm>mr t4 tt(4^f w ff*. trived that it is formed into huUmv ^^iii»4«f*.■ ffce name given to the tubes dcpewde tm ittMf 4UttmH:i those of the largest size beiug m**-4ffmi, dm W*» (n them vermicelli, and the smoite^ M*(wj.- M (li^Viw, and some other ploces, the paste >ii «i4^^*4 if^' m *i mixture of saffron ; but at Najjles, wImt* Ni< f^ttpitfjt.- iiun Is best understood, nothwif w >n*4 **»»■(* *"»' and woter j tlie Ijest Ijcing mMf uf ttm timf i/f hwij wheat, and the inferior sorts of M*e dUnWiwf'.Wt *(*«*♦. When properly prepared ««4 WM U* » mtijf. Neapolitan macaroni ossuuws a gftimkit iWji^.- H h then taken out of the alAfm, 4fl»*wJ uf m« ##««, and being saturated with ivtM^ttffHM imM 0it->y, and sprinkled with fiuely-gro/Ud *(,!(»**«, ^ fi>im g dish of which all classes, frow tli* j/riw**' U/ tiif U^ gar, (ire passionately fond. JJwt J^m- mtf*fi^ Wfl»d if tlie |Kior is merely Iwiled in jJaw »ltM', mt4 if mfif eaten with any condiment wU»(tey*!f.. 'fttf ttm^m/iii usually served up in I'jighmd w mi, t/jf (*A>«# f*«rtii*i> with that of Naples, to be » 4J.«gf*t(K » licars, When properly prei>w** long strings of raocaroui mi vietim^lii Witii/m l^imk- Ing tliem, Mao* (Gor. ifacis, ifuttuM^nUi/ffl^i iht.- fmllt. t'uelj), ilusvaatlloum; I't. ifaei^, kkuf lU itittsftl'tf ; It. Mace; 8p. Hacio; P^rt. ifumit, yhf li* fiin mtm- cmta; IM. tfueis), a thiu, 6M,, fmmt/f»mm (WM***^*, enveloping the nutmeg ; of a Uv4f, *»W(sfr pH<«« color, a pleasant aromatic nmvUj m>4 » *#**,■ (.Hle*- Ish, pungent taste. Mace sbt/»i4 itt^ t-ittfftii fi>i>^tt, lougli, oleaginous, of uu ex,tf«.#M'(y ffMiffMM ttttttt, and « bright color— the brii^U^ tim t/Mtti.- the smaller pieces arc esteemed thie (**^.. ftm pffftinfik mode of packing is iu i>aleti, pf»ssM 4mtt «1^-« iM^t firm, whicli preserves its ftogrwM* ##4 w^lniHertce. It is Imported from the Mt^tamif t^imtt d^ ittH i* to be found. The import tr«d« tait- lUffltitlon In Great Uritaiw iCvr jttoe# }'mf§ (HiStig #Ml MAD 1297 MAD 81it December, 1066, wu : in 1M4, 26,&84 Ibf. ; in 1865, ii8,6C3 Iba. ; in 18&0, 27,2Ueautiful than tbiit of cochineal, it has the advantage of being cheaper and more durable. It is a native of tlie south of Europe, Asia Minor, and India ; but ha.s been long since intro- duced into and successfully cultivated in Holland, Alsace, Provence, etc. Its cultivation has been at- tempted in England, but without any beneficial result. Our supplies of madder were, for a lengthened period, 4N almost entirely derived from Holland (Zealand) ; bat large quantities are now imported from France and Turkey. Dutch or Zealand madder is never exported except in a prepared or manufactured state. It it divided by coiumercUl men into four qualities, distin- guished by the terms miiH, gamen, otHbra, anil cropt. The roots being dried in stoves, the first species, or mull, consists of a powder formed by pounding the very small roots, and the husk or bark of the larger ones. It is comparatively low priced, and is employed for dyeing cheap dark colors. A second pounding separates about a third part of the larger roots ; and this, being sifted and packed separately, is sold here under the name of gainene, or gemeens. The third and last pounding comprehends the interior, pure, and bright part of the roots, and is sold in Holland under the name of lur /crapt, but is here simply denominated crops. Sometimes, however, after the mull has been separated, the entire residue is ground, sifted, and packed together, under the name'of onberoo/Je, or om- bro. It consists of about one third of gamene, and two thirds of crops. Prepared madder should be kept dry. It attracts the moisture of the atmosphere, and is injured by it. The Smyrna or Levant madder {Rubia pereffriim), tho allzari or lizary of the modem Greeks, is cultivated in Uccotia, along the border of Lake Copals, and in the plain of Thebes. It also grows in large quantities at Kurdar near Smyma, and in Cyprus. Tlie madder of Provence has been raised from seeds carried from the latter in 17G1. Turkey madder affords, when properly prepared, a brighter color than that of Zealand. It is, however, imported in its natural state, or as roots : the natives, by whom it is chiefly produced, nut having industry or skill sufficient to prepare it like the Zealanders, by pound- ing and separating the skins and inferior roots; so that, the finer coloring matter of the larger roots being degraded by the presence of that derived from the former, a peculiar process is required to evolve that beautiful Turkey red which is so highly and deserved- ly esteemed. — Tho.mson's Chemiatry; Bancroft on Colors, vol. ii., pp. 221-278; see also Beclcmann, Hist, of Invent., vol. iii., art. Madder. In France, madder is prepared nearly in the same manner as in Zealand. The following details are in regard to its cultivation, price, etc., in Provence. This town (Avignon) Is the centre of the madder country, the cultivation of whicli was introduced here ohout the middle of the 18th century, and, with the exception of Alsace, is still conlined (In France) to this Department (Vauduae). Tlie soil appears to be better adapted fur Its cultivation here than anywhere else, and it has long been the source of great wealth to the cultivators. Of late years, however, the prices have fluctuated so mucli, that many proprietors have abandoned, or only occusionally cultivated this root, so that the crop, wliich was formerly estimated to average 500,000 quintals, is now supposed not to ex- ceed from 300,000 to 100,000. The root is called ali- zari, and tlie ))0ttdcr (made from it) garance. The plant is raised t'runi seed, and requires three years to come to maturity. It is, however, often pulled in 18 months witliuut injury to quality ; tho quantity only is smaller. A rich soil is necessary for Its successful cultivation; and when tlie soil is impregnated with alkaline matter, the root acquires a red color; in other cases it Is yellow. The latter is preferred in England, from the long habit of using Dutch madder, which is of this color ; but in Franco the red sells at 2 francs per quintal higher, being used for the Turkey rod dye. It is calculated that when wheat sells at 20 francs per hectolitre, alizari should bring 35 francs per quintal i (poids de table), to give the same remuneration to the cultivator. That Is, wheat fills, per English quarter, [ and alizari SMs. per English cwt. The price has, how- j ever, been frequently as low as 22 francs per quintal. I Prices undergo a revolution every 7 or 8 years, touchi- MAD 1208 MAD \mg the minimum of 22, and riainf; u high as 100 franci. As In ever}' similar case, the high price In- (inrea extensive cuitivatlun, and this generally pro- duces its full effect 4 or 6 years after. The produce of Alsace, which is inferior both in quantity and qual- ity to that of Vaucluse, Is generally sold In Strakburg market. England employs both the root and the pow- der, according to the purpose for which they are in- tended. The Dutch madder Is more employed by the woolen dyers, and the French by the cotton dyers and printers. In malting purchases otgaranrr, it la essen- tial to employ a house of confidence, because the qual- it}' depends entirely upon the care and honesty of the agent, The^i'nMf Is produced from the roots after being cleaned and stripped of their bark. The lecond by grinding the roots without cleaning. A third by mixing the burk of the^'r>( while grinding ; and so on to any degree of adulteration. Statkhknt Siiowinu ms Ihpoets or Maddir into the Unitkii Status ro» Tiiz Fiscal Ykah esdinq Jit.-)* 80TII, 1HS8. Whtii^elmporttd. Ponndi. Holland 4,26«,SM Belirium B01,66'i KnKlsnd 184,««S Malt*. T.TSO Brillsh West Indies »n Franco on the Atlantic 886 France nn tbu Mtidllor IS,M«8,0SI Turkey in Asia. «9,1W ToUl 40,84T,47!J I>o1Urt. 981,807 84,973 10,800 4>0 1 20 1,!87,IM6 6,819 1,671,80S Madagascar, a large and important island in the Indiun Occun, about 300 miles from the coast of Af- rica, from which it la separated by the Itlozamblque Channel. Cape Amber, its northern extremity, is situate In S. lat. 12°, whence it extends southward, slightly inclining tu tjie west, about 937 Knglish miles, to Cape St. Mary, in S. lat. 2n° 40'. Its extreme western shore is in F.. long. 43° 10', and its most easterly cape in E. long. 50° 80'. The breadth of the Island increases gradually from the northern point to the centre, where It is widest, being about 350 miles across ; while the average breadth of the southern portion is ulwut 250 miles. It has been estimated to contain ]f)(),0(XI,000 or even 200,000,000 acres of land ; and though such estimates, in the absence of actual measurements, car. only bo regarded as approxima- tions to its actual extent, its surface is equal to three fourths of the territory of France, and larger thon Great Dritain and Ireland combined. The coasts of Madagascar contain a number of bays and harlKirs, some of them spacious and sheltered, and capii1)le of affording excellent and secure anchor- ago for shipping of the largest dln\ensiona. Among these nitty be specified Diego Saurez Bay, or British Sound, near the north-eastern extremity of the island ; Port Loquez, Antongll Bay, nnd the Bay of .St. I.uce, on the eastern coast. Sumatave and Foule Point, though the most frequented ports on this side of the island, are only oi)en roadsteads, protected by reefs of coral, St. Augustine's Bay, a port of frequent resort for vessels trading on the north-west coast and ships engaged in tlie whule fishery-, Tolia Bay, Boiana, Bam- Ijetoku, Majambo, Kareenda, Pasandava, and Chim- paykcc Bays, are the moat import:int on the western coast. There are several small islands adjacent to the noithcm shores of Madagascar, of which St. Marj-'s, !)t miles long, and 2 or 3 miles broad, on the eastern coast, and XosiliA, a somewhat larger and more com- pact island, on the north-west coast are the most Im- portant. Both these small islands are now occupied by the French — the lattes- having been taken posses- sion of by them In 1840, The commerce of the Island, though at present hut trifling, is capable of almost unlimited extension. The chief articles of export are cattle, poultry, rice, rufla cloth, matting ; a kind of grass hat, woven by hand, light and durable; gums, and bees' wax. Coffee would grow well In many parta of the kland ; hidlgo might lie produced to almost any extent ; and both might ftimiah valuable artlclea of export. Uood sugar haa bttn made, but at preaant the cane la only culti- vated for purposes of food, or for distilling from Its Juice a atrong, Hery sort of arrack, the uae of which it extended among the people, especially at tlie ports, and threatens to produce the most disastrous conse- quences. Other articles of export might be prodticnl in a country so fertile and extensive ; and rice miglit, with but comparatively little additional labor, be raised In much larger quantities than It is produced at pres- ent. It is scarcely possible to conceive of a soil mora adapted for the cultlvatii|i, when ripe. Is reaped, dried, and thrashed on the ground. Their process of thrashing consists in taking up large handfulls of rice and straw, and beating the ears on a stone or (lortion of rock fixed in the midst of a dry, hard, thrashing-Hoor, prepared for that purpose In some central spot easily accesaible from the culti- vated fields. When the grain' Is thrashed, it is carried on the heads of slaves to the granaries of their owners. These granaries vary In structure in different parts nf the island. On the eastern coast and to the south- ward, the grain Is stored In small houses raised on posts, with projecting ledges, to prevent the access of rata and mice. At the capital and some of the central provinces, the rice is preserved in granaries built of clay, in the form of a cone, with only one aperture on the summit. Some of these granariea are built above ground adjacent to the dwellings of their owners ; others are conatrncted of the same form and dimen- sions under ground — the aperture at the top, generally about a foot lielow the surface, lieing covered with a stone, and then the hollow filled up with earth com- posing the surface of the court-yard, in which the underground granar}- is usually sunk. Kice, by these means. Is often preserved for a great length of time in excellent condition. With land so fertile and adr.|>tcd for the growth of such abundant crops of rice as the plantations in the interior often yield, it might be raised for exportation to almost any extent ; but the absence of canals and public roads, and all means of land carriage, precludes the possibility of conveying the produce of many of the provinces to the aca-ports, excepting in comparatively small quantities, and thu; impedes very materially the development of the re- sources of the island. The government haa been de- terred from constructing or encouraging the formation of public roads, from an apprehension of the facilities they would afford to a hostile force invading the coun- trj- and seeking to penetrate the interior. The want of good roads, therefore, though detrimental to their commercial Interests, la preferred )>y them as a means of security. This disadvantage might be, to a great extent, compensated In some of the provinces by greater attention to the means of carriage by water. The late Radama commenced the work of connecting some of the principal lakes on the eastern coast by means of a canal, but since his death the work has been discontinued. Boats, better adapted for convey- ing grain in larger quantities to the places adjacent to the ports, and accessible by water, might be con- structed, and would assist in augmenting the exports from the island. Their Imports are chieily cotton and woolen goods, wearing apparel, articles of domestic use, fire-arms, ammunition, wines and liquors ; and to these other articles will doubtless be added as thcli means of purchasing them increase. The Hovas, the paramount race in the country, exhibit many of the elements of a thoroughly commercial people ; keenness in trade seems to be intuitive with many, and the love of bartering almost a passion among all ; scarcely any MAD 1299 MAD MKXt;*"'''*"^ Interfsra* with tha market, and multU tudes employ themaolvei In hawking gooSpanUh dollar Is cut Into halves, quarters, eighths, and smaller portions, even to tba l-72d part of a dollar. The cut pieces of the dollar are weighed in every Instance, and a pair of money scales with their appropriate Iron weights, are nut only considered essential In ever}- house, but are often seen thrust Into the girdles of the men when em- ployed in their ordinary avocations. Money-changers are a distinct class among the traders, and the rate at which whole dollars and cut silver are exchanged flualuatns almost dally at the capital and other princi- pal places, as the one or the other are most in demand. In other parts of the island, especially those remote fniin the capital or tho ports visited by shipping, the trade among the inhabitants is carried on to a great extent by exchange, or barter. Several attempts have been made by the foreign traders to induce the natives to receive gold coin in payment for cattle and other articles, but hitherto without success. The Hovas are not ignorant of the relative value of gold and silver, but at present seem only to value rhe former for the manufacture of jewelrj' and otl er articles of per jomil ornament. Madeira. The Madeira Isles are a group in the Atlantic Ocean, belonging to Portugal, from the south- west coast of wiilch they are distant 600 miles south- west. They consist of the islands of Slodeira and Porto Santo, and the islands called the Doscrtus, situ- oted between 32° 23' 15" and 33° 7' 60" N. lat., and 16° 13' 30" and 16° US' W. long. The largest island, Madeira, is 31 miles long and 12 miles broad. Popu- 'ation, 1850, 108,464. Capital, Funchal. It consists ■)t a mass of volcanic rocks, which, in Pico Kuivo, rise to 6056 feet in elevation. From the central mass, iteep ridges extend to the coast, where they form pre- cipices of 1000 to 2G00 feet in height. The' only plains are a small [lortion of the west coast, and the table- land of Paul de Serra in the interior. The roads are very steep and unfit for carriages. Oxen are the only beasts of draught, and ponies are used in traveling. Climate remarkably equable, and celebrated for its salubrity, on which account numerous vlsitars, afflicted with disease of tho lungs, constantly resort to Madel.a. The soil, which on the south side extends 2| miles inland, is well watered, nnd extremely productive. Stipir, once extensively cultivated, is now neglected. Coifee is grown of superior quality, and the arrow-root is excellent. The orange, banana, and guava, are abundant. Wheat, maize, beans, and barley, are cul- tivated to a small extent, but quite insufficient for home consumption. Ths failure of tho potato, formerly the chief support of the population of the villages and remote districts, has added to the existing distress, and the condition of the lower orders is that of squalid poverty. Madeira was settled by the Portuguese in 1431. It is sold that plants of tho vine were convoyed from Crete to Madeira in 1421, and have since succeeded extremely well. There is considerable differenco in the flavor and other qualities of the wines of Madeira ; the best are produced on the south side of tho Island. The method of cultivation most generally followed is to trench the ground from three to seven and seven to nme feet deep, according to tho nature of the soil, and lay a quantity of loose and stony earth at the bottom, to prevent the .■ooti from reaching the clayey soil Iwaeath, which would otherwise oppose their growth. The ground is watered three times if the summer has been ver}' dry, the sluices l>elng left open until tha ground is pretty well saturated ; the less the ground it watered, tlie stronger the wine, but tha quantity U dimlnlslied In proportion. The vines ara found to bear fruit as high as 2700 feet, but no wine can ha made from it. Adjacent to Madeira is the island of Porto Santo, about six miles long, and two and a half broad. It is high and rocky, composed principally of sand-stone, and a calcareous tulTa of a greenish gray color. The vine is cultivated in considerable quanti- ties, and the soil yields good crops of wheat, Indian com, barley, and beans. The population is estimated at 1400, and there are !IUO militia. It possesses a good roadstead, liut the landing-place la bad. Tho Desertas are small, uninhabited islands, which, with Madeira and Porto Santo, form tho group culleil the Sladelraa. The manufactures of Madeira are Insignillcant ; their chief ol>Ject being to satisfy some of the simple wants of the poorer classes. Ilaskets, straw hats, coarse linen and woolen articles, and shoes, are the principal objects. Artitlclul feathers, flowers, and sweatmeatt are made for sale by the nuns. A good deal of needle- work embrolderj' has been executed of late years by the women of Funchal for exportation, and a few fancy articles are made of the fibre of the At/aee Amrrirana, The bulk of the laboring population is employed In ag- ricultural pursuits. Wine has hitherto been the chief article of export, but this branch of trade will soon cease. The rearing of the cochineal insect has been lately undertaken, in the hopes of its supplying the loss of tho grape. Many of the coopers employed during tho existence of the wine trade have emi- grated ; the rest cam a precarious subsistence. 'I'he CMkn they made possessed repute for excellence of construction. ARKIVALH AMD DCPASTinilB AT Fdnohai.. Vasn. BKITIna. Arrivtd. SaUad. No. of Ton- nag*. No. of Craw. No. of Vaaaala. Ton- naga. No of Crew. 186i 1858 IB.'M 1856 1B50 U8 IDS 107 75 76 23,326 21,431 2.%003 18,010 18,000 151)0 10S2 1787 1050 994 % 142 1114 7T TO 2'2,8;i6 24,579 18,,^80 10,515 INS4 1725 17-26: 1981 878 Vmii. - . -- POKRION. Arrival!. 1 Sulad. No of VoMli. Ton n«Ra. No. of ('raw. No. of Vaiaali. Ton. nsira. No. of Craw. 1H52 1853 1854 1355 1850 n5 150 !•.!(! 117 '.17 2;i,fl92 23,71» 18,702 17,274 10,551 ISOU 20:i2 1400 1243 1141 176 168 127 117 ta 23,746 24,870 19,019 17,036 16,213 1826 2I<3 1471 1260 1140 laroRTS AND KxroiTB or Fqhoual. Vaan. GstimHlatl Vn In BritUU 10 of Importa. Eallmatad Va ua of Kipoita.| In foraign In Brillih In foraiirn Veaiali. i;03,'240 Veiaala. VcaMli. Vaaaali. 1S62 £811,1150 i:ii4,oTo i;ti3,40O 1853 U0,5.'I0 0.V570 T-2,010 20,'20O ISili 03,400 44,000 89,2(10 13,000 1865 59,200 5(1,950 68,1(10 10, ISO 1850 T4,T0O 4I,260 47,S60 29,300 OovuERCE OF niK ITnitkd Statf-s with Pobtuoal and Madeira in 1850. National charactar. From Portugal. PortiiRucso Brlttsli SweiUsb Danish. Prussian Bremen. United StatM From MaJelra. PortU(!Ucso Uultod States • T MAD 1800 MAD OoMinMi or rnii DiirrtB Btatbi WITH MaDI imA, raou Ooroimi 1, 18 10, TO iVLX 1, IMM. 1 b|..U. Imparu, Wk«r«ir Ihin vu !• 86,A91 ♦61,581 ♦99,188 80,740 1,497 1 8»pt80. IMt, ....... $107,908 ♦20,870 ♦128,275 li.^99,519 ♦ 19,920 05,200 4,626 «J7 mt 4S,0M 1,0.10 44,984 !J|6,1H9 1,829 100 9,988 9 moa. 114411 87,649 8,856 41,506 7,160 9,606 • • • * 1,067 Juoaao, IH44 44,768 7,598 69,984 99,904 8,698 9,404 129 18« A9,819 1,T.H4 61,096 168,674 9,1K)0 * t . • 9,081 491 ]84fl 00,948 8,257 64,900 197,070 1,600 8.885 477 1S4I li«,fl81 1,889 106.490 9f.,867 8,848 1,046 IMS 110,849 T,407 118,949 ,*'fj 699 4,624 1,444 , , 1 1*49 117,878 759 118,687 78,759 4,800 868 .... 8,744 1,678 1850 Total... I36,8T4 8.5« 148,401 114,729 4,189 1.879 t82V-'M ♦.H»l>2 ♦s79,'OM ♦995,286 ♦49,888 ♦5,800 89,804 6,959 June 89, l'«l (94.A89 r,I76 ♦101,765 ♦102,448 ♦9,626 8379 1,.114 IsM 87,9Bi 7,480 95,419 90,008 7,000 4,171 606 18M 101,6il 18,.^74 1!7,09S 77,598 18,909 8,707 818 1 ISM 47,708 47,708 8>,007 9,000 821 9S0 18M 48,609 k261 58,T«8 9^g88 3,986 ♦960 1394 811 : 1886 27,6S5 9H9 98,687 19,788 .... .... 890 870 ' The cereal crops of Madeira are «carce'y equal to one third the con-iiiniption ; liciico, and owiiif{ aliio to the general poverty uf the inhuhitant.'*, u decree was parsed ill 1M3 reduoinK the duties on the loading; for- eign imports to one liulf the duties levied iu Portugal. This decree is in furco at this time, and, consequent!}-, but half the duties flxod in tlie tariff of I'ortuKiil are now levied on foreign imports into Aladi-iru. In 1843 the ini|Hirts from the Uniteil States anicunted to il6!),900, and tlie exports from Madeira to the lJnitv.').1 tons. The coiniuerce of this island with foreign nations, and especially with the United States, is declining, and must continue to decline so long as the vines remain diseased, as wine is the onl)' article of export from ^ladeiru. See .l»i. Juiir. Sriemv, xxiv., '2117 ; Xorlh Jtrit,, vii., 7.S ; A'nrtA Am. He,,., xlvi., 836 (by J. W. Wkhstkh). I'or Madeira Wine, see Wine. Madeira Nut, or Persian Walnut {.Iii;ilims rfffia), originally a native of Persia, or tlio north of China, has been somewhat extensively distriliuled, and appears to be well adapted to the climate of the middle and southern latitudes of tlie United States. A tree of the "Titmouse'' or "thin-shelled" variety (jui/lana regln tenera), about 20 years planted, 45 feet in height, and 15 inches iu diameter, standing on the premises of Colonel I'eter Force, in tho cily of Washington, is perfectly hardy, and bears yearly an abundance of ex- cellent nuts. This is considered the most valuable of all the walnuts, as tho tree begins to bear in eight or ten years from plrnling the seed ; and the fruit is very delicate, keeps well, and is ricli in oil. In Cashmere, where the walnut is the subject of careful cultivation, tht re are four varieties : Tlie " Kanak," or wild, the nut of which is diminutive, with a thick shell and scanty kernel; the " Wantu," having a largo nut, with a thick and hard shell, a delicient kernel ; the "Uenu," also a large nut, with a thick and rather hard shell, and a kernel large, good, and easily ex- tracted; and the " Kaghazt," so culled from its slicll being nearly as tliin as paper. The latter, which niny bo readily broken by the hand, is tho largest of all, having a kernel easily extracted, and producing iin excellent oil. Its superiority is said to be attriliutiilile tc it . having Iwen originally engrafted, but it is now raised from seeds alone, and does not degenerate. I'hc nuts, .^fter being steeped in water eight days, arc plant- ed in tile beginning of March, and tho shoot genendly makes its appearunce in about 40 days. If reared liy grafts, the process is performed when the plant is live years old. The head being cut off horizontally, at a convenient height, tho stock is partially split, or opened, and the scion inserted in a similar manner to that adopted by our cleft method, in grafting the ap- ple or pear; but clay-mortar, worked up with rice- husks, is put roimil it, and kepi from washing away by being enveloped in broad slips of birch-bark. — /'ii- lent Office Jtfport, IS.'ia. In Cashmere, the walnut-tree begins to fruit, ordinarily, when seven j-ears old; but two or three years more elapse before it is in full bearing. Tho average annual number of nuts, brought to ma- turity on a single tree, often amounts to 25,000. It has been observed that, after a few seasons of fill liearing, the trees fall ofT in producing fruit, and run, with great luxuriance, to leaf and brunch. To tliis latter condition tho Cashmereans apply the appella- tion of " must," and to remedy the evil, cut off all tho small branches, bringing the tree to the state of a pollard. The year following, shoots and leaves alone are produced, which arc succeeded tlie next fason l)y an abundant crop of nuts. The cut ends of tho branches swell into knots, or knobs, which are some- what unsiglitly in the tree, until they are concealed by the growth of the young branches and leaves. When ripe, the fruit of the Wuntu walnut is ret^dlcd in the city at the rate of about 2 cents a 100, Tho nuta ror In Mad fathoms W., 2 mil, generally year, in interval, October th until the li coming In soundings I'uint Pah cording to ance office, Ing the sui nude of \ in the sea. Might ren ence of tl time in g the nwei MAD 1)101 MAD 111 am 1,4!1T MT 491 477 1,04« 1.444 1,678 1,879 "6,9M" 1,814 ftta 2M) 811 870 of th* Dnnu an wld for tbuut 1) e«nU per 100 1 and of the KukHhiI, at alwut 4 crntt |>«r KtU. It ii a cum- nion practice fi>r the country peupla to cr^ck the waU nut* at home, and carry the keriwlii ahme to market, where they are Hold to oll-preieem, forextractinif their oil. The kemalu yield half their welKht in oil ; and the other bulf, which ronslatii of ail-culiu, Ih much val- ued an food fur cowa in winter, when it i» iiKUally ex- chan/ed fur ita weight of rouith ricn. Alwiit l,l(i(l,0(H) pound* of walnut kornela aru unniiully cunHi^ned tu the oll-prcaa in OanlimerK, proilucinK u lurt(c umiiunt of oil and cake, liaaldea a cnnaideralile <|iianlity euten by roan, or cunaunied liy other niohB- KatimntinK tlie product of each tree iit a buahol of nuta, iind auppoa- init that it will produce that quantity in 12 or Ifi years after planting, and conaiderinif that the amount Im- ported into tiila country ia valued at leaat at $100,000 per annum, the inducementa fur ita culture by the farmera and pluntera of the middle and aouthem Htatea would appear to Iw sufHcieiitly ample fur their immediate attention. — Patrnt Office Heporl. MacUaa, the principal emporium of tho coaat of Cororoandel, or western shore of the liay of llenual ; latitude of lighthouse 1»° 5' 10" N., lunif. 80° 20' E. It ia the seat of the government of the second presi- de'.cy of British India, hnvint; under it a territory, Including the tributary States, of 187,482 square miles, with a population, according to the census of 1850-61, of 27,054,672, paying a gross annual revenue of nearly £4,900,000 olerling. The town is situated la the Car- natic provincn, a low, sandy, and rathe r sterile coun- try. It ia without yn't or harbor, lying close upon the margin uf an open roadstead, thu shores of which are constantly bent by a heavy surf tU«Id»a tbaai' ^ diaadvantugea, a riipid current nma uluiijt lut roaul anil It ia within tlie nplicre of the hurricimea or ty- plwona, l)y which it ia occaaionnlly vialled. In everj- I raapni't, indeed. It la a very inconvenient place for trade, and its coninverce la conaequetitly greatly Infe i rior tu that of oitli.'r Culruttii or Itomliay. It has I lieen in tlie imaai'anlon of the ICngllah oliove two ccn- I turics, liavliig li«rn founded liy tliom in l(131t, and ro- ' tulued ever nince. Fort St. (icurgo ia a atrung and i hiindauniu furtlllcatlim, lying close to tlie allure. Tha j llluck Town of Madras, aa It ia culled, atanda to tha 1 north and euatwunl uf tlin fort, from which it la sep- j arated by a spacious eHplaiiiide. Here reside the ao- tlve, Armenian, and I'ortiigueao inorcliunta, with many Eurcjpcana uncuiinected with tlic government. Like most other Indian towns, it ia irregular and con> fused, licing u mixture uf brick and banilioo huuaes. Madras, like Culruttu and Doiiibay, U subject to En- glish IttWi having a Supreme Court uf .ludlfiituro, tho Judges uf whicli are named liy ttiu crown, and are altogether iiide|ivndent uf the local government and tho East India Company. Tlio population is nut ex- actly aacurtaineil, liut tliere are said tu lie aliuut 400,- 000 iwraons within a radius uf 2J milea round Vurt St. Cicurge. Sludras is tlio scat of all the chief government offi- ces for the President of tlio Supremo i^uurt. Hoards of revenue, admiralty, education, etc. j and though hav- ing leas fnreign trade than tlie capitals of tlie other preaidcnciea, its commerce la still considerable, nF it is tlie chief emporium of the Oirunmndel coast, and trades direct with (ireat llrituin and tlie ntticr Euro- pean countries, the United States, Ccyiun, and south- oast Asia. Principal imports are rice unil other grains, cbietly from Uengul ; cotton piece goods, twiht, and metallic wares from Great Dritain ; raw silk, areca, lietel, gold dust, spices, and teak timber from Pegu ; spirits and wines, coral I>ead8, horses, drugs, to tho total value. In 1851-52, of Xl,9ri8,73«. Exports of cotton stuffs and woid, indigo, pep|>cr, tlnilier, coffee, and other native produce, amounted in tho same year to ^3,075,103. The site of the city furmed tlie first territorial acquisition by the Dritish in India, pennis- siun to erect a fort here having been obtained in lG3i), SVHH'.RY or THR KXTIiKXAl CoUMKRCK Or Ml^DRAS BY 8KA, IN 1S49— AO AND ISAD— 51. for Ui< ;••» 1M(-U. Frivau lrad«. Juliipun)'* (rHiic J Grand tiilaL MircbaiKllM. Troaaw*. Tnlnl. Men-hiulJIw. Trrasiir.'. TouJ. Imports. Eiporta. I'x'.'l riilw,.!, 1.82,ir,T4a a,«it,HS,86» Cu.'« nipMi. 42,8«,514 9,10,42T Cfi.'a niiNM*. l,74,fi4,lSi6 2,46,48,7K8 Co.'i niiHjci. 2,80,S8« B 1,944 Cu.'a miKiui, 69,70^000 2,!)«,«1)9 00,51,944 Cii.', rii)H-rt, l,7«,90,71t5 «,06,(S 1,780 Total 8,«s,Bfl,101 1 61,4«,941 4,20,IW,M2 8.IS,488 69,711,000 62,»(i,4S>8 1 4,82,91. .ViS ror lb« yean 1850-11. 1,84,47,091 80,42,4.17 2,81,22,274 11,»7,6I»1 8,9»,69,8«6 72.40:128 1,94,S»,528 2,78,19,905 4,08,09,498 97,88.1 1,81.078 3,28,904 «.1,Oflloi'K) 8tt,IMI,00U 97,838 8481,073 8^,28,900 ),»5.S7,S«1 I 8,07,51,088 ! 6,08,88,:)1)9 Kiports Total In Madras roada, lar je ships moor in from 7 to 9 fathoms, with the flag .tafT off the fort bearing W.N. W., 2 miles from shoic. From October to January is generally considered the most unsafe season of the year. In consequence of the prevalence, during that interval, of storms and typhoons. On the 15th of October the flagstaff Is struck, and not erected again until the l&th of Deceiib jr ; during which period a ship coming into tha road<, or, indeed, anywhere within soundings on the coas'. of Curomandel (r«ckoned from Point Palmyras to Ceylon), vitiates her insurance, ac- cording to the conditions of the policies of all insur- ance oCSces In India. The cargo boats used for cross- ing the surf, called Afaaula bouts, are large and light ; made of very thin planks sewed together, with straw in the seams Instead of caulking, which it is supposed might render them too stiff. When within the influ- ence of the surf, the coxswain stands up, and beats time in great agitation with bis voice and feet, while the rowers \rork their oars backward, until overtaken l>y a strong surf curling up, which sweeps tho boat along witli frightful violence. Every ear is tlien plied forward with the utmost vigor to prevent tho wave from taking tho boat buck as it recedes ; until at length, by a few successive surfs, th, liuut is tlirown hlgli and drj' upon the beach. The boats belonging to ships in the roads sometimes proceed to the back of tlie surf, bud wait for tlie country buats from *he beach to cume to tliom. When it is dangerous to have com- munication with the shore, a flag is dispLiyed at the beach-house, which stands near the landing-place, as a caution. The flshermen and lower classes employed on the water use a species of flouting machine of a very simple construction, named a catamaran. It Is formed of 2 or 3 logs of light wood, 8 or 10 feet in length, lushed together, with a small piece of wood inserted between them to serve as a stem-piece. When ready for the water, they hold generally 2 men, who with their paddles impel themselves through the surf, to carry letters, or refreshments in small quantltitl MAO isoa MAn tu tblp* whun no boat run vantiir* ont. ThKy w«»rl flom»rii«t, whli'h UkM III) tucli I'uliiniitruii iiiimi iia (llntloKiilah Iham- lalvaa liy aavldK iwrHima lii Anti^i't, Tlia lliiiltail axtaiit iif tlia trdila of Muilrua iia I'oni- parixl with thiit of CiUiiitU niul lliiv, li partly amrlliMliln tii(l>t<>a>l, tho want iif liny niivit(jil>li< rivar nr iithar aaay maunii iil' cuininunlfatlim with (hn Intarior, ami Iha Imikwnril •tata uf tlin jiriivlncaa iif whii'li It In tha I'lipitiil, hi nun- ui|Ui'nva lit tha heavy iinil llui'tiintin){ lumt tux to whli'h thay urn aulijart. In lx:il) III, thara iirrlvail iit Mailraa nu fawar thuii Ti, I'JII vaanaU (.ini'liiilliiK thair re|>aiitail vnyuKOH nf tho nK)(ra)(iitn liunlan iif illli'i,!!!.^ tiilia. Hut Ijy fur tlia uri'Utar nuiiiliar of tha«« ware of vary unitill liiinlan ; ■>,KVi lialii({ I'oiintry iruft from Iliiniliay, N&:| fnnii ( 'ayhm, unit fiM.'i frmii lion. In tha ciiumo of thii HUiiin yviir HI va»iialii iirrlvail fruin tha Unltuit Klii({diiin.— II.vmii.tiin'm A'(i<( Imliti dasillrer ; i!roy. /tirt.f art. Maih'itA ; MiultitA Atmtinnr for IKII!), 1810, unil 1HI5 ; OJffiiidt Hrliinu of ihr Tnulr of M,i'iully whan tha north-wast winil rantruin^ the raSux of tlio tlila. At nuih time* tha whlrl|iiiol ruKan violently no a.i to li« heuni hovituI inilt'H, unil lo oiiifulf aiuull vcaiialit, anil «van whulai, whirh u|h prouch It. >Sati l.oroiiiiN iHi.ANiin. .Sca ulnn Kka- ikii'h Mug., X., W'. Mugellan, or Magalhaana, Straita of, ilivlda the continent of Siiutli Ainerlcu from tha Inlunil Tiarru del I'lie^o; the aunt antMiii'e in fornii'd liy (':ipM da In Vir^liioH, on thu inulnlanil, iinil liy Cupa ilal Fjiplritii Buiito (Quoi'ii (,'uthiirlnn'it Forelund), on one of tha lurKest inluinU i'oiii|Mining Tlerra drl l''iia)(ii. Length nearly illJV nillan, axtandInK lietween hit. M" 10' und 66° 8., and lonn. M° 20' and 7.'i° W. Navi({utlon dlfllcult. Dlnt'ovarad In i!)W liy Karnnndu Mn)(ul' huenii. Ferdinuiid Do Mii)((dlan, or MaKalhacnn, tha dUi'uverer of the atruitn tliut liear liin name, wua liy Idrth a I'ortii^ueHe. Mo nerved with honor In the Kunt Indian, and In lolO dintinituinhad liimnalf ut the liultle of Malui'i'u. Ho entered into the eniploynieiit of C'harlea V., King of Npuln, und in conjunction with Ituy Kolero, formed the liold denign of dIncovurinK a new panHngo liy tho wont to the Molucca InUndn. On the °JOth iSeptoinliar, I'lll), ho nulled from Han I.ncue, with live nhipn und '2M men. After iiiuny cxertionn, he induced two of hin nhipn to pronvcuto the entire voyage ; und entering upon the ntruitn which now Uiur hin nuino, he noon reuched tho .South 8au. Tha weather wun no uuifurmly teiii|i«ruta, und the neu no culm, that they called the ocean I'ucitic. Mugallun vinited plucen nean for the llrnt time tiy Kuro|ionnn; and in vinitint; Mutan, the nutivon gave liattio, und Magellun wun nluin, in tlie your 15'il. Hut for thin he would have boon tho llrnt clrcumnuvigutor of the world, which honor wua necured hy Cuno, who brought hin nhiiu home liy the luint Indies, MagnaalB (Fr. Magnetie; Ger. (lehraunlt Magiie- $ia ; It. Magnula), one of tho primitive earths, having a metallic banin. It in not found native in a state of purity, but in easily prepared. It Li inodorous and in- sipid, ill the fonn of a \ery light, white, soft powder, having a spocitic gravity of 2'3. It (urns to gr«an the more delicate vogetulde blues, in infusiiilo. and requiran for its solution 2tX)0 parts of water at (10". See M.\n- UANESE. Magnet. Sturmius, in hin Kpitlola, dated r.t Al- torf, 1882, observes that the attractive quality of the magnet has been taken notice of from time iinmemo- 1 rial ; but that it was Roger Bacon, of Ikhestor, in i dUi'ovarail Ita prii|Hirty of pointing In Ihn mirth piila. 'I'ha Italians dUinvarad thai II voiild coniinunlculu lu virtiia lo ntaul or Inin. Tha variation not lmlni( alwuys tha nam* was taken notlca of by llavallna, Ivm^ ,,„| others, Havio (lliija, of Naiilas, Invantnl or inipr'uvail tha niarlnnr'n conipaas In iml. 'I'ha lni|Hirlaiit illaciiv. ery of tha Imllnathin or dip of tha niagnallc naadla wun inuda ulHiiit Ki7ll(pulillsh«il iriWI) by Itnbart Nor. niMii, of l.iiniliin. l)r, llllliart's axparlmahl Wna iiimln In lillKI. Artllleial magnsts ware Invaiiind, nr rather IniproTad, in ITi'il. A niagnrtb' clock, invanlad by Dr. l/ocka, of Ohio, announced at Wanhlngton, ilanuary A INK). NmiCoMfAW, ' Magnolia. Tha inagnollu ronapiciiu, or lliy- llnwerHil magnolia, na Ita naiiia Imileutaa, la a liauuliriil anil nhowy traa, and dlallngnlahabla from all nthcra of Iha gaiitia by tha axpaniling of Iha lliiwera iiafnra any of the laavea. A full. grown traa. In lis native iiiiin. try, la nalil In atluiii a height of forty or tifly fact, nnd it hun arrived ut nearly Iha aania alavutlon In |'',iira|ia ami America. The itim was llrst Intrmlucad into V.n. gland by Mir .biaaph llunka, in I'NU) but It wua muhy yearn iH'fora It altrac(«d much attanlinn, being cunald- ared inaraly iin a grasn-houa* or conaarvatiiry plant. Within tha laat 20 yaura. It liua baan dlaiovari'd to In neurly an hardy aa tha Ameriniii mugnollna, ami la now moat axtanalvfly cultivated In the nuraerlaa of llritain, ciintinantal Kurup", and the Cnilad .Statea. I| llowern fraaly every vsar, an a nlandunl In the nelgh. Inirhoml of London, New York, und I'hiladalplila, wliiui the wiHid haa been proiierly rliiaiiad during tliepraiml- ing numniiirj und at VVIiltn Knlghta, In Kiiglaiid; at Froniont, ami vurbiiia other plui'as In Francif; and at Monisa, In Italy, luid llrooklyn, In Naw York, it haa ripened, seeds from which young plants have liaau raiaad. I'mfxTlirt iiwl f 'do,— Healdaa thn valiiii of the magnolia conaplciia as an ornaiiiantal plant nr tree, the ('hliiene pickin tha llowar-liuds, after having nu inovail their calyxes, and iisfl tliain fur lluvorliig rli;e. Madicinully, the saada are tukan In powder. In cniila, und inHammatloni of the cheat. It In also ragurdeil na stomachic j and wulor, In which It has lM. In Hliln III" UK IlllM- wliii »i'nt It WIIK Anicrliun jm inmiy t Wuliiini ■w iif til'"'*' 111, whii'li mill iiiiiitli- ry iilmiiil- mill III" mill III" I* iiltiilnt'il miiiiyi '""' pliint. At li>tl««. I" nuntul put- ,t It. Tho rut nwWIivii jBlnan* timti ; tnil tb* h*rh la tlm ua«4 In torn* p«rt« nf Ih* ri>iintr>', llkii Ihiil iif tha I'lnrhiina, In tha raaa of InUrmltlanl ami rfiiilttrnt favara. It la irnmnlli' ami pilBK«nt, amuirantly mnra mi than tha nthar aparlaa, Whan illxtllli'il, it hiia « |M>riilUr flitvnr, ami an ampy- raiimalli' amrll. In « ilry >tala It nlTiihla a lUtU raain, Tha arnmn U vnlatlla, iinil pMlmlily rnntalna an aaaan- lUI ull, or • varlaty of raniphiir. tha liark, aaada, ami rimaa, «rn rnipliijail In tinitiirr, In I'hnmlr riMUiniu lUm. Thut rrom th* cimm la vary lilliar, ami la amna- llmaa uanl to riira <'iiii|{ha ami pactural illaaaaaa, ami tut pravi-ntlnK niituninal favara. Tha rinwara In a driail aliit* may li« uaad In ilrawlnK-niima fur put fmnrri, aa a Hiilialltnta fur Ihoa* uf tha Illy of tha Tallay. llniiwuK'a Trtrt itf Amrrien. Maho(mny, th* wimmI r lalami, moat of tlia larKar treaa, at leaat In ai'nraatlda altua- linna, liiivo liaan lut down. Tha prlni'lpal lni|iortii- linna into (iraat llritain ara miida fnim llonduraa ami ('atn|M>ni'hy. Tliiit whlih la liii|Hirtad from tha lalanda la cnllcil Npaniah muhoKimy ; it la not ao liirKx aa thut from llonduriia, lieinK t(anariilly in lo^a from '.'() to 'itt inchaa a(|unra and 10 feat loiiK, while tha luttar la uaually fnmi 'i to 4 feat aiiuara nnd I'i or 14 feat loni{, hut aoma IngK ora imii'h liiruar. MahoKiiny la a vary beautiful itnd vuluahla a|w('lea nf wnod ; ita colnr la a red brown, of dilTarant ahndua, and varlnua daxreca of briKhtnoaa ; anmatimi'a yaUowlah hrown ; often very much veined nnd ninltlcd, with darker ahiidei of tha inme color. The texture la uniform, and the annual rlDga not very diatinot. It hiia no luritar aepta; liut the amaller aeptn are often very visible, with porea between them, which In the llon.luraa wood are ((an- erally empty, hut in the 8punlsh woml are inoatly filled with n whitiah auliatiincn. It haa noithnr taate nor amall, ahrlnka very little, and warjia or twiata leaa than any other apeciea of timlier. It la very durable when kept dry, but does not laat lon^; when ex|M>aed tn the weather. It la not attacked by worm*. Like the pine trllw, the timber ia liest on dry rocky sella, or in expoaed altuationa. Thut wlilcb la moat acceaaible at llonduraa gToyi» upon moiat, low land, and ia, |{en- erully apankinK, decidedly inferior tn that brim^ht from Culm nnd lluyti ; \mng toft, courae, and apon^y, while the other la cloae-Kruiiied and hard, of a darker colnr, and aometimca atrungly Hffured. Ilondurua muhliowndlung a|ilinKiri<, indicating a much longar gruin or libra than the olbara. M. Arniaii cnnalilara Ihia raauli ua a concln«ive prmtf that mahogany ia auparinrfor many kliidaof thip iiulld- Ing purpoaaa, though It ia laaa llexllile than go Maikhiany. /I tii;'i>u miiiVii, French, Thia variety hi known by the trunaverae wnvea which exhibit tu the aye an effect aimilar to tbnae nf u wuterod ribbon. 4. Vki.vkt-corii, orl'ATBiiiMl.i.AR Maiiouany. Acajou chmilU, French. Thia vnrlety ia diatinguiahcd by ita whitiah linea, accompanied by a figured ahiide nf frag- meiita of roaeute apriga, here nnd there diapoae,' ding- onnlly, longitudiniiily, interrupted, or cmasing oi « an- other. 5. l>inii'a-KYK Maiiouany. Acajou mom lieli, F'rench. Thia variety ia beaprinkled with little nval knota, whicli, when duly proportioned, render tho wood half light and half dark. 6. Fkhtoonkii Ma- lloaANY. . I I'ly'oii iimccur, French. Thia variety ofTem in ita color a mixture of light and ahude uaui lly re- sembling ahcuves of wliuiit. fealhera, wreutaa, fes- toons, or llgitrea of abrulia. Aa the woo'l MAI 1304 MAI Sabaatian Cabot, who was, after the time of Colum- bus, the first European nnvi^ntor along the coasts of Maine and its viclnit}', appears not to have given a nam* to the countries discovered by him. The eldest and greatest name in these parts of North America ia that of " B(tccalao»" — a name given by the Biscay flsh- ermen at flrst to Newfoundland, and then also to all the countries which they found near this inland. On some old maps the name " Haccalaot" — that is to say, the oud-flsh countiy — reaches over a great part of the eastern coast of America, but it appears more particu- larly in the regions of our State of Maine. Stephen Qomex was the Drst Spanish navigator who discovered (1526) and explored the coasts to the west and to the north of Capo Cod a little more |iarticularly, and we therefore see on the Spanish maps these regions desig- nated with the name of " Tierra de Gomez" (Uomez's I^nd). So, for instance, at first on that of Kibiero (1529), and afterward on many others. After the middle of the 16th century, when Gomez was more and more forgotten, another name was introduced for these regions — that of " Norumbec." We can not ex- actly point out the occasion at which this name was invented ; but we find it in tlie latter half of the 16th anil in the beginning of the 17th century, on nearly all the maps of these regions. The name seems to be of Indiiin origin, like the name of Kcnnel>ec, Quebec, and different others which have bee for the last syllable. Perhaps some unknown sailors heard it pronounced by the Indians, and introduced it among the geographars, who were always fond of new namen. It was, how- ever, changed and spelled in many different ways: Norubec, Noromiwc, Aramlwc, Norumberge, Norum- tierque, Norimbequa, etc. The savans of the time supposed that there was in the interior of this northern country a large city of the same name, like that old famed " Temistilan," in Mex- ico, and that through this city was running a large broad river, which was also called the Biver of Norum- berge. It is probable that with this name our Penob- scot Bay and its rivers were designated. They from this, therefore, called the whole ountrj' " Im Terre de Norumhenpie" or the coasts of Arambec. Kngliih Setllert.— At the same time the English introduced here another name, that of Virginia, under which they comprised, since 1584, pretty much the whole Atlantic coast of North America. Custom and use already introduced. The celebrated Captain John Smith was no doubt the inventor of it, and I'rince Charles approved of it. Smith says this himself in his history of New England, and states that he gave this name, which made some opposition against the neighboring French name of " New France" and the French p'y nn ' e' than the French Maine." In fact the word is, in old documents, very commonly written " Slain " or "Mayn." From this, one could be induced to sup- pose that the name originated in the English expres- sion for terra firma or continent : " Main" or " Main- land." Nearly all tlie first English trading and fishing establishments along the shore were on the numerous islands of the coast. From there the explorers mmlo excursions " to the Main," to trade with tlio Indians and to explore the country. Tliere are innunieral>Ie allusions, in their traveling ro|)orts, to " the Muyn," Could not from this have grown the custom of chilling the country " Main ?" From similar reasons and cir- cumstances the north coast of South America is called l>y the inhabitants of the Antilles and Caril)l)ean Islands, " Cottafirme" or " Tierra jirrne." — J. G. Kohl. The name Maine extended at first only a sinull dis- tance along the coast. By degrees, and in the course of time, in consequence of growing settlements and of many treaties and grants, it was subsequently ex- tended as far east as Penobscot Bay, and at last as far as St. Croix Kivor, and in the year 1819 the " Prov- ince of Maine" was erected into the " State of Maine." There were in this State in 1850, 2,039,596 acres uf land improved, and 2,515,797 of unimproved land in farms; cash value of land in farms, $54,861,748; and the value of implements and machinery, $2,284,557. Live Stock, — Horses, 41,721; asses and mules, 45; milch cows, 183,556 ; working o.xen, 83,893 ; other cattle, 125,890 ; sheep, 451,577; swine, 54,598; value of live stock, $9,705,726. Agricultural Product!, «ago, Cbesuncook, and Umlutgog. A part of the waters of the latter extend into New Hampshire. Some of tliese lakes are Justly celebrated for the picturesque beauties of thoir scen- ery. A tteamboat boa been built to ply on the waters 1M8. IW4. 11W. , 1- The prlnnlr fitly, situated c '»yof Casco a«i '»»«., 70° 18' ai "fe> and umonic protected by i,|„ "y ice, and has a enough for ve.se Of the port in 18 "o Kennebec, 12 Pnncipal towns MAI 1306 UM of Hao>eba«d Liika, Tli« K«nn«li«a nnd th« Penotv •out ars tha two miiat liH|iiirtiil)t xtrtiniiiii ) th« furmer U nnvlKulila to AuKiiKtit, unit tlin liittcr to UatiKnr. Tholr akoraa ura mliiriiwl with vlllnKtiiii onil the inttr- valet sInnK tliair iniiriiInK iiro th« miiiil. fnrtllg nnd lient cuUivutod hi tha NtutMi Tho Hni'ii, AndriiKuoKiiln, and St. Oolx Itlvar* xntor tho Athinth*. Ht. Juim, and it! ouullunntu, tlia M'ttlhiiiitnok, AllaKnnh, and Arnostoiik, dmhi tha niirthnrti (iitrt ut the Htate, The St. Jiibn furnit it |wrt iif tha iinrth*>rii (iiiH of the State by the lata treat)' iif WitxhhlKliiti, mid It* waten are open to tha fraa iiavl)(Hthiii tif iiiith nations. The principal buyu ara (Jawit, i'aiiuhiiiitit, Mui'hliii and I'as- aauiai|uaddy. Mimiifiii'iuiv«,-^'\'\wn wara In thU fltite In IHfiO, 18 oitton farturieii, with it t'lipKiil liiVHKtnd iif 1fli,li-iT ,700, cinphiying H4U nmlun and II,(I7J feiiiiitcM, iiriidiicing il3,- lUH.SuU yunia of nheotliiK viillisd at i|<'i,lli)(l,01U | 46 woolnn faeturlea, with li t)ii|iltill uf tO't l,'20(), einploy- iiii; iWli malei and illlU ftiMiali-ii, iiiiinufai'tiirhiK 'ifi'ii,- aio yarda uf uliith, and 1,'iUU Ilia, itf yarn, valued at |!li)4,02!l; 1 eitalilialiMiaiit niHkltiH plK-lruti, with a capital uf f'.il'liiKIO, ainpliiylllK 71 (Hiraima, priMliicinK 1,484 tuna uf |ii|{'lriin, atl'., VHlumI lit l|ill(l,UlU| iift cs- tslilishmenta, with A impltill of tl'MlildO, eniploylnf^ 244 persona, and niakliiK IM'HI tciua of uiiKtlnxa, val- ued at i|i2(i&,UUU I mil rluurlllK linil Kriat intlla, ;&2 naw mllli ; 218 tanneries, with a capital of (732,447, em> ploying 780 persons j value of products, $], 020,036; 46 printing offices, 4 dally, 8 tri-weekiy, 4 semi-week- ly, 48 weekly, and 1 monthly publication ; aggregate number of copies published annually, 4,203,()(i4. Cap- ital invested in manufactures, jil4,7U0,462 ; value of manufactured articles, $24,644,480. There were, January 18uG, 11 railroads in this State ; 494 miles completed and in operation, and 90 miles in course of construction. The only canal in the State is the Cumberland and Oxford, 20J miles long, con- necting navigation from Portland to Sebago, and by a lock in Saco River, navigation is extended to Long Pond, 80 miles further. The receipts on the principal lines of railroad in Maine, during the List four years, have been on follows : Ungth. U61. j 18H. 18»5. 1 ![!.'« | Milf«. iJollAri. ' l>>llKr*. PollHr*. i DollKru. 1 A. and SL L 147 «i6,i8s, 4Tft,(WT ^'.a.4*s t6 18 48,lll>( 44,ss9 4ii.l7o 8.^,698 (^nlnls and Daring;. . . 6 2S,0SS 81,640 87,172 89,880 Kcu. and Portland . . m 177,03.1 297,857 228,064 22.1,290 IVnobscot and Ken. . 63 Now. 112,702 Portland, 9. ajid P'a. L_61 262,0771 270,800 i-'ixm 2l«,180| There were, Januarj-, 1854, 60 banks, with on gate cash capital of $5,918,870. aggro- Foitainw OiiMMIIHflH nr tim Bf At* of Maish, from Ootoukr 1, 1820, TO July 1, 1868. Mnn m\t«t -- DuniKHlIf, BeptBO, 1N2I 1,UIII,nTiI 11.22 18'W Nllh,0|ll 1824 NTII,87I 182.1 Hll4,llM 18211 I.ihii.nTA 1»27 l,lW«,ni)6 1828 1,0lHI,fl4'J 1821) TlHMofl laHU lt4H,4ll6 Total (»,llll,tru Boot. 80, 1881 ♦TIW.Tia 1882 WIT.UMt 1888 M.lil 1884 Nl.VJTT IS8B 1,ll4<,fl6l 1888 NHil,ii74 1887 «4r,4TA 1888 Vlfi,li7ll 18.-II) 8I8,4!I4 1840 t,IHHt,tt|0 Total |ll,HMID Sept. 80, 1841 $l,iiTa,iKiH 1842.. 1,048, i;ii 9ma9., 1848..,,,,,, (I80,1IM Juno 80, 1844 l,l(H,ltlM 1846 l,l«T,lHll mi l,MIVK)l) 1H47 1,fll4,0tl 1848 l.iiHT.iain 1849 1,IH«.IWI| 1»60 ,,, l,Mll,N|H Total «lll,aKU,llKM June 80, 1 861 »l,6IT,4aT mw t,rtllH,tfT4 1868 l.nil.MU 1884 1,0110,0111 1866 ((,648,014 1868 «,«W»,H4t Kiiwiia. Importi. ToniuigB Cle«r»d. | Dlilrif I Toninj.. | *'«fp||((i. Tol«1. Tolsl. American. Foreign. Registered. EoroUedud U,;,'ii.,'d. i|4iUi2h 11,041,148 ♦980,294 111,854 820 60,884 76,188 iiy.7ii» 1.086,(M2 94.%775 10,1,880 4,4,12 «o,hlS 896,691 801,044 70,773 1,379 <»,n24 (loo.ton 768,048 98,477 774 iNt.4m 1,081,127 1,169,940 118,381 8,250 6o,T(Nl 1,1162.675 1,24.1,288 11.6,060 2,240 8T,09» l,UiO,ll|4 1,8.1.8,890 94,660 2.896 1fi,a?ft 1,019,617 1,246.809 9.'i,066 ],7S8 H,T«8 787,882 742,781 8,6,718 2.706 »T,08T f886,h|ll 670/i83 19,^466,288 672,66$ 91.629 6,168 ♦9,80.%177 9S2,448 26,166 in,aafl 74.167 ♦906,678 ♦941.407 81.682 49.972 69,753 93,814 981,44.1 1,12.1,826 67,128 64,720 Ho.nu 1,019,881 1,880.808 66,488 98,7:)6 IN,8»0 8114,157 1,000,121 62,8.19 99,674 14,418 1,059,807 888,389 6.1,043 64.0:!1 141)18 860,988 980.086 71,1,W 74,686 M,iirrt 966,962 801,404 81,899 74,160 20,4Ail 986,682 899,142 64.810 66,715 17,061 896,486 982,724 77,908 61,1197 42IM,lliiir 1.018,3811 628,762 82„184 7.1,0.15 ♦9,869,806 ♦9,680,669 698,4-6 728,645 lii.nm ♦ 1,091.686 ♦700.961 90,764 66,079 118,819 189,971 t.^ifli 1.060,628 600,804 86,827 68.721 9,1611 n«8,»91 2,60,200 60,4.M 8.1,974 11,171 1.170.186 670,824 01,020 61,929 • > • • MT,4rtft 1,266,106 8,V),M6 88,602 62,901 lO.'iAII 1,828,808 787,092 90,739 72,OM .... «o,iNuut COU grains, set close togetlier in rows, to the number of 8, 10, or 12. The grains are usuall}- yel- low ; l>ut they arc sometimes red, liluish, greenisii, or ulive-colored, and sometimes striped and variegated. The maize of Virginia is tall and robust, growing 7 or 8 feet high ; that of New England is shorter and low- er; and the Indians further up the country had a still smaller sort in common use. The stulic is jointed 111(0 the sugar cane. Tho straw mulics excellent fod- der; and the grain, as a bread com, is lilted by some ; but though it aliounds in mucilage, it contains little or no gluten, and is not lilieiy to be much used by those wlio can procure wheaten or even rye bread. See CoHN. Malachite. Until 1851, so little was Icnonn about it, except to mineralogists, tliat tho public Itnew nut wiiether it was a stone or a composition. The indus- trial history of the substance, Ituwever, is exceeding- ly curious. Malachite is a peculiar variety of green carbonate of copper, found in a few localities in Siberia and South Australia. It is softer but heavier than marble, and much more diflicult to woric. It can rarely be found in masses weighing more tlian from 10 to 20 pounds ; and the tiner specimens have a ver}' high value. There is a mine in Siberia, where a mass of malachite, supposed to weigh 500,000 |>ound8, lies im- bedded ut a depth of 280 feet in a copiwr mine ; and there is every indication that the mulaclilte has Iwen formed by the solidlliLation or [letrefaction of a liquid carbonate of copper, on some such principle as tho stalactites in the Derbyshire caves. Tho material brealis so readily, that it is generally pieces of only two or three pounds' weight that can be l)raught safely to light. MM. Demidoff, the owners of this valuable mine, have established a malachite manufactory at St. Pe- tersburg. The production of large dnors, or vases, or other articles in this substance, is ' exceedingly di Al- cult. The ftsjpnents of malachite are ilrst sawn into thin plates, thu thickness of which varies from a twelfth to an eighth of an inch. The cutting is effected by vertical circular saws, .controlled by very delicate ma- chinery, and moistened with sand and water. For curved surfaces, the malachite is cut by bent saws of peculiar kind, the working of which is extremely precarious und difficult. The malachite has uiurkin);3 in different tints of green, wliich give to the material no small part of its beauty. The artistic workman de- termines what convolution or pattern these markings shall present In the tinisbed article ; and he so selects the veneers or small pieces as to attain that end. The pieces are cut at the edges to join with great nicety ; and to make these joints accord better with tlie mark- ings, they are often made curved. The grinding of the edges is effected by the aid of rapidly-revolving copper wheels. The substance on which the malaclilto is veneered is generally iron or copper, but sometimes stone or marble. When the |ileces have been fixed down with cement, small interstices are filled up with a cement mixed with fragments of malachite, and col- ored with a powder of the same material. After this the surface is ground and p iihi.. 6(H) 100 840 Huktit. M,.')24 21,885 10,476 411 Cn.k.. 1,2.')9 441 Uuicii. 640 lU 106 Boxen, 1,998 698 176 Tnn». 576 245 294 175 66 276 Ken. 1,264 710 "82 Cnxee. 10 46 'k 96 UtIIHllei. 1,060 i.oe") Uiindiee 789 237 l.V) 891 176 1,748 Ualra. 768 284 870 150 sSi 800 1-4 .■'!.. 472 275 160 l)..li,rf, i'tlfiM T».7«T ftT.tt** mm Km 8«,»T4 afiu 940 , 88,295 1,700 1,381 I 840 2,772 1,6.11 2,006 1,512 1,160 897 "Wtm The following extracts are taken from the commer- cial report of Muluga, dated the Slst of January, 1857, communicated to the Department of ."^tate : " The im- ports from the United States, which nii usually limited to staves by American, and one or two cargoes of cot- ton by Spanish vessels, have lieen increased l)y a few cargoes of flour and wheat, toward the end of the year, under the late royal decree admitting breadstuffs free of duty until June next ; the approximate value of im- ports of American produce for the last year amounted to $228,030, and of foreign produce from the United States to .92,700, making a total sum of $260,730. The exports to the United States have not lieen large in quantity, owing to short crops the past year. The high price of ever)- article of exportation, however, brings up the value equal to any former period. The amount, as per proximate returns of American vessels, is $1,210,907, and by foreign vessels $407,360; mak- ing a total sum of $1,648,267. The ruisin crop has been very short, the lust vintage being estimated at not much over 600,000 boxes of Jfuscatels. Other de- scriptions of raisins show a i-till greater decrease, ow- ing to the cenizn, a disease of the vines which has been very general tlie two last years. Tlie culture of the grupe is extending throughout the province ; and the Muscatel vines would probably yield, in a favorabe season 1,500,000 boxes. Over two thirds of this de- scription have been shipped the last year to tlie United States : the liner quality is shipped to England and France ; and when very abundant, at low prices, large shipments would be made to Germany ami the north of Europe. Prices have ruled very high, averaging $2 for il. R., and $2 25 for ordinar}- layers, for the American market ; fine London layers from $3 to $4 per box. The slock existing ut the end of the year did not exceed 30,000 boxes, about two thirds of which may go to the United States. The various produc- tions of this and the adjoining provinces, for want of good roads and rapid communication in a mountainous country, can not be brought to market so as to com- pete with the same of other countries, consequently they are not increased. Outside of five or eight leagues, little is received, but at such u high cost of transportation that many bulky articles can not be brought at nil. Sumac, for instance, is worth, in the interior, from 20 to 25 per arroba, or 25 pounds. The freight of this article to Malaga is more than doul)le the cost. It is considered by chemists of a better quality than the Sicily, but it can not be aftbrded for the American market, although, notn ithstanding the high cost, considerable is shipped to France." The following details, extracted from Mr. Inglis's raluttlde work, entitled " .Spain in 1830," contain the fullest and be.st account we have met with of the trade of Malaga. The authenticity may, we believe, be de- pended upon : " Wine. — The wines of Malaga are of two sorts, ■weet Hd dryi sad of the former of these there are four kinds ; first, the caramon ' Malaga,' known ititil exported under that name. In this there is a wrtttin proportion of boiled wine, which is allowed U) burn, and which commuuicates a lightly burnt taats to tlta ' Malaga.' The grajw from which this wine U niad« la a white grape ; and every pipe of ' Malaga' cont.ilns It/i lejs than eleneit gallons of brandy. Secondly, ' itlomit. ain.' This wine is made from the suinu gmpa «• the other, and, like it, contains coloring matter unit brandy; the only difference is, that for 'Mountain' tliH grape is allowed to become ripe. Thirdly, ' \,agr\mm,' the richest and finest nf the sweet wines of MaUg« | the name of which almost explains the muniwr in which it is made. It is the drop|)ings of the ri\m grape hung up, and is obtained without the upplU.'ii> tion of pressure. The dr}- wine of Malaga is pruduvAd from the same grape as the sweet wine, but preiJS«d when greener. In this wine there is an eighth iMirt more of brandy than in tlie sweet wine ; no Ut>» tll4ll ]-12tli part of the dry Slalaga being brandy, Tim whole produce of the Malaga vineyards is estimitt«d at from 85,000 to 40,000 pipes ; but, owing to the iii> creasing stock of old wine in the cellars, it i^i fuipo^ sible to be precise in this calculation. The cximrta of all sorts of Malaga wine may be stated at ulioiit 'i7,(HI0 pi|>es. The principal market is the United States itlili South America ; and to these the cx|)ort is U|Hin tlis increase. The average price of tlie wines sliippAd from Malaga does not exceed $.95 [ler pipe ; but wine*i are occasionally exported at the price of .'j'170, MiiHy attempts have been made ht Malaga to |iroilucs »\>erry, but none with perfect success. The slierry grups bits been reared ut .Malaga upon a soil very biiiiiljr U) tbut of Xeres ; but the mcri'li.ints of Malaga have not vsqi tured to enter the wine for export. One reason of tllD very low price of tlie wines of .Malaga is to bo fmini\ In the cheapness of labor : field labor is only 2^ reals u day (lU cents). In the fruit and vintage tiuia t( U about double. " Fruit. — Next to its wines, the chief export nf Mtt- laga is fruit, cnnsi.iting of raisins, ulmond.-i, grupM, tigs, and lemons ; but of these, raisins are priiiiipally exported. I have before me a note of the uKpiiits of Malaga for the months of September and ih:Ui\mt, 183C — the ciiicf, thougli not the solo exporting Mluntbf — and I find that during that time the export of ritlslM amounted to 268,845 boxes, and 31,U1U sin.iller pitclt< ages. Of this quantity 125,3{tl lioxes were ent«rti4 for the United States ; 45,513 for England ; tlte rib mttining quantity being for France, the WaBt liidiM, the Spanish ports. South America, and lluibiiid, Tbs raisins exported from JIulagu are of tliree kinds, mut' catel, bloom or sun raisin, and lexiaa. The mU'cittot is the finest raisin in the world. In its preparatio)) nil art is used ; the grape is merely placed in tlie sun, And frequently turned. The bloom or sun raisin is n Hf- ferent grape from the muscatel, but its prepuratiun (l the same. The lexias acquire this name from tiM MAL IS08 MAL liquor, or lev, in whiuli th«y are dipped, and wliich is compnaed of water, ashes, and oil ; these, after being dipped, are also dried in tlie tun. All inuEcntel raisins ■re exported in Itoxeii, and also it part of the l>laom ruisins. In 1829, the ex|>orts of niUHcatel and bloom niisins were 326,(K)0 boxes of '2r> lbs. each; in nil, 8,125,000 lbs. This quantity is independent of the export of bloom raisins in caslis, and nf loxias ; the Litter amounting to about 80,000 arrobns. The export of raisins to England has fallen oft', while that to America has considerably increased. In 1824, 75 ships i>ut 860 lbs. avoirdupois; a curga of raisins is 2 baskets, or Tabu suowinq tuk Co.nsuxption or 7 arrobas ; a cask contains as much, though only cdIImI 4 arrobas ; as u last fur freight are tau]umu4-—i liota* or 8 pipes of wine or oil ; 4 liales of i)r«rinM,(iti«) , /) pipes of Pedro Ximenes wine or oil i 10 eaf rulainv. Part C/iargen. — Tlie port and harbor imn aiDoiillt, «n an English vessel of 300 tons, to about 412 1 1 on ^ Spanish vessel of the same burden tluty would Im alrout £11 10s. Warehouilng. — Goods may be wareliousmi f./r \ designate grain which, being steeped In wut«r, U iii,wl« to germinate to a certain extent, aftor whii^lt (liit pn^ cess is checked by the application of htiat, TIiId evolves the saccharin^ principle of the grain, wliU'li U the essence of melt. The procena followwl in tli« manufacture is very (iniple. Few change* Imvx Iwxii made in it ; and it is carried on at tliib nwiiK'nt vttry much in the same manner that It was i.'iirri«4 on by our ancestors centuries ago. Uice, and itluio^t nvi ry species of grain, has been used in malting i but In Europe, and especially in ICnglund, mult U prcfmrsd almost wholly from barley. It is the principiil Ingr** dient in the manufacture of beer, and is littln n*t,.. 17,000 T.nofl 457,500 17,000 i,\5nn' 2.5'<1.9tlU,2,()fl2,2.')0{ ■lii'.'.tiSi li><,700| I,Tlil,980 650,105j lM7,ino! 76,900 In veiled. (iuftntlUe* and kind! of ffniin, dr., coDiuuied. Barley. Corn, Builieir" 2,nfloI 80,000' U,50tl| 100,915' il,98ij 8,475 7,150 8,.VI0 16S,8»5 60.125 29S,9iW 124,441) 1.262,974 8U8,400 189,425 19,600 »$,7ao 7,'m 8,0011 12,000 20,000 10,000 65,1150 8,000 ,i ii,m '.'.'.'. injm '.'.'.'. 009,067 0,707 6MW .... 617,180 24,790 M,8no 460 62,fiS0' 460 4,700; .,.. 2,500 I'eoo 80^520 '.'.'.'. 6,4811 ..,. 24,900 .... 281,750 10,600 48.700! 1,000 48,700 2,200 19,150 7,20(V 9,200 12,900 M4.S,92I 6«,M7i Api>Iet, MoIaBMt Buiheli. Hhd*, 2,000 85ii30 10 m.om 24,6iio 409,700 61,200 10 6,000 25 Hopi. 1 29 6 2 581 42 2611 26 14 10 18 "si 178 18 80 16 pl'ryed. 8.a'M,2548,78'^ 19641,0iir,7rtl 2,14.8,921 6«,M7i ,VJ6,S4«' 61,075 n 2 181 9 20 1,1)80 197 Ull 126 12B 76 m 16 2 8 274 160 179 1,088 287 274 98 19 08 21 B «^ 1,294 16,487 ((iiaatliiat at llnuun |ir«tllw4> Ale, ete, WbUllrit 800 26,800 8,000 644',fl'M 84,7ro l>i9,68| 'J6,B80 6,600 8,001) 19,600 44,860 96,041) IUI06 27,926 10,820 81,1)20 Hum, ,,,, j •iin.im viiim I, '/no |,260,A!XI| fl,fi4a,i.|«, T'>7,4«0 «0,«(l| bV),IIHO| 4l),UiKI, tMi «i/,lfi» i^i'.fW om.m 2,8)6,11110 Atfn.OMt Ittl.DOH 42,eopIe of England, the manu- { facture of malt has been carried on in that country, ' for a lengthened period, on a very large scale. In- j stead, however, of increasing with the increasing I wealth and population nf the countri-, it was nearly i stationary for the 100 years ending with 1816. In ' proof of this we may mention that the quantity of malt that paid duty in England and Wtles, at an av- { erago of the 12 years ending with 1720, was 24,191,301 j bushels a year ; whereas the annual uvxragn i|lliintltv that paid duty during the 12 years andl'ig with IMlii, was only 23,197,764 bushels. ThU «pp jrcndy iiii'itn- alous result is probably in aoins iiieaaura to I'H fii'< counted for by the increased eonsumptiiin nf t"* mid coffee ; but t'lere can not lio a rjiieatiun Mmt it l» niftiti' ly owing to the exorbitant duties with which nmlt, Slid the ale or beer iiianiifut'tiired fruiil it, Imvn lifon loaded, and to the opprcsalve rugiihi'.luna liH|ioat>d on the manufacture of malt and the aaU of h««r, Jiul inhabit amount ported from Island i than 100,000 their i all sort arc lur; import tared ( tolmcc used to monopt varyin) were ished, I sumptli stitutei ities, advant trade o houses excava ted of Thewt liidefin MAL 1809 MAL the public attention being at length forcibly aU tracted to the subject, and the effect of the exor- bitant dutiei on malt and beer in increaiing the con- ■umption of ardent tplrits having been clearly pointed out (lee Edinburg Review, No. OK), the lieer duty in Oreat Britain was lepeuled in 18S0. Malta, an island in the Mediterranean, belonging to the British, nearly opposite to the southern extrem- ity of .Sicily, from which it is almut S4 miles distant. Valetta, the capitiil, is situated un the north const of the island, the light-house in the castle of St. Elmo being in lat. 85° hi' 6" N., loi g. 14° 31' 1" E. Malta is about 20 miles long, and 10 or 12 broad. The island of Gozo, about a fourth part of the size of Malta, lies to the north-west of the latter, at about four mile*' diKtance ; and in the strait between them is the ■mall island of Cumino. In 1847 the population of Malta amounted, excluding the garrison (except the Maltese re{;lurought direct from OdesM, Taganrog, etc., to England, without the risk of Iwing damaged ; but were it brought, in tlia first liittMtoa, to Malta, and bonded there, it might afterward be conveyed in the best order to the Knglish nwrkat. Malta is also admiralily well suited for becoming • centre of the com trade of Esrvpt, Barbury, Italy, «Us, During the wars of 1800-1>.15, particularly during tilt period when Napoleon's anti-=ommerciul •yataiii wn» in operation, Malta became a great entrepot for colo- nial and other goods, which were thence conveyed, according as opportunities offered, to the adjacent ports, 'riiis commerce ceased with the circumntaiwei that gave it birth ; and for soma years after tlia return of peace, the trade of the island was depressed below its natural level, by the imposition of various oppriis< sive discriminating duties. In 1811), tbl* vaxatiuu* system was partially obviated, Ndubeb and Toxnaok or Sailiho Vembls, olaimd ao, coaniNo to Tohnaok, wiiicu uilohuid to tub Ui,anm or Malta on tub 31bt Ukoeuiikb, 18SS ano ISbS, ClftM of VetMli. 50 tons atid iiiidoi' .Vbove .10, not exceeding 100 " 100 " " 200 " 20J " " 800 '' SOO and upward Total Tuni, 61 2« 61 81) BT 776 t,01,t 7,MT 7,186 I3,yj6 iii,'iia a},m Nduoie and ToNNAoe or Vessels entebeii anu I'LEARau AT Malta, fbom and to vabiocs CocMTHiEa, IN RAOK or tub Yeabs 13S5 AND 1SS4. Coantrtsi. United KtiiJidoiii Ifritisli I'o&sessluns United States Other foreign countries . , Tntal I86S, Jl _ ImI VtMeli.|_^roni«. '| "v»wU- | T>wr •iOOMi Countries. United Kingdom Britisli I'ossesaions United States Other foreign countries . . . Total INTIHKn. '.I4U 610 02 2(m ii6li) W.,71" 5!t,4illi 4 K> 111 '.jiat KiS.itlU 7,SII 474,11'/ ii4>(,-il IMS . VmmIb-I Tuiii 00:1 407 «l 203:1 8AU 4D,Sr)T 6I,4'J8 Jllfi.O.'ll ii'il,2lll MM V«M«|:, 4U:i ■it 28011 &!*>» li(4,«S vv,.im IT.TIU 4H4D1 ii;i6,7)i'i Total estimated Value op the Impobts and I'.xports or Malta in tub Yeabs 1X16 and ISM. United Kingdom . . . Ili'ltlsh Fofldessions , United Stales Other foreign states., Total mh. I 1S66^ I ' f" r 64,S7.1 1 »,7i);)i 30,22^ ns,o.wl l!l,i)40 30,118 984,937 |2,0J0;0'.I8 lTII,!iH6| \m^ I l«it: i r * 4l,0fii)'l,0IT,«4'/ ni,iiit| Wtiwi 832 1 4,7l)i« T87,40« I,IHI3,331 |-,i,724,',ll»U, 1)81,421)1 l,n;iH,<4« Note.— Tho large increase in the imports and oxpmls In IS.'^ti is principally owing to the increased arrivals and de> partures uf vessels witti cargoes of n heat. PorCLATION of SIALTA in the VEAB ISBS (INCLDIIINO Oozo). CIVILIANS, Maltese (including the It. M.) Fenelbles) ) British residents Foreigners Total HILITABT. Qticcn's troops Wives of ditto Fersoni in military departments Wives of ditto Persons connected with the' army Children ! Total. Mftlea. C3,67« 4«7 826 04,1^6^ 8,730 "69 Od 492 "14,226 Va mWieil | T»l «l 1 00,353 «46 249 U7,tMS B7T "40 U 486 ISO.filM l,tl« 1,074 lHiJ,li4 8,T30 6!T 0) 40 80 m,tm \~iii^l \ MAN 1310 MAir LuT or Veuku atLONOiMu to tiir biAND of Uauta, tm THE llT or jAKVAKr, INM, Bhipi. BvU Brigs Briganttno Snow. . Cultrra Kotch Brf^ Rchoonors BGhboncra. Bombardik Paranu. Bpcroiiuras ' K ToUl The central poaltloii, nxcellent port, Hinl KfMt atrength of Maltii, muk« it hii ailinlrolito ii«v«l ntulUm for tlie repair .and aecommixiatluii of tlio miiiHif-w»r and nierchant-8hi|)« frequeiitinf; thu iMiUirrummu, and render its poi.>es8iun ut material liii|ii>rtani'« to the liritish empire. Since Malt^uimilt v«»mU wi>r« admitted into ports of the United KiiiKiluiii on th« same ternifi as those of liritUb-liuilt, the triuhi iif •hi|i' building has materially increaaed in tliu ialand, ThiK Maltese sliipwriglits are diligent, exjH^rt v/i>rkim>n | and, their wages being moderate, it in a faviirulilit (iliwe for careening. Owing to the want of a i\ry iltH'k, all ships above the size of u sloop of war, that ri'<|iill'« to have their bottoms examined, have to loirMt Ui F.tigUlid for that purpose. This, surely, ahonld Iw olivi«t«M# *4W H if,, iA, t and the sciido of Halt*, at l», >i4, Wfiflhlii and Muuuret.~'lU.9 u>mnA, Hf tudMN. i^mw merclal weight ^ ao omie ^ U'i%6 tU^aHtk KMt^t, Hence 100 rottoll (the «»utwo; — iliiitn, #«,^rtrtu poU, or 7»-H hilog. Mercbjwto »mmt fffltt/H |ft« canUro at 1 76 ll». The aiawa t4 «vf #, >*tv-1f*n tu^^^ ur« •» 8221 Winchester bui^helti j hmiii'4 ttitiitfitiK ^ reckoned 10 per <»iit. luore. 't'Uv K*m»N, (.f fttfrnnftt tor oil, contains r^ J'^'^lhih Htlt/im ^ lltfM* iHf^ tmtff*, 'tfpi t-mm = n i«ilml = »l-aKngli»h ini^het ^ ^i/^(t )mttv< M*i. chants usually convert Malta mm^fn Urtti hifftitit in the jiroportion of 8| paliui to » ym4, m i t^/fh futth to 1 canna. Hills on (.ondon are usually 4f)kVH t4 IM ntnl M (lays' sight, The deputy n-Ammmtf^ Kfmfiii h obliged to grant, at all tiuej, tiiih >W »#*» ''fft/§*iiff f^i^ for Uritish silver teudtrcd to bm, itt Urn ftttfM'n tUn bill for ever)' illOl 10s. silver, w**j>Wi, M> Ott: ffttm time, other silver, at a fiiM*t«*tv«5 ff4f i4 i^imiti(H, Vummtrtinl lldiUiuiu vUli Ihn lUiiUd filttlni.—:%\i^ commercial Intercourse of irl*e ^'.»Utt4 Hitk.^-4'tim t:nH*4 yfy imfiitftitM.- tliiwi^h nn examination of the Mluvmif tit/t*' mtt ■sitim tt pet- cetrtlbli) increase in the awvvMt ff //ttf Jcwtt*^*, ttt,4 but little variation iu the yi4m fit Mif fHplffts (ttttihg the years which they «iubr»c«; (,TA, raoM October 1, 18»S, to 4f!f/y t, im. Tcan •ndtDf BeptSO, 1888. 18.S4 1S83. 18»«. 1S8I. 1S38. 1840 ToUI. 1S41 1842 9 mos. Win Jane 80, 1844 184S.... 1846 1847 1848 1849 mw Total. Juno 80, 1851 . 1SS2. IBftB. 18S4. 1888. 18'W. Douuttlc. |All,S28 «r,4«« 100,1185 88,8IT lOO.IMA NI,W» 85,870 14,610 un.m ♦27,869 11,644 6,4.16 0,752 12,909 28,764 28,096 BS.I28 61,288 75^«_ ♦277,150 ♦64,061 96,847 165.819 148,528 ,«M ♦518,(191 ♦21,070 H.26I 11,471 7,24« )6,9ft» 62.7S4 mm '♦(!W,2M ♦ 12,288 l«,97A «2,1W7 «I,»4A T2,4M 88,MI TuMI. I ♦6(i,82)t »7,42« I 2IKI/I98 I 178,709 I 874.171 I >A>m 99,996 I n9.9»6 ' ♦t,oi8,oMr 19,906 iim 16,998 12,91(9 tH/)8l 47,«»T 49,088 1I»,9«7 1I4,»>I0 ♦76,299 118.822 l87/<66 169,778 «84.849 8l4,fiM lrfr|«ft«. tun). HI.i<67 84,890 86.961 16,866 94,9)8 28^71 ♦264,(194 ♦ 1.461 7/8)0 27 16 92.811 21,689 "884 ♦72,846 ♦26,167 114,864 80,068 88,696 «24l« 44.224 •Qd 8jitde. Eipur4«4< ♦881 ♦881 tmft»>t4.- ♦2,«0« tm am m m m *** i.m ' »,m : i.m [ 7#f ■m Vim ■tfA i.m m 4S8 Ui 8W 4m No spirits or conllaU, except rum and uplrlts, the product of (treat liritain or of the liritish colonies, can be admitted for consumption, if they8x/.'««d j) (wromt, over-proof. The following are the legal rat«a for pi* lotage charged on all veHHcU entering the liarlior of Malta :— Vessels of UN) tons burden, fi ; 101 to 1/8), #3 04 ; 151 to 2&0, (1 ; U!)l to .W), (5 01 ; tUil and upward, $6. Vessels discharging merchandl((n in tlio Island of Malta, on clearing outward, pay for tvery ton, or any part thereof, including al> (wrt charge*, 12 cents. There is a pulilic hospital u Malta, to which Itrlllsh iailon are udmitted free oi chitrga, AuMirkan and other foreign sailors are 4m >t.imHtf4 irt i» cfi.rt^e of 20 cents per diem, the puywewt t4' #*M^* mttxi Im gnar- antied li^r their respective «iw»ii|il«, ivc tf^ ttm ((tnsipt- een of the vessels to wlwti tfeey M(»»)^.' For trade of, travel w, tHu.,, Mdtit, «n>f />/m. //fr., vl., 11)1; North Am. /iet:, ^x*y,.. yjS* (/^, U. t)tr.K- KTT), X., 22ft (K. Kvp^iKJT) j Af'/A/*.. /M.- Ht/Sf.. X.. 728, Ix,, 86, 103, vii., WJ*I, jy.., 'jmi,. *.-,. l»ft; Chr. Kxiim,, li., 2&« (.Iaii. H'4».K(h:*i^ s ((i/hk- Uff.y J.*.. 1. M«li, I»l« of, U, »e «y*fy tm" km>*f^ nMrtXfed in the I rich Hca, at aU'Ut m y>^»iti 4HtiHf« ttorti Kn- cland, Hcotland, and lr4»tvt, H U tit/trtH SW rtiilfs long, and 10 or 12 itnm4.- '*** UiUifm kmrn^tm* Woolen ., twine, pins, L large quontil chemical wo/ lied at 4:i2,(j Birmingham I W-) raiiroadi i'ivcrpool, 1)1 Manganf Urulnstem; I It. ManpatiftX ifanganesiunl grayish whitl of brilliancyJ MAN 1311 MAN •iJ m m m Hi mi 4w RU, Bnd the soil nowhere vuiy prodnctlve. Popnlatlon In 1861, 52,887. This inUnd uaed to be one of the principal atatlonn of the herring flsherjr ; but for s cnnxlderable period, It han been comparatlveljr deserted by the herrint; skoaln, a circiimatimce which is not to he Tegnttei ; fur the fishery, by withdrawing the at- tention of the inhaliitants from agriculture and manu- facturen, and leading them to engage in what haa usually been a gamlding and unproductive buaineas, has been, on the whole, injurious to the island. The steam pacltets from Glasgow to Liverpool, and from the latter to Belfast, touch at the Isle of Man ; which is, in consequence, largely frequented by visitors fTom tliese cities, and otiier |Mirts of the empire, whose in- flux has mitterittl.y contriliuted to the improvement of Douglas, the principal port in the island, and other tovms. The feudal sovereignty pf Man was formerly VP!r, and more recently in the Dultes (if Athol, a circumstance which accounts for the fact of the duties on most commodities consumed in the island having lieen, for a lengthened period, mnch lower than those on tlie same commodities when con- sumed in rireat Krltain. This distinction, which still subsists, has produced a great deal of smuggling, and been in no ordinary degree injurious to the revenue and trade of tlie empire. 1 he customs revenue col- lected in the Isle of Man in 18o'2, amounted to jC28,- 077 i but from this sum £14,.S73 was deducted on ac- count of expenses of collection, public works, internal government, etc. Manchester, a city, parliamentary and municipal borough, and parish of Kngland, county Lancaster. Area of parish, including the liorough 8alford, 33,553 acrea. Population, '>»2,158. Inhabited houses, 63,697. Population in 1801, 110,938 ; in 1841, 858,390 ; in 1861, 401,321, of whom 310,218 were in the borough of Man- chester, and 86,108 in tliat of Salford. The town stands on a plain, and consists, with Salford, of a dense mass of buildings, extending alwut two miles from east to west, by somewhat less from north to south, and covering about 3000 acres. It has a lirunoh of the Banic of England, 6 joint-stocli banlcB, and 5 weekly newspapers. Marl<.et, Tuesday, Thursday, and Satur- day. The proximity of an abundance of coal, the im- provements introduced into spinning and weaving ma- chinery by Hughes, Arkwright, Hargreaves, and Crompton, and tlie applicatun of steam power, have raised Manchester to its eminence of monopolizing two tiiirds of the cotton manufacture of Great Britain. Its manufactures arc mostly conducted in large mills and factories. Of these in 1853, there were in Man- chester and Salford : C«tton spinning Cotton woavlng Cotton spinning and weaving Woolon ond worsted spinning I and weaving f Silk throwing and small ware Flax spinning Print works Total. No. of works. Psrsoiu em{>toy.>(l. Steam Power. 5,292 T,T09 1T,858 1,520 1,080 4,706 8 290 80 50 8 85 7,520 1,120 2,985 5S0 198 288 42,2M 8,185 Woolen fabrics, machinery, hats, paper, ropes, twine, pins, and numerous other goods, are made in large quantities; and there are many bleaching and chemical works, and breweries. Annual export val- ued at .£12,000,000. Manchester communicates witli Birmingham and London by the Grand Junction (N. W.) railroad, and by other railrooda and canals with Liverpool, Bolton, Preston, Rochdale, Sheffield, etc. Manganese (Ger. Braimstein, Ulasseise; Du. Bruinsteen ; Fr. Manganese, Magalese, Savon du rerre ; It. ^fanpanfsla ; 8p. ifanganesia; \a\\,. Magnesia nigra, Manganetitim), a metal whicli, when pure, is of a grayish white color, like cast-iron, and has a good deal of brilliancy. Its texture is granular; it has neitlier taate nor smell ; It ta softer than caat-iron, and may be filed ; ita specific gravity is 8. It is very brittle, and can neither be hammered nor drawn out into wire. Its tenacity is nnknoitn. When exposed to the air. It attracts oxygen with consideralde rapidity. It soon loses its lustre, and becomes gray, violet, brown, and at last Idack. These changes toko place still more rapidly if the metal lie heated in an open veaael. Ores of manganeae are common in Devonabire, Somerset- shire, etc. The ore of manganeae, known in Derl)y- shire by the name of black rnidJ, is remarkalile for Ita spontaneous inflammation with oil. Oxyd of man- ganeae is of considerable uae ; it is employed in mak- ing oxymuriatic acid, for forming bleaching liquor. It is also used in glazing Idack eartlienware, forgiving colors to enamels, and in the manufacture of porcelain. It is the substance generally used l>y chemists for ob- taining oxygen gaa.— Thomson's Chemitlrt/, etc. Mangel Wursel, or Field Beet (Fr. Setie- ravet; Uer. Mangold Wunet; It. A'cUo^a), a mongrel between the red and white beet. It has been largely cidtivated in Europe and the United States, partly as food for cattle, and partly to lie uaed in diatillation, and in the extraction of sugar. Its culture in Great Britain is very recent ; and Mr. Ix)udon questions whether it has any advantages over the turnip for general agri- cultural purposes. The preparation of the soil is ex- actly the same as for turnips, and immense crops are raised on strong clays. The produce per acre is about the same as that of the Swedish turnip ; it is applied almost entirely to the fattening of stock, and the feed- ing of milch cows. — Loiiuon's Kncg. o/Agr, Manger, tlio space near the hawse holes, bounded on the upper side l)y a partition across the bows, called the manger board, to receive the water while it enters the hawse holes and prevent it from flooding the deck. Mangle (Kr. Calandre; Ger. Mangle), this is a well-known machine for smmithing table-cloths, table- napkins, as well as linen and cotton furniture, and much used in hotels. As usually made, it consists of an oblong rectangular wooden chest, filled with stones, which load it to a degree of pressure that it should ex- ercise upon the two cylinders on which it rests, and wliich, by rolling l)ackware wholly unfit for use by Europeans ; but in the fine va- rieties this flavor is replaced by a rich sugary quality, which renders it very delicious. In this country the mango has rarely ripened its fruit, but it is common in the shops in a pickled state. The fruit of the Man- gifera Indica, a tree cultivated in Asia, is also called mango. Manifest, in commercial navigation, is a docu- ment signed by the master, containing the name or names of the places where the goods on board have been laden, and the place or places for which they are MAN 1312 MAN nspcctlvcly destined ; the name and tonnnge of the Teasel, the name nf the master, and the name of the place to which the vnssel belongs ; • particular account and description nf all the packages on hoard, with the marks und numbers thereon, the goods contained in such packages, the names of the respective sblp|iera and consignees, as fur as such particuturs ai« know n to tho master, etc, A separate manifest is required for tobacco. Tlie manifest must be made out, dated, and signed liy the captain, at the place or pluce.4 where the gomis, or any part of the gonearl, hides, ebony, gold dust, etc. Tlio principal articles of import are stuffs fur cloth- ing, iron, hardware, furniture, fire-unus, und uiuiuu- nition, etc. Account or xn* tJuANTiTiRs and Dkstijiatioii or tiik Paonnoa Expobtbd rsoii Manilla is 18y the supposed scarcity or abundance of food in the country. — M'Mickin',s Afanilla, p, 270. The principal currency of Manilla consists of Sp.inish dollars, of 8 reals und 98 grains ; but. South American dollars are also current. The weights in use ure the Spanish pound, which is nearly 2 per -ent. heavier than tho English ; the urmba = .5^ Knglish I'^s. nearly ; the quintal = 102 lbs., and the |iecul of 5 urrobas, or 1^ cwt. Knglish. The coyan is a inea.suro f:>r rice, etc., varying from 96 to VM> lbs. According to a recent lUt, there arc in Mnnillu 47 Spanish merchants and 11 foreign firms. The Spunisli merchants have a cham- ber of commerce and a joint-.-tock insurance society. Tlie United States, Kruiice, und Uelgiiim have consuls, and each of the Canton marine insurance companies has an agent here. There are, however, neither tire nor life-offices nor agents ; nor it: any newspaper, price- '^iJ.r.'T'J.d'iToc.iif,,™-..! T„(h. 1 , iJJraUi" "I"' >!'• f"^»' V»'i"i »1«1M-; Toul, I 1.783 9,262 18,043 100 Uncertain, 1,009 5M Uncertain. 4,84S 5,008 794 600 6,115 12,749 6(4 6S0 20,S69 iy,887 250 1,913 9,115 29,Ut 3,i87 1,707 1,073 1,467 6,tO 600 7T,»1U 4.'iU,927 02,181 124.8(17 310 9,U->4 914 78.4.89 .... 42.629 9,015 9fl.r9s 2,06;i it.sm 8,768 4.225 .... 4,m 3,419 i,K>:> 74 1,4U2 469 .^,.W7 .... Uncertain 4,84S ,').(MiS 2,242 22.975 n7,,M2 35,870 60,000 current, or other periodicul publication issued in Manil- la, I'ousidering the great icrtiiity und varied iirodiic- tions of the Philippines, and their peculiarly favor- able situation for currying on commerce, the limited extent of their trude, even with itJ lute increu>e, may excite surprise. Tliis, however, is entirely u con«e- (jueuce of tlie wr:'t|^d policy of tho Spani.ih govern- ment, which perseveroil until very recently in oxdiid- iug uU foreign ships from the ports of thi Phill|i|iiiiM, confining tlio trade between them und Mexico and South America to a single ship ! Kvcn ships and set- tlers from China were excluded, " Provisions," says I.u Pernusc, " of ull kinds ure in tho greutcst aliun.l. uncn here, und extremely cheap ; but clothing, ICuro- poau hurdwure, und furniture, bear an excessively hinli price. The want of coni|ietition, togetlier witli pro- hibitions and restraints of every kind luid on com- merce, render the productions and merchandise of India and China at least a< dear as in Europe !" Hap- pily, however, this miserable policy tlie effeots of which have been admirab.y depicted liy M. De la i'c- rotiso, hus been muteriull," moditied during the List few years. The events of uie lute war destroyed fur ever the old colonial system of Spain j and the sliips of all nations are now freely admitted into Manilla unJ the otlier ports in the Philippines. An unprecedentcJ stimulus has, in consequence been given to all sorts of MAN 1313 MAN indiidtry ; and Its progrons will, no doubt, become more rapid, ucoording u.i a wider oxpcrlnnce und acciualnt- anc( with fureignern miikn the natives better nwaro of the advantages uf cnmnierco and indiistr}', and dUa- buses them ■<{ the prejudices of which they hnvo been 10 long*'' '.ves. Port <:/iiiiffei. — On foreign vessels, 2 reals per ton, and one h.ilf on such as neither load nor unload cargo, besides feen, amounting from $S to $15, according to the size of the vessel. /mjmrl Ihilira, — Spanish commodities liy Spanish vessels, pny 9 per cent, ud valorem, nnl> ter of tlio sliruli _/Vi/ru;)Aa manihut, from which casiaea and UtptDca aro made in tlie West Indies. Manna (Fr..Vii;mc; (ier. Munnaetche; It. Afimmi) the concrete Juice uf the Fnuiniiummi, u species of ash growing in the south of Kurope. The Juico exudes spontaneously in warm dry weather, and concretes in- to wldtisii tears ; but the greater port of the manna of cominerco is obtiiincd liy making in-isions in the tree, and gathering llio Juice in baskets, wliero it forms irregular masHes of a raddish or lirowuish color, often full of impurities. JIanna is im|M)rte, 1851 bales 10,281 C'oumiml BritUh Po»Hulont~IniHt: Cotton oxpnrieil f^m Inilla nor annum. lbs, \V^fli\m ColTea to Uraat Britain la 1850 cwt 8,H4ri,8AT Bugar " 1,11411,(1 Kum galls. 4ia,tmi Canaila. Maiilo sugar, 1847 lbs. S,7iM.iUII Fisnerlus, 1840 ti%m Property movable and ImmoTable, valued In 1 847 at 1 I7,5(Hi.ih)o Cape «/ (load Ihpt, Alloi', 1812 lbs. 4m5,,'i74 Ivory " Hj,;i.Mi Whulu oil galls. ll.'.itu Wine " l,2m,sil A\utriUia—tr»U) Himth Waif. Wool «x|)orted, 1848 Ibsi 88,001,481 Tallow cwt 0!<,2I8 Wetttm. Wool eiportu Spanlnh Pouentlotu—Cuba. ColTfO exported 1S60 lbs. 4,2I8,J.')5 Dutch PoitMttont—Java. Cuttee, 1 84S lbs. 17 : VI,.laB Cotfee, l-iSO cwt l.liiD.liiil Sugar " l,'iI):i,-;72 t.'ochliieal lbs. l»»,lu« See I^KoNE Lkvi's StiUitlical Chart, MANi:r>0Ti7Bu or thi Umitbu Statu roK thk Yiar iNDino tTimp. I, I860. SlalM ud Tanltof !«•. Aluliania Arkansas California Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia . I'lorida OeorgU Illlnola Indiana Iowa Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Haaaacliusatts Michigan Missiisippi Mlasourl New Hampshiro New Jersey New York North Carolina Ohio Pennsylvania Kliode Island South Carolina Tenneasce Texas Vermont Virginia Wisconsin Minnesota New Mexico Ore^dn Utah' Total 121,093 Capital. 93,460,008~ 30.%01.'S 1,01 8, lOT «3,>^9li,!)4S 2,078,945 1,001,575 547,000 5,466,483 6,217,T(i5 7,750,402 1,202,875 11,810,403 5,(tt2,424 14,69'.>,I52 14,701,450 83,357,643 6,503,060 1,816,820 8,576,6)7 18,242,114 22,183,580 00,904,403 7,821,746 ao,OI'.t,538 94,473,810 12,023,178 8,063,200 6,6;7,T29 530,290 6,001,877 18,109,143 0,38.M4S 94,000 68,300 843,6110 44,400 $525,14'.t,108 Coat af raw Malarial. $.',824,960 816,TS9 1,201,154 23,580,n97 2,884,0OT l,4fl^871 a3l),611 3,404,917 8,9511,327 10,389,700 2,ii66,8SI 12,16,5,075 2,461,503 13,.568,t4^t 17,394,436 85,856,771 0,130,328 1,275,771 12,708,861 12,745,486 21,900,236 184,665,674 4,602,501 34,073,010 87,2(W,377 13,183,009 8,787,534 6,116,880 804,042 4,172,553 18,101, I3I' 5,414,931 24,300 110,220 80n,5fl0 837^81 J554,78i;iiT7 Mali ramala Hanilj. llandl. 4,3CT 639 812 30 B,'J84 31,287 18,483 3,237 651 2,036 534 870 116 «,6'.0 1,718 10,068 493 18,T48 692 1,887 80 10,570 1,900 6,468 TOO 2I,K63 6,16T 23,678 T,48S 98,261 69,677 8,900 854 !l,046 106 14,880 088 14,103 12,980 28,547 8,762 147,737 &1,013 10,630 1,704 47,1164 4,437 124,088 22,078 12,837 8,014 6,993 1,074 11,080 054 1,042 24 6,804 1,551 26,790 8,320 5,798 891 03 a - ■ a 81 286 01 [713,154 .... Iiii6,491 Coal of Labor. «l,UlO,624 158,070 3,717,18(1 11,6'.15,238 OOO.CSI 757,584 199,452 l,TiiT,064 8,132,336 8,728.844 473,016 5,108,048 2,083,928 7,480,588 7,886,832 39,784,110 2,710,124 771,528 4,892,048 6,123,876 0,202,880 49,131,000 1,781,604 13,407,156 87,103,322 5,008,656 1,127,712 2,247,492 . 828,368 2,802,408 5,434,476 1,712,490 18,640 20,772 889,020 9,984 $232,967,440 Valut of I'rpducl. *4,5.N,!(76 537,'.dS 1?,S0.',5JJ 46,11(1,102 4,0t 2,690,!l.'iS 0(W,;i3r> 7,082,07,', 16,534,27:' 18,7!i6,4'.':i I ,1,5,M,7SJ i 21,710,212 6,770,4i; 24,661,1157 32,5,11,892 151,l:i7,145 li,lC.9,l)0-.' 2,91'.',0(!'i 24,3l'4,41S 23,164,r.03 I 89,711,206 I 837,597,'J49 I 8,86I,0'.'6 I 62,691,2T'.I I 155,044.910 ' 22,093,'.'.">'* 7,045,477 0,7'.'5,(i(iS l,166,5:i'i 8,670,92'! 20,602,r.n- 9,2('3,i6S 58,;!II0 240,1110 !,2n6,640 291,2'i" $1,01(1,028,779 ' New V« North Ci Ohio., . IVnnsvl South Va. Teimessei Tu,\as. . Vermont, Virginia., WIscousli ■Minneaoli ToUI. Tht IgntiM capital invcBted in manufactures in tlie Unit^ States on the 1st of June, 1860— not including any estab)isbm«Dts producing less than tho annual val- ue of $600— amounted to $625,000,000; value of niw material consumed, $564,000,000; amount paid for labor, $232,000,000; value of articles manufactured MAP IS15 MAP ,s. 4,'218,'J!)5 l?,Sfl>,6-ii 4D,n(i,ini ' 4,8«>,iSW S,«90,»S T,082,,41' I i:4,6fll,i'M 3V,B'.il,8'.l'i lBl,l;n,14S , li.lM.''"- I !i,91'.',nf.< 24,3.!4,41S ; 83,lf>4,f'0a \ 39,71 l,'?Oii 2;a,M>7,'.'4'.> 8,861 ,0'-:6 C'.'.ti91,'i"l' 1M>,044,910 ; 2V,093,'iW I 7,046,47: 0,7«,0"S 1,16B,M'* 8,&7n,9J" ' 9,2P3,i;«S B8,:twi I 249,1110 9,206,1140 291.2ill. fT;01IS«'.:8,'779 I value of raw I'ount paid f"' I manufactureJ iluring ypnf, $1,020,1100,000; numlMir of p«n(ooa rm- pluji'd, 1,0,10,000. Mpo I'MiTUti Statk(4. Kcir " Amerlriin MiinufHctiireii," Mtn JV. A. Kn:, XXX., 105 (A. H. Kvr.iiKTT), xvll., 18«, 1., W!) (N. Hai.k), XXXV., '.'«:>! Nit.kk'h Hrg., x\\v.,•in■^ (.1. Q. Adams), xxxli., 2117, 11112. " Miinuruotunii at thn Smith," nee Nil.Bs'ii Rfi/., xxxv., 18ft. Of tho llnl- toil Stntiw, lltiST'H Afaii., vll., 2H9 (Wai.tkh I'imi- ward"), xIv., 152, XV., 8(1!) ; l)K Hrtw'H Krv., Ix., li;i;. Miiniilartnrlnjf Syntein, nee A'cir. tiunr,, vlll., ;il!) (M.iiTiii;Y)i AV/. tiei:, Ixxvll., 101, xxxlll., ;W2. Maple Sugar. Tim .state of Nor York prfi(lih'>>H iimre mifjiir thiin any other Ntnt« in the llnlon, excopt I.iiuUlanii. The wlioln cnno itUffitr crop of the country in IH.IO wiui a» follows ; r»iind«. TiMinoMdo •Ut.im Kuiitucky !2)i4,(KHi Kouth Carolina.. . . 67o,iMN) OuorKln...., 1,64'J,iiUI) Florlilo. !(,7IW,0(W Alabama 8,212,(100 MIsolMlppI HSM.iKIO I UmHIaiia 22(I,IKII.IHKI Tuxas 7,»1,0(W TiBLK tnOWINd THR I'llolllIOTIONS or HuuAa IN Tiia IJ. St*ti» in IhM. Total iMT,n7:,iHrO Maple inxar crop . . 04,2A''l. IM6 Total auifar crop.2Sl,SUi,4JM [=:: autM ind Terrilorlti. Alabama Arkuniuifl ('oiinoctiout Klorlila Ooorfria Illinois Iiulluno. lown Kentucky Louisiana Muiiit' Marytau'l MoiisacluiscttJi. . MIclilKnn .Missouri N. HuMipslilru. Nowiliirscy. . . Now York North Carolina. Ohio IVnnsylvanln.. . South Carolina. Tcnnciuou Toxos Vermont Vlrjtlnlo Wlscousln Minnesota ToUI Mnpl* lUf ir. I Cwta *uir«r. I 87 Ibi. 6t8 »,880 BO,7D0 "bo 2,021,103 78,407 487,40A 2&B 08,M2 47,740 7IW,B2fl 2,480,704 17»,0IO 1,209,868 2,197 10,8.17,484 27,082 4,888,200 2,826,fl2S 200 188,557 8,840,857 1,227,665 610,976 2,050 8,750 M6 10 826,001 77 s 7,851 The States which produced 1,000,000 i>ound8 and over of maple sugar in 1850 were as follows : NcwUainpsblrc. 1,298,863 Vermont 6,840,257 Now York 10.857,484 IVnnsy Ivan la. ... . 2,826,524 Pound*. Virginia 1,227,065 Indiana 2,921,122 Ohio 4,.'W8,200 Michigan 2,480,TO> Tho .State of Louisiana produces four fifths of all tho sugar cn>p of the Union, Iroth maple and cane. The production of maple depends very much upon tho circumstiinces of tho marlcet. Its manufacture is not a regular liusiness, lilce that of cane, hut is prose- cuted or not, verj- much to suit the convenience of tho farming population among whom the sugar orclmrds lie. Nothing hut a verj- high price of sugar — so high as to mnl(» or tJU foet, aiid a diameter of 12 or IH inches. The trunk In generally straight, though often studded with projections and excrescences. In all houltht'iil anil vlgunms trees, the outwarl bark is light-cohired, by which thev may readily I* distinguished. Wiien growing in open sit- uations, with room to s|!read on every side, where all its branches ore exposed to the freo action of light, this tree is an object of great Ix^auty. It somewhat rcM'inbles the Knglish oak, in Its outline, in tli-i lurm of its trunk, and disposition of its branches, and In the dense and massy cliaracter of its foliage. The wood of the iirer mThurimim, when newlv cut. Is white, but after being wrought and exposed bir some lime to tho light, it takes a rosy tinge. Its grain is lino and close, and when polished its lustre Is silky. It is very strong and heavy, but wants tho proper! c of durability, for which the Knglish and Americun white oaks are so higlily esteemed. The northern wood, when dry, welglis .IG iM>unds to a cub : foot, but that grown south weighs much leas. When cut, .md pro|)erly dried. It mokes excellent fuel, which Is equally esteemed by some, for that purjiose, with the oak and hickory. When exposed to the alternations of moist- ure and dryness, it soon decays, and for this reason it is not much used in civil and naval architecture. In Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, and further north. where the oak is not plentiful, the timber of this tree is substituted for it, in preference to that of tho beech, tlie birch, or tho elm. When jicrfcctly seasoned, which requires two or three years, it is used for axle- trees, Sjiokes, runners of common sleds, mill-cogs, and for chairs, and cabinet-work. It is also sometimes used for the frames of houses, keels, and the lower frames of vessels, piles, and foundation pieces for mills, canal locks, and for many other pur|x>se8 where strength is required, and tho work is nut exposed to the altematiiin of moisture and dryness. The wood of this tree exhibits several accidental forms In tho arrangement of its tibrc, of which cabinet-makers take advantage in manufacturing beautiful articles of furniture, such as bedsteads, writing-desks, and«tlicr fancy works, and for inlaying mahogany and black walnut, in bureaus, i)iano-fortes, etc. These forms or varieties may be classitied and described as follows : 1. Cmti.RD Maple. KrabU grit onduU, French. Tho undulations or medullary rays of this variety, like those of tiie red-flowered maple, arc lustrous, and in one light appear darker, and in another lighter than the rest of tho wood. Sometimes the zig-zag lines are crossed by beautifully-colored veins ; but, unfortu- nately, the lustre of these shades disappear by long exposure to light and air. 2. Dihd's-evk Maple. Kmble mouchilf, French. This variety exliil)it« small whitish spots or eyes, not exceeding a tenth of an inch in diameter, sometimes occurring a little way apart, and at others contigu- ously disposed. Tlio more numerous these spots, the more beautiful and valuable the wood. They are seen onl)' In old trees, which are still sound, and appear to arise from an Intlection of tho fibres from the centres of their trunks toward tho surface across tho grain. To obtain the finest effect, the wood should bo sawed MAP ISlfl MAf d« nurly ■• poMllilii lu ■ clirw^tlon (luritUi'l with thu riiticpiUrlo i'lri*li>i*. In mlJltliin to llie »liin, urn iiiverril with Imrk. Tim niimt viiluulil" viirli'ty \* known hy tlm nimiii of yuriii/nli'l Miiiilr-hiuh, or Imii/ii- tl'rnilil' ill- rimUur* rtirirrt, of tlm l''r«iKli. It |iriiHi'ntK nn iKMiinliliiKu of hIuuIi-k, iiKri'i'iilily iII'ihikiiiI, "omvtlmea riwuniliUiiK Aruljk: cliiirai'ti'm, wliirli rem. (lurit tlio wiMiil very upproprlata for fumy work", imil from itn MTjinlty it unuully ooniinumU IiIkIi lirlii-n. Mm otlii-r vurli'ty, known i)y tli« nuui'i nt Nilnr-iihili' MiiliU-kniili, or /i/u/n' d'eiiMf Mum- wi/ihI), of the Irenth, uxhlliitN » iillvi«ry luntrn liy (ha urruriK'cmnit of lt« lll>ri'i«, unii Ih lii«lily l>rl/.roi for tlm nuinu (mr- jioMiH a* thi< jirecudlnK. ultlioU)(li more lonnnun. Tlm wood of this »l«'
  3. ll»l Ktulii ui((*,rt In XB»f/rt(ml(«(i(l, liwf, pimy Itf mi-tl tmm the frdlowlnn tall., that tUiut nitAimtit nmimiil In tiiiU three fourths of the total exjiorl* (folii IhU H.HHlty (n Jlewfoundland. t'OMl'AKATIVr. 8TATK1IRNT BXIIIDITINO TllK QVAMTITIXa AND VAUIM i)K TMK futkl tl//)l, A»flMM iu>f,| I'ORT OK f»T. .Ioun's, N.F., nioM TUB Unitid Statiu or AuKaiiA, maisii |M« ♦>♦»* Niii, K»» ' DcMrlpllon t>f goutli. Uuwmlty. Apothecaries' « are ' Bacon and liams cwta.! Boof, salted bbls.; Bread cwts.l Butter " I Candles lbs.! Coffoo cwts. ludlaii corn bush. Indian meal bbls. Flour *' ilardwaro and cutlery Leather and leather wares Malas>»'9 Kails. Pork, salted bblsj Rum Kails. Tea lbs. Tobacco, innnufacturud Miscellaneous Total T,9I0 1,649 84,908 210 US R,0S6 6ft,117 12,IW0 9,'iSi9 14,281 90,078 Vtlm. (997 08 8,082 01 0,8tl<) 44 29,867 6S 97,«S8 72 11,104 28 2,789 08 608 12 IM,R10 tw 279,>ViA 01) tlH2 IIU 18,246 10 8.410 (Ml lasNflfl 00 9,724 20 2,\077 44 4,\4I8 2.1 8S,668 ,V) ~Sll,SOI 91) QuMilIly. 1,WT 74.|!>» 242 11.498 1)1,494 ;itl.9.V< ll,!iW 18,994 169,7&i mm f» ■tuM |« im -fii imn it) lll.iHi IW !«>■« « 1ii,i«i mi ■■it>,m -it) 'tm, Hi STATRMRNT ExniltlTINO TUP. ARTIOLea MAUe FKBR nV TUR KrCIPROCITY TuKATV, TUR VaM'R of SITH 1.MP0RTR0, AND TUR Amount of Dutiks taio tiirhron, urRisu TUK Fiscal Year Esuisa Juxr 80, l».'i4. lit* IMPfi imr.ti mrn thi ^(»l, K.», »»n ItWS, (»s». 1 qiiimi~ V.ln.. ' •■ • • i - «(.4M «4' Vfi 4.190 00 i,ifm ll.IMl IK) li.mi 89,105 00 'i.m n«,6sn no (!«.(«« 17,407 W Wl r 8.8K0 H* 9,1(10 00 'i.W.'i no MI.A'28 60 mi 6,479 80 • -J »),«87 26 mi 2,210 no iti.m 287,010 00 ».?(>• i.sor. 48 *l,7tl> )n,<26 00 1 nt 8ft,.1Sl W) 1 i.-i n«,i6fl SI ._ • -ft f,OT,78< M AnlelM. Rnte tit duty I (HT cent Stai'i.r Kmuti^ 1,1/ t>iu/l>l:ttf, 4*W illr.lti (Jiantitirs, KxpoRfKi) |-R<,K iut: t'litL'l /,> m. .>((«-»'», Nf.wrot'MO- I.ASO, TO TO*: I'iUm »M^M lit ^y|t.llll^^, in tmi Vrakk ^^^■), !«(((, 4iiW WA Valiinortr- Iklel. 20 flrain. Hour, and breadstuffs.. . . Animals, ft-oc " dutiable Fresh, smoked, and salted meat Cotton-wool, fr.'c Seeds, plants, shrubs, etc., free " " dutiable Vegetables Indrlcd fruits. Dried " Fish of all kinds Products of flsh, and of all I other creatures livlnx In tiie water. Poultry Kftm Hides and skins Furs, undressed Tails, undressed I'nwronght stone Unwrought marbl* Butter Cheese Tallow I 10 Lard Horns Manures Ores of metals, free •' " dutiable. . . . ICoal Il'ltcli, tar, am' turpentine. I.\»hcs iFIro and other wood All other wood 'Pelts , ;Wool iFlsholl KIce iBroom corn Bark iGypsum, ground I " unground, fTcc. . .Grindstones Ih-o stuffs. 1 6 lllemp, flax, tow, unnianuf'd Tobacco, unmanufactured . . . Bags. Total (8,900,078 7.'>,406 225,612 B,184 125 13,210 102,806 18 18,692 901,671 1,016 5,500 84,729 13,920 8 10,768 126,811 127 37 887 1,421 18,790 ,M0 254,776 75 4,441 72s,6'iS 574,051 24,6.89 69,1^2 110,402 20 97S 20 8.58 113,812 5 2:1,265 5 14,717 80 2,915 ."i 12,696 Oiitlea. (781,214 45,128 1,036 111 20,501 2,788 6 130,884 203 1,100 1,786 1,392 1,075 25i362 38 8 167 71 las 76,482 15 I 884 213.600 114,810 4,927 20,754 22,080 195 70 1,108 785 DiuHytitM «/ tt»'44. (•*»,._! KM. ({nsnOly. tlmu»*.- «|MM«y. iim MM' 60,3,17 im \.mn 2,145 m>> n 8,010 98 m 41 187 tifm .... IFIsb.eod ,...,, (h1hU»; " salmon w-ffn* I " licrrl«(f,.,..,,,.,,)(h(#J ,'>d.8:A»» I^H Nil, *fl)l I^SlTl. *'j*.«4.. cifntnl. Veftrl. , -^- -^^? ^ -■—' , iy>S l/» t,Hti III 1,8(U 1S.M 18 »,)W J( 2,S68 1666 42 lljiif 43 9,107 874 i 084J (7,898,868 (i;5^,677 | " Article .1, ft Is aijffiimj that <(/« ffftidesennmer- ated in tlie sihedMJjs lwf»'«H(" mtleiteii (the preceding list!, I)eiii{{ tlifi growth mui {/miluin <iindl4 D^ i4 ffpsj^lcwl'i* proclamation of NKW 1408 NEW thcMmc, 8cpl«nil>«r II, IMal. Dutenf Itmccrptanrn \iy ('iinmlti, '2'M Ni'iitiMiilivr, IHM ; livXcw HriitiHwlrk, lull NovchiIht, IH.Vlj liy Novu Sidtlii, Diiccmlipr ITp, IHM; l.y I'riiuo I'Mward'H IhIiukI, lltl Octiiljur, IH.'il ; ami liy "Newfdimclluiiil, lltli NnvcmliiT, Ix.Vi.— ia renulviMl itflolf ut tlm lii^oiciliition lic of Ciildniliiii, tlic micldlv iiiiil wcHlurn por- tiuiiH of which it now rnilinici's, Nuw (ininiiihi ii bounded on the north liy tlm Ciirililionn Hcii, on the ciMt liy tho republic of \>nu/.iiul«, i>n tho Biiutli-eimt by Ilru/.ilian (iiiiiina, on th» south by tlio rcpuldic of Kciiiiclnr, iind on the went by tiie I'Hcillc Ocoiui. It lies nioKtly lictwecn tho cqiiutor und 12° N. int., nnd between 70= and Wi° \V. long. Area about IMU.OOO aipiure miles, The t'uinoii or plains of tlio Orlnoci) extend over tli« entire tract, stretchintt away to the wcr.tern liaiilis of tho Orinoco ami to tlie CaHoiciuiare, between tlio Ilio Ne^ro on the south, and the Hio Apure on tho norlli. As fur sDUtii as the Vichada, tho nortiirrn part is a complete level, averHf{in){ only 1100 feet above sea-level near the mountains, whence it ({riiduaiiy, but almost Imperceptibly, declines toward tho Orinoco. With tho exception of n few polms that occur at nfeut intervals all over the plain, and some low bushy trees aloii(; the rivers, tills district is (piito destitute of trees. I Miring tho rainy season, wliidi is from April till November, rain fulls in torrents, ai^conipanied with feiirfiil lliun- der-stiirms, which usually occur between two and four o'clock in the afternoon ; but the contrast is very strikiiijf in Deceiniier, .lanuury and February, when a cloud never crosses the sky. This immense plain is not at all lit for cultivation ; but i .nuraeralile iierdsof cattle nnd horses Iind abundant pasture on it during tlio rainy season, tlioiigh they suil'er much durin){ tlie dry months, from Noveinlier till April. The wet sea- Ron is, on an average, 8= Kalir. hotter than the dry, and the mean annual temperature is 80° Kahr. The principal rivers of Now Granada are the Slaj;- dalena and ('iiuca, whicli run their whole course witliin tile territory of the republic, taking their rise in tlie .An- des near the southern frontier, anil after (lowing nearly the entire lengUi of tho country from south to north, unito in one channel, anil dlschuri^e their comliined waters through a delta, by three channels, into the Caribbean Sea, about W. long. 7o°. Hesidoa these two principal streams, a large number of tlio triliii- taries of tho Orinoco, having their sources in tho dif- ferent ranges of the Andes, drain tlie //(inuj of the cast. Of these, the principal are the Apura, Meta, Vicliada, Giinviarc, Kio Negro and ,la|iura, on the mutual boun- dnrj' with Kcmidor. The lakes of Now (iranada are inconsidorablr; the most celebrated Is tho Guatavita, not far from the city of HogotA, Into which, it la af- firmed, large treasures were thrown by tho natives durinf^ the Spanish invasion and conquests. Tho mineral riches of New Granada are consider- able, and mostly occur in the western declivity of tlio three chains of the Andes. They consist of salt-rock, lead, iron, copper, mercnri', platinum, silver, and gold. Along all the central and western declivity of tlie Andes gold is found, and is ol)toined by washing tho Kami of the rivers, as well as that on tho sides and foo^f some hills. It is found on the plateanx of Cuciita and (iirona in tho eastern Andes, where silver also is obtained In considerable quantity. There are also some very rich mines in the mountain region be- tween the Rlos Cauca and Magdalena, north of N. lat. fi\°. Platinum Is found in the western declivity of the western Andes, anl mercury In tho valley of Santa Rosa, near Antloqula, and near tho Pass of (Julndlu In the central Andes. «:opp(r is found in the eastern Andes, near I'limplona, and imrtli of Tuiija. Iron and coal o'liir in tlie moiiiitains iionler- ing on till! tabie-liiiiils uf llogota, ami leuii In various parts of the eastern Andes. In some mountains iiortli- ea^t of llogota large masses of rock-salt are fiiiiiid, and it Is worked by the government. Liirge quiiiitities of salt are furnished also by salt-springs In the same mouiitiins. From tlie great diversity of surface, soil, and cl|. mute of New Graiiaila, the natural ]iroiluctlons are ox- treiiivly varied, e.iibraiing almost every variety fiiiind ill the temperate as well us in the tropical /.one. Tlie chief objects of ciiltiirn over the talile-liinds of Itogotu, and the district nurtli of It, along the western slopes of the eastern riinge, are the cereals as in lairope, tlie aracaclm-roipt, iinil potatoes ; but in the river-valleys, and on the ciui^t-piuins, maize is the chief grain cuiti- vatod, witli rice, sweet |Kitatoes, and plantains. As articles of I'onimerce, are cultivated coll'eo, cotton, co- coa, toliacco, some sugar, and indigo. The forests alioimd witii numerous kinds of useful timber trees ; liut those converted into articles of export are the log- wood, llra/.il, Nicaragua, and fustic trees, whicii grow most abundantly in the forests of the .Sunta Marta I'lialn. The balsam of Tolii, so named from a village near Cartagena, !, collected largely on tho banks of the Itio Miiiu, and ipecacuanha on those of the liio Magdalena ; cincliona, or Peruvian bark, is olitaiiieil in largo quantities in tlio region of the Sierra do .Santa Marta, as well as i;- several other places ; cocliineal of the Unest (|uality i.< procured froii the banks of the ,Si>- gaiiiiizo. I'revious to tlio discovt r v of this countiv liy F.iiropeans, horses and cattle were unknown in tlicse regions ; lint now tasajo, or Jerked beef, and hides, i\<< articles of commerce, aro furnislied liy the immenso herds of cuttle which the llmmi sup|iort ; and mules, horses, and cuttle aro exported to the West Indies. The )Hipulation of New Grunuda are descendants of the Spaniards who have settled there during tlie three last centuries, and some of the native trllies Intermixed with a few negroes. Verj- diirereiit degrees of livil- i/.ation are found iiinong the native tribes. Before the invasion of the Hpuniurds, tlirtse of tho taiile-Iuiids ulong the eastern Andes liad organi/.ed a political sys- tem, and made some progress In the simpler orts of civilization. These, witli tlie Indians in tho iulley of tho up|ier Mugdulena, are still the best husbandmen in the republic, lletween tho Pucilic and the western Andes, nearly all tlve population are descei'.lants of the aboriginal iiativi! trilics, wliose progress in tlie arts of civilized lib) is very small, and almost exclusively owing to tho few Spanish priests scattered among them us missionaries. Nono but tho descendants of Kuro- pcana dwell in tlio treeless llwma ; and their occupation is the caro of the lierds of mules, horses, and cattle. Wandering Indians, still in a very birliarous state, occupy tlie southern wooded portion of the llanot. Tho numlicrs of tho respective rai es occupying Now Gran- ada liave lieen estimated by Huliner as follows : — White Cauciislans '. ■IM.IWO Nntlvo cIvlUzoil Aimrlcaiis 801,000 Ni'urocs KO.OOO Metis (lU'Scenilants of i^paDlunls and natives) 0911,000 Mulaltoes 2S;l,000 Hnuiiivcs 120,000 Zainbos (in .Maffilabna) 100,000 (Juadroncs 30,000 Total estlrnatoil populntlon In 1S68, 2,36:1,000 Agriculturo liolds the tirst place in tlie industry of New (iraiLida. Kice, cotton, toliacco, cocoa, sugnr, and tropical fruits, are among the jiroductions of the coust region ; while tho elevated plains yield maize, wheat, and all tho products of a temperate zone. Tho cultivation of tho soil, however, is curried on very carelessly ; and reclaimed land boars but a small pro- portion to the whole. On tho llaikoa toward the Ori- noco, almost the sole occupatiun of the pcoplo is the NKW uuo NKW lUIH) litry of I sugar, lof the |inuize, Tho very 111 pro- Tie Ori- 1 is the Maring of cattla tnA honimt. AKrioultur* U cliU(l)r in th« hunilii of thn cuiiverteil liiiDitni, who manifnat a *«ry (loctileil prmlilnctiun for tliiiia Uburi of |ki«i'h, ManufartiirliiK induitry in of no llttia Iniportanu* tli«t It run Imrilly Imi ruIiI to<"ii gntft, the cupital, and the othiT priiii!i|iiil tciwni, imlawl, •traw hatn, car|>etii, anil auiue other iirtlvloa urn iiiuiUt, but in n.. ouiie doea the native industry Immniuiu rmii- mannurate with the ilemands of the country, ao that nearly all mnnufactured kooiU In um are lni|H)rtiii|. MininK la carried on, hut only to a very inrunajdvralila deitree. There ia a ailver niiix' nt Surta Ana, in Itu- got&, the only one now wnriied ; and Kold U nil- lei'ti'd In a few luvnlitleK. I'.iiiiiraldA, iliunionda, and pearia, are alno ol>tulned. I he nalt inlnea of /ipai|ulra are, however, uxtenxively workoil. With tlie tixi'e|>> lion of thJK laiit, the niinlnK bualnen't of the country la left entirely to the poor and iKnorunt. The principal porta of New Oranada are— iu, on tlie I7tli of Decemlicr of that year. Venezuela separated herself in Novemlwr, 1821), and Ecuador in May, IHIIO; and the central part of Colombia instituted itself tho re- public of New (iranada on the '21st of Noveml)er, 18:)1, In 1832, the constitution of the State was sanctioned, under the form of a democratic republican govprnment, by dividing the supreme imwer Into the executive, legislative, and Judicial, under a central regimen, but giving to the provinces a munici|)al corporation, that each section might legislate in its local uifairs. The republic was divided into provinces, these into can- tons, and the cantons into parochial districts. Tlie State recognized no national religion ; but has declared that it will pay lor the Catholic worship, and protect Granadiana in its exercise. The law of Colombia, which attributed to itself the law of patronage exer- cised by Spain, lins continued in vigor to the present time. The republic was first divided into 18 provinces ; .and they have since been increased to 36, Tlie con- ■titution of 1832 was reformed in 1843, without any Tariation in the form of government. Commercial relations between the United States and New Granada are regulated by treaty of December 1% 1840, proclaimed June 12, 1848. The following sum- mary presents the principal commercial foatutes of this treaty : There shall be a perfect. Arm, and inviolable peace Hid friendship between the two republics. No favors to be granted by either party to other nations, which shall not become common to the other. Mutual bene- fits in trade and residence to be equally enjoyed. The coasting trade reserved by each country to itj< own flag. Kqualization of duties grunted by each country on Toasels and their cargoes. The privileges respecting 4U ilrawlNMika af|iMllMd In the flan ot each in the porU of ■Ithar, liH|i»nall»ii« and eaMirtallons of articles, the prmlui'* lit Hta(iufa<'l(ir* of eltUr country, into or from III* iitliar, miMall/ml as to diillea with similar liii|Kirta- tioiis and «»|ior(atlHa iif aillifr I'liliiiirr aiitiiorlxed to dls|si«e of their imraiiiial giaiits'aiiil teal estate within the Jorlsdiition of tlia iitliar, by snle, donation, testament, or other- wiaa I ami llialr rutireawnlalires, being citizens of the olliar riiillltfy, III al, lesd lo their said |KTsonal goods or real nalala, tt|ii>tlier liy testament or nb inlettato, aiul III taka \iii»»»iH\iin lliereof, either by themselves or othura oi'tiiiK iiit (hem, and to dl^irfise of the same at tlwlr will, |i«>liiKiitily siiih dues as the Inhabitants of the ciiimlry afa siiIiJm I to In like case h. Protection to (wraona ami |iro(i*rty furmally guarantied, whether audi |wraiiiia «rii transient or dwellers In the teh'ltories uiid«r Ilia Jill1«dl(tl<(ll irf either party, respectively; and ai'1'i-..a In Ilia liigal trililinals of each country, free and i|iir»»lr(' lad, ^rallied to lh« ellizens of theother, on lliu aaiiia lurills MS III the native or other I'ltiiiens of auiii roiiiilrv, l,llii>rtf of (imsdeni e and the free end uiiraatrlctad ritaa iif liiiHat guarantied. Moth partiei at liliarty U> trai1i< wllli lliirte at enmity with the other Kraa ablpa In Mialle .'fee gmxls, conlraliand of war e» ■'e|itad, I'iliKliiy'a \it»]mHy, to be liroteiteil by a neu- Iral Hag, iiiiist \m shipped within two months aftei dei|iirati/m it( war, Aftldes contraband of war specl- tied, llloi'lMita itellni'd in lie the besieging or blockad- ing of tliiiMH pUiwa only which are actually attacked by a iNilllgHriiiit fiifi'tt I'apaliln of |rreventiiig the entry of tlia nautfal, All Konlfahaiid articles liable to conflsca- tlou. Ill '■»*» lit l/loikade, vessels f'> be turned away, but nut ilnlalMwl, Vessels entering brrnre lilockade may ipiil uHimil>i>lcd, Itlifing a visit at sea, armed veaaela Ui mimUt "lit "f c iKrton-sliot. In case of war, sea-lettura, mr'iliimt** iit cafgo, etc.. to he furnished, showing 111 wfimi tlia pfiit«rty belongs, ?n case of war li«lw««B tlw Iwii tiailoNs, merchants n'iowed time Oi niontli!! til tlmw fcsiding In ports, and 12 months to thoaa reahillig l» Ida (Hleffif) to arrange fte ;r business, tr4iis|iiift (half alfada, elc, Citizens of ot ler occnpa. lions, who may Im fslnlillshed In the territories of the United Ktatna iif of M»w Of««»da, to bo respected and msiiitaiiittd ill llw full enjoyment of their personal lilierty Slid (ifijaifly, lllla ((fotecllim being de|ipndenl on tliuir I'oiidmi, Sii i iniliscadon of debts, etc., in the event of war, CItl/i'Ma itf the United States, their vessels ami llWfl'lwildlse, |i)a«ed on the same footing as those uf }iaw iit4lliuU in the ports of Panama. Itlglit of traiiait (lifii** llie Istlitnns of Panama guaran. tied to I'ilizaiia of IliK I'fliled Mates, and no other or higher tiilla tii Iw etnai'ted from them than from citizens of fiawlinrntnU. 1 he t'nlted Ntates guarantiea I to New (jranifta flia per lect nelilrallty of the Isthmus. ' Citizens to M iHild la'fMfNftlly respotvsible for infrin^ ing any arttiiji'a of tHA treaty ) lifit reprisals not to b« authorized, nnr war i1«(d«r«(t( until jnstlce hok bom dsuiand«d and rafMiHwt. NEW 1410 NEW Ad idilltlond trtlrU provMfn Ihiil lh« two npohllei will hold mill lulmit mi ni4'limiil •hliM, iif nn* «r tha otbar, nil thiiM thiit iliull l«< iiriiviilml liy thitir nii|Mii-- Itv* guv^rniiiriitii with • piitnit luauml tiTonllUif to lln Uwt. The Iraitty to I'lnitiiiiia In font twenty ynn fruin tlin lUl* iif It* riillllriilliin, vnil after that iwrlml th« uaual twvlva inonlhii' iiiitU'a rvqiilrad. Th« navi- gation ami taiilf rrKulntliinn of N«w (Iranaila ara marki'il hy a aplrlt of lllH-rallty, thnuKh tlia fiiralKn cuiiniiiiri'ii of tha republic hiia not, an yal, attainail any conniili'mlila lni|Kiniini'(i. Ilia I'ninmari'a of tha l'nita tein of properly ragubitrd industry. I'hu ipiantity exported In IMP excaadad that of tba preceding yaar by IIA |M>r rant. ; and tha retuma fur aavaral prscailing yeara exhibit a regular, though not ao large, augment- ation. ('ablnet-maker's woihI and dye-atulfa rank next In the exjKirta of tha country, in IKIH, they amounted In value to (lltl.AOO. The large bulk of tbeae products la aent to the I'liited Htatea, In part exclmnge fur pni- visliina, cotton giHHia, furniture, medicinal druga, und aundrlea. Kxcellent roflee and cocoa are nilaeil, chirtly In the valley of ('uciita ; whence transported to MarH» ralho. In Vanesuela, they enter Into the returns uf Veneiueliin exports. In addition to these products of New Granailn, • new apecles of bark has recently lieen diacovured, which pnimlsea to liecome a valuable article of com- merce. A letter from a mercantile house in l^indon to a carrea|iondent In New Graiiudu, written in IHI.'i, says ; " We Imported biat year 17,(HI0 aeroons ( bum. |>ers or buskela) of New Gninadii and MM) seroona of llo- iivinn, bark. The New Grumida all anld ; but the Ilolivlan being held for a miiiin[Hily price, is atill in the market — proving that thla kind bus very littla de- mand." Delondre, In hia new work on quininn harka, give* an anulyaia of n Now Granndinn bark containing quite as much quinine as Ilolivlan cnllsayn. If tbecalUuvHof Santa K6, or fumigasiign and pitaya Imrks of New Granada, bad been introduced Into the nmrket befura the lluliviun, there would bo no qiieatlon about thi quality of the alkaloids they yield. There aeems u pnibablllty that thla New Grins.ii, ^ liark will siHin enter largely Into the export i i r that country. The chemical test to wliicli it Imi^ i.,.. i\ subjectnl In Kngland, has ulreudy atunipnl ' t-. n vml- uahle acqulaition to the materia mcilica ' the ^asr- iiMllcal Bcurcity of quinine, which aomeliiii« - lisea that article to a most exorbitant price, win mailer it still more |>opular. In n>ference to thla h.irk, and other valuable products of New Graniida, a ro|iort aubinltter««, •• fi>llii«rii i Artii'i.k I. Thit fiilliiwInK |Hirt« ind UrrUorU* of til* provliii'it cif ChiKii ahitll Im fri'* for (ll nallnnn In thn wiirlil, friiiii .Innuary I, IHM, fur twrnty yn«r« ; 1. Tim |K>rl4 iif tli« Atliinllo ami thii Urrltiiry w*> trri'il liy thn Itlvvr Atriitn, fn>rn Itn iiiniith tn it* I'lin- lliixni'ti with Ihit Klvrr (liiltii, cnniiirKlicnilrcl Iwtwann (li« wnatxrn tlmlii of tlix Anilim ami thiti Imnih of It liiwnnl tlm puatward wlili'h upur*l«a ulil pn>vlnc« from that of AiitriiM^hln. 'i. 'I'hx portii of the PariHo ami lh« turritory watarcil by thu Klvsr Han Juan, from It* umlHoii'liurn, aa far aa tha city of Navlta, o« Iw Itvied, M\if thoM of toll, piiaKAK", o«d axciitc, corri-ii|Hindlnt( to tha muni- cipiil ravanuaa, and in coufornilty with tha cxiatiu|{ Uwfi, Aht. n. In onler to rvcover thn dutiea on im|iorta- tlon of fornlKn niorchumllso whiili may Iw introduced for the coniumpliiin nf tha interior of ths rent of tlio province, and otiier provinren of the rrpuldlc, thrrn •hull Iw rataldi'ihpcl twiicuntoni-houiisa, nnn in th« city of QuIIhIo, and thu other in tha elty of Navtta, with neceimary ofllcern, etc., etc. Anr. 4. Thu executive power la authorized, when It decma it indiKpcniial>le for wci((hty nintlvea of pul>iic convenience, to lumign other [Kirts for cutom-houiies thiin those exprcHHed in tliin law; in which cane, thn maritime ports expromied in article 1, and the territory comprised lietwecn the coaittH and the xpot on which •uch cuetom-houses shall he lined, alunu can enjoy freedom. A ship canal which shall connect th Atlantic and Pacinc oceuhH U at present a great co .unercial desld- erutuni. ily fiuch a canul ihc soiling distances between various points would l)0 ^ll"rle^c(l hy, not hundreds, but thuu.sunda of miles, while the duiii^crs now incurred in doulding Capes Horn and (iwd llopo would lie •voided. There are at present no les^ than seven canal routes proposed — the Trliuantipfc, the llnaJuriu, the AVcn- ragiian, tlie Panama, the iScm Migutl, the Chipo, nnd tlio Atinlo. The liitter route is thrute. He was led to do tids from what had l>een aai> liy Itaron Humholdl, and also by General Mwsquera, cx-I'residentof New Granada. The result of this expedition was not favoraide ; but the fourth expedition, after an absence of several months, reported that a route had been discovered by wliicli a canal could bo built connecting; the Atlantic and I'a- ciAc oceans without lodes, and at such a cost as would render it available to commerce. Mr. Ward, of New York city, made a speech in the House of Iteprcsenta- tivesin relation to tiie proposed canul. lie staled lliut the total tonnage owned in the United States tlint would iiao this canal, if constructed, is 1,857,00U tons. The cargoes he values at $10<),2!I4,000, nnd the vessels at $92,000,000, making the amount of value afloat belong- ing to the United States (193,000,000. Upon this basis, he states, the saving to this country from the use of this canal would be 1)36,000,000. The aggregate of the trade and tonnage of all nations which would pass Ihmugh lh« rnnni Is rsllinaled at ♦■l()7,n(l«,00(i, ami the tot.il saviuK nnnually at |il!t,filM»,n(H). The •■llnialril cost of the worji \, #r;l,ia)O,0lMI, and It la pr.. poMil that the I'nitetl Niatea slmuld guarunlae to pay tha inlarast, at the rata of Hto per cent, upon thu amount ex|i«ncled In tlm proreu of ilin work, from year to va,ir, for the |kuI great em|Kirlum of New Granaibi — at least of 'JO of the principal agricultural provinces, containing a [Mipidatlon of l,fl2H,171 inhabitants. The present tarilT regulations of New (iranadu, to lie found in Part II., have been in force since May 1, IN.U ; but by n late act of (''ingress, the manumission duty of 'IQ per cent. Is to be suppressed, and, in lieu, the additional duty of 'i.'i per cent, on the total uuiomit of the Import duty is to lie increased to fiO |icr cent. The port regu- lations of New (irunada are such as are duenieil neces- sary. AS well in view of the general convenience and safely of vessels, as to answer proper police anil harlmr discipline. Places are polnteil out into which ull ruli- bish, etc.. Is to be thrown. Ilullast is to be taken in and thrown out under written authority of pniper of- Hcers. Cannon ure not to be iired without permission of the captiiin of the port, At Cartagena, it is for- bidden tn sound the upper or interior cliannels of tho port, or to have any communication with the shore between eight o'clock ut night and live o'clock in tha morning. It is also forbidden to disembark any indi- vidual before the visits of the ollicers of customs and captain of the port. For the violation of any of these regulations, Anes ure imposed, varying from lU to 40 dollars, according to the nature of tlie case. There are no quarantine regulations at any of tho porta of New Granada, and consequently no bills of iieulth are required. No liglit or hospital money is I'uied. No local Imjiost is charged. At the port of Savanilla there is a water-tax upon oil vessels arriving there of i(4 each, imposed by the provincial legislature. Pilots are employed and paid by government. Their duty is to visit all vessels requiring their assistance, and all vessels coming from a foreign jKirtare required to pay the full fees, whether they take on board n pilot or not. The fee is (11, in and out. There it also a fee of $6 40 to bo paid to the captain of the port on visiting the vessel, and $1 CO for the interpreter. With tho exception of the interpreter's fee, this amount Is also levied on New Grunadian vessels. Ily a decree of tho Congress of New Granada, bearing date Juno 19, 1856, which, like that of July 20, already given, comet to hand as these sheets fit to press, new regu' NEW 1412 NEW Utiona respectinif tonnago due* are eatabliahed, of which a trunnUtioii is given as followH: "Tonnage dues, port dues, pilotage, and visit feeK, shall be the (.ame in all the ports of the reputilic, including the free ports of the Isthmus of Panama, Cartagena, Chnco, Buenaventura, and Tumsco, and the following sums iball be collected : 1. Every vessel under 100 tons ■hall pay 40 cents per Uranadinn ton for her capacity. 2. Every vessel exceeding 100 tons shall pay 40 cents per ton for the first 100 tons, and 20 cents per ton for each ton over the same, 8. Tonnage duos shall only be paid at the first port at which a vessel touches, pro- ceeding from foreign countries ; vessels proceeding from one port to another in the republic shall not pay tonnage dues. 4. War vessels of the couutiy, or of friendly nations, and transports assimilated to tliem, which may touch at the ports of the republic, shall not pay tonnage dues. 5. The executive may exempt from tonnage dues, and p2,037,785. The countries whence this sum was exported, and the amounts from each, ara given as follows : CallfornU (42,627,852 Mexico 2.765.006 Porn and Chill 6,5S4,S76 Australia 60,&57 Total (62,087,788 The total number of passengers who crossed the Isthmus the same year was 23,690, of whom 13,937 came from California, and 0753 were proceeding to that country. In 1855 the total number of passengers that crossed the Isthmus was 28,704. Of this num- ber there came from California 10,015, and there pro- ceeded to that State 16,289, all in American steamers ; by the British steamers there came from Europe 1300 passengers, and there proceeded to Europe 1100. The transit of gold and silver the same year amounted to $40,407,907. This amount was brought from the fol- lowing points : Ban Francisco (81,671,816 Clilll and Puru 6,854,578 Mexico 1,367,961 Panama 51.3,558 Total (40,407,907 The total exports of New Granada, during the year ending December 31, 185.'?, amounted to $30,819,595 65. Of this aggregate amount, Cartagena exported $17,91.1,146; Cucuta, $4,153,898; Guanapolo, $14,- 312 ; Rio Ilac'.ia, $628,069 40 ; SavaniUa, $8,105 728 25 ; Tumaco, $34,442. RANAPA, raoji October 1, 1840, to Jult 1, 1856. Thk cnalng Kiporli, ImporU. Whareor thfro wu In Bullion K&d Spocie. Tonnaga C1«ftrad. DoiiMiUc. Foreign. ToUl. ToUl. Eiported. Imported. AniericfUi. F<,ri.l((ii. Sept 80, 1841 9 mos. 1848'!!!!!'.! June 80, 1844 1846 1846 1847 1(*( 1849 1850 ToUl.... 18,51 June 80, ls52 ISW 18.^4 1856 18.56 (60,662 67,863 72,009 75,621 48,717 61,849 58,665 79,166 244,460 970,619 (1,704,020 (2,607,701 1,»VA36 7.58,891 8,\5,254 892,245 1,444,848 (59,tt7S 46,861 89,944 49,225 80,260 24,095 19,405 45,488 68,824 285,610 (110,485 1P8.724 161.958 124,846 78,977 7,%944 78,060 124,608 297,784 1,256,219 (144,117 176,216 11,5,7.38 189,616 171,921 67,043 166,6.54 213,296 168,960 591,992 (14,153 ii'.iso \im 52,077 27.1,000 (42,182 41,5,84 89,714 62,605 47,389 82,100 7.5,179 77,600 62.562 430,089 M3 1,015 1,245 1,091 1,562 1,069 665 7*1 25,094 121,763 "156,860 20,5,390 1,8.1,875 2a5,fi03 1711.460 121.,563 129,518 722' 161 "298 7.14 ],.567 1,.1.54 6,237 11,003 12,595 5,158 8,810 1.1M 1.658 1,812 (708,526 (M.3,121 217.,558 108,079 82.062 169.800 166,649 (2,407,,545 (8,(VI0,822 1,51.5,794 856,470 «37,80« 1,062,048 1,611,892 (1,988,648 (69.5.606 7.50,527 NV1,.523 1,478..520 1,799,672 2,8aS,019 (860,710 (6.5,895 60,461 8,4l!2 2,017 278,804 267,474 (911,104 (49,5,759 4.56,744 29.5,9,56 885,022 478,944 232,490 Principal Ports. — Chagres, a sea-port town of New Granada, Central America, on the northern coast of the Isthmus of Panama, at the mouth of the Chagres Kiver, on the Carilibean Sea. Latitude of fort San I*revon° 18' 6" N., long. 79° i)9' 2" W. It is a mere collection of huts, with a harlmr only for vessels drawing 10 or 12 feet of water ; but it has frequent trafflc with Panama, and is sometimes resorted to by shipping from the United States, Cartagena, and the British West Indies. Panama, a city and sea-port town of New Granada, on the Paciflc, 38 miles soutli-eiist of Chagres, lot. 8° 56" N,, long. 79° 31' 2" W. Populotlon cstiniafpd at 7000. It stands on a rocky peninsula, projecting into the Ray of Panama, and has an imposing aspect from the tea. It* streets are well ventilate>!, and it t* aatd NEW 1413 NEW Cleftrad. Foreign. 722 161 298 734 1,567 1,361 6,237_ Tl,063 12.585 6,158 8,810 1.164 1.653 1,812 , and the lOrnnadn, Is, lat. 8° limntpd at Ttini; into Ipcct from n it Is aald to bs cleaner than moet Spanish American cities. It is encircied by irregular and not very Btrong fortilica- tions, constructed at different periods. The houses are partly of wood, straw, and other fragile materials. The tides daily rise and full from 20 to 27 feet, so that it ic |;ieculiarly well fitted for thr repair and building of ships. The Panama railroad has one of its termini here, and another at Aspinwall, on Manzanilla Island, Navy Bay. Trains talce about four hours in passing from sea to sea. See Panama. Cartagena, or Carthagena, a strongly-fortified city and sea-port of New Granada, South America, of which republic it is the chief naval arsenal, capital of the province, on a sandy peninsula in the Caribbean Sea. Lat. of the dome 10° 26' 86" N., long. 76° 34' W. Population, 10,000, nine tenths of whom are a mixed blucli race. Its excellent port is defended by two forts, and is the only harbor on the north coast of New Granada adapted for repairing vessels. Cartagena is the principal dcput for the produce of the provinces watered by tlie Cauca and Magdalena Rivers, and is connected with the Magdalena by a canal. It exports sugar, cotton, coffee, tobacco, hides, specie, b'lllion, etc. Under the Spaniards, this city was the seat of a captain-general, and one of the three tribunals of the Inquisition in America. It was the tlrst town that proclaimed independence, and in 1815 endured a most vigorous siege, and was subdued only by famine. Population of the province, 103,7H3. ITew Hampshire. It is situated between lat. 42° 41' and 45° 11' N., and 70° 40' and 72° 30' W. long. It contains 8,030 square miles. PopuUtion in 1790, was 141,885; in 1800, 138,858; in 1810, 214,4ti0; in 1820, 244,101 ; in 1830, 209,328; in 1840, 284,674 ; and in 1850, 317,864. Kuril) History. — John Mason, one of the first emi- nent settlers of the north-eastern coast of New En- gland, having agreed with Sir Ferdinando Georges to make the Pidcataqua the division line between them, took subsequently from the Plymouth (^oimoll • pn- tent of whot lies between thut rlvBf mill Mufrlniilt'k, ond he called that tract of laiiil " A'««> //kw/mAiW," because he had been Guvarnor of I'urtillllimth, in Hampshire, in England, In the year 1680 New llamimhlra liO|mMtBl1 fhtttl the province of Mossachusotts, And w»»( trntnlillKlltxl hk an independent royal province, U WM ilftufwyiril united agoin with MassachusBtts, liMt III 1?4II llliullv separated, and has existed blnca (Imt %\\m «i m iHile- pendent community, first under the imniB of " Htf J'mi'' ince of New Hampahire," and slnoa 177U Mllikf ihllt of " the Stale of A'ci." Hnmpthire," The Connecticut Itiver has Its snurex III tllS lllt|ll- lands, on the nortli border of the Htuto, mill iU WBst branch forms the boundary line butWBBlt Nuw ilnillti' shire and Canada to within one mila of tlio 4ftUl ilHtjfse of north latitude. It.s general uuHrw is Mmtll liy wsdl, and dividing New Hampshire and VsPMUmt ll \m*»» through tlw western part of MusnAclmtHHii, Htlil (he central part of Connecticut, where It siiUrs \m\^ U. land Sound. Merrimack Ulver, th» IVnilijcWiiitsIl branch, rises near the Notch In the Wlilto MmiihIiiIhi., and is joined l)y tl:e Winniplseugea, TO mjltiit Imluw the source of the former. It here takes the mhiiio (if MKf. rimack. The Amlro«coggin ami Huou lliver* rliw niiil have a part of tlieir courba in tliis Ntiite, Granite is plentiful tlirougliuut the Mtilte, Hint itUe marble and limestone. Iron ore, kIhh, ||m, ItiDij, on,) copper exist, some of which have been wofkoil to ||(U vantage. There were in this State In '-,160, 3,3n|,4HH wntt uf land improved, and 1,140 ':^U of milm|lPiiVMil lilliit III farms. Cash vslup ui farms, tfio.y^D.OH?, gtlil tll« value of iniphiucnts and machinery, ♦a,lll-|,l'Ji1, J,im .Js. of }'arn, valued at 92,- 489,967 ; 1 establishment with a capital of 94,000, em- ploying 80 persons, producing 20O tons of pig iron, etc., valued at 917,200 ; 26 establishments with a cap- ital of 9282,700, employing 874 persons, and making 6,764 tons of castings, etc., valued at 9371,710 ; 2 es- tablishments with a capital of 94,000, employing 6 ])ersons, manufacturing 110 tons of wrought iron val- ued at 910,400 ; 178 flouring and grist mills, 80 saw mills, 165 tanneries, with a capital of 9441,976, em- ploying 613 persons ; 40 printing offices, 2 daily, 86 weekly, 1 semi-monthly, and 2 monthly newspapers. Capital invented in manufactures, 918,242,114 ; value of manufactured articled, 923,160,608. Agricultural Productt, etc. — Wheat, 185,668 bush- els ; rj-e, 183,117 ; Indian com, 1,578,670 ; oats, 978,- 881; barley, 70,266; buckwheat, 65,265; peas and beans, 70,866 ; potatoes, 4,804,919 ; value of products of the orchard, 9248,563; produce of market gardens, $56,810; pounds of butter made, 6,977,056; of cheese, 8,196,563; maple sugar, 1,294,868; molasses, 9,811 gallons ; l)eeswax and honey, 117,140 pounds ; wool, 1,108,476; flax, 7652 ; silk cocoons, 4,191 ; hops, 257,- 174 ; tobacco, 50 ; hay, tons of, 698,854 ; clover seeds, 829 bushels ; other grass seeds, 8,071 ; flax seed, 189 ; and were made 344 gallons of wine. Valne of home- made manufactures, 9393,456 ; of slaughtered ani- mals, 91,622,873. Principal Port. — Portsmouth is the onlj' sea-port in the State. It is situated on the south side of the Pis- cataqua River, on a peninsula, three miles from the sea, lat. 48° 40' N., long. 70° 45' W. The harbor is one of the best in the world ; it has 42 feet water at low tide through the whole channel, and the current is suflicient to prevent it from freezing. The United States' Xavy Yard is located on an island near the main bank of the river. The city has valualile manu- factures and a large foreign and country trade, and being intersected by the line of railroads between Bos- ton and Portland is connected thereby with all the New England and Canada towns ; a railroad also ex- tends to Concord. The tonnage of Portsmouth in 1866, was 84,590 tons. The principal places in this State are Concord, the capital, Jlunchoster, Portsmouth, Dover, Exeter and Nashua. There were in 1856, 15 railroads, with 660 miles of traqk completed and in oiwration, and 24 in course of construction. The only canals are those facilitating the navigation of the Merrimack River. For comniurco, resources, etc., of New Hampshire, see Hunt's Merch. Mag., iv., 846; Am. Jo. Science, xlix., 27 ; Am. Quur. Ueg., xiii., 170; Sforth Am. Rev., xviii., 33. New Jersey lies between 88° 65' and 41° 24' N. lat., and between 73° 69' and 75° 29' W. long. It is 168 miles long and 62 broad, and containing 6,851 square miles. Population in 1790 was 184,189; in 1800, 211,149 ; in 1810, 245,592 ; in 1820, 277,575 ; in 1830, 820,779 ; in 18-10, 373,!t06 j and in 1860, 489,555. J'iarlij llislory of New Jeney. — The shore and ter- ritory of the present State of New Jersey were at first, since IGUU, a part of the great English province of northern Virginia ; and then (Nince about 1621) it was considered (at least by the Uutch) as a part of their Ne\o Nctherlandi. The ICnglisli, however, always claimed the country; and in the year 1648 Sir Edmund Ploydnn and some English gentlemen received a charter and grant of a great tract of country "lying midway between New England and Maryland," tu which the name of A'ew AlhioH -mn given, Thia is the fint English mhm which this country received. The charter had, how- ever, no ,{r(\>t consequences. The Dutch ramainud In possession, . nd the name New Albion was forgotton. When the English conquered the New NutlierlKlids for the Duke of York, all thia land was included In the large territory given to the Duke of York, llut the Dnke of York very soon sold (as early as the year 1664) that part of his grant which was lying Itetwean Delaware and Hudson's River to Sir Oeorga Carterat and John Lord Berkeley. The grant which he gava to them is dated on the 24th x>f June, 1604, 'I'lia country received at once the name of New Jersey, in compliment of Sir George Carteret, whoaa ancestor* came from the Island of Jersey, and who was biinsulf Governor of the Island of New Jersey. The Hudson and Delaware Rivera flow on tho eaat> em and western sides of this State. The Karttan U navigable 17 miles to New Brunswick, and it entern RaritanBay; the Passaic is navigable fur small veib sels fur alwut 15 miles, and enters into Newark Hity | the Ilackensack, navigable 15 miles, also enters Nuw> ark Bay. Great Egg Harbor River, navigable >iO miles for small craft, passes through a bay of the siinia name and enters into the Atlantic. The j)rilM'l|ial bays are Newark and Raritan. Delaware Bay U on its south-eastem l)order. It hoa two important oamw, viz.. Capo May on Delaware Bay, and Sandy Houk at the entrance of the Bay of New York. It contain* quarries of gi-ou i "' stone, valuable mines uf zinc and of iron, " • ,< outh parts, beds of mitrl, The principal r' •.!' >. i!" State are Trenton, tlta capital, Princeton, ' ".unswick, Rubway, Ellzii. bethtown, Jersey Oity, Hobuken, Paterson, Ha»kun> sack, Murristown, South Amiray, Freehold, Burllnglun, and Camden. There were in the State, July, jH.'iy, 88 banks with a paid capital of 95,147,741, The t4itiil tonnage of the State, Januar}', 1853, amounted tu |t,1,. 300 tons. The northem part of the State is mountainous, lining crossed by a branch of the Alleghany Ridge; tho niii|> die portion is agreeably diversified by bills and viiU leys; while the southern part is level, sandy, and mostly covered with pines and a scanty growtli of shrub oaks. The northem and middle portions uf tba State have a fertile soil. There were in the State in 1860, 1,767,001 acres uf improved land, and 984,956 of unimproved in farnix, Cash value of farms 9120,237,511 ; and the vajuit uf implements and machinery 94,425,503. Live Ntiii'H\-^ Horses, 63,955 ; asses and mules, 4,089 ; niiUh cows, 118,736; working oxen, 12,070; other cattle, 80,)ftft| sheep, 160,488 ; swine, 250,370 ; value of llva stuck, 910,679,291. Agricultural Products, rtc— Wheat, 1,601, 1!)H JMiali. els produced; rye, 1,255,578; Indian com, H,7ft9,70-I | oats, 3,378,063; barley, 6,492; buckwheat, 878,(l.'ll( peas and beans, 14,174; potatoes, 8,207,236 1 .iWMut potatoes, 608,015 ; value of products of the orulmrd, 9607,278 ; produce of market gardens, 9475,24'^ ; Ilia, of butter made, 9,487,210; of cheese, 865,766 ) niitjila sugar, 2,197 ; molasses, 964 gallons ; beeswax illid honey, 156,69-t lbs.; wool, 375,396; flax, IMJ.imS | ailk cocoons, 28 ; liops, 2,138 ; tobacco, 310 ; buy, 4II,>,- 950 tons ; clover seed, 28,280 bushels ; other grasi seeds, 63,051; flax seed, 16,625; and weru made, ),• 811 gallons of wine ; value of bonie-niada ninnilfiiu- tures, 9112,781 ; of slaughtered animals, 9'^6;iM,55'i, Manufactures, etc, — There were in the Statu In INftl), 29 cotton factories with u capital invested uf i|l|liil|,' 000, employing 739 males and 1,299 females, iiruilii. cing 8,122,580 yartis of sheeting, etc., and 2,0lNt,0U0 pounds of yarn valued at 91,289,648; 61 woolen fai'> tories with a capital invested uf 9410,1160, enijiluylng 407 males and 137 females, manufacturing 771,lllO yards of cloth, etc,, valued ut 9784,772; U «stulilUlt> ments making pig iron, with a capital Invastud uf NEW 1415 NEW »ore» iif In Utmo, VllllIB uf Ndii'd',— 'h cowii, tU),\b!i I Iva Ktiivk, L',114 liiiiil)- ,7M',7i>-l I H7K,U!I'I I !ltll JWMOt iiruliiinl, ,21!! 1 111*. all I iilit|il« iwitx Hll>) lH'i,|lllft I liiiy, til.S- tliBf isroim ma(l», J I' inriDiil'ittt- ,(iilH,fiM, Ui III IHW), if ♦l.lWl,. «, (IMllll- i.oim.iioo roolmi fiW' em|ilii)'lil|{ It? 771, HI" UHtUlllUlt- kVUIitud uf #•67,000, emploTing 600 persons, producing 24,081 of pig iron, etc. ; entire value of products $917,000 ; 46 Mtebliihments witli a capital of (698,260, employing 108 persons, malcing 10,269 tons of castings, valued at #686,430 ; 68 establishments with a capital of |!l,016,- M8, employing 693 persons, manufacturing 8,162 tons of wrought iron valued at $629,273 ; 891 flouring and grist miUs I 76 printing offices, 61 newspapers, 8 daily. 60 weekly, and 8 monthly publications. Capital ia- vested in manufactures, $22,184,710 ; value of manu- factured articles, $39,134,614. The Delaware and Raritan Oanal, 42 miles long, and the Morris, 102 miles long, are the canals in this State. There were, Jan* uary 1, 1856, 11 railroads with an aggregate length of 604 miles in operation, and 29 miles in course of con* r.truction. The State of Xew Jersey has no public debt. FoaKIUN COVMKBCE Of TUK STATU or Nsw Jk.' lET, raoH OcioDEK 1, 1920, to Jolv 1, 1886. Xtm andinf EtpurU. Import*. i Toouagt cloarad. 1 Diatrlct Tomui^o. DotlMltlA. Fonlgn. ToUI. Total. Anw.lcAD. Fclpi. Rflfflattrtd. KurolMud Ucunied. 8ept 80,1881 188,618 |98 $88,711 $17,606 281 207 84,048 ; 1822 88,651 «... 88,851 108,190 2,802 i 1823 28,064 «... 26,n«t 5,988 1,293 1824 28,989 28,9S9 687,518 1,468 1 1825 48,980 8,288 47,218 27,6!(8 1.687 .... J 182« 80,859 7,106 87,965 48,004 1,088 1 1827 25,627 25,627 888,497 933 871 I 182H 1,899 1,892 706,872 786,247 ISO .... 1 1829 8,022 • • • > 8,022 414 .... 1880 Total.... 8,224 100 8,824 18,44t 627 1200,821 •10,587 $801,858 $2,684,999 10,718 871 8epi80,1881 tll,480 $11,480 708 1,284 80,973 1882 68,991 $7,803 61,794 $70,460 782 800 1888 80,858 1,900 Si,irA 170 1,4-24 1884 8,181 8,131 4,492 790 236 1888 68,8«8 7,678 74,041 18,082 2,837 1888 88,769 24,040 62,809 24,268 8,076 .... 188T 19,640 24,577 4»,217 69,152 427 9,002 1888 20,010 • • • • 28,010 1,700 090 1889 78,484 19,645 99,079 4,182 8,904 847 1840 Total.... 14,888 1,198 16,076 19,209 725 .... t850,504 $86,886 t487,840 (212,660 18,158 10,838 Bept.80,1941 $19,166 $19,166 $2,315 2,789 842 62,762 1842 64,931 8,976 70,907 148 2,801 .... Binos. 1843 8,083 2,583 10,621 W, June 80, 1844 18,899 4,800 18,189 17,670 009 .... 1845 • . •• .... ,, 82- 1848 4,0S7 4,087 es6 181 1847 18,428 700 19,128 4,887 852 615 1848 62 • • • • 62 1,888 220 1849 865 8 868 4,258 429 1880 ToUl.... 1,655 1,655 1,494 180 931 $180,606 •13,572 $1H178 84,013 6,662 2,244 June 80, mM tl89 .... $189 (1,111 928 877 88,818 1862 1,483 • • .. 1,483 2,491 1,898 1888 1,881 t . . • 1,854 8,&'i9 .... 2,681 ISM 2,225 ■ • - . 2,228 8,971 .... 2,029 1855 68T 687 1,478 606 .... 1 1866 890 .... 890 2,783 603 .... 1 .... : Principal Porta. — Jersey City is a flourishing city at the mouth of the Hudson River, opposite Mew Yoric oity, and is the terminus of the southern railroad travel, and also of the New York and Erie Railroad and of the Morris Canal. Though a separate muni- cipality, it may be considered as a suburb of the great metropolis, with which it connects by several ferries. It is a place of considerable manufacturing industr}-, •hip-building, and commerce, and it is the American station of the Cunard line of New York and Liverpool steamships. Paterson is situated immediately below the falls of the I'ussaic Uiver, 17 miles from New York. It ranks next to Newark in manufactures, and is the third city in the State as to population. Its principal products ue cotton and silk goods, locomotives, machinery, paper, etc. On the opposite side of the river is the manufacturing town of Manchester. Puterson com- tnunicates with New York by the Paterson and Hud- son Railroad and Morris Canal. The other towns of note are Newark, New Bruns- wick, Camden, Trenton, and Princeton. New London, Connecticut, is situated on the Thames Kivor, it miles from the ocean, 60 miles east of New Haven by railroad. Its harbor is one of the best In the United States, but is seldom visited by for- eign vessels. The whale fisheries constitute its main interest, and it has also a lar^te coasting trade. Sev- eral railroads connect it \.'ith the interior, New York, and Uoston, and regular steamboats ply to and from New York. The tonnage in 1866, was 40,371 tons. Population in 1830, 4360 ; in 1854, 10,000. New Mexico, a Territoty of the United States of America, lies Ijetween lat. 32° 30' and 38° 82' N., and long. 103° and 110° W. from Greenwich, En gland. Area, 210,744 square miles. New Mexico is a mountainous country, with an ex- tensive valley in the middle, running from north to south, and formed l)y the Rio del Norte. The valley is generally about 20 miles wide, and Iwrdered on the east and west by mountain chains, continuations of the Rocky Mountains, which have received here dif- ferent names, as Sierra Blanca, de los Organos, Os- cura, on the eastern side, and Sierra de los GruUas, de los Mimbres, toward the west. The height of the mountains south of Sante Vis is from 6000 to 8000 feet, while near Sante F^, and in the more northern regions, some snow-covered peaks rise tVom 10,000 to 12,000 feet al>ove the sea. The mountains are principally composed of igneous rocks, as granite, sienite, diorite, basalt, etc. On the higher elevations, excellent pine timber grows; on the lower, cedars, and sometimes oak; in the valley of Rio del Norte, mezquite. The main artery of New Mexico is the Rio del Norte. Its head waters were explored in 1807 bj- Captain Pike, between 37° and 88° N. latitude; but its highest sources are supposed to be aliout 2° further north in tlie Rocky Mountains, near the head waters of the Arkansas and the Kio Grande (of the Colorado of the west). Following a generally southern direction, it ."T^'- NEW i4ie j:ew runs through New Mexico, where i ,j principn'. afflu- ent is the Uio Obamaa from the -rost, and winds its way then in a eoutb-eastern direction along the Irar- d I of Chihuahua, Coahuilii, and Tamaulipas, to the (iuS of Mexico, in 26° 66' N, lat. Its trihutaries below El Paso, are the Pecos, from the north; the Conchos, 8alado, Alamo, and San Juan, from the south. The whole courte of the river, in a straight line, would be near 1,200 miles ; but by the meander- ing of its lower half, it runs at least 2,000 miles from 'he region of perpetual snows to 'he almost tropical climate uf the Uulf. The elevation of the river above the sea near Albuquerque is about 4,800 feet ; at el Paso del Norte, about d,H00 ; am! at Keynosa (between 800 and 400 miles from its mouth), about 170 feet. The full of its water between Albuquerque and el Paso, is from 2 to 3 feet in a mile, and below Keynosa 1 foot in 2 miles. The fall of the river is seldom used 08 a motive power, except for some floi'r mills, which are oftener worked by mules than water. The pHnci- pal advantage which is at present derived from the river, is for agriculture, by their well-munaged sys- tem of irrigation. As to its navigation in New Mex- ico, even canoes could not lie used, except perhaps during May or June, when the river is in its highest (tatf from the melting uf the snows in the mountains. The river is entirely tao shallow, and interrupted by too many sand-bais, to promise any thing for naviga- tion. On the southern portion of the river, the ncent exploration by Captain Sterling, of the United States' steamer Major lirown, iios proved that steamboats may ascend from the Gulf as far as I^redo, a distance cf 700 miles. Altliough tlie steamboat u.ied did not draw over two feet of water, yet the explorers of that region express their opinion, that " by spending some $100,000 in tt proper improvement of the river alMve Mier, (writs' drawing four feet could readily pi}' be- tween the mouth of the Rio Grande iiiul Laredo." Thsre were in this Territory in 1850, lfiG,201 acres nf land improved, and 124,H70 of unimproved land in farms. Cash value of farms $1,G5.'),052, and tlie value of implements and machinery $77,960. Live iStoci. — Horses, 6,079 ; asses and mules, 8,651 ; milch cows, 10,635; worlving oxen, 12,257; other cattle, 10,085; ■iieep, 877,271 ; swine, 7,814 ; value of live stock, $1,- 494,629. Agricultural Products, He. — Wheat, 196,510 bushels produced ; Indii^n com, 365,411 ; oats, 5 ; barley, 5 ; buckwheat, 100; peas and lieans, 15,688; potatoes, 3; Vk^ue of products of the orchard, $8,2:11 ; produce of the market gardens, $6,679; pounds of butter made, 111 ; of cheese, 5,848 ; molasse' , 4,236 gallons ; bees- wax and honey, 2 pounds; ..ool, 82,901; hops, 60; tiil.ucco, 8,467 ; and were made, 2,368 gallons of wine ; value of liome-niade manufactures, $6,033; of slaught- ered acirnils, $82,125. Besid rriculture, the inhabitants of New Mexico pay a gr leal nf attention to the raising of itock, as hones, mulus, cattle, sheep, and goats. Their stock is all ratlier uf a small size, l)ecause they lare verj* lit- tle for the improvement of the breed ; but it increases very fust, and as no feeding In stables is needed in the winter, it gives theut very little trouble. There are large tracts of land too distant from the water-courses to be cultivated, or in too mountainous parts, which afford, nevertheless, excellent pasturage for millions of stock during the whole year ; liut unfortunately the raising uf the stock has been crippled liy the invasions of the hostile Indians, who consider tliemselves secret partners in the business, and annually take their share away. A third, much neglected branch of industry in New Mexico, are tlie mines. A great many now deserted mining places in New Mexico, prove that mining was pur8ue81, from a party of adventurers, nimraanded by Captain Fran- cisco de I.evyu Bonillo, who, finding the aboriginal inhabitants and the mineral wealth of the country to l>e similar to tliose of Mexico, called it New Mex- ico. In the year 1594, the Count do Alonteiey, then viceroy of Mexico, sent Jnun de Ofiate, of Zacutecas, to take formal possession of the country, in the name of Spain, and to establish colonies, missions, and pres- idios (forts). They found many Indian trilws, which they succeeded in Christianizing in the usual S|>anish wu}', with sword in hand, and made them slaves. The villages of the Christianized Indians wore called Puebloi, in opposition to the wild and roving tribes that refused such favors. Many towns, of which only ruins exist now, were established at that time ; mimy mines were worked, and the occupation of the oonntry seemed secure, when, in 1680, a general insurrection of all the Indian tribes broke c ut, and the Spaniards, who were quite unsuspecting and unprepared, wem NEW Ull NEW maiaitcTed almoat to a man. The Governor of New Mexico, Don Antonio de Otermin, after a liard «tru)(- gle, retreated from Santa F6, and raarclied as far south 88 Paso del Norte, where lie and his fuUowera met with some friendly Indians, made a stand, and laid the foundation of the town of that name. The war with the Indians lasted 10 years, when the Spaniards reconquered the whole couutry. Subsequently, sev- eral insurrec'iori have taken place, none, however, have been so d'^iostrous as the first, but the deep ran- cor of the Indian race against the white, has contin- ued to the present time. There has grown up a hatred between the Indians and the Mexicans, never to be subdued but with the extinction of the race. Santa Fd was taken hy General Kearney, Septem- ber 8, 184G, and the Territory was ceded to the United States by the treaty ol Guadalupe Hidalgo, February, 1848, and the present territorial government estul)- lished in 185U. The legislative assembly consists of a council of 13 members, elected for 2 years, and a house of representatives, of 2U memljcrs, elected for 1 year. Governor appointed by the President of the United States for 4 years. Kvery free white inhabitant, 21 years of age, and a citizen of the United States, is a legal voter. New Orleans, the capital of Louisiana, one of the United States, on the eastern bank of the Missis- sippi, about 106 miles from its mouth, lat. 29° 57' 45" N., long. 90° 9' W. Population, in 1850, 119,461. The new-built streets are broad, intersecting each other at right angles ; and the houses are mostl}' of brick. It is the grand emporium of all the vast tracts traversed by the Mississippi, the Missouri, and their , tributary streams, enjoying a greater command of in- ternal navigation than any other city, either of the Old or New World. Civilization has hitherto struck its roots, and begun to flourish only in some compara- tively small portions of the immense territories of which New Orleans is the sea-port ; and yet its prog- ress has been rapid beyond all precedent. It appears from the accounts printed by order of Congress, that during the year ended the 30th June, 1852, the value of the native American produce exported from t'uis city amounted to $48,808,1G9, while the value of that exported from New York was $74,042,681. With re- spect to imports, the case is materially different ; the value of those of New Orleans, in the year just men. tioned, being only $12,057,724, whereas those of New York amounted to $152,329,306. It is believed by many, seeing how rapidly settlements are forming in the " West," that New Orleans must, at no very dis. tant period, exceed every other city of America, as well in the magnitude of its imports as of its exports ; and, considering the boundless extent and extraordi- nary fertility of the uncultivated and unoccupied basins of the Mississippi and Missouri, the anticipations of those who contend that New Orleans is destined to be come the greatest emporium, not of America only, but of the world, will not appear very unreasonable. Steam navigation has been of incalculalde service to this port, and, indeed, to the whole of the valley of the Mississi^ipi. The voyage up the Mi.' dreds of miles above the city The aggregate burden , of the shipping l>elonging tf the port on the 80th Juna, ' 1852, amounted to 266,015 tons ; of which 162,637 were employed in steam navigation. In the year ending 3l8t August, 1852, the arrivals of steamers, principally from the interior, were 2784. The depth of water lu the river opposite to New Orleans is, at a medium, about 70 feet ; and it maintains soundings of 80 feet till within a mile of its confluence with the sea. Ha. sides tliree or four of inferior consequence, the Missis, sippi has four principal passes or outlets. In the south-east, or main pass, at Balize, the water on th« • bar, at ordinary tides, does not exceed 12 feet ; and af the rise o! i . i in the Gulf of Mexico is not mart than 2 or H feet, vessels drawing muili water cao not make their way from the ocean to Nnw Orleans, Tlie unhealthiness of the climate is the great draw* back on New Orleans. This probably arises from th« low and marshy situation of the city and surroundinK country, which is under the level of the Mississippi, being protected from inundation by an artiticial levea or mound, varing from 5 to 30 feet in height, and ex- tending along the bank of the river a distance of 100 miles. The unbealtliy season includes July, August, and September ; during which period the allow fever often makes dreadful havoc, particularly among the poorer classes of immigrants from the North and from Kurope. La 't.ly, great efforts have beou made to improve the health of tlio city, by supplying it abun. dantly with water, paving the streets, removing wooden sewers, and replacing them with others of stone, etc. Many places, where water used to stag, nate, have been filled up j and large tracts of swampy ground contiguous to the town have been drained. And as such works will no doulit, lie prosecuted on it still larger scale, uncording to the increase of commerce and population, if is to be hoped that the ravages of fever may be mulerially abated, though the situation of the city excludes any very strong expectation of its ever being rendered quite free from tliis dreadful scourge. It has latterly been proposed to bring earth from the upper parts of the Mississippi, and to employ it in forming a site for a new city raised some feet aliove tho level of the river. It is believed that this would be tlie most likely means to guard against fever ; and the object in view is of sucli paramount iuiportanco, tluit the expense of tho scheme should be reckoned a very inferior matter. Several cotton presses are among tlie most imposing structures in the citi . The Orleans cotton press is on ground 632 feet long and 308 wide, wliich is nearly covered with buildings. It contains a centre uiuiul.i„, three stories high, surmounted l>y a cupola, which af- fords a flne view of tlie city. The wings are two sto- ries high, and very extensive. It presses, on an av- erage, 150,000 bales of cotton annually, but its capacity is much greater. There are other cotton presses. Several of the bunks have fine buildings, and some of the hotels are magnificent. Two of these hotels cost $600,000 each. The United States' branch mint has an edifice, 282 feet long, and 108 feet deep, with two wings 29 liy 81 feet, tlie whole, three stories high, which cost $182,000. The city is supplied with water raised by powerful steam-engines from the tlissisaippl River into a reservoir constructed on an artiticial mound, 21 feet high at its base. The reservoir is 250 feet square, built of brick, and plastered with hy- draulic cement. It is divided into four compartments, to allow the water to settle before it is distributed over the city in cast-iron pipes, which are laid to the aggre- gate length of 18 miles. The water works belonged to tlie Commercial Bank, and cost $722,004. TLo city lighted with gas. A draining company, with a capital of $64,000, has two steam-engines for draining thq marslies of 35 miles in extent between the city and Lake Pontchartrain. There ore in tho city a United ! * : NEW 1418 NBW States' land office, aeveral pabllo and private bankn, , having a large capital, and several insurance com- panies, witli commensurate capitals. The manufacturing estalilislimenti of this oily are comprised under the head of furnaces, founderies, machine shops, sugar refineries, cotton factories, dis- tilleries, tobacco fuctories, saw mills, etc. The whole employed a capital in 1860 of $2,902,000, and manu- factured articles valued at t4,462,!M4; since which time the increase has been v«r)' rapid, and in 1854 were estimated to have doubled the amounts of 1850. On the right bank of the river, and opposite to New Orleans, connected by a steam ferry, is Algiers ; and Vijoining, the suburb of Macdonough, where are the United iStates' Marine Hospital and many pleasant residences. Algiers contains aeveral large machine shops, iron founderies, and ship-building establish- ments. There are steam and 3ailing packet lines to all the large sea-port cities, sailing woekl}. Also, steam packets weekly to Vera Cruz and other ports in the Gulf. For commercial purposes. New Orleans occupies a very superior and commanding situation. It is the natural entrepot for supplies destined to all parts of the Miusissippi valley, us well as the dipAt for those products of that salubrious region which seek a market seaward. By means of the Slississippi River and its tributaries, an inland trade is opened to her grasp, the magnitude of which has never been equaled. Steam- ers may leave her wharves and proceed on voyages of several thousand miles without lircaking bulk. The Mississippi and its alHnents are flanked on either side by extensive territories, unsurpassed in richness of soil, which readily yield a harvest to the lalx>rs of the agriculturist, whether it be cf sugar, 'X)ni, or cotton. These are the principal staples of the valle;-, and the receipts of each of their products at New Orleans are rapidly increasing. Heretofore, the river has been the only channel depended upon for their transporta- tion. Several linos of railroad are iu procef s of con- struction now, however, to facilitate the traiisjiortation of cotton and sugar produced at a distance from the river, to market, and thus enlarge the area of production. These bulky products will nut l)ear an exten!ctter, lii't will add greatly to the wealth and onimerce of New Orleans, which is eminently a place c xchange and distribution. It is tlie great depot of the south-western planiationa, where cotton and sugar crops are Imught and s^ld while still in the field, or " advanced" upon prospect- ively if necessary. It has also an extenslv<) trade with Texas, Mexico, and the Gulf ports, as well as a very hea-zj' foreign export trade. She has, besides, a large coasting trado with Atlantic ports, the value of which can only l>e Known generally l)y its results. Her commercial life may be said to date after the ces- aion of I^uisiana to the United States, in 1803, as pre- vious to that, her commerce was insignificant ; and yet, in this short period of at.out 40 years, she already ranks as the fourth city of the world for the magni- tude and value of her commerce. The facilities and convenience of transacting business at New Orleans are fully equal to, and in many respects superior to those of au}' other place. It is the centre of immense exchange operations, and an}' amount of funds can at all times be ol)taincd at the shortest notice under good letters of credit, and bills negotiated with great readi- nei'S and facility on any prominent point in the United States, or any of the commercial cities of western Europe ; and the hanking institutions afford all reason- able accommodations to the local wants and trade of the city. Some European cities can show more aplendid quays or magnificent docks for the accommo- dation of shipping, and tli* Uiutllitf ifld \tmiMnt nfmf goes, far exceeding in apiMaraHuii mil ankment called the " iMvaa," anttniilhtg (m linllisldaa of the river lieiow, and a graat lUntmu'n aliovn tlie city. Outside of the iavea ths Imiik (if tlw dyer Is milled tha " battura," which In many \t\mm i* lni'r*>i.slti;( from the continual alluvial daiHMlts, wlilja In .ithor placel the river hus what ii callttil •• a fitllInK Unnk," and tlis water gradually ancroachan on tit* laiiit, li, lie for. mer case the levt j is advaiuieil aa tlia ImtMira Inrimises, and this hf» liKon tha uasu in a lnr^M |«ifllim of tha front of New OHeaiia, wbara, to w.iiMtjiarts, the leves has, in the left 26 years, advaiMwl fully (WJO fent ) and the front warehousas now ntmii tot » Itititf entcnl that distance from the watar, MtriUnu » Nplxtidld spoca for the vast bulk of prmluwa timt U atiniwlly landed and shipped. Tha wharvaa ara (<(m«Jr(ii'i#(l outslda the levee on niassiva pllaii, drivatl with a haavy iron ram into tha mud, and aKtandini; ) the busl- ness season it is usual tn saa tliana froiitii i>ntirttly occu- pied with liteambniits lying Ihiw im, and oanli wllli her stage rigged oiit to tlia wharf, millvcly ctigngcd In loading or unloading, Tha wlmrvKS UnmuM for sea- going vessels are datauhwl friiiM aacll iitliKi- with an in- tervening dock, and ea- IIdImhI ) tUtirti urn now 1] dalllea and aa many weekly fW|wr« imtiilaltmt, (n INK) the flrnt itreot was paved n Htiw DrldKtt*. At thl* tiuw auch was thu state of th« »tfmt» itttmf » rain, that aieda wore used U, drug ii<'i«!«d, The |>r«!,ent area of the elty If nift Car Inim '«) aquare mllea, double the oize of New K»¥iiwn (iir UnrtnH aan Tohaoco rioM New Orlkani Add York. In 1826 the grounds above Canal-street and billow Esplanade-street were principally plantations. The following statistics give a complete view of the trade of this great acd growing emporium. Its prepon- derance in shipment of cotton is as decided as that of Alanchester in its manufacture : for further information refer to articles, Cotton, Cottok MANurACTUBB, , GBEA.T Britain, Louisiana, United States. roR Six Ykabs, cosiiiKNOiNO Uirriiiiica 1, ado rmdino IT 81. I Wilitlnif »ip«ttMl, Wmpwil,, .,,,,,,,,,, liiHimiii, ,,,,,,,,,,,,, Utdiliii/illfi'HtimkM^. lUiwm, k«liNi/H(h, ele, llitrH, llnlfatl, «t«,,.... tUvfd,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, Smtiun , , , , ,,,, arnwlll'* , , , . , Aniirt«f'l«(ii,,,,.,,„,, lUiiUifikm and Ohent, Hmmii ,,,,,,,,,,,.,, Aiitwi-rii, nif, ,,,,,,,, lUiiiliiirit: .,,, Hinlfiili'iiAniimkhiitm *tv*lNi(>nir«llar, (ft/i,., M««l('«, nlll,,,,,,.,.,, thium, 'lilituld, tdtt. , , . Mt, I'clcrtl/MfKiPtB... immrtiifftifitiHirtii,.., Umiiifk,..., \UiHmi, ,,,,,,, ,,,,„,, IViivMoii'i., H, t,. ,,,, i'MMxIl'l/la HahlMiiirf, .,,,,.,,,,, I'tirltiwiiitU,., ,,,,,.,, inUi'ti'imlwtiUipnf^., WftUirii Mlat«i.< 'r«tol a«uftK/(,*tw(», Or^iitttrllalN. „,,,.,. I/rum,,,,,,, ,,,,..., N»ftl|i»f K.i(fn(i»,,,.,, M, K/itri'tii', M«.«l(!0,ete, T4«.4V> itiO.ViO T«UI 'iM»,9ii HM-H. Billnl, ni.lll A,4M W,Hflft i«.w» >»,3«4 ftM,ftHO iT,7»r 4n,. l8SI-tl. 18M-M.|1SU— 5e. 996,622 !244,NI4 162,«7n 17S,H12 232,100 BaliK. 7(B,M1 8,621 8,460 1,H78 loft.nso' 1,814 8,4861 4,S78 1,87» 1,907 29,461 7,877 6,661 1^861 47, 1M 18,787 4S'i'i» 69,969 118,676 1,468 8,106 4,070 60 269 i;TS6,028i1,J70;25ri,429,180 UalDi. 779,021 12,861 15,611 6,268 186,264 1,285 2,019 6,018 4,211 1,810 82,849 9,010 28,709 18,162 68,796 24,9%; 62,240 9,684 68,168 113,861 HOM 4,057 717,828 178,828 62,632 109,164 202,817| 818,736 198,671 98,876 136,971 192,627 Hllei. 869,886 50 89,767 12,434 802,957 2,817 5,098 1,1M 1,375 1,982 14,621 22,282 10,531 7,892 51,448 20,693 76,902 87,602 73,043 161,6S0 16,028 19,362 6,126 "387 1,200 llalu. 781,173! I ii,7oo; 7,211' 2,1.^9 183,054 l,.^^4 4.808 7,! 369 1,507 10,249 24,562 17,694 6,6'M 47,616 11,919 7.^,09.1i 15,046 101,939 129.629 4,561 15.591 4,746 ■"46 1,200 1,6U,981 1,485,815 922,086 211,626 95 686! 14»,03S' 772,243 196,264 75,980 184,6.^7 18,««5 256.712i 8,682 ilhili. 6,16* 6,179 "io3 "148 218 932 '"■i4 623 10,667 8,725 "m 4,671 6,467 3,637 6,246 1,446 "848 .V),181 11,446 1,298 1,M,W 1,796,023,1,270,261 1,429,180 l,Mi991 1,435,815 ,'»,191 llhiii. 2,931 4,660 8,844 194 1,904 660 8,240 8,747 "823 14,279 4,473 4,824 7,176 1,408 "4lO "i62 69;d74' 7,,'»1 6.942 13.370 23,076 9,156 isii-M.|ia6)-ia. lui— II. llhili. 5,272 7,571 "619 8,480 8,066 0,661 "ioo 6,398 2,492 46 904 7,618 4,947 '8ji4 6,019 789 "is9 103 "'97 Hhili. 6,360 6,048 Hlidi. 9,468 ! 6,063 1 678 610 6,707 2,31T 4,428 1,482 169 1,267 624 644 7,970 8,926 "768 6,292 800 282 15,053 4,084 125 414 10,175 '1,123 '2,479 4,818 126 1,966 3,647 '7,281 1,381 100 60 688 124 110 "i47 992 '9,066 1,916 2,976 '1,167 222 15,616 7,«19 476 1,229 7,662 l'l',i84 8,6.33 l'8',347 1,9(1 'l',296 896 "28O 63,043 1 64,075 98,716 11,991 12,447 13,932 9.S,S9 4,794 {16,150 14,023 2,908 18,948 20,799 26,814 14,699 21,731 9,.^21 ' 17,199 59,074 I 64,100 ; 68,048 1 64,076 93,715 | (JvNI'4a«'rif« Katm Ut FaaiunT, on Cotton and Tobacco, to Livxspnoi., ilAVRK, and New York, on the 1st or «ACU MONTU roE THE PAST TwO YeAKS. CoHon, |Mr pniind. TobACfo, p«r hoKibend. | MMIM, HM-B1. ISJt-M. Iim-57. 1S55-M, 1 ((••r.. L'aoii. N«w York'Uv.rponl. ll.vre. Mew York Llrerponl. Hiivrc. 'Vew Yt*H'U,,,,,,,,, Aliill K»y ilHHi",,, Mr ^ut(lM, ,,,,,,, l(«< l,ftl«,347 Onte, Si-IOi «1-10l -lit 10- lOi -11 » -11 10. 10 10 10 flile I,7fi9,293 1I1J4^M. 1 1SS3-54. 1 18S2-S3. Onli. 9i- H- Hi-IOI 8|— 101 8 —10 8 —10 8- 9 10 9 9 CentM. 10* lOi 9i ll«le< l,2S4.768 8'i n 9>__^ Bate*. I Hftles. ,440,779il,6C>4,8G4 ».iW«,()«nft,637,846]2,847,8392,»80,027i3,220,000 OOMP.'.BATivF. Abrivaij!, Exports, AND Stocks or Cotton AND Tobacco at New (Iblrass, roR Ten Years, from 1«t Beptemiier e/cii Yeah. Ye.n. 0-ttton, 1966— .17 is-^v-ee 19.54— M 186:1-64 1S.')2-.V! 1S51— .W 18.W-,"i1 1949—50 1948—19 1847—49 ArrivBla. Expom. rT>iCJ7~r »»?««• 1,513,2471.616,921 !l,759,29Sil,79.5,ii2:< 1, 294,769; l,27l>.2M 11.440,7791,429.180 1,664,964; 1,614,991 :1,42!),19:il,4.'55,S15 99.5,0361 997,459 I 887,72:^ 8:19,891 i 1,142,!)82 1,16T,S0:V 1,21:1,8051,201,897 St ock*. "iillel. 7.3?1 6,995 89,.) 26 24.121 ]0,,522 9,769 16,390 16,612 1,5,490 87,401 TobACCu, Arrlvnll. llhdi. 66,067 66,090 69,818 48,905 7.5,010 99,676 64,030 00:164 62,-36 55,992 Exports, Hhd<. 50,191 69.074 64.100 63,04:1 64,076 98,715 54,,501 67.965 52,996 60,86* Stockx, Hilda. 18,711 9,126 12.663 24,046 29,166 18,8,31 28,871 14,949 13,298 14,9.51 Commerce of Xew Orlans. — The following tables, which we have compiled from our records, present aonio leading facts connected with the commercial progress of this city, and will be found valuable tot future reference by the readers of this work : NEW 1430 NEW BTAramm ornia Runm Ann Kirocii of llimulf iknn TOMAOOO AT TU« I'ORT III' NnW UHUIM HI ItttlM J »»», rKOMl322-SSTol9M-AT,il>iiiiiunurTHI»Tl''l'l»KTIlri ii5,oAy tfifitih HT/Ml {»,*'( Wf m,ih mm «»,*« m.*iit mm 4ii,m MM him liiiMi mm MM M.m M.tim 17,201,866 Upon the luppositioD that tha »vsr«(;ii ynim nl hiW ton and u*>i>cco for thy 3b ya*r» 8liuv« nM^id m»f im fairly estimated at (40 per liaUi fur tiM ftitnwf, NHil (7C per hogshead fur the UtUr, it WuitM UJVN » li/ifti value for these two articles aluiia uf f t,20!l,0|.'t,il|0, Ijfrona or Bpkcik at Nkw OaLiAtis, ¥'in TWKkVH VMM, rKOM 1st tiEITEllUIlK TO 8I»? ivitVWt, Itm. VuliM, 1868-57. 16,600,015 1865—56. 4.918,ri40 I 1854—6!). 8,746,087 1868—54 6,867,IW6 1851-58. 7,86.M26 1861—61 6,2it},628 1850-61.,.,,, %i.inim 1840-6<»....,, tim,iim 1848— ♦»,,..,, tm.Vtn 1-547— W.,..,, \,*Ui,¥m )»4U— 47 »J^vum 1846-46 i,<>nm Dnllun, 6 -6i 9-6 ?=?' 9-7 7-74 iti 7-7 6i-4 m 81— 9 e-6j 9-64 6 -6} 6|-6l IU4-U. I IHi-M. I lUt-u, T>ini«s.~ri).iii«r«." UuMfiSttiri PmoM or Fuitiii, on tiii 1st ur Month roi Fiva Yiahs, S*Jrt<*(nbfr, . (julnlwf (IwcMitwf.. ttfimnfr ■■■■ ('(■(/fn«f»... MMfU. .... Awll M»f 'lofie .Hit AHgOIlt, ... 7i- 8i «1-T 8 — R»! 8 — 9 — 9 -»♦ -»» -91 Id -11 9J— 9 8 — H, T|-8i -6, —7 6 6 6 6 Tl-71 T-7» 6 -M «;-7 T-7J ej-7 8|-8i tv.JUri. 8[ 4-1 ■» 4-6' 4l,-6J 4J-5 4 —41 8i~tt 8|-4i J,J-6J OuMfjiN/ttlrl riKniw or Oohn, Sacks, at Nkw Orirani ON tm 1st or KAou Muntii, roB t'lvc Ykars. U'Mht. )«»•— »1. pcpfpffihw. ^tt-uih^t. lUS-M. Crall. Ooikl 70 — 90 70-76 60-75 60—68 96 — 70 05-75 68 — 65 88—90 69 — 61 (MV— 6s Colrf osrjr 106 —1 10 66—72 Mnfch , fl«J— 70 48—54 Milr i(rt((e.< ,\u\f AokusI,.,,. CMtltt. 70—86 80— 80 t>— 87t 86—90 87— 90 98— 0£ 00— 92 61"— 76 48—58 94— 07 70 — 78 48—48 100—120 , 100 —110, 64—571 96—115 ,1 76 — 86, 46-60 70— 88 , 70 — 86 68—71 75— 95 IM4-U. ISU-M. llflBl-U. (.'••nta. ,'i2-58 .VS— 62 66-60 l»-«0 62—68 42— £ I 8,->— 16 84—16 44—60 48— ,V2 .■id— 60 6l'-76 58—66 68—69 65—70 .^7—66 60—70 80— 90 60—70 52—111 68—65 52—60 46— M 60-60 iUtUPkkhii^K Katra or KxoiiANOR on LoNnoy. Vauih, ANti Nrw York, at Nkw Ublkans, un tiir Ibt or «A«M Month ruR Tiir» Tsaus. (6U Ua< Hills.) 1 ls»-n. 1 iiu-tg. 1S54-S! . i 1 ^ 1 i . 1 j 1 1 1 i * I 1 k « |>in. fr* dl.. I.m. per ». i\>. piii. V" » .11.. Sclit... n 6 10 !| »J 6 15 •i «» ei.'i U (tf(«l/(.f 9 6 12 8 5 20 2 SI 6 12 n fjotcm. 8 6 26 Ti 6 80 2i 5 Vi u Ilfpum 6 27 2( 7 6 28 'i\ H 5 J.'. 2 te"^ 6 80 6 HO ^! l\ 5»0 6 85 2t 7 7 5 28 5 25 2 I MmM.. 6 27 ^ 8 6 25 2 84 5 2^ A Of II... M«y.... 525 A 8 6 25 2 9t 5 li) n 9 5 17 li 9 5 1» 1 10 8 Vi 1 lUine.... 5 12 9 5 20 1 lot :, o; } .Mr.,.. 10 6 10 9 8 16 1 1 lOi 6 01 1 Aiij^iiKt. »l 5 15 9 8 16 «i 5 in •-'t ExposTS or SuoAH AND MuLASSED fiMw Utiw f )8l,«!4l»fl, fiiH Ymnrk Yraha (UP TIII RiVEK kxoeptkd), ruuu T»i*M» l»f, t«ft4, ill At'dOST «l(pr, 1857. 8ep- Whltlier ttported. Now York Phibwlolptala Charleston, S, C BsTanDsh PrnTlJonce & Bristol, U.i. Boston Baltlinoro Norfolk, Richmond and I Petcrsbnrg, Va. I Alexandria, D. C Mobile Apalachlrola & Pcnsacolo. Other ports Total HM-M, BugK/. IUi4>. 887 66 171 88 m 6,060 689 1,944 itorntli. 4U 6T8 1,870 9;87r 9m COHPABATITI PBICER OP BuOAIt A«M MtllflUmm /If ftHW Ollt»/»*», ON THB FlBST OP «ACII MONTII, POR KlVK VbAKS. UcoUu. »S)W, ■|ft MoUlMI. I IBM-41. l«W-M. IS«4-4#. iii*r-*f. l«H- ST. I8SS-U. 1HS4-S5. 1853— M. 18.SS-M. CenU. Ceuu. <:.)Sr- ( »-«4 CVi.l.. Onr^. (Vlit«. liopteinber. . . 6—9 6-7| »»-♦ H =*) «0 —48 18-«2i 8 —18 13 —20 16-28 October 8—10 4 -8 »-* '4 '^ »-t 00 — 4'i 21—80 9 —134 18 —20 l.V- 28 November. . . 8—10 rit 8-^ t ^ 2 -0 50 — M 24—81 10 —24 20 —224 a*!— 26 December... 8f-10 •i-f> 1 i « /. 67 — .W 27-80 12 —IS 12 — 1H4 2;V-284 ■Fanuary, 7^10 7J-11 6-8 'm «..=4 «-f. 604-08 87-40 14 —164 IS —18 17— 2-^ February.... 6—8 i^'t » -A 58 —024 80—88 18 -174 124-18 21—244 March 7 -11 4t-8 »--6 'ik 4 «-» 68 -08 88-844 184-191 12 —174 lS-244 April 7 -11 4-S »(-«» t -4 »-f« 46 —".S 80—88 124-211 9 —\r>\ 17—24 May 7i— 12 4 —8 4-6 1 —t 1, -ft 60—62 80—874 22 —29 9— 18 l,V-20 lune 9 -12 44-9 4 -4 ^ ft» -67 86—484 20 -23 8 — lU 14—22 fuly 9 -11 10 —11 6-94 ta t =64 » --« 47-68 4f-«8 88—18 80—48 20 —28 20 —28 7 -11 8 -li! 11— 20J August H < u »-« lS-19 L-T- I-lbe, Wo! Lead bar.. , white. Mulssscs . Oats.... Onions, on, linseed castor, lard. Pickles.... Potatoes. . Pork.. Sosp Shingles... |8taves . . . 'allow 'obacco, lea ; Che Twino...' Whisky.. Wheat... NEW 1411 NEW ExpoRTa or Flodi, Pork, Baooh, Laid, Bur, 'Wiiukt, ahd Cobn, rot Two Ysau, rioH Birr, t m Avdk tU Porta. I NowYork Btnton I'bllxU'lpliUi Baltlinurt' Othnr coaat porta. . Great BrtUI II Cuba Other furolgn porta Total. riour. I Pork. I Bwon, BurreiT ^~~" t41,4»4 14l,48«, I lUrri.U. 41I.«2H 141,143 TS,T»S 11,874 1W0,II6 S,84T ]»,>*74 15,9,V4 1.4'^(l 4,7iM >I)4,>1V 14MT4 Urd. 2,1)79 l>iH,ll-.s' I BMr, |WbUky| C.r tl»rTtt)i.:U«mi]i. !i,72H 4,716 1,740 IM4 88,447 6,ri87 ^7,llul^ i(),«t7 1,4W 17,941 llUI.IIlt 1W,()9(I 4U,7&3 1,229 814 908 l.9.'i« 8,92.^ 8t9 , .« 46,884 1,(WS I riour. I Tiwrei.. hi 2I),()H7| I8l,r>91i 6ll,(W2 66,822 200,1 79i 52,624 648,866 18,TS6| 60,(»9 204,608 2.NI,64I B«,7.'«y tl6,2aA 711,628 Pork. IBmc. lUrrelt. ' t'uliT 4,124 4,878 4,ft6B 1«H,6H6 80,707 99,862 »,h68 8,947' S,8,W J^sfi^77j 17,688 729,442 178,682 24,6tS 1.991. 1,488 442 87,01A 1,M8 26,8AI 180,624 '! 12,771 74t,817 IM,7v4 14,147 1,7m flM 122.216 18,IW» 4,46(1 ||M,iMi •••• I l»T ,,,, ijMbt,m' mm 4,»4« .... UUmi m .... hm In the aboT* the exports to Mobile, etc., via the Pontcbartaln Uallroad and New Cant\ are lodadcd. Imports ixto New UaLiANa, raoii tiir Imticrior, rnit Tkn Yiars, prou the Iit Brptmbei tu tur 31*? hVdUWt IN KACII Yrab. Apples bbia Baciiu .BASt. CBtka, etc. bbla. Abxa ham.'< lihda. Inbuilt Iba. B'"gln(t pieces Pnlo rope rolls Beans bbls. Butter koKS " bbls Beonwax " Beof. lbs. A tea. (Iriuil lbs. Buflhlo rubes pcks. Cotton. La. anil Miss bales I^ko N. Ala. and Teiin. Arkar^us MontKoniory Mobile Florida Texas Corn meal bbls. In eara *' shelled sacks Cheoso bxK. Candles boxes Cider. bbls. Coal, Western.. Dried peaches. . Dried apples. . , . Flaxseed tierces Flour bbls Furs bbds. bis. bdls. Feathers bags Glassware boxes Hemp bales Hides Hay bales Iron, pig tons Lard hlids. tcs. Jc bbls. kejjs Ltfaie, Western bbls. Lead pigs bar kegs. white " Molasses bbls. Oats bbls. 4( sacks Onions bbls. on, linseed castor lard Pickles kegs* Potatoes. Pork tcs..*; boxes bhds In bulk lbs Porter and ale bbls. Pt-cklng yarn reels Bkins, oeer packs Shot ke(?8 Sugar hhds. " bbls. Soap boxes Shingles M Staves M Tallow bbU. Tobacco, lent . . . .hhds. " chew boxes " bales Twine bundles Whisky bbls Wheat bbls. oll>r>. 17<- I7J- 17»- ISJ- 18 — 14J— I2i— 13 18 — l»t Ul-I.")* 16- 16 — VALua or Frodcor nr tiir Intirior. Oolton »"?»' Tobacco Flour Pork Urd Lead Uolaaaea Bacon Corn WhiBky Wheat Bainiing Beef Hemp Bale rope Butter Hay HUei Coal I'otatooa Btavos Tallow Fentbcm.. ... UaU (Jurn meal .... Other artlolea.. Total IIK-il. IV.IUn. 86,2&\o7> 8,187,860 1I,VM,S4A »,()»4,17» ^W»,287 4,202,958 9I,4M 8,(M,8U9 6,772,241 2,5:«,2.H7 1,829,182 2,827,886 612,448 484^45 890,090 1,128,460 860,550 296,806 679,411 1,150,500 185,882 45.\000 3.S,9,V) 41,150 629,078 4,280 9,557,967 189,06i;869 I8U-M. I>«ll»r<. 70,871,720 1I119»,M90 8,072,775 8,4()i,805 6,5»4,506 3,881,278 409,940 4,581.141 4,570,868 8,020,081 1,7N6.086 l,781,47d 610,290 824,289 504,540 1,018,810 8»5,0«6 612,8.V) 454,298 441.150 456,890 182,8.VI 82,265 81,676 681,180 960 _838yi2 144,256.081 Y«ftn. Tola] valaa. 1846— »T.... 190,088,251 )84.V— 16.... 77,198,464 1844—45.... 67,196,111 l»l8-w(4..., 60,094,716 1842—18.... 58,782,064 1841-42.... 45,716,046 Ytan. Total value. 1858— M....|U&,8S«,798 1S52— 68.... I»4,*t8,7:« 1851—62.... 108,051,708 1850—51.... 106.924.ii88 1849—60.... 96,897,878 184.*— 49.... 81,989,692 1847—48.... 79,710,161 From the aliove table it results that the total value of all the productii receivod at this port from thu in- terior from September 1, 18-11, to September 1, 1857, a period uf 16 years, amounts to ^1, 526,662,970. The fallowing is a statement of the import* at New Orleans, for the last four fiscal years : JniH lUl. Tmt •Mllllf Juiw IU4. Yr«r •nrflriK >m. IHM, H,g«(i,5N8 6,417,595 1,776,148 ir,i8ii;ii«r Ihllari N,019,I12» 4,272,252 1.862,882 18,654,118 IV.II.ri. 8,272,419 II,ST6,67H 2,258.128 14,802,850 Ihilliiri. 6,989,(1(12 4,297,171) 1,6x7,488 11,9«MUN Dutiable. Free BulMonA apecle ToUI Valiir of I'rikhicr or tue Utrriob.— \ Tablr siiowino TUB KK-KII'IW (ir tiir rRINIIPAL ABTInl.U rHOM TIIR InTBUKIII, IIURINU TIIR YrAB RNDINU AuiII'HT alaT, \Ht)J, WITH TliaiB BaTIMATRU ATBBAOB AMD TOTAI. VaLUR. r..i AnIelM. QuaUl;. Apples bbls. Uaoon, BHorted . . . hhili. A ctlu, " " boxes ■* hams bliilikAtri. " Inbulk lb«. Bacglng pU'oi'S Baifl rope colla Beans... , bbli. Batter kegs A Hrklns •' bbli. Beoswan Beef " tlorcns " dried lbs. Cotton liali'S Corn meal bbls. In car shelU'd sacks Cbeono boxer. Candles, " Cider. Will. Cold, western *' Dried apples ,k poaches. . . " Feathers bags Flaxseed tlercei Flour bbls. Furs ... . hhds., bundles Je bo.ves (llassware put-kaiii Hemp bales Hides No. Hay bales Iron, pig tons Ijird bbls. ii tlori^es Lsril ke){s l..eatbor bundles Mine, western bids. Lead plK^ ba." kegs Jc boxes white keirs Molussus (I'Stlinated crop) galls Oats bbls Je sacks Onions bbls K)ll, lliisoed " I " castor " lard •' IPolatoes. '• Pork tierces dc bbls. I " bo.\cs I " hhds. " Inbulk lbs. IPortcr and ate bbls. Packing yarn reels Kum bbls. Skins, doer packs Shingles M Shot kens Soitp boxes SUves M Sugar (estimated crop) . . . bhds. Spanish moss balo' Tallow bbls. Tobacco, leaf. hhds. I " strips " stems ! " ohdwing.kegsJi boxes Twine bundles d( boxes Vinegar bbls. Whisky Wheat bbls /l sacks Other various articles, cst'm'il at Total value 86,612 89,127 K,8M 81,8(V4 1,MU 82,(KJ8 112,846 8,189 81,845 1,060 87 2»,IKI7 1,061 BUSSO 1,518,247 856 14,719 1,487.051 48,1>79 74,891 17 1,770,00(1 680 828' 261 1,290,697 1,74fl 8(I,H59 18,008 165,54(1 59,861 77 108.027 98.S60 ^1N4 2'*,8(itl 18,291 8(16 8.1 4,'''i2,«s(i 898,171 14,67li 111 956 8,074 74,1118 148,228 10,924 2,872 ^,417,840 1,788 1,485 485 794 6,000 2,745 9,688 7,000 78,976 8,475 965 47,867 5,850 1,850 8,261 8,182 1,854 179,1*4 775,902 |irl.i.. ^ i>»ll>fi. 6 (HI IHO 00 45 IHI 15 (HI 10 16 00 10 00 8 IKI 111 0(1 85 00 50 00 15 IK) 25 00 12 67 00 5 (III 1 25 1 76 6 00 8 Oil 6 00 95 8 00 50 00 12 00 7 OO '500 80 00 8 50 5 (10 86 no a5 (HI 7 00 87 50 1 75 6 (HI 21 26 5 at K> 1 60 5 00 40 00 60 (HI 4.') 00 2 !*\ 20 » 46 00 60 00 N 10 00 6 00 80 00 80 00 8 00 17 00 400 66 0>l 110 00 80 00 80 00 210 (10 800 00 6.H 00 25 00 12 00 6 00 18 00 8 00 Vsli». ^i.ii.Tri 1S8,II60| 8,U12,7lHI ltlN,l75 3,I60,HIHI 7611 612,418 1,128,460 2.M12 828,480 87,1 IKI 4,.'),VI 489.005 41 275 8,7115 86,286,079 4,2N0 18,89S 2,514.vfl9 241,896 .VJ,'i,128 88 1,150,6110 5,1^1 41,l,'iO 8,182 9,081,1711 6(HI,IHHI ]5t,'» 890,119(1 579,411 296,,*i5 2,695 8,60,^,946 687.013 I9I,4INI 49,510 Ill,4.t6 7,766 4.VI 2,ft8.'i,309 029,073 7«,8,'i(l 4IHI 67,860 80.8,81(1 1KV)32 4,864,.'i(10 491.580 229,760 278,887 17,880 8,010 18.0,'i0 2n,82(> 18,000 74,116 88,161 455,000 8,137,880 2.M,250 28,950 10,0,t2,070 1,755,000 85,050 81,626 87,584 8,124 1,829,182; 2,827,886, 6,600,00(1 [15^,061,869, Bkobiptb and Stocks or Hat at tub Post or Nrw Or* LBAMS, rKllH SxPrRlillEB IsT, 1S65,T(> Al'Ut'ST .llsT, 1857. ISSg-6T. l!tS-M. Btockonhand, Sept 1, (all Western). 82,720 6,000 Kecelpts, Northern and EasU'rn 88,s48 21.883 " Western 59,801 146,787 Total 180,924 178,075 Increase in total supply T,849 " Northern and Eastern 67,505 Decrease la Western 87,a7< 178,075 NEW 1428 NKW MoimiT Arihviui or Bam, Baiu, Bum, eoiioniiiM, and HnAMMinL r»» Tnmi tliU, mm ttrrmtm 1 TO Auiivn 81, BoMdmbar. , Oolobor. Novtiiiibpr. Iiurcinbar . lUnuary . . . ( nbrniry . . Vlnrch Ajirll u»r Juna July Augnit... . To(«I... IM-M. T» m tl.t IS 11 11 80 I 7« mi i 1 i » 10 1(1 i» HI in w XI IT vt M IB v\ W» w m 48 111 Hft 7i» « VI M) 18 IK 4« 88 yt R4 88 12 m 18 » 11 10 S81 M 111 i\ Ml IMI 8IM IM Mil' 88*1 8iit IHH m, 1814: or Ml 181: 87 884I M 87V,I»4 88II DO IMilHO 8MT «8 W*\ M) SODJKH VU> 48 8Il)| 08 181)1 87 118! 10 H,74fiM4 i i i i 11 18 81 14 8* 8B 8(1 to Bl 4i III) 8* 40 84 H4 88 B» 87 4» n 84 8« H» II M 88 48 28 48 84 4() 80 18 17 at 18 84 IB 8ft 81 81 14 8S 19 10 « IX 18 87B Nf m 884 »1 88I' 8«T IM 8111 88(1 III! 1(18 Id* B7; IB« VH m m 8*4 8*7 8BBi BA • Hi 78 87(li M INB IM 8.148 8.»B«l7(ll I'llJll 4 HI I i« i«! i« 17 I in n m I M 1*1 i{! 14 i l«7 8(ili 81* W« l»» IM 171% I4« IIA M m 4 III 171 8m wi 8B« IM IM 141 Monthly Ahiiivau or KLATOOAn roi t(II fait Siason, Waptombcr h ^ i s 1 i } 1 n 1 t 1 _^ ,, ,, 1 8 a ^^ 8 1 ,, B 8 ,, , , 8 8 2 1 ^^ 1 1 1 8 IB 18 ^, 1 8 1 8« 18 7 1 8 8 88 17 9 80 a 48 8 8 la 1 181 4 18 « (1 1 N 1 BO 7 40 t SO 1 11 84 A IB 84 ,, 16 «8 1 4 1(1 ,, IT 8 48 1 1 17 18 811 ., Bl 71 M 18ft B 118 18 U 84 8 llSl October. November . Dfcombor. Jtnnkry. .. F('hru«ry . . Mtroh April M»y June July ^ August 11 Tot»l " DiiEirr iMcoKTs or Ciiri'ii(% Siiqae, an(i Salt, roB Tukei Ykakx. from Hkptiimheii 1 to Aikiust 81. TTSgs 1811- ^1. if 440.008 89,807 81.8114 8,1)06 84,4M 8lt,Ml lus -u. l(i>86 8W,9H2 8I,66A e,6(l» 18t 4-t5. "2,287 S4I,18K 20,111 448 114 8.261 122 ,051,111(1 l.»8l)!8M4 6U!<,20H 608.77N: 7a.'i,2.'-2, 3y.i,29S Co?rbo— I'ubmeto...- " — Ulo \.. •• Buunr— Cuba bxs. & bbln. " — Cubn. hlids. " — llrasll. cte bxs. & bnn"! Unlnjuts— Cuba blida. & tea. " —Cuba bblM Salt— Llvi'rpnol »ack»| " —Turk's lalgnil, t't r ulielt l JVoe Orleani 1^- ce Dun. — The Bulijoined ordinance, paaaed by the <'ommon Council of the city and ap- proved by the 111 lyor, May 28, 1862, is now in force : An Ordinaticti lo Jtegulate the lAret and Wharfage Dun on Shipi antl Ve^teU arriviiuj from Sea, and on Sleamhoati, Flat», Barget, fir. -Artioi.k l.Thiit from and after the passage of this .irdinunce the levee or wharfage ratoa on ships or other sail vessels, steam- ships, steamboats, flats, liarges, and other craft, shall bo tixed as follows: On all ships or sail vessels of 1,0(H) and under, 'i'l cents per ton. K.icess of tonnage over 1,000 tons, 20 cents per ton. On all steamships, V^ cents per ton. On all steamboats of 1,000 tons and under, 15 cents per ton. Excess of tonnage over 1,000 tons, 10 cents per ton ; provided, the boats ar- riving and departing more than once each weeic, shall pay only two thirds of those rates. On each flutboat not measuring over 80 feet, $10. On each flatboat measuring 80 to 100 feet, $12. On each flatboat measuring over 100 feet, $16. On each barge more than 70 feet long, $12. On each barge less than 70 feet long, and not exceeding 15 tons burden, $8. On each stcnmlwat hull used as a barge, $25. On eacli scow and coastwise pirogue, $2. For every flatboat, barge, or other vessel, not including steamboats, em- ployed in the transportation of briclt, Inmber, or other building materials, or in bringing produce from this and neighlioring parishes to this city, and measuring not over 25 tons, the levee and wharfugo dues shall be $80 per annum. From 25 to 50 tons, $00 per annum. Over 60 and not exceeding 75 tons, $80 per annum. Over 76 and not exceeding 100 tons, $126 per annum. Ov«r 100 tons, $200 per annum. Article 8. Kvery propiW^ff d by thu <')rr lUy, AnTici.K 5. That all vusmiIs turn ill (xtft, and thai have paid a dally or weakly ^imtfitge, slutll lie nl lowed (and the collviiurs «r« hil. TAsirr or Commi'ii i»(, CiumirM »vii HtnM tDtintn m TiiK Nkw (jai.i. .as lliimHitu •ir Itimunum, in 1M4 AMU 18U4, ANI> .IIKXOSI) Ma* I", IV/f rommiMlon un ttnUt, Sugar, cotton, lobacra, lead, Muur, im4 MiMf pro(]uets of the soil t,,trtfn,,,,,,, , Domestic manufacturM, •u4 ail (iifiii0t mtn^ chandlse ,,,.,,,.,,,/,,,, Guaranty of aules on llsaa >,,,tt, ,,,,,,,, Purchase and shlpinrnt of in«r«tMlwll(M ut fm dUCe r>> > • ■ nf > ,t ,m, Bales or purrbaae of stut-k sh4 buHUm, ,,,,,,,,, Collecting and reiiilttliiK divUuWis. ,,,,,,,, ,,,, Helling vesnula or stt aiulxxl*. ,,,,,,>•!, ,,,1,1,1 I'urcbasing " ,,.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, rrociiring freights ,,,,,,,,,,,,,, Collecting freight* tram forsigii |Mri«< ,,,,,,,,, Coastwise ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.<., (Intflts and dibbursementa, ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, Effecting Uisurana? ,,,,. ■•,,,,,,,,,,,, Adiustlng or collecting UMuranM '(f muit iMmt without litigation .,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, S| With litigation , ,,,,,,, b Purchasing and remitting drafts, ur rmt4rii*ii m paying money on which no otlutr mimmMmim has been charged ,,,,.,,,./,,,, 1 If bills remitted are guaraniii«4, io «44MI'(H, ,,, i^ Bills and noU's remittui, for iv>ll>wt)»H |«r«<4(M«4 and returned ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,. 1 Landing, custody, and re-sbip»iw mttt^mtim or produce from veisels in diatrnKNI/.. >>//"/< 4 Ditto, bullion or apecle...,,,,,,,,, ,,,,„, III << 1 Adjusting and coUcctlog gaaarai aviMtf*, ,,,,,,§ ttpfitm fi It ** M it « 1 » 1 tt «i II ft M A •f H H fi^ 1 M U NKW 1494 NEW Pi>mm(wiiittillltl«a — full romiiilMlon. 1)11 ItiH iiirpltM ftnioiitit of ttivuli't'M of inch ron* ■li{nm*'Dia, di4diictlng ftdr«ne«ia and llabUUIaa --half rominlNalun, Dnnflntf, Iruloralnf, or noKoUatlDg fornlun bllla of HxrluinKa 1| ** Dlllu, oil doniaitlfl bllla of airhanfn i " Hrm Iflnf, nitorlan, and nahliipInK marohan- dlao U) a forvltfn port— on amuuiife of Invoice,. I ** On amount of ndraiuxia, chargua, and llabUilliia on «nia , 1) ■■ For drawtnc, aecopting, ni>gotlatlng, orlndoralng noma nr iFrafU without funda, prKluro, or bllla of lading In hand ii " On raah advaiirp* In all eaaaa it| *' For nntoring and bonding niorrbauilUo for tha Interior— on amount of dutloa, frflght, and rhargi«a (boaldaa thu rugular cbargu for for- warillngi H " Agenrf fur ataftmbuaUi — according lu ipwlal coa* tract. Thi< foregoing ratoa to be ticluaira of brokaragc and chargca already Incurred. iittvi tilnff and Foruiardlnff Mfrehttiulif, KxttuiM of Charytt ai'tiutltu ituiurri'J, Hugar, niolaUM, and lobocru por hhd. KO inta. Cotton p«r bnls AO " Hemp " HO •' M.ia " 10 " rrovUloaa or bwMD per hhd. ili " " " perllerco m " Pork, beef, lard, tallow per bbl. ft " lln and pli;lran Haeon and provlfionH per hlid I'ork, beef, lard, tallow, etc.. per bbl. Molaaaea, oil, and whiakjr Flour I^rd per keg Sugar and molaaaea per hhd. ** llaTMna per box Ooro, wheat, oata, and other grain per bag CotTce, aplcea, etc .Sail. I Candles, aoap, wlni*, tioh, ralalni, ollfl,{ aweetmoata, M.'Kiirrt, etc., per box or. baaket I Ditto, In half buxea { Nalla per keg, Dry gooda not exceeding 10 feet •• " ») * " " 110 •' " over 80 Crockery per caak or crate " half caak or half crate Hardware per caak, *• per tleroi! " per libl. Llqnida per pipe or hhd. '* per half pipe or tierce ** per quarter caak or bbl. Claret per cask Ounny baga per bale Indlu hagglng. | '•1 Unntll. f«r,u. t>nls. !fO 10 Ml 'if, 10 UT IB 10 20 IB KB IS 10 Od 06 oa 10 OT Oli 01 01 01 I'iB IB TB . BO BO m m !« (« oe 10 08 05 04 02t OJ 40 !8 m 10 Ot 03 OB 113 03 Oi 04 03 Oi 01 03 on IB 10 tiO IB 'if> ia 4U •if> iiO 20 IB 10 4(1 t!B i!0 IB 10 04 41) 311 'if, 18 10 0^ !i() IS 10 08 IB 10 1 aanlft Ibi. Hundriu, DolM, balM, eaM*, Irunka, and other paokaga*, drir giKida. III-AO Karllien and hardware per paekaga tUV-M har-lruu and caMllnga p«r ton TB llallroail Iron and pTg Iron N) Hollow warn imi Muau, eanillea, winea, ale par Ihii B ('Otfue, auleea, etc .....par bag (1 Uuuyowaar. per keg 'li Ml per aaek 3 HVffM 9f Qnin pit Buthtl. Wheat and rjre..,, M ('om HA •• Uata 31 *• Ihrt: I.ard, butter, cheeaa, tallow, atearlna, auger, rire, eelual tare. Coffee In baga 2 |H'r cent. For coiniiiarce, etc., of Now DrIeiinK, »e« llimkrri' ifiti/nzine, il., ill., Iv. j IIiint'd .Ver. .}fu(/., Iv., v., vl., vll., Ix., xl., xlll., XV., XXV., etc. J |)K How's HfV., II., 6;i (l.y W. I,. IliilMiK), lii., m, TX>, Hi (\,y 8. .1. I'BTKiix), vl., i;i:i, vlll., I., xl., IW7,47t, vil,, 412, X., Al)5. New South Wales. Trior to 1n:ii;, ,.m< lul ra- tuma exhibit no evldetue of tiny tnide lietweim tlit United Stuten and New .Soulli Wales, lu tliiit year hIx AmeriiMin veineln nntered tile lurluir of .'Sydney with tr'e\nhU viiliied ut iji«!»,rill), and curryltm' lioiiie ataploH nnil otlier colonliil iirodiiie to tli« uniiin it of |$'.I'.',!I70. Kroiu thiit |i«ri(Hl to Ixril) Imt lltlln Hilvnnce WUH iiinde oitlier in the ini|Hirt or ex|>ort triidn witll tliat cnluny ; the lii;;lieNt return lieiii); that fur iHtl, which nhowH llin fiilliiwln^ xuinmnry : Vcnaela fnini tlio riiltml .Sttttea ciiternd Iho |)ort» of New South Wulei, in 1»«n« and rnrku, Imt- ter and chei'se, I'luulleH (tulluw and Kjierin), eartsi and wagona, collVe, pnwerveH, drUj{H and medicines, suit fish, flour Htid lireiid, fruits, furniture, ({lusswnre, nats, rice, and hurley, liardwure and irunnionnery, ice, lea- ther manufactures, linens, pniviaions, spirits (^chietly rum and whisky), stationery iind IhioIcs, HU|;ar, tohac- CO, woodenwiire, watches and clocks, and wine. The principal exiMjrts to tlin United .States from New .South Wales are; Coals anil coke, hinl, etc. The leading staple oT New .South Wales is wool ; hut it can not he Imported into the United States sdvunta);eously, while it Is admitted free into llritish ports. Tliu total ex- ports of wcKil from New South Wales during thu four years endini? with IHftH, were 5C,U»4,9il8 pounds, valued in the colony at 91li,4ll5,;i'i(). Newapapert, publications in numbers, consist- ing commonly' of single sheets, and pulilishcd at short and stated intervals, conveying intciilKciico of passing eventii. It is foreign to the purpose of tills work to consider the moral and political effects produced by nowspa|i«rs ; of the oxti'nt of their inHucncn there is no doubt, oven among those who differ widely as to its effect. Their utility to commerce is, however, un- questionable. The ndverti.Hements or notices which they circulate, the variety of facts ond information they contain as to the supply and demand of cointnodl- ties in all quarters of the world, their prices, and the regulations by which they are affected, render ncwi^ papers indispensaldo to commercial men, supersede a great mass of cplstolarj' correspondence, raise mer- cliants in remote places toward an equality, in point of information, with those in the great marts, and wonderfully quickcn'all the movements of commerce. But newspapers themselves have iieconio an important commercial article. The first newspaper published in Knglaiid, which might truly be considered as a vehicle of general la- NRW U3S NRW (hniMlloa, wu uUbllnhnl hy HIr KiiK*r J.'VMr»nyt», in llHi:) ; it waa riitltlnl tlia /'uMii' InltUii/rnirr, anil cnnllniiail iiaariy lliran yanra, wlinii it laaaetl nil tlin apptiarani'a of thn ihurllr. A |iul>licatiiin, wllli f«w ( Iriiiiia imwavcr to lb* I'iiaraidir iif a nauiipii|i«r, iiail prHviouily »|i|>«nr«d i it waa railitrl tlie K'nffli'lt Mrr- cuiy. anil rninn .lUt iinil*r lliii authority of (juoan Kllialx'tli, an early aa lAHH, tli« |ii>rli)|iy of thia |>a|Mir la ilalxil July V:l, in that year. In tlin rifrii>rii on Hi'count of thn plague, NovKinlxT 7, lllllA, and afti-rwardut London, Kaliruury ft, KlWi. The printing ul'nKwnpapi'.-Hund painpiili'ti wasproliii iti'dlll CharUia I., lllHd,— Salmon's Chron. Ncwupiipcra wore llrat stumped In 1713. Numlierof tha itumpa laaued In Kiiglund : Yi.«r. N.I 17.W T,41I,7IM ITim lt,404,7tHI 1774 I'i.lWXMXH) WW l4,(VW,())t9 IHiHi 10,0IM,0O,t ISIO lJ0,lTi,M7 18'il) }4,t<*>li,IS(l YMt. No. \*ifi il«,9Wi,fl98 11.10 10,lfW,74l l^ltt 1W,H74,9.VJ lS4n. 4»,0.'l«,HH4 1S43 ftn,44H,977 lS4tt 7«,Mri88 The total nunilier of nowapap«ra published In the United Kingdom in IHIO was lJO;i, viz. : lliO in Londnn, 'iVi III the KiiKlish provlncea, 117 in Iruliiml, mid '.It In Siotland, The numlier of advcrtlsemontn inserted In the London nowspupors in 1SI9 wai" "Hti.lOS, l)aying n gross duty of .£GU,4,18 2s. ; In the Kni;lish provincial nowapapors, 8;)l,729, vleldiu); to the rrown u revenue of i:(i2,fiai ISs. 6d. ; in the Irish pai^rs, 220,,'iJ4, pr.y. Int; jCI 1,020 4s.; and In the Scotch papers, 210,11] 1, paying In duty i;i8,075 16s. Cd. .Vewtpapern, etc., in the United Statei, — i f}r,' "" jiton NtwM Lttttr waa catublisbcd In 1704, wh/ ■ . >• con- tinued till 1774 ; the second was the iioston uazette, 1719; the third the American Weekli/ Mer'ury, at Philadelphia, started one day after the last. First A'eio York Uazette, In 1725; first ncvvspnper in the Carolinaa, at Charleston, 1731-2; iii.- jiearance at Venice in 1536 ; but the Jealouiy of tha government would not allow of its being printed ; »o thr.t, for many years. It waa circulated In munuacrlpt I It would amim that n«w«pa|*r« were llr»t iiiaued in Kngland liy autlio' ly during the alarni ncciisioned by tlie approach of the Armada to hur ahorea ; In oriUr, aa waa stated, by glv''ig real itifurmatloii, to allay the general anxletj. uiiii to hinder the dl^nemination of falsa and fuggeralod stutementa. Krmn thia era, newtpapera, of one sort or other, have, with a few in- temibfllon'T generally apiwarud in I.ondon, aonin- tlmea at re, .lar, and aoiiietliniM at irregular intervala. During "ii civil wars, both par, "a had lliclr newa- papers. t.e earliest i ipiiper pU'dishud in Scotland made Ita appearance i '-r the aii»pice.< of CnmiwoU In 1652. The Cijnin i. Mereury was, however, the llrst of the Scotch i,. » iiupcra of native manufacture ; It made Ita uppearinicu at Kdlnburg under tlie title of Mercu ' fCiiUdoniua, In ll)6(»; Iml iiublicution waa soon I '. 1 id interrupted. In 171 . newspaper waa, for th I WtrX 'me, attempted In Olungow. Tc 'lostoii belongs tho honor of establishing the first newspaper In North America. It was issued in the year 16110. It was deposited in tho State I'upor Ollice, in Limdiiu, and stopped by the government. It was of the size of an ordinary slieet of letter paper. One copy of it alone was known to bo in existence, and that it was that shared the luckless fi< e aliovo- named. The first regular paper that was issued waa also of Iioston. Its title woa the Newa Letter, itkdate was 1704, and it y a glance at the followin,<; table, which give) the supposed number of newspapers in the world, 1852—66 : Austria 10 Africa. 14 Asia SO Gn-at Britain and Ireland 600 Russia and Poly- nesia. 50 Belgium OS Denniaric 85 (rennanic States.. 850 rortugal in Spnln M United 8Utos 2,800 whila the particulars with respect to the othera wen in part estimated. From these returns, etc., it appears that the aggre- gate circulation of papers and other publications was about 6,0u0,000 ; and that the entire number of copies printed annually in the United States, amounted to about 422,600,000. The following table sliows the number of daily, weekly, monthly, and other issues, with the aggregate circulation of each class : Of these. New York alone issues 122 sheets, as fol- lows : secular journals, daily, morning, 8 ; evening, 6; semi-weekly, 2; weekly, 59 j German dailies, 3; weeklies, 8 ; French daily, 1 \ Spa.iish weeklies, 2 ; Welsli, 3 ; of religious woclclies, there are 29 sheets. It is ditlicult to obtain a correct estimate of the pres- ent circulation of so many jiapers. Of the daily po- pers, at least 250,000 copies must bu circulated ; while 18 religious weeklies are spread before 160,000 sub- scrilwrs. The whole number of newspaperu and periodical publications in the United States on the Ist of June, 1852, amounted, according to the official returns, to about 2,800. Of these, 2,494 were fully reported upon. I No. Dally Journals. Trl-wcekly Soml-weokly... Weekly Semi-montbly. . Monthly Qaartorly Total 850 160 125 2,000 60 100 25 Ctrculatlon, 760,000 7.%000 80,000 2,S75,000 800,000 000,000 20,000 _J>rlnM»niiiiftllj 2,S0O I 6,000,000 ii85,(KI0,UflO 11,700,000 S,32(l,0flO 140,600,000 7,20O,0(* 10,800,000 80,000 422,600,000 Four hundred and twenty-four Journals were issued in the New England States ; 876 in the Middle States ; 716 in the .Southern States ; and 784 in the Western States. Of the whole 2,800 publications, about 2,200 were newspapers, properly so called ; tlio residue being scientilic, religious, and educational journals. The average circulation of the mere papers was 1,785. There was one publication for every 7,161 free inhabi- tants in the United States and Territories. The fol- lowing summary is based on the official returns : NKWSl'ArERB AMD rp.BIODICAU PuHLISIIED IN TUE UnITF.D i^TATES IM 1860. StatM k Tnrilorlei.1 I No. Dally. Nir Ut' ully. i Tri-wevkly and . I s«ml-wfcK]y. I pie. P Weekly. Semi-monthly. ; Monthly. Quarterly. printed annu*! No. I prlntea all' No, eoiilee | rlnteaan niially. I No. eiiplea No. .prioled annU'l ^fo. ! ally- I No. copies printed nn- < No, I naally. ' Alabama. 'Arkansas UUferiUa 4 Iliat. Columbia. I 6 Oonnectlcut....,' 7 'I>olawaro I -. ;Florlila i .. Geurf;la ! 5 illlinols i N Indiana ' 9 Iowa 880,201 ; 6 I 286,500 026,0O0i 6,14»,lt)8, 1,752,800 Kentucky.. Louisiana. - Maine . 11 4 Maryland I 6 ■■ • 22 UusctU. Miclili^'an Ml»sl."i|)pl MiSMurl N. Haoipihire. New Jersey New York North Carolina.. Ohio Pennsylvania.. .- Uiioiio Island- -- South Carolina.. Tcnncsioo Texas Vt^rinont Virpinia Wisconsin iMIuiiesota Terri. IN. Mcvlco lOrciton lUtah I Total... 1,088,000 1,120,000 1,168,0001 t 2 2,248,684 9,047,140 984,040 15,8118,500 40,498,444 1,262,000 8,880,400 2,175',!i,"iO 68,928,685 I4.2h6',0J« 60,41"JS8 1.768,4.-)0 W/0,8'iOl 61 6,19S,.'i6ll 88 8,0fi7,,W2 51 1 4,098,678 428:ilJ5,as.'),4ri 2,020..W 311,473,407 84,898, f,T2 2,750,950 7,145,9311 6o) 6,941 1,7,'i0 2,526 1,296.924; 2,567,602! 9,228,06^ 2,666,487| 88',8('ki 68,9681 , :••• I 420,409,978 PUBUCATIONS AND THni ClBOITLATION IN TUK PbINCIPAL CiTlKS IN 1850, Albany Now York..... Baltimore Maryland Boston Massaebuf^etts. . ChnrlcKtiin South Carolina. Chicago Illinois Cliu'liinatl Oliio Louisville Kentucky Mobile Alabania. Now Orleans I.rf)ulnlaiia New York New York Bt Louis Missouri Pblladelplila Pennsylvania . . 8 81 113 . 12 17 89 28 4 18 104 18 61 Annual clreulatlon 16,060,460 20,711,100 54,482,644 6,675,800 1,680,952 8,758,200 8,186,688 1,002,000 1,260,860 78,''47,60O 4,190,080 48,iS7,340 Avera^re olrcQla- tlon. 2,006,307 668,100 482,147 472,983 110,997 224,441 13S.,S50 2.^i,.VK) fi2.\fl08 7r>7,188 271,668 900,142 Annual circulation to each while inliabltanl. 821 147 404 284 114 78 88 77 126 157 6A 125 NEW U21 NEW 68,068' 821 UT 4(14 2Sl M 78 88 IT 126 IBT 66 m See Am. Aim., 1885, 98, 266; If. Br. Rev., 11., 164, xiii., 86 ; J\r. ^m. Jlev., Ivi., 229 (C. C. f ei.ton) ; For. Quar., XXX., 197, xxxi., 182, 250; Lio. Age, iv., 780 ; Wealm. Itev., x., 216, 466, il., 194, xii., 69, xxv., 264 ; Southern Lit. Meit., vii., 690 ; Frasbr, xxxiii., 674, Iv., 127, 810, xiii., 620; Dem. Rev., xxiv., 219; Ed. Rev., Ixi., 96. New Style. Ordered to be used in England in 1761 ; aqd the next year eleven days were left out of the calendar — the 3d of September, 1762, being reck- oned as the 14th — so as to make it agree with tlie Gre- gorian Calendar, rMch tee, and also article Cai.kk- D.VR. In the year a.d. 200, there was no difference of st5'les ; but there had arisen a difference o' eleven days between the old and the new style, the 'ifiter being so much beforehand with the former : so that when a person using the old style dates the Ist of May, those who employ the new, reckon the 12th. From this va- riation in the computation of time, we may easily ac- count for the difference of many dates concerning his- torical facts and biographical notic3S. — M. Ne'W 7ork, one of tho United States of America, situated lietween 40° .SO ,iid 45° 01' N. Int., and be- tween 71° .W and 79° ■•<>' W. long., and contains an area of 46,000 square miles. The population in 1700 was 340,120 ; in 1800, 580,050 ; in 1810, 959,049 ; in 1820, 1,872,812 ; In 1830, 1,918,508 ; in 1840, 2,428,921 ; and in 1850, 3,097,394. Early History of New York Stale. — The Spaniards comprised the territory of the present State of Xew York under their great name of Florida, and desig- nated it also on their maps of the sixteenth century particularly as the "Tierra de Stephen Gomez," or shorter " Tierra de Gomez," because Gomez (1525) was for a long time the only Spanish navigator who was known to have explored especiall}' these coasts. The Knglish comprised it since 1585 under the name Vir- ginia, and since 160G under the name of Northern Vir- ginia, or tho Northern Colony. Since 1616 they con- sidered it as a part of New England, which name took the place of the old name of Northern Virginia, and went down like this as far south as the fortieth degree nf north latitude. The Dutch began soon after the discovery of Hudson (1609) to call it " Nicuw Neder- landt" (the Now Netherlands). This name may al- ready have been in use for some time, but it occurs for the Arst time in a public document in the year 1614. They also sometimes called it"Nieuw Holland." It is on maps also sometimes called " New Belgium." They at first gave to it very extensive boundaries, as fi\r cast ns Cape Cod, including the whole Barnstable peninsula, and south as far as the Delaware River and lifeyond it. With these limits we find it represented on iniiiiy old Dutch maps. Tho southern limit on the Delaware River remained pretty much unchanged on the Dutch maps. Not so the eastern boundary. On later maps we see this advancing only as far as Nas- sau Bay, Rhode Island. Since 1630 or 1035 tho maps have it only as far as the Connecticut River, where at this time the English had already arrived with their plantations. AVhen, in the year 1664, the Knglish conquered tli, whole countrj', it was named the " Province of New York," in honor of James, Duke nf York, brother of Charles II. It lost in tho same year a part of its coast by the grant which the Duke of York made to a company of gentlemen who founded the province of Now Jersey, between tho lower Hud- son and tho Delaware Bay. — .1. G. Koiii,. When tho province became, in 1776, a State, the name remained unchanged, and also the limits along tho coast. Physical Features. — This State is divided into three unequal parts, by two groat valleys, viz. : Ist. The valley of the Hudson, including the depression in which Lake Champlain is situated, or, more properly, the valleys of tho Hudson and Champlain united. 2d. The valleys of tho Molmwk, and Oneida Lako, and Oswego River, united. The eastern division is a long narrow belt, extending from New Y'ork island to the head of Lake Champlain. Its eastern limits are the borders of Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont, with a slope westward to the Hudson, traversed longi- tudinally by several narrow valleys. This division comprehends tl. western slope of the Taghkanir mountains, wlikli fonn the watershed that separates the waters flowing into the Hudson, from those which flow into Ix)ng Island Sound. Tho north division of the State is traversed by the Clinton range. There are several subordinate ranges connected with this group. It begins at Little Falls, in the valley of the Mohawk, and pursues a north-east course across the country to Tremldeau Point, on the west shore of Lake Champlain, There are numerous lofty peaks which formed a remarkable group, and have been styled tho Adirondack mountains. Mount Marcy, the highest of the range, attains to an elevation of 5,467 feet above the sea. This ridge presents the water-shed of the region dividing the waters of the Hudson, or those which flow south into the Atlantic, from those which flow into the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Tho south division is situated between Lake Ontario and tlie Mohawk, and the Hudson valleys and Pennsylvania. It rises with a gradual ascent until it reaches its maximum height near the southern boundary of the State. Tho south-eastern part of this division is comprised in three ranges, viz., tho Highlands, broken through by the Hudson, the Shawangunk, and the Catskill. There were in this State in 1850, 12,408,964 acres of land im- proved, and 6,710,120 of unimproved land in farms. Cash value of farms, $554,656,642, and the value of implements and machinery was $22,084,926. Live Stock. — Horses, 447,014; asses and mules, 963; milch cows, 931,324 ; working oxen, 178,909 ; other cattle, 767,406 i sheep, 3,453,241 ; swine, 1,018,252 ; value of live stock, $73,570,499. Agrimltural Products, e^c— Wheat, 13,121,498 bush- els; rye, 4,148,182; Indian corn. 17,858,400; oats, 26,652,814 ; peas and beans, 741,546; barley, 3,585,059 ; buckwheat, 3,183,955; potatoes, 15,368,368; sweet potatoes, 5,629 ; value of products of the orchard, $1,761,950; produce of market gardens, $912,047; pounds of butter made, 79,766,094 ; of cheese, 40,741,- 413 ; maple sugar, 10,357,484 ; molasses, 66,639 gal- lons; beeswax and honey, 1,755,830 pounds; wool, 10,071,301 pounds produced ; flax, 940,577 ; silk co- coons, 1,774; hops, 2,536,299 pounds ; tobacco, 83,189; hay, 3,728,797 tons ; hemp, 4 tons; clover seed, 88,222 bushels ; other grass seeds, 96,493 ; flax seed, 57,963 ; and were made 9,172 gallons of wine ; value of home- made manufactures, $1,280,333; of slaughtered ani- mals, $13,573,883. The principal rivers are tho Hudson, 324 miles long, navigable 156 miles to Troy. The Mohawk, 135 miles long, which enters tho Hudson a little above Troy ; the Genesee, 125 miles long, which enters Lake On- tario, having at Rochester, 5 miles from its mouth, 2 falls of 96 and 75 feet. Black River, which rises near the sources of the Hudson, and flows 120 miles into Lake Ontario ; the Sarnnac, 65 miles long, enter- ing Lako Champlain at Plattsburg ; the Oswegatchio, 100 miles long, flowing into the St. Lawrence ; tho Oswego, proceeding 40 miles from Oneida Lake into Lake Ontario; the Au Sable, rising in the Adirondack mountains, and having a course of 75 miles to Lake Champlain. Tho majestic St. Lawrence forms a part of the northern boundary of tho State. The head tir.inchcs of the Susquehanna, the Alleghany, and tho Delaware, rise in this St;ite. Besides I. ikes Ontario and Erie on the north, and Champlain on tho east, which are but partly within it, there are wholly within the State many picturesque sheets of water, viz., Lakes George, Oneida, Skanoatelcs, Owasco, Cayngii, Seneca, Crooked Lake, Cannndaigua, and Chautauquc. Tho islands belonging to Now York are— Long Island, NEW 1428 NEW 120 miles long from wost to east, with nn average Avidth of about 16 miles, within whose waters on the oast are Fisher's, Shelter, Robin's, and some other isl- ands; Staten Island, southwy of Jam, ihl. S 66,580,181 27,811,787 0,232,478 28,860,186 1,183,916 1,226,127 54,467,682 1,638,727 174,009,028 115,677,239 ■979,994 10,00^060 8,76^392 6,078,918 18,51fl,68» 16,206,601 3,069,343 2,833,611 670,403 174,812,146 nth Day of JUM, liu. 9 73,183,281 80,066,86() 10,202,728 31,889,120 1,074,183 1,610,197 79,996,628 8,836,416 2U2,B17,9.S6 181,206,983 412,249 13,6-20,764 6,006,709 13,381,410 17,8S3,MS 19,078,149 6,822,070 4,372,026 013,240 232,606,101 Sd Day of Jun«, ISW. $~ 86,032,621 28,662,396 10,868,672 24,000,232 1,010,614 2,817,100 83,537,767 _2,772,l«8 2J!!,60B,898 105,106,907 888,986 12,720,800 ^726,027 16,921,467 16,932,480 20,l,'i6,B16 7,888,065 8,248,982 1,123,667 248,213^796 I4th Day of Juna, ISU. $ 92,334,172 80,706,081 12,046,901 20,780,686 1,031,041 8,261,421 96,267,287 _Sjl84jW8 268,463,686^ 174,141,775 498,978 12,266,098 6,724,103 13,610,835 20,168,336 23,511,223 8,881,601 8,087,102 _],19yi94 268,461,004' Sth Day of June, 18&T. 108,061,777 32,395,802 18,049,030 27,319,817 1,010,576 8,264,877 104,350,426 1,764,886 287,990,280 190,808,832 607,137 11,643,830 7,428,016 14,370,434 23,737,430 25,747,472 9,299,794 3,004,293 1,802,923 287,094,800 nth Dnvof Juna, 1858. $ 109,340,r>41 24,079,193 18,603,650 84,200,766 874,838 2,710,034 98,040,876 1,56 7,974 281,479,871 178,863,146 331,002 13,509,231 7,899,058 33,697,211 16,019,241 23,097,001 8,615,305 1,919,!105 1,570,(102 284,47»,9il SumiABT or Capital invested, vai.de of kaw Matkbials anh PRonocrs, irra, of tiii State of New Yoek, coMrir.En FEOsi the State Ce:<8vs RETcnNa of the Yeae 18f)6. I'enuok f^mpUiyflil. ■5S , u Capital iiivesleit. In Real EaUl*. In Toole and Ma- chinery, Of raw Ma- terials. Of menu fnctiired Ar- Ucles- Agrlcultnral tools and implement«. MetaltuTKy and manuf. of metals, , Manuf. of fibrous and textile subsk Chemical processes, manufactures, and compoundri Calorifics— lumps, stoves, etc. . . Steam-engines, locomotives, etc. Navigation and maritime Implem'ts Hathematiciil, philosophical, and optical instruments Civil enginefiring and architecture. Ijand conveyance Hydraulics and pneumatics Lever, ecrev, and other mechanical powers Grinding mitts, mill gearing, etc. . . Lumber, including tools, etc. Stone, clay, p1 1150,917 8.'M,994 1,()0.'>,209 140,640 19,000 791,049 1,112,631 1,236,929 21,806,828 10,8(V(,178 8,120,409 43,192,087 19,043,02S 86,692,784 61,527,08.1 949,135^ 2,348,431 2,274,7871 4,331,800 3,992,723, 8,208,1011 169,080' 637,010 1,067,S08' 3,653,398 2,810,009 0,977,818 2S1,6S6j 691,076 41,121 ' 168,790 42,866,603 62,196,4'iO 12,206,957] 24,208,041 2,24.3,609; 9,494,217 14,921,706 27,370,l«:l 8,705,357i 0,186,348 8,871,TSS; 8,331,101 539,751] 092,liflS 73,549' 256,863 12,066,115 22,0+%22'J 6,309,269 8,U0(l,Ui)4 16,730,6233 75ril,2414 71,130,407 35,219,670 178,394,329 317,4;8, 331 The tons of wheat and flour shipped at Buflfalo and Oswego, from tho y^ar 1836 to ItJoS, at Black Rock, from 1839 to 1858, tnclusiv, a.|>| -t 'i'on&wanda, from tSbO to 1868, anci the tpUil ions uf wheat and flour which arrived at the Hitdrju.. hiv? r, '•- • re as follows : 1 ISiS. T-r /..,•.««.. I J'.-'-M aad <. Mile. 1 -1. 1 . Av. per Ton ofia Mile. 1 N.Y. Central UK. . 1 N.Y. and Erie H.H. j Canals U2,.-'t.-.->; ««,.:.• 10 44 166, -i.nr-' 8,8-:- il0 77 664. 1 ■ ' ? : i ,754 00 2'66 eta. 2-32 3-71 mills. Total 873,428,iiu8 1 $»,654,3B6 21 110 ct». The canal averages do not cover the forwarder's charge for traiuportation, which may be assumed at one cent a ton per mile, althongh the succeeding tables will ahow this assumed cost too high by nearly one half. The gross receipts are only given, so that the net receipts or net earnings do not appear in these statements. A'ero I'tK't Cana7«.— Tho fallowing table represents tho total tonnage of ail the property on tlic canals, as- cending and descending, its value, and the amount of tolls collected for the twenty -three years preceding; also the total tons coming to tide water from Erie and Champlaincanalsfor each of the last twenty-three years, and the aggregate valne thereof in market ; also the whole quantity of wheat and flour whicli came to tlio l«l It! ID' l«< Til Til NEW 1429 NEW :he east, id, havB nntural, Ontario. 'oUowlng inbilitics lainess In nunrterly following llh Dny of [une, m»- 19,340,611 M,n7»,193 18,603,060 34,21)0,700 , 874,838 2,710,034 98,040,876 _1>7,974 1M,47»,871 178,863,146 1 331,002 13,609,231 7,899,(158,1 33,597,211 15,019,241 , 23,097,061 ! 8,616,305 1 1,919,9(15 I 1,670.002 I '281,479,921 ; I Of mantt foctiired Ar- 1 ticlti. 29 1 S,120,4(W m\ 43,192,C'<7 178 19,643,02S rS4' 61,527,0«1 1351 2,348,431 7871 4,331,800 123 1 8,268,100 080! 6,37,010 808' 3,663,398 009, 6,977,818 6S6i 691,076 m' 168,700 ,663 62,1(15,4261 ,957 1 24,208,041 609', 9,404,217 706 27,370,163 ,357, 9,186,34S ,7S,Sj 8,331,101 754 902,(16^ .6491 266,863 115 22,04.^22(; ,269 8,900,634 '■iiV 317,4i8,33l] cceeditig tables by nearly one en, so that the ippoar in these able represent!-; , tlio conaU, ns- the amount of lars preoedingi r from Erie and inty-threeyears, larket ; also the Icli came to the Iludion Blvef, from 1884 to 1858, inoloslve, with the 1 tolls i-acelved on all the wheat and flour transported on RKKregato morkot value of the same, and the amount of I the canals in each year, from 1836 to 18.58, Inclusive : Vim Totfti '^onaaga. From Krl. aod Champlaln Canala | BrtadstufTa. "T,iio,ii6T Valuo Tolla. Toni Valua Ton. Valw. Tolla. 1 mi., ««7,eB4,84S 91,614,342 696,374 $•28,032,479 124,982 $9,796,540 Motaicect'd.; 1»»T.. i,ni,«Mi 60,809,283 1,292,628 611,781 21,822,364 116,491 9,640,166 $301,789 1 imiN, , 1,1139,011 06,746,669 1,690,911 640,481 23,038,610 133,080 9,883,816 880,161 INllIt, , 1,48(1,111) 1,416,046 T8,B»9,764 1,816,382 602,128 20,163,199 124,683 7,217,841 404,080 mn.. 60,803,898 1,770,747 669,012 23,213,.673 244,882 10,862,862 T0O,0Tl 1 mil,, l,MI,fl«l 9il,202,929 2,034,982 774,334 27,225,322 201,300 10,1(:6,365 621,046 1 |HW, , 1,336,931 60,010,008 1,749,196 666,626 22,751,013 108,231 9,284,778 006,TiT ! IMII,, l,nia,4fl» 70,870,900 2,Oi31,600 836,881 28,453,408 248,780 10,283,484 781,816 1 1144,, 1,fltA,»1« 90,921, t53 2,446,374 1,019,094 34,183,167 277,866 11,211,677 816,711 , MA.. i,ffu,ait 100,068,246 *'"5'JS] 1,204,943 46,462,321 320,463 15,982,0,10 861,633 ' un,, «,iltK,A03 115,613,109 2,766,106 1,362,319 61,105,286 419,366 18,8.36,412 1.099,826 ! *»,. 8,KltO,itlO 101,608,428 8,63^8S1 1,744,283 73,092,414 551,205 32,800,938 1,4611,424 i m*,, «,fl1fl,«S0 140,096,187 8,262,213 1,447,9115 80,88.3,907 431,641 21,148,421 1,126,138 1 1*49.. v,m,rsi 144,789,286 3,268,226 1,579,946 62,376,621 434,444 19,308,595 1,128,064 i IWlffl,, 9,f)7(),61T 160,897,929 8,273,890 8,033,863 55,474,637 461,781 20,218,183 1,114,619 tthl., ll,0ia,733 169,981,801 8,329,721 1,977,161 53,927,603 467,024 18,487,862 867,881 1 HM, , 8,'WII,441 190,608,517 3,118,244 2,2i!4,823 00,8(13,103 076,772 22,664,250 096,160 ; WD,, 4,!14T,i*ni 207,179,670 8,204,718 2,50.6,797 73,688,044 fllH,S53 30,034,571 998,962 1 Ixhi,, 4,ld6,,m 189,568,844 2,110,754 1,985,142 61,630,061 464,831 19,032,087 629,204 Tanndfft, 1\)IU, Freight of Canals and Railroads of ling year; also the tolls and freight paid on the tonnage. S'm row.— Tha following tablo shows tho separate I The tons of property carried in 1853 and 1858 are ncar- lommgn of tho canals and two railroads, and the nggre- ly the same. The aggregate cost of transportation ((«(« uf lioth for six years, 1853 to 1858, inclusive, with was $2,073,572 more in 1868, owing to tho large pro- the luiKe* and gains of each compared with the preccd- i portion of tonnage being carried by rail : em»\i mill Kallfoaili. Tonnage. ToIlB and Freight j 1053 IXM Gain In 18S4. Lon In 1B54. 1853. 1854. I Gain In 1864. Lon.in I8S4. New Vuilctiiilinli. NpwYrirk(!ntitrnl lt.lt. NttwYurkaddKrlalLn. Nnw Ynrii Ontintu Nn* VorkOolitPnlll.a. Now Viirit mill KrlolLR Nkw York (IntisU NwwYol'kOotilriilH.li. N^wYarkntidllrlon.n. Nnw Ymk Ontinti. NiiwYiiriit)«iitnillt.ll.. M^wYtfrkittiillMeU.K. NSW Ynrfc ftntlBl* Nnw Vnfl(»!pntriiin.n.. NiiwYM:-kiiliitlCrleH.H. 4,247,863 360,1)00 631,039 6,288,892 ia64. 4,165,862 M9,Rfl4 743,260 4,16.6,862 649,804 743,2.V» 189,804 112,211 81,991 $3,294,718' l,838,830t 2,637,214t $2,773,566 2,479,820 3,369,690 $64(1,990 832,370 $431,182 5,463,916 ISIS. 4,022,017 070,078 842,048 302,015 Gain In 18S5. 120,269 98,798 81,991 Lota In 1855. 143,245 $7,580,782 1864. $2,773, 666' 2,479,82flt 3,309,690t $8,622,978 1856. $2,805,077 3,189,003 3,0.')3,0O2 $1,473,300 Gain In 1855. $31,611 709,783 283,413 $431,102 LoH in 1956 6,458,910 IMS 4,022,917 070,073 842,048 5,634,738 llist 4,110,082 776,112 943,215 219,067 Gain In 18S6. 9.3,466 100,039 101,167 143,246 Lou in less. $8,022,976 1855. $2,80,6,077« 3,189,603t 8,6r)i!,002t $9,847,883 !$1,U34,706 1856. Gain In I86(. $2,748,212 4,328,041 -1,188,433 4,54,5,783 892,780 .... ! LoH in 1858 1 $66,866 1 6,634,738 mt 4,116,083 776,113 943,216 5,836,409 1867. 3,344,061 838,791 978,080 8,160,913 1SS8. 8,685,193 765,407 816,951 300,671 Gain In 15S1 02,679 34,S.'->1 97,63(1 Gain In 1859. 321,131 Lo!, In 1951. 772,021 ";7/,F2T~ l.o>! In tS5j. 7'3'.11S4 161,112 $9,047,883 1851. $2,"4S212" 4,32S,041t 4,51,'>.7.S-2t $11,022,035 1856. $2,04,'>,64r 4,.V>(),270I- 4,097.610 f $11,022,038 1B5T. $2,045,641 4..Vi'l.276 .; (K'.'.iu > 18.18 K^.no.T.M 3,:.lll,"70 3,643,310 $2,031,218 Gain in IS5T. $23i,23i5 $86,868 ! LoH in IBM. 1 $703,671 ' 448,172 6,836,409 t«57. 8,344,061 838,791 978,066 $231,235 Gain in 1868. $06,313 $1,180,748 LoulDieiS. 1 $8.69,'M6 j 2M,800 6,160,918 6,'M7,653 321,131 234,4(18 *i0,7il2,5-27 $9,654,3.14 $68,313 $1,113,806 Tolls. C'AICAL AND C'ENTBAL RaILBOAD COMrAEEO, 1S53-'&S. i Freight. Vim. ranal.. N ew York ' .-niral Kailrnail. Toni oartipii. TuIIh received. Averanfl per Ton, VU. Tons carried. FreiK)it rtceive.l. l;l,S3;^,^3() iio AveraKO per Ton. Ithil 4,247,863 $2,965,097 09 et 36(I,IKI0 $6 111-74 IHM 4,160,863 9,5»7,4S8 6115 M9,S05 2,479, S26 00 4 60-00 \m 4,022,617 2,610,420 64-89 670,078 3,180,803 OO 4 70-00 \m 4,110,083 2,554,216 02 05 776.113 4,.371,339 20 6 07 09 1«M 8,884,061 1,897,451 66 -91 838,791 4,659,275 88 43-85 IIM 8,666,103 1,902,276 63 ■27 766,407 3,700,270 44 4 83-46 AVSVAOSB OK VT AMD DOWM FbEIOHT FOB TOT LABT TWKNTT-NINB YeabB, 1830 TO 1S68 . 1 1 1 im ,...., Arerago Otiarge on up Preight per 100 Poundi from Albany to Buffalo. Average charge on down Freight per Pcttodi. Bbl., SIS Pounda, from Buffalo to Albany. | Toil. rr..glil Whole Charge. Toil. Freight. Whole Chargt. Cenu. CanU. Cenla. Cenu. CanU. Cenu. 1«IWt«1«4 46 46 91 43 45 93 lillhieKee , 83 66 S-J SB 40 75 iMautim 83 83 66 88 83 68 I»4l>l«li4» 26 18 13 15 11 10 41 29 23 82 28 31 81 29 27 63 04 43 IMtOlflUMM IWflifll** '''Im (Uf fdiit, nf foiluctlon from the period ending t, Ith mi to Ihn prrlmt ending wH), 1&(9, la. . . . 43 66 08 83 49 61 Tll« Iwr rntll, uf r«(liictliin from tlie period ending wiili (■I4U to tlin perioil enillng tritli 1868, it.... 84 80 33 44 84 18 TllK iwr mill, nf reiliicllon from the period ending _ Willi 1184 tu the period ending with 1868, Is. . . . 71 77 78 64 40 4S NEW 1430 NEW otherwise an increuse in the receipts of tolls would tiitve been the reAiilt. But this statament also oxiiibits the aniount of freight earnings on these railroad.s, and tolls received on the canals, including the toU!> on boats and passen- gers during the above period, together with these total movements. These cpmparativo statements sho'-v the rapid and successful ^jrogress nl the former, and the immobility of the latter : 18S3. F-elffbt And Tolli. N.Y. Cen.R.R., tons moved 1 mile, (64,901,850 l,S3i(,830 N.Y. and Erie R.B., " 101,626,522 2,537,214 Uansis, " T0},889,933 8,204,718 TotHi (860,717,805 1W«. N.Y. Oen. K.11., tons moTed 1 mile, (81,163,090 N.Y and Erie R.R, " Iii0,9fl9,0;)4 UanalB, " 669,669,044 7,690,762 2,479,fi2.1 S,B69,B90 2,778,666 Total (889,635,169 I8S5. N.Y. Cen. R. It, tons moved 1 mile, (99.605,936 N.Y. and Erio K.R, " 160,673,099 UanalB, " 819,170,051 8,622,976 3,199,003 3,61)3,002 2,906,077 Total (869,450,485 9,647,692 18E6. N.Y. Cen. R.K., tons moved 1 mUo, (14.^, 793,678 4,329,041 N.Y. and Erie ttlt, " l'jj,453,016 4,616,792 Canals, " 692,009,003 t,74S,212 Total (921,20!,3:T 11,622,036 This statemfct alco shows the total tonnage of freight on these roads for 1855 and 18;';6 separately from other tabular calculations, from which it appears the increase on through freight ia one year ^vas 182,358 tons, and on way 14,847 tons. The operations of these loaUs, for the year ending Septemlwr 30, 1855, were as follows : 1 Rm4>. Thronfrb rnlghl. rrtlgL ...™kL- movflmont cwial Mite* »"■"'"'■ ormlle,,.. | In lUS. 18S5. N. T. A Erie. . N. Y. Central.. Tuna. 156,469 156,194 Tun.. 636,596 518,879 8l'2"06.5ll50,878,99s!(t49,lS5 870,078! 99,605,8831 487,019 Total 811,6681,200,465 1,512,128 249,279.8il4;(980,204 ' 19M. 1 N. Y. Central.. 263,238 622,824 ]N. Y. AErle..' | Not 1 1 776,112 146,78.8,07s (491,451 reported! \ (3,0X3,992 98-8() 2,866,386 7419 2,956,697 69-61 2,547,438 61 16 2,610,420 64-09 2,664,216 62-06 The New York and Erio Knilroad received on through freight in l«5r, $1,461,419 18, equal to $9 40 per ton, on the quantity transported, .ind in the samo year the New Yorlt Central received $1,289,700 97 rn through freight, which gives an average of $8 25 7-10 per ton on the amount carried. The comparative tabular statement herewith sub- mitted is a condensed view of the total tonnage and receipt! of toll on all the canals on the ditferent descrip- tions of property' carried, for the period of six years : YfiW. Toiw r*rri,'ii. Tv.lU reiTeivfld. Av. per ton. 1861. 3,592,7,33 1882 3,863,442 1858 4,247,963 18S4 4,166,862 1866 4,022,617 1886 4,116,083 The receipts of toll above given are upon the prop- erty carried exclusive of the tolls on boats and passen- gers, and the average must bo affected by the rates of toll charged and received, and the distance that prop- erty or freight ia transported on the canals. The average of 1851 on the tonnage of 1856 would give i$3,542,178 of tolls. The Auditor is satisfled that the rates of toll .s arranged in 1851 may Im imposed on most of the property transported on the canals without any injury to tr-ije, if the legislature will interpose its con- stitutional .-luthority to protect the trade of the canals. The canal debt of 1846, to which the aiiiiuul Sink- ing Fund ol' !(l,700,00()is applic-ible and constltuiion- ally pledged, was, on tlie 30th September, !8o6, ijilS,- 223,704 3i), the annnal interest of wliich, payable i{uartcr yearl/, amounts to $792,193 28, and j,'j,7.'!9,- 024 70 of this debt are fur loans made upcn the credit of this Sinking Fund to supply the deflciencies which existed in that fund, to pay the debt as it fell due after 1847. Former financial officers of the State have esti- mated thnt the Sinking Funds established by article 7, section 1, of the Constitution, would be ample to meet all the charges upon them from year to yeor, and finally to liquidate the Canal debt, of $10,944,815 57 outstanding on tho 30th of September, 1816, in 18 years and 8 months, with a surplus of $95,333 48 on the 1st of Jf.nuary, 1865, when it was assumtd the whole of the debt would be paid. CiKAL DKBT.— STaTEMENI BHOWLVd TUB AM0I;."< T OF PlllN- Cn'AI. AND InTEIIKST «0TUAII.V PAYASLK IN EACH YeaS, TOaKTilEII '.'ITU TUB BeSULTS OE THE dlNKINQ FuSD, UNBKR THE CONSTljtUTIOH, AkT. 7, SeU. 1, FKO.M SEP- TEMUKR SOrn, 1850; Also toe Amouni ut 8uki>i.uh ox Septembeh 30th, OF xAcn Yeab, and tub Amount of Annual Intebkst on tub saue at Five per Cent. pee Ammvu, Yeor. M r'ttir Surplus on Intuiestun Sept. 80th, of ■UTpli.j Id eaeli year. each yesr. 1856 surplus 1857 18.59 19.59 1860 1861 1902 1868 1864 1805 1800 1907 1-69 Ii69 l.«0 1971 1972 1878 1874, Jan. 1st Total debt, prin- cipal A interest Surplus on Jan. lBt,1874 (3,059',IX!5 943|i('i0 2,192,974 900,000 40<1,fl6o 1,789,024 4,000^000 (692,193 8,718,666 639,268 1,468,216 2,598,619 ;,258,841 828,:m •(22,841 2,017,290 200,000 200,000 200.000 200,000 2O'i,O0O 200,000 200,000 200.000 4,0.50,000 (1,259,901 2,889,708 4*4,672 1,617.148 1,929,794 1,142,628 1,641, -118 8,09.5,142 4,227,6,';9 4,121.6.55 4,127,789 4,m,125 4,140,931 4,147,972 4,155,200 4,103,029 4,171,181 4,179,740 191,997 (0-J,995 110 ^35 21, M) 80,957 96,4S9l 67,131 92,1170 154,7,57 211,377 21)0,092 200,390 200.700 207,041 207,393 207,703 209,151 209,.5,59 62,240 (13,223,'04 I [ •••• (18,072,198 181,997 Iiiter.-9t on 1 nurplua ) (2,594,279 (19,164,190 The following statement shows the tonnaye of all tlie canals of the Stnt". from 1850 to 1855, incliiiive, the total movement in the years stated, and tho total value of all tl'.o property carried on the canals in eucli year. Yearf. Total tonoace. Total movement. Total valo. or prr.perly rrtrrli-il. 1S50 0,070,617 .... (150.397,929 1851 2,588,788 1.59,991,901 j 1852 8,802,441 602,800,919 196,003,617 :853 4,i57,868 700,899,9.*! 207,179,570 1854 4,166,862 669.659,OH 210,294.812 ; 1866 4,022,017 619,1711,061 2M,890.147 ! The two lines of railway in the State, whicli, dur- ing the reason of canul navigation, mcst effectually and seriously compiv.i with tho canals in the transport of freight, are the New York and Erio and tlie New /ork Central Uailronds. Thn operations of tliese lines in the transportation of frefyht during the years stated below, show a steady and progressive increase. Tho largest amount of tolls in any fiscal year was in 1851, when the receipts wore $3,703,999 31; and the per centago of the cost of collection on the gross amount received was $2 03. This was before tlie re- peal of tho lawp imposing tolls on freight transported on certahi railroads, and the cimsequent reduction of tolls on tho canals, to enable tlio State to compete for the carrying trade. In 1861 tho tonnage of all the canals was 3,582,733. Tho tonnage of all the canals in 1855, was 4,022,617 ; 4.39,881 more than in 1851 ; while the tolls weru na\y $2,032,906 U, being $1,071,- 093 23 lees. The tonnage of 1855, at the rates of toll as they were fixed in 1851, would have yielded about $4,108,000, or about $1,536,000 more than were ac- tually received ; tho very natural and perfectly Icgit- ipiate results of a policv adopted by the State before it was prepared by tho completion of tho enlargement to encounter an active and vigorous competition. NEW 1431 NEW HCrAN »0,«9I 57,1311 82,1170 1^,757 lill,»77 20ti,0S2 a06,!)8li| '200,708 207,041 207,:IU3 20V,7f>3 aos.i.')!! 208,.V)9, 5'2,240 aliii* of ] jerly nirtii'tl. J 981,801 I r,ii;i,5i7 1 179,.'i70 I 2lvl,!!l'2 \ ,,390.147 1 rhich, dur- iffectually transport tlie New of these the years increase, year 'Vus )9 .91 ; and the gross ore the re- .ransported eduction of lompcte for of all the the canals in 1851; jg $1,071,- ■ates of toll dded ahout n were ac- 'cctly legit- ^tato before nlargemeiit titiou. Table belotv shows the amount of the new debt created since 1846, the interest of which is paid by the General Fund"; the specillc objects for which the sev- eral stocks were Issued, and the date of redemption of each, followed by a recapitulation of the whole canal debt of the State : CANAL DSBT. 8'« duo 1st ,Iuly, 1872 |3,2B0,000 6'» " 1st January, 1878 1,1100,000 «•» " lstJuly,lS73 1,260,000 Cb " Ist November, 1873 2,2^,0,000 a's " Ist October, 1874 3,260,000 (9,000,000 1,600,000 600,000 Total debt for the cnlargoment and completion of the canals ffs due iBt July, 1878 6'a " 1st Januarv, 1874, to provide for dcfl- cicncles to pay tne Interest and redeem the principal (11,000,000 SKOAPrrnLATioN or tue oamal sbut. To pay the Interest and redeem the principal under Article 7, Section 1, of the Oonstltu- tlon (18,228,704 33 To pay the Interest and redeem the principal under Article 7, Section 3, of the Constitu- tion 11,000,000 00 The interest paid by the General Fund 442,6S& 49 Total debt Ist January, 1857 (24,«06,2S9 82 Of the debt paying interest there was held on the 30th September, 1856 : On the United States" account (18,992,289 82 On foreign account 3,424,000 00 Total canal debt to 30lh September, 1960 (22,410,289 82 The interest on the debt is a fraction over 5.51 per cent. On the 1st of July, 1858, thero will be re- deemed by the Sinking Fund under section one, all the Ave per cent, stocks then falling due, say (3,058,606 34 The new debt will probably be Increased by a resort to the credit of the Sinking Fund under § 3, on the 30th September, 1853 818,839 44 Decrease in aggregate of canal debt (2,239,705 90 If the surplus of the canal revenues during the cur- rent fiscal year shall not be sufficient to meet the whole annual contribution of $350,000 to the General Fund Del)t Sinlcing Fund, the deficiency should be made up from tlie receipts from taxes transferred to the Canal Fund during the year. The premiums on loans constitute quite an import- ant item of receipts to the State. FBEunnis OS loans. The premiums received and paid into the treasury on loans made since the 1st of January, 18-^1 < have been as stated below : On loan of June 22, 18M, of (1,000,000 if ; , ■■:M 25 •• Aug. 31, " 1,260,000 lii7.24(i Ri " Feb. 22, 1S55, of 1,000,000 l.tl.SSOft) " June 21, " 1,260,000 234,600 00 " June 20, " 1.600,000 C. R. C. 259,406 00 " Oct. 24, " 1,260,000 204,611 60 On Ionics to supply deficiencies In Sinking Funds, Docembtir 18, 1S65 <^ - "- rent) 4,600,000 31,98120 On K. anrf '■ .. by the Legislature tfl the people, with provisioii ;■ v payment by direct tax- ation, and ratified by the people. « ♦ * Corpo- rations are to be formed under general laws, except those for municipal purposes. Municipal corporations are to lie restricted by the Legislature in their power of taxation and contracting debts. Stockholders in banks are individually responsible for the debts of their corporation to the amount of their shares of stock. * ♦ The capit.ils of the common school literature and United States deposit funds are inviolate. NEW U32 NRW The agfrre^ata statoment showa an increase in the down tonnitK^ In 18.50 over 1865 of 200,844 tons, anil .« decrdikse in value of (2,674,537. lu wipent to tiM u|iw«r(l liioyiiitwn*, Ihefa la an In. i;t. ;i^ »f u.iin»ipt In INftA „yp, jnftfl of li6,ino tons. undmv.lua ;f ♦»«,BHr,H4(, BcuTKmifT anowiNO tur Total QaiNTiTT add T,-/'MAivin \'iivt or .t^i i.; \H' KiT» ox ALL Till Cahal'. iiuiuin tsr'. Ykau t'^ iW 'ii ttM. ~ IM, TUH FOBIWT. Fur inil pe'.try lbs Produott of WOO' i BoaiitA ami Acantling f~ Shiiigli's Ml Tlmbnr ui. ;!.' fitev.- iiw.j Wood cordai A.w, and lard oil.... " ] ytgetablt focil. il'liur bbN. . W'ueat bush. i Itjre " jtioru " Corn meal bbla. Bailey bush. lOntfl " Brun aiul .shipatiilf lb». I I'eiis an 1 beans bush. Potiiloui, " nrlid fruit lbs, Another agrlcuW al proiluctt. ICJullnn lbs. iTTnumnafacturcd tobacco. .. " (Homp " jClovor and Kto&s seed '* K1«K seed " Ilo'.iS '■' Domestic spirits gallii. Oil lucal and cake Iba iLiathar. " |Fitrnltu.-j '• Bar ainl pig liad " iPlglri..., " Bloom and bar Iron " Castinis and Iron rare " Domestic woolens ** " cottons " salt " Forolitn lalt " Merchandise ^ Otiikk Articlim. Livi^ eattle, hotc^and sheep. lbs. ,fitone, lime and clay " Oypsum " Mineral coal " Copper ore ** 'Sundrtea " Quutl'jr. ffi.-JtO BJ2,478,mi.'5 4,4A6,()3I) 182,081,401 iW.i'.lO 14i,-4fl W.I OT 13,82;.,.'J6 f.,6T6,VVJ •iSM.lOil «01,OT« «,11W,&S7 18,808,210 1,24»,4.W 8,62:1,704 2-AH62 I2,876.41U I7\417 1,941»,J70 B,n.W,121 17,014,W8 17(1,748 C2fl,4S0 603,481 788.'^^i2 6,G»4,(W8 2,287.924 948,nl)> 181,851 914,018 2,088.721 18,U22,7» «,217,a7!l 770,941 8jO,778 ll,91.\5«k ]S,6V6,715 1,786,878 8,nT6,.18T 191,223 .■50,8a1 4'iT,li2 .VVI59 71,«19 l,191,4i'« 1.58 *t,28fi 4.5S7 82:',«99 778,865 88."i,879 1,292,868 77,094 58,581 182,709 461.103 60,024 271,186 873, LVi 64,186 80.9.86 6,816,828 ri.Oit 902,008 80,400 461,610 798,190 4,088,686 ClAl-'liy, Vsl«». 4.1,713 '191,776,759 7l,«il.- a,l89rl4rt 199,787,885 10,199 12,i-,'i, b: ,. 9,M;i,iii ' 9,607,12:! 4,841,085 461,288 4,824,945 0.45«,458 1,290,140 6,426,288 777,884 9,848,776 2,846 1,674,489 4,607,988 44,088,682 90,728 689,M8 888,410 •6,874 2,844,»»8 448,828 592,484 428,888 880,478 1,829,888 11,1441,487 7,4,58,019 72,440 2,780,810 81,888,2118 15,060,440 1,512,258 8211,848 1,106,198 6,085,1104 88,112,000 128,600 16«,877,28N 6,871,840 86,065,040 282,618 149,480,908 Huulttf, »*rt,»jT 7,88t,T8» to* lift 'MM'" ■n,m llfri,7o8 Ml fll 08,58(1 1,4011,888 ttT'^,8«a 12,88li,i|iiH 1 1,802,077 971,1174 9,128,871 11,'il'^l »,8I8,4I() 2,878,uill 448,1187 2'^^T»8 4»0,M'« 8l,V8:l 10,8(6 812,780 >.2,«IIT H->,2M 42«,i;fiO 4«,95i* 17,706 II6,4M 87,900 1(0 1 t,m,m 18,Hn8 27,810 107,4118 57,8«lt B,7ii;iJHIrrt 728,41.7 112,194 n-/.im 807,205 8.511,804 «o/.l',169 1,09'.,716 8,2111,1109 H2,4S8 2,499.428 8,4'<5,518 881,948 054.895 487,.126 78,799 30,074 288,119 fi,5.<8 78,778 88,494 67,807 817,080 170,425 1,988,200 71.817 87,918 792,412 (188,892 8fi,24'' !'i4,8,i, i((5,6fl8 l-<,828 l,or.« 6,897,788 1(112.628 107,649 2,IM4 1115,897 410,809 8,497,701 Stathiiknt snowiNo tu« Aogbsoatb i!» Tons a:>:d tub Aoobeoatk Vai.i/b or tnt l'«oi'«8f* wotmi im" to UuusoN Kivi:a ON ALL tui Canals, dufiku -uk ':'£ARS 1854, 1855, A8i> tN56| VMBHH tH8 DlVlsiuk,:) as Hen r. in tub ABo-a Tablb. Vain: Wl ToDi. 1,132,931 '28 540 w MerchandiAO Othor Brtlrlen Total i.t'i ^~ ' ISM, ISII Ton. Vslw, Tom, 1,0811,417 80,4M U,07>1 178,754 9,IW,449 V ,*3 .i6,40B >.Ogl,O0B ;>,8ie,n28 8,285,820 yt. 1,7287265 884,6,58 787,688 48,878 16,^ifl 188,811 1,983,688 " »I«,»(KW 48,087,1/89 4,884,819 6,189,989 T,WIO,04I ♦7«,IWi,U7.' VaIuv. ./IO,44«,S8i> 49,8n8l2 4.4s ((27 1 (•.897,788 'l.';36.628 |74,888,T3r gTATHBNTSIIOWIilOTIIBAaaBBOATR'^ i or tub PnorFBTT wiiioii w«kt i IHG Tlia YEABS 1.'i65 AND 1866. Km. Tona 6a5,59T Value 1118,441,868 - \ND VaLDB .'a.SAU" dub- 8TATBIIB»TBIIflWII(D'rH8,V*««8ll4tl(t,IW,1MI 121.279,608 ♦8,860,225 ♦a8.1.'!0,S,,W9,9fl4 10.246,894 80,17.5,298 70,909,085 926.280 414,688 IMfl 29,n8»,S68 7,819,547 86.985,418 74,261,288 1,120,914 425,942 IMT H'*I0.4HO 6,027,888 49,844,868 84,167.852 1,010,840 48a765 I»W 8H,77I,209 14,679,948 58.861,167 94,62.5,141 1,001,316 706,378 (MB 8fl,7«H,21B 9,224,886 46,968,100 92,667,869 l,a58,648 781,614 • • • . IV^» Tot.1..., 4l,602,SuO t8ul,41A,779 11,209,989 62,712,789 111,128,624 1,411, .5,57 787,589 ♦88,507,156 ♦885,322,936 ♦767,571,840 9,379,470 4,851,571 .)«B»IW,1'>W »»<1,1M,M2 ♦17,902,477 ♦86.007,019 ♦141,M6..58a 1,688,818 878,819 618,575 622,489 HM 74,042,ftSl 18,441,875 87,484,4.56 182,829,806 l,.57n,927 906,703 !•*» flfl,08fl,HS8 12,176,985 78,206,290 178,270,999 1,9,'j9.002 1,084,742 (»M 1(in,M)1,74n 16,992,908 122,684,646 195,427,988 1.018,817 1,036,164 • .*. Jlttt 96,414,808 17,816,480 118,781,2.88 164,776,611 1,861,682 1,140,197 tnlHi 109,848,609 9,262,991 119,111,600 210,162,454 2,136,877 1,836,677 .... 1 .... WV'-' lli)«l.4NM hirrlyn Commerce of the United Statea. Viir Nbw York (JHnslii, see fTortk Am. Rev., xiv., SIWI, H%\n,, tm, xl,, 120, xlv., 543. For Trade, Com- limfcw, l>tnifni>r('liil metropolis of the United States, on tlm Mi'ltllArn extromity of Manhattan Island, at the iwlnt iif AXtfllMtKre of the Hudson River, which sepa- ri)t«« MMihAttAn from New .lersey, with East River, wlil.ili Mttiitriitos It from Ixing Island, In lat. 40° 42' N., Kltd liilt>?, li" h' y/. New York Bay, or inner harbor, l« ims iif iliK ttiost i!»p«oinus and finest in the world ; It U r'iimhiot«ly land'locked, and affords the licat an- •liftfltw, 'J'h* Mltfance to the bay through tho Nar- ,*i» U nxlrmitxl V Iwn^' "fiil. On each side, tho shore, tlMiliKlt wnini1 are smn the spires of tlio city; and in tiM (ll)iti<-ic« thit iKild preplpltcjs banks of tho Hudson. I'riim N» m Yurk to the bar between Sandy Hook Point m\ Hi'hfyflf's Istiind (the divldon lietweantho outer Iwy or liitrlKif und tho /tlnnlic) is about 17 miles. ►■'irtlftditlKmit have Iwen erected at the Narrow.'*, Gov- •mor'ii Mnnit, nnd other places, for the defense of the i^ity unit slilptHnf(, M^iitlmtldii w«s ilrst discovered and expln^d by ihmiMn Hudson l«i 1C09. Hudson i>\m\Mim iil \if>mM*n, wliicb, ill IM&O, aniouiiteil Ui U iif l/tvKru«fl. Uriginally tlie lioufea wiiru iiMMlly nt Himil, nm i\m Htrcets narrow and conlliif« tiaving l)een pullfd down and ri'iiiiilt HUlt \if\ii\t, '\\m now streets, wliidi are liroail, and Inlorsctt «*'(( iiiUot at riglit anicles, am well |i;ivi'd awS liijIilMt, \Uiim\- way, tlie principal street, ia oiut nt \\lu l/(f«(irt »ui\ Hnest in the world. Many of lim \m\i\\)\ ltMili||ti|(» ntf commodiouH and elu|{aut. 'I'liu jiooU, tliat HcrH liitin- erl.v abundant in tlie city and \U vif )n)l) , l«4V« l(c<\K'i\ nt cloanlinenH, however. New Voili, lliimUl»\i\i' stench. lluS in tiicsc respects a grsill WIMWMlllCKt hiis been cITected ; aii.i tile iletichiii y of mMft, MIMlcf which the city formerly laliored, has \mui\ inm\i\Hp\y obviated liy the construction of l\m t'.fiiUiH Sn^iUii, uliout 10^ miles in length, a wurk l/iiinUy lit Mnft ranked with the noldest of tlia ojij Hnmnn «<|fl(>- ducta. Now York l» indelited, for her w»lMl*i\ Sift tlip greatest cniporiuni of t e New Wofhl. '( hn (iw lit (he tide is about fi feet, and even at «bl( (h»»»i Mf 1 1 feel water on the bar; and the water in OwKiHtursild itltrcf bays, uud in the river, is so <|jtiep that ehi|«* of thn larijest Imrdeu lie close to the >, #»»') tnw ((«('.«■«( to a great distance up the river, '(\m'm, tW milcft /*l/fc New York, afTordiug peculiar fai i)iti*s till U' t(«*i,, - tion. Those natural advantages hava \imH t'doll)' ex- tended by a system of canals, whjcli \m* fOHltociM) (lie Hudson not merely with J^ka Ontafiw mu\ l/dfc" VitXf liiit with the Ohio iliver, and •m»m^mni\jl #10) tlM Mississippi and the Gulf of iiu^iiv ! tin |/r<««1l($l;oplil«l foftn, A |xirtion of these has liecn pl»:a»d In tl.o llwttfU of IIh' dealers in nautical iiistruniciits in (Imi fniiimillH porN for gratuitous distriliuiioii ti; / airf4)n> of «>» af^in, namely. New York, I'ortland, Mu., ('nfl'iiiiiiilU, tii II., Boston, Mass., Philadelphia, UaltiHi/ffw, fiit^intmti, Mi)' bile, New Orleans, Norfolk, ('AuitUisUtIi, IMit ''•t'l''/ of these pamphlets, for tho Ilka ^|Uf^llm•, Ifa Imtui forwarded to the United Htatss' ijidhhU itt <.i IJubliu, llelfast, Hri.'tid, fardilf, UtH, Mi/wletl- Portsmouth, 8ciithainpl.in, liUeiiiiw, UhiiiUp, Ih I- pool, London, Havre, Maruillms, Alttwiitp, iUtm i Hamburg, Amsterdam, itotterdani,. miA HaVAtm. Iinn;ie l.ii)hUfrum t'lut l.iut '/ Htdiii^n lUiilliwi, Af tvtm Hmulij lloiik niul l''li/im't /{iiul/.^fwii () «C(( Uahlfi located near Vimt Comtuit, tfaw JttMjf, 'tite Ituut I IImM will he exhibited fniin a lantern on the keeper's dwelling, which Is located near Hn lieach, ami painted while, with the top of the lantern liliick. The rear UnM Is located three quarters of a mile distant from the frimt one, and will be exhil)iteil from a tower Irnlnled white, with tlie head of it and lantern lilack. Die keeper's dwelling is north of it ami painted white. 'Che front light is lo, and the rear one 7li feet abiivo till' mean level of the sea, and should be seen, under '" liriary stale of the atmosphere, outside the liar. iMirIng the day the front building can be readily feidgni/.ed from other buildings in tlio vicinity by tlio Iftntern on Its centre, and tlie rear one by the liiiitern of llie tower lieing projected on the sky nlwvo the trees. AMn Mhiji Cbnnncl Rmige Liffhit. — Two fixed lights localed .':." Vessels drawing n ore than 17 feet should !>'., lie taken through tliib channel on the range line it low water. A foot more water may be carried through this channel, after crossing the liar, '■• '.. ')- \tt^ A little to starboard, and opening (Ue fivnt liH't NEW 1435 NBW clMr of thft rear one. The Swiuih Channnl range line inilivutes, liy tliu must recent Hurvey, IH' feet ut low water. There are 67 banks in the city of New York, with an iiK^roKuto capital of |GO,()i)n,OOU, 8 marine insur- unco companies, unil t!() lire Insurance companion, with an UKKreftate cnpiUil of t'iO,OOU,l)OI) ; beaides 8 lifo In- Hurnnce companies. There are lU Bavlngfi' banks, and 15 markets. CoMFAiiATivK VALm uv Hkal anii Personai. Kstatr or Tim C'lTV ANO COUNTV OF NbW YoKK, AS1> .\U0UHTg hamkd «t Tax, rauu tuk Vkar ISM to IMMI. Yaiir. Rail nlUa. ■■enoiul •lUM. Tmai. ISM ♦ Ill.lll)l,ft91 |04,7H»,M2 »I,9S8,81S 1S4S nT,3()7,l»!H) 62,787,627 2,090,191 18.10 18S,4'«),M4 01,471,470 2,620,146 1847 lS7,315,IWn 69,887,918 9,681,770 1S.J8 1»»,02I),U76 01,164,447 2,718,610 ]84» 197,741,919 5S,465,21M 8,0OB,7fl'2 I8,V) 207,142,870 78,919,240 8,2811,088 1851 227,0IS,S8« 99,(196,0111 2,924,45,5 ISM 2fil«,27S,a84 98,«0,042 «,8Sfl,611 1858 294,087,290 118,094,187 6,000,(198 18M «8ll,m)(l,,')9fl 1«1,721,:I88 4,816,880 18M 8.'ifl,97a,Srtfl 180,022,812 5,348,822 ISM 840,972,093 170,774,898 7,075,425 Afnnufucturea. — The mimnfacturea of Now York ab- sorb A large amount of capital. The amount cinployci'. in 1H.')0 was ij;U,2:t2,H-J2, and the value of articles manufactured was $10,'),il8,:)08. The number of es- tablishments was U387, employing 53,703 males, and «>,917 females. lUtrR.NS Of THK PrODUOTIVK KmTADLISHME.VTS at TUB r- IV or Nkw Yohk.— Ck.nsus ok 18.10. Wnnlf. tnonnflictur- ]n|{ eiUbs. Capllal lUVtiitVkl. No. ot li«ii,li *lnl>lov.'d. "^I. 7 AnDiMl |>r(Kluott. First 107 li,(iri,Biio t8,9u 6,887 Socund 351 12,<'72,996 88,704 81,310,012 Third 9 .; -.IH) 600 1,801,700 Fourth 189 ■ . ■ v'<0(l 2,895 4,336,311 Fifth 48 1,227,802 2,146 4,478,214 Sixth 160 1,12.6,880 4,040 8,822.191 Seventh 422 ;.,49a,275 8,917 O.itll.i'.s KlRlith 2:18 801,890 2,785 4,080,434 Ninth 1S9 708.800 2,414 2,88),,180 Tonth 00 !!iiI,roO 1,0.85 1,678,422 Eleventh 149 2,(>51,S,'>0 4,484 20,050,109 Twelfth 19 841,880 420 620,6(K) Thirteenth.. . 172 299,110 1,281 2,078,028 Fourlecnth.. 72 1108,700 ],.600 1,.M8,927 FIflit nth .... 9.1 1,04.6,660 1,176 1,876,818 8l.\toenth.... 129 8,2S0,.'i80 2,768 4,308,175 Seventeenth.. 145 892,400 1,.S 6 2,679,812 Klghtcentb . . 109 1,227,780 2,i;i8 2,920,760 Nineteenth. . . 94 at4.600 070 1,293,860 ♦ lll.\213,808 Total.... .8,837 ♦•84,282,822 8.8,620 The Croton aqueduct commMues at the Croton River, 6 miles from the Hudson, in Westchester county. Tlie dam is 2S0 feet long, 70 feet wide at tlio bottom, and 7 at the top, and 40 feet high, built of stone and ccnioiit. It creates a (Kind 5 miles long, covering a surface of 400 acres, and containing SOO,- 000,000 gallons of water. From the dam the aqueduct proceeds j sometimes tunneling through solid rocks, cros-ing valleys by embankments, and brooks by cul- verts, until it reaches Harlem Kiver, a distance of 33 miles. It is built of stone, brick, and cement, arched over and under, G feet 3 inches wide at bottom, 7 feet 8 ip'he at top of the side walls, and 8 feet 5 inches high ; has a descent of 13^ inches per mile, and will dischargn m. 000,000 of gallons every 24 hours. It cros.ses t' . ii irlein liiver on a magniticent bridge of stone, 14,50 •". et long, with 14 piers; 8 of tV.em bearing arehc" of 8(1 '.et span, and 7 others of 50 icet span, Ui feet .ibove tiJe-water ut the top. The receiving reser- voir at Kigiity-sixth-str et, 38 miles fron the Croton dam, covers 35 acres, a'.'i holds 150,000.0 '0 of gallons. The distributing leiervoir, on Murray'. Hill, at Forti- eth-street, cc re 4 tt0,(N)0 2,(S)0 15,000 10,000 m,im 9,im 200,000 140,000 200,000 8,144 267,969 60,000 136,000 127 720 2,1 492,000 m,m 6,000 1S6 689 280,941 4J),000| 6i).(s«0 8,00U .80,000 60,000 40,000 7,60.) 20,1)00, 2,000, 12,000, 226,000 for Tax Comnds'rs ISurg. dcpartm't of poUc'oj Central park interest.. . .' iSoclety for relief nfl I Juvenile delinquents ) i Total tax levied .... 8,280,lSO»;878,S8t 4,8«J mi^Vhhr, 310,01)0 l.S6,64l 502,016 60,000 200,000 8«2 720 2,980l 540,000 176,.^58 8,000 18',b83 8»0I' ■ ■ ■ ■ TM mmi hiiim lf>/M, .... 1 2,'M/ ilHHf 2(iO/*/0| iiiyi(,200J Hl),'MI'l 2W.*2* **>,*)< \tmm ■ •■■ I iftim dm 8,876' 82|,«*6 4.*>»2, 872,7(5 8W,i85 128,Jt» ifHtlf tfiml, m i'f.m. mm dm mfinu mm 16m ism um am mm i,'m NEW 1496 NEW BitATin Titn or m Biai amd rmvmAi IbTin in tu* Citt amii Ooomtt or New Vou, t» Miano m IHi AKU IIM 1 t II , 4 , B « T 8 » 10 II li.. 18 14 1ft 18 17 18 10 «0 21 22 Non-rulilouU.., Total Luidiicroue. Total loorcaM. AimuomrU, IIU. AMMMMnti, list. H. buu. I r. CilaU. R. iMMa. I F, buw. tSltat.. tt,076,260' M,448,167 n,T4^6«A f,87N,S0o 18,866,800 (,608,680 19,47M68 18,261,600 18,787,100 8,144,400 7,6«4,71M)I ■• . ^Un, ',),.'t76,800 9«,a'iT,86o! 14,k74,860| n.6«2,400 8I,9'M,206 V,802.tNI6 18,986,600 21,706,876 10,600,120 UuO«n. I IU\in. i Dull...,. 66,177,S06, 87,1011,610 Oi),0>-l),OIS 6,1 1 K,6«0' 22,7X7,056 H,420,022{ 22.728,2.SH{ 1,044,431) V I4l),07() »,160,MII 14,282,460 1,700,867 9,667,3141 8,186,6161 12,674,6981 l,H2;l,7.'6 1(I,I62,0I1U 2,602,Srt4' ia,M99,0OO l,12l,:i8n! 8,281,600 621,9s7l 7,II1I4,0IN)^ '■Oft.HlKII 7,8»1,2HM 740,664 I21,4(H 2,,II9,646{ iM, 261,400' TgUl. lui. I IM4. D,i(!vi. I^liat^ 9i,iM,i46 eT,2si,n ilUti. 1,698 lijVUri' 27i66(1,:><7i 20,661,097 9 8416811 8(1,166 6721 82.(1. Iltrl. 1,217,3.10 1,911,116' 6,128,.M6 8)19,768 1,661,6411 1,094,810 971,688, 021,6081 1,890,248 7(M'<0 41 1 160 0(',774 08,740 114,116 142.660 901,469 1,08«,642 181,:i(K) 470,011 20,042.047| 2^691,600l 21,991.120 46,890,807 47,682,620, 2,60'2,H(Hl! 16.."i66.'2ll0| H,M(l,.Vi •■•■'•—•■ '-" 4,79>,2)I0, l.\y21,879 14,2011.16(1 811,»,V4,H,V)^ l87,OlH)i 8,041,188, 466,'200| 14,8l)4.960| 6,0117,7001 »l,026,trr 78)'. 176' 10,'iHO,022{ 14,401,630 I7,474,06o; l(',li)4,7'W. >,Vi\: 'i\ 20,«6li,(l!li), 21.647,116: 10.992.442 I6,232.;l,".6, 40,040,702 I,r810,(l00 9,629.986 0,001, 18Hi l,OI0.'^6O 14,8H 1,700 I.Vl-24,'iOO 6,686,002 '26,K.8«,()76 27,611,117 780,076 11,82S.B06l 111,969.697 18,600,206 14,401,680- 1 1,600,266 187,100 69,mH) 67,41)6 886,100 8iH.16o 60)l.:t.M>, 26~,!)7U' liOW l|6| 2,696;299 1,4'28,000 828,867 1,940,082 036,788 027,600 868,460 674,080 1,848,802 184,206 220,680 241,800 I.OAIOI 610,811 09,199 804.,^67| Suilai 100,961 820,877! 2,3H8,232| l,rtafl,l.'«8 1,H0,4H6' 8,714,4117' 71,247' 942,W)ii' T77,W2 1,247,876 108,t06i I fl6'<,6(i7 4,llW,7a6| 4, 108.786 '887,088,626160,0)12,819 840;oTl,4OH''iri,067,78l 487,1)60,888 618,080,270 7,607,882 18,687,144 28,702.241 1,013,700 ' ' ' ' ' ' .... [_1,91^3,700, .... i26,a78,441| Dbut or ms Citt or Niw Yobi, Jitlt, I8A8, ■idiiiiia- ItLE rtOM Tint HlNKINd KdNII AND rSDH I'AXATInN. rrulii nlnkini ruiKl. Fiom TuUI. 1861 $109,160 2,6O0|00O 402^708 8,076,000 imiooo 1,2S4;700 2,i47;000 2,682,1)00 1,000,000 073,000 14,030,428 8,083,3T» 11(11,047,053 $eO,IK8) 60,000 07,000 67,00y:oBull.lin(f 460,000 Dwknand .lllp 600,000 Puhilc Kducatlon Slock 164,000 Tompkln* Market 160.700 Total $16,364,128 If Xew Vork is truo to itself In Its financial and com- mercial movements, the city will have in tho year 1875 a population of a million and u half, a foreign export trnde of two hundred millions, an import trade of three hundred millions, and a coasting trade of still greater value. The canals and railroads of the State already pour their hundred of miUloiu of property into the city an- nually, enriching the interior iarKcly, and tl)c cily in a Hinaller ratio, in finding foiei^'n und doincitic cliun- nc'U of consumptlim for our piodiicls. The tuo iulcr- csls of tho .State licniand u lilieral policy toward tlicso great channels of comniuniculinn, l.y Iron nod l.y wu- tcr, between Lakes Kric and Ontario and llio iiioiilli of the Hudson. Tlio proposed uppropriiilioii and cx- ' ndituro of three and a ii df million of dollars fur ll)o inpletion of Ihc iiials ' iliis Slam will, IT carried .nto elTect, liing loilUons ujhk inlllioiis into llio Shitc at large, and permanently l (It its annual rov( noes from canal lolls. Wo have prepared a sumin...;- showing the popula- tion of the city, of other portlcii of tho Slate, und of the whole State, at each tiiklii 'f the Census from 1790 to 1855. To this we add an c iiiiiate, based upon the growth (if the past sixty, as to the growth for forty yean to come. I'opiri.ATio.x or thb fixt AMn -tate or Nkw ^ ..it. Veara. Cily. Olhpr r-urOoni. Malf, 'lutal. I7S10 33,131 60,489 rfl,373 1-6,619 123,700 160,(«0 197,112 27(1,0^0 812,710 87l,2-.'3 6I6,MT 620,004 3(M.,lls'.l 8'.N,1I4 80.6,616 (140.301 1,24!l,10« 1,44S,370 1,710,019 l,nil4,4-.8 2,110,211 '.',2:3,-j;2 2,6') 1,847 2,836,303 il40,i*) ,'.8-i,7ll3 ('6l,8>8 l,08e,'.ilO 1,!17'2,S13- 1,0I4,4,^6 1,1'I3,I31 2,1. -4,6 17 2,4'JH,;)21 2,604,4116 8,007,!«i4 11,400,212 1800 1810 1815 18'20 1S26 1880 IK88 1840 . .. 1345 ISW UK> Tlic avcrago annual increa.ie of the city l)as been I'C per cent., and of the interior 32 per cent. As- Sliming these for the future, the growth of New York will be as follows : N«w Y ork Clty B S.'.SO 0^9, 1^8 7--'o,>-: 7.M,0M 788,737 82.'>,OI8 862,li('8 1)02,004 044,180 087,618 l,2l:6,64S 1,618,471 1,r88,020 2,427,822 8,O«0,IKi2 8,600,542 4,T66,S69 liilfhnr. "~2,y27,07(r 11,112(1,766 3,1I7,3'J9 3,'.'17,166 3,3'2(),106 :i,420,345 8,53,'.,'.88 ."..nio.uo 8.7(6.012 8,S(i.6,3l0 4,.'>17,fl;i 6,323.164 6,230,761 7,2()8,0!'4 4630,666 !),!.92,051 11,6:16,696 _w-hol« stalt._ 3,t>'>.>,ll60 /3,7(i'.i,!)'.;4 3,s:,s,- SO 8.0'. I,'-' 7 4,1(N.N.'2 4,-.'.'il,303 4,lli'-,( ;,0 4,,W1,8"4 4,710,008 4,872,931 6,784,-l((9 6,8T1,626 8,1011,671 «,i2(l,' 10 ll,67(l,.'i(;S 13,79S,6!13 16,46 .',065 NEW 1487 NKW ■r..i«i. ' ■.;4ii,.*> :,s-,'(i3 l'«l,S-8 l,(i35,'.ao i,;n'2,si'J l,fll4,4r>8 r,<,M3.131 2,i<4,i>n 3,(191,"'-", , 1,119 been cent. A'" Hew York Wh(.l« Sl«ll._ B.O'.i.'! 1 4 li«,vri 4,r,i,M-.3 .i4'.>N'.:fl 4;u»,i»8 4',sri,»3l B,:8-l,4ii0 0,MT1,0';5 Bi«',6;' 13 T9S,W3 16,46.','«1» JI»rown rsoM Niw Tow to I'ommw Po»t» ro« nn •rtiiii, UuiTia or tni rami, Vi in ii«m«i« tii «■ Wkii, IMT. TiSS' Juljr Annit RopUmbflr Ooiobir«ln Rwrt-huiaiM, JulUbU. mvrrliiuSiM, 1 t«,Vfll,il7« tlUH,«|T tt*,*u ^«lll,>t«tl lll.VM »xMt T,04JS,IHM MD.TM nl ! ir.rTi^ii I N,TK«/.I7 tl.l7«,MA ' ft 7««.»<((( 7.l»iW/M.l ♦«1,'JW,»(( H«>lft»M4 t -Ml ••^rU, |l4,iw,nfift lli,7M,|ii« ui.nm.tm f,7»",M» •/||W,7W I »/.)«, I w |l'i',l'r'i,l(H l(H,M7,7«l f«<.*rclian- (Ukii i« morn tliuu 9.'l,0UO,UOU Inaa than in tli« I'urre- Hponiling llirtw nioutbi of isrxs, Imt ii nearly equal total import Ih made up of specie and liulllnii. 'Min annexed ntntenient exhiliitxtlio value of certain artli'luA iiii|Hirted into and ex|H>rte«,571 18,800,1142 B,79.\91t» 9,U4x,»(KI ^S9,876 IM,94« ],B4«,il),'i >*«,079 884,*4'i 2,17ii,H09 1,480,481 2,,V>.S,11)4 188,1)09 70,937 8l)ll,6»5 ;m,268 3,487,007 1,404,287 B49,a'W 170,588 682,894 198,800 1,B8,VB92 4N1,27- 829,fllVS 711,06(1 8,48(),78S 2,2»0,248 a,986,IW0 1,406,8* 1,503,961 802,li.» 436,886 808,7.1\i 688,698 1,001,670 ],e».\768 200,000 i)48,784 267,994 I EXPORTH FROM NrW VORK TO FoRRIOH PORTV, roR THR LAST QlIAKTRH or THR KUOAL Y«AR8 F.NOI.tU JUNR BOTH, ISW, ISiO, AND 1S57. Domestic merchandise. . . . Foreign mdse., , show little or nothing more, in comparison with those of 18&u, than a steady increase, except perhaps, in specie, in which the increase is rel- atively large. VAiuRur Ahtulm or Mttu tURKlon.n*' |li«tr*tlr, Orowth AND MA«urA.)TiFitti, »!»c.mr»(ti h^.k Maw ynai, to THR Vrar knimru iflw KI|«|1» Kj, IVA, ' '" AHkIn, Alcoliol iiaili/Hft 'Appl«i....... ,WftlJ Anli.s, iM)t and pearl Um4 .i/Ort "'■""■•■ lb*, ilmijm llark, oak , , ' ^ UseS"!' tmfluU •tttm \\<">t •»it ii«r«« iurni Beeswax Iba, IM/tim Biscuit or •hipkrva (i^/,«)fy iBrlcks, cumiiiiin i , ignttcr ((„, UMjiAli f^«»dlc» ,,,,,, » Ijm^fUl CiTOSe.... » «,|'/«^«| I'JIover a*'ed ....,.,,,,. , . , . |Coal,anlhraulUi4ibllundnuii», .Ml* lll/iMM -Copiiur or,', pin, pipe k >hL'< t [ ]Corda)(n & cabli-i |U.I ln«/INn Corn, ahfllid |ig«|| il/»tMJt»it :Corn meal M,|i. rM,|«A t!otton hale. m/fH Cotton goodi, printed or lulorvil, . , , , , " uiiculorud ..,...,, , ,,,, Karthonwarc , , . , Flour bbis, mtm OInsent! Ibn. T'/,74<» Hi'uip, common - IKMinl llhlcs Hn, V.IH Hogs, live •' 4 Hops lijs. im.lll W'lna Hi).: nil Iron cast'KS i^ oib. niaouAi. of Iron , urd (b», »,mim Leather >• (/M.TM Lumber, pine, heoiloek, |i"pl»r, 1 oak, mapio, black walnut aiMIV 1ll,iU cherry ) Molasses ga|«, m/iVI Oil, lard , » |*(,7«K I " llnsccd <» Kft/tT Onions. , , , f,,, jPalnt, mineral ,,,, Pork (I«ri!£« 'im " I(bl», (W,«M4 l'.,l,.'.oes, comuiim '• lW,ft(*l ui<:' ifc-rW tnm • W)l»,; 11/41) liOHiO •• I tHltlJIIfll) ':um yaUl I,4I4,»«> Kyo buih U»um Kyo meal bbls. 9fl,((W Sheep and lambs No. I.Tij Snulf lbs. Hflmi ;Splrlts of turpentine gaU.' MIC,*4# t^taves and heailiii;; M,< i¥J>\t Suear eano Ijis. tillj^ iTallow Iba. Tar and piteh I)bl».l [Tobacco, leof. IduU.I I " strips balus I " stems cast's, I " chewing lU, \'inei;ar gaU- W lieitt bush. Whisky gala. Total ,,,,. I,»«4,TII« »Mi •A.alft fih,vtn tiriM. ».9)r> 4W,}!Ki l.'i9l,'iA» W,M6 I l,»70/>*i 49,l»« 911.711) (C.iKM 9*i,mf7 «in,W6 miAw I7.7>ll »i.|0» Mt,6.-.l 197 .Mft Mllitt.-, 9!<7.ll» 1».nfi7.(«ift IW.RW M7'i,4'rt VII I »/»W.(17!I n.r.in Kn.lMi (,v/;0 I tfitim ft'.HI } 9I?,»M mm IMH i.m mM« m.m im.mi I mMfi WH,(W» H,9»l M/fU Large as was the export of eperla for tti« (tacnJ y««f, it is less than $'J,0IM),000 in esifiss of mi titi. Th« export of domestic produce is it trida hrnot tluatt ket year, with prices averaging al)0«t tlm i>i«m» f (utton and provisioDS belni; bigher, »u4 MrnwtHufl'* l«WMr< ii'lO ■jWtlwnv NKVV 1138 NKW (MrflRi« iMTO nil Ton or Niw ToiK nott rnMi'ix Phiit* rni tri iirnAL Mortiu or t» Tatnu Trai tMDtita Jvnn W), INt?. frm g M ji. TuUI Aif •on- Jilf... IhM TFv.OM.hhA ll.jHD.IMl AiifUit |i,HTft,»'«l l,8iill.7»il, 'Hii|iU<»U a,H«'<,ll7U »ftA,»iH I,II74,1|{| 1>A7.M(H1 $UI,HM«),IM.1|lll.lllViHl l»0,OHH,|Wj |7,llW,lll'i KrT.llM.'JIll Mrr.HKifiV l47,IMtt,V4l l'i,7»l,l).V) t,T8U,4!N lM()o,iiiu |lt,AUM,»l8 lll,«Ail,4A7 n,IAA,Mi) ^4AI,IVI 9,471,7'iH iii,ii:»,'T« II.IHIIl.tUll lcl,i|»il.7"'i I(I.|||IU.I>AH 11,117 J. U7 lit,inii.M7 *i,li.M,7M U.Ai'.MM) li.MII.DAH 7,riil,ll<>l 8,4W,l(Ml 'JIft;,iii\«i!i lltT.Wn.i'i* iiiii,7';i>,«7 lA.inw.mig »,4,17,ftW lMI\iiiT 18,7lt(l,Ml< \K>,iri» III.^HA.Wi H,'i7ll,lWl| Il.til7,7iv« 14,l!tMlini 8y|,7AU ll,4AI),A4A i.TUiMI U,MA,4ll7 ll,7«H,ilil>.| •J4«,s7*l I'Min.tiii l.ll'iA.dAII 10,IH)7,!77 \ii,iirir|iNVi!m,iKi 1 luy.lW^ltAii, l,l'ill,in»7 IIIMM,7I7 'Jl.UiK,!!!!!, 1-II,4,14,HA» IM,a'kMl| M.VI.Iilll lAl.mift.Md 'il.AlllJil! l4t,llNI,i'i7 , 1)M,I87,4M| V,»II7,II4H 1UI.II7I,AI4 IU,N7tt,44.'>< |sii,rjgil,74l It wilt lid Heen fruiii th« nliiivn Hint thn vuliiu of giHxU |iiit U|K)U tliii iiiurkut fiilU nlitirt or tlio totiil viiluii of tli« liii|iart iif meri'lmmllni', alKiut «iM,f>iM),(MI0, mul Wu have ){<>« to bavB liflon exiwcteil from hui'Ii r|hu:I« mill hulllon of 4itl,&e nierihaMt lan not ilevuto u few houra more prutltalily, than in a careful ncrutiiiy of the aliove talilen. The extent t<> whirli kuo<1'< have lieen warchuuHoil, cauiied the riiih reiniptH at tho cuiituni-liouw< to fail Im'Iow thoHo of laiit year, an i* uliown in the following : I'Ain 1)1 rirji nKoaiviu at rum I'iiht ihhinu thk Kinr.Ai Ykah iinui.nu Junk 80tm, Hri7, loMi'AUicn witu tuk TWO i-aicviui;» YiAKa. Months. IU4-U. ti.'il4,IMl) 8,4m»,49H i,4il'i,lia l,7Al,i)W 1,A(«,T'2() '^,.1011,1184 9,ea&,i«s K,8-il. ».'I,7«W9" 4.KVIP.71M K,A48,H7(I ll,:«»,IW li,l7l.7i)H 8,6n:l.tlM «,A7«,ai9 4,«vi,i07 a,9lH,KN'i !(,4AT,IM 8,A2T,4'J5 |4i;65W,"480 " IIM-tt. July (.\44l,A4t A,«NN,8U» i),7iia,ii« s,m)i,'Aii 8,774, t«8 a,8i*i,97ii 4,»l7,8i8 M17,li.'W a,7»2,iM 8,H«I,807 1,9U7,1I90 677,811 ||4V,'iT8,44« Anmt 8ei>t<>mbur Novi>iiib»r Decoinb«r Fttbriiftrv March Aorll. Miy Juno Total The final reiiult of this expansion, if cimtinueil, will 111! the lo»< of orcilit, anil, an a roninsui|uently in wealtli, of the three priiici- |>:il maritime countries in tiie world. With rcganl to tho increase of wealth, a country is in a similar po- sition to an individual. The exports of one are equiv- alcnt to tlie income of the other; and the im|Kirts of one, on tho other hand, are equivalent to the expenses of the other. In the casu of this country, the aU riilu- ivm tarilf prevents us from olitaininK a correct valua- tion of the inqiorts, :n order to obtain the exact dilTer- ence, or, in other worda, the increaae of wealth, thmuKh the foreign ccinnnercn of the country. Wn may, however, Jud|{« In a nieasiiro from the rhitriuiri' of the Imports of the pmlialile \t,n\n of wealth. If Ihcy are luxuries Instead of necessaries, or nianufactures that I'oiilii lie home-made, liiHtead of the products for- eli^n to our soli and climate, we may Justly put Ihiit nation down on the extrava)(ant list. And this Is the IMisitinn of the Inlleil Hiates. In the |ieriiid of 10 years lielow ({i*''n. the increase of exports to the I'nitcd .States has hten equal to 107 |K>r cent. ; the in- crease of iin|Hirts has been (for the samt ,Hiriiiil) equal to 111 (Hir cent. .Showing lliut even with our enor- mous proiluitive |iowers, and the great wants of Kuriqw, our exports have not kept pace with our de- mand fur luxuries. We are apt to congratulate our- selves on the uneqiuileil growth of our country, uiiil its commerce. ( )f the former we have reason ; liut of the latter, the llgures do nut prove our statements. In the last 10 years tho ex|»irts of tho l/'nitcd .States have inireased 1U7 |ieri:ent, while the inereaso in the ex- ports of I'Vaiue for the same lairiod Is equal to 1:10 per cent. ; and tho increase in tho exports of (ireat llritain fur the same |>erloil is equal to !i:i per cent. .Stateniont showing, separately, the total ex|Kirts of domestic -|irodui'0 of France, (ireat llrituin, and the I'nlteil States for tho past 10 years : Year. Vrmn^t. Onal llrluln. I'lillMlsinlat. I-^?" )I4II.ISMI,IIIH) »?U:l,ISSI,UI»l IIW.UIHI.IIIH) IH48 l;lA,IIOII,niMI aiW.IPflll.lSKI l,M,ISH>,IHIO IS49 18,\ISSMKKI 81.VP1S)(HK) I4.V>IIHI,IMMI IHAO Vtl.lNMMHM) 8.'ill,l)IKI,(HH) I.V.'.OIIO.ISX) INSI 'WS.IMW.IXH) U7ll,IKN),IKH) aiH.IHIO.ISK) tWi HUA.UOO.INN) 898,1 WK1,IHK) alll,ISH),l)IIO lua ii4A,n()o.iini) 4tlll.lSIII,UflU 2.'II,(MSI,ISIII 18M «SI),(H8MIIJ0 4s8,IK)IP,()(KI i!7l,IHH),OIIO ISAB ™s,IKIO,000 47.'>,ISHM«IO '.>7.\I*III,IHIII i8sa »2B,IH)0,000» A7,\I)I)II,U(I0 «20,UOU,U00 ... ^ tvstlihatiil. The exports of a country are the best exponent of Its commercial prosperity, and in a measure It is in a direct ratio. For although the protit which '.^i made on the articles exported may vary aivoriling as they arc tho natural products of tho soil, or manufactures, the raw material of which is the growth of another coim- try, yet there are other allowances to be made which compensate for this ilifTorcnce. It is evident, there- fore, that any financial troubles wo may have must bo the result of our extravagant imporli. These we have shown to have increased more rapidly than our ex- ports, even with tho valuation of our imports by nn ml viiliintn tnriflf. The correction to be applied, if wo wish to continue prosporons, is self-evident ; ami this correction will, under our present course, become ere long a nccessitv. A nation's balance-sheet is equival- ent to tho relation of receipts and expenditures with nn individual ; .md national bankruptcy will surely follow when the imports, for a long series of years, arc greater than tho exporti). The exports of doraettic cottons from tljc port of New York to foreign ports, for three years past, has been aa follows : Maslro .. Dnieb Wsi Nwsiii.h n naiilali W4 Hrlllah #< KlHihish W Hun Diiinlii Mrlllali Nu New (IraiM Itiasll Veliesueia, Arvanllnii I ''loitrui Am We«r. eniut Ifiiiiiliiru. , Africa Aualralla... Kant Inillei Ailotbora... Toltl, Mnrilim" A ttnut of this ( 1 ity as a con ilemonstratoil (Irst showing this |)ort fnir cninmencing \ Yffari, \m\~~... I885 1880 188B 1840 .... I84fl ISM 184T 1848 184l> ISBO IsAI JH.VJ IS.VI lN%4 ISSfl The increasi lliirty years, American tonii than seven-foil nearly lhirli/.\ plains, more the growing in the affairs oft. foreign ton nag years immedii. In consequence not only tho (; a vast a'r.junt i V'BisEii n Clau. Stcimsblps Otli. sloani vess . fOilns ; Uarksand brlijs. Hchoooors, etc. . ToUl... We give tw Commerce and mcrco of the destination of i. country from bound; also enables us to . commerce of N our relations tc or unfavorable statistics. In 1 tonnage bolonj *e have a fai NBW i4a» NRW ■l^MMlM. IIU l,7iH WM H 147 IKM m IftH u II'J 9,IM.'J «sx I.U't 411 Wltl 270 l,o«7 M» 19,41111 AM lUI. 2,»7'J 1W7 fi 4V9 1,1411 411 in nil 9,7lV4 l,m*4 IIW 41t« 1,1 r,9 lol l,n'il Miiw II.D9V 2A1 -|»M. MaaU 4,1llt Diilrh W-t ImlUl. Hw«ll W.'.l iNdlM DkiiMi W<'»t liidlM IM 10 4»T HrllUli W.'Kt Inill.'fi Hiwiilih Wi«tliicll»i Hun IftiihliiKD MO IM 22'< llrllUli Nurth Amiirim Ni'W (JrKiiikdtt 2.1 D-tn Hrxll 8,1.4 Vviioxiii'U »» AUO IIKI West, oniut of Mouth AniiTlr*. . IAS IIKI Afrlon 1,M74 Auatrftlln ,1 2,0tlll Kwt InOloii amlOlilnu. Allotben 17,(174 287 T^UI H4,Th« Afnritimf Ailennermmt. — Wedimlil wli«tli»r lh« pro- l^reaa nf tlii'« niuiitry a* n iiuirllliiie |Hiwi>r, unci nf thin I Ity Hit a I'oininnri'UI mii|iiiriuin, can Im muni clenrly ili'iiioniitratolfl tiilili'x ; tlin llr»t nliiiwlntt tliu t<>iinii|{e of tin' !ilil|)|iln|{ tliiit cntereil till* |H>rt from forulKU |M>rtii. f't it iiuiiiliar uf yean, ciinimeiicInK with IM',>I : Thu IniTPOiiH In the totiil tiinniiKo froni 1K21 to 1H,51, thirty ycurs, wiis iiearly tiMi-fnIil, Tim Inercaao in Anivrlcaii tMnniign during the minia period, wim more tliiin «oven-fuld. The iiicreann In f()ri'i)(n tonnuife wuh iieiirly Ihirty-tiM — about 'J,'J(10 jier cent. Thin ex- pliiinn, inoro clearly thnii any other fuct, the cauao of the (jrowlnn Interest felt by Kuro|>eaii Boveniments in the ulTuiri* of thiit country. The groat falling off in the fureiftn tonnage In 1H5I, in comparison with uevernl yeurii iniinediately preceding, won doubtless mainly in coniiequcnce of tho Eastern war, wliich cinployecl, not only tho C'unanI ntoamera running to this port, but a vast a'r.,>unt of Hritish shipping of all descriptions, an i VlSliEM 01III.T AT THI PoBT Or NllW YoKK, IKrI.t'DINO TUK OUIiRNPaUT. tninaport*. The inactivity In fnlKhla honeo wai «)m IKitaiit In liillucii.'*. Thar* la mi reasun to doubt that, with tha raturn of iiaaia, th« foreign shipping enterlntf this |sirt ye itly, will eipml, If not surpass In tonnage, any former year. Tho almvB table showa only the extent nf the trail* of this cHy with foreign iMirls. The coaaling trada since 1HI7 |s shown, piirtlally, In the following. Ilul It must be rememlH'red, that coasting vessels to or from ports north of the northern lioimdary of (ieorglu, are not i'om|»dlod to enter or clear, unless distilleil spirits are of the cargo. It will at once be seen that this exhibit of the triidi' of this city coastwise is far from iH'liig 1 omplct... 'I'lio same fact will also explain tlia disparity Intweeii the tonnage entered and claandl Ytsrt. KnUf,..!. IMH 402,148 1H4B 4'i4,ll7ll IsM 4Nl),lillO IsAl 4AA,M2 KVi 4»7,f>40 IsAH nilT,AIII IsM Wi),4n2 1't ' 4.. ..'. 801, 'I 1,442,2 I'll ,810,261 ur-fidd, but tho number of lur cent,, the average ceding the average YiiArl, ' No. .r 1 ¥»»•■ 1 1W ~iA- '' 1S40 1,4. 1'<4,1 l.4-i4 KM! 1,NII2 18.V4 2,888 1 tS55 2,4ST I Fonlfli. X ToUl Krtr»ttv ■ .nnlT'*. L ^iinsjrt.. i: «,w» 198 i.C irt,l88 2M . ,i| .IO,H.'>'^ 207 ;.'i..i 441,7.^7 804 111 477,088 888 m 209,000 228 Huie-YARiis or BroOoLY.n, VTiLiuuaiiVBU, axd CIsu. LsaDcbed In Uie yesr On l)i« stock! ;.t the ctoi« of tb« yasrt 1 11(4. 18U. ISM. ISM. ISM. IBSi. 1 Sleamstilpa otii. steom vess. Mlilns ; . No. 19 28 80 18 21 108 TonitMB. 24,8 ~2i»,s07 No. 15 8 11 12 18 56 Tonnsiie. 18,900 1,!I(S) 12..%8fl 0,800 3,'!20 49,470 18 1 A 2 4 18 T..™.,,.. »,'J00 rsio S,'.'(K1 1,000 1,188 20,088 No. 3 9 « 4 8 17"' Tonntwe. 9,000 1,180 8,1,50 2,.'UW 1,1'iO No. 6 8 4 8 TonnAffa. T.480 9,780 2,180 680 ^18,000" llarkaandbrlKB. Hcboonors, etc. . . Total 81,320 21,720 18 We gi\'e two tables, arranged from the report on Commerce and Knvigation, showing tho complete com- merce of the port of Now Vork, and specifying the destination of all vessels when outward bound, or the country from whence they arrived when inward bound J also showing tlicir nationality. This table cnaliles us to sec at a glance tho distribution of tho commerce of Now York, and gives u clear exiiibit of our relations to other countries in regard to favoralilo or unfavorable tariffs, and shows some very curious statistics. In our trade to Kngland, four llftlis of the tonnago belongs to the United States, showing that We have a fair field for enterprise j wliilo to the Rritish North American possessions wo have less than one fourth, showing that we are inferior in enterjiriae to our neighbors, or thoy have some tarifT advantage. We absorl) four fifths of tho carrying trade to I''rance, while to the northern Knropean countries we have but an equal amount. Tho carri'ing trade to South Amer- ica goes almost entirely in American bottoms. Tho ('ul)a trade is Oi) per cent, in American vessels, while to Portugal only almnt one third; showing f'lt the tariff is in favor of that countr)'. To Han" ;., w« have less than one fifth; which is probai oviii^, partly to mora ecooomy practiced by tho Dutcli, m.!* lower wages. m NEW 1440 NEW Statement Exnisrrmo the Ndiibkb and Tokmaok or Ahebiran and Fobeion Vesseu which k.^tbbbd intu THE Disthiot or New Yoric, and the Countries rBOM WniOK THET ARRIVED, DURUIO THE FISCAL YXAB ENDING June 8O111, 1HA6. Arrlrcd from Aowriciin TfltMU.|Forelgn t«imU. Totid. 1 No. Tou. No. Tom. No. ToDt. RnulB. 1 8 683 1,48« "a .... 2,871 1 11 603 3,867 8w«dcn*Norw'y Swell. W. Indies f e6e 6 056 DanlsliW. Indies V 8,48C f 822 Id 8,6021 IlBmburg. 8 4,b4( 41 24,91( 411 20,460j 1t 26,768 K' 44,816 208 101 71,569 208 Other Oor. ports 1 1 Holland....:.... 14 P,»61 2il 0.40« M 18,451 Dntdi W. Indies 1( 8.24T t .« 21 8,001 Dutch K Indies. C 2,808 (1 2,868 Uelglum 21 21,612 1 m 80 22,1.18 England 482 616,46$ 85 60,844 617 676,815 Scotland 81 17,667 l* 11,761 4tj 20,421 Ireland 4 4 a,22T T8D 2 2 840 862 6 8,076 1,161 Gibraltar Malta "1 4!, "245 8,671 1 8io 262 4V,8i0 1 1 856 203 245 40,081 OlhcrR.N.A.pos. Ilrltlsh W. Indies 107 10,746 12a 17,2681 280 87,008 Hrltlsh Honduras U 8,448 , , 14 8,448 Ilrltish Gulsna.. 17 8,088 2 870 10 4,858 llr.pos9.ln Africa IS 2,081 208 8 408 16 8,424 1 Hrltlsh Australia 1 1 203 I Itrltlsh E. Indies IC 11,082 Ij 1,828 10 13,810 France on AtlaL. lit 122,360 24 12,602 1*) Ills,*:? France on Med. . 85 16,600 4 1,040 80 18,240 Fr. N. Amcr.nos. Fr. West Inillcs. , , 10 1,100 10 1,106 1 200 1 200 4paln on Atlantic 12 8,464 8 1,000 20 ^46;) Spain on Mcdlt.. 41 11,618 10 8,«U 60 l.VW. Canary Lslamls.. ft OSS 1 180 6 1,177 Philippine iBls... 12 12,018 1 1,000 18 13.078 m 100 24.V>00 10,444 ,10 48 8,»01 7,248 728 14.8 2.52,:.01 20,087 I'orto Klco Portugal 26 8,787 24 6,627 60 14,801 Madeira ,. 2 284 2 284 Capo do Vcrd.. . . » 1,840 , , 1,840 2 4 801 2,041 "0 2,607 l'^ 801 6,,MS 'Sardinia , Tuscany 1» 0,868 10 8,886 20 12,724 Papal Htates,... 1 86b .... 368 Twoaicllles 4- 10,064 .■12 8,470 SO 24,643 Austria 4 8 1,505 1,260 4 2 2,284 873 t 8,739 1,620 Turkey In Asia. . Kjrypt H 1,081 8 1,081 Utb. ports Ah-ica llayti 22 4,S68 .. 22 4,858 182 2 28,218 808 20 3 3,8.1'. S.'iO 162 6 27,050 662 San Domingo . . . Mexico .•17 0,088 6 730 42 10,874 Central Republic 82 81,174 2 402 81 81,670 New Uranada. . ■ 72 58,.S10 8 741 6 50,051 Venezuela 61 16,601 22 4,660 88 21,170 Urazll 110 4 28 81,48.S 028 8,9.M 26 "a 6,830 "860 188 4 80 37,822 oiis! 0,8101 Ilrugaay iluenosAyres... Chill 1 I 321 6,021 4,808 "1 "212 1 8 4 8'il| 5,2*1' 4,30.1 Sandwich Islands China. 661 61,018 2 1,096 67 53,004 Total 2,4»8 1,881,726 I,U33 200,988 8,520 1,681,869 The greater Increase of the commerce of New York over the otUer cities, is shown by tho tables from the annual report on commerce and navigation. The tonnage built during the year ending June 30, 185(), in all the States, was 469,393 tons, tlie leading States ranging .19 follows : ! Maine ! 156 !Mas.Tnent of same 1 per cent On sale of stocks, bonds, and all kinds of securi- ties. Including remittances In bills and guar- anty 1 " On purchase of sale of specie and bullion ^ '* Kemlttances In bills of exchange ^ " Remittances In bills of exchange, with guaranty. 1 " Drawing or endorsing bills of exchange 1 '* Collecting dividends on stocks, bonds, or other securities i " 4. 'ollertlng interest on bonds and mortgages 1 ** Receiving and naying moneys on h hlcli no other cummiSKlon is received .' ^ ** Procuring accrptanco of billB of exchange pay- able in foreign countries I ** On Issuing letters of cr"dl* , travelers, exc]usl''o of foreign bankers' charge 1 " Where bills of exchange aro remitted for col- lection, and returned under protest for tho nun-acc,>ntance, or non-payment, the fK,j^Q coramlfldlons are to bo charged as though they were duly accepted and paid. General Biuintu, For sales of foreign mcrrbandlse 5 *' On domestic merchandise 2^ '* Guaranty H " On purchase and shipment of merchandise, on cost and charges, with funds In bond 2^ '* CoUecting delayed and litigated accounts 5 ** Effecting marine 1 isurance, on amount insured, i '* No amount 1 7 b'^ charged for etfcctliig insurance on property ci>UBigued. I,.andtng and re-Hhipplng goods from vessels la dlHtress, on value of Involco 2i '* Landing and ri-shippinK, on specie and bullion.. \ ** Receiving and forirardlng merchandise entered at custom-house, on invoice value 1 per cent, and on expenses Incurred H " On consignments of merchandise withdrawn or re-phlpped, full commissions aro to be charged, to the ezteut of adrancec or rosponsiblliliep in- NIC 1441 NIC In hi hi 16 i in Oeneml Bmtntti. curred, and one half conuulBsioQ on the resl- (luoof thoTaluc. On giTinK bonds that passengers will not. become a burden on the city, on the amount of the bonds 2i per cent. The risk of loss by robbery, fire (unless Insurance be ordered), thcf^, popular tnmnlt, and all other unavoidable occurrences, Is In all casca to be homo by the owners of the floods, pro- vided duo diligence has been exercised in the care of them. Skipping. On purchase or sale of vessels H " Disburscmenta and outfit of vessels 2^ " Procuring freight and pusseugers fur I'^uropc, Kiist Indies, and in Ameriejin vessels 2i " Po. do. in foreign vessels 5 ** Du. do. coastwise 5 " Coilocting freight 2i " Collecting insurance losses of all kinds 2i ** Chartering vessels, on amount of freight, actual or estimated, to be oonsidernd us due when the chartiT-parties are sigued 2^ ^^ But no charter to be considered binding till a mcmoratulum, or one of the copies of the charter lias been signed. On giving bonds forvesseid unjerattaclimcnt in litigated cusee. oil amount of liability 2^ ** The foregoing commiBHion..! to be exclusive of brokerage, and every charge actually incurred, Nicaragua, San Juan de. A sea-port town at the mouth of tlie river of the same na- 13, State of Costn liica, on the west shore of the Caribbean Sea, lat. 10° r,a' N., hing. SA° -iS' W. The port is excel- lent, nnd 19 considered the best on thi.s part of the coast. Till lately, the town was quite inconsiderable, and consisted of little else than a cluster of huts ; but latterly It has no doubt lieen improved. This place has risen into importance from its being at the western extremity of a proposed line of water communication liotween tlie Car'iibean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. This line is to consist partly of the River San .luaii, flowing from tlie Lake of Nicaragua cast to the sea at San Juan, partly of the lakt, and partly of a canal to lie constructed from the latter to ths Pacific Ocean. Tliis irojcct lias been often mooted ; hut the discovery of the extraordinary mineral riches of Cali- fornia, and tlio consequent emigration to and inter- cour.ie with that country, have given it an incomparably greater interest than it formerly possessed. Tlie coun- try appears to present greater facilities for pftecting this great work, than any otlier part of Central Amer- ica, except the Isthmus of Darien or Panama. The River San Juan, about 90 miles in length, is said to have lieen occasionally ni -igaiile throughout its entire course for ..a-going vessels, till the Spaniards, to pro- tect tiiemselvcs from the attacks c the buccaneers, sunk vessels loaded with stone in its bed. In conse- quence of the interruption thus given to the stream, a considerable portion of the water was carried oft" liy a new channel called the Kio Colorado. — CiiF.v.' i.iek, L'hthme r, navigated, thougli with much dilliculty, in the v.i'iiy reason, liy steamers and other vessels drawing little vater. The lake itself has deep water throughout, and is adapted for ships of the largest burden. The distance between its so'ith-western shore and tlio Gulf of Papa- g.yo, on the Pacific, is only 29,N«0 yanls, or 15f miles ; and though the intervening country lie laid down in uuiny maps as mountainous, the greatest actual height of any part of it above the level of tlio l,.ko i.-' nnly I'.l feet ; at least, such is the result given by a .ic-ries of 347 lc\els, aliont lOU j-ards ajiart, taken in 1781. — TiioMrsoN',s (luatemala, Append., pp. ol2-5-.'n. The surface of tlie lake is l-.'8 feet ;t inches (KnglislO above the level of the Pacific ; u' ascent which might lie overciime by a succession of locks. The difVnrcncc in the level of the two oceans, formerly siipiiosed to lie so serious an obstacle to the undertaking, is said liy llimi- Ooldt not to exceed 20, or, at most, ;' 1 lect. (A'lmi'. Etpaipu; i,, 223, ed. 1«25.) At its western extremity, the Lake of Nicaragua is connected by a small rl¥*r, the Tipitapa, with the Lake of Leiin ur ManagllH) The latter, 65 miles in length by nearl}' tlO in bruitdth, is also said to have deep water throughout, Alltl ths plan which appears to be at present preferred U, ta make the channol uniting these two lakes navigable, and to excavate a canal from the latter to the piii t at Realejo, on the Pacific. Mr. Squier,'lata vhuqii ihn affaires of tlie United States at Nicaragua, has |iill|i lished the following statements in regard to this rimts. Length of the route by Lake Nicaragua, etc,, i«urns( the American Continent, from tlie Atlantic to thu Pit- cific Oceans: River San Juan, 90 miles j Lake N|i!iir«» gua, necessarj- to lie traversed, 110 miles j llWur Tipitapa, 18 miles; Lake Managua or Loon, fi& niilus | from Luke Managua to Realejo, 40 miles j total, flOII miles. Height of tlie various lakes to lie passed, anil the elevations of land : height of Lake Licarugiia, Ijf feet 9 inches aliove Atlantic, 128 feet 3 inches aliuvfl Pacific; height of Lake Slanagua, 17(i feet 6 iiiuhen above Atlantic, 156 feet 11 inches above Pacific ; Mg\), est point of land to be passed, 231 feet 11 inches aliuvs Atlantic, 212 feet 5 Indies above Pacific, The River San Juan reaches the ocean by ssvural mouths. The divergence takes place aliuut 2U inilxD from the sea, forming a low delta, penetrated by nu» merous canals, or, as they are called on the lower M|s> sissippi, bai/oii.i, and lagunas. The princi|)al branch It the Colorado, which carries off at least two tllilds ii( the water of the river, and whieli empties Into ths ocean some 10 or 15 miles to the southward of the port, There is an almost impassalile bar at the entrance, whl'dl would preclude the ascent of vessels, even if the depth of water a!>ove permitted of their proceeding after it was passed. The little steamer Urus, nevertheless, after repeated trials, succeeded in passing. There U another small channel called the Taiiro, which reaches the sea midway between the iiort and the mouth of tha Colorado. The branch emptying into the harbor, ths one through which the ascending and descending boatd pass, carries olT only alwut one third of the water of the river. It, too, has a bar at the mouth, i, e„ at lt» point of debouchure into the harbor, upon which, n| low tide, there are but three or four feet of water. This passed, the bed of the river is wide, and stuildei) with low islands ; but excepting in the clianiiel, which is narrow and crooked, the water is very shallow. U has been suggested that the Colorado branch might iia dammed, and a greater column of water thrown into the other, or San Juan branch. I)ut the suggestion can only be made by those who are wholly unutw qualnted with the suliject. Allowing it to he [jossibls to build a dam, the stream would probaldy find a new channel to the sea ; or, if it took the direction, of the harliorj till it up during the first rainy season witU sand, or at once destroy the sandy liarriera which now protect and form it. It can not be made navigalilc for ships or vessels of any kind, except of the ligjittisli draught, by any practicalde system of improvenienta. The lioats used ii|Km tlie river for carrying freight and passengers are exaggerated canoes, called litntyini, Some are hollowed from a single tree, but tlio lietter varieties are built, with some degree of skill, from tlia timber of the rnlro, a very light and durable kind of wood, which grows abundantly about the lakes. Tim largest of these carry from 8 to 10 tons, and draw 2 op 3 feet of water when loaded. They arc long, ami rather deep and narrow, and have, wlien fully inaiinuil, from 8 to 12 oarsmen, who drive the boats by means of long sweeps and setting-poles. Sails are seldom, if ever, used, except upcm the lake. The masts are im» shipped and left at tic head oli the river in descending, anil resumed again in returning. These boats iiava A small space near the stern called the " ehima," covureil with a iniard roof, a thatch of palm leaves, or with hides, which is assigned to the jiassengers, Thu real of the bout is open, and the oaismcu, or, as they call iri ^^■f?>S")TW?T'^^*'^^*f NIC 1442 NIC themselves mafineros (sailors), are without protection, and slco^ upon their Ijenclica at night, covered only witli their lilanltct?, and with tlio (;unwalc of the boat for a common i)illow. The captain, or patron, is tlin steersman, and occupies a narrow decli at the stern, called tlie pineta, upon wliieli ho also sleeps, coiling himself up in a knot, if the boat is small and the pine- ta narrow. The freight, if liable to damage from ex- posure, is covered with raw liides, which, between sun and rain, soon dift'use an odor very unlilie the perfumes which are said to load the breezes of Araby the Blest. The usual freightage from San Juan to (iranada — a distance of 1(10 or 170 miles — is from ;iO to 50 cents per cwt. ; if the articles are bullty, it is more. The boatmen are paid from seven to eiglit dollars the trip, down from Grenada and liack, which usually occupies from twenty to thirty days, although with i)roper man- agement it might be made in less time. Time, how- ever, in these regions is not regarded as of much im- portance, aiul every thing is done very leisiiridy. ITicaragua,a Ropublicoft'entral America. Itcx- tends from lat. 10° ii/ to 13° iO' N., at the Bay of C'on- chagua, on the Pacific Ocean, long. SI!" 10' to 87° 40 W. ; having west the Pacific Ocean, east the Caribbean Sea, and part of the so-called Mosiiulto territory, north the .State of Honduras and San Salvador, and .South Costa Hica. Ar.:a about 10,000 ?(iuaro niile.s. The He- puldic is divided into five Depart menls, each of which has several judicial districts, as f(dIowi : llepitrlmcnu^ [ Pop. ^ DUtricU. .Meritliuimt . Oriental . . . Oi'clilcntal Septentrional of Ma^agalpn Septentrional of Segovia Total IMTJNH^ 20,(M)U »r.,(KI(l 90,l)fl« 41.000 fi.unO' Hivus or N'icaragna. t Acayopaorl'liontales, } (Iranada, Masaga, ( and Managua. [.( on unti Ctaiiandcga. Matdgalpa. Segovia. Tile populaiion here given is tlie results arrived at, in round numbers, by a census attempted in 1846. It was only partially successful, as tlie people supposed it preliminary to some military conscription, or new !a.\. The principal towns of the State, with their estimated population, are as follows : PneMaNuevo •2,900 Xagorote l.SDO .Souoi 2,600 Managua 12,000 Massaya l.MBO (iranada 10,000 Nicaragua 8,00(1 .Si'govia S.U'KI Matagalpa 2,000 I^on (the capital), in eluding Snbtiava... 28.000 Wiinandega 11,0011 Chinandego \ ifjo it. 000 Realejo 1.000 Chichigalpa 2,Sl«l Poaultoga 900 Telica 1,000 Somotillo 2,000 Villa .Neuva 1,'KK) It is a singular fact that the females greatly exceed the males in number. In the Department Occidental, according to the census, tlie projiortions were as three to luu.' The civili/.cd Indians, and tho.'e of .Spanish and ;Kgro stocks crossed with them, constitute the mp.s' of the population. The individuals of pure Kuropean extraction constitute bit a small part of the whole, Vind are mure than cijualed in number by those of pure uegro blood. Tlie entire |>'>pulation may be divided as /oIloHs: Whites, 20,000; i,egroe.s, 1,')J0(M); Indians, C9,n00 ; mixed, 1:10,000.— Total, -.'.JO.OiX). Most of these live in towrs, many of them going two, four, and six miles djiily to labor in the fields, starting before day and returning at ii'glit. The plantatiuu.s, "haciendas," " hattos,' " raiicho.s," and " chacras", are scattered pret- ty equally over the country, and are readied by paths so obscure as almost wholly to escape the notice of travelers, who, passing tliroii;;li what appears to be a contiuuul forest from one town to another, arc liable to fall into the error of supposing the country almost wholly uniuhuliited. Their dwellings an- usually of canes, thatched with palm, many of them open at the oidcs, anci with no other tlour but the bare earth, the occiipati.<. 1 1 t ..• .. «... . ..*' (i|ii'f«tloni for facilitating its transit. Of tho many ruillPK liy wlilcli the passage is deemed practicable, timt by the viay of tho Kio San Junn and Lakes Nic- lirn^llll and Leon la said to be the most so ; and here, mineralogists, chemists, and nickel-workers, and its extraction fron\ its ores lias been undertaken upon a considerable scale. It is sparingly found, and in com- paratively few localities, and even in those it is usually ihtiCBfiire, tho great inter-oceanic canal may, it is I associated with cobalt. In consequence of its rarity it ihiMlghl, lie eventually constructed. The routes vary [ is generally clashed among the precious metals. It is In ti'linlli from 1 ail to 270 miles. By these routes, in -"^ - ' ' • ' ' I'ifnipiirlsDU with the older ones, the distance from New York til Cnifton ivill bo reduced from 17,100 to 12,600 tlilli'K ; III Calcutta, from 15,000 to It, 000 ; and to Sin- (Jllpiirc, from 15,800 to llt.OOO; while from F.ngland to IIhisi" places tho distance will bo materially increoscil. " til 11 coluniercliil point of view, therefore," .says a late ilallslli'iil pulilleatlon,froin which these facts are glean- I'll, " I'.liKlrtnd can care Init little about the canal as pro- p(i«i'il, uliiee without it her advantages are much supc- rliif Id lliiine of the rnltcd States in the Asiatic trade." 'I III' ll'ndiiwlth the I'niled States has been decreasing fur ft lilJlnber of years, as is shown by the following; Exporl^ to Imports frnm t'uiteil titHles. t'QUed Htntcs. 'I'nifti (rnile from isan to I,OOI). .. !'i;4,f(» when pure, almost as white as silver, and both ductile and malleable, citln r when hot or cold. It may bo inade into marinors' conipasses, being susceptible of magnetism. It does not oxidize or rust by contact, with air, and only melts, w ben pure, at an intense heat. It makes other metals harder and brittle when alloy- ed with them. The nickel used for alloys is usually obtained from what the (iermans call Kuflcr Nickel or Copper Nickel, which is an arseniurct or compound of arsenic with nickel, whii-h is hard and has a metallic lustre of a coppered color inclining to brown or gray, and displayiii;,' I'll the hues of the rainbow. It con- tains .")C iiarts of arseiiii' and 41 of nickel, when pure, but usually contains a little iron, lead, sulphur, and antimony. The Chinese probably first made use of nickel ; their If loaragua, or Peach Wood ((lor. Xicami/aholz, ' white copper, or paek-fong, contains alout ;i2 nickel, 10 lllliildill- 1 Till. Ulunllumt; Kr. Uais de Srtng, linw tie , copper, l'.') zinc, and '.\ iron ; but the |jroportic. s vary Shii'iijiw I It. I.etinii timtiu'ijno ; Sp. Pdlo * snnjre ,' more or less. The composition known as British plate I'lifl, /'(((' tniii)umliii), a iree of the same genus (Co.ml- , is an alloy of nickel, the ores from which the Birming- liiimi) n* the llrazil and sapan wood ; but tho .rprcies i ham people extract it being imported principally from llil» Hid been e.xactly ascertained. It grows pnneipal- ] Norway and Hungary. In Saxony they produce' tweu- I)' III tho vicinity of the lake of Nicaragua, whence its ty tliousan(' pounds of nickel a year, and in Prussia lllllllf. It Is said by Dr. Bancroft to be almost as red about nine thousand pounds. In Ocrmany liny make Itlld llrnvy as the true Brazil wood, but it does not ' it into (ierman silver, and in this country our Mint is I'lillliumily nIVord more than a third part, in cpiantity, | busily engaged in making it into nionev. iif llii' riiior of tho latter: and even this is rather less j Nickel is obtained at Chatham, in Connecticut; also iliirilbli' and less ber.iitiful, though dyed with the same 1 in Missouri, in the chionic mines of Maryland and niiitdiilils, Nicaragua, or peach woods, dill'er greatly I l*enn.sylvauia,and in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. Ill (111 Ir i|tiallly as well as price ; one sort being so de- ! Nile (.Vi7«.s^, a great river of Kast Africa, formed by lliji'lll III ciilipriug niatler that •m\ pounds of it will only the union of Ihc Jlalir-cl-Ahiud (White River) and the dve nn much wool orelolh asone poundof B..izil-wood, I /inAc-f;-.lnt')l- (Blue liiver). The first, wiiich is re- wlille nllollier variety of it 'vill produce nearly half the garded as the true Nile, is supposed to rise on the cast- iifli'i'l of .in ei|Ual iliantity of Brazil-wood, and will sell em edge of the table-land of Kast Africa, about lat. [ii'iimif lliMinlly dear.— B/iNcUdrT on Colon, vol. ii. I 2° S., long. ;M" E., but its source is unknown. Kx- Wlekfll, » scarce met ;i1, which occirs always in C01.1-! peditions sent by the Pacha of Egypt in 1810-2 traced lilllillloll with other metals, from which it is exceeding- it to lat. 1° 12' N., in long. 30° .58' E. Here the nav- ly iJlllli'llU to separate it. When pure, it is of a fine igation was interrupted by a ledge of rock; it llows while ciibir feseinblliig silver. It is rather softer than generally north, with a w iclth of from one to two i iles, Iron 1 ll< speclllc gravity, when cast, is 8'27!l; when and jol, is the Hahr-el-Azrek at Khartum, in Nubia (lat. IminiilM'eil, H'llil'J. It is malleable, and may without 15" 37' N.). The second rises in Abyssinia, in lat. lO" ilKlliMllly bo hammered into plates not exceeding one i 59' 25" N., long. ."(!' 5,V 30" E. It Hows north 55 llilllilleiilll pnit of an Inch in thickness. It is attract- miles, when it enters Lake Dcmbcah on the ;outh- (•i| by the magnet, and Is not altered by exposure to the west ; emerging from the lake on the southeast, it (lows lllf, mil' by being kept under water It is employed in ' in the form of a curve, first south, then west and iiorlh- |ifi||t i-ne In its east and the other to its west coast. He- iween these is a vast jdain, the largest in the world, 'tretching from the (iulf of Uuxito to the Arctic Ocean. In this plain arc situated the great lakes of North America, and through it tlow the rivers Missis- sii.'pi, tlie Mackenzie, and tho St. Lawrence, tlio ona forming a southern, the other a northern, and the third an eastern drain for its superfluous waters. Its coast indentations and inlets are Ualhu's Bay and Hudson's Day on the north ; tho CJolf of St. Lawrcncu on the east coast ; the (inlf of Aluxico on the south ; the Gulfs of California and Georgia, and Cook's Inlet, on tho west. The coas^ if North America is very exte isivc, extend- ing in all iruguiar line from Davis's Strait to tho Flor- ida Channel about ISUO miles, ai d from the latter along the inland sea to Teliuuutepec about oOOO. The w liulo length on the I'acilic side to Kehriiig's Strait is about 10,000 miles. The extent ot" tlio north mid northeast sliores can not probablv bo le.-is tlan 3000 miles. Tho entire extent will thus be 22,H00 miles. The most re- markable physijal characteri.itics of North America are il.s .sandy deserts, treeless steppes, and prairies; tile lir-^t stretch along the base of the Itoeky Sloimtaina to till' 1 1st degree of north latitude, havi'ig an average breadth of 2110 lo fiOO miles. The 6te|'pos form another ! cheerless and e.xtcnsiv :i in the northern | .art of the conlinrnt. Tb or savannas, ncculiar characteristics of Nl -a, are cliiedy in tho j Mississippi Valley. Tliey cui'sist of cxlcnsivo and , generally irregular ' la without trees, covei'd in the spring with bilglit\ 'I- "iterniingled with fragrant flowers. A vast cxti. .:> also occupied liy fori sis, comprising probably not le«8 Ifaaii 000,000 siiuiiro miles. j Mitunliiins.--i If the.^e there arc four priiii Ijial sys- t teins in North Auicnea : the tjregon or Itoeky Mount- j uiiis — a continuation of llin Andes — the Sierra Nevada ' or Snowy Mouulains of California, merging in its jiiis- sagc northward into the coast range, and the Allcglui- nies or Appalachian range, extending northeast paral- lel with the coast. The Itoeky Mountain range i.< a i continuation of the Andes, forming the elevated talde. j laud pa^.'sing centralh through Mexici; thence trend- ing north, divide the waiers entering the racific and .Atlantic Oceans, and continue to the Antic coa.'it. .Several peaks rise above the lino of perpetual snows. j The Sierra Nevada of California and const range e.\- teiul nearly parallel with the Kocky Mo iitain range, and are connected with the latter by sevi .al traiisver.'sc ridges. The Alleghany range stretches cloiig the east- I em portion of the continent. It rises in tlii; gently j undulating ridge dividing the waters of tlie Tennessee from thoe llowing into the Mis-sisslppi and the (inlf I of Mexico, and trending across the country in the I same general direction from southwest to the north- ! east, terniinates in the headland of Gaspe. I Itivirs and J,(drs. — I'lie principal ri\ ers are the Jlis- ! sissippi, with its utilneiit the Missouri, and the St. 1 Lawrence. The lirst is the largest river in North I America, and one of .'.c p eatesi on the earth, occupy- ing, wilh its tributaries, the whole of the souther . jior- ' lion of the great central basin of Xorii; America. It ! has its origin in the junction of stieunis formed on the I eastern declivity of tlie Kocky Mountains, betv.een i lat. 12 and 5o'' N., and enters into the sea in tlio j Gulf of Mexico in lat, 20' N. Its whole course, «.iich j is from north to south, is caleulatid to exceed llOO miles. The St. Lawrence rises under tlie name of the ' St. Louis, in lat. 47 " 'li' N., long, o;!' W. ; entering Lake Supei ir, it Hows a soutlieast and a northeast cour.se, anil enters the Gulf of St. Lav.rcncc at Capo GaspJ), w'lero it has expanded tj me liundrei; miles in width. Tho Mackenzie issues from tho Great .Slave Lake, from which it flows nearly due north, and enters the A'C'lc Sea, lat. fiu 10' N. In the niimoer and magnitude of its lakes North America is uneiiualed. I'liey form one of its most noted featuios, and in con- junction wilh its rivers present a niediiui of coinmer- ciiil iuiercourse wholly unsurpassed. The principal are Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Kiie, and Unta- NOB 1445 NOR Tio, which together cover an area of 100,000 Sfiimro itv of the Allefjhnnie!". The cmil-nehls aro of prodi-- n.ilcs. Following the chain of Inkos which crosses the ious i xtont, the Appaladiiun siretcliiiig without in- country in a nortliweslcrn cilrcction, there oc"U'- I.alg, Woolastoii, Deer I.alic, Atlml.iaca, Great anil occupying an area of (13,000 6(iuaro miles. Tlu' Siavc Lake, and Great Hear Lake. Tho Great Salt I'ittslmrg seam, ten feet thick, exjioscd on the lank.s Lake in Utah, and Mono Lake and I.ake Chapola in of the Monongahela, extends horizontally 225 miles in Mexico. There are, Ijesides these, many smaller yet length and 100 in breadtli, and covers an area of 11 000 considerable bodies of water, viz., St. Clair, midway square miles. Besides the coal-lields named there between Lakes Huron and Eric: tho Lako of the '""O various others of great extent in diflcrent parts of ■\Voods, between Lakes Superior and Winnipeg ; Nep- North America, including New Brunswick, Xova Sco- pissing, Sinicoe, Champlain, and many others of lesser tia, and Vancouver Island. Iron is also extensively magnitude. ! worked. Salt is widely diffused throughout the conti- islindn. — In the Atlantic Ocean tho principal are nent. Newfoundland, Anticosti, Prince Kdward Island, and ' Cllmnle. — The predominating character of tho eli- Cape Hreton, all lying at tho embonchuro of the St. ' mate of North America is intense cold although in Law rence ; Nantucket, Long Island ; tho Bahama Isl- some parts an oppressive heat prevails during a por- ands, oT the coast of the Carolinas ; and tho (^olum- ; tion of tho summer. Above the 50th de;'ree of latitude liian Archipelago, comprising tlie islands of Culia, ! the cold is so severe as to rend r tlie country all hul Ilayti. Jamaica, Porto l!ico, Santa Cruz, Antigua, ! uninhabitable, while frosts occasi„:ially occur as low Guadaloupc, Martinlqie, St. Lncia, Barbadoes, St.Vin- down as llie 30th degree of latitude. In winter a keen cent, Tobago, Trinidad,audothersmall islands. On the and piercing northwest wind prevails throughout all northwest co.'ist the principal arc Jic California group; North America, adding greatly lo the rigor of the A'anconver, Queen Cluirlottc, Pr.nce of Wales, Sitka, northern climate, and carrying its chilling influence into tlie more .«;outherlv regions. mg Tlie transitions from cold to hot, or from winter to summer, are very sud- den, especially in Canada. Among the causes of a lower temperrturo than obtains in AVestern Europe may bo mentioned the small portion of tlie continent lying in the torrid zone, tlie Rocky Mountain langc, and also the Sierra Nevada mountains near the Paciliv iiiul Adniiially Islands ; and on tho extreme northwest tlio Aleutian group. In the Arciic Ocean there are a vast number of islands of w liieh but little is yet known. Geoluii'ij, Miiieraliigij, etc. — A remarkable analogy ex- ists in tlie structure of the land in North America and Central and j.'orthern Kiirope. Gneiss, mica, schist, and gninltii prevail in wide areas in the Alleglianies, on the Atlantic slope and the northern latitude of the | Ocean, prevent the warm winds from the Paeitic pene- Ameiican continent, and in the high and middle lati- trating tlio interior; the great expan.sion of the land tildes the .•^ilurian strata extend over iOOO miles. Crvi!- north a'ld nortlieast, and the almost level jdain in those tallliie and Silurian riiiks fore; the substratum of Mex- j directions, allow full scope for the piercing Arctic ico, fur the most part covered with Plutonic and volean- , blasts. The narrowness of the Gulf Stream, and the ic formations and secondary limestone. Tlie Kocky I prevailing winds taking the same general course car- Moiintiiins aro mostly silurian, except the eastern ! ry away from tills continent the hot circumambient rii.S,')7 .'HO. 8(10 104,Tol • Aceonllng to Ilallii's estimate of the area of Nortli America. Another estimate b1\ts New Dritain liut 1,800,000 square milts. t M'''ii||„rii. Tlie iati't'iinadlanreiisiiB i;ivis'Jti.4S2sn.uarc' miles as the area over wliicii jurisdiction is actually extended. t (iiiibcrt pivcs tf(r2,5oo itilouielres carreB, or ilTl.Oi I square miies. { i:p eiilami, from I'lv^riit information, would aiipear Id lie a IrilatenI islniiil, l.'iOO miles lonfr and COn miles bi its Rrcat- PBt brtndlli. J(s (iren, lllerefure, can not In- preatt-r tlinn wr Ft:ite almve. .4I'i,eiNl, and dial of Cumpe nt U.OSS.OOO, txciusiveiy of islands. The treaty of iH.'il with Mexicii settles the bnumla- j ready defined and established according to the M\ ar- ries of I lie two republics as I'ullows; " lielaining tlic tide of the treaty of Guada'upc Hidalgo, tho limits same dividing-line between tho two Califoniias as al- 1 between the two Itepublics shall bo as follows ; Begin- NOR 1440 ■ NOlt ning in the Gulf of Mexico, three Icnguea from Unil, opposite tlie inoutli of tlic Kiu Urando, as provided In the 6th article of tlie treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ; thence, as doflncil i,i the said article, up the middle of that river to the point where the parallel of HI" 17' nortli latitude crosses the same; thence duo west one hundred miles; thence south to the parallel of 31° 20' north latitude; thence along the said |iarallcl of 31° 20' to the Uth meridian of longitude west of Green- wich ; thence in a straight line to u point on tlio Colo- rado Kivcr, t«onty English miles below the Junction of the Gila and Oulorado Uivors ; thence up the middle of the said Kiver Culorudo, until it intersects tlie pres- ent line between the United States and Mexico." For early history, etc., of Nortli America, see New Knglmul Mayaziiu, vii. 169; Christian lleview, xiv. 010; .Voi. 184li. 1847, 1841. 1849. 18.W. Total. June 30, 1861.. j 1852 1863. . I 18M. I 185;>. ! 18B6. I|I840,9T3 338.!i4fl 4.Ti.'J8d 471.410 31'J.;i27 4i8,418 648.876 r>44.tin'i 4/ll.»34 387,4S4_ $47H9,,')iid~ $383,066 a44.8.V) 171,0119 i';»8,40i 37'.(.96fl 414,8118 '2*4,919 b40,028 270,(176 416.601 $9,303,088 $K'0,748 6Vi,'i1i 3t4.14'j ;19I.S97 433.818 .370,174 ,$167 3795 49 14:m •2919 i471 9W :|i90'i9 $4347 4l'i3 it la frfli()i«ntl> very fcHllB. The natural growth of this region U imiii*II> tim liltoh-iiltie. This tree ulfordf tar, pitili, turiiulltinii, hikI looiuor, which conslllute an IniliorlaMt part nf lliy ffttiurli) of the Hlale. In the sWAinpa riuu uf » fliio iiunlUy |« raised. Hack of the Hat coMOlry, Hint HXtfhdliiK t" ^li" '"wer falls of ihu rivers, Is It ImU of JAIIil nIiuiiI 10 miles wide, of ii mod- erately untivuii »»ffnm I M anody null, and of which the pitcli.pinu U IliM lO'MVHltlnii natural growth. 'I'hroiiglloMt Ihn filMa Indian corn Is raided, and In Booici jmrta vunaldKritlilij tnttun, In the low wuuiitry, grapes, pliMiia, blHuklrarrlen, and ntrawherrii's grow tpontiiiiuiniiily i itiiit on Ihd lolervnles canes grow In.t- urlanlly, tliu luiiVMi) u( Mrjiltli eunllnuliig greeji iliiriiig wlnlnrfuroiali fond fur Mttln. In lheclevnlec|i;ouiiiry, oak, walnul, liooi, «hd cherry trees of a large growth abound, l'rim'l|iiil iiiiiifrnln coal, Iron, and guM. It !.■* tlio only NiHlH In the Union where every arllcle enuineratud In Ihtt I'tosiin Is produced. /limvt.—'lUu lirloi'ljittl rivers are (ho Cliowan, 400 inilusloiigj imvl^aliln rur small vessels aomllcs; lioan- oke, |'ttiitll>'o, iiitvltJHhlii for ill) lulled ; Tar, Nimiso, t;iipe Fear, the largnst rivur In llio Ninle, 2H0 miles long, with eleven fuut of W(il(ll|i■>, To. Ai.ao Till-; |rii>i|iii r 'I'lomAiiit in iVi\, 191)1, 1811, and isriii I, tu .lill.V I, l«M, .f 341, 140 34'i,04l 4:i3.ii:in 47I.4IW aiu,iw fir)l,7u6 4'^7,9'.B __3.s7.4h4 ^■4;J49Vvii8" $.383,066 344,660 171 099 'i9.'(,40l ;179,960 414 ll'J8 '284,1119 ;i4'l,0'.'8 '2711,076 416,601 ■ia,'308,i»»»r $I3I,I|0I> li"0,!199 BI4.l4'i Jitll.filS 376,174 Ti4«l '268,7(11 |Hii,ir»i 466 81(1 311. HI N il«I,()lfi •27(1 7 i| '.'6.-1 016 •2MI,;U7 '2'2(,UO-2 *'2ih38 826 ■216,181 11I8.7M tv/.m '241, ll'"! 197,116 ■27 1 0211 •291). 4(«) •2'2U,'23;l '.'62,632 *-2;3 16,660 ■ $'220,360 )'<7,4'H l.0,M6 S(K»,1C2 •230,476 124'J.^h'J I4'J.II"4 11(6 814 113,146 _ 8'il3,6j» $'2i(6,Uttl Uisi,4>t>< tl7l 2!N iii'2,6i);t '24il,0''3 '27-1, 960 Nine niuutlu to Juue 30, and Usual /uar livilloi Jul/ I, 1*1481 'f«(l««g«llM(»ll IJi»tripl 'rmiiiHge. ( A(f(«il^Hn, ¥nti\ntt, I1fl{lft(»re UMi' .... ... iO'im 13,901 l!l,79» 02,DHU 4(l,((ii1 13,(161 .... Ko.aoi 1,611 t • • • '/ft M! h.'/f.l m,Vi\i 4,»IH ...» «T,6tl 4,'2at L^V' m, * NOR 1447 NOR I'rinrlp'il /Vi'-^».— Honiifort, at tlic mouth of Newport Jltvcr, )ip to this (Imih hiu been in tlio want of iuturiial facilities for iiMnniiifco. The tonnace of Beaufort, in 1850, was IIIIH lonK. WiliniiigtoM, city, port of entry, situated on the left bank of (Jape Fear Itivcr, just below the con- fluiincu of llio Mortheasl and northwest branches, about ililrty>IIVM niik'N from thu sea. It is well situated for Iriido, but the localiuu is accounted uiilicallliy. The hiirlior ndinlln vessels of iMMI tons, but thu entrance has B d. l.'iOO, It was attempted Ijy the ICoftllsli in lo')!!; nnil the project was greatly enoour- (ijjed by (iui'en ICiizabeth in I.W."), in which year a I'otnp/iny was associated in London, and was called the "Fellowship for the ULscovery of the Northwest I'as- »»p;" From 17l'> until IMIH, Parliament otVered ,i70.000 for this discovery. In 181H, the reward was modllltd liv priiposiuK that .£.'iO(IO should bo paid when ehlief 110 , li!0 , or l.'IO W. lonfi. should bu passed; iilMi of wlilili paynu'nls was made to Sir K. Tarry. I'liC Iheir labors in the voyages enumerated in the list li'iiiii, I'orry, Kraiiklin, Itoss, Back, and Uiehardson, »' le hlilijhled. The honor of coiuplclin{; the norlb- t»"sl pniisai;e Is due to Captain MMTnrc, who soiled in the fift'fMir/itfnr in company witli ('onunodore Collinsun Id (1(11 Knlvqiriff, in search of Sir .lohn Franklin, ilanimfy 'iO, Ih.'iO. Oji .Septemlier (i he diseo\ered lil^h land, which he named ltarinK'.-< Land; on the '.)th othir land, which lisnt(n I" Clilnn, sailei( from the Thames, ^(uv 'id. IWtf, tflf M/irda Frodislicr's ntteinpt to (iiiil a northwest pa.i- »«((e (oCMnii. IM ('Miilalo (iiivlfl'sex|>cilIt(ontufln(1 anorthwcst passage, IWt tlBfp|i(r,*»ex|ieilltlon. Illi«, Weynioiilh Slid Kiii^'hfs. Ifl'l, lliolseii'n veysKPs, (he Inst undertaken (scf 11 U'hon' s Iklii.) Ml, NIr 'I'hotiins Ihitton'i Kill). Baflln's .""eo Daffin't Day. 1031. Kove'fl ex|ie(Iitloo. [A lonelier of enterprises undertaken by various eounlrlos fiidowcd.] IT42. Middleton's cxpedillon. l"4fl. Moore's and flmlth's. 17011. llcnrno's land expedition. ma. Captain I'lilpps, afterward lord Mulgravc, his expedi- tion. lull. (Jaiilain Cook in the RemMion and Uincoiicri/, July. 17s:i. Mackenzie's cxiicdition, ITliO. Captain Duiiean's voyage. 17li5. The Vixpnterj, Cupinlii Vancouver, returned fVom a voyage of survey and diai-ovcry on tho northwest coaei of America, Se|itcnil)cr '24. 1SI5. bleutenant Kotzelnie's expedition, October. 1S18. Captain Ihiclian'sand l.ioiitoiiuntl'raiikUn'B expedition 111 the Uvrothctt and Trent. 1818. Caiitiiin I'.osB and I.iuiitcnant Parry, In the Imbella and Ah'xandpr. ISM. I.lciilcnnnis I'nrry and Liddon, in the Iln-la and Gri- per, yUiy 4. 1*20. They return to I.citli, Novcinlicr !5. l<'21. Ca|italiis I'nrry and Lyon, in tho Funi and llecla, May 8. lS-24. Captain I'any's third cxpoditlun with tho lltda, May 8 1S2B. Captains rranklio and l.yoii, after liavini; attempted a land expedition, aguiii sni! from Livcrpoid, Feb. 10. 1S37. Caplnin I'nrry, iignln in the llecla, sails from Dcptford, .March ■>[,. 1827. And returns, (Jrtober C. ISOo. Captain Itofs arrivial at Hull, on his return from his arctic expedition, after an nhsenco of four years, and wlien all iiope of his return had been nearly aban- doned, Dctolier I'i. 193?). Captain ll.-irk niid hi.-i companions arrived at Liverpool from tlivir pcriioiia Arctic Land E.xpedition, after having visiled the (ireat Fisli Kiver, nod examined its course to llic Polar Sens, Septemlier 8. lS3li. Captain lluck saiii'd from Cliatliain in command of Ills Majesty's aliip Terror, on an exploring adventure to Wnger Ulvir. [Captain Hack, in the mouth of De- cember, ls:ir>, was awarded, by tlie Ijeogi'apliical So- ciety, the kiofj's nnnied premium for his polnr dis- coveries and eiiterpri.-e, June 21.] 18.19. Pease and Simpson traveive tlie intervening space be- tween the discoverie-' of Ito.^s and I'arry, and establihh that there i.s a northwest passage, October. 1S4j. Sir Joiin Krankllii and Captain Crozlcr, in the Erebus and y'crror, leave Ciigland. May 24. 1S49. Captain Koss reliiriied from an unsuccessful expedition in stNircli of Franklin. 1850. Anottier expedition (one sent out by Lady Franklin) in search of .Sir .lohii Franklin, consisting of two vessels, sailed from Knginiul. April-May. 1^50. Still another, coneistiiigoC two vessels, the Advduce and liesrue. liberally purchased for the purpose by Henry (irinnell, a Xew York merolKiut, and manned at Goveriiuient cost (Voiii (lie I'liMed States navy, under command of Lieutenant Ue Haven, sailed troni New Ycrk, .May. Is50. Commanders Coliinson and M'Ciure, in the Entcrpri/tr and Jntu'tttijalor, sailed eastward in search of Sir .Jolm Franklin, Jauiinry 20. 18.50. Northwest Passage discovrred by M'tJIurc, October 20. 1S5;J. The second .\mcrican Arctic Kxpeditioii left New York in search of Sir John Franklin, and for the purposes of science, .itay 31. (S55. Jl'Ciiiru returned to Knglaud In October, 1864, and Col- iinson in May. --See Amrriran./ourniil of Science, x. 13«(I.SAAt) Lea); Xurth Amrrii'an Hicinc, Ixix. 1. (FoRci-:); IltiNx'.s Mirchimt's Mni/iniiii; iii. o2; J-Ahiiliuri/h Jii'cieir, xxx. 1, xlviii. I'.';!; .iimriian (litcrlrrbj, iii, .'ill,'); Uunriirlij Hcrieir, xvi. 14,1, xxi. '2\^, xxv. i'.\ xxx. 'illLlvi. 1. Norway, king'lom of (Swed. .VirnV/c, tier. Nor- inyciiy. a .oiintry of Northern Europe, united ,io the crown of Sweden, and forming the northwesioni part of the .Scandin ivian peiiiiisnlu, capital Chri jtiana. It extends from Tape Liiidesnaes, lat. ."iT 57 '8', to the North Cap-, lut. 71" 10 :i"N,,aiid between long. 4° 50' and 31" 15 1'.. The mountains of Norway contain rich minerals ; but, from the diliicuity of trnnoport and the want of fuel, mining industry is b.it little developed. The only mines in r('i'''r till! I'ii'liiitl ill t'lUfiifi", Willi, tii>j«( III llip r)il9i In Norway. Ilruiidy i|i>l|||urlw>i miiiI hmh^IiiIIU nfii tlin only t•xtell^ivu IiihikIms iiCiiiiliiiilry l Mi'-il. In tlic^o ure { fortji'.i unci iiU'lult'cmiiiliciifa, llin (ifiidlli ciifnlllifi In ex- 1 porei'il 111 a mw slnU', ij)(r»(i(: wlin) 1^ iisiil In (lin (imiiii- } fuel lilt! ufuinis ui KiiiiigslMiiK, iiini ill III" midiiifni tiiriis I of iron wuiu mii| nulls, 'llin liwilMfwcdific of clotli, Vmcn, mill colloii, u^ wull «» lUi' |iH'|iilf(l(lo(i of nklni) | .r: 1 lealliir, uni ulniont uMlif h >Uil»t"lU', 'I'lii' otiii'r niiiniifui'turun <'oiii|iriiu llmso iif ijIum, |iii|ii'I', oil, >;>»<- powiler, nuap, liilnoni, uM'l siiij.i*' fuliliili^, 'tup (prliiii- 1 pal forcats iiru In llii; |||l.f|ji(|-; lliii llliil/ir l^i filled In nnluiiin and uiiiti'i', ami U inllVKimt in/hf iIm kIihw In ' the (oust. Ilolluiid i;i HiJW flltf I lliff IIIMfljid f'lf Nor- wi'i^iuii tiniliir. l''ioli U u!Sp)i»(<.'( ffimi nil (lie drwiM on tlie wost ('■)ll^t, lint lliitijud J4 (luf illlif I'lilri'pi'd. Tli« mint iinporliiiil |yf)))|i'||"» iif (llj» ItH'l" «fi' dried llsli nnd siilicd licriiiiijU, ')'I|« tnHiiiH iif ((illicKil (iroil- ni'ts is loss tliun inJjilil |i« B!(p«/i'(»ril( ffiiKI III" (iiimliT of mini's; tlR> prill' ipiil »rn fivil), ii/|i|ii'f, nrtil siV .r. Thu ilili'f iinporls h|i' mill, ij»vi|(|, ,lllii i idmdill pr idiii n. ConiiniTii.' in iliu int'.rioi' of llic i nullify li nt(Kl)y im- pcMli'd for wiint of iinaiis of iiiiiiiiiiiiififtMMi : iiom of i til.' rivers are imvjgulitd (iv«|d lunr their inoi.lln. ' (loud roads exist oiily lielwn"it III" f'lttlK of the soiidi j raasi and the priiioipal viillnys ill ?iiiil roinii|i|iiJi i|lji/i| la lit iten, Anioni; j the iiuinerons islands oh iIk' tH'»|. I'iiit»l4 (lluro nre vio- lent and iriej.'iilarenrieiil», mIiIiIi nidtcMlipionsliinvi- fjation daiiifeions. Anioni; llinsu in (lie i ulidifaled Mc I- ttniiii, or Moskeines-titroili, »Im' ! DM* I IH,t> lUM &i,i"^l 'i-im m.'Hi tMrl j»ii? »«» m m m «04 it>> WfiWI iMl.ii h 1 clNirtii. 1 1 VhnM I'oriTtticl^i*] Ixlx «TJ '/n fi-4 ' *ifi IT. ill IKft fih.l (0 'ill.'. I ni « UM in Ml m l.fiii? I'l .•y.r. Vl 1.751 '/^ fi'fi V4 r. 7":i l.lll'i (W.ltH «t ■/.iii-t 1 =m I2r, WKi (,(«:) 71771 (VH DO 12 'i.'ll m 78 ■VI 10 f.fil irw Ids M fi.fi'l II 1,2fi| i 248 b 17(1 n 2'i3 i 191 w i.wi M 1,IM5 M S.dM I'lMir TSritos W»:i.7W -Ml i;ri. i'" ays con- sisted of the intei'changc of tlio produce of lier I'onsls, of her copper and iron mines, nnd of her llslieries, for such articles as she reipiireil from foreign ciuintrie.-. The principal sea-ports are licrgen, TtouiDieiin, Chris- tiana, llainmerfest, and its outport Wariliolauis. Den- mark o their maritime occupations, would seem to demand (lie coarser iiualities of manufactures. Kmni otiicial documents recently pnblislied, it appears I'jrtt in IHIH the population of Norway was l,'i01),OUO sonis; their merchant marine couuteil 3400 vessels, measuring an aggregate of ■J4il,ni» tons, and employing lii,,'iiiil persons as ollicers und iiew a. This would give to Norway one vessel for every li.'ii lidiabitants, and make every seventy-third suljject a sailor. At the NOU 1449 NU« ■amo period, tlio totnl niiinlmnt mnriiio of Frnnro roii- tistud of 1 t,'2ii5 v«!isi'l!>, iiiuasiiring an afgrogato of 1)70.000 tons. With tlio Uniteil States tlio trnilo of Norw i • ii chiefly Indirect. Tobir < and cotton am tlic princl])^! articics of American |iruduca wlilcli ontitr into tiio consumption and manufut'ur™ of tlio N«r\vc)^ian9. The .cutrlctive churiietcr uf llio taritfof i'nrway, however, liiio that of her slater l(ingdom, uiid the fullacioiin principles on V'liich her Itscal and commercial legislation lins been so I'jiig maintained, must ever prove nn iiisuperalile oli- Btacio to the cxpnnsion of licr foreign trade, and the consequent development of h(!r vast internal resources. So long as N'orv ly adheres to the now generally ol>to- leto idea tl I 'I' '.: . v to raise revenue and relieve tiie lam'.-owncr i: t'> i" y higli duties on all goods ini- linrted into the country, so long will her nihilions witii I 'leign countries he limited to tho exclmngo of such urlicies of necessity as 'un not ho elsewhere procured, 'I'he decline . hlch her iron trade has experienced during the I' V 3'Cii past, liuth In Knginud and tho United States, will necessarily compel llio govenuneiit of Swe- den and Norway lool( for a mariiet lu Franco; and It la understood Ihi' the latter govtrnmcut is not averse to uich amelioration of her tarilf ns will open h"r nmrlc- cts to this great staple of Sweden and Norway, liy a muterial ro(lUi.tion of her pres-nt seventy per cent, duty on iron. Tlio only e(|uivaleut, however, which could siUisiy Frunco for so libenil a concession would bo a total change in tho S "ediali and Norwegian tarllfs, by which her own mnnufactuns could enter tho ports of the united kingdom, and tind a prolitablo as veil as a ready market. Nor could such a change in any man- ner liavo an injurious effect upon tlio manufacturing Industry of either < ' these countries, as the great de- mand would lie for fuch heavy and coarse manufac- tures as are most ncedid in so northern a latitude, and which never have bee.i, and perhaps never will he, suc- cessfully manufactured in Sweden or Norway — at least, to any extent approximating the great cons.nnptlon of the kingdom. Such a result would extend its benelits to otiier countries Ik sii'es Franco; and if, in addition to a remoditlc.ition c i"- S^v.uiliaii and Norwegian tar- ills In respect of mami '• turcs, the present exorbitant cent-per-cent. iluties o.. A "erican tobacco were liberal- ly reiluced, the tradi beli> ■ n tho United States and Sweden and Norway would bo materially henefi'''!. and exports and impi..ts, direct between the two coun- tries, largely augmented. Tho Norwegian taritfdifl'ers, in many essential par- ticulars, fron\ that of Sweden. Its range is consider- ably lower, and, owing to tliis fact, and to tho ad>'ant- nges resulting from diO'erent weights, it will he fmind (for Instance) that tobe 'co blades nmy be imported into Norway at a rate neai;.- ;ii!.;! per cent, less than into S'.vcdc n. Tho oppressive system of lictltious valuation, in practice in tho Swed: 'y nistoni-houses, is unknown in the sister kingdom; and, l>esides, greater considera- tion is shown to the poorer inhabitants of remote jirov- inces. At Uroilo and Trouns'io, in tho northern part of Norway, many articles arc admitted at half rales of duty ; ond nt Hammcrfesi und otlu:r ri^mote ; rts the duty is altogether rcmltte ' This considcrarliin is not shown to the inhabitants of i.'ar-o(fprovmce.s in Sweden; indeed, in districts no farther off than Ualecnrlia many necessaries of life, which tho country can not supply to them, must be purchased, if -it all, by Mio poorer peas- iiitry, ./ith the additional costs of inian 1 transportation and tho coast navigation <' the Gulf of liolhnia. The tarirt'now in operation came in foico on January 1, ISA't, and will expire on tl.e .'tlst December, lH;"i7. The du- ties on tot"' .'O '■.■\\i h' M raised nearly to (ho level of these of Swet u ' latter, upon tobacco liladcj, is still one cent .L I'l^hi;. Tin^ augmentatioii of the duty on tliis aiuple o." t'-e United .Slates was, doubt- li"-i, designed as nnpuij'o' al argument in any neuotin- tiuua which might h-j lu piscd by tho government of Sweden nml Norway rulaliyii to lim |f»H ttllHf* lit (M Unite 1 Slates. The foliiiwing lirh'f siimimiry i» MWM/ti|«"l tiU\ii> ttf^f tarilf. It will sliow llie A»\\,a levinl im tfHHill AlIM' lean prcdiue by ijic old and n..w HiifW>, tmfiUitii'f soap, lealh<'r, cordage, lobue, „, tic, '({(k (j,,,,!,, (,|- ,),l, port have ever been celebralc d. Us IfmU' Uh= (tWiN Ished as far liatk as 17'.»-.'. in Hbi. h V'lf III" mimf.i t nt j ships arrived was .Oil, of whith .v)« (Wwl *Mil dif- goes of deals. Hergeu has a safe uni s?#.|« (./der-- ing or departing, on ueeoiiut uf iIib iniimriiU^ fhiUs. It has a few mannfaelories of toi,aero /((((((■Ifflw'K- t*rtfe,. severnl ropo-works and disliihri. », ship.^fjfd,, rnfuff] and other eslaldisinnents of ordinary \mn4ii'flitl, 1u lisheries, however, are lis chief re.-oiiict, m>>i Hs (nfi igd trade is principally eoriline.l (o UamlmiiS, Unmili'lfiil has an extensive trade, cliiiliy wil|( y.n^itnni, ()(f,,(if/|, tho port of Hamburg, lis exports itru ' iiarrels of oil, miUiifllth eiitly of what was taken by the itustlans. Coarse cottons and woolens are well .4d»Jl(iti1 Inf (t(« mark -Is of Norway, more especially of )''j)(M(K»fc ; hjit the coimnercial priiilege.i reserved to Husjia, liy (tKil^, liave hitherto secured to that power (he (ttiitiin,n\f ii( thislraile. Her linens, raven's-ducU, and yflf)"((J oilier' manufaetures, are admitted free into Vlnimiki ¥iti}U< duties, varying from M lo 100 per ctnt,. nn lit" (est price, are interposed on similar l»a(^Hfl^'^^^f¥'> Itf ulhl/f foreign countries. Were cottons and woolens admittei} cvbd §1 n ((wilfcf' ate duty, American and Uritlsli nianufa.c(li(VDo (/f'|)m.|;j WW Klk gland, Ilollixnd, and Prussia. During the same year, there cleared fCHiH iSvn>Mionrouiiil nueeiisarv, for jiiy liiw wliiit nliould be till' ri'i|ui!illi'» of niicli nolurbil mis and »ri(- In^ii tu niiike tlieni lefful e\ldenee. It hud Ixionn' u usn^i', in iniporlnnl nmltem, to liavu wilnesHcH iilmi u|. lost the paperH drawn up liy IIii'm^ pnlilii' lorilun in' ^i- bi-tlimtef, and it wnit llniillv rei|nired liy htw tliiit Ihree wilne.<«i's Hhonld iittVHt u doiiniicnl, in rai>o the prim !■ ' pulti could write, and tivu witneswH if the piirlien loulil not write. It wan, niorenver, r<'i|iiii'nd tliut the nolniy (liihel'iii) »\>in{\i\ lie pre^eiil in iiemo'i "i the driiuiiiK "p of liiu doeuniint, and nise ntlix liis itignaturc and the dull' of ixei'iilion. Duriiin the Kinpire nnuihcr class of oflicern, (alK.l labuliirii, eunio up in the eilies. Thuir fuiielloiis re»eiii. Ided ^onleullut our ari'hivnriex and nuditora. They ulso uiadi-' out eertiiin dot-iiiiieiit^, uiid tltimo liore Finiiir* limes the naine» hoih of n lubillin and u Idt/iiliirlut; hut at a later (H'riod holh names are used as syiiniiy- niousi. Inder the Kraiikish kin(;>4 Itomuii InHliliilioiiii were imilaled. In the imperial Iniieaux the oniperiii> needed and employed persoiiH for drawini^ up ilo'-u- uientK and i'Oiinli'rsii,'ninK them. The.se ollieera Mere for the ctimpM-atiee ftalimml nf Ihe foinmcire oj'Ihe culleil rifiiemlitrii, ameilliirii, anil noliii-ii. The eliief i'lillid Sliitia iiil/i .S'hc,.'i/i (ii»/ ,\uruii!/, txhibltinij llii yf these olliiers was culled iirrliiiiiitoriiia or lumiiiiit w- th«r« wero dnitinod fur the llnilod Statr'H ni veiicU, HoalliiK i;i,l"«lonB of merelwindise; ild ■ i 'indirtho Murwegian (loK, and one lieinK forcit i !i .m tlicie fttfures, It will l)U neon that tliero arri' i :',i-.ii Norway ill the United Statoi 111 vessels, carry Inft 1H,17M tuns of Norwegian produels, against ninu cleared from iho Unltoil blalei for Norway with American produeU to the amount of liOJI tons; or a dilfurencc of '.'J veaaeU and l(),ri'.2l tuni) of nierehuiuliiie against tlio United Stales in the direct trade with Norway. '1 he restrie- tlve tarilf rcKulalioiis of the latter country will readily aecomit for this great inec|iialily. In IHjO, Norway Impurtcd upward of 1,7(111,(1110 ll>». of cottci. In IMiV.', thu toloi Importation uf cotton Huiunnted In value to J,0'27,il)O francs ; viz.: from Great Iritain, 1,071, '-'(lO (Vanes: from tlio United .SlaieH. (IfiO.'dO frnius: IVoiii othfT places, '.'O.^liliO francs ; making u lu'.i\ of 1 ,1I27,W10 francs, or #-.'«(J,'j:i() I". In l((,'i(), there we e ii"iiorted into Norway ;),(HKt,0O() Ihs. of loliacco, H,(H)0,(MMi Ihs, of sugar, ti,f)0(i,00i( llis. of eolt'ee. During the same year the offoctivu merchant marine of Norway consisted of-- VtHali of Number Tona. Cnin. I'lidur 'JH Inns l-'rom *s tons to 7 1 ... . from "I tons to 177. . . From 177 tons to :1M.. From ll.M tons aiitl over Totul In Kil ToUlla 1W8 Total in IHW Njtt );illl iil7 4s» 47ft ;iiiiis -Mi " BJ.'.'IW (Mill*! V.'S :i7'.i illt. «77 i>' ;i m llil.lMS I,7IIU 4aH« :i,47ri ll.li7ft ft.l.:ift i(t.o;i7 I'j.wir. ll.'J7'i'" "«/«(' of tw/iiu'ld to anii imp'trtiij'ruHt etifft fou iti't/y and Ihe /..-HHiye ojWvivrirttii tiit'l oj' ^iirttlish and Sonctffian ri'Sfels ai'rit'iiiff from imd d ; W'l stiniuxlir Ite- riiii; xxvii, llii: .\oiih Jti-ilish liiritw, ix. \i\i; linw- terti/ llei ten; ii. 101 ; Fniair, xxiii. 17?t; AmericiinQiiai- lerti/Uiiiialci;x\v. ir.l(,Uev. Ur.U.liun); Hunt's ,1/ic- chain's Mai/ir.iiic, xvi. l.'IK. Notaries Public. The origin of that class of puhlie olhcers now called notaries puldic may lie traced as far hack an the aneicnl lioman Ki piihlli'. although thoir fiineliona now are dilli'ient. We liirhia, hut at u later period niiiii-llnriii', lis a more liiiii- iiiahlu title. The I'runki.sh kings, as early as the yi nr SOI), appointed llieso oHicers, and issued laws to pre- vent tlie aliiise uf their power. It l.eenino later lliu sole prerogative of Ihe kings to appoint these iioliiiii>, liut Ijy degrees the l'ope.s o nssuiiied iln same right; and we find in documents notnri's n.iiiieil who were appointed hy princes and liisliop.s, ami en ii liy cloisters. The legal powers of notaries during I lie Middle Ages, and their coudllioii as a distinit cla>> ol' ollicors, are distiiiclly seen in the llalian cities. 'Iliev acted either liy authority of the Kmperor or that ul Ihe I'ope, nnd were engaged for drawing all the vari- lind, at the lime of the liepuldic, sf.riliu: and libmrii, j ous legal document*, and espei ially last wills and tesl- who were puldic secretaries. The private secretaries auienls. which were received in all the courts of Ian wero culled vji-fptoret, and also nutarii, if tlu^y were j us full proof. They were formed into n guild, lullcil short-liand writer.'), whiuh service was frer|uenlly per- j mllti/iuni, and hud their own prefects, culleil ruMn! >. formed by slaves. The public secretaries were tlio.se . A candidate for admission i;itii this college hud In uii- whom the authorities of state appointed nnd paid to i dergo an examination. -Minute and strict rules I'er assist them in their duties of'ulllcc, und they uppenr to the druwing up of iustrunn'tiis, uiid their .itteslalioii, imvo corresponded to our present uctuuries und secre- ; were prescrilieil. The sliidv of notarial functions was taries. It does not nppeur, however, thut legal docu- 1 reduced to rules, and notarial schools were cstublislieil inents were drawn up liy publiu functionaries rcseni- ! in many cities. Ming our notaries pulilie. iJuring the Kmiiire the pub- 1 Notaries camo to be regardeil at an early period as lie secretaries increased both in number und import- j u kind of judges (jmlu- rliarliihiriim), and a [iractiri' ance. They appoar to have been secretaries working grew up among them of inserting in bonds, or olhir in the cabinet of tho Kmperor, in di.stinct departments, documents of indebtedness, a power for the creditor of and llicy had nn overseer, ealleil mayiittr scrinioruin. Distinct, however, from these persons were those who may be compared to our |irescnt notaries public, and who were called tabdlioiKg. It seems that what even at tlio present day may be seen in Italian cities was al- ready customary in tho early days of ancient l£oine ; namely, that in the public market-place, or forum, scribes olTered their services to persons who wanted to have letters written or documents drawn up. This class of persons were culled tahetlioncj/ori'iues, or pertotiai jmbltca. They occu|iied thumselvcs wilh drawing up legal instruments ..nil documents, nnd oth- er writings (/iieW) or statements, to be presented to tho courts of law-, or other authorities of state. It appears, from a "constitution" of Diocletian, that a tarilf of fees was cstulilished for them. The nuiuuer of label' lionei constantly iucreascd. They then formed them- tuking out execution, by application to the court, in case of non-fullillment of tho contract, which laid (he founilation of the so-called '• executory process,'' » liii li prevails still in the Civil Law countries, and wliieli corresponds somewhat to the worrunt of attorney to confess judgment in tho Knglish law. We sliull see that the foreign law on bills of exchange on the Con- tineiit of Kurope gives this right of " executory [iroe- ess" to tho creditor of these mercanlilo instrument.s, und thus strengthens the security of the creditor. J-'raiice. — In France tiie notaries have always playnl an important part in her judicial institutions, and lliey do so still. Tlie king regarded it as his prerogative lo appoint them, but Ihe popes also arrogated this piiwi^i, and the lords of provinces (srii/nriiyn) assumed it like- wise. They were regarded there us )«//(■ ordinaire, and inserted in their documents this executory power or NOT USl KOT iumm«ryeiicciitloii (^fxtcuiion panr). Tlio Uili of ihf ^ Irih fiillimol iti lu nuin ruiliirr*, In (Icrinniiv, Imw. nresi'iit riKliU uml diitl.K of notarlm In Kruimo wii» «vur, lli. hukkU. iHrMjiy Iml « uMlK.f.llimtn imlIi'ioh In UUl liy tlio law of 17'J1, "lilcli ri.ei)«nlml no 1ouk«» | ni.»t nntu., und li |i«« Im«m mm •InitiDl K"»«riillr l"tl UIiII.IkcI l.y lu» i||«t iiliif fH-fim* »)■» Imw •tmll<(l by ihu ({encrul t;'>y«rnment. Tlio law of tliB elovciilh Uw for wvaral J »»r» i<«il U ii|>|»ilnlril ii« niilnrlon. I'iill>"i'ii'm.m1 iWy «r« iW i". 'liiM concornLil. All Uocu- lliilunl lli'milii', in Itia 'ili' iri' iif two iiolai'luK, or nf j puijlli: of I.iikIuiiiI, «« fii\\ii**\ " ', ; ^o.. tml ttttcslodliy tlioin, ri> I i» 8 pulilii' oliirtr of IliK il»ll «(ii (uflii ' lU. v iilsof law, anilaioex-| iivu» lii^ fa. ully or MMlJKirlly In ,.f»ctlc(i iroiii the .nU. riio orlHiiml ^wi'iili/. ) I'ourt nf ia. ulli« » uf llm Af< liliMiop i.f Cunli-fhiirv, In tiniiU of tlio notary, ami j l^nrtoii, tliu tlihif dUIi .r of hIiIi I. I* ilic Mn«lof of ilio (Hily to tlie iiitiTcHleil | I'aciilrli .H, lo hIiomi »|i' r ml hinillalet.'" of liiMtruinonld and doiunicnlA. Itiii tliti couri.H oflcii 'llio I'unrlloiis and |ioi»' >• of M lliiUry In Kiiulnnd are, ap|i iiiidrrtiiko tin.' parlof nudiutoriiiMiino , to draw uml pn'paKi i|>>d' Mlnlliitf lo r"'!! anil person- jiulii'iul proiTuiliiinH; for instanw, in ou'iis of divoni', | iil proporly, lo nolo and |.(ol('«l Idlls of cxcIihiikc, to or ill making out iiivi'iitorii'S, or in dividiii.; and dis- j piipuni mln of lioiiof, lo NiilliofiOiiitii and ccrlifv I'.x- triliut^ii); properly and rstali's, or in taking' and iiiak- uiniinil lopii's of iim otMi'tll', lo liri'pnrc and nltcst in- tliiuii for tliu 118 iiiuiiln niauo uul oiR< notary ami tnu cidvo full crudcnci' cculoiy tliroiii;' of tliu nit rvni ,. copios arii dlov d |. pai'tiOH, Ullll'H!) pii Tlio law points out n uf a notary and IiIk u in^' u|i aoioiiiits, liko Ilm Mastcrn in (liumiii In Kii- glikli law. T'liii nutarii's an' appoinlud for lilV;, and ran lie reinovi'd only liy a judirial duciitiini. liy llnir of- Ik'iul position tlii'v hreunui tliu advlscru iufaniilius and tlio coiiliiUiiiln of tlii'in. 'i liry bcconiu tim niidiatora in dispiiti'a liiitwcen tlii' parties, and particularly hi rugu- liitiii); and itullliiiK cstulcs, and in tliu diutributioii uf properly. Till' law of Ilm seventh year of tlio Kcpuldicrciiuiii's .'uit all acta and duenniunts niiido out by notaries be registered witliiii ten day.s, tbo lees for wliiili aro very lilcli. lleneu it ul'icii happens that tiie notary must iiilvance the money fortho registration, and lliisotdiges liini tu liavo sums of monoy always ut his disposal. Tims notaries hiivu gradually come to deal in money alliiirs in general, liy loaning and Investing iiioiipy, and proeiiring money fur lorrowers. llciuo it is that per- sona of properly intrust their money and property to the hands of notaries, as being the littesl persons to in- vest it safely and advanlagcously. The great iiillucnee which tliey thereby must ui', «nit lo .olnintil/.n all oilier no- tariid iieis, "ilia uklif'"i>\m Wiliifliit ml" says .Mr. lli'ooke, "is onu Mlibli ||«« « linliftli'fll inennliiK. and it siiiiis generally K(»»|di.»"d U> »(K(dfy Ilm act of aii- tlieniiiating or cirtlfylotf aonin di«ilf(i(-nt or (ircinn- sluinu ly a writhn lni>|»uinKIM, muUt Oip signature and ollieial seal of » Molury, ut ii( iinlhcntli'ating or certifying us u iioiary wmi" fad or ilrniiiisinnco by a wriiteii instrument, utMlur UU ulanaliirc inly." The Kiiglish notaries liavu nlway* iion/ildcfcd lliom«elves cniitleil lo admiiiUtur utttlia, Mlliiliitrllii, and nnirma- lions, as within th'i inmnn And fiiMi'lloiiii of a notary; and the act of &ili and «i|t Wllllftm (V, lins pUiod It beyond dispute, Thu r<^i|MUItlHfiii for admission to the Faculty of Noiarlcs in KukIkioI »ti; all apprcnllcfshlp or elerkshi|) of li\o yarn »)||| « iiolary, n rerlllleate from two notaries vurlUyillK U> till tandldale'd skill and probity, and that l«( (» * jirMppf person to beconio u notary. L'pon duu pruof iit lllenfl fads, the Master classes of society is manifest : ami this great jmwer uf I'Vulties will oilniit hint tlpiilt Uh Inking Ihc pre- could not but lead to great abuses. An ordiiianco of I scribed oaths, which at'i) |||« iialll of allf-glnnce, tho IMA prohibited notaries, under heavy penalties, from cnleriiig into stock speeulaliuns, from acting us money. brokers, from investing money intrusted to them in their own names, etc. Tho reiiuisites fur becoming a notary in France are, that tho candidate bo a I'Veneh citi/.on. twenty-live years of oge, and that he has served as clerk with a notary fur si.\ years. Hut no man witli- out property can expect to olituin a |dace us notary, be- cause he is obliged to buy, often for un enormous price (which in I'ari.s often amounts to from •200,000 to aOO,000 francs, in smaller towns to 100,000 francs, and in small communes to 10,000 francs), from a no- tary who is about to retire, or from the heirs of a de- ceased notary, a study-room or ollicc (iluile), with the acts and documents belonging to it ; fur without such an oIKce tho mere appointment of notary is of little value. There arc also established by law in France notarial chambers, which consist of a number of depu- ties, chosen by the notaries, who regulate thu discipline among them, decide on tho admission of candidates, ad- just disputes which may arise among themselves, and hear and decide on the complaints of third persons against notaries, and the punishments of delimiuent uo- taries. /(a/y.— In Italy the French eastern of notaries lias oath of supremacy, thu oatll u( liim wtvleo under the articles of clerksliip oiid (uf tUf faithful enerciss of the olHco of iiolaiy. A nulary l» liable Ui («■ struck off the ItoU of Faculiios for any Hialprmllfio (if tnlseonduct In Ids ortice, on a coniplainl iMailii Ui ilw Master of the Faciillies, ami supported by alliilavlf (if oilier proof. Iiiiled .SMid.—iii lh« I'liilwd Mlalfs tlio duties and functions of nolariis cesBiMldii tUmn ii( the same officers in Kngland. 'I In-y aru a|i|ioliil«iil by the rofipeclive governors of the Stales fuf a llmlKid iiMtnlief of years, or during good behavior, and dcflvs ihslf povrers by I he statute laws of tliii Klal«« ) «ll4 ill eaiies vihete these laws do not specify their |«m»'f»--a!>, for Instance, In itlassachusetts — it must hu ftnimmmi that ait the pow- ers which, by general usagu, ()|A custtttll of (nerchants, and law of nations ara utmtMy «)li«fcl.»ed by these ollicers, aro also vestiid in tttoni/ Wd ntay stale their general and customary fMlietidHK Ut be, lo demand ac- ccptani '^ and |iayment of (urni^n and ilitand bills of cxclian|.;u and proiiiiasury niHm, AHti to protest the saiiiu for non-accepian IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I LiB2j8 12^ ^ 1^ 12.0 IE |I.25|U |,.6 -« 6" ► Hiotographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 145S0 (716)872-4303 '^'^^ 4^ ;;:-*■•. TV V, NOT 14^3 srot )iy tho Uwi of any other iUt«, fpivtrnment, or coun* try, in«y b« par(brm»d by notarlsi public. But al- thouKli iiotMdi publlo am ganorally coniidcred a* ao. •radltetl ofllaart In other eountrloe, and affidavit* ewom bofora and Initrumenta attthantlcated by them are re- •elved In ovldenoe In foreign court*, It Is required by foreign oourti that the ooneuU of the respective fsreigo •tatM In whioh the document is to bo used certify to the fact that the iMraoii whose signature and seal are affixed la a notary publlo duly appointed. This Is, howevor, not neeoMary In a protest for the non-accept- ance or non' and 'Ifl' N., and long, m' 45' and C6° 80' W,, and la bounded north by Northumberland Strait, which separate* It from Prince Kdward Island, north- east by tho Out of Cansoau, flowing between It and the island of Uapo lireton (which forms a part of the gov- tmmont of Nova Scotia), south and southeast by the Atlantic Oboan, west by tho Bay of Kundy, and north- west by Naw Urunawltk. Area, 18,746 square miles. Its southeast coast Is remarkable for the number and capacity of Its harbors, tiiore being no fower than twelve porta oapabia of receiving ships of the lino, and four- teen of suflleiont deptii fur moroliantmoii, l)otween Hal- ifax and Capa Oansaau, a disianoe of not more than IIU mllu*. The surface of Nova Scotia seldom rises to a height exceeding tlOl) feet alinve tno level of the sea. A rldgo of high land extends through the peninsula in a direction east to west, and, with lens prominent hills and undulations, gives a pleasing variety tu tho scen- ery. Tho principal rivurit n* tho province are the An- napolis and Hliubenecailie i the latter rises in Grand Laka, llallflut County, and, after a rapid and circui- tous course of ov«r QU mlirs, enters Col)equtd Bay ; by means of a canal thli river forms a navigable commn- nloatlon fhini Halifax harbor to tlio Bay of Fundy. It I* navigable fur some distance. The rise and fall of tho tide at tlio month 1* aliont 60 feet. Tho Annapo- lis, after a course of 76 miles, In which It receives the waters of Moose and Hear rivers, enters Annapolis Bay. It Is navigable for largo vessels W miles nlwve Annap- olis. At I'lotott, the Kast, West, nnd Middle rirers, all throa navigable for large vcsnuls, enter the harbor. The Avon recelvea the waters of tho St. Croix, Ken- neteook, and aaveral others, and smptlea itself into the Bay of Mines I It Is navigable to Windsor. The La Have, Memey, and Madway; the Shelhurne (which forms Uto lino harbor of that nanw) ) the Clyde, one of tho niuat Iwautlfiit streams of Nova Scotia ; the Tus- ket and Its numarous tributaries ; the St. Mary, which, at it* emliottDhure, fmrrna tho fine harbor of St. Mary ; tfaa ftlaooau, Nappaii, and Qaspereau ; the Musquedo- bolt, Salo, and Jordan | these fbrm but a fow uf numer- oui atroania of Nova Sootla. The tide rises with as- toolahlng rapidity In tha Bay of Mines to the height «f 75 foot, while on tlw south shoro and In tho Gulf of St. Lkwnuo* It do«* not rise mora than .6 foet. There are bnt fow large lakes ; the largest is Lake Roslgnol,' about 30 miles in length ; Lake George is another sheet of water of considerable size, and the entire peninsula i* dottcsd over with innumerable small lakes. The mines and minerals of Nova Scotia, though but imperfectly explored, arc known to be valuable. Granite, trap, and clay-slate rocks predominate. The most abundant variety is the gray granite, which prevails along tha shore, and is well adapted for mill-stones. Clay slate, of tine quality, is of extensive formation in the eastern section of the province, and grjywacke slate along both shoresbf Chsdabucto Bay. Several extensive and beau- tiful grottoes are to be found on diflbrent parts of the coast ; and grindstones of superior quality aro obtained from a stratum of sandstone, found between tho coal and limestone. Coal, and iron in combination with It, abounds in many places. Copper ore also exists, but the attempts to work it have been hitherto unsuccess- ful ; gypsum is plentiful, and furnishes an active and profitable trade. The soils of Nova Scotia are various ; along the south shore the granite forms the basis, ex- tending in many places 20 miles into tlie interior. This region is the least fertile, but there are elsewliere extensive alluvial tracts producing the most abundant crops. Many fine fertile districts, also, aro met with on the north coast, along the banks of rivers and the heads of bays. The climate of Nova Scotia is affected by its almost insular position, and is characterized by a remarkable salubrity. The springs are todious, but the summer heats being for a brief season excessive, vegetation is singularly rapid, and the autumn is de- lightful. Th» thermometer ranges from 18° to 70°. It is estimated that at>out 7,000,000 acres are still cov- ered with primeval forests. There were in this prov- ince in 1861, 40,012 acres of diked laud, and 799,310 acres of other improved land. Live S'.' barrels of salmon, j 8636 of shad, 100,047 of mackerel, 68,200 of herrings, and 648 barrels of alewives ;' total value of fisheries, j £217,220 ; and there were manufactured 189,260 bar* ! r«ls of flsh-oil, valued at £17,754. Several attempts have been made to prosecute the whale and seal fish- eries, but hitherto with no great success. The manu- factures of Nova Scotia are yet but very limited. Coarse cloths, called "homespuns," are made, and are goner- ally worn by the farmers, fishermen, etc. There were In this province, in 1851, 81 woolen factories, employ- ing 119 persons, and 11,090 hand-looms, producing 119,698 yards of foiled cloth, 790,104 yards not fulled, and 219,362 yards flannel ; total value, £36,178; 9 iron foundories,eniploylngl88 persons, maklngcas tings, etc.; NOV 1453 NOV to the •moUBtof £8121 ; S98 grist-milb, 1163 r tv-inUla> 287 Uniieries, and 10 factories moved by steam power. Cash valua of agricultural implements mauuCtutured, £16,640. The houses of Kova Scotta are mostly constructed of timber, excepting in Halifax and the larger towns, vrhere some good stone and .brick houses are to be seen ; yet stone for building abounds iu the province — granite of the finest quality on the south coast, free- stone all along the north shore, and excellent slate in the central region. The foreign trado of Nova Scotia was very limited previous to 1824 ; since that period it has extended to the Baltic, Mediterranean, China, Mauritius, East In- dies, the Brazils, and the Havana. The total amount of imports at Halifax and the outports, in 18C2, was (6,300,894, of which $1,445,043 were from the United Stales. The exports during the same period amount- ed to $3,925,227, of which $941,607 were to the United States. Of these the principal articles were — iiiacfc- erel, valued at $280,143; salmon, $30,030; other fish, dry and pickled, $218,693 ; skius and furs, $8165 ; mo- lasses, $3626 ; potatoes, $4152 ; sugar, $3000 ; cord- wood, $33,990; coals, I'ictou, $151,215 ; cools, Sidney, $35,983; gypsum, $32,823 ; freestone and grindstones, $4500 ; oil, tish, $48,916. The number of vessels that entered and cleared during the year were, 72 to Great Britain; 1757 to British colonics ; 11,429 to the United States; other countries, 158. Total tonnage, 383,400 tons. The population of Nova Scotia is now chiefly com- posed of tlie descendants of the English, Irish, and the Scotch. The western and midland counties are prin- cipally occupied by the descendants of the loyalists, mostly of English extraction. The county of Lnuen- burgh is inhabited by a race sprung from a body of German and Swiss Protestants who emigrated from Botterdam in 1753. Thero are also several settlements of French Acadians, The Indians are still a distinct people, but there are only a few hundreds of them left in the province. The following statement exhibits the description and value of imports and exports to and from the United States and Nova Scotia, during the years 1852 and 1863, respectively. For the convenience of calcu- lation the £ is estimated at $5 : Imports from Nova Scolia, 1852. — Coal, fish, gyp- sum, lumber and plank, staves, spars, etc., wood and bark, potatoes, turnips, miscellaneous. Total value, (1,289,246. Exports to Xoea Scotia. — Beef, pork, books and sta- tionery, bread and biscuit, burning fluid, corn, com meal, cotton manufactures, drugs and medicines, flour ■ (of rye and wheat), hardware, rice, tobacco, wheat, miscellaneous. Total value, $1,739,216. Showing a balance in favor of the United States of $449,070. Imports from Nova Scotia, 1853.— rPrincipal articles the suuic OS iu 1852. Totol volue, $1,389,731. Kxpiivis to Nova Scotia. — Principal articles the same as for 1852. Total value, $2,079,546. The preceding tables exhibit the course of trade be- tween the United States and Nova Scotia during the periods indicated. The fallowing are introduced to show the proportionate volue of supplies furnished to that province by the United States, compared with the value of imports from the mother country, from 1849 to 1853, both years inclusive : Vtitn. UiMt BriUiD. VDlled SMtei. 1 loipoits from. Iiportita. Imports from. Uxporta to. I 1849 1860 1861 1862 1863 Tohil. $1,489,016 1,692,020 2,183,056 2,137,001 2,868.240 $260,785 202,946 142,245 S18.3S0 B11,0!10 $1,7*4.786 1,012,676 1,390,U6B 1,739,220 2,079,517 111-'"' * — — $10,010,671 1 $1,401,015 $8,6ST,092 $6,297,r4SJ Total trade of Great BriUtn with Nova Scotia. . , " " United BUtes » « •• , , $11,601 680 . 1S,8SS,M0 A glance at the preceding tables will suggest th« inferences which they are designed to convey. In reference to the coal trade of Nova Scotia, Con- sul General Andrews, in his report on the " Tnde and Commerce of the British North American Colonies," says : " The principal exportation of coals from Nova Scotia and Cape Breton is to ports in Massachusetts and Rhode Island, witli a small quantity to New York. Many American vessels in this trade, especially sioc« the change in the navigation laws, obtain freights for Nova Scolia, Newfoundland, the French ishuid of St. Peter, Prince Edward's Island, and the New Bruos. wick ports on tho Gulf of St. Lawrence, and load with coal as their return cargo. One hundred chaldront of coal, Pictou measure, are equal to 120 cbaldrona, Boston ineanure. The usual freight from Pictou to Boston is $2 75 per chaldron, Boston measure. To this must be added insurance, 2 percent., and commis* sion, 2i per cent. Anthracite cool docs not exist in any of the colonics; and they bid fair to become con-' sumers of Pennsylvania anthracite, the importation of which has already commenced to some extent iu New Brunswick for steamboats and founderics. Under lib- eral orrangemtats on both sides, the consumption of anthracite coal would greatly increase in the colonies, and even in Nova Scotia, it being for many purpose* better fitted and more economical than the bituminous coal of that colony." Cord or firewood is largely exported from the porta along the coast to the United States, at a cost last year of $2 per cord. Thi.s year none has been shipped for less than $2 60, and latterly $3 per cord ; retail price at Halifax, 1853, $3 60 to J^3 60; 1864, |4 to $4 60. Wood knees for ship-building have been shipped in some quantities at $2 each for sizes averaging eight inches, and a reduction of 20 cents for each inch under, and a like addition for each inch over, the average. Sawed lumber, in small quantities, has been shipped, but none prior to 80th June, 1864. Many cargoes of potatoes were shipped from the western ports, costing from 40 to 60 cents per bushel. Insurance during the year to ports from Virginia to Maine average one per cent. ; a half per cent, addition- al is charged in tho winter months to Pennsylvania and farther south. Freights to ports from Maine to Virginia range IVum 25 to 50 cents per barrel, A com- mission of 2 '; iier cent, is usually charged. The usua. mode of selling is liy private contract on terms generally of thrco months' credit ; sometimes a longer credit is allowed; cash payments only when specially provided for. Public auction is a favorite mode ot this port. Brokers are sometimes used, but it is an exception to the usual mode. The par of exchange is 4^ per cent. ; the Mexican and Spanish dollar being current by an act of tho pro- vincial Legisloture (chapter 83 Revised Statutes), at 59. 2^(/,, or|l 4^ each. The rate ofexcbango with the United States during the year ranges from 2 to 3^ per cent. There are no internal taxes. Remuneration for personal services in commerce and trade ranges from £40 to £150 per annum. Mechan- ics, soy house carpenters, joiners, etc., from July 1, 1863, to Juno 1, 1864, ninety cents to a dollar per day ; ofter June 1, 1854, they received $1 50 a day. Ship- wrights, to December 1, 1853, $1 60 ; frim December 1, 1853, to 1st Jul)', 1864, $1 76 to $2 per day. . Day laborers, up to June 1, 1854, were paid 60, and some- times 70 cents o day. Since the 1st June, 1864, they hove received |1 a iloy. — See North American Jieviev, xix. 127 (J. Spabks), xxx. 121 (C. W. UpiiAm) ; West- minster Iieview,xix. 300; American Journal of Science, xiv. 805, XV. 132, 301, xxx. 330. Nova Zembla (properly Novala Zemlia, ' ' new land"), an insular region in the Arctic Ocean, consid- ered to be comprised in Europe, and dependent on the Russian government of Archangel, between lat. 70° 80* and 76° 80' N., and long. 62° and 66° E. Ungth et- NUT 1454 NUT<'' tlmated at 470 miles, and aTorage breadth tt 66 miles. It consists of two islands, separated by the channel Matotshkin-shar. Surface on the western side rises generally to 2000 feet, and in some places to Avm 3200 to 8500 feet abofu the sea; but the eastern shores are comparatively low and barren. Black clay-slate and limestone are tho principal constituent rocks, as In tho Ural chain, of which Nova Zembla may be con- sidered an insular continuation. Its coasts are tn- qnented by walrus hunters In summer, but nowhere permanently inhabited. Subterranean stone laby- rinths of great antiquity have been discovered here, Nat, or Hasel-nut (Qerm. Ilasclnuau ; Fr. JVbi- lettes, Avelina ; It. A'accinole, Avelane ; Sp.Acellamu; Port. AveltSas; Lat. AvtUana), the fruit of dilTerent species of Coruli, or hazels. The kernels have a mild, furliiaolsons, oily taste, agreeable to most palates. A kind of chocolate has been prepared from them ; and they have sometimes been made into bread. The ex- pressed oil of hazel-nuts Is little inferior to that of almonds. Besides those raised at homo, we import nuts from different parts of France, Portugal, and Spain, but principally from the latter. The Spanish nuts in the highest estimation, though sold under the name of Barcelona nuts, are not really shipped at that city, but at Tarragona, a little more to the south. Mr. Inglis says that the annual average export of nuts from Tarragona is from 25,000 to 30,000 bags, of four to the ton. Nnta (Oround) (Arachii hypogaa), known in French commerce as " arachiiles" in America as pea- nuts, and In Africa as ifandubim, th-! fruit of a papili- onaceous plant, rising to tho height of about 16 inch- es, being very like the field pea, with yellow flowers. The branches, after flowering, bend down till they touch the ground, into which they work themselves, and upon them grow the pods that contain the nuts. When the nuts are ripe tho plant dies. It is then pulled up, and the nuts which adhere to the twigs are collected. The pods, which are of nn elongated figure, about three quarters of an inch In length, and half an inch in circumference, and brittle, usually con- tain two nuts, but sometimes only one, and very rare- ly three. They are elliptical at one end and flattened at the other. Ground-nuts are grown in light, sandy soils In most tropical countries. They have been used as food from time immemorial in Africa, India, Brazil, and other parts both of South and North Amer- ica. The best are raised on the banks of the Kiver Gini- bia, where they are extensively grown in large fie' la, the ground being prepared for their reception by tbe natives after the rude fashion of the country. Tho plant is very prolific; it Is also said to be highly ex- haustive of the soil, though this Is perhaps questionable. Ground-nuts yield large quantities of oil ; and with- in the last 20 years they have begun to bo grown in Africa as an article of commerce, and are now largely exported for crushing. A mill for cxproiistng oil from them was constructed In London in 1835. But the French Government having a few years after imposed high duties on most descriptions of oil seeds, the oil- crushers of Marseilles and other towns endeavored to find out seeds not included in the tariff, or less heavily taxed than the otiiers. They were thus led to Import brachida or ground-nuts, which they found to answer extremely well. France has, In consequence, become the great market for this peculiar product. The ex- ports from the Gambia, which In 1835 did not exceed 47 tons, had increased in 1851 to not less than about 12,000 tons. Of this quantity about 800 tons went to the United Slates (where they arc eaten at dessert, roasted, as arc clicstnuts elsewhere), 700 tons to En gland, and the rest to France, principally to Marseilles. The total Imparts of arachidft into France in 1851 amounted, according to the ofliclal returns, to 10,472,662 kilogrammes, or 10,180 tons. Knt* ore also exported from the Bio Grande, the Rio Knnex, and firom Sierra Leone, and the adjoining rivers. And though there are no accounts of the ex- act quantities sent ttom each, it is believed that their aggregate amoont is fully equal to the exports from the Gambia. IVithin the last three or four years con- siderable quantities have been shipped from the Senegal River. The oil expressed from the nuts differs in quality and price according to the care with which It Is refined. That made in I.«ndon, which is equal to fine olive oil, sold, in 1863, at from £60 to £62 a ton. In Franco the oil is principally used in the manufacture of soap ; and being inferior to the former, U only worth from £45 to £48 a tor. Besides being used for the like purposes as other oil in food, In the woolen manufacture, and in lamps, the oil of ground-nuts is said to be especially well fitted for lubricating heavy machinery, including the locomotive engines on railways. The Belgians use it for this latter purpose in preference to all other oils. Ground-nuts are worth at present (September, 1863) from 880 francs to 890 francs per 1000 kilogrammes (a ton) In Marseilles ; £18 16<. a ton in London ; and from £9 to £10 a ton delivered to a French ship in the Gam- bia. Sierra Leone nuts bring from £1 to £2 less than those from the Gambia. Hutmag (Ger. MuthatennOtse ; Du. MuskaSii; Fr. ifuicadet, Nuix mrucadei; It. tfoee mtucada ; Sp. Afos- caJa ! Arab. Jowzalteib ; Sans. Jitiphala ; Malay, Buah- pala), the fruit of the genuine nutmcg-trco (Jilyriatica Afotchala), a native of tho Moluccas, but which has been transplanted to Sumatra, Pcnang, etc. An infe- rior and long-shaped nutmeg is common In Borneo; but the fruit nowhere attoins to tho same perfection as in the Moluccas. Of the several varieties of tho tree, that denominated the Queen Nutmeg, which bears a small, round fruit, is the best. The kernel, or proper nutmeg, Is of a roundish oval form, marked on the out- side with many vermicular furrows, within of a fleshy, farinaceous substance, variegated whitish and bay. Nutmegs are frequently punctured and boiled, in order to obtain the c 'il oil, the orifice being afterward closed ; but t. ': '.» easily detected by the light- ness of the \\" Thomso.n's Ditpetuatary ; Ains- i.ie's Matena J :a. Nutmegs should be chosen liirge, round, heavy, and firm, of a lightish gray color on the outside, and the inside beautifully marbled, of a strong fragrant smell, warm aromatic taste, and a flat, oily body. They are very subject to be worm- eaten. The best manner of packing them is in dry chnnam. The oblong kind, and the smaller ones, should be rejected. 15 cwt. are allowed to a ton. — Mii.burn'8 Orient. Com. The dried produce of a nut- meg-tree consists of nutmeg, mace (which see), and shell. Supposing tho whole produce to be divided into 100 parts, there are 13J of mace, 83 J of shell, and 63J of nutmeg. In tho ancient commerce, and down to the establishment of the Dutch monopoly, nutmegs were always sold and exported in the shell. The na- tives, whenever the commerce is left to their manoge- ment, continue the practice, which is strongly recom- mended by Mr. Crawfurd.— AWern Archipelago, vol. ill. p. 896. The jealous policy of the Dutch has reduced tlio trade In nutmegs to a mere trifle, compared to what it would otherwise have been. They have, In so far at least as it was possible, exerted themselves to exterm- inate tho nutmeg plants every where except in Banda. The aboriginal inhabitants of this Island have been ex- patriated, and the land parceled among settlers from Holland, under the name ot park-keepert. These per. sons have about 2000 slaves, who cultivate and prepare the nutmegs. The prices paid by the cultivator are ail fixed by Government; and it deser>es to be men- tioned, as aflbrding one of the most striking lilustra- tlons of tho ruinous eflfects of monopoly, that the fixed price which tlie Government is now obliged to pay for nutmegs is five timet greater than the price at whick they bought them ahen the trade waefree ! We can not NUT 1I8« OAK conceive how lo enlightened and liberal a Government as that of Holland ahould continue to tolerato iuch scandalous abuses, more especially since it has estab- lished a free system in Amboyna, Java, and its other possessions. M. Temniinck estimates the produce of tho Banda Islands at about 600,000 pounds of nutme)^, and 160,000 pounds of mace.— Potiemimu NeerlamlcMU ilatu VInde. A rchipelagique, iii. 283. During tho period that the English liad poas>;8eion of the Spice Islands, nutmeg plants were carried to Penang, Bencoolen, nnd some of the West India islands. In tho latter thoy have altogether failed, at least as far as respeols any useful purpose ; but very good nutmegs, and in consid- erable quantities, are now raised at Penang and Ben- coolen. Mr. Crawfurd, however, alleges that the cost of bringing them to market is there so high, that the restoration of a free culture in the native country of tho nutmeg would instantly destroy this unstable und factitious branch of industry.—A'cMfern /I rcAip«%o, vol. iii. p. 409. Ste American Journal ofSciencf, .xii. 112'i. Statement suowimo tub iMPonts or Ndtueus into tub United States ran thb Year esiiixo ,Idsb !'A ISM. whence innjurtad. Hamburg Holland Dutch Wmt Indies Dutch Eut Indies UelKiiim ICniiland Kritlsh West Indies. . . . British East Indies France on tho Atlantic . Hayll China Total Found!. 1,2T.^ BOTH ST.OiS 1I,4T8 UT,t)2i» 459 193,8^1 18,698 110 400 684,813 Vnlu a. $861 I53,n89 1,018 ' 18.6J0 6 662 41,7i!5 16T 88 560 il,Ml 01 28S $.120,I8J XTutlla, or ITeuttla, the commercial names for tho skins of Myopftamua llnnarimsu (Comniersun), the Cojpou of Molina, and tho Quoii/a of D'Azara. In France, the skins were, and perhaps still are, sold un- der the name of racoontla; but in England thoy are imported as nutria skins — deriving their appcllatiou most probably from some supposed similarity of the animal which produces thein, in appearance and hab- its, to the otter, the Spanish name for which is nutria. Indeed, Molina speaks of the coypoit as a species of wa- ter rut, of tho size and color of the otter. Nutria fur is largely used in the hat manufacture, and has be- come within the last 15 or 20 years an article of very considerable commercial importance. The imports fluetuato considerably. In 1N41 they amounted to 1,136,313 skins ; but In some years they are much less t and In IIMO amounted to only 343,700. Those entered for home consumption pay a duty of \t. per 100 skins. They are principally brought from tho Bio do la Plata. —Het Fun TiiADR. The co^u or quMna Is n native of South America, very connnon In the provinces of Chill, Buenos Ayrcs, and Tucunmn, but more rare in Paraguay. In size it Is less than the lM>aviir, which it resembles in many points. The head Is large nnd depressed, the ears small and rounded, the neck stout und short, the muz- zle sharper than that of tho benvcr, and the whiskers very long and slltV. Thorn are, as In the beaver, two Inolsor tooth, and eighteen molar, uliove and below — twenty teeth In oil. The limbs aro short. The fore feet Imvo each live lingers not wclibcd, the thumb be- ing very small i the hind feet have the same number of toes; the great too and three no.\t tncs being Joined by A rimii'/H«,- Hind. X'nocA- Id), tho fruit of a species of iSrryrAnos, growing in va- rious places In the East Indies, The fruit Is about the size of un orange, covered wllli a sniouth, crustaceous, yellow bark, and tilled with a llcsliy pulp. In which are imiicdded several orbicular. Hat led reeds, about three quarters of un Inch in dinnieler, Nux vomica Is ino- dorous, and has a very liiller, uorld lusle, which re- nutlns long on tho pnlute. It I:* known as a very vir- ulent poison. A suspicion liiis, however, been enter- tained that It has been used In porter breweries ; but its introduclliiu Into them Is prolilhilod under heavy penalties.— TiiuMsuM'a Vinptiualaiy, tto. 0. Oak (Ger. Eiche; Dn. .ffiJIi; Dan. Eeg; Swed. A'*; Fr. CAene; It. Quercia; Sp. Jioble, Carbal/o; Port. Jto. ble, Cai-balhu; Russ. Dub; Pol. Dab; Lot. Quercua; Arab. Baalut). There are several varieties of this val- uable tree ; but the common English oak (^(iuercus ro- bur) claims precedence of every other. The knotty oak of England, the " unwedgeable and gnarled oak," as Sbakspeare called it, when cut down at a proper ago (from 50 to 70 years), is the best timber known. Some timber is harder, some more difficult lo rend, and some less capable of being broken across, but none contains all the three qualities in so great nnd equal propor- tions ; and thus, for at once supporting a weight, re- sisting a strain, and not splintering by a cannon shot, the timber of the oak is superior to every other. A fine oak is one of the most picturesque of trees ; it conveys to the mind associations of great strength, nnd of ail but endless duration. It stands up against the blast, and does not take, like other trees, a twisted form from the action of the winds. Except the Cedar of Lebanon, no tree is so remarkable for the stoutness of its limbs ; they do not exactly spring from the trunk, but divide from it ; and thus it is sometimes difficult to know which is stem and which is branch. The twisted brunches of tho oak, too, add greatly to its beauty; and tho horizontal direction of its boughs, spreading over a large surface, completes the Idea of its sovereignty over nil the trees of tho forest. Even n decayed oak, such as that described by Spenser: " .- dry niid dead, Still clad nltli relliiiios of Its trophies old. Lifting to honvon Its aged, honry head, Whole foot on earth has got but feeble hold," is strikingly bcouliful. To such on oak Lucan com- pared I'onipey In his decline ; ■'quails fruglftiro (iiicrens subllmU In agro • Exiivlui velorcs popiill, saeinUque Bcntons Dona diicuni 1 noo J«ni vnlldU rniUillius hs-rcns, I'onrtere flxa suo osli nudosqiio |ief iiiim rnmos Emindoiis, tninoo, non frondlbus, elllclt imihram. At quamvis prinio nutut casurn sub Euro, Tot clri-iim sllvie tlnno so robore tollant, Mela tamon colUuv."— (Mb. I. lln. 1118.) The oak Is rnUod from neorus, sown either where the oak Is to stand, or In n nursery, whonco the young trees are transplanted, Tho color of oak wood Is a fine brown, nnd Is fauilliir to every one ; It Is of dlflferent shades ; that liicllm .1 to red is tho most inferior. The larger transverse scpio nro In general very distinct, producing beftutlflil ttowcrs whon cut obliquely. Whore OAK 1456 OAT tbe sepU ara small, and not vory dUtinct, tho wood U much the (trongoat. Tho texture ia alternately com- pact oud porous ; tbe compact part of the annual ring Ixing of the darkest color, and in irregular dota sur- rounded by open porei, producing beautiful dark veina in aonio kinda, particularly pollard ooka. Oak timber lias a jiorticular smell, and the taste is slightly astrin- gent. It contains galUc acid, and is blackened liy con- tact with iron when it ia damp. The young wood of KnglisU oak is very tough, often croaa-gralned, and diOieult to work. Foreign wood, and that of old treea, is mure brittle and workable. Uak warps and twials much in drying, and, in seasoning, shrinks about l-32d of its width. Oak of a good quality ia more du- rable than any other wood that attains a like size. Vitruviua says it is of eternal duration when driven into the earth: it is extremely durable in water; and in a dry state it has been known to lost nearly 1000 years. Tho more compact it ia, and the smaller tho pores arc, tlie longer it will last. Jienmrlioble Oaks, — Tho oldest oak in England stands ' in the moat ancient park, belonging to the Duke of Portland. It b called the I'orliamont Oak, for it is said that Edward I. held a I'arliument under its branch- es. It is supposed to be luOO years old. Another re- markable oak ia at Wclbeck Abbey, in Nottingbam- ahire, which is famous for its oaks. This treo is called '• Tho Uuke'a Walking-stick." It ia 112 feet high. Three others of these noble trees claim attention for their extraordinary size and longevity, of which the Greendale Oak is the largest. Through its trunk a coach road is cut, and its branches cover a space of 700 square yards. The Two I'orters, standing near one of the park entrances, are each 100 feet high ; the third ia called the Seven Sisters, from its having seven sterna riaing 00 feet in height from the trunk. Tho Cathorpe Oak, in Yorkahire, is noted as being the larg- est oak iu England. Its girth is 78 feet. — The Half The supply of oak timber in this country is plentiful, but not inexhaustible, and care should be taken to pre- serve tho forests, and, by a judicious use of the timber, avoid tho great waste that has been going on ; for upon a supply of,thia lumber dependa, in a meaaure, our aucceas as a maritime nation. Though aome prej- udice has exiatod in Europe against the quality of our oak timber, it ia now coueedcd by all to be unsurpassed. By means of tho Mississippi Uiver and itb tributaries we are enabled to use with advantage tho oak forest on the western slope of the Alleghanies, and even in the forest of Michigan, and tho West will soon bo a rival to the Eaat in abip-building. -Kentucky especially abounds in the finest oak forests, as yet unmolested, but destined to add greatly to our wealth, — See Ship and Ship Building. GalUiul Oak (Quercus infectoria), a native of Per- sia, Asia Minor, Arabia, Egypt, Morocco, and Alge- ria, in its natural habitat, is an cvcrgr en shrub, with a very crooked stem, and seldom attains six feet in height. From the circumstance of its growing near Paris, where it bears the winter quite well in the open air, though losing its leaves in tho autumn, it doubt- less would be adapted to the climate of our Middle and Southern States. On this shrub is found tho well- known "gall-nuts" of commerce, which are extensive- ly used in the manufacture of writing-ink and in dye- ing. These excrescences are the product of tho gall-fly (Cympa ivriptorum), a small insect of a dale-brown col- or, which may often be found inclosed in the galls sold in the shops of the druggists, collected before tho fly had made its escape. There are two kinds of gall-nuts known in commerce; those which still contain the in- sect, and aro known in tho trade under tho names of "Black," "Blue," or "Green" galls, termed yerly by the native* of the country in which tbey are col- lected; and those from which the insect has escaped, ud which ate oaUed" White" galU. The latter cou- taln not more than two-thirda of tho astringent quaU> tiea of the former, and are of a pale-brown or whitish color, being not so heavy and leas compact. The A^gilopi, or loAmia Oak (Quercus iegou DoN'it Kncycloptdia i{f Agriculture ; Brown's Rural Economg. Tlio oat, when conaidered in connection with the artiflcial graaaea and the nouiiahment and improvo- meut it aflorda to live atock, may be regarded aa one of tlie moat important crops we produce. Its hiitory is highly interesting, from the circumatance that, while In many portiona of Europe, when ground into meal, it forms an important aliment for man, one sort at least has been cultivated from the days of Pliny on account of its superior fitneas as an article of diet for the nick. Tho country of ita origin ia aomewhat uncertain, though the most common variety ia said to be indigenous to the island of Juan Fernandez. Another oat, resem- bling tho cultivated variety, is also found growing wild in California. This plant was introduced into tho North American colonies soon after t°..eir settlement by the Knglisb. It waa sown by Gosnold, on tho Eliz- abeth Islands, in l degrees north, but refuses to yield profltablo crops as we approach the equator. It flourishes remarkably well when due re- gard is paid to the selection of varieties, throughout the inhabited parts of Europe, the northern and central portions of Asia, Australia, Southern and Northern Afri- ca, tho cultivated regions of nearly all North America, and a largo portion of South America. In this country the growth of the oat is couflned principally to theMiddie, Western, andNorthem States. Tho varieties cultivated are the common white, the black, tho gray, the imperial, the Hopetown, the Po- lish, tho Egyptian, and the potato oat. The yield of tlio common varieties varies from forty to ninety bush- els and upward per acre, weighing from twenty-flve to fifty pounds to the bushel. The Egyptian oat is culti- vated south of Tennessee, which, after being sown in autumn and fed off by stock in winter and spring, yields from ten to twenty bushels per acre. In the manufacture of malt and spirituous liquors oats enter but lightly, and their consumption for this purpose does not exceed sixty thouaand bushels annually in tho United States. It will be seen by the following exhibit that New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Virginia, and Illinois are the largest producers of oats, and in the order in which they are here placed. FacDccrioH of Oats in im I'mited States ctntnia the YiAB 185(1. StnlMandTerri- lorlei. Gall, Buiheb. Sutu Mid Terri- toiiea. OHb, Buihela, Alabama 2,»6B,6»6 Missouri 5,'iT8,0T9 Arkannas 0ft6,l83 N. Hampshire. 973, C81 Lalifornla New Jersey . . . 3,378,003 Columhia. D. of 8,134 New York 20,662,814 Connecticut 1,258,738 Nortli Carolina 4,062,078 Delaware 004,518 Oliio 13,472,742 Florida 00,530 Pennsylvania. . Rliode Island.. 21,638,166 Georgia 3,820,044 216,232 Illlnola 10,087,241 South Carolina 2,322,165 Indiana 5,055,014 Tennessee 7,703,086 Iowa 1,524,845 8,201,311 Texas Vermont 199,017 2,307,7S4 Kentucky Louisiana 89,037 Virginia 10,179,144 Maine 2,181,087 Wiseonsin .... 8,414,672 Marjriand 2,242,151 Minnesota 80,682 Masfiacbusetta . . 1,106,140 New Mexico. . . 6 Micliigan 2,860,050 Oregon 01,214 Miasiuippl 1,603,288 Utah 10,900 Total bushelB 140,078,890 Tho oat, liko rye, never has entered much into our foreign commerce, as the domestic consumption has al- ways been nearly equal to the quantity produced. Tho annual average exports, for several years preceding 4Z 1817, were seventy thouaand bushels. By the Cenans returns of 1840, it will be seen that the total produce of the United.Statc8 was 128,000,000 bushels ; of 1860, 146,678,890 bushels.— VnUtd Slatet Patent Office Report. A few years since the oat crop of the WesUrn States sold at 80 or 40 cenU per bushel. At the present time (October, 1850), owing to the larger number of horses employed in the West and tho East, tho price is steady at 40 to 60 cents in the West ; and 46 to 60 cents in the States of New England and New York. ObMnratoilet. The first is supposed to have been on the top of the temple of Belus, at Babylon. On the tomb of Osymandias, in Egypt, was another, and it contained a golden circle 200 feet in diametev ; that at Benares was at least as ancient as these. The first in authentic history was at Alexandria, abontSOO B.C. The first in modem times was at Oassel, 1661. Tho Boyal Observatory at Greenwich wris founded by Charles II. A.n. 1075; and from the meridian of Green- wich all English astronomers make their calculations. First modem meridional inatmment, by Copernicus, . . . 1540 First obwrvatory at Cawel )601 Tyclio Ilralic's, at Vranibourp 1570 Astronomical tower at Copenhagen 1667 Royal (French) i(i«T Royal Observatory at Oreenwlcb 1675 ObMrvatory at Nuremberg 1078 At Utrecht 1690 Berlin, erected under Lclbnili's direction 1711 At Bologna 1714 At I'etersburE jfi 6 Oxford, Dr.JiadcHffe 1772 Dublin, Dr. Andrevi» 1788 Cambridge, England 1824 Obtervalvriet in the United State*. Yale College, New Haven, Conn 1828-1830 Williams' College, ManachuBetta 18.16-1837 Western RcBerve College, Hudion, Ohio 1837-1838 Military Academy, West I'olnt, New York 1SP7-1838 High School, rhiladclphia, Pennsylvania 1840-1842 National Observatory, Washington, D. C 1842-18-14 Georgetown College Observatory, I). C 1843-1844 Cincinnati Observatory, Olilo 1843-1844 Cambridge Obscrvatoiy, Massachusetts 184.')-1847 Sharon Obsen-atory, near I'hiiadclphia, Fenn 1645-1846 Tuscaloosa Observatory, .Mabama 184S Lewis M. Rutherford's Observatory, New York City .... Dartmouth College Obscriatory, New Hampshire .... Amherst College, Obscrratory, Maasachnsetts Shelby ville, Kentucky > Dudley Obsenatory, Albany, New York 1866-18S6 — See Christian Review, v. 89 ; North American Review, viii. 205, Ixix. 143 (B. A. Gould); American Journal of Science, xlvii. 88, xii. N. S. 295; Edinburgh Revieir, xci. 159 ; Southern Literary Messenger, xiv. 4 (Lieuten- ant Mauuy), XV. 30-1; Professor Locmis's "Recent Progress of Astronomy," New York, 1850. Ocean (Or. aKeavo;.) In Geography, the vast body of water which surrounds the continenta, and is the receptacle of all their running waters. It is divided by geographers into five great basins ; viz., the Pacific Ocean (so called by reason of ita comparative stillnrss), which separates Asia from America, and ia the largest of all the basins ; 2. The Atlantic Ocean, which has Europe and Africa on its eastern shore, and America on its western; 3. The Indian Ocean, which washes the south of Asia, and the south-eastern coast of Africa ; 4. The Arctic Ocean, which surrounds the north pole ; and, 6. The Antarctic, which surrounds the south pole. Other smaller portions of the great connected body of water are called teas, of which the Mediterranean, the German, the Baltic, and Black seas, are the most con- siderable. The superficial extent of the several great basins is not known with any certaintj-, nor, indeed, can their limiu be exoctly defined. From the nearest estimation that can be made of the extent of the con- tinents and principal islands, it is supposed that near- ly three-fourths of the whole surface of the globe are covered by water. The Pacific Ocean alone exceeds the whole surface of the dry land. Jkplh oftht Ocean.— li the superficial extent of the ocean can not be easily ascertained, it will readily Jf"-r^t..:, i"*^ OCE 1468 OCR Im tappowtt tliiit i(ii depth it k prolilam uf miioh Rr«*i- •r (lUHi'nUy. Tlie botiom apprarn, wbftrcv«r It hu been rcni'liud hy the loundlnK-lliin, to li»vii •iiiillur in- •qtmlltliit tu Ilium' of th« iiurr«nii of the land : hence th« depth muiit bo uxtrcmdy varloiu ; and It might t« luppuwd from aiialony that the graatcit depth of Uia ocean U at leaat equal lu the height of the hlgheit mountain! above Iti lurfaue. LonI MulKtave found nu biitloni In tha North Atlantic Ocean with a lound- InK-liii" of 4'MO feet, and Mr. Scureeby louniled to the depth of 7200 feet without tlio lead touching the ground, Theee oxperlnionte are not altugellier to be depended on fur the dutcrnilnatlon of aueh great depthi ; for, the preaiure buconilng very great, the lead may be drawn out of the perpendicular direction by current*, of which it may encuunlor mure than one, Howing in (lllferont diroctiuui. Over a great portion of the At- lantic and raciltc oooanii no lK>ttoni faai lieen found. The depth uf tho ocean. In general, and the form of tlio bed on which It rulU, can nut, thurefuro, bu determined by experiment. The nmllipninticnl thuury uf the oa- cilUtiona of Huldi hai, however, thrown aomo light on the snltject. Lnplace demonalrotod thnt tho dlflbronca which in Indiralod by obaervatlon between tho height of two conaccutlvo tide* depends on the law of tho depth uf the eoa, and that, but for tho influence of •cceaaory circuinatancca, It would diKnppcar altogeth- er if tho depth were conatant. It fulluwa, thorofura, that, ainco the ditrerenoa between the conaecntlve (Idea is extremely imall, tho depth of the aca, taking in a Inrgo extent of wenn, niuat bo nearly uniform ; that la to aay, there must lie a certain mean depth fW>m wliii'h tho variations are not cunalderublo. — AUc, Ce- kUt, book xlii. I^rtl of Ike Ocean, — Were It not for the diaturbing •ction* of tho aun and moon, and of the winda, tho level of the ocenn would bo every where the aanio, and It* aurfaco wouM hnvo tho form determined by the nttractinn of tho whole niaea of tho earth, combined with tho centrifugal force belonging to Its velocity of rotation ; that Is to any, the aurfaco would be that of an oblato spheroid of revolution. This uniformity, however, can never bo oatabliahod. The tide at every Inatant is at different heights in different part* of the ocean ; and therefore tho form of tho surface, within the llmlta of tho riao and fall of tho tidca, ia variable. But even if wo neglect thi; alternate rise and fall of tho water which constitutes tho tides, and take the sur- face of the ocean at ila mean height, it la foimd by accurate leveling that nil its parts do not coincide with tho surface of the same spheroid. Qnlf^ and Inland seas, which comrannlcnte with tho ocean by narrow opcninga, are afTected acccording to their poaitlon with regard to the prevailing winds. The level of the Ked Sea was found; by the French engineers in Egypt, to be 8*2} fbet higher than that of the Mediterranean, which is supposed to l>e a little lower tlian the ocean. Humlioldt concluded, from obncrvations made on the Isthmus of Panama, that tho waters of the Gulf of McnIco are about two feet higher than those of tho Pacillc Ocean. The Baltic and Black seas rise in spring fVom tho great quantity of river water poured into them, and are lowered In summer by the joint effects of n small supply and increased evaporation. Color o/thfi Oitan. — The usual color of the ocean Is a bluish green, of u darker tint at a distance from land, and clearer toward the shores. According to Mr. Scorosby, the hue of tho Greenland Sea varies from ultramarine blue to olive green, and from tho purest transparency to great opai'ity. The surface of tho Mediterranean, In its upper part, Is said to have at times a purple tint. In tho Gulf of Guinea tho aea sometimes appears white ; aliout the Maldive Islands black ; and near California it has n reddish appearance. Various causes co-operate to produce this diversity of tint. The prevailing lilue color may be ascribed to the greater refrangibility of tho blue rays of liijht, which, hy reason of that property, pus In greatest abundance ihrough the water. The other colors are ascrlUid to the ealatence of vast numbers of minute animalciila | to marine vegetables at or near the sur- face ; to tha color of the soil, the tnfuilon of Mrthy •ubstanoes; and very frequently tho tint is moditled by the aspect of the sky. The phosphorescent or ihlning appearance of the ocean, which ia a common phenomenon, I* al*o aaerllied to animalcuIsB, and to **mi-pntrescent matter dlffhsed through the water. 1'*m]>f>'nlim n/thn Oftnn. — Water being a slow con- ductor of heat, the temperature of the ocean la much mora uniform than that of tho atmosphere. At a cer- tain distance fVom the equator, it follow*, though not very cloeely, the mean temperature of the correspond- ing latitudes, the solar action being greatly mudKled by the oxiatunee of current* which convey the tem- iwrature of one region to another; ao that at any place the temperature of the water depends, In aomo measure, on tho direction of the currents, Within Iho tropica the /-ean temperature at tho aurfaco la about HO" of Fahrenheit, and generally rangea between 77° and H4°. At great depths the temperature is probably nearly tho same under every latitude. In the torrid zone it is found to diminish with tho depth ; in the polar sea* it Increase* with tho depth ; and about tho latitude uf 70° It is nearly constant at all depths. But tho small number of observations which have yet been made on this lubject do not Indicate any uniform law, according to which the variatlonsof temperature at dif- ferent depths Is regulated. Sallneu nf Ike Ocean. — The ocean hold* in aolntio i ■ variety of saline matters, of which by far the most abundant I* common salt, constituting, in general, about two-third* of the whole. The saltnes* of sea- water at particular places is influenced by temporary causes — storms, for example; as well as by the neigh- borhood Of large rivers, and permanent accumulations of Ice. A series of experiments on this sulject were made some year* ago by the late Dr. Marcet, and the following aro the general conclusions which he deduced from them: 1. That the Southern Ocean contains more salt than tho Northern Ocean, In the ratio of 102019 to 1'02767. 2. That the mean speclflc gravity of sea- water near tho equator is 1-02777. 8. That there Is no notable diflbrence between sea-water under differ- cnt meridian*. 4. That there Is no satisfactory evi- dence that the sea at great depths is more salt than at the aurfaco. 0. That the sea, in general, contains more aalt where it ia deepest, and that its saltness is always diminished In tho vicinity of large masses of Ice. 6. That amall inland aeaa, though communicating with tho ocean, are much lesa ^lalt than the ocean. 7. That tho Mediterranean contain* rather larger proportions of salt than tho ocean. — Phito$ophiaU TramactioM, 1819; Piiout's Bridgewaler Treatite; Dli.\NliE'g Jiic- tionnry. The peculiar bitter taste of sea-water does not appear to belong to it beyond a certain depth, and Is ascribed to the vegetable and animal matter held in a stute of dccumpoaition near the eurfuce. — ^ee TiUF.8, Ati..\ntio Ocean, Gdi.f Strf.au, and Soondinos; MoMachuritti Quarterly, 11. 308; American Journal qf Scifttce, V. 128, v. N. S. 41 ; Foreign Quarterly, xiv. 8C9. Ooeanloa. Geographers have divided "Occan- ica" into thrco distinct portions ; viz., Malaysia, Aus- tralasia, and Polynesia. So comparatively little is known of its component parts, that it is onl^ possible to state tho statistics of such countries as most fre- quently come under tho notice of civilized nations, and this is done in the annexed accounts : . I. Malaytia. — This portion includes most of the Isl- ands of tlio Indian Archipelago, and has its name from the fact that the Malay race aro its most prominent inhabitants. Malaysia is naturally composed of Ave grand divisions. 1. Sumatra, Java, Ball, Sumbawa, ahd about two- thirds of tlie western portion of Borneo as far as 116° OOB iisi onw of the id- iame from prominent led of five I. torif(. t >■ CcUbf*, with th* imaltar ItUmlii tlxtnt Hi eoMt, and the «ait«rn portion of Hnnwo np to 11" N. tat. ; II. 'I'ho Splci^ InlaniU ; 4. Th* B.i«-loo Arehlptilk- gn, MliiiUnnu, a«cl the nortliMft oornir of Borneo; •nit, K. Thn Phlllpplna UUndi. Then Mvsrtl dlrltloni ar* poonllar In phjmlcal fbrmatlon, In tllmate, production!, and Inhaliltanti, II. Auilralatii axtcud* from 1" N. to 56° H. lat., and riroin 112" to IHU" H. lonft., and lt« compononti aro, Australia or N«w Holland, Van DIamen'i Land, Naw Zealand, i'apna or Kaw Unlma, N«w Hrltain, Now Ireland, tliu Arm Inlands, Solomon lilanda, New (Cale- donia, Now Ilebrldea, Queen Charlotte'i lilandi. Now liunovor. Admiralty lalandt, and many •mailer itlandi scattered over the Intervening leaa. III. I'olgnaia Includes the numerous groups of Isl- ands scattered over the Paclflo between AsU, Malay- sia, and AustralasU on the west and southwest, and tho western coast of America. Tho following is the most approved classification of those groups: the Bo- niii or ArzobUpn Islands, tho Ladrone or Marian Isl- ands, the (Jarollns Inlands, tho Kcqjaa Islands, tho ToiiKO or l''rl«ndly Islands, Navigator's or Samoa Isl- ands, Cook's or the Hervey Islands, the Hodety, Geor- gian, and I/)w Islands, the Austral Islands, the Mar- quesas and Washington Islands, the Hawaiian or Sand- wich Islundx, the Kormadoo Isles, and scattered and isolated Islands, among whioh are Oamliior Islands, I'ltcairn Island, etc., etc. The Malnytian, with tho oxcoptlun of tho I'lililpplno Islands, belong chiefly to Holland, and, according to the latest ofliclal reports, tho following are tho statistics of tho Dutch posses- sions ! The superdclos of Netherlands India is '27,81)2 square KcoKranliical, or 8(I,HH7 Anicrlc^in miles. Tlia population of Java and Madura, exclusive of the army, is U,^!,!;^; vl{., Europeans, etc., 10,409; Chinese, 110,481 ; other easterns, 27,(!H7 ; and natives, 9,420,563. Sumatra has ll,4!IO,000 Inhabitants ; llanka and depend- encies, fiO,00() ; Khio anil dependencies, 70,(100 ; Bor- neo and depondoncics, 1,'20(V)00; CelolMs, R00,000 ; Mo- lucca Islands and dependencies, 71N,n00; Timor and dependonrles, HOO.OOO; Bali and Mmbok, 1,20.^,000. Total, 10,47H,500. Total population of Dutch Ii.lln, '20,057,080. iitttA Britain is the first power in A u$ti nl- arid. The statistics of the following nolonica refer to the commencement of the >-ear 18M : same flirmghmi Amerls* and idmHHtimil »tn wwM In laiin the Islands were vIsIM bv sfNitlt'iw**, and about m*) died of tlis spti|sMll», A MHW I'CHiWS was UVen at the comniHni mnt of Hftf tdo ialfifll irf the cultlvallun of sugar in llisi« |4|»hi(« U ihuwn III the anneaed table i ColonlM. Ne* South Wslsii Vlrtorla floutli Australia . Wast Australia . . Van Dtoiiion's IaqiI iD'i.ooa j TT.ano «T.48n 6, NHS To.iau Vulu^of Imporio. " ■ 1 S,07H,.18A 84.'».6T« 61,351 Valua of Riporto. X 'i,S89,figO BTO.Slfl I, I TAMO Tuiin«n firt.M!) IBIMM UllH.OSl Of tho exports, as above, tho following is the vnlue of wool from each colony in IS&O i Now South Wales and Victoria, £l,614,'241 ; South Australia, ^£181,780; West Australia, £\b,i»i; and Van Diemen's Land, X451 ,20;). The value of minerals, chiefly copper, from •South Australia In the same year was £362,508. Since the above rnttirns gold has been discovered in Austra- lia, antf iumi- tit the staple nxporiB for llio Ulatuls hIiIi Ihnsn i/f tumft years shows nt a gl«nn« lh»t (liu w^iii^rls fitf 1»n2 i|i, not equal tliDse of IMfiO, UmgU » l(»f|l{»i gnlli on Ihoit! of 1861 Is apparent. SU|)I«|. Hiigsr Hyrup . . . Molttmos . {Hiiinilii. > Kslloiis. Colftje pomiits. Hslt Iiunlius. IMI !«*•. '. wr M'.m IHWtl 41,»i»W W,IW» tl|.«in M.iM " The oiistom-house reiwliils In l«Wl mmmfKi\ In ♦121,606 73; in 1H5I, to^m.m ll»| «tld In )«M, ((/ • 118,0!ll m ; the rccnlpts of |||s Uttuf yfHf Ihllk show- ing a decreaso of *<7,ft|0 W »• immmri fiiM tlit'lij jh re- gard to the number of nier('h»nl'VB»»>'ls In 11.W and 1851, that a large proportion of Ihani mn stlldll ♦*».. sels engaged In the potato trftde, wllijs tn Wi'i ((((« ti>»i sels have been generally iif ft Urger l>hm Amihtt reason for the large number given (n l»t ti lihmM Hot, The ports being now more gBiieruHy knuMtHj Vcswls fo» produce go directly to (ha port Vihf>f» Ibdy mu oblaltl their cargoes." In a cnminercio) polfll of vltiw, fi^ii *Ar, •nil hii In • gnat inaaiura anawend tha «k- lag •« fa miM Mw m»f) t4 *miMxt* Nnaala, and trae- paotatlona of Ita foundera. \\y an imparlul ukaac, daUd iuK liut rMl mA it%ttm4*il tfnUtm wfilrh «r« trihatarx tha 7th of Kutiriiary, 1H17, It waa decUrad a freu |>ort, lu ita vitrtum ^mi», 'ftm ttmiif» and Ita liranchaa, and tha inhaliitanta axamptad h'om taxation fur thirt/ Iba l)Hlt)§Wr, ttm M«% IhtUfnt, Utm. ami tavaral yean; alnce which period ita increaaa haa liaan »*■■ i Uaaar riv«ra, *w(/, ami Mhlom cloned l>y poaed to the aouthoaaterly wind, which rcndera It laaa lea. 'I'Im pufi i* pft4tifUi4 iif ltt» Miole*, 'ixh axlend- lafa in winter. Tho port, which la artlllclal, being ing SI& hlUumt, mi4 f»hn4 7^ l**t alKfVc tlio aurfarc formed by two moloa, ono of which projecta to a con- uf tli« ata j w«4, (J)m« (nftHKt, Hi* ill affirrd .unpla pro- alderabia diatanco Into the ica, ia Httod to contain levtlMi tu lw» ittm4fn4 iM'tc^-nHMd rnafila. Akerman •boat 800 ihipa. It haa alao the advantaga of deep ■ U allw«lA4 m»r Itm M»tM nf», im lh« lagoon on tho water. Thore la a convenient laiaratto, on the modal Uuiaiwr. U l« Itm prittfiitd tmlttt of tho produce of of that of Maraeillfia. Tho want of freah water uaed to lU\U:Ui i'vMl», »0i tifi>lltiil4», The lagoon, or 11- be tho groateat diaadrantago under which the inbabiu diwi, d# mUUih klwtmm )• MitMnf, la aald to pro. •nta laborod ; but thia haa been obviated by tho con- | due* aUMMlly T0Mf»m pimiUl (:2ffl,tttKi,tm pound*) Itructlon of a canal, which convoya an abundant aup- ^ at »«|l. '|'b« pttti U, Uttwuifff liio ahallow for veatela ply of water Into tho town. There are no troea in the drawing w«r mvnH (m4 i4 imM. Khernon, Nicola- vicinity, which haa, In conaoquonce, a bleak and arid ief, and •wtaMU^ utn lUti MMaJMlng principal porta appearance. I of tbtiw m««. liyM-houif. — A llght-houao haa been erected on ] 'lb* MU»)tin)f tri4» mtMiAU lb« lonntge of Odeaaa Capo Fontan, about til nautical milea aoutb of Odaaaa. ; ia l/lbit The tight, wliich formerly revolved, ia noyi JUrJ, and ia about 2011 (Uuaalan) feet above tho level of I lie aea. At the diatanco of eleven leaguea S.K. by E. ^ E. from Odeua, on the north end of the long, narrow, low Isl- and of Ten«M« fitUitAlK » Mai of 2221 vesaels nor having any considerable manufactures, Odessa is |(«nUtrc4 m>4 hii»ft^)f nHU m agi^egale of (il't,&98 not a port for the exportation of what may be called tons, Mug «m Uttri'imi ttvttf f*A( of KiO vessels, with "^uitmi . . . . . *i.mf~ - -M" «ft.(7f. Ausirta.,,,,,,, m »t/IIK IM Tl.MI IMglvm,,,,,,, t W. 1 44« Ifrouait ..,,,,,, ^ i.m *1 i,m^ OnuM . ..,../ . m *».»* m 40,274 HuIUa4 ...... . ii v.tm u 9,040 luul«M MnwAa , ^ rm 13 a,OI9 i.m ■2A »,mn m ■«f.*»i tOT ^«,"M Himim.rtii, ,,, m ««.4ii s« 'ii.mn Ti.. w.mi 113 OO.KjO m "TWJM 8I7,S01 m iir. m (W 177,198 "m^ii~ ._*^-- I40.6«8 artlclea of native growth ; but in couaequence of her convenient aituation, excellent port, and the privilegea ahe er\]oya, ahe ia, aa already remarked, the emporium where most part of the produce of Southern Kusaia des- tined fur foreign countrlea ia collected for exportation, and where moat part of the foreign artlclea required for home conaumptlon are primarily imported. The aballownees of the water at Taganrog, and tha aiiort period during which the Sea of Azof is navigable, tend to hinder foreign veaaela of considerable burden from entering the Strait of Yenikale; and occaaion tho 8hl|>- ment of a considerable portion of tho produce brought down the Don in lightera \o Caffa and Odessa,' espe- cially the latter. All the jjroducta brought down the Dniester, the Bug, and the Dnieper are exported from Odessa ; but owing to tho difficult navigation of the first and lost mentioned rivers, by far the greater part | tlM two puilitS)/ «m4 fh« »cei* of l,'»3JI,0iH tons. An awalyiMs wf tUf iitttif n^'"* t« Austria tho first rank lu lb« m^iliMUm (4' (hi» p<>lt. Total tonnage enter«4 »»4 niftrutt, ^H,-!if0 fotis: Austria, Il0,il22 toua. I'4nsiitti4 UmM* ttt*i Wfowt rank, viz., 1.37,776 tona; tU*H)i)tf4ini»f(tiAV*tim»i Oreece, S8, 637 tons ; Sweden, W,«(7 Um», Tti* i»tfj«««*Uation in 1852 over 1(161 givM Amtm M.JV7* Um» m«re ; .Kngland, 61,631 toua mnrH) fi»fMm»f M^^l (M* mot»; and (ireece, 13,677 toM» mwt, tttt< !tt*ltm MVlgation of Odessa is uuuut«inc4 kjf ttu (Wiv Utt*' t4 ( onsixntinople and tho Danube, 'Ittf HtDt W«k^« (fcif ty-ftix voyages (between of the corn brought to Odessa from I'odolia, tbe Ukraine, etc., is conveyed to the town in carta drawn by oxen. The roods traversed by these carta are only practicable at certain seasons of the year ; and nothing would contributo so much to Increase the commerce of the port, and tbe prosperity of Southern Rusaia, aa tlie opening of improved communications with the interior, whether by removing obstructions in the channels of tbe rivers, conatructing canals, or rallwaya, or good common roads. Among tho articles of export from Odessa, corn, especially wheat, occupies, as every one knows, the highest rank; but tallow is also an im- portant article ; and next to U are linseed, wool, bides, copper, wax, caviar, potash, beef, furs, cordage, sail- cloth, tar, butter, iainglass, etc. Poiti of the Black Sea, the Sea ufAzof, and the Crim. ca. — The Importance of the Black Sea aa a cbaanel of Uuaalan commerce will be easily nnderstood by cast- Tb« tOimHmtim^ Utm *M«Veye(I, in 1862, 1214 pas- aeogera; tlwt (4 (M tfamitittf (146; making a total for botb lu««a nfWit p » »m nK et», The first of these trans- ported i» 04>»im i»mfnUltfl4im mtd specie amounting Ut iiiUfiW (rmfO, mi4 tUe Mher 359,620 francs. Tbera was ni^f^tM Ut (^wsismtinople by (he first line BM»rKb#**4w ^iAmh4 M I,66«,108 fri!(i,1^ (f«iif». Government steam- ers keep HU Hm mmmmkMkm Imtween the ports of Kheraow, fiittAtU^, tim HiittHftti ami the Caucasus. In U62 iimjf ma44> i^mtf'^ii« '«'<^«ge9 from these differ- ent p<^iM# (# (i4m», tn u m tm tmg paaaengers and mer- rhandww. Tb« 4i0lmitt §Uimmf§ #fri«tl mak* Odessa their »t»tiine^Hl mmlff Ut iftdif H9 voyages, transport- ing iOiim o mmi t g Df»f «m4 M«feh«ndise to the amount or W,m,m Umm, m^ t0 #2,000,000 nearly. ODE 1461 ODE ('omiiiiM'i nr (tniMA, IMt. Kiportt, tmporU . Total, Knnri IS0,t49,4TII hB,iwu,hV4 ]HesM their transport- |fa« amount Tbe principal export! warn : Uralnt, ralua Sff.TM.NM htnen Wool, " I7,IM4,TI« " IJiKMil, " T.OflB.IWil " Tullow, " I.MT.rt* " Thn prlni'ipal Importi In l>t!>\-'!>'2 woro : raw cotton and cotton yami, olive-oil, ilyc-atuffli, drug*, metala, winca, antl aiittar, In 18ftS the total value of the for- el^n trade of Udeasa waa |'JA,n&a,W)7, viz. : exporta, |t8,A8:i,'^0n; linporta, #7,870,514. (iralna constituted the chief export in IHAa. Thna, of the |2n,()OU,0<)0 (In round nuinlicra), graina amounted In value to |li:i,00l),l)(M) ; linaoed, wool, tallow, and cordage covered |ri,()0<),UOO. In 18M thia linincnao trade muat have been completely parillyzed, aa an official notification waa pulilished at Odeaaa on Ud March, 18fi4, prohibit- ing the exportation of grulna of all kinda, (Vom all porta of the Black and Azof 8eaa, until the lat of September following. ThIa prohibition, however, la now removed ; and oOicial returns, when received, will ahow how far the blockade of the Ituaalan porta by the allied powers BfTectcd the trade of the lilack Sea. Uy declaration published at St. I'etersburg 7tb[inth] April, ISM, all tho mercantile hartwra of Kusala are open to tbe mer- chant vessels of neutral countriea. The total value of the trade of tho ports of the Sea of Azof (Taganrog, Kertch, Itostolf, Mariopol, and Bordiansk), waa, in IHOl : imports, U,!)02,000 fi'anca ; exports, '27,IH2,(K)0 franca. The importa were chiefly from Turkey, the Two Sici- lies, Ionian Islands, I'rancc, and Greece. The exporta were ilcstincd to Turkey, England, Sardinia, Tuscany, Ionian Islands, and France. The total value of the trade at the commercial ports of tbe Crimea (Kujjato- rla, Ilalaklava, Thcodosia, and Kertch), in 181)2, waa : imports (including specie), 1,002,&00 francs; exports, e64,6fl0 francs. Total, 1,747,000 francs. Compared with 1851, the imports increased 12 per cent., and exports decreased nearly 60 per cent. Im- ports consisted of cottons, raw cotton, coals, oil, and fhiits ; exports, of wool, raw hides, butter, caviar, and grains Uniltd Slalea Cimmrrcial lielnlioni. The United States Consul, undur date of July 1, 18S4, communicates tbii foliowing information: There exists a treaty of comn i-!i\( Itefveen the United States and the Imperial Russian government, which was con- cluded at St. Petersliurg on the 0th [18th] December, in tho year 18B2, and was ratilied at Washington on the nth May, 1888, to which the Russian govenmient abides with strictness. Tho city and port of Odessa was declared as por/o^mnco by a decree of tho imperial government In the year 1828, which was put into exe- cution only on the 16th August, in the year 1824, by which the importation of all kinds of merchandise wns allowed, on paying only one-fifth of the entire duly paid in other ports of this empire ; and this one-fifth duty was employed to defray the annual expenditure for the benefit of this city, such as pavements, foot- paths, repairing streets, lights, government l)uildings, and for the expenses of all the local administrations. The importation of all kinds of merchandise is allowed, even tlio'.e articles which are prohibited at ail other ports of the empire, but they are not allowed to be transported into the interior from hence, as tea, refined augars, strong spirits, cloths — black and green— print- ed cottons, silks, and wools. These articles arc to be consumed at Odessa. The term of these privileges for Odessa expired in the year 1849, but his majesty the emperor, wishing to favor this city, granted a pro- longation of the same privileges for a period of five years, which ends on the 14th August, 1854. During this last period tbe duty won augmented ; instead of on«-flflh, It li now two-fifths of the entire duty on the Import uf any kind of merchandise, with the exception of tobacco, rum, and other atrong spirits, on which the entire duty Is paid, aa at all other porta of Kusala. He- fined Biigara, tea, and winoa, have to pay thrtc-fiAhs uf thn entire duly, one-fifth of which la deatlned for ex- penaea of thIa city, and tho remainder in favor of gov- cmmont. There doea nut exiat at this port any privi- lege granted to any nation. In any way, which la de- nied to clllxens of tho United Slatca. The only reatrlc- llon existing at Odeasa ia on ahlps under French and Neapolitan culors, they not being allowed to impart any merchandise from foreign countriea to Uuaaia, un- lesa paying 50 jwr cent, more on the Import duly, in I'tiinparldon to Aiuerliana, or ahipa of other natlona. Thia dilference un French and Neapolitan vesaels ex- ists by the commercial treatli's between the reapectivf) powers, by which it ia also prohibited for Russian ves- sels to Import to France or to Naples merchandise ft'om foreign porta not Russian produce, as the cargo muat be, and from a Russian port. There are no dlirerencea In tho charges, or any other dues, on ships of the Unit- ed Slatea and Russian vesaels. A Russian vessel of 150 laata (e<|ual to 1100 tons) paya tho aame charges as an American of the sania size, Tho following affords a comparative statement : Lasts, 161, at IT-IDO per last B. K.2.'> 60 = $I(» IS l.iKhtdiii's T 16= 6 38 (juaranlliio dues, custom-house charges andfcea 2000=: 16 04 The tonnage and light duea are a fixed charge, and eslabliabed by law ; the i|uarantine and custom-bouse dues are not so. The amount of tho latter charges ia generally paid partly for stamp paper, fees, and other trifics, which reaclus the sum above stated, and which every one pays witliuiU opposition, as it is the custom and has been for many years past, and l)y which means business is greatly facilitated. It is prohibited by law ttf rosbip merchaiiilisu from one ship to another, even if the merchandise rcshlpped bo destined for another Russian port, and no matter under what coloi" it is brought to this port. The merchandise, before nship- nient, must first be landed and visited IJy the custom- house authorities, and tho whole amount of doty paid, lieforo permission can bo obtained fur such merchan- dise to bo shipped and transported to another Russian port. liut If such merchandise bo destined for a for- eign port, it has to bo landed, and after being visited by tho custom-house officers, a certificate to that efiect is given to the shippers of the cargo, allowing tho re- shipment and exportation to a foreign port. All for- eign, as well as American vessels are allowed to sharo in tho coasting trade from one Russian port to another in the DIack Sea or the Sea of Azof. The current coin, weights, measures, etc., are tho same at Odessa as at St. Petersburg. The value of a silver ruble is 75i gg„ cents of an American dollar; one pood weight is ilU F.nglish pounds; one arshlne measures 28 English inclies ; one chetwert of wheat is 5} English bushels. The only cargo exported from hence for America since the 1st of July, 186.S, consisted of common washed wool, 505 bales, weighing 6!)72 poods, 23 pounds ; and linseed, 1200 chctwerts — the whole shipped on board of an Americon bark of 380 tons, bound for New York, and cleared from hence on the 10th November, 1858. The duty on the cargo amounted to 342-80 silver rubles, or $257 80, being on the linseed olonc, as there Is no duty on the exportation of wools. No insusances have ever taken place here for the United States, but tbe general custom is to insure in England for America, The custom in purchasing any kind of merchandise for exportation at this riaco is to pay ready cash, and without any discount whatever; but in the sale of colonial and other goods imported from abroad some- times a credit of six or eight months is granted to the buyers. There is no established rate of exchange here for the United States, but tlie value of the dollar is ODE uoa OFF nomln*! at 1) •Itrcr rubU. Tho amount (f il'il/ |i«lil burn on marcbtnillin •xporMil fur Aniarica ilurliiK the Uit period •inuiiatt (ii |'i&7 ; but no lni|)ort iliit/ wu p«ld herr, M no iiiorchandlH arrlvail fruni Aniirica. Tbaro la no duty Uvled In Uuiila liy Kuveriimoiit on prodiico nxporlnd in Ita n«w itata, or paitly niaiiufao- turad, or antlnly lo; tlia only exiatln({ duty la on raw augara, on wlilch (ha reflnara of Uuaala pay an exclao to ||uviimmant of jUi ailvor ruhlua pi'r pood on llio ra- fluad autfara, or '"V^Mv <>*■<>'* In Amariuan currtnoy. Laborvra am t(«n«raUy pnlil liar* by tlio day, and, Ihu rat* uut bcliiK Itxad, fluctualun according to tlia wauta of luob rocB— riaioK from -^j to ono allvar ruble por day, or from Hi to 7& caou par day, Auwricaa uur- raosy. A tribunal of commeroa wa* oatubliabod at Odaiaa In IM'i-l, wboaa Juriadiction axtamla ovar all diapiitoa counaclad wllli trado. Tburu la no appoal from ita da- cUlona «xc«p( to tlie Sanatu, 'I'bura urn twalvo aworn broliara, approved and llcanaud by ibo Tribunal of Com- niarcv, who have daputica ap|H)lnl*)d by thaniaolvua, Thay reglitar all tranaaotiona, and rocalvo ( par cent, ftom each party aa conimlaalon, Tboro la a dlacount or loan bank, aatabliabed in M'iS, and marina and Ore tnauraoco aoclatiua. Moat arlicloa of provlalon aro cheap ; and Itib, wlilch coatn next to notbinR, la excel- lent. Fuel, however, la aiarco unil dear. WUIiln tbo laat thirty year*, tho Merino breed of Bhcop baa been oxtenalvoly Introduced Into tbo governuienta of Taurl- da, Cheraon, and Ekaterinoalov, au that there ha* been uo( only a great iucreaaa in tho i|uantity, but al*o a v*ry decided improveroant in the quality, of the wool exported. Com 'fVaJe.— Theprincipal trade of Udoua la with Conatanlinuplu, Hniyrna, and other town* in tba Levant, Naplea, Leghorn, (lenoa, Mararillca, etc. " It 1* generally itated," aaya Mr. Jacob (Memoir on tha TnuU oj'tht Hliuk Uta, In tho Appenilit to the oo- uvo edition of Tnu-tt on iKe Com Trade), " that the aupply of Conitantinople requiroa annually 1(M),()()U quarter* of Ulack Uea wheat. Tho (ireek Island* scarcely, on the average of yean, produce luSIcient wheat for their own conauniptlon, and In some years require a largo aupply, which is furnished partly from the neighboring continent, and partly from the Ulack Sea. The Asiatic coast* pf the Turkish iCmpire, espe- cially In Anatolia, are nearly in tlio same predicament. At times the market of Smyrna ia very favorublo for tb* *ala of the com of Southern Kussia. Tho islands of Malt* and Uozo produce only about half a* nmch corn as the 1'20,()00 inhabitant* require, Sicily, though It has greatly declined froni it* ancient produutivenoss, ha* BtiU a quantity of grain to spare fur tho loss fruit- ful part* of Italy in moat year*, and Us wheat enters into competition with that of the Ulack Sea, in the porta of Naples, Genoa, and Leghorn. There are few yaari in which Tuscany grow* a sufHeiency of wheat ; and It* chief port, Leghorn, being one of those in which •hips can unload their cargoes of corn, without being detained to perform quarantine, ha* been at ail time* • plaoe of de|>oslt fbr tho wheat of the Black Sea. A market at some price may always lje found there, as the capitalists are dlspoied to purchase, relying on the uncertain proiluctivonesa of aonie adjacent coimtry, in which they may realize a prolU at no great dUtance. Genoa, like Leghorn, is a jiort where wheat can b« im- loaded within tlio bounds of tbo lazaretto. The coun- try around it yield* but little wheat ; and at aomo pe- riod* it «i\joys a trad* in that article even aa far a* Sandeviand. This intornal demand, and the chance of •dvantogcoua re-exportation, induce* much trade in corn. There i« said to be seldom lees than 100,000 quarter* in stora at tho two ports of Genoa and Leg- horn, and at somo period* a far greater quantity. Nice, though not having tha aame adTantagoous quarantine regulations, and, conaequently, not being a d^'if for com beyond it* own demand, from the sterile soil that . lltlon la Its port, and the guMirnment draws a ravanua by Imposing a hnavy duly on both. Thmigb lliu corn law* of Franca have krpt the ports closrd against the Introduction of foreign cum for dumi'iitic use, yet It Is allowed tu be bonded fur ro-«xporlaliun. Knim the frci|uent local and partial acanllisa which occur on tlia eaati.m ooaal of Npaln, at which |Hirbii|s wheal la al- lowed to be lawfully Imported, and. It it miiil, from the facility if it* lntroe Ilogeineiater suppoaes that Turkey and tliu diflur- out port* of tlie Mediterranean require, at an average, an annual supply of 1,'IU0,(M1U clietworts, or about l,0r>O,U0O quarters, of whicli ^OiH),U()() chetwerts, or 7f>U,000 quartera, are furnished by Suutheni Kussia, and principally shipped from Odessa. Wallacbia and M'lU duvia are both very fertile In cum ; and wuro tranquil- lity and good order Introduced into tliem, ami the free nuvigaliun of the Danube secured, Oulacx and Urailulf wiiuld be two of the principiil Kuropean grain-Hbippiiig purt*. — Neo the excellent Ueport of ll.VdKMiilsTKli u» the Trtuk if the lllaik Sea, p. 9(1-114, Kngl. Trans. Kxclusivo of cum, the other articles mentioned iis be- ing exported from Odessa tiinl their way to tho differ* cut markets in tho Mediterranean. Those shipped for Turkey are iron, tallow, sail-cloth, cordage, anchors for ships of war, butter, etc. The exports to Italy and other Kuropean countries are similar. Tho linportu- tloii of all foreign articles into tho Uussian duminiuns on the Uluck Son and the Sea of Azof is confined to Odessa, Theoilosla or Kafi'a, and Tugiiiirog. The im- port trode Is, however, of inferior Iniportanco when compared with tbo expert trailo. Tho principal ar- ticles are sugar and coll'ee, dye-woods, wine and bran- dy, cotton stuffs and yarn, woolen and silk manufac- turcs, spices, cutlery ; oranges, leinuns, dgs, and otiier fruit ; lemon-Juice, oil, tin and tin plates, dried fruits, paper, silk, *pecie, etc. Odessa, in addition to its great and rapidly incrca*- ing trade with Constantinoplo and tlio cuuntrio* on the Mediterranean, bad, liofurothe warof IHSI-lHuCi, a con- siderable trade with Kedout-kal6 at tho mouth of the I'hasia, and with Trebizond and several port* on the south coast of the Ulack Sea. Georgian and Arme- nian merchant* aro already conaidcraUe purchasers at the Lelpsic and other Gorman fairs, and civilization U beginning to strike its roots throughout all tho cxteni- ivo countries between the Ulack Sea and tbo Caspian. It ia prolmble that at no very remote period tho Pba- si* win be frequented by British ship.s; and that mer- chants, without any enchantress to aid them, and do- pending only on tbo superior cheapness and excellence of their goods, will be liospitably received in tho an- cient Colcliis, and liear away a richer prize than fell to the lot of Ja*on and hi* compeers.— 5re Kuimia. OSng, or Offini In Xa»tical languagt, that part of the aea, a good diatanco A-om *horo, whore there is deep water and no need of a pilot to conduct the ship. Thus if a ship from shore be seen sailing out to sea- ward, they say, " Sbo stand* for the ofHng ;" and if a ahip, having the shore near her, have another a good way without or beyond her, toward the sea, they say, <• That ship ii in the offing." oil I •4w0 OIII ■ incrcat- Ftoa on the 1)56, a cun- itli of the lu on the Ind Anno. L-hascrs at Uization U lie cMont' CuBpiun. tho riia- I that mcr* ._ and Jo- Bxcellouce In tho an- Von fell to |that part , tliere is tho ship, lat to soa- 1" anil if • lior a good 1 thoy 80)i OUOi on* of tha Itnllcil HtalM, llot h«twe*B Ut »'■ nu and W S., «npulark ilUlK); In IHUI), 4&.B«Ui ; In INIU, 'iiU>,7lXI: In IH20, 5HI,liM; In IWIi), »il7,eil7; in UK), l,Alli,4«7; anil In IHAO, l,UH0,4W. 'ih< land In ih« Intvrlor uf th« Statu and UirdnrlnK on I.ako Krlo la g«n«rally level, and In •onin placra niar>hy. Krnin una quarter to onn third of tha NlalK, cuniprcdirnd' tiiK tiin eaatern and xiulhaaitarn paria, lH>rderlnK on the Ohio Klvar, la Rnnerally hilly and liruken, hut in ! alit rulirimdn. no part niounlainoua. On tha maruin of tha Ohio i0, miployinK 1:12 uiulea and 'inn fi'umli >, pro> headflf tho Muaklngum River aril pralripa of ronKidcra-j dui'inK '2<^0,0<)0 yanln of aherllnKa, etc., and 1111,01)0 klooxtenl, aoinoofwhirhare wet, thiiiit;liK<''nnt,7llO; llkl wmdni fnito* •nd fertile. Tho hol|{lit of land which dlvldea thn wo* ' riea, wlthacapilal«ri|iH70,2M, ploying UOBninlca and tera which fall Into tho Ohio from thoae which fall Into ' 200 feiimlea, manufacturing I,ir7l,l)87 yanla uf rlnth, Lako Krlo la the moet marahy of any In the Stale, andUA.OdnpiMindaaf yum, valucdat^l, 111,027; lhlrly> while the land on the margin of tha rivers Is Rcnerally live ealalillahnionia making pig-Iron, with a taplial of dry. Wheat may he rc{(ardod aa tint atnplo prodiic- 91,ri01),n2,llM Tha CMyahoga rlaoa In the north part of the Stale, and after a rnrvi-d courao of »l»ly nilica, rnlera Ijika Krie at Clovrlaiiil. It haa it numlicr of falla, which furnlah valualde nilll aaala. Ilraldca Iheaii Iher* are Huron, Vnrnilllun, lllack, Orand, and Aahtabula rivers, which enter Lake Kriu. Tliii principal placea nrn t'liirlnnati, th* melropollat Coluinliua, thn t'lipital; Clovrland, Snndiiaky, llaV' ton, Sprlngllold, /ancaville, Marietta, ami I'ortmioulh. There were In Kcl.ruary, 1854, alxly-ei((ht honka, with a pal>l capital uf ♦m,7|h,i«|(I; in January, JHfirt, furty- ulirimdii, (if which 27iti mlica of track were Itnlah- tlon of tho State, though Indian corn and other grains •ro largely cultivated. It Is rich In mineral wealth. Iron, coal, limestone, marldc, and superior huildlng stone, grind-atnnos, etc, Tlirru are many valunldo saltsprlngs. Thoro were In thia Stale in IBM), 0,8fil,4ua •urea of land Improvoil, and 8,140,1)00 of iinlniprovud land In farms; cash value of farnia, CUaH,7AH,(1on; and tho value of Implements and machinery, 4>12,750,&t4&. /.ire. iSYiH'i— homes, 4(ltl,B97 ; asaps nnd mulca, 94211; milch cowa, 044,490 ; working oxen, Oli.IWl ; other cut- tle, 740,nA7 ; sheep, 9,942,920 ; swino, 1,904,770. Value of live stuck, #44,121,741. AgHcullurnl I'rmUictt, e berg College nt Sprin^rlicld, Willuughby ITniveraity at Willoughby, I^nv I lieoliigical Seminary at Cincin- nati. 'I'licro are also tlicological departments at Ken- yon, Western lieserve nt Hudson, Uranville at (Iran- villo, Oborlln at Olicrlin, Wittenberg at Springlleld, and a seminary of the Asxoclato Koformed Church at Oxford, Western Rcsor\'o Medical College at Cleve- land. Medical College of Ohio at Cincinnati, Medical College (llonioopathlc)ot Clevclund, Storling Medical College at Columbua, and (.'incinnati Law Collcgo at Cincinnati, Tho whole having, in 18,'i0, 11021 students. There were also 200 ocadcmies, 6052 pii)iils; 11,061 scliools, 484,153 scholars; 352 liliraries — aggrcgalo number of volumes, 180,820. School fund, #304,474. The llrat permanent aettlcment in Olilo was made in 1788 nt Marietta. In 1802 Ohio was admitted into tho Union, Tho progress of banking in tho State of Ohio ii shown in tho following summary : Year. Numlxr uf Paiika. Caiiltsl. ! 1Sll^ 1 JiOO.WM) isii 4 H»R,oon tKI6 I'i 1,484,000 1S1« 81 2,U61,000 1S2I) 20 l.TilT.OOO 1H.W 24 n,Ri9,n()0 1WI8 »S 9,247,000 i I81U IIT 10,6117,000 1 ista 8 2,171,000 iwn A6 7,120,000 ISM 60 S,0OB.90O ^ 1S6T B4 6,808,000 The frce-lianking law of Ohio was adopted In the year 1H61, and forms at present a part of the banking sys- tem in operation. OHI 1464 01*1 FoBnoic Comonoi OF TBI STAII of OmO (BHOWIRO AlBO THB DiSTBIOt TONKAQI IN 1831, 1831, 1811, A»D 1881) FBOM OOTOBSB 1, 1820, tO JUIT 1, 1866. Yean tnding Biporte. Import!. Toniug* ClMred. Dtatriet Tonnage. { DomMtle. Foreign. Total. Total. Amtrlaui. Foroiia. Reglaloied. Enrolled and l.leenaed. Sopt. 30; 1821 18!2 1823 18!4 1825 1820 1827 1828 1829 1830 Total. . . Sept. 80, 1831 I8;i3 1833 1834 1836 1830 1837 1838 1839 1849 Total... Scpl. 30, 1841 1813 9mo«., 1843' June 30, 1844 1846 1840 1847 1848 1849 1860 Total... Jane 80, 1861 \sr>i 1853 1864 1855 1850 $i66 l',8i6 .... $166 isio 2004 $12 190 1(1 '293 162 "si '809 "lit "49 881 716 $3,919 $14,728 68, .194 226,644 241,.l51 97,001 8,718 133.844 189,827 95,864 991,954 $140 $8^19 $14,728 68,894 226.644 241,461 97,201 8,718 132,844 139,827 96.864 991,964 $813 $617 12,392 8,363 19,707 9,808 10,960 17,747 11895 19,230 4,915 468 91 269 2,041 2,999 2,166 106 4,249 1,141 4.716 8,708 49 188 1,841 4,fJ6 8,768 4,871 2,948 4,653 2,438 1,987 8,266 120 1622 $2,001,375 $793,114 899,786 120,108 64.1,866 321,114 862,030 778,944 147,599 149,724 217,532 $140 . . i . $ioo $2,001,615 $798,114 899,786 120,108 613,856 821,114 862,680 778,044 147,699 149,724 217,632 $116,784 $11,818 18,051 10.774 86,015 78.106 102,714 90,081 186,726 149,839 682,694 26,485 0,600 14,890 1,245 2,053 6,824 0,222 7,144 7,066 6,067 18,486 28,922 2,624 8,596 5,170 14,162 1,201 4,881 10,228 6,858 9,821 18,322 :::; 25,111 $4,324,407 $305,126 36.1,514 168,418 743.004 847,148 1,046,052 $100 $iesa $4,824,607 $895,125 363,514 158,418 744,684 847,143 1,045,052 $1,261,903 $636,381 982,216 847,760 7911,082 600,6SO 403,478 77,685 18,720 14,344 22,630 87,054 26,309 28,252 80,808 11,866 11,222 9,939 18,234 18,890 42,676 68,382 * Nino months to June 30, and fiscal year hegins July 1, 1843. FlNANOES OP THE .STATU OF OnlO. riKal Yean. Foreign and Domestio Stat* Debt. Aonaal Interest on Stale Debt. TaiAble Property of State, R^al and Personal. Oroae Revenuea of 8UU, Gross Ezpendituns of Bute. 1888 $1,750,000 4,891,661 4,979,287 6,857,833 6.186,516 0,9C5,790 10,030,162 14,012,230 16578,864 • 10,947,326 13.063,321 19,276,75; 10,2,'>1,180 10,2K!.0O2 19,233,847 19,17.1,223 19,020,200 18,741 .^94 l,'5.r>-i4,S98 15.V20,768 15,218,129 14,524,886 14,00.8,206 14,0<»,2r4 $2S8,000 293.500 294.767 361,470 808,190 414,843 601,809 770,822 934,401 1,016,839 1,120,099 1,107,444 1,140,708 1,164,280 1,168,609 1,169,893 1,147,854 1,124,636 923,343 919.496 901,191 869,,596 82'»,263 829,263 $78,019,,'>26 75,508,812 94,438,016 85,812,832 91,591,746 106,063,018 111,224,197 113,037,861 128 353,667 1.12,843,835 133,063,704 1,16,142,066 144,160,409 150,293,132 409,897,379 410,897,230 429,065.029 439,870.840 462,148,620 507,631,911 698,896,848 806,929,982 860,877,351 820,601,087 $208,739 261,820 201,766 301,069 827,863 451,757 655,905 800,498 266.832 292,224 829,270 371,963 1 533,450 2,0S1,3S4 2,614,785 2,473,702 2.511,119 2,5,10.558 2,878.656 8,010,403 2,80.'>,007 .1,715,103 8,001,178 8,633,363 $288,789 277,949 236,365 269,660 287,560 824,702 632.823 295,090 192,279 227,803 283,402 239,141 1,869,937 2,038,027 2,307,006 2,137,194 2,383,135 2,961,581 2,61!6,309 2,730,060 2,090,118 8,893,253 3,512,844 8,712,206 18.14 1835 1836 1837 1833 1839 1840 1811 1842 1843 1841 1846 1816 1847 1848 , 1849 law 1851 1852 1853 1854 ' 1S65 1860 ... Cincinnati, the metropolis of Ohio, capital it Hamil- ton connty, and one of the Icadinf^ commercial places west of tlic AUcghany Slouiitains. It is situated on the right haiilt of th« Ohio River, 455 miles helow Pitts- burg, 1548 miles above Now Orleans, and 502 miles from Washington. It is the largest city of the Mis- sissippi Valley, north of New Orleans, and the fifth in population in the United States. Population in 1800, 750 ; in 1810, 2540 ; in 1830, 24,881 ; in 1840, 46,338 ; in 1845, 65,000; in 1850, 115,488; in 18i)3, 160,141. The Ohio River at Cincinnati is 1800 feet, or about one- third of a mile wide, and its mean annual range from low to high water is about fifty feet ; the extreme range may be about ten feet more. Depressions are gener- ally in August, fcptcmber, and October, and the great- est rise in December, Itlarch, May, and June. The up- ward navigation is in winter very rarely suspended by floatmg ice, a'.id in some winters not at all. Its cur- rent at its mean height is about three miles an hour ; when higher, or rising, it is more ; and when very low, it does not exceed two miles. Cleveland, Toledo, and Sandusky, on Lake Erie, export largely in grain, lum- ber, and manufactured goods. — See yorth American Review, Ixiii. 820 (Hii.dretii), xxii. 459 (Sparks), xlvii. 1 (J. H. Perkins), xlix. 69; American Journal of Science, xlv. 12 j De Bovi's Review, iii. 129; Bank- era' 3fai;a!:ine, 1856; Hvtrfa Merchanls' Magazine, xxl, 389. ora 1465 OIL !,'2:9 ',803 1,402 I,U1 l,93T l,02T .006 .194 ,135 ,6S1 1,309 i,0«0 1,118 ;,253 .844 ,m I le great- The up- nded by Its cur- 11 hour ; cry low, ido, and in, \um- merkan parks), Journal Bank- line, xxi. Ohio, a large rtver of the United States, formed by the confluence of the Alleghany from the north and the Monongahela from the south at Pittslmrg, in the western part of Pennsylvania, lat, 40° 32' N. and long. 60° 2' W., at the height of 1188 feet above tide-water in the Atlantic It proceeds in a direction west-south- west, dividing the states of Virginia and Kcnt-icky on the south from Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois on the north, and enters the Mississippi in lat. 37° N. and long. SH" 68' W. Its length from Pittsburg to its mouth, by the course of the river, is 948 miles ; but the distance in a direct course is only 614 miles. It has a descent, in its whole course, of 895 feet, making an average de- scent of not quite Ave inches in a mile. The width of the Ohio varies from 400 to 1400 yards ; its average width is 634 yards, opposite to Cincinnati, which is about equidistant from Pittsburg to its confluence with the Mississippi, where it is about 900 yards wide. The great valley drained by this river contains over 218,000 square miles, and a population of over 6,000,000, which is rapidly increasing. There are no considerable falls in this river excepting at ' -nisvillc, Kentucky, where it descends 22^ feet in t vo iiiles. These falls have been obviated by a canal aiound them, which admits of thd passage of the largest steamboats ; but l-oats as- cend and descend these rapids, when the water is high. Tito current of the Ohio, when low, does not exceed two miles an hour ; when at a mean height, three miles ; and when higher and rising, four or Ave miles. The high- est water occurs in December, March, Hay, and June ; and the lowest in August, September, and October. The average difibrenco between high and low water is 40 feet : its extreme range on record, G4 feet (at Cincin- nati). During eight or ten weeks in the winter, the navigation is obstructed by floating ice. Of the two confluents which form the Ohio, the Alleghany is the most important, being navigable for boats 260 miles to Olean, New York, and will hereafter, by means of the Genesee Valley Canal, terminating at this place, and extending to the Eriet Canal, form au important com- munication between the city of New York and the West. The principal tributaries of the Ohio on the north are the Beaver, Muskingum, Scioto, the two Miamis, Whitewater, and Wabash ; those on the south .^re the Kanawha, Sandy, Licking, Kentucky, Green, Cumberland, and Tennessee, Some of these are navi- gable at high water to a great extent by boats and steamboats. The Tennessee is navigable by boats for 1000 miles; the Cumberland is navigable for steam- boats to Nashville, and for keel-boats 300 miles fur- ther; the Wabiish is navigable for 200 miles; Green River, 200 miles; Kentucky, 160; Great Kanawha, 64 miles, to the salt works. The Ohio, with its tributa- ries, has 6000 miles of navigable waters. The whole fall of the Ohio from Pittsburg to Cairo is estimatec) at 426 feet, and the distance is 977 miles. The average fall per mile is therefore less than live inches. The fall of the liiver Thames is greater than this, being an average of nearly seven inches per mile for one hundred and eighty miles. Indeed few rivers of equal length and volume of water have so few falls or rapids impeding navigation as the Ohio. Its fall, however, is not distributed equally over its whole course, as the following table will show : Dlitance. '^uii. ' AversKc*- HUM. t'nt. Inchn. From Pittsburg to Wheeling. . S8 v.< 10-77 From Wheeling to Cincinnati. 374 18S From Cincinnati to LoulsTiile, 18« 05 4-2 From IjOulsvUlo to Falls S 'i1 100 From Falls to EvansvlUo 100 33 ZS5 From KvansviUe to Cairo 1S7 4fi From this table it will be seen that were it necessary to " canalize" the whole river, from its mouth to Pitts- burg, it would bo the most magnificent chhnnel of trade on the face of the globe. No canal was ever construct- ed, and probably none could be constructed, of equal length, with comparatively as little lockage as this. The Krie Canal has about tivc times the lockage in pro- portio»to its length ; and the Pennsylvania Canal, from Pittsbnrg to Johnstown, has more than ten timei as much. But it should be remembered that it will b« unnecessary, for the purpose of making this great im- provement, to overcome all this fall of 426 feet by means of locks and dams. A large part of this whole descent is due to the gentle flow of the river, through the long pools wldch make up the most of Its distance, and which, in their natural condition, aflbrd a sulB- cicnt depth of water at all seasons of the year for the purposes of navigation. What proportion of this wliola fall of 425 feet is thus duo to these pools, which need no improvement, we are unable to determine ; but it must be a very considerable proportion of it, and would leave a comparatively small aggregate to bo overcome by locks and dams or wing dams. It would bo un- necessary to construct these dams so high as to flow back the water from one to the other, but only to rise from one of these pools to another, or perhaps, in some cases, to unite one or more of them in one. To reduce the whole river to a series of long levels, as in the con- struction of canals, would not bo required, and indeed would be liable to grave objections on the score of health. A depth of about live feet at the lowest stage of water would be all that would bo necessary to ren- der the Ohio the most important channel of conunrrco in the world. This depth could be had without alfecl- ing unfavorably the healthfulness of the river, and would bo enough for the flrst class of steamers which now ply on the river. Tlie volume of water in this stream, in an improved condition, would tje ample, for ten or eleven months in the year, to meet the wants of a comnier-n largo enough to tax to tlio utmost the capacity of ter canals e(|ual to the Erie when enlarged ; and so favorable is tho climate, that the obstructions from ice would be of very short duration, if, indeed, such ln>nodimonts would ever occur. It is well known that I'lo tlouougaliela suffers less inconvenience from ice, in its present con- dition, than it did bcrorc it was imprcvcil by lucks and dams, and no good reason can bo given why tliu Mnnio results would not follow tlie improved navigation of tho Ohio. That the growing dcniniuls of triuln iu tho Great West will imperatively re(|uiro lliis great worlc to bo speedily accomplislicd, no man who has at all considered tliis snlycct can for one moment doubt. Soying nothing of the great staples of agricHlturo, which already seek our Eastern cities through tho valley of the Ohio, and which will continue to inc-oaso in a ratio that will almost defy computation, thero arc immense resources of undeveloped mineral wealth, whoso tonnage will soon exceed that of all tl\e traflio now done upon the river, and upon all the railroads running nearly parallel with it through the Western States. The vast treasures of coal, iron, and salt, aro tliere in store for tho scores of millions which will soon inhabit the rich valley of tho Ohio. But admilting that the river, when improved by locks and dams, would impose a lieavy expense for lockage, still tho actual expense of navigation would be far less than is j now imposed upon it, in consequence of tho ruinous de- ! lays and disruptions of business, arising from the sud- I den rise and fall of the river. Though suljectcd to j tolls at the locks, the certainty and regularity with which steamers could make their trips would more than compensate this expense. Tho whole system of passage and freight would be systematized, and in tho aggregate rendered far less expensive and hazardous. ' Indeed, in whatever light this grand scheme may bo ! viewed, it is matter of surprise that public attention has not been fully directed to it before, and that states- \ men should not long ago have urged its paramount 1 importance upon the attention of Congress.— Sm article j Mississirri River. OH (Fr. lliiile; Germ. Oel; It. OUe; Lat. Oltimi ! Russ. Mailo; Sp. ^IceiVe). The term oil is, applied t» OIL 1466 OIL dMlKHAt* • nutnlior of iiuctuoug liquors, whicb, when llru|i|iitriiiii|)nrent, or givo it what i< called a greasy itnllli Tliiisa bodies are very numerous, and have been In uonimon use from time immemorial. Chemists have dlvlilud (hint Into two classes; namely, to{» eti almost a* liquid as water, sometimes viscid; 2. Very I'unibustlbU) U. An acrid tasf) and a strong fragrant uilor i 4, Volatllitod at a temperature not hii^ber than 'JIT ; 6, Holuble in alcohol, and imperfectly in water; (I. ICvApornto without leaving any stain on paper. By tills last test It is easy to discover whether they have bi'i'ii ndiiltcratcd with any of the lixed oils. Let a drop of the vulalllo oil fall upon a sheet of writing-paper, and tlieti apply a gentle heat to it ; if it evaporates without leuving any stain upon the paper, the oil is |iurii i but if it leaves a stain upon the paper, it has iieoil rdiitamlnatcd witli some flxed oil or other. Vol- nlllu oils are almost all obtained from vegetables, and tlliiy exist in every part of plants— tho root, tlie bark, the wood, the leaves, the liower, and even the fruit, thuugli they ari.nctuon8 feel; 8. Very combustible; 4. A mild taste; 6. Boiling point not under 600° ; G. Insoluble in water, and nearly so in alcohol ; 7. Leave a greasy stain upon paper. Those oils, which aro called fat or expressed oils, are numerous, and are obtained partly from animals and partly from vegetables, by simple expression. As in- stances, may be mentioned whale oil or train oil, obtain- ed from the blubber of the whale and from cod: olive oil, obtained from the fruit of the olive ; linseed oli and al- mond oil, obtained from linseed and almond kernels. Fixed oils may also be extracted from poppy seeds, hemp seeds, beech mast, and many other vegetable substunccs. All these oils differ from each other in several par- ticulars, but have also many particulars in common. 1. Fixed oil is usually a liquid with a certain de- gree of viscidity, adhering to the sides of the glass vessels in which it is contained, and forming streaks. It is never perfectly transparent ; has always a cer- tain degree of color, most usually yellowish or graen- ish ; its taste is sweet, or nearly insipid. When fresh it has little or no smell. Tliere exist also in the vegetable kingdom a con- siderable number of bodies which, at the ordinary tem- perature of the atmosphere, aro solid, and have hither- to been considered as flxed oils. I'alm oil may be mentioned as an example. The various substances used in India and Africa as substitutes for butter, and as unguents, may likewise be mentioned. 2. All the fixed oils hitherto examined are lighter than water, but they ditVer greatly from one anotlicr in spccilic gravity. The same difference is observabio in different samples of the same oil. Fixed oil, wlicn In tlie state of vapor, takes flro on the approach of an ignited body, and burns with a yellowish white iiiime. It is upon this principle that candles and lamps burn. The tallow or oil is first converted into a state of vapor in the wick ; it then takes (ire, and supplies a sufficient quantity of heat to convert more oil into vapor; and this process goes on while any oil remains. The wick is necessary to present a suiBciently small quantity of oil at once for the heat to act upon. If the heat were great enough to keep the whole oil at ft tempera- ture of 000°, no wick would bo necessary, as is obvious from oil catching Are spontaneously w hen it has been raised to that temperature. When oil is used in this manner, either in the open air or In contact with oxy- gen gas, tlie only now products obtained aro water and coriotii'fl acid. The drying oils ore used as tho vehi- cle of paints and varnishes. Linseed, nut, poppy, and 4'l. r^ OIL 1467 OIL arc liglitor jno anotlier lobservalilo oil, wlicn I'oach of an Itiito flnmc. imps burn. Ite of vapor la sufllcicnt [apor; anB I The wick II quantity If the heat In tempcra- 1 is obvious it has been [sed in this ; with oxy- . v-attr and |s the vehi- joppy, and hemp-aeed oils belong to this clou. These oils in their natural state possess the property of drying oils, but imperfectly. To prepare them for the use of tlio painter and varnish maker, thoy.are boiled for some time in an iron pot, and sometimes burned till they become viscid. . When they burn for some time, their unctuous quality is much more completely destroyed than by any method that has been practiced. Ilouce it is followed frequently in preparing the drying oils for varnishes, ond always for printers' ink, which re- quires to bo as free as possible from all unctuosity. Mut oil has been found preferable to all other oils for printers' ink ; though the dark color which it acquires during boiling renders it not so proper for dM ink as for black. Linseed oil is considered as nextTfter nut oil in this respect. Otlier oils can not be employed, because they can not be sufficiently freed from their unctuosity. Ink made with them would bo apt to come olT and smear the paper while in the hands of tlic bookbinder, or even to spread beyond the mark of the types and stain the paper yellow. The kind of oil used foi' burning in lamps varies, in dlfTcront parts of the world, with the sources of supply. Whale oil is used in Great Britain, but seal oil, fluh oil, and oils obtained from seeds by pressure are also largely consumed. In Paris the oiU of rape-Mcd and of poppy-aced are used; and in the south of France, and in Italy, an inferior kind of olive oil, and also the oil of the earth-nut, are employed. In the Utter country a lamp oil is expressed from grape-stones. In Piedmont walnut oil is common ; oil of sesamum-seed is burned on the eastern and southern coasts of the Mediterranean ; while in tropical countries coeoa-nut oil, whicli is solid in tlio climate of Great Britain, Is generally used. In China, tlie C'amdlia (^i/'em is cultivated for the sake of the oil obtained from its seeds ; also a shrub, C'roton gebifcrum, the ft'uit of which yields a useful oil. In cuusequcnce of the deflcieot supply of talluw during tlie late war with Russia, in- quiries have been set on foot in various parts of the world as to the seeds and other vegetable products from which oil may be obtained, and the result of tlicse inquiries has already shown tliat many oil-yield- ii\i, substances, not before known in commerce, exist. The export of oils from the East Indies, especially gingetlijy has greatly increased. Pistachio-nut oil is becoming common, as is also ground-nut oil from Africa. Ail these oils are used for burning in lamps. The following is a list of the plants which yield the ordinary unctuous oils of commerce : Uauni UBltatisslmuiii et poreniio L>. Coiylus avcllana) p Jiiglansrcgia ) I'aiiavcr Bonmifcrum D. Cannabis aatlva D. Scsamum orientale G. Olea Kiiropea .- G-. AmygdnluB coinmnniB G. Guilandina molirlnga O. Cucurbita pcpo, and melapcpo D. FitguB BiWatica G. .Simipts nigra et arrensis G. llelianthuB annuua ct porcnnis D. Itras8ica napuB ct campcBtris G. HfcinuB comniunts D. Nicotlana taoacum ct rustica D. rriiiius domcstlca G. VltiB Tlnlfera D. Thcobroma cacao G. ('ocoa nucifcra G. ('oeus butyracca rel avolra elais G. Laurua nobilis G. ArachlB hypogica G. Vatcria indica G. HcDpcris matronalia D. Myagrum Hativa D. Uuscda luteola D. Lepidium Bativum D. Atropa bcUadnnna 1). Crossypium Ilarbadcnse D. Itrasstca campcatria olclfcra G. Hrasslca pra^cox (i. liapliaiiuB Bativus olclfer G. Trunus cerasus G. Pynis maltis (K KtionymuB Kuropffius (r. (^urnua sauguinca (r. Cypents Rseulout4i G. Hyosciamus niger G. .I'^Bculus bippocaBtanum G. rinus abiefi 1>. Linaeed oil . Nut oil Poppy oil Hemp oil Oil of BCBaininn Olive oil Almond oil Oil of bchen or lien Cucumber oil Beech oil Oil of mustard Oil of Bunflower Rape-seed oil Castor oil Tobscco-Beed oil Plum-kernel oil Grape-seed oil Butter of cacao Cocoa-nut oil Palm oil Ijkurcl oil Ground-nut oil Pincy tallow Oil of Julienne Oil of camel; la Oil of weld-seed Oil of garden creHsoB Oil of deadly nlglit-shado Cottoii-Bocd oil Colza oil Summer rapc-sccd oil Oil of radisli-seed Clicny-stone oil Applc-Bced oil Spindle-tree oil Comil-berry tree oil Oil of the roots of cyper grosB. Ilcnhane.soed oil llorsc-chcBtnut oil IMnetop oil Specific Gravity 0-11347 0D260 0-9248 OflSSTd o-oiie 9180 d'<6281 0'99'25 0-9180 o^isa O-OIM OtIOIl 0-9283 0-912T 0-9202 0-892 0'-»fl8 0'92fS 0-!)'281 0-9282 0-93RS 0-9240 0-9260 0-6i88 09139 0-9181 0-92S9 0-9380 o'-iiso 0-9130 0-027 0-286 CamUii. — A fair crop oryicld of olive oil is estimated at two million gallons, and two aud a half millions an abundant crop. Although immense numbers of olive- trees were cut down during the " Greek war" and the civil commotion in 1810, the population is still insuffi- cient to attend to them, and the only culture they re- ceive is slightly plowing the ground on which tliey stand. The fruit is allowed to drop from the tree, when it is collected by women and children, who re- ceive for their trouble one-third the quantity they col- lect; if the crop is abundant, generally one quarter is lost for want of hands to collect it. In the district of Opokoio tlio fruit is beaten from the trees, evidently to its injury, for it is smaller in that section than in any other part of the island. The fruit is collected in heaps and taken to a wooden mill of very primitive and rough construction, operated by four men. The oU from the first pressure belongs to the owner of the olives, out of which the government receives one-tenth ; the mass is again pressed, and one-third quantity, in comparison with .the first pressure, is obtained, al- though of an inferior quality; this is divided into tenths, one of which belongs to the government, two divided among the workmen, and the remaindeT be- longs to the owner of the mill. WHALE OIL. STATEIimrP OP THE QUANTITIES OF OIL AKD DOHK TBA>- BlIirrSD AT THE SanUWIOH ISLANDS IN 1664. TowhatCounlry, ScMon. Si-erm OU. Whale Oil. Bmm. Uillonl. Oalloni. Poundi. United States Spring 49,801 267,380 28,766 do. Fall. 00,449 ],269,398 T62,8fl» do. do. 46,674 104,769 864,241 Bremen do. .... 10,244 26,288 Havre do. 26,172 46,810 Total 1.V4 .... 166,484 1,665,9-Jl 1,508,443 do. 1863 176.396 B,7R7,348 2,020,264 OIL 1468 OIL IHVOSTATIOKB or 8pnUI AKD WHALK nil, AtrO WRAMBOm INTO TUa I NITXII HTATKB IN IHA6. 1 8p«nn UU. 1 Wh«l« UU. Wlialabooi. Now Bedford Fairhaven BainU. B.>,S86 6,696 1,027 1,247 979 293 Uamli. 81,782 9,648 1,899 384 868 8i l-iMiniU. 1,087,000 26,800 8,400 1,600 Weitport Mattapolaett Blpplcan Dis. of New Bedford . Bandwloh «2,12T 880 807 288 1,227 6,018 889 480 879 281 141 BO 8,073 700 961 121 220 664 675 i,'oss 98,664- 140 2,477 890 6,171 T,86i 8,806 889 842 219 144 1,941 11,903 ai,80S 6,146 6,307 4,087 18) S,6»rt 18,097 1,128,800 1,000 18,400 2,000 104.300 67.61)0 4.000 3,000 28,600 1,200 ii.'ew) 109,000 849,900 09,000 41,600 82,200 4,000 27,000 691,200 Fatuouth Ilolmaa'a Uole Edgartown Nantuclict Provincetown Boston gitieni BeverlT Fall River Warren Newport Now London Myatlc Stonlngton gag Harbor Oreenport Cold Spring New York Total for 188J. . . . 80,941 197,890 2,682,700 Imports or kacii Momtii or 1860. January, no arrivals. February March April May ilune July August Soptember October November December Totol 8prrali. S.'iil 20,967 49.860 62,246 87,6ii9 13,683 8,118 8,304 2,090 l,;i6'2 388 197,890 Poundi, 48.300 678,900 838,000 418,300 824,800 162,000 4;i,900 88,800 8,200 80,600 8,602,7110 In addition to tlie above tliere bavo been imported into tlie port of Boston from St. John's, Newfoundland, 3129 barrels seal oil, 124 barrels whale oil, and 20 bar- rels sperm oil. The following table gives a summary of the impor- tations of oil and bono into the United States for the past sixteen years : Vim. Sparoi Oil. Whala OU. WhalaboDB. Bamli. Puundi. Imports for 1841.. 15;).304 207.848 2,000.000 ** 1842.. 106.6;7 161,041 1,600.000 li 1843.. 16D,«86 206,727 2.00)), OOO tl 1844.. 133.6:14 262.047 8.682,446 i* 184-i.. 167,917 272.730 3,107,142 li 1840.. 95,217 207,493 2,270,989 11 1847 . . 120,763 813,160 3,341,680 II 1843.. 107.976 2811,656 2,003,000 II 1849.. 100,944 248,492 2,281,100 II I860.. 92,893 200,008 2,809,200 II 1861.. 99,691 82S,4S3 8,916,600 u 1852 . . 73,872 84,211 1,269,900 II 1863.. 103,077 260.114 6.0.i2,300 II 1854.. 76,096 319,837 3.446 200 II 1865.. 72,649 181,016 2,707,600 " 1S66.. 80,941 197,890 2,692,700 Etatkhcht or tiik avkbaue I'nir ES or 8pgii 4 AND WlIALB on. AM) WUA1.I!D(I. FOKI». Vaan. Sperm on. Whale on. Whalebone i ^841 100c. 94 78 68 90i 83 871 lOOf 108 9-10 120 7-10 mt 128J 1241 14S| 177 2-10 162 30io. 8li 88( 84t mi 82J 83t 30 89 9-10 49 6-10 46 6-16 m mi 68J 71 8-10 79t 19c. 191 23 851 40 m 84 80) 81 8-10 84 4-10 84t 60J 841 89 1-8 4JH 68 1S42 1848 1844 1846 1846 1847 184S 1849 1800 18B1 1868 1863 1SB4 Igfls 1886 NOHTII PACIFIC riRHEHY. Tabm snowiNo THE Nciideb or Ships enuaued in tiis NoBTH HAOirin Kibueby rna the last rirrEEic Vxarb, AND TUX AVEEAUE (4UANTITT or OIL TAKEN. Vean. Shipi. 1841. 1842. 1848. 1844. 1845. 1849. 1347. 1848. l»t». 1861. 1881. 1863. 186:1. Number. 20 29 103 170 268 292 177 160 166 jm^ 144 .!t::::;::;:::: 138 883 288 1854. 1366. 282 217 Average. Barrajar~ 1412 1627 1349 1623 968 100 1069 1164 1384 1692 026 1848 912 7i'4 878 In 1856 about 181 ships cruised in the Nortliurn Seas, two of which were lost, and three have not been reported during the season. United States Vessels EHPLorxn in tue WnALi Fisn- EBY, Januabv 1, 1S67. 'a^-ir Barke. Driia. Sehoenere. Tonnafa. New Bedford Falrhaven Weatport Dartmouth 329 47 14 10 12 i "i '6 1 1 1 i 3 111..164 16,666 8.983 2,700 8,530 319 874 Mattapoisett Sipplcan Wareham Dis. of New Bedford Sandwich Falmouth Holmes's Hole Edgartown Nantucket Provincetown Beverly Lynn Orleans 418 "b 8 14 88 6 2 1 1 3 16 1 4 50 6 6 14 9 6 9 1 'i "i 2 "2 "4 '8 'a 2 16 133,926 166 1,106 1,219 4,966 18.620 2,736 462 823 616 716 6,043 2(18 1,2(10 18,999 1,340 1,949 6,261 2,652 2,129 Fall River Warren Providence Newport New London Mystic Stonlngton Sag Harbor Grcenport Cold Spring Total Jan. 1. 1357 . 533 22 40 i ■204,2110 1 Showing an addition of eight ships, one brig, and eleven schooners, with an addition in the aggregate tonnage of 50U8 tons. Of the abovo arc owned in the State of — Shipe and Barki. Briga. Sfboonen. Tonnage. Massachusetts Khodc Island Connecticut New York 483 20 63 28 16 4 2 27 ii 2 1(I4.N32 6 647 22,783 10.('42 Total 603 22 1 40 204.208 The number of vessels and amount of tonnage em- ployed in the Whale Fishery since 1844 lias been as follows: Veara. Shine Barke. Briga. Schoonere. Tonnage. January 1,1344.... 695 41 2WI,147 " 1.S45 .... 043 !I6 17 218066 " 1846 .... 678 38 22 283. mo 1847 .... 670 31 21 2811,218 1848.... 621 22 16 210.603 1349 .... 681 21 18 196,118 " 1860 .... 610 20 18 171,484 " 1861.... 502 24 17 171,fr71 " 1868 .... 6rv3 27 86 193.990 " 1858.... 599 80 88 206.286 " 1884.... 602 28 88 208.399 " 1868.... 684 20 84 109.848 " 18B6.... 686 81 29 169,141 —Xea Btdfard Shipping LUt. OIL 1460 OIL Ewo«T« o» DoMuno OiM FioM m VmnD Htatm fou Tin FwoAt Yiam iiioiMa Jpin 80, 18MI 133,026 106 1,106 1,219 4.056 13,020 2,736 462 823 616 716 6,043 2f.8 1,200 18,999 1,840 1,949 6,261 2,«b2 2,129 IM.Hil'i 54T 22,-SS 10.l'42 r204.20S page em- ^ been as 2WI,147 |2ISC6K 233. ISO 230,218 210,603 190,112 171,484 171,1.71 198,990 206,280 208,899 199,842 199,141 Wlillhn Kipoitad. Kuulan I'oshhIoiw In North Amerin I'rawla • • Swedtn and Norway Bwediah Weat Indlea Denmark llaniah Weat Indiea IlanibuTK Bremen Other Oennan porta Holland Dutch Weat Indlea Duleh Guiana Dutoh Eaat Indlea. Ilelglum Kngland Scotland Canada - - - - Other Urltlah North American Poaaeaalona Britiih Weat Indlea IlritUh Oulana Brltlah Poaaeaalona In Africa British AnatralU Bi'itUh I'^st Indies France on the Atlantic French North American I'osaeaaloni French (rulana Spain on the Mediterranean Cubs Porto Itlco Cape do Verd Islanda llayti Mexico Central Republic New Uranada Venezuela •Brisil Chill Peru Sandwich Islands Whale Fisheries Total year lSe6-'63 Statembht giiowiNO THK IHPOBTS OF OH.B INTO Tua Unitkd Htatkh fon tun VitAn ttiditNO .Ickk 30, 1850. Rai^t M.4 NMt'H-rooi Kmo. Olln, Oliv., Culor. LiuHd. ■nd ••tlm. fttiil ulhcr II.I Id In Wh«DC« Importad. Hamp H*i, Kiiltnftl. OIU. railii. BoltiM Valu., Osllau. V»lu.. Gsllou. Vslw. U.II.. Vslug, (islbM, V.lu.. Vftlue, V.lu,,- V.lue, « « ■»■■■ t ■■'♦ ■■■■ * * • Danish Weat Indies .... .... . • • > 1,016 071 Hamburg . . •■ 886 T87 20,018 1U,2N I 1 • > «... ■ III 8,004 3,009 Bremen < • • • , . , , 120 INI till • I 1 a 6 18,007 Holland . . * > 8,480 6,241 96 6*1 ■ III .1.1 lilt l,05t I . . 1 Dutch East Indies I 1 •• < a > • I a t 1 S . 1 . . .... Belgium 6S1 805 . . . 40 25 * 1 1 t 1,020 .... England 66,686 42,189 1,091,205 05 1,048,010 16,127 0,191 S>4,4Tt 1 1,012 4 1 a 21,208 0,i65 4,230 Scotland 01 .11. Ireland .... • ••> • . • • > 1 . > • . a 1 • t . . Olbraltar .... . . . t < • . • 1 . 1 • a a a 1 t . 1 a .... .... .... MalU > • • • .... .... ■ 1 1 a a 1 . • 1 . . . 0,910 Canada > • • ■ 46 25 .... 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 '244 10 22 286 Other British N. A. Foas. III. no .... British Poss. in Africa . . * • • • .... .... .... U(lH,()1iO TT.TOT t . . I .... .... Other ports in Africa . . . . . . • < t . a • I.I UlO,5»0 a25,7r>2 27 .... British Australia • . • • « I . 1 • III 1 • . . 1 . . . .... .... British East Indies 87,816 K,8a7 I • > 1 .11. t 1 t t 8,701 France on the Atlantic . . 11,478 7,700 11,4;'U 0,4117 I I t a 1 1 > . 1 I I I 12,2SI 811 5:i.4.'ii France on the Med'n, , . . . ■ . • • . • . ail. < • 1 a >* 1 1 18,ftstl 18,005 249,708 Spain on the Atlantic .. . tilt I 1 t 1 till 767 ii,h:ii . . . ■ Spain on the Med'n 1 . . a • lit 1 1 . 1 . . . • 18,881 893 Cuba a . t i . • t 1 a I a a 85 939 1,701 Porto Klco 80 64 .... .... .... .... .... .... .... r.,'04H ""2 Portugal Sardinia all. lilt .... M4 6010 87,10-.' Tuscany .11. tilt ,, ,, 720 0,038 28 034 Two Sicilies a . . a t 1 t a .... 17,360 13,81^8 8^8 Austria • I . > a a 1 a .... 4,KI9 77 Turkey in Europo • > > • t • ■ • • * . > .... .... .... 1 .. . .... .... 3,407 Turkey in Asia . ■ • • > * • . • .... ...» • 1 . . .ill .... .... 882 .... Mexico SO 26 .... .... .... ""4 ""n •"• "20 '.'.'.'. Now Rrsnada Braiil .... .... .... 660 tfiO .... 197 20,812 .... ■"io China Whalo Fisheries Total . • . • ^003,771 Riii529 833 4lo.nit .... ....!,... — 148,681 06,371 li7TI»,208 20,15il 1,1111,6(7 4t(r"|ll9.488j94,lfl3 l376,85«| An instance of tbo denianil for oil is manifest in the palm-oil trade with the west coast of Africn. A few years ago — probably less than fifteen — palm oil, in the west of Africa, was worth a dollar a gallon, and a late account from that region says not one thousand gallons left the country in a year. Now the tratllc in that article with Great Britain alone amounts to /OO.OOO Kalloni a year, at an overage of thirty-three cents a gallon ; and with tlio L'nltod Slates as much moro. For lubricating machinery, particularly in steam factories and on railroads in (Ireat Britain, this oil is uiod more than any or all other articles, being both cheaper and Itettor. There Is now a monthly Ifce of steamers from Southampton to the weit coMt of Af- ,-..^ OtI uih OM rica, the Madeira and Canary U\e». Bristol has fifty- four ships in tho trade with that coast; Liverpool thirty-flvo ; and the entire number flrom tireat Dritain, both steamers and sailing vessels, is not less than one hundred. Sotne of these ah) ships of 1000 tons burden. President Roberts, of Liberia, says twenty ship-loads of palm oil go from Slonrovia every year. Tho import of oils into tho United States has been as follows : ISM. lUI. 1 QllloM. V>llM. $I2,8(M Qlllool. \>in. Whale 8l),a«e 10.1,894 (I86,i)li7 OUve 81,600 6D,J8T 12«,478 88,646 OUve In bgt • • * • t • • • 88,690 816,154 Llnieed .... 1,168,«4T 487,|i20 1,248.085 . 7T6,0T7 Kape-seed ., Palm 18« at 45,881 26.-668 . . <. .... 767,784 296,211 Neit'a-foot.. 6,SI84 2,899 ToUl 1,2«6,U62 ${>a),«3o 2,830.062 $l,Ml,g02 IncruK . . , 1,(188.01)0 986,882 The table does not include the domestic catch of whales, but only tho wlialo oil Imported mostly from tho Uritish Possessions and China. Tho ollvo oil In bottles has been estimated In gallons, and is mostly of French origin. Tho linseed is almost altogether En- glish.— See Olive Oil. Benzole, or CoiU OH, is a new discovery of producing oil from certain kinds of bituminous coal. At Clover- port, Kentucky, on the Ohio Klvcr, arc extensive new works, ninning twelve retorts night and day, consum- ing from eight to ten tons of coal every twenty-four hours, and producing 750 gallons of crude oil. Re-dis- tilled, this quantity yields COO gallons of refined oils ; viz., 125 gallons of benzole, 7.5 of naphtha, iib of lubri- cating oil, and 175 of oil for Illuminating purposes. Jlonzole readily sells at $1 60 per gallon ; Inbricating oil at ft 25; naphtha and burninf:^ at eighty cents. Preparations are making at Cloverport for the manu- facture of a beautiful semi-transparent candle from the substance called " paraffine," resembling spermaceti, and which is formed in pearly crystals in the dark oils of the last distillations after they have cooled. The paraffine, as remarked by Professor Sillinian, Jun., docs not exist ready formed in the original crude prod- uct, but is a result of the high temperature employed In the process of distillation, by which the elements arc newly arranged. It derives its name from the un- alterable nature of tho substance under the most pow- erful chemical agent. Tiie residuum from tho lost dis- tillation makes the first quality of asphaltuni, used fbr smearing vaults, etc., now imported and sold at thirty dollars per ton. Oil-painting. Painting in which tho medium for using the colors is oil. It Is said to have been un- known to the ancients, and not used earlier than tho fourteenth century ; Its Invention being attributed to John Van Eyck, sometimes called John of Bruges. By him it was supposed to have been imparted to one Antonio da Messina, who lirst brought it to Venice. Giovanni Bellini, by a stratagem, got possession of the secret from him, and then made it publicly known. Oil-painting has tho advantages, above all other modes, of affording great delicacy of execution, a union and insensible blending of the colors, and, above all, that of Imparting great force to its ofTcrts, The vari- ous colors chiefly used in oil-painting are white-lead, Cremnltz white, chrome, king's yellow, Naples and pat- ent 3'cllow, tho ochres, Dutch pink, terra da Sienna, yellow lake, vermilion, red-lead, Indian and Venetian red, the several sorts of lake, brown pink, Vandyke brown, burned and unburned umber, uUrauiarino, Prussian and Antwerp blue, ivory black, blue black, asphaltum. The principal oils are those extracted from the poppy, nut, and linseed. With the latter, driers are introduced. — See Paints. Oldenburg, a state of Gcnnany, in tho northwest, with the title of Grand Ducliy, composed of three sep- arate portions : 1st. Tlio Duchy of Oldenburg, which forms eight-ninths of tho territory. It is surrounded by Hanover on the east, south, and west, and bounded north by the North Seo ; capital, Oldenburg | 2d. Tho Principality of Lilbcck, orEiUin, inclosed in the Duchy of Ilolstciu (Denmark) ; and, 3d. The Principality of Birkenfcid, between Rhenish Prussia and Ilolstcin Ilomburg; capital, Birkenfcid. Area, 2121 square miles. Population in 1852, 281,92,1. Oldenburg lies in tho basin of tho North Sea, and Is entirely flat. Soil in general fertile, but in several places arc extens- ive sand dunes and marshes. Corn raised insutncicnt for consumption. Pasturage excellent ; horses, cattle, and sheep extensively reared. Manufactures confined to Uncn-weaving and coarse woolens. Revenue (esti- mated), 1854, 8ill,000 thalcrs; expenses, 979,000 tlia- lers; public debt, 1,000,000 tlialers. Oldenburg, tho capital, is sitnntcd at the conflux of the Huntc with the Ilaarcn, which hero forms a small port, eiglity miles wcBt-soiithwcst of Hamburg. Population, 7829. It is the residence of tho Grand Duke. Population of circle in 1852, 89,453. C'osiMiRCE or (iLDENyrBa IN 1S64 and 1S66. Enliireit. Cleutd. 1 Niunlwr. Tonnige. Kqufpmenl. Number. T«m)aK«. EquiprQent. S67 6871 fl.'>,Ml 77,r,«6 r).S(l» 13.677 89S 5964 68.076 66,169 11.761 Coasting resflels Total in 1S64 TT38 6668 2(180 142,896 84,124 ri8,77-J 19,446 12,599 fi,847 6862 6054 1S08 183,234 T9,7S2 6t,l62 . 17,766 11,464 O.ifll Foreign Total In 1866 6966 131,9!)1 17,613 6080 l'Jl,760 1.^,791 . Ollbanum (Ft. Kncen>; Gcr. Weimnch; It. Oliba- no ; Arab. Ijxban), a gum-resin, the produce of a large tree (/,{6eforo tlie beginning of March. Honcc, In time bargains, the payment of tho money precedes the delivery of tho oil more than a month : scarce an instance is on record of nn engagement of this sort having been broken, and the order is as read- ily ncgotlablo as nny other security. In purchases of oil at command, payment likewise precedes tho deliv- ery of the article; but in this caso the advance is con- Hned to the five days necessary to transmit the order to the cariealore where the oil is kept for delivery. The oil remains in the caricatore under tho care and respons- ibility of the vendor, to l>e delivered on demand to the bearer of the order, free of all costs and charges what- ever for tho first year; but for every successive year from 25 to 30 grains per salma are charged for keeping, ond for renewal of warranty. (Wo are indebted for these details to a verj' valuoblo Keport by Mr. Steel, of Naples are produced in Apulia, from Bari to its ' British vice-consul at Galllpoli, and to a brochure of southern extremity, the Capo di Leuca, a district com- ! M. Slillenet, entitled Coup tie (Ed sur le Rot/aume dt prising the territories which export from Gallipoli and Taranto; and in Calabria from liossano, on the Gulf of Taranto, across to Gioja. The whole coast from Sap'.es. Naples, 1832.) for the trade in Olive oil, see article Oii.s. Olive-tree. The wood of the olive is heavy, com- Gjoja as far as Gaeta is covered with olive-trees. ! pact, fine-grained, and )>rilllant. The sop-wood is They are also abundant in tho Aiiruzzi and the Terra I white and soft, anil the heart-wood hard, brittle, and di Lavora ; bnt Apulia and Calabria furnish liy far the of a reddish or yellowish tint, with the pith nearly ef- greatcst quantity of oil. The principal magazines, or caricalori, for oil, are at Gallipoli and Giojn. Gol- lipoli supplies England, Holland, the north of Europe, and, in short, all those countries that require tho most perfectly purified oil. It Is clarified fu the highest de. faced, as In the box. It Is employed by cabinet-mak- ers to inlay the finer species of wood, which are con- trasted with it in color, nnil to form light articles of ornament, such as dress'ng-cases, snuff-boxes, etc. Tho wood of file roots, vliicji is agreeably marbled. Is pre- greo by" merely keeping It In cisterns h(dlowed out of ! ferred to that of tlio trunk. On account of its hard, the rock on which tho town Is built. The voyages It ness and durability, tho wood of tills tree was anclent- hos to perform being long, it is put into casks' so well ly used for the hinges of doors ; and, before metal be- constructed that it frequently arrives at Petersburg in ' came common, it was selected by the Greeks for the the heat of summer without the least waste or leakage I linages of their gods. From Its resinous and oleagin- an advantage attributed to tho seasoning of the mis nature, the wood of this tree is exceedingly coin- staves, which, beforo they arc put together, are well aoaked in soa-water. Tho oil received into the cisterns in Galllpoli, either belongs to the proprietor, who buys it of the plimtor, or is received in deposit on account of some other party, i bitter principle, and is regarded as tonio and febrifu- who gets a receipt (Aii;iie«odin«j(7jOiino) specifying tiie j gal. Tho leaves are astringent. quantity of the oil received on his account, its quality, | The olives are first bruised by a mill-stone, auffi- liiistililc, and Imrns as well before as after It is dried. There exudes from its wood n gum, which is sometimes sold for gum-clemi. There is also extracted froin this tree a substance called olivine. The bark contains a OMN 1472 OPA clently hard ai not to break tlia kerneli, and are then put into lacks of coane linen, featlier-grau, or or wool, and suljcctcd to heavy presaure, by which means the most fluid and the best liqucr is forced out, and is call- ed virgin oil. It is received into vessels half tilled with water, from which it is skimmed, and put into tubs, barrels, and bottles for use. Several coarser kinds of oil are afterward obtained, by adding hot water to the bruised fruit. The best olive oil is of a bright pale- amber color, without smell, and bland to the taste. Kept warm, it becomes rancid, and at 38° Fahr. it congeals. It is of the same nature as all mild ox- pressed vegetable oils ; of these the most fluid are pre- ferred, and hence the oIIh of olives and of almonds arc those chiefly used in medicine. One of the most es- teemed kinds of oil is that produced at Aix (^Uuita d'Aix en Provence'). Florence oil is also a line kind, imported from Leghorn in flasks surrounded by a kind of not- work, formed of the leaves of u monocotylcdonous plant. These are the kinds of olive oil in moat frequent use at the table fur salads (hence they are called Salad oiU). Lttcea oil is imported in jars liolding about nineteen gallons each, (itnoa oil is a lino kind. GaHipoU oil is imported in casks, and constitutes the largest por- tion of the olive oil imported into England. Sicily oil is of an inferior quality. Spanish oil is the worst. The foot deposited by olive nil i» used for ailing ma- chinery, under the name of Dropiiingt of Sweet oiJ. Another important advantage aflbrded by this tree is its fruit in a pickled 3tate. It is gathered unripe, and sull'ercd to steep in wutur for some days, and is aft- erward put into a lye of water and barilla, or kali, with the ashes of olive-stones, or with lime. It is then put up in earthen bottles, or in barrels, with salt and water, and in this state is ready for use. Olives are eaten be- fore, as well as after meals, and are believed to excite appetite and promote digestion. The flnest kind of prepared fruit is known in commerce by the name of Picholine$, after one Pichulini, an Italian, who flrst dis- covered the art of pickling olives. The fruit of the olive is of a pleasant taste, and is eaten by the mod- em Greeks during Lent, in its ripe state, without any preparation, except with the addition of a little pep- per, salt, and oil. From the value of its products, in a commercial point of view, aside from other consider- ations, the culture of the olive strongly claims the at- tention of the American agriculturist, and the trial should be made in every place where its failure is not certain, and for this purpose young grafted trees of hardy and choice varieties should be obtained from Europe, and the formation of nurseries immediately begun. A portion of Texas, Louisiana, the islands of Georgia, and chosen exposures of the interior of the last-named State, as well ns of some of the Western States, California, or of Oregon, will lie the scene of this species of culture, if ever attended with success in North America. — Uiiownk's Trees of America. Omnium, a term used at the I'^nglish Stock Ex- change, to express the aggregate value of the different stocks in which a loan is now usually funded. Thus, in the English loan of ^£36,000,000 contracted for in June, 1815, the omnium consisted of £130 3 per cent, re- duced annuities, £44 3 per cent, consols, and £10 4 per cent, annuities, fur each £100 subscribed. The loan was contracted fur on the 14th of June, wlien the prices of the above stocks were — 3 per cent, reduced, 54; 3 per cent, consols, &5; 4 per cents., 70; hence the par- cels of stock given for £100 advanced, were worth — t I. i. X130 reduced, At r>4 TO 4 £44 consols, at bS 24 4 XIO 4 per cents., at TO .TO O Together 101 8 o' which would be the value of the omnium, or £1 8<. per cent, premium, independently of any discount for prompt payment. Onion (Ger. Zwiebelf Fr. Oignoat It. CipoUa; Sp. Cebollai Rum. Luk), a well-known bulboi^s plant (_AlH- urn Ctpa, Linn.) cultivated all over Europe and the U. States for cuiinary purposes. The Strasburg, Span- ish, and Portuguese varieties are the most esteemed. Ontario, a lake of New York and Canada, eastern- most and smallest in extent of the Ave great lakes of North America. It is between 48° 10' and 44° N. lat., and between 70° and 88° W. long. It receives Niagara Kiver, the great outlet of the upper lakes, In its south- western part, and has its outlet by the St. Lawrence River in its northeastern part, in which, immediately below the lake. Is tho cluster denominated the " Thou- sand Islands." Its shape approaches to a long and narrow ellipse, being 190 miles long, and 6& wide in its widest part, and about 480 miles in circumference. It is in some places over 600 feet deep, so that its bottom is considerably below tho level of the Atlantic. Its sur- face is 830 feet below the level of Lake Erie, and 134^ feet above tide-water. In every part it has sufficient depth of water for tho largest vessels. It has many good harbors, and is rarely frozen excepting in shallow parts near tho shore. The principal rivers which enter it from the southern side are the Genesee, Oswego, and lilack rivers, and a large number of creeks. The Day of Quinte is a long and irregular l)ody of water on its eastern part, which receives a considerable river, tho outlet of several small lakes, and liurlington Bay is in its western part. Both these bays are in Canada. It has several important places on its shores, the princi- pal of which are Kingston, Toronto, and Coburg, in Canada; and Oswego, Sackett's Harbor, Port Genesee, or Charlotte, in the United States. It is subject to violent storms aud heavy swells. It is connected with tho Erie Canal by the Oswego Canal, aud from thenco the Erie Canal forms a navigable communication with the Hudson Kiver, a distance of 209 miles; and much of the trade of New York for tho West passes through it and through the Welland Canal, whicli is 28 miles long, with 27 locks, and admits the passage of tho largest vessels which navigate the lakes. This canal commences at Sherbroke, near the mouth of Grand Kiver, on Lake Erie, and terminates at Port Dalhou- sie, on Lake Ontario, nine miles west of Niagara vil- lage. Its entrance being a considerable distance weftt of the outlet of Lake Erie, it is open earlier than the Erie Canal at Buffalo, where the ice often accumulates in the spring. The Rideau Canal forms a navigable communication with the Ottawa Kiver, 120 miles. It has 15 light-houses on the American sliore, and 18 on the Canadian side. — See Lakks, Commerce of. Onyx (Ger. Onyx; Fr. Onit, Onice; Sp. Onigue; Lat. Onyx). Any stone exhibiting layers of two or more colors strongly contrasted is called an onyx, as banded jasper, chalcedony, etc., but more particularly the latter, when it is marked with white, and stratified with opaque and translucent lines. But tho Oriental onyx is considered a substance consisting of two or more layers or bands of distinct and different colors. A sard, or sardoine, having a layer of white upon it, would be called an onyx ; and according to the num- ber of layers it would bo distinguished as an onyx with three or more bands. Some of tho antique engravings are upon onyxes of four bands. — Mawe's Treatise on Diamonds, etc. Opal (Ger. Opal; Fr. Opak; It. Opah; Sp. Opalo, Piedra iris; Poil.Opala; hat.Opalus),ii stone, of which there are several varieties, found in different parts of Europe, particularly in Hungary, and in the East In- dies, etc. When flrst dug out of the earth it is soft, but it hardens and diminishes in bulk by exposure to the air. Tho opal is always amorphous ; fracture con- choidal ; commonly somewhat transparent. Hardness varies considerably. Specific gravity from 1'968 to 2'54. The lowness of its specific gravity in some cases is to bo ascribed to accidental cavities which the stone contains. These are sometimes filled with drops of water. Some specimens of opal have the property of OH 1478 am Sp. Opalo, I, of which t parts of J East In- it is soft, xposure to icture con- Hardness 1-968 to some cases 1 the stone 1 drops of roperty of emitting various colored rays, with « particular olTUl. gcncy, wlieii placed bctucon the eye and the llKlit, The upaU which possess this property are I'llstiiigulah- ed l>y lapidaries by the epithet Oi-ienlali anil often, by mineralogists, by the epithet nubilii. This property rendered the stone much esteemed by the ancients. — Tiiomson'h Chem'utrji ; see also ruNY, lliit. Nal. lib. xxxvii. c. (I, where there are some very curious details as to this stone. Opium (Qer. i1/oAMa/7; Vt.Opinm) \t.Oppio; Sp. and I'ort. (>j>io,' Lat. Opiumi Arab. Ufyooni Hind. I'fcim ; Turk, ifadjoon), the concrete Juice of the white puppy (_I'apaoer lommferum'), which is most probably a oly of the governmaiK, mM niii in Pmk Mttii tiiflwy. It was tint Imporlud iiilii I'IiImh \if llin I'lirtiiKUese | but up to the y<«r I7 cently its furllisr imporlwlimt UlUi < lijiirt 4*its pfolillH itod. Since that iwrbiij ||mi mtmiH sHcccods the le- P"l'l'y y.' "P""" 'iimnticruaij, niiiwu u uiuai, |iiuuauij> it i uuu. oiiica uiai iwF)iii) iiMi nimijitim »H((ceil» the le- nativo of Asia, though now found growing wild in the j gal importer j and ^MmnU |Im< Umimimiiill h iitt Ion- southern parts of Europe, and even in England. Opium Is chiefly prepared In India, Turkey, and Persia; but the white poppy is extensively cultivated in France and other parts of Europe, on account of its capsules, and of t)ie useful bland oil obtained from its seeds. It has also been cultivated, and opium made, in En- i;land ; but there is very little probability of Us ever being raised here to any considerable extent. The poppy is an annual plant, with a stalk rising to the lieight of three or four feet; its leaves resemble those of tho lettuce, and its flower ha* the appearance of a tulip. When at its full growth, an incision is made in the top of the plant, from which there issues a white milky Juice, which soon hardens, and is scraped oR' the plants, and wrought into cakes. In India, these are covered with the petals of the plant to prevent their slicking together, and in this situation are dried, and packed in chests lined with hides and covered with gunny, each containing forty cakes, and weighing two maunils, or 149] lbs. ; they are exported in this state to tho places where the opium is consumed. Turkey opium is in flat pieces, covered with loaves, and the reddish capsules of some species of rumex, which is considered an indication of its goodness, as the inferior kinds have none of these capsules adhering to them. According to Dr. A, T. Thomson, Turkey opium has a peculiar strong, heavy, narcotic odor, and a bitter taste, accompanied by a sensation of acrid heat, or biting on the tongue and lips, if it be well chewed. Its color, when good, is a reddish brown, or fawn color ; its tex- ture compact and uniform. Its specilio gravity is 1-336. When soft, it is tenacious ; but when long exposed to the air, it becomes hard, breaks with a uniform shin- ing fracture, is pulverulent, and affords a yellowish brown powder. East Indian opium has a strong em- pyreumatic smell, but not much of tho peculiar nar- cotic, heavy odor of tho Turkey opium ; the taste is more bitter, and equally nauseous, but it has less acri- mony, 1 1 agrees with the Turkey opium in other sensi- ble qualities, except that its color is blacker, and its texture less plastic, although it is as tenacious. Good Turkey opium has been found to yield nearly three times the quantity of morphia, or of tho peculiar prin- ciple of tho drug, that is yielded by East Indian opi- um. Opium is regarded as bad when it is very soft, greasy, light, friable, of an intensely black color, or mix- ed with many impurities. A weak or empyreumatic odor, a slightly bitter or acrid, or a sweetish taste, or the power of marking a brown or black continuous streak when drawn across paper, are all symptoms of inferior opium. — Dispetuatory. The raising of opium is a very hazardous business ; tho poppy being a deli- cate plant, peculiarly liable to injury from insects, wind, hail, or unseasonable rain. The produce seldom agrees with the true average, but commonly runs in extremes ; while one cultivator is disappointed, another reaps immense gain. One season does not pay the la- bor of the culture ; another, peculiarly fortunate, en- riches all the cultivators. This circumstanoo is well suited to allure jnan, ever confident of good fortune. — Colbbrookb's Hiubandry of Bengal. Tke Opium TVode.— This drug is chiefly grown in BritUh India, whert it has long been » (trict monop- 6A ger conducted In |Im> v.'|y iiaw|, liMlll ttn « tlWsllCHliirr and in smoking, in 'iufkuy ftltii llMtti l/ld Hn tjtont con- sumption is in t'liin* mn\ tlitt mmmnUllis (•(.(mtrlei., where the liuliit of SHtukllllj it Unit hfiiiim Hllfiust uhl- versttl. Tho VMnmu liiiil iil p^fiUtt tll« miiU upluin ; and l)y this process the iH)|Mirltlf*, ffmiitln unil Rum- my matter, are sopsrutflrt, tout (lie mmMm extrart only is reserved fur itsu, 'J Ima liCfliOfcd, ((l« iIKik loses its ordinary strong And urfi'Mait'x nnmmiU' uiiiit, and has even a ft-agraiit and ^nmMf mfmm, A matt ball of it, inserted in » iHrgH ¥,miim |il|i« »lt(( snme combustible matter, is Ilgh|4UI(lt)liS,„,{»f»(*«di*,»i,«ijnoO ItS; 1S60-'51... '* IH,m:,,, " S3i§()(),«W) " 1S62 ... " m,m::,, » m,HH,m >• , 18IM ... " 80,<«i,,,, » k»4(*»« " ISM ... 't **,8W,,,, » m«,om " The price paid to (ba «Hl(iv»t«r h »t)»«( tt8. iMO A eti«a(< OPI 1474 OPI Am AdooiTNT or Tn (jiiANTiTitr Ann Piion (iiini,iiDii<« FttAcTioNa) or Tin lurrKUK^T M'KtuKH or I.ait Jiii>ia (IriiiM iMi-OHTiiii INTO China riicmi tiikj^kaion IhiiI. ImiT, 1M1WN TO Tim HllAaON HHT-IM'if), WIIKN Tin Thaii* wai IHTIIlUrTIIII. rnm April III to Manh 9UI. WI6-MI.... IHII-MS.... Wl»-' !».... lNIS-'!(0. ... ItUlU-'il.... iHjU'n. . . . 1SM-'«S. ... I«.'S-'M.... IHM-'U. . . . lattiu'M. . . . 18W2I.... 1847 'iW. . . . 1H28_'W.... li)W-'8n.... tSIW-'flt..., ISBI-'iW. . . , isaa-'BA.... 18Sa-'84. . . , IHtM-.'!U>. . . , isso-'ao.... IMM-'IIT. . . IHR.'U... Nankar of Valatia rbaila. UulUn. H.'ill) 8.«0T,4I) iar>!4 V.HOO.U'J l(l,7*« !;..;..>ii s7!) ll.NIO l4^T.aii<) w,a4'i I0,N8»,IM Coi^cnlivn of Opium in 181)!).— Opium liu ilway* been pruhibited is China, ami coiiie<|iiciiUy iU iin|H>r- taliON lias always Ijcen loolicd upon as a sinuKgliuK apecuUUoB. There would seem, however, lo Ite guud grounds for thinliing that the prohibition of the impor- tation of opium was all along intended to bo more aj>- parent than real. At all events, it is certain tliat the trade graw gradually up, frnm a small beginning, tjj be one of great extent and value ; and it is contrudii- tory anil absurd to suppose that this should liawo buen the case bad it encountered any considerable opposi- tion from the Chinese authorities. Uut the truth is, that these funclionarios, instead of opposing the trade, or even merely conniving at it, were parties to ila being openly carried on, and received certain regulated and large fees uii all the opium that was imported. It ban even been alleged that a part of tliese fees foxnd Jts way into the Imperial treasury at I'eldn, tbouf^i that Is more doubtful. The appetite for the drug inrreased with the increasing means of gratifying it ; and llierc appeared to be no assignalile llniils to the quantity that might be disposed of in the empire. The rajMd extension of the trade seems at length to have drawn tbe attention of the court of Tekin to the sul>ject. We doubt, however, notwithstanding what has been al- leged to Hie contrary, whether a sense of the injurious conseiiuenccB of liie use of the drug had much to do in the matter. This, indeed, is a port of the sulject as to which there exists a great deal of misappreheitsioo ; and we are well assured that, provided it bo not car- ried to excess, the use of opium is not more injurious than that of wine, brandy, or other stimulants. I'be alarm of the Chinese government was probably not so much about the health or murals of its subjects as ubout their bullion! They are still haunted by the same visionary fears of being drained of a due supply of gold and silver, that formerly haunted the people of this country. The imports of opium having increased so rapidly as to be no longer balanced by the ex|M>rts of tea and sillc, sycee silver began also to be exporuii ! The paternal government of Peliin miglit have tolerated what are called the demoralizing effects of opium with stoical indifference, but the exportation of silver was not a thing to be endured. It is, however, only fair to state that the Chinese statesmen are not all of the school of )hin and Gee, and that some of them appear to have taken an enlightened view of the question, and to have emancipated themselves from the prejudices that still influence the minority of their colleagues. The statesmen in question contended that, whether the use of the drug were Injurious or not, the taete for it was too deeply seated and too widely diffused to admit of its effectual prohiliition ; and they, therefore, pro- liuawd lk»l H* tmp»t1tii4km ohttnM lif Irgatl/od, sulject- iiig (1, at tim mmi (IW*, tn » fi»i»vy duty. There can luH tm « 4MtM ItnU tUi» #«* <>H< prirprt mode of deal- ing »tlb ttui mi^ti, in Ihf «>nil, however, the gov- emoMMit i4 ('»*»«, itltintma*^ liy nnfonnded Ihcuries as to llw »»)(»»-#*(«*»rt»««#a/-| nflM export of the preriuus UMIaia, '■■*mf Ui » lUlt^futt nmflnnion, and resolved to put a »<«J* (« «>** li»tHf, ffii KMrtifT had this rcsolu- llun IxwM §4i/i/t»iit tUntt » tn*t»i extraordinary change ai>p««rs U) )*«♦• ^»h*ft tAltfti l« (he conduct of the Chi- u«s« mlburilUf* i »h4 iMr Mranl mnllon seems to have wholly itmmM lUtm, 'th*y wm fiecame as prcclpi- tat« «4i4 ywfcfWH #« Ihff ttit4 pffthmnty Imcn slow and ilriuKMiiwtj «m4 w««I»M m. all haiiards to attempt forcibly tit fttl. 'ttmn ttl* U»Af. To acrompllah this, all fotiiy^mt* mufii, \ti ^nuh, l*ilf», prohibited from Uaviwg i'mtUm i m>4 rmnfmUtity measures wore at the sanw iimtt fmtrifA In fiff fC/WpijIIng them to deliver up tlw »n>i»m itt iMf fiwwesslon. How the affair might bav* m^4, ttnA th« ^.ngllsh at Canton been i«ft to itut ^■l^^^i^n »f iMf wwrt jftdgment in this crisis, it i« imtitmitU Ut mf^ imi «« have been assured by Ibow o«i wUtmt nntn dLaposed to rely, that tt*ey tmM mtM ittMmMy Nave snrceeded in getting uut of (t )iiUU AWWJ(*ri»*>*«iy ((»()<• ?o!<«. Instead, how- aver, «f t^iiuK (ttf ih^fttiH-Ufo, Ihfy had to act in obc- diwM'A- ll,l^t^luf4^f|>^4Mt. >'.II)<>(, chief superintendent of lite UriHttt (ftt^ itt Cmttnn j and he, while under i-miDtritiht, #»»#*■/*!/< (ty cowUnemenl to the factory, a>mu>»tt4n4 ittt lUfttpinnt >*(«wglng lo British subjects l« Iw Kiv>nt M)' «« Mm fttf A*htety to the Chinese nu- tboritl*»; 4*-'imittfi, M ftm same time, that "failing the nunvHiUf t4 th*' m»M i,t,1tim," (he Urilish govcrn- nwHt titmtM **»■ frw* "i4 i»l» wiMsnres of rcsponaibillty or li*l4tUj/ itt ffiifmtt >/( MriOsh-owned opium." W* 4» ft>4 MKitm' ffi nltft nny opinion as to the niifA'«»)ily #r pi^i ,4 (hU (^weeding on the part of the supcriN(«N4M«( ; tM iti ftiti»**fn*nce thereof, and of the HuJHuti^^tAt) pfiiH'*M'hf(ii lit the Chinese, above iA)/m li^ttn n( i^ttttt mtiff (leliverert np to Mr. Elliot j by lirilUM imfjt»ift, »n4 t/y httn to the Chinese anthori- 1 til's; »>)4 Urn UUti', tti4 n«(l«Aed with the possession I of lb£ mtium, ^Ukit it #«» rtwlr duty/to have placed ia « tt»tM uf »ft-vtify ()(f (fid miitleri with respect to It shvuM )«t i»rf#«(j»v*, ittnti*i1iiilf1f proceeded to destroy ' it! Havi^^i; ftfftffiifti thns tat, (he Chinese next In- : »ist«4 »b#t tttti Uifi^H tmtthnnta should subscribe a , ixMii, fiMi/ittg (Uttttii^^f^ itot to import opium Into I any fmri »( iltimi Mf i^i If (hey did, they were to Iw ^»(t|y \MA» Ui ttm t^imUy of thafh. But this con- : dittoN Mng fi4»*t^f Ittut tKt nrrangement having been I cotm U>, Mr- H(M >fmp*flm iti tit*' fltfiiilien tot smuggling into China. And it »«» mmttmAM ity government, that such were i tlu! iA)H»Kii«i (iif»»n itt the #ay of its clandestine im- I poftHlm whAW tiif litiii-tt'fy ««»made in 1839, that the • pric« of uftimt ttH4 fltiitu to lew than half its invoice cost, a»4 titM >mittin<4iiK the Merchants had retained it, j they umH m^^iifitiiiy hn^e .atfstained a very heavy ! loss. I<#»iw{f t#imi liii. 6tl. per lb. It Is afterward sold by the Company for about lis. par lb., so that the profit of the latter amounts to about 7«. M. per lb. Opium may be grown and manufactured In Uomliay; but It is sub- Joctod to the same high duty that is imposed on opium Imported Into the Presidency. The olijoct of this high duty Is to "discourage its production." Government purchase what little Is produced In Bombay, supplying through licensed dealers all that Is required for homo consumption. The poppy is extensively cultivated in Malwa, in Central India, and yields a largo revenue. Down to 1831, It was produced under a monopoly. Rut In that yon' the business was thrown open to the public, and the revenue collected by Imposing a duty on the opium when passing through the Company's territories to Bombay. The capture of Sclndc, by closing the route for tho smuggling of opium through Kuruchoo to tho Portuguese settlements of Domaun, etc., enabled a largo addition to bo made to tho transit duty on Slalwa opium, which was raised In 1847 to 400 rupees per cheat, affording a revenue to govcnimcnt of about 5s. Sd. per lb. — (We have borrowed thcso au- thentic details from tho Ofncial Papers relative to In- dia, p. "3-7.5, published in 18"i3.) No one doubts that opium is an e.Ycellont subject for taxation ; and the higher tho rate to which tho duty on it can bo raised without encouraging smuggling, so much the better. But a great deal has been said for and against the sys- tem under which tho opium revenue is raised in Hen- gal and other parts of India; and perhaps It might lie the better policy to open the culture of the plant to tho unfettered competition of the public, imposing a high duty on tho drug when grown or wlien exported. Without, however, entering on tho discussion of this dlfHcult question, wo may shortly ol>sorve that the monopoly docs not appear to have tho consequences stated by Mr. Colebrooko; who tolls us {llmhandryof Bengal, p. 118) that, except in a few situations that are peculiarly favorable, its culture Is unprofitable; and that the peasants ongago In It with reluctance, being tempted thereto only by tho advances made by the government agents. But if such were the case for- merly, it would seem that circumstances have changed in the interval; for it appears from the ofBcial ac- counts that tlie production of Bengal opium, which amounted to 17,858 chests of ICO lbs. each in 1840-'41, had increased to about 30,000 chests in 18l8-'49. The number of chests of Malwa opium (140 lbs. each) ex- ported from Bombay during the same period has con- tinued pretty stationary at about 16,000 a year. The whole, or nearly the whole, of this immense supply of above 50,000 chests, is sent to China. Latterly it has produced to the government of India a clear revenue of considerably more than ^£3,000,000 sterling a year. It is very doubtful whether tlio use of opium, when taken in moderate quantities, be so injurious as has been represented. That It may, like apirlta and wina, l>e al>usrd, is abundantly certain ; but It has not Iwen shown that it Is more liable to abuse than either of these articles. And the Chinese, by whom It is prin- cipally consumed, are a highly Industrious, sober, fru- gal people. It is computed that, had China no silk nor teas to give in part payment for tho opium consumed In tho Celestial empire, the drain of specie during the last 30 years would have amounted to fRon.OOO.OOO. It la stated in a memorial presented to tho Kmpcror of Chi. na, on tho subject of the opium trade, that tho drain from the Imperial treasury, to supply this destructlva luxury, was. From 1S20 to Isai $24,000,000 " Isni to 1S34 vH.noo.OrtO " l9,'4lol888 40,0(10,000 The latter sum, it is stated. Is about tho average annual outlay at the present time; and It is considered l)y an Intelligent commercial eorrespondont at Macao qidto problematical whether the Chinese would have taken moro cotton goods and other Imports from the United States and England, had they not expended so much for opium. The profits of tho F.ast India Company, who are entitled to whatever of credit or discredit may attach to keeping up tliij lucrative trade in opium, are stated at (18,000,000 per annum. If tho company succeed in opening ni^w markets for tho drug (and it Is represented that they are establishing retail shops all over tho Indian empire), they will 1)0 amply reimbursed fur their diininishod importations Into Chi- na, since tlio importutiun of Turkish opium in Ameri- can bottoms has so considerably Interfered with their previously almost exclusivo monopoly of this trade. It should lio added, tliat the importation of opium into China, though illegal, is openly tolerated by tho Chi- nese ofUcials, and no difhculty Is experienced In finding cash customers for any quantity Imported. From 200 chests In 1756, when the trade was legal, the importa- tion has risen to from 70,000 to 80,000 chests per an- j num In 1850, when Us Introduction is prohibited by I law. Tho value of opium imported in 175(! was about tl,000,000; tlio value at tho present doy has risen to $10,000,000. The basis of foreign exchange with Chi- I na is as follows : General imports, opium (wliich makes nljout .10 per cent, of tlie whole), bullion nnd specie, or [ drafts on I.ondim, — Commercial Helations of the I'nited States, 1850-'57. I CultiiMliun in the United Statu A variety of tho ! " Common'' or " Opium Popp_,''(/V/py dephratiii); tlio aolublo from tho iii- ■oluble parta of thii drug. Thii not only datvrioralea its quality, but Incroasoii the quantity uf moiaturc, which must afterward lie !{ot rid of. STATtliailT SUOWIMa Tl'4 iMrOKT* Or OriDU INTO TUI I'DiTin Htatu ruB -ua Yia» snuinu Juki 30, ln!A i ~ Wk«i« liKP.rUl. KoRland... llrlUah Kv HardlnU Aiiatrt* Turkey lu Aala China Total liidlua. ll»,lilli) 1,01 in OS 1.810 V,46I M.litM 15T^HU Vaiut. lun I.HM se.fiuH ITO.UM |(480,IU<1 Besides tho works provioubly referred to, wo have consulted, In compiling this -i-'i' , Ainhi.ik's Slatirui Inilicn; Mli.nuHN's Orienln> • ummerct; M'ii^kinnii.n's Citmmtrce qf Htnjal (I. 1 . M'Cii.Loi'ii); American Almanar, 1841, p. 6H PaletU nfflce Report, 1858; Hunt's Aftrchant$' M'raliuiia, It 1^ uacnadliig- ly dangeroiu for any vesatil matiauipt •'I'H'HiliiK It wlili> out a pilot. I'iiola are alw»y* 'iii the alerl. and rvady til iiinir their servicra when .> vtaul cunies in aiulit, unless the weather lie ao bad that lliay can not |[» ulf. On annul Ittw uccaaiuna of tills aort, vu.aids batu lieru dniaiiicd for three weaka ull' tiio purl, wilhuut bating an opportunity uf vnturtug. Tlie diaiiel uf Hi. t'atli- crino ill a lliifl with that uf St, Miuiiai'l leads over Ihu bar. The ordinary riie of spring tidea ia from ttn lu twelve feel, and uf neaps from alx to eight feut. A iight-houao witli a revolving light, having tho luiiicrn '.'20 feet aliovu the Ivvrl uf the aua, ia erected on rlniii/^ ground aliout (KM) yarda north-nurlhweat uf St. .luau ' Foi. Tho swellings of tho river, or frrtkr$, a' . ,ey aro called, moat cuuimunly occur in uprlntr, a. .1 r« caused by heavy rain, and by the iiielliiig < i' the nuw oil the niouulaiiis, Tlio rise uf water al Mch ti. ' I frequently as much as forty fee' ; and i ' i iddily and force uf lliu current are so vcr; great ' ' depeiid- enea can lie placed on aiuhora in •' > i, Forlu- iiatidy, mJVeth never occurs wilhuut pn . luu.i v arning ; and it ia then tho practm i > moor with a cable niiuiu fust to trees, or stone pillars erected on the slinre fur that purpose For fMitlier Infi'rinatiun as to the har- bor of Oporto, sea I'l kuv'm Sailing Oifecliuiit /or lh» 11(11/ of Hill-ay. 0|iurto is tho emporium of a largo portion of tho kingdom of Portugal, and ei\|oys a pretty coiislderaide foreign rommcice. Tho weil-knovu red nine, dciiuni- inated Port, from its being exclusively aliippcd at lliis city, funns by far the largest articiu of export, 'liio exports vury in difTerent years, from about 2A,IIOO to abovo 40,(lll0 pipes. Knglaiid is much lliu largcti cuii- suinor of port. The high discriuilnaling duties on French wine originally Introduced port into the llril- ish markets, and gave It a prefcrcncu to which, though an excellent wine, it had no Just title; this prcfcrciico first generated, and its long continuance has since ho confirmed tho taste for |>urt among tho great bulk of the population, that it bids fair to maintain lis ascend- ency as an aflcr-dinnor wine, notwithstanding the equalization of the duties, At an average of the nine years ending with 1851, there wcro shipped from Opor- to for England '.'2,801 pipes a year. Next to Kugluiid, Brazil, Kussia, and tho north of Europe nro tiiu prin- cipal consumers of port; but it appears, from the sub- Joined account, that the total exports to them do nut amount to a half of those sent to England. The uliicr exports aro oil, oranges, and other fruits, wool, rellned sugar, cream of tartar, shuniac, leather, cork, etc. Tiio Imports are corn, rice, beef, salt fish, and other articles of pr<\ ion; sugar, coffee, etc., from Brazil; collim am' ' I u I C' dg, ' iirdwarc, tin plates, etc., from En- gland ; I • nip, fln.v, and deals, from tho Baltic, etc ! i- sh' I ''(J .' ■ 1 .iiifacturcd ( nportcd into r '' ... r*.. I' .. the natives, .• uiisidcrable quan- li,.j 1.^ ii'jtined toi the consumption of Spain; icing smuggled Into that country through Braganza and other towns on tho frontier. VisULS KNTiaisn and cLBABm AT OroBTo IN TUB loo- NOMio Vbab I8M.'6B. V»n »il Moollii. VMHb KDUrtil. V«Mll ClKllll. 1 NnUonal. ror'n. ■tm. NMlonal. For'n. 1 Tom. | ■ 1864. ■■ .luly August... September October . . November December I8U. .Tanoary . . February . March.,.. April May June .... ToUI .. 81 98 101 67 Ti 48 75 1 86 80 104 79 84 20 i» 21 21 81 B 43 ei 42 2T lo.nofl 14,04A 12,1 27 8,133 10,272 »,\M 11,M8 tut 18,00.1 18,676 10,024 11,002 74 02 89 80 7S 80 D6 B 40 b'i TB 89 20 81 88 10 14 26 23 8 89 46 42 86 1fl,6B6 18,813 18,20l». mirt 10,060 Bl 13.818 8S 15,M9 19 «,44S 14 9B6T 20 0,865 23 10,838 A 099 89 11,960 46 11,064 42 10,703 AS 14,449 US' |l«0,-88 Wliin-iilijUtlltx, " til r)iiitlltr, (or iHiri llnndjr— l>ttu*Mt)t,for no iMirulii kitriiiM All! of F.iir«)p« •* lint .*{ Utar Kliigdiim •lilt Itt'oilur rU mil iif I rxiii' lOrUlii r.«t> nut of V'.ur»\ " " out Kkiidom viil III Tiii»r Ti.liil K.n.iiu U,'i7:i,U(HI. (ji'Axtit* nr I'onT Winii ixrokrun riuiii imhiitii in InTm, AHIITIIMl.'niiNTllUTO Wllll'll ll\l11KTIell of r.iiroiH' of llni\ UUiiil>/ l^ .1: twnUu cftqinU .'K r«ll», m iUIi ant) julc*, •mlMs iiiilliil l>,r " nry nkin, ndlatliiK from ili iKi>nt UH*i. TW ll»> I'll iiiDi fmm i*in* <• • Miiiln thu fv-ilp, Mvrit, I liitlih [Kllirh* or li'urh- • litre tn Ihr rinil, anil rwuuiriM. llrit>U Ilri>iiiii|i < IIIIKil.l *,. . Iiiinniarli I llllinl Hutu* KritMre ilri'iit llrltaln lUlnltiirii ttii Hi>ltlll .,,,,,,, ,.,., Miirurco ,,, . . n ,. i . HllHNtit I'nrtiignl anil piiKNeuluiia . Hwmluii Nuwfuuiiilland Tiilal fill- Aliia. I'aiii u,ou I'i U iii:i 9 9 ■n III N M,TftB II 11 1,0T« 10 ili 3 .... IS 11 '^6ll n H HIT « N tHH 14 9 IHO 19 9 »4,IIK*I I'J 11 'I'utal vnllon 11,16^900.— «J. I). Orangei(,iig llic jHin, Tim svctls iff solllary or s(ivi>i,il, and are attai hud 'o the innar anuto of the iiirpnl, and in some varieties ''"" fnlimly wanting. Tho wood of the oraii((»-tree, when dry, wef^he ftir«y- fiiiir •rounds ti> a enKie fi.».|, i hanl, ■■iini|met, (l»«lhhi, sliKhity iidiirifrrii' ., anil Ir iiisieptllili' iif lielnK pol- l«hi'i|. When i.,.riitly i'»ii It U of n Mlliiwith hue hut In the ruiii>i: of time it fades, Kkhii Its ncarrilv and •mall sizn, It U but ll||b> riiiploynl in (he arts, iW I only partliiiJiRr hmi Ih whirh It Is appliwl Udng |i> I niako hoxis, i>ret»lng-i'ase«, and other arliefcis of fancy land In Khirlda, enmiilrralde ipianlilles i\if siriiighl. young shonis an^ iiii, and shipped in lumi'lle" to Im' iiiadu into walkliig.raiies. I Tho fruit of tliii iiruiign may Im obtainei' n-iili in any n^gion of thr glutie, and at aliimst nvi r\ mun of ihi< year. I'he aroinullr oil and llio rind primrve li from llie elli is Imtli mf bent nnd uf riild ; and the m= ridlty of till' Virnii'r rennlers It primf against the attacks of insRclH. I M true irhat orniigeii deeny, like other fruit ; but Ibr loes not happen for a long lime, if thi' rind reinaiiii ininjurcil, and they are kept from hu- midity, and >i, "nill'ited us not to ferment. With re- gard to the qunl ly of this fruit In various places, l(»»i' appears to lie n iverslty of opinion. Home cnnthier tbosii of M/iltu til lust ; others those of SI. Mb'hael'i; while others prufi ' those of Uubia, ll^tvnna, or of Hi. Augustine. The Miillnr nmi> < nre usually Inrge, the rlml thick nnd spongy, and tin i;l»nds wbUli secrete tho volatile nil aro prominent. Hie pulp Is red nnd delieion<, al- though sometimes Hi ™ is n trace uf lillUrness ii. '.heir taste. Tliey are sbipiicil in boxes of an irregular ilse. and aro generally pni i The iSI. Mirhdil'tni liinils small, wliiili secrete Iml Ip ligiit-culured, nnd of a de- 'ct'i7/e uranget may be classed (hose of Faro, St. Ubes, Oporto, Andalusia, Malaga, and the bitter oranges of Cuba and Florida. Tliis fruit is usu- ally of a good size, of a beautiful color, but unfit to eat, on account of its bitter flavor. Those shipped from Seville are put up in large boxes, of one thou- sand fruits in each ; while those of Faro and St. Ubes arc badly packed in cases of three hundred to three hundred and lifty in each. Those of Spain and Portu- gal are principally carried to England and the Ualtic, and are employed in cookery, and in the manufacture of cordials and other aromatic liquors. The essential product of tlic fruit is in the rind or peel ; it is cut into quarters, sopiirated from the pulp, and caused to be quickly drUd. It is used in Holland in aromatizing a liquor calluil ciirai'oa. — Uiiowsi;'.s Trees of Amirka. llirOBTATION!! 4IK OBANOBS, 1.KU0N8, OTURK liUF.EN FBI'IT, AND IMIESEUVKU I'RCIT, INTO THE rNITEII ST.VTKS Ht'KI.NO THE KIS AI, VeaK KSIJINC) .IlTNE ilfl. 1856. Whence imported. .n.l l.iinV.. •■"'"• Swedinh Wfrtt Iiitlii'4, . . Danisti West Indies Hamburg Ureniuii Ilollaiiil Dutch (iiitatm Dutch VAHi IndicH EnglAiid Scotland Canada British N. A. PoRsessions. Uritisli West Indies Ilrilisli Honduriis Hritisli (iniaiia British Austnilln British Kast indies Franco on the .Vtluntic . . Franco on tins .McdUi-r'n. French West Indies French Oniuna Spain on tlic Atlantic ... .^paln on tin- Mcditcr'n . . Philippine Islands <;uba I'orto KIco Portugal Madeira An>res Sardinia Tuscany Two Sicilies Austria Turkey in Asia Africa Ilayll Mexico Central Republic New (iranada Venezuela Brazil Chill Sandwich Islands •Japan China Whale Fisheries Total $6 ism ' 'in »,'J.S1 14 6,I112 23 TO bi &1,!J40 8.'>!.W0 2,11.') ISD 10,115 1,712 487,341 82 00 1,203 9 .J3 ■'271 11,709 910 8.^0 24,872 »640,«70 $4,f)41 "iil 46 01 28,402 7,i30 '.9 S!! 312 8US " 1,421 di.iig) 8li0 l*rr«erved Frull. .T4 l.O.^* 1,271 2,3ii7 4& 3 1,15B 1,213 1,146 $193 10 710 2:i3 in 60 •JO 72.'> CO IS 12 238 9 40,740 1,380 13 1,3.')7 4S(i 1,630 9 ii,n30 141 112 8 '/791 S7,4g8 1,41)8 90 « 5 270 S ' ' 22 13 41 101 "643 10.481 $117,S3'J $124,480 OrohlllaWeed, Orchella, or Archil (Ger. Or- seille; Fr. Orseille; It. Ovicello, Orcella; Sp. Orchilla), a whitish lichen (^hichtn orcelUi) found in the Isle of Portland ; but that which is used is imported from the Canary and Cape de Verd Islands, Madeira, Barbary, and the Levant. From it is obtained the archil, or orchal, of commerce, which yields a rich purple tinc- ture, fugitive, indeed, but extremely beautiful. The preparation of orchilla was long a secret, known only to the Florentines and Hollanders; but it is now ex- tensively manufactured in England. Orchil is gen> erally sold in the form of cakes, but soinclinies in that of moist pulp ; it is extensively used by dyers ; and in times of scarcity the weed or lichen has sold as high as .£1000 per ton ! — Tiiom.so.n'.s /lispenfalori/. Ordinary, in Nuulknl lanyuaye, denotes the estab- lishment of the persons employed by government to take charge of the ships of wiir which are laid up in the several harbors. These are principally composed of the warrant officers of the ships, as the gunner, boot- swain, carpenter, deputy purser, and cook. There is, besides, enrolled in the list of tlie ordinory a crew of laborers, who pass from ship to ship occasionally, to pump, moor, move, and clean them, whenever it is necessary. The term otdinary is also applied some- times to the ships themselves, a.id it is likewise used to dl.Hlingulsh the inferior sailors from the most expert and 'liligent. The latter are rated uhU on the navy books, and liavo higher pay than those who arc rated as wdinui-y. Oregon, territory. United States of America, bor- dering the Pacific coast, lies between the parallels of 12° and W 10' N. lat., and west of the Uocky Mount- ains. Areo, 210,000 square miles. Much of this terri- tory is mountainous, but it abounds in fertile valleys. It forms three sections, separated from each other by nearly parallel ridges, and following the general di- rection of tlio coist line. These several sections have each distinct characteristics of soil, productions, and climate. The division extending from the Pacific coast to the Cascade range has a genial climate throughout the year. The valley of the >\'illanictte is exceeding- ly fertile, the intervales and prairies form the best of farming lands, and the uplands afford good pasturage, and abound with valuable timber; and there is much fertile land bordering the Sliastl and Uinpqua rivers. The division between the Cascade range and the Blue Mountains has generally a light sandy soil, but with many valleys of rich alluvion ; altogether .«aid to be a fino grazing region. The portion lying west of the Rocky Mountains and east of the Blue Mountains, in extent full one half of the territory, is mostly a rocky and rough country, with some few narrow valleys of great fertility. In the southern portion of the terri- tory gold has been extensively found. There were in Oregon and Washington territories in I8,')0, 132,857 acres of land improved, and 2U!I,»J1 of unimproved land in farniii. Cash value of farms, $2,8111,170; and the value of implements and macliiiieiy, $18.1.1-3. Live Slock: Horses, 8006 ; asses and mules, 120; milch cows, 9127; working oxen, 8111; other cnttle, 21,188; sheep, lo,.382; swine, 80,235. Value of live stock, l,87(i,189. AyrkuUural Pioilucis, etc. — AVIicat, 211,913 bushels ; rye, lOG; Indian corn, 2918; oat.", 01,211; peas and beans, C56G; potatoes, 91, 32fi; value of products of the orchard, $1271; produce of market gardens, $'J0,211 ; pounds of butter made, 211,461; of cheese, ;tli,980; molasses, 21 gallons; wool, 29,686 pounds produced; llttx, 010; tobacco, 325; hay, tons of, 373; clover and other gross seeds, 26 bushels. Value of slaughtered animals, $UU,,')30.— See Census lieliinu, 1850. The Columbia forms its north boundary for a dis- tance of 300 miles, and the east part is almost entirely drained by the south branch, called Saptin or Lewis River, and its tributaries ; a very small portion only in the southeast corner is drained by the head sources of the Kio Colorado, hero culled Green River ; and also by ■■-y'''W^- ORG 1479 ORP lughout ceeding- bcst of isturagc, nmcb rivors. ic lilue but with to le a of the itaiiis, in a rocky ttlleys of be tcrri- wero in 13-.',8u7 mprovcd 0; and !3. Live Icli cows, ; slieep, ,87(!,l«9- lusliols ; iptts and ts of llio $'.I0,211 ; ;!«,980 ; odiiccf' ; over and ughtercd or a dis- cntirdy lor Lewis In only in Turces of Id also by the Bear River of Great Salt Lake ; Urnatillah, John pire, and was first applied to rollfflous dovotlona in Days, and Willametturivera enter the Columbia Ulvercliiirclics in A.i). 058.— Uki.i.aiimi.nk. Organs worn on the south ; and the Shastl or Rogue, Ump ExPOBTS of flBEOOX. Orpiment (Ger. Operment; I'r. OrpimtrUi It. Or- pimento ; Sp. OropimeiUc ; Lat. A iiripiijmi'iiliimX the name usually given to sulphuret of arsenic. When artificially prepared, it Is in the form of a fine yellow- ow tho Territory of Washington was set colored powder; but it is found native in many part» of the world, particularly in Rohemia, Turkey, China, and Ava. It is exported from tho last two in consid- erable quantities, anil is known in tho Kast by the name of hartal. Native orpiment is composed of thin plates of a lively gold color, intermixed with pieces of a vermilion reil, of a shattery follaccous texture, Hcxible, soft to the touch like talc, and sparkling when broken. Specific gravity, 3'45. Tho inferior Organs. Tho invention of the organ is attributed kinds are of a dead yellow, inclining to green, and to Archimedes, about 220 ii.c. ; but tho fact does not want the bright appearance of the best specimens. rest on sufficient authority. It is also attributed to Its principal use is as a coloring drug among painters, one Ctesibius, a barlicr of Alexandria, about 100 ii.c. , bookbinders, etc. — TllOMHON'd Chemitlri/ / Mll4BUHM'it The organ was brought to Europe' from the Greek em- 1 Orient. Comm. Gx|iurti. Iiii))orU. . oniiane Cleareil. | nomeBtlc. Foreign. Total. T,.l»1. Aniertfnn. KimMifn. IS.'* $43,707 128,612 6,284 $\iO *12,S.7 128.612 6.234 $is.«:i2 ».6fifl 2,724 772 106B 38S •Wl ORS 1480 OYS Onadaw.Onldue, M«nb«lm or Dutch Oold (litii'. I''liilterii»lil I Uii. K tiileiyvud : Vt. (Jripcau, (Hi- giiiinl I \\.,lh]iM>i Hp. (MipiT), an inferior sort or gold Iviif, |irti|iiiruil uf co|ipar and zinc. It is somctinios oalli'ii triif liniss. It Is principally manufactured in Mmilii'lin, Oatrioh Faathera. See Fkatheiih. OawagO. Oswego is ono of the most thrivinf; cit- Ivs ill till) T'ninii Willi a population of 2U,0U0, it does «« much liusiii' 1 ns many cities of twice its popula- ' linn, The Wcllnnd Canal has given it advantages j OViir oven tluOulo, and hence its trade grows enar- lliniiiily, lis Increase hns been so steady that U will Cdiilltiiii' to grow with every improvement in the West- em Slates. I 'I'lie receipts of flour and grain by laico for threo aco- •ont nru given na follows : ISM. I8U. wt. 1 Flour, Imrrels lOr.'iOT ii;4,fl48 Ill2,ll!i0| ""*" 1 Wliii»l, liudu-lM V.im\, " Ilye. " ■ Hurley, " Pens, " 2,4 2.333 2,1132.274 43,218 101,430 34U 32.1.2110 B,:)fli).-S8 2,S,lft,ll01l 2!II.U21 112,210 51,100 22S,(19T 8.282,8»8 2.5:10,211 8!t9.608 UO.fllO 41.410 lira.TBi) Otts, '* TiiUl Ily ttoti vcrtliiu t ho tliiiir Into wlii'Kt, at b bualu'ls per Imrrel, Itm ninoiuit wuulil Ihi 6,41t2,0()3 8»fl,3.l;> S,llB9,nfl 1,123,215 12,032,808 'I'lilnln (1, *2!I,'.'3S i(),();)2.Hrti 13.14«.V.'>6 Hliowlng nn Inrreaac in 1850 of 0,717,717 bushels over IHfil, ami (MHIl.nOl liushels over 1855. The iiiinuiil review of Its commerce for 1850 says, of tlio griiln warchousea of Oswego, "There ore ten cle- vntorK, which are capalilo of elevating in the aggregate over II7,(H)(> liimhels of groin per hour, and storage room for over lim million biulieh." This is about the same AS Milwaukee. There are in Oswego si.xteen mills, with elglily.six run of stone, cap.'ible of manufacturing 8(HHt ImrreU of Hour a doy, or over 1,8(H),00() barrels in n yiuir, Out of Trim, the state of a sliip when she is not jiruperly linlunced for the purposes of navigotion, wliich may be oicusloned by a defection in the rigging or in the stowage of llie hold. Outrigger, u strong Iwom of timber, of which there (ire neverol, fl.xed upon the side of a ship, and |iroJiietiiig from it, in order to secure the masts in the net of (••reening, by counteracting the strain they suf- fer fniin the efl'ort of llie careening tackles, which, be- ing applied to III!' nin^t-licad, draw it downward, so as lo ttcl upon the VI ««i'l with the power of u lever, whose Aili'riiiit Is In hi^r ( ulre of gravitj'. Outrigger is also n suiiill linnm, occaAiunally used in the top to give ad- dltliiiiiil seeiirlly to the top-mast. Owners of Bbipa. The ownership or title to a •hip <'Nii be nci|uired in several ways, as by purchase, bulliliiig, or inpture. In regard to the first, it is gcn- nrally doiu' by h bill of sale, of which there are two klliilt 1 the (Irst is where the ship passes from the bulliter III the llrst purchaser, and is called the grand bill of sole I the second is wliere the owner of the ship nut being the builder, transfers his interest to another imrclmser. I'pon the death of the owner, his inter- I'sls '■iviilve upon his executors or his personal rcpre- •enlatlves. Hpeclal coudllions may be introduced which nmy vest the property in tlie purchaser, al- llioilgh the property may not have been completed, KUi^h iS a payment of a certain part of the purchase- niunny, when a part of the vessel has been completed ; *nil h« may insist ii|ion the completion of that vessel, •ml Iha builder can not require him to accept any oth- er. — AnnoT. A ship's boat does not constltuto a part of a vessel's tackle, apparel, furniture, etc. Property in shljis is sometimes acquired by capture. During war ships and private ships having letters of marque, are entitled to make prizes. But before the captors acquire a legal title to such prizes, it is neces- sary that they should be condemned in the admiralty or other court constituted for that purpose. When this is done, the captors are considered to be in the same situation, with respect to them, as if they had built or purchased them. — See articles PniVATEEHS, I7° of lat., and between America on the cast, and Asia, tlic Malay Archipelago, and Australia on the west. In its widest part, at the equator, it is 10,000 miles across ; it narrows especially toward the north, where it coni- ni>;nicate8 with the Arctic Ocean by Bchring's Strait ; and, including the Indian Ocean, it contains upward of 70,000,000 of square miles, or more than all the dry land on the globe. Its coast line on the American side, though generally bold, is very little broken by inlets ; on the Asiatic side it is very irregular ; and the Cel- ebes, China, and Yellow seas, witli the scac of Japan, Okhotsk, and Kamtschatka, are inlets of this ocean. It is studded with a great number of island groups, the principal of which, proceeding from west to cast, are the Ladroncs, Carolines, Solomon, (Jueen Charlotte's, New Hebrides, Fccjcc, Friendly, Society, Low, Morqucsas, Sandtvich, and Galapagos islands, and New Zealand, besides a vast multitude of solitary islands, reefs, and sand banks. The great equatorial current of this ocean originates in tlio Antarctic drift current, which Hows north along the shores of South America, and then west through the Pacific, where it occupies the entire space between the tropics. Strong land cur- rents sweep round the shores of East Australia and Japan. The northeast trade-wind prevails uninter- rnptedly between lat. 5° and 23° N. ; the southeast trade-wind commonly blows from the ccjuator to lat. 26° S. ; between them is the region of calms, extending over 5°, and varying in position according to the sea- son. Greatest equatorial temperature of Pacific 88°-5 Fahr. In lat. 56° 26' the temperature of the sea throughout its depth is 39°-5 Fahr. This ocean be- came first known to Europeans in 1513; it received its name from Magalhacns, who sailed across it in 1521. In the 18th century its diilerent parts were explored by Behring, Anson, Hyron, Uongainvillc, Cook, Vancou- ver, IJroughton, La Pcrouse, etc. In the present cen- tury by D'Entrccosteaux, Krusenstern, Ueechey, I'itz- roy, D'Urvillc, Wilkes, and Sir James Uoss. Current nfthe I'acijic. — Lieutenant Uciit, of the Unit- ed States navy, recently read a paper before the Geo- graphical and Statistical Society of New York, of which the following is an abstract, upon " the great ocean cur- rent of the Pacific," corresponding with the Gulf Stream of the Atlantic. The Japanese have known it for many years, and call it the Kurosino, or Black Stream, from its dark blue color compared with that of the adjacent ocean. The fountain from which this stream springs is the great equatorial current of the Pacific, which in magnitude is in proportion to the vast extent of that ocean, when compared with the Atlantic, Extending from the tropic of Cancer on the north, to Capricorn, in all probability, on the south, it has a width of nearly three thousand miles. With a velocity of from twenty to sixty miles per day, it sweeps to th'> westward in uninterrupted grandeur around three-eighths of the cir- cumference of the globe, until, diverted I)y the continent of Asia, and split into innumerable streams by the Pol- ynesian Islands, it spreads the genial influence of its warmth over regions of the earth, some of which, non- teeming in prolific abundance, would otherwise be but barren wastes. One of the most remarkable of these off-shoots is the Kuro-Suro, or Japan Stream, which, separated from tho parent country by the Bashce Isl- ands and south end of Formosn where its strength and character are as decidedly marked as those of the Gulf Stream on tho coast of Florida. This northward- ly course continues to the parallel of 26° N., when it bears off to tho northward and eastward, washing the whole southeastern coast of Japan as far as the Straits of Sangar, and increasing in strength as it advances, until reaching tho chain of islands to the southward of the Gulf of Yedo, where its maximum velocilv.as shown by our observations, is 80 miles per day. its average strength from the south end of Formosa to the Straits of Sangar is found to be from 35 to 10 miles per twen- ty-four hours at all seasons that we traversed it.— Sci- entijic Annual, 1857. The Pucijic Trade nfthe Cnited Stata.—Tha whole number of arrivals in the United States from ports In the Pacific during the year 1858 were 69 ; and in 1855, AT BOSTON. Honolulu, via N. London.. 1 8 Iqulqup 1 Vcru Uluuca '.',\\ i „.,, ,„„ Total for 185(1 li Total in 1855 uj Titlcaliiinna . . . Vulpiiriiiso . . . . Caldcra, Cliifi . Tougoy, Cliili . AT NEW YOBU. d of Zinc Litharge, Whiting and Paris White, Lampblack, Zinc Paint. Impobts of Paiktb into the rNITKD STATM foe TUB Viae KBniHo .(r sK :io, is-to. Dry Bed nnJ WhillKK WlicDC* ImpoTtfld, While And Paris L.xl. While. ValM. Value Value. Hamburg .... $1T l)l'8 2H4 702 'iin Holland Belgium England $2,830 1S6,681 21,74.S Scotland . . . • &r> 16,022 19 3,234 1,498 France on the Atlantic . . . France on the Medltcr'n. . 463 !'«0 • • • i Bpain on the Atlantic .... 3,686 .... Spain on the Medlter'n . . . 2»,lil>0 .... Tuscany 1,1128 . . • . Two Sicilies 21B Total *21,033 $174,126 $23,S23 KxpoBTB or Paiiiib or Fobkion Manofaotdki raoM TUi t MiTxu States fob tuk ^ kab endinii June 30, 18B6. Whilher F-iported. England Canada Other British N. A. Poss.. Haytl Han Uomlngo Mexico Sandwich Islands Total Dry Oehre. V.llM. $4960 Whil. Lead. ""V.lue. $1431) 8223 1026 24 ins Md P.ru WhlU. 12T $6S91 $et8 F.xpobts ok Paints ani> Varnish of Domkstio Mancfau- TrnU KliOM THE I'NITliU STATES FOB TUB VeAB IMIlSa .luxE 30, 185fl. Whilher Exported. Vnlue. Sweden and Norwiiy $1,201 Danish West Indies. , Hamburg Bremen Holland Dutch Guiana Belgium Kngland Scotland Gibraltar. 4,180 400 802 90 278 210 4,660 302 10 Canada 100. 678 Other British North Auicrlcan Possessions .... 6,012 BritlBii West Indies 2,( 84 British Honduras 6'>2 Brillsh (iulana 343 British Possessions In Africa 2,077 Other ports In Africa 1 ,430 Britisli Austrnlia 1.3.'>6 British (last Indies 629 Franco on the Atlantic 6,T70 Franco on the .Mediterranean 104 French N'ortli American Possessions 334 Philippine Islands ^8I) Cuba ]3,!.83 Porto Klco 071 Porlugnl 691 Cape dc Verd Islands 43 Two Sicilies 71 Austriiin Po.siiCsBlons in Italy 60 Hiiyll 4,220 San Domingo 40 Mexico 9,0 1 8 Central Uepublic 136 New Granada 6.9.^8 VeneEueia 4, '218 Brazil 2,419 I'ruguay, or CIsplatlne Itepubllc 1.9::9 Buenos Ayrcs 4 079 Chili ; 13.370 Pern 8,032 Equndor 160 Sandwich Islands 4 471 China C.?*") Whale KlDheries 5: Total value $217,179 Paletmo (anciently Panormus), a large city and sea-port, the capital of the noble island of Sicily, on the north coast of which it is situated, the light-houic being in lat. 38" 8' 15" N., long. 13" 21' 56" K. Pop- ulation, 170,000. The Hay of Palermo is about live miles in depth, the city being situated on its southwest shore. A line mole, fully a quarter of a mile in length, having a light-house and battery at its extremity, pro- jects in a southerly direction from the arscnsal into nine or ton fathoms water, forming a convenient port, capable of contoining a great number of vessels. Tills immense work cost about £1,000,000 sterling in il6 construction ; but the light-house, though a splendid structure, is said to bo very ill lighted. There is nii inner port, which is reserved for the use of the arsenal. Ships thtt do not nieon to go within the mole may an- chor about half a mile from it, in from si.T:teen to twen- ty-three fathoms, the mole light bearing N.W'. J W. A hoavy sea sometimes rolls into the bay, but no dan- ger need be apprehended by ships properly found in anchors and chain cables. In going into the bay, it is necessary to keep cleor of the nets of the tunny fishery, for these are so strong and well moored as to be capa- ble of arresting a ship under sail. — Smytu'h Sicili/, p. 70, and Append, p. 4. Import* and t'xporlt.—The great articles of export '-fr: PAL U83 PAL OH TIIF ISM. fhUlnl I id PalU WklU. $6r8 *M18 IXNBKAO- S KSIU.NO VnliU. 4,1S(1 400 mi dO 2T8 210 4,66» 802 10 10fl.6T8 6,012 2,c84 6Vi »4i! 2,on ; 1,4!!0 l,8f<5 MU . O.TTO 104 a.14 6S0 671 691 43 II 60 4,220 40 9,618 185 e.orxs 4,218 2,419 l.«;;9 4 079 13.;'.76 8,632 160 4 471 0.745 $217, ITO from Sicily are, oUve oil, Kru'"* particularly wheat anil barley, sill(, briaistono, wine and lirandy, barilla, loin- ens and oranges, lemon juice, manna, Bhuniae, liuiccil, fruit, salted tish, and salt; with argol, liquoriie, pum- ice-stone, rags, skins, honey, cotton wool, sairrun, ta Pounds. Woods Cwt Cottons Packages. Cotton yarn Cwt. Cotton and linen Packages. Cotton and wool — Earthen-ware and glass. ... — Fancy goods — Hardware — Linen? — Silks — Woolens — Copper Cwt. (Jonis Tons. Ileal boards Number. Drugs and colors Packages. Fish, cod Cwt. Herrings Darrcls. Hemp Cwt. Hides — Iron — Lead — Tjeathcr — Pitch and tar Parrels. Saltpetre Cwt. Stationery and books Packages. Steel Cwt. Tin in bors — Tin in plates — Tobacco — Wax — Wool — Other articles Value. 40ft 4,4'U 6ll 2,209 1,000 0,1 11,044 3iK) 2,000 834 7,199 80 50 1,398 100 45S 75 101 604 005 10,01)0 1,010,197 1,271 7,750 85 470 8,049 11,4U0 4,900 220 639 444 140 1,603 32) 9-."i 1.5,S,'iO 2,672 207 Total ^1 i;i,ii45 11,200 1,430 4,470 82(1 090 23,002 on 1,090 41,400 65,032 2,250 4,4S0 41,940 4,0.)0 13,940 6,000 10,t00 60,31)0 2,8.)S 10,000 50,950 12,710 6,813 170 1,904 4,9,29 5,749 3,775 4,4-»0! 1,079 M.)S 2,141 1,500 1,00(1 2,0)i! (I3,4l)0: 19,T1M 2,!l."iO' 85,0001 006.0931 I'urcliuscs of |iroituco arc always paid for In cash, gen- erally half oil making the purchase, and the other half on duliviiry, nhuii in I'ulornio, and on receiving order fur delivery, on the coast, Tliu imports consist of cot- ton yarn, wool, and stuO's ; sugar, codec, cocoa, dyo stiill's, iron, oartliuii-wiini, spices, tin, hides. Newfound- laud cud, tlniliur fur liuiUliiig, etc. Tlie best of the old accounts of the traiio of Sicily that wo have met with Is I'oiitiihicd hi SwiNmiiiNi;'»VVurc/«mMe Two ^'iciViVs, Ito cd„ vol, II, p, lUl-lia. PKlm (,lrcudtb. Tliu Ituniaii pulm wus ubuut eight and a half English iiiclios. Tliu Kngllsh palm Is understood to be three Inchus. Pulm on (dor. ralmiili I'r. /luih dr.palme, Jluih {la iSeuri/nti It. Olio ili imliiia ; !Sp. Aceile tie iHilma) Is olitained I'ruin thu fruit of sovurul species of palms, but especially from that of the ICIai) dumcenm, growing oil thu west coast of Africa, to the south of Fernando I'u, and ill Uracil, AVhcn Imported, the oil is about thu cunslsluncu of iiuttcr, of a yellowish color, and scarcely any piirllctilor taste ; hy long keeping it bc- coiiiea ruiicld, loses Its color, which fades to a dirty white, and In this atato is to be rijjcctcd. It is some- times iinltutud Willi hog's lard, colored witli turmeric, and scented with I'loreiitlnc trls root. The inhabit- ants of tlio coast of Uiitnca employ palm oil for the sumo purposes that we do butter. Our supplies of palm oil aril almont wholly derived from tlie west coust of Africa, of wlilcli it is llie staple article of export.— LisWIn'm Miilcria Mulini; Tiiii.mhos's Dhpemalonj. Canilles are niiiilu of pulm oil and cocoa-nut oil, of which many thousand tons per annum uro now em- ployed. Tills modern substitution of vegetable fat for uiilmul ful is rvmnrkablo. It Is bringing Central Af- rica Into tntlmiitu commercial relations witli civilized countries. Thu palm oil is liquid in Africa, but it as- sunr- c solid statu In a coldc- •llmatc. Tiie casks con- taining It have sloam furceil into tticm, by which the oil Is moltod mill mudu to liow out; and tiio oil is tlicn purllled and bleached lo various degrees of whiteness, according to thu purpose to which it is lo bo applied. Tiiu whllciicd cakes of pulm oil nro cut into slices by a j machine ; thu slices are dcpunilcd on mats of cocoa-nut libru; thu mals ai'u plied in heaps, with iron plates be- tween them ; the heaps ore |iiarej in hydraulic presses, , where Intunsu prcssiiru brings the palm oil to the state i of dry, tliln nilies. Aflur a lltllo more purilication, the , palm oil is littcd fur melting, previous to the making of cuiiillcs. les of export Wheat is largely exported. It Is of a ml.xcd ipiallty, hard, and is generally sold from the pulilic magazines, or caricalori, by measure, without weight. Hut the best hard wheat, grown in the neighborliood of Tulcr- mo, is sold by the salma of 272 rotloll=47C lbs. Kii- glish ; the dllTercnce between wclglit and measure be- ing made good by the seller or buyer, as the cnso imiy be. Wine is principally shipped from Marsala ; lem- ons, oranges, and Icinon-julcc from Messina; salt I'roin Trapani; and Imrllla from the southern cuast, Hut all the articles to bo found on the coast may, for the most part, bo had at Palermo; unless, however, the quantity required be small, it is usually best to slilp tb.ein from the outports, tho oxpenso of their convey- ance to Palermo being very heavy. Tho crops of bu- rllla and ahumac come to market in August ; but lirlin- Btone, salt, oil, wine, rags, etc., may generally lie lind all tho year round. The first shipments of leiiiuiis uiul oranges may. ho mado iu tho beginning of Xovomber. iMl'IIBTS «!' P*I,M fill. INTO TIIR I'niTKn StATT.B rOB TUB Vi;,>li KMiiKii .Ii;nk 30, 19M. Dlitrli'U i)ii|iorlt'>l liiio. t ((nlliinii. Value. Sttleiiiaiid lUiveiiy lIuHlou and Cliai'lottowii New lledford 0i;0,O79 76,001 1122 4,95S 4,(>i3 307,562 650 40 $23S,417 26,10-2 92 2,079 1,607 143,994 196 50 New York Iliilllinoro .Mobile Tiitnl 1,149,617 1(416,317 Palms, Willed by I.lnniciis, from tlieir noble and sinlcly iippearnni!!', tliu princes of tho vegetable king- dom, are a natural order of arborescent cndogens, chiefly Inhaliitiiig tho truplcs, dlslinguishcd liy their fleshy, colorless, sl.x-partcd (lowers. Inclosed within spathes ; tlieir ininulu cmliryo, lying In the midst of albumen, and remote from lliu liilutn ; and rigid, plaited or pin- nated liiurtlculuti'd leaves, sometimes called fronds. Wine, oil, lliix. Hour, sugar, and salt, says Humboldt, are tho proiliicu of tills trllio ; to which Von Martiug adds thread, iilensils, weapons, food, and habitations. 'I'liu most cunimoii «|ioi;les Is tho cocoa-nut. Their I wounded stoins, or spathes, ylold in ttbundancc a sac PAM 1484 PAN charino fluid, known In India by tho name of toddy. The succulent rind of tho (Into ia n most nutritious as well as a.t;rcca))le fruit. Sa);o is yielded by tho inte- rior of the trunks of nearly nil, except .•Irecd cnlechu, tho well-known jtimnri, or betei-nut. Tho fruit of the latter species is remarkable fur its narcotic or intoxi- coting power. Tho common canes or ratana of tho shops qro tho floxiblo stems of species of the genus Cnlnmui, Pampas. The name given to ono of tho great sys- tems of !South American plnin»,which can scarcely, with propriety, bo called deieits, inasmuch as they are cover- ed with luxuriant herbage, and inhabited by vast herds of wild cattle ond droves of horses. The region of the Pampas forms the liasins of the Paraguay and La Pla- ta, and includes the vast plains of Buenos Ayres, ex- tending from tlie foot of the eastern ridge of the Andes to tho "sea-like Plata," and stretching southward into the deserts of I'atugonin. — TitAu.i.'s Phijaicnl Geoff- rnphy. Seo Ciuarterli/ Keview, xxxv., 114 (KouEitT 8oi;tiikv). Pamphlet, a small book, usually printed in the oc- tavo or duodecimo form, and stitched with paper cov- er, popularly understood to comprise from fifty to two hundred pages. Panama, a city and sea-port of New Granada, on the I'acitlc, tliirty-eight miles sonthoast f^om Chagres, lat. 8° 5fi' N. ; long. 79° 31' 2" W. Population, 7000. It stands on a rocliy peninsula, projecting into the Bay of Panama, and has an imposing aspect from the sea. Its streets arc well ventiiateci, and it is said to be clean- er than most Spanish-American cities. It is encircled by irregular and not very strong fortitications, construct- ed at diHercnt periods. The houses arc partly of wood, straw, and other fragile materials ; but many are sub- stantially built of stone, the larger having court-yards, or patios, in the old Spanish style ; and no doubt it has been much improved within the Inst two or three years. Its roadstead is ono of the linest in tho world. There are a number of islands a siiort distance from the main land, which aflbrd secure ancliorage for ships of any burden, and from which supplies of provisions, Including excellent water, may easily be obtained. Tlie tides daily rise and fall from twenty to twenty- seven feot, so that it is peculiarly well fitted for the re- pair and building of ships. Previously to 1710, when the trade with the Pacific first began to be carried on round Cape Horn, Panama was the principal entre- pot of trade between Europe and Western America. From that period, hojvever, it fell off'; and its decay was peculiarly rapid after the independence of South America, and tlio opening of the other ports of tlie Pa- cilic. But since the occupation of (.'alilbmia by the Americans, .md especially since the discovery of tlie auriferous deposits in that country, it lias again rapid- ly increased. And now that a railway is carried across the isthmus, it will in all probat)ility attain to great- er connnercial distinction than ever. In the course of the year ]Su5 as many as twelve steamers were em- ployed in the trade between Panama aiul San Fran- cisco. Tliere is a treaty of commerce between tho United States and New Granada, the terms of which are com- plied Willi by New (iranadii, but nro .somotimes broken by the local governnu nt of the province, which placed a tax upon passenger-carrying vessels, at tlie rate of ono dollar for each passenger, which has been recently annulled bj- the supreme government of New Granada. The commercial intercourse of the I'nited States is alone dependent on the regulations made by the gen- eral government of New Grnnaila, wliidi latter, by an act of Congress, has made Panama and other ports on tho Isthmus ft-ee ports of entry since tho 1st of Janu- arj', 1860. Tliere are no privileges permitted to the comnicreo of other nations which are denied to the United States, and there are no restrictions imposed on the commerce of other nations othor than what arc imposed upon that of the United States. Tho sum of $0 40 is collected tram each American vessel ; viz., $4 80 to the captain of tho port, and $1 UO to the inter- preter. The samo charge is made against New (ira- nadian vessels, except the interpreter's fee. The trans- shipment of goods from ono port to another in New Granada, or to a foreign country, by United .Stales ships, is permitted without restrictions. The c unciiry of this country, by a recent law, is eslabiislud at leii dimes to the dollar. The weights and measures arc the same as used in France, but as yet arc not brought into u"' in this country. The French silver, by a law of New Granada, is made a legal tender at the rate of twenty cents to tlie one-franc piece, although, com- pared with the value of United Stales silver, it would only bo worth 18'0 cents. New Granada does not ex- port any thing from here other than a very few liides, and the imports of the United States to this place con- sist only of coal and provisions for the steamers which carry passengers to and from the isthmus. Tlie iaiiorer in this consular jurisdiction receives from two to three dollars per day; mechanics from six to eiglit dollars per day ; and clerks from liiiridO to $i;i00O per annum. There are no price-current slieets puldishcd in this ccm- sular jurisdiction. — Commercial Itelations oflhc l.'iiiled States. Panama, or Darlen (Isthmus of), connects North (or rather Central) and South America, niul is comprised in the republic of New Granada, see., Lslli- mus, forming a province between lat. 0° and 10° N.. ond long. 77" 30' and 81° W., having north the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Darion, and south the Gulf of Panama. Lengtii, west, to cast, about 200 iiiilcs, average breadth 40 miles, but in long. 70° it is narrowed to less than 30 miles. Surface undulating, the hill chains wiiidi extend through the isthmus, uniting the mountain sys- tems of Central and South America, arc, near Panama, not more than 260 feet above the level of the Pacific. A^rcat quantity of rain fulls ; in the months of July, August, and Septcinlpcr it rains incessantly. Soil very fertile; products conipri.se tine timlier, in great vari- ety, fruits, rice, maize, sugar-cane, coflee, cocoa, caout- chouc, vanilla, dyes, drugs, hides, limestone. On its north coast are Aspinwoll (colony), Puerto-Hello, and Chttgres; on its south side is Panama. A coniieclion between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans lias liccii pro- posed at diHerent points of Central America: viz., at Tehuantcpcc, at Cliliiuimula, at Nicar.igua, and at the narrowest part, where a railroad lias Ijcen couslriiclcd between Aspiinvail and Panama. J'assai/c acrosn the Inlhmus of Panama or Dnrlcn. — Latterly, or since the discovery of the mineral liclics of California, the isthmus bos become a great thorough- fare, vast numbers of individuals liaviiig crossed from the port of Chagres on the Cariljlican Sea to Panama on the Pacific Ocean, ond conversely. The jiort of Chagres is within the mouth of the rivcrof that name, in lat. 9° IH' G" N., long. 79' f)9' 2" W. A liar ut the mouth of the river has only from 10 feet to 12 feet water, though witliin the bar tho ri\cr deepens to from four to six fathoms. It is proliabio that the bar might be deepened without much ditTicuity, and a canal might bo cut from the bottom of tlic liny of Slanzanilia to tlie river, from whicli it is only three miles distant. A short while ago tlie town (if so it might be called) was a mere cluster of huts, unhealthy, and without any ac- commodation for passengers. But having latterly Iie- conio one of the starting-points in the nearest and short- est route fronv the cast to California, it has been consid- erably improved. A joint-stock company was formed in New York for the construction of n railway from or near Chagres, at the bottom of Manzanilla Hay, to Panama, a distance of about ,14 or .'15 miles. This rail- way has been completed, and is now in operation. Tho undertaking reflects great credit on American enter- prise and perseverance. Tho dilTicultics to bo over- come were of a very formidable description, partly from PAN 1485 PAN sum of il; vU., 10 intor- ow (irn- 10 trnns- iii Now 11 Stlltl!B ciirrpiicy ;(1 lit icn surcB aro t broiitjlit by 11 law le rate of l(;ll, lom- , it would c8 not cx- few liiiles, place coll- iers wliUh .'lie laborer vo to three i;lit iloUars ler niiiKini- in this loii- 'thc Viiiled ), conncots rica, nml is I, sec., Isth- ilO^^^N.-and Ciiribbean of I'ananm. raKc breailth to less than haius which louiitttin sys- car I'anama, f the I'acific. iitlis of July, ,-. Soil very 1 prcat vnri- cocoa, eaout- oiiP. On its to-lUUo, and A coiuiection ins been pro- rica: viz., at la, and at tlio constructed ,„ /)»n'cn.— lineriil riches ;iit thorough- crossed from .1 to ranama The port of of that name, A bar at the et to Vi feet :peiis to from ihe bar niisht I canal might zanilla to the distant. A ,c callecO w(is ^thout any ac- Ig Inttcily be- Icst and short- ^ been consid- • was formed [iwnv from or nilla Hay, to This rail- Iration. The Icrlcan cntcr- j to be over- h, partly from the nature of the ground, which not unfrcquently con- siatod of deep uiarahcs, but mora from the luxuriance and strength of tho vegetation through wlilch it was necessary to pcnetruto, and the heat, moisture, and un- licalthiness of tho climato. Unluckily, tho desire to aeeoinplisli their task in tho shortest time and at the least expense, tempted the engineers to execute tlio V'ork in a ve.y superlicial manner, substituting bridges, viaducts, pillars, etc., of wood for those of stone, mortar, and iron. In a country whore tho decomposition of vegetable matter is so very rapid this was as false and spurious a species of economy as can well be imagined. Already several miles of the railway have had to be repaired, or rather reconstructed, by tho substitution otliyiium rita and other hard woods for tho softer ones that were lirst used. This, however, will do little mure than palliate the evil ; and there can bo no doubt that eventually stono and iron bridges and viaducts will have to bo used instead of wooden ones every where along the line. Trains take about four hours in pass- ing from sea to sea; but were the railway properly flnished, the passage might Imi performed in less than half that timo. A station, called Aspinwall, has been erected on Slanzanilla Island, in the Caribbean Seo. Uut it is extremely unheulthy, and there is little pros- pect of its ever becoming a place of nmch importance. — To.Mp;8'8 I'anama Uailroad, New York, ISou, pasiim. Uut supposing (which is not the case) that this rail- way weru every thing that could be desired, still it is plain that the grand desideratum is the carrying across the isthmus of a water communication lictwcen the Atlantic and raciiic oceans. We do not mean by this a canal suitable only for coasters, or vessels of com- paratively small burden. Such a channel would bo of little use, except to the countries contiguous to its ter- mini. What is really wanted is a canal that will ad- mit ships of tho largest burden, and bound on the longest voyages. The advantages that would result from having the isthmus perforated by such a channel can not be easily exaggerated. No other project that appears to be within tho limits of |)0ssibility, perhaps not even the carr^'ing of a ship canal across the Isth- mus of Suez, would give so great a stimulus to com- merce and navigation. It would remove the barrier which renders the navigation between the eastern and western coasts of America so tedious and difficult. And, by doing this, it would enable ships from Kuropc to reach tho latter and the racitic in less than half (lie timo they do at present, while it would greatly facili- tate the voyage to Australia and China. And n grand project of this sort is on foot. It is proposed to cut a canal that shall admit ships of 1000 tons burden and upward, between I'orto Escoccs (lat. 8" 5' N., long. 77° 21' W.), near Point Coledonia, in the Gulf of Uarien, on the Caribbean Sea, and the Hio Savana, which falls into the Gulf of Sun Aliguel, on the I'acilic. The intervening space (about 38 or 4U miles) is said to lie comparatively (lat ; tho ports at each ex- tremity aro easy of access, and have deep water; and it is proposed that tho canal should be constructed throughout on the same level, and have no locks. The cost of the project is estimated at from 12 to 1.^ millions sterling. And considering the vast importance of such a work to the United States, to Kngland, and, indeed, to all maritime nations, this expense, heavy as it may appear, should be reckoned a subordinate matter. Were the country through w hich it is to pass in the possession of England or tho United States, it would most jirob- ably have been undertaken. But the unsettled state of Central America, and the knotty questions that might eventually arise as to the property and manage- ment of tho canal, aro serious obstacles to its being proceeded witii.— See, for ample details on this inter- esting subject, tho work of Vt. Clklen, entitled Isth- mus n/Varien S/iip Canai. Tho route by which tho railroad passes is in every respect the most desirable for this purpose, and the means by which tho character of tiie rountry could bo best known, as far as its topography and the features essential to tho object in view could l>o seen. It was, in fact, the direct means for tho accoinplishinent of the purpo'i 24U3 2l&i Milur WIS* 'J8(in 2305 Miln OUT S-rtiT 4:07 4&'il NturaRUft Teliuantepcc Tho several transit distances, and tho total distances Prom New York to 8an Francisco, are shown by the fol- lowing table : Routei. Tr«n«il DiilAMM. Total Dutancci. ni 131 101 Milri. 01V8 Tchimntopec 2!10 48IT Papal States. This portion of Italy comprises nn area of 17,210 square miles, and contained In W)!) a population of !l,00fi,77l inhabitants. The chief pro- diictlons of the Papal States arc wheat, ninl/.e, pulse, hemp, wine, oil, ond tobacco. There arc numerous mines of iron, Icod, sulphur, alum, vitriol, and other volcanic products ; but, with the exception of the sul- phur mines near KImini, they are unproductive. Tho quantity of this orticle annually manufactured amounts to about S4,000,000 founds. The manufactures of the Papal States comprise silks, leather, gloves, paper, mu- sical strings, iron and glass ware, a few cotton goods (at Rome), crape and sausages (at liologna). and cord- age, soap, cream of tartar, and glue. There is no di- rect trade between the I'nited States and the Papal Stales — the latter deriving their supplies of cotton, sugar, coffee, cocoa, rum, etc., from the ports of ricnon and Trieste. The foreign commerce of these states Is conducted chiefly through the ports of Ancona and CIvita Vccchl.i — the former with the western shores of tho Adriatic, and the latter with the Mediterra- nean ports. The celebrated Roman cement Is export- ed from tho port of rivita Vecchia. Foreir/n Trntte.—\n IN.'iO, the foreign trade of Anco- na represented $1,1(14,000, viz., imports, 4i2,97(!,00O ; exports, $I,I8H,0(M). This trade was distriliuted be- tween Austria, England, and its dependencies in Ku- rnpe, these countries appropriating mori" than three- fourths of the whole. During the same year the for- eign trade of Oivita Vecchia amounted to $3,821, 0'J8 : viz., imports, $2,!)20,.11 1 ; exports, $802,014. The countries participating in this trade were France, Sar- dinia, England, Holland, and tho Two Sicilies. The wholo foreign commerce of the Papal States In 1850 amounted to $19,208,080 ; and in 1851 to $20,454,240. All foreign vessels are permitted to engage In the coasting trade of tho States on the paj-ment of tho fol- lowing dues : Anchorage, on French, Austrian, and American vessels, three hi\]occhi per ton — about three cents. Foreign vessels putting Into harbor, either for anchorage or through stress of weather, pay half of tho above-named d-ity.— Stt Italy. Clenranre fhily. — Tor each vessel of ft-om 1 to 149 tons, ten bi^Jocchi (ten cents) ; and for 150 tons ami up- ward, twenty bujocchl (twenty cents). No vessels en- joy an exemption from tho custom-house duties on imports ond exports. These duties have recently un- dergone several reductions, applicable chiefly to arti- cles of necessity ; on articles of luxury. In which sugar is included, the duties have been proportionobly raised, — Commercial Relations n/the I'niltd Utatei. Paper (fier, and Du. I'apirr; Vr. Papier; M.Ciirtit; Sp.I'apfl; Russ. Aumnr/n; l.at. 6'AiiWn; Arab. Kartat; Pors. Kaghan). This highly useful substance is, as every one knows, thin, flexible, of different colors, but most commonly white, being used for writing and printing upon, and for various other purposes. It Is manufactured of vegetable matter reduced to a sort of pulp. Tho term poper is derived from iho Greek word 7rairvpo(, pnpijnt, tho name of the plant on tho inner bark of which (f.iber, /Ji'/i^oj-, whence our word Jooil-) the ancients used to write. Paper is madn up Into tlieett, quires, and reams, each quire consisting of twenty-four sheets, and each ream of twenty quires. Historical Sketch of Paper. Difference between an- cient anil modem Poper.— HomB of those learned and Ingenious persons who have Investigated the arts of the ancient world havo expressed their surprise that the Greeks and Romans, though they possessed an im- mense number of books, and approached vcr}' near to printing in the stamping of words and letters, and sim- ilar devices, should not have discovered the art ; tho first rude attempts at typography being siifliciently obvious, though much time and conlrivanco have been required to bring tho process to its present state of perfection. But they should rather, perhaps, havo wondered thot the more civilized nations of antiquity did not invent paper, an inveiitien which, it may easi- ly be shown, necessarily preceded that of priming. But this was an exceedingly difficult task ; the more so, that the vast importance of paper could not be ap- preciated, or even imagined, till after it had been gen- erally Introduced. At first, the memory of important events appears to havo been handed down by inscrip- tions cut on rocks, pillars of stone or marble, and the walls of ediflces ; and this primitive iisuge is still re- tained in the monuments in our churches and ceme- teries. In a later, though still very remote age, men were accustomed to write upon portable surfaces of va- rious kinds. Every body knows that the Dec.iloguo was written upon tables of stone; and Joshua wrote n copy of the law upon tho like materials. — ./ns/i. c. vlii., v. ;t2. The Greeks and Romans engraved lows, tiont- ics.contracts, and other Important documents, on plates of brass ; and It Is staled that a fire which broke out in tho capilol, in the reign of Vespasian, consumed above 3000 such bronze muniments. — Mourenu Traili' de /tiplomalifpie, i. 451. But exclusive of plates of this sort, which were necessarily inconvenient, cosily, and quite unfit for ordinary- use, thin and flexible plates of lead and other metals Qfnh, c. xix., v. '2ii, 21), thin pieces of wood, .skins, parchment, linen, and a variety of similar substances, were used in writing. Cheaper materials, such as the leaves and bark of trees, palms, etc., were also used from a very remote period for the same purpose : hut leaves (xi!fiTai,rli(irla') being, when dry, apt to split in the direction of tlio fibres, it was found tp bo necessary, in preparing them for writing, to glue them together, so that the fibres might cross each other in oppoailo directions. The texture of tho leaf, or sheet, if wo may so call il, is thus greatly strengthened ; and when it has been smoothed, pol- ished, and fitted for use, it Is less Inconvenient and better looking than might bo supposed. Such, in PAP U8T VAV Inn, nnd Jilt three Blthcr for «lf of tho 1 to Via B mill ii|i- ■C8«cl« cn- dutics on ccnlly un- ly to artl- hich sugar bly ralseil. • U.Cartn; lb. Kartttf, Mice In, as colorB, liiit Tiling and 09CS. It 1* to a sort of the Greek iO plant on whence our iper is made ro consisting iciity quires. : beltveen nn- Icnrncd anil I the arts of surprise that scsscd an im- ver)' near to ters, and slm- l the art ; the ig sufficiently ncc have been cscnt slate of lerhaps, have Is of antiquity 1, it may easl- t of priming, isk ; the more iild not lie ap- bad lieen gcn- f of important wn liy inscrip- nrble, and tho igc is still re- ics and ceme- .icte ago, men surfaces ofva- tho ncc.-iliiguo loshua wrote a -.Ml. c. viii., •d laws, tront- Lents, oil plates h lirokc out in msuincil above .■eau Traill' (h' f plates of this int, costly, and •xible plates of . 23, il), tliin [ and a variety ing. Cheaper )f trees, palms, period for the [„.') being, when |o filircs, it was ini for writing, res might cross . texture of the [3 thus greatly Isinoothed, pol- :onvenient ami 5cd. Such, in fhct, la the principle on whidi the paper of the ancients I was formed. This, however, which was called t'lmrti Hyt/iiliacn, from the place of Its manufacture, dii) not consist of leaves, hut of tho inner bark of the famous reed or rush, the Cijpfruf Papynia, found along the lianks of the Nile, or rather In tho pools and ditches which communicate with the river. Tho ancients ap- plied this useful plant to an immense variety of pur- poses ; but here wo shall only notice that from which It has acquired an Immortality of renown. The inner liark having been divided by a needle or other sliarp instrument Into very thin and broad layers or tila- mciits, portions of these were placed sido by side Ion- gituilinally, and glued together at tho ends ; another portion being glued cross-wise on tho backs of the lat- ter, to give the page the requisite strength. I'liiiy !ind other writers have described the process (Hist. Xat. lib. xiii. c. 11, 12, 18), which has licen further elucidated by Ilardouin and other commentators. Hut tho fullest and ablest discussion of this curious sulijcct Is contained In tho very learned and elaborate work, the A'i)i(i'ea« Traile de Diplomatique (1. p. 'HM-6'il), where the most interesting partioulars respecting tho history and manufacture of papyrus, as well as of tho greater number of the other writing inalerlals used in antiquity, have been collected and set in the clearest point of view. — See also the Diclionimire Diplumatique of De Vaines, art. I'aimkii, ii. I»i5-17l. Uruce has given a summary of the authorities in the seventh vol- ume of the octavo edition of his Travels ; and, not sat- isfied with this, ho attempted to make paper from the papyrus, in which, not being very successful, he im- pittcB his failure to errors in the statements of I'liny ; nut reflecting that, had he endeavored, trusting to written directions, without experience and traditional art, to make modern paper, or even a pair of shoes, he would most probably have been equally infelicitous. Egypt enjoyed for a lengthened period a natural mo- nopoly of this valuable article, and even attempted, in anticipation of a later policy, by prohibiting the growth of the papyrus, except in certain locttlities, aid limit- ing Its supply, to sell its produce nt an artificially en- hanced price! — Ameimion, Commerce dea Kyypliuns, p. 2.'I8. But this policy ceased on the conquest of I'gypt by the Komans, who, having imported tho plant into Home, succeeded in preparing from it a very superior article. Pliny enumerates the various kinds of paper, from tho coarsest, which was used, like our brown pa- per, for packing, to the most expensive and finest. Tho latter, which was made of the innermost lilamcuts, was of a snowy whiteness ; and when properly dressed and polished, was easily written upon. The consump- tion was very considerable; and being, after the foun- dation of Alexandria, principally made in tliat city, it formed an important article in her commerce, and fur- nished employment for many workmen and much cap- ital. Flavins Vopiscus relates that, in tho third cen- tury, the tyrant Firmus used to say there was so much paper there, and so large a quantity of flie glue or size used in Its preparation, that he could maintain an army with it : " Tmtnm habuiase de charlia, vt piihlire airpe diceret, excrciium ae alere poaae pnpi/ro el glulino." Wo may doubt whether the value of the paper at pres- ent belonging to any single city would do the like. Charia Egyptiam is very ancient, having, notwith- standing the assertion of Varro and I'liny to the con trary (^Hiat. Xnt. lib. xiii. cap. 11), been in common use long before the ago of Alexander. This is evident from tho statement of Herodotus, who, though he lived about a century before that conqueror, tells i;s that in former times, when papyrus was scarce, tlie loninns wrote on the skins of goats and sheep, and that that practice continued to be customary among several bar barous nations. — Lib. v. cap. 68. Though white, smooth, durable, and not ill adapted for writing, ancient paper was not suited for the print er; by reason of tho closeness of tho grain, it would not have r«ti!|v»d llin Ind ffiittl M|i« imitf klndlvfliin sliaviiiKS of wood, Dili) nw\l IlliK fiifilerlnis; and Ms texture WHS mi mry \ifUf\»ltiM II wiitiM have shirered lo pioies under III" |ir«ii« 1 1 ¥,»<>, \H ihilli, an liiartl- lli'ial inuis cU'iiiifd iiitnt i-ifmllum lirrhiirim"), no great iiiveiiiiiiii iir iiiunHMily Iii'Imu dldfdvercil In Ha preparuflini. Miiiluril li(i(iBf, i,n ||in mher hand, Is wliiilly artiiiciiil i and ()i« mMf\iiM\if« ftif lis mniiu- laituro are nmrvulMiiii M||ku Uf tlln «((i«ki lly dvlncod In their dtsigii and Itmil' \,m'\m\ f|()M(i|(cy. iJke the paper of aiiili,uily, It U fiiMiiBd (if IIik nhiltienls of va- rious surfs of V8gu|i»l;|u«iili,(«,(iip,,,|pf|»ed pflnclpallv from the tearing In p|«i;, „f jimhimIImh iiilbm and llri- en rags, and siniilai' timl"fli(l*, mkn\ with water. This prncefs in ntljiiit \,m\m IIibIM Irtli, piilp; and when examined nilh n liilt-Kitini*, |)i« llnaHng flla- iiients are fimnd to bu Hull HIIkiI fw ndlfoHug liigeih- er, hulng jagged and m\ti\\, mi\ IllUH lii tirery possi- lilo way. A poiliuM nf Hi)* imUMiIa i>t iiiilp being, when properly \m\imn\, \m»fu,\ n|iiili tfitiildn or uleres of rinu woven wire, llm wiHt-f U dtftltiMl off, ami the suspended filirus fajlinu In lll« l«d((it(l, fdftti a Invpr or sheet, wliich, being i'ii||»n|ji|A|iiit liV |iH"Mi(tP nnd'drled, iiecomes paper, its mrufiiilli mt\ K»»i/lfieM depending', of course, in a, g|ii»t mumm, m IIh' ((iwllty of (he rag or other niulerlat nf Hjijili It In madp. Caper used lo bu manulVlurud by (1i|iliiht; otevps or frames into tho pulp, thu linrliMM ii< mnwM* M lifted up forming tlie bhuet (if \,i^^mf: Mtll lli« aiipllcnihm of rotary mufinn to lliu nwm(mm' \m<> em.(l(d a tolnl change in Iho inndii In wlijil* if ^((q crtfrlMl nn: in- stead of dipping lliii sluviis tw tfmWf ItflK flip ilitern of pulp, a cirnilur »aii, of fmifiil liitvel (if Woven wire, revolves hori/.onfslly Minlcf III" ♦(«(!( (technlcnilv called (ho vat), ce.elves |h(i ((«|(i«>it, cotiVPts It awav, and, h> an ailjustiiieni oftujlwo-diKKfy dellVnct, (rniis- fera it uninjured, llinngli H4 ffWijilw li^i k #pt Vobweb, to a similar ruvolviiig Inwcl of Mlj iIkid mi endless web of paper is spiiii, as jiinii, a) (pb.Ij »i (li« tnaehlna continues to niiive and jiMlji jii ii|it(titi(ut it ii duulitl'ul wlivlliur tills wcru dunu iiy tliu Aruliiuim or (iivvlm. Tlui iiiiidii uf fuliricutiiiK |>u|icr rroiii coltuu uiid uilu-t veRvtalilu iiiutiiriain Li'iii|{ uiuu diHiovurcd, ita fubri>'»- tluii fruiii liiiuii ru^a wui u luiiipurativul^ cutty, «iid iii Kurupc, wlivru ciittuu was tliuii vxtreinely wti/i'v, uu •II Init noc'cwury iili'|i. It ii* itln((uiur, liuwuvvr, lliitt we Imvu nu |>oiiitivu inruruiutioii I'itlmr u« tu tliu cuuu< try wliuro, or tliu cpocli wlivii, pu|ivr from ruKo iMgwi to bo iimnufui'turi'd lu Kuropu. Mtiit on tie jitul muUr ton iureHlUM pltu liiril, iiu'au i'ni.ivini' lUdi, ni tun luivjf uidtHuire uu-dilii Ju QuaUirzirme. — Auuiiau Tniite, me., i. bU. lii fitct, K){y|itlaii |ia|jvr, or |>«l- per iiiudu of papyruH in llic iimiiiier duscribed uUivl', coiitliiuoU to be purtially employed down to tli" luid- die of the cloventli century, IIioukIi pttriliiiuut utu Uien tlic principal uiatcriul uned in nritiu|{. It i» < u- rieU3 to observe liow very iiliurtly tlie introduction of paper preceded the invention of printing, to wiiiclj, indeed, as already seen, it waa an iiidinpeni ible pre. liininary. Muratori attributes the i((iioraiiti',9, i. 'iOO, And whatever opinion may be eiiterluincd us to the llrst part uf tliis statement, tliere can Itu uo question that the latter is perfectly well founded. Not only are wo iu the dark as to the history of niud- crn paper, but wo are unable to make any very suiis- fuctory conjectural cstiinuto of the mode in » liicii it u as invented. It is all but certain that the invention must have been suggested Ijy accident, or by observiug tlie ell'ects produced by t^io accidental drying of triluraleil vegetable matter, or in tome sucli way ; aud lliut il is nut possible to imagine that the invciitiuu »huuli. have been wliully tlio result uf design ; for we can uulv conceive liow any one without any previuus: kuuwicdge should have proposed to himself to produce paper Ijy pounding rags, or other vegetable matter, mixing tiie mans in water, and then pressing and drying the de- posit, liiit, witliout indulging in unprolltable cunjec- tures, it is at all events certain that, liuwever und by whomsoever discovered, no invention iius been of great- er importance. ChurtiB uau iiuixime /iiinmiiilus iilir cvtuUt It iHemoria, — I'l.lNV, //iW. .\al. lib, xiii. cap. 11. The processes by whicli tlie most worthless and vilest materials are converted into such adniiiuble Mub- stances as jiaper and glass are probably the grcatesit triumphs of liunian talent anr» remarkable than in (Im I««(, 'tM»i»t^)(t*M Itom Ihit fact that, while tlio tumitfmimi' km Um nxiin than double rmliK'wl within that time, in wt^^t:t^ttt'^t^ti i4 ittK itttlttftt** liomfl supply we derive (fuut »uti»ttt»t*fit |i«««kmsl/ r«Karde ttlwm, 'th* awitepings of cotton ami IIuk milUiUWUtit Ut tU* nt^Mm atxt din with which they are MilMul 1*1^, n^fn, ttftM within these few years, of no val- ue »)**<*•♦•», »«**^t M mntintx. The chemical mid 1 uu^i.h)t4tkitt tttt**fi>*n iff wl>i<'li these materials are pu> lititui, !»U»t.itni,mtii MiMle available for the production uf tfi^^-f, #Kh*M lli*it strength Ix'ing impaired, are iwt uui) »v»*'((«(((^ in(«rcs(rng in themselves, but aro uf Ifftirt HiHWrnttt Http*-4 )»t ttmtft, the inventor being an In- ! (j^jjivw #w»»i*,v rr '-M i4' thif M -lUVt- wm lirought to Kngland by M. . Uti^if HiiitH > mt4 fViWgh at first it was far froiii giv- i iiig lut *wMi>M^A i/t pncemn, it iiufticed to iiidiico Kii- gliefc K»Mt»t)tt* *M/4 engineers, particularly Sir. Dun- ki», |U> MU/w »ff ttHf K-ht-me ; and in the course of a tV-w y«.iar# Umy himi^i it to a high degree of jierfec- 'fU»t Mitt^ittn tittittUt «4»(emenl exhibits the aggre- iiMU^ nMmttUi**, <>itiitn<, Mwi prires per pound of rugs i)iHMrU4)Uhimn the (pmntities received ftutu htttjf ttmittn • f>«rior> #2l,*(:,f.V»; ■U.i-m.MI fii.Wff.frfl* m.»4«/ll4 _W,<>jl*fWl| M,iW <>,Olftt *?KJ."* per Pountl. o'nti. Iliillnr.. R><,'S,(I20 !1-M',I 804.177 11711 t'id.UO it C,s t.'2l,l!l7 ■l-Ui 747,ir.7 II til 9(W,«'.tl ll4tl «2-i,s;t) il4J 98.5,4f!f. 4 111 l,fi07,R'2« !l-ill 1,!C.'4,4I.1 II (HI *7,MH,TUI 781.872 Vftm ttm iffftxAitifi fnijk it will be seen that during tl*c 4«**W«)i»J J*fi<-e of Italy coniparotl willi all otiMf t»t$Mfk* *♦ (("« ptin<-ipn\ source of supply upon »bU)( titu t nittii Wsites must rely, with any degree of fMifftitthi ("t *« «r(!(l« (he consumption of wliich is »u »■#(*)(/ !Wf>e*;!ng (hero; even during the jia-st yittf, »)f /ttitftitihg (Jefif iency of the manufactured ma- t*ri,ai •'*§'> l*iitii4fif apprehended by the conductors <,if iv*ii^ f»fi(t/tkiii Mtid *i«wspaper journaia. The avor- aij^' mmtmi UttHHtH} itnportcd into the United States ' i,S7i iWi tfc* a!*erage annual fK> inhabitants of the United tititt*:* fViUfUim «# ttiweh paper as the 04,000,000 in- lmt4H U) 4§ (4 t'ttrntti Mid Kngland, This is vcr/ near- I ' ■^ .n"^." PAP 1489 PAP 1 found. I 1173 11 OS 1 »0I 3 40 I ■Mi 4;ii 3-1 '■> »-00 ta States i» kbincd. In llio United 1,000,000 in- , vciy near- ly correct. Tlio atatlitU'n, howuver, will p'ove IiiUt- | Ihci »l(K'k for roniiiini|itloii mi>,!it vary iIlKhlly, liut not citiii);. 'ItiB niiinlior of |ia|i(ir-iiiilla in iipuratlun In England in INiia wai 7fiO, and thn annual value of tlio paper manufaclun-d rooihed as liit!li as |tl,(K)«,0(K). At that period, however, thu inanufacturn uf paper wu burdened with an excliu duty ainountlii); to more than three times as much as the total waxen of thn hiiiiila employed In making it, and the c|uantUy annually pro- duced did not exceed .^:i,ll«MI,lHIO llis. of lirst-cluits and Jti,00<),0 kxi'outko in UllCAT llKITAIN rilO.II IHIO TO l*)4. l-UUDdl or i'«|W HoiiiiiIj uf I'atwr ri. Ponadi of !'»)>«* Vmh. iuanufiir(ur*(l Uintcl for CiMiiitiiiptt.in • Iliurtflit friilll ~Tnnr In (Irani llrluin in Urem Hrllnin. (Iriiit llrluin I27,40(I,(KI(I 122.11(10,(1(11) 4,S,|0,(KI0 IS 17 121.9fln.0(K) llfl,lUII,IKI() 5,n;>2,uki 1844 . 12 1,811(1, mm 110,0ll(l,(MH) B,1S0,(KI0 1841 132,I(1(I,(I(K) 120, 11111,(101) 5900,0110 isn;) l4l,iMiii,iino I83.2IIII.(KN) 7,70.',()IK) lNf>l lon,iioo,oiHi 142Bin.0(H) 8„305,l)00 |H'.2 IM,4KI,ll0() 141.11111,1) M) 7,328,n(MI l8,^3 177,0iKI,(MIO 104,3110,(100 13,200,000 18;>4 177,80C ono 101,7(10,000 10,112,0110 France turns Into paper annually about ZSUi'iOOjOOO lbs. of rags, producing about 15C,H0O,0O0 lbs. of paper. In the Dnited States there are ToO paper-mills, which work up each year about iOOiOOO.OOO lbs, of rags. As • sumiug (the usual estimate) that 1^ lb. of rags yields 1 lb. of paper, wo have the following comparative state- ment for the United States, and France and Great Brit- ain combined : lliiltiMl Htutes (ireat Britain and) I'runco cnmbtnedl* I'duikIi uf Rati* annually coniumsil. ToROlW^OIIO 436,100,000 PuuniU of Pa)ier annually niniiufai 7 27o7kIo,"oou" 291,209,000 Pni>er par I'a plln. 10 81) 4K matiTially, the above re»ulls. The preceiling slate- meni, however, omits the c|uaiitill('s annually imported and exported by cnih of the countries respectively, Items without whicli no rulculallon us to consumption can be accurately mnde. The lm|K>rtatioii of paper of all kinds into France in IH.^:! cliil not exceed .'l»7,im llis., while the exports amounted to I7,0.'').'t,(ir)7 Ihs. I'hiii gives an excess of exports over imports to lie supplied from tln! stock of ilomi^tic innniifacture, of lO.illl.fi.'i.'l lbs. Deduct this from iri(l,N(K),(HMl lbs., the <|uantlty nmniifui'turDd, und we have left for consump- tion I lO.OKll, 117 U.S., or ;1K1I Urn, p,r mpiia of the pop- ulatlon. During the simio year there wore imported Into Kn- glond, according to the ltc|)ort on Trade and Naviga- tion, liOll.'ifiO lbs, of puper. The report gives this quan- tity for the last six months of the year only ; assuming tliut the iniportalion during the ilrst six months was equttl to that fiT tlio lust as above given, and 'he total Importation would reach, say iOO,000 11,^. The quan- tity exported, wo huve seen, wos lll,2!IO,t<"l lbs., leav- ing an excess of exports over Imports of l.'l,(!9(!,H7 1 lbs. Iteccnt and important improvements have been made, by the use of refuse tanned leather, bark of the cotton- Htalk, pulp from the libres of endogenous plants, osrnw umteriulsfor the nianulacture of paper. — Srinitijir Ann. KxrORTB op f'AI'RU .\N0 STATInNKUY OF IIOMKHTMI MaNIT- KACTIUir. rnoMTURl NITWlSTATKS rollTIIH Vkau ENmNO Junk 30, ls:0. Whithar l^ipuHail. Vnlu*. Itiiisla nn the lliiltlc ninl Nortli Sum $300 lliissinn I'DSHcrtHintiH In North America 014 Danish West Indies J,5jBT Itromen 380 Dutch West Indies BOH Kngland 20O Canada ' 03,032 Other Ilritlsh North American I'ossesalona 20,074 llrilish West Indies 8,832 Ilrltlsh Honduras 202 Ilrltlsh Guiana 2,309 britlsh roHHcsflioiiH in Africa 304 Ilrltlsh Australia 1,046 Ilrltlsh Hast Indies ISO Krunre on the Atlantic 1,200 Cuba : 4.'l,lSfl I'orto HIco 5,024 (;ape do Verd Islaiuls 124 Other ports in Africa 547 Haytl 8,059 San Domingo 49 Mexico 10,965 From tills slutement it appears that ths United States consumes .11,800,000 lbs. of rags, and manufac- tures 21,200,000 lbs. of paper, less lln'i Great Dritaia and I'Vanco combined, while tho quantity of paper manufactured pir capita of the popiila'ion of the for- mer is more than double that assigned lothe combined population of the two lutter. The i/aantity of paper imported in Great Britain and Franco and added to Central Itepuljllo . New Granada Venezuela llrazU Uruguay, or CUplatine Itepuhlic IhienoB Ayrcs, or Argcntiuo Itcpubllc . Chill rem Sandwich Islands China 713 T.irs 11,068 9,295 403 883 2,7BT 1,B33 4,330 3,391 Total valu a $203,u;3 Imports or Papfb anp Mancpactubrs op Paper into tub Vnitbd State,' for tub Year KNnisa June 30, 18.10. Wbcnea loiportad. Pnpler .M;ifho Artli-le.. .11771 " 6,409 B2 238 9,285 ■■49 9,'l8T Paper HanKinga, Papar noiaa and Pnnry Hokk. Papar and .Mnniirac turps (pf. nlank nookB. 'VriUns Paper. Shaalhini; Paper. Pl.ylni! Card!. 11" aburg Ilremen ,1II,J41 1,474 4004 8,006 50,050 loi.'iieo ■■42 *5P0 0,405 " 141 T,412 75 " ' 'lb ' " '12 21,323 ' '837 "100 287 ■■"s $.',(IS9 17,4S2 4,984 2.430 02,047 449 " "4 ' ' 19 84,519 13 ■ '327 ■ ■ 38 205 8,886 6,OT6 1«4.'>3 9.')4 2 141 5,301 3S B,58S .... "im "Hi $3,301 14,777 711 72.410 08.808 807 ' " "is 12 102,'354 i,'l33 1,211 5,492 " " 93 062 ■■■44 $6630 $293 483 83 2.516 2,382 2,'846 ' 433 885 "2.^7 376 "m Holland (tibraltar (Janada British West Indies British East Indies France on tho Atlantic Franco on tho Mediterranean. Spain on tho Mcditcrrancau. . Cuba Sardinia Tuscany Chill Peru China Total value $25,061 $228,577 $36,700 $135,107 $12,940 $n2,nio $6630 $19,677 6B I'AP 1400 PAR Poftr /livttt, — The nunuficdiro oMioxf < from |i«per, or ralhur |ia«l«lioar(t, liaa Imu'ihii* » vprr InrK* on>, fruin tliK i.'iiiluiii of •(> niiny tiianuraciun'rii m'IIIiik Ihtir Kuoili III lhr»« lioxra. It l» aaiil that In I'aria four thouiaiiil imrioiia am i'in|i|i>yril In llilt trailii alunii. Th« Irailii In illvlileil liitii nix Ijranchrn. Tlin ilriit ciim- prliaa the inoit olalMiraloly-lliilalKil anil KmamrnUil ii«xi!i, for (h« illiplay uf arlllUlal Huwi-n, rl h v«lva(i, rllilioiii, •llkt, trlinmlnK', niailalt, mlnlHliiroa, anil ror- liolllai for wuiiilInK primontii. Tlir ii'iuiiil ilau eun- •Ida of Ikiici'i anil •mall ornanii'niii fur conficlionera. 'I'liii tlilril kinil aril uti'il for imuklnu toja ami trlnkoti of tniall iil«. The fuurlli klinl am lor prrfiiiiivry, fann, kIovi'ii, I'll'. The llflli coiiiprliii'i lurui' iiuxim for ihawU und rlhlionii for uxportatlon. Thv alxtli am plll-boxr i, wafi'r-lnixi'*, and olherii of tlio mnallett kliiil. Thi' Fri'ni li proiliK'tioni In till* iluparlincnt of inanufacturra nru miporior to any olhrr In neatneu of axecutlun and tiwli' of ornanienUliiin. C/iinrre /'iiprr. — 'Ilia Cliinrta maku it Alameiitoua kind of paper much aiipurior to ancient papyriii; It nlitaini in KiiKland the name of rlcr-paprr ; lint aulK- cicnt in now known uf it to lUiow that thin la liy no mtana a correct doaiRiiation, %)r l.ivhiKatoni) liitru- diicuil Chinctu ricc-papcrln Kngland aliout half ■ cen- tury »no ; it had ((rcat favor aa a material fur arllllclal llowcra. It waa many years afterward that Informa- tion wua olilaiiicd cuiu'crniiiK tlio mode adopted by the (Chinese in making llicau ainall liut very oxponaivu •hceta of paper. There la a le|{Mniiiioua plant growing in China nnil India, tlie atom of which la cut Into piecea eight or tun inches in length ; and theau aro cut liy the (Jhincae into one loiitiniioua apirnl tlim, on tlio aaine principle aa Ilia modern niodo of veneer cutting, hut liy iho dexteroua use of hiind-tools. These inniiiitt!, heing spread out and preimcd tlut, lorm thin ahevia, which, after heing dyed and otherwiau prepared, conatitulo thu ricc-papcr of the C'hinean. Tlio same ingenious people mnk« paper of liamlioo. The haniiioo stems, wlieii aliout three or four iniheH thick, are cut into pieces four or live inches long. These, when softened in water, are noshed, cut into lllamcnts, dried and Ideaclieil in tlio sun, lioiled, licatcn to a pulp, and made into thin sheets of paper. This is truly paper, which the former examples are not; and the art must have made a considerable advance before such a method could have aiiggeated itself. /'a;ifr-.6(in^mi7».— Stamped paper fur this purpose was llrst made in Spain and Holland about A.n. loon. Madeof velvet and tlosa fur hanging apartments, about 1C20. The manurnotiire of this kind of paper rapidly improved in (ireat Urituinfrom early in tiie eiglitceiith century; niul It haa now been lirought to great perfec- tion. Since this important and elegant substitute for the ancient " hangings" of tapestry or cloth camo into use aliout 'JOO years iigu, the inaniifucturo has under- gone a gradual succession of improvements, and has now reached a high statn of beauty and perfection. The patterns on tliesc papers are sonietimcs proiluced by stencil plates, but mure commonly l>y blocks, oneli color licing laid on by a separate block cut in wood or metal upon a plain or tinted ground. Thn patterns aro sometimes printed in vnniish i <• size, and gilt or copper leaf applied ; or bisulpliuret of tin (aiirum muii- num) i.4 dusted over sn as to adiiere to tiic pattern ; nnd in wliat arc ca\\vi\ /ork pnpfm, dyed wools minced into powder are similnriy applied. Powdered steatite, or French clialk, is used to produce the peculiar gloss known under the name of «ii/in, Striped papers arc ■oinetimes made liy passing llie paper rapidly under n trough, which has pariilloi slits in its bottom through which the color is delivered; nnd a number of other very ingenious and lieautiful contrivances have lately been applied In this important branch of art. The in- vention of tlio puper machine, by which any length of paper may bo olitained, elVcctcd a great cliangn in paper-hanginga, whicli could formerly only bo printed upon sfparal* ahttia, and w>ra mueh mora InconvcD' itn* to print as w«l| aa t» apply to iha wnlia. Paplar-maolM, a nam« glvau to arlli'Ira manu- factured of tha pulp uf paper, or uf ulil paper ground up liitu a pulp, liliachvd. If necraaary, and luuuliled Into varioua forma. Thia article has lately lirin uaed upun an axtenslva acala fur thn manufacture uf niuuldliiga, roaelira, and otliar archlteclurul ornainrnia ; pllastera, capllala, and even llgunia ui large aa life, have alto heeii mad* of It. It la lighdr, mure durable, and leaa brittle and liable to damage than plaslar, aii'l admlta of being colurad, gilt, or otherwlao urnamonted. An- uther article aumotiinea gora under the aame iiunie which it more like paalebourd, conalsting uf shueta of paper pasted or glued and powerfully pressed together, ao as to acquire, when dry, the hardness of liuard, and yet to admit, while moial, of curvature and flexure : tea- trays, waiters, anulMioxea, and aiinllar arlicies are thua prepared, and afterward carefully covered by Japan or otiier varnlshta, and often beautifully ornamented by llgures or landscapes and other devices, etc., occa- sionally inlaid with mother of pearl. A mixture of sulphate of iron, i|ulckiime, and glue, or white of egg, with tlie pulp for papier-mache, renders it to a greater extent water-proof; and the further addition of borax und phosphate of soda contrilmtes to make it alinust tire-pruof. The chief papier-mache manufactory in Kngland is that of llielefeid, in Wellington Street, Strand, who has recently published ii concisu history uf the manufacture, embcllishi d with numeruiia iilus- Iratiuns. There are manufactories of pnpier-macliu goods now established in Massachuactta. Kor tlie im- ports of articles uf pnpler-mache, ter Pai'KIi. Para, or Belem, a sea-port city of Hra/.il, capital of the province, 7U miles from thn Atlantic, latitude of Korl St. I'edro 1" W 8., long. AH° flo' b" W. Population estimated at lO.tXXI, mostly of Kuropean descent. It stands on elevated ground, on the south shore of the Way of (iunjuara, on the right bank of the Pura, or Tocan- tins, and has aline appearance from the river. Chief edilices, the governor's palace, cathedral, several other churches, convents, barracks, arsenal, episcopal palace und seminary, formerly a ilesuits' college; a prison, and an unnnUhcd theatre. Vessels of hirgi' draft cnn lie near the city, and the cocoa, caoutchouc, isinglass, rice, and drugs, exported from llrur.il are chiefly from Para. It has also a trade in cotton, vanilla, annutto, dye-woods, honey, wax, and a great variety of other vegetable and animal products. Tiic trade is mostly »ith l.iverpuol, London, Uarlmdoes, Cayeune, und the North American and other llraziliaii ports. The Hiver Para, liounding the island of Mar^jo south ward, extends lietwecn long. 48° 10' and 60 ' 40' W., receives the To- caiitins and Annnpu from tho south, nnd is connected northwestward with the Amazon. Para enjoys an advantage possessed by no other sea- port town in llrazil — that of an unolistructed iiitercuuise by water with tho interior. The comniurclal resources of this province, nnd tho admirable trading positinn uf tho city, nro unsurpassed ; Imt inhabilants urn want- ing to develop these elements of commerce and civili- zation. In IH40, somo American citizens estuldislied several suw-mills at Maguery, in Iho vicinity of Para; hut wlietlicr they met with better success than did tlio Olnsguw merchants, whoso property to the amount of ^I'luO.lHlO was pillaged in tho same place during a revolt ill 1H,15, has not been ascertained. The cotton of I'ara has lieen liiglily prized. Caoutchouc, tho uan of which was llrst discovered in 1735 by French acade- micians sent to Brazil to mako astronomical observa- tions, is abundant, and is extensively mauufuctured into shoos, etc. Were this article admitted into the I'nited States, as in Kngland, free of duty, it would become one of the staple exports to this country. A well-informed American merchant, residing at Para, addressed a letter on this subject to one of tho oflicers of Lieutenant llcnulon's CNpcdition to tho Amazon, TAR 1401 PAR inv««« in*nU' iinil u|i ,.,\ tlllo *ll U|>l>ll ililliiK*< IV ■• *Uu ■ml Ittt I *»n nonicnteil fti'., iicra- llXtUTO of ill! of >' ►•a, or Toi'Bii- Ivcr. Clilcf several other nfopal jialacc. ;o; a prUon, r({.' ilraft oun , IsinjjlaM, liiully from .Utt, annntto, ■k'ty of otlier mlc" i» mostly cnne, iiml tlio . ThoUivcr »ril,<'XtlMl>l!l ivi» tho To- lii conncctoil no otlicr »c«- i\ inlercouvac •|«\ vfnonroes ling jiositlon intsarnwniit- rco anil civlli- cstiilili»li«'' inily ofl'ara; •CSS than 'I'rranury, IranmnllllnK ropy "f . IriiiUr lol- ter and n't'll"" thereto, In rofnremn In ih" 'I'arlir, March «, IHM." ThU artlcin la now lionnnlnK Ih' hr«aiUh of ahniit 200 nillta, ami rsnlatna an afva of alioiit Mil,iiiHUi|iiarn mile*. i'' Incliitia lh« wholi* of tint lininPliKt r**Kloiu of Soiilh Aitii*rlra, b«- Iwi'en lal. 1*1 S., anil the Nlralt of kiatfvllan, anil lia- chli'f alapln of tho provlnca of I'ara; ami an varimia tw i (hill ami I'lrii on lhi< we>t, ami llraail on Ih* ami innltlforni ar» thn uiiva In which It la applli aMc, caul, now conniii'il lo Iha rvpiihllc pnipurly in rallad. holh In thfl aria anil In iluniaallo crononiy — no linpnrl- j On thn north thu llinlla of ihU itala wiih llraull an ant a* an artlcin of commarco haa It alrcaily lH,!"" ; of which tliero entered from tho I 'idled Stales; Voasela, 'JM ; tonnage, :i'J-.'li; value of laigoeit, ♦•i;ifi,'2(H). Cleared to all eounlricn — Vendola, 70; tonnage, II, 11.^; value of cargoea, t''\7,- fl'.'.'i. 'I'll tho I'nlled Htatea— VenaeU, 'i7 1 tonnage, Mli'.'M ; valuo of cargoea, f'.'Ut.ii'ii). In thia province, tho lugar and cutfeo plantatiuna do not produco iufll- itilvantaiin i>rgriat natural JHiumlarlia ; the I'arana on the ea«t and amiih, and lla irilmtary the I'aragiiay nn thn weat. 'Ihe vtlinle aurfai e Ihua lieliinga to tho ha- alna of tlinan two rivera, a niiiuiilain range of lonaidar- aide elevation atmlclilng lietween them iiuiili lo aoiilh, ao aa to form their waler-ahed, and aen I thn drainagn In oppiiaite illriii'lliiiia, hut nearly In eipial portlona. I'lin dlalance of the water-ahed from Ihe river acarcaly any whera exceeda IINI mllna, and henco the triljiilarlea liy which the draiiiiige la conveyed arn more remark- iilde for their niinilM'r than Iheir magnitude, liy far the largeat la Ihe Tlliimarl, which, owing lo an ruatom litml In the water-ahcd, Ima lla course conalderahly prolonged, and lieliig angineiileil Ia It la almost incloaod liy rivera, and tho Interior la alao clout for homo cnnsninptlon, and supplies aro iisually ,,„,„„if„„ „„(,„„,. ■, h„ ex,„rlor waters aro navlga- imported from tho nelghliorlng provinces. Iho Im- ,_, ^,,,, /„,„„i,„„ „,„ ^ „vcnue, which are dea- porls from foreign countries conslat of cotton goods, sllk-i, hardware, wines, apirits, salt, Hour, salt provl- viuns, gunpowder, etc. The only manufactnrei are ordinary cotton cloths for sacks and liaminocka, and India-rnlilior shoes; l>nt these manufaclnres seem not to thrive, from n want of skill to direct tliom. Total NfMiiKn nr VKHKKi.a. » iTii Tiiain ToxxAiia, ax- iiAiir.ii IN tiir. Tkaiir okt»kkx I'aua ano riuiKiiiM ('olrNTKIBS, AN1« V'Al.ia OK I'.XIHiaTa ANII IXI'OIITS XTII , It IK41 AMI) IS.VI. IKIH. V.mIi. Tom KmnrR KlltlTi'll NS li.X'iH inipnl'ls. :i.'^! nets, as rhuliarl), sarsaparilla. Jalap, sassafras, dragon's hlooil, copiilva, mix vomica, liquorice, ginger, etc., all ; of tho lineal qualily. Of dye-stuffs, loo, there is an Im- i ineiiao variety ; as cochineal. Indigo, vegctahlo vermil- ion, satfron, etc. Many of the forest trees yield valu- able guni.a, and they comprise some of the most dell- linns perfumes and incense that can bo imagined, I Hhers, again, are like amber, hard, hrlllle, and Insolu- ble in water. The sirinijn, or rubber-tree, the product of which Is now almost a monopoly with I'ara, and also Ihe pnliimnUi, which produces tho gum giilacum, crowd the forests, and the swect-tlavored vanilla is abumlant. I'pon tho hills tho celebrated verba inalA flonrlshoi luxuriantly. Tho cultivated products aro sugar-cane, cotton, tobacco, rice, mandioca, Indian corn, etc. On Iho plain? thousands of cattle range, and large i|uanti- llea of hides, hair, horns, bones, tallow, etc., are lost for want of transportation. 'I he country is not celebrated for its minerals ; but in all that constitutes an agricul- luial Country, rich IoulIs, a lino climate, and abundance of water. It has no enual. Hitherto, however, it ha* been shut out from tho world by the arbitrary will of and a great variety of toxtilc plants, medicinal I'lrugs, j despotism ; and its future commerce can only bo mcas- and dye-woods of the richest qualities. The present i iircd from Us resources and facilities. The recent revo- population of I'ara is about '20r>,000, though tho prov- lutioiis in tho states of iho Plata havo opened the inco is said to be capable of maintaining some millions i inagnilicent rivers of this country, and there Is certain- of inhabitants. With such a population, its natural ly no further iinpcdimeni to commercial enterprise, resources might lo more fully doveloped, and Para j This state, formerly a province of Huenos Ayrca, thus placed, In point of position and commcrciol iin- ' withdrew from tho connection in IHll, and tho Span- portance, in the very first rank of Urazilian ports.— ; ish-American revolution breaking out about that date Comm'rcial lldalioin with Ihe I'nited NIalea. j secured it from molestation. The policy of Its rulera Paraguay, a ropublic or consulship of South .\mcr- has been the exclusion of foreigners from the country, ica, extends from lat. 21° to 27° 20' S., and long. M" to and under Dr. Francia, so celebrated In connection 58° 40' W. Tho space thus inclosed forms a very coin- with its annals, the utmost dospotiam waa exercised, pact territory, nearly in the shape of a parallelogram, I The tyrant dying in 1H40 the government was changed about 430 miles lung, north to south, with an avcvagc i in its character, and a more liberal policy obtained, Ktavle I'aomiiiTioNB ok I'Aax. bklativkly cuNsiiiKaai), WITU KHSPKIT TO TIIK (JUANTITIKS ANNUALLY C.M'OUTEU: rnoiitclioiio :>3,1100 jirrnhas. »,'u(oa 'ioii.noo " IJotton n.l'iO Hldoc IB.MI I plerea. Copalra .1 :ineral policy excluded foreign vessels from the port of Albu • queripie, a place 1600 miles alrove Asuncion, the capital of Paraguay, in the Brazilian province of Matto Orosso, which the government of that empire has declared open to the commerce of the world. Brazilian vessels were not permitted to descend the River Paraguay, which takes its rise in this province, nor are foreign vessels allowed to ascend higher than the city of Asuncion; thus cutting olf all traile with the richest portions of Bolivia and the fertile province of Matto Grosso, in Brazil. The claim of Paraguay to exercise jurisdiction over both banks of this river, by prohibiting its navi- gation above Asuncion, and l)y closing tho navigation of the Vermejo, both to the citizens of the Argentine Republic and to foreigners, lins never been admitted, A treaty between Paraguay and Brazil was duly signed and ratified Juno 14, IS.M, by which it is stipu- lated that the waters of tho Upper Paraguay shall henceforth be open to general navigation and com- merce. This will bring not only tho produce of the Brazilian province of Matto Grosso, but also the agri- cultural and mineral wealth of Bolivia, to an Atlantic market The value of these mineral resources may lie inferred from the fact that there are stated to exist in this region upward of a thousand valuable mines un- workcd, it having been found impossible hitherto to convey machinery thither, across the mountains, from tho Pacific coost. A highway to the spot is now open- ed from the Atlantic, as broad as the Jlississippi, and equally accessilile. The rich province of Matto Grosso, with its diamonds, gold, silver, and copper, is also brought in connection with the good and contiguous Bctt-ports, Buenos Ayres and Montevideo, by the Para- guay River; and Ci^aba, its capital, in the centre of the mining districts, can easily be reached from Asun- cion. Dianantino, about two hundred miles from Cu- jaba, sends its produce to Santarem, on tho Amazon, and thence to Para. This tedious and circuitous route is now superseded, as the Paraguay connects these markets with the estuary of the Plata. A Paraguayan journal, " Im Xacional," of August 11, 1856, publishes the subjoined regulations: "All vessels from foreign ports to the Brazilian ports above shall take pilots at Asuncion, Concepcion, the junction of the Apa, and Olimpo. The vessels that descend that river from tho upper Paraguay aro obliged to take pilots from Olimpo, the junction of the Apa, and Concepcion; and the wages of the said pilots are to be agreed upon at the captain of the port's bureau in Asuncion." In 1853, the United States steamer Water Wilih, of 400 tons burden, and nine feet draught, was dis- patched, under the command of Lieutenant Tlionuis J. Page, to make an exploration and survey of tho tribu- taries of the River La Plata. Tho results of tliis ex- pedition will, doubtless, contriliute in an eminent de- gree to the advancement of commerce and the promo- tion of science. The navigation of the Paraguay River, which empties into the Parana at the distance from Buenos Ayres of 800 miles, was extended to (he parallel of 18° south latitude ; making the entire dis- (ance of the rivers Parana and Paraguay, through which this small sea-steamer had passed from Buenos Ayres to Corumba (an interior military post of Brazil), equal to about 1700 miles. There is no doulit that tho navigation of tho Paraguay, during the season of high water, could have been carried by the Water Wilili (o a still greater extent ; but at the time of (his explora- tion any further ascent was prohibited by Brazil. Permission was, however, subsequently granted by tlio imperial government, but refused by that of Paraguay. The expedition was thus restricted to a more limited exploration of the upper waters of this river than had been anticipated. It is to be hoped that the time is not far distant when all such prohibitions will bo re- moved, and this interesting region of unknown country brought to the knowledge of the world. The navigation of tho Paraguay has thus been ex- tended beyond Asuncion, to the distance of 650 miles. This fact has induced tho Brazilian govrnmicnt to avail itselfofthis important channel of comnmnication, bystcam,with her northwestern province, MattoGrasso, in which is found the most valuable diamond region of the empire. PAR 1493 PAU vessels iincion ; ions of osso, in sdiction ts iiavi- vlgation rgunlino dmitted. pas duly is slipu- lay sliall ind coul- ee of tlie tliu agri- I All an lie Bs may lio exist ill mines un- itlicrto to ains, fiom now opcn- isippi, and ttoG rosso, er, is also eontifiuous y the i'ara- ecntro of from Asun- es from Cu- lie Amazon, uitous routo meets these Paraguayan i6, publishes Tom foreign akc pilots at »e Apa, and vcr from tho rom Olimpo, m; and Iho upon at the \Valer ]Vlt<-h, iht, was dis- [it Tlionins J. of tho trilm- of this ex- eminent de- the pronio- Te Paraguay the distauco , .ended to tho lie entire dis- lay, throunh from Muenos ist of Hrazil), kibt that tho |;afon of liinh li(p)' iridVi to this explora- ^l by Ura/.il. ranted by tho if Paraguay. I more limited vcr than had |t tho time is ,9 will he rc- lown country Ihus been ox- lof C60 miles. Ivcmmcnt to inmunication, [MattoGrasso, tniond region An expedition was dispatched by the French gov- eminent, n few years since, for the exploration of the Parana and Paraguay rivers ; and the following pas- sage is translated from a report made in March, 1856, by Captain Pi'-ard, to whose charge it had been com- mitted : " When we consider the excellent means of communication which nature has opened to tho prov- inces of the Argentine Confederation and tho Kepubliu of Paraguay, we can not but regret to see them unem- ployed and deserted. Tho absence of population, con- tinual civil war, and the administrative policy of Para- guay, have, so far, been the chief obstacles to progress. Lot' us indulge the hope that tho day is not distant when tho aspect of things will change, and these mag- nificent countries will flourish under the blessings of a more advanced civilization." Paraguay can hardl}* be said to possess a merchant marine. In 1851 there were distributed, between the two ports of Asitncion and Villa del Pilar, 12 vessels, averaging each about 42 tons. In 1852 there wero 11 of the same description, and in 1853 only 9. Besides these, there is one brig belonging to the government, which is said to monopolize almost exclusively the commerce of the state. The foreign vessels engaged in the trade of Paraguay in 1862 were 81, with an aggregate of 4582 tons, from the Argentine provinces south, below the Paraguay River, and three American vessels, tonnage not known. All these vessels trade with the ports of Asuncion and Villa del Pilar, which, with the port of Sncarnacion, on the Parana, were alone open to foreign commerce. There is no treaty between the United States and Paraguay. With England r. treaty was ratified November 2, 1853, by the second article of which tho Republic of Paraguay concedes to the merchant flag of Great Britain the free navigation of the River Paraguay as far as Asuncion, the capital of the republic, and of the right side of the Parana, from where it belongs to her, as far as tho city of En- carnacion. It stipulates, also, that British subjects shall be at liberty, with their ships and cargoes, freely and securely to come to, and to leave, all tho places and ports of the said territories ; hire ho'iscs and ware- houses; and trade in all kinds of produce, manufac- tures, and merchandise of lawful commerce, subject to the usages and established customs of the country : also, that they may discharge the whole or part of their cargo at the ports of Pilar and where commerce with other nations may be permitted, or proceed with the whole or part of their cargo to the port of Asuncion, according as tho captain, owner, or other duly author- ized person shall deem expedient ; and that, in the same manner, shall be treated and considered such Paraguay- an citizens as shall arrive at the ports of Great Britain with cargoes in Paraguayan or British vessels. There is an American company established in Para- guay, under a charter from tho State of Khodo Island, which has been engaged in commercial operations for some time, under the title of "Tho United States and Paraguay Navigation Company." Tho chief object of this company is to introduce steam navigation on the rivers of Paraguay ; but how far it has progressed in tho accomplishment of this object, information is not at hand. The only direct trade, however, yet opened between the United States and this republic consists of some shipments of cigars and samples of wood made by this company. All other articles of Paraguayan produce which reach tho United States come through tho ports of Buenos Ayrcs or Montevideo, and are in- cluded in tho custom-house returns to the Treasury Department of exports from tho republics to which these places respectively belong. Tho government of Paraguay puts forth no statistics relative to the commercial movements of tho ropulillc, and it is said to be quite impossible to obtain informa- tion on the subject from its administrative ofBcials. Complete commercial statistics, which may bo viewed as strictly accurate, can not, therefore, bo looked for. "Tho amount of tho oxport and import trade nf Paraguay during the year 1857 exhililts a large in- crease on that of tho previous year. Tho dlfTeronco in Iho amount and character of tlio trade consiatod in an incrousod production and exportation of tho principal articles of export — namely, yerba mate, or Paraguay tea, and tobacco, and tho fulling off in tho production of articles of home consumption, which rendered tho importation of such articles necessary. This circum- stance produced an increase in the quantity and value both of the exports and imports. It can not bo said, however, to have matoriully improved tlio condition of tho country, or to bo a sign of growing prosperity. " The demand for tobacco, sinco its introduction Into European markets, caused its cultlviilluii almost en- tirely to su)ierscdo that of articles of homo consumption, ind provisions rose, in tho year 1857, almost to famine prices, which were only partially reduced hy importa- tions from Buenos Ayres, and subsequently by the coming in of the now crops at the closo of tho year. "Thus, although agriculturists realized larger prof- its on the tobacco crop, tho entire populiition siilTercd greatly from tho .sc.ircity and dearnuss of provisions, and tho country paid high prices in a foreign market for necessaries which it could Itself have produced very cheaply. The foreign trade of Paraguay is almost en- tirely coiiliuod to Buenos Ayros, to which place all produce for consumption there, or for re-exportation, is sent, and from tho bonded warehouses of which all supplies of foreign goods aro Imported. The value of exports in 1857, amounting to 15)1,070,571 (.£885,811), includes that of exports on account of the government, amounting to $G58,40() (£131, UHO), leaving about $1,018,OOJ (£203,000) for exports by the trade. "According to the custom-houso valuations, the Im- ports during the samo year amount to $1,184,207 (£220,841). These valuations are, however, about 25 per cent, below tho markot value of tho articles, and the imports may bo calculated as nniounting in reali- ty to about ;|l,417,000 (£283,400). A portion of tlic>-o imports wero either imported, or subsequently pur- chased by tho government. "No direct British trade was carried on with Para- guay during tlio year, and tho indirect trade wiis limited to two voyages of a British vessel between Buenos Ayres and ABuncion. Tho coasting trade is insignificant, ond is carried on exclusively in Para- guayan vessels and boats. No changes have taken place in the port beyond the building of a wooden pior, wliich is principally "sed for govornmont vessels, but occasionally by trading vesac!"*. which pay in that case a duo of 2 rials (Is.) per ton as wliun'ign. " There was little or no change during Iho year ISW in tlio markot prices of imported goods from those for 1850, with tho exception of tho lirico of flour, which rose from $11 to §30 per barrel, " If the picture of the state of Matto Orosso, drawn in the newspaper publislied in Cuyabo bo correct, many changes have to lie elfoctod before it can acciniro Iiii- porlance in a commercial or an industrial point of view. In an article of May 10, 1857, the Xotici:idi>r Ciiytibaiio says, that agriculture in tho province is in a state of complete depression, and all but extinct; that tho roads aro imiiassalilo for want of bridges ; lliat life and property are in continual danger from Iho incursions of wild [luliaiis; that commerce is inactive, and com- mercial transactions entirely without security; that tho trade by the river is of little or no licnollt, owing to the distance of tho custom-houso from the capital, the diincuUies of tho navigation, and tho exorbitant prices exacted for canoe hire to transjiort goods to Cuyalia, which, added to tho high freights necessarily paid from Buenos Ayrcs, raise tho prices almost to a level witli Ihoso of goods brought overland from Rio d(i Jaueiro."— C mmerciai Report by Mr. IIcnukksdn, British Consul in I'araguay, onfAe Trad» o/lhatJitpublic for the Year 1857, PAR 1494 PAR Paramaribo, the capital town of Patch Guiana, im tho went liatilc of the Surinam, live niiivs from its month In the Atlantic, lot. 5° 49' N., Iohr. 55° 22' W. Kitlniateil population, 20,000, mostly blacks. It is roKutarl)' and wull liullt : streets iinpavcd, but oma- tninteit with rows of tamarind and orange trees ; and It has Lutheran, ('alvinistic, Roman Catholic, and Kn- kIIsIi churches, Portuguese and Cicrnian-Jewish syna- KOffiien, and is tho centre of the trade of the colony. I''urt /vvlandlu, north of tho town, is the residence of tho govornur. In a hospital for lepers, on the right Iwnk of the Coppenamc, -150 patients are maintained lit tho oxpenxe of tho colony. The Kwattn Canal, be- gun in 1H4I), Is tho lirst public work executed. by free labumrs. Paramo (xometlmes rendered, though incorrect- ly, liy ileierl or heath'), Tho name given in South Amorirn to a mountainous district covered with stunt- I'lt trees, ex|M)scd to tho winds, and in which a damp cciUl pcrpctuully prevails. Under tho torrid zone the t'oramiii nro generally from 10,000 to 12,000 feet in height, Nnow often falls on them, but remains only a few hours ; In which respect they arc distinguished from tho Ariadot, which enter the limits of perpetual BiHiw, Tho Paramos are almost constantly enveloped In a cold, thick fog ; so that when a thick, small rain falls, aiTumpanlcd with a depression of the tempera- ture, they say at Bogota, or at Mexico, cue uu para- mill), Ilrnec has been formed the provincial word em- jxtmniariie — to be as cold as if one were on a paramo. — Hl'»ini)i,i)T'H I'ert. Nar. ii. p. 2b2. Paraaang, a Persian measure of length ; accord- ing to llorodotus, equal to 30 stadia, and (reckoning light sladin to the English mile) equal to i)} English miles, The length of tho parasang was reckoned dif- ferently by dill'erent authors; and such are the dis- I'rnpant estimates of tho ancients that sonic have as- slgtKMlit tho length of UO stadia. The word is supposed to Im dcrhed from tho Persian feng, signifying a alone. Parcel, n term indifl'erently a))plicd to small pack- ngna of wares, and to large lots of goods. In this lat- ter sense, 20 hogsheads of sugar or more, if bought at 'ino price, or in a single lot, arc denominated "a parcel of tiigar." Paroals, Bill of, an account of tho items compos- ing n panel, Parohment and Velliuu. The former consisU of tho skins of sheep and goals, and the latter of those of calves, prepared In such a manner as 'o render them sultnlilo for licing written upon, for covering books, nnd other purposes. The consumption of these articles Is very considerable. In this and most other countries It is custoiniiry to use them instead of paper in the drawing up of a great variety of deeds and other legal Instruments. They nro also extensively used, espe- I'lally In Itnly, in the binding of books. The finest copies of tlii^ nmgnlfieent classics which issued from tho Dutch presses In the 17th century, and tho early part of tho IHth, were all bound in vellum. Parch- ment is coarser than vellum, and not so well adapted for writing upon. The qualities of both articles differ very widely; so much so that the best parchment is preferable to inferior or even middling vellum. The goodness of each depends partly on the i|uality of the skins of which they are made, and partly, ami indeed III A very high degree, on the care and skill Avith which thoy ore manufactured. The history of these ortlcles is involved In some oli- scurlty, Varro and Pliny {Hisl. Nul. lit), xiii. cap. 11), who have been generally followed, slate that they were originally muniifai'tiired at Pergamus, in Asia Minor, tho capital city of Eunicnes II., one of Alex- iinder's successors, during the reign of that prince; iind that parchment owes to this circumstanco its clas- sical name of charin I'ergiimena. Dut there seems to he llttla If any foundation for this statement. We have i-enn, In the |irocodlng article on paper, that Herodotus, who flourished rather more than a century before Alex- ander the Great, states distinctly that, previously to his era, when paper (eharta Kgypliaca') was scarce, the lonians were accustomed to write on the skins of sheep and goats, and that that practice was then fol- lowed (viz., in his time) by several barbarous nations. — Lib. V. cap. 58. And it is all but certain, seeing that till.' practice of writing on skins had been in use for at least i\ centuries, and probably inrch more, pre- viously to the era of Eumenes, that their preparation would, in the course of that lengthened period, be so much improved as to render them little diirercnt from parchment. It is probable, indeed, that their manu- facture may have been improved in Pergamus; but we incline to think that parchment owes its name rath- er to the extensive demand for it in that city, in con- sequence of Eumenes having amassed a large und val- uable library, than to any thing else. He was, in fact, compelled to use parchment and velluhi in the copying of books, as his contemporary Ptolemy Philadelplius hud prohibited tho exportation of paper. — Plinv, uhi supra. The scarcity of parchment during the Middle Ages, and in antecedent times, led to the practice of obliterating the writing on old parchments, by rubbing them with pumice-stone, immersing them in boiling water, and such like devices ; and there can be no man- ner of doubt that tho prevalence of this practice has been most injurious to literature, and that it has most probably occasioned the total destruction of some of I the noblest chefa-d'auvre of antiquity. In the Middle Ages, these were erased that room might be made for ' some worthless treatise on scholastic theology or logic ! ] Sometimes, however. It happens that the ancient writ- ing is not so much obliterated but that it may still be ! read ; and to that circumstance the recent discovery of a portion of Cicero's treatise TJe Jieptibllca is to be ascribed. It had been effaced to make room for a , commentary of St. Augustine on the Psalms. Parch- ments that have been erased in this way arc called I'alimpiesli (from TraT^iv, again, and ^au, In efface or I clean), or repeatedly cleaned parchments ; because tliey have been repeatedly cleaned, renewed, or prepared for writing upon. If the learned world is ever to bo giat- ilicd by the recovery of the lost comedies of Menander, or the lost books of Polybius, Livy, and Tacitus, it will most probably be by finding them under some homily or such like trash. — Xouceau Traiti dc Diplomatique ; Dim de I'ai'nM. Paris 'anc. Luletia Parisiorum), tho capital of France, and, after London, the largest and most popu- lous city in Europe; lat. (obser\atory) 48° 50' 12" N., long. 79° 23' O*?' Ii. from the national observatory, Washington, and long. 2° 20' 30'' E. from London. Population in 1851, l,021,5aO. Situated 193 feet above the level of the sea, on both sides and on two islands of the Seine, 111 miles from its mouth. It lias recent-' I ly, and at the expense of about $100,000,000, been sur- I rounded with fortllicatioiis, consisting of a wall 33 feet ' in height, bastioncd and terraced, lined with a fus.sc about 20 feet deep, and embracing botli banks of the Seine, with a continuous inclosure, and of outworks I composed of 14 detached forts. These fortilications I take in much of the suburbs, and even of the surround- ing country; but the proper limits of the town are j traced by an interior v all, eroded at a much earlier : date, for fiscal purposes. In this wall are 50 gales or I barriers, which form tho proper entrances of Paris, and at which tho oc'roi, or duties on goods brought into it, are levied. Many of these barriers are magiiiliccnl structures. Among others may be specified tiie Har- riiire do Neuilly, consisting of two pavilions, and hav- ing in front the splendid triumphal arch Ue I'Ktoile ; tho Barri&res do Vinccnnes, de St. Martin, do Konlaine- bleau, do Keuilly, de Chartres, and de Passy. Out- side the barriers and their connecting wall is a largo zone, finely planted, which nearly makes the circuit of the town, and forms an excellent, though not very PAR 1495 PAR capital of most po|iu- f 60' 12" N., Dbservalory, )m Lonclun. )3 feet aliovo two islauils It has recent-' JoO, licen sur- wall 83 tcct fwith a fosse jBiiks of the lof outworks Ifortilieations llic surroiiml- ]ho town arc Imuch eorlier }e 50 gates or |of I'aris, niul )Uglit into it, niapnilicent Ificil the Bar- t)nB, onil liav- 1)0 I'Etoile ; (\o Fonlainc- >8»8V. Oul- loU is a largo \g the eircuit igh not very much frequented, promenade. It receives the nam»of Outer Uoulcvards, to distinguish tliein from tbo Inner Uoulevards, whieh form s similar internal zone, con- sisting, in their Hnest parts, of a magniliccnt central thoroughfare, bounded on cither side with a double row of trees, under wliieh a broad and elevated patliwav has been formed, and lined by elegant shops and niaii- sions, tlie whole forming a scene of animated gayety and splendor whicli no other capital in Kuropo can equal. The Seine traverses the city in a west-northwest di rcction, and has a medium breadth of about 4&0 feet, nearly one-third less than that of the Thames at Lon- don. It is shallow, and navigable only by barges and small steamers. Its quays are built of solid masonry, and form large terraces, with a roadway in the centre, and a footpath on cither side, generally planted. They extend about 11 miles, and, in addition to the spl lid walks which they aftbrd, serve the important purpose of protecting the lower parts of the city from inunda- tions, from which, previously to these erections, it oft- en suffered. The number of bridges is twenty-seven, all of stone, with the exception of seven suspension bridges, three of a combination of stone and iron, and one of wood. ManvJ'uctures and Trade. — The government possess- es only two properly manufacturing establishments — that known by the name of the Gobelins, celebrated for its tapestry and carpets, made, however, not for sale, but the supply of the palaces, and for presents ; and th.it of tobacco, which the government holds ar a monopoly, and carries on in a vast establishment on the south side of the Seine, producing about a fifth of all the snuff used in the kingdom, and yielding an annual proiit estima- ted at $11,000,000. In the other branches, whicli are free, the most important manufactures aro articles of jewelry and precious metals ; ebony and ivory trink- ets, line hardware, paper-hangings, saddlery, and other articles in leather ; cabinet-work, carriages, various ar- ticles of dress, silk and woolen tissues, particularly shawls and carpets; lace, embroidery, artificial llow- crs, combs, machines, mathematical and optical instru- ments, types, Looks, engravings, refined sugar, chemic- al products, etc. Tlie value of all the industrial prod- ucts of I'aris in 1847 was, after a very careful investi- gation, estimated at $292,72.'),670. In 1848, during the turmoil of the last revolution, they fell to less than one half of what they were before. The value of the ex- ports, composed almost entirely of the above articles of manufacture, was declared at the custom-house of Paris to amount in value, in 1850, to $li, 01)5,945. The estimated reve.iuc of the city for 1852 wos $9,303,630 ; and the expenditure $9,703,030. — .s'"e iirtirle KitASii;. For commerce, etc., of I'aris, st'i' llrNx'.s Merchmtls' Magazine, xviii. (iO; Quarlerl;/ Keiiew, Ixxviii. 141!; Lieing Age, ii. 404, xiil. 219; J'oreign Quarterly, xxxi. 182; Kdinburgh Rerieii; Ix.xxv. 39; Cotnm. liel. U. S. The commercial intercourse between the United States and this consular district depends on *hc regu- lations of the custom laws of the empire, and on tlie local legislation of tho city of I'aris, by which ocinti duties are levied on many orticles brought into the city, whether foreign or domestic, but especially on spirits and articles of subsistence. 'I'licse regulations are fKcd, and rest only on the contingency of altera- tion by legislative enactment. There are some privi- leges accorded to Spain by ancient treaties which will be found set forth in tho tWe dea JJouaiies, Code Mari- time, and the Turifdea I/roiti. We aie not aware of any privileges accorilcd to the commerce of other nations and denied to the United States, or of any important restrictions. The books referred to above gi\e full information, in tabular statements, on tfiis question. Tho transhipment of goods belongs to the coasting trade, and, liy law, onl) Froncli vessels are entitled to engage in this tiade. Full information will be found upon this point in the Code Maritime. Hates of Insurance, by steamers, on goods, J to U per cent. I' " byslilps, " 1 to IJ " ' " liy Bteunicrs, vuluubles, 3 to ] " " " by slilps, " 1 to 1 " Coramlsslons for sliipplng 3 francs cacli package. ('onimiiiBtons for purctiojiliig In Inrgo qiunlltlej 8 per cent. ('oiiiniissions for purclmsing in snmll Muamltles 6 " Average rate of cxdmnge lictwcen New York ""'• I'af 1" B 13J francs. Sales of goods are made upon cash or upon orders, with credits from thirty days to six months. Com- mission houses are in the habit of odvancing for many of their customers.— Sec Tarif des iJroita, HegulalioM det Dmiaues, and Ulalislique Induslriel. Parrel. In Saml language, the collar of greased rope, or trucks, by which the yard is confined to the mast, while it slides up ond down it. Partnership. A partnership is an ugreement be- tween two or more to share in the profit and loss of the use and application of their capital, labor, and skill, in some lawful business, whether one supplies capital, and another skill and labor, or each both labor and capital. The benciits of a union of the means and advantages of different persons for the conduct of a branch of business, in many instances, are too obvious and common to need illustration. A partnership is not constituted merely by an interest of different par- ties in the same thing, but it depends on a participa- tion of profits and joint liability to loss. And .t.' there are some exceptions to this" rule, for it has Duen held that seamen shipping on shares in a shipping voyage are not copartners with the owners. And so, where a certain sliare or commission is allowed to n clerk or agent, depending on the success of tho bu-si- ness or amount of profits, in addition to his other com- pensation, it has been held, in many cases, not to make liim a copartner. It is difficult to point out the cri- terion by which cases of this description are distin- guished from those of copartnership ; and some of them look more like an exception of cases which strictly come within the definition of copartnership. A ques- tion bus been made whether joint owners of a ship are copartners, and the general doctrine is that they are not so ; and yet it is gencrnlly held that each one is liable for the whole ainoiint of repairs and expenditures : in the navigation of the ship ; liut still the ownership ' is not joint, for, in the ease of the decease of one, the property in tho whole ship does not survive to tho ' others, as would bo the case if it were partnership I property, but tho property is held in common, each , part-owner having a distinct title to his share; and one jiart-owncr can not, merely as such, convey a title to the whole ship, or to any share except his own. As to the share of each partner in the profits, or his lia- bility for losses, if there is no agreement on this suli- ject, all the partners stand upon an equal footing. As to the ol)jects of copartnersliip, thcj- arc not con- fined t! commerce, though most frc(|uent in that branch of industry, but may embrace manufacturing, the car- rying on of any mechanic art, agriculture, the practice ' of law or niedieine, and, in short, every lawful liranch I of business. Copartnership is more usually formed by a w ritten agreement ; and by some codes and in re- gard to certain copartnerships, formal stipulations arc required liy law in order to constitute a copartnership, 1 This is not a general rule, however, for in many branches j of business parties may agree (rally for a participation I in [uolit and loss. These associations are divided into j (lifl'crent classes, distinguished by their objects, and tho I extent of tbo liability of each partner. The Roman ' law allowed of general copartnerships, extending tho community of properly, and joint profit and loss, not only to the business pursued, but also to all acquisitions by either party, whether by legacy, inheritance, gift, or as the fruits of industry. Hy that law, and so by the laws of France, Spain, Louisiana, and other codes derived from the Roman law, a man and his wife may FAB 149G PAK be copartners ; and, in making tlio marriage contract, tlic kind and oxtcnt of copartnership ia agreed upon, the form of tlie stipulation for this purpose being par- ticularly pointed out liy the French code. It wa» be- tween the parties to the nuirriago contract that the general copartnerships uhovc-niciitioned were most frequently formed. In this respect, however, the Roman law, and those codes derived principally from it, leave the parties at liberty to agree upon a universal copart- nership or a limited one, or a separata property. Copartnersliips are usuilly conllned to tlie prosecu- ,tion of a particular brancli of Inisiness, and it very often happens tliatcach copartner is concerned in other branches. The term gtmrtd copurlnen/iip is also ap- plied to one formed fur trade genernlly, or bueiness generally, without limitations; but where tlie joint in- terest extends only to a particular concern, as, for in- stance, the freighting of a ship, it is called a tpecial coimrtnrrahip. And so a partnership is called tjtecial when the parties enter into stipulations modifying and rcstruining the riglit and powers of the members, in- stead of leaving them to tlio operation of tlie laws gen- erally applicable to such associations; and this is the usuiil meaning of such copartnerships. Another de- scription is that of limited copartnerships, in which one or more partners put in a certain amount of capital, which is liable for the contracts of the firm; but be- yond ihis the party or parlies are not liable. This sort of partnership is particularly provided for in the Fxench code, and is not unfrequent in France. It is a very useful provision of the law that allows of such associations, fur it enables persons of fortune, and re- tired from business, to put a part of their capital at risk in trade, without risking their whole property ; and it accortlingly operates very favorably upon the enterprise of the community; for a young man who has only his talents and industry to put into a concern can thus more easily obtain the caj)ital necessary to give his activity and enterprise scope, and every com- munity ouglit to open all practicable channels for the intellectual and physical exertions of its members. This species of copartnership has accordingly been par- tially introduced into tlio United States, being provided for in the code of Louisiana, which is modeled on the French code, and having been introduceil also into tlie laws of New York by a statute, tho provLsimis of which were closely copied from tho French code— the first in- stance (as Chancellor Kent remarks in his Cuninient- aries) in which any other foreign law than tho English had been adopted in tho particular structure and pro- visions of a» American statute, in those States of whose cocach of his agree- ment, yet it would be exceedingly inconvenient if a partner were irrevocably bound to give his copartners tlio right of his credit, and of disposing of his properly, ■ after all his confidence in them had ceased. In case of mismanagement by any partner having charge of the partnership effects, so that tho other partners aro liable to be materially injured, they may make appli- cation to a Court of Chancery to appoint a receiver to take charge of the concerns of the company, and wind up its affairs, iii case the partnership has already been dissolved, or in case there appears sufficient reason to disi'iolve it. But where there is no ground for such ap- plication to a Court of Cliancery, and the company is dissolved by tho death of one partner, the joint prop- erty will survive to the other partner, who may dispose of it, and collect and pay the debts of the concern, and will be liable to account to tho personal representatives of the deceased jiartner for his proportion of the surplus projjerty. In case of the decease of a partner, his per- sonal representative? do not become copartners with tho surviving partners, but tho afVairs of tho concern must bo settled with reference to tho time of the death of the deceased partner.— E. A. J.imiletl Pinlnersliip in New I'oi'l:. — 1. According to the lievised Statutes of the State of New York, limited partnership for transaction of any mercantile, mechan- ical, or manufacturing business within the State may •;#'\">r,7-('VT».' PAR 1407 PAR ind hta ict, the ■i party I of co- I a con- So if ft manner , within joliablo ato ilobt rty thus ig trans- 'ace of it tinted to made for ■ signed l)0und in ing given a certain I presume 1 to it are le circum- I contrary, le general nor can be tiince, one to make a s attorney ; ;longing to t may have crty of the memljers in ich member order to tlie be specially debt due to ■olliision he- ld, however, , question to )Wed by its : insanity of between the 1 According to lYorli, limited Vile, niechan- Eio State may be formed of two or more persons; but the provlnlouH of the act will not authorize any audi partnuri*hi|i I'ur the purpose of banlrlng ur mailing intiuraacu, 'i. Suiih partnerships may consist of one or mure persuuH, wlio sbnll bu called general partners, and who ■hull bu Joint- ly and severally responsible, as general partners now are by law ; and ono or more jjorsona who hIiuII eoii. tribute, in actual cash payments, u specitlc sum as eap- ital to tho common stock, who shall be culled special partners, and who shall not be liable for thu duljis of tlie partnership beyond tho fund lio contributed by him or them to tho capital. 3. The general partners only slmll bo authorized to transact business and sign lor tho partnership, and to bind tho same. 4. Tho puvsous desirous of forming such partnership shull make, and severally sign, a certilicate, which shall coutaiu ; 1. Thu name or lirm under wliich such partnership is to bo con- ducted. II. Tho general nature of tho business to bu transacted. III. The names of all tho general and special partners interested therein, distluguislilug which arc general and which are special parlners, and their respective places of residence. IV. The amount of cap- ital which each special partner shall have conlrlbiited to tho common stock. V. Tho period at which the partnership is to commence, and the period at which it shall terminate. 6. Tho certilicate shall bo aekuowl- edged by the several persons signing tlio same, before tho Chancellor, a, Justice of tho Supremo Court, a Cir- cuit Judge, or a Judge of the County Courts ; and 8u<'li acknowledgment shall be niado and cortlliud In thu same manner as the acknowledgment of couvoyancu of land. C. The ceitilicato so acknowledged and certllied shall be fdcd in the oflico of tho clerk of tho county iu whieli the principal place of business of tho partner- ship shall bo situated, and shall also bo recorded by him at large in a book to be kept fur tho purpose, open to public inspection. If the partnership shall havo places of business situated in dill'ereut counties, a tran- script of the certificate, and of thu acknowledgment thereof, duly certified by tho clerk in whoso olllco It shall be fded, under his official seal, shall bu tiled uid recorded in like manner in the oflico of Iho clerk ol cry such county. 7. At tho time of liling the orlgii certificate, with tho ovidenco of tlio uoknowleilgnu thereof, as before described, an affidavit of ono or nmi of the general partners shall also bo filed in the same office, stating that tho sums specified in tho certillealo to have been contributed by each of tho special ])ait- ncrs to tho conunon stock havo been actually ami In good faith paid in cash. 8. No such purtnersliip shull bo deemed to have been formed until a certilkulo shull have been made, acknowledged, filed, auil recorded, nor until an affidavit shall have been filed, as above diifi i- cd; and if any false statement bo nmdo in sucb ciriiil. catc or nflldavit, all the persons interested In such part- nership shall i'O liable for all tho cngageuiunts thereof as general partners. 9. The partners shall publixh thu terras of the partnership, when registered, for at least si.K weeks immediately after such registry, in two news- papers, to bo designated by tho clerk of tho county in which such registry shall be made, and to bu publish- ed in tho senate district in which their busincssx shall he carried on ; and if such publication be not maile, tho partnership shall bo deemed general. 10. Affida- vits of tho publication of such notice, by the printers of tho newspapers in which the same shull bu publish- ed, may be filed with tlio clerk directing the snme, and shall be ovidenco of the facts therein contained. II. Every renewal or continuance of such partnership be- yond tho time originally fixed for its duration shull be certified, acknowledged, and recorded, and an nlll- duvit of a general partner bo mado and lileil, nn lUblo as n general pnrtner. 2,1, In cr.se of tho Insolvency or bnnkruptcy of the partnership, no special partner shull, under any circumstances, bo allowed to PAR 1498 PAR cltlm na a creditor until tlio claims of all llie other creditors of the iiartuorsliip shall bo satisllcd. 24. No dissolution of such purtncrsliip l)y the acts of the par- ties shall take place previous to the time spccillcd in tlie certiticato of its formation, or in tlic ccrtiflcato of its renewal, until a notice of such dissolution shall have Iicen filed and recorded in the cleric's oflice in which the original certilicato was recorded, and published once in each week for four weeks in a newspaper printed in each of the counties where the partnership may have places of business, and in the ^ttatc papers. — Lkone liEVi's Cotnmercial Jmw nflhc Worlil. Anulijtia of the general Jjtm of I'arinerthipt. — Part- nership in Great Uritain is a contract entirely free, and subject to no furnialitics; it belongs to the parties themselves to regulate the conditions ; the law is mere- ly circumscribed in protecting the rights of third par- ties, and to see them respected. Partnership in com- mon law is divided into three classes — universal, gener- al, and limited or special. They are also divided into private partnerships and public companies. Public companies arc divided into unincorporated companies or associations, tnd incorporated companies, and cor- porations chartered by government. Hy the law of ■Scotland partnerships are divided into ordinary part- nerships, joint-stock companies, and public companies. In the first the firm is a distinct person at law, and the partners, althougli jointly and severally liable for all the debts and contracts of the firm, are so as guaran- tors of the firm. This is general partnership. Special partnership is one contracted for a particular branch of business. There arc principles connected with the law which nre identical in every country ; namely, that all mem- Ijcrs of an ostensible partnership, or in collective name, lire responsible in solidum ; but diftcrcnces appear in points regarding the continuation or cessation of part- norsiiip after the decease of one of the partners. Thus in Prussia or Frankfort, tlio heirs continue the partner- ship until the end of the year, and if tliey do not give notice of their retirement, or if they are not excluded by the other partners, they do not cease to form part of it. In Franco partnership ends of full right at the in- stant of the death of u partner, unless by contrary agreement this last regidalion has been generally adopted. It is the same for tliat by which tlie profits distributed among partners ore not to be returned to the ])artncrsliip fund, whatever may liappcn afterword, unless there be fraud, and the provision is added, that a partner who brings in only his labor can not, in any case, return the dividends which be has received. Almost every legislation except that of (Jrcat Brit- ain recognizes the existence of three kinds of commer- cial partnerships. 1st. Ostensible partnerships (in collective name) ; 2d. Partnerships in <0)H.it(iH(/iVd; M. Anonymous partnerships. The Portuguese code specifics cnch kind of partner- ship, indicating their rules at some length. In efi'cci, besides tlie partnership anonymous, dormant, or secret, and in collective name, that of capital and liil>or is made prominent; in this ca.so the partner -with capital alone is responsible beyond his investment, in consequence of which the law characterizes this association as ir- regular. Then I umc partnerships in participation, with limited or unlimiied capital, called Parceria, either for an indivisible oi jcct, or for a determinate end; but in all cases it is nc iissary tliat it should refer to a com- mcriial operation, and that there be at least one mer- chant oitlier dormant or ostensildo. Tliero are in this code some regulationsworthy of being noted; ii'imely, that a contract which would free the provider >. .'unds from all obligations, wlien he has a share in the p. ofits, is null, but then lie l)Cconies an interested party, and not a partner. A contract is declared usurious which ihould allow to a lender of money the profits liosides the iotorcBts, without subjecting him to the losses, which is very proper and jusf ; because the principle of equality ought to govern, above oil, matters of part- nership; consequently this lost clause ought to be an- nulled If it existed. In general, a minor, even not u troder, may not be a partner; but he has power to make use of the privilege of restitution in case of loss. If, ot his coming of ago, he has not declared that he wishes to retire, he becpmes responsible for all further acts of the partnership. It is most essential in partnership in collective nomc that the partners should oil he responsible t» solidum. In this the Dutch code is equal in oil points to llic French code ; but the former code contains o deroga- tion from this rule surprising at first, because it says that a collective partner who has become nmmandi- laire is not responsilde in mi'uhim. The reason of Ibin extraordinary regulation is founded upon the. usage ■which permits the continuation of ancient commercial houses, known under llie mimes of their founders, al- though these have still their capital invested in them ; true it is that third parties ought to have been a<- quainted with it liy tlie liquidation of the preceding house, or by the publication of the dissolution. In the Spanish code there is a regulation different from any other legislation in matter of constitution of anonymous partnerships, by subjecting the articles, not to the exomination of the government, but of the tribunals of commerce. The Spanish code ond that of Portugal prescrilie o measure the some as that of the Code Nopoleon, whicli consists in making inlerests to run in full right, on the investments of the partners, from the day in whicli they ought to be mode. WMx regard to the nomination of managers of portnersliip, in France the law has no provision for it. In \i\\r- tcmberg and in Spain, when the manager is nominated by the articles, it is allowed, should his action be in- jurious to the interests of the company, to add on- nthcr member. In liussia it is prohil>iled to confer by the articles the management of the partnership on cer- tain parties for all its duration and without a renewal. All legislation is silent upon the interests of the capital investeu nicuiinrcd ; pro- vided, however, if tlio vessel sliali, in aoeordaneo witli tho provisions of the first section of tids act, carry any portion of lier cargo, or any other articlo or articles, on any of tho decks, cabins, or other places ap|iropriatud for the nsu of passengers, in lockers or inclusures pre- pared for tho purpose, tlio height between decks sliall bu measured from tho Iwttoni edge of the carlines, or deck liea.ns, to tho upper surface of said lockers or in- closed spaces, whicli sliall ho deemed and taken to bo the ilec,( or platform from which mcasuremeiii shall bu nmdo fur all the purposes of this act, and the spaces occniiicd by said lockers or inclosed spaces shall ho de- ducted from the spaces allowable for thu uso of passen- gers, i'or example : tlio spaces in tlio main and poop decks, or platforms, and in tho deck houses, if any there 1)0, will bo 10 X ti=9« feet; lower deck, 18 X = lOK feet; two-deck vessels. It X 7 J = lOJ feet. Tho cncuinbcrini; by incrcliandiso or stores, not tho personal baggage of tho passengers, except in lockers or inclosurcs prepared for the purpose, of any part of tho space occupied by the pas>engers, will vitiate tho whole space, unless tlie part so encumbered bo separated from that so occupied by n substantial bulkhead. The deck or platform must bo of n permanent nature. Hush, and impervious to thu wafer. Pafisport, a warrant of protection and authority to travel, granted to persons moving from place to plnco by tho competent oHicer. The word appears to 1)0 derived from the marifimo usage of sumo Continent- al countries of giving similar antliorities from tho ad- miral of a naval station to vessels leaving liarliors within his jurisdiction. As passports are not required 111 our own country, the only species known to our trav- elers is that of foreign passiiorts, which, for traveling on tho continent of Kurope, are usually mado out by the resident minister or consul of the country he in- tends first to visit, or by tho Stuto Department. They aro subject tot'Mii, or inspection, by tho proper author- ities at tho |)lace wlicro tho traveler disembarks, and also at other places where lie may reach, according to the polico regulations of eaidi particular country, and on passing tho frontiers of states. Austria is, we be- lieve, the only Kurupeun statu which at this time ic- cpiircs absolutely the i'mu of an embassador or minister of her own for travelers entering her domains by land. In France, and in many (Continental countries, homo passports are necessary for the native traveler. Ac- cording to tho letter of tho French law (since 179fi), a Frenchman can not pass thu limits uf tluj canton in which ho is domiciled without n passport ; but in prac- tice it is not re(|uired within the extent of thu depart- ment. Legally speaking, Mie strict formalities of an internal passport in France require the direction of a journey to bu specified, and its exact execution attesj- ^d by the fi.«M and signatures of the police authorities at every place mentioned in it ; and these laws are, from their severity, so incapable of conipleto execution, that it is common saying that no man but a rogue is ever entirely en reyle with respect to his passport, sus- picious characters being usually tho most particular in their attention to formalities, for fear of detentiou A Frenchman traveling without a propcrly-authi':iticatcd passport is liable to arrest and detention fur a period not exceeding a month. Tho fees fixed in France are two francs for a passport to trcvel at hnnie, and ten to go abroad. By tho twenty.first section of the act of August 18, 1856, the Secretary of Statu of iho United States is au- thorized to grant and issue passports, and cause pass- ports to be granted, issued, and verified in foreign coun- tries by such diplomatic or consular ofHcers of tho Unit- ed States, and under such rules as the President shall designate and prescribe, for and on behalf of the Unit- ed States, and no otlior person shall grant, issue, or verify any such passport; nor shall any pussp^jrt bo granteil ur issued to ur verified fur any otlicr pcrsung than citl/ena of tho United States; nor sliull any charge be made for granting, issuing, ur verifying any passport, except in a foreign cuiiutry ; and in any case the fee allowed therefor shall nut exceed thu sum of one dollar, nor shall any such charge l)e made fur mure than one such verification in any foreign country ; and if any person acting or claiming to act in any oflice ur eupac- ity under the United States, or any of flic Slates of the United States, who shall not be lawfully aiifhorizcd io to do, shall grant, issue, or verify any passport, ur uih- er instrument in the nature of a pai^sport, tu ur fur any citizen of the United States, or to, or fur unt' per>.on claiming to be or designated as such in siiili past-port or verification ; or if oiiy cunsiilur officer m hu shall bo authorized to grant, issue, or verify passports, shall knowingly and willingly grant, issue, or verlf^- any such jiassport to or for any person nut a citi/.en of tho United States, the person so ufl'ending shall be deemed and taken to be guilty of a misdemeanor, and on eun- viction thereof shall be imprisoned not exceeding ono year, or fined in a sum not to exceed five hundred dol- lars, or lioth ; and may be charged, proceeded against, tried, convicted, and dealt \i\\\i therefor in tho district wlicro he may be arrested or in custody. It is likewise made tho duty of all persons who shall bo authori/.ed, pursuant to tlio provisions uf the act, to grunt, issue, or verify passports, to inuko return of the same to tho Secretary of State ; aud such :ctiirns shall specify tho names and all other particulars of the persons to whom the same |liall be granted, issued, or verified, as em- braced in such passport. From the foregoing provisions of tho net it will bo seen that passports can only be issued by the Secretary of State, and such diplomatic and consular ofllcers of the United States in foreign countries as he may ex- pressly authorize, and they can be granted to citizens ol tho United Slates only. Passports will be granted by the Secretary of State, and by the diplomatic reiue- scntatives of tho United Slates in foreign counlrics, frco of charge ; but when issued by a consul general or consul, tho feu of onu dollar, as proscribed in these in- I structions, is to be collected in eery case. As pass- l)ort8 granted by the Secretary of Stotc secure to the bearers facilities from foreign governments not accord- ed to those issued by diplomatic ofliccrs, consuls gen- eral, ur consuls, it wilf always be to the interest of travelers to procure their passports before leaving tliu United States, and this course is earnestly recoinniciid- od by the Department of State, In any country where there is n diplomatic representative of the Unilcd States, no consul general or consul is authorized to II- s 10 passports, except in tho absence of such represent- ative from the jdacc of his legation, AVhenever lie may bo so alisenf, authority is given to consuls general and consuls only to tssno passports ; but in all cases the said consuls general or consuls, as the case may be, will report to the Department of State the names of tho persons to whom passports have been issued by them, together with the evidence of their being citizens of thu United States, and a copy of thu same ;'cport will bo foi'wardcd to thu legation of thu United Stales, if tl'.ere bu any in thu country. In case there hIioiiUI bo no diplomatic representative accredited to tli i country in which a consul general or consul may resi li' tlieii these officers are authorized to grant passports, having regard to tho general lustruclions to consular ofiicers in reference thereto; they will transmit, in all cases, to thu Dupartment of State the information in regard to citizenship required by this section. Whenever a foreign government shall require the ran of a passport of any citizen of the United States, it shall bu given by the consular officer of tho United States at the jilaco where it is demanded, and he shall, for each passport so viaaeJ, collect aud account fo; the FAS IfiOl PAT HSUP, Ot ijiort bo ittll «ny iliiK «ny uiiy ittno ml of imo loru tlian in\ if uiiy ur cuiim> it«» of tllB lori/.i'il ■•10 ,rt, ur olli- or for i\iiy „y pcn-uii li imspiiort 111 shall lio lurts, sliuU verify any i/.C'll of tl>o lie ilctincil »nil P" '^""" futiliiM ""o umlrcil ilnl- Jcil aiiainst, I tlio ilistrlct ,t U liliL'wiso ) autliori/.cd, grant, issue, I samu to Iho II spocify the sow to whom rilii'il, as cm- net it will ho the Secretary liar olliccrs o( as he may ex- ited to cilizena •ill he Kranteil ilomalic rcprc- igii countries, ,Mil ^cucral or oil in these in- asc. As liass- secure to the its not accord- ^, consuls yon- ho interest ot ,ro Icuvini; tlio ,ly reconunend- country whrro ot the UnitcA ^thoriicd to iS- Buch reliresent- ■\Vhonevcr ho —oonsuls noncrnl Liut in all cases he case nuiy he, he names of tho ssucd by them, ing citizens ot Bine -eiiort will iiitcd !>late3, it there should bo to th >. country hnv resi Ic then issports, having (onsnlar otlkers [it, in all cases, lation i" regard Lu require the 1 United States, |r of the lniteni{ tiit mini' (no or three aud other agi^nts in foreign countries that the bearer \ days in u disuil i>ti«(u, III imiff Ui fn\m\ llin oiippraluind- thcreut Is a citizen of tho United States, and entitled ' ant alkali uiid lo puffw't lllf rvibllnu. A nioderale do- to full protection an «uch. A passport, iu proper form, ] gree of hem (iiimis it. '( ||ti|'»|limlH|i l< ll« Mniiiioslllnn ; must contain a description ot tho bearor, with his »ig- { Tuku of whiiu aaiiij |ii||jliw( liv li^ltig wnKlied, (lr«t In nature; It must also rcqunst all w loin it may concern i muriatic udd uiid itHumnfii hi |ii(rK italer iinlll all to permit the bearer thereof, being a citizen of the traces of acid »iu fu|),i)V(i((, (id) ((kh,, ffiliiityd of lead United States, safely and freely to pass, and. In case (minium) |»l» parUt iitliiMi'il |inlM«tl IMI to n.'i parts; ot'ie.'dt to give him all lawful aid and protection while calcined luirax IM; uml k^^iJ nr n^M'IIIi' 1 purl.— See Bo doing. It must bo signed by tho diplomatic repre- tho J'liliileiliiiin .hmmmi lu'f iliily, («l|, Hio term Bcntativc, consul gonoral, or consul, and sealed with paste Is also uppliuij In Hih lifiHll^ tliUllirfi tor p Hocrdary ot or by females under his protection, it will Iw sufficient to state tho names and ages ot such persons and their relationship to the applicant. UNITKI) STATES CONSltf.AU PASarORT. CONsni.ATK OF THE UnITKD STATBS OF AUEniOA. To all tu whom these presents shall come, greeting: Age, jt«n. SUIuri, Forehaad, Gyel, Note, Mouth, Chin, Hair, Coinplaxioo, Fac«, I, the undcnlgned, consul of the United Stales of America for - — — , and the rte- licndcnclos thereof, hereby request all whom it may concern, to permit safely nnd freely to pass, , a citizen of the United Sttttes, and In cacu of need to give him all lawful aid and protection. Given uii'Jur my hand aiitl the seal of tho conaulnte, at — ^, thU iluy of , A.D. 18—, nnd in the [t«AL.] j,p„f „f ji,^ Imluiienilcnco of the United Stntcs State, (lie Sucretary )iC Wuf, Mild llw AdoHicv Ocneral, or any two of iIiumi, fii (jiMllf tUtlcNtd for fUiih new in- venthinsaiiildisioVBFiwij nt Wmi nllMllId deein sufficient- ly useful and impiiflmil, 'Oim m i.»((!tided eiiiiilly to aliens, ami tjiu \mm\ »^m\m\ ((m ptdrer of rcfiis. Ing paU'iits for want i/f' iMiVcIt t m (Hillly. This net was repealed, aild n mtt m'{ \mm\ m ll(« iUi Feliiii- ary, 17!lH. It Loiiliiiiid |ii«l(i|i|i|l(ji«.( )(( |||(< Kivisiod of llle A(- (orney (ienei«|, 'I'lin Ki.'t (jdvp M yimH (o (he Hicre- tary of State |u ifufum A |i»(ii«f( d^ hit iUTetltloll PAT iim r\t or ilitrovery, and of Iho manner niul jtroceuot mtkUtif, ' conntruc'tliiK, iialiiK uiiil i'um|iuuncliii)( tlir •uim^ In full, cU'ar, aixl exact torini, avuUlliiK iiiiiirocMsury jirulixily, to aa lo eiiablo any peraun aklllcil in tlin art ur Kiinut'' to wliicli It appcilalni, or is muat nearly cuiiiuckiil, tu make, coiiatruct, cunipcunil, and use tliv naiiii' ; oiid b" ^ niuit, in tlio coae of a niacliinc, fully vxploiii (lui priu- I cipio and tliu application uf It, liy which It may Im diUO; and »il other applicants, ^liOO. The original and true iuvfut- or U not to bo deprived of the right to a pateul fur hi* invention, by reason of his having prcvioualy ttijkt'ii out letters patent therefor in afurcl(;n cuunlry, uud tiiv same having been published at any time within M-s inontlia next preceding the tiling of bis vpeiilicotiou and drawing. The executors and administrator* uf persons dying before a patent is taken out, may »^>^)l)' and take It out In trust for the heiraordeviiwea, ou lUi" compliance with the terms of the statute. I'atviiUiWv aaaignaldc, and may be granted in whule or iu part by writing, to bo recorded in the I'atcnt Office. If inv»)W by reason of defective Btiecitlcations, or by cjainiiug Um much, the patent may be surrendered, and u uew pot- ent taken out for the unexpired perioiJ, provided tb* error did not oriac from any fraudulent intention. If the patentee bo an alien, he forfeits his cxclu^iv('rig(tlt, if he fails for eighteen montli.s from the date of the |j«L- ent to continue c.i sulo to the public on runsttuiti'U' terms tlio invention or discovery covered by tlie jMutr cnt. The patentee does not lose his patent if it mtin- factorily appears to the court, that at the lime of UU application li' believed himself to be the firat iuv*»Mif or discoverer of the thing patented, though the UiytfH' tion or discovery, or any part tlicreof, had been befw*' known or used in a foreign country ; provided it 4m»« not appear that the sumo, or any fubataiitial pwt tliereof, liad before been patented or deacribed iu mtj/ printed publication. Thoae arc the principal existing statute provi.sioM« on the subject, ond though the oit of (longress of l*»-j«> has made considerable alterations in tlie pre-<'xiHiNg luws respecting the organization of the I'atent i>^t; and the limitations on the granting of patents, yH (Iac esiientlal and established doctrines roncerning pitlue)fU heretofore declared in the decisions of the courla m- main unafTccted. The act of ITUB declared tliat am- ply changing the form or the proportions of any wal- chine or composition of matter in any degree v/m )mH a discovery. And also, that the person who had 4i»- covorcd an improvement in tlic principle of any ww.- chine, or in the process if any composition of inoti*^, might obtain a patent for such iniprovenuiil, but Ihi^it ho could not thereby make, use, or vend tlic orjgi/MW discnvcrv, nor could the tlrst inventor use tlie iuiprovf^ ment. These declaratory provisions arc oudu^d W the law of 1830, and { presume the construcliou w*w considered to bo necessarily the same without iimyrur vision. In an ago distinguished for an active an4 »fr d*w< »)/<#« i4 Smf»mifin*nl In iho arts of agrlcultura «ud mtHHtitfimf*, <»kI In lh<> marhlnery of every kind •|/p|«<4 Ui lU'tt friw, ihf dorlrlnc of patent rights has iHtHtttt.4 mittii /flwfuwMn, and becomii u muIiJim t of 4>'«(^ ititftnH tiMh tift* and in Kurope. — Kknt'h Cum- tuttitmtn, tM H. p. 1Jt#; (m.fi.Ar'H /lii/ml /.imn I'. S, Wattatt, Iff PMtaatO, • sea-port in the nortliwest f-urmf i4 hIm M(Wi», rt*«r iho entrance of the I lulf of Ia|;#Mw, (««. »»■■ M' 2,V' N., long. 21" 40' 20" K, \'u^MUi\nH i)my*« « iwS* Ui llm northward of the town ; but Ibv pnn (ftmOHit " '« nn»«fe, and exposed to heavy mm, frnttiftAinh In winter. Vessel*, therefore, go a MUU (mtU*t »\, th* n»ff, »her« Ihf re l» a mole or quay, unA «(i(lt*f« th*^ mn ii* cVwe to the wharf. I'atraa has It m'/fi >i»t*m*i'>n ttmh than any other port of (ireece. 'tim Iffimipitt ^*p(ttU are rnrranis, oil, valonia, wine, r«w tiik, »#<» nifUm, wool, skins, wax, etc. (If these, ritrrttm* mf tft ht thn most Impnrlanl. The fridt is hrti>tfi **w( fttft frfiwi «»nd and gravel, llian that of the Itmiitl* f'luiMf*. 'th*y are shipped In casks of various H/A>«i l^ifl Dfw fl»> weight irt the cnak Is included in that ufiU*' ffnU, H l» «i»M Irt lie, for the most part, heovler «m4 HfttHK^f tUnH n*c»»«ary. Morea currants are pre- (mM itt mttti Kmti(t1m, fxrept England ; but llmr th*i t'UffuM* t4 'AnhfK nro hold in equal, or perhaps l(rittU*f, I'MitttnUfm. The export of currants from I'a- W#* mMf *«'i>trtfn lit (M erop varies extremely in dilTer- n»i ftt*fm».- tMlftly th« rultnre of currants In the Mttftt U>t* i*m very greatly extended. Owing lo the WMr**w l4 ttttit <(niwi(lly, their price has been much ii*4it*M.- hut ihfit rnlllvalion would notwUhstund- )»K )«f*(r#i«*(y WofllaM* were it not for the exlrnor- dimf)/ rt*)t« i/y which il is attended. It is seldom. In- 4>'*4j tUM tttx Utiitti crop can lo housed witliout seri- mt» 4mtmi^i mxt ♦cry frequently it is all but entirely lw«4- 'tit)* *>*« til* case with Iho crop of 18&2, the lojs «/ ^'iUUii WCKsJftfwcl ttinch distress. The crops of oil, tUf #*«(l Ittutt miifU of export from Ptttras, are, if itttt*H4*, Hilt ttKtt» flmloating than those of currants. th" impiiiih Hi I'alMs, M at the other (ireek ports, *'AiiMi'»ttti*i* j fiitliti i»nd printed cotton stnfls, woolen good.s, »»i(*4 Mtf ittiHi tin plates, hardware, coal, cordage, iMiWIi',. 4miI»,- tif.- (mpoTted articles arc brought prin- t'itmny t'fm ih^ fonlun Islands, Malta, Venice, I.cj;- imtt, MlHf*HUft «nd Trieste ; but, from the want uf »t)Ht^iitif-' lUiltiU. It is quite impossible to form any ac- fWMtK **i/iftt from fJreece consist of currants, s.ilk, ^1, #«vl, iiii^n otI, valoniu, wine, sponge, wax, to- tm**-H,. c^, ; thf pyjncipal imports being manufactured nMtm mt4 ^iittifH goods, corn, with a great variety of nuiiiirMttMt*' Mtlii-Un, principally from England, but p»Ht^' #Isi» fiiim f'rance and (iermany. The mercnn- tHu mvy i4 f >r»i>c« *as estimated in IHfiO at 1000 ves- «»J», i4ih4< llf!S£tfgDt» harden of 1. 10, 000 Ions, employ- ee; Hlnutt ^I^IMl t*»rM-n. The (ireeks have, in fact, )ttt*itn.4 til tilf (liKlinclion of being the curriers, factors, *«4 tnt4tt* lit th« i^vitnl. 'fUf mhmtitsiK rcsnlling to Oreeco from her being tin' 'H'ltt, lit *'*(*'n!>ivfl (rnde is not .«o great as might fc#»* titm *«(lcip*(ed. The import and export trade ufttm etimttf h subjected to many troublesome regu- ^tp»t*< tttt'fK »fe no roads, which, however, are less »,«M|U4 tHf*' ihtm in thont other countries. Manufac- tltrm «» » Uff^ ttnle can not be said to exist, the bulk PAT 1503 I 'AW y kind lit* hnii Jl'Ct o( 'h Ciiin- M /'..v. rtliwi'nt tlulfof 20" K. to HOIW. wn ; l)>il 10 licBvy ore, (JO 11 J (ir quay, •ntr«« t>a» >f (Ircccc. nln, vi\M, Of ihPW, ho fruit U Oint of tlio of various ilcil in 'ho' irt, licBviM nt» nro pre- ; l)Ut tlior or porliaiis Its from I'B- ivlB. »>■'""■■. ■ly In dlfr'T- ranU In H'o UwlngloHic 8 been nmiU lolwUlisto'"'- r the cxlrnor- isifUloin.in- wltlioul Sl'Vi- 11 but eiillrcly ' 185-2, tho lof3 ic crofs of oil, •iitras, aro, if ;o (if currants. (ireek port'i oilier colonial woolen yooiU, toul, covdauu, brought V'in- Vcnico, I-eS" tho want of „ form any "i^" 18 rcsiiccts I'n- cularly ilistin- l success wUn mercantile en- lrfrcciloni,wa3 Lhcns, Corintli, \,ul in lliis f'- ,o unsuccessful rs. 'i'i>« e""' . cm-rants, iilU, ongc, wax, to- , manufactured Tcat variety of England, but The nicrcau- [(50 at -4000 vcs- lo tons, employ- Is liavc, in fact, ■arriers, factors, I from lier ^cing Icrcat as migli' l,d export trade lublesomo rcgu- kwcver, arc less Cjcs. Manufac- |o exist, the bulk of Ihe population, but llltin removed from barbarliim, u»lni{ only lliuoo maile at liouiu; ugriiulturu U iiUo In lliu most backward coiidltloii, and U aluiosl wlmlly ciirrlud on uniler the tiKtiyrr system. .Sllll, liowiver, «»mo luiprovonientH aro taking place, especially li\ the inlanils; anil it is |iroliabla that lliu progreiiH lnwanl a better state of things will bit gradually aeculeratid. It Is dooply to liu regretted that (.'aiidia, or L'retu, was not either added to the new kingdom of (ireece, or made indepeudenl. Wo can nut hel|i considering it as dlsgraecful to the Christian nations of Kurope, that tills famous island, where Kuropean civlli/.ation lirsl struck its roots, should bu conslgneil to tlio liarlmrians by whom It U now laiil waste. It is as well entitliil to the favorablu ciinsideratiim of Kngland, t'raiice, and . Kiissia, as any part of Cuntinenlal (ireece; and we hope that measures may yet bu devised for rescuing It from the atrocious deapotUm by which It has been so long weighed down. — See (liim:i K. l''or ('oinincrce, etc., of Moilcrn (i recce, sec l.iiinij Ai/e, 11. 5/i7 ; Nii.K'tV Uri/uler, XXV. 'Mi (IJ.VSiki, \Vl-.iivri;il':< S/mrh); IIcst'h .l/«ceA(i» li iiill Iw nitclr, tho roprriioiita- livi'n (ifllii' iiiiHiiir iiiiiy ri'ili'irii ufhT hin ilnilli. A» I'urly IK till' lliiii' iif (•liiiivilli', llii'iii Juat nml |iliiiii |itliirl|ili'ii iil'tliii Uw of iili'il^i'a uiiro enni'iilliilly ri'inK- iii/i'il, aiiil It wii ilri'lnri'il, lliiit If tliii |iIi'iIkii witu nut rviU'iinii'il liy tlio tltiin ii|i|>iilnl>'il, ihi' iriMlUnr iiil^lit Imvn n'ruiimo In tlin litw, iiiiil ('iiiii|>i'l tlii' |iiiwn>'r tn ro- ili'i'iii liy a )(l\i'n ilay, or Im' I'urnvrr run'rioiiMl sikI liiirri'il of liln rl)(lit. Ami If no tiiim of rnilt'iii|iliiiii wuh IWi'il, till' I riMlllor iiiIkIiI iiiII upon tli« ili'Mnr nt nny tlini', liy Ii'KhI |iriH'i'Kn, to rrili'imi or Ioko IiIh iiIiiIk''' Till' iliallni'tliiii lii'tHri'ii n |iiiuii uiiil inorlKiit(<> ofrhwt- ti'U In L'i|ually will nrttli'il in tlin Kn^ltnli uilil Aiiii'rI- ran Inw ; ami a niorlt(aKi' of );i>oil>i ililli'rn froiii a ploilKo ami pawn hi thin, that Ihn roriiiir In a roiivcyaniK of till) tlllu upon ronililion, ami It lu'ioinrn an ulmulutii InliTiat at law, If not ri'ili'vinml hy n ({ivin tinii', ami It nmy Iw vallil In irrlaln caai'S wlllimit actual ilollvcry. At'iorilliiK to thu civil law, a pIcil^K coiilil not \m nolil without Jmlicial Haiiclluii, iinK'nn llicru wait u upcclal aKrccniPiit to tliii iiU'cit ; ami tlllu l», iloiilitlcnii, tliti law at tliU ilay In nio)it part« of Kuropc 'llio Kronch Ciril t'liilr lull odoptcil thu law of Coinlaiillnu, hy which even ail a^'ri'cmont at the tiinn of tliO'orlKlual conlract of loan, that If thu ilohtor diil not pay at the ilay, the plcil)(n shonlil ho almoliitcly forfdlcil, ami ln'ionin tho properly of tho crcilllor, w an dcclaroil to lie void. Whiln on iIiIh sulijcct of pli'il);o9, it may ho proper fiirllipr to olm.rvc, that tho pawnee, hy hill in clianccry, may luir the ili'ilor'n ri^ht »f redcmpllon and havu ijiu ehatleU Kolil. ThU hafi hcen donu frei|iiently in the eiiNO of stock liondu, plate, or other personol property pledged for I lie payment of (lelit. Uut without any hill to re- deem, the creditor, on a pledge or inort)fa({0 of chattel», may sell at auction, on Klving reaaonahlo opportunity to llio dehtor to redeem, and apprising hlin of tho time ami place of sale ; and this is the inoro convonieiit and usual practice. While tho dehtor's right in tho pledge remains unextinguished, his Interest is lialile to ho sold on execution ; and the purchaser, like any other pur- chaser or assignee of the interest of the pawner, suc- ceeds to all his rights, and hecomrs entitled to rodcem, — .Vcc Kknt'k C"inm''ittftries, vol. Iv. /Iiilt/, /■'ntiiii; fit: — 'I'he practice of advoncing money to tho poor, either with or without interest, seems to have heen occasionally folio wid in antii|nily. — lli:i k- .M.iNN, vol. iii. Hut tho tirnt piililic estahlishmeiilH of this sort were founded in I Inly, niiiler the name of Munti ili J'ifli't, in the I4th ami ITnh centuries. As It Was soon found to lin iinpussilile to procure thi means of supportiiii; such estal'llshinent'* from vohm ary con- triliution*. ^i hull for allowing interest to Ik charged upon the loams made to the poor was issued hy Irfo X. In I'lL'l. I'liiese estahlishnients, though ilift'ering in many renpects. have uiiisersally for their ohjcct to pro- tect the i>"edy frmn tlif risk of lieing plundered hy the lrrespon«i!ile Iniiividuals to whom their necessities might ohlige llicui to resort, hy accommodating them with loans on -oniporativi I reasonahlo terms. And though their practice has nut, in all instances, corre- sjiondcd with the professions they have made, tlicro s«-eins no reason to ilouht that they have hccn, speaking generally, of essential servicu to i lie poor. From Italy these eslahlishmcnls have grailimlly spread over the Continent. The MotttJel'irlr, in I'aris, wasestahlished liy a royal ordinance in 1777 ; and after lieing destroyed hy the Kcvolution, was again opened In 17'.i7. In IHOI It ohtaincd a monopoly of the liusincas of pawnhroking ill the capital. Loans are made liy this cstahlishnient U|Mm deposits of such goods as can he preserved, to the amonut of two-thirds of the estimated value of all goods other than gold andsilvcr, andtofour-tifthaofthe value of tlie latter. No loan is for less than .< francs. The ad- vances are made for a year, hut tho borrower nioy re- new the engagement. Interest is flxed at tho rate of one per cent, per mouih. Tho Afcmt de Picte bu generally in deposit from I'lOO.iimi In i;r>o,iHiO nrthles, worth from twelve mlltlon III llilrtion mlllliin I'ranes. The «xpen>« of muiiugn- meiit amounts to from lil) to liA nnlimin fur rai h aril- lie; so that • loan of 11 fravii a never il'fiiiya ilin ix- punars It oecaaliiiia, ami the pinllla ui'i' it holly ileriveil froiii thoan that iLXceed r> fruma. At an average Iha prullls amount to ahoiit '.'hii.ihmi francs, of which only alioiit iri.'i,l)l)<) are derived from loans upon ilepnait, alioiit \2ii,^W) helng thu produce of other funds at thu dlspoaul of thu company. Ill aoiiio reaprctai particu- larly the louneaa of Interest upon small loaiif, and iho greater vigilance exercised with respect In the reci p. lion of alnlun goods, the ilAiii^ i/n /'/,/,' has an uil\aiit- nguover the pawnhroklng ealaiiliahmentaiii Ihia eniiii- tr). It may Im doulited, however, whether it la, on the whole, so well titled to attain Its ohjicta. The lim- it^lhin of the loans to !l franca would he felt to he a serious grinvance here, and It can hardly he uihgrnlsu in l-'rance ; nor Is It to he supposed that the aervanla of a great pulille estahllshment will he ao ready to as- sist poor peraons, ha\ing none hut Inferior articles to olTer in security, as private Individuals anxious to get liusineaa. And such, in point of fact, is found to he ll ase, not in I'aris only, hut In all those parts of tho Continent where the husiness of pawnhroklng la coii- llned to a few estahllshnients. And hence, though thu <|uention ho not free from dllllculty, it w iiuld f eeiii that, were thu inoilillcations already su^: cstcd adopted, our system wouhl ho the host of any. I or further inform- ation with respect tn this curious and intureating suli- I Joel, thu reader is referred to the '/'nii'/il ilr la Hiit\fiii- imitee liihlii/ue of Degerandn, iii. l-.'iri; liesides giv- ' lag a succinct historical notice of .i/oiili ilf I'iile, the I learned author has discunsed most part of the knotty I questions ronnccled with the proper organization of these estnhllahmeAls, and with their InHuenco on socie- ty, with c(|ual sagacity and ahility. — See Hankrii' ' Mai; pt hy the kings of I'ersla, hy way of ] revenge, tn poison the natives; hut he treats this story as a mere fahlu, and considers it tha most harmless fruit I in tho world ; that it had the most Juice, and the least I smell of any friiil. and yet caused thirst In those who ; ate of it. lie expressly stales that it was imported hy the Itomans from i'ersia; hut whether it was indige- nous to that country, or sent thither from a region still nearer to the equator, wo have no information, lie adds that it was not long since peaches were known in Koine, nml that thero was great difliculty In rearing them. lie also informs us that this tree was hroughl from h'gypt to the Isle of Uliodcs, where it could never he made to iroduco fruit; and from thence to Italy, lie says, inureover, that it was not a common fruit either in (ireece or Natolia. No mention, however, is made of it hy Cato. I'ownall, in his Rmnan I'niv- inces, makes it a I'hoca'an importation to Marseilles ; and eviduntly it was cultivated in France at an early period, as Columella, in his account of this fruit, says : *' Tliosu of aniall slr.o to ripen make great haato ; Htieh ns prent fJaiil hnstowa, olisers'es due timo And seasun, nut tuu early, nor too late." Tho peach is said to have heen tlrst cultivated in Dritain ahout tlie middle of tho Kith century. Gerard dcscrilics several varieties of it as growing in his gar- den, in 1&97. Tus.ser mentions it in his list of fl'uits in 1577 ; and in all probahility it was introduced when the Komans had possession c. that country. Tho peach was introduced into North America hy PKA 1S06 TKA iiillllim iuniit('l»i«ll, in at Ihu imrtUil- null tho in rci'ip- , ullMlllt- lila coiiii- 11 U, on Till' lim- it til l>» ft ulli«i»l»" 1 lorvuiil" iidy to ii»- urticliii to oim to K''l iiiiil to lin mrtnuf tl'" liiK I* 1011- i1u)11k1> tli« fpviii tlint, il(.|ili'i\, "111' lii'r Inforiu- ■o»tliiR "»''- la Jli'uf'ii- .fsUli'" «!>•- /« I'itle, till! tlie knotty inl/utlon of iRO on soclo- Wo Hunkeri' 70; AutJii»'i lb. Cy. l.on- 1» not certain Ins orlK'ii'il'y ■tuiinta of its icn not follow (ir«iluciioii« fl l)C('n stttti'd tliat its fruit ia^ l,y way of [nts tills story liirnili's'sfru" [anil tlio least ltd thosi! wlio , iniiiortcil I'V [l was inillni'- ft region still Iniation. He loro known in Ity in rcurint; was brouglil it could never jnco to Italy, tominon fmit [i, liowevor, is l«i)m(i» /''■»'- lo Marseilles ; \e at an early [is fruit, says : ,t haatc ; luo tluio I cultivated in lury. Gerard fm in liis gar- list of fruits in loduced when Iry. Ii America by th« (Irtt Kill ipran p>i'itliir«, prulinlily Inward th« cIum •f Ihu null ur •■arly In lh« ITlli niilury, HJnri- It U I'liUlvaliiil III oMriiilve iilanlulliina, nlili li ufii ii ^niw wllli •mil liixiirlani'u as to naenililf furi'Kla uf ntliir tnix. Ill New .li'riHiy, IVniiiiylMnU, Diliimiri', .Miirt- laiiil, Virginia, and ■•'Vnriil otlmr Hialos, iiiiiili uiiiii- Hull In piilil tu lis oiiltiiri', and tin' I'riilt ii of nil kmi I- Ivnt i|imllty. It is no uiKoniiiiun rirrniiiKlniirii fur ii (diilitiT lo iiiissena a |i«iki'li onliiird <'oii(uliilii|{ oiii' iliim. suiid or iiiurii of staiiiliiril trriii. It is iiiily In llni Mid- iIIm Niali's of tl|n l>ninn wliiTii iIiIh fruit urrlvi'n iit llio Kri'iiti'Dt pirfiM'tlon. In fiivontlili' liwimiiis, it iiiutiiri'S in Ihu npi'ii air as far norlli ns Muliii', .Niw llaiiipslilri', VlthidiiI, and llin I'ulls of Nltl^urll; but lis piilji Ii nut so dnlirluus ns whin »rrimii «iiiiu di'Krws I'uriiii'r nuutli ; It Is also trniiiod iiKaiiist walls at Moiitruiil uinl rormi. tu, in I'anada, wlinri', In aonii! seasons, fruit of n lliii' ipinllly Is olitnliiiid. In tliu I'arolliias, (li'orKia, and I'liirida, lliii trui'4 inako inmli folluxn and wood ; slill, if well I'liliivaled and properly priiinul, Ihu fruit uriius to a hti'Ki' sl/.e, and Is Jnliy and uidl llavnnd. I)n llic Mlsiltnippl, purllcnlarly in Lniilnlaiia, wliii h lies In thu same liilltiido as that part of Asia wlinra Oils spi'iins Ih indi^i'iiouH, it ^roHs spontiineuunly, liiil 1.4 iTKiirdi'd m of forid^n orl|{ln, huvln^ lienn liitrodnccd from Spain licforo that rivof was oxploriid liy iho French. In tlie viriiiity of lloslon, Salem, New York, I'liiladulplila, and other populous cities uf tho United Hliites, tho pcai h is ri'iind a;!o/.a, on tho eifst side of tho An- des ; and thu same tiaveh^r noticed dried pca>'lies used us an article of fooil on thu more cdcvatcd parts of those mountains, to which they must have iKon car- ried from 111* pi liiis !««,. ", On thu liaiikLi of Itio do la I'laitt, fr' l.jiitcvideo to lliiuiius Ayres, wo have seen peael ,. s growing spontaneously in the grout- eat perfi'i, I. II, and 111 sncli aliuiidunco as tu fiiriii ii con- sldeni )" rtinn of thu fuel uf the provinces in wliicli they ^.'iiw riic fruit thoro is of a tiiia ipiality, large ipiii.iitics of which are annually dried fur domestic u^> and l»ie chief jmrt of tho riunainder is consuincd lit vattUi, or is Hulferoil to decay upon ilio ground. Vh* wood of tho peach-tree Is hard, compact, of a roseate hue, and is susceptildo of n line polish; liut nniiig to lis inferior si/.o und comparativo searcily, ii is hut llttln used in the arts, or for fuel, except in coun- tries where other kinds of wood uro rare. \Vlien "h- taincd, however, of suitable dimensions, it muy he "llll belter, thu eiiiployiiuiit uf an ilitelllMeiit i; itjititr »liu la praelleally ueipialnteit with all ila niaiilpulo- llulla — lIlliiWM'.'a i'lVr* nf .\mrriiil. Peak, a nmiie given lo the upper eurner of llioao aalls nlileli urn exlembd by a gall', ur by ayard which eruaaea ihe niuat ulillqii.'ly, ua the nilijien-vard uf • "hip, the malu-yurduf abylaudir, lie. Thiiuppfr ex- ireinlly of liieaii yards and gull's la also denuminuleil Ww funk. P«ar-tra« l l';irin CummunU). The euimiiun peur- Iree la iiidlgeiiuiia tu Kiiriipe, Weatcrn A1.I11, llie lllma- biyus, ami lu China; but nut tu Afri>u imr Aiiurlia. It ia I'umid wild In iiiuat uf the couiiliia of llrilulii, as far liiirth na l'url'ur«lilre ; un the luntiiieiit uf I'.urupe, fnuii Sweden lu Ihe .Mediterranean; und in Aaia, aa far laat ns I hlmiaiul ■lupaii. It ia ulwuya I'uiind un a dry sull, und mure freqiii iilly un plains tliiin un liilla ur muuiilaiiis; and nuliluiy, or in small groups, rniher than in wuuds und furesta. Ihu varlellea eulllvuU'd I'ur llieir fruit succeed bulli in the leiiiperale and traiialllun /ones uf thu inu hemiapherea, iind It has iieen reinaiked thul this tree, aa well us the apple and the cherry, will grow in the open air wherever thu uak will tlirive. Thu wood uf Iho runiniun penr-lrce is heavy, klrung, compact, of n line griiiii. niid slightly tilled with red. Ill coininan villi that uf all thu Uuaaceie, it is llublo to have its iiuliirul eidor changed by sleeping in wulor, wlileh, therefuru, ought lu be avoided wlieii iiiiendert fur particular imrp" In thu arts. When green, It weighs marly eigln |iunnils to u cubic fuut, and from torty-nlno lo llfn-Uiree pounda when dry. AceurdlnK tu l)u llaniel, it is, next tu the true servlee (I'yrut iitrliiia), tlie best « uuci that can be einpluM'd in wuud- engraving, fur wliieli |>iirpuae, huwevcr, it is I'ur In- ft riur lo IhMt ..!' ihe box. Vet it is alluwi'l tu bo very hard and h>'Uiugencuiia, easy lu eul, und, ^^ Iji'ii perfect- ly dry, is nut liuble either lu cruek ur warp. Fur Iho coaraer kinds of engraving, such as lurgo plans ur dia- j grams, Siiuw-bills. eic., it serves a Tory guod jiurpuso. I When it can be ublained, in iUirupe, it is much used by turners umI patteni-inakers; also furjuiiier.a' tuols; and, us it < . n iiudily lie .sluincd, it is sometiines made into variiiiii urn. Ie.«. dyed black, in imilalhin of ebony. i As fuel, till wood of I his tree is excellent, producing n vi\ id and durulilo llame, accompanied by an inlcnse i> According to Wilheriiig, the leaves afl'ord a . .lUiW dye, and may be employed to Impurt u greeiii.^h -liado to bliiu clnlhs. Hut thu must impurtant uses uf I 11 pear-tree nre thoso which arise from its fruit. ^ hen ripe, it is einpluyed at the tablu us a ilesscrl, ■. ilier raw, slewed, ur preserved in sirup, and occa- .sionally it is used in tarts. In most of the cuunlries where it grows this fruit is very generally dried in ovens, or in Iho sun, in which statu, when stewed, it is e.xcellcnl, either as a subslitute for puddings and plea, or as forming part uf the dessert. Another ]iurpose to which Ihe pear is applied is for making perry. It is extensively cullivated for thia ubjeet in various parts of llrltain, France, und (ler- innnv, where Ihe trees are sum' times planted in rows eighteen or twenty yards upiiii, in order to admit a free access of light and air. I'erry is made In tho same inuniicr as cider. The pears should be gathered before they begin to full, and should bo ground as soon after as possible. Should the perry not bo sufficiently clear, when racked oil', it may be (incd in tho usual manner of clarifying elder, by isinglasa, in the proportion of about half an ounce tu a barrel. The kinds of pears PEA 1606 PEA mod for making this liquor in Hcrefordahire arc such at have an austere juice, as the " Squash," the " Old- fleld," the " Uarland," the " Huff-cap," the " Sack," the " Red," and the " Longland" varieties. Pears were considered hy the Koinans as an antidote to the effect of eating poisonous mushrooms ; and up to the present time perry is said to be the best remedy that can be employed for the same purpose. In Britain and Franco an agreeable wine is made from a mixture of crab- apples and pears, which in the latter country is called piquette. Pears, in general, produce llatulency, and consequently are unfit for weak stomachs ; but when they are quite ripe, and contain a sweet juice, they seldom prove noxious, unless eaten to excess. Pears that are to be kept for winter use should bang as long on the trees as the state of the weather will admit. They should then be kept in heaps, in an open, dry situation, for about ten days, then wiped with a dry woolen cloth, and, lastly, packed up close from the air and moisture. But to keep the fruit in its greatest perfection, small earthen jars may be selected about the sir,e of the pear, which should be packed separate- ly, in clean oat chaff or whcaten bran, then tied down with oiled paper or skin, and cemented tight with wax or pitch. These jars should then be packed in a cask, chest, or Homo other secure place, with their bottoms upward, where they should remain until required for use. — Bkowne's Tvei of A merica. Fearl-aah. See Potash. Pearls (l>u. I'aarlen; Fr. Perlet; Ger. Perlen; It. Perle; Lai. JIargwitte ; Huaa, Shemplsc/mg, PerlU ; Sp. I'erlas; Arab. Looloo; Cyng. Mootoo; Hind. Moolie), are well-known globular concretions found in several species of shell-tish, but particularly the mother-of-pearl oyster (ConcAo margaritijera, Linn.). Pearls should be chosen round, of a bright, translucent, silvery white- ness, free from stains and roughness. Having these qualities, the largest arc of course tho most valuable. The larger ones have frequently the shape of a pear ; and when these are otherwise perfect, they are in great demand for ear-rings. Ceylon pearls are most esteem- ed in Kngland. The formation of the pearl has em- barrassed both ancient and modern naturalists to ex- ])lain, and has given occasion to a number of vain and absurd hypotheses. SI. licaumur, in 1717, alleged that pearls are formed like other stones in animals. An an- cient pearl was valued by Pliny at i£80,000 sterling. One which was brought, in 1574, to Philip II., of the size of a pigeon's cgg,4ras valued at 14,400 ducats, equal to £13,'J9t). A pearl spoken of by Boetius, named the Incomparable, weighed thirty corats, equal to five pen- nyweights, and was about the size of a nmscadine pear. The pearl mentioned by Tavernier as being in posses- sion of the P^niperor of Persia was purchased of an Arab in 1G38, and is valued at a sum equal to £110,400. — IIayd.n. Value of Pearlt.—Veaila were in tho highest possi- ble estimation in ancient Home, and bora an enormous price. J'rincipiiim culinenqiie omnium rerumprelii, mar- garita; lenent.—l'i.iSY, Hist. \al. Their price in mod- ern tiniBs has very much declined ; partly, no doubt, from changes of manners and fashions, but more prob- ably from the admirable imitations of pearls that may lie obtained at x very low price. According to Mr. Milburn, n haiu. uie necklace of Ceylon pearls, small- er than a large pea, costs from ill70 to £300; l)ut one of pearls about the size of peppercorns may be had for X16. The pearls in the former sell at a guinea each, and those in the latter at about U. 6J. When the pearls dwindle to tho size of small shot, they are de- nominated seed pearls, and arc of little value. They are mostly sent to China. One of the most remarka- ble pearls of which we have any authentic account was bought by Tavernier at C'atifa, in Arabia, a lishery fa- mous in tho days of Pliny, fur tho enormous sum of £110,000! It is pear-shaped, regular, and without blemish. The diameter is -63 inch at the largest part, and the length from two to three inches. Much dif- ference of opinion has existed among naturalists with respect to the production of pearls in the oyster; but it seems now to Ihs generally believed that it is the re- sult of disease, and is formed in the same manner as bezoar (tee Bkzoak), pearls, like it, consisting of suc- cessive coats spread with perfect regularity round a foreigi) nucleus. In fact, the Chinese throw into a spe- cies of shcll-flsh {tnytilus cygneut, or swan muscle), when it opens, five or six very minute mother-of-pearl beads strung on a thread ; and in the course of a year they are found covered with a pearly crust, which perfectly resembles the real pearl.— Mii.nuRK'a Oritnlal Com- merce i Ainslie'.s Materia Iiidlca. Pearl Pisherits. — The pearl oyster is fished in various parts of the world, |>articularly on the west coast of Ceylon; at Tuticorcen, in the province of Tinnevelloy, on the coast of Coromandel ; at the Bahrein Islands, in the Gulf of Persia; at the Sooloo Islands; off the coast of Algiers ; off St. Margarita, or Pearl Islands, in tho West Indies, and other places on the coast of Colombia ; and in the Bay of Panama, in the South Sea. Pearls have sometimes been found on the Scotch coast, and in various other places. The pearl fishery of Tuticoreen is monopolized by the Eatt India Com- pany, and that of Ceylon by government. But these monopolies are of no value ; as in neither case does the sum for which the fishery is let equal tho expenses in- curred in guarding, surveying, and managing the banks. It is, therefore, sufficiently obvious that this system ought to be abolished, and every one allowed to fish on paying a moderate license duty. The fear of exhausting the banks is quite ludicrous. The fish- ery would be abandoned as unprofitable long before the breed of oysters had been injuriously diminished ; and in a few years it would bo as productive as ever. Be- sides giving fresh life to the fishery, the abolition of the monopoly would put an end to some very oppressive regulations enacted by the Dutch more than a century ago. Persia/i OiJf. — The most extensive pearl fisheries are those on the several banks not far distant from the island of Bahrein, on the Avest side of the Persian (iulf, in lat. 26° 60' N., long. 61° 10' E.; but pearl oysters are found along the whole of the Arabian coast, and round almost all the islands of the Gulf. Such as are fished in the sea near the islands of Kar- rak and Corgo contain pearls said to be of a superior color and description. They are formed of eight lay- ers or folds, while others have only five, but the water is too deep to raako fishing for them either very profit- able or easy. Besides, the entire monopoly of the fishery is in tho hands of the Sheik of Bushire, who seems to consider these islands as his immediate prop- erty, " Tho fishing season is divided into two portions — the one culled tho short and cold, the other the lung and hot. In the cooler weather of the month of June, diving is practiced along the coast in shallow water; but it is not until the intensely hot months of July, August, and September, that the Bahrein banks are much frequented. The water on them is about seven fathoms deep, and the divers are much inconvenienced when it is old; indeed, they con do little when it is not as warm as the air, and it frequently becomes even more so in the hottest months of the summer. When they dive, they compress the nostrils tightly with a small piece of horn, which keeps the water out, and stuff their cars with beeswax for the same purpose. They attach a net to their waists, to contain the oys- ters ; and aid thoir descent by means of a stone, w hich they bold by a rope attached to a boat, and shake it when they wish to be dra.vn up. From what I could learn, two minutes may be considered as rather above the average time of their remaining under water. Al- though severe labor, and very exhausting at the time, diving is not considered particularly injurious to the constitution; even old men practice it. A person PEA 1507 PEA uch tlif- its with ler; but 9 the re- jmcr M g of sue- round a to a spe- le),wheu arl beads /ear they perfectly nt(U Cum- in various t coast of nnevelley, n Islands, Is; off the tI Islands, le coast of the South , the Scotch carl fishery India Corn- But these ase docs the Expenses in- waging the ous that this one allowed y. The fear 8. The lish- ing before the linished; and as ever. Bc- holition of the •ry oppressive ihan a century usually dives from twelve to fifteen times a day in favorablo weather; but when otherwise, three or four times only. The work is performed on an empty stomach. When the diver becomes fatigued, he goes to sleep, and does not eat until he has slept some time. At Bahrein alone the annual amount produced b}- the pearl fishery may be reckoned at from £200,000 to £240,000. If to this the purchases made by the Bah- i rein merchants or agents at Aboottabeo Sbarga, Ras-ul | Khymack, etc., be added, which may amount to half as much more, there will be a total of about £300,000 or £360,000; but this is calculated to include the whole pearl trade of the Gulf; for it is believed that all the principal merchants of India, Arabia, and Persia who deal in pearls make their purchases, through agents, at Bahrein, I have not admitted in the above esti- mate much more than one-sixth of tho amount some native merchants have stated it to be, as a good deal seemed to be matter of guess or opinion, and it is dif- ficult to get at facts. My own estimate is in some measure checked by the estimated profits of the small boats. But even the sum which I have estimated is an enormous annual value for an article found in other parts of the world as well as here, and which is never used in its best and most valuable state except as an ornament. Large quantities of the seed pearls are used throughout Asia in the composition of m^ooiis, or electuaries, to form which all kinds of preciuns stones are occasionally mixed, after being pounded, excepting, indeed, diamonds ; these being considered, from their hardness, as utterly indigestible. The ma- joon in which there is a large quantity of pearls, is much sought for and valued, on account of its supposed stimulating and restorative qnalitics. The Bahrein pearl fisliery boats are reckoned to amount to about 1500, and the trade is in the hands of merchants, some of whom possess considerable capital. They bear hard on the producers or fishers, and even those who make the greatest exertions in diving, hardly have food to eat. The merchant advances some money to the fish- ermen at cent, per cent., and a portion of dates, rice, and other necessary articles, all at the supplier's own price ; he also lets a boat to them, for which he gets one share of the gross profits of all that is fished ; and, finally, ho purchases the pearls nearly at his own price, for the unhappy fisherii: n are generally in his debt, and therefore at his mercy." — yfamucript Notes (ommunicat<:d by Major \). VI ihioti, late political Residtnt at hushire. Tho fishery at Algiers was farmed by an Knglish association in 1S2G, but we are ignorant of their suc- cess. The pearl fisheries on tlie coast of Colombia were at one time of very great valne. In 1587 up- ward of 697 lbs. of pearls are said to have been im- ported into Seville. Philip II. had one from St. Mar- garita which weighed 250 carats, and was valued at 150,000 dollars. But for many years past the Colom- bian pearl fisheries have been of comparatively little importance. During the mania for joint-stock com- panies, in 1825, two were formed ; one, on a large scale, for prosecuting the pearl fishery on tho coast of Colombia ; and another, on a smaller scale, for prose- cuting it in the Bay of Panama and the Pacific. Both were abandoiiod in 1826, The best fishery ground is said to be in from six to eight fathoms water. The divers continue under water from a minute to a minute and a half, or at most two minutes. They have a sack or bag fastened to the neck, in -.vhicli they bring up tho oysters. Tho exertion is extremely violent; and tho divers are unhealthy and short-lived. — For •■urther information, see Hukt's Merchants' Magazine, xviii. 565. Pe.aH shells, commonly called Mother-nf-pearl shells, are imported from various parts of tho Kast, and con- fist principally of the shells of the pearl oyster from tho Gulf of Persia and other places, particularly the Sooloo Islands, situate between Borneo and tho Philip- pines the shores of which afford tho largest and finest shells hitherto discovered. On the inside the shell it beautifully polished, and of the whiteness and water of pearl itself: it hos the same lustre on tho outside, after the external laminm have been removed, ifoth- er-of-pearl shells are extensively used In tho arts, particularly in inlaid work, and in tho manufacture of handles for knives, buttons, toys, snuft'-lwxcs, etc. The Chinese manufacture them Into beads, (lih, count- ers, spoons, etc. ; giving them a finish to which Kuro- pean artists have not been aide to attain. Shells for tho European market should bo chosen of tho largest size, of a beautiful pearly lustre, thick and even, and free from stains. Ueject such aa are small, cracked or broken, or have lumps on them. When stowed loose as dunnage, they are sometimes allowed to pass free of freight.— Mii.Hi'nN's Orie \tal Commerce. Tlio Im- ports during the three years ending with 1HI2 amount- ed, at an average, to about 950,000 11)9. a year. A rlijicial Pearls. — These are small globules or pear- shaped spheroids of thin glass, perforated with two opposite holes, through which they are strung, and mounted into necklaces, etc., like real pearl ornaments. i They must not only be white and lirilliant, but exhibit the iridoscentreflectionsof mother-of-pearl. Tho liquor employed to imitate tho pearly lustre is called the essence of the A'(m( (essence d' Orient), which is prepared I by throwing into water of ammonia tho brilliant scales, or rather tho lamella, separated by •.Vttoinng and friction, of the scales of a small river fish, the blay, called in French ablette. These scales digested in am- monia, having acquired a degree of softness and flexi- bility which allow of their application to the inner surfaces of the glass glol)ulc9, they are introduced by suction of tlic liquor containing them in suspension. The ammonia is volatilized in the act of drying tho globules. It is said that some manufacturers employ ammonia merely to prevent the alteration of tho scales ; I that when they wish to mako use of them, they sus- 1 pend them in a well-clariHed solution of isinglass, then I pour a drop of the mixture into each bead, and s|)read it round the inner surface. It is doubtful whether, by this method, tho same lustre and play of colors can be obtained as by the former. It sconis, moreover, to be j of importance for the success of the iinilation, that the i globules be formed of a Muish, opalescent, very thin ! glass, containing but little potash and oxyd of lead. j In every man'ifactory of artificial pearls there must Iw I some workmen possessed of great experience and dox- : tcrity. The French are su|)posed to excel In this in- genious branch of industry. Fatso pearls were invented j in the time of Catherine de Medlcis, by a person of the i name of Jaquin. They are made of small globules of ; glass, blown by the ordinary lamp. Tlio pearly lustre i is communicated by introducing by means of a Uow- I pipe a small quantity of nacreous substances obtained ! from the surface of tlio scale of a small fish very coni- i nion in the Seine and tho Khine, and also in tho Thames, ' Tills substance preserved with sal ammoniac in a liquid i state is coinmonly sold under the name of " Oriental essence." After having covered the inside of the pearl with this liquid, a coating of wax is added, which is colored to the required shade. The manufacture of pearls is principally carried on in the department of I the Seine in France. Tlicro aro also manufactories in i Gorniaiiy and Italy, but to a small extent. In Ger- I many, or rather Saxony, a cheap but inferior quality is manufactured. The globe of glass forming tho pearl j in inferior ones being very thin, and coated witli wax, I they break on the slightest pressure. They arc known j liy the name of German fish jiearls. Italy also inonu- fiicturcs pearls by a method borrowed from the Chinese ; they are known under the name of Roman pearls, and a very good imitation of natural ones i they have on j their outside a coating of the nacreous liquid. The Chinese pearls aro made of a kind of gum, and aro i covered likewise with tho same liquid. In tlio year PEA 1508 PEA 1H94 n Froiioli nrtlaan dincovered nn opaline glass of a nncrooiia or pearly lolor, very Iicovy and fusible, wliicli gave to the lMtaalate of that god- dess us to represent the simplicity of their ancestors. The hoan cumo originally from the Kast, and was culti- vated In Kgypt and Barbary in the earliest ages of which wo liavo any records. It was brought into 8paln and Portugal in the early part of the eighth cen- tury, whence some of the best varieties were introduced Into other parts of Kurope, and finally into the United Ntalcs, The lirst beans introduced from Europe into (he Itrltlsh North American colonics were by Captain (iiisnnid, In lliO'2, who planted them on tho Elizabeth Island*, near (ho coast of Massachusetts, where they flourished well, Tiioy were also cultivated in New- foundland as oarly as WH; in New Netherlands in nil I i and In Virginia prior to 1048. French, Indian, or kidney beans wero extensively cultivated by the Indians of New York and New England long before their settlement by the whiles ; and both beans and peas (ralavances), of various hues, wero cultivated by tho natives of Virginia prior to tho first landing of Captain John .Smith. Among these were embraced the celebrated cow-pea (_I'ha»eolus), or Indian pea, ct pmsent so extensively cultivated at the South for feed- ing stock, as well as for the purposes of making into fod- iler, and for plowing under, like clover, as a fallow crop. Thn varli'tica of benna nt present cultivated in the Ifnlted Niates, as field and garden crops, are too nu- iiinroun to admit of repetition in this report. For field culturo, the common small white, the rcd-cyed China, llio turtlu-suup, the Slohawk, and the refugee are pre- furred ; for garden culture, tho Mohawk, the early •lxtraw, plants, and weeds, which having lain long in water, is formed into a mass soft enough to bo cut through with a sharp spade. Tho color is a black- ish bron n, and it is used in many places for fuel. Thero is a stratum of this peat on each side of tho Kcnnet, near Newbury, in Berks, which is from about a quar- ter to half a mile in width, and many miles in length. The depth below tho surface of tho ground is from one foot to eight. Great numbers of entire trees aro found lying irregularly in the true peat. These are chiefly oaks, alders, willows, and firs, and appear to have been torn up by the xoots; many horses' heads, and bones of several kinds of deer, the horns of tho antelope, the heads and tusks of Iwars, and the heads of beuvera, or* oUo found imbedded in it. ■^T ,7^. ;y,... PEG 1509 PEN don hor- ielil U9U- D, wcigh- cominon lio South recks and ill North the early it is enu- cultivotcd ins. The irincipftlly jrn States, the early are gcncr- i the gray icld varies !, weighing row-fats are 11 are much are thought " busli pea" ng pods six jlusters, and iined for the of peas ex- bushels; in , 1764, 91C2 ,000 bushels ; olution, BOOO lates, twenty he amount of lamed period, ffice Rtport. .ibstance, cm- ;1. There are wish brown or Scotland, Ilol- ft viscid con- , air. I*, con- id with calca- 50, it contains ^l into oblong stony matters yields water, containing a ig either white ■ites contained incd from peat •umatic smell, [s, but more so ittls in the cold imall heat ; it irns less vehe- gocs out upon rectified spirit dark, brown- jnd near Kew- tl Transaiiions )f this species, .at is a compo- , roots of trees, |ch having lain t enough to bo ^lor is a black- brfuel. There [f the Kcnnet, about a quar- iles in length, pd is from one [roes are found '90 are chlelly [r to have been ids, and bones antelope, the if beavers, ar« Peek, a dry measure for grain, pulse, etc. The standard, or imperial peek, contains two gallons, or 654'f)5 cubic inches. Four pecks make a bushel, and four bushels a coomb. — See Weights and Measi'hes. Feoulatlon, the term, in the Roman law, for the embezzlement of public money belonging either to the government or to communities. Under ;)ccMfa/ion, also, was comprised the adulteration of gold, silver, or any metal belonging to government. Connected with it, by a law of the dictator, Caesar, were the crimen de re- giJiiis (if a person had received public money for a par- ticular purpose, and did not apply it for the same), and the aacriteg'mm (the theft or misappropriation of money or other things sacred to a god). In most government Pemuylvanla, one of tho central United States, lies between 3'J° 43' and 42° N. lat., ana between 74" and 80" 40' W. long. It is 307 miles long and IGtl broad, containing 47,000 square miles. Population in 1790 was 434,373; in 1800, C02,54.5; in 1810, 810,0111 ; in 1820, 1,049,313; in 1830, 1,347,672; in 1840, 1,721,033; and in 1860, 2,311,786. The Alleghany Mountains cross tho State from southwest to northeast, and there are many smaller ranges on each side of tho principal ridge and parallel to it. Tho southeastern and northwestern parts of the State aro either level or moderately hilly. The soil is generally fertile, and much of it is of a superior quality ; tho' best land on the southeast is on both sides of the Siisinichnnna. He- tho embezzlement of public money by public ofliccrs is tween the head-waters of tho Alleghany ami Lake Eri severely punished. Peculation and treason were, by 1 the soil is very fertile. Tho anthracite coul region iv tho French charter of 1814, the only crimes for which I immense. Tho Mauch Chunk, Schuylkill, and Lykeu's a minister was impeachable. — E. A. S'aWey coal-field extends from the Lehigh lUveracross Pellitory, tho root of n perennial plant (.InMemij the head-waters of the Schuylkill, and is «5 miles in pyi-ethrum), a native of the Levant, Barbary, and tho length, with an average breadth of five miles. 'I'li south of Europe. The root is long, tapering, about the thickness of tho finger, with a brownish cuticle. It is imported packed in bales, sometimes mixed with other roots, from which, however, it is easily distinguished. „. It is inodorous. When chewed, it seem's at first to bo ji insipid, but after a few seconds it excites a glowing j$' heat, and a pricking sensation on the tongue and lips, ■§ which remains for 10 or 12 minutes. The pieces break with a short, resinous fracture ; the transverse section presenting a thick, brown bark, studded with black, shining points, and a pale yellow radiated inside. It is used in medicine as a stimulant. — Thomson's Dis- pensatory. Peltry >s the namo given to the skins of different kinds of wild animals found in high northern latitudes, jiarticularly in North America, such as the beavor, sa- ble, wolf, bear, etc. When the skind of such animals have received no preparation they are termed peltry f but when the inner side has been tanned by an alumin- ous process they are denominated_/*Kr». Pencils (Ger. I'insel; Du. Pmseekn ; Fr. Pinceaitx; It. Pcnnelli; Sp. Pinceles). The word pencil is used in two senses. It signifies either a small hair brush employed by painters in oil and water colors — they aro of various kinds, ond made of various materials, SDnie being formed of tho bristles of the boar and others uf canid'a hair, tho down of swans, etc. — or a slender cyl- inder, of black-lead or plumbago, either naked or in- closed in a wooden case, for drawing black lines upon paper. Tho last sort, which is the one to be consider- ed hero, corresponds nearly to the French term crayon, though this includes also pencils made of difforcutly- colorcd earthy compositions. Tho best Idack-lead pen- cils of this country aro formed of slender parallelopi- peds, cut out by a saw from sound pieces of plumbago, which hove been previously calcined in close vessels at a bright red heat. These parallelepipeds arc generally inclosed in cases made of cedar wood, though of late years they aro also used alone, in peculiar pcucil-cascs, under tho namo of over-pointed pencils, provided with an -ron wire and screw, to protrude a minute portion of the plumbago beyond tho tubular metallic case, in proportion as it is wanted. Pendant, or Pennant, a sort of long and narrow banner displayed from tho mast-head of a ship-of-war, and usually terminating in two ends or points, called the swallow's (ail. It denotes that the vessel is in act- ual service. Broad petidcuit is a kind of flag termin- ating in onn or two points, usod to distinguish the chief of a squadron. Pendant is also a short piece of rope, iixoil on each side, under the shrouds, upon the heads of the main and foremasts. Penknives (Germ. Federmesser; Fr. Cani/s; It. Temperini; Sp. Corta pliimas), small knives, too well known to need any particular description, used in mak- ing and mondiug pens. The best penknives arc man- ufactured in London and Sheffield. Lackawanna coal-lield extends from Carbondale, on the; Lackawannock, to 10 miles below Wilkcsbarre, on the Susquehanna. Tho Shamokin field has been less ex- plored. Iron ore exists in nearly every county, and in the vicinity of Pittsburgh vast quantities are manu- factured. Beds of copper ami lea,5i>5; molasses, 60,1. i gallons; bees- wax and honry, 839,609 pounds ; wool, pounds pro- ducea, 4,481,670 ; ilax, &:I0,3(J7 ; silk cocoons, 286 ; hops, 22,088 ; tobacco, 912,651 ; hay, tons of, 1,842,970 ; hemp, 44 tons; clover uccds, 125,1130 buslicls; other grass seeds, 53,913 bushels ; flax seed, 41,728 bubhel)-; and were made, 25,590 gallons of wine. Value of home- made manufactures, $749,132 ; value of slaughtered an- imals, 18,219,848 Censm Report, 1850, Manvfacluret. — There were in the State in 1860, 136 cotton factories, with a capital invested of #4,671,015, employing 4'J83 males i>nd 4374 females, producing 69,632,000 yards of sheeting, etc; 5,308,561 pounds of yarn, va'ued at $5,812,126; 254 woolen factories, witli a capital invested of $1,776,268, employing 1747 males and 75o femules, manufacturing articles valued St (2,703,400; 178 establishments making pig iron, with a capital invested of $8,357,625, employing 9264 persons, producing 822,752 tons pig iron, etc., valued at $6,170,625; 320 establishments, with a capital of 13,422,924, employing 4783 persons, and making 57,810 tons of castings, etc., valued at |t5,354,381 ; 131 estab- lishments, with a capital of $7,620,066, employing 677) persons, manufacturiui'^ 182,506 tons of wrought iron, valued at $8,902,907 ; 2380 tlouring and grist mills, 2936 saw mills, 1640 taunerics ; 103 printing-offices, 328 newspapers, 25 daily, three tri-weckly, one semi- weekly, 275 weekly, eight icmi-iuonthly, 12 monthly, and two quarterly publicauons. Capital invested iu manufactures, $91,463,210; value of manufactured ar- ticles, ( 164,941,698. CttnL... — The State of Pennsylvania as early as the I'UBEIOM COMMEBOIi Of TUB RTATJE OT PknnBTLVAMIA rROH OCTODKR 1, 1820, to .]ui.T 1, 18S0, BHOWINQ ALSO TUE Die- TBICT TOMNAQB IN 1821, 1831, 1811, AND 1851. year 1791 initiated a system of inland water commu- nication. William Penn, it is said, first conceived the idea. In 1792 two companies were formed, to build the Schuylkill and Susquehanna, and Pelawaro and Schuylkill canals. They constructed fifteen niiica and abandoned the work. In 1821 the enterprise was re- nev/ed, and completed in 1827, when other works were started, and nccrly all the present canals authorized and their routes surveyed. The Slate has now 348 miles of canals, which cost $24,168,000, according to an e:tiiiiate considered to be under rather than above the mark. Private companies have built 485 miles cf ca- nal, costing 121,066,000. The Slate has therefore 1333 miles of canal, casting upward of $16,000,000. Be- sides these it has 2164 miles of railroad, which cost some $68,000,000. The totals of these important improve- ments added together, make 3497 miles, and their coat fcots up $104,000,000. Their value to the S.ate is not represented l;y their cost, for without them Pennsyl- vania would be a wilderness. They unite her to the Great AVest, to the southern part of our Slate, and to the great metropolis; and enable her to send h -r coal and iron to distant marts, enriching her beyond es- timate. The following is presented as a comparison of the anthracite coal trade of IVnnsylvania for two years : Kuding Kailroad SchuylkUl Navigation Co. Pine Grovo Little HchuylklU I.ehigh I.Bckawanna Wyoming Sbamokin I.yken's Valley Horanton Total Torn. 2 213,202 1,106,268 iie.«e6 437,550 1,2H,9«6 1,062,595 553,00U 122,500 112,000 6,020,283 Yon radlnK KiporU. Importi. Tonnag* rlMKd. Dlatriet Toonag*. i DomMtie. Poralgn. ToUI. Total. Amsrirao. Foreign. Reglilerfld. Enrolled and Licensed. 1 25.0St Sept 80, 1821 $2,832,387 $4,659,380 $7,891,767 $S,18S.922 69,436 8,611 59,295 1822 3,576,147 8,472,656 9,047,8i>2 11,874,170 70,846 5,745 .... 1823 8,139,800 6,477,883 9,617,192 13,006,770 75,630 e.ao.T 1824 8,I82,69'1 6,182.19!) 9,864 893 11,808,531 76.681 8.6:16 1826 8,!)S«,133 7,833,848 11,269,981 16,041,797 82 438 2,386 • . > . 1826 8,108,TU 6,178,011 8.331,722 13,581,779 69,414 4,446 .... • . . • 182T 8,891,296 4,184,637 7,575,883 ll,212,9Sr 68,753 4,097 .... 1828 3,116,001 2,!1.^').479 6.061, 4S0 12,884,J~" 61,819 5,880 .... 1829 2,61T,!a2 1,4T'.^7S3 4,089.936 10,100,152 52,841 4.628 1880 Total... ■ 4,924,462 I,)i67,a41 4,291,793 8,702,122 63,022 4 870 $.!1,873,782 $45,158,616 $77,032,308 $1.'7,088,580 090,367 46,616 8«pLS0,1831 $3,6;4.302 $1,919,411 ' 13,713 $12,I24,0S3 66,149 7,8!'6 51,203 29,226 1832 2,0C8,991 1,617,075 16,066 10,678,368 46,726 14,131 .... 1833 2,671,300 1,407,661 4,078,951 10,461,280 49,109 22.S78 • . • a . • • • ,1834 2,031,803 1,957,943 8,089,746 10,479,268 46,411 16,236 ... a 1836 2,416.099 1,323,170 3,7G9,275 12,8S9,937 67,(l8S 10,986 183S 2,627,681 1,343,904 3,971,685 15,068,233 49,670 14,349 .... 188T 2,566,712 1,275,887 8.841,609 11,680,111 48.188 18,284 1888 2,481,643 998 608 8.477,151 9,360,371 76.342 8,36!) 183!» 4,148.211 1,151,204 6, •289,416 16,f'60,7l6 64,818 13,381 1840 Total... 5,736,45« 1,(i83,fl,S9 6.820,148 8,464,882 72,288 11,340 $80,282,068 $13,968,648 ,+44,247,616 $118,747,208 671,!!86 156,989 Sept 80, 1841 $4,404,863 $747,688 $6,162,601 $10,846.68 74,201 9,822 62,267 1848 6.428,309 3!'4 0>4 6,732,333 12,147,684 7T,S70 20,218 .» .. 1849 4850.872 4'I2,64!) 6,343,421 10,616,61)0 33,822 27,008 ... a 1 . . . 1860 Total, . . 4,049,464 482, 14-.' 4,801.606 12,066,184 81,276 30.342 .... $42,916,201 $4,346,3.'>0 it47,260,581 $83,305,830 752,578 170,962 .... .... JllMtO,186l $6,101,069 $254,067 $5,356,036 $14.16^.701 102,128 3'^,081 01>,4'^6 214,943 1852 6,622,449 306,122 6,S2S 571 14.785,017 90,981 48,i'81 .... MM 6,256,229 272, 76 f 6 6:7,906 18,834,410 101,029 60,656 • • . • .... 1864 9,846.810 2b7,606 289,213 10,104,416 2I,869,,'I06 120,640 63 667 .... .... 1866 6,986,V.'5 6,274,338 16,309.935 U4,2<.a 35,720 .... 1866 7,043,4riH 189,164 7,282,572 16,690,048 112,087 81,246 1 Nine moDtba to June SO, and fiscal jmx begins July 1, 1848, ..^Siii':tL%3:~aM'^i:iSi$iLikiM^:A:i^'u^ PEN ISll PEN f.T,04« 214,948 Philadelphia, near the confluence of the rlvoin Dvla^ ware ond Schuylkill, in lat. 39" 67' N., loiin, 76° 10' W., and near the head of the Delaware Hay, Voanolii of the largest burden ascend the river .ta far a* Nuw- castle, but those drawing above 18 or 20 fcot of w.i)i' can not reach Philadelphia, on account of a bur u lit- tle bulow the city. The entrance to llio niuxiiillimiil bay formed by the embouchure of the Duluwiiru hud Cape May ou the north, and Cape Ilenlopeu oji Um south side. The commerce of Pliiladelphia lutH not kept pace with her growth in other rcspofta, oupocially in manufactures. The tonnage in 186U was l'J7,'.'l!H tons. — See Piiii.ADKi.riiiA. Krif, port of entry, is beautifully situated on Pre«((uo Isle Bay, on Lake Krie, covers one mile squiirn, and has one of the best harbors on the lake, the tliunnid or entrance to which has lately been much inipruvcd ; the Wuter is from 11 to 20 feet deep, and llie largest steam- boats enter without difficulty. There is a lighl-liouHii on the west side of the entrance of Prcsipiu Ulu lluy, lat. 42° 8' U" X. ; shows a lixcd light, elevated Oil fuH above the surface of the lake, and visible for a distaiii:ci of 14} miles. The beacon vas nut checked by metri •»: cxaclneKS, The measures were faulty throughout " welghrd In the balances, they were both founJI want- ing," The buses for cnleulntion in this ancient scale lieing Inuceiirute, no truth could be elicited by any in- creuHd of numbers— or quontities in progression. Some of the sliver pennli's of the early Brituns were nearly divided by tin) impression uf a cross, tlirough the mid- dle on tlio reverse, so lliey could bo broken into half- pennies, und nguln Into quarters, called " fourthinss," or farthings. This praill™ of simple division hod <'untlniied until sllve: iuilf-pennies und farthings were speelully niliiod by King .lolm, in WKi—jlrsI in Ire- land, where his principal Mint was. During the latter part of the reign of llenry ttio Third, of Kngland, "u penny" uf fine g(dd was ordered of the value of twenty pennies uf silver. The word " penny" hud Us deriva- tion from thu French "denier," the "denarius" of the Latins. The French title, shortened into "denny"by the Nornuins, wiis easily changed on the English tongue to "penny"— at lliiit lime a common term for money In geiHiriil, .if «lmtever metal it might be. Golden donlers, coined sparingly in France, bearing the figure of a lamb, were called (leniers d'ogncou, or montons d'or. During I lie rcl(;na of the curly Norman kings, their rents, though rnserveil In money, were unswer- u(| in Cttlllu, corn, und other provisions, because money was then si'ureo among the people. Coins of gold, named " nobles d'or," were first issued from the British Mint by Kilwurd the Third, in i:i44 ; but with so much difilciilty timt It wus thought necessary to order by law, "iMi one should bn Mii/rd to receive thom." It wus deel(le{| to prove the standard of the silver penny of our remote aneeniry, by Ihe approval of English and oilier coiitempomrles, in wheat corn grains from "the Old North Sl.ile of Caridlnu," .Six dillerent growths of the crop of IMTiil, intended for seed and consumption, seleiled III OeliiliiT from l«o proininent varieties, the red und llio while, eliooslng gruins of average quality, but perfeet fullness, were antagonized by a penny- weight Tloy of llin purest silver, specially prepared froiii sidnlion, fur assays of gold. No two samples of thirty-two wlnrut I'orn grnlns were found of the same welglil, f )f I'urly red— Mny w heat — from thirty-eight to forty and forly-llireo corns were reciuircd to balance the sliver jiieee, while of while wheat from twenty-eight to tlilrly-llvii nnil tlilrly-six grains cfiected the same purpose, showing U disproportion C(|ual to fifteen wheat grains In thu six |iarcels; that is, from twenty-eight to forty-three corns — a deviation in the value of a sil- ver penny equivalent to nearly one holf the standard weight. ' An act of Ilonry the Third, in 12fi6, explains Ihn primitive Initials of these ancient British, Gallic, and Uerman ttandurda, to all which one common derU PEN 1612 PEP vition is imputed. " By consent of the wholo realm, tlio measure of the king was made, that ia to say, an English penny of silver, called a sterling, rnund, and without any clipping, s'.iall weigh thii-ty-two wheat corns, talien from tho middle of I ho cai'. And twenty pence of silver do make one ounce. And twelve ounces of silver do make one pound. And eight pounds of silver do make a gallon of wine. And eight gallons of wine do make a London Ijushcl, which is tho eighth part of a quarter." This gen'iral arrangement for money weights and measures was that of the Eastern nations, by which Europe had lieen overrun. The term "oasterlln" of tho Norman French was trans- muted on the English tongue, first to " easterling," and llnally to " sterling."— Acjoor* of l>r. J. II. Gibbon, United Stotes Mint, North Carolina. Stt Pound. Penny-Post. First set up in London and its sub- urbs by a Mr. Murray, upholsterer, A.i>. ItiSl. Mr. Murray afterward assigned h's interest in the under- taking to Mr. Uoekwra, a merchant, ll!8:i ; but on a trial at the King's Kench bar in the n-ign of Charles 1 1., was n(\)udged to belong to the Dukoof York as a branch of the general post, and was thereupon annexed to the revenue of tho crown. — Dki.aink, KWO. This institu- tion was consiilurubly improved in and round Loiuloii, Jnly, ITM, cl seq., and was made a twopenny-post. A penny-post was lirst sot up in Dublin in 1771. — . 553 ; but some say not before (i.'io. tjuills are for tlie must part plucked with great cruelty from living geese ; lun' ill persons, from convenience, economy, and feeling, ought to prefer metallic pens, which came into use in WiO. — I'liii.i.ips. For tho manufacture of steel jtens tlic best metal, made from Danncmora or hoop (i.) iron, is selected and laminated into slips about threo feet lung and four inches broad, of a thickness corresponding to tho de- sired stifl'ness and flexibility of the pens. These slips arc subjected to the action of a stamping-press, some- what similar to that fur making buttons. The point destined for tlio nib is next introduced into an a|ipro- priato gauged hole of a little mochine, and jiressed into tho ticmi-cylindrical shape; where it is also pierced with the jniddlo slit, and the lateral ones, provided the latter are to bo given. Tho pens are now cleaned, by being tossed about among each other, in a tin cylinder, al)out three feet long, and nine inches in diameter; whicli is suspended at each end upon joints to two cranks, formed one on each of two sliafts. Tho cylin- der, by tho rotation of a fly-wheel, acting upon the crank-shnfts, is niodo to descrilie such revolutions as agilute tho pens in all directions, and polish them by mutual attrition. In the course of four hours several lliousand pens may be flnished upon this machine. When steel pens hove been punche of Malabar :s usually reckoned the best ; but there is no material dift'erence between it ond that of Sumatra, and the othe. islands. In the market of Bengal, where they meet on equal terms, the produce of Malabar is gener- ally about two per cent, higher than tho other. In Europe there is generally a dift'erence of ^d. per lb. in favor of Malabar ; but in China they ore held in equal estimation. Block pepper sold ground is said to be often adulterated with burned crust of bread. ]V?iite Pepper is mode by iilonching the finest grains of tho common black pepper bj- steeping them for a while in water, and then gently rubbing them, so as to remove the dork outer coot. It is milder than tho other, and is much prized by tho Chinese ; but very little is imported into England. Cayenne Pepper is the produce of several varieties of the Capiicum, nn annual plant, a native of both the Indies. The best is lirought from tho AVest Indies ready prepared, and is made from the Capsicum baccn- tum (bird pepper). It has an aromatic, extremely pun- gent, acrimonious taste, setting the mouth, as it were, on fire, and the impression remaining long on the pal- ate. It is sometimes adulterated with muriate of .soda; and sometimes with a very deleterious substance, the red oxyd of lead ; but this fraud may be detected by its weight, and by chemical tests. LongPepjier. — This species is the produce of a percn- . ' 'VSf^&Src-cr-Tsrfr ^ar ^ - PEP 1513 PEP ,' in an gcd of 3UU lio ling to ilefinite 1 wants present TKa »0B Aa». $472 ;i,6ST i.'rlO 16 .»156 tper; It. tlic berry ; an aro- oftsoning, t witli in S'(7i«;n''«" „ MereUa; \rihn). the Dno of llie 80 species, he Eastern ,1-t tr-jcs, to liciglit of lined to tlie t about the ventli; con- imd declines to be worth Vom all the to 5(1 grains; After lieing wlicn it loses jiveled as we lie stallis by hored at tlie plucked too 1 its removal t\¥0 crops in great irregu- |)ungent aro- istP, in largo _fiir of tlicse is shriveled, id will break ofMalaliar no material itra, and the [, whcro they .bar is gener- ic other. In ^ J. per lb. in field in equal is said to be lad. finest grains Ig tliem for a [hem, so as to ler than the |se ; but very .1 varieties of J of both the Iwest Indies lijtciini liucca- Itrcmely !>»"- li, as it were, Ig on tho pal- Kiateofsoda; Tbstance, the T detected by to of a peren- nial (Piper lont/um), a native of Malabar and Bengnl. pilncipally to Europe direct, in free traders. Tlie west The fruit is hottest in its immature state, and is tliere- coast of tlie Malayan peninsula produces no pepper, fore gathered while green, and dried in tlio sun. It ij I with tho cxceptioiiuf alwiit KtOO piculs atCurded by the imported in entire spikes, which are about one and a . territory of Malacca. On tho east coast of the p'eiiin- half inch long. It lias a weak aron)i'*"c odor, 'in in- 1 sula, tho production of pepper is very cnii.siderable. tcnsoly ilcry, pungent taste, and a dark gray color. | The ports of I'atanl and Calantan— cliietiy tho latter The re ti of long pepper is a favorite niediciuo among | — yl.ld about 1«,000 piculs annually, anii 'I'ringanu tho Hindoos. Tho quantities of the last three species i aba KWO. A portion of this is brought to .Singapore of pepper imported are quite inconsiderable, — Mil- 1 and Penang; hut we believe tho greater proportion niiKs'' Crienlat Commerce I Ais»i.ik'h J/a(tm /«(/ica; j goes direct to China In junks, of which three largo TiioJisDs's Difpemaiory etc, j ones l'rc(|ucnt Tringanu annually, and one Calantan. Trade in Pipper. — I'epper Is extensively used, all The Americans, too, occasionally visit these ports. In over Europe and the East, as a condiment. It was ; the year 1H21, tlirce vessels of consideral)le burden oh- originally imported into England by way of the I.e- j tained cargoes. Tlie east coast of tho (iulf of .Siam, vant; niid for many years after tho establishment of , from the lat. of 10^' to that of V>\° N., all'ords an e.-c- tlio East India Company it formed tho most important I tensive produce of pepper. This coast is scarcely article of their imports. In nothing has tho benelicial 1 known, even by name, to the traders of Europe. Tlio elTcct of opening the Indian trade been so unequivo- principal ports here are Cliantibun, Tungyai, Pong caliy displayed as in tho instance of pepper. The pri- vate traders have resorted to new markets, and dis- covered new sources of supply, which had hitherto been wholly unexplored ; so that tliero has been not only a very great increase in tho (piantity of pepper brought to market, but also u very great fall in its price, which iioes not now exceed a third part of what it amounted to in 1814 ! Suppfi/ of Pepper,— The following instructive details with respect to the supply of pepper ore taken from the soin, and Kunipop — tho first two being under the dominion of Slam, and the latter under that of Kain- boja. The whole produce is estiiiintcd at not less than 1)0,000 piciilr ; 10,000 of which are brought at once to tho capital of Siam as tribute to the Iting, and tho whole finds its way to C'liina in junks. It remains only to estimate tho jiroduco of tho island of Itorneo, The whole produce of Borneo is estimated at about '20,000 piculs; of which a largo share is carried to China direct in junks, some by Portuguese vessels ; and ainjapore Chronicle, to which they were contributed by about 7001) piculs are now annually brought by tho John Crawfurd, Esq., thin whom there can bo no more native craft of the country ilsolf to Singapore in tho competent authority as to such subjects. Of all the course of that free trade which is happily nourishing products of tlio Eastern islands, and of tho countries immediately in their neighborhood, in demand among strangers, black pepper is tho most important, both in value and quantity. Tho pepper countries extend from about the, long, of 96° to that of 116^ E., I)eyond whicli no pepper is to be found ; and they reach from 5° S. lat. to about 12° N., where it again ceases. Within thcso limits wo havo Sumatra, Horneo, the Slalayan peninsula, and certain countries lying on the at this settlement. The data which havo been stated will enable us to estimate the whole production of tho Malayan Arcliipelogo, including that of the peninsula ^f Malacca, and tliat of tho east coast of the (Iulf of Siam, at 30«,000 piculs ; and as there is no other part of tho world that affords pepper, excepting tlie western coast of tlic peninsula of India, and this affords but 30,000 piculs, or less than one-tenth part of what tlio places wu havo enumerated produce, we have, accord- cast coast of tho Gulf of Siuin. The whole produce of I ingly, at one view tlie whole production of the eurlli, the island of Sumatra is estimated not to fall short of i being SlJiHiOOO piculs, or l."p,Oi;fi, Total .Mi.OiHi.iiOo Imi'Outs or PErPKii into tup. I'.mted St.vths ion Tim VK.\R EMIINC, ,HfSE 30T11, I STXi, Whence imported. h IVjU'pr, tilncV, PoundF. I Vftliii Uamlinrg llnllanci I Dutch Wcft Indies Dutch Kasi Indies I'.n^land flritish West Indies llritiBh Toss, in Africa, . British East Indies Kranco on the Atlantic . Spain on tho Atlantic. Spain on tho Mcditcr'u, (Hiba I'orts in Africa Mexico Chiua,. 2,'29-2,'J71 9,224 3,0':S,Ufll 60 2T,154 Total I'l.TaT.HOU |$3lil. .'is!i)(i4 103,W>7 err. lOO.Ulft Hi Pi'l'lHT. rt-d. 919 i'tVsm 4,'.'.'i0 2,i.:);i7 ,'i,4(l(! ' ' fthi K3,144 790 iii.Vo.'S 118,741 1133 20R no 771 41C ' ' 81 1359 74 'l'o's7 iimi'i TER 1514 PER Perota, or Rod, a ton*; iiicnauro, 1 6^ fuel In longth, — See Wkiciiith and AIkami'iiks. ' .rfume (Kr. imr/um), a tvrm used td denote the \. ..lilo I'Ifluvia from any body affeotinK the orKan of ■melliii);, or the substance cmitthig those elHuvU. Perfumes were in Roneral use among the aneiunts (ace the Qmtrterly J/et-iew, vol. xxiii.) ; and in France, (ior- many, Spain, and Portugal, and even, though not to so considerable an extent, in Kngland, they are regard- ed almost as necessaries. In general they are made of musk, ambergris, civet, rose, and cedar woods, or- ange flowers, jessamines, jonquils, tuberoses, and otiier odoriferous flowers. Aromatic drugs, such as storux, frankincense, benzoin, cloves, etc., ei\ter into the com- position of a perfume ; and many perfumes are com- posed of aromatic herbs or leaves, as lavender, mar- joram, sage, thyme, etc. Feifumery. Many of the v.. res coming under this name were known to the ancients, and the Scrip- tures abound with instances of the use of incenses and perfumes. No such trade as a perfumer was known in Scotland in 1763. — Creech. A stamp tax was laid on various articles of perfumery in England, and the vend- er was obliged to take out a license, in 1786. At tlie comer of Ueaufort Buildings, in the Strand, resided Lilly the perfumer, mentioned In the iSpertaror. — I.Eioii, Some of the most exquisite of perfumes arc obtained from the most offensive substances. In olden times the most delicate perfumes were distilled from flowers, whose names they bore ; but chemistry has shown how to obtain them from other sources. To give one ex- ample, a peculiarly fetid oil, called fusel-oil, is formed during the making of brandy and whisky. Now this loathsome oil, ly a particular mode of treatment, is made to yield the .'-"grant oil of pears; by another process, oil of upplea; and by others, o.V if grapes and oil of c'lijnac. 'Hie oil of pine-apples is produced f^om sugar and putrid cheese. The oil of bitter almonds is a resultant from aquafortis and the oflensivc oils from gas tar. The dainty eaii de millejleurs is made I'rom the drainage of cow-houses. And in all these cases, there is not the same kind uf fraud which is |)racticed in ordinary adulterations ; for though the perfumes arc not actually, in the present state of things, produced from the flowers and fruits which give tliom their names, yet they are really idenlical^ or nearly so, in chemical composition with the original perfumes; na- ture mixes the ingredients in one case, man in the other, but the ingredients are tlie same. The passion for perfumes is increasing. Uritish India and Europe consume about 150,0UO gallons of handkerchief odors yearly ; and the English revenue from eaii de Cologne is about 8U00 pounds sterling a year. The total reve- nue from imported pcrfum-'s in England is estimated at a1>out .£40,000 sterling per i.nnn.n. The largest revenues of the estates on tlie borders of the Mediter- ranean arc those which proceed from the sale of the orange blossoms and Parma violets. The house uf Faguer, 83 Kue de liichclieu, and many of the other perfumers of Paris, pay a yearly sum, varying from 10 to 30,000 froncs, to the proprietors, for their whole crop of orango lilossoms or violets, fihefleurs de citri- onniar oft'aijuer is one of the favorite and most delight- ful odors used for scenting the pocket handkerchief. Feriodictd Publioationa. These, as the name implies, are publications which appear at flxed periods or stated intervals, and conse(|uently include news- papers, monthly and other magazines, quarterly re- views, and journals, and all sucit bonks as appear at monthly or other intcrvols. Hut the term " periodical publications" is usually understood in a moro confined sense, or as comprising only magazines and such polit- ical, literary, and scicntilic jounials as appear at regu- lar intervals, without including newspapers or works published in parts. Even when thus restrioteil, this Is a very extensive and important department uf litera- ture. No doubt a vast deal of trash gets into print l>y the agency of magazines that ndght not otherwito SM the light ; but moat part of these pulilications contain at the same time some superinr articles ; and a few ars ably conducted ami embrace a wide range of topics, SInco the establishment of the Edinburgh Heview in 1802, the quarterly journals, especially those that em- brace politics and literature, have risen to great emi- nence, and have hid a powerftil influence over the piili- lic mind. At present, however, and for some lime past, the influence of this class of Journals has been de- clining. An ably conducted daily paper is, at this moment, by far the nic.H powerful engine the press can bring into the fleld. — .svp NKwsrAPKiis. For further information refer to American Almanac, 1835, p, 97, 260, 188(!, p. !)2 ; A'ocM American Herieir, xxxlx. 277 (J. (i. Pai.kkkv); ^Southern lAtermij Messenger, ii. 808; West- minster Ueriew, I, 206, ii. •leS; Kdinburgh Keriew, x.xxviii. l)li»; ^tni;n'ra» Quarterly Observer, iii. 186. Femambuoo Provllioe. This is one of the most important provinces In lirazil. It abounds with many good harbors, and possesses an exceedingly fertile soil. Its chief staples are sugar, cotton, and hides. Of these its average annual exports from 1840 to 1846 were as follows: Sugar, 84,177 tons; cotton, 32,279 bags (160 lbs. each); hides, 72,500. The city of Pernambuco maintains the third rank in the empire. There are In this province about six humlred " cugenhos," or sugar estates, each covering about one square league. On each ciigenho are produced annually about fifty cases of white, and five of brown, or muscovado sugar — or furty tons of the former, and four and a half tons of the latter — equal to about 24,000 tons of white, and 2550 tons of brown, for the whole province. The prov- ince is estimated to be capable of yielding 896,800 tons of white, and 40,800 tons of muscovado sugar. Im- ports from the United States consist chiefly of cotton domestics. Fabrics of this kind, thirty yards In length, and twenty-seven to twcnty-eig!it Inches in width, are in demand, and bring niucli better prices than similar goods from England. Of late years the manufacturers of Lancashire have imitated these cloths, and have succeeded in sharing the advantages which the Amer- ican article had secured, in printed cottons Manches- ter and (ilasgow almost monopolize the markets of Pernambuco. The quality as well as the cheapness of their goods have secured this privilege. The import- ation of butter, hitherto almost exclusively in the hands of the French, might bo advantageously shared by the citizens of the United States. In 1!U0 the French Imported 41G0| firkins. " 1R41 " " 5549 " ]84'2 " •' BHIO " 1843 " " 70S1 " " 1844 " " 8962 " In 1840 were Imported from Crest Britain 448T " " 1841 " " 388!) " 1848 " " 8240 " " 1848 " " 40i2 " " 1S44 " " 3010 The productiun of cotton has diminished, owing mainly to the expense attending its transportation to market ; but the production of sugar has increased. From 1828 to 1831, the average annual export was l,G07,.')89 arrobas, and in the years 1841 to 1844 it was augmented to 2,083,212 arrobas; being an annual in- crease of 475,823 arrobas, or 0797^ tons. The num- ber of hides exported during the two periods of four years aliovc-named increased in a still greater ratio than sugar. From 1828 to 1831 the annual average export was 60,272 hides ; and during tlie latter four years, from 1841 to 1844, the same average augmented to 122,573 hides per annum ; showing an annual in- crease of 62,301 hides. It has already been observed that if the export duty levied upon the produce of Brazil transmitted to foreign ports were modified or repealed, a vast augmentation in agricultural produc- tions would unquestionably follow. While an export duty of ten per cent, on the weekly average price of And< 1828. 1829.. 1830... 1S3I... ISq-J.. 1833.. 1834... IKTO... 1830... 1837 . . . ISiiS... 1839... 1840. . . 1841.. 1842... 1843... 1844... i I8-«S..., Valce ( Value of In 1845: francs ; I ■'■'Y -^''T*" ■• "^, 7f>'" PER 1AI5 VM sugar contlnuea, am) a similar duty on cotton, coffeo, tobacco, rum, hidca, and, with one or two unlmporMnt exceptions, on all other articles produced In the coun- try, the producing interests must remain cripc'.v., and exportation) either continue to l)e stationary or de- crease, Tlie cotton and sugar-growing districts sult'tr most under these heavy taxes upon their industry and capital. The planters are obliged to carry cotton and sugar to Pernambuco by hnrse conveyance, a distance of from twenty to one hundred leagues, during the dry season, when food and water are dilficult to bo al)tain- ed. These charges ara snch, In addition to those im- posed by law, that when the planter reaches market his cotton hardly yields him sot four cents per lb, And so with his sugar, and all other heavy produce. The navigation and trade of Pernambuco in \Hii)' stood as follows: Inward from all nations— Vessels, 242; tonnage, 49,790 ^ value of cargoes, 14,186,075. Of which from tho United States : Vesselc, «5 ; ton- nage, 6U7 ; value of cargoes, |602,076. . ward Id all nations — Vessels, 226; tonnage, 48,6 i9; value of cargoes. H4,5B7,870. Of which to the \jnitcd Slates ; Vessels, 19; tonnage, 3216; value of cargoes, |2H3,4tiO. Uuring the year 1846 two United States vessels went south with cargoes ; two were sold, and four remained in port. This will, to a certain extent, account for the difference between tlio values of Imports and exports to and from the United States, as above shown. The vessels from the Unile(l States imported as fal- lows : Cottons 1018 pockagea Silks 8 AVoulens i>nd Bilks 1 " Flour 24,918 barrels. Do 043 halt-barrcla And on return voyage home, exported — 8uir«r 9,104 barrels. Do 20,4 1 bags. Total quantity of sugar produced and entered in the market of Pernambuco in tho years 1814 and 1815 : In 1844 AiTobas, 2,140,088 = Pounils, 63,6^4,027 In 1846 " 2,466,324= " 78,906,871 Of which were sent, in 1845, to the United Stales, 184,417 arrobas 26 l^s, = (ut 32 lbs. to arroba) 5,901,:il4 lbs. //i''»*' "Of'af •« lli* leading artl- r\a ill Ihi* imrkff, HlHi ii c*|(i(Hci, lo kiigland, Trieste, UuiioD, l'urliiiii«l, (liH iinnh iif k,in tre, and to the i;nlt- cd .Staliis. TliM niftti K*i«if(ii (,f eut,tt from llraiil art thus di»lrlNM (\mmtihiM ^Un poils of the empire. Tho e«put'ta fof IHIIilHK inUftt «sa b«8. i for calculation ! Veim. 1 Codon Sugar Hidei. 1929 Bau 70,785 (^,820 61,161 68,167 31,620 63,664 42,790 62,142 62,832 43,847 60,648 30,173 35,849 20,990 21,367 35,900 41,385 20,502 Arrobai. 1,460,023 1.40.1, .332 1,705614 1,799,98;-. 1,.')1)<,300 1,301,012 854.033 l,;i.31,8-8 1,82S,392 1,480,420 1,760,380 1,878.676 2,191,093 2,261,099 1.900.930 2,017,5-22 2,140,688 2,566,824 Number. 52,444 40,573 65,480 70,534 06,650 84,743 80,850 91,492 90,701 93,771 105.851 111,053 132,993 136.494 126,2!'0 104,423 124.074 103,935 1329 1830 IS31 1832 1833 1834 Iftjl5 1830 1S37 18;13 lSSi9 1840 1841 1842 1843 1344 1816 BahU. I'vriianilwm..,,. .,,,,,, Klu lllt,l»llu)rU..M ;.'.'.-.'; Tuliil kljii ^l() j(«(l«()il, li(i« " 4>i,m.iiiiii f*minH* T8Tiw3,4flrr 7IT (itot-jtit-e (if I'crnttmbtico amouiita l(j al«)|(t »II,WHI |((H fufniiiii M»((Hlfi(?i, MrtiO coastwise, and 15,000 ai-o mmmi f'tf ll«me mMm^aUm. There are ubuut 1000 eugeolm (*f ellutif Mlales, 2r.7 of which havu been cstuWI'illPlI HillllH (h« laH Ifn years. They average in ei^teilt ttlwHt iwe mmte (niic!<, and their crops vary from iOH turn m » iw«xliiiiim lo .SO as a minimum ; or »t »ll »V«f«jj« "C «''""' 'f' 'ens each. Very few cugoiiho^ (itttijow (//O slates, ntid the small- est not muie tli^ii }l) of (ijj Ihs ftVeMKn number of slaves eniploytil pii m'h Klj^fUhl) Is alitiiit 50, so that ,')0,000 may be sM to Iw Ufff CIHf/loted 1(1 sugar culti- vation. They Ufa hlV\\jf Ifcdlwl flOil Um\ worked. I'eriiomhuco }ini imitjf lif (l((< ptivjieges of a sov- ereign state; it Ims il^ fltm (ifpsldwt, provincial and niunieipal diaiitliBrs, ki,im « piiHUHI tit Its own taxes, ftiid maiiitttins a inilltJA wlilill mt dot he removed from the provinco, It i^itiU (mtf WHators and fifteen repre.-enutives (o tiio iMI(i»ri((l ^((VptHHiehl — elected, the former fur iifB, ah4 lllf kUff (iif hitt years, by al- most universal hot iHiliffift sHlttSgS; f he Imperial revenue levied willijli tl(»' fifgviiwe Hi I«i9-'.'j0 amount- ed to £542,423 ; ill JiJnrt-'nl U) £m,m j and as these sums are derived ijtl^lly ftlXIt itiipofia Htlit e.xports, and no additional liotius (iftv»i li^^lt iHHwsed, ilie increase is a proof of its lomMiBwiftl ((Wsffeflfi-.. the details of the latter year's B«lll»r»l rS¥PlltW *fiV« M follows : Duties upon lniport«,,,,,,,(i..i I <lts<'9 for potteries, saw-mills, cigar shops, »»#♦ f jijijiij cU'.- j iiptrh houses, leg- acies, inheritancfis, iil»v*!S, tlw lolil lA Witlges, etc., etc. ToUl amount in 185«)^'6I, £m,WI k, 1 he tntmiclpal I'EH 1514 rEK (kxi<» irn ilerlvtil tmm lliu utanipinK of wrii^lil* •uJ nionauri'S, liiTiini'.i lo piililio Iivln<'u ax lolliiwa : Impi-rlal laiet Mining* ProTlnrlal I}U Wl Municipal ,., tt.Hi* T()UI «Sl ;,«.« Of theaii aiinia iicnrly twD-lhlrdn arc nxiwinUil l>y the imporiiil (fovprnmcnl ; niid In thin la vWivHy to l<« atlriliiitcd tlio many attcinptH wliiili huvn l.ivii iiiad« by I'ornambiiro lo I'rci^ hcravlf from tlm iiii|><'i'ial !•««- ncceion; andlf lliu wcixlit ufa coiiiitrv't laMiliuii iiin) bo jiiilgeil of l)y ill rclaliiin l<> ihu luiiijliir of ii» iiihaii- itantK. the pruvliirp nf I'vrn.iinliucu i» an licavliy laxfl aa moat European atutcs. Tlio population n( tlx' prov Inco of I'onianiliuco amounlcMl, ncrorilliig lo Hii' lutt census, to IKMi.lCKi; of llieao li;),IU..' uru wliilf, itM 4ti iiiulullut'*, anil 137,1171 lilavka . ri()fi,702 wit.; frt'f, ami imx-il »w •liivcs ; l)l."),7l!) nialon, ami •.".a,l.i7 fiiimU'H. liul tl»i' population niuat liavo liitTeaBod conaiderably of Ittti; years. Pernambuoo, a clly ane, V 3 2.1 S.; longitude, 31° 52 W. I'opulalioM eslimaiti'J in 1852 at KlO.OfH). It coiisisia of tlio separate towiw of Ulinila. liuelfu, Doa-Vista, and >St. Antonio; the t'lM of which is on the main land, and Itio others lie kouiIi fi"om it on a succession of low sandy linnks, sei)afai.e4 by salt-water creeks and dillerent anus of the river, but eonnected with each other by two briontinue9 aloHij the whole coast fhnn Maranlmm, at a variable di$l»U(X' from tho shore, ond has numberless breaks, through which ships approach tho land. This reef, whidi h said to be of coral, " is scarcely sixteen feet broad «r vt which there arc but seven feet of water at ebb-tide. Vessels trading with Pemambuco should not, however. draw more than from fen to twelve feet of water.— BIiVnt's Amerimn Cnatl IHlot, 519. The harbor is de- fended by several strong military works, the priaejp,4 latino ^^^^l titmf IntUi^ tto llnrncn nn I |io tlrum. Tha II^L Immmk, ''» • >**f «l Ih* rntramc iotli<' biiilKir, hat a r»*».^*(WK (IkW. — /»»» I'd'iviNi r foreign fit/H \nt*U tttftn IhK Inifil Htatea ran iliaclmrgo ftiWt >4 HtHf Hint", liKh if desired, they inn prnteeil on wlillii ||«« ffmititKt*t III tiahitt, l!io dii Jaiii'iro, etc. 'Htufn Hfx mi innnnnten nihrra here, nil liiialneaa of iU#l I'»l4 t»init 'fMM rither In the liniteil .Slater or En- tgtimtt MftlU tufiiU in hand, • rommia^luii of 2^ per <'A'M(. t» fitn^tlfit VeKrN ntf grncrnily ■ hnrtcred I olli »«>«, ttrnfttiK #Hh Hftiir, (he chnrlin'r atipiilallng fur a nittrtl H»ftnf4 nitLitt. Ve««il» lotning out on ibeir imu Hn-iHttH Im*<> fieeft chnrlered hack this niiiHun as )tntf #« f» mtitit M li«g of ICiO Itm. I dually, however, I^A' (fttinH imtgn Inun 80 certs to (ll per liag. Thero U MM (*•(«*•« liittf Ift exihiingn beliveeii this port and timt'MftH *f*»e», i**eepl the few whaliTi' iliafl.s that a*'« ^>ttt>ittti^ Mt itiitn (wo lo twelve (K'niiit. di.«ount. '\'itH^it\wi4 i^ Milreia is jjoverni'il liy tho alateof ex- i'Uittttu' 141 ^>t!lan'l. 'Ihe principal airticles imported Ifimt hIm i mini Sfst^s ««• Hour ntid ten. Tlie former |>«^« « liut^ i49> itiWtfX* (>t\ /lO) per barrel, and tlie lat- %i.f tmfVlHtHt^U (MH'fiii*! |*r lb. ; hainji pay tiOrcis (^3 lieDtD) fnif (*< j tnlt\ tobacco, soap, ami aiiutl". Wines •■'I'l ^i4^Hf/tt (rt»y f) itttl^ a rnnadn (1^ gallons"); ."lU . t-ttt*. iti M^tilttm (If (hU, 'n levied on enc h pipe for w hat liM tkf-t*f imitn ' eharilable purposes. ' Ciguis pay ./iu*ii(*fii'ftH(lll, (obscco. I cent per lb. ; Hoap, U cents iiHtUt 'ttii* '«.« »flec(a the I'niled Slates only in to- !a»h»w#Wii1 o««ff.— f Ww/nr Ht turns /nr the Cnited Slalei, Wsny, h fnt,yi'itini Jif|nor made from pears, in Iho ntDti- M/tMii*t MK cMer from apples. Tlie pears ln-st fititA'j (/4 j/tmitititiK (his li<|'U>r are excciiliiiyly har«h itMt'tft . tmf k U itself pleafftnt and wholesome.— .See 90fU, f* iff Mir of South America, between hit. :i ' r, m4 tV i*' f*.. Atid long, f.8" and 81" 20 W. Area, ffit>/IHti stfUittn tH}if!>. Pern is bounded north by F.i iia- >)f>f, ti#H t/j^ titw.ii, sonthcast and south by Ilolivia, ^)4 »**(l t'j' Ihf IVtfic f >(ean. Its const reaches from lb« tttfUHU'tif thti Uk> Tiimbez to tlint of the I.oa, I'-'IO n/Hn. mtiid^i lAtltll. All the moiiiilninsof Peru form ^mn iwf'J)*' Uti'lll i-lmin (cordillcra') of the Andes. From t'i>rm, JM IMMm,- it Is separated into two clianif— that '/f Attl'tiMMI'i which rms frfrm th" en^t lietwccn the prov- U»v*f4(''Ktlthit^l» artrt Azangaro, in the department of l'iH))f,Mm1 thtlt whiefi rnns to the we.st I'lrougli Tama, Mmi(*>'|^W#, K*i4 AtHf«ipn. Ilcth reunite afterward near Hhfttity i4 (ttKHf Itttd again separate, tlw one running O) Itm ftttsi (4' ffc* (ptwinces of lliianin and I'arnia, and (itf i4it*f (fi thf *e«( of those of (a.-itrovireyim, lluan- ♦ ayHk*, mfi tltrntfrhm, rcnniting thcinselvcs again in l'*<«>M t'ti/tn Paiico three chains detach theni.selves — ttttt Hi(M*tihi >*»*een (he Rio fluallaga and the Pa- ki>itt%f fh* /'•ftttill one between the (iunllaga and Iho I'p^M-fMnHtfintt.- Xtlii (he western one between llie lat- Uf itt*4 Utf nm*i of Tmjtllo and Paita. These several liMt^ W#«M* in (he province of l.oja, in Ecuador. 't^lti 4if»'>iiiitx\ f/« Paz, the latter in Bolivia ; i)( (l'f#/wi Ui (h* wiuth of (he city of Cu/co; of I'lcyes nf JmiH i t(n4 f4 f,«nricoeha, in tho department of JuniH,. (/#*<* filifKfH has A periphery of ninety leagues, *fl4 >h#« (4 imitt of (en leagnes. The other two are PEtt 1517 PKR tntaller. In that of Laiiriioiht llin ttio Marinnn liaii Ita lilrtli ; in that of .liiiilii, the llin .liii^ii, whlih ninii intuthe llniyali ; ami In thiit ofl'ltliacn, the hisuKua- (Ii!rrf(.unKlli')i, imllrl), whh h uniptlo* intu thci l.ukn uf I'aritt, In tlu' Ui-pulilic of llullvla. Thu rlvcrn of IVrn lluw, auin« to thu I'uclllc tjrciin, othvrM Into tho Anin- zon, an I.iiku 'litlrani. Th»«u llint comply Into thii I'ai'IMo am Ihr Tunilx'/, C'hira, Sei-hura, At:- qiiltiipmiuo, Nafla.Vlru, Mantu, I'lituvllra, lluuiiru.CliK- lun, Uliiiri'', Mala, CaOcti>, I'oaro, Oconu, I'umunn, (Juki- I'U, Tanilvi, uxA Ixm ; and thunn HuwIuk '" thii Anm/.on art: thu I unKaraguit ur Maranoii, which takna thu nunii' of Aiimi'.oii at U.4 conllniinro wlih tha Icayull, tho tin. allaKH, thu ri'uyiill (I'ormcd ly tho rivers I'licliltea, Apurlnino, nnil lloni), iinil the Uiu Yavnri. Thu min- eral roaoiirci's of I'orn, llko those of Mfxiio, aro ini'X- haustililc. Tho very name of thu country is osauiialiMl In llin niinil with iJeus of Kuhl and silver Ik.iidcs thu procious niotals, howuvur, tho rountry proiuics coppur, tin, iron, •oal, aaltpctru, utu., in almndancc — the latter, under the name of nltruto of sudii, has liucomo nn iiii- porlant export. The ai;rlcuUural staples of tho coun- try nro snuar, rico, In lU'co, etc., which grow in tlie warmer situations ; the -inu, wheat, etc, in tlin mild- Ot'. l'(ilnti>«s aro cultiviilitd in all parls Mniito is cnl- tlvalod, and is thn eonnnon did ■>( the people. Medic- inal plants, druKs, and dyu-stuD's form n larK« |>art of thu exports, and soniu of tho liiud woods alionnd in tho forests. The Cincliuna, ur rvruvian hark, Is iiMlif;en- ous to llio country ; it grows at tho elevation of 10,000 or 12,0011 feet, and aliouiids most in thu northern prov- inces. AmoUK tho wild animals of I'eni are Ihn puma, tho nlurnnca (a specius of ti);cr), th(> acumuri (a hlack bear), and ureal varieties of deer, wild iicars, armadil- los, etc^ Thu llama, alpai n, Kuanuco, vicufla, etc., are tho most valuable anlin.ila. Kour variulies of condor arc indij{cnous, Uf acclimated animals tlio slioep has aiicceedcd best, and goats, hogs, etc., thrive well. In tho mountains cattle and hursks lind a con^^cnial cll- iiiote, but on the coast speedily pine ond ili. away. Thu wool of I'eru is among the beat in thu markets. The p(ditieal divisions of I'eru consist eleven depart- inonts, and two provinces colled " I' .toroles," Tho dc- partmenia aro aubdlvlded into sixiy-ono provinces, tlie provinces into districts, and thoc. into parishes. The government, civil and oconomicul, of each department ia in charge of a Pre'ect, dependent directly on tlio President of the Uopublic ; that of tho provin » is in charge of .Sub-prefects, dependent on the I'ret'd -i; that of thu districts is in charge of Governors, and that of parishes is in charge of Sul>-govcrnors. Tlio depart- ments anil tho population iu IH.VJ were as follows : ntpartmenU. PopuUtlon. AinBi.onas 4!t,074 . Ancach 219,14."!. Arcqulpa 119,111(1 Ayncucao 13'2.9'il . (■U7.ro 849,718 . IIiir.iicBvollea 70,117 . Juiilu 2-."i,940 CaiiiUU. . . ('liuL'ImiJoyaa. . . lliinniz, . . Arejiuipn. . . Jlimnmitbn. . . CllSOO. . . Hllanrnvellca. . . CciTo tie I'uaco. . . ■I'niJlUo. . . Lima. . . Tiicns. . . I'uno. I.ilKMtiiil 'J0il,.'63 . l.lnm iBi.Sol . Moqiicgua fil 4:V2 , I'uno 'jMiiill . rrovbicia l.ittorul de Calluu 8, IBl I'rovincia I.lltornl ile Piuru. Til.naj Total population 2,l(Hi,4U2 The most eastern parts of the departments of Ama- 7.onas, Junin, Ayacuclio, and Ctizco have not been well explored, and arc inhabited by diverse tribes of savage Indians, for whoso civilitiation dillcrcnt nussions have been established, and to whom belongs entirely all tlic territory to tlie cast of tho L'coyali, and where tlie Pre- fects of the departments above-named do not exercise their authority. Peru is an integral republic. Tho Constitution, which was finally settled in 1839, recognizes legisla- tive, judicial, and executive powers entirely separate and independent of each other. Tho legislative power ia vested in a Senate and Assembly, chosen by the peo- ple through eWloral rnlK^ca ; thu deputies are appnr* lioiieil Iu thu ratio of one to uvorv 'jn.iHiO inhabiianla. Tliejuilirlary Isappcdntrd by thn ('resident, and Juilges are not rcniovuldu except forcunae. Tliu Cunslltulinn provides for auli-Judiciaries, having aoparaln ipiallrira' tlona, fur ileparlmcnla, districts, towns, and pariKhea. The executive power is delegated |o a I'n-sldent, whoa* torni ia alx years. Thero la no Vice-president, but th« I'rcaldent of tho lixicutivu Council anppliea the placa of President in case uf tlio removal. Inability, or death of that otlicer. The Cuuncil conaiats o, thn Ministers and luenibura of the Senate. Tho eslalhlshod religion is tho Konian ('alliidic. The Church la presided over by an Archbishop iind several aull'ragans. It la im- mensely rich. Tho Inipiisilion has been entirely alioU ished liiroiighuut tho licpubllc. I'uru was cuni|uered in I'lil-J by the Spaniards, under Pizarro and Almagro, and remained a colony of .Spain for lu'iirly threu hundred years. Tlie independcnco uf till! country was procbiimnd at l.iuia, 'iHth Julj, IHJl. Siniu that period tho following parlies have cxenised suprcniu power I Oenoral San Martin, to 21st Septoin- bur, iMJi; tlienco a".lunta (iubernatlva," conipinod of (leneral l.ainar and .ScAora .Saia/.ur-y-Uaipiyano and Aivarudo ; thcnco (icnural Don tloso du la Kiva Ague- ro, as President, tOtluly, IH'.'II: tlieuce .losu Uornardo Tagle; thence Cieneral Simon llollviir, to July, 1HII5; thence a "Council of (iovernnieut," to the end of IM'Jfl; Ihcncu (iuncral Uulivar, as I'residont; thcnco (ieneral l.auiar, as Conatltutionul President, to Juno, IKH); ihi'iicc Ciuneral Uamarra, to IH.K\\ thence General Or- begosip ; thence (icnernl Salaberry, as "Supreme Chief," to iHlllit thencu (icnural Saiila Cruz, to 20lh .lanuary, 18^10: thence (tcneral (iainarra, to Novem- ber, 1H11 ; thence Sefior Menendez, to August, \H\i; Ihoiice Vidal, i'igucroia, and Yivanco, aucceSHively, to 1844 ; thence .Menendez (restored t, to 1st April, 1H15; thence (Jeneral Kuiiion Castilla, to 1st April, 1851 ; and thence General llulinoKchenique. the present President. Thu liillowiiig Is a statement of the public debt of Peru, as given by SiTior li. Kscobar do llcdoya, attache to the Legation uf Peru at I'aris, 211th October, 18.JJ ; Loans on tho fuiirs-ni«l-u-half In Koijlauil $13,000,000 Ji;2,000,000 l/iaiH on the tlircu |ier cents, in Kii- KUnil 8,rjlfl,(10n 1,700,000 Interior iletit 23,'.'no,onO Debt to (hill 2.000,1100 Debt to tlie liepubllcs uf Olil I u- luoibia _ 11 00,010 Total *.'■» 1 :"iO.0«« Tlio deposits of Chincha alone arc worth three hundred niillions of dollars ^piastres). TheChinclia and Lobos Islands, olVtlio coasts of Peru, aro of iniiii- nso value to the country, on nicount of their guano ilcpiolts. Tills sulistance is the most ]ioleiit of fertilizers, and until lately the islands above-named were tlio only sources whence it was derived. According to a report made by Sefior Villa in 1812, the deposits in tlieso islands were estimated to be 411,(1,12,280 tons. Assuming llio consumption to be llOOOOO tons a \rar, valued it ijiiO a ton, it would produce ^(1,000,000 annually, ami reiiulre 1(10 years for its total consumption. This resource has bccii an clllcicnt aid to the national treasury, and has luude Peru the moat apparently prosperous of all llio South American lepuliiics. Tho exports in 1852 ninounted to 220,.')00 tons— :!2,000 of which went to the Initcd Stales, and the remainder to Franco and En- gland. — ■<'<'« article Gi ANO. According to a treaty between Peru and the United States signed July, 1857, it ia agreed that tliu permis- sion to the whale ships of the I'nited Slates by the treaty of 1851, to barter or sell their supplies and goods to the valuo of two hundred dollars, ad valorem, with- out being obliged to pay port or tonnage dues or other imposts, should not be understood to comprehend every kind of merchandise without limitation, but those only that whale ships are usually provided with for their long PKU 1.518 PER va.viKM. Th*l in ihe ««ln, tiik- InK. cotton, prima, ■liirlliiK>, >alliir»' iIkIIiIiik uI all kinda, map, aluih, lioota, aliora, anil liroKMiia, axai, liatcliata, lilai'iilt of avrry kiiiil, flour, laril, luiltnr, rum, \mtt, pork. •|wriiiaci<(l anil coinpoalllon I'amlloa, can- vaa, rap«, tobacco. The prin'ipal (lorta at l'«ru an I'alla, .Han .U>ti, iluancliaro, Lallan, lalav, Ariia, anil li|iiii|ii«. Thrav an porta of entry for furciKn coininrrc*. Tlipro iirf other porta o|M>n to tliii loaatinK trailc, ami for tlio ox- portalion o( Ihu pnxliicA of Ihit country. Tlieae aru Vio, (^linla, I'iai'ii, lliiaclio, Caania, i'araaniayo, anil Tuinlwt, anil tha amall harhura o( Sriiiura, Naniano, Hanta, Nupe, lluarnira, ICi'lionli|Ui>, Cliancay, An on, (Jvrro, Azul, Clilnca, (!ancato, Naaca, (^illca, Cucotea, Morro lie 8ania, and Piaa'pi*. Tha coninii'ri lal ralatlona of the I'nlted Htatea with I'oru aro rrKulalx'l l>y the trt-aly already cited, lioar- iuK data ,luly 'Hi, IH&I, and liy ainli decreoi and orilara •a ara iaauod from limn to time liy the Suprcmu (iov- ornmimt of thai repulilic. The trraty Kuaritiiteca en- tim lilwrty of coninierco and navlt;ation, and perfect reciprocity Iwtwoen Ihe tlaga of Ilia two countrica in tliu jHirla of tha other. The trade Iwtwecn the two nations (Ceruviaii ({uano excepted) ia nol, however, very cxii imive, aa ap|. ira (Vom tbo official relurna of the I'nlted .Statca Treasury Uopurtment. lieforo entering into the detaila of Ihe commerce between the I'nlted Hintesaiid I'cru, tlio fol- lowing summary uf tlie ((cnernl forel({ii trade of that re- pulilic ia given, with a view lo ahuw the relative rank iuld by the I'nlted Staloa and other nutiona in that trade. The flgurea are derived from the official rctunia of the Peruvian government fur the ycara IH&I from all natlona, and In IHril and lHri» from the rnileI7,NIIN Toul riit,*6i,6flr lia,iM5.n5 111.173.210 It.MlS.OUU t40,l4)l,M2 AiUclM. "laij. ' tail. ia63. Toxttleaof allk TeXlleaiif linen Toxtllcaofcutton Textlleaofwoul Hold and allrer ware. . KrulU »78«,nTB 234,743 2,754 343 2,4I'3,H4 Callao »(<.3I7,920 891, 09S 1,370.492 330,228 •i;30.439 2».s,078 *0,n76,474 8tiO,l70 1,-IM,.15S 2;ir).746 lH0.73-t 163,919 20,494 Arlca Uliy Man .Toad Palta Lorcto Total I||9,44T,465 $fl,0ST,>i»8 llalan>'e of fbreign trade in favor of I'eru, during Iheaxthreeyeara, 9I2,'.{IK),1IA. T'he nunilier of veaaela employed In tha ateam navigation of I'ern iai alx ateainahipa belonging to the liriliah mail Una, which ply aeml-nionthly between Valparalao and Pan- ama. The aggregate tonnage of thean alx ateamera la SMMt lona. There ia alao a auventh aleainar o' MM) tnna on the aaine line, One IVrnvian ateamer, ntTM tona burden, coaala regularly between Callao and Val- paralao. Thelwo Inllerareacrew-propeliera; the other alx have padille-wheeia, Tho merchant marine of I'cru 111 \M'i conaiated of iiino ahlpa, with an aggregate of ni'.l4 tona; ten barka, meaauring In all 4150 lona; and eight bflga, of ItMl tuna; making a total of twenty- aiiven veaaela, with an aggregate of UOill tona. Thetnlal iiiunber of Pcruv un veaaela employed In Ihe coaaling trade during the aanie year waa HI, with an aggre- gate of I4,7ll.'i lona. The number of aeamen engaged in thia aervice^a about 'lll«i|, of which '.'■>■('■, nr aimSAl. Mnrii«in>iii mmBTin into and ■iniiTin rinii I'lin in IUI. Ti>nt. 1 iM.nuo 10,201) 4,000 8,100 Vi,400 4, -100 eno luiiii'cr ft'"! Tcrctl »t <^'''" 1 16'.>.34l ll(H,Kl8_ liaactions at Tiro set forth biisul of tho '~'i;»«iilff4N mm iKiilral .VrmrlM Au»lrall« llolUU HritiU Hiinnoa Ayrai . . China rhlll llifttinitrk H|»lri K(|(lii ))cr ton -that Is, at the cost attondini; its sliipnieut. The ttveruu;u rate of freljihts to tho United States during the year past (lH,"i,')) hiis been $22 per ton of 22 10 lbs. This niuih of the prod- uct of guano goes into tho haiiils of our ship-owners, who carry nearly all of it to tho I 'nlied .States, ami part of it to other places, from Callau and the C'hincha Isl- ands. No prohibltionsexist, in fiiit, upon imports; but arms and munitions of war are dinicult of introiluction during revolutions. Powder is strictly pruliibited. The general trade regulations aro liberal. Goods lie in hond at tlio option of tho mercliant ; paying only, aft- er tho first month, storage and labor, until entered for consumption, or else exported abroad, and then no charges further. There are at present no dilVercntial or discriminating duties on any foreign vessels or itoods. A quarantine exists in tho caso of coolies from China, ■who usually arrive sick ; and this district, during tlie last thrco years, has become subject to fatal epidemic feyei ', etc. United States capital is employed in the lee trade, and in repairing ships ; In the humbler trades, and ill commonc, and upon the piibllo works. Tho Kngllsb ul present enjoy the largest share of the Im- port and export traile; but the activity iiiid intelli- gence of all coiiimi'reiiil imlluiis aro ociiipii'd in seeking I. iliare, ami the tendency Is gradually toward a more liml parllcipntiou. Crude wools are largely exported; but the high duly on lliem in the United States throws nearly all thnt trade into Kiiropc, mostly to KnglaiKl, wliere wool Is free niidcr the tiirilV. Of late tiny have been paying gooil pruDts. This remark np|ilics also to tho barks of I'eru, ond to copper. The bar silver exported all goes to lOiigiaiiil, because there is no direct steam coin- muiiication willi tlie I'nlted States. Some supplies of wheat. Hour, and other agricultural products begin to lie impurted into this consular district from Califor- nia, such as barley, potatoes, etc. ; and about 2t>W Ibisks of quicksilver, valued at nearly $100,000, have been imported during Ibis last quarter. Wlinio ships, wliile cruising, cull at times for refreshments, and to change their crews. The agricultural industry of the country has been obstructed by the liberation of tho slaves in IHoo, to replace whom Chinese coolies aro being imported. .Such laborers are also now being employed by the government at the I'hincha guano islaniis, near I'isco. The army of I'eru employs about 7000 C'liolo half-breed Indian soldiers, tho tendency of which politv Is to hinder population. There is a per- ceptible increase in tho numlier of Americans in this consulate — seamen, artisans, and tradesmen, who come to reside. Nitrate of soda is largely exported — at least a million and a half of quintals annnally, valued at $2 per 100 llis. ; a considerable part of which goes to tho United States. Dry and salted hides, ami straw PER 1520 PER hats, arc exported in small quantities. Tlio circulating currcijcy of Peru, representing silver, and now tlie only money in common use, is lielow the nominal standard about three-eighths, or 37} per cent. The rate of ex- change fluctuates from five to fifteen per cent, on the dollar. Tlie dollar of Peru, in invoices of export to the United States, is now usually valued at from 80 to 85 cents of United States currency, The Peruvian dollar, of pure silver, not in circulation, U wftrtli aliout 87| cents of United States currency. Gold coins of Peru are not now seen in common use. Patriot doub- loons pass current at $17, and of lato are worth 3 per cent, premium, and but few to be obtained." J'aila. — The chief staples of export from the port of Paita arc straw (Panama) hats and Peruvian bark. The exports consist chiefly of cotton manufactures, of iron, and assorted sundries. The ofliciul navigation returns for this port, for a period later than 1S52, are not at hand. There entered from uU foreign nations in that year 185 vcs.sels, with an aggrcgote of G1,(J21 tons ; of which theio were from the United States 42 vessels, measuring an aggregate of 10,2ul> tons. The direct trade between the United Stales and this port is limited, owing to the facilities aftbrded in tho coasting trade between this point and Callao. Arim. — Tho staple exports from the port of Arica arc tin, copper ore, Peruvian bark, and alpaca wool. AVith the exception of the latter, all these exi)orts are of Bolivian produce. Indeed, tlie port of Arica is mere- ly a transit port for Bolivian produce and trade. Ow- ing, however, to some misunderstanding between the governments of Peru and Bolivia, which resulted in tho imposition by tho former, in 1853, of 10 per cent, duty on the produce of tlio latter passing tlirough this port, this transit trade is now conducted through the port of Cobija (Port La Mar), the only port open for foreign commerce in Bolivia. Tlic imports from the United States arc cotton domestics, blue drills, chairs, and shoes, on which last-named article a duly of 40 per cent, is levied. Iquiqiie, — This port possesses a harbor safe and com- modious, and is well protcctod by the island of Iiiuii 28 67 64 82 7.717 17.379 19,042 9,740 1863 19^4 Wdli (first all montlm). — Vn'tted Slalea Cnmmercial Ilelationt. No deposits of guano which will at all compare with those of Pern seem a: yet to have been discov- ered, although most cxtons' te explorations have been prosecuted ; nor has science yet succeeded, though in- ventive skill has beon tasked to the utmost, in mann* facturing a substitute which would supersede the use or lower the price of the Peruvian fertilizer.— <$<« G u amo. •:fVr-:,t'ji:.^^ '■vt.":rf^'--jf/rr y; PEB 1521 PER 17,379 19,042 0.740 lU compare leen discov- liavo been tbougli in- I, in manu- .j the use or -iSmCjuako. \tU9 •DdlDg Sept. 80, 18%. 18i6. 18!I. isas. ISW. 183U. CoMSino* OF rni Umitib Statos with Pbbu nou OoTOnn 1, 1824, lo Jolt 1, 18B«. ' *"** Uulli oD .ad « |>.clt. 'f"'*'' I Toul. Eiport.""! ImiKirt. Totftl.. $:i{>:i,85t 278,7^4 202,044 159,S.S» 01,549 S2,4U0 Sept 80, 1331 is;w 18SS. . . . 1834.,.. 193.'5. . . . 18,10. . . . 1S37. . . . 1838. . . . 1839.... 1810. . . . Total... Sept. 80, 1841 ... 1842. . . . 9ni0B., 1843*... Juoe 80, 1S44. . . . 1846.... 1846. . . . 1847.... 1S4S.... 184>.... IbSO. . . . ToUl. . . June 30, 1851 1852 1853 1S64 IS.W ia'>e $1,124,863 $8,600 7,126 42,767 00,757 163,803 $322,078 $14,058 88,424 192,'!)73 124,flH 9.i,105 _26'i,!'33_ $717,207 $240,700 833.794 6.57,310 051,707 766,8.'3 1,151,232 Fora ign. $!74,1.44~ 281,176 7ii,o7r 1011,566 110,015 S,>,40S $986,774 $7,616 10,834 16,'u»6 ' 918 11,601 S»,I>3I $734,7. 8 60^,890 273,021 S59,044 211,157 71,808 $S6,686 $2,754 8i,'65":i 16,7.n 18.041 _lflJ8_)_ $8.-1,874 $22,338 22.044 40,261 83,.|48 114.228 84,091 $2,000,627 $ie,lT6 17,1)00 P3,'863 ' sii's 111,358 208,30,» $408 674 $10,807 S3,4'.'4 227,537 14I.:U9 in,23« 27t).728 $8 .6,081 $272,008 ;iK>,842 J.577 6-*, 155 870.510 l,24l,2'i3 $840 883 71:5, li:4 1,035,402 04:1. I9J l,l)l'4 458 _ 072^884_ $"),0a8,08F $917,788 72 1,018 654,030 618.412 1,118,278 155 831 000,418 683,437 242,818 4 iS,4!'8 $5000 $6000 $0,4lJO,2.iO $524,376 204,708 13;>,5(i3 184,424 830.112 262 509 390,223 317,759 440,953 170.763 $2,069,580 $04 733 004 S'.i2 173.441 1,005.406 697,018 217,7.59 $323,167 408.022 6J6,7S8 6.' i,8,0 002 1179 6.11,521 $3,220,6!7' $331,711 106.122 1S2.M72 208,201 600,877 38,20;l 440.11)9 104.876 87,010 140 621 $2,49"i7nr $120,161 141180 84,441 21,880 18,221 «,««) 82,520 67,991 17,408 11,260 $838,711 Tmuft tlMKd. Aiuarlew. Y,019' 8,171 2,4M 2,314 749 732 12,839 628 72 78 686 1,221 1,074 1,010 607 $344 3000 bnoo 7000 .t075 10,670 6,liU4 440 404 735 291 1,208 2,732 6,011 10.382 21,7,50 18,020 5,179 03 240 1, 1 SiB 8.5.151 5l,Ii0l 6:I2 i4l9 ,201 ,340 11,011 18,610 11.381 37.410 811,686 25,877 20,107 * Nino montba to June 80, and the fiscal year from this time bcglni July 1, Ic A treaty of friendship, commerce, and navif^ation exists between the United States and the Kepublic of Peru, the tarms of which treaty are adlicred to in good faith at the porta of Peru ; and although questions some- times arise in police cases regarding seamen belonging to American vessels, the authorities assist readily in ar- ranging such questions as they occur. The present ex- isting regulations are fixed and definite as regards com- merce. Changes in parts of these regulations are made by decrees issued by the President and Congress, when that body is in session, and by the President and Coun- cil of State during the recess of Congress, as required by the public exigencies. At present (August, 1856) the government is undergoing the process of a revision of Its fundamental laws, now being made by a convcn tion of deputies elected from all sections of Iho country, and holding its sessions in the hall of Congress at t'uu city of Lima. There are no privileges permitted to the commerce of other nations which arc denied or not al- lowed to the United Stales. There are no restrictions imposed on the commerce of other nations and not on tbat of the United States. But a line ot eight lino British steamers, carrying the mails and running be- tween the ports of Panama and Tulcahuano, under the provisions of a postal convention existing iictwcen Great Britain and Peru, are exempted from all tonnage du- ties and port charges whatsoever in the ports of Peru, in consideration for the transmission of the mails of Pern to and from the various ports of Peru at which they touch in making passages to and from Talcahuano and Panama. The whaling vessels of the United States, also, are allowed certain privileges in the port of Tum- bez and all the open ports of Pern, in virlne of the treaty now existing. Some question has been mi^de by Peru as to whetlier this privilege should allow whale ships to avail themselves of Its provisions In one port only, while on a cruise, or at each or any port or ports, and every time they visit such port or other port or ports of Peru. The amount of the port charges made npon the vessels of the United Slates in the ports of Peru is as follows, nanielv ; Tonnage dutv, 26 cents per "61) ton; anchorage fee, $8 on vessels to Oalluo only; anch- orage fee on vessels to Callao and the (,'hinclia Isl> and) is $4 more, making $12; inspector's fee, $4 26; custom-house fee, $4 25. The various stamped papers cost from $5 to $12, according to the operations made by the vessel. There are no light-house dues nor any light-ljouses, and no hospital money is exacted. T)ia tonnage duty is only payable in one |)url, and only once in six months. There arc no gillols nor any pilot system In Peru— the noturo of the ports rendering pi- lots unnecessary-. National vessels that measure leu than 200 tons do not pay any tonnage duty, but pay the other port charges. National vessels over 200 toni r.; 1854, at a rate of increase calculated upon that for tin. ! ten years previous to 1850, 496,500; which rate ais.V gives 603,927 as the papulation in 1858. In 10 years, 1848 to 1868, the number of inhabitants entered as tax- able Increased from 64,380 to 103,979, a rate exceed- ing Ave per cent, per annum. The principal harbor li on the Delaware side, at the east, where the river front fur five miles has a depth of water at the wharf line of from 20 to 57 feet. The foreign commerce is exclusively on the Delaware, but the Schuylkill, which possflt through the western part of the city, is much used by small steamers and by coasting vessels. Phil- adelphia has aa extensive foreign, and a still greater domestic trade ; by. means of railroads and canals it pntseMes facilities for communication with a great ex- "nt of country. The city is built upon a plain, ris- iriK gradually from the Delaware on the east, and the Hchuyikill on the west, to the height of about 66 feet above the surface of the rivers at high water. The portion most densely built has an area of about 12 square miles, extending along the Delaware River Ave miles, and beiRg two miles wide at the narrowest point lietween the two rivers. A square mile west of the Schuylkill is now densely built up. The city is laid out with entire regularity, the streets, with few excep- tions, crossing each other at right angles. Market or llik'h Street, extending through the city from east to West, and Hroad Street, north and sonih, are fe-v wide and spacious thoroughfares; and all the ilrcvta an wide, airy, and well kept. Public baildif ;^ air in fair proportion as to numlwrs, and many nf t!i3r.» r ■■} very line specimens of architecture. Tl> jrrivvtn »i;liy. lags are remarkable for their simple elt^- •\e>> ir.d v^}- form neatness. Swedish emigrants firs' -nii"^;'. up«i: thii site of the city ss early as KiliO, and '•'•\ .i. n < P- i-< purchased a small claim from tliein, but most of the site and adjacent lands from the Indiana, in 1682, and then laid out as the city the area between the two riv- •rt, about a mile and a half in width north and south. Id 1864 tke iubnrbs regularly laid out beyond the orig- inal limits largely exceeded the city proper in popula- tion, and by legislative act the entire area of the county became about 120 miles. It is divided into 24 wards, and is governed by a mayor, elected for two years, a select council of 24 members for the same period, and a common council of 72 members, elected annually. Miinufacluret. — This branch uf the business of Phil- adelphia is ver}- important, a large share of the popu- lation being so employed, and the value of the goods produced being very great. The vicinity abounds with water power, which is largely used, but the cheap rate at which coal is obtained renders the use of steam al- most universal. These advantages, with the extraor- dinary facilities for transportation by water and by railroads on every aide, oHTer peculiar inducements to manufacturers to locate establishments here. Iron manufactures in every form, and particularly machin- ery, with gold and silver ware and watches, woolen and cotton fabrics, silk and fancy goods, chemicals and drugs, sugar reHning, books and paper, boots, shoes, and clothing goods, glue, soaps and oils, etc., are the principal departments of manufacturing industry. The following statement is from tlie census of 1850 : MANUrAOTCBIS OF PBILADSI.PniA mTBIMO TUI YXAB ■MDiNo June 3u, 18S0. Diittlcl». Cipiul iiKitud. Hftndi«mp)oy«d. Addu*! PiwIiicU H«lM Ptmaifli. 0U69 1181 861 1890 167 283 2377 Philadelphia Olty.. Northern LiberUes . Spring Garden Kensington SouthWArk $13,207,696 3,»22.2&1 2,918.445 8,756,711 2,1TI,0«6 630,304 T,J37,880 17,020 4,463 4,326 6,7-.'8 2,1)60 1,970 6,706 $^(1,0(19.206 7,(178,(128 6,87«,T81 10,083,904 8,734,730 1,299,201 10,237,805 Moyamensing Toivnihlpii, etc Total $88,737,,100 $64,114,112 The completeness of this statement was not acknowl- edged at the time of its publication, and the Board of Trade at once instituted inquiries for its correction, which resulted in the publication of the following well- authenticated aggregates of the various classes of man- ufacture for the year ending June 30, 1857 : Iron and maniifarturcs of Iron and steel $12,852,150 Textile fabrics of wool, cotton, and silk 21,(114,113 ClieiuicAls and dyes, paints and inks 6,S5.V>00 Morocco and other leather 2,766,250 Boot!! and ahoes 4,141,000 Taper and manufactures of paper 2,41)3,000 Books of all kinds, maps, etc 2,448,noO Ale and beer 2,300,000 Soaps, candles, and oils 4,18'<,830 Oold, silver, and plated manufactures 4,i!14,(i00 Tobacco manufactures 3,266,600 Spices, starch, fruits, confectionery 1,876,000 Hsta, caps, straw goods, umbrellas, etc 8,820,000 Ginsa, earthen-ware, and bricks 8,069,000 t.'lothing and men's fiimlahing (one half) 6,4I8,7.'>0 Load, type, stereotype 83.'>,000 Mannfaeturos of bra», copper, and tin 2,430,009 Saddlery and trunks 1,988,000 Millinery and Udlcs' fiimlahing 690,000 Surgical Instruments, teeth, etc 860,000 Musical Instruments, mirroiD, gilding 1,2.3.%000 Marble and building stones 1,160,000 Wrought mahogsny and lumber 96 >,000 Cordage, ■nclc8,oll-clothK, belting 380,760 Lamps and gaa fixtures 2,286,000 Printing, engraving, and litfiography 1,753^000 Agricultural Implements and fertilisers 1,003,000 Medicines and perfumery 2,150,000 Furniture, and ail wooden and coopers* wares.. 5,391^003 ('nrriagea, wagons, drays 1,715,000 Alcohol, Tinegsr, and burning fluids 1,ri22,l49 VbAseli snd rigging 1,895,000 Miscellaneous and small Items 3.604,000 Total $llil,»»3,4b8 Of articles classed as partial manufactures, the fol- lowing are determined : Provisions $4,000,000 Flour 8,200,000 Bread 6,800,000 C'IsthIng (one halO 6,41.1,260 Sugar and molaines 6,600,000 Whisky and cordials 8,354,600 Newspapers 1,370,000 Total $29,437,750 Aggregate of both elasaas $'4>,37l,23a PHI 1523 PHI $14,852,150 B,855,(KK) 2,T6fl,250 4,141,n00 4,498,0«) S,448,iifl0 2,300,000 4,18S93'> 4,:n4,,000 2,430,003 1,988,000 690,000 8&(t,0«0 i,23r>,ooo 1,100,000 95 1,000 380,750 2,285,000 1,753^000 1 ons,ooo 2,150,000 6,391,009 1,715,000 l,r>22,14» 1,895,000 3,604,000 $iii)i553;«5 |roi, the fol- $4,000,000 3,200,000 6,600,000 5,413,250 6^500,000 8,354,500 1,370,000 129,437,750 $-*>,37I,SM Caal Trade.— the coal trade of Philadelphia began in 1820 from the Lehigh Valley, and in 1822 from the Schuylkill. For twenty years nearly all raised in the State came to Philadelphia, but now one half the Le- high coal goes to New Jersey and New York, and only that from the Schuylkill comes wholly to Philadelphia. In 1856, 42,000 tons of coal from liroud Top are in- cluded ; and in 1857, 78,812 tons UroadTup, and 68,094 tons of gas coal from near Pittsburgh. The value of the coal trade is $15,000,000 annually. Coal Tbadb or PniLADSLPniA. 1868. 18S4. 1S55. 1860. 1357. Schuylkill RfglOD. Tom. 2,470,943 2,895,208 8,318,,'i35 S,268,35ti 2,986,680 L«hl|ili KsKiuR (onenalf}. TODI. 627,164 003,593 642,057 675,085 669,375 ToUI. Tom. 2,098,097 3,498,8 ll 3,960,612 3,976,341 3,791,901 The commerce of Philadelphia is rapidly on the in- crease, so far as actual exchange with foreign nations is concerned. The actual external commerce of the port is stationary, having made no advance since 1853, when its value was $14,500,000, employing a tonnage of 252,451 tons. From 1854 to 1857 there was a line of tirst-class steamships and four lines of sailing-ves- K ^j plying between this port and Liverpool ; and there are now (1858) two steamship lines, of six ships in all, to Charleston and Savannah ; one line of three ships to Norfolk and Richmond ; one of two ships to BoRton ; and one of two ships to New York. These vessels are substantial and well built, and most of them construct ed in the city. Several first-class steamships of war have been built at the Philadelphia navy yard, and others are in progress of construction. The total number of steamships, ships, barks, brigs, schooners, barges, etc., entering the port during tlie year 1856 was 27,044, and 32,746 in 1857. The following railroads centre hi^re : The Camden and Amboy; Philadelphia and Trenton, connecting with the New Jersey; the Camden and Atlantic; Philadelphia and Germantown; Philadelphia, Read- ing, and Pottsville; the Great Central Railroad of Pennsylvania, with its jxtensive connections; Phil- adelphia and Westchester; Philadelphia, Wilming- ton, and Baltimore; and the North Pennsylvania. The Schuylkill Navigation Canal, 108 miles long, ex- tends to Port Carbon ; the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal, 14 miles long, extending from the Delaware Riv cr, at Delaware City, to Black Creek, Maryland ; the Delaware and Raritan Canal in New Jersey, with the Lehigh Navigation Canal, constitute great arteries through which the transportation business to and from the city is conducted. The Pennsylvania Railroad transported from Philadelphia 92,458 tons of goods in 1857, and returned 255,436 tons. The railroads and canals through New Jersey transport immense quanti- ties of goods between Pliiladelphia and New Y'ork. The Delaware and Raritan Canal transported 1,187,985 tons of coal from Philadelphia eastward in 1857, 1,849,688 cubic feet timber, 9,160,791 feet lumber, 1,141,321 bushels grain, 262,961 bnrrlcs flour, 38,44'.) Ions iron, and 165,683 tons other merchandise. The Camden and Aml)oy Railroad transported, in 1857, 61,339 tons of dry goods, $44,4,")8,191 gold and silver, exclusive of bulky goods and express packages. Harbor, f.ight-houten, Pilotage, etc. — Vessels of the largest burden y the embouchure of the Del- aware, has Cape May on its north, and Cape Henlopen on its south side, the former, in lat. 88° 57' N., long. 76° 47' 46" W., is a sandy headland, rising alK)ut 13 feet above the level of the sea. It has recently been surmounted by a light-house 60 feet in height. The lifjlit revolves once a minute, an eclipse of 60 seconds being succeeded by a brilliant Hash of 10 seconds. It is seen in clear weather from 20 to 25 miles off. Cape Henlopen, marking tlie southern lioundary of the bav, is in lat. 38° 47' N., long. 75° 4' 45" W. A little south from it is a hill, elevated about 60 feet above the level of the sea; and on it is erected a light-house 72 feet in height, furnished with a powerful/ied light, visilde In clcnr weather ten leagues off. To the north of this principal light, and close to the extremity of tlie Capo, a second light-house has been constructed, 30 feet above the level of the sea, which is also furnished with apvd light, which may be seen about six leagues off. The channel for large ships is between Cape Henlopen and the banks called the Overfalls, The navigation is, however, a little diiiicult, and it is compulsory on ships to take pilots. The latter frequently board them at sea ; but, if not, as soon as a ship comes between the Capes she must hoist the signal for a pilot, and heavo to as soon as one offers to come on board, I'nil.ADII.PIlIA TO THE OlEAN.— DISTANCES, IH StATBTI: Milks, iteom I iiiLAnKi.riiiA (Market stheet Wiiakpj TO TUK i:ArEB. UY THE CHCAL STKAIIIIOAT CIIANNEL, AH LAID DOWN ON TUK CHABT OF TUB DELAWAEB IIT Till: L'NITRD ESTATES (JOABT .'SUBVEY. Prom PhiladelphiA (Market Streat Wharrj to Milea. Fort Mimiii landing (biasd off in channel) 8 3-3 Chester landing " " 16 5-8 Marcus Hook landing " " 20 1-4 (juarryvillo " " 24 3-4 Dupont'i " " 26P,-8 Wilmington, by the ChilBtlana, to bridge 81 3-4 New Castle wharf (broad off In channel) 34 DelawareClty " " 39 5-8 Keedy Island " " 44 1-4 Port Penn landing 44 7-8 Liston'sTrce (broad olfin chaohel) 51 3-1(1 LiBton'a Point " " 5158 Duck Creek light " " r,s :!.8 Itombay Hook Point (broad off in channel) i-i 9-10 Buoy of the Middle Tl 9-10 Udge Linht boat 70 1-4 Buoy of the Loner (qr.) 8,S 6-S Brandywlne light-houso 89 9-16 Buoy of the Brown 93 l-I(i Breakwater in3."-a Cape Henlopen 1"2 6-S Cape May laniling, by the Pea Patch !'fl lieceipt) of Cattle in Vhilade'phia. — Tl'e following tab- ular statement presents the number of cattle received here during each of the last twelve years, wiiii the ex- ception of the large number brought in by butchers, of which no account can bo obtained : Vaan. Bcaret. Cowe. Swine. Sheep. Total. 1845 61,2I'8 18,806 Ii0,455 511,948 ^(afim 1840 47,.'iOII 14,480 18,t;70 66,810 130,400 1847 6fl,'J70 16,700 22,-15fl 67,8iH 147,2'20 181S 67,211 14,108 47,090 T6,82li 206,820 184i) 08,120 14,320 46,700 77,110 200,2.10 ISSO 68,750 1,%I20 46,900 82,600 218,270 18.'51 69,100 16,400 46,700 83,000 215,200 1862 71,2011 14,420 49,200 81,900 216,020 m-is 71,90') 16,100 6;),300 72,300 212,000 \9M 7.1,400 15,360 78,000 01,000 227,750 186.5 65,200 11,630 e,5,3fifl 132,60(1 204,.^30 1850 61,978 12,!iOO 10.3,360 2411,700 418,928 1 I8.'i7 6-.',40ll 14,700 116,700 342,000 514,800 EipoH of Breadatufs.—The following statement shows the quontity of breadstuffs exported to foreign parts for the calendar years 1855, 1866, and 1857 ! ISS5. lase. 18BT. . . Buri'els- 218,197 P5,108 343,.H36 9i,';49 IU8,86T 48,674 ik li 1.1,430 16,.H07 8,254 Wheat .. Bushels. 220,071 66'>,338 191,400 Com ih ca^sn? 1,067,283 625,656 Average price of flour in Philadelphia for 1865, $9 23i ; for 1856, $6 7U ; for 1857, $6 18. The ag- gregate value of flour and grain exported from Phila- dolphiii in the fiscal year 1855-'6S was $4,802,936, and in 1866-'57, $3,936,m ^„^v^,-H,.. PHI 1524 PHI The following table ahows tlio incasnrcment of grain, I last aixteon years. This statement, of coune, dooa not leeils, r.nU, and coal, in Philadolpliia, annuaUy, for iho | incluile all the receipts of grain, seeds, etc.,al this port. Y.W.. Wha.l. Corn. Ry.. Bmlcjr. OaU. OmiIi. B.ftna. Bil. Co.1. Ball. 1841 467.2431 781,2781 61,.'l71( 44,8:i6 167,B08t 10, .on 8040) llS.lfS 826,183 1842 462,770 4/2,»51 86 334 86,U78i 104,1108 86,1081 1016) 9,068 151,260 1843 481,384) 618,0ru l.8,0:3J 20.012 372,713) 27,778) 1581)) 131,909 174.184) 1S44 626,607t 640.469 06,22Vt 68,600 876,518) 42,!*9 1402) !.7,(00 217,816) 1845 792.502J 708 4861 86,857) 46,630t 867,677t 81.484 303, <) 261,838 146.461 1846 983.023 66,5.178 80,820 40,330 8tO,942 15,864 ISW 848.201 231,463 1847 047,5.8 1,093,264 78,1,72 88.210 869,171 7,628 676 •-■08,760 240,.)38 1813 72a,(i!'4t 1,302,3181 46,900) 02,8Mt 327,7331 9.770) 4,W 457,827 209.474 184) 045,466 1,S83.:i,03J 37,11!) 427,B.''3 23,774 01,767 16S,0il6 1863 9r.0.S«9t 967.5141 49,9tlfl 81,250 4')6,529 11511 17,870 1854 731,888 1,182,178 41,406) a9,7a5 ',>72,II46 18,040 601) 6 814 isr* 1,040,096 1,4.33.4'>8 147,889 ai,018 686,024 410 6,504 ISJtf 1,061,691 180l,ii92 23,.189 HM2 466,540 620 .... .... iMronTATioN UP Ilinia at l>oii.AniLniiA, \nn. FoMign. CoutWiM. ToUI. 1881 i;;2,492 No ritum. 132.402 183'f 173.761 61,069 2-24 821 1833 63.486 84 51)3 148,078 1834 93,691 61,879 145,.'h6 1937 127,057 20,166 147.'i3,) 1938 95,863 29,372 125,225 1889 124.208 23,906 148,113 1840 127.526 13,050 140.576 1841 143 440 14.1 S4 157.624 1812 123.674 19.570 143,244 18 3 84. 699 9,370 93,079 1844 i27.632 19,0 2 146,71:4 1845 90.726 S,.'55 00,280 1M6 51.S15 17.742 69,557 1847 76.139 75.818 151,9,57 1849 62.414 72,300 124,714 1849 1O2.09S 8,8,2*1 100,028 liSSO 103.8S2 47.791 151,678 1861 134,226 8ft.7J7 160,052 186i 130.154 37, IM 167,308 18.59 110,977 24 431 144,411 1851 174 5 7 10,451 18,5,048 1855 150,102 12,300 168,402 1856 109.7.V) 9.899 119.164 FOKXION lliniS IMFORTED INTO I'lIILAnELrUIA IM 1$66. Nuinbsr. Balei. Hiienos Ayrea and I..Aguayra Brazil 79 VJ9 13 216 4,772 6,,540 "60 889 Africa Total 103,366 0,800 Total cottstwliw Tho following is the dclphia to foreign ports aggregate exports fion? I'bila- in 185<;: Coantriaa. Kiredish Went Indlen . . 1 )anllh West Indira .. . llrttiah Kast Indies .... Belgium Bremen Knglaiid Canada Other Br. N. A. Colonies Cuba BritUh Wcibjndica . . . British Guiana . Africa French West Indies . . . Korlo Rico Ilaytl Central liopublic and | New Granada | Veneauela Ilrazils B. Ayrea Sc Montevideo .Sandwkh Islands , . France Colombian porta . . . Mexlro Madeira Holland Hamburg Gibraltar Domeaue. ""p 17377 oe.nii 1-.7S 26,097 !i4.4l5 8.85 ),':I2 8,972 849,813 7i 3.087 74.< 022 134 f;89 28,494 1,260 18 695 79,4,90 14,000 617,947 460,031 115.101 102,056 181,279 6,300 41,5 8 10.568 13,757 Total «7,711,'.85 ,'fi|88.B02 $7,899,977 Furatgv. 416 2.032 IH.DliO 21,7S6 3,9,;i 21,911 6,39i;» 'm> '162 1,490 62,914 2,31}4 6,029 4,817 19,178 7,947 ToUI. $84,783 67,327 8,010 26,C'..7 34,416 8,877.278 ■.5,768 358,154 814 008 741.021 13;.5>9 28,784 1,200 18 847 80,020 14,000 617,974 612,045 107.425 108.084 186.096 10,1T8 7,' 47 6,860 41,618 10,568 13,757 The following is a romparative statement of some of the principal arlicles of produce exported from the port of Philadelphia ti^ foreign porta for the years 1856-'56 i 1 IMS. l8tB. 220.1 79 842,035 684.002 1,057,283 02,608 16,807 239.863 26,426 4 531 7.6-.'5 11,141 41:0 608 089.702 14.517 61.3115 10,422 1,034,686 13,387 891,463 709,146 1,266,086 4,688,716, 1,373 Wheat, budhelB 2(:fl 16:) 085807 08.073 13,460 45,702 21,866 2,ia2 6 615 7.872 844,682 889,504 2.''.,083 m.,129 1,800,71)3 19,086 70.5.700 5«4 514 1,080,001 4,210,016 651 ('om meal, btvrrcla Shlp-bread, barrels Hoef, tlorces and barrels. . . Pork, Naval stores, bcireU Oil, gallons Peas end heme, bushels Lard, pounds Tallow, peui ds SDaD. " Bark hhds. Cwih Dutitt. — The following is an official stateinent of tho aniouiit of cash duties received at the custom- house at this ]>ort during the past three years : Monlha. 1954, 18M. I86«. •lantiary Fcbruury March $639,;i92 625,1.93 .H'6,:;38 379 471 328 422 301,764 4S5.1C3 601,153 826.077 26;.ls7 216,615 100.944 $4>i)8,'6r5"~ $.a7,437 280,8.- 6 340.916 2':8.!83 2i5.r,88 249.446 811,649 441,422 275,033 216,0 8 311.692 235.202 $214,348 64.904 673.002 385,236 43,1,023 876,120 472. S79 533,490 S45,613 285,088 243,162 271,043 April May Julv August September (Jetobcr November December Total $3,358,517 $1,301,123 Tho following is an ofHcial statement of tho viilue of exports from the district of I'hiladelphia from 17191 to ISln. For ftubsequcnt trodo see antv, p. 1510. Yean. Foreign. UomeaOr. Total. $3 436,093 1791 $3,436 OTS 1792 3.S20 r.02 3,82ii,flfl2 1798 .... 0,1 58,880 0,058.830 17 4 .... 6.648,092 0.643.111.2 17!'5 11,618,260 11.618.260 171'0 i;.613,860 ]-.r:13,S(16 1797 11,446,291 11,446 291 1798 .... 8.C16.403 8,915,4113 1799 .... 12,481,967 12,431.107 IPOO 11.949,679 11,1-49,679 ISIIl 17.4.38,103 17 438,193 1S02 12.677,470 12,677,475 I'illS !f3,.504.496 7 5'JB 710 11,fl3l),2i)6 IS 4 6 8B1,4« 11,0.30,167 17,8S1,6.1I 1M)5 0,397.1)12 13.702.2,52 23 1W,'.64 18)6 13, SO?, 389 11,674,702 81,854091 ls:7 12,inO.I2S 10,864,7!4 29,919 872 1808 2,940,8(13 4 013,830 0,160,133 1800 4,910.883 0,040,241 13,300.124 1810 6.241,701 10.0 3,8' 8 17,V3l[)162 IGU 8,866,670 6.691,447 l).56«,117 1812 1,313.203 4,00 ),467 6,973,760 1813 1814 1316 827,494 8,249,023 8,571,117 1,024368 3,560 651 4698,919 18!6 Total .... 2,700,017 4,488 320 $28:,220 818 7.1»0,246 $817,081,474 iii«a,i,67,e'ii PHI 1535 PHI l603,ei9 lm248_ Aooomrt inowiNo tiii Nuhbkb or Vuim, niiniiiMiii- ATINO BtTWKKN ARIIVAU rORKIOM ANII rOAaTWIU, WUIVII BNTKBEU TilK I'OBT or I'lllLAnr-LI'llIA rilllM TIIK lit or .Iamuabv, I8i5, to t.ie Ibt or .lANUABy, 1h4ii. Fofign. CoMtwU*. 1826. 1820. 1827. 1828. 1820. 1S30. 18;il . 1832 . 1833. 18.34. 1836. 1880. 1837. 18S8. 484 482 460 460 874 41B SUA 428 474 480 42» 421 409 404 621 1,1U6 1,1»6 1,820 1,24T 2,210 &,287 8,202 2,849 2,673 2,080 8,673 8,704 7,770 10,800 11.188 I JTuUl, MftT' I,8Tt 1,T8» I.flliT 2,684 8,7»2 8,068 8,271 3,047 8,110 4.IHI2 4.H6 8.186 ll,:i'i4 ll,7tHI ABRIVAL or VEBiRI.B AT IllK POBT OF rilII.AI>ri,PIIIA IllJU. WO TUB YEAKS 1848, 184'.», AMU 1860. Hhips Bsrlu Brigg Bcboonen. . Sloops Btumeni... Barges Boats Total. 1B48. 101 S62 oca 6,(107 8,02» 404 8,205 l),80il 24,483 lUI. 116 826 888 0,481) 4,480 061 8,080 8,628 IHMI. HIU 842 884 T,681 6,200 1,048 8,860 8,4li0 ('OMPABATITB RTATKKBST or TIIR XcHum OF Vesskls, rollKlliN ANI> rilANTH ISE » lllrll HAVE AKKIYED AT rilU.AIIKI.I'IIIA IIUKINII riVI YeaUS, ■nilill III IN.VJ 26,105 Totiil ill INM !l(i,lvO 'I'otiil III 1864 2«,001 Tutsi In 1866 80,223 Totsllii IHM 27,C44 Tlin fullowlnK am aliatracts of the vessels entered •ml vioitrod at the port of I'liiladclphia, from and to furolgii jiorli, during the year eniling June 30th, 1«66 ; fruni which It apiMMirK that the total number of vessels uiilurud Miidor the Ainuricun flag during the year was 462, and thu tunnagu l!m,'J6a tons, being an increaso of S'J voisuls and » Iil2 tons over the year 1855. Tho tola! nimibur of vessels entered under foreign flags was 125, and tho lonnngo 37,61)11 tons, an increase of 10 vev ««!« and n,41l7 tuns over 1(*55 ; making a total increase oyer the prooodlng year of 42 vessels and 25,923 tons. Tlio total number of vessels cleared under the Ameri- can iing was 804, and thu tonnagu 110,581 tons, a de- crcBsa of 22 vessels and («4'J tonnage under 1835 ; and thu total number of vessels cleared under foreign flags was 127, and tho tonnage 81^,409 tons, an increase of nlno vessels and 18,1162 tons, making a total decrease from that of tho tirecedingycar of la vessels, and an in- iTcaiu of 61U tons. See Pkmmsylvania. I NTBBBD. CtlABRD. 1 CouutrlM. Fl«g, A No. of V«»l>. nirieiin. /"".'■ orolgn. CoDBlrlM. FUs, AmflTlcan. KUr, for...8n. | n«j». No. of Vuult. Too. ONfl. No. of V.Mel.. Ton. nofco. No. of VmuIi. Ton- UllgO. Swedish West Indies. . . . Danish West Indies 2 2 "i 68 2 1 5,5 87 1 1 a 1 8 1 1 188 11 1 1 1 6 10 10 1 1. 81 82 1 11 8 2H7 404 '867 00,847 620 706 10.1118 8,772 170 412 870 1,86^ 2,000 8iI6 177 80.070 2,6-8 107 118 674 1,082 6.124 2,943 213 233 0,1 6S 8,064 5!4 13,230 8:6 "i B 1 10 "b 25 28 'b 'i 6 1 'i 's 2 i 1 ' 'iiii 2,882 134 21,067 i',m 2,470 ■ 764 ' 'm 1,1168 Os8 138 ■ 819 i,'887 18.1 " 'i;io 218 HwikMhIi Wsst Ifidio Danish West Indies 6 2 "i 'i 40 5 1 2 in B-> 2 1 8 2 1 1 82 3 1 7 1 1 26 26 a 1,409 'iw "467 42,n::6 alio 2,081 HIS 1,4JI6 0,110 11,730 2,114 370 731 j,n43 687 24;; Mr 19,702 6 3 197 1,2JS 3 5 l:i9 0,727 6,228 4*8 1,803 • 'a 1 8 1 1 1 17 1 9 i 63 19 i 'i 6 'i '3 ' 6 '8 261 1,5-20 218 04 20a 20,1.5 S83 3,148 ' 335 7,170 1,810 lis " 4S'0 i,'l7'8 ■ 175 ' 034 Holland Ilolliiiid Iiuk.h West Indies IIiiIkIikii British N. A. Possessions. British West Indies British Honduras British Oiiiana British I'oss. in AfHca . . British F^t Indies Trance on the Atlantic . . France on the Mediter'n. Spain on the Modlter'n. . (;uba KCKtIanil Irplaiiil, * (iilirallur Othur British N. A. Pons. Ili'itlsh West Indies Ilritlsh (luiniiii Ilritisii l'o>s. Ill Africa . . Ilritlsh Kaslliidlrs.i... fraiicii nn tliTi Atlnnlic . , Vtnnfis on tlio .Mcd'n.... French West I: lies IMillippliie Islni, )'uhn Porto Itico Caoe de Verds Sardinia Sicily iinyti ; . . . . Ml" !■ ■ . . Mexico II.. ; I'Cli.r i i((t|illlllle New Granada Brazil Chill Peru Vfltieruiila llntKll I'niiriiuy Bumiuit Aynts Tolid Ecuador. Total 463 Ifl0,to7 1'.8 87, 0: d 8'i4 1111,631 127 33,4t)!l Philippine Islands . ■ c-^ and imiiortant group in the Asiatic Archipelar;i', t'orining its northern (l!vi. siun, and next to Cuba the most valiialilo colonial session of Spain, chiefly between lat. 6° 32' and 19' .1"' N., and long. 117° and 127° E., having north and eost f.lie Paciflc Ocean, west tho China Sea, and south the seas of Sooloo and Celebes. There aro at least I2U0 inU ands, great and small. Principal islands, Luzon, Min- dano, and Palawan, with Mindoro, Panay, Klarindic|iin, Negros, Zebu, Dohol, Ley to, Samar, Mosbate, and many of less size. Total area estimated at 120,000 squnrn miles. Tho Spanish dominion is stated to extend over only 52,148 S(|. miles. Population, iu 1850, 3,815,878, consisting of Europeans, native whites, tho Papuan no- gro race, and independent tribes, M..lay Indians, hiilf castes, and Chinese. The islands aro of volcanic fur- mation, and contain a chain of activn volcanoes. Earl h> quakes also are of frequent occurrence. The gnnip is within the range of the mon.soons, and violent liiir- ricone* are common. From May to Septembor Ibo wc«ti!rn coonts nro deluged with rain, while tho October moiiHniin brings ruin tu the eastern coasts, at other sca- ~iin» dry, Thu high temp' .; and abundance of I inoisturn iiroiliicu a liixurlai ■ - ation; so that Oi^y I are capiiblu of ylcliling all ki.iL of colonial, and ]>mI>- alily ICurupcaii jirodiicc. Uice, millet, innizc, siig.ir, indigo, hcinp, tobacco, coTec, end cotton, ^u • rai-seii; and sagn, cucua-iiuls, bananas, oinanion, nuinor- niis Ihm fruits, and timber fur shlp-buiUlin - ,^ .iniung the prodiiels, Ilulliilocs and most of the domestic ani- nmU cuniiiKin In Kiimpe are rirared. There are no pre- daceiius i|iinilriipeils ; llin cayman is found in the rivers. Pearls, jiearl-oysler shell, tho sea-slug, edible birds' nusis, and sapan-woud, are important articles of ex- port hciu'o (() China, Domestic weaving is pretty gen- erally carried on by the females, and straw hats, cigar casern, and carthnn-wares, are made ; but the chief man- ufuctiiru Is that of " ( ioverninnnt Manilla" cigars, which occiiplns 20(10 hands at a royal factory in Manilla. The wrotcliud lu; .ilal pulley of Old Spain cxclu,'.ed all for- PHI 1526 PHI cign ihips and Chinur jettlcra from thcao islandii, and the trade with th« SpariUh dominion In America waa also confined io iliat conducted annually by a single ship. But swi'h riistrictiong have vanished since the revolution, ai.'l the colony ic now malting commensu- rate progress 'U ward prosperity. In 18-12, H9 sl.'.ps, agrr .'gate bur'itjn 46,B6i> torn, entered, and 162 do., I>u '! II 60,226, cleared, at the difTcn nt ports. T?i ports amounted in val i '<) to Je900,080, one-thit d from Ei .; and, and more than another third f m China, the ' nited .States, and Brit'^h India. Exports amounted in value to ^£974,160, chiefl- sent to Engl.>ii'ii,triards, and the rest Malays. These is'and^ wi;ro discoveicd by Mugalhaeno in 1521, and s. ittd by iliu Spaniards in the reign of I'lillip II., after ■ lor.i they •vcro named, Vho n.i'iiiicreial interci^urse generally is >inder the liv.vs and regulations of ths mother country, but, in fact, is in some degree dependent upon tlie local authority, the power being with the governor to order the depart- ure from the colon} of any person who may become ob- lioxiuUo to himself or Ids government. The regulations lire lixcd for an indclinite time ; amendnienis are con- Mantly proposed, and, for several years past, a total revision of the taritf of duties on foreign produce hati be 'n, from time to time, discussed. Any such chaiigcs, though they may lie proposed and discussed in Manilla, can only bo niidn law by the homo government. In fact, the reins iir.; held very tightly in Madrid, and the governor general ia constantly made to feel his depend- ence upon vhe niini.stcr in power. Citizens of the L'nlt- cil .States enjoy the iirivilcg^s of all other foreigners. There is no i.istinciion made in the privileges or i^- Rtrictions iiermitlod or imposed on the coniincrco of foreign natiuiui. The ^lort c'larges consist of tonnage dues, rivcr-cleanlDg d.ies, and light dues. The tjn- >iagc dues are 25 cents per !on register, if the vessel di.'charges or takes in cargo ; and one-half, or 12i cents per ton, if she departs W'thout having broly tho laws of '■ ■■■'■u, i>,' can not be said to correspond with those ot ;ii ooi>i'r country, inasmuch as in Spain tho wei.-'iit a: .. as- ures are not the same throughout the kir.gi! r^. moneys current hero are specie only. Of i, ' i, U ■ douliloon of Spain, Mexico, and the renublii'S of Soiit' America, of full weight, is current at iJlO. The sipn!'- cr coins — halves, quarters, and eighths- -at their portionate value. Of silver, the dollar t Spain, >i . ieo, and thn other Peiith Amorluan repobllcs, of full weight, i« lurient at i'l T'nlted States currency. The relative iimr.llur coins pii d ut the'r rMative value. Cop- pcj ;7)in is of three si;e«; 1 cui.'io, 2 cuartos, and 4 cuiiftiis; !<■ ' iiiitiis arc equal lo « dollar. Accounts an JtjpL bi -.unish iiii'-chant< in i I'lars, reals, and cuartos : 20 . uurtos cifual 1 real ; •< ■ 's equal 1 dollar. Forci.^Mers gini r-;';, kci-r deir i;oi . ii. ~ in dollars and cei. . Tlio m'i.u of tliii., colim .. lul the same in the United Slates as .lere; b .'. .at being li:ted by tho Unite;:' -itates laws, there is a fluctuation which can not Iki r duced to regular limits. The weights in commor. use are piculs, quintals, ar- roba', and pounds. The pound is almut IJ per cent, heavier thnn that of tho United S'liis, 25 pounds equal 1 artoija, or, at the ;'n. d Stat . standard, about 2C ;, pounds; 4arr;.l>as = i -(.lintal-lOIJ lbs.; 5i ar- icbus-- 1 picul-.=MO Ills. 'l>.n measures are long meas- ure — inches, li'M, yirda, fathoms, miles, and le.ignes, 12 inches maku 1 ( 9 feet loake one yard ; 2 yards mako 1 f.'oiiom; Hi faihoms and 6 inches make 1 n)ilo; 3 .iii.i •» make one ieague, Tho yard (or vara) in iiuuhert is about 33 inches of the United States, Grain is usually sold in the country by the cavan, 4 apa- lanes equal 1 ohupo ; 8 chupos equal 1 ganto ; 25 gantos equal 1 cavan. These differ, however, in tho different provinces. In Manilla, a cavan of rice weighs 127 lbs, ; of coffee, about 52 llis. ; of wheat, about 150 lbs, A tiniga of oil contains 16 gantog ; of wine, 17 riantos, Tho rate of insurance to the United States from Ma- nilla is charged 3 to 3^ per cent, ; but little is done, liowcver, there being but one local insurance oiBce with a (rifling capital, the policies issued by which contain SI) many exceptions as to make them of very little value. T.'ic shipmi nts of produce to the United States are cov- ered by insurance made in the United States or in En- gliiml. Freights vary constantly, being governed by tho supply of tonnage and quantity of produce wailing shipment. At present, $20 per ton of 40 cubic feet of hen.j. and other measurement goods, and $12 or $13 per ton of 2240 pounds of sugar, are current. These are considered full rates. Commission is charged 2} per cent, on all purchases for the United States, When a broker is employed ho is paid a brokerage twmmission of CJ cents per picul on hemp, 6 J per picul on sugar, 3^ cents per picul on rice, and on other articles as may bo ngreetl upon. All articles of produce are bought for cash, and paid for on delivery. Oftentimes payment is made in part before delivery, and in the hemp •iidr' tno advances made are very large. Tho r::te ot ex- clmnge between this and the United States is not quoted, there being no transactions in the regular course of trade. All exchange trnns .ions per American account (and tho greater portion of the exports to the United States is paid fur in bills) are made through England, bills being drawn here on London bankers, by viituu of credits granted by the bankers themselves in Lon- don, or by their agents in the United States. Tho average rate of exchange during the past year has liccn, f ,■ b lis on London, drawn at six months' sigh'., o.(. I ,i{. 'ler dDliar. The par of exchange is about 4s. 2d., ., Mimoasin the United States; thecimncy in silv a about equivalent that of one country with i' Tho dollar current here, being of tho Mrv ,;/>n .-•outh American currency, is worth one hu.nlrod unts in tho United States. Duties on exports arc, on hemp, 2 per cent. ; on tor- oiso shell, mother-nf-pearl shell, ai"' ratans, 1 per cent, (these three articles last na:i" are, in fact, not productions of this island, but brought from the Scoloo Islands, and pay 1 per cent, import duty) ; all other ar- ■ ' ^s, 8 per cent. On all imports dinet from the Unit- . tales, 14 per cent. 'I'here arc no internal taxes of i > kind on produce. The rates of wages in agri ul- i pursuits arc N'ry low, generally paid in produce (lioing for the subsiitenco of the laborer, and difiicult PHI 1527 PHI to'ba reduced to ■ money itandird. Artlsani obtain 60 centa per day, and if expert worlimeu ai high as $1, or even fl 60 per day. Laborer! in and about .Manilla, 26 centa to 371 ceati per day. On board shipa in the bay they are paid 62^ centa per day. At theae rates laljor is much dearer than in the Atlantic cities of the United States— the quantity and quality of the work done by a Manilla workman comparing very unfavora- bly with that of a man in New York.— See Manilla, Spain. For further informatiou refer to Quarterly, Jit- view, vii. 235, xvii. 630, xxxv. 823. The chief exports from Manilla (the seat of govern- ment, and the chief port of the islands) are hemp, su- gar, sapan-wood, cigars, cordage, indigo, coffee, rice, hides, mother-of-pearl shell, aliiiaciga, grass-cloth, and tortoise-shell. The principal imports are cotton fab- rics, silks, woolens, haberdashery, drugs, clacks, jew- elry, etc. The leading exports to the United States in 1841 were : Sugar francs 1,080,000 = $206,200 Coffee " 149,0011= 28,310 Hemp " 1,444,000=271,360 Indigo " 884,000= 72,960 Hides " 108,000= 20,620 iHToaTa An Exroars or xna PnaipriNi Islahdi m 1844. China Kngland BiDgaporo United Htatn Spain Jars and Molucca Auitralla Eaatlndlaa France SouloD Iiilea Belgium HanaeTowni Cape of Good Hope South America . Total franca Dola. at 19 c. perfr. Import!, t Kipefla Kranrt 8.944 000 4 234.000 4.376,000 l,l2(i,000 1,018,000 1,119,000 849,000 146,000 290,000 84(1,0(10 109,009 8>,000 2ti7,aoo S3,uu0 22,3118^006" 4,249,1(20 Friuct. 6,S!<3,a00 2,760,000 476,000 8,335,000 2,970,000 620,000 926,1)00 98J,0^ 461,000 281,000 804,000 880,000 10,383,000 8,673 270 Total. rraoM. 14.is27,0,)0 6.9'. 8.000 4,861,000 4.4b7,000 3,983,000 1,739,000 1.274.000 1,136,000 751,000 021 0:iO 413.000 3li2 000 267, (MW '.3,000 41,71(1,10(1 7,9.3,190 /m|)oit». — National commerce, $125,011; foreign commerce, $3,176,325 ; imports for deposit, $718,B31. A'3|)(»'m Ode place to another must Btill continue to a great extent There are about thirty Chinese permanently estab- llalic] I ' Molo (mostly connected with others at Manilla, either -< nents or partnerf), and two or three at Jaro. A ciTtaln . lunbcr are also employed In voyaging to and fro ?'in Manilla with goods, afier realizing which they return for a tni'^ (.srcel, either taking the returns In money or prod- uce. (?. ' ' the Chinese dealers at Molo, who Is well sup- plied from M*nilla, sells goods to thi; , lount of from $30,000 to $40,000 per annum. Owing however, to too much com- petition among themselves ai.i' the other dealers, I do not, Judging from the prices at which they usually sell, thtnjc that their proills are, 'n general, at all large. "The principal arilcloa of foreign manufacture Imported Into the province of I enay are : "Handkcrchiefa— printed, of bright, attractife colors and 300d designs. Urge consumption, at ral.-s varying from 50 cents to $1 60 per Anim ; wovo, plain and fancy checks are In demand at $2 to $3 per dojsen for fair to fine quaiiliea; fancy checks, dark grounds, with i.ii.xcd ailk, at $10 to $12 t>er dozen ; allk are aalable to so.ne extent at $3i to $6 per plec^ according to quality. Wove and printed trowserings are salable to a considerable extt^t, bu' 'generally at rathur cheap prices, ranging from 6i cents to 12i centa per yard. Ginghams, chiefly small narrow checks, blue and rcil, are largely used for shirts, at from $41 to $61 per piece of 24 yards. Fancy cambayas, of mixed cotton and ailk with gold threads, are also In large demand at from $100 to $l.'iO per cori;e of 20 pieces. Plain grandrills arc of ready sale at $5 to $5t per 40 yards. White shirtings are not in very extens- ive demand, their use being interfered with by tho native fabrics. A fair quantity Is, however, disposed of at 19 reals to 23 reals per piece of 40 yards, 361 inches wide. Gray shirtinf^s and gray long cloths and domestics are In no de- mand as imported from Great Britain and the United States; but the same goods, purchased and dyed at Manilla by Chi- nese dealers, are largely used by the laboring population. Gray twills, 29 Inch, both American and English (former preferred), are largely consumed for sails of boats, shirts, etc., at $2 3-9 per 40 yards for English, and $3t tu ^81 per 40 yards for American. Lawns, 12 yards 42 inches, are usually salable at 10 reals for course to $2 per piece for finer quali- ties. White Jaconets, 40 Inches 20 yards, are in moderate inqniry nt 9 reals to $2 per piece for low to fair asiortmenta, and $21 to $3 for fine. Striped muslins, 10 yards, imitating 'ainamay,' liave been imported to some extent, and sold at 6i reals to 5^ reals per piece — rates which will scarcely en- courage future sendings. Cotton thread— the Oner numbers, 240 to 300, are largely salable at $2-4 to $2'5 and $2'Ci per pound. Cotton sarongs are also In considerable demand, but have to bo sold cheaply to compete with the native-made goods of similar description: price about $5( per corge of inferior, and $11 for good quality. Cotton .v.ist or yarn— T. It, Nos. 40 to 60, Is sold in conriderable quai '.i:y ; price usu- ally $90 to $95 for German, and $76 to $85 for British dys per picul. Woolens ;■"', not In much demand. A limited amount of Coburgs, Orleans, and I-astings are disposed of at from 1 real to 4 reals per yard, according to quality. There is also a demand for hardware, glass-ware, and earthen-ware, and other minor articles. The demand for piece gooda Is most active in March, before the occurrence of the Holy Week, and in November." Porf-cAarjiM.- Vessels arriving in ballast, and not breaking bulk, pay 12i cents pcrton (register tonnage). If cargo is landed or stripped, 25 cents per ton. Mud- macbine, 6J- cents per ton ; light-house dues, 6^ cents pci tnii. Spanish vessels pay only one half of tl» above rutes.— t^nt'.i States Commarcial RelatioM. .. ^im^-^:--:^ PHO 1528 PIL COMiiBBna or Tin I'mitxd Statu wiTB Maiiilla ako Pniiirpmi latAnni, rioii Octouib 1, 1820, to Jclt 1, 1884 Y»n (DillDf lipwt*. liSpoTtt. Wlwnof lb«n wm la Bullioa and HpMit. Toaaa^a tUartd. UoniMlle. ronliD. Tnl.1. ToUl Kipork Inpolt. Aniarte.n. roralja. Uvpt. au, IHiil $i.8ej $2U9,l;6t $211,323 $114,861 $190,000 .... 632 .... IHiH 11,7(19 11,799 • • , • 870 1H23 6.440 41,276 46,724 188,288 .... 870 ...» m* H.»r>g 210,66'i S19,6iO 183,478 186,000 $8,(il)0 804 1828 S3,l(i» 186,864 806,728 829,871 128,600 80,600 8,067 110 18'28 14,133 M,207 78,840 848.376 80,000 18,216 724 . . • ■ 18!T . , . 180,813 .... 26,686 . . , . • « • a 181M 19,014 141.888 161,762 60,881 101,000 i . . 809 IHW lo.soy ««,430 77,288 200,2110 20,081 .... 894 1880 Total. . . 89,189 64,839 98,6(18 884,887 .... 16,248 4f)8 .... $l',t'i,913 $1180,168 $1,108,081 $1,809,661 $899,682 $88,648 t,828 no 8»pt80,1881 $18,994 $16, 8.10 $,H2,824 $848,998 $3,000 $1,220 249 18;)'.i 20,W)6 118,414 184,320 888,280 68,000 114 1,286 • • I a isaa 1,0«1 8,376 9.397 604,498 ■ a •• .... 914 • • t a 1334 8.668 12,267 16910 283,6h6 a • • • .... 222 . . . • 1838 BS.94T 60,162 83,099 418,818 48.000 .... 1,972 . . • • 1886 T,861 62,672 60,033 8(i3,3.'lO 15,000 466 1,908 1837 1,846,4:18 • • • t , , , , ISM PS,'/ 14 140.81 '8 24i,6i7 386,8.8 148,460 • • • • 1,780 • a . > 1830 fr8,6.'i3 88.268 106,8i'8 876,477 36,200 1,086 1,674 184U ToUl... 9U,6S1) 80,927 121,816 480,261 £0,000 8ii9 a. .a $8;u,it4Y $472,186 !ii842,43S $6,746,244 $838,660 $2,826 10,894 .... Sept. 80,1841 JT.'5.4M $1S7,3!)6 $262,786 $738,906 $165,844 • . • . 3,71-4 1842 iiilft.TSi 100.444 336,176 772,372 94,836 a . aa 4.797 .... BmoB.. 1848" 67,743 84,488 112,178 4< 19,290 48.0116 14(11 .... June 80, 1844 «l,7fl'J 181, 2V|. 86. Sir 222,997 724,811 129,886 .... 0.233 1846 HO,!..? 164, 678 633,0fi9 81,2(10 ... a 8,230 1841) 100,01 -t 9,288 110,289 866.866 9,00i< 8,03(1 184T 32,4*) 44,760 77,240 494,(66 44,760 8,189 1848 86.949 18,613 80.492 1,107,027 10,382 8.620 8.318 .... 1849 187.8J8 8,669 140.687 1,127,114 8,182 8 820 18B0 Total... 16,817 1,460 18,207 1,880,8(,6 4,423 8,168 38,083 2892 $J(6,ij26 $£86,4t;6 $1,401,490 $8,',:94,367 $632,621 $18,liB 2892 June 80, 18.M $126 644 $7,000 $132,844 $1,264,688 $2,200 192 18,134 4806 i»!>2 211,791 0.927 21i1,718 1,822.646 • • • a 828 11,(131) 6368 18K1 64.876 1,000 66,378 2,46,">,li83 .... 20,698 2003 ISM 27.S.',2 40,661 74 602 2,966,282 42,r,22 le.ii's 843 1S6& tit.'.'(i.T 83.7118 177.911 2,867,441 11:3,420 109,486 12,430 600 18f>6 201.608 64,680 296,867 1,926,870 127,398 21,! 86 8i!S * Nino uiontlia to June 30, and flical year begins July 1, 1843. PhoBphoniB, a substance of a light amber color, and semi-traiiyimrent; but, wlicn carefully prepared, nearly colorless and transparent. When kept some time, it becomes opaque exl(.'rnall,v, and has then a great resemblance to white wax. It may bo cut with a knife, or twisted to pieces with the lingers. It is in- soluble in water; its specific gravity is r77. When exposed to the atmosphere, it emits a white smoke, and Is luminous in the dark. When heated to 148° it takes fire, and burns with a very bright flame. When plios- phorus is inflamed in oxygen, the light and heat are Incoijiparably more Intense — the former darzling the eye, and the latter cracking the gloss vessel. — TiiOM- SON'a Chimhlry. Piano - forte. Invented by J. C Schroedcr, of Dresden, in 1717. He presented a model of his inven- tion to the court of Saxony ; and suine time aftei', U. Silverman, a musical-instrument maker, began to man- ufacture piano-fortes with eonsideralile success The invention has alio been ascribed to an instrument- maker of Florence The S({uare jiL.Ho-forto was first made by Frciderica, an organ-buihjer of Saxony, about 1758. I'iano-fortes were made in I,.on(ion b; ti. Zum- pie, a German, I7C0, and have been since greatly im- proved by others here. 'I'hey are now extensively manufactured in Hoston, New Vork, Philadelphia, Bal- timore, Albany, ItufTalo, Cincinnati, Chicago, and .St. Louis, and other cities of the Tnited S'ate.s. — For "Or- igin of the Piano-forte" sec WetlmintUr lieciew, 7ixj.\i. 806. PI; ires, or DoUan. Spanish and American sil- ver c^.ns in very extensive circulation. They are used in Spain, Italy, Turkey, South America, the F.ast Indies, etc., varying in value in every country. — See Coins. Plokle$ are various kinds of vegetables and fruits preserved in vinegar The substances are first well cleaned with water, then stepped for some time in brine, and afterward transferred to bi. tiles, which are filled up with good vinegar. Certain fruits, like walnuts, re- quire to be pickled with scalding-hot vinegar ; others, as red-cabbage, with cold vinegar; but onions, to pre- serve their whiteness, with distilled vinegar. Wood vinegar is never used by the principal pickle-nianufac- turerf, l)it the best malt or white-wine vinegar, No. 22 or 'A. Kitchener says that, by parboiling the pickles in brine, they will be ready in half the time of what they require when done cold. Cabbage, howev- er, cauliflowers, and such articles, would thereby be- come flabby, and lose that crispness which many peo- ple relish. AVhen removed from the brine, they should be cooled, drained, and even dried, before being put into the vinegar. To assist the preservation of pick- les, a portion of salt is also added, and likewise, to give flavor, various spices, such as long pepper, black pep- per, white pepper, allspice, ginger, cloves, mace, gar- lie, mustar(i, horseradish, shallots, capsicum, AVhen the spices are bruised they are most efficacious, but they are apt to render the pickle turbid and discolored. The flavoring ingredients of Indian pickle are Curry powder mixed with a large proportion of mustard and garlic Green peaches are said to make the best imi- tation of the Indian mango. Pilcharda, fishes closely resembling the common herring, but smaller, and at the same time thicker and rounder. They are rarely found on the British shore, ' (^pt on the coasts of Cornwall and Devon, particu- larly the Airmcr, where they are token in great num- Ijers I J middle of .luly to the o"'' of November, or ev'^i 111'. ! rlille of Decembei saying of the Cornis'i li' hriuie i, that the pilchbcd is i e least flsh in size, must ir. number, and greatest for gain, taken fhim the sea. Pilchard liihfrg — This is carried on along the Ilrit- ish coasts of Cornwall and Devon, from the Bolt Head in the latter, round by the Land's End to Padstow and I PIL 1520 Mfi 8598 ':&S8 4A06 0i!68 2(lfl3 843 6(M J common ticker and |sli shore!", , particu- jreat num- [ovember, g of the ^ t fish in kken from \ the Brit- kolt Head batow Bod Bontlncy in the formoi-, Ita principal actis are Rt. | Irea, Mounl'a lUy, anil Movaxiaaey. 'I'tio Hili uaually make their appearance in vaat alioala in tlio early part of July, and iliaappear alwut tlie niiilditt or (ictotjur; but tliey aometimea reappear in lar)(e i|uantltiea in No- ; vember and December. They are taken cither by Miitet [ or by drift-neta, but principally, perhapa, by (he fur- mer. A lelne la a net, varying; from 2m to' UOi) futli- 1 oma In length, and from 10 to Mi feet in dt.'ptli, hav- ' Ing cork buoys on one edge and lead woiglita on the other. Three l>onta ar« attached to each aciiie, viz., a ' boat {Mine-boat) of al)Out 15 tona burden, for carrying | the aelne; another (/j^Wer) of about the aame size, to aaaist in mooring it; and a amaller boat {lurker) fur ! general purpoaea. The number of handa employed in \ thcae three boats Tarios (him about IS to Itt, but may be taken at an average at about 10. When tlieahoata ; of flah come ao near the ahore that the water ia about '• the depth oi' the acine, it ia employed to encircle them ; the tiahermon being directed to the proper place fur ; caating or ahooting the nota by persona (huen) atation- ed for that purpoae on the clifl^ and in the boats. The practice ia to row the boat with the seine on boaii gently round the shoal; and the seine being, at the same time, thrown gradually into the water, asaumea, by meana of ita buoys and weighta, a vertical position, its loaded edge being at tlie bottom, and tlie other Hoating on the aurface. Its two ends are then fastened togeth- er, and, being brought into a convenient situation, it is moored by small anchors or grapnels ; sometimes, however, one or two amaller seines are employed to as- sist in securing the fiah. At low water the inclosed fiah are taken out by a tuck-net, and carried to tlie shore. A single seine has been known to inclose at once as many as 4200 hogsheads (1200 tons) of .ish ! But this was the greatest quantity ever taken, and it ia but acldom that as many as 1200 hor < .ds are caught at a time. The "take," in fact, dL,A'iids on so many accidental circumstances, that while one seine may catch and cure in a season f^om 1000 to 2000 hogs- heads, others in the neighborhood may not get a sin- gle flsh. In some places the tides ar : to strong as to break the seines and set the tish at liberty. Wlien tiie quantity inclosed is large, it requires several days to take them out, ns they must not 'lo romoved in greater numbers than those who salt the n can conveniently manage. Drift-nets are usuali> about half a mile in length, by about4i^ fathoms in depth ; they are ?\nit in the open sea, and entangle the fish in their meshes in the same way as (he horring-ncts. The fish thus taken are said to be superior to those taken by (he seine, though it be doubtful, from their being strangled in the nets, whether they are so good for curing. As soon as the flsh are brought on shore, they are carried to cellars or warehouses, where they are piled in large heaps, having a sullieient quantity of salt interspersed between the layers. Having remained in this stale for about 35 days, they are, after being carefully washed and cleaned, p.icked in hogsheads, each containing, at an average, alrout 2600 fish ; they are then sul)jectcd to a pressure sufficient to extract the oil, of which each hogshead yields, provided the fish be caught in sum- mer, about three f illons ; but those that arc taken late in the season do not yield above half this quantity. This oil usually sells for from 12 to 15 per cent, un- der the price of bf.' ' -eal oil. The broken and re- fuse fish and salt are .'i effect. The skimmings whi :.i float on the water in av iiich the pilchards ore washed r.re called dregi, and are "hiefly sold as grease for nn- ahinery. The (resh fish in a ho^nhead of pilohai ih weigh about 6 cwt., and tl>/- salt about 'H cwt. ; nit the weight of the hogsh'">d when cured and pressed is reduced to al)Out 4^ cwt. ' including thi- weight of the cask, from 20 to 24 lbs. l-uur-Hfths of fhn per ons em- ployed on shore in tli. in. ting, curin^, p^. kv ;;, otc, of the fiah are women- -I'Jr. I'ABiaV "i.'d. '(■ HovM'tJiay. Pilot* »(id PdetHfC, t()« Mame of pilot or sleert- nian is a|i|ili»i| f\t\m lf«H|iiirlli'lilnr(rmi'i'r, serving on buard a ahii. iImMMij thw m»»K uf a tot ni;i., and having eharge of rliu Mm miii III* i<((li(> thii'li- j (rr (i> a person taken on biwd «( miy |,Mi>li( iiUt (dace, for the purpose of eimdueHinj n «|,j|, iUmiHh « ritf r, road, or chnnnel, ur from or inUt n fM>f(, Mitllers and mates of mer- • hant yuswl,, ^i„f |,»y|„^ ^(,,^„,) ^„ e„,„inaiion t«. fore legally mmHMmi miHiiitmn,, and possessing a certlheali, u, (lm( «(fr^i, »N((t (dint their own veaseli within the iir«»<.f)l,wj Ijwitit fwf tthl«h they have pa.sod, without (wing liitM* (,) utijf fmmUf, In all other oases, when « imM(«r U b}- Imw nHtjm lo a penallv for not taking a fiM, I)* U Iwwild Ui ih so when hi has the oppurlmidy j itMd nU4'f (lit) f,i|«t Is taken on lK,ard, the master has mo hmii»f miy mmn»i\ of the ship, nor it he respunaibia (iii Hm W«««««tt(e*,| of her while aha suntinuea in (Iw dUtrii.t fitf whMt the pilot is author- ized to »(it, Wli«)t tmytilKi Ihat district, the maater again reauniiis (Itn niivfrnrnxm tit the vessel, the pilot being the*) no lw)g«f |ii»|((t<, althoHgh for his own con- venlenea ha m»>' nljll fmm (rt( board. In audi caae ho is only to bu mmoMffi'li nn n (lusscnger, and la not entitled to any rfmHltfrninit fttt whatever service ha may ehooax Ui iwffum im (im i»f»i«yon •dwspl' (jdlde to his owners, freighters, or (llaMrefi* („, ,, .|». Xge that may occur to the veaaej iif ititrgH, «f)s>,',' ■ i ,(i Oie want of such 6er>:cu. Wlwi Urn kw I. ws .m comiiel a master to tikf a pilot on I«»m1, mni 1w imuHhelm, of his own discretion, choose* U) tUl W, tllP (ijlot is considered to 1)0 the servant ol' His mmfa, *hoi ttnder »«ch cir- '(m- stanccs would Iw FBi>(«/rtii(l/le (« nKHtlgftB fitr tlie man- agement of th« shjji ftufUllS ((t« (ittre he continued in charge. If (lis nmlff M » ftf P^H port attempt to ob- tain a pilot and f.ij, mni lIlfH, IH the exercise of his beot discretion, mim¥iif U) mtM the port and fail, the insurer is not disr||»fgn(|, (f |h« tessel approach a port in the night, (is nittol tiinU" sig««l.« for a rilnf, and wait a reammtiU iilHS fiif wisj HtlA If he attempt to enter the port wUllOHt (me, eiiifpl jrt ease of extreme necessity, the iimm» »fe AimUamd, filotage con- stitutes a lien U|M.( tUn »,?f '«1, a"(f (ftdt be prosecuted in admiralty /(.i. i, . ii^c muti be employed by some person r(fc:li;*i. ■, ■; fi^mmkii of the vessel. A pilot can not retu er (iif (rt)*diNtf itito Mn etiemy's port. (Ireiit JJrilaiii,—lliil\^t tmH imfief parties, with the exception of those mniin ft»f tc^isfis Itt the coal trade in England, the ch»rgt* f;nt charters or by parliitmeiltttfy/ AmatiK ll.n nmny cor- porations so estallishsd, tli'' IH«9t itttfjorfatit are tho?- of the Trinity Hoi(se uf Ihpidmi Rtrttlid, whose juris- diction is the mnH ftiHemmi SHd of the Trinity Houses of Hull and itfUfmii^i tU« bodies are au- thorized within their di»fW»» W ((«f«tt«itie the qualifi- cations of pilots, Hmm timn, ttttths regitlations for their government, (i* m»i »lWf ftiMllge rales, and ar- range the limiM of (Its )iil(d»S)* disttiefSi Snltject, how- ever, to the special jiri'vjsj/toii ).yrti(j(irt#d In the Mer- chants' Shipping A«tof' t»^l; 'Ih^ftigttlafkrtisof whitli are given in sintiiisry, »s folWws ( 1 -K ■ . PIL lli»0 I'lL It la queationihln whnthtr th« Trinity lltxiM m»f ravuki' * piliil'ii liconav wUliaut lieurla,( liiui ; l/wi K, •ftar hcarlii).' him. It revoku hla llenid-, Ita )',<' 'I;, 10 the liiltcil KliiKiluMi. '•HV^rt (^ l':i ■ H- Authorilii't.—Kvvry piUit»K« •»>• L'.only "hull rru n all pottxTH itiid Juriodiitiuu wttiti) U now |iuaa(aMa, au fur, uiiil only ao far, aa tb*/ »rn cunaialcnt with thcproviaioiiof tlieKcnvral act. Htf^y pilotuK'^ authority liaa the power tu i!xeiii|it >lii|>a frum beliiK t'ompelleil to employ pllula ; a loo to U(»u*« piM« i to iiiako n-KuUlloiia aa to pUol-buata ; in iuak« rt^tt' latiuna for tlm ((ovemmeiit of pUola ; to altvr rat«a ut pilotage ; to limit pllotaK« dlalrleta— all U-iuK vUkh their (liatrlct. I'owtrnf Appfol to Jlo cu J . ■•,Ut.—ii 'mi (ff f dumber of i|ualllii>(l plluta bvioiiKinirtoany port, otHu local marine board, or any nnnilier of ow.n ra vt »iit|^, maatera or insurer", conaider tluiimfivi'a iini;;rionail>ilily. 'Mm' pilot can not chanfje tho courae, unlcaa the •aptaJN agrees to it. In caao of dilferenco uf opinion, lli< |4M j ahall oxplain liia reaaons tu the otbi'r utticera ; imav), IIm' embarkation and dnbarkati >n of inerchandi»t', luM'p « ro^iatry of uU that paaaes o'l board undof tbeuLiwrvar tiona, Ilo owes obedience only to the captaiu, a^tti should never (|ult the veaaci when llic captain in itiM^H unleaa forced to do so. Portugal. — Tho pilot who from ignorance, ncgliiffiw*, or ilesign, luacg, or exposes a veaaci tu damage, ia Iwm"^ to repair her, and la liable to bo revoked aud i>ur»w4 by criminal proceas. Uniltd .Slales. — An act of Congress authorises #H States to make their own pilotage law a, and <(Uv«iliuM« umler these laws are cognizable in the Ktal« iviirt*. No one can act as pilot, and cla!.:i the rj>ui|.'e0a«v lor th> service, unleas duly mnittiittA't, And he should always have with him hia u>ujuiit«MW, which usually (lesignatea the l.tigeat veuu^l be way yi^ Vt, or that w'lich drawa ll' most water. If • l>iU4 oiiors himaeir to a ship that lui» no pilot, ami ia MitAf^ ing or leaving a harbor, and has not reat'lu^d fjirtM» geographical limita, the abip niuat pay bini piiul«Mv feca, whether his services are accepted or not. A* tw,4 as the pilot stands on deck he has a»>im»i>4 >4' tif ship, hut it remains the r -.^ter'a duly and i>: *er, W case of obvious and certain diaubillty, or .t«iig«f04ui jg.- norunce or error, to dlaoliey the pilot, nnd dintwrnbn Iiim of his authority. If a ship ii(,;l>'>'t to take i^i>Uni when it should and cnn do »c the u'vncrs wjl) Imi #*i- •werablo in damages ' ahippcrs and olljers (uf #»y d by at: h neglei't or refwwj. any image resulting fr>t»t ilefaii and have btwu hfiti The > ner U ojao U«M« iVW general principles for the default of the pilot, vUf i* bis servant. I'he laws passed by the United States cioiieitff4uiS pilots are ''omprehended in tin following: Augwft 7, 1789 — "That all pilots in the ba\ «, inlela, riv«ia, kiw-- bors, and ports of the United States shall <'uiiiing Ittwn »f the States respectively wherein such pilots luay hi, nf with such laws aa the States may reapeclively fc*r*' after enact for the purpose, until f u r* lier pruviaMW t^nM be made by Congress." March 2, IH37— '■ 'i bat >( tkiM \e lawful for the master or commander ut auy VMWtfl coming Into or going out of any port »itu«t«4 nyoH vrntMn mUtit ntn Itf l>4 t'MUn M IIm Htalea bounded un the anid wa- tif», tM 0U4 flsM ♦enwla to or from aai'i port ; any law, mmWi"* m**t>l» '» Ih* contrary notwithalaniiing." MtUmy IIMit at* i«ppninled by the (iovernor and t 'iMttfU iy(i«n ih* r»>-nmm<'ny (riM hia own veaaci. A>« llimiifhirf . — The appointment of pilots Is tho •iMN« iiM m milittt. I'llftta most lake charge of veaieU 4r>ti>ih0»>*Kt Hitt« fcet.exrept roasting veaacla. llonds ^ J!t>tt0l ittti rcfnlred for a faithful performance of 4tHt**.- Mmt**iK muf pilot their veaaela when outward liWr«M«y tin pilotage. Hut veaails inward bound Ittntt im<> ittlt fiMititf if they rcfuac u pilot, uiileaa tho »»■»*.( t* miltt'w (he lighl-honae bcfc. i \ pihil utlcra. In »hh1t ^ittiw ttn piMitge i^ due uiileaa a pilot is cninlny- )i4.- 'tUn (>*/^nti«1 and Council ri'guliile the feel for f^t'AMgt.f Ktuf Jtpsfi^nd or remove pilots fir misconduct. MutHtithUiitllii. — thti governor appoints pilots, ex- fttfi Uit tim pttti^ M itnston, where two cominiaaionera, )tti4 ^A'# W»«(fri^<(, where five comndaaioncrs, have the Itf^Milttl furwft. The pilots give boida fur 4l-J000 i«»• t'r^i. — Irr this .llato, Sandy Hook pilots are »t>tit4ttU4 iwurt regnlated liy the Pilot Comini J'ioncrs, ^li/t) ftfn finfitKii Itf the Underwriters and ( h i Iwr of • t'tfttftrnff*, Ufli Oat* pilots are appointed liy 'ho (iM^fmift im4 iml^H to the regulations vf iho Port W)tf4*tt*. tfc# !>*»(•» tif pilotage In and out of New "Kurk aro as MIa>#*s >'ivr *esitets drawing Hfnf nf Iff*. . . (ivwsril, $'i t4 . Ii-Mt*t<*t,,,, •■ im . (i**** *•»«...... " 8fi9 . ■it ()/t4 Kf mtifif / '• 4811. Onlwnrd, )t 81 per fint, " 8 181 " loss which may be Pilots are answer > their own negli^o., (trictl^ to this liability. A/>0 Jft/f/f.—^tnAy Hook pilots for the ports of ,/iitfflky 4'itf.- Sewark, nnd Perth Amboy aro appointed t/y (>AWMl>ss4oners. 'I h.- regulations do nut diller ma- •f-rUtit/ tfam (hose enacted in regard to the New York f nn»film, ill. — f'ildts for Philadelphia oro appoint- <'4 Uf # ISowrd of Wardens. There arc three classes tA' pitnit . Itm first for vessels of any description ; the »'*tm'l frif ♦ewmh drawing less than twelve feet; tho tkif4 feif ♦essel* drawing less than nine feet. Unli- f^umtitt piiMit *re snbject to fine and iniprifonniont. I Ss* 4ttf!tty »tn} l>elaware pilots have power to act mttttml « s^eial license. The first (lualilitd pilot li^ A^fi* i^m»i )tt MKw»tf, must take a pilot or pay half pi- jWtii'W'liwrf.— lllots for the Chesapeake Bay are ap- p^ttUtA iff » lllot Board. Pilots aro divided into the inm« (><*we» m in Pennsylvania. Pilots must take (im tmift^ tensel (o shore, or in the most distresa. It'ff^tfH *««««l» most lake a pilot, if one offers, or pay PIM laai riN 1 SI per fii"t. ! l-.'i " 1 7t. " J 181 " Jaro oppoint- Ilirce classes Iription; tlic Ivc feet ; tho Ifect. L'nli- Ipiifomiieiit. lower to act Llifiecl pilot lo vessel. A lis a fiipcrior Jjeily Island. ^aril, unless I pay half pi- luay are ap- lidod into the Ig must take Tost distresi. Iffora, or pay Virginia. — ninli art appnintad l>y a Ruanl. I'ilott i •redlvlduit into lhreiM'UiMl lake a jilut ur pay full i pilotage. ' I Sorts Cnrotina. — I'llots ara appnlnled l>y cotnnils- aloiiiir) fur eauh port. Vuaiols pay fiill pilutaitu wlicii rtfiixInK a pilot. tiiiuih Ciini/inii.— I'ilota aro appoliiti'il hy commii- lienors. I'iluts who lirliiK vessels Into port are enti- tled lo earry them out. Vessels pay full pllulaK* to tho llrsl pilot olferlng, whether hit •ervleoa ur« aceopt- ed or not. Aldltnma. — I'ilols aro licensed by the hurl jr-master and port wardens. Vessels pay half pllotuKo, If pilot Is not accepted. J/jiimiiiKi.—'l'he harlior- master and port warden of New ( )rluttns appoint pilots. There aro no river pilots. Vessels pay half pilotane to the pilnt if his services are not accepted. If tlio Dallzc, or ri'»t United States have been for several year' udopJcl vi ICnglaml and other parts of Kurope. — Se.i A ■" ■ >i<''.tn Journal if Science, xxxviii. 21)9; IliNj',s J!i:\;iianls' Mni/a.inc, xxv. 041; Economy of Miinufacturi), tnj lt.\iinA(;K. VAI.OE of f.MeoRTS op I'lNB INTO TUB InITKO S^TATBB FOB TUB ^ EAR E.NUl.NU JONK ai'IU, IS.M. wh.«™™p.,i«t. ^3"Jj,.'',"i:. I Inmbiirg $i'll4 llrinieii .127 Il.'lfliim 2.440 Knulsnil 0;i,24S Scntliiml 35 Franco on the Atluntlc 3.H 9B Total value $4(l,'J6S Pinchbeck (fior. Tombac.k; Pn. Tombak;Yr. Tarn- hac, .S'lmiVorj ll. Tmnbarro; Sp. Tombac, Tumhaipi), a name given to one of the many imitations of gold. Hy melting zinc in various proportions w ith copper or brass, some alloys result, .no colors of which approach more or less to that of gold. This composition is fre- tinios Similar, and /"efif-or. iii: i5 I" "^ f i W^ PIN 1SS2 P(N nn«, or Fir, • aptrlu of forent trn, naxt, If not lupariur, (o lli« oak, In (inlht of utiltly and viiluf. Thitru ar* aliov* twoiiiy (iumIui of |i|ii«, i'li»y do not baar Hat leavaa, l)ut a ipcdaa of ipinaa, which, how- •var, ara real loavea. Thay ara nioitly, tliouKh not all, avarifrcana \ liiit th« appaaranca of the traa, aa wril an tha i|ualily of tha timber, variid<'n, Norway, ■nd i.apland. It la atral|{hl, aliruplly hranchfid, rl>- ln(( In favoraldx ultuatlona to tha lie iKht nf nighty or ninaty /rxi, anil lH>lni; from thrae to four fuat In dlam- •tar. It ta at perfection when aovvnty or eiithty yrara old. 'i'hn color of tha wood illlTura cunaldorahlv ; It la Kf nerally of a raildiah yellow, or nf a honi^y yellow, of varloiia ili')(reea of brlghtncaa, It haa no UrK«r trana- varHO acpla, and It haa > itronK realnoua odor and taato. In the iM'iit thnlM'r the annual rln^t aro thin, not ex- caedinK -jlgth of an Inch In thicknoaa ; the dark paria of the rlnK" "' a bright reddiah color ; the wood hard and drv to llin feel, neither leaving A woolly anrfacu after llic aaw, nor lining Ita teeth with realn. The beat Norway ia the Aneat of thia kind, and the heat Uiga and Mrniid are not much Inferior. The Inferior aorta have tbii'k annual rin^a ; in aomo the dark parte of the tinff are of a honey yellow, the wood heavy, and lllled with a aoft realnoua matter, fecia clammy, and chokea (he aaw. Tlml>crof thia kind la not duralile, nor fit for IwarinK atraina. In aomo inferior apcciea (ho wood la apon^y, containa b'as realnoua matter, ami prracnta • woolly aurfaco after the aaw. Hwediah timber ia oft- en of (Ilia kind. .Scotch fir ia the moat durable of the pine apeciea. It waa (ho opinion of the cclebrulod ^Ir. lirindlt'V, " that red Klga deal, or pine wood, would enduru aa lon^ aa oak In all altuatlona." lla lightneaa and alitrneaa render It auporior to any other material for licunia, Kinlera, Joiata, rafters, etc. It ia much used in JoinerV work, as it Is more eually wrought, atands be((er. Is much cheaper, and is nrnrly, if not i|uile, as durable as oak, Scolch fir ia exporfed frnni Norway and Swe-wood ; but the heart-wood ia both stronger and more durable thnti that of larger trees from other situations. Uiifix exports a consider- able quantity under tho name of maats and apnra : pieces from eighteen (o twenly-llvo inches diameter are called mimli, and are iiaually seventy or cighiy f>'ct in length ; those of leas than I'Ighteen inchea diameter are called fgnrs. Yellow deuU and planks are imported IVom various parta of Norway, Sweden, rrnaaia, Knasin, cle. Tar, pitch, and turpentine arc obtained from (he Scotch fir. — .SVe thrtp lilies, ^\■hen the tree has attained to a proper a;;o It ia not injured by tho extraction of these producta. flpnice Pinr, — Of this thorn are three apeciea — the Norway 8|>rnce, or I'iiiui nliiri; white apruie, or I'inus ttllia; and black apruce, or /'inni niffni. These are no- ble trees, rising In straight aliins from 150 to '.'(Ml foct In height. They yield the timber known by tho name of irliilfjir, or ileal, from its always lieing Imported in deals or planks. Deals imported from Christiana ore In tho higlieat estimalion. — See Ciihi.stiana. The treea are usually cut into throe lengtha, generally of about twelve feet each, and are afterward cut into deals by saw-mills, each length yielding three deals, Tho Norway apruce thrives very well In Ilritain, and produces tlmlicr littlo Inferior to the foreign ; it ia somewhat softer, and the knots are extremely hard. The white spruce, or I'inin alba, Is brought from Brit- ish North America. The wood ia not so rcainous as the Norway spruce ; it is tougher, lighter, and more li- able to twist ia drying. The block spruce, or Piniu nigra, la also an American traa ; but it la not much lm> piirtuil Into Kngland. Tho blaik and whitn apruce de- rive their nanira from (he rnlnr of (he bark, the wood of both being of llin aanin i iilnr. The luliir of apruce tir, or while deal, ia yrilowish or brownish white ; iho hard par( of the annual ring a darker ahado of (he annin color. It oflen boa a allky luatre, espirlnlly In the American ami llrltlah grown kinda. Kach annual ring cunalata of Ihu parta; the one hard, (he o(hi'r softer. The kno(a ure generally very hard. The clear and alraight-graiiieil kltnla are often tough, but not very dillii'ult (o »iirk, imkI aland exiremely well Hhon prop- erly aeaaoneil. W bite deal, aa imparted, ahrlnka about ^i^th part In Ih'< utning i|ulte dry. U'ri/mniilli /'in.', or While Vme {Pinui tlrMtt), Is a native of North America. It la one of the largest and most useful nf Ihu American Ircea, and makoa excilleut maata; but It la not durable, nor (It for large linilera, being very aubjcct to dry-ml. It haa a peculiar odor. The commercial value of pine ia greater than that of any other wood, and It forma a largo proportion nf the lumber trade. The Northeastern .Slates ore sup- plied prii'dpally by Maine. The Middle Stales nblain their snpjillea fioni Michigan, New York, and Wcalern Pennsylvania; (he Norlhwesterii Stalea from Wealcrn I'ennsylvaniu, Virginia, and Wlsconain. — Hec I.u.MnKB Tn,\i>R. I.nrrh (_l'inut tarir). There are three apcciea of (hia valuable (rec— one European, anil two American. The varle(y from llie Italian Alps Is the must esleiined, and haa lately been extensively introduced into planlntluns in (ireat Ilritain. It ia a straight and lofiy tree, of rapid growth. A tree seventy-nine yeura of age was cut down at lllair Athol In 1817, which contained 'i!>'2 cubic feet of limber; and one of eighty years of age, at Dunkeld, measured IKHI cubic feet. 'Ihe mean fl/.e of the trunk of the larch may he taken at 'I'l feet in length, and ill! inches dlnmeler. The wood of the Kiiropean larch Is generally of a honey yellow color, the hard part nf the annual rings of a redder caat | sometimes It Is brownish white. In common with the other spceiea of pine, each annual ring consists of a hard and a soft purl. It generally has a silky lustre; Its color ia lirowncr (hnn that of (he .Scu(ch pine, and i( Is much (oughor. It ia morn dilllcult to work than lilga or Mcmel (imiier, but the anrfaie Is better when once It is obtained. It bears driving bolts and nails better than any other apeiioa of resinuua wood. When perfecdy dry it alanils well, but it warps much In seasoning. It Is in all siluations extremely durable. It is useful for every purpose of Imlliling, whether ex(eninl or Inlern- al ; It mako^ excellent ship (iniber, mas(a, boa(s, pusts, rails, and furnUure. It is pccullorly adapled for (lour- ing boards. In siluations where there is much wear, and for stair-cases; in tho latter, its lino color, -.vlien rubbed with oil, is much prufer.iblu to that of the black oaken stuir-cases to bo scefl In soniu old nuinslons. It is well adapted for doors, shutters, and the like; and, from (ho beaudful color of i(s wood whnn varnislied, pulnling ia not nccesaary.— (Wo have abs(raclod these parlicuiars from Mr. TuKDiini.o's excellent work. The J'riiiciplet of Cnrpenh-ij, p. 2l);i-217.) Fliie-apple, or Ananas, though a tropical fruit, i8nowex(enaivelycul(iva(e(l in hot-houses and ganlens, and is well know n to every one. WJien of a good sort and licaUhy, it ia (lie most luscious, and perhaps (ho best fruit llint is produceil; and, when carefully ciiltU vated, is superior, in point of quality, to that produced in the Wcjt Indies. Pink, a vessel masted and rigged like other slilp.s, only that this is built with a round stern, the bi'iids and ribs compassing so that her ribs bulge out very much. This renders tho pinks difllcult to bo boarded, and also enables them to carry great burdens, for which purpose they are often used. Pinnace, a small vessel used at sea, with a square stem, having sails and oars, and carrying three masts. TIN 1539 PIR Liil friil'i 1 ^'a^ll'll!', lnoiiil sort lrlmi>9 tlio Tuy luUi- jjiroiluctil licr olilp", ] «hl«A/ implny*!! In oluaiii liitii>iiini»<''. Pint, a iiifMiira iiMd clilafl) In tha mtaaurInK of llc|iilila. Tliu word !• Ui^h Hiilih, and kIkmIMiiii a III- tia inraauris nf win*, 'lliu KiikIIxIi pint ii^vd in |,u of two torls : tlm una fur wiim, lliii ollntr fur hiicir unit alo. Twu plntii niaka a i|uart ; two ijuurla a potlln ; t»u put- til'* u K«ll'»>i <*('•' 'l'l<* plo'i ioiparlal ll>|uli| inuaaura, Cuntalnn ;iril.V,l culilu Inchna. i Pipe, a wliiu nieamirc, niiually rontalnlnK 105 (vury nearly; Imperial, or Vii) wlno Dallam. Two pipvi, or 310 ImpiTJul |{«lluni, maks a tun. Hut, in practice, tlm ai/.u of thu pipu viirlci aciurdlnR to Iho dumrlpllon of wliiu it contains. Thnn a pIpu of port cuntaiiin I:IM winn Kulloni ; of iliorry, 130 ; of I.UIiun and lluciillaa, 110; of Madidra, 110; and of Vldunlu, l'20. Iho |>||„> of purl, it In to he uhaorvod, i» •eldoin accurnlcly tlM )(u|. iunn, an>u< dorlaralion of wari but It ia not ailowad to kill them wllhuul trial, «ao«pt In ballla. TIiuh wIio •urrrndur, or ara tak«n prlaon- ers, ntust lia brought iMtfur* the pn>p*rniagistrali't,aiid ilaait with according lu law. lly tha anciiint cuminua law uf KuKJanil, piracy, If eontmlttod liy c tulijtil, waa huld to In a apuclai uf traaaon, Indng ciiiitrary to hia natural allegiancii j and, by an ulirn, tu Ihi filuny only | but sliire ih statute uf treasons (;:< ImIw. III. c. V) It is hold to In only fidony lit a subjoct. Formerly thia ulfensa waa only cugniiablu by tha admiralty coctrla, whlcli prmuBil by tha rulea uf the civil law ; but it li*. ing iiicuiislilHnt with lh« liberties o. tha Italian that any man's life thouiil Imi taken away unless by the Judg. ittent uf hIa pears, the ilatuta W Hon. VIII. c. 1,'., sa- tabllahiid a now Juriidictlun for this purpow, witich pro- ceods aeiurdlng to tlio coursu of common law. It wu formeriy a questiuit wliotlter the Algerlnes, and ulhar African states, shuuld be runsiderod pirates ; but, liow- Bvor uxceptiuitalde tlteir conduct nilglit have lioen on many nceasions, and however hostile their policy might lie to the iitterests uf huttianity, still, a* Ihey li'ad bean sutijected to what may bo called regular govcrtimenta, I and hud been admitted to enter into treath a with other t powera, they could not lie treated aa pirates. Pirates 1 having no right to ntuko conquests, or to seine upon what belongs to others, capture by them docs nut di- vest tho owner of his property. At an early period of I Knglish history a law was made fur the restituliun of ] property taken by pirates, if found within tho reolm, whether helungiitg tu strangers or ICngllshmen ; but any furelgner suing upon this sfatuto must prove that ul tho time of the capture hia own sovereign and the sovereign of tho euptor w ere In mutual' aiully ; for it Is held that piracy can not iio cutuntittrd by lite subjocta I uf states at war with each uthor. Piracy waa almost , universally practiced in the lleruic Ages. Instead of I being estcenteil infumuua, it was supposed to lie honnr- I able. — l.utroiiniummaru ylin-M habtbiitur- -j cnsiAlt, lib. xliil. Meneluus, in the ' 'yssey, (b int h<^|. I tuto to infurm bis guests, who admired In.^ in i. " '.. ' I they were the fruit of his piratical ej ped llou-, i lib. I iv. vcr. 90); and such, indeed, was t!t . m ■ ,u wlin'b j most of the (jlreek princes amassed grent w llh.— ' Ut- oi:kt, Orii/in n/J.aifi. The pre,, 'e ii i- '-f 1 i al spirit in these early nges ni.i i .; .<. I • ed by the inlinito number uf en' '^ ti, Ui.. ul ' I into wliiclt tho country was di lad. i^ •! In I animosity cnnstantly subsisting among I wiiv ferocious and predatory liabiis weru ui. ilill'uscd and kept alive ; and it is not to be . that tltoso wlto wcro at all times liable to he alls :ked by busts nf enemies should very accurately ex.ttnine the grounds upon which tlioy attacked otlicrs. ..Ac- cording, however, as a inure improved system of gov- ernment grew up, (ireece, and a fow states, as Athens, Corinth, etc., had attained to distinction by their na- val power, piracy was mads a capital oflense; but though reprc».sed, it was never entirely put down. Cl- llcia was at all times the great strong-hold of the pirates of antiquity : aneautiful1y tinished arm which you may load and fire six balls from separntely in threo-cuniary means of then practi- cally testing bis convictions, he made a small wooden model of his conception, whieli lie possesses at tho present day. He then assiduously pursued his calling as 1 scientilic lecturer, and from its rewanls proc.ired the aid to manufacture specimen arms, which in their practical results exccedeil even his most sanguine ex- pectations; and in 1835 he received his first patent from the Government of the Unittd Stafi':. Colonel Colt's first manufactory of fire-arms was located at I'aterson, New Jersey, in the year IS.ICi, with a capital of (liOd.OftO. This continued in opera- tion until tho year 1842, when it wai rplini|uished as uaprolltable. The Florida war of 1887-'ii8 created a 1 8 9 4 4 i < 1 19 1 10 1 8 demand for, and gave practical drmonstration of tb« great value of, tho repealing flre-arnii patented by him. They were also used with great oHcct In the Texan revolution and war ; and afterward in the war with Mexico (184C-'47), when a contract was nude by him with the government for the supply of one thou- sand of the improved arms. A temporary manufactory was established for this purpose at Whitney vill?, Con- necticut. This was succeeded by the present extonsivB factory at or near Hartford, on tho Connecticut Klver, which was finished and in successful operation in the year 18.55, with a capital of |1,250,0U0. Those build, ings present a front of 61)0 feet. The repeating princl- pie has also been successfully applied by Colonel Colt to rilles and carbines, several varieties of which oro constantly in tho course of completion in tho armory. Litely the demand lor the sporting rille Ims increased wonderfully, which increase will, no doubt, bo much augmented as their superiority is nmre generally prac- tically demonstrated by our hardy liuckwoodsinen ; and the day is not distant when regiments of riflemen will bo equipped with Colt's revolvers. Within the last year still another stylo of pistol haa been introduced. It is called " Colt's new Model," and by some it is preferred to either of the others. Un- doubtedly this is a matter of fancy with the party using the arm, as in some cases individuals yet prefer Colt's lirst to any arm that was ever manufactured. Tho arms are of several sizes, and weigh as follows ; „, ... PouniJi, OunrM, Tlie military rifle, bsrrcl SO Inches, fit- J ted witli improved bayonet j SportlnK rifle, barrel from 18 to oO j Inches, average { Tho army or lioUter iiisttil The navy Dr belt pUtol Tho pocket pistol, barrel 8 inches 'I'lio pocket pistol, barrel ."i liiehes Tlio pock(!t pistol, barrel 4 Inches These are kinds that oro constantly ill tlio course of construction ; of course many other varieties are made by special order. Of the improved pistol, over 138,000 had been manu- factured here up to January, 1857. Ni'arly eight hun- dred men are ordinarily employed in tliis worli alone. Tills result is the fruit of a market for orms, not con. lined to the United Stales, Init extending over both tho Americas ; more or less to the Indies, Kast and West ; to Eijypt — I'ven to dialant Australia; to remote Asiatic trilics assembled at tho gn^at fairs of Novgo- rod ; and over Europe generally, but es|ieeially to En- gland, here tlie arms of Colonel Colt, lirst Introduced ill splendid style tiirougli the M'orld's Fair, wcto warm- ly welcomed, and led to tlio speedy eslalilisliMiout in London of an extensive armory for their iiianiifacturc, and to their rapid adoption into tlio Drilish army and naval service. — I nileil iSlates Mnyazim; March, 1H07. .S'«' FlUK-AU.MS. Pitcairn's Island. A small solitary Island in the raci'ic Ocean, seen by Cook in 177.'1, and noted for being colonized liv ten mutineers from tlio sliip Jloun't/, Captain Dligli, in 17X0, from wliiih lime till 1811 tliey (ov rather their descendants) I'l'inained here un- known. Soil fertile, but porous, ami rather defective iu water; well wooded, and cliinule hcaltlifiil; thcr- nionipter ranging from ti'.l'' to W" Falir. Prevailing winds southwest and east-southeast, but it is beyond tlie limits of the re;^uiar trade-winds. It is Nurroundcd by rocky shores, and has only one accessible landing- placo at Hounty liay. The cocou-nul, plantain, ba- nana, and bread-fruit trees fiourisli, liiliiseiis, or cloth liee, banvan-tree, orange, and others; and the potato, swcetpotato, yams, water-melons, pumpkin, tare, sugar- cane, ginger, turmeric, tobacci, tea-plant, and maize, arc cultivated. The island contained ni indii;ciicui quadrupeds, but goats, hogs, and poultry iiuvo been iniponed. In 171)0 this island was re orted to b" tbii mutineers of the Jiountij, consisting of nine llrlllsh sailors, six native Tahitlan men, and twelvo wonion. PI m PIT 1536 PLA In consequence of various discords and massacres, at the end uf ten years tliore remained only one Englisli- man, Adams, the Taliitian females, and nineteen chil- dren, their ofl'spring. Under the superintendence of this man tlic children ware educated and trained up to habits of industry and morality. In 1825 Captain Boechey found a most interesting and intelligent colony of sixty-six persons. In 1831, by the somewhat im- prudent sand Ion of the British government, the colony, nunil)erlng eightr-soven persons, was transferred to Tahiti. After remaining five months there, and losing twelve of their number by death, the colony, at their own solicitation, were again reinstated in their native island. In 1840 the population amounted to 75 males and 7'i females, in all 14'J; of these, three were En- glishmen, one a native Taliitian woman, the only re- maining female of the original migration, and the re- mainder were natives of the island. They live chiefly on yoins, potatoes, and other vegetables, which they raise by their own labor. From the remains of burial- grounds, the island would appear to have been occii- \Aei\ by inhabitants nt a period antecedent to the visit of the mutineers of tlio llmintj. It was seen by Cur- tcret in 17G7, and named by lilm after oncof hi? ofliccrs. Pitch (Ocr. Pech; Fr. I'oir, JJrai; It. Ptce; Sp. I'e: , liuxd. iSmolaffustaia), tlie residuum which remains on inspissating tar, or Iwiling it down to dryness. It la extensively used in ship-building, and for other pur- poses. — See. Navai, Storks. Pittabuirgli, city, port of entry and capital of Allo- ghuny county, Pennsylvania, is situated at the conflux (I'lhe Alloghaiiy and Monongahela rivors, where they form the Ohio, which is here p quarter of a mile wide. 1 1 is In 40" 3-.'' X. lat., and 80° 2' W. long., 357 m. via I'cnnsvlvania Railroad from Philadelphia, 2i7 west- northwest of Ilurrisburg, 226 from Washington, I). C, and 2011 aliove New Orleans by the coarse of the river. Population in 1810, 4768; in 1820, 7248; in 1830, 12,6(!8; in 1840, 21,115; in 1850, 4(;,(i01; in 1854, the city anil inmicdiatc vicinity estimated at 110,000. It wag originally laid out on the northeast bank of the Monongahela, after the model of Philadelphia, with Utreets running parallel with the rivers, and others crossing them at right angles. The streets on the Alleghany are laid out on a similar plan, and hence a (hurt distance from the Alleghany the old and new streets meet in oblique directions. I'ho Alleghany Kiver is spanned by three bridges, which, with several stcom ferries, connect the city with the suburbs. The Pennsylvania r^onal crosses the ri\er by an aqueduct, •nd there is a suspension-bridge over the Monongahela. As nianufttrturingcit', Pittsburgh is second in the Stale only to Philadelphia. In 1850 it had thirteen rolling-mills, witli a capital of $5,00f;,000, employing 2500 hands, consuming 60,000 tons of |;ig metal, and producing annually bar iron anu nails to ihc value of $ 1,000,000; thirty large founderies, with an aggregate cnpital of 12,000,000, and 2.'j00 hands, using 20,000 tons of pig iron, anil yielding articles valued at ^2,000, 000 annually ; two establiahnients for manufacturing locks, latches, colTce-mills, scales, and other iron casting, em- ploying 500 hands, and a capital of $250,000, using 1200 tone metal, and producing annually to the value of $3,000,000; live largo cotton factories — capital ♦ 1,500,000, hands 1500, cotton consumed 1.5,000 bales, and products valued at upward of #1,500,000 annually ; eight (lint-glassmanufactories— capital $300, 000, hands COO. and producing various articles of glass, in the man- ufacture of which 150 tons lead and 200 tons of pearlash ore used, to the value of $400,000 annually; seven phi.il furnaces and eleven window-glass factories — capi- tal iji2.'pO,000, bands 600, ond onnual products $(100,000 ; one soda-ash factory, employing 75 hands, and pro- ducing annually 1500 tons; one coppor-smclting house, jroducing 600 tons refined copper annually, valued at $380 per ton ; oiic rolling-mill, producing annually liOO tons sheothing and brazier's copper; live white-lead factories — capital $lfiO,000, hands 60, and prodacinf; 150,000 kega annually, worth $200,000. There are also a number of manufactories of the smaller sizes of iron, several extensive manufactorina of axes, hatcheta, spring-steel, steel springs, axles, anvils, vices, mills, cross-cut and other saws, gun barrels, shovels, spadei, forks, hoes, cut tacks, brads, etc. The products of the manufactures in the aggregate are valued at between $50,000,000 and $00,000,000 annually. There are con- sumed about 12,000,000 bushels of coal annually, worth $600,000, and an equal quantity is exported from the city, giving employment constantly to 4000 handa. Plains. In Geography, the general term for all those parts of the dry land which can not properly be called mountainous, and which compose by far the greater part of the earth's surface. Plains have differ- ent physical appearances according to their geograph- ical position, and the peculiar characteristics of each have procured for them different names ; thns we have the steppes of Asia, the deserts of Africa, the pampas of South America, and the prairies or savannas of North America. See these different lerma. Plane, a forest tree, of which there are two species ; the Oriental plane (Platanut Orienlalis), and the Occi- dental plane (^Platanua Occidentalu). The Oriental plane is a native of the Levant, and other Eastern countries, and is considered one of the finest of trees. It grows to about 6C feet in height, and has been known to exceed eight fee . in diameter. Its wood is much like beech, but mor figured, and is used for furniture and such like artiel. ', The Occidental plane is a na- tive of North America, and is one of the largest of the American trees, being sometimes more than 12 feet in diameter. I'he wood of the Occidental plane is harder than that of the Oriental. It is very durable in water. The tree known by the name of plane in England is the sycamore, or great maple (^Acer pseudo-plalanui). It is a large tree, grows quickly, and stands the sea- spray better than most trees. The timber is very close and compact, easily wrought, and not liable either to splinter or warp. It is generally of a brownish white or yellowish white color, and sometimes it is very beau- tifully curled and mottled. In this state it takeb u lino polish, and bears varnishing well. It is chiefly used in the manufacture of saddle-trees, wooden dishes, and a variety of articles of furniture and machinery. When kept dry, and protected from worms, it is pretty dura- ble ; l)ut it is quite as liable as beech to be attacked by them. — TuKixiOLi), p. 196. Plane Sailing, in Karigntion, is the art of de- termining the ship's place, on the supposition that she is moving on u plane, or that the surface of the ocean is plane instead of lieing spherical. On account of the magnitude of the terrestrial radius, this supposition may be adopted for short distances without leading to great errors; and it atfords great facilities in calculation, for the place of the siiip is found by the solution of a right- angled plane triangle. The part of the meridian be- tween the ship and the parallel of latitude of the place vhence she departed forms the perpendicular of the triangle ; tlie distance on the parallel between the place of departure and the foot of tlie perpendicular is the base of the triangle (technically called the departure) ; and the distance soiled is the hypolhcnuse. The angle at the ship is called the course, and the other acute angle the compicment of the course. Now, of these four things, the perpendicular, the departure, the dis- tance sailed, and the course, any two i>eiiig given, the triangle can bo laid down on the chart, and all the otiier parts of it found. — See Navk;ai1on. Flanka (Ger. and jJu. Plnnkeii; Da. Planker; Sw. Plnnkor; Kr. Planches, /lurdar/es; Kiiss. Tiilst lile olosku), thick strong boards, cut from vaiious kinds of wood, especially oak and pine. Planks are usually of the thickness of from 1 inch to 4. They are exported in large quantities from the northern parts of Europe, par- ticularly from the ports of Christiana, Uantzic, Arcb- PLA 1587 PLA •ngel, Petersburg, Narva, Revel, Riga, and Memel, as j southeast, and where it joins the Atlantic Ocean, ia well as from several parts of North Amorica.— 6'ee 1 170 miles across (between Maldonado ami ( ape St. Lumber Tkade. Plantain, or Banana, the pulpy fruit of the Muia paradUiaca, an licrhaceous plant, extensively cultivated in most inter-tropical countries, hut especially in Mex- ico. It is not, like most other fruits, used merely as an occasional luxury, but is rather an established article of subsistence. Being long and extensively cultivated, it has diverged into numerous varieties, the fruit of which differs materially in size, flavor, and color. That of some is not above two or three inches long, while that of others is not much short of a foot ; some sorts are sweet, and of a flavor not unlike nor in- ferior to that of a good mellow pear ; but the larger kind are, for the most part, coarse and farinaceous. The latter are either used fresh or dried in the sun, in which latter state they are occasionally ground into Antonio); its centre being about lat. 3.")' liO' .S., long. 60" \V. Its muddy waters can be traced in the ocean 200 miles from its mouth. The total length of the I'lata and the Paraguay has been estimated at nearly ".iuOO miles ; and from the ocean to tlio island of Apipo in the Parana, at least 1'.'50 miles, thcrr; is a continuous and safe navigation fur vcsacls of 300 tons. The Agua- pehy, an affluent of the Paraguay near lat. 15° 40' S., long. 59° 20' W ., is separated only by a portaye of three miles from the Alegrc, a tributary of the (iuapore, and were a canal to be made to connect the two .streams, a complete system of internal navigation throughout nearly all South America would exist. — See Paka- GU.VV. Plate, the denomination nsually given In gold and silver wrouglit into artiolus ol'bousehold furniture. It meal and made into bread. In Mexico the sweeter i appears from PunTKit's I'mgrcss nfthe .Va^c-n, iii. 25, sorts are frequently pressed and dried, as figs are in [ that the annual corisumplion of silver plati- has in- Europe; and, while they are not very inferior to the | creased from about 800,000 oz. at the commencement of last-mentioned fruit, they are Inlinitely cheaper. " I doubt," says M. Humboldt, '' whether there be any other plant that produces so great a quantity of nutri- tive substance in so small a space. ulistaiicc liKow", its epe- cillc gravity Ijeing Jlfi. It undergoes no climigcfroni air or moisture, and is not attaclied l)y any of tlic pure acids; it is dissolved by chlorine and nitro-niuri- aticacid, and is oxydi/.ed at liigh tenipcrnlures by pu'e potassa and lithia. It is only found in Soutli America and in the I'ralian Mountains; it i: usually in small grains of a metallic lustre, assoeliili'it or combined with palladium, rhodium, iridium, and osmium ; and with copper, iron, lead, titanium, chromium, gold, and silver ; it is also usually mixed with alluvial sand. The par- ticles are seldom so large as a small pea, but sometimes lumps have been found of the size of a hazebnut to that of a pigeon's egg. In 182C, it was first di;.overed in a rein as'-ociated with gold by Buusslngnult, i.i the province of Antioquia, in South America. When a perfectly clean surface of platinum i: pr seiileil to a mixture oflijdrogen and oxygen gas, it has the extraor- dinary property of causing them to coniliine so as to form water, and often with such rapidity as to render the metal red hot: ipongy plnliiiiim, as it is usually called, obtained by heating the ammuniu-muriate of platinum, is most eifective in producing this extr- i- dinary result; and a jet of hydrogen (lireclc'.'. upon it may be inflamed by the metal thus ignited, a prop- erty which has been applied to the construction of con- venient instruments for procuring u light. The equiva- lent uf platinum is about 98. It is precipitated from its nitro-muriatic solution by sal uninioniac, which throws it down in the form of a yellow powder, composed of bii hloride of platinum and sal ammoniac. Platting, slips of bast, rane, straw, etc., woven or plaited for making into hats, etc. Plumbago. See Ulaok-lead. Pliunn, the fruit of the Vrunus ilomnlica, aro too well known to rfi|uire any description. They were introduced into England in the I.lth century, and are cultivated in all parts of the country. There aro said to be nearly .100 varieties of plums. I'lum-lree (/Vhiii/i ilnmeslica). The Prunua ilumes- tica appears to be more widely diffused in its original locality than the apricot. It is iielievcd to be indig- enous to the south of Itussiu, (,'aucasus, the Hima- layas, and to many ])arts of F.urope. In Knglaiul, and in some parts of the liiitcd States, it is sometimes found in hedges, but never truly wild. This species and many of its varieties arc cultivated for ornament, or their fruit, in all the tf niprrato countries of the habitable globe. Faulkner, in his Kensington, makes the plum a native of Asia, and an introduction into Europe of the Crueaderj. (lough, in his Hiitiik J\- pugraji/ii/, says that Lord C'ronnvell j.ilioduced the Pcrdrigon plum into Eiiglond in tne tin c of Henry Vtl. The introduction of this tree into i.''C I'nited States dates back to the earliest periods of their t'ltle- mcnts. Several valualile and interesting varieties have originated in this country, among which the liolmar or Washington plum stands conspicuous. The parent tree is said to have been purchased in a market ■ in New Yi ri., aliout the end of the last century. It , remained barren for several years, till, during a violent storm of thunder, the entire trunk was severed lo the earth by lightning, and destroyed. The part remal.i- ing in the ground afterward tlirew up several vigorous shoota, which were allowed to remain and linally pro- duce fruit. Trees of this variety were first sent to En- gland in 1K1!>, to Mr Robert llarclay, of Bury Ilillj; and several "lher» "vrc oent to the London Horticul- tural Socii ly ill l."*.'l, ii\ Dr. Ilosack, of New York. Tfcc wood of the I'runiis tlommlica U hard, close, coin- f»>t, beautifully \'ined, and susceptible of n fine poiifh. AVhoii dry, a weighs from forty to fifty pounds to a rul>ic foot, avcurding to the nge and growth of the tree. Its texture is silkv, and when washed with lim«-w«ter it« color w kvi^hteued, and may be ]ire- served by the application of varnish or wax. Unfor- tunately for this tree, its wood is sometimes rotten at the Iiiart. In France and Germany it is much sought after liy turners, cabinet-makers, and the manufactur- ers of musical instrumen's. Theleovesare eomelimes given t»i cattle for fornge. The use of the fruit in do- mestic economy for dessert, and fur making tarts and piiddin^ , is well known. In France plums aro prin- cipally u.«cd dr}' or preserved, and enter extensively into commet -c. The kinds usually employed for pre- serving are the Hrignole, the prune d'Ast, ''>e I'erdri- gon blaiie, the prune d'Agen, and the l?te. Cathi-ine. In warm countries plums or prunes ire dried on hurdles by solar heat; but in colil climates artilicial heat is employed; the fruit being exposed to the heat of an oven and lo that of the sun on alternate days. Table prunes are prepared from the larger kinds of plums, as the green-gage, and Ste. Catherine; those employed in medicine from the Ste. ' Thi former have a very sweet and n.-rc- , and the latter are somewhat austere. F', ilums, taken In moderate quanlities, are rcga; led as niiiritivc and wholesome ; but in large quar es they readily disorder the bowels; and when imn they still more easily excite ill effects. The mi ...cinal prunes are employed as an agreeable, mild laxative for chil- dren, and are given during convalescence from febrile and iiiflammntory disorders in adults. — Hit of "the 111 St Ic divisi""'' 1, fornieil \>y |nnioa/.e. At Tf I'lyiiiiiiitli lis now cum Iwater acruss Ithecnlram'i' J a barrier to lund is tlircc llie liarlior Jichin vopuP, Innfacturi'.— i)ijrapliy »'"' [circle rirf- J over wliicli linetcr of Oi" Ian, or uortU 1 anp'.cs lo it I tlie '•irdc '9 Ihich is swi'- lwliolccin.lo la tlio poiiils of division aro termed the point! of the comiisia, Kach I w<lc has a particular name, i.idicatini; its plaeu with rtifor. upot ; but It was not till more than a century after this encolothcfourprincipalorcorJiiio/jwmfj/nainely, ihu that Kric Uaniln. dlscovcreU the southern part of Old north, south, east, and west points.— •!(<;« C'omi'Ahh, Folai' Sea, North. Wo are now alilo to draw with nearly geographical accuracy the boundaries of tho North Tolar Sea. A very largo portion of lliu northern shores of Ii^uropo, Asia, anU America, wliicli circumscribe it, have been visited, aud the position of moat of their bays, headlands, and rivers, geographic, ally ascertained. By casting our oyo over tho North Polar chart, it will be seen that tlie I'olar Hea of that hemispheio is an immense circular basin, which i'oin> niunicates with the two great oceans of tlio world— tho Atlantic and the Pacilic — by two channels, the one separating /Vmcrica from Europe, and tho uthoi- Amer- ica from Asia. It will bo seen that few points jf tho coasts of Europe and Asia, which occupy a full htlf of the circumscribing circle, extend much beyond tlio 70th parallel of latitude; and all these points liavo liecn passed by water, though at dinercnl points and by dif- ferent persons, with the single exception of tho t'upo Covcro Vastochnoi, which on .he charts is made to extend to the latitude 7Ji°. Tho northern coost of America, with Old Groonlunil, and the two diannuls above mentioned, complete tli'j circle, America cxtcnil- ing about 80' of longitude, or just two ninths of the ivholo circle; and of this portion the whole ooast has now been ascerlainod, with tin.' esception of thot part which lies between (Jape Turiiagaiu of Franklin, und the land nt the bottom of Prince liegcnt's Inlet, wliltll the gentlemen cf the Iluilson's Uay Company are now (1838) exploring. This being ai.compli lied, wu sliull have the whole lino of the nortliern coust of Ameriiu completed. We may, therefore, slate that dm aver- age of the degree of lalihide of Ihls co^nt is about Ilin sami' lis, or rather 'iKcr than, that of Kiirope nud Asia, and tho extent of tho North Polar Stu miiy be (■on»iil- ered .is about 210!) geographical miles In dlamcinr, or 7200 in circumference, 'the interior or central parts of this sea arc very little known. Several IsIlmmIs are scattered over its southern exironillles, tlie largeit of which is Ulil dreenland, wliose northern limit lias nut yet been parsed; the others are, Spllzliergen, Novii Zembia, the islands of I.iaknov, or, as simio have been jileascd to call them. New Siberia ; the North i Southern America, would be prodi(!ioiisly shortened, The voyage of Columbus had that object; but it was soon discovered that, from the Sirailt of Magilliuiiin to tlie G'-iIf of St. Lawrence there was itn iiiiiiilcriiipl- ed continuity of land. Of the northern regions the As the ■.'astern cclreuilty had not been seen, and the Minding of the coast was to northeast, it was conjec- ture.! that ll might unite with the Southern Thuli of look, and form the loiig-sought-for Southern Conti- nent. It Is said, however, that the Kussians hove also clieumiiavigateil llii« land, und that it i", composed of a great duster of Islands. Till' land III question has been called South Shetland, but it li II" new discovery. In the account of the voy- age of III'' II rr M}» of IMIerd'im, under the command of ilai'oli Malm and Simon do Cordcs, to the South Scon, ill the year Killli, it is staled that, on approoching the Hirolt of Magclliaeiis. the yacht commanded by |)|rk Ulierrit/, was separated from all the other ships, and was curried bv tempesU.ous weather to the south of the Strait, lo 01 south latitude, where they discov- ered ll lil»lli loiiiitry, with mountains, which were cov- ered with snow, like the land of Norway. This land of (ilierrit/. wan marked on some of the old charts, but discoiillniied on thouMre modern onc.«. from the uneer- luliily of Us position with regard lo longitude. There mil be no doubt of Its Identity with the modem South iufonr.ation obtained has been scanty and dUcoui'ttgllig | .Slielluiid. /I uniwend lo the ile.{ moisture, are favorable to a luxuriant vegetation. Soil in the valleys and la tho river courses a rich volcanic mould ; on tho mountains loss fertile. Both vogetablc and animal productions are limited as to number of species. In the islands of the middle and eastern di- visions not more than 600 species of plants arc found. This number increa-es toward tho west and northwest. Tho bread-fruit, puniliur to this region, the cocoa, ba- nana, plantain, banyan, sugar-cane, yam, and cotton- plant, paper-mulberry, and a species of chestnut, aro indigenous. Other trees and plants of tropical climates have been introduce Probably the population of tho whole of Polynr-i;i does not exceed one million or one million and a half. — Haki'bii'.s (Jazelleer. Pomegranate ((ier. Cranatiipfd ; Fr. i:renade.<; It. ijranati, Melagrani ; .Sp. Cranadati), the fruit of the l)omegranate-trcc (^I'unica granatum). This tree, whiili grows to tho height of 15 or 20 feet, appears to 1h' a native of Persia, whence it has been conveyed, on tlic one side, to Southern Europe, and on the other (o the tropical parts of Asia, and eventually to the New World. Tho fruit is a pulpy, many-seeded berry, the size of an orange, covered with a thick, brown, coriaceous riiiil. 'I he pulp has a reddish color, and a pleasant sub-acid taste. Tho value of the fruit depends on the sniall- ncss of tho seed and tho largeness of tho pulp. Tlic finest, called by tho Persians ladnnn, or seedless, is imported into India from Cabul and Candahar, where the poniegrauato grows in perfection. The tree Ihrivos all the way to the e(iuator ; but within the tropics tlic fruit is hardly fit for use. The pomegranates brouglit to market from tho south of Europe and the West In- dies aro very inferior to those of Persia. Tho Pitnica granalum is a tree, in magnitude and ligneous character, bearing oonsiderahlc resemblance PON 1641 POP tabic er of :ndi- ound. iwcst. la, ba- lotton- ul, uro iniatcs vv-root, ire now r trees, imcntttl (IccUlcd cient in iiiinibcrs c coasts. ^1 whale, ;culiar to been tho LB. Oxen mil tlirivo lU natives ,U, active, ,nct races, most lui- lU Central mnion lan- icr a ni-gro color, unil ufls, fipcal;- intcllect 'cw Oal- l.aiJronc Isl- jic Ladroncs, „ Marquesas lOTtbatAVal- .,. scribed tlw [ci- this, mi- after many , promoting the v'ii«'- •ogc ferocily Ition »f the?i; .aliiins, ami itlicrs, wbtn „rcatly more lata exist fir •al nunil»r> ,f l'olynr>!;i ami a huh'- |r. Crenadef; , fruit of llie Is tree, whiili lears to !»' a leyed, on tlw 1 otlier to tlic iKcwAVorU. llie siio of an laceous rinil. [ant suli-uci'l ,.1 tlic EUiall- kpulp. 'I''"- i scedloss, i^ llahar, vli'f'^' Ictrcetlirivos lie tropics tlie latcs broupl't ^lie West In- Lgnitude anJ 1 resemblance to tho common hawthorn. In a wild state it forms a thorny bush; but when cultivated in gardens and in plantations, under favorable circunistan'-cs, it often at- tains a height of 16 or 20 feet. Tho I'ltnica granatum is indigenous to Harl>ary, I'er- fiia, Japan, and various parts of Asia; and has long been naturalized in tho south of Europe, tho 'West In- dies, Mexico, and in South Aracrh'a. In tho Hima- layas, Mr. Roylo informs us that the pomegranntn grows wild, and also tliat it is planted near villages. It forms (luitc n wood in Slazanderan, whence tho drieil seeds are exported for medical use. Tho famous seed- losa pomegranates are grown in tho rich gardens lying under the snowy hilU near tho Kivor Caubul. Thev are also dcsorihed as delicious about lladgiabad, and throughont I'orsia. " Though grown in most parts of India," says iMr. Koyle, "largo quantities, of superior (luality, are yearly brought down by the northern iner- chants from Caubul, C'ashnieru, and lioodurwar." The pomegranate-tree, which partakes of tlio antiquity of tho vine, tho fig, and tho olive — and which, in point of utility, is numbered with tho grain-bearing plants, and with honey, all constituting tho principal food of the Kastern notions, in tho early stages of civilization- must possess no small degree of historical interest. It is mentioned by Thcophrastus under the name of I'oa; the Phoenicians called it aidi; the (ireeks cijtinos; and tho Roninj\s, according to IMiny, milm jmnica. l1io general dilTusion of tho pomegranate through- out tho climates suited to its growtli, implies that it possesses highly valuablo properties. In hot coun- tries its utility is incontestable ; for its juice is most grateful to tho palate, and assuages thirst in a degree quite peculiar to it, from its pleasant acid — an acid so soft that it may, in truth, be said to bo "full of melt- ing sweetness," as Jlooro expresses himself. The pulp, however, which incloses the seeds, is sometimes acid, sonu-'times sweet; and in some cases vinous, astrin- gent, and always refreshing. A sirup is made from the pulp by tho druggists, as well as from the dried llower.s, which is employed as m\ astringent and deter- gent. The rind of the fruit, on account of its astrin- gent properties, is sometimes employed in materia med- tcfi, as well as in the veterinary art. It has also been used as a substitute for galls, in tho manufacture of black ink, and is said to be still employed in some parts of Germany in dyeing leather red, in imitation of morocco. In tho Himalayas, Mr. Itoylo informs us, the rind of the fruit, called itaspcd, " being very astrin- gent, is used in medicine, as well as in dyeing. The employment by the natives of India of tho bark of the root for the expulsion of the tape-worm, being now well known, since tho subject was communicated by Drs. Hamilton and I'loming, is a remarkable instance of tho oblivion into which even a valuable medicine may fall, as this property was well known to Hioscori- des." Lord llacon reconunends the juice of pomegran- ates as good for liver complaints ; and Dr. Woodv'iUe .■iays it is preferable to that of oranges in cases of fever. Trom tho flowers, with the addition of alum, there moy lie obtained a tine red ink. The flowers, ..Iso, were fnr- merly used to dyo cloth a light red. — lliioWNlt's Trees of A inerlca, Pouce. -See ToKTO Rico. Pondicheny. The name of Pondicherry is made to include all the French posses.sions in Indi.n, because it is the most considerable of ihcm. It is situateil on tho Coromandel coast of Illndostan, in latitude U^ 57' \. Its population in ISHti was .^2,1'.'T, of whom I'llfi'i were Kuropcans. The French jiossessions in India rompriso also Chandarnagore, Karikal, in the Climat- ic; Mah6, in Malibar; Vanaon, in Orissa; with the territory attached to each. These have a total popu- lation of lOG.OOO, of whom 1000 aro whites. Tho prml- ncts are rice, grain, cocoa-initB, betel, indigo, tobacco, and cotton. Tho annual value of the imports is about $373,000, and of tho exports about $1,200,000, Tlie trade, nearly all being at Pondicherry, is with the Cor- omanilel coast, Islo of Ilourbon, tho Mauritius, und Senegal. Pondicherry would have been a eommeriial point of great magnitude but for tho changes of owner- ship, occasioned by tho frequent wars of Franco and I'ngland. The law of tho 17th May, 1826, provides that the distinction between tho Krcneh and foreign factories In India shall be suppressed in the tariff, ami that merchandise from any of these settlements shall pay no other duties than arc imposed on th« same ar- ticles brought from tho Krench sottleinonts. Poplar (Oer. I'appil, I'appclliiitiin ; Du. I'apelitr , Fr. I'eiijilir; It. Pioppa; Sp. .l/fini(.; I.at. /'o/)i(fcs) Of the poplar (J'opulus of botanistK) lliirc are about l.'> species described. In most favorable i.\tuations the white poplar grows with great rapidity, Boinctinies sending forth shoots Ifl feet long in a single season. Tho wood is soft, and not very durable uidess kept dry ; but it is light, not apt either to swell or shriidi, and easily wrought. The I.ombardy poplar gro«s rapidly, and shoots in a complete .-liiie to a great height; its timber does not differ ina'."rially from that of tho white poplar. It is very light, and is therefore well adapted for the manufacfine of packing-cases. Xono of the species is lit for large tiinliers, — TitKii- (iiii.li's Priiiriph;i nf Carpentry ; Veijilabh Suhatancu, f.ibr(ir>f of f^nlerlainwf/ Kiioirlcdtje. Population. It would be quite inconsistent with the objects and limils of this work to attempt giving in this place any explanation of tho laws which regu- late the progress of population. However, as it is fre- (pienlly of importance In commercial questions, and in others affecting commorrlnl interests, to be able to com- pare tho consumption uf an article with the population, we believe we shall gratify our readers l>y laying be- fore them tho following Taldc, showing tho compara- tive population of tho principal commercial countries of the world : CountrlM. Povnlatlon. Austrian Empire, lS4ii.. Uritlsh EiuDlre. -Viii'tvift llmipary IxiiTilinnlv ntid Venice. . Kiiplftml mid Wrtles. . , , a.1.0(13.WW ^.Hi■<^.■K•i 4,S03,5i;W iT.«o,'.,8';i !i,H7»,'iHt iHtands In llrftl^l) seas.. Ireland t'olonios. . r>,-*"-i4,4rT North Auiericii West inditJS I4.V,il(! 0,515, 71.4 D,1S1,2T0 (IO(»,S.S.! »11,40 4H!l,0Oll l,r),M,,1.MI 411,10:! :!5,4iH».4S0 Colonies, 1S41, '^^'.>,49fl A.'ia Africa and Algeria West Indies Prussia 1S40 , vii:. : 1(17,790 a7-2,4C,'.> 25.-.,lWl> N. and S. Amer'.ca ■iO,iW io,iiai,is7 Protestants Itiisslan Kmpire, IS-ID... t:nUca Htatcs, lS5t !),S,1''>,.'>S8 6,rt4),'>!''J .tcvf 8 flll,00S,3t.') f-airopenn Itussia .Siberia TronB-Cuncoslun 214,807 M.n!;i,sino 2,0.^7,0011 '2,O.H,I«IO 01,0(10 Poland Finland 2:1,(!74,7(I0 White 4,8.')7,TnO i,4i'.>,Bir. 10,666,802 418,57:J Slave colored 4,r)19,5-'t> •Jatliollca I roteatants 3,'.'10.931 .1,(160.694 l,181.2ie S9.2SS 4,!»xono ri,18(MMK) now to r.OOi'.uoO •2,!!'.C,41iT Denmark v«'Iier Denmark 1845 1,40T,T4T 835,.7I» Colonies 118.491 ii rountrlM KK>1" (irepce lUiiiburK liolland, 1849 Moxlco, I83T I'apal Ht>tcs,IS43 I'ortugal, 1841 • Sudlnla, 1838 Hpain, 18u3 Sweden & Norwtjr, 1840. Turkey Two SIcllIoi, 1S45 l,hlua rnLoNlRH, llrltJHli roasrsstonR, iDdIca Canada, 1848 Capo of Ciofxl Hope .... Auntralin. 1848 New Hoiith Wales Wealcm, 1848 Van Dienicn's Land, 18fi0 S.iiilh, 1841 .lanialcn, 18S0 »:eylon, 184.1 .Mauritius, 184(1 French russcssions. llaytl HpaniKh Possessions. i;uba, 1H.W Dutch Possussioni'. ■ lava rOU 1542 Pt'puiaUon. i.'iiiit.noo 188,064 ;i,v4i,ii»u Colonic! 2l,78«,TOO T.ftRT.DOO t),»08, 1 IB 8,4I'2,500 rossctslons 1,722,140 Aziiivs 880,MO In Africa TII«,I1I0 IiiAsia 88l,7liO China and (tceanlrn. .. S2il,310 4,afi0,8(l8 Continent 4,lS6,78fi Islo of Hardlnia 524,033 12,380,841 Colonies 8,717,4na 4,615,1107 Sweden 8,3lfl.B.;0 Norway 1,828,471 86,3«),U0O Enropo 16,600,000 Alia 10,060,000 Egypt, TrliHjIi, Tunis. . 3,8iHI,0.)0 8,4'iD,SI0 Naples 6,382,700 Sicily 2,040,010 807,000,000 L'ncertuin. 161,310,120 nrltlsh Stat™ 98,785,862 Notivc Htntos 62,05!), OBI Kurcign SUtcs 171,317 1,41)1,020 l-:«stoni 70S,8;)4 Western 728,292 103,110 212,000 4,022 80.000 46,907 400,000 1,442,002 101,080 700,000 1,400,000 9,600,000 rOR For (llaquisitions on the law of population, see writ- ings of Mai.tiii'3, Godwin, A. U. Kvkiiett, (Jhay, .Sadlku, Tiioiinton, Pou- ieday. The siilgect. of population is discussed in the following periodicals : Weilmimler Ilcvieui, lii. 153, xlvii. 100, Ivii. 4fi8 ; Quar- terly Jiei: xlv. 97,' xxvi. 14«, xvii. 3GS), liii. 30; linnk- ert' Mag., New Yorit, iii. 457, 628(J. H. Ai.ii.XANDKii); !forth /Im.yjei'.lxvii. 370(Howen), xxxiii.l (A. U. Ev- EnisTT), xvii. agX (K. EvK'tKrr), xxiv. 218 (.Si-ahks), XV. 289; IIisntV MerchaiUs' Magazine, vii. 241, 337, 529, viii. 240, 330 (Ti< kkii); Edinburgh Renew, xvi. 464, XXXV. 302, li. 297, lii. 501, Ixxxv. 85; Monthly Reriein, ciii. HO ; Blackwood's Jfagaxine, xxviii. 109, .\xix. 392, xxi. 377: liritUh Quarterly Review, iv. 115; .Imerican Almanac, 18,(7, 1818; Hemorralie Review, xxl. 397 (A. n. EvEitETT), xvii. 297, 37!' 138 (Tuck- eh), xxii, 11. Porcelain, or China Ware, a very fine species of eartlicn-wari'. TI)o lirst specimens of tliis fabric were brouglit to Europe from C'lina and .Japan. Tin: best Chinese porcelain is of a very line toxlurc, white, semi-transparent, and sometimes beautifully colored and gilt ; is infusible, and not subject to break by the sudden application of heat or cold. The Chinese term for the article is Ite-ki. I!ut the Portuguese, by whom it was first brought in considerable quantities into Eu- rope, bestowed on it the nan)e of porcelain, from ]ior- cella, a cup. Common earlhcn-warc, someliincs of a very good quality, is manufactured in Canton, Fokiin, and several other provinces of China. Hut it is a cu- rious fact that the beautiful porcelain imported into Europe is made only in the town of Kiiigtcsing, in the province of Kyangsl. Its manufacture is fully ilo- tcril)ed by Duhalde, in his account of China, under the head "Porcelain and China-ware." The porcelain of Japan is decidedly inferior to that of China; very lit- tle is imported, and it is valued only as a curiosity. After porcelain began to be Imported, its l)eanty soon brought it into great request, notwithstanding its high price, as an ornament for the houses and tables of the rich and the great. The emulation of Eurofiean artists was In conscqut/ncu excited. Very liltio information was, however, obtained aa to the mode of ninnufac ur- ing porcelain till the early part of last century, when the process was developed in a letter from a French Jesuit in China, who had found means to make him- self pretty well acquainted with the subject. The knowledge that thus transpired, and the investigations of Reaumur and other chemi.its, prepared the way for the establishment of the manufacture in Europe. It was first commenced a* Dresden, which has been fa- mous ever since for the beauty of its productions ; but the linest and most magnificent spe 'iniens of European china have been produced at Sevres, in France, in the factory cp;ricd on at the expense of the French gov- ernment. liritish Porcelain Manvfaeture, — This, though unaldo to boa.st of f'Uch line sppiimens of costly workmanship as have been produced at Sevres and Dresden, is of much greater national importance. Instead of exclu- sively applying thcm.sclvcs to the manufacture of ivrti- clea fitted only for the consumption of the rich, the artists of England have exerted themselves in prefer- ence to produce China-wnre suitable for the middle classes ; and have succeeded in producing articles at once excellent in quality, elegant in form, and cheap. \Vc arc principally indebted for the improvements made in this important manufacture to the genius and enterprise of the late Mr. Josiah Wedgwood. This ex- traordinary man owed none of his success to fortuitous cirounistances. Devoting his mind to patient investi- gation, and sparing neither pains nor expei 'wabe. The 1840. 1841., 1812.. 1848.. 1844.. 1846.. 1840. . 1848.. 184'J.. lS5i l^''l.." I.SW I'M...' I8,'>4 1868. 1S'(! UostonTTTT New York',"., "iiltiniore oilier ports .'.' Total... POR mn 1*011 Brltlth p recUli. inaniiracturo fa prlndpolly rarrleil un •I i'. (.'^ttcriitn ill Slafrurilghiro anil at WurtesUr, Dtrby, <> Utbrwik Dalf, niul other iilacca. A/ucr*. t'i//M.— It waa long a prcvalunl opiiiiun ammiK muilurii critici that tlie tOAi uiur-himi, »u fa- mous ill Uoinan liiatory, wore fonnuil of porcilaiu, ! roinpuy was tlie lirst who brought them to Ituinu from j tliu kaat, about •'! years before tlio (Jliristiaii era. Tliny were used as UrinkiiiK-cups, apd fetcliuti ciiur- iiiiiii» prices ; Nero haviiiK given, accu. 'Iny tu Ihu cuiii- muii motliod of Interpreting, £^ i)UO fur a singlu tup I Tim extravagance of the impchnsor •• v, in liiia iii- Btuni'c, bo supposed to huvt i«. ina. u lio priiej so that the degree of estimation in which l4ii.'su cups were held muy be nunc accurately inferred from tliu fact tliat, of nil the rich spoils of Aloxandrir Augustus was cuiitent to select one for his phare.— SiaiTo.Niiis, lib. ii. c. 71. Pliny (lib. x> < vii. I ''i says tliuy wore inadu in I'ersia, parlicularl.v in Karaniania. Uut those ulio cuiilcnd thny were Chiiia-warc, c'luHy found on the following lino of I'ropurtius: HiirrhtaqMe in PvrthU pocula ooota ponin.^I.tb. iv. In despite, however, of this apjiarcntly decisive au- thoilly, I.e lllaiid and I.nrciier have. In two very learned dissertnlioiis (Mniiiiirrtde /MliitU. torn, xliil.), which Or. Kolicrt.son bus declared are (|ul'o satisfac- tory, endeavored to prov" tliat the i'n.ia niur'hinu were formed of transparent stone, dug out of the earth in some KaAtern provinces, and that they were liniluted in vessels of colored glass. — Koukht.son's DisquUil'nm on Inii'm, note 39. Dr. Vincent (Cammerr- iin-i .Vacigalion of Ike Anrienla, vol. ii, p. 723) inc''' » to the opposite opinion; bi.t the weight of autlioritv is evidently on the other side. At all events, it is pluin that if the miinhine cups were really porcelain, it had been ex- ceedingly scarce at Rome, as their price would other- wise have been comparatively moderate. Hut it is most probable that the ancients were wholly unac- quainted with this article ; which, ini'i--^ 1, was !)ut I't- tle kiia\.ii in Europe till aftur the - ' ^-'^ly or the route to India by the Cape of Good U' . For some further ''.utails on this quostlon, see Kr i ■'ii, Aniiq. Itnm. Ill), iv. c. ;t. — Sec American Jo:'t'ii'ii uj .SciVncc, xwi. 23:\\ American .ifottl/ili/ Jievieu; 117. Koiti:IGN lMrORTATI()NB AND ICxPORTATIONB, DoMESTIO K\ POUTS ;>if TiiK Manufactdiiks of China, t'oiicKLAiN, Kaktuen and Stonk Wakk, of tiif. I'nited Htatks. 1 4* ■! mmmiiH wit iii ^,^n|, n^tmitu,,, ,n, PHIIIt lorn H, H,',S, noTII \UAM IN. > lu^iva '••«. fill, \mi » 19:11 IW m't •'VKi i»:iu u/H l»M i»W it I1M i!>:i7 Ix^ts inai) III mtu I^> I4,l«l laM (:(.«)( l'>4'| f-irni i.H!i r?,7*l ISM III ;(9fi l»f,0 ««:)| lltfti ■J,-l» \-it>i l,*ti Ma n,ii» IHfl't MtMi \Htit> 'tn.m >llNM«lli it.#i i.aua 40 lim 241 im lis .^ifA iM,»on Sn.iiTit ihii.iU M«(l,7!)» «II7,028 hm im 1 I'm 4*1 8lin.'J9» WM'i* s.cin.si* MB.TOS < i>iVin !• r,f1.m!, 4M,ni «MW.M l,ini.,«i« v,nii.i<^(i 9,28(1,094 IK 1 «,.}.if S!nitlfi.l4l 6,lll»,!)04 m,'ipi. tm lit i;.<9,W9 B,9iri,l20 Ymti. 1840... 1841... 1812... 18^3... 1S44... 1346... 1840. . . 1847... 1843... 1849... 1S,Vf. , . tsM... IS-ii., , l-!>-i. . . 1854. . . 1865, . . IStt). , . AveraRO. Porefgu li 1portftt[on■■ $'i,070.t!:ll 1,B8«,460 1,B57,'.)81 6S8 0a8 1 .639,482 2,4au,sl.^ 2,,^25,349 2,242,241 2,332,096 2.281.331 2,801,393 3,340,022 8,441,095 8,178,182 4.137,091 3,717,070 3^347^S.S4 '$2,B287T72" Konrgn KxporU. $63,754"" 61, 70 37 10 26,. ;-! 27,289 22,71" 03,41,0 32,090 30,148 3',>,'.148 42,'JliI 41,1119 2;i,Sii4 15.133 t>6,«'.'5 73,092 40,091 "$40,723" Domeatlc KiporU, 410,1169""" 0,781 T,OH 2,907 4.S84 7,3i'3 0,621 4,7RS 8,512 io,(i;i2 1,'>,«44 23,n9fl 18,310 63,086 33,807 32, 119 60,698 "$r8T4?6~ In consequenci' of a <■ -angc in the liscal year in 1843, liiit nine months are represented in that year. Folk, the Hosh of the hog. .Salte article of export to the West Indies and oilier places. The exports of pork from ti i> i-- -< for the year ending June 30, 1857, were fro .' lowing ports : Bftn U, j 22,V82 1 New York 04 406 1 12,213 I other iiorts 44,389 1 Total 143,SB0 1 • W7« lUifft^it kCff. hUi i>iputlfa In 1866. KimwTft •>¥ »'«#» mum f M« (it'tMi s»4tM ro« Ttn Via« »i»((|i»l ill'^ti SHI, («ftt, Wijithdr ^l^p^fttg4 Sweitii »im| ii'iiFltft)' .. .. tj»cl> VVitt iiiiiitu i(unuhwti,i(H(i)(i»,, ;.;.;. Iluinburg ....,,.. .■/.....,,/,, llrt;lo>.-ll ti'-ii IMUwi ,..'. ,.,■'. ,. Ilulfh W'sttMilW.,, ■,,-,; JliiU-h (iutuii*..,,., ..,. I)ulx;h l-Jtst |))4|((»,,,,,.. Il,:lglum.. , ,. ..,...,,,,.,,, KnuUnd ,.,,,,,,„,,,,, Bnotlaiu) I- ■,■!,: (ilhraltar ,,,,■,,,,,:,,, M»lu. .,,.,.,. ..,,,,,,, ( .'atiaila , . Other Hrllfah ^, A, i'm, llritlsh W«' '"Hi.-« .... Iiriilsh MoiMMFM'.,.' llrllish (iiti»))»,,,,,,,,, llritlsh |'.)..s. ii) Mfif* . .■ utiitr polls III 4f>i*-# ,,,. llrllish AiistriiM^ .■-,:,, New /.(juUlfd , , , , llriddh Kast Iwltifi,,... . .) France on the A'iwnti^. Franco on the Mt^iliittf'H .. French N. \. I'lit^teiiinii Frcndi Weot |ii4ji.« . . Frencli (iiijan^ .Spain im the ^tlaiiffi.' ,,, Spain on the U»iHut'h.-, t^anary lalaiuis.. ,,, ...,,,, I'hillppliiu Islaii4 / ' ■; 4:3 • • ;; Wih mi ■ ;/; 4! : • ! : 10 I • • s (Ml 76 4.821 ■ ! I t ll,7l.'. 14 a» : : ; / t.iiii 54 9.2tl, itt oncfi • month, aocortllng to tbuir SU«M of the iitiinlH'r nf Iiok* parked : | a#.i '*, U> Ut* W^tflMy . t^ fUf, tiftng th^ ci»iiitiil (if lli« cniplri", cuntrallici Ifc*' Uin/t l.««(k i4 Knytlrn fnri'lKii ruiiuiiuric. It is (W» »fci« >»« (h«n A thiril of llio vinst'lii I'linuKfil In *Uit tttfi^t) ttvrtnru>trn drpiirl from ll« |i(irtn with full '¥fl(An« fxport", mill ilio lii"n of lluyll por- HiH tfftAtttt «fiwlii, nflrr iiiil(Miillrii{ nt tlio flmt purl, to j^»>*«4 (" t*it the tifnt pfTort« made liy (irciil llrit- nninnd or ninipart airo«n tliu liarljorH niuullj Ui nvm*- itin »tt4 ttntK-it in IHI7 and IH I'h to iimolloritu the com- HUM. I««»'M ♦■/.»!( - - - - 1 0)il( 4)|H..18I ♦>V,Vi)4 I7.',:i;i!i U/.40U an.iKH) \,»\H.4»M uii.oa* " Illinois Mluourl Wlicunitti . • ToUlilenil»ury,l8r.7. isliunl or rock, or erertinf,' two lun/i t'urrii«, wUtf^M Htretch from the land on ench xlilu like «riu» vt thf horns of a rrcsient, and nearly inelow lln'liaveM. 'i'U" forniiT of thena uro called mile-lnailii, aii» jfij; )^- .MunccM. Thu!i It Ia said, " 'J'lie nljlp lieelst tu lititii" that i», xtoopn or inclines to llie larlioard M». "'t'ttf) the yard to port," the order to niiiku tlie l»jl>«ii;'i| «ii.^' trnmlly of n yard higher than tlio oilier. "I'wl titx h( Im," the oriler to put the helm over tlie iarlwvi'l h-U the vuHAei, In all theao Renws tliia phiitw ill, de- fiitM't *« ^l^»t (hirfy-threu per cent, when lonipared »UU ^hM ytfi^dmff live years. Its Kuropean com- *tl*»*it,ttti*tf I'slificially, is yearly declining, while its ((.•■•WrtJ Umki with the United States has largely lii- HHt'*4.- 'th* MimUt of American \ vsscls entered and fUtmc4 liming »h« last six months of 1H51 was ll".', *Uk Mtt i»*o»»g« of 2«0 tons each. Total value of car- g/n^* iMWwM, i^t^^,!i'M>, consisting chielly of provisions, ittitit/H'/ Im4 'Uy gfKKls. Cargoes homeward consisted >4 (AjfWMr)^, coffro, and hemp, tlio value of whidi n t^>U*4 in (hf official returns. Assuming tlie navl^a- timt >*«*f«H Ihfl Inili 'I Stales and this jiort to liavo tttkut itit in-(ivi'. Ih(\ first six months of iMol as tlie last, ttm Hf^ttf^* lssivc in tho island, and is tiie capital founded in 174i>; since which, with few )utcry»J*) JH jwfjh* w.T(r(K>rn peninsula of Iloyti; the best irrigated has been the capital of I'nudi ,st. Dumingo, «• H UlttH/t m»t tfttih province In the empire. Here, as in now of tho entire isionil. It is partially foititicijj HiM'Uitf «4ittf p(ftt!t, (hn ('nited States holds the lirst eoin- liurbor being protected by a battery on a bUJ»)l iiil»(Ml ' WMtfii*) tiink. Tho chief imports from tlio I'nlled at n little distance from Hie shore. The country rvwwJ I J>(t*(li>» Mt" pTovision.s, of which the consumptkn is Is low and marshy ; and the heat in the summer M,i'*'Jii»} ttf'ttif.- t*\it)ng the past two or three years American lieing excessive, tlie cliniato is tlicu exixcdiugj)' Wi- it^ffimM^ ttxvf also imported domestic cottons and healthy. The buildings are principully <4 ^tMfi, mtti \ WMHttfm-tnti-'i tit cotton, generally in such (luniititics, seldom exceed two stories in heiglit. The cMliaMCA' U/ 1! Wwt#Mfr}« fni fcigh repute for its excellent quality. It moor head am! .stern, at from 100 to .>W yaJ'Jsi fr'/^jm* «*Ji»>*jfi* t'l" (hat mnnnfactund in Kngland, and is shore; loading' and unloading by means of Iwad^j *^!wrfM .*ti»lw»f* figure." frniice supplies a small ijnan- there are neither docks nor quays to assist tluac t/i/nit.- j (Uf i4 #>A«:«, (nU, mid fabrics of Alarseilles and I'aris. lions. Till) harlior is perfi'ctly safe, excij)t tittmn U'ttittiUifft pSyinn between St. Thoinnd, Curavoa, and hurricanes, which may be expected from A.Mg«*(t itiliimilklti iHiptttt small packages of Kuropean wares, November. Tho commerce of I'ort-au-J'riuoe U fwAmiA Si'iWW Jitovisions, for which they generally find a ried on by various classes of persons. Tl*e im\>n'i»\rt'iuif wittii*t, Tho quantity of coflfeo annually cx- froni Kuropc and America are i)rincipally am^g'tM Ui I piifWii iiitut Anx Cayes is estimated at between four Kuropean and North American comniission liouJ*'*.. (■«■- j iK#/f fry« wjfiion pounds. During good seasons this sides a few Ilaytien establishmeiils. T)ie <»^,ijil#| )i V^^/ rti>^ (« six million pounds. In this total, how- one of the ports to which foreign niercbuutji »ir« /cwjinsr^ , i«iiis jncliided considerable quantilies imported fined by the law of patents; but they ore risirici»4 .y|« ^#ji!«^ from (ho neighboring ports. Tho district heavy penalties to a wholesale business witlj M#iV!lJi'**,iji^ rum, tafia, etc., supplies the greater part tiiese employ hucksters, also women, who trav«rii#|t*iiif |ivf JlU MlsfrKfwith spirituous liquors. Campcchc-wood country, attend tho markets, and give an uir/mtd iw^ | (((^^Wowilf), (he produce of which is considerable, Bup- tboir traniactions to their employers ilierey«^«ynNir| pti*^ tut «xf>oft trade of 20,000,000 lbs. POR lftt5 POR ImporU into Aiue I'ni/rt, iKWt. — Kroni Ih" t'liltoil StaU'H, t'il><>,l(!*); liroat llrUuiii, |.>lii,IHii; l>'raiia<, 4i;iU,l:l2; lIu'iHu Tiiwiis, $'iU,u;4; utiior counlrlua, ^WM\ total. fMll.'iIil. Forte, the Sublime. The uiDi ial tltlo of tho KovurniiM'iit ul' tliu Ultniiiaii I'niplro: miid (o lie ilorivcd from a u''''"'^''"' l'»'''<'^" ot llrouuik, ilm ciri|{lnnl mu' trupolUor ltiut«iii|iir culloJ Udl) llii ivoor, tlxtub- liiiis K"'!'- Porter, a li<|Hor brewed from ' of whioli hat buoii moro highly dried tlinii Ui„ I" It It lio|ipucl ill tho iamo way as ulo ; ai. vilor in IliinllyBlvimloltulthorliy liuriii'iliiiii > r „. ually Koos iimlor tlio name of mloriuij, .itimucly, liy roaHtcil or iianliiid limit. IV ,v;i -t ''rowed In 1722. Tho iiwill lupior |jruvli.i»ly -isifd of three kiiidii—uli', liecr, and "tw.ipoii ,iiii\. turu of either of tln^iie khidii wui a (n ■ In verago nnder tho name of "liiilf-und-liiilf ;" <>i ti iiiixtiiru wan I drunk eulled " throe threads," conslming of equal por- tlona of oacli of tho abovo kinds of ll'iuor, for u druuKlit of which tho publican hud to go to three dill'erent ca:ik8. About 1722, Ilttrwooil, a London brewer, cmnmenred brewint; a malt lUjuiir which wait iiitoiulod to unite tho flavors of ale and beer, or ulu, beer, and " two- penny ;" and, having micoocdod, he called his llqunr "entire," or "entire butt," a name intended to inti- mate that it was drawn from one cuak or butt only, A mixture of olo or porter, drawn from dift'ercnt casks, is very commonly drunk in London at tho prewnt time, Ilarwood's liquor obtained the name of jwrter from its consuinptloii by porters and laborers. From 1722 to 1701, the retail price of porter in London was a/, per pot, when it was raised to 3i(<., at which It continued till 17!»0. It has never been higlier than Gd. Poi .^r's Anchor. This anchor is an ICnglisli pat- ent, and is extoUi>ively used at .Southampton, and oili- er Ktiglish norts. Its peculiarity consists in giving to tho arms iind lliikcs a freedom of motion round a pivot or fulcrum iit tho end of tho shunk, thus departing at onco from tho rigidity usually observed in the construc- tion of anchors. The arms and Hukca are forged wholly independent of the shank, and have a hole drilled truiis- vcrscly through tho ccntro for tho reception oC tho iron bolt which connects them with tho shank. Tho cD'oet of this construction of a swivel anchor is, that when one Huke enters tho ground tho other necessarily falls down upon tho shank, thereby avoiding tho danger in- cident to tho uiiward projection of a sharp point. The objects designed to bo attained by this new construc- tion are said to be mainly the two following : the avoid- ance of tho con3e(iuenco of what is called "fouling," by the cable passing over tho exposed fluke of the anchor when tho vessel is swinging in a aide way; ond the avoidance of injury to tho vessel itself in tho event of fidling on her anchor. Porters and Porterage. I'ortcrs are persons cm- jiloyed e induced to remain in a country where no prospect of success appeared. In 18'28, however, the leniency and more liberal policy of Don Miguel La Tone, tha Captain-general, by relaxing the rigor of former requirements, contributed greatly in removing the impedimenta to the settlement of foreigners on the island. La Tone strictly carried out the spirit of the Seal CeduU ot 1815, having for its object the cncour- Hement of agriculture and commerce in the Spanish colonies. Thus the domcilio was procured by paying a trifling sum of money, and by the applicant comply- ing with certain formalities. A considerable immi- gration was the immediate effect of these measures of La Tone. Lured by the superior fertility of the soil, and the liberal policy of his administration, planters from the neighboring islands cf St. Croix and St. Thomas sold their estates, and brought their capital and slaves into Porto Ricu. Their example was fol- lowed by several planters from the windward British and French islands. Thus seconded by foreign enter- prise and foreign capital, the island Tias continued to prosper in a most extraordinary degree since 1828. But notwithstanding this rapid improvement, and the continued augmentation of its staple exports, this im- provement would have been greater, and the exports considerably larger, but for the oppreiiive dutirj upon all articlei of necumty cotuumption, and the frequent heavy exaction* made by the government toward the tup- port of the war in Spain. These causes, by diminish- ing the profits of the planters, have prevented them from extending their estates. Hence the progress which has been made in the cultivation of the soil is due rather to the continued influx of new settlers with their important capital, than to the prosperity or in- creased industry of the old." The slave population is almost the only producing power on the island : but this is so totally inadequate to the wants of the planters, that they are frequently obliged to procure additional help from Cuba. This, however, greatly augments their expenses, since a ro- bust and good-working slave, who in Porto Rico may l>e valued at $360, can not be purchased in Cuba for less than $600. Sugar and cofl^ are the staple pro- ductions; while tobacco, hides, woods, cotton, fruit, and rum form also a part, though to no considerable extent, of the exports. Tobacco is cultivated entirely by free labor. The five principal commercial ports of Porto Rico are San Juan (the capital of the island), Arecibo, Mayagbez, Ponce, and Guayama. San Juan, or SI. John. — Altlioiigh possessing a mag- nificent port, considered one of the best on the island, San Juan is not the first commercial place, as tht prod- ucts exported thence are of a very inferior quality. Of the sugar shipped from this port, as well as from the other ports of the island, the United States re- ceive more than two-thirds of the whole. But a small quantity goes to England, and also, though rarely, to France. From -the United States are imported cod- fish and other salt fish ; salt meat, boards, lumber, hoops, staves, and butter; from England, boilers for the manufacture of sugar, machinery, small quantities of iron, and heavy supplies of earthen-ware. Spanisli vessels take in cargoes at St. Thomas, and discharge at San Juan, thereby avoiding the duty applicable to all vessels from all other ac\jacent foreign ports, in the ports of Porto Rico. Generally speaking, the whole island of St. Thomas is but a great entrepot of Euro- pean and American manufactures destined for the mark- ets of Cuba and Porto Rico— a fact shown by the large amoi ' :t of importations from St. Thomas into both these islands. The exports from San Juan in 1853 consisted of 11,869,804 pounds of sugar; 5808 hogsheads of mo- lasses ; 876 hogsheads of rum ; and 910,966 pounds of coffee. It is to be regretted tliat the port of San Juan, one of the t)est and safest of tlw island, should l>e kept in so deplorable a condition. Six or seven years ago, a vessel drawing 16 to 18 feet water could take in a full cargo at the wharf; at present, a ship of the same ton- nage can receive only three-fourths of her cargo, and is compelled to leave the wharf in order to get into water deep enough to take in the balance. Arecibo, or Areibo. — During the last eight years the commercial condition of this port has been highly pros- perous. The imports and exports have greatly in- creased ; splendid mansions have been erected, and several commercial houses established. The harbor. FOK 1547 FOR mIM |# AMlwr iff • vary wy« tMfitt, «nd rnqnent- ly, diiriM UM mviimt «f iWfib Wlndt, an forced to rttira froffl n« ib«f« tfld ettt e«i to mi. they ionwtim«f rM»iv« wffeM nam §tAi, wtthont catting anchor, ••Tb« »%triwrMMry imrtitm tliat tiaa taken place latolx in tiM prf««i el »u§»f, MrffM* totMceo, hidei, and cotton, wilt nit» ItM VitltM «f ilNt ««Mft« thia year (U&7) rr»ffl lb« •VWMM eT ii6,800,0O0 to the Urge iun> of 111,009,099, wH«b will Wii«i1ally add to the powar of ¥9H9 8iw to tm«m» a ««ltt«b>e eoitomer to tlm mmtttM»rt»g «9«atfi«§, 1^ tariff at present in tortm olfftnt §mi initmnimi tet tti« tMiporution of good* Urmt frsm tiM el«««« «l iMt prodnotlon, and {( tl)i« bfi MSSffl^iltMl in ii^niiii tuttoma, tliere is • 4iimnli»i r«dii«ti«n «/ d«t/«f 16 p«t cent, upon tlie tariff, W}niv«l«n( l« 3& p«r mil, upm ih« Invoice value in favor of Aift«t impertati«H in titis totm ) and if tiie good* IM iffipm^ Hfld«f ft fyf^gn flag, the differential raduetioff »fll0URt« i»§mt emi, thus thedaty upon any artida in (tM toriff, l««ifig tilMn at the average rata p»y»t)l« npm «li §ds4», wlii«tl ia about 29 per cent, sJmhrm if tiM impeftfttiw ia made in a Span- ish ship, tb8 llM«W)t p/ftbl« WOttld be 14 per cent., and if nn48r s fsrsigu i»g, 39 t#«f ««y str»M sf wsfttber of want of irater, and was not occ»«ion«4 i)y uty tf»6iitg tfatisacttoo. The diffi- culty of finding Hfiniib imm»^ at the times and places of id r#f)Hif8RMttt, tst^eihsr with the Increase of cost, ofm fMtttrftiiM liM toMfiia to b« otherwise de- rived from IM »s#i •' The 4iffiir»n(i«t 4iiti6« bfty« b««ti established with a view to ik» rsisue sf titii itlatid from the sort of cominarcial VftMsiogs in wl(t«i) it has been held for so many y«»r« by (h« Miftfl4 ef IHi Tittwiaa. But this is diAcult, »nd wilt miy b« ^(i«l without the concur- rence of fresh elements, at nearly all the tradera In Porto Rico are debtora to those in St. Thomas, and it is not, therefore, easy for many to do precisely what tuey might otherwise desire In this respect. " But even if it were to be assumed that the whole of the manufactures imported here were of British origin, it is still a most burdensome obstruction in the way of our commerce ; the charges and commissions in tiie transit are considerable, and can not be estimated at lesa than 11 per cent, although the duties payable at St Thomas are only U per cent,, and the cost of Brit- ish productions is thus unnecessarily raised to the consumer in Porto Rico to the extent of the former amount. "It follows, therefore, from what I have observed, that the prosperity of the island, consequent upon the great increase In the prices of its produce which has obtained lately, and which is iiliely to be maintained for some time to come, will of course increase British trade to some extent ; but no material and important increase can take place until the laws relating to the admission of foreigners shall be so modified as to ad- mit of the establishment of foreign mercantile firms or branch houses in Porto Rico. Beyond the importa of which we have an exact knowledge, there is intro- duced annually, byway of contraband, fostered by the high tariff in force, an amount of goods that is vari- ously estimated, but which I believe may be fairly set down as being equal to 20 per cent, of the gross annu- al returns. "The regulations as to the payment of custom-house duties are the following: All sums under (200 are to be paid at once ; from that amount to (2000 within two months; from (4000 to (6000 within four months; and from (8000 to $12,000 within terms varying from six months to nine months. The average rate of ex- change may be stated at (600 currency per £100. The returns for 1856 show an Increase in every article of produce, with the exception of coffee, in which there is a reduction of 1,571,468 lbs., as will be seen by the following statement: »«M».- Snsar. CoITm. HolMHI. Tobacco. HIdn. Colloo. i^tS/if lilt tmititti mil tt II tin 44 4 PoofKb. 11T,660,4T« 82,047,698 Pounitl. 9,034,816 11,606,283 Olllou. 4,408,786 2,483,092 Pound*. 2,989,896 1,706,893 Pouoda. 466,478 816,217 Pouoda. 173,140 20,610 "tim nfm»g» fifim» ef (Imn articles were m fol- lows t Hi4«» fr§m i§ t« 39 ««Hi« pet pound, averaging U aant#, er M'.Ber pmai f »«g»f from (4 25 1 . $6 75, avaiwgini; $6 So, §r 33>., Mf 100 pounds; coffcb from 12 to 13 mat*, »V8f«^N9 »| 6«tl(9j or Bid,, per pound ; molassaa from Utsii e«^», «r from 9d. to lli/. per gallon ; tobacco IVom (6 to (7, averaging (6 50, or £1 6i., per 100 pounds; cotton from (12 to (14, aver- aging (13, or £2 12>., per 100 pounds. The porta from which the produce of 1866 was exported are the fol- lowing, and the quantities shipped at each port are expressed : Bimilmi,»rf9fi»'Sk»iiiiiiiiiiiiii A<^M)Miilla lltlll 111111411114414411414 4rS*,W 11 I lllllllltl I I lllllll 4 tl, 144 Afnyfi r r II: III! I I III : III 14 1144 444414 IfMPItMO, 9Wl llllll Itll I mill I 44 4 44 H^^H^i llllltllll 1IIIIIHIIIII4 . J.' lF^n$9tt lilt llllllll t I nil 11144 /*/**< f fffWff tllttlllllltllllt 14 4 4 44444 t'oitea. PoQSda. 116,400 M,740 178,141 Sas»r. Pouoda. 12,869,644 8,431,400 10,819,961 21,644,222 11,284,137 21,746,600 86,874,712 117,660,476 ' Coflka. Pounda. 1,186,327 2,231,100 604,264 887,311 89,793 8,936,200 1,631,816 9,934,816 HIdaa. Pouoda. 876,606 (1,300 41,176 9,822 29,676 466,478 NoIa< Uollooa. 261,86.4 88,680 276,612 1,117,246 471,224 677,260 l,8i 2,766 4,408,936 Pouoda. 468|900 847,462 121,120 1,662,418 2,989,896 " TbaiM »r« tb« frifl«ip«l p<»(«, but there are several others of miflSf impef «««#« to which vessels occasion- ally prOM84 fer tb« SWrpeM of completing their car- goes, im4 tilty »li, mth ♦!(« «*cepHon of Arecibo, pos- sess |gOo4 hu^§, where vessels can at all times load with tba etHkH f««iti(/'< Afeelbo, however, has no- thing but m »pm fS«4l{««d, enposed to the north Wtnatf •n4 » ynt f»fsiy ptrnw without one or more vassals h«in> wrwl(«4 mtii " Pwto site, 6t §»n iatn, the capital, has a spa- eiOHt I»ff4'i««l(«4 htfimfj wlMf« large vessels may lie in MiSit^ in flv«, lli*, ftflrf l«t«fl fathoms of watei . It it fHrnish(>4 with 8il««ii«t(t wharves, at which vessels ruy 4iiLVU or TUB nuKOiFAL Abtiolh iupobted into roBTO Kico, 1848-1853 [Hud* up from the " Balantu Oenaralei."] AiWtiw. OUveoll. Llquldi lictU Bplou Frulti, eta Bice Cereals, etc. Lord and butter. . . . Oheeae Flih Other edlUes OottoiM Wooloii* '. Uneni 8illu Tobacco Sklna and peltrioi Wood Metal Olaas Iron nalla Ironware UacblncB, and parts thereof,!, for sugar manufactories. . .',[ Agricultural implements Soap Medieines Furniture Perfumery Candles Gold and stiver ToUl isu. 486^019 60 1I'8,63S 94 71,712 40 5,!I67 4J 08, ISO 6U 88,680 26 8'.: 8,968 01 84,149 19 87,814 76 BCb,g08 00 110,986 68 621,810 87 58,0.14 03 S(IS,440 66 68,l'40 4t 190,929 18 78,409 63 <83,a60 00 86,126 60 12,024 97 86,50536 ie,06J 48 9,85613 22,1X4 06 187,481 80 88,20982 61,838 03 12,438 IB 46,65i 16 284,11600 $.ni,ii89 so 187,250 70 00,876 80 6.4&U 60 87,8.18 98 40,598 81 680,416 98 80,738 08 26,196 73 864 483 41 112,706 09 765,287 88 49,8:il 84 4i6,09U (IS 61,678 08 143,120 1)4 58,080 87 311,106 42 38,(183 H 15! 03 04 68,3TB 68 23,788 6i 88,839 28 22,781 85 134 980 (10 88 667 40 44,178 47 18,800 01 16,806 63 612,15600 $4.463,761 68 $1,<.8I,6S8 89 $89,197 16 828,188 07 83,278 73 14,657 46 29,! 51 19 43.987 37 688,860 88 88,158 84 UO.en 70 486,990 91 116,620 52 651,105 84 47,244 04 810,180 IT 68,18608 186,680 84 86,049 14 316,301 80 84,619 34 20,82916 68,170 61 35,4118 07 24,(83 44 23 682 3(1 112,488 76 81,95518 44,14608 15,088 08 68,678 40 740,062 60 $5,222,029 98 ? 79,869 70 86,481 OO 02,60711 ' 14,81)5 88 60,672 74 46,809 78 1,033.810 2ST,823 271,800 280840 34!l,718 835,0f0 $4,696,500 4,700,419 6,!]21.643 4,918,688 3,8£8,002 4,523,881 ^B.SPB.IBO 5.4Ci2 871 5,877.819 6,761.974 4,652,839 6,299,327 AuDUNT OF Duties keoeived, the Ncxder of Vessels entebed and oleabed, and the bespictive Tonhaqb of tub SAME at 1'obto Hioo.— [From the '- Balanzas Ueneniles."] Ytan. 1848... 1849... 1860... 1861. . . 1852. . . 1863... PutlM Mceivad. I Iwporta. $8I»,aT4 932,608 1.011,473 1,041696 l,8'«,a9B 1,080,246 On Eiporta. I ToUI. 916(,804 160,098 177,629 84,803 81,077 31,641 $1,034,239 1,082,307 1,189,001 1,069,413 1,859,178 1,051,887 VaaaeU eotarad. Number. 1050 1096 1206 1324 1452 1833 Toonaga. 118.910 184,851 182,040 160.536 175.S36 161,603 Vcicela daarad. Kunbar. I1V9 1126 1179 1209 1SB2 1825 Tonnage. 123,250 129,573 131,767 161,042 108,766 164,867 sels. The ports mostly visited by American vessels were: MayagOez, 97 vessels ; Ponce, C9 vessels ; Guoy- ama, 50 vessels; and Porto Rico .(San Juan), 46 ves- sels. , ■ , ■' '■,' ' , QUANTITIBS OF TDB FBINCIPAL rBODCOTS OF TOETO RlOO, 1843-1888, ! • " * The tonnage of American vessels arriving in 1853 at Porto Rico amounted to G7,180, or nearly one half of the total tonimgo of the island, double that of all the Spanbh, and nearly triple that of all the English ves- YaaiB. Aguardlenla. . Cotton. Colea. Sugar. Hidee. Tobacco. MolaiMa. Black Callla. 1848 Ilogihaada. 9Bti Poqnda. 189.457 Poaildl. 9.618,074 Pftunda. 101,2r8,T64 Poundt. 745,880 Pounda. 2,467,'U8 tiallona. B,86T,4T4 Head. 4372 184» 124U 304,a'>8 8.6I^311 100,742,5171 519.070J 2,4.<)0,540i 4,828,13Bi 8700 1860 bin 841,6741 11,783,084 112,129,432 614.7r.2 2,978,808 4,905,313 4376 1861 84Tt 866,581 18,111,071 118,416.804 632,706 6,478,084 4,827.588 60!S3 1853 list 218,-93 11,870,768 98 631,806 608,820 5.565,739 3,857,900 6280 18tB 643t 880,566 11,680,604 110,606,669 61)7,261 3,T08,45T 4.896,223 6019 The foreign Antilles^ and among them especially St. Tbomaa and St. Croix, have the largest amount ik the Import* into Porto Rico. Indeed, the former, aa al- readv observed, may be considered merely as en en- trepot for European and American manufactures, serv- ing the Spanish merchants, from its proximity to the ■ f ; POR 1549 POR BI nck CbHI«. Heiul. 43Tl! 87nO 4B70 (053 6220 6019 : Spanish West Indies, as a market for all the merchan- dise. It will Ih^ seen that the United States occupy the first ranl< us regards the amount of exports, taking mora than one liolf of the total exportations. They receive two-thirds of all the sugar, and three-fourths of all the molasses exported ; these being the principul articles entering into the export trade of Porto Rico. The exportation to the United States amounted In 1868 to $2,840,000, chiefly for sugar and molasses. Spain holds the second rank in importations into, and only the fourth as respects exportations from, Porto Rico ; since the foreign Antilles import more into the island, and the United States, England, and the Uanseatic cities take more from it, than does Spain, despite all difTercntial duties iu her favor, both as respects ship- ping and trade. Tonnage i>u(tM.— Ships entering the ports of the isl- and of Porto Rico will pay, if foreign, $1 the ton ; if national, 87 i cents the ton, as per register. Natioiml vessels bringing full cargoes of coals will pay no ton. nage duties, although the number of tons be less than indicated by their register ; foreign vesseli will, how> ever, pay 50 cents per ton, in complUnco with the royal decree of December 28^ 1848. But whenever a thip, either national or foreign, brings other cargo besides coals, no matter whether the coals be equal to, or more than, the amount of her tonnage, she will pay th« ton* nage duty in accordance with said decree. Vessels loaded with coals only are exempted from local duties, with the single exception of the fee ((28) to lb« uap> tain of the port for entering and clearing. National or foreign vessels entering the ports will pay, in addi- tion to the duties speciilod, 12^ cents per ton, as per register, for the purpose of deepening the harbor. Vessels arriving in the harbor of San Juan, under whatever circumstances, or for whatever purpose, will pay 12( cents per ton for dredging and keeping the port navigable. National vessels to or from the Island of St. Thomas will pay, at whatever port, the tonnago I duties applicable to the flag. COHFABATITE STATUIEMT Or tni COMIinOB DKTWIEN TUG I'hITISD gTATES A14D PORTO ItlOO, AMD OmiB SPANISB W(ST Indus (Kxripr Cuba), kxuiuitiso tue Vai.dk at Kxports to and Impobts fboii bach Codntbt, and tub Tomnaor or Amxbioak and roBXioN VxssxLS ABBivma raou and DxrABTiNo to baou Coumtby, dueimo thb Ybabs uebiu- MATED. VMII. COyHKBGI. HATlOATlOlf. 1 VaIm of Ki porta from VnlKd Statn. Vmluo o( Import! Into tha AmarlcBQ Tonnaga, PoraifQ Tonnaflo. 1 Domeitle Vonlftt ToUI. t,nlarad Uie Cleared from tha Emarad tha Frodae*. Pfodaea. (Juled Statai. Vollcd Stataa. UBited Sutea. Unllad SUtaa. Unltadauiaa 1845 $688,143 $io,77ii $708,024 $2,026,268 61,150 28,575 629 682 1846 676,441 26,906 701,846 2,277,110 51,284 80,066 437 1878 1847 826,079 83,G86 859,064 2,141,029 88,003 26,767 1,746 18T9 1843 801,722 37,012 888,784 9,106,296 45,488 36,241 618 1160 1810 623,202 83,284 660,626 1,964,861 47,534 26,870 2,102 8808 1860 816,062 93,691 009,663 2,067,866 41,768 80,744 8,074 8108 1S61 061,410 67,200 1,018.619 9,480,329 48,336 30,320 7,874 6018 16S2 1,016,663 80,542 1,066,106 8,001,228 68,385 86,010 12,061 6614 1868 810,411 64,143 864,654 2,8(IO,9a« 47,838 80,816 16,844 9429 1854 000,886 60,997 1,061,883 2,860,368 62,228 81,014 8,710 8698 1866 1,144,681 88,987 1,188,613 2,476,9118 43,240 84,190 7,830 6592 American vessels entering ports in the islands of puba and Porto Rico in ballast are not subjected to the payment of any tonnage duty whatever ; and Amer- ican vessels entering the ports in the islands of Cuba and Porto Rico, with cargoes of any descriptitin of mer- chandise whatsoever, are exempted from any charge of tonnage duty, if such vessels export or convey there- from cargoes of molasses taken in at said ports. Ex- emption, therefore, (Vom the liability to tonnage duty of Spanish vessels coming from ports In the Islands of Cuba and Porto Rico is extended to such vessels arriv- ing in ports of the United States, either in ballast or laden with molasses taken in at any of the said ports, together with such quantity of fresh fruit, the produc- tion of said islands, as may be deemed by the collector and naval officer, under the provisions of the forty-fifth section of the act of 2d March, 1799, to bo admissible as surplus stores: provided the said vessels depart from the United States in ballast, or with their car- goes of molasses, or cargoes of the staple productions of the United States. — Sec Commercial Relationt with the United Statet; Manual far United States Consuls; Turnbull's Cuba and Porto Rico; Hunt's Merchants' Magazine, x. 327. Fortamouth, a sea-port of England, In the English Channel, on tlie western side of the island of Portsea, at the mouth of the bay called Portsmouth Harbor, lat. 50° 47' N., long. 1° 6' W. Portsmouth Harbor excels every other in Great Britain in depth, capacious- ness, and security. At its entrance the harbor is very narrow, but soon expands Into a great width. Every where the anchorage is good, the depth sufficient for ships of any size, and in extent almost sufficient to contain the whole English navy. The roadstead of Spithead, between Portsmouth and the Isle of Wight, can contain 1000 sail with security. Ship-building and other manufactures are carried on to a considerable ex- tent The cod and other fisheries are actively prose- cutod, and Portsmonth has considerable foreign and coasting trade. The tonnage of the port in 1853 was 26,645 tons. Portugal (£usiVania),acountry of south western KU' rope, forming the western portion of the Iberian pen- insula, and situated between lat. 36° 57' and 42° 8' N,, and long. 6° 15' and 9° 82' W., bounded cast and north by Spain, south and west by the Atlantic Ocean. Cap- ital, Lisbon. Length, north to south, 868 miles j breadth, 80 to 140 miles ; and there are few passable roads. Wheat, barley, oats, flax, and hemp are culti- vated in the elevated tracts ; rice in the lowlands | ol- ives, oranges, lemons, citrons, figs, and almonds in the central and southern provinces ; and at tho southern extremity, the American aloe, the date, and other trop- ical plants. Tho cullivation of tho vino is the most important branch of industry, and the produce of tho vineyards watered by the upper Douro, termed port, is tho staple export. There are txtensivo forests of oak in the north, chestnut in the centre, and the sea-pine, kennes, and cork in the south. The olive oil Is of in- ferior quality. Mules and asses are the chief beasts of burden ; oxen are used for draught in tho provinces, Cattle and sheep are -reared in considerablo numbers, but tho wool is not of fine quality. Goats and hogs arc numerous, and fish abound in the rivers and on the coasts. Iron, marble, and salt are the chief mineral products ; the mines of tin, lead, and antimony are not worked. There are numerous salt marshes on tho coast, and 200 mineral springs are enumerated. The manufactures are very limited, chiefly arms and poroo. lain at Lisbon, woolens at Portalegre and Fundao, Got> ton-spinning at Thomar, jewelry and trinkets at Ll» bon and Oporto, glass at Harinha-Granne, paper at Alcmquer, silk3 at Braganza and at Campo-Qrando, near Lisbon. Lisbon, the capital of Portugal, Is the principal port, and is situated on the north bank of the River Tagus, the observatory of the fort being in lat. "^^ 42' 24" N., long. 9° 6' 60 " W. Population, about 240,000. The hailMr, or rather road, of Uibon Is en« FOR 1550 FOR of ih« flneit In the world, and the quays are at onco GODvenUnt and beautiful. Fort St. Julian marks the northern entrance of the Tagus. It is built on a steep, projecting roclt. There is a light-house in the centre, 120 feet above the level of the sea. At the mouth of the Tagus are two large banlis, called the North and South Cachops. There are two channels for entering the river — the north or little, and the south or great channel. On the middle of the South Cachop, about H mile from Fort St. Julian, is the Bugio fort and light- house, the latter being C6 feet in height. The least depth of water in the north channel, on the bar, is four fathoms, and in the south six. The only danger in entering the port arises from the strength of the tide, the ebb running down at the rate of seven miles an hour ; and after heavy rains the difficulty of entering Is considerably augmented. The trade of the country is mostly conducted by the English and other foreign- ers. The population and extent of Portugal are shown by the following statistics, taken in l(l&4 : Population 3,600,000 Extent In square miles 84,600 CommuDes 200 The great fountain of wealth In Portugal is In its vineyards ; and yet, under the system of political econ- omy practiced by the government of that kingdom, wine can not be either grown, made, or exported, ex- cept under heavy restrictions and imposts. Until with- in the past few years, there was not sufficient com grown in the few agricultural districts for the ncocssi- tius of the country ; still, corn Is classed among its sta- ples, and Its importation from foreign countries pro- hibited, unless when, from any cause, the home sup- plies are inadequate to meet the demands for consump- tion. The following official return exhibits the entire a^icultural resources of Portugal for the year 1861, and, with the exception of corn, the supply of which is constantly fluctuating, may he regarded as a fair index of the average yearly agricultural wealth of this king- dom : Ailicln. Com Beans (pulse) Rice Salt Walnuts, filberts, almonds,! and chestnuts ( Figs Carob beans Oran|!cs and lemons Cattle Wine (Madura e verde) .... Alto-Douro port Olivooll Wool Silk Honey B«esiraz qnuiUllM. Holos . ArolMS. Thousand . Heads Pipes Aiobas. Founds. Arobas. Amount l,llt»,737 1T8812 1S,2B2 400,160 87,040 838,700 248,100 300,000 6,782.712 787,809 100,000 43,082 887,6S!> 816,140 69,137 26,610 The moio is equivalent to 22'89 bushels. The aroba equals 82 lbs. In 1881 Pjitngal imported 668,740 alqnleres (each equal to 82 lbs.) of grain ; between 1846 and 1861 she exported, as appears from her official statistics, about 1,800,000 alquieres from Caminha, and about 4,000,000 alquieres from Vianna; making a total of nearly 6,000,000 alquieres, or 1,000,000 alquieres per annum ; or an exportation of about twice as much as she for- merly imported. With this brief reference to the nat- ural capabilities and agricultural resources of Portu- gal, the laws and regulations under which that king- dom conducts its foreign commerce, the character and extent of that commerce, and the description of mer- chandise which constitutes the leading articles of ex- change, especially between Portugal and the United States, will next be considered. For a long period the commercial relations of the United States with Portu- gal were regulated by such acts of legislation as the Portuguese government thought proper to adopt, with no other check than the countervailing legislation of tlie United Statea. Under this system the direct trade between the two countries in national vessels, laden with the produce and manufactures of either, was al- lowed on terms of full reciprocity ; ° but the indirect trade was fettered by discrlniinatlons and restrictions, and by the countervailing duties to which they gave rise, until the treaty of commerce and navigation en- tered into between the two countries in 1840 placed their trade on a basis of entire reciprocity. This treaty stipulates that vessels of either country arriving in the ports of the other shall be put on the footing of nation- al vessels ; that no other or higher duties shall be lev- ied on the produce or manufactures of either country-, when imported into the other, than on simil:.r produce, etc., of other foreign countries ; that the same duties shall be levied on such importations, whether in Amer- ican or Portuguese vessels ; that all favors granted by either party to other nations shall become common to both ; and that American vessels shall pay no higher duties of export in the ports of Portugal than national vessels. This treaty is declared to be In force for six years, and further, until the end of one year after ei- ther party shall have given notice to the other to term- inate tlie same : no such notice having been given by either party, commercial relations between the two countries are still governed by its provisions. Under the stipulation equalizing American and Port- uguese vessels with respect to direct importations, the American flag ei^joycd, during a brief period after the ratification of the treaty, special advantages over the vessels of other foreign nations. This was the result of a law passed by the Cortes in 1887 (before the treaty was adopted), by which a deduction of fifteen per cent, on all duties was allowed on merchandise imported in national bottoms. This measure, although it had given a great impulse to the national shipping of Portugal, and largely augmented Importations In American bot- toms, was found to exercise a disastrous effect on the public treasury, diminishing the revenue from that source about $800,000 annually. It was consequently abolished ; and after the 16tb January, 1842, all far- eign vessels were equalized, in this respect, with the national flajg. Notwithstanding Portugal possesses natural advantages and resources which might enable her to rank among the most important trading coun- tries In Europe, her commerce with foreign nations, and particularly willi the United States, has dwindled down to the mere shadow of what it was in former times; nor can much hope be Indulged of a speedy commercial regeneration of this kingdom so long os her present restrictive and prohibitory regulations ex- ist, and her unsurpassed natural resources remain un- der their present partial and imperfect system of de- velopment. The dismemberment of Brazil from tlio kingdom of Portugal (1820; would seem to mark the period of the greatest decline in her commerce with the United States. This can be best illustrated by giving the official returns for two equal periods preceding and following this event, and contrasting the results. ESPOETS FBOH Tni UNITED BtATIS TO POKTUOAL AND DE- PEMDKM0IE8, 1810^1832. Venn. Amount. Ytun. Amount, 1810 $7,679,210 1822 $427,000" 1811 11,466,160 1823 246.648 1812 g,39»,6.'0 1824 61 8,^36 1818 10,6879,28 1825 408. I6U 1814 691.669 1826 313,,'»3 1815 2.281,101 1827 367 370 1816 2,270,389 1828 291,614 1817 1,884.8/3 1829 322,911 1818 2,8^8,177 18G0 279,7(19 1819 2,263,680 1881 294,383 1820 Total... 1,326,751 1832 Total . . . 296,218 $68,698,298 $3,766,492 Showing a falling off in the total amounts, during the eleven years compared, of $48,941,806, or, in tho average annual amounts, of $4,449,255. It is proper, however, to remark, that the trade with Brazil absorbed more than a moiety of the total amount of the exports from 1810 to 1820. The general trade of Portugal with Th igatlc POR 1551 I'OB Amount. $4«T,0«> 246.648 618,886 408. 16U 313.568 35T3T0 !el,614 32'2,un 2T»J(19 294,383 236,218_ '$8;'t6MM all foreign countries has alao declined during the pait half century, in a ratio of nearly one-third in exports and one half in imports. This will be seen from the following comparison of imports and e.xports, for a se- ries of yean within the above-named perijxi : VMn. 181)1 IniMfU. iJ4.ltl,T«0 «ai,aio,TiiiJ " ♦HK.Sftrsnr 1816. S3.8ST,48U 'J0,2'^ll,il)tA 4;,NI0,N|,i 1S80 ie,ie4,M)a i:i,ii8.^,iiij<) iti.mjm 1844 11,282,680 8,226,666 20,MM,lpn 1S48 13,607,210 tO,0Tl»,4aU M,l'M,«4U Natioation UxTVBiis or I'oiTuoAL roa me Yiab 1861. Portugal England gpain Sweden United States France Netherlands. . . Austria Total . . . . ARtfali. 644T 1146 »n SID 136 ts to 286 8938 Tg» Crtw. U16,T(8 150,637 11,3116 40,828 87,617 11,741 0,810 67,246 0«8,383 46,340 11,266 6,287 2,107 2,6'.iV 701 621 0,801 7i,e«i I'lMrutM. toiMtt. ■■««»:- 6777 8111,1*84 viM" i^a 11)6,074 uuma 062 10,006 h.wi 217 42,444 V,UM 156 81,026 «,(>it'i 06 IMi^t 1M 8.S '*,70.l «I0 810 (10,126 B.IOI 8787 «M6,40» COHMIHOX IN 1853 AMD 1868 Ytan. Import.. EiporU- 1862 Pruci. 88,200,670 86,846,660 Pnaci 18,179,875 21.902,8.12 18B8 The wines which, at the exporution of 1853, wer« valued at 6,180,680 firancs, were not put in the account of the crop of 1862. The imports of wine from Madeira into the United States for the fiscal year ending Juno 80, 1856, were 23,649 gallons; and from Portugal, 62,683 gallons. It thus appears that in 1848 the exports ttom Portu- gal to all nations were only about one-third, and the Imports from all nations about one half of the amount of exports and imports in 1801, or half a century ago. The general movements of trade between the United States and Portugal havo varied so little during the past twenty years that they may be regarded as sta- tionary, at least so long as tho existing commercial regulations remain unchanged in both countries. Dur- ing the past year, however, tlie government of Portu- gal has manifested some disposition to review and mod- ify its entire system of commercial policy ; and the good efltects that have already succeeded the initiatory meas- ures to this end, already adopted, will, it is believed, encourago it to remove altogether the onerous restric- tions which havo so long fettered its trade with foreign nations. In 1858 the export duty on wine was materi- ally reduced, and equalized to all nations (a discrimin- ation having been made, before that period, between exports to Europe and America) ; and the effect of this first step toward a more liberal policy is evidenced in the increased exportation of that great staple in 1853 over tlio preceding year, to an amount exceeding three- fourths of the whole. This will bo seen from the fol- lowing table. The pipe is estimated at the United States custom-house at about 113^ gallons : Exports or Wink, BBANnr, etc.. fiioh thi! Pout of OrOBTO IN TUB YBABS 1852 AA'D 1853. CoutiUo. Great Britain.. United States . . Bratil Australia Hamburg Canada Ruaala Bremen Newfoundland . Prussia France Holland Spain Sweden Tatal. lati. Plpa. 19,219 4,462 2,883 2,001 917 002 873 260 166 110 16 21 i 288 81,499 OotlDtfiM. Great Britain Australia United States Canada Hamburg Brazil Kussia Denmark Portuguese poss'ns , ilrcmen Sweden Newfoundland . . . , Prussia Franco Holland Spain Total 18(3. Plpn. 46,834 2,581 1,058 1,002 923 743 661 455 8.'S7 232 216 163 114 16 1 5r,,8lS Exports In 1863 66,813 pipca. " 1862 81,499 " Excess In 1863 over 1862 24,314 '• The Bul^olned statements of the commerce and nav- igation of Oporto during the Portuguese financial year 1854-'o5, and tho movements In wines and brandy llio same pcrio duction of about 12 per cent. Alu pays aliout one- third of the old duties. Wine, which lieretofarti palil an imirart duty of alraut $(i66 |>er pipe, lias lienn rx* duced to about one-fifth of that amount, The «Kport duty on port has liccn reduced and equalized la all thn world. Pianos, which formerly paid from i| IM lo |iill2 each, according to size, now pay $24 cucli, reKArdkss of size. Formerly, no tea could be iuiporlod oxrcpl In national vessels; the duty being, from I'ortuuuosii tar- ritories, about Is. 'Jd. Englisli (42 cents), and from oth- er parts 4<. 8el. per pound, equal lo $1 02, Now l«» may be imported indirectly, in national or farel(;n liot- lonis; Portuguese vessels sliil enjoying the usual dis- criminations over foreign vessels engaged in the Indi- rect trade. It is believed that Portugal has no liiinty with any nation equalizing foreign vessels lo ntttluiilil vessels in the indirect trade. If so, all foreign lluK* are equally subject, with those of llio United Nliilns, to an additional duty of 20 per cent, when Importing goods not the prorl>ltr«ry, mid dupendi on the tormi of tho particular bargain ho may moke with the govern- ment contractora, after hli cargo iball have reached port. Thl> complex claulflcation of the Portugucso lurifT induced aomo Orltlih merchant*, • few yean alnoe, to moke the attempt t» redticn to a fliitd vtliM (h« aelntl dutiai levied on •oino of the luNdlHif linrort* Into I'orl. uKal fH>m forelKn ouuntrlea, llalnw f« the mauli of their calculation*, a* reapenla anme arllclan «/ rotton maiiufacturi. Tl.e diillea. In furliiKllitad montiy, are Kiven in rtai, the milrfu Muu equal |« lOtiO rtiu, or tl Vi. AiUalM. Cotton t»lil, etc., under 40, per pound Cotton bleaened or dyed, under 40, per pound . Wick of nndl■■^ under 40 per pound White cottona with glnced flnlah, 15 threada, cle., per pound. Cotton* woven with dyed threadn, up to 10, per pound , _ Cotton dreaaea, ahawla, or handkerchlcfa, to 10 threada, perpound , , . . Wlilto cAmbrlca, *M threada or upward, per pound Colored cambric dyed in tho piece, per pound t'olorod cambric In ahnwls, handkerchlcfa, dreaaea, or other ahapea, per pound, niii'iM i« foft, »jf»mkm„. Rata . F"''««- M M M 4T m TO ih m M 4011 M m W yiM M 4«<» M The duties on the diflbrent descriptions of cotton ' goods vary from IC (on colored velveteens) to 96 (on striped nankeens, plain) per cent. Notwithstanding the enormous duties on cottons which the above table indicates, tho manufactures of Portugal, of this doscri))- tion of merchandise, are confined to some coarso and very inferior description of woolens, and a few common cottons and linens. Still, while that scale of duties continues, cotton tissues can never become n profltable medium of exchange between the two countries. There is no reason, however, why tho United States could not comnete with liraxil in aiijijilylNK lh« tnarknia of Portugal with sugar, rice, mm, llmlwf, hhiI wthnr artl> do* which liave lioeii hnrutofiirn cliUlly Imparled from that country. Tha rice of l.'ariillim la far (nipflflor to llrnzilian, and yut I'ortuual cimaiitiM* annuHlly of llie latter upward of -lOiOOOiMH) |W)iitld«, llraxlt luppllet the Portuguese ni«rk«l aiiMually with lUKar to tho amount of from oim and « half Ui two mllliotia of did- lars. Both thosa artl«la» «ati tt«w Imi nuported froiu the Unilud Htute* to I'urtUK«l Qn th« Mm« Urnis as from Urazil. CoMMzaoa or tux United Btatis with PoaTcoAi. noM Oorona* 1, WO, m ili;i,v 1, lllM> Yvan ■ntllDg Bept 80,18^1 1822 ,182,1 1824 182!S 3820 1821 182S 1829 18S0 Total. Sept. 30, 1831. 1832. 1834 1885 1836 188T 1888 1S39 1840 ToUl. Sept. SO, 1841 1843 Omos.. 1843" June 80, 1844 184S 1840 184T 1848 1840 1860 ToUl.. June 30, 1851. 186S. 1858. lf«4. 1865. 1856. Kiporto. UmMUe. $UT,T26 i02,ii!;e 48,0TT TT.SM 110,015 00,046 116,103 7T,010 42,068 43.408 $864,563 $39,149 28,262 78,818 42,542 162,703 38,386 124,S3T 67,970 5S,711 97,841 $733,«63 $114,448 72,723 59,096 99,658 124,860 06,310 56,893 112,260 169,721 172,978 $1,078,333 $167,342 234,064 £23,661 127,150 270,716 844,098 Foreign. $06 18,5US 3(10 6.163 2,8J4 633 220 1,164 628 1,8 03 $31,266 $2,363 300 5,330 16,598 107,002 13,247 17,0T2 8,0!)8 6,093 5,724 $182,400 $7,321 1,1188 1,538 3,565 6,419 8,463 1,385 2,MI 6,273 5,230 $48,613 $4,996 4,129 S6,K->3 23,718 24,867 34,101 $147,7ii2 121,490 4%377 82,428 112,839 100,488 110,328 78,174 42,716 46,211 $8b5,8i>8 $41,606 28,662 78,648 69,126 270,306 61,582 141,409 70,063 65,804 103,066 $116,063 $121,764 74,111 60,634 103,118 129,769 104,769 58,228 115,244 176,994 178,214 $1,121,845 $172,338 2,18,193 260,208 160,865 296,588 378,199 Iniporti, ToUl, _ $366,il6 422,664 181,01)4 342,304 221,073 349,989 268,091 112,669 237.361 1*)5.821_ $2,666,663 $124,446 128,816 170,189 316,809 517,074 275,378 187,mS 206,864 687,778 322,884 $2,752,176 $386,668 142.58T 46,713 109.706 296,008 87S,26:) 283,330 «14,78i 822,221) 3,19,763 $2,t>10,8ji> $367,648 266,864 411,156 243,533 186,067 287,166 Wli«rau/il(#r« wa* Ih haUiim lM|4a(*«»i#, _ lii|>.irt, $14,000 "m 14,000 138,190 $4,100 18,'3M 8,e»l it'.m 6,000 WW «j,600 inm' $3,000 300 "bm lii4«,irTr' MM Ifl.WIT m,m 1A,I«» »t,tM 9,m 10,1 DA «l,lft4 ♦8*(»,4ll» ' l»«.T4« 1,6011 4.U(M tl,(M8 «T,a«!) (Kto tn,44ll M.MT IT.nt riA-MT A,64« mi )),a«l T,«l« 8,'»t'« 8,044 610 'dm ~mr »,4«) 1,470 11441 tim «,4M 4tim 8,4n» t,m 3,«4i1 Twilia. 'mm' 1,1 IT im «,M8 A.O'il 1,4»4 »,m >,in3 H,n 3,nM A,T4fl n.KMi 4,«in 4,m 9,m 3,470 rt,flii7 6,4T« fi.fljo 0,383 1,081 151 128 'iii 000 1,026 MM 659 1,3110 10,407 1,(141 9,086 697 w.mr 738 787 548 173 900 1,874 1,888 0,418 0,038 7,581 34,919 6.176 6,833 8,000 n,094 9,W)8 6,743 * Nine months to Juno SO, and the flacal year from thia tint* b«||lH» July 1, The tonnage employed in the above trade was : ists. 1*14. 19U. Too.. 8,790 14,669 Tom. 4,020 10,106 Tom. 12,082 16,373 Foreign Total 28,459 14,126 28,456 The exporta firom the United States to Portugal con- riitof whitb oU, whalebone, ipermcandlei, atavea and headings, beef, pork, rieo, tohaeeo, Unwed oil, soap, nnils, manufacture* «t Iron, and aundrlei. The im- port*, as taken from tho Unlt«4 Hiate* Treasury re- turns, are wool, wine*, vln«|(ar, dried fruit, salt, corlcs and cork-trae hark, marble, ilieet and har lead, copper, and sundrici. The export* from the United Utatei i 4il 184 08 9;Tbr \11 'flflO m 1,0!fl M<* HM lyjt m 4114 l.aw) m 10,4l» 1,470 Mlfl I.StiT «,fl3B 8,egn iitM B,0i)4 t.ATO o,rins im 6,143 ttl««(t oil, MAP, ilrl«a. the Im- M« TfsMUry re- ftoll, a»lt, corks bkf U»
  4. m 40 to 420 tuna oach. Foreign veaaela aro not kllowed to pkrti>:ipate In the Goaating-trade. We annex a Table ahowInK the number anil tonnage of veaaela employed in the coaat' lng>trade of Portugal In 186 2. P'giti. I Namb«r of VMMb. | Tiii Oporto VUna Flgueln Aniro Cimlnha Villa de Conde . Eipoaande loa 15 s 4 n>ft. 85.513 8, 'ill 15.050 1,»I0 1,413 1(11 190 , Foreign veaaela ar« allowed to enter Into the foreign trade, and pay the aamo tonnage duea as those bearing the flag of Portugal, to wit: VesaeU of the United States under the treaty of 2Cth of August, 1840; also the veaaela of the following countries under dill'erent treatiea and conventiona, Dutch, Danish, Itritish, Pru8> aian, Swediah and Norwegian, Kuasian, Uraziiian, Belgian, Ilanae Towna, French, Papal States, and Hanoverian, The indirect trade la, however, except- ed. Goods not the product of the country from which the veMel saila are liable to an extra duty of 20 per cent, when brought to Portugal in foreign abipa. »OKT DUES, «T0. lUu. CmU. Balling In ball*i|t, or not hilly ludoii, per ton . . . V6U = 'J8 Laden with aalt, olive oil, or wiuo, produce of Portugal 50= BS-B Laden with other produce of l^ortugal 15 1 =: 10 4 6 In all caaea when re-exporting foreign goods. . . 250 = 'iS Kntering in ballHst, and sailing In uallut (ex- cept in eases of distress) 9R0 = i9 With full cargo of grain, produce of Portugal. . 260= ttS With wine, sslt, or olive oil 2i>0 = 28 With other Portuguese produce 100= II 1-6 Contribution to remove the bar in the port of Oporto , 100 = 111-5 An additional tax of 15 per cent, on the amount of tonnage and bar-dues Is also exacted in Oporto. Un- der treaty, American vessels are equalized with na- tional vessels as to these duties. Contrlbutiona for tlie exchange building, Ave rcas = ono half cent, nearly. Steamers pay two-flftha leas tonnage dues than sailing vessels. The contribution for the bar la the same fur both. Every captain of a morch.\nt-vc8sel is bound to have two manifests of the same t flor, signed liy hi: i- aelf, and certified by the Portuguese consul or vie consul at-the port of departure. Goods omitted in hit manifest, or of a different description, have to pay a aum equal to the value of the goods. Goods admissi- ble being omitted, a Ane equal to double the amount of the duties, and custom-house charges and imposts. — United Stales C'ommercinl lielalioiu. Porluffueie Setllementt, — Tiie Portuguese have nu- merous settlements in AVestern Africa, situated on the Kiyer Caches, the St. Domingo, and the ISio Grande. The chief settlement in Guinea is on tho island of Lo- ando ; and in Benguela, that of St. Philip. There is some trade carried on between tho United States and these settlements, especially at Loando. The exports from the United States to this point consist of domes- tic cottons, flour, and specie; imports to the United States, guin-Gopal, palm-oil, ivory, bides, etc. The following summary, exhibiting the general trade be- tween the United States and Loando, during the first six months of 1854, is derived fToni a consular return : Number of American vessels arrived and cleared, 10, With an aggregate of 2218 tons. Value of cargoes in- ward, (G5,000; discharged at Loando, $43,000. Value Of cargoes outward, $22,000. From a return of later date, the trade between the United States and Loando, for the last throe months of 1855 appears to have been carried on by five Amer- ican vessels, of somo 200 tons each — three of them be- longing to Salem, Massachusetts, and two to New York. Their cargoes inward, landed, consisted of dry goods, flour, rum, etc., to the value of |24,200; the total value Of inward cargoes being $61,600; and their cargoes • 6F outward, of palm-oil, gum-copal, I very, copper ore, etc., to the value of 907, I0«>. F,ach of these vessels touched at Ambrli, Indeed, vessels trading to lA>ando usual- ly touch at Ambrli and AmbrUatte, where they have agents, to whoaa conaignment they land part of tbair cargoes, and take In auch produce aa may ba In wait- ing. They then touch at Loando, and leave part of their remaining cargoea; then they make for Uengue- la, where they uaualiy remain front 40 to fiO days, to close their sales, and take on loanl gunwropal and ivory. On their homeward voyage they again touch at Ambrli and Loando, at which places they complete their cargoes of gums, palm-oil, Ivory, hides, and coffee. At Ambriz there are now two American, two En- gllah, one French, and a numlier of Portuguoae facto- riea. Heretofore the only duty paid at tbia port waa a amall tribute to the native king, for the privilege of trading. Recent movenienta Indicate a design on the part of the Portuguese government to establish a reg- ular custom-house, and charge import and export du- ties. The claim of Portugal is predicated on Its alleged title to some copper mines in the interior, which can' be reached only through th Is port. The little kingdom of Ambriz is too weak to resist the pretenaiona of the Portuguese ; and however novel this claim may appear to more civilized nations than the little negro kingdom of Ambriz, there Is ofhriul Information to the effect that, instead of free trade, United Slates commerce will probably hereafter encounter at this point the burdensome restrictions of Portuguese commercial leg- islation. The once flourishing and vast colonics of the Portu- guese were, before the year 1850, reduced to the follow- ing territories : laLAmiB. Madeira and Porto Hanto Kastorn Azores Praalailn bists. 108,484 91,830 Central Oe.RKT Western 08.991 AraioA, Capo Verd Islands 848,619 88.138 (^ast of OulncB, IliKsao, ctt- St. Thomas, Princes, etc 4.'>70 12,158 Angola, Itcnguela, anil dcpondonclcs Hozambii^ue and depeudoudea 59!), 121 300.000 ASIA. Doa, Saluto, Bardcz, etc. (new conquests) . Town of Damao »M,888 883. 78S 83.159 Town ofDiu 10,185 OOEAMIA AMD CniNA. 40i,119 29,S8T 918.300 941,88: For commerce, etc., of Portugal, refer to B.iLni'8 Etiay on rorlugal; Bnoi'oiiTON's IMem on Porlugai; IIodok's I'orliigiiete Expeditioru ; Miss Pari>ok's Let- ters; Hunt's Mcrcbantu' Afagazine, Ix. 306 (Whar- ton); Quarterly Review, xli. 184 (Sobtiiey); Amen- can Annual Heijister, vili. 218 (J. Q. AoASis). On the wine country of Portugal, lal Khan, the Emperor of Tarlary, had regu- lar pont eitabliabmrnti throughout hie viit empire. This was In the 18th century. In his narrative we find the following, which Is particularly interesting, as giving an account of a regular post among a compara- tively barbaroui people, that wai quite equal to thu postal establishments of many moH, The Kcformatlon com- menced in 1&17. A lyxtem of punctuation by marki and pauMi wis intrndu' <'d In 1620,' Hungary was united to Austria in 1521. Bligcllin completed the lint clrcuninivigation of the gliilje In 1622. The ai- tronomical system of Copernicus was proclaimed In 16II2. In I ndia, u early as 1 570, a system of foot-poitt WIS established by Akbar, the head of the Mogul em- pire. Indian runners, noted for their speed, were em- ployed, and one mesienger, without relief, we are told, would often travel from 80 to 90 mllei In a day. II. The frit National J'oit-offlte.—tha flrit regulu poit-oflice wai established l>y Maximilian, emperor of (jennany, near the close of the 16th century — about the year 1497. At the brad of this post establishment the emperor placed Francis, prince of 'I'hurn and Taxli, the first postmaster-general mentioned In history. Thii eitablisbmeni, originally started like all other govern- ment posts as a general errand-boy and meisage-bearer of government, soon became a powerful monopoly, and claimed the sole right of transmitting the correspond- ence of the people. From the time of Its foundation to the present day tho German post establishment bat been held as a hereditary fief or property by the princes of the house of Thum and Taxis. It has been a suiiject of frequent discussion whether postal busineis should be entirely carried on by government. There are arguments on botK.sides, and many against It can be found in the history of this German postal union. The Catholic religion being the religion of the itate, Protestants made frequent and just complaint! againit the suppression and violation of correspondence in the cause of political tyranny and religious intolerance. We ar« informed that this was one uf the direct causei of the Thirty Years' War. Lamorai, prince of Thum and Taxis, a military leader (Catholic) as well as post- master-general, by the assistance of his allies defeated and dispersed the Protestant Union under Frederick, the Elector Palatine. This was followed by the " Mas- sacre of Prague," the " horrible persecution of all mal- contents," the " banishment of thirty thousand Protest- ant families, and the total suppression of the Protestant religion." In this work the post-office was used as ■ machine for annoyance, espionage, persecution and war- like conquest. The very same postal concern is this day a stumbling-block and a serious impediment in the way of cheap postage between nations on the west — France, Great Uritain and the United States — and peo- ple living in the eastern part of Europe. But the house of Thum and Taxis own the post, pocket large profits, are deaf to all considerations of public good, and Insist on the very highest paying (transit) rates of postage. III. The Brituh Pcit-office The Fost-ofilce of Great Britain, at once the most efficient, economical, and prof- itable of modern times, has a most interesting hittory. Wo find mention of postal couriers employed by gov- ernment as early an the reign of King John. He sum- moned his barons to form the Parliament by issuing "letters patent." During this reign state accounts exhibit frequent items of charge for the carriage of letters. In the time of Edward II,, there were fixed potts or stations where horses were kept for post-riders. In 1481, Edward IV., during his wars with Scotland, established, as stated by Gale, certain posts, twenty miles apart, where the riders relieved one another, and in this way conveyed letters one hundred miles a day. Long before there was any account of a national post- office, we meet with the superscription of letters, P08 1S6S I'OS iili*ni> iploytd ■ Intro- r 8p*tn CmHI*, rand In IHMlkb* ricft «•• gn can\* >y roarki [•ry WM leled the Tho »•- aimed In fool-poiU loKui 'ni* were em- e an told, •y- , It Tegula» imperor of iry — about abUahment andTaxli, tory. This her govern- gage-bearer nopuly, and correspond- jundation to iibment ba* Brty by the It haa b«en ■tal busineia lent. There gainst it can postal union, of the state, laints against ndcnce In the 1 intolerance, direct causes ince ofThurn I well as post- ilUes defeated Jer Frederick, by tho " Mas- ion of all roal- usand Protest- thePrutesUnt was used as » i:utlon and ■war- concern Is this icdlmcntlnthe on the west— ales— and peo- rope. But the St, pocket large of public good, (transit) rates it-ofSce of Great )inlcal,andprof- ■restlng hUtory. ^iployed by gov- Jobn. Eesum- nent by Issuing I state accounW the carriage of there T»ero fixed for post-riders. ,, with Scotland, lin posU, twenty one another, and Jied miles a day. t a national post- ptlon of letters. " hut«, post* liasU." In IMl, during tba reiKU of Kllsabetli, CanuUn states that 'i'honias Handffice." This officer wo* to have the " horsing" of all parsons " riding In post." The ratM of postag* were llxcd, and ail other purion* forliiddsn to "sat up or Impluy any foot-posts, hortc-iwats, or pacquet-boats." Tli* puatags of a letter eighty mitss from London was two punoe sterling; aliovr that dis- tance, in Kngland, three pence ; lo HcoLlanil, four (lencs ; and to Ireland, six pence. Double lultcrs were double those rates. The post-rldurs were re<|ulred to ride seven miles an hour in suuinior and live in winter. Crom- well farmed tho posl-ollico out turJt\n,(m a year; and on the restoration of Cliarles II., in ItitlO, the offic* was rented for jC'2I,600 a year. In 160a the entire proAts were settled on tho king's brother, the Duke of York (afterward King James II.), and his heirs male. In l«86, by an order In council, a post-office was estab- lished on this continent " for the better eorraspondonoe between the colonies of America." During the reign of James II., William Dockwra set up a local system of letU'r and parcel distribution In London. Ha was alloweil to continue it for several years, until it proved prolltable, and then his local let- ter system was seised under pretense that it encroached upon tho royal prerogative. In the more modern his- tory of the post-office ther* are parallel cases. In 1688 an act was passed for the eslabiiahmont of a Qeneral Post-office in Scotland. In IG»H King William made a grant of the whole revenues of this ottlco to Sir Robert Sinclair, with a sulisidy liesidos of .£1100 a year. Even at this rate Sir Robert found it a losing business, and threw It up. In 1710 (U Anno, ch. 10) an act was passed that may be considered the charter of the Brit- ish Post-office. This act established a General Post- office throughout Great Britain and Ireland, the North American colonies, and the West Indies. It was nil put under the control of one officer, styled her tli^es- ty's Postmaster-general. The act provided for one chief letter-office in Edinburgh, one in Dublin, one in New York, and others in the West Indies, For a con- siderable period after the act of 1710, there were no relays of post-horses, one man or boy, and a horse, ao- complishing an entire journey like tho one from Aber- deen to Edinburgh, traveling by day anil stopping at night. Up to 17(>;i there wn only a tri-weekly mall from London to Edinburgh. That year the trips were increased to five times a week. The time required for the mail-coach to go between the two citieti was from eighty-two to eighty-five hours. Until 1788, there was no direct mall from London to Glasgow. It is in- structive to note the progress in the income of the British post-office for a period of two hundred years. The net and gross income of the Britiiih post-ofHce at ditttarent periods will be seen in the following table, tho last column giving the gross income in United States currency, reckoning live dollars to the pound sterling : Yasn. Nrt Rtrenm. GroM RtcalpU. QroM RMalpb. 1663 £10.000 21,600 66,000 07.222 90.228 117,368 83.493 186,062 136,403 881,179 720.0S1 1.138.889 1,388.493 l,G04.n20 600 789 761,1182 808.6U8 1,066,086 l,207.T-.'6 1 11, 4 .'6 210.663 280,146 806.016 4I8.8<12 671.808 1,08.3,980 1.86.\746 2,191.582 2,266,481 1,8KI,46S 1,887,676 2,264,684 2,716,420 2.867,984 $4K!^20O 667,180 1,P63.S15 1,160.780 1,626,076 2,094,310 2,889..')1B 6,419.760 9,278.780 10,967,810 11,827,408 6,797,380 9,487.880 11,823,420 18.682,100 14.839,770 1663 1686 ItiUO ITU 1764 1760 1770 1780 1700 180O 1810 18J0 1830 1840 1818 1850 1856 1866 The first year of penny postage was in 1840. To give the diflbrent rates of postage that have been levied at various periods since the act of Queen Anno would require a long tabular statement. In 1710 tho charge for • single letter from London to Edinburgh, wm lAAO ro8 •ml from (.ondan U Oulilln, wm »iiip(tM», In Kn< giMul III* r*l»« war* Ihra*, ur fiiwr (Miir*, tttmiUng I* fllttani'* ; in Hi'ulUml, Iwii, ihrMi, ur Tiitir |i«niw, anil In Ir*Unil twu ur fuur |>*n«a, 'lh« rain* M«r« alivrkil, anil K*n*rallx lin^maMil In amiiuiit ami alua In niiiiili«r, In aai'li uf ili* ilirim klii|(iluMi*~anil mIiImiuI iinlfnrnill; ln*llh*rlw«— III I7im, liNl, lUll, IMM, |MlA,anil IKIi, and In IrvlaiMl In lalU ami INI I, Kniin Iwn or iht— Ml** In i;iu, lb*x want im ln«r«a*liiK In nMnilw ii.illl Ikay raaclwii iba sllnua ul alxHrillly anil Inrnnvan- l«Dc* In iwulv* dliraranl raUa In Knalanil anil »<■«<• laoil, In IHVi, anit IhlrUan rala* In fralanil, In IMM. In HcatluiiU, in INIll, an ail'lllliinal hall'>|i«niit' wa* I**- lad on all laturi ihal wor* »iinvayai| In Niall'i' Thaa* abaurti, «iiii|ili>'a(iirt, irniililvHiina, aii4 iniiltlfari- eua rata* of (hmUk* rxMialiK'il r« liluwii rruin anUUNi'* lijf Ilia railiii^llun of all rataa to oiia iiiilfuriii iliarii* wf • tianny, (lirouKh tba *Hrtluua ut Mr. liuwlaml Mill, in IMU, 'I'ha nait ((raat lilt|iriiVHni«lli III III* mall aarvlc* nf Orcat lirluln waa ilia IniriMlurlinn iif mall rowliaa, In 17H4. 't'hia wa* iirini^iiiall)' allil, thu mall* i^nulil, with ail- vantaii*, Im traii>|iorlii>l Uy lliiini. At Ihladay wa ran acanaly ata Uiigilila kiuiimiI* (ut a vlul«nt ii|i|iiMlllnn to a plan to adopt iIm awifual ami iituat rallal'ln ron- y*yan«« for thu iiialla, aauiipt In that »nt(lat Ji'alnuay, which iiuvar (war* » rival iiaar llw llirana, or that re- •cnt* th* aiiunipiion uf an uiiinlilar In |iraaMnilnf( lu know any thliiif Iwllvr Ilian iImi wrvant ik riiiillna who la paid to rarry uii a uont'orii llial Im fofU iiu liilnraal in InipruvliiK, Thu iiiaiU wara Iranafarrail lo alaK*- coachaa, all thu oppi>ii«iiU ut llin plan wara put lo ihania, and Mr. John I'aliitar rKrclyKil from Iba 'I'rva*- iiry iho aiiin uf XMt.iNM, and an annuity »f l»m • year for llfu, for thu Iwiiallla hn hmi i'ln«M uf lfi« (xiat-ofllt'e had, with *ome flintiiaiiona, ai'liially ilKcraaMid, He com- pared the poaul liK'oiiia to tb« raviiiie derlvwl from itaee-cuaeliii«, a lirMiieb of liiiainaaa that affiirdad a k(«"I Index lo the priiapartty "f III* I'uMHtrv, The fulloHliiK table ezhiliii* at oim vImw a ooiMparlMm of Iba rvvenui^ fhim «ia|{«-<.'oaL'haa, wiib Ibu nat |M«i>lat income ) and a column ahnwinK what Itia n«t ravanuA nf the poat- oOice would bav* Iwan in lN;t6 had the receipt* kepi pace with tba revaniie fioni vuai'haa i nalleTinf that th* taiilllmal* daniand tot Ih* rnn« rayanta uf Utlar* and diatrlbulion of cnrratpondance had ln«r*aa«. Thai* faria and ulhar* war* tint lulinilltad privatrly 10 III* Kovrrnmanl, and hi IHIIT lu Iha public, in a pamphb'l, aniilli'd "I'ual-ulHce Kafiirm, It* Imporlanca and I'rarlicalillily." It wa* nirtlvad with Kraal faviir, and In a abort time paaaad lhrou|(h Ihra* *ilillona. Tha aullmr came lo iha fulluwlnx roncliialona i ila dcninn- •Irilril clearly that Iha actual cuat of cnnvayinK a let- ter by rnarh in Iba mall from l^ndon In KdlnbiirKlv— 4(N) mll«i — waa only niia-lblrty-alxth part of a penny. 11 iiiiial lie evident that Ihe actual dlltVrence of ex- ' lieiin* liatwoen tranaportiiiK a leltar one mile ami ilc- llvarInK It, and carrying one four hundred mile* lo be dellvarad, did not Juatify a dllA-rent rate of chirKe, He came lo Iba concluaion that the larffe coat of iljii- Irlbullnn letter* waa lb* reault of complex arran^e- menla in the poat-oiDce, arialiiK from many ratcn of (HiataKe. That thaae complex arrnnKemcnl* wniiM be avoided If poataK« were charKed, without rcKaril to dit- lancc, at a iiNironM rate. That all lettert ahoiilil be charRcd by welKht, thoaa reckoneil aa linKln bllera that did not exceed half an ounce each. That tlin uni- form churK« fur letter*, Including their delivery, alinuld lie une penny. That thia rate of iharKe would allurd the Krcateit faclllllce to the public, put a atop lo cor- rea|Mindi'nce tlirouKb private cliannala, and evvntunlly prnvn Ihe moat protllable lo the Kuvernment. That with the aiinpllcity and economy of arrangement at- lendliiK the uniform charKe of a iieiiiiy, there would be but little more expcnaa attending a four-fold inrreaaa of correapondence than there waa willi the then niimer- oua rateauf poatage. That Ihe efTcct ofa unlfurm penny rale would be to increare correipondence " In all proln ability at leaat Ave-and-a-quarter fuld." [In IHfM the numlier of letter* In the kingdom (4;8,aDa,H08) had in- creaied more than aix-fold beyond the number in 1839 (then 'r),U07,&'2), thu la^t yearof the old rate*. ) 1 hat the neceaaary coat of primary diatrlbulion, Inatend of lie- Ing 81 bundredlha ofa penny, aa It wai under the nu- meroua rale* of poalagr, would only be 32 hundredth! of a penny, the diflTerence, 62 hundredth* of a r*""/! iirlnlng from the expenaivcnciia uf the arrangomenia, the exceaaive chargea, and the conaequenl reatricllon of correapondence. That the accondary diatribution of let- ter* (the delivery) ought lo be untaxed, aoaa not In any degree to Interfere with the aimpllcity of arraiigemenli attending a uniform and low rate. A verllicatlon of Mr. IliU'a prediction*, almost amounting to prophecy, hua been eatabliabed by the working of the ayatem. In hia pamphlet, published in lHit7, be predicted that Iho Increaae of correapondence, anil the attendant economy of management that would reault from a uniform rate of a penny, " would alTord a probable nut ;'cvenue" — that la, in a reasonable time — "of .£1,278,000." In 18&6 the net revenue was exact- ly < 1,208,726. One statement will show the great eranomr of management under a uniform rate of post- age. Taking the coat of carrying on the British postal eatablishinent (transportation excepted) In 1837, livfore there wiis uniform postage, and in 1854 (with tliu uni- form charge ofa penny), and looking also at the num- ber of letters at each period, we can see what thu hand- ling, sorting, dislribution, and delivery amounts to per hundred or per thousand letters. The following is the official record : „ 1 KipcnM of Numbargr EiMnMofciicb L, ■nil th« nxaniinalliiii of nearly a liumlrail wUimau-i fruiii all rlaMcn anil riinli> uf Miclaly, limy inailn llinlr rapurl In Iwu furniliUliU lilua-lio, utvlnn Ilia cnllru tniitl- mviiy, anil a K'xal niau ul ufflclal ulatlalUal Infurina* tliin. It i> a fai't wurtli nivn'.lunliiK In lliU pUiu thai all graat pnatal lin|iruvginenla, Ixitli In (Iraat llrilain anil tlio Unltail Htataa, warn cummanceii, carrlail un, anil proMi'Uteil lu a aucraMftil tiinnlnallon, by cltUona •ntlriily uni'onmicUil wUb Ilia poaul ■atalilUlwnant. 8ii far fruin ilvrlvliiK alil rniin tliote wliu woulil In' lup- puaail to poMOM lliii alilllty ami illnpoaltiiin tu alT'iil it — vii., thuM ill till) poat-ofllca — thiiy liava unlfnrnily oppoiail uti ri't'urini. It waa aliiKularly trua in tli'u prnacnt lni|ulry. " It waa fuund, liy Ilia coniniiaaiim, lu ba a mattiir of the Krcatvat illffioully to nxtrai t rniin thu poat-ufflio any Inrurinatiun nocaaaary fur thu i-lu- clilatlon of I ha Inipiiry." " Not only ha* tha puat-uf- lieu boan ultirly barroii of Inipruvt'iueiit llavir, but ita wvlght la thrown Into (h* oppoalto aualu." " Whcn- tver Iho pimt-iitncu att<riO,lHIO nawapapora, aUii, wora unileliverad, being aUiiit I in I'iUnf the wliiile nuinlMr." In the raau of lettera that can nut Imi dellviri d, evaa though by the fault of the writer*, the llrllliih puat-of. Ileo la supposed tu be Just aa much the aervant ef tha people aa In the ease of lettera when originally iiiailad and correctly addn'aii d, and every such letter ii luoked upon a* a piece of property, to be aent to llie person adilreaaed, when (loaaililo, ond when not, returned to thu uwner. \ll letters and packages that are prepaiil, when returned, are iblivered tu the st^ndirs wiibuut any charge ; and when not prepaid, duulilo postage Is exacted. With siiili system, simplicity, and foeillty U the returni' . f letters carried on, that each dork r». turns two huii>..uil per day. The principle anil operation of tha Ilritlsh I'enny- postage system la this : A minimum rale uf postage la Bought for that ahall not be an exorbitant charge fur tho smallest packages the shortest dislnnces, and this postage is paid by a stamp. Now the object is to maka this stamp cover as larKo a number and variety of pack- ages— written and printeil— as possible. Kuih letter is called a "single" letter that does nut exceed half an ounce in weight, and each package of printed matter — nonspapors, circulars, Imnd-bllls, pamphlets, or books — ilfliie up open at tho ends or sides, is ronslilereil " sin- gle" up to four ounces. Here is tho value, conven- ience, simplicity, and utility of ukikokm postage, both to the public nt large, and lo tliuso who hanillo, sort, rate, and attend to the letters and mails. l>ru|>-let- tcrs, or more properly local letterr — for they are not permitted lo "drop" and become "dead"— anil all lo> lal mail matter, is charged at the same rate as thosa tliiit are transported live hundred miles, Iho cun*e> queiii I* readily seen. The penny stamp covers aU most all — more than nincteen-twcntieths— the packages that are mailed, A letter not weighing over half an ounce, local or otherwise, a newspaper, pamphlet, or other printed package, nut weighing over n qnurtcrof a pound, have the postage prepaid by llie all-powerful, all-convcnicnt, universal, uniform penny stamp. Then in larger (inckagcs thu rates are not cut up so fine as to bo inconvenient to eitlicr tho citizen or tho postmaso ter. Letters from half an ounce to un ounce are two postai^'cs, and after the llrst ounce each ounce ur frao- tion of an ounce in excess is reckoned as two postages. In printed matter, after tho first half pound, the reck- oning is made by half pounds; each half pound, or fraction of a half pound, being charged two postagea — two pence. All tho items in this simplicity and uni- formity of arrangement save a vast amount of time and trouble to the people, and the clerks and postmasters, In a nation that writes and sends by mall annually neaN ly six hundred million letters and printed packages, particularly as each letter and printed package has to go through from four to eight dIRbront processes or op- erations in tho hands of the citizen, and from liftcon to twenty after it gets Into the post-office. Would any other system but one that combines so much wisdom, economy, convenience, simplicity, uniformity, and util- ity, bring nearly six hundred million letters and pack- ages through the post-offlce in a single year? A record of tho business, and the revenues and corre- spondence of the poBt-oflice of the kingdom for a few years, will do something toward answering the question. POS 1558 pds 8TATIBTICS OF THE BRITISH POST-OFFICE.— t;?«(f«i(;«rf to Unit^'d Statu Curremy.-] RiTCMi;>i EzraHus, KtrMDm or Littibs, and Ncuubs and Ahockt or Monit Obdxu in riis Uhitid Kihodoii, DUEiHo A iHiia or YiABS, ooiiManoiNo wi'.'u 1816, and indihs with 1866. 1816. 1830. 1885. 1886. I83T. 1340. 1841. 1848. 1843. 1841. 1846. 1846. 184T. 1848. 194i. 1860. 1801. :8oa. 1803. 1864. 13r<0. ISOtt. 36 7,003,320 7,632,781 8,266.830 8,801,146 $8,096,'.: 80 8.066.21.8 7,;S3,6(» 8,144,818 8,262123 8,897,049 8,168,881 2,608,047 3,806,148 3,008,307 3,201,086 8,609,786 3,809,913 4,120,661 4,928,484 8.702,147 4,208,935 4,019,4r'8 0,590,023 6462,0(8 0,8t>S,640 0,976,683 0.886,38,4T2.4r3 41,402,104 47.191 .889 41),630,976 62,312,(159 66.046.890 09,027,810 The mone^ columni gire the tmounts in United States currency, calculating five dollars to the ponnd sterling. It will be seen that the gross and net reve- nue of the post-office for twenty rears, from 1816 to 1835, actually declined. Then there were twelve or fourteen rates of postage for letters, averaging about six and a half pence sterling (18 cents) a letter. With a reduction to the uniform rate of a penny — ^less than one-sixth of the former rates — the postal revenne more than recovered in eleven years, while the number of let- ters sent by mail annually increased from 76,907,572 in 1839, to' 478,893,803 in 18d6. The remittances of moni'v, in money orders, increased fh>m a million and a half in 1889, to flfty-nine millions in 1866. To make a direct comparison between the use of the post-office in Great Britain and in the United States, it may be stated that, after a careful estimate, the nnmber of let- ters sent through the post-ofBco in this country' since 1789, to 1856, inclusive — a period of sixty-seven years —has been l,fi52,l(M,C48, while in Great Britain, in the years 1858, 1854, 1855, and 185G, the number of letters was 1,789,076,769; or more in that country in four years, with low and uniform postage, than in this country since the formation of the government, now nearly three-quarters of a century ! Daring ten years — from 1847 to 1856, inclusive — the population of I^on- don alone sent by post 920,527,0J!9 letters, or more than in the entire United States during the same peri- od ; the latter numbering 888,527,549 1 But in Great Britain there was one uniform rate for letters, and one uniform scale by weight for printed matter, while in this country there are three rates of^postage on letters, and on printed matter, from a small newspaper to a large book, the number of rates is almost one thon- sand! Under the post-office system of Great Britain there is a free-letter delivery, a safe way of remitting money by money orders, that is used to the extent of about sixty millions a year, and one low rate of post- age that brings an annual income of over fourteen mil' lions of dollars. In the United States the postage is higher; there is no nniformity, no letter delivery, and no money order system, and our population scarcely pay seven millions in postage. The people of Great Britain can scarcely one half of them read or write, and yet they write and send by mail almost 600,000,000 letters in a year. The population of the United States, numbering just about the same as Great Britain, and nearly all able to read and write, only write and send by mail 131,000,000 letters in a year. Arc further facts and illustrations necessary to show the superiority of the British postal system, or the relative merits of the " uniform postage" and the "complex postage" systems? The correspondence between Great Britain and sev- eral of her colonies, and foreign countries, for the year 1866, will be seen in the following table : Estimated nniBrai or Lettebb, Newspapcbs, and Dooes between Gbbat Dbitain and oebtath Colonies and rOBKIQM tOUNTBIES. N«w*t>ap«n RDd booki Outwnrd. 1,843,466 808,740 123,408 19,608 008,058 114,084 979,008 718.296 086.968 149,092 81.636 lfl6,l>80 48,l(i4 92,808 76 4')2 4,776 1,063,681 672,413 Africa, West coast of Auitrmlla Delgium Brazils Bremen Canada Ceylon Last Indies; viz., llonilsy, Calcutta, Madras, Aden, Penang, and Singapore Franco German Postal Union Ilarobnrg Holland Hong .Kong Mauritius Uediterrancan, including Malta, Alexandria, and Ionian Island Spain and Portugal: vie., Lisbon, Oporto, and GlbralUr Sweden United States West Indies and I'ociflc Lelt«rt Outward. 2s,8'iO 913.783 8 5.811 66.263 67,166 368. '.'84 28,722 610,482 3,181.916 911.957 880,445 ?33 632 72.BJ2 20,730 334,786 171,846 26.015 1,788.746 322,710 Lcttara Inward. 28,836 • 260,664 80,076 49.638 306,915 37,542 647,800 2,021,610 63.5.145 267,049 179,827 78,2'i8 16,6n0 175,066 161,088 17.863 1,5)7,064 281.700 Inward and Outward. 6I,I>36 • 67(i.3'76 140.3i!8 1(167(14 766,109 66,264 1,258,582 4,206 536 1,647.102 643.094 41.1.459 150.760 37,260 409,843 335,934 43,268 8,280,709 604.416 Ffcwfn»|m« and Hooka Inwan). 4,632 « 186'460 60,084 • 434!4I6 28,l'i8 320,687 614.304 184..H80 127.868 44,8118 Bl.'."i8 26,200 9,420 4.860 3.261 872.6i;4 123,496 inward and Outward. 37,016 SSS,200 163,492 • 1,388,444 186,800 1,199,700 1,832.600 771,348 277,460 1V6,444 166,158 69,414 103,232 80,262 8,040 1,930.248 694,909 ■ No returns. POS 1559 POS and ser- the year InWRrd •nd Ootwnrd. "«7,6t0' 183,402 • 1,388,444 180,200 1,193,766 1,832,600 771,348 277,460 l'.6,444 166,158 69,414 109,292 80,202 8,040 11,830.248 694,909 Th« toUl wnount of correapondenca in Mch of the I in London for Mvonteen yean, is exiiibited in the fok tbiee kingdoma, ai well as the local and other letters | lowing table : Nmiras, A» muBLT as oaw bi AsciBTAimsn. or ciiaukidu Lcttebs diuthid is Ghat Dbitain IHHPDIATILT niOIDtNS THE H1IST OINKRAL BinonTIOH Or l>OSTAUE. ON THS 6lll Or UXOIIIBIa 1839 OOHniTI YlAB SUBSKIDCNT TIIRRXTO.— L^VunM OT Fttt UtUrt vuirktit ■ ] IK Tim YlAB AHD IN lAoa YMn. 188!). 1839. 1840. 1841. 1842. 1843. 1844. 1846. 1846. 18tT. 1848. 1849. 1860. 1881. 1859. 1868. 1864. 1866. 1866. By Coantrj OfflCM. 88,071,808 1«8,8»6,677 111,116,439 117.704,474 129.016,028 147.2i7,431 162.024,024 176 028,407 180.716,102 187.882,829 192.508,628 199, 740,304 212,0!18,7.'!8 28■2,B(^,I77 264,922,907 203,037,827 276,463,824 Loodon DMn«l «iclualr« of Local Lottoffl. 93,669,836 97,966,729 29,886,289 80,908.748 88,676986 86,097,711 89,998,081 43,767,640 •16,091,163 45,846,683 4i,866,170 47,819,499 61,171,428 54,402,0^3 67,186,169 69,647,643 64,961,821 LofftlitlM In Loadoa Dlilncl. 20.87i.382 28, 108,72 > 23.899.942 24 881.410 26 980.4011 80,82S,486 83,261,0611 84 63:1.817 83,072,747 88,960,8! 8 !!8.887,8H 40,58.5,962 40.403,207 42,816814 40,131,661 46.844.163 47,894,7(18 FOHAL .■.^nsTios or Tw»ntt- BHIIOYID, AMD TUK 1' rivs LiAniHa Citibb anb Towns or Gbkat Bbitain, oitino tiir ndhuir or rEsaoNS ObTAL Hr.VBNDB, LOOAL ExPENBEB, AND MONEY BEMITTED IN MoNEY UBUEES. CItin. London LiTerpool Msnciietter Olugor Edinburgh Dublin Hirminghsm.... Brintol Leeds Newcastle Hull SheflkeU Bsth Bradford Belfast Exeter Norwich Southampton ... Nottingham .... Aberdeen Portsmouth Plymouth Wolrerhampton Derby Leicester PjpnUtloD. 2,302,336 376,966 816,913 329,097 100,802 268,861 282,841 137,828 278,618 87,784 84.690 136,310 64,240 149,643 100,800 40,683 68,196 86,806 67,407 7l,97S 72,096 62,221 119,743 40,609 60,684 Clorki, Sufr. poalmuter*. Rjceivgri, ot«. 1397 149 160 123 82 124 90 119 93 61 67 49 8j 87 89 60 81 64 62 53 18 29 23 44 27 L«u«r- earrien. 1385 82 123 184 74 109 34 63 42 25 46 22 47 25 20 80 41 24 23 20 16 19 14 20 23 Local BipaiiMt. £216.053 14.029 12.766 10,096 11,043 19,930 7,864 0,168 6,128 2.983 8,900 2,043 8,366 1,866 1,809 2,807 2,883 2,014 2,206 1,707 1,037 1,707 1,8.10 2.171 1,649 Poital Revenue. ^1T,S38 92,842 78,121 67,73S 41,923 4S,419 86,096 28,510 19.625 18,484 16,875 14.509 13,705 11.824 10,352 ie,118 11,223 12,228 10.628 10.918 10,858 10,197 8.0S0 S,2fl2 7,227 £834,927 100,379 86 301 63,441 66,270 65.103 88 849 23,907 21,48} 19,647 16,960 14,782 14,884 13,130 12.122 11,918 11,870 11.6S5 11,503 11.130 10,8M 10,2il 8,7S0 8.653 7,853 Money Orden. iMued. £2,202,229 86S.IV16 8:f6 029 158,810 128,271 260.043 192,448 132477 110,486 97.230 97,192 83,004 78,-:64 46,03> 41,506 05 899 50,822 76,901 80,727 82.503 90.656 64,115 60,213 40,448 47,089 Paid. £3,336.079 301.874 KS6,809 19.M99 206..">83 210,563 805 374 208 283 140,229 83,302 11S,395 93,487 72,1 97 41,223 44,376 77,8!'5 61,787 70.714 66 701 42.426 70.048 07,649 83,487 43,194 46,783 The rate of letter-postage between Great Britain and tach of her colonies— over forty in number — is six- pence sterling, except to the Cape of Good Hope, Na- tal, Labuan, Gambia, Island of Ascension, Falidand Islands, and Vancouver's Island. A bool(-post, for the transmission of every species of printed matter, has also been established with the most of the colonics. The above table exhiliits at one view the population, an- nual postal revenue, local post expenses — for rent of post-offices, salaries, etc., not transportation— amount of money remitted by money orders in a year, together with (second column of figures) the number of clerics, postmasters, sub-postmasters, and letter-receivers, and (third column) the number of town and rural letter-car- riers in (and around) twenty-five of the leading cities and towns of Great Britain. The population is from the census of 1851, the local expenses and number of persons employed, for the year 18S4, the money orders for 1866, luid the postal revenue for both 1856 and 1866. The British money order system is one of the most important adjuncts to the PostK)fBce, This was first started as a private enterprise by certain officers of the post-office, in the year 1792. The commission charged was eight-pence to the pound sterling, making the whole business complicated and expensive. The conaequenco was, it afforded little profit to the project- ors, and but very trifling accommodation to the puli- Uc The tlu«e officers engaged in it received less than two hundred pounds sterling each, in annual profits, the entire commissions amounting in a year to less than four thousand pounds. August 13th, 1888, the money-order ofHce was attached to the post-office, and the officers compensated for their rights. At first the commissions were put at six-pence sterling for all or- ders less than two pounds, and one and six-pence for orders between two and live pounds. These commit- sions were reduced on the 20th of November, 1840, to six-pence and three-pence respectively. No order is granted for more than five pounds. The number of persons employed in the money-order office at first was three. This was in 1838. In 1841 there were thirty- seven, and now in the money-order office in London alone there ore nearly two hundred. W'o have seen in a table on a previous page [1558] the vast increase in the money-order business in the liingdom. In 1839 the number of orders was less than two hundred thousand, and the amount of money emitted about $1,570,000. In 1856 the number of orders had in- creased to over six millions in number, and the amount in a year to about sixty million dollars. The money order is a draft from one postmaster on another, and it paid at sight, in specie, to the person in whose favor it is drawn. It is as safe is a duplicate bank check be- fore it is endorsed, and if proper care is used in remit- ting it ; if it gets lost or stolen, it will be impossible for any but the rightful owner to obtain the inonejr on it, even by committing forgery, at a casual finder ,-^,.v POS 1560 POS will not know the name of the penon in whoa* fivor it i( drawn. It it Mfe to say that not one money order in five hundred tliouaand geta appropriated by the wrong peraou. All poat-otticea are not money-order •fficea. There are in the United Kingdom 10,866 poat-oiHcca. Of theae 846 are head poat-officea, and 10,021 aub-poat- officea. The number of poat-officea where money or- dera are bought and aold ia 2096. The net proflt on money ordera during aeveral veara waa aa followa : In 1849, £322; in 1851, £7487; in 1854, £16,167; and in 1856, £22,674. The commiaaiona averaged leaa than one per cent. One vast auperiority of the British Poat-oifice con-, aiata in the facilittea for rapid delivery and local diatri- bution in citiea and towna. Tlie postage on each local letter being one penny, the aame aa for leltera the lon- geat diatance, there ia a very large profit on the local diatribution of lettcra, admitting that the carriora deliv- er every thing " free" that comea from other placea. The clear protita on the local diatribution of letters in London alone, after deducting tlie entire expenae of letter-carriera, receivera, and mail-men, ia over $900,000 a year. It will then be seen that the term " free-let- ter delivery" ia a misnomer. By the figures in a ta- ble on a previoua page it will be aeen that the num- ber of local letters in London annually ia over forty- seven millions. The machiner}' for the local distribu- tion of letters in London consists of about 1400 letter- carriers, one or two score of mail-men, with horae and cart, and alraut 600 sub-postmaatera and letter-receiv- era. In all the densely populated parta of London there are hourly deliveries through the day, and more than four-fiftlis of the first morning delivery ia accom- plished lictween the hours of seven and a quarter past nine. Store than one half is done before nine o'clock. In addition to the "receiving-houses," where stamps can be purchased and letters can be posted at all hours of night and day, there are now in use a large number of " letter-pillars" of cast iron. These convenient re- ceptacles of letters have given great satisfaction, and are. rapidly coming into use in cities, towns, and coun- try districts. There is but one assignable cause for the extensive use, large income, and great profit, of the British Post-office. The charges arc simple, uniform, and low ; the accommodations numerous, and the de- liveries rapid and punctual. The estimated number ' of book packages that passed through the British Post- office in 1856 was 8,000,000, the newspapers 71,000,000, and the letters 478,893,808, being a total number of 662,89.8,808 packages. This is probably one half of the entire number sent by mail in the civilized world. The personnel of the Poat-office of the United King- dom ia aa followa : Postmaster-general, Duke of Argyle I Secretary of the PoBt^oHlce, Kowlsnd HUl, Eaq 1 AMistant secretaries S gecretsrteii for Scotland and Ireland 2 Surveyors 15 Heads of Uepartmenta, eto It Mall guards 2M Clerks 1,W8 Letter-carriers and messenger* 10,42T Postmasten and receivers 10,806 Total iil,180 The expenaea of the Britiah Poat-office for 1856 were OS followa : Salaries, wages, etc £9M,0?4 Hereditary pensions . Iluildlngs Mail conveyance by ralliray. . . . Conveyance by coaches, eta . . . Conv^ance by water Manufacture of postage stamps . Miscellaneous 29,810 88.880 ST6,S63 1S2,887 14,809 20,164 108,322 Total £l,m),'im It ia an invariable rule in (he British Post-office that all peraona appointed ahall be of a suitable age, and shall submit to a rigid examination, to sec if they pos- sess the necessary qualifications. Letter-carriers and sorters must be between the ages of 17 and 27 at the date of their original appointment, and shall undergo an examination by a physician to see if they possess the requisite health and strength. Wages and salaries are not exorbitant, but none are discharged except for some fault or dereliction of duty ; and after a certain number of years of faithful service, they are permitted to retire on a pension, amounting to from one third to two thirds of tlietr salary, according to the length of time they have served. We will close our account of the post-offices of Great Britain by giving the revenue and expenditure, the rates of postage, and (ho various improvements intro- duced into the post-offices of the principal British col- onies since the introduction of the penny postage into England in 1840, The revenue and expenses in each case arc for 1864, except for Canada, which is for 1865. Colon fM Barbadocs Canada Ceylon Gold coast ludts Jamaica Mauritius New Itrunswick Newfoundland New South Wales New Zealand Nora Scotia Prince Kdward's Island. South Australia Tasmania Trinidad Victoria Western Australia Total. Natal* and Dat« of ImproremenU. Inland poet (1852), uniform postage and Btampn. Itcduocd postage (IS.*)!) and postage stamps Reduced postage (1840) Post established in 18B3 Uniform postage and postage stamps (1S54-*55) . CliarKO by weight instead uf pieces (1S48) l>iHtrlct post-otilces and postage stamps Itcduced postage and poBtago stamps (1851) Inland posts (IS5:'), and uniform postngn (1853), Reduced postage and postage stamps (1851-'&4) . ruiform jwstago and postage stamps Reduced jioiitagi! and postage stamps (1861-56) . Uniform postage (1851) I'nlform postage ( 1854) Reduced poKtHgo and postage stamps (1851-&3) . Uniform postagii and postage stamps (ISM) Reduced rates and postage stamps (1850) Itcduced postage and postage stamps (1862~'04) . Rftt« or Rnte* of Latter ro«t»g«. C>nU. 2 ItoB 2; 8, 0, 0, and 12 12, 18, and 24 U 8, 12, 16, 21), and £4 4 6 5 2 and 4 4 11 and B 4 4 2 and 4 2 4 and 8 2 and 4 . Ravtnno. $11,225 887,6.'6 iw.ss:) 1,375,835 65,040 2,!116 40,550 1,81(1 120,nS5 11,046 27,330 4.715 87.385 40,!I<.IO 7,006 334,746 7,180 $.1.6117.446 Eiponiiei. $9,750 610,485 4-2,975 i.bibImo 69,410 4,900 61,li5 8,620 261,(;65 11.160 19,696 10,4KS 47,790 81,466 9,226 729,330 10.2(16 $8,489,216 Nearly or quite all of the improvements introduced into the colonial post-offices appear to bo the direct re- snlt of the success of the penny postage in Great Brit- ain. It will be seen that many of them cling to the old absurdity of a number of rates, all entailing great inconvenience on every person that mails a letter, and greatly multiplying the operations and increasing tbo lal)or and expense in the post-offices. V. Poilal Statutict, and Rattt of Pottage in other Oaunlriei. — There are certain peculiarities and features o( interest iu many of the Continental post-otiices uf Eu- rope that deserve notice, leaving the prominent statir- tics to bo given in tabular form. In the German Post- al Union, in Prussia, Switzerland, Spain, and some other countries, the post-office undertakes the carriage of passengers and small parcels as well as letters and mail matter. In this species of traffic the government does not hold an absolute monopoly, but, like stage proprietors that get the mail contract, they are ena- bled to hold an undue competition with all outsiders, resulting from their advantages as mail carriers. In nearly all the Continental cities the government post Austria . IMsK . . Ilavaris «rsme»,, '?»«»*«*, Pr»»«« . , , Fmkfnr «/-♦{ Ufit Hanovflf . . JMIwfj,.; I4 . ■ , Mbsck... N»pi«». . ; OldsnbMW- Peru ... ,7 PoriMmJ,, Kustl*. , . : swiioia,, 8*toi}V.,, f»fl *>f (IMless labor in the rating pf )at|«ra, lw<>i)4«» tttt(tiHf$ Other states that enter into uottttl rmiiitlt'i with (hem (o serious inconvenience. V|m< hHlr^MHtW li«'8k fuf lettefs Is in use in the United Ntutus, I'ltfU, ^t(iw ltf«H«dfi, Eqiiador, Hraisil, Great H>it»il), tiiim, UlliUnd, l»enm&rk, Iceland, Prussia, AMstriu, H*1#H, H»V*fi«, ^rtinhfort- on -the -Maine, H»lltl»«rg, MstlMVCf, l/Obeck, Haxony, WOrtemberg, ail4 »f»l««l( Hfdisd «01ohI«s< The quarter-ounce scale i* u4it4.|H)ly ili Vt»HW, Switzerland, Sardinia, and Tus- "Uny i wllil*! A wsijjht equivalent to one-third or three- •ilifltl*4 o( »ll mmi'U in ami in Portugal, Uelgium, and ))rMM*wi«ik: i(u«^JM, (ihlllf and Hremen, adopt the OHnoo ^Itlfi fitr Mnf|lt< letter!), Sweden a weight that is sgujygl^Mt Ui »ilimt five--ei^hth8 of an ouiko, and the ^\nts4mn td Hnuifn sdll OSes the old plan ot' charging by itiH Dh«»f, tim tlttlf-oimce scale being in such ex- tSHtlv)' MOWe. kXi'EnSES in Dollaks. r-uuiiiiiwJi. AWStrift •; mil It t it II I til I I t |f#4**U ■!!lllllllllllllltlltt B»V»fl» ■jiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinii liSlgf Mnl .' ; f 1 / I > I > I > 1 1 < I > 1 1 .' < Bf#^il ; t tilt illlll lilt till II Hremfln.- r • i > > .• < > .• . n i . u < < < i Brmwirlf*,, ,,.■<„/.. i/iiM ^»\\\ ! f ! ir ti Illlll 1 1 II It 111 I X^mmfvMtittitiititiiiiiin V'H'H'iOfmittiitttiiittiii )'r»ncs ■iiiti,,i,titiiiiii;i Fr*flkfrrt • tiinittt itittiiti Uv»%%\it\Ui\n,,ttiitiiiiiiii M ItnIO ll'>4 Number of Katn. Data. 1841 1341 1842 1S4S 1842 is4s 1841 1847 isio 18&1 1810 1849 ISO 1861 1S4S 1842 1861) 1849 1844 1S3:) isno \'m 1S40 Poj(al Revenue. }8,ir),1.400 4f>s 5ro 884,170 OiiS.OO.'i 50,980 83,745 897,790 10,050,"l35 7,7ft7.3'32 3:l.730 178.810 5i).',"35 83,330 03,030 6.615,130 3.3^7.746 G;5,58rt 5SS,T80 1.271.000 260,0110 1,(135,730 1.'.2,!175 4,r>43,,'i.'J Pmlal ExpgMBa. $3,08ii.845 340,570 803,060 82,41)5 04,315 271, 019 7,095,'465 4,293,3'« lft,B;i5 02,350 199,635 64,()50 4,479,220 1,8119,940 3.V).l'.m 3'.18,185 703,000 226,500 886,180 7'.i,5 5 4,718,236 Data. 1852 1.S.V2 18,'.3 18.53 1851 l,^53 1852 1S5i lS5i 18.')2 1852 1856 1852 1853 1853 is62 issi 1R52 1853 18K) 18.'s! 18.52 ia')3 18.52 18,53 18.53 18,52 18:>2 1R56 1853 Poatal Revenue. $4,M14,035 481,815 3>!8,24<) 700,3.'h5 114.il85 5,(K)0 10,5,960 70,4' 6 ausis 12,475 9,321,900 14,339,'7'70 41.046 157.901 576,1185 i2,'ds5 loi,'625 61,S(I5 88,000 184,51 K) 0,427,980 3,S65,4'lO 642,530 067,8.85 1,631, 8.V) 831,440 1,803,925 2'2.'>,.'v«6 7,6iil.R22 384.81)0 PueUl Eiipen*ea. $4,199,300 374,645 832.'340 151,510 2 5)0 74.700 48,,5^5 3.52,025 11,140 6,623,9-.!5 8,8fli.l-15 15,310 60,200 811,305 13,106 60.000 38.000 13S.375 6,605 5'.5 2,419.810 393,',I35 4')3,V70 1,0-11.'.50 3 ■3.'.'40 962.420 14',i.415 10,407,868 371.485 Nearly nil nf (h» RHfopiidtt (cotidnental) nations make it » p»Ft of (hclf ((Oii(«l lynslness to (ransport pas- MDgsr* »04 psfwln M W*ll «« mails. In consequence of tbi* %nm^»nwni, mh i«fiur«(« comparison of the financial results of tho different postal systems can not 1)0 given. Tlio total annual revenue of tho post-oflioea on the Continent of Europe, at tho latest dates given above, amounted to $32,409,405— probably one third \t 'I P08 156S P(3S of thli being for good) «nd puMngaiw— «nd the toUl •nnual oxpunsea to $24,ajects in their distinct coionys to enter into a strict allyance and correspondency with each other, as likewise for the advancement of negotiation, trade, and civill commerce, and for the speedy intelligence and dispatch of afTayres." It gave notice that a messenger would start on the first of January, 1073, and that " If any, therefore, have any small letters or portable goods to bo conveyed to Hartford, Connecticott, Bos- ton, or an}' other parts on the road, they shall be care- fully delivered according to the directions, by a swornc messenger and post, who is purposely employed in that afTayro. In the interim, those that bee disposed to send letters, left them bring them to the Secretary'^ office, wlierc, in a lockt box, they shall be preserved till the messenger calls for them. All persons paying the post before the bagg be sealed up." Tlie mails nt this period did not appear to have a very rapid transit. The post-riders set out from New York and Boston simultaneously, on Monday morning, and on the Sat- urday evening following, they met at the half-war house, Saybrook, Connecticut, where they exchanged mails, and each wended his way back, arriving on Saturday of the following week. At the present time. "Il. l .f ll t,> III J III { i'OS 1«6S P08 B tb*t nt> u of the Uain is and of ftQ con- Britain re tban refcrri'cl it-offices y, and — der cou- lis calca- fkey, and ifen. Of n the pre- fix adopt le nations age, while entire ex- snry. show the aid in post- during the jn, and col- land letters, ir, the num- ney paid an- ersons. The X Britain for s established, le year 1863 : instead of two weeks being required, and a semi- monthly mall only, the mails are transported between Boston and New Yorli three times a day, each way, in fh)m eight to eleven houn ; two weeks being ample time to convey the roailsTrom New York to Copen- hagen, Denms'lt, to Marseilles, Berlin, Vienna, or Trieste. It is .ibrewdly suspected that the fatherly care exhibited by King Charles for a mail service, and » "strict allyance and correspondency" between the American colonies, was with an eye to the profits, which all went to a member of the royal family. In 1683 William Penn established a post-ollico in Pennsylvania, and appointed Henry Waddy postmas- ter. The mails were sent to the principal towns in Pennsylvania, and to the neigliboring colonies, once a week, the times of departure being regularly published " on the meeting-house door and other public places." Postal affairs in the colonies received marked attention in England, in 1685, on the accession of King James, who owned the Post, and put the profits in his own privy purse, and an order in council was made "for the better correspondence between the Colonies of America." In 1686 an order was made in New York that all letters coming from beyond sea should be de- livered at the custom-house. The postage was " four- pence half-penny for a single letter, and nine-pence for every packett or double letter," " one half of the money to be given to the poor," under the direction of the Captain-general and the Council, and the other half to the ofHcers of the custom-house. In 1691-'92 Thomas Ncal, by letters patent, was ap- pointed Postmaster-general, with authority to erect post-offices in the American colonics. It appears, how- ever, that he did not act himself, but appointed Col onel Andrew Hamilton, of New Jersey, Postmaster- general for all the colonies. In 1692, by the rccom mendation of Colonel Hamilton, the Common Council established a post-office in New Y'ork city. It was lo- cated in Broadway, opposite the end of Beaver Street. The rates of postage were, for eighty miles or under, four-pence half-penny; from Now York to Philadelphia, nine-pence ; and to Virginia, twelve-pence. The ex- pense, however, was found greatly to exceed the in- come. For ten years there was no regular Post further east than Boston, or further west than Philadelphia. Lord Cornbury wrote home, in 1704, saying " there is no other Post upon all this continent. If I have any letter to send to Virginia or to Maryland, I must cither send an express, who is often retarded for want of boats to cross those great rivers they must go over, or else for want of horses ; or else I must send them by some passengers who are going tliither. The least I have known any express to take hence to Virginia has been three weeks." At this period the mail was car- ried twice a month in stage-coaches, between Boston and New York and Philadelphia; and from New Y'ork to Albany by a foot-post, once a month. In 1732 a General Post-office was established in Virginia, and a post-office in each county. In 1736 there was a week- ly mail from Philadelphia to New York and Boston. In 1737 Colonel Spottswood, formerly Governor of Virginia, appears to have been Postmaster-general, and he appointed Benjamin Franklin postmaster at Philadelphia. The following is an advertisement from Franklin's newspaper at this period : " Octobtr 27, 1737. — Xotict is herebi/ ffiven, that the Foit-office of PhUadelphia is now Jcept at B. Franklin's, in Market Street, and that Henry Pratt is appointed riding postmnster /or all stages between Phihdelphia and \ew- port, in yirginia, who sets out about the beginning of each month, and returns in twentg-four dags, bg uhom gentle- men, merchants, and others, mag have their letters care- fiiUg conveged, and business faithfuUg transacted, he hav- ing given good security for the same to the Honorable Col- onel Spottstoood, Postmaster-general of all his Majesty's dominions in An%erica." Colonel Spottswood died in 1763, and the home goyemment appointed Franklin •« bU intetMor, and he held the office for twenty-one yMrs, till 1774, wim the difficulties occurring between the colonies and lh( mother country, Franklin was unceremoniously turntd out of office. He sympatliized too strongly with tht people of the colonies in tlieir wrongs, hardtliips, Mid oppressions to be a fit instrument of the crown, lU is not the lost or the only instance of a postniMttl losing his office for political opinions. During Friuk* lin's administration of the Colonial Posts, nuilieroM improvements were made. At one tlm« liu took Itb own conveyance, nnd, in company with bis iJHUghter, made a journey of several hundred miles, vlsillitg all the principal post-offices in Pennsylvania, New jors«y, New York, and Now England. With that altiintluii to details which always marks the man of large LuslnsM capacity, he fct about making numerous refurnu In th* administration of the Post. Ho liad as aanuciut* or assistant, Mr. William Hunter. By the terms of their appointment they were to have six hundred pounds • year, procided they could get it! Franklin, in glvInK an account of the Post-office during his adininlatrtitlan of its affairs, after he had been turned out of the oIHm by George the Third, makes the fullowing pithy suin« mary: " The American Post-office had hitherto (t, «,, befor* 1753) never paid any thing to that of Britain, W« were to have six hundred pounds a year between Ml, if we could make tliat sum out of tliu prolits of tilt office. To do this, a variety of ini|irovoments wort necessary; some of these were inevitably, in the h(« ginning, expensive; so that in the first funr years tllO office became above nine hundred pounds In debt to us. But it soon after began to repay us ; and bufore I was displaced by a freak of tlio minister's, we had brought it to yield three times as much clear revaniio to the crown as the Post-office in Ireland. 8inc« that imprudent transaction, they have received from It—i not one farthing !" The practice of sending newspapers In exchange, free, dates from Franklin's administration of the Colo* nial Post-office. He was editor and publisher of a newspaper, and ho received his exchanges free, and accorded the same privilege to other journals, The philosopher undoubtedly soon recovered his equanimitr after that "freak of the minister's," for though he suf> fercd official decapitation, he was soon after rolnstatfld in office by a more competent authority, being unanU mously appointed Postmaster-general of the United Colonies by the Continental Congress. In 177U ha vacated the office, on being appointed embassador to France. On the 7th of November of tbot year, lilchard Bache was appointed to the office. He hold the plac* for a little over five years, and on the 28tli of January, 1762, Ebenezer Hazard was appointed Postmaster-gen- eral, and remained in office until the adoption of the Constitution, in 1789, when Samuel Osgood was ap* pointed. The different incumbents of the office of Postmaster-general since the Revolutionary war broke out were as follows : Benjamin Franklin, in 1776; Richard Bache, J77fl| Ebenezer Hazard, 1782; Samuel Osgood, 17«'J ; TImo. thy Pickering, 1791; Joseph Habersham, 1795; Gld» con Granger, 1802; Return J. Meigs, 1814; John M'Lcan, 1823; William T. Barry, 1829; Amos Ken> dall, 1835; John M. Nilcs, 1840; Francis Granger, March, 1841; Charles A. Wicklitft, September, 1841 1 Gave Johnson, 1845 ; Jacob CoUamer, 1819 ; Nathan K. Hall, 1850; Samuel D. Hubbard, 1852; Jamet Campbell, 1853; and Aaron V. Brown, in 1857. The rates of postage from 1776 to 1816 were ttom 7 to 33 cents, according to distance. In 1810 the ratal were fixed by act of Congress at 6t, 10, 12i, 18|, and 25 cents for each single letter, according to dietanoe. These rates remained till the act of 1845, which estab« lished the half-ounce scole for single letters, and Qiud the rates at five and ten cents. P08 1564 POS Th« act of M«Kh 8, 1851, eatabllih«d the following ntei: one cent for drop lettera, three cents for all (Ingle lettera (half ounce), for every distance not over three thousand miles, when prepaid, and Ave cents If not prepaid; and double these rates when over three thousand miles. The law of 1855 flxed the rates at one cent for drop lettera, three cents for letters all dis- tances under three thousand miles, and ten cents when over that distance, and all to be prepaid, or retained and sent to the dead-letter office. This law went into operation, as far as it was found practicable, on the first of April, 1865. After the lirst of January, 1856, all letters were required to be prepaid by stamps. In March, 1850, a law was passed making prepayment compulsory on all transient printed matter; and this law went into effect on the lat of April, 1866. The in- conveniences and inconsistencies of tha law making prepayment compulsory are numerous. At an expense of less than one hundred thousand dollars, nearly all letters might bo returned to the writers in a brief period of time after they fiill or miscarry. The usage of our government is In strung contrast to that of Great Brit- ain, where all dead or returned letten are sent to their writers at once. 4 It is instructive to observe the progress of our postal correspondence beyond the increase of population and the augmentation of almost all other national and do- mestic tran .actions. During each period of ten years, from 1700 t ) 1850, the average increase of the popula- tion of the country has been 34 per cent., the exports i'i per cent., the expenses of government 96 per cent., Fost-otfico revenue 120 per cent., and correspondence by mail 140 per cent. Thus, while the papulation of the country has increased in sixty years scvcn-fuld, letter correspondence has increased four hundred and forty fold, or sixty-three times as fast as the popula- tion. In 1790, the letters sent by mail in the Unit- ed States were estimated at 266,645; and in 1866, 131,460,409. The following table gives, for a period of sixty-seven years, the leading items : STATISTIOt or TUB UNITID States rosT-orrici. VMn. rmt- oOtM. MllM of Port-nxuli ElMDM of Total Bip«B«M. K*VIDU*. Numtm of LotUn. PopaUUoB. L«tt«n for each P«rton. 1790 78 1,878 !l'22,(i81 $82,140 »87,936 2(15615 8,180,000 0067 1191 89 1,906 28,2113 80,097 46,204 3-'4,0B8 im 19B 6.612 82,731 r4,B31 6T,444 47-2,103 • * • > 1708 S09 6,642 44,734 72.040 104,747 703.339 1794 460 11,984 63,006 89,078 128.947 902,029 179.5 463 13.207 76,369 117,893 160,020 1,124,840 • • < • . . • • 1790 468 13,207 81,489 181,672 1!8,li07 1,806,409 • 1 • • 1797 684 10,180 89,382 160,114 218,91'8 1,407,(186 • t * • * • • • 1798 6S9 16,180 107,014 170,084 !!32,977 1,630,839 • • • • 1T09 077 16,180 109,476 188,038 204,840 1,853,022 180O 903 20.817 128,044 213,094 280;804 l,!lf*,6S:-8 5,80d«CO0 370 1801 1,028 22,300 152,460 258,151 820,443 2,343,101 • • • • . • • . 180i 1,114 26.818 174,071 281,010 827,048 2,289,316 < • • • . . • » isos 1.288 26,816 206,110 833,304 881,823 2,462,701 • • t • . • • 1 1804 1,406 2»,r.66 205,668 887.602 889,480 2,720,160 • • • • » . . • 1806 1.658 8I,0'6 239,636 877,307 421,373 2,949,051 • • • • 180e 1,710 33.431 200,033 417,234 440,100 8,13-2,742 • • • • 1807 1.843 83,766 292,761 483,885 478,763 8,361,841 .... 1308 J,i!44 84,038 808,490 40-2,828 460,564 8.223,048 *. • . < • . • 1809 2.U12 81,036 832,917 493,012 606,634 8,840,488 .... 1810 2,8nO 86,406 827,006 4!;8,rfl9 661,68 1 8,801.788 7,240,(100 633 isn s,*ja 86,406 819,106 40»,099 887,247 4,110,729 1813 SiilO 39,878 840,026 640,168 649,208 4,644,456 1H18 S,740 89.6(0 438,569 681,012 703,186 4,922,086 • • . . ... * 1814 2,870 41,736 475,003 727,120 730,870 6,113,590 1816 3.000 4;i,f66 487,779 748,121 1,043,OC6 7,801,488 • • . • 1816 8,260 48.076 521,070 804,032 961.782 6,782,474 • > • « 1817 8.469 61.000 6S9,180 910,816 1,002,978 8,023,784 • • • . 1818 3,«18 69.473 004,011 1,035,832 1,130,288 0,041,880 * . . * 1810 4,000 67,680 717,831 1,117,801 1,204,737 0,637,806 182C 4.600 72,493 782,4J6 1,100,020 l,111.9i7 8,806.416 9,(138,000 0-9:3 1821 4,660 78,808 8I6.C3I 1,182,928 1,086,668 8,463, 2l!4 • • • • 1822 4,7D» 82,703 783.018 1,107.573 1,117,4110 8,989,920 * . • . 1823 6,043 84,860 707,404 l,10;i,880 1,114848 .8.014,760 * • • • 18-24 6.182 .84.860 7flS,939 1,169,199 1,I6!1.813 9,384,490 • • • . 1826 8,077 94.082 785,640 1,206,684 1,253,051 10,016,488 • • • . 1820 6,160 94,063 8S6,l(l0 1.309,310 1,388,417 11,110,336 • . • • 1827 7,003 105.836 943,348 1,373,239 1,473,551 11,7S8,408 • • . . 1828 7,651 114,836 1,086,312 1,633,333 1,698,134 12,786,072 1820 8,060 114,780 1,1.53,016 1,782,133 1,707,41,S 13,069,844 . • ■ 1830 8,480 116,176 l,274,(P(i9 1,933,708 1,860,888 13.804,664 12,660,000 10:3 1831 8,686 110,000 1,282,226 1,936,133 1,997,813 17,080,808 .... 1832 0.206 104,467 1,483,507 2,266,172 2,269.570 20,327,130 • . • • .... 1S83 10,127 119,916 1,894.688 2,930,416 2,01fl.K)8 28.848,842 .... ISSl 10,693 113,600 1,922,431 2,806,691 2.823.707 25,443,3(18 ■ . • • 1S3,"> 10,770 112,774 1,719,007 2,767,860 2,993,657 20,942,018 . • .* ■ . • . 183« 11,031 118,204 1,038,082 2,755,624 8,398,455 80,580,008 * . . . 1837 11,767 141,243 2,081,786 8,803,433 4,10li,6i6 80,906,448 1838 12,610 184.818 8,131,308 4,031,637 4,235078 83,116,703 1S39 13,780 133,990 8,301,923 4,6&l,718 4,477.014 40.398,520 • • . . 1840 13.4(!8 16.5,7.19 8,213,043 4.718,336 4,M3.632 40,891,6:-8 17,009,000 2355 1841 18,778 186,026 8,0,84,814 4.499,6-28 4,407.726 89,669,8»1 • . • * 1842 13,733 149,732 4.192,190 B.074.T63 6,029,507 46,266,863 1843 1!),8I4 142,298 2,982,612 4,374.754 4.290,236 88,600.026 . . . t 1844 14,103 144,687 2,983,047 4,2116.513 4,2i)7,283 88,138,593 .... 1848 14,133 143,940 2,808,630 4.320,732 4,439,812 89.958,978 • ■ . . 1846 14,601 149,670 2,697,466 4,084,3:12 4,089,000 41,879.781 .... 1847 16,146 163,818 2,470,456 8,971,278 4,018,447 47,585,787 .... 1848 16.160 103.208 2,448,700 4,326,880 4,101,078 62,304,819 • • • • .... 1.849 16,747 107,703 2,490,0.8 4,479.049 4 706,176 00,189,803 18S0 18,417 178,0-2 8,096,974 B.2I 2,953 6,662,971 60,426,482 28,192,000 29.4 1881 19,796 196,290 4.010,688 0,034.506 6,727.867 83,282,736 1882 20,901 214,284 4,138,907 7.108,469 6,823.982 96,700,6-24 .... 1883 22,820 217,743 4,7-29,028 7,983,767 B,l'40,734 102,130,148 .... 1884 23,648 219,988 4,92.5,738 8,677,4 '4 0,083,537 119,034,418 . , ,, 1888 84410 227,008 6.076388 0,r08.342 7,8S8,177 130,733,426 1800 Tot.l.... 28,665 239,042 6,706,039 10,407.868 7 630, S22 131,4,50,409 28.000,000 4-11116 .... .... 1 $90,396,889 $166,406.5-24 $148 887,640 1.662.104 648 .... ros 186A POS 0310 0B3S oo;3 io;3 2355 2-9.4 4-ri!i5 The total numb«r of mail route* on tbe 80th of June, 18S6, wu 7972, end the number of contractors 6872. The length of routei and annual amount of transporta- tion stand a* follows : KtadofSanrtM. UaiUiof KaaUl. Auiul TruapotuUoii. Co.»- p« Mlta. HUM. 14.U61 2U.8'J3 B0,4B3 1B3,»1B HUM. 4,240,170 ll,800,2«t i»,n4,rai 26.143,410 VU.M. 2M 3 10 TO 69 Railroad . • • • • Cosoh • Inferior grad Total miles... •J3J,04'i Tl,8'J7,8:»T The revenue and expenditures of the Post-offlce, and the items of which they wore composed, for the years 1856 and 1856, were as follows: ExPRiDinrMS or mc Umnn Stars FosT-onrioi. Traniportatlon of the malls .... Compensation to postmasters, . . Fay of poat-office clerks I'ay of letter-carriers Depredations and special agents Ship, steamboat, and way letters Advertising Blanks Mail bags Mall locks, keys, and stamps Wrapping-paper Postage stamps Stamped envelopes Office furniture Offldal letters Repnynieiit for dead letters. . Poaiagu stamps redeemed . . . Patent padlock Miscellaneous payments Balance paid Oreat Britain . . Balance paid Bremen Balance due Oreat Britain. .. Balance due Bremen BaddebU Total expenses. (0,070,33.') 2,185, 385 702,017 143,813 64.454 18,766 75,457 91,1S8 6i,(«0 16.178 46,467 11,UU4 40,035 6,250 66 7 19 6,000 163.011 802,860 13,465 70,523 6,130 l» M. $il.7U5,640 2,1I«.8.>1 753.081 102.915 03.602 17,618 64.603 48,5J8 48.910 11,087 8l.n>7 26,706 64,C8i) 6,'il)0 200,080 $10,O»,998 28.849 8.63S 2.53J triet, are the following i In tbt tint pUet, Nvaral po|>i uiar fallacies have been sngandared and liept up by official post-offlce reports. AKaln, the offlclal Ii«ai|l of this Important department, for the latt llfleen y«ar«, have almost invariably thrown tlieir ofllilal and par. sonal iuduence against all the great iMipraveiiienti utg- ently demanded by the people | and In cirryltiff out this opposition, several of these officers have uahlbllfd an unwarrantable interference with the |e|(lalallnn of the country. All of the principal improvsnieiils Itav* been accomplished, not through their aid, but In IIm face of their opposition. The annual reports of th* Postmaster-general, since 1862, have declared and al« tempted to prove that the legitimate revenue uf th« Post-offlce has been less than its legltlnmle eiiponili* tures, while the contrary has been the faol, as must In* evident when we have a complete view of tlia pr«m> ises. The true state of the case is— and this is tliH im- portant matter that has been overlouksd~th« t'osl*of* lice has performed a large amount of laliur, and iionM> quently been put to great expense, without any utsH record or any adequate return. The payment for and on account of letters and doeu- ments transported and delivered l)y the Pott-ollliM for the government— the sum of (70U,U(M)— is entirely iii< adequate to the servico performed. To show tiM amount of " franked" matter sent f:am Wasliiniflon alone, the following items were given In an ollldlal statement from the postmaster of iVathliigton IJity lo tlie Post-office Committee of the House of Kepresoillil* lives, as the amount of that description of mall matter fur one month — January, 1854, Fbxf. Mail Matteb raou WAsuiaoTOM roa om Monh, .1il0.407,8iJ3 Keyemdb or TUB United States Pobtoffice. Letter postage Stamps sold Postage on printed matter. . . Letter carriers Dead letters Registered letters Fines Emoluments returned Extra compensation overcharged Balance due by Prussia Miscellaneous receipts Appropriation for gov'nt postage Total reveime I8U. $3,234,551) 8,611,313 633,9'i8 143,313 4,970 '"ii 77,903 23,331) 69.004 7,783 700.000 «7,4il,8:,0 $1,751,707 4,'.'!I6.44G 03J,74iJ 162,910 8.033 81,460 70 74S00 14,716 6,'513 700,000 $7.6.0,sa2 VII. The present Condition andfutu'e Prospects of the United States Post-office. — From tlio official figures given previously, we see that while the correspondence by mail and the postal revenue actually decreased during twen- ty years of high postage in Great Uritain — ending with 1835 — the revenue ond correspondence both, from tlie date of low and uniform postage, in 1840, has greatly increased — the latter six hundred per cent. The vast economy in the management of tlic Post-office in tliat country is seen in the faot that while the correspond- ence increased from 75 millions of letters in 1840, to 478 millions in 185G — at least six-fold — tlie expense was but little more than doubled. Had it been deemed necessary, but few figures would have been required to sliow clearly — what was demonstrated by Mr. Kowland Hill— that the sliglit diminution in tho net revenue of the Post-office in Great Uritain, consequent to tlic great reduction of postage in 1840, was far more than made up to the national treasur}', during each and every year thereafter, in other branches of national income, and all from the direct and solo cause of tho nclivily and prosperity of all business interests, engendered by a reduction in the rates of postage. Wo believe, and are confident that it is susceptible of a clear demonstration, that tho principal reasons why our Post-office has not kept pace with the advancing spirit of tlic age, and been made as efficient as the post in several other coun- I^ettem from members of Congress . , , . Documents " ** ,,,, Letters from Departments Newspapers (numlwring l,110,oiO) . , , , Total for one month (prepaid rates) , For twelve months " '* , . PostngG for twelve months. If nnt prftpald W.lglll, »,4lfl T.Uflft Jll.Oo!) 8in/K)l P,78i),'.'4'J IU.6<14 iTii,wi «,i«'i lUflfl The newspapers were not counted, but weighed ( and as the newspapers of the country aversge alioiit ons and a half ounces each, these have been cnnkldered M averaging ten papers to a pound, The pailinaster «ll« pressed it as liis opinion that the free nmlfer during that month, of which he gave tlie resulla, was less than tlie average quantity. The amount given would lliaka about 6000 tons of " free" matter in a year, from tits post-office of the city of Wasliinglon alone | or on av§r' age for each week-day of fifteen tons. Looking at Ihlf $1,602,087 due by government at prepR|(| rates, for. the postage on free matter, outward only, from tlia city of Wasiiington alone, in a year, it would Ii4 • very moderate estimate that should put the postage of |||6 government, at the rate the citizen pays, at |l'.!,A00,OU0 annually. If we look at the revenue and •nfmnaes of tlie Post-office for ten years, and see what up|iropriA> lions were made for the free matter traniporled for gov. eminent, we sliall see whether tho Post-olHce aelustly supported itself or not. That tho Post-office did not support itself from tha postage paid by citizens during the last tan yeftfl, kA V«tn. Pot lisvs diittii itiftil^, ii ii.ii.iiirr 1*4T.... $3.9n.'j;r) $.J,70.J,1IU9 $3U1I,.<43 ISIS.... 4.320.850 4 101,07.S lu,8iti,46B It ia clearly evident (hat any attempt to ahow whoth- ar our I'oat-ofBce aupporta itaelf under the preaont Uwa, regulation*, ratea of poatage and management, muat begin by ahowing what are ita legitimate expenaea and what ita legitimate Income. Tho theory and practice of our law-makers ia in strong contrast to the action of the members of the British Parliament in 1839 and 1840, at the time of the agitation and adoption of the penny postage. They at once abolished and renounced the franiiing privilege, on the principle that oflicora of the government could as well afford to pay their own poatage aa private citizens ; that they were in that case put to far leas trouble to frank and aend documenta for others, and that all postage necessary for carrying on the business of the government should l>e charged to tha Treasury, like all other national or government ex- penses. In reality, wo do not know the amount of ex- penses and burdens tliat fall on the Post-oflice, and yet the head of that Department has taken upon himself to lay that ita income is not aufflcicnt for its legitimate aupport. If a merchant or man of business wero to know the precise amount of income that be actually received, while he was ignorant of a large portion of hia expenditures, would he, or could he, conduct and manage hia affairs with prudence, judgment, and econ- omy? It :«nls, and tu iIouMh all (ha rales on printed matter. Thaae niaaxirita warti llilrulagii, «i/nililiied with the great fa- cilities fur culluPtliiK, tlliilribullliK, and delivering let- tera and other iimil iMHltfr In I'liiee and large towns. While we have pnpuloua ellies wllh varied Interests that require an Imiiietisa local correspondence, our postal alfalra tra e«iidu«l«il in (lie same manner that they were In tli« flrst ytiara of the Kepubllc, Except by the laliors of privala |iMrlit>», who are allowed to de- liver letters from tliit piMt-iillltw, and levy a tax for the service, or to set up jirlvnlo post'offlces of their own, for the collecllun ami dlntriliiitlun of mail matter, we have hardly an ini|iruv»ntt>lit ut faelllly for dis(ributlng letters in cillca to-ilav (Imt did tiot exist seventy years ago. People who wrlta ltilt«rs tnty carry or aend them to tha post-offlce, and tlioM to whom they are addressed have the prlvtlufja of «alliitK for the same and taking them out, Kxi!8|it tliroilrfli (tilt by the labors of tba private postman ami rarriitni, w«, as a people, seem to be aware that the grealxat want and (he most profita- ble field for postal fHfllltlti)i l« In and about our large cities and towns, In (ha vtiiitttry the distance between pnst-ofllcea niav Ita iM<\tmwA by miles, but in large cities tha legltlinata want* of (lie people are not met except by having dcllvvrlDa many times • day, and placea for obtaining atanipii •ml mailing letters at every one or two hundred vanli), The relative postal wants of tho residents of dilff rxnt eity and country districts, and tha extsnt In wlilxlt llivse WAiKa are ine(, In (hiii country and in Qreat llrllain, may be teen by the fig- ures representing tb« avtiraitit ttutnber of letters wiittia by each person III A yi'Ar, in ili« various localities. 1 be figure* relating (n Ilin Hliniial correspondence In tbis country ara in wliola number* and decimals, L'o*Ra*i)ONnaNfla in tmh t'umtt aiata*. tMm PimiWt b«Mlfll«i ft Pann, Country distrlels at (be ^iilh,,. I'O Country diitriels at (ha Niirlh,.,,,, 8$ Country dlatrioM IbrMigltiMil (he tfnian, IS All of tbu 8outli«rn H(«(««, , , , , , , , , 1-9 AllofthaNartharnWaleii ......,,. 61 TlirouKhaiilltiaUnllAdfHalea,..,. H City ef New Ortaan*.,.. ..,,,. ••.... IR-T City of cinslnnatl,,,,,, iXt CltyofNawYerk ,„,,„,,, too City sf Boston,... ,...11 fill <■<• 1 1)11 <>> 40 S POS im 1»0S tiiim Mr Pnnooi ■i>ii>ll;. ... !■« , .. 8» .... »-9 .... «« .... •! .... ♦* .... 19-T .... sn .... »0^l .... 408 Th«M ^gvmt arc not luppoied to ht sxaet, bnt they tre k very near approximation to the precin nnmlier, arrived at by a cloae calculation, haaed on the relative population and postal income. The followliiK (tate- ment exbibita the annual correspondence pur penon — in whole numbers — in dlflbreol localities in Ureat UriUini CoaanroHDiMoa im OasAT Bbitaik. DUTansI l.oc>lllln. fi Hanoa, una Ally, Country diatricta or tlis Kingdom h Throughout the Kingdom IT Kngland alone 28 Average In cities 45 In lA>udon 49 In Mancheater 51 Those results are very difTerent from what we see in this country. They all go to establish one clear, indisputable fact. They prove beyond question that the people of cities write from Ave to twenty times as many lotton as the residents of country dlstrlcls. And as we know that a very larRe portion of thn inhal>itanti of cities and towns are minora, paupprs, vagrants, and iKnurant persona, it is clear that tlio adult male busi- ness popuialiun have occasion to write from a hundred to a thousand letters each per annum. Wo enow, from the habits and wants of tlio population in rural dis- tricts, tliat the adult persons who are engaged in agri- cultural and mechanical pursuits do not usually carry on one-fortieth part as much correspoiulence as the mercantile classes in cities. Bearing those facts la mind, and remembering that there arc from six to twelve deliveries a day in all parts of London, with over Ave hundred receiving houses and lettiT-pillara where letters can be mailed— averaging one for every second block or s(|uare throughout the city— liearing these facts in mind, wo need not bo Burprlned at tho widely dillcrcnt results in that country and this, aa conveyed in tha following authentic ligures Akmoai. NoMuna o» Lamas im nirraaaNT I.ocAUTiaa. 1847.. 1848., 18i».. I860.. IS.Sl., 1852.. 1863., 1864., 18S5. 1850. Total. L4M1I011 L««al l.«llaii. 84,630,817 88,078,747 8;),1i60,8t)8 38,887,844 40,686,1162 40,4()(),207 42,816,814 40,181,661) 4'i, 844,968 47,894,708 404.S86,6l» London'MaU ■■tlun. 43,767,610 46,991,168 46,846,688 44,866,170 47,819,4'.I9 61,171,428 64,402,023 67,180,16;) 69,(147,649 04,116 1. !l2i t>16,6;ts,620 ToUil i.imd7 79,603,900 T9.8IW,0S1 83,744,014 88,40.'>,46t 91,674,0.10 «7,218,r.itT 108.;!77.7.'8 116.492,612 112.856,029 920,627,1189 Total In Ui* Uniu j aiilM. 47,I«:m67" 62,!I04,819 00,169,8(12 09,426,462 83,262,736 95,790,624 102,1,39,148 119,6.-4,418 1*1,723,426 J81,4W),409_ 8s8,627,5l9 TjUI In Unat Urilaln. ~~Ui2;i.i(i;24ir 8'.8,SI0,184 837,399,199 847,069,071 3(111,647,187 379,.'KII,t99 4in,>!17,48» 443,049,301 466,216,170 478,393,8118 3.IS04,07(I,162 We see by the alrave that the people of London alone (less than two and a half millions) have written and sent through the post mor'} letters in the last ten years than all the people in the United States, while the pop- ulation of Great Britain — almut the same as in tho United States — have written almost five times as many as tho people of this country. Wo must seek for a so- lution of this in the far greater postal facilities in the United Kingdom, particularly iu cities, than in this country. See the gigantic results of a good local post in London. There are almost one half as many letters written and mailed in London, for distribution in the city (local letters, see first column in tho preceding ta- ble), as are written in a year by all the people in Amer- ica ! Could we get at the results of our local distribu- tion of letters, we should And that tho number of let- ters written in our cities, and distributed by the gov- ernment post in the place whero written — "drop let- ters," as wo very appropriately call them — we should And that they were only about one-fortieth or one-Af- tieth part as many as in the cities of Great Britain. In other words, the active business population of our cities write about as many letters to go through tho mails to a distance, as the same population do of that class of letters in cities in England ; but of local let- ters, for distribution in the city where they are writ- ten, only about one-fortieth part as many. It is as easily shown that the local correspondenco of cities is mucli more protitable to the Post-office than correspondence that is conveyed hundreds of miles, as it is to demonstrate that the correspondence of cities is ing our means adapted to our wants. Tho mnlls ara sent over the routes between New York ond Boston three times a day, twice a doy from Now York to Wash- ington, once a day from Charleston to New Orleans, once a week iMJtwccn some small country villages, once a fortnight fro-n New York to San Francisco, and onca a raontli from Missouri to Great Salt Lake Cily, By tho very same rule, and for the some roason.s, there should be a local distribution of letters in large cities like New York, Boston, and Pliiiadelplila, from sl.x to twelve times a day. Tho very term " frcc-Ictter de- livery," as applied to the local distribution of letters in English citie.s, is a misnomer. It does not exist, nor is it asked for in this countiy. The local distribu- tion of letters in tho cities aud towns of Great Britain amounts to just this: One uniform rate of postage is fixed on sll single letters — local and otiierwise — with- out regard to distance, and this postage — one penny sterling— pays for transporting the letter to tlie end of the route ; and this, in cities and towns, means to the door of tho person addressed. It unquestionably costs a shade less to circulate and deliver letters in n city — those that are mailed there for delivery — than it does to transport them hundreds of miles, and then deliver them. The actual result is this : the large nunilier of lo- cal letters in cities, at the postage of one penny for each, pays all the expense of collection and delivery — wages of receivers, mail-men and letter carriers — while thesa persons collect and deliver all letters that are to go and that come from out of town, without any extra charge, and then the profit on these local letters alone of more importance and of greater amount than the — admitting that the letters from a distance are de- correspondence oPrural districts. Tho whole secret of 1 llvcred "free" — is very large. The following table, accommodating the people with a good city post, and I made up from the olHcial report of the year 1854, needa making it protitable at the same time, consists in hav- I no explanation : LOOAL COBBKSPONDKHaS IM OIRTAIN CiTtES IN OBEAT BbITAIN, WITH THK ExntSBB OT COLLXCTION AND DBLIVBBT. CllUi. Niimbar of Letlan id Ui« MaUi. Local Cm ala- Konor Drop I.ettan. QroH Rarenn* from Lofftl ClrcuUlion. . Ww»of Lattar camara anil Reraivart Nat PralU on Local Circulalloa. 67,180.159 9,146,802 10,088,5.'>fl o,693,s:m . 4.208.1194 4.384.410 46,191,669 7,390.042 8.149,660 6,329,m 8,401,670 8,643.610 91,386,747 221,701 244,487 1.W,874 102,050 106,814 $701,610 27,036 88.226 C8,940 20,060 15,865 $824,a37 194.666 206,262 120,934 81,990 90,460 Liverpool Dublin Edinburgh Bristol Toul 91,005,861 74,006,791 $2,220,m $901,825 $1,518,848 ] P08 1568 P08 The total iiumbor ot letter n cslvori idcI lottor car- rier! Ill the I'liitiMl Khigiluni, in IM.Vt, with tlia g\v»t ■niuuiit ul their iaUrion, wae as fullowi i Nyub'ar. 4,«M(r 4,11(5 4U'i« "la.Tyio 1 tiUrlM. (VII«.T4'i lltll.l'ii) "iTSiJ.IITT" I,«ll«r ncelvam In the Khiicdom . . . letter r«rrl«re lii rlttnii ami tnwiia, . Lvtter carrier! In rural i!Utrlut! .... Total I'Ouking at the roaultf in the two tallica Kiven aliovo, W« (Ind that tlio money rci'i'lvcil fur |ioslii|{0 un tlm local lottcm, In lix citlca only, aniuutitod to a largnr •uni than tbo vntira cuat of liittor carriem and letter receiver! throughout the united Kingduni of Ureat Urit- ■in and Ireluml! And wo may niontiun, In thi^ con- nection, that the rural letter cnrriera penetrate all lh« country diitricta uf lircut Urilain, thu carriora in their walli! Kuing from three to aix miles from every village poat-uHlcc, at least once • day. The gigantic result! shown In the English Post-ofllcc are dun to thrco or four stmiilo |irlnci|i1cs. Tlirre is one uniform rate of postage on rll single Inttors — those weighing not to Cvceed half nn ounce — and this same rule also pays tlio postage on all parcels of printed uiHller — ilone up in packages open at the ends — so that with one kind of stamp the citizen prepays more than iiinelecn-twentleths of all the packages ho puts in the post-oftlce. There is In every city and village a letter delivery liy carriers, from two to twelve times a doy, with convenient places at every one or two hundred yards for posting letters and |iarcels. I'hcre is a sys- tem of remitting money by mail, through money orders or drafts, for suittll sums, hetweon all the principal posl- ollices ; and the money-order liusincss, like tho uniform postage, is liased on so simple and cconouiical a system, and in carried on with such satisfactory results, that there Is comhincd tho greatest convenience and small- est cost to the citizen, and tho largest economy of man- agement to tho I'ost-oflico otHcials. It la useless to say that the business of collecting and distributing letters in a city In Kuropo is any dill'erent process, and involves any dillerent principles, from that of distributing letters here ; for it Is not true. And certainly, so far as correspondence is concerned, our social and commercial wants are like those of tlie resi- dents of London, Manchester, I'aris, and Berlin. C'oulil we get at the amount of letter distribution done by pri- vate parties in our large cities, it would be founil that there is a far greater correspondence carried on outside of, than through tho post. And yet there is no regu- larity, uniformity, safety, or system, and with all the multifarious appliances, we are wretchedly served, as every one knows. Iliiludelpliia has reported through the government Post-oflico a less correspondence — or St least a smaller postal revenue — in proportion to popu- lation, than uny other largo city in America. There a private Individual carries on a very prolitable and ex- tensive system of city letter distribution. The fact is, and it can not be disguised, that our I'ost-office, being an exclusive government function, for long distances, should not allow private parties to carry it on for short distances in cities. We cither want an cflieient uniform government I'ust-offlce over the entire coun- try, or It should bo abolished altogether, or thrown opc-n to private porties. We make the Post-office per- form nearly three million dollars' worth of lalior for the government, and appropriate for the same out of the Treasury less than a quarter of that sum, and then the government allows private parties to step in and set up a post In the very localities where a good postal es- tablishment is most neeiled, and where it can be made the most profitable. With any thing like a critical examination of our postal eslabUshment, and to a per- son of any sagacity. It is clearly evident that in the localities where a post Is most needed — large cities — and where it would pay the liest, there our post is moat notoriously inefficient. The postal establishment labors under the following prominent disadvantages: t'irit. It porfbrma a large amount f service for the govarnment without aileijuate cumpiusatlon. Hecimd. There is not a, uniform rate of postage, and the labor and expenieof condncting tho postal buiineis Is there- by greatly Increased, Thiiti. The correapondence of the country has never been stimulated and Increased liy low and uniform postage and the liest postal facili- ties. Fourth. Our local correspondence in cities — the most prutltablo business uf the postal establish- ment, when on a correct basis — labura under every dis- advantage, being the cause, and Justly, of constant com- plaint on tlio part of the citizens. Fifth, In all the large cities. In consei|uence of the Irregularity, uncer- tainty, and Inconveniences of the National Post-office, private posts carry off a large share of the business. If the above premises are correct, the remedies are neither hard to find or difficult to carry out. Find the amount of matter that is sent "free" by government departments, officers and members of Congress, and have a sum paid or appropriated from some quarter sufficient to meet it. Then make one rate of postage, so low that It will not bo exorbitant for single letters and the smallest |iuckages for the shnrlost distances, and let this rate pay as many descriptions and sizes of written and printed packets as possible, Abolish all private posts in cities, and make a government post that Is adequate to the wants of the citizens. It may bo safely promised that a convenient, reliable, economical, punctual, and rapid distribution of letters in our cities will meet with all that encouragement and that extensive use that attends a good post In Kuropc- nn cities, 8end all letters and printed packages — per- haps up to a certain amount, say four or eight post- ages in one parcel, as is done inUreat Hrltain — wheth- er they aru ]irepalil or not, and if not prepaid, charge double postage. Make a money-order system for re- mitting money in sums not exceeding twenty or twen- ty-live dollars ; at first lietween all tho larger offices, extending it as it becomes known and understood. Ke- turn all " dead" and refused letters to the writers, ami enforce the payment of such postages as have not been prepaid. Tlio questicn of tho most profitable rata or rates of postago may be discussed and examined for years, and we are forced to one conclusion ; and that Is, that there is no convenient, economical, or just system without UNipoBMiTT. Tho truth is, several of our rates of postage are too low, not allowing n fair compensation, and others are too high. Our rate of one cent for drop letters or local letters, one cent for printed circulars, and one cent for transient newspapers, are all too low. They are not compensating ; and if raised to two cents, the charge would not be considered high, provided all letters of half an ounce weight, and printed packages up to four ounces, could be sent any and every dis- tance for the same sum. We want a two-cent rate of postage, with a two-cent postage stamp, and a totnl abolition of all of the one-cent rates and stumps, and the three-cent rates and stamps. It should be the minimum ; that is, no letter or transient package shoulil bo mailed or sent the shortest distance for less than this sum. We would pay with this two-cent stamp our city or drop letters — and that should Include delivery hy a carrier, as carriers should work for salaries, and deliver everything in cities without extra charge — our letters for all distances In the United States, all circu- lars, and all packages of printed matter, up to four ounces in weight, that are done up open at the ends. Is it not reasonable to suppose that there would be u sufficient increase in letters for city circulation, and to go to a distance, along with the increase of price of postage on drop letters, on printed circulars, and on transient newspapers, to make up for the loss on the three-cent letters, and the few letters that now pay ten cents? And we must bear in mind that one of the greatest arguments for a uniform rate of postage is the simplicity, economy, and cheapness that it effects in P08 1509 POS for tho Hfcimil- le Ulior i thur*- Diica of >\ fadll- cltle*— ■talillnh- very iU»- nnt com- II all tlie y, uiiccr- unt-ufflcu, mines*, lodicii arc Kind tho ivcrnniciit jrcsii, nml le quarter )f ponlttRC, iglo letters lUstancei, I anil nUcs . Abolldh ;overnmcnt itlzeni. It it, reliable, in of letters foment »nil ', In Kurope- kages— per- eiglit posl- aln— whctli- paid, charge diem for re- inty or twcn- arger offlcon, ■ruloml. Kp- rilcri, mill Bvo not lici'ii or rates of 'or years, anil is, that lliero Item without onr rates of ompcnsallon, cent for drop ted circulars, re all too low. to two cents. , provided all ■ jted package' nd every dis- •cent rate of and a totid stamps, and hoiild he the ackagc should less than this int stamp our •ludo delivery r salaries, and •a charge— our ^tcs, all circu- |cr, up to four . at the ends, ire would he a alation, and to 186 of price of [culars, and on ]io loss on the it now pay ten lat one of the postage is the it It ell'ects in carrying on the posl/il huainasi. Twice the numlMir of workers, with a change tu a unirurm rale, will tuf- llcu for an increaao of letters slx-fuld. \Va have giv- en the I'xai't ulticlal tlf{urcs, ihowlng thut tho muru handling, lurtiiig, disttihutlon, and dellviTy of hulers (all expenses except transportation) In Oruat llritain ainouiitcil to thirty dollars for each thousand leltera, when thero wuro several rates ; and hut seven dollars —Ins than one-fourth what it cost formerly— with • uniform postage. rNiKiiiiMrry of poalage is thu lint rci|ulaite of the llritiah, ui it is of every other postal system where it has licen tried. Postal Htatistks or tub luirrtiiaMT hTATSs. MMsaehiisetts . runnertlciit New York CuUrornl* Kliodo Island Iowa Now ll>nii»liire Michigan Verinuiit Wlsciiniln llllnula Maine IVnnsylvanln Ohio Now .Jnraoy Tnitlans Haclllo Terrlliirloi (lllier TcrrUorica . Total, .North District of C'olumbin Maryland I/julalaiia llelawaro Florida Missouri Uoorgls Virginia Toxaa .VUbania Houtli Carolina Kc itucky Mlsalsslppi Arkansas Tennosseo North Carolina Total, Mouth Orand total . ny distributing $2,600,000— tho supposed cost of transporting the " franked" matter for government, in- stead of $700,000, tho sum now paid — among tho dllfer- ont .States, in the proportions of their present postal revenue, tho rovonuo of each 8tate would tlien bo as seen in the last column but two. In tho column of postal expenses tho comploto amount of expenses is not quito all stated, but all is given that is set down under the head uf each State, in tho ofllcial Keport of tho Department. If tho entire sum wens given, it would not alter this comparatlvo statement, or much afl'ect the general result. We see by this — the last column but one — that only 50 per cent, of tho postal revenue of Massachusetts is used in expenses for that State, 62 per cent, in New York, and so on with the old, tho thickly-settled, and tho commercial States, while in Texas $2C8 is expended for every $100 re- ceived, and in Arkansas $010 to $100 of revenue. The sums here given as tho expenses of each State aro not supposed to bo tho exact amounts required for all the postal expenses within tho State — as sometimes a mail route runs through several States, and tho expenses of mail transportation over it all falls on or is sot down to the State whore tho route commences. But as these routes generally commence at tlie East or Xorth, and run West or Southwest, tho largest show of expenses is made in the States farthest cast. We do not claim as a literal fact that tlio entire expense of each letter mailed in the State of Massachusetts (see lost column of table) amounts, on the average, toono cent five mills, and those in Arkansas to just eighteen cents tbreo mills ; but it is a fact that when the amount of correspondence, tho post- al revenue, and the postal expenses of each and every State are all fairly considered, the proportion of money 6G received in postage in each State is, to each letter mailed in that State, as hero given. Wo know that letters starting in New York sometimes go to Arkansas, Texas, Florida, or Now Jlexico, and wo do not claim that the exact proportion of money duo on each letter mailed in each .State can be clearly a(\|usted, and should be charged to each clti;t"ii residing in thu .State, 'lut — and here lies one great argument for a rNiKouM and a LOW rate of postage— wo do know, by tho preceding authentic figures, that ilie oxpcnso of transporting and distributing letters dilTcrs very widely in each State ; and the general rule is, that the newer, tho more sparse- ly settled, and tho less commercial tho State, the larger the proportion of expenses to receipts. To illustrato this In a very striking light, let us compare the postal expenses and receipts, and tho amount of correspond- ence in tho two States of New York and Massachusetts, with tho amount in all of tho Southern States and tho region west of tho Mississippi IJiver. They stand as follows : LlKallUei. NoDiIwrof I.elt«ri. PotUl R*v«nu«. Fatal 1 Eip« Kaw KnRlund, N«w York, N«w J*rM), mhI l'»iin>«'l<'«iila i lli« MMill* taclluii, fruiii ItaUwar" ix lli« Mii(lh«rn iMMimUrx nt Virginia aiiil 'r>MM»a», anrnla; tha Routh- waul nactlon Incliulai tha lialniiii*, iIik Uiilf Nialat, iha T'TrUorlua, Iuhi, Arkaiiiai, anil I'exaa. 'Ihia It Iha rf :ufJ I r aulw<>w» 1 fwatal N««tfiM 4T.MI.llf \tM4.iMal ilir«w<~ If't ft ia,aaa i.iii.n. «. M I N II a • T Nurthoaal •wIliM ,,,,, MMilU wlloli HuuUiaaal NMtlu*,,,i>t<>>>i> rintlara .„.. iMllaa ,,,,,,, (.rami total t,4U m ntt.in* ■ M«,*4 fi AH'j.cai S.tllx.MT 'a.tii.'iiii fl.»»,4M 1UI IM4 tMM un ' t 4 4 1 [; ».i.TI.lW 1 "«« 1 * " Krnrii llirw faiia wa wa anil ttniiw Ihal Ihn a^ppnuii (if traniiiiiirlinu ami ilUlrlliiilliiii l"ll«r> la nut In prii- porllon to Ilia ilUlaMi'N llini' am larrlfil, Wn •<>n that all of tlia Ivllitra rlri ulali'il frmn Mallia, mi Iha caal, to Taniiiaaiia ami Miaaiiurl, IhriiiiKtMint onr northiiaalxni anil iniililla aviilKna, liiviiKa an avoraKn aapfnar — tranapiirtalliin anil arary tiling Initnilril— of l«o ifnli four iiillla « liilliir, It I'lnla innra In ai'iiil ami laka earu uf u Ullnr lliat gnva Miy iir a hiimlrnil iiilka In Floriila, Arkanaaa, or 'l«iiaa, Ihnn It iliHia In lakx on« friim I'urllaiMl, Malna, in Mxinphla, frnin lloaliin to Nt. i,uiila, iir fruni NuM' iufU In Sf¥i llrli-ana. Now iiur Nnnllioril liralhri'n will iln na Ihn rrcillt to inlluvtt Ihatwii prntinaa iinlhing ai'illnnnl, nnthInK nar- row, ami nnlhlng partial. K.vary alniili' fnri, IlKnn' ami I'iri'uiniUni'H giwa In proVH, Ix^onil all ravlt, that rorretponiluni'ii la rarri'il im In a far Kri'alur <-aupportlng mall ayatmn, at • uiilforin rate of poataip* nut tu aiiavil nn«-'|)l«rl<-r what wouhl ho rn- i|ulr('il I. ihu ulliar. In Ihn Niatn of Now York nlnnn are wrlllvn annually 'iU.'Mi.ViH hllnra, whiln In oil of Iho NIalva aiinlh of lint I'ltliiinar ami Ohio Klvira, Miiaourl, Arkanaaa, anil Tnana Inrlmlml, thn niinilior U but Ul,7im,llll.'j. 'I'lia Klly of Ni. urr' >poii'i nice li t i lifi'-l/lood of Ihn coininnfi'lal B'iil ,■ .'m' ■ ••^, fcol that llii'y litfii « right to gali .i. > •' . . u <■ n thull hu adapli'd In llm Mania <, ■'■■•■ ,, «h.>! iho cl(i».cn u. ' t atUndcd to in thii ronnnv In tl nageinent i. ' "deal letlert." In thia ciiae r < i ily tu look at ihn aatlafai'tory and Ju t iiiai.Ki . . ,<|imI III (Ireni llrlluiii. Theru Ihoro l» .10 " Dead-litler tifflie." Imt iHi'ru la a " Keturncd- Icller OlIK'e." I llera ale ni' riporlcd "deoil"exi'ept they aro onnnyiiioua, or when, fnini other clrcuni- atancua, Iho owner can nut be found. There, with the great bulk uf llui loltera, a i'a|iid and accure method of returning "nilaearried" Intlori to the writora ia ndiipled, by nicana of which every letter It returned on Iho very Joy ii orrivea at Ihn llulurnod-lettor Utncc. It la donu u • expedlliuualy, Ihnt a clerk returna '.'UO per day, and t'.'IH) In a week. At thIa rate all of uur "dead iettera" could be relumed, nt a coal to tiiu nn- tion of k'sa thun one hundred tboukund dotlara. Willi a ayatein of letter delivery in cities and towna, the re- fuacd or miscarried Icttcra could usually bo sent to tho Department and returned tu thu writers, in from one to three weeks of the dnto of mailing. In Kngland, let- ters that niincarry uaunlly get back to tho writer) within A week of tho diile of mailing. Oftentimes these dend or niinearried letteri would be of grcut nd- vaulngu to the writer, particularly In inrormiug hini that Ilia letter had not reached Ita destination. I.)u llio face of it would bo written usually, as is practiced in Kngland, tho caiiao of ila non-'■. II. 6^2Vl ^ I .Smith), N. 250(\V. U. Ma(1„\vi, . 27 (J. M iTON"), il. 'i:>:\ (H. H.UES); Nii.Ks's /,■//- iittr, xxxvi. xxxvii, and years l^iflO, I8)M, 1H35; limi- oeralic Ileriew, vi. 177; Dk Bow's lUrirw, ill., v., xli ; Foreign I'ostal System, refer to FnAXKit, xviil. 'ifiO; New Hnijtand, vi. 153; Wetlmimtfr Review, \x. Ill, xxix. 2'25, xxxiii. -Ifll; Qunrlrrly Reriito, lx\xvii. !17, Ixiv. 282; Foreign Unnrttrhj, xiii. 8'J7; Uriti$h and fiirtigii Jleriew, viii. 451 j I.iring Age, 11. -107 ; A.V//n- buri/h Review, Ixx. 80. Post Entry. AVIicn goods are weighed or ni> a- urcd, nnd the merchant hna got on account thereof it the custom-house, and lluda bin entry, nlr ly nm.lc, too small, he must make n/ioit or ndditioii.ii' inli-i/ Tit tho surplusage, in tho same manner as the lir>t wii^ done. As a merchant is always in time, prior tn iliu clearing of tho vessel, to make hia post, he should lake cnro not to over-enter, to avoid as well tho advance, as the trouble of getting back tho overplus. However, If this he the case, and an over-entry has been iiiadi', nnd moro paid or bonded for customs than the goods POT 1871 POT liiotlon will 'some, pf f- must, «■!' inil ccoiioui- Bti'n Is fntls- our wants- ■il., Novc'iii States I'o' (l.KAvn > •■ ifif, Ix. I '■■ ACl.AVl, ii.F.a's /.'' j- 1H35; liem- m.,v.,Nii: xviU. iMi ; XX. Ill, lx\»vii. !17, /(;i/i»fc anil •107; Win- hcd 01 , ■ ' nt thercoi l ■ty iiui li", ',ntr;i(''' the l!r>t wii- (irior to the shouUl take I advance, na However, J been niaili', an tho goods r< ,illv lindiit •moiiiM - >i>> Und-wilUr *nit •iirvoyor Muai MHillfv ••»' «»in«, uf^iri n.Hli inuile, «nd •iilimrlhed by lh« |«ir»"ii xi 'n'rr.i.|it«ria, tli»t ntUliar Im, mt «n^ otktr |Mr»iin, kna«UdK«, l>*d «iiy i,( ilm Mid uriwto over-«lll»r«d uii lindrd »ii| .hip, „, ,„y where liiiiili'd the •iiniu wiiUuut ' t) ntunt of eu»(oin ; whii'h iiiilh must Ihi ntli'ded by th* cold.ui.'jr or coh- trnllar, ur Ih, dopullea, who then cam|iutu the liiOi't tnJ Mt down on Iha htck of (h« certiilcsta, tint in wnrdi at lanKlh, and than in IlKur**, lli>> itivorll cjina to III) paid. Totuh (.U*. rmatkr I Vr. l'"inAi)i . ^ r /'»«ni,-*«, It. /WfiM'i, I'ul. /'iifn.« ( Ituii. /V(i» left hidiind la ih* pofii'h of commerce — the lni|iuri' larhonalo of p«Mn orrhnniUls. It la Intenialy alkaline, •ollil, mid .tAut- «d drown liy Ibo admixture of a aniull portion ,,i' vrgv. taldu hillanimalila matter, whleli ^vnerully Inoomos mt. When potaah la calcined in n niverhiratory furnaee, the eolorinx matter la ilralroyiil, It ntminies a spunky texture, and a uhltlitli pmrly listre; wlienr,' It ii denominated /irnrliiih. Thu latter i;:„iierally o»n. talna from tlO to M.'lorHI percent, of pnr« carhon ^'of poluaa. Theaihoaof tlioau vegelalileaonly wlii'li row at a distance from tlio sea aro employed in llm ii^ inii- faetnro nf potash. Ilurliaieotia planlayield tln' !m i portion, and shrulis morn than trees. It la iirinii: il- ly niannfiietured In America, Uutsia, ami I'olunii, he vaat forests of which furnish an Inoxhauatlblu s felted, piled up in pyramids, and linrncd, solely with i\ view tu the manufacture of potaahes. Tho ashes aro put into wooden cistcrna, having a plug at tho liottom uf ono of tho sides under a false bottom ; a moderate quantity of water Is then poured on the muss, and some i|uicklima ia atirrud In, After atandin*; for a few hours, so aa to take up tho aoluhle nuitter, tho clear lifpior la drawn o(T, evaporated to dryness In iron pots, anil llnally fused at a rod heat Into compact nmHses, which arc gray on tho outside anil pink-colored within, I'carlash la prepared liy calcininj; potashes upon a roverlieratory hearth, till the wholo carbonaceous mat- ter, and tho ^renter part of tho aulphur, he lUssipali'd : then lixiviatinK the mass In a cistern having a fulso hottom covered with straw, cvaporalinf; tho clear lyo to dryness in flat iron pans, and stirring; it toward the end into white lumpy granulations. All kinds of vege- tables do not yield the same proportion of pola»sn. Tho more succulent tho plant, tho more docs it alTord ; for it ia only in tho Juices that the vegetable salts re- side, which aro converted by incineration into alkaline matter. Ilorbacooua wocda aro more productive of potash than tlio graminlferous species, or shrubs, and these than trees ; and for a like reason twigs and leaves uro moro productive than timber. Itut plants in all cases arc richest in alkaline salts when they have ar- rived at maturity. Tho soil in which they grow also influences tho quantity of salino matter. Tho following table exhibits the average product in liotassa of several plants, according to the researches of Vauquelln, Pcrtuia, Kirwan, and Do .Saussure : InlOOOpnrti. PuUma. riry beech Imrk (1 no Kern ill Tiiirgo rusli 1^2 Static of mnize U M Dean stalks 20 00 llastani chnni'inille (A n- thania eolula, Llnii.) 19«0 SuntlowerBtnllcs 2000 Comnion nettle 2ff0ii Vetch plant 27 -BO Thistles In full growth 36'3T Dry straw of wheal be- fore caring 47 00 WorniwootI 73*00 Fumitory 79UO Hulka «4 tMMMk patMltwf, rlieatnnt), rhailntil husks. brg«% felMl^ Au'»<>. tansy lorrel, vine Iravx, liFKl ',ave», ofMli, MKl many other pianls, alxmnd In P"la»hi salts. In BufVHiidy, it"" well-known •.mlitt i)i-aetlin iir>, mail* by IncineraiinK the Ims of winr praoaed iiW» nilias, imd dried in ili« aun - the nahea run- tain fully I •\ par ct>n( of \m\Mt» i:»pn«T« or I'liT «»ii Ili*«i. Aairca mm TBI I nitih . . 1 — ifmrl I Pnrttaiiil NllMD Iluaiwii . , , New Vnrk ^ In 1000 parti. PolMia. IMiii, orfir 0^l,^ I'liplar. 0-75 Trefoil 07S Jleechwood 1 '45 Oak 1,W lloxivooil 2'20 Willow 285 Hill and niaplo 31)0 Wbiiat Ktravr 8'90 Barb of ,i«k twiga 420 ThlsUea B-00 flax itema n 00 Small rushes SOS Vine Blioota f^'R'l Bsrlo/itraur 15-80 VotatMB (Otr. Ksii^lk, Dta. Amr*,m, I'yiv-m,! ,1,. t,rrf ; It. mi(|«i, Mwiif '--i • s,,. iB«ncAri7fn; Itiisa. JiAkki MMfcutte, fuots *f tk« .*,c>'(i«iiiii /Hi. CMUMm, of itimunierablo ■•lias, and t«a well known to require niiv I, Mflpliui llistdriciil .Vii/iVr. - Til ,,iiiion ' h or In'ah \ paraiao and Mcndozn ; also nrair Moni 'Jnllo, as well as In Sonla 1 o de Bugol,, . coiilly in Mexico, on tlm flunks of the (tn/ii I ho history of this pliint, in connvctlun ' f the sweet potnt,,, is involved In obscurity, u lints of tlieir introductiuti into Kurope aro mo nilicting, anil often they •ppcar to bo com \> III line another Tho comnion kind was nuu, il nuluccd into Spain in tli, early port of t)ir ci lory, from tho neighliorh, -,»! of Quito, wliei w, il iti in all iSpanlsh counlrli-w the tubers ore ki as / ipa.'. Tho first jinblislii'd account of it we lliii n i ree, I is in /.(I (Voni'in del J'irii, by I'edro do ( n"« prih 1 i:t .Seville in IS.'ill, in wliich it Is dcscrilmrl and Iiistrated by an engraving. Krom Spain it rep. pear~ to have found its way into Italy, where it assuinail the panic name aa the truffle. It was received liy CTusiii ' ut Vienna, in I'i'JH, in whose time it spread raplill;. n tho south of Kiiriipe, and even Info Cierniany. To I'jif. iiiil it is said to have found its way by a dif- ferent r lie, having been brought from Vlrginio by Italcigh lulonists in l5Hli, which would seem improb- able, as ' was unknown in North America at that I'liic, eill r wild or cultivated; and, liesidea, (iough, in his cili 'U of Camd'tt't Jiiildrtnii, saya it was first planted l> Sir Walter Italelgh on his estate at Youg- iiall, near rk, and that it was cultivated in Ireland before its liie was known In England, (ierard, in his llcrbul, aiblishcd in l,'i97, gives a l'«ure of this plant, under the name of llalata Vinjiniu'd, to distin- guish it froir the sweet potatp, Ilaln/a tihilia, and roc- omiiiends th root to bo eaten as a " delicate dish," but not as a ■ inmon food, " Tho sweet potato," says Sir ,Joseph Iln';k», " was used in England as a delicacy long before tl introduction of our potatoes; it was imported in cui ^idcrablc quantities from Spain and the Canaries, and w m supposed to possess the power of re- storing decayed • igor." It is related that the common potato was accl<. ntally introduced into England from Ireland at a peii, d somewhat earlier than that noticed by (ierard, in con ieqiiencc of the wrecking of a vessel on the coast of Lancashire, which had a quantity on boaril. In 16i;;i, the Koyal Society of England took measures for encouraging the cultivation of this vege> table, with tho view of preventing famine. Nutwith- standing its utility as a food became better known, no high character was attached to it; and the writers on gardening toward the end of the 17th century, POT 1572 POT a hundred years or more after its introduction, treated of it ratlier indifferently. "Tliey are much used in Ireland and America as bread," says one author, "and may be propagated with advantage to poor people." The famous nurserymen, London and Wise, did not consider it worthy of notice in their Complete (laniener, published in 171U, But its use gradually spread, as its excellences became better understood. It was near the middle of the last century before it was general- ly known either in Britain or North America, since which it has been most eNtensivcly cultivated. The period of the introduction of the common potato into the British North American colonics is not precisely known. The culture of this plant extends through the whole of Europe, a large portion of Asia, Australia, the south- ern and northern parts of Africa, and the adjacent isl- ands. On the American continent, with the exception of some sections of the torrid zone, the culture of this root extends from Ijibrador on the east, and Nootka Sound on the west, to Cape Horn. It resists more ef- fectually than the cereals tlie frosts of the North. In this country it is principally confined to the Northern, Middle, and Western States, where, from the coolness of the climate, it acquires a farinaceous consistence highly conducive to the support of animal life. It has never been extensively cultivated in Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, nor Louisiana — perhaps from the greater facility of raising the sweet potato, its more tropical rival. Its perfection, however, depends as much upon the soil as on the climate in which it grows ; for in the red loam on the banks of Bayou Boeuf, in Louisiana, where the land is new, it is stated that tuliera are pro- duced as large, savory, and as free fVom water as any raised in other parts of the world. The same may be said of those grown at Bermuda, Madeira, the Cana- ries, and numerous other ocean isles. The chief vari- eties cultivated in the Northern States are the Carter, the kidneys, the pink-eyes, the Mercer, the orange, the Sault St. Marie, the Merino, ancf the Western red ; in the Middle and Western States, the Mercer, the long red or Merino, the orange, and the Western red. The yield varies from &0 to .JUO bushels and upward per acre, but generally it is below 200 bushels. Within the last ten years an alarming disease, or "i-ot," has attacked the tubers of this plant about the time they are fully grown. It has not only ap|>carcd in nearly every part of our own country, but has spread dismay at times throughout Ureat Britain and Ireland, and has been felt mure or less seriously in every quarter of the globe. To the greater uncertainty attending its cultivation of late years, from this cause, must be at- tributed the deficiency of the crop «f 184!) as compared with that.of 1839. Tliis is one of the four agricultural products which, by tlic present census, appears smaller than it was ten years ttincn. Sioeet Potato. — ^Tlie sweet potato (Hatala edulii) is a native of the Kast Indies, and of intertropical America, and was the" potato" of the old Kngllsh writers in the early part of the 14th century. It was doubtless in- troduced into Carolina, Georgia, and Virginia, soon aft- er their settlement by tlic Kuropcans, Iwing mentioned as one of lliu cultivated products of those colonies as early as the year 1048. It grows in excessive al>und- ance throughout the Southern States, and as far north as New Jersey and the southoru part of Michigan. The varieties cultivated are the purple, the red, the yellow, and the white, the foimcrof which is confined to the South. The amount of sweet potatoes exported fVom South Carolina in 1747'''48 was 700 bushels ; that of the common potato exported from the United States In 1820-'21, il0,889 bushels ; in 1830-'3i, 112,875 bush- els; in 1840-'41, isr>,m& bushola; in 1850-'61, 106,342 ijj;«hele. According to the census returns of 1840, the auantitv c ' DOtatocs of all sorts nised in the I'liion was 108 298,000 bushels; of 1860, 104,055,089 bushels, of which 88,269,190 hnshcls were Bwoet. COHPABATIVB PBOnUOTION 0» I'OTATOES IN Tm UlltTn) States in tub Yeabs 11440 and 1360, BUtM nod TsrrltoriM. Alabain)! ArlcHnsas Csllforni* Columbia, District of. . . Connecticut Delaware Florida (ieorgia IlllllOll) Indiana Iowa Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massacliiisotts Mlehlidtan Mlsfllasinpi MIsFoitrl New Hampshire New .jersey New York North Carolina Ohio Pennsylvania Ithode Island South CnroUna TennesBCo Texas Visnuont Virginia . . . WlBconsIn Minnesota Territory.. . New Mexico Territory. Oregon Territory Utah Territory Total Iriih and SwMt PuUtMS lUO BuihelH. l,708,8tia 3»8,e08 12,036 8,414,2.18 200,71 a 264,017 1.201,800 2,02a,620 1,826,704 284.003 ],0B8,ast) ^84841 10,302,580 1,080,438 6,886,661! 2,100,206 1,080,100 783.708 «,2fl0,60« 2,072,000 B0,123,014 2,600,230 6,805,021 9,636 603 Oll.OTS 2,698,318 1,004,870 8,86!»,T61 2,044,660 410,608 iiuo. t08,I6s,ioo BunIisIi. 5,721,2116 18l,lsi 10,21.2 81,7sn 2,6811,8 ,f| 805,(1 SJi 7C6,I1,'4 7,213,81)7 2,672,2: 4 4,28'>,04S 282,1103 2.400,000 1,524,(S,'. 8,43G,I'40 073,032. 8,5S6,3S4 2,801,074 6,008,277 1,274,611 4,304,010 .1,716,261 16,403,007 6,710,027 6,24.5,700 6,032,004 061,020 4.478,!i03 8,R4,'),6flO 1,420,808 4,061,014 8,180,607 l,402,0,'>fl 21,816 3 01.320 44.0 23 1u,M40 044 EXPOBTB or roTATOES FBOM TUB UNITED STATES. IfOB XW. Year ending .Iune 80, 1S60, . , WliitherexpQrted. KusBlun TotiKesiiionu in N. America . . Swedish West Indies Datiioh West Indies firemen Dutch West Indies Dutch fiulana Kngland <.*anada Other UrltUli North American Fosa. . Uritlsli West Indira British Ilonduraa llrltlsh (*uiana French Wcat Indies Cuba Toito Iiico Madeira Turkey bi Asia Porta In Africa Ilaytl Hnn Domingo Mexico . . . '. Central lEepublic New Granada Venezuela Chili Pom Sandwich Inlands , «hin« Wliaio rishcries Total. Barreli. I 411 6 1,164 1 400 66 7 6,164 230 17,240 182 8,072 030 43,262 6,1 S3 100 100 20 184 126 710 10 J 620 0S2 130 200 9ri6 001 689 82,612 ,V»ltf-.)| $208, 10 2,7i7'l 2 1,08s ■ 1.17 10 6,0iii> 1)2* 82,1110 44.'. 6,036 1,7>5 82,ii(;o 9,11.'. 2.M1 200 434 240 1,677 37S 1..117 ; 1,.T.2 112 601) 1,237 ! l.liril c,;rt $l,'i3.(l0l lupoBTS OP Potatoes into the United States kou tui: Year endino June 80, IS&O. WhvDca iuiporlHd. !Swedl8li West Indies . . . Hamburg llremen Holland ):ngiand Scotland Ireland IlritUh West Indies France on the Atlantic . Cuba 31exlco 'J*cru Sandwich Islands China Whale Fisheries Total BuilitU. is Cfl3 400 160 2,91,7 4('>8 in.tilS 60,684 922 116 20 0,187 20,840 42 1.676 120,0^ Vtlua. i'J lUl iliO 74 1,R,%2 8(0 4,2011 44,033 710 no 2T 6,418 12,78S 22 6116 $71,216 «• " ':ff POT 1573 PRE 2,7i;T I l.ossM 137 ; 1« 1 B.Oiio 82,'.ilfl 44.'> B,(i;iri l,^^s 82,iu;n 9,nti 2«i 4:14 •24'.1 l,ti7T ' SIS 1,347 1 l,:j!'J ■ 142 601) i,2:i' 1 l.iiM E8 yOit Till'. Vftlue. S'.l 11)11 1 iliO 74 \fttl 1 3C0 4,2ft!' ' 44,(133 I 71(1 110 27 15,418 1 12,78S I 22 (in5 _| r»;i,2i5"l Potomao River, in Marj'Unrt mid VirKinin, rises ill two liraiiclics, the north and the soulli, in and iicnr tlie Allngliany tlountains, and forms, through nourly its whole course, the boundary lietwccn VirRinia and Maryland. k is about 800 niilos long, niid oiitcri Chesapoako Bay between Point Lookout and Smith's Point by a mouth ten miles wide. At Alexandria it is n inilo and a (juartor wide, 2110 miles from the ocean. It is navigable for ships of tlio line to the navy-yanl in Washington, 300 miles from the sea, and three miles below the head of tide-water. Above this it is oIj- structed \ty numerous falls and rapids. — A'ce JI.viiv- 7..VSI), C'lIKSAI'E.VKE. Pound (I.at. poudus, weight), a measure of weiglit. In Kiigland two diflercnt pounds arc u.sod — the pound avoirdupois, and tlie pound Troy. The pound avoir- dupois weighs 7000 grains Troy, and the pound Troy 57tiO grains. The former is divided into IG ounces, and tlio latter into 12. The pound sterling was in .Sax- on times, about A.i>. (171, a pound Troy of silver, and a shilling was its twentieth part ; consequently the lat- ter was three times as large as it is at present. — Pk.vciiam. The value of the Roman powio is not pre- cisely known, though sonic suppose it was ei|iiivak'nt to an Attic miiia, or £3 4.i. 7it. (.)ur avoirdupoi.s weiglit (ai-oir ilii poiits) came from the Freiicli, and contains sixteen ounces ; it is in proportion to our Troy weight as seventeen to fourteen. — CiiAMiiKiis; see also Haid-- era Mttfjazine, December, 1K.'')7, l,")!!— 157. An old jiound weight of geographical significance, named Kaslerling, divided into twelve ounces, was in use among tlie An- glo-Saxons some centuries before the Norman Concpiest. The same weight, called tlio Tower, and tlie Jloneyers' pound, was styled by early French writers the lioman and the Rochello pound ; also known among tlio Ger- mans as the Cologne pound. A simple system of ex- change, by which a pound of silver money, in tale, was made to e(iual a pound in gross weight, had been ar- ranged by Charles the Great, in France, toward the end of the eighth century. In Uritaiii, under the First William, of Normandy, an ordinance declared, " The weights and measures throughout the kingdom sliall remain as our worthy predecessors have cstablislicd." Queen Elizabeth ordered the ounce of silver, in Kii- gland, to be cut into p'xty pennies; so that the penny, formerly the twentieth of an ounce, thenceforth became the sixtieth part ! From the terniination of Qucoii Elizabeth's reign the coinage of Englisli silver has gen- erally retained a purity of -Oio thousandths, called the " Sterling Standard." Another pound weight, also di- vided into twelve ounces, had been brought from Ciii- ro, in Egypt, to Troyes of Cliampagne, in France, dur- ing the Crusades. Carried into ICiigland liy foreign goldsmiths, Lombard merchants, possilily from Venice, about the year llUfi, it gradually superseded the old Easterling weights, and found .iceess into the Ilritish Mint, iiy decision of llcnry VIII. In 1543 this king began to debase the tineness of the silver coins, and also reduced their standard weight. The British stat- ute of 12(if> established two common measures for mon- ey, weights, dry and wet (luantities, with presumeil consent of tlio people and approval by the king, which seem to render " wheat and silver money the two weights of the balance, the natural tests and sinndaids of each other." Unfortunately for such decision, nei- ther wheat corn f-ains nor silver are liy nature exact weights suited for u standard, " a rule by which other things may bo correctly compared, adjusted, and val- ued." The accredited proportions of these old meas- ures being accessible, an attempt has been made to tost their quantities. Edward IV., in 14fil, struck a goM coin of tho value of ten shillings, named an " angel," because such an imago was represented upon the face of it, with tho likeness of a ship on the reverse. Hen- ry IV. (1483 to 1509) introduced "the sovereign," or " rose noble," of gold " The guinea," designed to be of tho value of twenty shillings, but rciiiiiring subsc- ciutnt correction, was not ordained till tho reign of Charles II. in England. In 1821 a committee of the Koyal Society, to whom the matter had been referred, proposed, and It was so decided, by act of George IV.. ill 1824, 1st. That tho parliamentary standard yard, made by Bird, in 17(iO, bo henceforth tho legal stand- ard of (ho British empire ; 2d. That the parliamentary standard Troy pound weight, made in H.W, continue unaltered; 8d. That seven thousand grains be de- clared to constitute tho pound-wcigt.t avoirdupois, now called the British imperial pound. By act of Congress of tho United States, in 1828, "the lirass Troy pound weight, procured by tho Sliiiister of the United States at London, in the year 1827, for tho use of the Mint, shall bo Ihc ttinulurd of the Mint of the United States, conformably to which the coinage there- • of shall be regulated." Vet wo po.s8ess three several flmrliiiff weights fur euinnije accounts, (a-h one derind from a distinct uiiitiin/ measure taken f -cm us jnanij dlf- fi rent nations. 1st. We have a Troy standard for iiain- lilies, from Britain ; 2d. A metrical standard for i/kh/i- lies, from Franco; 3d. An avoirdupois standard for proporlimis, from Spain. Tho solo remnant retained from the original scale of the mother country being tlie Troy ounce, now divided and inultiplied decimally. — ]{i]mi of l)r. .1. II. (iiiimiN of tho United States Mint, Nortli Carolina. >See Pi;nxv. Pratique. Tlie writing or license of tliis name was originally addressed liy the Soutliern nations to the ports of Italy to which vessels were bound, and sigiii- lied that the ship so licensed came from a place or country in a healthy state, and no way infected with the plague or other contagious disease. Tlio pratique is now called a bill of health, and is still of the same intent and import. — A.siiK. Precious Metals, a designation frequently ap- plied to gold and silver. AVe liavo given, under the articles Goi.n and Sti.vKi!, a short account of each metal ; and wo now propose laying before the reader some details with respect to their supply and consump- tion. To enter fully into this interesting and difHiuU subject would require a long essay, or rather a large volume. Jlr. Jacob published in 18,')1 an " Historical Inquiry into the Production and Consumption of tin Precious Metals," in which ho takes up the subject at the earliest period, and continues it to the above epoch. And though far from being so learned, complete, or sat- isfactory as might have been expected, this work con- tains a good deal of valuable information, and deserves tlie attention of tho.se who take an interest in such in- quiries. But within the last live or six years the sub- ji'ct hos acquired an interest and importance with which it was not previously invested. I'iiijtplg of the Precious Mdals. ■ — Since the discov- ery of Ainerica, the far greater ]>art of the supplies of gold and silver have been derived from that continent Previously to the publication of Iluniboldt's great work, " Kssai Politique sur la Xouvelle J'spagne," sever- al estimates, some of them framed by individuals of great intelligence, were in circulation, of the quantities of gold and silver imported from America. Tliey, how- ever, diflered widely from each other, and were all framed from comparatively limited sources of informa- tion. Humboldt brought these estimates together as follows : Aulhore. I'stariz Snlorznno Moncflda NavnrGto Kiiyiml nolicrtson Neckcr (rerbonx The Aiillior of the liecherches) sur le Commerce, Ainster- - 2-1I>2S 14'.I2-15'.5 I&I'.'-IOII 14il2 n-iO I4W2-I776 liti3-17;7 1724-1800 1492-177B Dolllin^ li'SaB.ooii.oflo' 1,B0<),00O.0«0 2,0011,01)0,001) l,.M0,O0O,Oi)O .'■,i.')4,ono,fl0o K,SOO,000,OflO »il4,000,000 1,(100,000,000 n,078,000,000 ■ Kssai sur la Xouvelle Etpagne, tome ill. But these have been wholly super«eded by the more PRE 1574 PRE extensive anil laborious investigations of Humboldt. This illustrious traveler, besides being acquainted witti all that had lieen written on the subject, and having ready access to uilicial sources of information unknown to the writers already alluded to, was well versed in the theory and practice of mining, and critically ex- amined several uf the most celebrated mines. Ho was, therefore, incomparably better qualilicd for forming correct conclusions as to the past and present produc- tiveness of the mines than any of those who had hither- to speculated on the subject. His statements have, in- deed, been accused of exagj^erution ; and wo incline to think that there are grounds for believing that this charge is, in some measure, well foun,7O0 481,830 3,46ll,84«) Kilogri t)37,512 140,478 0,8i7 110,704 7'.6,.')81 Value of the Gold and Silver in Dollars. ■-'3.0011,0110 C.V'4n,000 2,000,000 4,8W),0(l0 2,100,000 4,3011,000 43,000,000 IJumboidt further estimated the annual produce of the European mines of Hungary, Saxony, etc., and those uf Northern Asia, at the same tion of the old Spanish families, to whom the mines principal- ly belonged, who repaired, with tho wrecks of tlieir fortunes, some to Cuba, some to Spain, and j^omc to Bordeaux and tho south of France — caused the aban- donment of several of the mines, and an extraordinary falling olT in the amount of their produce. There are no means of estimating the precise extent of thii de- cline ; but accoriling to Jacob, who collected and com- pared all the existing information on the subject, the total average produce of the American mines, iiicluaivo of Brazil, during tho twenty years ending with 1829, may bo estimated at $20,0, Session 1843. And it has since increased to $6,500,000 or $7,000,000. Tho produce of the Bolivian mines is usually estimated at about half tho produce of those of I'eru. In 1850 tho produce of the Chilian mines, according to the official returns, amounted to §7,020,071. — Annuaitv ile FKconomie I'olitique, 1853. Birkinyrc's estimate of the production of the precious ; metals in 184G and 1850, the most elaborate and val- { uable of any hitherto published, appeared in the Lon- ; don Times of the 19th May, 1851. M'o subjoin sonic I of its principal portions. I " The quantities of gold and silver produced at the I under-mentioned epochs were: I " In 1801 the quantity of pure gold produced in I America was 46,.')31 lbs. ; in ICuropc and Northern A.«i!i ; (exclusive of China niid Japan), 4,916 lbs. j total prod- uce, 51,217 lbs. = 55,910 lbs. British standard gold-- X2,C12,200. " In 1816 the quantity of pure gold produced in America was 25,503 lbs. ; in Europe, Africa, and Asia (exclusive of China and Japan), 89,171 lbs. ; total prod- uce, 114,671 lbs. = 125,108 lbs. British standard gold = X5,816,721. "In 1850 the quantity of pure gold produced in America was 261,7.')1 lbs. ; in Europe, Africa, mid A.'i.i (exclusive of China and Japan), 101,219 Ib.s. ; tolal produce, 365,950 lbs. =399,217 lbs. British standard gold=i;i8,651,322. "Tho above quantities are probably less than the actual production. The duties on gold in Russia on the produce of tho private mines are heavy, varylni; from 12 to 21 per cent. ; in Austria they amount to lU per cent., in Brazil to 5 per cent., and are understood to lead to a great axu Sii,- VliH ''UH il41 *>>t' '^^' '"'* '■■'"'■' UEINO TWO YKASS UEFORK TUE UIBIOVEKY or tub BICII 1>KIH)8IT8 or liOLD IN C'AL- irtHIMlAi fim LA*1tK TWO YBABS ArtXH THE DI8OOVEHT. Uluced ii> 1 ami Asia lotal 1"<"1- IrdgoUl- jjiluccil ill , ami Afio lbs, ; total 1 stamlai'l tlian llif bussia on i, varying luiit ti) lU Inderstooil ■ivr coiiii- ire 110 iold. Silver. TqI.I. 1 (•old. 8ilvtl. ToMI. Tilifofm*...*.... iinHuh Mttt*iH ■ £237,330 249,763 '282,407 96,'24l 00,337 146,f>v5 '269,871 £1,801 8,467,0-20 42,tl-2« 1,000,58.1 4iiO,l»l •2!l7,02!) 2,003 £289,230 3,7u0,773 •295,330 1,090,8*24 520, W8 44'2,014 201,874 £0;603,179 £3,RS2,25 £1,301,600 £3,414,427 857 !82,750 17,841 2,4! 8 '2'03','Jl'O 306,(100 100,(KKI 72,'240 03,719 80,.'S5 riO,il75 £5,'201,019 £107,831 32,'340 138,022 198,200 282,0!M 7.444 227,499 109,!lS!) 1,05,! l,f>84 617 374 ii30 83,400 33,000 £7,^259,S24 £171,817 35,007 138,022 198,200 •28(1,!)71 7,444 440,210 100,000 l,or«i 1,584 617 374 330 63,400 S3,000 £'20,001,818 £4,347,477 35,007 138,379 198,'200 576,079 25,285 442,70S 100,000 204,956 307,48.1 100,517 72,014 04,049 84,045 S3,!p76 ^iimwtm.- .■..*.-..■*,;. Vitni»»w mm\m>f trtHtl "f ^mttpHi Africa, and Asia, . . I'mWI of haftfl «(i(l Smilh America. . (tWndMal £4,.'i45.l!i-' i,3in,:.oo £l,^25t,300 5.JiI,fll9 £5,709,498 0.6o3,179 £,5,312,r)3:! 13,341,989 £18,0.54,622 £1,628,692 7,'2.59,S'24 £0,S40,!ii5 20,601.813 £.5,840,752 1 £0,515,!)25 £12.302,077 £8,788,410 £27,442,788 Account or the Imtoutb and KxroRTB ov Trf.abube into AN!) FROM India diriso each of the 17 Vkaks endimu WITH 1850-'51. " f'f^^tOMVg bt 1'lliOa and Japan, which produce liirtfc /lll'«t<'!«ll9i flimm slimll tioftiott of the quantities exported to Vi^fM *m UfBlmldy detained in tliat country or for- WsVlJcd it) All.'ttCrtlia. Hut by far tlie greater i)art, pcfllrtllS HMl less Itmii niiieteen-twenticths of the wliole, Wrtt (frsdiieil fofj atul went to, India. Hut althougli lllrtift (Jill llt*l, fof several years prior to 1850, derive «liy «'«ll9i(1ef«l*l8 supply of bullion from Kurope, slic flfiw (lllfillfjS (IlKt period latge supplies from Cliina. 'I lijii wrt<> M CMIISfXldeilco of the vast increase in the iin- (■"Krtlioili uf opitim into the latter. With tlie c.xcep- tiHIl «*f (*<* ami silk, China lias few native products, ntllff llmtl Itie f/teolous metals, fit for foreign markets. hw\ (llP cipufls of the former being not much more timil iiHrtttifllt (0 |iay for tlio products sent to lier from KnfH(W «ml Allietll'rt, a very considerable part of the M\\im Slid ((plum imported from India is paid for in liHlli'illi llie i((Of'P«se(l exports of whicli arc said to have l»M"fly lil-atlgllt 8eflous(liflicuIties. Itnppears, forc.\- »MI(iiw, tlwl «l Htl average of tlm iseventeeH years cud- ill({ ttiltl l«W-'5l, the aUHUsl value of tlie merchandise B.iilOtfd'd f'wm lll(1l« to China amounted to Xl.SG 1,400 » i^M, Hllll (llrtt of the merchandise imported to only ,„,.,, *ll(!l,iit'l, )f«*illg a lialance of no less tliau .<;3,'.)-21,190 | of i;3G,4-.>7,90J, being at the rate of X2,14'>^818 a year ». - - ~ - - --.-.- r- m\ t»l . . , - tllB fllllirtll lllslimi-liousp, sliows tlie balance between tlie bullion c.Nported was sent, Mif \m\wHM\im and exportation of treasure into and ffHIII lliiliil, fi/f 17 years, IRSI-'il. Since IS.M this cur- fMllMlflittldaiillsilvpfffoniKtirope has largely increased, sHMlliM^ (he liuafils of tfeasurc in China and India. Vennt. ; 1-34- ■A 1 1835- :;o 1»30- 37 1837- 38 1838 39 1.839- '40 1840- •41 1841- '42 181'2- •43 1843- •44 1844-'45 1 1>45 ■40 1840- •47 1847- •48 1848- •49 1849- •50 1S50- '51 lnii».rts. £1,8 3,r'J3 2,140,4;5 '2,030,li;7 2.010,101 3,010,92,1 1, uns. "£[94,741 108,109 263,934 3lO,C50 347,9i;0 470,6'23 3,;0,480 615,070 '21,5,7'" 740, ( I.IOO.K J 816,028 713,870 1,4;0,038 '2,r:39,743 971, '.'44 641,289 Total excess of imports Average annual excess of Imports 2.142,818 Now it appears from this table that tlic imports of bullion into India during the seventeen years ending with 18.')0-'ol, exceeded the exports by the gross sum S04ii, ^„^,-i..,^iw, ..^...s - •■ — '. ' ', . , \ imf \» hf paid 111 hiillion, and in drafts on London The following tables show the countries from winch \W\ ylllCf places irtilebted to China. The following ! the bullion imported into India during the four years »lil», »lli(ll U (Iptlliced from the account compiled by j ending with 1850-'J1 was derived, and those to which The accumulations of gold from California and Aus- tralia have created a strong desire for Imlia and Cliiiia goods, for which specie must be paid in lieu of domestic goods or produce from England or tho Inited Slates. Tbeasube iJirOBTED into India Fno.« 1847-48 to lS63-'5!. "Wiitfe from. I?HiM KiHg(liiiir77,,,ii,,<. •ilOBftf*,- .■.,•,.■,.•.■.■.•;.■ .-.I.. Af»l(iiMf and Vi'tmn t\n\u. i turn lit iivv^ Dope (fujlim .■.•.■.•/.(.•.iw,- • Illlia.... ,i:.;iii.m.i.. V :,,,,, SI,, mill,.. \imn\nm,,,,,i,,,,,,,,i,. Cfgit ,. I'wmiltf, MHUHpim, Ittii Malacca. **IIIHC»«C* ,.-,i.... Sue* :::::, ,:^^^,^.. HimHUH:,:,,, ,,,,,,,, ,iil nnaii I , , 1 1 1 ,t 1 1 ti i i IW -'JU. _ £58,04'! 12.059 34,850 33,5,'25S C7,4'24 1,030,.'!43 2,099 8'4',32l 42,034 21>4,0O4 141 4,980 £1,973.391 lS48-'49. 1849-'S31 80,091 138,8'24 64,402 84,902 76,S0« 330,919 239,094 149,210 6'2a 62 24,096 3-2, 18« 210,853 1,200 65 £3,811,809 £4.204,513 1 £3,390,807 m PRE 1676 PRE Treabob xxrocTiD raou Ijtdia fbom 184T-'48 TO 1880-61. Wbera (a. l847-'48. l»4(l-'«. IM>-'tO. lUO-'si. XTOO,060 T,892 B.400 8T,IB2 ss'o'.oos 32,498 1t'2',«2s ■"si ■ 80,131 33,205 ■ 'ao i;i,4U!j,M04 15,405 2,235 08,2T0 V,(Vi7 fl81,TTT 528 04 112',(ll>4 400 300 05.i(:4 15,398 Ts'.'as i:il8,4SS 10,221 00,400 "m 301,828 00,001 0,0(10 .1(1 219,683 80,238 ■ 28,081 133 24.20(i Xl(l,108 9,511 TOO 40.000 2,180 TOO 252,288 21,000 26,244 "ioo 142.404 20,242 4,092 AfriCH America Batavla and Java i;liina )IalU and Gibraltar Pciinng, Hhignpore, nnd .Malncca . f^onmcatice . Suo« Total XI.420,08S J.'i,. 3.1,743 i;'..T1.244 i»4 1,289 It appears from Ihtso taliks that Cliiiia furnished two-thirds or more of all the liullion imported into In- dia diiriiit; the four years ciidiii;; with lt*5(V-'.jl ; and that till the lant-mentionod year the imports from Ku- ropo were (niito inconsiderable, and greatly exceeded by the exports to it. China, indeed, has been long known to be lioth an importer and an exporter of bull- ion. But it is only within the last few ycar.'<, or since the importations of opium became so immense, that her exports of bullion have become so very large as to make them productive of much inconvenience. The Imports of bullion into India from tlie I'nitcd States have, till recently, been too inconsiderable to deserve notice. A direct intercourse has now been commenced between .San I'mncisco and the eastern hemisphere ; but hitherto all shipments of bullion to India and Chi- na on American account have been made through Lon- don. During the year ending the 30th June, 1852, the Americans sent gold and silver to the amount of f;l2,127,379 to England. Hut though the value of their imports from India and China during that year amounted to $14,818,fl91, while that of their exports thither amounted to only )i^,'iCu,(j7i>, they diil not send to either a single dollar or a single dollar's worth of gold or silver direct from America. — /irjm't on Com- merce ami Xaiifffition of the L'niled States fur 1852, p. .'Hi, el neq. Hut under such circumstances there will be a corre- sponding increase of demand in India for the bullion of Australia and America. Indeed, the probability seems to be, from the late extraordinary importation of bullion from Kurope, that the supply from China and elsewhere, notwithstanding its magnitude, had not sufficed fully to meet the wants of India. And inde- pendent of this circumstance, it is plain that a slight fall !|i the value of bullion in other countries would render it a still more advantageous article of cxjiort to India. And taking the vast extent and population of the peninsula into account, and the habit, univers- ally prevalent in it, of hoarding the precious metals, it is impossilde to say, supposing the treasure-current to continue to set in an easterly direction, how great a quantity of bullion might bo thrown upon the markets of India and tlio adjacent countries before any very sensible reduction of its value was manifested. It is difficult satisfactorily to account for the extraordinary exportation of bullion to India in 1850-'o2. Most probably it lias been owing partly to circumstances connected with the demand for it in India, and partly to thoso peculiar to its supply in Knglar.d and tlie United Slates. A certain portion (atwut $1.%000,000) of the annual imports from India and China consists of remittances on account of the Host Indio Company's home charges. But independently of this item, tlic imports of Indian and Chinese goo(ls into England and the United .States have latterly been so very great, that they have left a balance to be den-aye(l by the export of specie. Most probably, also, the occupation of the Punjab has occasioned a demand for additional •uppUea of currency for that province, while consider- able (piantitics would bo wanted for tho liurmcse ex- pedition. The refusal to receive gold in payment of revenue, though its influence has been exaggerated, has no doubt contributed to bring about the same re- sult, or to increase the demand for silver in India. And it further appears that the balances of treasure belonging to tho Indian government in its different treasuries throughout Intlia have lately increased to an inconvenient extent, or to about 16 millions ster- ling, when from 8 to 10 millions would suffice for ev- ery pur|)oso of regularity and security. But measures are now (185.1) in progress connected with the liquida- tion of a portion of the Indian debt which will set free a considerable portion of this surplus treosure; and will thus have the double effect of diminishing or stop- ping tho demand for silver in India, and of enabling the coimtry to avail itself of the services of the capital which has been abstracted from the great work of pro- duction.— ^Seo an able article in tho JCcovomist, 3d De- cember, 1853. It would (ilso seem that while circum- stances were occurring in India which account for the origin of the drain for bullion to that quarter and its continuance, there was simultaneously an excess of silver in America and Europe, occasioned by the sub- stitution of gold for that metal in tho currencies of tho United .Slates and of France. And such being the case, the renewed ex|)ortation of bullion to the East appears to bo sufficiently accounted for, and to hove been almost a matter of course. In addition to tho increased product in the Amer- ican mines, there has been within the lust twenty years an extraordinary increase in the produce of the Hus.-o- Asiatic nnnes and washings, or rather of the latter. In 1830, for example, the pro-' .ice of the Siberian gold washings was estimated at only 6} poods ; whereas it had increased in 1810 to above 210 poods, and in 1817 to no fewer than 13G.'t poods. In addition to the wash- ings the Ural mines yield from 310 to 320 poods gold. The produce from both sources amounted In 1817, ac- cording to the official returns, to 1741 poods. But it has not been so great since, being in 1S4S ITiO pooilt 1849 1B8T " 1850 14.85 " 1S5I 1432 " The official authorities ascribe this falling off to the exhaustion of the deposits, and the unskillfiilness of thoso engaged in the business. But it is doubtful whether the falling olTbe not more apparent than real, and whether it be not occasioned by the enormous taxes which have been imposed of late vears on the gold ob- tained fi'om tho washings. The principal tax varies according to the produce, being 6 per cent, on wash- ings that yield from 1 to 2 poods per annum, increas- ing by various steps till it amounts to 32 per cent, on thoso which yield 50 poods. And there are other du- ties which, though less in amount, are of the same op- pressive character. These exorbitant duties have, no doubt, (ended to lessen the produce of tho washings. It is, however, tion ( PRE 1677 PRE Amcr- |ty years liusso- Itlcr. Ill Ittii gold licrcus it in inn lie wnsh- I1I9 goUl. 1817, ac- But it ■is. I to the liiess of loubtful Ian real, La taxes |roUl ob- . varies I Wttpll- Increas- Icnt. on her du- linic op- Lled to Lwever, all but certain that their principal effect has been to 1 defeat themselves by tempting; the parties concerned to adopt every means by which they might be evaded ; and the notorious corruption of the Russian revenue officers renders this comparatively easy. Perhaps, under the circumstances, wo may not be far wrong in supposing that from a third part to a half of tho produce of the washings Is exempted from the duty. Hut talking it at a third, and supposing the taxeil produce of tho wash- ings to have amounted in 1851 to 1117 poods, the real produce would be 1489 poods ; to whicli if we add 315 ])ood8 for the pro,.')00,000 a year. Including the silver raised in Russia and else- where, and that obtained from the rolining of lead, the produce of which in the United Kingdom exceeds $1,000,000 a year (see Lkad), tlie totol annual produc tion of thn precious metals in Europe may bo roughly estimated at about $7,500,000. On tho whole, there- fore, It would seem (excluding the produce of tlie Cal- iforiiian and Australian gold lields) that the aggregate production of the precious metals in Europe, Amer- icH, and Asiatic Russia, may bo supposed to have amounted in 1850-'ol (and it is proljably about the same at present, 185H) to $70,425,000, being aliout $15,000,000 greoter than their production in 1810, when the American mines had attained their maximum de- gree of productiveness. Notwithstanding tlie large ad- dition made to the supply of gold by the (Siberian wash- ings, it appears to have been nearly balanced by tho excess of silver produced in America and elsewhere. And the old proportion of about 16 to 1 between tho values of gold and silver does not appear to have been sensibly affected previously to the discovery of tho au- riferous deposits in California and Australia. Supplies of Gold from California and Australia. — But the discovery of these deposits threate-^ to bring about a most material change in the real, and perhaps also ill the comparative values of the precious niet.ils ; and is, indeed, among tho most remarkable events of which economical historj- has preserved any account. Tlio gold is found in the debris of tho quartz rocks in which it had been imbedded, sometimes in grains and f1alc is comparatively abundant; and tho yield, botli in i.;alifornia and Australia, is quite unprecedented, and siicli as would not previously have been conceived pos- sible. Tho Californian deposits were discovered late in May or early in June, 1848 ; and notwithstanding the remoteness of the country, and the fact of its being almost destitute of inhabitants, aliove 5000 persons were attracted to the spot by the end of the season, who arc supposed to have realized above £5,000,000. The news of the discovery and of the unexampled richness of the gold fields having spread on all sides with electrical rapidity, occasioned an extraordinary influx of immi- grants from most parts of the world into California. The supplies of gold attained to an unexampled mag- nitude ; cities rose in tho wilderness as if by enchant- iiient; the great Bay of San Francisco, whicli had hitherto been entirely deserted, was crowded with ships and steamers from the most distant countries; and California is now one of the States of the Union, with a population of from 250,000 to 300,000,— 6'«e articles Goi,i>, CALiPoimiA, and Pricks, for the production of gold up to the present time. In addition to tho regular shipments, very large amounts, of which no account is taken, arc conveyed away from California by parties returning to Jlexico, to the Eastern States, Europe, and Cliina, Of these various estimates have been made ; but the prevalent opinion in tho best-informed quarters seem to bo that, when they are included, and allowance la nhn nmilfl tot the quantity retained at homo, tlie total yield nf koIiI In California In 1852 may be moderately recltoneil «( from ti40,000,000 to $50,000,000. But vast as it certainly is, this produellon In tnemi\- ed by that of Australia. The deposits hi lliii Uttitr were not discovered till IHftl. And tlmy are an vury rich, and the influx of immigrants lias bnun suUKlraor- dinary, that the gold flelds of Victoria only nrii kkII- mated to have produced in 1852 no fewer tliiin 4,217,(tft7 oz., which, taken at the rate of $18 an oz,, dlven nu'riiiill amount of $7B,457,820-(Statemout by Mr, Kllli|,l,,of Melbourne); to which, adding $15,flfKI,000 f,ir lliii tmll. mated produce of the Sydney or New South Wulen Kolil fields, the total produce of tho continent will Aliiuuilt to $91,457,820, On the whole, therefore, tho priment nil* nual supply of gold and silver niav bo estimated H( about £47,000,000 or $209,905,000 ; \U., Ameiica (oioept CallfornliO g^n ROO (Kifl Kurope . , , VMii.mt Kusso-Anlatic provinces lH,liiih ihiii California 4-,^i^„\ Australia tlh.lKili.ljiK) Total l(|-,llHI,Uiif),(Hirt Consumption of the Precious Metnls,--}n order In form a reasonable conjecture in regard to tho probalijn In. flucnco of this vast supply of tlie precious liloliiU, |t || necessary to inquire into their uses and probable eon- sumption. And this inquiry, we regret to say, |a nijil more diflicult, and more likely to bo liifoelucl wllli errors, than the inquiry in regard to their pruducllon, The precious metals arc used as coin or ciirrnney to facilitate exchanges; as wealth which may bn eon. veniently kept or hoarded ; and they are used In ||ig arts, as plate, in gilding, etc, Tho quantities employ, ed in these functions are very lorge Indeed, Tliiiy varv', however, in different countries and perlodit with tho circumstances peculiar to each ; such, for examplii, a.s the greater or less abundance of paper iiioiioy, ainl tho degree in which the use of coins is lessoned by tlia variou' devices resorted to for ceoiinml/.ing ciiri'eiii'y | tho fashion, as to plate and furniture; thn funllng of security at the time; and a number of other elreuiti. stances, all liable to great and soniotlines luddeii changes. The gold and silver enipluyci; in (Jreat l(r||. nin as currency, and in tho customary rcsurves In tjin hands of tho bankers, is supposed to am nut to at loiKt >!200,000,00!), In Franco the precious metals employ, cd in the same way probably amount to duiibln Ijist sum, or to 8400,000,000, The amount in thn UiilKul •States emidoycd for the same purposes may lie dtittnil at *275,flno,(ioO, And we believe tliat wo may e«lliimto tho entire sum employed as currency In Europe, Amer- ica (Xorth and South), Australia, thn Capn uf (load Hope, and Algeria, at about 81,900,000,000, It would bo inconsistent with tlio objects of this artielo, and wIlli the limits within which it must bo conllnod, to oii({a({ii In a discussion of the numerous, and ^en conlllelln);, statements and details on which this ostlinatu has beuii founded. Some information with respect to It may ho found in Chevalier's valuable treatise JJn la AfnnnnU (p, ,126, etc.), Paris, 1850; in Stirling's tjold rUsrimritt, p. 182 ; in the learned and excellent tract of Tegoburiikl, Kssai Je la Divouverte des Giles Aurifeni en t'lillforiiln et en Aiistralie, etc., p, 65; and in a host of other pull- licatlons. Tlie precious metals in circulation in lUi»«lil in the early part of 1851 were estimated In tho J'l'tim- burg Gazette (October 12, 1852) at 326,000,000 roubles, equal, at 80 cents per rouble, to $2(!0,000,0(X), Tim greater part (190,000,000 roubles) of this currency con. sisted of gold. Now, supposing this sum to bo oni- ploycd, as above stated, as currency, wo liavo first to Inquire into its probable wear and tear ond lods, uml then into the probable rate of its increase. And tak- ing into account tho extraordinary extension of imvl- gation, and the proportional risk of losslVom slilpwrocle and other casualties, we are disposed to think tllttt th4 PRE 1678 PRE annual wear and tear and loss of coin may bo estimated i at about H per cant. o( the entire nmss of tlie cur- rency, which, tale said, perhaps, that these estimates must be exaggerated, inasmuch as the sum which, it appears from them, is annually coiuumed exceeds the entire produce of tho mines previously to tho suppliei from California and Australia. Uut while wc admit the fact to bo as stated, we deny the inference which is at- tempted to bo drawn from it. The truth is, that while tho discovery of the Californlan and Australian deposits has added in so great a degree to the supply of bullion, it has also added very largely to its consumption. It has given an nnparallchid stimulus to emigrotlon and commerce. The rise of wages and prices consequent on those extraordinary mutations, and on tho increased exports of produce which they have occasioned, is mak- ing itself felt in tho United States as well aa in Europe ; and here, consequently, as well as there, a greater sup- lily of bullion will bo rc(|uired to serve as currency. And while this inllucnce is operating on the one hand, on the other the swarms of /lart-enui who are returning from the gold lields, with pockets stuffed with the prod- uce of all sorts of successful adventures, are every where contributing to increase tho demand for all sorts of things, but especially for plate, jewelry, and other ostentatious finery. JC,Tporlat!on of Hold and Siher to the Ea$t. — Besides the countries already mentioned, there is a vast portion of tho earth's surface, including Turkey in Asia, Persia, Ilindostan, China, and other Eastern territories, into which bullion has been largely imported from the re- motest era. Humboldt estimated that, of tho entire produce of tho American mines at the beginning of this century, amounting, as already seen, to $43,600,000, no less' than $26,500,000 were sent to Asia, $17,600,000 by the Capo of Good Hope, $4,000,000 by the Levant, and $4,000,000 through the Russian frontier. Probably, however, this estimate was a good deal beyond the mark. " Humboldt, cela n'est plus douteux, cstiniait trop haut la valeur de I'or et do I'argent, qui s'dcoulai- ent nu connncncement de ce siccle d'Europe en Asie, et jiortaicnt trop has la depcrdilion qu'ils 6prouvaient, dans la memo tcni|is, par le frottemeiit et leur conver- sion en objets d'orfevrerio et do byoutcrie." — JJupiii/- nodi' de la Afonnaie, etc., i. p. 35. There is no longer, wo belio\e, any doubt in regard to the accuracy of the latter part of this statement ; and it is pretty generally sup)iosed that the llrst part is also well founded, lint some years ago this immense drain began to diminlKJi, and in 1832 and 1833 it actually set in an opposite di- rection. Since then it has fluctuated, sometimes in- clining to tho one side, and sometin'.Co to the other. With tho exception, however, of tho bullion received by England in payment of the $21,000,000 due by China, under the treaty of 1842, there was not for some years ony very decided movement of bullion from Europe to the East, or from the East to Europe, though, on tlio whole, the imports into tho latter appear to have ex- ceeded tho exports; at least, this was certainly tlio case during the five years from ]844-'45 to ]848-'411, both inclusive. Uut very recently, or within the last four years (1850-'63) the drain for bullion for the East has set in with renewed force ; so much so, that in 1852 no fewer than 12,1)55,393 oz. silver were shipped from tho United Kingdom for India and Egypt. This continued process of export of gold and silver is attributed by some writers to tho excessive use of paper money, whereliy tho latter supersedes in commercial channels the use of the former. " There can be no doulit that the ultimate eflTcct of a purely specie cur- rency (or a paper currency based entirely on specie) would 1)0 in tlic highest degree beneficial to all depart- ments of industry and enterprise. It is a currency that can not fluctuate. It may expand with the increased quantity of the precious metals, but there is hardly a possibility of its contracting ; and its expansion must tako place by the operation of causes which operate equally throughout the civilized world." — North Amer- ican Review, January, 1858. Tho following table shows the export of coin and bullion from Great Britain to tho East during each of tho 10 years ending with 1862. . . 793' , . . IS04» . , 13ns» . . . isna*.. ISllI'.. isiit...! isist.. '■^lot . . . .' ISiOf.. isaot... 1S.15} . . . 18361 .... isarii . . . I33SJ . i''39T. . . ; IS-Wl ... 1.S41" . . 1S42.... 1**43 ... 'SMtt...; lS46tt . . S4Stt . . IS49H . issott... ,'%!».. . I js«3tt;:: ISSStf PRE 1S79 PHE Am Aooodki o» tbb QOAMTiti«B or Cioi.n ant> Sii.tkh, BiaPKOTivn.T, ixpoRTin to ImirA, t!||lN«, anii I^uvm ».nu GEKAT llHITAIN, DUHINO KAOll 0» TUK TF.K YkaES KNDINU WITH 18B.', I>iniNUUI»llltlU IIKTWIIIIII lllliliKII AKII V.i««ll « ^;OIN, AND 11«TWKKN fOId ANH IlUi.LlON. •■■..»>i /i"!! ruBllUK Countries Y»ii Urilliili Hold Coin. KonJiin , OoMColn-l Tot«l o( Uolil. ilrlmh BllvirColn. Vomm 1 JIMvtrrciln, 1 Ulinrea. l22,41iU Mlnr Hulliuii, «fNll*#f, 4V4,4M 1843 1H44 OnnfM, 7.S77 6,1144 OUUCM. Uiineci. 7,H77 6,l!44 UiincM. 18,180 llilll,7tU ISIh lis 116 lilt III, 1»)<0 2 61N 2,518 II 1 1 To tlio IlrlttBli PouesBlona in j 1847 ii,»U 2,014 llftO 1 1 1 1 1S43 18-19 l.'iliS (ini ... 1,208 (jni 1,287 12,H,'pO ,11, 14,1117 1880 9,fl'28 9,028 920 nivM 1114 o'mi fi'ii>i,T4n ' r.,IKS I!I7,020 I^II.Nllll 2i<i','it 1S4« 184« ISfiO i,'»'i'7 * * ' 1,917 '"(io W7,i:u 20,400 02,0110 ',',','. I«7,III4 2ll,IIM 112,01)0 18f)'2 ' 1S43 It-. ... 84 ' wio lIH.hOO N.hlMI 47,111111 NOO • •ifiiio 2,»00 .... 16,1100 Ul IMIO 1814 41) 40 40,01H) 000 40,IIIHI ll,2(MI 134S 2M) • • 1 26 J 4,200 T,1HH( 18411 n.isit S,lSi) 1847 KS48 I'i.Mll 2,4'iO 2lK) 12,746 2,420 2,t)00 9,000 ,11, llihou 1819 •.121 . • . 921 14,000 40,000 h4,(HHI 18.^0 l.V-M!) , , , 1D,910 100,280 141.177 t4A,4i«'« ItVlitllfi 1861 7l),4.'i7 70,437 ; 1211,420 2,ni9,0SK tl.WM.'jNII n,2M.III>7 ^ ISfiJ 02.1141 if)2 02,41'!) 1 140,7s.'! S,h6i(,0lll ',l,fiMI,240 ll,6?l.llllll GOLD, SILVEK, AND IJANK-NOTKS IN TIIK V. S. Statement of the Amount ok <;om» ani» Pilvkh buppobkp TO HE IN ClRllUI-ATION, OK TIIK AMOUNT HUn'OMlil) TO UK IN THE Hankh, ok the whole Amount bupposko to hi in TUB t.'OCNTRY, ANP OF THE AMOUNT OK HaNK-NOTFB IN ClIlGULATION IN lUPFERENT YeARH, AC<]0BI>INU TU THK AUTIIOUITIEH (QUOTED IN THK FoOT-NOTKB. Rpacifl la Circulation. Sped. Tol.l of Bnnk-nolM Yean. In Old B.nki. S[>«cieintlie Country. In Clrculntifln. MUlioiM. HIUIou. MUliona. Mlllloni. 1 179()' 9 n 17.ll» 10 9 1 17M* .... 18 lU 1 Ii93'' • . < > 20 ^' 1794* • • • ■ 2U no UJ.')" . • > • 19 11 17(16' • . • • 101 101 1797' • ••• 16 10 U9S' <• >• 14 9 1799' • • >• 17 10 ISOO' .... 17f 101 WOl" 17 11 1S02» . . •> 101 10 1S03' • . . • 16 u 1S04' • . . . 171 14 131)5' *. . ■ 18 15 1800' 18t 17 181)7" 20 IS ISllt 154 2S to 30 ISlSt 17 45 to 47 ISlOt ^^ 19 ■ 261 03 Io 70 ISSOt 19 8 44-8 lS30t io 22 1 32-1 01 lS34t • • • . 94 1836! 103 18361 2r> 4) on 140 1S3TI 36 .38 73 149 W3SI m 35 871 116 lS391t 43 45 S7 135 18401 60 S3 83 107 1841" .... 85 to 45 35 70 to 80 107 1843 2S-4 83-7 1843 33 J 685 lS44tt.... 60 60 100 75 1.846tt .... 62 44 90 90 ! lS40tt .... 55 42 97 105t I 1847«.... 85 35 120 lor.i- lS4Stt .... 00 40 112 12S1 lS49tt .... 77 43 120 114-7 ISRDtt .... 109 45 154 131 I85ltt .... 138 43 l!iO 155 18.V2tt .... 204 . . > . lS!53tt .... . • t • 230 . .'• ISHtt .... 191 59 2M 204 IS-Wtt .... M 1>T of coin and Lring each of AuTitoRiTiKB.— • Dlopoet. t GALLATIN, t ConqrcMion- at llfjxirls. i TVeasury lieiHirt. I WooDuusr. H IIazakk, Comnifreial Registfr. " fiomiB, Jouriuil of hankiiiiJ. ft llVNT, Merehanta' Magazine. U F.stimatvs. Tho amounts of specie in tlie banks and of bank- notes in circulation from 1835 to 1853, inclusive, have liccn tnlvcn from tlio annual truamiry l'ii|iiit'|ii ull llio condition of thu bunks. Tlio uinuuiit of himm'Ih itti|i- posed to 1)0 ill circulutlon in (llft'urout yniirn I* llci'ofil. ing to tho authorities tflft47 18f)5 41,000,110^11)1 1856 ,,, 52,479,110 4 Total pViTSiirfBlinU We give annexed a statement showing tho liiovt)" ment of specie from tho United Stotoa bllira tlio ycitf 1820; also the amount that goes to Kiiiflandi It filinilld bo noticed that wo do not send our specla (o Kiijjluiiil (e pay debts to that country, for tho bttlaucfl of trftilo Iw- tween the two countries from 1820 to l«5fl wan #ft,(MHI,0(jr) in favor of tho United Stales. Wo send tliroiigli Ki). gland specie to pay our excessive Imporlatioiii of for- eign inannfacturcd goods from tho Continent, HMil lo pay for teas and other foreign produetloiit, 'I'lii) agKte- gate loss of specie to this country in tha dstiAdni nines 1820 has been as follows : Oalii. From the year 1820 to 1830 " •> " 1830 " 1840 $60,620,403 " " " 1840 " 1S50 " " " 1850 " 1856 Deduct gain from 1830 to 1840. Aggregate loss fiflM. I|i'i,l»)t,l«4t SliWn.iitfi 9IH,l 8jJ)4f) piffCi* tlO,tHW.4 «B PRE 15R0 rnt! BTATEMINT miOWINO TUr KxIHIBTK rKOM AND iMPnilTa INTO or HrcdiR rniiM tii« I nitkd .■'Tatku iiiinTiNiaiinliiNii TIIK Dxl'DKTt TO ANU lurnUTH FIMt.M I'iNtll.AMtl KKtlM ( 1- TOUKa 1, l»iOT.)iii'i •i8>,S'2-.' 0,87'2,»87 5,0(17,800' 1S.'4. . ai.'.ii.' 141I,IM 7,OI4,fift2 8 379,H35| ISiB.. ,w:i,'jii(i 8J,S>(H 8,1I,V2.034 0.15'l,7(i5' I8in.. 09S.OT7 l'2'.-,^21ll 4,704 511:1 0,880,9(10 IS.'T.. ■.tOll.KIl II4.III 8,014,880 8,151, 130l 1S2S. . 2,8M,'iiil) '20,li7ii 8,^248,47(1 7.48.1,7411 IHiO.. flT3,83:) 3'.l,s^J0 4,«24.4'20 7,403.UP2 1S30.. ToUl ' Wi.'iW 1 44,^231 •2,178,773 71,0fa",4'J4 8,Ki5,|i04 0.1,114,045 S,'J47,34'2 1,041,0711 Sept. 30, 1S31.. l,(ll.'.,«43 ino,s:)o l).014,031 7,306.1145 l,ll'.i,iWI 83,i;s;i ft,(l.'Kl.Wl) 5,9o7,ri04i isaa. . •241 3i,ii((:i '2.011,701 7,(17O,.'l08i 1^114. . •270 R.Aiin,ni3 •2,07«,7r>s 17,91 1,03J| l>3!>.. SVM 1,30.1,438 477,775 13,131,447 l.s;i8. . ■i.MM S,«'2'2,!r2ll| 4,324,«ail| 13,400.881 is:)7.. l,S!l:l,(l70 I10,'29,l 5 ll70,'24.i 1(1.510,414 ISSN.. 10,18:. !),(IO'.l,:i4C 3.5(18,440 17,747,11(1 IS I'.l. . n.iiia.4!io l,4iO,(W.' 8,770,743 5 5'.i5.17fl ivin.. Total 4,.'.k;i.7Si) r.M(io,r.'27 8(13,3(10 8,417,014 S,8a^2,8l3, •21,Oil7,»S0 t>0,8'Jt),8ua 107,4«9,^2'.o' 1 S«pt 8), 1841.. 3.018,137 B30,B30 10.034.332 4 08S.(;33 lS.f.'.. l,7o'2,74< •20,% m'.l 4,813,.'i3ll 4 (187.(110 9mo.i.. isi:i». 400 14,30.'..714 l,5iO,7l>l "22.390.fif.ll .luiiu^, 1H4I.. s.'>,;(it) 1,131,»K ri,4.'>4.^214 5 8:i0.4'29 1S4.'>.. ,1,07.1,137 |S(),S28 S,UiH),4ll5 4,07(l.'.'4i 184'!.. 073.110 482.711 3,'.i05.^20s 3,771,732 . 1S47.. ROfv, 1»,31'>,II3( 1,(i07.0-24 24.P2I.':81I IK4S.. D.nisflaa l,UI0,<.i(>'2 15.841.010 «.30(l,2-24 lsl».. 7(H,"'7 •2.071,7112 r..4(i4,(«H (l,(i51,'-'40 l.S.')(). . Total •>,!.3t,lS.'i B27,^2i:fl 7..'1."2,1.04 41,;il0,fi0f (i5,010,!V2f 4,0-28,7'..2 ■J'.',o;8,-J08 8«,'.iU0,lfi.i' j liinoBO, l.'Wl.. 17,0!l;P.081 1,01)S,nfl7 •20,472.7.5.' B.4.53,5'.W 1H.V.'. . ;i4,30'i,^2S4 1,487,484 42,C.7.l,l;i.'. 5,BOf>,(U4, lS.')il.. i8,fl:ii,ao( '2>4,7!Pll •27.480,875 4,^2»1,38.', 1854.. •27,ic.'«,'21i;' 85,150 41, •281,504 fl,75S,5S7: 18.W. . 47.nr>8 (115 107,404 B0,'247,343 3,059,81'.' ISWI.. it4.iin,oo'2 421,1171 4,\74r>,J.SB 4,^2O7,03.' ]8f)7.. .'>(I,.S'.I0,2«5 4,(l0n,fl.M(l».13(l,il'2'J ^2,401,799 * Nina moTitlm tu Jdiio 30, and tlio H^^chI yejir fntni tliia tUio boglns July 1. Ilurijing of Cold and Silver. — It is singular timt, in estimating tlio consumption of gold and silver, .laiol. ilid not make any allusion to t'lo praclioo wliicli iiii.s uniformly prevailed in all ooimtries liarassrd I.;' intcs. tino commotions, or exposed to foreign invasion, of burying treasure iii tlio earth. Of tlie hoards so di> posited, a very consideral.le portion has heen altogeth- er lost; and there can he no doulit th.it this hus liicii oue of the principal means hy which the stocic of the precious metals lias been kept down to its present level. Kvery one is aware that during tho Middle Ages tiviiH- «re-lroee, or money dug from tho ground hy chance tinders, belonged to tho f'rown, anil formed no incou- sidcralde part of the royal revenue of Kngland and nlh- er countries. Tho practice has always jjrevalled ill Turkey, Persia, India, China, and generally in all jiarts of the Kast. The extortion practiced on tho inliahlt- ants, and the want of all security, make tlieni look upon the money they have hidden as their only wealth, the only thing wliirh they can really call their own. "In India," says Mr. Luke Scrafton, "the Hindoos bury their money under ground, often with such se- crecy as not to trust their own children with tho kiiowl. edge of it ; and it is amazing what they will suffer rather than betray it. When their tyrants have tried all manner of corporal punishments on them, they threaten to defdc them ; but even that often fails; for, resentment [.revailing over tho love of life, they f.j- ipiently rip up their bowels, or poison themselves, and carry tho secret to their graves. And tho sums lost in this manner in some measure account why the silver of India does not appear to increase, though there are snch quantities continually coming into it, and none going out." — y« Ihe llocemment of JJindoalan, p. Irt, I'lc. I lino Nlm iWumnn, Vnyutl* df Afni/ot, Amsterdam, 1710, I, p, -m. The iimiimfstlvii •nciiflly now urijnyed by the Iltn- dniM niiiiil lullurly Imvn ItitMinmi (his prartlce. ]lut a habit wi pruvulxllt nimI mi dcrply moled Is not easily eriidicalml ; miil IhiMluh ihn llleKnl nxaclions of their rulers b« eiirbeil nr |iiit mi trnd to, (hern Is In many parts of Itiilla n arxnl i\f»\ of fobbery and insecurity. At all I'vuiils, llin iiriti'llcn (if btirylnft treasure Is still wry geiiaritl In it | dihI ill this innment It prevails to a great extoiit Ihriiliuhniit nil tlin vast countries which stretch from llin Ailrlnllc lo llio Chinese Sea. Wo have biiun Mdsurixl by |iMr«on« well iiunlllled in form an npliiiiin tllill lllii Nllnililiis kI^'<'«iitalii« It, lias nl- in Uiissiii tcr, tlurlni? ■ere lurled, Hortloiiwlll mlslnns by HI '10 years iilnht in all Is way from ic Incrcaseil Puliliq«'> '• 11, no doubt, tollable futuro lorne in mn\i loubl unavoitl- icntly, tend to Iplain, for cx- 1 tlio value of Inbnndonment ]c,, which only Iro awaru that, owing to lh« prooedily as might perhaps be an- ticipated. Uut of its ultimate operation tliero can be no question. And It may, therefore, be luiil down that any reduction in thii value of gobi which h not accofii- panicd by a corresponding iniprovenient In the methods of its production inevitably tends to correct Itself, or to cheek or hinder its further reduction. It U idle, there- fore, where so much is uncertain, and indeeil altogether unknown, to attempt to draw any concluaioim entitled to much attention with respect to the probable future supply of the precious mctaLs. But supposing it to ^o on for a few years as at present, or not materially to de- cline, and that their value is in consc(|uencu gradually reduced, there is no good ground for uppreheiiding that this reduction will have any injurious results. If it take place, it will1>o slow, and will not suiKlenly ulVect the incomes or the position of individuals. And we have elsewhere endeavored to show that the changes whicli, under tliese conditions, may bo ultimately ef- fected by a dcclino in the value of bvilliou, will, in a national point of view, bo eminently desirable and ben- eficial. — Treatise on 'JWiUion, 2d cd., p. ilT5-:t87; sec also an able article in the American Jtcriew for Octo- ber, IHO^. We have seen nothing to induce us to change or modify in any degree this opinion. >Somc stress has been laid on the circumstance of the sums payaldo under life insurances falling in value witli a decrease in the value of money. Uut the great major- ity of people are, and all may be, insured in mutual insurance offices, and moy provide l)y proper invest- ments against loss. No full within the compass of probability is likely seriously to aifcct the existing race of annuitants. And those who arc now buying annuities know what thoy may expect, and their heirs will have them only to blame if they do not guard against probable contingencies. Substitution of Hold for SUver. — ^Tho production of gold has very largely increased sftice 1848, as com- pared witli that of silver ; and if tills state of things go on, the value of silver, measured in gold, can hardly fail gradually to rise. Ilut it is by no means clear that it will go on. Tho supplies of silver arc increasing in most parts of the world, p.irticularly in Mexico and Europe. And the Increased supplies of quicksilver ob- tained from California and other jiluccs will powerfully contribute still further to augment the supplies of silver. It is also to bo observed tliat a comparatively incon- siderable rise In the value of sliver as cc.iipnred with gold is sufficient, unless prevented by legislative cu- actuients, to make tho latter bo used in preference to the former in the currency of those countries in whicli both metals are legal tender. Hitherto both gold and silver coins have been legal tender in tlie United States, Franco, and some otlier countries. Hut when such is tho case the value of the coins in respect to each other hos to be fixed by authority, that is, it has to be enacted that debts nmy be discharged by payuients cither of gold or silver money ot the rate of so many dollr.Ts to the caglo, francs to the Napoleon d'or, shil- ling.: to the sovereign, and so on, as laid down in the Mint valuations of the dilt'ercnt countries. And wc have already explained (art. Coins) that, however cor- rect at the periods when they are made, these valua- tions speedily become incorrect; and that whenever such is the case, it is for every body's advantage to make all payments in tho metal which happens to be overvalued as compared with the otlicr. And licnce (as seen in the article referred to) the use of gold as money in preference to silver in England, and of silver in preference to gold in France and the United States. In accordance with these statements, it would seem that tho change which has taken place in the relative Taluet of gold an*«ilver, though not very appreciable, is quite enough to make the former bo employed in- stead of the latter in all countries where they ar« equally legal tender. In 18 111, for example, the' gold cuined in France amounted to only Ii7,l(l!l,5(i0 francs, wliereas In IH.M it amounted to 285,'ia7,a»0 francs! In the Tnited Slates the coiuago of gold hasincreascil in a somewhat similar ratio, liaving risen from f !t,lM)7,7«l in 181!) to >(!-2,(il.l,l'.l2 in 1H61, and to |,5i,81(i,187 in 18.V.>, There in, therefore, every probability that in no long time gold coin will bo used in these two coun- tries in all considerable payments which are not ef- fected by means of notes or chocks. This substitution of gold for silver, while It materially enlarges the Held fur the ciiiploymeiit of the former, proportionally nar- rows that for tho employment of tlie latter. And hence a very eoiisidoralilu penimuent increase may bo made to the comparallvo supply of golil without lis value, measured in silver, being materially nllecled. Ill the end, no duiibt, the values of both metals will bo proportioned, independently of variations of demand, to the respective costs of their production. Ilut licforo tills e(|ualization can take place, ihey must lie dis- trllmtcd among tho various countries of the world ae- cording to the circumstances peculiar to each, includ- ing therein the novel conditions of their supply. In Holland and India that substitution of gold for silver coin, which is taking place in the United States and France, has been hindered Ijy the intervention of government, which has declared that silver only shall bo legal tender. In Holland this was cll'ected by laws passed ill 1847 and 18I'J, and in India by enactments in 18;)5 and 1852. Tho value of tho gold coin that was coiisci|uently liberated in Holland has been estimated at about 172,00U,()00 tlorlns, a considerable portion of which has been absorbed in the new gold currency of France. Wc may add that the additional quantity of silver required through the cessation of gold as cur- rency for the supply of tho Dutch mints, slightly af- fected tho jirice of the former, whidi afterward fell to nearly its old level. In India, where wages have always been very low, the great bulk of the coin in circulation has consisted of silver; and in 1835 it was made the only legal ten- der. Ilut though not legal tender, gold coins con- tinued to circulate in India; and a pmclaniatlon issued in 1841 directed them to bo received at the public treas- ui'los. I.itllu attention was paid to this measure at the lliiie ; but after the discovery of the gold deposits in Australia, it became obvious, if gold coins continued to lie received by the public departments, that eveiit- unlly none else would be paid into them ; and that sil- ver would cease to bo employed except in petty p-iv- iiieiits. This contingency a|ipears to have alarmed the government; and notice was accordingly given on the 22d of December, 1852, that from and after tho 1st of ilanimry next (18511) gold coins would not be received on account of taxes or other payments due to the puli- lic. Silver has, conse(|uently, again become in fact, la well as in law, the sole legal tender of India. A good deal of controversy lias taken place in regard to this measure. It is plain, however, that by continuing to net on tho proclamation of 1841, government would have iiracllcttlly set aside the law of 18l!5, wiiich made silver the only legal tender; and would thus liavo made itself responsible for all the losses that might in consequence have resulted to individuals, while it would also have become liable to the risk of having its own revenues reduced by tho anticipated fall in the value of gold. No doubt, therefore, the repeal of the proclainatlo'i referred to was consistent with good faith, and in some degree a'so with sound policy. At the same time, wo regret thot the situation of affairs in In- dia should have been such as to require that an at- tempt should be made to exclude gold from tho circu- lation. Most likely it would otherwise have absorbed considerable supplies of that metal ; and we inclini! to think, for tho reasons previously stated, that it will do so, notwithstanding its exclusion from the public treas- JIj PRE 1S82 PRI iiry. In othrr rctpccU tlio cliiiigo wouM hnvo hron of Itlllo practical iniportaiico. 'Micro arv cxtrpincly fuw pcriona in India, m romparcil witli llidfiii In Kn^lnnd omi most Kiiriipcan coiiiitrica, wliu would Imvu mif- fcrrd liy a fall in lliu value of money ; and ({ovcriinicnt coulil liavo rcaillly iiidcmiiillcd liKolf for any lomi It nilKlitthcrcliy liavc incurred. Afiirllicriiul>tlitutlonof Rold fur allvcr will also ho prolialdy brouRlit aljuut by uaiuK gold coina ofleiia value than forinorly. In niunt countrica, for example, koIiI nilKlit iio advantagcoiialy coined into ono-'.ollor piecca. It wonld bo inconven- ient, perhapa, to have gold coins worth loan lluin thia; but of this value their cmplnyincnt wouM Im bunelUliil as well by cconomizini; llio use of silver aa by their bcin^ mora convenient aiul eaaily carried about. The Icsgenod demand for silver in Kuropc and the Vnilod .States, and tlio greater demand for it in India, arising out of the circumstances now nnd previously adverted to, hava contributed to that immcnso cxpi. '- tation of silver to th . Kast to which wu linve idrendy called the reo<),(IOO,(HM), slill that would l>o little more than half the csliinuted proil- uco (i?'.)r),00O,0O0) of IXM; n decline which wonld go far to check any downward tendency, if such tlicrc were, in tho value of gubl. It is alTirnied, indeed, in coin- niimications from Victoria, that the produce of (be gold ticlds in the current year (IH.'i.'i) will exceed their prod- uce in iKit. This, howi^ver, is doiilitriil ; but suppos- ing it to bo the cafe, and Iha^ their produce shonid amount to $.")0,000,000, .ilill that would bo nearly J2.i,000,000 below its amount in IX.V.'. And though it bo ipiito impossible to say whelher the yielrl of tho current your (18.5.')) is destined to increase or fall otVin time to como, our anticipations arc ratlier in favor of a decline. Tho great excitenjent of the gold fields has already pretty well subsided, both in Australia and California. They are found to bo a lottery with many great prizes, bu'. in which notwithstanding the Idniiks very largely predominate. Tho probability, indeed, seems to bo that the deposits of stream gobl will in no lengthened period be comparatively exhausted; and that gold in future wilt have to be principally obtained by tho crushing of quartz rocks, an employment whicli Is rarely found to be productive of more than ordinary profita. Tho supply of silver from Mexico is now (1R5ri) supposed to amount tc from $28,000,000 to ^80,000,000 a year. On tho other hand, however, the supply of tho precioui metals from Iluiila has At- creaaed. On the whole. It may lie coneluded that at present no decline need lie expected in the value of the precious metals. On tho contrary, an Increase of their value would seem to lie more proliable. Most likely, liowev- ef, it will continue almut stationary till ii begins to lio iuHucnced by some new combination of ciremnatancei, — .Vie atiicle I'hukm. Ucfor also to Camfoiixia, (iol.ii, liANKK, (Jiiinaiik; olso /tofiAi fa' JAii/huhc, vols, ill. (tho last essay on the sulijcet by IIaiion Hi .miiih.iit), Iv. v. vi. vii. viii. Ix. X. xl. xii., New York, lBIH-i8f)7. Premium, .svf Inhuuaxi k. Preaa, the Printing. This great cnRlno was of rude coiisiriiclion from the perioil of tho disruvery uf the art of printing, up to the dose of the IHth century, when ninny improvements were made. >Villiam Cax- ton, a mercer of London, had a press set up at West- minster, 1171.— .SToWK'ntVironiV/f. The Karl of Stan- hope's presses were in general use in 180(i. 'I'he prliit- Ing-machiiio was invented by Koenig in IKll, and Applegnth's followed. The Columbian press of Cly- mer .vas produced in 181 1 ; and the Albion press, an improvement on this last, came into use a few years after, rrinling by means of sicnm-macnincry was first executed in Kngland at the Timet oilicc, London, on Alondoy, Novcmlier "in, IHM. Cowper's and Apple- gatb's rollers for distributing tho ink upon the types were brought into use in IH|7. Vast improvemenl.i have been made in tlie I'nllcd States within a few years, both in hand and steam presses. The mo.«t celebrated nianuraclurers proliably are U. lloo & Co., of New York. Their Inrgest presses for iicwspapers are capable of throwing off over 20,000 sheets per hour, which is so much in advance of any presses in Kuropn that they have supplied orders from Paris. Tlie presses of Selli Adams & Co., of Itoston, aro perhaps tho lu>t in tlie world for book printing. Ste article Hooks. Presa-gailg;, thu mime given in Kngland to a di- tiichnient of seamen, who (under tho command ol' ii lieutenant) are empowered, in time of war, to lake niiy sea-faring men, and oblige them to servo on board tln' king's ships. Presa of Sail, signifies os much sail as tho then state of tbo winil, etc., will permit a ship to carry. Prioea. I)y the price of a commodity is meant its value estimated in money, or simply tho quantity of money fcr which it will exchange, Tho price of a com- modity rises when it fetches more, and fulls when it fetches less money. 1. yVi're i|uirc less or more cnpilal and lalor for lis pruiluction, whilo the quantity ie(|iiircd to pro- duce tho others continued stallonaiy, ilsvi.'iie, as com- jiared with Ihom, would, in the first case, fall; and in the second, rise ; and, supposing tho cost of its produc- tion not to vary, its value might bo incroased by a fall- ing oil' in the supply, or by an increase of demand, and conversely. Hut it is of importance to bear in mind that all variations of price arising from any dispropor- tion in tho supply and demand of such commodities an may \tc freely producid in imlefmil0t[uanlilita are tern- portiry only ; while those that are occasioned by changes 1583 PHI In tho roit of their production nre puminmf, nt leant u muuli io ■• tlio cauiu in which thry ori^lnitto. A Koiivritl niournInK occationi a traii«i«iit riu' In tho |irl< it or hUck cloth ; butiup|iosint( that tho runhlon ofwi'itr. ill); liUck w«ro to continue, it« prico would m>t prrmii- nsiilly vary; for lho«o who provlously maniifiirtumd blue and brown clothi, etc., would hoiicolurth iimuu- fucturn only black cloth; and tho kupply IhImk in this way increased to thn lamo extent as the dninand, the price would soltlo nl it! old lovul. llonce tho linport- Kuco of diatinguisliing between a variation nt pri>'i> uri|;inatin)( in a chanKO of fashion or uthor uccidcnliil circumstance — such, for example, as a doilciciit harvPKt —and a variation occasioned by soniii cliuiii^o in tlii^ cost of production. In tho fonnor case, prices will, at no distant period, revert to their ohi level ; iu thn lat- ter the variation will bo lasting. When Iheprice of n freely produced commodity rises or falls, such varhitioii may evidently Iks occasioned either by sunicthin^ nl'- recting its value, or by something alfecting tliu viibiu uf money. Hut when tho generality of coumioditicn rUe or (Ull, tho fair presumption is that thn change is luit in them, but iu tho money with which tlioy nre compared. This conclusion docs not, liMwi^vcr, apply iu all cases ; and wo lieliove that most part of tliat fnll in tho price of commoditlos, which has taken |)lace since the peace, and which has been so generally nscril)ed to a rise in tho value of money, occasioned by n decline in tho productiveness of tho mines, has been cauwil by tho increased productiveness of industry, arising from the abolition of oppressive restraints on commerce, tlic opening of now anil more abundant sources of snppiN-, and tho discovery of now means and improved methods of production. 2. I'rice of monopolizeii CommaVlien, — Kxclusivo, however, of the commodities now alluded to, there is a considerable class whose producers or holders enjoy cither uu abiolule or a jmrtiul monopoly of the supply. When duch is tho cose, prices dep'Uid entirely or prin- cipally on tho i)roportioit between the su|iply anil de- mand, and aro not, liablo to bo inlluenccd, or only In a secondary degree, by changes in the cost of produclicn. .Vntiquo statues and gems; the pictures of tho great musters; wines of a peculiar flavor, produced iu sniiili <|iiantitlos, in particular situations; and a few otiior iirtlcles, exist under .vhut may bo called absolute mo- nopolies; their supply can not bo increased ; and tlunr ;nice must, therefore, depend entirely on tlio competi- tion of those who ni -.y wish to buy them, without be- ing in tlio slightest degioo iuducnccd by tho cost of tlieir production. Monopolies are sometimes establish- ed by law; as wlun tho power to supply tho market with a particular 01 >lclc is made over to one Individual or society of indivii'.uals, without any limitalion of the price at which it miy be sold : which, of course, enables lliose possessed c'. 'he monopoly to exact tho highest price for it that tho competition of tlie Ijuycrs will af- ford, though such prico may exceed the cost of produc- tion in any conceivable degree. Monopolies of this sort used to bo common in Kngland, particularly in the reign of Klizabcth ; I ut they were linally nlwlished l)y the famous act of t^i '21 Jac. I. c. 3 — an act which, by establishing tho fi cdom of competit'on in all liusl- nesses carried on ut home, has been productive cf tlie greatest advantage. — 'a uu airiiuiil ii( » vdmhI i/f •ImmiI I"" liin< I'ltrtli'ti, iiiiik- ln( • vii)itKii from titliila in Ixmilon anil Imik, Imvi' •iiiiMiiiUiil In lliu uliiiinl liiirt/illlilK mini of X'Kl.lHNl! A tlil|i,iif hIiIiIi tlinHliiiln iiial anil iiuHil illil mil niMiiiiiit (u XUim), ■•riiKil -'liirlMtf lli« Ull«r iKrlml of llm wiir * liriMi fr«i||lit ii( t*ii,niit im a vo^aKu ttnm llonli'aiix to I>iiii|iiii «ii>l li«< k ! riw lrf\u)il lit InillMo from UmhIihi tolliurijiiliiiiiii|i|iHi> Hol al iiri'Miili'iirwil If/. 8|Hiiiiiil ; wliuroa* It aniuiiMlml, al llin|«rliHl ri'forn'il lu, loaliuut U. lUL—Zlit/li mill hiui I'ltim, Vil til. |i. 'iVi. b, I Hjliii III II If/' I'll/It lit I'rtmt. —It la iiiiiiiM'Kxarvto illlalu un a li>|i|i' mi ranilllar l«, Mllliilraw from llm iMialiiraa, 'llii' riw ill llm iirl'K of a«v>tral of lliKarllilva In llm nnnrx- cil lalilu l» |irliii'l|iallx l<> Im aaurllwit in llm Inironao of lantlioii, 'llii>a« •iNluiiii'iila hIM (iroliglily aiillicn lo KIvu uiir ri'ailora a ki iii'ral IiIi'M of llm |>rin<'l|ili'a wliiili ■ti'lurnilnii Ilia valiio of loinmoillllia. To u" 'k'l'piT iiilu llm •uljai'l Moiilil ln»i'lvK IK In illnnmAlima that Ix'luiiK III |iuliili«| Hiohiiinr. iiii'l Rri' niiionif lliu inoat iiilriruln ill lliut Milriii «. 'i III) liillnrnrii of apfrulalion on |irl<'<'a iiiuat Hiil, liuwovi'r, Im (iNanil uvvr In a work of llila Mirl, (I, hijlutnn iif Hpriiilnlinn iin /'rlrm. — H yrry Tim\y lia|i|ivna tlial >'rilmr llm ni liial i>n|>|>ly of any niiixli'a of iiro'liiiii III uklonaitu ili'maml, or llm Inlcnaity of llmt ilrniail'l, lail \m naailjy innaaiirKil. Kvory Iraiin- ai'lluii in ttlili li an linllyliliial Iniya |irii or ll'^a iliklanl, lliat Im will U nliln to ilia|ioan of it with a iirulil ', anil llm miirow iif llm aiiri nlallon ((('potnlii, It ia uviclviil, on llm nklll hIiIi wIiIiIi Im liaK ciillmntoil tlio I'IrL'unialaiKw* llial niiiatilnlcrniinn llm fnliiri' |>ri('i' uf III* i-oiiiiiHiilily, ll followa, llmri'fiiri', lliat in nil hlijlily I onini«r>'i»l I'onnlrli", *lmri' innrrhiiiiln an' |ioii- laaM'il of laru» ■ ii|iilHla, anil wlmra limy nri> Ipft lu lie Kiiiili'il in llm MMi of llii'iii liy llmir ohii ilii« rntinn nnil furinlKlili llm |illii'a of i'i/niiiioillll(>a will freiiiinitly lie wry mni'li iiilluoiiiKnl, not iimrply hy llm actnnl ocriir- ri-nrii of I iiaiitfia In llm Ni'iiiatonii'il ri'Inlloii ofllii' aiip- |ily anil iri'iini«lNnin afli'illiiK llm imrlUiilnr ilc- ••'ri|itiou of i'oniiiiiii)llli<» In wlilili Im ilcnla. lie cii- ditavuratooMain, liy nmatia of an nKtiMinlri'iurriiKiinnil- ciici-, tlm varliual ami linnt Miitlmiillr liiforinalion with re»|)|ily of mm nrlliln liiiil railed, or Hint, 0Hiiit( lu I liunuK* of lualilon, or to tlin a|i<'iiliiK of new iilianiiula of I'uininiiri'o, llm ili'inanit for It liad ln'in in- cruaaiMl, liu Honlil nioal llki ly he dlapoMKl lo Iiitihiik n buyor, ill «nli''i|mllim of (irolHliiK liy llm rim of price, wliieli, uiiilur llm rlri'lltiialaiiiea of lli'n enae, could linril- ly fuil of lakiuK plaie) or, If Im weru a Imlder of the arlli'lii, Im u.iiilil ri'fiian lo tinrt with II, unlena fur a bli{lmr priiii llian )m Hoiild pri'vloiialy liavo ncrepied. Jf thu (iiUrl|l((iiHi'.i rKi'i'lfi'd liy Ihn rnvritinnt liiid licen ufauiiilrary ilcurll'lion-'lf, forexainplp, Im had learn- mlllmtllioitrliili waatiow iirodmed wltliKreaterfiirili- ly, or tliiit llii>rii tfaa « fnllliiK off In llm demand for it, cumwd liy it i imiiije of faalilon, or l>y llm shiittin|r up of aoiiie uf IliM iiiarkRia IiikIiIiIi It had prnvloiiKly been adniiiluil - -Im hoiiM Iin«ii afUwl dllTerenlly : in ihis cate lie wuiilil iiavii «nlii'l|iMli-d » fall of prices, and would •illiur liavu iImIIiiuiI (lurihaiiliiK Ihn article, except at a rtdui*i| rata, or lmv« nmloavored to gel rid of it, »np- potliig liiiii lii Im a liolilor, hy ofTerlnK It at a lower price. In coniu|iMiM'a in mm cnae la muili' III liitlaiire a dellelency lu aiiolhrr, ami the auppiv la illatriliiited with u di'Kreu uf atendlneaa mid rrKiiinrilv that could hardly Imvu liivn dceomd nllaiiialile. It U olivloua, from what hna now been atated, Hull Ihiiae who Indlacrliiiinatuly londiinu nil nirta of apec- nlalive enKaHvnienta have imvrr rellrclod on llm lir cuniataucra Inciiloiit to the pioM'i ullnn of every uiider- lakiuK. lu Iriilh ami reullty they are nil apeculnliuiia. 'ilieir undertnkera niimt hick furwnrd to perliuia more or Ivaa dialani ; anil their aucipclty with Hhich they have eaiiinaled the proli- aliilily of certain eveuta occurring, aud the inlluenre nhich they have aarrilird lo them. Kpeculaliuu la, therefore, really only another name fur fureal)(ht ; und IhoUKh fortnnea have anmrlliuea lieen made by a lucky lilt, the chnrnctcr of a aucceaaful apeculalor la. In Ihc vnat minority of inataiicea, due lo him only who hna akillfully devlaed the meauH of elVi'ding llm end he had in view, und who hiia oulatrippuil Ilia competilori In the Judgment with which be hna looked into futurity, and appreciated tlin operation uf cniiaen proiluoinu dia- lant ell'ecta, Kven in the wcureat liuainraaea, audi an nKricultnre and manufncturea, there la, and luiiat lie, H Kreut deal of apeculntion. An uulookcd-1'or chniiKc of aeaaon frequently diaappolnia the apparently ronton- niile expectatioiia of Ihoan who underlaku the forniiT: wliili) the cf{ually cnpricioiia vni'lnliona of fHahion liiivi to bo encounlered by Ihoaii eiixiiKed in Ihu latter; iiml each la, iH'aidira, liable lo be affecti'd liy le)(talative en- actmonta, by new dimoverlea In the nrta, and by iiii endleaa variety of ciri umituucea which it la nlviiyn very ditlictill, nnd aomelimea ijulte Impoaaible, to Ion - see. On the whole. Indeed, the ^aina of the underluk- cra arn ao inyuated that Ihoae who carry Ihcm on oli- Iniu, at nn nveniKe, Ihu common and ordinar}' rnle nl' prollt. Hut the Inequality in the Knina of Individual- is moat commonly very KrenI; and wliilu the aupcrim lad, iudualry, or );ood rurtune uf aomo enable lliem to reali/.o largo furtnnea, llm want of diaccmmenl, the less vigilant attention, or the bad fortune of othera, fn - qucntly rediicea them from the situation of capitalisl.s lu that of li;iiorcra. The groat cotton spccniallon of 182o look its rise partly and chielly from a aupposed deliciency in tin supply of cottun, pnrtly from an idea that there waa a grealiy inercaacd demand for raw cotton in thia cuiiii- try and Ihu ronlinent, and partly from a belief tlial the stocks on hand were unuaiially low. Now it ia ol - vioiis that the sncceas of Ihoae who embarked in lliis spcculatiuu depended entirely on two cireunistuiiccs : \h,,Jirst, thnt they were right in the fundamciitai »u|i- positiuu un whicli the wliolu apeculution rested, thai the supply uf cotton was no longer commensurate willi the demand; and,iii'c»Ni/, that their conipctiliun did iii>l raise the price so high us lu diminish the consumption by the manufacturers in too great a degree to enalib lliem to take otftbo quantity to be actually brought In niurkct. If the merchants had been well founded In their siippa»itiuna, and if their compctitiun bad n»t raised thu price of cotton loo bigh, thu spcculatlnii wuuld certainly have been successful. Hut, instcail uf being well founded, the bypotliesis on whicli the whole thing rested was perfectly vislonarj'. There was no dclicicncy in the supply of cotton, but, on the contrary, a great superabundance ; nnd though then' had been such n dclicioncj', the excess lo which llie price was carried must have checked coiisumplion so much as to occasion a serious decline. The falling olV in the imports of cotton from America in 1821 seems to have been tlio source of the delusion. It was sup- posed that this falling oif was not accidental, but that it woa a consequence of the price of cotton having been for a series of years so low as lo bo inadequate lo de- fray tlio expenses of its cultivation. Tlic result showed I'ut IJM I'ltl lull"- IIIB'I' j.lv l^ Urilx I, Unit r »|n > • ho 1 Ir iiuilir- intliin.'. H llllltl' r».\y "11 le (iro)'- itUii'liii' llUill 1'. Ill; mill * Ui< k) », In till who lii»» III lie linil plltori 111 fiiliirllv, uclnn ill«- n, iueh »» niunt lie, fur I'liniiK'' lly res'o'i- lio (oriuiT '. iihloii liiiv" imiiT! iiii'i lulntlvn en- anil liy i>» I \» nlvnyx ililc, t(i ftin- le unilortak- ihcm on ol'- imr)' "•'"' ""^ f IniUvliliii'l- I the diilicvliii [irnt, till' li'^- ollii'", fri - )f c«lilti>ll>'» th«l Ibli e«l«uUllon w«* niml rrrtmonui. And b«- | aril rllfftoilon of «nim.l Imlrurtlon, M«m to hn llm nu\f iliUi, In enlorlnu on lli« •|i««uUtlo», no tUaiitluii wa< iii««n< l.v »lil|it (ikI ll»l)- louhlrli'i. from wliUli onlv ' proiliull'voof nr.'»t nuilomtl »« »«ll •« |.rl»»lo l.i.«, f«n •lioul l,|iH>,ii(K)ll.ii. or.otlnn wr.Mil,i«|ii,ain IWU, Imu ; Im i'llli..r nlivlntail or iiiltlKiiltil. Ihu tiTwu lOhM- from whlrli no U'M tliitn i:i,HO(l,lKiO llm. wur* ubuliiiiit 1 i|iii.ik i,i piik ti liH|inivlil«nt ■|iiiciiUtli>iiii Im-Iok alwayt In Ifii! Thl« iiMloiiKiil-liir importatlun wa» of UmK fur nion' liijiirlou* to tliu |>artli'» l... !...._ _ ■ t . .■ • ' • . ' ulatnr*; anil, i-imi|>I«i|oi'n<'o prlmipally of the eHtrnniu illlHiiilly ■ f nninrtaliiliiK thu triio utat illnilolnli, liiilh In fri'<|ii«ii<'y ami forrr, ai'i'i>rillii|{ at Ih* trim priiii'Ipli'a of I'lininii'rco tomn to Im iH'llir iimlrr- »liiml. lint, wliulonT liiriioviiiii-mo may m i««limally How from tlnin, It U aliimilnnlly plain timl, limtcail of In'iiiK li'on'iii'il, it Hiiiilil lio vi'ry Mimli incrKnuml, wrr« nny rvitralnla iiiipuiiMl on thu fri'riluni of a'i'iitun'. Wlii'n thu alti'iilliin of niiiiiy ImlivliiiiaU U <'tuiiiii lliiu of »|idiil«ilnii -wliiii Ihfy prmwulB U o( tho fait with r««|ii'rt to thu Kroiimi* iin wlilrh an | ni a liiii(im«ii, niiil an, ropuimllilii in tin ir own prlvata aliumlant or a iliMlcicnt nopply, or an lin'ri'suluK or ill'- ' ' ' crimilnK ilnniami, may li« I'xpi'rliol. IIiiIi'h can Inn, lie of no iiirvlco; rvtiry thln« ili'pi'inU ujion tho lalint, tai't, anil knowlnil)(« of tlm party. Tin' i|iii'atlons to liu •olveil ara all practical oncn, varyInK in cvory cuno from each other 1 the nklll of the merchant lichiK uviiici"! hy the moilo In which hn comlnctt hii Inolmmi umicr noch clrcumnlunco*, or hy hlit snKacity In ili«i'oviirln({ om. Int( evontH, ami appmcialiii); thi.ir character ami tho extent of tiicir Inllucncu. I'riiirlty, hot, uliovo all, ac- curacy of lntelllK<'ni'e, Ih In anch cane* of tho ulniu.it cunaeiincnco. Without wnll-niilhciiMcatcii ihtia to K' upon, every «tcp tukon may only Icuil to error. Tho Inntance*, Imlouil, In which Kpcculallon.*, apparenlly contrlvcil with thn Kroatcnt Jiiilumrnt, have omlcil In liankrnplcy ami rntn, from a ilcllclcncy In thli coiiiitial roi|uiiiitc, are no very numeroui, that every uiin must lio aci|ualnteil with them. Ilunco tho Importance of mt- Inctinu acute and cantlonn correapomlunts ; ami home, alto, tho necettity of ninturuly wii^hinK lliclr report.*. fiirtnneii for any orrort they may coninilt thi y anpilra a kniiwl«ilK« of the varioim clrciini>luiM'< liiilui'McinK price*, anil Kive hy their comliinatlont a nlcaiiliieM to tliiin which It It eaay to mo cmilii not lie altiiltieil hy any oilier menu*. It U inalerial, Inn, tn l„.nr in iiilnil, nt wan proviiiiiKly ttalcii, that many, pirliiipi it nilxht he Kaiil imiV, of thnao wlin pro<» >» eu:,'eriy inlu tlie market wlieii nny new i liannel of eomnierro in nponeil, or when any coimiileralile riM, uf price it anlicipatnil, are not niorchantt, luit itrrmint niitaKi'it In oilier liiinl. neiKoa, or living', perliap'*, on llxeil liicuiin'*, wlio ipoc. niato in tiio Impo of auiiilenly increii-ln^ tlicir fortune, Thit tcmlency to KamMlii){ telilmn falK to hreuk out upon "luh occaniont; hut fortunately thono are only of cuiiij' iratively raru uccurromo; ami In the oniinary coui>e of alliiirt, inercunlllo iipeculull'Mii are h^ft to Ik comlocteil liy tlioio wiio aro familiar »lili liuiinont, and who, In oNcrliiiK thciiiiii'lvi.'t to oi|u*IUn the variation! uf prlcu rnuAoil hy varialiunt of cilinato ami orKoaitoni, anil to illttrlliute the supply uf pruiluco pruportinnally and of vndcavorinK, l>y tlio aid of inrorniHtion Kleaneil i to tho ellectivo ilomaml, ami with to minli proviilmc* from every authentic oicexallilo lourcc, to ascertain ; that it may not at any time ho u holly exhaunteil, per. how far they may bo ilepomled upuii. When a few ; form riiiicliont that arc in thu hi^'liettile^n'O important loudlii); merchants purcbuitu in anticipation of an ad- < and licnelicial. Thoy arc, it in true, aciuatud only hy Vance, or toll in anticipalior. of a fall, the tpeiiilatioi' < a ilotlro to advance their u»ii inleresl.H; hut tho rotulti it often piithed beyond nil roatonuldo liniilt hy llio op- i of their oporationt are not less advantaKcout than thota eriiliunt of tbueo who are iuHuenced by iinilutlon only, ' of tho u;;riciiitiiriiit w liu i^ivot greater fortilily to tba niid who havn never, perhapt, rctlocteil fur a moment ! toil, or of tlio mechanist wiio invcnln now and mora on the grounds on which a variation of price is antici paled. In speculation, as in most other thiii^t, ono individual derives conlUlenca from another. Such an one purdiaHes or sells, not hocauso bo hat any really accurate inrorinuliun at to the state of tlio ilemund and supply, but bcoanto some one else bat douo no before bim. The original impulto is thus rapidly extended ; and oven those who are sutitlicd that a tpeculalion, in anticipation of a ri»o of prices, it uimafc, and that tliero will be a teaoil, not nnfieiiuontly udventuro, in tho ex- pectation that thoy will be able to withdraw before the r.'coll hat liogun. It moy, we believe, speaking penerally, bo k;d down at a sound practical rule to avoid liaving any thing to do with a speculation in which iiiaiiy have already en- gaged. Tho competition of tlie speculators teldum fails speedily to render an adventure that might have boon originally safe extremely hazardous. If a commodity happen to lie at an unusually reduced price in any par- ticular market, it will rise tho moment that dill'orent buyers appear in the tield ; and supposing, on the oth- er hand, that it is fetching an unusually high price, it will fall, perhaps, far beluw tho cost of production, as toon as supplies begin to be poured in by dillcrent merchants. Whatever, therefore, may bo tho success of tiiose who originate a speculation, those who enter into it at an advanced period are almost sure to lose. To have been preceded by others ought not, in such matters, to inspire confidence ; on the contrary, it ought, unless there bo something special in tho case, to induce every considerate person to decline intcrfor- powerful niachlnes, Thuso deniruiit uf delaileil iiiriirniation at to tho pricei of commodities in (Ireiii llrilaiii, in remoter ages, may ciinsiiH tlio elnbori^tu tables in the ;ld volume of , Sin K. M. Kukn's work on tiie Vnnr; and tli« In volume of .M.M I'liiiiiMiN's AnnnU of ('nmnwr '•. An.rrii.NOT'l TMes of Ancient Coins, ll'i/i/A'i, Mm irra, I'Accii, tie., are well known; but the statements are not nucb to bo depended upon. The Trttift tie Mitroloni: of M, r.viiTiiN, lio, I'arit, 1,\.), it tho best wor on this curious and dlllicult sulijoct. Sie nl.'O vob ines v. vl. TiMiKK o« /Villi, London, 1857; Hint's Mirrlianti' .l/»(/ij;iH(', ill. ,Sii.'J(Ilii.iiiii;rii); (^imrfir/y Ai'n>u',xxix. •.'II; .Imin'i'dtt .Umiimic, IHUli, 101; Jlnnktn' Maga- zine, New Vuik, IM'iT, IH-'JI. "Conslileriilplr iineasincM IwuinB to prevail hi Tarit at tht onornious rise tluit has taken (iliiro within tho last two year* In till) inirea of fooj auJ Imlijlot;. It Is not only thai this slate of thliiRt drives away the cmwils who a few yours ago u.-ril to resort to i'arU to crononiize, ami who tpetit tin- luensc sums in that capital, but, what it of far more import- ance 111 a social ami political point of view. It crontoa tufTer- ln(», ami, coiisci)uently, discontent among the working clauea.. In all t!ic capitals of Kiiro|io, thoro has been of late a similar leiidoiu y to an Increase In iirlcos, partly caused, no doubt, by the unrertalnty cn'ated by thn lato war, and by tho with- drawal of larnenumbert of able-bodied men from tho ordinary pursuits of agrloilturo and Indiisti^, to swell tho ranks of th* standing armies kept up by tho four great military monarch- ies of I-'rance, Russia, Austria, and I'riitala. Perhaps, alao, the speculative haWto of the present generation have had some share In producing this rtsult" Tho aliovo is from a late Ix>ndon paper. The same ing with it. The maintenance of the freedom of inter- ! remark is pertinent to new circumstances in tho United cour le between ditfcrent countries, ond tho more gen- 1 States. The advanced prices charged for all commodl-. 5H PRI 158^ PRI tiM 'Where labor Is involved in their production, and where new machinery and new appliances can not' M xised, are unerring results of an increased volume of the precious metals. Aotording to estimates made by stntlsticul writers who have examined the subject crit- ically, the increase of the precious metals during the six years, 1H51-Iy5fl0.000 27,500,000 1851 41.'.BO,000 4,126,000 46,37^000 isaa 68,600,000 6,860,000 04,350,000 1853 (i.',ri(K),o«o C,'.','A0OO 0S,76O,(KM 1864 Trt,600,000 7,060,000 77,880,000 1866 67,000,000 6,700,000 78,700.000 ISStt Total... TO,000,UuO 7,000,000 77,000,000 $4O'^.81O,0OU $40,281,000 $448,091,000 Product 3f gold in Ci ilifornia and A ustralia com- bined : Yf«Tl. 1848- '49 .. . Eipurt. $8,'0«0,0()0 M>r(in>l Aildltlun. $8110,600 '" ToUI. $8,808,000 ISfiO {t,\ooo,en() 2,,'>00.(100 27,6(H),000 1861 46,T00 TotHl . . !(i«72.(;40.iJflO $aT,2l4.(MMI $73»,»04,00O At llie same time, the rate of interest lias increased from nn average one of 3 ond SJ to 6 and 7 per cent. ; and tlic active demand for capital throughout Europe, in supportof heavy undertakings abroad and at home, will probably maintain the current rates for some years to conic. Wo see no present indications of a plethora of capital. AVo thinlt it will appear that a greater rise, pro rata, has taken place in prices within this short period. In our own country, the prices of market produce, labor, and materials requiring labor for their production, have all increased from thirty to fifty, and in some instances to one hundred per cent. In articles of food in the London markets, the changes in prices between 1851- 1857 are sliown in the following sunmiary, which we take from "Tookk's HUtory nf I'rirea, during the j-ears 1848-1850," just puldishec! in I..ondon: Article!. Coffee Sugar Rum, .Tatiiiics . , Tobacco Butter Beef (8 lbs.) . . . . Reef, prime . . . . Mutton Mutton, prime.. l>ork Silk, raw, lbs. . . Flax, tons Wool ('J4(Jll)a.> . Logwun,! Seal oil Olive oil Palm oil Tallow I.i!ather, lbs. , . . Baltpetiv, rwt, , . Ashes, I'uarl.... Copper Iron, tuni Iron, .Swodlib . . Lead, tons Hteel, 8weHii)i . . Tin, tons J»nu«ry, 1861. 53 a6Sil. 20. a 28* 20 a 32(1. 41 a \M. 18 a 80a 28 rtSO 82 a 86 84 a 42 44 a 46 30 a 42 n ol7«. 88 a 46 X14 o — 70 a80«. jCBT a — 48 a — 2» a — 861 o- 12 alAil. 27» a 29J», 80f a 81 i:S4 o- 51 a lUo — UM- 16 a — 84 o — jAnuATy, 1854. ~53 a 60«. 21 a 6.V 42 n40rf, 21a 8i(. 104 n — 43 n4« 48 n60 48 olM 60 a 62 4i n44 121 a 161 86 n62 161 a 16 110 a — 43 a — 63 n- 4:) rt — 60 o — 16 ,(2.t 27 a 31 29 a-r 12a o — lija — 121 o _ 231 n — 171a — 126 a — Fab 1857 68 a 67 30 a 40 44 a 46 Ball 112 a — 40 a 46 48 a 60 48 a 62 54 (I 68 4t a 62 16 a 25 62 — 87 a — llOa — 6O0 — 61 - 47 a — 62 a — 24 a 81 87a46 46a — ia')a — Sa- ls a— «ao — 2O0 — 148 a — These facts are important, as demonstrating the progressive advance of prices according to the increased bulk of precious matals. The same result occurred in the centiir}' following the discovery of gold in America (1600-lt!00),. although the increased prodnclion was far 1ms than it Is now. Rents, wages, family supplies, labor generally — all advanced fully one hundred per cent. ; and the probability is that an equal (or greatei) ratio of in:reBse will take place between 1850 and 1860. It is true that the present accumulation of precious metals is dittused among a much larger population and over a more extended region of country than iii the 16th or 17th centuries; but similar causes will produce similar results, and labor will secure for itself a remu- neration commensurate with the increased expenses of living. Fluctuations in Privet. — Mr. Tookc, an English writer of some celebrity, has lately added two volumes on the prices of 1848-185B. From these volumes (published in London in 185") we extract the following summaiy view of the changes in prices since the discoveries of gold in California : Summuiy if Conclusions with Jfejerence to the Prices 0/ Cvmmodities and Utiite o/J\ade, 1848-'66, — Without attempting to include in a summary of conclusions all the inferences which arise from the survey of the past few years, we present the following statements as set- ting forth those results which are best established and most important, viz. : That as regards the great ar- ticles of import, such as colonial and tropical produce and commodities largely employed in this country as raw materials of manufacture, the course of prices during the nine years, 1848-'5C, may be described in general terms, as follows, viz. : During 1848 and 1849 there was a general, and, in several important in- stances, a strong tendency to lower prices; that in 1850, partly in consequence of larger consumption and partly in consequence of actual or apprehended failures of supply, prices sensil)ly, and, in some cases, mate- rially advanced ; that in 1851 there was again an ex- tensive and severe decline, attributal)le almost wholly to excess of supply ; that in 1852 there was a manifest tendency toward recovery ; that in the first nine months of 1853 the upward tendency of the previous year readied its highest point, establishing and maintaining for nine montlis a range of prices considerably higher than had prevailed fur a long period ; that from the autumn cf 1853 to tlie close ot 1854, there was a sensi- ble reaction from the previous high rates, except as re- gards some of the articles imnicdialcly afl'ccted by oper- ations, or tho commissariat consumption of the war; and that in 1855 and 1856 the markets were quiet and firm, exhibiting only such fluctuations as arose out of ordinary changes in supply and demand. In a future part wo shall inquire how far the fluctuations of prices now referred to wero connected with the influx of the new gold. That the first eflccis of the California discoveries of 1848 were felt in England in 1850 and 1851, and mani- fested themselves in the increased demand for Brilieh and foreign articles suitable for tlie export trade to the United States; that tho same effects were still more sensibly felt in the course of 1852; that in 1853 tho consumption of British goods in California and the United States generally had become so large and rapid as to counteract almost entirely, as regards England, ony piejudicial eflTect upon the balance of trade of the vast imports nf grain, rendered necessary liy the seri- ous failure in theseislandsof the harvest of 1853; that the same large American demand for Ilritish exports continued through 1854 and 1865, and had prevail- ed through 18,56, interrupted but casually by the ex- tensive failures and discredit which prevailed in tho United States and California during portions of the years 1854 and 1866; and that, as the general result of the trade lietwcen England and the United States since 1850, the absorption of Hritish exports either in California itself or in those regions of the North Amei-ican continent to which the supplies of California gold are chiefly sent in the first instince, has increased so rapidly as to render necessary a icistant and large transmission of the precious metals froi.^ America to England. That the effects of tho Australian discoveries of the pm 1587 vm anmmor of 1861 were felt in thia country in a strildng n'.anner early in tlic following year (1852), inanifeating thenisclvvs in a sudden and large expansion of the stream of emigration from these islands, and in a sud- den and large expansion in the shipment of nearly all descriptions of commodities ; that the demand for ships hence arising could not, in the then condition of the mercantile marine, be readily supplied ; ann the con- sequence was an enormous increase of the rates of freight, and a demand for new ships so urgent, that considerably higher wages were at once conceded in all the ship-building trades; that the same urgent de- mands for Australia continued in the early part of 1853, were considerably moderated in 1854, still more reduced in 1865, but in 1856 were again marked by consideralde activity. That the movement for higher wages succ jssfiilly commenced in the autumn of 1852 ; in the ship-building trades became almost universal in the tirst half of 1858; and previous to September, in that year, had led to a very general addition of from 12 to 20 per cent, to the wages current in 1851 ; but that the elTect of thu bad harvest of 185!), the war of 1851-55, and the glut of the Australian markets, was to produce u considerable reaction from this advance, especially in the factory districts. That the lirst iuiil immediate ctfect of the high prices of colonial and other imported articles in 1852 and 185.'), and of tlio high prices and largo demand for manufactured goods in the same years, was to occasion vigorous efforts and a large expenditure of capital, with a view to opening up new tields of supply, and creating extended means of pro- duction ; and that it is principally to the operation of these causes that the steady and frequently declining course of prices since 1853 is to be attributed. That as far as trustworthy evidence can be obtained, there are no facts in the experience of the last nine years which justify the conclusion that in England the fluctu- ation of prices, the course of trade, or the increased de- mand for goods arising out of the large exports to America and Australia, ware immediately preceded by or connected with changes in the amount of the aggro- gate outstanding circulation of bank-notes. In other words, all the evidence available to us points distinctly and uniformly to the conclusion tliat the fluctuations of the bank-note circulation were determined and regu- lated by the consequences flawing from previous appli- cations of capital and credit in particular modes. That further, in a great number of speciflc instances, it can be shown conclusively that fluctuations of price of the most important kind, and in the largest markets of England, took place either without tho occurrence of any change whatever in the bank-note circulation or contemporaneously with the occuircnce of a change the precise opposite of that which on a priori grounds, or on tho grounds on which the currency theory is built, would have been expected to precede or accompany tho particular alteration in the markets. That neither is there any such coincidence between variations in the rate of interest and variations in the markets for produce, as to justify tlio inference of a direct connection between them in the relation of cause and eflect. That the first effect of tho gold discoveries on the financial condition of England was the remark- able and prolonged depression in the rates of interest and discount, whicji prevailed during tho twelvemonth preceding the spring of 1853; that this elfcct on the rate of interest was the immediate consecjucnco of an excessive accumulation, principally in the Hank of En- gland, of the early remittances from California and Australia; and that the 'nlluence produced by these accumulations on opinion and credit was greatly ex- tended and aggravated by the maintenance at the Dank of England of a rato of discount so low as 2 per cent., from April, 1852, to January, 1853. That the rise of tbd rate of discount which commenced in January, 1853, and has been maintained during the subsequent three years, is to bo traced in its origin and continu- ance to extended demand for ropital for the purpose of new, distant, and costly enterprises, directed cither to the construction of public works, to the extension of old and introduction of new processes, or to the ex- ploration of new fields for the supply of commodities ; and that, so far as wo can judge from recent experi- ence, the absorption of capital for these and other ob- jects becomes more rapid and extensive with every suc- ceeding year. That the interruption to tho trade of England occa- sioned by the Russian war of 1851-'55 was compara- tively slight, and for four reasons, viz.: 1. Because the theatre of war was in a remote part of the east of Eu- rope; 2. Because the enemy had practically no navy that could molest our commerce ; 3. Because the raw materials previously obtained from Uussio still con- tinued to arrive through neutral ports or were readily replaced by imports from India and elsewhere; and 1, lastly, because the invention of the telegraph, th« txistence of steam, and the enormous resources of our me.'cantila marine and postal services, enable us to accomplish in a faw weeks' operations what, at tho commencement of tho centurj-, would have occupied a long series of months. That further, in addition to and far more powerful than any of tho five causes just enumerated, was tho eftcct of the continued influx of gold during 1854 and 1856— but especially during tho latter portion of 1855, in averting from England and from France the extreme financial pressure and peril which, in the absence of that influx, must inevitably have been produced by the necessity of providing largo and constant remittances of gold to tho seat of war; and must inevitably have placed entirely out of ques- tion tho maintenance of the restrictions of tho Bank Chart Act of 1844, and perhaps have even imperiled the maintenance of the act of 1819. That during the years 1848 and 1849, and part of 1850, tho losses and discredit which fell with crushing force on a largo portion of the middle classes involved in the railway expenditure, did, beyond question, pro- duce some important cflcct in limiting the consumption of commodities. That, on the other hand, it was a direct consequence of the railway expenditure of tho years 1848, 1841), and 1850, that the working classes were provided with fair employment during a period of interrupted trade, and it was also a direct conse- quence of the cheapnesss of food, and tho low rango of general prices which prevailed to tho year 1852, that the working classes were able to command, by means of their wages, a larger amount of sustenance and com- fort than had been within their reach probatdy at any former jiciod of tho century.— Tooke's lliatory of I'rices, 1887. Price-current, a list or enumeration of the vari- ous articles of merchandise, witti their prices, tho du- ties (If any) payaMe thereon when imported or ex- ported, with the drawbacks occasionally allowed upon their exportation, >te. Lists of this description arc published periodically, generally onco or twice a week, In most great commercial cities and towns. — For ex- amples, see the articles Genoa, Havbb, Thik-stk, etc. in this work. Pride of China. The ^felia azedarach, or Prido of China, is supposed to have been originally a native of Persia, where it was known as long ago as the year 980, by Avicenna, an Arabian physician, who noticed the venomous principle which resides in its fruit; but some botanists arc of the opinion that it is also indig- enous to Florida and the United States, or at least has become so from habit: for it is found there growing wild in tho forests, and attains its fullest magnitude. It is propagated for ornament or use in all the warm countries of the civilized world. It is also cultivated in conservatories In the temper.ite and colder parts of Europe snd America, and even there it often flowers, and ripens its fruit. Propertiea and C/«e»,— Tho wiod of the azedarach is PRI 1588 PRI of s reddish color, ana is organized in the distribution of its Abres similar to thoee of tlie asli, 1 1 is sufficient- ly strong and durable to be employed in civil arclii- tecture, and is adapted to various uses in the mechanic arts. It has already been employed for pulleys, which in Europe are usually made of elm, and in America of aih. It is said to make good fuel. The flcxliy part of the fruit, like that of the olive, yielil;. a fixed oil, which is l)ittcr, and is considered as antlielmiiitic, and a narcotic stimulant. The leaves are universally used in Indiii fur poultices, iind botli the flowers and seeds are stimulant. The berries, though said by the Ara- bian physician, Avicenna, to be poisonous, and the pulp of which was mixed with grease, fur the purpose of killing rats and dogs, are often eaten by children in the South without injurious effects. According to Mr. Royle, however, the fruit is considered as poisonous Kben used in large doses. The liark of the root, w hen green, has a bitter, nauseous taste, yielding its virtues to boiling water, and may bo employed as a cathartic or emetic, and is considered as un efficient vermifuge, and also may be used with advantage in interniitlents. In Persia, an ointment is made, for the cure of some cutaneous eruptions, by mulling the leaves with lard. It is also said that a kind of toddy is obtained by fer- menting the sap of young and vigorous trees. The nuts are often bored by monks, and strung into beads. Hence the names of Bead-tree, and Palemottn di iSan Donunico. — Uhownk's J'reet of America. Primage and Average. I'rimage is a charge in addition tu the freight. It was originally intended as a gratuity to the caplain for Ids particular care of the goods, and is sometimes called hat-money ; but it now belongs to the owners or freighters by charter-party of the vessel, unless by special agreement the whole or portion of it is assigned to the captain. It is collected with the freight. The rate or manner of making this charge depends chiefly upon the custom of the depart- ment of trade in which the ship is engaged. Very commonly it is a rate, as 5, 10, or even 15 per cent., upon the amount of the freight. In some trades it is a rate per hogshead, etc., and in some cases it is not allowed, the word primage being canceled or omitted, and the words in full being added to the stipulated rate of the freight, as has been noticed in speaking of the forms of bills of lading. The average referred to in the bill of lading is the liability to general contribu- tion for making good any damage which has been oc- casioneil by any step necessary for general preserva- tion. This forms what, is called a "general average," and the notice of it is introduced into the bill of lading tu avoid any doubt as to lialiility on the part of 'he consignee or claimant of the goods. — Hee Insukakce — Shii'S, and Smiitino. Prince Edward Island. I.at. N. 4C° and 47" 10'; long. W. G2° and do"; area, 2134 square miles; length about 13j miles ; and breadth from 4 to 'M miles. The island of Prince Edward, formerly called St. John's, is situated in a recess, on the west side of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and is separated from New Brunswick and Nova Scotia by the Strait of Nor- thumlierland, which nt its narrowest part is only nine miles wide. Cupitiil, (.'harlotte-Town. The colony is divided into tlirci' connlies: viz., Queen's, 15,4'2&; Prince, l.^,142; King's, 32,111; and its total popula- tion in 1848 was (>2,('>78. The population at several periods was as follows : 1802 20071 182S M.600 187 9!),!!n6 1883 81i,l70 1841 47.133 1848 •2,1)78 The quantity of arable land under cultivation was 315,38U acres ; nnd the wholequantity of land occupied was as follows; Held in fee-fiimple by occupants, 280,040 acres; under lease, a')0,2y squatters, 66,434 acres. 'I'hu crops represented in the censuaof the same ycarcoiisl.itcd of: wheal, 2l<.l,787 bushels ; barley, 76,521 busliels ; oats, 746,388 bushels ; potatoes, 731,575 bushels; turnips, 163,933 bushels; clover-seed, 14,i)U0 pounds; and hay, 16, 128 tons. The live-stock on the island was as follows : Horses, 12,845; neat cattle, 49,810; sheep, 92,876; and hogs, 19,683. The industrial establishments were embraced under the following branches : 13 breweries and distilleries, 116 grist-mills, 27 carding-mills, 139 saw-mills, and 246 threshing-machines. The commerce of the island in 1851 is exhibited in the following abstract: Exports, inclildiiif; 89 vcRsels, IIS 721 tons, M $16 per tnn; l,4.i7,02li feet, iiiid CSiO pieces, Ixisrda and deals; sliiliKles, 220,772 M; outs. e«6 695 bueliels; cattle, 3U3 lieud ; diied flsh, 7687 quintals; pickled fish, 3024 barrels; oysters, •1877 biistielB; and a variety of other productn, as timber, scantling, knees, etc., valued in all at $(!07,S8» Imports, Includingshlp-eliandlery^ which Is exported again in the building and rlggiiiK of ships, and not estimated in the value of the shippinf; $5SS,78S Less— say for ship-chauilery 02,884 475,S71 Total commerce $i,i 8d,'<60 The shipping employed in this commerce was us foU lows : (irent llrilain ^British colonics . I'nited Stutcs. ... Other countries. . Total in ISni . Total in \^bO. I Vtw li. ] Toiv 4.140 18 1142 2,7-.'4 87 18 47(1 43 2 633 24.!ir3 N>7 2.'..017 ClcarancM. Tom. VmmI., 45" 488 86 2 «2t 633 111 1151 S6374 5 427 71 41 823 411 322 The number of seamen inward, in 1860, was 2082, and in 1861, 2370; outward, in 1850, 2301; and in 1851, 8631. 'I'he following compares the value of the imports and exports for three years : 1841. ISSO. 1 IHtl. $030,476 i4V. 871 825,'.wn 6 7 3S'.I Imports Exports $576,040 ifl2,7r.% Total $8[:8.8I5 1 $ M,404 j $l.i>.'-3 2liii | The exports of 1851 include the value of vessels koM to Great Britain and Newfoundland, amounting to $261,5.36, which is not included in either 1849 or 1850. In 1849 there were built in the colony 88 vessels, 15,902 tons ; and in 1850, 93 vessels, 14,391 tons, valued at $16 per ton. The total vnlueof articles, the growth, produce, or manufacture of the United States, imported in 1831, was {177,866, the whole of which, except to the value of $3200, were carried in British bottoms. In 1850 the value of the same description of articles imported was only $42,113. The wide difference between the two years arises from the fact that in 1851 the duties on imports were greatly reduced from the rates of the preceding year. With the high rates of duties of 1850, only $0420 was received on articles of American pro- duction ; while in 1851, with diminished rates, the du- ties were increased to $14,020. The articles exported to the United States in 1851 wore as follows ; Barley, 17,929 bushels; boards and planks, 12,000 feet: iron, 00 ?wl.; cattle, 9 head; firewood, 20 cords; dry Hsh, 650 quintals ; pickled fish, 1780 barrels ; hard wood, 74 tons; horses, 3; haekinatock knees, 2215; oal.s, 222.109 bushels; potatoes, 45,942 liushols; turnips, b090 bush- els; and wool, 1700 pounds. The value of the fore- going, with the value of sundry other articles not enumerated, amounted together to $119,236. The value of siinila' articles exported in 1850 was only $,55,886. On the 31st December, IS.'iO, the number of vessels owned and registered in Prince Edward Is- land was 310, of the burden of 27,932 tons. On the 31st December, 1861, the vessels owned and registered nuniliered 823, of the burden of 81,410 tons. Prince FRI 1589 PBi: i^t'VW \ [•Is sold ii(inK to jorl»?SO. U, 15,002 e.(\ at $16 proiluce, I ill 1851, ■he value In 1H50 iiii\iorted ween ttie lie (Uitics OS of the loflSaO, icnii pro- ., till' ilii- "ex)i<>i'e'l liarlcy, bet: iro"i dry Hell, wood, 74 s, 22-2.100 B'JO liiisll- llhe fore- Lies not M. 1116 fwos only lumber of ]ward I»- On the Bgislerod Prince iMwAfd UUtui liu Tslur.ble fisheries in the Galf of It(, iMmteme, and In the Strait. Vriima Mwtni Island is chiefly an agricultural col- eHf 1 Ahi|)-liUlldlng, however, is carried on to a consid- tfiiik exteill t and new ships have already become a pFMtlillt,ai& tons. TJiSWIS to I'tiKed SitRlcs . . lilt (»rt(tfW(n Cnltcd stales $.12,410 8'ir)80 $.V),38r> 4I.GU3 19«1._ $U0,38r> 'rONNAOB IN 1860. I'ifti«'l''i!i ill Utill and 1851 ($flyiiA\llg Increase in the imports from that isl- illldi '1 llllS/ in 1850, the value of exports from I'rince I'iitWKClJ Islatid to the United States was $55,385; in }«6I il ttlduUHted 10 ♦llit,28C. The trade between the ('tliltfll kittles and (his Island being now comparatively hw, 8 slill ^te»let Increase than that exhibited above n:»lr tie MHIlltally expected. 'i Iw (-(^tenn?) expenditures, and public debt of the e{)\llHi/i ill 185), were as follows: //-««//«,— Uilsloins and imports, £17,7C9 18s. 7Jrf. ; f)ll(^!> tkUi\ forfeitures, £110 5.1. l(i. ; interest on bonds, mn 'i»= tli'Li posl-olllce, £999 '2a. ty.; land asscss- ttlCIII'),4;'i!ll)5 I4.7(/. ; registers, .£159 ti.«. 2^1/. ; licenses, iihil iOi; i seiiiures, £U i)s. Sd. ; and fees from Sec- muf^a men, di'.m ius. 8J. Total, f 22,538 14». Ulrf., Mll^ m Average per head of 7s. 2id., or of tlio net (iUilulMS aluHe, the average per head was 5^. Sid. AV//»//(//V«(M;— Legislature, £1912 4.«. IJc/. ; cduca- timt, Jl-iWil Ik 10(/. ; agricultural societies, £150; Mli-iwllatleuils, £752 as. Sjsd.; post.oflice, £1539 10.>. M:i M\ltfie», i><)14ri lis. lid.; compensation to gov- SratlJSIIt ortiiiets, £774 IBs. ; public postages, £55 19a. fW.i (jftmil pfosecutions, £793 14s. 4J(i. ; board of llNHlffl, Mi'it iis. lid.; «9> atrllO I lit. lid. ; printing and stationery, £794 4.«i 'i^il: ! fl)lpte*ienslon of deserters, £378 l\i. id. ; in- l«r^nt till Ihlliitilles and debentures, £lf;2ti 4s ; draw- llWks, Miii Ills. \\d. ! sundry foes, etc., £173 12s. ll'i. ; limU, tiriil|j(!<>, and wharves, £5978 3s. 2(/. ; jails, £U10 Mif.. H(f/, j sitlilll disbursements, £8(i 7s. 2i(i. ; markets, •fi.iO U, t*il: i lifidt-hoiisc, £170 17.<. lljii. ; public works, ^71*7 (i*: till: ) and buoys and beacons, £05 Oj. Hd. Total, £ii,lVii 10.«i llji/., showing a surplus of expenditures MllUlllltitlfj ill .llUi'li Wit. 2d. The public debt uiuount- »(l, ill lllf jrfilt aliove slated, to £17,938.— Anurkws's (tqimi m (''■luiitt ami hdc Trade (Sen. Doe. 112), l*fti?='B((( Mac.Hs's Uiilish Cdloniea {London edition); thitit'l d/ II C'limmiltee (Canadian) on the Income, A'x- lltwIillH-i', ililtl thbl (/ llriliah North America (lltli Hw, (»/i:t); /': S. Vomm. Jlel., etc. 7fiiil«i OOtide. The art of calico-printing is of miliiiiit^lMiile aiill(jtiity, and there exist specimens of ViHypltHII liuiUill dyeii by figured blocks many hundred ycAH M, A sllllllat process has been resorted to even Ml (lis Hl»lll)»iltl Islands, where they use a large haf »» ft SlllisliilltM fuf the block .Vee I'lrt, Cotton. The «#B»llallt (/filesljjilfl secured in Kngland by 2 Vic, ,1839. FfiutiOgi dee I'UKsa, DouKs, and NivW8rAi-i:its. Print*, impressions on paper, or some other sub- stance, of engravings on copper, steel, wood, stone, etc., representing some particular subject or composi- tion. Prints, lilie paintings, embrace every variety of subject ; and differ very widely in the manner in which they arc engraved. Their prices vary accord- ing to the style of the engraving, the fineness of it* execution, the goodness of the impression, its rarity, etc. The art seems to have taken its rise in the 15th century. Prisage, or Butlerage, was a right of taking two tuns of wine from every ship importing into Kngland twenty tuns or more ; which was changed by Edward I. into a duty of 2*. for every tun imported by merchant strangers, and called butlerage, because paid to the king's butler. The term is now fallen into disuse. — Ul.ACKSTONK. Privateering In order to encourage privateer- ing, it is usual to allow the owners of private armed vessels to appropriate to themselves the property, or a large portion of the property, they may capture, and to aftbrd them and the crew other facilities and rewards for honorable and successful efforts. This depends upon the municipal regulations of each particular pow- er ; and as a necessary precaution against abuse, the owners of privateers are required, by the ordinances of the commercial slates, to give adequate security that they will conduct the cruise according to the laws and usages of war and the instructions of the government, and that they will regard the rights of neutrals, and bring their prizes in for adjudication, These checks arc essential to the character and safety of maritime nations. Privateering, under all the restrictions which have lieen adopted, is very liable to abuse. The ob- ject is not fame or chivalric warfare, but plunder and profit. The discipline of the crews is not apt to be of the highest order, and privateers are often guilty of enormous excesses, and l)ecome the scourge of neutral commerce. They are sometimes manned and officered by foreigners, having no permanent connection with the country or interest in its cause. This was a com- plaint made by the United States in 1819, in relation to irregularities and acts of atrocity committed by pri- vate armed vessels sailing under the flag of Buenos Ayres. Under the best regulations, the business tends strongly to blunt the sense of private right, and to nourish a lawless and lierce spirit of rapacity. Eflbrts have been made from time to time to abolish the prac- tice. In the treaty of amity and commerce between Russia and the United States in 1785, it was stipulated that in cose of war neither party should grant commis- sions to any private onned vessels to attack the com- merce of the other. But the spirit and policy of mari- time warfare will not permit such generous provisions to prevail. That provision was not renewed with tho renewal of tho treaty. A similar attempt to put an end to the practice was made in the agreement between Sweden and Holland in 1675, but the agreement was not performed. The French Legislature, soon after the breaking out of the war w ith Austria in 1792, passed a decree for tho total suppression of privateering, but that was a transitory act, and it was soon swept away in tho tempest of the revolution. The efforts to stop the prac- tice have been very feeble and fruitless, notwithstand- ing that enlightened and enlarged considerations of national policy have shown it to be for the general benefit of mankind to surrender the licentious practice, and to obstruct as little as possible tho freedom and security of commercial intercourse among the nations. — Kknt's Commentaries. The reader is referred to the Xorlh Americun Keview, x. 186 (.1. G ali.ison) ; Niles'9 liegisler, xiv. 129, xvi. Sup. 29 ; De Bow's Review, i. 510. .See aho SlAniTiME I.AW, ante, 1321, et aeq. Utierg of ifai-que and Reprisal " are grantable by the law of nations, whenever the subjects of one state are oppressed and injured by those of another, and jui- 1 tice is denied by that state to which the oppreiior b*. It PBI 1590 FRT longs."— Cihtty's Comm. Law, vol. iii. page 604. Before granting letters of marque, government is di- rected by the 6 Hen. V. c. 7, to require that satisfac- tion be made to the party aggrieved ; and in the event of such satisfaction not being made within a reasona- ble period, letters of marque and reprisal may be is- sued, authorizing the aggrieved party to attack and seize the property of the aggressor nation, without haz- ard of being condemned as a robber or pirate. Such letters are now only issued to the owners or captains of privateers during war, or when war has been de- termined upon. They may bo revoked at the pleasure of the sovereign ; and when hostilities terminate, they cease to have any effect. Letters of marque and re- prisal were first issued in England by Edward I., for the seizure of the enemy's vessels, and for reprisal and retaliation upon the enemy on the sea. — Ky.mer's /fe- dera. They were first granted in 1295. — Uakek's Chnm. They are usually granted in time of war to private armed ships, and do great michief to the com- merce of belligerent nations. — Puwkl, Ftlvateera, ships of war fitted out by private Indi- viduals, to annoy and plunder the public enemy. But before commencing their operations, it is indispensable that they obtain letleri of marque and rtprital from the government whose sutjects they arc, authorizing them to commit hostilities, and that they conform strictly to the rules laid down for tho regulation of their conduct. All private individuals attacking others at sea, unless empowered by letters of rnarque, are to be considered pirates, and may be treated as such either by those they attack or by their own government. Policy of lyivaleering. — The policy of this system is very qucatiouable. It seems to be a remnant of that species of private war exercised by all individuals in early ages, but which gradually disappears as society advances. In wars carried on by land, the property of tho peaceable inhabitants who take no part in the operations of the armies is uniformly protected ; and it is dilHcult to discover any solid grounds why the same rule should not be ftjllawcd at sea. Privateers rarely attack ships of war. Their object is merely to plunder and destroy merchantmen. They causa an infinite deal of mischief to individuals, and aggravate all the miseries of war, without having the slightest influence on the result of tim contest. Experience has also shown that it is not possible, whatever precautions may be adopted, to prevent the greatest abuses from being perpetrated by privateers. The wish to amass plunder is the only principle by which they are actu- ated ; and such being the case, it would be idle to sup- pose that they should bo \ery scrupulous about alj- staining from excesses. A system of this sort, if it bo ever useful, can be so only to nations who hnvo little trade, and who may expect to enrich themselves dur- ing war by fitting out privateers to plunder tho mer- chant ships of their enemies. In all other cases it seems to be productive only of m'schief ; though it is, of course, moFt injurious to those states that have the greatest mercantile navy. Instead, therefore, of en- couraging tho practice of privatecning, we think that a doe regard to the rights and interests of humanity vould suggest to the great powers the expediency of abolishing it altogether. A few ellbrts have, indeed, been already made toward this desirable object. Thus it was stipulated in the treaty between Sweden and the United Provinces, in 1()7.5, that neither party should, in any future war, grant letters of marque against the other. In 1707 Russia abstained from licensing privateers; and in the treaty between the United States and Prussia, in 1786, a stipulation was inserted as to privateers, similar to thai in the treaty between Sweden and the United Provinces in 1C76. But nothing short of a convention and agreement to that cD'cct among the great powers will be able to eflecl this desirable object. — SIaktkns, JCatai amcfmunt Ui Armattun, 1794, iSee Makitihk Law, p. 1322 etc. Prise. Any thing captured by a belligerent using the right of war : in common language, only ships thus captured, with the property taken in I hem, are so called. Prizes taken in war are condemned by the proper judi- cature in the courts of the captors ; such condemnation is held to divest the title of the proprietor and confer a now ownership. In order to give jurisdiction to a court of prize, it is deemed necessary, by the law of nations, that the property captured should be in pos- session of the captors in their own ports, those of an ally, or of a neutral ; but no belligerent power has a right to capture in the ports of a neutral country, or within a marine league of her shores ; nor does a cap- ture made there render the adjudication valid. Sub- ject to capture is hostile property, i. e., the property of persons domiciled in a hostile country, and neutral property contraband of war. — Set Conthahasd. /Vi'ze J/oMcy. — The money arising from cnpturesmade upon the enemy is divided into eight equal parts, and is equally distributed by order of government, thus : Cap- tain to have three-eighths, unless under the direction of a flag officer, who in that case is to have one of the said three-eighths ; captains of marines and land for- ces, sea lieutenants, etc., one-eighth; lieutenants of marines, gunners, admirals' secretaries, etc., one-eighth; midshipmen, captain's clerk, etc., one-eighth ; ordinary and alJle seamen, marines, etc., two-eighths. — Set Privateers and Lettkus of Maroue. Prizes. — The right to all captures vests primarily in the sovereign, and no individual can have any interest in a prize, whether mode by a public or private armed vessel, but what he receives under the grant of the state. This is a general principle of public jurispru- dence, bello piiria cedunt reipiiblicai, and the distribu- tion of the proceeds of prizes depends upon the regula- tions of each state ; and unless tho local laws have oth- erwise provided, the prizes vest in the sovereign. But tlie general jiracticc, under the laws and ordinances of the belligerent governments, is to distribute the pro- ceeds of captured property, when duly passed upon and condemned as prize (and whether captured l)y I)ublic or private commissioned vessels), among the cap- tors, as a reword for bravery, and a stmiulus to exer- tion, AVhcn a prize is taken at sea, it must be Irought with due care into some convenient port, for adjudica- tion by a competent court ; though, strictly speaking, as between the belligerent parties, the title passes, and is vested when the capture is complete, and that was formerly held to bo complete and perfect when the bat- tle was over, and the tpes rtcvperandi was gone. Gro- tius and nmny other writers, and some marine ordi- nances, as those of Louis XIV., and of Congress dur- ing the American war, made twenty-four hours' quiet possession by the enemy the test of title by capture, liynkershoei'k says that such a rule is repugnant to the laws and customs of Holland ; and he insists that a firm possession at any time vests the property in the captor, and that ships and goods brought infra pnrnidia do most clearly change the properly, llut liy the modern usage of nations, neither the twcniy- four hours' possession, nor the bringing the prize infra pratidia, is suflicient to change the property in the case of a maritime capture. A judicial inquiry must pass upon the case, and the present enlightened practice of commercial nations has sulijectcd all xiich captures to the scrutiny of judicial tribunals, as the only sure way to furnish due proof that the seizure was lawful. The property is not changed in favor of neutral vendee or rccaptor, e(. as to bar the original owner, imtil a regu- lar sentence of condemnation has been pronounced by some court of competent jurisdiction belonging to tho sovereign of the captor; and tho purchaser must be aide to show documentary evidence of that fact to sup- port his title. Until the capture Iiecouies invested with the character of prize bv a sentence of condemna- tion, tho right of pro|>crty is in aln yance, or in a state of legal sequestration. It can not bo alienated or dis- . .msi.: PKO 1591 PRO narily in ,■ interest tc armed nt of the juiispru- distribu- lic rc(;ula- have oth- ign. But inanccs of B the pio- Bscd upon pturcd liy igthecap- ,9 10 exer- IC iTOUght ailjmVicn- spuaking, msscs, and I that was en the bat- one. Gro- irine ordi- igTcfs dur- ours' quiet ly capture, pugnant to insists that ropijrty in ught ixfra ■rty. Ill" le twei'.'y- 1 prize infra in tlie case niust pass practice of captures to Iv sure way .;ful. The |\ vendee or ilil a rcgu- lounced by ging to the ler must be jfact to sup- is invested condemna- jr in a state atcd or dis- posed of, but the possewion of it by the government of i solute and unconditional. Mr. .luitloe n«ylny mON the captor is a trust for tha benelit of those wlio may i succinctly states, that a pronilfsory nota )/» writim be ultimately entitled. 1 his salutary rule, and one so ! promise for the pavmint of money at all evuiils necessary to check irregular conduct and individual outrage, has been loug established in the Knglish ad- miralty, and it is now every where recoguized as the law and practice of nations. The condemnation must be pronounced by a prize court of the government of the captor, sitting either in the country of the captor or of his ally. The prize court of an ally can not condemn. Prize or no prize, is a question belonging exclusively to the courts of the country of the captor. The reason of this rule is said to be, that the sovereign of the captors has a riglit to inspect their behavior, for he is answerable to other states for the acts of the captor. The prize court of the captor may sit in the territory of the ally, but it is not lawful for such a court to act in a neutral territory. Neutral ports are not intended to be auxiliary to the operations of tlio power of war ; and the law of nations has clearly ordained that a prize court of a belligerent captor can not exercise jurisdiction in a neutral coun- try. This prohibition rests not merely on the unfit- ness and danger of making neutral ports the theatre of hostile proceedings, but it stands on the ground of the usage of nations. It was for some time supposed that a prize court, though sitting in the country of its uwn sovereign, or of his ally, bad no jurisdiction over prizes lying in a neutral port, because the court wanted that possession which was deemed essential to the ex- ercise of a jurisdiction in a proceeding in rem. I'he principle was admitted to be correct by Sir William Scott, in the case of the Henrick and Mn'm, and he acted upon it in a prior case. Uut he cuii>idered that the English admiralty had gone too far in supporting condemnations in England, of prizes abroad in a neu- tral port, to pernut him to recall the vicious practice of the court to the acknowledged principle ; and the English rule is now definitively settled, agreeably to the old usage and the practice of other nations. The Su- preme Court of the United States has followed the En- glish rule, and it has held valil ilio condemnations, by a belligerent court, of prizes car t into a neutral port, and remaining there. This was emed the most con- venient practice for neutrals, as ' 1 as for the parties at war; and though the prize \t.i in fact, within a neutral jurisdiction, it was still to h> i' < incd under the control, or tub poleatate, of the captor. — Kknt's Com- mentariet, vol. i. Proa, a narrow canoe about thirty feet long by three feet wide, used in the Ladrone' Islands. The Ico side is flat, being the mere longitudinal section of the com- mon form, and the head and stern exactly alike. A slight frame-work projects several fuct to windwanl, j payee. In a bill of exchange, tlio acceptor i> (hit prU , Mr, Chancellor Kent f. :;ows the doHnition of Mr itimliiw Ilayley ; and perhaps each is open to the uIiJihiiIiiii (hut, while it seeks brevity, it is inconiplela, an It diinii not slate that the promise is made by one purNori lu \my the money to another person apaeilied, AllhoiiKll • promissory note is, in contomiilaiion of law, diitltlxd to all the privileges belonging to such an hmlruini'nt liy the Commercial Law, as well as liy thii Cnmniuii l,aw, without being negotiable, yet it Is the lull»r i|millly which gives it its principal imimrtance iind viilun In modern times, nnd makes it a clrcuhllii|{ iriHllr, mi »». tcnsively useful and so generally r««iirtiid tu In tlig commerce of the world, I'raniisaary notnii nr» miw generally miido ncgotinlile, by Imlng alalnd tlixrtihl to bo payable to A or order, or to the order of A, or to A or bearer, or to the jjearer gonorally, I'liflinp^ (Im siient but steady progress in England, from lliii Mnipld use of the non-negotiable notes, Imfora tllii ri'lun of Queen Anne, to the present almost unlv«r«iil ni'ifolla- bilityof such instruments in our day, can not li» licltor expressed than by referring to tho 'langnagii of llliti'k. stone, where ho adverts to the fact that proiiilnwiry iiotes are payable "to a person therein niiiiiiwl," and then cautiously odds, or "Bometimcs to hU otti) ordnr, or oftcner to the bearer." Tho reverse lahKiiiiKfi iillKht befarmorejustly usedinthepresuiit day; anil It iiilulit be correctly stated that promissory notes iirii now k glish law as to promissory notes, except to fur ns rA- spects the remedial process thereon ; tliero boliijj iioms peculiar privileges annexed thereto In Kcolland, It seems scarcely necessary to point out the djstjni!* tion between bills of exchange and promissory notea In their general structure and chnrncter, In u bill of ox- change there are ordinarily three original parlies, thA drawer, tho payee, and the drawee, who, after iiecept- nnce, becomes the acceptor. In a pronilssorv lioto there arc but two original parlies, tho maker and tht bearing a small block of wood like a canoe ; this fioat supports tho vessel from oversetting to that side, as she would otlicrwise do, and the frame-work atfords support for a weiglit acting against the pressure of the sail. The vessel is steered by tlic paddle at either end, and moves with great velocity citlier backward or for- ward, being adapted to a side wind in running between two places. The sail is mat, with a boom, upon one mast. Proa is also the name for large boats used by the Malays, propell(>d both by oars and sails. Froduoe, Froduotion. mee ariicUt Wheat, Fi,oDn, etc. PromiBBOry Notes, A promissory note may be defined to be a written engagement by one person to pay another person, therein named, absolutely and uncon- ditionally, a certain sum of money at a time specified therein, Tho definition given by Mr. Justice Black- stone is, that promissory notes, or notes of hand, arc a plain and direct engagement in writing to pay a sum specified at a time limited therein, to a person therein named, or sometimes to his order, or often to the bear- er at large. Perhaps this definition may be thought mary debtor in the contemplation of law to tho pnyeA) and the drawer is but collaterally liable. In a prum> issory note, tlie mal.cr is, in contemplation of law. III* prininry debtor. If a note be negotiable, and U In- dorsed liy tho payee, then there occurs a sirlkllitf r«- scmblanco in the relations of the parties u|iiih licilh In- struments, although they are not in all respiu'ta Iden- tical. The indorser of a note stands in tho saine rnlo- tion to the 8ulisc(|uenb parties as tho drawer of n bill, and tho maker of the note is under the same llabllitltt as the acceptor of a bill. The origin of promissory notes is quite as obsenr* as that of bills of exchange. There Is no doubt tllkt promissory notes in writing (ihiroffrnphii) were wnlt known and in use among the Romans. Of ihls w« have an instance in tlie Digest : ab A uln A uijerUi (InilU »S'eii« mutitam qiiandam quantitatem aeerfit hnci eldrOm grapho: ilk scripsit, me acetpkge, tl acci'iii iili illn ffiM- lum et numerato* decern ; quns ei reildmn kulendii illU proximis cum suis umris jil'icilia iulemni i (iuiern, nn «* eo imtrumenlo usurm peli pnisint, et i/iimi Mmletlimu spondil, si non appareat de quihua iiiurii conmnlid/ufitt ■"i: bulty in not stating that tho eugagemcu t is to bo ol)- i »"'(, pcti cat now poise. But this instrument never taeini PRO 1592 PRO to havo b«en known *a a ncRotlabla instrument among the Komana, or *n a general medium used in purchases and n,S38,0fl0 ISKi 3ll,ls8,000 $10,910,800 14,120,900 20,108,200 $2B,M)i),2IK) S1,9&9,600 fi6,»l6,2(IO Provislona- Under this term, taken in its most extensive sense, in reference to man, may be comprised all those articles used as food by the inhabitants of this and other countries ; but commercially it is understood to comprise only fresli and salted butchers' meat, hams and bacon, butter and cheese, eggs, and a few other articles. Valub or l.iVK Stock, aooob jIno to Tmi Census op 1860, ur Tna L'iiitkd i^tatks. Btfttw Md T«rritor(«i. AUbatna Arkausas Califomia Columbia, UUtrict of. Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Illinois Indiana Iowa Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Maaaachuaetta Michigan HIsaiuIppI MInourl New HampHhire .... New Jersey New York North Carolina Ohio I'ennsylvania Khodo iKland Bouth Cnrollna Tenneatteo Texas Vermont VirBlnla Wlseonitn Minnesota Territory . . New Mexico Territory. Oregon Territory Vf& Territory Swiaa. 1,004.540 886, T2T a,7T« 1,635 70,472 M,261 209,463 2,168.617 1,915,907 2,263,770 323,247 2,891,163 597,801 M,5CS 852,011 81.119 206,817 1,582,734 1,702,625 63,487 260,370 1,018.252 1,812.813 1.964,770 1,040,866 19,509 1,085.603 3,104,800 692,022 66. '296 1,829,813 159,276 734 7,814 80,235 914 V«lue of Live Stock. V>lu> of ADlmala ■lauKlit^red. $21,691), 000 6,047,{KIO 3,361,000 71,000 7,4O7,IW0 1,819,000 2,880,001) 2.%, 7:8, 000 24, 209, IKK) 22,478.000 3.689,000 23,60I.(IO<) ll,ir>2,(lOO 9,706,000 7,9!17,0(HI 9,617,000 8,0115.000 19,403,000 19,887,000 8,871,000 10,679,000 "8,570,000 17,717,000 44,121,000 41,600,000 1,5.12,000 16,060,000 29,978,000 10,412,000 12,643,000 33,656,000 4,897,000 92,000 1,4')4.000 1,876,000 516,000 $4,,V«,00O 1,103,000 107,000 0,000 2,202,000 373.000 614,000 6.339,000 4.972,000 6,607,000 821,0(10 6,462.000 1,458,000 1,(140,000 l,9,'i4,000 2.600,000 1,328,000 3,(130,000 3,307,000 1.622,000 2.63S,000 13,.'J73.O00 5,767,000 7.439,0(10 8,210.000 667,000 3,502,(1(10 6,401,000 1.116,000 1.861,010 7,502,000 920.000 2,000 82,000 164,000 67,000 Prunes and Pninonoai, « •|i«kIii« of itrlnil jdiimi, of which there are many varieties, 'I hw llnniit iru li:;> ported from Franco, in Ilia south of whl' h llils fruit la very abundant. 'I'ho best prunes «r« pavkcd In ham- pers or baskets made of white uiilers, wtiltsliliiu from six to ten poimds each ; the second i|imlUy In i|uarleri, and the tliinl in puncheons, Pniasla (on« {, and even shuffling policy of her goveniinent, furtifld upon Ihum, indeed, by tho defenselessneas of « klllgdutil without natural frontiers, or physical cenlrAllly, or * psopU united by language, and national funlliiK, Hiid Intiircst. Agriculture is the chief occupation of tlm piiople | liiit in the Khenish provinces the cotton, and In Hlli<»la Iho linen manufactures, are carrkd on (o a urtiAt and In- creasing extent. Prussia necussarlly nialiitaltis A large standing army, but has no naval nowi^r; Iho klotf, however, has recently piirclia«o(l Ilia port of ilahilB from the Giard Duke of UldenlmrK foi; tint purpose of a naval station, and has beijun tlia foniiHtlon of • fleet. Tho kingdom was \X\\ recently an Rlmolute mon- archy, but has now received A Cgn»lUullon, Tho firjt treaty of amity and eon)ii)tiri(« listween tha United States and Prussia was iiti({utiAt«d In 17x1). This was renewed in 17!IU, and ixplntd In INK). In 1828a new treaty was concjudeil I ri Iho two gov- ernments, which is still in force, ii'r Ilia former treaties tho vessels of the two high > •• iaiUlt))( parlies were reciprocally allowed to |Mi|iorl llix (iixids which were of the produce or maiiufuctdru uf tlii'»|)«i'llvo nations. Tho latter treaty, however, i>tl|>iilMti'» ontlro reciprocity and freedom of coniinurco, 'Clio vmfwls of each nation are allowed to l)nport Into ths oilier tht productions of their own or of any other country. Tlio direct trade between tho United Sl«t"» ailil I'niMitt Is, howevei, very inconslileralilo. Thoro U icAfetily «ny article of American production diini»ll(lIV(l. 1850.. 1861., 186!. , 1?.'>3.. 1s,M., 1856. V»lufl uf liiibortd into l'oit«h,l8A n,4li0.734 6,7ia,4Jl B, 1175, 200 T,0it4,M2t * ThcM rcturna are for the port of Now York only, »ul for •!« iitolltll', 'I'lm t li<|iKr(im'lt( In Hot In irn the port of Stettin. In 1H&2 tlie general navigation of this port wax us foiiows -. VnsBKi.B ENTBKEn ml roiii OF STrrTiM IK tSBJ. From I'.iiRlaiid 880 ** Fr«nce 20 " LnitedHtatca B ** Kuiuia 15 " Dcnmnik 30 '* Mcdlteri-aneim 2i) Total niimbiT of vessrU entered 370 ViBBELS OLKARKD FUOH TUI I'OaT 01' H'ETTIM IH 1852. Tor Kngland ISO " ynme 80 " Uonmark 80 " -Ku«iila IfS " Ilelgluni S ** Hwcden 4 " Norway 10 " Holland _a Total number cleared liOB From tlio United States tho imports into this port are; rice, nslics, rosin nnd turpentine, and >vhnle-oiI; thouKh, owing to its Iii^'h price within tho past few }'ears, tlic article last named has almost ceased to lie imported from tlie I'nited States. Sugar liaa also dis- appcareiil>i, which iillord good anchorage for vassolt of miy liiirdmi, lla cMpiirts consist of wheat, rye, barliiy, unta, pfna, llotfr, llnteed, rape-aeed, biscuit, provUiuna, «ahti*, /.liic, Imnea, limlier, atsvea, hemp, flax, liiiona, w»ul, nlis Thn Iwpnrla compriae woolen and ailknii ndiltV, utitl other ninttiifactured gooda; colo- nial prudunla, ilyita, yiiiw, nil, afilcp, fruit, salt, and fura. At Hlitttin, piirt dupa iiroi 'I'onmrge duty, 14 silver groseliun iiiir laat, Itdnn, and otie half only if in ballaat. This would Iw ttlioiit lO'l centa per ton If laden, and 8'06 eonta p«r Iwn If In h«llaat, i'llotage dues,2i tha- lera per VA \nDlH, Ittid it) ftllver grnschon for every 10 laata upwHrd, 'llila «wdi |iAi'ltHf$a contains an equal quantity,, they may bo »nt«r«cvOunt of tho aamo ; the oDkur iiiukua out a list tliure- of, which ia al);iic(l liy tbo nmatur, und returned, in order tu bo inaerted in tho report. If the report haa to bo prepitred on ahorc, it niuat liu delivered to the ciis- tonia ollicera within 24 hnura after the arrival of tlie ship in till road ; If not, posaeaaion will be taken of the ship at tho inaalcr'a oxpenae. Customs otHcera niuy take posseaalon of tho ship at onco, free uf expenae. It ia required of tho master to proruro tho neceaaary In- formation for tho report, In tho arranged manner, on receipt of tht cargo. If he'doca ?\ot ao prepare hhn- ■elf, the customs officers uasumo tho whole direction of landing the cargo, according to tho regular inatructiona in aiich cases. Knapectliig tho ship's provisions, if they conalst of articles which pay a conaumption duty, a separate report is required in duplicate : one is return- ed to tho ninstiir after revision, In order that he niuy tako on board an eiiual quantity of similar provisions when ho sails. If ho fuila in this, or if the aailing is delayed beyond a twclvoniontl', tho consumption duty must ho paid on tho provisions remaining on hand. Tho master Is, however, at liberty to deposit the pro- visions at the custom-house until he sails, subject to the consumption duty If not taken away. Articles ;iot properly forming a part of tho cargo aro so con- sidered if they undoubtedly appertain to tho ship's in- ventory, and aro articles for tho ueo of tho voyogc. Articles which are not considered as such, ars to pay duty if they be subject to a consumption tax ; or they may be landed, In order to be deposited In tho custom- house. If a vessel remains in the road, and does not enter tho port, and only discharges tlio cargo Into light- ers, the consumption of provisions in the road is iluty free. A report of the provisions is aullicient, and no further control over tho same is observed, except in particular cases when considered noceasnry. If the master ia bound fur anotlicr ileetination, and only en- tera the harbor through diatrcss, then t general inspec- tion is only made. In order thnt no part of the cargo may bo disposed uf. A report, huwever, is to be mado of the cargo, In cases of shipwreck, on the salvage of tho cargo, the kii^d and quantity is aacortained, with the assistance of the regular olKcers, and the cargo shall bo placed in security until further directions are issued. The cargo of vessels which winter in Prussian ports must Im declared witliunt unnecessary delay. In as far as the ship's papers and the knuwledgn uf the muster alTurd infurmatlun. An inspection of tho outer parts and decks of tho vessel, and tho stores or articles thereon, takes place at once, and tlie ports or liatcb- ways of tho ship's hold are then locked. Until the declaration, Inapectiun, and locking up of tho vessel take place. It is watched at tho expense of tho captain ; which guarding, in particular cases, miiy continue as long as the customs offlcers may consider necessary. Ldilps which only anchor In the roadii, and do not enter the port, aro not considered within tho control of the customs olHcers ; they must not, however, hold inter, course with tho shore or the port, without delivering n report and their pnpors. If the ship remain in the ruads longer than H hours after tlio declaration ia mado, without entering or proceeding to unload, unless tho one or tho other bo prevented by stress of weather, then an oflicer repairs to tho ship, examines the decks, etc., und locks up the hatches, etc., of tlie hold. To the ollicera who are on aervice on board tho vessel, proper maintenance is to bo allowed, the same ns Is af- forded to travelers of the trading class. The folluwing table exhibits tho foreign commerce of the United States Willi I'russia for 37 years, giving tho domestic and for- I cign exports, the imports, and tonnage. C'oHMiBoi or TUi Unitid States with Prcbsia fbom Ootobeb 1, 1820, to ,1ui.y 1, 1S5T. Yun «DdlDg EiporU. iDiporta. whereof there wis id nulllon i,n*l Specie. Tonoagi cletrcd DoiDMUe. Foreign. Total Tolnl. Export. Ini|.ort. Aninrican. KorciffQ. Scpt30,18Jl 18M .... .... $1,899 ,... .... .... 1823 $7,203 $503 $7,830 .... • • • • 120 .... 18M MOB 5,103 • . • . .... 18i5 4,«18 12.060 17,603 21,260 .... 217 18-20 16,129 3,421 18.660 107,015 . . . • .... 313 .... 18.>7 8,,M,'S . . • « 8,515 89,7,')8 • . . . .... 150 . . .. 1838 in,430 .... 15,430 130,1104 .... 117 .... 18'2» 14,411 .... 14,411 22,!!35 • . • • .... 188 .... 183U Total... 10.611 .... 10,501 10,005 .... .... 232 $37,u36 $10,039 $103,974 $346,0:26 .... 1120 217 Scpt.30,lSSl $27,04.1 $27,048 $60,970 . • * • .... 3S7 ... * 18M 11,110 11,110 2T 927 .... .... 179 1H33 1-^,812 12,812 124„'>70 .... 1 18!H lr>,30;) $3,510 18 810 14,045 .... 299 183.'5 63,00! 2,0S2 65,748 88,543 .... .... 239 .... 1830 00410 0il,41o 189,985 81,301 .... 1,17T 1M37 100.658 83,4i7 497,8>9 • . • . .... 4.025 1838 05,001 1U,2S3 81,944 0,029 .... .... 240 1.433 lS.Si) 2;),313 43,610 72,813 70,412 .. .• .... 816 ^.^iM 1S40 ToUl... 4:i,363 4.3,115 80.468 69, 3 W .... 600 1,677 $430,029 $145,517 $570,146 $971,530 .... .... 2307 19,346 Sept. 80, 1841 $149,211 $20,705 $176,970 $30,119 .... . . •* BI7 3.342 1S42 149,141 7,647 l,V),fl33 18,l'./2 .... 2, ,163 9inos., 1843» 22.',(I3» i8,,'!;io >40,3C9 .... 2173 1,996 Juno 80, 1844 iiM.flim 23,903 J18.5T4 12,009 .... 104 6.009 184B 602,007 05,114 6ii7.121 3I,08> .... 947 9,631 1840 S:iO,2!l) 89,045 435.,S.55 81.,')84 .... 1170 7,275 1847 182,259 19,907 202,100 7.li"8 .... .... 6.121 1S4S 146,074 15,386 100,469 22,817 .... 3,750 184) 34,703 9,610 44,219 17,087 .... .... 240 606 4,887 IbOO Total, , . 70,0» 27,991 98,636 27,409 $2,045,8.:B $254,168 $>,309,U03 $20.Mil7 .... 6247 43,435 June80,18Sl ^80 409 $5,444 $^.'>.913 $ 0,,^42 .... 184 1,6.".5 18ft2 93. 233 1,53 93.380 21.263 • .. • 18r.3 1S64 20,911 1,806 28,717 47.875 47,773 .... .... 293 295 18,^5 20,400 in,8^>0 31,'.'0fl 337.814 . . . • .... .... 1,174 18,^6 70,307 9,395 711,702 101,109 .... 203 1,827 185T 80.788 i4,aii 45.099 66.127 949 1,334 — iSse article Zoi.l-Vekein for a general account of the foreign commerce. * Nino months to June 80, and the fiscal year from this Ume begins July 1. PKU lfi90 PRIJ Pnuwlan Blue, or Pnualate of Iron (Oor. BtrliHtrhlau , Vt. Hlrudtl'ruue, It. .Iiwrra /V«Mi(i»ti, Mp. AzulJe J'ruitmi li\i»*. Ijitar llfxlinikaja), n livaii- tlful cing confined, flrst, to articles constituting ' tate mo- nopolies, as salt and cards, in I'russia ; 'Jd, to articles of native produce, burdened with a diflerent rate of duty on consumption In one state from what they pay in another; and, Bd, to articles produced under patents conferring on tho patentees certain privileges in I lie dominions of the states granting the patents. With these exceptions, which are not very important, Iho most perfect freedom of commerce exists among tlio allied states. Since 1818, when the foundations of the alliance were laid, it has progressively extended, till it nowcoinprises more than three-fourths of the Gerninnio states, exclusivo of Austria. Ducal Ilesse joined the alliance in 1N28, and Electoral Hesse in 1831 ; the king- doms of Buvaria, Saxony, and Wirtemberg jniiieil It afterward, as havo Baden, Nassau, and almost all tho smaller states liy which it had not been previously joined, with the exception of Slccklcnburg-Schwcrin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz. Hut these, with Hanover, will bo very shortly included in the league. In 18,'>'2 tho tariir alliance comprised — ill'".'.' '" "" Prutsls 618S 10 i'ti',i.iri3 I.uiembiirK 4T is'.iTx) llavaria and her dctaehcd territories 13»0 4 ti'^U i'>.M) Sixonjr (KiriKdoin of) Sl'i 1.hII4.4:i1 Wtrtcinberg and the two llolienznltcrns. !)84 l.siriWS Ileaao (KlectorBl) 211,1 7::il,.V4 lluaao (Uuchy) and Ilnmliurgh iri4 M'AtUT The ThiirlOHtan States MT l,i'14.!i.'4 lladcn (Duchy of) 2T0 l.iliiO .VJ'.I llrunawick (Uucby of) 03 ■-'47.070 Naasau 86 41ir>iK(l Frankfort _ 2 71.6 78 Totala 83UI '.ili.SUO.Wlj Throughout the whole extent of this immense coun- try, from Ai.x-la-Chapelle, on the confines of the Neth- erlands, eastward to Tilsit, on the confines of Unssia, and from Stettin and Dantzic, southward to .Switzer- land and Bohemia, there is nothing to interrupt tho IVuedom of commerce. A commodity, whether for con- sumption or transit, that has once passed the frontier of tho league, may be subsequently conveyed, without let or hinderance, throughout its whole extent. In- stead of being confined within the narrow precincts of their own territories, the products of each ceparato country of the alliance may be sent to every one else ; PltU 1607 rmr 10 llmt each may apply lt«ulf, In pref.'rencB, to ihn« i l,,.|n({ that in which wo are moit Intortitcd »a hava depnrtniunts In whi.h It him •nnii) nutunil ur ii. .,i,ir.Ml tiikni unnio pain^ to airortain lt» real liilliionc.-. ThU ndcd, till it roltulnlloD 111 1?49 16 iii'.),iri3 1S'.I,7H.) 4 M(i iiTiO l,Hlt4.4;ll l.si.'iM'S SU'i.'.'lT 1.I.U.W4 i.iKui.r/w 4'^r) i«ii 7Hi 7!t W,SWI,l!(i'j ncnso roun- If thi! Ni'th- 1 of Russia, Ito Swil7.fl'- Iterrupt tho Ihcr for I'on- \\\c frontier Ted, vithout itcnt. In- Irecincts of Ih ccparato r one elaa ; ailvantaK" i and caih lina to depond for Ita nm i (<»n, not on the niliH'ralila re>nnrca of ruitoinn R'Kiilialoni, Init on itn nkill and Industry, Tho cuinpoliiimi Ihcnuv arUlnK In inont nulntury ; and, shonld tlw ixiuii of Kurupu l>e prvHcrvud, wu run littlo risk In nituii){ iliiit all Diirta iif Indnntry will inuke more prattruM amunK tho states c-oniprlsi'd within tho tarllT alllanco, during; tho nu\t tt-n years, than they did dnrinif thu Imlfci'n- tnry pri'vlons to Its Mng orfjanUrd. An asscmldy of rrprcscntallvrs from thu allleil atatoa meets annually, to hear cnnipluints, aru:/, worth U. per yard, cuiiiniiis 4'.t7 yards ; It i.'unseipicn'tly rusts XH ()«., and the I'm^lun or larllf alliance duty of X7 lUt. on it is, then fore, i>(|uivalent to an ml mkirtm duty of iH) per cent. 'id. Tliat a ipiintal ut siij^riiir uliirtiiij/, worth li. ayard, contains J57i;:) yanls j it conse<|uent- ly costs tn 17j. 7./., making thu I'rus.ian duly on such goods a2J per cent. ad. That a ipiintal of ]i,intfd cnlioiu, worth It. M. a yard, contains t;aa \ ords ; it consoijuently costs £ 17 9*., making tlie I'riiiiian dnty on such HOOAtHHi«frii ( iirnvlilxi! ttwuya, Ihnt Ihi-xi tiiiHllili itll«ii« Iw |iri'f»rf«i|vilil«||Knii» In llix Ki'MiTill liilvrMla of lhf liniHirl, mumrt, *ni| Irmiail, »< well no Ihs urKitiiliiitilon lit i\m •ullinrlll«« mMrh urn i'nKiiK<''n' IV.), I'Ut liy lliK Miiiiiilimiila iiilKoiit of nil Ihn ronlrni'l. Iii^ |iiirll<'>, mill III lliN form r<'>|iilri«l for IIm niaklni; {ii>Hl'n il'iii) lit lli« li|t*«, 'IImi priTi'ilInK (ippllm ciiuiil- l,v lo nil ilm orillnmtiKii whlili ttoiiM PDlnMlnli, for iho ■(r«tl>/n uf IIm ru»tftm», ill4|>oiiltloni oritlrul>- ililfi-ri'iil, VI. l/llwrly iif I'liiiimi'rrji, unit rominnnlly of Iho m- c«l|iU of nitloiiia, na rKKilUlK'l liy Ilm following irllclii, will loiiiiiiuiHM aliiiulUiHiiiiial/ Willi tlis o|»ration of lliu prxai'iit irumy, VII. Mulllitf Wim IliU oofH'ti, all ori, ami of lf»ii«lt aliall ii-aao on llii> rommoii fniiilji'riif llin llavNrii.WlrlrnilH'rKniiil l'riiaai>-lleaiiian i'U>loiMa rviililoiia, All arlli'lca of free romTiifrru In ono uf llioui Inrrllorlva may Iw lin|iplc(l froiii ull iliily til linn alatii, ami Imporiml Into anotlior, anil wliii'li ai'iofilliiK U> arllrln 11, oiixhl coniic(|Ucntly Ui Im aiilijui t III M iliily iif coinpi'naalliin. Finally, I,', Arllil"* wMrli, wlllioiil prcjudloo to pat- ent riKliU or coiii'ii'linl tirUlli'K''* In oim of Iho contract- ing alalBa, rail Hot Iw tmllfllKil or Imported, and ouRht fiHixupuinlly lM)i«««li'tiliM diirliii,' llio nxlalcnceof the pal nu ami privlli'^na from liiiporlntlun into the stato wb^ h liaa Kraiilcil ilmtn. VIII. Nulwlllialamllnit (Im< frcfilom of commerce, and lliu «MMipl|im from •liillca, cafalillahed liy Artlclo VII., tlin traiiapiift of an li'Ira of commerce, siilijcvt liy Ihii loMiiiioii litrilf III 'iiillca of Import or export on Iho friiiillrra of ilm Aaai/i uailnn, can not lakii placo between Ow ilali't of U«v»fi.» ami Wlrlemlierjj, and the Rtiites of I'ruaaia, lit KliifKiral \him, or of (Irand Ducal lleaaa, ami rviliiriirally, except l/y Iho puMIc roads, mililury ruiitn^a, ami tili'ltfaldn rivcra, Kor tlila pur- piiau ejiern aliail im dalalitlahed on the Interior fron- tlirs I'oiiinioii hiiftnut of verlfleatlon, to which the con- ducturi of rmtrclianiliim miiaf, on rxhiliiting their li- ieii»r>ii'i-M for tfm vmiirtnillliiii of merchandian will go no fanli'-r ilian la rmiiilriiil for aectirity of the duties of coniiwiiaalliifl,— A« Arllcl« VM. X i i I 'I'lm i'iiiiiriicllfif( tiartlea reciprocally renew thiiir witbiiaiiin Ut lb« Itrlltcltil* that Iho tolla, or other chart(ii» ill lt«M tlturoof, ahall only \in aiifflclent to do- fray llio miK'nan of inalntenance and repairs of the roa^la, wlii,tli«r ill* t«a \m tur the atate or for private riKhla. It wa* thtia that haa lieen approved tlic sup- pleinviit to ilia (liity of iMatotna, created in Ilavaria •lid WIrtamU'ra, Uf ffpUcn the dnir of lolls, paving, causaways, hrtitgxn, Mil KPnerally' of all anaio^'uus (•I8S, '|1iii uA\», tUf,, now ei«lallng in t'riiasia, ac- cording to ih* KMntrri Uriltot tmn, shall he consider- ed na the htghnl rnln, and ahslt not ho oxcrsitad til any of llie conlrartliiK alalca. In aiinriliiiiiii »ith till' prliiiipic Ihiia iiniiiiiini'i'd, tlie indivliliial duly for I'litInK lhi> |{Mtea of illlea aiiiiil Im aliollahiid ; na alao Ihe duly iif pnvInK of laiiauHnya, wlicru it allli vxialsi iind nil piivcd rouda will hu ciiiiaiiii'ri'd an luiKiiwaya of a di'x'riptioii lialilii only lo tlin duty un lauaiiwnys as- taliii'hi'd liy the ((('"■'■''■I Inrllf, XIV. Tli» I'ohlrai'linK Kovernmenia awreti tu unita llii'ir etforta tu Introiluce into Ilio ilatea a uniriirm ays- lein of coina, n vl|{hta, and nicnaurea ; lo cnniinrnro im- nifdiuli'ly Ihii rcipiiaito ncKi-'ialiiina for lliia piirpoan; and, auli«ui|uenlly, lo dlri'it their eDorU lowiird the adoption of uniform cualoni-houae wei|{hla. The con- trading alalea, in tlie iiiipoaalliliity of cahililiaidntf this nniformily Ireforelhia Irealy ((oeaiiitooperallon, iiKree, for fiU'llilalinK the forn unlink of mcrchunilisn wliera it liaa not already Ik'iu done, lo rcvine lliclr tnriU'aa lo welKhls nnil inenaurea, naauniiii^ fur a liaala Ihn tarilHi of the other contrnctiiiK atalea, 'i'liey v,\\\ ciiuae aiuh niodillcniinna lo lie pulpliMlied, for Hie novcriinient of tho pulilic anil of lluir ciiatom-house lunnua. The common tnri(l'{Aitiile IV.)aiiall lie diviilid into two principal diviaiona, ai'ionliiiK lo the ayalem of weiKlil'i ineasuroa, and moneya uf llavariu, niid that uf I'riisala. Tho declaration uf tlio HeiKhtxaiid nicnaureaof nrliilua sulijoct lo iluty ahull. In I'ruaaia, lie arcurdin)( to I'ms- sian welf^h la and inenaureH; in Ilavaria and Wirtcni- licrK, according to thoai, of Ilavaria; and in tliu two lleasea, uccordliiK lo Ihu wciKiila and nieaaures there h'Knlly calaliliKlivil. In expcditinttcualom-lioiiao acta, tho ipiantily of till nliandlHe must iieexpreaaed accord- inf{ to thii two priiH'ipHi Hiviaiuns uf the common laritf. I'ntit lliu conlriiiiin); stales agree upon a syatcm of common money, Iho payment of duties in eacii state shall bo niudo in tiie aume currency as in use for pay- ment of its other taxes. Hut from tho present lime, tho gold and silver coina of all the contriictiiig stiiti'S, with tlio exception of ainali money (»/iriWf niwiiic), alinll Ijo received into all llu) bweiiui of receipt of llie Aaso- elation ; and fur thia jiurpose tables of value shall lu puliliahed, XV. The dntiea of iinvlKiitlon upon tho rivers, cnm- priaing tliereiii Hum' nlilrli apply to vessels, ahull al- ways lie mutually acquitted according lo the acts of the I'ongress of Vienna, or of special convent'ona, up, i all the rivers to which theso regulations apply, iiul, other detcrminalioiis bo adopted in liils renpect. '. .'. contracting atatesagrectoenterwilhout delay ini lu- gotiations for that which particularly regards lli«> nav- igation upon tho Ithino and tho neighlioriug i-treuma, in onler to effect an arrangement by which tlie iinpurt, export, and transit of tho productions of ail (be slates of tho Union upon said streams shall be, if iiui alisu- lutcly free, at least relieved as far as poasilde from du- ties of navigation, tinder the reserve of charges of re- connoisannce. All tho advantages granted liy one atato of tho Union to its aulijects, in the exercise of tlie imv- igation upon sold streams, shall extend eiiually to Iho navigation of the other associnlod ntuti a. Upon tlio otherstreanis to which neither tlie acts of tho Congress of Vienna, nor any other treaties ajiply, the duties of navigation shall lie anurdiug totlie spcrial regulations of the governments interested. Nevcrllielcis, tlie sub- jects of tho contracting stoics, their merchnniliso and venscla, shall throughout bo treated on Ihuse streams with perfect equolity. XVI. Dating from the day on wliich the general custom-house regulations of tho I'niou shall i.iuie into operation, tho duties of public stores (lUipe.t), and of transhipments (tinwchtagtierhte), which still exiat in the tcri'itorics belonging lo tlie Association, siiull cease, and no ono shall lie lialdc to forced delay, nor to tho discharging and storage of his merchandise, except in cases authorized by the common regulatious of the customs or navigatlun. XVII. Ko duties shall b« claimed for canals, locks, I'UU U09 IMllJ tileit In » »llh liiiy tut an >Uo cxlutll *«v»of • ayi ••- tu uiitta iirm •y«- ifiun ln>- |iur|ii)i« i wiiri\ tin ililiiu llili nil, iiKH'"! ltd wliora iirllVn" to Ihii Inrllft •iiiim^ mich niniciit uf nut. Tha i\ Into two i)f wiiKlit", of TniMla. ( of nrlUloi nn to I'nu- u\ Wlrtcm- In lli« two .Kuri-'i thora -llOHdO UCtK, Kicil nccortl- iiinion tariff, a lyslcm «f 11 I'ocli »lnto use for p»y- iri'stiit tliiip, illiiK Htnti's, of llie Asso- iluo uliaU tu rlvcri", com- [ii.U, hIibU iil- llii' aets of [.nt'iiiis, u|""' ipiily, iinl" " ■SlU'Ct. W .■luy 111' "<■• jrds til*' 11"^'- IriiiK ►tTfUiriK, |htlu-iiM|H'rl, nil Oil' i-tllK'S if not ntiso- lllile frnin il"- lhiiri;i'9 "f r*^- l\ l.y 0111" Ktnto SC ilf 111"' "1'^'- ([imllv to llio I'liou tlio I the Conurcss Itlio (UilU'» of ill roKiitttlioiH Llcm, llif siib- fclinmlise mul lliosu Dlrcams the ppncral InU I'liiH' into Ltill ixi.it in li, shall iiii»ei ly, iiur to tlio [ise, except in \tioii9 of the lc»n»l», loci". brlil((»«, fnrrlix, rmiiix, wKlxliinit, »n'l •Ionian j (nil Ihn i ••(■lill>hniiiiiliiili<«lln>''« Imri'iixi'il ; ami thv aiilijfi tn of Iho othiT run- 1 traalliiK stnli'it ■hull l»i on • prrfcrt i'i|iial|iy with tlm iulijnclii of tliK <'iMiiilrlim huvlii^ tlm"" <'«laliii«hmi'iili If Ih* oalitlilUliiiii'iilit fur wi'iKhliiK ami c rnni n nm only UIP'I hy tlin mil iiii-hoiiiiiis, no iliarKu "hull Im iiiudc, 1 If Ihn artlrlaa liuvn Iman previoutly WKiKhuil itt a cni- toni-housa. XVIII. Thii ronlrartliiK italei unKaK" to contlnuo their I'oiiiiniiii I'triirlt for thn I'lii'oiiruK'i'iiK'iit of iniliia- 1 try liy thi' aiinpiioii uf iinlforiii ri>Kiiluiliiii", so that tlii< j •uhjncl" of cMi'li ulutii limy unjoy, «" t'xtihslvi'ly as poa- ' •Itilr, Ihn privili't(U of Hi'i'litiiK wi'rullcm of tho prnM'iit triMity, thn aulijci^taof any oiinuf ihii inii- Iraclin^ alitli'", trading oi ai'iikiiiK einploy hi thn lorri- tory of any olhur of Ihoao atatcs, shall not h« aiilijrci to any inipoit wliivh doi's not i'i|uully alllect tin' iiullv^ •imilarly I'niployed. Muniifai'luri'rauiid nKinhunlHHho arc only niakinK pnrcliaaea fur tliuir tradi', or truvi'li'n who havn no ^uodH with ihi-in, hiit simply (lUttiTiis for tho purpOHi of hulii'ltinK uuininisalans, nliall nol, when tliuii cinpluyi'il, liiivii any ilnty tu pay in aiiotln-r slule, If autliorl/.iij tu eurry mi siicli ruiiiimiTU in lliu st.itu where tliey liavu llieir iloiiiicilo; ur if umpluyed in the ■ervlco uf iiullve niuiiiifuitiirer" or iiieri'liunl.". Wlini trading in tliu market" and fairs, or when they are sill- tng tha pruducu uf the sull and I'liliries, In any one uf tb* states uf tho Assoelallun, the "iihjeel" uf the other contracting slates sliuU iiu Iruuled in all ruspeeta u" •ul^Jecla of thii same slates. XIX, Tho toa-piirt" of Prussia shall be open for eoin- mari'e tu nil the siiljeets of the stale" uf thu rniun, on payment of the same iliities us am pulil l>y I'runaiuii sulijecis, and the consuls uf the several slate" In the sea-ports ur places of foreign eummeree, shall lie liuuiid. ill cases of need, tu assist with their advice and support tuljects uf the other contracting stales. \X. Tu protect a^juinst cuntruliand their cummoii custom-houso system, and to insure tho ri ^ulur pay- ment of the duty uf cunsuinption in the interior, ihe contrui tint; slates havn conolnded a ri'iiprucal curtcl, whiuli shall he cnfurced as suun as puxsihle, hut at the farthest at the same liiiiu with the present Iruaty. XXI. The coninuuily of receipts uf llio contrttcthin states, slipulateil by the present treaty, shall cuiiiprc- hend thu product of duties uf entry, of export, niid oi' transit, in thu Prussian slates, Ihe kin);doin" of Ilavn- rla and WIrteinherB, the Kleetorate, and Ihe (irand Uuchy of I (esse, cuinprisinK therein those countries which liavu down to tho presi'iit time acceded to thn custum-houso syslcin of iIk' control liiii; slates. The following arocxiliiileil (mm lhoci"iH inily of rccelpls, and ronialn reserved for tho pur; iilar licnellt of the respective Kavcrnnii'iil": 1. i'lie imposts collected in the interior of each slalo on indigi'^us products, com- prising therein tho compensatory ilutles reserved in Article XI. 2. The toll "ii river'', tu which are appli- cable the regulations of Ihi' acts of the ("onKressof Vien- na, or special conventions — Article XV. II. Diitiesof pavinff, of causeways, of liriilges, of ferries, of canal", of locks and ports, charges of weighing and storage, as well as similar receipts, whatever may bo their name. 4. The fines and conliseatloiis which, beyond the part allowed to inforiners, romaiii the property of each gov- ernment tliroiigliont its territory. XXII. The piuduee of the duties received into tlio common treasury shall ho divided among the slates of the Assoi'iatiun, in prupurliun to the population which may be found in the I nion, subject to deduction, 1st. Of the expenses specilicd in Arliclo XXX. ; 2il. Of Ihe restitution of erroneous receipts; 3d. Of the restora- tion of duties and diminutiuns made in conse(|ucncc of special common conventions. The population of every state which has entered or may enter into the AMoclallon, by Irtaly with oneur nihernf Ihn conlracf. iiig stall ". under thn I'ngageniiiii iiind" by the laiii r, III nmkii un unniialiunlrilinlion fur tlic iiinlripatlon uf Ihn foriu'r lu thn ruminun revenue of llio iiialuiiK, ahall be adili'd to the popiilullon ol the Mnli" wlilrli inak* Ihl" runtrlbulion. Tliore ! ernineiits of tin; Ijiluii einpouered generally tu ilellb> I urate ; and iHi h statu may send Ihlllier n duly aullior- I i/ed repreHenlative. The pleiilpoleiitiurles » ill cliousa I from among theuHclves a president, tthu, however, I "hull liavo no pre-eniliieneo over the other memliera, [ The lirst assembly Hhall be heldut .Miiiiirli. Atthocloso t'cacli annual asieiubly, the plaeeuf next meeting will hfl dctermliied, having rel'ereiieu tu (lie iiatiiru uf those subjeets which will then loiiie under illicni'don, XXXIV. The usseinblyofplenipulenlhirleH will have under its eunsideralion the follu»iiig "iibjccls: A. lu consider thu cuinpluiuts u liicli may have arisen in any of the slates uf the .\ssoeiatlun PcinierMing the execu- tion uft lie geiiural 1 1. illy, uf special eiiiiveniicins, of the law, and uf ciisloiii-liuiiso regnlaticuis; also uf the lur- iff, when these shall not have been uiIJiisIcmI during tho ycarliy correspondeiico between lliu dillereiit ministers, I II. The detlnllu reparation among the slates of Ihn I Ij'nion of tjio total cuiiimon receipts, based upon the ohservalinns made hy the superiur nuthnrilh'S, and ver- i illcd hy the central bitrmii, as may be renderrd neces- aary by the common interest. ('. To deliberate upon I propositions ond suggestions made by the governmenls , for the perfection of the adniinistrutiuu. I). I>iscus- 1 sions ujion alterations, demaiided by any of the con- I trading stales, in the laws, tariffs, and custom-house I rrgulatioiis, as well as in the organixatiun of the ail- I ministration, ond in general upon the development and I perfection of the general system of customs and coni- I inorco. XXXV. If, in the course of the year, when the plen- ipolentioriea are not in session, exlraordinury incidents I should occur, w hicli rciiuire |ironiiit decisiun on the port uf the slates of the I'nion, tho contracting parties will , consult upon tlieao through their diiduniatic agents, or they will order an extra sitting uf their plenipoten- liarics. Kn'riif Change) in the (lerman Ciislums l^nion. — The discussicius in Ihe assemblies of tlio League have, espe- cially of late years, been a good deal inlluenced by po- litical considerolioiis. A league, denominated tho Sleur-Verein, had been formed in opposition to, or in rivalry with, the Prussian League, by Hanover, Old- enburg, and Brunswick. It was evident, however, in- asmuch as the interests of these and the other German states were iilenlical, that it would bo a great public ad- ■■| iii I'i Tf-K'HiP^ii l*VVVT-»*ar^-'^r?:;-' r.»^ a tp^^-vi- jfrsr-jr^twijiipiyjT! -57: -«v-a>' f ,' ^f ^'^^ 'WT^''-" PYR 1600 PYR vantage were tlicao associations mergod into ono. Dut owing to |)o/ttical, commercial, and tinancial jealousies, this dcsiralile oliject was of very iliflicult attainment, llapiilly, liowever, tlirso dillicultics have been sur- mounted ; and a treaty negotiated between Hanover and Prussia, on the 7tli of September, 1851, provided for the incorporation, from tlio Ist of January, 1854, of the former kingdom, and tlie other states included in the Stenor-Verein, with the Prussian Union. Some mod- ifications havo been introduced by tho treaty into the basis of the League, but tlicy are of littlo importance, except tlie to parties immediately interested.' Trenty with .\ustria, — More recently a great deol of discussion lias talten |dace Ijetwecn Prussia and the sub- ordinate (Jcrman states on tlie one band, and Austria on the other, in regard to the formation of a Customs Asso- ciation which should include the latter ; and in order to pave the way for this desirable consummation, Austria issued a new tariff on the 2uth of November, 1851, in which she made many important modifications in the prohibitive system on which she had previously acted, at tlie same time that she established a free commercial intercourse between Hungary (which had previously a separate customs establishment) and the other states of tha empire. And though this wise and liberal meas- ure baa not yet led to tho incorporation of Anstria into tho Customs Union, it has led to the conclusion of an extremely important commercial treaty between Aus- tria and Prussia, dated tho 19th of February, 1853. Tlie contracting parties engage to suppress, with a few specified exceptions, all prohibitions against importing the products of the one into the territories of the ether ; they next establish a romplete freedom of trade lietween tho two countries in all articles of raw produce ; and they further stipulate that tho duties to be imposed on manufactured products shall be jnoderate and reasona- ble. It has a variety of other clauses, all of which have a liberal character. The duration of the treaty is limited to 12 years ; but we have little doubt, should peace be preserved, that the advantages of which it will bo productive will bo so many and so great, that long before tho expiration of 12 years its provisions will be still further liberalized, and that it will lay the founda- tions of a lasting intercourse, of which we can neither foresee the extent nor the beneficial influence. In consequence of these and other changes the duties in tho tariff of the Uorman Customs Union have under- gone many modifications. But except on coarse ond lieav}' goods, tliey continue, speaking generally, to bo moderate. We subjoin An ArrouNT BiiowiNO tue Pkopobtiox or thk Kevknitks or tiik Gbrman CirsTOHB Vnion raibei> in tiik nirrxREMT States in lHr)i, ani> the Iiibtbuiutiom tiiebeoe, acookiunu tothkik I'oi'in.ATioN, raoM the okfioiai. Hrtvbns, rrii- MSHEi> AT Berlin in ISbi, rru> nuliti pn>'«t>l> Dlatnbution. Popul.ll.m, Th.itn. TliaUn • Tlnil.ri. TlinJira. Thiilen. 1«,0««,183 16,fi7.','.l29 M,a47,4;a 11,211,383 24',, 2(13 11.405 ,180 1S.I.7S3 77,114 t 10,445 127,040 2,241 lio.sso 4,,V2«,OBa 1,210,639 9<»4,'..91 S.0I4,(UII 63.4('i3 3,098,009 1,894.431 2,119 847 1,956.287 1,274,161 20,7.'i6 1.813.897 1,805 003 ii43,r>27 830, 37 ],214.3S7 21.325 1,28«>,712 l,3«0,.'iil9 C6J,02B 3r)3,4S2 91,MI5 10.070 (131, 186 7:1 f. 684 43.t,04« .'!4i,!.';6 492,061 8.041 000,092 SC,.',»1I 412,S03 40.'.B01 080,883 10.192 690,076 1,014,1 M 391,793 891,79a 082,040 10.831 098,571 247.OT0 890,14;! 220,6;3 100,175 3,534 10;t,709 426, ()89 881,492 «30,nR4 1tll,728,386 22,646,087 tI.eBa 2(l,IKk-),240 10,44 5t 19,9! 4.795 1»,»04,T96 410,304 20,406, H» * The llialer, 09 crnls Ainerlran cuiToncy. t Frankfort is regulated by a spcciAc arrangement, and not by popHlation. } A special payment by I'nisaia, on account of the Union. Fumice-atoue (Ger. BlmtKin; Fr. Pierre poutv ; It. Pi'tni jmmice ; Sp. Pieiira poiniz ; Lot, Pumex), a light, spongy, vitreous stone, found usually in tlie neigliborhoud of Volcanoes. It U used for (lolishing metals and marble, and smoothing the surface of wood anil pasteboard. It \i said to form a good glaze for pottery. The lighter pumice-stones swim on water, their specific gravity not exceeding -UM. The island of I.ipttri, in tho Mediterranean, is chiefly formed of puniice-stonc, and may bo said to be the magazine whence all I'iuropc is supplied with this useful article. Tbcro are several species of pumice-stones, but those only that arc light and spongy arc exported. Puncheon, a measure of capacity for liipiids, con- taining ciglily-four gallons, or one-third of a tun. Ptltchook. All article of this name is imported in coii^idcrulde <|uaiitities from the northwest coast of Iniliu into Cliiiia, ami is regularly quoted in the Can- ton price-currents. It is the root of n plant that grows aliuiiiluutly in Sinde. When burned, it yields a tine smoke, and a grateful and diffusive smell. Tho Chi- nese lieat ii into a fine powder, which they bum as in- cense ill the temples of their gods. — IlA.MtLTO.N'.s A'eic A ccomit nf the F.ust Indiet. PyroUgneous Acid (Or. irvp; I.at. lignum, ufood). This term is generally applied to tho aciti liquor which passes over along witli tar and gaseous products when wood is subjected to destructive distil- lation. This acid liquor is an impure vinegar, from which acetic aciy which an impure acetato of linio is obtained : tliis js gently heated, so as to destroy part of its empyrcumat- ic matter witboiit decomposing the acetic acid ; it is then mixed with sulphate of soda, which yields, by double decomposition, sul])hate of lime and acetate of soda ; tho acetate of soda is filtered off the sulphate of lime, evaporated, heated, and redissolved and crystal- lized. In this wa,v a pure crystallized acetato of soda is, by proper management, obtained, which is mixed ill a retort or still with a proper proportion of sulpliii- ric acid, and a gentle heat applied, which cau.scs llio strong acetic acid to distill over, and sulphate of suds remains behind. This acetic acid is in a hi^h state of concentration ; it is lowered by the addition of water, and if intended fqr tho table or for domestic use, as a sulistitule for other forms of vinegar, it is u.^ually col- ored with n little burned sugar. The clinrcoal wliicli is the residue of this distillation of wood is of an ex- cellent quality— that employed in the manufacture of gunpowder is thus prepared. This manufacture of vinegar is now carried on upon a very large scale, and the greater part of tho vinegar used for domestic pur- jioses and in the arts, in many of which it h largely consumed, is derived from this lource. QUA 1601 QUA la into t of an n Au8- , 1853. h a few (lorling a other ; Detween co; itnd ,>08cd on rfasona- )f wliich le treaty t, should ch it will Ihat long IS will ho le founiia- m neither the duties »vo under- :oargp. and ally, to bo tTUE!l3, roil- a ■ii.4W>r»>(i 1.8i»,W'T 1>31,1H6 tiOO.OM i91,8S0 Iviiicgav, from The pyrolit!- Aith ihalk or [oiioratcd. hy aincd ; this ia icmpvieu"'"'' Ic aiid : it i» ill, yicliln, hy Inil acetate of [ic huliiliate of \\ and cryutal- tofliito of soda hich is mixed Ion of sullili"- Ich causin llio Vhale "f s"^l» L hinl> state of [tion of water, Ulic use, a» » L usually ii>l- linrcoal wliiili I is o government could, until the belief in ques- tion lie proved to bo ill-founded, abstain from enforcing )i.ecautionary measures, witliout rendering itself liable to the charge of having culpably neglected one of its most imporlant duties — that of providing, liy every ineana in Its jiowcr, for tlie safety of its subjects. Lat- terly, however, it has been contended tliat tlie plague is never imported — that it is always indigenous; orig- inating in some (leenliar state of the atmosplicre, or in something peculiar in the condition of tlic |ieople ; and that, consequently, quarantine regulations merely im- pose a heavy burden on commerce, willumt being of any real utility. Hut though there does not seini to bo any reason for doubting that infectious disenses linve originated in the way described, tlie fact that thoy have, in innumerable instances, been carried from one place to another, seems to be established beyond all question. Kvcn if the evidence ns to the importation of infectious diseases were less decisive than it is, or the opinions of medical men more divided, it would not warrant the repeal of the restraints on the intercourse with siis|iect- cd ports. This is not a matter in which innovations should he rashly introerfcct, aro provided with lodgings for the crews and passengers, where tlie sick may bo separated from the healtliy ; and with ware- houses, where the goods may be deposlied; all inter- course lietween the lazaretto and the siirruundim; coun- try being, of course, interdicted, except by ;«.'rmi8sion of the authorities. Tlie lazarettos of I ; gliorii, (icnoa, and Marseilles are the most coiii;'.>;ic of any in Duropc. The facilities they n*'':,;,', lo navigation are very great ; for, as sliips from suspected places may discliargo their cargoes in the lazaretto, they are not detained longer than they would be were there no quarantine regula- tions, 'the goods deposited in lliu lazaretto, being in- spected by the proper oflicers, and puriiieil, are then admitted into the market. Sills of Jleallh.—'1'\K period of quarantine varies, as respects sliips coming from the same jilace, aecording to the nature of tlieir bills of healtli. These are docu- ments, or certilicates, signed by the consul or other coni- |>eteiit authority in tiic pinco which the ship lias left, describing Its state of healtli at the time of her clearing out. A clean bill iin|>orts that at the time of her sail- ing no infectious disorder was known to exist. A ins- pected, or, as it is more commonly called, a lunched bill, imports that rumors were alloit of an Infectious disorder, but that it had not actually appeared. Afoul bill, or the absence if clean bills, imports that the ]ilaco was infected when ilio vessel sailed. The duration of the quarantine is regulated by the nature of these in- struments. They seem to have been first issued in the Mediterranean ports in llJtiri, and are obviously of great importance. liy an act of Congress passed February 25, 1799, re- specting quarantine and health laws, it is provided that the i|uarantines and otlier restraints required by tho licaltli laws of any State, respecting any vessel arriv- ing in or bound to any |iort nr district, shall be duly observed liy tho oflicers of the revenue of the Vnited States, and by the masters and crews of the revenue cutters, and by tho military oflicers stationed upon tho sea-coast ; and nil suidi ollicers of the I'liited States are ri'qulred faithfully to aid in the execution of such laws. The secretary is authorized, w ben a conformity to the quarantine and health laws requires it, to prolong the terms limited for tho entry of vessels, unil the re- port or entry of their cargoes, and to vary or dispense wilh ony other regulations applicable to such rcporta or entries, provided that no State is thus enabled lo> collect a duty of toiinogo or imiiort without the con- sent of Congress, and (irovided that no part of the car- go be taken out or unladen otherwise than as by law is allowed. When, by the health laws of any State,^ QUA 1602 QUE any vessel arriving within a collection district is pro- hibited from coming to tlie port of entrj- or deliverj- for such district, and it is required by such health laws that the cargo of such vessel may bo unladen at some oth- er place, the collector, after due report to him of the whole of such cargo, niuy grant his special permit for unlading, under the care of the surveyor, or one or more inspectors, at some other place where such health laws permit, and upon the conditions which shall be direct- ed liy the Secretary of tlio Treasury, or which such col- lector nuiy judge expedient for the security of tlie pub- lic revenue; provided that'all the articles so unladen shall lie deposited at the risk of the parties concerned in Bucii warehouses or inclosures as the collector shall designate, there to remain under the joint custody of such collector and of the owner, or person having charge of such vessel, until the same be entirely dis- char;;ed, and until the goods so deposited may be safely removed, without contravening such health laws. And when such removal may be allowed, the collector hav- ing charge of such goods moy grant permits to the re- spective owners or consignees, their factors or ajicnts, to receive all goods which shall be entered, and where- of the duties accruing shall he secured upon tho pay- ment by them of a reasonable rate of storage, which shall be fixed by tho Secretary of the Treasury. Suitublo warehouses, with wharves and inclosures, arc provided, where goods may bo unladen and depos- ited fur any vessel subject to a quarantine, pursuant to the health laws. When, by tho prevalence of any con- tagious or epidemical disease in or nc&r the port of entry for any collcclion district, it shall become dan- gerous or inconvenient for the officers of tho revenue to discliarge their respective ofliccs at such port, the sec- retarj', or, in his absence, the controller, niaj- author- ize the removal of the collector, and the other officers employed in his department, to any other more con- venient place within or near to such collection district, where such officers may exercise tho same authority, and are liable to tho same duties, according to existing circumstances, as in such lawful port (.r district ; and of such removal public .lotice must be given. — Blust's SMimuuters' A uiitant, Tho quarantine laws of the diflcront States aro too voluminuus to give in detail, and therefore there is hero annexed only a synopsis of the quarantine laws in force in New York city. It Is tho duty of the pilots to hail all vessels enter- ing into the port of New York, and find whether tlicj- aro subject to quarantine ; and if they arc, to bring them to anchor in the quarantine grounds; also, to prevent any violation of tho quarantine regulations while they have charge of a vecscl, such as commuid- cation between a vessel subject to quarantine and tho shore, etc., and to report ail infringements of regula- tions to the health officer. Vessels arriving at tho port of New York are subject to quarantine as follows: 1st. All vessels direct from, or touching at any place where yellow fever, bilious malignant, or other pestilential or infectious fever ex- isted ut tho time of their departure, or on board of which, during tho voyage, any case of such fever has occurred, orriving lietween the SIst doy of May and the 1st day of October, shall remain at quarantino for at Jeast 30 days after arrival, and ut least 20 days after cargo li,is been discharged, and shall perform such fur- ther .quurantine as tho health officer shall prescribe, 2(1. All vessels arriving between tho Ist day of April and tlio Jat day of November, exclusive of tho above- spcciflcd; nil vessels from a fonign port, on board of which, during tho voyage, or while at the port of depart- ure, any perwu has been sick, or from any place in the ordinary passage from which they pass south of Cape Henloprn, arriving between tho 31st day of May and the IGtIi day of October ; and all vessels ft-om any place (Including islands) In Asia, Africa, or the Mediterra- nean, otttom any of the West Indian, Uabama, Iter- muda, or Western Islands, or from any place in Amer- ica, in the ordinary passn" 'rom which they pass south of Georgia, arriving be(>' ctn the Ist day of April and the 1st day of November, ai <: subject to quarantine and other regnlatioi^s, as the health officer may prescribe. The health officer must board every vessel subjr>ct to quarantine or visitation immediately on her arrival, and make his examination. The powers of the Board of Health are ample to pro- tect the port. The regulations are similar to those gen- erally adopted, and include a fine of $2000, and impris- onment of twelve months, to any master or crew of a vessel that shall refuse to submit to quarantine, and also a fine of $600 and imprisonment for any violation of quarantine. Quarter, the fourth part of any thing. As a tern) of weight it denotes the fourth of a hundred weight, or 28 pounds ; as a dr}- measure it signifies the fourth of a chaldron. Quarter, that part of a ship's side which lies toward the stern, or is comprehendeil between the aftmost end of the main chains and the sides of the stern, where it is terminated by the quarter pieces. Quarter of a Point, in Navigation, is the fourth part of the distance between two cardinal points, which is 2° -18'. Quarter Days. The days usually regarded in En- gland and most Continental countrit.'s(but not in Scot- land) as beginning the four quar' ■• / f tli» vear. They are, 1. I.ady Day (25th of MaivM; m. ^. -nmer Day (Juno 24tli); 3. Michaelmas Da> v - >ei 29th) j and, 4. (Xhristmas Day (Decembi Quarter Deck. The portly.; \,i ine uppermost deck of a ship between the main and mizen musts. Tills is the " parade" in men-of-war. Quarter Master, in the Xm-y, an inferior officer appointed to assist the mates in their several duties. Quarters imply the several stations where the offi- cers and crew uf a ship of war aro posted in time of action. Quassia (Ger. QuniiunKolz ; Fr. Bvit de qaasiie ; Sp. I.eno de qiiattia), a beautiful tall tree ^Qtmisia amara"), growing in North and South America and the West Indies. The wood is of a pale yellow color, and inodorous. Taste intensely bitter. It afl'ords to wa- ter an intensely bitter decoction, which is occasionally used in medicine, and wasformerly sulistituted liy some brewers for hops, but is now prohiliitcd under severe penalties. It afibrds a safe and efficacious fly-water or poison for flics. It is believed that it would suc- ceed well in our Southern States, and form a valuable addition to our forests. Quebec, tho capital of Canada, and of the Brit- ish possessions in North America, on the northwest bank of the River St. Lawrence, about 840 miles from its mouth, in lat. 40" 48' 4!» " N., long. 71° 10' 4.''> ' W. I'opulation in 1850, 40,233. Quebec is situated on a ridge, or promontory, formed by the St. Lawrence on tho south and wei-t, and the Kivcr St. Charles on the east. The extremity of this headland, called Cu|ja Diamond, is about i'45 feet above the level of the wa- ter, and on it the citadel is built. The town extends from tho citadel, principally in a northeast direetion, down to tho water ; and is, from tho diff'ercnce of eleva- tion, divided into the upper and lower towns. The fortilicatlous, which are very strong, extend across the peninsula, the circuit within them being about two and three quarter miles. From their situation many of tho streets are uneven ; they aro also, for the must part, narrow ; but they are either well paved or Mac- adamized. The greater numlier of the houses arc built of stone, with shingle roofs. Some of the public build- ings are elegant, and well adapted for their pur|)oses. The harbor, or basin, lies between the town and the island of Orleans. It is safe and commodious : the water Is about 28 fathoms deep, with a tide rising from 17 to 18 feet i and at springs from 28 to 25 ditto. Que- QUE 1603 QUE te" W«» tmnHvi Ijy the French in 1608. In 1629 it BaKie timber, the Imports into Great Uritain from W«# l«li«« by the KngllMi ; l.ut was restored in 1632. Canada and other parts of British America of red-pine It yL*" «^»'»,*»''6" ^y ">• Knglish under General and of pine and spruce plunlts, especially the latter' WhI/V, mUu fell In the engagement, in 1759 ; and was have of late verv largely Increased. Exccptinc tinil jiHrtlly mM to Kngland by the treaty of Paris In 1763. I,er, furs and aslies are the most inuwrtant articles sent 'Ml» Mfdd \me»M of population In, and of emigration from Canada. A considerable part of the corn and Ui,\ p\M Oattada has occasioned a proportional increase flour exported fr .m Quebec is the growth of the United Of mmf ts rni I-akes Ontario, Krie, etc. Tlie first consist of corn, cottons, woolens, sillt, and other maim- mmtmAt thai piled on the St. Lawrence was launclied fuctnred goods ; glass ware, spirits and wines iron and IH 1«13< but there are now a great many steamers, hardware, sugar and tea, etc. The total value of tlic l(«J(«eftN«(f» of large burden, employed In the convey- imports into Canada (of which however bv far the JflgS of goods and passengers between Quebec and largest portion goes to Montreal) In 1848 Amounted to MOHtfS«l i atlrt In the trade between Quolwc and Hali- 412,107,164 currency (24». id. currency =20j sterlinc) JfJJfj ttl Vim Scotia. And by means of the Uideau and ■ Declared value of British produce and manufactures yfmum tiftttals, »n uninterrupted line of steam com- exported to Canada in 1851, £2,461,531 It is mate- mtmit'ftlioH k fnrtned lietween the Atlantic and Am- rial, however, to bear in mind that little more than huM'liHff^, otie of the remote settlements of Upper half the imports are paid for by the exports- they are in fact, principally paid for by the Treasury at home, and arc to be regarded as the means sent out by En- gland to pay the troops and meet the otlier heavy ex- penoes she has to incur in the preservation of this un- profitable colony, ACOOUNT OF THR NoMUia 0» VESSELS AMI TIIKIB ToNKAGF. WmoU ARRIVED AT THE I'ORT (IK yiEllEC, INCLnm.vl, THOSE iiouNn roB .Montreal, anh raou Sea, from lS4(i TO 186j INCLnSIVX. (!»ll., kept in constant agitation by the flux dUd f*rtH*of t(te tide, render navigation Impracticable, TbS W«l«f9 Of the St. Lawrence are very pure ; and in poitlt tif lUplU and magnitude it Is one of the noblest fivW.i* itt fhs world, — Boociiettk's lirilish Dominions in Amt'lfa, Queliec Is a free warehousing port. 'fhs '< liftllH numbers of emigrants leave England for t)«HWl»j lf (fim ll(« north of ftnropc ; and but for this prepos- i^ftrttS «ff(tHf ««<^Hif(mf». Ill :,...,.,,. ... 4 2,129 00 3 1,034 38 1 609 18 306 13 1 T02 18 is 0,541 219 441 189,486 1 6843 81 12,108 421 401 229,425 7202 67 31,036 817 QUI 1604 QUI QuioIu>lTer, or Meronry, one of the meUla, i nd ■0 funible that it can not be reduced to u solid state nut at a degree of cold equal to forty below zero of Fahren- heit's thermomc^''. Its use in refining silver was dis- covered A.i>, IM There are mines of it in various parts, the chief cf which are at Almadur or Almeida, in Spa'n, and at Udria, in Carniola, in Germany, dis- covered b}' accident in 141)7. A mine ivas discovered at Ceylon ir 1797. Quicksilver was congealed in winter at St. I'etersburg in 1769. It was congealed in £nglund by a nhemicnl process, without snow or ice, by Mr. Walker, in 1787. — -See Mercu u\ . For i. jtices of quicksilver mines, see American Journal of Science, xxviil. 219 j Hunt's Mcrchantt' Jlfai^azine, xviii. 108. The exports of quicksilver from California, the pro- duction of the California mines, for three years, were as follows, allowing the flasks to hold 76 pounds at a value of 60 cents c pound : Vasn. FlMkJ. ValtM. 1S!>3 18800 20,f68 28,9 IT M,1T9 »T05,00I) T8U,lri I,084,38T 8U1,724 1S51 isQr> ISM The exports of quicksilver of domestic production from the ITnitcd States, for the year 1856, amounted to $831,724, and was solely from the port of San Fran- cisco. 'The exports of foreign quicksilver amounted to tl6,011 of which $15,689 was from New York. The imports of quicksilver for the same time amounted to |i8(i25, of wliich $2619 was into New Orlcm.-, and the procen found in China and .Japan ; and though the amount of the produce is. unknown, it is believed to lie considerable. According to Dumas, the following mines yield an- nually as follows : Almaden, in Spain, from 2,700,000 to 8,450,'000 pounds avoirdupois) Idria,648,000t> 1,080,0-po8cs of turnery ; but from its small size this tree is almost entirely cultiva- ted for its fruit, or as stocks on which to graft the mount- ain ash an,tl&.'>,IHi3 Vulua. $J26 10 &■)• 30.8 7 6 471 4 147,560 9,302 6,139 2-J 10,849 B2 2,991 178 18,73a 211 01.309 6.W 859 15,030 2r.','.!';-. i7,70ii 11,008 506 53,428 17,070 377 20 10 1,256 1,715 747 4^ $1,418. Iv5 1.23J,168 I(2u8"057 Railroad, or Tramroad, n ipAcjea n,' r»nd hnvlnf tracks or ways formed of iron, stonu, iir nlhnr milra material, on which the wheels of the carrlituo* tutanltlK along it run. The object in construfilnu siic/i roitdi •s, by diminishing the friction, to maka a \u*» aiiiniitit of power adequate cither to inipal « oarrlrtKH with • greater velocity, or to uri,3 forward « ({ruattir limd. 'Iho essential requisites of a railroad «rii two iir |i|nr9 smooth parallel surfaces for the wheels lu rim upon, and formed and placed in such relation *• to (jlvn tli« maximum strength and safety with tha iiiiiilnuiin frlo- tlon. The friction on a porfi 'I;- level rallruiid, |trri|). eriy constructed, is esiimirjd u) amount tg rriiiii tenth to one-seventh only of the frlcilon cm an orilliiary level road ; so that, supposing the tarns furcit to \m »\f piled in both cases. It would move a wcIkIiI friitii 10 to 7 times as great on the former as on tlia Utl4e iron raiis were first tried, but not approved of. In 1H08 tiiey were introduced int-^ some coal works of Cumberland, and used with complete success." — Gili.kshif. on Railwnt/i. Since then they have been formed of a great variety of shapes. The principal are, 1st. The flat rail used on branch coal-roads and on roads where horse-power is used, and where economy is considered essential. 2d, The rail called the "fish-bellied," from the rounded profile of its under side. The form of this rail is in- dicated by theory as almost perfect foi strength ; but on account of the unsteadiness, from requiring a high support, it is now generally abandonM. 3d, The A rail, or inverted U. This rail is admirably adapted for strength and security, but is more complex for rolling than the rail commonly in use, namely, the V rail inverted, A ; and has only been used to a moder- ate extent, and principally in England. 4th. The in- verted B rail, so called, but more like an I in form. This form was found by Professor Itarlow to possess the maximum strength from a given quantity of material. This rail is used in England, but has been found to bo deficient in stability. The T (inverted) rail is tho one generally used in this country; and for the fa- cility in rolling, strength, and stability, is decidedly tho best form. The weight commonly used is about (iO pounds to the yard ; but a heavier rail is more econom- ical in the end ; and tho weight of rails has been in- creasing from 35 pounds, the weight first used, to that of sixty pounds to the yard. Rails were first laid on stone sleepers or blocks, as giving the most solid support ; but this plan has gradu- al!}' been abandoned, as the want of elasticity was ihe cause of a rapid destruction to the roiling stock. Lon- gitudinal sleepe>^ of wood were also tried ; but after much practical ex))ericnce, the present form of trans- verse wooden sleepers, laid on broken stone or gravel bed, was adopted as the best foundation, and is now in common use. IjKomolivei. — After a full trial of horse-power and stationary steam-engines, the plan of an engine, and which the present locomotive is in many respects only an improvement of, was invented. There bus Ikcu some controversy as to who should have the credit of the invention. It appears, however, that in 1759 Dr. Kobinson, then a student in the University of Glas- gow, suggested to Watt the application of the steam- engine to wheel-carriages; and in 1782, Murdocli, to whom Trevithick was a pupil, made a model of a ateam-carrittgo. In 1784 Watt ilcscribed such an appli- cation in his patent. In 1801 Oliver Evans, of Philadelphia, moved a steam dredging-machino a iniln and a half on wheels turned by its own engine. In 1802 Itichard Trevi- thick, in conjunction with Andrew Vivian, both Corn- wall engineers, built and took out Wwjlift patent for a ! Iacomoti%'e; and in 1804 liichard Trevithick built a I second locomotive, which on a road in South Wales , drew ten tons at the rate of Ave miles an hour. - It BAI 1607 UAI Mocks, 83 \a» grailu- r -was the ck. Lon- but after 1 of trntis- or gravel 1 is now in >owcr and iginc, and pccts only has lifi'" B credit of , 17B9 l)r. ■ of Glas- Ihe stcam- lurdocli, to Tiodel of a ■i an appU- I moved a Ion wheels Ird Trevi- f)oth Corn- jatent for » f k built a [ith Wales Ihour. -It WM many years, however, before any improvement took place, owing chiefly to the tmaginary difliculty uf getting the locomotive wheels to " Ijite," or keep I'runi ■lipping on the rails. Great ingenuity was brought to task to remedy this Imaginary uvil; and in Itlli a rail with racks or sockets was laid, and an engine with teeth to lit ill the rack was built. In 1813 an engine Mrllh hind legs was Invented to prevent the slipping. All these coiitriva'"!es were, however, shown to bo use- less by the discovery in 1814, by actual experiment, that no friction was nc:!ded. And in this same year the lirst really successful locomotive v as invented by George Stephenson, which ran six miles an hour, and drew SO tons. Little progress was made from this time until 1829, when Uobert Stephenson conMtructed the "Kocket" engine, which on trial ran with an average speed of 15 miles an hour, and with a maxi- mum speed of 29^ miles an hour. Since that time locomotives have been built to run over one hundred miles an hour, and to draw a train uf cars up an in- clined plane of 500 feet to the mile. The performances of a modern locomotive, in fact, are among the moat wonderful of all mechanisms. Railroad Management. — Although one of the most powerful elements in our prosperity, and in fact now a necessity, it can not be denied that railroads generally have been failures considered as protitable investments to the stockholders. The business of our railroads is ample to make them good investment; and therefore there can be but one cause for so general a failure ; namely, unremuneralire tariffs. Occasional instances of bad management have taken place, but it is obvious that this can nat be the cause of so general a failure. Tli'i gold discoveries of California and Australia have advanced the priees of labor, fuel, etc., from iiO to 50 per cent., and, consequently, the expenditures of rail- roads in a similar ratio. During this lime there has been no corresponding increase in the tariffs of our railroads. This, in connection w th the fact that the depreciation of the rails, rolling stock, etc., have not been sufUciently allowed for, explain tho cause; and make a remedy obvious. To show the auviiority for this statement, we give the expenditures, etc., on rail- roads at different periods since their first practical adoption. These show that there was a gradual de- crease to 1815, and since that time an increase in ex- penditures. The annual cost of maintaining in operation a well- managed road is almost l\ cents fur each ton per mile carried over it, and 41 cents for each mile run by nil the engines, besides $uOD for each mile of road. If it be likewise a passenger road, there is to be added three- fourths of a cent per mile for each passenger carried. — Cii ABI.K? Ei.LET, Jun., Civil Engineer, Franklin Insti- tute, 1842. The complete average expense per train per mile of running on the principal roads was estimated In the Vnlted Stales, In 1839,' at 100 cents. In England. 1810t W " t'ltca anil Scheiiecudy Uailroad, I83!> to 1841 . . . . IIR " Wealera Kalliima (Mauacbusctts), 1840 to 1844 . . Tl '■ Average of Maasuchiuelts rail-oads, I84B 66 (JpuBATioiis or Tiia lUii.iiiMiiii i)f HiiMiMNtMrrR n 1-411 lit llfth, T'»l«l Klll«IIMr*^»l HrHllill * Chevalier DIG EBSTHU. 1846. 1S4T.. 184S.. 1849., 1861). 1861.. 1S6.'.. 1853. 1854.. 1868. t Profeuor ViQNOLXS. 73 76 76 76 74 7« 77 8'2 i'8 105 It will be seen from this statement that the expenses have been steadily increasing since 1815. To exhiliit this more plainly, we give a table showing the gross receipts and expenses, and also the net receipts of the Uassachnsetts railroads for ten years. From this It will bo scnii Hmt ilm ^ruM f>'n'l|its (or tarifl') increased only •()»( i,ur will, In tin yi-iir., wlill* the net receipts ducreawd '^;l p.ir ciiii, j nii pcnses. For the precuiliiig reasutis, tlw I'lml of that item on the Eastern rood Is but k'M) p«r itille uf tba length of tho road, while unuii tjie Westnril It is ijliaVO. 7. Of tho expenses of railroiids, thirty pitf I'eiil. m absorbed in maintenance of way, or ruidl IkiiI \ twenty per cent, in fuel and oil | twenty pur ciiiit, In rvpnlr .tf engines, tenders, and cars; ten pur I'uiit. Iff *|ii'olal freight expenses ; and the reiliHliiijiir III pll!U>t|«rs, ami ean upon freight trains, is scarcely one fuhl ((reatiir tliitfl tht weight of the merclmmliso. 10, Fur I'litinptiiiiiii, rail' roads can not compete with caimla, in Iraii'pMrlallon of heT'y descriptions of merchandlsui thscuKlufearry* ing ' tiohandlse upon the Erie Canal raiiKxs ffuin two to sixteen mills per ton per inllo| whiln upiin nlntcsn of the principal railways of New Yurk and Massnchu< setts tho cost of carrying niereliainllna raii(((t« from thirteen to sixty-five mills per Ion per iiilla. It being granted that the present tarllfs ar« tiis low, fho rcmaly, or how to make railroads inom prulllable, \» tho chief point. We extract from A papitr written by Charles Kllet, Jun. civil eiigiiieur, wlik'it tiluiiidate* * good sy.stcm. Ist.Evcry road should form lU own tarllT of tulll, based upon its own trade. 2d. In arraiu/ing the tariff, Itt thfjlrit llfn Im to itir»l^ tain the true cast uf trmuporlation utum IM p'lrllcultif road for which the tariff it intended, Tlie iu>(u«l cunt of transportation is clearly the iiiiiiimuin limit uf adinlisU ble reductions in favor of those olijeetl of lrat)s|iort«' tion which are deemed, from motivas of \m\W.y, most worthy of special encouragement, Tlier« limy liK, and ought to be, material dUcriininalhms in «viportntion unit the prohibitory chargn. The next step in the construction of a loll-shetit should then he to form a third tarilt', by ndding together, for each article and each position, the cost of transporta- tion and the prohibitory charge, and taking half thei, cum as a near approximation to that charge which will yield the greatest net revenue. Yet there is no fact better susceptible of the strictest mathematical demon- stration than this, that the chnrge$ which trill yield the marimum net revenue on raitroattt doing a miscellaniout buiinett ».; ■( be from one to tiro C(nl$ per ton per mile greater than that lehich irill produce the maximum groii reitnue. If, then, a company aims to obtain the greatest posslhlo gross revenue, it can only succeed by a groat sacrifice of dividends. In fact, the gross revenue may be enormous, and yet be insufHcicnt to pay their ex- penses. Railway I^giilalion. — Xothwithstanding the vost ad- vantages which the opening of so many new and Im- proved lines of communication have conferred on tlie country, we can r.ot help thinlting that these advant- ages might have been much greater, and that, in the instance of railway legislation, the public interest! have been overlooked to a degree that is not very excusalile. It is, we admit, no easy matter to decide how far the interference of government should be carried in matters of this sort. But, at all events, this much is obvious, that when government is called upon to pass an act authorizing private parties to execute a railway or other public work, it is bound to provide, in as far as practicable, that the public interests shall not bo preju- •>< 45 Milan to Trnvlallii , S3 VariiiiH In Manilla .,.. I ,,. 08 Mmlrit lo I '*Mn>a, , , , , , 04 Cuavanllu tu ItKritaiiiii. ,.,,,.. 28 Ti.tal 4BT Tha railways lo Im ponstructed are as follows : Kilomttnt. IbirKanMl'i Miitiaa ....,,,... ST IlKi'iiaiiMi tn lifrcii..!.... SO Mllmi lu lliiiral'ira 33 Milan lo properly supported while employed. liy a special ukaso, dated February 18, 1842, it was decreed that the railway which was to unite the two capitals of St. I'ctorsliurg and Moscow should bo con- structed exclusively at the expense of thu state, in order to retain in 'lie hands of tho government, and in the general interest of tho people, a lino of coinmuuica- tioii so important to tho industry and the internal coni- merco of tho empire. Tho loca proprietors eijually agreed to surrender to government gratuitously tho lands necessary for the works of ll's line. Thu system of mil 's contemplated in Russia is composed of live pr.ic, jil trunk lines, ono of whicli, connecting Warsa<' with Cracow, is completed and in operation: the length of this line is KM miles. The second will connect Warsaw witl .•it. I'otersburg ; che extent of this would be, when executed, (IH.I miles. The third will connect St. Petersburg with Moscow ; this lino is in active progress : its length will be about tOO miles. Besides these, authorization was given to a company, by a ukaso dated July, 184;i, to construct a railway for tho transport of goods between tlio Wolga and tho Don, the length of which would bo 1U5 miles. In the actual execution of this magnificent system of railway communication, no considerable progress has l)een yet made, w ith the exception of the line already nientionod between Warsaw and tJracow. A short lino of railway connecting St. I'etcrsburg with Tsarkoi-soila, having an analogy to tlio (ireen- wich and Itichmond linos, which diverge from London, and tlio Versailles and St. Germain linos from I'arin, was completed and opened for tratHc in April, 1K3.S. The traffic on this lino has hitherto amounted to about seven hundred passengers per day. The railway connecting the Don and tho Wolga wai opened for tralllo in lH4«i liut this lino is exclusively for niercliandine, and is worked liy horses. In southern ItuNsia a lino of railway is projected lie- twocn Kief and Odessa, tho surveys ofwhich have been made liy ILlglan engineers ; but no progress in Its con- struction has yet Iwen ellecteil. A railway Ims Ih'pii projected also between St. Petersburg and Croiistailt, and another between St. Petersburg and Kullisliport, in Ksthonia, to be constructed and worked I'V a com- pany wit,< a guarantee of 4 per cent, by tho' govern- ment. In Italy i few short lines of railway onlv imvo been executed, coi, Meeting the chief states with "neighboring places. Tli"j are as follows : Naples to I'onlcl, opened October, l^M f. I'oitlcl lo Caitlenmrc, with briiiicli in N.iceru. . . '211 Naples tot.'ttp m 2Bt Milan to 'rrcvn5llo *.!!!'.'.'.'. IS Milan to .Mnnzi '..'.'!!.*.'."!.'.* 13 Velllco to Vlcut, rjk '.'.*.'.*.'.*.*.*.'.'. 41) Leghorn to I'lsa !!....!! It) Klim-nro lo hliiip ill, I'oiito Dera, l'l«a, nnd Wemiii . . risa to l.iiceaanl San Salvador Florence turret; loj In the kingdom of Sardinia railways exi^t as yet only in prospect. It is iiitendeu to carry two lines from Turin, one dir wted on (ieiioa l)y Alexandria, and the other on Milai by Vorcclli and Novara. The political distraction i, however, of the last two year* have suspended thes > projects. UitUrondi in Spain.- -From returns lotely made in Spain to the government concerning the railways conceded and at work in that country in 18o(i, it np- pears that tho whole of the lines open to the public, including that from Madrid to Saragossa, conceded to tho Spanish Credit Mobilier, give a length of 1955 liilo- metres {X'li'i miles). In the concession granted to that company, of the two sections of the railroad from Madrid to Vailadolid, and from llurgos to tlie frontier of Franco, tho first section will leave Madrid, puss by Avila, Are- volo and Medina del Canipo, and will stop at Vailado- lid, where it will join tho section already traced out from N'ullailolid to llurgos. ItdUroails in J'nis..4;7 3-82 1S60 1S71 100 14(1,273 1,.131,S!)» 4,42U,172 4,;iiis.22;) 4 OK ISBl I'.iS'i 112 148,6Si) I.«n4,;i'>r) 4 fl.'2,!l!IO 4,9,'is,! B9 509 IRS'2 2180 120 14I.SI7 2.171,c,l« 4,100.7:14 0,M1,3IIO t>-7& is.ts WiH i:i5 144,397 2.5:17,401 B 4^8,1 Otl 7,821.08,-) B-7U 1804 2.12(1 141 137.IS4 2,18»,0S4 r>.712,13.'S (•,077.2,'il fi-79 18.56 2304 140 143,734 8.64B.1I60 6.t),'>9.314 12,2(15,523 041 Tho numlier of passengers has remained stationary since 1819, while tlie receipts for passenger trade have increased only in proportion to thu length of road. The amount of merchandise transporteil has, on the contrary, increased three-and-a-half fold ; ond h bile in 1819 the receipts on merchandise did not equal tlie re- ceipts from passengers, they amounted in 1855 to more than double the receipts from passenger transport. In 1849, 384,788,685 hundred pounds were transported over every milo of road ; in 1855 were trans|>orted l,742,0titi,452 hundred pounds. While the roads have scarcely increased one-third in aggregate length, the transport of merchandise has increased live-fold. Tho lengths above attributed to Prussian roads ex- tend in some cases beyond the Prussian borders. At till) end of 1851 there were 2280 miles of railroad in Prussia. At the end of 1855 there were 231:) miles. During tho year 185() about 270 miles of road were opened in Prussia, so that at present in the whole Prussian state there is one milo of railroad to every nine and two thirds square miles. This, however, varies in diflTerent provinces — amounting iu Khineiand and Westphalia to &'5 ; in Silesia to 7'2 ; in Branden- burg and Saxony to '•!> ; in Pomerania, Prussia, and Poland, to 22-5 square miles for every mile of railroad. There are already commenced, and to be completed in 12 years, 2ii50 miles, so thot in 12 years Prussia will contain at least 5230 miles of railroml, or one mile for every 4'3 square miles. There will tlien bo one milo of railroad to every 2'3 square miles in Khineiand and Westphalia, to every 4 scjuaro miles in Silesia, to every 4 square miles in Brandenburg and Saxony, and to every 10 square miles in Pomerania, Posen, and Prussia. The cost of building these new roads is esti- mated at aliout *) 1)8 000,0(10, or $14,000,000 yearly. Uailroutls in fiance. — Wo extract the following re- port on the condition and progress of railroads in France during the year lH5(i, submitted to the Emperor by Jl. A. Koiiher, chief of the Department of Agricul- ture, C'oinniert'c, and Puldic Works ; " A resume of these figures, whi eh indicate tho great increase of public confidence, also exhibits the fact that the construction of thu net-work of .railroads in France has cost, to this period, .^,080,000,000 francs,* of which 4 II * The franc equals IS'6 cento. HAI 1610 RAI 3,410,000,000 fell U)ion the runipanlci, and 061,000,01)0 Wua coiitrlliiiti'il hy (liu nUUt. Of (hit «)()(raKate ■muuiit tbiTO appear* fur Ihu vvarn lMu5 ami lUuU tli« •noriiibui iiuiii iif l)lli,UUO,(iU() Iruiica. "The n«l rm-elpu, which In lHt7 wnrn railed lu 2',>,|>l, tli«ir marked iucreaao la ihown by the foUuwiiii; llgurca : In I8nj 91.000 franca per klloniotro. " IsM «i,«Oi> •• " ISM '^0,4'H) " " "Thcao riluriia experienced in If'/.') an exceptional auKnicnladuii, owini; to the Univcn-ui K.xhibltlon ur World'a Fair. 1 licv reached IIO,;IO() fraiiia ; and If the aniiMiiit dill not rcarh tlint tlKuro the preacnt year (]" «>i, th" inireaao over 1K,^4 la not llio leaa pru)(rca»- ivo; for the n>tiiriis for the first three qiiartcra ahow the net aniuunt nf 2H,0UU francs, at the very luweat, per kllumelri.'. "Stati m bnt k'mi ihtinii Till f'oaTor RAiLiOADa n« Fbahoi riioH 18J1I TO ItlBJ. AeiuAlrijct— 1 Tollw ■uu. To llo CompanlM. ToUI. KrVnci] ;i.;)ii,i,onii.4ti» 7.l7.lNift,2U2 4U7.I28 2;;A i.i)7.S77,Hlli 4S.%11IM.486 47s.8B6,7IO Il,l2«,06;i,978 46,806,000 11,080,4114,1)71 Kmni IMll lol83!) ,, •• 18,0 10 1841.. " 18»Jtol84T.. " 184S to Isfil . . " ISBitolSM.. tn ISB Viu», n,'i'is'.'74n 278,K;3,e77 2i:8,4l7,l47 ftl, 187,781 MS. 200,000 20,280,000 rrNnci. ii,;i» 1,000 172,OJ7.7B;i (>0',l,411,l^(>b lllS,7il.l)98 (MA,n!HI,0i>4 4:io.40«,48n 4&4.MV,in In 18,'*0 Total l.cHH rori'lpta ln> l-A&'WJ l" General total 705,87.1,1116 4Mi«,fl00 llOI.:lH,JI.'> il,41',l,IHI>,0b8 2.4111, 18«,«f>< " It may be interoatlnt; and iiiAtructive to ahow as well tho propurtioiis In which the cxpenaca are dis- tributed bctwciii tho principal periods into which tlie past tliirtV'fnur years have been divided, aa the share coiilribntul by the atato diirin); tlio sume periods. Tho } cars which elapsed between 18'23 and IMiiO wore, as respects railroada, an epoch of cxperimenta anil trials, to which tho companies devoted an annual aver- ago uf '170,UU0 francs, tlia state I'urnislilng no contri- bution, " During the twelve years which aucceeded tho rev- olution of ,000,000 each year. Since 1852, however, when Icgitimato confi- deiico was again restored, and new institutions bad in- spired in France security and hope in the future, anew order of tilings commenced. Tho annual expenses of the company augmented in a remarkable degree, hav- ing risen to the average of 210,000,000 francs. The demands upon the treasury diminished no less rapidly, having been reduced by receipts and reimbursements to tho annual sum of 17,000,000 francs. " Finally, under the healthy influence of the general prosperity and credit, the expenses of the companies reached, in the year 1856, 430,000,000 francs, and in 1850, 458,000,000 francs ; while those of the state wero reduced by ralmhuraemanl* to not more than 110,000,000 fur Iwih ynara. The ri'siiniA of lliese llgurea, which are themselves the indlcea of Ilia pulilic conlidunce, ahowa that tho net-work of railroada In France haa cnat, up to tho prxMint period, 1I,OM(),<)()0,0(H) friiiica, of which the state paid UUI,m)0,OUO francs, anil the roiiipanlea '2,4 11), 000,000. To tliia aggregatu aiiioiint the years 1855 and 1850 alon* contributed the enormous amount uf Uli),0O0,lMN) francs. " Tho entire length of this net-work of railroads at the coniniencenient of 1857 la 1I,°2.W kiluinetrca; or opened, II.00O; in progrcaa uf completion, 1750. " Length to be completed in the next ten years i 188T 0118 klloiuctrab ISSfl. 18{>V. . 1840. . 1801.. 186.'. . 18«3. . 1801.. 1806., l8tM. . 81s 204 ri48 811 Alio )US "0« Total length In progreaa of completion . . . 4760 " The following are the last returna of the gross re- ceipts of the principal French railways from November 11 lo November 17, cimipared with the corresponding week laat year : ' RallfMib. 18AS. ISU. Northern Kr«nri. 1.074,';7'i oin.iiio l,0M.ll7il 7:i4,ii.'o R8fi,7iM) 51U,U01 76,2111 Frinc* WJ,0.'7 703,113 1,187,042 741.8110 42 886 WenUiril Orlcftna Htraiibiirg f 32, 170 «7.\(in7 I.yono to Modlterranetn flowthom 220,462 Progreti of Jiaitroad BuilJiiig in Franet and Germa- ny. — In Uermany the first Yailroad was opened In the year 1828, and two years later in France. Tho follow- ing table exhibits the number of geographical miles in operation In both countries since 18'28 : * The kilometer equals about Ave furlongs. Vun. VriMC9. Ocrniauy. Von. Frftiic«. Gcrnianv MilM. Mll>l. Mll». Milei. 1828 » 1844 lull 1122 1830 11 1846 100 413 I8J2 10 17 18411 lUU 61!) 1833 BO 17 IS47 210 739 18.16 86 18 1S4S 2311 S8I 1839 86 27 1S41I 806 1)11) 18:17 31) DO lS.'iO 8sB 1)!I2 1838 80 61 If^l 460 1036 18,1!) 46 78 1S,'>3 601 1091) 1810 66 108 1SB3 6;i2 ii;6 1841 74 lot 1864 012 1223 184.' 74 2111 1866 733 1274 1S43 109 '261 No two countries have the same weights and meas- ures, though the same name to designate them may bo used in many countries. Take the iidle measure, for instance; in England and tho United States a iniio means 1700 yards ; in the Netherlands it is lOHil yards ; while in Germany it ia 10,1*20 yards, or nearly si.t En- glish miles; in France it is SO'26 yards; tho Scotch mile is 2472 yards, and the Swedish mile 11,700 yards. Railway! of (ireai Urilain. — On the illst of Decem- ber, 1860, tho 8506 miles of railway in tho United King- dom had actually cost in money 30!) millions sterling, and that large sum had been obtained as follows : viz., Mllllalll Blerlini. Ordinary shares 174 Pref'renco aharea 67 '231 Loons raised 78 SUt) The average rate of interest paid on the preferenco share capital was £b 13a. per cent, per annum ; on tho loans raised, that is on debenture debt, .£4 13>. per cent, per annum ; and on the ordinary share capital, RAI 1611 UAI 100,000 ilch >ra ■liowi ;ni(, up which iipunlea • yean amount rntt«l| X3 ii, Ci,l. per rant, per annum. Thn total grofK re- ceipt! iif the railway! of llib l.'nitol KinKer of railway acts passed in each session of Parliament since lMlnii*il ltit;« fNUvil *13'2.fllT,!kW UV.46ll.rJ-l IR.'iTl,'.',-!! H,IMI,ll:il 4 Ht>Mi 48311.831 15,M7.6'>1 U,'JII,60'j 0,10i,088 1M« 2T0 IIM) V> M 34 61 Bl 106 Tl T.l Milta. 4MS IBAO BTI 16 8 13fi »4I U40 48'i 184T lfl4A 1S40 ISftO 1S»1 IMiJ 18IX) ; ALSi), SIIOWINO TilK TOTAL LBMUTII OF liAlLWAY OPKMEI) >1>R ThaFFU I.N F.ACII YSAa SI.NCK l^J. LiMaTH or Lim oriHiD. k m l^i .SI'S -'^ = 1 4. Yaara. P i f .Ml-. i Ma 1 1 1 t 1 & S 1 t i 1 u I illf a filiil Of lines suthorlrJ>d| Mis. Mls.l.Mln. MlH. .MtH. .MiK, .Mis. .Mis. Mln. .Mis. Mia. .Ml.i. Mile!.. Miles. Ml lea. Ml.. prev. to Dec. 184.i,'iu3«; '"4 131 16 li 1 .. ,2aiHi 2,3110 ,, 2,3' riS4» .. 180 3llll Ui 11S .1 4 . . 7112 SW> . . 8P6 13 1848 .. n «i4 nT.'t 601 .■111 '21.1 «8 106 123 .'.1 20 2,100 2,700 no 2.r44 a44 1841 . 84 4o:i 8iil .".711 Vi-1 2as 179 l;l 23 2 M) a, '.'11 71 III 18 «l 22 27(1 1,!I.M 4:18 010 mil 1848 .. T 7 10 11 , . 41 i;7i 7 «l(4 :r:3 Of lines au- 1819 ^ ^ i 1 ^, 8 10 16 i:i thorised In ' 18SI) IS.M 2 4 iV. 2:i 1 IB Vl 7 T7 8 1B.% •• 8 13.'^ 1 88 ISfii 11 11 100 21 119 '.'44 2 24'i 13 18,M ;^,^ SS T.'.'l 940 1 t.19 810 |85t 2.1 2.1 4'!2 <> 4,S0 4:i7 1888 , , .. 803 .. S03 303 Totnl i»,)i: •Jil4 •ii o] 60i) 8(13 1182 Sll'.l 1 6 8 i6:i 410 1 Bh() ;i6s '.:2a 82»U 14,346 1,418 12,881 4871 Kailwiiys opened to piiiuienp;ef tniltlc lieloiiKiliB to private Individual.', but 17 17 Total '.'.i3 02117 From the foregoing table wo see that there was a general Increase In the nnniber of miles opened from the year 1844 to the year 1H4S, when the number reached the maximum. From the year 1848 there was a de- crease, which, though not regular, is sutficlently no to show that Great Britain was approximating toward a completcil system. The average nunibcrof miles opened In the twelve years from 1844 to 1855 inclusive, was 690, which is much leas than the average number built in the United States during the same period. This length of line is distributed throughout the United Kingdom as follows : CooDlrlM. h .11- ¥ ! k Mlln. 00 40 90 2'.6 k • "" C - 1 Milw. 02 10 less 087 8280" .its Mllo. 3.70 48< Ki7 487 1 III Fnf^Und and^VaIcf.. !t»M. 0114 1043 897 Mllei. 9,486 1,841 1,8'.'4 14.881 Ireland Total 81164 '■": I ■AI i6;i RAI Wllh mpafl to nm mlU* nut nf ih* 4571 miUi for whl'b |iarlU<'Hifll«r)' iNiwurri hav« Imkiii nhulniil, ■ini nlilili luvii n>i< v«l li*"!! nfttrntil, tlia piiwori fur III* i-iHii|iulwr)' iiurrfiUMi nf lli* Unil and III* <'iiiii|il>>- lln In wlil'li IliU I* ilUlrlliMldl lliriiMgh lh« naveril ^ciir* li fhuwii ill iIh) Mlawlng Ul>l*i TaiiI.1 iiwtwlaii THIi I'KifvtRtliKf np lljiii.w«T RiiT nriK roK ln^rriii, «I;th»iii<»ii nrfint* to tiir «Ni>nr Ix-iS 4*11 I* **) M ii('Miii4)iii«f Imii. 4i■ «uta(H>»«i> *• mmiiiHii HOT A«tii 4iii> till I ui- ronrKin 4* III »Hii It tiir. 1 1** «i.Kit> rh rn* Tin vnu- ri:i—i*t I'lx N4r l.«aii tnii rimtniii oannTiiiN iir Hll«kaU«> >t*'l*«ll (tItlKllTTII* ll«II.WtlIlltlNII I'OM- ri.n*i<. tr llNM •Mlh'wm|i*iit«ii, hy uliarpi ami on loan, to the mid tit IHM, *miiilMt«rlloiii'il lo the miles of rail- way fur Hhl'li imrlliimi'nlarx (Hiwora haro px|iircd, but It may Im aMtitiml a|i|ir- rpinlM'r, |NAA, iha proportion I'uiialriK'tnd on tlii< narrow HHuu", broad gang*, inixud gaugr, and Irlili gaugv, ti aa follow) t Narnw ■n>a.l llano ll«T Mind llautf*. Mllu. •iOt lllak (la«|i. "MlU., TaUI. ««IN ION tn In Kngland . . . Ill Hriitlaml ... Ill Irrland Total DMA lilW'i a •)t4&' 1 liir 1 villi liTu "liM And liy tli« foiiowinK lalilr ia ahown Ilia li'ngth of ilnva opun for tritlllc nt lh« anino dalai t Number »f ( (inii.Niilca Narrow ■mm MiKil lllah Ti.lal. h»lii( llaitga llauia (laiiaa liaiiao ■iHRia l.lMI. Mllti. -ITii.., Hi)- Mil. Mllu. In Knglanil m |iii:4 'illU Vf UV> III Hrnllaiid 90 '.Bl VIM In Iii'jaiid. il * ~Vl r.To vKiii Total., lit liiM kW ■ Tlilrty-iiliio nilUi lino (III a narrow ||aii|{«. ^t tlita luiigth la lulil with ii Mcuiid From tlio aiiovo detalla it appear* that tho linRth of now linea opened fur truffii' iluriiiK tli« yi'ur IHfi.^, in- i'ludint{ 17 niiU'a uf line liclonKlnK to private iiuiivid- unla, ainuuntod to '.^4:1 iniiea; uf tbeiu, 'iHb miles were luiil with only one lino uf rails. Uf tho lines opened in Mi!>, tho fuUowing are thoio whieh appear lo hn the moat iinpurtant, viz, : The Hereford, Hoss.and (iluucester Hallway, a lironil- KUUK" I'ne, whieh alTords lu Hereford a innri' direct eciiiwiiuniialion with tliu nielropolis than it proviuunly pusaeased. The Wlinliledon and Croydon Uailway, wliicli nfTords a euinmuiiieatiiin to the huuiIi uf London, lietni en the London and Noutliwuatern and thu Southeaiilorn Itiiil- ways, and providea another Unit in the line of railway ooinniunication whieh eneirciea tho metrupoiis. The lun(;th of new line imported lo lie in euiir-e nf conalruction on the 30lh of ilune, IHM, wua bWi mill »; uf these about 17U miles were upcncd befuro the Illat uf Deieinlier, 1855. With tho view of alTcrdin;; some measure nf the eompnrativa progress of railway onterpri.ie, tlie fnllnw- iiig table has been prepared, showing tho niiiiil er of miles of railway in course of construetion in enili yeur Kineo IH'IH, and tho number of persons employed lliire- oii, together with the amount of money recelvei!, and the number of miles of railway opened during llio year ! .liliiaHll, |k40 , Juiii' -iV, IDM) , Juiiu M, IM>I , Jilllif »i, IV/i , .lulia iMI. lota , Juim iiil, |il'i4 , .liiiiii W. l»fiiM friini Ihia table that the average nuniU'riif pi'raiinaiinildiiyeil jier mile has graduntly do- rreaaed aiiuH |H4!I/ Mils may li« ai^eribed l» impruvc- manls and lli« «*mployment uf stiiain-|iower in railway contiru'liim. 'J'lia li'iigllt fit lit)* npm tor traffic In the t'nitcd K>nKll lllM<,fI!nil««y 1 Milaa. NuniLer of l*sn<>nl Avaraaa Numbar •'"I'l"!,"' !(('BS 1SH,177 «»« 1,VI4 luatie a.io 1S4U j:'.!»,n74,7i9 Mill mU M.SS4 «S|S |H6'I l(l,fi2'.J,l «7 It 5 TM ii.KH ISS'40 W.M 7,U7(l,IM '.'iV 1 T88 aft.oiift 4»fi9 18.'.'2 I6,(i24.7><.1 4-Hl «N1 81,704 fBBIl 18:.3 ii,irn,H-.-> IlWI 889 4b,4(ll 61 U7 IS61 12.46:i.li:4 mn «■.« »H,r:4« 43 80 18{.6 11,614 41111 '.4:1 The increase in the number of miles for the wlmle |if rioil of eight years, is 118 jkt cent. Ytaia. Llnaa open for Trafll*. 1 Hllaa. Numh*! of I'traiiiia eni{jloj'ed. Nunil'r «lllll|i>VMl |,«r Mllo. Bfal Number. ion«. ~NiMii'ii*r' |„.r Milr. liiiiliiB 1H4S 4'iVJ 6'J.0«8 Vi-i 13'21 ■;ii " IS49 6U7 66,9(18 ina 1'i,')0 *,i,T " 18611 «;»« «n,ilJ6 9-6'l 21 '30 ■,'1'! " 1861 61198 03,60(1 1149 2107 •SI •• isr.'i 7ii7« 07,0111 966 2263 ■81 " lS6a 7612 80,409 IOT 2403 ■32 " ISM 78.'S 90 40^ 11 B!) 2410 ■30 " 1866 8I1« 1.7,»6i H-II7 271)8 34 1852.. 1863.. 1861.. 1865,. 18.0.. —Hepart qf Ihe Board v/ Tnult, MT ToUl. t:i4A M MO sure I'f tlic Illlllll '■!■ I'f ■aril y>ur iviil lliirc- ivri!, mill ilurint; llio (i 5 ■.'iV.l Jlflt) illH '. 4:; i« wlmle Jic- Rliitionf. I NnirlKT lar. l" yrr Mil'. •:;l 1) ■:t'! ■91 it •ill !! ■;i2 •30 S 84 KAI Kksmir Railwat TiArria, 1013 KAI TuUl PKalpM ?ur) fiMHlii, puiitti||*n, nikllA, 'i" f l^niltli iif rallvAjii) opiin for IrNtllr, mlli-a ) A>iiri||a rsei'liit nr) mtlu op«ii diirinii llia/nr ) <>il,IU,llBA'ri,IHA,M)<) a,nn Jt'l.MH I IlKNM ill.iiTJ.litt, ii,T(li) X'i.TBil Bil Ml Kill fnr ih* Uit fniir yc«ra, ami ih* morn riplilly m tliii lliii'ii ii|wii |i«vi< exlpnili'il, tlio ^chmI* Irutlli: hat kIiiiI uliiiitil, mill yrtt \i) vtAr llA> liift Iho imaariiucr lritm>' Uliliiil. KNfll.ANt) AND WAI.KM. Ki.iiiT \mM, H» 'M iiiuiiia llai aiiTa m Mii.« nniM, raim •«■ ii t i.«aa nr rAaaanutu, a>ii> *i«<> tiii Hi. I (ipia ran Mii.a riiu iiixiiia. Thnr* la thua aeen to Iw nn iiicmao, not only In tlir •mount rprelvoil, liiit alao hi Ihn Icniith of railway, and thia liaa livsn to tin'h an oxtvnt thut tlin rwoliila |i»o of tlin varlirr |iiirtli>n of tlir year uxhlliltoil, thora la atlll niaaon lu Imjio ilmt rail- way |irii|icrty liaa now ovuroinno nianv of thu ililllinl- (li.ia hy whii'h It waa licaot, anil Ih It will hi'nnfurlh ylulil a ri'tnrn more eoinnivnaiiratu . Ith the uilviinliit;ea it liaa ronfurred upon ttiv public than liaa hitherto been thu eaau, Aniiinu the beneflta (Icrlvuil from rallwayii Loniloi may reckon th« Increuaoil Importation mil (liinlnlH> -v* prleo of fuel, whli'li have been tlio tu, ei|uenei' iil' better ibivelopment, aa nliown by thu fiillowlin; return of railway eual trulllc : COAta UBUVQUT 'li> I.OKHON IIT ItAIU IHU. HM. luenaM. Ton*. T«ni. Tww. l,la7,s3B l.'ilO.'iOO lii8,W Dot tho value of railways in thia rcapcet will he < ili i MllM •V«B. NuntSir. 4.IM> 4l>i'S MIT Mil MHO Mli'l Oil . 11.1 .'J 1H40 IViO HM iNr.a iNIvi IHNi IvM 4I4 Him 4M »;« 4oa 400 4a) 411 "M. ~i MS 4^a Ml 411 4T4 4144 4I'J 4T0 atn. Om*. hTSIL i i i 1 11:11 fiW llKIt r4ft m IIMI HIT •.■nil) DTK 1:1110 MM :ltM.H HAll I'i.O III..; UM ii;h I'ii'U iiir> mn 41X lll'J4 irxi •mm 4JII ni:t> IIUKI 'M•^ 4IH [ 1111)4 IJM :ifi«i • ri ™. Inhlra iiirlii.la aiiu a fiiurth-t'lua ri'iuru, uroni In Ilin yi.urii IMU ami IMO, ' Hut thIa U not all ; for when wb cnnia tii look iloai>l" Into tho paaaeniter trallle Itaulf, we ilml the i.imn cnii. tinuoua anil eonilrnieil leniUiny In tho em m to auperM'ile In lin|Mirliiiiie llie ili iir kliiiU of a<'rvlie, 'I'hii recelpla I' ■ 11 llr«t-ilu a farrn have barely iiniiulalneil tho level .' whiili tln-y ntiKiil eluht yeura 0(,'o. 'I'liu receipt* aeionil-elana fares have «erlc.ii«ly riilleii olfi .I,. , from XfilH per milu In Ik lit in t'hn iXtti miles 1 pi., to XMTiI per nillo In 1H,-)|), with fMi nillea open. Hut with tho l'..ril.elna< fares a preelsely oppii. situ clnss of ehnn«es ' .. lukeii |ilaco. Wilh seureely u sinKlu exception o( cnnncquenco ilurliiK the el^lit appreclateil If the quantities bruuKht In that » v are , ; enrs, the receipt per inllo from thlri|-cla»a fun.a has vuntraateil with thoao brought by other means m con veyuneo, for (luring tho aamo perioil wo find thut the caual coal tralllo only anioiintod to lau. ixH. Tom. Tunf. 24,661 S6,4()l lodrtu*. Tutu, . 1M And that the whole amount of gco-horno coaU brought Into London In those years did not exceed Kono on lticrea»ln({, until, in IHM, the receipt of XI IH per mile is iiuitu 83 per cent, above receipt of .tMill per nillii In mill. The percentnije proportions to the total pttssenRer trallle In 1H19 and 185(1 of the receipts per mllo of the three elasaes of fares, were as follow », vl«. ; isu Twin. 8,0I»,8I)'4 last. InrrrnM, Toof. Tditi. l),IIH)„')'2a 834,'lM Von. rinlClu*. 1 » amilCln. | Thlr.l (M«». "1 1»41» Percent. I'trCinl. I>irir«il. ~ 41 IT US sa ISM While, therefore. In IHI!) the common kimln of pn«. From which It appears that tho railway coal tralTlc ' senior service contributed a little more than a fourth now bears a very larpfu proportion to the iniporlallon ] part of tho total pns«eii);er receipts, that proportion by sea, and that durinn IH5(i the iiuriaic by rail was had been raised loipille a third jiart in IHjB j llio tlrst- greater than In lt)55, although there was not then the ' cla.is proportion rcniaiiiliiK (ho same, hut tho second- eompctilion, for purposes of war. In frelf,'hls which had , class proportion falling from It to S'l per cent, previously existed ; whilo thu caiiul trallic is so small . Kut there Is more oviilenco to ho adiluccd. as scarcely to deserve notice. We have seen in tho foregoing table the gross results The result, as shown by t •"■^lowing table, is that I per mile of railway open. I.ct us now examine some- passengers and goods havu ehur jc:' |i!ace.s as iho chief ! what more in detail tho relation betwuen those larger elemcits in the gross cnrnii „v The early railway ! results and llio rate of fares and average payment hy managers expected — and with reason— that with the ! each person conveyed, and these further details will bo railways, as with the coaches, the passengers wouM be j found In tho following lal 1", but extending to the live the main resource, and so t'ley were fur a few years. , years 18i2-'8(i; Five Yi v*a, lS6'i-'5t).— Details or tub aveuaor ItKcKiirrs vou Passknukr Ttt.\Fvio. 1B52. lAM. 1805. ■KA. Axttkft I'ftyiiifiit. "" rf. " 54 -OO 61 •SO 47 ••JS 43 $8 48 ."0 Avi.fii|r« jHir .MUa. J. 511 213 210 2 09 2111 BMMItl Areraga Pitynienl. d. 22 3^3 2ii^4) SO S3 »0I« 2046 fliu i. AvarnR* |wr Mild. dr M3 141 142 148 144 Thlnl t'lui. TaUl. Avarairt Avcrut |>iir MlTa. AvnrftK* Avsraat rijnienl. I'lirMiT*. PkymHiil. d. d. d. d. 12 4S OST 21.10 136 12 4S O'SO 2040 1 3'i 12 ^S n•^^ ll»^n2 r'j9 v>m 0K6 19 20 i-:8 11 •06 n^HS IS 14 iti NoTB.— In tho nlmve talile the cohiinna of "Aremgo Payment per Paasenger" represent the total average sums pnld In etch year hy eiieli uf the |iiissenf;crs conveyed. The columua of "Average l'°are per Mile per I'aaienger" radnco the larger columns to a mure convenient inlleagciiient. We find here that the first-class fares have foUen from 211(J. per mile in 18 J2 to 2'07i/. per mile in 1856, and average payments of each passenger conveyed from 64^96J. In 1862 to 43-30i/. In 185C ; but in conncc tion with those reduced fares and smaller individual payments, wo have already seen that the earnings per milo open have somewhat risen, comparing Ifiti with 1862. In the second class the fares have risen slightly — that is, from l-Kd. in 1852 to 1-41(/. in IN.W; and tho average payments have slightly fullin from 22'32d. to 20'-t.5<<., hut tho average earnings per mile have re- mained almost unchanged. In the third class the fares have fallen, and so have the individual payments ; but the earnings, as wo have already seen, have Incrcaseil largely. I ''ll I ■rl RAI 1614 RAI We may venture, then, to Infer that, to far ns t!ie evidence before us spiilics, three general conclusions seem to be justiKcd at this stage of the inquiry, and these conclusions arc : 1st. That the revenue of railways during the last eight years — that is, during the period s'nce the rail- way system had arrived at maturity in England and Wales -has been derived year by y uar in a larger pro- portion from common as distinguished from dearer kinds of sorvicc, and especially in the rapid relative growth of goods traffic. 2tl. That during the same period a precisely simi- lar result has taken place in the passenger traffic by increase of receipts from third-class passcngci-s. and tlie decline or non-increase of receipts from lirst and gecond class passengers. 8d. That as regards nearly all classes of passengers, the increase of passenger traffic per mile of railwoy has been accompanied by a reduction in the rates of fares, and also by a reduction in the average payments of each person conveyed ; in other words, o larger rev- enue has been obtained by means of Binaller individual contributions. liuilrot'di in Canada. — The giganiic railway enter- prises now in progress in Caiiada arc intended to em- brace a railway system traversing nearly the entire length of the province from east to west, with branch feeders running into the main-trunk lino, ai. ' "Arrying olf traffic to the leading American cities and Atlantic sea-board. Besides the government aid to this complete raihvay system through Canada, these undertakings are under- Blond to receive substantial support from United States interests, the great Western country, as well as the northeas*.ern States of the Union, being directly in- terested in the success of these Canadian lines; more expeditious routes between the agricultural districts of the West and tlicir centres of trade being opened up by them. One of tlia most valuable featu,.:s of these railways to Canada will oe their affording the province increased facilities of trade during winter, and uninter- rupted communication with ocean traffic when inland navigation is closed. The most important line of this comprehensive rail- way system is the Grand Trunk railway. The entire length of this lino, when completed, will be 1112 niilec. Its eastern terminus is at Trois Pistoles, in I^wcr Cinada. Thence upward it proceeds along the south sliore of the St. Lawrence, passing opposite to Quebec, and, continuing thus westward, reaches Slontreal. Ite- furc reaching Montreal, the line cfl'ccts a junction at Richmond, in the eastern townships, with a lino of railwa;' to Portland, on the Atlantic, in the Statu of Maine. The part of tlie line between Montreal and Portland, a distance of 202 miles, is now open. The communication between Portland and Quebec was opened in 1854. At Montreal, one of the most stupendous stmcturcs of modem times will carry the railway across the l>iver St. Lawrence, which is here two miles in width. This gigantic undertaking is now in course of construction, under the superintendence of Mr. Robert Stephenson, whose name is associated with tlie well-known Britan- nia tubular bridge. The Victoria tubular bridge of Canada will, however, far surpass Mr. Stephenson's earlier work. Tho total span of the arches will be 6168 feet, besides piers on either side, running into the river, each about half a mile long. The span of tho centre arch is 3t)0 feet. Tho number of arches is 25, and, with the exception of the centre one, each has a span of 2 12 feet. Tho tul)e, which is of iron, is 25 feet high and 18 feet wide. The otiier parts of the work, including the half mile of piers on either side, rve wholly of solid masonry. The height from the water level of the river to the floor of the iron tube will be 60 feet. In onler to impart some Idea of the strength of this stupendous work, it may be mentioned tlint each buttress is calculated to resist the pressure of 0,000 tons of ice. The estimated cost of the Victoria tubular bridge is stated to be $7,000,000. From Montreal the Grand Trunk line follows tha north bank of the St. Lawrence, touching tlie towns of Cornwall, Prescott, and lirockville, to the city of Kingston, on Lake Ontario. This distance from Montreal to Kingston is about 180 miles, about 120 of which, from Montreal to Prescott, was opened in Oc- tober, 1865. A branch line of 55 miles, connected with this part of the main trunk, was fully completed during 1854, from Bylown to Prescott, opposite to the American port of Ogdcnsburg, where an important connection has been formed with United States lines of rail- way. Another lino of about 80 miles was'also con- structed in connection with this section of the Grand Trunk from Montreal to Kingston. This is one from llytown to Montreal, following the course of the Otta- wa, aiid joining the Grand Trunk at Vaudrcil, close to the Ottawa, and to the junction of that river with the St. Lawrence. The Grand Trunk line, proceeding westward from Kingston, skirts the shores of Lake Ontario, passing the Buy of Quinte, throu^rh the towns of llclleville, Cobourg, and Port Hope to Toronto, the capital of Upper Caiiaif'» tee, opposite UinpUin, at " At House's , of railway" to Albany, Boston, New York, and other parts of the United States. TIib I'lattsbiirg railway eomniences at Caughnawaga, on the south shore of the St. Lawrence, oppuDite to Laehine, and runs to the town of Platts- hurg, on Lake Chaniplain, a distance of 'i8 miles. Tho Montreal and Laehine railway, a short lino of 9 miles, connects the city of Montreal with the upper part of the island at tho village of Laehine. Tliis railway, as also a portion ot the St. Lawrence and Chaniplain line, have been in active operation for several years. The average cost of the construction of railways in Canada will be about $47,'i00 per mile. Tlie average fares are from two to thrc cents per mile, according to distance of journey. The electric telegraphs in Canada convey messages at much more moderate charges than in England. The control of the Post-office of Canada was trans- ferred from imperial to colonial authorities in 1851. Kailboads in Canada. — 1867. Nana o( RuuL 'mu'i'' BufTaln ul liake Iltirun (Duflalo to Paris) S4 ' Cliaiuiiliiinand St. I^wrcnce (Kouau's Ft. to Montreal) 44 Coboiirg and Peterborough 'JS Erie and Ontario (Niagara Falls to Chippewa) 16 Grand Trunk. For Portland District, eee Maine. Montreal District 143 Quebec District (Kicliniond to Quebec) HO Ilrockvilic and Toronto Diatricta S33 Toronto and Sarnia Distilct VI St. Thomas llranch 49 Great Western (Niagara "alls to Detroit) iSn Uuclph Branch ... 17 Toronto llranch (Hamilton to Toronto) SS Montreal and N'ew York (Montreal to Mooer'ii tlimc.) 43 PlattHbutf; and Montreal ( Mooer's .Tnnction to PlattB.) 20 Ontario, Himcoe, and Huron (Toronto to Coliingwooil) i).~> Ottawa and Prescott (I'rcscott to Bytown) 54 Other roads 3i ToUii 1412 United States. — To give a complete history of tho railroad system of the United States would exceed our limits of space. We therefore conline ourselves to a brief summary of the history, wiih tho statistics neces- sary to show the present condition of the railroads in the United States. The first railroad constructed in tho United States was the Quincy road, built in 18°i7. The first passenger railroad was the Baltimore and Ohio, which was opened with horse power for fifteen miles in IS.'iO. The Mo- hawk and Hudson river road was opened for public travel with horse power in the summer of 1831. Loco- motives were first used in this country :n 1831, on the Mohawk and Hudson railroad, and in 1832 upon the Uaitiinwe and Ohio, and on the South Carolina rail- road. In 1828 there were but three miles of railroad in the United States ; now there are twenty-live thou- sand miles! The superstructure of some of our first railroads was made by placing a thin fiat bar of iron on longitudinal timbers, which rested on stone blocks, protected from displacement by frost by filling the trenches below them with small broken stone. In some cases the iron bar was placed on continuous stone sills. The first change made in the rails used was tho sulv stitution of bars of greater thickness; then succeeded the I rail, of nearly tho present form, weighing fifty pounds per lineal yard, resting on longitudinal sills; subsequently the weight of iron rail was successively increased to sixty, seventy, and seventj--five pounds ; cross-ties were used, which were placed on longitudinal sills, and finally these sills were removed and gravel ballasting substituted. The first cars used were coach bodies of tho ordinary form, placed on four-wheeled frames; afterward the bodies were enlarged and the form changed, and finally the bodies were adapted to contain sixty passengers, placed on two separate trucks attached loosely to the bodies, so as to permit them separately to adapt themselves to the curves and in- equalities of the track. The motive power at first was horses, and on steep inclinations stationary '''am pow- er. Tho first locomotive engine used weighed hut sis tons, and these have been successively increased to ten, sixteen, twenty, and twenty-six tons, while on some of the freighting roads engines of forty tons weight (ii.oluding the tenders) have been introduced. Tho foregoing list of chunges shows how im|>erfcct a machino the railroad was when many of them in this country were first commenced, and how many radical changes have been necessary in tho construction of their ways and works. The present state of perfection in tiio machine renders it probable that new substitutions of Its Important and expensive parts will annually become more rare, but yet it may be safely ossunied t'liut pome expenses of tills character will continue to accrue oud must bo provided for in estimating the cost of our rail- roads or their value as an investment.— /<(;),«■< (/ the Xew York State Enijineer, 1855. In the conception and construction of our system of railroads there was no well-digested plan in regard to the position of tho principal termini, or the route for tho trunk lines, or the mutual relation of the main lines to eoch other. Tiie result is that the system is Imperfect as a whole, though admirable in many of ils parts. Wo have many roads built only in rivaliy lo others; some parallel, others having the same ternilnl. The same expenditure properly directed would have given us a complete system, with fewer miles construct- ed, but of a more durable character. The want of plan is in consequence of our system having been built by States not separated by topographical divisions, and by private companies having a view more to imniediato profit than to the future success of and connection with the system. One of the greatest resulting evils is the constant break of gauge, which makes necessary tho frequent transhipment of both passengers and freight; thereby increasing cost and delay. The gauges in common use comprise from 4 feet 8J inches, the chanee width of the first " tram wagon," wliieh the first " tram- roads" were made iajit; to 4 feet 10, 5 and C feet, all empirical gauges ; and each having respective merits which were advocated by their iiitroducirs. Wliatev- er may have been these claims, it is unfortunate that one was not tmiversally agreed upon ; and llieie is no risk in asserting that even at this late date tlie saving In time to passengers and in injury to freight durin - five years would be more than un equivalent fur tho cost of all necessary changes in the rolling stock, and superstructure consequent on the adoption of a common gauge. Our railroads have been so much indebted to fortuitous circumstances for their position and relation to each other, that the principal claim to a system that we can advance is based on topographbal divisions. And having this division in view, we will proceed to describe brlcHy our railroads as a system. The objects to be gained by our first railroads were to open an outlet from the fertile regions of the West, and to get access to the interior as a market for tho manufactures of the sea-lioard. The principal results are the four great trunk lines, which are tho boust of the country, and which have done more to develop tho West and enrich the East than was dreamed by tho "enthusiasts" who were followers of De Witt Clinton. Two of the four trunk lines, the New York and Erie, and the New York Central railroads, directed their first slow course to the great American chain of lakes, expect- ing to be content to end there, and not to enter into a contest with an inland sea. But with the aid of the frosts of winter, they found themselves fit rivals, and have extended their lines with such vigor, that the liranches of these trunk lines have tapped tho Missis- sippi, and are hastening on to the Pacific. Their con- nection with every town and hamlet in the Mississippi valley is the best foundation for n continuation of tlio progressive prosperity of New York. The other two lines, the Pennsylvania Central and the Baltimore and Ohio railroads, had no further aim than to pass the barrier of the Alleghanies, and then receive their proa* RAI 1G16 RAI perity from the Ohio Kiver. But a river that, accord- ing to John Kundolph, " was dry half the year, and .'ozen the other half," was not a dependence ; and now even the Slississippi Kiver is not a satisfying end, Wc can briolty say that these four trunl( lines, with their direct connections, constitute the Northern half of tlic system. The other single roads, not connections, north of a line of the Ohio valle^', however important in them- selves, are only local roads. South of the line of the Ohio valley, the Virginia Central and the Charleston and Steniphis railroads, with their direct connections, constitute a similar portion of the Southern half of the railroad system. The remaining East and West trunic line to bo described is the one from Xew York city, in a direct line west. This railroad, now nearly com- pleted, is almost a necessity to the passenger traffic, being the shortest route west from New York city. These roads, in conveying the produce of the interior to the sea-board, and in opening tjie West for settlement, form a much more important part of the system than the roads running north and south, and having as tiieir principal business the interchange of the products of the North and South, The roads, running north and south, are divided by the Alleghany Mountains, The eastern half is made up uf a trunk road and its branches, running parallel to the sea-coast from Bangor to Mobile, having at present but one short break in Alabama. The freight business of these roads is necessarily lim- ited, and conlincd principally to costly freight, as the coasting trade is the natural carrier of heavy freight. The passenger business is the principal source of profit ; and as these roads run through the most populous sec- tions of the country, they have ample employment. The trunk road west of the Alleghany Mountains is made up of the Illinois Central and other roads in the Mississippi volley, converging to the iinn tti of theOhio River, added to the yet unfinished tr nk mad from the mouth of the Ohio to Mobile and Ncm Oiiians. These roads until lately have not been necessary, as the Mississippi and branches have generally afTorded all the internal com- munication necessary. The interchange of the produc- tions of the South and West, and giving rapid communi- cation over tlie West, make these roads now a necessity. We can secthen, that, notwithstanding the want of unity of action from the first, the system is gradually becom- ing more perfect, and that the completion of the trunk lines running west to the Pacific will not let us lose the proud boast that we can now truly make of having the noblest system of internal improvement in the world, Keto York Stair. — The following exhibit of the con- dition of the railroads in New York State is in part n synopsis of the report n|ide to the New York Legisla- ture in 1855 by the state engineer, and contains many important suggestions in regard to the future inanage- nicnt of our railroads, coupled with much valuable in- formation as to the condition of the state system. The returns of the railroad corporations of New York State do not comply with the law in stating the amount of depreciation of the works and rollitig stock. The returns of the railroads of Massachusetts, in most cases, (how a small allowance made for the depreciation of the iron rails, engines, and cars. It is contended by many skillful managers that if the works and rolling storic Uic kept in thorough re,iair, they are in as good condition at the en'' i m, ar J therefore that there can be no dcprccial!'ii.iicd to a renewal onco in eight years; for wooden, bridges once in ten years; and for wooden stations once in thirty years. This deteriora- tion may bo represented in another form, by stating it as equal to from 2 to 1 per cent, annually on the whole cost of the road. Bailroads are alio subject to one item of expense which is rarely directly stated: viz., the necessary substitution of improvements in the way and works before the original ones have been worn out by use. The railroad, considered as a machine, is of recent in- vention. Its power, capacity, and endurance have not eveu yet been fully ascertained. As the two former are developed, the substitution of improved forms for increasing its efficiency, either in capacity, speed, or economy, becomes necessary-, and these substitutions are more extensive than they are in other niachiuos of older date or use. The returns of the railroad corporations show con- tinued large additions every year to the construction account of even our oldest and best built roads. The re- ported increase of cost during the year 1855 was chiefly in consequence of an extension of the double track, a larger equipment, and station facilities for the accom- modation of the increased freight traffic. The increase of the cost of the road on the New York and Erie was 20 per cent, during the years 1851, 1855, and on the Central it was greater than 25 per cent, dur- ing the same period. The reported earnings and net earnings of these roads have increased Ijy a much larger percentage than the cost of the roads as above stated, while the reported expenses of operating have increased by about the same percentage as the earn- ings. The freight earnings have increased more than the passenger earnings; but the average receipts per ton per mile were less in the year 1855 than the preced- ing one, especially on the Central road, although the rates of charges have been increased on both roads. The average receipts per ton per mile for the year 1865, were two and a half cents on the Erie, and a lit tin more than three cents on the Central, while the aver- age the preceding year on the latter was nearly three and a lialf cents. The freight tariff has been nearly alike on each of these roads for the last two years ; it is, therefore, evident that the business of the Erie road embraces a larger portion than that of the Central of those articles which pay the least rates, and that flu: latter road has been performing a much larger propor- tion of its business at low rates this year than former- ly. On comparing the reported receipts, expenses, and business of our three principal freighting roads, it will bo seen that the passenger business on the Erie is re- ported as giving a net profit of 47 per cent., with an average charge of one and seven-tenths cents per pas- senger per mile ; on the Central, a net profit of 44 per ctnt,, and a charge of one and nine-tenths cents, ami on tbc Northern Kailroad a net profit of two per cent., with an average charge of two and seven-eighths ccni.'i per passenger per mile ; and that tiic freight liusiness on the first is reported as giving a net profit of 61 per cent., with an average charge of two and six-tcnlh.'^ cents per ton per mile ; on the second a net profit of 4X percent., witli nn average charge of three and seviu- teiiths cents; and on the third a net profit of il4 per cent,, with nn average charge of two and one-fourth cents per ton per mile. The character of the businesf. the grades, and otiicr circumstances of these several roads, do not furnish any sufficient reason for these discrepancies. The actual cost of transportation upon railroads will probably never be accurately determ- ined from their reports, until they have liecn run a few years with the construction account closed, and nu money borrowed. Thecxpenses oi'operatmg fhe road, as stated in the reports, are about one and a quarter cents per ton per mile on the Erie, and one and si.\- tentbs cents on the Central- but, as before stated, these reports do not show accurately the cost of this service. Mora reliable testimony on tliis sulijcet h afforded by the recent action of the railroail conven- tions. At the one held at New York, embracing Iho officers of the four great lines between the Atlantic and the West, a Joint report was submitted by the super- iutendenta of the several roads, in which they statu mun fill, Iff I •i ''-hiiifM-^, f>miiU-f ,,/ „ .. ('*Wl||fJP«, »,'■'«/(,,,,,,, KAI 1617 KAI (httt "«*pe»lencfi lias proved that the totoeit ratei at wllltll txAUiary freight can be carrieil to puy interest mA eik\teiisM will average almut two cents per ton per Il(i1« tuf l(ea»y agricultural products, three cents for Jjfoi'eflpsj itnA four ccntfl for dry goods." At a 9ul)9e- (((WMt ((idvctitioii of tlio railroad companies of Ohio mA (t((ll«imj similar rates were adopted. The al)Ovo cltfjt^t^s aptilled to the busines.s of our two great lines HMHlil ym\ AM average of a little less than three cents ((Mf 1(*H per tiille, and would servo to show that some (if lite lillsjiic!!? done on each of these roads does not ^^rfU ((Sy "interest and expenses." Sufficient inforni- «tiHM Itiis been elicited from the railroads of this and M\U'f Slates, from the actions of the conventions, and ((um ulltPt sources of information, to warrant the be- Ijff Ihflt H considerable portion of tiio freighting Imsi- kWi^ IK/* done by our railroads yields no profit at the (tffsent fHles, when duo allowauca is made for the in- Cfi'SsS of caplliil whicli it requires for the increased *Mf «(i(l depreciation of tlie works, and for the oc- ('(l(i«t((/(l of the track to the injury of the other busi- llfJiS: 'lilt* fefiorts of the year 1855 show an increased cx- ||«MS(' ili operating the roads, over that of tlio preced- Mlt{ ftmfi An examination of tlie reports of a number (if fliilfHItds IH Jfew Kngland and elsewhere, shows, for (lie Ii4si live years, an annual increase in their cost of flKllI 'i Ui ti per cent, per ainium ; an increase in their wcijils (i( from 12 to 20 per cent. ; and an increase in (llcif Pspenses of from 20 to 10 per cent, per annum. Ileitui'lidtls from the reports of the railroads in the Stitlil lit Sew York, 1855, have been made, showing (tlf^ wilHpaMtivo cost of construction, of maintenance, mill (if (Ijieratlng each of the roads of the State, and tlltVH llddtl ritraiiged as follows : fllf («(k) (SKglh of road known to bo in opera- Mull ill *I6* tnrk In 1(555 wns 27231 miles. Ill ndilifl'ili (a ithich there is of second track In /(Wfidiirtl, 803 " MhKIIII^ It (otitl length of track In operation Ge26( " flld »l(»j(« length of completed and projected muds....; U3a " 'Kic Mlpjial stock, as by charters, of 84 roads lim mitesii Is $114,102,200 00 'flic IIIIMllit lit the aboTC suli-cribcd 84,072,597 00 flic mili'lltit of capital stock paid in on 03 fiiiWls (iiUi llilles) 09,4;:i,4,')S &2 'flic «l(l(rtllU of funded debt of 63 roads 63.230.997 42 'flic miiBIIHl of floating debt do 8,SM,S18 43 'flm «*jieh(1lti(tes on the roads which arc completed AF8 »9 follows I l-'HItfldliili^ainl rii»flonrjr.16roads,1623t miles $20,742,690 21 l'"l-' lylldelKg 16 ronds, l(i23J miles 1,902,424 87 Vw ftlll/el^lfllPldl-e, 21 toads, 21001 ndlcs. . . . •jr.,7ai,8Ta 07 K«f glltdlllK; lifldeliig, and superstructure, 21 f/iwli. 9l(l6i miles 03,S22,911 21 tiif uMiim hlllldlnes, engine liouscs and li1W(», iW ro«d«, 21271 miles 5,042,750 87 l'((f tmm 4»m»eeii and fences, 22 roads, 2127) lllilCK ,.■..,; 9,127,350 92 i'lif l((«l(llollVPs. 17 roads, 2058} miles r>, 748.722 S3 riW Cdfii (Bf Kll kinds), lil roads, 21 101 miles. 0,720,243 12 m CII^Hcering and agenoles, 23 roads, 218St ,ini|«*,.. ■.■;.... 3,3r5,962 5« tmt ».>licllilitllte for construction and cqulp- iliciil, yfll'lj infles 115,1537,193 73 I lie e*)(p|idmife for tlie conatrnetlon and wpijin/lcKt of i!S foads (1600 miles), wliicli (We III ((Htg(-ess and partly pom|ileted, in- (■'limlntf lliow »bieh leporlcd In iStiB, but ««( III I Wirt , , . ; ; 13,112,4P . 29 flieillllldietBf locnmollTcs in nse Is 6«S (J«i l>K»engpr and cmlf;rnnt cars loos mi freight and baggstie cars 7S0S 'flic Wtle* tim liy the passenger trains """ '"°' oi ro'.'l. m (tic Veai Itns 7.024,190 on 2407 Mm Kill Uf tMiltil (rains fortho rear. 4.808,077 on 2411 i'l#ll(lllc< tun Trt trains 11,392,807 on 2437 glll(((H)(f)rt*»engprsfarrledlntliecars 11309,449 on 2437 t>mmipf lit miles trareled by all the (IIWsCHtjcM, , , , 479,026,821 on 2437 RiWlllCf (It loH» of freight carried In the ^I'm, ,::::, ,,,,,. 2,»69,3«2 ou 2437 "MlllWIf »f Hiilefc at total moTement of fm§iliimmmi4,i,,,, 801,T0T,1)6I on S376 6K Expense of maintaining the roads on 21 roads, 2229 miles $2,504,041 90 Vlr. ; charReabln to pas-sengcr business, 1923 miles 1,141. 200 DC chargeable to freight business, I'.il.'i ndlcs 053,001 OS Kxponsc of repairs of nmrblncry on 19 roads, 2189 miles $1,!101,412 74 Viz. : char);ealile to passenger business, 2063 miles 8:'3,277 63 chargeable to freight business, 2(;43 "dies 901,461 48 Cost of operating the road on 20 roads, 2101 •"'''r^ $5,802,603 88 N iz. ; clmrnciiblo to pasBcnger business, 10 Iliads, 2074 ndles 2,685,179 74 chargeable to freight business on 16 roadii, 2000 miles 2,!)15,2C5 48 Receipts from passengers on 19 roads, 21Sft "dies $-i.922,419 63 liecuipts from freight on 19 mails, 2189 miles 8,271,012 85 Kccelptsfrom otlicrsonrces,ls romls, 2171 miles ! 3 ■,70.') 10 Total receipts on 19 roads, 2189 miles $l!<,12ii7i97 4S Payments for transportation expenses, 18 roads, 2171 miles .$10,314,414 44 Pttynients fur interest on debts on 21 roads, 2206 miles 3,940,360 23 Payments for divjilends on roads, 13S8 ndles 2,237,410 00 Toial payments $10,4'.i*.',l)yo 73 The average cost of construction and equipment per mile of road on tliose railroads wliich have reported these items has been as follows : Grading and masonry on 19 roads, 1023} miles . . $12,778 49 Bridging 19 " 1023t " .. 1,1711)8 riuperstrncturo 21 " 21001 " . . 12,099 00 Grading, bridging, and superstructure on 21 roads, 21001 "dies 30,4.^ 49 Station biuhlings, engine houses, and shops on 22 roads, 21271 miles 2.370 27 LAnd damages and fences on 22 roads, 21271 miles 4.21t0 17 Locomotives 17 " 2058J •' 2,792 38 Cars of all kinds 19 ■' 21101 " 3,18068 Kngineerlng and agencies 2" " 213S1 " 1,0M79 The total average expenditure ^ r construction and equipment on 25 roads, 134u; ndles long, was , . 49,359 05 The average cost per mile of a single track is as fol- lows : Grading, masonry, t^vl bi iil£r'"'fl on 19 roads, 23401- miles $9,670 37 Supcrstniclnres on l i„aiK, 2 '.'3 miles 9,409 48 (trading, bridges, (aui siiiiorstr.ictnro on 21 roads, 2S23i miles 22,004 JS Station, engine hoU!:e^, mil shops on 22 road?, 28411mllcs 1,77280 Land and fencing on 22 rouds, 2844J miles 3,208 41 Knglnecring and agencies on 23 roads, 29031 miles lil45 94 Tlie total average expenditure for construction and equipment ou 26 roads, with 3142{ miles of truck, was 30,709 45 There is one locomotivu for every 3} miles of road in use. There is one passenger or emigrant car for every 2i miles. There is one freight or baggage car fore /ery 32-1 00th mile. The average mileage of the passengers for each mile run liy the train is o9. The distance traveled by each passenger is 3'Ji miles ; or, if we ex- clude the Harlem road, the travil on which is princi- pally in the city of New York, 51 miles. The speed of tlio express (rains, when in motion, per hour, is 3(i miles. Tlie number of tons of freight for each mile run liy the (rains is 71. The distance each ton of freight was moved, 107 miles. The speed of the freight trains when in motion, per lionr, is K! miles. The weight of the freight trains, exclusive of the freight, is 175 tons. Tlio proportions of the tonnage of each description of freight carried on nineteen roads, 2228 miles, areas follows : Of the product of the forest. 14 per ct. of the whole tonnage. " " animals.. 151 " || Vegetable food 22 " Other Bgrlculturol products. 4 " ^^ .ManilfacturOB 12 " Merchandlso 121 " UnciasBlfied articles 20 BAI 1618 RAI Atehacx CoaT or tiir Maivt^ naxci or Wat pkb Uili or l:oAU,' Tolnl. 0«Mof PMieD|r«n. Kitiiibt. 1851 04^ 140 00 22 jB 7 73 64 87 Kfpalra of road-bed $810 48 277 64 BT) 112 l;i 01 114 36 $468 43 8S2J 27 48 1172 04 Bl Ropain uf bulldini!! " foncoa ond gJilcB Taxes Total $1128 40 $6 '6 04 $4;'fl Oi) Atkbaub Cost or RErAiBS or MAOi:iNEBr nil Mils or llOAD. Kcpulrs of cnginoB . *' curs Tools Oil and wasto Total Tolal. .t4-.'7 68 8B:(68 80 4'' 06 66 $»23 41 charged to Ihft DiulnvM of I'lMongeni. )4'S2n IS W 37 V? $4»4 62 t'ralghl. $IU1 Il7 200 00 10 4S 28 88 $4:18 (II Atkbaos Cost or orcBATiNo peb Mii.b or I!oai>. neu of litttce expfensL's aiid DtattoMury Agvnts and clerks LnboFf loading, and unloading Porters, watchmen, and) switchmen i Wo"d and water station at-^ tendance i Conductors, baggage and\ hriikomcn / Englncmen and fln-nicn Fuel, cost aiul labor of pre-) piring / Oil and waste for cnginca .... " '* cars Loss and damage to goods) and baggage ) Dnniages for injuries to pcreon '* to property and cattle Oeneml superintendence . . Contingencies Total $60 28 248 40 213 49 i0.'> 71 416!) 97172 26:: Oil 7.12 00 80 27 C6 02 46 4'> SO 00 12 80 0,') 3 408 l.'i $2048 00 PlUMOK«iV. ~ $26 93 110 81 100 40 25 61 146 30 140 78 396 23 49 68 83 06 6 74 80 P4 671 23 97 242 18 $1294 84 Fr elnlil. $25 US 122 07 187 45 61 SS 1 i2 34 122 01 S0212 80 68 81 4'. 40 33 18 06 822 30 04 199 (II $1212 90 AtBBAOI COIT Off OriBATINO riB MlI.B Bxm ilT Tni Tbaims. Ateuaub Cost or Maintenamoe of V. at pkb Miui nm> nv TUB TilAIKa. Total. charired to the nmlneH t.t | Pauengen. Pnilght. Cenli. 181!8 0-43 1 16 0-40 2 81 Repairs of road-be t . . . . Iron for *' .... Repairt; of buildin pi . . CloU. 10-75 4-S7 116 o-;i9 2-31 Canla. 16 -SO 3.'.0 (1-90 41 Total 22-03 '.fii-s" •.'6-70 Atkbaoe Cost ov REPAinn or M>rniNEBY tkb Mili bitn liY THE 'I'UAFNH. •r^t.i t'harited to Uie ^ntlncie of | raM«ng*n. r.«itbt. Ceitla. 9-92 10-99 0-76 1-31 Kcpairs of engines fenli, N-71 7-10 01(5 1 18 Centa. T-84 4-89 0-64 0-97 tuols Oil and woste Total ■ 22-.'5 ■ .VVKKAUI! COBT OF MAINTBHANOK OF WaT PBB I'ASSBNOBB ANU I'KB Ton I-'BBIQUT OABBIBD OMB .MltB. ToUL Charso'l to the Buiineafl of j PaMenKfln, Fr-lilil. Tepairs of road-bed Iron for '' Repairs of buildings .... fences Taxes Mllli. 2-40 082 010 0-06 034 Mill!. 2 14 O-.TO 0-13 OOB 0-31 Mllll. 2-41 071 n-I5 O-O.'i 0-oT Total , 8-37 2-9S 8-41 • .>lany of the roads do not give complete returns of the Tarious items of cost of maintenance of nay. repairs r,f ma- chinery, and operating. The arerago cost of each IU.m is made up from those roads only which have reported that item, which will account for the apparent dlscrcpanclea be- twcc.i t.,a averages of the total cost and tho ciua of averi. i(es cf tb<. cost of eacb item. Total. OiHco expenses and stationery . . . Agents and clerks Labor, loading and unloading . . . Wood aud water station attend- ance l'orti>rs, watchmen, and •witch- men Conductors, baggage and brake- men Rnginomen and flreroen .... Fuel, cost and labor of preparing . Oil and waste for engines " " cars Loss and damages to goods and) baggage J Damages for injuries to persons. . ** to property and cattle . General superintendence Contlngciideb Total t'elii*. I (12 4 8i 3-72 1-27 8BT 644 6 45 14 44 184 1-87 0-92 0-09 0-26 1-80 8-17 11-85 8-82 262 1-80 8 •04 464 J 8 -02 1-65 1-lfl 0-18 0-78 0-13 O-iO 7-47 I Fr»l|ihl CetitH. I 'BO 0-iO 9-48 1(0 2 94 6-32 6BII 1666 1-stl ie6 2 08 0-88 0-48 1-48 0-l!4 68-48 I 43-06 | 68'-:a Atebaob Cost or Repaibs of Maciiinert peb rABSEHoER AND FEB Ton of KbEIIII'T nABEIF.I> ONE .Mn.E. ^^^^ 1 t'harRed lo the HiuineH of 1 PariMngen. | FrviKht. | Repairs of engines Mllll. 1-27 1-02 0-09 016 mill. 1-17 0-78 0-08 0-14 .Villi. ' 1-.13 1 1-46 0-10 1 0-19 j '* tools Total . . 2-51 2'1'2 1 .t-i.7 A-VBBA(IB Cost of OPEBATINO per TASSENnER AND PEE Ton of Fbeiuiit 4jABiiiKi> one Mile. Office expenses and stationery . . . Agcnta and clerics l.alKjr, loading and unloading . . , Porters, watchmen, and Bwitcli-) men f Wood nnJ water station attend-) ancQ f Conductors, baggage and brake- ) men / Fnglnemon and firemen Vuel, cost and labor of preparing. Oil ;.nil waste of engines " " cars Loss and damage to goods and) baggogo / Damages for injuries to persons. . *' to property and cn*tle . Ueneral superintendence Contingencies Total Total. Mllll 15 eTi 057 0-40 0-lS 0-81 78 2-08 25 0-20 0-13 09 04 0-18 0-56 7-64 charged to the BuslKCel of Paswngen. "MIliiT" 0-12 0-56 02 J-4S 0-25 0-71 0-Ofl l-!.2 0-24 0-17 0-08 Oil 02 0-18 O'dl Freiffht. "MiiST 017 0,80 1-29 0-39 014 0-87 0-S8 2-l;i 0-25 0-12 0-28 0-f6 OIT> 0-20 85 ii'8-l 8 04 The average receipts per nalo ot voatl were : Fassengerb . .■ .. $4,074 10 Freight 8,"r« 72 Utber sources (27 2S $8,27sT; And the expenses $4,710 14 From tills we seo that the expenses Averc SG per cent, of the gross receipts, wbich Is below the avcrnge throuchoiit the country-. The expenses of operating the road were 67 per cunt. of the whole receipts. The average receipts per mile run by the trains were as follows : From passcngeis $1 32 freight 202 other so^irces 1 07 And of the expe.-isci $0 97 Tlio average n!C OI'O IS 20 lit 0-6S Ktt4 verc 56 per the avernge 57 Jicr ciiit. trains were . $1 32 2 0-2 . 1 «' . . $0 97 L>o l-95ccnt». 2»9 " 2^!i8 " 1'3S " 12,256,714 10,OCO,009 , 477,011,422 Comparitonqflhe Returns n/teveral Railroads From the statistics of tlio not income and gunural economy of the principal railroads in New York and Masaachu- Ectts, wo can elucidate many facts of the greatest im- portance in railroad management. Among these may be noticed the following : The average number of pas- sengers and the number of tons of freight carried each mile run is the same ; that U, on an average there arc daily carried an etiual number of passengers and freight an equal distance on the road. The largest number of passengers carried each mile run is by tho Hudson Itiver Railroad, which lias u% a rival the best naviga- ble river iu tho world. The largest number of tons carried per milo run is by the New York and Erie Rail- road, which is the principal through freight road for tho products of the SVest ; and this road also shows the largest net income per mile. The ratio between tho total receipts per mile and the net income per mile is far from being constant, or tlic last from being depend- ent on the flrst. There is, however, a relation between expenses per mile run ; t lureby niuldiit; It ovldtmt tliiil, cftrribua iinrilim, tho intercuts of tliu tluiikhlililar ,'ir« iiiU vanccd more by reducing the exptiNiwii per liilln run. than by increasing tho buHJiieiut uf lliu road. 'I'lm re. celpts for passenyors or freight corrliid piir inllii In xlvtii by adding the expenses ami llie nut ini'iiinu cwrrlwl pur mile. It is shown from this cumpuriiimi tliMt oil an average the net income from pamiunKil'i* I'unitnl iio' mile is 50 per cent, of the rei-ulplji, or wjiml l» Ijut iii<. penscs ; while the net income from freight U only il4 per cent, of the expenses. From this we mm lliitl llie tariflfof freight should be iiicreaseil HI per ciml,, lliiil it shall be in n just propurlion to tho pimwng ip titrll)', The tables also show that the uul jiiiuiiMi frmil pan- sengcrs and mails pur milo run is goiiiirully KruH'iT mi the JIassachiisotts rallroails tlmn on tliii New York railroads, and, that tho not liioomit from frnluht pur Ion per milo is greater on the Now York pullnmcU, Tho general tariffs are not matorially dlfforuiit In ih,, twii .States, bat tho expenses of freight are fully fiO jmr ,vm, greater in Massncliuseits tliim In New York. Tint mt income per mile is the greatest on lliit Nuw York uuil tho not income per mile of a road and the expenses per mile ; that is, tho net incomo per mile of a railroad bears a very nearly constant ratio to an inverse of the ! Erie lEa'ilroad, which is"a frelgiit roiid STATIBTIOS of tub InOOUE AMD KOOSOMY OF TUB rEINOIPAI. RaILROAUS IS XeW A OBK ANK M ASSAdllt'Sirrr)! CotnpKDlM. New York Central New York and Erie iliidson Itlvcr Harlem Ogdensburg UiifTalo, Corning, ami Now York SVatertown and Rome Iluflalo and New York City Hoston and Worcester Western Boston and Providence Uoston and Lowell Old (Jolony and Full Hlver Fitchburg lloston and Maine Eastern Totals and averages I.enirtt inMIla 682 404 144 133 119 100 97 02 09 1&5 28 87 08 83 93 2379 Rereipta from Fnmeniren, MnlL,, etc. $3,438,&14 1,9;10,309 l,2S:i,841 005,084 141,fS0 07,llSl 108,1S1 137,917 ri47,397 83S,971 3-.'9,ir>« 1TB,24'I 427.137 yi3,7,'4 6«0,!I35 473,7r,3 Rereijiti from Freight. Tut Hi Beceii'ta. $^2,47'.l,S2i 8,100,500 404,145 837,311 410,U4 B-),170 2'J2,790 110.S53 40.^,419 9-24.073 214,594 21)7.252 2-22.519 300. nS5 2!I7.440 105,.Mr> JM1,614,-J0II JJ11II.314 419 $fi,»18,ii35 5.3,5:).'. 59 1,753 9^0 !'42,805 6911,1-24 1-23.157 8r:0,977 •2.'4.770 952,7110 1,703.144 .'►i3,7.'iO 442,492 040.050 704.039 8.',S,381 579,198 $21.8-28,f49 l'i)Weii).'L' 77 65 12T 29 29 21 37 25 70 87 f),') 57 03 01 00 62 07 fniiilil ■arriiHl fMii'li Mils run. IW KO 6. 89 74 311 sri i» M 49 47 05 87 68 IM Jli'i_ OT CompaBiei. New York Central Now York and Erio Hudson Ulver Harlem Ogdetisourg ItuHalo, t'orning, and New York Watcrtown and Rome Uuffalo and New York City Boston and Worcester Western lloston and Providcnoe Boston and Lowell I >ld Colony and Fall Itiver l-°itclibnrg Bo8t"-i ■ 1 Maine Eas',---" Totals and averages Net Inrflnia from Freight 179.042 682,482 127,987 183, -V; 144. .•-•.. 21, , 91,3fw 10.400 54.790 141,967 17,602 79.917 T.,t>l net Income. i :^:i.5.W,153 $■2.8.30 ■.'^4 2,722. b,il 5:13,235 3'24.0«S 170,860 60,752 171,219 .52,030 a'>S,307 720,703 210,285 119,408 $9.2U3.ri76 Ti.tnl Nil Reeeiiita Income Nil.-. m".. $10,170 $4:i03 ll,fi:3 6S07 1 ■2.1 SO 4119 7,I1S0 2141 4,15:1 I4;w 1,-231 507 4.030 1705 2,S.'-jO 40G 13,8ii9 51114 11,39,1 4(iu0 9,879 8823 15,S03 4200 7,407 10.333 10.342 0.2^-S Ratio uf net In- j Ratio of net I come li> Receipta Income to from PoFSengeri, Receipta Mall a, etc. ifroln Freight. F'r rent. -4S -62 -80 -32 -19 44 -48 -20 -65 -OS -69 -28 -44 -40 -09 -02 I'er Cent. •IN -60 •iH •31 •8.1 •3li •41 14 •14 •10 •31) $9,17 •49 '34 Wat Itiftoiita frnlH )*(,M,.ii, Se"*iMHIta,i«la. IjilTllilO.llW" I.IIIIO.It IV I 29,014 »U,lt46 7lhHiH 85,1(110 noil 671 61;i,74,«i«, |ief M ila >i|»,_ TT III) TT 19 94 m III 110 Tl» M 24 AT 6-2 94 J"L Ti) Compaoiea. \tt Income from Frt-ijrht per Mile run. Krpenses of Pniseni-en,, Mails, etc., carried one .Mile. Net Incon ■ from Haaaeu gera, Mella, etc., cjirned one .Mile. jieiire, i .-"reiglil I-cr Ton carried one Mile^ Cents. Itl02 1 ■-.'00 1 8.53 2 1142 1-,')01 1-MlO 1003 2-412 2 ■909 2 410 8-807 2^278 0.510 8 979 8-302 4108 Net income from Froigia per Ton carried one Mr.-. ■ '.y.i -71^8 1-im ■735 1-160 1114 ■339 -4,'>4 -44) -33:» -972 Net Inc.. ma tf nn PHMan. ,ir<, Malta, etc., per Mil. run. Net IlieDmil "] fn^Ml 1 Frai^hl per •IHill )llla TitI, 1 ( (la. 99 115 40 62 W 83 94 20 25 22 16 es Cent!. 1-001 -9-3 l-flS5 1-901 2811 l-4'i;l>» olI>.-r ToUI. opsmtlon. \ operation. .•t« 1 J jj'«j. 'V> ail >. run. run. niD, 184t 10 621 $27,081 ■127 i 1 IT6 -DT 7..1),54T i4(>,'. 1 i 2,339,484 »Cla. 166 ♦ cie. 73 I'enta. 83 184T 18 715 y2,70{..:ia:» i.,7m ',080 1,181,482 ■.i:.ii ;, :. ■ 1,177.148 165 7S 81 184S !l 111': 41,39: (':i.\ 2,ll2,v'. 1 V '.V •.'.,1,,.^ . J,61.8,089 161) 76 74 1840 «T (■■,,•, 46,15 -'■'■■ 2,;'.;i.' :'. 1,21 ,19 •.::i.' :'. ' «,J06,7„2 161 76 75 19B0 8! l(,c.: 65.fB;.,4f.i a,fl('7,OII ;,i>27.M« «:il.;-- 4,2l6,'iv:6 1 62 74 73 .1861 8(1 114:' ■.2,696.8Sfi 2,760,888 1,424,209 2«iMiil1 4,898,870 160 70 74 186,i 30 115(1 63,070,(i;:' 2,997,022 1,689,600 199,171 4,786,788 144 77 07 1853 M 1104 61,914.601 3,l.S0,im7 1,792.644 241,ua8 6,230,840 162 82 70 1854 87 IIM rTTB6,49N 8,3H,46J 1.902,1118 264,447 .'.,.^81,004 167 98 69 186B 1 ■ ' UJ^.i 1278 0.1,1.89,891 8,116,401 2,041,884 228.181 !>, 886.416 109 105 04 ] re«ft. rrom Pnmhikoi*. From I'li'I^'hAOiliW nr.l ■.■«>■•',. I|jl.l07,90u"' I'rom MtH., r ii», ate. T«fl- Ho."' d. ^8" '-J. ^"^ty HUcellaneo..., ToUI. Net Income. 1 ' 1840 jll1!l,2!7 $8,642,171 Si'l.'l,' $331,f:62 $l.0f.9,0('4 $1,090,570 i $1,!>46,6' 6 1 1847 2,6ll>,-.i4 2,-06, !)4'l 190,". il 4,904.682 .M:(,.'40 438,088 1,434,700 2,872,432 | 2,6!i2.(l79 1848 •i,S4B,72J S,; J6,407 22ll,v/6 t),.H'!i,S,i5 4>4,0il» 498,666 1,754,419 27*1,004 2,006.411 1841 r.,083J(ll 2,411, «); is.2,orii 6 741, 670, IM 6:l0,949 1,079,013 2,890,818 2,860,981 1W)0 8,404,1'4S S.H'8,701. «l'fl,837 0,419.:.;, 1 678,078 | 4,S.">,7fl2 \fimMi 3,112,796 3,3110,788 ie5i a,t>id,i'is 2,.,n9,4«."> 2E0,2J8 fi,699,57'„ , 062,nG<, i 6',»1,860 2,0,83,411 S,13':,!1(I6 8,269,071 issii 3,641,7'JO 2,t.l:i,40;i 273,801 ',,8S5.617 761,701 694,144 2,28S,2!:6 8.078.410 8,212,107 185S 4.I7I,!II>4 n,3iiii,30',i :U7,0J" 7,977.6 7 ' 912,85(1 728,301 2,074,6-8 4,324 013 3,0.^1,614 ISM 44!'B,888 8.728,186 a4a,4n 8,006,'.'61 1 1,233,070 1,018,041 n,l,')l,117 6,461,(:47 3,24.5,204 18-:5 .1,0(10,87" 3,904,076 461,604 ; 9,077,629 | l,307,10i 880,366 8,896.047 6,0.50,000 3,420,929 Net Numb«r of NtjinlMr of PuMiinra I'liMeiiKcra etrrltj in 1 h«ul«dono Number of Tone of Number of Tuna W.l.ht. In Tone, of Fawengar r'W^ilht, In Tone, of Freight Tralni, Total Nnmber of Tons, not In. eluding Panlrn- gera, hauled one Mile, MercbandiM ofMerchai.dlie not including and Uraval and Gravel Including Paaaen- Morcliandiie and mCoiU tha Cut. HUe. cnrried in the hauled one HUe. gera, hauled one Uravel, hauled Can. Mile. one Mile. ■ 1840 $T id 4,7;.2,R18 W. 1124, '208 1,140,266 89,2!15,U49 01,4411,087 71.030,100 17;, 806,837 I 5341 7115 6.il41.U4l 'j:i.S70,lS7 1,605,213 60,8?8,7rS 79,208,113 108,34,5,834 264,462.0411 1848 or>i 0.748,427 llK,il06,742 1,894,182 04,677,106 107,236,614 119,604,791 291,418,670 ' 1819 6 32 S,330,HM );ii-.,tr(IO,30« 2,0K,72T 60,734,812 108,141,392 124,046.927 298,921,181 i 1S60 «43 9,761,372 li; ,..■06,638 2,188,838 72,111,962 99,922,192 ]30,826„S02 302,769,966 1851 20 9,Ml),«>8 1..2,|ilfl,183 2,200,346 70,206,310 98,700,749 118,695,609 287,067,668 1852 6«ft 9,810.050 liil, 01)4, 666 2,&t!3,!87 77.638,247 101,748,163 131,077,460 310,401,860 ISM «C4 11,478,232 185,,si-,r,,7'^7 3,041,782 ! 5,986,882 106,148,699 148,804,441 360,038,972 1S.M 6 08 12.3;i2,7i>8 1!I4,)6S,802 3,767,631 104,BS3,04S 122,003,281 17l,677,'.64 8r8,32a,67^ 1 1;../ llaltimoro miil Oliln, ( Mnln Stem . Baltimore and Ohio, Wosliingtoii Branch licllufuntaiiio uiid iDdiaiia Chlsago,nitrIlngton, and) IJu.ncy f Chicago anil Kock Inland. Uincliinatl, lli-nllton," and Dayton Cleveland, (.'olumbun, and Cincinnati (leveland and rittuburg. . Cleveland and Toledo t'ovington and Lexington. Delaware, Laclcawanna, ) and Western / Clalnna and C'liicugu (^reen Bay, Milwankie,) and Chicago f Hartford and New Haven, iliidaim Itivcr . Illinnia Central Indianapolis and Belle-) fontainc Indianapolis and Cincin nail La Crnsso and Miiwaukic Little Miami Macon and Wcakem Marietta and Cinrlnnati. .Michigan Central Michigan Scuther.i i. Northern Indian^ Miiwaukic and Mil- , ,,.).. New Albany atld S - i. -. Naw Jersey Ccnt.al . New York Centra! . , . . New York and Krio . , , Now York and Uarleit . New York and New Haven Hanama Pennsylvania Ccntr,tl .... Fhiladi'l|ihia an.'. Iteading. Terre Haute, J. on, audi j Ht. Ijiuia [not olHclalj) 1 ^i '-°»"'-iL'h."d. aSO 380 r,i8 210 228 00 30 113 210 228 CO 141 I 141 194 221 98 l;.-6 2i,6 98 111 111 269 269 40 4') 72 144 704 72 U4 027 B4 110 c '5 .m8 75 ,9V i.rl '.V 330 338 126 2?8 34 .560 197 33 12 »7J ■ -ft Equii.nient. toco, iiottvea. Ctia, 204 3333 4 118 10 219 27 372 41 722 C4 33.' S3 446 24 20 53'.' 276 SO 2067 62 1061- B 83 't>7 83 oes 1462 10 18." 19 842 12 88 14 va 61 2i7 650 186 274 162i 74 1011 26 81 3.5,s 324 209 203 85 23 206!. 293S 617 381 118 141 175) 67T8 Capitol paid In. Funded Debt. $10,118,90i 1,669,000 1,881,63: 1,476,300 4,029,000 2,163,900 4,647,020 2,830,784 3,323,711' 1,802,80 3,051,i522 5,411,500 1,000,000 2,3.'iO,00J 3,768,86.' 2,571,060 834,167 1,803,075 1,037,8.12 2,981, :127 1,3.5.8,755 4.330,.56l) 0,033,432 4,082,000 1.326,4.19 2,611,824 2.000,000 24,1116,061 10.0110,000 4,217,100 3,00(1 000 4.632,1.00 12,366626 9,064,267 3,260,000 $12,764,940 1,214 600 1,240,01X1 1,971,000 1,011,000 93,400 9,760,318 3,">70,278 1,011,000 2,400,000 2,834,330 600,000 944.000 8,842,000 19,247,000 862,000 1,306,800 l,.'^64.00O 828,000 129,000 7,160,000 6,4118,068 8,646,300 2,347 ,-,.M 4,TT< '.'i Il,0(i(/,ii0fl 14,703,897 24,801,000 6,363,3* 2,216,1100 2,468,000 6,370,041 8,890,600 4,600,000 Floating Debt, Total. $194,043 25,000 29,829 282,679 114,086 266,441 124, 163 293,679 386,473 469,039 Kamtnge. ,063,766 488,288 109,002 408,363 1,568,703 174,269 269,479 82,131 198,637 7'8is',i80 400,433 67,889 S00,7!'4 6X748 ,lb4,!i69 668,361 73,010 •liaJTOS ,480,827 50,000 $23,067,836 1,676,000 3,126,904 2,91.7,878 6,114,086 8,430,341 4,7C9,S78 6,924,770 7,029,463 3,883,748 0,616,378 8,714,068 1,709,002 3,294,000 13,009,266 24.370,76;'. l,dl,0,4U. 2.''f^" " . .ioa +,i.:,'.',864 I 4S2,76.'; 11.180,660 12,220,076 13,136,338 4,24i,S28 7,637,840 6,059,748 ;W,90fl,6'8 !16,9f5,969 1(1,128,760 6,2f:8,fllfl 7,000,000 1J,874,6'.': 19,626,(!'-; 7,800,1 Net Earnings, $4,856,C52 444,220 298,298 722,631 1,416,304 603, L 1,200,296 631,878 970,471 264,974 1,269,106 2,315,787 239,920 780,794 1,812,088 ■■■w.ir' 1 '/-'Hi 413,654 678,'l'20 849,940 196,089 2,878,321 2,686,630 091,2.. . 780,407 1:18,490 (,773,069 0,;;49,060 l,C40,3v^3 884,806 1.177,476 , M.,.133 ..■■ I,7!i4 :•< ..;«X• $2,001,172| i:f.6,i4i I4i;,8:3 879,822 709,3! r. C..l,2! .'. 732,0,50. 809,619 618 881 lS8,«i'4 460,640 1,262,042 142,702' 2rl.4(i,5' 00.1.1M7 027,95:; 06.C7ll' 221,1. .1, 846.422; 195,242; O-i.illil 1,306,603 084,8111 417,444 S89,4PS lNl,ot; 3,6V6,2ll-.' 3,00.5,610 324,89;' .838,877 est.877,476 1,829,273 2,444,433 RAI 1621 BAI » 1 $l.('4R,R' f* 2,B<.i4,»7« 2,001). 41t 4,650.981 3,3(10,7!W B,l!59,«"l a,'212,l«' 8,flf>n.M4 8,245,204 00 I 8,45i«;929 1 IT, 805,837 254,462.040 291,418,570 298,921,181 302,769,966 287,C07,0«S 810,40t,8&0 850,088,072 I 8r8,323,Bi^ M i20,127 Railboadb 1-* inn (.iroM Net Ean)iii|l». 3M>,tD2 $2,001,172 ^44,220 298,293 t22,BSl ,416,81~4l 6CS,: ,290,2001 RSI, 878 070,471 2(M,974l ,269,108' ,316,787 239,020] 780,7941 ,812,0881 VVJ.U'' £fJ5,f44 14C,8.'a 379,822 7iM),8( fi io 1,21 :■ 732,060; 809,519; M8 8itll 1S8,(K'4 460,640 1,262,042, 142,71(2'^ 2fl.40ri «0.").'.M7 027.9K 05 Old 418,054 221,. 078,120 849,940 190,069 i,87S,321 |!,60B,030| 691, 730,407 ",08,490' |(,n3,069i B ?40,060l E C4il,8*3, r 884,800 11.17T,470' M -,338 . l,7C4i 340.422! 195,242, OVil'.il l,30iM>Di'i 081,81" 417,444 £89,45S| 1^1,(10 i 3,fl'.B.*'- 3,005,6;0| a24.89-.'l 8SS,877| e8t877,47«l ' l,b!J9,V78 2,444,433 liailroad to the Pacij!c.—'l'\ie proposod railroml to tliu 1 tliaii «o now ponspas, (Imt It U liollcr In ulvo oiilv llic Paclllc involves so many qucslionn as to fcasiLillty and statistics that liavo up lo IliU tliim lintm (iliUlnod' ((ml cost, mpiiring to determine much more accurate data I abstain from arguiiieiils In fuygf of mty rouln, ' SHBVEVBU KOOTEB fob a UaILBOAD FBOM tub MlBSlBSU'I'l OR ITS TaUdlTABIM TO TUB I'Alllyill lllUAtt -.ICMnH •>■■■ K»TOBTOfTUEiTttinmad Hmi( «. MIlM. 1804 101 2032 2U80 2290 1892 2174 1018 2030 Bi >r Aa»lti ftItU IJMCeia. l-'Mt. " lis, 100 1,(KKI CO, 120 4'.(,9WI 511.514 4H,SI2 WP,(17« !I2,7H.1 4.',(HIH Kii(liiillM4 ( ul, tllilO.TxI.lHHI 1(I,(KI(MK>'I ll(Mm,(HHI Mil KCUnt lldil ('■l«d la 1(11- pr(waii!(ihiii, (t.i, in«,8l(i,OT. ioi.vio.act. 6lt,((1(),(KI(l llll,l'^(M.t(il|i I'Md'tf •(•rlla l.anil. " Milx, ~ mmr 1171 U'lO inl 1 • ' 1 mi 1400 ' (12(1 1400 Old 1(180 1 11(1 UTS nil ir/ifi 4it 7KI 1210 12*0 .Mil0J„(Km Between I Between | Between | lietMcen 1 snd WOO 1 and 30O0 3 And «m 4 eiiil UKJO t'eut. Feet. Koct. Keel. 470 101 18) 340 275 305 48,5 700 6S0 170 270 808 847 m 410 720 iio 105 190 200 ion 100 130 io(") 848 143 186 170 206 ,ulG el,-valed llclwH'n" 5 uiiil 6(MI0 fVet. 97 t>S('l 40ll 725 100 603 514 Between 6 anil 1MW Feet. 28 2S8 170 284 805 01) 00 270 |(i| (1(5 iBI m a 4T H ill Khodo Island Connecticut ; Total elx New* Encland. Statco 97 42 10 OS 3 111 »,1I04 2,SP3 021 3,465 91 841 3,017 2,700 529 2.776 91 798 $14(l,.Sl|b,l(l3 $103,407.2(18 24 S25,»T0 l;A,l(kl,(l09 1,019,310 44157,831 'ATi'tl !W 8,(10,', 111 4SII New York llelawore Maryland Total five Middle Atlautic States Virginia 139 19 \t 9 14 4 7,904 l,4i;5 700 974 1,302 521 0,S!'3 l,.n2i 075 748 1,180 128 $309,370, 48N *:i7,705,fl49 11,120,480 17,001,014 24.9;i2,l53 3.500,0110 0,411^ ' iiM.lt 000 Mi I.IHT ' ' liiM ' m m im South Carolina Florida Total five Southern Atlantic States Alabama 51 6 8 6 1 9 9 5,U2S 1,100 404 996 1,.S05 140 1,116 000 4,U5S 6M 177 1135 147 38 857 31)0 $94 H,37l 750,000 O.ITT ' T4T Grand total 421 36.137 26,906 $918,140,00(1 if>,m ' ' IH*r"J Progress of Railroads in the Vmted ,S/i«i«.— The fol I 18,38 to 186G iiicln-ive, and also bIiuwb ll(« wltido rtum- lowing tabiO cxjluit'i the aijfcrcgato limnber of ini!.- I lior of miles of railroads In aaoli HtfttO fcf tha itiims p*- of railroads in the Unitci' States fi^r every year from i rioil : RAI 1G22 IIAI rRIHIItrHH OK lUlLllDAIm IN TUN t'NIfNM Hv*r Mil (••I.I MUUl. yim. |M«. IMO IH4I. 1141. IIIM. ^"44. III. ^± III. Mur |>4« 1 1.M , |.Mi »M: J«M. ni. l«M. msj. |_2«>». III. ni. 1 111. III. 118 'too III 1 III 111. 1 III. >|ll|l)li 12 12 12 .2 .H7; 64 64 114 3 64 10 64 IN '7iN 117I lYl-i 224I 2*11 801 f>'« 427 I.IMI 4111 Mk; 4811 4'" iii New lliiiiipBlilrt'. 1114 Oil 04* IH81: 414 46!', y4ll{ Wrt «H loorii 11411 i.iMi 646 B16 l.'^ii7 646 BIB 1,286 ;;;: :;;:i::': MHSHArhUM'tU. . . 12ll 144 144 21U 486, 4iUi 46B 407 tl» Hliiidr Island ... M Wl NI Ml Ml' Ml Ml f.ii Ml Ml M Ml Ml nil All Ml Ml 7n t-t, t'oriiicrticin .... 80 uO 110 212 1118 23H 2ns 2:8 238 r.m 231 1126 481 ri40 ri7ii 6i7 Mil rioii em Npw York 82.% 3'^, 404 400 boo; 7-'-' 722 706 873 »u 1102 im \m» 1464' 1,040 ?,H3 'i,4(0 2,61:8 2,761 Xfwr .loriwy IIW 124 UH IMI ISO l^ii ISli 186 iNii IMi Wti lift •m 267 'iO( Vli(' 8MI 44s 472 PuiiniiylvHutt. . . 502 002 5il2 Nlitt 8!I8, h'.l3 MI3 8.III 803 l>4' 2.467 IK-Ittwaiv Itt lOl 10 16 10 16 10 16 14 16 16 16 16 16 16 111 Ml K4 120 Mao'IiiiuI 181 m isi •:02 228' 2i:8 ■JM 2I'H 28ft 824 VM ll'/4i il'it 1124 «ri6 iU't. WXi 87-J 37H VirtfiiiU 12b rjf> 12» 147 223 1 2i8 2i!N ■m V23 27(1 i>ii;i III8I HUN 418 r.**! 624 lllHl l,Vfi2 1,480 (•:i 1.17 87 204 87 1 n7 2114 20* 87 2114 87 2114 87 2m 87 2114 XI 21 '4 llll 241 240 ';6ii 24!' l;8ti 240 M6I 40(1 6.'6 483 077 612 7(8! Hoiitli CuroUria . 137 137 (ieorgta ft7 1(H) 18B •,:7I Ml>' 308 41)2 Md fiU 6(81 6110 6<8I mi am S(I4 WiT on 1,002 1.002 Florida ....| 01 III 01 M 118 118 M IIH f4 186 28 936 ■/8 20 817 20 4S4 Alabama 46 46 46 46 40 46 4i: 40 40 14 40 14 26 4(1 411 •2l. 40 42 40 4-' 40 66 611 46 Ml 66 Ml 66 m m ori 117 111 117 VII 101 2nB 222 410 '.04 t.fXilHiatm 4(1 40 40 "l84 18 82 "I'Wi 03 86 36 144 r.7 180 .MliMoiirl .... ..., ,.,, ,,,, ,,,, ,... Kentucky 22 sn 28 28 ' ;8'"2li w 28 28 28 28 ',» VI r.ft IW U'S 307 Ohio 36 18S 84' 84 138' 174 ..,.! 84 20(1 H4 238 84 2118 IMI l'«i •.i7li iiii 274 27(1 i'i 274 irto «(.0 86 U2 181 H70 2l»i 148 Min 474 fiU" '.'71 i,f»r. 474 7fri 2U(i 2,MH •174 OM 1,2(8 2,641 474 1.438 2,18B 2,800 COl 1.807 2,.'i84 Michigan Illinois .... .,.. 22 22! 22 2-. 2v ;••: 22 Wlwonnlii • • ■* .... ■ . * • ....L... • » • 1 III' m Ml 2(;0 27(1 680 Jo\. .... ..••'*•** .... • It* . f 1 , 1 tn Hit ml III! Sf 2; 3 CttlffunilA .... .... .. .. 38111 ^ 1 T5T7 4I74 4311 Wl • III 1 . . . III, Jill 1. ,, 1,1 . 18.218 .... 23 23 Total 1848 11120 2167 4m70 t.m Eiw |J(fiRi)TrHi,Ti(iiir»,'n,(ifl i I8,2(:B |21,128 ':4.470 From an examination of the aliovo tabic it will li» tliu yuM Witt, M\\g nil iticri-aiio of 8407 miles for tlio found that tlio coiiiitruction of railroaiU liaii iiiuiiu 1 yunr, greater progress in 1850 lliiin in any previous year. Wii ttilil (11 lliw luiit two cdliimn* of the following ta- Tlio nuinlier of miles in operalioii on the illat of He. Iilii liiu |iii|iii|i«llim nnil itcallli of the several States, us cembcr, 1850, ia •.'l,47«, against 21,0(iU at the close of [ ustlmiidul Uy (lio t^-M»ty of the Treasury. Miles ok Kailooad in Oprbatioh on TII8 3I»T \« MO, 4(81 2.f.4i.( 60 07.206 fli'lH.BiO ).M2,6(ia 02l.1f«2 1Wi,M\ |I36,(KI6 1 10.726 Ki'MIMj «?l,649 ♦Kio.ai? MHI.OINI 1.(H»'/.470 1,016.687 2.216.760 1,1 40.8(16 f-0!i.(i74 1,24!«.«IT Ifri.KlO ll2fi.WI4 Wll.216 836,000 iiri»,lt7 mia.r^Od $181,12.8,186 103,804,3'.'6 01,166,0811 607,036,006 01,(100,hBO 208,760,831 l,864,164,02.-> 170,760,600 1,031.7"1,304 80,406.024 261,243.60(1 1 63fl,!'f:4,807 230,603.r.72 803,434.240 I 6U0,!I00,0(I0 40,401,401 270,213,037 VB0,6'.'6,(HHI i:70,4'26,(iOO 240,0011,00(1 821,776,810 411.fl(Kl.lO'< I S60.877,,W1 301,Sf.s,4(ll 1 110,BI'3,,'i«() 1 888.237.474 87.ri(KI,0(ill 1 lill.(KI0.(H8l 223.04S.731 166.0(HI.O<:0 «4,240.7-.'6 j 70.070,347 1 Illiode Island Marvland North Carolina South <'aroIlna Flurlda MiDSihRlDUl Ohio IIHnoA Wisconsin lows, Miaouri rstlfomla Arknnsas Territories and IMstrlct of ('olumbU. Total 21,128 44;«« ■■ - -ym^' ""^WitiWiBii $0,817,011,072 KstliuMtcd increaso of property ■ DC«186t«fn mtUit ,,,,,. 4MW'"- 13 8<«ii' '. ,,,,., 8Wii«l'> 4(1.' iir,4 IC'.l •nitctl States li," sunmary. ., .--inbcr of •iiuiive. CaplUl jmld In $'nn,!<«l).(l4il KiinUi'il ilcbt ^l3.ia7.U73 KIcwtliig di'bl _ 40,ljjMM Expi'iiilwl In ISM jtTdAM.tff? Itoinlrcil to flnlnti tho ro*di Hlil.vja.'ji iT Tolnl ollmaled CMl »I,'HHMWI,1U MilcH llnlilied 19.II3II Mlloi uuHnliilied 1 0,0)1 J Ti'UI luiigth U(I,UU5 lter<:iiitii for tho jett... t01,13'2,a83 Aci'oriling to ttioso (IkuWi tli« nvcrnj;o cost iiurmllo woulil uiily amount to 930,000, whereas vx|iuriuiicc proves that J8.'),000 is nearer the truth. AnsumlnK thin catlumte, tho total cost of thn .'111,000 niilcii, when flnislieil, woulil amount to «)I,2C0,000,O0(t. The average cost of a portion of our ruUroail system lias been as follonrg : at tho end of 185 1, hail been mmlo by the countries of ("cntrul and WcHterii luirojic, ami liy the Uiiitoil Slates, in provldinj} thcinsclve? with ruilway.i. /Mi/u'dyii.— Geneml summary of the compuratlvo ex- tent of roliwoy open at tho closo of 1854, In Ulirerent couiUrle'. roitlii,. P.t Mil.. 1 * 10 nil"' j}tSO,ll()O.II1)ll OO.IMXI.Iillll MI.OOO.UOII 88 " ■' MassAOhusetts Vi •' " tlio Mouth and Went.. 4l.4Si 4,').i;f)a It is estimated that at least three-fourths of Ihc mon- ey which has been expended upon railroads in thi.i coun- try bns Iffion furnished l)y our own citizens, and the rcnwiinder (chietly for lionds) has been obtained from forei;;ii investments. In conclusion, wo ma}' add, that, in reviewing tho progress of railroads in tho United States, their ef- fect upon the prosperity of tho country, and their fu CounltlM. Araft In Unllllili H'liinr. Mile, uf Riillwiir (iiitn In S-S4. "MIlMiifKnTT tiUMl (urlvll fitn H.iunr. Mllngf Irrn. |!.-2 8S 2 '8 l-'.iiKluiid and NVuloH ' 1 Keolland j M,MIIP ll,IIH) BO.'.MO 1,040 81.HT0 000 France Htl.UlU W>,IIOO •JOS.IIUO 11.000 8,010 2,1)10 t..4li0 MO 01 14 2 4-H Ik'lgliim 4St,0ilO T,«00 47.000 4(1.000 S,840 i.noo 2,TiH) 2,000 IS lO-fl ft 9 48 New York I'lminylvanla Ohio lOO.SlHI 40.0110 1,8.800 f.5.4(lfl 0,0110 n.flofl i.r«io 2.S00 6-4 T-T 44 no IlliuolB Twcnty.twn other Rtaten oftlio Union TnlnlB 1-.".I,'.'00 i.noi.ooo T,800 8.200 DO 00 'J.1S'1,040 »'>,!ISil Ifl It oppcars by thcso figures that tho only countrj- or Stotc possessing a greater extent of railway (com- turo prospects, are much beyond the wildest dreams i pared wiili terrltoriiil area) than I'.nglnnd and 'Wales of the originators of the system. Tho number of miles | was the State of Massachusetts ; but ;ho area of 5Ias- built In tho tirst ten years of our railroad history, h ginning III the year l(t28, WT 1843, of which New Y' k Slate built 18 per cent. The number of miles uuilt .. tho second ten rrs, or from 1888 (o 184H, was .SK30, of which New oik built 16 per cent. From 18 IR to 18,'i(i the number built was 18,794, of which Now York built U per cen'.. At tho present ti.ne ?Tew York has over 11 per cent of the total length of railroads, and ranks next to IU'rais in numlwr of miles. Our rail road history has had two eras — the first from lHi8 to Helglmn, and of those Western Stales of the Union 1818, when there was in the numl>er of miles built an average ir''i'en;9 of 208 miles per year ; and tho second from 1848 to 'MuC, having an overage lucre a.io of 2.'t50 miles per ^ear. In many of the States the dovclof ment of tho railroad system ; - quite e>iuBl to tho wants ofihe people; but in ninny others, Kentucky being the moit notable instance, it is much less. The cost of these 26,000 miles of railroad built at the end of the year 1857 i» estimated at Ijin20,000,000, or an average of $35,000 r<} $30,000 per mile ; and, if tho rails hail been laid with American iron, produced hy domestic labor, it would bavo been tho most produc- tive investment tho country ever made. The Railroad Syilem$ ofJCurope and the Vnited f^lmr \ — Among the greatest achievements are the opening up of new ticlds of supply, and tho deepening of old clian- nel.s of consumption. Thoy have brought Into profila- ble use mines, forests, quarries, arable and grazing dis- tricts, flsheries, harbors, and rivers, previously inacces- sible. Kut still greater even than thcso achievements arc tho advantages arising from the cheap and rapid oon- ince of passengers over long distances. Kvery cn- lri|^ri»o is now carried on wit'i perhaps ten times as Sttchiisetts is only an eighth ]>art tlio area of England and Wales. In France and Germany the progress has been less i' an a s ■ enth of our own. Kveu in Belgium, and Nc. ".' ", id renusylvauia, the progress has boon barely r. \' \ , of ours. In Siollai'd tho jirogress has been . ici n , rniiid as in Geriuany j and if fair allow- ance be uiade for tho lake and mountain suif hu of Scotland, the progress in it will exceed the iirogress of where railways are made with a cheapness and facility unknown any where else. We may now recapitulate tho conclusions which seem to be establislied by tho factj and statements be- fore us, viz, : 1. That of the three hundred millions sterling actu- ally expended in rallnay» fo tho closo of 1855, in tho Uniti J Kingdom, fully one half, or one hundred and fiflv millions sterling, were expended during the live yoa"rs, 1816, '47, '48, '49, and '50, and that of the 8300 uiilc s of railway open and at work at the closo of . , .'.il'v one half, or 4150 miles, were compleled and ori,..^iit into operation for the first time during the five years now enumerated. 2. That the consequence of so prodigious an outlay in so small a space of time has been to pluco tho United Kingdom, but especially England, so far in advance of other countries In the possession of an ex- tensive railway system, that, adopting the fair test of comparing territorial area with railway mileage, En- gland has a comparative mileage three times great- er than Belgium, New York, .ind Pennsylvania, and seven times greater than France and Germany. 3. T'lat tho introduction on tt-o largest scale into uiii'di dispatch, and with ten ii iies less trouble than! this country, and in degrees more limited into other fo y years ago ; and tho facility of personal superin- countries, of n change so cxten.^ive, absolute, and fua temlence Is certainly twenty times greater than It was then. It is nt,; difficult, therefoic. to comprehend that to accili>rate even by a few '■ ara the complelioii in a country of an extensive system of railways. Is to con- fer i,'|. Ill it advanl. lea the real value of which it is imp >a;bletoroprc.«ontin'ormsofmoneyi andwoshnll j as a consequcuce of diminished, roat of loorli P- ;, 111 tho consiJ ■r..fi-' i connected with this mode of I reduced expenses in conveyaucu lo market, v'cwiiig the ''"t.". 1 corrrction of many prevalei* or- 4. That as regards tho 150 millions 'V. r>rs relat'vi lo ihi! . .-s* of Engi:-h railway.1. ' pended In this country in the five years, i*. Let us nc* ,1 1 ,.i, •vt^ t:.o com. • ative progress ivhi .-h, ; iperutiou was to give en |>'.>.;-mint, during damcntal in the moans of transit, has already led, and in a sliort time will lead still further, to important modiflcatlons in the conditions alTectlng the supply of and tho demand for large classes of commodUies— these modifications tending generally to r dm Ii "is of price, ■ or ' t ex- ■\ iU •Vjds, W^^i RAI 1G24 RAN flrif, of ilpsr fooil flflfi-'l^), and Mcond, of pxtremo commorrliil dlffliulty (IHIT-'IK-'IO), to a liody of ar- thniin mid nthiTK, viirvlii); from iipwanl of a million to lialf a niillluii nf poriiuna. 6. Tliiit cm llio oIluT Imiid, the ciills liy tlio iirocem of "till li Iho l(iO millions hcto ((rttdimily riiimHl fiDni the iiiiiliilii niid ivcaltiiicr claHscn, hIki wcrii tliu livliicli prevailed during tho two or three last ^ 'ars of the period. 8. That, on tho other hand, the cessation aftei' 18,10 of an annual heavy demanil for calls, tho rapid in- crease of dividends on the capital previously exjicnded, the still more rapid advance of the market price of rail- w ay stock, and, more powerful still, the efl'ect upon pro- ductlcin and consnniplion of several tiiousand miles of railway communication, may lie renurdee given to the broad and beneflcial result. That to private enterprise we arc indebted for being a generation in advance of the rest of Kiirope as regards the new moans of internal transit, — To(>ki:'s /[islm-i/ of I'rices. We give .1 sumniary showing the number of miles and cost of the railroads of the world. This summa- ry is of later date than the separate statements given before, and of course shows an Increase. There is a discrepancy between the number of miles In operation in Gemiany, aciording to tho antliority of Tooke, and the following. This Is explained by tho fact that many of the railroads stotcd by Tooke as belonging to Ger- many should be placed in tho column of French and Uelgic railroads, Ths following taUo also exiilblls the low cost of American railroads compared t» Ihoau of Kurope, I'oMPAaATi vn Ttiii.i or IIaii.ui rnllail HtHlos (IWiT) ,, llreiit llrlUlii (IND3J ,, Kr«llci' (li-M'ii Itormnny (I ^> I'riiiislA (|N,v»i llelKliini |INM>| Ilritlah I'riivlliri'S , , , , lubn raiiftina Hiiuth AiMvrIca Itiissin Hwoilell Itnir Hpaln Africa India Tots! 'M.IIIKl K.'i.iT 4»;it i<,'.'ia i,'i»ii 1.1)05 NJU HIW «T 00 Hit tn I TO III) 1(0 Aim IN (irmoTioN. Ill n.iiui U'Jo.lHid'.iiiiir l,4'^T,UI(l,4'0 41I,I)(HI,(M ■! ",.'«I),IVI»1 17.000,(10 1 i).l>IHI,ISKI :i. 1(10,1111(1 1S,(KKI,IM)II jmr Mil* "i)iri.'i,(i(iii 1711,11(1(1 Ift'i.lMIII 7l,isiii lU.issi 1111,1 (HI t>ii,mHi 4f),0ll() ir>(),(iiHi 7MiO(l IUO,IHIO IIHI^IDIO 1 (VI, 0(1(1 liHi.isie 12l>,(()ll irio,ii(Ki $7iM)(i(r 411,074 j«,V,)jbli,u'tlb,4lb Raialns (l''r. HuUiiu ttii, im jnu/ri; (ier. Jliminrn; It. I.'if iiii'fc ; I'orl. /'(i««iiji; Knss. /wi/iii; ,Sp. I'natii), the dried fruit of the vine. They an' produced fmm various npeclcs uf vines; deriving ilnir names partly from the place where they grow, as .Smyrnas, Vulen- clas, etc. ; and partly frimi the species (^f grape of which llicy are made, as muscatels, blooms, sultanas, etc. Their quality ippears, liowever, to depend more on the method of th.lr cure than on any thing else. The finest raisins are cured in two inethoils; eitlier by cutting tlie stalk of the bunches half through, when the grapes are nearly ripe, and leaving them suspended on the vino till tho watery part be evaporated, and tho sun dries and candies them ; or by gatliering the grapes when liny are fully ripe, and dipjiiiig them in a ley made of i!iu aslii s 1 .' the burned tendrils ; after which tiny are exposed 1 the sun to dry. Iluse lured in the first way are ' . . eslceincd, and are denomlnate(l raisins of tho sun. ' he inferior sorts are very often dried in ovens.— Tiihsison's Disp. Raisins are imporli ! ii< casks, barrels, boxes, and jars. The lliiest coiiu , j.r 1 and quui i' r boxes weigh- ing about 25 lbs. Some ol ilic infuriur »• ris are brought to us in mats. Malau < raisins are in llie highest esti- mation Tho inuscai from Mahi)^ fetch fully a third more than any oiiior description 1 raisins. Tho value of raisins imported into tlie I'nitcd States for the fiscal year lH5(S-'u7 was 4l037,4U0, viz: Wli.iif. liii|K>rt«4. Piwndi. Vdu*. France uii the Mecjiterrsiieaii Hpalu on tlie Medltcrraneuii Turkey in Asia 664,1(10 14,4WI,8llO jM,H4a t;il,200 I60,av6 *2i.i,ft.'.l 8T0,7Til M.O^.s 0,71 S 0,707il,241 Total in ISrA-'W IncrcMO Rake, to. The sea term for incline, and applies to tho masts, stem, and stern-post, etc. ; the liowsprit, in- stead of raking, is said to ileere. Slasts generally rake aft, and in peculiar rigs only forward. Tho rake of tile mast has an Influence on tho sailing of the vessel, and the masts of some schooners rako excessively. The principal effect seems to be to diminish tho effect common to all the sails, of depressing tlic ship's head. To rake a $hip, is to firo Into her head or stern in the direction of her length, or along her decks. It Is similar to what engineers term enfilading. Rake of a Ship, is all that part of her hull which hangs over both ends of her keel. That which is be- fore is called il\c fiire-raki: or rake /iirwi.irii, and thot part which is at tho setting on of the stcrn-poit is called the rnke-njf or ajierward. RangOOU, a cominereial port and town of the Bur- mese dominions, aliout iti miles from the se», on tho left bank of the eastern branch of the liivcr Irrawaddy, in lat. 1(5" 12' N., long. 96° 20' E. The town and suhurbs extend lengthwise about one mile along tbo Itur HAN 1685 RAT fl.T'.S 0,7011 *liHT,4tiii i 804.2 m 1 $7II,'241 Id ftpplies to low8|irit, in- Tiorally rakn I'lio riike of ' till! vessel, Ixei'sslvely. Ih the cftcct liliiii's licail. Itirn ill 'lio Ic'ke. It id [ liiill wliich VliUh i» lio- anil that lern-po(t is lof llio Bur- Iscft, oil tlio prraw»Jth ami llllli, up lollie 'illih and '27lh dut;ri-i'» of N. lat., and from llj<^ !i;id to the ItMtli dejjrcii of K. loiiij., containiiiu iiii una of nl.oiit 1M4,(MM) Bcpiaru niilon, with a popululion of iilioiit ■l,(JOit,000. Its ultiiallon is (ixtrenuly ionvciii,.||t fur commercial pnrposi'n, l)cinK situated so lunr tho ki'U, and eoinmandlnK the iiavluatiori of tlic Irriiwaddy, which o.\lnnd» to Avii, Ihoiupllal, ftdlntaiicc of noariy 'ilK) miles. KanKoon i-i ii«'i'n»il)|i' to nhipn of even I'.'UO toii.i burden; the iiavl|{ation, ailhout(h xomewhat in- tricutu, boin); lafo and practicable with the asKUlaiire of lliu ordinary native piloli). The town has many advatitngca for Bhip-biiildinf,'. At neaps tho tide riaea and fulls aliout IH foct ; and at spring!* from '1:> to .'10 feet. The prinolpul leak forcHts arc, at the same time, at a comparatively «hort di<- laneo, and tliern Ih a water conveyanoo for the tlnilier nearly tho whole way. 8liip-building has, in fiiit, been carried on ut Itangooii alni'e 1T8U, and in the ;i»* years before tho Uritiah captureil it there had licen built 111 Bipiara-rlRgcd vcaacU of Kuropean construc- tion, the total liurden of which amounted to above Xt,WW tons. .Several of these were of from HOO to KHK) tons. Under tho direction of European masters, tho Hurmeso wore found to make dexterous and laborious artisans ; in this respect greatly sur|iassing tho natives of llritish Indian provinces. Tlierc are two consider- abl(^ markets, where tho ordinary necessaries of life, according to Burmeso usage, are cheap and abundant : these are rice, excellent tlsh, and poultry. Mimty. — Tho Oiirineao currency consists, for small payments, of lead ; for larger ones, of g(jld and silver, but chlclly of tho latter. There are no coins. At every payment Itio metal must be weiglied, and very generally assayed — a rudo and very inconvenient statu of things. The weights used in the weighing of money are the samo as those used on ordinary occasions; the kyat or tical, and tho paiktha or via, U v. jy far tlie moat frequent. .Silver may l)e considert d as t'r.; ■ '.and- ard. Gold is generally lield to be nlmuv \' i ines more valuable than silver. The wcignintr ii'ui .usay- ing of tho metals used as currency gi' i.'s i uifloyment to a class of persons as lirokers, nioney-changors, and assaycra. Every new assay costs tlio owner, if tlic metal be silver, 'ii per cent. — li per cent, being the established commission of the assayers, while 1 per cent, is lost, or supposed to Im lost, in the operation. If it tie repeated 40 times, it follows tliat the original amount is wholly absorbed — a fact which shows the eiionnous waste of metal ariaing out of this rude suU stitute for coin. All grains, pulses, certain fruits, natron, salt, and lime, are bought ond sold by measure : other commod- ities by weight. — For an account of tlio weights and measures, see. article BritMAii. Commevce. — A considerable intercourse is carried on lictween the Hurmeso and Chinese dominions by an imniial caravan, of which tlie merchants are all Chinese. Tho imports from China consist of manul'acliirod urti- des, tho chief export from Burma being cotton wool. The trade with foreign countries seaward is carried on with tho ports of Chittagong, Dacca, and Calcutta, in Bengal ; Madras and Masulipatain, on the Coromaudel roast; the NIcfibnr (ihmd<, In ihn Pay of BengAlj {'■nang, in the Straits of Muhicca; ami oic«,|on«lly w.ih the l'i.r«lan and Anilnin (liilf«. The largest trade Is with Calciittn, "ttlui; lo the great coniiimpllon of teak Ihnlier In the latter, lunl the facility with which she supplies the deiiiaml of the Iliinnese for Indian and llrilUh cotton goocN. The articles exported to for- eign eounlrics from Ibingnon are the fcdiowliig: leak wood, It.rra.laponlen, or catechu, ictick-lae.lieeswax.elo- phaiil»' Iccih, raw coiion, orpimeul, commonly called ill India burial, gold, diver, rublps, sapphires, and hon-et, or ratlier the sniall, hardy pony of the country, will, h is , luch e»tc eniid, parllciilarlyat Madras, liy far the most ini|virtnnt (if llic«c coiui litles Is leak limlicr; tlo' ciuaiilily of this wood aiinmillv expot^d Is said lo lie ec|iial lo TiMKI fidl-«ized Irecs,' which for the most part consist of what |i„||a slilp-buliders call sliinhlii, which are pinnk ■ hewn out of the. log with llio acU" at an hnnien>c) wii to. The tc ak forests of I'egii .•ro by fur llie most nb n.Innt In India. The teak is nowhere lo be fonn i In low alluvial lands to which ' Ihe tide reaches, but a! ■ iiuds In tlie high lands beyond Us Intluencc. It seems lo bo very generally dlssem- inaled throughout the Burmese dominions.' In the territory ceibil to the Hilllsh in Marlahan, there are I some line forests, tho timber of which is cut clown for exporlallon, and when) it is believed that saw-mills have very recently been cstaldishcii b\ Home Kciropean seniors. The most necessible and extensive forests of leak in the Burmese dominions aro In tho province of Sarawadi, about IfiO miles to the norlli of Itangoon, with which tliero Is a water eommunlcalion. Tho |irinclpal Imports Into Burma are cotlon piece goods from India ancl Brilain, llritish wocdcns. Iron, steel, cinlcksilvor, copper, cordage, borax, sulphur, gunpow- der,8altpelre,lire.arms, coarse porccluln, Knglisliglasf- ware, opium, tobacco, cocoa and arec:a nuts, sugar, and spirits. Of (heso by far the most important is cotlon piece goods. The Burmese have few cotlon mannfac- tiires of their own, and appear, from very early times, to have bciu fiirnishrd w llli the principal part of tlieir supply from the Coromandcd coast. To tlie.«c! were afterward added Ihe cheaper fabrics of Bengal ; and both are now, in a great measure, superseded by Bril- ish manufactures, the use of which lias .spread very rapidly since the opening of (ho trade in 1811. Rape, a liiennial plant of the turnip kind (Urnsnira iiapii^, l.inn.), Iiiit Willi a woody fusiform root scarcely lit lo be eaten. It Is indigenous, liowers in May, and ripens its seeds In July. It is cultivated in iimny parts of KuKland, partly on account of its seed, ■which is crushed fur oil, anil partly for its leaves as food for sheep. Tho culUire of rape for seed has been much oljjected to by some, on account of its supposed great exhaustion of tho land; luit Mr. Loudon says that, where the soil and preparation are suitable, the after- culture properly at tended to, and tho straw and oft'al, instead of lieing linrned, ns Is the common pracllce, converted to the j)iirposes of feeding and littering cat- tle, it may, in many instances, bo tho most proper and advantageous crop that can be employed by the farmer. The produce, when tho plant succeeds well, and thn season is favorable for securing the seed, amounts to from 10 to 5(1 bushels an acre. The seed is cruslied in mills constructed for that perposc. — Loi-dcin's Emyc. Kiiro|i«, •n>l, •liutii (ll, Ui rliltM, wliirra Ihry art' ronniinii'il in im- MwiiM iiHUlilltlo'. I'"r I'Niio wiirk liny uliuulil lir riMwoii ttmu, 111 » lirlwlil lial'-yflloH mlnr, well t|l*<>i'
  5. l/«, mil lirllllK, or "iilijn t to lirniik. 'llioy «r« (lunluaxl li/ llic hiimlli , ndli h nuulit to ron- Ulli I'*** r«l«li>, ImvIiik Ihilr iihIh U'tit toKt'lliur, ■ml tiwi In ilt« imIUul, Mlilili oiNUlii* form II III \l iiiiiiillcn, Sui'li an ■rn liUtk ut il«>li I'lliirMl, iiiiii|i iiliorl, or frmii nlilrh lliK l|l<* )(■'>"'>'»")' ■lluHi'il Ui |i«*» fr*« 4/f ffi'ltilil,- Mii.iii nx'it iiriiiiiiil Cimiiiuiii , Ht, "llm mdiii," miyn Mr. I'rawfiiril, "l» III'' ii|umliiii"ijua |iriiiliirl (if hII IIhi fiirciilii of llm Arilil- {"'Iukui lull iiklala In urvnl (nirfii llmi In liiiino of llie •Itfiiilmif |t^ liu iliiwn, Mint lli'< llwitn ii|i In Inimlli'ii uf luO, vaili luUii Ih'Imu iIuuIiIi » fit tut tlio markut wllhoiit furllivr |iri|'»rNlluM, Vfiim IhU aniMint of llic tniull labor v:),|>viMli'i| in lirliitflnu lluim lo marki't, ilicy can liv Willi at a wry tlii'«|i ral«, Tim CMnem' Jiinka ulitain tliirni In lliiriM'u •! tltn him rain of A ^tpanlllll dollars per |IM) liiiii'llin, orOiwiilafiiri'ni'li MiO riitnna.or 27 for hi. 'llm iMiivi* alwa/a v«fii| lliim l>y ta|p ; Imt the Kuro- puaii riiiili|«n<« •ml 'Im rlilnnao acll I hem hy wvIkIU, luuniinK 1'^ (ili^ula. AiftitiWnn In lli^ir (|uantity, and IJKi ri laltvi^ tlau uf atiiipl/ ami ili'innnil, lliu Kiiropvan iiii'nlmiila ilia|M/M iif llifiii at from 1^ lo'ii dollarH llio pjinl. Ill ( litiM tilt prli X U uaiiall}' nlioul !!( dullurx |«'r plnil, or I'l JKf iJfil, aUrrn tlin avi'ra){0 prlinu cimt. In Iti'liKul limy Nm miIiI l.y lalp, pa'h luimllc of nliout liKi lulana lirliiKliiK «liciMt W\il."— Imlmn Arc/iiiitlui/o, vol. iii. p, lAt, RatliltM, iim«ll Unim wliloh trnriTto tlio •hrnndH of a 'lilp liiifi/.4inl«lly, at ri-Knlar diatanrua, from tlio dfik iipMaril, fiitmUiK « varlily of laililira wlicrcliy to I'liiiili or III i|< wi'iid from any of tlir niaat-liruda. Ram*, a alilp lit m»r int ilonn (o ■ iiinallcr si/e. Real, lit IIhi Hpanlali inum'tary avatini, la of two aorta ; v(/„, • rml t/t'^rilr, and a rnit nllmi, Tlici for- mm la » •liver ««ln, varyInK In valiix from 10 to 1'.'^ eiiilu.— Mm (,'u|*a, A fi'«l vi'Uoii ia n inoncy of iic- I'ounl, Morllt •iMiitt A crnla. formerly, liy authority of I'liiiun M, llin valiMi fif ■ roal of plain was put at lU ouiiia, an'l a rual fxllvn of Hpnln •'. ccnla. lUaUjO, Til" yiifl nt Itinlijo, on tim rnrillc, lat. Vi ;ir S., Umif, Wl i' W,, to iirhlch it is propoana to liriliK llii' I anal friim l,«k« l/'on, la auid tn ho ouo of the lieat that ia any miwrn lo li« mi t wilh. 'i'hn port of Ki'- bIlJu riinilala ttiMly ut » aall-watcr crrik, into which ■tvi-ral aniall «f*«lii« (if water cmply tlicniKlvcs. The entraiM'it l« iirutortml hy an lalanii nliont two miles loiiK, wlilrb Umrrii at cadi rml a channel where ahips ran «iil<-r IIia harlior, Imt c itlcndlnf; oppoaite the main land, fiinniiiK III" |'"rt l» ""' h a manner as to protect it eiillruly fnitu imy wiml that could jioaailily blow, and ■lao I'lilirvly lirnakllltf llm awell which enters the outer hay uf l.'uui li*KHa ffi'iii IIh' iM-ean. The north entrance i« •Umt • nuntUif vt * lilllo wide, and that at the south of tlia Uland rather narrowar, Imlh IwIiik iintiraly fk«i from rocka or hjililin ilanRura, and havInK In no part Ivaa than llvn fallionia diplli of water. At oiia of then openlnwa veaaula can nt ail liiiica rnler wiih ■ Uadlnif wind, from whatevor i|uurler It may blow. Thu inaidv conalata of a nolilii baaiii of water, miwliere Icaa than \ four I'alhoiiia deep, wllli n liultom of mud, where two i huiiilri'd ahlpa iif ilie iiiiu mlitht lie at all linn a In the iihiKt pfirfuct aecurlly. ttiie of tliu lirani hra of llie crerk cxieiida Iniiind lo within three leaKura of the Lake of l,con or ManaKua. TIik intrnneillntv luunlry ia n xeiitle alope, where undoubtedly aliould rnler one uf the ends of the canal lo connect the I'ni llic anil At- I lanlic occana, Tlie ditllenlliea lo Ihi (luounlcreil In croaaluK the chain of hllla lielwoen thu l.nkr of NUar- atiua and San .liian del .Sud would be entirely avoided by brinuInK the cniial throuKh the Lake of l.con (con- t nedeil aa it ia with that of NIcarnKua by a river Ihut I nii^lil bo rendered navlunble ut a nioderalii cn«0 ililo I the above-named brunch of the Kealejo harbor, thua j securhiK the Kreiit iidvanlnKe of an excellent harbor nt I each vnd of the canal, bealdea man}' othcri which are ' certainly not to be met with either at rnnaina, Te. , liuanlepec, or any other |>laie, The town of Kealejo ia about two leuKiiea diatant from the part uf the creek where vcaacla lie ; but there iaaulllcient depth forainull veiaela lo cuine within a nillu uf the town, and a very liltla labor would make It acceaaiblu to lar^e ahipa; but an cnli(;htcned government would probably prefer moviiiK the (own to the o|>|ioaite side of the reach, where veasels lie, where there ia a aite extremely aiiit- ablu tor the |iur|ia>e, and where a quay ml)(ht easily be crt'Cted capulile uf accommodatinK any number of ahipa. In the time of the .Spaniah Kovcrnmont several vcs- avla, aoinn of UIHI to lUO tons, were built at Itcaleju, where the wood ia very su|iurlor and duralilc. Thu |iort of San Juan del ,Mud, to which |ilnce it was pro- Jiosed to lirin^ the canal, aecnis inferior to Keah Jo In mult reapects. T he (lulf uf iVipn^ayo, where the port ia situated, ia very dilMcult to cuter for a iailinf{ vessel for live months in the year. — mm N icauaiiua and Pan- ama. Ream, a quantity of pa|ior. The ream of writing- |inper cunaials uf twenty qulrea, each of twenty-four ahcela; naually cunsistiiiK of eiKlitecn (|ulrea uf twen- ty-four aheots each, ami thu twu outside (or broken) qulius of ai.xtecn to twenty sheets each ; but the ream of printing-pa|ier, or, aa it la sometimca called, IIir priiilrr't reimt, extends to twenly-une and a half quires, ur bill aheeta. Two reams of paper make a biimlle. Receipt is an acknowlcd);inent in writing of hav- ing received a sum of money, or other valuablu cuiiaid- erutiou. It is a vuucher cither uf an obligation or debt discharged, or of one incurred. Reckoning, in Ninii/nliim, the estimated place of n ship, calculated from the rate as determined by the luK, and the cuiirae as determined liy C ^ compass, the place from which the vessel started lieiii); known. JJi'iiil reikoning means the same us reckoning, duo al- lowance Iiein); mode for drift, lee-way, curreiita, etc. Red River ia the lirat lurpt river which enters the Mississippi, Ml miles above its month, and rises at about lat. il4" N. in the JJniia A'tlncuiln, or (ireat Staked I'litin, It is formed by several head branches, and receives several tributaries, the larifeat of which are Illue Itivcr and Kalsc Washita. A K>'euler part uf its course is through rich jirairies of n red soil, which colors the water of the river, and hence the origin of its name. Its shores arc cuvereil with grass, and abound with grape-vines, which prudiicu an excellent frtilt. About one hundred miles aliovn Natchitoches conimencea what is denominated the Jdifl, which con- sists of a swampy expansion of the river to the width of twenty or thirty miles, and has a length of sixty or seventy miles. The river divides into a (,-rcat iiuinlicr uf channels, many of which are shallow, and these channels have been obstructed by fallen trees, brought down by lb penae, Ibia Nlatea guv llouta aonii ■bove It, ill nelgliboriii^ until It Join been a aerlo he iia\lgaM Ihi! Inndi 01 hlo for I iilli llvluiv the ri whole vuliiii loon divid< number of Its lower pni er than ubov Red 8ei Iwocii AlVl.ii long. 32 :iil east, upward '.tnOmib's. / with thu Ind In 111 nurtlie and Akabah Depth varies with isliinda to have deriv red coral and it Is niiiru I " Sea of I'Mui every wln'ro u monHiioii liliM year, and di soon. I'Vuni vail, th • wate whlili ijien ... Meiliierranoui; sudden change ports aro .Moc ho on the An and Ma.ssowuh coasts. ReeC n tern gale of wind II •ail below, thai rower, and not Ing or taking i mil; so also wl that is, when it they cut uir the and setting the «tep nguin, thoj Regatta, a to signify gr tested fur snpei the term has b guages, in whlcl race. ReglBtxy, ii tion ur eiirollnic to entitle lliein privileges of nat The ITnltod S eomniorcinl nnti npon Ainerican- The object of the trade, navigatioi usual and oxdu the United State tlon of those iniii of other countriei to prevent tho ci «» well as to adv try of vessels at dums of tho tram bring tho oxistinj KKD IMT ui:« i down l>y lliHxU from ll» »\\f*t purt*. \t ■ (["»* •«• | unvi'n •<> fur ri'inovml liy tliu I iiIumI i ri'KiiUlloiiii llm tlllu t'nii im ciprrii llv Ini.i'.l li«i k to ill HUU't Kcivcrnmoiit Hint •tvanilioiilK pait llirouKh It. i orlKln. Tin. tit* nf Coiinrinii uf ai.l i.f l)i.irmli«r, lliiutu ».iim)tliii.« |ittM tlm riift liy luiivlii^ llm rlvur i ITUi, •ni fur ali'itiiilioatit four IiiiihIumI inMoi, mil tho Innilt on Im lionli'rn iiro lilKhly r«rlili>, ami ilunlr*. llm r«)(uli>llon» In IliU voinitry fur tlin fnntlKii anil inHKllntt Irailii, mil for llio lil In er tlmii iiliovi' tim nifl. | llm t'nltwl Htolun utnl npiilrcl lo tim «%liint of llireo. R«d Ben, or Arabian Oulf, nn Inlitml aca lie. ipmrtori uf tlulr valim, tlu'y may l>a rvKlotfrril. 4. twccii Afrl'ii unil Ailn (Arnlila), Int. l.'" K)' to ili)' N,, Slilpa Imilt In tliu tnliml StatM, Imt owimil wholly or lonif. :i.' ;iil to l:r ;il»' v.. l.iiiiKlli,nortlnvo»t toKonlh. partly hy forulKuura, wlilili are onlllleil to Iw r,i„i',l,il. cimt, npwiiril of 1 100 nilloa ; bri'Uiltli viiili's lo nearly .', Ships' hulll out of tim l.'iiiloil Slulea, ami owimil iiv ano nillin. At its Koiithcrn oxtrunilly il loiiiintinlt'atuii 1 forclKnun, whirh nn^ eonnlilori'il aliua vcimIk In all hi- with llu! Imlliin Ooean liy tlio iilrult IliilMl-Mamli'li. j tunts ami purpoauK. — .Vie Kkst'» t'omm., vol. lii. In llH iiorllmrn purl It lilfnrriik's Into tliu (iiilfnof .Suca | Veaiula actually ruKiituruil, anil vutMili iluly <|uall- nnil Akaliiih, whirh incloso llm piiiiiiHiila of .Sinai. ; Ik'il for ciirryinn on tlio coaalliiR trailu «nil llaliurlus, or Depth viiriea ; averiiKu uliniit IM fiithoiiis. It ulwunils I ono of them, aru alonu (lenoiiiinatoil anil ilcmiieii toon. Froiii Oetiiliur lo May, when noulh winda prc< vail, 111" water rises In tho northern part of tho sea, whirh then ntluliis an clovation niuili hit;her than tho Meiliterrniman. Tlio navli;atiun Is dillleult, owing to suilik'ii eliuiiKcaof wind and hoavy pile:!. I'rinclpal ports aro Moehn, Ilndeiilu, Loliola, .lldiiuh, and Yoin> bo on the Arabian sldo, and Suo/,, Kossuir, Snukin, and Masauwuli ou tho Kgyptiun, Nubian, and Uanokil COttHlS. Ree( n term in novlgatlon. AVhun there Is a heavy gale of wind llm seamen commonly roll up part of tho sail below, that by this means it may become tho nar- rower, uiiil not draw so much w ind ; and this contract' In(? or taking up tho sail tlicy coll a veef, or nej'mg a tail ; HO nlso when a toji-miut Ii fpruiig, ua they cull It, that in, whon It is cracked, or almost broken in tlic cup, tlicy cut (ilf tho lower ploco that was nearly broken oil", and setting tho other part, now much sliortcr, in tho step ngulii, they call it a rtifed top-mnat. Regatta, a word used originally by tho Venetians to eiifiiify a grand fete in which thu gondoliers con- tosteil for superiority in rowing their gondolas ; but the term lias been adopted Into all tho modorn lan- guages, in which It slgniflos a brilliant species of boat- race. Registry, In Commercial navigation, tho registra- tion or enrollment of ships at tho custoin-houso, so as to cntitlo them to bo classed among, and to ci\joy tho privileges of national ships. — See SillP.s. The United States have Imitated tlio policy of other commercial nations in conferring iicculiar privileges upon American-built ships, and owned by citizens. Tho object of tho Uegistry Act is to encourage our own trade, navigation, and 8hii>-building, by granting un- usuol iind oxduslvo privileges of trade to tho Hag of tho United States, and by prohibiting tho communica- tion of those immunities to tho shipping and mariners of other countries. Tho provisions arc woU calculated to prevent tlio commission of fraud upon individuals, w well as to advance tho national policy. Tho regis- try of vessels at tho custom-house, and the memoran- dums of tho transfers, add great security to title, and bring tho existing stato of our navigatiun and marine or citizens of tlio United States. Vessels built within llm United SlnU's, and veasels captiirud by citizens in war, and cimileniimil aa prizes, or seized and cundcuiiKil fur a breach of rcveiiiio laws, and wholly bciunging to citizens, may lie regintered. No citizen who usually resides in a foreign country can, during such reslilcnco, entitio himself to have registered a ship owned in wliola or in part by him, unless liu bo a consul, or an agent or partner In aonm . use of trade or partnership, con- tiating of citizen^ d'y carrying on trado with tho United States. .u Am r'.'^n vessel, transferred by parol while at '-ea 'u t>i .Nni' lean citizen, and rosolj to hor original o s .r< >'ii if< olurn to port, does not loso her privili'..; '• :- an /vi > in vessel. If one if M ,. rii'ir- oM a . . registry of a vessel byswcp'' ; 111! h ■ iiui bi-' i uiii' i, • f thoc.ty of New York, a hi ii\ r^^, i.ii.n i!i ct' s partner is dom- iciliate. Lr.. ve iti .. ; 'llu ) forfeiture. No ships ca u /\^ lorcil jt if registered, can be entitled to tho bc.iL. ' 'f owned, in wholo or In part, by a naturalized cii . ni, residing for more than ono year in tlie country ;''oni which ho originated, or for moro than two years in any foreign country, unless lie is a consul or public ..gont. But such ships may bo registered anew on u buna fdo sale to any citizen resident within tho United States. No registered ship, which has Ijecn seized or cap- tured and condemned by a foreign power, can be reg. islored anew, except regained by tlie original owner at the time of cajiture or seizure, or by his executors or admiuistrators ; but such o ahip is doomed a foreign reaael, though purchased or owned by any other citi. zen. Ships entitled to bo recorded and entitled lo tho bcnellts of reccrdrd shipa in tho United States are ships built iu tho United States, and belonging wholly or in part to foreigners. Vessels entitled to bo cnrollod are vessels of twenty tons or upward, possessing tho same qualilications and requisites as are made necessary for registering ships, i. e., they must lie built within the United Stotos, and bo owned wholly by citizens. If under twenty tons, they are entitled to a licenm. No ships, unless enrolled and licensed, are deem" ' . titled to tho privileges of American vessels empl jd n . - coasting trade or lisliories ; and if any not eurfi!'.u.i "r licensed be found engaged in the coasting trade or 6- ^ eries, having on board any foreign articles or dlati'.l ' < spirits other than sea stores, Ihuy aro subject to forki-" BEG 1628 KEG Ure, nnless the veasel be at sea at the expiration of thn tinio for whicli tlic license was (.'ranted ; in wliirh case tlio forfeiture is not incurred, provided tlie master prove the fact, and deliver liis liicnso to tlie collector of the district in which he slioll lirst arrive, within forly-eight hours after his arrival. In tho United Stotes no vessels are required to lie registered. But to entitle them to tlio privileges of the United States tliey must he registered ; otherwise they arc deemed alien ships. As is before staled, ves- sels engaged in the coasting trade or fisheries arc linl)lc to forfeiture if tliey have foreign uoods on board, unless they ore enrolled or licensed. — iJliint's Sliipmaalera' Astiilant. It is further provided hy the act of Jlarch 2, 1707, that wliencver any vessol is transferred bt/ prnresn nf kiir, and tho register, or certillcato of enrollment or li- cence, is retained l)y the former owner, a new one may be olitained upon tlie usual terms, without tlie return of til.' outstanding paper. Vessels captured and con- demned by n foi^ign ]iower, or by sale to n foreigner, whoreliy tliere be comes an actual divesturu of the title of llie American citizen, arc to be considered ns foreign vessels, and not entitled to a new register, even though thoy should afterward become American property, un- less tho former owner regoin his tiile, by purchase or otherwise, and then the law allows of the restoration of her American character by a sort of juf postliminii. Kvery registered or unregistered vessel owned by a citizen of tho United Stales, and going to n foreign | country, and an unregistered vespel, sailing with a sea- letter, is entitled to a passport, to be furnished by the collector of the district. Hut no sen-letter, certifying any vessel to be the property of a citizen of the United Slates, can be issued, e.\c(!pt to ships duly registered, or enrolled and licensed, or lo vessels wholly ow ncd by cilizensof tho United States, and furnished with or en- titled to sea-letters, or other custom-house documents. The Knglish registry acts of 2li Geo. III. and ill Geo. III. c. 68, required tho certificate of registry to be truly recited at length in every bill of sale of a llritish sliip to a Dritish subject; otherwise such bill of salo was declared to be utterly null and void, to all intents and purposes: and this was held to bo necessary, even though tho ship was at sea at tho time, and the vendee took the grand bill of sale and possession of the ship immediately on her arrival in port. The laws of tho United States do not go to that rigorous exteni ; and the only consequence of a transfer without a writing containing n recital at length of the certificate of regis- try is, tliat the vessel. can not bo registered anew, and she loses her privilege os an American vessel, and be- comes subject to tho disabilities incident to vessels not registered, ci. rolled, or licensed as the statute prc; scribes. Hut where an American registered vessel was in part sold, by parol, while at sea, to an American citizen, and again resold, by parol, to her original own- er on her return into port ami before entry, that trann- action was held not to deprive the vessel of her Amer- ican privileges, or subject her to foreign duties, for in thot case no new register was requisifo. It would havo been, except in date, a duplicate of tho old one, ami perfectly useless. If a ship be owned by American citizens, and be not docuincnfed a.^^cording to the provisions cf the registry lets, it is not liable to any forfeitures or disabilities which are not specially prescribed. Tlic wont of a register is not a ground of forfeiture, but the cause only of loss of American privileges. Kvery vessel, wherev- er built, and owned l>y an American citizen, is entitled to a custom-house document for protection, termed a passport, under tho act of .Tunc 1, I7S(>; for it applies to "t ery ship or vessel of the United States going to any foreign country." As our registry acts do not de- clare void tlio sale or transfer, and every contract or agroemcnt for transfer of properly in any ship, without Au iiistnimont in writing, rccitinp «t lai-ge tho certifi- cate of registry ; and as they have not proscribed any precise form of indorsement on the certificate of regis- try, and rendered it indispensable in every salo, as was the case under tho llritish stalutea of 20 Geo. III. c. (10, and !!1 (ico. III. c. (!8, wo arc happily relieved from many embarrassing ipiestions which liavc arisen in tho Knglish courts relative to flic sale and mortgage of ships. There havo been great dilliculty and some alterna- tion of opinion in the Knglish courts in the endeavor to reconcile the strict and positive provisions of thu statute with the principles of equity, and the good faith and intention of the coutracling parties. It has even been a question of niucli discussion whether the stat- utes of 20 and .It Geo. III. had not destroyed llie com- mon-law right of conveying a ."hip by way of mortgage, like other personal property j and whether the mort- gagee had not a complete title beyond the power of re- demption after the transfer of the legal title according to the prescrilied form of the indorsement on the cer- tilicate of registry. The language, in many of tho cases, was in favor of the conclusion that there could be no equitable ownership of a ship distinct from tho legal title, and that upon a transfer under tho forms of the registry acts the ship becomes the absolute property of the intended mortgagee, and that the terms and tho policy of the registry acts were incompatible with tho existence of any equity of redemption. But theso opinions or ilicia have been met by a scries of adjwli- cations which assume the lows to bo otherwise, and that tho registry acts related only to transactions be- tween vendor and vendee, and to cases of real owner- ship; and that an equitable interest in a ship might exist by operation of law, and by the contract of the parties, distinct from the legal estate; and that, not- withstanding tho positive and absolute terms of the indorsement upon the certificate of register, a mortgago of a ship is good and valid, according to the law as it existed liefore the registry acts, proviiled the requisites of the statutes be complied with. The opinion of Sir Tliomas I'lumer, in Thompson v.s. Sviilli, contained a very clear and masterly vindication of the validity of the mortgage of a ship consistently with the preserva- tion of tho forms of the registry acts. He effectually put to flight the alarming proposition that, since the registry acts, there could be no valid mortgage of a «hip ; and he insisted that tho defeasance annexed to tho bill of salo ought to be fully indorsed as purl of the instrument on tho certificate of registry, it the ship be mortgaged In port ; or, if mortgaged while at sea, a copy of the whole transmitted to the custom-house; and that though the defeasonce should not be noticed in any of the forms adhered to at the office of the cus- toms, and the instru.nent .should be registered as an absolute bill of sale, the mortgager's right of redemp- tion would not riufL^r by the omission. Hut as no such questions can possibly arise under the registry acts of Congress, theso discussions in the Knglish courts aro noliceil only as a curious branch of tho English juris- prudence on this subject. 1 The registry is not a document required by the law of nations as expressive of a ship's national character. The registry acta arc to be considered as fo/'ins of local or •.'iunicipal institutions for purposes of public jiolicy. Th!y are imperative only upon the volimlary transfer of parties, and do not apply to transfers by act or oper- ation i>riaw They aie said to be peculiar to Kngland and lo the United .Stairs, whose mniitiine and niiviga- I tion system is formed upon the model of that of lireat j Britain. But liy various French ordinances, between ; V'M and the era of the new code, it was requisite that a 1 vessels, in order to be entitled to tho privileges of I'renc.i vessels, should bo built in France, under soino necessary exceptions, and should be owned exclu.sivety by French- men, and foreigners were prohibited from navigating under the Frcucli flag ; and a Frenchman forfeited his privileges as such owner by n)arrying a foreign wife, EEL 1629 KEY or residing abroad, unless In connection with a French, house. The register is not of itself ovidcnco of prop- erty, unless tt be confirmed by some auxiliary circum- stance to show that it was made by tlie authority or assent of the person named in it, and who is sought to be charged as owner. Without proof to connect the party with the register as l)eing his direct or adopted act, the register lias been held not to be even prima facie evidence to charge a person ns owner ; and even then it is not conclusive evidence of ownership. The cases of the Afoliaick Insurunce Cumpnmj vs. KckJ'oni, decided in the New York Court of Connuon Pleas in 1828, and Ring vs. Franklin, in the Superior Court of that city in 1821), went upon the same ground that tlio register, standing in the name of a person, did not de- termine the ownership of a vessel, thougli it might, perhaps, be presumptive evidence in the lirst instance. An equitable title in one person might legally exist consistently with the documentary title at the custom- house in another. — Kkvt's Comm., vol. iii. p. 1U6. tSee articles Tonn.vok, Siihting, etc. Relieving Tackles. Teniporary taoldcs attached to the end of the tiller in bad weather to assist tlic helmsman, and in cone of accident liappening to the tiller ropes. They are also strong tackles from the wharf to which the ship is hove down, passed under lier bottom and attached to the opposite side, to assist in righting her afterward, as well as to prevent her from oversetting entirely. Report. In Cominercta! navigation, a paper de- livered by the masters of all sliips arriving frun\ parts beyond seas to the custom-house, containing an ac- count of the cargo on Imard, etc. RepouBse, or Chasing. The reponssi work of Frencli silver-smiths, which is equivalent to chasing, is a very remarkable mode of decorating gold and sil\ er plate. It is ctFocted entirely by the 1 \nmier. The workman has a plain Hat sheet of silver u work upon, and before him is a carefully executed wax model of tlie article to be produced ; the silver plate rests upon a soft bed of pitch or other composition, and with a small hammer the workman produces indentations over the si'rl'aci corresponding with the device to lie pro- duced. A small steel punch is employed occasionally ; and if any of the indentations arc carried too far, tlie jilate is reversed, and a little counter-hammering ap- plieil. Many of the shields, salvers, dishes, and other articles in the Groat Kxhibition, disjdayed line ex- amples of this kinu of work ; and there was an eques- trian statue of Queen Klizabeth produced alinust en- tirely by this remarkable proi.ss. Reprisals. Where the people of one nation have unlawfully seized and detained property belonging to another state, the sulijeets of tlic latter are authorized, by the law of nuliuns, to iiKleiiiiiil'y tlieniselves liy seizing tlie property of the subjects of the stale aggress- ing. This is termed mailing reprisals; niid coiiiiiiis- sioiis to this cII'lcI are issued from tlie Aduiiralty. — iJee Pun ATKiius. Resiu (.(ir. ^ifTir;/; from /hu, I jlon-). A proximate principle coinmoii in the vegetable kingdom, the iilli- niate coniponents of which are carbon, oxygen, and hy- drogen. There are many varieties of ii'sin. Their gener- al characters arc fusibility and iiitluniiii.iliility ; .solubil- ity in alcohol, insolubility in water. Tliey are general- ly separable into two distinct portions liy the acliun of cold and of hot alcohol. They are vilualde as ingredi- ents in varnishes, and several of them are used in iiiecli- cine. They are often naturally blended with niodilicn- lions of gum, in which case they constitute the series nl' gum reaina. The specilic gravity of the resins varies be- tween ruand 14. They become negatively electric by friction. The commonest resin in use, usunlly called ivsin, is obtained by distilling turpentine : the volatile oil passes over, and the rcsiu rcmaius iu the still. — Hee Gu.Ms and Oii.s. RespoudeuUa, in Commercial law, signiflcs the hypothecation of the cargo of a ship, on condition* similar to those upon which the ship and freight may bo pledged— the latter being called a bottomry bond, The security of tho cargo may, indeed, bo given by the master of the vessel, in addition to that of the ship and freight, should tho last two bo deemed snllicient secu- rity by the lender of the money ; but, notwithstanding tho cargo may in this case form the principal part of tho security, still such loan will bo eommonly said to bo bottomry, but is more strictly on bottomry and re- spondentia. Tho right which a master possesses of thus pledging the cargo is undoubted, and is a natural consequence of the jiower which is invested in him of disposing of part of tlio cargo in case of extreme neces- sity, and which is to be exercised by liiiii fur the bene- fit, to the best of his judgment, of ail coucorned. Tho master of the ship is not, however, justified in selling tho whole of the cargo, for that would defeat the ob- ject of the voyage wliieh tlie repairs are intended to carry into effect ; nor is he permitted to hypothecate tho cargo without tlio ship, or without the ship and freight. A bottomry bond may include a respondentia bond, or they may he given separately . (jcnerally all laws applicable to respondentia are eiiually so upon liottomry, but the reverse is not iu all countries tho case. Uy custom, the holder of the bottomry and respon- dentia bond after judgment lirst receives the freight and sells the ship, and, if these do not satisfy his claim and the expenses of legal proceedings, then to have re- course upon the cargo ; but this course is not always imperative ; he may sell the cargo, and leave the ship and freignt. In such case the owners of the vessel are responsible for any loss which the owners of the cargo may sustain, over and above the proportion of general average charges on the cargo and tlio bottomry pre- mium thereon. A rcspondcniia or bottomry bond is an assignable instrument, and is usually transmitted to an agent In the place named as the termination of the voyage, v ith legal authority for him to receive the money, or insti- tute legal proceedings for enforcing payment. Tlio general rule is, that the power of the master to give bottomry or res)}ondeutia bonds exists only after flic voyage has camiiienecd, and is to bo exercised iu some port where the owner docs not reside. Itut it is not in- dispensable to the validity of a hypothecation that the ship and cargo bo in nj'unign port. The law looks mure to the dillieulty of coniniunieation between the master and owner. And a hypothteatiou may I e made in another port of the same country, if coinniunicatio:i with the owner is siibjeit to great dillieulty and delay. The bottomry or rcspondculia bond is to be paid before any prior insurance, and it supersedes a previous mort- gage on the ship. If there is more than one bottomrj' bond, they take precediiice in an inverse order to their dales. The last bond given is entitled to priority of payment over all others. The position taken by Lord Mansfield, that the lender on bottomry or respondentia is not liable to contribu- tion in case of general average, has been niuili and just- ly questioned. It is contrary to the maritime law of I'raiice, and of other jiarts of liurope, and in Louisiana there is a decision against it. It scc:ins conclusive that if the lemler ou bottomry owes lliu iireservation of the security of his money to any sacrifice of ship or cargo, ho should contribute to a general average or jetsam. — .Sie liiiiTd.Miiv and Uksi-osdkntiA, and Xl.viini.MK LiUNs. .Vi'C «/«) KiiSi's L'umni. vol. iii. ; P.vk.'^oSh's Miirilimc law. Revenue and Expenditure. Tliough not prop- erly licliiiiging to a work of this sort, we believe wo hall do ail acceptable service to our readers by laying before them the following comprehensive Table of tho revenue and expenditure of tho world, which we have compiled from Lkonu I.kvi's Coiiimeirin/ Iaup, For an exhibit of the revenue and expenditure of the United States from 1780-1857, Me artich Vmieu SxAiEa. REV 1680 REV liKvmim AHD Exp«m>rnTBB of thb mmcn-AL CncNTBiES in the ■World. Aiutrlan Empire. Brttliii Empire'.. France, Brusiln. Busslan Eirplro . United SUtea. Bcraria Belgium, Brazil.... Denmark . Egypt.... Oreeco . . Hamburg UoUaud.. Mexico Papal States Portugal . . . Sardliua. . . . Spain Sweden and Norway . . Turkey TwoSlcllie China Colonies. Uritish l^iHsessiont. Indies* Canada Cape of (rood Hope ,,. A iiKtralia. Now South Wales Weatern South Jamaicp Ceylon llauritin/t SfMniih I'oatfMtoni. Culja Dutch roaxnrimn, Java BAVflnuB in Pounili Sterling. "1951. "" 20,817,268 JulyC 18.'>1. 63,045,202 Customs 20,558,037 Excise U.6fl2,110 Stamps 0,4'.IO,UI4 Direct tax 9,070,105 Mbcellaneou.i . . 1,759,300 1851-'62. 55,132,193 1851. 14,204.244 Direct tax 8,064,202 Indirect tax.... 4,60»,«45 .Miscellaneous., 0,040,037 Customs EstabllHlimcnt, 1849 4,945,191 1356. $7»,91S,141 1849-'61. 2,9119,143 IMrect lax 837,304 Indirect tax.... ],'J28,772 Miscellaneous.. 1,008,013 Budget, 1350. 4,630,432 Undtax 734,890 Custonia 467,400 Excise S20,0fl0 JieglBter's tax . . 83.'5.n00 Miscellaneous.. 1.783,042 1S4T 1,968,351) 1850 2,729,841 1933 2,i:-.:6,725 Now al)ont 4,000,000 1850 734,290 1849 518,432 IludKet, 1860. f>,8!l»,W0 Direct Uxes . . . 1,633,333 ludln'ct taxes. . 75»,000 Excise 1,618. 790 MiHccllaneoua. . 1,188,411 1849 3,,100,000 1943 1,475,000 Both ,Inno, 1849. 2,314..Xi3 1850 3,030,988 1850. 11,470,282 Direct taxes . . . 3,337,800 Indirect taxes. . 1,805,(M)0 Cnstoms 1,T.V.',I1I0 Miscelluncoim.. 4,570,482 laTfl. Sweden 883,081 Norway 588,401 Estimate . 3,000,000 1836 4,.')11,222 F>tilnate. 68,034,173 1848-'49. 17.692,010 18'.8 574,040 1845 224,0116 184,8. 400,847 1848 18.404 1*48 119,023 1847 247.1W2 1848 411,766 1847 861,293 184a 2,060.000 Dutch East India, 1844. 6, SOI ,804 Elpegdltuw In PouinU Slarlio y. 1861. 27,702,952 Interest on debt. . 0,103,! 09 War 10,ii80,2tiO Commerce 8,378.076 Mlscelhincous 7,884, 108 July 6, 1861. 50,012,470 Interest on debt . . 23.894,477 Term, ann 3,700,133 Army and Nary.. 13,061.674 Jastico 1,(109,073 Miscellaneous. . . . 8,2U2,21U 18.'il-'62. 57,678,674 1861. 14,521,944 War 4,030,808 Interest on debt . , 1,434,135 Trade 1,162,8,83 Justice 1,353.2119 Miscellaneous.... 0,544,81!) 1R80. $72,948,792 1849-'51. 8,152,096 Inter-st on debt . . 013.833 Am- 711.883 Mia jlianeouB 520,430 Budget, 1860. 4,070,200 Intel r It on debt . . 1 ,430,485 War I,071.n8» Public works .... 633,562 Miscellaneous, . . . 1,534,479 lS45-'4 8,578,412 18.%0 2,673,007 1853 2,102,525 1850 721,279 1849 670,925 Budget, 1.8,50. 5,803,028 Pnbllcdcbt 3,035.838 War 879,8:13 Marine 443.033 Mlsctillaneous 1,444,824 1849 l,(!6fl,000 1S43 1.060,000 Juno 00, 1849. 2,602.300 1950 4,410,000 1860. 11,409,075 War 8,1.34,684 Debt 1,001.869 Clergy l.M7,346 Miscellaneous. . . . 6,780,776 1850. Sweden 092,900 Norway 688,401 185is'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'."4,5i3il26 194S-'49. 20,017,339 1848 605.403 1846 218,910 1*48. 25>,638 1849 17.886 1848 80,811 1S47 292,o;i7, 1848 431,.325 1847 289,194 1844. 1.093,5,'iO Dutch East India, 1844. 6,201,808 Public Debt in Po und* Sterling. 1848^;'4E ■ 99,770,665 Bearing interest 83, 170,608 Add to Jan. 31, 1850 . . 10,600,00 1860. 787,029,108 1861. 201,016,027 Consolidated debt . . .180,3«,9Ba Flouting debt 20,629,091 1851. 27,392,832 r.eneml debt 28,010,443 Provin. debt, pro- ) vided for by tlie J 1,2(0,082 State ) Treasurj- bills with- > oiofloM out interest / ".l''*.^'*'* 1850 63,i;34,752 Term, debt, Dutch . . 6,010,589 Do. dimiestlc 10,921,568 Perm, stock, foreign) „. .„. ».„ and domestic.."./ »«.C96.8<'3 1865. $39,909,731 1860. 12,261,609 May 1, 1860. 26,057,840 12,810.870 1847. Internal debt 0,023,826 1843. Foreign debt 0,187,060 1850 12,000,000 None. 1850 2,484,840 Bavarian debt 127,444 ltoUi-,.,.,.ld 2.358,750 1849 2,460,260 1850. 102,663,484 National debt a 2i . . . 68.042,833 " " a8 ... 10.071,406 " " n 81 . . . 19,803.375 Miscellaneous 4,040,871 1849 20.000,000 14,040,000 1849. 10,832,107 1880 15,200,000 1660. 156,130,878 7,000,000 Estimate 20,000,000 1848. 43,085,203 1848 4,281,974 BHO 1631 RHO ),00« bo.ooo k 1,974 AtedA liland, ono of the United States of Amcr- U», aftd tlie smiillcst State in the Union, being about 49 tuikta long anil 29 broad, containing 1200 square l«H«!ij of *hlch IflO is included in Nurrugnnaet 13av. Pwtuirtllofl In 1790 was 58,825; in 1800, 09,122; in l»fO, f 0,981 ; In 1820, 88,059 ; in 1830, 97,212 ; in 1840, 10«,S80) 8h(*({ a curious fact that already the old French nav- i^ttluf Vettflzano, the first modem explorer who touch- ed this jjatt of the American coast, pronounced tho fltttlM of Hhodes in connectio)-. with this bay. lie dis- tO¥eted ill these waters nn island (supposed liy some to itt (lie island now known as Martha's Vineyard), which he I ttttlpntes, in respect to size and appe.iranco, to tho MtlllA lit lihodes, in tlie Mediterranean. This wi>s read itt llai'iilyt, and i.. t' •-ossible that John Clarli. and his tftrntfAftifrtls (tho first settlers on A(|uetneck) took oc- Sttfjolt ffotn this circumetanco to name thcif island, 'file Mine was afferward given to the whole country fimuA Sattttganset Ilnv, ^ iich also was soniitimcs ««Hwl Hilnde Isliiud ila'y. In the year 100:1 the col- Wll»{|> lit that eouuf ry obtained from ('harlcs I. a char- t«t' #((l(ll Ihcorporfltcd their commiinit \ iiii Icr tho name tif llw " ('iituiig n/Mnile Island and i'roiidence I'lan- llllleHUi" The Narraganset country, lying south of W(*fWtl'k. Was also sometimes c:\lled The Kind's Prov- ilii" 'Jne (itesent legal and official name is still Rhode htilHii tind Priividencit PlaiUations, but commonly tho mim k mads shorter, Slala '/Mode Island.— i. G. Moltf,, i'hgflcit! fmtiiret, rtc— This Stito on the north and W«»t N hilly and broken, but becomes gradually level Ui¥iMi\ tho «fla. Tlie islands in Narraganset Ilay are rtiiti(((iu|phe..si(». I'rovldencu Other iiUccs Total $14,69(1,000 r,ll03,(infl *l,'.ltll,l|0il i jS-j,:ij.i,o,io 1,401,(1(10 1 hj(l,(l(lll $^(l,2»3,0U0 $3,:j«t,(io» 1 $;i,i+),(i(Hi Lo»M Specln. Uiiali DepMlt.. I'rovideitcG Other places Total *1S,3'^7,UOO 7,173,0(10 $26,500,000 $375,I«HI 195,(KlO $I-.!1,(J00 39(1,000 $:i7ii,(iiHi $l,in,IKKl Manufactures, etc. — Thero were in the State in 1850, 158 cotton factories, with a capital invested of 50,075,000, employing 4959 males and 501'! females, producing 90,725,012 yards of sheetings, etc., an(l 1,902,980 jjounds of thread and yam, valued at 40,447, li'O ; 45 woolen factories, witli a capital of $1,013,000, miploying 987 males and 771 females, inan- ufactuiiiig K,0]2,400 yards of cloth and 10,1100 pounds of yarn, valued at i'2,:i81,825 ; 20 ostalili>binonts, with a capital of §428,800, employing 800 persons, and mak- ing 8558 tons of castings, etc., valued at 6728,705 ; 1 establishment, with a capital of $208,000, employing 220 persons, manufacturing 2050 tons of wrought iron, vaUiod at §222,400 ; 29 flouring and grist mills, 51 saw- mills, 8 tanneries, 20 printing-offices, 5 daily, 2 semi- weekly, and 12 weekly publications. TOSNAQB or liuoni! Island, .Tune 30, 1658, with DOMnsrio KXI'OUTS. I IVrmiuient. Tem|(ornry. I Tom. Providence i 7,'.i84 llristul I 11,:W3 Xiwnirt I n."H:i Tons. i,;iss 3,092 1,377 EiirotlRil An'/i I^xpor(s. ' $II-',-Hl '99.T.7 Priiieijicd Ports. — Newport is situated on tlie south- west slioro of Rhode Island, twenty-eiglit miles soutli from Providence, imdlivo miles from tho oceon. Tho harbor is ono of tho best in tho I'nitod States, and is well defended. Its site is l)eautif(il, and of late years it has been much resorted to in the summer season. Its shippi..g is mainly cmploj-ed in the whale fislw:rips and coasting trade : its manufactures are various, iind of considerablo extent. Tho tonnage of Newjiort in 1850 was 11,0-10 tors, and in 1857, 12,308 tons. Providence, a city, and principal port of entry In Rhodo Island, situated in lat. 41° 49' 22" N., long. 71° 24' 28" W. Providence has great cominerciul facilities, whicli have been well improved. The har- bor is at the head of Narraganset Bay, thirty-three miles from the ocean, is spacious, and has sufficient deptli of water for largo ships. The tonnage of Prov- idence was 19,305 tons in 1850, and 22,343 tons in 1857. Bristol, l)etween Mount Hope Bay and Xatragan- set Bay, has a good harbor, and great facilities for navigation. Tho tonnage in 1850 was 2902 tons, and in 1857, 15,152 tons. Tlio public revenue of Rliode Islimd for 'ie fiscal y«»r ending AprU 30, 1857, was §200,400 ; viz., direct tax, §52,407 ; tax on banks, §83,00-1 ; licenses of peddlers and auctioneers, §5221 ; iusuranco companies, §4320 ; from courts, §10,118 ; interest, $30,100 ; misccUanaous, §11,034. KHO 1682 RHU FoBiiGM CoiUKicE OP TB» Staib ot Riioa* Isi vNn ?B0ij OoTOBRK 1, 18!M, to July 1, 1861, biiowino aibo the DI8- lElCT Tos.M.wlh IS 1821, 1831, 1811, AND 18B1. Y«n endioi Kiporu. Imporu. ToDDaga c (»n(IO,328 $1,032,008 21,814 107 28,456 10,883 1822. (l()l,2S8 MI, 125 8««,8flS 1,894,144 24,49«> 1823 ftJO.OU 413,5I)() <.«3,114 1,412,0.'.3 28,9.0 < • • • t ■ • . 1824 r>66,l>»'i 81(J,:ii7 872,8,10 1,389,336 24,080 , , 1828 ,llo,^s) 15^.H7M , «7m,467 «07,1I00 28,023 1828 1)08,370 210, IT" 781,540 1,185,084 23,046 1827 !)iio,n7 208,01(1 S04,l«7 1,:41,928 2l,86;i 1S28 !>41,«7.') 180,4.1 722,106 1,128,226 20,300 . . . • 18i) 337,4I>S h2,'.ll;' 3;i0,381 423,011 15,621 • . . • 1830 Tot.l... 20C,(W) 71,08f) 278,050 4^9,766 14,004 $4,'.'27,.4S1 1,042,286 20,1.12 i.s;i 1834 420,985 80,741 Ml,026 427,024 26,223 401 1835 132,300 113.137 2Sfl,o03 807,713 20,! 73 762 1830 212,2,lT 10.123 223.420 5;)!>,1!.0 24,1.24 1,102 1887 411,800 7ii.45'.- 4SS.25S 523.010 22,.')94 120 183S 2i.i,ooe 2(,lii2 2 1 1,267 050,013 27,728 2!16 1S3'.I 175,; ,)S ii,42C |8f>,234 010,431 22,85f) Oil) 1810 Total... 203,00(1 8,083 200,09 1 274,1)34 $5,1107,640 17,430 28- .... $G.->1,0S4 ,$3,585, Iii3 \B64 Spjil. .10, 1S41 $2(10,270 $12,191 $279,40r, $330,61)2 737 20,lGy J5,921 1842 833,437 2D,261 849,0;i« 823,002 i;.,. 7311 fliiuw., 1S43' 10S,'Ji)2 555 10.'),847 156,753 ,646 .liinoBO, 1S41 257,003 8,175 200,777 200,437 ,«1 1,783 194.') 190,141 SJJ lOl.n.Vi 274, mm 51.5.i() 10,310 (1,148 1840 172,0;jl MOl 178,152 2.17. 47!( 16,60.9 2,315 18B0 Totol... 200,2!'il 0,000 210,205 258,303 16,776 1,705 .... • f • • *2,Ut,n.)l $08,647 $2,217,5.18 $3,i2(),169 104,8 5 13,425 .... .... ,7imc 30, isr>l $223,404 $14,373 i,.i37,777 $810,030 10,881 3,747 24, m 1S,8R3 ISRJ 174,' 15 5,000 170.175 210,090 14,010 2,013 1SS3 803.4:4 S.031 310,436 306,110 16,301 7,077 lHr.4 42«,040 13,'..85 480,>iSl 487,072 17,841 7,;il0 18i>6 331,287 4,736 330,023 630,337 17,210 fl.474 iseo 3.13,224 14,100 407,374 345,903 10,141 0,122 18fiT 644,173 8,173 fi62,351 B15,4'12 21,000 11,078 .... .... Kinc iiioulha lu Juno 30, and the fiscal year from tlild timu begiiiK July 1. Rhodes, ii .«on-)iort of Asiatic Ttirliey, ciiiital of th« ' redder elinde. — Thomson's nhppnsatnr)! ; Aimslik's island of Itliodcs, nt its nortlienst extr(.inity, tliirtoen .Mat. Iiidica, etc. miles southea.st tlic nearest promontory of Asia Minor. I,at. of moUi m° '.'()' 0" N., long. 28° 1!!' E. i'opo- Tlie palmated rlinlinrli (lilieum palmnliim) is a peren- nial, native of liussia and soi.ic )iar ^ of Asia, wlicnce liitioTi aljotit 15,000, of whom 8000 are Tiirlis. and iidOO the dried root i.s Imported Into this ountrj- for medici- ,h'\\f. On tlie nortlieast side two piers project to in- j nal purposes. Large quantities of the roots are also dose a liarlior, having in it< centre from si.xteen to annually crllected for cx|«)rtation in the Chinese prov- eijjlilern feet water, and on its north siile Is another jiort of nearly efjual depth. Rhubarb (Do. Itlmlmrln r ,• ]•>. Uhiibarh', Jinbarbe; It. Ji'dhmbtnv, Jiio-hnrbmi ; iSp. Jtiiibarbo ; Boss. Ue- Hfn; Arab. Jiatremlj C'liiii. Ta-liirdm/), tlio root of a plant, a nativr of Cliina undTartuiy. Three varieties of rhulMirl) are known in the shops ; viz., Uiissian, Tor- key, and East Indian or ('hincso rhuharl). The first two re^emlde ea( li other in every re.spcet. They lire, inces, within the lofty range of the HImalnyos. The best is that which eoines by the way of Kussia, lis greater care i^ taken In the selection; and, on its ar- rival at .Kiachtu, within the Russian frontiers, the roots are all cai^fiilly e.xamincd, and the damaged pieces de- ! litroyed. 'I'his Is the tine article of the shops, improp- erly called " Turkey" rhubarb. That of the best (iiial- I ity occurs In small pieces, with a hole in the middle of j each, made in tlm fresh root, to facilitate the operatiou in fuct. the same nrticlo, being both derived from Tar- • of drying. '1 he colcr is a lively yellow, strr. ',ed witli lary. The portici .'cstincd for the i'etersburg market white and red. Its te.xturc is (1 nse, and, when re- Iwing selected a;.a sori"d at Kiachta, ac()uiro8 the name j duced to powder, 't is entirely yellow. The Chinese of liiissian rhubarb; wli'lo the |K)rtion that i.s sent from rhubarb, called by the native.? Ta lironngnr Jfnihauiii/, Tartary to Smyrna and other , 'aces in Turkey Is called is cidtivated ehiefly in the province of Chersee. As Turkey rhuliarb. The best jiieces only are sent to I'e- imported, it is known by the name of " F.o« Indian" tersburg; and in cording to tlio contract with the gov- . rhubarb, and conies In larger masses, more conipiict enimcnt, on whose ai count It i.i Iwiight, all that H re- and hard, heavier, less friable, and n"t so fine in the jei-ted must be burned ; and that which is ajiproved grain as the other, end having less of an aromatic undergoes a second cleaning liel'orebLing finally packed flavor. This species has been introduced Into Kn- iip for rctersliiirg. The bi >t pieces of Kiissiaii and gland, where it has been extensively cultivated; and Turkey rhtiliarl) are roundish, and perforated with a there is little doult, therefore, of its proving perfectly large liole, of a reddish or yello\s color on the outside, hardy in many parts of our own country. Large quun- nnd » hen cut or broken exhibit a motthd texture, and titles are annually imporleil, the cost of which might alternate streaks ofred and gray. Its odor is peculiar, bo saved If its culture were successfully prosecuted and its tiLste nauseous, bitter, and astringen*, Itshould hero, and wc might thus add to our productive re- not be piirous, but rather compact and heavy. Kast j sources. In the middle and coole.-- parts of the l.'nited ladian or Cliineso rhubarb is in ob'ong flat pieces, sel- ; States, the seeds may be sown in Marih, in n gentle dom perforated ; has a stronger odor, and is nioro nau- hot-bed, and, when the roots are about an eighth of an seous to the taste than the other ; it is heavier, more 1 inch in dikmeter, they may be carefiUy drawn up, pre- • ompact, breaks smoother, and affords a powder of a I serving the tap-root, and planted In a lino, rich, and RHU 1G33 HIC peren- whcncc nieiUoi- (ire also ese prov- Thc •-sia, lis its ar- the roots lieces ilf- improp- )CBt 'titly plest curve, is Mm route universally pursued; but a ' placed in a very precarious situutlun, Tlii'i'it mil liit siiip tailing im this curve never looks direct for her j no doubt tliat lamines aro at oiieo mora frei|in'iil nild port until it comes in siglit. A great meridian circle severe in lliiidostau than in any otliur couiitl"^ , IrBliiIld would lie tha shortest distance between any two points; . excepted. but in order to follow such a cirele, the course of tho : Culliralion in the United Sliiira. — Itli'a In tlm chief .ship would have to be constantly clmngiiig, and witli ; food, perliajis, of or.e-tliird of tho Iiiiiimiii rni'ii | \iii»- such varl.itions as to make it practically impossible. , sesses tho advantage attending wheat, liMilzii, nild Ribboiia, or Ribands (Fr. li.ibni. dr Soie; Ger. other grains, of preserving plenty during the llMetim- Hand; It. Saslm di Sida ; Sp. C/h?« (/««'>'((/«), a name tions of trade; andis aho sasecptildo of ei(!'lviitlmi(m given to silken I ilids of various widths ami colors, laud too low and moist for the production of iiKwtotluif much used liy female.' for head-dresses and other pur- useful plants. Altliougli ciiltivaied priiielpally within poses. They aro both plain and figured, ami arc the trojiics, it flourishes well beyond, prodticlim evBii sometimes distinguished into saic-^net, satin, etc., heavierandbettcrlilled{;ialii. Like many otll'if pliintu according to the manner in which they are made, ir common u.se, it is never found wild (It U to Im iiii. They are also freiiuently ornamented by liaving what derstood that the wild rice, or water oaf, /ii.miii is c.illed a pairl edge given to them. Kibbons are ar/iialici, which grows along tliu niudily nliore* of our wn-.en in pieces, each 36 yards in length. The finest tide-watcrs, is a distinct plant from tliu coiniiioli ricp, arc made entirely of Italian silk ; the next in (luality, and should nut bo i onfoundeil with II), nor In It* imllvfl of a mixture of Italian and Bengal silk ; and the com- country known. I.iniueus con.sldera It as a native of raoner sorts, altogether of licngal silk. I'lie great Kthiopia, while others regard it of Asiatic iirlijln. At seat of the n.anufacturc (if ribbons is Covcrtry, where the Industrial Kxlii'.iltion in Lomlon thiuu warn din- they are now made of qualify ctjual to the finest of tho played many curious samples and varlulln* of rice, productions of the I.y(Micso weavers: they are alM> grown without irrigation, at elevation* of .'1(100 to made at Congloton, Derby, JIacclcsfield, Leeh, and ilOUO feet on the Himalayas, wliero tlm dampinnK of other places. — See. Hun. " the summer months i oinpciisates fur tho want of aril- Rice CKr. Jiiz ; It. Ulso ; Arab, ^ru?; Hincl. ficial moisture. At the exhibition abovn lilludi'd to, Chairl), one of the most valuable of the cereal grasses, , Aiuorican rice received not only honorabli. moiitloll fof tho Oryza sntini of botanists. It is raised in iminenso its very puperior (juality, but llio Caroilim rlw, Bxlllb- quantities in Indhi, Cliina, and most Eastern countries ; itcd by K. .1. llcriot, was iironouiiced I y tho Jury "limK- in tho West Indies, Central America, and the United nilicent in .~ize, cohir, and elearne.-s," and to It Wftp> States ; and in some of tho southern countries of Eii- awarded a prize medal, 'llio jiirj' wern fru« to ttdtliU roiie. It, in fact, occupies the same place in most that the American rice, though originally hroH«lit intertropical regions as wheat in tho warmer parts of from tho Old World, is now much tha liiiixt in iitial' Europe, and oats and rve in those more to the north, iiy. Tho comiuou variety Is cultivated tliroiighottt '6L RIC 1684 RIC the tflrrid zone, wherever there Is a plentiful supply of water, ond will mature, under favorable circumstances, in the Kostern Continent, as h^h as the forty-fifth parallel of north latitude, and as far south as tlio thirty- eighth. On the Atlantic side of the Western Conti- nent it win flourish as far north as latitude thirty- eight degrees, anil to a corresponding parallel south. On the western coast of America It will grow as far north as forty or moro degrees. Its culture Is princi- pally confined to India, China, ,lapan, Ceylon, Mada- gascar, Jjistcrn Africa, the south of Kurope, t!ie son'li- ern iwrtions of the United iStates, the Spanish Main, Jlrazil, ond the Valley of Parana and Uruguay. Kico was first Introduced into Virginia by Sir Will- lam Berkeley in lfi-17, who received half a bushel of seed, from which he raised sixteen bushels of excellent rice, most or all of which was sown the following j-oar. It is also stated that a Dutch brig from Sladagascor cunio to Charleston in IfiW, and left about n peck of paddy (rice in the husk) '-. ith Governor Thomas Smith, who distributed it among liis friends for cultivation. Another account ol' its introduction into Carolina is, that Ashby wos encouraged to send a bag of seed rice to that province, from the crops of M-bii^h sixty tons were shipped to Kngland in 1(198. It ?oon after be- j came the chief staple of the colony. It < culture was | introduceil into Louisiana in 171S, by tho " Company j of tho West." Statmifnt iwniniTtKo tiib QrAsriTT Axn Vai.ch of Rimi RXIMBTKII ANNUALLY rROM ISijl TO 1H8B, INl'LCBIVH. The present culture of rice in the United States is m chiefly confined to Soulli Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississi|)pi, Louisiana, and Texas. Tho yield | per acre varies from twenty to sixty bushels, weighing from forty-five to forty-eight pounils when cleaned. Under favorable circumstances, as many as nini'ty bushels to an acre have been raiseil. Another variety is cultivated in this countrj-, to a limited extent, called Cochin-China, drj' or mountain riie, from its adapta- tion to a dry soil witliout irrigation. It will grow several degrees further north or south than the Caro- lina rice, and has been cidtivated with success in the northern provinces of China, lliing.iry, Westphalia, Virginia, and JIaryland ; but the yield is much less than that of the preceding, being only fifteen to twen- ty bushels to an acre. It was flrr.t introduced into ("harleston from Canton, by ,'oliu liradby lilake, in 1772. The amount of rice exported from S82 l)arrels; in 17G0-'ei, 100,000 barrels; from Savannah in 1755, ""'9 barrels, besides 237 bushels of paddy, or rough lico; in ]7l!0, 3283 barrels, besides 208 bushels of jiadly ; in 1770, 22,120 barrels, besides 70G4 bushels of paddy ; from .'hiladel- phia in 1771, 268, .S75 pounds. The amount exported from tho United States in 1770 was 150,529 barrels ; in 1791, 90,980 tierces; in 1800, 112,050 tierces; in 1810, 131, *ll tierces; in 1820-21, 88,221 tierces; in 1830- -31, 110,517 tierces; in 1840-'41. 101,017 tierces; in 1845-'4C, 124,007 tierces; in 184G-'47, 144,427 tier- ces; in 1850-"61, 105,590 tierces. I'ttonuimos op llioB in thk I'mtko States i;« nm Ykve 186(). state!. RoukIi nice, Iba. Alnliama 2,.112,2,')2 ArkansaH ,IVJ0 t;i'orgiii 8S,9Sil.0'.l 1 Kentucky f),iW9 i.mil»inna 4,42.'S,M9 Mlsjluslppl •J.TIO.S.'irt ;i«t>oiirt 700 Novlht'Krplltia B,Hir.,h(lS South Carolina l.M),'.':in,« 13 Tonno«3(H- 2.')'*, '•54 Tcxai! m.W3 Virginia 17,154 Total 21S,3i;i~69t It will bo seen from this table that Soutli Carolina produced in 1850 75 jier cent, of the total production, and Ucorgiu 18 per cent. Kliical Venn. Itiit lS'2a 18'J,1 1S44 18'25 1S20 189T 18M 1S29 1S30 1831 1833 .833 18;;4 1835 1830 1837 1S,38 1«,3!) 1540 1841 lH4'i 1S43 1844 1S4.'5 184(1 1847 1M8 1840 1«5« 1!2 1953 1W>4 1S55 l*,')rt 1S8T Total Tl«rcef. Vuliia. i;i,7T4 I Sl.OilS I T4,30n i 175,121 as,l!21 87,OS» 101,8«0 113,M9 07,U1S 111,003 113,518 175,019 132,983 180,097 iio.niT 120,827 144,103 121,880 119,851 212,988 100,084 71,048 . 93,320 101,000 101,017 114,017 100,700 134,715 118,021 124,007 144,427 100,403 128,801 127,009 105,590 1 19,733 07,707 105,121 5-.J,B20 58,008 04,8,32 $1,4',I4,307 1,5()3,4S2 1,820,985 1,8S2.«82 1,926,245 1,917,445 2,343,908 2,020,690 2,614,870 1,980,S24 2,010,207 2,152,031 2,744,418 2,122,272 2,210,331 2,618,750 2,309,279 1,721.819 2,400,198 1,943,076 2,010,107 1,907,387 1,(V25,720 2,182,.Mi3 2.100,4'iO 2,504,901 8,(10,''i,89fl 2,331,824 2,tifl»,B«2 2,031,567 2,170,927 2,470,029 1,657,658 2,034,127 1,717,953 2.390,233 2,290,400 Avm. c StaTKS KOtt THH ^ i:\l! RNIIIM} ,!UNK 30, 1S57. Wtiitlier Kiiion,.,!. I Tiercel. 1 itnrrela. | Vuluit. Itii^siu uu till', Kaltlc aiiiU I North Seas f , Prtissln 1 Sweden anti Norway Iswcdirtli West Indlc:) Dcinnark 'naniiili Wt'at Indies 'Ilambiiri; I r.reinen .Holland I Dutch Wont Indies jDutrh (iiiiaua IdlKium •... ' Kngland iScotlnnd jlreland Icunada •dthcr llrlt. N. Am. I'unai'H. llrllish Wp,thT ports in Africa Ilritish Aliatralia Franco on tlio Atlantic 1 ranee on the Meditrrran.. Fr. ui'li N. Am. poHBCHpions French \\vi>l Indies i-'rench (iiiiana S]min on the Atlantic 't'anary Iplands ■Cuba jForto liico 1 Portugal Madeira Cape do ^■o^d Islanrls '.Vzorcs Ilayli San Domingo • Mexico ^tJcntral lifpiiblic ' N>w t franadn \'cnc7.in'la Iini7.il irnigiiay, nrCisplatinc Hep. .Argentine licpiihlic Ichill 'i*eru {Sandwich iHlatuIs |i'h'.nn Wlialo Klshcriai ToUl 393 25 244 13 flOO 433 1,473 4,4.'i3 1,481 " 01 4,771 11,121 1,081 10 654 548 1,434 258 60 "i70 70 5,1,39 33 1 2 54 80 2 23,831 2,990 30 ""l 15 185 143 798 608 1,119 25 61 "ii 04,332 25 12 12,019 221 254 834 110 6,000 10,337 101 120 103 m 404 601 10 283 3,424 "sis 42 639 46 ' "61 4,737 145 350 49 1,.5fll 033 2.101 5,41(0 7,409 8,447 296 234 79 68^ 74,6(J9 $11„3,'i4 730 7,538 5.')9 50.507 12,725 49,32.') 12fl,.38;) 89,07:: 9,205 2.302 166,is;i B28,(1'.!J 80,'.'C!i 37 1 2.'), V.I" 10,51'.' 37.077 fi.SliO Mill 1,!»1 ll,0!li. 9,710 157,49s 4M ir)4 2,s:',o l,.'.-'rl'l 12,'. 09 041, '250 81, •-77 0,7,19 5'24 17;i i.397 00.4'l'2 1,712 4,'214 K.r 20.57'^ 29,sii'2 r,«,S(il Cli,4S4 81,494 135,6:4 6,!IS4 8,711 991 1,216 $2,990,400 RIC 1085 It in IBl. cull tr livret.' •ToliT ; n «4 n I'o 10 fill IB 84 • n M i n » I 14 DT 18 IW 15 20 n '.10 n 89 II) 04 n 41 IS) 1)4 I 1 " "■' 44 23 2(1 30 19 10 10 13 10 04 1 in i'.\ \ 10 20 18 41 I 20 OS 24 m I 21! 2a I 19 94 20 11 20 r>o I 20 fl;i ! 24 48 I 2ft 05 : 1 $11,SB4 730 7,5;i'< 6f>'.i Bn,!)0' 12.725 49,!i2.'> 120,!V8.') 39,(i7;'. !),2f.ri 2.:iivi INl,!'';' »28,0-i-J 30,2C'.I 371 ■ S.M'.II) 10,ft« 37.077 8.800 WK) 1,MH 11,0'.!!. 9,71" l.';7,4'.i'' 4N) i:.4 2,8119 V-» 12,'-0'^ 041 .'-'(I'' 81 ,'.77 fl,7.''9 W4 178 i.397 00,4'l'i 1,742 4,214 Kn 20.r.7s a9,8tii BO.SOI 00,484 81,494 i 135,0M 6,384 ! 3,711 I 991 j,2ir> I i:i;e9n,4oo3 Of those exports, 186B-'37, there was exportei from The bar at tha month of Hie rlv«>r lm« UKimlty ttum IJ tho following ports, ' td 13 feet water j unil vunwli ilritwln|( m>ire thnti this {J^J™.^;^ *m'So9 1 ''■«*'y Imi'l and uiiluitil jiiirt (if tlwlr ciirKMii by UnUiinoro '//^'/^'^'.'.'..... .....'.'.'.'.'. 122!o63 means of li({hterii at DolileriiN, it mnilll town on tli< »iist. Churleston 888joa side of tho river, ns«r Itn immtlt. ilitirA Is n falr-WR,v Biivaonah \^'\Vt beacon without tlia liar. III fi fulliiMiis wntcr \ anil wltli- ""'" '',''/';"■, sr^~ \ '"' "'« "^''""""l '» '""'^'1 wHii i.litik mill whiu bMor« ; Rloe Paper. This substance is said to be a mem- entering, ami the wliitu «ii (Iih larliimril, VhmaU IkhiiicI brano of the Arlocarpus iiicisn, or bread-fruit tree. It for Uiga taku pllou at lliililKritiii *l"i I'liMJ' *•"■"' '" is brought from China in small pieces, dyed of various ' their anchorage, No ballatt U allMWWl to b« illicliHiged, colors, and is used na a material for painting upon, and \ except at I'oderiigiio, lli>|{ulitt|iili 'Ml (lltirns, they iteisccnil come to Rockets, about a mile below tlie centre of tho the stream to Riga. The trsB which proilllces the larg- city; and those drawing 15 feet, to V/arwick, three est masts is tlio Scotch lip, TImipm) (iIbii'K which arc miles below tho city. Tho falls in James River are I from 18 to 25 inches in dlainettif »r« I'lillert mosts ) obviated by the canal, and above them it is navigablo i under thoso dimensions, spars, or, in l''.ii)jintid, Norway for boats 220 miles. Regular lines of packets connect masts, because Norv/iiy uKporN liii tri" Knily, •I'ho vonia, on the !)una, about 9 miles from the sea, Lit. 56= ; fiuler, the measure for llquldh, U iIIvIiIhI Into nhms, .■'6' 5" N., long. 24° 0' 4" E. Population in 1812, ' 24 ankers, 120 quarts, or 72*1 stoof-, rlli' •'"'•"1" excluding garrison, 60,000. A light-houso has been ; English wine gallons. The foot of llljia lO'JB Etl- erected on Fort Comet, on the western side of the i glish inches. The ell =2 feet i tlix cbtftcr " f""'' mouth of the river. It has two lights: the lirst, ele- ' Like nio.st of tlio rlv!rs falling Into Hi" HiiUle, tho vatod about 104 feet (English') above the level of the ! Duna has a bar, varying, according to Hoasoiis, from sea, may be seen, under favorable circumstances, at the j 12 to 15 feet of water, Large vB*»eli. tiroially dis- distance of 4 leagues ; and the second, elevated aliout ' charge and take in tlioir cargoi-s either at ilio r.iaiW or 24i foet, may be seen at tho dUtanco of 2i leagues. ; in tha Bolderaa harbor, naar tiw mouUl of tha fivar, BIG 1080 HIO by meant of Trell-covered lighters. The linieud, flax, hemp, and wool of this port have always Iwhii heUt in higher repute thnn those exported from any otlmr |Kirt ill KuHHia, The grain shipped from Kiga is the iirud- uce of White Kussiu, the Uicruine, I'olund, (Juuriiind, Livonia, Ksthonia, Smolensk, Minalc, Litbiuniu, «t,UOO francs. The liu|iorts during tlie same year were only 19,81)5,000 francs. Tlia fol- lowing table exiiibits, in francs, the cominerclul iiiutu- mcnts of Kiga, and the share assigned to each country, in ths^-eor IMiO: Co anttiM. • England France Holland Hunnc Towns Holglum Sweden ami Norway L'nited StatcD Portugal Honniark Spain OttiLT oountried Total franc*. . . , ] Import!. 4,984,000 a,Tr>7,ooo 7.')fl.()00 4,44i,00« 24,000 l,j 10,000 'J,904,000 l,37S,00O '21»,000 19,1,000 4(iS,0«0 K I port*. 36,«.W,0f)0 0,tllM,000 «,1s7,i)(m l,!),Vi,flO() NCiUS.OOO l,v2.'i,000 8 IS&i, Flax, iRt sort torn nitlo, 2.1 fort l>itto, 3d Hwlng Unseed. . . bla. ( rnnbing liwiieO. . . . ; qrH. Hoiap seed... ..,....,< " Deals pieces Timber ' Masts * Wainscot logs and vAtwood. * Pipe and hogshead staves. . ^ !| Total value In H. Ro. I Total value ja dollars To slirumitriM. JMI l7,Rl4 1,i'n 1,499 924 27, W9 9,.118 8,199 3,89-i 9B8 ■ 17,9«f 047 33,!)»i7 i 7,84fl »,4«>l 4,0 III (iOftl 1B,7!(T Tl ISi 191,Di(l ()H,0;t« l.ilW l'l4,u«i« 97, ''7H 4,433 IXI4,l>4r> n.im 111 T,m 1«M1? at 771 rla. »11,'KH1,7)W Tiitnl •ffl«Nnt ftf exports from Kngland tu this port III IHM. i,m,m) franc,, or ♦027,000. TiititI nitUMllit of exiHirts fnnn Kiga to Knulund. ti).ft7;»,0»4, TlM nmri'liAtidlsn imixirted into Kngland froui Uus- tlit U SMcli, I lilti(ly,»» liussia only can supply— at least III smli iiumitlllMii n* lo meet the extensive demands of till matiiifiK tiirnrs of ( (rent liritaln. It consists prin- iilpsliy of ttrtlcles of (irst necessity in munui oturos, sucli as li«iiii|i Slid lliix seetl for oil and culture. The iiiervliaiHllMi mipplUd U> Hussia (ot the port of Kign) from uthtir cimntrles cmislsts chiefly of sugar, coflec, s»lt, wIllM, sjilfltilous ll(|t jrs, tobacco, and cotton tis- Sims, lit rureri'tKHi to the hitter article, such is the ex- traordinary iicllvlly of Husslan manufacturing indus- try, «)ip|i.irl#(l lis It U by 8 high tiiriir on manufactured artii l«>, lltHt, lind not the wur Intervened, slin would lirobably lot now Itidepniident of other nations as re- »|wi't« ( iitliiti yiirns, 'I'lw tidal tonnage which entered and cleared ot the (iiirt u( Ultra In im), ns ulrcndy shown, was 307,8!)u tons. Of thia ii/i«l, l»in,Wi| tons were under the F-rlish flag, or Hithln .< (tglifn of Ml per cent, or f'lo WuciO; while the Uiiaalnn Hug covered only t)l. . tons, or 15 per I'Biil, on IliK wliole, 'ihe value i. x-seed for cul- ture, nx|Hitt4«l from this port from . >10 to 1850, was ^7,mi,lll>l) ( of which Kngland received, in tlie aggre- gata, iin«'tlilrd, 'I he remaining two-thirds were tent to Itfllglinn, I'russla, llniiBo Towns, Sweden and Nor- way, I'ritncii, Slid the I 'hited .Slate., The navigation Miuvt!in«nts Ht this pcrrt for 1868 were as follows : I'ltir tit IIKlA. -.IfAVIOATIO.N N 1853. Ui Kistnliih,,.,, , lUi4l I 1 181 ISl Hwcdhh,,,,,,. V91 291 I'ruxisn w,,,,,,,,,, 109 109 MiiklniilMifff ,,,,,,., ISO ISO uMi'iiliiirtf .,.,,,,,,, 67 B7 I'lirlogiK'Sfl,,,,, ,,.,, 6 llsiHliiirKhin ,,,,,,,, T T .♦iiii'rti'an .,,,,.,,,,. 9 2 Thii (iftlcldl pMtief, from which the preceding table i."i ttXtrilctml, furnishes also Interesting facts relative to tint li«in|i irmy of this port, The following extract is traii»liit#• stltinlatcd tnt, «tid from 6 to 10 per cent, on the jiiir- cliiioft-nioncy Is jiitld down in ca.sh. The annual nvcr- «((« ((lIHIitlly of hemp thus brought to the market of IIIKii Mniuunts to Hl.xint seven millions of francs. At IligM ttwra uri) slirveyors' ofllces establislied, where tlic I lianip lirnUKlit for sale Is subjected to the strictest cx- Hinllialttitl, and Is ranked, according to quolitj-, Nos. 1, 'i, (It ,1, should the pToiliicers be dissatisfied wiili tlic I HCtloti Itf tint surveyors at Higa, they liave the right of I Httfrntl t'<"'•■'' ^fied -Willi tlie I tho right "f llKMi- and ]> given to all Iind to extend lie disposition ■to sustain ttn' Tiudaiecalli'l [v8,andbaili- [age the snil^ I pulleys, situ- Ishrouds, etc., cw-liues, a.M'i Ring, an ornament of gold and lUver, of a circular llgure, and usually worn on the finger. The antiquity of rings is known from Scripture and irofana authors, .ludah loft hi ring or signet with amar. When Pharaoh co' 'mltted the government / all Egj-jit to Joseph, he took his ring from his linger and gave It to Joseph. After the victory which the Israelites ob- tained over the Miilianltes, they offered to tho Lord the rings, the braocletn, and the golden necklaces, and tho golden ear-rings, that they had taken from the enemy. The Israelitish women wore rings, not only on their lingers, but also in their nostrils and their ears. St. James distln^'.Ishes a man of dignity by tho ring of gold whi"h he wore on his finger. At the return of tho prc'ligi.' son * '-. father orders him to be dressed in a ruw dult "f ( . I », and to have a ring put upon his flnger, The ring chiefly was used to seal with. The patents and orders of prlnco.i wore scaled with thcii rings or signets ; aid it was this that secured to them their authority and respect. The episcopal ring, which makes a part of the pontifical apparatus, and is esteem- ed a pledge of the spiritual marritge between the bishop and his Church, was used at a remote period. The fourth council of Toledo, held in 033, appoints that a bishop condemned by one council, and found after- ward innocent by a second, sliall l>e restored by giv- ing Mm the ring, staff, etc. Rio de Janeiro, the capital of Brazil, on the Atlantic, In lat. 22° M' 16" S., long. 48° 15' 50" W Pcpulntlon, 200,000, The harbor of Klo Is one of the finest In the world, luth as respects capaciousness and security for all sorts of vessels. In coming froAi the northeast It is usual to make Cape Frio, In lat. 23° 1 ' 18" 8., long. 42° 3' 19" W., being about 4 leagueo \^:^ V. Fort da Ilha Ja "T'llha .10 lamuduba. i.. Kort .Ic St ,Ioao. (Mlorro do Flamengo. D. Ponta do Calhabouco. '.1 -11. F. Illis dos liottos. C: Fort d» Boa N lagcm. RIO 1CS8 RIO the harbor hi ! n< uf a sugar- 1 'hlle on the noarly rant of Rin, Tho entrance iiiurkril liy a rRinarkiiblo hill In tl i loiif, 000 feet hlijli, cloBo to lt« we«'. . . . east, ur cipponlti! Me (if tho liu\ , at tho (llxtance of iibout 1( nillo, ii4 tho furt uf .Santu ('ruz. But the wunil- out in the prpceilin*; pa^e, tiikcn from a chart (mblUh- eil by order uf the llrHziliun authorltiex, Kivcn n much lietter idea of tliJH niililo liurbor tlinn cuiild bo ulituined from any iloxcrlptioii. //ricftu;'.— Vt'»ii«li( bound for Itio, coming from tlie north, Hliould, after rounding Cupe Krlo, steer due west, keepinK about S leagues friMii tlie coant, until they comr within A or (i miles of the ll/ia Jtaza, ur Flat laland, lying almost due noutli from the nioutii of tho harlior, at tlio distance of about il leagues. A light-house, tliu lantern uf which is said to be elevated nearly 1)00 feet above the lovcl of tho sea, was erected on this ivlanil in 18'J!). The light is a revolving onr rinishing it'* revolution in !) minutes, and exhibiting aiternutoly a white und a red light. There is also u light-hou^o in the fort of Santa Cruz, tho light of which is fl.xcil, and elevated about TiO feet above the level of the sea. —Ciiiilitr titr lei I'hann, ltd ed. Having got within '> ur (> ndles of tho Illm Itazu, ships may enter by day or l>y night, the dotted line in the cut marking the fuir-way into the harlKir, There are no pilots to bn met with , and as there are nu liiddcn dangers of any kind, their services are not wanted. On entering, vessels must pass within hail of Fort .Snntii Cruz, to Ihj ready to answer any (|Ucstions that maj' bo put to them. They then proceed to Kurt Vilganhon, below or opposite to whicli they must bring to, or coma to anchor, allowing nu l)uats to come along side but those of the government until they have received pratique, when tlipy will bo permitted to proceed to the usual place of nncliorage for tiie niorcliant shipping. The sea-breeze generally sets in al>out 11 a.m., and lasts till nliout sunset. It is strong enough to enable ships to overcome the ebb. High water ut full, und change at 2 in the afternoon. Anc\oragr Duel. — 1. Krom and after 1ft July, 1152, the anchorage duty upon vessels triiiling lietween fur- •Ign |)orts and the ports uf Krazll will lie reduced to 800 reis the ton ; and the same duss of duty now lev- led upon coasting vesieU shall be aboli..iiied. i. That part of the provisions of April 'iti, iIkIv 'id, and Novem- tier lA, 1H44, which has not lieen all 'il liv this decree will continue in force, Mvney, W'n'ghtt, awl AUaturet. — All payments are made in papei ^oney, which has I cpii ovcr-lssurd, and is excessively depreciated, llut in ordinary cases tho par of exchange may now be assunu'ii ut about Dli/. sterling per patriotic dollar, of IlJ'iO reis paper. \>'eiglits and long measures are the same us tliose of I.inlion, the arroba being 82^ lbs. avoirdupois ; but measures of capacity are different, a mcdidu being c(|ual to '50&'l imiieriul ^ llun, and an ulquiere to I'll ditto. Trade. — Tho trade of liio is extensive, ond lias In- creosed ra|iidly of iiitc j curs. It is now liy fur tho greuti'il niurt fur tlie export of cofTro. The shipments of this ini|ii,l.M4 )H,4i(l 287,'i3S IMS 1,710,&71> 6,7 111 331,M3 1S« l,4r,0,4Ifl n.stift SOl.UHl 1S.M) l,3.'*,n.vs 13,047 21)0,033 ISftl l,'*4<;,il3 7,Si4 147,21)6 \«>i i,«nT,ia) 12,M6 12&,739 Homf. I RowwtMjil. No iSO,78,1 21111,1111 :t79.707 2tlH,KiO 2M,U4U 170,098 I Loia NnJ FUiikB. ' «,437 ifi.;w4 22,2r>7 I WMVi 80,547 I 26,301) I.Hlher. I Riit. SIclai. 6,602 10,2M 10,746 17,017 12,774 8,U66 llan 10,741 9,712 20,707 24,242 8,229 8,449 I'liin. 3,633 ' 2,S0.1 I 4,3S0 I 3,216 3,m)2 Tobacco ti]i«CRCuiin))ft. ~1( 'Ik 24,403 23,144 26,427 2»,440 2S,ja5 32,240 S«nioiia. 470 333 130 127 641 S91 Tnljlci UaiTi'l. 1,914 1,832 9,rs)0 10,063 17,737 10,940 The principal article of im|iort consists of cotton goods, the value of wliicli nmounts to full one-third of the total value of.the imports. Next to cottons are woolen, linen, and silk manufactures ; wines, jewel- rj', and iron-mongery j flour, meat, fish, butter, and other articles of provision ; sjiirits, salt, earthen-ware, paper, and a host of articles. The importation of ready- made f^irniture from the United .States is also extensive About 50 jier cent, of the entire commerce of Brazil posses through the port of Rio do .Janeiro. Hither is conveyed, from all the ports on tho coast, from Bahia almost to the fnmtiers of the Argentine Republic, all the produce intended for exportation or home consump- tion. Farina, beans, bacon, dried and salt meat, hides, horns, tallow, rice, tobacco, sugar, coffee, cotton — in u word, all the produce and manufactures of the different provinces aro made tributary, either Ijy lond or water conveyance, to tho wealth and commercial greatness of the Brazilian metropolis. A numerous fleet of ves- sels is employed in the coa.-ting trade, in supplying tho different ports along tho coast with tlio various pro- ductions of the soil and industry of America and ICu- rope. Tho chief foreign exports from Rio de Janeiro are — coffee (more than half of the whole going to the I'nited Stotes), sugar, cotton, hides, tobacco, otter skins, etc. Tonnage emploj-ed in the trade of 1841 : Tot-il ves- sels, 1706, of 416,000 tons — of which, from and to the United States, there were 289 vessels, of 77,000 tons. Tonnage, etc., of 1841, compared with thot of 1840 : 1S41 I'O.'S vpfscls : 416,000 tonnsgc. 1S40 1040 " 399,200 '• Kxce«H over 1840 . 65 " 16,800 " The increase of tho foreign commerce of Rio de ,)a- neiro is lietter illustrated by the following returns : CntlUEIIOIAL MoVKMKKT OP KlO DE JANEIRO IJI 1846. Counlrica. KnL'land and PoescHBloas. i;nited Slates France lianae Towns I'ortHgnl Spain Switzerland Ilclgtum |;rui;uB]r and La PUta . . . Sardinia Sweden and Norway InipnrU uf Rio. 82,900,000 20,440,000 20,720,(HX) 6,020,000 8.920,000 4,710,000 4,490,000 2,070,000 2,180,000 2,0."iO,000 1,740,000 Eiporia fium Hlo. 24,230,000 38,7rsi,noo 9,siio,ism 13,330,00(1 6,0.")O,OOO 1,630,000 4, .120,00(1 1,680,000 2,000,000 2,710,000 T.,t>l I FrniK» 77,1110,(KKll 6!l,liln.l«lllj :(o,.vju.ii(ni| l.-<,:i.'rfi,iiiiii, 16,S7(1,I«WI| (i,;!40,llllll 4,4110,IK1I)| 6,99(l,l1(l(li 3.i()ll,(lllO( 4,(160,ll(ll)| 4,4fiO,ll(K)i Africa, Austria, Denmark, Turkey, Russia, tlie Two Sicilies, Prussia, Netherlan(3s, Chill, ond other coun- tries, participate in this foreign trade to an extent ranging in value from 6,000,000 froncs to 4,000,000 each, making the total trade for 1848 266,040,000 franc»=4T,7SB,040 dollar*. 1846 230,800,000 " ^ 44.044.800 " Increase over 1845. . 19,840,000 " =: 3,690,240 " nio 1G39 1,014 1,SM »,rit!rt ifl.ora 17,737 10,940 bf Rio J" ''"• • returns ; 184«. looo 77,ii)o,(mol ■oofl W,1'.W.I«>"| ■ooo hio.wo.iiooi looij i'*,:i«>,i'™'l 1000 ir>,«"i>,oooi looo «,;i40,oooi I 4,4'.'O,(K)0l loOU (i,ll9(l,000| looo 3.7rt0,noo| looo 4,or)n,ow) |oo()| jMW^ Iss'm, the Two I other coun- |to an extent to 4,000,000 [735,040 iloUiirii. P44,S00 " All fnr»l(in nutlons (il)arnil *i|iially In tho Inrgn aug- iniMitiitloM whiih thi! retomHof IKllUxh.' 'toverthoiie of IHIT). Miiinii of th» caiineii Ihut Lontrkliutiil to thlit Incri-unB 'hiivo he«n ulreiidy adverted lo. The true cou«o, however, to which ull other* (ire Imt nunlllury, la the admllted l);n itrmhiri*. . . . hir I i>ltf»riili> 1(1 tittllnrtt for furi'iKii t In txilluKt I'lir ti'>ii)«> |io T.ilul In I'^.'.l I'lilnl Id HI>) xditrlea, 'ViHab. liiiB ITl « 7(1 HO llll» KiNit no Ijountindiv Tho quiK klloKramn) the other U.i 'i'ho exporte 01 To Knglnli ' lltBw .. I. AiiMtrln - ■ . rrftnrr llelgtioii ... Hwetlcn nnd N ■ \ Dihtniirk ri.rliiKul I{o-ii«ta OtldT (>0((Ittril>M , ■plied hor. 'ffea exported lnereaiiC(12fl,7(V|(H)0 lbs. nvolrdn|Mii.i). Suniir, >in 1 l.,,(H)0.00<) 4.(H)0.(K)n :1,000,0m 2.M)(l,nOO 2,400,000 l,;j(M),(iii<) |,(HH),()IIO 1,(100,1)01) 108,0(10,1101) 'I'olul vnlKc. .81,000,000 fraiini The col mo of exchanne, which varied from ;il;i to 374 reas per franc, mind in IHKi at !i;i5 rcos per fninc, or IHM! centH— cc|iial to 55 cent< por 11)01) rea». T!)c lollowii)^ tal>le ifiveH thu iiiinil>er of voshoIh, and tlioir tonnage, en|{U){eil in the trade of 1810, witli the coun- tries whence they came ; CVuiilTlva wheiir*. No.ofVw.1. ToniHiKi.. 1 It ■ 800 415 107 218 140 »7 102 Oft 40 30 .'13 W 22 21 8U 15,000 , 1)5,000 89,700 4<\r>')() 1 44.ri!)o 28,S(lil 23,800 20.400 19,08!) 1 0,300 1 8,000 0,700 t,,Hta 5,55) 4,200 17,400 ' 1 "lilted SttttoH Kii^lniKl ttiul rttfHcsglona la 1 laliiHiul < riiijiifiy riirtnifiil Africa An-ttrlR Helgluin .■'nrdlnla (:l)lll Sweden and Norway Oilier ciMOitriea Total lu 1840 1077 1702 44'),(I4') i 389,070 Do. In 1S4:> Tonnage to and from tho United .States in 18IC : vessels :!(!(), of 95,000 tons. Tonnage In 1H4.'1 : vessels .128, of 7«,i)00 tons. Increase in 1840 over 181;), ves- sels 38, tonnage 18,700. SlTM.MAttV OF TDK TBADE OF KlO PR .lANKIRO IN 1848. Total Imports 134..'iiiii.OOO fmncs. Toliil exports 134,(i8l),(Hli) " TulKlimporls and exports 208,.'>.so,(i(jo " Tonnage, etc. — Entered, 21.'),900 tons ; cleared. 101,200 tons J total, 405,100 tons, of which froni mid to the r nlted States 89,000 U«7 10,158 10.428 40,715 3,479 947 51 it 107 17 Other ilestlnntlimfl On way to ( allfornla in ballast for foreign countries lu ballant for lioino ports Total in 1851 12111 1021) 317.347 204,010 Total lu 18.'):) The leading artlcl>«« Importfld In I'" lows ! ('oltoix, 12, .'Kill, woolens, ' silks, 1II8H, and liiixed giKid», 12U' i , :u mils (of Iril Uis. eiieh I ; riisewoiid, 3(i,.'il7 pieces; half-tannod hides, 12,744 ; tapioca, 17,737 barrels, etc. 'lliu arrlv- Ills coastwise III IH.M were 11)35 sail vessels, and 359 sleaniers, with an aggregate of 221,047 tons; and the departures were I "(13 sail vessels, and ,'180 steamers, with an aggregiile of 22.'>.002 ton^. Tlio total imports and ex|Hirts of the empire in ]8,')1 exhibit an increase of 33 percent, over tlie average of the four preceding years. Coulil Itra/.il bo iuiluced to aladLsh tlio heavy export duties wliieh slio levies on tier staple prodiie- tions, the Increase woiilil largely exceed this ligure. Tlie article of coll'ec alone would in a short period fully make up for iin deliciency in lier revenue caused liy the abolition of tlieso duties, in tlin iiii reaiwd de- mand for tiiat artii li lor foreign markets. Itesides, tlio stiniiilns which would in eonsetpieiiee iio imparted to that liranch of agricultural labor would present an incidental benelit whicii could hardly escape the observ- ation of a sagacious legislator. Tho subjoined ligures sliow tlie amount of ex|H)rt duties levied at Hio ilo.lanciro from 18 Hi to 1851. | Mil- rea- 55 to 5(i cents United States currency.] 184flJ47 3,000.000 luilroai. 1847.'48 4,lls,(«io " 1848.'49 3,834,Ol«l " 1849-'M 3,7mI,4.'i;| " 185l)-',M 4,7llO.«9t! " 8TATKHI-;NTS ll.l.rsTUATIVK OF TUB TllAUK OF I'lo IN 1850, I,,,n(liii(f \THr\cn iinjiurlp.t. QiinnlilfM. (dllon iiinnufarliires ' l>k^•<. 20,124 \V,»Ocn ' llordeuux " 2,482 Il„ll,.r firkins 2;l,980 Cordat'e......' ■'''"^ '"t""" Kxiiord of Produoo of the Counlry. Qutnlltiw. folTee. )>ag.< 1,359,058 lllilcs No. Supir cases Hum I'lpc" IJico bags Horns No- To)>arco rolls IpccRcuanha seroons liosewood pieces Other woods deals Half-tanned Ijldes No. Tapioca l'«- Tpa boxes •iBars.!'. " I lair (horse) tales Flour (nianlliol) !«'-!* Soap lioies Candles, tallow *' 200.033 13,047 3,218 24.243 208,550 28,44') 12T 28,33'2 15,186 17,017 16,053 34 666 S67 10,67« 3,536 804 IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) /> /gressive increase. From official publicatiov,^ received as those pages go to press, it appears that the general foreign commerce of Brazil in 1864 was unusually prosperous. The ag- ricultural productions of the empire, the chief basis of its foreign trade, exceeded those of the preceding year, the returns for the port of Rio de Janeiro reaching as high OS 888,000,000 francs ; showing an excess over those of the preceding year of 18,000i000 francs. The total numlMr of vessels that entered the port of Rio de Janeiro in 1864 was 1064, and in 1866, 1286; while in 1863 there entered only 1064 vessels ; showing an in- crease for 1864 of 10, and for 1866 of 281 vessels over 1868, The following statement shows how the navi- gation of this port was distributed in 1863 and 1864 : RIO KngUud ...<.' • Ponufkl Frwuw ,,.,,, IImmTowu Hpdn , ,,.. ilw(d«iMi4Norw«r . MonMfldw, , , ,, VmimiAYm Hilglum Dannutrk ,, Htrdlnl* N0.<>rVMMh. lUl. » 879 384 SAO 198 188 04 «a n C3 48 4t n 44 n 87 18 48 m sa 61 83 18 10 For mtnjr yun thi United StatM occupied the first nnk in tb* nwlgtUon of Rio da Janeiro. It will be poreelvcd ttvm tb* prMtdIng table that England elalnw tht pneadmo* In UM, a fact .which is attrib- utad to Um AtlUng off In tliat year In the importation of flour (Vom tlia Untt««^ Staten. The new line of •teaman, aatabliilMd In 1868 between Liverpool and Rio do Janeiro, touolltng at the lanie places a« the Southampton line— namely, Lisbon, Mudciro, Tene- riffa, 8t. Vineent, I'amambuoo, and Uahia— notwith- standbig tb« fear* a* to its success, continued, in 1864, its roontbiy oarvica with activity and profit. Besides tbeso two linai of itaamarg, a company, composed of BraiilUn and Portuguasa merchants, haa established a Una lietwoan Lisbon and Rio, touching at the same points I but thU Una liod In 18&4 but one steamer in Mrvioa, tha voyage* of which, howoTor, proved very ittooastfuL The port of Rio da Janairo Is becoming yearly more important a« tba centra of South Atlantic commerce. Tba ttumbar and tonnoga of vessels which entered in 186S wara ougmantad a third when compared with 184&, and mora than a bolf over the number and ton- nage of vaiaala in'188&. From 1850 to 1864 the aver- aga inonasa durbig tha flva years was nearly a fifth. The following itatemant exhibit* this progressive movement i -VmT 1846 Aversiie IWO-'M two 878 im Ton». 184,913 168,94') 314,23S 380,873 TbeM flguras exhibit ths results of foreign naviga- tion only. Tb* coa*tlng trade Is shown as foUows : y«ftn. 1840 AvsrsK* IWU'M , 18SB 1920 3003 8(H» Torn. 116,117 ]0«,873 380,228 818,339 The employment of *t«amboats In the navigation of Rio de Janeiro I* yearly extending. In 1846 the num- ber of steamtwat* engaged in the trade of the port of Rio was 280. In 1806 the number reached 431. Four- teen compani**, owning thirty-nino steamboats, with an oggragate t>f U438 horse power, keep up the com- mnnlMtlons between Rio de Janeiro and the other mar- itbna town* of the empire, There are also four tow- boat*, with an aggregate of 187 horse power. The fol- lowing tebular statement 'xlithlts the value of leading importation* Into Rio do Janeiro in 1864 1 ]•(,— MmniiAXtitsa. Mquom, wines, tea, elo. iT,floo,noo fVanc.^. I'rovlsloDs, flour, butter, etc 24,ooo,ooo " Urop-oll, Hit, tallow, ioap, etc 4,000,000 " llatten' wares, dry geudi, iMoa, fanoy wsre,0Ui 9,000,090 '■ TiHumofoattan 81,000,000 " » wool 7,000,000 " " lloea 8,000,000 » ■■•per, IxMks, etc 4,ooo,OflO » HIrfns and leather, aha«s,ete.,iisddlcnr, etc 4,000,000 " Uroom wares, willow wanw, woodt, rumU hirB,ete.., , s,noo,noo " Pottery wsrss, porrwUIn, etc 8,(wo,noo " V'atehos, Jnwslry, lisrdwsre, (ilo KVNKi.mio " (^'oal, metals, nianuftMturtHi sncl wroiiiht, •lei. , 11,000.000 » HaltMti*, nuwilur, arms, soa^tarea B,ooo.0O0 " Hundrtos .T l»,ooo,ooo " 1641 HIO IJ.— Couxnisa nioN wmou mpoann. AroioA 850,000 Amcbioa : L'nited States 18,000,000 Buenos Ajrres 1,400.000 Montevideo 1,600,0110 „ *^'>111 700,000 CXNTBAL KuBOPB: Knglsnd and Poaaeuloiu 66,000,000 Aiiatris 3,000,000 Uelgtum 6,000,000 I'mnce 83,000,000 Swlticrlsnd 4,000,000 SoirrinnH Ecbofs! Kpsin ^000,000 I'ortugal 14,1100,000 Sardinia 8,000,000 Sicily and Naples 400,000 Turkey and Lovant 800,000 NoaTuiBM Eusope: Holland 1,800,000 Hanae Towna 18,000,000 Donmark 8,000,000 Sweden and Norway 8,000,000 I'riuaia 1,700,000 " Flaherlca 100,000 " * Otherplaces 4,000,000 » ^ As regards the export trade of Rio de Janeiro fai 1864, the returns at hand ore not eo minute. Of cof- fee, however, the chief article of export from the Bra- zilian market, there were exported this year 1,987,632 bagsy weighing an aggregate of 318,021,120 lbs., of which 899,900 bags, or 143,984,000 lbs., were sent to the United States. The quantity exported the pi«- viousyearwas 1,637,063 bags, or 202,020,080 lbs. The quantity of sugar exported was less than that of 1863 — namely, 6905 hhds. and 1739 barrels. The following retumi exhibits the total results of 1864: 'if M I "i ItuportR. KxiMjrta. Tot«l. Valuo In 18r4. . . . Value In 1863. . . . Increoao In 1854 Krtiiic,. 171,0.10,000 l(14,n«fl,(H)0 rranci. 167,(10U,IX)0 101,000,000 Praucs. 888,000,1100 B35,00O,O,)O 7,0OII,(KK) 6,000,000 13,000,000 Tlie total flour imports at Rio for 1856 were 317,401 barrels, of which 301,729 barrels were from tho I'nited States. Of this amount 161,716 barrels were shipped coastwise or re-exported after reaching Rio. Total Import, 1857 31",4ft4 Stoldc In all hands Jannary 1, ISSC 80,000 _ 397,4M Hhlppcd coaatwlao and re-exported, 1866 . . 161,7101 Stock In all hands January 1, 1857 60,000 211,716} ConsumpHm ov IfM I bble. 185,687J The imri.)rt8 of flour ftom all sources last year ex- ceed thosfc of tha preceding 3-ear 16,536 barrels, while the import;! from the United States show an increase for the same period of 74,423 barrels. In fact, tho tables for ten years show a somewhat irregular but decisive transfer of the flour trade almost entirely to the hands of the United States. The total exports of coiTeu from Bio for tho year 1856 show as follows : To thn United States 1,109,131 '..aga. : ToKuropo 8S9,SS6 " To other points 40,130 " Total 2,099,136 " KXI-ORTS OP 1S56. To the Vnltcd Statca 1,139,135 baga. ToKiirope 1,243,836 " Klaewhere 34,848 " , Total 2,406,809 " F.xroBTS OP 1864. To tho United Statca 891,708 baRS. . To Europe ^''>H''^i " Elsowhere 37.319 " Total 1,993,706 " The total exports of soger for 1856 were : Cases, 2804 j barrels, 26,581; showing a decrease from the preceding year of 2381 cases and 12,155 barrels. The export of hides for 1860 was 64,881 pieces, showing a largo decline from the two preceding years. Of the coffee exports to tho United States in 1856, BIO 1642 'kia BtUlffloN nc«lr«d 1M,011 bags ; New York, 362,248 ; who an employed in the mechanic trade*, In commeN Phlladalphta, 01,986 ; Boaton, 6001 ; and New Orleans, j clal puranits, ns domestics, etc. Some hundreds are 404,6O3, I sent to the new colonies, where they conatitnte almost Th« foreign commercial arrivals in 1856 number the only aid which Brazilian agriculture receives an- 1060 VMMli, of 386,886 tons, of which thirty-two were ftwn Batttmore, thirty from New Yoric, twenty-eight from Utchmond, fifteen from New Orleans, fourteen from Boston, eleven from Philadelphia, two from t'harltlton, two fh>m the Rio Grande, and one from Wilmington, The number of foreign departures in 1M6 was 006 vessels, of 426,908 tons, of which 640 were with produce, 34 with foreign merchandise, 140 with their uiward cargoes, and 18:! in ballast proceed- ed lo other ports of the empire. The coasting trade outward was conducted, exclusively of 803 steamlibats, by 3370 vessels, of 263,736 tons burden. The coast- ing trade Inward was conducted by 2222 sailing vei- wls and 806 steamboats, of 276,967 tons. The revenue collected at the custom-house of Rio exhibits an Increase corresponding with that of the im- iwrt trade of this port. This is shown by the follow- ing comparative statement of receipts : l«flfl S,5S3,000mUreu. 1845 8,048,000 " IBM 18,077,000 " The last year (1866) does not exhibit the raaxlmnm. This was reached in 1852, the amount that year ex- ceeding 14,776,600 milreas, or over $7,000,000. Immiffralion. — The immigration returns of Rio fur- nish the following statistics : Tssr. ISTig , 1864. Aggregate AnniiRl avenge. V,58S 6,8T0 0.A4S 8,1)73 84,773 8,693 D $18,708,772 $10,879,051 $678,100 $1,934,80;) 340,687 4,01'3 Sept. 80,1831 $1,662,103 $493,909 $9,076,095 $2,875,829 $916,875 $98,14') 36,8^8 903 1831 1,832,077 829,717 9,064.794 8,800,846 381,608 20,671 80,489 356 1888 8,474,656 797,546 8,972,101 6,083,613 166,840 11,468 4'),786 1,017 1884 1,536,097 473,854 2,069,361 4,729,96;) 60,084 81,786 S7,0:i2 1,!t77 1886 1,810,791 707,805 2,608,666 6,674,466 843,081 66,606 89,209 2,564 188S 1,739,741 1,869,196 8,094,936 7,210,1!;0 900,884 6,040 48,633 8,009 18BT 1,301,217 441,003 1,748,209 4,001,1:63 88,631 40,617 . 19,670 4,107 IMS 8,094,967 66i,937 2,057,194 3,101,238 208,706 193,891 30,623 1,001 188« 8,138.997 50J,488 2,037,486 6,202,1; 66 184,427 4,838 31,431 8,1.S3 1840 Total. . . 8,146,863 360,711 9,506,574 4,!)97,2:6 102,174 14,638 84,189 1,764 $18,164,488 $6,546,907 $94,710,396 $47,274,464 $2,637,8.6 $348,816 860,770 19,894 K4,868 117,604 9,861 66,336 6,0i!S • IMO ToUI. . . 9,723,708 473,847 8,197,114 0,894,499 279,030 2,160 58,118 *84;4b6 .'1,501 $86,634,964 $8,791,999 $29,396,963 $6»,f)16,il88 $1,623,066 $916 98.) 84,714 Jtm«80,1861 $3,198,956 $693,960 $8,759,016 $11,525,804 $430,869 $6,611 68,629 7,648 1888 2,789,179 888,863 3,091,049 12,230,28.) 117,466 114,817 61,484 6,718 1858 8,734,100 860,884 8,904,4+4 14,817,961 399,093 K.OOO 61,736 6,11:8 1S04 4,046,857 199,884 4,939,241 14,110,387 643,114 94,400 60,348 2,829 1856 ia«) 8.978,819 888,064 4,961,273 16,218,926 141,525 1,401 75,666 2,674 4,859,196 886,779 5,0:>4,004 19,262,657 938,613 74,980 9,890 1857 6,808,166 877,041 6,546,907 21,460,783 146,688 84,712 8,186 * Nine months to June 80, and tlie fiscal year from this thus begins July 1, BIO 164S RIO B14 649 BOT TOT 1,034 881 .• 1 601 4,0:3 ! 208 ) 8sa 5 1,01T ! 1,(^7 » 2,B»4 i 8,0«2 15 4,10T 3 1,001 1 3,1S3 9 1,'I«4 9 W,8'i4 4 8,101 S !!,043 6 1,3 5 1,816 6 2,0TT 4,083 (I 8,867 K) 0,030 16 C.OiS 8 a,r>0'i IB 84,714 ia T.648 U 6,718 16 B,ir:9 (8 8,829 M 2,674 W 2,800 19 8,186 Anckoragt Due*. — SOO reu (about 16| centB) per ton of Brazilian measurement. Vessels arriving and de- parting in ballast pay only half anchorage ; and tlioae calling merely for supplies are exempt ttom anchorage duty. Vessels which mal(e more than two voyages to ports of Brazil during a twelvemonth are exempt from the payment of anchorage dues on all voyages over that number within the same year ; vessels, tkerefure, pay no more than COO reas annually (38| cents), be the number of voyages what It may. For passports to leave, ttom 4 to 8 milreas {ttom $2 22 to $1 44) ; for pilotage inward 80 milreaa ($16 67), but no obligation to take pilots inward; for pilotage outward 70 milreas (jtg» 88), and for canoe-hire, 6 milreas ($3 38). No ves- sel is allowed to leave port without a pilot, nor to get under weigh after sunset, or before sunrise. Hospital money, 4 milreas on the vessel (say $2 22), and 640 reas (or about 36 cents) for each of the crew. The charge for stamps varies, being not less than $1. A consular return from Pemambuco, under date of Janu- ary, 18£5, gives each specific item of charges upon an American bark of 200 tons burden which entered that port laden with flour, and leaving with a cargo of Bugar. The total, inward and outward, including tho charges for lighterage, labor, craneage, etc., which arc not on government account, amounted to $571 45. Of this there was paid on government account $192 45 — the remainder belonging to the other class of charges. Tariff. — The market prices In Brazil are token as the basis for the duties imposed by the present tarift'. The dispatch by Invoice wiU take place when the goods imported have no flxed duties in the tarifl', or when they are subject only to a tax for warehousing and clearing out. For the dispatch of goods subject to ad valorem du- ties the merchant or consignee is obliged to show a dec- laration stating the prices of his goods, and the orig- inal invoice july certified. In want of the original invoice may be presented two certificates by two bro- kers, or, in' the absence of brokers, of two merchants of the place, showing the current prices of the goods. The value of the goods subject to ad raiorem duties will be that of the Brazilian market, as before said ; deductions made of the respective duties, or the value of the original invoice, vttli the addition of 10 per cent. — United Statea Com. Reiationi. Kemarkt on the Trade of Brazil.— Thia vast empire comprehends the great eastern section of South Amer- ica. Its length from north to south Is computed at •bout 2600 miles, and its greatest breadth at 2640 miles. The entire area comprises about 2,978,400 square miles, or over ten times the area of Texas, and about seventy tiiiies that of Portugal. The climate is generally favorable to agricultural pursuits, the soil being fertile, and in many parts of the empire, particu- larly in the provinces, abounding with valuable min- eral resources. The staple productions of Brazil are such a.'' must necessarily attract an extensive foreign trade; though it is stated that anterior to 1809 she had no direct intercourse with other nations — the moth- er country, under the policy which dictated her colo- nial system, excludhig trom the ports of her extensive colony all foreign flags. The dangers which menaced, and the domestic troubles which agitated Portugal at this period, resulted in the flight of the ro}-al family to Brazil. With the court were introduced new tastes, new ideas, and a more literal policy In regard to for- eign intercourse. The ports of Brazil were at once opened to foreign commerce, and since that period the eulture of the staple productions has kept pace with the Increased demands of foreign markets. The great staple of Brazil is cofiiie, though vegetables, fruits, wheat, barley, rice, maize, and tobacco are extensive- ly produced In the southern or temperate provinces; while within the tropics the chief productions are ntndioca, rice, bananas, plantains, beans, sweet pota- to«s, cuflTee, sugar, cotton, and cocoa—the last four for exportation. The forests supply the reiy bast tlmbM for ahlp-bnilding, and almost ever)- variety of wood for cabinet-work and dyebig purposes ; among the Ut- ter, Bnzil-wood, rosewood, and Oampeacby-wood an Important articles of commerce. Travelera who hara minutely explored the interior of BraiU describe no less than 219 varieties of timber, and many of them largely enter hito the commercial resources and domes- tic wealth of that empire. Since the acknowledgment of Its Independence, the commercial regulations of Br*, zil have been marked by a spirit of liberality and of freedom from unnecessary and exclusive restrictions. The duties on imports and exports are based upon the valuation principle, and are designed solely with u view to supply the necessary revenues for the support of the government ; and tho port, pilot, and other navi. gation charges seldom exceed the actual requirements of a just and liberal intercourse with fonign nations. Indeed, the commercial policy of Brazil seems eminent- ly adapted to a country of such boundless extent and so sparsely populated, as labor is sure to find a remu- nerative reward, in whatever mode it may seek to de- velop the exhaustless resources of the empire, in the tree competition to which it invites the enterprise and exchanges of foreign nations. Tho entbe population amounts to about six millions — being two persons to the square mile ; of which at least three-fifths are I blacks. The commercuil treaties negotiated by the government of Brazil with foreign countries are gener- . ally based upon the principle of reciprocity. That , with the United States was concluded December 12, 1 1828, and established between the two countries free- dom of commerce and entire reciprocity of trade and navigation— certain special favors being reserved to Portugal, owing to the former relations between that country and Brazil. This treaty contained the usual stipulation requiring twelve months' notice to be given by either party desiring to terminate the same ; and such notice having been given by the government of Brazil, and the twelve months having expired, the treaty is no longer of force. The commercial reUtions between the two countries were, however, placed upon a footing of similar reciprocity to that guaranteed by the treaty, by virtue of the proclamation of tho Presi- dent of the United States, bearing date November 4, 1847, issued conformably to the provisions of an act of Congress passed on the 24th day of May, 1828. As the trade between the tno countries is placed much on the same footing of reciprocity as that guaran- teed by the treat}', it is deemed not irrelevant to pre- sent a synopsis of the provisions of that treaty, ao tat as they relate to commerce. The contracting parties are placed on the footbig of the most favored nation in respect to commerce and navigation, the relations between Portugal and Brazil excepted. Free commerchil Intercourse, on the basts of perfect equality and reciprocity between the citizens and subjects of the two countries, is established, tlia coasting trade being reserved by each government to Its own flag. The vessels of both countries are placed on the same footing In the ports of each, as to the Im- portation, exportation, or re-exportation of foreign goods, fl'om or to any foreign countrj- ; the United States agreeing to consider a vessel as Brazilian when the proprietor and captain are subjects of Brazil and the papers are in legal form. The contracting parties agree that no higher or other duties shall be imposed on the importation of any articles, the produce or manu- factures of either country, into the ports of the other, than are or shall be payable on the like articles, being the produce or manufactures of any other foreign conn- trj- ; and export duties shall be the same in each to the ports of the other as when the articles are exported to any other foreign country. It is agreed that it shall be wholly tree for all merchants, commanden of ships, and other citizen : ' )r subjects of both countries, to man- age themselves their own businets la all the poitt BIO 1644 RIO •nd places rabjcct to the juriidlction of each other, as wall with raspect to the coBsignmant and sale of their goods and merchandise bjr wholesale or retail, as with respect to tlie loading, unloadhig, and sending off their ships ; ihty being in all these cases to be treated as citizens or subjects of the country in which they re- side, or, at least, to be placed on a footing with the subjects or oititeaa of the most favored nation. Ves- sels in distress, pursued by pirates or enemies, etc., belonging to either of the contracting parties, to be received and protected in the ports, rivers, bays, etc., of the other. Foreign Comnurce of Bnait, — From officUl docu> ments, it appears tluit of the whole commerce uf Brazil, Kio de Janeiro holds 66 per cent. ; Bahia 12 per cent. ; Pemambuco 12 per cent. ; Aiagoas, Santo Paulo, and Santo Pedro do Sul, 8 per cent. ; Para, Maranham, and Santa Catarhia, each 4 per cent. The species of merchandise which constitutes the leading imports Into Brazil are cottons; of which liio de Janeiro, Bahia, and Pemambuco usually receive in value about ^7,000,000; woolens about $1 0,000,000; siilcB, 18,000,000. After tiiese rank next in commercial importance provisions, flour (the great bulk of which comes from the United States) ; wines and other liq- uors ; metals, crude and manufactured ; watches. Jew- elry, arms, ammunition, etc. etc. The principid ex- ports are coffee (which is shipped Arom Kio) and sugar, (principally from Bahia and Pemambuco). Full a moiety of the former goes to the United States, and the latter chiefly to England, Trieste, and the Ilanse Towns. The precious metals next follow in the rank ''of exports ; theivdiamonds, skins (otter), hides, cotton, and tobacco. The two last, as well as sugar, though not to so great an extent, are either stationary or de- clining, 08 respects the quantities annually exported. The following comparative statements give the flg- nres for two years, 1851 and 1662 : 1 1851. 18». $82,800,000 81,9a0,00O $84,200,000 S9,080,000 Kxports ToUI ««4,220,000 (66,880,000 The proportion which the United States had in the tmde of these two years, appear as follows : Exports, 1861, 36 per cent. ; 1852, 87 per cent. Imports, 1851, 12 per cent. ; 1852, 9 per cent. AiiAtTua or iMrusTs (*v Covwniis). England ..... France Untied BtatM. HaBM Tons. Austria Belgium Bwltzerland , . 00,000,000 20,000,000 17,000,000 8,000,000 fi,000,000 6,000,000 4,000,000 74,000,000 83,000,000 94,600,000 12,000,000 6,000,000 6,000,000 5,000,000 AiiAi,i[sis or Kxi-oars (iiy Mebouamvisk). Cotbe . . Sugar . , Hides.. Woods , IU|. FrMCf. 182,000,000 8,000,000 8,000,000 8,000,000 isti. 149,000,000 5,000,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 Ahalybis or Exponrs (bt ComiTans). Untied States . England llnuHo Toims. Franco '. . Ilelgtum AuBtrta Itll. I Prtnci. 68,000,000 26,000,000 12,000,000 11,000,000 7,000,000 8,000,000 Kranet. 71,000,000 28,000,000 8,000,000 12,00(1,000 8,000,000 7,000,000 The French official report, from which the preceding summar}' is derived, states that there were received from the United States 280,000 barrels of flour, and from Europe 80,000 barrels ; of which 15,000 barrels were shipped from Marseilles, and the remainder tiom Trieste and Antwerp. Butter, salt, dried beef ttom the Plata, gin, dried and preserved fruits, fish-oil, lin- seed oil, &<:., maintained the figures of the preceding year ; bilt in the articles of beer, soap, wax and other candles, tea, and codfish, there was a diminution. The following statement shows the relative share assigned to each country in the general importation of 1852 : Imporlj. EipoHi. . GrestBrttatn 88,100 12,000 ' France 18,100 12,000 ii United SUtes 18,100 88,000.,, Germany, Belgium, Holland, and SwItierUnd 19,100 26,000 Portugal, KpalB, and JMf. 12,100 18,000 The following tabular statement will be interesting as exhibiting the custom-house revenues of Brazil for the periods designated, and the sources whence de- rived. The present value of the rea in United States currency is, 1000 Teas or 1 miliea— 56 cents. PiMil v»n. inniort.. Kiport. PPTIM or , Navigation. Jplenial upd EitraonUimry. ToUI. lS49-'60 1850l.'51 lS5t-'52...„ Increiue In 1962 over 1851 At the port of Hlo.laneiro In 1861-'52 R«u. 17,88O,02!)|iOOO 3,780,45311000 20,471,26211000 24,79.S,046IIOOO 4,821,78411000 14,OM,906IIOOO 4,706,09611000 4,627,77211000 2,665i643ll000 Kaai. 845,68011000 615,68111000 640,114411000 31,863li000 282,84311000 Real. 2,125,81711000 2,287,12511000 2,806,81011000 I28,oi6ll000 1,733,84711000 Reas. 24,081,87911000 27,080,00411000 82,283,67211000 4,802,ra8iiooo 18,666,74411000 Coffee. — Coffee is the leading staple of Brazil. For- merly, and for many years, San Domingo was the source, from which Europe derived its supplies of this article — the quantity exported from that island at one time having reached as high ui 77,000,000 lbs. ; and had not the revolution broken out in 1792, it was esti- mated that there would have been exported that year about 84,000,000 lbs. That event, combined with other obvious causes, produced a total cessation in the sup- plies from this source. Being driven from St. Domin- go, the cnltuie of coffee at once became a leading branch of industry in Cuba, Jamaica, Surinam, and Java, and was at a sabseqnent period iutroduced with much success into Brazil. After th^ flight of John VI. from Portugal to Brazil, in 1808-'9, the port of Rio de Janeiro was opened to foreign trade, and con'ee soon became one of the leading staples of export At that petiod the annual crop did not exceed 80,000 bags, or 4,800,000 lbs. In 1820 it reached as high as 1 J0,000 bags, or 16,000,000 lbs. In 1817 and 1621 the supply was so small, that in the market of London it rose as high as 87) cents per lb. This of course sttmplated its cultivation in Bracll. The ruin of San Domingo transferred, also, the culture of indigo to British India, and its cidtire was at the same period ' al>andoned in Brazil. Previously to the revolution in Haytl there was exported from that island 76,836,219 lbs. ; in 1818 the exports fell to aliout 26,000,000 lbs. ; and now they do not exceed thirty-five to forty mill- ions. In 1884, the year in wiiioh the emancipation act went hito effect, Jamaica exported to England 18,268,888 lbs. of coffee ; five years later, the quantity had fallen to 9,423,197 lbs. The decline in the culti- vation of coffee in this island, and the unrestricted supply of African slave labor in Brazil, combined to give a powerful impulse to its culture in that empire. Hence, in 1830, the prop reached as high as 400,000 bags, or 64,000,000 lbs. The coffee-growing districts In Bracll are divided into Serra Abaxo (below the mountains) and Serra Acima (above the mountains). The cost of transporting the coffee from the plantation to market is abqut 2 cents per ib, ; and the actual cost of production is stated to be about 4j^ cents per lb. The quantity produced in the empire, year by year, is not officially ascertained ; but it has been approxima^ ted with sufficient exactness for practical purposes. BIO 1645 RIO 1809 Ug». From 1809 to 1849 the'raport. of oo*. firiull, with III* totni annual value. ,.f Mwh nanict. ■^ S iT'ZC Ih^' ' T?? fMln^ rewhed a. of eoftta. ,Hir II,., for .a.li year, for a p!»1od of .laveD high « 186 869,888 Iba. Th. foUowtog comparallv. year. -from WU to iHfM; both Inclu^va, .howhig a Ubukr itatemant .howi th. quantltlea of coflTa* Ira- greater rata of ln«rt«H In lioflba over flour . Vloiirfroin I', to llraall, Yean. 1844. ]84fi. 1840. 1847. 1848. 1849. 1850. 1851. 1852. 1853. 1854. Coffee to V. 8. froDiBnalL Foiudi. 05,291,484 78,658,616 97,686,697 94,916,629 110,927,284 122,581,188 90,819,511 107,578,257 183,156,606 158,838,464 116,704,778 Valuei. DoUan. 6,802,001 4,401,260 6,064,513 6,678,(100 «,9«9,008 6,776,727 7,422,008 8,881,105 10,064,740 11,844,414 10,820,002 888,111 900,845 106,400 254,800 804,810 814,808 202,404 800,075 345,035 4»8,848 015,1110 Valiiif), rmllaS; 1.408,418 l,nN8,fll8 1,075,7/10 1,502,070 1,052,212 l,HH6,20a I,II40,UU0 2,021,081 1,080,286 9,484,187 2,417,085 Value ofOuliiw «rlh t'cnia, Value of Flour per bb l. Doll. Ct«. Sugar.— A. gUnce at the preceding tablei will ahow In H»aaH In re«|i«ot to th« alare-trade la aeen In the that coffee Is the great staple expon of BrezU to the ftUowIng tabla, eumiilUd from an American authority • United states, the produce of which la most steadily and rapidty advancing. The supply will doubtless •Iways b« equal to the demand, owing. In a great measure, to the facility and comparatively small ex- pens* attending Its production ; while the culture of angar and cotton depends on contingencies, both tem- porary and permanent, which mnst materially afflict the quantities annually produced. These contingen- cies may be briefly stated. The culture of sugar de- pends as mach on the science of the manufacturer as «n the capital and labor of the planter. Beforo It can nach the market of Rio, ot of any of the other ports of the empire, it requires a vast expenditure of labor, the most assiduous attention, and an outlay of capital that absorbs fully one half. If not more, of the gross yield. Besides, the abolition of the slave-trade, and the sever- ity with which the present laws of Brazil punish those detected In that traffic, mnst produce decided eSbots upon the production of those staples in the culture of which slave labor Is Indfaspensable. A French work on statistics, recently published, (hmlshes the following data relative to the present number of slaves in Brazil : From a publication made 1h 1848 by Mr. Satumino de Souza e Oltveira, chief Officier of the customs in Braxil, the number of slaves has been computed at three mUUons, who are thus divided aa to employment : Slaves in Bbazil. Employed on the estates S,SOO,OflO Domeatlca 100,000 Without tny special employment tOO.OOO Hired out, and othors 800,000 Total 3,000,000 18M,, wa.. 1«4I),, Nlavk* iMl^mwii i)itn lltiAiii. raoM Afrku. 1T,4II(I Hi,0, It <«,N4'I 1li,«)n 60,014 IS4T 50,172 1M1 «O,00O ia4') 64,000 iNttO 83,000 1901 3,287 Tba ll||ur«i fur ItSl avidenoe the vigilance of the governnMRt In the dtttctlon of those engaged In this trafflo. It may Ui remarked, that of the 8287 given fur IHAl, 1000 war* Noaptund by the BraaUlan cruis- tn, and daolarad fret. Jlow long, unilitr tliena circumstances, sugar and cotton sltaU «(mtltiu« to Im classed among the staples of Uraall, It Hanioly left to conjecture. QvAMTrriM Am Vamiks nr KvoAa tttraanm wto tii« UnITSII ftTATKM r«0M BaAlIb IVssfi. 1844.,,., %m. tm... I8fi4., l'ultm),—A» retfards the cultivation of cotton, It Is wall known that savtral Insuperable drawbacks to its axtanakm txist In Urasll. Among these may be named the ravages flf Insects, the peouiiorlties of the cllmAta, and the expense and diflloultles attendant upn Ita tranii|i(irtatbn from the Interior to the coast. Many y»M» affo. It was ascertained in Brazil that the eotton-plant will not flourish near to the sea, and the plantations Imve, in eonsequenoe, receded further In- land, Af well to avoid this difficulty aa to seek new The operation of the present rigid measures In force and fretlier lands. Tabdi-ar Stathmiirt biiowimo Tini QuAimnEs or Cotton »»ivmTim rsoM Hb*»hIi to flawT BnfTAtK rnoji tiib Ykar 1840 to 1865, AMD also to France, Spain, Pobtduai., anii itifl,iil|iM, rtm Klidl I'liHTlONs or tllA* Psaion as oak hi SDPPLifen raoH offioiai. Data— ulamks iiniioATiMu Tlia AltsSNiia uf NAM) IMTA. V»n. QnnlNHMn, fripiw. l,8MifH)0 OBO,BIT «81,*I90 887,109 408,«M ' I,lw, I9M04 9,in,hn 9;8fll,9T9 1 ( 1 1 fntairsl. Btlshun. 1840 ]4,77lCin 1«,«T1,848 16,9IK,WM 18,016,18,1 21,084,744 80,167,033 14,74 tUt M followi t In 1SBB-'54 9R,490,B20 poundi, InlStt-'M lM,ll6a,ltU " I nercHa la ten ynn 1,864,100 " Tn 18&l-'fi2 the exportation amounted to 81,988,0fi0 Ibi., or which quantlt}- Great BriUIn received 26,88] ,201 Ibe., Spain 2,291,678 Iba., Portugal 1,896,280 Ibi., and France 889,048 lb(. Of the total exportationi in 18fi3 -'68, Great Britain received, aa appears from the aama anthoritlea, 22,676,122 lbs., Spain 2,861,279 Iba., Port- ugal 2,678,766 lbs., and France 648,611 lbs. The ex- porta to Great Britain ftom Brazil btigan in 1781 ; and from that period to the present timo the large bulli — at leaat f&ur-ilftha— of Brazilian grown cotton gatt to that kingdom.— Cotnm. Xtl. U. S. The commerce of Brazil has sustained great injury ttom the wretched state of the currency and of the finances ; the value of the fo/mer, which conslsta al- most wholly of paper, being excaaslvely depreciated and liable to extreme fluctuations, and the revenue be- ing inadequate to meet the expenditure. Latterly, however, vigorous efforts have been made to increase the revenue ; and it Is hoped that in the event of the finances l>elng placed on a better footing, measures may also be taken to improve the currency. We sub- join an account of the debt, etc., of the empire In 1861 : Foreign debt jCO, 187,000 Local Ainded debt, 62,870,000,000 relf , at excbango i9d. 7,540,000 Treuurr bllla afloat, about i),000,nOO,000 relf, at exchange 3M. 240,000 Estimated amoant of notes tn drculallon (paper monejr) throughout the empire, 66,000,000,000 rela «,700,noo i: lbs. ; and in the same place, in the October following, one was discovered weighing 4 lbs. Topazes of flne quality, but seldom large, ametbysta and chiysolitcs, are also articles of exportation ; and at times some flne sped- mena of these gems are to be met with in the Jewelers' shops. Correctlv speaking, there are no trading com- panies in Rio de . inelro ; there is a society for effect- ing maritime assurances, but no other. The Bank of Brazil has had \tTy extensive concessions made in its favor, and ought to be in a flourishing state. It has power of issuing notes ; and all disputed moneys and property of the deceased and absent (mortet t auzenlet) must be placed in ito hands, and 2 per cent, per annum charged for the care and trouble. This, in addition to the Interest which might be obtained for the deposit, would alone, in an active mercantile countr}-, form no inconsiderable revenue. Specie is prohibited from be- ing carried coastwise ; merchants who wish to deposit cash in one of the northern ports, where the largest purchases are made, are therefore forced to take band bills, and pay a premium for them, varying tiom S to 6 per cent. Some enormous capitels have been amassed ; but generally the speculations of the native merchants are conducted on a ver}- limited scale. The legal rate of interest is 6 per cent. ; but money can seldom be obtained under 12."— Caldclkdoh's rniiv eU in South America, vol. 1. p. 68-69. River. A river is a current of flbah water flowing in a bed or channel ttom its source to the sea. The term is appropriated to a considerable collection of water* Unrmed hy th* etmlittn of tw« or more brookt, which deliver int«> Ito nhinnal lh« united •trcams of several ri*uM$, which have Mittecteil the suppliea of wveral rUh lrtukllni|| diiwn trim numherleM springe, and Iba torrent* whloh narrv off frotn the sloping ground* the lurplu* »f evarv aliower, HIver* form una nf the xlilef features of the surface of thi* glolie, *arvlng »* yvMtn of all that I* imine- diatelv redundant in «Hir rains and ■iitlngs, ind abo as Iwundarla* and liarrlers, and evon as highwavs, and in many countrl** a* plvntlful »lof«>houB«s, They a:no fertlilae our m*II by layliiK iiiMm uiir wnrm lianks tho riebast mould, brimghl frotn llie high tnountalna, where It would have remamed uii«titiiitss«ttgers, to smooth, broad, and Ittvel ways, furiiuid of solid materials, winding round or out tliruugli moiiiitAltis, and carried over awainp* and rivtir* at an immense expense, ond admit- ting of tho Nusy |m«>iiig(t of itarrlage* and of oil soits of gooda, 'Hio laying out of Improved roads, and their construction, form* an ImtiortNiit part of what is de- nominatetl tlw m'kma ut t'lvil engineering. But as it would be quite foreign to ottr pttrpose to enter Into any details as to the formatloit of ronds, we shall aatiafy ourselves with Ui'lng liefore tho reader the following statement* a* tn tiielr Importance in a iHimmerclal point of view, Imporlanen and UlUUy nflmuroved 7?oorf».— Next to the introduction of moitey, and weights and measures, tlio formation of good ruads and bridges gives tlie great- est facilltv to eommertw, ntid contributes more power- fully, jierhapa, timn any thing else to tlio progress of im- provement. They have been iletiimtltiated national reins iind artarieii | and the latter are tiut muru indispensable to the axlsteni't) of individuals than In^prnved communi- cations are to it lieitlthy *titte of the public economy. It were vain to Httemiit to jroliit out In detail tlie va- rious advantage* derived frtnn the easy means of com- niunloatloit. There Is not « single district that is not Indebted to other* for a large nart of Its supplies, even of soma of tha bulklent mmimonltles, Besides the coals, metals, mineral*, timber, corn, etc, conveyed from one part of tha empire to aiiotlier by sen, Immense quanti- ties are conveyed from \i\nim to place in tho interior by road* and canNli* i and every Impruvement effected in the nieuna of conveyMin'e has obviously the same effect upon tha cost of oommwiltles that have to be convej-ed, as an lm|irovement In the methods by which they are raised or m*ntifa<'tttred. Wherever the menus of in- ternal communl'^atioii tire dellclettt In a country, tlio inhabitant* must Uimvoldably disperse themselves over the *urf«est advantaige, and double the quantity of com or herbage (articles which are ultimately con- verted into human provision) raised from it, of what the same soil yields in remoter and more neglected parts of the countr}-. Wherever a thriving manulvc- tory finds means to establish Itself, a now vegetaticji springs up around it. I believe it is true that agri- culture never arrives at any considerable, much less at its highest, degree of perfection, when it is not con- nected with trade ; that is, when the demand for the produce is not increased by the consumption of trading cities."— ifora< PkUoiophy, book vi. c. 11. But tho fact of their being mainly conductvb to the growth of cities is not the only advantage which improved roads confer upon agriculture. Without their aid it would be impossible to carr}- to distant places sufficient sup- plies of such bulky and heavy articles as lime, marl. that would otherwise be locked up.— >See articlet Kaii,- ROADS and Canals. Rolling. In JVnral language, tho lateral oscilla- tion of a vessel. This motion, which is often very great when the vessel is running before the sea, en- dangers tho masts, strains tho sides, and loosens the decks at tlio water-ways ; It is also liable to c:)use tho guqs to break adrift. When tho centra of gravity is too low, the oscillations begin and end violently. Tho changes In the stowage necessary tu modlty the nature or extent of the roll are made by seamen iVom experi- mental knowledge. Rolling Tackle. A tackle or pulley hooked to the weather quarter of a yard, and to a lashing or strop round tho mnst near the slings or pnrrel of the yard. The ol>ject of It is to keep the yard constantly over to leeward, thereby depriving it of play and friction when the ship rolls to windward. Rope consists of hemp, hair, etc., spun into thick yam, of which several strings oro twisted together l)y means of a wheel. When made very small, it Is called a cord ; and when very thick, a cable. All tho differ- ent kinds of this manufacture, from a fishing-lintf or whip-cord to tho cable of a flrst-rnta ship of wor, go by the general mime of cordage. — .S'fe Cabi.k. Rosea (Oil, Eaaenoe, or Attar of), an oil ol - tained by distilling tho leaves of damask roses. It is limpid, of a light orange color, and has an extremely grateful and powerful perfume. This, which is tho most oxpensivo article of Oriental luxury, used to lie principally made fit Tunis and Gha7.i|)ore, in India. But though it b' • cill very extensively produced at these places, ap . ^<'} especially at tho latter, what may be called th . <<:■ jign demand for the oil Is now almost wholly suppll i by the districts of I'^ki Zara and Hassanlik, in Bulgaria, Thero tho culture of roses is carried on upon a very large scale. Inasmuch, how- ever, as it is said to require about 800,000 roses to yield an ounce of oil, the quantity produced does not exceed 4500 lbs. in a gooy means of the oil of geraniums and other to the cropa of rich soils, and to render those that are poor productive. Not only, too, would inferior roads lessen the market for farm produce, and consequently the quantity raised, but a larger proportional number of horses or other cattle would be required to convey the diminished produce to market. It is plain, there- fore, that good roads are both directl}' and indirectly a prime source of agricultural improvement ; directly, by increasing the quantity and reducing the cost of manure, and by increasing the quantity and reducing the cost of conveying farm produce to market ; and in- directly, by providing for the growth and indefinite ex- tension of cltlea and towns, that Is, of the markets for agricultural produce. Increased speed of conveyance is one of the principal advantages that have resulted firom the formation of good roads, the invention of steam-packets, etc. Suppose that it takes two days to travel by an uneven, ill- made road between any two places, and that, by improving the rood, the journey fine volatile oils, the fraud is not easily detected ex- cept by connoitseurs, unless the foreign matter be in excess. Sometimes it is alleged that attar of roses has been sold as genuine when al)ove 80 per cent, of other oils was mixed up with it. That which is hawked al)Out the streets of Constantinople and Smyrna Is sel- dom any thing iMstter than olive oil scented with roses. Some of the more expert dealers in the article will tell within 2 per cent, the foreign oil in any parcel given them to examine. The valuo of the exports of this curious product from Turkey has been estimated at from t400,000 to #500,000 a year.- Blascjui, Vogagt t.iBulgarie; Hvai'a Merch. Mag. ^ Roae-vrood (Ger. Roseuhoh ; Kr. HoU du rote, de Rhode; It. Legno rodie; Sp. Imio de roia; Port. Pao de rosado) is produced in Brazil ; the Canary Islands ; in Siam, whence it is pretty largely exported by the Chinese ; and in other places. It is in the highest es- teem as a fancy wood. The width of the log Import- my b« acoompUghed in one day ; the effect is thei same I ed Into this country averagea about 22 Inches, ao that BOS 1648 k mtut b« tha produM of a Ufg« tra*. Roi*.wood hu • (lightly bUtfiUh, niMwbat pungent, balumlo tut«, ind (hignuit imtU, whtno* it* nuiii*. It ihuukl ba choMn ■ound, heavy, of the dcopcit color. In the Uig—t plMei that can b« procurcil, and of the moit Imgular, kiwtty grain. The •inall, light^olorad, and Urge ihWered plu>:«« iihould be rejected. The mora diitlnct the darker parte are from the purple red, which forma the ground, the more In the wood eeteemed. It la naually cut into veneara of nine to an Inch.— Mil- BOHM'a Oriml. Comm., eto. Sosla. This iubitanoe ia obtained from different apeclea of fir | a* the JHnui abitt, iglvtitri; larix, hal- «aai«a. It ia yrell known that • reilnoua Juice exudea ftam the Pinut tylvtitrit, or canimon Scotch flr, which hardens Into lean. The lama exudation apixari in the Pmut Met, or ipruce flr. These teara constitute the substance called thiu, or frankincense. When a portion of the bark is stripped off these trees, a liquid Juice flows out, which gradually hardens. The Juico has obtained different names, according to the plant from which it comes. The linut ij/lvettrit yields com- mon turpentine; the larir, Venice turiientlne (tte TuarBNTiNK) ; the balmmea, balsam of Canada. All these Julceii, which are commonly distinguished by the name of turpentine, are considered as composed of two ingredients; namely, oU of turpentine and ronln. When the turpentine ia distilled, the oil cornea over, and the rosin remaina behind. When the distillation is contin- ued to dryness, the residuum is known by the name of common roain, or cotopkonium ; but when water Is mix- ed with It wbUe yet fluid, and Incorporated by violent agitation, the mass ia called ytlloa rosin. During win- ter, the wounds made in the fii^trees l>ecome incrusted with a white, brittle substance, called hamu or galipot, consisting of rosin united to a small portion of oil. The yellow rosin, made by melting and agitating this sub- stance in water, is preferred for most purposes, because It la more ductile, owing, probably, to ita still contain- ing some oil. The uses of rosin are numerous and well known. — Thomson's Chemiitty. See Naval Stobbs. Roatook, the principal city of the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg Sohwerin, on the Wamow, about miles above where it falls into the Ilaltic, lat. 64° N., long. 12° 12' £. Population In 1887, 18,067. A large fair for merchandise la annually held at WhItsuntids ; and there are wool faira at other seasons of the year. The outport of Rostock is at Wamemunde, at the mouth of the Wamow. The depth of water at the latter varies from 10} to 12 feet ; but when the west pier, now in the coarse of Ijeing constructed, has been com- pleted. It is expected that the depth of water will ixi from 12 to 14 feet. The depth of water in the river (h>m Wamemunde np to Bostock Is usually from 8 to feet ; so that vessels drawing more tlian this must be lightened to get up to the latter. Bostock has a good hubor and commodionc |uays. Importt, — ^The princi,ial articles of import are sugar, coffee, and other colonial products ; cottons, woolens, and hardware, with coal, earthen-ware, salt, iron, horsei, etc., Cn>m England; hemp, flax, tallow, oil, sall-clotb, etc., fh>m Russia ; alum, deals, timber, lime, tar, etc., from Sweden ; herrings and flsh oil from Nor- way ; wine, brandy, molasses, drugs, etc., from France ; with rice, rum, groceries, etc., from Copenhagen and Hamburg. The total value of the imports by sea may be estimated at about ^£260,000. Export: — These consist chiefly of very good red wheat, barley, peas, rape-seed, and a few oats ; with wool, rags of a very superior quality, oil-coke, rape-oil, bones, etc. The exports of wheat amounted in 1840 to 07,606 quarters, and in 1841 to 124,267. In 1840, the exports of peas fliom Bostock only wer« 960S quarters ; bnt Anm the duchy they amonntad to 48,013 quarters;! but at an average their export does not ex- ceed (Irsm 20,000 to 26,000 quatten. The export of boBsa aasuatad during the tarns year to 1,660,000 lbs. At an average, the value uf tha asports may ba MtU mated at i;0OO,OOO. tikipping.—'V\M port of Rostock In 1(140 had 2S0 ships, of the burden of 86,862 tons, which trade with moat Kuropean nations, the United Htates, and Krasll. In 1836 thera entered the port 640 ships (burden not stated), of which 216 belonged to Mecklenburg, 162 (moatly small craft) to Denmark, HU to Hwadan, 27 tu Hanover, 18 to PruasU, 12 .o Russia, It) la Holland, 10 to Lobeck, 2 to Hamburg, and 1 each to France and England. It Is only, In fact, when our ports are open to the Importation of foreign com thut British ships are met with in conaldarable numbers in the ports uf Mecklenburg. Port C'hargt:—Th»— are tha aame on native and privileged ships, among which are included those of England, France, America, Prussia, Norway, etc. Tha port chargea on a vessel of lUO tons burden are aa fol- low, vis. Pri.llHM Not prfvlUf^. Inwsrd with cargo Outward illtto Inward in Iwllait KliUul. 10 18 11 19 IT 9 44 • 8« 89 Rhba. sJll. 10 9 81 « 11 • 81 10 90 43 Outwtrd ditto Ditto without cither Dutiit. — These are extremely moderate. On most Imported articles they amount to only 8 per cent, ml valorem. An export duty of about bd. per quarter la charged on com, and of about 4«. M. per hhd. on wine. Wool is not suliiject tu any duty on export. Uoods imported in vessels not privileged pay 6U per cent, additional on the above duties ; tliat is, they pay 4} instead of 8 per cent, ad valorem. Witmar, the second sea-port town of Mecklenburg, at the confluence of the River Stor with tha sea, in lat. 68° 49' 25" N., long. 11° 86' 16" E. Population 11,000. The harbor of Wismar is commodious and safe, being nearly land-locked by the islanda of Poel and Walflsch. Close to the town there Is fkom 8 to 8) feet water; in the inner roada there is from 12 to 18 feet ; and in the outer from 16 to 20 feet water. The port charges on a native or privileged vessel of 100 tons amount to about 80 rix dollars, Tha articles of import and export are the same at Wismar as at Roatock ; but owing to the proximity of Labeck, from which Wismar is not more than 27 miles distant, her foreign trade is comparatively limited. About 86 ships, of the burden of 4800 tons, belong to this port. There cleared flrom it in 1886 227 ships, of which 11 were English. The duties at Wismar are somewhat higher than at Rostock, being 4} per cent, ad valorem on colonial products, and from 4(f. to M. per quarter on com exported. It is be- lieved, however, that they will shortly ba reduced to the Rostock level. Trade of Ike jUucAm.— Mecklenburg la atNntially an agricultural, wool-growing, grazing, and breeding country. In some places it is sandy and tuurren ; but it is for the most part very fertile, and tha crops and pastures are both luxuriant. Having few manufac- tures, her imports necessarily consUt principally, us already stated, of manufactured goods, and her oxports of raw produce. Owing, however, to the circnmstanca of the southwestern port of the province being Iwundod by the Elbe, and approaching to within about 80 miles of Hamburg, almost all the mannfactured goods, as well as a very large proportion of the colonial products used by the popuUtlon (660,000), are imported by way of Hamburg. Hence, In Mecklenburg, as in Prussia, the direct foreign trade carried on by the sea frontier forms bnt a very small part of the entire trade of the country. It is impossible, however, to form any pre- cise estimate of what the latter may amount to. Prob- ably there is no Eoropean country so little fettered by customs ragnlations aa Itacklenbarg. The duties on ortitlaa imported by aaa amount only, as already stated, to abont 8 per oant. ad valorem ,• and thoae en- taring by the land ftvotier ara subject manly to a tri- ROT 1640 ROU HlSSO • wklb llniU. (n not rg, IM I, a7 to >nd, lU ice »i>rt Mopcn h ihip* portt of ilva «n(l thoM of itc. The n «■ ful- On mott ir cent. Oil quarter U \. on wine. Ft. Qooda ) per cent. »ey p»y *i loUenburg, the «e«, In PopuUtlun todlout end indi of Poel (h>m8to8| [om 12 to lU »ftter. The ^loflOOtona lei of Import ortock I but ilchWIiBiar ^tgn trade U [f the burden cleaied from tglUh. The 1 at Boatock, kroducta, and , Itlibe- reduced to 1^ eM«ntlally tnd breedlnit ] barren; but he cropa and Lw manufac- rlnclpally, a» _d bet exports Icliemnitanco leing bounded Ibout 80 miles good*, as I products ,^ by way I In PruMl«i d sea (tontler 1 trade of tho form any pre Trot to. P«>b- hlttle fettered J The duties ly, as already land those en- Tei»»yM»tfl" Montuit Maskiit Riviaw, Januast 1, IHM.) Ueflw, Kaat IndU ban Do. WmtlndU '" Do, do casks Tea qr. ahests tleroM lien lOM kilotr. kales hhda. 1)0. tapper Rugar tons of Uoltoa Tohaecu, Marylaod Do. Virginia Vo. Kcnluckr " 1)0. Rlems " 1)0. Java paoksflsa llldas, Kait India pieces 1)0. West India '• (HI, Mouth Hsa Whale heeta. Indlao ehls, A bu. Ashss, Uollad Hlataa, pots. , bemls Do. do. pearl* " IVi. snndries caika lap«on 84,000 84,000 87,000 46,760 18,750 abl. 4,000 8,910 1,14 18 7,84') 8,875 8,510 7,410 u.m 8,710 4,I»I4 8,671 5,068 8,404 6,167 8,090 11,148 LMI 6U 1,103 8>tl i.ora 1,046 514 1,184 in m 100 883 814 158 78T 870 TS TO 175 880 1 5 101 107 *'*2! 6,B0i> 8.644 B,88> 1,816 4,786 4,180 3S,3>MrAnATivi Htatbibiit or BTooaa or Conn Ann Oraim in ma vnnn-HaiiTiOMSD roita or IIollamu, in 1850, 1661, ADD 1861. •mOitMiktr, I i i J n 400 811 79 !1 80 91 104 a 14 44 87 "96" 10 8 18 is 88 "81 a 84 4 88 13 9 16 is 1 "so" 11 ii 16 87 'a 1 8 "i 9 U 166 86 18 To 87 8 11 .. 87 '87 1^ n lOlil 160 761 i vooo 81 88 Ml 'i» i 'Amata>rdaro* 7,750 19,000 1600 8-25 160 1.111 30 11 61 850 4 Ilnltordani , , 6,801 5,5II0! 146 81 14 14 80 10 869 liMl 11 90 10,087 1617 131 73U 16U 06 Unhladam .Uelftshavsn Tulal lasts 14,198 4A.9fia 4813 Kill 800 B9H 188 39 48 11 09 If 108 11 14 11 41 170 s;i 16 36^1 8130 1'6 1414 mi 8S00 980 1577 iim 1610 100 1(15 mull 1T00 108 9,11 i5B "8 8 iU «l 10,M5 6^881 880 180 180 11,185 7ll51 895 8,J38 696 769 93T 808 518 88 1481 080 "83 61 ~il4 "l 16 800 8 808 100 n 'io 91 Rotterdam 671 11 687 14 85 p Hchladam .UeUUImven Total lasts . 18,813 9,400 8,141 178 060 60 10,836 38,114 1915 US r Amsterdam 18,800 0,49) 63) 9.063 1,114 TOO 19 I' Rotterdam 149.1<>i< 1)89 81 1181 86 itohiadam Ull 70 .. .. .Uelftshavsn Total lasts 36,036 1862 168 T?54 ~!8 11 87 » 874 Wl 3156 ~ .. '.II -iS«« HoixAND and Amsterdam. * The ilocks In Amiterdam include the qusntltiiu on hand at Zaandara. ItonUCi • Rnsslan coin. (For the silver rouble, MS Coins, division Kuuian,- the value of the paper nubIa Is variable.) By the official valuation of the paper rouble, In the payment of taxes, a few years line*, on* allvar rouble was equal to three roubles six> ly copaoks liapor. By authority of Congress, the value of tha Rnsslan rouble, formerly was flxml at 75 cents. Rouge (Fr. Fard). The only cosmetic which can Im applied without Injury to brighten a lady's com- |>Uslon Is that prepared, by the following'pmcebs, from safflower (Carihan»u iincloriut). The floivers, after being washed with pure water till it comes off colorlSN, are dried, pulverised, and digested with a weak solution of crystals of soda, which asnumes there- by t yellow color. Into this liquor a quantity of finely- carded whit* cotton wool is plunged, and then so much IsnoB ittio* or pur* vinegar Is added as to supersaturate SM the soda. The coloring matter is disengaged, and fklls down in an impal|iable powder upon tho cotton flla- ments. The cotton, after being washed in cold water, to remove some yellow coloring particles, is to be treat- ed with a ftesh solution of caiiionate of soda, which takes up the red coloring matter in a state of purity. Before precipitating this pigment a second time by th* acid of lemons, some soft powdered talc should be laid in the bottom of the vessel, for the purpose of abeorlv Ing the fine rouge, in proportion as it Is separatad tram the carbonate of soda, which now holds It dlssolvad. The colored mixture must be finally triturated with a few drops of olive oil, in order to make it smooth and marrowy. Upon the fineness of the tele, and th* pro- portion of the safilower precipitate which It contains, depend the beaut}- and value of the cosmetic, Tk* rouge of the above second preclpltetion is rrcelva^ ROW 16A0 BUM I a^n bill of flBit-lir(ato •d tk* miMt fkvor>bU •|i|>ll baukwaUr. Horn* nalluni Uka ihoft •Irukai, which Ikay Hm up In making i • long itraka •IWing, t eraaaad lararaga with a dimlalsbad direct reslatanea froas Iha water. When the rudder la broken off by Ike ship galling aground, ar by a kaavy saa, a lam- ponrr one is nwda by a lupnuMl and otbar span plaeed parallel, and loaded at Iha Iwllom with ptga and bal- iaal, and conflaad to the alam-poal by kawsara laaditg oa each sMa of the keel. Huddtr l\mt.—K covering of taned eaavaa looaely pal round Ike ruilder-head to kaap the water fhim en- tering by tka aperture, wkUa It admlla of tha mddar being tamed freely round. HtitUrr Tsatland.— Mrang pieces nf rope ending In chalna, by which Iha rudder, If unshippeid, b held to the ship's quarter. Hmliltr Hhocl.—A place of wood fitting between Iha head of Ilia rudder aiid the ruddef^ihole, to prevent Iha play of the rudil«r in case nf the tiller being removed. Rum, a well-known and highly esteemed uplrltuuns liquor Imported from Iha West Indies, of which it forma one of the staple produda. It Is obtained by means of farmenlalioa and distHlallon from molasses,' the nf- usa of the cane Juice, and portions of tha cane, after Iha sugar has been extracted. The iUror and tasta peculiar to ram ara derived from the easanlial oils ear- rled over In dislUlallon. When tha dlatillallon hat been carelessly iierlbrmad, the spirit contains so large a quantity of the groasar and less volatile part of the oil aa to be unfit fur use till It has attained a couslder- able age. When it la wall nsllflad, It mellows much sooner. Rum of a brownish transparent color, smooth oily taste, strong body and consistence, good age, and well kept, is the lieit. That which is clear and limpid, and has a hot pungent tasto, la either too new, or mixed with other spirits. Jamaica rum is the first In point of quality ; the Leeward IsUnd rum, as it la called, being always inferior to It, both In flavor, strength, and value. Tha price of the latter Is usually 20 per cent, below that of the former. II la oustomar}-, in soma of the West IndUi Islands, to put sliced pine- apples in puncheons of rum : thia gives the spirit tha flavor of the fruit | and hence the designation pint- appU mm. Rum is also produced In and imported from the Mauritius and the Kast Indies ; but that of the latter is more nearly allied to arrack than to genu- ine rum. We know nothing about the origin of the word rum, or the time at which the manufactura of the spirit com- menced. At present the manufactura la chieHy csr- ried on in the islands belonging to Great Britain. Dr. Ura atates that in Jaaiaica the wort Is made by adding together 120 gallaas of molasses, 1000 gallons of the spent wash of a former disllllatlon, 720 gallons of the skimmings of the soger boilers, and 100 gallons of water ; so that then U in the wort nearly 12 per cent, of solid saccharine matter. Other proportions, how- ever, ara used, bringing the proportion of saccharine matter up to nearly 16 per cant, i as, for instance, 100 gallons of molasses, 800 gallons of skimmings, 200 gal- lons of spent wash, and 400 gallons of water. The proportlona vary In abnust every estate, so that no certain rale can be laid down. Tha fermentation is in general conducted verj- slowly (apparantly very un- necessarily so), occupying from nine to fourteen days. Tha saccharine matter Is, thenfora, very imperfectly converted into alcohol, and tha yield of spirit is usually so low aa llfi gallons of proof-spirit' for ever}- 1200 gal- lona of waab. On soma aatatas, and depending on the price of sugar in the market, the greater proportion of til* sugar U converted Into ram i and tha same imper- fect farmanlation being followed, the average yield is said to ba only 200 galtoas of ram for every three hogs- heads of sugar, wharaaa the proportion ought to be ver}' nearly double. It la from the skimminga» which p.-J t=;. ,. .■. \iM'.'^Ai\r RtTP mi m^n tn m la tnim*, tluit th« pawdllu ffamr nf mm b il*- 1 rtTwt I fbr II U • curloiu fitrt thai •iiniir mil nioluMM illtlllM In thU counlry yUld ■ uplrlt tiitlnl} dKUltuU (if kll rum flavor, and In nothing dUlln|{uUh*liU from lh« arttlnary tplrtt d*riv«it from grain. Any iUi|i(h of I'lilor may Iw gWan to th* rum by the addition of mo* lauM or carumal, though II !• commonly liul •rron*' oualy Italad that tha color of Iha rum li dcrtvtd from tha oak eukt.Stt flriHiTa and Wini. Tha manuAwtura of rum antlrcly uf nugar or mo- laitai la not earriad on In Oraat Britain. 1 h« numlicr of gallon! of rum manufacturad In Oraat Britain dur- ing tha yaar anding January 5, WM, of a mixtura uf augaror molaiiaa With HamtUadgmlo, wai aa followi : Englaad (I<%ai0 (alloua. InUnd 4>0«6 „ Unal nrllalB TjuST.iM „ KxMaTa or Hra raOM Tmi I'mnn aaiMHa .lima M, avATaa roa Tna YiAa IWT. wuuwf •ipotua. lianUh WMt ludlH Ilanibiirg Uri'incn Knglancl Gibraltar Malta llrliUh Narih Aauwaulaa■. Krlttnh Wnt India* nrHbh llMduraa BfltUh >>oMaMloaa la AMaa llrUlnh Audralla Kranni on th« Atlantic FrancK on IIm Madltorrancan. . . , Fninch North Anwr. I'oi mri oaa, Kivni'li WmI India* ( anary laland* Cuba Madrira Cayada Yard lilanda Hardlnia , Two!i|clll«* I AttatMa Turkiiy In Kiiropa 'lurki'v In .Viila I'uru In Africa Hay« N«w Oranada L'rugiiay, or<:laplatln* Kcpnblla. Arguntlna Itcpubllo ^m Pern Uaudwioh laland* Total '. ~lfpj«< -an; wu is,nsT «,'m M,4a,liiB II.BM ^nM l>,45i ins,4m iBT,8a« an,m 8.081 SIM 800 4.101 n.iw B,«4T SA.44A 818,M14 888,761 820.068 l.OOT IV,tN8 8T,4St 6,IM S,5U 1,3M M 8,8T8,«08 TMIIVOII'* ■ici=— i,e48 mi (1,41? MM 10,740 5>,(M4 1U«,700 l',7(lB 4.»04 711. 14U 0,itli 74, Ml M,7IW 14,410 8, 00 8At 104 1,«8 11,101 tM4 8,137 17.707 140.881 1111,177 8 1,07.1 son 8,nftfi 11,04^ 8,760 1,171 008 en Rnpee, a alWer coin current In ths East Indies, eqaal to from 60 to CO cents. Hy authority of Con- gresa, the value of the rupee of British India was Axed at 441 Centa, and the sicca rupee of Bengal and the rupee of Bombay at fiO cents. Russia. This extensive empire comprisea tha whoU northern portion of the eastpni hemii>phore, from the firootiara of Poien and the Gulf of Dotlinia on tha west, to the Pacific Ocean and BehrinK'H Straits on the east. It includaa the greater part of the ancient king- dom of Poland, Finland, Astralihan, and Kazan, con- quered from the Tartars ; the Crimea, Little Tnrtary, Bessarabia, and a portion of Moldavia, taken tnm Turkey. The Ruaslan empire embracesnearlyone-half of tha surface of Europe. It chiefly consiats of an enormous plain, being little dlversifled by rising ground, except toward the Urala and the Caucasus in the south and east, and In the province of Finland In tlie northwett. The northern part of the country la a cold and Iwrren region of heaths and marshes ; the central pnivinces are rich and fertile ; the southern, mere steppes, or grassy, sandy, and salt plains, which afford, however, in their hollows, along the river-courses, abundance of oxt^ent paaturoge for cattle and horses. The popu- lattoa U chiefly agricultural or nomadic j and the manufaoturea thai are to be found in some places are more indebted to the fostering care of the government, and tiia high Import duties, or absolute prohibition of ft)ril(nwtiM,t'iian to native enlarpriia, Air their ar^ilt and ouiiilnuanca. RumI* I* an iminnnaa mllUary IMiwar, *u far aa that dr|wnd* on the nuinliar* of her armla* , Iml tha want of national wealth la auch a draw- iHuk un military *nl*rprlae a* aha hoa iwl yet been abU to overcome. Tha origin of the Ruaalana a* a diallnct branch of lha Hlaviiniana la a m'Hil point among an-haolmlsta. Hiay Beam to have liorne at one time the name of Ante*, ciinslating of aevvral triliaa that formed a sort of cnnfadaration. In lha 0th century, Hurle the Va- rangian catabllahrd hlniaplf In Novggrixl the Oreat i and hia aucraaaora, extunding their dominion by ««• queat, talabllahed tlipir capital at KlelT, where the dy- nuaty reached the lenlth of It* power under Vladimir the Ureal, who Introduced ('hrialiauity among hia auln Jecta, according to the creed and ritual of the Greek Church, A.li. Mfl. His empire was suliaequenlly over- thrown by tha I'olea and MthuanUna, and the greater )>art of it remained sniiject to Poland till the acceaalon of the house of RomanufT. The eaatem provinces tie- yond the Dnieper were conquered liy Tartan, and re- mained under their dominion till the 10th century, The city of Moscow waa founded by Audrey I. in A.O. IIM. In the middle of iha Iftth p'ntury, Ivan Vas- aiiiwita, Uuke of Moscovy, rec < .d hia independ- ence, and having subdued a number of petty chieftains, and added the duchies of Tver and Novgorod to hit dominions, assumed the title of Grand Duke. Ilia grandson, of the aame name, subdued the Tartar king- doms of Kazan and Astrakhan, and assumed the tltb uf Czar or (treat King. During the last three centuries the successive dnkea and czars of Moscovy and emperors of all the Russia* have followed the same policy of extending their do- minions by ever}- posaible means, fair or font. They have now declurrd themselves the heads and proteclors of all the Slavonic races, and of the orthndnx Greek Church, and seem to make no secret of their dee|)-laid project of unacnipulous aggrandlMment. Their vast dominion now extends in length through 202° of lon- gitude, and In breadth through 88° of latitude, and Is sop|Hifitiun of this vast empire: AaxA ARii Ton {..(7ifl!« or ItcsaiA. NalunI DWlilou. Umt ttnula I.ltllo Kiiiala New KtiMia White Kiiasia Wntrrn pmvlnees llalllo provincM Northern provlacca t'nU proTinn!* t.'oaaack dtatricta PnUnd Flr!and Total In Europe Cancaalan provlneea Wfnt Hlberla Kant ! American poaaeaaiona. . . . Total extra European . Grand total Ar*a in Kna liah ropalaUon In SauaraMlUa. *"'" 818,701 100,141 00,080 70,810 47,070 80,010 680,118 447,788 118,778 41,180 188.809 1,011,478 88,078 1,081,147 1,1M,OOI> _ ?!<^ o,i«i,otS' 7,188,853 T5;4opTr 11,77^80B 8,10^011 1,087,408 1,870,0«T 1,701,1107 1,410,8M 10,770,181 1,100.788 5,160,048 _1,4«>,1»» 08,011,141 1,800,000 C,.'S(IO,000 187 000 01,000 0,048,000 01,«0,t48 The rivers of Russia are usually divided into Ave groups or systems, corresponding to the leaa In which they have tl'ieir em4ourAt(re» ; viz., the Arctic Ocean, the Boitic Sea, the Black Sea, the Caspian Sea, and the Pa- cific Ocean. The ftrst division comprises the Dwino, Mezen, end Petchora, in Europe j the Obi, Janlael, and Lena, with numemus other small rivers, In Asia: the three last have a course of from 2000to 2600 miles. The rivers which fall into the Baltic, though poaseasing much more commercial importance to Russia, are of inferior magnitude. The principal arc— the Neva, which has St. Petersburg at its mouth, the DOna, and the Nle- men. The rlvera which fall Into tha Black Sea are of ■■ rf rr: BUS 1662 RUS •qMl importance with thon Jnst named, and exceed them in Irngth of course and volume of water. Tlie principal Lmnng thoae are the Dnieater, Dn!epundance ; but rye, being the common food of the peasantry, is produced in much greater quantities than any other sort of grain. The most pro- ductive provinces are Orel, Kasan, M^nl Novgorod, Penza, Tambov, and Kursk. The total annual produc- tion of grains in European Russia (including Poland) may be estimated in ordinary' years at 1,496,000,000 bushels, at a vtlue of about f 720,416,666. Flax and hemp are also extensively cultivatod, and constitute a leading export of Russia. Tot>acco is cultivated in „ the southern provinces, and of lata years much atten- tion has Ijccn given to the cultivation of beet-root. In 1848, the quantity of sugar manufactured fh>m this article was estimated at 82,240,000 lbs. Tallow and wool are also important articles in the export trade of Russia ; of the latter, the exports amount annui^lly to about 18,000,000 lbs. The climate of Russia is not, however, well adapted to the production of fine wool ; and although much attention has been given to the im- provement of the breed of sheep, Russia can not enter into competition with Auatralia in supplying foreign maricets with this article. The quantity of wool fur- nished by the Cape of Good Hope colony, from 1840 to 1862 inclusive, was 48,860,748 lbs. ; furnished by Aus- tralia in same period, 256,006,416 lbs. ; by Cape col- ony, iu 1862, 7,772,605 lbs. ; by AustralU, in 1862, 82,600,000 Ibf. ; number of sheep in Cape colony, 4,496,000 ; number of goats in Cape colony, 1,098,000 ; number of sheep in Rnssia in Europe, 86,666,698 ; num- ber of goats in Russia in £uro|)e, 1,188,178. Manufacturtt. — The manufactures of Russia are not generally in a very advanced condition. In some de- partments of manufacturing industry, however, Russia excels all other countries. Every attempt to imitate her leather, especially such as is used for book-binding purposes, has proved a failure ; and Russia still con- tinues to enjoy, as she doubtless ever will, an undis- puted monopoly in supplying foreign markets with this valuable production. Her glass manufactures are also highly esteemed. Single plates have been manufac- tured at the St. Petersburg glass-works which have readily sold for $8000, Her other manufactures are sail-cloth, cordage and canvas, tick, felt, mats, pot- ashes, soap, candies, caviar, isinglass, spirits, and acme minor articles for domestic consumption. The cotton manufactures of Russia have made rapid progreas dur- ing the past twenty years ; and, instead of the vast quantities of cotton yams formerly imported, she now imports largely of the raw material. In 1882 the quantity of raw cotton imported was 116,000 poods (4,176,000 lbs.); in 1862 it ascended to 1,748,000 poods ((12,928,000 lbs.), of which she received from the United States 10,476,168 lbs. The total manufactures of Russia employ 6,064,700 persons, of which number 4,500,000 are engaged in the manufacture of flax and hemp. The total annual value of Ruaaian manufac- tures is estimated at about 486,000,000 silver roubles ($864,600,000). Moscow is the grand centre of this liranch of industrial pursuits, and is inhabited almost exclusively by manufacturers and artisans. The following table, translated from Ruaaian ofHcial returns, will exhibit the number and character of man- ufactories in Russia, the number of workmen employ- ed, and the quantity and value of their productions, in the }'ear 1862. It is proper to remark, that the table gives only the principal manufactures which enter into the export trade of Ruaaia. Thoae conaumed in the countr)', and numerous minor manufactures, are omit- ted in the following summary : RoBsiAM MAxnTAOTcan, no. DcoominaUan of MaaufacturM. Manubcturea uf woolens (cloths) . Manufactum of woolens (tiasnn). Manufactures of cotton yarns, thread, ulc. MaDufacturca of cottonades . UjretDg (kctorles Factories for wesTlng Hanufacturea of allies and bro- cades Hanufacturea of cables . Hanufacturea of paper . Manufacliirra of toboooo. . . roonderlcs and forges MADufactures of tiardware . Manufactures of copper Manufact u rca of chemicals Manufactures of so^p MaDufacturea of sugar Manufactures of glass and crystals Tallow factories Candle faotoriea Wax-candle factories Tanneries Other manufactures. ToUl Total In 18S1 . . NumlMr of Fartorias. 414 180 B6 440 849 lU t>3!t 143 17T 846 115 88) 14A 103 263 804 IS I 034 4 8 16 3,031 M48_ 10,888 10,1S« Qnantitioa manufaaturad. 18,440,336 nrchinc.it and ISO.OBT picccH of woolen riotha ; 13, 8M poodnt uf woolen yarn 6«1,TS} pieces and 1,601,014 arcblnes of woolen tis- sues : 8800 poods of yarn 1,136,336 poods of cotton thread, 88,160 pieces and 85,600 archlnca of tlaHucs 8,TT0,0S0 pieces, 8,764,881 archlnea, 118,317 dosen tissues, and 6330 poods of thread 6,T86,»88 archlnca, 4,411,007 pieces, 33,46 dozen, 166,936 poods 876,196 pieces, 170,044 arcblnes, 1U86 dosen tissues, 1800 poods of thread 6,303,667 archlncs, 1,370,101 pieces, 8691 dosen of tluues, 888 poods of silk thread 767,844 poods 1,888,866 reams, 60,431 poods, 716,134 iheetp, 40,000 Bsekages of paateboard 183,783 pooilj of tobacco, 306,006,866 pieces, 461,(66 boxes and packap>a of rl^re and clf^nrottas 6,56S,4i»8 pi>oil» and 04,274 uiwes of cast Iron, S39,»37 iKioda of iron, tnd 88,731 poods of steel 3,633,068 poods, 388,610 plecr.<, and 6370 arcblnes of Iron wire : 183,083 poods and 1,261,198 pieces 614,143 poods 3,41 S,388 poods of sugar, and 148,830 poods of alrun 47,634,3:16 pieces of glaas dislien, plates, etc., 88,018 eoTcra, and 160,9w plates or sheets of glass 2, 141 ,868 poods 1,174,863 poods 384,6 '3 poods 4,386,311 piece* 466,016^ * The silver rouble la equal to T6 esots. t The archlne Is equivalent to 88 Inches. t The pood Is equal to 86 lbs. ValuaofManu- faclurm in Sll- Tar Roublea.* 1!),139,833 6,281,467 16,647,838 14,208,640 16,426,834 8,239 099 5,673,363 1,940,043 8,928,076 4,687,005 8,fl:i6,0D9 8,254,263 1,800,016 2,120,463 1,23!1,133 19,316,003 8,887,868 6,3"6,681 4,498,484 1,607,678 9,134,741 111,043,661 161,161,708 16.),380,B06 Xumbar of Workman. 86,443 13,806 30,976 81,451 25,867 13,450 16,(183 3,403 14,!>43 4,-;«i 37,879 1.1.M3 4,266 3,613 164 45,711 11,680 4511 8,003 1,304 14,565 51,774 470.1111 RUS 1663 RUS 86,443 I 13,808 I 80,9Tfl I 81,481 ] 46,881 I W,480 I 15,(189 3,408 I 14,P4« I 4,-".61 ST,8T0 13.MJ 4,!!ti5 2,6W tA4 I 45,111 I 11,680 I 4,8U 2,003 1,464 51,114 TSoioiS] kitoseita. The Urge mtnufactnring eatablinhmtnU in located in the government of Moscow. The 1244 factories of this government give employment to 114,623 work- men, the annual value of whose productions nma"ntii to 188,146,606. In the government of St. Petersburg there are 477 fiictories, employing 24,631 workmen ; annual value of productions, $24,723,666. Befora the commencement of the late Kuropean war, the foreign commerce of this vast empire was very extensive. In lHr)2 the imports reached the sum of 114,773,829 silver roubles, and the exports amounted to 100,8(i4,052 stiver roubles. This trade gave employment to 17,162 vessels, measuring an aggregate of 1,669,200 lasts.* Previous to the war, the exports of Russia iVom the porta of the Black. Sea alone amounted to 80,000,000 bushels of grain annually. There is no ofBcial or re- lUble information at hand which would indicate the diminution which Russian trade has experienced from the blockading measures of the allle quimtlty of hemp, flax, and tallow can pass from tu. '..'rritories of Russia, There is at all times > considerable overland trade across Prussia, but the heavy expenses attending the transportation of merchandise over this route must nec- essarily contine its consumption to the wealthier classes. The value of coffee, salt, sugar, etc., has been augment- ed to the most exorbitant figure ; and these enhanced prices, with the expenses of land transportation super- added, must,.in the event of prolonged hostilities, f drive these articles out of general use altogether. These are, however, but the unavoidable eHiects of war; and as the philanthropist must hope that peace shall soon re- turn, find the channels of commerce be again reopened, so the commercial statistician must regard these inter- ruptions to the peaceful trade of the world as but tem- porar}' and unfixed, and treat only of the permanent commercial regulations, and relations with foreign na- tions, of such countries as may come within tlio scope of his official duties. The commercial relations of the United States with Russia are regulated by the treaty of October 6 [18], 1832. Its stipulations provide for entire reciprocity and perfect coramereial equality be- tween the two countries. It has been observed in good faith by both government^ and its provisions and spirit faithfully adhered to. The principal articles of export from Russia are tallow, grain, hemp, and flax ; timber ; potashes ; leather ; fox, hare, and squirrel skins ; can- vas and coarse linen ; cordage, caviare, wax, isinglass, furs, tar, etc. The principal imports are sugar, cot- ton, cotton stuffs and yams ; machinery- for mills, fac- tories, etc. ; hardwares and iron ; coff^ee, indigo, and other dye-stuffs ; woolens, oils, spices, wine, tea, lead, tin, coal, and salt ; linens, silks, etc. The principal ports for foreign commerce are St. Petersburg and Riga, on the Baltic ; Archangel, on the White Sea ; Ketch and Taganrog, on the Sea of Azof; and Astra- khan and Baku, on the Caspian. The interior commerce of the empire has its principal entrepot at Moscow ; and Klachta is the centre of the trude with China. This trade with China Is strictly one of barter. The inter- change takes place at the town named above, lying on the Salenga, and at some distance from the great lake Baikal. The Russian merchandise and wares are here deposited in warehouses, which are visited by the Chi- nese merehants, with whom the Interchange is effected. None (says KIcCulloch, In a work published in 1854) but native Russians ore allowed to engage in the in- ternal trade of the countrj' ; and hence a foreigner who bnports goods into Russia must sell them to Russians only, and at the port where they arrive. The mer- chants engagiid in the foreign trade are mostly for- eigners, of whom the English are the principal. Every Russian carrj'ing on trade must be a burgher, and have his name registered in the Burghers' Book. These * The last Is about two tons. t Whilo this rc|iart was In pms the reiuUof the conferences at I^irls was ofHcialljr proclaimed. burghers are divided into three guilds. Foreign mer- chants or guests are permitted to enroll their names in the city register, on the payment of from $900 to $950 |ier annum. The Jounml of the Mannfaclunt o/tht Junrire, 1846, publisheil in Rujsla, gives the following information relative to these guilds : Knmbcr of mcrclisnts of tho lat giilld 8d " of foreign merohtnti . Total Burghcn poueaalng llcsnaei, lit clui . " " " 2d " . " " " Sd " . " '• » 4th " . Totri General total of thono engaged In trade 4i|tii5 Declared capital of those engaged in commerce : < Flnit guild $11,815,000 Second g\iild 10,413,500 Third guild 86,611,800 Declared caplul of foreign merchants . . 39'2.500 Total capital invcated In trade $81,04S,Siio In tho whole of European Russia about 7,000,000 tchetwerts of grain are employed In the distillation of 64,000,000 vedros (208,000,000 imperial gallons) of brandy, nearly all for home consumption. The tariff regulations of Russia have during the past few years undergone several modifications. Under the tariff of 1841, the duties on most kinds of manufac- tures were equivalent to a prohibition. This tariff was entirely remodeled in 1850 ; and in June, ISM, vari- ous other alterations and changes were made, ^^ducing still lower the duties prescribed by the tariff of 1860. These alterations and reductions are given down to the 23d June, 1854, the date of the last change '.n the Rus- sian tarilf; for which see Tariffs of Northern Europe, " Russia," Part II. Prior to the year 1850, there was a separate tariff for Poland ; but the imperial ukase, promulgating the tariff of 1850, observes, in reference to this kingdom: " In our constant solicitude for the promotion of commerce and industry', we have judged it expedient, with a view to facilitate the interior, as well OS the exterior, relations between our faithful sub- jects of tho empire of Russia and the kingdom of Po- land, to establish a uniform tariff of customs applicable to the empire and kingdom alike, and to suppress the customs-line which has heretofore separated them." The only other separate tariff now in force in Russia is that which applies to the ports of the Black Sea. For the purpose of comparison with subsequent tables, giving the commercial movements of Russia for later periods, the following table is annexed, exhibiting the total commerce of the empire with foreign countries, by land and sea, from 1832 to 1842, both inclusive : 1S34., 1833. , 1534. , 1835., 1836.. 1831.. 1S38.. 1S31., 1840. , 1S41., 1844.. Import!. EtportB. l>>Rnri. 110,387,IK)0 211,!1 84,01 K) 240,044,IKK) 445,51-3,000 461,8111,000 471,0«2,(H)0 273,2'KI,0U0 414,315,000 300,160,000 317,118,000 338,000,000 Krftnpi. 2K5,0. '4,000 40.^, 153,000 243,4!I1,(K)0 43 1.140,000 304,003,000 23(l,8!S5,0fll( 3:i0,O18,000 811.843,000 344.301,000 34.'>,.'>4.l,O0O 331,IKIfl,O00 Toul. Vtnan. 446,1181,000 411,131,000 483.445,000 4sn,ijAi,nflo 565,894,000 M7,!17,000 on l,21S,00« 646,418,000 645,013,000 663,241,000 661,0110,000 If to the total for 1841 we add for specie imported, and the commerce of Poland and Finland, neither of which is included in the above table— aljout 100,000,000 francs in all — we shall have for that year a general total of neariy 760,000,000 of francs, or $141,360,000. A comparison of the Russian official reports from 1832-'33 (annual average) to 1842, as above condensed, shows that the general commerce of Russia has in- creased ; viz., Importa 46 per cent., exports 22 per cent. PrtlnM. Revenue from customs and other sources In issi. l'*,000,000 11 it »» »* 1840, 100,440,000 II 11 I. II 1S41, 103,ti60,0«0 t-:-^, I-.-, RUS 1654 RUS ..;, Tha amonnts derived firom the diffennt branches of cnitonu in 1841 were, Dutiea from cuitoni-hoiue ,...,, 100,173,000 franca. " entrenAta 6.14,000 >» ■>■■ ExdM on a»lt Id the Orlmaa . . . , 600,000 » ■.., Otbcrdatlat 6,184,000 " ToUl 10U,6&U,0«0 ". An Mulyib of the foregoing flgnre* will ihov that the duties amount to about 88)- per cent, on the total value of imports. The following table exhibit* the total value of products exported from Russia in Eunn pean commerce from 1841 to 1850, and the share as- signed to each country : Ytan. 1841 1842 1848 1844 1845...... Annial ValM. Sllnr Roublaa. 74,817,000 72,263,000 71,209,000 80,616,000 78,802;000 Far Laul. Yaan. 1846 1847 1848 1849 1800 Annunl Valaa. SilvarRoubln. 8S,8:i8,00(» 84,112,000 7S,:i88,000 83,184,000 83,381,000 Pnportleii to aaeh Comtrf. pC.ic»t. .... *t To France ... S To France To PriiBsia 6 To Priiflula ' ■ 6 To Turkey. To Holland To Italy ... 6 .. 6 .. 5 To Turkey ; . To Holland To United SUtea. . To other countriea. '.'.'.'.' 38 To other countries. . , .. 21 The following table exhibits in detail the principal foreign merchandise entering into the import trade of Russia, and also the valu» or quantities imported, in the years 1849, 1850, and 1861 : naaaripUoa 1 Manhaodtn. ma. 1»M). ■8tl. Cofhe poods 261,147 185,186 998,803 Bawiusar " OHveoiT. " 8,088,268 1,079,231 1,829,877 656,809 648,009 676,180 WInci and other liquors. value In...... foublaa 7,816,6M 8,090,986 7,0)111,636 Fruits " 8,462,541 1,554,919 8,013,198 1,200,738 8,046,118 1,812,356 Cotton, raw ... . pooda Cotton, white spun " 27»,108 168,8118 188,(166 Dye4tufb ronblea 8Uk pooda 5,421,509 ^458,177 6,806,944 16,894 15,518 11,631 Wool " 56,344 67,390 67,443 Of cotton... mublea 4,443,349 S,8*!),615 4,486,831 Ofallk " 4,448.1157 4,258,187 4,466,211 Offlax " 579,041 537,»1!6 962,048 Of wool.... " 8,2i>1.0SS l,!))»,7fl6 1,738,894 Machinery, etc.. " 2.567,27 ' 8.674,8(15 2,886,116 The augmentation which tlie official returns of Rus- sia exhibit in cottons, dye-stuffs, wool, machinery, and tools, evinces the progressive condition of Russian man- ufactures. It has already been shown that in 1882 the quantity of raw cotton imported into Russia was only 116,000 poods ; in 1851 it reached 1,812,866 poods ; and in 1852 it ascended to 1,748,000 poods of 86 lbs. each. In 1845 the importation of cotton yams (chiefly from England) reached 606,046 poods ; in 1851 this amount fell to 138,065 poods, making a difference of 467,080 poods, or 16,847,280 lbs. The activity and progress of the cotton manufactures of Russia explain this great falling off in the' quantity of cotton yams imported, as the annual diminution of the latter will be found to be proportionate to the annoal augmentation In the quan- tity of the former. An analysis of the returns of trade between Russia and the United States will also show an increase in the quantities of raw cotton imported by the former, corresponding with the diminished importation of cotton yams ; our raw cotton supplying to a great extent the different factories in Russia. The follow- ing table, compiled from the United States official au- thorities, exhibits the quantities and value of this staple exported to Russia direct from the United States : 1 Vaan. Cottott aiportad to Riuala from tfuilad BUtaa. ValM. 1844 1850 1861 3,767,766 Iba. 4,338,705 " 10,098,448 " 10,475,169 " 21,286,508 " 2,!)M.!'64 " 448,817 " «241.454 5«>J28 1,91»7,164 962,846 8,254,845 <<01,898 48,647 1853 1853 1854' 1866 * The war waa formally declared March 81, 1854. The diminished quantity exported to Russia in 1854 shows the effect of the war on the direct trade between the two countries. This, however, can be more fUlly shown by the follovring comparative tablo, exhibiting the general trade between the two countries in 1858, 1854, and 1855: Total Valck or Pomiistio rsoncos xxroHnD noM thi I'mnU ^TATfll TO RrssiA. tnlS63 $8,818,175 „,, Inl854 886,521 ;;.' inisw 4s,9«) Cotton absort)ed $48,647 of this last sum. Besides the domestic produce exported to Russk in 1866, there was also exported foreign produce to the arootint of $20,414. In 1864, exports to Russia fVom the United States consisted principally of two articles : Rice, $21,728 in value; and cotton, $301,298. In 1868 we sent — Spermaceti oil, $7160 ; Inmber, $1485 ; dye-stuffs, $6648 ; hams and bacon, $441 ; ship- bread, $3268 ; rice, $5564 ; cotton, $2,254,846 ; tobacco, leaf, $14,109; tobacco, manufactured, $1164; sundries, $18,991 ; total, $2,818,176. We here give the export trade of Russia for the yean 1850 and 1851. The table includes onb' the principal articles exported, which are usually £nom- inated Russian staples : Extorts or raiNciPAL Btapt.ks noM Rtssia in 1860 amd 1851 ('om Red hides Haw hides Flax Hemp Timber Copper Iron Potaah Tallow Hemp and Unaeed. Wool Ilrlstlca .silver roubles. pooda. II roubles, pooda. tehetwerta.* poods. IBM. 19,2(17,188 1,062,829 1,056,526 4,8117,618 2,723,983 2,797,576 114,976 757,! 56 477,898 8,813,878 1,065,178 617,063 88,358 TJiT 19,393,2« 1,288,121 888,698 3,018,781) 3,042,422 3,619,263 110,906 7l'S,«54 m,S!m 8,91'8,43,ott4,a&a. Thi valm of Koedt Impottad at tha port of Astra- Mun wa* $784,741 1 of whlolt raw cotton amounted to 188,U8 atlvar roublaa, or $108,688. Tha tntiil trailn on tha ftmittera of Orenburg and Si- berik, in 18M, amountad to ) Importa, $8,890,571 ; ex- port*, $3,41 &,S70| total, $6,806,841. Tnul* Wi, svxrsgis annual exportation, 1'>,B13 " |ftl4t(>1«8, " " " 85,173 " lM4t30 4196 6,231 30.l2i29lt0 — 330 689 4,201 110 11,360 8,1103 8.31)3 2S18 2222 16l| 140 0401 n04d 3O106S12 33illl 128 37:K) 807 2412 184 7213 7II2S 18! 6,241 822 4,281 130 11 4i4 10,l"6S 4^11 3028 82T 2685 ll» 64S6 711 Entoixd Aicn C'LEAaXD. llltt.-18M 1i»T-lH»l lasMRM IIST-IMI IMI-IMS l»4T-l«B0 «f (nur V>>n, 1,1100,041 II.MIO.IITH a,4IIVKN II,I»»,»'IT n,4 22,7. 068,034 09 l,2S4 6,19T 12,598 001,640 589,997 1,967,313|1,250,53I The preceding flgures demonstrate the increasing activity of Russian maritime commerce. It is proper to observe, however, that the years of 1846 and 1847 are exceptional, as the commerce of these years was simulated by circumstances which were, happily, of » transient character ; and they can not, therefore, form a basis for legitimate comparison. The movements in grain alone, in 1847, augmented Russian exports up- ward of 640,000 tons, equivalent to an Increase of 50 percent COMMraCIAL SmPFINO. Baltic porta White Sea ports . . Houthcm |K)rta..,. Caspian porta Total Of which With goods In ballast The tonnage of, , , the wTiole^ 1"^ amounted to) """ Sblpi arrivfli 18S0. 3,423 64T 2,5 '0 220 0,780 3,659 3,121 626,373 l,2.')3,-40 IMI. I Itbl). 3,7ii0 721 2,595 227 7,323 8,253 4070 3,U6 Ml 2,490 235 6,301 6,433 369 57!>,396 576,077 1,158,7U2 1,182,154 3,781 668 2,599 305 7,342 6,821 521 576.: 1,15i,678 The greatest number of ships were English and Rus^ sian, vU. : of the former there arrived 1875 ; and of the latter, 1019. Of ships arrived under other flags were, Turkish, 978; Dutch, 58G; Greek, 444; Swedish, 866; Slecklenburg, 329 ; Russian, 299 ; Danish, 223 ; Sar- dinian, 210 ; Austrian, 191 ; and of other nations, 803. These arrivals and departures were thus distributed ml852: Potto of ArrlTWl. Cleareil. 3627 827 8929 273 3507 S45 a999 206 8507 The UUck aud Asof Scu Total The following table exhibits the national character of the vessels arrived : NaUonalil;. No. of Viwli. NatloaaUtr. No. of Veueb. 383 a'J) 861 291 263 18« 433 2020 1125 1072 060 613 470 453 Anntrla ITiixnla Denmark Mecklenburg Sweden Sardinia (Jther countrlea... ■-W*J, RU8 1656 RUS KnoMt AMD iMTCsn IM 1854,— (rotiM in Silver Rmbla.) Kipevto. 1 Impom. { Bf the Europwn fraotier of ■ablM d'Arx 44,0TS,«T lt,4M,lBS e,IW6,018 1,008,028 6B,BST,6S1 RubiM d'An. M,«0e,B3S 9,fil8,6B9 16,«01,8«7 831,861 T0,868,g08 Tha kingdom of IH>Und .... TiMfronUenofAih tlnhnd Natioation ioi 1854. Poriiif Via ■all. Alilnd. Dtpiited. t*i«Il,Ilic 4TS <85 1188 181 4to T4T 140> 111 Th« White Bn ThaBlaek Bm Tha CupUn 8<* ToUI «523 «8SU Sleam Navigation. — ^Tbe steam navigation of Kuuia has largely tncreaacd since ISfiO. In that year there vtalted the port of Cronstadt 82 steamers, viz. ; From London, 8; Hull, 18; Dunkirk,?; LObeck, 26; Stet- tln,34; Kiel, 2; Havre, 2; Total, 82. Two steamers maintain a regular communication between Biga, Hull, and Stettin, making monthly, sometimes semi-month- ly, tripe. The frigate-built steamers the Odtua, the Crimea, and the Meua and Xherton, make annually 88 tripe between Odessa and Constantinople, and the steamer Peter the Great 19 between Odessa and G»- lati. Begular communication is also kept up be- tween St. Peteisbuig and the ports of Finland and of the Baltic ; also brtween Odessa, Kherson, Nico- Ulef, and other ports in the south of Bussia. These steamers usually make 104 voyages yearly. Two steamers connect the ports of the Sea of Azof; and eoumunication lietween the porta of Bussia and those of Persia is legnlariy maintained by national steamers. Hm prospectus of the new Bussian Steam Navigation and TraiBc Company, the statutes of which received the emperor's sanction on the 8d of August, is publish- ed very conspicuously in the Journal de St. Pettnburg. This company, wUch, by the extent of ita resources, •nd by ita importance to "the regeneration of the in- ternal and foreign trade of Southern Russia," is re- oaidsd as one likely to take rank above all other exist- ing Russian companies, will have a capital of six mill- kms of roubles to begin with, divided into 20,000 shares of 800 roubles each. At a future period this capital ■My be raiM to nine millions, by the creation of 10,000 BOW shares, if agreed to by a general meeting of share- holders. By the 26th statute of the company, none twt Russian snbjecta are capable of holding shares, the bws of the empire prohibiting any foreigners ftx>m taking part in the coasting trade between the Sea of Azof and the Russian Black Sea ports, which is an essential part of the company's undertaking. Like the Russian American Company, it is to lie placed un- der the special protection of the imperial government. The objecto of ita establishment are defined as being " the development of the trade of Southern Russia, snd of the commercial as well as the postal communi- cations by steamboats between that part of the empire ■ad foreign countries." The company is Iwund to keep up certain lines of communication. Between Odessa and Constantinople, Athos, Smyrna, Rhodes, Beyront, Jaffa, and Alexan- dria, ita steamlraats are to ply three times a month, as well as between Odessa, the Sea of Azof, and the Cir- cassian coast. If it should be deemed ad\i8able, boata fh>m Odessa may touch at the porta of the Crimea, and abo at those of the Anatolian coast, before proceeding to Constantinople, or a line may be established from Odessa, taking in Galatz and the ports of the Princi- palities, and ending at Constantinople. The company are bound, moreover, to provide for eighteen voyages in the year from Odessa to Trieste, calling at Constantinople, SjTia, the Ionian Isles, and Ancona, as well as for eighteen voyages in the year fh>m Odessa to Marseilles, stopping at Constantinople, Mm Plrssus, Messina, Naples, Leghorn, and Genoa. The government will cede to the company, at • prico to be fixed by valuation, all the steamboats belonging to the department which has conducted hitherto the postal and commercial intercourse between the diflhr^ ent porta of New Russia, together with the wharves, warehouses, and stores belonging to that department. The company Is to be aided by the government with a subvention, calculated at so much per mile, allowed upon the voyage actually made by the company's ves- sels. This allowance during the first ten yeara will be at the rate of ( roubles 22 kopecks for the Levant voyages, 8 roubles 49| kopecks for the Marseilles, and 4 roubles 7i kopecks for the Trieste voyages ; the al- lowance for the Black Sea trips will be somewhat lower. After the first ten years the subsidy will de- crease regularly hi each year. Above this mileage, an annual grant of 64,000 roubles is secured during twenty years. The establishment of regular steam packets on the Black Sea has contributed to make As- trakhan a place of considerable importance to Russian commerce. ComnaoB or Rdssia in 1665. COOOUiN. Sweden Norwaj Pruisls Danmsrk and Bound. Usnw Towns < Netherluids Belgtum England Fmnoa Fortugal , Spain Sardinian States Tuscany TwoBlclllei AuiMa Greece , Turkey North America , Other countries Finland Frontiers of Alia Total silver rnnliler, ISSK ToUlfranef,185S...., Importo. Sllrar RoublM. 184,1116 TS,S8I 4a,SS0,424 41,368 S76,80S 1S4,SM 97,878 986,099 988,329 S1),84T 8S,163 9,620 'iym 7,223,147 19,718 2,064,7119 14^004 7U3,1(I3 271,944 16,264,501 72,6»t),83l 232,709,624 Biporti. SUnr RoihlH. 107,008 100,407 18,088,910 119,011 8S0,1IS« 122,789 699 118,687 44,963 176 8,896 70 «,8<7,692 264,895 851,243 24,886 1,498,'.i09 1,648,267 10,847,649 U9,5I7,4I0 168,06U,iG0 CoMuaBoi or Tnc Fobt or !!t. FintsnoBa in I85S. Countriei. Oreat Britain Prussia , Han as Towns United SUte Holland , France Denmark Spain TwoStotlies Bsrdinia BelRlum Norway Fortugal Tuieany and Rome . Sweden Austria Turkey Uther countries Total silrer roubles, 1856 " " " l&W Importa. I Kiporta. SU*«r RoublM. 17,38f>,0.".0 11,019,670 6,982,6.14 M17,70« 4,94%8e6 8,292,404 929,463 635,097 634,rM ]'.'6,4«9 .141,420 8I^866 28 ',667 200,211 !!2t),64l 58,715 7,389 816,201 53,317,400 88,0(8,190 Hilvtr KoubUa. 30,032,949 6,174,614 2,4fll,!06 1,788,630 4,«^3,68S 1,802,791 2,40.>,149 I 1,408,532 874,430 60,341 7,^73 2,9r6,334 11,666 8,260 170,411 63,072,942 6I,876,'6I Commerce by the lAnee of Orenburg and Siberia.— The commercial movementa of Russia with Central Asia are prosecuted with much activity. The value of merchandise exchanged with the Tartars of this por- tion of Asia in 1850 reached nearly 6,000,000 roubles, showing an increase over the total trade of 1849 of 600,000 roubles. The principal imports were tea (19,070 poods), which passed through the western fron- tiers of China, amounting in value to 512,482 roubles (equal to 50 centa per pound nearly). In 1661 this trade maintained still greater activity. The value of merchandise imported across the lines of Orenburg and Siberia reached S) millions of roubles ; and tlie exchanges, consisting of cotton and woolen cloths, loafi RUS 1857 RUS 107,(08 100,407 1 19,088,910 119,(11 880,16« 124,789 (9« 1 118,«8T M,l)53 175 I ■»,896 I 70 (,8(7,(981 4M,895 24,886 1,498,'^ i;645,a57 10,B47,(«_ 168,00«5700_ 30,004,949 6,174,544 o,4ni,'.oo 1,783,630 . 44M,B86 ' 1,802,791 2,40.',U9 1,408,53a 874,430 50,341 7,t73 J,9r6,334 11,666 8,250 170,411 ■^,872,942 _61;8TB3i6L Bud Siberia.^ pwUh Central 1 The value laraotthispor- lo.OOO roubles, Ide of 1849 of Torts i»ere tea £ vf estern fron- |l2,482 roubles ■ In 1851 this The value of 1 of Orenburg Ibles ; and the ■en cloths, loaf* tagn, nw and tanned hides, .annonnted to 2,746,822 roublw. This exhibits an increase over 18S0, via. : Imports tram China by the ftrantters of Oren- burg and Siberia 219,494 Exports to China bj the Ihintlen of Orenburg and Siberia 8,601,1101 The principal imports were blacli and other teat (766,880 pounds, valued at (487,891, or nearly 68 cents per pound), raw and spun cotton, etc, Tbadi akd Navioatioh or Bussiam Pons, 1861-'61. 1861. -VeweU arrived T,S36 " » cleared 7,342 » Total tonnage, lasts 7M,800 1881— Vessels arrived 8,(65 " " cleared 8,801 " Total tonnage, lasU T(s|MO BtATiifairr showiho thi ASSBia&Ta ExronxTions noii Tm Aion cvania tdi Yzas xhddiq ma 81srr DacniBEi, 186T. iMTOHt AT tn Paw or TASAnMo Drains ma VatM 18B<-'57. N.«.-A«..u. .,?jr.»s.. Kii|ll(£^W«l|bM uidfiauum-llif. Tobacco Lba. 166,(00 Cwta. 18,086 Boxes. ^^00 Cwts. (6,880 " 1(,000 " 2^780 Oals. N6,425 Bottles 83,»16 Cwts. '866 » 1,280 " 1,180 " l',iM Lbk 472,7IH " 13,950 Boxes M,ta4 Lbs. 8T,7T1 » 28,81T " »,48S Otis. 681,7(8 Bottles 11,600 Cwli. 1,111 " 1,ST« " 5,411 " 1,170 " 421 " 150 Dried ihilt Orseo fhill Carobs NutaandwalDuto... on Wine in casks Wine In bottles Sirup Sweetmeats OllTCS Coffta Pepper Lime Juice 1 TMslvalne £468,800 i»)A3,K3« Prodne*. Wheat BveM Llnieed Flour Biscuit and macaroni . . . Butter TiUow Wool Hides Caviar Tobacco Iron SaU-cloth Total value silver R T>s»nrog. Ch. 1,070,623 " 44,421 » 188,976 62,250 18,490 110,291 101,5(3 107,181 89,433 (8,09( 18,761 78,840 113,000 Pds. Arch. 16,083,587 Bcnilinilt. 208,168 (2,5W "so 132,'435 42,761 93,711 "to 4,778,000 KI»ri«pol. 108,133 22i421 60 4,(10 1,302,000 Vabk. 18,893 1,000 T,(48 7,000 8,700 1,880 1(,301 6,581 1,000 621,000 Ch. 1,400,720 " 45,421 " 381,682 "■ 60,260 13,520 118,991 835,888 2((,338 143,348 (8,098 18,801 78,849 11,000 Pds. Ats. 22,882,607 Tot.l K«|IUIi. S?- Cwts. Lbs. Cwtf. Lba. Tons Yds. 994,611 84,974 Sl(,71l 19,044 4,845 88,147 120,918 9,588,098 6,180,448 21,888 778,838 1,172 W,888 J8,668,488 Rrubn or Bamsn and Foihoh Smppnto at Tna aisraanvi Azorr Pears roa ma YaAas 1853, 1S66, and 1857. roria. lUS. IIM. 1861. 1 BrIUib. All PUtl. BilUih. All rup. Britlib. AllFlw 1 Tsganrog... MarUpol... Berdianak . . Yelak Total.... No. 145 te 68 Tom. 89,430 4,918 14,8(8 No. 748 804 651 Tou. 184,031 79,82( 129,438 No. 239 19 23 Tool. 7^870 8,400 7,048 No. 1118 181 262 Tons. 293,278 68,348 (5,751 No. 166 6 10 8 Tolu. 46,444 1,498 2,618 943 No. 867 97 232 19 Torn. 132,968 27,0(2 68,706 6,067 119 59,014 ■l606 ■ 893,098 281 91,318 1562 417,377 184 51,403 12U5 319,(80 Noo.— In 1854 and 1866 these ports were closed to foreign veaiels In conaequence of the Crimean War. Ifavigation of the Voiga in 1852. — The importations •t Bybinsk, by the Volga, in 1852, reached in value 76,i49,000 francs, and the exportations 1U1,621,000 francs. The excess of exports over imports is ex- plained by the fact that Rybinsic exports by water only, and imports by land as well as liy water. The fetums of imports by land are inaccessible to the stat- istician ; but it is supposed that they would equalize the values of the imports and exports of this marlelonging to the Volga-Kama Steamboat Company, 681 canal-boats ; and 3141 barks, flat-lioatB, etc., propelled by sails and oars. The export trade of Rybinsk (i.e., the re-exportation of merchandise) employs : By the Volga, 8765 vessels of aU kinds; Mologa, 1779; Sheksna, 2221: toUl, 7766. SUam Company of the ro/jTo.— From the report of the general meeting of this company, held 27th February [11th March], 1852, the information is gleaned that the company was organized in 1843 with a capital of 1,800,000 roubles («U75,000), divided into 6200 shares of 260 roubles (|187 50) each ; that it now owns (in 1862) five iron steamers, which navigate the Volga ; namely, the Sampson and tiie Hercules, each of 77 ; the Kama, of 60; the \' ports. At Odeisa.—VoT the benefit of the town : On wheat exported liy sea, 1 cent per 6J bushels. For the ben- efit of the lyceum, 1 j cent per 5J bushels, on all kinds of corn exported. A t the Portof Taganrog.— Tot the t>enefit of the city i On all merchandise passing througii the scales, im« ported, I cent per 36 pounds; exported, A cent per 36 pounds. On wines imported, ^ cent per 2| gaU Ions. At the Port of ifariopol.— For the benefit of the city t Imports, I cent per pood, dry measure ; ft <^^"' P«' pood, liquid measure. St. Petersburg,— For the bridge on the Neva : Oa all imports, 2 per cent, on amount of duties. 3fotcow,—Vot a similar purpose to the foregoing ; On ail imports via St Petersburg, 2 per cent, on amount of duties. The custom-houset of St. Petersburg, Archangel, and Riga allow foreign goods, imported by privileged merchants, to remain in bond without paying duty, or to be re-exported, during twelve months; if imported by others, six months. Progress ofCollon Afanufactm-et in Russia.— It has already been remarked that the manufacture of cot- ton in the Russian empire is progressing with ex- traordinary activity. The number of spindles In Rus- sia exceeds 350,000, producing annually upward of 10,800,000 pounds of cotton yams. The manufactur* of cotton velvets especially is becoming highly import- BUS 1658 BUS •lit to the direct trade between the United States and Russia, the raw material l>ein); atmust exclusively sup- plied, either in the direct or indirect trade, by the for- mer country. Formerly cotton velvets were supplied to the Chinese exclusively by the British. The Chi- nese now prefSer the Russian manufacture ; hence it baa become a leading staple of barter at the Kussio- ftontier markets of China. No foreign nation is allowed to participate in the coasting or internal trade of Russia — Ordinanee, Stp- itmbtr [), 184S. The treaties between Kusaia and other maritime states all contain the same terms as that be- tween Russia and the United States of December 18, ■1882; viz., the vessels of friendly nations, wlthcargoes in ballast, are to be regarded quite as the domestic, as to export or import, and to port or other duties, or taxes of any kind whatever; but the coasting trade is Interdicted. From Finland, flax, and hemp, and iron can be profitably exported to the United States ; and from the United States into Finland may be advan- tageously imported cotton, tobacco, and rice, CoMinaoa or nia llmTan StatH wrrn Rdssia noM OoTOBa 1, 1830, -ro July 1, 185T. The following table exhibits the qnsntlttes of nw and spun cotton imported into Russia during the years designated : Ytui «•» CoUaa. CotlanTwIala. | Wlilto. C.lDM.1. 1846 1847 11,868,000 14,11»,000 110,171,000 «e,47U,000 1»,670,000 KtlognimniM. 8,1M,0UU «,783,fl00 «,8SR,0«0 4,67i,nOA 8,765,000 HilorrtHin.; MiMO 6r,eoo 60,000 1849 1843 1880 Total Annual average 3,84f< 684,7'JO 1,168,652 68:),242 604,689 934,625 $0,981,366 $879,811 520,667 76,!)26 140,632 100,4:)2 97,079 124,118 108,428 1»7,'.:47 198,808 $2,834,206 $148,087 138,732 143.478 145,0 8 20,414 86,282 286,039 Totn). $628.8.14 6a;i,08i 648,734 281,981 287,401 174,048 882,24t 460,408 888,226 416,.875 $4,188,279 $462,76< 682,682 703,805 830,0:)4 63.5,447 011.018 1,806,732 1,048,289 1,23:),246 1,16^481 $8,840,185 $1,028,729 836,8'.)3 886,793 866,414 787,837 682,467 T.'*O,460 1,156,010 1,136,604 884,'.41 $8,071,238 $1,611,691 1,200,480 2,4W,6'3 480,616 69,8M <86,405 4,72.1,881 Import!. Tolul. $1,86-.M M 3,807,8'2S 2,258,777 2,209,663 2,087,110 2,617,169 2,086,077 2,788,862 2,218,1195 1,621,899 $28,027,679 $1,608,828 8,261,662 2,772,860 2,6.6,840 2,8''^246 2,778,664 2,816,116 1,8:18,808 2,3rt3,894 2,572,427 $25,088,202 $2,717,448 1,360,106 742,808 1,«5:),419 1,482,262 1,670,084 924,673 1,819,084 840,238 1,611,672 $18,827,689 $1,883,782 1,681,620 1,278,801 1,»4»,236 280,t:86 830,ri81 1,819,420 Whoreuf Ihetv wu la Biilliuii mill Bp«cie. Tonaago el«ar«d, . Kxuort. $13,663 10,213 28,700 $82,466 $90,428 S2,6 2,('43 S,4'.)2 81,212 4,810 ' 8,147 6,498 4,979 3,424 6,198 6,844 7,253 8,640 6,019 67,009 7,405 5,691 4,163 8,808 9,109 6,451 4.135 9,5S8 10.349 6,048 67,247 9,241 10,006 11,968 8,891 1,6S8 9,720 27,979 tyiroHpi. 117 286 234 687 800 6:15 1,199 4,147 198 358 . 477 7,865 SOS 1,699 271 1,981 l,t06 1,648 1,362 893 1,803 3,990 16,346 8.239 8,046 6,2!)7 1,4S5 860 5,436 * Kine months to June 80, and the flacal year from this time begins July L i'rt'nci/NiIi'oH*.— Odessa, a sea-port of southern Rus. measure he considered as the port of the latter. t^\- sia, on the northwest coast of the Black Sea, lietwecn most all vessels bound for St. Petersliurg touch here, the rivers Dniester and Bug, in lat. 46° 28' 64" N., ! and those drawing above eight feet of water load and long. 30° 43' 22" E. The bay or roadstead of Odessa unload at Cronstadt— the goods being conveyed to the is extensive, the water is deep, and the anchorage is good — the bottom being fine sand and gravel ; it is, however, exposed to tJie southeasterly winds, which render it less safe in winter. Tlie port, which Is arti- ficial, being formed of two moles, one of which projects :• considerable distance into the sea, and has deep wa- ter, with room for three hundred ships. St. Petersburg, the capital of Rnasis, situated at the confluence of the River Neva with the eastern extrem- ity of the Gulf of Finland, in lat. 59° 66' 28" N., long. .00° 18' 46" E. Cronstadt, situated on a small island city in lighters. The water to Cronstadt is- ample, there being from twenty-four to thirt^'-six feet of water. Jtuuian Potieth'ons m America. — The territorj- be- longing to the Russian American Company compre- hends the northwestern portion of North America, ex- tending fh)m Behring's Straits eastward to the merid- ian of Mt. St. Ellas, along both the Arctic and Pacific ooeans, and from that moantain southward along the coast chain of hills till It touches the coast in 64° 40' N. lat., forming an area of 894,000 square miles. The Alentlan Islands, though comprised In the Asiatic gov- «bout twenty miles west of St. Petersburg, may in soma emment of Irkutsk, may be considered as belon^g to BUS 1050 RHU B60 l6,«8_ |T. Al- Ich here, _«d and Id to the 1 ample, ■f water. Tory be- Tpompre- Kcft, ex- \ nierid- [ Pacific ing the 154° 40' The rtcgoT- Igtngto .tU« region. The tettlementi originated with an **• aojcUtlon of merchanti, formed at Irkutsk, who ohtaln. •d from the Emperor Paul the exclualva privilege uf trading for pelttiea In the Aleutian Iilandii and ad- jacent coasts. This privilege was extended liy the Emperor Alexander over all Kustlan America, and the charter was renewed by Nicholas In 1840. The oapl- tal and principal factory was first established at Ko- dlak, but the increasing scarcity of sea otters led the , then governor to lay the foundation of New Aroban- gel, which has now become the chief depot. The Kus. elan dominion over the vast solUndies of the Interiur la only nominal : the interior, Indeed, Is a lerra ineugnila, and Inhabited by tribes who scarcely know the name of their lords. At the present day the Russians occu- py only the islands off this coast. New Archangel, the capital, Is situated on the island of Sitka, in lat, fi7° 80' N., and long. 135° 13' W. It Is a town uf some 1000 Inhabitants, and contains the Boards awl warehouses of the company. The whole country is under the surveillance of a governor, who derives hU authority from the company at Irkutsk. The total population of Russian America is estimated at 00,(101) or 70,000, Including aborigines. The commerce of this country Is chiefly confined to the exportation of furs to Canton, and tlie import of provisions and agriouUii- ral supplies fh>m the Puget's Sound Agricultural Com- pany. It Is of little value, being less than (!il00,(Jiii) a year, and is constantly declining, consequent on the decline of the seal and otter. Bodega, on the coast of California, was formerly a Russian settlement Tho British lease the continental part of Russian America for hunting purposes. Shipping and ship-building are considerably Increas. ing in Finland. The causes are to be sought in the increasing commerce and the general prosperity of the country, in the high prices which have l)een paid in the last years for the principal exports — wood artiulea— especially in Southern Europe, and In the high freights paid by foreigners for the employment of Finnish ves- sels. To encourage shipping and ship-building In Fin- land, the Russian government has allowed that all ma- terials and articles which are used in ship-lmilding, and are to be had cheaper in foreign countries, may be imported into Finland free of duty. American im- provements in ehip-bullding have, in part, already been Introduced, and wlU probably be more generally adopted. — Comm. Bel. V. S. For able articles on the commerce, commercial pol- icy, commercial strength, mines, resources, etc., of Russia, see Blackwood's Magazine, liil. 807 ; Bankeri' Magazine, 11. 273; Quarterly Review, Ixxvil. 188, xlx. 131, Isvl. 218; yourno/ (//Science, lii. 153; Edinburyh Rtvieui, xl. 476 (Jbffrky), xxiii. 340, Ixxix. ; Hunt's Merchant!' Magazine, v. 297 (P. Wharton), x. 207 ; iMing Age, xxlv. 529; American Whig Review, xll, 616 ; North American Review, xxvIL xxx. Russia Company, a regulated company In Great Britain for conducting the trade with Russia, It was first incorporated by charter of Philip and Mar}', sanc- tioned by act of Parliament in 1666. The statute 10 and 11 William III., ch. 6, enacts, that ever}- British subject desiring admission Into the Russia Company shall be admitted on paying ^£5 ; and every Individual admitted Into the company conducts his business en- tirely OS a privaVe adventurer, or as he would do were the company abolished. Russia Leather (Fr.CuirdsAKMie; Oer. Ju/fen ; It. Cuojo di Ruttiai Pol. Jachta; Russ. JufI, Youfl; Sp. Mutcovia), the tanned hides of oxen and other kine, denominated by the Russians youfU, otjuffi — s desig- nation said to be derived from their being generally manufactured In pairs. The business of tanning is car- ried on in most towns of the empire, but principally at Moscow and St. Petersburg. Russia leather is soft, has a strongly prominent grain, a great deal of lustre, and • powerful and pecullu odor. It is principally either red or biMik t Iht fbrmer Is the best, and Is largely used In tills and other countries in twolc-bindlng ; for wbkU imrpiMM it Is stiimrior to every other material. The liUvk Is, however. In very extensive demand In Russia, large iiuaniltles being made op into boots and •hues. The process followed by the Russians in the |>r*|i«r*tkin of this valuable commodity has been f^ quently desoribed i but notwithstanding this circum- stance, ami the fact lliat foreigners have repeatedly aa- gagsit hi the liimlttess In Uutstu, with the Intention of niakliig thtiiiisnives musters of its details, und under- taking It at h(Htiii, the effurts made to Introduce the niNnufuvture Iut4> other countries Imvo hitherto entirely failed. One of the liext testx uf genuine Russia leather Is its thntwIiiK out a strung odor of burned hide upon boliig lublitd a llttle.-Hu A«l», Traiti (Jhiiraldu Com. tntrc; tunia I, p. 'i^t>, ed. 17Hl. W» aiitract from Mr, llorrisow's work on the Coei- mtret i\fHl, J'tltmlmri) the fcillowing details with respect to this iirtlclii I Ituimla leiitlier furins one of the princi- pal ex|iort I'dintiiiiilltles uf Ht. I'etersliurg. But since the |Hirts uf the llhiek Hen have l>eon u|iencd,the exports of luutlier frultl this |iurt have cuiislileralily decreased; Italy, thn principal cunsuin«r, suiiplying its wants from Odessa m»\ 'iagannig inure easily, cheaply, and expe- ditiously than iTuni Ht. I'etorslmrg, The chief exporta- tion fniiii tlin latter Is tn Prussia, Qerniany, and En- gland. Fruiikfort-uii-the-Mulne and Leipsic are of great lni|Hirtiilii'« lis res|iects the trade In Russia leather, on ncvviint of tlia fairs hold In them. Juffs are never liuiight on eiiiitrHct, but always on the spot at cash prices, It livvertlieltiss uften hupiwns that agents — In uriler to Mcurn a lut uf Jun>, pay a certain sum in ad- vance, and st>ttl« fur the nmuunt at the first market prices I nil prices being llxcd In the months of January, Veliruary, Marvli, mid iKiiiietlnies even April. Julfs are tiisiirtnil or hiHuktd when received, according to their iliirurent imiilltles, Into Oare, Rnivat, Miilja, and Do. imttlim, Tim tlirea tint sorts nre again divided into heury and lii/ht tim'e, kriivy and light Itusval, etc. Do- niHshna Is the worst, and consequently the cheapest sort, It often hapjietis thiit Juffs are bought unas- sorted, and then the prices are regulated according aa the quantity of tliimnshiia cuntalned In the lot is great- er or loss, I'ersiins well ncqunlnted with the nature of Russia leiithi^r prefer ptircliasing It in this state. Juffi aro sold liy the |kwiI, wIiIoIi consists, as it Is commonly expressed, of 4, 4|, 'I), A, 6^, and 6) hides. By thU Is understood, that su man}' hides make a pood, calcu- lated uiHin the whole lut i and It Is to be observed that the ligiitest Jiill's ani esteemed the best In quality. Heavy Juffs, ur those uf 4 and 4^ hides, are shipped for Italy I the (lermuiis, uii the cuntrary, prefer the lighter sort. JulTs are jmckeil In rolls, each containing 10 hides ; and from ID tu 19 uf these rolls are packed to- gether In a bundle, whkh Is well secured by thick matting. There are red, white, and black Juffs ; but the red are must In (lemiinil. Their goodness is determ- ined by their being uf u high red color, of equal size, and unmixed with small hWr^ i the* must also be free from boles, well stretc!;::'., and equally thin. In a well- finished lot no thick henil ur feet parts should be found. If spots resembling flowers are seen on the red hides, it Is an addltinmil sign of their good quality, and they are then oallad hlmmnl jiifft. The inside should be clean, soft, and white, and, when taken in the hand, should feel elastic, 'I'he best connoisseurs of Russia leather can iisiirly (letermlne the quality liy tho smell alone, Ureal attention muit lie paid. In shipping juflk, to secure them fhiiii lieing wetted, as damp air alone la sufllciBit to Injur* ihein. Hlxty rolls of JufTs make a last i 88 piKNls net weight, when shipped for Italy, make a last i and 44 pomls a tun. The exports of Juffs from Russia In 1H41 amounted to 177,838 poods, and 160,Ofll pieces, worth ttigethor l,6a8,l»l silver roo- bles. ' Ryo (Ger. %*««, Soften; Ou. Rog, Soggt; Fr. KYE ICGO KYO Si^l It. BegeiU, Segatat Sp. Ctnleno; Rou, Jloteh, M, Jar; Lat. SecaU), BcconUng to aom*, li s natlv* of Cnta ; but It b very doubtfbl If It can now lia found wild in any country. It baa been cultivated ttom time im- memorial, and la ooniidered aa coming nearer In ita propertlea to wheat than any other grain. It !• mora common than wheat In many parts of Europe, being a more certain crop, and requiring leaa culture and ma- nure. It la the bread com of Uermany and Kuasia. — Loudon's Encye, o/Affneulture. Kye ia auppoaed by aome authoritiea to be a native of the Caapian Caucaalan desert ; and has t>een culti- vated in the north of Europe and Aala from time im- memorial, where it conatitutea an important article of human aubsistance, Iwing generally mixed with barloy or wheat. Ita introduction into western Kurope ia of comparatively recent date, aa no mention ia made of it in the Ortut Sanilalu, published at Augsburg in 1486, which treats at length of barle}, millet, oats, and wheat. The production of rye has decreased 4,467,000 bush- els in the aggregate ; but in New York It ia greater than In 1840 by about 40 per cent. Pennaylvania, which is the largeat producer, haa fallen off from 6,618,878 to 4,805,160 bushels. Perhaps the general diminution in the quantity of this grain now produced may be accounted for by supposing a corresponding decline in the demand for distilling purposes, to which a large part of the crop is applied. ExroBTS or Rtk and small Giain ntaH Tiia T'xiTin Htatis n>a Tua Y«Aa imdimo Jvhh SO, 18M. Rye, 0«lfl, Md Wbllbar nportad. •UHrunallUnix, ■aii PuIm. ' Swedish Weit Indies $684 Daniali West Indies 1,808 Hamburg 464,8*1 • Bremen 449,418 Other German porta . 8,860 Holland 437,006 Dutch West Indies. , Hi Dutch Ouiina 6T0 Belgium 1,071,639 £ngUnd 176,536 - - - 14,600 83,817 14,6M 46,826 110 8,037 1,104 «4,8!il Ireland . Canada . Other Britlah North American faeacaaioM. British West Indies. British Honduras British Omana British Possessions in Africa British Australia British East Indies France on the Atlantic French North American Possessions French West Indies French Ouiana Cuba Porto Klco Turkejr In Europe Turkey in Asia Hayll Ban Domingo Mexico Central liepubllo Mew Granada . 18,636 198 86 OS T,67l 1,«?6 1,010 67 640 86 1,806 70 860 VeneiueU 1S,S14 Braall 1,477 ChUi «86 Peru 13 Sandwich Islands 4,028 China 461 Whale Ilsheries 686 Total, 18S6-1856 »»,718,680 Total, 1866-1867 , 680,108 Bye was cultivated in the North American colonies soon after their settlement by the English. Gorges speaks of it as growing in Nova Scotia in 1622, as well as of barley and wheat. Plantagenet enumerates it among the productions of North Virginia (New En- gland) in 1648, and alludes to the mixing of it with mala* li. tba fomMtlmi of lirtMl. It was also oultlTi- tsd In Noutit VlrginU iiy NIr WlllUm Berkeley pnvlona tu that y»»r, (laographloally, tjf* «ntt liarley asanclate with one aniitlisr, anit grow u|itm suits the most analogous, and In sltH«lia«s alllM •KtaNMul, It Is cultivated for bread In nortlMirn Asln, ittd all over the continent of Europe, partlaularly In KussU, Norway, Denmark, Sweden, (lermany, and Holland | In the latter of which It la much omployad In thn maNiifaclure of gin. It Is also grown tu MHfia «a(«iit In Kngland, Scotland, and Wales. In this mmntry it Is |)fin«lpally restricted to the Middle and Eastern Htstas, but its culture Is giving place to mora proAtulila t^rnpo. TIm thriM laaditlg v«ri«tl«i cultivated In the United Ntatss ara th« NlirlllK, Winter, and Southern, the latter dUfsring from tfia others only from dissimilarity of cli- mate, The )'l«ld varies from 10 to flO, or nuirc, bushels per acre, wolghinK from 48 to Ml III. to (he bushel. This grain Itos naver t-ntered largely Into our foralgn commeri's, as tin* home consumption for a long period nearly k«|it imm with the supply, The amount ex- |K>rtad (mn Iha I'nltwl States In 1801 was 892,276 lm*hsls( In IM|g, MV,70A bushels i In 1818, 140,186 bushels, In INHO ';ll there were exported 23,628 bar- rels of rye Hour i In IMflo 'd1 , lo,100 barrela ; In 1840- '41, 44,011) barrels) In 1846 '4A, 88,680 barCels; In 1840-'47, 4M,8lnl Imrrals) in I860-'61, 44,162 barrels. During the yxnt midlng ilnne 1, 1860, there were eonsumad, of rva, alwut 2,144,000 bushels In the man- ufoi^tura of malt and splrittioua liquors, Aooording tu tho ««nsus returns of 1840, the prod- uct of the I'oontry was 18,(14(1,687 buahela; in 1660, 14,188,087 bushels. Of this amount there was export- Ud from Now Yurk fi2,022,862, PaoiiGOTliw ntt lira m tun 1'i»fttiti MtAtia roa tux Ykass }14« Ami 18M. SlaM s/lii 'ftmUHliH, " is«r lUO. 8a>lt«li. BiaiUli. Alabama , ,,, Al.OSS 17,161 ArlUMssa ,,, •,910 8,047 I'oliimkis, IM»lrt«l«f,, , 6,081 6,B09 1 'DnneotidMl^, , r ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, , 787,484 600,803 1 talawartt ,,.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 8«,84« 8,066 riorida,,,. 808 1,162 Illinois,,,,,, ..,,.,,,.,,,. «o,«;b 68,760 88,197 88,864 Indiana ,,,,,,.,,,,,,,<,,,,,,,,, 199,811 78,71(2 Iowa .>i..i,.>.>,<.,.,.,,. 8,7119 10,U16 Keutmky. ,. •,,,!>,,,,,,,,,,,, , 1,811,378 416,073 Ijiulslooa,,..,,,,.,!.,,.,,,,,,, 1,811 475 MaiOA , 187,M1 101,916 718,677 126,014 Msusfliiiselts, ,,,,,, ,,,,,, 086,014 481,021 MIHiigsii .,,,,,,,,,,,,,,„,,„, 84,986 ll'6,8Tl Miuii>in|il, ,,,,,,,,,,, ,,, MlMoiirt ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 11,444 9,605 «8,flOR 44,968 Naw lUiiip/ihiro, , .,,,,,,, 80!),I4S 183,117 Nuw .larafy,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,,,,, 1,666,810 1,256,678 New V«rk ,, ,,,,,„,,,,,,, },<'7n,818 4,148,182 North CaroliiM 118,»71 22<.5II3 Ohio .,,,,, ,, ,,,„, 814,106 425,918 I'ennaylvania,,,,, .,.,,, ,,,,,,, 8,619,!i78 4,806,100 llhmia laisod ,, ,,,,,,,,,,, S4,62l 26,409 »>auibrarRlina,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 44,788 43,7:'0 804,810 80,137 Tesas,,, ,„,,,„,,,,,,, , . , . 8,103 Viirniunt, ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 18'l,003 176,233 VIrgtnta ,,,.,,,,,,,, 1,482,7(10 4r>S,!13!> WiaciHiatn ,.,...,,,,,,,, 1,(166 8I,2,^3 a (MlnoMsola, ,..,,■,, ,,i.,,. • • • • 125 E| Orfgou,,,,,,,,. ,,,,,„,, SI U'tsh. , Total 100 ,... 210 ri8,««,6<)7 14,18S,8I3 Itjrot*. TIm nanw ((lv«n to the cultivators of the soil uf lllnihMtan, who hold their land by a lease which is considered as perpstual, and at • rate iixed by an- ci«i»t *Uf v«yf MM VttUltlvIM, • **• xf*M^' SAU tMI SAI is. - ffM»\» |4 ,1HS.8I8 I latoTs of the lleMO which Ued by an- Bable (Oer. Zobeti Fr. Zibtllini ; It. ZibtUinoi Rum. Sohol), an animal of tha weasel trllxi, fuunil in the northern parti of Aiiatlo Uuula and Ameriua, hunted for the uke of itt fur. Its color is generally of a deep gloiiv brown, and sometimes of a line glossy black, which Is moat esteemed. Sable skins have sometimes, though very rarely, been found yellow, and white. The flner sorts of the fur of sables are very scarce and dear. A single skin of the darker color, though not aliovo four Inches broad, has lieen valued as high an (60. The sable {Mutltla zilielliHa, Linn.) is principally a native of the northern regions of Asia : it is hunted and killed for the Russian market, either by a single ball, a blunt arrow, or traps, by exiles or soldiers sent for that pur> pose, in tlie deserts of Siberia. The skin is in the high- est perfection from November to February. A nearly allied animal, called the " flsher," inhabits North Ameri- ca, and 1* similarly sought after and destroyed for its tut.— Set Fun Tradk. Saddles (Fr. Sellu; Ger. Sattel; It. Stile; Ruas. Sidla} Sp. StlUi), seats adapted to horses' bocks, for the convenience of the rider. SftlBower, or Bastard BaSron (Ger. Safflur; Du. S<\ghtr, Basterd Saffron; Fr. Carlame, Saffron batard; It. Zaffront; Sp. Alruor, Aza/ran boMlardo; Ruai. Poterroi, Prostoi .icAq/'ran), the flower of an an- nual plant (Carlhamut tinctorius, Linn.) growing in India, Egypt, America, and some of the warmer parts of Europe. It is not easily distinguished from saflVon by the eye, but it has nothing of its smell or taste. The flowers, which are sometimes sold under the name of laffranon, are the only parts employed in dyeing. They yield two sorts of coloring matter: one soluble in water, and producing a yellow of but little beauty ; the other is remout, and best dissolved by the tlxcd alkalies : it is this last which alone renders safflowcr so valuable in dyeing ; as it aflbrds a red color exceed- ing in delicacy and beauty, as it does in costliness, any which can be obtained even from cochineal, though much inferior to the Utter in durability. The color of safiiower will not bear the action of soap, nor even that of the lun and air for a long time ; and being very costly, it is principally employed for imitating upon silk the fine scarlet {ponceau of the French) and rose colors dyed with cochineal upon woolen cloth. The fine rose color of saiHower, extracted by crj-stal- liied soda, precipitated by citric acid, then slowly dried, and ground with the purest talc, produces the beauti- ful rouge known by the name of rouge tigitale. 8af- flower should be chosen in flakes of a briglit pink color, and of a smell somewhat resembling tobacco. That which is in powder, dark-colored, or oily, ought to be n^ected. — HASSELqiiiST's Voyagtt, Engl. ed. p. 362; Bamcroft's Permaneiu Colon, vol. i. p. 286-28!); Mii.- hurn's Orient, Commerce. Baffron (Ger. Saffron ; Du. Safmn; It. Zafferano; Sp. Saffron; Fr. Azof ran; Russ. Sckafran), a sort of cake prepared from the stigmas, with a proportion of the style, of a perennial bulboua plant (Crocut talivut, Linn.). When good, safTron has a sweetish, penetra- ting, difTuaive odor; a warm, pungent, bitterish taste; and a rich, deep orange-red color. It should bo chosen fresh, in close, tough, compact cakes, moderately moist, and possessing in an obvious degree all the above-men- tioned qualities. The not staining the fingers, the making them oily, and its being of a whitish yellow or blackish color, indicate that it is bad, or too old. Saf- flron is used in medicine and in the arts ; but in Kn- gland the consumption seems to be diminisliing. It is employed to color butter and cheese, and also by painters and dyers. — Thomson's Dispensatory; Lou- nos's Encydoptdia of Agriculture. SagapMluni (Arab. SugbenuJ), a concrete gum- resin, the produce of an unknown JE'ersian plant. It is imported ft«m Alexandria, Smynia, eie. Tt hai on odor of garlic, and a hot, acrid, bitterish taste. It is in agglutinated drops or maaaea, of an olive or brown- ish yellow color, slightly traiiaiucrnt, and breaking with a homy fracture. It softi-ns and is tenacious be- tween the Angers, melts at a low heat, and bums with a crackling noise and white flame, giving out abundance of amoke, and leaving behind a light a|iongy charcoal. It is used only in medicine. — TilnMsoii'H JHtpeiuntorg. BagO (Malay iSo^m ; Jav. Sagu), a apecles of meal, the produce of a palm {Mttroxylon Sagxi) indigenous to and abundant in such of the Fjutern islands as pro- duce spices, whero it supplies a principul part of the farinaceous food of the inhabitants. Ir la produced In China, Japan, Molucca, and the South Sea lalanda. Tha tree, when at maturity. Is about 80 feet high, and from 18 to 'a inches in diameter. Itefora the formation of the ftult, the utem consists of an external wall aliout two inches thick, the whole interior being tilled up with a sort of spongy medullary matter. Why barbery. It consists of an elevated table-land, covered with largo blocksofatone, hard-baked earth, gravel, andloose sand ; and in many places it is incrusted with salt. It is the greatest desert on the globe, but numerous oaaes and habitable spota are scattered over its surface, the largest of which are Gadames and Tuat. It is traversed in many directions by caravan routes ; travelers on which undergo the most intense sufferings from thirst, and from exposure to the simoom, or hot, dry wind from the south and east, which usually lasts 10 or 12 hours : (luring its continuance the air is impregnated with fino sand, and the sun is borely perceptible. Rain appears to fall in torrents at intervals of 5, 10, or 20 years, and many places of the desert bent evidence of its action avcn for a much longer period. The heat is excessive (luring the summer, but in winter tlie evenings are cool, and during night frequently cold. Palm-trees grow on the borders of the Sahara, and the chief products of its oases are dates and gums. Bail, in Narigation, an assemblage of several breadths of canvas sewed together by the lists, and edged round with cord, fastened to the yards of a ship to make it drive before the wind. The edges of the cloths or pieces of which a sail is composed are generally sewed together with a double seam, and the whole is akirted round the edges with a cord, called the bolt-rope. Al- though the form of sails is extremely different, they 8AI leet 8AI tn all, n«T*rth«l«M, (rIanguUr or qntdriUltrkl flRurci ; or, in other worda, their turficri are vunltinail either Iwtween three or four lidei. The fornirr of theie are •omelimM ipreid by k yard, M lateen uiU, and olher- wIm hy > itay, ai itay-iaiU, or by a mail, ai rhoulder- of-miitlon aaiU ; In ail which caMi the foramott leech or edge la attached to (he laid yard, mad, or atay, throughout iti whole length. The latter, or thOie whkh are four^ided, are either extended by yardi,*u the principal yarda of a iliip ; or by yards and boom*, ai the ituddlng^alli, driven, rlng-taili, and all those sails which are set occasionally ; or by gaffii and booms, as the mainsails of sloops and brigantines. Sail is also a name applied to any vessel seen at a distance under sail, and is equivalent to ship. To Ml Hiil, Is to nnfurl and expand the satis opon their respective yards and stays, in order to begin the action of sailing. To male* tail, Is to spread an additional qnantity of sail, so as to increase the ship's velocity. To $horttn tail, Is to reduce or take in part of the sails, with an intention to dimlniih the ship's velocity. To itrik* taH, Is to lower it suddenly. This is psN tieularly used In saluting or doing homage to a superior force, or to one whom the law of nations acknowledge* as stiperior in certain regions. — See Blunt's Coail Pi. hit Bl.UHT'a Ship-maMer'i Auiitaitl, New York, 1867 ; DoWditch's ffatigatkm. ^<lted States export to this island flour, grain, lumber (principally pltob> pine), and provlalons of all kinds. RaviNca AND ExriNomai, ISM-'M. VcMit. Uttnm. ■■M«mM«, IHM ill4,(H5 iflO.UM 19.10 1^1T^ Iv.Tgl 1880 ia,tt4 it\ou VlSSIU linSID AND OLBABCD IN 18M. Coyntrtof UliUeU KliigUuiu . British Colonies., Unltml States Forsign 8tat«i. . , . TaUI,18U.,.. Total, 19l».... ToUI,1864.... V.iMl«. I Twn. HI 910 ta W8 l»T 408 S81 ,001 7,830 Saint Croia^ the southernmost and largest of th* Virgin Islands, and the most important of the 'Janish posaeaaiona. Area, 100 aquare mile*. Population (1846), 26,600. The commercial intercourse between this island and the United States depend* partly en the mother coun- try, and partly on local legislation fixed fer the time. There are no privileges allowed other oountriea which are not allowed the United Stntea. Qoods may bo re- shipped in American vessels. The money currently passing here is dollars and cents. Danish weight Is about 10 per cent, heavier than English. The trad* to this island is now leaa than one-third of what it was before the emancipation. Oftentimes there is not an American vessel in port for months together. The supplies come generally through St. Thomas, which is a free port, and yet under the same government. — For Geology of St. Croix, itt Siluman's Jotim. xxxv. 64. AaaaioAN Pbodvob inroarxD dibiot nnro tbb Isuuid or bT. C'BOIZ. AlUoW rui. Itll. llit. Corn nuftl ......... DUDoh'nik To 8,140 830 4,000 748 Com meal barrels. anperflnn flour " 8,504 8,540 ••>K Braad •' 940 00 910 T4 lOO 80 Beef. " Pork " 41C BOO 810 Herrings " s»\itA casks. 090 410 900 980 918 810 Ryeflour barrsls. 1V4 108 910 Redoakstaves 931,000 240,000 200,000 White oak staves 140,000 1911,000 110,000 White pine lumber llMt Pitch pin* lumber . " i.ooT.noo 1,700.000 1,720,000 810.000 ISIS^O'O' M6,000 ahlnglae 9,818,000 1,080,000 l.tSfOOO Horses number. 14 99 90 Mules " 100 TO 188 UO (8 78 KecsofDalls '• Wood hoops •' 910,000 980,000 9*0,000 Ml lyp Ma SAI 1003 RAI FMBVonofTiii IiLAKD aiirotTni Toraa rNinn Btatu, 4,0601 14S 8,ll» IM SO SIO sm 810 no IW.OOO Ltm.ooo >«B,000 ^.mooo r JO IfiO » 1180,000 AMUImi' , ItogiEaMil. barnla. piinrhmnt. lUt. ini, DIM luBT 7WI 16 DID ItSBI ■•int BaUlM, an iilaml in tha aoutli Atlantic OcM*, iMlunKlMH to Urost Britain, aliuut HuU nilla* toullMHt fruni Aavaniion, and nearly IHIO nillea from tha ooMt of Ib' 8., lonu. t)' W K. Aroa, 80,1100 acro». Pupulatlon In IMO, ?U0O, uf whom nearly onu-half wore wliliei. It U of vokanlo url||ln, and contlati of rugged niountaint, Intaraparaad with numaruui ravlnea, In ona of which, on lla northwaat ahora, la Jamea Town, tha rviidencu of th« principal autbortliea. Ita centre ia a talilo'lanil, with an alavation of 15U0 feel, but from which acveral mountaina rliio to a greater elevation, DItna'a I'aali balnif liTOU feet. Climate mild. Muan trniperatura of year, Ol"!!} winter, &8°-4; aummer. UD'H. TheUI- •nd la watored liy numeroua brooka, and alwut a fifth part of Ita aurfaco la fertile, yicldinK the product* both of Kuropean and tropical countriea. Uoata are plenti- ful In the uplanda ; but aupplioa of provisions are moat- \y procured from abroad, the liland lying in the home- ward track of ahlpa nturning flroni India. 8t, Ilolenit la chiefly noted aa the place of exile of Napoleon Uona- parto, whoao raaldence, Longwood, waaon tha elevated plateau of the Interior, llo lived there from IHia till hli daceaae. May 6th, 1H21. Tha United Htatea have a conaul resident at this Uland, which la freiiucntly visited by our nhipa to ami fh>m Asia, India, l^apo of Good Hope, etc. By act of 8 and 4 William IV. the Island of 8t. Helena, and all furta, factoriea, and public edillces, wore vested in His M^oaty, and tha Uland aball bo governed by or- dara In council. The average aggregate valuea of imports at this island from the United Utatea are : For the year IM jl, $d4'29 ; for the year IM&l, $HU77 ; for the year 1853, $8U,8U'J ; for the aix month* ending SUth June, 18&I, tli,'iH. Value of oil and whalobono transhipped by American voatala to Iho United State*, f l(i,&'ij. There are no prlvlUgea pormitted to the commerce of other nations which are denied to the United Statea; but, on the other hand, there are privileges granted lolelj/ to vessels of tha United Htatea, auch aa the reduction of custom charges on the transhipment of oil, whalebone, and •mpty oil cuks, as per proclamatlun of September, 1853, and the remlasion of port cliari;G8 to whaling vcs- mIb calling hero within three months after their first arrival, aa pur notice of July, 1864, which accommo- dationa have had their effect in the increase of the American lleet at thia port. The port charges are Ifvlad allko on all foreign vessels as on Uritish. There are no charges on national vessels, either British or foreign, and all are alike furnished with water free of charge. There Is no Chamber of Commerce, and the rale* of exchange depcn-tldea n^ feet, but very Irregnlarly, U'lng much Influanced by tha wind*. (JchhU may M transhipped In llidtad Ntatea vraaels to any place out of this Colony without rostriniion of any sort. 1'ha welglila and measure* are the same aa In Kngland, The moneys are In a great degree the same, namely | sovereigns, with .Spanish and Mexican dnibira, which, however, ara now faat disappearing. 'I'lin eurrreni value of the sovereign la 24 shillings, eipial to #4 HO, and of the dollar 5 shillings, or 100 rents, Tiio average wholesale prieea of Ihn ex|Hirla to tho ITnited States since July I, IRM, have been as fidlowsi .Seal oil, tiO rents per giilinn | rod oil, M cent* per gal- lon ; codfish, fi 50 per i|ulntal ; herrlnus, (I'.' 4il per barrel. Salmon, not quo'.ed above, varli-s friiin tl'i to tv!0 generally for the tierce of 1110 pounds, The** articles are rarely aold at retail In this market, Tha average rate of exchange waa 4 to 5 per cent, discount from thia colony to the I'niteil Ntates. The true par of exchange Is 2 per cent. Tlin duties are on lm|Kirla from all countries alike, as follows ; llreail, II cents per iiag of ll'i lbs.; flour, .15 rents per barrel; pork, H cents per liarrol ; beef, 48 cents per barrel ; butter, 4i cents per ewt, ; manufactured tobaitco, 4 rent* per lb, | tea, cents per lb. On all nnennmrratrd gimdii A per cent. n>i valnremi and In this port an additional dutjr is levied of 10 per cent, on Ihi ihilin above. Saint Lawrenoe river, Unltuil Htatcs ami Can- ada, forms the outlet of the great lakes Hiiperior, Huron, Michigan, Krie, and Ontario, and, after a course of more than 2001) miles, Hows into the (iiilf of 81. Lawrence. Itforms the linnndary, with the niiddla of the lakes through whicli it paasc», lietween lli« Unit* ed States and I'anadn, until it arrives at tlie 4Ath de- gree of north lat. It has different names in dltlerant parts of its course. l''rom Its mouth to l.nke Ontario it is called tho 8t. Lawrence; lietween l.nkes Ontario and Krie, Niagara Kiver; lietween Lnkea Krie and Ht, Clair, Detroit Kiver; between Lakes Nt, Clair and Huron, 8t, Clair Kiver; and between Lakes Huron and' Superior, St. Mary's Kiver. It is navigable fur ahlpa' of the lino 400 miles, to Qneliec ; and for ship* of (KlO tons to Montreal. The distance from Montreal to Laka Ontario is nearly 200 miles, Knini Quebec |u Mont- real it has an average br<wnilllii( lh« rlvir. At toni* of the r*plil( thar* trt o'>iU<'l«< |jr«vinllii|{ lh« lUuimt of dnply-UiIrr rraft, but tlMK<>> rrnniant »n aliout In gin III* nislii chtnntl In all th« ri|iliU • dtpili o( Itii faal walar, «hin Ihx whulu (IwcumiliiK Iratl* lijr ■twin will knap Ilia rivnr, lakvinR tha canali to Iha Mcandlng craft. — itlra Canada anil MoNTNKAL. Tha raUtitre poailiun nf llin ITnlUil Htataa anil (Iraat llrltain In rimpact to Iha navlKatlon of ih« Rreal iinrlh- •rn laka* anil tha Klvar Hi. l^wranca, appaara lo Im •Imllar to that of tha Unitail Htataa and Hpaiii, pravi- oual/ lo Iha eoaaatlon of LouiaUna and Florida, In ra- •piicl to Ibv llUaltsippI; Iha Unllvd Htataa bolnit In (loaMaalon uf Ilia loulham ahoraa of tha lakaa, and Iha Hlvar Hi. Lawranva lo lbs paint wh«r« tha northarn lioundary Una ilrlkea Iha river; and (iraat llrltain of Iha nurthurn ihuraa of tho lakaa, and Iha rivar In Ita whnia axlani lo tha »aa, a« wall aa of tha aoulham lianka of llio river, from tha lalltuda of 46" to ita mouth. Tha claim of tho poupla of tho United Htataa of • right to navlijala tho Nt. I. iwronca to and from Iha lea waa, In lN'i6, tho au ij t of dlicuaalon belweun tha Ainorlcan •nd Hrilith »'>'' 'riiinenti. Tha narlgc i n of tha o sntlnuoua walara of the Unit- ad Htatea and Canuda ir provlilod for In the (ollowInK artli'lea of Iha traaty of Juna a, IMM : Tha third arllclo, vrhoaa operation tnaj Ik alTafltad at Iha will of the American govornriient, hv • uapenaion of thla privi- loK«, aa atlpi'.'iated for li. tho fourth articia, on Iha part of (iroat Urilain, provldai for a raclprocal trade, fnto of duty, batwoen the Unltad Statet and tha Ilritith cnloniea, In tha artlclea of thair raapectlva growth and proiluco, aieiiuiiioratcd In theachadul'i thereto annvxad. "It U aKraod that Ihe ritizeni and inhabitanta of (ho United Htatea ahall havs the ri^ht to navigate tha Kivur Ht, I.awreiico and the caiiiil« In Canada, uaed aa the nieana uf conimunicMlor '"> een the great lak>a and tha Atlantic Ocean, wlih iliuir vesaela, boata, and orafta, aa fully and froly .t^ the Biil|)ecla of Ilor Bri- tannic M^Jcaty, tulf)einly to ihe tanio tolU and other aaseaanienta aa now are or .nay hereafter ho ex- acted of Her Mi^eaty'a tald tulfjecta; it being under- ■tuod, however, that the Brltiah government retaina tho right of Buapending thla privilege, on giving duo no- tice thereof to tho government of tho United Statea. " It la further agreed, that If at any lliiio the liiltlah government ahould exerclae the aaid reaerved right, the government of the United Statea ahall have the right of auapendlng, if It think flt, the operation of Article S, of the prcaent treaty, In ao far a* Ihe province of Canada ia aHected thereby, for ao long aa tho >u«penaton of tho free navigation of the Itiver St. Lawrence or the canal* may continue. "Ilia further agreed, that Dritlah aiil^octs ahall have tho right freely to navigate Lalie Michigan with their veaaela, boata, and crafia, ao ! > ; aa the privilege of navigating the River St. Lawrence, aecurcd to the Americana liy the abovo clauae of Ihe preaent arllclo ihall continue; and tho government of tha United Statea further engagea to urge upon the State govern- ment* to aecuro to the aubjecta of Her nrltaniiic Mi^- eaty the uae of the aeveral State canala on term* of equality with tho inhabitant* of the United Statea."— Wkeaton'h Jiitemational Law, For curreapondence on navigation uf Ht. Lawrence, aco American Annual Ktgutir. 11. i;i7; NU'En's Regitttr, xxxlil. 4n. Buuit XiOuU. -xly, Miaaouri, capital of St. Lout* '.<.. r>t\ , ia aituateil on the right bank of the Mi«al*sippl, lii ;it'. 88° 87' 2! " >:., and long. 90° 15' 16" W. hom Oteenwlrh, and ia ona of the largest and moat flouriih- \<\g citiea in the threat valley of Ihe Miaaisaippi. It Is 1200 milca alrave Now Orleana, and 1360 miles above the mouth of tho river. About 180 milea south of the city the Ohio comes in to the Great Father of Water*, from it* eaatom sources In the Alleghanies, after a course of 1000 miles, while a short distance above ita mouth th^^CamlierUnd and the Tennessee pour their dream* Into l4i Balla NIvlera, To tha norlhwani, 17 niiiva, the Miaaouri poura nui Ita turl.lil >.ir*am into Iha MiaalaalppI, and the watr a tlow down tu tlia vary fhinl uf Iha city, liafor* the clair wptera «r the MiaalaalppI yield Ihaniaelvaa lo Iha ambracaa uf Iha great rlvara of the Weal, coming down f^om tha sn'iwa of tha Korky Mountaliia ItOOO miles away. At a dialanr* of lin mlira lo the northward, tha llllnoia — now I'unnertrd with Ih* lakaa by Ih* llllnula and Michigan Canal— romaa In from Iha northaaat, and la navigated by 8l. I.oula Imat* aa far aa the Juiu'lion of th* canal and river at La Halls, 200 nillaa from Hi. Luula. Nt. !.oula la Ih* centre of ■ great rallmad ayslsni, radiating to all parte of the Union. The ayatam, aa at present planned, may atated aa follows : The I'arlllo Knad wlih Ita br>- Mn Thia rnail runa fhmi HI. Loula lo Iha Merrliiiai ' or; tha main lino then croases the divide lietweei. Ilia >< >rri- mac and the Miaaouri to Jeinirson City 'he ''a, ' >' i. ' the Hiatal thence leaving the river, l< >i\ii< directly to Ih* mouth of the Kanaaa RIvt , to he ' ' 'rd to the I'acKIc, through Ihe great chain nf " i. Hy Mount- ains. Thla ruad ia UU'60 .nilea in It ili, und la I1n> lahed to Jeffbraon City. The Ohio and Mlaalaal|ipt Kallrnad, from Cincinnati lo Ht. Louis, was uprnrd in IM.'>7, liail milea In lenrrih. The steaiiilioa( Ion i ige of thla city will appear ftT>m the following table. For the year ending Jiin* HO, IH68, Ih* following I'lliaa atood entered on the took* of the ciiatom-houae, as fullow* : "" " (III™. HI. l/mis IM. II4.DIB m.DM 8,17t» 14,8W r-i«f. — 1 u.ia7 IIMT ll.WuT iWl'"' 45, .141 lU.llil 1414 I4,IM 1 llnolnnati Naahvllla Uiilavllla thu* *howing an Increase at the rate of 1 1 ,000 tons per year. For the year ending December HI, IMS, Ihe sugar laniled at Ht. I.oula was 60,774 hhds., 13,093 bbls., 4(1,267 boxes and bags ; molasses, 64,0H8 bbls. and hhds. For this article St. Louis Is the great cen- tral supply mart, liy Ihe government returns, all tho sugar shipped from New Orleans for 1862 was &0,71'8 hhds., and 6&.« lU.IHl. Per* . . ■ I- 1 »ea. H,W .54 Itu,(i00 Lor II 4t,6l. , ,>b.H% 5«,000 *• . kill ito. n.sm I^SSO 1B.O(»0 Wl.i.»j .. .... Umla. 4«,44« BI,80T 1!B,000 Hide IT,I4H 101,44(1 186,000 naming., ■lain ro|)e. .... niecea, .... rolls. 8,(»0 41,111 2,8M (»,4ST _44!flflO Hour manufactured at St. Louis in 1861, 408,099 bids.; 1852, 883,184 bbls. ; 1863, 467,076 bbls. ; to this muat h« added receipts by wagons from country mills, 80,220 barrels, making the sum total of the flour manufactured and brought to St. Louis, 737,499 barrels. The flour manufactured in St. Louis in the year 1856 was 678,000 barrels ; and in 1857, 662,000. Thcto are sixteen flour- mills within the limits of the city. Tho number of steamboat arrivals in 1867 was 3^116, with an aggregate tonnage of 064,700 Ions. Foreign goods Imported in St. Louis for tho year ending Decemlier 81 : I I TstiT I ist i I isiir ' Goods, etc.... $8TB.67t S» |$l,oa»,478 00 ,«l,4S«,98l 40' nuties 280,318 68 I 100, 168 SB 467,6(6 44 —Stt Musissipri RiviB, fljf ie«5 MAI ,, BM>,a6l ll.BOO.OIIfl Vt,«43,OI!0 uo,ooo Ni.MH) 16,000 186,000 180,000 Jm',o«3 ioOOblila.; Jthls mult Ills, 80,220 lufactuied ■The flour \» 678,000 leen flour- lumber of ^grcg»te Iportcd in i«;»8r*o I l7,«4« 4*1 ■•Int VataiMbarg ili* niixlxni aiiHlHlli of the KuhUii iiii|>lrii, •liiiai » the eni\ltmnF!icl' till )tjr*r Nava widi tilt! vMUrii >' s iitilynrtheUulf nrMntaad 111 U(. 6U ' M ill N., liHiK. 'M \>>{ v.. INipuUlloni 4HO,tlO0. riiU lliilirUlilHK ain|i<>riuiii >u fouiiilnil \,y Tuliir lliu Oriml, wliiiM nainn It iH'nn, . I7i);|. Imh* (ante jriar. Ilia lint iiKTi'liaiit iihl|i ilim •■wr ii|i|.iiitr«<1 on tha Nuvii arrlvoil fruin llulUml; nml tlm ciar, tu mark liU m'liM of tlia valuii of iiii h vlnltiiri, trvatcil itit i'a|ilain ami craw with (lia Kr"*'"' hii>|iltnlUv, and loailttil tliviii with |ir«Miilj>. In KM, 111 ahlpa arrlvml at St. IVlumliurK ; In 17!IU tliu iiumiImt hail Imraiauil to IMD \ ami DO rapiit haa Imwii tha proKrvaa of luniniurri- anil civilltiitlun In Ituaaia tliicv that |ii'rl»'l. 3i Lollis = 1 round. | 10 fooda = 1 Ikirkovllt The Itussian pound contains, aivording to Koily, 631)i'& Kiigliah grains. Ilunoc HW lbs. liussian — 90'26 lbs. avoirdupois = 40-93 Uh^. Tho pood = 30 lbs. 1 oz. 11 drs., but am(>ii)( Miervhants it is rcclioned = 86 lbs. According to Nclkenbro.-hcr, 100 lbs. Itiis- sian = 90-19 lbs. a\ oirduf>ois = 409 kilog. = 828 lbs. of Amsterdam = 84-444 of Hamburg. The principal measure for corn is the chetwert, di- vided into 2 oimina, i paiocks, 8 chetwericks, or 64 ger- 6S nlU. Tlw thatwurt -= IJ-77 lm|>i»rlal too chalwarta •= /il J IniiMrlal qiMtrtwik ■i lm) WMna ai I «ihoft I Mpfc In limg ni>-aaure. I« WarilK'k ■■■ ! \n\mm. » Anhmii . 1 -laaliiilf Iff Raahan _. I VaraL I Mahen ,- Kngllih fi i I ariihsan s^ 21 Kngllsh iii.be. I'^l Uuaalan ftiflt :=Uli Kngllah fell. Tha vir>ii, or Uuaaian nillv, - h furbxigs H polra. Th» Kiijjilah liK'li anil liiMi are luwd Ihmughout U.\i«»l*, clililly, hoHi'ver, in ih. m»«>4rlng uf tiinlmr.- Hkiw. i,*'a Ciimbiit, an Kmuiai N'Ki.aic.<iox must be apccillod. Of manufactiircil gooila, the mea^«um of each piece muat be sperllled, and the niimlier [ilecea in eaih bale. It is indirtl-rcnt nhi-llier tho ki «» or the net weight bespecillcd. If the packages In- Muf Ihe same weight, measure, or conteiUa, a gcnornl ■cclllcation will do; as, for example, liM) cnaka ninui of 17 liapound each. Of dye-woods tho wei(,'lit of (In- whole need only bo mentioned. Of gooda iir»mull bii; .14 pepper, c(c.. It isaufllclent tu statu tho weiglit of ev live or ten bales, but with spccilication of (lie iiumbei There niua( not beanyeraaurcsor blots in (lie liiilul I > ling. All goods not arcompanied by theae 'lucmmn ■, or nticre the documents are not according :u the ni ve regulations, will be aunt back, lliiis of lading in ir bo made out either (o aonie house or (o ord'T. The fullowing charges havo been fix- ■ by (ho iner- chan(s of S(. I'c(er8burg: Par CI. f 'omnilaaton on aalca ajiil purehaaca i Kitra cliarKca un all Kootla 1 t'omailaaloii mid oxlm cliari;ca for guoda dellV'*:red up ... . % llrokeraKO on aalea and purehaaca | Ditto on bllla „ .. i niKo on frelglil, |ier tun. Oi) cnpecka. Slampa ( l)hni),'cs nil duly, paid Inivui-il • Ditto, paid outward 4 Cummlaaiun fur colierllni; (Velijlit, or average luwa-rd 8 I'oniinlsalon for iirocurlnK freight outward t For rloaraiicea, 40 roublea. Duoa to bo paid to tlio c:iiurcli, 10 roubles eaoh toimL Clearing of ahipa of or under l!& Isala each 40 roubles eat j vesoal SSto noisstaoach 00 " " ROto 76 " 80 " " T.MoliX) " 1IH> " " 100 to 151) " 160 " " leOorabovo 200 " " Tarf on Omth exporleJ, as jUeil by the Cuiiom-koutt. Bri nadt. Par CI. In bai-rela or cheats 10 In BACka ft In mats, or aacka made of msta & Kicept M uacovy leather, of which ia deducted B JToM Gt^t. Par Ck Preaaed caviare U Soap V'" Jr Heat and salt flah ^••- *0 SAI 1666 SAI JMm Omb. Par CI. T»lIow 10 Honey 17 Treacle 10 All other molit goodi IT Tare on Oooda imported. Vrp Gooda, P«r Ct. In barrels ur chests 10 In vcsMcU of gloss or carthcn-ware 20 In sacks 2 In double sacks 4 In mats 8 In easks and mats together 5 In baskets & Moitt Goods imported. — Tho following are sonio of the tares spcciflcd in tho tarlfT: OllTe oil in casks IT per cent " of Italy, In flasks ami straw 20 " " of France, In flasks and carthoii-warc. 40 ** Salt fish In barrels 86 " And generally on all moist goods In barrels. ... IT " In glass and earthen-wan: 20 " iliittllantnt Oocdt, Cotton IwlKt in bales per cent In chests and barrels 16 " Cochineal must be weighed in tho sacks after being taken from the casks; for every sack of from 4 to T poods 3 lbs. sncksoffromStoSlpoods 1 " Indigo in serous; every scron of from 6k to T |)oods 84 " " In half terons, 2( to 4 poods 20 >' " of Guatemala 20 per cent " In boxes 20 " Bills drawn in Russia, and payable after date, are allowed 10 Aaya' grace ; but if pnyulilu at sight, 3 days only. Sundays and holidays are included in both cases. Tlie Julian calendar, or old stylo, is still retained throughout Russia. This is 12 days later than the new style ; and in Icap-yuars, 13 days, after tho niontli of February, Port Charget. — Tho regular charges which ships have to pay at the ports of St. Petersburg and Cronstadt comprise the following fixed dues and expenses ; viz., lastage, passes, clearing at Cronstadt, address money, St. Petersburg and Cronstadt churcli money, Cronstadt expedition and allowance to the Russia Company's agent, for all which a charge is made in the ship's ac- count in one sum, proportionally to the ship's register tonnage, according tu the following scale: viz., Tom ItcgisUr. fiilv. Roub. For 61 4S u •> 62 to 81 N) » 8ata101 61 14 " 10Jtol21 66 28 " IMtol^l T4 " 142tol«l T!) 14 " 10«tol8l 84 V8 " 182to20l 1)2 " 20ito221 IIT 14 " 222to041 102 20 " S:4ito2fll 110 28 " 262to2Sl IIB 14 " 28itoBOI 12U 14 " 302 to 821 J2S «a Tom Rflfflator. SilT . Roob, Foril22to:>ll 136 » 342to861 141 14 " 3ll2ta881 149 14 " 882ta401 IM " 402to421 102 " 422 to 441 16T 14 " 442to4ai 176 14 '> 402ta481 180 " 4S2tot)01 IBS •■ 602to6il 193 14 " r)22lo64I 200 86 " 612to601 206 " f.02toB81 214 " 882 to 000 218 80 Trade, etc. — St. Petcrsl)urg lias the most extensive foreign trade of any city in the north of Europe. This arises from its Ijcing the only great maritime outlet on the Gulf of Finland, and from its vast and various communications with the interior of the country. Few countries have such an extent of internal navigation as Russia. Tho iron and furs of Siberia, and the teas of China, ar<' received at St, Petersburg by rivers and canals ri'a the Caspian ; but owing to the great dis- tance of those countries, and tln' short period of the year during which tho rivers and canals are navigable, they take three years in their transit. Immense quan- tities of goods are also conveyed during winter upon the ice, in sledges, to the dift(>rent ports, and to the nearest pristant, or places in the interior wheiti br.rks pre built for river or canal navigation. They are put on board in anticipation of tho period of sailing, that the barks may l>e ready to take advantage of the high water, l>y floating down with the current as soon as the mow and ice begin to melt. The cargoes carried up the riret into the interior during summer are princi- pally conveyed to their ultimate destinations by tho sledge roads during winter. The conveyance by the latter is generally the most expeditious ; and it, as well as the intcrnul conveyance l>y water, is performed at a very moderate expense. The barks that come from the interior are mostly of a very rude construction, flat-bottomed, and seldom drawing more than 20 or 80 inches water. When they arrive at their destination, they are sold or broken up for fire-wood. Those that leave the ports for the interior are of a superior descrip- tion, and are comparatively few in number ; the com- modities imported being at an average, of much greater value relatively to their bulk and weight than those that nre exported. IViiicipal Artiilei of Export. — The principal articles of export are tallow, hemp, and flax ; grain, particu- larly wheat; linseed, timber, copper; hides, poliishcs, bristles, hemp-seed oil, furs, leather; fox, hare, and squirrel skins ; canvas and coarse linen, cordage, cav- iare, wax, isinglass, quills, tar, etc. Tallow, both for candles and soap, is more largely exported from this than from any other port in the Baltic or elsewhere, and is an article of great commercial importance. — See Tallow. Hemp is of good quality , tbougli inferior to that of Riga : it is assorted, according to its quality, into c/mn, or ^rsts; oii/sAot, or seconds ; an A half -clean, or thirds. The first sort should be quite clean, niid free from spills; the second is less so; and the third, or half-clean, contains a still greater portion of spills, and is, besides, of mixed qualities and colors. Hu9i head, and C head. Iron uf good quality, and preferable to that from the other Russian ports, is of two kinds, old and new sables, the former being tho best. It used to be exported in considerable quanti- ties ; but tho shipments arc now much reduced. Commej'ce. — The totol value of tho exports of St. Petersburg in 1862 amounted to nearly i(;)0,000,000. A considerable augmentation was experienced in cer- tain descriptions of merchandise. The quantities of wool and copper more than tripled, and of wheat and flax-seed oil more than doubled the quantities exported during the year 1850. Potashes increased 60 per cent. ; on the other hand, oats decreased §, peltries ^, iron {, follow 25, per cent. ; flax-seed, hemp, and woven goods more than 10 per cent. Sugar, tobacco, salt, wincF, silk; and cotton yarns also fell much below the upual importations. An augmentation, however, was noted in the importation of fruits, rice, raw cotton, and Cham- pagne wine. Notwithstanding a heavy expenditure was npplieil by the Russian government to the improvement of St. Petersburg as the commercial emporium of Russia, still, owing to the numerous difliculties encountered, and tho severity of the climate allowing but six months in tho year for tho continuance of these works, the re- sult by no means realized the expectations of the gov- ernment. The consequence was, that the low waters in tho rivers, and the almost total absence of water in the canals, kept back the produce usually forwarded from the interior. It was not until toward the end of July that the trade of St. Petersburg exhibited any briskness. During the month of May, several Itriti.'^li vessels arrived and cleared in ballast ; but in the lat- ter part of July. and August freight ollfered in great abundance, although the arrivals were numcrou.s. I'rom this period the trade continued unusually bri>k, u'llil early in November, when the navigation closed. Sulijoined is a statement of tho principal exports from St. Petersburg in 1862 : Tallow. To Kngland 1 ,861,082 poods. Other countries 1T2.8;4 " Total 2,o;l7,8(K) " Average price : 81 roubles Tl kopecks per berkowitx = T^ cent* per lb., nearly. SAI 1667 FtAXiMD. T«EnBla„d.... ,^ OtiH.r «„..„,„;: : : : : : : J|^ tcnet^renc Woou to Engl.„a Average pru„, 83V c;;;t:pe;b„,jfiP, " Flax To Knglnim . '' "«"'y- Otlior counlVlui"; ,' ''IM^ Pood.. ,j, 6T,7fi2 11 Average price for beVl! fll ■,.■.-.!.■-■ ^'"•'^'i SAI Unfted state, TS'mo'"'"'''- 17,8;i(i 1. 8.108 •> iiw,,s.'i7 .. I'ur iiood=:$() 75_ cuts per Total Sweden, eia:: IS? Mqu.ut,_ToWg,;-nd:::;:;'CMl 10.435 6.'m "' 8,074 x. '•il3,938 " 118,04!) '< 118,274 " 22,^2t " 7,081 II 74« " mJTl " o^ cent, per pound, nearly. 4* " Sweden, etc. , K^nce... United States! u o. ToUl 8d quallty^To England .' .' .' .' ." .' Oormany. ...'.' . Sweden, etc United States. France . . . . Total Average priceg, lat quality, 6 2d •' Sd ' Cioing-canvas for sails: To United States. 4oi4„,„ Oerniany.... RTflnP'^"^* Kngland. ?'I,?» ' France.. ''^'^ " " Flemish wooIonV- '~ioM » Franco '""1 ' ,, „ ToUI.... ■ = — 1 ' Baven's-duck: '^'^' " To Germany » bti ., United states. l^J, .'I oantlnia t jao . ^"7 .-im .: Sall-cloth (best oTi^Tfl?^'!,'"''™'' •• Flemish wooK ^ '''"^*' '„* «",'.'"'^» P«' Pl " Other countries, Total Average prices: France Germany Italy...'.,;;;;; p,. Ti.tal . - re£,^Slf5r::^';;^':^P^ export, i,„,.. 3, imbcr, grains, Kussian either ,'"' """' ''"mr, ">g staples of this great ~lZ"'' "'"- ""> '«"1- JVoi,,^a(,o„„y,^,''^.'^;"'nm«rciaIeniporiu„,. P^'hibits the «avi.a;L:''J':,^"^.:-T'.o following table eva(,.e. of St. Peters. bur,r , ;,- '"'^•'e'"ion of the x;^'.- <^°"?«in« table burg and Cronstailt) in 18 " Veueli. Natioaajjiy, Eiigiisir Riiaaian I'rtissian . I'ulch '■ United Statei owedish .... "anish.... French....'" , ,.„ Sardinian.. 'J? N'orwcgian... ;;;;;;•• *j Hanoverian;;;;;;;:;; ,!^ Mechlcnburff ' ''^ Oldenburg.,, "romcn ' , Hamburg "' I'ortugueso';;;;;;;'" ^^ sels included in the lablowi'„t„r"'-a"-^ "''"'« "s- and do not, of course entoHn? m*"* " ^t. Petersburg, were: ""'''*'"«' mto the calcuUtion. These Tonnaife. I *'«' tenlnirfl 8ao,44a 02,r.7() 44,306 88,016 27,2S4 10,862 lo.zao 13,1113 11,012 9,2S0 7,080 7,1162 «,244 6.700 1,008 1,636 I lllfl'flo I.ubeck Norwegian,;; ., I'mssian . . f Knssian, ; Swedish i r97!a^„^°''''^''-P"Pood = . J$2l& °"- .i"' "»""*•' ""ond « $35 25 per 80 pound,, Bremen ,' Wanish.... ' French ... Hanoverian';;; l uuich ;;;;;;;" 24 Aggregate tonnage. . ' Total vessels . ans. For «■; acco'unt of J fZT ^"r'"-'^- '"''■"'■ »ia and the general sa, ' ™rT"" "-"'.v "f Kus- .... 70 12,034 =f^ per Sfllonndror oCn?'"""^ "''" '" '■ "" P°o3 , S«^* Thomas oi;?''"'!^'/- «'-^'A. Sonchaya, 20 ?. perpoodi^S m*^;: ""»"''• ^J'S". group, three miles wor„f J ",'', ''""" ''''""1, nts per pound ; 2d qnalUylo lo" C. "T^'' "^ «M "' "■•"' ^--^f^mitv, is" oq^n I '.' o'"'"- f^otit'-'Ie pounds. nr«n8 ._ ' •' ^"'- Per rood = *T Rn _,_ .in . ., •! ^° -" «., lone. (i4° r,\' \\r ■Pcrrnod = $7 60pcr I'l cents S«pounds,'or»,g„nla per pound. UomkTaimandIIa.b: To Germany. United States; rranco..., England .;;;; Sweden, etc Total ■ - 8 "•• 60 kop. per p„^ -I^ZT P^'S: '-■ tooLABat ToEngirnd *!! ""'''*""'•• ^ ^^ «""■ Per lb. Germany ^MH poods. Franco. '•I"u " Total.::::::::"" -J " Average prir-'" ' '' " 2,SC7 poods. 2,678 " 1,7,';0 11 1,413 " 1.013 " 0,7-Jfl " ;;;' square miles. ' Popr^tQ^^ ^^ "^ ^roa, fhe principal products are suga an l™??' *""' """■■• .ri'o commercial in(ereonrr„fTi . ""• action of '•'.0 present com ercial reen t-™'"'""'" government, 'otinlte period, b imn/ !" .' °"' f'"""' «-'< for a '»t quality, 140 impound, nearly; ^Mpcraopoundi, £Sf;!-."-^rK;t=X--^.nd. .,., '-.v ">« Mi„i.„,v and Kingof I ralk"'' n"' "'• '"r'<"' "■or, no change contemplate I un.n-'f.'''' '""'■ am) ..„„..i_.:_ ,, I "'I"!, 11} (ho exist iig nws all „a ion,, f ,,„,i„^ „,^ fi_^a«s I '"orcinl interoo„r..o wU "l,'- - """^ '" "'"■■■ ™'"- aiid regulation: |ooimlry, areplacedontilu Ills island. 'xoept as to the :*i^2«0pe7p'm;;,7°™"*'"'' __ , riablelciigil R«von's.r^'™'..'i™.".™''"yCO Ude. t The „,.„! . , '''''0 P''^<*s of F-omthto'lenVlrl^'^'^f'- »"■>»• '• or the tonnage duties on ve.«scl3 entering „,;,! i ': port, which arc ■ on all r,,,„. *' ' '''""■"'» <" "'i ton ; on all others .".cluln™" -■'"""''''■ '" ""'^ ^'^ "i'tinrtion is probZ „ "do i;''"''™"' " ""'"' ^''< 'Inetiou of provision, ratTr, I T^"'^'' ""= "'"o- ««ieIos, and liq u,r7C , , f o," r" ''"' «<""''' ^""-^^ shipnient in :^sso^:72V^:/t:T: JH^?' 1 any other nations. ' The moneys," wdgh;;; •"r„STj;iL'a^rl^T=!i: SAL 1668 SAL and measnrcs known and in common nie in this island are the sanio as tlioso cstalilighed by the iuprcme law of the mother country, yet the gold and ailvcr coins of the United States and the doubloons of Mexico are also in common use; the latter is worth $16. The notes of the " Banic of St. Thomas" (a private institu- tion not incorporated) and tiic notes of the Colonial Bank, issued in $5, $10, $60, and $100, redeemable in gold and silver, according to the standard value of the currency of the United States, form also a considera- ble part of the colonial circulation. The naN i;.;ation between the United States and St. Thomas, as shown by Consular Returns, was : entered in 1851, 875 vessels, 71,410 tons; clearcd,'3CC vessels, 69,847 tons; total, 741 vessels, 141,267 tons. Entered in 1852, 368 vessels, 09,490 tons; cleared, 361 vessels, 68,451 tons; total, 829 vessels, 137,941 tons. FOBUGN lUrOBTATIOMS AT St. Thomab, FBOH j\rBIL 1, 1853, TO .Mabvii si, 1864. Denmark $12,849 The Duchies 40.(»2 Altona and Hamburg 051,507 Bremen 7,833 Great Britain 2,821,114 Holland 80,282 France 421,720 Spain 44,866 lUljr 60,406 South American Slates 76,891 United States of America 670,733 British possessions In North America .... 9,454 British West India colonies 81,884 Danish colonlps 48,884 Spanish coloniea 106,477 French colonies 12,260 Dutch colonics 82,089 Rvediab colony 2,310 Hayll 84181 Total 4,654,781 St. Thomas is the central station for packets in gen- eral, and for the steam communication between South, ampton and the West Indies. Sal Anunonlao. The manufacture of this salt may bo traced to the remotest era. Its name is de- rived from Ammonia, or tho temple of Jupiter Amnion, in Egypt, near to which tho salt was originally made. Sal ammoniac exists ready formed in several animal products. The dung and urine of camels contain a sufficient quantity to have rendered its extraction from them a profitable Egyptian art in former times, in order to supply Europe with tho article. In tliat part of Africa, fuel_ being very scarce, recourse is had to the dung of these animals, wliicli is dried for that purpose by (ilasterlng it upon tho walls. Salep, a species of powder prepared from tho dried roots of a plant of tho orchis kind (Orchit maacula, Linn). That which is imported from India is iii white oval pieces, liard, clear, and pellucid, without smell, and tasting iili(^ inigacanth. As an article of diet, it is said to lie li^ht, bland, and nutritious. — Ainslie's .Vat. fnilioi; Mii.BuitN'd Oriental Commerce. Salmon (tier. Uu-hi', Halm; Fr. Satunan; It. Ser- moiie, fialamone ; Sp. SulmcH ; Ituss. Lemga), This ex- cellent fish is too well known to require any descrip- tion. It is found only in nortliern seas, being unknown in the Mcditerronean and other warm regions. In this country it is an article of much value and importance. It is said to be exceedingly abundant in Japan and KanUschatka. Ureal ISrilain. — Such salmon as are taken in estuaries or rivers are, of course, tiio property of those to wlioni tho estuaries or rivers belong, tlio llshcries in them fre- quently letting for very largo sums ; but of loto very considerable ({uantitics of salmon have been taken in bays and in the open sea, where the lishing is free to any one who ciiooses to engage in it. Tho London market, where tho consumption is immense, has been since 1790 principally supplied from tlie Scotch rivers. The Tweed lishery is tlie first, in point of magnitude, of any in the kingdom ; tho toko is sometimes quite MtonUUog, several hundreds having been frequently taken by a single sweep of the net I Salmon are dis- patched in steamers or fast-sailing vessels from the Spey, the Tay, tho Tweed, and other Scotch rivers, for London, packed in ice, by which means they are pre- served quite fresh. When the season is at its height, and the catch greater than can be taken off fresh, it is salted, pickled, or dried, for winter consumption at home, and for foreign markets. Formerly, such part of the Scotch salmon as was not consumed at home was pickled and kitted after being boiled, and was in this state sent up to London under the name of Newcustio salmon ; but the present method of disposing of the liali has so raised its value, as to have nearly deprived all but tho richer inhabitants in tho environs of tlie fishery of the use of salmon. There are considerable fisheries in somo of the Irish and English rivers, but inferior to those of Scotland. The Scotch salmon fisheries seem to have attained their maximum value toward the end of tiie last war, wh-in the fisheries in the Tweed were let for from £13,000 to £18,000 a year! and those of the Tay, Dee, Spey, etc., were proportionally valuable. But the value of the Scotch salmon fisheries has, speak- ing generally, declined greatly of late years ; in conse- quence, partly and principally, of a diminished supply of fish in the rivers, but in sime degree, also, from the greater facility of the communication between London and Liverpool, and the consequent importation of Irish salmon into the London markets. — Cencrat lieport of /Scotland, vol. iii. p. 327. This fishery in Canada, at the present time, is very small. In 1786, however, the export was considerable. In parts of the country where, in former years, tho catch was largo, a few barrels of pickled salmon only 'verc shipped in 1848. In the Gulf of St. Lawrence there were once extensive establishments for the prose- cution of this business ; but some have been broken up, and others have become unprofitable. Streams that half a century ago afforded suflicicnt for domestic con- sumption, and thousands of barrels for export, now yield only hundreds of barrels, and the quantity is rap- idly diminishing. Nova Scotia. — The loyalists, who went to this colony at the peace of 1783, depended very much upon tliis fishery, and carried it on to advantage. The quantity of salmon exported for some years was sufficient to purchase many articles of comfort, and to save them at times from the miseries of pressing want. The salmon has entirely disappeared in some parts of the colony, and has ceased to be plentiful in all of its rivers and streams. The export of salmon caught in the colony is not large. Tho whole produce of the fishery in 1851 appears to have been but 1609 barrels. Newfoundland. — Tho fishery is still worthy of atten- tion, as reference to the accompanying statistics will show. The- export in 1843 was oven larger than in 1814. iMbrador. — Captain Henry Atkinr, of Boston, who made a voyage to Davis's Straits in the ship Whale In 1729, and who visited the coast a second time in ViiX, found salmon very abundant. In Salmon Kiver both he and his men caught many while wading, and with their hands. They took all they had salt to cure, and one that measured four feet ten inches in lengtli. Atkins's account, after his return, seems to have in- duced no attention to tho fishery on tho part of lii.s townsmen. In 1831 the exports amounted to 'M'M tierces of the pickled fish, of the value of $35,660. New Brunswick. — Tho loyalists and other early set- tlers found the salmon in almost every river and stream in tho colony. At present it is never seen in some, is becoming scarce in most, and is of importance as nn article of export in the St. Johns alone. The catch at Salmon Falls, in the St. Croix, thirty years ago, was two hundred in a day, on the average, for three months in a year. A person standing on a "jam of logs" caught there at one time one hundred and eighteen with a dip-net; and a boy fifteen yean 1840 , it*)( , IM'i , l«4» , istn . iw ,, l«4«,. "*4» ., I860',, VMr, I8S1 , Vnn, "*47., SAL 1669 SAL om the ^er«, for are pre- lioight, !8h, it is ption at ucli paft ome was IS in tliis ;ewcu8tle >f tlio lisli ed all but fishery of shcries in nferior to es seem to the end of d were let lose of I ho valuable, has, speak- . in conso- hed supply 10, from the ecn London lion of Irish U Reporl of ime, is very lonsiderable. ir years, tho salmon only 5t. Lawrcnco for the prose- >n broken up, Streams that domestic con- export, now lantity is rap- |to this colony Ich upon this JTho quantity sufficient to save them at The salmon ,f the colony, its rivers and I in the colony bhery in 1801 Irthy of atten- Islalisticp will lirgcr than in j Boston, wlio Ihip irAfiif in Itime in 175'*, In Kiver both Eng, and with Isalt to cure, lies in length. J to have in- |o part of Ills linted to iiaO 1 $35,660. Ihcr early sct- ler and stream \n in some, is Lrtanco as an Icroix, thirty 1 tho average, Itanding on a 1 one hundred ] fifteen years old tnok about flvo hundred In a aoason. But such has huon thu dui'llne, that It is said only two hundred were takRli during llio ontiro year of 185U by nil who engaged In thu litmlnosi) on tho river. It is stated that tho dams ariiolod auroiiM tho rivor hnvo produced this change in tliu llnliory, niid facts appear to sustain tho position. Tliri few saiinun that now appear in tho Oromocto, the Nitaliwaak, the Mnduxnakcag, and tho Mispcch, as well nit in Kmurson's and Uardner's creeks, in Great Nalmcin Klver and Oooso Creek, is attributed to the •ntna iintiso, In two or three of tho streams of minor iil/,(i, wiiore no obstructions exist, and wliore tho water 1) not muddy, the pursuit is still attended with some success and profit. Ill soino other places, tho fishery, but for tho wanton ami lawlitis doitructlou of tho tish, without reference to its coiidltlotl or tho season of the year, might bo car^ ried on advnntaKcnusly. To the paA|da of tlio city of St. Johns the annual catch of salmon Is a source of gain. Tho fisheries of tlio har> l)or, by It provision in tho city charter, belong to the cltl>.ens, or "froomon." Tho fishing grounds or sta- tions nro lottfld out, and sold at auction every year for tho lintiolU of those who aro entitled to them under the charter. The practical fishermen are tho purchasers. TliQ lot* are of uno(|uat value, and some merely nom- inal, 'hie numlior of salmon taken at St. .Tohns in 1850 WIS flstiniatnd at 82,000, which sold, whether large or small, at the contract prico of ono dollar each — except a smalt part for city consumption — to bo packed in ice I and sent to Boston. Drift-nets and weirs aro used in I tho llsliiiry, though tho former ore prohibited by law. 1 KlMli"l'ini 2470 2021 1311 2426 2176 2i7l 2692 1726 2721 2638 i&OT 294T 2161 1965 6378 40.50 1120 8261 6aoo 2276 26.')3 1232 855 6419 1201 1539 170 2,61)5 2,631 5.7'.'6 8,3.-s;) 4,812 4,8.17 »,T08 4 :m '.1.470 6.IM14 6,07J ld,'201 l,or,9 4,SW 1,S..8 ',00 4 80 20 2,2*) .... 1822 1827 182S ISi'J 1830 1831 1832 1633 1S34 1836 1836 1,S37 1833 1SS9 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 1840 1847 184S 6,460 ' 1850 1 ,')2,0(10* • A proportion of tho for some years, but tlio unniud catch hiis bcup exported fresh quantity can only ho conjoctnred. T-MPOETH ANT> KXPORTS, XOVA PCOTIA. 1786. , 1815., 1840, . 1S47, . 1S4S.. 1840, , 1850. liiiimrla. K»por1«. llarreli. Tturcw. nanvli. t TJercM, •3h;>0 42r>i 80ii3 4746 Oils 37 Hi 208 6;i80 533 3219 82 2011 60;,5 "". 0113* 340 1 VMn, I'irhled. | Smoked. 'rUnn. Unrreli. Kib. I Number. im 17H4 IT'**! iwa IHIW ii(l5 848 '■49 808 TO ilia 111 120 47 304 •221 263 1840 mn KSVOBTN moM Nr,\VIfntNIll,ANT>. YMn. rii'kle.l. Tierces. Value. Mi {HWi IH1I9 , 1840 2(1; 10 4403 '^923 3396 3042 4715 4fl6S 876! SMS 4970 3822 6911 1116:1 $4'i,o:ifl CO.fyM 6S,460 C4,0;i5 61.610 6< 3;>o 01,1180 6ll,72n 03,970 4S,910 IHII Wi IMil 1844 1846 ■. IMT im IN40 1880» • 1' I'.Xl'OS Vmf, 1881 (y'API Vi«r», 1x47 IIIII Ml. Jublifl uloliu. T« mOK I.AUBAnOR. r- -PitkW Tlo.fen. \ 2430 ,,, $ liiiatoti, rooDtioi. ^atue. 16,650 DitrrvU. . 835 . 295 iHW * From Halifax alone. — Sabises' American Fisheries. Salonioa, a large city and sea-port of European Turkey, at the northeast extremity of tho gulf of tho same iianip, hit. 40° iW 47" N., lon.c '22" 57' 13" E, Population estimated at GO,000 to 75,000. 'i'his city, originally called Therma, and afterward Thessalonica, is celebrated both in sacred and profane historj'. It was visited by St. Paul, who lias nddres.sed two of his epistles to tho Tlicssaloiiians. In tlie day^t of its prosperity it had an amphitlieatre, an extensive liippodromo, numerous temples and triumpiial arches, tlie ruins of whicli suniciently attest its ancient splen- dor.— C'laukk's Travels, vii. 441-178, 8vo ed. Being tlie principal einiiorium of JIacedonia, Salon- ica lias always had a considerable trade ; and to this circumstance may be ascribed its continued and com- paratively prosperous existence, notwithstanding the many vicissitudes it has undergone. Tlicro is no port at Salonica, but there is excellent anchorage in tlie roads opposite to the town. Tlie ac- I o'ss to them is by no means difhcult, and pilots aro 1 seldom employed. Vessels anchor very near the walls of the town, though it is prudent not to come too close in, owing to the iiunibor of small craft at anchor. The • depth of water a cable's length from the shore varies from i^ to 4, and at two cables' length from 7 to 8 fathoms, whence to Cape Carabourum it varies from I 12 to 17 fathoms. There is very little rise. Owing to i the rivers which empty themselves into the Uulf, the I currents setting out aro at times strong, and in light I winds SHirieient to impede the w.iy of tho vessel. Next to Constantinople, Salonica is the most important port of Turkev in Europe. In 1850 its maritime commerce reached upward of $,3,500,000 ; viz,, about $2,000,000 for imports, ond $1,500,000 for exports. The foreign trade of this port is chiefly engrossed by the British and I'rcnch Hags. The imports consist chiefly of cheap cottons ond w oolcn cloths, and various other manufactures. Its exports are wheat, barley, maize, timber, wool, sponge, raw silk, wine, sesamum seed, tobacco, and staves. Colonial produce and man- ufactured goods aro supplied to this port— tho former SAL 1670 SAL from second and third hands — by England and Austria. There is nothing to prevent the United States from partictpatiug in the trade in this species of merchan- dise. Neither Austria nor England couid compete with this country in supplying the vaat quantities of colonial produce, and the cheap white and printed cottons, which arc required for consumption in tliis marltot. In addi- tion to liio supplies needed for tlie daily wants of 60,000 to 75,000 inhahitants, >Salonica furnishes largo quan- tities of colonial and manufactured goods for tlio yearly fairs of I'ariepi, Lucca, and Seres, wliero the sales oro always made for cash, Tlio high price of Frcncli cotton and woolen cloths will always preclude the nicrchanls of France from successful competition in this branch of trnilo ; and the heavy expenses attending tlio circui- tous trade through Marseilles, Smyrna, Constantinople, Trieste, and Venice, would necessarily favor direct ex- portation from the United States. Tiic prices at Sa- luuica arc always from 10 to 12 per cent, higher than at ('on8tantino|iio or Smyrna, Tlic gross returns of trade at the port of Salonica for tlio year ending December 31, 1851, show a considcra- Irlu increase in the import trade, viz. : VnUio of Imports in 1864 $3,770,285 " inl863 2,8S7,7C 6 Incroaso $01'i,470 lint the returns exhibit a still more considerable in crcaso in the valuo of the outward trade, viz. : Vnluc of exports in 1854 $B,403,ftS0 liilSBS 8.47(t,0IM Increase $'^,uiO,9.iu This l.irge increase, both in tlic inward and outward trade with the port of Salonica, niuy lie regarded as an evidence of tiie improving state of the country. The navigation returns for tho sumo periods exhibit the following re.«ult8 : VeATi. Inward. Outward. 1«Bri Tom. 11.1,4'JS 79,846 TollH. 111,707 18.')4 81,192 Decreaso S3.«,'>3 30,B7B $5fl7,37B B:i.y50 Orltlali manufact's and produce Imported direct. . , " " " " indirect. Total imports of British manufac's and product*) $1,U8,7"2.» Total exports to Great Britaiu 27.800 Balance, In 1854, in favor of British manufac's. $l,090,U-.i5 A British outhority, referring to this trade, says; " A di-mond for British cotton manufactures of all de- scriptions daily increases, and every j-ear there is some now outlet of sufficient importance for tho establish- ment of agencies in tho interior by tho importers at Salonica ; hence the prospect of an increase of the im- port trade in proportion to the increasing valuo of the export trade. The Austrian and Saxon manufacturers have again turned their attention to tiiis part of Turkey, and ore sending lorger parcels of low cotton goods." The oljove extract is worthy tlio attention of those engaged in trade with Turlcish ports. Krporl). — Owing mainly to tho Hellenic invasion, considerable delay was occasioned in getting in tiic crops in 1851, and, consequently, the supply of grain at Salonica was not equal to tho demand. Little was dono in wools and cottons, tho prices having averaged too high a rate for European markets. Tiio trade in illk was! considerable ; but, owing to tho rise in tlie price for labor and firewood, several of tho silk factors preferred sending the silk-poda to France and to the Italian ports, to drawing tho raw silk ot Salonica. — V. 8. Cum. Motions. Salt (Ger. Sah; Du. Zoul; Fr. Sel; It. Sale; Sp. Sal; Russ. Sol; Lat. Sal; Arab. Jfelh; Chin. Yen; Ilind. Nimmuck; Per. Nun), tho chlorid of toiiium of modern chemists, has been known and in common use «« a BCasoncr and preserver of food from tiio earliest ages. Immense masses of it are found in this and manjr other countriea, which require only to bo dug out and reduced to powder. In that state it is called rock-salt. The water of the ocean also contains a great deal of salt ; to which, indeed, it owes its taste, and the power which it possesses of resisting freezing till cooled down to 28°'5. When tliis water is sufficiently evap- orated, the salt precipitates in crystals. This is tho common process by whicli it is obtained in many coun- tries. There are various processes by which it may be obtained quito pure. Common salt usually crystal- lizes in cubes. Its taste is universally known, and is what is strictly denominated suit. Its specific gravity is 2-125. It is soluble in 8-82 times its weight of cold water, and in 2-7G times its wcigiit of boiling water. — Tiio.m.son's Chemistry. Besides its vast utility in seasoning food, and pre- serving meat both for domestic consumption and dur- ing the longest voyages, and in furnishing muriatic acid and soda, salt forms a glaze for coarse pottcr\ , by being tlirown into tlie oven where it is baked; it im- proves tho wliiteness and clearness of glass ; it gives Imrdncss to «oap ; in melting metals it preserves tlicir surface from calcination, by defending them from tlie air, and is employed with advantage in some assays ; it is used as a mordant, and for improving certain col- ors; and enters more or less into many other processes of the arts. Many contradictory statements have been made as to tho use of salt as a manure. Probably it may bo advantageous in some situations, and not in others. Salt Mines, Springs, etc. — The principal salt-mines are at AVielitska in Poland, Catalonia in Spain, Alte- monto in Calabria, Loowur in Hungary, in many places in Asia and Africa, and in Cheshire in England. The mines at Wielitska are upon a very large scale; but tho statements that have frequently been published, of their containing villages inhabited by colonics of miners who never saw tlio light, are altogether with- out foundation. Tlicso mines havo been wrought for more than COO years. — Co.xe's Travels in the North of Europe, vol. i, 149, 8vo ed. The salt-mines in the neighborhood of Northw icli, in Cheshire, England, are very extensive. They have been wrought since IC'O ; and tho quantity of salt ob- tained from them is greater, ].'robably, than is obtained from any other salt-mines in the world. In its solid form, when dug from tho mine, Cheshire salt is not sufficiently pure for use. To purify it, it is dissolved in sea-water, from which it is afterward separated liy evaporation and crystallization. The greater part of this salt is exported. Salt springs are met witli in several countries. Those in Che&hire and Worcester- shire furnisli a largo proportion of the salt made use uf in Great Britain. The brine, being pumped up from very deep wells, is evaporated in wrought-iron pans from 20 to 80 feet square and 10 or 12 inches deep, placed over a furnace. Most of the salt used in Scot- land, previous to tlic repeal of tlie duty, was obtained by tho evaporation of sea-water neorly in the waj' now mentioned ; but most part of the Scotch salt-works have since been relinquislicd. In warm countries, salt is obtained by the evapora- tion of sea-water by the heat of tho sun ; and the crys- tals of salt made in tliis way arc more perfect and purer, from tlie greater slowness of the process. French salt is manufactured in this mode, and it has always been in considerable demand. Duties on Suit. — In ancient Rome, salt was subjected to a duty (lectigal saliiiarum; see Bi;kman, Disscrtutio de Vectigalibua I'op. Kom. c. 6); and it has been heavi- ly taxed in most modem states. The gabelle, or code of salt laws, formerly established in France, w as most oppressive. From 4000 to 6000 persons are calculate/j m France, vol. i. p. 598. lii England duties upon salt were imposed in the reign of ^ . ■■■ ,i^fi{^hT.' r '~ ^ SAL 1671 SAL is called ) a great and tli8 11 cooled ly evap- U is the iny coun- li it may yr crystal- (11, and is ,c gravity lit of cold ; water. — 1, and prc- 11 and dur- j niuriiilic pottery, by led; it im- is ; it gives icrvca tlicir m from the imo assays; certain col- ler processes ts have been Probably it and not in al salt-mines Spain, AUc- i many places ngland. Tlie je scale; but len published, )y colonics of together with- n wrought for [n the North uf ■Kortliwich, in , They have [tity of salt ob- lan is obtained In its solid [Iro salt is not it is dissolved separated by reatcr part of „ met with in ind Worcester- lit made use of imped up from jught-iron pans n inches deep, It used in Scot- was obtained in the way now lalt-workshavu ly the evapora- and the crys- ■re perfect ami \oces8. l'"rencli , it has always It was subjected Ian, Uissertulio [las been heavi- \nbetle, or code Knee, was most y are calculated i the galleys for IvcrilvofwhuU Ibouttbe Revo- I. i. p. 098. 1" [in the reign of William HI. In 1798 they amounted to 5f. a bushel ; \ rious uses) is about sixty pounds to each Inhabitant, but were subsequently increased to 15j. a bushel, or about tkirli/ times the cost of the salt! So exorbitant a duty was productive of the worst etfects ; and occa- sioned, by its magnitude, and the regulations for allow- ing salt duty free to the fisheries a vast deal of smug- gling. Tlio opinion of the public and of the House of Commons having been strongly pronounced against the tax, it was finally repealed in 1823. The duty on salt imported into the United States is 15 per cent, by the act of March 3, 1857. [/^niVei/Wnien.— The following comprehensive account of the manufacture and consumption of salt in this country was written in answer to a request for the sta- tistical information it contains, for the use of a commit- tee of the liritish Parliament. Its author is a promi- nent salt merchant of New York, and thoroughly con- versant with the subject : New York, April 23, 186T. Dkak Sill, — 1 have received your letter of the 20th instant, in whigh you solicit information respecting the manufacture of salt, the quantity made in the United Strifes At eacli of the works, the rate of freight to the principal ports, the toll paid on domestic and also on foreign sa'.i. on cur State canals, etc, Tlic interest I feel in the salt trade of this country prompts me to take some pains to give you the required hifunuution. Yet the short time I have had since the receipt of your letter precludes mo from answering your several inquiries with perfect satisfaction to myself in regard to their accuracy. 1 will, however, venture to give you the following atatlslics, which, from the best information I have been able to obtain, I believe tJ be mainly correct: Estimated Quantity ok Salt manufaotcued in the United States i'er Annum. Biuhelfl, In the State of Massachusetts (mostly in vata built ulDiii; tlio xea-shore) 46,000 In the .State of New York (Onondaga Count)-), alioiit 8,000,000 In the Statu of Pennsylvania (Alleghany and Kis- Iclralnctas Klvcrs) 900,000 In ttie State of Virginia (Kanawha and Kings Works) 8,IS00,000 In tlie State of Kentucky (Goose Creek) 260,000 In the State of Ohio (Muskingum, Hocking Itivcr) 500,000 In the State of Ohio (l^omeroy and West Colum- bia) 1,000,000 In tlio State of Illinois 60,000 In tho State of Michigan 10,000 In llie State of Texas 20,000 In the State of Florida 100,000 The consumption in France is estimated at 21 i pounds | in Great Britain at 25 pounds for each Inhabitant. Thn cost of manufacturing salt by boiling in Onondaga, a« per estimate, during five consecutive years, average* about $1 per barrel of 280 pounds. The freight ehargeil on our canals on domestic salt, in barrels of 280 poundi each, from Onondaga to liuiTalo, 108 miles, la about 15 cents per barrel over tho toll paid to the State, which is one mill on 1000 pounds per mile In the canals. To Oswego, 35 miles, tho freight is about fix conta par .. barrel over the toll. The freight on foreign and domestic salt from Alba» ny to BulTalo, 304 miles, is al)out $3 per ton (of 2000 pounds) over tho toll. Freight from Albany to Oswa. go, about 209 miles, is $2 per ton over toll. The freight from New York city to Oswego and Butlalo lia Alba, ny Is i)reci»cly the same as though shipped at Albany, although 1 18 miles farther. The toll on foreign salt on our Stole canals is five mills on 1000 pounds per mile. The freight on a bar- rel of salt from Oswego to the principal ports on Lake Erie (average distance about Itifl miles) Is 12 cents per barrel. Tho freight to the principal ports on Lako Slichlgan, distance about 1000 miles, is 25 cents per barrel. The freight from ports on Lake Erie (say Cleveland and Toledo) to the Ohio Kiver and Cincin- nati is 50 cents per barrel. The freight from Clucago to the Mississippi Kivcr and St. Louis is 50 cents per barrel. The minimum price of salt at the Onondaga works in 1819, '50, and '51 was from 70 to 90 cents per barrel ; in 1852, $1 per barrel | in 1853, $1 12 ; in 1854, 81 25 ; in 1855, $1 oO ; and in 1850, $1 40 per bar- rel. The solar salt costs about the same price to man- ufacturers as boiled salt. Tho solar salt weighs about 70 pounds to the bushel (measure). The boilod salt weighs about 5(5 pounds to the bushel, varying, how- ever, according to the position of the kettles, to a weight considerably above and also considerably below this standard. The duty paid to the State of New York on salt manufactured at Onondaga is always reckoned on 56 pounds (the statute bushel), and covers the expense incurr i by the State for punq g up the water and delivering It to the premises of tho manufacturers. A salt block at Onondaga, of the largest size, is made of brick about 12 to 15 feet wide, four to five feet high, and forming two parallel arches, extending the whole length of the block. Over and within the top of these arches are placed common cast-iron kettles, holding about 50 to 70 gallons of brine, placed close to- gether in two row s the w hole length of the arches. A fire built In the mouth of the arches passes under each kettle Into a chimney, built generally 50 to 160 feet high, averaging from 50 to 70 kettles In each block. A single block with one row of kettles is about half of this width. The quantity of salt made In one of these double blocks In the year (say eight months) averages 20,000 to 25,000 bushels of 50 pounds. The cost of a bushel of suit produced at Kanawha is about 17i cents, Tho p; ice of freight on a sack of Liverpool salt from New Oilcans to Louisville averages about 35 cents per sack. A good portion of the coarse, hard salt im- ported into tlio United States from the most southerly islands of the West India group is kiln-dried, cleansed, ground very fine, and put In small packages for culU nary or dairy use. The amount of coarse and fine salt regard to tho manufacture of salt, tho saline deposits imported Into the United States from foreign countries within our State, and such other general information j for the year ending .lune 30, 1856, was 15,405,864 bush- pertaining to this necessary article of animal subsist- els. The amount of domestic salt exported during Jha Total 12,816,000 There are salt lakes in tho United States territories — one in tho southwesterly part of Texas and one or more in Utah — where 'n!,. of good quality is found In great abundance. Nearly all of tho salt manufactured In tho United States is made by boiling, excep'vif; what is made In Massachusetts, Florida, and the Solar Works at Onondaga. The amount of salt manufactured at the Solar Works of Onondaga in 1856 was 703,391 bushels. The amount of salt manufactured in kettles In Onon- daga in 1856 was 6,258,419 bushels. When tho works (at Onondaga) are generally running, they require 3,000,000 gallons of brine daily, and the supply is not less than 2,000,000 gallons per day for si.\ months. The annual report of V. W. Smith, Esq., the State Su- perintendent of the Onondaga salt springs, which I lierewith hand you, furnishes valuable information in ence, as to render it one of tho most accurate and in- teresting public documents published in our country. The wells in tho Virginia salt springs are about 900 feet deep. Tho wells at Pomcroy and West Columbia are from 1000 to 1200 feet deep. The estimated quan year ending .lune 30, 1856, was 698,458 bushels. The amount of foreign salt exported duiing tho year ending Juno 30, 1856, was 126,427 bushels. Yours, truly, Samcei. IIotai.ino. Patents were issued by tho United States Patent Offlca tity of foreign salt consumed in the United States and in 1850—1. For improvement In apjaratus for evaixiro- territories Is about 13,500,000 bushels per annum. The . ting salt. 2. Improvement in apparatus for solar salt amount of salt consumed in the United States (for va- ; evaporation. 3. Improvement in salt evaporators. SAL 1672 SAL Statiitici or tiia Bali MAmnrAoniiM in imi Ukitid SrAns roa ma Ykab khdino Jchk 1 1660. SUUl. Kambtr. Capital. Raw MaUiul. Hn(fa9,432 7,080,979 1,803,106 1,214,231 10,168,370 $1,000,193 207,846 103,398 $1,310,936 8,834,219 1,187,776 3,864,240 12,926,234 $1,206,208 274,130 239,320 $1,718,980 Other plaees Total KxpoKTB OP Salt or DouKfiTio rnoncrTioN rBOx thk U»iTEt> Stated for tiir Year knpinu Jcnb 30, ltj57. VVhlUiereaporlad. Bnaliela. Value. 913 1,301 600,6D4 9,154 410 12,000 80,060 126 6,000 5,ori6 $01 062 171,006 2,249 215 4,960 4 8,891 60 1,608 1,3.'3 Danish West ladies l.'annda .7. Whence Imported DanUh West Indies Bremen Dutch West Ivdies Kngland Ireland Malta Canada Other Drilliih N. Amer. Posb. . . British Went Indies.... British Honduras British Guiana Franco on the Atlantic France on the Mediterranean,. French Weat Indies Spain on the Atlantic Spain on the Mediterraucan. , . Forto Iiieo Portugal Cape do Verd Islands Azores Sardinia Two Sicliioii Ports In Africa Mexico Venozueli\ Sandwich Islands China Total 2,024 70 174,802 12,8110,868 74,965 14,602 19l,'iU8 (1,004 1,033,001 1,040 0,422 14,180 131,014 40,126 1,001,714 G64,997 1,363 93,143 18,925 6,700 183,659 778,003 23.800 70.770 6,637 10.386 26,207 17.16S.70T $654 16 31,790 1,504,854 7,748 1,680 80,909 1,800 153,909 271 1,022 2,758 10,053 2,008 70,MI 28,905 241 14,017 i,4;6 918 17,(176 65,18S 1,008 15.819 1,279 4,732 1,671 $2,082,683 Tlio whole amount of salt inspected on the Ononda- ga salt springs during the year 1856 was 6,968,810 bushels. This is about 120,000 bushels short of the in- spection of 1865, but exceeds, however, that of any pre- vious year, being 160,000 more bushels than were re- turned in 1854. In the ordinary course of events, con- sidering the increase of population in the Western mark- eta for Onondaga salt, and the additional facilities of transportation constantly brought into use, the inspec- tion for 1866, according to the official Reports, ought to have reached 6,600,000 bushels. The two principal causes producing the deficiency may be found in a more stringent state of the money market during the whole season, and in the enhancement of tho price of salt at the works — $1 40 per barrel in 1866 against $1 30 in 1855. Tho amount of salt actually manufactured in 1856, and cither sold and shipped or remaining in orig- inal hands, is considerably in excess of the manufac- ture of any former year. The inspection indicates very accurately the amount of sales, as no more is inspected during tho manufacturing season than what is required to fill orders, Tho arrivals of Onondaga salt at Oswe- go in 1856 were 3,483,987 bushels, against 3,0.'59,593 in 185.') — an increase of 444,394 bushels. The arrivals at Bufl'alo in 1856 were 1,081,767 bushels, against 1,947,938 in 1856—0 decrease of 866,171 bushels. Tho arrivals at all tho lake ports in 1866, compared with those in 18,55, show a decrease of 241,778 bushels. Saltpetre, or mtrate of Potash (Ger. Salipe- ler ; Fr. Nitre, Salpfire ,■ It. A'lVro, Sahitro ; Sp. Nilro, Salitrt; Russ. Seniira; Lat. Nitrum; Arab. Ubkir; Hind, Shorah), a salt well known in commerce, and of gre'it importance. It muy be regarded both as a nat- ural and an artificial production ; being found on tho surface of the soil in man}- parts of India, Egypt, Italy, etc. ; but in these and other places all that is known in commerce is obtained by an artificial process, or by lixiviating earth that has been formed into nitre beda. The saltpetre consumed in England is brought from Bengal in an impure state, but crj'stallized, In bugi^, each containing 164 lbs. Saltpetre forms the princi- pal ingredient in the manufacture of gunpowder, and is used in various arts. It ia also of great utility in the commerce of India, from its furnishing a largo amount of dead weight for the shipping engaged in it. Saltpetre possesses considerable antiseptic power. That which ia of the best quality and well refined is in long, transparent crj-stnls ; its taste is sharp, bitterish, and cooling; it flames much when thrown upon burning coals ; it is very brittle ; specific gravity, 1"933. It ia not altered by exposure to tho air. Ueckmann contends, in a long and elaborate dissert- ation (I/itt. of Invent.), that the ancients were unac- quainted with saltpetre, and that thoir nitrum was really on alkaline salt. But as saltpetre i* produced Valu>. ~$5,000 6,000 0.000 ST.82B ll.TOO 08,860 D08,!tt6 182,203 200,796 6,900 TfJ0,466 Valoe^ $1,206,2(18 274,136 230,326 »,«7in l>831,68S J06,flS3j (Ms i, Bin I New York «l|„w„,l ,.,.;'"■ ' '".^'"'^itt CoartTf I fi'.l"'^ ''''^"" '••' « r'S't" '"r ^"'"o "''^ n"«( llin net v/ilii. « '."" """wc( one sixth m,m "'"^'' Vfomty of 1)^1,1? .,''' '" '•"■'"peet to rccan- ,_jy/,9 P««r« «.«t tliVmu ,,;•''''''..''' »'"'"'. """1 it aT ^u- C ;; ""^K"' "» well 1 property saved has hST"' •"l""«"l«l''"l wm,., « ^^i,'*':?"''''"''^ '^""S"' ""J 'thers not more tmnTtofM'^'r "'''"""'' ''^' *'"' m,y^^^^^^ "'"eh '-^ are ail those Who hl'i.. .!(!"'" V..""' 1'^' Ay H2"' ^^' ?.'' '''« *."-" K.NT H Cumimnta. . — ™J' "ere rescu SAN 1074 SAN color, and the newer the root, the higher ii the per- fume. Reject luch plecei ■• are of a pale color, aiiull, decayed, or have white wood about tbein ; and take especial care that it be not mixed with wood reiem- bling landal, but without Its perfume.— MiL,uvnii'» Oriml. Commtret, aandal-wood U exteniively employed by the Hin- doos as a perfume in their funeral ceremonies. But the Chiueie are its principal consumers. I'bey manu- facture it into fans and tmaii articles of furnlturo, and use it, when ground into powder, as a cosmetic. Dur- ing the year ending the illst of December, 1848, there were imported by British vessels into Canton 20,7U'i piculs of sandal-wood, valued at t207,400 1 and tlie Im- ports in some years are more than twice this amount. The average importation Into Calcutta Is about 200 tons a year. It grows principally in Malabar, In the mountainous country at a little distance from the low sea-coast; in Timor; and In the Fcjce Islands, in the Sou 1 Sea. Calcutta is princlpully suppli'id from Mal- abai while China derives the larger |)ortion of her sup. plies from Timor and the other islands. It is seldom brought to Europe, except by individuals for their own use, or as presents for their friends.— Bbll's Jixtemat Comm. qfJieiigalt Cbawfurd's Indian Archipelago, • ipedlss (if slliiperi worn liy the ancient Jaws, Ureelts, ainl l<HM« wranules » little larger than a pea, of a whitish y«lh)w m\uf, brittle, liiflanimable, of a resinous sniull, and world, armnnlle liste. It exudes, it Is snid, III warm ulliualnii, from urwks and Incisions In the com- mon |unl|wr hush. It is us«<1 as a varnish, dissolved in siiirlts i»f wltl*.— AlNXMM'a Mnt. Indica. ■Ml DonUngO. Tlieold Mpanlsh part oftho Island of Han Muiiiiiigv, or IIm t'omlnican Kepulillc, embraces tlie terrluirv as settled by the treaty of limits between Hpaiii and Vtmim In 1777. According to those limits, its area would ci/tnprlM about two-thirds of the whole island, or uvar IH,(H)ii i(|uare miles. The chief staples of the repulillii m» malinMany, llgnum-vltn, dye-woods, tobacco, \mmy, and hides. The Imports from the United Htttt«« I'Oiislst of assorted cargoes, flour, etc. ; but most usually «ur vessels enter the ports uf the re- publle In ballast. Stmxhint or TUB NoHDin or Vkssels wmon KNTiain and oLaAaai) ny i'nwtn tn v«« ttottlHtoAn RtrvDMo, tuxis ToifKAoi, AMD Tna VALua or iMPoars and Expobts or Tiia Hafi/Hkiii iivaiNt* tiia Vs/imk I849-'(S0, inolusivl Ymti. «■«><■«»«>•. 1 Port »wr««« Porto PI>|>, 1 V«Mla. Toiink^fl Import^ ViiMla. TouDag*. lm|tori« Vmob. Illi Kl|r»tll. 101 tonnags. 6,276 Kxporta. 184» 180 ia,4ii8 i;as,nT ""118 ■ 7,664 a:26,2)B a;7U,B47 1860 141 16,878 88,130 126 7,180 6«,:>.:8 148 IA,4I7 ln4,«97 1J0 «,84'1 III4.A74 ISfit 128 14,172 116,660 151 10,171 121,388 ll» vi,m IS,«I(I 142 8,S64 107,804 1863 162 19,8T8 192,637 162 10,680 100,831 I4i| |N,4lilt I4|(IM 168 11,416 lS8,0il6 1S63 166 18,683 120,864 181 7,9 IT e»,880 1411 |ll,«Afl 119,710 121 8,844 1:8,696 18IM 1A3 81,448 88,900 140 8,014 20,900 IM I8>)ft IMiOfliJ 187 7,614 i04,ins 1885 ISl 1^3lT 106,874 160 11,.4T1 rw,«Tl 104 lil,)Hi« lll,74it 185 11, m6 1(10,800 186« 108 11,900 93,916 137 9,3.10 I32,'.>T4 W iiii^ M^lB 120 1>,018 168,11'3 " There ure few among the Islands that compose the West Indian Archipelago which can vie In fertility with the island of San Domingo. The country Is mountainous. Interspersed with rich, fertile plains, wa- tered by numerous rivers, the larger of whicli wight be rendered navigable for flat-bottomod boats to near- ly tlio very heart of the uland. In order to transport to the sea-coast the numerous valuable products which the fertile soil yields spontaneously, more especially valuable timber of various kinds, dye-woods, divldivl, vegetable wax, turpentine, otc. Agriculture, how- ever, which ought to form its' greatest prosperity, is principally in the southern provinces of the republic, in a very inditferent state, and is prosecuted with no degree of vigor ; the generality of the rural iuhabltauts living from day to day upon the scanty produce of their provision grounds. Some allowance must certainly be made for this unsatisfactory state of things. In coiu sequence of frequent internal disturbances and the war with the neighboring empire of Haytl. The agricul- turist can not count with certainty upon gathering what he sows ; a threatened invasion of the Ilaytlans, a revolution In the city of San Domingo, tears bim from his pursuits, and should be return, he Ands his provision grounds dried up or destroyed. Tlie Domin- ican Itcpubllc Is very sparely populated ; it requires, therefore, an extensive immigration to people the Inte- rior, and to develop the rich resources of a fertile soil. These circumstances just mentioned prevent likewise the employment of foreign capital within the republic. "Sau Domingo is rich in copper and in other ores. There are districts abounding in rich copper ore which would yiidd a handsome profit to mining speculations. The Legislature has endeavored to facilitate such en- terprises by granting privileges to such undertakings ; but though In some Instances the copper ore is met with on the surface, and requires merely to be transported to the sea-coast, no capital has as yet been found to commence the enterprise. San Domingo is still so lit- tl« known that ilia want of proper Information of its climate, timnitimn, and limlltutloni Is the greatest ob- stacla to induca tutisS\itwt» to employ their capital for the develnpntatit (if its riches. " It Is lu (!(ml«mplNtlon to establish here a branch of tlie ' CutmiaKiihi (1«a Textiles,' which, under the tirm of Aviut L (,'»,, 1ia« Its l«at In I'arls. Their purpose is to aKtra«t by itia(diln«s of a peculiar construction, for whicli timy \mimt» a pAlenl, the fibres or lilaments of the iilantain, iidtigiilti, »nnye or yucca, etc., for con- vertlun into all kiiiils of piiper. *'As IIm plantain and bananas thrive most luxuri- ously hare, III iiny tiotlillig of the numerous fibrous and taxtila plants wlileh the toll produces spontaneously, tbls eiitablUlitnant, should It be effected, may prov; higlily a4v«litNg«0UM io tfa« republic. The republic is divided (ft llv« tirovliicea—namely : Compostela dc AKuat ^«n UotnltiKO d« Guzman, containing the cap- ital and scat of K"v«rnment; Santa Cruz del Seybo; Coiicepalmi da la Vc^a i Hantlago do los Caballeros. '• A(.'(>ordlii(( Id tli« liiw of the maritime commerce now In furea, tlia following ports are declared open for Import and ajtpiirt In nnllonal and foreign vessels : Sun Domingo, '\'Ml»\tmio de Ar.un, Puerto Plata, Samun:i, and Itumatia. 'I tm port of Monte Christ! is open only fur exiMrtatlonii. " Tiia \ml «tiAf^«8 upon vessels at their entry from abroad ara I i. For AVory t(m that the vessel measures a(!curdlng to ita roKlstrr one dollar Spanish, If the ves- sel bclonK* ttt a itatlMl In treaty with the Dominican Itepubllit; if (tlltefwlse, one (foliar and a half. 2. Mglit-li.tMi* duly, ««nt» silver per tun."—lieporl by 8lr It. II, Hi'HimmiHdH, tiritiih Conmlat San Domin- git, ujntn ihA 'I'rmk trf thai fort, and of the Dominican lltmUio (ngMt'ritI, in the Year 1860. file followltltf \» a summary of the trade between the Unitad Nlat« de of od. ,• met , of a ilnous I antd, gcom- Bolved I inland ibrttces lOtwecn limits, e wliole : ataples Hwooda, ■om tlie jr, etc. ; { tlio re- lii4,M* 1(11,884 ' 18B,0il» ' 118,(»R ' 104,19s 109,800 1 ition of itB rcatest ob- capital for I branch of jr tho tirm r purpose is ruction, for ilainents of for con- lost luxuri- [fibrous and ntancously, Imay prov? 1 republic is jipostela do Ing tho cap- 1 del Seybo ; liballeros. commerce ted open for lesiels: Snn Ita, Saniiin:!, Jg open only i entry from |el measures Ifthe vcs- f Dominican I a half. 2. r^Report by \san Domin- ! Dominican Lde between tmtngo dur- hs, with an aggregate of 2520 tons ; of these, four entered in bal- last, and ton with assorted cargoes. The hunmwurd cargoes consisted of mahogany, lignum-vitic, hides, and honey, and amounted In value to $2ii,270. During the aamo period there entered six vessels under llrltisli lul- or», measuring In all 618 tons ; one I'riMuli vessel of 189 tons; one Danish of 126 tons, and ono Dominican of 68 tons ; total numlwr of foreign vessels (exclusive of American) nine, with an aggregate tennago of 850 tons. During tho llrst six months of IH.W there en- tered and cleared -10 vessels from tho United States (under tho American flag), measuring in tho aggregate 8376 tons ; of these, 18 entered in ballast, and 7 with assorted cargoes, including one laden In part with flour. Value of cargoes. Inward, 427,050 ; value of cargoes, homewanl, $'14,(iUl. Homeward cargoes con- sisted of mahogany, llgnum-vltaj, satin-wood, fustic, hides, and honey. The commerce 6f San Domingo with the United States for tho year 1867 was us follows ; Exports to Han DomlnRo $44,349 1 Imports n-om San UoiiiluKo 1i>9,1T4 Tounsgc cleared from United Htatea— AmiTlciui lO-i*) " " " Foreign . OlS Total isSs The latest revision of tho Dominican tariflf bears date 18th ,Iune, 1853. Tho valuation of several ar- ticles, including domestic cottons, boys' shoes, etc., lius been reduced ; while In a few others, Including wom- en's shoes, there Is an increase — on tlio latter article from $7 to $8 per dozen, which will raise the duty from $1 75 to $2 per dozen. The flnancial and political dif- flcuities now experienced in the Dominican Repub- lic can hardly fail to be felt in tho general movcmenta of its foreign commerce. Tho reader is referred to the article IIaytf for tho comparative statement of the commerce of tlio United States with the island of San Domingo — eniliracing the empire of Ilayti and the Dominican Rciiublic — exhib- iting the value of exports to and imports from each country, and the tonnage of American and foreign ves- sels arriving from and departing to each country, dur- ing the years designated. A Dominican vessel arriving in the United States from a port in the Dominican Rcpulilic Is liable to a tonnage duty of #1 per ton, that being the duty im- posed on tho tonnage of vessels of tho United States arriving in said republic ; but tho cargo is not liable to a discriminating duty of 10 per cent., no such duty be- ing levied by the Dominican Republic on tho cargoes of United States vessels arriving in the ports of that republic. — See IIayti. For Political Relations of England with San Domingo, see Fkasek's ^fag. xlii. 133 ; same article. Living Age, xxvii. 126 ; Edinburgh Review, xvil. 372. Sand'wloh Islands. A group of eleven islands in the Pacific Ocean. They were discovered by Cap- tain Cook In 1778. Many voyagers report that the natural capacity of tho natives seenis In no respect be- low tlie common standanl of manltiiid. It was in one of these islands tliat this illustrious circumnavigator fell a victim to the sudden resentntent of tho natives, Feb. 14, 1779. Tamehaineha, chief of Hawaii, becomes king of the group, 1800. Rihoriho, his son, succeeds him, 1819. Idolatry abolislied, 1819. Eilioriho and his queen died In Kngland, 1821. Kanikeaouli, 20 years of age, king, 1824. Mission established by the American Board, 1820. In 1832 there were 900 schools and 50,000 pupils in the Islands. Treaty with the French, made with admiral Dupetit-Tliouars, 1837. Another, enforcing the introduction of Catholic mis- sionaries, etc. , 1839. Tamehameha III. becomes iiing. Dr. G. P. Judd, an American, prime minister. In 1831 there were 14 ships, 2C;iO tons, belonging to tho isl- ands — which are Important to the United States as a whaling station. This remoto but interesting group is situated in the miilst of the Paclflc Ocean, in al)out lat. 21° N., and long. 157° W. It comprises eight inhabited and four unin' habited inlands, Owliyliee, whore Captain Cook wai killed, lieing the most considerable. Thoy are of vol- canic formation, and mountainous, some of the |>eaks rising in Owhyhce to between 13,000 and 14,000 feet in helglit! Tho population In 1847 is said to have amounted to above 112,000, of which nearly 40,000 Ihj- longcd to Owhylieo. Rut It is a curious fact that the native population has bei^n rapidly decreasing for S(jme years past, and does not now probably exceed a third part of its amount at tho cpmli of their discovery. Tho bdanders are honorably distinguished among the Poly, ncsiun nations by the advances they have made in civil- ization; and particuiariy by their progress In manu- factures, navigation, and connnerco. Christianity was Introduced by tho American missionaries in 1820, and is now the religion of tho state ; schools have been established, churches have Iwen built, and tho forms of religion are pretty well observed. Kurupoan usages 1 have become fashionable ; and tho costume of tho bet- ter classes, women as well as men, closely resembles that of tho Americans. The following table exhibits tho populotion of the principal islands, according to the census of December, 1853: Ulanili. Niillvn. Porei^an Totnl 24,415-3 17,004 3,0(IT r.99 19,128 0,990 790 lliiwall MbhI 24,19S lT,42it 3,r*5 599 lT,Slfi 0,728 790 71,108 2B0 24-1 42 iaii 201 Moluknl Onliii Kiiiini Total 212Q 78,223 The staple exports of tlio islands aro : Sugar, molas- ses, sirup, coffee, goat-skins, sweet potatoes, wool, hides, salt, tallow, beef, pulu,* and arrow-root. Agri- culture has made but little progress, ami will never, probalily, occupy tho natives to any great extent. There are many excellent tracts suitable for tho pro- duction of coflce, wheat, vines, etc. ; but the means of subsistence aro so easily procured, tliat the inhabitants have but few inducements, oven did tliey not hick tho industry and enterj>rlso, to become extensive agricul- turists. There are large tracts of good grazing land scattered throughout tlio islanil, and tho growth of cattle is a leailliig, perliaps tho most profitable, branch of agri- cultural industri-. There are also numerous sheep ranges, on w hich are tended about 12,000 sheep ; but the business Is not encouraging. Tho eminently advantageous position of tho Sand- wich Islands, lying on tlie great route between Amer- ica and China, invited at an early period tho cnter- lirlso and capital of several European and American settlers, and led to tho establishment of a somewhat active trade. They constitute a common centre be- tween tho three principal whaling grounds of tho Northern I'acilic — one on the equator, tho other near Japan, and the third toward tho liehrlng Sea, Tlio principal port is Honolulu, on tho south side of tho lslan lt!47,m ita geo- graphical po- tween tho two places precluded all hope oi realizing any protits after the payment of duties. The following summary' of the recent commerce of tho Sandwich Islands hua been compiled from the latest and moat authentic sources : Tho total amount of inqiorts for IS.IS exceeded those of 1852 by «l522,<;82 ftl. From the United States thoy amounted to f 964,01!) 93, being more than three-fourths of tho whole amount imported. The imports for four years, from 1860 to 1853, both inclusive, were as fol- lows : ISM $l,n8n,nw TO IWil 1,S'.'3,«21 m ISM 7nfl,sos fa IS53 1,2^1,061 13 Giving an average for tho four years of i?l,225,175 02. The amount of imports for 1853 exceeded the aver- age of the past four years by §50,770 10. COMI'.VUISON I'Olt I'Ont YKAIiJi. FOBKIGN K.\I>011TB. 1950 $48,529 73 ]»51 831,402 M 1353 tt31,14:i M ■. 1853 101,397 00 PoMHiTia Exports 1 RBO !|«!)n,522 03 1851 800,828 94 :852 257,251 09 1853 275,374 17 The revenue derived from imports waa as follows : In 1S.W $121,510 78 In 13.'>1 J\n,m-i 19 lu 1882 113,001 93 lalSBB 166,040 17 The following summary exhibit! the general com* merce of the Sandwich Islands during the year 18M, as condensed from the rejjort of the collector general of cuatoniB : Total vuliio of Imports 11,390,780 24 " " exports 585, 1 J2 07 KxrcM of linpiins over exports 811,000 67 Of the Imports, there were from The l.'niteil Htntn, Atlnnlli' kIiIo )tlli|l,506 TO I'ttclflculclo 84>i,«l5 (5 Of rinany (Irout llrltala AuslmlU t'hina Hoa Vuc 'rouvcr'i Island . Tahiti Callau Imported froo of duty (ioodsenttircd la Imnd .. .!|i2l9,T4A 03 (toods withdrawn from bond fur con- ■umptlun Imports at Lahslnr $42,877 TO " llllu 0,268 40 " Klinafimo 912 10 " KtaUl ■I'-.Ufc.. 087 84 26,088 60 60,130 88 Total tl,aoo;780 84 Vna.ysis op Exi-OBTS. Vnliio of fori'lgn ro' auppUci, 168,9Te 00 _2T4j020J0 Total $686,128 flt Statkmknt buowino T!m raiNoiPAi. Kxpoars in 1854 oou. I'ARKII WITU TUUHK np 1863. The arrivals wore as fo'lows : In 18.50. . . Merchant vcsacli', 409 InlMl... " " 440 In 1882... " " 235 In 1808... " *• 194 ■\^•haIe ahlpa, 837 " " 1S5 " '• 619 " " 635 Ki)iorU .HiiKnr pounds Kirui) gnllous Moluxsca " Suit barrels olTce iH)unds Hides pieces (iont rtlns .... " 'I allow pounds Arrow-root.... " I l»M 034,965 18,244 68,448 n,l>09 60,600 1,741 6,000 10,468 tT OP TUT. QuANTITIP.a OF Oil. AND IlONE TUAN- SIIII'l'KO IN 1864. TowtiiiU'iHinlry I'ultcd atatcs . Hremen . . lluvru.... ToUI. "prlng.. 1-all . . . . ! Spflrni on. "uVUom 49,801 00,449 40,074 1&«,4$4 Wh« l« oil I Oslloni. ~ 257,880 1,208.305 104,700 10,244 25,173 1,066,931 liona rminila. 38,705 7ri2,830 <184.241 20.288 4«,H10 1,508,448 The total number of vessels of war at Honolulu dur- ing 18.')4 was 25, carrj-ing an aggregate of 075 guns j of which number G were American, 9 British, and 7 French. Of merchant vessels at tho Hawaiian Islands during the year 1854, the total number was 148, measuring in the aggregate 47,288 tons ; of which there were, American, 103 measuring 83,448 tons, Ilrltlnh, 17— " 4,788 " Tho total number of whaling vessels at tho porta of tho Hawaiian Islundj during 1864 was 5()6 ; of >vhicli there were American 634, Bremen 8, and French 22, The returns from the port of Hllo for the year 1864 exhibit the following commercial movement : Total vsluo of Imports $11,491 63 Vulne of exports, domestic produce. . . . $3,323 31 Furnlslied as supplies to 82 whalers at an overcharge of $2 25 each 18,450 00 22,278 31 The transhipments from the port of Ililo during tlio year were as follows : Ppermoll 80,800 gallons. Whaieoil 114,203 " Whalebone 92,074 pounds. AVhaltng vessels ot the port of Hilo in 1854 : American, SO vessels— measuring 29,898 tona. Krcnch, 8 " " 1,014 " ToUl.. 89 " " 80,0ia " 1848 , 1840. 1847.: 1848, , 1849, 1880., 1861,, i?6n.'. IS»4. . I 1868., 1800. 18ST. . , SAN In the om.:|«|„,„„n„7jr^"' *'•'«'' Iim Ih..,, ,,uI,||,|,J^ <>«iu> HUgar, cn-ee, ii.„U,,"' V'^''"'",'"l'«''''«My Tr.,,,, Aiiniml itv«niK« Hi" Siindw/ci Manilii f,.- »i, ""^ exports t,i I .hi- i — • """ "niiulMtf I,u,.l i " """Tfni •lv..|y i.. the h/mU of Al^,""''"'?'''''"'no»toxr . ""J""' «»pcrl„r natural « vantal"''""'".''" ''''""' "i^i=JS'B''^'^S'^^M:^?^^^^ *.. r"- " '•- '" " -" """r ' »,i;:a Erf" "---^^ r r - '"•*^^^ VmHi I V.Iii- ..t'l.T: — : : i ■ — ^— ^__ ^ I jrnr.r,l f,.,„, |,„-| 20,4116 708,088 1^847 J?8.084, 144,M9 47(1 1,11(10 I.iili.l I,.1fl0 ■*,nvi4 ),2U() 2.1 i 4,116 8,'.'l/5 1,1147 11,1)14 t,4.tl The proportion whlph »i,„ IT •. , — ^- •^"' X J"-'^-' [_ 10,'ubi ''"'H i,hi7 total „„ lowing! '".«•, '240:704 "'Irl'f-I *!.''■':-',-•.■. ■■.;:sr;ii^;;rE":;'';"v''-'"''->».i. """"Of merchant n„, whXV',?/"™ *""• K"'" " ™"iiril Ihut th« iiiinMint nf «iii(*r ^iniiliKi'il tlin pntt y«nr It iit Ixiixt MK) tniit, iilmiit cinn inlf (if wli'i'h hull Iwrn nximrlc'l (If CdlTi-ii llio |iriiil- ucn hin lM'i"n ni)t Im" thnn HOO.IHHI llm. Only ii nniiill piirtlcin npiwarii iiliovit nit hnvInK luivn riX|Hirti>it. Hut of IhiIIi Kii^iir nnil rniToo lh« wlmllii^ ttiTt will y^tirly r* (h(iw almut thn Mma fiillInK »IT »« tha nuniliar uf wliiiling nnil nigrchitnt vaaiieU vinltlng thu ginup. CoMrMATITI Vliw or Tin ('nuMnii'ii nr Tim ri«ni>wii'M Im.ANiiii rim TrN \ a^ni, ranu Tim VKAk 1H4T Tu 7U* YilAI ItlM, IIKII.II Tlin I'llTAI.I r»H Ktrll YlAII. Ytait- T.UI TStf..., $flo,iivl I*H. ... Olilt.ltlH 11W. . . . TW.TltO IHBI.... l,onn,nM IH.'il..., I,S'J!I,N1I 1S.VJ.... TBi.'iM 1';l yT4,iiW tlU.741 07ii,h!14, 4(W,'i7s r..f.iini T.iinir.i. Pfixliir* (lllll hlXMB • ip.>rlMil Ki.«l|iU »5K;«ih '♦•tH.HIli aii.rifil Wl.WW ins.iiia HII.'JHI lltA.Nill I'JI.MMl IIH|,47,».'i(> IM,4ll 'Jii4.r.ia 1'.'3,I7I Oil Ml 1 ll.ma llnl« ..f il»l> "I-"" Wlia tii4,»i)'i m, 1711, «MI i.i*j, 17M1IIII :i,7s7, 1B«,4MI l.lWIt, lIPtl.llllH I.4UII, m,'in l,i>4l tr*tiah(l<|i«.1. fiiuii.U III Uuita. 11111,(104 3,1R.I,»B1 l,47lt,H7H H'i7.UM l,>i74,UVJ Nn of NaUiillnl Vaaaala. * (I 11 14 t a T m u Marfhanl Va • Tlii-aa lluiiri'a ijlvo tlm niinibi'r of illlfiT nl rntiv of wlmhra at lliii v»rliiii« uoria -aiuiiii "f llm voaula ontcring at lliroe, fuiir, uuil uvuu Avii iiuru iliiring thn year, rim actual iiuiiilwr uf tlllTtriiiit wimli'ra during IhBO itlll nut fXciiuU tl4U. Purls nf Knln/.—T\ia following oro the only port* of entry In tho .Sanilwlch Uliiniln, viz. : for veaaeia of uU ilearrlptiona, ilnnolulii (Ouhii), I.nhatna (Miuil), Illlo, Koaliikeakun, nnil Knwnlhao (Hawaii), anil Wnl- niRn (Knunl) ; nnil fur whalers, unil veaaola of war only, ]Iannlp| (Kniiai). Port ('hnrgft on Mrrehant V'»rl.i. — At Ilimohihi. — Tonnngo iliiaa, llfteen cpnta per ton register ; pllotngo, one dollar per foot each way ; or hnlf-pllotugn If no pilot is empio3-p(] ; health certillcnte, one ilollar ; liiioya, two ilollan; hurlior-niaater, throe ilolhira ; rlearnnro, one dollar ; pilot for niiihorlng n vrasel oiitaido whli'h does not enter tho hurliur, ten ilullnrs. At iMhaina, — Tonnage dues tho aume na at Hono- lulu ; iKiardlng olllcorH, live dollura ; lights, one dol- lar i canal, If used, two dollars ; clearnnce, one dollar. Al Ililo. — Tonnage duca, pilotago, health cortltlcate, and clearance, the annie ns at Honolulu. At Keataktnhia. — Tonnage duos tho same as at Honolulu; boarding ofHuer, five dolbrs; clearance, one dollar. At Kniiaihne (Hnwair), nnd Walmcii (Kauai"), tho Bunie as at Kealnkeakiia. Any veaicl, having |iaid the tonnage due.i at one port, complied with nil tlm |)ort regnlntlona, and otitalncd a clearance from the collect- or, may go to "either or nil of the other ports of entry, without |>aying any additional tonnage dues during the same voyage. Pririlfge$ to \Vhnhfihif>ii. — Wlinlo ships ore iillowcil to land goods to the value of $'J00 freo nf duty, and $1000 worth additional, suliject to a duty if 5 per cent, wl rtilorem, without lieing lialile to pay any ton- nage dues; Imt if thoy land more than $1200 worth (Including tho $200 worth free of duty), they aro mib- ject to tho name charges nnd liuliilitiva u:i merchant vessels.— /?«• Wii.vi.K Ki.siikuikh. Penaltiei, Ileilrictions, cli: — Any master of a whalo ship wlio shall fail to produce his permit when called for is lialile to a line of not less than $10, or more than S'.'iO, to 1)0 imposed hy tho collector. Any vessel hav- ing cargo on board intended fur a foreii^n port, or spirits in cargo or stores, and touching nt n place not it port of oiiirj', without n permit from a collector, is liable to pay doiildi tonnage dues. Oil, whalebone, or any other artitlu of merchandise, landed or trunship|icil without a permit, i.> liable to seizure or conflscation. Seamen are not allowed to be discharged at any of tho ports of these islands, except Honolulu and Lahaina, It is not lawful to dlschargu seamen at any of the porta of tho islands without the written consent of tho gov- ernor. Honolulu and Labaina are the only ports at which native seamen are allowed to bo shipped, and at these pUcea only with tho consent of tho governor. —Sie United Slain Cum. Retittiont ; STitlTAnT'* Jour- nal; IIunt'h .l/ri-cAanfj' .lAif nti'nr, xvii. 83, xvili, 310, xxlv. 185; A'ur(A Atmriian Rtvitw, II. 608, xxvl. 69 (KvAnxa), Iv. 193 (U. 11. Da.na); Chrittiun JCsamintr, .xix.2U; I)K llow'H llfvimi; xlll. 467. Saiidy Hook, Kliddletuwn township, Monmouth county, New Jersey, la n sandy lieuch extending north from Old Shrowabury Inlet and the aiiuth |Hiint uf tht Highlands of Nuvesink, five miles, nnd Is from half • mile to a iiillo wide. It incloses Handy Hook Hay. Tho lights aro on the north part. Tho Sandy Hook lights consist of the main light, and two liciicons placed in iHiaition, for ranges of channela. The main light is in lat. 40° 27' 42" N., long. 78° 69' 48" W. from (jreenwich, Kngland. Ui]ht-thip.—\ light-ship, painted red. of alKint 860 tons liunlen, and showing two lights, Is anchored olT Sandy Hook. Tiio forward light la 80 feet nbovo tha deck, nnd the after one 40 feet. Sho Is nlso provided with a bell of 800 pounds weight, which will bo rung in thick weather. She is placeil In 1.1 fathoms water, Sandy Hook light-house bears fh)m the light-ship west by north, distant (i| miles ; Illghlund light-house, west- southwest, distant 7 miles. IlighlaniU of .Vaiifsi'nit.— Navcsink hills, on which two light-houses are built, extend northwest and south- cast, about southwest from Sandy Hook, on the At- lantic Ocean to Raritan Hay. The correct altitudes of tho following jilaces, which present themselves to mariners as thoy upprouch them, are : Mount Mitchell, tlio liiglieHt point of Navesink, Monmouth county. New .Jersey, 282 feet; Tompkins' Hill, on Staten Island, 1107 feet ; Hcnipstoad Hill, (jueon's county. Long Isl- and, 319 feet. llighliind lAghls.—On the Highlands of Navesink there aro two light-houses liearing north 23° W., and south 23° K., from each other distant 100 yards. The southorn light Is a revolving one, on the I'rosnel plan ; it is 248 feet above tho level of the sea. The north- ern light is a llxod light, 246 feet 7 inches above tho sea. Ledge South Snndy Hook.— On this reef there are liut 9 feet of water. The nurtliern light on the High- lands, a little o|ien to thn eastward of the southcm one, leads right on tho reef. This ledge is south half east from Sandy Hook light, 7 miles distant, and about 1^ mill! from tho shore, and on which tho ship William Thompion struck. Oil Spot. — Kast-southeast If mile from Sand}- Hook light is tho Oil S|)ot, having only 10 feet of water in one spot nt low water. It is of n triangular shape, and about half a mile on each aide in extent. The along-shore channel Is inside of It. SAN lrt79 SAN inwnil fitlllntf la ac- rt»llnn il thcM iilii>r uf Ill Y»*» P|.triU 11,44a 1 M»T H,«M 14, l» iMin IT, NIT [ U."9 Iff III tlirM) M. hi'* Jour- xvlli. ai«, I, xxvl. 69 y','xoniin«»'i Monmouth iitllnij north |Hilnt of th» from half • Hook Mtt.v- Jandy Hook iiconn vlnccil miiin llBht 1« 8" W. from bf alK)iit 850 [inchorc(\ off lot nl«)V« tlio ilmi |iruvl*e«t- .„, on which Lt unil nouth- 1, on the At- ei-t nltttiulos |\em»elveii to int Mitchell, [county, New liiten lnUntl, \y, Loiitf l»l- lof Nttveslnk 1^3° W., and vardB. The p'ronnBl (iliin •, The north- La ahove the Lcf there are In the High- louthem one, luth half east and nliout Lhip »'i/'inn» I Sandy Hook of water in Icular shape, Ixtcnt. Th8 Fattt //.».*.- U '"II" •;'»«. » llt'l« northerly, from hn,\ mii.h fh.m dr.., I.r which, In.lMd, Il hnn n>n««|. Biiiidy lliHik ll«hl, thft.' !• ii miiuII .Iio,.1 •■h.I, with ..l!v l.wn lulil >»«.t«. Th»M, hnw«v«r, h*\» Loin onl> I'i f«rt W|il« »|).m it at low waUr. It U the m- ' .i""'!.!* r-imlwl , «ii,l in n f..w »,.,k« no tru. « urn niiilni of thu ol.l l-,ii«« lloiik. „,„„ „f ,|,„ „„„, ,|,.,„„,,i,, ,.„„||«Kriitlon.. A hi- N.I,. \,irk //.irW. riirr.1 nrn fmir (lmnii..|. „v,.r iiii{,hi>w«vi.r, „. li.| ,„i,| f„r lont*, fir** will Uram* 1... the ,I«rii«y »hor», ln»lil» of tlii< Oiiif>r .Ml.Ml... 1 1,„ i,,,, iv,.,|,„.„t u,,,) | l...truillvi«. Mcon.l U the Smitli nuinti.O, U.l«>.r„ tl,„ III,,, k Cm ri,„ ,H,,,ul„tl,„. „t S..„ VnnvUn, [, th« nio.l mntloy Buoy, No. 1, and lli« lle.H an llu.,j , N., .'. ■|1,„ tl.lrd that .uii U \nmg\n,;\ ; f„r, IhoiiKh AmfHcan. nrr.loiii- U th« Main Mhllf.hanncl, l*tw,..,ii tli,' Itml (an Hii..y, lnat«, a liirK" admixlurr U to I* ,,wn of advMiliir*r« No. i, .iimI the lllark Nun Huoy, Nn. I. Ih. ruurlli i> fn.m all purta (,f IhK world (i.uiildlnk( i" v.t\ iir.iv. Geiinoy'H Chanmd, l«twe«n the llla< k Nuu llm.y, N... H|,nt , an.l Ik, prhap., . arrlr.l ..i, to a Krnitrr'rxtHnl l.and the Red Nun Ituoy, No.'i. 'Ihlii ihiiniid ruiM h.ri", .luring lh« riiiiiv «pa«oii,ihun In any oilier iilac* wr«t l.y north, and In ua«d l>y our larjje.t vUm >hi|n of rlthrr uf II1.1 N„w or'tho < lid \V.,rl,l. Hut IliU It Ihs w«r — Hi.I!!«t'h CmhI I'iIoI. natural rpnult nf tlm < l^'umxt»lll','ll undnr whlrh III* llurhiK the yiiar IHflT the w»»t Iwacon at Sandy |H>|iulHtli>n hax h««n l.n.UKlit tnK,.|hcr: ami Ihi' |m>. lliKik, the foundation of which ha the ilrciiiii.tancf» In wlil< h |py till! «»a, wa« removed to a mMiini pii'.itioii liv mil. r It orlxlnated chiiimn i.r !..»« Iheir lnlliii.nc<>. |.\i„h- of the l,li|ht-hou«e Hoard, a m-w "crcn on., ti^d, an.l law hua l*cn lif rn n-diiccd to a iiv,.tpiilatlon of the .Ity ilKIera widely al .Statea, in California, on the aouth promontory, cllvld- dirtcrenl (a-rliaU, hein(j crowded In tho wet, ami coin- Ing the great hay of .San Kranclaoo from the I'acllh', paratively dcaerted In the ilry -i-xmn. 'I'IioiikIi hy far inaido the hay, and a ahort way to tho aouth of Ita en- tlic larKeat and mont iiniKirtiinl town In the Nl.it«,'u || trance. Tho latter, now called the (iidden (late, little not ita capital. That dintinction haa hoen conferred more than a mile in width, haa on Ita aouth aide an on San Josi In comnMiuenco of Ita mure central aitiui- old Spanlah fort, or praiilio, In hit. .'IT" IH' :i(»" N., ; tlon. long. Vi-i° 27' 2:1" W. Having paaaed the fort, the 1 Tho Hay of Snn Kranclaro,thonKh,aa already atated. courao to tho town Is nearly eaat from three to four It haa a narrow entrance, expanda within into one of milea, and then aouth and weat nlioiit aa niurh more. | tho nohleat liaatiia that la any where to ho met with, The city la aituated at the liottom of a hay, aklrled liy having n coaat line of aliout 275 milea. Tho town liim extenalvo data, some of which are now licing formed nlreajly hecome the aeat of a very extensive tniile. and Into docka. Ita growth haa hoen qulto extraordinary. \ will mo»t likely ho tho grand eniporliiiii of the viiat In the early part of IHIUIt coiiaiatedonly of a fowrudj territory hehmging to the I'liited .Statea on the I'a- Ciihlna; whereas it haa now nn exchange, n theatre, a cillc. The trade with China, Auatralla, tho Kiiatern cuntom-houae, aiindry churchea and other piihllc liullil- ' Archipelago, and the. Tolyncilan lalanda, la even now inga, with great numlicra of private houaea, many of very oxtcnalve, and aeveral ahlpa have lieen lltted out wliich are of wood, hut many alao nfwMif (aiin-dried) for tho whalo-tlshery. At present, however, the prln- andhumedhricka, with n vast numlier of attached tenia ; elpal trade of the city ia with I'anama on the one hand, and iKHiths. And while such la the inotamorphosla on and Oregon on the other; hrliigliig Immigrants and shore, her watcra, which were formerly quite deserted, ' all aorta of man 11 fact 11 red goods from the former, and are crowded with ahlpa and atenmera from all parts of [ cum and other raw produce from the latter. Hut alio tlie world ! San Kranclsco la Inilelited, aa every ono haa also an extensive trade w ith Chill, tho eastern por- knowa, for this all hut mlruculoiia transformation to lion of the United .States, «nd with Kuropo hy f.'apo tho discovery of gold deposits in tho hcds of the trlliii- Horn. The liiiportutlon of many forts of pn'diicts liai tarlcs of the San Joaquin and .Sacramento rivera, whicli 1 licen completely overdone, anil some varieties of niiimi- fall into her bay, and in thu quartz of tlio contiguous i factured goods might, in IH.'i;) and IS.'il, he bought in niuuntiiinfi. Such, however, arc the advantagoa of her San Kranciaco as cheap as In Liverpool or Havre, tltuatlon, and tho fertility of tho adjacent country, that Tliir., however, is a species of inlacalcidation incident tho exhaustion of tho gold deposits, though It might to the opening of all new marketa, and will speedily check for a while, would not permanently affect the correct Itself, (iidd Imlllon, with small hut Increasing growth of the city, or tlio extent of her trade. To oli- quautiliea of quicksilver, and hides, have hitherto liecn vlate the shallownoas of the water close to tho town, ' the all hut exclusive articles of export, a wharf 2a00 feet in length ha.a already been projecteil I Tho subjoined tabular form gives at a coiniirehen- Into the hay, and to it all sorta of vessels are safely ■ she glance the amounts of the nsseasmenta, together moored. The construction of cxtenslvo docka has alao ' with the rates of taxation of tlie city and county uf been commenced ; and every effort is 'iciiig made to 1 San Kranclsco, for eight llscal years, since tlio first o^ provide tho accommodation necessary for the rapidly | ganization of the local goveniment, viz.: Increasing trade of the town. San Kranclsco stands on a sandy level j and during ! tlio wet season, when it is most crowded, the streets were at first mere puddles, into which carriages sunk to tho axles ; while in the dry season the annoyance | from dust was all but intolerable. Uut these incon- veniences have been to a great extent obviated by j flooring the streets, or covering them with stout planks, a process which has been carried to a great extent, and ! has bad the most complete saccess The city has suf- 1 Fl'rsI ItBleof Ti(iiili.>ti Aniuiint of AMManitnlf . 1 Rr«l " Improve- Pcnnnnl V.sriy j Yearn. |>ri Cetit. I->li,t«. mcnlfl. Hroiwrtv T..U1. 1)1... ru. llollftr).. Dullniii. ll.iMnn. nolliin. llW.)-.'Bl 'i no ta,«4!l,ll,M [n pera'al 4,77'i.lOO 21,G'il,'il4 ,l*.M..'.'vJ i VI lt,Ul,4lili (into '.',S7.'>,44ii 14.lllC,lt03 ;l-yVi-',W 4 41 ift.o'ii.iino ililto i,Slir.,!ISl 18,481,71)7 1W.1-'.'>I 8 SSj tT,9S9,W10 0,iM,8nn 4,8W,0«o 28,!Min,lB0 Umu-'."* 8S5I in,T0«,286 ii,ir.o,9m ft,8:i7,mi7 34,782,897 ISfnVtW » 851 1S,(!"7,8IHI 8,B'J4,9!i.^ n,0"3,S47 32,070,872 il«,'i(l-'5T a ao 17,B!!7,617 8,34B,0«7 4,194,'.i7» 3ll,a08,2M 'ls.•i7-^^s 2 30 10,100,890 7,814.(«nH»,7S4,!il)D B'.i,T0C,10S SAN 1680 SAN Btatkmknt nr tiik Nl-miikr or I'AssENaRiiii nr Hka arriv- INll AT ANII IIKTARTINO FROU THE I'ORT Or 8aM KbAI » 04 4S,) 13 225 231 4T 79 Sftfl tcii porta dlriHt China Orcat Britain Hamburg Pern Chill Sandwich Inlandn. Other raclflc lalanda Australia Mexico HiisHlon I'o«»., N. W. Coant Other p«rt« Total 2(M>40 1)244 2081 28,206 DErARTCREH, Vear 1860. for M«n. Wunien Chiltlteii Total. I'anania 11,2m 4,849 10 212 17 8,214 121) 412 470 2!I2 3;i 709 208 4 84 S 7 75 121 60 B •16:i 193 12,408 0,310 14 241 20 8,223 130 4S7 ono 862 44 r'ftn tluan rullccl SlatiM porta direct ^nndwlrh THlauda other I'aclflc lalanda china I'eri. Au«lralla Mexico Chill Other porta Total 2u,omi 1348 046 22,903 1 RioAriTiii.ATios, Year 1S66. 1 Mfii, Wuiiion children Tolal. Total iirrivniH 20,940 5244 134S 21W1 648 ■>S,2«,'> 22,'.10S Total ill pBrtiirea. 20,90;i Exco«« of arrlvalB 81 3896 I4:i6 5,302 Showing a not gain of population from arrivals by sea, iluring the year 1656, uf 5,'!G2 souls. This is a very unfavornUo oxliiliit, nnd we regret to make it public. During 1 lin last six months of the year tlio de- partures were U'.>7 houIs in exccus of tlio arrivals. It is, however, the class of population that wo are losing which is tlio worst feature. During the lust hiilf of 185C, the departures of male adults for the Atlantic States were 2,'i3,520 Coined at Urancli Mint _ 4,0S4,207 17,6.iS,800| 25, 140.490 Total $6l),i42,272 li;00,111,440 :f7S,830,3«l) Leaa Hrlt. coin ahlpped 2,5 io,iMiii 8,l)(in,il00! 17,il 0ii,0iKl Eatl matcd prmliictlon [$fi7,742,272,j^5S,1li,44flji01,830,i Of the annual product of tho gold mines and placers of the State, it is diflicult, also, to speak with any iwsi- tlve degree of accuracy. In the lire of May, 1851, al- most the entire records of the custom-house were de- stroyed, together with a vast qua^itity of the books and papers of mercantile houses, so that we can only itate SAN 1G81 SAN I SllirMBSTS l9,8:'6,2fl4 l8,flO«,2S9 18,140,400 |l,8;i0,860 ItB. fcYr«ir<,204l (i.79'.',n" J 3,'.'8,>,620 l25,140,4M 117,000, OIHl |BTr830,300j Ind pincers ^ any lios'- 1,1861,81- t were do- Ibooks and ■only »t»*8 the recorded amounts exported liy the mail steamers and other vesseU since that cpocli, which were as fol- lows, according to olflcial iluta : KSTIMATEI) PBOni-CE Of TlIK MlNF.S OF Cai IFOHNIA HINCE TIIKIK l>lSCOVWlV. Prcvioinly lo 1S5I, aaflumi'd from stalli!- llM of the L'uitod SUtoB Miot $88,015,000 1S51 4,V.N',i,noo 1862 4.'>,770,IK10 1853 54,1M15,IK)0 1854 5l,42;l,.i00 18,55 46,is;i.iim) I860 50,0.17,1100 1867 5iM)43,iK10 Add probable ninount in baiidn of paMcn- Bern, fl years, f 10,000,000 per annum. C0.00o,ono Total • ■ .*40S,(iiio,liOO (n the fr>regoing estiinnte no account is talien of the amount of uncoined j,'old in the hands of miners, or ly- ing on genenil deposit with the various express agents and bankers ^ It is the opinion of those who have made inquiries on the suliject, that the amount thus retained in tlie country is fully up to throe millions of dollars. Nor is the amount shipped by sailing vessels included, an emission caused by our inaliility to ascertain the proportion which dust bears to coin in such shipments. The shipments of treasure to China, Manilla, Calcutta, Valparaiso, and Honolulu, the present year, amount to aboi!t $853,000 ' It would be a diDlcult task to ascertain the total value of foreign goods im|X)rtod and consumed in this region, as a great part are previously imported at the eastward, and do not require to be specifically entered in ourcustom-house. In stating, therefore, the amount nf our direct unportation of foreign goods, for the year ending the 1st of October last, at $7,490,000, wo merely do so en passant, without reference to the actual con- sumption. If wo were to form an opinion of our im- ports from the amount of our annual exports, both of pro«luce and gold, we should say that the former would amount to at least $30,000,000, which forms nearly the whole basis of our trade. The following is a comparative statement of the ex- ports from San Francisco for the years 18&5 auf* 1H6G : l«S.<. IflSO. Treaiiurc $4,5, 182.031 $60,0.17,434 Koi'eit^ii morcbandise, produce, and quickailvpr 4,l<'. i,Cll 4,270,515 Total $41,372,242 $54,'.!«7,1'49 In estimating, as we have done, the imports at only $30,000,000. or two-thirds the amount of our exporta- tions, we presume the remaining $18,000,000 to have been absorbed by the rents and other revenues of ab- sentees ; by the interest on foreign capital ; and \)y tho remittances of miners and others to their absent fam- ilies, as well as those of others whoso entire earnings are sent out of the country. These are mere specula- tive views and opinions, but, in tho absence of ixisitive data, they may not bo deemed unworthy of Applica- tion — San Francisco I'ricf Current. V'ALirK OF KSPORTS OTIIKU THAN TcKASCUK TROM SaN FrAN- CISCO DURINO TUB YSAR KNVIKU DECKUIIKII 31. 1'<.56. Australia $l.i;.1,:!07 Now York l,n3.5!IO Mexico 781,05!) Peru 337,(l:i2 Sandwich Islands 241,303 China 23'i,'.>41 HuHsian I'osscssions 127.;i 10 Chill 110.787 Sociity Islands 111,819 New (tmnndu. . . , 41,120 Port* In the I'aclllc 36,453 Vancouver's Island 23,370 Coiitn Itlca 12,000 Kastlndlcs . . 2,7,50 NlcaniRim 2,430 Total exportation in 1850 $4,270,514 " " 1,S55 4,X77,5ia Excess In favor of 1S,5B $417,005 The exports of lumber in 1856 were 8,900,000 feet. 60 KxroRTS or Doxestio PRimrrF for Tire Ykab EMnins D«- I'Guiini 31, 18S0, Fl.OlR. VVliill.oT eii|)ort«(l Ilnrroh.. rna,'!. lir. Sack! 4r Swill. 2117,484 4,000 7,202 1,1180 6,.S2fl 162 40 80 2,570 880 Australia 33118 51 12u5 2lii 32,10 iiiiio 1000 118,5 5) 100 China Callao Honolulu 101 Mexico Uu,iHlan INtsscssions .... .■artur«i (01 Ko. of VtMll. Tom. raclAc domestic porta 860 711 5!) 26 37 14 19 43 29 4B 9 7 IS 21 3 15 S 3 1 3 1 137.456 72,784 60,673 60,627 26,837 13,053 17,630 16,666 12,553 8,873 4,797 6,003 3,855 8, 5' 12 1,21)4 1,971 4IB8 341 266 1,469 900 China I'eni Calcutta Manilla Bandwirh Islandfl Auttralia Mexico KutriilaH PoflKCssionr, Northwest (Joast Whallnif \oyaKCK Chill Batavln lalaadrt In tbo Tacl^c Vamonver' s Island CoBla Klca >lauritiu.i ' Krancn 1 Total 1283 «8.S67 Tom 143, l"!! 255,771 277 42,783 ReoAPITlLATIOS roil THE Ve\b 1866. American tcsscIs departed for domestic ports. . 860 " ■' " foreign ports .. . 283 " " " whaling voyages l'< Foreign vessels departed for d.^mestle ports. . . 1 " " " foreign ports ... . 116 Total VM 445,367 Thv tonnage arriving during the three jears below ■tated was as follnw^ : Veswit. Too*. Arrived In 1S63 1028 B.'>S,7,W •• 1854 620 4116,114 " I85.'i S24 412,086 The tonnage entering from eastern domestic porta in 185u was 260,040 tons ; in 1854 it was l,'>3,.eftlic Atianlir I*orl«. From .I.inieBtk l'<.rt.. 18M... 1856 . T.,im 147.870 141.370 ron<. 1S>,«.W iasi4ft T.m.. 177,092 14',01T Increase m 1866. . Dccreasi' In 1856 . 1,800 61,480 !7!,-iT6 The tonnage entered from domestic Atlantic ports in 1853 was 260,045 tons; iit 1854, 153,313 tons, in 1865, 147,870 tons ; and in 185fi, 149,370 tons. Thus it appears tliat the imports from that quarter have hartlly decreased sinco 18.>i. Tlio great falling off in trade is more apparent than real, as in the tonnage en- tering In 1855 were included the ocean steamers arriv- ing from Benlcia, and in the tubie of 1856 they are excluded. I 'ndoiilitedluws: 1863 R.%.:in4 l.ms. i lf»S 26 608 tons. 1954 22,111 " ' im 11,72;1 " From the continent of Kurope there entered in 1855, 18,242 tons against 10.134 tons in IHrtG. With China the trade shows a considerable increase — the tonna^ entered in 1856 being 27,1 10 tons against 17,296 tons in 1855. The clearances to that country have little connection with trade, and therefore there Ii uo need of making comiKirisons with previous years. The exports have been upon n larger scale to Aus- tralia in the year 1856 than to any other couiitrj'. Tho tonnage movement for three years was as follows : 18S4 ISU I'tS. 6,461 .1.175 15,712 12,,Vi8 With the Sandwich Islands tho trado for the years 1854-56 was as follows : Entered. tons 6,SM Departed " 1(),292 Kntered tons Uipartc'I '• )S51. 8,427 8,065 1S5S VM 10,361 6,68B 10,il48 15,r)56 Tho increase noticeable in the tonnage departing for tho islands in \SbG was coused by n larger number of clippers than usual gohig thither to freight oil home. With the other Pacific I.slands trade since 1864 has ranged as follows : ltS4. MiS, JKt. Kntcred tons 2561 8261 2623 Departed " 2287 2716 1071 The tonnage movement for tho three following years with Mexico was as follows : Entered tons Deptivted '* ISSI 3'.i77 8005 ms I'sa. 3,4.'59 r.-Ml 15,S70 (-873 KxroRTS riioM San Frakcisco kop. tue Ykau 1S57. Ta Trrniiire Mtrohnndiiv slid I'roJure. New York Iii35,287,778 9.347,748 2,993,264 244,000 410,V29 278, THE Total* foii the Year 1.S&7. AtrivsI*froin Atlantic domestic jforts raciHc domestic ports Panama i^aa Juan del Hur, Nicaragua (ireat Kritain France Ilamburg Bremen .Mexico Snndwlch Islands Sorlety Islands W haling voyages Kio de .laneiro Itussian Possessions In Amcr. Itussia In Asia Manilla China Itntavia Vancouver's Island Slam Singapore Australia Malaga Costa lilca Chili Calcutta I/imbock, Dutch Kast Indies. Total No. of Tonn. VsimU. Vemlii. 1847. iSit. 13 21.798 1)0 10.i,63fi 312 4S,04S 1238 182,C3I): 6 8,785 34 40,2l.o' .... 2 1,610 i ei7 24 16,!.92 4 2,096 18 8,.t.'i.') 1 709 9 8,428 * > . • 2 911 2 2!i.'< 12 1,804 43 6,0m! 4 11 3,1 '! 1,069 13 l.ci.'i 1 146 8 i,w;4! 1 860 4 i,3i:i S C80 8 s,7'.';i 1 160 3 2sr. 3 1.068 8 3,.T.i(i 6 3,503 81 23.. T.M 1 973 4 l,'2!''.t 8 402 6 Hl'.l 1 328 4 1,MI 1 .jS'J 3 1,138 13 4,7'i'.i , , 3 H\tt 8 CTl 5 l,5s;i 1 469 3 1,011(1 1 4'.« 879 98,863 1683 427,NW Atnfirloi ]'W. IRM. 1071 7,143 7'44,0b6 3sin.2oo 314,C04 167i(il)3 8,4'il) 105,152 ]3?,7no M,570 8(),14l 7,0Sll it4,32!),758 4S,»70.n97 $1,3IW,244 4flft,7l'8 1,041,28(1 110 10:1,52,', 123S 182,f3fi 24 40,2(0 2 1,M« 24 18,!,92 18 8,.13r> 9 SAW 2 '.n't 2 2iir. 42 fl.OM 11 3,'.di 12 1,01; 8 l,w;4 4 i,3i:i 8 c,7'.':i 2 2S,'. 8 3,.T.'li 31 23.3i4 4 l,21'll G lU'.l 4 1,MI 1 ■1^., i;i 4,7-2'.i 2 USh 8 Oil fi 1,5*.' 3 I,0'.i(l 1 4^ "SAN ,.„ '«*'*MTl,U««, ,„, „„ Y^^^ j^^ •* SAN Amru»„ v™,,!* „„lv.d f,„„ rtom^tk p„r„ VS^- To„.. | _. '''"'"''^^ .Vorem.nt of ,H. p,^ . ^ " " .: Lr.f''«"« 12I 'si'-^^ L."T'™'»'™"^ I'ewgM v™,.l, clc««d for f„,cte2 «*,"">'Bi'« » i'-l ° '""'" "» '""ow-. : "'»' ""■ ^'^O" J8S«--S7 l"'"", * ^^ JW 44.'flM 18«, .. """', .if5 •MOOS 18«)., 1S.W. 1S57 . . '''•iini';,';!;;; f.'iiiii ; te'."''''^''''''''i».'.'.''.'.' *icl|. V l,|«„|, , • Jlnnllld '■■«»( Inillm •tiwirniu,,, " (HutiivU,,,, Kn H(.lv«,l,„ 1 1 «hiiniit«|K!e Vf'a 14.'« 15S3 Tntt. 5I7,UI9 ♦44,015 «7,5(!« 8,2!iB 0,(102 10,304 123 10,423 »,B75 I 1,076 030 813 , i.'i4i I 3,959 632 «!"""« the X "" r c4 S T"'"- ^««"«<= port, eomparea with that of ISSC '„" T '"''"'"« «ff S wrt, .n .„...,. . J«.>0-tlmt from domestic coast —rr---^---' -""■i'"";u with that of T«.-w .1 »° 'uiimg off when S ^''^" S "i"'''"«»«-''f''l«p'er; ''"''' '•"">' foreign' 1 I'a'^:] ^!::l-^'" ^°"o«-'"g «ro the i^u;:"'- '-"P^red with IS.'ifl... 1857... ..';;■;•••• Dpcrease lu Iw ^Jncrease in 1S57 ' '"rger than !n 1857 , the amV i"/"'' » '''"'f "me^ «veraged about 150 000 t„n, I' "^ T'^' '^'' ""d '56 12.681 tons «S 10 ^S'^P" f'^ro entered fn-lSw' ,T.„.. f the import tS's'h "w^ ^'h "'"' "' ''■"" ^^'^^ -"'"" H? .i5d« '""""ge arriving and dpnnw-,' "' '"•''™ted by the s« 337^122 1 "t San Franoiaef, has fefonow ':" ""' """' >-- Entered ^":, Departed ...V.V. 10";.^ 1«55. 0,400 15,712 ISJd. S,3T5 13,558 IS5I 4,7>9 10,1S3 The groat dl,prehnncvlii.fwl"".V'"" ^ ^^^'^^ '"K trvm ml ,hi>rCZ 7'"^"*," 'he tonnage arriv r«rturM of that "1"? '^/.l"" ''"'',"' "<« year the dt of thora l,«„^ roi "'!'!'' "'"{"■"■house, „„ ac otn °^ ^e olearan^s h' n™ 7'^^ """ ™""" '•• v«lMn, ■jl.iS:'^?,:.^ 'r""^ "^-Oing S 'ho Eastern .State J'anS t'rXTf'" "•"«- o„ t, »r'; th.- iru* |„,|«x of ,h„ dome,.I. ''"""'^''y stated, '"'"=" »» follows: •^' ^"^ ""= '"" f<»'r years hav, M«t«Mo««.rr««t„pf„r„,X?ho,u;rr'"^ '"e^o the making. „, „ gene alth't^.'^"" '" '«^«' '""' "'though > ork. w|,|,.(, ha,,, doiibled In vJl ^ i'"''"'''' '" Now ports of ti^„sure in ]8W ^' "'""'■ ^ho ex- cT»«set«A«,t,aI|„XStI^^ir''*''"''"™'-'''- ''■'' P-^^^'h-ng - «\*f'^X™'"P7<' ^ith those of '^heoxjwt. of, „,,L^?r' '■"("""•« off is J80^ ^ '"^ "'"<^'' ^»" have an. ,.„»^ ''■» M««|«, , , '"■**"' •' ^" "" were as follows i>a;;?''*----'';:'::::;:;;:;;:::''^''''^iiif i^w"" .;;;;;;;:;;; •• 3;;^ To(»| " i.oiin ""«^-...;:;;'^^"ai/2S;;;.....n.^27,^ the preceding yea s 'f whlh'""''^'' *'"' "'O'" "f stands thus- "'"'^'' '*" have any record 1M5. There "a llr™ > ''o'npared with thoso of ports of lasty ar wh,?h ifrlrrif''^" ^"'^ ">« ^x- SAN 1G84 SAN Vfe rofcr to the ahipmcnts of treasuro to China and Manilla. In 1857 the exports to those points were i|'),Z72,164, almost wholly made up of doubloons and dollars received from Mexico. San Francisco import- ed In 1857 i|:l,l(!X,711 in specif, nearly all of whicli came from Mexico, and went from here to China and the Bast Indies. More );old every year goes to Kn- glmid direct, and less to New York ; the figures for five years past show the change in this respect : Gfport«d to New York. 1863 $tT.01S,44S 1861 45 6,18i,160 1SS0 8,608,289 1S&7 0,847,748 The Light-house Board Report (or 1867 states that "the steam tender autliori^ud l)y Congress in 1856, and liuUt at the Philadelphia navy yard, will reach San Francisco probaldy early in the year 1858. The presence of this vessel will serve the economical pur- pose of transporting supplies, materials, and workmen for buildftag and repairing the light-houses, and also, In case of incursions of the Indians from the liritish dominions in the Straits of Fiica and vicinity, to pro- tect the keepers and citizens in that quarter against their attacks. Representations have been made that a light is necessary between the bays of Monterey and San Francisco, and one on Mare Island, in San Fran- vlsco Day. The latter is recommended mainly in con- •Ideratlon of the difflculties at night in approaching the navy yard and Uenicia." Port Chargei. — Pilotage outside Farrdones, $10 ; in- side Farralones, $8 per foot; tonnage dues, 4 cents per ton ; dockage, 3 to 6 cents per ton per day ; stevedore's charges, 75 cents per ton; Shipping men, $5 each; bal- last, rough stone, $2 25 per ton; cobble stone, $2 75; sand, $150. Water, 1} cents per gallon. Day labor, (5. Port-warden, $80 to $75. Exchange. — On Atlantic States, sight, 8 per cent. ; England, light, — d. at ild. per dollar ; France, sight, 4 80 frs. Money} — Scarce at 2 to 4 per cent, on good security. Doubloons very scarce, and wanted — 7 jier cent, pre- mium. Mexican dullur.i, do. do. 7 per cent, premium. Rale of lnttre$t on Moneij. — liy an act passed March 13, 1850, the rate of interest on nione^' was fixed at 10 phr cent, where there was no special contract; but " parties niiiy agree in writing for the payment of any rate of interest whatever on money duo, ur to become due on any contract. Any judgment rendered on such contract shall conform thereto, and shall bear the in- terest agreed upon." Ban FrancUoo (Bay of), California. One of the best harbors of tlie I'aciric Ocean. The entrance is very remarhul-'.c, bold, and rocky ; a mile wide and 4 miles in length, with deep water and no obstructions. It then expands into an extensive bay, in which lie selreral islands; that of San Angclo is tlio largest and highest, and covered with vegetation to its very top. The next in size are Yerba Ducna and Alcantras. The Day of San Francisco is 3ti miles in length by an aver- age of 6 in width. A largo portion of its soutliern, eastern, and northern shores is bordered by extensive and wide mud-flats, preventing the landing, at low water, of even a boat ; so much so, that the eastern shore may be said to be inaccessible for a distance of 80 miles ; and this impediment prevents it from ever becoming useful, except by the construction of extens- ive artiticial works. On the north it is bounded by the Straits of San Pablo, which divide it from tlio bay of that name. The Bay of San Pablo is nearly circu- lar, about 10 miles in diameter, the largest segment of which is a mud-flat, with but a few feet of water over It. On the east side lies the channel, with a sufliciciit ilepth of water.for largo vessels, leading to the Straits of Karquihes, at the mouth of the Sacramento ISivcr. On the western side of the Bay of San Francisco, from the Straita' of San Pablo, for a distanM of Id miles, the country is broken and mountainous, and the shores rocky and indented by small bays. These ol)struction8 reduce this extensive bay very much in size, and It becomes still more so when the safety and convenience of vessels ia taken into consideration ; indeed, with the dee[5 water, cross-tides, and exposed situations, there are but two safe anchorages, viz., San Francisco and Sausalito. The Bay of San Francisco has been cele- brated, from the time of its first discovery, as one of the finest in the world, and is Justly entitled to that character, even under the seaman's view of a mere harbor. Ban Balvador. This ia the smallest of the Cen- tral American states, embracing but 7500 square miles, and is separated from Nicaragua by the Bay of Con- chagua. The soil is in many places exceedingly fer- tile, but the country is generally billy and mountain- ous. '* Xotwilhstanding the unsettled state oi affairs in Central America, and the active part taken by San Sal- vador in the war now going on inNicaragua, the imports and exports during the year 185U exceed those of the two previous years. Tlie increase in the imports may be attributed in part to the lowness of the duties in comparison with those of Guatemala, a circumstance which has induced the merchants of the latter to dis- embark at Ac^jutla and La l^nion a considerable por- tion of their cargoes. A quantity of these goods, it is well known, are being constantly smuggled over the frontiers. The great difference in the value of the ex- ports is owing to the increasing attention now being paid to agriculture. In consequence of the clicapncss of land and of labor, and the inducements held out by the government for the advantageous investment of capital, several foreigners, principolly Frenchmen, have purchased lands and commenced the culture of coffee. A considerable amount of money is by this means being gradually brought into circulation, and the country be- coming more prosperous, Tlie cultivation of coflve is attracting general attention, from the fact of the few samples of this article remitted to Europe in order to determine its quality having realized the highest prices both in England and in France. " This taken into consideration, together with the fast- increasing consumption of cofTee in France, Germany, England, nnd the United States, and even in Central and South America (tlio natives gradually preferring it to chocolate), and tlie safety of the crop, together witli the cheapness of land, and small cost in producing it, gives every assurance to the producers of success in their operations, and, at the same time, holds out en- couraging prospects for the prosperity of trade in gen- eral. I have also proposed to several EngUsh mer- chants the establishment Of a coffee-planting compan^v, which, I am certain, would return a safer and better interest on the capital invested than any otlier specu- lation. Th"! coffee-tree is not lioble to injury from in- sects or changes in tlio weather. It is easily cultivated, bears fruit for twenty-five years and upward, and tlio produce is always salable. The cofTee market is never in a depressed state ; and from the fact that there are few climates suitable for its culture, the probability of its increasing rather than decreasing in value is a matter beyond a doubt. The government of San Salvador have by a decree exempted all the neces- sary laborers on a coffee estate from military conscrip- tion, and fi'om all municipal interference. They have also ofForcd me every facility in procuring lands,"— Report by Mr. FooTE, liritish Consul at San Saltador, on the Trade, etc., of that Republic, during the Year 185(!. Indian corn, cotton, coffee, nnd various kinds of vcg- etal)le produce, are cultivated to some extent. Tlie most important article of cultivation, and indeed tlie cliicf staple of San SaUador, is indigo, which grows iu great perfection and abundance. Near the coast, tlio laiida of Ac^jutla and Liliertad produce the article known in commerce as the Balsam of Peru, of whicli SAP 1G85 HAR ores ions >d it icnce lithe tiiero ) and ccle- ne of J tliat mere Cen- miles, )f Con- ;ly fet- untam- Tairs in San Sal- importa io of the jrts may lutics in itnstanco er to dis- ■aUo por- Bods, it i» 1 over the of the ex- i,ow being cl>capncs9 eld out by ;8tment of l\men,l>ttve B of coffee, neans being country bo- of coffee is , of tlio few in order to gbcst prices ai>out 20,0(10 IIjs. is the annual yield. The inhabitants display much ingenuity In the mnnufactura of an arti- cle of female dress, called by the natives rebosas, which is nmch used in Central Ameriia and llcxico. San Salvador has a coast line along the Vacltlc of about 150 miles, with tliu ports of Acujutla and I.ilcrtad, and within the Bay of Concliagua tha e.xccUent harbor of La Union. Commercial relations between the United States and San Salvador are regulated by treaty of January 2, 1850. This treaty is bused upon tlie prin- ciple of tho most favored nation, and .stipulates for rec- iprocity of commerce and equality of flag, without any discrimination as respects the origin of cargoes. Sapan-wood is obtained from a species of the same tree tliat yields the Brazil-wood (Cmulpinia Sa- pnn, Linn.). It is a middle-sized forest tree, indigen- ous to Siani, Pegu, tho Philippine Islands, etc. It has been employed for dyeing in tho greater part of Asia for many centuries. It found its way into Europe some time before tlio discovery of America ; and the imports are now very considerable. Its coloring mut- ter ditfers but little from that of Brazil-wood, but the best snpan-wood does not yield more than half the quantity that may bo obtained from an equal weight of Brazil-wood, and the color is not iiuite so bright. — BAScnoi'T 0)1 Canlimis\ a species of (isit of the herring trilic, but smaller. Tliey arc taken in con- siderable quantities on our coasts, and are exceedingly Each cvci.ing, upon the return of the fishing enmclta llu>y can be bought for a few cents per dozen : Ihey uru an important part of tho food of the poorer claasei, These lish are better, and have a flavor, when put up In oil, which they otherwise have not. They are found In great plenty from the coast of Bretagno to the nioulh of tho Garonne. La liochelle Is the principal depi5t for the fishery. Tho quantity exported to the UnUocJ States in 1852 was 6!),840 kilogrammes ; in 1868 the quantity was 7fi,737 kilogrammes ; in 1854 the quiin< tity was estimated at 100,000 kilogranunes, and of this more than one half, strange to say, was for Callfornlil, -^letter to the Dep. of State. Sardinia. The whole area of this kingdom. In- cluding Piedmont, Savoy, and Genoa, and the island of Sardinia, is estimated at 28,229 square miles, con, laming a population, in 1852, of over 5,000,000, vi*. : the continental states 18,994 square miles, population 4,500,000; and the island ofSardinia92a5 square miles poi)ulation 500,000. ' The chief staples of this kingdom are raw silk, rica maize, wheat, chestnuts, wines, olives and olive-oil', figs, oranges, and citrons. In the island of Sordini* the productions are maize, wheat, hemp, silk, heatm, and other pulse vegetables. There are several ex- tensive vineyards, tliough the wines are not In much repute in foreign markets. Piedmont is considered the most productive part of the continental kingdom, and usually exports its surplus produce for the eon- sumption of Genoa, Niio, and the regions along the coast. Silk is one of the most profitable productions.* The olive and vine are extensively cultivated; wheat and Indian i orn are also grown; the latter of which, mixed with roasted chestnuts, constitutes tho chief food of the rural inhabitants. The nduerals of the country arc valuable, consisting of iron, copper, lead, manganese, and cobalt ; but, owing to bad roads and the lack of cajiital, they are not worked. The salt springs and mines of alaboster, marble, and slate, re- ceive the protection of the government, and their prod- ucts constitute some of the chief exports of Sardinia. Tlio exportation of marble alone to the United Slates an lilts annually in value to about $15,000. The ma factiires consist of silks, velvets, and other silk stui ilockings, common linens and woolens, and the prodi of tho tanneries; hut, with the exception of silks, I' of these mannfaeturcs are exported. Tho chief pori arc Genoa, Spezzia, and Nice, on the con- tinent, and Cagliari, on the island of Sardinio. Genoa is a free port, in which goods may be warehoused or re-exported free of duty. It is the chief outlet of the Jleditcrranean for the manufactures of Switzerland, I.ondlardy, and Piedmont. In 1815 the republic of Genoa was ceded to the King of Sardinia, with the express stipulation that "the free port of Genoa shall be re-cstablithed, with the regula- tions which existed under the ancient govei.inient. Every facility shall be given by the king to the transit through his stotcs of merchandise from that free port. plentiful on tho coasts of Algarvc in Portugal, .\nda- under such restrictions as his majesty shall judge ex- lusin and Granada in Spain, and along the shores of Italy. The small sardines caught on the coast of Prov- ence, in France, are esteemed tho be.:t. From 1000 to 1200 fishing smacks are engaged in catching these fish on the coast of Brittany, from Juno to tlio middle of Octolier. The French frcm either country. The vesseb of each country may enter the ports of the other with cargoes from any foreign coun- try whatever. Any duty or restriction imposed on the vessels or merchandise of the c w country in the other to be extended to the vessels or merchandise of all nations. Coasting trade reserved to national ves- sels. Special favors to any other nation to be enjoyed by the contracting parties respectively. Vessels of either countrj- forced into the ports of the other by stress of weather to bo exempted from port charges. . Article 9 stipulates free transit from the port of Genoa across I'iedmont, except for salt, gunpowder, and manufactured tobacco, Cagliari, the capital of Sardinia, on the northeast shore of a spacious bay on the south coast of the island, lat 89° 12' 13" N,, long, 9° 7' 44" E, Population in 1850 estimated at 30,000. The city stands on a ris- ing ground, and bos an imposing effect from the sea. The public btiildings and churches are numerous, and some of them splendid ; but the streets ate for the most part narrow, steep, and filthy. The Gulf of Cagliari extends from Pula on the west, to Cape Car- bonara on the east, a distance of about twenty-four miles across, and about twelve in depth, with good an- chorage every where after getting into soundings. A mole projects from the Pratique office, and ships usu- ally lie alraut one mile southwest by south from it, in six or eight fathoms water, on an excellent bottom of mud. There is a very convenient pier harbor at the south angle of the tower wall, capable of containing fourteen or sixteen vessels of a tolerable size, besides small craft. Altogether Cagliari is one of the best and safest ports in the Mediterranean, Vessels be- longing to Sardinia are admitted by treaty into the ports of the United States on the same terms us Amer- ican vessels, with the produce or manufactures of their own or any other country, and American vessels are admitted into Sardinian ports on the same terms as Sardinian vessels,— -) cany, and Monaco,/ Siritzei'land Unltud States fliiBBla HanRe Towns Not specified Total CT,»10,371 874,049 44,742,171 14,^47,000 47,462,«01 20,740,313 t7,147,S0> 10,894,150 l,t02,8S7 696,.')l!i 03,291,070 Total. Ki)joru. I^'HIICI. 82,3.">l,(i49 6'.".>,Sfl2 7,6r)(i,024 T.'>7,-B0 41,530, lOG 18,520,875 46,207,1 Vrmna. 151,201,420 1,4IVI,511 5'.','29/,19B 15,104,850 a'),823,IIO 2,53;l,8,VJ 453,030 20n,fl7J •■58,270,273 72,970,972 13,434,016 1,650,523 7»5,!«'0 101,570,943 »lMii5,49»l-i'.i8,fi:ir.,:i/iif!4!),»41,K2n, G0 709,390,888 Uffirlal. I.iren. r>6>,.is-,u4 5 7,8l",52i 577,n;:,6i i C8i),C8i,S0a Genoa Is the only port in Sardinia much froi,uented by United States vessels. The shipping frequenting the port of Cagliari, on tlie island of Sardinia, has considerably increased dur- ing the post ten years. This Is owing to the shelter and refuge it affords in stormy weather, and to the fa- cilities it offers for obtaining all necessary supplies. This may be seen from the following statement, showing the number aod tonnage of vessels of all na- tions that have visited this port since 1845: 1840, 1S47. 1848. 1841), 1860, 1861, 1862, 1863. 1864. No. of VfWiilii. ( Tonimic. 47a 22.693 484 48,545 401 64,893 001 71,989 497 6(,862 640 60,949 607 01,489 08} 88,786 808 00.489 The chief articles of American produce consumed in Sardinia are cotton and tobacco The former is free, and on the latter the duty is '' merved," it being a government monopoly. Whalebone, refined sugar, rum, paints, and other minor articles, are also export- ed from the United States to Sardinia, but to no con- siderable amount. The following table exhibits the quantity and value of cotton and tobacco exported from the United States to Sardinia from 1850 to 185&, both years inclusive: Vear«. 1850. . , , 1851.,., 1362..,, 1853..,. 1851.... 1866.,., Cotton. I V»lmn. Pound*. 1,500,720 3,180,100 5,509,828 1,83(1,025 1,646,873 14,777,706 $162,910 261,838 416,^82 150,422 147,403 l,288,a.3T Tobaero | ValuM Hhdi. 107 8 3414 l'i2 56 3311 $9,3:13 813 341,170 21,!ino 10,500 383,246 Imports Into the United States from Sardinia cimsist chiefly of flax, olive-oil, rags, silk, piecti goods, red wines, wool (unmanufactured), marble, and manufac- tures of wool. Marble Is the most valuable article ri;- ceived, amounting annually to upward of {^0,000 Almost all the trade of Sardinia is carried on by strangers ; and even tho fish ou its coast ind in its harbors are caught by Sicilians, Neapolitans, Tuscans, and Genoese Grain is the principal article of export In good years, the exports from the whole island may amount to 400,000 starelli, or about 500,000 bushels of wheat, 200,000 starelli of barley, 6000 stafelli of maize, 100,000 starelli of beans, 200,000 starelli of peas, and 1000 starelli uf lentils. The culture of vines is gradu- ally becoming of more importance i and about 3500 Catalan pipes are exported, principall}' from Alghero and Ogliastro, Cheese is an important object in the rural economy of Sardinia, and considerable quantities are exported. Salt is a royal monopoly, and affords a conslderablo revenue. Until recently, Sweden drew almodt all her supplies of this important necessary from Sardinia, and it continues to be exported in considor- ublo'quantjties. Flax, linseed, hides, oil, saffron, rags, alquifoux, etc, are among the articles of export. The tunny and coral fisheries employ a good many hands ; but, as already observed, they are almost wholly man- aged by foreigners, AconcwT OP mK Qcamtities or mt ramoiPAL Abtici.ks ETPOllTFI) raOM THE ISLAHn OF SABDINIA TO FOREIGN t'ouMTBiEa IN 184}, 1860, and 1861, Artielea. Ilarllla owta. Uoncs " llullocks No. Calves " Cheese ewta, Corkrwood ** C'nwt, steers, and bnlli . No. I'lre-wood cwts. Kmlt, fnah " Goats, sheep, and lambs . No. Orain cwts, I,ead ore " UllFe-oU Imp, galls, Skins . cwts. Timber, oak Val. lire Timny flih cwts. Wine Imp, galls. Q^ianllllia. IMS. I 18W). 8,030 2,763 70 29,880 3,168 074 8,788 733 332 1,723 8,701 6,800 17,004 10,220 2,839 47,701 427 •2 9,253 5,865 1,430 211 113 10 36,000 24,080 0,782 3,»i;) 450 3'.'4 1.6(18 577 868 7!" 5:14 237 607 2,4"4 4,2110 18,4-7 41 41,097 1,530 088 07,712 2,647 2,831 289,40S 19,743 Franca , . J-ngland... Swlticrland Austria. Ituula. . . I'nitcd S'.ttto June 80, 1861 1862.' 1853. 1854. _ 1855. 1858. . SAB 1087 BAR lelter hof*- ina. ment, tU na- umcd in r ih free, being a \ AUgar, ) export- ) no con- inrt value :etl States liulve: r~v«i^ . $9,9^9 , »IS 1 S41,«0 10,6110 38!l,245 inia consist goods, red d manufac- article to- t30,000 fried on >>y ■xni in it* 18. Tuscans, fleof cxpor* island may J bushels of alH of mttizo. [of peas, and les is gradu- about 3500 om Alghero jbject in the Ue quantities ind affords a Jwcden drew fcessar)' from I in considcr- saffron, rags, export. The nany hands; wholly man- JlPAT. Abtici.t.h Ik TO rOBEKiX b,253 1,430 S,«06 6,782 ■^ Vid |,(i«8 658 6'.'4 B6T ♦■» |l,OOT OfiS J,MT n,40S 1«6I •i I 5865 811 l'.l 24.0Sfl I 8,"W j »n •i,4'4 10,4/! ' i',6311 2,83' l»,T4:i Almost every article of dress, whether fur tlia ({entry or the i>ea8antr}-, is imported. Soup, stutloiiery, Klitaa eartben-wiire, and furniture, as well m nutjar, isuitea drugs, etc., are also supplied by furolgnorh j iiiul nut' withstanding the Sards possess many rich mliiot, uuv- eral of which were successfully wrought in mitli|ulty, they import all their iron ond steel. The only luuiiU' factures carried on in tlie island are those of guii|>jw- der, salt, tobacco, and woolen caps. Itut aalt, u( whlith the export may be estimated at 14,000 or Ui.OUO toim a year, is excluded from the precedini; talile, on whiiih, indeed, but little reliance can Iki pluned, These statemontn sufflflcntly show that the roni. merce of Sardinia is very far from being what might naturally be expected from her extent, fertility, udiuU table situation, and the excellencn of her many liurl.'urH, The following summary presents a general view uf the foreign commerce of Sardinia ; 1880 Imports 111,870,000 fraTira, Exports OH,sfl O,(iili] •■ Total foreign trade la 1900 liuli,7aii7liw " 1S51 Iniportii 12ft,70O,(KKI frano*, Kxiwrla Til, i;i;i,i»ii) " Total foreign trailo la ISCl a^isii^iiuu " Navlgutlon In 1850. .Vessels, 2420_Tomiu|jif, 27T,71T " 1S51.. " ii5 8 " iMVim " 186-2.. " 8250 " !l(ls,4lHt Of these there were under the American flag i In 18Sfl Vessolr., 27— TOnnago fl.lTil II11851 " 10 " 7,hTI lulS5a " 38 " Iii,(rt4 The trade of the kingdom in 1853 amounted in vuU ue to 333,942,000 francs ($63,448,980) Imimrts j uiid 220,630,000 francs (>H1, 919,700) exports. In I8fi2 thi< direct trade between the United States and Hurdlnlit amounted to 7,726,302 francs ($1,477,818 78), In 185:; it reached as high as 13,891,501 francs (2,U39,3UU), showing an increase of nearly 100 per cent. The entire trade, compared with that of 18i'i2, shows an increase of 21,500,000 francs on imports, and of 6,500,000 franca on exports. The imports cumprlsii in values (In round numbers) as follows ; Cotton, 34,000,000 francs; colonial or trans-Atlantic produce, 25,000,000; com, 22,000,000; silks, 20,000,001) ; wim\. ens, 18,000,000, etc. The exports comprise: Silks, 43,000,000 francs ; wine and oil, 10,000,000 francs - rice, 8,000,000; cattle, 4,000,000, etc. The countries with which Piedmont carries on the Inrgest trade are as follows : IM ?OHT8, I K,\IHHITS. Franci. franci. Franco 48,000,000 Franco 40,oiHi,il00 England 89,000,(100 EnKliind ll,f,;«i,0ipi) Switicrland 14,500,000 I Switzerland 13,iliKI,0(K) Austria 10,000,000 j Aiialria 10,OO(i,iilKI Itussla 17,0tH),000 , J{u«;.ia lil;) United S'.ate«. . . . 13,000,000 | Inlted Stalls .... 531,1100 The Customs' revenue amounted in the year 185!) to $3,464,472. Hiirilltiinn oOlc'lnl rptums show an Importation of raw ciittuM, dlr»(!t fnuii tlio ITniled SUtes, for 1853 of alamt ^■J,mi,m\ In value ; ond it is supposed that wlilln of the reinnlnder some undoubtedly came from Algtirlit, Iho greater part came Indirectly from the l-nllfld Htal«», through England, Holland, etc. If, liowflvnr, tlicait Sardinian returns are compared with Ihoao pnipiiriMl l,y (he llnltoil States Treasury Depart- mmit. It will npiienr that the direct imiwrtation of cot- ton rriim tlin Unlleit States must bo, as it unquestlon. alily Is, liirgdly ovor-estlmated ; while the Indinict ira- isirlathm from Kngllah, Dutch, and other Kuropeau port* \» much lielow the actual quantities given. Thus tli« viiliin of cotton exiKirtod from the United States to Kardliilft In infill, ns per United States Kciwrt on Com- iriiircii iind Navlgutlon, was only ♦156,422 ; and in 1852, *4l(l,IIH2 1 milking for Imth yeirs the sum of $573,401, or It llltlii miirii tlinn onc-fmirtli of the volue (jiven in lliH Snrilllilaii returns for 1853 alone. The following iMimimry |ifn»niil« as accurate a statomont of the cot- ton triuli) of Niirdlnlit as can bo derived from a cora- pwrliMili (if Ihu olilcliil rei«rt« of the Kuropean countries wliBiicfl cotton Is re-oMported, and of the United States, Willi th« oltlcliil returns of the Sardinian government. Tim countries given aro not tho onlv, but the principal oounlriss, wlmnco Sardinia Imjmrts" cotton: I'MI'Niis ftpCiiTtns IMi'fiiiTfni ISTO 8.\mii!ii,v FonniKPoiR > K*ll« KNIIINO IIM mo.* Tin; (JOONTBIKS l>K»IGKATm>. V.»l. tHhl,,, I^VJ,,, INfli,,, AviT«l(e| HfM llrllitlii, U,1M,!l'ill !I,V,'IN,V08 1I,NIW, 1.1117,841 I 1, 045,.1 72 "2,744,830' Total^_ 4,879,420 11,3114,420 0,079,218 0,.^>74,S41 7,434,150 2,IIH(jtriU 'I'lm rnllroud facilities afforded at tho port of Genoa for lllii trilHsinUslon of men^hnndise to the interior of Italy, Swll«tirlaiul,etc,, have already produced a mark- vA oH'tict (III the coltim trade of that port. It has been sliowii that thn total (|nantlty of co'.ton exported from the Unlldd States to Sordlnia was, in 1851, 2,136,000 lli«. I III Wii, f»,fi()8,82» lbs.) In 1853, 1,629,026 lbs.; Ill lHfi.l, 1 ,(Mfi,il"2 llis, In 18f,5 the exportation reach- I'd 1 1,777,7(1*1 Ilia,, of which tho port of (Jeiioa received )(l,0!lft,(i(«) Ilia, I nild an nlllcial document received from (imioii gives (lie nunntlty received nt this port from tliti I'lilled Sditca, In Ainerlcon vessels alone, the (Irat sIk mimllis «(' )8J(I, at 12,161,000 lbs.— C. D. Mini f II, Wiiyhln, milt Mmmrra .Accounts are kept lit llro, rmill, iinil ajlill, ft soldi r^l real =4irf.; 4 rdull lllhi 1*. (W.) loroall- lsciido=:8».9(/. The impai' money colialals of notes for 5, 10, and 20 scudi. I''iiriii priiiliii'O and llio coarser inetjls are weighed by \\\atitti ilijhrn i 12 Sardinian oi. --'1 Ih. =-14 oz. 5 dr. avnmllljsils I 2(1 Ilia, 1 rulibo; 4 riibbl=l cantaro=: (III llis, N dr. KVolrilii|Hila, The starcllo or com meas- iirii In «i|iilvalent lo 1 liiishel 1^ peck Knglish. The palm 10;^ Kiigllah Inulies, COUMRBOK OF THE iNITEIl StATKS WITH 84111l|»i!\ rHII>t (Ic Tolifn I, IM'I, To .Ici.T I, 1850. V«nn ending Etiwru. l>uiiieatlo. Fi'n.|«ii. T..l«l. Mept. 30, 1841 $47,000 ♦47,11011 1842 4!),20S 40,201 9 nios., 1S43* 103,0.11 108,091 Juno 30, 1S44 92,522 93,523 1845 18»,827 »32,970 lr5,797 ISW 2Sil,283 1170 'm,if*' 1847 C30,232 10,S7o 047,102 1S4S 17r).58,1 18,3S,I 1!13,973 1S49 4(lll,!)r>0 21,414 482,304 1880 Total... 170,704 80,1. HO 25tf,9iHI ♦2,171,400 ♦170,755 ♦2,348,215 June 80, 1851 ♦310,839 ♦19,401 ♦330,289 1S59 70i,20;t 49,2S(1 811,415 185S 19.5,380 27,020 233,3011 18(M 188,805 2,020 190,325 1856 1,S3S,13G 143,84* 1,982,080 18.V1 2.143,977 (10,'.i(ll 2,204,038 liiijuirlj. Wh>m/rili<',e»niln KhIII'is ,1(1)1 Spi'riA. Tonnnjfe leareil. 'IVliil, __fc*jWl, Ihijiorl. Atneririin. Kureign. ,,,, ,,,. "" I'.iiis '776 , > > , , ■ I , , ■ , t 1,951 260 , ' ' , 4,396 1,681 ♦r',85i (i1,12U0 4,332 9,806 1,411 1,191 'i'<7 .,,. .... 10.236 9,162 3,.113 1,983 «,I>IH • • • 1 43,«T0 12,3:17 4,843 ■illfi ♦»«,t'(9''^ =-'"' .... 7,791 6,300 •43,4^0 01,281 21,663 ♦3,'(ii3 74,(111 1 , , , , «,741 8,479 1 1 • t 1 . .. 13,443 6,662 171,5*11 I'll 11,921 7,018 85,1170 ■ It* 1 1 • • 10,088 2.246 !117,m Kit 13.000 10,754 4,5JT 317,179 f • < • .... 17,968 3,501 ■f I I Mac months to iJuuo 30, and tho fl.uat y«sr fruiit this tiiiiii Ijogln) Jn\f 1, SAB 1088 «AX Sardonyx, a precious atone, • variety of cliiil' ccilony. 'I'he ancienta iielecteil thin ■iiliHtunca to en- gravoupon, no (li>ul>t, fn>m ita po««oitilii({ two |i«cullar nnd nocesfiary ciunlitieii: viz., Iianlnims und t«naclt}', by wliich it in rnpabls of receiving tlio llneat toiuili or atnilio of tlie tool witliout cliipping, and allowing tlia art of tho engraver to tlio liiglicat ]ierfecttoii. — Mawk on Jiinmomlt. Sarsaparilla (Ger. tlannparillf ; Fr, Stiltepareillt / It. Nalnapariylia ; Sp. Zarzufwrilld), tho root of tlia Smilitx Nariaparllln, a plant growing In Houtli Amer- ica nnd tlio West Indies. It la ini|iorted in biilea. It is known in the London market liy the nuniea of IM' bon, lIonduraH, nnd Vera Cruz, but it ia also brought from Jamaica. The l.iabon root, which ia tlie proiliM-'s of Brr.zi'., haa a reddish or dark brown cuticle, U In- tcrnally fnrinaceoua, nnd more free from (il)ro than tlw other kinds: the Ilonduraa has a dirty l,rown, and sometimes whitish, cuticle; it ia more tllirous, and U»» more ligneous matter than the LiHlxm nnd Vera Cruz, It ia in long, slender twigs, covered witli a wrlnkleil brown cuticle, nnd has a small, woody heart. Tlie Ja- maica differs fivm the others, in having a deep reil cuticle of a close texture, and the red color partiallj' diffused through the ligneous part. The root ia ino- dorous, nnd haa a mucilaginous, yery slightly bitter taste : tho bark is the only useful part of tho plant | the ligneous part being tasteless, inert, woody fibre.— TiioMS )n's VUpensalonj. BaBBafras (Ger. and Fr. Sauafraii It. Satiafrni- to ; Sp. rt the shuttle in its race. Were they woven in the re- verae way, the scanty fifth part of the warp threads could either not support, or would Ije too much worn by the shuttle. Saunders (Red) (Arab. Sundal-ahmer ; Hind, Jtuchit-chunduni), the wood of a lofty tree {I'tirucai-jtiit tantalinm) indigenous to various parts of India, Cey« Ion, Timor, etc. The wood is l)rought to ICuro' i) in billets, which are veri- heav}', and sink in water, It is extremely hard, of a fine grain, and a liright garn^ t red color, which brightens on exposure to tlie air. It is employed to dye lasting reddish lirown colo;-; un wool. It yields ita coloring matter to ether and alco- hol, but not to water. — Thomson's Dinptnaalury ; }' am. CBorr on Colon, vol. ii. p. 2.Sfi. Savannah, city, port of cntr}', and capital of Chut. ham county, Georgia, is situated on tlie right bank of the Savannah River, 17 miles from its mouth. It Is In 32° 4' 56" N. lat., and 81" b' 18" W. long, from Greenwich, and 4° 10' W, from Washington. It ia UM mil** ii«i(»liw#»( fftmi Charleston, 125 miles south- eaat from Allgllnla. \tM tulles easl-soiitlipast from Mil- Udgavllla, IWl *till*s south ly west from Washing- ton, Til* IHillullttlmi In INIO was Alnri ; In 182U, 7628; in WIKI, 777«| lit IMO, 11,214; In 1850, 16,112; in 1*64, 1(I,(«K>, Tltls (lly was founded in 178il by Gen- aral Jaintta l>KlKlliiir|M nni* otiiers. It was taken by tha liritUli III I77M, but Ihey abandoned It In 1782. Oil tl)« Klili iif Jatiiiary, 182(1, 4(i» buildings wore burnad. «a'('a«l«(ll(iig n loss of property amounting to l|'4,0(NI,UIHI| but It ban been rebuilt witli nddltlonal IwHMty, '( lldfd (ifK In Snvan-iah eight Ijanka, aggre- gate t'«|iiti«l t4,IMHl,IKHI| four printlng-ofliccB, issuing tiir«« dally mid Gkokoia. 'Ili'i rfccitt fonstrilctlon of railroads from Savannah wisatwardly Ims lili llnimrtant beuriiig, present and iiroapm tlvc, ilfioit (lie commerce of Savannah. Those ill o|i«ritlliiii III 18^/7 UK an follows: ihiiififi., Ilsll-rimit £38 milci. 'Viilfsl, fafntiDsti Id Mnwm 101 " *ii.ll\li;|rallAlii>t(« 188 » AllsuM anil )jitjrsi)K8 ,,,.,., , 87 ■' T«t»l,, m '' Tti«M riinds (•ofiMwt either directly or Indirectly with MMI iiiilaa i4 nittriraitt«i and liiointtnlns which cover so nuch of its surfai'K, U tii't favornbtn to agricultural pursues ; hence !jrB» viue- of the surface, furni.h Hne tnr^i'nV ""«-''''''«'' cIo«n the EJbo t„ Uan,l,„r«. T ^ I, ''''' '' """"'<• of Saxony are those of cotton Utu^- ";»n"f«tiirt.s the lute«t improvement, have '„^1,: :"'""■« "f>"-ich other chief branchen of man Z, I '"'''"'•* ''''"> linen «„., woolen weaving "t^W^.^L """"''J' "'" line porcelain of Meisaeu, ki own iw '"""«• "'"' '!■« ""'• "cio„ti«:''f„ : ,j-;-j;«;;ri^';M.,rv ';„:is "Tried to the very I ^ ► "'""'■'»• «»wer», etc «r. J'^™nnnnnlc.;"^,.'t,l:r:i;f•;r"'^^''•''■• ^oi^ '♦>;;p„ft|,„ ^ i, condn^f , "' '^'■'-■"''«". ""'I tie 'II'" following .Uemf:i',',T.;'"'' •''""■ "'« '--C '■r^'l'!" ■■"■l-'^e n.^^;^!^^! !«' ' h value of ex- risSi — . iiSnr;:?-] — =- vi,. " "'ttd htutcs ; HniiSr Krnric 143.4(4 1I4,T4,'. ii',i.')i l»,"4l! ti,:iw a.">,3ii3 K"'(flHll(J. 1M1,'.'14 1Ii>,s!ir) 10S,Wi Total !i.ill3,SS4 i!,IW'.',tV)l -'^--n..u„.;,.,;„:,,„„™ ,tV)l .m J it.A\^!^!!^^f8fFk-amnTT''''' ''■'■■ '■^'^""""'""•efderln^, . ■• ■"" Bcnend ,r„,|,. i^fOTtA.VU. made into the ■roots"th«vTl"„i i " "^"„ "" '"eisiou i.] i-eing kept, grow" hard, ind't,"":""^' ^"'"^'^^' ^"-h "I'ops. It is imported frn ^ i .«"""">ony of tlie ^rums, wei6hi„g''?,?„^' 7T o lafn "' "''.'" "" "'»«< Smyrna i„ cakf, like wax of u f- """ ' "'"J <•'»>» former is light and friabTfl ^J • '' '" '''"''"•^- Tlie that from Smyruu in ^Z? ' " •'""'iJered the be,t rrmo, „„d iXTi^pSr rr"''"'""'-'- lioavy odor, not unlike that ..r 1. "" " •'""''i" terish, sligllt,^. «er"d taste Th"'" ;"«<'.»<'. ""'l « bit- -l-i"!' gray, changing to dirt v w^.l/"'"'", '\ '''''"'"■«•' «' the surface is rubbed witri^wi'«'''"''""'''"e«he„ gravity is 1.236. It is "erv I^.n '^T" ''^ "Peeific ind when of a dark colo? ' ^^ ^^ "'•"iterated, o"gl.t to be rejected It is'u er'',""" '''""'"^■- '' Ti^MsoN's Mpe,2onj "' ''"'^' '" '"e'licine.- witht?r;s;;,i^rSntr^?/ ™"" --> Pended from gnffs reach,^^ f' T^ ^""''"''^ "« «"»- Btern. and Btr^ch^r^ut bflor?.'.''.?"''^' '-""' "'« Vfl«™. I'tni.. .C.%-W:l,OIH) i>ir,r, il,''To,3iio }^i 4,lw>„',i,o '^'^ a,!ii«,{x)o t.ihh .£3S,i,200 4!)i,aoo Mt),6t)0 Venn. i ..„ , IS.M. 1853.:; ISW. . . ISKi. . . If'3ii2,ini) '.i2,!V,l 1,(100 23,33(J,2no !io,yi6,6ao Venn!. 1S51 ]S.'>3. 1«3..."' I'i'H. . . . ; IS.';.-!. . EwoLANn. Mver|iool. A37,!llH.(iOO n'i,4n!l,B'W) 4T,l.')2,liK) 4ii,71!l,l(iu *1,333,.H0 lUEL.t.Ni... 2 ' S '^•''"^ l*.',uffl> or, (1,1/1 M2,fiiio fa;;;;' A'-t il.lMW 4:iT.niio r>r>4,«iK) 462,SU0 Hull. .£10.12(!,40l) i>.is;i4,20i) ll>,78^,700 10,0(13,101) liN«7u,«uo nnblln. i'Bfi.nno "■■1. 100 '■i'.'.,-i{IO 4I,4!)() 2<,,'.'iri , „ , ■",.•■>' s<,,vio in hcotlnnd tliero were in is-u ',-<•. . ,. . D'['0,r„. I ( iiitti.l KiinfJ oiii.l 3l,7.'M,2«l 33,.302,2«0 33,73(),(),S() 34,2(11,721 mst soas to tun. therem aVun"""' ""'^'' '""■^P^ "- after ends are swung from one"l° f m"^''' "'"=" "■« other. *' "' °°® *'"e of the vessel to the N., and long. 10 45' ""go ,?J '"'• ^^ '^ to 58° 41 ' islands, to lat. 60° 50' V „", , "' ""''' '"'^'"iling its washed by the North Sea m,d it '' . "■ "''"r'^ '"" ''""'^ "'« nu b r "f m f; . v ^"""^""« ""''-^ "'' varying i„ breadth f^t. ^5 lo inn '' /'" f'"'' ""^ Area, 31,324 square mTs or 20 04-'^",' ""'' "''*' "''''='^' to a person, 92 persons to a Z,, .'f^^ """'' «"» acre 1801,l,59D,Wrh UsV/^cloir '%o->"'"'""'''^ ^or Manufacturing Districts' ^t' "'18^^1,2,888,742. Blackwood's vL-^^r 1 ^-o V °^ '^™""'"'' ^^'^ ?^S^rr^:!;"^«:-'-^'"« Scotch s^€^s^?=.5^=^^ ports, compared wi^I"tt,T1„''^r""' ""''"' 'eading Scotch o.xtenaed account of tl,„ t. 1 ; T "" *"•■ an S?&7^^*^«^-?S'^'--'^S3 Stateswith^ -^roa.herfao.rl.,2,„7h,2.r--— '-a.|j.o.vm^^^^^^^^^^ RCU 1600 SEA CommmcB or tiii L'kitid Btatm with Hiiini.ANn, nnu OnnRn 1, 18. 0, Til ,lll,Y r« WM In 1, 186T. Tirtinaffa i Ymk aiidliii ■ipon. t.,»M. Wh.rtcril,. Uanil Kur.l|ii. Ilollinllr KuT«i|iri. Tula). Tultil. 1 Ki|i,iil. 1 liii|i,irl. Aiii.rlcaii. 8.'pt. BO, 1*91 l|il,4"ft.44H !|<13,llt.3 .tl,41l),131 $l,990,0:it .... 4,015 0,J90 1M4 i,iii(>,n 10,104 1,108,609 ! 1,088,188 8,()INI 4,517 N,220 VU 1,111(1,911) 14,o:i'i l,910,Nf,l 1 l,fl08,t)2() 11,175 5,880 lS2ft i,(W:i,M() 7,iir.7 1,707,183 1,89.1,404 i 1,700 7,968 9,139 1S9« hl'i.^l^J 9,01)9 r.7ri,84(i l,0,;fl,779 1 9,860 9,7li9 IMI l,uuil,lii:i 1,830,109 1,083,101 i BOO T.i;ia T,691 1898 llftU.tMld 7,997 007,4.87 1,183.081 1 • • • • 9,499 8,002 1S9» 8:i|>,31ft 10,403 014,808 1,094.91(1 1 • • • « 9,000 7,010 1S31( ToUl,.. i,4ii.vn I|I12,3II4,4I« 3,4H8 !(«U,998 1,408,(109 1,382,841 1 .... 0,013 7,70T *19,39B,896 $19,N06,(i36 .... $T,IJOi) 48,304 ■ fl9,(KIH fl«pt.B0,1S81 i|ii,iHr..i49 lfK,M7 $1,100,709 $1,077,830 0,319 0,109 1S89 l,l9ft,n«8 911,8(14 1,140,709 l,rK80,H19 • . . . 8,1 89 11,410 1M3 l,iHH,4(in 91,iftS l,907,r,97 1,09.'.,929 $5lH) 9,623 ll.NIII) I'iM «,!m,7sfl 98,780 9,37.l,ft74 1,402,030 8,000 0,055 18,481 113ft 9,S3II,II7U io,Hr>(i 9,840,02.) 1,030,048 10,800 0,8 n 0,380 1S3(I 9,34'l,nBII 744 9,3.M),994 2,37l>.8 10 3,800 4,530 10,508 lt3T 8,411,911 i9,W)n 8,4.'>3.si)7 1,188,410 4,)HH) 12,041 7,li94 1S38 ],(wn,aii8 10,77(1 1,005,07'.) l>l'4,(;06 I),41T 0,387 w.m 1,1)95,8,19 1,VM 1,097,0.88 150.183 . • • , f,81t 5,403 1840 Tolal... 9,II92,U8U 98,804 9,0&0,040 526,217 8,000 10,790 10,483 «1V,100,NU6 1|<14U,N04 $10,837,OOJ $13,2&.M23 $3l,6tM) 00,000 01,189 Sept. 80, 1S41 $l,n2rt,SM $1.'>,3|8 $1,0.V>,S24 $S50,RS7 $1,819 T,414 8,717 1S« ],ft99,7:l6 80,979 1,008,014 fl5fi,050 fl,8!'0 10,045 9mo«., 1S48* 9,303,354 U.OftT 9,878,011 12.8,840 19 704 18,848 Jimc3n, IS-M l,03fl,ni)l lfl,8S'i 1,1 63,478 697,980 T,900 T,84) 18,418 1S45 9,011,874 M,9.ia 9,000,810 708,187 « • • • 14,789 90,810 1S4» l,l)49,.330 4n,41(l 1,087,740 1.2,10,080 .... l),B4T 18,788 184T 3,«4n,l(ll) 109,013 3,807,478 1,837,014 o:).fi<6 96,816 15,03" 1848 9,4fiti,4JI) 8.8,418 9,40,1,844 1,000,0 '4 7,910 14,16 17,0.0 1849 8,h4'.),0iU) tW,479 8,008,439 1,06»,.120 91,089 24,"-l0 1S60 Total... 8,091,741) $24,fl01),fl7a" 183,(170 $070,070 B,90.,4IO $96,840,040 9,740,070 $19,30.),UII8 15,76) 17,270 $86,84T lB4,0liT 100,508 .liinoBO,l<«l $,1,811,003 $201,0,17 $4,079,^40 $9,0i 10,710 ... 18,508 92,0h7 isna 9,441,148 93O,0:i.'5 9,(171,78,1 9,8.'i.5,ii47 10,8,',0 22,2-^8 ISM 4,4■iO,Ki^ lB4,78tt 4,041 ,ri(U 4,387,0!0 27,784 82,012 1SB4 B,0«7,0il3 100,33(1 3,287,(!ns 6,820,40) .... 92,018 93,008 1865 ')„10(I,7M 114,480 9,491,940 8,'. 64,594 * . • . 18,074 18,108 ISM 8,8S0,87« 9«,1(«1 B,9O0,M9 4,l31,,'i:;0 20,936 94,076 1S5T 4,071,837 39,181 4,704,018 7,910,111 88,082 4.1,499 * Nino muntlia to Juno 80, and the flacul }'i'ur from tliU ttmo bcgUm July 1. Soud, tho name given by seamen to loose, vaporj' cloiids driven swiftly uloni? by the winds. To mml, »\lfn\l\ea to run directly before the wind in a gale. An tlio object is to keep liefuro tlie sea, tlie furcsuil or fure to))Huil U set: tlie latter or tlie ninin topHuil is often necessary, as the foresail is often becalmed from tlie lieigbt of the waves. Soudo. See Coins. 8ou]l, an oar, so short that one can work a pair. It most generally implies an oar placed over the stem of u boat, and worked from side to side ; the blade, which is turned diagonally, being always hi tlie water. In China, where the method is well understootl, largo boats are impelled by a single scull with considerable velocity. Sculptures, figures cut in stone, metal, or other solid substance, representing or describing some real or imaginary object. The art of the sculptor, or statu- ary, was carried to the highest pitch of excellence in niu'iont Greece. Fortunately, several of the works of the (irecian sculptors have been preserved, and serve lit once to stimulate and direct the genius of modern artists. Models are casts or representations of sculp- tures. Scuppers are pipes of lead inserted in openings bnrcd from the deck through the sides of a ship, to carry the water oflf ft-om tlie deck to the sea. To iivoid the inconvenience of having the scuppers liroken by the working of the ship, each is formed of two pipes, one of which is passed upward to the deck through the opening in the ship's side, and having its lower end nailed on the outside planking; the other, which is of smaller diameter, after being woolded on the outside with flannel dipped in tallow, is passed downward into the lower pipe, through the opening in the deck, and its upper end secured on the plaiik of the deck. In order to prevent the entrance of water by these ocup- I pers when the ship is inclined, valves of metal are I j)laced over the external outer ends, which clusu wltli the pressure of the external water. In niorchuut ves- sels, Icatlicr pipes, called scupper-hoses, are soniollnics j nailed round the opening for the same purpose. iSunio- times scuppers aro only leaden pipes passed through the ship's side, and turned and fastened at each end. Scuttles, in a ship, holes in the decks, either fur air or as passages to the store-rooms ; also openings In u ship's side for the iidniissiun of air. If, in order to sink u ship, a hole be cut in her bottom, she is said, in A'uu(''- ('»/ language, to be scuttled. Sea. The jurisdiction over the seas has long been n question of difficulty and of doubtful right. (Jro- tius published bis Jfure I.iberMm against the I'urtii- giiese claim to an exclusive trade to the Indies tliruugli the South Atlantic and Indian oceans, and he proves the sea is not capable of private duniinion. He vindi- cates the free navigation of the seas, and the right uf commerce, and exposes the absurdity of tlio I'ortugucsc claim. Seidell's Mare Ctauaum was written in answer to the doctrine of Grotius, and ho undertook to prove, by the laws, usages, and opinions of all nations, ancient and modem, that the sea was capable of private ilu- minion. He asserted that the Knglish had long claliiicd and enjoyed a suprenmny over the surroiiiKling and narrow seas. liynkersholck concedes to iSeldcn much of his argument, and admits that private (lomlniun may be exercised over adjoining seas j but denies tlio right of the English on the ground of a want of uninterrupted possession. The claim of dominion to close or narrow seas Is still auliject to discussion. As far as a nation can con- veniently occupy, and that occupancy is acquired by prior possession or treaty, the jurisdiction is exclusive. Navigable rivers which flow through a territor}-, and the gea-coast adjoining it, and the uavigablo water* ilong 1)6011 lilt. Gro. Iho Portii- !» through llie lIl'DVGIt |IIe vinill- rlylit of lortiiBiHuu liii uiinwiir I to i)r(ivi'| lis, iiiieli'iit Irivulu (lu- liK ctiitiiiol lidiiiK uiiil Idun iiiui'li llnlon "iiiy 1 the rlylil kternilileJ Iw MM i* li cuii cull- Iqiiircd by IxcUialv". Iltorj', mill llo waters SEA 1001 SKA lnolud«a In l.ii.v», and Iwtwfeu licurtlumU ami ormK of ,omU of LalirMilor nnil Niiwrouti tlin Mtt, l.«l.)li«tci tlin |>««pl« of thu u.lJiiliiliiK territory, ilpully liunl<>klii>. WIii-m t!ik«n «• Ixlnic niim.«i.i.ry to the Bufuty of th,< iiutloii, nod to In tli.. i.i,rli.« ..f Iho year, whmi Ihn- «r« fiillMt, a full. lli« uiidlKtiirlicI u«9 of tlui iiclKhorliiK ,l,„r..,. The ^ ^rown .....1 « III , l„l,l fr„m N i,> fj kuIIo f oil, and a 0|Mn nu l« iiot ciipnldo of h.-lnrf i»w«,.M..d ux priviita hiiiuII unc lioii. iluftKall.iMN, 11 II, wheiiiiiitrai'li'd |.rol.«rty. Tho fre« ii«« of tho oumin f,,r navlKalion j hefore put r-i,utlnii huH.ciiiiii.iH.d.Ulwamifully tram, and ll«hlnnl»roiiinioii to all mankind, and tliB puldlc I parent, fm fn.ni xniell, and not unplunnanl In lU JurUta Konorally and explicitly deny tho main ocean taiitc. Tli, Kin, wl,,.|, taniiml, U i.|im.* , und, whoii dr>»«d with til* meet thoro, In time of peace, on a {mMntf of cntlro hulr uii, Bcrvpn for tlio covering of Ininkii etc —For •nuallty and IndeiMindenco. No nntion Iuih an., rliflit an accoont of tho iiniMirtx of I .kin», ,.r .»■<» /, j'liiia, or Jnrlwllctlon at iiea, except It ho ov.ir thu iiernoin „f | To tho Iwqiilnianx tho miuI i> of ax much liiiportancn Ita own auhjecti, in \l» own private and piildlc vcshoIh; | a» l.rcad to a I'.iiropwiM. Ita lloxli fornm thclr iiio«t, and «o fur territorial Jurindietion may ho conniilorcd or ; ukuuI food ; the fat ix partly dre i for iMilliiit, nod pruorvod an |iorllon» of it* territory, and porwinn on 1 partly connunod in tliiiif lump* i the liver, wh«n iricd Iward are protected and governed l>y the law of tho ; is otcciniMl, ivcii aiiiiuiK i.uliorii, iik un agrcculilu dUli! country to which the vea»cl» iMilong. Tlioy may ho , 'Iho »kin, v^hii h thn KhuuIimuux dr<>«» hy proco: and contiguous to the coast may be applied, render It Justly the Weser. Uut very few ships liuvu been sunt out for till) subject of property. * * * t!liitty, in liis work on nealimj only from Kiiglund, though occjisioiially some Commercial Law, has entered into an elaborate vindica- of the wliulc-shlps have taken large i|Uuiitltius of sse tho lislicrs of Nowfoundland, from which Island Va\\m Cod, ond from Nantucket to Montauk Point, and '. these voyages aro principally iiiado, without waiting from that point to tho Capes of the Dclowaie, and from \ till the return of spring shall have opened their Iior- tlio South Cajio of Florida to some point on our coast i bors, saw channels through tho Ice for their vessels, west of tho mouth ofthe Mississippi, Belli (Lat, Sigtllum), a stone, piece of metal, or oth- er soUd auUstunce, generally round or elliptical, on which Is engraved the arms, crest, name, device, etc., of some state, prince, public body, or private individ- ual. It la employed as a stomp to make an impression un noaling-wax, thereby authenticating public acts, deeds, etc., or to close letters or |>uckets. Seals were very early Invented, and much learning has been em- ployed In tracing their histor}-, and explaining the lig- urcs ii|inn them. See particularly the work of Hop- KINCK, JJe SigiUomm I'rUco el Novo Jure, 4to, 1042. Seal-flahery. The seal, an amphibious animal, and sot sail in quest of those drifting Holds, through the openings of which they work A passage, uttenilod with great difficulties and (kngers, till they encounter their prey on the seal meadows. This bohl and huK- ardous enterpri.so seems well compensated by Its suc- COKS. The number of seals thus taken Is almost In- credible, and is greatly on the increase" (p. 70) — AiV- ing Age, x.Kvii. 186. See atiiclea I'lHllKlilKS, OllJt, NEWKOIINDI..VND, and Lahiudor; tee alio M'Orku- ok's HritUh America, 2d edit., and SAHlNK'aylnifr/con Fisheries. There is a good account of the seal In Laino's Voyage to Spitdiergen. Sealing-wax (Ger. Hiegellack; Vt. Cire d'Kf of which there are many varieties, i.s lound In vast;;Mjme, Cire ii cachtler ; It. Cern Imccii, CerutUftpa^i ttumben ill tho seas rouiw' Spitzbcrgen, and on the I Sp. Lacre ; Kuss. SuryuDch), the was u»ed for nuMin HKA 16M SKA 1i>tt«ni, IxKiil Inatriiinctiti), rti-. It U it rnni|in>ttli>n nf giini-liic, iiirlri'cl nnil liiri>r|Hiriiircl with rF»lii, iiml iiftur- wnnl ciiliiml with •nmii |il^im'Mt, iio vcriiillliiii, vnr- Hof Klii'k or xppil liii , It thrn fornix n lirt- tf>r mill Ipkii lirillln iirliilK lliiin wlirn tli« hIipIMiii it filKi'il II nci'onil liirto, lliMiri' nimllnK-wiix rifflilly |in<- jinrcil III th« KiiKt ImlliM, ilcKi-rvi'n ii iirofDrpnce iiviir whiit iiin liii iniiilK in otiior I'luintrlon, whori< tlu> liir U not IniHifi'iioiH. Hlii'll-liii' run lii" ri'ntoriMl in sonio ile- grp ", lioniiviT, til II pliiKtii' iinil tfiiiii'lonit ntotn liy nirll- InK It Willi n vi'ry Hiniill (Hirtlon of tiiriwntliia, 'I'lin pnlpnl hIicII-Iih' in to lio Ki'li-i'ti'il for lirl^flit-iolnrpil nciil- iufr-wiix, tlio ilnrk kiml hi'inn iiworvi'il for dlmk. Seamen, lli« linlivliUinlii cn^iigHil In niivlKntlnft dhlim, liiir^nH, eti',, ii|M>n llin lil^ii hciim, TliiMn I'ln- ploycil fortliiii iiiirponii ii|Hin rlvwn, liiken, or uuuuIh iiru (Icnoiiilniitoil wiifi'mii-ii. (>/ Ihe Itiylilf unit Ihilien nf Srimrn. -Tho iipnmen viiiployed in tlin ineri'liiint nrrvli'e iiro iiiuile niiliji'i't to ii|M>diil rpgnliitlonn preHorilml liy iiiIh of CoiihO'kh. Hlilppin); iirtirlcH iiro iimtnu'tK in writing; or in print, (l(><'liirlii< tho voyiii;>< nml the ti>rni of tlnio for wlilrh tho iicii urn iro nlilpjitMl, nml whrn tlioy iini to ronilor thcniKo . vnM on lioiinl ; nml the iirlli'lei lire to lie nlgni'il by cviTV Ni'iiinnn or niiiriiipr on all voyut^cn friiiii thu llnltril StiitcH to n forpi);n port ; nml, in curtain ciiiirH, tn n port In iinothrr .Stnlo other tliiin nn ndjolnin); iiiio. If thitor must proceed to, or stop nt, the nearest or mimt eunvenient port, wliere nn Inquirj' f» to lie made, avA tho niusiter and crew must conform to tli.' Judgment of tho experienced "riersonii delected by th» district judge, or a justice of tl>v|)oace. ]f the complnimt shall appear to have lieen without fuundntion, the expenses and rensonalde damages to have lieen ascertained by the judge or justioo arc to he deducted from lli" wnges of the seamen. But If the vessel lie found or made seaworthy, and tho seamen shall refuse to proceed on the voynge, they are »\\\y jected to Imprisonment until they pay doiililo tho ad- vance made to them on the shipping contract. Fish- rrinen engage- hread, well seeured under deck. A fund shall la> raised out uf the mariners' wages earned on bonnl of any ves- sel of the Tnlted States, and be paid by Ihe niMKler to the collector of the jsirt, on entry from a foreign port, at the rate of twenty cents |H'r month for every sea- man. The like as'cssinent Is to lie iiiadu and paid on the new enrollment and license for carrying nn the coasting trade, and also by persons navigating boats and rulis on the Mississippi. The moneys so raised are to lie ex|>eiided for the temporary relief of sick and disabled sennien in hospitals and otiier proper institu- tions established for such pur|Hise : and the surplus iiioneys,wliensul1li'lently aix'uinulali I, shall be applied to the erection of marine hospitals r<.r thu nccommodn- tion of sick nnd disabled seamen. The hospitals, as I'lir as It can be done with convenience, are to receive sick foreign seainin on ii charge of scventy-llvo cents IM'rday, to lie paid by the master of the foreign vessel. And to relieve American seamen who may be found destltiito in foreign places, it i» the duty of the Amer- ican consuls and commercial agents to provide for those who may be found destitute within their consular districts, nnd for their passages to some port In the I'nlt- ed Htates, In a reasonable manner, at the expense of tho rnited .'■'•tiites; nnd American vessels aru bound to take such seamen on board at the request of the con- sul, but not exceeding two men to every hnndieil tons burilen of tho ship, and transport thcni to the I'liiled Stutcs on such terms, not exceeding I>'1() for eat h per° sou. as may lie agreed on. .So, If an American vessel be lold in a foreign port, nnd her compiiiiy dl.>r !<»•• nf tn'\u\it ly » |Mrll iit tha ■vj, Mi'miKii'ii WHKK» III truilliiK vnyiiKu* kru iliia /in) I'li/ii iliiirrn. If tliii MUIIMII iJliiii nil til* VKynKii, It WM ilri'liliiil III tliii Clri'iilt iir l)|pr tlin I iilli'tl Stall'* III IViiimylvaiilii tliiit lliii r«|iri(iKiiiti>tlviiii Hvni gi'iuui, iir |)ul|Nil>l<> wuiit (if aklll, In iiiilliorUn it i ii|>tiilii uiitltli'il to lull hukuk tii tlw I'lnl ul tlitt \«yag« \ uml nil to ilUlilmu Ik iiiut«, Willi Ik i:iriilly iIiiiki'ii wIiIi tliu ^ tliiiiillinr Imiul, In tli« llUtrlit (nurt nf Nniilli Curnlliw cniiiK'nt I'f III* nHiinrH, uml hIiIi it vivw tn llm liuttvr uiiil Mu>niii'liiiiuitt>, It wii« ili'i lilml tlMt full wnKin li/ WirKt) n( tlir xliip mill tliu KDUurlty nl'tlii'ir iirniiiirty. , iiiariiia Uw liit'iiiit mily full v uttmi ii|i tu tliu lUutli nf Tim iiiuntur iiiiiiit ri'iiilvu liuik it kimiiiiiiii wlmiii lii< tlir iiiiirliii'r. A* tlin |iuyiiii'iit nf w»k«ii iIi<|hiiiiU, In ban (lli«'liurt(i'il, If lin ri'imrtn ami nlViTu tn rutiirii tn liU Kiiinriil, U|hiii tliu fiiriiiiiK nf fri'lulit, If u ulilp ilullmrn duty mill iiiuku nutlnfui tloii j uml If llin niujniiiuii liuH lii'iiii iimluly ilU liarKiil, liuiiiuy fnl- uml lint nutwurill'n'l)(lit In- luiriii'il, llio KHuiiU'ii't hukik low tliii i>lil|i, umlrvinvLir lil» wilful fnr tlm vnyu^n, uml nii tlm iiulMunl \n\uKii urn ri>iiM'i|ii«iitly iliiu, liU ux|H>m(iM fur III* mlurii, Tim iiiunli'r nuliji'itn liiiii- ! II) tlm i u>tiiiii nf iiiKnliuiiti, Kvuimin't uuKvit am self tn liiiu anil liii|irlMiiiiiiitiit If, wUluuit Ju.^liilulilo | ilim at nvitry ilillviiriiiK |>urt, uml tlulr wu^kh uru not vaiinii, Im iimlii'inuxly fnrra nil nlllrur iir iiiurlniir on uiriiliul, wllliniit timir K|i«i'ial UKri'i'imiiit, liy uiiy ntlji- ■hnrii wlilliinlirnuil, nr leuv«» lilnilMililml in any l'nr('l,(ii ulatlun livtwien tliiinHiioniuml timi liurti'nira, imikliiK jKirt nr plui'ii, or rufUHCH tn lirliiK liniim tlinw nlimii lii' tlm vnyuKi'ii nut anil liniiiu niiii cnllru vnyuKu, uml tlm took nut, anil itru in it cniiilitinii uml mIIIiiik tn return. IrclKlit tn lU'iuiiil nii tlm iii'ininiillnliini'iit nf ttiu vntlni Tli« i!X|Hnite uf ruriiiK ■' "'^'^ neuiiiun in tliu timr»i< nf viya^u out ami In. i Im nwiigrn iiiuy wuIm' nr nu41fy tlio vuyuK« Ih u >'liart|a n|iiHi tliu iilil|i in lliu iiiitui-u nf tliilr tlaini tn fn'i)(lit us llicy |iliiai)i, Imt tlmir aula udilitinnul wii);(ta iluriii)( nickni'mi. ran 'int il>'|irlvii tlm ununii'ii, witliuiil tluir rnnni'Ut, nf Tlm lilt nf ('uii)(rv»a ri'i|uirvK tliut In acaiiii'n'H hIiI|i- tlio ri)(litii li»liini{iii^ tn timiii by tlii< Ki'imnil |,rim Ijili'ii pliiK iirtii'lva tliu voyuKO uiiil lliuti'riilnf tiliii' fnr whirli nf tlm iiiariiiu law. Tlii'y urn iiiititliil tn uuKi'a iint thuHcuiimiiniuy liuvu ii|ii|i|K.'il liuK|iiioillnil. Tlm r<'t{ulii- luily wlmii tliu nwimr cirn* fruiglit, liut ulmn, nnliiiii tinti ri>liiti'ii to voyu)(>'4^'>'i"» u |iort In tliu I'nitiil Stiiti'i', fnr Ilia own lut, liu may earn it. i'liu wuKisa am ly In ii vnyii|{u ('niiiini'ni'ili|{ frinii u l>y an arri\iil at it |airt nf ili'atiiiiitinn, wlmii nn car^n ia fnrplKil piirt to tlm I'liitcil Stulea. Tlm vnyu|{u uilliin nn Imanl, nr wlmii lliu nn iicr ilnu.'ii'a tu liriii^llii' lurKo tlioatteiitinnof tlm atiitntn iiiouiiHuim liiiviii){ai|i'liiiitn lurk ai;uin, ami wlmn tlm pnrt of iluatiiiulinit Im lint, cuminrni'iMiiuut ami tniil. Tlio Urmiinii a ijim anil llm , in fuit, thn (uirt uf ili'llvcry . Kvon if tlm hIiIji jivriili- Urmiiitm ml iimm inu»t lio Htatcil iircilaily ; uml in n I'l mi tlm mitnaril \u\ a|{i', yrt, if part uf tlm nutu uril caao of ifciU'Ml udvontnro tlm ti'rni nf hi'r\ im must Im ; fivi^'lil liaa lu'in puiil, llm .-•I'uimiii urn cntiiliil In wii^iia Bpwilk'il. A voyano frmii New York tn tlm ('uriiinu ^ in pruiKirtinn to tlm aiimuiit nf tlm friit;iil ailvuiiiuil, unil t'Uuulmro nmaiia, in nliippinK artiilc^, a vnyuKu | fur llicro la an iiiM'paralila tniiimitinn lx:twccn freight from N'nw York to C'uracoa, anil tliu wnril livirhire la anil Ha^ci. In iiiau nf lapturi', tlm auiiiimn takan rcjeL'tcil na IipIiik void fnr unrertiiinly, .Si'iuimn in the prianimra liy tliu iiiptnr and lU'taini'd uru cnlitluil to morcliunt acrvlcfl arc naiially liircd at u certain anni, llii'ir wa^ea fnr llm wimin vuy.i^o, If llm aanio bu iilt- eitlmr by tlie mnntli or for tho voynKo. In tlio llaliiiiK erward perfurincil, willi a itablu dedutlnii for tlm i «- trudu tlio at'union uaually survo iindnr an cnnam'nii'nt iwiiaea uf aalva(,'i). I ii mm ia tho ruau uf a veaaal to rereivo ii ]>ortinn v( the prullta uf tlm lulvi'ntnrc I'iipturcd and afliTwuri laiiwnicd, and I'liulilud tn ar- Tlio sliaro or |iriiiii ,,1 the myage ar« a tinbalituto fur rive ut lior pnrt nf d.-tinatinii. In tlm cuao uf A\\\f regular wag' d the a,t of Cuiigrcaa {WiXi .hum, 1 « reik, if any prupnrtinii uf freight bo paid fnr thu eurgo IHlil) extent' ,iie adinlraUy Jiiriadietlnii tu tlm ciigiii- ' aaved, wages of aeainoii aru to lie paid in tho >aiue zancn "f ««it' for aliurea in whaling vnyagea in tlm pmpnrlinii. »am« furiiii .nd manner us in ordinu»y eiitoa of wages in .Marinera mo Ixiund to cnntrilpufe out of their wnget the iii'i'i haul wrvico. Kvcry aoamaii engaged tn aervo fur euiliez/leint'iita nf llm i irgn, or iiijnrlea pimliioitd on Ituoird a nlhip ia bound, from tho niituru iiiid teriiia of | by tho iiii~iiindui t nf any nf llm erew. Hut tlm eir. the , .■'trait, to do his duly in thu aervieo to tho ntumtit ' iiiniatami -i must be amli iia tn lix tlm wrong ujion of 1.1- ibdity ; and, therefore, n iirniiiiso made by tlio smim nf llio ercw ; and then, if llm individuiil bo un- PHvtftcr w hen tho ship is in illatrcaa, to pay extra wagea kmnvn, thnao uf tlif i riw upon wliuiil the preauinptiun (.a an inducement to oxtruordinary exertion, is illegal uf guilt roata M.iml as anreties fnr each other, and they and void. It would lie tlio namo'lf aoiiio of tho crew iini>t contrilmto riitibly tn tlm luaa. Where the cm- liad deaertod, or woro sick, or dead, nr peculiar cIVnrta i r,!/,lement Inn arisen frum tlm fault, fraud, coniiiv- liecamo re(|uisito ; fur tho general engagement uf the ance, or iie^digeiico of any uf tho crow, tliey are bound seamen is to do all they can for tlm gund uf the kervico : to cnnli'll>ute to the re|Kiratiun of tho Inaa, in projwrtiun under all I ho oniergoncica of the voyago. to 1 iuii- wages. Wliero no reasonable preaumptlnn is A seaman la entitled tu lii.s whole wagea for the voy- ago, e\ en though lie be iinnbltt to render his aervieo by sliknesa or bodily injury liaii|K'iiing in the course nf llie Hlmwu against their iiinuceiico, tlio loss must bo borno exclusively by the owner or muster. lu case of s'hipwieck, and tliero lie ndica or materiaU voviige, and while lio was in the iierfurmaiuo uf liia \ of t^^' ship saved, tho seamen by wimao exertiuna imrt dntv. Uo will ciiually bo onlitled to Ida wages In llm of a vessel had been saved are allowed the payment of end" of his voyago when wrongfully discharged by the ' their wages, as far as the fragments uf tlm materials master In tho coiirso of it. Tho mariiio law irislin- ' would furiu a fund, although there was no freight guishes between tlm caaes in which seamen's aervieea , earned by tho owners, liut in such cases wlicro the are not rendered in conaeiinenco of a peril of tlm sea, I voyago is broken up by vi» mnjar, and no freight earn- nnj in which thev are imt rendered by reason of aomo ed, no wages in vomine are due ; and tho eiinitahlo illegal act, or misconduct, or fraud, of tho master or claim which seamen may havo upon tlm remains of owner interrupting and destroving tlm vovago. In tlm wreck is rather a claim tu salvage than a »'"« 'O the latter cases tho seamen are entitled to" their wa- wages. Wages in sucli cases would be contrary to the ges. If a seaman bo wmngfuUv discharged on the ; principlo of marine law-that frel.;lit is tlie in""'^' "' voyago, tiie vovnge is then ended witii respect to wages, and tho safety of the ship tlm mother of freight, him, and he is entitled to sue for his full wages fnr tho | If, however, tho seamen abandon tho wreck of a ship, voyage. as being a hopeless case, and without the intention of Freight is the mother of wages, and if no freight bo returning to possess and save it, they loso their lien earned no wages arc due; hut the freight must not he or privilege for any equitable compensation, whether lost by tho fraud or wrongful net of the muster. The as wages or salvage— their claim u extmguiitiett i aua f i SEA 1694 SEA though other persons moy possess the property which had been derelict, It belongs to the original owner, bunlened for their claim for salvage. By the act of Congress, onerthinl of seamen's wages Is due at the port where the ship unlades and delivers her cargo, unless there be an express stipulation to the contrary ; and when the voyage is ended, and the cargo or ballast is fully discharged, the wages are due, and If not paid within ten days thereafter, admiralty pro- cess may be instituted. But tliero in no fixed period of time within which mariners must proceed to enforce lien for wages. It does not, like other liens, depend upon possession. The seamen need not libel the ves- sel at the intermediate port at which they are dis- charged. They may disregard bottomr}- bonds, and pursue their liens for wages afterward, even against a subsequent bonajide purchaser. It follows the ship and its proceeds, into whoso hands soever they may come by title or purchase. Their demand for wages talces pre- cedence of bottomry bonds, and is preferred to all other demands. Their claim is a sacred lien, and as long as a single plank of the ship remains the sailor is en- titled, as against all other persons, to the proceeds as a security for his wages. The seamens' lien exists to the extent of the whole compensation due them. There is no difference between the case of a vessel seized abroad, and restored in specie or in value ; the lien re- attaches to the thing, and to whatever is substituted for it. Desertion from the ship without just cause, or the justifiable discharge of a seaman by the master for bad conduct, will work n forfeiture of the wages pre- viously earned. Des,,rtion is accompanied with a for- feiture of all the wogcs that are due ; and whatever unjustifial)le conduct will warrant the act of the mas- ter in discharging a seaman during the voyage, will equally deprive the seaman of his wages. But the forfeiture is saved if the seaman repents, makes com- pensation or olTer of amends, and is restored to Us duty. The master has power to remit a forfeiture, and the penalty of forfeiture is not applied to slight faults, ei- ther of neglect or disobedience. There must either be an habitual neglect, or disobedience, or drunkenness, or else a single act of gross dishonesty, or some other act of a heinous and aggravated nature, to justify the dis- charging a seaman in a foreign port, or the forfeiture of wages ; nor will the admiralty courts, except in case of great atrocity, visit the offenses of seamen with the accumulated load of forfeiture of wages and compen- sation in damages. They stop at the forfeiture of wages antecedently earned ; and in the application of forfeiture the advance wages are made a charge on the forfeited wages, but the hospital money is apportioned ratably on the wages for the whole voyage. If the seaman quits the ship involuntarily, or is driven ashore by reason of cruel usage, and for personal safety, the wages are not forfeited. On the other hand, it is the duty of the seamen to abide by the vessel as long as reasonable hope remains ; and if they desert the ship under circumstances of danger or distress from perils of the sea, when their presence and exertions might have prevented damage, of restored the ship to safet}', they forfeit .their wages, and ore answerable in dam- ages. And even when a seaman might well have been discharged in the course of the voyage for gross mis- behavior, if the master refuses to discharge him, and leaves him in imprisonment abroad, he will in that case be entitled to his wages until his return to the United States, after deducting from the claim his time of im- prisonment. — Leone Levi's Cnm. Law of the World, vol. ii. p. 226. See Mercantile Guide, London, 8vo ; Am. Whig Rev., ii. 230. Hospitals for Seamen, see New Kngland Jieview, ill. 481 ; Hunt's Merchant!' Mag., xi. 344, xi. 230 (J. H. Lanman). Statement or Rbueiptb and Classification of ExrEnniTDBEs or the Mari.n-r Hosi-ital FOE THE FISOAL YEAB ENDINO JliNE 30, 1857. Fund of the United State8 SUCH. S^anifn Kdrolt- S^anifln dll- rliaruiHl. Doord And Niinlng. .Mcdlonl Servicrt Medi- cine. Tr«vBl. lug Ei. penicii. Otiier CliBrgen. Funeral Kipendl- liirei. DOBllll. Total Ei. pendllurel. Iloepital Money collerled. 41(1 ii;i 14 tXA 125 123 1281 27 3J2 284 83 226 816 178 217 1!I4 11 2S5 1279 114 627 2.V) 201 641 N>9 197 '26 144 1247 9722 491 112 111 UtA 12S 14.% 1,806 81 384 261 30 227 893 213 214 146 12 2;5 1,264 165 «s IT, 260 678 675 20O '23 111 1,212 !f.S«73 783 135 19,094 1,979 1,845 83,!55 704 14,476 4^881 6S2 4,146 6,767 8,361 2.735 li,bM> 6,130 6,SS2 84,767 4,986 «,S87 6,Sfl4 13,256 2,75) 11,625 2,323 12,186 1,029 88,690 7 $2,957 248 62 3,634 837 843 996 267 1,197 "o 2',Ofl7 2,032 137 1,011 1,!I04 2,222 2,369 8,6*1 67 9r8 866 1.217 1.741 1,382 871 2'764 4,i66 $479 13 8 1,025 436 13 634 60 404 301 676 626 741 63 914 2,330 19 448 4)9 1,886 4 841 124 l",648 2,971 $4 "is '84 "s $574 "■5 26 $391 10 2 2,S34 34 22 863 10 279 "44 6 65 199 41 44 636 231 1,317 407 60 970 '429 82 8,511 74 2,462 1,021 10 '463 $.3 '04 24 72 844 16 226 iiio 13 83 64 114 114 65 '96 192 80 100 262 121 48 84 26 241 18 674 8 1 25 3 11 68 3 30 26 2 9 8 19 19 9 it 49 6 51 46 20 8 16 4 "s 48 $12,78« 1,060 208 20,816 8,310 2,297 36,798 1,038 17,169 4.'632 701 6,610 9,264 8,663 4.616 13,701 7,662 11,673 41,247 5,143 12,406 8,483 16.416 4,036 22,444 8,430 2,'463 17,202 1,068 46'866 7 $6,907 197 176 ■ 21,627 1,4'.)2 8,836 60,138 4,749 9,972 1,183 7,173 400 0,699 2,300 2,226 826 2,750 324 1,984 16,111 1,060 4,482 8,9'o'7 2,157 3,106 924 102 304 1,086 732 163 8,834 2iW Now UHnipdlilri! .... Vermont Muaoi^hutetta illiode Inland Connecticut New York .New .Icncy I'enniijrlvanU Delaware (no return) Maryland District of Columbia VlrKlnla North Carolina Houth Carolina Georgia .MlMlMilppt I'lorlila Tixaa MUaourl Ohio Michigan Illinois >Vlifcon»ln Iowa (ao rctun. Indiana < Iri'Kon Territory . . . California Waiblngton Tcrrlto. ToUI 10,006 $263,635 $89,612 $16,496 $11)6 1 $611 $31,640 $3104 3113 $343,944 $167,360 /ff/if/o/'/JertiVtrfe^i'anifn.— By the fourth section of | at the expense of tho United States, subject to such the act of Congress, 2Hth February, ISO.'), it is made ! instruction as the Secretary of State shall give ; and the duty of consular ofHcers to provide for the mari- | the section also provides for the manner in which such ners of the United States who mny l)e found destitute mariners or« to be transported to the United States. within their districts sufficient sut>slstence and passage j If any seaman happens at a United States consulate, to the United States, in the most reasonable manner, 1 not from discharge from a vessel, but from shipwreck SfiA^ 1695 SEA 19T 1T6 21,62T l,4'.i3 3,338 1 60,138 I 4,749 »,fl7a 1,183 1 T,na 400 0,0'j9 I 2,300 1 2,225 I 828 %-iM 1 324 I 1,984 15,111 1,0«0 4,482 1 or otherwise, the same must be stated accordingly, vith ! the time he arrived at the consulate, so that the return ' Krill show how and -when each relieved seaman hap- pened there. And if no extra wages are received, the i reasons why such wages have not been received should : appear from the return, or other accompanying papers, i When American seamen are discharged in any port trom sickness or any other cause, the three months' extra wages should invariably bf exacted as required by the acts of February 28, 1803, and of August 18, 1856. The three months' extra wages are to l>e credit- ed in consular accounts, and the two-thirds thereof arc not to be paid to seamen imtil they shall have en- gaged on Iroard some vessel to return to the United States ; and then only when n<^ disbursements shall have been made on their account. Expenses incurred for them are first to be paid, and the balance only, if any, to bo returned them. On payment of the two months' extra wages to seamen, consular ofhcers will take and forward receipts with their accounts. When- ever a ship or vessel belonging to a citizen of the United States is sold in a foreign country, and her company discharged, or when a seanivn or mariner, a citizen of the United States, is with his own consent discharged in a foreign countr}', it is the duty of the master or commander to produce to the consular officer the certified list of his ship's company, and pay to such consular officer for every seaman or mariner so dis- charged, being designated on such list as a citizen of the United States, three months' pay, over ond above the wages which may then be due to such mariner or seaman ; two-thirds thereof to be paid I)}- such consular officer to each seaman or mariner so discharged, upon his engagement on board of any vessel to return to the United States, and the other remaining third to be re- tained for the purpose of creating a fund for the pay- ment of the passages of seamen or mariners, citizens of the United States, who may bo desirous of return- ing to the United States, and for the maintenance of destitute American seamen. Whenever ony seaman or mariner of any vessel of the United States deserts such vessel, the master or commander of the vessel is required to note the fact and date of the desertion on the list of the crew, and to have the same officially authenticated at the port or place of the consulate or comnKicial agency first visit- ed by the vessel after such desertion. If tlie desertion shall have occurred in a foreign country, or if, in such case, the vessel shall not visit any place where there is any consulate or commercial agency before her re- turn to the United States, or if the desertion shall have occurred in the United States, the fact and time of de- sertion shall be officially authenticated before a notary public immediately- at the first port or place where such vessel arrives after the desertion. All wages that may be due to such seaman or mariner, and whatever interest he may have in the cargo of such vessel, shall be forfeited to and become the jiroperty of the United States, and paid over for their use to the collector of the port where the crew of such vessel are accounted for as soon as the same can be ascertaincil, first de- ducting therefrom any expense which may necessa- rily have been incurred on account of such vessel in consequence of such desertion. In settling tlie ac- count of such wages or interest, no allowance or deduc- tion shall be made, except for moneys actually paid, or goods at a fair price supplied, or expenses incurred to or for such seaman or mariner, any receipt or vouch- er from or arrangement with such seaman or mariner to the contrary notwithstanduig. Upon the application of any seaman or mariner for a discharge, if it shall appear to the consular officer that he is entitled to his discharge under any act of Congress, or according to the general principles or usages of maritime law as recognized in the United States, be is required to discharge such seumun or mariner, and require fh>m the master or commander of the ship or vessel from which such discharge fchall be made the payment of three months' extra wages, as provided by the act approved February 28, 1803 •, and it shall be the duty of such master or commander to pay the same, and no such payment, or any part ther«- of, shall be remitted in any case, except such as are mentioned in the preceding section, and in cases of wrecked or stranded ships or vessels, or ships or ves- sels condemned as unfit for service, when no payment of extra wages shall be required. The extra wages required to he paid by the foregoing clause of this sec- tion are applicable to the same purposes and in the same manner as is directed by the act approved Feb- ruarj' 28, 1803, in regard to the extra wages required to be paid by that act. ^ If the first officer, or any officer and a majority of tlie crew, of any vessel make ci mplaint in writing that she is in an unsuitalde condition to go to sea, because I she is leaky, or insufiiciently supplied with sails, rig- ! ging, anchors, or any other equipment, or that the crew ! is insufficient to man her, or that her provisions, stores, i and supplies are not, or have not been during the voy- ! age, sufficient and wholesome, thereupon, in any of I these or like cases, the consular officer of the port is ! required to appoint two disinterested competent prac- : tical men, acquainted with maritime affairs, to ex- amine into the causes of complaint, who must, in their report, state what defects and deficiencies, if any, tli";- find to be well founded, as well as wh,.t, !n tiieir judg- 1 ment, ought to be done to put the vessel in order tot i the continuance of her voyage. Hy the 4th section of the act of February 28, 1803, all masters and commanders of vessels belonging to 1 citizens of the United States, and bound to some port of the same, arc required and enjoined to take on board i their ships or vessels, at the request of the consular officers, such American seamen as may be fouiul in I their districts respectively, and to transport them to j the port in the United States to which such ships or j vessels may be bound, on such terms, not e.\-ocding ten dollars for each person, as may bo agreed upon be- tween the said masters and consular officers. And the ! said seamen shall, if able, be bound to do duty on board I such ships or vessels according to their scvcrol abili- ties. To enaldo the master of the vcfsel to obtain I the payment specilied, the consular officer will give him a cerlilicatc, stating Iho names of the seamen I placed on boa.d, and the amount to be paid for their I passaso; on which, upon the arrival of tlic vessel iiva port of the United .States, an indorsement must bo made l)y the collector of the customs at such port, I stating tliat such seamen have arrived in said vessel in ' his district. Wlicn the cerlificato so indorsed is re- ', ceivcd at the Treasury Department, the amount will I 1)0 paid to its holder. No master or captain of any j ship or vessel is obliged to take a greater number than ! two men to every on" hundred tons burden of the said i ship or vessel on any one voyage. Ifflpis nj' Scamni. — Tlio general rule in regard to the w.iges of seamen is, tliat such wages on board of mercliant ships are payable out of the earning* for freight ; and if no froiglit is earney renunciations obtained from the mariners without any consideration, by collateral bonds, or by contracts inserted in the body of tho shipping articles, not usual, not fully ex- plained to these illiterate and inexperienced persons, are ineflectual and void. J'roteclion and Care n/Seqmen. — It is provided by the IGtIi section of the act of July 20, 1840, that tho crew of any vessel shall have tho fullest liberty to lay their , complaints before the consular officer in any foreign port, and shall in no respect bo restrained or hindered therein by tho master or any ofKccr, unless some sile, and which no human prudence can prevent — the fair presumption is that she was not seaworthy when she sailed ; and it will be incumbent on tlie owners to show that she was seaworthy at that time. They are liable for damage occasioned by every injury arising from any original defect in the ship, or from bad stowage ; but they are nut llalile for any injury arising from tho act of (Jod, the king's enemies, or the perils of the sea. It is further to be observed, that how perfect soever a ship may bo, yet if, from the nature of her construc- tion, or any other cause, she bo incapable of perform- ing the proposed voyage, with the proposed cargo on board, she is not seaworthy. She must be in all re- spects Jit for the trade in ichich she is meant to be em- ployed. And it is a wholesome rule that the owners should be held to a pretty strict proof of this. It has been nlrcidy observed that ony defect in point of sea- worthiness invalidates an-insiirance upon a ship. Thcro is not only an express but an implied warranty in ev- ery policy that tho ship shall bo " tight, stanch, and strong, etc. ;" and tho reason of this is plain. 'I'lio in- surer undertakes to indemnify the insured against tho cjetraordinary and unforeseen jvrilt of the tea; and it would bo absurd to suppose that any iimn would In- sure against those perils, but in confidence that tho ship is in a condition to encounter the ordinary perils to which every ship must bo exposed in the usual course of tho proposed voyage, "In many ports certain equipments would now be considered essential which at an earlier perio'", mu ci-!; • !'.4- ^S^^Luii: :^:ef-''^. I wire or ,h. ' '""' '"" This makes a .tronif warn V.„.m '"'"'"eked Iocm. - 'en, unless in.me.^aw7d"sc over^S '"!?'; 8'^*' ^^. "hole seam will ravel oun?i, T -^ """^ '"tened, the garments or other «okr''^!>"'«'"(f- For .eni„* machine is far inferior to th„'8 ' "'""« ""'». tW» ■ng much more simnle of . 7 ."''"« "^° ""•«« 74 cents) per ton, if the vessel is over 160 tons bur- den; 160 tons or under, 1 mace (equal to 14'8 cents) per ton. Before cargo can be landed, a permit must be obtained from the local authority, under a penalty of (600 and forfeiture of gooO.s so landed. Standards of weights and measures are to be supplied by th3 Chinese government to the consuls of the dif- ferent nations, to secure uniformit)-, and prevent con- fusion in measures and weights of merchandise. The former limitation of foreign trade to hong merchants, appointed l)y the government, is abolished ; and citi- zens of the United Slates are permitted to trade with any and all subjects of China, without distinction. The privilege is conceded of re-exporting into any other port any merchandise imported into any one of the 6ve ports, without being subject to any additional duty, provided the full duty was paid when first im- ported, and the goods remain with their original marks unchanged; but this privilege must be specially ap- plied for through the American consul. The other provisions of the treaty apply mostly to the privileges, and duties, and police regulations, applicable to the consuls, merchants, and citizens (>f the United States at the five ports. Shipping dues, formerly charged on the measurement of the ship's length and breadth, at so much per chang, and all the old charges of measure- ment, entrance, and port clearance fees, daily and monthly fees, etc., are also abolished by this treaty ; and the tonnage duty on the registered tonnage of the vesiel, specified in the preceding synopsis, i.'^ substi- tuted in lieu thereof. Commercial relations between the United States and China date from a period as early as 1784. In the month of February of that year. Vein. 18.M . IKSl. -i*;--'?! ■ 7v^-^v-/ -«^^, SHA 1609 SHA It appears that the Kmprtm of China, a thip of 860 tons, sailed from New York fur Canton, and returned the following year with a rich and valualile cargo. The luccess, as well as the novelty nf this adventura, at- tracted no little attention throughout the country. The ensuing year another voyage was niaile, In a small vessel of only »4 tons burden, with equal taocess. Merchants were soon induced to engage in an enter- prise which promised the most Hattering results ; and as early as 1789, flvs years after the American flag had first entered the Chinese seas, fifteen American ships arrived at Canton. Such was the origin of an extensive and profltable trade between the United States and the Celestial empire. The geographical position, excellent shipping facili- ties, and proximity to the fertile valley of Yang-tse- Kiang, would seem to point to Shanghai as a port pos- sessing pre-eminent advantages, which, when fully de- veloped, must make it a flourishing and primary station. The following extract in relation to the trade of Shang- hai is from an offleial communication addressed to the Department of State, dated Shanghai, A'agust 7, 1855 ; " It will be observed that thu export trade for the f\nl six months of 1866 has more than doubled any previous one ; and, inasmuch as the business season is just open- ing, it may safely be inferred that the value of exports for this year will be about double that cf any previous one. The disorganizeil state of the rest of the empire, the equal and regular levy duties at this port, and its superior geographical position, are the main causes of the concentration of trade at this point. The imports have been small, because it has required time time to dispose of the enormous quantities which had collected at this port during the period the city was in possession of the rebels. That important branch of our trade will now, I believe, revive ; and if our government will but vigorously and prudently nourish the facilities now able for the Chinese markets, valued at $'.'6t(,IM7. Tha cargoes outward were chiefly silk and lea, valued at $4,480,1113. Of the vessels inward, there were from the Atlantic ports direct, 2, with an aggregala of 1235 tons; and from the I'nciHc ports lit, with ui| aggregate of 13,839 tons. The follow ing is a summary of the navigation .ind trade of the port of Sliaiighiti Milu the United States during the last six months of 1855: Number of American vessels entered, 67 ; meaaut' Ing 27,262 tons. Number of American vessels entered from Atlantic ports, 4 ; measuring 1689 tons. Num. her of American vessels entered from I'acltic ports, 10 ; mcAsuring 10,632 tons. Number of American vossals entered from foreign ports, 36; measuring 13,000 tons, The returns do not give the ports of departure of seven of the American vessels entered. The number of American vessels cleared from the port of Shanghai during the same period was 57; aggregate tonnage, 30,542 ions. Of these, 13 vessels, all freighted with tea and silk, proceeded direct to New York, and the remainder to foreign ports. During the same period, the duties paid by the Amer. lean flag to the authorities at Shant,'hai were : • Tiieli. Mace. C. C. Imports 111,284 B 6 = In I'. B. currency $M,4M Exports 450,048 7 7 1 " " flT4.1M Touugedues. 13,539 S ■■ >' '/ii.diiij Total duties of import, export, and tonnage. . . . $1^.744 The following statement exhibits the total tonnagii of vessels at the port of Shanghai during the last sIk months of 1855 : British 42,365 tons. United Statea 27,263 " l>>uish 1,3(15 " Hamburg 1.328 " Dutch 8,8,!7 " Bremen fi&l ■■ Swedish 833 tons, Spanish 1,11)3 •• I'ortugueie... 1,120 •' Siamese 1,345 - I'eruvisn .... 784 •' Total 82,40'i " The following is a summary statement showing the quantity of teas exported from Shanghai to the United States during the last si.x months of 1855 : niacktea 559,442 pounds. Green tea 1 4.61 1. B'vt " Total i4,80o,7UU " All exported in 16 American vessels. The following is a summary statement showing the quantities of teas exported from Simnghai to all coun- tries during the last six months of I85,'> : To Great Brltaiii, in 31 vessels, . 21,613,927 pounds. To United States " 1« " . . 14,S0il,79G " ToAustralta "7 " .. l,C3»,(i74 " To Hamburg "1 " .. 823.B3tt " Grand total 8s,277,«..U " Summary Statement siiowino thp Quantities op Haw Sn.K. I'lI.K I'lECE CnnllS, ETC., KXroRTEl) FllOM SnAMillAI TO TUB I NITEO ^TATE« (NBW YoRK) SUBING TUB LAST BIX MOMTUS OF 1865. Y.an. * InwMd. Outward. | VMM la. ToBoaje. 9.826 VaMla. TonnaKa. 184b 24 u 9,8T7 1851) 87 18,808 34 14.464 1*51 M »7,«84 BS 26,697 18,54 M 88,760 70 40.592 ArtlelM. lUwHilk .Silk, piece goods . Niinkcena Straw braid Uh'ibub Fans CMM. PIniU. Calllr> 720 6.6 9'J li86 40 26 029 879 57 10 ... QUANTTTIBS Of BaW SILK KXTOBTKB FBOM TUB I'OBT OP SUAKOHAI DUHINO TUB LAST BIX .MONTIIH DP 186,5. The numlHir of Amorican vessels entered at Shang- To London Liverpool. . . Hong Kong. Total ... I 80.207 * Tael = 10 mace = 100 candareens = 1000 cash = $1 48 United States currency. '■ ^"I iN la SHA 1700 SHA The total tnde of Sbaii);liai during the period desig- nated ill the foregoing statementt was thus distributed. Untiili American . . , Uretueu Uaniih Dutch Itimburg . . . Peruvian . . , Portugrese , Blameae . . . . Spanish Swedish . . . . Total . . Import*. Ml 61 !t 6 8 II 3 5 4 6 •i!4.'> "li porto. laa 65 1 I 11 u 3 6 S 6 9 243 Total value of the trade of Shangliai during tlie last six mouths of 1855 : Imports, H,bi2,%l'J : exports, $501,786. Total trade, $a,Ul.'),805. During ihe last six months of 1865 great improvements were made in the navigation of tlio Itiver Woosung, on which the port of Shanghai ia situated, and, I'rom having been one of the most dungcrous of acceas in the I'acilic, it has been made one of the safest and easiest. The ex- pense of tho worit ($20,000) was defrayed by the Chi- nese authorities. A system of pilot regulations, agreed upon by the consuls of llio United States, Great Britain, and France, waa ralllied by the superintendent of cus- toms, and is as follows: Pilot Hegulalioni. — The following rules and regula- tions for the government of pilotii, native and foreign, at the port of Shangliai are hereliy issued and made binding by his excellency Chaou, superintendent of customs, in comnuinication with the consuls of the three treaty powers ; 1st. A board shall l>e appointed by the tiireo consuls, sanctioned by Ids excellency Chuou, ronsialiiig of not less than three, nor morn than eacon-shi|>, $1 per foot; from any point outside Woo- sung, but inside beacon-shin, &8 50 per foot; from Woosung to Shanghai, $3 |icr loot. The same rates of pilotai;e are allowed fur vessels outward liound. 6th. Kvery pilot, on iHtarding a ship, shall produce, for the inspection of the master, his license as a pilot. 6:h. .'Ml persons acting os pilots without a license, as liereinl)eforo prescribed, shall have no claim for services rendered, and shall lie denit with by their own consuls, aceonniig to law, fur viidating these regu- lations; anil all such cases notcuniliig within Ihe juris- diction iif the three treaty consuls are to bo referred to tho local Chinese authorities. 7ih. I'ilots shall be responsible for the faithful and complete discharge of their duty ; and any misconduct, either from Ignoraiiee, iiieapaeity, willful neglect, or otbernl-e, being known, shall email a forfeiture of the offeniler's license, in adililiun to any other liability he may have incurn'd by the laws of his own country. 8:li. The foregoing regulations to take eli'eet on and ofter Ihe lOlh day of Deceniber, IR.').'>. O'minit !trgu'f f '^d order and the faithful fulfillment of treaty obligations. Prior to 1843, as before noted, It was the custom, when foreign vessels enured Ihe ^.ort of Canton, that a Chi- nese hong merchant stood security for her, and that all duties and charges were paid through such security merchant. liut the several treaties having provided for tho abollflon of this secukily system, the consul* of the difl'erent treaty nations are now substituted ai security for tho vessels of their respective nations en- tering any of the live ports. Hence one of the reasons why tho powers of consuls in China should be ample, and these officers invested with full powers to control the shipping of their respective nations. During the recent troubles in China, foreign com- merce at the port of Shanghai was considerably inter- rupted, and the custom-house at this port was abandon- ed by the Chinese officials, who organii^edin lien there- of two other custom-houses in Ihe interior. An ar- rangement was subse(|ueiitly entered into between the consuls of the three treaty powers and the Chinese authorities, by virtue of which these custom-houses were suppressed, and foreign commerce was again con- ducted under the usual regulations. It may be here observed that the five ports pertain to dllferent provincial jurisdictions, having diH'erent local administrations, and not unfrequcntly different commercial regulations. It is by no means rare to see, notwithstanding the treaties apply to all In common, privileges enjoyed at one which are strictly interdicted at another — perhaps at the other four. Thus, in 1856, it is staled that rice was exported to the amount of 30,000 piculs (each 188i lbs.) to a vessel, free, too, of all export or other duty, save a doucevr of 200 or EOO dollars to some subordinate; while the exportation of this article is not only forbidden nt Shan^'ai, but the 'eath-penaity is inflicted on such of the Cliineso as are detected in violating the prohibition. The same ob- sert 'ion applies to the emigration of coolies, whieh Is tolerated at Anioy, but strictly forbidden at the other ports. So the importation of opium, as already stated, though illegal, is openly tolerated by Chinese officials. The state of the currency at this port has for some time attracted attention. A letter from the Cnitcd States consul at Shanghai, under date of June 26, 1855, states as follows: "Tl^e mte of cxrhnngc berc bns pxroedrd that of Canton fi*oin '.5 til 8> per cent., slthoiigti the distance between the two 14 hutSOO miles, and of easy nnd certain coniniunlctit>oii. Under ordinary Anaiicial rules, the dlfTcrenoe of cxcliimge between the two pIp.ccH U regulated by the cost of tninspurta- lliin, the liisuraiire, and a sllglit per cent, for brokerage. While ik per cent, would bo ii liberal allowance on thiui iteniH lietwcen this port and Caiiliin, and Hong Kong, yet excbsnge has varied from I'S to 30 per cent, against this port, "China bus no currency I ut copper casli— one of shlrh Is eqnal to tho sixteen-hundredth part of a del ar. All large Ituimaollons, therefore, are made In pure silver, ilcnominntcd by the (Jlilnesc B}'cee, which Is nipaaiircit In taels, or a weight ei|iiltaieiit, when at par, to i\ C8 |ier tael. W hen Ihe foreign trade became Impoitant In Cl.lna, fnii l;ni dollars were Intro- duced t and, on account of their superior qualities as a clrcn- liitlug medium over the ponderous sycee. became quite popu- iar, and were nnlverralty adopted. The Cai-olua dollar was the flrst adopted ; anerward the llolivlan, I'ernvian, Chilian, and Mexican ; but the Csrolna having liren first introduced, the Chinese formed a prejudice in its favor to the extant wSHA 1701 8HA Ishangliait of a dlKount of 10 pe.- rant, on nil otlion. Wlian tbU niirt WM flnit opened, tlin ohliiono received th« Moiloan *t » |ir«' mlum over tlie Caroliii, and the rupee at a ureiiilurii oviir both ; but the niitive broken from Canliir liwiillxd into tlm traders here the ume projudi » whirh eiUled wham lliny oanie from, and the (jarolua gMulually roue In - .lua, am' Iha othir (lollara Bank, until the dllTure icu ha' Iwoonio Vft nr UU per sent, which la eriulvii''nt Kimorl to un enllrii r\ii|u»li)li from circ ii,;tlon. This reault waa cliieHv brought alxiut liy the native brokers. In coix|unctlon with a lew roralgn iioninior' elal houses at this yon, who have obtained the esi'luslvit p«i|. tiol of all the Carolus dolliirii that are made. The Hiiauliili govenin n' have loiig sinoo discontinued their Uaun, hut tliiiy are mailo ,it Canton, In India, and Id Mexico, ibouHh not as pure ax the orlKinal dollar. '■Thun this pn'Judlce In favor of the Darolui has hueii fimier- ed hy a few coninierclal houaea, until (ho evil conaei|uent uidiIi a llnillod currency, k,id one which U boeoniInK luaa ami lew every year. Is almost beyond a remedy. The louifer It Is permitted to exist, the more vexatious will its rHiiiiiiiy lu< come. The Carolua dollar la carried Into the Interior to iiiiy for teas and allk», and never returns; thus each year ri'mlxn the amount of circulating medium lesa and less. The I aro- lus dollar Is tlie standard, and, therefore, as It deeraaaas In quantity, exchange rises. The same houses wliluli have the control of the Garohis dollar also dlai'oiint all hilia of es. change, and thus hold the entire contnicnial nmeliinury of this port at tliclr control. They discount hills uf esi liani{« at whatever rates thoy please to flx at Canton and ail llie utlMt, tliat the enor- mous dllTeri'iico of exchange at this port over any ottier In China Is produced by a roinbliiation of native and foi'ulgu merchants; and, aecond, that as the L'nlted Htatea take iiear- ly all tlie green teas exported from the empire, wlileli are all purchased at this port, and a4 the consumer must In llie end pay all charges on the imported article, therefore the (uin- Bumers of the United States are the sulTerers to the full ex. tent of this exorbitant exchange. ICntertalnIng the eonvle- tlon that it Is tlie duty of an officer to guard and |irnteel the Interests of those whom he has the honor to represent, e'pe- cUlly ',vhen thoae interests nro guaranteed by the laws and treaties of the land, and not to permit the advantages of a se. lect few to be developed at the expense of tiie many, I will now proceed to lay before the honorable Secretary of MtaUi Ihe conrne 1 have pursued In giving full ctTect to the treaty of tlie United States with China In the matter of the nirreney. To remedy the great evil which exists at this port in ri'lstiioi In the currency, there ap|ieared to be but two ways: I'li'sl, a combination among the merchants tiiat they would pay and receive all dollars alike, so far as their Intrinsic value anoiild be the lame. Second, the enactment of regulations by the Chinese authorities, which would place all dollars on an equality, by their agreeing to roceive them alike for all gov. ernment duda. The first was impossible in a coinminiily where alt are merchants possessed of as trany dilTerent liilurr ests, and therefore to the aecotid I gave my attention. The manner In which I presented this subject, and carried It through to an actual assay of tlie various dollars, may be fully examined by reference to the entire corivspnudeiice, which I have the honor herewith to Inclose, The assay a' made hero dlfTera but slightly from that made at Cantor ; and as there is an allowance of ii per cent, for dlfTerencu ol scales, it is more than made up. ■* The whole examination of the subject proved most satis, factory to his excellency the Imperial collector of oiistonis, and his excellency has' asked for twenty days to refer llie matter to his superiors, prior to carrying it Into practical operation. I have therel'ore given notice to his eioelleniy that on and after the 12th of July next American meri'liaiiU shall be allowed to discharge all their treaty obligallon* at this port In foreign money, at the rates as ascertslned by aetual assay on the 4th Instant. Ureal results will inevlts- biy follow tlie adoption of this measure. Kxcliange will de- cline '26 or 80 iier cent — that, too, Jitst eX the opening of tho business season — and will assimilate with tliat at (Jantoii, plus the cost of transportation, etc., ttc. The circiilstiiit! me- dium will be In the greatest abundance. The Importer In Ihe Uol^d States will, through his agent hero, resllie more money on his bills of exchange, consequenliy he call pur- chase more teas and silks ; and. Anally, as tlie consumers par- ticipate alike In the advantages and disadvantages, they will be enabled to purchase teas and silks subject to the same re- duction in price which tbe Importer has enjoyed." Currency.— The only legal coin of Chins Is the ('op. per c'sab, worth tlio lifteeatb part of a cent ; tbougU li> •llpiiUtloni of the treaty of 1844 the lyece U received III psytiicnt i/f (liilles. The sycee fluctuatea in price with llio vahio of silver. Tlin slice li worth alwut sf vdity (lulhirs, In WiS the American merchants re. sliliiiu At Nhnnuhnl aililrcssed a memorial to the United Ntatea coininisplnner In China, setting forth the great InRonvinlentfl lo which mercantilu Intertsts in China ward .„mei)teil by the absence of an adequate circulo- tlnK inailliini brtwoon the two e.\lremea above named, and ItivokInK Iho rommlsstoncr'a aid in establishing • national Mint In that empire. To the success of such a ineainrn thti snniilnn and co-opcrallon of tbe Chinese ((overiiniont are linllspniisablo. Tbo treaty of 1814 pro- vides that, sIimIiI cxpcrlenco show that anv modillca- lliini liertaftar beconio requisite in those p'arla which relate to cuinnierco mid navlKallon, the two govern- in«nlll will, at the expiration of twelve years from the dais tllHI'Pof, trent amicably concerning tbe same, by till, m»an« nf siillnblu persons appointed to conduct auHl nvKollallon. The lime designated will soon ar- rlVBj and slldilld stub mndlflcalloiia .;r the treaty con- lemplaltis beiinne a nil Joct of ncgotlnlion, the question "fa liNlliinal Mini, nnd of the currency gcnerallv, will, doulilluaa, deitmiid llio attention of the United' States CiMiiinUalonxr, Al Hlninglml an attempt has been made by th« fiirvlgn comshU Io cause an official subslltulton of till) Moxlcnii fur Ibe Carolus dollar as tbe money of «(l(!«Hllt,— f.'oHl, ////. f.'.S, From nfllc'lal Inldcs It l» shown, lat. That, until the yuar Wit>, Canlon was the principal port for tea, but In that year HIianKhnl exported 60 per cent.; and of »ilk, llirnc-foiirlhs of the whole export was from Shang- hai, 'M, That Ihe trade '<( Shanghai continued to In- cr(tn«»ov«r thai of Canton, and even Foo-chow, which 'l.rlves all lis trndn from this emporium, until the year IHfift, whan MlmnKJinl exjiorlod in ten about 30 per cent, mora than In 'h ('anion ami Kon-cbuw, and in silk al- most tli« entire amount win furnished at Shanghai. 9d, That thn xrnnd Incrcnsa of the foreign trade for twelve yoari Is an nvcrago per annum of about 3 per cant, 4th, That tliu inrrcaai- of silk for exportation has lieon, on I In- i;raiid aijKrrnnln, at the rate of 8J per caul, per anniiiti for the past cloven years. It Hppimi'* liUii, Isl. That the trade of the United .Hiatus III (^lilna bus Increased in the last ten years 1} per cent, per aniiiiin, 'id. That since the year 1848 III" porn of f 'niilon and Shanghai have changed com- nierclal poslllons, ihe taller b i' .ng exported more tea the last year lo the Culled Stales than the whole trade nmoiiiili'il lo when Canton was the only port opened. !lil, That Kod'i'how Is now a port of more commerce with llie I'nlti'd Sidles than Canton, and ranks next to the must lni|iortanl, Shanghai, 4lh. That the trade ill iillk to Ihit I idled Stales has developed immensely ; and as Ihb port Is the great emporium for that com- niodlly, It will probably furnish more trade than all the others ttoinblncd. Dili. That for the past year tbe port nf Nliatifihal hits furnished more Iban three-fourths of Ihu Anicrli'mi iradc In tea, and all the silk. Up lo till' year IN'il), exchange was steady at from ir> tu 21 pf r cent,, but the change which followed, and (he v«rlable|i«»« which Is marked, arose from the fact that the I'lly of Shanglial being taken by the rebels on thn 7tli Supttiinlior, IHAll, many large losses were in- currail by tim wealthy Chinese, wliich, creating em- liarrasinieiil, inKb*l Canton miuighal Canton Shanghai (.'aitton Foo-chow Shanghai Canton Foo^^fabtr Shanghai . Y««i». TSBO-M 186l>-'6l l|i61-5i 1N5I '5J 18R2-'5S 18 \i~'n 186.VM ISOI-'M 18W-'M 18.H-'U ItiSt-'ba EXPOBTR OT TkA and SII.K TO Till I'nITID RTATMI CIIUN China, with tiii; I'BoroaTioN raoH (■UAaauAi, won a {"SUOD or TKN VlARa. Y««rMi4lDV JumW. 184fi., 1840. 184T., 1S48. 1840. ISBO. 1961. 18S-.'. IKfiS. ISM. TiHmI Amount of TtK from CklM. Ponndi. so.Toa.NiS 18,602,SS8 1S.I7I,«2K 1I>.8!:S,«40 18,073,800 Sl.TS7,8(ll) ZS.TdO.S'K) 84 8U,OU0 40,974,0011 it7.8a7.AOO T» oitiorlad from ''' MiKhttt 1,T4I),7«7 8,US«,881 6,823,7118 11.004.fi40 18,000.000 !8,l)00,8«0 1«.7U«,400 Mill MfoiM froMi _Uu(bal. *alM. M 4IB «B0 »08 BB* 1074 Statmknt or iMPOETa into China nOM TH« I'lllTIID Stath in tu» V«a» 1862. 1 lUnkiDdiM. Caoioa saufbii It4i,ll6 ToUI. 614,^841 Atimrlran drill pteoea. 4U'2,<4fl American sheeting " 4i,09& 88.016 130,1111 American Jcana... " 4i),llil 64,260 104 MC Cochineal parcels. SS.flSO •iH.vm Silver dollari. 1''2.800 12II.80II Soolter vtu ^1 x k ■00,424 840 •90,424 1H4i» Uad " i •l,l-.6,42l 17,843 •1,126.421 tll,84il ^ 1 Olnaer; " 200,272 • • • ■ tM.'iVi Flour barreli. 3,06 * • • • »,'5 Dcef " 20(1 m I'ork " cm) 114 .... »oo m Clock! plecea. itoarda feet. • • • • 18,621 18 64 Tobacco poundu 5,942 • • • t B.II42 1600 13,80(1 .... tS.IiOn ('lieeM pounds. 1,000 203 l.oou 21 » GUHwaro boxea. Sperm eandloa pound*. 1,000 .... I.OOIJ • roundi. t I'IculB. t Cuius, Statkhkht or ExrosTa raoM China to tdi L'hitid Statu IN TUE Veas 186-'. MorchaiidlM. Green teas pound*. Black teas " Silk pleco goods . . . pieces. Crap« nhawla ** Oraudotli " Nankeens boxes. Pearl buttons '* Camphor " Vermiiloii " Oil, ca-Bia " Oil.anise " Sweetmeats ** China vara " Firr.-cnok«rs '■ Cassia parcels. Hatting rolls. Fans and screons. .boxes. Spill ratans bundles. RkW silk parcels. Rhubarb boxes. Lacquered ware ... " "Hn pareebi. Culoo. B,ir3;472 Shsiitbal. To. 8119,400 TolAl. 2T.»22;8T2' Uliai,;t:i4 3,033,110(1 l-i.Ml.li-H SI 708 40,868 ufi.mn 806 HM iiifitoS 4.1!' • • • I 4,121 lOil • • • • too no Si 1,044 • • ■ • 1,«44 131 • • • • llil 402 «>/ 9, ICO 200 9S0I 2,0C0 2.0' 1(1 lOU.KiR 19,i«9 !«0.r62 9.401 2,190 11.60^ 60,046 • • ■ ■ •9,(I4 i)Mpurt«>l fri/m ImMn, nhero they are highly es- tmttmH, 111(1 f.mi from |2(Vi to liUiOO. C'luhimni Hliuiiha((gy and coarse. It is only in the int^lli>«l/ cmM and dry climate of Thibet that It yields tha |MM.'nliarty aoft wmdiy hair that constitutes the nuixrltl ut llt« Indian shawl. We do not, therefore, oiipfii/ui thai |h« efforls lo naturalize the shawl-goat in 1^'raii'u Hill tnril out well. On the contrary, we believe (hii ( b«iii'i'« of KtU'««ss would be about equal were an »lf«iMp( iimd« lo breed beavers in a hot country, with- out Hwlur, or CMtileU In a moist country, free from heat Slid ilriiliKhl. The inner or fine wool is covered over and prmwlcd by a iiitaniliy of long sliaggy hair, which is, uf mufov, (,'«refully seiiarated from it before it i« K;»iiMf(t«lurfd. The genuine shawl-wool has been im- iiurl(94 tnio Klirotie, and the finest Edinburgh and I'aiiiU'y ,!mw, aa respects finality, into successful com- jwlillmi HJlh thi«s« of Cashmere. The manufacture has ii^itu |ii>(«bll, and though Ihe material employed be quite \\m nailiK, IIm fabrics are said to want the flneness of thowi iH«il« ill ('ashmere, and to have a degenerated, I'oarsti ami(»aran(«, It is difficult to account for this supHi'jorlly, It has been ascrilicd to tome peculiar ((iialily ■ to the manufacture of Cash- miirn iihawlit h«v« Iwett extracted from an Knglifili pa- |i«r piilili imitation of these <>"ffma . Ju,t ^ laces ,^ve?.n" ,"'" ''l'P'"«"tl7 ■"oro than «vo tin.e, LsZaZT^^ ''^'"ff » pripg *'. ..".?' •■"■ 'pi'-'-s: ••:■.:.':::::::;:•■■ i Wages to wea'vVrV.'iii.'' ...'.'.'.'. ] Total .,.'.'..'.' 26, On -ale and lmporUt^„'^''r'^ f** "'"'''• ^' On the thread '^^"''" '^ ^""''raero , While the fabrlc'iV'n thW i' ." " a l«s to chowdrie. b?ok^-i "' 12K " .iD^^-'"""-^'':::::::::::::;:;: '| ^Jtio„'^sm";;;--';;:^h.he„,e,e— ^^ „ TotalfromAmri ;;;:•„:■■: ™ n' an« "PPer hair. " °' "■" ~'»'n'»' iiie (fovcrument of L«hn~ . « wh.. , '""'> ^aa as follows: at ^^8 oOO t iirrukabad rupees. --' -•''. ilie (fovcrument of Lahnr. „ ■ ^ rupee,, 15(i4G; Patlalah bin^it "" ^"""k^bad P^, in i ; Bhownuggur 20 o'-^^Tr'- *^ "'• •'""J- princes, 1809 0; IloSv in „ '"''"'''''* ''^''■"'ive 2850 0." • ""'"""y. XO per cent, (ad valorem) It is n<\( ... .... WliBiics Imporlai). Ilaiisu Towns.. fc"Blaiid Scotland....'" France .'."' China .".'_'_" Other places! !i Total. Vilo,. $218,387 T32,449 332,0*8 838,9;3 8(i,8!l4 03,160 " is not as yet eenemllir t— . ""lerplacea. 8«2'i4 goat, from whose wo!," t"o fal„ "V"?' ""> ^^et Total __63^ »i piles, etc. Zinc and different >F SHE 1704 SHI ooni|K»itlani bavi Im«ii propoacd h lulwtUuIci for •op|>i!r ; tnil HIr II. Uivy inKi^nlouily au|{K«>trer. There were in tliat division of the Union iit 1840, 8,811,807 ; in 1860 the numlKir liad declined to 2,1()4,4&2 ; being a decrease of 1,G46,866, or 45 per cent. In tho five At< Untie Kliddie States, New York, New Jersey, Pennsyl- vania, Delaware, and Maryland, there woa a decreitsc from 7,402,861 to 5,r>4l,RUl|cqiial to 1,761,460, or about !!2i percent. In Pennsylvania there was a gain, how- ever, during this period, of 165,000 sheep. We see that while there haa been a positive diminution of 8,408,000 in the States above named, there has been an augmentation of 5,717,008 in those south of Mar}-land and west of New York. Ohio haa gained most largely, having been returned as pasturing in 1840, 2,028,401; and in 1860, 8,942,929; an increase of 1,914,528, or nearly 100 per cent. In each of tho States south and west of tho lines above indicated, there haa been a very large proportional increase in this kind of stock, and there is reasonable ground for the opinion that the hilly lands of Virginia, North and South Carolina, Tennes- see, and the prairies of Illinois, Iowa, am! Texas, will prove highly favorable for the rearing of sheep for their wool and pelta. New Mexleo haa Ihe extraordinary number of 877,371 thi'cp— mori! than six to each inhabitant; proving Iha soil and cilniala of that territory to be well adapted to this description of Klerk, and giving promise of a large addition from thai quarter to the supply of wool. Tho Importance of fostering this groat branch of national production Is shown l)y the fact, as assumed by an In- telligent writer on tho sul\Jecl, that our population annually consumes an amount of wool equal to seven pounds for each person. If this estimate be even an approximation to correctness, we are yet very far short of producing a quantity adequate to the wants of the country ; and It Is equally clear that wo pnisesi an amount of unemployed land adapted to grazing, snfll- dent to support (locks numerous enough to clotlie the people of the world. The kinds of sheep must suught for are the pure-blooded Merino*, the Saxons, the Cols- wobb:, tho Lclcestershlrcs, the Oxfordshlres, and the South Downs. The .Ifrn'nos (Including the Uumbouil- lels), the Cotswolds, the I^lcestershlres, the Oxford- shlres, and (he Saxons, are tho most hlglily prized fur their wool. The South Downs are particularly mu teemed for the excellence of their Hesh, and their wool it valuable for many purposes on account of the fnclllly with which it can I'lo wrought.— {/. 3. Patent OJgiet Re- port, tiee SllAW'iJi and Wool,. Sheer. The curve which the line of ports or of the deck presents to the eye when viewing the side nf the ship. When these lines are slralght, or the ex- tremities do not rise, as Is most usual, the ship is talil to have a straight theer. Sheer llulk.—K hulk permanently fitted with shaora for masling and dismasting ships. AIAry a ship. Sherry. A Spanish wine made from the grapei of Xerea, in Andalusia. Genuine sherry Is n ricli, dry wine, containing from 20 to 23 per cent, of aboliul i there are many varieties, and it is extensively imitated and adulterated. — See Wink. Shilling. An Knglish silver coin, equal lo twolvo- ponce, or the twentieth part of a pound. Krelierut de> rives the Saxon Killing, whence our shilling, from a cor- ruption of tiliijua ! proving the derivation liy several texts of law, and, among others, by tho twenty-sixth law, I)e annuit lej/atis. Skinner deduces It from the Saxon icild, " shield," by reason of the escutcheon of arma which it haa upon it. liishop Hooper derives It from the Aral>ic tcheele, signifying a weight ; liiit others, with greater prol>aldllty, deduce it from the l.ntin ]c- to tsko >n tlmoi, ■ort»lnn i iiy wMoIi li HM In EnglUU RamcofihlUinKi •ndthi- Hitxati uhllllnK of four-p«nc« took • NoriiMii imiiie, amt m an eMm\ lliu j/nnl, or gn»l culii,l>ui.'«uiullwHlliuUrKt'st KiikUkIi colli thvn known In KngUiiil. It wu tliu upliiloii of Ijliliopii Klu«twoo mothod of riickuiiliiK by |iouiiil>, marki, *nil •h)lUnK"i ••• wi'll M by piinco nnil furtliinK", lio'l Ixitin in conntant uio vvcii fruin tlxi 8axon times, Iuiik Wfuru lliu Noriniin Cuni|U»t, theru «m m-viT iiii;!! a coin In Kniflnnd <» oltliar a pound or • mark, nor any ihllllnK, till till) yi'ur I'Mi or 160.% whun ■ fuw lilvcr iihilllii|;i or twi'lvi'-poiivon wuru I'oinud, which hiiva limi; aliice (won inUly cunlliiKil to tho caliliicta of culluclom. Mr. Clarku combat* tlili opinion, allo^inK that loiiio coini montlonoil by Mr. Folki^s, uudur Kdward tho KIril, worn probably Saxon •hllllngii new minted, and that Arch- lliihup AfMrk expreuly layii that the Saxons had three n«ni«* for thoir money — mancuiKii, iililUlii^'i. and pnn- ntoa. lie aUo urge* the dllHirent valiiu ul tho Hax- 1 on •hllliiiK at dlllbront tiinoa, and its uniform propor- tlon to tho pound, as an arKunmiit that their bIiIIIIiik wai n coin ; and tho tantlniony of the Saxon Ooapnlii, In which the word we Im ' v traiiBlatedpi'ri'ei nj'iihrr U rondorud ihUtiiig$, which, be aaya, thoy would hardly have ilumi If there hud bean no such coin 11 a shilling then In iisi', Accordingly, the Hu xons expressed their ihlllliiK In Latin by $iclu» and nrgenttun, lie further •lids, that tho Haxon shilling wn.'t never oxprcssod by $oMui till after the Norman settlements In Kngland; •nd howsoever It altered during tho long period that elapsed fnnn tho Conquest to the time of Henry the Seventh, It was tho most constant dcnuniinution of money in all payments, though It whs then only a spi> cles of account, or the twentieth part of tho pound Iterlliig; and when it wa>i again revived as a coin, it luseiiod gradually us the piiuiul sterling lessened, fl'om Iho 'JHtb of Ldword tho Third to the -ISd of Kliz- •liotli, In tint year 1500 there was a peculiar sort of -liilling •truck In Ireland, of tho value of ninc-pencu Knirllsh, which passed In I ro'.iind for twelve-pence. T!ie iiiu..lu -^n the roverso was, /'(uu( /Aunt (xi/uture/iin n, Kighty- twi> tit these shillings, according to ' laiyiics, went to the pound. They weighed, therefore, twenty grains one fourth uach, which Is somewhat Imiivier in proportion than tlio Knglish shiUingof that time, sixty-two of which went to the pound, each weighing ninety-two grains •ovon-aighths ; and the Irish shilling being valued at the Tower at nine-pence Knglish, that is, one ..itirth part los'< Ihin the Knglish shilling, it should therefore prupnriionally weigh ono fourth part less, and its full weight be somewhat mom than sixtj'-twu grains. ISut ionio iif tlioin found at this time, though much worn, weighed sixty-nine grains. In 1S!>8 live diH'erent pieces of money of this kind were struck in England for the service nf ilio kingdom of Ircliind. These were ■hlllliiKs to be current in Ireland at twelve-ponce each, half-slilllings to be current at six-|icnco, and quarter- ihllllnga at throe-pence, rennies and lialf-|)eiinics were also struck of tho same kind, and sent over for the paytnont of tho army in Ireland. Tlie money thus coined was of • very base niixturo of copper and silver ; and two years after there were more pieces of the same kinds ttruek for tho same service, which were still worse ; tho former being three ounces of silver to nine ounces of copper, and tho latter only two ounces eight- een pennyweights to nine ounces two pennyweights of the alloy. The Dutch, Flemish, and Germans have likewise their shilling, called ichtlin, sehilUng, and tcalin; but thcio, not being of the same weight or fineness with the Knglisli shilling, are not current at the same value. Tho English shiUlug U worth about twenty -three Fnnch sols ; those of Holland and Germany about eleven sols and a half; those of Flanders about nine. The Dutch shlUlngi are also called lols de grot, because •qutl to twelve gru>. The Danes have copper shil- lings worth about one fourth -it a flirlhing sifrllnK — v.. It. St» CiilNlt. Bblp-mon«7 was llrst levied .t.ii. ilN)7, and lauMil great conimutluiis. ThU inipast being lilKgally Invltd by Charles the First In ltl:tt, led to tho Kevolutlon. lie assessed London In seven shlpn, of 4iHN) iniia and l&AO man ; Yorkshire in two ships of IMNI lotia, or i;ri,0y was In. eluded In a railreas of grluvancea. In IHII. Hampden received a wound in n aklrmlah with rriticu llujiert, and died June 14, Itllll. BhlM, Nautical ni>in apply the term ahip to dl«> tingulah a vessel having three meats, each coMalaling of a lower meat, a tupmaat, and toji-Kallitnt mast, with their appropriate rigging. Ir famlllnr language, It U Ubually einpKiyed to dlatlngulab any large veaael, how. ever rigged ; but It In alao frequently uaeil as a general designation for all vessels navigated with sails ; and it is in this sense that wc now employ It. i/rrcluint Hhipii.— It la hardly |iosalliln to divide mer- chant ships Into classes, at least with any degree uf precision. Their sine, shape, the mode of their rigging, etc., depend not merely on tho particular trade for which tliey are destined, but on tlio varying tastes and fancies of their owners. In tlio (irticln Cii Airr».ii I'ARTY, FI.KIOIIT, .MASTKn, 0» MKHH, HkAMK.S, MI'.A- w'ditiiir, etc., the law with respect to ships and ship- owiif rs, in their capacity of carriers or public >ervnnlB, and the reciprocal duties and obligations of the mui- tors and crew«, It p'otly fully cxpouiiilcd, Shiihbuikling.—^ltha art Is nttriliuted to the Kgyp. tiana, as the tirst inventors, the llrst ship (pmbaldy • galley) lieing brought from Fgypt to Greece, by lla- naus, 1486 u.c— Ili.Ain. The llrat double-deeked ship was built by tho Tyrlans, "Mii n.i.— I.kniii.I'.t. Tlin first double-deck vessel built in Kii|{land wiis of IIIIKI tons burden, by order uf Henry VI I, , IfilW; It was called the Ortal Ifony, ami co«l ifl I,(KM».-..,Sti(»v. He. '",>. this time, 2l-(;iin ships were the largest in the British navy, and these hud no port-holes, Ihu gum being on the upjier decks only. I'orl-holes and other Improvements were invented by l>e»cliargc«, a French liullilorat llrcst, in tho rolgn of l.ouia X II., about l.'idO. Ship-building was lirsl treated m a Ncieiice by llosin, Ui9ii. A 7)-gun ship was put upon the stocks at Van Uicmcn's Land, to lie sheathed with In 'ia-rublior, IMIW. — Ha» us. For articles on slilp-bulldi nK, see (luiirtrrlji lievino, vol. iii. 'iH, xi. '227, xll, 441 ; .Iwd. Mail., I. V(I3, vi. 4.Wj Hunt's ifirchmli' Man., *'• "1 "^i"- '"''■ State of Slilpping Jnlereit.—'l'Ua compiuliils which were so frequent soiiio years since In regard t . the ship- ping interest have now wholly ceased. Mimt priibably they never had any very good foundation ; lii;t whether that were so or not, tills Interest has been for lonio tlinn past in a peculiarly prosperous condition. This has lieeen occasioned partly and priiici|/ally by the gold discoveries in Culllcirnia and Aunlruliii, or rathi r hy the unprecedented siimuius which they have giv n to emigration and commerce. It Is not, therefore, to bo supposed that the existing stale of things, a* respect* tho shipping interest, can bo permanent ; for while, on the one hand, tlie advantages resulting from emigra- tion will gradually diminish, on the other the au|>ply of sliips will be augmented in proportion to the greater demand for their services. However, it Is all but cer- tain that tho commerco of tho wnild is ilostliierl !■> lii- creaso for a long time to como ; and our morcaiitlle navy will, no doubt, continue to realize a full and fair share of the advantages resulting front this extonilon of trade. Some very important changes have lieen made of late years, and are yet in progress, in tho construction of ships. Thov are now built of a much larger slx« than formerly," of finer models, and with a power of Hill 1706 fRT tailing of whirli mi Juit Ma* cnuM privloiuly hav* twrn furmril. Nlii|>« nf '^INIO tiiiii hiirilen an now rfrk- •ntU unly of lltllr mar« Ikaii a nitUlum ilia | ami thoit of VIKM) and 'iim (»na anil upward ara avary day b«roniinK mora ami mora conimun. It l» |irolialil<>, In- diiail, that ill llila, lu In moat olliar thlnK', wa ahall run fniiii »n« axlrania jnlo another { and that from liaInK too auiall, our ihlpa for didnnl voyaK<'a will Uti'onMi Um lar^a aii'I unwialdy. Thi*, liowavor, la a |iolnt which ti|>«ri«iice only rail (i^tlu, and to that It may aafaly Iw taft. Iron abipa ar« alao, at pravioualy alalad, b«- glnnlnK t<> l>'i rattnaively cunatructod ; and ablpa ar< now fn'i|i»)iilly Htlad out with ai:rewa and atoani>«n- Kini'a, to be u>cd only na a au' aidlary powar lu calma, and aKaiiiat contrary wlnda. Mutt suria of abort paa«at(n Irtflle arc now carriad on by alt'aniuraj and it la pruhaklu that in Ihii and ihay will aiiKroaa tha K'«at«r part of the coaaling tra'le of moit couiilrlaa, and of tho trads Utwaaii forulf(n coun- trioa a>Uaa«Mt to i-ach otiier. Uut the Iniprovad claaa or>allinKalii|<*havelltlU to foar (Voni the coinp«tition of Hlnamcra in ail the more diatant branch** of trade.— Fur Roni ral atatiatica in regard to the numliar nf ahipa and ninoiint uf taniia«{<), wc ailicUi Htkam Navioa- TKIN ami 'roNMAOK Shlppluc, Laws of— Hnder thn K'ncral heada of Ari-IIKKtllTMKKT, ClIAHTKK.rAnTr.llll.lJI «K I.AIV INM, (AKIIIKIIH, Col.l.lHlilN, CoMMKKi'K, MASTKBa, MakitimkI.aws, KKex), pnriicular information haa limn u\\Kn concorninr ihu iawBofabipplng. Wa will, therefore, in thia article only Kive n aynopaia of Ih* general law* regulating ahi|i* and ahippiiiK- Tillf to I >(<«/«.— Tha tlllo of a ihlp, unUaa acquired by capture, paarca by writing, A bill of eale la tho proper rvvord of title to a ahip, and <>na which tho iiiarilimo court* of nil nation* will look for and, in Ihoir onlinnry practice, require. In Scotland, a written con- veyance of property in ablpa baa, by cuatnni, become neccnaary ; and in Knglanil a slatuto require* It with regard to Uritiah aubjcct*. In thi* country, poasea«lon of ft ahip and act* of ownorahip are prcaumptlve evi- done« without the aid of documentary proof, and will bold good until doatroyeil by contrary proof, and a (ale wllhdcUvery of aahip, without a billofaale or written Inatrument of any kind, will be good at law. Uut tbu prcaiimptivo title from poaieaaion can eaaily lie deatroy- oil ; and Ibo-goiioral rule la that no peraoii ran convey who baa no title, and tho fact of poaaoaaion doe* not give tills. The maater of a ahip ha* no authority to acll, unlcaa in a cnne of nccoaaity. It Is generally, though not iinlvuraally, considered that a sale by or- der uf an admiralty court in a foreign port, liy a poti- tion of tho inaator on tho ground of unseawortbincsa, la valid. The rapture by a public enemy diveat* tho tlllo from tho original owner after a r.-giilar condemna- tion by a prize court. Upon tho solo of a ahip in port, delivery of poascaaion la requiaito to perfect the title. If tbu veaaol la at aua at the time of aalu, poaaeaaion muat take place upon arrival at port. iMbililt) (i/lhmrr. — Tho owner la pcraonally liable as owner for neceoaarios funiisbed and repalra maile to a ship by order of the master. It has been a disputed question whother tho mortgagee of a ship i* liable be- fore taking poaaessiun. Tho weight of the Amorlcan decialona decides that he is nut liable for repairs pro- cured on the order of tho master. If not upon tho credit of tho mortgagee, and if tho same was not in receipt of the freight. When the vessel is at sea, the liability of tho mortgagee for wages, etc., resolves itself into tho question of his possesaion, Tho liability of the charterer or freighter under similar cirrumataocea also depends upon tho question of temporary ownership by their use of the vesael. CiMfom-Aouae l)ocum»nl>. — Tho United Slate* have followed the policy of other commercial nations in giv- ing pecuiiar privileges upon American-built vessels owned bjr our awn rtlliana. Thia I* nbtilnH hjr t ragiatry of vaaaela (*fa miirlt liKiiiaTnir), and whirh pravlalun la Inlanded to eiirourage our own trade, navigation, and ablp-bullding, 'Ihu reglatry of all raaaala at tha ciialom-hauaa, anil llie riworda AT the transfar* alao, add great aaeurily to thn tlllea. No vrsaul la lu lie deained aa iMliingIng to the I'nitad Hiaira, and anlitlvd to the privilegia of one, unlea* ragialoreil and wholly owned and commanded by a citlsan of the (Iiiit«d Htataa. I'arl lhrner$. — The aaveral part owner* of a ahip are tenaiila in iwmnion, and not partners. Karh bat hi* undivided intere*!, and when iiiii' i« appointed to manage the concern* of Ih* ahip lie la called the ahip'a bualiund. If there lie no duHnite agreement aniung the ownara aa lo Ih* employment of the ship, the majority in value may employ the ship, while the admiralty court accurea the Intereat* of thu minority from iijury, This praiilr* la dliiatod by the conimun- aenaa view that "ablpa warn made to plow the ocean, and not to rot by thn wall," The court t*liy from the ini\)ority lu a sum equal to the ahurea uf itio minority, either lo bring back the ahip er pay the iitlnorlty the vnl la of their aharea, and In thia ease Ihe ahip aalla wholly at the prallt or riak of Ihn minority. The diatinction lietween (utrtownera and pirtm-ra may lie alaUd thus i I'art ownertbip i* but a tenancy in common, anil aa tuch a part owner can only aell hi* undivided right, and can give title only tn such ; but a partner has Implied antliorily over the Joint property. A veasci may be held in piirlner'hip, but is not unlesi by agreomcnt. — Hat Kkn r's Cfimm., vol. lil. Citi-nnift of (laadii.— When the ship if hired and the cargo ladon un board, tlie duliea of tin owner, and of hiaiigeiil, thu maater, arise in respect to the cominenre- meni, priigmaa, and termination of the voyage. M'hen the voyage la ready, the inaaler Is Iwund to sail as soon aa the wind and the liilo perinil, but ho ought nut to set out In wry tenipeatuou* weather. If, by tbu rhartor-party, tho vi»sel is lo aail by a given day, the niaater iniiit do il, unleaa prevented by nucesaily ; and if thorn bo an iinder»tnnillng lo sail with convoy, ho la bound to go to the place of renduzvoua, and place him- self under Ibe pniirrtion and control of the convoy, and ronllnuo, aa faraa poaaible, under that protection during bla cuurae. lie la bound, likowiae, lo obtain Ihe neces- sary sailing inalructlona for Ibe convoy ; but these rovc- nsnls to sail vlth tha llrat fair wind and vnth convoy, aro not conditions (ireccdant to thu recovery of ft'ci^ht, and a broach of thorn only goes to tho qneallon of damage*. Tho master I* bound, llkewiac, to proceed to tho port of doll very without delay, and wilbout ony unnecessary deviation from the direct and usual course. If be covenants to go to a luailiiig port by a given liino, he must do il orahide the forfciluro ; and If ho be forced by perils out of bis regular course, ho must regain It with aslltllodoliiy oapossiblo. Nothing but some Just and necessary cause, a* to avoid a alorm, or pirates, or enomlea, or to procure requi»lte supplies or repairs, or to reliovc a ship in distress, will Justify a deviation from tho regular courae of lliu voyage. If he deviates unnecessarily from the usual course, and the cargo bo injured by tempests during the deviation, it Is a sufd- rient proximate cause of tho loss lo entitle the freighter lo recover; though if it could lie shown that tho same loss not only might but must have happened if there had not been any deviation, tho conclusion might bo olherwi.ic. Nor has tho caploin any authority to suli- Btitute another voyage in the place of the one agreed between the owner and freighter of the ship. 8uch a powor Is altogothor lieyond Ihe scope of his au- thority as master. In case of necessity, as where tho ship is wrecked, or othenvisn disabled in the course of the voyage, and can not be repaired, under Ihe circumstances, without too great delay and expense, the master may procure another com|)etent vessel to carry on the cargo and save bis freight. If other mean* SHI 1707 SHI to forw«r U' ii|,oii ■ lillli>riiiUrp*Uc|«r urwuru lliimi nr Idm lil» fr«l((lil ; tml If lin ollrrii Ici ilu in rlmmiTy to Im IUi'cI i,\ llm mualur. Il*v|iit( iiiaiU it, iiicl iIk- fnilKhlnr will iiiit ronuiil, Im wltl lliuii hu i u >'iintlt(iimpnl, tlio luiinlKn** or iillur lita not «ii un< ■ntllleil I'l III" full frelnht. Th« intaliT mutt »rt In I llmlliii Iho carifo with Iho iiicreaaud freight arlahiK from the hiru of tho new ahlp. The niaater may rofuae to hire another vea- ■ol, and Inaiat on repalrliiK hia own ; and whether tho frolKhter bo bound to w»lt for thn time to n^pair, or beconiea nntitlml to hor gooda without any charge uf fr«l|{hl, will depend upon circumatiiueea, What may b« a reaaonnldu timo for th« morchnnt to wait fur Iho repair* can nut ho doflued, and muat bo Kuvenn.l by tho facia applicable lu the pbico ami tho time, imd to tho iiaturo and condition of the cargo. A cargo of a porlalmblo naturu umy bo au deteriorated as not to endure tho delay fur repairs, or to bo tuo uiuil and worthleaa tu bu carried on. The captain ii nut Imund to go to n illatanco to procuro another veaaci, and en- counter Heriuua Impedimenta In tho way of putting the cargo on board anuthor voiaet. lIU duly ia only Im- perative when anotlior vetaol can Ih! hud iu Iho name or a contlguoui port, or at one within a reaaunnl>lu dia- tance, and theru bu no groat dltllculties In the way of a lafe roaiiipmont of the cargo. In tho course uf the voyage, the niaater la bound to take all posalblo euro over tho cargo ; ami ho la reapouaiblo for every Irjury which mi(;ht havo boon pruvciited by human foresight and prudoiico, and compolent naval skill. lie la charge- able with thu inott exact diligence. If tho ahip l>e captured during tho voyage, the inaster la bound to render Ills oxurtions to rescue tho property frum con- demnation, liy Interposal; his neutral claima, and ex hihiling all the dacuiii4ls i>> tlon uf tho cargo. (l/lhr Velicery nflht Cno It al Ih'- Port of Dttlimtif —On the arrival of the ship at tho place of destination, tho cargo is to bo delivered to tho consignee, or to ".. order of the shipper, ou tho production of the bill oi lading and payment of the freight. 'Iho cargo Is liound to tho ship as well as tho ahip to tho cargo; but the master can nut detain tho goods uii board the ship un- til the freight be paid, for tiiu merchant ought ;>. have an opportunity to ox&niino the condition of 'hem pre- vious to payment. Uollvery at tho wharf (wliero there are no special directions to the comrary) discharges tho master, Hul there must bo adelivcry at tho wharf to some porsun authnrl/.cd to receive the goods, or due previous notice munt havo been given to tho consignee of the time and place of delivery ; and the master can not discharge hlniaelf by leaving them naked and ex- posed at thu wharf. His responsibility will cnntinuo until there Is actual delivery, or some act which is oquivaleut, or a substitute fur It, unless the owner of tlic goods or his agent had previously aaaumcd the charge of the goods ; or at least until the cuusignee han had notice of the place and time of delivery, and the goods have boon duly separated and dcsigued for his use. Whon there arc conflicting claims between consigner and consignee, or consigner and tho assignee of the j consignee, if the consignee has failed, he ought to de- liver to tho claimant on behalf of the consignee; and if the conslgnco has assigned tho bill of lading, and the rights of tho consignee tio still Interposed and con- tested, It is safest fur the master to deposit the gooucliu> aetit, passed In Mif, ai.n re-enacted iu IHIi.i, limits tho reapunniiiillty ut uwncra for the acts uf tho mualcr and miirinera tu tlio value uf the ship and freight, but olh. eru iao tho owner la bound fur thu wliulo amount uf tho iii]urv done by the master or crow, lliiliii iifllie .S'A/;)/'«i'».— Thu duties of tho charterer are to iiae thu ship In n lawful maiiucr, iind fur the pur- poso fur which It wua let. If thu freighter pula on board prohilillcd "contriiliund goods, by incana viieru- of thu ship is Bubji'clrd to duteutiou anil foiMturu, ho must aiinwer to the Bhi|>-uwner for tho cuuaei|uciicea uf tho act. And if the mcrcliaiit declines tu lade tho ship according to cuiitrucl, or lu fiiruiah a rolurii cargo, at he had engaged to do, ho must render iu duniugcs duo compeusntiou fur the Ions. Piti/mnU of A rciy/t.— Freight, In Us original and more common acci.ptiitiun, means the hire uliich la earned for tho Iranspurtatiun uf goods, but in lis mure extensive .sense it i.s a|)|ilicd lu all rewards fur cum- ; ,. ution paid for the ute uf ships, if tho Idriiig In . .lio whole ship, or fur un entile part of her for tho vjyago, tho merciiant uiust pay thu t'rcight though hu djts nut fully lade the ship. Kut If hu agrees to pay in proportion to liio anmnut of Iho goods put on buard, and docs not agree to provide a » hole cnrgu, the owner can demand pnyinent fur tlio cargo actually Bhipped, If the merchant agrees to furnish a return cargu, and ho furnishes nuno, and lets tliu ship return in ballast, he must miiko compensntiun to tho amount of the freight.— Lkonb Lkvi's Cum. Liwofthe Wurld. AnalijiUofthe (ieneml Jjiw of illnppiiig.—'l\\o sale of ships in Ureat Drituin must bo I'lado by a bill of sale containing a recital of tho cerlilicalo of registry, lu Fronce, Spain, and Sardinia, it must bo msdo by public (Iced, In Holland the deed is transferred into a public register. All I3ritisii subjects aru aulliorUod to possess shares in ships in Great llritain. In .Spain foreigners not naturalized can not acquire tho owner- ship of ships. In Russia this right is limited to mer- chants of tho first and second guild, I'ttrt owners are tenants in common with each other of their respective shares in (ireat llritain. Each ship's husband may sell liis share, but he should give preference to his part oivnors at equal price, proviiled they pay the prlca within three days: Spain, Prussia, Kiissia, Denmark, and Sweden, The responsibility of ship-owners for the acts of the captain is unlimltud In Prussia and Spain, provided it be proved that such expenses turned to tha advantage of the vessels. In Great Britain the own» SHI 1708 SHI en are mpontlble wberu tho expenditure is for neces- •ariet. In Portugal obligations are not binding be- yond the value of tlie ship and froiglit. In France ovrnara may relieve themoelves from such obligations by the abandonment of ship and freight. In Russia the ship's husband is responsible only to the value of the ship. In the Two Sicilies, Sardinia, Holland, Urcece, and Ilayti, the same restriction is admitted. In the United States tlie seamen are not paid if the ship and freight have Iccn losl ; but thvir wages are preferred to bottomry bond on the ship and freiglit preserved.— 5ce Ow.nkbs of Siiirs. In France the same law prevails. Sugjtitunt to Masters of Ships ; approved by the Afer- chants and Underwriters of New Vork.—l. Incaseof dis- asters to vessels and damage to their cargoes, occasion- ing their putting into ports of iieoessity, so much diffi- culty has from time to ^imo occurred in relation to their averages and insurance, that tho following sug- gestions have been drawn up for the guidance of sbip- masters and supercargoes, and have mot the approba- tion of the merchants and underwriters of tho principal cities, hy itonforming to these suggestions, and by resorting to the agents for vessels, a list of whom is published, many,'if not most difficulties, will bn obvi- ated. 2. In ever}- case of disaster, the vessel must be re- paired, if practicable, without a gross expenditure ex- ceeding tlirco fourths of value of tlie vessel, as valued in her insurance, or estimated at the place of beginning her voyage from the United States. 5. If full repairs can not l>e made at all, or without extraordinary expense, temporary repairs must be put on Mie vessel, in order to complete thu voyage ; at its end tliese repairs will be allowed in full, and the full repairs may be made after gettiiig into a suitable port for repairing, at the expense of underwriters, as in otlier cases. In places where there are not opportuni- ties of purchasing, or conveniences for putting on cop- per, without great e,xpcnse, as at Key West, Havana, and most of the Southern ports of the United States, it is recommended to omit this expense until arrival at some of the considerable ports of Europe or the United States, where the same can be done more cheaply and better. 4. If spars are sprung, or sails or rigging Injured, and can not Iw readily replaced, or without great ex- pense, every ecpcdient with which a practiced seaman is ready ought to be resorted to, in order to make the Injured articles serve until '.rrival at some such con- sidei.^bio port, where the repairs ran be done com- pletely. The repairs may then be made with ad- vantage to all parties, without delay of the voyage, or an extravagant extent of expenditure, which is al- ways more or less to the discredit of the ship-master. 6. In no casr ought the cargo to be unladen without the clearest necessity. It is not only very expensive, but always creates a great delay, and is apt to end in serious injury to the cargo. The intelligent ship-mas- ter .rill generally form a good opinion on this subject, and should consult such skillful persons as he may Hnd, and who can gain nothing by his unloading. When unloading is concluded to be necessary, the shlp-master ihould be careful to stipulate against a charge of com- mission on the cargo for merely di.icharging, storing, •nd reloading, as nosubstantial'responslbility is there- by incurred, and In most cases a charge of commi.ssion for such transactions is considered unreasonable. When allowed, it should never exceed one and a quarter per cent. Should an unreasonable sum be re(|uircd, or a high commission be demanded, the master can obviate the difficulty by hiring sture-room and retaining tho entire control of the cargo himself. A proper charge for storage, and a regular commission fur the general bnt'.i^ss of the ship under repair, will afford, in most instances, a fair and adequate remuneration. It Is al- ways proper to have suitable men employed to watch and take care of the cargo, whose compensation will fall into on average, general or partial, and without any deduction ; and so also any reasonable compensa- tion to the merchant fur his actual trouble, responsi- bility, and services, will be justly chargeable and freely allowed. Tho difference between such charges and a commission on the whole cargo will bo obvious to every snip-master. C. It is always to be borne in mind that nothing but absolute necessity, or a cost to repair of over thfee fourtlis ner value, can warrant a sale of the vessel; and not only will a sale othcrniso made relieve tho in- surers, but the purchasers' title can bo impeached, whenever the vessel can bo found in the United States. Many very disastrous results to merchants, insurers, and owners, have arisen from sales of ships not war- ranted by absolute necessity, and prompted by selfish or careless advice. 7. It too frequently occurs that wlien vessels are stranded on our const tho master abandons the prop- erty to tlie wreck commissioner, under tho impression that he is bound so to do ; in this he is mistaken. In all cases tho master should keep the control of the property, employing tho wreck commissioner, when necesstry, for advice and information, and as one through whom ho can procure ail needful assistance ; and it is hii duty to furnish it when required by a ship-master in distress. The master's duty would ba to communici>to with tho owners or underwriters, by sending a spcclui messenger to tho nearest post-office, or, should the vessel l)0 stranded near New Vork, to send him with his communications directly to this city. At some of the smaller places on our const tho mails are sent off only once a week, and instances l.ove oc- curred of letters l)eing detained from unworthy mo- tives, postmasters being sometimes interested directly themselves, or to servo a friend by the delay of intelli- gence. The master should in all cases ajcertaiii that there will bo no delay in tho transmission of his ad- vices; and if necessary to insure dispatch, he should send them by a messenger to tho principal post-office on the nearest of tho largo mail routes; ond in case of necessity or urgency, resort sliould bo made to tho telegraph, when practioablcA 8. In case the vessel shoulinja subject to salvage, it is proper always to have the vessel and cargo appraised at their value as brought in ; and then the alternative adopted cither to bond the cargo and vessel, or to sell, as may bo deemed necessarj'. Tho vessel, cargo, and freight may also be pledged by bottomry to relieve the vessel and cargo from her salvage charges ; and this is generally expedient. But if this can not bo done, and the vessel and cargo are not perishing so rapidly as to allow of no communication with the homo of the vessel, a postponement of tho sale ought always to bo applied for until advice or relief can bo had from tlie owners or insurers. 9. In any case of di°.aster to the vessel, if tho cargo is saved, fo that it can be sent on by any otlier vessel, a vessel hired or procured for that purpose, tlie extra freiglit will be reimbursed by the insurers. In case of being unable otherwise to obtain money for complet- ing tho voyage, in cases where repairs are prcipcr, a sale of part of the cargo may bo resorted to ; but this should not be done except in tho most urgent cases, and where the cargo will bring reasonablo prices; for what is sold must bo accounted for at tlie price it would have brought on its arrival at its port of desti- nation, which frequently will bo with a heavy profit, and be ruinous to the voyage. This matter of selling must bo carefully examined when proposed, and tho latest prices at tho place of destination of tho cargo to be offered for sale should be first ascertained beforo such a decision is taken, and the selection of such cargo as is likely to occasion the least loss. 10. In foreign, and oven in some domestic ports, official persons, as port wardens, surveyors, and the SHI 1709 SHI porta, and t>i9 like, assnme to order this or that to be done, the ves- sel to be hove down, cargo discharged, certain repairs made, or the like. It should always be borne in mind that the master is and ouglit to be the master of his own vessel. He ought to exercise and rely on liis own Judgment, for which he is responsible, and on which bis character and reputation rest. Ue may, if ho is doubtful, talco any intelligent advice he may think fit, and when measures are determined on by him he may hove his own judgment confirmed by official persons or others ; but nothing will dispense with his exercis- ing first his own honest and faithful judgment, getting any advice from others which he can, and being \<.la to show, when required, the grounds of his judgment. Such officers as arc named above must not bo referred to as having authority sufficient to justify, 1>y their orders or certificates, what they may recommend. As men having experience, they may give goo atlon will lie the safest protection of the upright and lionorablo ship-masters in every difficult course, and ■ resort to them will of itself be "the most evident proof of the fairness of the shipmaster's intentions, as well as of the wisdom of his measures. 16. It ought to be known to ship-masters that the mode of insurance now adopted in some of the principal ports of the United States, and at present rapidly in- creasing, makes tho merchants mutually insurers for each other. They thus are all Interested in seeing that every proper measure for the protection and sav- ing of the property at sea from damage or loss Is adopted. They are now all interested as insurers in the promotion of justice and moderation in the settle- ment of claims for loss, and the ship-master who faith- fully discharges his duty will rapidly advance his character and reputation ; while he who fails In it will find the universal interests of commercial men, as well as their sense of justice, active in exposing him. The reciprocal Duliet of Consular Officers and Matten of American ]'essels. — Hy an act of the Congress of the United States, approved February 28, 1803, it is in substance directed that every master of an American vessel shall, on his arrival at a foreign port, deposit his register, sea-letter, and Mediterranean passport, with the consular ofilcor of the United States, if there bo one at the port, under a penalty of $500, which the consular officer may recover in his own name for the use of the United States. Whenever a clearance from the proper officer of the port shall be produced to the consular officer, ho shall deliver up all the ship's pa- pers, provided tlie master shall have complied with the provisions of the above-mentioned act, and those of the 28th section of the act of August 18, 1856. Where ves- sels merely touch nt a foreign port to try the market, or are accidentally driven into such port, and make no formal entry, it docs not constitute an "arrival" with- in the meaning of the act, and tiie ship's papers can not bo required by llie consul. As some doubt lias arisen in regard to what consti- tutes an "arrival," attention is particularly called to the following extract from an opinion of the Supreme Court of the United States : " Our view, then, Is, that the term arrival, as used in this act, must bo construed according to the suliject-matter, the object of the pro* vision, and the expressions in other sections of this act, and ill other like acts ; and that acconling to all these, a vessel putting into a foreign port to get information, and getting it without going at all to the upper harbor or wharves, and not entering, or repairing, or breaking bulk, or discharging seamen, or being bound home- ward, so as to take seamen, or needing the aid of tlie consul in any respect, but leaving the port in a few hours : not doing any of these, nor being required to, and duly entering and delivering her cargo at a neigh- boring port, where it had been sold, and there depos- iting her papers with the vice-consul, can not be said to have arrived at the first port, so ns to come wiihin llie spirit of the penal provision ns to depositing her papers with tlie consul. So far as regards precedents on this matter, the nclual decision of one court and tho opinions of two Attorneys General are in favor of our conclusion." Hy the first section of the net of 1803, it is made the duty of the consular officer, immediately on the ar- rival of an American vessel, should the master neglect to deliver his slii;)'3 papers, as he is directed by law, to inform him of the necessity of so doing, by showing him the law that requires it, and apprising him of the penalty he will incur by refusal or neglect. SHI 1710 SHO SHIP- MAinn ■xnnDiD pbotmt or ' -, 18—. -, HABTla, 0>n$uUU* of 'lie i'nUtd StaUt of America, Port of . By thi( public Imtrnment of deeliintlon tnd proteit, b* it knowD and made manlfut onto all to whom tlieaa prewntt thall come or majr concern, that on tho — dajr of , one Ihouiand eight hundred and , before me, — — , coniiul of the United States of America for , and the dependencies thereof, per- ionaUjr came and appeared , master of tho •hip or TCMel called the , of , of the burden of — — tern, or thereabout, li ter this public Instrument, under my \tui ooxBCi. / hand and the seal of this consulate, to serve and avail bim and all others whom it doth or may concern, as need iltuter. and occasion may require. A n, JTote. , U. S. f'.'ruml. U H, CVirpeilMr. K L, Seaman. U O, do. Shipwraoka. See Wnm^KN. Shoal, in th« Sea language, denotes n , )«;^. viherc the water is shallow; and likewise a gnki 'iim>^.-ii,^ c. tisbes, such as a $hoal (rfherringi. ShOMI (Du. Schoentn; Kr. Soulien; G«r. Sekuhe; It. Soarpe; Russ. BaichmaJti; Up. Zapntot), articles of clothing that ar« universaUy worn, and require no description. The shoe mannfactuTa is of great vain* and importance. Boot and Shoe Trade. — The annual ralue of boott and shoes manufactured In Massachusetts is estimated at (37 ,000,000, exceeding any other branch of manu* facture. The demand for boots and shoes for yean past has been fully equal to the production, and tha trade generally of llonton has been quite up to expect- ation. The hi|{h prices of leather and all kinds of stock have induced manufacturers to work very cau- tiously, and they have turned out no more goods than were actually wanted. The trade opened in January last with a good demand and a firm market, and tbii purchases generally were at an advance of about 6 per cent. Early in February the trade was materially checked by the ice embargo South and West, which completel}' closed river and harbor navigation, and prevented the forwarding of goods. The opening of navigation in March led to an active demand, and throughout March and April the business was quite active, buyers from the South and West completely clearing the market of all desirable goods, the Spring trade closing qiUte satisfuctorily. The high cost of stock tlie past year has also been quite a check on the production, keeping it within the limits of the demand ; and the same policy is likely to control the operations of manufacturers tho coming year. For some months past tho quantity of goods turned out has been comparatively small, and the sup- ply on the market for Spring sales will not be likely to exceed the actual wants of the trade. The quantity of boots and shoes cleared at the custom-house has been as follows : Yesn. QmnlllT. 184T 7a,424 184S 79,113 1340 101,371 1S60 147,789 1851 183,tH2 Yean. QuantUv. 1852 195,1'iO 1SS3 220,138 13,54 19d,4U 1SB.5 204,601 19M 22*,8M A large portion of the supplies for the West are for- warded by railroad, and are of course not included in the above statement. In one county alone of Massachusetts (Essex) the annual product of boots and shoes in 1855, according to the census, was over $12,000,000. As this is the leading trade of the State, we enumerate the product of each county : Bamstable $1»,.'U)0 Ilerkiiliire 110,800 Bristol 498,000 Dukes 8,000 Essex 12,192,800 Franklin 62,S0O Hampden 124,100 . Middlesex «,&02,100 Kantucket 10,300 Norfolk 4,987,000 Hampshiro 60,400 Plymouth 4,868,700 Buffolk 19.1,900 Worcester 7,867,300 Total value of boots and shoes $»7,4 0,000 I.eathcr, tanned and curried 10,934,400 I'atent enameled leather 1,271,900 In the immediate vicinity of Hoston there are manu- factures to the extent of at least #150,000,000 annuully, and of this the value added to the raw material by labor can not be less than $75,000,000. In addition, the for- eign fry goods, groceries, drugs, hardware, and a mul- tiplicity of other articles sold there, swell the trade of Boston to nearly or quite a hundred millions more. Of manufactures, the first in importance are domestic cottons ; and of about fifty millions manufactured an- nually, they send to foreign countries less than two million*, or 4 per cent. One half of these go to the west coast of South America, the east coast of South America, and the Central American States, while the West Indies receive less than $220,000 wortli of cotton manufactures from Boston in a year. The trade ot Boston with Cuba during the fiscal year ending June 8H0 1711 SIA [ are manu- J) annuall}') |»l by Ubor ■on, the for- land a mul- lie trade of liona more. J domestic lictund an- I than two g go to the It of South I, while the Ih of cotton Te trade ot Tiding June 80, IIM, llood u followe: Value of importa, 18,688,226 ; •xporta, 41,044,869. Kxpoam o» l)o«f »tio lloora ahu Snots fhoh ■rnp. United MAT«lt »0B Tim Y«*B INniNO JltNB 80, 1867. W htihgf «i|toft»d. I PalfB "P^ Vaiur A 24 8,180 1,71,1 1M 7,077 6.'iS l,6i« 1,840 7.123 B,074 400 14,S0O 10,618 6,217 40,811 1.808 400 1.(170 6«l..'i»l 643.149 ))(iW«(* I 121.648 $2,160 1,060 6,!BI 8,200 1,272 no T,S80 S.%5,U44 118,180 11,800 18,420 27) 1,020 5,40'.l 140,465 64 1077.'. 1,707 HI2 10,686 !6u 2,763 1,706 10,628 8.974 1,180 B(MI 14,972 15,64.'. 6,4.13 4i,m.n 1,422 020 2,145 $813,!ltl5 "ll24tUtj7 iMfOHTV oy lloora akd FnoKa into trk Uhitxd States fOH TIIR Y«AS ENIIINU JUNE 30, 1S57. WhAW* lmtwrt««a of l,«iilli«r. Diioti atid 8ho«a other ttiRii I.eAlher. llHmllllt|( llri'llMill Ilulland tlulKlutn.,, KiiKland Sritland t.'aiiwta , Dtliir llritlali N. A. Vom. Itrltlnli Wi'tt Indlea llritlKli I'-aat Indira i'rani'a on th« Atlantic , . ^rani'ii en the Medlter'n . 1,'ulia Kardlnia New liranada , ilraall Kiindwli^h Inland* China Palm. i,;i(i« 17,76, 42 2f. 26,810 4 8,2:9 606 14.' 2B,'654 10(1 lil Tiital, 3,mi7 ' ' 'liu 18.2115 Value. Pain. 14,112 125 74 62,002 12 2,0,18 8.')7 333 89,573 1 9 5,878 '"35 1:7.1 5i 3 5411 12,251! 114 1,172 4,110 ' ' 11 48 ""s 19,020 31 8,'l'5'3 29,'315 77,7^7 Value. $1,129 6,4.11 90 411 2,102 ' ' 27 143 '"20 6,228 SholC There la n alngiilnr substance manufactured In liiilla from the collnlnr, (lith-llko stems of the hejy- iiirum lafftnarium. It closely resembles in appearance till) Cliliieae rlcopflpcr, and is considered to be well •d«|it<)o c v pable of dyeing black. — IlANtiioiT oh Colors, Siam. This cxtcnfive kingdom, in the .sojilhuast- em part of Asia, occupies the central part uf Fartb.T India, and has on its west the Ilriiish Tessariii jh-- v. inces nnd the Bay of Bengal ; on the north and north- west, Uurnioh and the free Laos country; on the east, Anani ; and on the south, a coast lino of 1470 ml'ca along the Gulf of .Siam. Its area has been differently estimated : sotiio authors extending it to 2!M,7"20 sqimro miles, of which there are assigned to Siam proper 141,175 square miles; 20,420 to Cambodia; 108,f>)5 to the tributary Ijios ; and 24,480 to the Malay provinces. Crawford, however, who seems to have enjoyed the most favorable opportunities of correctly estimating the extent of Siam, lixos its area at 190,000 square miles. The same outhorlty estimates the population at 2,790,.5OO, in 1822; but the American i.-onimissioner, who nosotiuted the commercial treaty witli Siam on the part of the United States in 1832, gives an estimate for that period as follows : .Siamese 1,600,000 Ijios I,200,')fl0 Malays 320.000 Cliinese f>00,0:iO Total 3,U2U,0J« All authors concur in representing Siam as one of the most fertile and delightful countries In the East, nnd capable, when its immense resources are more fully developed, of sustaining an extensive and valuable foreign trade. No other country eastward of the Cape of Good Hope abounds more plentifully in all the pro- ductions suited for foreign commerce j and it is found SIA 1712 SIA to be no less diBtlnguUhed for the great variety of its Hilnoral than it ia aclcnowledged to be for its vegetablo pro(lu.:t!(>ns. The largeat-sized vessels are built an- nually in Siam. Some of the Chines Junks, the con- struction of Ahich forms an important feature in the trade with China, mnasure 1000 tons burder.. The timbers are of a hard wood, called by the natives marbaa, and the plank are of the finest teak in the ' world. " On the east coast of the Gulf of Siam, from lat. 13° 80', the head of the Qulf, to lat. 10° 89', where the Cambodian territory terminates, are numerous towns of various size and consideration, but only two which possess tlie advantage of a safe pott accesi>ible to vessels of largo burden, viz., Chantabuh and Kam- pot. The others, Bangpasoe, Koyong, Tung Yai, and Kampongaom, though carrying oi<. a considerable na- tive trade with tlie capital in small boats, are either too insignificant or unapproachable to be of any com- mercial importance to foreigners. " The quantity of produce grown this year exhibits a ter.'ible decline from that of previous years. In pep- per alone, the cliief product of Chantabun, the amount brought to market ia just half thnt of last year. Oth- er conimodilie!. have decreased similarly. " Chantabun is placed on the charts in about lat. 12° 86', and long. 102° ; but as those now published are not by any niean^ accurate, thia can only be an approximation of its position, near enough, nevorthe- leHS, with the exercise of ordinar}' caution, fur the pur- poses of navigation. On approaching from the west- ward, the eml>o«chure of the river on wliich the town is situated is difficult to discover, being shut out from view by an intervening hill standing on tlie western bunk : but to vessels coming from the southward no auch impediment is presented. The features of the acenery in the viclnitj' of the town afford, from their peculiarity, ample indicationa of its wherealmut ; and by sliip-niasters possessing some slight information concerning the port, no serious dlfHoulties would be found. A white clilf on the southern side of the hill above mentioned i3 an excellent landmark. The riv- or runs, fur the first two or tlirce mile.«, about north and south. "To the southward of the VTl-Iti OlifT, on the west- ern shore of the river's mouth, excellent anchorage can lie found in any depth. There is a bar across thu mouth, which is about one mile and a half broad, and bat a small wooded island in tlie middle. Close to this island, on the west, is the entrance to the river, through a very narrow channel. Inside, vessels can anchor in from three to four fathoms. After entering tlie river tiiere are two forts ; one on the west, and thn other on the east bunk. The latter is the larger of thti two, and is pierced for between tliirty and forty guns of large size. Vessels of moderate drau.!;ht can ascend the river about six or seven miles, after which the water shoals suddenly, and h^ts but three to four feet depth at low tide. 'I'he tides are ns variable and unnotalilu as those of Mcnam, at Bangkok. In going up to the town, which is, on account of the mcandcr- liigs of the river, more thitn sixteen miles frmn the sea, though in a atraight linu scarce a third of that distance, the banks are covered with dense jungle, the trees of wliieli ore only of use for lire-wood, afld it is only near the town that cultivatior manifests itself. " Chuntaliun is suppli<>d from Bangkok with all ncc- cssary foreign goods. Tlio chief imports aru gray and white shirtings and long cloths, colored shirtings, red cloths, sarongs, and opium. As at Bangkok, nothing can be done in tlie way f barter, uU produce having to bo p.iid for in hard cash. The only coin current is tlie tiial (worth CO cents o : a dollar, or J*. W. sterling) ; dollars would not be taken at any rate. There is, however, a local currency, the privilo^ie of coining and circulating whicli is purc'ia ed. Now, however, largo qiiontities of this wood are cut and exported to Bangkok, where it ia very genen.lly used by foreign and Siamese ►hip- buildirs, chieHy for keel-picees and bottoms of ships, as, when ki pt submerged in water, it is superior to teak. Another valuable wood is the red wood (inai- deng of tlio S.u,nese) sometimes erroneously culled 8IA 1713 6IA toae-wood. It ti an extremely liard and heavy wood, of a deep red color, lusceptible of a tine polish, and well adapted for furniture. An extremely heavy tlm- ber is found also in the forest, called by the Siamese mai-taklou. It is considered by them as incorruptl' ble, and as such bears a sacred character, being much used in the construction of their temples. This cor- responds to the Ifunelta Orkntalii of Lowreiro (^yiora Cochin Chinentii). " Perhaps the most useful tree is that known in the Straits as the pune. It is exceedingly plentiful, and is admirably adapted for masts and spars ; as such it is much employed in the above localities. The Siam- ese and Cambodians, however, use tlie tree for a dill'cr ent purpose ; that is, for the production of oil, which is commonly known under the name of wood oil. It Is used for calldng and varnishing vessel.'^, and in the manufacture of the torches so generally used by the Siamese. The method of extracting this oil is to mnlio a deep incision in the trunk of the tree a few feet from the base ; in this a fire is kindled and allowed to burn for some tim«, after which it is cleared out. The oil then commences to drop into the incision, which serves as a receptacle. " As the minerals of Chantabnn form not inconsid- erable items in her commerce, tlicy deserve some no- tice. Precious stones are found in great abundance, )>nd miglit be a most profitable employment to hun- dreds. Rubies, sapphires, garnets, Oriental topazes, and emeralds, are the cliief stones. Tlicy are uU of good water. The sapphires and garnets are sold in the marlfct at Chantabnn by the Chinese at from five to ten ticals per catty (19.3. Gd. to il 5». per 1 i lb.). These minerals were formerly largely exported to liangkoU, from whence they were .sent principally to Java ; but of late years the demand for tlicm has fallen off, and the collection has declined in a corresponding ratio. Largo beds of coal have been discovered, but as there is no demand for this mineral it will probably be some time before an attempt is made to work them. The produce of the provinces adjoining Chantabun is con- veyed thither in carts, and on elephants, buffaloes, and oxen. Tlie means of communication with the interior by tlio existing roads ore far from easy, and during the rainy season impracticable. At that season, Iiow- ever, the dry water-courses of the summer are swollen into navigable streams, and aflbrd facilities for trans- port generally availed of liy the mountain tiilies, who come down from the wilds to barter at cardamoms, gums, tiger-skins, and bontJ, for salt and coarse cot- tons. " Small iu.ika of from 80 to 150 tons burden are em- ployed for ilio csport of produce. The only port to which it is carried is Bangkok. The rate of freight between the two places is about fifteen cents per picul. Chanlaliun does not oi'iicar to have been visited often by foreign ships. In 18.'>1 the British brig I'lmtaloon called in tliere to buy a cr.: . '. nt the master was not allowed to open commerciui negotiations, lieing told b .• the authorities that Bangkok was the only port ope Since the new treaty, wliich came into operation .» April, 1856, one English vessel, the lorcha Speed, vis- ited the place, and could easily have procured a cargo bad she waited ; this she was unable to do in conse- quence of her being under nn engagement to proceed elsewhere." — Report %Mr. Forrkst, Assistant and /n- ttrprtlev at the British Cumulate at Ilanffkok, on the Trade and Products of the Ports nnd adjacent Countries on the East Coast of the OulfofSiiim, If^'oT. Sugar is looked upon as the principal return for British imports. Siamese sugar is niuoli esteemed for its wliitoness and fine strong grain ; „iid as tlie greater portion of the valley of the Minam, the area of which has been ostimated'at 22,000 square miles, is stated to be well adapted to the gro>Vlh of the cane, it is sup- posed that the annual sugar crop would admit of very material increase. 5Q Are.— The demand for this article, both (ir boiM and Oriental consumption, is conittantly uji (be In. crease; and there is every prospect that Mum will. In the course of time, rival the British province of Atrif can (in the Bengal presidency) in supplying this itrti' cle for the markets of China, Australia, and Eurup*, Sait. — ^This article is obtained of excellent quNlity from the extensive mud-flats which line :liu hsod pf the Gulf of Siam, and at so cheap a rate that th* iitMt of production does not exceed from one to two ttcull (61 cents to $1 22) per koyan of 26 piculs, or S400 |hl, English. Salt is, however, a special oliject of |«)i(« tion in Siam ; and the duty of $3 60 per koyan ruitM the above-mentioned price to seven oreight ticsU (|4 87 to |4 68) per koyan, equal to about (2 88 to (3 UO par ton. Sapan-wood. — The annual exportation of this dya- wood reaches from 80,000 to 100,000 piculs (from 6000 to 6000 tons). /'epper.— The production of this article had rencha4 at one time more than 0,000,0(X) lbs, per annum, whan an oppressive tax, imposed by the present adniinlstrg* tion of Siam, of one catty of pepper on every vino, or about 8 per cent, on the produce, in addition to an •»• port duty of one ticai (61 cents) per picul, aniouiiling to the same percentage, caused such a clicck to the cultivation that last year only 20,000 picula wera brought to market. Cotton. — Above the line of the inundated tracts land fit for the cultivation of cotton abounds. Tlie crop has reached as high us 140,000 piculs (8.S^0 tons) in a } ear, Silk. — This product has been larj,'' ly grown in tbii rich district of Kocat, and the crop bus reached 1600 piculs per annum — valued at $150,000. Hemp. — This article holds out much interest (0 foreign traders. Its growth in Siam is only juet bO' coming known, and it is particularly recommended on account of its great strength, nnd its glossy and silky texture, which would allow of its being woven up into silk fabrics. The following list will be found to contain all tha manufactures which are most suited to Siamese cofl' sumption: White and gray long cloths j wliilu and gray madapollans; white and gray cambrics; whiU and gray jaconets ; book lappets; \clvets, plain and figured; checked fancy muslins; Amcriciin drills; cut- ton umbrellas; 'igured long cictbs; dyed camlrics; dyed long cloths; prints, chintzes, furnitures, and neutral'' • Siam cliowls, or dresses ; Turkey red cloth ( gray "Mun twist; Turkey red tuist; imperial red and blue . . ' :■: ; long ells; ladies' clotli ; Spanish stripes; merinos of assorted colors; canvas; iiun, steel, lead, spelter, earthen-w..rc, assorted ; glassware and lumps, assorted; muskets, ^unlocks; lirimstone, beeswax l cowries, flint-stone, mu.-^kct-llints, etc. ■ Sicily, or Two Sicilies. The kingdom of the Two Sicilies comprises the ancient realm of Naples and the island of Sicily. Naples proper embraces an area of 31,350 square miles, and by tlie census of 1854 con- tains a population of 6,843,855 ' •■.;' i.-.nts. '1 he chief iiToducts ore corn, wine, olive ' :'. tton, flax, heiif . liqiiorice-paste, silk, and wool. The annual crop of wheat is Iictwccn 60 and 80 mill- ion bushels, and the yearly consMinption is h I, iit 40 million bushels. The annual prjduce of I . ■ corn is alioiit 40 million bushels. The yearly pror ■ '.;... i of wine is about 400,000 pipes, the greater part of which is consumed nt home. About 13,000 pipes are made into brandy near Naples, and from 250 to 30O tons of orgol and cream of tartar are prepared for foreign markets. About 70,000 tons of clive-oii are expresseil yearly, half of which is exported. The quantity of cotton raised annually in the continental part of tha kingdom amounts to about two million pounds. Tht annual produce of raw silk is about 1,000,000 llis. There ore tw.-i species of wheat raised in the kingdom of the Two Sicili JS— the soft, of which the bestiality W,P7i<"- SIC 1714 SIC :-m tt bread ta msde ; and the hard wheat, chiefly employ- ed in the preparatinn :if inacnroni. The principal ex- port* of Nap1v» proper are, olive-oil, sillc, hemp, wool, wine, grain, fVi^troni, and coral ; imports, colonial and manufacture il goode, iron, and cutler}'. Prior to th ratiflcatlon of the treaty between the United State* iind th? itingdom of the Two Sictliea, of V^c ^mber 1, 1K.16, the commerce between the tv'O coun- tiiu.f was chioity indirect. Having no con. v arcial treaty, the United States flag Sad to contend tjjainat high duties, an exemption of 10 per ct^nV. in favor litan trader-., by whom they were Inti/tluccil ntuU:-: tlie 10 per cent, discrimination. The retaliatory «''](>> vt impo'l end tonnage levied on the Sicilian t .< .0 ifiti l'ii:te'l Klates virtually excluded their vcs- •1.^1. *>'ni oui ports, and the consequence was that the 'nulp betv.<)''n the two countries became exceedingly i'mitcd. 'adeed, in i%tums of the foreign trade ami uavi).:atiuT! of the Two Sicilies for a period of three year.s (;'i^ll'.t, 1840, and lrt41), but a single American Tss8ci appears to ha>e entered or cleared at the portH of ihat kingdom. 'I'he ttoaty of 1846, which went Into effect July 24, 18'(ons and exports, on vessels of either coun- tr}', as also 01' tonnage, harbor, and light-house duties; that the stipulations of the treaty shall not apply to the coasting trade i and that no preference sliall be given by eiiher p.Tty to inqmrtations on account of the national character of vessels in which imported. The treaty to fa-r in force ten years, with the usual tweire months' notice tor its tennination. liy a cenvention ratilled July 14, 1865, two prin- ciples were recognized iMtween the two countries as permanent and immutable, to wit : Ist, That the ef- fects or goods belonging i.o citizens or subjects of a po wer or state at war are f reo from capture and confis- cation when found on ixmrd of neutral vessels, except articles coatruband of war; and, 2d. Thut the prop^ «fty of neutrals on board an cnem} 's vessel is not sub- ject to confiscation, unless cftntral>and of war. In 1852 the commercu of the continental part of the kingdom «t the Two Sicilies is thus given : Imports, «12,372,S63; exports, $10,943,831 ; total, $2d,31(>,194. The trade reprcsentnd by the preceding figures passe■ i'' • :':. ■ • .1, Spaivi, (ireece, tlie Ionian Islands, V, "L-i!. i. 1.1 L cited .StoDes. The value of merchani'- ■ iir.p,.!- «d into the continental part of the kingdo'u, it ' ~- ua *bove, amounted to #r2,H72,.'W'i?. This is the « rf naritinie commerce with foreign nations only, ii • coasting trade between the different polls of il a king dom would largely augment this tota'i, but no return:' of this trade are accessilile. Of the imports, >U;;i;r, cofTee, and trans- Atlantic produce are chiefly supp' ' ' by England, llaneillea also furnishes small quantities of si.^,:i . ;ul .i.i^i!" I'l.jMi French colonies ; but, owing to tli.-ir nuw'rior nimlify and high price, they aru not m' h ill itpiiianu. 'fm f.uga' - .inm Holland, being i;>iviif prif;<;, And a ri^idier r.rxct. Besides these SI ai ■<)" A "i;;i.)iy, several Ne«ii'i!!',iri vessels have for so(i»i! Jtai' pi' St kepi up a di.-;ci i.tercourse between thii jjon of Niij'lea ind Brazil. '/'■.' scorns no reason w!:' tlif! L'l.iii- . jtai.. uoui' •■■•>. ' m,>ete nth En- gl.-Kiil, Hollamf, Vrt loe, un'< ii(.'ti>^e, anchorage, and quaran- tine are light. — See .HABriisii. The subjoined stutemeiit. exhibits the quantities and ■vu'ucs of C'.jjuT .T ' i(Feo r«Kncctivel}', exported from thd Unit'."' States '. i lO kiiigrlom of the Two Sicilies, dui'lng a 1 ' iod of live years, from 1851 to 1856, lioth i'lcluiiivc, n.udo up from the annual reports of the Sec- retory of the Treasur}' on Commerce and Kavigation ; followed by a statement exhibiting the quantities and values of the same articles exported to all countries ; and a third exhibiting the quantities and values of cot- ton and tobacco exported to the Two Sicilies during the same period : ! ! 1N6I . 1852. 1863. IH64. 1S86. 8u|[«r. Cofftn. 1 Potindi. Valusa. PdUiidi. VnltiM. 802,990 $4542 34,272 00,328 91,827 l,880,fi64 $3,345 4,',V> 7,007 CiyrroN Awn Touacoo kspobtrd fbom tiiz Tnitkb Statis TO THE Two »!ioii.iKs, ruoM ISOl TO ISbS. Yun. Cutton. 'I'ulmrru, 1 Poimaf. Vilun, PuutlJ.. Viiluti. ISBl 1«2 18K;t . . . 1,06 >,WB 327,119 1,23S,4..2 2,llit4,'ilO $!'fl,'2in 81,031 109,724 $237,574 92,1100 20S,000 22,000 1,282,000 93,000 $10,302 10,019 2,180 133,682 24,124 1854 1S65 A^fegatc. Avorago . . 1,0 7,IS)0 $180,807 878,235 79,191 8:111,400 3T,3fll Tlio following are the chief staples which the Two Sicilies draw fmm the United States : Tol)acco, cotton, rum, flour, naval stores, etc. Of these there were ex- ported in 1864 and 1H55 in value as follows : IVifrititJoD of MeirhanitiM. ISM. n&3, 'NVhelulwne *1,(S)0 KUkvca anil hcBilinKt 11,822 $10,713 MsHtti, Hpera, aud uaval Htur 's. . 4,805 14,44J ' Hour 28,7111 totlon 81,031 109,724 Tobacco 183,6S2 24.124 Liiiu (from inoIASBi'H) 27,-50 25,579 In exchange for these staples and for miscellaneong car^roes, our ships return home laden with wines, drugs, fruits, feathers, anchovies, oil, sulphur, silks, corks, and rngs ; of which latter article were imported in 18 j^ , ' ' cct from the Sicilies, 8,140,718 lbs., of the value of I :<>',•' M. Under the treatyof 1845 Sicilian and United ' '?: vessels are equalized in the po> of the t- : '.ilcs, when laden with the produce and manut'i.. if the country to which the vosscla belong, y'.e ' •jCi trade is, therefore, freed from the restrictions und -icumbrances with vhich it was clb(;ged prior to tiiat .leriod, und Uie commerce between the two countrier. I lias in consequence largely increapi ' The exports I from the United St:itcs of its stapler- .' une amount now ! nnnually to iietween > liidirect trade in I'avor of those nation! which have SIC 1715 STC ttttei wing u not lieing theso vo for iween roaion 111 En- upply- loiP of n these «m tho not be Dutch, 3 a free quanin- ities «nd ted txota Sicilieu, S55, lioth the S«c- f igtttion ; titles and ountries ; les of cot- es during *3.34B I 7,001 1 «10,80a 10,«19 8, ISO 1 183,588 , TT.SOlJ ch the Two Lcco, cotton, Iro were *x- $1",'I1S 14,441 ■ ■'•ID.TM 24.184 S5,5T9 BsceUaneous lines, drugs, lilltB, corks, ItedinlfiJ^ Ihe value of 1 and UnUed 1 of tho t> Id manu!A„ llong. H.o Irictiuns and Trior to tliat lo countrier- I'he exports Vmount now p, more than Inited States Ji December, ■direct trade lextouded to Iwhichhftve *T!"*"!!?!r.n'r..!!!''.!!.!!!lf..^u?''T ""I** I'*").""' ''^ Mvorpoot. TIio fucimie, which these steiDien ' " " 'wwlsh for (ixe(rtitlng orders suitahle for the Neapolitan mnrkpl prenpnt the moft serious obstacle to a direct Iritds with tlin fiillcd States. The privilege of the Indirect tnidi', however, lately cimcedeil to the Amer- Icmi flag, miiy tend to increase tho cummerclal inter- eiMir«B hef ween the two countries. * Tho lm|Kirts from (Ireat Britain In 1865 amounted in ilHimllty to M,mt tons, which at 4d». (♦» 60) per ton gnvn lo tirlllsh »hl[pers on freight alone tho sum of when they shall havo granted like fuvori to tlii lUg of the Two Sicilies. Under the operation of the treaty alreaily rcfcrrwl to, and of the liberal privileges conceded by this da- cree, the commerce of the United States with tha Two Sicilies is increasing. The total value of axport* from the Sicilies to the United States In IMIA was 4iA;i(l,IKI0, In 1854 they reached nearly -,i <% tho lishermcu on the coast, with whom oil, ornilge*, lemons, almonds, and other fruit ; pota- the r,ipt>io must make the best bargain ho can, , toec, tobacco, (liix, lump, sumach, llqucice, and man- ■ V' principal ports are Naples, situated on a bay of | na. Iiillieliot'lheaft part of the island silk is produced, the same Miie, having a commodious harbor, and good and It Is woven at Catania; and in the weutern part anchoraga fo. .my sized vessels to '■'id and discharge i ,'|f),0(K) p|ii*» of w' le iire annually made, of which about cargocij; and in Sicily proper, 'alermo and Messina, j 20,000 itrtl eX|H)rted from Marsaln. Sulphur is also a Tlie foreign trade of Naples ( almost exclnsively In ' !|iiiill«g stniilii of Ihe Island of Sicily. It is found in possession of English merchants. The returns for IS.W ' tertiary formiillons, and Its production is annually In- assign tw.vtliirds of ll.is trade to tho Engli :i flag, and ' creasing, From 18!1H to 1812 a monopoly in the ex- the other third to the >icapolitan and other Hags, Some |){irt jf silllihiir was granted by the Neapolitan govem- twcntv or thirtv vessels from the north of I'.irope ar- ' nienno « I'Vench mercantile (ir-n ; but so vigorous was rive annually with stcck-flsh, crushed soi^Br, etc,, from the roslstimce of the British government, that in 1812 Holland. England employs annually in tho trade with tha mono|S)ly Was suppressed. Since that period the Naples about ono hundred and thirty vessels of small -™™^^- ." r,~ , :,~ : ^^ZZ^ZZZ iA,l fn^n on. tn two hiinilraH tons each bealdci a line ' <" H"' •hole rrvctiiic nil>wl In t^lclly (slwut $10,0(10,000), size, from one to two hundred tons ejt'?. ■»"""" ""^ ,„|„h« wamMil I. sent -llrwl to N»,il, ». nevr to raom. • • • of steamers, which regulariy touch at this port, to ana | j^,, , ,;i,„ify ««hl|,Us latnl «o hlulilr issid, .ht . ne in which ao • See COTsuiar" Ketunu, " Naplei, Nft 30. Ugccmlwr 30, UUIn (food Ir <>t«a(leH '•, tliu Binersl communlty.-MAC IS5S." I'artlll. , Ultiaoit. ^■uA RIC 1716 SIC trtda in thl« article hns been annually inriva*lnK, Theie sulphur mines have been oxplored ami worki«i for mora than three hundred years, Imt it was luit until chemical science hod pointed out tlie various uus U> which sulphur can lie applied that its •X|wr(atliiii h matirio, OulllzzI, and Uiesi. Mr. MacKregor gives some interestin,; statisll'^s of the sulphur trade of the island of Sicily, from wbii-h ' It appears that in 18tiil trado $11,1 lU.SisI ImporUi fr.)iii the I nlted i-'.stcs lf'/Ti,*W lixiiorls to " •• 851 ,<) «) ToUl trade with the Vnltod States. . (VJUTiiOii lnl<* tlw Uiftit of (h« I >' nlted Htates on the same terms Viimi»h IwlonoifiK to the Two Sicilies an admitted unrit wTth as Ani»t}i'Hti vit«aels ifiily when laden with the home pr. Tun*. /CSsirB, ,,,,,,„.,< 'li,m,m 488,S«0 Sb'J 6'J,lll).i Hi^imtU,,,.,,,,,4.. . , . , 1 I0;i M»tUm» ,„, a 207 1 HinmH MatA), .,,,,,, Hfi« «flO,l«T B77 23,4'J2 , tiviUn ,.,,,,,,,,,,,.. fl.im.HM 808 1 HIM WatM, ,.„.,. l,»H3.'il(l M7,4TT 17 B,1ft3 l/nrnti,,, ,,,.. W,tnn,4r4 l'i,W7,5S4 'JISI 40,4.10 tirumi ,,,,,,, ,. l.flB ,:kh 7!l,fl»» 12 i,2:ki IM(»«d 4,iu,im 960,171 14 2,75.7 , tut«nsM4 V>r«ay,. Mi.nwi 1,525 ' IUt-t» , ,,,, M,'/!«.4(n 276,73S Vi !l,2>4 Tmw*!** ,,,,,,,,,., Jl.ft«:i.«c»7 11,8 lii.l'M 05 5,IIIN) TorW,-, i.im,mi 1 30,7118 20 6,!>7T Mr-ltKto «,4(I«,8TI S,il06,8S'i 254 80,051 i'runSn, ,:,,,,,,,,,,. •i 778 ■VmU 10 1,080 All w 2514 S^,flSl| Utiri^n 18M. ,7I4 5,817 2l,iil3 84,007 33,1.23 »71J,027 »20tf,7.'W *474,47il I 237,881 32,658 76,024 711,026 310,441 r.0,8 lO 17,764 24,.16') 60,677 tl,3dil,10S (41,743 55,()4'l 13 i,:i37 240,161 207,7 303,570 1,0M,!I51 $11,5 >2 lll,'),707 5 1, ''7 1 2TS,0 2 334,007 2!)s.3 I 7,218 !i.076 4,8.'>4 18,024 l,2"6,l''l (8,103 10,8 24,i>18 i:),'iiK» 4li.fl-J) 76.1 6 68,!.< - >2.S«) 4,W)0 28,2M »4,4'»I 41.IHIi 'm^m > _a37,if» ♦wS.TsB (4«), 433, 84, 864 «ir, 84 ««, 2», m mi ,4» ,318 ■m m m IS 8(1 ;(4/ Ifift.ffft two,<«» «SI,4T» sr8,TT» I.IM, SO ll ltf>,?M 41 (,(#/» un, ft) m,m ■ VM /*«,«•» ¥ity«n **l,«r*',/»h«f« wSilB nnlHcn firirl Sperla. Import. (008 20,000 __'_ 'r.oo_ (21,708 (14,300 orii 4,700 4,520 _w,'(ia5 (40,811" (20,000 '4,870 Tannage claarad. 878 ■ .204 1457 1230 1,012 2,233 l.WO 8, WO 1,1>1S 1.2:2 6'.5 1,04% 415 707 1,423 024 1,853 8,320 13,533 2,848 0,«O9 si 802 4,500 1,042 6,334 KuraiKi. 4,32 870 311 1,228 8,148 2,106 1,824 2,208 3,170 14,898 8,5«n 3,010 fiso 3,280 8,028 4,318 040 399 2.82 1,033 21,407 1,918 3,427 8,713 3.444 1,021 3,119 .Mui' iiiontlM l.i .Juu'' 30, uud tb" tinmi jfmf friim (111* Kmn liCKlns July 1, -Palermo, nn4 liy slfl|n (rrnperly found in anchors and chain light-house being in lat. 'M'^ 8' !•/' N., long, , :y' 'il' i'n\iU>i), \it ffninx into the bay it is necessary to kecii 5«" E. Population, 170,fK)0. The li.iy of Pal .'riivi is ' tSvut u( flM» (K'ta lit (lie tunny fishcrj-, for the.se are so alwut five niilps in depth, the city lining f iru/>ti>4 im HrmtK uiid Wall m«<;red as to bo capable of arresting its southwest shore. A line mole, fully one nnarti'V it aliifi inuU< nmw lU) (Ihis« of Nnples, their names only diffcr- inif, Y ' " dW'iit-its. h-'i(l. sterling, is subdivided into Uitt ■■ ^ inA 10 p4rcioli ; but nrrounts are still f'tU" •. • .n (iticie, tarie, ■ . _. .i: 20 grani = int« ■■ ' loncia; the oiuia - ,> liicats ; and 1 /'»fl*w> "« ' .'ijiJfK 2= 1 taro of Sicily. The Spanish dol- ' «( 12 tnrl 8 grani. very ill liglited. Thero is un inner port, wbicli i» r«' ' \»t i* lU ■ervcd for the use of tlie arsenal. .Ships thut dii »M(t ! Wtinhln.-UKf HIrllian pounds of 12 onnces=70 lbs. mean to go within tlie mole may anchor about l)»lf » «v«frdHj»o)> ftVll lbs. Troy = 31'70 k!log.=64'23 lbs. mile from it, in from J(i to 2.) fitlioms, mole light l^eaf' "f Awafcflam- 06'6(» lbs. of Hamburg. SI£ 1717 SIE 432 «ia 311 1,M» 8,US 2,108 l,S-24 2,299 s,m i.t,s»s B,fi«« s.om OsO 3,2S« 3,«28 4,31S 649 399 23-3 i,08a_ ei,40T i,(>i« 3,42T 3,Ti3 3.444 1,821 3,119 r 8CU 8ome- 1 be apjirc- land clittin Iry to kecii Icse are so f arresting Imvo I)cen ■ diffcr- vidod into I are still ) grani = Lts; ondl |)aniah dol- 9=7011)8. tc4-23lb>. I! atenra Iiaona, an linglUh •ottUmant, near tho iDoufli of tho rivor of the lams name, on tna west coast of Africa, lat. 8^ 'M' N., lonj,'. 13° 5' W. This colony was founded partly as • conimerciul establish- ment, but more from motives of humanity. It was intended to consist prinuipally of ttvn blacks, who, be- ing instructed in the Chri.'itian religion, and in tho'arU of Eurupo, should become, as it were, a focus whence civilization mi;;ht bo ditfused among tho surrounding tribes. About 1200 frea negroes, who, having joined the royal standard In tho American war, were obliged, &t the termination of that contest, to take refuge in Nov* Scotia, wore conveyed lliither in V'Ji. To these were afterward odded tho Maroons from Jamaica ; and iinca the legal abolition of the slave-trade, the negroes taken In the captured vessels, and liberated by the mixed commission courts, have been carried to ihr colony. Tho total population of the colony in 18J0 •mounted to about 66.&0I), all black or colored, with the exception of about 100 whites. Succaii of the t^fforU to cicUhe the maclt.— Great efforts havo been mado to introduco order and indus- trious habits among these persons. We are sorrv however, to bo obliged to add that these odbrts, though prosecuted at an enormous expense of blood and treas- ure, have been signally unsuccessful. There is, no doubt, some discrepancy in the accounts of tho prog- ress mado by the blacks. It is, however, sudiclently clear that it has been very inconsiderable, and we do not think that any other result could bo rationally an- ticipated. Their laziness has been loudly complained of, but without reason. Men are not industrious with- out a motive; and most of those motives that stimu- late all classes in colder climates to engage in lalmri- ous employmmts are unknown to the indolent inl. ib- itants of this burning region, where clohing is of little importance, where sufficient sujipUe; < mod mny be obtained with comparatively little exertion, and where more than half the necessaries and conveniences of Eu- ropeans would be positive incumbrances. And had it been otherwise, what progress could a colony bo ex- pected to maks into which there havo been annunlly imported crowds of liberated negroes, most of whom are barbarians in tho lowest stage of civilization ? Influence of the Colony upon Mo iHicit Slave-trade. — As a means of checlMng the prrvuicnce of tho illicit slave-trade, the estaldishment of a colony at Sii t.! Leone has been worse than uteless. Tho trade is prin- cipally carried on with the countries round tho fiit.:hi of Biufra and the Bight of Benin, many hundred miles distant from Sierra Leone ; and tho mortali' in the captured ships during their voyage to the latter is oft- en very great. The truth is that this traffic will never be eflectually put down otherwise than l>y the great powers declaring it to be piracy, and treating those en- gaged in it, wherever and by whomsoever they may be found, as sea robbers or pirates. Such a declaration would be quite conformable to tho spirit of the decla- ration put for'h by the Congress of Vienna in 1824. — See SLAVE-THArtB, Hut the jealousies with respect to the right of visitation and search are so very great, that it is exceedingly doubtful whether the maritime powers will ever be "irought to concur in any declara- tion of the kind now alluded to ; unless, however, some- thing of this sort be do'if , we apprehend there are but slender grounds fur ' ..,.|' jsing that the trade will be speedily suppressed. proportion to tha 750 tons of palm oil proennd from the same lociditlos, it follows that the 60,000 tons of oil should give 10,000,000 bushels of kernels, equal lo 228,000 tons, worth, at tho high price obtained for them in France in 1846, 89,520.000 francs j and we ought to arrive at nearly the same results In England. It has been ascertained that th« average yield of oil from these kernels is 80 par cent. ; the 228,000 tons should, consequently, giva 67,000 tons of oil, worth, at the present price of cocoa-nut oil, which It closely re- sembles in all its qualities, £8,860,000. If wa add to this tha value of the cake, 112,000 tons at the verv low value of £\ per ton, we should obtain £448,000, mak- ing the whole gross value £3,790,000. The whole quantity of tallow exported from Russia in 1856 is estimated at 2,574,121 poods, or 46,966 tons, which, at the present price of £65 per ton, would give £2,628, 1 80. It follows, then, that the kernels now thrown away In the manufacture of the 60,000 tons of palm oil exported from Africa are worth £1,216,870, mora than all tho tallow exported from Russia in 1860. " In estimating the value of this trode to Great Brit- ain, there is to be taken into consideration a fact of the utmost Importance, ond which will render it more val- Uttbln whenever It is established than any other she is now engaged in j it is that our trade with Africa Is en- tirely a barter trade, that while we pay Russia almost entirely in hard cash for her tallow, the whole valuo of these kernels will be paid for in British manufactures and colonial produce, -..hile the transport of 223,000 tons of J 'oduce from Africa to England will give addi- tional employment to that extent to her scumcn und shipping. This question assumes still greater import- ance when taken fr .m another point of view, that is, when W6 consider ' « effect this new industrj- must liave in the course oi i few years on tho habits and well-being of the African. I Ix " ' tv that the degraded position be now occupies in ' lie »i ' of humanity pro- ceeds rather from the want ■ i' -il' ycupation In'early life than from any other cause in •ue in himself. "The manufacture of palm oil, ami the collection of such other products as they can find a ready market for with tho European trader, limited as it Is by thc.'r limited knowledge of our requirements, can occupy but a small portion of the population, while the growth of their own food in a coimtrv wit!i a tropical sun and six months of tropical rain atTords employment only to a few women in each village, und occupies but a few weeks in tho year. The rest of the population grow up in that unvaried idleness wiiicb, I believe, is tli'; '.na great cause of their poverty, at their crhnes, and of those frightful diseases thut prostrate the physical and mental energies of n large proportion of them j when- ever this population i;- '„ ■ ■ ,-,ug^t to occupy itself with the kernel nf ,1 1' ■ , .iv , ihis state of things will immediately ri.ai „-e. Every memlier of every family above the ag of three years will not only have employment, but remunerative employment, during each hour of every day in the year, thus the habit of lal)or will bo created, and will bring with it other habits and new wants, and simultaneously with these wants the means of ministering to them." — Report <>f British Consul Hkddle at Sierra iMme, May, 1867. Colonial Expenses. — The pecuniary expenses occa- sioned to Great Britain by this colony, and the unsuc- cessful efforts to suppress the foreign slave-trade, have I)cen altogether enormous. Mr. Keith Douglas is re- Palm Oil. — "The qn'.raty of palm oil imported into I ported to have stated in the IIi use of Commons, in >'.;g!and from the west coast of Africa in 1856 was July, 1831, that "down to the year 1824 the civil ex- e^Umated at 45,000 tons, tu which v c have to add the penscs of Sierra Leone amounted to £2,268,000; and vrrv considerable quantity export.'d to the United Stitei, Franco, and Hambii-g, and other contineri I ports, and which can no tie estimated at less than 5000 tons, thus making ti whole quanii'y exported fi-om the west coast of ■ iVica 50,000 t.n". dmit- ting, then, that 160,00 Im.ihels of kernils otiaincd in the neighborhood cf ij srrs Leotie < .' tl '. 'uir velative Imt tho same expenses had amounted, from 1821 to 1830, to £1,082,000. The naval expenses, from 1807 to 1824, had been £1,630,000. The payments to Spain and Portugal, to induce them to relinquish the stave- trade, amounted to £1,230,000. The expenses on ac- count of captbred slaves were £633,092. The expenses incurred on acr -int of the mixed commission court* iK- 8IL vn» SIL wen iC10fl,000, AUoKDthfr thli ealablliihm*nt hnri caul Qrast lirilaln ni'trly i;H,0(IO,0t)OI" Tho |irMllK>>l- ity of lhl« •xpciiclituni u uniiialcheU, oxcapt liy lla UM-li'ii':!. ' I' '< 'liiubirul whether it hu |irev«nte(l • . <'i ' »i 1 belDK UriKKcil inio lUvery, or oliArrui li >illt■> Africa. It, hvWvivar, < lao'^Mi tha kliiKs of Spain and rortugal to turn llioir mercenary humanity to kooiI account.— For further UetaiU with retpect to Sit'rra I.«onu unil tho trad* of Weitern Africa, we the Htport «f llu Hrlrcl Commillte ijf the Hove if/ Comimmt on lit tt'rit (Jtnut itf' Africa, Hloant in comparleon with that botweun Kn){lanil ami almpl; ' m coaat; and it is a fact eapeclalK : n.i .1. . <.i atieiil'on, « rcf- •rence to Liberia, tliui for eunie time paat, while the iniportationi from England are IncroualnK, from the L'nlted Hlatei they are dlmi.ilalilnf{, particularly col- tun Kooda. It la eatlmated that there are not le^a than one hundred aliipa regularly trading between tho llrit- iah porta and the coaat of Africa, while a regular lino of ateanirra pliea l>etwcen England and Liberia and other aettlemanta on the coaat. In addition, It la now propoaed to aend a aleaniur up tho Niger Klver each (naaon for the encouragement of amigranta and tho J)rotcction of tradcra ; to secure a tree port at Fernando I'o, by a commercial treaty with Spain, or in nonio other convenient locality, as an entrepot fur ]lrili>h merchant ships; to maintain the African aqusdmn in its former state of efficiency, and to ninko Sierra Lounn • free port. Tho following tables show tho relative importance of Urltlah and \mericun trade with Africa : Tna Tbaix or rnii rmmi Status with Afiiic\ crRixii TUK HIIIB VlAKS CHIIIMU .IDNK !)0, \K>1, |X4» . 1§6'I. 1861 . ifm. 1M». 1864. 18». laM . 1881 . Bip orta. $Tii8;«rr ],8JO,0« 1,0I«,R!13 l,8iV4.9T* l.aTB.lKlft 1,T1I.%.4I9 2,484,74)1 ImporU. ~j».'>j4sr IW4,7'« l.HUI'i) ],(Br,OBT i,'.'ii2,»8a t,.'"8«,a6() l.iia? » 7 l.lA'i.SST I.Sit.SIU Tola). tl.'^M.tti^l •i.ti u.sao •^.:in!i.7ii9 2,HI3,R1!) 8.l:i|.B.')2 i(,71».4.TJ VMil.'lU 4.n0ll.4ll The amount of tonnage cleared from tho United States was a . falloK : Ytar Millof Juo« so. ISM. IS'.7 Tonnaf* iilaarad. AnwftgMl. 18,077 ■ 2«,ia;0 KunlKn. [.75 74J The following returns to Parliament (ns pulilMiuit by tho London S/ilp/nni/ and Mtircnnlile. (Imcllr) chnw the increaao of exfH>rts liy (ireat llrilain to the oo.st coaat uf Africa, and of importa from tho aamc coast : liiUKt r ti. I ~'iol Hl. i'i OS.liM Xl,84.V:iS7 794.810 l,449ll,M 7'iril!i4 1,840.740 U<.K\VA 1, (560,775 911.' ,134 l,Sfl4.44) Yean. Ril'orU- 18B0 xi;if.4't> tsi I1M M.I 18M B,%i,7'iB la-M 1<»4 901, 402 ! f. Ml t This is indcpc;' ' uf tlie llritiah colonics of .Si- erra Leone, the 1 >f wIj' 'i amounted in 18&4 to (l,4'21,8(i5, and < iriliN osscaslons on the Gold Coast and the liiver (.lanibiu, iiounting to $1,547,285 more ; and of thn.'< at tlie (Jupe of Good IIopo and in South Africa, swelling tlie amount $8,3A3,0U0 more; making in all an aggregate of over (23,0OO,0UO in 1854 for the western coast of Africa entire. — See I)t.ack- ■woou's Magazine, xxiil. 63, xli. 6U3; Monthly Jie- riew, cxxiii. 188; Hunt's Mmhantt' Mai/azine, xv. 572: Eilinburj/h lirmew, iii. ilfiS. Silk (Lat, Stricum, from Sert$, the nuppoxed an- cient name of the Chinese), a line glossy thread or fila- ment spun by various species of caterpillars or larvie of the phalana genus. Of these the Phalana atlat produces the greatest quantity ; but the J'halma bom- hyx i* that commonly employed for this {lurpose in Ruropo. Tha sltk-worm, In Its eatarplttsr ataia, whteh may li« cnnaidercd aa the tint stag* uf ita •xialanp*, after acquiring ita full growth (alM)Ut three Inchaa In length), proeee loften the nuturul gum on the fliument) on a conimim reel, thsreliy furni- Ing one smooth even thread. When the akein ia dry, it is taken from the reel and made up Into hunka ; but liefuro it ia tit fur weaving, and in order to enabla It to undergo the proceaa of dyeing without furring up or ae|iarnting the llbres, it is converted Into one of thrta forma, vis., tingle; tram, or vn/antint, ttinglet (a collectivo noun) is formed of nni of the reeled threads being twisted, in order to glv. itatrength and llrmneas. Tratn is formed of two or more tlin'sda twisted to- gether. In this atttto it is commonly used In weaving, as the >Aoa< or iir/t, Throicn tilk la formed of two, three, or more singles, accordlni; ' tho substance re(|ulred, lieing twiatad to- gether 111 . conlrnrg dlrecti< 11 to tln.i in which the singles of which it la eii!n|Hinril are twi:,. 1. Thia pru- ceas is tenned orgunizing, and the ail'. twUtrd ' !)amine. The art of throwing was orig .t«ia < ' tha metropolis were united into a fellowahlp. They warn lncnr|ioruted In the yeur ;'>20, but the »' luntlnued to be very Imperfect in thut country until 1710. l>atet oj'the Jniroduitivn n/SM; — Wrought ailk waa brought from I'eraia to Greece 825 n.r. Known at Home in Tiberlus's time, when a law paaied In the Senate prohibiting the uao of pinte of maaay gold, and also forbidding men to debase tliemaelves by wearing ailk, lit only for women. Ileliugiilialus Itrat worn a garment of silk A.i>. 220. Silk wns at lirat of tha same value with gold, weight for weight, and' waa thought to grow in tho same uiannvr iia cotton on trees. Silk-worms were brought from India to Kurojia in the 6tb mtury. Charlemiigne sent Ufl'a, king of Mercia, a present of two silken vests A. 11. 780, Tha manuf.'.':ture was encouraged by Itoger, king of Sicily, at Palermo, IIHO, when the Siclllinia nut only bred tho silk-wonns, but spun and weavcd tha ailk. The manu- facture spread Into Italy and Spain, and aluo into the south of France, a little before the reign uf Fruncis L, about 1310; and Henry IV. propagated mullierry-trces and silk-worms throughout tho kingdom, lfi8U, In England silk mantles were worn by some noblemen's ladies at a ball at Kenilworth Cattle, 1280, Silk was worn by the English clergy in 1634, Slunufuctiired in England in 1604, and broad silk wove froni raw altk in 1620, Firat attempt to introduce tho silk culture into the American colonies by Jumes I,, year 1022, Brought to perfeetiun by the F'rench refugees in Loo- don at Spitultielda, 1688, A silk-throwing mill was made in ICnglond, and fixed up at lierby, by Sir Thomas Lomlw, merchant of London, modeled front the original mill then in the King of Sardlula'a do* miniona, about 1714 — IIavum. SIL 171 J SIL liii'ho In ■\-lll«|H"l I, «mltt«t[ •xl"»- I la n(>« lh« ml nwl*' In very «"• of wlnrtlng or rueiioni , til* nuluriil (•roll)' f"rm> •ki-lii li> i\'y< , Imiikii I I'llt to enali>« 1' furrlnn up "r I on* of tlirti of nfi« of ill* Iv. lt«tr«nijth „Iii twUtcd to- ed In wettvlnu, r more ilnRUit Inn twl«t*»* t tl>" t. fl. Till" 1""'- , twlnteil "f- lly conl\ntt!n>' '111" 111). 'I'liry WW (intlnufiJ itll IV1«. ■rou(y wenrlnR [uii llmt worn » at rtrnt of t\i« cl^lit, and' WM ir iiH cotton nii' ■III aim Into the rn of FruiicU >.i I muU>crry-troe» (lom, 16HU. In jonie nolilcinen'a ^•m. Silk w«» Manufac'tiiroil ro from raw »\\^ iho illk cuUur* ft 1., year lOW. Vofuiteen In Loq- owlnn mlU w" Derliy, l)y Sir ,, modeled from f Sardlnlu'n do» llitlorical HkH(h.—Tb» art of raarlng •llk-war«H«, nt ■oravcltnK the thread* ipun liy them, uiiil iimntifar- turlnn the Utter into artlclet of drfan mid oriiameiit, iaama to liav* lieen tlmt jiructUed liy tl)« chinenn. Virgil la the earliest of the Koman writen who han bten iiipiKiud to allude to the (iriKliictlon of iillk In „ China, and the terma ha employii ahow how little waa tbeuiielvea in Toura. 'I'hu iiiaiiufai'iure wua not h*- aoon aftar dlatlnnuuhed for llieir auooaa* In raialng allk-worma, and for the extent and beauty of their maiiiifMcturea of ailk.- (•innoN, vi>l. n, p, I1U| Itio- ■inpkit UmvtritlU,»i\. KoiiKii II. The allk manu- ruclure waa Intnxluced into Kram* in NW), l^mli XI. haviiiK invited workmen from Italy, who eatalillahed then known at Home of the real natura of the article " V«Ui'ra>|ua ut fullla depcctaut Ivniila Haraa."— (^m. Illi. IL lln. 111. Dul It may b« doubted whether Virgil do not in thit line refer lo cotton rather than allk. I'lliiy, however, hue diatinctly deacrllied the forniutioii ol' ■tWV. hy the bombur.—lliil. A'u<. It la uncertain when It flrat Iw- );iin at l.yonf till alMiut ItiW, when Kranvla I,, having Kot poaaeaalon of Milan, pravalird on aoina artiaana of the latter city to eatabllab tliaiiiaelvea, under lila |>ro> taction, in the former. Nrarly at the aam* period lh« rearing of Hllk-wurma lie^an to Iw aiiiccaafully proa*- cuted in I'mvcnca and ollirr prii'liicua of the aouth of I Krance. lUnry IV. rewarded audi of the early iiiunu- gan to lie Introduced at Home; liut it waa moat |ir<- fuctiirera aa had aiip|inrti-il and |iiiraued tlia trade for »bly in the age of Tonipey and Juliua llmaar— the lat- twelve ycara with |iati'iil« of nolilllty. tar of wiioin diaplayed a profualcm of siika In annio '>f (Ina < ircuniatunca dlntiiiKuiahea allk from the other the magiilllrviit theatrical apectmloa with which Ik* three great aourcea of textile faiirica \ vl/.„ the 'Ilk It •ought to conciliate and amuae tlio pooplo. Owing already n contlnuoua lllaiiieiit licfiira it reaili'* th« prllicl|>alty, no doubt, to th« great distance of China I liaiida orUii! manufacturer ; wlicreiia cotton, H""I. and from Koine, and to the difficiiltiea in the way of the in- 1 llux are all aiiort In the Hiiro \ anil thoae lllir' Sav* tercourae with that country, which waa carried on liy gg.iiliii|icd hollow envelope, faliricated of one very grtat) to much to that a given weiglit of allk wua ' ~ tcioetimes told for an eijual weight of golil ; at tirat it V H only uaed by a few ladiea eminent fur their rank »nd opulence. In the beginning of the reign of Tl- berhta, a law waa paeaed, ne feilit ttrica viroi fminret —that no man aliould diagruce lilniaelf by wearing ii ■liken garment.— TAciTua, A nnal. Uut the pMlligate Itellogalialus deapiied this Uw, and waa the flrat of the Koiniin em|i«ror8 who wore u dress com|)oaed wholly long and exi|uiaitciy-llne liiament of ailk. Thla Ilia- mont tiio silk growera~wln'tlior III Itiily, Turkey, China, or India (theae being tlio chief allk-producinc countrlcHi -unwind by varioua liigenloua ineana; and many lUamenta are then comblneil Into one to form • thread aufllcientiy atrongto form into hanka or akr^lnt. .Such ailk i» called raw ailk, ami In thla atutu moat of our aupply U obtained. It thence foUowa that tha twitting and apiiiiiing macliiiiery differa rnim that em- of allk (holutericum). The example once aet, the ciis- ployed for ^ha other throe kliidt of libra mentioned torn of wearing tUk soon became general among the wealthy citixena of Rome, and throughout the prov- Incea, According at the demand for the article in- creaaed, etforta were made to import larger quantitlea ; and the price teema to have progrcaaively declined tnm tho reign of Aurelian. That this must have been the cuae la obvioui from the ttatement of Ammianut Marcullinua, that ailk waa in hit time (anno 1170) very generally worn, oven by tho lowe.it clasaes. Stricum ad tunm imttkao fwbilium, nunc ttiam infimorum line uMii ilurrtlione proficimi. — Lib. xvili. China continued to draw considerable sums from the Komau empire in return for silk, now become indis- ptntalile tu the Western World, till tho fith centun.-. About the year 660, two Tertian monka, who had long above. The allk la tranaferriid from haiikt to retlt, round which it if wound. It ia twlated, and wound, and doubled, and wound again, and traiiaferrod from one niuchlne to anotiier, until there ia aufllcleiit tliick- neta to form a tliread for weaving or for aewing, and autflclent twiat to give it alrcngtli. A document of particular liitcrcat liua iieen piibllah- ed, allowing the arrivals of raw ailk In (ireiit llriluin In ouch of the liftccn ycara from INI'J to IHfiil iorluaiva The entire figures are too extended for insertion, but the following abstract miilHidles the principiil polnta of interest. The most roiiuirkable fiintiire la that, whlU China sent to (ireiit Ilritain only IWI.V.M Iba. in IM?, the supply furnished liy her aiiioiiiited tu •l,Wtl,(0(l Ilia, in 18frl, and in 1850 was ll,72ll,lWa Iba., notwithatund- retldod In China and made themselvea acquainted with 1 ing the shipment of a large |K.rtloii of her crop direct to the mode of rearing the siik-worm, encouraged by the 1 Krance in. onsenuenco of the failure In that country. glfU and promises of Juatiniiin, succeeded in carrying The m a m"'» imiwrtant iiii|Kirtt ar« those of Kgypt the eggs of the insect to Constantinople. Under their direction tliey were hatched and fed; they lived and labored in u foreign climate ; a sufDcient number of buttertllet was saved to proiiagato the race, and mul- btrry-trees were planted to aft'ord nourishment to the rising guuurutlont. A new and important branch of Industry was thus ettablUhed in Europe. Ex|)cricnce ond reflection gradually corrected tho errors of a new at- tempt i and the tiogdoito embassadors acknowledged in the succeeding reign that the Koniana were not inferior to the natives of China in the education of the insects and the manufacture of silk.— U iouon, Decline and Fall. Greece, particularly the Peloponnesus, was early dis- tlngulslifld by the rearing of silk-worms, and by tho iklll andtucceti with which the inhabitants of Thebes, Corinth, and Argot carried on the manufacture. Tntil the I'ith century, Greece continued to be the only Ku- ropcan country in which these arts were practiced ; but the forces of Koger, king of Sicily, having in 1147 lacked Corinth, Athens, and Thebes, carried off large noinberi of the inhabitants to Palermo, who introduced tba culture of the worm and the manufacture of silk into Slulty. From this Island the arts spread into Italy j and Venice, Milan, Florenca, Lucca, etc., were Fifteen ye; ;t lack— namely, in im'J— tho quantity theiuK wa« • ll. and inlHSttit waa2,M'i,»MMbs. The East Inili 1. «ii;iply haa gradually declined, the crop* in Betif.u! (>■( tho peat few yeura having been imaatla- factorv. From Franco, In IWi, (ireat Itritoin obtained 1,100,498 lbs., and in IHoO only l.'i7,ftf)l) lbs. «o ftr from having any to apure, the French iiianufactureri were compelled to draw ii|M>n tlio atocka in other coun- tries. The imports (nm Italy have been almilarly af- fected. Those from Turkey have alao diminlahed, but this is to be uttributcd to tho French demand. A mong the countries that Great Ilritain haa drawn iiinm are the United States, but the small (iiiantltiot obtain.id must have lieen of Chinese growth. The auppllet from Holland and Belgium, It It alao aatumed, miiat have come originally either fnmi the Indian Archi- pelago or France. It appears that the largeat Im- portation ever k.iown was in 1854, when the t^ital waa 7 536 407 lbs. Last year, however, it was almott ■• great, and, as prices have advanced In the two yeart more than 50 per cent., the money value waa proper, tionately lieyond all former precedent. The following it an ofllcial tummarj- of the BritltS Importations of raw tllki for the yeart W5a-185« : 8IL 1720 fill. e* Raw HiMii nifa m tTmnn Rii>ui>nii ma ttni Ta**, IDM, IMM, IMH, IMW, IWA I'ruwl* lldlMi ToWM • llolUmI HvlKtiiin Fmiflti «•, (••rilliiU Tuiranv I'aptl Irrrtlnrln,,, Ni>l>lii4 ind Nkllf ,. AiutrUu lUljr Mklo (iri-wti Turki-y I'Mprr HjrrU iiul ■■•laitlM. l-Kyiil rirlllih VMi IndlH. • Iiltui I'lllfl HUlv* Ullk-r tmru Tul»l IMt ii.wa t,4l« IT'J.UUS 'Mtt n.niM M,4I1 TI8 ATft nTo.1113 14.M4 9\\,4K>i 1,IIIUt,4IM f,41H,ll4.1 ti4A ix.ma IK'i.'iDT fj.l'il tl7M*> MH IWT 1I),W4 Vltl OV.M'i n,7i)T A'JI.IAI "..UNI liSil:!,:!!!" I,«|pt.(i47 J.INO • U r4M,7t4 ' tm.TM IS.TIIT I,5:hiJ4« 4,B7fl,TOH 1T,*IT «,7IMI 7,^il^,40l' An Ar KiNIIIMIM IN Tllll VlAIIII IHM, INAI, ANII IttKl, UMpau-TiViiLY, ANii ■ywiirviNa Tim l uhntiiiu m Wlllllll Tun lAHN MIBl HUNT, ANU Till VALUU ur TllOmi MNT Til CAI'll. ' *^^^ •■|Mitl» l Huui* r llaiiiii'AlIc Tuwiu MiillancI llrlKtiim ihAiinol IhUdiU PrAiu'it Purtiifpil, AinriNi, and Ma driM Xpnln (nd Ckusrlr* lilliniliar Italy Tiirkpy llrtlUh Co'ii'lh AMek'. '.'.'.'.. Ilrltlnli l''.HHt IniHi'ii Iliiliiih AiiMtnilln llritUh N. AiiiiT. ( olonln llrilUh Writ Indira. Fort'lKll Wml: Indlrg I nlli'il Statia Mriln) C'cntral Amrrlca , , , , Nuv iiranada, Vunoiuula, ftc Rraill CriiKiiajr lliM'iiiM AyrM (hill IVrn All utliur ruuntrka Tolal VM.tW 4K.M8 1D,HI|7 T,no7 1T8,4W» 1,1«8 0,ll»l 4B,7«« U.SOl li.iru n,u4B 11,7117 M,m lltt.Wl «B,r>n8 17.'i4» 446,438 B,|i|8 887 8,408 mi "m4'« 1119,73 6l,44n 88.(11 a 160,1111 «,M& 9,040 8.741 47,flao 7,lf* 1I.77J A.IOH m.O'il fls.73(l 1311.101 'ili.iUl sn.noi 4,Wi 40,804 8,7«« 6,400 18,7'il s,mifl 117,118 8'i,071 l!i,07l M,54n 4at,nofl »,il4'i 1.893 4,674 84,700 1MIS 99,6116 18,7S9 10,10.1 li.AOf) The iiilk exported fnim Canton conaiata of two load- ing varietiea, known in coininerce liy the namea of Canton and Nniikin, The firat, which la rained prin- cipally in the pn>vuiee of Canton, ia divided into live aorta. Tlie Nankin ailk, produced in the province of Kltiugnan, ia divided into two aorta, known in com- merco liy the namea of Tsatlee and Ta}-aaam. It la ver}- auperiiir to the other, and usuall}' fetches more than doulile Ha price. Kuat India native allk cornea wholly from Ilengal. Ahiiut the year 1760, the (laat India Company introduced t|)e Italian mo1'- I.o(>8 on gold aent to llriinaa llllli', tadlnft, and prtty rxpflnaes .... luward dutv, Tu okra 6u drams, at $19, and 7,0/11 tlirrron Kxporl duty, TO okcs (0 drama, at $8, and l,<\fn Iheruon Carriage of monry, 1 per cent , Conalautluoplo coiumliialon, 8,0/0 ...'. 9^6 l-T per) oke, or oo. - 131 pur ct. > $1S,16T 4t8 1,116 8B1 Kx. 118. iMU-48 at 41, lD41ba.=16«. M. Ulsoount and charges la London ii. M. •l»,«4l ISj. M. STL ITtI HIL Lber, 1842, 1 400 Anat. \lMk AHD 488 !,tlB Ml led. By f»r lh« RratUr part of th* nw *iid thrown illk that mmm fmm Fritnix U not Ihn Kmwlh of thot vniiii- try, hut of Italy i Ulntl |>rlni'l|i«Uy convnyiiil liy thn canal of l^nKUmhw ami (lin (iiirimii* to HonUaiix, whanea It l« •hl|i|i«cl fur I'liKliiml, So niiich U thla tho rata, that It apiwam frnm llm olllilul m rouiita |iiililliihi>il liy Iha CreiK'h ||ov«mui«iit, tliut wlikhi tha at(Kr«Kiit« <|Uantlty of tha Krciuh ami furrlKn ruw ami thrown •IlkcxiMirtxilfniinl'ranealn IXIl HinoiintviUo 1,074,111 klloKranm, tha Mirtlon which wnn of Krvnch orl^iln ■niountitd to only l'i,'i04 kllo|{ruiiiit!— ^li/mmiVrudun Jtt thiwinr; 1H4I, p. 'HI. We have Ijeforu ut an Intori'ntlnn report on the pro- (luctlon of allk, •ulimittail to the Acuduiny of Hrlnnr InK of •llk-wnrma, an~an artkla to whk'li hl> majenty huvemini-nt wan allotti'd a> a iiiiriory with llie moat conimendalile ]ieraevenmco unci kIkuuI ' pluntittlon for whitii niullierrj-trepa, niiil the utlentlun iucvena in the Improvement of the dilferent varit-tlca ! of aonie nf the acttlera wiia aoun «iit(at(ed in rearing of nilk-worina. Thn ulMorvutioua of tlia learned author ailk-wonna. In IT'^i'i a ipiiintlty of raw tllk wai ralaail of the ro|iort are lmae0,(N)()) in IMM. To cumprohenil In Ita pro|ier light tlie full cfTcct of •inillar dimlnutiona, in view of a continued and con' •tantly Increuaing cunaumptlon, w« inuat ln(|uire wliat are Ihu llmila to which the produclion of ailk extendi*? The aKKreKato prcHluctlon of ailk in thn world may lie eatlmati-il at n vtiliin of ut leaat 1,UIK),()(MI,(N)I) frunca, or nearly «2()<),0U0,(H)U. Uf thia auni a little over one- third is amigned to Euro|>e, and the balance to Aila, Annual raoniurioN or Milk in tub ^^ oain. Kmiiri. France ins,tl(«i,0(ic lullan Ktatea VHl,fi<|Uul, in lonia caacH, to the heat I'ioiiniont ailk, and wuriicd with lent wusto than the Chinese article. In Carolina the culture was undertaken liy the small farniera. In 17U(! tho llnuaeof AsKunilily of tlila (irov- ince voted the sum of illUUO toward the cataliiiahment of a silk llluture at Charioaton, under thu direction N tions to iiitrodu'.'o tliia im|Hirtunt lirn'ch i i i, il i . 1 1. omy. lie succeeded in forming oxii n i . 'uu • 'i >■ f the mulberry at New ilavrii, Um;' 1-,1'Mi, l'riiii<\l vunia, and other piucca. llnli .ii. iin' ■ I'.i,!' riv seeds wus sent to cHch parlsl , iIm i"l"- , "it'' imIi directions as his knowledge "i 'r -in. • .n.il.lci him to impart. In I'M tho . gii.: ■ n o( ' Miiniii cut paused an act grunting a liounty I "••i« and raw silk. It may hero bo abated to tn.. if Connecticut that she ia tiie only State In t'le iiinn which Ima continued the bnsineas without aUKp naion, and probnbiy has produced more silk, from the time of lier coninienccment up to tho year 1830, thai, all tha other States. In tho year 17G9, on tho recommendation of Tlr, Franklin, tiiroiigh the American riiiloaophicul Society, a filature of raw silk was eatubliidi'^d in I'hiludelphia, by private suliacription, and placed uniier the direction of an intelligent und »k Uful Frenchman, who, it is suid, imMluced samples of roiled ailk not inferior in quality to tho best from France and Italy. In 1771 the man- agers purchased 2300 lbs, of cocoons— nil the jirodiict of rennsylvnnia. New Jersey, and llelawaro. The enterprise was interrupted by the lievolutlon. A sim- ilar undertaking was again attempted in I'hIUideiphIa in IRilO, under tho supervision of M. J. P'llomerguo, and cocoons were brought in abundance to tho estab- lishment from various parts of the country, and so con- tinued for some time afterward ; but for want of capU tal the enterprise failed. In about the year 1831 the project of rearing silk- worms and establishing filatures of silk was renewed in various parts of the Union, «nd the subject w«« deeme' 26 1, 12 3:),- Oi !>:\,m> 172.!)5:i 208,461 210.647 26 1,ns6 :i,61,973 384,6,')8 401,')86 46B.4')!) 87S,747 722,9.'! 1 1,099,389 7.')1.617 991,284 K'ireiftn K>|,nrl«tl,in«. I 52 iii.2:w 2i7,113 420 3,363 7,102 4,36'2 23,999 8,386 19,s.-,8 M,615 7,408 43,866 7,143 282 7,9(16 71,122 4.2r)6 Monia iiHiinifition. 133,996 26,989 .82,682 49,997 10.6,aM 204,1192 192,643 241,701 836,116 829,020 393,977 412,643 871,60.1 722,649 ,091,423 680,496 986,079 Mnnufaclurel of Silk. Foretjrii lm{ior1atiom. $9~6iri,622' 16,300,796 9,444,341 2,662,087 8.810,711 9,731,796 l((.fl07,649 11,73.3,871 14.643, S33 ]3,791,23« 17,(1,39,624 28,777,246 21,661,7,62 30,434,8.86 84,616,831 24,366,666 80,226,632 EtlHtrtHliiinR iVU6,632' 3.'>il,264 26'..169 206.777 280,838 846,272 196,763 334,173 840,8-.3 888,872 863,637 6fl(»,168 604,866 007,294 «43,1.'4 902,136 676.613 "»-W 97666 :' lt 40. 72S I it868,'.l27 |»17.()92;974 | J4 68.644' .n6,624,330 | $16,9!'3,267 TuIaI hom« Coniumjilion of liii|ioriRljunfi of Silk nnil (h« .Majiufnrlurrs of Silk in tli« riiil^t) PlRtpii. $8,619, 86 14,971,620 9,211,704 2,606,307 8,246,724 9,089,616 10,664,.644 11,641,819 14,.'-87,S96 13,731.080 17,680,964 28,68',720 21,418,601 80,^^0,241 84,94,6,100 24,144,916 80,636,'.9a The following is the comparative total receipts of fureign silk giKiils at nil tlin ports of the I'nited States during til"! years 18.'.4, 1805, 1856 : Haw vllk KUk pllTi' gntMls Ilotth-ry and artlrlcv made on frames Hewing silk Milks, taniliourud or ein- hroideri'd fillk hats and bonnets. . 8llk diss Iloltliig cloths 8ilk and worsted pi .ris ^llks uiisi6,139 14,c78 48,S6^l 1,694,038 6,728.406 t;)7,400.206 46l,01i. 189,020 800,(K)0 110.686 9,866 66,VS4 1,13.3,839 3,4^0,716 ii27.Oi2.012 I 'M. "|9il,234 28,200,061 611,298 260,138 1,600,000 lfl2,S27 16,491 70,146 1.336,247 8.974,974 *:i4.0.')3.oT3 Uy the British tariff, knubs or husks of silk and waste silk, raw nnd thrown silk, dyed, i-ingle or tram silk, dyed or(.'nnzine or crape silk, may lie imported duty free ; manufactures of silk guno.ally 15 per cent. ad valorem. The follnwinf; table exhibits the population, con>' sumption of imported silk, nnd the allotment per capita thereof; consumption of imported manufactures of silk, nnd the per capita thereof, and the total home con- sumption of importations of silk nnd manufactures of silk in tlio United States, with the allotment per capita thereof for the years :8<10, 1850, and 1865 ; also, the production of silk in the United States, and the allot- ment per capita thcrLof, and tlie total consumption of foreign and domestic sil!, and fo-eign manufuctiires of silk in the I'nited .States, and the allotment per capita theruof, for tlio years 1840 and 1860 : UnlUd SUlM. I'opiilallon Coiisumpll'in of linimrtei .nw silk Allotmenl piT capllH llicrcof ( 'onsiiniptlon nf Impnrtrd manii^«rtun>s of silk Allolnii'nt |M'r eaplla (hiTedf Home, consumption of Inipurted raw and roauufactun^d silk. Allotment per capita lherei>f rrodnetlnn nfsllk In the I'nited States Allotment per capita Af reof Total consumption of silk Allotment per capita thereof I 17,069, 4.'>3 *33,996 00 21) 8,686,'i90 00 60 80 8,619,986 00 60 60 61,663 00 86 8,081,631 00 61 86 isto. 23,lTIsT3 $;l'.i3,977 dO 1 6.1 17,286,987 no 74 46 17,680,064 00 76 16 in,«43 00 06 17,601,807 00 76 2i' ISSS. 27,18.6,617 $680,496 00 2 60 23,464,421 00 86 R1 24,114,'.' 16 00 88 81 (•) ♦ The census of ISSI docs not furnish the mannfacturra of allk In t'.ie I nlled States. SIL 1728 SIL Vim 1,421 no ' 88 nl via 00 8S 81 IMTORTS or SiiKraTOTOi I'ufnm Siatkb roe Tin Via. mntxa Jpnk 80, 18W. Wh«ne« ImporUd. Dtnbh West Indtet Hamburg llrenien , Holland llclKium Kugtand Scotland ('ana^la Ilrltiiili Weat Indica ..... Dritiih I'aat Indies Trance on the Atlantic. .. Franrc on tho Mediterranean Spain on the Atlantic. . . . Spain on the Mediterranean. I'hillpiiino Inland) (.'ulia Sardinia Tuscany Two Sicilies Austria Turkey in Asia I'-gypt New Granada llraill Ecuador China Totiil PItM Qcndi. $20 108,330 1,132,220 liT IM.ITO T,8ilB,4:i» 10,(141 729 8,783 13,0J2,30:! 4 1,734 1,104 40 1,478 8.11 100 114,713 IS llo«l«ry and urticlei madft un KraniM. $23^024 04,880 3i!i79 603,130 8,640 " M 2341619 Sailing Silk. 1,007 t22,i)87,;i0'.l $839,29;i HaU and Dontiflla. ManufarturM oot apaclflad. $106 8,403 10 iGoio'io 194 81,601 "74 "609 ' ' 11 136 "49a 8,'i41 $643 "m 10,694 319 12 127,030 1,260 1,777 $M,174 874,801 72 37,414 2,477,070 21,837 1,015 Ko'io 1,434,107 124 340 "5*4 "18 164 31,043 ""1 3,070 $211,723 I $161. l;i2 :$4, 442,522 $702 846 26,964 73 '208 Raw. $106 2,062 614,437 1,213 436,927 If3i,6l2 I $'.M,734 Boltinc Clolha' $8,088 16,710 $57,602 FoBEiON KxroBTS or Silk rnosi tiik Uniteb Stati» Whilliar tipoilad. Danish West Indies Hamburg Uremen Dutch West Indies Kngland I'antida llrltirili N. Amer. I'ossossions Hritish 1 1 onduras France on the Atlantic CuImi I'orlo Hico < )ape de Vord Islands A Kort'B Sardinia I'orls In Africa Ilayti Mexico Central Kcpubllc New (iranada Venezuela I'riignay, or (ispiatino Hep, Chill Pern Sandwich Islands China Total. Piera Goods. 1,625 i,iv) 220 210 .1,130 2,i2;i 1,000 1,S1S 605 "844 100 050 2,200 27,173 2,130 13,381 204 28^476 3,067 ^43.1_ $91, 1,1,1 Hosiery and { Brilf Irs made SowingSilk, on t'rainei. I $414 130T $15 6001 ' 6;i $1761 ,1111186 POB TUB VbaB ENniNQ .iLTfE 30, 1867. Floaa. Bair. Hats and Mnnufnrtures Bonnets. not B|iecifled, $732 $3,4-80 80,914 2,757 338 0,624 983 1,47,204 $205 $1000 BIOS Silk and Worsted I'tere 4Jooda. $1169 $2116 , $4103 $1160 — See Xnrfh Amer. Iter.. ::xvil. 41)8 (Wam.enstf.inI ; Amer. ilaart., X. iW,") ; Hes'm. Her,, xvi. i'2h, xvii. 241, xviii. 1,228; Dk Uow's ftc; ,v. :)21,4]li Juliub.Jier., xliii 7G; lll.ArKWOOD's Ma;/., xvUi. TJIG, xxv. 68,5. SiUs-COtton. A beautiful silky Idiiil of cotton is obtnined from the Jiombiix and other trees ; it is short and remarkulily elastic, snd would bo very largely used were it not fragile and tender. 'I'he Hindoos spin it into a loose, coarse, warm liind of doth. In lCuro|)c It has not yet lieon inucli employed ; but In America a method lias been discovered of applying it as a cover- ing for so-called sili( huts, for wliicii it is said to be ad- mirably adapted. As there is an almost boundless Bupply of tho trees yielding these delicate lilires, there may here be a great ni,\uufacturo in the fi 'iire. i Silver (,Ger. .S'lVicr; l)u./!ilrfr; IhK.Solv, Swed. ' Silfrer; Fr. Argent; It. .Xrgenli); Sp. VlaU ; Port. Praia; Russ. Serebro; I'ol. .SVtAro; I.at. Arymlum; (ir. "O 'VT >■ Arab. Fazzeh), a metal of i\ line white odor without eitber ta.sto or smell ; tjeing in point of brill- iancy inferior to none of the metallic l"iilies, if we ex- cept polished steel. It is softer than copper, Imt harder than gold. When melted its specific gravity is lO- 17 1 ; when hammered, Kl'jl. In mulleabllity it is inferior to none of the metals, if wo except golil. It may he beaten out into loaves only )f^, I ^| ^ ,^^ of an inch thick. Its ducUlity is eiiuiill)- rem.irkable : it nmy be drawn I out into wire much finer titan a human hair ; so fine, indeed, that a single grain of silver may be extended about 400 feet in length. Its tenacity is such, that a wire of silver 0-078 inch in diameter is capable of sup- porting a weight of 187']3 lbs. avoirdupois without breaking. Silver is easily allojed with copper by fu- sion. The compound is hanlcr and more sonorous than "ilvcr, and retains its white color even when the pro- Iiiirtiiin of copper exceeds one half. The hardness i-i at II iimxiiuum when the copper amounts to one-tifth of the sliver. 1 he standard or sterling silver of liritain, of which coin is made, is a compound of 12^ parts sil- ver and 1 copper. Its spcciflc gravity is 10'2. Tho specllic gravity of I'aris standard silver, componed of 1117 parts silver and 7 copper, is 1017.'). The French silver coin during tho olil govennnent was not nearly BO line, being composed of 2fil parts silver and 27 cop- per, or !lf parts silver to 1 jiart copper. Tho Austrian silver coin cipiitidns -l^ of copper. The silver coin of tho ancients was nearly pure, and apiwars not to have iieen mixeil with alloy. — Thomson'* ChemiKtry. The most pniductive silver mines are in Ancrica, particirlnrly in Mexico and Peru. There nr« also sil- ver mines In Hungary, Saxony, Spain, and other parts of I'.iirope, and in Asiatic Russia. — .See I'uKCiotis Mktai.s. Itcsiues being used as a coin, or money, silver Is ex- r. ■ onxs-^y^y ■ ■^■TTT^ rf' ' i "»'?-rir^'-'Wi'?,7 ,,^- SIL vm STL tensively employsd In the arts. The value of the sil- ▼er plate annually manufactured is very considerable. Large quantities are also used in plating. Silver ex- bta in most parts of the world, and is found mixed with other ores in various mines in Great Britain. Tlie sil- ver mines of South America are far the richest. A mine was discovered in the district of La Paz in 1660, which wus so ricli that the silver of it was often cut with a chisel. In 1749 one mass of silver, weighing 870 11)8., was sent to Spain. From a mine in Norway a piece of silver was dug, and sent to the Koyal Mu- seum at Copenhagen, weighing 660 lbs., and worth jE1680. In England silver plate and vessels were first used by Wilfrid, a Northumberland bishop, a lofty and ambitious man, a.m. 70a Tyuei.l's 1/isl. o/J-Mgland. Silver knives, spoons, and cups were great luxuries in 1300. Silver Coin. Silver was first coined by tho Lyd- ians, some say ; others, by Phidon of Argos, 869 b.c. At Rome it was first coined by Fabius Pictor, 269 b.c. Used in Britain 26 u.c. The Saxons coined silver penriles, which were 22^ grains weight. In i:!()2 the penny was yet tlio largest silver coin in England. — A'ee SiiiLLiNus, etc., and Coin. Tho scarcity of silver in Western Europe, including Great Britain, and in this countrj', has given rise to tho question, " Where does the silver go ?" In connec- tion witli this question, we make tlie following extract from a paper read by Prof. It. II. Walsh, of tlio Dub- lin University : At tlic tirao when Pliny termed it tho sink of the precious metals, silver wus a favorite article of export to tho Kiist. It has continued so since, l)Ut the trade of Into has assumed an oxtraordinar}' magnitude. In tlie five years prior to 1866 over $110,000,000 worth of silver have been ex|H)rted to tho ICast through En- gland alone, and front otlicr countries a similar move- ment hus l>een in operation. The export in 1825 was $32,000,000, and this year (1806) it is procseding at the rate of over $45,000,000 per annum, judging from the returns that have been pi'blished for the first four months. Unlike the old movement, the present can not bo permanent. The former was %ldom moro than might lie accounted for as the distribution of silver to Borne of its chief consumers — the nations of the East — according as hew sup|)lies were raised elsewhere. It was, in fact, the ordinary- movement from the producer to the consumer. IIumiHildt estimated the annual pro- duction of silver in Mexico at 1,184,000 lbs., or aliout $25,000,000. But now silver goes faster to the ICa^t than it is pro- duced throughout the world. Hence tlio process can not be permanent, but must come to an end as soon as the redistribution of the old stock has been offecteil ; for theannuul product ion of silver isonlyal>outit:40,000,000; and since the e.xport to the I-^st thruigh Kngb.id alone is at tho rate of over $45,000,000, it follows thut it can not be the new supplies of silver which meet that de- mand and all others for the same metal, but that there must be some auxiliary fund to be drawn upon. Sucli a fund '9 funiisiied by a cessation ia the demand fur silver in several countries which before employed it most largely, but now use gold instead. Silver, which used to be coined in France and the United States at an average rate of $20,000,000 per annum, is now little employed, while much of the old coin of that metal is melted down and ex|)orted. In France, it is said that in one year (1853) so much as $60,000,000 were dis- posed of in this manner, and that the o|>cration has been since proceeding ut u still greater rate. In Mex- ico tliere are eiglit or nine mints, one of v.hlch is na- tional, having one general law of coinage, but inde- pendent of each other, and subject to no general con- trol. There are some characteristic diflfcrences in re- spect to grades of fineness and accurac}*, but they seem not sufiicient to call for a diMtinction, as the only ex- ternal means of identifying is in tlie mint mark. Snvm OF noHisno PaonconoM, iHOLTmixo Savia PABTm mO¥ (JAI.IrOBNlA (iOLO, DSrOSITKD AT TUS MlNT Of THI I'NiTKD States, its IIraxuiies, ano the Assay (Irrioi, Nkw York, from .Iancaky, 1841, to Jdnr 30, 1967 (tuat rou 1857 BsiHO SIX .Months only, to Jvme BO). Yon. 1S41 Vlluii. J4,3li0 Ymw. 18iW Viliia. . $200,863 1842 0,4.')3 1361 880,471 1843 8,040 80,S47 4,T0» I8f)2 404,404 1844 \wa 417,279 1S48 1854 1865 828,109 833,05:) 1S4« 8,000 6,407 0,191 89,112 1S47 ISM 821,»38 1848 1857 127,250 184J Total. . . . .. $2,700,728 f^TATEMENT OP AMOIT^T OF SILVER COIMED AT TUB BIlKT Or THE I'NiTEit States, ani> the Hranoii Mints at Sam I'BANCISOO AMlt NEW ORLEANS, ITNOER Til J AOT OK rEI»- BDABY 21, 1853 (SIX MONTUS ONLY, 1857). Venn. 1S53... 1S.M. . . 18»,.. l'*50. . . 1357... Total. Mint oflht t'nitej Slatft, PhiUtdelpliia. $7,517,101 6.873,270 1,410,170 8,214,24'l 1,427.000 $1S,961),841 Dr«ncli MiD' Snii I^raii* rwco. $104,075 177,000 611,000 $3111,076 Utinch Mint, New OrUanj. $1,187,000 3,240,000 1,018,000 1,744,000 $8,046,000 Total. 1^8,654, m 8,010,270 3,511,246 6,135,240 1.477,000 $27.ar;8,910 « pre iXT;;; •'-""'vno ^'"^ iboinoo 1725 SIN J,2SI),nOD 4,100,000 1S56. *3f.S'1l,000 **.»oi),ooo 6,000,000 tioneers, etc. There are a?^^ ''"'P-''«epers:auc. ■n^rehants; „„« l""! was •23,lfiB"oT, of whirr.'" '''"''^"•■ntr^' in (''■'' ""'shboring D^td, E ';''' "'^'"'"'•ves amon« *«'• yrom the e„r 1690 t„ i!?^**^""" *«« in «ir •"'""• ^l.e bfatmen ale chf^fl ' ""•'' ''""'"^ «""'«- th« K"l.l and silver Un!Lt-Mev"'' production „f ~1 coast ; and theXL:L'''','"'?, "'''''' ^"''- •1,«M,*X)0,000, and from 1«nn , f!'" " «s"mated at ."'''^^e". in cutting timl,"i ^ ?™P'"-'' "'"niaelvea as «« i'-e I-rod'uction of ur^nf!" !.".^«^« ?' «10O,O0O.0oS ^f'"'"' ^'i'" the ruVe "I:;,.!f .'„". f 'PPbing the set- •1,«M,*X)0,000, and from 1«nn , f!'" " estimated at ."'''^^en, in cutting timl,"i ^ ?™P'"-'' "'"niaelvea as «t'.eprod\,ction„f e,i.e"min!fr*'««'«'«>«oS S^^^ Singapore, an islan I «„,! , ^•''i''"*- 3 1, "'■ «'">'J -laily market, n, ""'fe'thorhood. tho eastern extremity „;th"stf> \'''"''='"«"' »' an "''"""'^'' ^''"' vegS' V^," "' "•' ''"""' """ ^^"'"H In lat. lo^r ^°?, '^''"f' "f Malacca, the fu"'!^"''",' '""'«~tl'e latter 1,1 "h!' ^'™'"' *■'«''- ?«''«. K. The inland Is of,.., ..±.3^^'"' •Jtlmated nreaTz^""' " "'•7'"' ™n,„g „„ British settlement emb I' o™ dr '^ . ""' "■« ^^' "l" 120 miles , in which areTncTuder^""^'/''"^'' "^ "''"ve •ml the seas „nd straits luht jn i;-!"' "" "''"'« '»'^'«> ">« pr ndp, island. TlTe iX, , ^''■' "^ ">« eoa,t „f main land by „ strait of .he s,,?"""'"' f"-"'" "'" l>r«a(Uh throughout and scnrTi "^""''> "f 'mall « ...lie wide inSts Irrot^nlrt' '"k l**' " 'l""'" -M of Kuropean navZl^:":' : -^.;'•■ '"e early o.,,! "-•■"" ""u vegetables fr,,:. . ■■""", una and green turtle-the latter 1,«!^' ^"'"'' ^'"'' P^'^' •hat can be procured. There 1 ''''' """""' ^""^ '•"ties nor anchorage, harbor ,',-W 1* "''^'"^ "' ™P"rt •Ktlmated area of 275 Hnn„r"^-,^' containing an if ' *"" " "g'ster is lent of iii - ' "' ""i British settlement embra o, n "''''• ^■" ">« "'' "l" '"P""^^ ■""«' '«' "..de to the „ " f""" ""'' ''»i»rt«- 120 mll«. , i„ ..u,\ ""^'?'=cs a eircumferpnr.„ „<• „. ^ niasters of vessels -.n;) • ■ """""." attendant bv the ;>e.ther duties o,' !,„,„' „',^'"«^- Ih-ngl. there'are "equenti,,^,- tlie port ti„ „ J «^P»rta. nor on the ships cd in :':.f) 'Ao J."' V'" rcv-enue of Si,,„nn„ "T od in .',,^^,3 .J-^ r ""?M '"«''P°™ """>""'- ^'lf,»'"^i- ■'»¥2» rupees. ' 1, 18oo.-The commercial Ley " *'Wo.., J„„. '^^r'-V'-^'^eonsul^^i^l^tr^ t!'«^»'te'' «n«rii n-; Asirnow na"*''"? ■""' ^^^'^ " port "If S""""' '' ^ o C p 'I'i.'"^'™' '« governed pa, W«nd, on whirrheT"„t';"-^.^''""' '•'■«« tl ' T'' '/ ^P-i''' S r "o "l^T ^"'" Clialnof desert islnml. 1 .^ """• ''ctween it and ,. : P""-^'' "'rougl, the mver /^^ ^"'^ 'ndia «ml most convent^t^"^°"'?"'i'es distant; tl^es^ ,? ?''"^ P'^'^cnt'por 'reg, at l! ""'' '"""^•'" "' C"' ?;.^ '«. ^e ™r rt '"^' '^-^'^^-^ ««'! .nost convenient channel r '"'""""! the safest /'" '"'^■^cnt p„rt regulations are ""' "' ^'"'""ta. «."1 tl.«t ship, in passint "f , '"""^' ^^ ""»' to the si ^^ f"' "" i"dolini e nerio, T"'"^ '" ''^ "'"^d, the roads. The town U^J, ,''''''''■'-"'« come close to ''"I' """ "■« P" .ilcKc m rm ? , .^'"S-'P^re is a free rl-e and KrowLirj, ''""•" '""«'''«'• for its ran d "' "'" '^''rictions imposed n^v '" ^'""'"■crce, as well «™lt. Tlds h«?reXed r '" "' P"^'™" «" th s ' ""' f^'"ctio„ of flagf ra,l nat ' n'" ?.f "^'"''^' ^•i"'- «mrep,",t f„r the tZuZt "".' '""'''-'' " convenient I ."".""""" P"""' charges than l^e I ? ".'.""'• ^''cre are J|.'l>« on the one T ^d '';j" h : '^■' 'T" ^^'-" -' ^^'m""'' "'"^■'' -« ""cVc'e J ''p™ f-"- "' Straits «1«" /'or tliat between M,'"* "" "'c other i,,,. "'"cl'ant vr>ssels. National t., '^S'"''""'* '»" on rlver.'orr^tier:, t"- ^P.^^^.^'c Jtis situated on I 'l" ''."^- ""-r port i„' ^^ K ri„r';'""''""'^«-'"' tl.r<;e Muarters of „ mi e fr™, k''' ''" ''^' "«•""•" «l'ou r/'";"' «/ '" «n.v foreign ,t L fll "'"'"'"-^ '^ P"'^' •■"^l*, or open harbor 1^?. ?."""■ ^'"'P^ li- in the ''•';'" ''^ "'« '""it'^d h^atcs bo/f -f, •* P""n«cd to miles from town a?";." '■'"""''= ' ' ^'•""' 1 to 2 P"*'''^"-'^ ».• ''•■^trictio,;/ V " ""'■""' ""3- special 'l'l.« "^«l>.tflnc?;,f a n '"f '" """■'■ •'■■^'"^'ht of water "'^'r'""'' '^"»«n -.d'o,„ ,":"""■-?: "•'''«'"^' ""'1 '^hlfh are .Iwavs in r^ "' "^ conv.u.i^nt lighje , "'^'"'" "'"-^c "f ^ho other 'r "' ^'"S^'Poro, are y«o''''""^''''" q"avs, 1.!-"" '" "" ''«''«ral currencv J.^ called cents, JherKmate/f t- P ""d'ou^cs, ^ r* "'" cent are also coine.l ,li ' "actional parts I'nhronheirtV; ,;i:r-;.f ""^^^^ "<'li.« only ab „( /^n „ •, /""*>'^' f"m, no , ^ b called ap,r, or /»V<.. T|,e „,,„lffi- '■ """ ''""'« "'course, very t?e V ": '^'•"" ""= ^'l""t"r, there is" ,""'" ""'"■^ "f the Br t TlS'^, '';.''''''''=«^' "".i all «';'ther sIimnTer n ' :•,;";;■ '" 'T ''-'^<>"- 'i'hcre is ''<";P -CH.nts only i„ ,i „ „J "'„'r, «-™'''cnt, Ml.'« IW Short, and no/ 1' ''^'''^■™ "'c PcnVKlical L/'^"''^''--^ picc,.,akc] ceit K f howers of r«" ?, " f, 'i' **'" ">^'rl'cd_m„deratc I ^' """"" ""''^« ^ co.npanVs rm.ce ta 1 l'/'''" ^ """'■' '• «>» •••ttlemen of M '^ '"'" ^■'^'' '''»» each veir ! "'P''" "'■''"' ^ '"c; 00 lacs Si '^ ' ^"-'"»'' ^io^ml I'revi, u „ , f "■■ P,'"""^" '" »■'""" it , '"'' -"'.^ "^'' ',' J-^t i,„w fluctiiafi,,, . t .^ "'" ,''; •''"•" "''■"!« M«|fl,-, ,,,:■' '" ""' '-''inese settlers, and i '" ""'' ."'"k" 1 y the same measure, but weighs about 62 piculs ; gold and silver thread by i particular catty of jafi wclglit ; gold dust by the bunli il, which weighs #2=832 grs. Troy j Java tobacco is f Id by the corge of 40 baskets; India piece goods l)j' the corgo of 20 pieces ; wheat and grain b}' tlie bag, containing 2 Ben- gal niiiunds (the maund is (SIJ catties). Freight. — The rates at which ships are freighted or chattered depend on tlio demand for tonnage ard the supply; on the kind of cargo to he transported, an-* on tho sailing ([ualities of the vessels. These vary so greatly that it is inipossildo to give them even approx- imately. At the present time, for misccIlaneo.is .Straits' produce, shippers are paying $18 @ $20 per ton of BO feet to Now York or Boston. Commissions.— \\'\\\\e the trading bhips of all other nations pay the uniform commissions of 10 per cent, (as established by the Singapore Chamber of Com- merce), which include expenses of every sort for pur- chasing or selling, a special exception Is made for what is culled the " American trade," meaning tliat : f the United States. Tho established charges on this are : Commissions on sales of goods or purchase of produce, free of risk, either in sales or on advances on produce, 2J per cent. (Both of these arc guaranteed for an extra ?i per cent., or ,5 per cent, in all.) On negotiating bills of exchange, 1 per cent. Other business on the usual terms. Interest on all moneys advanced is ut tho rate of 12 per cent, per annum, but on disbursements on account of ships while in port, 5 per cent. Added to these ex]j«uses aro boat and cooly hire and wareho'is- ing, the tiiarges for which differ widely, being govc.-n- ed by cir umstances. The imports from tho United States, in comparison with the exports thither, are of trifling amount. I therefore state the modes and terms of purchase, as well lis those of sale. Sales of imports are effected in the iisual mannei by private arrangement with the buyer, and sometimes also by jjublic auction. The terms aro, cash down. I'unlmse nyCurijo. — This is done by private contract (never at pulilic sales) liy tho house to which the mas- ter of the vessel is consigned ; the said house buying the goods from citlier the native or from the Chinese dealers, who are what is commercially styled the " first hands." Sinhara. Th« sinhara, or water-nut (Trapa ?), is 11 native of the (,'ashmere, bnt grovis al'.m'iintly in tho lakes near tho capital, especially in the ^\'iirler lake, .ind yields an average return of 10,000,000 lii». if nuts a year. They are scooped up from the bottom of the lake in small nets, and afford employment to tho fishermen for several mi. iths. These nuts constitute almost the only food of at least 30,000 persons for five months in the year. When extracted ficmi the shell, they are eaten raw, (Killed roasted, fried, or dressed in various ways, after being reduced to flour. Sinope, a town of Asia Minor, on tlie south coast of the Black Sea, lat. 42"^ 2' .'«)" N.. long. X,° t' 45" I I'opulatioii uncertain, proliahly from 8000 to 10,000. Miiio|)e is situated on a low narrow isthmus, connect- ing the high rocky promontoiy of Ada with the main land. Its jK'rt. which Is the best on this coast, on the south side of tbn town, ix protected from tlic north and northpant gales by the isthmus and promontory al- ruitA- mentioned, Ships anchor within a third of a nnl« '/f the town, in (*• m 13 to 17 fathoms ; or nearer tu it, IB from .'i tu ; fitlloin:). 1 here is a roadstead on the north side of the isthmus, but il is open and ex- posed. Sinope is one ■•' tho principal stations of the Turkich fleet ; and there »(«■ docks and arsenals for its accommodation and ontfit. Its exports are incongldeiv able, the principal being timber, salt, cordr.ge, flsh oil, etc. In ancient times Sinope was a city of great wealth, magnitude, and importance. It was the birth* place of Diogenes the Cynic , and Mithridates made It the capital of liis dominions. After its conquest by tlie Kom ns under LucuUus, it became the seat of a colony, and continued for a lengthen'^d period to enjoy il good deal of consideration. Should civilization and tho arts once more revive in the ancient Pon*iis, and tlie other countries to the south of tho I'?ack Sea, 'he excellence of its port could not fail to resto.-e to Sinope some portion of its former grandei.r. Even now a con- siderable intercourse is beginning to fake place with the coiinirif's east and south of Sinope. Diorbeker on the Tigris, in hit. 37° ui' N., long. 39° 53' 15" K., is onu of the principal seats of Eastern commerce ; and caravan J set out regularly from it fc \ler" rns, and Constantinople: but any one wiio n, lap of Asia Minor, and of the contiguous cm.. see at once that 1'rebizond and the neiglibo'ing poii: on the southeast coast of the Black Sfea the niittiral channels through which Armenia, Koo. *' ■ "I'd the c .iliwestern parts of Persia ma}' best . atain an intercourse with Europe. Fjr further partiiuhiri as to Sinope, see Toiih.nkkhkt, Voijage ilu I.eianI, and Niibik'.s iiiiiliiig l)irteUonafi>r the Uliwk tien. SkiuB. The term is applied in coniiiierciul Inn- guugo to the • "iins of those animals — as deer, goats, kids, Iambs, etc. — which, when prepared, are used in tho ligliter works of book-binding, the manufacture of gloves, parchment, etc. ; wliile the term hides is applied to tho skins of the ox, horse, etc., which, when tanned, aro used in the manufacture of slices, harness, and other heavy and strong articles. I.amli and kid skins are principally used in the glove manufacture; 120 skins being siipiioscd to produce, at an average, 16 dozen poirs of glove". — Stc IIiiiKS and I.eatiikk. Slate (Roof) (tier. »•/»>/(■,•,• Kr. Anloise; It. A«- tni/tm, I.nsirii; Sp. Pizarni), a fossil or compact stone (iiryillaceima s'hlstiin) tliat may be readily split into even, smootli, tliin laminip. There are sever.il varie- ties of this valuable mineral, the prevailing colors be- ing gray, blue, and lir.iwn. But the tints are very various ; and slates are often marked witli streaks of a different color from the ground. Slate is principally used in the covering of houses, fo. which purpose it is infinitely sujierior to thatch or tiles, and is far less ex- pensive tliun lead, (iood roofing slate should not ab- sorb water ; and it shcmld be so compact us not to lie decomposed by the action of the atmosphere. When properly selected, roof slat -^s aro of al, , jst lerpetual duration ; but those which are spongy and inibilie moist- ure speedily get covered with moss, and require, at no very distant period, to be renewed. Slaves and Slave-trade. A slave, in the ordi- nary sense of the term, is an individual at the absolutb disposal of another, who has a riglit to employ and treat him as h • pleases. But the state of slavery la susceptible of inoumerablo modifications ; and it lias been usual, in most countries where it has been long established, to limit in various ways tho power of the master o\ er the slave. The slaie-lrade is, of course, the business of those who deal in sl:>vc3, A great deal of learning has been employed in tracing the history of slavery, though the subject is still far from e.\hausted. It seems most probalde that it originally grew out of a state of war. *In rude, uncivilized commuuitics, where the paf sion of revenge acquires a strength unknown in more advanced states of society, captives taken in war aro adjudged to belong to the victor.--, wlio may either put them to tlie sword or reduce them to a state of servitude. In anticpiity tlie ideas of war and slavery were inseparable, rroliably in very remote ages pris- oners were most commonly put to death ; but the selfish gradually predominated over the more passionate feel- ings, and for many ages it was usual tc reduce them 'V-- -■»"■-?■■;" SLA m? SLA to the conditlnh of ilavoa j Iwing either gold by thoir captors to others, or employed by them as they might think fit. The practice of reducing men to a state of slavery, having once liegun, was extendnd in various ways. Tlio progeny of slaves or of women in a state of slavery wore slaves ; men born free might sell them- selves as slaves ; and parents hud autliority, in Judwa and Komc, to dispose of their children for the same pur- pose. — ^[iciiAGi.is on the Laws of Mosrs, il. 163, Engl, ed. It was tlio law of Rome, and of must other ancient states, that the persons of debtors wlio hud contracted obligations which they ciuld not discharge should be- come the property of their creditors. " Servi," says Justinian, " aiitem ant nasamlur autjiunt: naacuntur ex ancillh nostris, Jiunt aut jure genliun, itl est ex eap- tivitiile ; avijure chili, cum liber homo imijnr viyinti un- nos ad jirctlum participandumscae renundari passi's est,' —Instil., lili. i. tit. 8. T/ie Aj'rivan slare-trade was commenced by the Firt- uguese in 1442. It was, however, but of trifling ex- tent till tlio commencement of the Kith century. In '" 1.-.. (picncc, however, of the rapid destruction of the ii.Jians eniiiloyed in tlio mines of St. Domingo or Ilay- ti, Chorles V. iiulhorized, in 1517, the introduction into the l.'lindof Afriian shin'M from the establishments of the I'lirtiigucsc on the coast of Guinin. The concur- rence of the emperor ivns olitaincd by the intercession of the celebrated I.as Casas, bishop of Cliiapa, who la- bored to protect the Indians by enslaving the Africans ; though, us the latter were certuinly more vigorous and CBpalilii I'f bearing fatigue than the former, the mous- u.e WU3 nut in leality .lio contradiLtory as It would at first ."iglit appear to bu. — l!iiiif;iiTs(iN's ll!.,l. Amerirn. The importation of negroes into the W< ■ t Iiiilii-s and America, having once begun, gradually increased, un- til the traflie became iil great ixtint and iinportanre. Sir .liilin llawkin. was the first Knglisliiiiaii wlio en- gaged in it ; and such was the ardor witli w hl( li our countrymen followed his c.\aiii(4(', that they expurlcd from Africa more tlian ilOO.'lOO slaves between tlie years 1C80 and 17(10; and between 1700 and 178(1, (;ro,0()0 Africans were im|)ortcd into .lamaica only ; to wliii h adding the iniiiorts into the other Islands and (ho i Ing carried from the Old to the New World. KtieakiMK generally, the negroes are in the lowest statu of abase. ment, possessing merely the rudiments of the most In- dispensable arts, a prey to the vilest ruparetitluii «n4 tyranny, without any tincture of learning, and wltU little or no regard for the future. The clrcumttsncua under which they are placed in their native land imy, perhaps, account for the low state in which wa (ilMl them ; liut, however explained, the genuine negroes of Africa are admitted, even by these least inclined todu. predate them, to lie for the most part " either ferodoM* savages, or stupid, sensual, and indolent."— )'hui(> Aui), J/islory of Man, ii. .S38, 3d ed. Aholllion o/Slavery. — The year 1H38 was memoraliU for the abolition of slavery throughout the Dritich coU onies. In enacting this celebrated statute, I'urlia' ment endeavored to reconcile the apparently contlict. ing claims of humanity and justice, by providing for the emancipation of the slaves without prejudice to tha just rights and claims of their proprietors, Tlijs was eft'ected by assigning to the latter the sum of lumlf/ miliinna sterling, which was distributed among them on their complying with the provisions of the act. Tills is, perhaps, the greatest pecuniary sacrilice ever vo|un> j tarily made by any nation in vindication of the right of property. Hut it was not too great for the object In ] view J for had that riglit been violated in this inttaiice, [ a precedent would have been set for its violation In ■ others, and the consequences would have been most I disastrous. The measure, in fact, reflects quite us j much credit on the wisdom and honesty as on the genr eroi ity of the liritish natiim. This celebrated statute enacted that slavery should cease in all Ilritish colunisl pusaessions on the 1st of .August. 18;!4 ; when the slaves were to hccomo apprenticed laborers, their final and coni^,iete emancipation taking place partly on the I;t of August, IK'W, and partly on the 1st of August, IWO, But a clamor having been raised against the duration of the apprenticeship. Its period was shortened, and tlia blacks became universally free in 18.18. Dislribiition nf Slnre Vomptnsaliim. — The cunimls' sioners for the ap|)ortionment of the i.'20,0(l(),000 grunt- ed by I'urliauient as compensation to slave owners, i n- der tlie act 3 and 4 Will. I\'.,cap. 73, issued the following table, showing the average value of a slave in each ('ol- oiiy ; the number of slaves in each ; the total viilue of the slaves, supposing the annual value of eath were reallzedi and the proportion of the £20,000,000 receive4 by each colony. Colony. AvemKO Vtlii« itf Niin>o«r of Slaves ! (iSlnvt froiiilSS'J l.y tlio luit 1 10 1^.10. KeKi'l^'l'""- ' Rctativo Valiia of the Slovei. llerniurla llnliuiiiuri .lamaica Honduras . . . . Vlrj^tii Islands Anti^iui i I il 27 4 111 29 1^ III 44 iri 81 120 4 7) i.l IC II 32 li 10| Monisc.nit i"> 1^ 1"! ■■" 3 111 a mt Nevis l*t. ("ni'lstuplicr's Dominies ilirb.docs (Irenadn St. Viiicent*8 Tobago St l.iicU Trinidad Ilrttish (iuiana C'ftpe of Uood Hope . Mauritius ToUl 311 M 43 47 1 nn f) 4.^ 12 liA H lifi 4 114 11 T3 U 11 6D 14 3 4,203 9.7015 311,li:)a 1,(120 M92 20,.^37 8,723 20,660 14.3S4 82,S07 '.'3,K!6 22,9^17 11,621 l,'i,343 2!J,3ri9 84,9 in 88,4'« 68,1)13 X 114,,->27 2. 0,571! 13,9.')l,13'.i 230,S44 llli>,143 i!fl4,l!)S 2,'14,4«tf 341,»*9;l T50,R4l> 624,711. 3,8 7,271) l,3!l.'i.0''l 1.341, 401 629.1141 759,891) 2,.1.'>2,0.V> !i.72ft,r47 2,S«4,224 4,783, 1S3 I 780,903 I 46,281,73i< ProportiiMi of lilt XSI>,'JM,(IOtl tu wl,it-ti eaf IiCuluiiy ibpiiI Ul-.I f)0,.'sS4 128,340 6,li)l,'.'27 10I,!'M 72,940 4'iA,8(!8 in3,f)f)8 151,007 27ri,il2.t 1,721, ii4« 018.444 ti92,50S 234.1 04 ■SMi,IU1 1,039,119 4,2 7,117 1.«7,4II1 2, 1 12,031 _ 20,000,000 SLA 1728 SLA Dr. Livingstone, who U ucknowledged a« being con- Tenant upon subjects affecting the slave-trade, says : " I have thus ventured to state my conviction in favor of our present system, formed as it was from personal observation, and in ttio tooth of a strong bios to the contrar}', that you may, according to your custom, and if you should deem it advisable, give this to your read- ers by way of helping them to both sides of the ques- tion. It is not to be supposed for a moment that the present system of coercion will result in a riidical cure of the evil. The cullimtum by the, Africaiu mi their ovm mil of the raw materiiUn of our nmnufncturet, and the in- fluence of Christian civilization alone will effect a perma- nent luppremmi of the tlare-lraile. Uut all hope of this must be given up if the coast tribes are to be hounded on by the Europeans to hunt down the defenseler 4 in- land inhabitants, on the absurd pretense of prmiotinrj 'free emigration,' It is no uioro true that Africans tul(e delight in hunting, buying, and selling each other thin that the English glorj' in hanging themselves in November. I linow that this is the case throughout the interior, and I was sorr}- at the cause of a diflcrent state of things on the borders of civUiaation. But wo are ignorant of the sources whence statements such as tliat referred to arise, From meeting it in vitrious quarters, and moro ecipecially in the mouths of «luve- hoUlers, or would-be slave employers, I am inclined to think that both it and that alMut the inefficiency of Hor Majesty's cruisers have had their origin in those wh.) are, directly or indirectly, abettors of elavery, and that thoy are promulgated by many who, like myself, had not the means of testing their truth." fussing over tlie interval from the period when the slave-trade was declared to be piracj- to the year 1840, we llnd that the numlier introduced into Brazil from tl'; t ye;\r to 1851, inclusive, was 848,«09, or a little mo.-e than 30,000 a year. During the same period the number imported into Cuba amounted to an average of about tiOOO a year. The following tallies show the importations into Bnur.il and Cuba from 1851 to 1854: Slavfli. IraportiHl iuto Urazll ia tho ycjar ISM 47,«10 " " " 1SW 60,000 " " 1863 8, TOO Total 100,700 Imported iuto Cuba in IfWl » " " iSft'J " . " " 1883 " " "1864 6,000 T,!i24 12,600 10,230 8s,4 100,700 Total 130,361 For the four years from 1851 to 1854, inclusive, this gives an average importation into Imth countries of something over S4,000 a year. As perhaps niit more than three-fourths of the whole number was reported to the mixed commission, the yearly average for this period may Ijo set down at 45,0*>0. From the year 1854 there were very few, if any, slaves imported into Ura- cil, in :Disequcnce of tlio laws passed liy the govern- ment of that country against the traffic. The slave- trade is now maii-.lv, if not wholly, carried on witli Cubi, which imports a'.mixt 20,000 "slaves cvi>rv ^•en^ ; which, added to the total of the trade .villi li..tl'i Brazil and t;ub,i since tho year 1850, gives the nvera;,'o num- lier imported every year, up t the present time, at about ;)0,00 1. If the profit realized on the piircliase of one slave aiiumnts, as we have shown in the follow- ini; tablet, to $i«!5, ih" ti» il profits of one jear's traile will therefore be aliont $11,000,000. As a curious exiiililt, we give tlie statistics showing the estimated part whii.li this country lakes in this ne- farious traUir. It is estimated that in the jnirt «{ New York alone almi t twelve vessels are fitted out every year for the slave-trade, and tliat n(mton ami Baltimore furnish enrli ulHitit the same number, making a Heet of thirt3'-si;. vp.ssels all engaged in u ('(immcrce at iihicli the best feeliiigu ot our nature revolt. If to these be 120,000 100,000 86,000 fun.floo added the tUven fitted out In other Eutem port* be- sides Boston, we will have a total of about forty, which is rather under than over the actual number. Each slaver registers fWim 150 to 250 tons, and coets, when ready for sea, with provisions, slave equipments, and every thing necesurj' for a successful trip, about $8000. Here, to start with, wo have a capital of $820,000, the greater part of which is contributed by Northern men. The expenses of fitting out, and of the trip to and iVxim the coast of Africa, may oe estimated as follows : I'ost of forty jiavors ready fornca $320,000 Fxpensns at the port for hrokorago and commis- elon, $3000 on eacli vtwael Cnptalurt' and H<'ainen*>t wsges for the voyage .... Amount paid fur Ufgnw's on tho poant of Africa, at $16 a lipad, nllowing OflO to each vcmicl I'urt chargPH and secret money paid at the i>laRe of landing in Cuba or othiT (IcKtitialinu, $42 for earh negro, allowing a diminution of 100 In cuch vendul by death on the iiasaago Total $l,47fl,0f)0 From this estimate It will bo seen that the amount of capital required to fit out a Heet of slavers is aliout $l,500,Cl.X), upon which the profits are so immense ai almost to surpass belief. In a single voyage of this fleet 24,000 human beings are carried off from difibrent points on the slave coast ; and of these 4000, or one sixth of the whole numlier, become victims to the hor- rors of the middle passage, leaving 20,000 fit for market. For each of those the trader obtains an average of $500, making a total for the whole 20,000 of $10,000,000. Now, if we estimate the number of trips made by each vessel in a year at two, we will have this increased to $20,000,000. Each vessel, it is true, can make tiiroe, and sometimes four trips, but us some of them are de- stroyed after the first voyage, we have placed tho num- ber at the lowest estimate. Tlio expenses and profits of tho slave-trade for a single year compare as follows : Total eipe nws of two voyages $.t.OO(l,000 Total ructlpta of ditto 'iO.M i.OOIl IToflta '. $17,000,000 The laws of Congress on the siilijeit of the slave- trade were passed March 22, 1704 ; May 10, 1800 ; Feli- ruarv 28, 1808; Slarch 2, 1807 ; April 20, 1818 ; March 3,1819; May 15, 1820; March 3, 1843; September 20, 1850. ('onventions on tho subject of the slave-trade were held July 12, 1822 ; Novcinlier 1;(, 1826, with Bra- zil i March 2, 1827 ; August i», 1842. By the net of Slardi 22, 1794, tho slave-trade was nroliibited. The act of May 10. 1800, npiilicd to foreigners residing in the United States, and forbii' citizens from liciiig en- gaged in forei({n ships in tlie slave-trade. By the act of March 2, 1807, vessels with slaves on iMiard were to lie forfeited, the naval forces to be employed to enforce tho act. By the act of April 20. 1818, tl\e importation of negroes, or persons of color, " to lie held to service or labor," was prohibited. By tlic act of March ,1, 1819, tho naval ships would send to the I'niteil States, for confiscation, any ships detected in the slave-tnide ; a liounty was offered of §25 for each negro captured and delivered to tho I'nited .Stu'es Marshal. Ity the act of May 15, 1820, tho slave-tnide was declared to lie |)irary, and any citizen detecteil in the trade should sutler death. By the act of .September 20, 1860, the sbive-trnde in the District of Coliinibia was prohibited ; { no slave to bo brought into tlie District for sale as mer- I chandisi" ; and nil slave depi'iti to be broken up. For discussions on slavery anil sluve-tnide, see for. I Quart., xxxiv. lai ; South. Qmtrt., xix. 101, yxi. 209 ; ] I.iriiiij .{rje, xiv. 2.^.'), xvi. ,'>0;P ; h'llinh. AVr., viii. .18."i, j xli. 195, xii. 355, v. 209 (l!RotoiiAM>, x. 199, xxxviii. 1(18, xxxix. IIH; W'luthi. Ucr., xxxiv. IJ.'i; Ji/iidiioml. • Iv. 731 ; ,lmcr. .Almannr. 1841 ; North .Im.r. Ilir., xli. 17(1, Ixxiii. 347 (rEAlioTiYl; Di-: Bow's /^r., x.C.'iH.xi. 2,'!-lc4, viii. 122, ix. ; Smith. I.il. .)/(,«., ix. 731!, vii. 774. C»«//c Timit.- This trade has sprung up since vigor- I mis efforts have been made to suppress the slave-trade I proper. Although theoretically the coolie trade prom- SLA 1720 SMU bed benefits to both pUiiteM aitd coolie, y«t |ir»('tU cnlly It l9 only anotlior fonn iif llio i.liivu.trujfl, Tho truth uttered tiy u lutu iiiiialrar uf the fall- fvrtia Chronicle in the fulluwing punnjr'itih lit liiit ton trui' : " We hoar of these wrotuhwl lioIiiKa .Ij liii{ nii thitlr paAaa^i from Ounton tu (Julluo u( hiiiiKur, lliint, iiiiil fuul dUiaae engendered liy close (oiillii'tmuiit, wlthmit ulr or nitritnent, in the hoUli of uhipM; wn Uuiif of these un.'ortunutcs murdering uiui uiiuthor In thn UKuny of tliclr luflcrlng ; und yet, althou|{h tliii tiling U iiliilli and |)"l,)able before our very «ye;i, th lior. Tiblo,' anil leaves tho hel|)le»n ereuturc* to tlmlr fttt'i," In extenuation of tho guilt Incurrucl, It U ullii){iMt that the parties concerned have a coiitrwl wltli lliii coolies ; but in elTect the dnludcd victim U a ulava, mid not tho faintest dawn of hope lUuknlnex liU dark Imk rizon. Numerous important und iucontrovt>rtllil« faiin havo been brought to tho attcntinu of our ({oviinilniiiit by means of tho " message from the l'ru»lc|i>nt of tliii United States communicating inforinatiun in n%a(i\ to tho slave and coolie trade," presented tu tlin llouon of Ueprcsentativcs ono year ago, Mr. I'arker, United States Minister to Chlriii, wmtn to Mr. Marcy on tlie 12th of Feliruary, IH.'ill, that tlm following shipments of coolies hud Ixiiin made during tho year 1855 from Swatow, an illegal port «viiu for legal trade : (Vi'illua, l:i|H W) llllil Amorlcnn •> dflH llriiwh 3 !),8'il 1 hilhui 1 f«« IVniviiin jl \,m 'i'..tiii VI I'iTtTa Mr. Parker also stated, from ollti'lul infurnnttliin, that tho number of snab s iiiiiinrted as tiiolli's from (;«|. cutta and Madras, from iNl.') tu In5.', Into llritUli Ciuiana and Trinidad, was 1701); and he »ilgg«>ttid "the necessity of »|iecilie iiistrwtiiins ennnniling friiin the Xavy Uepattment to our nien-uf-war on the (.'hliiii station, authorizing them tu resort In illogai port', und to i>.>:amine such vessels as do, and uKiertiiln that tlicy do not offend against law, und tu make them uicunnt- able if they do." January, 1H.'^g(ilii, the Chiiianumdocs not hear the tropical hciit with llie ease with which tlie negro endures it." Sloop, It vessel of nun mast, the mainsail of which I* Hltaclied Ui a gaff aliove, to a lioom below, and to the mast o/i Its 'oremost edge ; different from a cutler by having a fixed bowsprit and a jili-stay. It is also a general iiaiiie for ships of war lielow the size of frigates. fintnok, a vessel with ono mast, commonly rigged n* n sloop, and used in the coasting trade, or us a tender III tlia royal navy. Tho vessels of tlrs name that have long piled lielween Leitli and London are well known, ail"! Iiiive always been noted for their security. Bmalta, or' Smalt (.C'T.ficten/j; l)\x. tSmalt ; I't. Sinillt i It, /imittliinziiD-i'o, I'miihino; Sp. Ksmallc, Ar.iil ii4Uri lllis', hiiiir), an oxyd of cobalt, melted with siliceous earth and potash. It is a sort of glass, of a bi'rtiitlfid deep blue color ; und being ^^round ver/ tine, U known by tho name of powder blue. The cohir of siimlll! Is not rtlfeeted by fire , and it is consequently ill great demand In tho painting of earthen-ware. It hoard tho ship Ihdc «/ Porlliiwl, on her voyage from In «i«i eiiiplcyed In the coloring of paper, and for other Ilong Kong to Havana. It will lie remembered that I 'li. ■hi«cs In llic arts, Beckmann has proved lliat the on the occasion referred to tho master of tho vessel j nroiiss used In the preparation of smaltzwas invented made the confession that one hundred and thirty-two aboul tllfl end of the l.lth or the beginning of the ItJth cf tho emigrants, all of wliom had been taken on board, | ciilitiiry i and (hal the blue glass of the ancients owes he said, in good health, had died between Hong Kong I Its eohir, not to llin presence of coljalt or smaltz,butto and Havana. He had ' had as many as two hundred | that of Iron,— //'W. nf /nrnilmm, vol. ii., art. Cobalt. invalids at ono time,' and ' many more liad died after . SmU|(i'll»g, the offense of importing prohibited they had landed in Cuba.' His log-book contained ] articles, cr of defrauding tho revenue by the introduc- daiiy, and more than daily, entries of death. The i tloll of nrtlcles Into consumpticm, without paying the magistrate said ' ho had heard of the horrors of tlui dutlsit ctmrijBablo tip(m them. It may be committed middle passage when tho odious sUvo-ttsde wan in I Imllffefeillfy ollhcf Ufiun the excise or customs revenue. SMU 1730 AMY Thii erime, which oceupleii xo promiiiaiit a (iltca fuih« criminal legUUtlon of nil modern iiUtet, U wtvMy ||*m reiiult of vicious commercial and Hnaucial Uii(i»\iUUm, It la the fruit either of pmliibltiona ot iiii|i«rt»(li>ti, i/f of oppressively hi((h duties. It dues nut uriKlnat* in any depravity inherent in man, liut in tlia fntty »itil ignorance of legislators. A pruliitjltiun «Kaii)»t il»' porting n commodity does not take away tli« ta»t« Uir it ; and the imposition of ii high duty oh any arlM;hi occasions a u? irsal desire lu escupe or vvnU its \my- ment. Hen. o tlio rise and 0( cupatiou uf tbs nnui/uiUr, The risk of lieing detected in the claiiJastliMi Uitruiim'^ tion of commodities under uny i'}'st«ni uf rtsi'al rajfuU' tlons may always be valued 1 1 a certain aveniK« r»l« | and wherever the duties exceed this rata, aiiiugKliMK immediately takes place. New there are pUtuI/ hut two ways of checking this prai tice— either tlui tMtniilit- tion to smuggle must be dlni,nlshed by luwuriitif lh« duties, or the difficulties in the way of smugKliuK nmrt«4 U>, ovwt In cases where the duties were quite eKcesi iva, lluV' rmments have unlfurml}- almost cunsulteit ttw |i*rii<>n» employed in the toUection of the revenue with mt^H to the best mode of rendering taxes effe< tuat ; tlwuj^h it i^ clear that the Interests, prejudices, aiul |MU'ulUr habits of such persons utterly disijualify tli«M) (mth forming a sound opinion on such a suliject, 'i Iwy utttt not recommend a reduction of dutiiM as a nit^ans uf rtt' pressing smuggling and incrpu^!ing rt'venu«, wit.'u/Ht acknowledging their own incapacity tu detail an/1 tftt^ feat illic't: practices; and the result has Iwen Ihat, in' stead of i osed repressing it by new regulations, and by in creasing the number and severity of the |)eualt|cs Hf fecting the smuggler. As might have lieeu exiMiicd, these attempts have, in the great niujurity uf I'umm, proved signally unsuccessful. And it lua l>e«ii invari' ably found that no vigilance on the part uf tlui iDvmnw officers, and no severlt)- of punishment, can pr«v«nt the smuggling of such commodities us are <>itli«r pr<«' hibitod qr loaded with oppressive duties. Tba nmUK' gler is generally a popular character; an/1 wbat«y«r the law ma}- declare on the subject, it is ludiiruwai Ui expect that the Imlk of society should ever Iw hrimgtil to think that those who furnish theui with nhmtf) brandy, geneva, tobacco, etc., are guilty of nuy vnry heinous off'ense. " To pretend," says Dr. Smith, " to have any wrupht about buying smuggled (;oods, though a manifi'iNi mt-r couragement to the violation of tlie revenua laws, an/1 to the perjur}' which almost alwa)'s attends it, wuwbt in most countries be regarded us one uf tiutna pitilmitU: pieces of hypocrisy which, intteud of gainini; crfs/llt with any Iwdy, seem only to oximse the [lerMii wli// alTects to practice them to tlie suspicion of tming a greater knave than most uf his neighlwrs. liy thi« indulgence of the public, the s.nuggler is ofteii inmmf' aged to continue a trade which he is tlius t«M|(ht Ui consider as, in some measure, innocent ; and whun him, he is freriuently disposed to defend with viuLeiu* hImI he has Ijeen accustomed to regard as bis just |iru|)erty ; and from being at first rather imprudent than criiiiin/il, he at last too often becomes one of the nmst •U'lunii, ineu violators of the laws of society." — Wmllh uf Sit- tiuns, p. 406. To create by means of high liutMs nx. overwhelming temptation to indulge in crime, and tb^^i to punish men for Indulging in it, is a |iro<'««ilin|{ "«n. pletely subversive of everj' principle uf justinai, U revolts the nutnrul feelings of the people, and trnmimit them to feel an Interest, in the worst cliaruiiU'rs^-ft/r Bucb smugglers generally are — to cspuuse th«ir >iU4e« «n4 avMiKd Iheir wrongs. A punishment which Ii iMit frfr/portlonml h> the oflTenso, and which docs not i'»ny Ihi •ani'tkm of public opinion along with It, cun rutvwf l« pfwIlMrllre of any good eflect. The true way Ui \ml il/rwn smuggling is to render It unprofitable — to <(im)nt«h th« temptntlon to engage In it ; and this is ni4 Ui Iki ilone by surrounding the coast:* with cordons lit triKUm, \iy Iha multiplication of oaths ami penalties, »»mJ making iKe country the theatre of ferocious and ii\niii\y '(mlests In the field, and of perjury and chicun- nry \n ih« rtmrts of law ; but by repealing prohibitions, «N/I im\ur\n\t duties, so that their collection may be rnfiitimi with n mwlerate degree of vigilance ; and that t>w ffrrfeltitre of tlie article may bo a sulllcient iintmHy upon the smuggler. It is in this, and in this finiy, (hat wn must seek fur an effectual check to Illicit tr»«)( king. Whenever the proHts of the fair trader imimm ti«arly ejpn.l to those of the smuggler, the lut- ter U ff/rced to aliandon his hazardous profession. Hut to UmK »» |(tohltiltlons or oppreH«lvcly high duties are (i*<(* up, "• , which is, In fact, the same thing, bo long hh hlyh ii'itmiiri are held out to encourage the advcn- iHrm,n, the needy, and the proHlgute, to enter on this if*ti>*t, w« may Ixi assured that orniles of customs of- 8'ors, braked liy the utmost severity of the revenue iMt^m, will he Insrifflctent to hinder them. 'tUn (iMlfilty for smuggling in this country Is fixed \iy lh« mi tit (Jongress, August .10, 1H42, as follows: '\ (ml If any (*rs»ylng tr accounting for tlio duty, or shall «(/»li». f(((t, Of p'iss, or attempt to pass through the cus- <- "rive ,„d j,„ 7> ,;,« 0? Arme. | 8„,,,„2 o^o fr.„„ ,., v«-. Excluding Greek, the ™,rt'.* '"""■^" ««'"»- lo;fr«m 680 to 600 foreign .hi,*^ m';","''""^- ^''"e" of "nd colonial pr^uct" """" *""'•»«. »'""eh .ilk,, -. "t cor,'.f„;:rpt"Z"r ::: fti ""'• ■" '"" ^"^ ftrence on ,o,„e of the wel2, t'L "j"? """" '"'- in Smyrna i» the oke, which /» -ft! , Pi?"'''''"' ""kI" ho oke uaed in retiil |, of Z /"''"^"^"'"'^'g''". i1a „f a<,n ^. "" '» or 400 drnms, „nd In whole Rood, coffee, sugar, cochin™ ",•, ""'' ^""''n tm and tin plate,, rum, brn';"',''^ "?"«<'«. ''«", J>;lno, etc., from Great IW.ta, l ''T' B'"""- United State,, etc. The extort. ' ' ""'r, the of madder, whi. h 1, the mCt v« '''."1"''' Principally fndt,, valonia, opium, siirtoolh'" "'"f "- '"''='' •tone, sponp,, drug,, vellow S,'"\T'*"':'^' ""''i- <«rpet,, gall,, wax, A ^Z^ "'"' ""^" "'■■ Turkey etc. - For further Vc.ail, •• ."',000 l,fl88,PO0 1,200,000 84,610 l!,(i03,,'iOfl oKo,'a;f """"' dram,, "real wclghti" 'nominal weight," are " i •">", ^a<>kes==100rotol -1 fcinVT T'S"'. "6 = 1 At Constantinoole 4nn~^ '"' "'' ''«•"'"• 1 oke, 44 oke.:rX';rif:Tki;ar r'"*-'-^ Jhus, 100 kintal, ,f , ■ '"' "■■ i<"ntar. ^m render b»,L » ,'f 'r;-V''«"Kht at Oon,ta„iln„.,,. render here ]ovI"ki;;t,T'fr "■' f-''""'«ntinopIe eurato steelvard., In bith n „ ' '['""B^<"i h' two ac- """y very in,;;?,,'^, tZ"'tL"' Z'^'^' '"^ f^^"- from 1 to U peJ cent r """',""' difference varies 'ai;,of Coni'ntL ptrcntr": ^;v''''"r'' '«« ki"- ™»h, and payment is made on Z f ".""S''^ '"'^ '«' lowmgtheday of sale Tj !• * "''*' Saturday fol. «l>»t one half of themono "'"T'"""=^"".l«'wever rhalf th/.;,'r:."™7." P-id the (irst. and ,ti other half the succ^di'n^'^^turr ?'/r"'' "'"' '*■« pose a special agrenmenf i. ^.' '"" ^"^ 'h'» Pur- -.cluding tho';:X " K™^"'--''0' beUe «-l,S8|| 4S,.'iOO tax to p„,. f,,„„ - ,1, rT ''"'"'' "» seed, hemp see.l, and terra mnV " ""'^-"■ood, caiary f,„ ' . ' terra umbra, are generally sold is almosi I goods to the States Th» "(•""•"r '""''" *'"tes for gums, nut-gall,, vellow ZtrllT'^ , ^"\ "B*' "i-"!"', I payable in pounds Jterll^ r^Ht""'' "'"'"''' '' ""«le from 3 to 5 per ten Thf^f ' '. !."' e^'-^rally varies nople wool, which are tl,„ i .",""""'"' «") ; 96/ - /f mm ^2' fo f ;lr Votir """' , . «nd unwashed wool hive l,!?" ' * ^"'''''' "asi^- - 364,700 j itates during the lio 1 mf '• '""^^"^ '" ""' ^"^^ed 17,041,130 -.^presentingln aruTt'of^Sm^' '"i'T ^T"'' WC,S„„ modities toolf place durinrthemonth^ ►- •■''''''" ,800 P"™ i^ 'fft blank in tldf tatcment L l^'' '^" comniod t cs where the „r!„„ .'"'"""nt. On all such of "retail nrie„ "MTP™" '' '^" open in the column 'exports from .Smyrna, f — 1801 at 1'8,47£.,000 francs, and that .; the e ' cs .; 270, 4fS,S00 42:1,700 10,su,040 J|>i4;6()0j 'MW^Moi ' t *o ',0 Ku- ' wpt. ipean houses Of ^;rc^^rZt^-t,.W • 1, common sponges, called "creCches"" nt, varied froL. lino sponges from ""C^f '" T™.' "'■ '" ^''" '"«'» i" ""« market &„;"/'"' P"'" »^"'" "rticlo varies '.^ ; that of common „v>„„o. „.i.. , ... abl ' after thev had been nrenarpH f ' i, «hemuches," *1S to $27periooibs 2^r.''''i''l'''"''^»'*^'l''om n05 to $eC0 per IW lbs Th' f "^ "'"' ^^''"Ses fro™ * vv pir iw lbs. The former are shipped 8NU 178*; 800 balM, and nra ihn kind moat (xporUd to the United ' St«t«a, and the liitlvr tn cniwia. They aro genitriilly bout;l>t In tlio lump from un board tho lintit» wliicli bring them from the nelgliluring IsUndi l>y thu ex- purtem, who wunh thuni, throw nlfthe auiul, unci other- wine prepurn them fur ililpment ; coniiec|U<'ntly their price per wult(ht ilependa on the <|uuntity o! uitid, itona*, etc., they luuy contain, and van only lcr I, IMA't. For further information, aee Com. Krlat, United Slates ; Lwing Age, x. 301, xxvlil. 1U7; Hunt's Merchantt' Magazine, xxv. 452 (K. W. Hulland), Snuff Clicrm. .SVAn«y)/l(4nrA-; Kr. Tnhac en pouilie ; It. Tabacco da naso ; Sp. Tabaco de polvo ; Uu»s, vViwo- WDi tiibak), a powder in very Kcncral use as nn crrhiiio. Tobacco is tho usual basis of snulf; but small quanti- ties of other articles arc frequently added to it, to vary its pungency, flavor, scent, etc. Though subatantialiy the same, the kinds and names of snuif arc inlinito, and are perpetually changing There arc, however, three principal sorts tho llrst, granidatcd ; tho second, nn impalpable powder; and tho third, tho bran or coarse part remaining after sifting the second sort. Unless taken in excess, no bad consequences result from Us use. — See ToHACCO. SnuSbozes are made of every variety o( pattern, and of an endless variety of mnterial8. Wo only men- tion them hero for tho purpose of giving tho following details, not claewhero to lie met with, with re.spcct to tho manufacture of Laurencekirk or Ayrshire boxes. These are made of wood, admirably jointed, painted, and varnished. These beautiful boxes w ere lirsl maim- factured at tho village of I^urencekirk, in Kincardine shire, abeut CO years since, Tho origiiutl inventor was a cripple hardly possessed of tlic power of locomotion Instead of curtains, his bed (rallicra curious work-shop) i:.. : v.. It ncourt In Tllny and (ialen; and tli* formar declares it to lie an Invention of the (Sauls, though bn profiirB the (lorman to thu Oallic soup. In rnnnilu pe- riods I'lolhoa were cleansed by living rublMiil or stamped upon In water. Nausicaa and liur attendants, ilomer tells us, washed theirs by treading u|K)n thuni with thuir foot in pits of water. — Odytteij, bool* vl, Thn manu- facture of soap began in Linidon in Ul3'l, lieroro whieli time It was supplied by UristuI at one penny per pound. — IIaydn. The soap met with In cunnnvrce is gunur- ally divided Into two sorts, hnrd and iqfli (ho former is made of soda and tullow or oil, and thu latter of pot- ash and similar oily nmltcrs. Soap made of tallow and soda has a whitish color, and is, tl' "iforo, siunu- times dunoi.iinatcd white soap ; but It Is usi.ul for soap- makers, ill order to lower the prico of the iirtieln, lo mix a considerable portion of ronin wl>li the tallow; this mixture forms tho common y( llnio loap of this coun- try. Soap mado of tallow, etc., and potash does not assume a solid form ; its consistuiieu is never greater than that of hog's luril. The properties of soft soup us a detergent do not diO'er materially from tliosu of linnl soap, but it Is not nearly an cnnvcuient tn uie, Tho alkali employed by the ancient Oauls ami (lurmniis in tho formation of soap was potash; licncu wu si'ii whjr it was dcscrilwd by tho llonmns as an unguent, Thn oil employed for making soft soaji in this ccMinlry Is whale oil. A llttlu tallow is also added, which, liy a peculiar management, is dispersed through thu soap In lino wliiti: spots. The soap iniido in counlriei which produce olive oil, as tho south of Krancn, Italy, and Spain, is preferable to the soap of this country, which is usually niaimfncturod from grease, tulluw, etc, — Tiiomson'm Chemiitry. Tho use of soap us a detergent U well known; It may, in fact, bo considered as u necessary of life, Itl consumption in most civill/.od countries is immenso, Pliny informs us that soap was llrst Invented by lh« GniiU ; that it was composed of tullow and usiius ; and lluit the German soap was reckoned thu Itust. — Mli. xviii. Society Islands. These Islands, lying in lh« I'ttcillc Ocean, between lat. l(i' and In .S,, and long, 118^ and 150' W., arc under tho proteil )rnlo of the French government. Tlio principal islands of the ginup arc Tahiti, Kimeo, Ilualieiue, liulaten, llona-hoim, Tu- haa, and Sleura. I'apieto, (be capital of Tahiti, is much resorted to by American and other wbali'rs. I I>u ox- ports consist of oranges, pearl-shell, arrow-root, cocoo- wos surrounded with benches and rcccptnclca for loolii, nut oil, and other native proilucts of minor cuuiuierclal In the contrivance and use of which he discovered tlic utmost tngcnuity. Instead of taking out a patent, tho inventor confided his secret to a joiner in the same vil- lage, who in a few years amassed considerable proper- ty ; while tho other died, as ho had lived, in tlic great- est poverty. The great dilliculty of I'liltcl 8inl..i«nil n..iiin«rk,yt»rldfi7 Wo riirrvliiK tlio hrciidi Drprutrctoriilu llun. The pt'imlty ' ' for vlciliillnn thin resttl.ll.m i«, for tli^- lirit oirmiiie, a fine (if from UttX) to '.'IKH) frniiis, ami, i ii«o of repotU tlon, ilnulile thnt mm Kv(>r_v cnfi Must, within Iwonty-four hours nfli r hl.i nrrlviil to the inn of ll..,iiOO,(i(KJ rlx lollarn (alMiiii 4;iI,8mh,hmh), whhh li al.onl' (Iflecn i y a iioiiarH (ai.oiii 4,;i,nmh,hmh), whh h li ahont (Iflecn and , , , , . „ , , . r ''*" >'''^"'' I"'"'""'-' "f '^.ilH.f'Tlt rlx d(dlar«, thu av. en voMoU hiivu on hoard prohibited goodi, ipir- j cra«o not rcvonuu from thu dnc. diirln« the. ninu y«ir» ItD, arnn, or nniniunitlon, Intended only for their own ' of peace-— iHli to 1H47, and 1X51 to |H,',;i Kjk h male conaiunpllon or the defense of tho aldp, captains must interested In tliu comnmrco of the llallle lohe reniionn- present to thn director of customs a clet,illed declaration ildo for the sum only which I* mAhwA i» it, hut thu of snch klnils of stores within tweiio-rour hours after oiler lo he iiindioK on Hvnninrk, on lla iic . .pinnce |,y Iheir orrlval. Tho salo of niunltiooH of war, powder, ; all the slnliH whovu repre»enlatlve» have ' ikeii iiart In Mltpetro, pr.Joctiles, muskets, arms of any kind, U the ne(;otlallon. 'Ihis propo.al has l.euo iiecepled is prohlhltod, except nnder special perndssion from the will |,o seen hy thu following tnatv !.• Iwtuii the l.'nIU commissioner of tho empire ; nnd should any ^"oiU of this kind lie nttninptcd to lie frandidenlly Ininhd, they will he conlisi'nted, in addition to tho lino Imposed hy tlie polieo regulations. All spirits or liquors which may he attempted to ho frandulently landed arc Hullo lo I'onllscation, as well as tho boat eonvcyiui; them ; and tho enplain, who is held rcsponsilile for all goods which nmy lio on board, nnder whiilevcr conditions, is lialile lo aline of from Mm lo lO.noo francs. Ail goods admitted lo entry in tho French eslaldlshmentsof Occ- Aiilii may lie sold on l)oard, provided they bo not sold by rcdall. To elTcet sales of this kind, however, a li- cense of the (Irst class must bo previously obtained, payuldo in advance, nnd for a period of three months. Sales uf cargoes may nl>o be eflected on shore, by open- ing n store for that purpose, for wliich A similar license utust be obtained, and for the same period. Wines nnd llipiors, however, must bo sold exclusively on shore, either through tho medium of n consignee, or by the cajitnin or his agent, having first procured the neces- sary license, Cuptainsof vessels, whenever the length of their slay permits, must give notice of their depart- ure at the post-ofllco forty-eight hours Ijeforelmnd ; and when It Is desired that .-i vessel should remain in port lens than forty-eight hours, notice to that clfcct nmst be given on the day of arrival. If any of the fines specified in the foregoing regulations should not bo paid wllhln five days, at tho fartliest, from the date of con- donniatlon, or satisfactory security not be tendered, a part or tho whole of tho cargo will be pold, or tho ves- sel itself bo retained, to liiiuidalo the debt. — Coin. Jli- ht. r. ,V, Soda, Ata Ai.KAi.i. Solder, Sodder, or Soder, n metallic or mineral composition used in soldering or joining together other metals. Solders arc made of gold, silver, copper, tin, liiamnth, and lead. In the composition there must be some of the metal that is to be soldered mixed with some higher and finer metals. (Joldsmilhs usually make four kinds of solder, viz. : solder of eight, where to seven parts of silver there is one of briss or copper ; solder of six, where only a sixth part Is copper; solder of four, and solder of tlirce. It is the mixture of cop- per In tho solder that makes raised plate come always cheaper than tint. SotUld Dues. Under the head of DESSiAr.K the reader will lind u full history of this intorrsling com- mercial question, and also statistics illustrating the proportional Interest which every nation had in the abolishment of tho sound dues. Since the article Di:s. MA11K was In type tho final treaties (including that of tho United States here given) necessary for the adjust- ment of this (juostion bavo been signed. We here an- ed Hlotes ami Denmark (see next pagej. In the aimexed taide, showing Ihe/mi nild amounts to be piild by each nation for lIu' alxdlnh nt of ihu sound dues, it will bu seen that (irent lliituin, llusilu, and I'russia pay over (JH per cent, uf liiu total ; mil that tho first and second pay M per cent, of the loiiii Tlio share apportioned lo Ihu I'nlted Slates is onl) 'i per cent., while the trade of this country would appear to be ali'jut (1 per >int. of the whole, TAiii.r, siinwiM; Tur. rno hat* IHvtsiniinirTnil IxnKMRITT TO IIKNMAItK FOH TUK AlloMllUHIkT Uf TUK KOURII llUI* TO UK I'AIU IIV KACII .VaTIUN. i''»intriut, Dunmarlc Snellen Itussiii I'nissta Mecklenburg Lftbeck The Ilidtlc in geiierul. Nornsy llamliurg Ilriiiieu (Hdentiiirg Ilnnover (ii-eat ilrltalM Netlicrlands Delgiuui France Spain Portlignt SHrdinta Timeany Two Sicilies Aimtrfa (ia'uce Turkey fulteil States Mexico St, Domingo , Venezuela New (iranaitu Uruguay Ul'lata Brazil Peru nuenou Ayres Chill China Other cnuntriea ToUl Jill llolinn, l,lM,lilH 1,rs»i.im;i li.7i.(i.mi!i 4,4411,077 UIII.IUM lii'Alit U Vlll.lilltl m.iir, loT.niJ 'JfK,!.-;! VH vn I'.'II.M'.T in.ivil.NWi 1,4ISI.INIU :iiil.4.'>'i ],!illl,eo;i i.o'.'ii.iiin VH.li'.H VA.IIil i('.M),«lll »ll,4ii4 1,4111 '.Ki.Vid TIT.HW «,MT in.ittti «,xlll It.SilV I, HOT n,M:i 6oij,'jtir. 4:111 ID IIM B,W :in.iHHi.iiiio l»#r rtol. ~'ii»r" 4 no I'iOn liiT out 0(1(1 ini njil O'W (l'(N ii-;ir. •inMII 4 in (IM :i'4H '/■HI on on; nnn 0(16 ii'im U'dO O'lb It (13 (1-02 0(14 (Kr/ O'dl 0(S) 001 l'4t/ U'(XI 0(10 0-no 001 i-tu 1(10 (Kl As to the basis of the cnnlribullon, it would have been just to luivc taken the quantity of goods carried, or duties pnid, by the ships of each nation through the Sound and the Belt as determining tho proportions re- spectively to be paid to the capltallKatlon of the duel. Hut this proportion has not In every easn been car- ried out, as may be seen by comporln({ the foregoing table with the following, which exhibits the dutlci p»l(l by every nation. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) % {< 4^ 1.0 1.1 mtlA 125 :^ U£ 12.0 IU& 1^1'-^ U4 < 6" ^ HiotDgraphic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREBT WIBSTER.N.Y. 14SB0 (716)S72-4S03 '^ ,Afe sqv 1784 SOU -— TrassaHpr f^T"' • oTvuivn . • • • DtaftMriii OiMtBrittOn..... Fnnoa... OrNoe Htiaboiv Hanornrv... TlutlaUiMrUiiiU.. Italy (K^l«i) . . . . Lfibeck MKklmlMiig Marwsr OldaoDurg Port«««l Pni«ri* ,.... Spain..... SwedeQ Analrl*.. ll«ll.nilTUHIO. BuenoaA^rei >. Peru ToaDMi)' Total ■»ii»dfir the dtaoontlniunce of the Sonnd dnee, «h concluded and •Igned bj their raepectlTe plenipotenttatlei at Waahington, OB the Uth daf of April, 1867, which conrention ia aa fol- lawi: Th« United Statea of Amarieaand hta K^eaty .he King of Denmarl^ being deoiroua to terminate amicably the dlf- Arencel wUch have arioan between them In regard to the tolla levied by Denmark on American Tcaaeia and their cor- ■ee4 paoaing through the Sound and Bella, and commonly •alM the Sound dnee, baT* reeoired to conclude a conven- tion for that purpooe, and have named aa their plenipotan- tlaiiea, that ia to aay, the Preeident of the United States, Lewta Caaa, Secretary of State of the United States, and hie U»inly the King of Denmark, Torben Bille, Eaquire, Knight of the Oannebrog, rjid decorated with the Croea of Honor of tho aane ordar, his said imeaty'a Chargi d'Aflktrea near the govanunent of tbe United Statea, who, altar having commu- nicated to each other their full powera in due form, have agned to and elgntd tbe following articles: Artieh I. His Mi^)eety the King of Denmark deckrea en- tire CreedoD< of tbe navigation of the Sound and tbe Belta in fhvor of American veaaela and their cargoea from and forever After tiie day when this convention shall go Into elTect aa herrinaftor provided. And It U heieby agned that Ameri- can reaaela and their cargoea, alter that day, aball not be subject to any charges whatever in passing the Sound or the Bells, or to any detention in tbe said waters; and both gov- •mmeota wlU concur, if occaolon should require it, in iak- log maaamea to prevent abuse of tbe lice flag of tbe United Stataa by the shipping of other nationa which aball not have ■ecorad tha aama fteedom and cxamptton tmm chaises en- Joyed by that of tbe United States. ArtkU II. Hie Oanlah Mijeaty further engages that the paosagea of the Bound and Belta aball continue te he lighted and buoyed aa heretofore, without any chaige upon American vesiela or their cargoes on passing the Sound and the Belta, and that tlie preaent establishments of Danish pllota in these water* aball continue to be maintained by Denmark. Hla Daalsh Hi^ty agrees to make auch odditiona and improve- menta In regard to tbe llghta, buoys, and pilot establishmenta in Iheie watan as cireumstancea and tbe iDcreasIng tmda of the Baltic may require. He further engages that no chaijge ahall be made, in consequence of such additiona and tmprove- meota, on Amarican ahipa and their cargoes paaaing tluough the Sound and lb* Bcltsi It is underatood, however, to be optional for the maaters of American veaaela either to employ In the aaid waters Dan- iah pllota, at reaoonable rates fixed by the Danlab govern- ment, or to navigate their veaaela without such asaiitance. AftMt III, In consideration of the foregoing agreeaiente and atlpnlatlon on the part of Denmaric, whereby the free and unlacumberad navigation of American vessels through Ik* Sonnd and tha Balta la foravar socnnd, tho United Statea •■rse to pay to tha government of Denmark, once for all, the aun of «aT*a hnodrad and aaventaaa thousand eight hundred and twan^nln* rix dollar*, *r Ita equivalent, Uiive hundred and Binety-three thousand and eleven dollar* in United States currency, at London, on tbe day when tha said conTaattoa shall go hito fbll allMt, aa herein afterward provided. ilrNel* ir. It i* ftarther agreed that any other or further prlvtlagia, rights, or advantage* which may have been or may be granted by Damnaik to the •emmarca and navigation of any other natloa at tha Sound and Belta, or on her coaeta and in her harbor*, with raftranea to th« tranait by tand throngh Danish tanitory of marchaadlsa belonging to the eltlMns or subleataof auch nation, shall also h« fully extended to, and eqjoyed by, the cltliena of the Untied States, and by their vessel* and property In that quarter. ArtUUV. The general M«v*ntlon of IHendshlpiComnere*, and navlgaUoD, cMieladed between tha United State* and bin U^lesty the Xing of Oeanark, on the 98tb of April, 1898, and which waa abrogated on tha Uth of April, 1866, and tha ptpvlsiona contained In each and all of its arUdca, tlie 6th article alone excepted, aball, after the ratification of tbli prea- ent convention, again become binding upon the United Statea and Denmark ; it being, however, understood that a year'a notice ehatl anIBce fbr tbe abragatloD of the sdputationi of the said convention hereby renewed. ^rMcb VI. The prseent convention shall take elipct aa aoon a* the Uw* to carry it into operatton shall be paoaed by the govemmenta of the contracting partlea, and the oum stipu- lated to be paid by the United States shall be received by or tendered to Denmark : and for tbe IblflUment of these purposes a period notexceedlng twelve months from the algnlng of this convention ahall be pilowed. But l( In the Interval, an earlier day shall be fixed upon and carried into aflbct for a tnt navigation through the Sound and Belta bi tivor of any other power or powers, tbe same shall almnltaneouoly be extended to the veaaela of the United Statea and their cargoea, in anticipation of the payment of the Bum atipulatcd In ArtieU III, ; it being underatood, however, that in that event the government of the United States shall also pay to that of Denmark 4 per cent Intoreat on the •aid oum firom tho day the oald Immunity diall have gone lute operation nntil tbe principal ahall have been paid aa afoiaaald. ArtM» Til. The pnaent conventlou ahall he duly ratified, and the exchange of ratifications ahall take place In Waah- ington within ten months from the date hereoi; or sooner if pnctieablc In tilth whereof the respective plenlpotontlariea have sign- ed the piewnt convention, in duplicate, and have tbeitunto affixed their aeale. Done at Waahington thia lltb day of April, In the year of our Lord one thouoand eight hundred and fifty-seven, and of the tudependeiu» of the United Statea the elghty-flnt. Lewis Cabs. [bial.] TOBUXM BlUa. tSBAl.] And whereaa tha laid convention baa been duly ratified on both parts, and the respective ratifications of the same were exchanged In the city of Waahington on the 12th Inatant by Lewia Case, Secretary of State of the United Statea, and W. de Kaaolofl; hla Danlah M<\)eaty'a Chargu d'Atbirea and Con- sul-general In the UQlted States, on tho part of their respect- ive govemmenta: I^ow, tfaerefoitef be It known that I, James Buchanan, Prea- idcnt of tha United Statea of America, have caused tbe aaid convention to be made pnitiie, to the end that tbe same and every eUuse and aitlcte thereof may be observed and fulfilled with good faith by the United States and the citizens thereof. In wituesa whereof I have hereunto act my baud acd caused the seal of tbe United States to bo affixed. Done In tbe city of Waahington, this 13th day o/ January, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hun- Cnai-] dred and flftyalght, and of the independence of the United Statea tha eightyuaecond. Jamis Bdouamak, By till- Frealdent: htymCiMt^SteretaniofSUae. Sounding, the oporation of trying the depth of the sea, and tha nature of the bottom, by means of a plummet sunk from a ship to tho bottom. Thei-u are two plummets used for this purpose, one of which is calied the handJtad, weighing about eight cr nine pounds ; and the other the deep^ea lead^ which weighs IVom twenty-five to thirty pounda; and both are shaped iike the ft-ustum of • cone or pyramid. Tbe fanner is uicd in shallow water*, and en approaching tbe land after a lea-voyage. Accordingly, the lines used for this purpose are called the thep-iea Uad lint, and tho kand4€ad line. The hand-lead line, which is usually twenty fatlioms in length, is marked at every two or three fathoms ; so that the depth of the water may be sou 1735 SOU mrtnUoa d. )r further en or may IgsUon of DouMaad dUurongk elttMUor led to. *»A i by »>«l' COBUnBTOAt itM Ud ht( ifril, 18»e, M, Mid the tea, the fith of tbli pro*- nlted 8Ute« bat a year'i ttiona of tbe iflpctaaaoon «iHd by tha e (um atipa- ecelTcd by or henpurpow Ignlngofthta be fixed upon igh the Sonnd rera, tbe aame i of the United laymeiitof tha tood, however, ed SUtea ahaU itcieat on tbe tail have gone I been paid aa » duly ratified, place In Waah- ««; or Booner If jurleihaveaign- bare thereunto ., In tbe year of ly-aev«n, and of Ihty-flrtt I. t8»A''.] ^L«. lasAT.] |duly ratified on r the aame were [l9thlnatantby gtatea, and W. lalrea and Con. ,f their rcipecl- pnchanan, Prea- learned the aald \t the aame and ed and fulfilled dtUena thereof. jay hand atd xed. kayo* January, land eight hun- Indepandenca of Kd. la BvcUAMAS- J the depth of Ly means o' a li. There are Ke of which is light or nine fwhich weighs l)th arc shaped [The former is Wng the land biaes used for I line, and tlio Bcb is usually I every two «' IwttUr may ho ascsrtatned either in the day or nigiit. At the depth of two or three fathoma there are niarlis of blacli leath- er ; at five fatlioms there is a white rag ; at seven, a red rag ; at ten, blacJc leather ; at thirteen, black leath- er ; at fifteen, a white rag ; and at seventeen, a red rag. Sounding with tbe hand-lead, which by seamen is called keiHmg the lead, is generally performed by a man who stands in the main chains to windward. Having the line quite ready to run out without interruption, ho holds it nearly at the distance of a fathom from the plummet ; and having swung the latter backward and forward three or four times, in order to acquire the greater velocity, he swings it round his head, and thence so far forward as is necessary ; so that by the lead's sinking while the ship advances the line may he almost perpendicular when it reaches the bottom. The person sounding then proclaims the depth of the water, in a kind of song resembling the cries of hawk- ers in a city. Thus, if the mark of live fathoms is close to the surface of the water, he calls, " By the mark five ;" and as there is no mark at four, six, eight, etc., he estimates those numlwrs, and calls, " By the dip four," etc. ; if he Judges it to bo a quarter or a half more than any particular number, he calls, " And a quarter five," " and a half four," etc. If he conceives the depth to be three quarters more than a particular number, he calls it a quarter less than the next : thus, at four fathoms and three fourths he calls, "A quarter less five." The deep-sea lead is marked with two knots at twen- ty fathoms, three at thirty, and four at forty, and so on to the end. It is also marked with a single knot in the middle of each interval. Until the commencement of the plan of deep.4ea soundings, as now conducted in the navy of the United States, the Iwttom of tbe sea was almost entirely un- known to us. It has been proven that the system of deep-sea soundings formerly in use was not accurate. This was simply letting down a lead, until by a shock the line became slack : but it was found that the line would rnn on without end, being dragged out by under-cur- rents, and that 'ooy 'nd a certain depth no shock was felt. The plan of deep-sea soundings now in practice in our navy was suggested by Lieutenant Maury, and haf been successful principally from the adoption of a lead invented by Lieutenant J. M. Brooke, U.S.N. This method is to take a cannon-ball, bored through the middle, and a wire inserted ; and so arranged that when it touches Ijottom the ball slips off, and the wire with the line is drawn up. 'i'he wire has a cap at the end, with some adhesive matter to attach particles of the bottom. Tlie line is prepared for the purpose, so as to bear the weight, and yet of small resistance in sinking. Experiment has proven that while the plum- met is sinking the line runs out at an increasing rate per minute; and by observing when the rate becomes constant, we get the depth, as a current would draw at a constant speed. Mr Msury gives this law of descent : !m. 2U. as an average time of descent from 400to EOO fatha. 8m.26». " " " 1000 "1100 " 4m. 208. " " " 1800 "1900 " Lieutenant Walsh, of the United States schooner Fancy, reported a cast with the deep-sea lead of thirty- four thonsand feet without a bottom. His sounding- line was an iron wire more than eleven miles in length. Lieutenant Berryman, of the United States brig Dot- pMn, reported another unsuccessful attempt to fath- om mid-ocean with a lino thirty-nine thousand feet in length. Captain Dedham, of Her Britannic Majesty's ship Herald, reported bottom at the depth of forty-six thousand feet ; and Lieutenant J. P. Parker, of the United States frigate Congreu, afterward, in attempt- ing to sound near the same place, lot go his plummet, and saw a line fifty thousand feet long run after it as though tbe bottom bad not been reached. Tha last three attempts were made according to the plan men- tioned above. For further interesting items we rvfer to Maobv's Phfiical Geograpkg ^ Me Sea.— See Ax- LAMTic Ocean. Soundmgtfor the Atlantic Telegraph.— The reaolt of these soundings has been to establish tbe hypothesis of Lieutenant Maury, of a submarine plateau from the Newfoundland Banks nearly to the coast of Ireland. We extract portions of the report ot Lieutenant 0. H. Berryman, U.S.N., to the Secretary of the Navy, giv- ing an account of the experimental soundings made by him in the United States steamer A rctic, to corroborate the existence of this plateau. "VaiTiD R»TU SraiHla AacTie, JVm rtr», Otitltr 14, IIN " leaving New York on the night of July 18, 1 steered di- reotly for 8t. Johm, where I arrived on the 29th. Taking In coal by the Slat, I tailed for Ireland, and commenced aound- Ing as near on tlie Great Circle aa poiaible, paasing the north end of the 'Grand Banki' in latitude 48° 34' N., and one hundred and twenty fathoms water, although the beat chaita I have on board record one hundred and fifty-four. Thla oillerenea I attribute to the mode of taking aoundlnga at the time that aurrey was made. At intervals of thirty, for- ty, sixty, and one hundred miles, we sounded, all attended with complete auccesa, but frequently involving many houra, both night and day, of great auspense and hard work, losing sometimea two or three thouaand fltthoma of line, sounding apparatua and all. " The great plateau became so apparent In thenlddleof the ocean, and our fuel being contlderably reduced, I determined to Increase the Intervals between the posltioni, to enable me to reach the coast of Ireland with enough aoundlnga to com- plete a line entirely acroaa. Thla waa aceompllahed on the 22d of Auguit, and I arrived in the harbor of Queenalown with only a few buahela of coal on board. " Temperaturea were taken hourly at the surface, and at twenty fathoma every fbnr hours. Attempta were made to obtain them at the bottom and at different deptha, but the rctfulta were ao worthless, owing to some derangement of the thermometers, that I abandoned taking them, aa they inter- fered very much with the more Important object of sounding and obtaining bottom. On one occaaion two were sent to the bottom in very deep water, and one indicated a temperature of twenty-one degreea, the other twenty-four degrees. On examining and comparing the rest of the ttaermometera, I found them all differing from each other so much, and some of the banda being broken, I waa sure that they could not be used with any proptr results. "Currents were experienced to the eaatward, from nine to Ifleen miiea in each twenty-four hours, between the Orand Daoks and those of Ireland. No good opportunltlea for ob- serving under-currenta occurred, there being always either too ninch wind or a high sea. None appeared to affect our soundings very mncli— so little. Indeed, that frequently the slack line would be colled or kinked upon the bottom, ahow- Ing plainly that !t reached the bottom without the asslatance of the lead— determining In my own mind that, however others may think, the cable or wire of the lightest ktaid wlU hero reach tbe bottom most certainly. "Only one of the sounding apparatus which waa used n- malns, and Is sent to the department for Inspection, it being somewhat different, we believe, ftom any heretofore used- being an association of Brooke's and Massey's, with a weight or lead of my own adoption. " The Ibie used In aoundhig waa that obtained from Boatoo, ' which proved indifferent, and was all expended before reach- ing Ireland, and we had to resort to two parte of amallier line furnished at the navy-yard. Having eighty thouaand fath- oms of the smaller size line on leels, we had it made up into one of about four thouaand, and we found it decidedly the best that we have yet used, it being very strong and small. " On both sides the Interest taken in thla great enterprise is very great, and It la with every satisfaction that I can atate that the navy of the United SUtea is particniariy recognised as having promptly and afflclently executed tbe preliminary and important survey for so stupendous a work as laying a telegraphic cable of three thousand milea long across aa ocean upward of two thousand fathoma deep, and nearly sev- enteen hundred milea wide."— O. H. Bxbbtiiah, C. S. N. For a fhU statement of the resnlta of these sounding* in determining the proposed line of the cable of the At- lantic submarine telegraph, i.nd for the statistics con- cerning this line, see article Telkobafh. zZ'T:.:^ sou 1786 SOU AMtnxat or nicp Bin SovKDniai Ain> TrnmATsmn, WITH TOUR LATITVDBS and LOMOITUnXS, MAIW ON BOASD TBB LnITID STAT» STEAHIB ■'AbOTIO," LlEDTtHAMT COHMANDINO O. II. IIXKBYMAN, INITKII STATES NAW, BXTWBBN Newfoundland and Ibeland, Aoodet, 1866. 1 i M 1 1 1 i 1 TlMraigaittar. | 4 i S i 1 1 1 34 96 47 60 ' 63 00 30-34 68 66 49 47 8 17 160 ♦<)00 61 41 80-48 66 49 61 47 8 17 98 48 18 51 30 80 88 63 49 47 46 4 19 85 48 87 5)5S 30 84 A3 49 47 47 6 19 120 48 40 50 86 80-41 64 f>0 47 44 6 88 870 48 61 60 05 30-38 08 60 48 42 7 80 46) 49 12 49 42 29-84 6J 51 61 60 8 SO 7.12 49 38 49 06 80 16 68 64 63 68 9 33 lOSO 49 40 48 2ff 30 26 63 58 5a 51 10 6:1 IBDO 49 43 46 43 30-38 6,-) 59 60 63 11 38 18i7 4U49 46 54 30-29 64 65 6« 65 18 43 1627 49 SO 4148 30-20 66 59 60 80 18 88 1000 60 16 43 08 30-10 67 66 66 53 14 88 1609 60 03 40 26 30-12 63 65 65 64 15 77 1604 60 80 88 30 80-13 69 57 66 56 16 52 1600 60 44 37 15 3a-03 69 65 67 no 17 66 106O 61 00 85 60 29-89 69 68 67 67 18 64 lOSO 61 16 3103 29-88 6} 55 66 67 19 73 2070 61 38 32 20 29-77 88 57 57 57 80 116 8000 63 84 80 16 29-99 67 66 56 58 81 73 1830 53 86 27 18 30-06 50-16 68 5A 66 57 88 86 1920 53 86 86 30 71 59 R8 69 23 53 1813 51 03 24 51 30-10 68 57 57 68 84 00 1661 61 45 23 23 30-05 89 60 60 62 86 40 1690 6- 45 21 19 29-94 74 69 80 63 88 41 1618 61 50 20 13 29-90 71 no 60 61 8T 60 17B0 61 48 18 01 29 1» 73 81 62 80 28 60 1906 63 01 17 06 29-83 70 85 66 83 89 80 1618 60 OB 16 06 39-68 61 69 80 no 80 89 4U) 63 08 15 08 29-76 71 60 61 63 81 66 266 51 43 13 44 80-48 69 63 82 81 82 10 410 51 63 IS 16 80 04 88 68 60 61 33 31 717 61 61 13 27 30-05 71 68 69 01 84 38 114 61 41 11 ai 80-13 69 59 61 68 Note — The aoundiiiga in thU table are placed In the ■<• in which they appear un the profile, without regard to ^ South Amexloa. The sonthem portion o' American continent extends trom Point Gallenas, m Ut. 12° 80', to Capo Horn, !n lat. 66° 80'. Tlie extent of coast that it offers to the Caribbean Sea and the At- lantic is estimated at 11,000 miles ; and the coast wash- ed by the Pacific, it is stated by the latest geographical authority, has an approximate continuity of 6800 miles. At the southern extremity thcr-^ is a group of mount- ainous islands, separated from thu main land by the Straits of Magellan, and forming' the Archipelago of Terra del Fuogo, or " Land of Fire ;" so called from the number of flres which its discoverer, Magellan, saw along its coast at night, supposed to have been volcanic. This arehipelago, with its barren islands and rocks, must, however, be considered as the termination of the continent. Immediately north lies the vast and almost uninhabited country of Patagonia ; while on the east, at a distance of from 800 to 400 miles in the South At- lantic, lie the Falkland group of islands. The vast region known geographically as Patagonia extends from the River Negro, lat. 89°, to the Straits of Magellan, lat. 63° S., a distance of about 970 miles iff length, with a breadth var^-ingfirom 200 to 420 miles. It comprises two distinct physical regions, differing in sui-face and climate — the one lying on the west sidit of the Andes, the other on the east, and called, respect- ively, Eastern and Western Patagonia. The former it claimed by the Argentine Bepubllo to the Straits of Magellan, and the latter by Chili, down to Cape Horn. Both sections ara as yet, however, inhabited by abo- riginal races, with the exception of a Chilian settlement at Port Famine, and on the Straits of Magellan. This division of Patagonia is comprised in the Chilian prov- ince of Chiloe, which is composed of the archipelago of that name ; that of Chonos, of the most southern islands, and that part of the continent which extends trom Bio Negro, and as far south as Cape Horn. On the eastern division there are several ports, among which are, Gallegos, in 61° 88' ; Santa Cruz, in 60° 7' ; San Julian, in 49° 12' ; Desire, In 47° 5' ; Nuevo Golfo, in 48° ; and San Antonio, in 41° south. The few tribes of aboriginal Indians that inhabit this inhospitable re- gion subsist upon the products of their fishery. The principal object of Chili in colonizing Port Famine, on the Straits, was to keep in check these nomadic tribes, though the colony has also been used for penal pur- poses. Cape Horn Is uninhabited. The South American continent has on its Pacific coast no large rivers. On the Atlantic, however, are the Amazon, the Orinoco, and the Plata, and a number of others, which, though not so large as those named, are equal in size, if not superior, to even the largest rivers in Europe. The Amazon is tho largest river on the globe. Its principal tributaries vary in length from 1000 to 1800 miles, while the central stream is 4000 miles long, and is navigable 2200 miles from tlio sea. Peru, Bolivia, and Chili are the great mineral sites of South America, and produce chiefly silver, but also some gold and other metals, especially copper, which is very abundant in Chili. The most distln- 'Mifhing feature in the vegetation of South America ^ the prodigious forests, which cover about two-thirds i tho whole surface. Fruits of almost every variety abound, and indigo, coflTee, sugar-cane, maize, and tho coeoa-trco are tfmong tho chief products. The cultiva- tion of tho tea-tree has been attempted in Brazil, though it is believed without success ; but yerba matte, from which is prepared the customary beverage of one half of the peninsula, grows in the greatest abundance in Paraguay, Spain and Portugal were severally the original colonists of South America — the former found- ing the states of Venezuela, New Granada, Bolivia, ■ Peru, Chili, tho Argentine Republic, Uruguay, ond Paraguay ; and the latter the vast empire of Brazil. The South American states all achieved their Inde- pendence between the years 1810 and 1825, These states, together with the colonies and other regions comprised in South America, with their respective areas, population, capitals, etc., are exhibited in tho following table, derived from the latest geographical authority ; though, as regards the strict accuracy of the figures given, the same remark applies that Is made with reference to similar tables respecting Mexico and the Central American states : SUM, •!(. AKAIB Bquura MilM. PDpaUlion. PopnIXIoD !• Square Vila. CapllaU. PopalaUon. 621,943 426,713 287,638 98.000 69,765 87,660 8,973,400 498,726 473,298 849,068 786,000 72,106 73,638 210,000 6,297 3,34.3,054 1,149,836 605,000 127,696 61,030 82,010 6,066,000 2,116,493 1,447,000 1,133.868 764,000 800,000 130,000 800 669 4-89 8-69 8-33 183 1-03 0-88 8-04 4^ 8 06 463 0-07 4-16 1-68 O-flO 46,()0« 63,800 66,000 26,50.) 18.000 6,000 266,000 100,000 26,01)0 78,000 100,000 12,000 18,000 "soo Quito Onlana, BrItMh " Dutch " Fnneb BraaU Pbi-u ... Lima 'Bolivia Chill Santiago Buenoa Ayres Asuncion ■ Patagonia, east of Andes PortSUnley lUkUol Islands Total 6,768,940 18,814,890 8-41 sou 1787 SOU Icuracy of at is made lexico and |popDlftt)on. 63,800 66,000 26,l>0.1 18.030 6,000 l!66,000 1100,000 26,0110 1 78,000 |lOO,000 I ]ii,000 10,000 In the population given in the third colomn, no account la taken of the uncivilized Indian races, which probably number between 1,000,000 and 1,200,000 louls. Thcee are found chiefly in the great plaini of the Orinoco, Amazon, and Parana. The relative rank of the South American atateg, aa rc> garda thrir commercial intercourse with the United States, may be infltrred ft'om tife subjoined oompar- ative atatement, exhibiting the valuea of exports to each country from the United States, and of import* from 'uch country into the United States, during a period of four yearn, from 1852 to 1866, Inclusive; made up from United States Treaaury reporta for said years: ■Mrtk AnaritM SUIh. Urastl Chin VeoecueU Argentine Kapublte. Peru UrHguay Ecuador v UiporU. 8,108,260 1,200,8SS 761,726 es6,ir>6 612,«e7 Import!. $14,110,387 3,»82,107 8,072.648 2,144,071 l,0n6.400 467,170 67,684 Kiportt. $4,'261,27.H 8.426,267 1,228,440 069,427 870.646 422,172 66,002 Import*. $l6,218,Ur6 »,M8,»i)6 8,616,36!) 2,646,087 607,018 242,709 12,8-8 KKporta. $&,U04.9U8 2,887,743 1,712,774 1,260,863 1,241,283 651,820 import*. $19,262,6,'>7 2,467,819 4.202,699 2,822,161 217,760 Biporl*. $6,646.2(17 8,007,188 1,487,678 1,818,807 607,932 1,006,172 Import*. —Com. RelcU. U. S. For a complete exhibit of tho' commerce of each country, see articles under tlio proper hends.'— See North Amtr. Rev., xii. 432 (E. Evkbett), xix. 158 (J. Sparks); Wetlm. Ree., vl. 202; £di»i. Rev., xliil. 299 ; Dk Bow's Rev., vi. 8 ; Foreign Quart. Rev., xvili. 456; Christ. Rev., xvi. 821; Quart. Rev., xxxli. 125; Southern Quart. Rev.,Tdi.Sm; Dm. Rev., i. and ii.— iSee article America. Boutliampton, a parliamentary and municipal borough, sea-port town, and county of England, in the southern part of the county Hants, occupying a penln> sula between the mouths of the Test and Itcliin rivers, at the head of Southampton water, 12 miles south-south- west from Winchester, on the southwestern railroad, 72 milea aouthwest from London. Latitude of Saint Mi. chael's spire, 60° 61' N., long. 1° 24' 2" W. Population in 1861 , 36,306. The new docks on the east of the town, OT^ened in 1842, have an area of 208 acres, and liavo ad- niUted steamers of more than 700 tons burden. The West India, Mediterranean, and other mails, have their station hero, and the town communicates by steamers with all the ports of South England, the Channel isl- ands, Ireland, and by railroad with London, and all the centre of England. The port extends fi'om near Ports- mouth to Ghristchnrch. Hero are some manufactures of silks and ci rpets, but ship-building and general com- merce are the chief sources of wealth, Southampton ia now the point of departure of the steamers for Alex- andria (see ante, p. 20), and a stopping-place for the steamers iietwcen Bremen and New York. South Carolina, one of the Southern United States, is situated between 32" 2' and 35° 10' N. lat., and between 78° 24' and 83° 30' W. long. It is 200 miles long and 126 broad, containing 28,000 square miles. The population in 1790 ^\■a» 240,000 ; in 1800, 845,591; in 1810, 415,115; in 1820, 502,741 ; in 1830, 581,458; in 1840, 694,898; ond in 1850, 068,607. Xarli/ 7/too/y.— When the Spaniards, under Vasquez Ayllon (1520 and 1626), arrived on the coasts of what %ve now call Carolina, and more especially South Car- olina, they heard here of a great Indian king and conn try, both called Chicora or Chicoria, and they applied that Indian name for some time to this countrj-, with- out, however, giving to it very distinct limits. The country was also sometimes called after its discoverer, Tierra del Licenciado Ayllon, or, shorter, Tierra de Ayllon, often also corrupted to Terra de Aullon. _Un der this name the Spaniards comprehended sometimes a very great port of North America, sometimes not more than this province. French Claims. — It is curious enough that the French also, when they (1563) arrived at the locality of Ayl- lon's activity, heard again of an Indian king and coun- try of that name. In their ears it sounded, however, like Chicola or Chiouole. After the French navigation to these regions we hear the country sometimes desig- nated by the French themselves with the name La Floridt Franfoise, and other nations also called it French Florida. The Spaniards, of course, always con- sideretl it as a part of their Spanish Floriila. The French bnllt on their Kiviero May (St. Mateo or St. John's River) a fort, which they called Fort Caroline or Carolina. Some map-makers and geographers ap- plied this name, as an appellation of a country or ter- ritory, to the whole region. So we see, for instance, on a map of North America by Cornelius a Judaia (1693), the whole French Florida called Carolina, in honor of Charles IX., king of France. It is curious that the same namo was afterward given to the same locality in honor of an English king. English SettUments. — The English, since their settle- ments at Koanoke, comprehended the whole territory of Carolina under their widely-extended name of Vir- ginia, after 1683. This grant had, however, very slight consequences. The country was not settled, not taken possession of, not even surveyed or explored. In the year 1G63 Charles II. made another grant of all the lands between the 3Gth and 87th degrees of north latitude to Edward, earl of Clarendon, and some other lords and gentlemen, and this tract was again called, in his honor, Carolina ; so that we may say we httvo three kings as godfathers to this province — Chorles IX. of France, Charles I. and Charles II. of England. By a second more ample charter of the 24th of March, 1667, Charles II. extended the boundaries of Carolina from north latitude 29° to 36° 80', and from cast to west "until tlio Pacific Ocean." The country was divided into two great counties — a northern one, called the county of Albemarle, and a southern one, called Clar- endon county. In this same year (1667) William Sayle, the appointed Governor of Carolina, explored and surveyed the wliolo coast of the province, entering all the rivers and mak- ing astronomical observations. He no doubt, also, pro- cured a map of the country to bo made, but unhappily this map is not preserved for us Probably the results of this first good survey of the coasts of Carolina wero not then made known to the world at largo ; for wo find still, on the edition of Champlain's maps of the year 1677, along the coasts of Carolina, this inscrip- tion . " Terre non encore Mn» decouverte continenle a la Florida" (a land not yet well discovered is connected with Florida). In the 3'car 1729 the whole great province wns di- vidcd into North and South Carolina, and as tlie divid- ing point on tho coast was fixed a small inlet to tho west of Cope Fear, called Little River Inlet. In tho year 1733 the province of Georgia was detached as a separate government of tho old Territory of Carolina, and the southern boundaries of this latter were fixed at the mouth of tho Savannah River, and within these boundaries the name of Carolina has been prescribed ever since. According to what we stated, we may in a certain degree consider the names of Wingandacoa, Weapumeoc, Ould Virginia, Albemarle county, as old particular designations for North Carolina; and the name of OhicorS, Terra de Ayllon, Florida Fran^oise, Clarendon county, as particular appellations applied to South Carolina.— J. G. Kohl. See North Cabolwa. Physical Features, etc The sea-coast is bordered with a series of islands, between which and the shore there is a very convenient navigation. The main land U son 1788 SOU MtnnUy divldad inlk th* lower Mid apptr country. Tho tow ooontry exlcad* from eighty to one hundred mile* from the leo-ooMt, and* is covered with eiiten*- tve foreitt of pine, called pine barrcni, IntenperMd with marthea and awamps of a rich ioil. The banks of the large rivera and the creeks of this region are bordered with a l)elt of excellent land, producing cot- ton and Indian com in abundance. The marahcs and swamps in this district maiu flna rice plantations. The staple productions of the State are cotton and rice, gnat quantities of which are exported. Rice is ex- tensively cultivated where the land can be irrigated by the tide or the overflowing of the rivers. . The sea- island cotton produced on the islands along the shores is of a superior quality) and is in great demand. Gold, iron, granite, and marble, are the principal minerals. Then were in this SUte In 18fiO, 4,073,661 acres of land improved, and 12,146,049 acres of unimproved land in Ikrms. Cash vaiue of farms, ^2,431,684 ; and the value of bnplementsond machinery was $4,136,364. The number of live stock was— horses, 07,171 ; asses and mules, 87,488 ; milch cows, 198,244 ; working oxen, 20,607 ; other cattle, 668,936 ; sheep, 286,661 ; swine, 1,066,603) aggregate value, $16,060,016. Agricultural Produett, efc— Wheat, 1,066,277 bush- ela ; lye, 43,790; Indian com, 16,>7i,464 ; buckwheat, MS; oats, 2,822,166; barley, 4688; pens, 1,026,900; poUtoes, 186,494; sweet potatoes, 4,837,469; rice, 169,^30,618 pounds; value of products of the orchard, (86,108; produce of market gardens, $47,286; pounds of butter made, 2,981,850; of cheese, 4970; sugar, 671 hogaheads; napU-sugar, 200 pounds ; molalses, 16,904 gallons; beeswax and honey, 216,281 pounds; wool, pounds produeed, 487,288 ; cotton, 800,001 1 flax, 888; silk cocoons, 128; hops, 26 pounds; tobacco, 74,386 1 hay, tons of, 20,936 ; clover seeds, 876 bushels | other grass seeds, 80 ; flax-seed, 66 bushels ; wine, 6880 gal- lons. Value of home-made nianuhctnres, $900,636 ; and of sUughtered animals, $1,802,087. The Great Podeo Hi var, 460 uillus long, rises in North Carolina, and runs through the eastern part of the Htato. It is navigable fur sioopti I UO miles, The Bantee, formed by the Junction of the Wuteree and tho Congaree, rises in North Carolina, and hw a sloop navigation for about 130 miles. The Saluda is a branch of the Oongaree. The Edisto is navigable for large lioats 100 nilles. The Savannah washes tho whole southwest border of tho State, and is a noble stream. There are several small* cr rivers, among which are Cooper, Ashley, and Com- bahce. Manu/acturti, etc.— There were In (he State In 1860, 13 cotton factories, with a capital Invested of $778,000, employing 871 males and 673 females, producing goods valued at $742,220 ; establlilimentu with » capital of $186,700, employing 166 persons, and making 1280 tons of castings, etc., valued at $87,688; 2M7 flouring and grist mills, 448 saw-rollls, 107 tanneries, 41 print- ing-offices, 46 newspapers— 7 daily, 4 tri-weekly, 2 semi-weekly, 24 weekly, 1 bi-monthly, 6 monthly, and 1 quarterly publication. Gapllal Investeil in man- ufactures, $6,660,606 ; value of manufactured articles, $6,200,864. In June, 1856, there were railroads, with 846 mllei of road flnlahed and in operation, and 874 miles In course of construction. Then were 10 banks and 3 branches, with a cash capital of |I10,073,680. ar xaa 8tati or Bourn Cabclina rioii Ootobsb 1 , 1820. to Jolt 1, 1867, suowino also tui DlSTBlOT TOHNAOK IN 1821, 1831, 1811, A»D 1861. Y«An «IMliDf «;.porU. InpoiU. Toaims* rUtnd. IllatrkI TMiiMiif . 1 VmmMe. rora^. Tcttl. ToUI. Amwlriw. rowipi, Ktghttn*. KnrolUtI tnd Llftiiutl, 8ept80,18» $6,867,616 $382.m $7,'i«o,eii $3,007,113 45,342 10.6.5 ifl,W- lY.iui 18M 7,186,366 128,984 7,260,320 2,288,886 48,6.>4 16,987 I I I • .... 1888 «,«T1,»98 320,816 6,898,814 8,419,101 54,687 24,000 till .... 1824 7,883,Ti8 200,869 8,034,062 2,106,185 01,002 18,878 t • » • III. ' 18S6 10,876,476 180,287 11,086,743 1,892,297 67,620 17,081 • • • • ... * •U 18M T,468,9M 85,070 7,664,036 1,534,483 08,820 18,818 • t • • • • • t ,. 18JT 8,180,496 133,066 8,S22,6«1 1,434,106 68,864 24,001 t I * f .III 1828 6,808,870 42,142 6,580.712 1,242,048 47,565 26,630 • • • • . • . t 182» 8,134,676 40,910 8,176,686 1,139,018 60,3!r7 24,473 • • I • • > I . 18B0 Total... T,B80,8«t 46,210 7,027,081 1,054,619 62,464 20,405 .... 1... $77,268,806 $1,411,799 $78,680,386 $18,173,160 666, 146 ~ i68,1fl8 .... .... 8ept80.18Sl $6,688,<06 $46,696 $6,676,201 $1,233,103 48,426 99.015 0.808 0,040 1832., 7,685,833 66.S98 7,752,731 1,213,725 47,8113 41,8:;fl • • • . . 1 < . <;* 1888.; 8,887,812 96.813 8,484,825 1,617,705 4'J,()!W 87,479 " ■ • .... 1884 11,110,6<8 88,213 11,207,778 1,787.207 60,1147 40,4116 . « . • .... 1886 11,224,898 118,718 11,388,016 1,891,8115 48,708 83,476 . • • ■ . t . * 1886 13,482,767 201,619 13,664,876 2,801.301 61,658 85,0«6 * • . • 18ST 11,188,992 8t,l<9 11,220,161 2,510,800 40,600 8I).88« • . « • 1881 11.017.391 24,679 11,042.070 3,8I8,7»1 87,248 t7,8&« • ■ . • . • • . 188» 10,8l8,8tt 66,6M 10,386,426 8,066,0n 61,828 80,627 *• • 1 • . . . 1B40 Total... 9,081,016 65,758 10,080,769 ^,068,870 82,090 86,4115 .... .... $!00,884,791 $842,062 $101,676,883 $20,484,624 6J«,789 Mo,ot6- .... .... Sept. 80, 1841 $8,011,803 $31,802 $8,048,284 $1,567,431 63,469 98.716 19,t»h3 11,441 1848 7,608,899 17,324 7,826,723 1,369,465 01,132 84,018 .... .. . s Omoe., 184S< June 80, 1844 7,7M,162 7,429,886 6,657 7,760,809 1,294,709 71,400 43,101 t • . s . . <• 8,697 7,433,282 1,131,615 49,801 48,926 • . • * .... 1846 8,884,n0 6,878 8,800,648 1,143,158 86,768 88.012 .... .... 1846 6,829,616 18,948 e,»18,477 908,536 60,614 87,578 .... . . 1 . 184T 10,428,146 8,871 10,431,617 1,6S0,669 K;,420 40,702 e>*« *l .* 1848 8,081,917 * ■ • > 8,081,917 1,485,209 53.864 42,568 .( e* . I . s 1849 9,609,876 1,301 9,701,176 1,475,696 88,788 68,101 • « . • II.. 1880 Total... 11,446,892 908 11,447,800 1,038,786 72,222 6i,8.10 .... .... »86,OT4,6«8 $89,970 $80,164,633 $13,661,251 653,827 410,017 .... .... June 80, 1851 $16,816,678 • • e $1^816,678 $8,061,812 81,386 69,178 .... n.OTT 1851 11,670,021 • • t > 11,670,021 2,176,014 80,027 88,284 .... .... 18S8 16,400,408 16,400,408 1,808,517 76,368 86,200 ..II . . t • 1864 11,(82,808 $12,708 11.996,016 l,7n,8S6 86,008 80,028 .*•• .... 18S6 12,«M,8(1 1,380 18,700,280 1,588,{>48 110,633 34,414 .... . . . • 1886 17,888,298 2,281 17,860,849 1,005,234 114,963 41,255 • («S . . « * 18or. At the entrance to the harbor there Is a sand bar, of al)out eight miles in length, having several uhannels. Three of the cbanuels o^n only be used by ships of largo ton- sou -f' 1789 SPA 11,441 ll,«TT |efkl)OUt Three krgo ton* nag« ; on*, tlio ships' channel, hu a depth of water of twelve feet at ebb-tide, and from seventeen to twenty at flood-tide. Ships always talce a pilot, on account of shifting sands, and are moored along side wharves In safety inside the harbor. It is the chluf commercial afnporlum of tho State, and the largest shipping port on the Atlantic below Baltimore. The chief exports are cotton and rice. It is connected with the interior by tho South Carolina and the Northeastern railroads. The tonnage of Charleston, in 181)6, was &9,128 tons. Beaufort, on the west side of Port Boyal Biver, an inlet of the Atlantic, and sixteen miles from the sea, has a good harbor, but on account of a bar at its moutii only small vessels can enter it. It has little or no com- merco. The tonnage in 185G was only 110 tons.— For ftirtlier particulars as to South Carolina, sen Southern Quart. Jitv., xviii. 06, xx. 273, 298, iv. 247 (Simms) ; De Bow'h Xev., viii. 24, xi. 123 ; Nortk Atiwrican Jiev., xiiU 143. South Sea Bubble. This destructive specula- tion was commenced 'u. 1710, and the company incor- porated by statute in 1716. The bubble, which ruin- ed thousands of families, exploded in 1720, and the di- tectors' estates, to the value of £2,014,000 sterling, were seized in 1721. Mr. Knight, tho cashier, ab- sconded with ;£100,000; but he compounded the fraud for jC 10,000, and returned to England in 1748. Al- most all the wealthy persons in the kingdom had be- come stock-jobbers and speculators in this unfortunate scheme. The artifloes of the directors had raised the shares, originally of £100, to the enormous price of £1000. — See Charlks Mackay's Uiatory of Modem Maniat ; Banken' Magaiine, X. Y. South Sea Dutiee. The British act of the 9 Ann. c. 21, establishing the South Soa Company, coa veyed to them the exclusive privilege of trading to the Pacific Ocean, and along the east coast of America, from the Orinoco to Cape Horn. Sovereign (the Coin). The name of an ancient OS well as a modern English gold coin. In Henry I.'s reign, a coin of tbia denomination was issued, <^ the value of twenty-two shillings, and one twenty-fourth part of the weight of a pound of gold. In 84 Henry VIII., sovereigns were coined of the value of twenty shillings, which afterward (4 and 6 Edward VI.) passed for twonty-four and thirty shillings. By 56 George III., sovereigns of the new gold coinage were directed to pass for twenty shillings, and they were issued from the Mint the same year (1816), and have since main- tained the same value. SovereigntyoftheSeaa. The claim of England is of very ancient date. Arthur was the first who as- sumed tho sovereignty of the seas for Britain, and Alfred afterward supported this right. The sovereignty of England over the British seas was maintained by Sel- den, and measures were taken by government in con- sequence, 8 Charles I., in 1638. The Dutch, after the death of Charles I., made some attempts to obtain it, but were roughly treated by Blake and other admirals. Russia and other powers of tho North armed, to avoid search, In 1780; again in 1800.— IIaydn. Soy, a spocies of sauce prepared in China and Jap- an from a small bean, the produce of tho Dolichot toja. It is eaten with fish and other articles. It should be chosen of a good flavor, not too salt nor too sweet, of a good thick consistence, a brown color, and clear; when shaken in a glass, it should leave a coat on the surface, of a bright yellowish brown color; U it do not, it is of an inferior kind, and should be rejected. Japan soy is deemed superior to the Chinese. It is worth, in bond, from six to seven shillings sterling a gallon. It is believed to be extensively counterfeited. — ^Milbdrn's Orient. Con. Spain, or FT""' (_lberia, Hispania), a country of southwestern Europe, occupying the greater part of the Iberian peninsula, and often termed colloquially "the Peninsula," extending between lat. 86° 1' and 48° 45' N., and long. 8° 20' £., and 0° 31' W., boundad north by the Bay of BiKay and by the Pyrenees, wbich separate it from France, east by the Mediterraneu, south by the Mediterranean and the Strait of GibraU tar, and west by Portugal and the Atlantic Ocean. Spain is rich in minerals, Mpedally mercury, iron, copper, and lead. The celebrated gold and silver mines of tho time of the Uonians have long been abandoned, but mercury is extracted in great abundance from the mines of Almaden. Lead forms an Important branch of mining industry. Coal is found chiefly in the Astn- rias ; copper, tin, ainc, antimony, arsenic, and cobalt, are common, and lock-salt is abundact in the hills of Cardona. The principal rivers of Spain are, from north to south, the Ter, Lloliregat, Ebro, Ouadalaviar, Jucar, and Segura, flawing cast to the Mediterranean. The Minho, Douro, Tagns. Ouadiana, and Guadalquivir, flowing mostly tlirough Portugal west and south to the Atlantic. Few of these are navigable, and those only for small boats near their mouths. Sptmith CototiUs.—'Ihii principal are Cuba, Puerto Rico, and some smaller islands in America; the Phil- ippine and Marrianno Islands in the Pacific, the Ca- nary Islands in the Atlantic, Fernando Po and tlie Isl- and of Annabon in tho Gulf of Guinea, and Ceuta, Go- mera, and Melilla in Barbery.— For a full account of the Colonies, see articles under thesa heads. The PttMic Debt of Spain Hie following is an ofii- cial return of the state of tho publio debt of Spain on theSOthof June, 18!)5: Three per cent stock, psyaUo to bearer, and Inscriptions transferable and non-tnnifera- ll««li ble(lDtenul) !,0Sl,0n,M4 Ditto siren as icnarantecs for loans and con- tract 643,012,000 Ditto deferred l,5in,li89,4M Three per cents (foreign) T18,S»4,ort, not to molest in any manner, nor forco to quit her intended course, the vessel so visited. — Art. 19. Consuls to be reciprocally established, and to bo enti- tied to the privileges and powcm enjoyed by those of tho most favored nations. — Art. 22 (1st section). The two contracting parties to give in future to their mu- tual commerce oil the extension and favor which the .^Advantages of both countries may require. The treaty of 1819, so far as it relates to navigation, confirms all the foregoing stipulations of the treaty of 1795; and as no limit was assigned to the duration of that treaty, those stipulations are still in force, and, with subsequent acts of legislation, regulate the inter- course, navigation, and commerce between the United States and its citizens, and the King of Spain, his suc- oessors and subjects, between whom it is agreed " there ■ball be a firm and inviolable peace and sincere friend- ship, without exception of persons or places." The oom- neroe between tho United States and Spain, though at all times employing but a limited capital, commenced at a period long anterior to the American Revolution. The .Britiil^Ainerican colonists wera permitted, by act of Parliament, to carry on a direct trade in all article*, except tobacco and naval stores, with countries south of Cape Kinisterre. This trade consisted principally In exporting from tho colonies lumber, laths, and other producs (tobacco and naval stores excepted), and in bringing home ratum cargoes of wine, salt, fruits, and other productions of the Spanish peninsula. After the peace of 1783, a mora unrestricted trade waa opened between the two countries ; but, owing lo tba prohibition on tobacco (a policy adopted for the pur- pose of encouraging the growth of that article in the Spanish colonial possessions), and the high protective duties on most of the other leading staples of the Unit- ed States, the trade could not have realized any hope of profitable Investment, or given much encouragement to commerolal enterprlsis. The wines, fruits, olive oil, salt, brandies, barilla, silks, and wools of Spain, would constitute a profitable and an easy exchange for the productions of the United States, particularly bread- stuffs, tobacco, and cotton, if that country could be in- duced to relax a system of restrictive policy whicli has never realized the benefits it wns designed to secure, and has virtually rendered Spain, to a great extent, commercially Isolated from the other nations of tho earth. Her legislation in regard to commerelal In- tercourse with foreign countries would seem to be based upon the principle of possessing and scouring within herself all the advantages of an extensive commeree, and all the means of luxury, wealth, and power — a principle which, however gratifying to national vanity it may be in theory, needs no other proof of its utter impracticability, if not of its Inevitably pernicious con- sequences, tliaii a reference to what is known of the history of Japan or China, or even to the commerelal condition of Spain herself during the last half century. She has ever maintained and exereised the right to be the solo arbiter of her commercial regulations, and, aa such, permits no foreign interference with her policy of excluding from her ports the produce of the industry and soil of other nations. Two features stand prom- inently forward in this exclusive and restrictive sys- tem : the first, the exclusion of commodities from any country, except her colonial empire, especially before Its dismemberment and consequent dimlnntion ; and, secondly, by compelling the latter to consume no man- ufactured articles except those of Spain, with tho view that all the precious metals should l^o sent to the moth- er country, where they would remain if no foreign mer- chandise was admitted. Notwithstanding these pre- cautions, the precious metals were drained off to for- eign countries, in exchange for the enormous contra-, band importations smuggled into Spain, by way of the Basque provinces, through Portugal ; by way of the Mediterranean ; and alao even, as they wero, and are to the present day, by way of Gibraltar. Besides, an extensive contraband trade with tlie Spanish settle- ments in Cuba and South America was carried on by the British-American colonies, thus draining off a large portion of the precious metals, which it was tho policy of the mother country to monopolize, at a cost so fatal to her commercial prosperity. This contraband trade was, however, arrested, and after a short time totally suppressed, by the vigilance of the guarda-coitai sta- tioned by Spain along the coasts, and by the indiscrim- inate seizure of all British colonial vessels found near the shores of the Spanish colonies. The trade with Spain of late years exhibits in a most strikingtnanner the pernicious eflbct of a system of com- merelal intercourse which, however well it may have fulfilled its ends when Mexico, the West Indies, the South American republics, and the Spanish Polynesian islands all poured their united treasures into the lap of Spain, and thus rendered her to a certain extent in- dependent of other nations, has long since proved to be the moat serious, if not the only, obstacle to her regain- ing the proud and prominent position she once held in the family of nations. The difference in the amount RPA 1741 SPA of asporti IxtWMn (ha pariodi of 1834 tnd 1854 U at- tributable to tha partUl rcUxMion of tho reitrlctive •yitem within th« past fuw years, particularly the mod- lAMlioiii which tho tariir hiu uiulorgons •ince 1840; but tho RTOat disproportion botwoen imiwrts and ax- porU, resulting in so large a baliinca against Spain, ihowa that tho prohibitions and restrictions are oa yet but partially abated. Of the article of tobacco, about C,0OO,00O lbs. la smug, glad annually from GibralUr into Spain, and about 4,000,000 Iba. la exported from the sanio dep6t to Oran, Algiers, Malta, and other places. Spain, in tho face of thia contraband, still mainuins her royal tobacco mono|ioly. Exclusive of tho tobacco smuggled Into Spain from Uibraltar. it is smuggled along the whole north and west coaaU of Spain. Tlio extension of the Spanish cuatoms to the aeo-coasts and porta of Biscay in 1844 haa not diminished, but, it is asserted, has greatly increased, tho contraband trade.— MxconEG- OH, pkrta 13 and 14, p. 96. Notwithstanding the apparently satisfactory ruaults, the commerce of the United Slnlos with Spain, in Amer- ican bottoms, is perceptibly declining. Varloua causes conspire to tliia result, among which may bo regarded aa tho most prominent tho enormous diRcrcntial duties imposed on imports under all foreign flngs, and tho dis- criminating duties of port and navigation, amounting to 100 per cent, on American vessels in favor of nation- al, and what is styled "privileged vessels;" or, in oth- er words, the vessels of nearly all other foreign nations. Besides, American vessels aro frequently exposed to local restrictions (doubtless unauthorized by tho gov- ernment) in the difl'erent ports, to which they must either quietly submit, or incur all the expense, delay, and trouble of protesting against tho action of oflScials whose power In such cases Is as unlimited as Ita excr- ciae is arbitrary and oppressive. Vessels of the follow- ing nations are ascertained to be of this class : England, France, Holland, Portugal, Russia, Prussia, Sardinia, Belgium, Hamburg, Sweden and Norway, Tuscany, Bremen, Papal States, Denmark, Br,<2ll, Ecuador, Lb- beck, Hanover, Mecklenburg, Oldenbjrg, and Sicily. This has been a subject of frequent complaint on the part of American captains, but thus far without obtain- ing relief. The United States consul at Malaga, un- der date of April 3, 1854, adverting to this subject, says : " Although subject to tlio Central Board at Mad- rid, [quarantine regulations] are almost entirely un- der the control of tho local board of this city, • • * ordering vessels off to lazarettos, * * ♦ in tho face of clean bills of health ccrtiHed by Spanish con- suls, upon mere reports, without any olBcial informa- tion to warrant such extraordinary measures." The following table will show, approximately, to what extent the direct trade between the United States and Spain has fallen off within the past few years. Most of this trade ia carried on through the port of Malaga. TOMMAOI OF AMXaiOAM VmsILB KKTHtim AT THE POBT OF Malaua in Tua roux>wi!om Spain consist (ex> elasiveoftilki>unuiiactims)ofnwproduot(. Oftbeae wine, oUvt oil, wool, flruiu of varioua kluda, lend, qiii«||. silvar, brandy, cork -wood, salt, raw silk, wbaal, •!«. are the moat important, and an almoat all toaoaptlbk ofanindeflniteincreaae. The great articlea of import are colonial producia, obtained principally from Cuba, Porto KIco, etc. i cot- tona and cotton wool ; linena, and hemp and flaa i woolena; aalted flsh; hanlware, glass, and earthaa. ware ; timber, rice, bldea, butter and cheeae, ate. Sub- joined ia An AooooitT or ma VAims o» nii wncpirAi Aaneiaa or Mativk faoDuoi EXFoario raoM hPAiN in 1840, aiiowiNo ALBO TUt FEOPOatlONAl VAUla Or NAOII A ITIOtl ArticlM In ih« OnUr it Ihtit impwuntt rine. Wine, alierry . " common , " Malaga ., ToUli Olira-oll , Flour Quioksllrer Lead Ilttlslns Wool Coin Cork-wood Brandy Cochineal , Silver In ban Salt Num Soap Silk , Mquorlce Almonds Orangcfl ': 811k goods Saffron Hides Iron Woolen gooda Wheat Shoes Paibu Maize Cattle Oarbamoii, or chick-pea . Osriin stuff ■i''''it<> paper Secig mattings, etc, Lome \M Sausages Hempen yam on or almonds Kidney beans Sugar Salted codfish Grapes All other articlea Total VilMJa Rnia Valloa T.'.ailO,«90 >2,TAn,Te8 4.162, 1*1 lull6,3!IO 2,7Mi,l<72 2,7|-,B3S 2K77,4I6 8,226,(1(16 2,139,619 1,006.844 1,122,679 1.810,929 1,666,216 1,001,798 1,600,24!) 1,603,122 1,479,278 1.440,014 1,&'i8,U4'.» 1,340,2K) 1,209.765 1,177,724 1,160.446 l,0:m,648 1,(;87,086 1,044.879 016,718 912,763 80,7£6,9»0 ufToUlValM. 995 7'8B T-7t 6«4 m ahore. In fh)m 80 to 40 feet of water ; thoy are exposed to all winda from the east-northoast to south by west ; but the holding-ground la good, and there Is no Inatance of a ablp having been driven from bar mooring* in the paat twenty years. Barcelona, the principal town of Spain on the Med- iterranean, In lat. 41° 22' N., anl long. 2° 10' E. The harbor la naturally bad, and is formed by a mola or Jetty. The depth of water within the mole la ttom 18 to 20 feet ; but there la a bar between the mole and Mai\Jni, and which has frequently not more than ton foet. Vessels inside the mole aro safe, largeveaaela have to anchor outalde, and are much Incommoded by the winda. Bilbao, sometlmea Incorrectly written Belboa, a sea- port in the Bay of Biscay. Cadlc, the principal commercial city and sea-port of Spain, on its southwestern coast, on the rocky and el- evated extremity of a narrow, low peninsula, or tongue of land, projecting fh>m the lata de Leon N.N.W. about 4^ nautical miles. It is surrounded on all sides except the south — where it Joins the land — by the sea, and is very atrougly fortlHed. Population In 1837, 68,626. It is well built, and has at a distance a very striking appearance. The tower or light-house of St. Sebastian stands on the western aide of the citv,' being in lat. 86° 81' 7" N., long. 6° 18' 62" W. It \» a moat conapionous object to vesaels approaching from the At- lantic The light, which is 172 feet high, la of great brilliancy, revolves once a minute, and In fair weather may be seen more than six leagues olf. Ban "f Cadiz. — The entrance to this noble basin lies between the city and the town and promontory of Rota, bearing northwest by north, diatant about 1} ieaguea. The bay is of very great extent, aflbrding in moat placea goo4 anchorage. The port is on the eastern aide of the r''.y, where a large mole has been con- stmeted. By a royal order of January 8, 1862, it was decreed that all fbreign veaaela belonging to countries whero Spanish vesaels are placed on the same footing as na- tional, with respect to port dues and charges, should enjoy a like privilege in the ports of Spain and a^h- oent islands ; but, practically, this decree was not per- ' mitted to apply to vessels of the United States, and they continued sulject to double the amount of such dues and charge* paid by other foreign and the nation- al vessels. The reason for the non-fulfillment of this provision, as respects this country, was the refusal of the government of the United States to receive vessels in its port* on equal terms from Cnba and Porto Rico ; and the government of Spain reftised to accede to such condition, a* It desired to secure this benefit for its ma- rine, from whareaoaver her vessels might proceed. On the 16th of June, 1864, however, the American minis- ter at Madrid was offidally informed by the Spanish Minister of State that her Majesty the Queen had been pleased to command that American vessels " be consid- ered in the peninrala and adjacent islands like nation- al one*, a* regard* the duties of port and navigation, in reriproclty far what I* practloed with lh« Spanish ▼••• sels proceeding from the same place* In the United States, and with rsferance to the same duties." Tb« offlolal notification addad, that ' corresponding order* had been given, "under date of the 14th lost., to the general direction of custom-house* and tarillk," to caN ry Into eflbct the dispositions of this order. The elltect of the above-recited royal order will ba (o place American shipping on an equality, aa reapaota (he dutiea of port and navlKation, with national and privileged veaaela, and thua reciprocate the term* on which Spaniah veaaela have been Mlmltlad Into the port^i of the United Statea aince 1862. Should thia be fbl- lowed up by a liberal modlAcation, or an entire aboli- tion, of the enormoua discriminating duties levied on foreign Imports in tiie ports of Spain, the commercial Intercourse between the two countries would soon be- come a source of Industrial development and national proaperity, equally beneficial and profitable to each. The quarantine regulationa of Spain have always baan complicated and vexation*. They were almpllAed, however, by a aanltary tariff, promulgated Daoambar, 1866, a translation of which is suljoined : TABirV OF BANITARY 1I0TIK8 BXACTBD IN THS roBTS KSU LAZAHBTTOS OF SPAIN, EnlnuKt ZMtea.—Oouting vessel* of more than twenty tons burden will pay one quarter of a real par ton fur the round voyage. Vessels proceeding from the ports of the Mediterra- nean and other ports of Europe, including the coast of Africa to the parallel of the Canary Islands, will pay one half of a real per ton for the round voyage. Vessels from other placea will pay one real par ton each voyage. QuaroHtint />ii(ief.— Vessels of every class will pay one quarter of h real per ton each day they ara sulject to quarantine, whether in actual laxarettos or undergo- ing obeervation. Loiantlo Dut%e$.—1ha fee for each person in the lai- aretto will ba four reals per diem. Merchandise subject to purification will pay a* fol- low*: The clothing and baggtiie of each of the crew S real*. The clotlilDg and bSKgage of each puaenger 10 " Hides of cows, per 100 6 " Finesklna 8 " Ooat, thaep, lambskins, and the skin* of other •null animals, per 100 i " Feathers, goaU'-natr, soft balr, wool, cotton, bemp, and flax, per quintal 1 ■' \jage live antnala, lueh as horses and mules, each 8 " Small animals, each 4 " Cerliflcatet a/ Utallh ahall be made out, and legally attested, firee of charge. Ae^{at Miiriiwi) milt tiiiiU I'WlHHUIIlHt HSIWMMkltl* .... Tiilnl ,.,,., lMMI|i< (iiilw itnil I'Dfiii lllm ...... iliaall m\\ K«lll|l|Hf ..,,,,...,,..,,.,, i;nlt«i« NIkKiii, ,.,,., (Iimtoiiialit .,,,........,., Munliui, ,,,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, Ni)w(irMi«4ai., ,...,..,,, I'um ,,,,.....,...,.,..... lllailRllaU,.. \[m»»r..., VaimiiHtila, ...... ..,.,.,,. |l|tn|l||l(;'u|flfl|ti|l,,,,,,,,,, Vraniili CJul«nlil>ft,«lce of Spain in IH6ft condiled of four veneln of the line, nine frlgalen, eight corveltei, fifteen brlg« of the flr»t, and four of the wcond cUm ; dve ichooner», aix iloops, forty itenmera, and three hund- red and nineteen anialler craft, mounting in all 12A0 ordinary, and IWO awlvei gum. The Imports Into and exports from Spain for tha year 1800 are shown as follows: Import, of 1860 MM7 U.t Import. on865 7M.160.9B9 InomaMin 1660 116,091.441 Export. In 1860 1,148,010. lilO lutpotts In 1866 1,940,784,609 Dccressa In 1866 900,174,408 From this exhibit wo see that In the aggregate there was a decided decrease In the trade of Spain in the year 1H5C over that of 1866. Statement showing the American merchant vessels which arrived at Cadiz in five years, 1849 to 186a in- clusive : Y»n. 1840 181)0 IWil 18V.' 1S.M Total . Vimb. Mm. T«u. 60 801 94.1110 47 BOT 10.400 46 014 1S,B8;I 46 078 91,1IT 80 l)-» ll.eOT 93'i 0094 09,140 American and other foreign vessels can only trade iMtwocn Spain and other countries; they can not par- ticipate in any Spanish coasting, domestic, or internal trade. The navigation and trade between ilie United Slates and Spain docs not increase. The tariff of Spain ex- cludes most of the staple articles of the L'nited Slates, such OS grain, breadstulTs, rice, tobacco, etc., the prin- cipal article of import from the United States being undressed oak staves for wine-casks. In order to pro- mote navigation and trade between the two countrieii, it la necessary tliat high dutici, prohibitions, and re- strictive measures on both sides should cease. tnMP*k*)'IVK HtATttMPHf rtf tllH t'oiiiii PiiTt,. Ifl'IMH lOI.ANIIHI aSIIIHItlttO tllH VAI.fH or KXPORTB TO ANII iMrORTH VROSi KACII CorNTBV, ANII Till ToNNAUK or ANKKIUAN ANII fOaifltlN Vl;FiKl!t.s AHRIviKO raosi anu iikpabti.no to kacii Country, ddbino the Vxabs dsbkinatkd. Visn. -- COMMftRCK. HAVIftATION. 1 V«l«» ul Kipotli. V.lu. of ImpotU. American Tunnivt. KurvlKB Tunuiitfe. | lliminMr huinrf. lf4M,l*r IVt.ljii ToUI. k'nteml Uia C'l»nd tt»in Kntend Iba CUrti.1 fTum MNHlUeff. l.'iilird SUtel. VnlMd SIttM. llnlleU 8l>tM. UnIM 8UI«. 1845, „'„,;■,■,;,,, «ii4,ll70 r>10,704 $1.76,1.877 0I.4%H 14,184 10,774 9,116 ISM MI.Will 01,140 000,740 ].9.W,74') 27.081 10.949 6.42-J o,ir8 1H4T 9,0fm,1(rt 0(1.1)08 9,102,064 1,847.179 .17.133 2ft 8"6 14.079 17.800 m»,,., 9,nsi),l4l 91.047 9,407,788 9,499,609 43.07T 2.\2T0 10,849 99,68T It^O., ........... \,m,-m OO.flilll 1,0(14,801 9.486.910 8S.7ro 27,584 11,891 80642 IK**....,,.....,. ll,«IKI.II09 1 01.1198 4.001,900 0,604,484 4?,797 27,885 00,004 48.848 1h61 ,, «,(,», 19^ 161.180 6.700.314 0.444.070 3.M'83 40.IB1 28.439 61.400 lli.'>».,,..., H,4(fl.nio 1BJ.4IT 3.WI7.I!)7 8.360.009 Ol.UCS 2S,ti74 22,402 63,689 1S6S,,..,,.,...., 4,«49,T4» bl.s48 4.004.638 4.040.090 47,000 40.019 24,279 47,(97 INW.,.,.,,,,.,.. 4,(!(KI.I»I 7'.4"4 4.798.076 6.122.468 4.5.104 88.024 10,060 4t.2Sl )m ,,.,.. 4.TIKI.9M '141,019 6.140.804 B. SCO. 108 01.090 66.709 00,087 49,808 A Pl|j»l»l*aif ur mm Amoiftif or NatIo)«ai. Tonhaoi, aito or the number or ErriciENT Peamen maAoiD m the Com- MHtliJM ANti Sayau Xebtice or Xpaim, AS opriciAiiY btated, roR tub Year 18B3. ItMrUlii, THjr»r,7;,v," Psrrol,,,,,, (isrtliitHKna , lli)v*na,,,,< Hanlll* Tolsl,, Mii.lm, l'i)<,K,»l<; Afllw SMMtn. Nunibar .,f V«Wi*lfl over 4m Ton.. Number of Veaaels from WO lo 400 Tone. Number of VeMeli from 60 lu 900 Tone. Number of Veweli from W to 80 Tone. Veeeeb of ForelBn bulllT. Hlaiiniera. Vaiaala bulldlat. T.1T4 mn m ^ii.flfir" 99.110 «n,8(il 9,061 It.ttil 4 11 IB T 9 26 T4 118 SO 16 02 849 8S0 99 84 813 442 iiro 296 1244 89 18 28 889 10 12 6 20 18 62 70 23 ;!i,*4i rnM_ 46 26B 067 848T 484 1 40 m KoTK-^In this riiiiMiB^ Iho noatneii, tonnsge, etc., of the province of Porto Klco ai« omitted; and there are some omla> •ton* alH in tlio pruviiHMi ef ViMOOttados, Fhlllpplnes, etc SPA 1744 8PA noHMnni Of ti 88 l.'lllT8l> Hn ATM WITH 8r*IH ON Til 1 Atiamtio, r iB^lM. tnUI. ■nM nn» 1, 1810, TO Jolt 1, 1WT. Ymh MHllai tLtfMit. WliAnW llicn wwia *alHN HHt Iff Twft ltM4. ihnlMtt*. raMlfll. ♦ iSO.BflO ■ 'tdtal. ■•pM« Iiiif 4iMrl>M ■*,1.4 -t^fisj »^.h.t»ii...::: "TS'M.TOT" ■■■■**l4,lliKi ■ *964,oK~ ' \»n iid.'iio 87,749 IM0I9 099,03A $8,0*0 8,000 8,070 m IIU 1UM,IHMI i:a,u«« 1118.089 ea 180,189 880.480 897,400 00,000 U,40ll 11,710 1,000 ISW ToUl ... Ba8.IM |l,oe7,88< tnO,lS4l $.'08,1118 $17,819 $991,140 $100,797 $19,010 $8,900 7.067 1,474 1848 888,949 1,900 881,499 70,780 1,H41 11.008 9,8 8 »in(M., IS4S' JunaSb,1844 00,100 940 0!l,840 40,0-^0 7,100 9,998 ao-i B«:i,flSl 18,808 3,180 909,197 17,743 0,14S 10,487 180 1848 97I,S88 080 971,781 117,108 l,H78 8.M8 879 1848 040,449 • • • 810,449 147,888 , • . . 4 001 8,708 1,871 1847 770,748 10,110 7«),8«a 974,708 «,000 oo,o;i9 0,080 1,174 1848 097, 7»T • • • • 007,707 977,1(10 .... 00, 49 J 19,090 9, '900 18« 180,071 81,479 900,000 813,400 58,107 24,413 17,243 9,'.'34 1800 TuUI... 00\(I00 9M,n08 884,917 880,181 97,818 $lbj,84B 13,708 10.083 4ia,o 10,990 $119,779 $4,090,008 $9,081,8J3 $06,088 08,884 'iim ' JuM30,186t $008,713 $1,070 SS,908 $00},78S $101,707 .... 14,(88 19,424 1859 40S,8I4 098,099 841,008 $90,700 10,188 8,408 1803 881,484 10,001 847,010 flSG,«48 18,091 iii.roo 10,788 *,'J90 18« 1,800,848 1,8110,348 038,004 , , , , 14,(181 8,840 8,li;4 1865 1,189,108 101,117 1,1140,970 018,140 • < • • 9. ',904 8,070 18M 1,417,040 10,808 1,428,900 081,090 • • * • t • • ■ 18,':9B 7,8JT 18IVT J,»89,flW 18,889 2,070,070 899.0HJ ,.,, l.SOO 28.811 10,078 CoMHKiici or Till I'ntTiD Htatm with Spain ok tm MKniTiiiiiANr.AM, tiom OoTonRR 1, 1890, to Jolt 1, 1807, YMit «a4bit 8«pt.80, 1891 1922 1918 1814 1890 1928 1927 1898 1820 1830 Total. S«pL80,lS31 1881 1883 18S4 1980 1886 1887 1SS8 1880 1840 Total. BepL80,184t 1812 Omoi., 184a«.... June 80, 1844 1810 1846 1847 1848 1818 1800 ToUl. June SO, 1801 1801 1803 18M 18SB 18M 18BT Rl[iortl. I)i>iiwit(e. $'24,990 6i!6,200 20,878 0,840 16,814 60,004 82,808 08.844 186,009 _ 140,050 $i;i40,024" $70,121 188,804 l.'iO.lOO 187,470 08,040 278,028 894,187 330,004 900,794 210,084 $'2,044,484 $173,833 221,893 1K7O6 M,700 89,436 1,1'<8,840 1,741,474 1,010,42!> 8,206,889 $8,860,031 $1,407,831 2,718,004 8,028,000 8,919,808 8,870,680 0,049,880 T,716.90T KortlKM. »oio 1,004 10,447 6,°888 20,040 7,112 61,I0U 46,700 $109,109 $7,108 1,064 040 41,703 80,940 2,050 10,000 $107,471 $9,907 10,078 23,840 28,808 47,718 41,003 0,870 19,8i7 96,800 $201,061 $187,471 114,237 84,90T 81,040 903,701 B7,683 11,9U TcM. $.0,140 020,004 40,823 9,840 90,140 101,010 80,4(16 118,087 231,609 140,{>06 $1,991,790 $89,319 187,918 1.10,6!IO 187,478 137,747 979,028 854,483 839,499 22S,7'24 218,010 $9,101,006 $193,630 238,476 80,106 84,009 130,103 1,229,403 1,748,849 1,039,200 8,303,217 $8,646,091 $4,094,908 1,832,741 0,007,908 8,248,403 8,679,881 6,006,068 T,71T.118 iDiporb, ""'Tul.i.'^ $988,81:9 0113,0,10 47.3,030 808,607 882,900 032,309 480,300 411,470 474,1'20 04a,'271 $1,188,834 $700,022 740,701 800,714 1,112,080 8'20,700 1,000,781 l,Ml,flNO 808,830 1.007,079 l,4fl!l,hOI) »il,0OS,l4O $1,119,960 1,060,640 410,060 891,287 001,099 904,416 1,016,001 910,346 1,000,687 1.702,914 $9,444,707 $1,710,776 1,443,976 1,408,879 1,079,074 1,986,871 1,600,441 1,060,084 Bulllua thvr* WMln ■n4 Hytcn. Kiiwrl. $20,000 2i,800 1,866 19,800 $08,1)66 $9,084 93.340 28 809 47,719 20,000 6,878 19,827 80.792 $240,694 $107,043 87,060 84,297 81,040 6,1H 29,400 lin|Mirt 1e;ooi'' 9,706 9,040 47,100 "i,'40O 19,200 1,'200 lO.SItO 13.4.')6 $114,088 $8,130 4.'W 1,004 8,(Hifl 81,683 "i,Voo 11,010 2,800 8.634 $70,811 $16,184 w.Vn 80,493 111,602 16,406 126,612 S4.089 119,298 407,189 $012,009 $8.4S0 1,000 26,883 19,600 24,600 * Nino months to Jung 80, and the flical year tna HfiM time begini July 1, Tonoiig* «I«Artd. AnwrUfta, 9,480 874 706 1,068 1,469 1.911 8,0C6 4,018 3,017 10,884 1,906 8.280 4,946 4 096 0.874 0.010 1,916 0687 4,006 ~4U,8»9 4,848 0,810 470 860 S,009 0,809 7,981 9,190 0.803 9,867 03,140 9,070 6,174 7,600 19,140 18,878 19,186 21,006 J'unitH. 177 118 746 684. 1,8118 9,000 9,996 S,'204 8,891 4,838 4,780 1,01:8 96,796 90 1,00(1 397 18.396 27,313 99,073 84,997 107,489 44,014 87,681 88,180 87,224 88,777 60,007 67,687 a flPA 1743 SA 11.414 t,4n« 6,'iW a,IC4 a,bTO 7,«»T 10,«5 l'unt«ll. 'ioi 'sis I ttM i,8im j.ofto S,MW 4,838 4,TIW 1,01^8 "io I 1,0M BUT 1«,8«« ' S7.SI3 SH,i>7a 84,!W7_ 44,014 1 87,6S1 88.1 BO I 87,124 1 88,777 80,067 «7,B8T Of tt« fkMtW •• tb« oomiiMNid mU^ of Hp^n Ik* fcllowlnii parllflttlan, rurnUh«t by th* (Jiili*4 ■MtN MNMtit •! Caaii, wUl to (a«Bd latmillng i IM tf >»»'r,«J*; »«■■»»•«, WM i«u.4. Mtnubkiiit . •AmM MfMMIlM w ■rflfMflM, or ■ board of eoMMlUUon In NtoMM %» (iiilMi'houM larUk, i rnulMiou, uiil all ■•Itw* rtlaUM M IMMM WHi oilorM, with • itonilT* powtn, ud 4tMr«Uli)| iMr Mlrlk«ll*M Tho ol^oti of tkta koMd to inlmt M to W «Mtia h4 pnpoM to ito nlntolM of Iho to §<«■«■ tli NiWnao wkUk Diojr n»7 oomoIto oa(hl Io bo ■MMit In Ito •HMttM-boow tarllh, oiKt to oerupjp ItomMlvoo wMb m4 dlMM 111 Ito »w«oo4Um wkl<:h aujr b.< found »IUi rtflMt to Ito a«4tntaiHllii( of Ifca Mmo, thoir oppllnilon mi Mo4lllMllM I M ctoo wllh raqioci to tb« rMlwaoUoiu of fcftit* fm—i m' *hM« wUeb oufhl Io bo modo on Iho yart m' ifttn, «llk rMfool to Ibo otiroonanu wd UoaUot of MVtaMloN MP MMBorw, Md ui)r uUur alalr whotoTtr nlo- Mv« to Ito aMNMtlU ItfUloUon. ThU JunUt do arati- Nl«t I* to to • MTfarUlM UdopondMt In oil polnto of any •ttof o4«« tf Ito ilatoi ud a* auoh U clolhod wllh tho NHM bwlifii |Wl«ll«|M, and pra-onlnonMt which bolong to Ito Mtol dIrMMv* oonlroi of Um mlnlalrr of Uh haolanda, «f • yMHkMnl atonrtor. Tto JnnU to ompoworod. In iho ptWhrmMM* of IM ilKltoi, to eemmunloalo dirocUjr with, and ri*ha n«M| MfMMl oouanii In foreign ooantrtoa, lofomor^ ■■4pM«ar«afi W proTlnoM, •dmlnlitralonof oualon-hoaiH, JNaliM of aaiMMfM, oooaMitoal aoclottoo, ate, and anjr othor anltofillaai oflMd, na4 ootpomttono whalavor, all data Ihajr ■•If lelMtlrt B M ltoary Ibr tbo oxaeulloD of Iho builneM fMN*llto4 to lh«M. CoplH of Ihia docroo and ordor aro totawllll, 4otoUln| al longlk Iha porHua tompoaing tho Juti- I*, 1114 Ito nw4d fil wblok Itor aro to procood. Thla board !• IMW or|MlM4, titd la aapaetad to maka a nport pending Mm MMl MMtM of Ikt Vortaa, U la pmumad Uial Iho; will NMMiMnd Ito fc«orlli| of noTlgaUon under tho Spanltk Im I Ito wliaitilM of ooMala klnda of cotton manulhMnroa, •M •Ihor klltalM MV pnhlUtod t togothcr wllh an aug- MHtallitll of !*• Million) «f Mlara In tho euitom-honao rcr- MW on ImpoH* I llio Iha toalntananoo of tho prcoent monop- •HM «f lakaiM, Ml ', ilaapad papar, and the duUaa payable MiM»iil, Wfighl*, and IfaomrM.— Tto w«if(hla and mM*urM ira th* aiUbllahad onei of Castile; the nmAaW roalo *•!. lou^llUS). GM CuMflff.— Tto laat daU Itot wa haTO MOmk of the lonR-contlnuod doubloon lorioo of Pkninialar c«lna(o waa 1824 Tto half doubloon of that year wel|{hod O'taa ounce, MA Ano i valua, #7 78, TTio new Rotd coin la a plooo of 100 roalt, wd|hlog 0-MR unneo. (JW«ne,»4U«-8. -" " aUttr C'oM«w,_Tho prindpal coin (not IM larfoot) •oema to to tho place of 4 roaU, or plaUioen, wlilch liefore 1887 waa of Ito weight 0180 ounce; flnenoaa, 810 j valDo, 20-7 cento. The lUndardi have toon lately changed, and tto now plauroon walgto 0*146 onnoo, llnaneaa, 889 ; value, 208 cenU. Ttore Io alao a largo place of 20 reala (dollar), worth 101-6 ceutl j and placet uf 10, 4, 2, and 1 nal In proportion.— I;h<|mIMi(m Mk4 Rrporl, 18&7. \Vtighi:—aM ui«a 48221 gpanlah, or 848D Engllih cubic Inchea, and la equivalent to 1-65 English Imperial bushela. Flv« fanegu are nearly equal lo one quarter Kngllah. IKhm ifeowre, — One arroba of wine meaaurea 4S4S English imperial gallont. One arroto of oil, 8) En> glish gallons. One botta - 80 arrobaa of wine, or 88^ of oil. The botta contains 1271 English gallona, and the pipi! 114} Engllnh gallons. Lonff M iMiirr.— One Spanish ft)ol=t2 pnlgadas, or 144 linos, and Is equivalent to 11-128 English incher, or 0-2826 of a French melra. One palmo, of 9 pulga> das, or 12 dedos, =8} English inches. One vara, or 4 palmos, =33-884 English inches, or 0-847 of a metre, Onebraza=2varas,cr6fc«t. Onepasso^Sfeet. Ono estadal=4 varas, or 13 feet. One cuorda=8i varaa, or 26) feet VoMWM Comuiaoi or na I'liiTait BrAna wim RFAnan AuuaioAif CoioMia' (iMotimiiie Maxico), no> Ooioaa 1, 1880, TO Hamiiau 80, 18-i4. VMiSMHUag kipicti. Importi. WkuMfllMfOHlo BMllton Rnd SpMM. bomMtU. r>nl|B. tMaL foUJ. ttiforl. Impnt. r«.i(>. *^l8i;:::;:; IMII IIM Total... i,«7ti.«ra «.8j7 m\ 1.8!8,«l< S,8W.347 e.040.B4a |1,UB7,786 8.4-21,(Kl8 4,601,878 7.808.4S7 ii,li4,n7 S,6i>.«88 4,8411,1108 «.786.7«l) 164,893 67,098 $l»,4«l Ml.lIT t.969.4l« 8.674.800 14,M* 11,747 88,111 61,661 864 iu4 0«,8uO,»iw |lU,«M,lt>8 «I0.»'.M,148 »16.-.«a,377_ *1I»,M1 te,4IB,7«5 lSy,718 1 IMO 1 CeHMtaoa or ma Vnitbd StAna wm Tizas,* raou Ootobib 1. 1S36, to Swt t, 1846. VcaMsadlK I8M, |6M.. 1140, ]M1 n. f 010%. ]l4lt, Juanb,IMJ.. Toiat.. BifOlli. "lTiit;air' 1,088.818 1,87»,045 087,071 B16.S86 176,178 1116,140 166,447 110,786 160 MO |i,T00,l«) rwif. 1110,816 119,061 808,017 281,199 191.041 m.DM 87,718 81,101 163,066 ttS,8«8 T«tol. 1.147.880 1,487,(181 1,!18,271 8n8,196 406,9M 141,968 177,648 868,799 478,608 (1,934,119 I 6T,6H18« 106,718 818.116 808,847 896,020 460.891 446,399 678,661 766,814 188.068 Bipo rt. ■^I^too $8,889,816 Wbtnof Uian oh to BulUtio md Syf If. TMOOffe clMTtd. $1,616 Iropott. ii.ysv 18.116 $17,469 48,608 66,061 41,177 66. €88 61,888 16.610 St,816 17,174 16,186 10,114 10,066 46,427 18,fB0 10,699 «8,10t $U8,08S I 171,861 ixm • Tto oofflMiva of Teiaa from 1846, when It became one of the United Btalaa, may to fbund oadai tto toad of Tozaat- and Ih* •«mm*rm ef Meilco, since Its independence, under the head of Mexico, t Slaa moiHha to June 00, and the 8soal year fh)m thla time boglna July t SPE 1745 ■ SPI COHMBioi or TBa UiavBD Btaiu wtm SrAnu Wiri Innna [Cvu Bxcnimi], noa OoroBn 1, 1830, to JviT li 18&T.. Y««n •ndlog ■•iwrti. 1 tapod.. Bullioa mi SpacM. TonnH* ciMmt Dmbmiic. FoMiUn. TMI. Tot*l. ■iput. Impork Amarlfu. runlya. a«pt«o,iwt »I75,8IT (it8,604 $808,831 $098,616 .... $lA7.'i7 11,134 .... 18W 160,435 7,606 158,041 983,607 • . , • 86,889 10,650 .... 18« 860,088 a5,4»5 881,688 814,078 • . , * 98,788 8.409 1,128 iSH 800,8u'6 888,718 6M,614 856,898 ■ *•* 8,896 6,068 180 18J» )!1«,108 8:2, 156 8:a,268 798,887 ■ **• 6.069 6.989 7B ISM 810,858 U,6«5 10,3U 283.596 nO,770 * • >• 7,841 6,878 • • • • 188T S18,1M 888,610 »09,819 $1,000 18,760 7,194 608 , «::::::: 8»,m 16,877 887,888 1,190,180 1,950 8,448 7,848 823 109,180 88,000 840,080 838,839 81,506 8,6.'4 11,051 916 isao ToUl... 946,888 87,5'^S 878,159 1,807,148 11. (M> 7,718 8,7r4 439 $8,811,804 '$4'jt,7l0 $8,68»,0U $D,099,174 $57,106 $197,137 82,UU1 8,014 8q>tS0,ini $Ml,80t •63,845 $816,046 $1,580,168 $35,688 $16,173 8,879 1,051 im 88'2,b68 ^,668 S96,1K 1,8<9,184 43,389 9,127 9,343 717 1888 S93,9«8 37,398 481,390 1,879.884 T,080 8,991 13,86i 219 1884 431,80.^ 60,788 491,597 9.8M.418 11,G50 11,160 15,709 741 ISSS 686,088 91,e«8 877,857 9,884,174 70,950 16,266 91,140 179 1888 694,650 86.899 «0,468 8,100,048 47,088 8,600 82,079 493 188T 6IT.I78 68,188 689,916 9,481,081 42,823 53,725 17,071 1.155 1888 «»2,56S 80,484 728.063 8,038.162 80,4"8 80,788 19,588 2,4:)6 IP'S TJV,049 87,848 Sl1«,39T 8,749,619 115,207 13,144 22,547 1,180 1840 TeUl... 7T0,4:0 89,808 799,628 1,898.739 81,879 46,695 23,659 959 «s,86u,6ea $M9,«16 $6,990, lb9 $;>8,980,8U3 $184,004 $•84,655 179,187 8,U9< 1841 «T31,846 $88,087 $749,933 $9,680,010 $98,988 $17,799 80,199 730 1842 S1U,8I3 19,718 830,631 9,517,001 19,767 63,457 19,566 1,184 tnoi., 1848' 449,084 11,821 468,866 1,07«,V.S 1,879 47,943 18 381 349 JuiiaS0,1844 <8«,«ej 6,177 649,139 9,436,208 4,084 87,021 28,143 883 1816 &>8,14t 80,776 708,924 9,090,263 11,808 53,458 2S.575 039 1848 8,451 14917 J«ne80,18Bt <961,410 $67,100 $1,018,610 $9,480,899 $ift,liO) $346 1.6,880 6 013 1858....... 1,0154>88 8),S43 1,055,105 3 0UI,828 61.81 8 16,877 35,01(1 5,544 1863 310,4U S4.I48 884 654 2,800,936 47,917 18,016 30,815 9,429 1864 890,886 80 907 1,061,838 2,850,358 1S3,7M 19,179 81,014 8,5.8 1858 1,144,681 88.987 1,183,618 2,475,9:8 10,0 « 28,625 84,1.0 6,5.1 1808 1,089,600 48,)2<5 l,14i,7.'4 8,870.903 23.859 14,700 33,'. 64 ),!ino 186T 1,788.420 lb8,046 1,186,474 6,748,(10.1 483,4! 5 658 S7.(;83 8,560 ' MIno months to June 80, «nefore they enter the eye. Spectacles were unknown to the ancients. They are jcencrally supposed to have been invented in the 13th (Century, by Alexander de Spina, a monli of Florence, In luly, about A.r>. 1286.— 6'en. Ilitt. They were in- vented by Roger Bacon, accordiug tc Dr. Plott, about 1280. Some afSrm that the real inventor was Salvino ; and Mr. Manni gives proofs in favor of Salvino in his TrealUe on SpectacUs. — IIavi>n. fipelter, a name ircquently given to Zisc ; which •ee. 8pennac«ti(Ger. WaBnUh; Vr. Blanc de Bakine, Sperme ile Balfine ; It. Spermaeeti ; Sp. Kipeitna de Jial- Una; Kuss. JSptrmaze(), a product obtained from the brain of the phi/trter macmcephalus, a species of whalo inhabiting tin Southern Ocean. The brain being dtig out twm the cavitjr of the bead, th« oil is sejiarated &f hu»k,.„", '."*«<'- '""'alo flour cav.„.l ''"""•'•d wit/, " "rong one. |„ ,, ' """"''ution of , weak «r,l~.T *'*« '"' « Pcach i„, I "" P^'xluw. a fr .1 . "P' ^'•"l eolorlua '„,''* '?-H ^"'"ilioD or ^,?"' P^P" «rp. and l... Si""""- "why part of .h/ .■"* """""'h SFI 1748 SM M. horka, gnvlng In b wild lUta; and they May b« dt«> tlnKuiihed from the true nutmeg by being longer and piler than it. Mace is aim true or wild, aecoMtng at it is obtained from either kind of nulmeg>-tree. As imported into this country, the true maoe is of a golden •r oranga yellow, transparent and homy. Falsa or wild maea is of a dark red color, and defloiant in Bavor and snwIL The nutmeg, as well at the mace, contains a flxed, and also a volatUe oil, at well aa starch and woody matter. i(iLft«ra(>im.-<-It might readily be suppoted, as these spicta art not powdered, but ai« sold at imported, that no adulteration could possibly be practiced; and it appears^ in reality, that veiy little it attempted.- The only fraud it found to contlst in the abttraction of the volatile oil by dittillatien, which deprives the nutmeg and maoe of their chief flavor and utility as spiots. In order to preserve the nutmeg from insects, it is often •oaked in lime water, or covered with powdered lime ; bat tliis does not seem to be a Oraud, but rather a pre- servative. It therefore need not be guarded against, bat the presence of the full complement of oil should, if possible, be insured. This can only be done in prac- tice by attending to the flavor and smell, and compar> ing then with the reeegniaed genuine article. The shape Li a good guide to the true nutmeg, and pur- cbaiwrs should always select those of a round form, avoiding those which are like dates in appearance, or even at all elongated beyond a very alight departure from the true circle. Pimemla, or AU$fkt, also called Jamaica pepper, is the berry of a tree bearing the first name, and ^wing in the West Indies, from which it is imported in bsgs. Tliere are two qaalities of it, but only one ia extens- ively used in this country. Pimento, like most other spices, owes its qualities as a condiment to its essential oil, which ia contained in conaiderable quantities in the berries mixed with gummy and resinoua matter, astringent extract and bity oil. This essential oil is readily obtained by dis- tillation. The adulteration of this spice is so trifling aa scarcely to require alluding to; and as the price of pimento at present in tlie London market is firom i\d. to 4|m the three-year old branchea, and dried in the sun ; and its quality varies considerably, but itt external chaf acters are generally pretty nearly the same. Cassia, or the bark of the Chmamonum cattia, is bronght tmm China, Malabar, Bombay, and the Mauritius; it re- sembles the true cinnamon in flavor, though lets deli- cate and not so sweet, and attended with a certain de- gree of bitterness. It is constantly substituted for cia- namon, and it is necessary, therefore, to endeavor to distinguish the one fh>m the other by our ordinary senses, if possible. The bark of cinnamon Is not much thicker than drawing-paper, and breaks with an uneven margin, showing a coarse arrangement of its fibres. It alto contitts of several concentric layers of bark, one with- in the other. These are called ^illi, and are of a pale brown, with a sweet aromatic taste, unaccompanied by any bitterness or astringency. Cassia bark is considerably thicker and coarser, and has a short fracture and smooth edge. It has general- ly only one, or at most two quills, within the external one ; and the taste is a coarse imitation of cinnamon, with a strong tendency to leave an astringent bitter on' the tongue. By these characters the bark of the one, when whole, may be distinguished from the other ; but when powdered, the aid of the microscope is required to detect the imposition, which is extensively prac- ticed; and, failing this, the character of the vendor it the only safeguard. Cassia buds are also imported. The cinnamon of commerce is chiefly produced in the island of Ceylon, from the iMurui cinnamomi of botan- ists, the Kooroomloo-gaha of the Singhalese, a plant which appears to have flourished in that island from the earliest period. ' We learn from Scriptural history that this spice was employed by the Hebrews in their religious ceremonies; and there can be little doubt that their supplies were derived fh>m the Arabian merchanta who traded between the Red Sea and the East. Mixed tpiet, as implied by the name, is a compound of the various ordinary spices, as ginger, pimento, cas- sia, etc. It is largely adulterated, and can not, there- fore, be recommended, nor is its use at all required, in- asmuch as the cook may in all cases use her own judg- ment to greater advantage. iHroBTt or 8pioia iirio rna L'XITSD BTATBa roB TUB FISCAL YxAB BMDma ,1vtim 30, 1857. Mm. Natmsi. Clmui Pounat. mm. Clovn. P.pi>.r, Pound. Bl«ek. ' Villi.. t>M»ta. VsIm. Piu4i. ValM. "».1W P«>.di V.lM Hamburg .... 15T $f Dutch Kost iDdtes lOSJt Mil 49168 £2,478 4,6-.'7 in,787 8,200 1,24.1 ecfl fjl 1,180,080 70,164 Balginm 6 371 .... England 6 BIT °2,96e 108,7 h 8,.|Mt 6J,715 1,4«; 31,167 51.193 4>,648 4 277 Sentlsnd .... 4,073 L'snsda .... 4« 861 ^ , British We■ «H 80 ^ Usilelts • ••« .... .... 60 AfriM .... 1 < • < . • • • 1,126,837 60.91S .... HavU .... * * • • 8,17(1 1«9 Buenoa Ajrres, or Argentine Kepub. • . . . .... S^l 068 .... t •■ • IJUm TotiU .... 8.14 f(« .... 8.000 601 "4.l.4t. *M,16t 4M.440 |»I>4.«S7 8^,.84' (18 vM 1,168,: 81 «ti6,3BS 1,948 to $«...-.8I SPI Dutch West IndlM." ten?"'-"'- rmnoe on the AtlVntlo" I^uw. , ,, , jportoBjco".';:: fAMoa IS 2,400 kSI 4t1?I !i,628r iiD.sroi "so. W,T4J 48 41 1200 <8 'ii H« W«JM chij/r ■ Total. 5,330 I T,"lT8 I T.'aVi 19,074 1,800 1361 8,114 121 481 Sii.O'.u, 88,112 «,'ooo 'e,'ml ><at some "o \he "r™^-"'"' •«>' he''aVo\t,t!l "','"'' P^-olpI?'"/ rian and spikenard ST? '"■" ^'"P'""" »' vale! ^^r '" ''"^P'""' 'he 'h™^ Jn^d for^K'?' '"" '">•» [r:,''^"-^ ""'"''""ed iJl'-S^^^ Of spikenard J;^^^^^^^^^ the king sitteth st i,;. .1 . '•'^ Volume. "lvh!i„ machinery by horse.. 1,,.. • '. •*"'>«t heworked forth .hfsme?Uhe"ot™ 'ttC^ spikenard seSli^^^^^^^ Inff .n alabaster bo.x of ointm ^T " ''"'"an l.av- l^Xl '."""""M the mX whkS?™ "l" ^" '"». U«ious.» It i3 neverthele' "I **' »P"'«""'' very Kv «""P«"'»"'<"" of Sis art P " ""'"" "»" I I 1 1 f I Corn. I „...^rZ I -, I Hmd. |_Q«««|SS-~ 2.SO0 80,000 12,B00| 26.000 I Sooth Carolina I Oeorgia . . , I Alabama..^ I I«ui>ian*.. I Tennessee . I Kentucky /MlsMuri:.. (Ohio .... I Indiana .'.' /Illinois... (Michigan...' I Iowa I Wisconsin .".' I New Moilco. J Utah I Wa. of Coluttb!, 2O,O00J Maine I ^5^ Rhode Island.. 17000 Connecticut... igS 1 .... £:l'fl! S*«"ln«l 21,930 8,47fi 7,160 600 8.600 86.1261 168.S:i|i| I 298900 1,262,974 884. Wj, 803,400 189,426 19.600 98,700 T,300 8,000 12,000 26,6bo| |36.Y3n( lO.ono 3. Olio eti.o.'so 124,440 .S30,960 ll^LVI 98.000 88,0801 9i^a2nl 260.7001 C4.6S0 18.1 IK) 20,I60l 268,400 l»I,3S0 30.1,2011 8.BS8,140 1,4I7,!I00 T03,S(KI 2I2,ii00l SLLtol 29.90i)| 2,0U0/ 62,680 4so| *,«.68l| 26.38ll| 6,600l 8,00of 19,«flfl| 44 aw 96,! 4-', II.OO.'S «T,925 10,320 120,t 220,C B,(Mo| 2,J '... I J01M 81,820 I2T,( 1750 81*1 KSTCMi or DmnMio SKmm rMM nn Umnn 8TATn roB Tin YiAii nniiHa Jrmi 80, 185 r. WkllkirtipMM. s^iriu frnn Ur«l> | Splrlu fnm ola« Riiarimoa Um Bluk Sea , ■4,7i» 4,018 l*,73t S,88T 480 14,818 70 61.041 8,400 4^809 18,000 967.084 56.701 ■4.886 9,184 800 6,999 100,814 91,048 6.040 830.664 848,008 1,848 '6,858 18.948 40,816 "iio 9,940 1,810 "iio 410 9,171 8,414 8,488 84.880 8,540 0,160 00,119 68,917 9,989 6,824 483 8,1)00 - 630 20.666 te^isi 9,840 7,840 4,099 910 8,806 106 88,668 1,875 98,479 8,900 194,487 40,904 8,236 4,724 147 9,830 87,134 14,991 9,191 691,013 990,800 704 '9.850 7,780 85,428 "i07 1,781 1,087 "ioo 170 1,042 4.814 9,000 18.34!) 4.770 4,514 48,801! 88,170 4,400 8,164 177 8,007 537 11.188 '9,066 900 13,087 '6,'970 4!>,4'96 109,924 148.'l'n8 17.359 6,859 146.'m4 828,648 9,458 in8,4i53 107,888 60,107 8,081 ■■'sbo 800 ■4,2'oi 97,186 40.761 6647 S&.443 823.824 883,782 1,487 '6,'!i83 87,''U1 4.184 8,644 i,281 ""so •'•To 9,417 ■8^188 90,7io 6.1,024 104',764 9,708 4,604 7'9',iio 892,378 4,819 74^80 88,'82 84,416 3,056 "863 154 '1,096 18,169 26,394 8,'.>87 17,787 146,832 110,177 868 '9,688 l'l',6i8 8,780 1,271 868 '"60 84 "406 8.'2'S0 70,663 608 188 ■ '437 9,'2'db 807 iw'i's 4,918 i,'Mb "I'io 1,906 8,'l89 17,901 44 9,'(»7 13,1)60 18,688 "sob 9,2«8 "i\t s'oto 51,504 B91 1S8 ■■9Hi i,e4b 600 1S,'848 9,813 ■ '010 "u'l 845 6,'644 10,268 34 "963 ia,'66'9 13,730 "877 9,009 AriiUo Rnnl* , . . . DaaUh WmI IndlM Hwbnrg BronaaT Duleh W«t Indlu Dutch Oulan* Englud Scotland Uibnllar Mtlto ■ ■n»d* Uthw BriUib Nortli American Foueialoni. . . Brtliih Waitlndlei UriUih Hondurat Ilritlih Oulana Britlili PoHwwloiMln AMea Other porta In Africa Ilritioh Auitralta Britiah East Indies France on the Atlantic Cuba Porto lUco Portugal Madeira Cape ds Verdlslandi Saixllnla TvoSlellles Austria Turkey In Asia HaTtI Mexico Central Kepublio New Irninada V'eneauela , Biaail OUIll Pern h>uadar Sandwich Islands Other Islands in the Pacific China ToUl •. 2.1tt7,0i4 it> 1.248.231 2,a7s,fl()3 $1,216,635 16.(,226 $180,011 Ihportb or Spirits into thk fNiTRn . >ATxa roB TH« Y«A» RHniiio ,1n!«« SO, 1867. WkMM Unpcitad. BrAndy. l'>i>ni Odloni Uraln. Krom othar HlMrialA CordUh 1 a«ll '1.009 839 282^ 303 """14 8,200 4,464 8,084 ""2i7 6.808 7U9 " "8 9.4S7 117,808 148 1,188 "iio ""'6 l'J.808 8,285 ■■'98 "iio ""is 71 $1881718 "98 1,740 8,469 1,445 "ii3 6,641 816 " "s 1,935 0J,b38 41 8,0 "867 " "9 6,507 4,080 ■"so ■"74 ■",30 SS 10 113 8,01:4 1,074 8,071 99 i,"i7i 1,191 " "7 '"58 42,'l'6'l 6,60e 270 6,887 "836 "945 18 404 80 798 "41 ■"'69 """so »15 114 3,618 1,039 3,827 06 'l',i72 1,866 ■"is '"ia M,m 10,674 569 8,447 "i84 "8i9 19 548 34 781 "'69 ' "47 ■■"24 Danish West Indies Hamhurg Ilnnen Holland Dutch West Indies Dutch Oulana Dutch East Indies Belgium Kngland. . ,«. Scotland... 7. Ireland Canada Other British N. American Pom British West Indies British Honduras British Oulana British East Indies France on the Atlantic France on the Mediterranean , , Spain on the Atlantic .'tpain on the Mediterranean . . . Canary Islands cuh«7..T... ;...;; ;..:::::: Porto Rico . . . • Sardinia Tuscany Papal SUtas Two Wellies Anatna Ilaytl Mexico New Oranada Venesiiela Rraail Bandwieh Islands China Total 1.613,828 $2,827,262 1,088 037 $1,186,160 443.495 $218,007 07,3T4 $99,390 SPI 2751 iiMirnoTnToTA. V 1751 * __,^ I »_ r..— -I 1 1 -^ftM Witt oar »n.umpUon. ' P"*****" would ■■•It »IU "•"MIU4 flnia, TMaL W"d with the Solent and South!*"'""""""'- C' «o Mcure ffvm all wind. . ""■""P'on W«ter. Im. W been tVrmei by ^f,' "f«P' ,"■• •outhe«L „ i Port." " V""''P»' "'d^vo'uV'f'l* '• ^"^"•"'^^ PorMmonth and fivdo are on T. ""* ^''"•'> Mry SpUolng, .moig .eZen t„ .^'~l"« "'^•- «*« together, or to unitM^e'enH^ I" """ '"^ •"<>• of a «|0«o5_by interweaT"ng the ,t?. "/^"^P* '« -y P.rt Telocity, and frequenllv do n,„i V^"'' •«>"'"> great "s 'u^" ""■ """^^""'' "** -mong^" S-Ue? up^"^,^; --nj; m^^^^^ web, .„, «ke eflbct of the splinfeV. '"^* ""'«. ^ le,wn Sp. Ayonja), a »ft, liZTerv 15^^' ^'- '^-P'c; Wo Wbatance, readily imWhZ,'^"'"'' "«' <»mp«Ml ««vlng it out again ^ iT ll r^ IT"*'"' •n" " Wdilv particularly in A,ilJL' '"""'' •'^''ering to wcki^ "d-of thArchfptlS^™" Sea, a^^^^ ^« vegetable p«,dn^ion. but i. nT^'^'-PP"-" to the zooDhvtMi. .„j _^ . • ?"' » now claiu»l .»..__ materia medica-lLKwirt S^ "?^» «medie. l7?S ^2 m AtTy'tili: :^te'- - ""0 Schwinge, N., ong. 9° 28' 84" R ,,V"»''"ft Jat. 68° 86' 8p would b. quit, unworihy of " ?'y ""'• '««»o ! a„d •ort, except for the circL,u„« !J" ' *"* "^ "* charged by the Hanov^.^ ** *''•' • 'oil or dutv veyed up the Elbe T h u *°''*""»M» on eood.Vnn Brb ''-"''^ --S^arr ^-'»^^^^^ BrunthauKn, contiguous to tM*! " ""> «w"o rf bound for Hamburg had L^- "' ^" ^eswU »rrie, to .ncho^in ;Mrin7L*°i*"J ''o" of ^e fe"t», bills of ladin^r cock... .P^ " '"«'«ding man!- dn'y, which wa.in«„t?^!^ Vx' °" "«'«. «hat"e hI^k" '"°**'> '» proceed md th.!.^*"« '^'""'' "■• Hamburg.-^,, ElbbV^, 'i,"^„"'\^?'y w«sp« d at •truction of this sort Sould wT:"""" "■« •» ob- Jong a period. The Zkstettt ^m ""*«'*'« ^r m np. when perfectly f^,^' '*"'''; '"""Ponge is fished U^^ '••y light that UrgeTie^"!,"'"'' «"" "V. " fa w Pstel^T^^l*''^'''*' ^8^- d..!..... .-... .«• P'eces of .t are »„„.^ „,.. .. I , »«IJ»d_01««. When certain metallic oxri with DroMr fl„ ."" "'y* — xoHiiaortheirfenra ** TJ — •» '" '"o mar- rt/. »•*""' " witn sand. This i ritowt''hT'^«'''''''«»'''«ving *««»>P Acta. Stamps are imprea. STA 1752 StE' •ibiU nAda Mpon papar or parchmmt bjr th« govarn- ■•nt or it* offloan Iter tha purpoie of revaaoa. Thajr always daaota the priea of tha partionUr atanp, Or, in other words, the tax levied upon a partlenlar instru* ■Mnt stamped, and sometimes thejr dsnote tha nature of the instroment itself. If tha inatrumant is written npon paper, the stamp is Impressed in relief upon tlia r per itself; buttoaparohmsntiDstramentthaslamp attadied by paste and a small pieoe of lead, which itself forms part of tha impression. These stampa are sasUy forged, and at rarioas time* fbrgariea of them npon a large seals hava iMen disooTersd. The Stamp Act was one of the main causes of the Anarioaa Bev- Olution, In England all commercial paper mast be aumped to give it validity. Tha Suta of Maiyland passed a Stamp Act in 1846 as a sourca of rvranue. By this act bills of exchange, promissory notaa, bonds, mortgages, and lottery tickets, were to be stamped. The ordinary annual revenue of the State was from #70,000 to $80,00a The act was repealed In 1856. By the present British Stamp Act, the stamps on bill* df exchange, and notes, drafts, etc., range from 1 penny to £2 6t. ; on foreign bills, from 1 penny to 16f. ) on wills, ftom lOi. to 4270 or more. Staple, "anciently written estepfe, cometh," says Lork Coke, " of the French word etd^s, which signiAiM a mart or market." It appears to have been nsed to In- dicate thoae mart* both in Oreat Britain and at Bmge*, Antwerp, Calaii, etc., on the continent, where the prin- cipal product* of a country were sold. Probably, in the first instance, these were held at such place* a* pos- sessed some convenience of situation for the purpose. Afterward they appear to have been oonfinned, or oth- ers appointed for tb» purpose by tha authorities of the country. All merchandhM sold for the purpose of ex- portation was compelled either to be sold at the " st»> pie," or afterward brought there before exportation. This was done with the double view of accommodating the foreign merchants and also enabling the duties on exportation to lie more conveniently and certainly col- lected. Afterward tha word staple was applied to the merchandise iuelf which was *old at the staple. — Bonn's Cfchptdia. t Btarob (Oer. Awntbm; Fr. Amidonf It. Amodi, Amito ; Sp. AmitUm, Almidon ; Bus*. /CraeAmoJ), a r. V Btance obtained from vegetabhs. It has a fine white color, and is usually concreted in longlah masses; it ha* scarcely any smell, and very little taste. When kept dry, it continues for a long time uninjured, thongh exposed to the air. It is insolutde in cold water ; but oom bines with boiling water— forming with it a kind of Jelly. It exists chiefly in the white and brittle parts of vegetables, particularly in tuberoae roots, and the seeds of the graniineoua plants. It may be ex- tracted by pounding these parts, and agitating them in eold water, when the partnckyma or fibrous parts will first subside; and these being removed, a fine white powder, diltUsed through the water, will gradually sub- aide, which is the starch. Or the pounded or grated anbstance, as the root* of potatoes, aeom*, or horse chestnuts, for instance, may be put into a hair bieve, and tha starch washed through with cold water, leav- Ipg the grosser matter* behind. Farinaceou* seeds Qiay be ground and treated in a similar manner. Oily **ed* require to have the oil expressed from them Iw- fcre the iStrina is extracted. — ^Thoiisom's CAem. iMroaTS or SvAaon laro thb I'lfiTD Stjitm roa tub Yiab XNniHO JoHB 80, 18M. Poaib V>lw. 4Tr 44,8T5 146&'V B1.4M 1,891 S.PSt 1,B)0 600 WU 1009 S4M 184 883 4T m Holland Rnnl"»d aootlsnd Cuba Mexico Prance and Oanada Total ilS,8JS •<#» Star, • strdiig rop* ftrom thM mui bud, Uafflhg forward to support it (tarn felling aft. ItiakaathaiMm* of the mast, as the fore-stay, main-topmast stay, alo. To iftqr, meana to tack. To ba in ttan; is to ha in tha act of tacking. To mill ttaj/t, dgnlHai to fell In aft^ tempting to tack. Steam MawlfaUen. The statiitlos in regard to tha steam navigation of tha maritime nations of Ihk world wiU be found under the beads of tho** oooatrlei, Thia arUola, therefore, will ba llmltad, aiMl ba «ompri(Mt under tha following heads I I. Invention of the Staaiq- engine. II. Introdaotion and Statlttlo* of Oeaaa Steam Xavigation. I. /ne«n ever, appear that this inventor ever derived any lienallt or could interest the public in favor of his discovery. The following list Includes the chronology of the moit important Invention* and improvamtnt* of the steam- engine. Pspln's dlgsstsr invtnted IWi Captain Bafer;'* engine eonstniotigd for rslslna wstsr . 10M Papln's engine exhibited to the Brillih RojrsI Hoclsty. . ItM Atssesplierle engiae by Ssverjr and Nevoemsn 1TI8 f best Ijisa of itean oavixatloa ssl iiirth In a patent ob. UlnedbyUull T. 1T8« Watt's invention of oondensstlon iteam ITSB W*tl?s first pateat ITOU Watt's engin* buHt on a largs soale, and his |islsnt re- newed by Parliament 1T7S Thomas Pains proposed the spulleatlon of ilosm In tho United BUtes IHS Gngliw mads to glvs a rotary 1TT8 Watt's expansion engln* ITM Double acting engines propoMd by Dr, Flock ITTO Wstt'a double engine oonnnicted snd p*l«nto«. with paddle-wheTu"!? ^ ?""• ""?"«••» "C fWea to balance and "trim '.h™ **'!!« """"n",; tS ThToSf"""''" ""^'""^ »■•*«. iSrch! P»ddi:whL7?.eir.^'l»r ""r^"»«^ •■"« Collin. or''/^>?'^'^"'9tofc ^■i^'x" -nd New' ^--CstnTSr'^^^f^^^ •""•^ lorK on the 23d of April ism ^1*' •"'^ed in or /Am»7 "™" '«>'" 9 ti Papers of that dale aav "Mvl'i !\ ^^^ New York hL^ "*"-• ^'""h »orew it..™ ^ ;""""" »«*«m. the Battery to have a rflmn' '','^1"'' P«™<>n» crowded ^'l*"-"" »ent under TeL^'""?'''''" 6«00 ton. which had^^r^J^d the A&°f "" «"» ««m vl^ ?h?!?" '" ""^"t 9 d.y" ' r'h" e^"*; "•'"« '• SoutS! Md arrived safely n pt^'!?' tI^? ">« Bri«.b C Ne/^^^L^*'"''''. -^^ A^.^ZlT"' ^"^^'- -so. Th; Xst^rnW^rrV'''' ««»-' - '"''f'7°y«««i« than the New Ynrl?'^''""^ line had 0^ the delay occasioned by^p-^r^'J S -~^^^^^^^^ of New York. Th'e'elrlUi " "T '"•■"«" "•" ou7 in the trade. The linTe1S:*!?'K'"""' "^ ^^^ 'ong S«nuel Cunard, and t^ thS dil^ ''^ ""> ^nt^Trisinf Jtartedin Wo/and wis the fl7^"'"« '''» "-"no. waf Jul lino of tranUtlanU^sLl^'' Permanently .uccesl first Cunard steamer fUie^Z *"?' "' »«""'• The July 18, mo. ^^' -fi'^onwa) arrived at Boston «<•. Wd, with all o?&^?:'"'«'"'e/>aoitf„ J: St~ '*'""*'^^^^^^^^^^^ Jl »» . ' C'nnanI, NV»Yo',k ' " " ^•'''"e;»heel,'i'r OS*' J-unanJ, Boston " " .. » 03 <^Bn«nJ, Boston Hremen.... Oldlhvn..." ««»re(Vaadcrbiio;, 1^ II 13 IS 14 .13 IT 15 16 93 or 00 IS 00 00 12 13 -■ wrecKed, but no lives were «.» ' '""""i""" were Mediterrai X'l"!'" ^°«'-'» 'oNew Yorr/nlfco'"; '^"- "^ "'-™ ow.OOO persons have crosse.I »l>« a?/.' '"'"^*'' '*'<"« Coiupanv reckoning both nassenX .„H o ^"*'"'" ''J' »'««•"- ' both ways-and of t^fn^K^T'- ""'"''« voyages dumber.. »«'"'. -.ter ea.«r;inhe";e.::s7rpe;Lr-an]f -r^^^^^^^^ ______P^M<1 the I on almost exclusively by lamsbip. ! ''"• ""^ ""*<"« Paddlt-wliMl. 10 i:2,T16 ToUI. 40 62,78T f-Y-. ^ '^- |n»n>b., Uverpool and Isle SfMlS' ^R^^ £.„?•"? •"■* Ireland „ ? Scotland and Shetland < L Toto l J. ■*» ■ "-- — I isr ,' Hone I Power. TOO 1,284 800 073 12.8S0 0,413 800 0,308 640 TOT 2,806 60 SiSO S.nOO 8,290 '43,284 2,408 880 2.7S2 40,063 18,406 1,181 29,454 ],T6S ],&53 j 6,719 260 6.961 8,000 13,410 I 1401391 Number] ' of Men. ' Strri.-e commencu L 1888 WW 1840 1852 1863 1860 IS.M 1861 1864 184^ lata 1S66 1852 18S6 185T There are wme line. nothere^iini7iZr-hrr~^ '~ L_ """ced, which swell the sum to $6,333,985. How often y«»eek 2 a day 1 » Week 3 a month * a month 1 1> week I a month 3 a month 1 a day 8 a week 2 a month laday 1 a month ) t month 1 a m onth 94,250 125,000 6,000 102,600 1,121,600 866 TOO 78,600 1,860,000 n,ooo 20.000 126,000 6,600 106.2B0 206,000 __»2IMOO gg.ll4,T00« 5s ,i^iMhS' / 9TE mi ' 1. Tb« mall rouMi from Omt Britain to Auitralla an ihown a« follows : Til* route fWmi Oraat Britain to her Auitralian eol- odIm, via tlio Cape of Good Hope, include! tli* follow- tog diitanees and lengths of passage i Hll«. fl,TOO T i Bouthamplon to the Cap* Cape to Adelslda 0,100 > AdcUldo to R]rM 5 ': BrlMT to New Zealand l.lilO _• , ToUl 1S,0M m 4 ' I, The Suez and Singapore route is made up as follows I 1 . ' ' ' * MUm, Boulhsmpton to Olbfaltar ,.,.,.,... 1,100 t. Olbrsltw to AleundrU ,. 1,800 Alexandria to Ceylon S,TBO Cejrioii to Slngapom 1,TOO *' Singipora to Hrdner 4,800 Bjrdnejr to Now Zealand 1,800 I Total ii^ B. The distances bv way of Panama are: HilM. Sonthampton toSkThonu S.OJO BL Thonuato Panama 1,100 Panama to TahlU 4,400 Tahiti to New Zealand 2,280 Vtw Zealand to Sydney 1,200 Total 1-2,000 The eomparatlve distances show a decided advant- age by the I'anama route, and prove that the course of trade from Great Britain to her colonies must event- lully tend that way. The ocean mail steamers of Great Britain run 2,682,281 miles per year, at a total cost to the Admi- ralty of Xl,062,797, or •6,883,986. The ocean mail steamers of the United States run 736,732 rtiiles per year, at a total charge on the Post-ofHco Department of tl,829,733. The British steamers run three and a half times as many miles as ours do, and receive for it a sum more than four times as large. The average price paid to their principal companies, as the West India Koyal Mail, the Cunard, the Australian, and the Peninsular and Oriental, including its Blediterranean coasting service, is 9*. 7d., or $2 39 per mile ; while the average price paid by us, or for the Collins, Havre, Bremen, Aspinwall, and Panama, San Francisco and Oregon, is tl 80} per mile. The highest sum paid per mile by the British government is Iti. HH., or tH 88^, to the Cunard Company, f 2 76 to the Austra- lian, and #2 46 to the West India ; and the lowest, 6<. lid., or 91 68( to the Peninsular and Oriental, much of whose service is coasting. This Is saying nothing of the PaclAo and the African coasting lines. The highest sum which we pay is to the Collins line, $3 10^ per mile ; and the lowest to the Havre, $1 OOi per mile ; while the sums paid to all of the other companies range but little above the last figures. The lowest rate per mile paid to any of the lines under the contract was to the Pacific Mail, fl 70. It must not be forgotten that the low rates per mile of the Havre and Bremen result from those lines taking tho postages since their con- tracts expired — a sum by no means adjusted to the service done. They had ships that they could not let lie idle. Under their regular contracts the pay per mile of the Bremen line was f 2 08, and of the Havre •1 76^. While the British government pays to four of her principal transmarine services an average of (2 89 per mile, we pay to five of ours an average of tl 80} only, or but about two-thirds as much as she does. While our total annual expenditure for foreign mails is •1,820,788, a sum by •20,267 less than that paid to the single service of the West India Royal Mail Company, that of Great Britain is •5,833,986. And while our total income fh>m transmarine postages is •1,036,740, a sum but little short of that paid in sub- sidy, taking the present Bremen and Havre scrxiccs at the estimates of last year for sea and inland post- ages combined, the income from tho whole transmarine service of Great Britain, including ocean and inland postage, was, when the last report was made in 1868, £591,673, or $2,967,866; but little above half tho sum paid In subsidy, and including the French, Belgian, and Dutch routes, where the postal yield was much greater than from the ocean lines. Tho estimates which we present below have been made with great care from distances and subsidies furnished us by the reli- able First Assistant Postmaster-general, Hon. Hora- tio King, from the last report of the late Postmaster- general, and flroni tho report of the British Postmas- ter-general, Lord Canning, before noticed. Every item is consequently authentic. AiixxioAif Maii. BTXAMcaa Collins Bremen.... lUvre Aspinwall . . Pacific Havana . . . . Vera Cruz . Total. Tripi. I Dliunfw. BuUldy . 20 13 13 24 24 24 24 8,100 8,T0O 8,270 8,200 4,sno 660 000 l|:S85.UliO 128.081 88,484 290,000 848, seo 6n,000 29,002 $1,329,733 OnmPqrtAg*. $4I6,8«T lli8,98T 8S,4!<4 189,010 188,la,10Tllona; Jomet- (oim, 1300 tonii=:237t tona. Philadelphia and Savannah—Two t Keyttons Stats and Stale of (Jeorgia, each about 1800 toni=i2600 tona Boston and Baltimore.— Two : Josiph Whitnsy, 800 tone i Unknown, 80O tonai=1600 tona Sexe Orison* and Texas.— Th» Charles Morton, Texas, Mea- ieo, and Atlantic, averaging 600 tona each=r2400 tona Sew Orleans and Key West — Tho General Kusk, 600 tona, and the CalAoun, 400 toni=1000 tona. There are also aovenil propellera running: between New York and Charleaton, New York and Portland, and between rhlladelphla and the South. They an all, however, amall, and Irregular In Ihclr trade. Steamers lying up, 18. Registered tonnage, 24,845 tons. Otuen of the Paeifie S801 tona Washington 1640 " • ! Prometheus 180T '• ' St.Louie 1621 " JBro(A«r Jonathan 1>6> " Orffflon 1004 " Southerner 000 " j Uerman 1784 " NorihemLighl 174T " UneleSam 14'3 " California 1088 " Northerner I0l« " Ericsson 1M2 " Star (tf the West II72 " JMnielWehUer lOUi " Orizaba 1460 " , Panama 1087 " ' ^'rmiont 676 '* — Kaimit's Ocean Poti Tho number of Iraiibatlantic steamers, the lines ran- ning to different ports, and the tonnage, are as follows ! Stsausuip Links nciiNiiia to New Yobk. No. ef Toa- TumU. U| LltMt. »y2T 10,860 6,611 1,600 11,800 4600 T,200 7,600 1.800 12.690 4,000 2.400 81,18t Collins Line, Liverpool (paddle-wheel), American 8 Ounard Line, Liverpool " Brltlah.. 4 Scotch Line, Glasgow (Bcrew), " . . 8 Irish Line, Cork " " .. 2 Cunard Line, Havre " " . . 6 French Line, Havre " French . . 8 Old Havre Line, Havre (paddle-wheel), American Vanderbilt Line, Havre " " Independent Line; Havre " ■ " l)elgl»n Line, Antwerp (screw) Belgian . Bremen Line, Bremen (paddle-wheel), American Hamburg Line, Hamburg (screw), German . Total, running to New York, 12 Unci 86 LivEBrooi. ANn BoaTox STiAuaaa. Cunard Line, Liverpool (paddle-wheel), British . . 4 8,100 LiVEBFOOL AND I'mLADELPniA BTEAilEBa rhlladelphla Line, Liverpool (screw), Brltlah 8 6,866 LiVKBPOOL ASB POBTLAMn STEAMEBS. Portland Line, Liverpool (Bcrew), IJritiah _1 8.000 Total, besl.Ies New Y'ork, 8 llnea 9 iJ,^B» Grand total, 15 lines 48 1)11,146 Here we have an aggregate of 15 steamship lines, comprising 45 steamers of 99,145 tons burden. Of these lines seven ore British, five American, one Ger. mon, one French, and one Belgian. Eight lines (83 steamers) are screw propellers ; and seven (23 steam- ers) are paddle-wheel.— Pusy Mix.Es'8 Octm Stiam Navigation, STE 1756 STE Winttrnwrt mamnrma rm Nniiati* o* AHnituii ahd rimaa BniAM um fAium Vmnu noAan ■■• '> *4M ■nwraa taa ViiTin Statu amp Kbaihs. anr tioi tihai alio tmi Nvmmb or MO Ituua-rown aiii> H'wasDi ToNNAai, Cmmri, amd thi AmaMAT* inthiiii anu in.iAain at Tiia I'ort* or Bonoa, Naw YaaK, and Naw UaLaAaa, avawa taa ruoAi, VaAB aaDiMu JuNa 80, Ittbl. NMiMtitir' Mti. — .— •■■■■*iii' V< Lllini V«mI, NMbw TiiMt* 'HmbV rfl'ltw !■«■. ro«»«i4 upwir t.lTO 10 S8S 8t DoMon New York N««Orl«ani ToUl f— 8.1X0 TW" ' » — »■■ e 4lT Burllnaton...*!. t . Vflnnoiit. ilso'i 4,401 T.OW T.BSa 1,891 Ifaet^n . MuauhnaaUa. Fall River " New Bedfonl.... II Nantucket II • a * • 060 Prtrldanea .. Rhode laland. .... »,0T0 II .... 856 »,8;iT MlddMowa , . Conneotleui NewHavea 41 a. .« 8,n(iT Champlala ..Naw York. e . >• ni!T Oewege ,, *» .... 8,T1» Oeneaaa ,, '• ae *> 128 Oiwegatohia ,, •• .... 7,881 BuflkleCrMk... , , ** . . iO 41.009 Sag HariMr , ^ •* 124 New York «t,OBt 111.826 8.TM 8,T46 Dunkirk " Perth Amboy.... . . New J«rN7. Barllngtog , , '^ ■ . .* 8.189 Camdea II .... 4.403 Newark II .... 1.T78 M.S6T Philadelphia Preiauelale.... PItUburgh . a POQDlljrlTUlU. 8,621 »» .... 41,724 Wilmington .... . . DeUware, ... a 1,057 NewUaatla ,, *» .... 202 Baltimore , . Marvland. .... 17,084 Aanapolle .... ISO Qeorgvtown . a Dlit Columb. .... 8,071 Alexandria . . Vlr^nla. .... 828 Norfolk . . • • S,':08 Paterabniv nehmnnd II . • . • 103 ^^ »i 1,970 Wheeling II .... 10,814 Waahlngton ..N. Carolina. t • . . 269 II .... 127 800 Plymouth II Charleaton . . 6. GarolinA. 8,218 6,618 Savannah ,.',..., . . OeoFKla. .... 6,.'i84 Paniwsola . . FlorldJu 876 StMaik'a 406 Uoblle ." "m 21.008 51,508 NewOrleana.... .. LouUUo*. Teche 1,225 6,126 6,776 Naabvllle MemphU «i Loulavllle .. Ketituck}r. • . • . 2r>,648 Paducah ,, ** ,,,, 1,084 8t.Loula ..MliMurl. .... 44,846 Chicago . . nilnoti. 7,861 Alton II .... 155 4,06.1 108 Galena •4 Baodueky ..Ohio. Cuyahoga .1 .... 15,877 Cincinnati ti .... 83,016 Miami (Toledo) . NewAlbaay •••■ ti 116 . . Indiana. .... 4,!:66 MllwauUa . . Wlaconaln. . . •■ 1,906 Detroit .. Michigan. ■ . . . 80,656 MIshlllmneklnae I.ISO OalvMton . . Texaa. 8,880 SAluTla 97 San Kranclico... Total 'onnage. ., California. .IHn^ 1S.W 1?.8:8 ii.o.v) 8ii.ST3 U1S.0IO STATaiiBMT anovma Tin Nvinaa or RTaAV Vxaaata nrn.T IN Tiia aavanAL HTATaa ANDTaaaiToaiEaor the I'nitxu BTAxaa raoa 1828 to 1867, laoLcaiTa.— (ViAa aNoiMO Jvaa SO.) Y<.n. 1828 •t«aiB«iv. 16 run. 1841 aiumm. T8 1834 16 1841 IBT 1815 85 1848 1841 1846 TO 1818 48 168 Its 181T 88 18^8 SB 43 87 84 1846 US 1819 1880 1881 184T 1848 1849 IM 1TB SM 1888 100 66 I860 ISO 1888 1861 118 1884 68 1853 too 188S 188S 1837 80 194 106 1853 1864 1S86 «n MI gfiS 1888 00 «6 84 1866 231 IRS'I 188T MS 1840 From tbii exhibit It U apparent that, in point ofnnni- bare, there haa l>eeii no increaM In the ateam-vesMla built lines the year 18S1. K, however, we take Into consideration tiia increaeed (!ae of the Teasels built, or the af^gregate tonnage, there has been a healthy in- crease corresponding to the growth of the country. STATaMxifT anowroo the NvMnKnor Rtcah VitseLS ntrii,T IH aAoii UiaraioT or toe L'nited Statis nnaiNo thb YaAa aMDiNO Jtwa 30, 1867. Dlatriili. atwiMn. Bath ..Mc 1 Beaton .Maia. 9 Providence . . . ..RI. 3 Mlddletown. . . ..Conn. 7 New lx>ndon.. t« 1 New Haven... It 1 Oswego ..N. Y. 1 BuflUo Craek. II 2.-1 New York.... 11 11 Camden ..N.J. 1 Philadelphia.. ..Penn. 14 Pittsburgh.... It 68 Wilmington.. . .Dela. 10 Balllmora .... ..Md. 3 Wheeling ..Va. 14 DUtrUlt. BU Savannah Os. Mobile Ala. New Orleans.... La. Teche " Nashville Tenn. Memphis " Louisville Ky. St Louis Mo. Cuyahoga Ohio Sandusky " Clndnnall " Toledo " Detroit Mich. San Francisco. . .Cal. 1 1 4 1 1 8 IS 10 4 1 83 1 10 8 ToUl 263 From the sixth annual report of the board of super, vising inspectors of steamers, made to the Secretary of the Treasury, wo gleau the following interesting sta- tistics: During the Ave yaars from 1848 to 1862, inclusive, prior to the estabilriiment of the Board of Supervisors, there were 60 steamboat explosions, causing a loss or 1155 lives, and 475 persons wounded. By other disas. ters during the same period, 416 lives were lost, mak- ing a total loss of 1671 lives in the live years. During the four years fVom 1854 to 1857, inclusive, subsetjuent to the passage of the steamlioat law, there have been seven explosions, and 132 lives lost. By other disas- tcr.i, collisions, fire, sinldng, etc., there have been lost during the same time 214 lives, making a total lost toi the five year* of 846. BTK 1757 STK ilu«iMn< ... 18 ... 18T ... TO .... 1«8 .... IM .... M» .... 1»8 .... ITS .... S08 .... IW na j» 9fn ist 158 m SUtnun. I. 1 1 4 1 1 8 98 10 4 1 83 I Ich. 10 \U. Ohio Pal. _8 .203 I of super- I Secretary liiitingsta- llni'lusivc, IpervlsorSj 1 a loss of Iher disaa- ■o>t, m«k- I>urlng Lbse<|nent Tiave been Jber disas- I been lost lal Ion for ny *n MBmlnallon nf ihsM lUtemmto wi And that Ar iM y*art prior (n (h« |iiiiitK« of the lUambcat act wa havt «««i)UnU nf the I «ft,ll|S ini.Mi liMin lar Tiira; iMi m.Mi IM* ISA.fMT 1144 91B.ITS latA IM.OIS 1*4* S4T,seS IMT 40t,Mt 1M4 49T,8»1 IMt 4«i,Sg4 two,,.. B.'B,>4« IWt l»8,eOT IM 640,240 t*n8 ,.... 614,007 IMt4 «Te,M7 IMM,,, TTO.iW 1>4M «TB,orr IBHT 706,784 To ihow Iha wlvanlaiia whloh it«im commnnlcatlon 0VS* to a irowlng ir*d«, It may be aiatad that "tmm 1840 to llBO (III iolal Importi of Oraat Britain fVom ItraKll ma4o no lttflr««M, In HUM they had advanced IfiO \m (i«nl, on ia4H | and In 1H66 they had advanced ovar lN4*<-^r thx aviraao of the tan years noticed— Rbout IHH) par iwnt, 'fhls, however, It must be recol- laoted, waa In eultVn, tot re<«)ipartatlan ; a trade which wa* lout U> onr ncrnltants and to our shipping. Her total expurti U> llraxll from 1840 to I860 were station wy at alwut (wo and a half nillllon pounds sterling ■nnuallyi In IMI— Um flrit year after steam by the Boval Mall Company -^ they advanced 40 per cent. ; and In 1*A4 tlivy liaiiailvant'ed 102 per cent, on 18S0. Thus tittr aNpurt* liare dunlilrd in live years, from a alatlonary twliit iMfor* the establishment of steam mall fBAlllllun I whtirttait ours have Imen thirteen years In maklotf (lit laino llicr«a»«i The total trade between Oraxll and (lri!i, Thus Ihe Bril. Uh Irndl iHfromtd 'ith pn' cml. in fire yean ajter tho firtt Hm iffllmmrN wilt tllublUhed to BnuiW— Brazil Mii the ImMmi, The many ItiKlaneoi of our dereliction In the estab- Uibment of llnani mail faillltles, and the failure to lilalilUb lommollvo aeeommodatlons for our mcr- ebanls and olltxr Imiilnfiis classes, call loudly for a change in our alfttlm, and Ihe establishment of a na- tional staani pulkiv In the place of the accidental and trriBiilar aupport nllhsrto ^Iven to foreign steam en- tarprlso, Tbo fonriniloni wlilfih Sf r. Ilalney arrived at In his lata work on ()('«*n Hliiam Navlgnllon are set forth In • elear Rummary, width we olve as follows : 1. Tbat *l«ani wails upon the ocean control the eommeriie and diptoiiiney of the world ; that they are essential (o our lutiiintirdliil and producing countrj- ; tbat wa bavo not mtaldlshed Ihn ocean mail facilities oominensurato wlib our nmlohal atillity and the de- mands nf pur Pommitri'6 1 and that we to-day are large- ly dependant on, and tflluilary to our greatest com. merclal rival, (Iriiat llrltaln, for the postal facilities wbioh should ha purely national, American, and under ear own •xdIhvIvh eiintrul, 2. Tbat faat ooc an malls are encfwdingly desirable (or our oemmeros, our defenses, our diplomacy, the managaiiMDt of our squadrons, our national tlandlny, and that they are demanded by our people at larg*. 8. That fast steamers alone can fUmish rapid traaa- port to the mails ; that thesa steaman can not rely on frelghta; that saillag vetaala will aver carry tiapl* fralgbta at a much lower figure, and tulHciantly quick- ly ; that while steam is eminently suecesaAil In tha coasting trade, It can not poulbly b« so In the trana- atlantlc freighting business; and that tha rapid tran- sit of the malls, and the slower and moi« delibaratt transport of freight, is the law of nature. 4. That high, adequate mail speed la eatremaly cmI- ly, In the prime construction of vetsele, their repair*, and their mora numerous employes ; that the qnantlly of fuel consumed is enormous, and ruinous to unaided private enterprise ; and that this Is clearly proven both by theory and Indisputable facta, as well as by tha con- current testimony of the ablest writers on ocean steam navigation. 5. That ocean mail steamer* can not live on thtir own receipts; that neither the latest nor the anticipated Improvements In steam shipping promise any change In this fact ; that self-support Is not liliely to be at- tained by Increasing the site of steamen ; that the propelling power in fast steamers occupies all of the available space not devoted to passengers and expresi I freight; and that steamer* must be fast to do success ful mall and profitable passenger service. 6. That sailing vessels can not suecesofUlly tran^ port the mails; that the propeller can not transport them as rapidly or more cheaply than side-wheel ves- sels ; that with any considerable economy of fuel anil other running expenses. It is but little faster than tha sailing vessel; that to patronize these slow veasela with the mails, tiie government would unjustly dis- criminate ogoliut soiling vessels In the transport of freights; that we can not In any sense depend on th* vessels of the navy for the transport of the mails ; that Individual enterprise can not support fast steamers) and that not even American private enterprise can under any conditions furnish a sufficiently rapid steam mail and passenger marine : then It must be conceded, I. That it is the liuty of the government to its peo> pie to establish and maintain an extensive, well-organ- ized, and rapid steam mail marine, for the benefit of production, commerce, diplomacy, defenses, the publto character, and the general Interests of all classes ; that our people appreciate the importance of commerce, and are willing to pay for liberal postal facilities; that our trade has greatly suffered for the want of ocean malls; that we have been forced to neglect many profitable branches of Industry, and many large fields of effort j and that there is positively no means of gaining and maintaining commercial ascendency except through an ocean steam mail system. II. That tho government con discharge the clear and unquestionableduty of establishing foreign mail facili- ties only by paying liberal prices for the transport of the mails for a long term of years, by creating and sustaining an ocean postal system, by legislating upon it systematically, and by abandoning our slavish de- pendence upon Great Britain. III. That tho British ocean mall system attain* greater perfection and extent every year ; that Instead of becoming self-supporting. It costs the treasury more and more every year; that English statesmen regard It* benefits as fer outweighing the losses to the Treasury; that so far fTom abandoning, they are regularly and svstematically increasing It ; that it was never regard- ed by tho whole British public with more favor than at the present time ; that it is evidently one of the most enduring institutions of the countrj-; that It necessitates a similar American system ; that witbont it our people are denied the right and privilege of com- petition ; and that we are thus far by no means ade- quately prepared for that competition, or for our own development. ms nas STB OoiA* liftku Lmn or m Woiin. UVMri, DMMIt-whMl ,' North Akianllo gUMiuhlp Co KuropMH tad Amorlcau Mumihly Uo, liawlon»a4 Omils liTtrpool Mil CuitdlMi Unruool, ■•hlMolphU, u4 Ni» York . --- nw Mi4 No* York lu TruMtlMlle OlMCOII lUmbiirR »nd AmorlOkn, . Ilombart and llmslllan*. Umo* uid Brulllu , Rajptl Moll Co I PMlfle Mwm Narlgsllon t'o> . PmliuiiUr Mid OritnUI Co, . , EuropMn md Auitr«ll*n Ko^tl Mall Co, , Aiiilrallon Koyil Mull Cn Hottordnni ond Medllemnmn North of KuroH Mtoaio N*vlf*llon Co, , . M«Ivor-i \ BIbbjr'i foWloT'l Dixon's IJvirpnol ind AuotrtllMi liondon ud AttitrkllM ... ... AfriiiM Union Honw Co Luio-llnillalm AttilrlMi LloTdt MoMMWrloo iniptrlalM Wm« H»rtU|Mw) 8tMin N»l|»tlon Cj. . . Oanubo Sloam N*rlK*tloa Co. , . . HunbuiK nnd Spsnlih laat Indin Componf BiMDiib and Cubon CompnnhU Urulloir* Uolllni Componjr lUvro Rtum NtTliaUen Co Uomrlliu Vtndrrlill t Unltad Btalaa MOi <.amahlp Ca Padflc Mall Pai . f.lpCo Naw York lui ' .' dw Uriaan* Nav York • , i Alabama Charlail'ii' Knd Harutii BavaniM i .itaamahlp Co, Naw York and Charlaston Htaamahip Co, , Naw York and Vlnlnla rhIUdalptaU and SaTannah Boaton and Uallimora Taxaa Stoaoithlp Co flotttharo gtaunthip Co Maxloan gtaamahip Co. " a«tii«« I aiii»< Unrpuul, Naw York, koaton, »ii4 llalDu Hi Johna and Portland. , Hraman, Aniwarp, Kanlhanipti'.i, aud Naw York.... Braman, Antwarp, HoHtbamplun, to llraall London and Monlraal Ufarpool and Uiiabae .....i Unrpoul and Naw York Ulaatowand Naw York Aniwarp and Naw York • Aniwarp and Hrull Ilanibtirg and Naw York Hanburi and Hlo de Jaiiain Uenoa aud Hlo da Janairo Bouthamplon, Waal Indlaa, llsntral Amarlaa, and loulh Amaiica Hoiitbampton, FsmaiabHen, Hlo, llahia, and l.a Plata Panama to Valparalao and Intormadlala Portugal, Hpain, .Valla, Altiandria, llaal Indlaa, C ' and Auatralla Houlhampton, Alaxandrta, Burn, and Hfimj Traiuporl and olhar Rollardain, Uigbum, and TrlaiUi ..,,,,, Albican I.lvorpool and Madltarranaan — .... Mrarpool and Ilarra Uvarpool and Madllarransaa , . ■ , ■ . Urarpool and Auatralla liondon and Auatralla , London, Urnrpool, au.l Africa Boulbamplon and Cape uf Uood llopa Uabon and llraall , Vary larga MadlKmnran aarvleo Uidltamnaan, lllaok Hoa, LsvanI , >Ur'l?r.ool, llambuig, and 81. Patara'urg . . Vlonn.L, Oalala, and Conitantlnoplis . , Hamburg, Bouthampton, and all BpanUh port*. . . Buaa andlndtn, and lh< Oonibay Mall llnaa Cadia, Havana, and MhIco Rio da Janairo lo tha Amaion and La Plata Naw York and LWarpool Naw York, Bouthampton, and lUvro Naw York, Bouthampton, and Uremon New York, Havana, Aaplnwall, and New Orlaana. . Panama, Callfomla, and Oregon Naw York, llaTana, and Naw Orleaiia Naw York, Havana, and Mobile , Charlaalon, Kajr Weal, and Havana New York and Savannah Naw York and Charlaalon Naw York, Norfolk, and Klchmond , Philadelphia and Bavannah Boalon and Battlniora Naw Urieant and Oalveaton New Urieana and Ka^ Weat , New Orleana. Taropleo. and Vera Cnia I 4 10 11 II II « 4 B 3 4 H « 9 U 5 T 8 1 B « 18 9 1 1 4 4 1 1 9 4 > 1 4,il«» 4, MM 10, DM »,iiM I.ITil MM d.TOO •,9M H.MW t.BOO T.nno 4(MM H.UO. 4I,4I« IMWO T,s by being ignited, and cooled very slowly. It ii. malleable when red hot, but scarcely so when raised to a white heat. It may Iw hainioered out into much thioner platea than iron. It is more sonorous ; ud its speciflo gravity when hammered is greater than that of iron— varying fkom 7-78 to 7-8-1. Steel is usual- ly divided into three sorts, according to tl>« method in which it is prepared; as natural ttetl, tied o/eementd' lion, and cait ittel. Tlie latter is the moat vaiualilo uf all, as its texture is the most compact, and it ailiiiiK of the finest polish. It is used for raxors, surgeons' in- ainiments, and similar purposes. Steel is chiefly em- ('k.ye(^ 11 the oianufacture of swords, Initves, and cut> t.n 'i''< (he edge whicli may be given to it. — Su lllON. Steelyard and Steelyard Company. A most ancient instrument, the same that is traniilated baU ance in the I'entateuch. The Utalem Romana, or Ro- man steelyard, is mentioned in &16 n.c. The Steel- yard Company was a company of London merchantt who had the steelyard assittned to thum by Henry III. A.u. 1282. They were all Flemings and Germans, and the only exporters, fur many years after, of the staple commodities of England.— IIayd.v. Steer, to keep the ship on a given direction. Tbla is done by moving the rudder by tlie tiller, which last is moved from that side to which the ship's head ia required to i>e moved. Steerage, an apartment befure the great cabin, fh>m which it is separated by a partition or bulli-head. In merchant ships it is generally the habitation of tho inferior officer* and crew ; but iu ships of war it servoB 17«0 STO Inn oMb. \iiftl qfenntntit' Inoit vatuabla ut It, ond It •»«" leli to lt.-*« Ipany- A mott 1 lraniil»ted b»J- I Romana, or Ho- [i.c. The SUbW Indon mercliwiU V by Henry III. td Uerinani, and |ior, of Ilia •<•?>• Idiroclion. Tbla Timor, which la»t U ihip't bead U Lhe great cabin, Ton or bulk-head. littliilBtlon of the lofwarltaervei and had In 1IHA « |iu|i>.litiinn nf t3,(kM. AtMlbl la th» •«»' of tn i>xli"jilv* rtml icrin< i|i«l port of ImpnrlallMI )• I'ruuiit. Hli>' owHihi* illmlni^tliwi niainlv la b«r eltn- ••'ion. Tho odur, whirl. ilow» IMuui|h llu' moIm vI tiio I'ruMian iluniinlona, tn n«vlKal>l« a< fa •• ((atilxf, near 'III till 1)10 'oulharn bouit'litry uf I'riici ■■ >*>^»- •la; and ia unili'il. hy niaaniofranalt, «lih lli' *, •nt^ru • hilt ,.f >in'».ehamh»f to lb* «t.«1 or i ipiain'a Midn.— mxrny) la ,\tu un-il to axpnaa the afnjrt of Mm kaliii ittfntit-mi^ liii| ! a aumdrat 4aKr«« of ■Mtlon riiiii imkaltd to a alilp fur iwt It brrxiinc aua. Mpllld* u( II H pffkiU of tha halm In goTiiriil' :. I^r •MrM, ■IMS, a elrriilar |>li.i' «r timber Into which ibn twaililaa'if aahlpaniinlii at tlin for* and ; I hg li»wrr Md of It la Karfed In Iha k^al, and Ilia howiprit r«ita | the Klhe, tha Hprra.'atc. StetlJH la, rniaa«iiu. ■ ,> HMH lli Mfjrt end I Ihe tiida of tha walla and planka |irlnclpal vuipurliiiii of annie vary axltualv« iiiU H' •f Iba aldaa and iMillom are lat Into a Rroova ur <.'haiini>l ml In Iha middle af lla aurfara from top tu bottom. The nulalda nf Iha alam la uaually markod with a ai^ala »f fbet anawarlnR lo a p«rpand>'juUr from tha keal. The uaa iif Ihia ai-ale la to aacarlain tha drauKlit of water,— /'roin tltm lo Mtm, fVom one end of tlia ahip ta Iha other. ftt«pp« (fH>m tha Ruaalan §irp, a daaart ; also a 4ry plain). Tha iteppei of Kuaala, which are not iin- Ilka Ilia liiniki of (lulenna In Franco, and the hcaltia af liorlharn (lannany, ara In part auaccptlbia of cuhl rv axitu •hlnx niuniri' •) ti«il l« not only Ike port of Krauk rurt-on-thr'-( '' ir, llrKiUti, cto., but alau of li«rlln. A railway fn'n an' m,< »ila4 wllh IlK^tvra that ktInK diiwn the produce uf ilui 'tyr- ant fiMiifirlra travrracd by tha rlvar, and lirliiu ; . i culiiiiial piroiluctt, and nthar artlcira uf fur«i»:n gtv and niaiurfaclurc. Vcawla of conililcrmMB Kurrtoii, IhoM ilrnwlnt( iilitiut arvcn or eight fi' < -ali-r, lui. and unload, by incana of ll||htara, at llii' ^uth of \\\ rivar, at Mwliinniunda, tha oul|iort of ^ 'lln, on thn vatloM) and they alfonl paatura((a for tha numeroui nut rnast ,4 tlia i>l« of I wdunt. In Ut li'i' U' N., horde of Ilia nnmadio tribaa. In thaextenaive atepiMial long, 1( 16 !,''>' K. KunnrrW there wire not ih""* •f Aalrakban, lialwean tha Volga and tha Ural, the Calmuci and tha Nogay Tartara rove wllh their cattle. Tbay produce aaveral eorte of flowen, berba, and are fNaiianled by wild aoati and birda. MMUafli an old pound weight of gtographical illinlrtlianw, namad KoalerllnR, divided Into twelve •uneaa, waa In iieo anionK tli« Anglu-Haxona lonia can- turiea liefore IIm Norinvn < 'uni|ut'at. iha aamo welxhl, •allad Iha Tower anil the Moiicyera' pound, waa at,vU riiiTm. and Pknny. See also Hanhfrt' M»ti»"tt, N. Y., l«5e, '67. Mattllk. a tlly of Prussia, on I ho left bank of the Oder, alHiut Mfl milea from lla mouth, in XtA.bi" 28' 20" »., long, M" »»' K. It la well built, strongly fortllled, than s(l^ ri feet waiter over tho bar ailjaceiit to Swlnu- munda ; 'Ut tha bavbor of the latter haa ncanlly b««n so much proved, by the conalrticllon of pirra and breakwat <,drmlglng,etc.,thnt Itianow Ihc liaaton Iha I'ruaslau ut, and ailmlta veaacla drawing frona 18 to IV feel «a|, A Ilght-honaa haa lieen erected tl tiM s«> tromityoflli i-estem pier. Stettin la a free (lort; that Is, a \*in Into ml from which all soria of gouaine as eslalillslied by the law of the mother count! . Commission, 2 per cent. Freight— no rate* can be imed for want of businesa. Insurance dona in Englsii, >r tho Uniteil Stales. Dillt at three months. There a ' no direct exchangee wllh the United States. Steward, in tfaral affai "», li an officer In a ship of war, appointed by the pur- «r to distribute the diltbN ent species of provisions to tbt! officers and crew. The same officer Is employed for neamships and all classes of vessels for similar purposes Stookholm, the capital < iiy of Sweden, situated at the Junction of the Lake Ma> lar with an Inlet of tha Baltic, in Int. 6i» ' 20' 81" N., |r iij. 17' 54' E. ; a well- built, handsome city. Populmiion In 18B1, 98,070. Tho entrance to tho harbor is Ini ncate and dangerous, and should not lie attempted wit hout a pilot ; but tha harbo- 'tself Is capacious and exci llent, the largest ves- sels lying in safety close to the qua \s. Stockholm pos- sesses from a third to a half of i"no foreign trade of Sweden; but this Is confined within comparatively narrow limits. The government has long been accus- tomed to endeavor to promote Industry by excluding foreign products; latterly, however, this system haa been considerably relaxed, with great advantage to the trade of the country, and the well-being of the people. Iron, timber, and deals form tho great articles of ex- port. Swedish Iron Is of very superior quality, and ia STO 1760 STO nUiar •ztooilTd/ nmi to Onat Britain; tht Importa of it amonntlng in ordinary jreai* to about ir>,000 torn MMliuivaof 6(Mton(of sta*!. In addition to the above kadlng artlolaa, S^ookliolm axports pitcli, tar, copper, eto. TIm tlnbar ia inferior to that (Vom tlie loutliern porta of tiM Baltic Tlie Importa principally connitt of colonial produeta, ootton, dye-ttuffb, lalt, British manufactured gooda, hidea, flib, wine, brandy, wool, fruit, etc In aaasoaa of icarcity com la imported, but it Ik generally an article of export i^i&>(a$«.— Veaaela bound for Stockholm take s pilot at the email ialand of OJa, Lands-hort light-house is erected on the southern extremity of this i»land, in lat. 68° 44' (0" N., long. 17° 52' 16" B. It is painted white, and is Aimished with a flxed light, elevated 168 feet above the level of the sea, which may be seen nnder favorable circumstances five ieaguea off. The signal ibr a pilot is a flag at the fore top-mast head, or firing a gun. The following table exhibits the oommeroial move> ments at the port of Stockholm during the year 1851, compared with the two preceding years : Vmh. V,4M " In referring to the year 1866, I have to remark that the foreign trade of Sweden during that year con- tinued to exhibit increasing prosperity, althoogh the in'*rease over the year immediately preceding was not so great as that shown in 1864. The whole amount of export and import trade in Sweden twenty years ago was not more than 34,147,000 banco, about .£3,8'16, 683. In 1846 it had risen to 46,660,000 banco; and in 1866 exceeded 120,000,000 banco, about X10,000,000^-being double what it was in 1862, " During the year 1866 the exports value has ex- ceeded that of the imports by 7,837,000 banco, about ^£611,416 ; including unwrought Bilver to the value of 4,703,000 l)unco, about ^891,916, and exceeds the ex. ports of 1864 by 11,088 000 banco, about i;924,000, chiefly owing to the increased exportation of grain. The value of grain exported in 1864 was about 8,000,000 banco, about X666,666 ; while in \8&6 the grain export- ed from the kingdom amounted to nearly 18,000,000 banco, about 41,600,000. There haa also been a con- aiderable increase In the exportation of tan, of which 183,870 barrels were exported in 1866. The quantity •xported to Great Britain and Ireland during three years is at follows: 1868, 12,886 barrels; 1864, 86,048 barrels ; 1855, 43,899 barrels. On the other hand, a diminution has taken place in the exportation of pitch, bones, bar iron, coffee, and steel. The chief articles of import upon which any considerable increase is to be obs(^rved are arrack, brandy, rum, coffee, 4Hed and •alt fish, cotton yarn, dry hides, oil, tools, coals, sugar, and wool. The duty on the tine sorts of wool, which was lowered in the beginning of 1866 from 6>. to it. per pound, and in the month of October of Ihe same year entirely taken off Ihe coarser sorts, occasioned an increase in the quantity imported, during the short time that remained heton the close of the navigation, to the following amount: 1864, 2,664,127 pounds; 1866, 4,109,494 pounds. " In 1864, 2,409,648 pounds of white cotton yarns wero imported from Great Britain; and in 1866, 4,636,283 pounds. This increase is also owing to the lowering of the duty from 4*. to 8<. per pound. A greater importation of raw sugar from Great Britain has also taken place since the lowering of duties in 1868. Hie importation of machinery and coals from England continues to inci-case. A great deal of the import trade in manufactured goods from Great Brit- ain comes through Hamburg and Lbbec, and is in- cluded in tbe returns of trade with tliese towns. A Tariaty of causes appaar to have contributed to the im- provanent in tin trade and ganeral prosperity of Swis> den within the last ibar years. The advance made in agricalture now enables Swedan in soma degree to become a grain-exporting country."— iByitisA Caniul'f Alport, July 4, 1867. It may be remarked that during the year 1861 tha ganeral commarca of Sweden exhibited an advaneitg tendency. This was owing. In a grsat measure, to tha liberal policy which characterized the commercial leg- islation of England, dating from January 1, 186A--a policy the wisdom of which could not lie more appo- sitely illustrated than by the fact that while the total trade of Sweden with all foreign nations during this year reached as high aa 66,000,000 rix dalers,* tbe trade with England alone covered 14,648,000 rix dalers, or more than one-fonrth of the whole. In 1862 official returns show a slight falling off in tha general trade of Stockholm. It will be seen from the annexed table, from Swedish official sources, that tha entire trade, imports and exports united, represents in value ^0,669,037, or about $487,970 less than tha total trade of 1861. This diminution aflbcted imporU, especially grains, flsh, and' brandies, to the extent of 1,623,494 francs, while eoOke and sugar increased in value 888,816 francs; and in tha export trade it was felt in the falling off the preceding year of 1,044,770 francs, chiefly on iron, steel, and copper, while the ex- portation of timber and pitch increased over that of 1861. In 1862 a new article of commerce entered into the export trade of Sweden. The metal nickel fignrei for tha first time in the returns for this year to the amount of 101,620 francs, or $18,882 72, chiefly sent to the Hanse Towns. The navigation of the port of Stockholm during 1862 presented a total tonnage of 167,686 tons : via., entered, 81,874 tons ; cleare tal value of iron, steel, and copper exported in 1862 was: iron and steel, $1,747,646; copper, $827,213. Value of iron and steel exported from Stockholm to tha United States in 1832, $8102. Great Britain, tha Hanse Towns, and Denmark occupy the first rank in the order in which they are given as exporters from Stockholm. Prussia, Finland, Portugal, France, and the United States come next. Statxmxnt ixiiiBiTiNa Tuc oiMEKiU. roBiioN TsAnx or Stockiioui, buowino tat QoAnTinKS ani* Valdss or lUPOBTS AND KXfOtTS, BISPtOTIVSLY. DCBIBO TUI VXAB 1863. IMPORTS. DtMHptlM «f M«reh«BdlM. V»la« in Tn»tu Uoffee «,0i)l,OliO Sugsr 2,410,000 Ceruli 1,760,000 Fish 1,040,000 tVints and splriU 8SS,0OO TaUow 1,18.),000 Tluues l,8."S3,0fl0 Raw Bilk 882,000 EXPORTS. Iran and steel 10,408,000 Vopper 1,8411,000 Wood and lumber 244,000 Pitch and tar 814,000 During the year 1863 there was a great scarcity of vessels to carry oft' the freight to foreign markets. The number that entered the port of Stockholm was 689, with an aggregate of 70,226 tons ; and the number cleared was 927, with an aggregate of 81,916 tons. Tha total number entered and cleared was 1M6 vessels ; ag- gregate tonnage, 168,142 tons. The number of vessels was greater, but the tonnage was less by 9600 tons than in 1862. * The rix daler Is cqulralent to &9i cents. STO 1761 StO TaAi)« or |a TU« VXAB lo« !• rnwt- X OJl.OUO I 410,000 I'leo.ooo 1,040,000 T 888,000 h,18.>,000 6,988,000 862,000 J),408,000 h ,840,000 544,000 814,000 scarcity of irketa. The lin vM B89, [the number ; tons. Tb« reueis; »g- >f of veeieli ton»th»n InU. J/«n«|r.— Acflounts «re kept here, In Gottenbur);, and generally throuckout Sweden, In paper money, conslxi- iag of rix dolUn banco, one rix dollar being equal to 48 ikillinga, and one akiUlng to 12 rundatycks. The ex- change with London is at about 12 rix dollars banco per £, 80 that the rix dollar is worth about 1<. 8d. sterling. Rix dollars banco may be exchanged for specie rix dol- lars at the rate of 2} the former for one of the latter. But there are Tcry few coins, except of copper, in cir- culation, the currency consisting almost wholly of notes, varying from & skillings to 500 rix dollars banco. iVeiyhts and Mtatura.—the vlctuali or commercial weights are punds, lippunds, and skippunds; 20 punds being equal to 1 lispund, and 20 llspunds=l skippund, 100 lbs. Swedish commercial weight =93} lbs. avoir- dupois=42^ kilograms=87} lbs. of Hamburg. The iron weights are three-fifths of the victnali, or commercial weights; 20 marks =1 mark pund; 20 mark punds=l mark skippund; and 7^ skippunds^l ton English. Hence 100 punds Swedish iron weight=:76 lbs. avoirdupois, and lOO lbs. avoirdupois =133^ lbs. Swedish iron weight. In corn measure, 4 quarts=:l spann; 2 spann=l tun, or barrel; 1 tun=4i Winchester bushels; a last of rye from Kiga=18 tuns; a last of rye from Liebau =19^ tuns; a last of rye from Stettin=22^ tuns; a last of rye from Stralsund— 24 tuns. The tun of 82 kappor contains 4^ Winchester bushels. In liquid measure, 2 slup = l kanna; 15 kannor^l anker; 2 ankors = l eimcr; 2 eimers=l ahm ; U ohm =1 oxhoft; 2 oxhoft=l pipe. The pipe=124i Un- it would appear (Voni this circumstantial •feonnt , that the art of knitting stockings, or at least that th* first specimens of knit stockings, had been introduoed into Kngland from Spain about the middle of the 16th century ; and such seems to have been the general opinion, till an allusion to the practice of knitting, in the pretended poems of Rowley, forged by Cbatterton, made the sul^ect be more carefully investigated. The result of this investigation showed clearly that the practice of knitting was well known in England, and had been referred to in acts of Parliament a good many years previously to the period mentioned by Howell. Uut it had then, most probaldy, been applied only to the manufacture of woolen stockings ; and the general use of cloth hose shows that even these had not been numerous. There is no evidence to show whether the art is native to England or has been imported, — Stt BBnKMA!(^'H Incentioiu, article Stockimos. It is singular that the stocking-frame, which, even in its rudest form, is a very complex and ingenious machine, that could not have been discovered accident- ally, but must have been the result uf deep combina- tion and profound sagacity, should have been discov- ered so early as 1589— before, in fact, the business of knitting was generally introduced. The inventor of this admirable machine was Mr. William Lee, of Wood- borough, in Nottinghamshire, lie attempted to set up an establishment at CaWcrton, near Nottingham, for the manufacture of stockings, but met with no success. I In this situation ho applied to the queen for assistance ; I but, Instead of meeting with that remuneration to glish wine gallons ; and, consequently, the ahm =ii-fy I which his genius and inventions so well entitled him, English wine gallons, and 100 kannor=69^ English gallons. The Swedish font=ll'684 English inches; the ell, oralna,=2 feet; the fathom— 3 ells; the rod=8 ells. In estimating by lasts, 1 last of pitch, ashes, etc., = 12 barrels; 1 last of tar, oil, etc, = 13 barrels; 1 last of hemp, flax, tallow, etc., = G sklppunds ; 1 ton of Liv- erpool common salt=7 tons Swedish. J'ort Charges at SloelMm.—'lhe total port charges for n vessel of 500 tons (250 lasts) amount to about $277, including all expenses, in and out. For an un- privileged vessel this amount is nearly doubled. PoH Charge* at Gothenburg.— lonnaffi, pilotage, and all other dues and port charges on a vessel of 800 tons, amount at this port to about #107.— Com. Relat. U. S. StOOkingB, as every one knows, are coverings for the legs. They are formed of only one thread entwined, so as to form a species of tissue, extremely elastic, and readily adapting itself to the iiguro of the part it is employed to cover. This tissue can not be called cloth, for it has neither warp nor woof, but it approaches closely to it ; and for the purpose to which it is applied it is very superior. Silk stockings were first worn by Henry II. of France, in 1517. In 1560 Queen Eliza- beth was presented with a pair of blnck silk stockings by her silk-woman, Mrs. Montague, and she never wore cloth ones any more.— Howm.L. Ho adds, " Henry VIII. wora ordinurj- cloth hose, except there came from Spain by great, chance a pair of silk stockings ; for Spain very early abounded with silk." Edward VI. was presented with a pair of Spanish silk stockings by his merchant. Sir Thomas Grcsham ; and the pres- ent was then much taken notice of.— IIowei.l. Others relate that William Rider, a London apprentice, see- ing at the house of an Itolian merchant a pair of knit worsted strckings from Mantua, ingeniously made a pair like them, which he presented to the Earl of Pem- broke, the first of the kind made in England, in 15C4. It is well known that the Romans and other ancient nations had no particular clothing for the legs. Dur- ing the Middle Ages, however, Ik si or Itgg'utt, made of cloth, began to bo used ; and at a later period the art of knitting stockings was discovered. Unluckily, nothing certain is known as to the individual by whom, tho place where, or when this invention was made. 5T he was discouraged and discountenanced ! It need not, therefore, excite surprise that Lee accepted the invita- tion of Henry IV. of France, who, having heard of the invention, promised him a magnificent reward if ha would carry it to France. Henry kept his word, and Lee introduced the stocking-frame at Kouen with dis- tinguished success ; but after the assassination of tho king, the concern got into difliculties, and Lee died in poverty at Paris. A knowledge of the machine was brought back from France to England by some of tb« workmen who had emicrnted with Lee, and who estab- lished themselves in Noliinghamshire, which still con- tinues to be the principal scat of the manufacture. — Set Obckuaic.n's Invenlioni, vol. iv. ; and LiUert on th* Utility and iWicy t/Machines, London, 1780. Imposts or IIostibt and Artiolxs mam oh Fbamsr imtd TUX L'NITIIII STATtS FOB TUB YeAB INDINO JDNB 30, I8&T. Wlitiic* tmporitd. Cotlllll Hoiltry. silk lluaicry. WOOIMI Hoalary. Hamburg i>804.091 1,CS7,8S4 Lll-i.-'SS 6. ,3.9 8T,05S «4,88« t»8,130 i!34,019 18,640 $3T.7A6 19it,lC9 1,8T2.TM M,411 Other jiliiccs Total yesr 1851. $3,'ilO,28I $989,'2(I9 $l,740,8i0 —See arliclet Cotton, Silk, and Wool. Stock-jobber. It was about the year 1688 that the word stock-joblwr was first heard in london. In- tho sliort space of four years a crowd of companies^ every one of which held out to subscribers the hope of immense gains, sprang into existence; the Insurance Companv, the Paper Company, the Lute-string Com. pany, tho Pearl-fishery Company, the Glass-bottle Company, tho Alum Company, the Blythe Coal Com- pany, the Sword-blade Company. There was a Tap- estry Company, which would soon furnish pretty hang- ings for all the parlors of the middle class, and for all tho bed-chambers of the higher. There was a Copper Companv, which proposed to explore the mines of En- gland, and held out a hope that they would prove noh less valuable than those of Potosl. There was a Div- ing Company, which undertook to bring up preciou* eftects from shipwrecked vessels, and which announeed that it had laid in a stock of wonderful machines re- sembling complete suits of armor. In front of the hel- met was a huge glass eye like that of a cyclop; Mi4 STO 1762 m0' Nt of'ika crest went • pipe through which the air was t« be admitted. The proeeM wai exhibited on the Thamei, Fine gentlemen and fine ladies were invited to the show, were hospitably regaled, and were delighted by seeing the divers in their panoply dcsi.'end into the river and return laden with old iron and ships' taeltle. Then was a Greenland Fishing Company, which could not fail to drive the Dutch whalers and herring busses out of thts Korthern Ocean. There was a Tanning Com- pany, which promised to furnish leather superior to the best that was brought from Turkey or Russia. There was a society which undertook the office of giv- ing gentlemen a liberal education on low terms, and which auumed the sounding name of (he Royal Acad- emies Company. In a pompous advertisement it was announced that the Directors of the Royal Academies Company had engaged the best masters in every branch «f knowledge, and were about to issue twenty thoDsand tickets at twenty shillings each. There was to be a lottery ; two thousand prizes were to be drawn; and the fortunate holders of the prize were to be taught, at the charge of the Company, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, French, Spanish, conic sections, trigonometry, heraldry.Japanning, fortiKcation, book- keeping, and the art of playing on the theorobo. Some of these companies took large mansions, and printed their advertist^ments in gilded letters. Others, less ostentatious, weri content with ink, and met at coffee- houses in the neighborhood of the Royal Exchange. Jonathan's and Garraway's were in a constant ferment with brokers, buyers, sellers, meetings of directors, meetings of proprietors. Time-bargains soon came into fasliion. Extensive combinations were formed, and monstrous fables were circulated, for the purpose of raising or depressing the price of shtfres. — Macadlay. Stooks. The public funding system originated in Venice in the 12th century, and was introduced into Florence in the year 1840. The English funding sys- tem may be said to have had its rise in 1672-'94, In the United States the term tlockt includes United States funded loans and State loans, and the stocks or shares in various corporations, such as railroad companies, banks, funded debts of cities, etc In England the term ttoclci is applied mainly to gov- •mment funded debt — such as consols, Bank of En- gland stock, etc. ; and the term $hani is used when ap- plied to the capital or joint stock of railroad, banking, and mining companies. — Ute article Funds. The difficulties in which individuals are involved by their real wants, but oflener by their unruly passions, ar3 tlie source of their debts. The debts of [European] nations liav* not a different origin. When the ordi- nary resources of a country were insufficient to carry into effect the private views or impolitic tears of the despots who ruled, or the ministers who directed it, they simply resorted to the expedient of borrowing; but when the sums loaned were inadequate to the in- creased expenditure, tliey liad recourse to all sorts of schemet, decepliont, and contrivaneri, the better to delude the lenders, and allure their avarice. Such is tlie ori- gin of the liritish funding system. Among states, debt may be considered a national disease; and, like other diseases in our day, has made the tour of Europe, and, we may add, of many of tlie new nations of America. One set of Uritish writers maintain that " debt and wealtli are synonymous;" tliat "increase of debt is a true increase of riches ;" that no happiness can exist without a national debt. The domestic [i.e., the na- tional] debt, says one of the highest authorities (Coi,- Quiiui N ), dispenses protection and happintu, by form- ing iiiiitual advantages between the rich and the poor. It has produced the rapid increase of publio and pri- rate buildings, and of the trade, commerce, and naviga- tion of the country. Another, more audacious than the rest, declares that " a part of the industry, a part of t^e wagef, and a part of the land, btkmg to the stock- holders; and that by thirty millions of czpenditnra being in the hands of the stockholders or diuipalort, consumption is highly stimulated." The extinction ' of the national debt of Great Britain, in the opinion of . these economical writers, wpnid, of course, bring mis- fortune and evil. " It would," says Colqohonn, "be attended with greater Inconvenbnces than at present are experienced." Another class of British writers, with more truth, with greater force of argument, and with more evidence of facts, contend that " poverty, misery, and the na- tional debt, are also synonymous and identical terms;" that "taxation incurred to pay its annual interest (swallowing up thirty millions out of sixty millions of revenue, to satisfy the fund-holders), oppresses the peo- ple, destroys Industry, and is equal to the curse of heaven on the agriculture, commerce, and manufkc- tnres of the nation." (McCulloch) : "To maintain that this enormous taxatioir enriches the nation, be- cause it abstracts a portion of its riches, is both a plain contradiction and an absurdity ; taxation being always an engine of destruction to all the productive classes." " To attribute to the debt the increase of business, im- provements, etc., during the late war, is an error of the most miserable kind. It is to be attributed not to the increase of debt, but to the monopoly of commerce, to the discoveries of Arkwright and Watt, and to various other causes. The nation did not improve because of the debt, but in spite of it ; as it gave birth to the nefarious practice of stock-jobbing, begetting a spirit of gambling, destructive of public morals, disgraceful to the nation, and hostile to the pursuit of sober indus> try." " No wages, no part of the lands, belongs to the stockholders or diuipatom ; nor was any specified prop- erty pledged for the greatest part of the debt contracted. The lenders had not at the time any property mort- gaged to them; consequently, they can not have at present more specified rights than they possessed when they loaned their money. To maintain the contrary is a dangerous and arbitrary assun-ption." " They ad- vanced money when its value was depreciated on an average otfifttea per cent. They never entertained the idea of receiving payment at par, when the loans were contracted at exceedingly low prices." "It would be both folly and injustice to compel the nation to pay one hundred ounces of gold to the fund-holders, when tbey loaned less tlian eighty," " I*, is equally unjust to exempt this sort of property from the alteration in value to which every other kind of property in the kingdom is 8ul]ject ; and, consequently, the reduction ' of the debt — that millstone which destroys the industry and vigor of the people, doubles taxes, and spreads pau- perism, crime, and wretchedness throughout the coun- try—can be eftisoted without any violation of the pub- lic faith." " The nation must not suffer on account of the errors of party or ministerial men. The happiness of twenty-four millions of British subjects ou^ht not to be postponed for the sake of an insignificant portion- two hundred and eighty thousand stockholders." Before we enter more fully on the subject, wo have thus drawn a brief summary of the leading argument* and opinions of the contending parties for and against the existence of the present British national debt. It is not difficult to anticipate the American side of the argument ; but on the opposite side what can we ex- pect, where the infection of gambliftg is so strong that Fopo, who know iiis countrymen well, declared — "Sltttetman snd patriot ply alike fAs tlocki; iVsresa and butler share alike tlie box; And judges Job, and bisKops bite the town, And mighty dukts pack cards for half a crown." In the 12th century, Richard I. pawned the reve- nues of the crown for the payment of moneys borrowed to defray the expenses of the fanatical conquest of the Holy Land. Henry III. pawned the crown jewels and regal ornaments and ivbes of state. Edward I borrowed money to pay the debts of his father, in order contributed. The^ii/ ^^ ""mmees of those who f„L„ ■ '' "P^'at'on whatever can i ' , .^"nerit"- public dttl. ''.*'^ ""'^^ """W advanta" 0, r r™''''" """^ ««■"« in tird T'" P?*'^'' '""''i" STO 1764 STO than nlnatmn milltoni of tha national debt were re> deemed in 1818. Tlie next measure was tlie reduction of tlie Ave per cents into fours. The hanic at that time had thirteen millions in their vaults ; and thcr increased the circulation by throwing a large amount of paper into market, and by lowering the rate of in- terest from S to 4 per cent. By the union of gov- ernment and banking powers, the enormous sum of £U0,'i60fi'iS of 6 per cents was readily converted into £147,263,328 of 4 per cents, at an annual saving of in- terest of JE1,2'22,009 at a small increase of capiul only. In 1824, 4 per cents to the amount of je7C,806,882 were changed into an equal amount of stuck bearing an in- terest of 8^ per cent. This operation, besides effecting an annual saving uf £381,034, had the advantage of making no addition to the capital of the debt. In 1827, £8,500,000 of debt were created, while £2,8G6,528 vrere redeemed. In 1828 the sinking fund was de- stroyed. On the nth of July, it was enacted that for the future " the amount of the sinking fund bo the actual surplus of the revenue over the expenditures." (Came into operation 6th July, 1829.) At that lime there ware no surpluses, but a large deficiency of revenue. But although one of the three elements of the fund- ing system was thus lost, the action of that system was not on that account discontinued. A prospective operation was contrived in May, 1830, to transfer into H per cents tha fours created at tlie reduction of the flves in 1822. One of the Lunditions was, that the new stock should not bo subject to redemption at any time before January 6, 1819; and an option was of- fered to the holders to receive £70 of the new fives, or £100 of the 3i per cents, for every £100 of 4 per cent, annuities. This operation was called prospective, be- cause tha advantage of the plan is, that when the stipulated term shall have expired, as much relief may be obtained by the nation from every payment of £70 employed in canceling 5 per cents as by the pay- ment of £100 when applied to the discharge of 3^ per cents, both bcin;; redeemable at par: annual saving of this step, £700,001). In 1829, £4,900,000 were ere- ated, and £6,000,000 reduced; £154,000,000 were cre- ated in 1830, and £168,004,0)0 reduced ; but what was the result? The coniiiiitteu of 1828 state, that "in a few years [say* the 4th report] which preceded the virtual abandonment uf the system, one hundred and twenty millions had been added to the capital of the national d^ht, while the purchases of the commissioners had fallen so far short of that sum that tlie unredeeni' ed capital of the unfunded debt was greater at the coni' mencement of 1823 than it had been in 1818, by the sum of twenty-ti ve iniiliuns." In 1819 twelve millions, and in 1820 thirteen millions, were unwarrantably taken from the sinking fund. The actual reduction during the peace is, according to the Finance Committee, who declare " that the total reduction elTucted from 181G to 1826 in tha national debt was only three millions and a half." The writer from whom we have abridged tha pre- ceding facts concludes: "It appears that this enor- mous debt (which he states at eight hundred and sixty- four .flillions) has been chiefly raised by means of the Bank and the Stock Exchange, aided by llie deluiiun of the linking fund; and that it has been principally expanded in wars, most of them undertaken against the true interests of the nation, whose topographical situation renders her independent of continental broils and quarrels. Its amount has been immensely in- creased in time of war, while the reductions effected in time of peace have been exceedingly limite ^e .leemed ' V T, """''■ ■-■=, V. u„ 1,10 i«ttcli. 8 "' » Mip on A ccipetuer sturn X ," , *^*°"' P'operlv so calUrt „ commodation of .he ship's c^w ami ""•^"™ «"'* «=- Stranding, in .yavigal^.^i P^wnger,. •hore, or on the beacli ' " "'"'"'« "f » »hip on much diversity o4i„Zf„',"^"»'='"y matter, and ««pect to it. It would, however . *"'"'""«<« with •trilling against a rock, bannrl ''''"?' """ "'«"'ly n«i .nd that, to cons.Uu'e i't he T' """"•""'■d- th. rock, etc., for some time ( iwtnt T^ "' M "l "P"" Park has the folloiviny atriking on a ro^g "n ,'^ "«"i- her beam ends. Everv strikil „^ ! " ""»"'"'» on duce a retardation of-tl.e si ?, ' V""™"''''"^' ?'»- force of the elements she s rl7.l, ""? " '^ "-^ 'he Btationary, it is immaterial , heS?h1' 1"" '^™" on the muddv bank of a riv„r " ''" "" P"". .hore, butaW ,:-r;\ i;ir,r''.r" ""'-' „ ^- "'«■ would exceed il,« L'.u' -"'•""*• 'ho *~ Kext-s Co,,.™., vol. T; %""'' "' "■• ""P- Sturgeon rjaherv ti,„ '. valuable, and well-known fish „f Z^?''" '' ' '"ee, cral species: vi^., <^-»P'«n distributed overa vas e, en, 'f ^ """' "" ''""y pickled earcassesof he fish ° •°""l''-'- B'»ide.tho 'be roes; and isinglass oHheT? " ^^P""' '«»" sounds. The caviar made bv^K l"""'^' '™'» 'bo rect'>n<>^ . ■ m""e by the L'™ r„ i.. , ."ass are e^rt d i^To^tSn " ^"' " «- "- belugas are sometimes clTyTl """•"""''''• """^ from 1000 to 1600 lbs a„d vmJ^ '"*• '«*'ghing Ihe seal-fishery is also pre.tl iV ?"''? "•'•' »' »il m the Caspian-: Th rS^ win 2"^'^ Prosecuted count of the mode in wCh the f ''. " ""'""'^ »«- 'he Caspian, and in 7 rfle^ 1 7 '' 'T*'''' »" '" eub-treasurv Tho .. i . peculiar to the general r,^""^ *>'*'«'" ''» one S.ates, whe^by th:Z'.r^r™rA "^ '"e United .boro; buta-mZZx^;';:[|,17 -|^-" '•'-- P-"ar .n:^'^,„,S'= -h-t^asu,^ sy.tem i, „„« may happen. I can not look o tiu^ ' *"*"'" "'«' States ; wherebv fhT e°''^™'"ent of ,he United out considering the oa«,« co„ °, i ^'''"'fces with- public f. nds7s " l ,f!iT'" """ "fe-keeping of hf ll"* « the clearrM nnd in<«t .alirf. . '■"""res "f m« ,, „? h"' "«n>iiSho..l ,1.. L-„i„n. -nie W" live ,n>t »|.;, ,„ iZZS^^TV ""•"•"1 W C. On "Si . """"< "" ■"■'• 1»«7-JmJ better, i„ onler to put to .-^st a . d2, "' " T'*" ''^ «"''''»' ""d LtrZ^l^l^f^'' """""y' '" 'be po^ ject, to decide eithe'r that ver;l\rik n'^V/?" 'he '"['■ '"*^- ""I '"ch o eV'l "Tmt'u a?"'™' "' """ "^^»- the shore, etc., by which da.n«™ : .^ '^ "" " ""=''• 'h's act as places of ,l.n„ " r ?' ''* Provided for in •hould beconside'«=da .ranXT or,h V° ''^^':'P• '''^'^hy cons? tu.ed a.iXw/,'"'.''"'':"^ "'""">■' "" «d AvK«Ao«. I^*''^'"-^'']- Aban,h,.„„,.,, ton, ^,„ OrloVnX' l^ 'J^'^'Y'\?''''^ SUE 1766 BUG cnomiaot diflkrence in favor of tbla latter ronte. Tliii illfTtiTCnca will be (till grttaltr If we romemlwr that a Ktralgbt Una on tlie chart of navigation is fai from being the shortest distance from one port to another, and the seaman can only reach the point for which he in steering b.v following a certain number of successive courses, approaching as near as possible the arc of a )(reat circle. Thus, far from making directly for the t^ape of Good Uope, vessels leaving Europe or the At- lantic porta of North America, m tho!^ of India would not be the only advantage to trade from adopting the canal between tlie two seas; for not only would vessels reach their point of destination much sooner, but they would And places of anchorage throughout the entire route, and also, what is of more importance still, they would meet with good markets. Tlie navigator, after having fal- lowed the usual easy routes of the Mediterranean, would dispose of part of his cargo in the Canal of Suez, ur at Djedda, would purchase ivory at Massarva, Soua- ken, or Derbera, which he would exchange in India for opium to take to China in exchange for silk and tea. He would complete his home cargo in colonial merchandise 'rom Manilla, tb« Isles of Sunda and Ceylon ; in cotton of India and Egypt ; in coffee of Abyssinia or Yemen ; the gum of Soudon or Hedjaz ; the com of Lower Egypt, or rice of Damiotta; and these numerous operations, which now require years, would be accomplished rapidly and without danger with small capital and small vessels. In short, by re- ducing the time necessary for the operations of com- merce, we reduce the general expense. All nations would take advantage of the importance of the trade with India, China, and the islands of the ocean. Trade with the Red Sea, although less consiil- er«bl«, deserves attention ; but as there is scarcely any carried on at pnwnl, It It very little knswn, and could only acquire importance Uy the opening of • canal between the two seas. The Red Sea, which is so near to us in a straight line, Ixcomes far distant when we have to double the Cape, llabelmandel Is as far from us a* I'ondlcherry, and Houaknn as far as Ba* tavia; Suez, farther still, by this route becomes as near as Beyrout by the canal t in short, the two routes, measured from the Straits of Gibraltar to Souak«n,aro in the proportion of one to five, Very few European vessels are now met with In tho Red Sea. Every year wo sue a few linlonging to tho I'arsces of Bombay, and manned by I.naears, The In- ternal trade of this sea is now carried on by Aratilun barks, called itoiei, or houlrm, construclud at Hiiuz, Ujoddo, Kossair, Souaken, or Muelia, wllli wood from India to Singapore. These vessels are of n \iiry small tonnage, are very sharp, and liuvn a Imndsome sheer) a heavy poop, which hinders their working, and lowers it at the stern ; they carry onu mast, rigging a tqiiara sail; this sail and yard ure struck to tho foot when they lay to ; about thirty men are required to hoist it again, and tliia operation can not bo perforined in lesa than half an hour. Tho tacking of these sliips Is ai di(6eult as it is dangerous. Tlie dows only sail In the daytime; they got under way aboul sevon o'clock in the morning, sail till about four In sight of the coast, then anchor by a grappling-iron, or run aground on th« sand. — London Nautical Maifatint, Sea also ScnjUhtm Quarterti/ lieciew, ix. t>T. Messrs. Conruil, A. Itunaud, Megrllli J. M'I.«an, and Lieusson, the inembers iif tho inturiiullnnai commission f:>r cutting a canal thruuuh tho Isllinius of Sues, hav« terminated their investigutlnns In Egypt, and given in to the viceroy a brief preliminary nipurt. They found insuperable obstacles to directing tho oonal on Aiexan- dria, and unexpected facilities for ostulillshing a port in the Gulf of I'elusium. Tlioy are thoruforo unani- mously of opinion that a direct eonal from Suoi: toward tho Gulf of Pcluslum Ih tho only solution nf tlio problem of the junction of tho Rod Sea and tho Mediterranean. " The execution thereof Is easy, tho success certain, the results immense for the commerce of tho world." Tho expense of tho canal and of the works connected with it will not, it is added, exceed 200,U(W,0(IO francs. Sugar (Fr./iucre,- (jer.Xucktri It, Xucchrro ) Riiss. Sachari Sp. Azucar; Arab. Hukhir; Malay, Haolai Sans. Sarkara), a sweet grttiiiilalod substance, too well known to require any particular desorlpllon. It Is every where in oxtonsiva use, ami in this country ranks rather among the indisponsublo necessaries of life than among luxuries. In point of commercial importance, it is iocoiid to very few articles, It Is chiefly prepared from tho oxprcwed Julrn of the A f undo sMchanfera, or sugar-cane ; but it is also procured from an immense variety of other plants, as maple, lieet-root, birch, parsncp, etc, Speciet (if' Sugar. — Tho sugar met with in commerce is usually of four sorts ; brown, iir muscovado sugar ; clayed sugar; refined, or loaf sugar; nnd sugar-candy. Tho difference botween one sort of sugar and anulher depends altogether on the dllHiront niodi« in which they are prepared. Brown, or Mutcovado iSui/ar.—Tbo plants or canos being crushed in a mill, the juice, having jiassed through a strainer, is collected in tho clariller, where it is first exposed to tho action of a gentle fire, after being " tem- pered" (mixed with alkali), for the purpose of facili- tating the separation of the liquor from Its impurities. It is then conveyed into the large evaporating copper, and suocessively into two others, each of smaller size; tho superintending boiler fhtcing It during the process from tlio scum and feculent matters which rlne to the surface. The sirup then maches tho Jast copper ves- sel, called the "striking tache," wheni If Is boiled till sufllelently concentrated to be cnpablo of granulating in the cooler, wltenco It t* transfurrud with tho least SUG apex downward. The.? i^ ."l" 1""'?'. P«'» *'"> the o"„n« " re^ ?.""'!"«, of ft ^.^1"^ """'"">' ! apex downward. The." no .h "'?' P"'» *'"> the oxno « ^"^^ 1"«ntitie, of ft hfv.T ","'"'""">' ! extremltv, throuBhwhfrh^. "''** "."'a "t «he lower '^ ■'",'' '° '"''ia, whence i.i. '^" '" •» «^ allowed t-odra7n.* Aft •",, ;.r "r """ '''"P «eK' ^^r'' '•■«'' -«"^ool"'™'P'^^^^^^^^^ 'Si »on,e time, a stratum of m„t T *"" continued for i,''," *"" «» ^f. MomIovI r!:I^'*"'*""'*'»«»'. ed from canes or reo,U •• , ", ""'' "' honey extract- ity of NearchuB,^exander?^ ".'""•»" ">« author- India yield hon^y Xu' e:;'""1' ?»' "'-"» '" waa put to death A.C. C5, a Ss t„ ^'"?""'> ^"" wh,cb shows lio«r little was S I- "'''" " ' ""y (Epist. 84): ^,„„, sa" te .• ' ■'"•"'"" "spectiug it Dioscorides and Pwr^.r.^?"'"- ^ the ancients, -"'-• ^inea in toe L ported into Venice in 996 """*/ »m. ■oaf-eugV^u^t'srrei^l"'^'::^'^'""*''-"^ ropean invention tL Ji '^^ *" "» « "'odern Eu. the end of th is'.h „/th ™,:'"?' "' « Venetian "bon tury.-MosELEv D 6fi t.^*'?l""8 of the 16th eel Grand I^'Aus,vh'a?"shown^h«"'l'." *'"•""''". '»' ^ ■nto and used in Fran^ for mffl"' ''•*" '"'""lueeS half previously ,o tho^!^' T? ^^ « '""tury and, ?f the process of rcfin^net vff""^ t' "■" "'"'"^^V ao "honev colI„.,». L„ '"v 4."'' W'"}- describes it ,hLfJ"5" '' """^nown in the Ea« ... "f ': description of sug, . ^it fo™.?," ""' '."™' P""^'"" of concreted honey/found ulT "'^''' " " "» *ort Ar«l>[« l,'=i:„. ... y: """t "Pon canes, n TnHio ._j "on the teeth." MTl'Unv Zt ",' ^""^ '"'"P «"««' !» unknown „ /If ?"■""* '"ear. I.oaf "? ected from canes, nke a i^ „ "hv "' 'i ">« °n'/»PeciDs of refine ,. .'' '"S^-^'n-ly heinJ It, brittle iKjtween the teeth." And PiYnV T"" V? ""»' | '"mp sucar is un ^^r^ r""'; '' " """^ i" ."edicinfon'iv °'^'' T" "^ ''"''"•^ «» '« HindoIta„b!.t'',r'"™ "''"g^-candy 1° sugar was singuUrfy impeUct Thl. °^ "'"'"'"'"« "^ the p~v?nt „? 1°" /„ ""> former being the pr;S But the "''"'■ '"■ '• ^^^• tion. Sugar'can''noTl,«'!,u!^'''f ,"^ "''""'"' ''ounda- 1 ^ ™" raw sugar has beirun #„ "i V"" '"".■ "' "''« out the aid of art t^: IZ'rf T "■" """ ^^ith- footed from China to S" ^ .'T/v'"'' '"e^b' ex. -"- • - _,."'r"f''.""'l native. Instead l«''w in 1846 having aSn.i'^ ,'5T„'"'"'' <■"' '»•• .pressed, the speculation did n^t'u^'tt'we'lM ^\ ^"^ It is not, f"l whether the sugar of rh?„. T V "•*. " " ''""''t. upposed,>tand the competu!:: "of^b "J'^^.'''''^ «? -'f- --. vuu Blu or art. It u nn..n- f . — " """ of flowing f„„„ the plan, t „, s Zr " -fr ' ^""«'" and then subjected lo a 'arin v „f "'"''^ '''P'^'»«'. however, quitesocIoL n.hl '"■''™'"'- ^t is not that the'^om. tr ' whoHv r/''"r"^'"PP°'^'' mode of procurinrsuJr-Th„ '"'"'?'"' ""'"^ the Statius, ^ ^"- ^''^ wmarkable line of f "«" P'rcov.U Bin,ia canm^SyXy. lib. I. v 15 ubeenconiecfiinxi . .i.. - ■"-" -^"o^"" *»««•« «,n«„_sy,v. lib. 1, V. 15, Pe«ns who practiced the art wh ch T" *'"' ""' ''»"»• — whether the suear of r. . sua 1769 BUG EnglUh t »ug»r ■ed four t, Tex- back to Krench. « staple troduced tomlngo- tanka of Orleana. lant, and of sugar, tato on • Louisiana, ins. Hl» nd In the ctured for me one of r the lUv- ivonturers Lonisians, ly engaged 1808 there n the Delta :ton of cane South, the idlng in the plant, very i in its cul- iplcs, where hcroispluro ituations fa- rortieth par- Icgree south. ;inent it Tfill lof north lat- On the Pa- five degrees ^Uity of this illy becom- re an expos- irther north, some of its oduced. In three crops icnomlnated _{rowth»"r»- , of Attaka- rn range of every year, cs and else- jndantly for rs, from the My confined iiritius, Bril- iippine, and ftricts of the Irated in the Ion, or Java; [Creolo crys- ple, the ycl- j. Thequan- I from 600 to llOOO lbs. lolasses con- Khe quantity I direct occa- |l5 it was es- B of the Mis- In 1818 _0,0001bs.i [quantity of n gallona of moUiiM. Aecordlngto the eenraa of IMO, th« amount of cane and maple sugar was 16S,100,80O lbs., of which 119,947,720 lbs. were raited In Loulilana. By the cen- ■us of 1860 the oane sugar mails in this countrr was 847,681,000 lbs., beildei U,700,006 gallons of molasses t maple-iugar, 84,249,880 lbs,, amounting to 281,830,880 Iba., showing an Increase In tan years of 126,780,077 \\M.—UMtad ataltt Patent Offirt Rtp,i1, 1850, AdiUUratio».—a\ieu is an article which is especial- Jy lUbla to aduUerstlun ; and its high price during the Utt few years, coupled with the high duty, has given • powerful stimulus to this nefarious practice. Per- hapa we might not be far from the mark were we to estimate the quantity of foreign matters Intentionally mixed up with sugar, and sold as such in England, prevlonsly to the lata reduction of duties, at 10,000 or 12,000 tons a year ! Sago and potato flour are the ar- ticles which have been most extensively used for this purpose. When mixed with sugar they give It a whiter and finer appearance, and, unlete the dose be overdone, increase its price about i$. a cwt. It Is extremely dlf- flcult to deal wltli an abuse of this sort. No doubt (be fall in the price of sugar following the placing of (he trade on a proper footing, and the reduction of the duty, have leMened the temptation to adulterate. Hut thoy have not wholly removed it, the materUls employed to adulterate being decidedly cheaper than sugar, how- ever supplied. In this, as in most cases of the sort, the best security against adulteration is to deal only with grocers of the highest character. Annual averago of 14 years— ISOf-lSUc 1816 1816 , MtT 1818 MM 1«M mt isn isn , MU 1815 MM 18»T 1818 13M 1880 Mil issa 1833 1834 183S 1838 183T 1888 1840.. 18«1.. lSi3.. 1848.. 1814.. 1845.. 1846.. 184T.. 1848.. 1840.. 18S0.. 1851.. 1858.. 1868.. 1864.. 1856.. 1856.. 185T.. 1858*. Qiuitll; of Sagftr coniumtt] Id Iba UnlM Klaidou. Ota. 9,847,619 1,613,326 1,838,396 8,680,091 1,111,700 8,111,013 8,176,069 3,419,146 3,lSl,g!0 8,406,100 8,601,157 8,17t,8S8 8,783,607 8,639,806 3,079,167 8,809,710 4,057,110 4,076,163 8,879,910 8,706,411 8,028,661 4,012,860 3,693,144 4,048,606 4,011,146 8,830,3113 8,694,411 4,057,900 8,808,474 4,018,.113 4,119,44» 4,856,680 5,138,666 6,805,633 6,188,487 6,080,824 6,107,827 6,571,016 7,171,8.53 7,487,689 8,332.407 T,617,iD7 7,071,615 7,419,517 8,431,105 N«tR«*tntt« fte- •r»lni from Saor •rurth* deduction or DrawtMcka and BoanUaa oa Susar aipoTtad. AvaniKe Rata of Duly Mr Cwl. paid bjr Ilia I'oniumar. e 3,301,701 8,464,41'i 3,011,715 4,434,061 1,761,169 3,900,639 3,928,431 4,183,997 4,000,641 4,417,476 4,041,097 4,170,073 4,961,071 4,060,114 6,002,338 4,896,171 4,767,874 4,080,606 4,894,361 4,414,346 4,659,418 4,067,020 4,184,109 4,700,676 4,660,011 4,580,936 4,449,070 5,114,390 4,874,311 6,070,326 6,203,170 3,674,471 3,806,780 4,405,237 4,667,837 8,912,170 8,884,441 3,970,141 8,89.3,666 4,033,836 4,741,767 6,083,600 6,129,049 6,058,1134 6,040,400 Avaraia Priea par Cwl. la £ 1 1 10 1 9 1 7 1 10 1 8 ■. il. 1 T 1 1 1 8 4 6 4 5 4 5 1 3 4 5 10 4 1 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 6 6 8 6 1 8 1 14 14 11 I-' 1 14 9 13 1 11 11 1 :n 10 n 10 11 11 8 13 8 14 3 13 8 13 6 Avaraf a Priaa par Cwl. In. alaalvavf Duly, 0. d. 8 1 1 10 8 T 1 1 > 1 10 1 1 1 16 1 18 1 U 1 11 11 1 11 6 1 18 6 1 10 T 1 IS 9 1 11 8 1 8 4 11 8 8 10 14 1 13 8 1 10 1 2 1 1 10 8 1 10 11 1 13 9 1 13 8 1 11 8 1 13 1 17 8 3 5 6 6 6 1 10 5 1 5 7 1 18 6 1 7 10 Ponutntlon of Iha Uullad Klnidom. jC a. d. 8 14 8 4 11 5 8 17 9 8 16 4 8 10 8 3 18 18 11 6 10 13 111 15 11 16 11 10 7 10 11 10 18 10 13 8 17 7 4 11 18 7 17 8 3 1 14 3 4 10 1 1 18 11 18 10 7 5 8 1 1 10 18 8 18 17 17 3 13 3 18 11 12 10 1 4 1 9 2 1 3 17,166,000 10,118,000 19,463,000 19,772,000 10,070,000 !I),BON,000 !0,706,(HI0 10,98.5,000 11,320,000 11,672,000 11,901,000 11,804,000 11,606,000 11,893,000 23,200,(00 23,836,000 13,334,000 14,083,000 14,843,000 24,561,1100 14,820,000 26,104,000 i^80O,O0O 2^fl76,000 28,806,000 26,201,1100 16,510,000 16,730,000 17,,iSi,.;nF.^-iVV'- suo 1770 SUO fcrnwrljr, oftan rttched *• Mgh lu SOnO or 4000 pound* ( Mil in ■oine caeai even to UOUO pounda ; but for th* iMt l*yi yoan It hu often ranged »• low aa from &00 to 1000 poundi to Ihs acre. Acconlinn to Commodon r*m, in bU " E.tpadltton to Japan," bcfora tha lntr»- ductMHiof giunolntu Mauritiu*, the product of lugar on that Uland wa* from UOUO to 26UO puunda to tbu aero ; but till Inoraaaa iluoa the application of thli fartiliur ha* baan ao axtraordlnary aa to be scarcely oredibla. In ordinary aeaaooa the produ i baa been from OOOO to 7000 pound*, and under peculiarly favorable oircurv itance* it has even reached HUOO pound* to >,be acre. The amount of raw augar aa a Rroas produce to the acre, in aevaral coontriea of the globii, ttom good aulhor- itiea, la aa fullowai ... . .., .^ ; Mauritius >■■<• ••• f^^ pound*. BnutI 6000 " Cube 4000 " Isle of Uonrbon 8800 " Ousdaloup* 1000 >' VemCnw ^ 1900 " Martlulciue 1T0O >• IMiigel 1600 " HiUorolUgo 1100 " Loulnlwia 1000 " In order to show the fluclnallona of the augar-crop in Louialana, we have compiled from our reoorda the annexed atatement of the auRar product of Louisiana for the past twenty-thr*e years, showinf; the amount of each year's crop In hogsheads and pounds, with tha gnu average value per hogshead and lulal, the pro- porliona taken by Atlantlo ports and Weatern Htates, and the date of the tirat receipt of each crop. Ily thla atatement it will lie seen that the total product of Louisiana fhim 1884 to I8.'i6 Inclualvr, a period of twenty-throe yeara, waa 8,072,71H hof^sheads, valued at i2l)4,131,9M, and that of this quantity the Atlantlo porU took l,li17,8t*a hogsheads, and Iho Western Statea 1,974,108 hogshead*. The crop* from 1H2H (which i* •* far back as our estimate* extend) to 188U summed up 281,000 hogsheads; which would make the total product In a period of twenty-seven years 4,25.1,718 hogsbcada, or 4,477,668,000 pounds. Wu would hero remark thiit up to 1H48 the product in hogsheads 1* eatiniatoc i .)d lOOO pounda taken an the average weight par hogTi!i". tftiwrtailTo AUaiiUr portt. KipoiUil to 1834 llonhMd.. Too.O'io 80,000 70,000 66,000 70,000 116,000 87,000 110,000 140,000 100,0110 200,000 1811,660 141,000 240,000 290,009 947,028 911,803 286,647 891,031 44'.I,B'24 846,636 281,427 78,970 PoMldl. 100.000,000 80.000,000 70,000,000 06,000,000 TO00O,000 1I8,000,(MIO 87,000 000 (60 00 90 00 60 00 09 60 69 60 60 00 M 0.. $6,000,000 9,700,000 4,200,000 6,069.600 4.376,000 6,760,000 4,T8^oao 8,600,000 4,760,000 6,000,000 9,000,000 10,966,760 9,800,000 9,600,000 8,1)00,000 19,8)16, 160 19,678,180 11,897,360 16,462.683 16,T26,o40 18,O.60.'0 la,l|l»,H90 8,137,360 Ht'X«h«adi. 46,601) 1,600 26,800 94.600 96.600 49,600 88,6110 28,000 68.0 Ira rttlmalod aa folluwa: _ , , ^, ttrllM rnUnlfn W«« iHlllaa HaMrlili)* MaHrmiiii;,',",!;.',',',','.';:.';;;::;;: Ilpitnlth CoUmUt. aso.ooo SitnMlm' III|)|||H«I OuM Coftntti. SAO.noo txl.OOO HTATaniNT nr ma total gvANTiTT or Raw add Rwuin Hiiata iMKiaTaii into iia«AT I.bitain ik aAOH or tmi riva ^ lAu aNiMNu IMM. Year •nJlBff Taw. Tmm. JulT i,\m B'MI.'iUli |nor«*M, iS,IM '■ IMiS 8M. I !)S ; di'cruw, 41,1/1 1"«4 8 1.48'*: Inrmur. B",800 JuD*IO,l> NnTtiiiiia iM TUB I'oaT or Havana loaiNii Tiia rni.Lowiii« Tan YaAaa-wiTii tuk laAai.r AviaAiia V'ALva-laioaa ■> ItaAL* M«rrli. M«)r. 4f!S,0(IO n,wo 10,000 100,000 40,000 10,000 OB, 000 100,000 40,000 100,000 100,000 i;6i6,ooo Tooa. 4'> fiiadakmita v lladu IIimiHhiii, i'Iii ) /MnM mit Humlith Colonitt. n.Thiiinaa , I Kt,(irua, •lit.M.M / !l?f»ll, ,,. InlMMtatoa Ililiia, HIaiii, and all olhar iiarla I'mdiiHllnH itt b««'. rwit mifinr In Iho wiirlrt , I'mdimtliin tif wifiiltiiHi ami nianiii.iuK- art, (iflHcltialli'ln Mie I'nitoil Hiatva, AHKriiHaln lonii Oimtumitlhrn t\f flunitr In the H'orW.— In tho aggrc- gatti WH afmll tint, liKrliapn, \m far wrong in cMlmating tlia |iiitiaiiltt|itlflii or«)l,>orti!d colonial and trop.cal augar toi th« jfutt 1167 U follow* • ToOf. Tha I'lillad KlnDdntn Vraiiiw ,,,:,,., I'lm NKltinrlaHiln, MxlKliiiit, (lerinan^,'^ I'miwla, Ailttrla, lliiii|««r)', nnd Aim- 1 Irian llal>', |ii>r hiiii'li iinrin, ^locliid- v 13&,000 iiill rK'ii|itMrt« U> KiiMla and Ltlior WIIHtrll'll ,..,,:,,,,..,, J I'nr Maiiwt ThWH* , . , 40,000 l'iirAiit»t,im, Kluuie, ei' rl^ooo I \Mn. Ptiuodi. 1S48 144,13 i,TR8 I8fi0 ll)4 4.S3,elS I8b8 449,4(I0,6M 18tSS 44U,000,000 fpaln.r;.-..,,. gsrtiiial ,,,,,, Dmiiimrli and i*»Mli Meant Price Current furnishes the number of hogsheads raised in tho United States for a series of years. lieducing It to pounds, nt 1000 lbs. to the hogs- head, w« have the following result since 1837 : Vaan. Prinda. 184S 120,1 ,0,000 1860 211 8118,000 1S6S 449,B'.'4,00O 1855 231,427,000 table that the production of cane Vaar aiiitliiiL July ft, laVi " lafW " 1*4, iliinu no, lahO Tnfll l)fl-',H7ri| Incrensp, llflB.2119; docreaw, tOI.IOi! Increase, 4!ll.'/nfli liuTcaae, Tom. 8R,o;2 8,1130 18,863 4i.l01 , , , . 1179,020 1 decrease, 63,677 Tho imporia liavt., In H tutrllnl degree, corresponded with tim mii'llllitliltia In ('(iii<rira of augar, but not onou){h to account (ui tho clianga we aa« bars. Tha changa of prlc*a In Naw Orlaan* lugar haa baan ai followa s IMA to IMS. 1MT tn IHAi) . 1861 to 18M . , tM par boialMai]. , 41 '^ Tha prlca of augar to tba conaumrr In tha Waat haa dlmlnlthaJ much more rapidly than thia. Tha In- craaie of ataamboat) ami tha rapid decllno of fk«lght* haa produced a great reduction In the prlca of tropical producta In tba Waat; which haa Iwan ateadlly goiiiK on for thirty year*. The effrcl of thU, together with tha Increaaa of population at the Waat, haa produced an extraordinary Increaaa In the conaumptlon of augar, and eipeclally In the valley of the Ohio. ThIa Increaaa In tho Waatorn Statea la (|utte reniarkablo. We And, by a alatement in the New Orleana Price Currtnt, that in twenty yeara, from 1834 to 1864, the export nf augar from New Orleana to tha Weatem State* amounted to one niilliun ('it;lit hundred thouaand hogabeada, or about ninety thousand hogabeada per annum ; but when we examine the detail, we And the average annual IncreaA to be very rapid. Tailing the aKgregate of each five yean, we have the (bllowing reault : 1S3S to 1839, Ineluaiva 18l,n00 bogahaad^ 18»9lol*l« " 1T8,SM> " 184fitalH49 •' 400.000 " 185(1 to 18A4 » 80t,a00 " lS8tlnl844 UpereanL 1845 to 1H49 80 " 1860 to 1864 TO " The preaent ooniumptlon of Louliiana augar In the Weatem Statea, to which it i* carried by ateamlmata, •mount* to an average of 160,000 hogabeada per annum. Tbia ia mainly dutribultd through tha three great dia- tributing polnta of the Weat — Cincinnati, Ix>ui«vllle, •nd St. Louia. Another remariiabla fact in the oommeroe In augar 1* the increaae of American refined augar. At the preaent time the amount of refined' augar* imported is not half what it waa twenty yeara aince ; while the •mount of sugar exported is four timea aa much. BoHnty on JCrportatiwod on any nxporUtion when lucb drawback shall not amount tu twelve dollar* or more. To entitle the exporter to the benefit of said al- lowance of drawback, *uch exporter, ai' lea.it six hours previous to tlie putting or lading any of the said re- fined sugar on board any vessel or other conveyance for exporUtion, ahali lodge with tha collector of the euatom*, for tiia diitrict from which luch importation ia to be made, an entry letting forth his intention to •xport tlie same, and describing the marks, numbers, •od package*, and designating tha place wliere depoi- itad, and tha name of tha vitaaal or other ronvaytnee In or by which, and tha port or place to which, tha aama la intandad to l>* exported. ThIa aniry must Im aa- oordlng to form, aihl, upon pmaentallnn, Im verlltad by tha oath or atnnnatlini of the owner ur aKei't, or other protHir officer of the iiianufaclory in which aurh tugar may have bean rellneil. If any of aucli sugar, after it ahali have liern ahipped for expnrialloi., thall ba unahippad for any purpoae whatever, either within llta iimila of the ITiiited Hialaa or within four laaguaa of tha coaat thereof, or shall ba ralanded within the lUillad Statea from on board the vetaal wherein the aama shall bavn Imiiiii laden fur axpurlation, unluM the voyoua ahali not be pruceedml on, >r shall Im altered from nareuliy or dialraaa, to aavo the ahip and giwla from |wrl»hing, which ahali Iw Immediately made known lu tlie col- lector of the nettruKt diatrict; then the augar to un- ahippad, tugtiher with the veasel, her boala and equl|k inent, aliall be fiiri'aite««. I'uuiija. r,(JII0 IHSO 4<14,0<)<),0(W IS.()l)(l,0(M) ^tn.iHXi.noo 1854 46.'>,0(HI.UIIU &.>,(IO0,0O() 4>i:i,0iK),00l) 1866 4T8,000,(MM .'il.UUU,UOO 4I0,(I0*I,IK)U PaoDDOT or KnoAa lit rns I'lriTRO BTATxa— Kxm** amh CoNaDHmoM TniBXor.— (I'BOM CUAHroMixa'a anu TaaAauBir Hxroara.) 1861... 1861... 1863... 1N64... 1866... rr«£iito. '.67,(iOii,oim aiu.ooo.noo 6()8.0(XI,UtH> l>ll!l,(HXI,U» Thus Texa* produced in the year 1835 a much iMtter crop than the preceding one, say 0,887,900 pound* againat 7,613,000 pounda during the proviou* Exroara or Suoxa or noMxaTio roomirTiof raoii tu Umitsd 8TATxa roa Tua YaAaaNDiNu JdnkSO, Im6T. DIMrliU. rattamaquoddr .... rortttnd and Falmouth Vermont Stiem and Ileverley Hotton and Cborlattown New Bedford Frorldenca Naw London Stonlngton Geneaee Oawago NloRsra Butulo Creek Oawegatchlo Naw York Chtrnploln Philadelphia Baltimore Norfolk Charleaton Naw Orleana Detroit Chicago Ban Frandaeo HInnaaote Total Brown augar. Pouadt. 850 MMi 112,168 18!.ST3 0,600 iv.m 6,000 86,«T2 6r>8.342 iriO.340 20.06 1 l.CW) 72,8H0 852,328 860 »0,&77 646 19,262 7,880 921 3^675 2,1U6,412 VtJu. 80 40 10,044 1,M4 6U0 too B.78? 57.812 u.\m 2,042 80 «.4«8 01,048 4,1 24,017 ■"78 3,026 m no "S43| R^iM4»«tar. Valu; «,7(XI I'J,;m7 ,047.860 8.0UO 7,707 414,008 28i2iB eij83 0,660 42,ri44 687,862 400 "sin 87 lioflo 4.sr« 070 2.044 527,374 880 V(lii 48,487 8,140 6.18.1 i,oa 5.45 88,405 57 " »i 42 8,171 718 H>0.012|a.l4(,(iaS|B88,20t 8ITO 1778 81 ra linn TUB ho, 1 »,l7'l r«mwn nv Knrim . *Rriurtin l'.oi.ii,v„„, ,„„ „„ , :„„„ ^,,^ „, ^, yj,^^ ^^^^ j^^ ^ j^ WUUki )t •■^,H«4. NMMtM t''KMMloni l( Nonh Ai IXiiUti Wm« Ia4l« .. ««mburg nlUnil ItHlfh WmHUIn ""<':3 •,;;;;; i4iM !!i.';", OimhIa (Hh«rH'rttltk'Nar«k'Ai' ItrtlUh Wm4 InJlM Ilrlllth llniMliinia Ilrlllah I'liiwHioni In AMn lil I,44i|.8u7 i4u,(m l,IBt4 8,8M 888.464 1,717 8,800 B87.»8t IS.MM 107.718 17.818 108,804 868,848 9,0iB 8,867 8,M9 iBon _*al«i__ tT,U4fl 8,106 S,IT8 17,000 6.180 18.688 8,6*0 8,t7» 1,818 178 n,B76 816 811 40.488 1,1*1 18.40* 4,614 U.S84 BV,<«4 188 488 K* IM) $4X0 46,687 I 8,HM).4a<) I >84 »,il63 I iitHiwia I »n8,wu I ;,I87,H87 [ 18 i>,7tt» tiiwm or rniaiflK 8| ia*« INTO Tui I'HiTiD Statm roB mm Y«4i ikpino Jvn W, 18BT. Wbaaaa laifatM. PmikU, .1 othar iia,|. Valaa. Caaily. ^.xnila 1 V.l„a. llira •aiar faaa. Browa. WblU,rla;«l, 1 Kwwllah Wtal Inillai XHllh Waal India* Iiaburg Iraman lollin4 luMli Wtat indl iilUihOolan* DiiKh Kiat Indlai lalMlum W,*MO 878,'b06 $7^040 "mo 8,773 6,423 1,800 '486 804 U,6ll4 4M,083 1,019 876.088 B3A3.800 8,689,746 t30« 18,811 160 ""li 18,1163 8.18. 078 1S0,(I8« ie7,o'78 «ai,'844 Kn>)M4 tfaoUond raUnd '.!!!'.!!!!'.! .... .. • . '»,'p'«9 10.163 "mi 1,839 4'i 8,044 18,148 1,038,863 710.440 864,870 ;;;; :::: (Unidi nrltllh WMt India* Irlllah Oulin* Hrlllah KoH Indl rmiiM nn tha Atlnnlla ;*.'.". '.'.'.'. ino MS 1,088 'ifis 63,731) 837,810 17.714.063 1 3.736, 4II3 8,388,68< :.■;■. :::: 'nna* on tha Mediurrwioaa 'r*ll«li WmI liiild'a T,930 701 * ' •• 3600 176 • a a a a • . a 'roniih llninn* " 4^0.044 14,790 .... Millllipin* laland • *** • ••• .... 81.48S,!IS7 876.648 • a • a (lub* ••fl«Kla« Nidain ,,,, *•*. .... .... 681 88 >;<9.M8.846 33, 188, ess 708.704 40,&6r .... .... • ... .... 37,341 1360 SI,3M,ai8 4,703,887 100 "• ardInU 890 46 rwAMalllai .... .... 888 48 ' • .... lUM' • at t .... t... «6,2T-.' 1171 1,084 100 * t»n ItomlnKo a . • * ,,.. a • t • 8I,IHK1 1,BS8 .a.. (••t<« • ••a ., ., . • •• 81,831 1,737 II 198 270,806 13,012 260,894 46,6:19 491,083 466 281,613 9,601 Deduct exporU and ihlpmenta iuUnd to Canada frum all the ports In 1666 Deduct alock at all the porta, January 1, 1857 8»l,Iuti 18,77(1 41,768 401,478 4,000 272,111 16819 8U,UU0 240.100 24712 38,o;)l» 27,831 84 606 24.1'0« 41,769 •;4,897 1,647 6,178 U.600 1,010 3,226 230,2-i6 99,300 86,228 0,830 1,661 14.760 8,089 487,478 176,096 2110,366 63.(81 18,394 8,297 1,286 265,203 161,943 81,720 22,802 18,080 20,849 14,287 ITaoM In Janvabv to Sin DaoiHua, lUT. AtNev York At Boiton At Philadelphia.. At other port* , 88(i,7t8 18.770 400,688 89,408 46.459 161,103 46.660 408,2^0 4,1-00 269,180 16,819 Add itock at all the ports, January 1, 1857 Total iupply 45.459 746 207.832 20,037 472,269 80,278 28.705 8rt 1.0711 28.410 .>8l,0iU 44,718 181,7116 18.189 442,1110 !i0,812 267.304 16,639 44 713 l6S,vri6 421,704 241,765 Connmptlon of foreign In 1886, aa above 385,298 Consumption of foreign In 1866 102,601 Increau In 1886 62,085 Consumption of foreign In 1856 386,293 Add crop of 1866-'60, of Loulilana, Texai, Florida, etc, the bulk of which came to market In 1850, and assuming the stock lit January each year to be equal 128,463 Would make the total ponKtimptlon of cane sugar In the United States In 1866 878.700 Total consumption of iluuicstic and foreign In 1856 877,763 ' Increase in 1866 1,008 Consumption of foreign In 1867. as above Consumption of fbrelgn in 1866 Decr«aM in 1857 Consumption of foreign In 185T Add crop of 136ft-'67 of Louisiana, Texas, Florida, etc, the bulk of which came to market In 1887, and Msnming the stock 1st January each year to lie equal 39,000 Would make the total consumption of cane sugar In the United States in 1867 280,701$ Total consumption offoreign and domestic In 1888 ^ 878,700 Decrease In 1887 97,995 "The foregoing statistics present in a clear and con- cise view the extent of this branch of our co.'iinerce for the past year. It will be seen that the total receipts of foreign unrefined sugar into the United States, during the year ending December 81, 1857, were 269,180 tons, against receipts in 1856 of 275,662 tons, and in 1855 of 205,064 tons ; and the quantity of this description taken for consumption in 1857 was 211,765 tons, against 255,202 tons in 1856, and 192,607 tons in 1855, lieing a decrease in the consumption of foreign in 1857, aa compared with 1856, of 13,527 tons, or 6^ per cent. ; while the total consumption of foraign and domestic in 1857 was 280,766 tons, against a total consumption in 1866 of 378,760 tons; in 1856, 877,752 tons ; in 1854, 385,298 tons ; in 1858, 872,989 tons; in 1852, 816,217 tons; and in 1861, 288,486 tons—making a decrease in the total deliver- ies for consumption in 1867, as compared with 1866, of 97,996 tons, or 26} per cent. If we discard entirely the Melado, etc., the deficiency in the consumption of 1857 will be considerably greater, as it would then stand— Consumption of foreign, 320,644 tons, against a consumption of foreign in 1856 of 266,292 tons, de- crease isj} per cent. ; or, total consumption of for- eign and domestic cane augar in 1867, 269,644 tons, against a toul consumption in 1866 of 878,760 tons, being the large decrease of Sl-fi^ per cent. " We reduce our estimate of the quantity of sugar made trom molaaaea during the past year ; the high and very unusual prices which prevailed during the largest part of it made the busineri an unprofitable 00*. After tht hnvj decline in the prioe of molasses, which took place in October, manufacturing was te^ sumcd with considerable vigor, but not to it sufficient extent to repair the previous large deficiency. An intelligent observer estimates the quantity of sugar made from molasses in 1857 at 10,800 tons, yielded from 46,000 hhds. molasses, against 11,876 tons, from. 63,000 hhds. in 1866 ; 11,160 tons, f^om 50,000 hhds. in 1855 ; and 14,923 tons, from 66,500 hhds. in 1854 ; if we add to this the product of the maple-tree the past year, say 86,000 tons, and the estimated consumption of California and Oregon, 6000 tons, would make the total consumption of raw sugar in the United States in 1867, 832,066 tons, against a total consumption in 1866 of 412,136 ton«— making the decrease in the consumption of all kinds, say 19^^ per cent. The quantity of foreign sugar consumed in 1867 by the several ports (not including the coastwise receipts, they being embraced in the calculation at the original port of entry), was — New York, 142,187 tons; Boston, 28,111; Philadelphia, 21,167 ; Ilaltimorv, 18,869 ; New Orleans, 20,448; and other ports, 10,998 : total, 241,766 tons. "A somewhat novel feature in this trade has been the large importation during the past year of the article known as melado, etc., the receipts into the country having reached equal to about 70,000 hhds.— say 23,400 tons sugar (deducting 50 per cent, from weight, to make them equal to ordinary grades sugar, which, It will be observad, we have done throughout the state- ment in all cases of receipts, stocks, and exports). We understand, however, that tho importation of thit article has proved far trom lucrative, and the probi^ SUG year now entered upon wHlTT " "■"" S""^* 'or I . " Mercantile cnterprl.,'!''' 1"^""""'^ •">«" nt,e,mo.t p.rt, of ?he e.^V to „^' ""»«'""« ">• this article, so essential to the ™'^7"''"' '"PP""' of ftmily i «,d not only th" hlr/"" °/ "" »«"»•» •caree a fleld left .ni ",'''''6'"'% explored .£i j^'S "nd 1867, little or 1 ^ "'"'•■■ "">n«hs ■within ihlv 1 ""S'oanedj hence w. »!''"'' '"•''ed to nl.c. nliT. ?, "" "'R'"" «o make ..J •» ».W.r-produein« co«n1,ie;. '"'*«'' "=«"=«'y known unexpmed frost LI^"!!^ «■"• Ml XZlyVj -nd\''d%^r;trsirtrr;:j'^-'-R"H..eo«J ci.llytheii;st1.;i;onr;erhasT^T''^^^^ transferring this article from ,," "^^ ,''"''"'«'>« of necessaries to that of the Wie „f p,'"'"*"" "^ "•• •umption, as we have seen has ,'" "' ■ '"' "■" -""• If we add to this the pmi'ajL^f" 8'""^ ^""oiled. country the entire failure of the fr .u"'"'^ '""*" »f "lo " y?"y not roach that njrari -n," ""'""" """'•. «"<« valley of the Mi«.i„i„r'i';.i V^" "^n'owptlon of iho ""fghborhood, *itl sukI a7'"t!5 ^"'^ O"*""' ""d niated at 160,000 @ It^o L 1^^."?" P"'**- '» esli- @ 2 0,000 hhds. when W «,.'' ^" '"" ""'^''"'l 208 available for shlnmenT.l .T ^'t Pi^vailed), leaving *0,000 ® 90,000 ilhd. '° "'" G-lf and Atlantic ^^r"? paralleled iioney panic .nd'vM"" ""'' "'■"»" "" tion, Which .upeVe„ed'f«m eariv ?,"•""" '='""~^ tbo great diminution in th^^^'uL"'"?'" «" "»% counted for. Brt^ad, and a f^wotl^" '. ''*'"'"-*• «<=' we, are very difficult to econol^ ."""''" "^ """y valuation; but the case I«To- " '"' " •''"o"* any .«mc,the'charac,eror.l!xu^''r.!.*''''»''««r-it''ai: here for consumption in j^7wi 148«;^? ""<«" ""'o™ A by no means insiamiflcanf „......,., . titv of fi„..L, "^^^ ""' """'-' ■ tion^oftr.?i'!K?re"-'''"'*"«'''«'e^ tte past year, mayC traced t„ Z^" '" ""» """"'>■ believe, unprecedented yfcTd „;'''" """'?'• "">' «« maple-trce. The season was one T. """•" '""» «'« remembered, extending ov", a nfri^? '"""/'^''"'''o (three to four weeks bein/^L ."^ .^ "' "'"« »«ek8 farmers, "inmlateS b^ pricosZV°"«'''^' ""'' "•« sugar, labored Indc.faSlvTth "'*"'?' ""'""'■'' fo' the result is, that the prWt of the r?*!: "i""'^' ' ""'I paat ^.son, of this desSlt'?!^"'^'' S'"""- "'o paat -eason, Vf this desSlt''''' ^""^^ S"""'- "'o >"" after defined; buoyancv clJ,' f,'*"'"'''''"'"'™' " sWph. lasession. ii.„ -„—'.. ■'""V' elaslidly. and rn„fl,i "'"rpiy -...ution 58JU. „„ "^"•ca and delivered tflyofforei^ hnSfn? T\r°^ '^ »''ol« qu.n- the past year '^ '"' """ ""> United States duriTg ~;u;a7.t"c;rpTi!iit- --'^ ^-'°^ '^^^^ not only deficient but .1^ . " '^^" ^'""Id prove that the field, of •cubiJolld.'" '",''"' '"""""f "d erage yield, an impet„ 1, ,1''T''',""™ «» «v. foreign trade, seldom if ever brf^'t'" «'^"=" '» 'he Importation of the fl,,t .1, ""^ ?"""^»*«''. and the P"."""' in its history The?,';"" *" "'""»" • prices soon told, however with 1' •' ""'' •""""«> the consumption, and tTe^'ontrl ,1.""L« !*"'f "PO" "The supply of foreign needed is^v.™.^. '''"'h have ruled in all ih„ »''.''"",'""'" '" P^"="> measure by our domestif crop .nVheSo™,".".'^'" "'"='' ?'«"'<' them n a ve y .tri'nn"'/^'' ?""■ '""' SUG ffflTw. SUO iroall ; thli doUneM, however, wu soon followed by an Increased activity. It liaving been latiiCkctorily as- certained that the crop of Louisiana would be a very small one, refiners entered tlie market with spirit, and prices advanced on ail liinds i @ j of a cent. A firm, buoyant feeling prevailed throughout the month, though at the close a falling oif in the demand wiis observable ; full prices were, however, realized witbu'j t difficulty, holders having constantly the advantage. On the 13th, the first arrival of new crop melado reached here, and sold at 7i cciita ; and on the 15th, 87 hhds. ne-.r Cuba muscovado arrived, and was placed at 10 @ 10^ cents, the opening price the previous year Thi Rarox of Pbioks or bdoab at Niw Yobk dusmo fodb Yiais— 1854-'6T. being 7^ ® 8 cents. The sale* and resales for tfat month were 76 hhds, New Orleans, 4800 hhds, and 18,600 boxes ; CuU, 1850 hhds, ; Porto Rico, 280 hhds. ; English Island, 286 cases and 4328 bags Brazil, and 618 hhds. melado. — For fhrther information, let Db Bow's Beview, vii. 66 (R, S. M'Culloch), iii, 244, 294, X. 218, xii, 646, xiii. 67, 176, iv. 229, 888, 611, v. 319; Southern Quarttrig Xevieui, iii. 820; North American Jtevieie, xl. 416; £d'iUnirgh Xeciew, 1. 426. The following table shows the range of prices of so* gar in New York each month, and average value of th* various descriptions of sugar each year, for the past four years: , , Ytmn. 1U4. Jsnniu7 Februarjr Msrah April «^r June Juir August Septeinber October November December Average for tbe jrear . I8H. January Februsiy <..., Mirch April Mar June July August September October November December , . Average for tbe year . iiu. January February March April "V June July Auguit September October November December Average for the year . IMT. January February ,,.,", March April M»r June July August September October November December Average for the year . OrlaMt. 4 S Bl 4 @ 6 4 a 6t 8t« 6 it 9 f>i 81 a Bt 319 Bt 4(9 « * 9 »k 6 9 6t 4i9 « t4'«S 4k 9 61 4 9 « 4 9 6 419 6 419 <( B19 «1 B 9 Si 6(9 8 6(9 8i 6(9 8( 6(9 8( T(9 » $9-25 8 9 9 T(9 9 T 9 9 6(9 8( 6(9 8( 619 S( T(9 » 8 9 9( 8 9 9( 8 910 8 910( 8 911 $8'3a 9 911 9(911 5(9 8( t»'04 Cub* MuieoTftdo. 4(9 B( 4(9 B( 4 9 6( 3(9 B( 4 9 B{ 4 9 B( 4 9 B( 4(9 B( 4(9 B( 419 ■ 4(9 4 9 B» $4-83 4 9 B( 4 9 B( 4 9 B] 4(9 B] 4(9 0( B 9 6( B(9 6( B(9 T( 6(9 8( 6 9 S 6(9 8( 6(9 8 $6-01 T 9 8 U® 8( 6(9 81 6 9 8 6 9 8( 6(9 8( 7(9 9( 8 9 9 T(9 «( T(9 »( I( 9 10( T» 9 10( 8 910( 8(910( 8( 9 101 8(911( 9(9n( 9(91I( T(910( 6( 9 10( 6(9 9( 6 9 8( 4(9 8 B 9 Tl $8'lil» Porto Rfro. I 4(9 6 4(9 6 4(9 6 4 9 6 4 9 B( 4 9 B( 4 9 e( 4(9 0( 4(9 6( 6 9 6( 6 9 6( 4(9 61 $6-33 4(9 6 4(9 6 4(9 6 419 61 6 9 «( 6(9 61 6(9 6( 6 9 8 T 9 8( 6(9 8( 6(9 8( T 9 8( $6'8T T 9 8( T)9 8( T 9 9 T 9 9 619 9 T 9 »( T(9 9( 8(910 T(9H» 8 910 8 910( 8( 9 10( $9-63 8(911 9 911 9 911 9(91U 91 9 19( 10 919 8(@tl( 8 911( T 9 m 6( 9 fi( 6(9 9 61 (3 81 $'J'4l Havuft, whiU. 6(9 6(9 6(9 6(9 6(9 6(9 6(9 7 - T T 7 7 7 T 7 7 T 7 7 9 7i 9 7( 9 7( 9 71 9 71 $7-00 6(9 7 «(9 7 6(9 7 6(9 7( 6(9 71 7(9 7{ 7(9 8 7(9 8{ 8(9 9 8 9 9 8 9 8( 8(9 °: $7-66 8(9 9( 9 9 9( 9 9 9t 9(9 - 9 9 9( 9 910 10 910( 11 912 U 919 11 919( 111912» ll( 9 1«( 1» 91«i 19 9 m 19 914 IS 914 13 914 19 9 14 11(918 101 9 1«( 10 911 8( 9 m 819 9( $ll'87i brown. 6(9 6( 6 9 61 6 9 6( 4(9 «i 6 9 6( 9 '■ 9 6( 9 6( 9 61 9 6i 9 -9 tl6'$H B 9 6( 6 9 6( B 9 6{ B 9 6( 4(9 7( B 9 7( 619 7( 6 9 8 6(9 8) 6(9 8) 6(9 8 7 9 8 T 9 8( 7(9 9 7(9 0( 7 9 9( T 9 9( 7(9 91 7r9n 81911 8( 9 101 8(910( 9 910( 9 91' $6 '90 8(9 IK 9 91l( 9 9111 9( 9 12t 10 91«( 10(9m 9(9l!l( T(911( 6 9 11 6 910 6(9 9 6)9 81 mu-eii 4(9 4(9 4(9 4(9 4(9 419 4(9 419 4(9 6( 6 9 6( 6(9 B( 6(9 61 9t>i» 6(9 B( 6(9 6( I>(9 B( 619 B( 6(9 6( 6(9 B) 6(9 '61 6(9 e best 10 per cent, of saccllte mattrut"?' •'^'""' °^""= contained in the beet-roor f -', *''"'' '' absolutely »alized as s^e,!^',^^^^]'^ '» 8^ Per cent, ar^ cane from 10 to 12 per cent Tf ''"' ™"'- °*" "■« i" Bengal only 7. Hence afti ,"^7 "" """^'="- '"d ..,..!„. ., ..• "ence, at tins stage of the demon- Ve VAltia «P . . . -o "tated, th. tur cronToTb''^"""" "^ '''««^ '"the same period as three „f '"" P™''""" colonies produces, ™ "^ ""*' «»"" aero in the t'ETSTALlIZABlE SPOAB. In I>>ui8lana . . . Poa.d» ! In San Domingo 1000 : InBongal 1066 '. InMnrOniquo... 1626 In \ertt Cruz. . . 1680 'n Guadnloupe . . 1880 In Isle Boiirlwn 20OO ;»,V'"'>a .:: 83SS inUnuU 4000 6000 .tratio;?oft;;eVom=vf^!^''''r°'''''''''="'»^ Thu,r ■'■■■■■■■■■:::::: ^ ■ further the .b~ml "^'.""^-'i''" m^difie? sdl" '""""'""' "' ' " """""■"« Of the 7i to sTper cent „V." V" °^ ""' ''^'''-"'o ' due, in the for,^ S^n ot "! l^rl^^.^-f' .".'« -'' due, in the form S nX, ."f 'T'T' ^''«'"-' '"« "=^ ' consequenceof modo™ ■ • '"' '"='=" diminished, in per cent.:;\Ycrite Zm o'l?-' '"'"'" '* '» ^ crystallized and maSbHusar ' """"'■ "' ^""'^ --^^-::Kii^:-ea^- Cryitailued Mo- 1 l«l.naI^.K^g,";'"'*"'"'»»».«<'ach™.- 10 4 in; *'"ir*"'"""»"hioApoiidVifjui™:;: 32 (W eiperiment),..'.' 6U Prussia. I» EPROPB. .£22 B 8 6 8 I PmlnceMagi^bu.^- ^ 3,; g Bohemia.;.'.' J^ lO*- @ Wurtcmbcrff i, 5«- @ France and Belgium' ; ; ; ; ; ; 82 -*' ® San Domingo ' „ Jamaica. . . J Guiana ° Porto Kico ; ; * Cuba.... 10 10 l»- ® £!B Bs. 104 _ 18 1«* @ 40 _ 2* @ 8 7». @ 8& 6 4* 6 Ru. 20 li m, '" '»• (9 20 148: Ihe average of the whole is £40 17, n.. Europe, and ^£8 per acre fnr .h . , P*' *=" 'or SUG 1778 SXJL ductiveness of the land, and It) lower price in the colonies, are more than counterbalanced in Europe by the lower rates of interest on the capital required for the purchase of these lands, and the erection of the factories; the more intelligent, eiUcient, and cheaper labor; the greater abundance and cheapness of the important item of fuel ; the advantages of a home mark- et ; and the accessary proDts derived from the culture of beet-root, in the shape of fodder for cattle, we re- serve for a concluding article, together with a review of the practical inducements oll'crcd to the cultivators of beet-root, and the manufacture of sugar, by the con- ditions of the Northern and Middle States of the Union, ilaple-tugar. — A species of maple {^Acertaccharinum, Unn.) yields a considerable quantity of sugar. It grows plentifully in the United States and in Canada, and in some districts furnishes the inhabitants with most of tho sugar they make use of. Though inferior both in grain and strength to that which is produced from the cane, maple-sugar granulates better than that of tlie l>eet-root, or any other vegetable, the cane excepted. It is produced from the sap, whicli is ol>- tained by perforating the tree in tho spring to the depth of about two inches, and setting a vessel for its reception. The quantity afforded varies with the tree and the season. From two to three gallons may bo about the daily average yield of a single tree; but some trees have yielded more than twenty gallons in a day, and others not more tlmn a pint. Tlie process of boiling tho juice docs not differ materially from what is followed with tite cane juice in the West Indies. It is necessary that it should be boiled as soon after it is drawn from the tree as possible. If it be allowed to stand above twenty-four hours, it is apt to undergo the vinous and acetous ferniontation, by which its sac- charine quality is destroyed. — Uoi'oiiktte's British America, Timber Trees and Fvuilt, Library of Enter- taining Knowledge. See article MAi'LK-suaAR, Chinese Sugar-cane. — This new plant seems to bo destined to take an important position among our eco- nomical products. Its seeds were sent some six years ago from the north of China, by M. de Montigny, to the Geographical Society of Paris. From a cursory examination of a small field of it, growing at Verrieres in France, in the autumn of IS.'il, Mr. U, J. Browne, then on a mission from the U. S. I'atcnt Oflico for col- lecting agricultural information and products, was led to ii\fer timt, from the peculiarity of the climate in which it was growing and its resemblance to Indian corn, it would flourish in any region wherever that plant would thrive. From this source ho obtained sou.? 200 pounds of tho seed, which was distributed in imall packages among members of Congress, with the view of experimenting with it in all parts of the Union, and thereby ascertaining its adaptation to tho soil and climate, and its economical value in the United States, In numerous instances the results proved highly satis- factory, as it attained tlio height of twelve cr fifteen feet as far north as St, I'liul, Minnesota, and matured its seeds at various points in Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, and Illinois, The following year, while in Franco on a similar mission as abovo, Mr, Browne obtained several bushels of the seed of this plant, grown from that reputed to have been brought from South Africa by Mr, Leonard Wray, of London, and which has since proved to bo identical with that obtained in 1864. There appears to be a doubt among many in Eu- rope, as well as in this country, as to the true botanical name of this plant. M. Louis Vilmorin, a scientific cultivator of Paris, provisionally gave it the name of Ilokut laccharatui, which had previously been applied to tho common broom-corn, if not to other species, or at least varieties, of some allied plant. He also con- jectured tliat it might bo the Sorghum rulgare (Andro- pogon sorghum of others), and thought that it might comprehend a variety, as well as Andropogon cafra, bicoh, etc., of Kunth Mr. Wray, who has devoted much time and attention to the cultivation of this plant, with the view of extracting sugar from its Juice, at Capo Nital and other places, states that in tho southeast part of Caffraria there are at least fifteen varieties of it, some of them growing to a height of twelve and fifteen feet, with stems as thick as those of the sugar-cane {Saccharum officinale). M. Vilmorin also says that, in a collection of seeds sent to the Mu- seum of Natural History at Paris in 1840, by M, d'Abadre, tliere were thirty kinds of sorghum, among tho growth of whicli he recognized several plants liav- ing stems of a saccharine tiavor. Others are of the opinion that the common broom-corn {//olcus sacchara- tus), the cliocolato or Guinea com (_SorghH''t vulgare), and the Chinese sugar-cane (^Sorghum saccharaluni), all of which contain more or less saccharine matter, belong to the same species, but arc variations caused by dif- ferences of soil and climate, or by a disposition to sport after tho manner of Indian corn, and other plants under cultivation. The Chinese sugar-cane diflTers from tho others in containing a far larger proportion of juice, and consequently is more valuable for fodder and other economical uses. In 1T6C a plant analogous to the one in question was experimented upon at Florence, in Italy, by Pietro Arduino, for the extraction of sugar ; yet It must have been of a very dlflferent variety, as he describes its seeds as of a clear brown color, while those of the Chinese sugar-cane are of a shining jet black, and in appearance identical with those of the Sorghuni vuU gare of tlie old collections. Detcriplion and Habit of its Growth. — The Chinese sugar-cane, when cultivated on ordinary land in the United States, somewhat after the manner of broom- corn, grows to a height of from eight to sixteen feet, while in Europe it does not attain more than half tliis altitude. Its stemi are straight and smooth, often covered wilii a white bloom or down, having leaves somewhat flcxuous, falling over and greatly .resembling in appearance those of Indian corn, but more elegant in its form. Where cultivated in hills, containing eight or ten stalks each, it puts forth at its top a conical pinnacle of dense flowers, green at first, but changing into violet shades, and finally into dark purple, at ma- turity. In France, and in the central and nortliern sections of the United States, it has tlius far proved an annual ; but from observations made )iy M. Vilmorin, as well as some experiments in our Southern States, it is conjectured that, from the vigor and fullness of tho lower part of the stalks in autumn, by protecting them during tlio winter, they would produce new plants tho following spring. It stands dearth far bet- ter than Indian corn, and will resist tlie elfccts of con- siderable frost without injur}', after the panniclcs ap- pear, but not in its younger and more tender state. If suffered to remain in the field after the seeds have ripened and been removed, when the season is suffi- ciently warm and long, new pannicles will shoot out at the topmost joints one or more to each stalk, and ma- ture a second crop of seeds. The average yield of seed to each pannicle is at least a gill. Sulphor, or Brinuitone (Fr. Soufre; Ger. Schuie- fel; It. Zolfo, Solfo; Sp. Azufrc; Arab. Kibreel), a crystallized, hard, brittle substance, commonly of a greenisti yellow color, without any smell, and tf a weak though perceptible taste; its specific gravity Is from 1-9 to 2'1. It burns with a pale blue iiame, and emits n great quantity of pungent, suffocating vapors. In some parts of Italy and Sicily it is dug up in a state of comparative purity. That which is manufactured in England is obtained by the roasting of pyrltos. It Is denominated rough or roll sulphur, from its being cast in cylindrical moulds, and contains 7 per cent, of orpiment. The Italian roll sulphur does not contain more than 8 per cent, of a simple earth ; and i v there- fore, in higher estimation than the English. Wlien SUM im W..»nlpharl.p„ri(l„l. it receive, ,h„ SUP e..t from the Malay p«„i„,ura'bvfl?'' af .°" ""' n»«>»I hav.nff east the Java Soa ami ,h L" ^'"'" »f Malacca, aratine it from the Jam. of Ja,?'™'' f S""-'" -ep- In< "an Ocean. Length nor hwe?t' t„" "'""i: ^'"^ "^'' mles; breadth CO to 240 m »? tV ""'"'«'«' "00 estimated at from 128,000 to m Jl? '"■* *"" ■*««" populafon 1,437,300, m'ostlv Jl„llT...T"? "!'««; ...i. Zi '° """'ority concederl ♦„ "■•^"J^ienueU au hority must be ?ubordr«to ,o th^ »"Percargo, such »'tho vessel and carRo wtnV "'"""°'' '""e™" »rgo extend to the^naviga ti„" 'ir '•"T?" »' « '"Per- be communicated througMhecan.nl" ""''.■ """y ■""« cnco only to the destination of ^f^"/"' •'"' ''•ve refer- Wand i, mostly Icvef "r undl?„,""'*'" '""^ "' 'ho MaItI 7.''' ' ^''""'•""^ ^^Z i 278 *"' ^±T coasts thei^are- many sandv a"d"'l"^' ^".'"''"6 "-o erjed by the Sialt, Judrageri jlr''p''?' P'"'"" "»v. other rivers of large size T.V ^^1' P»'«"'bang, and explored by Europf:„r 'c, ^at'^^^^^ '^^^ ""'« oppressive than might have bin ^" P'""" " '»'' day the thermomctei-usuanv .T "P^c'^d; at mid- 86", sometimes rising ^o/g"^ ^ ""''^oen 82° and than 70°Fahr. Bensofogs, tllunlr r""'" ""' "">'« spouts off the coast are fre ,u nt M T^""'' '"'"''■ i» occupied by dense forests p;^/"''' "' "«> "'»"" sago, millet, cocoa-nuts bl. ."'" ™"''" "f "™, ance of tropi'cal fruits tiScT"""^' "" "bundl scented ,vood, teak and X^LZ'l^':',?,'''^' «tans, on the face^'o'f 'T^^,','\'„7,;»' "-eet of f„,h ^,^, he great American lakei no llT" ^""''aWe of ba also from the picturesoue^!^^""" """aguitude, and the interest and value alh."''^ "' '" ^'>"'"», features. As a mir^ng ^^io "itl'i"^ '° ''[ «=<"««'»< Portant in this country, and is oh T " '*" '""" '"'- copper and silver, as wel" as in ,h " '""' "^ ""•""'c At the present mime^t i "1*" llT' I'J'""' """»'»• -Z':i^!:^^Sfdr^^"-"-~ colomsts successfully cultivate The Vj"'"' ''"^^uropean degrees ono„lnH '"'""''''' """ "-e 84th and 92d ,'"Y" """"> "aic and other timhp- »^n i .7 V,' ''*"' colonists successfully cuItivIteTh„ '• '^ ''«Europea. cipal article, of export are penneMo'", ' """l "«' P"""- lon pounda yearly, goM dust ™ °"' "'"*""'"■ camphor, in the north ; n„tm 1 h?" "\ "''P'"". the Dutch territory of n„„ /" '''^'"' ""<* mace, in «utta percha t7in Palemi "' ""«' "=0™!, benzoin" many of whiih abides ar?."® u'"'' M«nankabow the interior, aid I "rt^ed at the"f '. '"^ """^^^ '"" European manufactured goods 'C '"' "1'"" """ i'orior quality, and naihfl^a 1™ !. ' ™*.' °^ '" '"- products. TlleinhabtCsbufldthe?,"^ "'" """''™' and adopt other usages T»hTc' "'"^'"»'se.s „„ posts, manufacture gold and sHver fii '®"'''' """"'^ '''<'y sltill, also silk and cotton fK • ''•""^ "''"^ "'" «"»- graphical p„,i,i„„ of^i, shT^er hh . "P'T "'" S'^i and donTestic goodrgoTer!,';''"^""'''''"--"". quej^d basins, ^nXC a /d'r^°„y'''r5''''e, '^^^oni^rir'^T^V'^^'^T'^-^^^''^^^^^^ which territory " We" r ^toft " "r" ""^'ir"' -SVnd'ifdlfc'r 'i' '^''T " "^ '-kaVf'v"." ^ cottons, spices, krise and o i^r J"!" ^""i""- "'"Pd pices and b etliircr»l ''"'"'' "''"« """"» Pred- Celebes, and other islands of the ArT' f""" ■'^^"■hrgcs of this Sty ?fk °''T. ''''='"*"''^«» '« 'he island is divided amomr a Imi „ •*"'' P«'ago- The natc mariner ^f„^ ,' ""• """aten the unfortu- chiefbein^Acheen Menankabol nlhT'^'r?""' '''° '^-»horo w .h^atost"^„t-r " ^*°"" "po « am region, Batak Siak I„n?i • n ? ° ''®""'''l mount- coves or lm«f i, i '"ovitable destruction. Small along the oastfrl^l;; t^'^^^S' ""r"^- "'S ofld^l°:irs" t"th"''^- 1"^'""" "' "^ and that she should not wear cold or p1'''°-:5 ^T^ ' """l l»»cr lakes and the M«nH ?"*'""« '"' ""'<"■'" it feasts, e.\cecdin.rl„ «„. .._ " Perisn. LamR !,«. k and the number and n ,. i. , I ""' ^"'^'" at feasts, .-".c iriues would soon nerish n,™. u V "® partridges, being found 'n,hP°'T'''''' """^ '»■»« modera?enumbe?supo„ the watr; ''''•'' ^''' "» scarcely begun to t.™. .l„ .r:fi"''- Aen^uUure has ca^?r»e~S^"^~ -P^S^f S^T?'-?"'^ SWE 1780 SWE chill l>reezci of the lake, thrives rnd ripena. Eaglish y gruMa have not yet been cultivated, but they will un- doubtedly thrive as well on the south shore of Lake Superior as in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. The native grasses ar« abundant and good, but are limited to small natural prairies or to dried-up ponds. The forests are also filled with excellent timber for build- ing puriMMOs ; and whore the growth Is of mixed tree i, such as sugar-maple, yellow birch, and pines, the white and yellow pines are of largo dimensions, and furnish good lumber. — Stt Lakes, Commerce of. Swedsn (^Seeriye), a country of northern Europe, forming the east and larger portion of the Scandinavian peninsula, and one of the kingdoms composing the monarchy of Sweden and Norway ; situated between lat. 55" 20' and 69° 10' N., long, ll" 15' and 24° 10' E., bounded east by the Baltic, the tiulf of Bothnia and Kussia, south by the Baltic, west by Norway, the Kat- tegat, and the Sound. Capital, Stockholm. The soil in not generally fertile, and the corn produced was formerly only about two-thirds of that required ; but from the great improvements in agriculture introduced by the government within the present century, and the general introduction of the potato, the produce is now- adequate to the consumption. Barley is cultivated ns far north as lat. 69°, but the crops frequently fail. Rye, hemp, and potatoes are grown to lat. G6° N. Oats ripcii to 63° 30'; wheat and hops cease to be cultivated with advantage beyond lat. 62° N. Ono-fourth of tho surface is covered with forests, but the produce of tim- ber is small ; much is used for fuel, and made into charcoal for use in the mines. There are few woods to tlie north of lat. 64° N, The principal trees are tho pine, fir, and birch. Fish are abundant on tho coast, and in the lakes and rivers; tho hcrring-llshcry has greatly declined, but lobsters are exported, and salmon is caught in all the principal rivers. The mining dis- tricts of .Sweden, mostly in the central provinces, ex- tend over 16,000 square miles ; the chief products are iron, which is distributed over nearly all tho countr}', but the best is found in tho loin Upaala ; tho annual produce of all the mines is about 70,000 tons of bur iron. Tho richest copper mines are at Falilun; the annual produce in all is about 1000 tons. Gold is not now sought for, and silver is procured only to a small extent. The other mineral products are cobalt, lime, coal of inferior quality, and porphyry. Manufactures •re chiefly contincd to articles of domestic use ; the principal are woolens, sugar, tobacco, paper, linens, cotton (in small quantity); tanning is an important ' branch of industry. Ship-building is carried on to some extent in tho ports of the Baltic. Distilling and I brewingare extensively prosecuted. The internal com- merce of Sweden is considerable, and Swedish vessels visit most of the Atlantic porta of America, and tho Mediterranean. Government is a constitutional mon- archy. — See NoBWAY. The Swedish monarchy, comprising Sweden and Norway, embraces an area of 202,101 square miles, and contains a population of 4,645,000 inhabitants, viz. : Su>eden.—Kn^ 170,006 squan; miles i papulation, 3,316,B30 yorway.— " 122,008 " " l,8v!8,4ro Sweden and Norway have different constitutions, though they are governed by the same king. Their commercial regulations, their tariffs of duties, their laws and revenues, are all separate. Several treaties ' of peac«, amity, and commerce have been negotiated between the IJnited States and these countries; the latest, that of July 4th, 1827, being based upon tho lilicral prinoiple of entire reciprocity, as well with Sweden and Norway as with the smalj but flourishing colony of St. Bartholomew, in the W«.. v Indies. The following abstract presents the principal stipulations respecting commerce and navigation : T'ba citizens and subjects of each of the two high contntottng partiei may, with perfitct security for their persona, T«Mels, and cargoes, freely enter all the ports, places, and rivers of tho territories of tha other, wher- over foreign commerce Is permitted, The vessels of both nations, iucluiling tlioso of llio Island of Ht, Bar- tholomew, whether laden or in ballast, to bo troatod in the ports of each, on their entrance, during thuir stay, and at their departure, upon tho same footing as na- tional vessels coming from the same place, with respect to tho duties of tonnage, llght-hoiiaiis, pilotage, and port charges, ami all other porquisltua, duties, and (.'Imrgos, of whatever kind, levied In the mime nr lu the prullt of the govonunont, the local UHlhuritli^s,or any private estalilishment whatever. All murcliandiso of every description, no matter of what country It may bo the produco or manufacture, that may liu linpurtod into either country in national vossrls (or Into Sweden or Norway in vessels of tho Island of St. tiarlholumow), may in like manner, and without paying other or higher duties or chiirgfls, of whatever kind or denomi- nation, be imported In tho vussids of the other ; full and perfect reciprocity and oi|uaUty In this rospnct be- ing established. Similar rui'lproclly atid equality be- tween the vessels of oncli of lliu high contracting par- ties, including those of tho IsIhihI of Nt, Burtliolumow, in respect to exports from oltliiir country. Is established. This equality with Iho national flatt Is applicable to the vcsselsof tho United States pruceodlitg, cither laden or in ballast, to tho colony of Ht, Bartliulomew, in tho West Indies, 'whether from ports of tho kingdom of Sweden and Norway, or from any other placa wlintso- evor, or proceeding from tho said colony, either laden or in ballast, whether bound for Sweden or Norway, or any other placo whatever, 'i'ho coasting trade is re- served by each party to Its own flag, respectively ; the navigation from ono port to nnntliiir in tho kingdom of Sweden and Norway, or bntwoon those two countries, being considered such coasting trade ns respects Swe- den. Duties on tho navigation botwiion their respective territories, including the island of St. Itartliolomew, in tho vessels of either, lo bo no higher or oilier than those imposed on every other nation ; unil no prohililtlon», restrictions, or ditrurontlal duties, of any kind or de- nomination whatsoever, to bo eslublislied In respect of the products of the soil or Industry of olllicr country, including the island of St. llartlii)luniow, which flmll not equally' apply to articles of like nature, tho gr iwtli of any other country, 'I'lin privileges of transit, and all bounties and drawbacks which inuy bn all'>wed within tho territories of ono of tliu lilgii contracting parties upon tho importation or nxporlutlun of any article whatever, shall likewise bo allowcil on the arti- cles of llko nature, tho prodmUs of tho soil or Industry of tho other contracting party, and on tho Ituportiitlon or exportation made In Its vessolt. Tho 11th and 12tli articles axempt from Import and navigation dues (pilotage, wharfage, and light-dues ex- cepted) the vessels of either party arriving In the ports of the other, not wishing to unload any part of their cargoes, or perform any act of trade; and the privilege is mutually conceded to unload in tho ports of cither such portions only of thulr cargoes as the captain or owner may wish, and to depart with tho romalndcr, without paying any duties, imposts, or cliargoa wlint- Boevcr, except for that r^rt which shall bo landed, tlii' proper entries having buon niado on the vesKol's mani- fest. It is understood, however, that all duties, im- posts, or charges whatsoever, which aro or may lie- come chargealile upon tho vessels llinmselvcs, must lie paid at tho first port whero tlioy shall break bulk, or unload part of thoir cargoes ; but that hueU duties, etc,, shall not bo paid twico in the ports of tho samo coun- try which such vostels may afterward wish to enter, unless national vessoU bo, in luch cases, iul^Jcct to such ulterior dutloa. Article 16 atlpnlatos that on dlrocli voyagos botwcon tho two countries, rospeotlvoly, * bill of health, granted at tha port of departure by an offloor having competent power to that oDkct, will oxompt tho tobioI ft'om any SWE 1781 SWE la of Dnr- Lodlu •toy, 11 no- cspect ii\ port mrK»». I prn inmloin of CO wluitso- ithor Ittilei' Nor-.vny, or trade 1» ro- itlvoly 1 tlio 10 klngilom coimlrlci, upocts Hwe- Ir ri'spcetlvc liolomow, in ir tbaii thoio .rohlliltlonn, Idiid or do- ln rcKpcet of IRT country, IwblcU fliall 1 tbe gr l 4,389 2,173 279 8,938 3.840 125,411 20,778 10,812 17,r)09 8,586 6,214 1,260 6,087 i,940 418,556 1182 1,442 78 330 4,400 142 402 33 22 5 14t 40 1,778 864 73 82 10 17 2 26 35 Lull. 20,774 15,990 951 10,470 74.085 6,!: 53 19,801 1,709 1183 181 7,290 S,829 172,628 40.826 8,891 7,268 2,438 2,772 148 3,770 8,886 37 4,,M6 12 2,101 20 8,442 47 8,607 10,674 42a,16H Import*. Btporto. Norway i,uA'i,mO 2,241,000 Finland 1,4KI,000 276,000 ItusHla 806,000 138,000 Pruula l,IC5,00O 2,630,000 Denmark 2,027,000 7,101,000 Mecklenburg 32,000 448,000 I.Ubeck 19,120,000 4,021,000 Hamburg 1,777,000 406,000 Itrcmen 421,000 821,000 Hanover and Uldenburg . I,0(M) 38,000 Netlicriands 628,000 1,381,000 llelgliim 131,000 889,000 Oreat Krltaln and Ireland 9,264,000 23,01 8,000 Franco 7H3,000 8,088,090 Spain 601,uOO 1,081,000 ■; Portugal 461,000 1,892,000 Italy 206,000 857,000 '. Gibraltar 74,000 '' Austria 268,000 -.h Algiers 862,000 <- lulled Gtatea 8,260,000 2,178,000 ' ' Weatlndlcs 801,000 .... ■• nraill 6,071,000 688,1100 America generally 180,000 , East Indies and Australia 699,000 434,000 Capo of Good llopo __iii:' 815,000 | Total, ISM 62,437,000 52,810,000 '" " 1847 28,040,000 30,920,000 -i ' " 1846 20.600,000 '.14,880,000 ■,., " 1840 18,308,000 20,487,000 " 1830 11,160,000 13,337,000 " 1821 11,148,000 12,161,000 The preceding tabic exhibits tho following results : Increase In 18,30 over 1821 1,183,000 rix dolUn banco. " 1840 over 1S80 14,268,000 " " 1848 over 1840 0,736,000 " " 1847 over 1840 18,480,000 " 1854 over 1847 40,287,000 " Notwithstanding tho annual augmentation instka general foreign commerce of Sweden, which the above summary exhibits, the trade with the United States has been marked with hue little variation. Tlie total trade with tho United States in 1847, ac- cording to Swedish official authorities, amounted in value to 3,341,000 rix dollars banco, or 3.58,880 rix lars banco less than 1840, while it exceeded that of 1' by 779,000 rix dollars banco. In the trade between tlu' United States and Sweden and Norway, the:'e are but comparatively few American vessels employed. Tho following comparative statements will show the pro. portion between American and foreign (mostly Swedish and Norwegian) tonnage employed in this trade. A period of ton years, from 1846 to 1864, is gclected, as oftbrding a fair average : American tonnage employed in tho direct trade between the United States and Sweden and Norway, frotn 1845 to 1854, 47,638 tons. Average annual tonnage, 47(i3-8 tons. Foreign (chiefly Swedish and Norwegian) tonnage employed in the trade between the United States and Sweden and Norway, during tho above period, 232,089 tons. Average an- nual tonnage, 23,2089 tons, or nearly 600 per cent, of foreign over American tonnage annually employed in tho trade between the United States and Norway and Sweden. In 1847 the imports of Sweden amounted to nearly 11,100,000 dollar8(UnitedSute8 currency). Of this sum Swedish and Norwegian vessels floated nearly nine million dollars, or four-lifths of the whole. The exports reached the sum of $12,276,000, of which the Swedish flag covered over seven and a half millions, or about three-fifths of tho whole. The following are the principal colonial product* entering into tho importa during 1847, in kilograms of 2'20 lbs. each. guear ' kllogs. 8,08.6,000 Ooff" " 8.036,000 Cotton " 2,072,000 Tobacco.::.:... " 1.212(J00 nyc.M0t.d8 " ,?»».«<» Wines and spbrite litres. 2,160,000 Of the exports, iron occupies the next rank to Um- ber. Tlie quantity exported in bars reached 82,212,000 kilograms, or about 185,000,000 lbs. . ^ ' -iT 8WE 1782 8WE ItOH (tMaiTTDIXa C'AtT AHS OTIIIIk STVIII.) IMFKIITKn INTO I TM UniTiP Statu rHoii >t»Ei>r.N anu Nohwav. Ymk. <'<•> Vuliin. liMB 'IVIAW J)« ll,l«« MM SNl,t)il3 TIT.llH IMT '.W,464 fllW.TM lt4S 49(1,081 T4(l,0r9 IMS ««S,IIB:i Tilt.SOfl IBM 397,liai l.OiR.MT ISSt 403,(108 M-.',961 ISBl «80,8',it 118,674 ISnS 181,(149 448,809 ISM S()S,13T 6IO,«»t 18BK 890,1500 814,4118 ISM SHn,690 8TO,7S» 188T 838,434 T4l,44« The value of Iron qntte equals the entire value of import! Into the United States from Sweden for each year during the period 8|)eciHed. The export of Iron ore is prohibited. The annual average quantity pro- duced the last Ave years is estimated at 800,000 tons. The quantity manufactured during the same period is stated to have been 140,000, and 100,000 tons of bar iron. The annual average of the latter exported was 80,000 tons. The average price of pig-iron In Sweden is 8 rix dollars banco the siteppund— 7} skeppun(fa to the ton, or J21 the ton. The iron mines of Sweden be- long to Joint-stock companies principuliy. Almut two- flfths of the pig-iron is purchased and manufactured into bar-iron l)y iron-masters who own no mines ; but the remaining three-flfths are manufactured by the com- panies that own the mines themselves. The produc- tion of pig-ircn was formerly limited to a certain spec- ified quantity, whether the capabilities of the mines and miners would admit of more or not. Under tills unwise regulation of the government, which it is said was adopted to prevent tlie exhaustion of the fuel of the kingdom, the coal and forests, the annual produc- tion never exceeded 90,000 tons. These limitations have for some years been done away with ; nor Is there at present any limitation, beyond a matter of form, to the manufacture of bar-iron. The following statement, showing the exportation of iron from 1834 to 1840, is fW>m Swedish official returns : Frnin 1S84 to ISM, annual average TO.SOfl tons. - •' 188'itol94a " .... 81,80,1 " " 18M to 184S " 08,000 " In 1841 88,BM " The above exports were destined principally to the following countries, and in annual average quantities as follows : Oreat Britain . . ; 83,000 tons. , L'Dlted States 19,880 " " Penmark S,1l» " France B,i00 " Small quantities, in the shape of cannon, bomb- shells, et'-., are sent to Norway, Holland, and Den- mark. The number of blast furnaces in operation In 1860 was 220 ; of workmen employed in mining the ore, 6241 ; of mines, 586. The importation of cotton In 1851, according to Swedish official authorities, amount- ed to 7,989,428 lbs., against 1,8.92,481 lbs. in 1841, and 794,434 lbs. in 1881. In 1H43 these authorities show ■n impurution of 2,600,000 lbs., against 9,883,572 lbs. in 1863, wiiirh latter amount exceeded that of the im- portation uf 1862 by 1,24<,041 ilis., and that of 186C by more than 5,200,000 lbs,, being the largest of any pre- ceding year. In 1848 the amount was 8,074,020 lbs. The value of cotton manufactures exported to SwedcM in 1850 was 946,000. against $7600 only in 1861. It may be well now to inquire into the Otieration of the tariff's of the two countries respectively upon the lead- ing staples of each, chiefly with a view m ascertain to what extent the importation of snch products contrib- utes to the respective customs revenue of each country-. The character of the commercial legislation of the two nations, in its effect? upon the imiwrtation of staple articlec of prima necessity, from each into the other, will best show how far the reciprocity stipulated in the treaty of 1827 has lieen carried into practical operation. This inquiry may lead to usefol and obvious sugges- tions, especially If it results In demonstrating that * imsitive Inequality exists in practice, under which one government derives fully one-fifth uf itn entire customs revenue annually from a cent-per-cent. duty on a lead- ing staple of the other, without tendering any compen- sating equivalent for a tax so oppressive. The importation of unmanufactured American to- bacco into Sweden and Norway (including direct and indirect importations) amounted in 1851 to more than 0,600,000 lbs., which, luider a duty equal to ceni per- cent, ad valorem, pai(l Into the Swedish treasury about (3SO,000, or one-fifth of the whole customs reveiiuo of the kingdom — i^nd this upon the single article of to- bacco ; while the entire exports of Sweden and isoi ■ way to the United States (amounting to I|9fi7,2il7) paid Into the Treasury of ihe United Status, at 30 pci- cert., but a triHe more than 9200,000! In the mean time, nearly 40,000 tons of Swtdi-ih and Norwegian shipping were carrj'ing profitable American freights on every sea, while but 4000 tons of United States shipping mode single voyages direct to Sweden and Norway. Not- withstanding the most earnest and repeated remon- strnncos against these unequal restrictions, and this mu-tided reciprocity, no amelioration has yet tiiken place in the tariff regulations of .Sweden. It is true, some reductions have been admitted in the tariff of 1862 on certain articies which enter into American ex- ports. The duties upon coffee, sugar, arrack, and un- dressed hides were severally reduced 33^, 26, 12|, and 8) per cent., and upon rice in the busk, or paddy, 16'G per cent. But these concessions were clogged to such an extent by the repeal of the 2ith article of the tariff of 1849, that American commerce, so fur from gaining any advantage by them, will be found, by the simple process of striking a balance between the results of the reductions and of the repeal, to bo subjected to new and oppressive burdens. The 24th article, or the dif- ferential clause, appended to the tariff of 1849, reduced the duties upon certain merchandise imported and ex- ported in Swedish or Norwegian vessels, as loUows : Swedish vessels navigating to distant countries will continue to enjoy the advantage of the following re- duction in duties of customs and convoy im|)Osts, viz. : Of 15 per cent, on the produce and manufactures of countries situated on tbo continent of America north of the 2&th degree of north latitude, or of any oi the for- eign colonies in the West Indies, If impotteU direct from thence in Swedish ships ; and of the like reduc- tion on Swedish produce and manufactures exported direct to foreign colonies in the West Indies. Of 25 per cent, on Swedish produce and manufac- tures exported in Swedish ships direct to the island of St. Bartholomew, to places on the east coast of the con- tinent of America south of the 2ath degree of north lat- itude, or to the Cape of Good Hope ; and the like re- duction on the produce and manufactures of those coun- tries imported direct into Sweden in Swedish vessels. Of i^ per cent, on Swedish produce and manufac- tuies exportud in Swedish ships direct to places on tho other side of tho Cajw of Good Hope, as also to ports on thj other side of Capo Horn ; ancl on the produce and manufactures of those ports and places imported from thence direct in Swedish ships. Under the treaty, those privileges apply equally to American vessels. The effect of the repeal of Ihu article is, that ever)- thing imported from America, exiept the articles above enumerated, has been chargeable ninco 1st of January, 1853— the day when the repeal took "fIVct— with duties 15 per cent, higher than before that period. Tho re- peal of this clause was granted as a concession, to silence the united and vigorous remonstrances of England ami Holland against the operation of tho Swedish tariff regulations. On the article of tobacco alone the com- merce of the United States is burdened with additional duties amounting to $36,000 per annum— enough to affect materially the sale of this American staple in the market* of that country j and a trifling reduction o.' ' iili£t^^iilA!J,^-K^!^iUl!,^':^lil?^. ; Jl^^i)^dlLkil!ih>^Wft£d£^:iiiU'.^U'il^. SWE 1788 SVVK 1 one tnina leiwl- ipen- in to- t and I than II pei- about iiuo of of to- ld Wot 17) paid •>• cert., n time, hlppinK n every iig made ,. Not- I remon- and thU et taUen t U true, I tariff of irlcan ex- i, and un- , 121, and iddy.ieo ed to such f the tariff im gaining the simple suits of the ted to new , or the dlf- (49, reduced ted and ex- as loUows: untrles wUl lUowlng re- ipo>t9, VIZ. : ifacturcs of pica north of • ov the for- )rtcd direct like reduc- )g exported 39. id manufac- [be Island of U of the con- I of north lat- the lilie re- t those coun- [ish vessels, nd manufac- ^laces on the jlso to ports the produce ;es Importe*! It the treaty, In vessels. A that ever)' [rticlos above V of January, .with duties 1. The re- [on, to silence [England and LedUh tariff [one the com- ]th additional ,_-«nough to , stople In the reduction '^'^ duty upi'H ' ii the only acknowleilgmfnt whlrh the ' governmv .it of Sweden lias yet made of tlie inJuslUe 1 of these oppressive restrictions. The following taldo i exhlhits the working of the existing tf y l>etw'3cn I the United States and Sweden during the years 1HI5, 1840, 1H17, 1H48, and 1810, so far, ut least, as it rolutcs ' to the commerce bttwcon tlio two countries. It Is | translated and compiled from Swedish ulBclal publica- tions: The nlteratioMs rernmineiided by thU commtttte were generally adopted. After .linuary 1, 18ifl, th* articles pnihihited by the tarilT of W)h are to be ad- mittetless l>e reserved as u basis for such negotiations as the Swedish government may have in contemplation relative to iron duties In the United States. The priii- IxroBT ANi. mmnT Traub or SwrnitN with tu» t'HiTim \ •'•P"! reductions, though not of great importance to American commerce wltli Sweden, apply to tire-arms, cheese, printed cotton, undyed cotton, yam, codAsli (dried and salted), logwood (made free"), Indian com siATKB mniMii TiiK Vkaub Hi'miriBn. Ki|i»m. 1S45. \tW . \M1 . 1848. 1841 . By American TS,0;lo I _ l.«llf. I P,iiinija. 1,5Srt,IM)0 I 1,011,1)00 1,fl!l'J,000 I 1,0711,000 011,000 l,^^5,(loo 1,303,000 1,4fl'i,0'iO l,40,'>,iioo I 1,44'!,0,428 lbs., bc-in^ lnrf{er tlian tlie im- portation of tlie previous j-enr by ll,'i;ih,68H llis. It was, moreover, tlie largeat quantity over iin ported in a ain^le year, except in 1M48, wlien tlio amount was 8,074,020 Iba. ]n 1831 tlia amount im|iortod was 794,434 ll»., and in 1841, 1 ,882,431 lbs. Tlio amount ,00r>,n81 llis. (chietly No. 2G), and was valued nt (11,311,777. In 1860 the quantity was r>,734,332 \h»., and the value $1,270,060. The amount of cotton cloth manufactured in 1861 was 1,730,000 English yards, and the number of people employe'l in registered cotton factories was over 8000, In 1^ %i.e value of exported cotton manufactures wai 146,000. In 1861 it decreased to $7600. In 1860, imported cotton cloth, 170,000 lbs, ; imported cotton twist, 893,000 lbs. : total, 1,003,000 lbs. In 1851, im- ported cotton cloth, 195,600 lbs. ; imported cotton twist, 1,068,000 lbs. : total, 1,263,600 lbs. Tobacco was im- ported in 1851 into Sweden to the amount of 4,141,699 lbs., of which only 42,642 lbs were manufactured. Of the whole amount 2,667,982 lbs. came direct from the United States ; the remainder chiefly from Uerman ports. In 1860 the importation was 8,870,899 lbs. ; 41,795 lbs. manufactured. At 79 tobacco manufactories in the iiingdom them were employed, in 1851, 1277 workmen, and the sales were valued at $647,120; con- listing of 200,176 Il>s. of cigars, 2.760,728 lbs. of snutf, and 1,632,555 lbs. of other prepared tobacco; in all 4,583,453 lbs. Tobacco, in small quantity, and of very bad quality, is grown in the neighlwrliooti of Stock- holm, but I believe in no other piirt of the kingdom. It should be remembered that the accompanying table and tho foregoing notices of Swedish woven goods refer only to the registered factories, and do nut exhibit half of the actual manufactures of the kingdom. None of the homespun cloths are included, for which, of every description, the Swedish peasantr}' are remarkable, and of which, unfortunately, it is impossilile to obtain exact accounts of the value or quantity. The province or county most distinguished for these pro- itants, were, in 1860 and 1861 (inclusive of stocidngs, quilts, and ribbons), og follows : 18C0— Cotton KtuffK 4,842,000 Engliih jards. " I.lnenituffi ifI6,!00 " " Woolen stuffs 8»9,1T0 " " Cotton handkorcbl«& . . . l,44S,!Ki8 pieces. 1851— Cotton stuffit 4,763,000 t^ngllsh yards. . " l.liien stuffs aiO.SilO '• " Woolen stuffs 840,161 " " Cotton handkerchiefs . . . 1,08S,S81 pieces. These quantities have slightly diminished of lata years, and the registered factories are accordingly en- couraged. The homespun mannfactures of Gefleborg whi'li were sold in 1849 amounted to 1,423,883 yards ; those of AVestmoreland to 306,338 yards ; and those of Hol- land to 162,700 yartls. The productions of other provinces are not given r> liably ; but enough Is known to prove that the amount of such fabrics is considerably greater than that of the registered manufactures; and their productions, es- pecially of linen cloth, surpass in durability, and rival in fineness, tho best productions of the factories. The value of manufactures of all kinds at registered factories was: In 1889, $6,439,128; in 1846, $7,084,947 ; in 1850, $9,891,072; in 1853, $10,151,724; in 1854, $11,841,013 ; and in 1866, $14,437,645. It will be seen, therefore, that the increase in ten years has been near- ly $7,000,000 (100 per cent.), and in twelve months $2,600,000. The importation of raw cotton into Swe- den in 1865 reached to 14,783,629 lbs. ; in 1868 the NVVK ,. ' , """ "'iw.iw/i i„.. v„i; "'"'"' "'" «'• li«v« •H"»H«».*rt«|,,« " ,' '1'"'' ''"<'" no «!.«!; •'«»«» Im (»?,(), |„ ,^ ,f7 H "W. Hourly twice „„.«t. I » h..,H.rU.lm. „f .m,„,.„,.t ,"'''« ««, *,,!{,;«';. "" "• ""*'* »'»«H..»..,I t„ 4 f, , ,T'„'"'"«'™ Into Sw„. ."";,"'? •"''«'•«•(» <'<»ii,„mi.,l In ' "'"'''"■■"''l.v more than ;r«.mrl.«M«.r«,,',,,U,„ ,„,"• '^^i', ""'''^^h "'i- country «I;"V« ih« .,m,„«l(v .■. r,„,2 . T " «°°''"' over a"„ y«r.i„ w,..i.„ h,,„„; „^';^f" ;r-. 'f »,329 e„«u,, ""'*'' f flifM wefs wov„, ';.,/" "'o I*»vince of : '•-'" «l.m. ^.W (;;•,"': ';<'l«?'''f. i.. their No. of i'ili'"!' r"' '•i™ Hnil-rlolti ' '*i'»'kluK»... I ■ < I'll™ prluiloi '" p-iitf«r 1 HI I'lmcco I 17 ''"piT. I-f'ather . , . I'yi'-lioiwiia filUMg • 'liln. ►jarihcn-waro I ''""■'IT. .'.','.'.'.' 5*'«x cniKli™.' "Iiwrln Hoap ^' * * ' KoiKj *" •lockii ...""■ l;iayln|t«r.li; ''•II pajmr i J-oloriaiidac'ldV." " ' ottchtH . . 10 l,-"om.rmaich™,' '" r-nitliiia . . . I V«rlou,,„ ,V — y;^i^^j » -.aai.wii n. 49 1, mil fl,IITMI8» 4<,Mil W,T41 ll4T.mil . ll», "«"» "nd i^ufit. 80, iSgf.TT' im,,,,, 'I'diiti,,, i*«p(,8«,|«fl| j»lll*... i»wi ^<" ;. 'f«(iii,,, L i^w ;; '*Ja, ,, l««0, ' ISJO, TO Jnir 1, I8ST. TonnHff* rlfftrf ,1. '»'»t«l,,,— pfJK^r, =-^ ■"•'"'' a,6M 7993; ,,'is^ ■••• TS ° <». -4 the fcca year from tbla ttaoleg.;:, Julyl flWI 1780 SWf Svtduk IKM(/Hrftf<.— TlinUlanilnrAl. lUrtluilnintw U tli« only iMiMniiliiii of the NwhiIm in Anicrlni. It liclongi til th* Irawanl K"'"!'! *"'' '" •Itimli' inhtniUy In Ut. 17° M)' N., *n>' frcini 'i to 11 inlli>it wliU, unit ciintalna mi snit uf alHUit 'i't miiiurn mllaii, t'i|iit«l, OiintavU. Th* Idnnil la of itn IrraKular iiliii|w, ■ml ilBt|ily imUntctl !>)' niinieriiiM uniiill iiunily hay*, •(•imrittacl liy UiM uiiil iitr*p rucky ucillvltiii iif mcrtl- iiritte hiil)(lit. In tli« lnti>rliir it lit hilly, liut itn liiftlciit nlovaliunjt are lut than llHK) funl. In mcmt piiria it la barren ami atariln, but hua numiToua wgil-iultlviititil vnllaya, It |im-., anil nlao liKnuni vital anil irun wood, Ita only ux|xirta aro nittlo anil iHims aalt. Water la icarcs, ami th* iiihaUtant* ile|i«nil for aupply on the raina. Tlia only harbor la I,it (.'iir«- nai{c, a aafo ami riiiiinioiliiiua one, ami miii'li rrei|iient- eil. It if on the wvat liile of the iaiaml. (ioae by la (iuatavia, the prinrl|ml town, a thriving filiirn, having conslilerublo cuminert'e with the n«iKhlHirin){ iaiiimla. 1'he iHipulatlon ia eatimated at Iwtween HOUU and wm, of which two-thinia are blacka. Tlie ainvea were eman- cipated on the 9th of October, 1)M7, nnd on (hia ocniaion the n(|{ro«a tendered lo the KhiK of Sweden an aildrraa of thanka, Ht. llartholoiiiew waa aattled by tho French In Id-IN, ami was ceded to the Hwedp.t in 17H'l,with whom it atill remaiiia. Swedish veaaela from tho ialand of St. Ilartholomew are plareil on an equal footing with thiiae of the United btatca by tho treaty with Sweden and Norway of .Inly 4, 1H27, — Sfe Thkatikh, C'iimmkiicial. 8witB«rluid (t of ice-clod niountnina, wliile ncur their aummlta ttuo rhmludendron and the Iklun grow ut tho limit of the anow line, 'i'lie com raiacd in Switz eriand ia not nearlv aufliolentfor the Kupply of ita |Hip ulatlon ; the moat productive cantons are thoae of tho north and weat. Here the vine ricvns at an elevation of 1000, and in gome plarea at 'ilOVi feet above the »en. It Is cultivatod on tbe slopes of the Jura, and In the valley a of the Rhine, Khone, lleuws, Limmnt, nnd Thur. Huckwhrnt ripens at an elevation of 2200, and with a sivuthrni exposure at 3000 feet ; barley, r}'e, potatoes, and [lilt herbs nt IIMK) feet. Max and hemp aro exten- sivrli Kfown; irrigation ia Judiciously managed ; uml, III general, agriculture is making consideruble prugreas. 'i'lie sio|i«» of the .1 ura and of the Al|is, and tho high re- gions of tbe tablr-Und, are covered with valuable tim- ber trees the oak, bee«h, larch, and birch. The pine grows ti ) an elevation of 6700 feet, shrubs to 7 100. Tho great wealth of Switzerland consists in its rich and ex- cellent luiHturea, whuh in summer support vast num- bers of rattle ; the finest breeds are those of the Sini- nwiithal, Gessenay, tiruyere, Zug, and Schwytz. Tho cultivation of the vine is an important branch of Indus- try in tho southwest cantons, and wine is exported. Kirichiccuer, cider, and perry are made. C'lioese is a valuable product ; it is made chiefly in (JeBsenay, the SImmentlial, and the binmenthal ; that culled Gruycru is much esteemed and extonsi voly exported. Switzerland has made rapid progress in manufac- turing industO'- The eust and northeast cantons manufacture cotton goods, thu chief seats of which are Appenzell and St. Gail. Silks are woven in Zurich Bnd Basle, and linens ut liern. Neufuhatel has supe- rior printing astablishmenta. Watrhaa, Jewalry, anil inuaii'ki iHixes are III* prinrl|ial maiiiifartiirea uf the Wf at ranluna ) h»re 2il0,lNMI walihea am liiailu evury year. The niiiuti«r uf imlividuala enipbiyed In Ihn illf- ferentbranchimiif tnduatry in iNlllwemi Hilka, '<0,(NN) | ciittima, 110,000 : watchna and Jewelry, l)0,(KHI ; wmilaiia, |ia|ier, leather, iron warea, eti'., it),>m\ in all, 200,000, Hwitterlaiiil I'lnitnlna a |Mipulallon of 2,!NMI,IIH, and enibraiea an area of 15,201 ai|iiur« miloa, I'nlillimliy It la divided into twunty-two lantona, aa foUuwl i Appi'iiat*! , , . . Aaraau Ilwlu Ilcru Kri'ybiirg Nl. iiall iilarus Ilrntiva (iriaimi l.iireniK NiHifrhalfl . . . HrlialfhauaeB. Hrhwyta Holrum Tlrlun Thurgau I'ntvrwaldcD . 1 rl Valala Valid Ziif Zurloli Total.,. a.|n>r. MIUi ' I',>|imU|Iuii imi M,>MW WW 1110,190 IHtt tll.lMA 1,MT UAM\ MIA Wl.HIIO T*l IIW.MM VW) VO.IUT n tll.VM a,iHR NU,IUO MH iii'i.Taii 111 10,I1I» ii« ■A,9TI BD'J 44, IM) MB A'l.mit l.ODT Ilt,ll»T 970 IM,S|'.I 9IIII 9A,l:ift m It.fiOO LOW »i,rwi 1,IW \w,v* M) \t,VA Out IM),1II« 1^3«l U.iitO.iiF A more moderate tariff than that now levied III Switzerland upon our princl|ial ataplea could not bu desired. Kor instance, llmln nfrrrry kind p.iya a duty of onljr B esDta per llOi IIm, lllcv, llcpiita " Htltril iiMvlalona, 06 oents " I.iird, W ctiiitu ** firlpil vcKi'tiilili'ii, 3 ri*uta ** WlmlKull, nnlB WlialilKiiii^ W wnl " 'I'lilmi'co, &S ci'lUa *^ Wool, raw ur romlied, rrnta ** IVit aud pi'srl aaliea, t) ccuta ** Koalii, I't'iila " Tslluw, tfronfa '* Tlie commercial relations between tlia United Htatas and Switzerland are regulated by treaty, exchanged Noveiiibor Htli, and proclaimed Novemlier Ulh, INA5, Article 1 places citizens of cither country residing in tho otlicr U|)on a footing of equality with native cit- izens, subject to the conatitutionul uml legal pruvlalnna, us well federal us state and cantonal, of the contrail- ing parties. Article 7 provides for tho ap|Milntment and jiowers of consuls and vice-consuls In the large cit- ies and iiii|iortant commercial places, in tlie countrivs of the contracting parties rospectively. Article H pro- vides that In ail that relates to the importation, ex portation, and transit of their respective products, tlin I'liitcd States of America and tho Swia.s coiifeileratloii shull treat each other reciprocally as the moat favored nation : thus, neither of the contracting partiua ahull impose any higher or other dutiea U|ion the imiHirtatimi, «x|iortation, or transit of the natural or induatrUI prixl- luts of the other than are or shall be payable upon the like articles, being the produce of any other coun- try, not embraced within its present limits. Article 10 provides that neither of the contracting parties shull grant any favor In commerce to any nation, union of nations, state, or society which shall not imniediutil) lie enjoyed by tho other party. Article 11 pro\lile« that each country shall be at liberty to determiiiu the manner of establishing tho origin of its own produiti destined to enter the country of the other, should dif- ferential duties be established by either on the proiliiiti of uny nation. Article 12 provides that the tarritoriea and ports of each country shall be open to the oiliiiU- sion of ortieles from the other; such articles, wlioii im- ported into tho United States under the national lla){, or undar that of one of the nations most favored by «.iun,ip„^/^:^;;,X'''- minora ^^y^'^r;;:-s:z^-''^''"^'^'"-"'"'^'i^i^'Zi I . • ""t "llTIIlg •""-•'--"""""""" '-'^ "'"■ ^-^«'» "^^ ^ «^'-H::^fc' iia'' H»^i" t;;;;:;:^[^ Y«™ "*; ''*""<' em'Tacing thirteen year. ""-'• ''-"■"ver, sucl, -771 r—. —1 '"••■ I lirouKh !■ rauco iKoi flTKi OfwhlchfromtlloL-DUed '"''"^' rromoth cnphce;:; : ; : : : .T'*''*^'JJi 1B,8 18,473 14,1178,857 16,706,660 14,870,381 = -^uii ;5'^'^ 1?>"J^ 08,926 SWI 1788 SWI vcxatioiu and expensive tntnsitage, epecially throngh France. The oppression of tliis burden may Ira in- ferred from the fact that the annual average aggre- gate value of mercliandise on which transit tolls are paid, proceeding flrom Switzerland, was in 18&3 nearly $8U,000,000 ; and the value of that proceeding to that republic more than half as much. Switzerland sent in transitu to France, cotton tis- sues to the value of nearly $3,000,01)0 in 1852, and to the value of nearly i|4,00O,O0O in 1853. By the French tariff such fabrics are excluded from France for con- sumption. Since 1845, Switzerland, it is stated offi- cially, has quite superseded, in the marliots of Ger- many and Austria, the yams of Ureat Britain. The following statement shows the quantities of cotton received by Switzerland from the United States, and of cotton stuffs sent to the United States from Switzerland, made up from Swiss official sources : Cotton fvom tub I'mitru Statrb to Switzkrland. ISno 16,042,740 llH. I 1853 19,066,200 lbs. ISM 13,72;l,320 " I 18f)3 18,441,880 " Cotton Stuffs ihom Switzeulamd to tub Initfo) Staibs. 18B0 3,2-2«,30O 11m. I 1853 4,077,020 lbs. 1851.. S,SO!i,060 " I 1S63 B,26»,1B0 " In 1865 Switzerland returned to the United States, in exchange for raw cotton, the same article manu- factured, to the value of $212,700. In Ma branch of industry Switzerland is said to compete succea-sfully with France. Her chintzes, and al.so her embroidered moussellnes, are superior to those of Alsace ; and if the French markets are closed against their admission under the operation of restrictive tar- iff's, they find an ample outlet in the Levant, or across the Austrian territorj' by the Danul)0. They also find markets in North t.nd South America, the liarbary States, the East and West Indies, in the fairs and markets of Central Germany, as well as in the entre- pots of the Ilanse To wns. The manufacture of tobacco in Switzerland is stated to employ 4000 persons, and to produce about 9,000,000 pounds, valued at $1,116,000. There is imported of the article annually into Switzer- land, and produced in the countr)', as follows : Imported 7,031,002 llM._Value $436,723 l-roiluced 800,000 " " 24,026 Total....... T,831,B02 " " $101,354* Of this there is consumed in Switzerland 6,740,502 lbs., of the value of $558,000; leaving for exportation 1,091,000 lbs. ; and if to the value which this latter amount represents to the manufacturer be added wages of hands and other expenses of manufacturing, it is estimated that the raw tobacco costs the Swiss manu- facturer about six cents per pound, while ho expects to realize from the sale of the manufactured articlo about 72^ cents per pound. TOOAOCO IHn>BTEI> IHTO SwinEBLAMD DraiNO A SkBIES OF YXARS. 1847 llw. 2,606,712 i848 " 3,87fl,S!l4 , 184» " 6,428,159 1881 " 7,2S4,'.;B7 1882 " 7,166,912 As American products generally reach Switzerland via Havre, the following talile is subjoined, exhibiting the transit trade l)etween France and Swii .erland dur- ing n period of eigltt years, ending with 1868 ; Vun. From SwttMrlnnd. To SwttttrUnd. 1846 1847 $18,764,000 14,a*),000 16,182,000 18,600,000 18,414.000 IK, 226,000 18,786,000 20 fi98,(KI0 $10,416,000 9,800,000 9,114,000 10,602,000 8,1128,000 8,028,000 11,346,000 10,788,000 1848 1849 1880 1861 1862 1863 It may be inferred from the above statement that the chief obstacle to trade between the United States * The flgiircK Indicate tho rcUtlvo qualities of Imported and domeHtIo tobacco. Tiniii —imported, 6} cents per pound; do- ■ustte, 8 omli per pound. and Switzerland is found in the restrictions of transit- age, especially over the territories of France. If Swiss manufacturers could have their goods destined for the United States finally examined and sealed (ptombe) at the first French frontier custom-house, then to pass on to their final destination under the protection of that seal, unopened, and consequently exempt fron> the re- examination and repacking which they undergo at each post, it is believed that the trade witli tho United States would all pass through Havre, instead of seek- ing, as is the case at present, the more circuitous and expensive routes via Liverpool and other ports. Such a change in the French transit regulations woiUd re- sult, also, in an annual augmentation in the general ex- changes between tho United States and Switzeiland. Commercial returns from Switzerland are uecessurily im|)erfect, owing to tho dilBcult}- in procuring requisite stiitistics from tlie various ports through whicli Swiss merchandise reaches the United States. The exports which passed through the consular district of Uasle during the last six months of 1864 for tho United States, amounted to $728,689 35. Tho total value of merchandise that passed through the consulate at Zu-> rich for the United States was : In 18S3 $3,800,628 In 1864 4,496,072 The following statement shows the values of the goods, wares, and merchandise sent from Switzerland to the United States, covered by invoices authenticated at the consulate of Basle, for the six months ending July 1st, 1855 : 8ilk goods $88d,8eA 09 Watches and Jewelry 89,067 62 Cotton 24,272 17 Straw • 11,706 17 Medicines 8,006 20 CliMM and aplrlts «,161 26 Silk and wool™ 13,361 OS rapcr-hangluga Leather Mathoraatical iuRtrtiments Cloth Machinery Wooden wsro C'ntlory ToUl $637,014 63 The following table exhibits the value of imports, the produce and manufacture of Switzerland, into the United States, during the years ending June, 1853, and 1866 ; to which is added a statement showing the ports from which said imports were cleared, with the amounts for each, made up from United States official authorities : Value of toincipai Iiu'Obtn, tub Pbodcoe and Manufac. 'VUBBOr BwITZBBI.ANn, INCLUIIED IN TUB IllPOBTATIONS PBOM THE IIanbb Towns, IIoiland, Ueloich, Fb' nok, and En- OLAND. T>l-RINO TUB YEASB ENDINO JuNB M, 1853, AND Jdne 80, 1806. 2,980 60 .<138 25 S53 07 684 60 81 40 23 00 81 43 l)e»criittlon of Merchandtw. Manufactures of wool. . . cotton . pllk, etc. flnx, llncnii, clo, Iron and itocl , . brsai gold and Bllvcr. BlsM paper, etc wood Watches . Watch crj'stals Wearing apparel nook*, printed and otiicr , Buttons C^hoefle Clocks ■ I>rui^ and medlchiM Hats and bonnets of straw, etc. , Mathematical Inatruments Miialcal bona Optical tnalnments Cordials Argol Total talne of Imports ISS.1. $15,982 323,632 8,801,886 8,862 19,062 326 16,440 167 72 2,704 1,038,714 8,r61 5,844 1,382 446 8,228 842 91 S6l,l>4U 1,324 8,916 2!4 1,066 $8,892.984 Valu e. $0.',n26 212,700 4,346,534 28,426 1,'.I69 14,510 i,il54 1,300 2,573,410 23,790 6,040 173 6,702 418 1,069 140,S63 IIS4 7,732 6,S57 $7,778,182 swo 8,T01,«)(M estimated „?" *" 'W6, 88SfiH f ''»»«• 180° without any , 'i' r"''"«"« 'o the viewr„n!^,"V'' ^nd _ „ '™™ the rJiiifB , *TOT T03,342 IIOB . 10,015 2.1B(),324 Imports from ♦!.„ TT r~ '■-'-'-'~'!^"*JL*''T''S,W2"I Ithni. "°''' "® ^'feots of sJ^'^^^^wantofatten' ™ .Swrz,.,.... -. other EJ"•f'^ There are »«„?*'""«'»•'<' ™Wdlo —" '"" two eoun- Cotton. . I i'loiir Fiirn ■ J'ow.... '.'.'.'.' (• IXTI MrdandtaW "(M-s 'otosh 8,9B,si Toliaccolfnf l,22Tfl, Mauufaetured ii^;,' 4«.218-r, '^w, roHui, and StS^ 8,4n»-,s I f.'otton stuffs.. «ik stuff, ;;;• • straw twisting^; 31,(!0« 81,864 2(1,707 2,T37 I .')(I„TO« '',(ir4 b>v. .^'' "■* countn- am? I, '"«'ches about fifteen and hn., settlements tn n,i. ^ "'* «nipo. coverv of'll.""^*^'''«»'ve t^Ve'''' T *■■ ^'-«'«iS ,„„,!? "/">e gold field, ,„ j™f ■ O""" to tho dis- ttefoUowing amount' Of fes m"T ''■« J^^^^^^^^^ were exported to the UnUed s2""""i"'"='' "«'«'«' n!? I'""'""'' «" the t^st 'S*"' ""P<'«''"<'ns, havi y the former, h,.., i. .'.' ^|;3, .. faif.8kins,oto::::: km '. JIakingagrandtotaioV Sr-^^" " e sword wa/oneVt feie^Y "r-''"^^^^^ ''^^ .'^' ■•■■•••■ "^o h^'''---'-- ^'r» e Koman sword, wero frmn . '""P'^'nents of war. s« ",5S9 7ia ?«? «" o ?22 IS40. . Pmindp. i v.... • «,197,'a91 Th7: — /" "y the Chinese i«-o '"" ""en ftflm J;he sword was one of t « '■• '* "•'^ — 1'«"'. //ut The Koman swont weJo f, ""l*'' ""Plements of war '""K- The broads,™,^ " '."'""'y "> thirty inches' adoption. Th^.^^ . ■""• '^'"leier are of n>n^ / -.,™u,j,u , »o,i»i,ao •word of Forrara steel Th «'''^' "'•'■='«'', and next the fl "' ""« '«««>• was tL ^"""'P- ""W Vic. "ctoria) had , population SYR 1790 SYR ef 197,168. It had also, at the same time, 152,067 acres under crop, 116,897 hones, 1,375,257 bead of cattle, and 7,896,895 sheep. Daring the same year the value of the imports (mostly from England) amounted to XI, 663,981, and that of the exports to £1,796,012. The latter comprised, among others, the following items, viz. : M Wool 16,283,493 Ita. Value, £828,808 Gold bullion. 144,120 OS. IT dwt " 469,836 TaUow 84,464cwt. " 114,168 Hides " 86,626 Whale oU . . . 6011 tons. " 2C,87T with neat cattle, flour and bread, Ixmes, soap, cedar, and other iroods, etc. Harbor Due; etc. — ^The colonial Legislature has also, by an act passed in 1852, suppressed all charges on shipping for harbor dues, light-house dues, foes on en- tering and clearing, water police dues, etc. 8}'dney is therefore really a free port. .9ee articles Austba- LIA, Melbodkne, and Nrw South Wales. iloneye, Weigkli, and Meatures. — ^Accounts are kept in sterling money ; but Spanish dollars are most abnnd- aat. They pass current at 6t. each. The weights and measures are the same as those of England. Syra, the ancient Syms, one of the islands of the Greek Archipelago, whose salubrity and fertility have been celebrated by Homer (Pope's Odyttftj, book xv. V. 488, c:,c.), in the group called the Northern Cy- clades, fifteen miles west from tbe greater Delos, its port, on the east side of the island, being in lat. 37° 26' 80" N., long. 24° 57' E. It is firom nine to ten miles in length, by about five in breadth. Though rugged, it is carefully cultivated, and prrxluces garden stuffs, wine, olives, figs, cotton, etc., with a little barley. The population in 1830 was set down by Mr. Urquhart at 4500 ; but w:. have l)oen assured that it is at present (1853) little, if at all, short of 27,000. It is indebted for this extraordinary' increase of pop- ulation to the convenience and excellence of its port and its central situation, which have made it a con- siderable commercial entrepot. Though small, its har- bor is accessible to line-of-bsttlo ships. The holding ground is good, and it has in its centre about ten fath- oms water. Merchantmen of from 400 to 500 tons bur- den moor within alxiut 100 yards of the wharves. Winds from the southeast round to enst-northeast throw in a heavy swell ; but the port is well protected from winds from all other points. A light-house, with a revolv- ing light, has been erected on Gaidoro Island, about 1} mile southeast from the port. Host part of the trade that formerly centred at Scio is now cnrried on hen ; and the island has not only received numerous immigrants from Scio, but also from many other parts of Greece. Great Britain and most European powers have consuls in Syra ; and it is also the principal seat of the Protestant missionaries to the Levant. The town is on the north side of the harlwr. The oldest portion occupies the summit of a conical-sbapod hill, probably the site of the acropolis of the ancient city. — Set Tot'RNEroRT, Voyage du Levant. But the new streets and houses, of which there are many, come down to the water's edge. It has an appearitnce of great bustle and animation. Its copious spring of pure fresh water has been eulogized liy Clarke (^Travelt). In 1848 no fewer than 468 vessels were registered at Syra, twlng a greater amount of shipping than l>elong- ad to ony Greek port. Syria (with Paleatine), a large division of Asi- atic Turkey, mostly between lat. 81° and 87° K., and long. 84° 80' and 40° E. ; bounded north b} ui Anut- nian Mountains, east by the Euphrates and (ht ^ nbian desert, south by Arabia Petroia, and west by the Medi- terranean Sea. Estimated area, 60,000 square miles. Population about 1,865,000, mostly Mohammedans, but comprising about 345,000 Groek Christians, 260,000 Maronites and Roman Catholics, 176,000 Jews, 48,000 Druses, and 17,000 Metualis and Yezidis. The west, or coast ])ortion, is mountainous ; the east chiefly an elevated plain. After the Dead Sea, tbe principal lakes are those of Tiberias, or Genesarcth, and Hu- loah, in the valley of the Jordan ; some smiUer ones exist near Damascus and Antioch. The surface lieing very uneven, the climate and products vary greiitly within short distances. Along the coasts the beat is great, and the orange, banana, and date flourish, while the summits of the mountains are seen covered with Bnnw. In the north, and on the elevated plain east of the mountains, the climate is colder, but at Aleppo fh>sts dre seldom severe, and snow rarely lies on the ground for more than a day at a time. Tho com is nearly ripe early in May ; and from Jnne to Septem- ber summer heats prevail, unbroker l)y any rain, though tempered in the west by sea-breezes. It is stated that the couittry is capable of pnMlucing suffi- cient to maintain ten times its present population ; yet such is the rude method of agriculture, the depressed condition and insecurity of the rural popidatlon, ,.,, the uncertaint}' of taxation and government re^ ■'■ tions, that in bad years com must frequently be ir ported from Egypt and elsewhere. Wheat, baric maize, millet, lentils, and sesamum, are raised in t'uo plains, principally in the Haouran, which has always been considered the granarj' of S}-ria. Cotton and the mulberry flourish on the coast, and silk is produced on the slopes of Lebanon. The cotton annually raised in the south is estimated to amount in value to £350,000 ; and about 1700 cantars of silks, 10,700 cantars of to- bacco, from 8000 to 10,000 cantars of gall-nuts, and 300 cantars of madder roots are annually produced. Other chief products are sheeps' wool, olive-oil, sugar, indigo, scammony, and other gums, safflowcr, dates, timber, hides, and skins. Sheep and other live-stock form, as in antiquity, a chief part of the wealth of the in- habitants ; and, ;ill merchandise being conveyed on the backs of animals, it is estimated that the transit trade employs 80,000 beasts, and about 30,000 drivers. About !!600 okes of sponge fished on tho coast are sent to tho ports of the Mediterranean annually ; other fisheries are comparatively unimportant, as is mining industry'. Damascus has about 40O0 looms engaged in the manu- facture of silks, and the same manufacture is carried on to a considerable extent in Aleppo. Cotton, and . some woolen fabrics, shawls, gold and silver thread stuff's, are also woven there and elsewhere, and tho total produce of the looms of Aleppo is estimated at il250,000 in annual value. Gloss, earthen-wares, leath- er, and sonp, are made in the al>ovo and other towns ; and in Palestine great numl>ers of religious ornaments are manufactured for sale. Commerce is greatly im- peded by the want of roads, those that exist being mere mule or camel tracks ; also by tho deficiency of good harlwrs. But as .Syria is on the high route from Bag- dad, Mosul, and I'>zcroum, to Mecca, caravans annu- ally traverse it, bringing galls, indigo, Mocha coff'oe, skins, Cashmere shawls, and other Indian manufac- tures, also the products of Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, and Persia, which are exclianged here for European manufactures and cochineal. Rsfjaf^f,'-; o !.\t V -'^''' ' ''' '■''=■ ..'It ' '" '■ -M u, 1,- TAC 1791 T. TAL Taoamahao a reain ht«i =to„ upon it,-CMtKr^?ii-«'»h.v. ^a'ii^p°!?'j^tcaj;uVb:.:.r:" .•»'«•" — •"• •luuiaiic amell 1mi>i.,.._ Ii "uen pure.il musk, .ad dfawlvea comSreh" *''« «' '"vender a'„ ingnoactioa upon it.-xTM ok's cf°-'7"'"'''"«^- Taok, a rope nged tn „„ « (■nfnulru. come oftho c^„;S::'.^5 .'CiM" ^"-»^" '"wer Jhen the wind c««s.7the S *''^'"'P°"«''n J'',?*""* name Ualao given to ?h "'""' "Wiquely. theextremity ofits boom, lie i^ti^^ '" "' ''''^" *» « ship are fun,i,hed with a tackTn '^k"""''"*'''"'''' formed of a thick wpe Up.^n^tTZ'^f''' «'''«'' " a knot wrought upon the Inrf... !.*"''' """J having HjSSSSS -;, 7 , " ""*«' extends the sail t„\l' , " """"e To lack, to change the cour.. i ""^ ''«^ard. ""'•"'I^o'tnm the ahpaCtVm ^h "'"' '""'"' «<> the larboaM tack in a conh^L • i''° ^'^board to being c.oa,^hauIed on the l^^^""- Thus, a ship her prow suddenly to windw^!^ ^ ^^^' ^ turning sion of the wind on her h.,?^! "'=''''« ""e impres! off nnon »!.. i.i" " -"." head «ails, by whi.i. .^"KT.t "•ee from this defect tw. . '"•aafarasDoMii.i. >va8 taken possession of by tre "Ve "r-'"';^ ^'''« '»'"»<« The ports open to tnLi *""'=•' 'n the vear ]84fi ., ..»,„Ba ,„ ,j,g clewnffhT .. ' °y ^u'ch it is ofP.^ 1 ."* "ependencies coniln, I . "" "'and 'Peoial permission, or in lie „f^''' "f^'' unless by any of the port, Jf the isUnda a,fir!'"j'' ""<='"" !« Protectorate over Tahiti othe/th''''.V'* ""> ^^^noh .tlr»"?'>«'; while''th?l ^JA! '»'- porta "»j/ to f«.nrf„a;i. °" ■"««':• eaUed beating or tumi ■ns th^ l^en7hVrSl^'""^'='' '» ^«^" r,, '-?oal regulation howevfat!i'"l ('"'"■'"''") % A •tion , and they aw ^^^'~''^'' *" •"» immovable situ! iT, T°^'"'^ °". "'e P odiLeTth ^i"^"' ">«'■» IS called in.rf.- 7 ™<='"o to mechanical «....—.- I -Abiiivai. „. -,„.. "'''>■ Thoapp,icati:„"^:f\ttlwTrm"'r'^'''»P-^-^ ja called hoMng or W^ r "'"hanical purposes the anchor., cablea, etr ''• ^"'"'"' ""*'« 4liea ing a cS?ift^PPl™°»t part of a ship's stern, be- with some devK IjlSC" "'"''"^' """""^^d Taffeta, one of the ni.rii«o» . I "'" o« I ''"o " i J mercW importance? Ity^sTlfTTl^""'^^' <=<""- "»" ""'onff the ancient* b ?^' '"'' " =<"" ^^T com- oua founder, Peter he Grea? o « i"* ''^: "' "'''»'^- '"'^'"*'" nations. The c„±' '!?'• •""■*""' ""■""g eient emporium of the DoT tC £►*? '^""■' ""> «"- '°"'«''ns 60 Attic min« TZ^ "i" ' '""'=»' »' 'height rome all but Inaccesaiw. ' 5 • P°"* "' ^hich had be- 1 weighed, accorfinf^, 'n ?""' ^"'<= drachma • and i'derivedfroSe ^1'' »"f "^ ^''-'^ consequence I ir| g^ ClUh Tr ^'•. ^'buthnot, 69 Ibri'l o"** antrep6t of the c^m^^To^C' '"'"!'" '" """'"ff "•« Attie^talen" by som7, M 'f ""• '^''<'"' ^as anothe; that great river. The kll ! "•"".'""' "-"""^'l bv of 100 min» Th^* if '" "'"*'^' "' 80, by othera tnes comprised, amnn^ ^.u! "f?™ '9 ^W'Sn coun- Svrlan t«l.„. j- fu, *'■ 1*' e^ual to f 193 15.. -rZ TAT. 1792 TAM Euboean of CO, the Babylonic of 70, the greater Attic of 80, the Tyrian of 80, tlia Eginiean of 100, the Kho- dlan of 100, and the Egyptian of ') minoi. There ia ftnother talent much more ancient, /hieh Dr. Arbuth- not calls the Homeric leUent of gold, which seems to have weighed six Attic drachms, or three Dorics, a Doric weighing very little more than a guinea. Ac- cording to this talant some eckon the treasure of King David, particularly that mentioned 1 Chron. xx. 14, which, according to the com non reclconing, would amount in gold talents to the value of 4647,600,000, and the silver to above £342,000. As David reigned in Judea after the siege of Troy, it ia not improbable but Homer and he might use the same numeral talent of gold. Among the Romans there were two kinds of talents, the little and the greia talent. The little was the common talent ; and whenever they say sim- ply taltntttm, they are to be understood of this. The little talent was 00 mino! or Roman pounds, the mina or pound being estimated at 100 draclmiat or denarii. It was also estimated at twenty-four great sesterces, which amounted to £60. The great talent exceeded the less by one-third part. Budoius computes that the little talent of silver was worth £7b itorling, and the greater £99 <&>. Sd. sterling. The greater of gold was worth £1126 sterling. Talent, as a species of money among the Hebrews, was sometimes used for a gold coin, the same with the shekel of goM, called ulsu ttater, and weigliiiig only four drachms. The Hebrews reckoned by these talents, as we do by pounds, etc. Thus a million of gold, or a million of talents of gold, among them was a million of shekels, or nummi ; tho nummus of gold Ihi- ing the same weight with the shekel ; viz., 4 drachms. But the Hebrew talent weight of silver, which they called Clear, was equivalent to that of -SOOO shekels, or 118 lbs. 10 02. 1 dwt. 10^ grs. English Troy weight., according to Arbuthnot's computation. — E. B, Set C' NS. Tallow (Fr.**;/; Ger. Talg; M.Serc,Sego; Russ. Sato, toplenoe ; Sp. Stbo), animal fat mi^lted and separa- ted from the fibrous matter mixed with it. Its qual- ity depends partly on the animal from which it has Ijeen prepared, but more, perhaps, on the care taken in its purification. It is firm, brittle, and has a peculiar heavy odor. When pure, it is white, tasteless, and nearly insipid ; but the tallow of commerce has usually a yellowish tinge, and is divided, according to thr de- gree of its purity and consistence, into candle and soap tallow. Tallow is an article of great importance. It is manufactured into candles and soap, and is extens- ively used in the dressing of leiitlier, and in various processes ofthe arts. The exports of tallow from Rus- sia amount, at an average, to about ,S,810.000 poods, or 137,160,000 lbs. a year.— Tkoobokski, ■ftProduc- iives de la Rmsie, i. 233. Of this immc -upply, the export of the largest portion is to Engi.nd ; the re- mainder being exported to Prussia, France, the Hanse Towns, Turkey, etc. We borrow from the work of Mr. Borrisow, on the commerce of Petersburg, tlie following details with respect to the tallow trade of that city ; Tallow is di- vided into ditfercnt sorts ; namely, white and yellow candle tallow, and common and Sil)erian lonp tallow; although it is allowed that the same sort often differs In quality. Tallow ia brought to Petersburg from the interior ; and the best soap tallow from Siberia, by various rivers, to the I^ke Ladoga, and thenco by the ounnl of .Schlusselburg to the Neva. Yellow can- dle tallow, when good, should be clean, dry, hard when broken, and of a fine yellow color throughout. The white candle tallow, when good, is white, brittle, hard, dry, and clean. The best white tallow is brought from Woronesch. As for soap tallow, the more greasy and yellow it is, the better the quality. That fh>ni Si- beria is tha purest, and commonly fetches a higher flic* than tb« other aorts. The exports of toUow j from Peterp'imrg in 1862 amounted to 2,0fi2,101 poods. Formerly the oil and tallow wareliouses were the same, and this occasioned great difficulties in shipping, be- cause all vessels or lighters taking in tallow or oil were obliged to haul down to the ambure, and wait in rotation for their cargoes. The consequence was, that, « hen much business was doing, a vessel was often de- tained for several weeks at the ambare before she could get her cargo on board. Now the tallow and oil ware- houses are separated, and every article has its own place, \v hen a shipment of tallow is made, the agent is furnished by the selector (bracker) with a sample from each cask. Captains, in order to obtain more freight, usually load some casks of tallow upon deck ; but it is more for the interest of the owner to avoid this, if possible, because the tallow loses, through the ' 'lieat of the sun, considerably, both in weight and qual- ity. One hundred and twenty ])Ood8 of tallow, gross weight, make a Petersburg last, and 63 poods a ton. The value of the tallow exported fron- Russia is said by M, Tegoborski to amount, at an average, to about 8i871,000 roubles, or about $15,500,000. ExpoBTS op nouKSTio Tali.ow fhom tub Unitku States DVBINO THE YKAB E-NDINQ JUNE 30, l^ST. Whither «»porleJ. Danish Woat Indira Hamburg Uutch West Indies , Dutch (rtiiana Kni!l»'.d Malta Canada Otlvr llritish North Am. I'osBuaslODS Brltliih West InditM DrltlRh Honduras nritlfih Guiana France on tlio Atlantic French North .\nierlcau rofiaeHiouf Cuba Porto Rico Azores Haytl Mexico Now Granada '. Venezuela ChUl Total. Value. S,T6II 26,B8T 186 14,706 1,778,452 2,7B0 1,456,568 6Ja,110 2,670 2,700 4,B71 4ft,000 .",163 8S5,S16 8,858 1,100 4,556 12,1S2 14,333 207. 087 676,561 6,608,815 $1,068 8,320 65 1,724 208,040 368 148,882 60,878 362 270 624 4.841 882 1115,366 1,010 120 604 1,305 1,736 81,421 60,006 ,')i6.'t2,28« iMFOTtTS of TAI.I.0W ISTO THE UniTEP PTAIES FOB THx. Year EMiimu .)usE 30, 1887. whence (mportgd. Kngland lirlllah West Indies British I'osscsstons in Africa British East Indies -Mexico Bueno Ayros, or Argentine Republic Sanunich Islandii Total Pounda. 21,710 I 7,700 541 32,420 974 16,238 86,965 160,548 $1,721 4"T 69 2, 01 89 1,108 6,1 44 $12,51.7 Tally Trade, the name given to a sj-stem of deal- ing carried on in London and other largo towns, by which shop-keepers furnish certain articles on credit to their customers, the latter agreeing to pay the stip- ulated price bj' certain weekly or monthly installment'-. In London there are about sixty or seventy tally-shops of note, and from 600 to 600 on a smaller scale. They are also spread over the country' to a considerable ex- tent, particularly in the manufacturing districts. Tho customers of the tally-shops are mostly women, con- sisting principally of the wives of laborers, mechar.ics, porters, etc., servant girls, and females of louse char- acter. Few only of the more respectable classes have been infatuated enough to resort to them. Tamarinds (Ger. Tamarinden; Fr. Tamarint; It. and Sp. Tamarindo ; Arab. Umblie ; Hind. Tintiri), tho fruit of the Tamarindua Inr'ica, a tree which grows in tho East and West Indies, in Ara))ia, and Eg}'pt. In the West Indies the pods or fniit, being gathered when ripe, and freed from the shelly fragments, are placed in layers in a cask, and boiling sirup poured over them, till the cask be filled ; the sirup pervades every part quite down to the bottom ; and when cool, the ca.^k is headed for sale. The Ewt ladia tamarinds are darker V«lu« . $1,003 8,320 BP 1,T24 203,9-10 368 14S,88a 00,378 303 270 024 4.S4.I 883 106,806 1,010 130 004 1,305 1,730 81,421 00,006 2, 01 89 1,108 6,1 44 eoloicd and dri»r and ^ < "" TAR "honld be pwierved In cC„^ **'""« "^'"PPer. They in « ''"<>rtl»ke by SIrFiWu ^„1",7" ••*••>• SON'S DUpLatory Thet m ^■^?'"*'» Jars^TaoM- trv C^*''"*'''*- U""*" JuSl XI V^h' *^ ''■«•• '- Introduced into&^;iandiL^'V'''-'"«w«ven^JSitTY*''' ""'«'' '"'P^ved fa fii. ""WoftapM: to flower: fn,™3.f:?™'*'""»it»ometim..l.T'._? Tapestkv, Verv ..,1°.'^ *'"«?— *" GobeV« that it would progper to ftvowbU . ",1^^ ^ '"ft"""! our Southern Statee, and wotiv. "'*''""'' '»'»«'• »' the West Indian amnrt"" if" "'"''» S*""'! but ety dlffe„ ^^^^ from tho'fe,;^ '^ ^ »°>y • vari- it. fruit and the aumber otC'X^' ^ "" '»"» «^ Tamploo, or eanta An. !i « -« me«tion.d;y^ri^.|^^^^^^ Of nnu.!. GoBBLUf tape»try irL-^^^^^zz::^z'^,f.''j'^^7^ manufiicture is , we art. For thr, tan«»«, """""««»« ii a revival of r^o*), an American nW^il^'^^'r' •'(•'• pow^ ropa nient, A»«iei;butpriTc'^^» tB^w^^'"- --.■. ""-"Aooor^fl^oo. Th^.i!;:.?::'/.'^'.''?*"' ft 1» caUed _ over South J-mTs INTO Taotioo fboi. to« I m^ . t* extenslvelv nZ i„ J^ ' «' ""^ *«»y of diMstl™^ 1^;;: m;^?; fe« \il^,'>T'^'"»-^9^^sn^liJ-^^'"^''^'>^- ss^5^^^ byofflcialroturns,tTm mTf I^k"" ""^ P"« ^'". went to the UnitJstetM th'. l^**'"'' ''''" «2,000,000 wriou, drawbacktoth!^', *"'"■=* '»E>«ope. A tween thU port and^he uS^S 'f^^''^ ^ direct rteam convrvances Th- *' '""" "^ of Tampico has ma^Tadvanta^!/*^^"'"" """«»" ta he republic, in coLeq^tS^e'onrL""^ ?""" P"'* Luis Potosi, where jroodg canM Vtoxmdty to San Je« in the charges ofCit).??,.'^ /*'" "' «<> P" oent. S«, Lui, bein/^he^lj'tf ''''"» '""? ^"^ ^ruz. and | the section, of the couStrt "hii ''"°"'P"' P'"™' « with foreim coed. „^ ♦? '""* commerce is supplied Zacatecas, these bein^"hfn„W ' ^' ^.'"?'«'J"«to. a-d the republic. ThVre w.l »'^T''"^ '"'"'"K "tates fa,, .«„ ^ ,- • "«« of English ricXbl^'' '^''"i' """^ '^'^ IW l^h ISta" "■ ^«» quicksilver flaslcs,^5''X^;'?f "8 '" ^-^Pi^" «31 British CM&::; tfregate value of AS 4S9m-, * k°? ""«««' "fan ag- J>" "» fje Atlantic .... 6«^te value of oK„"f^j,;?''^- added to the .|:| | & Zl^S »'i?ii"~»«a of «8,994, 772. ""t^wara cargoes, makes a total Knimifs op AnsBinio .„, . o^Tx««oo„!?H?r,V?L;''S„^*'"' " ™ Pow -^ '"* SMorao Dkobmues 81, 1861 '•'•'I""'- It™. I viiu. of im~i rir^r — - — , lo« of KjTf porta. iosi+rr 01,890 tf0,4S0 fianlsh Wait Indies.. uamburg HremtD , Holland, ' ' Dutch wWiidilM."" Dutch GulMj... :*•••' Dutch l.:aat Indies . "' i'Dgland. ... Scotland.. Glbi-altar. Malta ; Canada. 2r,s 18,7 I American ruiiBela . Mexican I Spanish French Kngllsh Danish Total 1100 baAT^f;J,''^P;:»^»»»''«nningleatherwitati;ei Theweoftanwa.rtL'^ i'"*^ by various nations. Holland by WnZTrnVorT,'"'" ""'""■«' ^«-» was discontinued u™tU.|H,rtJni"« """«*■'"'•'''• " «« brought into EngUn^-'s'^: r.l?/"'- -">! improvements French Guiana . crnl^^irnd^"^™'"'--- Philipphio lalauda' .' Cuba Porto Klco..'" Portugxi .'.■.■;.■ Madeira Cap« de Verd JBiandJ! Azores ... Two Siclliei'.' .■.■.' ,T"f key in Europe! '.'.'. Turkey in iVsta r I'orta in Africa. Hayti ;;; San Domingo..'. Mexico <;cntral itep'nblk "J ." Neur Granada.... Vonesuela Braail f 'hill ""PuWIc ' S^cfn!"^i\"en''^ »' weaving borrowed from thel eSo;:::::;;::""""-"--" ^--nds.-<^,^L^^---jd)toS|).^^^^^ Total, year 1SB6-T. TAR 1794 TAB Tar li an tTtlo of gnat eontintrcial Impoftancs. TIm procew follomd in making It baa Iwen deacribed aa (bllowi by Dr. Clarke i " The sitiutlon moat favor- able to tbe proceaa la in a foreat near to a marah or bog ; baoaoae the roota of the fir, from whlcli tar ia princi- pally extracted, are alwaya moat productive in auch placea. A conical cavity ia then made Izi the groand (generally in the aide of a bank or aloping hill), and the foota of the fir, together with loga and bille'a of the aame, being neatly truaaed In a atack of tbe aama conical ahape, are let into thi* cavity. The whole ia then covered with turf, to prevent the volatile pact* Jrom being diaaipated, which by meana of a heavy wooden mallet, and a wooden atamper, worked eep- arately by two p.en, ia beaten down and rendered aa firm aa posaible alwve the wood. The atack of billets ia then kindled, and a alow combuation of the flr takea place, without flame, as in making charcoal. During this combustion the tar exudes ; and a cast-iron pan being at the bottom of the fUnnel, with a spout which projects through the side of the bank, Iwrrela are placed beneath thia spout to collect the fluid as it comes away. As fast aa ths banela are Tilled tliey are banged and ready for immediate exportation. From thia descrip- tion M will be evident that the mode of obtaining tar is by a kind of distillation per deicemum ; tlie turpen- tine, melted by flra, mixing with tho sap and Juices of tbe fir, while the wood itself, liecoming charred, is con- verted into oharcocl." Tare, an abatement vr dedvction made from the weight of a parcel of goods, on account of the weight of the chest, cask, bag, etc, in which they are contain- ed. Tare ia distinguished into rtal tare, customary tare, and average tare. The first is the actual weight of the package ; tbe second ita supposed weight ac- cordiug to the practice among merchants ; and the third is the medium tare, deduced from weighing a few pack- ages, and taking it as the staadard for the whole. In floine commercial cities tares are generally fixed by custom. The prevailing practice, as to all goods that cut b* unpacked without injury, l)otb at the custom- house and among merabanta, is to ascertain the real tore. Sometimes, howover, the buyer and .seller moke a particular agreemobi about it. Tare, Vetch, or ntoh, a plant ((uta $ativa, Linn.) that is cultivated principally for Its stem and loaves, which are used In tbe feeding of sheep, horses, and cattle; but partly, also, for its seed. Horses thrive better upon tares than upon clover and rye grass ; and cows that are fed upon them give meat milk. The aeed is principally used in the feeding of pigeons And other poultr}-. TsxiO, or Tarlf. First, i< list of certain goods, mer- chandise, etc. ; then a list . duties on imports or ex- ports of such articles. This word, like many others used In commerce. Is derived from the Italian, in w^'ch it is tariffa; this again, like numerous other expres- •ions relating to commerce and navigation, comes from the East. In Persian It is tarif; in Arabian the verb or/'slgnifiea to know, which in the second form Incomes tori/, signifying to nuJce hunnn. The substantive de- rived from the verb therefore signifies Mofi^cad'on. The |>rlnciples of a tariff depend upon the commercial policy •f tbe state by which it is framed; and the details are eoutantly fluctuating with the change of interests, and with the vants of the government or community, or in pursuance of commnrcial treaties with other nations. The British tarilf underwent seven important changes between the years 1772 and 1842 ; viz., in 1787, in 1809, in 1819, in 1826, in 1883, and in 1842. Finally, on 20th June, 1846, the myal assent was given to Sir Robert Peel's noted tariff— a measure which canceled the du- ties on several hundred articles, and pressed upon the eountry the adoption of f^e trade. The able report of L. D. CamplMll, of the House of Bapiresentatlves, 1856, to the Committee of Ways and Mmbs, if a juat aad comprebensive exposition of tbe protective (not prohlbltlva) sjitcm t and as iiueh, and ' as being tbe report upon which our pressiil tarilT wat mainly constructed, we need not apolnglse fnr givinc extended extracts. Tha modarately protective tarilf ia eaaentlal In the early oommerolal and ninnurnrturinif ' stage* of a country. And the fact that tn» trait* may at some fUtnr* time b* advantageous to us does not prove Its present neoesslty. It will be seen that, tboBgh generally assenting t(ialtiin -it duties, yet the proofs and s^4tlatius given prove too much, and prove to the unprajudked reader that dntlu are not alone necessary for rtvanw, but May be neces- sary for pcotactlon. Principle and Poliey of ih* Propantion.—'Th* pro- priety of tb« proposed redaction of the tarilT of duties upon imports la mad* bv tba President a annual me** sage to rest, flrat, upon th*;inneijpe regulated liy th* demand of the government for ita current expenses ; and, wl'ere liimign Impurta are selected by the policy of the nation to Imar tlie chief burden of its support, the tax im|iosed must Im detorm- inpd in amouat by the re(|uirtnMnt« of th* national taeasur}-. Thus fkr it is conceded that th* purpose of revenue alone can justify their Imposltlnni and thus far tho doctrine of tlie message Is in nccurtlance with the sen- timents of tho American people, liut tariffa hnv? other legitimate purposes, and are cuiuiile of other and lair portent usas, whil* kept in strict conformity to the re- quirements of the national treasury. Impost Si/atemt of all Natiuni protective of their pro- ductive Industry, — Ottr own Policy pertittently governed by this Intention, ~The protection of the national In- dustry', by means of duties laid upon fcireign imports, la one of the purpoMs which characterixe tho Impost sys- tems of ail tho govemmonts of thu earth, wlioitn rank entitles them to consideration ai authorities with ua. This policy, since its adoption by the first-class na- tions, has undergone changes corresponding to changes of condition, Imthin Kuropo and America, but the prin- ciple has never been abandoned. The Continent of Europe holds it as firmly a* ever, and Ureat Hritain, by working it to Its utmost capacity of beneficial serv- ice, has thoroughly justified th* thaory. Her expe- rience is Its most perfect demonstration. In the United States the doctrine has its disciples and supporters oa numerous and influential as principles, rightly under- stood, ever secured among an Intelligent and |)^^^mL^^r,!'" "" operation of this act ^huZmTL'T'^'""' "' "'o I The «^''''' "'"''» "I-ot: ^ "'" P"'" ness for any of the purpoZ »h- !""''?''"'' '»» ""At- '-■- '■ ^-'''""* "' 'ho iov.™ . . . •hould answer. The Su^,! • " F^^^'^ "' '^post, in f-ur year, ft^mtZty^^l':""' ^"' 't declined «>3e again in two rear, U) ,"1^ 1""' "• *'*'''">; ne^tyeartothirteenVndaha If nnr.'"^?' """' ">« afterward a eighteen .nUltil' "th^'^ ^^^"^ >■""<> the bualno... „r .•.- '""""• '"e vicissitudes in i- The ^Tenue of th "'"" = ' from the -ale, of %"„„?; 1^!™,^' " *» l'" ""»ea pnJ from mi.cella„c„u" ,o""^'' "^"'r "P°" '"'P-rt'. "";m"< taxation, direct o'r "S;;:'"""" "-«'»« to amounting i™Ihe a"ve^ '"' ^''^^'"^ ^""^ '"Port duties «10 28 per harreirin isVi^ "f """ '» '837 „„, 1836 twe'^ty.fivT'^iiiUr^V „^' ^""^ '" ««• 1" lands were sold; In 1842 leR,.! ""'*'' »f P^Uic Jars' worth. !„' 183C cotton J " ""'"""' »' ''"•- in 1842 at 8-1 centTp^r ^^ '^ t."' '''' ""'' P" •'' - years risen one hundred nnrt ■ . *?'"''' '""' '" :« and the total valu:tTL«e''nT:l""^-f..R»-<'s, „ r -- operate as eaualiv „. -f! 'i""" i** ""posed Union diseriminati:^;" f,»»P«;»^Ie tljroughou^tho or section, or interest " '"" "e"'"" any class, '^- n.Krir„\rnd?oV:^J-'' and limitations of varied rates of duty an I c,,^'^^' f"" •*« """'Je'-t to empt from duty, in "ch "!""'" ""'"« "''all be ex. an promote ho^-ie pSctT"" ", !L^^«" "-' ^ster of the national tretu,;^ ''/nTra""'"^'''"''™""' ? "'« ea' 'trn't't'.'*!" ."-^-"^"^ " " wL'^o? ISiTlii^ „» ¥~ ~TT • Vean. 1824. 1S2S. 1826., 182T. . 1828. . 1829.. 18.90. . 1831.. 1832. , 1833.. 1834. . , ISSfi... 183S. . . issr. . . 1888... 1839... 1840. . . 1841..., Equal to 1843. . . lS43-'44. . . . lS44-'46.... 184(^-'4«. . . . iS46-'4r. . . , 184T-'49.... 1848-' 49. . i84n-'6(>., ■■ 1860-'l T7 105^ 110 ne^ 140^ 132i 18e2-'83.. !?? J^IM :; 2V« iTfiiMorUndT in Tli„u„„j, "84n 1,218 mi '.4S(.( l,nis{ i,5ir 2,329J 8,210J 2,623 f 8,!167M 4,8,wW 14,Wi 24,877 ' «,770 .1,082 7,07«i i I 8,292 1,3061 l,386jj 1,107 < 2,060 2,077 ^ 2,694tl I 2,488J, ' .1,328 j'.. 1,6S» ) 1,860 1 2,382 ' 2,1143 ) 1,007 > 8,471 ' 11,4'I7 ) 2,007,000 2,SOS,000 2,086,000 T,213,000 I Tariff „,1S24, from j„„„s„j3j^ (T«ri(fofl828,fr„„Spp, J jg,^ I I?.c;a'^,",?'3"»«'' 1-1833. Wi ow 20 JL, ' """■'♦■nth ox- I "'"'■"'"" "'"'^•ner Dec. 31, 1637. I Onctenth more after I),c 81, 1889 ! Tariff of 1842, .fte,Auj^ 80, 1842. lTariff„f]S4«,afte,D^ jjg^ TAR 1796 TAR of Ikt kightr and Inwtr Tarifft of Slendineu of the Jurnuir : Untteaai- Producfivmui thirty-Jfi'e Yrnrj. Steadituu oftkefu neu ojftke latler. — Tlia income from customa, under the same UrKT, rose from thlrtran millions in 1821, to Mv- •nteen and ■ httirmUliona in 1822. Under tlie tariff of 1824, from 182fi to 1828, it roM from twenty to twenty- tliree and a quarter mllliona ; under that of 1(^28, ftam 1829 to 1832, It rone gradually from twenty-two and a half to twenty-eight and a half roilllons. Under the Compromise Act of 18S8, which reduced the duties un- der Mie act of 1832, by biennially deducting one-tonth of the excess over 20 per cent., from and after the 81st of December, 1833, until the 81st of December, 1641, when one half of the remaining excess was struck off, and on the 80th of June, 1842, the other half thereof, the revenue fVom tba customs rose In the- first three years of its operation from sixteen to twenty-three and a half mllliona ; In the next year, 1837, aunli to eleven mllliona — falling twelve and a half millions In one year — and rose again h. 1839 to twenty-three mill- Ions, another difference of i, .t clve millions in two years. In 1840 it ran down nine artd a half millions, and In two years more rose four and a half millions. The first year of the operation of the tarilTof 1842, the customs amounted to no more than sixteen mill- ions ; the three following years it stood very steadily at twenty-six, twenty-seven and a half, and twenty- six and a half millions, respectively. In the years imS-'il, during seven months of which the present tariff waa in operation, the customs fell two and a half millions ; in the following year of famine in Europe they rose eight millions ; In the year 1848-'49 they declined three and a half millions, and In the sue- ceeiling year Increased eleven and a quarter millinns. In the year 1850-'51 they rose again nine and a half millions above the preceding year ; In 1851-'62 they decline(9 one and three-quarter millions; In 1862-'53 they rose 01^ ">',i and three-quarter millions ; inl853-'54 they again increased five millions ; and in 1854-'66 fell ele ve i millions, Fluctuationt of the Customt, and Tmieney to Exceu under the tame lotc-duly Tariff. — In this lummary it will be perceived that within the last nini j-ears the revenue from customs has five times varied from the amounts yielded in the years immediately preceding these several changes, from eight to eleven millions of dollars'. During these nine years the present tariff was in operation, and an unvarying rate of duties was charged upon the imports. Its changes of productive- ness to the revenue havu been changes of increase. In- deed, but not in any balancing proportion to the natu- rally increasing expenditure of a growing population ; for we find by statement No. 23, of the Secretar)''s report, that the consumption of foreign imports, per capita, rone in tlie first four years of the period from #G UO to l|ilO ; and the surplus in the treasury after all ordinary expenditures, and the payment of over forty millions of the public debt besides, is conclusive of this point. Your committee have not in these statements con- sidered the causes of the great disparity of the reve- nues yielded to the treasury by the different rates of duty levied upon foreigp Imports. They have been looking simply to the question how far, and to what effect, impost percentages of themselves affect the rerenne. For the proposition presented for their con- sideration by tlie President and Secretary embraces no more, either of facta or principles, than the naked assumption tli.it the i-eduction of the percentage of itself must work a reduction of the revenue. " Low IMiet field the larger Revenue." The Doe- trine and JCiperience of the Past. — That this doctrine is not in accordance with the facts of a large and varied ei(|)erience, covering and embracing every variety of conditions which can affect the question, is abundantly manifested by tlic statistics presented. Indeed the di- rectly opposite doctrine has Iwen held by the advo- eates of low dutlei In all controvendea which the maU let has hitlierto undergone. In IHtfi, (lending the dis- cussion which substituted the present reduced tariff for the higher one of 1842, It was argued by the Se(^re- tarj' of the Treasury, In his report of that year, that the larger revenue la produced by the lower rates of duty. lie says, " The revenue from ad valorem dutlei last year exceeded that realized from specillc duties, although the average of the ad valorem duties was only 23'67 per cent., and tlie average of the specific duties 41-30, presenting another strong proof that lower du- ties increase the revenue," And again, he says, " While it Is impossible to adopt any lu'ritontal scale of duties, or even any arbitrary maximum, experience provea that, as a general rule, 20 per cent, ad vahrvx will yield the largest revenue." Xbis jirinciple, which is a sound one, does not apply to either of the extremes of impost rates, fur the ono may be carried up to the point which is prohlliitory, or near to It, and the other down to that which would be aa nearly nugutor}', and so both extremes may be made to operate alike upon tlie treasur}- ; but it is true with- in a comparatively moderate range of difierence — that is, within any such difference of percentage as any advocate of reduction would now undertake to recom- mend. The facts which our financial historj' offers In sup- port of this doctrine are, In general, as conclusive aa these following, which your committee select from a multitude for its proof. Under the turlft' of 1842 the average duties upon protected articles waa something above 40 per cent. ; the average monthly receipts from customs under that act amounted to $1,991,267. Under the tariff of 1846, with tU average duties below 80 per cent., the monthly receipts during the first two years of its operation reached the sum of $i2, 575,207, Mr. M'alker, In his report, December 11, 1848, page 3, say a: "As the high duties under the act of 1842 were rapidly substituting the domestic articles, and excluding the foreign rival, the revenue must have declined. From this disastrous condition we have been saved by the tariff of 1846, yielding from reduced taXe!> an average excess, thus far, of more than seven mill- ions of dollars over the average receipts from the tur-, iri'ofl842." Twice under the operation of the Compromise Act, once after the second deduction was made u,)an the rates of the act qf 1832, and once after the third deduce tion, the revenue from customs rose to the annual av- erage of the high tariff of 1828. And in the year 1642, when its lowest rates were nearly touched, and the level 20 per cent, waa nearly its maximum, the cus- toms stood higher than in five of the previous years of' its operation, and above the average of the eight pre- ceding 3'cars. The average annual amount of the customs yielded by the tariff of 1824 was twenty-one and a half mill- ions ; of the tariff of 1828, was twenty-four and a fourth millions. In a period of twenty-two years, rising five millions, or 23 per cent. The average of the first four }-ear8 of the tariffof 1840 was thirty-three and a fourth millions — 25 per cent, in four years ; the average of its second four years was fifty-four and three-fourths mill- ions ; rising in eight years twenty-seven and a half millions per annum, or 133 per cent. The average annual consumption of foreign imparts per capita under the tariffof 1824 amounted to $5 20 ; under the tariffof 1828, i& 21 ; under that of 1842, to $5 20; while under the lower tariff of 1846, during the four years of its operation previous to the influx of the California gold, the consumption rose to $6 50 per capita of the population, and under the verj- low aver- ago duties of the whole period of the compromise the consumption stood at $7 28. These facta show how much more productive of mvenue the lower tariffs rates are than those which, -'rn' 1 i i.ii,ii;>'irffii:iili-Alijii. i.'ftrv'f-^ffomt ■ TAB 1797 »r of le„enlng It? pro.i,«i * ''"'^«'» '"><« custom. t«-. it ., thuf n.j:ztvv'^ ^r- -p^"" - clu'lve experience, that « „«« Z, ''!/''•=" "' » con- ofduty can not l» relied un^' 7"."""°" °'">e rate, timt the policy ha. Xlv.T ',.■""' "" ""o contrar! and tbi, Z nfan "ote ^oiT "^ ""•«•"• 'ff'S' A reduction of ,l„.i.. ._,.""?'"• TAB «.an,of.^^X:;trv?„r:.^--.^-- -A. .11^^^^^^^^^^^^ *i , V *ne coi "in i«t Januari-. I8ju " ., ., '"""' "^« effect «"• .t /«/! ind in th. year iZ' .T.""" '" ">• |.r.cedln« * tt balance In ih, .„." , "• y»«» '■y diminishing the awdl^j! ''P** ""■• """"ey >. . ke? n?, ^'^ '"""""«• To di. J.„ 'J!!"'^ »' fort v-.lx rate of i„ten,.1 to ouf^w^^^^'" ■ ?"" •"""•"«"■>« it.' ^1' °' Sr''"", "-""y h. a*^ f^'^S'',""'"^^' '" ' porter obtain, command of thl. '"'""'• T*" im- Eh L"'""* "•« <"«po'lt of t v^ ","1' "»«• *■• p^d.!""""'/'"' '■--Ctir„'L''c''rr' \V'' «- ^^'Jtt[^'- . ^'" -oh\e"ndlr :- f^^-i'"""* prod ction of such article, it ..,^!^ "ippled In the »"pplied by importation a,mlddrir ""'"""^>' '» ' ' .„ .k ^ ""I'onation, and adrtu t.,.7 """'"^/ «o i ) to the cn,toma as auch ,upplv T' •■ ? '»""'<''' ""re «nd, therefore, .o Ion» «gYh. 5""" ■''r»«d wUI yl.M . orpurchasl^ff ;uchKe^„„r^ ' " "" "«»"' »o replacing the home^r^ucT th« '' , ' """K" ff°«f the others, the difficulty of or, und products of tha country stood ut hiilf tlio nuirket value of six years before. Kot an intcrett of the country on which Its national or individuul welfare depended, but hud In that brief period undergone convulsions unparalleled since similar causes had resulted in the great business catastrophe of 1820-'-21. Such is the history of the policy which ul)andoned the revenues of tho government, and the industrial in- terests of the countr}', to the operation of causes not within its control. Uri'lut Etpantion of Bank Circulation inieparable from arceuiv* Jmporti of foreign Merchandite. — It has been customary with the advocates of low turilT duties to charge the inflation of prices, the rage of speculution, uud the resulting revulsions in the business prosperity of the countr}', to excessive issues of bunk paper. The fact that such overissues always concur with inordinute rise of prices Is remarkable indeed, and of- fers a plausible explanation of tlu mischief; but tho other fuct, of the invariable concurrence of greatly en- hanced prices and excessive bank issues with tho reign of low tariffs, connect these phenomena in our finnnciul history in a category of relations which very clearly shows that they are In their nature insopurnble. If thu be so, the government, which has tho direct con- trol of one of these agencies in tho mischief, bus an in- direct but al>Bulute control over tho others, and should exert it. Fixed liatio of Bank luurt to foreign Importt. — In 1880 tho bunk circulation was estimated by Mr. Galla- tin at sixty-one millions ; in April, 18il4, the Secretary of the Treasur}', Mr, Taney, estimated the circulation at eighty millions. In the four years, 1880, 1831, 1832, an4 1833, which immediately preceded the first reduction under the Compromise Act, the imports cou- TAR 17M TAR Min«4 •««»[•««« «" twn hwdrtd M|wcul«> XUm» liiilii««d by IIm r*dUG«d tarlflf T*ry *xMtl}r bid- •tttwil, III M»r, IKII7, lh« buhliii, ullh on* conMnt all over III* llllliiM, niiiipiitKlMl ofwcl* iwyment*, and did nut MrtiMMviltly ur nirciituull » rMuine till th* iiiriiii; of WHt Ihfll tlinlr (ilriiiilatton hid fiillen to elKlity-thr*« mlUimiD ) iDir did It riM hiKher tlum «i|{hty-nlD« nilU- kill* Nililln tliirliiii Iha nperiitlon of the tariff of ItM'i. Nilli'« lim yxiir IIUO, th* Inoreii— nnd decreau of biHik i^riiMlntliiH ht4d no exnrt n lutliitoth* uveral lniitaHKtM Mild rat** of IlirroaHn and diminution of Im- port* fur •'iilhiiiillilloll Air •ai'li ypar of the wholii period, M ilit^iilv** II illrsi't and un<|ueBtlonuble connection be- twil«il tllntili Th* )itliul«r iit«t*mmt appenilod to thU report ex- lillilla tliH I'litiKtHni'.r iif thin connxi tlun for every ilnglo jfUtt iilmtt iltlimnUI hlaturv tlnce 18811, and for periods of y»lir* biifiir* ami uliii'p. In a riitlo to nearly mathe- nwlltMl that lh«r* leem* no dniilit of the law which ml** Ilia Mlllijfi't, a* tiler* la none of the facts which Mrv* til lUitHiniitrata II, ll will Im !<««<», by reference to the tabular itate- RHiHliI lif Ihl* r«p(irt, how little (Hiwer other cause*, wlilull wara tllliliiillit»lly nctlve In modlfylni; the re- *ultii, liwl It) illatiirli the workliiK of that one which is liar* ai>KUIll«iil In !« Ilin principal. The expansions •lUt omilrHi'tliiim nt linnk tiredltn and issues are certain- ly iiilliiKiii'ail by many other causes, but the fact that tluty Imva iii'i'lirrail ilurlnK the last forty years, year hy ¥mt, III Nil lliyarlabiii relation to llm Huctuatlons In III* NIlliiMliI of nlir foreign lni|iorts, )((» < fur to estab- lull Ilia till* I ibiit the variations In our imports rule the Mili'tlliitliilis III )iur paper cum yi and this law is, ffloreiivtir, s.— That low liirllf iliilles are resfionslble for the excess of ^raltfll iiii|ii>nHtliili*-tlinl these augmented Imports in- dlWfi t.»n Industry from the rlvalrj- of fonign tiiinilllMitltia* uf the same kind, is a proportion- al* anlmiliii>inatlt iit Slloh imtiorts, and a corresponding ifleraaae ut Ilia ravenim tlom uustoms, which either ap- ftowU, «i|tml, ur uhihh] lha revenue from customs of disappoint any *xp*ctaUon of a rMluclInn of th* oH* torn* in proportion to ih* abat*m*nt of the rat**. 'i. Th* Incraaa* of imports cons«qiMnt upon a nia> Hon of diitle* below the |iolnt of adequate proteoUoa driv** manufacturing capital and labor Into aKricullur* and trail*, ami by thi* mean* vaatly Increases Ih* r«T*> nuea from the sale of the public lands and from foielga conmierce, and thus make* up all daflclmcy In tb« customs, and i;reatly ov*r|i*sa** K, and so tends to a plethur>i ill tlio iraaaury, Uiitaad of Umlting Its Inoont and reatruiniiig it* ovartlow. 8. '1 h* indirect effects of ths •am* policy is lo •»■ haust th* sources of national and ina'-hlual pMS|i«rlly, and by Its reaction to bankrupt the treasury' and pro*- trat* th* enterpris* of the country, leaving d*l>t, pulv lie and privaU, to punish th* cxtravoguuc* which It luduo*d and Indulged. Your committee, therefor*, for reasons cogent aa these, nnd many othe/s which depend upon thrse, but are Irreleva it to this issue of mere national flnance, would rarnl^tly discourage any nieasur* which, (ltb*r In principle or In details, aim* at relieving the treasury of its present and prospective surfilu* l>y a reduction of the present ratea of lm|K)st duties below the |iolnt which any liranch of our home industry requires for its security and prosperity. To guard against any lioKvllile misconstruction, it must b« observed that by the frequent allusion* of this report to axcesstv* Inw IMirtationa of foreign goods, and th* Inliuencts drawn I'ri.in such excess of iiii|iortation, the apparent " bal. . mice of trade" against the t'nitcd .States, which the statements of the Treasury Department exhibit for any single year, or for any series or grouiis of years, is not taken, or ir'.eiided to any etftct or purpose fur whioh the dlffennce in official 'alue between our Imports and export* has been used by dther party to the contro- v*r«y. The total value or valuatloi. of oar Imports, as given by the department statements, irom the beginning of the government to the UOth June, K'QS, amounts to 6988 milliuns of lUiUars ; the ex|X)rts for t^e same period of domehtic and foreign merchandise and specie, to 6170 millions — a difference of 818 millions. No conclusions whatever are drawn, either as to ef- fect or amount of effect, from the data whkh oui Inter- national account current thus offers, or seems to atTc. 'ihe discussion which this point would awaken baa been avoided as wholly unnecessary to thn argument of this report, and possii'ly imonclualve and uncertain fur any pur]iose, hut althoii^ 'i the enonnous apparent balance against us in the acco-uiit of our foreign trad* be not leliable for the actiual difference in our ex- changes with the rest of the world, as it probably la not, yet the amoimt of the national, Stata, municipal, railroad, bank, and other corporatimi tocka and bonda held by foreigners, should b« received us a subsisting balance of debt, resulting from a past balance of tradi?, which it must represent. J'^ecli of the preietU Tariff upon Wool^^ffrotcen, . ifanvfaclurer; and upon the Hevenue. — The tariff of 1846 unhappily raised the duty on all imported wools to 30 per cent., while it reduced thu dutv on imported flannels and blankets to 25 and 20 per cent., and on Ihe coarser woolen fabrics to 25 ))er cent, Now these low-priced manufactures of wool being the chief in quantity and value of which wo were then capable, the business was prostrated by the premium which that act in effect offered to the foreign manufac- turer ; and the nominal protection of the wool-growtr resulted in the ruin of his business, as In that of Iha cloth-maker. The home market was destroyed for Iha farmer; in the foreign be could not compete, and tb« ttocks were sent to the slaughter, because the woolen factories had been sold at auction or converted to oth«t services. The effects of this policy on the treasnty are seen in the fact that twenty-two milUons of th* TAR 1800 TAR MrplM In lh« InaMrjr, M«iiaiuUt*d in th« y»n 18M, 18M, Mwl IHftA, h*T« emiM flnm eurtomi upon wooUni. In 1H44 wnolnu ]rlH>nilon*d ; ■ml whllo *ll th« Intcranti d«p«iil(nt ■pnn it h>T« twcn iurillMil, tha nivanaa hu haan In- (Utcit at laMt four mllliont par annnm daring tha iMt four yaan liayoml what It wniiM hava racalvad If tha policy of tha ((nvcrnmant hail haan an fiiandly to it ai it haa (Man to tha cotton manufacturar ; a atriking IW loftratlon of tba law that tha cartatn rotthod of limit- ing tha amount of taxaa li hr limiting tha Hnionnt of importa, liy dutlaa adaqiiata to guarding tha homa-mnilr Mmmodity agalnnt «xtlnguliihniant liy tha fiiralgn. t!T*miili(m of Ike tuarter tmil finer Wooltjrom Duly. —Your cummlttaa, looking »l might at thn queatioii nt tlia ravaniia, tharafnra, reconimenil you to axcmpl ^11 wnola of thoaa qualitlen not ganarally grown in thix conntrj-, coating laaa than Aftaan and mora than fifty eanta par pound at tha port of antry in th« ITnitad fltataa, from duty, retaining tha axbting tariff rato upon tha intarmadlata qualltiaa, and at tha aama time to raiia tha dutlaa upon all woolan manufactorea to tha point of adaquata protactlon. Tha racommandation to fix tha duty upon all iuch woola aa our farmara now produce, or can eaaiiy pro- duca, at 80 per cant., and to ralM the dutlaa npon all woolan falirics Into whoae manufacture auch wool en- tara, la made for tha purpoaa of opening a market at home for the raw material which it can not find abroad, ■ad diminiabing the cnttoma flowing into the treaaury ftom woolen Importa to thu extent which auch enhanced domaatic production will replace them. Magnilmhi of the Woolen Interett. — Special eonald- •ration to thia intereat ia here given becanaa of ita magnitude, which may be estimated hy the fact that, both in value of the Importa and the amount of duty jrleldad to the treaaur}', woolen manufacturea have bean aqnal to thoaa of Iron, greater than cottona, and nest in importance to allka, during the laat tan yeara of our financial hiator}'. The Secretary of the Treaaury, noticing tha great progreaa made in the manufacture and production of iron elnco the year IfMO, atatea the fuct that the Amer- ican production in the year 1R50 wan (>60,48B,656, and tha foreign Import of the aame year only $I6,388,14fi, ■nd aaya :" The conclnaion ia inevitable, that the pro- duction and manuficture of iron in the United Statea within a ver}' abort period of yeara will exclude the foreign production and manufacture." Of cotton he Mya : " That already the American manufacture ia in poueaalon of the home market aa to all coarser fabrics, and beginning suoeaaaAUly the manufaeture of the finer Ibbrica." These are the good parts of • policy of protection so moderate that without the help of a number of lnd»- pendent causes, co-operating with the imposed duties, •Ten these branches of the iron and cotton manufac- ture, to which the Secretary'a report Justly applies, would not have been austained in the past, or given ■nch flattering promises for the future. The protec- tion extandatla cottona nearly 9H,000,0()0| In lh« diia caa« mora than doubling our danandance upon foreign proa dit'tlnn, and In tha other radaeing It, In affect, 17 |)ar el. Mow wa ara Just aa capable of growing wool and mannfkctaring it aa wa ara of tha eorras|iondln( oatlos production and manufketnre. Tha territory of tha United Statea, adapted to wool-growing, la as large an4 aa (kvorable aa all Europe poaaassra ami ilavotea to th< pnrposa i and If thoaa qualltiaa of the article which w* do not or can not proAtahly cnltlvula were anamptad from duty, and ao affbrdad equally cheap to our own aa to the foraign manufacturer, there la no natural eanaa In cxiatenca to prevent the imrae atlng market for our fkmiara to an almoat unllmltad extent. There are pnrtlima of the I'nltnd Htiitaa in which tha flneat uiid IxiHt wool of the world ban already been grown ; and it ia poaailile that this might In tint* be brought up to supply our entire demand for auch first quality of staple; liut it ia certain that all tha qualitiea between th« finest and the couraaat could ha •upplivd quite up to the demand of tha market within Ave yeara ftam tha aatabllahment of an encouraging policy i and C'ongresa ia imperatively called up/ Ihe ihrtt gnatrrt Uninehtt nf A merietm Induitry. — As the question now stanils, more- over, let It not lie overlooked that, If tha manufacture ahali be relieved of all weight which tha dutlaa upon all qnallties of wool Impose on It, by placing them In the (Vee list, thn wool-growing interasta of the country may be seriously injured. If the manufacture la pro- tected, as it must lie by a duty of 80 per cent., tha agriculturists will be taxed that much upon all tha woolens they must use, while their own intenata in the production of the fabrics are destroyed i and if woolana shall not l>e thus protected, then manufacturar and farmer are. both overwhelm^, and the country la deprived of all shan in one of the thraa graataat branchea of human industry. The consumption of woolens is at least equal In value to that of cottons In the United Btates, and to anrrender their production and manufacture todestnuv tion ia 80 unwise that it ia not to lie supposed jiosailila to an Intelligent people. Let a homo market for all the wool that can be profitably produced in this oonn- ti^ be created by a change in the present tariff which will exempt the coaraeat and finest qualities ttom duty, raise the duties on flannels, blankets, anil those fabriea which require the middling qualitiea of wool which tha United States can supply abundantly, and farmer and manufacturer will lie restored to that pro«|ierity of which they have been deprived, and the revenues will b« reduced by the diminution of importa effected by the home supply, and all the objecta of a Just and wlsa legislation will be equally met. Reduction of the Jlevemie iy Protection of the Woolen Manufacturei. — The customs have risen on woolens in eleven yeara from $8,818,496 to (6,088,167, while thoaa on cottons have fallen from $4,860,781 to t,1,82B,VU4. Here we have a ratio of reduction in the revenue, from this source, which under parallel circumstances would, by its direct operation, reduce the annual surplus of the treasury at leort four niillions. Add this probable reduction to tha Secretary's esti- mate of the diminution promised by his proposed A-ea list, and about nine millions of diminution in the an- nual revenue are fairly provided for — Ave milliona im- mediately, and four milUoBa Just as aoon aa factories can be built, or those which have been converted fhim woolen to other manufkctnraa can be restored | and sheep, which by natural increase more than double their number every year, can b« rwmd to supply tba denandt In V»l,,8 ivB J :.„; ,'?""'f|'cture, are greatly larger .. ^f u'""""" "^ "'« most « kf,''* '"*'- ""cnling MmptUm l,v ?^i-^ ?"" *•">'« of wool thT,: *" ' '' '"'"''«'• '» the charaot^; ^"i'' """"ority ; and it >^»taka UC)"^ ** '"AwyW <*« />-, /.., "?' wnstimUon. but their .,?i.T ''**''*""' '" ^^ polit- TAR 1802 TAR Depandanee upon a foreign people for • market, either for agrioulturid or mecbanioal product!, ia industrial vaia^age. England has made herself tlie worlc-shop of the world hy a vicioualy exaggerated system of mannfactnring i and she depends day liy day upon the world's unnat- ural submission to her system for her prosperity. Turkey abandoned the guardianship of her pros- perity to foreign dominion, and has sunk from the rank of a flrst-rate power in the earth to the rerj verg* of national ruin. Her internal trade is wholly in the bands of foreign huciuters, as her national integrity is under the guardianship of foreign sovereigns. A people impoverished by a system of the lowest and least remunerative industry, and degraded in ciiaracter and spirit by its necessary ignorance and feebleness. Is inevitably at the mercy of its superiors in these re- spects. The Americin people, of the same lineage, equal skill and enterprise, superior inventive genius, and holding a better territory by all the difference of its extent and variety of climate, soil, and commercial re- lations, as compared with Western Europe, can not possibly be held to inferior and subordinate industrial •vocations. The necessary command of our welfare, the current disposition of our own atfairs, imperatively demand that we sb.tll guard ourselves against all injurious for- eign agencies and influences, by a settled system of self-defense. Home andfortigft Market for Provuiotu and Bread- tti{ff's, — The home market for all our products now is at twenty-seven hundred and fifty millions to two hundred and fifty millions ; but the corresponding two hundred and fifty millions of imports, for which we ex- change our surplus, has the power to disturb and dis- tract our currency, domestic exchanges, and domestic indnstr}-, to an extent which puts the treasur}' of the nation and the prosperity of the people at tin mercy of every fluctuation in the market of London. We must conquer our independence of the money power of Europe, ard we must control our national finances into conformity with our own necessities. This, it is obvious, con be done only by bracing the home market against all disturbing agencies. The mischievous error of preferring a foreign to the home market for bieadstuffs and provisions, and se- ducing the agriculturist into the policy of favoring it, is clearly exposed and convincingly proved by the fol- lowing statement ; The popolatlon of Great nrltain and Ireland Is. . ST,000,000 American broadstulb and pmvUioiu, ahipped to the United Kingdoin Id 1§S6 $15,898,343 Coiuuroptl in per capita 07 ceata. Workmen omploycd la making the Iron Imported from Oreat ilritaiii In ISfiB 60,513 Repreaenliiig In families jf Hvo pereona «ach. . . , S08,5S0 Three hundrud and two tliousaud Ave hundred and ninrtjr |wnonji, at flAy-srvon centa each, worth of provtoli^na and breadatuffli $1T3,4TA Three hundriHl and tho thoiiHand five hundred and ninety Amcrlcima would conflumo of our proTlaiona and breadatntb fifty dollan each. . . tB,12},B0O or within a trifle of the whole amount taken ftom ns by the 27,000,000 of British people for that year. To bring the iron imported in 1855 to the United States tlio equivalent of 70 American and 18 for- eign vessels were entirely supported, counting the cargoes both ways. The tonnage of American vessels average 931 tons each, and they carrj' crews of 24i men each, or in all, Americans, 15C8 ; 18 foreign ves- sels, of 783J tons each, and crews of 21 1 men each, equal to 390 men. Each vessel is estimated to make three trips in the year, carrying six cargoes. The ves- bels represent a capital equal to $50 per ton. Araerlcfin capital employed In carrying this Iron la 66,110 toB«, at tSn J8 SRI BOO BriUab capital in 18,303 tona of ahlpplng, at $50. . 6«o!lB0 Total cajiltal hi the ihipplag $8,(118,660 Parioaa aoBparitd* 803,B» 1,960 T.816 819,866 : .,:■, "I ' BuittABT or ElirLOT¥IMn •• S ■'■*"■■ M«. Englishmen In manufacturing . . 60,618 Knglishmen In shipping 390 Amorloana in ahlpplng 1,568 Total m;5i1 SuMMABT or Capital. Brltlah la production of Iron . ; $T6,000,OAO British In abipplog 666,160 T6,66d,lB0 Americana In ablpphig 8,256,600 Total capital supported $78,!itl4,660 ^uuAiT or BuAnsTTrrrs akd rnovisioNB. Consnmed by the llrllkh people In making Iron, 803,6lt0, at67ocnta $172,410 Inablpplng, 1,960 , at $5 0,760 804,640 $182,226 By Americans In shlpphig, 7815 men, at $60 nil0,760 ToUl $472,976 Had the Iron been made in the United States, 802,690 persons would have consumed, at $50 each, $16,129,500. The result is, that we supported in the importation of foreign iron, in the year ]86&— Foreign capital .'. i $75,660,150 Foreign people, 804,510. • > American capital 3,268,600 American people, TSIS. We gained » market for breadstuffa and provl- alonaof 4,722,976 And ve lost a market for breadatuffs and prorl- slonaof. 15,1211,500 Loss to American farming hitereat, a market for $U,s which will bear distant voyages in search of a market, and all excess which his exports find or make abroad foils back in diminished prices upon the hundred-fuld stock which he sells at homo, sometimes scarcely re|)airing by the whole net value of the exports the diminution of price which they reactively inflict upon the domes- tic market, for his green crops, fruits, and garden stuH'H, his poultry, veal, mutton, and dairj- products, he must have a market at home, or he must abandon their culture for sale. His land may be made to yield him thirty or forty dollars per acre in transportable grain, less tho cost of cultivation, or he may make its product marketable abroad and worth about as much by feeding it to stock ; but he can neither diversify his crops, nor maintain the fertility of his land against such a system of exhaustion ; and, above all, he will not be able to make it yield three times the value of such crops in those vegetables which, with a well-sus- tained home market, is easily efllected. The difference between the market value and the profit of a farm in the Far West, and one of an equal quantity of land adjacent to a large city, illustrates the difference be- tween a market at hand for all possible agricultural products, and a foreign one with an ocean intervening. The farmer's wool crop has l>oen amply protected for nine or ten years, so far as a high tariff duty upon imported wool could do, or promise to do it ; but his home market bat been destroyed by a countervailing TAR 1803 TAB opportunity of a foJi!ln ™' ?" """"'■''Wnrer. Th« I „»> »o bett„ than for rhtt'l'el •''-'-<' or the., fl,?^^^^^^^ p4trfra„^-T.-r'-'--- rf^^^ ty-nino million, of Mhn Uh ? /"" "•«"» «" thir. .h«k "'"". '"'' "o^"*" 8nffe„» ^^ "" ""nloiy of national in■ '"I'l^rteT. ml li 'lVT'^^""">^!)i<> the ex, ' t i''","'" P'«'''''^'» or quirementa of o, /. ^ " ''»» '"'" «'lj"8te market for he, » amount to which it I.,,. X " ?T *"''''° "'«"'» of tho whole coun/™^ ohanges in the movei m «„„..i.. _ ".'"^r ". '"" dimmished th« I nm-i,.. .,^. . .. '* '^oxntrj', and eiven ^,. .1.. i^!, "^ antlTcSXr^t'-rKr 1 " r «'-W ^""^^^"ar W^^^^f r ' f P'« ''"" ""^^^^^^^^ tt 'iti. i but it fa abSL; 'ce L^^T "'"f '" ^»"*^'"' «"'te th«t 't'",,: & "'"r"""^ '"^e UniM TAR 1804 TAR «f diUt, that tliMW ii nothing tnbitantUl raqaired to be norifleod hy an/ jut of tho countr}- for the good of the whole, and very little even in speculative opin- ion to be compromised to elTect an agreement. The people may be agitated and divided npon oon- ititutional, moial, and rellgiona qaeatioM, and their &onnion and MtUement will have proportionate ef- flBCt upon the general harmonjr, bat the measures which cany with them a general prosperity will hereafter, as heretofore, bear them through every strift, and secure the generil welfare. The prosperity ofnavlgation, foreign, coastwise, and Internal, are necessarily so directly dependent upon the productiveness and wealth of the agricultural and manufkcturing business of the nation, that the sim- plest definition of its functions contains the proof of our ptopoaition. It is the common carrier of all ex- changes. Its business is proportioned to, as it is de- pendent upon, production, and must grow with all growth, and decline with all diminution of the prod- ucts demanding its agency. Xdalumt o/tMe Trailer and the Laborer, and the Com- ptntationi of a general Progrtu for all C'Jkanget. — A lound political policy looks to a constant diminution of the {Hoportionata number of intermediates between the producer and consumer. All the modem improvements In the methods and instruments of commerce tend to the accomplishment of this great aim. Time, distance, and cost of trans- portation are in rapid progress of abridgment, and middlemen are, in corresponding ratio, elbainated by the process. Yet all these movements toward a bet- ter and director relation between men whose recipro- cating industries require improved conditions of inter- eonrse is found to work as well for all the d^'i'io "\t as for the principal functionaries In the worl/. j '.-.- uarce. Stsam has been largely substituted for ^ i >r \a and brute power on the great thoroughfares ft trade and travel, but horses have increased in number and value in direct proportion to the growth of the agency which threatened to deteriorate them. Wages and de- mand for human labor have, in like manner, risen un- der the auspices of the machinery that now does so much of tlie work which formerly belonged to them. All the natural labor in the nation bears but a small proportion to the artificial, which has so largely re- placed it in production and transportation ; yet that aatnral labor was never so AiUy employed nor' so well rewarded as now; and the same law holds for every business function of society, and every species of em- ploj-ment which has any legitimate pUce or use In human life. STATmiwT sBowrao nn Cbaxois that nAva TAKn flacb in oca TABirr i'OLior simob toi FoaMATioH or Toa Ooh- mrcTioH, via. i lT»....July4, ITDO Anguit 10, 1T91.... March «, im. ...Mayl, Qeneral 1TS4. . . .Jane 0^ gpeclal " " T, General . Januarr 19, General .March 8, Oeneral . Jnlx 8, Special Mavl», Special t^M. . . .March 9«, IT, Bpedal 1813. . . .Jnly 1, Special . Joljr W, Special .FebroarjrS, Special .April 10, SpecUl .March S, Spwtal • Majr M, aeneral .Max 19, Oenoral 1830.... May 10, Special ISil. . . .July IS, SpecUl 18SS.... March S, Special lS4t — Saptember 11, Oeneral 1M3. . . . August 80, Oeneral 18M. . . ..Tnly SO, General .March 19, Special .AufUit 11, Special .January 26, Special .March t, Oeneral Chanultr «f Chaaff*. Flnt Tariff adopted. Oeneral change. Oeneral " '■■-h'< 1T95. n»T. jsnol 181S. 181«. 1818. Ut«. 18M. 1818. 1MB. vm. ..■ ) ..,u'i/> f;,i A.-.iilM, a-'-.A; J. «.. • 'H. ,--,»cU1. Jul} ' L ucneral. March 1, Comp'ie. .4! (1- .i.M: i.^- Year 1824.— The tariff change of this year created considerable discussion and feeling. The duties col- lected that year were ^17,878,000, with a population of 12,000,000, or «1 60 to each individual. 1828. — The general change this year was accom- panied by a light increase of duties ; viz., #22,681,000. 1682. — ^Another general change took place, followed by a rapid increase of duties after 1834, viz. : Vun. DuUm. 1888 $19,081,000 ' 1884 16,114,000 $1 10 per head. :^ 188S 19,891,0M) , 1888 18,409,009 $1 60 per head. The collapse of 1887 led to a reaction, and the duties diminished for 1837-'88, showing as follows : VeAn. DutiM. 18W $13,4»9,000 '• 1841 14,4ST,00« * > 1841 18,lK7,n0O Population, 1840 17,06U,0«0 Since the latter date the duties have increased firom (1 per head to about #2 60 per head, viz. : Yaui. DutiM. 18ST $11,109,000 1888 1«,1G8,000 1839 18,181,000 Voan. DnttM. 194«-'4T $13,747,600 1847-' 48 81,757,000 lata-'*'} 18,846,000 1849-'S0 39,668,000 1860-'61 49,017,000 Yeftrt. Ptillaf. 18B1-'B3 $47,389,000 18fil-'B3 03,981,000 1868-'B4 64,114,000 mV4-'65 68,016,000 i865-'66 64,022,000 Since the year 1789, the aggregate revenue from all Bonrces has been f 1,886,740,(^4, viz. : From customs $1,817,161,699 From pabllo lands 164,068,866 ..< From mbcellaneon* 896,619,636 total returns $1,830,740,084 Total dlsbunements 1,837,711,046 for a period of sixty-eight yean ; viz., fh>m March 4, 1789, to June 80, 1866. By the ConsMtotion of the United States it is pro- vided that " no State shall, without the consent of Con- gress, lay any Impost or dutleB on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws ; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of Congress." The foUovring statement has been fkimished showing the changes from one rate of duty to another, as made by the tariff act of the year 1857, when applied to the importations of the year ending SOth June, 1866 : V>Id<. Rtle, Act of 1843. RAta, Act «f >W1. '! $4,661 from 40 per cent to 16 per cent. 16,181 ti 80' 1» to 16 177,810 ti 40 t4 to 8 821,869 It 80 t( to 8 11,663 U 26 to S 440,013 4t 10 tl to 8 697,1119 ti IS to 8 163,276 It 96 tt to 4 1,205,860 tt 10 11 to 4 170,170 '* 16 II to 4 8,3^6,313 t* 10 it to 4 1,666,980 It 80 14 Free. 70,146 tt 15 tl 163,719 (1 20 II 1,646,716 tl 16 190,778 It 10 It 6,019,471 tt 6 11 The loas of reTcnno by additions to tbo free Hat la $1,14B,«18M LoM of revenue by transfers to Schedule II, or 4percent. 776,6.16 67 Lou of roToaue by tranafera to Schedule 0, or 8 percent 263,247 41 Losa J revenue by tranafera to Schedule E, or 16 per cent 4,!;ll 80 Subjoined is a statement exhibiting the revenue ^ which the importations into the United States, in the year ending 30th June, 1866, would produce under the tariff act of 1857:* * Thia Includra an approximation to all the changea mado by the new tariff, cjcccpt bleached, printed, painuul, and dyed msnufftrtufpaof cotton, nnd of dclAinc* tninsfiTred from sched- ule D to t: (or 16 tti 24 per cent.), and of japanuud leather or akina, tranaferred fhim Hchedula V. to I) (nr Ifl to 19). These changef, raUIng frum a lower to a higher achedulc, would In- crease the aggregate tibuve given equal to tho dlfltrenoe made by the transfer, and In proportion to the amount of auch Im- portatlonH, which are not returned In such a manner as to be acparatud from other sloillar gooda. TAB 180S TAB |der the |nd dyed 1 spht^d- lathpr or These (ould in- i made Luch Iw- Ih toba Sehadiil*. VaIim of Import*. RftU of Duty. AiDMnt of DuUm. A $4,0(ll,6T5 BO per cent. $1,20(1,472 60 B 80 " 2,6(18,666 40 C 04,ir)»,Mt 24 " S2,5'J8,21',P 76 D 11,074,205 19 " 13,604,110 35 E 85,288,S»T 16 " 5,'M8,334 66 F 6,902,847 12 41 707,081 24 O 6,160,422 8 " 492,833 76 U Total.. 3,663,06:) 4 " 942,122 00 .f24S,T91,9^8 $47,336,830 66 Britiih Tariff.— The following «re acme of the most important regulations of the British tariff: Overpayments of duty made in error may be re- turned, if claimed within six years after date. In cose of dispute as to the proper rate of duty, the Importer to deposit the amount of duty demanded, and such deposit shall be deemed the proper duty payable, unless an action be brought or commenced within three months. In the event of such action being determ- ined against the revenue, fUU indemnity to be made to the importer. The Board of Customs may remit or mitigate penal- ties faicurred through inadvertence, or non-compliance with existing regulations. The duties on the following goods must be paid on the first importation, and such goods shall not be ware- housed for home consumption or exportation: viz., com, grain, meal, and flour, and wood goods from Brit- ish possessions. Diamonds, bullion, lobsters, and iWsh flsh of Brit- ish taking, may be landed witliout report or entry ; no other goods, can be unshipped or lauded, except with the authority of an officer of the customs. Where ad valorem goods shall have been detained •s undervalued, the officers shall give a written notice of such detention to the person entering the same, and of the value thereof as estimated by them. If such goods be retained for the use of the crown, the value entered with an addition of 5 per cent., and the duties already paid on such entr}', to be paid to the owner. Goods not entered, or landed within fourteen days after the arrival of the ship, may be conveyed to the queen's warehouse ; &nd if the duties and charges due upon such goods be not paid within three months, they may be sold, and the overplus, if any, paid to the pro- prietor. Bonded goods to l)e cleared within five }-ear8, unless the proprietor desire to re-warehouse them, in which case they shall be examined, and the duties due upon any deficiency ascertained and paid. If such goods be not cleared or re-warchonsed within the said period, they shall be sold to defray duties and charges. No person shall export bonded goods in any ship of less burden than fifty tons, except to the islands of Guernsey and Jersey, l)y regular traders not being of less than forty tons burden. No drawback shall be allowed on goods of less value than the drawback claimed, and all such goods so en- tered shall be forfeited, and the person who caused them to be entered shall forfeit the sum of ^£200. No tobacco, cigars, or snuff shall lie imported into the Channel Islands in ships of less than 120 tons bur- den, nor unless in hogsheads or chests, each contain- ing not less than two hundred pounds' weight of such tobacco or snuff, nor unless in packages each contain- ing not less than one hundred pounds' weight of such iigars, tobacco, or snuff, not being in any manner sep- arated or divided within such package. The island of :,'alta and it? dependencies shaU be deemed to be in Europe. Any pei»on making a false declaration in any docu- ment relating to the customs, or answering untruly authorized questions put to him by the officers of cus- toms, liable to a penalty of jCIOO. In case tt shall appear that British vessels are Bnl>- Ject in any foreign country to restrictions as to the voyages in which they may !)e engaged, or the articles Imported or exportad, it shall be lawAil for har m^uty to impose similar restrictions npon the ships of such foreign country. No foreign goods npon which a higher duty is pay- able on their importation into Great Britain than on their hnportation into the Isle of Uan, shall, after thay have been delivered out of charge of the customs in the said isle, be shipped into Great Britain. Comparatitie Tariffs.— The following comparati^-e statement exhibits the gross amount of duties received upon the principal articles of foreign and colonial mer- chandise in Great Britain and franco, respectively, during the year 1866, to which we have annexed a col- umn showing the gross amount of duties received by the United States upon similar articles daring the same year: L'OiX)* . Wlicat Data Rye Barley Indian com. . Opium Rice Caasia llgnea. Cinnamon . . . Cloves Maoe Nutmegs . . . . Pepper rimenlo Rum Sugar Tallow Tea Watches QiMt Briulo. «78,S90 3,833,890 1,027,006 289,206 7,006 183,1480 447,060 10,605 189,010 2,876 1,835 8,946 6,830 63,276 494,446 6,016 6,946,096 26,018,386 842,286 27,611,206 77,110 rme*. CnltodSlalM. '4540,610' $11,807 4,616,020 11,872 897,680 6fl» 4,010 108 965 8,770 SIS 18,060 , , 2,236 ST,1«9 40,720 4,620 67,830 1,765 6,343 12,090 21,231 270 9,663 8,570 180,463 310,406 96,820 9,176 140,808 63,990 288,494 12,071.960 8,720,106 99,316 309 59,840 T,864 70,220 380,076 The following comparative statement exhlMts the amount of duties paid on the articles speohied, in France and the United States, respectively, in the year 1856, all of said articles being admitted free of duty in Great Britain: Drimatone Cotton, raw Cochineal Indigo FUx Guano Hemp IHdM Maho^ny Iron in ban Steel, unwrougfat. IjdAd Spelter Tin on, whale Oil, palm Ollve^ll Beef, salted Tork, Halted Quicksilver Mlk.raw Tar Wool Prancit. F Uniud SUtot. 8,87".! 15 4' .8S0 i';4,i7r- 2'";,R16 146,210 24,^66 26,836 113,210 125,135 296,696 296,680 7,245 9,930 6,805 41,676 429,480 8.2301 6,986 f 875 20,166 9,680 1,636,730 £4,626 r'ree. •?4,9fl6 1()6,374 19,869 Free. 603,663 404,164 88,040 ',I!0.->,836 422,747 696,603 2«.!iei 728,1561 1,634 41,631 141,149 124 726 161,160 4TO,'610 The total amount of customs duty in France in 1856 was $35,330,405, on a total value of 8397,066,235, or 8'87 per cent, on the whole amount ; the total amount in Great Britain was $131,034,220 ; and the total amount in the United States was $64,022,8(58. If to the $35,330,405, the amount of customs paid into the French treasury in 1856, we add $36,416,640, chiefly realized from the tobacco monopoly, but made up in part also of the export duty on wines, we have $71,747,045, or amount of customs duties received by the three countries in 1866, as per existing tariffs : Grf.t Britain $121,034,290 Krnnco (including revenues tnm tobacco and .,. .„ vinei) 71,747,046 United States 64,099,868 The following table exhibits the comparative taiiih of the United States, Great Britain, France, Spain, Holland, Belgium, and Brazil, in regard to the priaci-, pal articles exported from the United States. TAR TAR COMTABITIVI STATUBIT aXHIDITIRa THI IMVOB* DtTTT tITIlD IM ObIAT BBtTA», FbAMOB, AMD HoLLAHD OH QoODt. MTabkh, aho McBouANuiaa, or tub Ubowth, Pboucob, axd MAJrorAomBB or Tin Umitcu HTATxai also tU I>DTT OM LIKB OOOna, WaBIS, AMD MbbOHAMDIBB IHlVRTRn IHTO TBI t'MITID BTATBS. Aitlel*. Unltoa SUMS. 0al;,a4 nlwMn, QiMI llriUla, rntnc*. Hollaad. QunUly fad Uuty. Qnamlljr sad Duty, Qusntltir aad Dolr U Prmrh Veania. | In rnr>a VimIi. Ull, spermaceti •> whale and fish.... FUh, dried and smoked Lumber and boarda . . . Maaulkctures of wood . Tar and pitch .. . Sklna and fun Beaf 16 CIS. 16 16 16 24 IS IB 16 8 4 IB 18 34 18 18 34 Fttt. 16 16 16 16 14 8 16 Free. 19 and 34 24 SO 8 IB 24 24 80 24 24 18 16 18 16 24 19 16 IB 34 34 24 34 Fna. 24 IB 24 B 18 and 24 24 24 and SO 16 and 24 Free. 24 Free. 24 IB 15 Free. tt Ton. $2 42 10 per Ct ad TaL Free, tt It Cwt ti Free. Cwt ' 1 31 61 Frea. tt tt tt BnsheL S 8 tt s Cwt 9 Free. Bushel 6 Cwt 9 Free. Pound. 73 318 Free, tt Cwt 830 BOS Gallon. 8 63 Cwt 9 BaneL 464 Fret. i« Each. 34 Free. Doa. (118 to 3 89 Free. 44 U it 4t Cwt 61 61 & to S 63 liYee. Cwt 3 42 Free. 10 per ct ad Tal. Cwt 7 26 Pound. 6 e. to 6 10 per ct ad Tal, Cwt 2 42 Frea. tt u Ponnd. 8 Uanuftctared. 10 per ct ad TaL Raw, Free. Cwt $1 96 8 91 8 91 SU fret 19 IS per ct ad val. Cwt 29 100 pieces. 19 e. to 46 Cwt - 761 1461 " 24 0. to 98 " 24 e to 98 It :» Be.tol461 >• 128 i461 30 p-ir ct ad Tal. 80 per ct ad val. 1 Dntjr fixed monthly, according to price. DutT name as the grain of which It Is manu- factured, cwt B " 98 " Be to 691 " 98 e to 2 9! Frohluited. t. tt Cwt IE e to 64 " t398to24084 'i'rohibilc'd." 32 gallons 88 83 $2 15 8 48 4M 19 18 G. c. t d Tal., 84 19eto43 194 175 481 c. to 1 46 481 c, to 1 46 82 8 c. to 1 61 366 1761 20 p. e ad val. 30 p. a ad vaL .' [y '"» ■'.• 6, 108 661 e to 891 $2 441 tn A 421 Probiblted. tt tt F^d. to T9 $2 98 to 340 84 Probiblted. 88 39 6 3 98 i69 29 Pnblblted. 10 p. e ad val, lOe to27 3G61 48 ProbibitVd. *21.^1to28»^ 29 e to 5 S8 ^'>38 o94 62 8 e to 21 81 Ditto. $10" .J 10 69 $3 46 to 31 04 4S e. tu 2 11 $1V3 to 12 04 65 11 leto 10 i-roe. 3161 Free. tt Culic cll. $0 20 8 per ct ad vaL Free. 1 per ct ad v>l. 220 Iba. 3 48 " 30 1 per Free tt S20 Ib9. 80 1 ucd 2 per ct ad val. 220 lbs, 8 40 e to 1 61 1 per ct ad val. / 6 per ct ad tbI. 220 lbs. 4 03 3 to 6 per ct ad val. per ct ad val. 6 per ct ka V \l. iOO plecea. 1 40 Free. 1 per ct ad Tal. 6 per ei. ad vai. i per et ad val. Tallow Htdea Butter Cheese Pork and Baoon Lard Wool " leaath«n20eip.lh. Wheat V... Indian com and meal. . Rft, oats, and amall grain ............... SUp bread ,.. ABOf'M rK.*:.::::::::::::: Cotton " manufactures... Tobacco " manufactured. Hemp-seed Hemp, manufactured.. " refined Spirits Molasses Boer ate. ate. Cwt 8 3 441 2 411 Each (Mt). 39 ITohlbiled. 10 per s*-. ad TaL CsTt 8 3 88 " C» 08tlo 187 Prohibited. Cwt $1 9r to 24 sr> let.) 4 89 " $4 89 to 92 92 " Be to 20 54 Same as raw material, Cwt 99 e t) 7S $7 83 to 29 34 8( OB. 4t e to 1 92 Cwt 98etol2C4 6!^1 " 10 " Stto 5 Free. Cwt 1 96 Linseed oil SplriU of Inrpentlne . . . HaUoffUrandailk... Boota and shoes Cables and cordage gait Lead Iron. dIb '•fill?:...:...:...: " nails and caatings " other manufaet . Copper and brass •> » manuf. Draga and medicines . . Wearing apparel Booki Paper, all kinds. " other kind Bullion , . . . . Coal Ice India mbber mannfact tt From an •zamlnation of the comparative duties on Ufflircnt article*, wn find that the tariff of Great Britain more nearly approaches tne trade than any other. 1 he United States and Holland follow next in order, and Spain and Braxil are the nearest the other extreme— making, in fact, prot ction almoet prohibition. There is a great want of uiiiformity in the tariif charge* (gen- erally, wiih the exceotlon of those of the Unit«d Ijtates. In the tariffs of Spain and Brazil the duties leera to bo levied arbitrarily in regard to home production, etc., and the tariff conaidn, id only in reference to the maxi- mum duty under which the separate article* will he imported, and the lotiil possible maximum revenue. In the articles of e'°ery-..... Butter ,. Ohecae Cork and baoon Urd Wool " leuthani!Oe.p.lb. Wheat Indian com and meal. , Rye, oats, and luall grain Ship bread I'otatoei Applee Rice Cotton " manufactures,. Tobacco " manufactured Hemp-ieed Hemp, manufactured, , Sugar, brown " refined Spirits HolasMS Beer, ale, etc, Linseed oil Spirits of turpentine. . , HaU of fUr and dlk Ounpowder Boots and shoes . . , . Cables and cordage. Salt Lead Iron, pig " nails and castings " other raannfact. Copper and brass . . . " " manuf. Drugs and madlcinn , , Wearing apparel Books Paper, all kinds lowclry Glass, fancy " «tlier kinds Bulliin OOal Ice India rubber manufnct. t'nenumerattid (UtM. Daly, Ml valortm, QatwUly and Duty . 15 cts. ID 15 16 •a 15 15 15 8 4 15 16 M IS 15 S4 Free, 16 15 15 15 24 s 15 Free. I»and24 24 80 8 18 'ii 24 80 24 24 15 15 16 15 24 10 15 15 34 24 24 24 Free. 24 15 34 8 <5iind24 24 34 and 30 16 and 24 Free. 24 Free. 24 15 In apanlih Vw»la. ib lbs. $U5S) Each, i| 15 per ct. ad val. 100 lbs. 121 Uoien, 4 1-5 0. to ~ i6lba 811 100 lbs. S8i 81 e. to 1 80 Si c. to 1 80 8J lOT 4( 100 C40 4 TO Prohibited, Pound, 25lba Pound, 25 lbs. lOOIbsi 15 la for'p VfMcla. »U77i 84 Free. 2 IS p. c. ad Tsl. U 4 c, to 11 66 381 51 2 78 2 78 101 128 5J 1201 8 67 5 75 Prohibited. '^ gallons, |3 OT' " 9 68 220 lbs. 1 m 20perctadTaL 2 per et ad Tal. Ton. 1 per ct. ad val. < per cb ad vai, flUtoS $1 14 to S 25 lbs. 9te. toll8| Prohibited. 25 lbs, II ' 8 100 lbs, 1 701 87 e, to 2 14 •' Site, to 4 67 I'rohiblted. ISperct ad vol. 26 lbs. Bl " $16 96 to 120 24 lot c. to 80 " (Mi c. to 1 60 IB per cU ad val. 16 per ct ad val. 25 lbs. 60{ 40 100 lbs. SO) 80 per ct ad val. 15 per ct ad vaU Prohibited. 100 lb>. 8 61 Prohibited. 100 Ibn, 96) 421 " saUtp 2 66 " i2«Tto i)28 " 8Uc. to 32 07 " $8 57 to 10 69 " $17 14 to 83 28 Pound, 1 c. :o 6 41 Prohibited, 26 lbs. 80) c. to 5 35 ' 2Uc. to 315 6 per c;. ad val. Ksdi, ei c. to 60 10 26 lb>. 681 Free. lOOIba 2) 2U 16 per c*. ad tbI. Manufactured. 15 per ct ad val. Raw BjIglBlll. Qoutity anil Dyty. 8tal487 " ' 8 6 per ct sd vai 1 per et. ad val. Free. Ton. 6 CO 8 to 16 per ct ad val. 8 to 6 per ct. ad val. 2 to 12 per ct ad val. 10 per ct ad val. Free. 8 pinla. |0 SS S5 per ct ad val, 9000s(|. in. 6 63 40 per ct ad val. Cash. (6) e. to S 2T 25 per ct ad val. 82 lbs. .S9 $1 17 to 1 63 Pound. 8 S e. to 4 IS IS 6 33 lbs. 1 6B 80 per ct ad val 80 per ct ad val. 81 lbs. 09 20 to 80 per ct ad val, l)ne«k, S3 etc 99 SStbsi 44 128 lbs, 99 per ct ad val, per ct ad val. per ct ad val. 4S 1-6 in. sq. 7 c. to 80 32 lbs. 6 63 60 per ct ad val. 2 per ct ad va', 40 per ct ad val. SO per ct. ad val. 60 per ct ad val. 80 [ler ct ad val. Ton, 2 per ct ad val, 3 per ct ad val. !831 XKW TARIFF A. .■ oi' THE UNITED STA-^ES. AW ACT aSOVCIMO TRS DUTV OH IMPOaTl, AKD FOa OTUia P r>)h-:i Bt it enaeUd by the Senate and Hoxiu of RepmetU' '....-rr^ef lh» Vniltd Statet of Ameriea, in Congnta aaaembted, That on and after the 1st day of July, 1S57, ad valorem duties ahal'i be imposed, in lieu of those now imposed upon goods, wares, and merchandise imported fi'om abroad into the United States, as follows, vis. : Upon the articles enumerated in Rchedulce A and B of the tariff act of 1846, a duty of 30 per cent., and upon those enu- merated in Schedules C, D, E, F, G, and H of said act, the du- ties of 24 per cent, 13 per cent, 15 per cent, 12 per cent, 8 per cent, and 4 per cent, respectively, with such exceptions as hereinafter maide ; and all articles so imported as aforesaid, and not enumerated in the said schedules, nor in Schedule I, shall pay a duty of 15 per cent Sio. 9. And be it further enarted. That all manufactures composed wholly of cotton, which are bleached, printed, paint- ed, or dyed, and de iaines, shall be transferred to Schedule ('. Japanned leather, or skins of all kinds, shsll bo traniferred to Schedule I>. Ginger, green, ripe, dried, preserved, or pick- j led ; ochreys and ochrey earihs, medicinal roots, leaves, gums and rosins in a crude state, not otherwise provided for ; wares, chemical, earthen or pottery, of a capacity exceeding ten gal- 1 Ions, shall be transferred to Schedule £. I 3piutii. Pound. li Fjwh. Pound. Pair, 128 lbs. I) peck. I'i8 lbs. 8S 6) 10 28e.to362 19 24 c to 5 89 4 90 li 3 27 2.'i per ct ad val. 32 lbs. 26-1 $3 10 to 16 78 "n per ct nd val. nown. 6) c. to 16 84 Pound. 2) e. to 19 60 40 per ct ad val. 80 per ct. ad val. Ream. B c. to 1 96 4 to 30 per et ad val. 40 per et ad val. Each, 3 c. to 16 69 80 per ct ad val, 6 per ct ad val, 1728 lbs. 1 97 SOperct ad val, SOperck ad val. Borate of Ihne and codelU, or t^w of hemp or 8az, shall be traniferred to Schedule F, Antimony, crude or regul > ' , ' ..rks of all kinds, riot oth- erwUe provided for ; campho, , - ,.,e ; cantharides ; CRr'ionate of soda ; emery, in lump or pul . ,. rized ; fruits, green, ripe, or dried; gums, Arabic, Barbery, copal, East In., ►. Jeddo, Sen- egal, substitute, tragacanth, and ail other g :,>, . expressly imported for the manufacture of flax and lineLf^ .odn; sponges; tin in plates or sheets, galvanlced or ungalvanised ; woods, nsmely, cedar, lignum vltie, ebony, box, granadilla, mahogany, rose-wood, satin-wood, and all cabinet woods, shall be trans- ferred to Schedule G, Acids, acetic, benzoic, borscic, citric, muriatic, white and yellow, oxalic, pyroligoeous and tortaric, and all other acids of every description used for chemical or manufacturing pur- poses, not otherwise provided for ; aloes ; amber ; ambergris ; anise seed ; annato, roucon or Orleans ; arsenic ; articles not in a crude state, used in dyeing or tanning, not otherwise pro- vided for ; ssahstlda ; ai^phaltum ; barilla ; bleaching pow- der, or el;! ■'■i of lime ; borax, crude ; boucho leaves ; brim- stone, crude, in bulk; cameiis, mosaics, diamonds, gems, pearls, rubies, and other precious stones (not set); chalk; clay ; cochineal ; cocoa, cocoa-'iuts, and cocoa^hells ; cork- tree bark ; cream of tariar ; extract of indigo ; extracts and '>.;*'l '^'^J'-, •t,' m TAR J80« TAB y^ taeKi'.'<')-\ of logwood anil other dye wooda, not otharwlM pr<" ylAei 'ui'! extitMl of madder; fltat, ground; grlndi(< : <'i ; gutia |)''rcha, unnunnfaoturod ; India rubber in bottlea, linlii, or ■hiF'i', unmanufltcturcd ; India rubber, milk of; InfiKi: laa tplrlK ; lac lulphur; laatlngi!, cut in ttrlpa ur patten' uf the ilai Jind iliapti fo; thxt, ■llppen, booti, booteei, gatton, or butli'P'i urcluflivcljrf not con^biniM with In I a rubber ; rtny- ufkcturei of mohair cloth, lilk twL't, or other u ^nuCiotur ( Math •ttl'.ulile for the manr 'utnro if ihoea, > . ' in iltpa or i«t - tema of tl.o aixe and ihatjn for ^.^.k; •llppi»>, buott, bootei;*, gaiter* a' liuttoni excluiivi'y, .1 1^ wunlilneil v ' India rn^ ber; mnri-^ ,ir)'ttod with IIu^'H. ;>> iru>9iiin ti" ; wda aib; bi>Ii>.- uf all kind*; watch iT'^ioriali and unfl . j parta qf watches and woad, 0? yrif'.A >• lull bo tranifuvd lu Hchudale H. die n. And U itf\irth$r enu>!teJ, That ' rnd after the 1st day ol July, iS6', (ho gooAt, wart'p, -.no n ■ ; han-Mjo -ii- tlonod in l^hotiule 1, made part liter '.;f, ihall '■» exf.-ijvt iroin ciitty and ontitied t-' ii'o^i entry. SramuLi I. All liooki, maps, charts, inatbc;iiatlctt:, us'tlio. a] ioatrumrnta, phUosophical apparatus, and >.1l atu> .~ !trtl~lo« rhat«Ter Imporleil fbr the use of Ihi United .'^!:.to«. All philoaupUienl acparatua, inutrumi'iits, lx«');s, tuaips, ai-d c^artu; sUfueii, "tA'uary, bust* and (onts of msrWo, or nio, Ainbaator. h: pladtur u7 1'arls ; paintlngii and drawings ; itch. kK^; iii'fciiiics ofseulpturo; cabiuutsofcuhis, madal*, genu, Mul hn » iUiCt'.oos of antlquitlcs. : proridid the same Itc spc- > blly ImporUif*. ic food faith, for thK uan of any soeiet) Incor- X»)nwi. or cstubHshed for philoaophiral or literary v^i'posiM, or for t'.H onc^niragement of the fino arts, or for the uao ut by the oiKfor jf any collego, aeadomy, school, or seminary of liuiralng li. fni< United StatcH ; animal carbon (boncblock) ; uiiimuls. lIvluK, of all kinds ; art,-al, or crudo tartar; articlci in u crude state used id dyeing or tannins, not otbnrwlae prorilM for. Hark, Peruvian ; bclln. 'Id, and bcll-metal ; berric , nut*, floB-em, plan-'^, and rpgetabiee used exclusively in dy-lii;j;, or Id cumpoelog ilyoe, hut no article shall b-i claaaed aa S''.c'.i t'lat has undOTgone 'ny luanufacture ; bismuth; bitter ap,blos; boltlDg.cloO)s ; bones, burned, and boneduat lloolLA, maps, and charts Imported by &uthurity of the ,Toiru library f'oumittoe of Congross for the use cf !he Ubrarv ■)i Congr('«*t : pi'ovicted tlut if la any case a contract ahall havf h«'ii uade with any bookseller. Importer, or other peraor.. for boukrt, utapi, or charts, in which contract the bookseller, im- porter, e-rocds la itlcka ; bullion, gold and silver ; burr stones, wrou,rIit or uuwronght, but uunianufacturrid. Cnblnets of :olns, medals, and other colloetioiu of antiqui- ties ; colTee and tta, wh€n Imported direct from the place of thflr growth or pioductloo In American vessels, or in forcti^n vessels entitled by reciprocal treaties *o b« pjiempt from dls- rrlmlnatlDg duties, tonnage, and other charges ; coffee, the growth or pi'oduotion of the poaMssions of tho Netherl'-jidif, imported from the N'olherlanda in the same manner ; lolm*, gold, nHver, and coppei ; copper ore ; copper, when imported for the L'niled States .UInt; copper, in pijjs or bars, or when U 1 and St only *o bo remanufacturod ; cotton ; cutdi. Dragun's-blood. Felt, sdheaive, for ahoathing vessels ; flax, unmanufactured. Ciar JeTi seeds and all other seeds for agricultural, horticul- tural, medicinal, and manufecturing piirpoaea, not otherwise provided for ; glass, when ol 1 and fit only to be remanufar. turcd ; goods, wa^ec, and niercliundlse, the growth, produce, nr manuflicture of the United States, exported to a ioreipn muntry and brought back to the United States in t!"< ituv eonditloc as ^hen 'xported, r.pon which no draw;, u ,1 o" bou'.ily has been allowed: jmrid'd that all regnt. •• („ ascertain the Identity thereof, proscribed by existi oi which may be prescribed b." the Secretary of tho shall b" compiled '.rlth ; guano. Household e(f(>cts, old and In nae, cf nomonj . les fVoTP foreign coantries, If used abroad '.. . . "^ tended for any other p',rsou or pell ons, or Ice; Ivory, unmanul'actured ; Juuk, ti',- linae^, but not eiiibracing flaxaeed. Uladder root ; madi^er, ground or pritiv charta ; modela of Inveutiona and other *r -1 ' arts: pmridM that no article or arMeles '.in ; ■ moflel or improvement which can be Utted ?, . iv.' . ^knm ; oil, spermaeetl, whale and other fiab, of flsher(n>, and all other articKam.3nafaetiirt.i r-^Kt'thliiL' e«p)wr, hnt 1 . ;: rpw to ba eonsldered aneh and ^d.ui'i^ t free, rir.ipt In ■).< i>uuor.s thntijuanifo :; 1 ' '!iliig nictal, uotwhiilly orlii imt if i-- . ., unfi'' iiilt:.. ; I I II bolw, and al^vo bol'al Mik, r;' jr as 1 - ud fi-i m ' ri^iMio, uul Mug doubled, twhtid, or ad>uieed It. ti :>'<'i luni In any ray; apecimeoa of natural history, riliiot.>l')k'< 4 « 'bulauy ; suhstauoea oxpreaa- / used for luauuroa. Tin in piga, bail, or bloeka ; tnrns, shrubs, bullis, phiDts, and roots, not othci yUo providud fir. Wearing apinrel In actual u*o, and other personal effoota (net merchandise); profi'i Kous arrlvlr;,' t't ilin . nltad W, iiiw I Jironfi/i'il that this ox. I'luptlon ahall pot bt' viititruiid to liirludu machinery er other »rtlolr>' Inipuried foi' 'Bii la n.y uiauufiuiturlug eatabliahmcnt, or f '-j.'.li',. Hhoep'a » . ., rimaniifiwliired, of the raluo of SO eonta per ycii.d or less . ' thu povi \A nxpnrtatlon, and hair of the ul- ii»'-<., till goat, and other Uk» animals, tiuiiiaiiufacliirod 1 pro- iMca ihat any wool of tho ahnep, or Iiair of lliii alpaca, tho goat, and othor like aulniala, which shall Iki Imported In any othsr tlian the ordinary condition, aa now and hcrehifort prac- ticed, or which ahall ba clutugud in Ita character for tho pur- )io»o of evading the duty ir which Miall Ihi reduced in valuo hy tho Inlentiiiual adniixtui'O of dirt, or any furetgn siibstaice, to id oenta per pound or hva, shall Im sul||uGt to pay a duty of ii per cent, ad volarsm, any tlilug lu this aot to the oootrarjr uutwithatanding. Km. 4. And be it further enaated, That all goodi, waros, and merchandhio which shall he In the public stores on the 1st day of , Inly aforesaid, shall Ihi sumuct, on entry thereof for con- Kumptlon, to no other liity tlwD If thu aaniu luul been Import- .'d respiKtlvoly after that day. Bio. B. .^nd Iia il further enaiied, That nn the entry of any gooda, wares, and roerohandUo liii|inrtod on and after thu 1st (lay of July aforesaid, the decision of tho ddteetor of tho cus- toms at the port of linp,.ii.Kl, In ari^irdan(.i irltli tli' pi'uvkli'US of exUtblg laws ; and If the ap|» iilsod value there- of shall eioued by 10 per c«nt or morn the valuo so diclared ou the entry, then. In addition to tliii duties iiiipimil by law on the seme, there slial' be levied ootiert^id, and (laid, a duty of 4(1 per cent, ad valorem on such appralaetl valu. i I'romdcl neverlheleUtThti under no clrcumstf.noes shall the'liiiy ■ a^seasiHl upon t.n amount less tlutn the Invoice or enter ' uo, any law of ' longnvs In the wulrary uotwlthstaudinii. Ai>prvi>ed Mumh 1), Ibbf. TAR 1809 TAB ing itnil llilrty- \\y or bi II bnl'H". IduUc'i lorluluO" ttitt,»n»y rmf for con- heaa Import- enlry of »ny jftor iUi) !•' of of tlw oui- tholr lUbllltr 11(1 concta Ivo it of »iiy 'O"'' ni«T, ImU'irt*?'* iirhciitry, t!lvo Hon with Kuch IMilttMlly t\'-< III llilrtv 'l»y" in t.i till' Ki'"!- 1. >)Miil i-linl' *>" liiuiluiiTrli»u- oiii secnrdlng- ]i«t«nillng, uu- wicliilccl' in ,. hiT. :.flcr ho |,.« diitiM »h»U 1m In bond. J on IMK>W»t [lO, 184A. r««!nta'fM« 0^ tjmiMcil. ''■•"'' flHifl, and cn- \%ai for other |hnn Im l»«f"' liU^ h^'o '^ I by Hirf>i . In th() I"' - h op' ■ ■ ''"T |1- r thO l> i>,id eh*ri!i'ii loniriioTiihio Ipo 1 which I'm lio drty of tl'» Im Impi'rtsd or liortii to bu up- LiK.! r.Vth th' Id v»lu» thcld ; 8C0 Aeidn, aettic, etc. . , Acctoua Acid ; nee Acid, (u^eloia, ftc Acldii of every doncrlpllon iiaed for chrm- Ical or for nianiifsctiirliii: purpoaen, not' otherwiHo provided for 1 Adda of every description iiacd fur medic- inal pnrposet or In tho flno aria, not oth. crwiHO provided for ! Acid, hulphurlc ; «co Sulphuric AM Adiiealvo felt, etc. ; ice Fell, adhenive Alabaster Htnlunry, etc., for nao of collcgea, CO. ; aeo l*hil4T(d and Bituminous Substafices Black, Frankfort ; sec *Vnn*/or< Black. . . Black, Ivory ; see Ivory Black Blank-lKH^ks, Iraund or unbound Blankets of all kinds Bloachlny powder, or chlorid of lirae Blocks, tin i sec Tin in Ifgs, etc Blooms ; see Iron in Bars, etc. Blue or Homan vitriol, or sulph. of copper Blue, flg; see Fig Blue Blue, rrussiun ; see l^tssian Blue Bone block ; see Aiiivuil Carbon Boards, plunks, f^taves, Inths, scantling, spars, liewn and sawed timber, and tim- ber to be used In building wharves Bocklngs ; see Baizes Bodies, bat, of wool ; sec Hat Bodies Bologna sausages Bolts ; seo /ro7i in Bars Bolts, shln);lc and stave Bolts, copper ; seo Copper Bods, etc. Bolting cloths Bone, manufactures of; seo 3lanu/actures of Ilnne Bono black Bone-dust Bones and bone tips, unmanufactured ; see Horn and Horn Tips Bones, burned Bonnets, tints, braids, etc., used for mak Ing ; seo Flats, etc, Bonnets composed of certain materials ; seei Hats and Bonnets Books, maps, and charts, imported by au- thority of '.lie J'Mnt library committee of CongTLjs for tho ,:i''. of the library of Congress , . Books, maps, and cbart.s, mathematical and nautical Instruments, philosophical appa- ratus, and nil other nrllcies wlmtcver. Im- ported for the use of the United Stales . Books as personal efi'cts of iwrsous arriving in the United States; see "Vnrinj Ap parel Books apeelnlly Imported for societies ; see PMloMphirnl Apparatus Botany, apeclmens of; see Specimens o/ Xatuml Hislorg Hooks, blank ; see Blanh Books Uo-'.is. printed, rnRazInes, pamphlets, auJ periodicals. UIiTstiutednewspapers, bound or unbound, *>v . therwlse provldet" for . Books in course of printing and ropublia- tion ; see ftriodioils Boraclc add ; see Acids, aettie, etc 20 80 30 20 80 'iH 20 30 20 6 20 SO SO 20 20 20 6 211 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 10 6 80 20 20 20 20 20 '25 20 SO 30 20 20 25 80 20 20 6 20 30 30 Free. Free. Free. Free. 20 10 20 80 SO 16 80 94 16 in 5 Free. ^ Free. 6 Free. 24 94 94 16 24 10 16 24 16 Free. 16 34 24 4 IB 15 Frco. 16 Free, Free. 16 IB 16 16 15 4 Free. 24 15 15 4 Free. 15 10 16 24 24 Free. 18 Free. 24 Free. Free. Free. 24 24 Free. Free. Free. Free. 18 IK 4 TAR ITmriD BTATia' TAmm—ConUnufd. 1810 TAR l'iUT«i> Btatm' 'rAKin>«--Om(fniMd. ArllrlM. I im. I IMT. Borato of Umn Hunx, rrudo or IIdcaI Bonx, nut cruila BottUii, IndU rubber; mw InMa Jlubber in DoMtt nottonUf copp4>r ; too Cornier tloUmnt Ilottomii, atlll ; ICC StHi Bottomt Itoitcho leavM lloio, paper ; nee I'ltjirr Hoztn Uoxn*, fancy ; ne«i IMpfr Kftxfti Box-wood, tinnmnufacturcd Urarelvlo, bralil>, ehalnn, ourln, or rlngloti, corapoaed of hatr, or of which hair b a conipommt part BracoK, ■uapvndem, webbing or other fab- rics, compofliMl wnolljr or In part of India rubber, not othcrwlHo proWucd for BralilH, of hair ; Men }trace\ett Itraldii, for niaklig hata or bonDctsi cec Ftiitit^ liraidn^ elc, BraldR, cotton ; ara Cotton Laffn. etc. Brandy, and other aplrlla dlatUled ttom grain or other nmterlala llraaii, ninniifar'turea of; aco Slunu/acturea of lliVtH Bruaa, In liam or piga Brai^o, old, and fit un'V to lie remanufactM Brnalerri' copper; sec (V^Rpe-irt A'/iw/a, etc. Braxll paato Brazil-wood, Brar.lllctto, and all dye-wooda In atlcka Bnwia . Kricka ; ace I\xvi»g and HooJInj THen, etc, Brlmatonc, roll ; aco lUAl BHnititone Brlmatone, crude. In bulk Briatlea... Uroad window glaaa ; aeo ]t'tiulo«i Olau. . . Bronco liquor Bronxu powder Bronze, i-emtn of; aco J'ML -ophical Ai*pa- ralus, etc Bronze, metal, In leaf; ace Mrtala, Ihttrh, etc. Brooms aud bruabea of all klnda Brushed BniaaeLi earpeta : aee Carjuts Budj, caaila ; ace ('iimila Itudt Building alonea Bulba ; aeo Tree*, Shmbt, elc. ...... . Bullion, gold and allvcr Burgundy ; aee Winen Burgundy pitch Burned atarch ; aee Gum mhnlllute. . . , Burr alonea, wrought or unwrought, but unmanufactured Uuala ; ^co I'Mlotophical Aiinmtuii, etc. . ' Butter • Buttons and button-niouldt^ of all klnda. . , Cabinet and hoiiaclinld furniture. .... ' ('ablncta of colna, medala, gcma, and all colleetlona of antlqultlea I Cables and cordage, tarred or untarred . . . ' Cadmium I Cake, saffron ; sec Saffruii and Saffron Cake] Calamine Calomul and all other merrurlal prepara- tions Cameoa, real and imitation ; and moaalcj<, real nud Imitation, when net In gold, all- vcr, or other metal Cameos and niosalcN yot act Cameos and mocnlc;^, Imitations thereof, not act Camphor, refined , , , Camphor, crude Candlea, spermacell; aco Sptmuutti Can diet Candles, stearin ; aee Ste'trin Candten .... <'andlca, tallow ; aee Talloif Candlen Candl(«, wax ; see H'or Candle* Canes and sticks for walking, finished or nnAniahed Cantharldes Capers, pk kics, and sauces of all kinds, not otherwise provided fat Caps, hats, niufTs, aid tippet. i of fur, and all other manufactures of Air, or of which fur shall be a component material Caps, gloves, leggins, niits, aks, stock Inga, wove shirts and drawers, and all similar articles made on IVamcr, worn by men, women, or children, and not other- wise provided for Caps, gloves, legi il.i'> !', made on frames, composed wholly of i< S'tMl]>, COHtiU, etc Castor oil Castorum Casta of marble, nronze, alabaster, or plas- ter of I'arls; seo I*hito*irphieal Appara- tus, etc Cayenne ptipper Coaar-u-(tod, luanufacturoa of; see Jfatiu- /actun* uf Ci'dar-u'ooil Cedur-wnoi her charges I', the girowtn or production of the pos- si^sslons of the Netberlanda, Unportod from tho Netherlands In the same man- ner Coins, gold, silver, and copper Coins ; seo CaMnefa qf Coiiu Coir ; sec JtUe, etc Coke aud culm of coal 20 90 90 80 80 80 4(1 90 80 80 16 80 20 20 Free. 40 20 90 80 80 6 90 90 10 80 26 SO 10 90 90 SO 10 80 80 40 6 6 80 6 26 40 80 94 S Free, 24 84 24 24 4 4 24 24 19 24 16 IB Free, 4 SO 8 IB 24 24 4 4 4 Free. 24 24 19 24 IB is 16 16 8 4 4 80 4 4 '84 84 4 Free. 4 84 90 IS 10 4 90 4 10 4 10 4 10 .^ 90 16 ! ; Free. Free. Frci Free. Free FrM-. Fnc •"> .AO .0 M m 41. lUI. Cot. P« Cu SO i'l ilO S !!0 fne. SO U 80 U 80 S4 BO 84 411 4 SO 4 80 S4 80 84 IB 18 1811 IS IB Frco. 4 SO 8 15 84 84 4 4 4 Frop. 24 84 19 84 16 is IS IS 8 4 4 80 4 4 '84 24 4 Free. 4 24 is 4 4 4 4 Ftec. Frei: Fruo. Fn<> <''oll(!cllan>oran|taulMn. / T ' ' „ •{ ^rvmu^Z!"" '""' '»••'««»«.. Coiiu, oto ' • •« Cabinets qf <;orab,'or.uki„s ""'•'■ '^'''"''•••:..:::.' t omposKlon of gi,i or „.^'' •; provWml for """''' ■"" "tlierwl,; J;OP»l, Ifiiin i HueOinU tomr arUclo«, vomoL ' ■«V,.i l;OPPiT bott6iiia . c:??:;a:s;l'Svi!i^iiiffr::::::| '"«''a:;'i".-'"''-'"'«'«n .„,'.",''','' ^'"oe. cotton' jS?»^/!S=kd/''-'^^-:: J; ream of tartar TAR '■""TIB RTATIta' Ta«i.~^ ^ '>«(<.« j. fcfoTiii^ji^i/ir'/'"''''' "^ •'.'■■■• I Sr„X7:.«'--'"rr.r;erd ,„""'»»»..., ' ''""^'°"« "too.'., wh"n IJolKanS^t '^■;i«',<;^no.^i.•;:;;;•• l5S.^^6'^'"^«<^•ei^ M^'ned jmip M ;;f,r?'.4%'"'-,-eW«;„L^;V,.; "yeloK, arucles , ;■• , "tatoi,ec^rt.w' . .7' °°' '" » Ofudi I »'h!"«aV^"eV»d ••"»» wJA.'au;,- an ' „en>I "UbftanccT^fti?*^ '''"'•>'»'•<' mln. '■'S/r'- ""'"'■'"f«'ured';;^-^ii;- *" 4rnni2rr/- ''"^ tmbrolderics r. :V ,j,- ' / ' ' ' ' '"''. ^'tc. . . . „'l'iiembmder.>i «, ' " -^''•i" "eovlrfi- 84 IS Free. Free. ^^S2k^: , <«a m,dfl State eto^ " ^ ' »«o^,/,w&, Orgtal,forw.toho,;;«,-oii«-c^,;,;„-. *'iidbcar ?-^;;?^«r •: turranu.,.. ™"''' ■''''«'•, ctirierf.eic. I [;,';f>errofaiiki„L,-,V;. .•■;:;•• , other nieSl' " '"«" "'f"'''. »llm, or Kp«omsalt8; seo',Vai/ii"Bi; Keacntlal oils • »! o5,7 -T"°™' '•"■ ixtract of indigo Extract o?,SC "'""""' '"»''''«' for /Feldspar. " ' '"^ ■ '<«» ''-.V**, etc. . , . i jj ' ™'-'«^'»Hi»'»i'V«Vhingv;.;«;i,-;:::;:| ^^^ If. Tree. TAR 1813 TAR I mm KiAm' TAum— CoNMniMf, "ArtKliT 1 ir ' Fli ->. X i nxi Mu-ikri», fte. Flra-onrken Klre-M^riwnt ; 11*41 f'ltiu anil Fir^^-Hirttnn . . KIfa-woihI ; it'll WiHxl, unntami/tiftiirni . . , FUhf pri'Nurvrfl tii oil; m^ Anchuvi^t. ... FUli, rur<'l|pi, whvlliiir I'rrdi, ■iiiokocl, itlt. ed, itrled, ur iiloklvU, UQi uUiMwUu pru' rtdedfur FUh tflu4*f ur Ulntflua Kl«h iklni Kbh ulli ; H« 'Mb, twaT . .fnof <' Flan, mMlluir, "r rn'.la ' ...^ a-iutbitt, C»(na,«lc. FUnnrln ; iw llatiu, etc FUla, bniiu«, plalU, unarturro (nil willow •qnarca, Ui'oil for hukImk hau ur lonnoli Flax, mauiifttctiireri oft nuu Manu/iuturf9 of ytax, Blr. Flax, uamaniifaotunHl Flax, tow of ; ncn CaiiUa Flax-wed Fllut. Flint, tiround Floor-clotlu ; sno liaizes, etc Floor mattInK ; apn Matliiui. China, eta. . . . Flofit RllkM, fuathcr-ltfldf, feather* for budi, ami dowDN of all klndH Flour, wheat ; m-o IVhrat aitit When! Flour Flour, nre j »ee Ryr and Jtyii Flour Flour oiKUlphur Flowcru ; nee FmllifrH and t'lou/em Flowom, u>c», etc, t\f Fw Fun, ilnwued, on the akin F*ura, hattera', dreaeed or undreiaed, uot on the akin Fura, nndreet4ed, when <-a the akin (lallp-ua, ip'lil, allver, . ; aee Jittaulnt. . Qal[i)ona, cotton ; aee ( uthm Coras, etc, . . tialvanlied tin plate* ; aee Tin IHatt*, gul- vaniitd Gamboge Uame, prepared ; aee Prepartd yrgrlabU; Mtatt, ete. Garden aeeda, and all <'ihcr aee. «, , .>7«i ifi Bart, ate Gilt wan' ; aee Italed and i.tU Wart Gtmpa, cott'i: ; aee Cotton ( ordt, etc Ginger, grou vl Ginger, drle'l, green, ripe, preaerved, or pickled Glaaa, cut Glaap, roloreil, utalned, or t.itnted Glaaa rryatald fur watchea. ... Glaaaca or pel)bleH for apcctaclea Glaaa tiiniblc:'*, plain, moulded, or preaatM), not cut or punted Glaaa, painting* on ; aco I'aintinga on OUuf Glaaa, porcelain ; aee f\>reelaui Olau Glaaa, eompoiiltlona of, aet; aee Oompoti- timt qf GlttMi or Funtr, when tet Oian, eompoaitioaa of, not aet ; aee Compo- •fNotu 0/ QUt— or nmte, not tet GU«, window ; ace Ifmdoui aiat Ohaa, wban old, and fit onlr to be remann- fMMnd "TfiT P» C'ml. to W 10 "0 HO «l 10 M M 10 .'5 10 to 90 in 10 so s ft 16 SO S6 10 90 '*) DO 10 SO 40 TUl. Free. Free. 80 24 80 14 Free. Free. 10 4 10 8 80 14 16 11 no 14 80 14 80 14 40 IS 40 80 SO 14 80 14 SO 14 so 14 so 14 80 24 SO 84 10 8 SO Ifi SO Nr I'tnt. W M 14 14 14 811 lA 15 IB 10 10 I'J 14 IB Free. 11 IS 4 4 111 IB 10 IS IS IS 14 IS 14 SO 24 10 IS so 4 10 IS 41 80 10 8 10 8 10 15 80 24 40 BO SO 14 80 24 20 IS 10 8 10 8 80 14 80 14 IS 8 111 IB SO Free. UiiiTiD Htatw' TARivrft— C'tmMfltitfd. ArtUU.. IMI. liM r.t Cat. l*arl-ml (tUslrr*' dUniondi, Mt or not nut ; ih /Ma> IS 10 IS IS tlUtibor HultN ; ■•« SntlH, Kjtaom, «t« ItloTM iiiiUt) on frtiuuM; iti'i ''djM, f/lovet, eU: , nuuitf on FmniM 80 24 (llovfM, wholly of cotton, uucde on frumvii { ■CO vajut, Utoms, ate... wadt on FrnniM , (tlov*!!, whnn bleftchetlf printed, palatad, 10 1ft or dyed 10 S4 (jiuo SO IB ut(!r«' Hkln n (iooeU, wari'N, and mcrrhaDdlitf, tlio growth, prodnri-, or nianni'actnru of thr 1'. HUtrn, «x portml to A furulicn mimtry, and broui^lit bnrk to tho 1*. H. In thn namu condition an wlimi rxportml, upon which no drawbaclt or biniiity hail bi>rn alluwi-d, prnvldod that all ri-t(nltttlonii lo wtctTlain tli< Iduu- tity thiri'of, pn-Hcrlbcd by cxiitinft If^Tn, or which may 1ni pri'tirrllH'd by tho Secto- tary of tlto TrcaHury, shBll be compiled with Free. Fri'" OranadiUa wood, manufacturcti of; aoe M(iMt.faciurc» 0/ Cedar-wofxl, etc 40 UU Uranadllla wood, unuiaaufncturodt aee SO H Or r ■■ 80 b '...- tionneta ; Rett i/a/d id 1:01 <•»«»- pn^fd fif Strttv\ t'tfl DO n arftRA hMketa ; ico UoHkelH^ rtc, re oMd 80 21 (tnuK cloth ... SB IS IIP (;ram!, HUal; «p <(Utla porcha, nnntaniifiictur(>d 10 4 Hair, luimaii, I'lcanHcd or prepared for utie 80 14 Hair nf all klndn, uui-k'ancd and unmaun- factiiri'd .... 10 K Hair, goata', unniamifitcturod ; aee Angom^ Thibet^ and other OoaU Hair 10 16 Hair of the alpaca, the goat, and other like animal)*, lu certain condition*; aee H'ooj 10 F'reo. Halt, curled, moari, aca^wet'dfand all other vegetable Hiibataocea used for beds or 10 ir« 1 latr-cloth, hair aeattng, and all other man- ufacturea of hair not othcrwlae provided for IS 10 Hatr, hata, etc., of; aco llatt and Bonneti 80 80 "4 14 Hair Mating ; bcd Ilair-cloth, etc. 15 11) 10 80 if> Hamesa furniture ; 100 Coach Furniture. . 14 HatR ; lee HaU ami Jionnetii, etc 80 24 HatA, tl«ts, bralda fur making ; see FlaU, etc 80 SO 14 Hat bodten of cotton 14 Hata and t>«)nneta, for men, womed, and children, compoHcd of straw, latln-atraw. chip, graHK, palm-leaf, willow, or any othtr vegetable snbHtance, or of hair, whalebone, or other material, not other- 80 14 10 16 Hat bodies, made of wool, or of which wool iholl be a component material of chief 10 1.'> Hatters* plush, composed of lUk aud cot- ton, but of which cotton la the component SO 80 15 Hearth ruga: aee Carpttt 14 TAR «l. IIH ('•■I. I'm CmI. Hi 10 H io lA 90 VI) 94 15 U SB W 10 1R 80 94 80 94 00. IB 10 I'i ■06. Kwo. 40 80 «(1 80 80 94 80 114 lU 10 IV 8 ib v> 4 8 IB II) 4 94 K 16 Fmo. U. "4 94 1!) 'n 94 94 94 94 16 IS 91 _W..'-F,„«.T„,^^,,,^ 1813 • 'llriM """IM. I"* "fl iim i'Min ..h,i,,«,«,um'i,,p";;7 »(*/ A(*/fi« , , , ' , ""■• ' "'" Haw //w, ({"■•r ;,,, Ifca a':,l,:"r';''"'''-::....i f:,,"'"; ' »- "- ^''iUr^nri KhfUmiUf, ,J ' "•" (lironuilf. jii.l 90 Ift 10 90 H 8(1 R 80 lis 19 8 IB 4 94 94 4 94 TAU "X" MalHni;, ChlHa,\ '^' '''"'' j '^"'"i' Kfip',;; , '>".w".li.'''*"'"'<"""».urj.«i nniplrii, [Jin .ulphiir. I iJU rt)i., (mil. VC , „r/""V'-" ■ »f;r iwl, , -Wi""'™, ImllttHuw, i^l . fii'liil IliM," ' "" "'""■' "'''"llu IimIIk fMMi/.f, 0('(i.!(iim''.i:,'' ijiiMmiMif,,,.;,,,;!,,! """• •''""•. '•''•'"''•■■•c. Midi. „(■;;• 3 »» ""HI (did n,ri| ,„„:■, lKW»,-'^'^^i:;;:;::::;: I'rw. 90 80 90 9n lit 40 80 80 1>W. IS 94 Itl 80 a4 94 94 Mm, I.»r(( I '.««llMir-','n,ri,i . •lrlp« ' f.,i '■•'«'l, nmmifaoiure, of" •' ll^' u I "/ //mw, ,.|r " "'> "M f'inu/aeturr, Iki"!, rlir.„ii«toof;';'oo'r 1 T "lii'eta IB 10 too w B 90 80 90 'fO B no 9« ! 9A I w 9l> 9» n 90 80 iir nliMt'i, vmiiln ,. ,, jlyuWMillKHlH, iri'lfiini ( •«< *«»to; /„rt„ vWwl riir , , '' ""' "ilwrwljo pro' te;*l'r,!^VSV/.m;;;:;;; Iron. uJ.J,' '!''> "n (lid or Mi-niu »..„. 10 10 80 80 80 80 ■•I 90 I eo I 10 80 80 9n 90 90 9il •'■»,nl.r«t,.of; ',", y, r,!''''"-".y'''»ii: 8 94 24 24 24 4 4 IR 4 4 24 24 10 ]» IR TR IR IS I.fiiilrai.hot, I.inf, K„|,i „nj ;j|-; • • «™ <.'oW (ind"s/(re; (fW, fMaiila ffun , , iic V.-7T "'''y "f-iw a "/ Cnrt »™ Manii/nctHr'tHi te'iW;l!*'r"'"'"^'W'"i«;o,v;: '•i»)ji/t« I w„ i.u'^k' ihii^', ;;;;;; | 90 80 80 80 80 80 90 \m iii|ii! &'*"•''•'« w** ,//„„; ; ; ; ; 1 90 '"w. v"if«i»iii(./ «,;;;','';.'.'•■■■ •■ bo 94 24 94 24 24 IR ]R IS '••nlluT, mViliifaHurVH' of- '.VJ ' « I ■ f-PephpH '"' , Pnlnioil, or .ly'ed " •"""hi.,!, pri„,pj^ I-cmnniand llmm.' '.No^u,pha.„o,;i,iir„,i„iVLi„'>^^;;i kirn's' i:u^';^'r?i«f^'*-^M;,>;,;.r; •"""•off U„,|, """"•■''■'"^.I'tf.. l.ln-vLi,„f||, 80 20 20 90 to 20 90 IB SO 20 20 90 90 90 80 90 20 20 90 10 80 90 10 10 ftr I nl 19 * M II 4 IB 94 4 4 4 94 It 94 IB IB IB 4 lA 94 94 IR IS IB 15 IB IB 34 IB IB 18 IB Kreo, 94 IB 24 8 IB 8 24 8 8 8 iLIn v) ,.|-a "■* ""'•1>-"»1 or ,,in„„,\ Fivo. 10 .10 90 10 ,^!iS^^s:'^:'z"'i ftip^Wrt^;;;;;;;;:;;;;;:;;;;;:...... 80 80 90 B B 90 80 20 20 10 94 24 IS Frpp. 4 15 80 80 10 90 'ree, 95 24 15 19 8 24 24 24 15 8 15 Free. 10 vi:, lie. ,. ' ""• "^ ''•«««/ '■IqueurH; oce Cmi'lal], «» . iqiior, Iron ; „,, /„,„ >;/■-• 100 1. corlo,., p„,t,., j„, o/^^'"' 90 ,,^...o..,oV.i.,r;!^«tf,t;J!'!'---^ „fl»x and nlnZS^ "'° '""nufac.ure of H£=o;-^-^--;. Maddra ; goe iri,,™ ■Mapzlnes ; ,«, //oo<-» .' .' Malt .■;;■ "angani'so 90 Maniin.... 20 Maniifartur'eV of'ccd'nr" wrUn ",; " " ' ' i;.V • 20 ••l"'ny, niahoMov r„V„ "j BwiadHIa, wood ^"''•'' f™'"-«'»od, and »atin- iiaaufactui^i' of jit j wo" ./<;<' ;.;; ; I ^ 80 49 20 B B 40 10 40 Free. 4 94 16 Frae. IB 80 IB IB IB IB 4 94 94 4 8 4 Free. Free. SO 8 80 8 IB IB IB . 80 94 TAR 1814 TAR Uamii ITAIM' TAiirM-flMiHmwil. "ArBJCT" MuufkriimHi i>r ll)« lark nf Ih* n^k'trM, MFrpt »irkt MuuntrliirM uf Ixmii, •hi>ll, hum, pearl, Uorv, or vi^||iil wholly of <(l MauufartiiriM of iiitton. Iliivn, tilllt, wool, ')T worNtfd, tf i'iiil)rul(iirwU4', try niat-hluury, or will) thit noi'illo or uthitr prucvM ilaaiiraeliirai, artlrli'i, vi^ucla, ami warca oflllaM, li>, mar- bli' pavliiK lllca, |nil all otlx^r niarbli< ninrc advanciiil In niaiiitfartiiru than In alalx or hlorha In lh« ninKli ilanufarturea of papt-r, or of whirh papvr la a f'oniimntMit material, not otbnrwlae provhliid fur ManufartiirM, artklw, and wama of pa- ph-r-niarh 't .Manufaclnrca of w(nhI, or of which w(khI la a c«)nip(jnffnt iwrt, not otherwla« pn)vldiMl for .Vlanufarttirra of wool, or of whIrh wool ■ball Im* thp roinponi'iit material of chief value, not otIierwU« pruvliUd for Manufartiirta of liair ; am Hatr-ebMh, Hair Stalinii. etc Manufarturra of fur ; avu Ca/Jt, //aft, Muf», anil Tii>iMt§ i>f f"iir, etc Manufacttirea compoacd wholly of cotton, not otluTwlM^ provided for &lanufaeliire« or ifoata* balr or mohair, or of whli'h ({oAta' hair or moliatr aliall bn a eonipoueiit material, not otherwlw pru- rlded for Manufacliirea of atlk, or of which allk ahall bv a component material, not othcrwiae provMM fttr Maniifaetiirea of wonlud, or of which worat- ed ahall b« a nimiionent mate-rial, not otherwlao provided fur Manufactures of flax, not otherwlio pro- Tldedfor Manufacturoa of hemp, nut othcrarlw pro- vliled fur Manufacturea of mobair cloth, allk twlat, or other nianufactum of cloth lultahlfl fur the inanufueluro of ahoea, cut In illna or patu-rna of ttio aU.' and aliapo fur ilKjea, ■llppem, bo4ita, laaiteea, Knl^era, or bul- toni, excluilvely, nut combluvd with In- dia rubber Manufacturea of laatlnKN aiiltable for ahoca, boota, boote('i<, or buttona, cxclualvuly; aee lAintinnii Manurea nr anbatanee.* cxpreaaly iiaed for . Mapa and rharla Manachlno ; aeo CordiUn Marble, manufacturea of ; me Xam^/aeturu tfMarUe Marble paring tile; len .tfuHi^/'acftirra 4^ Marblt Marble In the ruugh slab or block, unman- ofacturod Marine coral, unmanufactured Marrow ; ace 7Vee. 80 14 14 16 16 8 19 18 80 Free. S4 IS Vi 34 14 34 rMmm ItraTia' TainTt-f^MMniMrf, AMfeUa. Matal, llulrh and kronae, hi i"f . ,Metala,unmanuflicterml,ae.otliaffwlaa pro- vided fop Metal, type; tea TiifM IhUl Mi-tallle pena .Mineral watera Mineral anil bltiimlnnua aubalaneaa, la a rniile atate, not otbarwlsa proTldad ftjf. Mineral ki-l men Mineral^; aee .VpartmaiMitr.Viiti'rnl Itiaturn MIU inioli' Mu frames | aaa Vapt, UtmiD, etc, Mils nuilo on frainea, when wholly of col. ton ; aee i'ttvn. fjiiiem, ale. —when bk'aelied, printeil, painted, or dyad .Models of Inventloua aiiil other improve. meiila In the aria, urovhted lliat iiu artl. rie ur artlclea aliall ne deeniml a modrl nr Impntvement which can lie rttled for use Mohair and allk Iwlat; are Silk Tlilnl, eti { Muhalr, mauufactiin>a of; aiw Miitni/itfttirnt <\f ihfatif iiuir^ etc Molaaaes Mordant, patent; see /\i(«ii( MordaHl .... Moaaira, real and Imitations, when ant; see fntnaoa, etc Mosaics, nut set ; see rrtfneoa, etc., ntit art. .Mosaics, ImltatioiiM of, not set ; see Oiti- itiomlM, etc., not Hft Mosa for iieila 01 mattreasua ; see //iiir,rt,lier than salad oil . Olive salad oil, and all other oUve-oU, not otberwtae provided for OU.ca , Opium Oranges, lemons, and limes Orange and lemon peel < iricans ; sec Anatto ( imamental feathers or flovem ; see Fitith- trtt Orplment 'iwr FsrTial m to 10 10 m 10 18 Free. 30 Fnw, If) in lit iw m 10 10 38 80 W 80 80 Psrwa: 18 u 1* nm, U IS 84 Vtm, 84 It 84 10 14 4 15 It 34 4 IB 10 4 80 •4 11) IB 10 • Free. I'rea, 10 IB W IB 10 8 8 4 M IB 10 8 8 4 to IB 40 4 80 14 to 4 8 Free, 6 4 8 Vtik. 10 t Free. Free. 10 18 34 80 34 80 18 e«. Frc*. 10 lb M 18 10 4 10 4 so 34 8 4 80 34 to 34 HO 34 10 18 10 ■i to 18 10 4 80 84 10 8 "^ TAR IB s w II u 15 M M I* u 16 4 9* IB 1 H. I'rwi. lU IB » » • B 4 M> 15 10 ( 6 4 10 15 w 4 w U tu 4 B Frw, B 4 n Vn*. 10 1 «. Frw. 110 IB uo •- ao ti sn U ito IB M. Fm«. ao IB w IB 10 10 BO W B BO H 80 84 110 ■J4 •20 in 110 to IB 10 BO 84 V> •M;;;.r^wl,,.,,.p„p„.i,i;.i^j^_.. "I'Ulimrv.. • Mil,,-. ,„ ^i,,;""''' ■ ,'; "' '•'•''j ""'n«niif,Vi;,r;;i <^^::!!^':X7/'"^f '■■■■:■::: ;»p"i- H.r,.(;,^, '" """" '•I'T iK.,«,. . ''«|iiT (uriKlii^, " ■ ''oriUmimi I'»r««„|, fruiii'i.i' ^'itiikl;, • '. :; '"■ KIM, , """" '•" ! «"o f'miiiM ;"7;':';,"'"' '''".'Uti^::::: ??i',::&'"'^-' • : j'livlliK ,(„li,.,.'. 1 ;*«' "!■ Illlll,.,! h,Vl..y I'uMfl. Ii..i...i^ '*i««, «(c, not net il,iti„l .™ '• *"■• "«"n'i"/i, Mi-m/ I'Mfj, Iri.rljit.'r uf.' .' „ 'yio'bo«;,;ii: {;|h«-(ii,p(m' ;:;;;;: {,j|;;.Wi,,«,,.^->V— vti: , TAR 10 Free. I Free. 24 24 ['Unuiii,. . «J,.u„d''"'''''''''"pi'.i.,,f(i;«.,;'ii; '■/'"i/T.!!:' '■''"'' '"^■•^'-ry-vi.i./l ■ all,, ivrii.. II ,■ ',Tt,'""AV lial-. . ""• '/V« ki "•; m;.v ' '>"lt«lv«nlin| j <"■ /V-i/,;,. "'""""Ill i wiu Kniflvti^, "»ll"«, MUliiufMrliir™ . / " ■.; I 'i« vin"j "'"i'»n»f"'''ii.M : : ' taylnu c«ru« . . . . I iiimljiigi) I'liinn " , I'liwh, lmiior«''j ',,;,' //,ie.«.(<(l ; i™ Henm-'mj'. '. I«piNscod oil; »,.o llfrnp-mid, Klt'ilil n«w .Ilk i ,ee .Wt, mii; 'oVii'.wwV;- "«r (wooH, etc. .AAom i^aT^ "'"' .",'■'"« "'■'''» ii" Ji- .' '. '. ■ licil-chalk penclla IicdH!halk Itod-lMd; .eo fhi'l'e'i^ia'lM'Liid::'' IS' """""f'ctured; boo Ratmi itc , lllm or iMddy .....".'."" I Kiflca J see ilfiiketa.,',',',',\",\\\ "i'~-nar- Fn*. IB 80 IB 10 # f' TAR ITxiTKn Statbi' TABim— CVnMnunf. 1816 TAR United Btatks' TABirrn— Conti'iiH^}. KlngleU of bnir ; nee BtomUIm RcdD, iron ; »ee Iran in Barn, He. Hodi, copper ; sec Copr^ r Jiodii^ etc lloll brlnmtone Itonun vitrica , ace Blue or Aonioii Vitriol Koinan crmont ^ KooflliK »lRtn», etr. KoofliiK tllcn ; »cc /Vti'fiij; and Ilooflm, etc. Root, iris or orris ; see inn or Orrii Hi,iil. . Root, licorice ; Hoe Lieorift PttntP, etc Roote, rariiicinnl : kcb Medirinal Drugs, etc. Root, madder ; we Madirr Hoot Roots lued exclusively in dicing ; see Her- n«, Xtila, etc Rote-wood, nunnfsctiircs of; see Manii/ac- turiH 0/ Cedar-uroofi, etc Ro9d-wood, iinmanufHctured; see Woodn . . Rotten-stone Roncou ; s i^n A natio Rough raarhlc ; sec Marble in th» rough. . . Rubies and imitations, wlien set ; see Dia- numds, etc Rubies, not set : see Oinwos, etc., not fiet. . Rubies, Imitations thereof, not set ; sec IHa- motids, etc., imitatiotu thereof, not net. . Rngs; see Carpett Rye and rye flour Baddlciy of nil kinds, not otherwise pro- vided for Saddlery, common tinned or Japanned SalHower HafTron and saffron cake Sago. Salad nil ; see OIiM Salad Oil Sal ammonia Salmon, preserved Sal soda, and all carlwnatcs of soda by whatever name designated, not otherwise provided for Halted ilsh ; see Fit^, foreign, etc Saltpetre, or nitrate of soda or potash, when refined or partially refined Saltpetre, or nitrate of soda or potash, when crude Salts, Kpsom, Ulnuber, Hochene, and nil other salts and preparations of salts, not otherwIsQ prnvidod for Sardines : .'«ni Arabic, etc Scppla f^w'lng silk. In the gum or purified Sewing needles ; see XeedUm of all kinda , . Shaddocks Shear cteel -, see Steel in Bart Shekthing paper Sheathing copiier, .lut no copiier to bo con tidcred such, ond admitted free, except In sheets of forty-eight Indies long and fourteen inchra wide, and weighing iVom fourteen to thirty-four ounces the stiuare foot Sheathing metal, not wholly or In part of iron, ungalvanlxcd Sheathing felt : se. I8». Per Cf nl. Psr t-snt. 80 24 SO 24 80 15 SO IB 20 IB 20 IB 26 IB 20 IB 20 IB 20 IB 20 IB B Free. 5 Free. 40 80 20 8 io 8 10 4 20 15 SO 24 10 4 10 8 80 24 20 IB SO 24 20 15 6 Free. 20 IB 20 IB SO 24 10 8 80 24 20 8 20 15 10 8 5 4 20 15 40 an 20 15 40 so 21) 8 30 24 80 24 80 24 40 80 20 15 30 24 Free. Free. OT 24 25 19 20 15 Free. Free. 10 8 B 4 40 30 10 8 20 15 80 24 20 15 80 8 18 12 20 IB Free. Free. Free. Free Free. Free BO Free. 80 24 20 IB 10 4 to 15 AiUcIm. 1844. I lUI. Sheets, tin ; see Tin in I'lalCH or Shteta. . . Sheets, tine, spelter, or leutencgiio; sec Zinc, etc. Shell, manufactures of; too Manufartures <{f Bone, etc Shells of cocoa ; see Cocon Shell* .... Shell boxes ; sec Card-eaaen, etc. Shells, unmanufactured ; see TbrtofM and other .'■ihelU Shellac Sherry ; see Wine» Shingle bolts and stave bolts .shirts made on fram^ ; tee Capa, Qlovfa, etc .Shirts made on frames. If wholly of cotion; see Cai:a. (Uore^, etc —when i>lcached, printed, painted, or lycd Shoes composed wholly of India rubber ... Shoddy ; see irns^c, or Shoddy Shot, leaden : see Leaden Shot Shmbs ; see Treea, Shmhtt, etc Side arms of every description Singles, silk ; sec Silk, raw, nut moi e wl- vnnced, etc Silk, nr- -.ufactures of, if embroidt-rv'd ; sec Mamtfacturea of Cotton, Linen, Silk, etc. Silk twist, and twist composed of mohair and silk Silk, sewing, nuriflr J ; see Saving Silk . . . Silk, sewing, in the gum ; sea Seieing Silk Silks, floss ; see Floaa Silka Silk, manufactures of; sec Mamifaclurea ofS,!k Silk and cotton halters' plush ; see llattera' Plual, Silk and cotton velvet In the piece, cotton chief value ; see Velvet compoaed of Cot- ton and Silk Silk, raw, not more advanced In manufac ture than singles, tram, and thrown, or organsine Silk, raw, or as reeled from tho cocoon, not being doubled, twisted, or advanced in manufacture In any way Silk twist, suitable for the manufacture ex clusively of shoes, cut in slips or patterns of the sIko and shape for shoes, Itoots, bootees, or buttons, slippers, and getters, not combined with India rubber ; sec Manufacturea of Mohair Cloth, etc Silver embroideries; see Articlea embroid- ered, etc .' Silver, manufactures of; see Mamtfacturea of Braaa, etc Silver-plated metal, in sheets or ether form Silver leaf; see Gold and Sileer Leaf. Sliver coin ; see Coina Sisal grass ; see Jute, etc Sktus, flsh ; see Flah Skim Skins, furs dressed on ; see Fura dreaaed on ,Skin Skins, gold-beatiTs' ; see Gold-beatera Skina Skins of all kinds, japanned Skins, tanned and dressed, of all kinds. .. Skins, raw, of all kUids; see Baw llidea and Skina, etc Skins of all kinds, not otherwise provided for Slabs, iron ; see Iron in Bara, etc Slals", marble ; see Marble In the rough. , . . Slabs of Indlii rubber, unmanufactured . . . Slates, roofing ; see Footing Slatea Slates other than roofing; see Roofing Slatea, etc Slate pencils Smalts Smoked flsh ; see Fish, foretijn, etc. SnufT; see Segara, Snif, etc' Soap, Castile, perfumed, Windsor, and all other kinds Soap stocks and'Cinffs ; «p ■ ThI.'"':; Socks made on frames ; see Capa, Olovea, etc ". Socks made on frames, wholly of cotton ; see Capa. Glovea, etc., made on fAtmca, ichollji of Cotton —when bleached, printed, painted, or dyed Soda, sal ; see Sal .Soda Soda, cartMinatc- of ; see ,Sal Soda. . Sods, nitrate of, refined, etc. ; see .Saltpe- tre, refined Soda, nitrate of, when crude ; see Saltpetre, crude Soda ash Sole leather ; see Leather, tanned, etc. . . . Sonvenlra ; lee Card-caw* I'ur C'rnl. 15 IB 10 30 B 5 40 to 20 20 JO 5 20 80 IB 30 80 30 80 26 25 20 20 16 80 30 SO 16 Free. 26 20 20 10 26 20 20 30 20 10 26 25 20 20 20 40 30 10 20 20 20 20 10 R 10 20 80 Pir Cast. 8 18 ■ 24 4 24 4 4 80 Free. 24 16 24 24 4 15 Free. 24 12 24 24 24 84 19 10 16 IB 12 Free. 24 24 24 13 Free. 10 IB 15 8 19 16 15 24 16 4 19 19 15 IB 16 30 24 8 24 15 24 8 8 4 4 15 84 12 24 4 24 4 4 30 Free. 24 16 24 24 4 15 Free. 24 13 24 24 H 24 19 16 12 Free. 24 24 13 Free. 19 16 15 24 S a 4 4 16 TAR Spsra ; aeo Bourdu, Hani: Vt'..' f pernmcetl ol , foro ™ • ../j'*''?' wir I'mtro SiATM" Ta BiFrg-rciiiSlrMarf. 80 80 Free. Free. 16 80 15 24 24 Friio. Free. 12 ' I« onrrnndi,,... ,„ l««„ ■ • • • Stlll-bottoms . Stockings made Free. 16 16 4 16 »0 80 4 16 8 16 16 24 Hi 24 Fri'f.. 16 Free. 16 12 I 16 1 24 r^^n^Si^'iili'norn^-aVniJ Tar.... Tartar; SX;" i-^Jf »' "/ J^^^ 1 «««el« of K„l,|' !n „„'''"'" • .• ';™»fe!''»™">'p-iuc.i™;™ 10 20 20 8 IS IS aiul] 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 6 30 Free. 6 16 10 I T..i..„ i'"* ".' i"at(^» or Hlii>et.j ' "n framea'. -S^:^.^"o?^;- ^'f'i'tf.j .10 20 80 Stoekln^,w,,e„t,oac,.ed;p;,;;;.i;i-,-i;.i; !«":'-K'r'"^'-'''^V«e;.*;„™;i; 20 20 tonos^^burr. "n.naaufacUmid ; Z /;„rr| stone fotteiT: 'Jn V„«"'',-"""' Sugar of all iinj], S>'!pI.ur;ir„„r'„fr°"'r.rltriol 30 10 20 10 24 16 24 16 24 24 I In. nmiiiifiir.!. ...... ^_ S 16 8 10 I Free. 30 I 24 1» H 10 s 1" I 8 ''.5!utv,;it';r'''''"'"''«"'™»i'«virn ;i In In pigK, liarn, or iVi.Vi;: I Inneil «,(ldl,rv • ...n iv^ y /; 'npi>ot« ofci ^''" /iahatntt. , J~rsfr''S°--.V"«.i:;: milrni, > Trf< 80 20 20 10 80 80 24 24 «««, raw, not viore Hd- piriiH of; „,„ 4)>i-,v>;-^; j^ -I s 20 20 80 16 6 20 28 80 m 40 30 r> !.-> !I0 in Free. 15 16 16 16 15 4 4 Free. 24 Free. 4 8 Free. 19 16 16 24 24 Free. 16 4 24 24 SO 24 4 12 24 Froo. Sumac. .. ' '"^ ^'''^Aw. ...... . , Snn.«l,ad™".' i™ '/Vrii;;.' :.••.; ■^:. ■• ' : ■ '■'■ '■ '■ Sun-shadee, f: -}^^%t^'''^^' in 20 20 20 20 In 20 2il <* I 80 franiai and vi,a. ,"' "''ei;« lor; -...I „yr , Tm'^ra^l^ ".'." ."."' "f India rui,:| "^ cWyji^i.' .■.';.■' Sweetmeata; seo 24 24 Free, 16 16 16 16 16 4 16. 4 4 24 U I 24 I 80 ; fleo FmiHftt. . luriHMiiIni I imufne . . . Tiirii,., gr,,,,„ ;■;;.,■,■«;.;,;,;;.);•;, l^'fln^nndpndMlirpail <,reg,.,,u,,o ,..,u„„„^,^ „„„.a„„Sircdi 20 20 30 20 20 80 SO 20 25 SO SO IS Free. 24 IB 24 24 4 16 16 24 24 15 16 24 24 16 16 24 4 SO 24 19 is U ' - f-s r TAB TlmnD BTATn.' TAEirr»— ConMniud. 1818 TAS ArtlclM. VegeUblcfl uied excliufvoly in dyeing ; seo BerrieSj Ifuts Vellnro Velvet iu the pieoCf c^mpcMod wholly of ootton Velvet, when bleached, printed, painted, or dyed. Velvet in tlie piece, compoHud of cotton and ellk, but of which ootton i« Uic compo- nent nia^rlal of chief value Venetian rarpetiu^; ; aeo Carpets Verdigri:) Vermlcclii ; see Macaroni Vermilion Veasela of cafit iron ; ticu Iroti^ m«f, etc . . . VeoAeU of metal ; see Alanu/acturea of Brass, etc, VeMcIa of gluKH ; ikh' Mami/dctures of Glasn Vinegar , Vitriol, green ; «i!o Cmtperas , Vitriol, white; hco White Vittiot^ or Svi- vhate 0/ Zinc , Vitriol, oil of; gi-e iivJphuric Aeid. ..... A'olatile oil ; hcu OUSt volatiUy etc AVafew "Wares composed of earthy and mineral subftcauce«, not othurwiHo provided for ; Bee ISarihtn, etc ■\Vare8, Jupunncd ; Mt-e Japanned Wcares. . . AVares of metal; Hctt Mann/aetures of BrasSt etc Waren of glanH; i>eo Mani{f(U'tun^s of Glass W'arcA of papier-niacli'j ; eee Mam^facturcs of J^pier-maelie , AVarefl, plated and gilt; bi-u Plated aivi out WarfH , AVaatu, or eVoddy "Watcheii, crystals for; see Glwm Criistals fifr Watchfs Watches and parts of watchtw Vatch nmtenuld and uiiflni>ealiiig ; bl* Svaling-tcax Wax, Imh'«' ; fee lieestrax Wax rniidlt-H and tapura Wearint? apparel ; mh! dothimj, readu-made Wearing appurcl In actual Utic, and other porHonal enectfl not mcrcliandlHe, profea- Hional bookt>, implemem , inatrumentD, and toolit of trade, occupation, ur em- ployment, of iH-'rAoui) arriving in the t. Statef , provided tliat thin exemption Hhall not hv construed to include iimchinery or other articles imported for nao In any manufacturing of tablbiliment, or for Bate Webbing, composed wholly or in part of India rubber ; see Braces Weld Whalelione basketa ; nee Bankets Whalebone, the produce of foreign fljlicricH P.r C'tnt. p.r cm 6 Kree. 80 24 20 16 20 24 20 15 80 24 20 15 SO 24 20 16 80 24 80 24 SO 24 80 24 20 18 20 12 10 4 80 •34 80 24 80 24 80 24 80 24 80 24 80 24 SO 24 ti 4 80 24 10 8 10 4 80 24 30 24 80 24 80 24 20 15 20 15 30 24 Free 5 80 20 Free. U 15 United Statm* TAnirr^—Continutd, Arttelei Whalebone hata and bonnets ; eee Hatsand Bonnets Whale oil, foreign ; see CWte, Neat*s-foot, etc Whale oil of American fiahcrieB ; see OilSt Wermaceti, etc Wheat and wheat flour White acid ; aeo Acids, acetic, etc ^Vbito and red lead White, I'aria ; eee Whitimj, or I'aris Whit* White vitriol, or (>ulphate of iluo Whiting, or Taris white Willow batketj) ; aeo Baskets Willow hata and bonnota ; ace Hats and Bonnettt qf Slratv, etc Willow HQuartia for Uaia and bonnota ; see Flats Willow prepared for baaket-makoni* uae; Bcc Obier and Willotc Wilton carpeting ; see Caipets Window glrtH(>, broad, crowia, or cylinder. . Windsor aoap ; see A'ortj* , WinoA, Ihirgnncfy, Cliampagne, claret, Ma deira, port, sherry, and all other wlueB and imittitiona of wiuea ." Wiugt) of gold, Bilver, metal ; see Epaulets Woad or paatel Wood, nianufacturet) of; aee Manufactures of Wood Wood, unmanufactured, not otbcrwlse pro' vided for Wood, fire ; wee PtrC'icootl Woods, cedar, granadllta, ebony, roahoga* ny, rose -wood, and aalin-wood, when manufactured • Woods, namely, - edar, box, elwny, lignum- vttft>, granadil , mahogany, rose-wood, Batln-svoi)d, anu \ll other cabinet woods, unnmuufactur«:_ Wooda, dye, extracts or decoctions of; see Extracts and Decoctions Woods, dye ; aee Brazil-icood, and all other Dye-ivoods in Sticks Wool, manufactures of; flee Manufactures of Wool, etc Wool, unmanufactured, not otherwise pro- vided fur Wool costing 20 cents or less per pound . . . Woolen and worsted yam ". Wool hata ; aee Hats of Wool Wool hat tK)di»s ; see Hat Bodies of Wool. Woolen listingB Worsted manufactures ; ace Manufactures of Worsted ■ Worka, foreign. In course of republication ; see Periodicals Yams Yam, woolen and worsted ; nee Woolen and Worsted Vam Yellow acid ; see Acids^ acetic, etc. Zinc, sulphate of; see Whita Vitriol Zinc, spelter or teutenegue. In sheets Zinc, spelter, or teutenegue, unmnnufac- tured f far Cnt. P, 221 ; l)emo- craiir Jteriew; vii. 941, ix. 329, x. 357, xiv. 291, 447 ; A merican Quartertg Iteview, x. 444, xl. 816 j Souikern Quarterly Ueview, ii. 682, vi. 200, viii. 213 ; NiLBS's Heg., vols, xvii., xix., xx., xxi., xxU.. xxlii., xxiv. ; Soilkem Literarg Messenger, viii. 421. The speeches lit Mr. Clay, Mr. Adams, and other statesmen, may be found in the volumes of Nii.es'h Register. Tazpaullng, a broad piece of i-nrxvas well daubed with tar, and used to cover the hutchr,--.y* of u ship at. sea, to prevent the penetration of the rain or sea- water which may at times rutih over tlie declcs. Tartar ((Jr. raprapof, infernal; because it is the ■ediment or dregs of wine), the substance which con- cretes upon the inside oC winc-cuslts, It is called red and white argcl, according tn the wine from which it is obtained. When purified it is often called cream of tartar: it is a bltartrate of potash. — See Auuai.. Taaman, Abel Jan»en. llistorj' is silent in re- gard to the early days of this navigator and geograph- ical discoverer. He was a Hollander by birth, ancl appointed by the Dutch East India Company to the command of three vessels which they bad fittel out at Batavia for the discover)' of new countries and a more extended commercial power. Tasman sailed Septem- l>er 6, 1G42, and the lirst-fruits of his enterprise wod the discovery of that part of New Holland culled Van Oiejien's Land, which tlie navigators made on 24th November. IJarly in December they set out again, and on the 13th they first saw the islands of New Zea- land, on which the natives successfully opposed his luudlng. After visiting several islands in the South Sea, Some of which were previously unknown, he re- turned to Batavia, June l&tb, fAS, having sailed round the southern hemisphere of the globe. The short- sighted policy of the Dutch East India Company pre- vented the publication of uny account of this voyage, but a map or chart of the discoveries of Tasmn: was preserveil at the Stadt House at Amsterdam, a i ,'omo years after Dirl< Rembramlts pulilished an extract from the journal of this enterprising seaman, of which later geogra|ihical writers have been content to avail them- selves. In 1856 a proposition was made in England to restore to the vhvle district hitherto (but unjustly) .t*'i>J(' ,.: !h)- TAT •'i 1819 TAX rce. 15 4 15 16 IB IB U ii 24 IB 24 15 24 24 4 24 24 24 80 8 4 Free. 24 24 Free. 19 IB 15 IB 19 IB IB 19 4 IB 12 known as Van Dlemen's Land, the name of Tcumania, in meritorlouB honor of its original (liscoverer, Tatta, a town in the territory of Sinde, situated about 60 miles in a direct line from the sea, at a short distance from the western bault of the River Indus, in lat. 24° W N., long. 68^ 17' K. Population un- certain, probably aliout 8U00. The streets are nar- row and dirty ; but the houses, though built of mud, chopped straw, and timber, are superior to tlie low huts seen in the adjoining towns and villages. Being situ- ated a little above the part where the Indus divides into tlie two great branches by which its waters are pouinl into the Indian Ocean, it might ho supposed thut iatta would be a place cf groat trade. But, ow- ing to the uuwholesomeness of the climate, the barbar- ism of the tribes on its banlis, and other causes, its commerce has never corresponded with what might have been anticipated, louliing at its position on the map. It had probably attaiued the acme of its proti- perity in the- beginning of the IGth century. In 1555 the Portuguese, by way, as they stated, of avenging the treachery of the King of Sinde, inliumanly uius- sacred 8000 of the inhabitants, and burned the town. — Conquetea des Portugau, tome iv. p. 183. It is prolj- able that Tatta never fully recovered from this dreiul- fnl blow ; but Mr. Hamilton mentions that in the 1.' th century it was extensive and po^iulous, possessing mucli commerce, with manufactures of silk, wool, and cabinet ware. The decayed state in which wo now find it has been a consequence of the misgovernment and rapacity of its present rulers, the Ameers of Sinde, under whose s .vay irt fell more tliau 50 years ago. In 1685 tlni Knglish established a factor}' at Tatta, in the > iew of facilitating the dis|)osul of woolens and other g^fods in the countries traversed by the Indus ; uud the building occupied by the factory, though far fnun nmg- nificent, woa recently, if it l)o not still, the best, not in Tatta only, but in the whole country of Sinde. The chief exports are rice, slmwls from Cashmere, opium from Malwah, bides, ghee, cotton, i;outb' wool carpets, drugs, etc. Putchock, an article largely consumed m Cliina, is a peculiar export of Sinde, The imports comprise a variety of articles, but the quantities are trifling ■- they consist principally of spices, d^'o-stufl'.<. hardware, tin, iron, etc., broadcloths, Knglieh cottons, bUUs, etc. But at present the trndo is quite incon- siderable; and no one could beliove, a prior!, that the natural emporium of so great r. .''">' as tho Indus, traversing many extensive countries, would cut so in- signillcant a figure in the tradini; world. A very well-informed party, Ur Buist, editor of the Sombay Times, has, in his work on the late pedition into Afghanistan, made tho following observations on the trade of the Indus : " The glowing doscrii^tions of Biirnci; appear to have given a very exaggerated idea of the value of the in- ternal traffic of the countries l^eyond tlie Indus. It ■was forgotten that where there was no industry, no manufactures or mineral wealth, no sca-coost or rivers to permit exportation, there could )>« little or nothing to give in exchange for Imports ; and that the wants of a population purely nomado must at all times b« simple and singularly few. The wliolc of our com- merce with Persia has never exceeded two millions sterling a year, rarely almve one ; the total of our trade with Afghanistan certainly never exceeded a million annually, and has very rarely amounte5 sterling. The next was by Uarius, the son of Hystaspes, -liich was a land-tax by assessment, and deemed so odious that Iiis subjects styled him, by way cf derision, " Darius the Trader," 480 B.C. — U'Eun's llislorif des Finances. Taxes in specie were first introduced in England by William I., 10G7, and he raised tliem arbitrarily ; yet subsidies in kind, as in wool, com, and other products uf England, continued til! the accession of Richard II., 1377.— IIaydh. The following table exhibits the several taxes of all the states of which there are any returns, and shows the aggregate of the taxes of each »tate, and also of the separate species of tax : ANM'Ai SUlei. Alalnma Connecticut Florida GoorKla Indiana Maiuo Mississippi Now Hampaliire New Jersey Xew York North ('arollna Pennsylrsula Ubode Islaud South (Jarollna Texas Vermont Virginia Wisoousta Total, eighteen Ht»te« $428,690 67,U4T B8,(il0 2S)2,707 5&'i,4'i3 ssi.on 779,168 77,313 114, OSd 1,536,062 16,9r)t 373,421 74,83" 1S8,.\13 368,649 93,983 Taxes in the I sitfo SrATKs, 1S,VI. County. Heliool, $202,900 1,101 23,030 ino.ooi 449,616 141,70.^ 436,993 84,8.')4 190,085 144^189 l,0iffl,212 85,065 3,678 229,285 151,835 $7,619 48,669 106 ir>,Ti» 90,730 234,''4'2 31,106 144,178 02,700 43i340 840,006 60,U37 88,930 46,697 75,980 $2,^104 80,444 14,'027 f4,S38 1"2,747 7.401 160,745 54,5.11 66,'lli2 36«,757 45,^S7 49,143 96,809 110,077 9,194 $3,l»00 fO,117 171,654 6«3,S.'^7 4,098 250,913 11'.i,014 ■ 060 810,867 29,077 20,817 247,801 20,809 72,103 AU olhan. $12,029 288,005 2,876 42,571 53,153 837,946 80,979 20l'!,9!l3 171,Sa8 si.'.lflfl 847,831 198,550 1SS,781 21,332 14'>,763 352,836 167,375 Total. /;6fi3,446 660,843 85,287 622,492 1,383,300 1,758,037 1,340,400 909,906 599,404 7.100,256 46,5,343 6J)S9,«)5 347,111 632,162 191,818 719,414 1,126,852 670,409 $2.5,065,129 TEA 1820 TEA Ailam Smith layn down four pfeneral maxims upon ' the subject of taxation, which arc as follows : " 1. The ' lubjectB (if ever}' »tatc otinlit to contrilmta toward tlio ' support of the government ns nearly as frossllilo in proportion to their rcnpectivo aliilities ; that is, in pro- portion to till' revenue which tlioy roBp«ctively enjoy uniler the pn)li'ction of the state. 2. Tl'i" tax which each individual is iHiimd to pa) ought to lie eertnin, and not arbitrary'. The time of payment, tlie manner of payment, the quantity to he paid, ought all lo bo clear and plain to the contributor, and to ever)- other person, 3. Every tax ought to lo levied at the time, or in the manner most likol)- to .pj convenient for the contributor to pay it. 4. Kvcr) tax ought to bo so contrived as both to tako out and keep out of the pock- ets of the people as little as possible over and aliovo what it brings into the public treasury of the state." Tho subject of taxation is ably distussed in the lulin- liirgh lieview, xxxill. xc. ; Jkmncralic ll^i'ieii; xx. ; Quarterli' licrieu; xxxv. ; American (l\iarlerly tirghtcr, vlli. Forfurtlier articles, .we 1)k llov's lin-ieio, xlii. i Ill-NT's Meirhimis' Magazine, iv. . iS'r ulliem liefirir, viii. ; Xorth American Jieviac, xix. (Du I'oscEAt;) ; Wealm, Review, xlvi., xli. Tea (in one Chinese dialect, Chn, in another Te ; Du. Te; Fr. Thi^ It. Te; Uuss. Tchai ; Hind. rhat\ JIalay, Teh), tho leaves of tlie tree or iihrub (Then ' rlridit, I.inn.). Tho tea-plant ordinarily grows to ''.o height of from three to six feet, and has a genc:.il re- semblance to tho myrtle, as the latter is seen in con- genial situations in tlio southern countries of Europe. It Is a jiolyandrous plant, of the natural order Colum- nifi r^ black ; and a stronger infusion of the former will, in most constitutions, produce consider- able excitement and wakifulness. Of all narcotics, however, tea is the least pernicious ; if, indeed, it lie 80 in any d< ^ree, which wo very much doulit. The tea shrub may be described as a very liardy ovcrgreen, growing readily in the opi .-■ air, from tho equator to the 45th degree of latitude. For the last sixty year; it has lieen reared in this coiintiy, without difficulty, in grecn-liouses ; and tliriving plants of 't are to bo seen in the gardens of .lava, Singapore, Malacca, and I'cnang; uU within six degrees of the equator. The climate most congeniil to it, however, seems to ho that between the 2.'ith anil -.'iid degrees of latitude, judg- ing from the success of its cultivation in China. For the general purposes .if commerce, tho growth of good tea Is confined to China . and is there restricted to flvo provinces, or rather parts of provinces; viz., Fokien and Canton, hut more (Mrticularly the tirbi, for black tea; and Kiang-nan, Kiang-si, and C'he-kiang, hut chiefly the first of these, for green. The tea districts all lit- between the latitudes just mentioned, and the 115th and I'i'M d«|f»«es of east longitude. However, almost averi proNiace of China prixliices more or less t«a, but generally of an inferior quality, and for local oMiaumption only ; or when of a sujierior iiuality, lilio •HM of tb« Ana wlaae of Kmnce, losing its duvor.when exported. The plant Is also exteniiTely cultivated In Japan, Tonqutn, and Cochin-China ; and in some of tho notintalnous parts of Ava ; the people of whfch conntrj- use it largely as a kind of piekle prtterred in i>il.' Bc.tanically considered, the tea-tree Is a single sjiecies ; the green and bluck, with all tho diversities of each, being mere varieties, like the varieties of the grape, produced by difference of climate, soil, localit' , age of the crop when talten, and modes of preparation for the market. Considered us an object of iigricul- tura. \iroduce, the tea-plant bears n close resemblance to tho vine. In tho husbnndr)- of China, It may be said to take the same place which the vi;ie occujiies in tho southcni countries of Europe. Li', the hitter, its growth is chiefl)- confined to hilly ct.icts, not suited to tho growth of grain. The soils capable of jiroducing the finest kinds are within given districts, limited and j-artial. Skill and care, both in husbandry and I rep- aration, are quite as necessary to the production of good tea :if to that of good wine, CultivalioH. — The best wine Is prodrc") only in par- ticular latitudes, as Is tho best tea ( ■• ''.perh.ipb, tho latter is not restricted to n.. r~ , • e. Only the most civilized nations of Eurn;.^ i rica have as yet succeeded in producing /.'e d wines ■ which Is also the ease In tho East with te. 'or tho agricultural ml manufacturing skill and Inn ■' the Chinese are there iin({ue8tionably pre-eminent. These circum- stances deserve to be attended to In estlmiilliig the difficulties which must he encouniered In any attempt to propagate tho tea-plant in colonial or other posses- sions. These difficulties are ob»l<)i(»ly reiy great, and perhaps all hut insuperoble. Most of the at- tempts hitherto made to raise it in foreign cou.itriea were not, Indeed, of ,-. sort from which mucli was to he expected. Within tho last few years, however, con- siderable efforts have been made by the Dutch govern- ment of Java to produce tea on the hills of that island; and having the assistance of Chinese cultivators troin Fokieii, wlio form a considerable part of the emigrants til .Ik , a. a degree of success has attended them, bevcnd what might have been expected in so warm a climete. The llrazilians have made similar efforts; havinf, also, with the ossistance of Chinese laborers, attemiited t( propagate the tia shrub near Ilio de Janeiro ; and a small quantity of tolerably good tea has been jiioduced. Hut owing to the high price of laiior, and the quantity required Ip tho cuitivation and manipulation of tea, there is no probability, e\ in were tho soil suitable to the plant, that its culture can be profitably carried on in that country. It may, prrhaps, succeed in Assam, where its culture tr now being attempted ; for labor Is there comparatively cheap, and the hilly and table- lands are saiil to bear a close resemblance to those of the tea distrcts of China ; but wo are not sanguine in our expectations as to ^he result. I'ultirittiim nf the Tea-nlant in the United Slates.-- This plant, which has so long afforded a most grateful beverage to millions of people in every civilized coun- try of the globe, there is much reason to believe, may be successfully cultivated in favorable situations and under proper management, for local consumption, at least, in nn.st, if not all of our Southern States. This was partially realized from an experiment made at fjreenville, in the mountainous parts of South Caro- lina, by the late Junius Smith, in 1848 to 1852. lie imported several cases of bhii k and giecn tea plants, of (.'hinese stock, of fro.n five to seven years' giowth, and planted them in the village above named, wlicro they remaineil about two years. On their removal to a plant<-tlon in that vicinity, in March, 185], Dr. Smith stated that " they grew reViarkably last summer, and are row fully rooted, witli fine large main and collate- ral roots, with an abundance of librous radicles. They all stood the snow, eif,ht or rino inches deep upon the level on tho iid of January, and the severe frosts of winter, without the glightest covering or pp'tectiou, TEA 1821 •nd without the lots of a single plant. They are now oil forming part of the plantation, composed of thuja received rrom China last June, and a few planted the first weelt in June, which germinated tlie ITih cf Sep- tember. AU these young plants were thinly covered with straw. Some of them have lost their foliage; TEA cthera have not. The stems do not appear to have susUlned any injury. The fresh buds are beginning to shoot. I can not help thinking that we have now demonstrated the adapUtion of the tea-plant to the soil and climate of this country, and succeeded in its per- manent establishment within our borden." T.XT 5 53,469,469 60,5I2,!«4 71.460,4-21 00,800,5.36 70,136,136 85,792,03-2 83,250,061 80,200,414 04,493,989 07,021,818 Amount of Duty racelvcd IntrnoD Pountis. 23,730,150 25,400,294 24,877,460 22,0,'S7,O4fl 24,206,033 22,24f,4S5 23,819,420 25,220,042 21,006,843 24,480,408 22,4.M,Ma 24,681,402 2M09,865 24,389,601 2^917,853 2-?,flJ3,992 24,005,794 20,627,531 25,241,003 25,712,935 2fl,754,,')87 27,.'>74,025 27,093,015 27,018,-295 -il»,20-2,l74 20,046,852 29,931,178 29,3n.'..V.'>7 29, WC ■",'•> .10,010 '13,', •2n,9fl7,(l,\'i 3I,.548,331 3t,SJi.,0-20 3l,',lfi",«M 3(l,riM,()0( *I.U'-',2,'I6 3»,C.'^.'JO0 32,361,538 36,127,-287 32,2.V2.0-2S !I0,67B,0C7 37,35'>,illl 40,-2ll3,3!i3 41,.1o3,770 I4,i'i:i,iri3 10 110,3^11 l<:.:iM,821 4>i.7.'ll,7-') 50,021,5(0 51,112,802 53,949,060 61,713,034 68,834,087 01,963,041 63,4»,286 03,273,212 09,13-2,101 07,10,5,860 1,423,660 1,632,467 1,929,614 2,6C9,739 3,330,624 3,446,071 8,620,174 l,90^205 1,59-2,705 3,U7,738 3,752,111 8,8-2t,980 3,770,030 3,968,055 4,05S092 8,302,497 3,431,864 3,872,094 3,089,806 8,5-20,912 3,738,428 8,946,530 3,818,122 3,90,5,477 4,031,010 3,738,043 8,705,590 3,448,843 3,321,723 3,387,097 3,311,919 3,«19,839 3,441,102 3,589,381 3,83-2,427 4,071 ,6;16 .3.'22!I,8I0 3,362,0,16 3,058,803 3,i:-2,804 3 973,008 4,0S9,967 4,407,042 4,u-24,193 4,833,353 6,112,006 6,000,494 5,329,992 6,171,422 5,596,901 5,900,025 5,984,172 5,083,791 4,780,149 6,310,276 5,536,620 5,067,900 4,774,536 Averng* Ratn of Duty por Lb pud bjr ti)« Consumer cl. 2i 61 2 4t 2 9 8 U lU U 5 2 8 3 2 111 3 4 3 U 2 lU 3 B 3 U 2 lU 2 9( 2 11 2 11 2 9 2 9) 2 lot 2 10 2 01 2 2 T 2 6i 2 41 2 3 2 3 2 2( ATornga Ptict per Lb in Hood- Average Prtre per Lb InclueiTe of Duty 2J 2 2 2 01 2 U 1 lOf 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 II 2 2t 2 2. 9 oj 2 2t 2 2t 2 2t 2 2i 21 2 21 2 21 2 ik soon push out fresh leaves. The profess of gathering tea is one of great nicety oi-.l importance. Ench leaf is plucked separately from tho twig ; the hands of iVn gatherer are kept clean ; and in collecting seme of .,ie liner sorts, it has been stated, npori credible authority, that he is olili^d for somo weeks previous to abstain from all gross food, lest his breath or ;>erspiiatioii might injure tho flavor ; to weir fine gloves whilu at work, nnd to liatlio two or three times a day during this pttricKl. In the general harvest seasons, the natives are seen in tittlo family groups on *he side of every hill, when the weather is Ary, engogeu in gathering tho tea leaves, which arc (tripped off Tttpidly and promiscuously into round basket*, made fbr the purpose, of apllt bamlwo nr nt- ■n. When ■ sufllelent quantity is gathered. It Is car- ried home to the cottage or bam, when the ojwra- tion of dryhig Is performed, The Chinese dislike gathering the leaves on n rainy day for any descrip- tion of tea, and never will do so imleai necessity re- quires it. Some even pretend to distlugulih the* tens made on a rainy \Vf from those nude on a sunny day, Tho prt>cesi of tolling and drying the leavog. It is stated, can only be lurnvil by actual ex|iericnce ; yet the sys- tem adopted to attain this «ih1 It as simple as It is i.H- caclous. Let It lie liuma In mind, however, that the grand object la to exiicl the moisture, and at the samo time to retain as much as |iua«lble of the aromatic aod other desirable sscretluni. As to tho dllfurencea of flavor and color peculiar to the green and black tens, It Is well known that, In many instances, tliey are |iray the masttrs; and it was ascertained by the sales at the East India House, that there was no dlll'orenco between the quali- ties of the teas purchased by the commanders and of- ficers of the company's ships, withont assistance from to Canton is probably not less thun 70l) miles ; nor that 1 the oflicers of the factory, and those purchased for tho of the black tea, over a mountainous country, less thun 200 miles. The tea merchants begin t j arrive in Can- ton about tho middle of October, and the busy season continues until the beginning of Marcli ; being briskest In November, December, and January. Tea, for the most part, could, previously to tho late changes, only company by the latter. An unusual degree of goiHl faith, indeed, appears to bo observed on the part of tho Chinese merchants with respect to this commodity ; for it was proved before the select committee of tho ilouso of Commons, in 1880, that it was the regular practice of the hong merohants to receive back, and retuni good b« bought from tho hong or licensed merchauts ; but tea for, any chest or parcel upon which any fraud might soma of these, the least prosperous in their circum- stances, were supported by wealthy outside mcrchanls, as they aro called ; and thus the trade was consider- ably extended. The prices in tlie Canton marko» vary from year to year with the crop, the stock on hand, and tho external demand, as in cnv other articlo and in any other market. After tlK season is over, or when tho westerly monsoon set; „i^ during the month of March, and impedes tho regular intercourse of foreigners with China, there is a full in the price of tea, not only arising from this circumstance, but from a certain depreciation have have been practicuil, which somcliiues happens in the conveyance of tho teas from Canton on bonnl ship. Such restitution lias occasionally lioen made, even at tho distance of one or two years. Tho company enjoy- ed no advantaj^c over other purchasers in the Canton market except that which the largest purchaser has in every market, viz., a selectiou of the teas, on the pay- ment of the samo jirices as others; and this advanlugo they enjoyed only as respects the black teas, the Amer- icans being the largest purchasers of green teas. Wc herewith subjoin a table for calculating the cost in quality, from tlie age of tho tea ; which, like most | of tea : Co>irABi8o:< or mm Cost of Tr-i ma I'ldOL (1331 i.ns. AvoiKPcrois), with the Uatr rsa Pounu, asi> Tom or » Cwr. on 1UU9 I'ocsus VEU Tox. Per PIcul. ^KchsDiie 4j. jier l>oUnr. GxchanKe4i . -id. per Dol. UtclmnKe it .W. pernol. Kicliii{i)Ce 4i t-400 04 14 li 15-708 05 10 10-(IIO 07 t lll{ 10-31;; 03 10 ,1 80 — 15 on i.'>o;i7 00 IS ft 10-2511 OS 50 10 'Mi 0.1 11 3 10 875 70 17 ni — 151 fl(i 2 10-409 09 3 41 10-71I1 70 :o « 17114 71 17 71 17-438 13 4 9 32 — le 07 4 17 000 71 S 17-333 ■2 iO 17-0110 74 4 IS -001) 8,1 — 101 «9 ITKU 73 12 7i 17-975 75 I 1S219 70 10 41 Is5;l3 77 111 3 .14 = 38 — 11 71 8 1S'(K12 75 17 3 IS -4 10 77 7 1S-T70 TS 10 9 19-125 8ft it; 73 10 is-r-ai 7S 1 101 I'^-O.';-! 70 12 l!)-323 SI 3 n 19 CSS 82 13 11 80 — IS 75 12 io-i2;> go 19 500 81 18 19-915 SO 9 Oi 85 1 87 -• ISl 77 14 I'.fiViO 82 11 U 20-C41 s4 3 20 4-i7 S-. 15 101 •20-813 f9 ir> 89 — 10 70 10 20-187 S4 15 'i 20-.'»:i SO 9 20-97'.! at^ — 20 81 IS •JO-TIO 87 41 2l-l-:5 .'iS 14 21-531 90 8 7{ 21-933 40 = 84 21 -2.^) 80 5 21-lX'O 91 22-1183 92 15 (1 41 -5) 48 ■ '50 ;8 ' '50 02 • •(» 80 ■81 70 '74 70 ' 72 i-MO .'>374 4-.1S5 4-0J5 4-333 4 4-l'25 4-8)4 4-li:0 4-0T4 4-220 Uohoa, wliola chests. . . " half " ... " quarter '* .... t'ongo, chests 8ouchong IVkoe Hyson Hyson skin Twankay, long chests . GuDpowde'- Imperial Young hyson Consumplhn of Tea in Europe.— 01 the Continental states, Russia and Holland are the only ones in wliith tho consumption of tea is considerable. In 1818 the imports of tea into Kuasia amounted to 2'i:V12'J liood.s or 9,123,414 pounds, in chests, and IKJ.ilU poods in bricks. Tho former consists almost entirely of the finest varieties of black tea. Tlie consumption of tea in Holland amounts to about ;!,000,U()0 pounds a year, tho duty on which varies from 1 Jc/. to iiil. per pound. Tho consumption of France docs not exceed aSO.OOO twccn l,5no,OlHj and 2,(H)0,OilO pounds, the greater part of wliicli is forwuriled to the interior of Germany, Thus. 4a. 3J. per dollar, 1 tael per picul is ciiual to i pounds. Tho importations into Hamburg vary be- Id. per pound. UsDAi, NBT Wr-iniiT AM> Meabcbemknt op a CursT nl PlFFE)lEKT DKbCUllTKlSB OP TKA. Weiglit, Solid Mcni. , catties i;t3 fectS-UhO . " •>4 40 " 03 to 04 . " CO " 02 I.MPOBTS OP 'Tr.\ IN THE UsITF.ll Kl.NOTIOM IN 1651 ANB 185-3. iMi. iss-;. nol!Crip(l,.r, of Te%. IMl. Poundi. 2,000 51,0».000 ■14.000 91.000 1.46,'>,000 4,792.000 82;i,U00 nohca C»m;o i'oudioiif? ,, (iilniu 8ouclion^', I loluiii?, etc Vlowcrvaiid black l«nfpclcoo . " , fplnin 40,000 Oi-aiigo iwkoe j^^„(„j 3,441,000 Tvvsekiiv 11»,M0 Hysonskin 49,000 lly,}^,], 9,',T,1HN) Yoiuig iiyson .' '^'I^HI?. Imperial ,*;?•«» <:iinpo«-Oe'' H'.n,M Si.rf.3 ni'.il .\s9um tea 021,000 For cxportatk-n only • . Totnl TI,501UiiiO OViU.lKK) /. 9,'2.80,000 The Ten Trmh of the United .S/a(e».— Tea is the chief articlo imported from Cliin.i into the United States. The cousnraption of tho United States amounts to from Pcunde. 43,l'oi;.iicft l.'l.OOO lOO.OIH) 1.018,000 2,169,0IH) 822,lX(0 4>,00ii 2,091,000 341.000 88,000 hOO.ODO 2,001,1)00 IH'3,n00 4,183,000 6,')2,n00 7.000 niiick. TEA 1824 TEA B0,<)00,000 to 82,000,000 pouiida a year. Duties on Ua used to furin one of the largent iteiiia of American rovc- utto, having in aonio yunn produced $3,260,(100. Thoir magnitude, liowovcr, was Justly coni|iluini'd of; and it ii probably owing to this circumsiuncu that, while the consumption of tea was fur several years pretty stationary in the United Mlates, that of cotruc increased with oven greater rapidity than in Kiigland. Tlio Secretary of Iho Treasury uf the United Slates, in liis Kepurt for 18'i7, observed : " Tho use uf tea has become so general throughout the United Stiites, as tu rank al- most as a necessary of life. When to this wo add tliat there is n Ival production at huino tu bo fostered by lessening the uuiount of its Iniponatlon, the duty upon it may safely bo regarded a» tuu hlMh. Upon sumo uf tho varieties of tho artlclo it cunsidorably exceeds 100 per cent., and is believed to be generally above tho level which a truo policy points out. A moderate re- duction of the duty will lead to an increased cunsiimp- lion of the article, to an extent that, la all probability, would in tho end rather benolit than iiijiire tho revenue. Its tendency would be to cnlargu our trade andcxports to China— a trado of progressive value, as our cottons and < other urliclcs uf homo production (utiida from specie) uru I mure ami niuro entering into it. It v."juld cause more of tlio tra;(. In 1861 tlie total im- ports reached (llO,60U.,1'Jil, of which tea amounted to , ♦0,645,11,.; and in 186;), *10,67y,710, of which tea covered $8,171,070. KSTIMA'TK, IN I'OfUDS' WHIUIIT, OF THE tJO.\NTlTirB Of TKA KXI'ORTKn HY hKA FROU ('MIN.V IN IhM-'.VJ, tflTClKYIMU TUK CoUNTalXH FOK WUICII Till! HAMF. WKIIK HII: .TKl), AND TIIK (Quantity siiiiTep fok each. Count.lM. PnunJf. Tho I'liilcd Kingdom CK. KiO.uOO 'I'ho lulled 8t»le» 3».,-i.7.(HH) Au8tr»l!« S.HiO.OiK) llallsuil 1I,00«,000 Ind la WM),000 Other places 2,-.'0O ,0iKI Total lia.slrtiooo Tho exports of tea to Kussia by land amount to 1 1,000,000 or 16,000,000 pounds a year. The following tables ntlbrd a review of the quautltics of tea imported into the United Slates (tom China since the cominoncenieiit of that traile, so far as they can 1)0 gathered from various oflicial roturus ; Y«an. Pountla. 1790 8,047,242 1791 »to.',9r ITM 2,0I4,00S ITfS a.iioll.Ma 171)4 2.4ilO,'J14 over, the total auount imported during that period, and was as follows : Teas consumed or on hand, '26,717,917 pounds ; or an average annual quantity uf 8,389,740 pounds. The quantities of teas of all kinds imported into and exported from tliu United States, from 18S1 to I8J3, inclusive, together with Iho quantities retained for consumption, are shown as follows i I c Pound!. 4,443,(15 5,8115,588 n.474,(M 7,7^6,619 i., 173,740 8,100,2-28 4,24»,'^21 6.2K9.581 5,618,447 0,8;3.(i91 4 660.681 8,6'17.844 12,927,048 If from tho imports are deducted tho exports for each year, an average annual consumption, for the entire period, of 7,000,000 pounds w ill be given. The follow- ing statmient shows tho Imports and exports of tor the q>:.inllty remaining on hand or consumed each ycii fro!u 18,11 to 18n,e.\clnslvc of 001,319 pounds impor'- I'd 7'2 16,882,114 16,i;8-2,3s4 14,418,112 9,fl4;i,817 20,006,5(5 11,660,801 ll(i;397,'872 Poundi. 3.(81,;W8 2,1 8;!,S(:6 1.8,0,342 2,5 N -.'HA '.',435,302 1,6.<2,083 3,I'J3,49« 000,^32 I'oundl. I.X'i01,6«9 12,il32,70« 14,4^6,772 14,47.1,9(8 1I,9S'>.810 7.757,784 10 88i>,0i'0 1837 18:18 1839 1840 1841 10.89(1,«9 Tolttl... 17,3S0,t.65 ufAon.so? Yoan. Pounds. ISO.' 4,'J69,S'J8 IStia 0,OM,5-29 ISO-1 3,«22,V28 I'-IS 5,119,441 IHOtf 0,870,80(1 17.5 2.374,118 i 18)7 8,108,774 I7U(! 2,311l,'.5» 1^08 4,812,008 1797 2,0»»,399 1S09 l,48-'090 179H l,s;i(i.(:06 i 1810 7,880,467 1799 4,.')015<1 I 1811 3,018,118 ISnO 3,797.1i;!4 1812 3,06l),080 1801 4,086,900 I Deducting the q-ianlitics ascertained to have been exported from the United Stales during tho above pe- rIo. | 1S42 1843 1844 12,4SS 13,4t;0 I5,8im 21,682 19,'J43 17,775 24,383 19,418 2,1,414 38,(114 78.086 92,8(14 70,4'.'0 70,816 $4.(:i4.6l5 4.:'85,566 4 0.81,258 7,'.i'<5,914 6.5'3.8!'l 5,R«3,3I3 8.0sU,496 6.513.786 C,.'.93,402 7,066,1+4 10,61>8,95fl 10,537,710 10,506,329 11,048,726 t4 31.7,101 3.77(1.46) 4,075.191 5,730,101 B,(tt'2,000 4.'278,4t8 0.217,111 4,071,789 4,.\S5,720 4,0: 13,529 7,144 500 8, I74('7il 6,!>15,11S 6,806,463 1816 1816 18»7 1848 1840 1S!>0 1851 18!S2 I8.M 18i4 1856 TEA <-■«■»* Ma,,..-;""" ^' "•'■-(Mad, •^■o^o; J >. 18M TEA i'oon.i,. £'.M0,J0O 5«,Sa8,K)0 B3,IHI1,80.| «.U1T,2,)0 "417,(100 *>-iea,6B8 18.B0«,388 18,171,826 J».888,6« 18,«79,BOO Sl.T6r,800 «8.T«0,800 M,8a4,0OC «».»M,600 JIWBOO It Win be noticei' v,. .u , ■ thoM given belo^, the u>t, . ''"'=' "R'M with United State. T«,;„,yR^^'„; ">8 t.k,ntrcraZ T«A axpoETiD nov fm-. Canton. . -„ . '. ^^■:====::::& Total.jrwtflSW-'M J!L'2:]£'» From July 1 IBM , t *^.'»i,im Promc.nton... JromFoo-chow. rnm SIungh«l,.;' ••■ ' W7,Mb •■• 6.«S7,wo The exporu to Great Rrit.il 7 J.' ' * ' ' ' "^^*^*^ *««> 01,031,800 p.u.1 i''^'i,i"''l!«.«'" ye.r 18fiiW.'M 13.S'20,O00 12,816,000 18,07S,00« H8')2,00O 0.306,000 18,«8g,uoo 11,886,000 14,706,000 1S,T4S,OCO 14,SM,000 liS42,000 14,269,000 li4«,000 14,418,(100 '",T;!6,000 »,0«0 237,000 47,000 asfl,noD 848,000 46,000 110,000 sr ■< . 124,000 »8,noo 26t,000 ■T ima. , i,m ,987,IK)0 ,fl»4,t00 ,'IO,0')0 4.^8l,0ll0 4,B83,0"fl 2,6.11,000 3.400,00 ) 2,l»liH,00.) , 3,80S,00(' 2,330,001 4,462,000 I ».SS7,I)00 7.319,000 «,4S2,00(,. 7,801,000 T,628,000 fi.lS.^OOO 1.184,000 !',063,000 Kilvvnuna. 18.114,000 I IB.810,000 i«.7ai,(K)o I?,3l8,00O 17,700,000 18,!18,000 20,803,000 1S.16«,000 10.834,000 18.226,000 16.809,001) 18.76«,000 31,400,000 82.880,000 26.263,000 29,277,000 24,080,000 *4, 796,000 31,449,000 I 31,987,000 I -■. »*i«r[ou rrom China to tL v^.i' , """ "f 'ea Towns, thoLavant. the Mnrii! ^«"'e'l«mls, Ilanw 'he last-named ^'Jtt"^:^:"'""'"' «"" K"«.ia t" 8,4 2 000 kilograms; and in * , '" T^r^ '» 1889, v-hich, added tothe^oulX ■ •,'''*''r,''''''eram8 ne:Uo'<5rV.rSir fer Vt^^/'a'". «„. exported to the former fnr^!^ '815. '-0 1834 the™ were frams, of ^hich 2o"oM klJ. '^^^' ^'"^S.OOO kill In 183a-'34 the Am«! """8™"" were re^-xported Europe l.Oitmk^.Zr""^''' '">"' P^'^^l^'tt United Sutca ha, largflyTn- ■'"'"'.'""P"'"' in the on the tre, liat of that cour .!^- "^ '""^ ^ ^"3 pm £cJ^n:W&;;S'^i^ 'Reexports Of tea Ulilna . . Other pImVs" l^'ylng dutyj »• non-pro.t duccn ) Total .reXrterflSm'c&t?! '^ luantitie. of tea ^--^^^-^^-^idm^yMrJ^^^.^ Towns, the Levant the Mem '"' ^*"«"'«nds, Ilan,^ I-ronx. „, t.a rr~~^~'^'^^'^^*-'**'^*»!! 'ho last-named country th"™"'^ »"" """'ia t" '™""' '™. aJ" w"' ^::",f" «''""=« -^h t... y.,. ,442 000 kilograms^^Jdt,, :\!^r?^"> 1889: "' "" '^---■^- -/^li*^?^^- '^^ Holland.., ;;; England .. ' Scotland. Ireland ...,' C'«nai:» Jirit Bh Anstralla. . . . .' " Itlsh Kost liidie,. c"ba™ "" ""^ '*"'""'"•'•••.*.'.".■.■.■ OenlralRipniiui; ; ; ; ." "raail Sandwich InlTOdi".;; China. Total, Poandi. ■ 23,018 83 6B63 30 63 4,!^« 878 7S8 1,000 676 40 2a(0 814 666 1,474 360 . 42,283 $12,481 »,7C8 3 18 68f 168 148: 22S. 2S. n lets. 167 8». : ISJt 226 »I7,81(( BUck, Pound*] '.UNt 489 - ^i)r, !.9:)!>,dl7 .863,600 .S6i,400 .315,100 •WO, 700 .484 700 17,200 - oAjjiTig or tea ""«' — " mw ••en -ears, from Impokts of Tka rn.V ",'„'!' ^'''''^' *i^^ ToUI. Pounjf. 2f'.702,B6S I 18,O02,2j8 18. '71,828 19,388,647 18.672,3110 I 21.767,830 28,760,800 34.33t,)00 40,974 600 27,8ii7,u00 I Dutch Kast Indies ■^"""'l'. ;'hlllp|,ino Inlands. 798,436 Cliina . . . 630 TolM 19:M628a '•«.3;i6,5Ji .f3,864 136,120 . 174 S.018,702 p;t67;8S5 T„T.„. , ,. '".".u,w, $5,r67,8?5 'belrnptfeTr :™ a^'C" '""\"'- ^^^ -".y proved of forthedero8io?./»T "'"''='' "'"^ ">« .p-- »'„, ,1, — ^-^^-L-J:i"':Hi:!iJJiW7,u00 1 1 ly appropriated to fh» ' ""'' "° *» I** exclu.i't /i._. an.1 .. r ™"U11. ineDackmrpttol,.!! 1 . Canton i'oo-ohow ' 8!ianghal...V,','. '.'.'.'. Total, year ISCl-w' 5Z •long three port's as r '".•"'""'' •" ">« '^•r furis, as sumption or exportation TIip n.^l""" ' r,"""'" «"•- - - and arranged in the ChoVs^ bv thT" "*"' '^ '°""» mg to their respeetive ™ hoM"^r »Lf ?'''''' '"''"'- aW= the officers to select from L 7 i '*""' '" " »" en- of packa;jes for tarin7anr„ » '^/'^'''red number ' to be allowed on K^t^lZX" *'"' '"""^' "^ Ponndt. ■ 2,661.900 S.400,800 !:3.653,200 TEA 1826 TEH Eirom nr Tc4. Tini DmowTii or roaiiow ('ovirran raoM TH> ti«iTn> matu ro> tiiB Viab mviMa Jmc, 10, IbuT. WHIth*r iipottotl RoHlan I'utit In Nurtli Amarlu. tlWMllali WMt Indlu DuUh WHt IndiM IlMnburt Otli«r (lenuui porU Diitrh OuUn* EliKland Ulbraltar Ckiuda . iiii,oaT 86 11,660 111 iHi in TT.ai4 U60 9,0Tli.ll9 Olbcr BrltUh N. Anitiiuii Pom. 1,oi.I,I)M Brtdih Wnt Indies W,046 Brltlth llondiiru (1,480 IlriUih MuUiia 8i4 UrlUdi PoHraloni In Afrlw .... 188 OU(«r porU In Africa B,li6T Britlih AnatnlU »,S0O Kranrr >.» the Atltnlle 160 Frenrh N. American i'OMflwtoni. fi2,80T Fninrh Writ IndlH 860 C'intry IiUndi 309 €ab> 3,4S9 Porui lueo ana Portngal »S,89S Madeira 1,('2T Ctpa de Verd lilandi 1,068 Atoroa Sl,l«4 Sardinia 4,036 Turkey In Europe 4,000 Turkey In Alia l.S'iO Haytl 6(14 Mexico 84,0(l» Central Kepul)llo 164 NevOranada 8,RtT Venexuela ,.... 6,400 Draall «S2,O70 Uruguay, or C'lipiatine Kapubllo. 2.).M0 Buenoi Ayrei, or Argentina Itep. . 19, TO* ClilU 66.631 Peru 4,010 Sandwich Iilauda .'.... 18,'.'4S China !iB,(100 Whale.fUhorie , 4.038 ToUl 8,8(17,471 ) From warehouM 'ill,(i87 Not from warehouH . . 8,84l,44'2 Tal.'. li^BJa 44 4,986 66 6T 10 I7,(T8 144 aT«,ni u»,mi 4, (96 8,660 ■tli U l,8i9 1,000 ino 8,086 140 inn 1,700 171 lO.lOtt 684 888 io,r6i 1,606 1,660 610 STO I),II07 71 8,704 1,444 123,873 R,0U7 12.1148 l.KH) 8,728 8,87T 1.908 »! 4il(>.'i ll llii'i.SaS $1,417,876 Dull/ on Teat. — Tea or coflTee, shipped Trom the coun- trj of productiun, but not for a distinct and spccitlc destination to persons or pU(X)s in the United Slates, and transhipped at a foreign intermediate port for the United States, is, »n Importation, liable to a duty of 20 per cent. But if originally shipped in national vessels, or vessels placed on that fooling; by treaty, for a specific party and placo in tlio United States, (>om the country of production, and so imported into the United States, those articles nra entitled to frea entry, although a mere transhipment may have taken place at a foreign intermediate port. Tea or coflSee, entitled to free entry when originally imported into the United States, afterward exported to a foreign port and brought back as part of the re- turning cargo of the exporting vessel, not having been landed abroad, is entitled to free entry on its reimpor- tation under these circumstances. Tea and coflec, when Imported direct from the place of their growth or production in American vessels, or in foreign ves- sels so entitled by reciprocal treaties, are exempt from duty. Coffee, the product of a possession of the Nether- lands, imported into the United States in a vessel of the Netherlands direct from such possessions, or from the Netherlands, is admitted free of duty under the iariir law of 1846, and the first article of the treaty be- tween the United States and the Netherlands of August 36, 1852. Tea or coffee imjwrted direct from the place ■tt its production, in vessels of the kingdom of IVussia, and of the Hanseatlc republics of Hamburg, Hremen, and Ltkbeok, is placed on the same footing with that imported in American or Dutch vessels. Tea or coffee, the production of China, imported via Singapore, is admitted to free entry, if it l>e satisfac- torily shown at the time of entry that it was laden un board the American importing vessel from Chinese boats or junks in Chinese waters, intended in good ''.'*th to be conveyed therein direct to a specified port '.( ihe United Slates, at its ultimate destination, f sak Wood, or Indian Oak, the produce of the rsrfoiia frandit, a large forest tree that grows in dry and elevated districts in the south of India, the Hur- man ampire, I'egn, Ava, Siam, Java, etc. Teak 1 1 '■■ ber is by far the bast in the Kaat ; It works easily, aiul, though porous, is stroug and durable; it is easily sea- soned, and shrinks very little ; it is of au oily nature, and therefore does not injure Iron. Mr. Crawfiird suys that in comparing teak and oak logetbor, the ussful qualities of the former will be fuund to preponderate. " It la equally strung, and somewhat more buoyant. Ita durability Is more uniform and decided; and tu in> sure that durability it flsmands less care and prepara- tion ; for It may be put in use almost green froui the forest, without danger of dry or wet rut. It Is lit to ondii.'4 all climates and alternations of climate." — St* Tn«r>0()LD'8 Pr'mciplfn of Cnrpnilry; CiiAWFURD'a EiMtm Archiptlago I iilcE.i' Cyciijxztii'a. The teak of Malabar, produced on the high table-land of tho south of India, is deemed the best of any. It is the closast in ita fibre, and contains the largest quantity of oil, be- ing at once the heaviest tiid the most durable. Tbia special of teak is used for the keel, timliera, sod such parts of a ship as are under water: owing to its great weight, it is less snitable for the upper works, and la not at all fit for spars. The teak of Java ranks next to tliat of }Ialabar, and is especially suitable f(jr plank- ing. The Itangoon or Iturnian teak, and that of Siam, is not so close-grained or durable as the others. It is, however, tho most buoyant, and is therefore best fitted for masts and spars. Malabar teak is extensively used in the buiIdIng-.\ nrds of liombay. Ships built wholly of it are almost indestructible by ordinary wear and tear, and instances are not rare of their having lasted fVom 80 to 100 years. They are said to sail indiffer- ently, but this is probably owing as much to some de- fect in their construction as to the weight of tho tim- t«r. Calcutta ships aro never wholly built of teak j the timbers and frame-work are always of nativewood, and the planking and deck only of teak. The teak of Burma, being co'ivoyed with comparatively little diffi- culty to tho ports of Bangoon and Maulmain, is the cheapest and most abundant of any ; and It is mainly owing to tho facility with which supplies of It are uIj- taincd that shii>-bullding is now carried on so very ex- tensively at Manlmain. It is largely exported tu CaU cutta and Madras.— >Si!e Rakoooh. A species of tim- ber called African teak is exported flrom the west coast of Aflrlca; but in point of fact it is not teak, and It ii (lestituto of several of its most valuable properties. It is, however, for some purposes, a useful species of tiiii- ber. Teaael, or Z\iUera' Thlatle (Ger. WebmUnel, Kratzdulel; Fr. Chardim a curdiri It. Cardo da car- dure ; Sp. Cardeiichn, Cardo peinador). This plant, which is cultivated in tho north and west of England, is an article of consideralile importance to clothiers, who employ the crooked awns of the heads for raising the nap on woolen cloths. For this purpose they are fix- ed round tho periphery of a large, broad wheel, against which the cloth is held while the machine is turned. In choosing teasels, the preference should be given to those with the largest bur, and most pointed, which are generally called male teiueb. They are mostly used in preparing' and dressing stockings nnd coverlets; the smaller kind, commonly called the fullers' or drapers', and sometimes Ihc /ttnale ttfuelt, aro used in the prep- aration of tho finer stuHV, as clothe, ratcens, etc. Tehuantepeo, Oulf of; a bay of the Pacific Ocean, Central America, bounded northwest by the state of Oaxaca, and northeast by the republic of Gua- temala, lat. 16' N., long. 94° to 96° W. It receives the River Tehuantupec 10 miles south of the town. The Fithmtu of Tehuantipec, states of Oaxaca, Vera Cruz, and Tabasco, is the narrowest part of tho land lilt TEH 1827 TEL port rftb* ndry I Bur- ktl II. r, »nd, ly •••• inlure, •il Buys UMlul don to. JO) int. d to In- irepara- roiii th« It lit to t."~-Sf VFVRU'* I teik of ho ioutli l« cloiMt ofoll,b»- l«. TbU ind lush Iti gr«»t kt, tnd U inks next f„r pUnk- ,t of 8l»ro, ira. ItU, l,e»t fltltd lively uMil allt whoUy ■ we»r tnd vliig iHted lil Indlffcr- :o »ome de- [of Iho tlm- l\t of teak \ jatlvcwood, 'lie ti'»k of litllc dlfB- Imin, l« the |t U niiilnly If It are oIj- lio very «x- rted to Cal- Iciei of tlin- p west coMt [k, and It il Iporllei. It ciei of tlih- . 1 da car- iThia piMtt 1>r England, lo dothlert, 1 for ral»lng Ihey are llx- |eel,again«t 1 Is turned. Ibe given to Tted, ■whlcli \iiostly used Uriets; the lor drapers', In the pr«p- Lclc. Itlie Psclfto lest by the ll)licofGua- Jlt receives le town. Ixaca, Vera V tlio l»n<« HTtWMlnir lh« nulf ..f Mf|il<-o flrom ihe Pacinc, and Is i tlon of a now cutlom-lioui., tli* foundation of whlck l« A ..V"'!! f'"'^'"«' mahoRany, fustic, log- 1 *lri.a.ly UIJ. On tlio wh„l.,, what with nr.^.,ut l.ii.l • wiHirt, i^nt .m, ilniga, M.'ao IntllRo, Rum, salt, with va- : noss and ftilur., oxi«ictallun., our Tchu.nt.pec mlul- llmia kliMli «f grain i and ik i.plan.l. almund with line ' lx>rs are ovidenlly looklnij nu.-Vnil.4 Ulatu Coniulat MSlMrwi. It I" lf»»flrMil almost throuirhout hv til. I l/.»„,.v;„- ' •» >-~ liiiont throughout hy th« Minatilhti. Ivdr < ..al«»"ialeo«. Thin is nna of thf plac.n whore ' T>humlt,»,c Il„„i,. Il liaii liwil |ir>i|iinod In uiillci •Mail* liy a mal, of v(hUh wiHilil form II piiri. 'I'lllH li*w lnlinr«anl> fftalfiia to Hurjill, aamKili :,^ •01, alt (hit wliiilliiK) Incliiiled lu VkmIoh, IfllMo llOi.iil"-': IHIIm fntm thit AlUntl( ml In A ilNy and a Imlrti Ui li« tiialarlallr dlinlninliixi the Wimillallntl llf N prtijl-rtilil dllt MMohll, alri-aily tnrvoynd. Kriilii llin IMOUlh of Iho rlviT to Minatitlan, twenty mll«a, Ilia channol la ttxcrllant, raiiarioua enough for th« Urifcat netian alonniahlpa. Tho acranipllsh- ' distance will ionrn fio— on tnatltlan lo The fbilowlni,' flgnrea show iIm- dlstanci'n on thu Ti'huaiitt'pce routu fruni New York Uan Francisco : rrnm Nc» Vork to tbt mouth of Iha OwtaaiMalM* - i TretiHli ilistuiioo 1 Vuntoni In Kan Franelseo '. ;,j TM.1 tHK Telegraph. 1 ■m^; bofore the electric telegrnpli had liccn liiio({lnod, thu art of rapidly conveying iiiiel- llKcnci' fnim point tu point had oixuplcd the allcniloii of niankiud, and varlnus expedl' ills for Iha acconi- plUhmcnt of Ihln ol.Ji it had hcon devised. The most priniitlvo modes of tclcyruphlnn were by moon) ot' signal-flri'i, torches, trumpets. More recently, sliico the Invention of gunpowder, the cannon and sky-rock- ets have licon used. On the invention of the aerial telegraph, or scmapho.-o, thcHe means wore abandoned. In tbo year 1084 Dr. Ilooke dcMribcd a plan for an acrliil telegraph, and about I'.'U M. .\roontont in- UtI 111 Nld'hll Iha fiver Ijccnincs more dlfflcnlt, und i Btilutcd experiments with the sanu' end in view. Hon'- IIHUI Iw truvarspil by steamboats ; those rontcmplaled ' ever, neither of these plans im re carried into effect ; »f«, In aliW and fashion, not dissimilar trom the Cum- 1 an I It was not until ITIU tli.u the semaphore woj ocl- linrlmid Ulyiif Imals. The /.rn/i«ra, built in New York, ually used. In that year un aerial telegraph, the in- MIMI |)I*'<"I on Ihia jmrtlon of the river a short time vention of M. Claude Clmppfi, was enipbiyed for tho sIlliKi, liad proved of loo large draught. The current ' trunsmission of Intelligence between Paris and UUe ; It ahiiill Itco mlbw and n half nn hour— from Suchll to ilie conveyance of a signal from one i.f these places to MlimlUlNh, llllrly»«lx hours. These uro tho termini j tho other occupying only two minutes. Semaphores, ef Ilia (ifiijonlcil railway, liy which, wlun completed, a mostly modlllca'lions of tho plan of Chappe, were soon rtlsUili'H of Hi miles ulll be siived. hi use throughout Kuropc— in England, lii 17!i.'i; Den- t'rilHt dniillll lo Venlnsn, ou tlio Pncinc, IIIO to 110 , mark, in tH(l2; India, lu 1K23; Prussia and Austria, mll«», llw fnillK I' by Ihe newly-iuadu stagc-roiid over about It*:!); and llussia, in 1839. • roMub. wmtilliiies mouutalnous country. Tho heavl- This method of telegraphing Is still in use, hut U M«l Witn Ims been on ibis eiiil of the road, where also rapidly being superseded by tho electric telegraph, lu lll# HIvttr I'licria, fordnbln nt time*, but high and ^ 1(<.V2 the only aerial telegraph line In Knglaad was be- inarsliy In Iho rainy season, is to be spanned by a | tween Liverpool and Ilol.vhead. This has now, we be- brliluii N mild and a half In length. Some compeitsa- llnn |ii ttlNdii on tbo other side of tho mountain, hou- tiVHr, by Alt iibl road, which has jiroved available from CbiVHl* l'«M lo tile Pacific plain. The time ci>ntracted furiitl lilt) ■lllgn'roKil Is live miles per hour— twenty-six t« Iwi-iity'idf^lit bniirs i lictween Minatitlan and Suchil IIm |oi» by slefltnboat will be from six to eight liuurs, In alt aboiil Iblrty-livo hours, or a day and a lialf ffiim owati to ocean. The harbor of Vcntosa is tfiMil, bit! A brpakwilter will be necessary. As to the liruhablf aiiloMnI, of travel and business un the Tohuan- iapmi Mud, when In full operation, we have no further tnfiiriHatlon Iban Is alreadv, in various speculations, Ii«f»ra lltil |tnbll(li The shiirlesl route from England, Haw Viirk, und New ( Irleons, to the ports of tho I'ocilic, Iha lliNSt rtntlKrln); expcctalions aro of course entor- tiiwd niApi'ilng It. 'fba firiiMlIt (lopiilallon of the territory of Tehuan- («p«i It fsllinalcd at riO.OOO, desemdauts, for tho most |i»r(, i»f lIlM Dflglnal Aztecs. They are gregarious in Ihalr habltll, livftli^ In communities numbering 3000 to iiHM) iiiu'li, tinil illslant from each other five to ten inlb't, Tlloy ntP Industrious, kind-hearted, and do- tilla, lm( vufy Ihflflless. The government is, of course, that wllb'll At any time our miMe Mexican neiglilwirs may cllltnt'* to have. In general, the rights and privi- IsgiM tif tlt« fdd !tpanlsli colonial towns are fully en- Jnynl, Tllln* to landed property ore good, and always ratpmiltiit, 'flifi town of Minatitlan, tho capital and Bltl|iorl(im llf lilt! Isrrllory, has at present a population lievc, been superseded by the establishment of electric commnniciition between those tnu pbiees. The cost of working the aerial telegraph was enor- mous. The line above mentioned cost iu tho vicinity of ill.'iOO (about ii^7500) per annum ; and a similar line, lietwecn London and Portsmouth, cost X3300 (about $16,500) jier annum. These telegraphs were necessarily imperfect | being limited in their power of conveying iiitolligence, ox- ccedinglv slow, ond liable to total interruption by storms of ruin and snow, fogs and darkness. The ide.i cf tho employment of electricity as a means of conveying intelligence to a distance appears to havo been lung entertained, and experiments to ascertain tho practicability of electrical communication between dis- tant places w ere early mode by scientiflc men through- out the civilized world. In 1729 Grey ond Wheeler discovered th:it a current of electricity could be niado to flow through considerable lengths' of w ire. In 174(! Wincklcr at Lcipsic, and Le Monnier ot Paris, experi- mented oil the same subject of the transmission of tho electric current through conducting bodies. In 1747 Dr. Watson, in England, re|ieatcd and extended theso experiments, sending a current through two miles of wire and two of earth; sending shocks across tho Tliamcs and tho New River. Dr. Franklin in 1748, ond Do Luc in 1740, repeated many of these experiments. In addilion, experiments bearing more or leas on tho suliject of electric tc'egrophy were made Ijy Lesage iu 1774, Reusscr iu 17lil, Cavallo in 1795, Ilctancourt iu of Abitllt (IvK Imndfoil, The commerce in the native 1798, Sflcmincring in 1807, and Prof. Oersted in 1819. liroilHHit ef tll« Coiinlfv, mahognnv, dvewooda, colTce, l The first electric telegraph actually opplled seems tit«,, if) JurKg «Md Incf'posing. The last ^ \ N> V 4^ >i. '^K\ n Wfff MMN tf Mtf HMtfTW^MV UitO ,tp. ^> 6^ TBL 1828 TEL tdegnph wm on* of tha best that had th«n bacn in- vented, and was capable of transmitting intelligence with coniideratile rapidity. In 1828 he urged the Im- portance of his invention for government purposes, writ- ing to Lord Melrllle on the subject, but without effect. In 1827 Harrison G. Dyer, an American, construct- ed a telegraph on Long Island, using frictional elec- tricity. The line was about two miles in length. Previous to 1809 no mode of electric telegraphing capable of any extended use had l>een discovered. The principal cause of failure seems to have been in the em- ployment of frictional electricity, which is, on account of its high Intel! I*.y, confined with great difficnlty to conducting Indies, rapid and Incoutinuons in. its ac- Mon, and, from its small quantity, devoid of energetic force. Soemmering made a step forward by his application of galvanism to the purposes of telegraphing. In 1809 he constmcted, at Munich, a telegraphic apparatus, us- ing 85 wires. The sl(niais were made by the decom- position of water in 85 tubes, which were in connection with the 36 wires of the line. Telegraphs employing the pnrv, galvanic force were also invented by Schweig- ger, De Haer, K. Smith (Scotland, about 1843); Bain, 1846; and Morse, 1849. Bain's was the only telegraph on thi* principle that was extensively used. He used a very simple appara- tus, receiving the galvanic current upon chemically- prepared paper, where it made a light-blue mark. A comlination of dots constituted his alphabet. This telegraph was exceedingly rapid, being capable of transmitting 1200 letters per minute. Tn 1860 alwut 200 miles of telegraph In England, and i600 In Amer- ica, were worlced under Bain's patents. His plan hns gone now almost entirely out of use, other and better instruments superseding It. The property which lightning possesses of reversing or destroying the poles of the natural magnet, and of imparling magnetism to iron, had long been known ; but not until 1820 was the fact turned to any useful purpose. Professor Oersted, of Copenhagen, discov- ered, during 1819, that if a wire charged with elec- tricity i:t placed parallel to a magnetic needle, the nee- dle will deviate from its natural position, tending to assume a position at right angles with tlio conducting wire ; and that this deviation follows a regular law. Proceeding on the groundwork of Professor Oersted, .iiany othet' discoveries were made by Arago, Ampere, Faraday, Davy, Sturgeon, and Professor Henry. Arago and Ampere in France, and Sir H. Davy in England, discovered that a current of electricity would render steel magnetic ; and Ampere found that by coil- ing the wire in the form of a helix round steel the ef- fect was greatly increased. William Sturgeon, of Lon- don, in the year 1825, discovered and constructed the electro-magnet. The electro-magnet is one of the most valuable parts of the electric telegraph now In use, and has entered more or less into nearly every telegraph invented since its discovery. Oersted's great discovery gave a new direction to the science of electric telcgrapliing. Ga'vanic tele- graphs were, in turn, discarded, and magneto-electric telegraphs took their place. Amp&ro was the first to make use of Oersted's dis- covery in telegraphing. In 1820 he invented a tele- graph, using 3<> magnetic needles. Ills plan was not practically carried Into eflTect. Baron de Schilling invented a needle telegraph in 1882, at St. Petersburg. His instrument had five nee- dles, whii'h, b}' their vibrations to the right or left, In- dlcntcd signals. He afterward improved his instru- ment, u»iiig but one needle. In 1^37 Dr. Stelnhell had a telegraphic instrument working a distunce of 12 miles. His telegraph of one wire, and either one or two magnetic needles, as might be desired, made permanent marks on paper, and also telegraphed by sound. When writing, his needles were (bmlihed with Ink-tubei, and by thalr motloni marki were recorded on paper; when telegraphing by sound, the needles were made to strike bells of different tones. Ha used the earth as part of tha circuit. This waa very nearly a perfect instrument, and la infinitely su- perior to the mifiority of talegraphio ipatrumanti since invented. June 12, 1887, Maur*. Cooke & Wheatatone, in En^ gland, obtained a patent for "improvements in giv- ing signals and sounding alarms in diitant places, by means of electric currents transmitted through metal- lic circuits." This seems to have been the first tele- graph that waa patented in Europe. Cooke & Wheat- stone's first telegraph was a needle telegraph. They used five magnetic needles and five wires. An electro- magnet was used to sound an alarm. A second patent, taken out by Cooke only, was issued in April, 1888. These instruments were found to be very imperfect, and after a short trial were abandoned. A different form of telegraph, the invention of tha same parties, having but two needles, has, until very recently, been in general use in England; but the Morse system is now being adopted there and upon the Continent. The list patent taken out by Cooke & Wheatstone i« dated May 6, 1846. During Jie same year an act of Parliament waa obtained incorporating " Tha Electrio. Telegraph Company," working these patents. The needle telegraph is, comparatively, very slow; the average speed per message being but 14 words per minute. It is, however) yet extensively used in En- gland. Cooke & Wheatstone took nut a patent in America, but their instrument was never practically used In the United States. Since Cooke & Whoatslone's first patent, npward of 40 patents have been taken out in Fngland alone. Very few of the instruments since invented are in practical operation. Aforte't Telegraph.— \n the year 1882 Professor S. F. B. Morse first conceived the idea of an electric tele- graph ; and in the year 1836 he had a telegraph con- structed, the basis of his present simple and beautiful Instrument. In Septeml>er, 1887, he exhibited his in- strument at the New York University, working through 1700 feet of wire. • Morse applied for a patent in the United States In April, 1838. This application was afterward with- drawn, and his patent was not taken out until June, 1840. In 1842 he petitioned Congress, who appropri- ated #30,000 to his use for the construction of a line between Washington and Baltimore. In June, 1844, Morse bad his invention in successful operation be- tween Washington and Baltimore — a distance of 40 miles. This was the only line in the United States constructed under government patronage. The Morse Electro -magnetic Telegraph consists mainly of two parts — the receiving magnet and the registering apparatus. The receiving magnet is sur- rounded by flue wire, and is of the horseshoe form. An a^ustable ar-iature is placed befo-e the poles of the receiving magnet. The main circuit passes un- brrjhen through the receiving magnet to the next sta- tion. The registering apparatus has a powerful horse-shoe magnet placed vertically. Alwve the poles of tha magnet is an armature attached to one end uf a mova- ble lever, on the oilier end of which is a steel style for the purpose of impressing marks on paper placed Immediately above the style. Intelligence is trans- mitted by means of breaking and closing the main circuit. For this purpose a small key Is employed. When this key Is pressed down, the current passes to the receiving magnet of the distant station, causing the receiving magnet to close the local circuit. On the local circuit being closed, the registering magnet be- comes excited and attracts the armature downward, causing a mark on the paper, placed above the lever of TEL only in«triiin»„. I. _"'>»™Dient was for nomo fi~. J •nd in 1868. This Hk.. 7 t, ""''"»<' " P«tent in wrn The Huh "" '"''""""'• """''*"""'» '» on^J instrument i„ use ia .h, ^unt '""'' "">««>« The H '1" '"" '"'''''" « •"' '" ""•''*""" '» i' SJJ^to.,..ter extent th.n'i'.„r/[^-;U^.^^ «ke those of the piano-forte i"a sU f"", " »*' "^ V» Inder. Th!. .kI*. . "■»''aftinclo«iine«n« of a treadle. The's'h.fr "^'^^ "P'^ by ""»ged that the cylinder *S L" '^'""'''* «« ^ «h.ft stiil r«volves.'^ On onHnS^ r'^^:'""' '^''"e the bras, wheel having fourteen tef.h"" "y""'''" *» « •rrauged, that when the .haft ^^- ^ 'P'«g is so It win alternately strike ."to^thrf t^^'T' ^^o' '« •nd pass into an open spacenhu. «h "* '"■'"'' """>«' °S ?!"* <"°f'°ff the eleclrifcircuh "'^"•f^^'^ ("^ak- two lines of teeth project, fo, h!1 • ^" ""' "y'inder These teeth are immediatelt j,=? ! '''""•'t wheel by pressing down a key theCtri?!.''*^'' « '^^ Btopped. By making the cvl7„!i °^ "*« "i'wder is » rapidly br'oken anVclo*fj'"^^l'2^'"ve. the ci„n! koy IS depressed. On the W In '?""■"■« «" a volution goes on as before Th "^^^ r'"""^- ""> re- -v »ii lae aavantaites of «ii „.u ^ ramoines not bn reduces the LboXhich ° Wdrif""^ '-^"''"" ^ (he lowest possible point. In .l'^' .^'' '» Porfom. requires several distinc? electri«l . '"""" »>'"«'"» 't "ngle letter. In the H„i ^' '""Pu'ses to form a uponthe„„„b.,V^e Ho^„ which i, Zei breaking of the circuu soth.M ''^ ^'^^ '^"'^ot Jhould determine a letter n'r*^ *''"="'=«' '•np-'lso y, more parllcuIaHv^i''ceYhI°,?f "**" « ""We™- quires an appreciable time to cS„ ™?''^ *■"' " re- «ectr.city; so that on Ion" dT." '""« *'"""«!> okliged to send a less „uS „^ ."""." "«"'''' bo given time than on a short .•'^''"«' *«vesina '"b es this and other ef^ecu ,re ^," " ^'' """""'s" d ducingthe speed of traSssll ' ""'"' ""•^''ed, re- If every wave, ins.eadofretthr"" "''"«■"""" » J«t er, it is evident enoughThnf^^ ^''^'"' P"""""'! >n.s,.o„ through the cable wonMl" "^T^ "^ '"""- 'he air-lineswith the systemTnil^ ""'"' '» ">« of »Peed of the air-lines To„,d n7„ " •""'•■"» "'.t the , l^"!h-^?'«™-es;t„^eZr„!?'*»■!•■w»• .v.u„„„ goes on as before Tl.7 * '^.'«"sed, the re- sneed V.f .k "'.'""■« 'ys'ems now in u^o.^., °* "o^ in existence. ^ "'=*""°ff «>>« of any telegrf ph sThrLra ttrH' » -»'vrbuti'^: -: - "'«'-r^ """^'"^ '■"" °^v teiig-i; •tely on different «M.. »?u " """ admU^cI titern TJ . ""^ »»'"« 'mo. Cloct »«,t * S"*" t^fy:!l!l°'^'>''^}^^yibeiyZZ:lZfAT':\. Tbis is about the speed that an ordin ^uchcs the kevs, but "not b;!"" ° "'ll.''?!'*'- At the H "" P^'"' =""'"'"'"8 aTarroVstWn T '=""■ ^"""y '^««''- "" "'"""'• *'"" "> "ho. At the depress on of a kpv ihL . """^ ^"'P of paper. This i. .i,» » ^v crank in motio„;Spres«?th?:''V"''"'^^^^^^^^^ 5«;"" the letter opposit? "ol on th'T'i'" '^"'"J"^ "P"^" "^ 'he Sument « ^J^ '."^' '"'"'" *'''' """o" „-7 "■ ' "t™"" to those in (he other Th '""^'''''e attractive power of the n,.7„r.Y *'*'''r°-'nagnet. The -rf TEL 1880 TEL plac*. Tha annatim ia Mitorad to its placa by maant of a larer, which acta apon it at tha inataat it is pulled away from tba alactro-ma^et'i polci. ThU arranga- ment employ* the current of electricity meivly to eflect a slight change in the force by which the armature is held to tha magnet's poles, and it is so remarkably sensitive that tha mere contact of a piece of zinc agaipst a copper wire has been found amply sufficient to work the magnet. From its sensitiveness it inquires scarce- ly a tenth of tha battery-power used by the most sensi- tive of other system*. Another wonderful and beautiful feature of this in- strument is its power of writing both ways, sending and receiving message* at the same instant over one wire. This instrument thus doubles the capacity of the wire, making it do the service of two ; transmitting uith certainty and accuracy 200 letters each way per minute, an actual transmission of 400 letters, or 80 words, per minute. This result is accomplished by means nf a peculiar arrangement of the batteries and magnets, so that the current from the transmitting sta- tion does not influence its own magnet, while it affects that of the receiving station, each magnet tbua being placed under control of the distant operator. , The machinery which accomplishes results so aston- ishing is simple in the extreme. It consists mainly of four dock-wheels used to turn tho type-wheel. These wheels are governed by the vibrating spring liefore ex- plained. At thu moment a current from the distant station enters the magnet the armature flies ofT, opens a detent which causes a small press to be locked to tho wheel-work of the instmmeiit, and then to press a strip of pape.- against tha letter of the type-wheel opposite the press at t!>at instant. A current is sent upon the lino by means of keys arranged like those of a piano, and having the letters of tho alphabet engraved upon tliem. At the moment one of these keys is depressed the magnet of the receiving station is made to act, and the press to print the letter corresponding to tho '^ touched key. The receiving operator fa»« nothing to <)o but to tear otf the messages is they This instrument, after more than tci jf perse- vering tliought and labor, ii. at last pi , snd now fulfills ail the requisites of a perfect telegraph instru- ment— mora than realizing all thst has evn been claimed for it by the inventor. Tiie remarkable in- genuity, toleut, and knowledge of the principles of electrical science displayed by Professor Hughes, in the invention of bis beautiful machine, deservedly place him foremost in the i inks of tho laborers in this branch uf art, and Justify h>a claim of having invented a telo- Kraph instrument whiih, for speed, neatness, and econ- omy, is without a Hvul. The numerous advantage* that tho Hughes instru- ment possesses over all other existing systems, par- ticularly in the matter of speed and power of working on long circuits, will probably give it the preference in tbe selection of telegraphic machines with which to work the Atlantic Submarine cable. Indeed it may well bo doubted if any other systiim can be mada prac- tically available for tliat purpose. Tho following brief summary of the telegraph lines of the world at the close of tho year 1857 will furnish I'ome idea of the importance of tho telegraphic art, and of its claims to public attention : CnOed Statn bsvo upwsrd of K,OMinlIe*of telegrsph, eni- }>loylng a uspltsl, as near as ran liii ascertained, of $4,O0U,U00. The lUstnmients used are th* Ilugbes, Hoiim, and Morse iiiacblDos. BritUh Protinct* hare COOO miles of telegrsph, eniploylng a capital at $fiOO,000. Ciba and Mexico hare short and unreliable lines, which are controlled bjr the governments. England has about 10,000 miles oftelcgraph lines— upward of 40,000 miles of conducting wtie— employing a capital esti- mated at a million and a half ponud* sterling. In England the government has the power of ordering all goTcmment messages to takO' precedence of any other comuunicallous. and wk*a dsamed neesssary sll lelsgropha are rsqnliad to fe* plaeed at tbe sole disposal of the goverament. Only one In- slanee of this kind has octnrred ; on the occasiou ef the an* tidpated Chartist riots In April, 184». ytom* hss 8000 miles of telegraph in eperstton, nadsr tha exclusive eoutrol of the govsroment. Mgtum. has about BOO miles of telegraph lines, eonstnistsd and controlled by the government. Qtrmani^ and Austria have nearly 10,000 mile* of tele- graph, controlled by the govemmentsi Pnuiia has about 4000 miles of tslegrsph In operation. The wires ors mostly underground— controlled by the gov- ernnent ifoUoiHi has (00 miles of telegraph. '. ■' <> ' "n Sammy and Bamtrta hare government Ihie* of shodt ItOO miles. Xtaly hss 2600 miles, controUed by its dUbrent govern- ments. Sicitxerfaind has IBOO miles, under control of tbe Federal government. Spain and Portugal have some 800 miles— controlled by th* governments. Bnmia.—Ot the number and extent of Snsstan telegraph Uaes little Is known. As near as can be estimated, they ex- tend over 0000 miles— under government control. Indta has now In operstlon SOOO miles of telegraph, con- structed and controlled by the East India Company. AxutraUa has tM)0 miles In operation, and SOO miles nearly or quite completed. BxoAnruLATioif. MUM. America 45,000 England 10,000 France 8,000 Uernwny and Austria 10,000 FniBSla 4v000 Russia 6,000 Kestcf Europe T,6B0 India 6,000 Australia 1,200 Other parts of the world , 600 Total length of telegrsph lines... 06,160 The number of messages passing over all lines in tba United States is estimated at about 4,000,000 per annimi. In addition to the land lines, numerous submarine cables have been laid in dilferent parts of the world. Annexed is a brief account of tho different submarine cables, lengths, when laid, etc. The flrst submarine cable was laid between Dover, England, and Calais, France, during August, 1660. This cable was about 24 miles in length. Electrical com- munication between England and France continued uninterrupted for altout a month, when tha cable wa* broken. Upon examination it waa found that the chafing of the cable against rocks off Cape Gricnez had caused it to part. A second cable was immediately rclaid, larger and stronger than its predecessor, which has remained in good working order up to the present time. In May, 1862, a submarine cablo was successfully laid between Holyhead and Howth, thus connecting England with Ireland. This cable is 64 miles in length. During May, 1858, " the Port Patrick and Carrickfei^ gus" cable, 24 miles in length, connecting Scotland and Ireland, was laid. In June, 1864, a cablo 116 miles in length was laid between Orfordness, England, and the Hague, Holland. A third cablo, 76 miles in length, was laid in 1862, between Dover and Ostend. In 1864 cables from Italy to Corsica, thence to Sar- dinia, were, after much difficulty, successfully laid down, a distance of about 76 miles. Tho New York, Newfoundland, and London Tele- graph Company, in 1866 made an attempt to connect the islands of Newfoundland and Cape Breton. The attempt was unsuccessful. In 1866 another attempt was made, resulting in complete success. . Summary ifStJmarine Coij^.— The following Is a oorreot table of the number and length of the sub- marine cables laid down in different part* of the world t ■&iT DoTwiodOiteiKl.. HoIyIi,«i„a„ ,^- B»«*«dMdH«H.nd. :; gK.'e5S:!5?»--o head of * « 1S87 185)1 isfia ISSt 185S 950^miC„W4-'rh"'' •'•^^ •U Is 2660 miJer Sm ./ ""* conducting T ^' » capital of f360 0Mf„,,K ''^^^'P"" Company wi3! Europe with America ht^ I ^"'^"^ «' connecting "1" ""'connect,on the^Iw '^''"'"^^''Pl'rate.i In August, 1857 ar.,Z .'"'"""'*°« ^legraph "„/ •^*.'"" "^ 'cicgraphs which ?..*V'"'' "'"' ">« Au,trl« Atlantic S«bn,arine CaSr '" .'".'"''' '» CdoVnIhe ?".^, "" ""e oTher w Uh a «b . .^k**,' 1«» •oSeleucU? fcilure. The cable was &mn''"«, '" « disasfrot Jort^^^r'"'"^ '""^ "" p'"Un Gu ?'? "i^ '"" ^« nearly one ton ner m!l» , ■ '" 'cngth, weiithinir P ■ ^""achee. It will ,h.^ *" ""> Indian atrain of over flv'^'Lns w'ir".'''; "' ^'^''"S a Xc? f'"'' r""^ ^ ^'^^bhl^'^^ '"PP'y ""> on" av^';!:arrS^-r.pi^^ L i^.lft-^ ,1851. .y TEN 1882 TEN Bjr tha act of February, 1857, "all fonoar acta an- thoriting iha ourranejr of foreign gold and silver coina, and declaring the aame a legal tender in payment of dettU, are hereby repealed." In the abeence of any ipeclal agreement, the only payment iinown to the law U by cash. The tender should properly be in cash, and must be so, if that is raqnired. A tender of a larger sum than ia due, with a requirement of change or of the balance, is not good. A lawful tendir, and payment of the money into court, ia a good defense to an action for the debt But the creditor may break down this defense by proving that he demanded the money of the debtor, and the debtor refbsed to give it, subMquenUy to the tender.— Pab- aoMa oa MmaiUUt Ijcue. TwisrUfe, the largest island of the group called the Canaries, lies between Canary and Oomera. It is of an Irregular shape, 60 miles in length, with an ex- treme breadth of 80 miles. Not more than one-seventh is eultlvable. A chain of mountains traverses the isl- and in the direction of its greatest length, and in the middle of the broadest part rises the celebrated peak locally known as the Pico de Teyde, which, with its supports and spuis, occupies nearly two-thirds of the whole island. The Canary Islands are In the Xorth Atlantic Ocean, between lat. 87° 40' and 39° 80' N., and long. 18° 80' and 18° 20' W. The names of the seven principal TanariA SIT Oraad Cellar* TS8 Palma T18 Laniarote StI Fuertaventura SM OomeiB IW UteiTo 81 islands, their respective area in English square miles, and tbeir population in 1886, are given In the follow- ing table : rmteUM. w,o«> •8,000 81,000 17,400 18,800 11,T0» 4,400 Formerly the total annual produce was estimated at about 40,000 pipes, of which 2A,000 pipes were pro- duced in Teneriflb. Between 8000 and 9000 pipes were exported. The chief exports are wine, cochineal, barilla, and orchiUa. ' The imports consist of woolen, silk, cot- ton, and iron manufactures, glass, etc Principal Pori$.— "nit ports of Santa Crui de Tene- riffii, Orotana, Ciudad Real de loa Palmes, Anecilfe de Langarole, Puerto da Cabras, and San Sebastian, in the Canary Islands, having been declared free by royal decree proclaimed on the 10th of October, 1862, and vessels of the United States and their cargoes arriving in said ports being thus placed on the same footing with those of Spain, no discriminating duty is levied on Spanish vessels and their cargoes arriving from those ports in the ports of the United States; provided that on every such arrival the required consular certificate be filed with the collector of the port.— ?"»"• Jta" o k to Florence i„ A abSma 2 6 „.!'«»'"'' '»' 'tWlTta S^-"" •"'-"•'«' "oJ?'d?" "" ""'tom.Sf .Wp, boats 800 farther. It Zt^J,.l '^^ash vilk, and fo, h..u ""PP®'- To preserve „ll.?^^ ""* *"""• '"rface •ton, Clinch, French, Broad 3?' *"«'■• The Hoi- a,«.n """'='" »" P"e» doe? n^ il, ""■ •"»* «"'«in.. of the Tennessee, ObiorForkM n"'"'**'""''«n"b° coaTu?'' P^^^^d 'he Care. .4t.T.-<„,^5*"*"« " •»w»jr uu mues from tha Mi-.i . T " "iver in Ken •ton. Clinch, French Broad tn??' '*"'"• Th" HcS-' of the Tennessee ; ObiorForkMn "'**'»" '"•""bes fa the weslem part of the sSfe «''?'"' ^""rive" 38cotto„^.ctori;,t^uh'.XI;:M^^^«'-'<'^"l«6o, -—-■", provmed the «>••.... . v— /. vnarnne fa ««al Ur or zinc paint Ih'r.n"! **'" ""«« with hot koep the .hellih'^Xtw:^" be found excellent to *» (c«tch) a^d gaX nT'™"' "»"«' of caee. tained by boiling fhe^^. „V/' ""'""1 tbat it isZ tC''."::':..^"''»teh^:X"?b!nrr"^^^^^ WMt. makinf piX„ »hh " ^^^'>' ^3 establishl Lf ^""r ^.""'^b it co„eai„,Cre re.V.M"^" ^^'on '/"•ir V, • • .1-, - m this time along tbe Gulf of Mexico, from the mouth of the Bio Bravo in the south to tha mouth of tha Sabina In the eatt. To show how far and in what manner the boundaries of tliis name and State were extended toward the interior does not belong to our hydragnq>bical researches. — J. Q. Kouu The general aspect of the country It that of a rttt inclined plane, gradually tloping from the mountatna eaitward to the tea, and traversed by numerous riven, all having a southeast direction. It may be naturally divided into three regions ; the first, which Is level, ox- tends along the coast with a breadth varying f^om 100 to 80 miles, being narrowest at the southwest. The soil of this region Is principally a rich alluvion, with scarcely a atone, and tingularly free from stagnant swamps. Broad woodlands fringe tbe banks of tbe rivers, betweelk which are extensive and rich pasture landa. The second division, the largest of tbe three, it tbe nndnlating'prairie region which extendi for 150 or 200 mllei farther inland, itt wide, grassy tracti al- ternating with others that are thickly timbered. Lime- stone and sandstone form the common substrata of this section. The third, or mountainous region, situ- ated principally on the wet,: and southwest, forming part of tbe Sierra Madre, or Mexican Alps, Is but li^le explored. At Itt ramote extremity it consists of an elevated table-land, resembling the vast steppes of Asia, except in their superior fertility. The mountain sides are clothed with forests, and then are few, if any dlitrlcta of country of the same extent as Texas, with ■o little unproductive land. The principal rivers In the State are the Sabine, Neches, Trinidad, Brazos, Colondo, Guadtloupe, San Antonia, Nueces, and the Rio Grande. The Neches is navigable for small steamboats for mora than 100 miles, Trinidad River for 800 or 400 miles, and the Brazos for half that dlstanos. Tbe Rio Color«ni itagnant ianki of the rich pasture Sr the three, fends for 160 sy tracts al- ired. Llme- kubstrata of [region, sUo- jest, forming |,isbutWle msists of an steppes of le mountain |4 few, If any Texas, with I the Sabine, laloope, San TheNechesis tn 100 miles, le Brazos for fjstructed by len removed, kustin City. le tor only a |rte, a noble 1 most prob- Lscome here- I Galveston i)ut 85 miles iThoGnlfof 1 which are irexan year THA 188ft is divided into wet and dry teatoas; the former lasU mines have been wrought in the mountains, and bit* frnm l)«o«mlier to Marrh. anil fh» !■•*>* h«.M u..»k «. mail and lall ai« almnffant* ttom Ueoemlier to March, and the Utter from March to December. 8now is •elilom icen except on the mount- ains. The country Is in moat parU covered with a luxuriant native grass, and it It amply supplied with timber, among which are the live oak, white, black, and post oak, hickory, walnut, sycamore, caoutchouc, •to., and on the high lands pine and cedar. The " Cross Timbers" ate two lines of continuous forests of great extent Cotton and sugar-cane are the great agrioul. jral sUplcs, libth of which attain to great per- faction. The grains chiefly cultivated are Indian com and wheat. Peaches, mcloni, tigs, oranges, lemons, {line-apples, dates, olives, grapes, etc., grow abundant- y. Ureat numbers of cattle ind horses are reared, and vast herds of buffaloes and wild horses wander over the prairies, while deer and game are abundant. Among Its minerals are coal of a superior quality, iron ore, limestone, granite, slate, g)psum, etc. 'silver FoBBieM t'OMinaoa of thi Statb or TaxM, raoM .Imv I, IWB, to Jciv 1, 186T, snowim aijo tok DisTto(it Toi- MAoa IN lc>46. Jlfmii/ucfMrM, road built. YMM<»lla| DoiMtk. ronlfn. Tote). ImpMla. To«J. TMiiaff* Am«rku. •l..»l. ronlta. nMiK RifUUrtd. Taaiu(». KnralhlAiid Llri>M4 June 80, 1846 M47 1848 184!) 1880 Total... June 80,1851 1861 1858 1854 1885 1866 186T ♦12.089 82,791 $181,611 24,088 $148^610 82,701 24,088 $17,266 t9,8zO H024 16,640 28,650 608 117 780 loss 2,B0tl 6,8S7 2,067 1,681 'boo "087 $;4ssi) $78,442 220,884 6!),1,1I18 782,448 604,067 1,281,025 1,401,875 $180,470 $483,741 460,768 582,001 222,004 089,664 $261,889 ?18|n7B 1,020,681 1,314.440 916,961 104,880 1,491,876 $188,416 $r4,718 77,R92 281,460 231,423 202,86S 821,884 809,774 2877 863 2.'«0 J7B1 48T5 4024 7804 «t>10 ll,7Ti 1,470 6,100 8,226 4,83.1 6,(140 8,906 6,102 ■••■ !;;; — fifM HrAsiSB Couxiiis for oommerce prior to the jcar 1846. Thaler, a German silver coin, flrst coined in Joa- chlmsthal, a valley in Bohemia. The value of the thaler is about seventy cents.— 5ee Coins, Geruaky, and Dollar. ThamM (TamuU), the principal though not the longest river of England, through the south part of which it flows mostly in -n easterly direction. It rises under the name of the Isis, about two mUr - u rh ofClrencester, and 876 feet above the sea, flowft ii-.t ■outh to near Crlcklade, then east-northeast post Ler ' - lade to near Oxford, and southeast past Oxford, Ab- ingdon, and Walllngford to Reading, after which Its course is mostly eustwanl to Graves^ nd. A few miles beyond th' \ It expands into an estuary, which at Its Junction with the North Sea at the Nore, between the Isle of Sheppey and Foulness Point, Is fifteen miles across, and has on Its opposite banks the towns Sheei^ ness and Southend. Total course estimated at 216 miles. At Dorchester It receives the Thamer fkvm the north, and thenceforth assumes its proper name ; other principal aflluents are the Chumet, Coin, Wainrush, Evenlode, Cherwell, Colne, Brent, Lea, and Boding from the north, and the Cole, Konnet (its chief afflu- ent), Wey, Mole, and some smaller rivers trom the south. The Mersey joins its estuary at Sheemess. Its basin is of less size than that of the Severn, but no river in the world has more commercial importance. The tide flows up it for about eighty miles ; it is nav- igable for ships of any burden to Deptford, for vessels ' of 200 tons to London Bridge, and for barges 180 miles farther, where It is united by the Thames and Severn Canal with the Severn, below aioucester ; it is also connected witli all the centre of England by the Ox- ford and Warwick and Grand Junction Canals, and by other canals with Bristol, Basingstoke, Arundel, etc. Under the Romans it formed the north boundary of the province of Brilannia prima. The Thames to the richest river In the world. It has been erroneously said that its name Is Isis till it arrives at Dorchester, when, being joined by the Thame or Tame, It assumes the name of Thames. What was the origin of this common error can not now be traced : poetical Action, however, has pcriietu- ated the error, and invested it with a kind of cbsslcal sanctity. It was called Thames or Toms lieforo It came near the Thame, — Camdev. The river rose so high at Westminster that the lawyers were brought out of the hall In bor.ts, a.d. 1285. Again it rose to great height, 1736, 17-17, 1752, and 1701. Tlio conser- vation of the Thames was given to tho mayors of Lon- don, 1489. Tho Thames was made navignblo to Ox- ford, 1624. It ebbed and flowed twice in three hours, 1658. Again, thrCe times in four hours, March 22, 1G82. Again, twice In three hours, November 24, 1777.— iSm article Tu.vnel. Thermometer. The invention of this instru- ment is ascrilied to several scientlftc persons, all about the same time. Galileo, 1597. — Libri. Invented by Drebbel of Alcmaer, a.d. 1609. — Boerhaave. Invent- ed by Paulo LarpI in 1609. — Fuloestio. Invented by Sanctorio In 1610. — Borglli. Fahrenheit's thermom- eter was invented about 1726; and the scale called Reaumur's soon after, 1780. The mode of construc- tion by substituting quicksilver for spirits was invent- ed some years subsequently. — Havdx. Thimble. This simple yet useful, and now Indis- pensable appendage to the ladies' work-table, is of Dutch Invention. The art of making them was brought to England by John Lofting, a mechanic ft^m Hol- land, who set up a work-shop at Islington, near Lon- don, and practiced the manufacture of them in various metuls with profit and success, about 1695. — t.'.YDW. Thread (Ger. Zwim ; Du. Garm ; Fr. Fil; It. Rffe; Sp. into, Torzal; Buss. IViiki), a small line made up of a number of fibres of some vegetable or animal substance, such as flax, cotton, or silk ; whence its names of linen, cotton, or silk thread.— See Cottok Mani'factdre. Tide Gauge, a mechanical contrivance for regis- tering the state of the tide continuously at every In- TID 1886 TID ■Ual of tlnw. In the Philo$. Tnmi. for 1«M, than U • daacripllon of k vary coin|data Mlf-rggUUring nsehlM for thli purpoaa, arsctad at BrUtorby Mr. Bant. Tha principal parU ara an alght^y clock, which tuma a vartlcai cyllndar raroTvIng onca In twanly-four boura i a whaal, to which an alUmatf motion U cnmmunlcatad by a float rlalng and fklling with tha tida, and connactad with tha whaal by a wire paulng ovar a pullay, and kapt conitantly itralnad bv • countarpolia i and a amalt drum on tha aama axia with tha whaal, which, by a auipandlng wlia, com- mnnlcatai ona-alghtaanth of tha vartlcai motion of tha float to a bar carrj'lng a 'pancll, which deicrlbea a curve on tha cylinder, and thereby marki the fluctuation!, and the time and height of high water. Tldca, the alternate riae and fall of tha watera of the ocean. The moon It the principal agent In the production of tha tides | but they are modlfled, both with reapact to their height and the timea at which they happen, by tha artkm of the aun. The efftct of the planata la InapprecUlde. Homer la the earlleat profline author who speaka of the tidea. Posldoniua of Apamea accounted for the tldea firom the motion of the moon, about 79 n.c. ; and Caaar apeaka of them In hia fourth l>ook of the Galllo War. The theory of the tldea was flrst aati^rnctorlly explained by Kepler, A.D. 1S98 ; but the honor of a complete explanation of them waa reserved for Sir Isaac Newton, who laid hold of this class of phenomena to prove universal gravitation, •bout 1688. The attractive force of a body on a distant particle of matter var}ing inversely as the square of the dis- tance, the particles of the earth on the side next the moon will lie attracted with a ((roster, and those on the opposite side with a smaller force, than those which are situated intermediately. The gravitation toward the earth's centre of the particles nearest the moon will therefore be diminished, and consequently, if at liberty to move among themselves, they will rise above the general level. Jn like manner, the moon's attraction on the most dlslint partlclea being lesa than on the central ones, their relative. gravitation toward the centre will also be diminished, and the waters will consequently be heaped up on the side of the earth which is turned away fh>m the moon. Hence, if the earth were at rest, the ocean would take the form of an oblong spheroid, with its longer axis passing through the attracting body ; and it may be shown ftnm the- ory that the spheroid would be lik equilibrium under the Influence of the moon's attraction, if the longer *emi-axis exceeded the shorter by about 58 Inches. But in consequence of the rapid rotation of the earth about its axis, the spheroid of equilibrium '•» never Atlly formed ; for before the waters can take their level, the vertex of the spheroid has shifted its posl- tl "I on the earth's surface. In consequence of which ail immensely broad and veij- flat wave is formed, which follows the motions of the moon at some Interval of time. In the open sea the time of high water Is, in genera], ftrom two to three hours after the moon's transit over the meridian either above or below the horizon. The tidnl wave, it is to be observed, Is en- tirely diflTerent from a current : the particles of water merely rise and fall ; but except when the wave possea over shallows, or approaches the ahore, there la littla or no progressive motion. The watera of the ocean are affected in a similar manner by the action of the sun, under the influence of which they have a tendency to assume at every in- stant the form of an elongated spheroid ; but although the attractive force of the sun is immensely greater than that of the moon, yet, by reason of the greater distance of the sun, the difference of the efl'ect on par- ticles situated on opposite sides of the earth (on which dUTerenoe the phenomena depend) is very much less. The solar tides are therefore comparatively small with napect to the lunar tides, and, in fact, are never per- ceived as diatlnct phenomena, bat become smaibla only trom the modlllcatlons which they priKluca in the heights and times of those which primarily depend on tha moon. At tha sysygles. when the sun and moon oome to tha meridian tugetner, the tidea are, ctltrit pariint, the highest ; at the quadratures, or when tha sun and moon are 00° distant, tha tidea are least. Tha former are called tpring tidu, the latter neap lidii. Although we are not in possession of data to enable us to computH the exact helghfreithar of the spring or neap tidea, yet their relative heights in the open ocean probably correnpond very nearly to the elllptlcities of the spheroids of equilibrium that would be formed un- der the action of the two iiodles exerted separately. Mow the elllptlclty of the aqueous spheroid formed by the moon's action Is about Ave feet, and the elllptlclty of that formed by the sun's action about two feet ; therefore, the spring and neap tides bring the sum and diflTerence of the separate elTects, the average spring tide will be to the average neap In the ratio of about 7 to 8. Tht) apparent time of high water at any port, in tha afternoon of the day of new or MX moon, in what la usually called the ftlablithment of tht port. Mr. Whewell calls this the rtilgnr enteblishment, and the mean of all the Intervals of tide and transit for a half lunation he terms the eorreettj establishment. Thia corrected estebllshment Is consequently the lunltldal Interval corresponding to the day on which the moon paasea tha meridian exactly at noon or midnight. The two tides immediately following one another, or the tides of the day and night, var}', both In height and time of high water, at any particular place with the distance of the sun and moon from the equator. As the vertex of the tide wave always tends to place itself vertically under the luminary which produces It, it is evident that, of two consecutive tides, that which happena when the moon is nearest the lenith or nadir will be greater than the other; and consequently, when the moon's declination is of the same denomina- tion aa the latitude of the place, the tide which cor- responds to the upper transit will be greater than tha opposite one, and rice terta, the difl°erences being great- est when the sun and moon are in opposition, and In opposite tropics. This is called the diurnal inequality, because Ite cycle Is one day ; but it varies greatly at different places, and its laws, which appear to be gov- erned by local circumstances, are very imperfectly known. We have now described the principal phenomena that would take place were the earth a sphere, and covered entirely with a fluid of uniform depth. But the actual phenomena of the tides are inflnitely nofe complicated. From the interruption of the land, and the irregular form and depth of the ocean, combined with many other disturbing circumstances, among which are the inertia of the waters, the friction on the bottom and sides, the narrowness and length of the channels, the action of the wind, currents, difference of atmoapheric pressure, etc., great variation takes place In the mean times and bright of high water at places differently situated ; and the inequiilitirs above alluded to, aa depending on the parallax of the moon, her position with respect to the sun, and the declina- tion of the two bodies, are, in many cases, altogether obliterated by the efflscts of the disturbing influences, or can only be detected by the calculation and com- parison of long aeries of observations. By reason of these disturbing causes, it becomes a matter of great difficulty to trace the propagation of the tide wave, and the connection of the tides in dif- ferent parts of the world. In the I'hilomphical Trani- actioni for 18D2, Sir John Lubbock published a map of the world, in which he inserted the times of high water at new and full moon at a great numlier of places on the globe, collected from various sources, as works on navigation, voyages, sailing directions, ete. ; and. TID TID initbl* InUia end on 1 Diuon etttrii If n th* s lent. ip liJu, prlng or in ocMn :ltlr> of mti un- xratcly. nn»(l by lUptlclty wo feet; ■um and ^ tpring if about 7 )rt, In the ia what te iirt. Mr. t, and the for a half int. ThU B lunltldal the moon ,lKht. e another, h In height place with le equator, da to place produeea It, that which Ith or nadir lacquently, denomlna^ -which coT- ir than the ,„ilng great- tion, and In Uintqualit]/, greatly at to bo gov- (perfectly I becomes a l)a(;at\an of lides In dif- li'rn' Trant- Ihed a map lea «f high Ir of places h, aa works Tetc; and. U order that the march of th* tide wave nlyht be l otefflatloiu pndHeed nnder the direct ageney of the liwied mora r«adlv,lh,Um.e ware. xproaaed In Green- sun and moon In the Southern Ocean, and iwinlie • wkh lima a* well aa the time of th* pUce. In tha certain lnt*rval of tlm* for Ihalr traaifkr. It bUowa ^.'7"^'!!!! . 1 ??i • ^''•''•" P«oi*cut*d I that, In g*n*ral, th* tide la not ilu* to th* moon's traa- ' sit Immsdlalaly pncadlng, but I* regulatwl by Ih* po- sition which th* snn and ntoon had when thay d*l*rm- ln*d the primary tide. The time eUpeed betwe*a th* original formation of the tide and lu appearance et any plac* la calltd th* agt of th* tid*, and aumetimes, ' afUr Oamottlll, th* rttenf. On th* shores of Bpahi and North America th* tid* Is a d^y and a half old ) in the port of London it appear* to be two days and • half old when It arriv**. VtlocUji lifAt Tid* Wat* — In th* open ocean the crest of tha tide travel* with anormoaa velocity. If th* whoU aurfao* w*r* unilbrmly covered with water, the summit of th* tid* wav*, b*lng mainly govamed by the moon, would evtry wh*i* follow the moon'* transit at tha same hit*rval of thn*, and consequently travel round th* earth in a little mora than twenty- four hoiirs. But the cireumferance of the eaith at the equator being about V>,Vf<) miles, the velocity of prop, agation would therefore be about 1000 mlUs per hour. The actual velocity Is perhaps nowhere equal to this, and is very dlfferant at different pUcea. In Utltude G0° south, where tliere Is no Interruption from Und (excepting the narrow promontory of I'atagonia), th* tide wave will complete a revolution In a lunar day, and consequently travel at the rate of G70 miles an hour. On examlnUig Mr. Wbewcll's map of cotidal lines, it will be seen tliat the great tide wave from th* Southern Ocean travels fh>m the Cape of Oood Uopo to tiie Axons In about twelve hours, and from the Axores tu the aouthemmost point of Irelund in three houra more. In the Atlantic the hourly velocity in some cases appears to be 10° of latitude, or near 700 miles, which is almost equal to the velocity of sound through the air. From the south point of Ireland to the north point of Scotland the time la eight hours, and the velocity about IGO miles an hour along the shore. On tho eastern 'oust of Britabi, and in shal- the pole of the earth, and finally end its course on the I lower water, the volocit\ is less. From Buchanneas thU subject at greater Ungth i and availing himsalf of hpriori (OBsiderations, aa well aa of a maaa of informt- tloB eoll«)t*d in th* hydrographn's offlo* at th* Ad- ■ilralty, ln**rt*d In th* map a series of colidal Imts, or Unas along which high water takes plac* at the same Instant of tlm*. But these cothlal lines, as Sir J. Lubbock remarks, are entirely hyiwthetlcali for w* hav* f*w opportunltlos of determining the time of high water at a dUtanoe from th* coast, though this is soma- tlm** poaaible by means of a S4>lltary isUnd, as 8t. Halena.— Lubbock's £V*morhood of Behring's Straits. It may even propagate its influence through the straits, and modify the tides of the Xorth raciflc. But a branch tide Is sent off from this main tide into the Ger- man Ocean ; and this, entering between the Orkneys and the coast of Norway, brings the tide to the east coast of England, and to the coasts of Holland, Den- mn 'k, and Germany. Continuing Its course, part of it, i.t least, passes through the Strait of Dover, and meets in the British Cl<:nnel the tide from the At- lantic, which arrives on the coast of Europe twelve hours Liter ; hut in passing along the English coast, another part of it is reflected from the projecting land of Norfolk upon the north coast of Germany, and again meets the tide wave on the shores of Denmark. Ow- ing to this interference of different tide waves, the tides are almost entirely obliterated on the coast of Jutland, where their place is supplied by continuel high water. In the Pacific Ocean the tides are very small, but there are not sufficient observations to determine the forms and progress of the cotidal lines. Off Cape Horn, and round the whole shore of Terra del Fuego, from the western extremity of the Strait of Magol- haens to Staten Island, it is very remarkable that the tidal wave, instead of following the moon in its diurnal course, travels to the eattward. This, however. Is a to Sunderland it is about sixty miles an hour; from Scarborough to Cromer, thirty-five miles ; from the North Foreland to London, thirty miles ; from London to Richmond thirteen miles an hour in that part of the river.— WuEWE^^ J'hil. Tran*., 1888 and JH8C. It i* scarcely necessary to remind the reader that the aliove velocities refer to the transmission of the undulation, and are entirely different ftom the velocity of tha current to which the tide wave gives rise in shallow water. Theorg of the T*!**.— The theory of the tides, con- sidered as a consequence of solar and lunar attraction, was first sketched by Newton in the Principia. In the 3Cth and 37th propositions of the third book, he de- termines the forces of the sun and moon to elevate the waters of the ocean, on the supposition that the sea la a fluid of the same density as the earth, covering the whole terrestrial surface, and which takes at everj- in- stant the figure of equilibrium. He assumes, without demonstration, that this figure is an elongated sphe- roid. One spheroid he supposes to be formed under the action of the sun, another under the action of the moon ; and, by reason of the smallness of their eccen- tricities, they may be conceived as superposed the one on the other. From these suppositions he deduced the general phenomena of the ebb and fiow of the sea; and by comporing his theory with observations of the portlal phenomenon ; and a little farther to the north heighU of the spring tides made at the mouth of tho of the last-named places the tides sot to the north and j Avon, near Bristol, he determined the ratio of the at- w**t. In the Mediterranean and Baltic seae the tides ' traction of the moon to that of the sun to be nearly are inconsiderable, but exhibit irregularities for which it is difllcult to account. The Indian Ocean appears to have high water on all sides at once, though not in the central parts at th* same time. Since the tides on our coasts are derived fh>m the 4-48 to 1 ; whence he deduced the mass of tho earth to be to that of the moon as 39788 to 1, the density of the sun to that of the earth as 1 to 4, and the d^^uslty of the moon to that of the earth as 11 to 9. Newton'e theory was defective in many points of -view, hut 4fty TID 1H38 TID JTMH tlapMd kaAiM II ww W t4 •njr linpfnvMMitl. In i ITM tk* inl^iMil W Ik* IMm Wkt |mt|in««il m • ftiti qMtUiMi by Ik* rrMMk AawlMiy of ItalMMt, «ht*h C wm il ii w to ik« MUImto4 liMllMt of OmM Mill, MMUwtn, iMl Kaltr. MacUwIm't ICMajr b rwnMkabW) M w to hiNm • 4mimmI»*IImi of ih* l k«i ]i *w MIMWW4 lijf Mtwtoa, IkM tk* •UljM* •pkMnM •llbiiU an MalllbriiM wUm tk« MtkM *ttk» 4i«tafk. log IbrMi I ikoM af UmimhiIU •■4 XhIwi ikMgk tk*y Ainiltk M MW Minatpia •! t^wU tr itaiHw.MipMt* ■rtkMfy, in f^i w tkMfy, ratof m»n Into 4«talli, *a4 •«Ntoln nwny wtM UlMtnlkHMi Tkal vf BmmmIII, Imlawl, ountolni • toliU wkkik kM Mrv«d m lk« for tU lk«M (Mt pvnijr Mi|rirl««l) wkkkHMvi liMn fonMd. Tk* MM InMrtMM tto* |« Ika liMorjr of tk« Mm wm takm bjr Ltplito, wiw Int liMtod lk« NitjMi M • m««mI qwatiM of kytfndjniMnlM, •nd •Itomntod to iM«m lh« |iflai'l|Ml iAminmiui (htm iba M|iMllaM of lk« molkiM of iuMt. Bui In Md*r to ilmpllfy tk« MjiMlton*, wkkk «■• of • vwy compll- Mtod nalHto, k« wh fonad to k«v« rMMiurwato iIm kypolkMk of • HmM Mvwlng Mllnly » ibhiraU of • lOKttkr luffMw, MMl o oniMinw n lly Iko roiulta woro for fhm npfMontliifr iko arliMl okoorvaUnnt nf Iko tldoi ■loarBorl, 'l'koUl«l>r.TkoiMW Y footo of kydraalU fHollmi on tka Umaa and ma|tnUnd*i oflkolldaa, Jmhunc* <\f AlmMfktrU IStmtr* and IViW*.— Bo. (kki Iho uumoruui cawM* nf Irragulirlty dapondlng on Iho hxial iilruum»tonco«, Ika tklaa aro alao alfoclM by tha lUta iif Iho almiMphoN, M DlaaK Iho btlghl of high waUr varioa Invarwly aa Iha hajgbl of Iha banimvUr, and rliwt mora Ihan algkl Inthaa for a foil of alwul half an biek of Iha baminotor. Al Llrarpool, a fall of una>lonlh of an Inok fai Iha l«fomator «orro> aiionda to a rlaa In Iha lllvar Maraay of aboul an Inch i and al Iha London lluok*, a foil of ona-tonlk of an inch ocrraaiMMida to a rlaa In Iha Thamaa of aboul aavan- lanlba of an ln«b. Whh a low baromator, Iba lldaa may Iharcfort lia axiMolad lii ba high, and tit* ttna, Tha Uda la alao llabia to \m dUlurhml by winda. Sir J, Lnbbook alMaa Ihal, In Iha violani hurrksana of January 8, IMNO, " Ihara waa no llda al OalnaborottRb, wblob I* Iwanly'Ava mllaa up Iha TnnI— • elnium> alanoa mknown l>aforai Al Sallmarah, only flva mllaa up Iha Ouia fhtm Iha llumbar, Iha llda wani on obMng, and navar llowad till Iha rivar waa dry In aomo pUcoa I whila al Datond, lowant which Iha wind waa blowing, oonlrary aflboU wata obaarvad. During atrong noilhwaatorly galaa Iha llda marka high walar earllar hi Iha Tbamaa Ikan olharwiaa. and dnaa nol giro ao much wator, whIla Iha abMlda runa oul lala, and marka lowar t bul upon Iha galaa alialing and Iho waalbor modarallng, Iba lldaa pul hi, and riia much kighar whIla Ikav alao run longar hafora high waler la roarkad, and with mara valooUy of currant t nor do Ibay run oul ao long or ao lew.—BBANnN'a rVe^xaitfa. The ttilat obNrrallona of Iha Paclflo ooaat hava eaa- nally M to a dalarmlnalkm of graal adanline intor- aai, that of Iba avaraga daplh of tha fatlflo Oeaan be- Iwaan tha ooaata of Japan and OalUbnla. On tha tsd of Dooamhar, 1M4, an aarthquaha ueourrtd in Japan by which Ika town nf Mmoda, In tha Inland nf Mlphon, waa daatroyad. from tha Imparfwt accounta which havo roaohad ua, II ai>paan that al nina a.m. on that day tha aavaia ahooh of an aarthquaka waa foil on board tha Huaafain (Hgato Mum, than lying In tha haN bor of HImoda, Hal? an hour lalar tha aaa came Into tha bay In an Immanaa war* Ihlity foat In halght, overwbalming tha town and Ihan raeadlng. Thia ad- vanoa and raeaaalon ooourrad llva llmaa, and by sao P.M. all waa again quial, Tha daplh nf tha aoa dnr> lag Ibata obanfM variad tnm laaa Ihan algbl to mora than flirty foal. Upon Iba aama dav an aMraordlnarv rlaa and foil of walar waa obaarvad al faal'a laUwl,' nno of Iba Honin lahinda, and Iba IMa annHnaad to riao and foil daring Iha day al Intorvala of llftoan nU»< utoa, gradually laaaaabig nalil avanhig. •- .la w riaw) Jotmttt ^ Mcimm, January, UtM [l^rof. Ha< hu J, Tba foUawing labia aoolalna Iba iw bad dau for Iba principal iMal alamanU of a nombar of poinu on Ika coaal of tba Unltad Matoa, with addlMona In Iha laMaa pabHakad Uat yaar, fWralahad by Iba dlaanaalona af Ika tidal obaarvalkma. Tbaaa a l a iu anta aro aalaclad fotm a largo numbar ot raaulto obtolnad In Iha |in>gfaaa of Iba Coaal (urTay, aniy Ikoaa atationa baing rapoilad, aa a ganaral mla, wbara Iha obaarvaltona aalandad Ikroagb al Uaal two luaalioaa. UanaAi. Tina Ttau ma Tna Voxn u» ma Umnn ■laTaa. ' I "(WVU fi% "I Coait/nm IWiiami to NrntYmk forUanJ l^irtanHHiUi Nawburyport Kaltni Boaloo LIfht aiiiiiii ill Nanluoksl Kdaartmrn f...< iloIinM'i llok TaraanUB Uor» Wood'a Uote, loatb atda, aorth tUp. DM Itland Uifct N awBad fardhaitwr..., NCWnd a ****tai folalJadilh Moolaukrotail gaidy Hook NawVork liana ialanil fibwMt WalehllUI Rtonlagton UtUa Gall laland Naw Loodoo N*« llaTea Ilrtilceporl (irilcr nay, Loag Idaad Fand'aPolDl NtvKocbaUa TbrograNcok CimM of Xnt J*nt\). CoM Bartoc Inlat Capaliar , JMamnv Aq/ oad /Naer. Dclawar* Ilrinkwalar. . . HlfMaa »:« liland Ughl Maboo'i Uitab NawL'aitIa PhOadalpUa, Nary Yard " WalBuWak. whf. CAaanfMaA* Halt. Old I'otait C'omforl Point Lookout Aaoapolla llodklnUshI Ualtlmoie JanMa Rlrar Biebmond CuatH nf A'oriA CoroMnn, ft'ouM CorsUao. Qtat- gla, and FhrU*. Ilaltaraa Inlet Daaafort HmlthTllla Gharlaatoo RaTannah Hivar Kavannah city 8t.Aug«ittBa tape Florida Band Kay Kay Waal Tampa Uay Cedar Keya WtMem Caad. tan rirgo Xao I'edro tian Lull OUapo. Montarey fi (■3 !»■« It I'O 11 «'« B'* IB 41 18 I* SI I'O 4'8 41 IT IS I'S «« 68 «B TB TT T'6 T-8 44 48 SK 4D «« BD «'B 81 B'V SB 1-4 04 I'O 18 S-O !■» Nortb Carolina, Do Da . . , . Fontb CarolbM. Georgia Da . . . , Florida Da .... Da . . . . Do Do Ua .... CaUromto.. Da . Da ....I 8-T Do. ....' 8'4 Da ....' B'O Oreg. Territory 8'1 9* »<1 10-8 10't It's 84 IB 1« t-B HI 4'« 4'8 ST IS 88 •■4 81 8-4 H» 8 1 84 SO 9-t B'O 8-8 I'S B4 0-0 4'B 8'S T'O 8'« B'V TO 88 B'O l-B I'O IB IB SB 18 I'l I'S 14 4'0 S'4 9-4 II 18 t'l 61 4'T 6'4 l'4 8'S 41 IS 4'8 B'O 8'S 61 60 84 B'S 6'1 I'O O-T 0'9 0-8 0-S • ••Jl ittr~ 1 t tUv r^ urn T4 9* n »«! »* 1U« T« 10« «I 118 HB »« It 8B K 1-6 18 la f-0 Bi 8"i 4« IS 4'« 81 IT l-t tn 14 n« 40 0'4 1-4 »i 1-4 ll'4 Jl 24 88 8 1 11 A< B1 80 4T P-4 B'4 SO «4 8-fl «0 14 »1 4 8'« 0« 4'8 4-B 80 «'3 8-« T-0 B'l t't BO (li) 14 TO B-1 «'« B'l 80 lo l-B O'T 10 O'fl 1'8 0-8 IB O'* 9-1 1'8 8 8 91 Bfi 8'« S'8 48 HO B-tt 7« BB 4-T 8'B 1-T 1'9 SO n-8 S8 07 1-T 10 10 1« BO 9 8 4-7 9-9 n't 9'4 4-8 9B 48 9'R 7 8 4'B TID FWiaMalli, N. II.. 18 «T tV'S 49 Bl 4B 88 Omioo, nitbaM biui. WdJS:rc;;'l'i"~''':::.':^ I '•■'" , Huh m lioM To Mount HoiM Jli» 'Ul.h V. I Rock. fUrhn^ i> 1 T"" • wmoi^nt '"•^•* oxSi5'--«'^;3 North clUBMl.,, ' Hpiith channel. .. . '1 "YjoVNewVorr- ""' °"" "'1 M.fi.Mpch,„n„,;p-— j;i'''^'j^., OattwuvBi^. I><)>irin Btrer. Cb«P«k»ai7. Opposlto (;h«it»r Iter off Hog LLnd" Krom^G«.„w,oh Pii„V upi Phiiae,:, From^„p<,.tV,;i;-i-ii'y'^.^. EllMbeth RiTer, V«. I "•»««»« Inlet, k c. Oor»eok« Jnttt. UMotort, N. c. , CkpeFear I'p to Norfolk Between Xorfolk and m^^m ' Over northern bar ^ ^ Over (outhem bar OTcr northern bar Over loiithern bar Overbar Entranco to fhinnel' .■.'.■.■.' Neir Inlet bar tMaIn .hlpchannei, Ca"^' Fw RlWr • The dantl. I- u •i::'™neiMAp6Fear River t Beandtog, varying between 10 and IB fcthoo* TID 1840 TID Rvov TO Tin SunBWtnmiire ot tot Uiiitb> Statm* Coaw SmiTW. -CoHUnmi. riMM ^AN WATBB IM OHAHMaL WAV, *allli!lti.|w.Wr. 1 IVatar. Ctttt Fmf WMtem rlD FmL 8 10 I • n 10 1 11-6 18 W 19 SO IT 19 81 11 IT 83 SI 16-6 S4 14 19 T S8 ST sc 80 S8 80 ST SO ST 80 IB 11 45 64 4B 80 10 11 18 T ISS SlB SS 81 SO SI 88 IS IS 19 B 18 16 14 lB-9 96 IS 95 9 10 8 18 T8 16 ST 14 TB IS 9 4 FmI. IS-B 14-6 lO'S 80-8 18 ■« lt'8 IB'8 18-8 l«-8 18-8 S« 86 ST 84 S8 88 IT* 831 441 STl 981 80-6 19-9 84-9 11-6 861 88-4 81-4 81-4 89-4 81-4 S8'4 81-4 88-4 81 '4 16-4 184 46-3 664 46 2 81 'S 18'6 18-8 14-8 9-9 18-6 886 89 88 81 88 8T 13 80-3 80-8 193 11-8 16-8 16-6 106 181 106 101 111 91 141 8-T 16 8 88-4 16-4 9 131 101 4-9 9-6 6'T S6T 8'T 10-8 9-8 68 11 '8 18-6 18 « 18 6 196 166 18-4 80-4 10-6 16-6 8T-6 80 6 14T 83-8 136 186 6-6 886 S6'T 29'T 89T 8T-T 89 -T 26T 19T 86 -T 89 -T UT W-T 44S 63 '8 448 39-8 . 91 10-6 11-6 6'6 IS'S 83-8 8TT SOT I9T SOT 86T 11 T 1ST 19-8 ITT 16T 18-7 14-9 9 '3 118 93 8-8 9-8 T-8 19-8 T-S 14T 86'T 18T T-S IIT 8-T 8-8 IS IB 11-8 81-8 181 ITl 16-1 131 lT-6 19-4 866 26-6 37-6 846 86 6 SS-6 18-S 33-8 44-8 27-8 33-6 31 80-8 26-8 18 26-6 29 88 8S ' SO 89 29 SS 80 88 IT 13 464 66-4 464 81-4 18-6 13-6 14-6 96 14 83-7 29-3 89 -8 81-3 22-3 87-8 134 80-6 311 19-6 lT-6 18-6 16-8 lO-T 184 10-T 10-3 11-9 9-3 14-8 8-9 164 28 8 168 11-8 13-3 10« B -1800. 1861, '61, and 'B8. |-1880. 186B. . .: .. .. 1&66. Ilea Barret, ITTT. 1866. 1866. 1886. 1861 and '68. Captain Gilmer, V. 8. En- gbieera.-1866, ^18SSand'86. 1866. . Captain Mackay, U. 8. Top. &i.audCoaatSur.-in& 1866. ISBOand'Bl. 1830 and '61. 1864. 1864 .1869. Colonel Kearney, U. Statea . Topographical Englueen. I From 184T to '68, loeloaive. il848. il848. il861. 18.tl. 1861. 1S6L 1868. 1883. }lS68. il868. 1868. 1863. 1868. 1868. Otorgrtowu, 8. C Chtffcfton, & C ikAtiheMiin Entranoe to Yflnyth Bay, But ftod BouttMuk Pam Anehonge inilde of North IsUnd Mala bur North channel '. Haffltt'a channel Maffltt'a chuinel ^ttHl(«ral Channel up to Northeaat bisnofa t>te«eatruin SttaMth .... i .'.... . Soatheut chimnel Eut CtlADDel Cbannel up to eUy (Wrecka and Oarden Bank) M. SlMA'a Over bar at entrance tM«r Btr uid Inlet . M. M«r7'a Ktrer M. JoWa River, Fh. Key^Mt Turtle Kiver, up to Uljrtbe laUnd On |)|ir Cbmnnel no to St HarT'i Over bur at entrance Channel paBslng up toward Jaeluonvllle Main ship channel to middle buoy on ihnali •foiWgfc East channel, enterlnit Oncourae N.N.W. half W. (light on O'llara'a Obaervatorj), and paaaing From fourteen feet ahoala to anchorage At anchorage Weat channel Northveat channel, up to abreaat N.Vr. light Northweat channel iit Pamt Mtt^Miirl* Ray ('hanncl >vcr bar, outside of Grand Plaa Orand paaaace to Indispendence Taland. Channel inside and north of Ship lalaod Shoal light •■hip Channel north or Ship ^hoal, one mile tnm beach of Demkre laland wlKMtim liiiyt. ..... OalveatuU Itay Afmmn Phnnf H(V f rndnw Rio Grande * tW^yJftg bctweon 80 and 24 foot of water. t fhe M^at tidea ^Kcur at the moon'a grcateat declination, and are applied In the column headed " Spring Tidca." ilMgf. ofthf, Tide.— The difference of level between Mdfh MKf km water is sffSected by various eausea, but ^1«1fy hf tb« conflfjuration of the land, and ia very 4M»■ I^^^SSs£j^iSS^S=^::i S' l: i* H il ! h'S ""•asS^SisS^Srig »• *<:; » gj j;, ,», ».^,.,„"jt •""'"'■ ''•"ClS?s^»»55vsr-^^ .■;:: ■■■■ ■« »„««:: 711 ...... a^-,. ~.JK^'-^'^~/Sa\X'~'a^-'*S' of the equatorial calms-tL, ."'''* "''■8'''»'S '" sV^'V-'k-.': «*» " -Sup^^-j^^^^^r^lr^ ;; Sfc::: •■•■••••• g ■: nf , ■ '^""'Wl — Ihavethnii,.i,t.i " '"i 'uey are / * Incli plant 170 ■< H'ggins, of the liw' ?«"""*' "'e mast,. Canteen ^'T*' ^^.OOO tons, or 48 0^ 7 \ """* <"» an ac^V m 1... ],o l,.f li " ~» & »;m, ion OoitilS' •"• "»)■ in.-,, V±m .,„'"';■ . """ i TIM 1842 TIN bending, as employed in this new application, is based on end-pressure, whicli, in condensing and turning at tlio same time, destroys tlie capillary tulws by forcing tliem into each other. These tubes are only of use when the tree is growing ; and their amalgamation in- creases the density of the timber, the pressure being so nicely adjusted that the wood is neither flattened nor spread, nor is the outer circumference of the wood expanded, tliough the inner is contracted. Now the error of the former process, as expounded by com- petent judges, has arisen from the disintegrating of the fibre of the wood by expanding the' whole mass over a rigid mould. Wood can be more easily com- pressed than expanded ; therefore, it is plain that a process which induces a greater closeness in the com- ponent parts of the piece under operation — which, as it were, locks up the whole mass by l(nitting the flbres together — must augment the degree of hardness and power of resistance. The wood thus becomes almoi' KMln t that they are the iScllIv V.i i"* »'''«" critics 31. .i^"" ®^ "•• <» are usn»ll remit,, of 00™^^^'';!" "J" ""> ^«" XT ^f P"^"'=« «urgeTd ' thage, the British tin trade ivt ^«»'™otion of Car ^fuK "' "-ling the ore ♦„ V -;"' »e». '"« Practlca- !llP~A"i" in,porta„^f\:^lhjr«? always JeS'n^^ " not alloSh''"' ':'«'' it-'- the n,e of the 8oIutio3 tfn^-'' ''■"' ""l-aint^d 3 f ''^''^«'"'. the motll «" *"'!T,'''<' '"'"' «PpIie P gradually increasine till i,, '"' I'rodiice went nn r«.m 1730 to 1800 !;S r,T'''"'''A'-"-r ve^r, T ''*"•" ">« produce fell „«•"'■ . ^"''»S «"« years ending with 1815 it »„ . ' ""^ ''or the five under 3000 tons a yeai- nT- "'ry^ consideraWv rif' ? -"•■'•e'able7ncrea^^\^V''« '-t-mentG S-=^^rr-^^'E'--^ I^Ucanb- - ^ eastern, and comnrih.T''™ "''''- ""d to if^ on^lX" ""China, Hindostan tdTh'" ™'?"""Pti«n of "n, or tin Ta ^^"r. "'"^' ""' '=onseque«lv is /.^ ' ^ ^ J '" ""> P""""™ of Banea a™ /h '"'i"l°' I""'' --j^ '"wirix. Alain v fin "-&-"« uiw irom itr TTT 1844 TOB it flndi iti v»y to Chins. It ihonld be added, that of late yean, and chieBy owing to the veiy low price and abundance of German spelter (zbic) in the Indian marliet, this commodity has occasionally Ijeen fraud- ulently mixed with tin. The Chinese brokers of Can- ton, however, are sufficiently expert to detect the adul- teration; and it is believed that this discreditable practice has lately ceased. The price of tin, talcing the market of Singapore as the standard, has fluctuated of late years from 14 to 20 Spanisli dollars per picul ; equal, at the exchange of 4i. per dollar, to HTt. and C7<. percwt. Atan average of these prices, the annual value of the whole Malay tin will bo about £240,000 per annum. — CnAWFUBD'a llittory qfthe Indian Archi- pelago; Dr. IIuBsviKLD'a JUS. Statittical View lua. Cansdk $41T4 Other Dritbh North American roannluna, British Weit Indies. Aiorei ]*ort« In Africa Mexico Pandwich IiUndi. . , Wbale-lbheriea ToUl 618 2Sa 06 \K 60 864 . $06851 Expon or rouuoM Tin feom Tna rHixro States iob TnK Ykab i!: FUUi ud ShMtj, $22,!I4« 3,326 830 8,681 8,010 2T4 2,441 »84,90T 24,488 10,474 M»nufae> turei of, not tpecifltd. $14,420 180 $14,660 14,2«S luroKTS or Tin and MANrrAoxBRKs or Tim into tub Udited States fob tiir Ybab znvino Jvkx 30, 185T. 'WhtDCa Importad. Hamburg Bremen Holland Dutch l'!ait Indies Belgium Englaad Seotlaad Canada Other British N. A. Poss. British West Indies .... British Giilsna BriliihEast Indies Franco on tho Atlantic . Franco on tho Medlter'n Philippine Islands Cuba New Urtinada Bncnoa Ayrcs Chill Pern" Total. InPlm and Ban. 6,240 STT.MT 66,684 ST.STl 8T,T8S 641 401,171 3!),4S8 i.'wn " ' 61 63 84,602 818 1,028,210 In riatta and Shaala. 2,493 2,601 4,792,763 1,627 236 "is 4,789,638 •is 1,116 4,627 2,763 21 12,830 5 21,426 Oltar Manu. faftaraa. 407 8,608 6,370 16,480 "« 4,84^ 31,922 Tithes are the tenth part of the increase yearly arising and rennwing from the profits of lands, tho stock upon lands, and the personal industr}' of tho in- habitants, and are offerings payable to the Church by law. Under the Jewisli system, the tenth part of the yearly increase of tlieir goods was due to the priests. —Xumhert, xviii. 21 ; Deut., xiv. 22 j Levit., zxvii, 30, 32. In the earliest ages of the Christian Churoh, offer- ings were made by its members at the altar, at collec- tions, and in other ways ; and such payqients were cnjoiiaed by decrees of the Church, and sanctioned by general usage. For many centuries, however, they were roluntaiy. But wh«a the Chuioli had incfmsed in power, and began to number among its members many who adhered to it because it waa the prevailing religion, it was found necessar}- to enforce certain fixed contributions for the support of the ministers of re- ligion. The Church relied upon the example of the Jews, and claimed a tenth. Meanwhile, the conver- sion of temporal princes to Christianity, and their zeal in favor of their new faith, enabled the Church to ob- tain the enactment of laws to compel the payment of tithes. In England, the first instance of a law for the offering of tithes was that of Offo, King of Mercia, toward the end of the 8th ceiitur}-. He first gave the Church a civil right in tithes, and enabled the clergy to recover them as their legal due. Tlie law of Offa was at a later period extended to the whole of England by King £thelwtilph. — Puideaux on Tilhet ; BouN'a Cyclopedia. Tobacco (Da. TobaJc; Dn. Tabah; Fr. Tabac; Ger. Tubacki It. Tobacco i Pol. Tvbaka; Russ. Tabak; Sp. Tabaco; Arab. Bujjerbhang; Hind. Tumbdtu; Malay, Tambrdcoo), the dried leaves of the Nicotiana iabacum, a plant indigenous to America, but whicli succeeds very well, and is extensively cultivated in most parts of the Old World. The recent leaves possess very little odor or taste ; but when dried, their odor is strong, narcotic, and somewhat fetid ; their taste bitter and extremely acrid. When well cured, they are of a yellowish green color. When distilled, they yield an essential oU, on which their virtue depends, and which is said to be a virulent poison. The loaves are used in various ways ; being chewed, smoked, and ground and manufactured into snuff. It is in the last men- tioned form that tobacco is principally used in Great Britain ; and though the contrary has been often as- serted, its use does not seem to be productive of any perceptible bad consequence. Hitlorical Sketch. — Tiie taste for tobacco, though apparently administering only to a frivolous gratifica- tion, has given birth to a most extensive commerce, and been a powerful spur to industry. Being a native of the Kew World, its introduction into Europe dates only from the early part of the 16th century. Seeds of the plant were sent, in IfiCO, from Portugal to Cath- erine do' Medici, by Jean Nicot, tho French emiussador in that country, from whom it has received its botan- ical name. The notion, at one time so general, that the specific appellation totiacco was derived from its having been imported fh)m Toliago, is now universally admitted to be without foundation. Humboldt has shown that tobacco was the term used in tho Ilaytian language to designate the pipe, or instrument made use of by the nati/es in smoking the herb; and the term, having been t.-^nsferred by the Spaniards from the pipe to the birb itself, has lieeu adopted by the other nations of tlie ancient world. — £«sai Politique mr la Kouvelh E$pagne, vol. iii. p. 50, 2d. ed. Tobacco is believed to have been first introduced into England by the settlers who returaed, in 168G, from the colony which it had been attempted to found in Virginia, under the auspices of Sir Walter Kaleigh, in the pre- ceding year. Harriott, who accompanied this expedi- tion, gives, in his description of Virginia, an account of tlie tobacco plant, and of the manner in which it was used by the natives ; adding, that the English, during the time they were in Virginia, and since tlieir return home, were accustomed to smoke it after the fashion of the Indians, "and found many rare and wonderful experiments of the virtue thereof." — Hak- LuvT, vol. i. p. 75. Baleigh, and other young men of fashion, having adopted the practice of smoking, it spread among the English ; as it bad previously spread among the Spaniards, Portuguese, French, and other continental nations. But it made its greatest progress in England after the foundation of the colony at James- town, in Virginia, in 1607. The soil of the colony being found particularly well fitted for the culture of tobacco, cmuUdendda quantitief wen ri^lsad and sent iobucco nlanta h.A i '""-but dunnir the wl»., ;V.*^ ProvoloHt In J.'n„i,.„,i Klond, and we^ foS'd^^" ""'^ '""•'loced into P„ '^"''"1 «t lejft" .l^^"'-?" "'■ " Z \,T,^U Their cultivation ZiJ'de:?''" "'■""ka%;^,'^- ,'•«'««. ».y the praetH „f l^^"'*'"" »«■! nl.fi —~ y.uuc Journal- " fn a^ . — , '"""no (p. 1421 ""-y, in HolIandXeden nir'"',' '»'>™- «"'l fJer- practice of smolciigTobac '„"'•■;''' "'"' «"«i.i, tho »nd poor, the learn^ed a„7,r::"" "',"""« """ch to the East, we shall find ti\!Ht'''"'T- If wo pa,, plantation tobacco, b Vi„, ef/^i''^ "^ '«^«nue, "n to ?htV'"?'''"« '» »"«" 'art 1 to ^^V '" '?" l'""«0 the use of native tobacco h.v, '',"'"'"•'• P^hiW tin^ fn rf ^'"'' '^» «'"'» "nd uTnL,,,. T' '' "o P"" and a mn,?.,* .._ . ^"'na the habit i>nTi.,ii,. t .. J-ons carried into cfrec''t.TiraT''" *° '"» "" P~vl Restoration, bv the act PhVi ,'7*' confirmed at the ed that all 'tobacco pLtaU " 'V %f- «•"<=•> O"-' the herb, moked. In Chi'na tU h".' ■?"" *"" »l'«cle« of and a modern traveler l„.T . '"''"' "V^My prevail, • ' "t every Chtlff il^" ^'O' (I.arri^)",;: X' nine 5'ears ■»■«!.« "="""o, from the aao of »i„i.t sUI.e^p„rro?^X?ri;'T?fP'°''"'''e'M'maU the use of whicrma' „ll''""""='=° »"" « PiMh •-•t this tender age Thf,"""" 7" ""t "naoqu^iX nt an earlv n.,:„^ •._^'"' P"™lenco of tl.« L„' . ! ' planters : but thtir r„„i • . ^ "'^ solicitations of tl ! '" *'"<'cr age. Thi, " 7° ■"" "naoqualnted conciliate or LtfitThe Atf"\"^' "»' -""cht lection of a revenue from » f ' "" *° '^''"i'ate the col ni i^-^^j'"' "« "" evidence thntf.'', "i''""'''"' to used finely by tfe SnL^^T-^"' ^■"- "36i and 1, fv'T,""^'" "■" "odel ofXir, „„^' !'.'"i"='' """m to hacco was flrftZjT. "^' '" ^'»c«tan in 1520 t1 ^ ' "" •"eparation of the Tl'l . '^""''' ' "'"'- '""t- of Elizabeth V^fi^!'o^"S'''»'' in the seventh vrr"""^^^ 'T'^"' "''W' «ro Walter Ci'hl^''^; ^r John HawkinT fe" P^'^-'i-'Mhat 'hey ruid"''^ P^ '"'"''''' i''P. --o tioned ^TJ ^^ ^''" Francis Drake flr„„i *'^ Mrom America bv «avnrp Po^^My derive alfthis co.5!nVto"^;8«"' introduced it 7n E„g,a"nd" 'T'h"' ">« P'-tL ofUokS' T^'""^ ^ ^n" -•r'-exA':4^«, it was n,Sct„t i?r:.ei:r,^fr'' "^^^^^^^^^^^ the year 16M 1 f/"' '» l-* G«- Wrf per I,, " '" ^'''™' <^'"'n». «nd other plf "■"' """"^ ear- eWdbySj^//"'"vatio„,vasprohr£ii'*li^ The --•". jiaaaea i; William Tv *i ■ TOB 1846 TOB ''/^ it wai to take can that all tobacco plantation! without the privileged districtii should lio destroyed. The gov- ^ eminent flxed the price at which the cultivator* of tobacco were oblij^ed to sell it to its agents. The sale of the manufactured tobacco was funned out ; and eigart were not nllowed to be sold, except at the royal tttancat. No one was i^llowad to use cigars of his owu mannfacture. This oppressive monopoly was estab- , lished in 1764. It has been continued, from the dlfH- culty of supplying the revenue which It produces, by the revolutiontkry governments. — IlnMDOLDT, NouvtUe Aj|pa^i«, ill. -19 ; Foimshtt's Xotet on' Mexico, nota 116, London id, y'' Cuba is celebrated for Its tobacco, particularly its cigars. These consist of the loaves, formed Into small rolls, for the purpose of smoking. Formerly their Im- imrtntion into Kngland was prohibited ; but they may now be imported on paying an exorbitant duty. Ha- vana cigars are usually reckoned the best. Previous- ly to 1820, the cultivation and sale of tobacco were 9ut)Jected to the same sort of monopoly in Cuba as in Mexico; but at tho period referred to the trade was thrown open. In consequence of the freedom thus given to the business, the production and exportation of tobacco are both rapidly increasing, though hardly, perhaps, so much as might have been expected, tho culture of sugar and coffee being for a while reckoned more profltable ; that, however, is no longer the case. — See Cuba for Exports. United Statee. — Previous to the war of Independ- ence, Its culture had spread into MaryUnd, Carolina, Georgia, and Louisiana, from which nearly all Europe waf> supplied ; but at present most of the sovereigns of the Old World derive a considerable part of their revenue from tho cultivation of this plant. Independ- ent of Its production in the Middle and Southern States "< of the Union, tobacco Is extensively cultivated In Mexico, the >Spanish Main, Cuba, Brazil, Trinidad, San Domlngc, Turkey, Persia, India, China, Australia, the Philippines, and Japan. It has also been raised with success In nearly every country In Europe, Egypt, Algeria, the Cape of Good Hope, the Canaries, and numerous other Islands in the ocean, Canada, New Brunswick, and on the, western coast of America. The principal varieties cultivated in tho United States are the Virginian, the large-leaved, tli« dwarf, the Cuba, and the common green tobacco. In 1622 there were raised in Virginia 60,000 lbs. The amount exported from that colony in 1639 was 120,000 lbs, ; annually for ten years preceding 1709, 28,868,666 lbs. ; annually for several years preceding the Revolution, 66,000 hogsheads; in 1768, 70,000 hogsheads; from North Carolina, in 1763, 100 hogs- heads; from Georgia, in 1772, 176,732 lbs. The amount exported from the United Colonies In 1772 was 97,799,263 lbs. ; In 1780, 17,424,267 Ibo. ; from the United States, in 1787, 99,041,000 lbs; in 1791, 101,272 hogsheads, 81,122 lbs. manufactured, and 16,689 11)8. of snuff; in 1800, 78,680 hogsheads, 467,713 lbs. man- ufactured, and 41,463 lbs. of snuff; In 1810, 84,134 hogsheads, 496,427 lbs. manufactured, and 46,640 lbs. of snuff; in 1820-'21, 66,868 hogsheads, 1,332,949 lbs. manufaciured, and 44,662 lbs. of snuff; in 1830-'31, 86,718 hogsheads, 3,6i39,866 lbs. manufactured, and 27,967 lbs. of snuff; In 1840-'41, 147,828 hogsheads, 7,603,644 lbs. manufactured, and 68,663 lbs. of snuff; in 1860-'61, 95,946 hogsheads, 7,236,368 lbs. manufac- tured, and 37,422 lbs. of siiuff. According to the census returns of 1840, the amount of tobacco raised In the United States was 219,163,319 lbs. ; of 1860, 199,752,646 lbs. ; showing a decrease in its culture of 19,410,673 lbs. Great Britain.— it is assumed by British statisticians that the yearly cousumption of tobacco in Great Britain and Ireland amounts to 26,000 tons; about one half of which, it Is supposed, is smuggled, owing to the excessive duties (upward of 1000 per cent.) levied on the article under the tariff system of that kingdom. The quantity of cigars and snuff Imported does not ex- ceed two or three hundred weight per annum. The following table, compiled from parliamentar}- returns, shows the imports of tobacco Into the United King- dom, and the quantities entered at each port, during the year 1860: Port.. L.>r. And Clyan. ToUl. Tom. 7,033 0,870 486 414 200 140 8 Tuiu. 483 140 "t '86 4 Torn. 8,120 7,010 436 491 , 200 106 7 ] jverpool Urlatoi GlaRgoir I.clth Uthor places ToUl 16,700 004 10,804 The following return, transmitted to the House of Commons, for the year ending January 6, 1868, shows the annual consumption of tobacco In the IJnited King- dom, and duty levied on the same : ForU. L»r. MUDUfMl'd •ndriinn. ToUl. Dlljr. Torn. 4,709 2,766 780 «8t 804 877 841 970 268 2BS 170 158 147 183 110 8 004 Tom. 09 8 i 8 'i 6 S To««. 4,831 2,708 780 039 OOT 877 841 270 263 230 179 163 147 189 110 13 807 noll«n. 8,704,040 4,003,100 1,877,426 l,ll'<,8fl6 1,077,836 086,666 603,920 470,810 466,020 422,670 810.600 279,540 200,126 288,860 204,000 40,076 1,0(18,866 Liverpool llrlttol tilasgov Dublin Bclfait Newcastle Cork Limerick Lelth I'restdn Chester lihfelds Watcrford Londonderry .... Southampton Other places ToUl 13,000 00 19,760 22,808,7(16 The following table, exhibiting the exports of to- bacco from Great Britain for 1862, will show tho quan- tities and destination of that article supplied by En- gland to foreign countries, relatively to the quantities imported. Total quantity imported 15,700 tons, or 86,168,000 lbs. Extorts fsom CinEikT Uiitaim, 1859. PIlCM. West coast of Africa . Hhda. . 1726 . 227 . 184 . i-.o . od . 61 . 44 . 39 . 80 Flaeei. ilhdi. .... 81 Holland .... 20 Malta .... 17 Senegal Oucmser Uberia .... 16 Alexandria Bahla .... 14 .... '10 Antwerp 64 .... 29 Gibraltar ToUl .... 2002 The foregoing table shows that In 1862 there were exported from Great Britain about 2,602,000 lbs. (al- lowing 1000 lbs. to tho hogsliead) out of the 35,168,000 lbs. Imported, showing the amount retained for con- sumption to be 32,666,000 lbs. Qdahtitiks and Vaiok op Tobacco (kaw) ixpobted fRoii THK Unitei) States to Gbeat Dkitaim and Ibblahd feoh 1330 to 1855. pVenM. Qu.iilltjr.1 V«lu«. Y.«ri. quMitity. V.lu.. Ilhds. DolUn. Ilhdi. Doll an. 1830. . . 2i),9>l 1,633,071 1843... 21,060 1,202,010 1831... 20,786 1,883,830 1844... 30,189 3,900,190 1833... 30,393 2,.146,4r)rt 1845. . . 20,10) 1,085,037 1833... 28,834 2.2.W,107 1840... 37,043 3,423,323 1834... 30,083 3,037,020 1847... 3,),746 2,683,776 1885. . . 37.633 8,400,63'» 1843. . . 23,801 2.200,!'37 1830... 38,365 4,69!i,443 1841... 21,857 1.771,123 1387. . . 31,733 1,870,868 1850... 30,020 8,025,B'«) 1888. . . 25,733 9,867,303 1851... 23,0V3 8,4,1S,3W 1839. . . 80,330 6,404,007 1363. . . 17,00 2,519,225 1840... 27,130 3,237,830 1863... 82,230 3,433,423 1841... 43,131 6,114,330 1854... 17,004 2,140,^143 1849. . . 36,000 8,912,907 1865... 24,203' 8.517,700 ■ There were also exported cases and bales. Included lu the column of value. The duties on Imported tobacco yield to the British government over four nod a half milUons sterling an- I lO.gM Duly. Dolhn. 8,T64,«40 4,003,160 1,877,455 1,11S806 1,077,S35 0«6,66S 602,220 478,810 4BS,0* »» «■. kilograms j and in fi.rTi, • .' ""^ '^ florins ner M constantlyCll^^",^- ev,den^^^ »^"•e fact^',,^ c< Itivation of that crop T ,. ""'' •'«^'"«'J 'o the 'obacco in the Grand Du.hv '=''"»'"»P"on of f„«i„ certaineiL .h.„ .,:. ^""'J' can not be rn.^„.i™ *" 1810.. 11,815^005 *-iM,im 1816 ;; 30,3»,S &"*> . 1820.. ; 17,966,'S» 2-2S'S!S 1825.... 16,7l66oo »'??i'"*? 1830,... 1S,701,'OM MI'*** 1M6.: ;;: 1!',M3,000 »"«» 1840 21.I10000 ffi'SSJ 1846 83,006,000 ffi'""* >««>^....:::.-::::;;:::; ??;?& S« T^He Changes in the import d„ti;;„crea;'S,:,. ^«y for 1861 " 1862. 1863., 1864. 1886.. 1866.. ]801-'2 1803... 1804... ' 1806... ' ISOO . . ISTO . . . ' 1812.....' 1813 .... 1816.... ■ 1819 ... ■ 1895.. ■■ 18-'fl . . " 1838 . . " 1842... ■■ Ainarlfjin, <>«> bein„ „!] L? « "."' '"' '""*«>/ «^ cigars smoked awav in the UnT^'S'"" ""> value „f ' '>»^-« h-ard the qu^nt"tve,t ' l"" ""'•"'" "^ "- b'^ D„f;:^^-nf^-•«vatt."ortlt't— ^^^^ T"r preaent h h ^"~"^^'«»» -'•!»' » J Z" ""^"y in the UnitB,l e. ? '^'""^ of i?arf6»._The cultivation of ,j '"'" ""nuallj-. t" nL^/f"""" '^'"' commenced X V'" ''"""' iiie present centurf' I* h " the early nnrt nr the last twenty ,!2ars an? S'"?"^ '"creased whhin commencement'^of «,e ;xt' tr'''="^'>' '" "1" « tl" to tlje United States, andXh" "^ ^'""""'^ ^'W the. last twelve yean has «h ""P""* *"">« during ment no. t^ ,.y " "^' shown a i-nn.»..-.. "» SO« '"ce of •"tport demand. The shtno, "J'"'"" ""y the active ""'1 who have now Is P^'"' "'«"" '» A^clcl" "e large and ready ZJhL " ?" """■"factorie. P-y high price, ^CaS""''.''!' "•« "^^t kS I^rtant customer, and the iW^ "'?'■ " " ^^-y im- the. W ■t;erve7;rhas''st'' «''P«« t^Te dSg P-^' * pri^eT^riS-'/r 'hTS uS "anting importance In th, r" ? constantly aZ I^tant customer, and the iW^ '■''^'•' " " ^^-y im! now from 18\000 to 20 OOn ^''''"•' ^"'hy there afe ™"tf«cted with some of th„ n T** 'f"" ""% last faU cultivation ofTbacco' it •"'' "' '""" "'"^^ted " th^ ?' WO.OOO.OOO of dgar/ V^""?" 'igar nmn^ufactorii^ pa atinate which yeTds the J'"r'°"'"'>' '•'cB^^^^^^^^ wore superior to all others! ^ " ^'"' '"" ^"o "ops Sa S'l'^.'^'f^" ""«'™': ." .' .' 10?°""" ^■' ^? """Sf «".. -^"''^'^*«'«Co'm.'iete."^^ " " " 1 -*' fCttlCP Th [■nonopoly in iZ:::Z7nSfJ'''^ """ '"•"""« „„.,K,o .. |orlT*'^!'''««"~s^^^^ (Ti, ,. isnnnn .. "' about $25 444 flnn_ .1. .' ■'^'i""i<'00 franc. The cultivation and produce of tLXl "^'cnue derived fC7h.'"« "" '"crease over the parts of the Badish palati.mte rl " ^""""^ '" "ome rope. The tobacrnl '" ''','' '"«""» countries TeI where they reach for m lea bin I'T Scekenheim, comme/ced fpZ """."T'^'- ""dor the r^^,i , "tern ftrent person,, gcnoraTly ^'S " ^T'^'^ "^ "if' '"f' ''tate™K"the «' '"" ''"■ '"« ^»"»- Bavanan palatinates , tobaS irc^.! ," i'!, ^''*" ""d ^^^ ">'« articir?" ouZ, J^ 7"" "^ ''''""•'<' ""crived Si T^ '"-"ll piece, o7~ ,?''',""'^'"''c-P«" rCoooT '^"'^''■"''»*''''''^''' = annum; some not more than 6 ™f ^ ^"^ cwt-perifd 8,406 soi ilg? 1|,102,2I« not niore than 3, and e,t"l"!i-iA"''c'''c"iafeJn, m. ••■•:•• »?n »^' i i ;; ! ! ; i ; ; ! Iffi« .. „,,uo, The crops of 18,51 iverp 1852. . ■ 185,1.. ■ 1864...' 1866.. 1858. ■ 100,000 cwt 200,'0(J0 160,000 150,000 UO.fJOO 180,000 not "o^eThan' ™nTer do"'-'-'- «"" "''■crs, again •"" "" ' - - • i o"irv„"t 'Y^^b'^^^^^^^^^^ two.fifth,':;',,, and c„n.X"',„^„"f "•'-etc- three.^^^^^ usually f^m Soi^^E??"^^ Commnn .T'' ""•* «P«rted to Snain Fn i T "" ""> '<"'«cc 'cpdlSedt i"E S"™^*-t^^ -,"- --0 co^isum.- !■ ~m 1844 to m, ..J'^!^^: . I bacco nSmitt^d^t a' morKfr '"""'' -"" "^ «- ^•"eu m a loose statp '""""y in r ranoe. Were f Ji« n,„» -■- -■■>' --uuico consn The fsc a, folIow,r •^ ' P*"'*' "'"''"'c". i» cstimaW M«i7land tobacco. ... o « . >lrglnla " " 6 cents per Ih, "•*. Kentucky '* ^"^ ** r Wiasouri » T-7 " 7'6 " rrt TOB 1848 TDB The profit* rMlliad by tho rigu, one year with an- other, average nearly 460 per vent. Ntlherlanih. — The cultivation of tobacco in the Neth- erlandt is iul)ject to no reitriutions, with the exception of the exciso duty, to which, like all other product!, it i« liable. From IttOO to 1900 niorKcns (equal to SUOO to 8800 ncrei) are annually devoted to tobacco. Tho tobacco land is altuated in the provinces of Quilder- land, Overyuel, Utreoht, and Zealand. The average quantity of tobacco produced on each morgen is about 4600 lbs. Tho toUl crop Is estimated at fkom 8,000,000 to 0,000,000 lbs. per annum. — Annales flu Comment f'nirieur, No. 640. Tile quantity reserved for homo consumption is about 2,000,000 lbs., of which, Hmokliig tobacco, about 900,000 lbs. Snuff 700,0(10 " C'ovem for ctgan 400,000 " Besides the above, tho Xotlierlunds export to for- eign countries about 0,000,000 lbs. of tobacco : ill tho leaf 6,000,000 Ibii. Manufarturcil 1,000,000 " The following table show»the annual tobacco ex- port trade of Holland : Tho lihontah provinoea 680,000 kilograms. RiiuU and Ureat Urluln 400,000 " Sardhila 260,000 " Norway iind Denmark 80,000 " Nsplra ; 60,000 " Koman Ktatcs 60,000 " Spain and Purtugal 80,000 " The total quantity of tobacco grown in the Nether- lands is distributed as follows : Klloirrainii. For tho inaniifartiiro of anuff and rhcvlng tobacco. 1,8t6,0(N) I'orclKan and cigar covers 1,776,000 Average price of the former, from 1-1 to 82 florins for common ; SO to 90 florins for the best, per 100 kilo- grams. Average price of the latter, from 14 to 82 florins for common ; CO to 90 florins fur the best, per 100 kilograms. The planters of Amhom, and some other districts, have during the past few years ap- plied themselves to the raising of a very light, clear, yellow tol)acco, for cigar covering, for which they o]>- tain a verj* high price. For this purpose they employ a very active fertilizer, with a view to the large and rapid grofvth of the plant, which they dry by the sun with great skill and management. The average quan- tity of foreign tobacco annually imported is from 22,000,000 to 26,000,000 lbs., chiefly from the follow- ing places : 76,009 30,000 80,000 60,000 146,000 A third part of the tobacco imported from foreign countries is consumed in the Netherlands, the other two-thirds are exported. Germany and Belgium re- ceive tho larger portion, which consists altogether of Virginia, Marj'land, Kentucky, and some Java tobacco. Besides the imports aliove designated, Hamburg sup- plies Holland annually with large qu^tities of tobacco of American growth. The toliacco manufactories in Holland, of the first class, are numerous. They are chiefly located at Rotterdam and Amsterdam, though many similar factories are scattered throughout the provinces. The first-class factories employ upward of a million of operatives. The average consumption of tol>acco in Holland is about two kilograms (4-408 lbs.) for each individual, or 0,000,000 kilograms, or upward of 18,000,000 lbs. for the whole population. Germany oflTcrs the principal market for the Dutch tobacco trade, though considerable quantities are ex- ported to the Levant, Italy, Austria, Belgium, Den- mark, Surinam, etc. — C. D. Tobacco is, next to salt, probably the article most universally coniamed by men. In one form or an- Maryland.... 6,600,000 kilo. Vnrlnaa Kentucky 1,780,000 " Manilla Virginia 1,400,000 " ( olombla .lava 800,000 " limcil Porto Klco . . . 360,000 " Havana Cuba 130,000 " Tobacco atenia Han Domingo. 120,000 " other, but moat generally in the form of fame or smoke, there is no climate in which it la not consumed, and no nationality that has. not adopted it. 'I'o put down it* use has equally baffled legislators and moral- ists ; and, in the words of Pope on a higher subject, it may be said to lie partaken of " by saint, by savage, and liy sage." The civilized Kuropean and American nations are the smallest consumers of tobacco of any people, in consequence of its being every where with them an object of heavy taxation, of its being very generally a foreign commodity or high-priced, because raised in uncongenial climates, and, finally, its being for the most part confined in uae to tho male sex. The Aaty on the importation of raio tobacco amounts. In the I'nited Statea to. . . 80 per cent, ad valorem. Inllelgliimto 13-9 " " In Great Britain to 083-8 " " tin Ilanoror to 9-6 " " lu lloiatein to 10 " " In Holland to 8-5 " " InKutala to 161 " " In Switzerland to 8 " ■' lu Koli-Vcrein to 46 " » — German Cuitom Union, Statement " reipecting the Tariff Dutiet, Keitrietiont, Prohibitiotu, and Cuitom-houie Regulattona applicable to American Tobacco, in the principal commercial Countriet of Europe." BBEMEKfcrip«o Tariff Dutg of i of 1 per Cent.— Im' port duty is levied at the rate given on the invoice value, with the addition of freight and insurance charges. All foreign vessels (American excepted) must be entered at this port by a licensed ship-broker, the exemption in favor of American vessels having been conceded by the Bremen Senate in 1862. Grrat Britain leviei a Duty ofTi Cents per lb., and 6 per Cent, additional. — Tobacco, snuiT, and cigars are prohibited to bo imported into Great Britain, nnless in vessels of not less than 120 tons burden, and into ports approved by the commissioners of customs. These IMtrts are Ix>n1 Piltmda. 16,6:18,152 10,638,841 22,800,360 28,062,978 8,122,683 2,004,iW2 8,^S0,103 4.486,768 21,282,960 24,410,439 27,010,672 27,462,262 Ounces. 11-71 12-80 18-21 1«-S6 In 1863 tho duty amounted to X4,7&1,780, or $28,000,000. Framce. — Tobacco a GovemmetU Monopoly. — In 1629 the first duties on the tobacco trade were levied. In 1674 Louis XIV. established the first monopoly in Europe. The cultivation of tobacco is prohibited ex- cept in six departments. From 1811 to 1862 there were sold by the government 1,808,888,076 ll>8., which brought a clear revenue of $482,288,484. The ex- penses of the administration wera 24 per cent, ad valorem. By the terms of the treaty of June 24, 1822, American produce, if imported direct to France in United States liottoms, is admitted on the payment of the same duties as apply to similar importations from countries out of Europe in F'rench vessels. The origin of the merchandise must, however, be duly authenti- cated and certified by tlie collector at the port of ex- portation, and by the French consul. American to- bacco is purchased by the commissioners of the r^gie for the government factories, and is admitted either in French or American vessels free of duty. In foreign vessels the duty is |1 86 per 100 kilograms (221 lbs.). TOB IMO TOB direct tr.de UUeen^h! t^^ '' ^^ 221 '** -In tl, I ""•' ^^ch if roe Wrte.? '"T """*"» I- «2 7« S??? SA-niKu.-^ 6<,.e„ r;,'^^'"" l^y Molgium ^ "erives amount to 38 l^rtTontuyT' ''"«''»'» revenue can not be rnlo,,i V i ^'""'Vw'i'— The n„„„ i . '^«'(fiuin produces in., i ? "** ''"'"«■ oly exists .inc. 1784 The ^^'^'i'-The monop- 1," ^IT'^ ""■""'"y f "omK^"'*^'"*" "»•. amounts to 76 per cent '/"'l "^ ""e governmeT ^:, ^^^ '"'"»<:«<' factories l„,h?'*^ '" 35,000,000 celpt. amounted taMM tol -™ '"""• ^''«' »T"l "t" '""P>»J'nent to •' o^e "m ' """""y "" »«^^ •10,610,106. Til. rnn., •?''39,421, and In 1 sL f „ ^'■'""«'' 'mports vearlv f^ ,1 "" "Pemtlvca." in 1862, 61,805 8fl7 ii , ' ' '" l^^l, W 217 fi7H ii "^ ""d ro-exporte,I t„ «v>, • """""Pictured in that SwKn.,» 7,.?;^ "■..'°'^» "cense to im.„w "•'"»- ^''•"•inual tobacco cronnfp . . ''"''"°P°'R'"'lais8bout26,000,000 The nnniinl />«« . . 8. «t,io,uuU,UOO Wo;"":!r;r"or;b'j^.T .■» «p«in isabout soyernment factories from th. it , ' .""P""'"' '"r the , In J'ortugal the culture o^to^.f "" .*"»""• ,„^ luiiuw of tobacco is prohibited by S^en, ' "^^ P*"" =«at. less than in Tl • " {"^"aioued by CWntbim Sov!?"" "»= I"'™™ S^ATE.^""*" ^o- f"''' inhabitant of the j/l. -J "'""■' 2* "" ! for I ___Cou5i,u.: — -—I — T — ™J^^^i. \ EAB 1855. Slecklenburir Schwor!„ ■ Vr ' ^^^ inhabitant of Verein, 1 lb. . for each inL^V^* 'i"'"' "' "'* ZoU. for each inha'bKf lus riff^'^^'f ' * »""- ' I habitant of Spain 3 oimJl ' ^,"""™! '^r each in' '" I'^SO was 199,752 515 Ih, 7? . ^°"^'' StUes >!» data from which The averaco ann,,. 1 ""-:.<^""«" «/1850. ,,f;"m n,„n„Hy K"s(185J, '52, '53)was2.i 54q /iS " P'""" "^ "'ree ,te;--i ) d"-.g th:!:„:^te'i^'^^^ Holland.... ,,,„, Spain. 17,124,000 ' ' 7,624,000 Belgium ' ' a,3u,ooo 31046,001) *1S,207,4<)3. Avenigonnniinlre%-. I .„°.'^1*"',0«',000. $21,696,000. I eniic from I "h; *4,6oo, $33,741). ' No data from which iniiBAiift^t.. ... . 3,713,000 830,000 1*7,600,01)0. $8S,,W6. •No data from „hlch ' » ascertain the i-haro „f the mo. wWch thia quantl- 'yhoarH; the whole _?2,26'),000 yearly. , B ">,, anme ncrioa was 14 fion hnn n — . *"■"•" l""'!, 18,«fi0,000 lbs., on which til! „• ' """ "»'- I amount of duty was $24"9 5 tto L? ""'''^^ r""«' I ll's., on which the averal «„'""» ^'S'""'- -l.SZ^iOOO I «40,(;00j and into th„ T S."' """""n' of duty was on which wastid an rrJ"""*''^''^''««' 'K #12,643 91. ^ '"'""e" ""nual amount of — "I order, and TOB 1850 TOB tb«i EngUnd, th« Papal Statu, anil Spain, In thair or- dar, produoa tha grantait nal tavanua par haad i AiMiri* Koll-Vvri'ln Htxuiir-Vi'relo (lUn-i ovrr and (lldrnburg, - BOW ddditd tu fnf ituT)) rraoca Pbrtufal Rpaln HardlRla Tiuoanjr Papal HUU-a. . . Two Hk'llli^a . . . EnRland Holland Itolgluin Dunniark (•wrden Norway I'nltnd HUtca* . Arcrafft l FiwiiJi.' «Tft »'70 12 -O) B'60 160 8 '60 4-76 S'70 8 SO 2 00 ■410 8-26 0-00 8-00 48T 0-41 T'OO DoIUn. <,0(I2,aTn> *il,'),»H'.>,r>Hr>, being alwut one half the duty levied on Ureat itritain on 27,000,000 Iba. only, £vc^^ State in the I^nion pnxluccs tobacco more or lean. Dela- ware, Maine, Kho,lis 4,308,104 llolUn. 764,520 01.274 866,803 700,871 04,(26 704,8J0 523,112 I)0,!:fl 4 01 4,070" l.la 1,060 40,432 42,082 18.008 74,701 02,30J 000 2J,75i 22,360 DoJIi. 285 7,215 1,W 1,800 nj047 14,010 55 cl»«». K- 777,044 104,413 15^ 2,800,020 415,315 M81,4S7 71,882 _81.086 163;618 157,300 4,074'21S,710 4.72'.l^0,019 3,438,097 Vaan. Iflll.. 1811.. VMi. IM4. . 1B1B.. I8M,. 181T.. 18M.. 1810. , 1880.. 1881.. 1881.. 188a.. 1884.. 1880,. I8M.. 18BT. . 1888.. 1889.. 1840.. 1841.. 1841.. IMS.. 1844.. 1848.. 1840.. 1847.. 1848.. 184'>.. I860.. 1851,. 1851.. 1868.. 1864.. 1855.. 1850.. 1867.. Total. Hngihcadf. To,8sr 88,160 «»,000 77,88» 7^tl84 (4,098 100,016 90,178 77,181 88,810 80,718 100,806 88, 153 87,970 04,868 100,041 100,182 100,508 78,9fB 119,484 147,828 168,710 94,454 168,041 147,168 147,1198 18^7A1 180,006 101,611 145,729 Il6,t>46 137,007 169,868 116,107 •150,218 110,101 16fl,848_ 4,1(17,602 ValM. $6,1)48,902 6,221,888 «,m,072 4,8eo,06« 6,115,028 6,847,208 6,577,118 6,209,900 4,082,974 6,580,808 4.802,888 6,909,700 6,755,068 0,505,800 H,li50,577 10,068,640 6,7116.047 7,a'J2,029 I>,832,II48 0,888,057 11,570,708 0,640,766 4,060,070 8,807,266 7,400,811^ 8,478,270 7,242,080 7,661,122 6,804,107 9,061,028 0,110,251 10,031,288 11,810,810 10,010,040 14,712,468 12,'.i2 1,843 10,001,772 $801,101,715' Avcrafl Cmi Mr H«|nln «4., *84 41 74 82 68 45 OJ 84 80 48 88 42 66 75 54 78 64 60 60 00 50 41 r.O 17 69 20 74 00 87 44 02 24 57 82 78 48 114 47 82 71 85 07 00 11 40 24 61 60 60 75 67 28 53 84 67 78 67 17 08 28 90 09 78 17 70 81 70 42 97 04 104 50 13'J 40 * III addition to thla i xpnrt of 150,218 ho|!>licada for the (!»• ral year nniling ,hiiio 30, 1856, tlicru waa an export of 11,018 hnlea and 18,300 enana, the vniue of which la Included In the general auni of $14,712,408. KxroBTS or Tohaoto nioM Tiia Unitid Btatkb ?on xna YlAB r.MDIRU JUKK 80, 3,311,026 2,700,210 613,807 3,884,080 2,531,453 007,514 Raw tobacco, 1885 $613,111 $00,004 Knuir 63 4,074 Clgira 2,K11,453 8,413,09T Total $8,064,018 $3,584,636 From this we aee that, except to a limited extent, all our foreign tobacco comes from Cuba, and of this four-flftha la in cigara. D0MMtl«. lau. 1 Ilh4a. raaaa. I Balaa. Dollaia. a8,(l58 17,124 28,841 40,800 80,824 1,400 27 248 2,006 8,690 2,407 08 60 870 9,4111 2,497,780 1,068,782 8,468,132 4,108,605 8,574,119 Holland Kngland Franco Utiier plaoea Total domeatic Foreign, all placea Total domeatlo and foreign exporta, Iba 160,118 18,M6 12,918 181,270 14,712,468 14,110 14,726,684 DomaaUa. 8U. mi. 1 Hhda. Dollan. Hhib. 1 Dalian. { Ilaiiao Towns Holland 8^368 25,070 17,435 15,102 32,ll,s2 120,107 077,009 2,182,M0 1,85(1,330 2,110,722 1,852,710 8,01.1,720 6J,S61 23,38:i 81.220 15,71!0 30,0ti| 2,822,348: 1,110,808 F.ngland 3,28,5,022 France Utbcr placca Total domeallr , . . Foreign, all placea .... Total donipatlc anil forel>fn exjwrti(, IIh. l,070,I,-t8 3,02(i,(if)3j 10,010,(140 06,938 10,111,('84 I5'.i,863 601,447 ii,8i«,riiiH 84,304 .. 11,408,083 E.xroRT8 or MAXrr.'CTCEKD TouAcco rBOM ma I'nited Btattj roa the Ykars 1858, 1864, and 1856. Dnnaalle. lajs. mM. I8«6. 1 Bouir. .Vliuiufart'd Value. Snulf. Muiafarl'it. Valua, Snair. Mannratl'il.l Valua. i.bi. I.I>|. 9,841,508 488,017 1,184,054 1,0,10,7(17 1,180,858 3,708.088 10,r)(ll,O.I2 $607,804 62,788 18.5,299 100,099 272,475 487,035 $l,670,i 00 218,.100 |!1,8.I9,809 Lb.. 10 7,773 18,984 2,571 8,718 Ji,.130 '311,287 7,756 1,457,834 418,355 2,.530,823 1,853,382 062,418 3,850,845 $304,685 M,840 875,155 181,000 120,014 51 ,'.,124 -Lb..- liidis 18,800 832 .10,18(1 7,804 Lba. 2,790,419 $001,810 878,1101 42,278 1,858,8(10 841,375 8f>2,709 121,5111 I,i;t9,204 2:if.,:iiis 8,505,123 467,700 Britlah West Indlea 17,112 7,048 1,486 2,008 11,027 89,U1 Canada Dritiah American I'olonlea Aitalralla Other pUuiea Total 10,278,162 478,108 $l,5f)0,H27 200,400 72,534 0,025,282 *l,fiOO,(Hls .... 1 112,503 Foreign, all plaeca Total domeallo and foreign exports. . 54,042 10,740,860 $1,760,798 .... .... |$1,002,i;01l Agreeably to olHcial statementa received at the 1 200,000 hogsheads, of 1200 lbs. each, of which foreign State Department at Washington, tho annual average countriea annually take 162,000 hogsheads, leaving produce of the States of Mar}-innd, Ohio, Virginia, aliout 40,000 per annum for our Iiunie consumption, Tiwneitee, Kentucky, and Miasouri, U estimated at i which are manufactured into fine cut, smoking, and tdi for tlio *"■ tporl of W,'J18 Deluded In tlio kTM Toa Till 6li ii,822,34H! JtS B,t8&,9!i'i 01 8,oa>'.M>"; n,4«B,»S3l I1S6&. Viila«. $801,811)1 S4I,37I> 1 lai.MH __| 4ftU»8 Isl ilTf*"'"''"* ■ I V,2,M3 [$l,0»'i;««l| Ihich fortign Inds, leaving lonsumptlon, DoUng, and TOB ohtwlng, plug ohtwing tolwcoo, and muff. Th. .veruge cn.p- of the U.t fmv y..r« li.v. I>«.n of Me.l-l«f t«l..ccn hnvc lH.«n ini.nufacture.1 .t horn, undtr th. aliuv. .•.tliiwto, the .X|-,rt.tlon« .m.ll.r, th. , Int.. Sp,„l,h .iRar^ price. f,.r «««a.|..uf wr,ip.«r. r«ii«. horn* c.m.umptlun for the 1. Uv. um, .omowhat Urger , \ng at 20 to 116 o.nt», and Hll.r. nt lU to la ciit. p«r I ". •nd for..Kn con.umm of the., kind. U»ve l««n con^ I .ml a corre.pondlnK Incr.... in th. Importation and p«ll«4 to .ub,tltuta other foreign IoImioco., not a. de- con.umptlo.i of lU needful concomlUnti the N.»nUh •iralile to th.in im our prtMluco, to nupply th. d.lli Ion- tohucco fn.ni th« iiland of Cuba, for llll.n. lua tak.n clet In our d.liverie.. I hu. It will Ira perceived that , place. of the large«t product of lolmceo of our own growth but \ The importation, of tbU «ort of tobacco w.re— one-fcurlh I* required to »upply the homo -Icnmnd, ! ip iw,,, ^,000 1|» ; v.l„e, $3.K.,,K)n, duty u.lJ under »0O.(H)O while, If th. production coidd be doubled, furel({n coun- 1 >n t^M, '«,n"i» " m,im •• •' m,!m trt.i Would be ready cu.tomen for the greuteat part of '," 1!?'^ ''J-'!?!! " «".000 " •• l*viO» It, a. our tobacco leaf i, of .uch,«cullar.tyio and .(uul- mK.wlIlIS " mm " " IM Ity, that, Uko cotton, or the leaf tobacco of the l«l. In l«w, 45,000 " bl^im >• •• Wm and of Culm, It 1. indigcnou. to the noil and climate, '" '**"' ■*"'"** " OOO.iHX) " •• inu,00« no other noil pro Total 10,000 " " «i Ve.n. < uiiA rauM 1844 T<> 1'91 ('l|>n. m. 101,440 l'i3,780 211,040 S7o.ai:i IHtlJ. IsM. ISM. ■ ...« 0,737,413 8,030,7117 »,S0S,150 ('I|UI. M. I4'i,ria7 8;i7,9aii !II1,»I3 I From thU we see that tho exportation of leaf tobacco ' from Cuba has been steadily Increasing, but not In th. Deduct from tho above one quarter, or -lOOO cases, """"> proportion with the exports of cigars. of the most inferior grades, called tillers, and now used ' ^'''''* '" "''' we give the production of tobacco in mostly for the cutting of smoking tobacco, and It leaves , "'« '"'»"'* »' P»"» 1"™- ""'y » o""'" P""*''"* "' "''It'' 12,000 cases, or about 4,000,000 lbs. for the use of tho 1 "' Imported Into and used In this country : clgar-maker. In former years, aliout one-third of |SJJ- a^MtO I m' fl«'K'M;4 these crops were bought for exportation, chleliy by 1 ]840 a,43ii,ii40 1 1S52 li.Mojno German buyers; but for tho last few years the con- i 1S60 a,UI3|309 | 1853 3,7U3,4B7 sumption for the inanufacturo of cigars has so consider- \ The fact has now Ijecoroe Incontrovertible, that to nbly increased, that of the produce of the flrst four sustain this branch of iudustry, the use of the finer States very little Is exported — uur manufacturers pay- grades of foreign material, to improve the (|Uality uf ing higher prices than exporters are willing to give ; our own product, is indispensable. The census return and only of the crop of Florida, about one-half to two- of I860 gives the number of tobacconists and c'gar- thlrds is annually exported, leaving from three to three makers In the United States us 10,82S. and one half millions of lbs. of leaf of our own growth, called Spanish seed-leaf tobacco, for the home con- Bumptlon of the cigar manufacturers. The manufacturing of cigars, at prices to rival tho foreign fabric, having become next to impossible, a great many operatives, who made fair wages for their I own and their families' support, were forced, in conse- quence, to turn to other employments, particularly so in Pennsylvania and Connecticut. Uther manufac- turers gave their attention to lictter grades of cigars, : for the purpose of furnishing a medium between the ! common Qerman and finer and high-priced Havana cigar. Tho American cigar-makers, being noted for I their excellent workmanship and tasty stylo of pack- i ing, succeeded in furnUhing an article as handsomely made as the fine Havana, similar to it in a])peBrance 1 and flavor, although not of as fine a quality, at a more ; moderate price than tho latter, aa palatable to the great \ majority of smokers, who are disinclined to use tho common German fabric, and, finding the genuine Ha- vana too expensive, content themselves with the fair medium, and thus Iracamo the great patrons of this | branch of trade. This class of cigars are made from | onr own seed leaf and Florida toliacco for wrappers, and fnmi Havana, Sagua, Cuba or Vara (all the prod- > uco of the island of Cuba), for fillers, and now the con- \ ' sumption of this sort reaches 300 to 400 millions of I cigars a year, varj-lng in prices from $12 to $22 per | thousand.' From 1H48 to 1H51, five thousand cases of seed-leaf wrappers annually were sufficient to supply 1 Uie wants of the cigar-makers for homo use ; the value { Tobacco. 8Ule« .nil T»rrtlorln. AlalMms Arkaniian Callfomla Columbia, District of. . Connecticut Ui'laoaro Florida Georgia IllluoU Indiana Iowa Kentucky Louisiana Mulno .Maryland MaflsacluLett. Altchigan MlKHUslppl MUtjouri New HamiMhlro Nuw.TtTsoy New York North Carolina Ohio I'cnnHylrnnlft Khode Island South Carolina Tennepaee Tcxa. Vermont Virginia \Vl:ioonflln ■p y (Now Mexico . . . |-C -Oritton Ha tttah ToUl Foundii. 273, sol 148,48} 471,067 272 76,274 182,804 664,320 1,820,806 8,070 63,430,000 119,824 80 24,810,012 a4,l>66 1,002 83,471 0,007,018 lis 1,022 744 10,772,360 6,042,276 826,018 817 61,519 2.1,650,432 ■ ' 686 75,347,100 115 isu. Pounds. 164,900 318,086 1,000 7,800 1,287,024 99S,'0I4 423,024 S41,80t 1,044,020 6,041 65,601,100 2fl,87S 21,407,497 138,240 1,246 40,000 17,113,734 61 SIO 83,189 11,084,786 10,454,449 012,651 74,286 20,148,982 66,897 6«,663,m 1,26S 8,467 316 TO 221005:419 1 201,380,863 TOB 18AS TOB A aoH*MMTIVI •T«T««mi nr ma Mtnrn*, iMMwni. Am l>n'i>iiaiH n* TnMivm m t.iTnrtm, vm lAn TM YiAit. MMk lit Itmut, InipxMa l|.,ma 1 ••. IMUttlu •liKk lui H.IIP" VltalaU iKIaMa. llrtM ll»lll> iiih.f l'..ik Uli r.ini IkImI KlIMl i-miuIm T.MI i& 4!l4ft Wilt •ill I mn lil,itiu lil.ur.A \nltn. . . m.iiM till J l««l A«M uiw KtviT IJ.fiM 4il.'l9 IKll ■JllfJ '^imi tl,4AII I7,4IVJ I«ftl .. \1,»» Mtitt IW4 Uift 111,1141 MM i.rii litllT «-iim l«,4M IN>«1 i*m... l^|>4l IIMI Kill I4III HH'I iii,'ii)a M41I IViUI •ilKW niU't 14,014 iii,ia4 ftiiTll llT'iH «| iiriit , I'ur Iri'laiul ami NnilUitil , CiMMlwUll , I'arioiHiridliin ,, I'lrtnl miIm , lUII i>»i. itft? KM. IM4 ~IMT "T t,IV) ■,niti yT,lw 1 'i,vii:i 'J,iin7 vi.m ' tt.WI «,ri I4,M4 " n.i • ' ;..! It III' X . ■ ii,nA« Kvn H.OM U,IA| ,1 •'; 1l,4IM lt.ni»l» "IM, "tltS" l,M> t,MA l,IH,« iit.iri IIM. R.i.TO 5,r'iii t,N)| lt,lVt or MKwn im IWT. -l.ituOMii. Vfi Vot hiiim UM .,,,,., Pnr IrcUnit mi4 N«rtMl4 ,,■■,■•• For t'lHiilttlin , , , ,, Kur i>|»irUlluii T.1UI I'luriMAriii l>Tiit>K AT liirMlwni, on |i«i,ii Rui'i.rmvR nr that in.i i 1»,IIM Tim ('iiANNm.ii nr ConiiriiPTioN, orvinltiU li'«r, *• Dll'IIIIUPlI , lirWraliTII linf " llllilllMMl ,, ur M»ry Uiid , TuIaI , 1IT4 RgtliKl mm In Ktil, mm in lfU«, I^AT in IMU, OTT In tWa, 1,401) In lAU, ilM NaT Till miu Tun unni mi lilA'J a4T M4tl M*l H3kl9 H'i;l tltT 68IM I.VIT 4,n:i!i 4,01111 TIW ll,(Mfl l,Vi3 B,IISO QU O 11,1 tit FAarici 'i.Atit Of MUr Aim W«>4ttMi Tmun'n iMi-nRTKii i>r«ii>u riiH i.aut tin Yeau, amo tiu Htook on Hai.i at tui I '■.•■KM nr KAni Ykan.— luvoaTi, - — : ~1W. i>i« I'M H»l. l«M. IKM. Iii4. IIU. "fuM. IMI. VlnitnHl >r l> •inniMii'il (iiKi ■^I.W 4.il'i)f H.MIO n.nw 1,I1T1 i,'M« B.OST 1,100 1,M1) 1,S(i8 2,'JOA ■> almiiMiiii) n,ftM 4,4TII n,ii4i 4,Mft A,SH 4,008 6,(181 «,iiia H,lfl4 8,841 Murylitnit iiiiil i ililu T«M ,.......• Hit *HI,4TT IM ' lii.Hiia 1,41111 I.SIW 10,1(41 l.llM "lll,4.ir I.IIIT 14, JITS l.Tnl |JVI,W>0 1,1103 1,044 IH.IUh 1,»4) 19,004 HTIM-KIl <>M HANn AT LlVTOWlOU **~'^""" ' * ■..-.- IM" VinlnUlMf......... '* ■iHIMMMnl t,««H li,rt:in Kantimky l>'i>r H,'i'iri •' ■toiiimnil , T.IKIO MMjrUnil, i. 11,^1 1 II, I'iii 0,4(MI rii lii,iihn miw lliHHIl ii,4M 4,IIT5 T,240 1,9«» IT.iO'J lUI. a,2W 1,010 H,ft2S T,ri4'J TOl "lft,041 UM. 1,084 1.8,'ifl H,T»1 fl,ITll 1,M> 18,7011' IKt3. *T,140 1,841 4,r>'2'J (»,l4llO l,loT 1,100 1,1174 0,440 _l,llft ri,*jrriO,SHB IMS. ll.lfH 1,MI MO 4,06ft 1,IW0 IKM. I IK.M. ^081 1,820 l>04 8,410 j|,084 1401 UiOT Brtll IMl 10,»«IU I 1881) ktoulu III l.iiiijiiii, Rlat liiHiunilxir, , , , ., II Llvfriiiuil ,1.1 •I lirlilii), IImIIi mill Nwnutl*, •I HrolUlhl " IruUml TaUl ln0 1 80,MS rit.ofr 94 8(ti 20,428 J 28,1101 1 I'uvjnwy I HIlKIK IMI UM. IDSI, i>i,i*iiiiirv AniiT noon luiiiiirit'il iliirlMK I'i iiuitillK IHhT T024 Mlfl-Msn lMlv«ml •• " 4(lM « Imro hIiiIkiI, ok liii|Hirl.iint in the export trsdu of tnlmi'un, itnil iin ii ii|iiy|ni{ IaIiIh t<)ihllilfi« the pricaa current at Liverpool, Unceiulwr III, fur the ytttt 1850, '66, '07 1 Ll Kiiwol Ffitw. Vlridnla li'af i (Irdlnary and fiidi'd Onlluiiry Miiind Fair leafy, dry (■nod 1 iimtuiiie Finn Irliih Stemmed : Onllnary nhort dry I'alr dry Ifafy (■oml do, with lulMtaiice. , 1 Ino IrUli Wo'tcrn leaf: Ordinary MIddllnR tn flnp, dark Flno dry and cnlory Stemmed : Ordinary Mlddllnic 1 Ineoolury Maryland* : Iiry leafy and aweet Colory and fine Paraguay Ureck and Tnrkey Nnmln. 61 « 8 rt eiM T(#T| Nnmln. Tl« 8 8|(i« 41(31 6IM 61 Ok4 .. I|« .. 8 «* .. 8K4 6|(a .. 8 a 81 (* .. a (SNom 8 a .. (k 01 to (4 . . 10 U 11 Nominal. 11 A 12 IB C4 . . 14 « 15 Nominal. 81i<« Ui 10 (•* . . 10 ra II 1U«% 11) 18 (4 181 9 (S( 81 » A 11 e« 10 9i@ ■■ Mti Nniulnal. T|(« ■> 81 (» '} II (« fi* 10 (4tni v.nilaal. 1" ,MM IIM. t r.To 1 a.rtiD I I,M1 1 i.hm l_. T1.K*- tuui iri(>. iiptfii, ttd. Ts.iitii a,TM 1,M| a.noa ia,aM_;- «. mil. fj- a,aTft B'J 2,296 tia 2,2AA M 8,au 44 ),S4I 46 19,0M lUt9 14111 1(i«T OilTT _lb!H_ ~ . IHST. sr 1ll,82B w K.IVis )i I.DOU 11 770 M) SiUI 'IJ 2a,iK)i ••:ngl«nil . . . . Hl'iilUnrl ... • Wlbmltar .. <'*atila ,.., ll'IINIi Au.ir»|(, llrllUh U.l|,„|i„;, ' 111)11 ... I""rt.i III..,,. Two HiciiiM, ' ; AuRtrlit ... • Turki.vii, v.i;;;;; , Port. llHMr«. Iln.vll "• ''•0 Duiiilngo Mexico. ... l>ntr»l Kop'ilhiii"" Niiw ()r*niiil( VmiPBiiol, .. IKrMll Chill IVrii China .'.'.'.'.'.'.'. ' ToUl, jrnar 18a«-'T.''|."',"| - - •.in - • T """""'■'irMiau, 1H6T Whlik.... .. . 7 ■„„■> , - "") '"ol. /"•••■"I.".'::;;;: ^~' •«> :::::: «,•«» «•«« »7(S,M» 121046 Ur.Mll IM t i4a,2a(i M,Tl2 IJIM t»M) KIM «,b|ii I2,iinff 114 IIABUft 11,82(1 2IM 1,722 lit "^"^' ^M ;KiiE4,Vaij Wkiik«r aiiwili^. iKiiMiirrrTT.T! " — /••nijinvMtriidiM; lumburu Ilrpmon..., ■lollanil ... I)ulch Wet liiji'i' • Dutch (I Ulan..... |l)'''"•"•.. •rltMiUiilana... i IHHl''"!"""''"'*^™.' . I UriiWil-uHt 111,11,,, r"'™! fraace on the Mfditcr'n Jrepoli .v. An,. IW,, ;>ln 0.1 Iho MoUllorr'n I iiha IVrto IdcV. "" I V?Pi."'« Vera lnUn'o,','; "Krtlnla ...' Tiifki'yln KiiTOM.. I I r"';k.;ylnA.la... •' "iJ J "Ml In Africa . I *™'l liaytl MeilM. Central /teimbilc".' Vw Or»„a,|„ "■Kiifin,.!,, H»»all I nipiav,..; I :*3fj»"n"iieilibiic.'.":: j'^fti.... ' pvii«iu.ii,i,',,y,^,;- Rnuir. 'ml IB vi.iih.n,port,j. ll|.r, l«M»r.,i«„4 „,|,„ Kiitr 777! ^^ ^ — — Anli.i • i|ii,Vi;,' ; . lliu»l»n I'oM. In .v"a„'.' MWJ.,1..:, ,„„1 N„?»V"'- [Mr .\ |,„',ie Iranw nnllw.M,,||t, ' M rmicli .V. Am. / I nnch Wi'it In.i I'orlo Kloo. I'orliipii I'npprto Vord laiai "ircllnla ... I'll',) (ilpllici! . . . nirlwy in Kiinmo Piirltpy In A«U . I'orlB in Africa . Ilnyll I.MoxIco ." Vcivtiranada.'.'.' Vcncauela . . . . Ilrnjll ■■ [rujfimy. ortiipi; ,''|;fno.Ayr™... rum "" Samlnlch Is'lini'. I'lilna Mhalo-flslieriM .'.'.'.'" ToUI .'.'_' FromwarohouM. Ijiot from warehou^" 6,241 4,927 11«,7H« 108,36; UfiO.lOl »241,888 W>2,877 1(K;b18 31)7,284] 76.887 TOK 1854 TON Kxrom or roiinoM Tobacco n»ii Tnn Triimm Statts FOB THE YlAII KNlllHO JUNK 80, 1867. Whitbtr aiported. (Inmnnafiicliirflil. Bnulf. Piniiidt. Villin. I'uiinili.i Vain*. 11,651 896 11,1T6 M,23a 2,m $1,6SII 18S 2,128 0,760 "046 '7S0 'mo (nhtr Cicrmaii porta «;Mtl f»crn Sandwich lilanda Total TT,,Tfl3 $14,287 1280 $860 Ffotn warohouio 7!i,fl60 6,103 13,180 1,151 Mil 7sa 2110 166 Not from warelioinc RrroKTB OF cNUANcrAorcREn nouKHTin ToiiArco prom tub t'NiTKD States foe the Yeae eniiino iJuke 80, 1867. Wliitbat aiporUd. Asiatic Rii^flla Rt'i§^lan Twaoaa. In \. Am. . . Sweden and Norway Swedish West Indlvs I>enmark f>aniMh West Indies Hamburg Firemen Holland iMifch West Indies I>nfch ffiilana llelKinm F:nglnnd Scotland Ireland Mbraltar .Malta f'anada Other Rritlah N. A, I'osaeaa.. i Rrltioh West Indies jBrltinh Honduras iHrlliKh 4' 202 120 60,976 166; 20 22,882 .... 14 4^10 10,146 .. 40 9S6,0!.2 1,824 .. 121 8'1S,709 1 16 liiio .. 24 107,886 or. .. 20,877 7,436 .. 1,099,414 117 .. 27,631 20 .. 6,912 IS; .. 8,212 »12f>' 5 27,000 876' .. 121,369 221 .. 4,2110 82 71 92 22,471 6,14'i .. 982,124 2,11:1:1 .. 887,4011 4,144' .. 876,208 1,6118, .. 151,096 6,0f4: .. 1,086,893 83i . . 2,091 41j .. a'o" 10,186 ],72,il 86 984 402,069 88 964 8,996 97,760 100 2,740 670 .. 1,660 36,345 I60I .. 41 28,226 801 .. 14,462 6 .. 1,000 .... 1 75 l.O.W 3| .. 1,167 23,018 202 .... 1 111 20 4,808 .... ' 60 12 1,680 Total, year 18,'i6-'7 1,%0,S48 5031 14,432.20,260,722, — For articles on tolpacco, see American Qiinrterh/ tlf- ririr, i.K. liMi; I)K Bow'h Ilerii-u; xil. 0.%', ii. 219, xi. 'X<4 ; Hist'h Mcrckanis' Magazine, x. 72, xv. 521, xvi. ,'((•6. On tobaeeo trade, see Amerimn Almanac, ISilti. Tokay, a town of northeast Hiingarr, county of Xeinplin, on tlie right l)ank of the ThcUs, at the influx of the lloe breadth Z/l- '" ""'*' 'enK«l» or an approximation to he ern.f ''^'' "'" <"'«'» "i^o '"'™°"' ^^ '""■''^''r in .se .m may be the actual disnlacl?^? """' "^ "'e ship, tj I F« . ^""""f'N-^' ?»k''t<'^??'J,V?,?.'=I"« nations po« V'ge, might be easilyTval , , '? "■""''' ''« '•'« ton^ j J '!^ T^f'' "' "-e deck/ '^""" "'" '"""S t" feet of restricting vetse fto /'T T"'" '">^'' ">» e^' Mar^oill"'™", 'i""-" '<" »«> l""^ I ^. "?«""'• stem nnrt stem of the veZis ''" '''^° "^ »•>" -.e to £rei;„;;m'Sr:f ^;r ••" T-""- "ccount of the draught of Lt.r v^"^ ^" '"'"'^t would also be necessfn^wlltbH 1'?, "''.'•. ?' "«'•*, -^a,;:b:;s^'::,:;-'--itheri;ad^;;^ ''xt,r""'f"'°-^^" '"" """ "^"'" «mall in proportion to tMrfl„ ""'"^ ""«'" ''^ S ' v.7-Th! Ir'' H.f " "^' f""''*'' """a-v „ «5. naKo were to express t d»Lrt„ce"K- '' '^ ""'■ ''"'''l-'"' » : M a he , ''^ "'" '"^""'""" "' *^^'^^- di»p .cements, that is, the ex e , of ,he r? r''", '"'» '*■' f-'-'^mas t; 3d a „ ' in7'h'',r' ' '''' " '''' f""' '"'aft mcnt over the liirht or H,„ .1 i • , ''""' 'I'splnce. former T),,^ j, •' 1 . "^ "' ''"'f "aj- lictwoen tl.o m.., although this H-oul i be the nT 7°"'"" "^ "'« ''"'"'"ff. ' ta™n ''t tll^h„'"^''V "' '^'"'''' "'« three bi^adt t „r^ -• even matl.e„.l.X' '^^f ^^-^t ■„ "r""'"" ( '-^ ^dt"'":.^ ":;;;-- ^'^^ -« « "ovei'wllh tt Cm:!!^; nS --rf ^^ r^^f ;SS l .^ J^'i:;^ - - - each section, the haif „f ,he ..m ^i-ace or capacity t'ti, ';,:';:'«? ,!;!r '" ''" "'" "•"'''J^^' ^^^i ;T",:;ri"r,r™-"t.: is added *:;;,■: openmgs would be nfforde f.T/ F' """"er'i'is the height of no ,1 ""''''"« '""" '9 multiplied bv ''ecanse the manner of „„ "•""''"l-i't evasion; I area, of ,. f,,r "T "'" ""'"• Then half the »l.aoe must be S c: ,V 7 u'l.'''; ''7./"' ""-^ i ""'""" ""on"" n'd'Tm "'"""• '^ """'■" '"'"'^ »f wh'eli will not come withi ■ '^ '" ^""''' «P"™ length wliic , H 1 '' ""'" '' "'"Itiplied bv tlio measurements; " t 0! v , ^'T "^ '"« ""''"e-' ^la^^Vd ,v 1 vl "V'" """'^ f^""' "aI'" the same, shall if7l,» . "i .• ''""™' '» measure tancefmmfil .'"''' "'^''''" section bv half its dii TON 185Q TON reuel tn the above manner in Bur((os cubic feet, it is to be divided by il-'f^, and the result -will be the "/^ amount of displacement of such vessel in tons of Bur- '^ gos measure, because each ton is reclioned equal to Portugal. — For singU-decked resielt, the length is measured from the cabin bulkheads to the forecastle bulkheads. The depth is measured from the upper surface of the keelson to the under surface of the beams. The extreme breadth of the deck is consider- ed the breadth. The continued product of these three dimensions will give the contents in cubic feet, which, divided by 57-1^^, gives the tonnage. Vtuelt of two Decks. — In these vessels two distinct / operations are made; one fcr the hold, the other for the middle deck. For the hold : The length is meas- ured from the heel of the bowsprit to the stem-po^t. The l)readth is the extreme breadth of the upper deck, deducting two feet. The depth is from the upper sur- face of the keelson to the under surface of the beams. For the middle deck : The length is considered as half of that for the hold, the other half being allowed for cabins, etc. — the breadth as before ; and for tlio depth, the height of the middle deck to the under surface of the beams. The foregoing is the method adopted at Lisbon ; but at Oporto the length of tlio vessel is taken from the second timber at the bows to the ttem-post ; the breadth at the widest part from tJio insido of each bul- wark on the upper deck ; and the depth from the up- per surface of tlie keelson, to the lower surface of the beams of the upper deck at the main hatchway. If tlie keelson be more than ordinarily thick, allow- ance is made accordingly ; and where tliero are two decks, the thickness of the lower deck is also deducted from the depth. The length is then multiplied by the breadth, and the product liy the depth. , Tlio produrt ^ is then divided liy !)0, the number of Portuguese culiU' feet contained in a ton, and the result is tlio tonnage of the vessel. Napi.ks. — for retseh vith two ileckt, the length is measured from one end of the vessel to the other, over all. The length is also measured from the after part •f the stem to the rudder hatch, under the poop. The mean between these two lengths Is multiplied by the extreme iTcadth of the vessel. The depth is then taken from the bottom of the well to the lower surface of the up|>er or jxHip deck ; aud the above product being multi- plied by this depth, and divided by 94, gives tlio ton- nage. for tingle-decked vetaeU, the tonnage is found by multiply ing the extreme length by the extreme breadth, and the product by the extreme depth, and divided by 94, ns alwve. Nktiikhi,asi)s. — The length is measured on deck from the stem to the ctern-jmst. For the bre.idth, tlio hold is divided into four portions, mid two measure- ments taken at each of the three divisions : Ist, across the keelson, on a level with the up|)cr surfuoo, from ceiling to ceiling ; 2d, the greatest brcuiltli of the hold at each division. The nieuu of these six measure- ments is considered the breadth. The depths arc taken at cnch of the foregoing points of division, from the upper surface of the keelson to the lower surface of the upper deck between the lieams, and the mean of these three is resumed. Tliu length, breadth, and depth are then multipllcy the mean of the three depths. The result of the foregoing is divided by 242J, if there be no frac- I tional parts of feet ; but if there are, the calculation is made in inches, and the divisor becomes 822,776, the result thus obtained being the burden of the vessel I in wood lasts, of 4000 Neva lbs. each. To reduce these I into commerce lasts, one of which is equal to 6200 Neva lbs., it is multiplied by 10, and divided by 18. KoBsiA.— Length of the keel in feet, multiplied by the extreme breadth over the sheathing, and thu prod- uct multiplied again by half the breadth, and divided by 94, gives the number of Knglish tons. United States.— If the vessel be double-decked, the length is taken from the fore part of the main stem to the after part of the stem-post, above the upper deck ; the breadth, at tbe broadest part above the main wales, half of which breadth is accounted the depth. From the length three-fftht of the breadth is deducted ; the remainder is multiplied by the breadth, and the product by the depth. The last product is divided by 95, and the quotient is deemed the true tonnage of such ship or vessel. See page 1855. If the ship or vessel be single-decked, the length and breadth are taken as above for a double-decked vessel, and three-fifths of the breadth are deducted from the length. The depth of the hold is taken fhim the under side of the deck-plank to the ceiling in the hold. These are multiplied and divided as aforesaid, and the quotient is the tonnage. At some places a system of measuring, called- carpenter's tonnage, appears to be adopted. The rule is as follows : For vessels with one deck, multiply the length by the breadth of the main beam, and the product by the depth. Divide this second product bj- 95, For double- decked vessels, take half the breadth of the main beam for the depth, and work as for a single-decked vessel. At New Orleans, the moer cent, additional dutj' on cargo, un- less exempt by treaty. American vessels, on arrival from foreign ports, are subject to a tonnage duty of fifty cents per ton, unless the officers and two-thirds of tbe crew for the whole voyage are American citizens. Tbe discharge of seamen fh>m an American vessel, although by mutual oooHnt, certified by a oonanl, will United States France, Turkey, from 8 princ. ports 2.12l,S2n l.flSi,325 *'3,833 472,173 «l],S(i8 "73,S!I8 7H5S« "■*3,13(J 2-fl,200 3I!2,24S 478,014 47n,!P04 2.'3,4.'i4 27(1,020 2ir>,8n 40-1,010 34l,,5il4 312,0 13 310,701 3"3,S1S 3S3,111 373,0il;i 300,200 310,009 ] 7,887:447 8,242,7.13 ».2:i2,sso I S,278,105 2.641,785 l,23!i,4i2 1.'I20,871 647,102 !l 14,194 632,114 p7,l'49 841,680 846,184 428,750 isi«; I.''>2.9:387 7,47!i,fl4s '.070,821 4.008,781 2,307,490 3.410,4(10 1.418,715 453,649 637,954 'riissia Ilambiirg, BreraDn . . Chill Sweden. . . Norway . , Denmark (pr.) Spain Krazll Two Sicilies • Vear ending June 30, 1S57 + losT . . — , Th-estatisticsarehelaJI '^'^ In"! «':!."'? »".- the ciVra '.:^" 'i-htained, 274,220 333,834 , 2''3,310 t 631,024 341,'S18 324,823 JSl.Slfl T74,C10 4SS,0fl0 60!),922 020,000 200,880 428,384 431,479 339,309 834,213 Ton I '"'i*''""wl eilificB. ~ ^'"" """^ '" H'c same ;V'th greater cxpeditioni" ,"Se"'e ''»<> macl.inen: rncted by M. luC^i^ the t """'" '"f"' •>»» ''een re" g"'ts Occidental rub, i. '""*' '^"""' ^r mineral "Seeing in their cn-'^te-""" ^Wl.ire ; ^h^'^"" Properties, ,. ere ar^„^,±^' , ,'"" """ ">"»' of S .Kofflo «nS ent from oujs. One vnrilf i^ ""nernl very differ '""ted chosolite Coior'^^f <'"topa^ thev^de„„m: 'ow into flesh red and Vri„ ' '™m deep wine lel fron, 3.4G4 to 3-C41 It^"™"" .'"''• ^P^^'fio fc^avit ofa beautifnfye ,„J^„ P;"'""S "f the topaz, a gem wme yellow, o'f diff^en ^ ' re" ^i' • T'''^'"""-- ^^ to the tonnage ome'?Vt -^^^ ""> ^""'^"o! in re^arf b"" "'"■" '''""'ond), m.t 1^' "■•"""' ^^'''" ''^ th;' States. ^" ""• ^ "'""' S'»tes, ... ^r^/efeuX^ 7*?',"'^"' "" '''ara 'e^ S^' ^'T^^"^''"" =ng-xiri£=ai^:r='&ir^^ nominees, who lr„^ ',?''. r'"^ ""owed to a„Dot; 1 , ""'' '''''' ^''ould bo formed In d r""' ''^P"', and wl'ole annuitvbeTn •..""'"' ^^vivorshin bv thl . " " '"^'" "'"' one well c nt r, ^ ','." ""™"'- mm^mmsmm- mfmmmmms g j^ "i ive the lower most. Top-gallant mast, the mast next above the top-mast, and is generally the uppermost most. Top-sails, large sails extending across the top-maat. Top-gallant sails are extended above the top-sail yards, in the same manner as the top-sails are extended alx>ve the lower yards. Tornado (Spanish), a violent hurricane or gust of wind, which, arising suddenly from the shore, veers round to all points of the compass, and indeed has been described as blowing from all points at once. Tor- nadoes are usually accompanied with thunder-storms, and are generally of short duration. They are frequent in the Chinese seas and tlie West Indies, , Toronto, city, at one time the capital of Canada, is situated on Toronto Boy, in the township and coun- ty of York, lat, 43° 32' N,, long, 79° 20' W, It is 45 miles northeast from Hamilton, 1C5 miles west from Kingston, 363 miles fh)ni Montreal, 643 miles from Quel)ec, and 1363 from Halifax, Nova Scotia, The bay is a lieautiful sheet of water, separated from the main body of Lake Ontario, except at its entrance, by a long narrow strip of sandy beach, the southwest termination of which is known as " Gibraltar i'oint." The city was founded in 1704 liy Governor Simcoe, and is laid out in the form of a parallelogram, being above three miles long by one and a half wide ; tlio streets, wliicli are straight and wide, intersecting at right angles. The esplanade fronting the bay extends for a distance of two miles. In 1817 the population amounted to 1200 ; in 1830 to 28G0 ; in 1842 to 15,336 ; in 1850 to 25,166; in 1852 to 30,763; and in 1864 to over 40,000. The cit}' is liglited with gas, and is well supplied with water, by companies incorjrarated for those purpos'. s, — See Thadk. From Toronto the cap- ital was removed to Quebec, and in 1857-'58 was finally establislied at Ottawa, formerly Bytown, Tortoiae-Bhell (Fr. Ecaille de Tortue ; It. Seaglia lie Tartaniga ; Ger. Sckilpad ; Malay, Sinik kumktim), the lirown and yellow scales of the Testudo imbricaia, or tortoise, a native of the tropical seas. It is ex- tensively used in the manufacture of combs, snuff- boxes, etc., and in inlaying and other ornamental work. The l)est tortoise-shell is that of the Indian Archipel- ago ; and the finest of this quarter is obtained on the shores of the Spice Islands and New Guinea. When the finest West Indian tortoise-shell is worth, in tlie Ix)nduii market, 4G«., the finest East Indian is worth 60*. per it). I'nder the latter name, however, a great deal of inferior shell is imported, brought from various parts of tho East Indies. The goodness of tortoise- shell depends mainly on tho tliickness and size of the scales, and in a smaller degree on the cleaniess and brillianc)' of the colors. Before the opening of the British intercourse with India, the greater part of the tortoise-shell which eventually found its way to Eu- rope was first carried to Canton, which then formed the principal mart for the commodity. It is still an article of trade fW)m that city ; but the imports and exports are inconsiderable, Singapore being now the chief mart for this article. Its price at the latter va- ries from 760 and 900 to from 1000 to 1600 dollars per picul, according to quality. — Ckawfubd's Indian Arch- ipelago ; Singapore Chronicle ; Canton Register. Toulon (TVfu Martius), a commercial and important militar)' and naval port of F ranee, department of Var, on a fine bay of the Mediterranean, 40 miles southwest from Draguignan, Lat, (of observatory) 43° 7' 6" N., long. 5° 66' E, Population, 40,000. Mean tempera- ture of year, 62°-2 ; winter, 48°-5 ; summer, 75°-2 Fahrenheit. It is strongly fortified, defended by a double line of bastioned fortifications, and strengthen- ed l)y forts on the adjacent heights. The French con- sider it impregiiable. It has a tribunal and chaml)er of commerce, tribunal of marine, school of navigation, commercial college, and public library. The streets nro watered by numerous tountains. Around the har- bor are immense magazines and arsenals, ship-building docks, rope and sail-works, and the bagne or convict prison, usually occupied by 4000 to 6000 culprits. Toulon was originally a Roman colony ; it was taken by the constable of Bourbon in 1624, and l)y Charles V. in 1636. It was given up to the English in August, 1793 ; in December of the same year it was taken liy the French republicans, after a memorable siege, dur- ing which Napoleon commenced his military- career, Toulon-sur-Arroux is a commune and village, depart- ment of Saone-et- Loire, eighteen miles north-northwest from CharoUes, Population about 1700, Toys (Ger. Spieketig, Speilsachen ; Du. Speelgoed; Vt. Jotiets, Bimbelots ; It. Traslulli; Sp, -Dijes, Jtiguetes de ninnos ; Russ, Ignishki) include ever}- trifling ar- ticle made expressly for the amusement of children. How frivolous soever these articles may appear in the estimation of superficial observers, their manufacture employs thousands of hands, and gives bread to many families. Children's toys are brought in immense numbers from the hilly regions of Germany, Austria, and Switz- erland, The forests supply abundance of timber at very low cost ; and the peasant mountaineers, simple and frugal, employ their leisure hours and the time of their children in fabricating these articles. Dealers are sure to be found who will drive a trade in these trifles in some conntr}' or other. The A rt Union Jour- nal, a few years ago, gave some curious information concerning the better kind of carved German toys : " The best German toys come from the town of Soiine- berg, on the southeastern frontier of the forest of Thu- ringia. It has a population of 4000 inhabitants, of wliich the greater part are emploj'ed in the trade. The prin- cipal toy-merchants, numbering about thirty, provide themselves with goods from many hundred different makers of common articles, resident in the town and its vicinity ; these, again, are furnished by the neigli- boring villagers with the requisite roughly-prepnrcd articles in wood, whicli are fitted up, carved, and paint- ed l)y the makers in the town. Every j-ear about 26,(100 cwts. of these goods are exported to almost everj- |)nit of the world, but the manufacturers are confined to the use of wood or pasteboard, or these two materials com- bined. The factory from which the best toys are de- rived is that of Adolph Fleischmann, who employs none but first-rate workmen ; and it is interesting to notice the many admirable prolh Uccciiihcr, 1814 8,318,400 24th Fclniorjr, 1816 8,30i',304 Total !)< 80,080,704 Of this amount all were redeemed prior to Ootolier _ 1, 1824, except $19,766. Further Issues of Treasury ^ ,^ _,. , ,,,. ,,. '"'"V"" *"" I Notes was made under acts of mh October, 1837; 21«t south of the northeast and the southeast trades wester- May, 1838 ; and 2d March, 1839. From the year 1812 ly winds will be found generally to prevaU, though less! to Slst December, 1843, the total IsM.e of Treasury regular in the northern than in the southern hemi- 1 Notes was $84,611,833, and amount received from sphere ; and It has lieen remarked that the average of the passages made by the Liverpool packets from New York out, for a period of six j-ears, was twenty-three days, and from Liverpool to New York, that Is, from east to west, thirty-eight days.— E. A. See Winds. Trade-winds is a name given to certain remarkable a'-rial currents, on account of their sinal aid to naviga- tion. In those parts of the Atlantic nnd P.icinc oceans which are remote from the influence of the land, be- tween the limits of about 28° or 30° north andsouth lati- tude, there is a constant easterly wind. On the north side of the equator it Idows from between the north and east, and on the south side from the south and east, ac- cording to the distance from the equator ; these winds are called the northeast and southeast trode- winds, and are the cold currents of air flowing fr .n the poles to the equator, altered In direction by the rotation of the earth upon its axis. The direction and extent of the trade-winds vary with the seasons of the year, and in different parts of the world their course is entirely al- tered, the most remarkoble modification shown be- ing the monsoons. — Sec Monsoons ; also, articles At- lantic Ocean, Giilk Stream, Currents, Winds. Tragacanth, a species of gum, the produce of tho Aslrafialtts tragncaniha, a thorny shrub growing in Pp'oia, Crete, and the islands of tho Levant. It ex- udes about the end of ,6lH) 0,094,8011 8,297,806 20,400,897 8,130,840 734,612 8,705 2,291 824 324 2,0^2,989 13,710,820 3,8ri7,2ifl 6,680,647 7,903,500 8,425,329 1,618,160 $12,887,900 20,184,436 !n,U77,»n 85,204,820 0,404,480 734,542 8,705 3,201 8,040,834 5,000,824 2,992,089 12,710,820 8,867,370 6,689,547 18,050,317 14,8fi8,786 18,401,608 1814 1816 ISIO 1817 1818 1819 1820 1821 1837 1838 1830 1840 1341 1843 1843 1 Total $98,!i«0,n2 !F84,011,833 [T1n2,1i7 1,040 Of the issues between 1837 and 1843, there were outstanding September 30, 1847, #239,789. Further emissions were authorized bj' act of Congress, un- der date of 23d July, 1846, and 28th January, 1817; $10,000,000 by the act of 1846, not cxc . .ling 6 per cent. Interest ; and $23,000,000 by the act of 1847 ; and a further issue by act of December, ]8,W. In March, 1858, the bills for tho new issue of Treas- ury Notes were opened at the Treasury Department. Tho result was, that $2,600,000 were taken at rates varj-Ing at 3J, 3}, 4, 4J, 4J, and 4}. The remainder of the ,5,000,000 was taken in 5 per cents. Some of the bids were for permanent investment, while others were for speculation. There Is a species of Treasury Notes In common use It should be chosen I In Kngland, known as F.xchequer liilla. These wore in long twisted pieces, white, very clear, and free from first created in tho year 1096, two years after tho In- all other colors ; the brown, and particularly tho blnck [ corporation of the Bank of Kngland. They have been pieces, should be wholly rejected. — Tmojison's C/iem- 1 issued annually ever since. These l)llis bear an iiitcr- istri/; Thomson's Dispensatory; Mii-ucrn's Oriental' est of 1(/., li,2 or 2^ pence per day on each XlOO, Commerce. \ equivalent to 1 J 3 per cent, per annum. Of these Treasury Notes. A species of Treasurv Notes, i bilU there were issued in 1852, i:i7,742,800, at \\d. ; termed Continental currency, was Issued by order of 1853, ^17,742,500, at Irf. (^ 2(?. ; 1854, 4:16,029,000, at tho Continental Congress. This depreciated rapidly, j 2^ ; 1855, £17,183,000. These are a favorite liivest- and no provision was made afterward for Its reuis XIV. It was at one time common in Germany, to use the words of M. Bouchaud, " pour Ics pridicateurs do prier Dieu en chaire, qu'il se/aue bicn del iiatijrar/es nir Uura cutet .'" — Theorie del Traith de Commerce, p. lift. And the fact that the celebrated jurii-t Thomusius wrote a dissertation in defense of such prayers, aflTords, if possible, a still more striking proof uf the spirit of tho period. Under such circumstances, it became of much im- portance for commercial states to endeavor to obtain, i)y means of treaties, that protection and security for the persons and properties of their subjects, when abroad, against unjust treatment and vexatious ex- actions, which they could not have obtained from tho laws of the countries in which they might happen to reside. Thus it was stipulated l)y Edward II., in li)25, that the merchants and mariners of Venice should have power to come to England for ten years, with liberty to sell their merchandise and to return home in safety, " vilhout having either their persont or goods stopped on account of other people's crimes or debts." — Anderson, anno 1325. The commercial treaties negotiated during the loth, IGth, and 17th centuries, are full of similar conditions ; and there can be no doubt that by provid- ing for the security of merchants and seamen when abroad, and suspending, with respect to them, the bar- barous laws and practices then in lorce, they contril>- uted materially to accelerate tho progress of commerce and civilization. <'ommerciuI treaties wore also ne- gotiated at a very early period for the r gulation of neutral commerce during war, and for downing tho ar- ticles that should lie deemed contrabard, or which it should not be lawful for neutral shirs to convey or c.irr,- to either be11i^■erent. These urr, obviously points that can only lie dec'ded b}' express' stipulations. Instead, however, of contining I'ommerciol treaties ti!? Abo, ponco of . , Alx-ln-Chiipollo .... AU-l«.Cli«polle, pcaco'oV AKormiinii, peace of Alt KaUstadt ...... America, peace with Amienn, peace of Armed Neutrality Arras, treaty of. . Arras, trcatyof.. AiiKuburg, league of.'.'.'"" Itaden, peace of . Uarrier treaty.... Uanle, peace of nassein, Incllo...' nayonne, treaty of.' Uojlflum, treaty of Lii'idoi.'" ilelBrado, peace of. llerlln, peace of , . . Horlin de«ree ■ llerlln convention Ureda, peoco of. . . Ilretlgny, peace of.' Bucharest, treaty of J^ambray, league of Cambray, peace of. J;?!?"'":™'"!", treat'; o'f::;; • Larlowltz, peace of. . . Carlsbad, congress of tateau-Cmibrosi^ peace of" Chaumont, treaty of " Uiunar, India.... (-'Intra, convention of ( •„?m,"'"'i"' ""'"■"ntl'o'n of ' ' ' I'Oalitlon, second, nmln.:t i. ' Ooalitlon. tblr,! nlV'.'f,''™'":' Orand AllUnco . P,'™™'!'-'"'!yofr';'„'d'o'i "ague, treaty of the «Kuo, treaty of the "lie, treaty of, ' ' Hamburg, peaee'^j; Hanover treaty. . "piiSS""^"-:: Hubertabc.g,p,.'--„v::;; Kiel, tredty of. uyb.ch.congrc.;',v;::: J-olpsIc, aillan'co if l-eobcn, peace of. I W«bon, -oace of, frT'r^uSSU''rJ«'« ''Ulieck, peace of (""•key). ]S40 i;''"";"''''. peace if.' V''^» Madrid, trcatyof. I '|?'>""'n treaty. Jlllan decree . I Munster, pence o'f' 2»ntes, edict of Jl'""'''"'-g. trcatyof ««, trcatyof...'^;' 2™Wion, poaceof.:: J^yon, treaty of. . ontt^"?*^ »'•"-::: ' "rls, peace of i IdSD 1829 1050 1009 1010 1702 172« 17S4 1816 170.1 1548 1SI4 1721 1B70 1031 17117 lfl«8 18il) . 1801 • 1B20 nm 1807 104S 10:8 ir.6j 1519 I07S 1510 1532 1000 1703 1790 ooami"o7t^rr«s;v^™"«' ^i^ i i^!::^?'"^^^^''^'-'''- nil coS"t^' •"«'"'"' 1-™-::: \tu %,'r/<'/r.'-'::::::::;:''' 1^1? l'«Maro,vItz, peace of 5 ™9 ™wu, trcatyof. "'8 e tersburg, p'eace of' .' ]^i 'eersburg, trcatyof "«2 '■iteraburL'. tr«..i-» 1772 <;OnHans, treaty of. tonstautiuoplo, treaty uf Oopciiliagen, peace of " ,-.- < rcssy '_ ' loi; IJrosden ....'.'..', 164 J^amily compoct '^^ fontaiupbleau, pea'c'c'ef }l'' tonta ncbleau treaty „f Jf i Jontainobleau, concordat' k't 11^' Friedwald, treity of ^^''' f ucssen, peace of "^1 Obenl, pacification of U'P Si?ruT°''™''^''^'"'»i.::isi4 isoi , 1ms treaties, conventions or •'""'','' ^'"""' «""«« nations, all of which are , fn t "I'l'^'-^'s'" fo'eign of tho stipulations and 'n° ' " "" '"'""''"™ spectivoly, or by virtue of '''"''''''' ""^f-^'" "- other local regufatioi, "L" „^";i«'' 7.V»i orders, or "'en s, 01, tho one side »,. „f " / ^"""'P' eovern- President of the Uiiit,.,?^ Proclamations hv the ficulty of referriii" "i„', t;-" f "'""• '^'- "if- certainingat a gla",ce the nrl • ", ""■ "•'-"'"•^'' "■' of a.s- "'orcial regulatLr t ,:";: r°'" '"'"'° -'"■ Ar.e„,l "•'""'"-'"" -"trr, is Ob. "-■-burg, treaty of ■ acraburg, treaty of. ' " Potersburg, treaty of ! {.'"'•It;, convention of I "oland, partition of. ,V»Bniatic .Sanction. jragranlio.s.-,nclion. \ ;/"S"o, peace of .. . I rml.iirg, peace of. . . .' ' • .•-™ ''"I'lie good, league fo'rih;;;;:;J^2« l/rcneoii, treaty of the gnjdniple Alliance Had. adt, peace of "" iiatisbon, peace of... « ftSr^""-":::::;: gfr'flf- peace' of"; «orod peace of... SmalcolJ, |c„g„„of Stockholm. 2'^„='',''«|ra,pewi'o'f ffj'om, treaty of 8tockl,olm,tre»tjof; i,''»J»*»r, truce of Teschcn, peace of. «'i«ln, peace of.... ™«lt, peace of T°'?.""». treaty of ;:: S^/S"/;:::''"""" Troycs, treaty of ,.,"j;'"'"""I">y, peace if.'.' Uni, peace of . .. Urecht, union of. . ; •itrecbt, peace of Valentay, treaty of .' vprsailles, peace of. . >onna, treaty of .. . Vie!!!;"' ',''''„'">"'' ""i^eV V cnna, peace of. . , u,.» country, is o Argentine Confederation , , ,„ Austria >'"'.»■ 10aud2T, IS.W tWgium '. August 27' lsi(i' ™livia '//[ November I;i,' 1S4S' ™rueo -November fto' 1S30 Chili ' 'lino 0.1) isrifl Cbina ..,.'. "ny 10,' 18:i'> Costa liica. Jnly 81844 Denmark July 10,' issi' Kcuador.. April --''"'■ Finance. 'uno Great Uritaiii '''""^ fJuatemala . •'"'y Hanover Slarcii Holland ''"ne Hanso Towns.'.'.' August zo, mwi. Japan... December 20 1827* Mechlenbiirg 's'c'li'w'e'ri,', ;\''"''^'' ^l, 1S64,' ' ' o, J8JI, and February 2, 1345, ■■-""", iieaceof Vienna, treaty of, Marcl'i'i','! ' ' ' ^l™na,treatyof M"yOl''■■• vossem, peace of . . Warsanr, treaty of «arsaiv, alliance of ^Jc,,t,ninstei-, peace of';; ,V.™'P"n'l», peace of. . >Vilna, treaty of n orms, edict of. . ; .■•"" wurtzbiirg, treaty of ;;:;;;;;;;;; ji'i'i f-""ecS'f^i:^t::i^ iT' ""^ '■-»- l-oen prepared; andit wH e " i ,""'" "'''""''« l'"" oreign trade of , I Unite I S 'a ^ r,'"''°''«" '» ">e the footing on whicl. „u tm , ',: " ''■' '" """"•'" placed in foreign conr^risvrul""! .'''"*■"'"''" ""^ «-ul the treatment to w del t n ' "■™""' "^i". tion of such foreign eo'? ™"">"^rce and naviga- '^t";o ports of",r.rnrd"&^ i" «lpb'betl:^;rrr'b:t!r'''''■VT'''-»- -™"eed States comnier ia t'reatt a,!', ""' T^ "'" ^"'«od . ^lorocco . Muscat -NiMv (rraiiada ;;;;; Oldenburg... I'cni I'ortugai .;;; Prussia Kussla ... •^'nn Salvador; Sandwich Island.s' ' i^nrdlnia.... .Siaii Sn-cden and xinv'ay, ■Sivllzorhnd Tripoli.... Tuui Turkey . ; i'ebruar Tiio ,e, should )ort,here- ther prov- id for the lay rivers, ontlnue in the twelve trcBsels are the same Irect or in- in importa- mndise the ited States, e no higher er country, arty to the ^ to become tlons. The the flags of , to continue 1; each party after the ex- other twelve Inltcd States lagc, anchor, rage, and all equality ap- The Belgian duties levied jigating the ites engaged I States and of duties of Vessels equal privl- e treaty rc- [0 the direct , " it is well „ been realljr are declared ntermcdiato uly proved, vantage al- llrect trade, an equality ixccpt the ,. The im- ^ho national A law of [rovldes that ]vcB«cl8 pro- from a port at an intcr- rccoiving or- jons, by dis- wbilo it rs- Ltion of that of flags to flag of the slgian flag, the United i( of Sio higher, nor other than are charged on similar lmpo;ts the growth, produce, or nianufacturo of any other for- eign country ; similar ci|uality of tlag as to exports. By a decree of August ill, 18!>l, the local commercial legislation of Costa Itica was completely remodeled and materially ninditied. Liberty of comnierco to tho ves- sels of all nations is granted ; certain descriptiona of merchundi.io nionopolizetl by tlio government, and other descriptions which art. prohildtod, bolug speci- lied; among the latter licing 'ncl'idod rum, lirc-anns, and munitions of war, whid' -"n bo imported only upon special permission ; and l.i . former consisting of tobacco, gunpowder, and saltpetre, wl'Ich can bo ad- mitted only on govcnmcnt account. Denmiirk. — Convention of friendship, commerce, and navigation of April 2G, lK2ti ; ratilied Augu'jt 10, Itc.'U ; proclamation made Uctolwr M of the sumo year. Vch. •els of tho United States permitted to frequent all the coasts and countries of Denmark, no matter whence thej- may come or how they are laden, on terms of tho mo.tt perfect c(|uiility us to tonnago and otiicr chargcn, with the national ting, tho coasting trade excepted, which Is reserved by each contracting party to its own Hag, This equality of flags not to apply to tho north- ern possessions of Denmark, viz. : Iceland, tho Fcroc Islands, and (irocnland, nor to the direct navigation lictwcen Denmark and the West India colonics of his Danish majesty. In passing tlio Sound or tho Delta, United States vessels to pay the same dues as the most favored nation. United States vessels permitted to import into any part of his Danish majesty's dominions merchandise, whether of the growth, produce, or manu- facture of the United Slates, or of any foreign country, on the same terms, and willi the same privileges as to duties, charges, and fees of every description whatever, as apply to similar imports under the national flag; and should the merchandise be of the growth, produce, or manufacture of the United States, to be suljject to no other or higher duties than similar merchandise of any other foreign country. Tills equality, however, not to apply to tho Danish possessions of Iceland, tho Keroe Islands, nor to Greenland ; nor tho flags to be equal In the direct trade between Denmark and her West India colonies. Klcrchandisc in United States bottoms to pay at the Sound and Belts tho same duties as similar merchandise in vessels of the most favored nation. In consequence of the onerous, and, as the Unlied States think, the illegal taxes upon the navi- gation and commerce of the United States at the •Sound, notice was given April 14, 18!>u, in accordance with the provisions of article 11 of tho treaty, of the desire of the United States to terminate the same at tho expiration of twelve months from that date. Tho treaty accordingly "ceased and delermlni'd" April 14, 1H5(I, and the commerce of the United Slates wiih Den- mark is now unprotected liy any treaty stipulations. t'.ninilor. — Treaty of June 111, IdaO; ralltlcatlons ex- changed April 1), 1N42; proclamation made by the I'resi- dcnt of the United Stales September 'i'l, of the same year. To continue in force tw elve years from the date of rntillcalions, and after the expiration of that period until the end of one year after either of tiio parties shall have given notice to the other of Its intention to renounce it. Vessels of the United Slates placed on a fooling of equality in the ports of Kcuador with tho national flag, no matter whence they come, certain privileges in favor of vessels liuill in tho dock-yard of (iuayaqull being reserved ; but these privileges also to be accorded to vessels of the I'nited States, should they ever bo granted to Spain, or to Mexico, or the other Illspano-American republics. Any favors here- after granted to the commerce or navigation of other countries to become conmion to those of tlio United Stales. Iniporlsin vessels of the United Slates, wheth- er of the growth, produce, or manufacture of the United States or of any other country, subject to the name duties and charges as if imported in natioral vessels ; and merchandise, tho growth, produce, or manufacture of tho United States, admitted on the same terras as similar merchandise of any other foreign country. United States comnierco entitled to any privileges hereafter granted to Iho commerce of any other foreign nation. In all lawful commerce, whether as respects imports, exports, duties, lirawbacks, etc., tho United Slates flag enjoys an equality with the flag of Kcuador ; the coasting trade and thi. reservation in favor of ves- sels built at '" ''or ,vc,.el.i„ b«llast,.„,.hor l^'^rt' " ""' <''«/ «re-! '"S /'O cargo ; vessel, of wnr ami '^' "'' """ '"''='""•«- V'^ckn, not W,8ul,JeetonU .0 the an "" >"''■'""'' '" '''"^■'«" i^^'-.-^fC:^:^-^,^-;'-,,,,.^ gaiPli^giii »nt,sl, govcrnntent from t n„ 1 '^'"''""">« of tho same on Tnite StnfL ^,''""'P"'"' «''»'over, tho Merchandise imported to Brit ,h '". «^"'''"«'«^^''- in tho diro t Ir 1^^.?^',"'" "' °" """""'"- "''<>' or f'tato, bottom, Liat eo i,t rf ■' '■ I"""'!, '" '^''"""' "H other roloctlnl'?''' '. ""." P'''"'' ^"«""v i" "■o-iuce, or n.anufaetureT t Vnlf^^ /''" *''™""'' ^own,, in ve' ,e| ' orTr •?'? 'i" """ "^ ""= """n'" »«mo du.ie, aro charged." h he i't^^-'" T"/"« ""•"« """^■'. ^ha 4 ' „ ' f f •*;"'' ''"'J^'" '» '"> States or British vessel. Jl ■ '.'"1""^'°'' '" I'nitcd flag of the I nnl 'i- ' ' "' *'""'"'' imports under tho ""'Br foreign co nntrv 'iV i ""'.''".'" ''™''"^'' °f ""v sealie tow„ J ?rl ,''"'"'•« ^''^'' ""« "^ "'o three n„„! TRK 1860 THE If Awnail •(rlualvcl/ liy « I'ldain or rlilniin* nfany or •lllmr tit III* lUiiwi 'I'liwMi, Mill iif wlili'li ihii iiiiitiiir tlmll •Im) Im » i'UImm oI »ny or vlllinr nf ll i, uiul priivliliiil llitt llirvii-rimrlht iif (li* iri'w uliill Im rltl- miiii iir iiiil|)»iil> iif miy nr ullliur iif iIh' mIiI rn|iiili||rii or tuwiii, iir iif Diiy ur ullliur uf ilia iiOliii of llm Uuriiiiinli: ('uiifiiilirullntl. 'I'lilt |irlvlli'K« •■Turnii In lliu tla^ of llitt IIkiimi Tuwii* 4 UrKo •hum uf iIim larryliiK trailu bulwui'ii (Im lliilii'il Hialti* miil lli« (li'rinaii uliiut, IMIiuiit,--'lt«ii\y uf AiiKiiiit l^il, \MiJ, aildllLiiial to tlul uf .laiiimry III, INllll, mil tiilinlKiiiliiK fur arllcliiii 1 mill 'J iif tlia Ullrr Imnlv ntlmr itrtliltri; ami |iru- vlilliiK llial tli» iliiralliiii iif lliu iii>w IruHly aliali Im lliiiltiiil III lli« Ivriii iif I wi< y viifK froiii tlm iU|« u( rutlllia- llniK Kaliriinry 'iti, |NA;||, ttjili ilm umial twi'lviui Ilia' liullra. Vi'nwl* iif lliu I'lilliit Nlati'ii, wlii'iii'ciiiiiivi'r I'uiiiliiu, aru IrualiMl In Hiitili iiiiriK, Iiu'IikIIiik alto IIii< furultfii |iiiMi'aa|iiiia III lliilliiiiil, IK nalluiial vcnaiiU, wllli rua|iui!l III ililllna i)t luiiiiii((i'. Iiurlior iliioa, ll^lit- lioiiau, |illulii|(«, i|iiHranlltiii, nr ullinr |i(irt rlinrui't uf any klml wlmluvnr Ilin luitalliiK Irniln ami iialluiiul llaliurlna liuliiu rnanrvml, I'.iillrii i'i'rl|irii<'lly Kuiiruii- leml lu lliu lluti of IliK lllillnil HUlra, ami iH'rliirt I'ljiial- lly »llli lliu iialliiiial lla((i aa In llii' iliiltra uf liii|iurt unit •'kiMirt, liulli lu iMili'ii |iiirla In l'iiirii|ia anil in tlioau uM>iili!li |iiiaaiiaaliiiia ulinmil. All illHVri'iillal ami ilia- I'riiiilmillnu iliitlua aa rKaiiui'la IIik iIhk nni aliullaliiHl. Tliu i'i|iiallly aa in vil|>iirl iliitli'a, al l|iiilnli'il In tlin Inmty of INAi, a|i|illita iiiily ttliiiii lliu vraaula iif lliu IjiiIIimI Htulu* t'luar fur lliu aiiiiiu (lurla aa nnllunal vpsaula. Tliua lliu uxiiiirt ililly mi rnllfu III Jiivu la lliu luiiiu wliuii ux|inrliiil III I'lllliiil Niali'a liiilluiiia iia wliun i>x- liortuil ill Hiilrll vvaaula, ulluii liulli Ililvu lliu auinu iloa- liilillliiill liilt ll'lliu Ihilrli \ua>('l prui'i'i'ila lu Aiiialir- iluiii, mill lliu I'nlluil Nliilua vunaul rlunra lor lluilun, tliK foriiiiir i>i\Joya a illairiliiinatliiK lirlvticgn In rcapact uf III!' iiimiiiiil iif iliily, ,/iiji'iH.- Trualy roiiitiiili'il Manli III, Ih5I; rnllllcn- tloiia I'Xi'liiiUKuil {''uliriiiiry Vl, \xti!i\ hikI iiroiltiinnliuii niiiilii liy III" I'riialiluiilofllin Itnlivil Mlnlua.liinu 'i'iof tlm kiiiiiii yuar, Ainirli'nii viiaaula |iurinltlcil lu cnlor tint porta of lliikoiiiiilii ami Nlimiila, nnil no olliur porln uf lliu .liipiinuaii uiiiplru, iinlfaa In illalruaa, or foreoil liy tiruaa of Huallmr, 'lliu unly cliarKu fur nili'rinK ia for |illoU|(u, lliu rulua of wlili'fi, for llin port of •Himniln, urn iia fullnwai Viiaanla ilrawiiiK over IN fuut piiy ^lo; ovor lit, ami juaa llian IN, i||0| umli'r III, i|o. Vcgacla of till' I'liliuil NUlua Nri> purniltli'il lo uxcliiiiiKa only Uolil nmi allvor lolii, hihI nrtii'lpa of K»oiln fur other artirlra of |{i|Oi|a, linilur ailrll ruKlilnlluiia ua aliall lie tuiiipoi'urlly uatalillaliuil liy lliu ,lnpanuaH )("V'"'ii'ri fruuly aold at pretty Kuoil pritea; liut purmlaaluii to Iruilu, In a nicrcanlilo •uiiao, Ima liuun nliaoluli'ly refiiai'il, 'lliu privileges of tlila trualy uru aitlil in tiavo bcun rsconlly extended to all natioiia, Mickleuliui'ii iVi'/iHirrtn,— I ii'i'Urntlon of ncuession to treaty willi lluiiiivur, lliiiiiinliur li, |Nt7, lo conllnno in fori'uuntll.lnnu III, INi'iN, ivllli llio uaiinl twelvu inonllia' nolii'u ttipiilalloii nfliir lliiit pnrlod, and a comlilimiul •ixniontlit'iiolluitliy llni I'lilli'ilNlulea, IfncontiiiKomy •lioiild oiriir I'i'iidurInu It ixpiiillunl, In the oplniun of tbtt Kvviirilllivilt, Ut ranvuna* tliv treaty. VcaaeU of III* Ihillail Htaira auliji'it lo llin aama dutlf) In Iha porta uf lh« (irami liinliy of MviklenlinrK Hihwrrln aa national vuaaula; Ihu cuaalhiK Irada IwInK raaorvuil. 'I'lila npiallly appllua unly In veaavla huilt witliln llir rcapri-llvii Ivrrllorlua of raili parly, or Uwhilly run- dpinnvil aa pritua of nar, or ailJudKeil In li« forfrlli'il, uli'.niid lii'luoKinK wholly to litltriia of raih. Inipor- Ulliiiia of artlclua th« KM»th, prndun, nr nianufaiiiiri' of Ihu UniUd iSutea, anltji'it lo no hiuln'r diilira Ihnii almiiar arllelca th« Rrowlli, prmluip, nr inanufarlMir of any other foreign coiiiitry ; aiirh diitirs to Im the >iiini<, Mhelht'r inipurlcd In vi'bW'Ib of iho Unili'd Ntaira III In national veaaela. T hia ci|iialily la applirulilu lo Ihu iiidir'Tt aa wull na to the dlreit trudu. Ilv»),lea Ihu alipulalliins coiilaliiud In Ihu Ircaly »llh llannvur, olh- ir uriirira are ailduil. Import duly on riiw cotton mid paddy, Ihu prodmu uf lh« I'nitcd iSlalra, ia aliolitliud hy the treaty ; and maxlinuin ralca of import duly on loliaiTo, riiT, and wlinh'-oil, and for tranait on Iha Her- lln-llumhurK ruilrond, are pruaurihcd. Mijeiiii. — i'ruaty of A|iril 6, IHIIt, revived, as lo gen- eral alipulalions rclaliiiK to coninieruu ami navlKalJnn, hy arliclu 17 of the trtuly of l-'ehruary 2, ININ, and lo I'liiilinuo in force frnni date of ralillialion of aitid treaty (Muy :ill, IN IN) for n puriiid of elKhtyeara, willi I he uaii- al allpulutlon providing for twelve montlis' notice alter that period hy either |iarly wiahiiiK lo riiiuuiice it, VeiaeUof the L'nilud .Slates may enter all the open portn of the Mexieun repuhlli' on the same terms, as lo ton- nage duties, IIkIiI er harhor dues, pilolaKe, talviiKu, ami all other loeul eharKes, as apply lo national vca- aela. The eousling trade is reserved liy each rounlry, respectively, lo its own IIhr. I'liilcd States vessels may Import into Mexiiun ports merchandise, ihe growth, produce, or inunufucluru of the United States, on the same terms as If Ihe said merrhandisc were Im- ported under the national lla|{ ; the duties of import In lie no higher or other limn levied on similar nier- cliundise, Iho Kronth, produce, ur manufacture of Ihe must favored nation. .\fonmo. — 'I'rcoty concluded Scplcmlierlll, IS.'IB, and proelumatiun thereof made hy the President of the I'nitid (States .laniiary !I0, INit7 ; to continiio In force lll'ly years, wilh the u^ual stipulation requiring twelve nioulhn' notice after iHat period hy either party vtishlnR lo re- nounce it. I'nited Stales vessels permitted to put into liny pons In the domiiiiiina of the Kinperor of ilorocco fur provisions or other supplies, without any interrup- tion or molestation, and to put in for repairs, and to land and reload their cargoes, without paying any duly whatever. Should American vessels he vast ashore on any part of Iho coasts of Morocco, either by stress of weather or other cause, to be permitted to remain un- disturhed until the coniinnndor may think proper lu prnceed on his voyage. Importations from the I'nitcil States, and American eommerco generally, to be un the same footing as tliose from Spain, or from Iho mu.st favored nation for the time being. Masters forhiddiii lo transport tlieir cargoes on board other vesFcln. Merchants of tlio rnited Slates allowed lo employ such interpreters and other agents as they shall think proper ; and American citizens permitted to pass and repass the country and sea-ports w hcnevor they please, without molestation. The larilVof duties is often ar- bitrarily raised in Morocco. 'Iho general rale U Id per cent, on imports, excepting ecrlaiii specilied arti- cles, on which specilic duties uro levied. (Tolmcco is a monopoly of the government, and thn trade is usual- ly rented out ut rates reaching as high as $100,CO0 per annum. Were the trade in this article freed from the pressure of this monopoly, its importation from Ihe Unilod States would he largely Increased.) jWiucot.— Treaty of September 21, I83;>; President's proclamation issued Juno 24, 1837. Kstahlisbes per- petual peace lictwuen the I'nited States and his iniycsty Ihe Sultun of Muscat and his dominions. Vessels of the United Statca pay & per cent, duties on the car- niK fluK, -. , " ri,a,.ho. «„„u..llv luvlr' ,'•'"''"'•: '"'"■''"■ ■»a l« c«rrK. , . """"-n' "' '*••■" «« '« '"«notla.rfortl,..,„,r,;,7' ■''/'?■ """ "•""' '"'» P"'l "»'l "Imll 1,0 per., To" n ''■','''''""'»'''' '•-■'l"i»«l '■"■• -luu,, or my UuU j «" ,?^";« ""^ '°»"»«« or l,„r. -oM or b»rt.ror ■■(;," 7'" "''"" 'I'" ''r.id..«„ ^•■"omption fro,,, tonn««„ a ZT'T"^' "'"' "''« l'"rlv (i,-aiiada tho „,. f.. ./ '" "' .^'"''* B'laran- vuars f,oi„ tt;taV^,';:'';^^^^^^^ tl'e »Hmo. The stipulatio,," of 1,1 r"a ' '' ^' ?■"' "'"'" '"•^■'•' S'^'^'" u o ' 1'?^"' '« '^o'"™' ti„g panic, inlerost provi.lu that tl,o coa,t , ^t , ulc s ,alN ", ""^'^ ^'"'""f ''"""« Po'eo,^,V'r''f "'■ ''"""«"' ('^ More recent c.mct,,,o,,t., boueve , " '^ "*-'"'S '''"^''^''^^'''"'^^^^^^^ ' """ ""«' "■- iluty of 10 cents nor ton ,„. lii ' ■ ' " * '"""««e the kinirJom of I>,J, , , " "'" ""portal on into THE 1868 TRE of the treaty, or which may hereafter l)e granted tiy ci- 1 mcrco with Prussia, and Sweden and Norway | but they ther of the high contracting jiarties, iis respects coin- do not affect tho general reciprocity stijiulated in the merco and navigation, is to apply to llic otlier party, treaty. Tho treaty establishes entire reciprocity bc- freely if it has been freely granted, and on similar i tweou tho flags of tho two countries. July 22, 18u4, a eqnivalonts where it has been conditional. Uy virtiie ' treaty was concluded between liussia and tho United of the reciprocity, as it respects navigation, I'ortugnose vessels aro exempt from tonnage duty in tlio ports of the United States. In the indirect trado with Portu- gal, imports under tho United .States flag, aro subject to difforential duties. I'ruitin. — Treaty of Jlay 1, 1828, to continue in forco twelve years, with the usual stipulation reciuiring twelve months' notice after lliat period by either party desiring to renounce it. United Slates vessels to bo treated in Prussian ports, as to the duties of tonnage, lijht-houses, pilotage, salvage, and port-charges, as well as to all other duties, fees, or charges whatsoever. States, establishing the principle that "free ships make free goods," and containing a stipulation to tlie cllcct that other notions may, by a formal declaration of a desire to accept and be governed by tho principle, be- come entitled to all the resulting rights and privileges. Tho liussian government, under date November 28, 185(J, olflcially signilics to the government of the Unit- ed States its adhesion to the principles announced in tho reply of tho latter governrtient to the declarations of the Congress at Poris, April 16, 18oG, in reference to privateering. The conununication of the representa- tive of tho Russian government at Washington thus as national vessels. Tlio coasting trade reserved to, conveys tho concurrence of tho emperor: " His maj- cach country. Cargoes under tlie United States flag, esty entirely concurs in tho views of the government whatever the origin, or whencesoever imported, to bu of the United States which the Hon. Mr. Marcy has sulijcct to the same duties and charges only as if ini- j laid down in his equally lucid as temperato note of tho ported under tho national (Ing. Like equality as to 2Hth of July. The proposition of tho federal govem- e.xportations. Articles the growth, produce, or nianu- mcut, in tho opinion ol iiia imperial majesty, deserves farttiro of llio United Stotos, to l>e subject to the same so much the more to be taken into consideration that duties as like articles tlio growth, produce, or manufae- 1 the honorable Secretary of State orgues not for the ex- turc of any other foreign country. Two treaties of ' elusive interest of tho United States, but for those of amity and commerce wero entered into between the I tho whole of mankind. Tho undersigned is according- Uniiod States and Prussia prior to that condensed above j ly instructed to notify tho Hon. Mr. Marcy that his — one of July, August, and September, 178.'); and tlie majesty the emperor accepts, for his part, the condl- other of July 11, 17U9. Hy article 12 of the treaty of , tion under which the United States consent to the abo- ^fay 1, 182H, the 12tli article of the former treaty, and lition of privateering— namely, that tho private prop- from the 18th articlo to the 2-lth, inclusive, of the lat- ertyof tho subjects and citizens of the contracting par- ter, with tho exception of the last paragraph in article I ties shall in times of war be respected l)y their respect- 19, aro revived, in so far as they do pot atlect treaties j ivo naval forces, as well as by those of all the powers or conventions concluded liy either party with other )>owpr9, during the interval between tho expiration of the treaty of 1711!) and the commencement of tlio treaty of 1828. Articles 12 of the treaties of 1785 and 1799, respectively, relate to tho principle of frco ships mak- ing free goods. In reference to this point, articlo 12 of the treaty of 1828 provides that, tho parties being still desirous to establish botw-en themselves, or in con^ which may join in this declaration." iS«» Nalrndor. — Convention concluded January 2, 1850. To continue in force twenty years, if neither party notify tlie other twelve months before tho expi- ration of that j)eriod of its desire to reform any of its stipulations;, and beyond twenty years, until twelve months shall have elapsed after such notice shall liavo been given by either parly. Vessels of the United cert with other maritime powers, further provisions to j States, no matter whence they may have come, or how insure just protection and freedom to neutral naviga- I laden, to be treated in the ports of San Salvador, as to tion and commerce, and which may, at tho same time, ! all duties of tonnage, light-house, or any other charges advance the causes of civilization and humanity, en- of whatsoever denomination or character, as national f;a.;e again to treat on this subject at some future and convenient period. yji/Mio.— Treaty of December [18], 18.1>, to con- tinue in force until January 1, 18i)9, with the usual stipulation for twelve moiitlis' notice to renounce it by either party desiring to do so. No such notices hav- ing been given, the treaty continues in force. United Stales vessels arriving in Unssian ports, either laden or in ballast, to be treated on the same fooling as na- tional vessels, coming from the same place, with re- spect to duties of tonnage. In regard to light-house duties, pilotage, and port charges, as well as to the fees and perquisites of public oflicers, and all other duties and charges lovieil upon vessels of commerce, tho Unit- ed States flag is placed upon the footing of the most fa- vored nation with which Kussia has no s|)eeial treaty stipulating for entire reciprocity. Any favors hereaft- er granted to the navigation of any other foreign nation, to l>eeome common to tho United Slates on similar or equal conditions. All kinds of merchandise and arti- cles of commerce, being tho growth, prwlnce, or manu- faeiure of the United Slates, may lie imported into Rus- sian ports on the same terms as apply to similar articles the produce or nmniifacturo of any other foreign coun- try J and, whether the imports lie of tho growth, prod- uce, or manufuctuioof the Uniled States, orof any oth- er foreign country, perfect equality is granted with tho national dag. Any favor hereafter granted to the com- merce of other foreign nations to become common to the commoree of the United States. Certain special privileges to bo retained by Russia in reference to corn- vessels. From this equality the coasting trade is ex- cepted, which is reserved to the national flag ; but should any favors of navigation be granted hereafter to any other foreign nation, it will immediately apply to the flag of tho United States. Imports into San Salva. dor in vessels of the United States, no matter whence imported or of what origin, to be subject to the same duties, charges, and fees of every desi;i iption, as similar imports in vessels of San Salva 'or; and if these im- ports consist of articles the grov.'.h, '■.roduce, or man- ufacture of the United States, to bo liulject to no liigher or other duties than similar import <, i ho growth, prod- uce, or manufacture of any other f'/iign nation. Sandwich Islands. — Treaty concluded December 20, 1849; ratifications exchanged Auf;ust 24, 1850, and proclamation made by the Prcsideni of tho United States November 9, 1850. Establishes f. !rpetual peace and amity between tho United States ond the Hawai- ian Islands, and provides that the treaty shall continuo in force ten years, with the usual stipulation providing for twelve months' notice by either party wishing to renounce it after tliat period. Urited States vessels in direct voyages, if laden, or in resptt* of any voyage, if in ballast, to pay tho same duties of icnnuge, harbor, light-houses, pilolagc, quarantine, or other navigation charges of whatever kind, thit are paid by national vessels. Steam vessels employed in carrying the pub- lic mails of the United States across the Paciflc, or from one port to another therein, to have free access to tho porta of tho Sandwich Islands, to refit, refresh, land passengers and their baggage, or for any purpose per- ports in Un ted S a 1 ' ,"'" *"'"« P'"™- A Jl ^^ , ",""""°"» "^ >v«f "> an no^on '' '"•<"'""'^'i «» mmmmmwi «n.l perfect equalitv, «s to i S" l f " ^-^'P'o^i'-V 'lutv of a per cent Lf'^' "'"' » S""""! iinnort c.«rges,bct.oe,ui;e';„Vo r n^^^^^^^^^^^^^ •^ w inpou to be subject to THE 1870 TRE the same duties, charges, and privileges as tlie vessels of the most favored nation. United States vessels destined for Tripolilan ports must be provided with proper passports; to examine which, nut wore ihan two persons, besides the rowers, are nllowrd to proceed trom any Tripolltan man-of-war, or to ^o on l>oard, unless permitted so to do by the American captain. In case of distress. United States vessels may put in, land and re-embark cargo, and repair, without the pay- ment of duties. The commerce between the United States and Tripoli — the protection to bo given to Amer- ican merchants, masters of vessels, and seamen — the right of establishing consuls in the regency of Tripoli, and the privileges, immunities, and jurisdictions en- joyed by such consuls, to be on the same footing with those of the most favored nation. Too Sicilio. — Treaty of December 1, 1845, to bo in force ten years from date, either party reserving the right to terminate It after that period, on giving twelve months' notice of Its intention to do so. When import- ing articles of the growth or the manufacture of the United States, American vessels to be on the same footing as to duties, charges, etc., with national ves- sels. This equality as to navigation dues applies only In respect of direct voyages If laden, or of any voyage if In ballast. Merchant vessels of the United Stales, forced by stress of weather, or other similar cause. Into Sicilian ports, to be exempt from port and tonnage du- ties, provided no operation of commerce is carried on. Tlio coasting trade Is reserved by each country to Its own vessels. The direct importation of articles of the growth, produce, or manufacture of the United States to be subject to the same duty, whether imported In vessels of the United States or in those of the Two Sic- ilies. In the Indirect trade, importations under the tlag of the United States into the ports of the Two Sic- ilies to be subject to differential duties. A decree was issued, December 18, 1854, by the King of the Two Sic- ilies, extending to the indirect trade of such foreign nations as would be willing to reciprocate nil tlic ad- vantages of the national flag. Under the act of 1828, previously given at length in the article Sicily, page 1714, the government of the United States has recip- rocated the privileges thus granted by the govern- ment of the Two Sicilies ; and the flag of the United States is therefore equalized. In Sicilian ports, w ith the national flag in the indirect trade. 7\ir*pj/.— Treaty concluded May 7, 1830, and ratifled February 2, 1831. Not limited as to duration. Ves- sels of the United States to be treated, in ports of tlie Ottoman empire. In like manner as vessels of the most favored nation ; to have the same liborty to pass the canal of the Imperial residence, and to go Into and come from the Black Sea, either laden or in ballast ; and may be laden with the produce, manufactures, and ef- fects of the Ottoman empire, except sucli as are pro- hibited, as well as with those of their own country. United States vessels must sail under their own flag, and are prohibited from lending tlieir tiag to the ves- sels of other foreign nations, or to those of the rajahs. Importations into Ottoman ports in vessels of the United States to be sulycct to the same duties, charges, etc., as importations under the flag of the most favored nation. American mercliants established in the states of the Sublime Porte for purposes of commerce, to be at liberty to employ tevisars — brokers or factors — of any nation or religion; such merchants or other Amer- ican citizens residing in the Turkish dominions not to )>c amenable to Turkish tril)unals for offenses commit- ted, but to be tried by their own minister or consul, and punished according to his sentence. By virtue of the most favored-nation stipulation, vessels of thn Otto- man Porto are admitted into United States ports on the same terms as American vessels. Duties, accord- ing to the tariff of the Ottoman Porte, are based upon the ad valorem principle ; and tlic treaty nations usual- ly name commissioners every Ave or six years, who, in concert with a commission named by the Sublime Porte, ' regulate the "fixed values" of merchandise Imported. The present rates were fixed by a British commission of this character; and, in regard to many articles of American Importation, especially cottons and rum, the mode of valuation works a practical discrimination, which can be remedied only by the action of an Amer- ican commission remodeling existing valuations, as re- spects the manufactures of the United States. Tunis. — Treaty of August, 1797, modified by conven- tion of March 26, 1799, and by subsequent treaty of February 24, 1824. Establishes perpetual peace and friendship between the United States and the Bey of Tunis. Vessels of the United States permitted to en- ter all the ports of the kingdom of Tunis on paying the usual duties which are paid by the vessels of the most favored nations. Should the government of Tunis have need of the services of an American vessel not previous- ly engaged, it must have the preference on paying tho same freight that is usual with merchants for the same service. Commerce with Tunis under the United States fing to be conducted on precisely the same footing, as to import duties, fees, and all charges whatsoever, as is commerce under the flag of the most favored nation, American merchants to bo ^lermltted to establish them- selves, transact their own business,, or appoint their agents, factors, etc.. In the territories belonging to tho kingdom of Tunis, Venezuela. — Treaty of peace, friendship, navigation, and commerce, concluded January 20, 188(1; ratified >Iay 31, and proclamation made by President of the United States June 30, of the same year. To continue in force twelve years from date of ratifications; and fur- ther, until either party gives twelve months' notice of its intention to renounce it. Vessels of the United States, no matter whence they come, or with what laden, to bo on a footing with national vessels. The same equali- ty, including bounties, duties, and drawbacks, to apply in regard to exportation or re-exportation. Vessels of tho United States shipwrecked, foundered, or in any other way dainoged, on the coasts, or within the do- minions of Venezuela, to receive oil necessary assist- ance and protection. AVhatcver may be imported in Venezuelan vessels may also be Imported in vessels of the United Stofes, and on the same terms, as to duties and all otiier charges. The same equality as to ex- ports. Articles, the growth, produce, or manufacture of the United States, to be subject In Venezuela to no higher or other duties than similar articles, the growth, produce, or manufacture of any other foreign country. All favors hereafter granted to other foreign nations to apply equally to the United Stales on similar condi- tions. The customs, tariffs, and commercial regula- tions of Venezuela are subject to frequent, and, occa- sionally, onerous changes. The latest of these — that of April 27, 186C — Imposes an extraordinary contribu- tion upon certain imports and exports, to take effect from and after July 1, 185fi. Among the exports thus affected are coffee, cocoa, indigo, hides, quinia, sarsa- parilla, dye-wood, etc. The extraordinary ini|ioit duty is 20 per cent, on the amount of regular dulios, and 15 per cut. on all articles that are Included in the free list, excepting gold and silver In bars, bullion, or dust, printing-presses, printed books, machinery, etc. — Com. Relat. U. If. Trebizond, anciently Trapczus, from its resem- blance to u trapezium, a town of Asia Minor, on the southeast coast of the Black Sea, lat. 40° 1' N.. long. 39" \i' hi" E. Poiuilation variously estimated nt from 15,000 to 30,000. The town is built on the declivity of a hill rising gently from the sea. It is a place of great antiquity; and, from the year 1203 to the final subversion of the Eastern empire by Mohammed II. in tho 15th century, was the seat of a dukedom, or, as it was sometimes called, an empire, comprising the coun- try between the Phasls and the Halys. Its fortifica- tions are still of considerable strength, at least for a tre Turkish city Tho " ^^"^^ ■fo na has two portf r? '*"°''^* ''«« u, , v"! ?"-?• Tl.o thicL, ' jV." ' ?™ '"""o to of groat 0... 0.10 on the east side of aln,^?;"' ""« <>" the west 1 ' ""'^''^ P'»Portione< t„ th^ . ? "^ ""' «rec-na Ms . Ships moor ,vftrotettV:''r'''--'-ne^^^^ hawser and ,trea„f and" r '" ^ "°"''. "".I a Joo j !?"• '-'»", in S>v „ , J,™ i"-""' ""'l to he 2600 .0 northwest ; hit th:.;' ,„""'( tl,'" ''T''' ^ ^-- '"^ret '"T"'"' "orentr'soo"' "''"""""•' " ««» n», near Trebizo„,l/anr<; , j"!' "• P' '«>-a{ Plata" r^ "!"'"'•« '"from ""' '""•' -"' southeast fron, Trch^onl' L '"' "'""" ^^^ ""• • xtt, T"""' '='' ™"«" fl the i^' *''""'' "^ "'« t'nguishcd by their sun^ri„ , • '"""-'haiits are dis """^"^^a- "'♦'■» -'--•■ - "' "'« I'"""-"" "— onterprise an'd acdWt"? " p ^^'''T'^- »"'' "Ah r" derived most part of UcirM^^S"-;"""' Period thev niodities by wav of <5 1 '"PP''" of European com ., " ■ '-" •' >-"nunuea n„. ^ "'"■g.howeverrbut.heZn"" ."'..^'''"^^'""'■''^Ple. no' llTV""^ ''''"' «"' ieUes^l 'h"'''' '""^ ''«'' at so convenient a nl?tr 't/7- ''''-""f "''•'''"4 hem f^"""- »" "'" "o l> si b of ,1 ""'"""'"'^^ < them resort to suchXanf L""'" "-•»"''' ''ave Z C "'' "PP™P"'atod excl , • 5 ''° '""i' " « ''"^ tioned ; and it mav «iri ' "?/'"''' "' "'"'o "ow m" S'l!"":"''"''- ^' '« "a" d rZ, ' '"f '^'^ P^^f""'- the period durinr^h eh hn" f"'P"'<-- «»"si.le 2 I •'' '""'■''' "■a-'ohoHses, «„ ev ^',''"/' i^ '""'■"'■^hed that efforts were no7. ^ ^^'l"'' ''^^'' ''a^ heen onon I'h- " ''"""'•'''' *»'• the use of n^'f "''' "^ -"^^'mno. course with A™ „„ ( "■"'''^ ""'^'ablish an im r' t^.n'" T^" ^"^ ""'^ h, def,,^/ ^"^7' «"<' goods. parts of Persia ihr^'"l "'"' "'« "»'''"ve" t '',• r.^^r^''^"''^" '"""H,^" ti^'f!!, ^ "'« '/"ays; however to hnvA ? ^ ""' channel. ^Yo w Ju , .'"""^'Pal defects of the nor? If , '^"""' ""t- The thi.hasCn'r, ":it'''-'v't'"".hel",;:: 4" ;:,:,r tie^ that neoessari;::^"..^ '''""'""» ""' "'ffic l! 7 Tbr 1"' T^'' ''''^•^'^^^MrC^^^ ^^=;t^hrr"^'5::ss::tr n «=''sf"l Th 'noli"?;;;;''' """•" "'an ordinari Is" ' ."" ""' ^^''""^ «"'! Prop r Z"^ ^?'"^' "''<=" "•» at the moutrof tt ., '^"^t''P"tof Ke,Iout Ka -it™'^^ «">". '<"» v bT, P-^^"'™"" of fheresa,nttheextremtvnf r,"'" J''"P™s MarL '"entioned below hL,L'""' ""= n«wlight-h„f, ' -ith the mole, fo;„ "a e^ c" „t°r""^'?"- ' "« P ,' ngth, being „ conti,er„,:r?:'?'''''f '""='■" stones ,v,ih stairs and jetties for',/ '' '""• ''«»n enibarkation. On the nnr, . ■ i ^° «on™nience of or l,„,i . ""' north side of the nnr, ; j , >Priatod e.xclnsivelvfnr i/.' " ".'"'"='' .of the oxemption granted (i isV. f T 1 ™'"»l''»nce "''^^^ to tho south of! ho ca-«i '"'"'"" ''™^-- charged in the other pa „f ,,,"'*"'. ^""^ "'« » aS *i;;'onh'e?"«l' ■""'' '» , . I house n, ti.„ ._- .. _"' "I'wrantine. The light- 1 mole is 106 1 and mav 7" next to7r ^' :Z "X:""r "■"' """-'-' ; ^ a^r ST """Tr^"' "f '-•- S bawls, beans, galls, tchr''t:"r'' ''''''":' "''^- "«"al ypa" 1 1 , '^"1';,'" ""'.''-P"' "f -ate'r y estimated in 1846 at Xl 9 P, J 'T ,""•?' ™''"' "<"• to wh I h v „ T ^'^ " '^™'^''''"«'^ nai,,, ec..„ .„, ,,.„.,,„, .^„^^,^^ Pins b;^:^,'J; --!;;jy or th^'S;: n^ >- t'-;nith. i he light is intermittent ; , TRI 1872 TRI be seen, supposing the oyo of the observer to bo clovn> ted 12 feet above the level of the sea, about I'J nuulioal miles, or from Pirano on the side of Istria, and the shoals of Grado on the Italian coast. A light-house has also been erected on the point of Salvore, b^iaring fl-oin Trieste west by south, distant about 18 uiilus. The lantern is elevated about 103 feet above the level of the sea. From this point Pirano Bay opens, where vessels may anchor in safety in all sorts of weather. Trieste has no command of internal navigation ; but being the most convenient, orratlier the only sea-port, not merely of the lUyrian proviiias, but of the Duchy of Austria, and the greater part of Hungary, she pos- sesses an extensive commerce. This has been in- creased by the facilities aftbrded to all sorts of mercan- tile transactions by the privilege ot porta franco con- ferred on the town, and a considerable o.vlent of con- tiguous country. Under this franchise, all goods, with but very few exceptions, may be imported into and ex- ported from the city free of all duties whatever. For- eign products, when talieii for consumption from Trieste into the interior, are subject to the payment of duties regulated by the interior tariff of Austria. These are very various, consisting partly of the raw and part- ly of the manufactured products of Austria Proper, Illyria, Dalmatia, Hungary, and Italy; with foreign articles imported and warehoused. Among the prin- cipal articles of raw produce may bo specified corn, chiefly wheat and maize, with rico, wine, oil, shunmc, tobacco, wax, etc. ; silk, silk rags and waste, hemp, wool, flax, linen rags, hides, furs, skins, etc. The prod- uce of the mines makes an important item, consisting of quicksilver, cinnabar, iron, lead, copper, brass, lith- arge, alum, vitriol, etc. ; the forests otC'arniolafurnisli tinil>er, for ship-building and other purposes, of excel- lent quality and in great abundance, with staves, cork wood, box, hoops, etc. ; marble also ranks under this head. Of manufactured articles, the most important are, thrown silk, silk stufTs, printed cottons from Aus- tria and Switzerland, coarso and fine linens, and all sorts of leather. Under this head are also ranked soup, Venetian treacle, liciimrs, etc., with jewelry, tools and utensils of all sorts, glass-waio and mirrors, Venetian beads, rcfmed sugar, and a host of other articles. Of foreign articles imported and rcshipped, the most im- portant are sugar, coffee, and dye-stuffs. Trieste is also a considerable dcp6t for all sorts of produce from the lUack Sea, Turkey, and Kgypt. Cutlonu Jiegulatiom. — The custom-house at Trieste | has nothing whatever to do with the entry, reporting, | etc., of vessels. When a ship arrives, she is reported to the health office ; which publishes a list of arrivals and departures, with a statement of their cargoes, as ' they appear in the manifests. Ships are cleared by the same office, the masters being assisted by the con- suls of the counlry to which tliey belong. As soon as j a vessel has performed quarantine, she loads or un- : loads without any interference or inspection by tlie ; customs officers, or by any one else. Goods unsuscep- i tiblc of contagion may Ije landed during quarantine. Being a free port, the banding and warehousing sys- tem is, of course, unknown at Trieste. Quaranline is strictly enforced at Trieste, and the es- tablishments for facilitating its performance are com- plete and efficient. Tlie Board of Health at this port is the central or principal one for the Austrian states; and maintains an active correspondence with all the principal ports, botli in the Mediterranean and else- where. Tliere arc two lazarettos — that called St. Teresa, or Lazaretto Xuovo, is appropriated to vessels from the Levant and Kgypt, which are, for the most part, sub- jected to the long or full quarantine of forty days. It is spacious, and properly guarded ; having a sufficient number of military and medical officers and assistants ; with extensive quays and magazines for housing and Riring goods, dwelling-houses and apartments for resi- dent officers and passengers, etc. It is, in fact, one of the most perfect estaolishments of the kind in exist- ence. The other, or old (TeccAio) lazaretto, contigu- ous to the great mole, is appropriated to sliips and pas- sengers performing a quarantine of not more thaf twenty-eight days; and, tliougli inferior to tlie for nier, is sufficiently capacious and convenient. The sanitary offices, including that of harbor master, are near the centre of the port ; where also are moored ves- sels uuder observation for a term not exceeding eight days. Here also are facilities for communicating livd voce with persons under quarantine ; and spacious ware- houses, with adequate guards and other officers. But, notwitlistanding these conveniences, if a vessel arrive having an infectious malady on board, she is not al- lowed to enter cither lazaretto at Trieste, but is sent to an island near Venice, fitted out for the purpose, where assistance may be afforded with less risk of propagating infection. Caretninff, Slot is, etc. — Timber at Trieste is excel- lent, workmen good, and their wages moderate ; so that it is a very favorable place for careening and repairing. Water is very good, but rather scarce; so that if a largo supply be required, due notice must be given. Ships are served in regular rotation. Beef is very good, but rather high priced. Butter and cheese are dear ; and fuel is excessively so. On the whole, there- fore, Trieste ,can not be considered as a favorable place for the provisioning of a Fhip, lianking. — There are no pul)lic banks at Trieste, The Bank of Vienim has an office here, but it is merely for tlie exchange of its notes for cash, or, more frequent- ly, of large notes for small ones. These notes, being guaranteed by government, are legal tender, and in general circulation, but no other company is allowed to issue notes to bo used as a circulating medium. There is not, however, any deficiency of currency. Banking business is transacted by private companies, or by individuals, who are subject to certain regula- tions, and are obliged to lay before competent authority an attested statement of tlie capital embarked in their conccnis. Their business principally consists in pro- curing bills of exchange from other places for the use of the merchants of Trieste, or in discounting (in which latter operation they have many private competitors), at the rate of from 4 to 6 per cent, per annum, accord- ing to the nature of the paper offered, and in propor- tion to the scarcity or abundance of cash. The Austrian official returns of imports from the United States for Trieste alone, it is seen, exceed the . returns for all the Austrian ports, as per United States Treasury Reports. More than three-fcurths of the for- eign commerce of Trieste is carried on along the shores of the Mediterranean. The remainder is distributed between England, the United States, Brazil, Mexico, the Antilles, Russia, and the Netlierlands. The diieut trade between the port of Trieste and the two Americas, the Indies, and China, has within a few years liccuinr more active, and the tonnage specially employed liv this port in such direct trans-Atlantic commerce iiotu- bly augmented, in consequence of tlie successful compe- tition on the part of the states lying on the basin of tlie Mediterranean with Trieste fur a portion of this trade. Tlie average annual value of the general commerce of Trieste during the preceding ten years was : Imports 140,000,000 fri-ncs; and exports 76,000,000 francs; a total of 210,000,000 francs. The figures from 1H39 to 1849 show nn increase in imports of 70 per cent., and in exports of 8 per cent. The great difl'erence between the increased values of total imports and exports is accounted for by the fact that but a small proportion of the produce or manufac- tures of Austria finds its way to foi ign countries through the port of Trieste, Most of this kind of mer- chandise destined for the East, the United States, and South America, is forwarded by the lower Danube, by the Flbe, and by Hamburg and Bremen. Besides, this difference can not be regarded aa an evidence that the ne«r channela to th , J' '"' ^«>y great l„ ""' "^ F""*5 sUto,' «? manuft.cture, of the United «,,'.'" "'' P'oduc 2d ^'^'l^'-'-': '« principal citief^rCo ' 1°,"''''' T"«»'e wUh ^J' • «rgo German tr Je '^'it""" "f « *' th, entreat of ffluoication witi, the Levant r^ ""J^^' «««'chandi8e totZ place goods of 'the va?ue ofTl aI" "■=' "> ">« »«™a '"ff summary exhihi.. .u *''°80,575. Tha fnii" 1846.. 1«7. . . 1848....' 1849.,.. 1850. . ■ 18.51.. ■ i8»a... " 1863... ■' 1854.. ■■ 18U.. U,f8i u,a I i7,8ia 80,658 21,124 Hioi «r,08i a.817 ' 2a,6s« • 81,081 M«,8IS 1,260,258 1.328, 7M J,*>8,80» l,fise,as2 ), 1,2.14 2,010 -,'9S« 5,721 9.227 8,030 2,486 17,641 20,1,W 41 13 1,974 6,033 2,074 100 siio4 1,227 6,033 J,946 949 IB 160 06 20B 18 69 12 13 4 26 988,'«28 l.MT IS» 'liS4 1,T8T 20,000 23,667 22,411 1.9SS T,flBff l.«eO' JO* siioi ,22T -.602 1,783 _4«56 6287~ 4«5!l # TRI 1874 TRI The treaty of 1829, between the United Statsi and Austria, establiihei a perfect reciprocity of commnrcial intercourse between the two cuuntrles. Its principal stipulations are ai follows : There shall be, between the United States territories •Bd those of Austria, a reciprocal liberty of commerce and navigation. All the ports, places, and rivers of the territories of either power, open to foreign com- merce, shall be open to the inhabitants of each re- spectively. Austrian vessels arriving, either laden or In ballast, in the ports of the United States, and, recip- rocally, vessels of the United States, either laden or in ballast, arriving in the ports of Austria, shall be treat- ed, on their entrance, during their stay, and at their departure, upon the same footing as national vessels coming from the same place, with respect to the duties of tonnage, light-houses, pilotage, and port charges, of whatever kind or denomination, levied in the name or to the profit of the government, the local authorities, or of any private establishment whatever. All kinds of merchandise, and articles of commerce, either the produce of the soil or of the industry of either country, which may lawfully be imparted Into each respective- ly, shall be admitted on payment of the same duties and charges, of whatever kind or denomination, as are applicable if imported under the national flag. This equalization of import duties and other charges to apply to the vessels and cargoes of each country respectively, whether they clear directly from the ports of the country to which they belong, or from the ports of any other foreign country. The produce or manu- facture of either country shall be admitted into the ports of the other on the same terms as the like arti- cles, being the produce or manufacture of any other foreign country ; and no prohibition shall be imposed on the importation or exportation of any article, the produce or manufacture of either country, to or from the ports of the other, which shall not equally extend to all other nations. The vessels of both powers, re- spectively, shall be admitted into the ports of either, on the same terms as national vessels, with the produce or manufacture of their own or of any other country. An exact reciprocity shall be observed in the ports of the territories of either power, in respect to the vessels of the other exporting or re-exporting merchandise or produce of any country not prohibited ; and the fume bounties and drawbacks shall be allowed, whether such exportatio.i or re-exportation be made in vessels of the one party or of the other. The coasting trade is re- served by each power to its own vessels, respectively. All favors hereafter granted by either party, in respect of navigation or commerce, to any other nation, shall become common to the other party, freeiy, if it was freely granted to such other, or on similar terms if it were conditional. The consuls, vice-consuls, agents, and commissioners of each of the high contracting par- ties shall ei^oy, in the porta of the other, the same privileges and powers as those of the most favored nation. The treaty to continue in force for ten years, with the usual twelve months' notice by either party desiring to terminate it after that time. Tmnage Vutiet.—Oa the 24th January, 1864, the central maritime government of Austria issued public notice that from that date the tonnage duties in force at the port of Trieste should be extended to all ports throughout the empire open to commerce. These du- iies are regulated by orders dated 8th November, 1846, ami are as fbllows : n.Kr. National venela, ISO tons, or ol.' ^r per ton, 1 National vcMOls, 100 tons " 4 National veHselft, over 100 tons ' ** 16 Foreign vcaacla, without regard to tomiaga " 10 A mercantile btute in New York, long engaged in the direct trade between that port and Trieste, fur- nishes the following statement of charges on a vessel of 1000 tons burden, entering the latter port : ri. Ki. 100 BO IBl 11 Cooparan, at 6 kreutasrs per ton Pilolaa*, at I knutsera pel wn Heallh department upon arrival and at departure Marina tutituU. . ... • ^ Ught-houae dues, T kieutaers per ton "» 4° TotalazpaiiaeonavaasaloflOOOtons Ml U According to otHcial returns, the value of the Im- ports Into Austria during the year 1857 amounted to 281,932,922 florins, producing an amount of duty of 19,179,777 florins. The value of tho imports fall short by 7,498,880 florins, a diminution which explains a fall- ing olf in the duties to the amount of 1,770,422 florins. The exporU In 1867 represonUd a value of 231,018,109 florins, bringing In duties to the amount of 494,717 florins. Upon these Agures, as compared with the re- turns of the preceding year, a falling off of 20,417,491 florins, and of 108,977 florins, is observable, COMMDOB or m Post or Tanm im 185T. COBBtriM. Great BrIUIn Uanae Towni. .... United SUtaa .... Austria Belgium Denmark Spain France Greece Ilanuver Netherlands Ionian Islands. . . Mecklenburg Moldavia Naplee Oldenburg Roman States . . . Portugal Pruula Samnlotea Sardinia Scrvia Sweden and Norway. Tuscany Turkey Total iaillng vessels Austria Qreal Britain Netherlands Turkey Total iteamers... Grand Total. . . VmmIi. I Tom. 6T 16,808 • 1,168 46 16,188 8,MS 898,886 S 88( 18 8,161 IT 4,661 to 8,081 SM S6,«1T « 880 N »,6T4 « i,K6 a 501 10 1,840 617 40,88T a 416 S98 11,868 1 410 8 t,84S s 180 41 6,866 1 ^188 40 10,188 n 1,061 66 8,868 i;t45 847 38 9 1 497,017 183,648 86,684 898 8ei,681> T4T,T06 64 T 4T 8,166 9 18 16 90 911 9 69 66 8 8 688 4 894 1 ■8 1 88 1 41 6 Ton*. 9,T88 844 8T 1 1 80,896 1,068 80,886 804,641 488 6,840 6,84T 8,808 89,416 886 ii,iwa 8,608 1,019 1,171 87,811 786 88,636 410 8,763 119 6,690 118 11,348 961 4,101 617,998 11»,4.13 16,681 400 361 866,816 773,814 Coiuuias or Vamoa roa thi Yiab 1867, Foreign vesaels, . . . Coasting and Austrian vessels ■ Roman coast'g vaassls. Total T»9 '8676 177 161,614 800,446 7,678 466,688 CUnod. VoMOlo. I Toni. 816 161,671 8668 804,719 161 7,111 4636 473,613 Value of importa teat 18,480,300 Value of exports " 13,110,860 Generai Jitmarlct. — ^The development of the maritime commerce of Austria datea back ae far as 1815, or, rather, from that period down to 1880; during which it gradually attained, chiefly by the aid of steam naviga- tion, a high state of prosperity. The great commercial activity of the empire is principally aoncentratcd at the port of Trieste ; Venice and Fiume, so far, at least, as it respects foreign trade, being but subsidiary to this vast entrepot. Besides these, Austria possesses on the Adriatic, 26 ports of secondary rank, which claim importance chiefly from their extensive coasting trade. The principal of these are Chioggia, 15 miles south of Venice; Rovigno, in Istria; Zara, Spalato, and Ragusa, in Dalmatia. This city was founded about the middle of the 16th century, and once ei^oy- ed an extensive trade,. Tt still exports manufactures of silk, leather, rosoglio, anchovies, etc. It continued tb be a republic under the successive protection of the Greeks, Venetians, and Turks, until 1800, when it was ri. K». 100 ' DO rtun 1 81 . 18 n««o 55ru porta on the Croati, ff« ports. Prior rnt ClMIW). 1 ll. Tom. M 90,8»5 7 2,088 47 80,28S M 804,l»41 it 4W 1» 6,840 16 B,!47 SO S,80> SI 80,41« i 333 fi 11,N0 15 8,(S08 8 1,019 8 1,S7» 38 87,818 4 TS5 94 83,5S< 1 410 ■8 2,763 S 319 38 6,690 1 188 41 18,343 6 961 M 4,101 88 617,998 44 889,413 87 86,628 1 400 1 363 83 866,816 71 773,814 -..»r, equally beneficial to tLT-"'^""<'»'edbv an ?"'• "" "i" «(! « ..-namely, the ne^.ari.^thlt""'" ^""".erce ofVul" ""-^hanrtise before ^ Ist February, 1852 r,. . " "*"' '"lo oner«ti„„ "" *<" modi/Jed anrt „.i; — "' 2 florins 30 fcreutzi. „^ '"'^.^'^' o" "'"'"'nufactured w ""' '" ""'« »»rl< 1 ho M;^ ," '" '^°"'»' "P, «n,i re lbs.;. hat heingtC; I" f ?;',!'''•' ^'"^ ner. Several articlerir ■ "'" '^'■"■■'»'''"' "oll-cent in r" '" '''''""«'' "' thj adohtl^ , ,?f ""' ''"""f mittedbythetariffoM ? ""'""""' l^^' «"•, are ad " rn •" '' '•" ""derstand whffti •'''''^''"'^ for example, alum Lf "'"'""''" "'ore moderate fhT '^"^ " """' b" imiba n»..- ' "',e''""al rated at 72i wn, ' , ' PO^'O" of (he tariff .1 ^'"''""'""'nerated in TBI 1876 vm of IK2, M wall M tha adoption of tha prsMnt Urilf (of lH.'i4), ara let forth in an article which appaared in the ofllcial Journal, piibliahed at Vienna, of tha 16th Docemlxr, 1868. In refarenca to tha treaty with Pruaala, thia artlole holda the following lanKuage : " Other cooiideratlona induced a revision of the taiiff of 1862. The treaty with Pruaala ii tlia first step in reforming tho com- mercial policy of the empire, From it must result, at no very distant day, an Austro-Oarman Customs Union; and a general reduction in tarltT dutiea ia the moat flt- tio); prelude to so desirable an event. Biesldea, the commercial treaty of August 7, 1862, aoncluded with Parma and Hodena, removea all obstacles to an Austro- Italian Customs Union ; and thus the event referred to (an Austro-Oermaii Customs Union) would present a guarantee for the prosperity and peace of the conti- nent. The changes and modillcations which could contribute to this end should command our most seri- ous consideration. These are principally such ral« evidence that auch a mcasuiu will most effectually repair tha evils of pasi commercial legisla- tion." The preceding remarks contain .-k summary of the otHcial expoii already referred to, and explain the motives that Induced the general rcmodiflcation of 'he Austrian tariff. The aliolition of the government monopoly of tobacco would remove the most serious and the only remaining restriction on American com- merce. The customs union with the Uormanio states, so much desired by Austria, will accomplish this, if it should not be effected before that event shall happen. —U. a. Com. Jtehtioiu. The following is an exhibit of the commerce of tlie U. S. with Austria for B7 years : CoHiiaaoB or nn Ukitbo CiAToa wim Taiaara akd ornan AvsTaiAX Posts om Tna AnaixTio, raoH Ootobkb 1, 1820, to .Jolt 1, 18U YwnMulliit Eiporl.. laipoito. W)i«rtoftli.r4« ilD •iiUhn •ii4 il|i«la. T«nU|« el«w«4. 1 DomMllo. Vonlri ToUl. Taltl. Kiport. inroit. Amtrlcftn. Portlfj. Sept. 80,1821 1829 1898 189* 1«36 1896 1897 1898 1899 1880 Total. . . 8ept80,188l 1832 1833 1834 1885 1836 1837 1888 1839 1840 Total... Sept 80, 1841 1849 «mo«., 1848* Juno 80, 1844 1846 1846 1S47 1U3 1849 IS60 Total... June SO, 1851 1859 1863 1854 1865 1856 IS.W $Sl,t81 38,752 96,097 6.6:>6 8,S3i 13.387 42,671 119.233 41)9,288 8I0,8>1) $,308,680 436,968 919,618 618,067 643,663 973,938 934199 206v266 980,3110 90;i,26l $ll40,uei 475.790 945815 624 'SO.) 66i,402 987,320 270,793 824,483 689,483 694,130 $929,7^2 274,376 189.187 249,867 106,88) 198,169 108,546 937,878 101,896 132,0.3 '.'.'.'. $9.H,189 9,20) 18,289 167,717 3,033 4,000 10,804 '"400 912 1,8.6 3.B6I 3,sl8 9.136 8,246 ' 1,879 9,090 8,008 6,884 4.069 'i99 232 $9117,0118 $'J76,66t 199 911 14^., 17 618,609 818,876 1,188.431 1,833,87.1 043,223 429,6TS 1,6»Oi!15l5 $4,113,66^ $263,808 980,775 408,447 9M,72S 384,1138 82'.),(i74 878,291 125,740 169,971 196,904 $6,UO,06u $539,869 1,I86.C8D e54,C0t 1,4738,7 1,302.413 1,968.106 l,6)l,5Jl 703, Ilia 692,249 1,780.691) J $1,036,076 $161,009 863,097 814,011 630,614 492,607 1,099.1199 62 J, 46,5 072,373 477.539 878 865 $2",M0 .44,150 $296,068 $1,900 32,000 41477 3,800 7',9i9 1,600 31,678 4,916 6.497 8,804 7,630 6,609 8,044 9,179 4,974 3,06'.) 11,898 411 1,591 1,701 3,3U7 9.618 4.931 12,919 978 9,874 6 0S1 $1I,9»4,U81 $1,268,776 748,179 400,240 1,287,286 1,483,108 1,104.468 1,176875 l,70l,4!'5 943,489 1,179,890 $4,639,866 $52,r80 136,696 uaoso 1C8,736 368,776 S66,143 78 348 107 797 4>l,876 312,111 $11,634,397 $1,311,786 884,706 679,178 1,426,020 1,801,873 1,470,611 1,348,733 1,8«),999 1,400,8C6 1.492,1101 $4 788,737 $418,606 413,210 72,96V t39.0S9 321,650 870,719 187,341 885.818 41)9,1-8 4(i7.6!)l $46,450 $40,5'J6 $3,038 '7,883 1,287 8,900 50,189 10,860 10,690 8,679 10,807 15,470 13,S62 7,861 10,299 11,170 6.!I08 38,745 1,901 361 1,789 3,918 9,108 8.841 5,279 4,098 5,758 6,389 $ll,9il,3IIS $3,265,678 2,408,53il 2,062,481 l,697,.'ilfl 1,977,6 ( 3,288 788 3,173,065 $.',169,669 $330,804 3'*,S81 171,804 I()6.9:0 129,974 906,1)65 989,610 $13,419,902 $2,496,467 3,783,'. <" Pitch lA. »hl t '"'' ""'' '>r '"•' »><. . • Trinity Bona* '11,^? n . ! ' "'" "'''oh countn- 1. 1 . ^'''>' '"eemed in Phi Undivided Trinity «„h?A , '" '""" Glorion, »lj • ""•^"'"o'ion, iMUtution to whoM men,be« i ^°""'^ "' Kent" -a i„ . '"r"" '" '••'si't iuchc, ?„ T '^=«' '" '«ngth, .„!. •nont of .o.ne of the Cu™' '",""""'' "'« "'ana^ ? „'""«!''. «■"' two or Co i;cU ?"''•«"'"«• A '.^an «eamen and »hippin„of En„ r^?"?"' '"'""''Is of thJ h °""""''>' »'"• Tl . aul^?" '"ei"l>, is, however toff ther with the ho^L "f th '' ^'"' """" ""ord, K.T"""' "» "»' ''? any Icilf h"" *''"'"' «' ""'rh' «PP«aranco of'anTm";;;''' •» much aa two ?'"."'.""<">• Some. "8''t inchc, fn circum?„ '" '*"«"'• «"•• toff ther with the ho^L "f th '' ^'"' """" ""ord, K.T"""' "» "»' ''? any Icilf h"" *''"'"' «' "«' ««" "royed by tire in 17u .""" ""'Poration we« rf ' "' "P"" Propertie. i„ !,'".' '''Pe"'' "pon iu ... ««ional mention of it, purDol^ 'f"; w«go and the oo- ^.m""*?^'' '" "■« 'f«de ?, ^ri,'""* '"'' ^"-^ wor period. A sim ij^" '^- ! ' '" ''"ouments of a for *' '' '"''«■• out by th« h.. '" '''•"''w water the an ;v.a afterward taUblhedaTlV'-f"' '"• '"^o Pu PoIe ' J^ T""™'' »P«"d. Vhe^it"' '? ""'P'' "«•"" Newe.atl^„po„.T/„e i"",^' """. 'nd "'o another ai l'^,'""' «"" -moked ovej ^1'"' ' '' e""'"- dried «1 bj- the Emperor cZ7eT'»'i°"<'f that found- ""..h""" 'L'" ''"'«"> shore. 'f K. n*!"-^ '' ''"I'd who, observinir the nnn. ^- " Seville, in Snain ^ "'.'"""''""•«» of Austrnli. V ^°^. C"'"««. and the ignoranco of seamen csLl k 1 J''' """'oned by the nH '*'' °" "'" »''»"!. ofThe t,*'.^^'' 'UccessfuUy tratacion, lectur«ron'„.f ''''"'' »' "'o «/m rfe a™! u ''"™ 8oe. to China. ,',.'"'""•"• The whole tha «»min.tioro;:tr Sor- T ' """'■"'i-^ ietii'T "'•.?'" "^ "^-^""""ry tu";*;!,'" *'««-' al8o directed book, tn h„ •"" '."'"' mariners; having «.' "° distinguished J^A • , """" '*'"i' va. the usocf naviKa^'" '"'published on that suMe^rfof «'''!''''': ''»"«" » %.W na?P ,"^'" ''^''« Wflve the iocorporat o^,?h"," founTn" "« '" """« -X ilf^, IT P"™' «=" variety ffi ' ^.^ '» .'""rteen ,i„e, ProbaWe'^h.t wftirHenrv vr , '" ^'"' ^'""" ^*'»- " i» Iv .n p, •'"""• ^'■'' qian1^^,?„f I!*""'""' ''>' »«"- afterward carried nToeffiTV- ^':'''""'"«<' the schemeC^.'"""'™'" ^fo^o^^ar ."ibo„ fe*.""!' «"'»"''- of forming efficient v^ effect by hi. son, Henry Virr 7,\l """ P"™ usually varv,v„ ,"' '"^ P'^uls, or 8333 the»iir.tl:*riSr.\l^''''"?''^«-'^Uhc^^ During the reign of He„,Tvm Tk" "' "'"'"'= »-'^'^ steratl^'"^''^' '''"• '"' P ' « Sf "",:7'">''' '- w«ch and Deplford w«« r I" "■* *"'»'«ls at Wool ? 1 ■ , fP"" "f tripang from M. », ' ''"' • '"n- ministered. It i,T •',"',"''y"d economically ad \fo^' '^"'''t', goata'-halr .ackim? n^^"^ j ' '""•' ofthe"wI :, ''^''"efoMh, however (n fc,^^ I ""^^ '""ther, and DotMh ti, *^' P^Pa^d skins, thaTn. *'"'*'""« Marine Fund " Th; 1./ f "' P""'"'» of Central Afi^iT^ J u*'*' '°«^"'" "ith the TRI 1878 TRO Tht Mvlgation ind coinmere* of tht two prineli al porU, for * turiai uf year*, ira thus givtn by Kronch uuthorlliu I In 184U thii« tiiturcd, Turkiih veanln, 108; Unak, a&; Tiucan, 14; Mallcw, 14; Krencli, 14; KuuUn, 4 ; Englith, U ; ttardlnlan, 1 ; Auatrtan and Si- cilian, each, 1. ToUl, 1U6 v«u«li ; of which 167 wero Iniloi^ with uiarchandlu valued at 1,872,000 fraiici, OurhiK tho lame yaar thcra cleared — Turklih vcmcU, 78; (Ireok, ii; Tuuaii, Hi; Maltese, 18; trench, 14; l^nglUh, 8{ Uuiaian, 2; Sardinian, 2 j Auatrlan and Sicilian, each, 1. Total, 161) veieeli ; of which 121 were laden with produce valued at 083,000 franci. In the port of Uan){azi there entered the aanie year 142 vat- uU, a( which lU wero laden, rrovialona (chletly bar- Icy) and tobacco are extenah'ely and proHtably Im- ported Into Tripoli. This trade is chieriy monopolUed by the Turks, (ireeks, and Kussians. The vessels of these oountrlos trade with the ports of the Levant, car- rj'ing to those places cargoes of salt taken on board at Zoara, Coiuua Imports ftancs l,8«6,6oo 9,2t>T.00O ExporU " 8,81T,0()0 «,M4.00() Totol " 8,812,000 5,82I,0UU Navigation returns for this port io 1861 are con- densed as follows : Entered S04 vesHia 18,860 tona t'leared »»1 '• 16.8TO " FoaaioK TiAnc or TairoLi in 18.^i and 1833. Couli<«. lUl. orU. ItipofU. 1 i«4a. )Na». iHita. MalU Turkey Frftnei. 1.618.000 4'l4,a0.l 162,000 IH4,000 TUI.OOO 664.1)00 4000 6,000 15i),lt4 Kranca. I,6A|,000 3»0.IIOt) V86,(KX) 22«,(K):l Trt.lHW 807,000 *6,'(i00 7TO.600 rraora. S.ia3,3'iU 1,360.0(10 60,000 310.000 8:i7,87» 278,000 26,000 26,0(10 4.000 KruiM. 2,608,(100 ,4M.0Ofl 1&0.(K)0 OOT.Mi 861,00(1 614,000 '6,()00 1 Egypt 1 Tunis I Tuaeanv 1 Franoa Algeria Roman statea Auatria Tha duty exacted In the Tripolitan ports la four pi- iMtres per 80 kilograms — equal to about eight cents per ton. Pilots are not often employed ; when required, the captain of the port must furnish them free of ex- pense. Quarantine regulationa the aame as at Con- stantinople. Notwithatanding Tripoli is tributary to the Ottoman empire, there ia a separate treaty between the United States and that regency, ratilied June 4, 1805, placing the commerce between the two countries on the footing of the most favored nation. — Com. Hel. r. a. Titatiu. — By the treaty ooncludnd with Tripoli June 4, 1805, It is stipulated that the consuls and agents of both nations, respectively, shall have liberty to exercise their religion In their own houses ; and those of the same religion shall not lie impeded in going to the consul's house at tho hour of prayer. The consuls shall have liberty and personal security given them to travel within the territories of each other both by land and sea, and shall not bo prevented from going on board any vessel that they may think proper to visit. They shall have, likewise, the liberty to appoint their own dragomans aixl brokers. In case of any dispute ariaing between the contracting parties, no appeal shall be made to arms, nor shall war be declared under any pretext whatever; but if the consul residing at the place where the dispute shall happen shall not be able to settle the same, tho government of the country shall state It* grievances in writing, and transmit it to tho other ; and the period of twelve calendar month* shall be allowed for answers to be returned, during which time no act of hostility shall be permitted by either party; and in case the grievances are not redressed, •nd a war should be the event, the consul* and citicens or subjects uf both parties, respectively, shall be per- mitted to embark, with their elfocts, unmolested, on board of what vessel or vassals they shall think proper. If any disputes shall aris* batween cillxans of tho li tilt- ed Htatea, or any peraons under tholr prnloctlon, auili diaputas shall be settled by the consul of the United Stales in the same manner as slated above, hi Moroc- co. Tha same provision la made in the treaty with Tripoli, In respect of homicides, as in thu treaty with Morocco, The care of the property of cltizena of the United Statea dying In tho rcgoncy uf Tripoli Is to Im committed to tho care of tho consul, unless otherwise disposed of by will ; and no hinderanco Is to Im inter- posed to tho execution of any will that may appear. "The commorclol intercourse of tho United States within this consular district is dependent suloly on the regulations of the mother country. Thuao regulations are set forth In the tariff settled between Turkey and (Jroat liriuin on tho aist of October, IH.'iO, and which applies also to tho United Status, under that clause of our treaty with Turkey which secures to us all tha privileges of " tho most favored nations." Tho com- merce of tho United States with this regency stands on tho samu footing as that of the most favored nations. It ei\joys no exclusive prlvllen* nor sulTers any pecul- iar restrictions. Thero Is only a port charge of about three cents tho ton, which Is levied equally on foreign and national vessels. " Tho true par or intrinsic valuo of tho piastre of this country Is 121 >ous, French ; but we reckon It at 12^ cents. The present lioy has, however, issv. I a gold currency, composed of pieces of 100, 80, 40, '/.',■ and 10 piastres each, which are about 30 per cunt, dellclunt In weight ; and, consequently, In gold money tho piastra is worth only ten cents. Tho Christian population re. fuse to accept this new gold curn!n"'•>. fh« "'""P-i ...d the w' rk" ;n?„'°h:''"'"»" *«™l.ou.' ^ her got their wage, «cou "lid r "."•P'''y'"'">t have '"""".v, or they have Z .i?. ' """" '""'vingany "•"pre.. underiiandngTh. •^^l.T"'^' •'"• " '""'t or v«rehou.e, „r ,hop, o" the" ll^V '" "!""' " "'« ftllffl '''"■"'''"='' *'th "'■ ""•''' "tidei at ure^ weight,, etc., .hould"^,!;"' t^'^K '!"" '^-"*»- der hi, predecessor,. 1,, i™r ' " they had b,,en Un- "• Im, t *a, determine ItWth^e'n'"'"'"^ "'"*'"'''' E«.terl,„g, should bo round a„i^,h''7'i P"l"'>-. '••aHed weight taken from the middle of n! '"''"",'"«''' the these ponny.weight, were to n,aU '"• '"'"'>• "' ~a:d%7r",i;ot„^°r"'f""^^^^^^^^^^^ mMmmkmmm TITN 1880 TITN qwilllUn «N • moitanil* rMlilsnc* ta deny, iikI ruy wsnlpulailmi, 'i'h* prlniil|ial imttet li th* lUlillll}' to •lirlnli M<1 warp. Th* wnoil U In ceninion uM, on aruouni nt !(• aliumliincw atiil iliaaiinnM, for Iha nianii- fkatur* iif auinmnn fMrnlliini, ihlnKiM, anil ilry liimlMr. TuiUl. Tha alaUi at I'unli immmum iiaarly the aama natural a'trantatfaa of •nil anil I'llmaln an Moroeco. In anrlunt llniaa It wa< nnn nt llin Hraiiarloa of Itoma, •upplylMK whaal, inaUu, liarlay, ollvat, irrapai, liataa, and otiiir frulia, 'I'oliaiMi*, oolton, ami Iniligo liava rai'antly liaan IntroditMil at arllnlaa nf eiiltura, and •mall <|iiaiillllat of •allVon ami npluni an alMi ralMd. Tlia principal inaniifa<''iira« nf 'I'mhU am of r*< Madltnrranaan | of aoap, at HMa ahlaHyi ami of wimlan, allk, ami llnan fabrira, •mi moniniu Inalhar. Tha oUM Import! Iiy aaa arc eodhlnaal, raw •Ilk, tolhv, ■ii|(ar, Npanlah wool (to roaka liirhnui>Ati, or rail i'ap«), wln"«, iparV, alo. t-'ara- ya«4 arrlva annually froni Cantral Africa, hrlngInK •lavai, Miima, oalrli'li faalhxra, koI'I duat, gam, and Ivory, whii'h ara Iwrlarad A>r inaniifactnrad Rooda, •pkna, ami tfiiiipnwdari wlilla othcra, from (!onatantl- noplu, lirlnit wax, drini akina, nattla, and ahmip, in r«. turn fur inutllna ami olliar wnvan fkbrlca, Tunli man- tlaa, iiiliinUI prodim*, nMvnnia, cto, - Thar* ara no cittli'lal iir rallalila data fVnm which tho ralun of tlia Kunnral foralun mport Iraria of 'I'unla can at tho praaant lima lio KalharcMl, 'I'hn folluwinK atatu- HBDt of Ilia avnratfa annual pxpnrta la liaaad u|ion an aatimala niada liy Iha Kram-h ntnaul, and found In MAi'iiitNUUN'a a an oati- niata of tlm iih«rai't«r or vallin of tli« trade between tha I!nltAd Niato* and Ihia r«K**«^y' There li no di- rael Iriiilu, It l« liuliavod, liatwpun tha United Htatea and Tunl>, I'uniliixri'lal inovninanla paialiiK mainly by way of Malta and Maraollla*. MacKreK"' tt'^"' • atatcmeat of ihii lMi|Hirlii Into and nxporla f^oin Tunla in 1839, of whiuh ili'i fullowliiK U a jiuinmary i ImiiorM a Oay.iiiKI plaalrai =- 30 ranta each.* KaparU D.llTll.fHiO •■ Talal nt,48h;ii$Hl •• :;:r|n.3(lm the land la taxed |S7S | Bd. On every vetiel which llnda itielf unaafb in the roadataad, on account of the bad quality of iti cabla, or ttom any other reaaon, and wlahea to get nnder tha •halter of the mole of the (loletta, aduty of 12 carouhea (1K| centa) per ton !• Impoaed to long aa It romaina there, renewable every ilx montha. llealdea tbia duty, the captain of the port recelvea 76 centa. In addition to tho furegoing, tha following Information i> con- dcnaed from official return* communicated to thli De< fiartment : The total port charges on entering the Q<^ etta (the hart)ur of Tunla) amount to $il fiO for tighti, anchorage, li-slth officer, etc., fcr vutacla of over 80 tuna; under 30 ton), one half that charge. Thoia charge! apply aliko to all voucli, either Tunialan or foreign. Export dutiei— Inconiiderable, however— are levied upon oil, wool, and loap. The import dutiei on goodi and merchandlie ara regulated iiy treaty, and amount to 8 per cent. Tha article) (h)in tho United Statca which naually And • good market in Tunis are rum, tobacco, iniall freights of flour, cheap cotton fabrlce, provialona, cheese, salt beef, dried beef, hama, pickica, and biacnit; but It would not lie advisable to risk largo cargoes of theta articles. Tho coasting trade Is permitted to all for- eign vcsaels, without paying any other duty than thote named in tho tarllT. The i|uarantinn regulatione are: Quarantine of obsorvatlun, fixed at 10 days, is only re- quired 7 or 8 days, though the vessel pays for 10; and when coming from any port In tiio Medtturranoan, she pays |1 '26 per day. Ilesides this tax others are levied, amounting in the whole to (25 02). On vessels froi" tho Levant, these taxei, according to Macgregor, ar.i levied fbr 20 days, and amount to 202 p. 8 c. ($S0 5:i). These are tho rates at the port of Tunis. At tho other ports the quarantine of oliscrvation is usually 10 days ; expenses nearly the same. — Com. Ret. U. S. With the exception of certain privileges granted to Qreat Drilain and 8pain, no privileges permitted to the commeree of foreign nations are denied to the United States. By treaty, Great Britain obtained tlie privilege of exporting annually for the support of the garrison of Gibraltar, on payment of a duty of $6 per ox (though the flxed duty is |tO), 2000 nxrn Spain. when fonnidalde, obtained by treaty the following privileges, vii;. : tho exportation of oxen on paying a duty of (S per ox. Instead of |I10 ; fowls at I .'■ rents per dozen instea '"^ — Hxri,» I«tio.i ofTuni, h.,L„r T" ""^"ffhto,. ■! i, ',',,, '•'"''''"mii, lo,(wo f„,, ;„,'"''' '^V'"" "'Uroad, ," whole, excellent ti' , ' "'* ' """(o Is. on ihn '"'^"'"'^ of ancient or modern (In ^"'""""nary con- It .elJ„r" r* "'*""""-<""•«"• "• THy,,, "y 1'^, >'2a ' fl njt 'ofro'T" 'r'''"'''"-- mmmmmmmm •'the S X«6o".„''''"'"P''-'P«"^^^^^^^^^^ TUR 1882 TUR wilhoot and whltiiih within. It is imported cloven in tiie middle, lengtliwiae, and tlie lieart or woody matter talien out. The best is ponderous, not wrinltled, easy to breali, and discovers to tlie eye a large quantity of resinous matter. At first it makes an impression of rweetncbB on tiie taste; but, wiien chewed for some time, betrays a nauseous acrimony. It is used in medicine, but only to a small extent. — Lewis's Hat. iftdica. TurbUh (mineral), tbo name given by chemists to the sub-sulphate of mercury. Tmbot (^I'leuroneclet maxmuf), a well-known and highly esteemed species offish. Considerable quanti- ties of turbot are now taken on various parts of the ooasts of Great Britain, from the Orkneys to the Land's End, yet a preference is given in the London markets (0 tlMM caught by the Dutch. The latter are said to bare sometimes drawn as much as ^£80,000 in a single year for turbots sold in London. Turkey. The countries included under the above general designation of Turkey, the Levant, etc., are Turkey (European and Asiatic), the pachalic nr vice- royalty of Kgypt, the kingdom of Greece, and the re- public of the Ionian Islands — a group in the Mediter- ranean, off the west coast of Greece and Kpirus, con- sisting of seven principal and several smaller inlands. The Ottoman empire includes Turkey in Europe, Asia Minor, Syria, Kgypt, and the other tributary- states in Africa and Asia. Prior to the Greek revolu- tion, Turkey in Europe possessed an extensive mari- time frontier (nearly two-thirds of her boundary), hav- ing many excellent sea-ports. The dismemberment of Greece, and other subsequent political changes, and the cession of Itessaraliia and a part of Moldavia to Russia, have considerably reduced the limits of the dominions of Turkey in Europe. lu Africa her power is almost annihilated, and even in Asia her authority is considerably weakened. Algeria has lieen wrested from her t>y France ; Egypt merely acknowledges her sovereignty by the payment of an annual tribute ; and the ArabUns scarcely rtcognize the sultan as the head of their religion. The limits and area of the Turkish empire are not exactly defined, and, consequently, \ery different estimates have been formed of the extent and population l>oth of European and Asiatic Turkey. The most recent authority estimates the urea of Turkey in Europe at 210,000 square miles, and its population at about 15,000,000 ; and that of Turkey in Asia at 437,000 square miles, with a population of about 16,000,000. Turkey in Europe possesses a soil romariuibly fertile, and a climate highly favorable to the production of the vine, olive, maize, wheat, and rice, vegetables of every description, fruits, tobacco, hemp, flax, the mulberry, various trees from which the most valuable gums are extracted ; and in the southern part the sugar-cane and the cotton-tree. To these add the rich pasturages for horses, cattle, and sheep, every variety of game and fi»h, with a great abundance of mineral riches, to- i gether with the geographical position and excellent harlwrs of European Turkey, and a general idea may lie formed of her great natural resources. The prin- cipal species of grain cultivated in European Turkey is Indian com. liice is cultivated along the banks of ' the Maritza and other marshy tracts in the southern province!), but not in sufiicient quantities for consum|>- tion. The deficiency is supplied by Egypt and Asia Minor. Turkey in Asia possesses almost every natural ele- ment of industrial and commercial greatness ; but agri- culture is wholly neglected, and productive industry is altogether unknown. About nine-tenths of the extensive surface of Egypt is sterile and unproductive. The remaining one-tenth, being irrigated by the overflowings of the Nile, yields the richest and most luxuriant crops, which, with the Tartous couimodit!..j that pass through Egypt from Arabia, India, and Nubia, form the elementa of a large export trade. The crops of Egypt are wheat, Indian com, maiie, rice, flax, hemp, clover, cotton, indigo, sngar-cane, tobacco, oranges, and the most delicioui fhiits. The sea-ports of Tuiicey in Europe are as follows t Constantinople, one of the safest ports in the world, and capable of affording shelter to 1200 of the largest class ships ; Salonica, at the l)ottom of the gulf of that name, an excellent roadstead, and much frequented | and Enos, the port of Adrianople, on the Maritxai Gallipoli and Rodosto, on the Sea of Marmora ; Varna, on the Black Sea ; and Ibrahilow, Taultcha, Galati, and Jassaktchl, on the Danube, are ports of consider- able commercial activity. On the island of Candia there are two ports, Gandim and Canea, but their harbors are neither conimodiout nor safe. Besides these, there are several other ports, which afford excellent shelter, and in the possession of a more industrious and commercial people than the Turks would attract considerable trade. The sea-ports of Turkey in Asia are Erekli ; Scutari, opposite Constantinople ; some indifferent iwrts on the Sea of Marmora ; and Smyrna, the principal port of Asia Minor, and tho most important in foreign com- merce. In Egypt the sea-ports are Alexandria, Rosetta, Damietta, and Cairo, at the mouths of the Kile ; and Suez and Kosseir, on the Red Sea. The principal exports of Turkey are wool, goats' hair, cattle, horses, hides, hare-skins, wheat, raw cot- ton and sillc, tobacco, raisins, figs, almonds, mastic and other gums, gall-nuts, valloneu, leeches, honey, wax, saffron, madder, anise seed. Unseed, turpentine, saf- flower, orpiment, meerschaum pipes, whetstones, car- pets, silk and cotton fabrics, leather, copper, and me- tallic wares, with Arabian, Persian, Indian, and Ctu- neso goods. Next to Constantinople, Adrianople and Salonica are the chief centres of trade ; the former, being a prin- cipal depot for goods brought to Constantinople from England, France, and Italy, supplies all the fairs throughout Koumelia and Bulgaria. Next to Smyrna, Aleppo is the chief seat of com- mercial movements in Asia. Caravans bring to this mart pearls, shawls, Indian and Chinese goods, from Bussorah and Bagdad ; camels from Arabia ; cotton stuffs and thread, morocco leather, goats' hair, and galls, from the pachalics of Mosul, Diurbekir, Orfa, Aintab, etc. ; furs, goats' hair, wax, gum-ammoniao, etc., from Asia Minor; silk, Mocha coli'ee, soap, scent- ed woods, ambergris, drugs, and pearls, from Syria and Arabia ; rice, coffee, and Egyptian produce, from La- takia ; silk manufactures from Brusa uud Damascus ; European and United States cotton stuffs, woolens, printed muslins, hardware, watches, wrought amber, and fuf, from Smyrna and Constantinople. The treaty of Adrianople o|)ened the Black Sea to the commerce of the world, and the passage of the Bos- phorus and Hellespont is free to the flags of all nations. The importation of all articles of foreign commerce is admitted at extremely moderate duties. These are only 5 per cent., viz. : 3 per cent, on goods when laud- ed, and 2 per cent, on their being admitted to consump- tion. The duties on exports of native production are 12 per cent., of which 9 per cent, is paid when the goods arrive at the port whence they are to be export- ed, and 3 per cent, on their being shipped. This is a very liberal tariff; though a reduction of the export duty, even should the import duty of 6 per cent, be raised to 10 or 12, would result most favorably to the commerce of Turkey with foreign countries. CoMlantinople. — The harbor of Constantinople is deep, well sheltered, and sufficiently capacious to af- ford safe anchorage for 1200 of the largest-sized ships. Scutari, on the opposite shore of the Bosphorus, one mile distant from Constantinople, is the place of ren- dezvous for caravans from PersU, Armenia, and other of I of1 ofl of I TUR States could succMlr"'"'" "'"' «''i'=l>tho Unib,,! port a«, Englanrta'^^^^^Pete in the trade ^f" ^.^ former import iron, colontunll; ^ ''* ^«««e>' of the tissues, and from TresteCf "."''' '=<>«on and woo en produce, such as co o„ 'sulT'l'r'''' "'»» « tobacco, etc, and the vuriouf 1 "J'""'""'' """. rice •Iways found in abunSanee T^h '"=""'"'"*'' ar houses of that nort "fi."'"' '" '"» extensive ».«" .'"""K" at some distance Inl.iij "•', •™K't«do 280E. ^ir'' ConstanSpie^^ ~-f jes,els\rh ^^ L^^^^^^^^^^^ '»?>'.599, „,t„j87«- ~'K' vessels, in latu'^^'f/o^MheSoulineh (o, S?m„uSf :%t!.!"i""« r-s? t ' r h^ ''l.o -.b- onele^iirf.i''^'" ^'^'W' This Urge increase, both to th. '" "*"' *»'*'6,0M. 'fade with the port of
  6. «nk Though at some distance 1„1,„^ JJ-' longitude 28° E. «o be the port of the Da„u " n?*"*'' ™»y be .aS mouth. „,...^, """nul*. Ofthethi^eprincipJ fl92n. ■> •""•""'■nopie m IS;,) «.„.. we™ f"rAusS'/-o"' ""'"■»»» °Sni,?:r''' I !?'»"'"''« «°Vo'"S)'"v'"'''r.'' (»' »"- British flag there entfrpHi' • """ Siven : Under thi I ^''ut *"" '» P«ially un3 !" '" "'"oMd with- vessels a^, OaTteTrets^Ktr ^^'^^^^^^^^ r"""" """ '' "-^•"Mui;:'-''- ^o-" 236 sailing, and 85 steam vessoh 7''"^ ""'^'» flag; " "" "•• *ue quays. th»7 r ' 1 , ' P^Tellcd by steam r. • " '»'""g °"" ^P'"""") that Constantinople requires an^,?'„ \ " estimated 'S«J'ma.-This nort .h ", t.on alone, about 6,500,000 it, Tl^^' ^"^ e°nsump- of Turkey i„ AsK ^^ "' " " -™a. empo-:a„ "J '"«"- 30».000 lbs. if p.,tr an*:, '"'••^•^"<''«''« 'l''^ "^ ^"S" ^"^en c'ai'" "" ^''^"f ' harl,or, .Tsh « cheon, of rum, and larj n r.,?f.'' T'": 2000 pu„. I quays. Us orLt". 'r^, """l, '"'"'■ar.r. .;„,„ ,„'X Portofcutz. % Austria. -. Tow (pla,ir^;,.;; ^r^^ ilWsM 'Swjrmo.-Thisnort fhL"i , '^^'^ WsMM te.!nAsKt:^^sr:^!»'-rv- „. . =— I —'"iwu lus. of ticiinpp „„ I -'. '-"","W 10s. "" "ir, "Otontca Next »« 1-1 .ted at the bottom of^^eTulS'V^t"'™ (»'"'- . ., -.uco uiauuer. woiil i...- 1 — "^ ' '^"pper, sk/ns, vallonea, oliveloM < ' t'"''" S"""' ''air and '■aisins.and nut-gaUs I„ 3' «■""»• '(""Ke. '.- an*:; Ve«n, ^/iTf V """om of the (iulf nf sfi '. , "™ i"""- """•«. and nut-eall, i„ ^ ' *"™' s|>onge, (i,r. of Macedonia, is the most ,lZL^tZT\'^ '"P""' T"^ "^ <^m,m{l^ J.^JT. eomprise' colei (u^^ Europe. In 1850 it, marithiM^ "^^ "'^ ^'"•''ey in '"^ ''"''ri'^^s ; mL. l^"" 1'^'^ ' *°'''en. 'otton, an^ '^ard of «3,500,000, vL al^HoT" "a'-l'edu,,. indigo, spiri s, iod L' i "!:'* manufactured, sugar of this port is chiefly engrossed h, .' "^"J^'S" '^a^e Ported into the United Sta!.,'"''^''''*' «' «"«l im- r-s^oo,-:iS^:3e^^^^^^^^ •ndstavcs. Colonial pS and ;!"""/*""'• """•"».' — - - are supplied to this port-tho fi.rl r''^"''"'''"'«<'»'is third hands_by FnZ„,i ''^T"'e'■ from second and thing .0 prcven't the' , .trstat:'!'- There is 2' in the trade in this spec es of m f"'".P»rticipati„g ' Austria nor England could p1 ""'"'"<"'«• Neither 'n supplying the vast „, .TP"" *'"■ "•'» country and the chea^p white": ^^^'^0 » "'""'"' P'""- I K .k - > '-.-, qu-red for consumption fn'*. "■"""' *''''='' "e "•»-'„ • '" *''" Argentine republic the Uni, c to the supplies needed . ! ?"'""• In addition I ™'"'' ""e-tlii.xl of its raw woo v . M ■^'"''" >*■ 100,000 inhabitant, c. • "'^*' "'« '"'"''r wants of Tt^ ""''' ''urkev, i„ t is "^^M ^"I' '" """ ™''nt'T of colonial and""' ,'t'"'''™ '^"""^'"'s large nuantft es *"' '» «""•" n mV^f th.' "!"•' """ ""■"" !''»<=« Is of Parlep, /tea "/rl""''' «""'''•'■" "'« veariy fi " «<'- amounting to m^' «5 n,,"""? r"'"^' '''"?''«- and woolen cloths will 1?* ^^P"™ "f French cotton ,!^^*''222; "f «hich Tarkev in A.i. .. v' /"'''"' «' From Turkey ~ "^l ^ — ^ — iQpvj / »,351,2ft:tf il72 0(9l 91 KoK A* '1 o",tHI MeR™g«to...faY,r.8i^,W^J5^^ Um,„„,av„j^<3l?r';S!^:^f^^;?]il;^»'|M ,The„«:Va io^ "r^r^^:'?^;'',"'''"^^^ " IsT' "' ''">'' "—the™-, *l.e following rcsul" '™' '^'^ ""> •>■«'»' I853-'4 exhibit "'''' -"easuring 4.S04 ton,.-*„ Smvrva I „.J.!'.^?">"'"-.°f "•- |K,rt du„„g mi .„.„„„ted u, f dollars. Th:. >»j .. "IB following results : -d teX':thXhX^t'"''f ^'■"^"' ^"'"•■"' nnder BritishT French and ?„i?''"'™J'*''' " '"'"'"""» the same prop;,rtron ' ^""""""' ""«'• ''"' "«' in 'A'^-^:-^::t-5''«i-»fs^^^^^^^^ .Mentble increase i„^ the i^^ t% ''TaruroT 1 his trade was thm n.„Vr 7""""ce Of this port duri Idrtitdr"'""""^ "'•'»"-• r.rrat Ilritaln. ... ,^ ^. Aiwlria..,, °I|M«,li«8 franca. Fraim 13,S8«,80)t " Inltctl Htatiii T,;iM,lT7 '• R.i.,la MrB.I)45 .. Holland »,M7,9»8 " Sardinia.' »11,10,1 " Tuscany «2I,»I)6 " IWglum *W,»B .4 ■ I'ff 701 '* /?.r<'«.-Deyrout is the sea-port of Uamascu,, ««, TUR 1884 TU.'t In IMS fr»ners, to 70,000,000 lbs. for consumption in the different and i numerous manufactories in the United States. How much of this is consumed in the manufacture of carpets there is no means at hand of determining with anj- ac- curacy ; but it is stated in a publication of high author- ity — the Scientific Amtricun — that in tlie village of Thompsonville, Connecticut, alone, there is used annu- ally in the manufacture of Brussels, Axmlnster, and other costly qualities of carpeting, 10,000,000 lbs, of wool, or more than one half the whole quantity im- ported, and one-seventh part of the aggregate quantity importied and grown in the United States. The value of the foregoing statement of facts will be better understood when it is added that the United States import annually — taking the importations of 1855 as an average — woolen manufactures of various descriptions to the value of $27,000,000, of which En- gland furnishes nearly two-thirds. The total num- ber of woolen manufactories in the United States in 1860 was 1559 ; capital invested, $28,118,650 ; lbs. of wool consumed, 70,862,829; value of raw material, $25,765,991 ; hands employed, males, 22,678 ; females, 16,674 ; value of products, $43,207,515-— in which are included 82,206,652 yards of cloth, and 4,294,336 lbs. of yam, besides blankets, hats, etc. Were the raw material supplied in sufficient quantities, the census of 1860 would probably add 100 per cent, to the pre- ceding figures. The foreign trade of Beyrout is car- ried on principally by large class str-'mers, under the Austrian, French, and British flair'; which visit this port regularly, and finll always 3,S80 00 3,100 00 1,800 00 4,000 00 TUB cutting from Suez to the M^T,''^"'='P'«<''« direct t^nce into the Medii*,^ "•"^''•'nmean. The en ;iU have M fan„ b^r^T.^'" ^ "^^'-l P"" S^3 P°rt of Sue., wiU alw W •" "" ^"^ Se- «!>• export trari?„lt'i"ToM'" '!;? '"""■"•"'<"' of .he Ittle probability of l^'''°t"«'".''».«nd there .eem. • ncetheconsumVion„fXe u!t'M '"""^l' '~""''" lew than it used to be. On ,hi ntf "t""" '""^h trade to and from EngUndh^h. ""'"■'">•>''■' direct »eems likely ,0 increase Th, mrtr"""'"*^' *»"<* «i9ts Of olive^il- and th« : ''""' ""Port trade con. •'kaIi,car.he„.;a°rS:'S'r'=f'«''»-B'S The manufaeturea cinsumJd in'fh. •* ^^7 chemicals. BrltUli" Ionian . Turkish Orcek. . , French Austrian . . Sardinian . Russian ... 7 Tuscan q Syrian.... ' Neapolitan American . Samloie . . . Norwegian , Papal Total. "•tionslillM. Tom, 419 1,320 3,622 10,894 630 4,ST7 613 S93 147 2,866 100 1,618 78 Toni . l,8lf 3,762 16,427 4,897 2,4M 763 1,134 levi«l on their staple exL/nf . '"' ^^ P" ""^ an, ;o«P; etc., it can acarce^Tbe e^^^"!? T^' ""^"^"^ wm mcrea^ to any con.fderlb,e «t. /""? ""' "»"* in • consular return ftom C«l A ".'• ^' ^ ""ted, thew dutie,, a. well a, ottCd^:.^^ ' "'''««''■> o' tend to ..tabliah a highly w,3,°» "7 »Uk> would lc« intewourw, with the 'rt'"°''"l'"'*=tAmer. probably, to compete with «,at „r r """»• ""fie'e"', F»nce. In consequence of th! f ^'**' ^^^n «nd upon the IwMiing prXctil A'!""" °<"»ta«l duty Britain, th, coi^iSt,! °^ """ '■"'«<» ^ Gw.t f«rt increaaipg. ^ ""ercoupie with EngUn" ta *^{^^^.n7t»^Zl't '-ty between back as May 7, 1830 T?. „^ °I?° P""* dates as far "-* it l« "no ll^Ud «C?"!! •""^"^o'.dectws quently regulates^hT^nt^ro^u™!^';''"'" ""<*'' '""^^ •t the present time. Ito p S?'''''''''' ""e countries ."*-""» the merchants of ?thJ^/„rr'^"' '"«'"<» ln«,s, ports, etc., of the other ,h»n?' '" "■« P^v- •nd other impost, that are 'Ihtr^' ""' '"»" <>"««« most friendly or f, " " j° P*',"! by the merchants of the vessel, of the UnKateT.tn'h""' !""" «'<'«'»»' the canri of the imnerial !!.m ' """" '"«"y to pass ta the Black Sea K ""dence, and go and come fcyo,«i„atirK„7:?^;r"^''"''»°f»'>Vm" r«fo«» aysten.,, viz 'rm'5,!ff'''" » ba«,d on an arf "percent., Including asffih'^?'""v ""^ "Pot" vlue of merchand."!' may t A,'"'"'?" """«"• The five years by commissioner on 7hen.V"?'': ^'"" " ent governments, conjointly wrthal^* °' "" ''"«"- that purpose by the TurkiZ a!v **"'' appointed for St.teshavohitLrt^lpZ^ednT'"''-'-. '^"o United •djustment of valuaW '!*.":? f""!"'""'"'"''"' this to the Department thTtthe eli iSf ^•"' '»P'»»«ted i»h merchandise, esneci Jh- If * 'valuation on Brit- Jects to heavy dSriS- ^1 «'^' «°d ">»), .ub- DnitedSta,e,,^owt^7hTeCot& '«"="" <>'"'■'' "d prices. Since the return „f ^"^««n«e in weight ments, tending to facUi^ ^ ^ •'*'™' ""any improve- cial tatercou^e Vt ty ZhV^r^' "■« ""^""'^ been completed or projectTd aJ '^. '"'"'""' ^ave house system has underirone pt^!"? "'.'""' ""« %ht- earned oS by Turk'iihmi;:!;:" \"T "' ""' "'and is •nd uniform Jight^uesSishn",r'.TP'"'' ■"«»'»- '""' ""anned by Turk, Th^t" '' IV*""'' """'d "d Dardanelles, viz • In ni .^ C"/ ""' ^o^Phcrus timo have been ewl'^ ^ '^''l' of Candia and Re- •2 fiO) for eveo-'lM t;„s i h^f /'^"^«"' *^ a-d twelve fLt of wate??! I '".Ji''" ^*»'''' "'""'"g per 100 tons fo? ^h enten*„ ""f": " ^"^ P'"tres Warping buovrhave^''"'^ "■/ '"""'^ «t Retimo % At ConstanUnopL the« LiL""* ""■ """" «"«»■ «'"' ''arb^or of Canea an^f^"" T"." ""' •'"""^'' of »o port charges , but a smaU fee^' ^""^''^ 'P*«'"''«. P'""'' '" the St h^j ^rVj'^^'' J"'' '»««"? "een j^-'ough the ooS:^^t:-s:;:r br:sK5^?r^^ '-. ".. or^nnecting the Medi.erran.n with thelKft."'^ '''^ ") '"-^^r •'c^^; I8S«. Greek French.... Austrian . . Sardinian . Russian... . Tuscan Syrian Nespoliun . American .. Samioto . . . . Nors-egian . I'opol Tot»I. . . 187 I 2,060 1 8,341 170 300 7,210 1,600 107 1,888 2 'ioi 840 60 ' 148 I 6,637 TUR 1886 TUR CoHiinai c TBI Uhitid Statu with Thixbt, tiir Litamt, no., vbom OoTom 1, 1620, to Jolt J, 186T. V«M« Md'.ar Uopt. SU, 18S1 18M 18SS 18M 1885 1846 182T 1828 18» 1880 ToUI. . . BepU 1)0,1881 1889 1888 1834 1885 1886 1837 1888 1839 1840 Total. . . Sept SO, 1841 184i Omoa., 1843* June 80,1844 1845 18« 184T 1848 1849 1860 Total... JanoS.'.lSSl 1869 1883 1864 1886 1860 186T KiporU. PoMltfn. Tolil. Import*. ToUI. WhoMof lh«r« WH io Bullion Olid ajwalo. Ktport. Import. Toonogo eloond. 1,303 1.418 1,8T« 9,183 1,81T 1,893 8,109 603 687 9,88T forolgB. $30,883 «,1!M 4,817 96,171 84,873 40,837 131,734 78,374 97,«0O 78,801 $400,^7 406, m 669,788 884,967 864, nOl 971,498 470,396 194,607 47,384 337,639 «4a7,880 411,821 664,660 400,428 J98,964 818,388 609,060 909,041 74,084 418,340 (S»&,680 364,677 703,761 471,238 840,709 421,032 783,128 49S,r>33 2«n,2;)7 $187,006 68,000 60,000 t!i1,B7B 13,870 70,881 48,830 22,600 4,D0>. ll,6Sr 11,4(16 488 48,018 $401,834 $38,608 64,729 167,808 62,488 63,202 99,086 86,669 142,448 88,320 119,746 $3,872,078 $908,804 681,886 618,471 891,92'. 916,899 634,94!) 74,063 116,461 266,064 186,878 »3,833,»12 $836,807 746,608 686,67) 383,679 280,094 634034 111,312 967,909 349,874 976,61H $8,190,377 $621,608 993,699 78)1,044 669,611 887,663 978,371 693,161 I!<6,'>33 6'o9,190 603,476 $877,360 $900,984 196,621 108,466 186, 18S 116,663 196,193 81,670 114,830 198,87,> 904,307 $8,184,694 $170,612 76,618 68,014 97,945 49,546 73,910 66,679 110,391 86,190 63,844 $4,009,044 $380,646 202,036 176,479 988,884 166,099 . 900,108 197,242 996,161 978,0U6 967,741 $276,006 $2e,6no 2,100 96,461 96,840 2,71^ 98,000 "800 "i.m $320,168 $6,868 4,81!) 3,674 821 7,360 9,760 4,282 2,630 $0,340,066 $614,879 370,248 182,864 886,866 731,617 760,998 677,710 406,028 874,064 801,023 $112,811 $900 86,976 $1,437,478 $162,204 966,826 207,388 919,496 794,289 1,404,768 627,481 $860,299 $66,629 6i),371 79,981 106,702 163,780 106,667 78,166 $9,936,777 $927,733 8I«,I06 987,333 326,198 968,039 1,611,496 606,646 $6,266,180 $901,236 666,100 727,616 803,114 790,889 741,871 781,860 $86,176 $31,654 $9,800 93 9,000 $4,82;: 17,266 9,986 4,803 4,814 2,246 8,010 3,631 484 1.298 9,232 2,187 208 1760 27,237 1909 9,819 .... 1,815 .... 1,633 . . • • 2,773 .... 1,897 ...* 8,208 1,118 1,!)6« 230 1,019 300 9,689 91,780 630 4,r68 3,909 329 4,865 8,948 669 8,469 1'09 13,400 1846 7,661 Nine months to June 30, fiai the Sacsl jrcar ft'om this time bvglni Jr'j 1. Tnrkey Red, a fine and durable red dyed upon calico and woolen cloth : the coloring matter used in its production ia madder, but the process for producing it in perfection ia tedious and complicated. — See Ban- tBOFT on Permanent Colort. Tuimerio, the root of tht vurcuma hnga. It ia externally grayish, and internally of a deep lively yel- low or saffron color, vei^' hard, and not unlL' e, either in figure or iizc, to ginger. Tliat should be preferred which ia large, new, resinous, difficult to break, and heavy. It is imported from Bengai, Java, China, etc. It has a aomewhat a > 'natic and not ver}* agreeable amell, aiid a bitterlsli litly acrid, but rather warm taste. It used to be > considerable estimation aa a medicine ; and is extensively used in India for culin- ary purposes, entering into the composition of curr}- powder and other articles: in Europe it is only used as a dye. It yields a beautiful bright yellow color, which, however, is extremelj- fugitive, and no means have hitherto been discovered of fixing it. It is some- times employed to heighten the yellows made with weld, and to give an orange tint to scarlet ; !)Ut the ■hade imparted by the turmeric soon disappears, — Lewis's Mat. Med. ; Bancroft on Colon. Turpentine (Ger. Tvrpenlin; Fr. Tiribentkine ; It. Tremtnlina; R\ut. Shpiclar ; Pol. 7>»j)fny boring a hole into the heart of tho tree about two fert from the ground, and fitting into it a pmall tube through which the tur- pentine flows into vessels prepared for its reception. It is purified by straining through cloths or hair sieves. It is more fluid, having the consistence of new honey, a yellowish color, and is less unpleasant to the smell and taste than the common turpentine. Genuine Venetian turpentine is principally obtained from the fore.Hs of Baye, in Provence ; but much of that to be found in tho shops comes ttoxa America, and is, per- I haps, olitnined from n different species of fir. 8. Canadian Ualiam, or Tinpentine, is obtained from incisions in the bark of the Plnus baltamea, a native of the coldest regions of North America. It is import- ed in casks, each containing about 1 cwt. It has a I strong, not disagreeable odor, and a bitterish taste ; is I transparent, whitish, and has the consistence of copai- VB balsam. 4. Chian, or Cyprtti Turpentine, is obtained from the Piitacia terebinlhut, a native of the north of Africa and the aouth of Europe, and cultivatad in Chios and TUR 1887 TUR SOS isoa 800 "mo" 'sis l>02 184B ; the UTch a hole into the ground, ich the tur- j reception. Jhair sieves. Inew honey, ) the smell Genuine td from the f that to be land is, per- Itained from \a, ft native |t is import- It has a Lih taste ; is te of copai- ^d from the . of Africa I Chios and in tlTi.^!.!? ?* r* "^? '" "" *** "^ "^ »'»'• *»'■" «*''• • '••W'" »' •»>«« l«,!!00,000 bar. nd nur^rt u ^''^^' ^I!^ '* ""bwKluently rel. ro.in. Upon this ..timaU the vaU. V Ih. .pWU rl U U d„vL !!J ! !J^™"' "*?'' ' ""*•• jforP*"*!"' ••""•»">' produced in the HUto of North the tree (trained and erateiy warm taHe, devoid of acrimony o' bitternMs, and a white or very pale yillo» color- it is alwnt as consistent as thick honey, If dear, transparent, and tenacious. From its comparative high price, Cliian turpentine Is seldom procured genuine, twing for the most part adulterated either with Venetian or common turpentine. The different species of turpentiue may be dissolved in rectified spirit, or pure alcohol ; and by distillation they all give similar oils, which, ftrom their being distilled (and not from mv r semblance to alco- hol), are termed spirit of turpentine. If the distilla- tion be performed with water, the produce is an essen- tial oil, the common spirit of turpentine ; and if the distillation be carried on in a ntort without water, the product is more volatile and pungent — a concentrat<-d oil, as it were— and is called the ethereal spirit of tur- pentine. The residuum that is left in both cases is • brownish, resinous mass, brittle, capable of being melted, highly inflammable, insoluble In water, but mixing fi'eely with oils : it is the common rosin of commerce. — Library of JCnlerlainin;/ Knowltdge, Vegt- table Sttbttancts ; Thohsom's Ditpetuatory. Exports or Spieits or Tdbpkntink prom tih! Vhitid 8t*«8 roa Tilt YK*a esbino June 30, 18ST. Carolina is upward of $14,000,0U0— nearly equal to th* value of the annual agricultural product of the Stat* of Maryland. Add to tbis the value of rosin w^ieu converted into oil, which at the present narlint value would be •19,200,000, and w« find a resource In thU natural product of over #88,000,000 In tlie HtaM of North Carolina alone ; anc" *l estimate does not in- clude the Ur, pitch, and ni.^htUa, which are neceaiary and raerchinubl* articles, and would larifely Increase the amount, ExpoBTs or Rosin AMD TvariMTiiia nnu tmi (Iiirran tSTATis roa Tua Yxae wiDiNa Jdks SO, 18ST. Whltlwf ,53a 6,01 lO 13,070 84 967 1,6S5 1,240 1,59J 26,350 1,0S» 4,520 200 6.361 3,730 1,100 1,208 1,421 V.'5 M7 1,5:10 32,80 1 10,030 111,72.1 63,084 2,300 530 2,766 75 1,920 $3,646 «3S 636 02,728 23,268 64,483 23 863 23,166 86'i,7!)4 16,219 870 625 11,683 1,955 2,99« 215 8,809 2,782 3,6J6 15,831 3,000 5,119 4') 439 871 664 l.OOO 13,690 61)4 2,333 76 2,607 1,396 716 796 660 60 807 777 18,096 6,770 10,318 27,887 1,485 380 1,8,16 1,519 Whliho «ii»fM4. liutsia on the Daltio and North Mas Primla Sweden and Norway '. . . , DcnmarE Danish West Indies '.!!!','.','. Uamburg , .,.' Bremen Holland Dutch Weat Indies DutchOulana Dutch East Indies Delglum England Scotland Ireland Gibraltar Malta Canada Uthcr Uritisn North A. Possessions Urltlnh Wrat Indies Brltiah Guiana Ilrlllah Poaaesslona lu Africa Britlah AuatralU Brillah East Indlea France on the Atlantic Franco on the Mediterranean French North American I'assesiiona French Weat Indies French GuUna Spain on the Atlantic Spain on the Mediterranean . . . , Canary Islands Cuba Porto Rico I'ortugal Madeira Sardinia TwoSIcUica Austria AuatrUn Poaaesi .jns In Italy . . , Turkey la Europe Turkey In Aaia Portj In Africa Haytl Mexico New (iranada Vencstiela Itraiil Uruguay, or Clsplatlne Republic Argentine Republic thili Peru Sandwich Islands other Islands In the Pacific Chins Total, l8.'S6-'57 Bsiwh. T " 1)04 11,464 108 S,MS 45 47,696 28,3>ii 63,467 16 ilO 175 70,164 271,484 82,427. 4,536' 8,446 8,6n'j 10,620 2,408 48S 6 420 6,866 6,861 88,477 4,728 10 166 11 1,061 1,208 75 1,107 13 8,101 216 8,243 1,366 8,.:'> 2,2v. 1,300 1,626 676 86 184 6 1,027 18,046 1,180 »70 2,10* 660 4 « 25 641,517 Villa*. _ "tl.'llW" 21,6*0 175 9,6fl1 Iff 102,^3 61,666 102,76t in 48 848 126,057 793,044 77,638 7,0H2 6,904 6,240 46,168 8,71);i 633 6 602 11,605 13,670 67,380 7,731 26 20O 22 2,243 2,886 1»6 8,603 21 8,80,1 BS7 6,736 2,443 7,664 4,434 2,513 8,IM)5 1,361 71 402 II 8,015 26,314 1,969 1,640 4,616 1,826 6 80 6(> !|il t>4«,573 2 Total I 1,622,177 I *741,346 Oil of Tiirjifntine is tlie essential oil drawn from tur- pentine liy (listillatiun. There are two sorts of this oil : the best, red ; and the second, white. It Is very extensively used by house painters, and in the manu- fucture of varnish, etc. The distillers have been charged with using it in the preparation of gin. Oil of turpentine is verj- often adulterated, Turpeth Mineral (from its yellow color, which resembles tlie powdered root of the Conrolvului tur- The manufacture of spirits of turpentine in the | pelhiim), the yellow tub-ptrtulphate ofmtra:ry. State of Alabama was commenced within the last eight j Tuiquoise (Ger. Turkiu ; Fr. Tunptoite. ; It. Tut^ years, and, altbaugh upon a very limited scale at first, ! china; Sp. Turqueia\tL precious stone in considerable the annual product has now reached upward of 1,600,000 estimation. Its color, which is its principal recom> gallons, and that of rosin to above 130,000 barrels, niendation, is a beautiful celestial blue, which migrate! In North Carolina, where the business has been car- 1 into pale blue, and is sometimes tinged with green, ried on for a much longer time, it is estimated that the ' Specific gravity, 3-127. It is destitute of lustra, aimual product of spirits amoimts to 800,000 barrels, ! opaque, and does not admit of a high polish. It I* TUB 1888 TUS math worn in MckUcM, and vmy put of omuMatal Jewalrjr, from Uw Blia of a pin'i h«ad to that of an al- mond ; it contraitt beautifully with brilliants or paarli Mt in fins gold. — Maw3 oh Dianandi, R«al turquois> •• aro azolutlveljr fumiahed by I'enia. The minei whnnca thay ara obtainad ara licuatad near Niihapora. Thay ara tha property of the orowa, and are tarmad to the higheat bidder. Thay brinfr a rant of flrom jCSOOO to JSXlva a year.— Fbabbb'* TnmtU has its own system of taxation, so that tbt) manufao tures of one town are burdened with oppressive duties (pclroi) before they can be admitted fur sale into an- other. Such a system necessarily results injuriously to the commercial enterprise cf Tu&cany ; ami its ef- facto are perceptible in the stagnant condition of the foreign c( merce of that courtry. The chief exports of Tuseanjr an oliva^tU, hides, itiaw lutti, borax, rag*, wool, hemp, potash, coral, marble, tallow, oork, build* ing4imbar, and paper ; and the chief imports, colonial produce, salt Ash, and British, German, Swiss, and French manufactures. The usual exports of tha United States to Tuscany are naval stores : value thereof in 1854, «8078, an^ in 1856, $2930 ; spiriU from molaasfs > value in Wii, •6958, and in 18b6, •41,288 ; manu/ao- tuns not enumerated, to tha amount of between $2000 and $8000. Id 1866 the exports of cotton from tha United States to Tuscany amounted in value to $4804, and of tobacco to $171,621, The imp.^rte nf the United States from Toscany are chiefly silk, piece goods, oUv»- oil, almonds, flgs, soap, small quantities of opium, and rags i this latter article averaging annually soma six million pounds. There is no commercial ».rasty between the United States and Tuscany ; but American vessels enjoy per- fect aquality, as nspecte navigation and import duties, with Uis Tuscan flag— similar privileges having been granted to the Tuscan flag In tha ports of the United States, par President's proclamation, Sept. 1, 1886. The general foreign trade of Leghorn in 1851 waa, in tmporta, $14,442,900; and in exports, $10,808,120. This is a Calling off lh>m tha general trade of the pre- ceding year of $988,720. This diminution in the for. eign trade of Leghorn, which is every year becoming more and more perceptible, is accounted for by the fact that a large portion of the extensive trade with Lcm- bardy, Parma, Modena, and the PontiOcal states, her«< tofora tha principal source of the commercial prosper- ity of this port, has passed from Leghorn, and is now carried on through the ports of Genoa, Trieste, and Ancona, Besides, the port of I.Aghom has of late years been much neglected, and offen neither induce- ments nor proper facilities to foreign 6ags, Ships of heavy draught can not enter the harbor, especially if Is.den ; and there ara no suitable warehonset, not even for the marble of Carrara, one of the leading ex- ports to the United States, To these causes of the de- cline of tha trade of Leghorn is to be added a tax of 3 francs 86 oantimes tor every person who goes ashore, should he remain but an hour. The merchant marine of Tuscany, in 1861 comprised 700 vessels, measuring 27,000 tond — averaging less than 40 tons to the vessel. In the year 1849 there entered the port of Leghorn 1282 vessels (exclusive of 467 steamers), of which 26 wen American ; and there cleared 1189 (exclusive of 464 steamen), of which 24 were American, In 1851 the arrivals ware 3418 vessels, of which 23 wen Amer- ican, COMHmoi BnwiSN tu« I'mitkii Sta'S* aio> Tdscant, (xmBiTiNo TH« Valub or Exroan to amd Impobts raoH XAoa I'ovnav, Nn tub Tohnaob or Ambbicam and roBEiaii Vcssbls, Vmh. VbIdc of Eipnrti frum Ub1i«4 SUIm. Valu* of IniDorti from TMCADy. Ain*Hr«n Tonnas*. Foreisii TooBSS*. \ Domaittc Produn. Fowiffn Produce. TotAl. KnUrad Iht Uoiled SUtM IMffArtd from Iht V. HmtM. Unlsrod tho I'r.iltil StftiM CUtrtd from lhall.8IAIai. 18416 »6;i;'7 30,076 45,064 17,607 15,173 11,736 826,917 426,683 80,076 6.>,139 17,667 37,813 48,767 26:),586 431,178 337,400 $9i6,5<» 886.617 1,162,717 1.700.604 1.696,801 1,750,000 3,387 6,416 6,323 7,599 6,701 ^210 11,0!I8 16,696 12,406 16,819 343 1,956 3,668 1,586 2,637 1,618 1,302 2,1!I2 2,386 2,898 1,412 600 1,636 3,304 7,871 4,710 4,153 1,226 4,819 7,012 1,963 2,56T 255 315 °666 ('60 486 236 224 387 237 381 1847 1843 1849 ISBO 19,M IS.VJ IS.%3 1854 1R56 1850 1887 Quarantine. — The quanntine regulations of Leghorn an the most rigorous of any other port in the Mediter- ranean. Ships approaching leghorn are visited by two guards sent from the health ofBce, one of whom always acts is pilot. Tha moat recent authority in the possession of the Department on this subject thus sums up the quarantine regulations of this port, so far as they relate to vessels arriving l^om American ports : i^H' "f ituararUine. — According to cases of suspicion for arrivals from Ainorica. Clean BUU — Day of Obtervation. — Fint division ; from the equator to the tropic of Caucer ; from lit December to Fabruar}- inclusive, seven days ; from Ist March to November inclusive, ten days ; vessels of war two days less than merchant vessels. Second division : from the tropic of Cancer to Charleston in- clusively, and from the equator to all South America, five day3, trota Ist December to Februat}- inclusive ; seven days, from 1st March to November inclusive. Third division: from the United States between Charleston and Canada. DmhlfulJiiUt of Health— Dai/i rf Quanmtine.—lat- TUS arpt»o of St. Roch all ... ^^ TVP Jst Marcl. to Novem ' -T'"' "«'"«'«" d^vs f„^m I " P"^""" «>"> manuS '^"' '"/."l »«'=''«' "' their susceptible commodUi^r .'"'''"'^•"'' '"'nty-fiie 'dlv, T" ''>""«''«n8Ta"o ,1 uU "f '^'' '^""*'' ^''t". posed to IH, S^an- ''„d"^i' '"" K"'"". ''"Uimo ^ ,'J "^^ """"trie,, that Ty atteltf *"^ "'" '""• »' " long quarantine, three m.^irr"' "" '"''J-'cted to tin „f , "^ '" '"' """Bgled fnia, Cl^" ;.. '^'''' ""■»• made; and when merX , "' '""» «■•« (inerullv 1 1 u. n"°"™"8''' "'"'ala ironuhat ■^'''" "P"'^ extraordinary cMo^!^ .".''" '"'lection, two li • ' '".f > '» H«dostan the M„i TP''" '«'"« Pn>- mundant of the port dermTnTt?: "«"-"- 'h^ con." pensation. The vossela of a^ „„,; "",""■»' "t com- or foreign, pay the aame nuar inf "?' "''^"'er Tuscan art., for each wnitarv Wsit 80 " '? ""'^ '^'"'»'' "uc" boat convoying the-l.el Ih „ffl ! " "I!" ^^ «« ^"r the per day, 58 cents ; or 48 cents if f , • "^ *""'' Suard, .--__,,„„ loins ; or 48 cents iff i • " S"aru, panv'a t<.r.i*„ • ' """i 'o t" »^?r?t.e„ty.c'^rj;t^ri::!s«'«^or^^ -- - '"icane i„ the CtinZtZ'UZT.l^""^'' »' 'y«en.otirS^--f,_,^ „...„„, of tutenag from Chin""to Calr,. '' ""^'^Potatlon now been totally superseded tt, """*'' '""•»" '"" '«■•• Of this Intt.r .V'foughout India by su-l from Great BrS insTo";^' t','"™. ""^ «S pa-/? territories ar^dCeyoVnG^^.' '."'"'' ^''»»- quantities furnished bi-^IamJi'" p"'-' '''"''''» ''''' ^erp, and other CWinntaltrt.^' ^"'"''"»' ^-t- ror eyery tv.^;; .!|iZr ofer'tt": ^'■'' «« "' "«' yomo embraces an urea nf -J-ff "^"Pacity—C. D. taming a population inIsM fj 'jl""™ '""^»- '^o'" I "iweM'"' ''''?'"""' '""'-^^ STo„;r"""'" "■■ 7^^:sr-:i;^i-tha„.rma, d^ p-™Krmi^; £^~s^^ «een> to ho inexha"st^^" ^Tj^ "' ^'"f™. "l"* known, biarJher-.' ''" ''""' " "<" ""S" states being inland, and buf i, .'"''' "^ ''""' these ' befor. \e CbZi P'"'"' '"" '^^'^ "^'n 1690 ve«« basis for commercXt'':;^^'7PP'''d with any ! is sii^,^^^^^^^^^^^ considerable. By treatv nf n! ' '. ^ """"«• ''^'V in- no notice of T.,, '""^' mentions Sidon, he takes states of Panna /nd Mc 1 m adredT.'' I'V^'^^" ' "^ '^e tther^ ty ' tn, ^'■''' ^'"'""^ -« »ed' b tria, and duties aro uonZl.T< ""' '""" of Aus- the latter w,,I ^nf Ji """ " "" ™nclu8iye proof that rates and in the same manner h^^k'"""^" "' '"e same ' proph^ ilaTah I "\™"^'''^""« emporium The Za<.ra.-This litt e Z?fT "•"'" "'■ """ «™Pire. ,' from 700 t„ mn' ■'"•"","''■- ""J Ezekiel, Who Hourished October Jl, 1847 ""i^ .''f «,«as annexed to Tuscany ' a d v .f ■ K^"' ^^'''"> ^'rist, represent Tvrt. some ininort-nn" f,"' ," "^ oil and silk is acouiri„„ > . " .:V°" f" """"';'^'> Nebuchadnezzar. thVinl,,.!.!.™ ..! Lucca became ruWrw"""-!^'"''''''' '^'^ ^"^o «> i haX'Z'n'? '"^' T; '"^" <"• "■" n.ainTand"."bu, 'J lertUe, and the cultu™ J" -i , " '^ exceeding. Babilonian m^^ , k xt ■ " '^iKtliened period by the some iniportancel'he forn, "I •""" '"'' '« ""^qxiring conyeved t^,l'°T^ Nebuchadnezzar, thVinhabita its ed the best i„ it„ !" „^"™f,^ ''!"'& eenerally e'steem- ' lUrildilnl f ''' ""'' '^'" Koods to an island a . Tl.e imports o?L,S' Thit" "!'" " ^'^ quality. I nj y d „ i' ' ! '"T h" ""'^ "'-^ ^'"' founded, wlSch jalt fish, hemp, flax coMo, J. "^ ' V"'" ""'* 'P''"'. entitled KJ;„ , "','' '">' ™'' «" "-at account, facturcs. Salt an,f V ?. ' ''""'' ""'I ^^ous manu new i.»„ '''* ^ '^and the other simply Tyre. The o'i'^s, and 1^1^^^^"''" ''''"' e«vernme„t in™! ' a„Tit J' ™""''"''' '" """"''- "^f-ding iL llol^, value of about ®]60 "no "' °'".^-«.'V» «« annual ' Tyrians to '!;-™i,J^.J'''•?"™ ""'''' ''>' ""e rmg industry Lucca ,V e!!!?^ ""^^ '"'^^™' '^ "'^ir commercial skiU and yn?ii» ^1- t "•''ports were TYR 1890 TYR foumlntlon of Aloxundria, by diverting the eommerce thiit had fonnorly centred at Tyn into a new cliun- nel, );Hvn lier an irn^pnrulilo lilow ; and slie gradually douliniMl, till, cnnHintently with the denunciation of the pniplutt, hor |iuliu'0!i htive liccn luveled with the duat, and aha has lierama "a place fur the apreading of neti In tlie inidat of the aea." Cummerer. — PhiDnicin was one of the amalleat roun- tricB of antiquity. It occupied that part of the 8}Tian cooat which atretchea from Aradna (tlio modem Kouad) on tlie north to n little lielow Tyro on the aouth, a dia- tanco of aliout CO leuguea, Ita breadth waa much leaa conaidcralil«, lieing for the moat part Iwundyd by Mount Lilianua to the enat, and Mount Carmel on the aouth. The aurface of tliin narrow tract waa generally rugged and mountainoun ; and tlio aoll in the valleya, though modoratol" Ottile, did not alTuril sufficient aupplies of food to feou the popubition. LilNinua and iti depend- ent ridges were, however, covered with timber suitable for ahi|)-building ; ond l>oaidea Tyro and Sidri8e of her citiitens, they were naturally led to engage in moritime and comnicrviul adventures ; and became the boldest and most experienced murinera, and tlio greatest discoverers, of ancient times. From the remotest antiquity, n considerable trade aeema to have licen carried on l>etwcon tlie Kaetom •nd Weatem worlds. The apices, drugs, precioua Btonea, ami other valuable products of Aral)ia and In- dia, huvo alwaya been highly eateemed in Europe, and have been exchanged for the gold and silver, the tin, wines, etc., of the latter. At the first dawn of authentic history, we tlnd rhoonicin the principal centre of thia commerce. Her inhaliita' Canaanltes — a term which, in the language of the f^at, means mer- chants. The products of Araldo, India, Persia, etc., were originally conveyed to her by companies of trav- eling mercliants or caravans, which seem to hare been constituted in the name way, and to have performed exactly the same part in the commerce of the Eaat, in the days of Jacob, that they do at present. — Gen. xxxvii. 26, etc. At a later period, however, in the reigns of David and Solomon, the Phtcniciana, having formed nn alliance with the Hebrews, ac(|uired the ports of Elath and Ezion-gol)er, ut the northeast ex- tremity of the Red Sea. Hero they fitted out fleets, which traded with the ports on that sea, and probably with those of Southern Arabia, tho west coast of India, and Ethiopia. Tho ships are said to have visited Ophir; and a great deal of erudition has lieen expend- ed in uttempting to determine the exact situation of that emporium or countr}-. Wo agree, however, with Ileeren, in thinking that it was not the name of any particular place, but that it was a sort of general des- ignation given to the coasts of Arabia, India, and Af- rica, bordering on the Indian Ocean ; somewhat In the same loose way aa we now uae the terms East and West Indies. The distance of the K«d Sea firom TjTe Iwing ver}' considerable, the conveyance of goods from the one to the other l>y land must have l)e«n tedioua and expenf- ive. To lessen this inconvenience, the Tyrlans, short- ly after they got possession of Elath and Ezion-f^lier, seized npon Rhinoculura, the port In the Mediterranean nearest to the Ked Sea. The products of Araliia, In- dia, etc., Iieing carried hither by the most compenrl'iug route, were then put on board ships, and conv-ycd by a brief and onay voyage to Tyre. If we 'xcept the transit liy Eg}-pt, thia was the shortest and moat direct, and for that reason, no doubt, the cheapeit channel by which tlie commerce between Southern Asia and Eu- rope could then be conducted. But it is not believed that the Phoenicians possessed any permanent footing on the Ked Sea after tho death of Solomon. The want of it docs not, however, s„'em to have aensilily affected their trade ; and Tyre continued, till the foundation of Alexandria, to be the grand emporium for Eastern products, with which it was abundantly supplied by caravans from Arabia, tho bottom of the Persian Gulf, and from Uabylon, by way of Palmyra. The commerce of the Phoeniclana with the countries bordering on the Mediterranean was stiU more extens- ive and valuable. At an early period they established settlements In Cyprus and Rhodes. The former was a very valuable acquisition, from its proximity, the number of its porta, ita fertility, and tho variety of its vegetable and mineral productions. Having passed successively into Greece, Italy, and Sardinia, they pro- ceeded to explore the southern ahotea of France and Spain, and the northern shores of Africa. They af- terward adventured upon the Atlantic, and were tho first people whose flag was displayed beyond the Pil- lars of Kercules. The commerce and navigatfon of Tyre probably at- tained their maximum from C50 to &60 years before Christ. At that period the Tyrians were the factori and merchants of the civilized world, and they enjoyed an undisputed pre-eminence in maritime affairs. Tlie ]irophet Ezel(iel (chop, xxvii.) has deacribed in mag- nificent terms the glory of T-'re, and has enumerated several of the most valuable productions f.iund in her markets, and the countries whence they were hi ouglit. The fir-trees of Senir (Hermon), the cedrrs of I-e lianon, the oaka of Baaban (the country- to the east of Galilee), the Ivory of the Indies, the fine linen of Egypt, and the purple and hyacinth of tho isles of Elisliah (Pelo- ponnesus), are specified among tho articles used for lier ships. The Inhabitants of Sidon, Arvad (Aradus), Geliel (Byblos), served her as mariners nnd carpenters. Gold, silver, lead, tin, iron, and vessels of brass ; slaves, horses, mules, sheep, and goats ; pearls, precious stones, and coral ; wheat, balm, honey, oil, spices, and gums ; wine, wool, and silk, nr« mentioned as being broii;:lit into the port of Tyre liy sea, or to its markets iiy land, from Syria, Arabia, Damascus, Greece, Tarshisli, nml other placea, the exact site of which it ia difficult to determine.— i6tee M'Ccllocu's Com, Diet, omi or tholSth century .eroea hin, fro,,, violent r„l7„ 'L», ^T'' h"",., lo ^f '"o '•''"«<" of mo,.„ „|„ "IT'^^':' »'« 'r«ver«.,, veryaiidont. U appear/ by ,h^, ^"'''«="«»«ro Mou,,,T''"''''" '"»» of N,' ' h ^""«'"">io.. an.l ,1." K (hat u,nl,rella, wire ,i8eX\ '""'"S' «' Porscpo! ,i„ ".'""'""■ ^ l"^» ' divide ih.' '""""• "'» Kockv to be carried ^-yZ^^t'^T^r -«•= "-'^-• trios ami cupboards shows tho p,'.'^''''"'-"""' In pa„. nmbrc a. It U ,ai,l thaMh' „5 """" """'<"' bv a , umLrella in the street, "f fo,"l '"'""" «'"' "»<^'l »" Jona, nan,vay, who ,i ed j "'" L? 7^ ""> "-ennvol/n" years the .nanufacture of Zhro\~,T''- Of ""'o by tho use of steel rib, in,?o^do ^h TV'""' '"'P^ved o'lnffs are mainly connned,„ ?^"'"''"""- ''"tov. and alpaca. ^ ™"""'"' '» '^"tto,,, silk, ; ,, ^ WhUherejporUa. Ulbraltar , . . C'nnaila Amra .. ,, Ha^ll ;■• Mflxico . . J;'ontr«lIiep;,biii;:; Jiow Uranadi, . HauilHicli luittiids'.' .',■.".■ Totol tlicir highest elevation, in. I, ^"f ^'"'^ ">ey reach westerly, k„„w„ a ", „ c'^/''^ ''r"»'^^l'lng off noTh"^ Ad,rondaolSt. Law- rence. It is computed that thesn lakes con'ilii 11,0(10 ouhic miles of water — aquantity more than live -sovonths of all the fresh water of the earth. The exte.it of the country drained by them from thfl northwest angle of Lako Superior to the St. Lawrence, including also the area of the lakes themselves, is estimated at 335,6 1. '> gi]uara miles. — Ste Lakes, Commrne "/• Hirrri. — The water courses of the United States arc on an extensive scale, and alfurd, witti the groat arti- ficial connecting links, a system of inlanii navigation unsurpassed. First In order are those uf the Atlantic slope, the waters of which enter directly into tlio ocean ; the principal of these are the Penotiscot, tbo Kcnnulx.'C, the Mcrriniac, the Connecticut, the Hudson, the Dela- ware, tho Susquehanna, the Potomac, the Jumcs, the Capo Fear, tho Great Pedcc, tho Savannah, the Alta- maha, and St. Johns, etc. These are all navigahh^ streams, some for a great dintancn inlanil. Second, the rivers entering tho Gulf of Mexico or Sea of Cortez. The Appal.ichicula, tho Mobile, the immense Mississip- pi, tho Sabine, the Trinity, tho Brazos, tlie Colorado, and the Kio Grande. Tho rivers entering the Pncilic are tho Columbia, the Sacramento and Sun Joaquin, tho Colorado, and Gila, the latter two disclmrging tlielr waters into the Gulf of California. Tliere arc many rivers entering the great lakes, and also the St. I.,aw- ronco, tho great artery of Canada. — ccn ceded to tlio United States by Virginia and othui' claimants, and which was erected into a government AS carlv as 17S7, was admitted on the 29th November, 1802. 5. Louisiann, a part of the vast territory of tho same name purchased of Franco by the United States in 1803, and subsequently known as tho Territory of Orleans, was aduiittcd on the 8th April, 1812. G. Indiana, the second State formed to tho northwest of Ohio, was admitted within Its present limits on the nth Decemlicr, 1816. 7. Mississippi, which was formed from tho territory coded to tlie United States by South Carolina and Georgia, was admitted on the 10th December, 1817. 8. Illinois, tho third of the Northwestern States, was admitted on tho 3d December, 1818. 9. A Inbama, tho second State formed from the South Carolina and Georgia cessions, was admitted on the 14tli December, 1819. 10. Maine, originally a province of Massachusetts, but having been permitted to frame a State government by that State, was admitted on tbo 16tb March, 1820. IJNI .n. c....o„. ,v.. ..Imittert hr,r;' T "" '"""•'- 18. AlKAujm,, 11,0 f,„,r„, s, ,, ''*"' JinB, |n;w. rllory northwe.t „f the Ohio I ""'' ''»"' «»"• t«r. tho 2«lh June, l«37. "" "'"«•■' *" •'Imltted „„ 1898 UNI vs. rexa,, which ha I " "" ""'" ernniontf, which are .1 vie I '.■?'! .f'"^ '''■pcndcit gov State,." Such arc ehe'rerritorL"'rn •"■"'« I'""'"' l»Klon, Utah, New Mexico I.IM ^"'«»"' ^V""'- Titory of Nobr«,ka i, not ','?""":«"'',"'• 'i'ho Tor- vast territory Hot apart for" ho uT"""^' ""' '"" "'» existence, but each r.„ii """"""'y SRcreMfn ".nit^ i, Kovernrbyt'rn >r • """^ '« -" A4:t:r87''--'«'''"'oaTc;r,toryo„thoi.h 6:^^':S:j;:'^'-w,i«.o,a„d, ■-"-laj^Z -,^"'^«.nd,H,;r,hrj^^-;^ '» '«« Toxa. wa, anue'^,, '^''."'""•.y «' Oregon, etc I?'-" mile,, an, ifv r.r l:'"" "" ""* "'V^ Mexico „,,„„a of ,-.i..2'„55';2l 'T """'*'"•' *"h Incorporated. Thii. , T,""'"""nal „,uaro iuIIk. wa. f';'« do-bio itri,'!'" '«"'""/ »' ""> U"lT.U ;'«nco, and thu, ha. t ncrea ' °'"-' >""' »' "• «»- "'in sixty year,. T,,„ ,, '"''"'''"''•-f"' «., m.thorl,yir„," ^/„'° '^»"» ore given upon h' "fi'Sor. tr>.»,y "" ''■•"'"fy", m,p of Kw^;'. *'"■''' 'mitywlil, . "' "'» session of Con- one-, ITh 1 "'?° "' "'" «"«i»n en,,, re In ?• ^ ' greased sufflciontly to iustif ,,!? """".""»" ''as pro- and \tlan in " '"'■«* " "'« »'op<-» of ho Paclfl„ — ™ Wtai^Abba or T,„ ,»,„„ g,„,^ I'aclflo aiope Atlantic •lopopropir" Northern Uko rc^on «u'f region ..;;;; ..:; ■Mi»r.^'p;/'jLXv\,rfr'^''- AggroKate. Am. In I "•I" "f *r.. oTeiJiT llj.. Mil.. Hlni._ ....... .•"'• (!27.0(K I 1,6M,09J ,<|Un Mll«. idfl.oua " !l.'>2.C02 :'I7.M2 27,,'SOO 20 «g i7-63 3 83 II 09 41-47 21 8A 62-56 --—~~J-LL I Zl.i'X K) I Thus over two-fifih, of tbn .• i ~ ~ ' - ' -^^-^ ^L'Ai.m.tiau UNI ItM UNI In rdironiU, I'lirt Vtiiciiiivar on tlio (luluinliU, In Or*KiiM, (junliHii mill lliintiin ii|iiiii iha AlUntic, lluil- miii't lUy oil IImi imlrnnia tiiirlli, «nil llaviint, Vura ('run, tliil lliii illy iif Mimliii, on tlin rxtrunia •iiutli. 'lliu vtrluun umal li«alil>, iliic'llvll|i>t, (ml tnlile-lainU on llm imilliiiint liu iiiilliti*l«> ■• fullowi i MlialHlppI IimIii, l,lill,M>*l >ii|iiiir« nilliiii Hi, l.nwrancu, 'ITA.IUO; lluiUuii'ii llu>, l,n;7,'JI)il| M«i'kiiiiiilii h»An, H\m,'MI; I'ai'llW ilurlMl)', l'iU,(XKl| AtUiillu ilvaivll/, 'iTUiTUU •i|ii»rt iiilli'ii. Mr. Ktrliy, In liln llrcunifiliienl liirliimnry, glvcii , tliii rulluwhiK NHurnuiitMt VHlli'y uf llm Oliln, 'JUU,0(M) •>iH*rii mll» I Vitllxy of (III! MI»alMl|i|il prupur, Ihu.UOU; Vitllay uf dm Ml»i>iiil, rilNi.lMIU; anil iliu Valley uf llio Liiwur MlanUallipl, UaU.INH). 'I'ulal, 1,21U,UUU utuaru uillxa. Mflulanant Maury luniiiaroa lliu banlni of th« Ulil Wurlil wllli tliiiaii ttlili'li IK" itraluad Into (bo Uulf uf MaxiMi anil ( arllilixaii nuuii, MadlMirraiiaan In I'.iintw .,, LICADoo KlU MiMMH) hipliritliil ll'iMMHi Inriii* Om.flOil • Imigm ,,, Arfism Irraitiolily Oiniiio iHliir.uf^lnilU I^-."<|" ( )f Wjiluni lliiri.iw, lOiliic, nW T»",')'K) TuUI <>r Mnilltnrraiiuan liiilla and W. Canye. . . B.kM.ikhi Ilaaiii nf MlaalMhilil l«i,IKIil llailiKlii Kliirlila anil Timaa MIV.ikhi iraliMiiiiil laiiiral Aniprli'it DM.unn Aiiiaaiin 1,Tli«,lllNi Drtiiuoii anil all .>lh«n iif llii> ( ,i llilwan Moa 7lln,0(ii> \ Tutaliifdulfaml CarllilinanHaa 4,'^HIhh) MllkrgiH'ii In aipiam inllna ~444,uou l.luiUiiimnt Manry reinnrka, " Tim nrca of all lliu val- luya tvliliii am ilraliiml liy (li« rlvura of Kuropo wlilcli uinpty Into tliu AlUnlli', all llm valloyt tliat aro ilrnincil l>y till) rivara iif Aala wlilrli empty Into tlio Inillaii Oinan, anil i>f all llm vallnya tlial aro ilralnod by tho rivura uf Afrliit anil I'.urupn wlilcli empty Into the MiHllturraiiunii, ibma nut luvrr an extent of territory 1.1 uruAt «* (liKt lili'liiili'il In lb" vnlleya drained by tbo Ainurlnaii riviira alutin, wliicb dlicbarga tbonisclves Inlii una I'xntral ana," Dr. ratturaiin, uf I'lillailxliilila, mado tlio centro of rtpi'timliillrn fHiiiuliilliin of tlio llnlun in 1840 in the liortliwuatiirn ualriiuillv of VlrKlnlo, nnd itatea that It had travtlnd woalwanl iilncn 17110, when itwaa in llal- tlniure niuiilv, Marvlaiid, 1M2 inlica In very nearly the •aiiifl paralliil of liilltiiiln, Tlio fulluwIiiK laliln will abuw tho area included within tlia lavsral i|iiu)(rapliti:al divlaluna which arc iittiiiudi A 11*4 III' TUN aavtiNAii naN*T inviaiona or tub Ukitxk HtATKa. ty divlalona Inrludnd within tlia orifanUad Htaioa and Terrltorlea, but It la Inipoaalbia to kIvo any aatlafac* tiiry alali'inent of tliuir arraa. Ily ri-rrrrnia to (ho ata« llatlcal tablna of Iheaa couiitlea In the IJullail Statea Ci'naua Itepurt, it will b« found how llaldn they aro to obanK"*! *iid alao what chaugta w«ra actually tflected liutwiu'ii IHIO and It^.ill. AaiA or Til* KTATia and TaaaiToaiia of tui t'«iT«D HTATta. |iir T»rrtl»'f]f, Arta InrliiiM la a Thii Tnrrllorliia, , , f.47?,(i01 BO'U NiinaiavuliiililhiK htali'a nut Ti^ril.i lurloa ; Mlitvi'linlillitH Hlnl/,i)iis 2'il 1 \iM* 8110 Koiii Imrii Hlatna , «M,7l)li 8 -SI HitulliwiiMttil'ii Ntaf rlMliiitl '. l,Sno,881 40 •S8 2,070, mo TOM Nui1lii>nal|>iii|ii»il"!IO' 1,»TI),(I7I 87 10 rliiiilli uf lalilniliilKl'' tUl' UAA.IiHti (no,2im 82 DO Want lit llm llunu Indopniidotit Htatea and nina Torritoriet, iiiuludliiK ttia Ulatrli'l of Columbia, whose areas will bo found in thfl tabid annexed, prepared at the Topo- irniphical lluruRU, It Is tbo only offlcial sUtemeof. Tli«r« w«rH Ui K)M ilkUaa buoditd uia twenty coun- AUImnia ArkallMW I'nliriinil* Iiiliilila, Ulatrtutuf r'nnnflctlcnt ^ Dulawar* t I'lurlils Ilinrul* Mllnola Iiiillaim Iiullan Tar, (& of Kauaoa) WA Kaiti'nM KMititrky UuiUlana Malt Mitryland MaHHiirliiiMtta MU'lilKiin Mlniii'Miln Territory Mlaalaalnpl MlaaiMirl Niihraaka Territory Nuw IUin|iNlilro \i!iv \li\i,ii Territory .., . Si'ii Vcirk Vi'w .li-rary Nurlh <'iiri>llna ihlo (iri'K"" Ti'rrltory IVtiuHylvKiilu Illindii NUiid ■ioiitli i)tii'ai*t>o 'I'fxaa Mali Ten1tory...» Mi'Klrila ViTinnnt WnalilnRton Territory... NVIaconalii Arcit nlitalnuil by treaty will) Mvxlro AuKn-KHte M. Itlh IfiA.UMli (HI 4,(1TI 2. 1211 IW.IKI no.4iiA lULhlf.! Tl,127 MI,U14 1I4,7(W 87.WI 4I,2M ni,7«ii 11,124 7,hO(l IM,248 Idll.IWi 47, 1 M 87.8HI1 CBA.KH2 0,2811 207,007 47.00(1 R,.120 M),7n4 ll!i,V04 lS5,nui 4a.lNiO 1.8118 8li,;i«fi 4(1.000 287, ^ '4 2«'.M70 01,862 10,212 128.022 53,1124 J7,r.flO I'nl'aal. .if ItiUl Ar*a. I71I 17'* but Wift 0O7 2 02 1 ON 1 80 1 IS 2 '42 178 8 11 1 1-28 140 1(18 088 OliO lilt ^■(l^ 161 2 JO II 44 0-82 7-oft ir.o 018 I 78 1 .'18 80 1 ^7 om 101 1 M 8 00 li'17 210 can 410 184 !,iiii8.ai:6 Xaakaf atiiiM, •!*., Tarrlliirially — ««— 18 T 40 IT as 18 14 18 20 10 10 28 IM SO 82 3S m 22 11 1 84 4 SB l>6 21 •J7 B 21 81) 81 86 B t 11 83 8 17 The Territory of Nebraska ronstltntcs one-ninth, Utah one-elovenlh, Texas one-twelfth, New Mexico onc-foiirtcentb, Oregon one-sixteenth, Missouri and Virginia a little mora than one-flftlcth each, South Carolina one-hundredth, Masrachusctts ono-tbrco hun- dred and eightieth, and Rhode Island one-two thousand throe hundredth part of the national area. In addition to the above States, it is proposed to add to the I'nion tho States of Minnesota (the bill for the admission having already pai>scd the Senate), Kansas, Oregon (nnd, when this territory shall be more devel- oped, a further division of Oregon will take place, add- ing Olio or mora States), Ontcnagnon (including tho northwestern part of Slichignn, and embracing territory as large In extent as New York State), Nebraska, and AViishington. It Is also proposed, when Texas shall increase sufficiently in population to make a division of that Stato advisable, to divide it into one or two more States. Katios of representations for Congress, 1790 and 1800, 1 to 83,000; 1810, 36,000; 1820, 40,000; 1830, 47,700; 1840, 70,080; 1850, 93,420. Act of 1«J0 llxes tho number of members at 233, to which afterward was added 1 for California ; Massachusetts, Ithodo Isl- and, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Alabama, Tennessee, Kttntncky, Missouri, Indiana, Texas, South Carolina, and Georgia, 1 memlier each for largest frac- tions. Future ratios of apportionment to be determined by tho Secretary of Interior, by dividing tho number 283 into whole reprf tenia! ive population, giving States with largest fractions members to mako up the total. Members fh>ra new States admitted shall be in addition to the 233 until tho next censui. '■orci.ATiriN, I'nrn Nankaf KlalH, •!•., T»trll.ifl«llj ~ "ftl IM T 411 »T M n M Id •m to ID m !UI O'i 3S in 'ii 11 1 84 4 !B fi 11 « 5 21 OS 81 •m 8 I 11 83 8 IT ArkuriMi <.'«Mri)mi» . . . . <;«rolln«, .Nurlii'","" <;«rtj|lii», Huiiili .. " <;"|iinibl», l)|ilr|,ij; Dc'Uwtrg Kiorhu .;; iiiirinN .,..;; 'iiilUii*. ,.'.',',' Iiiilliii Wrrtton".'," ' I'twn. ' ' ' iJ •"«!'• ■I'l'rriti.fT.' UNI ms ■j.m lllll'ky I'niilalana Aluliifl . , . M«ryl,ii,| ._,_ Ml T'l.iii8 W.BOT Hiiii.naa "J— •■••••.iT^iJsrMiR 'LIS! «H^^i M U7M oojiu !?"»•"'» I ■..BNirV ""'"".'K''l. .•Iiu'iv 0» • ■ 8»7,(1M m!?;:.;7;7'""':'V2i»''"U,;.;, Total »»N»,T, o, I.OPUW„„« Ve>n. iroo, , 1800.. 1810.. W«Ui Mij Tttrllorl, Alahania Arltaniw.. <-'»llfornl« . . C;oliimbla,I)|,'trtoto>: • onneotloiit i IX-luKraro , , . Florida ••liorala llllnoia.. Indiana . '""o .... Kontuc'. ' Louisiana . . Maino " .Uaryland .'.'.'.' JI»".«. EitlniAletL C«a««f. 180O e,'.g|,4a8 6,3(»,li25 ISIO T,0:35,lS2 «,638,181 1S30 12.811.118 12,8«3,0S0 1840 n.21T,T0« 17,009,463 1880 23,I3S,U04 23,191,878 AosmoATK PorrLATioN or the I'mitxii Statxs fob iacb Ykar raoM ITiiO to 18(IU.— ( i ue ({ate rsoii 1840 TO 18S0 IS ASBCMED AS DATA FOa TUK KEXT DiCADE.) tttn. AmtngaU. 1790... !i,»4»,8i7 1791... 4,M9,(K)0 1792... 4,173,024 17i«... 4,3r)0,'il0 1794... 4,431,272 1795... 4,6«l!.329 179«... 4,706,604 i797... 4,818,919 179S... 4,99«,706 1799... 6,148,994 ISOO. .. 6,305,926 1801... 6.473,407 1802... 6,640,17« 1808... 6,a>4,39S 1804... «.009,'.>4« 1805... «, 197,897 1800... < 393,634 1S07... «,595,M« am... 8,803.1)28 1809... 7.01S.282 m«... 7,239,814 ISIl... 7,449,900 1S12... 7.«6l!,206 1818... 7,888,729 YeAra. Atr^regnla. ISU. .. 8.117,710 1S1&... 8,3.'>:i,838 1S1«... 8,6'.I5,80« 1817.„ 8,845.312 1819... 1819... 1820... 1321. 9,102,000 9,300.201 9,038,131 9,fti0,flll0 13-.'2... 10,2l1,84S 1S28... 10,610,0'3 1824... 10,818,069 1826... 11,136.727 1828... 11.402,088 1827... Il,7n8,013 1828... 12,14378.1 1829... 12,499,087 1830... 12,8110,020 1831... 13,'234.9ni 1832... 13.014.420 1833... 14,0C4.TS9 1834... 14,400.360 1836... 14,819,425 1830... 1,6,244,.144 183T... 16,081,447 1838 1841 1842. 1813. 18U. 1846. 1840 Afgr«KAt«. 10,181,087 1839... 10,698,030 1840... 17,069,463 17,000,752 18,148,689 18,713,479 19,296,971 19,890,574 20,616,871 1847... 81,164,444 1848... 21,812,893 1819... 13,491.305 1850... 28,191,878 1851... 28,878,717 18.62... 24,676,304 1863... 25,298,120 18M... 26,041,890 IS^'S... 26,807,511 27,595,002 38,400,074 20,242,139 80,101,867 1S.V). 1857. 1«S8. 1859 1800... 80,986,861 The national census was conducted under the direc- tlon of the Secretary of State until the formation of the Department of the Interior (March 8, 1849), when it was made a subordinate branch of that office. The statistics were obtained by the marshals of the district courts prior to 1850, and special deputies appointed un- der them. Several months were usually devoted to tlie labor ; and the returns thus obtained, being snl^ject to the errors arising from changes and removals in tli3 interim, consequently were not always reliable. The following is an estimate of the progress of popu- lation from the year 1860 to the close of the century : Yun. 1861.. 1802.. 1363.. 1864. . 1366.. 1866.. 1867.. 1S08. . 1809.. 1870. . 1871.. 1872.. 1878. . 1874.. Aiswr«t». 82,024,400 82,989,252 88,978,928 84,998,825 35,038,23< 36,089,877 87,170,968 88,286,080 89,434,608 40,017,708 41,830,239 43,091,582 44,334,064 46,716,586 Vt*n. 1875., . ^mz Yarn 1S8i) 1876.. . 48,499,003 13(10 1877.. . 49,954.0r.2 1891 1S78.. . 61.453,291 1892 1879. . . 52,9U0.889 1S93 1830.. . 54,580,7!ir> 1SP4 1881.. . 56,224,399 1895 1882.. . 67,911,130 1806 1683.. . 59,048,403 1837 1884.. . 61,447,010 1898 1686.. . 63,291,353 1890 1880.. . «5,19n,192 1!I«0 1887.. . 67,146.917 1901 1883.. . 69,160,294 .. 71,5^122 .. 73.382,186 . . 75,578,039 . . 77,840.848 .. 80,170.063 .. 82,681,844 . . 86.068.784 . . 87,010,647 .. 90,228.663 .. «2,n36,7'.a .. 9,'S,723,799 .. 98,695,612 ..101,668,877 AgricuHurt. — The following table will show the rela- tive numb<;r of farms, and quantity of acres in each in the several States and Territories of the United States, as well as the value of farms and implements. The unimproved land embraces such as is in occupancy and necessar;,' to the enjoyment of the Improved, though not itself reclaimed. Meadow-lands in all of the States, ore therefore regarded improved. Fabhino Lands asd IjiraoTEUEMTB or tue Umiteb Stated, 1860. StAtaa wd Tarrltoriaa. Favma, rianto- dona, a'lC. A«rea of Improred Land. Acraa of unimproTad Land. .Avaraga NumlMr of Aerca toaaeU Fann. Caah ValM of Farma. Valua of Pariiiing ImpIemanU and Machinery. Average Valua of Farma. Average Valua of FarmLng ImplemanU and Maehtoary. Average Valua of Farma, Inv planitnla, and Machinery. Alftbaina Arkanms Cilifornla Columbia, DUtrlct of. . Oonnoetkut Dclaw^ro Florida (iear^\% (Itlnnis Indiana Iowa Kentucky lionisiana Maine Maryland „ Ma'JsachtiMtts Michigan MisiiMippt Missouri. New If arnpshlro New .Terwy \«w York North Carolina. ........ Ohio Penni.ylTanIa Rhode lalaiid South Carolina Tennessee Texas Vermont Virginia Wisconiin MInnesoti Territory . . . Now Mexico Territory. OrcKon 'i'erritory Utah Territory TiUI, 1860 4I,9M 17,763; 872; 267 22,446 0,063 4,304 i 51.7591 76.:os; 93.890 14.806 74.777 18,422 40,700 21,S«0 84,069 84,089 83,96(1 64,4.% 29,229 28,9061 170.0211 60,963, 143,307 127.577 6,335! 29,9117 72,7361 12,198 29,703] 77,013 20,177 167 8,750 1,104 920 4.435.iil4 78l,r)30 32,464 16,267 1,703,178 680,862 349,049 0,378.479 5.039,515 5.040,513 8i4,08i 5,908,270 1,510,026 2,0.39,610 2,797,90,-) 2,133,436 1,929,110 3.444,358 2,938,425 2.251,438 1,707,991 12,408.964 6,4.58,976 9,861,493 8,6i8,619 8.'i6,487 4,072,651 6,176,173 613,976 2,601,409 10,800,136 1,045,499 6,035 100,201 1.12,867 16,833 7,702,067 1,816,084 8,861,631 11,187 016,701 376,282 1,246,240 10,442,900 0.997,801 7,740,879 1.911,882 10,981,478 3,399,018 2,616.797 1,380,446 1,222,.')70 2.4.54,780 7,040,001 0,794,246 1.140,926 ;« 1,965 0.710.120 15.M3,008 8.14«,flOil 0,294,723 197,461 12.145.049 13.803,849 10.862,863 1.524.418 16,702,176 1,981,159 23.840 124,870 299,951 80.610 140 4406 103 100 153 371 441 153 130 186 227 372 97 212 Ofl 129 309 179 110 116 lis 369 125 117 103 Ml 201 942 1,39 340 148 184 77 372 51 $04, 16, 3, 1 73, 18,: 0, 95, 90, 130. 10, 155, 75. 51, 87 109. 61 64. 03. 68, 120, 554, 07, 358, 4o: 17. 82. 97, 10, «3. 316. 28, 1 2, ,328,224 ,265.246 ,374,041 ,730,400 ,720,422 ,830,031 ,323,109 ,753,446 13.1,290 ;386,173 ,0.'>7,667 ,021,262 .314,398 ,801,743 ,178,646 ,076,347 ,872,440 .738,034 ,226,643 >,246,997 1,237,611 ,540,042 ',391,700 ,768,003 ,870,099 ',070,802 ,431,634 :,851,212 ,660,003 ),367,2i7 t.401,643 1,628,663 161,048 ,663,922 ,849,170 811,799 $5,126,(S0:l 1,601,290 . 103,4-3 40,220 1,892,641 610,279 058,795 6.894.160 0,406,661 0,704,414 1,172,869 6,109,037 11,570,938 2,284,567 2,403,443 8,209,684 2,891,87. 6,702,927 8,981,526 2,314,125 4,426,608 22,084,920 3,931.632 12,760.686; 14,722,6411 497,2011 4.130,.15l| 6,360.210; 2,151,7041 2,739,282! 7,021.772t 1,041.508 15,^81 77,0601 183.423. 84.2sa, $15.38 860 4443 0481 3240 3114 1409 1850 1201 1453 1126 2073 8648 1173 3183 3202 1.521 1013 1161 1890 6030 3 60 1192 2496 811i7 3170 •-761 1346 1357 2129 2810 1414 1081 441 244S .337 $122 90 118 161 84 84 163 114 84 71 79 69 863 49 113 94 86 170 73 79 186 129 69 68 116 92 138 74 176 93 91 81 102 21 167 91 $1666 1'50 4601 0032 3324 3198 1022 1904 1346 1524 1204 3142 0611 1222 4101 3290 10110 1782 1284 1969 6216 8879 1201 2683 8312 3262 2389 1419 1633 2221 21101 1495 1183 402 2006 423 1,419,075 113,032,614 180,5'i8,000| 203 |$D,271,676,426|$I6I,66; 033 $2.-58 $105 I The dverago numl>cr of acres embraced In each form in the nnited States is 20,3, valued at 92258, and npon each farm there is an avera):^ of $105 in imple- ments and machinery. In Louisiana, so complicated is the sugar process, the average machinery is $863 to th« farm. By another table prepared by sections, it woald seam that only about one-thirteenth of the whole area of the organized States and Territories is im- proved, and about one-eighth mora is occupied and not improved. In New England about twenty-six acres in the hundred are improved, in the South sixteen acres, in the Northwest twelve, and in the Southwest Ave. In the South the number of acres to the farm is largest, but the value per acre is most in the Middle States. The average value per acre for the Union, improved and unimproved, is flM4. The whole number of acres occupied is 293,560,614, or nearly one-sixth part of the national domain.— Cen«u« Rtfort of 1860. UNI IMlddIo Stales. . Southern States . . , Nor h'*"'!""' State."'; K^i^,*"";"''™ States.. ■"• (Tex«« I I Tot»l. Who). A,„ "» AcTn. "•'*.36l(,'il60 '•.''•«3ii,840 «2»,266,fl 'fi-'.M2ri , 1850. '"''""''•I'Jn^^iiii^ H.160,6.14 20,200,008 2«,(114,2S9 15.428,730 32,043,607 802,880 043,(140 prored, jwrc.ol. i^T?! I "•a 2;??? 85.72 T'^S-l-lor #lllir 17-17 D6S I '",ie»,373 10-07 ,,; "; 350,283 IM-fli '""«> 33,772,07(1 ion ^J.i 22».008 otw i^lOS «.0lla,790 K ?:^1' 170,S3d' """ '"""-^ 'MiiSMu 200 ■•.840,2141 K)8 "•■852,308 .42 mriii, 18M I iia;.];'; 09 714 12.1 108._ 7!»-4» 67 71 I 888 6-40 , 278-67 166-41 S-84 r «' 11 -i •28 183 t..I ,a,^ 11-' Mulet. U..1.. fnu-- iniF Other fot»I , •158,001 60,107 21,719 8>4 26,879 J Alabama . . Arkansas...'.'.' L'aliCarnia Columbia, uiitriif of •■ I Connecticut . . . . ' ' I Delaware riorida .,..",'.'; 1 Georgia Illinola...'"'." J Indiana... I 'oira ■_■_" I Kentucky ..','.' I I^uisiana ...'.' J Maine I Maryland ! ! " J JJ»»»achu8ettV ' " Michigan Mississlpj I Missouri . NewHamps'hi're;;'-- I nev .Jersey -VewYork. North CaroliM. ■;;;•• I Ohio Pennsylvania'.' Rhode Island . i-';'"""! ».soJ South Carolina oS'^^S 1 Tennessee . L*"^- 171 37,4S3 Texas....;:: PJO.636 7.5;803 Vermont... ' Virginia.... I "isconsin. ..;::"" , Minnesota Terrf'f'n'-',.' 1 — ••■*■ New Me.tico tIHuL S60 Oregon TcrJo""'"^ «■"!> Li^Terrltory »■"« ^ I 2,429 Other C'tlle. Neat Cellla. Tol»l N'eal I _ CnUle . I WO? T 728,0)6 292,710 202,0691 -63,211! 63,883 Slirep. 118,081 884,414 «;6.274 oi,4,u43 619,980 l,]oo'4Q3i .??'M9 14!i;9C0 78.,098 1,102,091 3?i'248| 110„^33 liua. I 871,880 91,260 17,674 ISO 174,1811 27,803 2ii,3II 860,436 894,043 42,10 70,7601 ■ 01,0,57 • 27-2,403 30,179 83,223 430,5.'7 36,'),129 8,024 129,921 341,409 ii? Ji'275 62 21,4831 14 8,6.')4 1; 420 o,. I -.■1''2 .886 |326,43S m 3o;3",s ft?; ■'>44;4U9 M0,224 18,6,18 193,244 259,466 217,811 146,128 37,30(1 C5,:!81 61,627 8,13:1 20,507 327,266 225,7141 282,574 185,190 6.'.1,I97 433,876 215,602] 220,202, 451,57;, 177,902 188,661 746,435 304. 9S9 762.611 3.84,756 I60,4S8 700 403.462 39,247 „7,|.8 267,107 895,072 675,982 l-'..364 .068,240 98,072 649,264 267,922 37,S,-;26 M.OLS 12S„%7 \9jl.24l3.453;r^ 617,371 R'Aoln 1.217,874 3,K 874 8.400 .80,465 211 201 ■61,400 1,877 039 1 « 1,4021 6^3 61n 740,0,i7 1,35S,94?i 50i.l96 l.ins.wo 1 ^ ".3,5 36,201 Iff* 1,172,665 30,891 57-2,608 822,S6i 1,S22,&',7 44,296 285,561 811,691 100.630, ',014,122' 348,0lS 617,3 0, 219.2&', 6.118.777 63S,(i7(i 2,028,401 l,767,OkO !'0,140 23^81 74i;,'.83 i.esi.'sio lAlaliama . {Arkansas . (CaHfomla 1 "-".mi ColumbU, liis'trict if ?-™l Connecticut '""'•• I,6;i5 Delaware 70,472 Fl,ir,878j 1««. . 61,008 6,219) 6,0St 737,424, 33,646 305 60,693 8S,197i 129,621 3,792 2,fl6,'5,«- 6S6,J8» , 8.184 1.268,738 604,618 66,686 3,820,044 ,965 93,809 1,494,629 1,876,189 640,968 ■';..i3o| 5.i6;„oo ,;;'2.!'86 11,212,616 164,630 211943 _67/i85| 107i702 ' 16,671,fl6l| (13,213,07 3,0flRl 96s, .IM I 4,56.1,092 496,800 10,109,710 '.116 4,805,160 6,013,873 ^•1"" 44,7.181 .'l.iii-- ' 170,2i)3 4.'>S,030 8],2M 1-25 ItM 210 230,993 1,4S2,799 1,965 10,087,241 6,66.'5,014l 1,524,345 ' 8,201,311 , 89,637 M8I,0S7 2,242,161 1.166,146 2,866,066 , 1,603,288 ' 6,278,070 973.881 I 3,378,063! 26,563.814: I 4,062.0781 ,13,473,742 21,6.38,160 216,283 2,3-23,166 7,703,086 199,017 I 2,.W,7S4 10,179,144 3,414,672 30,583 6 <),2U 10,900 UNI 1898 UNI The annexed tables embrace the returns of agricul- tural products according to the census of 1840 and 1660. The quantity of wheat in 1860 is believed to bo understated, and the crop was also short, RouRh rice is returned for 1850, and clean rice for 1840. Correc- tions have been made in the cotton and sugar returns since the publication of the Quarto Census, pounds having been intended by the enumerators in many cases where they returned bales or hogsheads. It is Impossible to reconcile the hemp and flax returns of 1810 and 1860. Xo doubt in joth cases toiis and pounds have often been confounded. In a few of the States, such as Indiana and Illinois, the returns of 1850 were rejected altogether for insufficiency. Letters from Kentucky entitled to high credit state the water-rotted hemp for that year to be not a third as much as the census gives, and the dew-rotted to bo about 22,000 tons. In this case the whole hemp crop of 1850 may have reochod 35,000 or 40,000 tons, and that of 1840 25,000 to 80,000 tons. By the manufacturing sched- ules it appears that 18,270 tons hemp were consumed by the manufacturers of Kentucky and Missouri, and by tho receipts at the cities of St. Louis, Cincinnati, and Now Orleans, with proper deductions, that fourteen or fifteen thousand tons hemp were exported in the rough to other States. AaBiain.TcaAE rBonnoTioNs or tus States Ami Tebkitobibs, 1340 and 1850. 8UI«i And T«rritorlM. Alalnma AricanBas California Columbia, District of . Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia IlllnoU Indiana fowa Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Mnsflacliuaettii Miclilgau MlBHlsHlppl MUiioiirt . UaU, Uushela. IndiAo Cum, Ouiheli. Irfah «R4l SwMt PotatMi, Bubtll. IiUh. IMO. IK.IO. I lUO. I 1,4UU,363 2<),7t>4,0.|H i!fl,!l47,(W4| 139,553 15,751 1,453,303 Ncir llampalilro I,*ii),il4 8,8»3,!);i',i 13,9:10 fl6,'M l,ftSft,(14!l ■937;405! 3,1I5,M3 13,83« l,»lW,8(li) l,010,030!3«,0a0,099 4,983,0as:.'J7,04a,i)84 5,»Sl,«fl5 53,004,863 310,385! 8,050,799 7,155,974 5^,073,591 lll7,36;i 10,200,873 l,n70,*» l,75i),n50 3,5:l4,allil0,7W,863 1,319,680: 3,34.'>,49(l 2,114,051 6,041,130 6«W,034 33,440,r),VJ 2, ?;!4,n 17 30,314,537 New .leraey. Now York ^'orth Carolina . , . Ohio Pennsylvania Rhode Inland Soutk Carolina . . , Tenneaaec Texas Vermont VirgiuU Whcoutin j rMlnoesota. . . . ^ J New Mexico . . fc '^ Oregon -^ ti;i«h .•{,0i:',SJ4 3i'.'ra,'!47 3,1&3,J11 1,573,070 8,7,V.(,704 17,SBS,4lW 27,941,051 14,393,103 5.t,078,095 20,641,S1949,S.16,314 171,5171 639,301 1,4S6,20S'10,371,4.'«4 7,035,678 52,270,393 0,028,970 2,332,584 13,461,002 400,614 3,032,896 36,254,310 i,oa8,»7» 10,725 366,411 2,918 9,a)9 4,840,632 89,486 1,600,441 3,099,3{>'.li 898,974 20,906,123 23,634,211 2S,IKS,887 1,400,'J4I 39,847,120 6,9,52,913 1160,528 8,233,080 1,809,192 2,277,039 13,101,237 17,339,534 1,162,572 4,361,975 10,972,380 23,813,703 .33,668,141 14,240,023 4.')0,418 14,732,805 44,930,188 1,119,678 34,677,601 879,359 I8i0. 240,001 103,832 9,292 28,292 2,689,725 240,642 7,838 227,379 2,614,801 2,083,337 376,120 1,492,487 96,632 3,430,040 704,9.39 3,63.5,381 2,36;»,897 261,482 939,006 4,304,919 3,207,230 15,398,303 030,318 6,0,57,769 ,6,980,732 051,029 136,494 1,007,844 94,04,5 4,961,1)14 1,310,933 1,402,077 21,145 8 01,326 43,908 TolAl. IH&U. 6,475,204 788,149 1,000 8,4»T 80 6,5.443 757,226 6,980,428 157,433 201,711 0,248 098,170 1,428,453 208,993 '],i77 4,741,796 335,508 698,(116 B,l 5,00,5,709 137,991 62,172 4,337,460 3,777,710 1,833,163 1,813;634 879 200 00 I8S0. 6,731,208 081,981 10,303 81,789 2,089,805 30,5,1186 706,064 7,318,307 2,072,'Jli4 2,285,048 282,803 2,490,660 1,524,085 8,436,040 !17!1,933 8,6S,5,3*4 2,301,074 6,003,277 1,374,511 4,304,919 3,715,251 16,403,997 8,716,037 6,245,760 0,032,004 081,029 4,473,900 3,845,500 1,426,808 4,981,014 3,130,567 1,402,950 21,345 8 91,320 44,028 IrUhADdSwMt. 12,085 8,414,238 200,712 204,017 1,291,306 2,026,620 1,826,704 234,063 1,066,088 8!I4,341 10,392,280 1,0,88,4:13 6,3.36,663 2,109,208 1,0.30,100 783,768 0,306,«0« 2,072,009 30,123,614 2,000,2.'!0 6,806,031 0,635,003 011,973 2,608,813 1,904,370 8,86ii,V5'l 2,944,660 419,603 Barley, Biuheli. IBsS 8,983 177 9,712 78 19,039 50 11,691 110,795 48,483 25,0:i3 06,343 161,781 745 112,386 76,349 228 9,631 70,260 6,493 3,686,059 2,7.35 864,353 106,534 19,875 4,833 2,787 4,776 43,150 26,437 209,692 1,210 6 'l,799 SUlM snd TarrltoriM. Bnrtey, UiulifU. Duek^rbeat, Biuli«la. Htjr, Ton*. Hops, Pound*. Clover- •e«d. Othor (•rau S«edB. Alabama Arkansas ('allfornia Columbia, District of. Connecticut Delaware Florida (ieorgla Illinois ludiaea Iowa Kentucky lioulsiana Maine Maryland Martsacbuaettd Michigan Misdissiiipl MISHuurl Now ilainpshiro New .lersoy Now York North Carolina Ohio Pennayivaata Itliudu Island South Carolina Teunmseo Texaa Vermont Virginia Wisconsin • I'Minnesota ^ I New Mexico Ite:::::::::: ISW. 7,093 760 "294 83,759 6,300 80 12,070 82,251 28,016 723 17,401 86.5,1 ill 3,5.11 16.5,3):. 127,!",j 1 ,■■■:: : 0,iOi ; l.^'jo i.liiil 2,1. •■.9i''' :V4 9'-'. ■ 91..'. u: 60,490 .8,007 4,309 M,'781 87,480 11,042 843 175 ' ' 873 239,397 8,615 55 26) 194,694 149,740 53,610 10,097 3 104,623 103,071 •1 -IS 895 4;v,"n i,i-'i '.«..•:!•: 3,IF • ►' 16." '1 O^'-, I'jO 3,llM,0 10 760 29,72T 483 1850. 617 430 10,623 1,403 3 423 14,3,30 11,061 3,006 21,431 97 0,314 2,801 5,035 0,288 633 4,340 8,071 63,061 90,493 1,278 37,310 63,913 3,708 80 9,118 14,036 23,438 8,003 99 1860. a,!t6S nr 9,Tia 76 10,090 11,6(11 110,705 46,483 25,003 06,343 161,781 745 113,385 76,340 328 0,«31 70,260 6,403 3,686,050 3,736 B64,853 106,634 18,876 4,593 2,737 4,770 43,160 26,437 200,803 1,210 6 '1,799 other (ir&RS Soedi. 1960. 647 430 10,028 1,403 3 42S 14,380 11,961 3,000 31,481 07 0,314 2,601 6,085 9,386 633 4,348 8,071 03,061 08,403 1,376 37,310 63,913 8,708 30 9,118 83 ^vst 1900 UNI AotlOCLTtRAI. PlODCOTIOnS Or Tim fiTAm AMD TOItlTOBin OV Tni 17. R., 1840 AMD 18M, 8UIM ud T'lTllorin. Alabanu Arluoau CtUfornU Columbia, Uiitilct of . Conneotlout DeUvarc Florida (legrgis , IlllnoU Indiana Ion Kentucky Loulilana Maine Maryland MauachnietU Michigan MUiUslppt Mluourl Nev Ilumpahlce New Jertey. New York North (Jarollna Ohio Pennaylvanla Khodn Taland South Carolina Tennt^aaee Tcxaa , Vermont Virginia VViaconaIn ji I'Mlnneaota , )g ! New Mexico 1 Oregon . 1 Utah . RIee, Poundj. I NO. 1«,010 4Sl,4aC 13,384, i'39 10,370 8,004,634 nT,i(»6 60 9,310,388 00,694,801 T,»I7 8,060 Tobneeo, Poondi. laio. 1U4,U9» 21S,tf!'6 l.WIU T,S0U i,SC7,034 0)8,014 413,934 841,304 1,044,030 0,041 65,601,190 90,818 !11,40T,'4»T 188,940 1,246 49,900 17,118,784 60 810 83,189 11,984,780 10,464,449 919,061 74,986 90,143,939 00,807 60,803,997 1,908 8,407 896 70 u-m. 378,809 148,439 (i6,5no 471,067 979 75,974 109,994 50(330 1,830,300 8,070 68,430,909 119,894 30 94,816,019 e«,96S 1,609 83,471 9,007,913 116 1,099 744 16,779,863 6,949,976 896,018 817 61,619 99,660,431 "k5 76,347,100 115 Woo], rounda. lUO. 667118 189,696 6,590 636 487,464 67,7^ 93,947 900,019 9,150,113 3,010,987 378,898 9,997,483 100,897 1,364,034 477,438 635,136 9,048,983 65),6I9 1,097,104 1,108,470 876,39« 10,071,301 970,739 10,190,871 4,481,670 199,099 487,933 1,304,378 131,011 8,400,717 9,860,705 963,963 85 89,901 99,030 0,399 "30,863 64,943 " " '7(.7 889,8/0 64,404 7,385 87I,d03 660,007 1,9£T,919 93,039 1,786,847 40,983 1,405,661 483,901 941,906 158,376 176,196 569,966 1,960,517 897,907 9,846,906 695,044 3,686,315 3,043,664 183,830 999,170 l,060,/!39 3,69!»,'936 9,633,874 6,777 BID: CocooBI, i'oucdi. WInt, Oalluu. 18(0. 1(17 6 818 47 887 946 1381 99 969 39 7 108 9 180 191 2S im 920 1d69 193 1933 1840. I,6.l3i 95 'osi 17,6SS l,463t 194} 9,999} 1,160 870 '787 817 911 9,900) 1,741 906 91 70 410} 1,960 l,785f 3,014 4,317) 7,2091 463 9,080 1,917 4,986 8,101 Ia6». 1^30 86 69,066 8«3 4,909 14n io 100 9,907 14,066 490 8,098 15 734 1,431 4,688 1,664 407 10,603 344 1.811 9,173 11,053 4.S,?<)7 25,530 1,013 6,880 93 99 663 6,408 113 9,°3'03 I MO. 177 95 9,666 899 8|647 474 10,965 9,°9b9 9,884 9,930 7,535 103 ' ' 7i 99 94 9,410 0,799 38,769 11,534 14,338 808 043 053 ' ' 94 13,911 ValuaefVaaa. ily Ooodi. IMO. «1,066,11» 489,760 'i'MO 990,169 69,116 90,906 1,467,680 098,667 1,989,803 36,966 9,699,469 66.190 804,397 176,060 981,949 118,966 683,946 1,140,544 638,308 301,636 4,036,547 1,413,949 1,353,987 1,803,093 51,180 080,703 3,886,661 674,648 9,441,679 19,567 AoTCAi. Cbops rat Acss, ox the Atebaoc, ae ammNSD nv Tira Ccvbub Marshals or .'UK U. S. ron 1819-60. Whaat, Buih. Rya, Buah. lodlaa Cora, Buah! Gala, Buah. Poani^. To. baeco, Pouda. 16 Vi 33 13 41 31 90 30 i860 ... 10 18 83 29 S3 30 89 86 94 18 676 lO 1400 . ^ 27 90 93 91 650 31 90 83 96 18 19 84 96 77K 30 80 33 90 37 95 17 10 30 91 730 90 93 80 .... ii 19 1760 31 19 7!!0 30 . .. 33 90 13 IS «eo 30 86 8aa4 CotUn, Pooada. Paia a!id Baana, Bofh. Iriah PoU- toea, Buah. Swaal Pola. loaa, Buah. Bar- lay, Buah. Bgek- wbaal, Duah. Toaa. Hopa, Lbr. Hamp, daw- irotUd. Alabama' Arkansas Connecticut . . . Delaware Florida Oeorgia Illbids Indiana Iowa Kentucky Louisiana Maine ........ Maryland Massachusetts . Michigan Mississippi .... Missouri N. Hampshire . NewJoraey ... New York North Carolina. Ohio Pennsylvania.. Rhode Island . . South Carolina Tennessee..... Texas Vermont Virginia Wisconsin 5 in ii 16 5 11 19 14 8 io 13 10 10 9 11 11 11 19 T 13 15 'k 1 15 13 7 14 596 700 35(> 50U 559 050 19 800 760 19 18 90 00 '85 ire 195 115 100 100 130 190 75 170 140 106 no 990 75 100 06 76 75 100 70 liO 950 178 76 125 900 100 400 05 176 45 IS 90 10 15 95 14 16 29 20 25 T 650 775 760 1000 960 NcMOCB or COTTOS, BtroAB, liuni, TonACOO, and Himp Plamtatioss id tub Ukitid Statu. StaUa. .Vlafaama .Arkansas r:orlda < ^eorgla Kentucky Louisiana .Maryland Mlaalssinpl . . . , MU mrl Nrrth Carolina .South Carolina, Tennes.-ee Texas' Vlginia ToUI Mo. of Cotton Plan- tatlona ra'alog flva Balaiand'trar. 10,1IH) 9,175 990 14,578 91 4,205 is'i'io '9,''iv 11,599 4,043 8,963 108 74,031 No. of Suifar PlaoUra. No. of Rtra Planta- ttona, aaeh raiain|f 90,000 Lba. and orar. 968 i653 IW 9681 80 36 416 661 No. of Tobacco Plao- tatiotis, aach railing 300 I.ba. and ovar. 6,987 l',7M 3,916 6,817 16,746 No. of Hamp PlanUia. 1630 4S07 8837 UNI 1901 UNI 650 There are In the Southern Statw 74,031 cotton plant- ationa, including all prodncors of more than flye bales ; 2681 sugar planters, including the smallest; 681 estates making more than 20,000 pounds of rough rico each; 15,746 tobacco estates of 3000 pounds each and over, in Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia; 8327 hemp plant- ers in Kentucky and Missouri. Only such States are taken as are considered crop States, AoBiooiToaAL I'BomjcTioss OF TUB Unitto Staim and TUKIB ANNUAL VAIBB, ACCOUUISO TO TUR C'KNSns OF 1S50. We give tha eittmatei of thn agrloultural prwluoU of the United States for the year 18ft&, ■■ furnithed In an official form from the Patent J, while the wheat crop is estimated at only t'J'17,(0Oi000. The cotton crop is estimated at $180,000,000, while the liay and fodder crop is estimated at (160,000,000. Artictal. Indian corn bush. Wheat " Cotton balea Hay tons Oata biiih. Butter lbs. Cheese " Potatoes, Irish bush. Potatoes, sweet " Wool lbs. Tobacco " Cane-sugar Iihda. Rye bush. Orchard products Buckwheat bush, Peas and beans " Market garden products Hemp tons Rice \b». Barley bush. Molasses Kails, Beeswax and honey It)s, Clover-seed 'bush, Maple-sugar lbs. Hops " Flax-seed buah. Orass seed (besides clover) " Flax lbs. Wine galls. Silk cocoons lbs. Live slock over one year old, annual product Animals slaughtered Poultry on the basis of 1840 Feathers Milk (not included in butter and cheese) Eggs Cord-wood on the basis of 1840 Home-made manufactures, one half for agricultural part. Small crops, basis of Rhode Isl- and for onions, carrots, etc Hcsidutim of crops, not con- sumed by stock, corn fodder, cotton seed, straw, rice flour, and manure Cattle, sheep, and pigs, under cue year old Add for orchard and garden ftroducts of cities, nut included n above— milk, butter, poul- try, horses, cows, etc., in cit- ies and towns Tots' •!'., products^ 194!)-'50 5'Jli,()IO,()O0l 100,435,000 2,500,000 13,S1S,000 140,000,000 313,346,000 105,536,000 05,797,000 33,20S,000 52,500,000 200,000,000 237,000 14,188,000 8,060,000 0,219,000 34,000 216,000,000 6,107,000 13,700,000 14,853,000 403,000 34,253,000 3,4',I7,000 602,000 410,000 7,709,000 221,000 10,800 Viluei. *2UO,030,WIO 100,430,000 98,004,000 90,870,000 43,970,000 60,130,000 0,343,000 20,319,000 19,135,000 16,750,000 13,593,000 12,3(8,000 7,804,000 7,724,000 0,970,000 5,703,000 5,280,000 6,243,000 4,000,000 3,018,000 3,,MO,0OU 2,378,000 2,346,000 1,713,000 1,224,000 844,000 834,000 773,000 444,000 6,000 176,000,000 65,000,000 13,000,000 2,000,000 7,000,000 5,000,000 20,000,000 13,74 .,000 6,000,000 100,000,000 50,000,000 16,000,000 Vr-aKTADLR Paonmrrs, Indian com bush, 000,000,000 at $0 DO, Wheat liye " Itarley '* Oata » Buckwheat " Potatoes, all sorts " Vlax-seed ** Beans and peas , ** Clover and grass) „ seed f like lbs, Sugar (cam) " Sugar (maple) . , " Molasses " Wine " Hops 106,000,000 , 14,000,000 , 0,000,000 , 170,000,000 , 10,000,000 , 110,000,000 . 68,000,000 , 0,500,000 , 1 60, 1 00, 90,. 40,, 60., 37,, 1 26., 4 00.. (300,000,000 247,600,000 14,000,000 6,040,1100 (M,iio,im Hay and fodder, tons 10,000,000 ,, 20 00. . 1(I0,00(I,IHH) I'asturage 14!l,0l«),000 Total iT7368i5iJO,lio5 DouESTio Aniuals and Aniuai. I'souu(rr*, , ... V.lu.tlon- Total Vslst. Horned cattle 21,00 1,000, at $20 each $430,000,000 Horses, asses, and mules 5, lihi.ooo, at $U0 cneli 300,0iin,fKK) Sheep 28,r)00,00fl, at $2 each 47,00i),000 Swine 32,000,000, at *6 each 100,000,000 Poultry 200,000,000 Slaughtered animals 200,000 000 Butter and cheese.... 600,000,000 Ihi., .it 16c. 76,000,000 Milk ((exclusive of I that used for but- > 1,000,000,000 gals., at loc. 100,000,000 ter and cheest * . . ) Wool 00,IW0.0001b<., at.lfiir. 21,000,000 Beeswax and honey.. 10,000,000 l|)»., ot 15c. 2,4(10,000 Silkcocoono I>,im,iit$l 6,000 Tolol $1,631,-105,000 The aggregate for 1857 will, no doubt, prove much larger. It is quite apparent, from the fui-egolng, that this is an immense country, and that our resources are of vast extent and magnitude. i From official statements a comparison is nmdo of tlio extent to which the various crops are raised in ICiigland and Wales anU Wheat Oats Uyo Irish potatoes Peas and hems Turnips Carrots Indian corn Barley Cotton Sweet potatoes Buckwheat Marigolds Vetches Total And the total number of Im- proved lands in gross, etc, Kagluid. s.s-i:.<4fl 1,;!0-. 7s2 72,V2I 192,287 773, 1S8 2,267,200 192,287 2,0fl'7',776 177. IM 218,651 11,071,781 37,324,016 tfiliUd HtaMi. Aeni. 11,000,000 7,600,000 1,200,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 81,000,000 300,000 8,000,000 760,000 000,000 69,350,000 118,o:l2,UI4 From this comparison we can deduce that the Unit- ed States has about five times as many acres in cultiva- tion, and, if the same skill in cultivating and sowing were used, should bo able to maintain five timet lh« population, and that without having resource to Mjr more wild lauda. fSAVT" ■^-ffy]y^,j'f^!S'^^. UNI 1002 UNI BrATSiiiMY or thi RKomrra i^to nn HATUfUi '''iu«r«T moM Cbumvi iTnmcAi. Rhvfhi;*, Dinor Taxm, atto SALK or PUULIC LANDB, TOaRTIIKB * ■■rtl I'lIK I'llL INMTII*! i Or V.A t 1 1 KP STATU, EXCI.VaiVB Of I'AYURMTS OH AOOODNT or TIIK I'DIILIO UKIIT, ANU FllilM TlKbT K01>I>S, t'nAOTIOMa I'.l » 1; 1TS»-'91.. iToa. . ITDB.. 1T94 1T06. . . . ITIIO.... ITOT. . . . 1703. . . . "TOO.... i*W.... 1801.... i8oa,... ' 18()8.... I'lOJ.... 1SI». . . . l!<0«. . . . 1807. . . . 1303,... 1809. .. 1910.... ISll.... isia.,.. 1813.... i814.... ISIS.... isio.... ISIT.... 191S. .. -Sill,... IS20. . . . 1831,... 1823. . . . 1333 ... 1834. . . . 1338. , . . 1836. . . . 1''37.... 1S38. . . . 1839. . . . 1830. . . . 1831.... . 1833, . . . l«3'l. . . . 18.14. . . . 183S. . . . 1830. . . . ■ IS3?.... 1833. . . . 1839. . . . 1840. . . . 1841.... 1S43. , . . «mo9.ofl843 lS44t... lSi»K.. lS4flt... 1847t. . . 1848t. . . 1849*. . . l.SSOt. . . l.S.'SU... lS53t. . . lSS3h.. 18B4>. .. :s8B^... IRIWt. . . 18ft7+ .. PI ".1,473 ■■.,:• 1'., 071 *,■.' ' 1 '.HM) 1, y,i>j> ^,^•>•.wl C,.M!i',!m'' i,r>iii,i V) 7,10i.H"2 0,01 9,(IS(l,l.n;i| 10,7ft(),77'.i 13,438,3110 11\4T'.1,4I8 ]i,o'j8,4(iri 12,93(1, J87 14,0«7,0US 15,84«,,Vi3 10,303,W>;> 7,311(1,(131 8,ft8;i,lllill 13,313,33.1 8,U5'(,7iM 1,"(,234,(133 B,1I!I8,7V3 7,3S3,U-t'.' l!fl,3S3,iMS 17,17tl,3s'i 3(I,3,S3,(1(IU 15,O0.'),013 13,004,447 17,689,703 1!I,08S,433 17,878,33(1 30,038,714 33,341,331 19,713,483 23,305,534 33,081,900 31,933,391 24,334,443 28,405,337 39,(i33,r>o;i 10,1!14,»57 19,391,311 33,409,940 11,109,390 10,158,8(10 33,137,935 13,499,1.03 14,487,317 18,187,909 7,040,8+4 2«,18.S,RII 37,538,113 20,713,0(1-. 23,747,8iH iil, 757,010 38,340,73.s 39,00S,«8(' 49,017,50'* 47,339,330 t.S,991,S05 04,334,190 63,036,794 n',:,J8,803 03,876,905 In f 111 8>1« . 1 1 Lanil ., .1 : Minrelli,. , neoua. t20:i,ll43 337,7.10 274,09(1 .... a37,7Ki .... ■ll.%390 •4,83« i.;i. <9l 811, 't41 (it . ill li,JO!t 77",13(i l,Wi 030 444] l,6Si,377 t(17,T'30 Si- 1114 1S8,03S t ;;■«■.) |.:.5,(i7U lOl.i.VJ 417,6^7 43,1111 W^ ,194 7n,.805 7i»,l).lO 47,784 400,103 27,370 017,939 11,503 143,362 19,879 090,6411 9,!Hla !,040,33S 6,703 -10,438 8,601 8;i5,0M 3,8S'.',483 1,I.W,97I 0,840,733 l,-jv;,9,-,9 9,378,341 {,717,985 4,513.388 i,ir;i;,320 1,319,013 l','S.,1,505 313,341 3,274,433 137,847 i,o;,'..--.72 98,377 1,31'>,<100 S8,(il7 l,8;i::,:.S3| 14,5811 91i;,.vj:i! 4(;,H05 084,1 1',| 28,103 l,3l0, nil 28,238 l,3:i3,7-.<> 23,513 1,4115,945 19,071 1,oi8,:i()o 26 S38 1,5!7,,,'5 29,141 2,339,:i;ii; 17,44)1 3,310,815 18,433 3,033,381 3,1.53 3,907,083 4,310 4,8f.7,0OI 14,71.3 4,757,001 1,099 4,877,18(1 .... 0,803,5.50 * • . * 8,314,184 .... 7,201,1 l> .... S,4;i4,.'15(i . . *• 1,470,395 *> • • ],4.0,o.')S 1,018,482 3,320,948 .. .■ 2,341,031 .... 3,780,579 ^ . . • 2,598,930 . . . t 3,079,079 .... 3,737,008 3,707,112 3,'395,412 .... 3,389 oon 3,4"6,709 9,326,614 Ufijr !3fl 0,' ■; .'781 4 -,■:■■"•>< vll i I. \ c'ufaii^n Ui >iid MiKal- InneouM. > ;,I1.I9, 17.1 3,n6l;,014 4,5.13,012 r>,ll76,lK> 1>,9?(1,210 7,».-,114 8,l!(l9,e83 7,703,383 7,339,5> 7,749,835 9,399,787 14.1103,433 9,074,908 14,008,889 11,017,335 1.5,411,034 47,4(13,204 82,780,803 2l,(l03,5fl!i 33,871,270 10,779,331 14,315,790 19,481,901 20,049,630 18,993,009 21,343,900 24,703.845 al,3!10,fl41 34,343,604 24,334,970 24,280,888 37,452,097 81,107,040 83,003,844 21,070,774 3,191,0(19 S,70S,6SS 1,438,280 1,315,804 1,101,145 1,307,291 1,083,088 1,729,435 2,208,(139 2,898,871 2,989,743 3,618,937 3,835,839 3,007,312 2,693,033 2,323,131 1,907,99(1 3,033,(194 7,15.5,30,s 2,748,514 2,000,178 2,314,77: 2,S80,0.53 8,093,214 8,228,410 8,004,340 4,574.841 5,061 ,7MI 4,399,779 3,730,107 6,888,871 6,534,25:1 5,000,703 4,99.1, 502 5,r>Sl,87S 0,490,881 0,775,025 2,807,289 5,231,747 6,008,207 0,7.83,01 HI l,3i,.,l.i9 94!,:i!,8 l,07iV!l7 991,180 1,640,431 1,604,011 3,190,986 8,771,109 2,5f.'.,098 2,259,747 12,187,040 19,900,302 20,008,300 15,394,70(1 10,476,412 11,3^5,421 0,154,518 5,1S1,114 5,0:i.'i,187 5,25'<,296 5,270,2.55 .5,092,831 0,243,230 5,075,742 5,701,203 0,250,53(1 0,752,089 0,94:1,2.')! 7,9^2,877 13,090,153 10,004,43s 9,430,.113 18,400,110 19,417,374 19,980,312 14,20'<,9SI 11,(131,43S 13,704,''83 9,1S.S,409 4,15,8,.184 8,231,3:7 9,133,20. 18,033,840 19,873,984 .30,399,043 10,993,858 15,957,612 19,043,907 8,(106,820 2'<,6ll4,519 29,709,134 29,499,347 30,340,790 35,430,760 31,074,841 48,376,798 53,312,979 49,728,386 01,837,574 73,549,705 06,00.1,930 34,183,4S7!l8,900,f>a5 73,918,141 3.5,3, ■-!,:i:)i:20,S31,034 6''.,031,6I3 37,5:il,923|24,02(),049 0,715 6,5s5,ll70|27;82o;i03 1.1,017,040 17,290,930 1.1,839,735' 12,801, 784 17,872,907111,811,793 17,379,7(S 13,424,075 17,175,797 15,470,820 2.5,1107,373 14,343,0.84 AtrLr«RA(e uf (..ipoDj Ituraa. t.570 68 (il,** 4 1 (',502 274,784 883,033 1,881,348 2,8&S,0S2 8,418,710 2,111,424 915.503 1,215,231 1,189,8X1 1,697,6(KI 1,049,041 1,722,004 1,884,008 2,427,761 1,064,244 0,(40,000 Debt. I Populalton. ll(1,919,5'(ll 1,877,904 1,7111,1170 8,.'iO(l,547 4,35O,0f>S 2,531,|i30 3,823,591 4,023,323 0,480,101 7,411,37(1 4,981,0(19 U,737,(to(' 4,003,826 4,452,859 0,857,224 0,081,1011 4.984,572 o,riO 1,3:19 7,414,072 6,311,083 6,.5:i3,004 17,829,4119 »8,0'<2,397 40,127,(180 30,953,571 23,:i73,432 !f75,403,470 4,049,0(10 77,337,934 4,1711,034 8(1,363,034 4,:i(lll,310 7N,437,4(l5 4,431,273 80,747,587 1 4,.500,:i3fl 8;i,703,173i 4,7(15,504 S3,004,479i 4,8.ts,919 79,328,529 4,990,706 /s,408,(170l 5,148,1.94 83,970,294; 6,305,926 8,814,698 3,847,040! 10,30(1,373 4,387,990|13,184,6;i0 3,319,243' 10,723,47 2,904,582 9,827,042 9,784,151 1.5,.3;!il,145 ll,490,4f0,18:i 13,803,708 8,9.'i(i,370 10,M4,I1,SS 3,901,367 ;33,049,31IS a.lt.'il^SOO 18,430,407 3,^ll4,939il7,OII5.419 6,-1111,703, 29,0f).5,244 0,'.,i3,()60, 81,793,687 5,975,771 31, 5,8,785 6,835,1KI3!25,4S8,547 0,134,460 2:1,337,773 0,(K)1,077 30,19C • 10 8,.397,343;e !,30i,.i:i7 3,072,718 10,098,391 6,490,991 19,900,(155 0,228,fl39|31, 370,049 0,4.50.802, 20,813,2110 7,931,033, .V.t,451,177 9,400,737 42,811,970 9,809,8|8l57,031,00i 7,9a3,313l43,0(l2,10.-i 8,9,87,798 4.8,0(I,'),S79 8,928,230 40,(107,890 10,891,040!43,543,2(!:i h3,fl;l8,051 80,712,083 82,3'.3,lt)0 75,723,371 09,318,.399 0fi,190,31S 67,033,1113 53,173,317 48,0fl.5,5s8 81,487,840 99,K:i:t,000 137,334,934 123,491,905 6,473,407 6,040,170 6,824,393 6,008,340 0,197,897 0,.398,684 0,6115,346 0,803,638 7,018,383 7,3:19,814 7,449,900 7,600,200 7,8SS729 8,117,110 ..<.:)5:i,:i38 8,.'>li ),80fl 8,846,313 9,103,000 9,800,301 9,03'<,131 9,930,000 10,311,343 10,610,018 1(1,818,059 10,708,192 13,281,841 14.077,047 12,720.8601 11,01H,2I' 50,306, 39. 91,01.5,500 89,987,438 93,540,077 90,875,877 99,309,778 S3,r88,483'ii;i35,737 81,Cr>4,(K10 11,403,088 73,987,367111,798,013 07,475,(l44ll3,l43,783 68,431,414113,499,087 48,605,400il2,800,030 39,123,193!l3,2:i4,931 24,32li,235i 1,1,014,430 7,001,0119 14,(KI.1,7S9 4,700,0,83114,490,350 87,733'l4,MI9,43t. 87,613;i5,344,344 l,878,224jl5,081,447 4,857,000 10,131,087 11,988 738 1«,51i3,0il0 5,l2.i,07S!i7, 1,4.53 0,737,898 1.5,038,480 20,898,963 30,148,990 10,801,047 34,2.50,495 45,0.59,069 05,804,450 04,704,093 04,338,338 63,.50(1,396 «7,r>00,395 60,3361 44,9i6. ..9,9" 17,0110,763 18,14S,689 18,713,479 19,396,971 19,S9(1,.574 30,515,871 31,1.54,444 21,812,893 22,491,305 33,191,870 33,873,717 34,575,004 36,398,120 00,173,4(121 3.\90: 1 04,87fi,,'27| * JncliiiUng Uepartniont of tlin I ■ Bud Treasury Notoa, nor tlio nnuunl 6TATEWKNT BDOWIVa THE AMOrtTT '. .luLV 1, 1867, TUB Am • VAii AWD TUB A.MOUNr 0UT6r.^ ■ and 8iuco 1860. Tho ulwvo table dot .ot incluil .ja tuxouut of tho public debt. l!Mi|28,400,974| ,.-eipta from Loans Loana. 1842 1840 1S4T 1848 Texan Indemnity Texas dabt Old funded andi unfunded dabtf Treasury notes. . Total Nov., 1867. rubli July I. ,. Jhia TiKiiT ON :iEI>P.EMRD BINOE, lUEE IT, 1S67. •."»d~ 3, if* ,6.14 84,0(1 .,•' 11,172,611. I'll 10.844,341 . S,489,'100 00 28,r>37,37ri 73 800,029 99 . 4,118 54 108.281 04 29,060,386 90 t cu. 114,270 82 I ■■"rt 00 ■;8;i . • Hi , !«• ' Ouutandliitr Nov IT, laat. I Cla, 2,383.304 11 8,700 00 8.412,700 00 8,903,iUl 80 a4(!i,ooQoo 1 50 00 M»i." j2 8U 24,074,106 91 268,963 42 114,118 54 107,061 M 25,166,164 61 Commerce. — By tlio Constitution of the United States, it is provided tliat Congress slmll hove power, t l*'ort''. ; c'lr luulog Jnue 80. 1. To lay and collect taxes, ditics, imposts, and ex- cises, to ])ay tlio debts, and jirovide for tlie common defense and general welfare of tito United States; but all duties, impo«t!<, and excises bIioU bo u' T'lrm ttiroughout th : nited States; 2. To borrow money on the credit of tiiB United Statfi; g To r.j,ilato com- merce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes; 4. To establish a unifoi :n rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies, throug) out the il>^i(j'' States ; 5. To coin money, regulate tlie value '' cri t, raid of foreign coin, and fir the standard ''..'^lus md Measures; 6, To provide for the pun. 'I' -iit <.i;" mn- terfeiting the securities and currtnt ct, .flic- •■■■! States; 7. To establish post-oftices .u.i jvjt-i i.t: S. To promote the progress of science aiu i ,sf' . '.i, by stciiring, for limited times, toau'how !".;1 '■■ . :■: -ij I Populntfon. 4,IT!1,II24 .!,llllll,'Jll) 4,4:il,'J7'J 4,r)Ull,lll!9 4,Tor>,ri(t4 •l,S4s,1110 4,(i'.IU,TII5 5,11S,!.'.I4 r),i)llf),(l!!S ri,4ia,4(l7 5,()4'i,n« 6,S24,;)1I3 0,(H)'1,340 O.lftT.SilT 0,!)!l8,0a4 c,s():i,r>28 7,(I1'<,289 7,!J;ili,R14 7,44i>,«00 7,«ll(l,'J0fl 7,SSS,729 R,1I7,710 s,:ir):i,:i38 8,f>'.i.'>,S(K) 8,845,;iia 9,102,000 0,3«rt,201 i),flaf,i3i 9,1120,1)00 10,211,348 in,MO,fllS ,... 10,818,059 ,433'll,13r),737 ,0«0|11,4«2,088 ,367111,798,013 ,044 12,14;i,783 ,414 12,499,887 i,40(ill3,«U«,O20 i,t92 13,234,931 18,014,420 14,IHI4,789 14,40«,3(>0 ,..- |4,819,42f. ■,r>13jlft,a44,344 I,224il5,{i81,447 :,«00ll0,131,087 I 738 lfl,ri;iB,fl30 ,078'!7, ■■ ),4M "■■■ 17,Ui«l,7B2 18,14S,RS9 18,713,479 19,296,971 19,89«,&74 20,t)ir),871 21,1M,444 21,812,893 22,491,306 23,191,870 23,873,717 24,r»i6,004 26,2(18,120 2ii,o.",sno .6; 6.0(1 335,(W2 1,290,978 fiS.'->,92ll' 8,604,131, 0,845,102 100,843 6,829,279 13,478,871 123,499 698,278 230,840 UNI 1004 TJNI STATuraire ixinnTiiia ma Valoti or iiAiiDrAonmiD AaTiai,u or DOMmna Pioinroi m-nnTni now Tin Ukitbi Statu Tl) ruKRIUM CODNIHIXR, rBOii JuNi 80, 1819, TO Jdnr 80, ISfiT. T' ArllolM w« Koflnnd iitgir (^hooulute SlpirlU frnin grain Hpiriti! from molAMOB Mptrlti from other maturUlt . Moluttet VIncKAr n™r, ale, porter, »ni! clilor. Unaenil oil And aplrlta of turpentinu Unloll llouiclioUI furniture CnachtiN and other carriages , ir«u Soddlerjr Tallow candloa and soap, and ottiur candluii Snuff and tobacco Leather, boots, and ahoea Cordagtf O unpuirdcr Salt l^ead Iron— pig, bar, and nolU ** cai^tlqgj ** alt innnufiicturcfl of Topnev an,071 ISll. 16,190, 4.'>l 3,040,019 17,243,130 I 133,886 3ri,68S SO, 3S i.iW'i 10,H30 10,916 67,976 145,410 803,830 199,421 103,768 80,100 009,783 1,143,647 4.')8.8.?8 63,064 1M,2,%7 61,434 11,774 316,063 104,436 1,876,021 91,871 851,686 1,000,601 6,671,670 37,300 «26,80S 1,047 0,370 1,311,894 33,090 37,334 8,867 1,798 13,360 13,309 9,488 71,401 M,700 153,913 165,004 ii'.>,834 (6,430 27,833 10,430 41,449 63,63] 13l',bi3 12,307 33,045 3.793,341 ■Jil, |>*0,(iO7 lS,00J,t)80 38,366,647 l)l,4'>9 149,931 8,367 48,737 838,941 13,168 13,220 48,063 163,887 480,183 172,416 80,463 47,987 660,064 1,816,633 438,708 63,903 121,680 8;i,31fl 83,736 118,024 1»I,8.S8 1,093,807 103,089 203,863 936,404 6,139,391 34.718 671,688 5,408 8,154 350,338 18,8111 28,883 4,885 1,083 8,340 18,617 16,784 47,781 07,733 217,809 119,686 86,369 194,634 33,430 18,480 67,340 80,333 ll'4.738 15,(138 13,639 2,877,659 isu. I 113,602 876,78(1 10,230 141, 839,331 17,683 20,4,13 6-1,077 363,960 7l4,'6fW 184,497 91,261 49,38J 681,363 1,671,6110 678,708 103,310 180,049 119,739 6,540 131,998 230,430 3,0)7,334 103,306 837,073 1,030,107 0,030,486 23,5:14 783,643 3,924 13,8611 83.1,733 63,686 81,896 6,613 1,673 0,188 6,448 9,663 83,359 53,897 143,604 123,313 83,030 170,601 23,983 14,064 47,628 11,878 66,°SI7 27,143 82,035 3,783,7011 l,H,>i«3,«3i:39,5.i9,9;i0 37,437,837(23,548,636 66, 800,768 14 8448,46 6 « 87,149 870,4'i8 13,367 283,919 80,1,966 iai,'u48 10,946 63,603 1,034,829 703,197 344,633 170,404 58,811 891,660 1,651,471 8,0,666 194,(170 212,700 ]69,0J6 30,874 808,127 46,1,775 8,473,407 113,108 454,789 1,147,780 4,139,14'l 4>,316 433,985 34,456 65,361 234, 3S8 8^535 8, ,634 ..,601 3,404 11,668 17,018 6,697 88,012 120,128 187,386 1'.I2,889 .121,833 329,476 80,760 10,478 83,837 1,811,618 443,383 60,471 23,678 83,314 4,973,084 30,841,411 33,334,560 66,088,977 • 61,906 636,463 2,771 384,144 l,448,'.i80 10),836 13 l,33il 17,381 45,069 1,180,783 82,946 8118,969 390,626 177,914 64,886 1,111,849 1,5110,118 1,063,406 316,367 860,051 166,879 14,398 383,437 8110,181 8,158,596 6,10,700 788,114 3,618,656 3,007,370 836,360 3,606 84,003 233,801 33,119 83,049 10,860 4,910 8,441 1,409,107 86,045 14,839 80,405 106,867 297,313 185,637 163,0:i6 3(14,679 14,379 6,333 163,640 9,061 806,119 33,048 86,303 57,393 J,ni4,432 35^S]l3,3ii9 63,967,418 83,790717 T IStl. 74,908 B(Hl,444 1,476 600,946 1,829,181 98,484 164.680 36,084 48,086 896,338 161,333 983,042 870,269 386,082 81,84 1,200,764 1,899,207 1,818,811 867,183 644,974 811,496 87,513 880,980 288,310 8,686,713 184,846 l,0«a,8J4 1,906,845 4,616,204 834,300 85,233 378,832 66,690 83,668 8,386 2,778 B,r- 1,098,638 8,768 89,088 67,817 183,817 393,503 308,013 317,179 316,489 13,610 6,638 tC3,876 6,116 681,724 20,336 83,4')7 64,397 3,661,613 811,970,9!i3 44,143,379 75,119,371 r 91,988 868,306 1,983 1,348,334 1,816,688 180,011 108,008 80,783 48,783 796,490 03,499 879,443 476,894 364,203 46,383 1,243,604 1,468,663 1,, 31 1,709 386,168 898,344 190,699 68,634 807,318 389,967 4,l'i7,687 607,064 836,909 1,738,088 8,716,839 ei4,V53 l,flC6 83,687 833,443 B4,3.'M 89,799 7,834 733 6,846 643,512 3,119 31,624 63,747 137,743 377,047 334,707 223,330 179,11(10 6,683 4,818 111,493 16,477 666,430 28,llT() 37,7+3 6S,1M)8 3,293,733 39,(>.')3,3«7 00,078,363 8.1,731,019 The power of Cnngrcu In layin;; ta.tca is not nocoa- sarilyor naturall) incongistcnt with that of the St'itcs. £ach may lay a tax on tho samo property without in- terfering with the aclioi. ot :he other; for taxation is hut taking small portions from the mass of property, which is susceptiljle of almost infinite division. In imposing taxes for statn purposes, a State is not doing what Congress is empowered to do. Congress is not empowered to tax for those purjioscs which are within the exclusive province of the States "Vhen, then, each government exercises the power of laT/don, neither is exercising the power of tlia otV.-r t when a State proceeds to regulate commerce 'vi,li . eign nations or an.ong tho several .Slates, it is < > rising tho very power which is granted to Coi : and is doing tho very thing which Congress is a ' i- ized to do. There is no analogy, then, between the power of fixation and the power of regulating com- raerce.— STOBT. Domcflic 'fradf. — And first, among the States. It is not It' :l," ' that th' power of Congress extends to the reguUtl. I /navigation, and to the coasting trade •nd fisheries, within u welt u without any State, wherever it is connected with the commerce or inter- course with any other State, or with foreign nations. It extends to tho regulation and govorAment of seamen on board of American ships, and to conferring privi- leges upon ships built and owned in l':o I'lnud Slates, in domestic as well as in foreign trade. It extends tu quarantine laws, and pilotage laws, and wrecks of the sea. It extends as well to the navigation of v 'cls engaged in carrying passengers, and whether ' vessels or of any other description, as to the > i ^,1 : : u of vessels engaged in traffic and general cc' iin^ b:i> 1- ness. It extends to "'<> laying of embargoes as i ,1 on 'loinestic as 01; > voyages. It extends to tho onstructiou of lighi.-lH iscs, the placing of buoys and tjeacons, the removal of obstruction to navigation in creeks, rivers, sounds, and bays, and tho CBtaMishti\cnt of securities to navigation against tho !r- o uf the ocean. Iteictendsalsc to thedesignatioiofap.! .icular port or ports of entry and delivery for the pu. o "t foreign commerce. These powers have been ;..iruy exerted by the National Goremmiv't undo; a tj ^item of laws, many of which commen ■■ d with the .arly estabUihineiit of the Constitution ; mid they havu ^on" i.'(S.fl.r. II 'JJfK ,''>""! injIs'XV^'Sf' i S7| ST'a'h.Vl 15«,230 s{^fJ isa.^'ssoM r«^^i ^s ^.5c si r ^''' -^'^ ^•orthc•a^M•■•• «-««S ,3>Vi„ /■"nS '"H lOS-^lO CMis ^'^^T^^tor^'S^' 'It -'t"""l ^'^^il ^'--i ^S^\ rmi 1000 ITNI 8c«iiUT trAnmMT or thi Vixtm or m r.xmnn nr tiii Odowtii, I'lionmm, and MAHViAtnvu o* «■■ ITinnt> 8TATW uumNu Till V>«» (Miiixa .luHi 80, 1867. PaouDOT or rai Bia. rUxrlMi oil, •IXTItlACftl on, whalii And otlior bh WhAlxboDfl HpflnuAcittt • , HporiiiArDtl randlM • Kith, ilrliid or muokud KUh, ploklad $2,066,080 212,806 4,1- 1 688 610,, 116 688,408 822,754 8,168,424 208,610 1,6U,572 696,387 68,331 1,118,041 $l,2irt,i'*H IMil.lUU) 1,807,829 84,017 16,121 670,848 IU,888 •8,78i),«44 14,699,711 T6,0fl0,«34 131,5V9,85) 20,260,779 48,0117 606,566 i-u.ii.ocT III t'onur. . Wood: $lil Ta«,.<88 rihlngUw lluarda, plank and ■cautlluu Ilt'wn timber Other lumlwr ■,• Oak tiark and other dyo < All luaiiuftirturcfl of wood Naral WIohm i Aahna, put and pearl t Olnieng MkUuand fur« ,•■.•1 PkonooT or AotioDLTCu. i Of Animals t Beef Tallow Illdo. Homed cattlo llutter $1,218,848 632,'J>iil 024,807 144,841) 693,084 647.423 2,8011,^07 4,611,44' 5,144,105 m,(Mr7 6,525 106,627 171,189 12,768 (jheeio Urd Wool Ilogi lIorscA • Mulei 8he«p VefeUble Food : Wheat $22,240,857 25,882,818 6,184,600 967,791 115,828 680,108 563,266 206,818 186,280 77,048 9,190,400 Flour , Hje, it, and other imall gralu and pulH lH)tatoo8 Apples • • Onions t Kloe .... Cotton $626 830,166 W0,019 84,852 Tobaeoo * *•> Other agrieiiUoral I>roductla»«c JlaU of fur or silk Hats of pnlm-loaf gaddkry Trunks and valises Adamantine ana other candles Soap SnulT Tobacco, manufactured Ounpowder Leather Boots and shoes 8ait .■.'.'.*;;.■.".■.!.; Lead IroOiPlg Inw, h«r... ITNI 1907 *'uiiii'|^' ;,/ "....," {i»pp^"M'K'ii;^''"^'»t::;:''' Cotton u|m» Ooml, , whit..„,h„Mh.ndu;k-;:;;: *''°'''"''"»""fcii»n.^„>; ••••'•'•■■•'.■; Jlniiihon (if nil n "i ■•• Bllll«r.l. I'M "^ ";'«•• «--*o..._- ;;;;pii^!-^^ ^_^^ l>;"">-"«..n:ir,''«x."."" terf^"-;.:^'""'-------:::::::-" I '"loks and inauii I irolit ami ,i|„,,, .' , * Tin . , . ; '""•""'•oturM oO. , I M7,i!l'*""'^»*'i''. '. •••••••'•'•'.■.'.'. • L^i"" "L"'"'"" • °t*S&'Xr"'i-.v;;. "■■■••:::: m\l" ■■'■ . """"'f"'^'"«.'if I (JU-oAko |co»l.... •••-.'.'.■,■ lice..,.;; Kiltt>''"te;;:;:: .•;:::;::;:: I Moniifacturort '"' • "•w produce.. ;.'.■;;; ~— -I'^^kywiastl'iij""' *P:fl"orM.,rl,.„d,„ Gold..., Silver..'.'. Spade: Gold.. Silver..; ^t......'--":H".ndWr„voinenuin-i,;i t'oflce .' Copper: Oo.S''?'^"''^°-'-»'--": Adhe."i.„"aT/«ct»red z;;;;; lS^^??^^-^™^^"r'-'-'-- (£!«?: ^sr"--;:::::::;;::::::::::' Artlclc( •rMiKT !H,Tl)7 2ii3,8«» W,070 l»,-»77 4,S18 I 111,40,1 I 831,180 819,387 . oj.iM ; M$0,U8o l\345j 1I>1,6S5 ; 0.888,4M 91(),W1 W.TT7,a7» «1|800,080 I ««,«0 ' 3,29J,7Ja I »S3S;9^-«;:;;-' 10 ' "O"" ™r ortlcky nnt .;.i;,' i: •.■••. ' 247 , 2.IM7 82,386,873 ' Ml, 311 1.440„^I4 62,173 20,I,',8 P8,0()2 3,241 T4S,373 63,714 413,780 88,4iS9 336,604 1.201,476 27il,026 Valw. $1,080,973 l|740,8i(9 ll,30e,<«g 102,147 6US,«40 108, 770 119,836 ■— s™. wminario, of learning ™i"','^'- '^'1 other arii.V • "°'"f' "'^''oob, T^:":"::":; -•*'"« ;-ia.;:;:;;;::;;_ ^S2S'?--^^SJ;a.;d ♦"•-.- 2,240,3Mi , , Ku.in!.l."'""'°'"P'>cifled:::;;; '?*'»«",''n>l bockini; •....'.■.' •••rpeting: ° |'»rirfb"™gralil'.Id"'i?"' "fwel., Tnr . . Iffri-aloed . . ^f "'"'•■''. \ eaoiian ,nd oihe; Not ,,„,<,|fled ......" I'lecegiwds. lolvets "o'ifry Md ' ^?,? e^'loon. . . . 678,2»4 -?^is5SiH''"-"::-v'- "- "We goods. .. " ■ |w.'^;''.r.""*''"»'i«o-n'f;4'i«;; Jl>t< and Iwnncl's »Wac,„r,«notapec,fled-::: R«iv. .■.';; .'.■,' llolllng-clo'tii's' .' .' .'.'.'.■.■.■ «"at."te':;? tr^^"-'- ; I-lnen», bleached n, ,., o«a,»B3 Hosiery, and «wi"7 unbleached . . ^^!s£sr ■■■■■■■■■ ^'^^ ciotSi^r '»««'t":"'.!!?'.'^-.-;.-^.«.ven,'::;; sjo.«, lieady-made HM9 Article, of „-;::;;;;;;;;;■.. 3^,,^^ IiWl,'j;7 1.784,1(18 8»7,W4 S1,«I,0S3 «78,2»4 213,824 210,287 101,183 ,.11,478 1,729,618 «^.0«7,369 839,299 211,728 . 161,192 *,442,52S 80,612 963,734 67,602 1S80,24« 603,993 9,976,338 UNI 1008 UNI llMatl^ll'fH Mf MarnhMiltM. VftllM. Thra»l anil ln»i'rlln|l< . , , I'utiiiii liiwrllnKM»r<« iil wnili mlloii, iillli, itiiil lliirn .... KliHir I'liilli, iwlniit, iMlNlril, tto IM|.tili>lh<>/iill klriiU liwUna i>iiil iiiiiliiilr I'l'illi tiif aliiiiia *nil biiltunii , lliinnir I'lnlli ami itminy IwK' MnltliiM, < liliiKao anil utlirr, nl ll»i|a, Hr lUU, I »|ia, mmiiiiU, l<'l»l<, llrklilii, HUlU, (tc i of li'uliiirii, •!»», nhlii, i(r*M|it(. MaHuhKiiirna nt lri>ii miil Ntatl i M wkula •H4 rlllKa I'IniHiriiu iM apMlHml . , . . > > Hlik iiriiu • , Nwitltfa VnUxry Ultwr iiMiiHlWlHriM mil irurn uf, not apavl' Ami ,,.,.1 I '*u lit lainiiat wini II I • > Nklla, aiilk'a, iMka, tiUl , .,.,, I Iwlii iwliliw . . , , I Mill Mwa, iiriaia-«Ul| mill uU a»«i A lu'luira aiul |Mrta llivnaif , , , , i AnvlUaitil |Mrt« llwrmif.,, Iron, iMr i iii..i •....•■.. ibal , I|IM» 1.1 >■ MMM ii*iiiiiiftiiii*iiiiM*iiiiiii*«i«if V\m < Mil Ulil aiin|l I , , IlKllnatil Htiiol mal.aliii*!', «i4 ttarnMN AlllllllIT I,,,,,. I, I'lijiiHii , mill iiimiuAuitnrni iif t'nptwr i III |iIk«i iMra, auil ulil Ulru II , ilriiRl«ra' ,1,,, Cuiipnr laitUiimii ,.,• , Mmiiiriti'liii'i'a iif, niit aiHMillliiil , Iliiila ami iHilla NalU ami >|ilkM i nraaa, ami iiiaiiiifaiUiirmi iif llr«M i III |ilii<, Iwra, ami iilil WIr Mliiwt ami riiliiiil 1 1 Maiiiifai'liiri( lun Iflinl , TiDi ami iiiaiiiirai'iiinM uf i'ln i III iilKaaM Iwra ,, n.iiii.nii rialna ami ilHiiila ,,,, Kiill M»iiiihiiliiria uf, nul lyMlllMl I'tWllT, ulil Maiiurai'liirna itf i , , , illne. mill iiianuAMiliirn) nt '/Atui i III |i>||4 I,.,... 1. 1 1. 1 Hllii-ta I Salla «*iHilu Maialllii pKiia , , , , , , , , i , , ■ i I'uiia, III jMika anil iillinf wIm , , llutluiia, iiuilal,.,,, , ,,,, All iiilmr aii4 InitUKi muiilila Ulaaa, antl iimiiuAMtiirm i>f IIIm* i mimrdil I'aliiliNiia Mil Klaaa, (HtrciiUIti, aail colornd, . . I'lillalinil iiUUi , , . , Maniifailiiriiaiir, iml a|m«lfl(»|ibir-itMiii|i4, »rtl,»5 < HI, ITU MlilTR »,'iii4 !IB0,a9ll S,l«l,M't 4,47ft,A4n «,I«N IW.TM 9UII,l'ii 47,'JI)7 g'i,tiHii flT.U'iil 4,4'JS,ua.^ H(IO,>IO| B'i4,IITft l,(ISU,,1Sl) l,IMI,74ta tit.asii T,4Bft,M(l l,77ft,'i'.l'i 86!l,8'i'J l,«00,ftl3 IWt i,aBs 4,SM 180,704 iO 1,7W is.isa 4,M8 118 iog,o'is 4,78»,R39 lll,&'2-J 9,806,708 16,437 128 8,070 8,874 670 HT04 640,460 1,468 447,813 40,488 99,609 603,06,1 4,437 800,367 78,131 SOS 79,147 10,449 8,893,039 108,061 60,110 18,178 919,871 943,709 88,783 696,061 149,904 119,040 T9,7B8 89,170 89,926 80,309 641,093 843,940 17,281 83,948 364,691 86,900 MoMiiAa* HrtTaMiNT nr Xumrn^—Vontinuti, ll«arrl|>llun i.f M«r.>l,«(kjlt«, rajH^r aii'l nmniifMi'tiirtia of I'aia^r : l'a|»'r, am) iiiaiiiiruturiv uf. But aptolAtuI . . HIaiili Uh Miiatral tliHtruniiillU «•«, |iagut>rri>i)ly|Hi plaUw ,,, ,, Ink anil Ink ptiHilura l.eatluT, auil niaiuiraoturpa of l,i,atlMr i 'rannifil, bfml, aoli^, anil uppur Hklna, lanuwl and droaauil Hklvi'ra Ilwita ami alimia Olovra f.ir m«n, wuinvu, and ohlldren ManufartiirHa iit, not apeclflud Warra -< liliia, porcelain, canhnn, and alono, , , I'IuUhI iirifllt ,Taimiim'd llrUaniila sllvur-pUtmt nii'lal !^llvi!r or platiMl wire Haildli'ry - cmiinion, tlnnvd or Japaunad I'laloil, liraaa, nr pollahad atuul l-'iira— umlroaard on tliii akin llatt.TM* fura, druaa,!d or undrcaaod, not on thii akin I >ri'aa«.d on tho akin Maiiiifactiin'a of fur Wooil, iimniiraRttirea of: ( abliiKt and lioiiauhold furnltiini C'odar, mahogany, roai>, and aatln-wood. . , . Willow Otlinr niauuractnraa of Wiioil, iiumaniifRcturod ! < 'viUr, gmnadllla, nialiogany, rtMP, and aatln 618,261 Willow 41,773 1' Ira-wood and otiior, not apuclflud 90,467 llyn-wood In allck 8(10,048 Dark or tho cork-troc— corka 9un,b79 IJnmanufaclund 17,6ti9 Ivory — tnanufavtiirea of 17,289 ' I'nmanuravlurod 607.480 Marblu -mannfactiir«a uf 26,268 i:nmanufBclurod 201,978 Durr aloniM 111,211 tjulckailvcr 961 llruahpa and brooma 983,008 lllark-lvad pimriU 83,089 Slatoa of all kinda 00,170 Itnw htdivi and akina 10,010,090 llooU and ahoca other than leather 80,626 India rubber— manufacturi'a uf 180,686 Unmaniifacturod 889,06H Hair— inanufactiirea of 199,l>71 I'nnianiiracturod 468,706 (Iraaa cloth 48,804 , Urabrellaa, paraaolf, and aun-ahadea of allk and other «B,B00 Unmanufactured Articlea : I'lax-aeed or llnaeed 8,008,824 Angora, Thibet, and other goata' hair or mo- hair BIB Wool 9,196,744 Wlnea In (,'aaka : Valaa. 1I8,29N 1H,H84 6,76(1 ««II,B«T 179,0N4 80,497 820 189,!MI9 114,926 4(4,374 111,908 47,734 1,006,468 809,978 68,194 127,661 1,609,839 461,161 4,(137,004 1011,824 40,333 8,1184 i.ona 9,948 89,731 196,104 618,799 1,679,088 914,4116 49,966 47,090 16,186 176,484 1101,179 Burgundy 91,027 Madeira 6B,8S0 Bhcrry and 8t. Lucar 804,000 Port.. 407,604 Claret 600,403 Tencriifo and other (.'unary 606 Fayal and other Aaorea 4,704 mcily and other Mediterranean 133,804 Austria and other of Ueriuany 97,269 lied wlnea not eoumenited 6lNi,&97 White wlnea not enumerated 962,684 Wine In Ilottlea : Burgundy 7,004 Champagne 1,149,409 Madeira 9,734 Sherry 11,13'.! I'ort 10,837 (Maret 806,807 All other 973,249 Rplrlbi, foreign diitlUed : Brandy 9,627,209 From grain 1,126,100 From other materiala 918,1107 Cordtala 99,390 Iker, ale, and porter— In caaka 921,990 inboltlea 098,650 Honey «».«« ■rim MolaaatiH Oil anil |i„„; "ixriiiaii \S hull, ai Ulm|,.|,„ OU-ollvii, 1,1 " In Caatiir . , . MnaiH'ii , UalH'.aeeil • ■aim 'Veafa-f,,, Kaa,.|ill,| , tea ami niir,,, thi'lr p, Iri'Bly at Teaa <'offeo.,, l-oooa Sugar -brown' JVhlie, .u, loaf and ot <'anily Ffult. ilmimib • urranta . I'riinea , . . ' Wuiiia . . . . 'wk-.....: »>»'ea..,, Jbilalna . . " Orang,.,, j,,,',; JMIier green I I'reacrvnl tti Nuta... Wplcea-Maco'.;.' Nutmega. .,\ Clunanion . ' C'lovca ... •'"PI'er, bu,'.i,' III " "■"'•• ' Iniinlo t-'aaalil . . . . " •""Kir, Krou'ni I". I Coot... I amplior-nriiUo Kidneil., (.andloa-.^wax ami I ('hccao «o«P-lH'rfu','„',.;i;'' Tan„T'.""'""""f •■^'arch.. ,.■.'.'.■,■ Arruw-root Huttor... lard ..,.'. Ijeef and nor'lc' /fe^^-J-'hcrbico Xallpetro-cnldi".;" '-"IK". "':''!'. :""""* Woad or paaUi'l ;;.■;■■ I'oehlneal Madder. , """■-r'^wbloVsimigi B^^OthcrBum.....* Commcrcinl /!tm,l„ f''»n aeneral Hf„„,„ ofl«(v trcatieaofcoM, "oiMnto tho porta ;™, a, American vo f«ct.,rosof(heiro«n< ^""i, (Denmark,*) y (IIanU.urg,Bromon.an s"' /?"'"I«niIa, 01,1, ;^'o Sicil,es,f Venezuc' '"'^'' "",'"""<'"' day of A „ t By iloerco of Uccoi ilJ ^'^^"•'flaglsoflbredbyt,^ '"""^ appiie, to the dirci wu ITK TTNI ll>i>rl|>Um af MiKhladlM. 1900 irNi VnliK «»,1WMT5 413 tT.JHl) u,im ii47,:uio Ill'i.tWI'i M.iMI a3T,sHi Mommm , Oli knd Hnno "f ^rilun I Ulilog i H|ifrtltNri>ll , ... SMiith' itiiil iillirr Bull !!.'.',".'," I Wlmli-tmiltf .^ OU— ollvii, It) <'«fk« , '*"• " In buttlw ■_"! < niilur ',',',',', I 4llri<1-|| ••••!••.• Ilaiu'-n-rd dnil hginp-wied ••••••.. l-ulm '■.',■■■ Ninl'i.riMit (nil lAlwr MlintI ',',',',', KiMflllUI flllR, • • • • • Ten >iirani^>rt, htiiiimi*, anil Ilmoi ' ,' ( lllicr Kri'cn fruit ITMcrvi'il ftrult NuUi \ ,.".■ KplcOT -Maco ''[ Nutmi'K'* [','.', ('liinniii'iu [\[[ (Jlovi'H , '.].'[ I't^pptT, black .'.'.'*"* " r.Mi ;;; riiitcnto CftMHla GliiKiT, {{ritiind " root Camphor— criidu *, Kcfliiod (.'andlm — wax and MtHU'iiian*tl Btcarln (;heciO Hoap— iMTfumod Otlicr than pcrfunird ', Tallow Starch ',', Arrcw-root .' Ilnltor lard Ilccf and nork llama and otlicr bacon Itrhitlca Saltpetre— crudo 1,150^4113 lli'flni'd, or partly rcflncd 30'i Indigo l,010,fioi) Woad or iiantol l/jdl Cochineal 44a,T(i7 Madder l,37fi,4T2 (lunii— Arabic, Senegal, etc 143,3S0 (Jther Bunw 4M,43'2 Horax W,S44 11,3115 8ll,^)IU 1HT,()10 42,0 1 4,1)114 Ni1,N'iO IW,IIIN| l,SsT 4.'.'St 'jiiii,iiiir> ltil,4H 1IIH,'.IM4 11H,I)M 81'i,'i(IT 17,(I4S 0:17,41111 (I4i,r>44 lM,l.i7 l(l'i,Ii.'i7 lS,1,14t 'i(l,7til Sri4,ll37 ls,MW (iA,ii:i'i 27ll,'.N7 '.' 41)11 34l,i>(i:i 8ai,8S3 »'J it, 193 50,314 31 1I,IW7 0J,ls7 i4a,H'ji 51,607 130,030 13,607 0,0:16 85,751 ld,0.%4 420 3,014 7,204 280,581 RlIMMAIT »T»T»»rh4liil'i». < "opn^ra* Vrrdlurln , W,\[ llrlniniiiiiK cruda ,' iinihd ."!.'!!'.'.!'.! ( hliirld of lima or blneklng powdar! ! Huda a«h Hmia, Ml !i, ',"!.'!!"! H.«l«, rarboDaki of ' ' ' Ilarllla ...,,. Hill phalli of barjrtca .','."!!.'!! Arid*, ae«tlr, oU' Vlirliil -liluii (ir Komao . .. . '*'•••••»»•••« niiof .,!.!.'! Kiilpliatnufiiiilnlo* ',','.',','. I.lrorlci'— root ••••••.. I'aHtH '* #•••»,., Dark - I'eruvUii and Uulil'a '''"'.'.'. (illier ; I» Ty and bono black ....!','.', "plii'n ■" (Mail '..,'.!!,'!!! liiinpowdcr •••.!«!.'!!!',' Aiinu !!*!'*'" 1 'ibaiTo— unnianiifuclurtdV,'.',' '. Hmiir <;igar« .'.'.'.'.'.'.'.' Manufartimid, other than iniiij'iind'clgaM Palnln -dry dchni lied and white lead '.'.'..'. Whiting and I'arU whita .'.",'.'.' . "" l.Uliargo * *" KuKnf of lead ......!!.!!!', (crdagc-larred and cabin ....!.!'.!!!! L'litnrreil .'.""* Twliiu and nelni'H ' '.'.'.",'.*,'.'.'*'"* leinp, nnmaniifaclured CwMnufl. *>iii> » 33,671 0,888 84,b8< l,36N,8aA 3,038 4,331,1108 1H,I<08 10,153 1 13,075 30,1011 17,731 B6,7l5 S3,OIjO 84,433 60,li67 433,633 MiihUla, mm, and other h'e'nip of India.."!!.'.'!." 3 Bfts'sol .line, .sl»al Ktaipi, enlr, ete ! 'ssi'ojs In, or low of hemp or lUi I'liix, iiniiiiiiiufacturud 834,338 03,530 Hag" of ull klniU 1448,186 (■oai. !!!!!!!!!!!!! llreadHtnffii— wheat Uarley (lata Wheat Hour. . . Itye-nual .... Oat -meal rotatuea I'lith, dried, imu. , I>rlcd or am i Salmon Mackerel Ilerrlngn and ahjid . . . Allolher , Value of nierrlundlAo nut eniimciup'd ceding abiitract: At » PIT cent 1,874,084 lilt' Ihcpre- 3,038,688 773,688 OOU 3,088 110 477 8,070 Vfl 8T,6'3 C8,807 8,040 144 «,81S 4,888 At 10 percent. At 15 iiiT cent. At 20 per eent. At 25 per cent. At 30 per cent. At 40 per lent. Paying dlltlca $204,100,836 Irec of duty 00,720,306 Total ,141 648,018 1,8!!8 3,004,767 183,408 8,864,645 641,816 Commercial Rtgulit'wnt of the Viiited Statet, comjnUtl from Ctnn-al Reijulatiom of the Tn asury Viparlment, and from other official A iithoiiliin. — Vessels lielonging to the followliii; nations aro adinil led, iindcr tlio prnvisiuns of law, treaties of conimorce nml navijjation, or conven- tions, into tho ports of tlio United .States, on llio same terms as Anicricitn vessels, with the produce or inanu- factnrcs of their own or any otlier country : Argentine Confederation, Austria, BclRium, Brazil, Chili, (l)eninarl<,*) Kcuador, Great Britain, Greece, No>v (iranada, Gualcinoln, Hanover, Hanse Towns (Hamburg, Dromcn.and I.ilbecli), Mei.l(lcnburg Schwe- rin, Nctlierlanda, Oldenliurg, Peru, Prussia, Russia, San Salvador, Sardinia, Swetion and Norway, Tuscany, Two Sicilies.t Venezuela. * Tho treaty between llie United States and Denmark ex- pired on the 14th day of April, ISeO. t By decree of December IS, 1864, equality with tho na- tional flag Is offbrod by tho government of the Two Slclllca to the vessels of smcIi nations as reciprocate the favor. This equality appliea to the direct and indirect trade. Vessels IclonRing to the following nations, with which tlie United States have reciprocal treaties on the footing of " the most favored nations," or with wliich reciprocity exists by virtue of an act of Congress of tho 2ltli day of May, 18'i8, are admitted into the ports of tlie United Stales on the same terms, as re- spects tonnage or navigation duties, as American ves- sel.s, with the produce or manufactures of their own or any other country : Bolivia, Costa liica, Mexico, Mus- cat, Ottoman empire, Portugal, and Uruguay. The Rights ofCommcrcr.—"\» the end of tho law of nations is the happiness and general perfection of the general society of nianl • • 6,100 ■ • * • ■ ■10 • • .... 426 496,121 6,891 608,002 626,210 6,091 1,868 8,763 1,848 82,583 106 82,639 88,882 3,975 2,654 too* .... 86,179 * * • • 86,179 9,028 • • 1,121 748,363 46,461 794,824 826,S98 28,501 22,816 3,767 416 2,279,330 1,281,873 8,636,703 8,712,292 0,242 1.052 60,606 60,374 8,617,467 64,614 8,033,464 1,058,461 9,676,918 54;6I4 8,371,607 10,462,194 60 2,328,142 26,058 26,611 112,164 267 12,293 80,413 1,049 :&,016 838,068 20,008 18,330 817,748 18,099 860,847 4.14,656 6,807 10,081 1,602 1,004 264,290 7,741 272,081 22^814 6,019 6,779 796 806 270,361 237,762 608,123 817,998 7,822 9,897 1,032 ],f09 8,192,808 1,620,093 8,818.f>)l 8,777,996 89,201 27,974 6,740 4,431 16I,M3,7I4 11,707,880 168,281,044 90,444,611 838,308 863,484 828,721 854,461 8,124,861 104,442 8,228,998 6,100,767 16,81!0 28,711 06,816 87,375 1,307,936 277,876 1,.':88,811 11^280 1,884 18,298 10,122 18,726 403,461 16,665 419,119 92,238 1,441 8,486 2,184 1,162 67,846 2,33:) 60,184 51,214 424 2,782 .... 13,063,465 3,".fi.%7S9 17,029,264 11,581,871 1,844,717 1,364,580 922,920 1,012,368 6,978,494 046,979 6,622,478 4,224,048 171,024 242,407 3!!0,020 475,.",29 6,46.',202 105,496 6,667,6'.)8 1,907,7.18 10l,3.".2 117,ii74 89,429 82,702 419,746 82,S61 4,%2,6?6 412,310 7,605 6,430 4,070 2,010 881,521 2,980 884,601 829,687 1,4(18 1,061,647 6,783 12,708 4,853 3,5t8 441,216 2,811 448,827 8,227 18,564 880 2,971 8,110,411 86,279 8,205,690 06,284 8,402 60,:!81 8,819 10,878 l,ir8,466 8^250 1,278,708 12,140,788 98,2I!3 53,375 4,732 7,482 30,013,271 1,162,621 31,176,892 82,900,796 221,076 201,815 10,412 7,766 1,502,396 63,630 1,566,025 2,391,726 19,r:55 17,(.72 2,477 8,489 147,938 20,602 177,640 91,072 240 1,135 8,100 2,782 622,436 10,642 633,078 103,fi,S9 8,100 27,226 2,886 1,410 82,666 748 88,808 49,411 , 2,207 1,687 • . . .... 27,616 834 27,f60 864 744 1,040 2,054.369 24,208 2,078,637 66.'),010 16,683 29,333 2,217 0,833 6,%VS,:99 77,209 6,603,008 2,458,667 21,247 20,581 24,935 62,a87 79,796 981 80,776 2,629 1,842 1,4')9 2,401 67,649 17,350 74,999 3,038,999 23,!!89 8,122 932 11,678,167 2,760,024 14,433,191 27,214,846 608,521 649,389 61,354 11,887 1,012,048 298,302 1,910,850 4,458,686 03,818 40,034 9,065 2,214 269,484 10,008 279,402 142,086 8,777 6,680 1,071 1,676 19,806 612 20,818 80,199 • • • 870 475 ■ • • . 46,460 2,414 48,874 2,286 1,011 1,947 1,211 218 130,698 6,288 136,S83 4S,209 3,0(iit 6,819 1,862 2,267 2,779,368 183,686 2,968,053 201,458 8,672 16,886 0,518 4,706 682,396 8,690 690,986 1,3!)6,631 2,259 1,737,328 15,0 ^ 1,931 8,065 218 625,374 '4b',869 666,243 41,684 4,,')26 15,297 8,708 910,76» 206,048 1,110,817 898,105 7,608 8,591 2,066 1,061 1,058,699 8,543 1,067,242 5,817 • • • • 6,748 e . . 743 8,060 .... 8,060 42,218 132,007 .... 800 138 890 .... 609,985 1,860 611,846 112,311 1,207 6,600 • . ■ • 877 273,420 83,112 826,582 974,591 10,907 4,277 817 >* . 107,637 660 108,197 1 98,083 • • • 2,828 2,817 • • • . 1,767,066 136,384 1,1>04,29« 1, 617,249 18,477 14,096 630 824 1,978,866 248,744 2,227,609 2,188,662 49,679 83,108 4,786 2,161 112,427 6,001 118,428 190,870 2,781 8,441 070 1,187 2,786,862 629,978 8,31^826 6,477,405 66,646 68,578 7,489 1,1,213 116,611 19,861 134,962 132,427 7,796 8,428 969 425 1,489,683 100,084 ],68S,667 B,(i!t9,72l 110,126 119,766 1,179 863 1,194,294 73,632 1,267,926 8,601,847 26,180 16,294 8,164 641 4,73^834 218, fla 4,964,706 16,962,3S6 89,676 86,245 19,611 8,975 662,067 26,061 678,128 621,888 3,781 18,864 924 690 766,048 130,561 904,694 S,72^21S 17,»7 f5,170 261 1,216 1,68.),I87 292,364 '-"JS'Si* 2,665,263 16,760 28,657 ■^■^I 7,846 12,378 .... 12,073 88,688 270 833 603,827 82,083 086,909 1,000,641 08,180 86,605 8.858 8,699 13,700 1.1,700 326 994 .... .... 606,104 113,229 71'>,3.13 845,346 11,109 15,302 708 678 8,007,748 2,689,603 6,697,361 10,870,636 121,444 82,486 49,988 1,444 1,036 67,972 16,814 10,096 45,201 10,177 'eiws 2,063 1,813 0C6 261,300 4,046 3'0,8S6,142 266,036 86,023 2.\69« 40,049 272 4,396,042 84,268 4,49»,n83 .... 293,758, v:7'.i l«4, 644,421 282,618.160 2,209,40:) 2,312,76!) 388,986,066 28,976,617 362,960,("-2 860 900,141 4,7'cl,870 4,581,912 2,164,946 2,490,170 RnsnlB on the Baltle and 1^'. Sets. RusiU on the ISItck Set. . Aslttic Rustit Riinitn PoisenioDB In N. Am. . . Prumit Sveden tnd Norwajr Siredtih West Indies Denmirk Danlih West Indies Hamburg Bremen Other Oermtn ports Molltnd Da teh West Indie Dutch OuUnt Dutch East Indies Belgium England Seotltnd Ireland Gibraltar Malta Canada Other Dritiih North Am. Fou.. . British West Indies British Iloniluras British Guiana Other British Poss. In South Am. Britlah I'oBsessions In Africa. . . . British Australia British Eist Indies Krance on the Atlsntle France on the Mediterranean . . . French North American I'oss. . . French West Indies French Ouitna French Possessions In Africa. . . . Spain on the Atlantic Spc'n on the Mediterranean .... Canary Iilands Philippine Islands Oubu Porto Rico Partii(!al Madeira Cape do Verd Islands , Azores Sardinia Tuscanv Papal Slates Two Sicilies Austria Austrian Possessions in Italy. , . . Ionian Republic Greece Turkey In Europe Turkey In Asia Egypt Other ports in Africa Haytl San Domingo Mex'ro Central Republic New Granada Teneauela Braall Uruguay, or Cisplatlne Republic. Buenos Ayres, or Argentine Rep. Chni Bolivia Pern Eeuador (iandwich lalandx ,, China Other ports In Asia IslandB In thn Pacific Whale-fisheries Uneertain places Total to June SO, 1888 Total to June 80, 19BT 2,071 10,818 1>* VI56 8,489 2,782 1,440 V,MO 0,338 62,a8T S,401 iV,8n 2,214 ],«T6 "iis! 2,261 4,166 218 8,168 1,061 148 871 824 2,151 1,IR7 42B| 8BS 6411 8,015 690 1,216 1,845 8,66»| "bis 1 10,606 "006 2,490,11"' UNI OimiAL Statbiikt or ronian Ihtobti 1911 UNI ^^haocf ImporUd. iw nrao TBI UwTm Btitm mn rai riioAi. Yiai; nDiira Jmn 80, 1888L Hu^Bia on the Uultic and N. Heau RuMla on the Black Sea Asiatic Russia Kusslan Posseasiona in N. A.. , Siredan and Norway Swedish West Indlei Denmark Danish West Indte Hamburg Bremen Other Gorman ports Holland Dutch Went Indies Dutch Uulana Dutch Kast Indies Belgium England Scotland Ireland Gibraltar Malta Canada Other British N. Amer. Poss, . British West Indies British Honduras UritUh Guiana Other British Poss. in S. Am. Briil.ih Possessions in Africa. , British Australia British ICast Indies France on the Atlantic Franco ou the Mediterranean French N. Amer. Possessions Freuch West Indies French Guiana Spain on the Atlantic Spain on the Mediterranean. Canary Islands Philippine Islands Cuba Porto Rico Portugal Madeira Cape de \'crd Islands Azores Sardinia Tuscany Papal ato tea Two Sicilies Austria Austrian Possessions in Itnly. Ionian ilepubiic G rceco . Turkey in Europe Turkey la Asia Egypt •...., Ports In Africa Ilaytt Siin Domingo Mexico Central Republic New Orauda Venezuela Braail Uruguay, or ijisplatlne liepub. liueaps Ayres, or Argent Kcp. Chill ;. Bolivia Peru Sandwich Islands Other Islands in the Pacific. . . China Other porta In Asia Whale-flsberie Uncertain places Total toJuno 80, 1958.... Total to June 80, l^ST. . . . Total to Juno 80, 1856. . . . $284,171 2,20S 100 10,968 CO 8,431 V6|982 116,365 400,962 776,6(11 134,690 23,710 268,244 132,754 9,886,300 118,573 1,110 40,604 23,869 11.261,018 4,047,109 637,037 80,I17S 4 1, 3 '8 BsKoSl 18,013 4,727,403 2,253,841 747,485 811 74,295 26,U77 6,019 83,397 216 73,265 4,968,007 75,307 28,012 26,957 53,832 507,219 185.074 209,481 5,710 21 15,345 r,o,8i6 W3,297 82,896 675,733 2,080, S4C 3,554 4,615,853 C0,[I5-! 1,262,820 1,739,142 14,313,710 31,131 941,670 2,220,391 3S,053 S21,299 152,618 03 7,679,053 9,572 80,6>3 13,270 $1,777,489' i9,Bn $30,319,275 (!0,7'29,306 56,95.\706 626,160 35,451 9,023 808,963 8,590,921 10,061,233 5) 1,661,641 209,969 196,.^98 649,764 8,646,242 80,668,242 6,042,106 114,114 45,634 22,345 813,963 177,779 1,270,701 332,238 289,359 1,493 607,06.3 47,230 7,41,1,320 30,640,965 1,044,240 90,261 29,344 23,434 6,57,891 2,428,270 2,313 2,960,734 22,240,839 4,380,279 119,044 30,199 2,2,16 21,253 233,070 8'9,4«3 2,259 ],Ril,6.'M 186,714 101 42,1 117,t)o» 1,496 831,294 10,187 1,021,511 93,716 "AS 16 361,607 71,409 1,837,396 l,8ii2,7ft"> 2,038,070 5:)0,7,'.7 1,793,548 434,872 179^243 192,927 32,423 2,991,493 1U,872 12,423 $2,061,661) 2,206 19,611 64,007 625,210 83,883 9,028 825,896 8,712,392 10,452,194 60 2,328,142 434,666 226,314 817,998 8,777,996 90,444,011 u,160,767 11^280 92,238 61,214 11,631,571 4,224,948 1,907,738 412,316 829,697 1,4!'8 1,061,647 65,254 12,140,783 82,900,796 2,391,725 91,072 103,639 49,411 503,010 2,453,307 2,529 8,033,981 27,214,846 4,4.'),'),r)S0 142,1160 80,199 2,2.'!6 43,209 291,468 1,396,681 2,269 1,737,323 390,196 6,817 42,218 132,907 112,311 971,691 93,093 1,697,249 2,138,51)2 199,370 5,477,466 132,427 3,099,721 8,001,847 10,952,386 021,R3S ' 2,7»,218 2,6.55,263 39,069 l,000,,'i41 5v>,ur> 32,490 10,570,6:16 121,444 86,623 2.'),612 $1,788,073 2,206 16,691 7,878 470,843 83,883 9,028 812,613 478,609 8,288,337 l,4l'3|i44 414,2.'9 196,126 678,087 8,131,283 63,999,605 642,288 29,000 79,474 61,214 6,022,602 1,041,824 1,393,429 870,713 150,327 82i;489 4.5,678 11,719,842 29,216,4V0 1,965,9111 1,770 77,982 49.411 450,187 1,4:iO,6B5 2,529 ?,9.T4,461 26,7'.'4,976 3,830, (IfS 29,166 30,1 no 2,266 41,42;) 84,439 1,212,003 1,921 1,274,613 108,u09 6,317 lb6",!)30 112,,11l 917,077 366 1,571,217 2,123,.5.",7 141,807 4,112,,'i85 119,042 ,1,023,913 2,891,997 14,457,001 ,')3 1,247 2,&W,241 2,389,469 993^393 832,069 21,003 9,383,568 61,569 86,623 23,776 $202,293,875 294,160,915 257,084,236 $282,613,150 360,890,141 314,639,942 1203,700,016 259,116,170 249,972,612 $278,687 4,020 46,139 154,867 18,288 8,2.13,784 7,163,857 60 914,998 20,8!)t 29,189 189,911 646,728 S6,44B,04« 4,618,479 86,280 12,764 4,989!6ot 8,175,624 614,809 86,604 178,860 1,408 240,189 19,691 420,P41 8,684,306 435,924 69,302 28,787 118,728 968,112 io'.'iSS 1,419,871 619,483 112,000 6,790 267.020 184,683 43S 462,815 290,686 42^219 26,977 bV'eu 92,717 20,032 02,026 57,603 1,364,890 12,788 78,8(18 719,8.50 2,495,386 90,641 74,977 266,794 88,068 7,148 13,286 11,483 1,181,971 69,875 ' \m $2,187,483 669,002 884,928 8,712,292 10,452,194 60 8,806,109 8,777,996 127,589,668 85,S3«,«43 8T,72«,e« 222,720 291,468 1,396,681 2,259 1,737,323 402,013 42,218 182,907 1,086,902 08,088 1,597,249 2,185,662 199,370 6,477,4C5 182,4'27 8,099,721 8,601,947 16,962,381) 621,888 2,726,218 ^,6^^263 S8,603 1,000,641 845,345 32,486 10,870,838 121,444 86,623 56,692 $79. '.113,134 101,778,971 64,067,430 $282,618,160 860,890,141 314,639,943 SuuHART or iHrOBTS, Ykaj 18!»-'57. Countries Impori«. England $123,473,629 France 43,792,!>/7 Cuba 4,5,243,101 Braall 21,460,733 Canada 18,291,934 British East Indies 10,708,214 Bremen 10,723,523 China 8,350,932 Scotland 7,216,1 1 1 Otlier countries 71,r)05,337 Total $'300,b96, 141 100 00 This sutnmary shows that 80 per cetit. of the total imports for 18,')6-'u7 was to countries from which we imported over 2 per cent. Of the total of this 80 per cent. 51 per cent, (ngainst GS per cent, of e.xports) camq from countries on the west coast of Europe, thereby showing a bKlancc of trade in our fo'.or in "ar com- merce with these countries. A similar examination of our trade with Cuba, Brazil, and China would show, on an average, an aggrot;alr balance of trade against the United States of ovvr fifty mllUons of dollars. MS „ Mr UNI 1912 ma COHHEBOX or THE USITBD STATES Willi TIIll PRIUCIPAI. OOllHKBCIAt, ConrTBIM, llXmBITINO TIIK AOOBKOATB VaI.ITR OF Im- rOETH PBOM EACH COUNTET, EACH YSAtf, niBINa A PEBIOU OF TIIIBTY-BEVKN OONSEOUTIVB YEABS, FBOH 1821 TO 185T, uotu inclusive. Values of Ihpobtr ihto tm Chited States fbom— Ureit BrIUIn Kranc« Spain Ntthnlandi Swedan Danniark Portoial and Ymii. uid »iul •nd and and aud China. D«p«ndAnctei D«p«iitleneias. DependcnrlM Depflndenrl«l nflpandcnriei. Dependenclas. Dependencies. 1831 $2P,2TI,93S $6,00(1,68 1 $9,063,723 1112,934,272 $1,30'.1,800 $1,099,7311 $748,423 $8,111,961 $990,168 18M B9,.OT,82» 7,069,342 12,370,841 2,708,102 1,644,907 2,636,400 681,290 6.242,686 1,778,766 1328 34,072,578 0,005,343 14,233,6.10 2,125,.637 1 l,503,ftVl I,8i4,6;i2 633,036 6,611,428 1,981,026 1834 3J,750,340 9,007,413 18,857,007 2,:165,525 1,101,769 9,110,600 001,792 6,018,602 9,627,830 1825 42,894,812 11,336,631 9,800,237 2,206,378 1,417,698 1,539,6:12 733,443 7,638,116 2,739,626 1820 32,212,8511 9,638,890 9,093,420 2,174,131 1,992,132 9,117,104 708,203 7,422,180 2.816,648 18i7 3:1,068,374 9,443,6J2 9,10fl,:l(» 1,722,070 1,228,042 2,840,171 869,001 3,017,183 1,038,558 18-JS .T6,6'.>1,434 10,237,516 8,107,.M6 1,990,431 1,940,783 2,374,0<10 433,666 6,839,108 2,044,392 182J 27,632,082 9,010,970 0,801,374 1,017,334 1,303,961 2,080,177 087,809 4,080,847 2,274,976 1830 20,804,084 8,240,336 8,373,081 1,860,706 1,398,040 1,671,218 471,043 8,878.141 1,873,278 1831 47,068,717 14,737,636 11,701,201 1,661,031 1,120,73:1 1,662,210 SOT.^W 8.083,206 3,493,301 1832 4J.41«,924 12,764,016 10,3113,290 2,8:)3,474 1,160,894 1,182,708 436,204 6,344,907 2,806,090 1838 43,(188,805 13,:i02,913 1:1,431,207 2,347,34:1 1,200,8.19 1,100,872 66,'>,137 7,641,670 2,227,720 1831 r)i,a70,298 17,.V)7.244 13,527,414 2,127,380 1,120,641 1,084,303 0.19,122 7,8: 2,327 3,3f>5,856 1886 M,n49,3U7 28,:)li2,634 1.6,017,141 2,903,718 1,310,6118 1,403,1102 1,126,713 6,987,187 3,841,943 1886 80,022,916 37,0311,236 19,346,090 3,801,514 1,299,00:1 1,874,340 072,070 7,324,816 4,994,820 183T 6J,28I,657 22,407,317 13,927,871 3,370,828 1,4«3,87S 1,200,900 928,291 8,90.6,337 5,642,991 183S 4>,051,181 13,037,149 l.\971,394 2,194,238 9(K1,790 1,044,80.6 726,068 4,764,630 2,847,358 1839 71,000,361 33,234,119 1:1,270,795 8,473,220 l,6flO,14J 1,540,763 1,182,323 3,078,699 4,849,160 1840 il9, 130,021 17,9118,127 14,011,047 2,320,890 1,276,4.63 970,078 639,894 0,040,829 2,621,483 1841 61,099,038 24,187,444 ]0,:il0,3ll3 2,410,417 1,229,041 1,034,321 674,341 8,988,383 2,449,964 1842 ;iS,fll3,04S 17,223,390 12,170,,6S3 2,214,620 914,170 684,821 847,084 4,934,646 2,274,019 1S4S 23,978,882 7,830,137 0,989,6114 816,.641 278,074 48,6,286 71,309 4,3S8,.666 1120,866 1S44 48,4W,122 17,9,%2,412 1:1,776.451 2,130,330 4i%K>:i 039,610 267,016 4,931,965 2,136,386 1S45 41,903,726 22,009,914 10,5I0,,'>44 1,897,023 640,067 783,233 601,734 7,286,914 2,912,837 I84J 49,000.422 24,3:m,832 12,370,432 1,971,030 730,160 753,927 W7,474 6,693,881 8,149,864 1S4T 72,7W,31I 26,100,417 1«,3S.!,975 2,480,634 613,098 847.223 410,180 6,533,343 3,029,186 1'44S 0S,9;i5,979 28,287,791 17,:i83,307 2,172,100 704,002 686,365 235,877 8,0=3,196 0,993,280 1S49 07,337,933 24,463,(!09 16,110,027 2,307,561 767,328 868,346 414,884 6,618,785 7,742,864 1S8J a-), 117,607 27,030,20.'* l.'>,8rt4,743 2.732,500 1,035,310 267,080 470,820 6,693,462 8,787,874 18M 105,323,079 31,707,410 22,972,23:1 8, 124,007 990,2!13 974,781 604,098 7,066,144 10,008,364 1K.2 102,710,820 25,909, 119 24,223,283 3,290,364 779,732 208,8.'* 404,342 10,593,960 8,171,411 iss;i 143.219,200 33,.62:i,9irj 20,030,320 2,549,019 464,203 184,417 549,098 10,673,710 13,843,465 IS5t 103,018,0 6 3,6,972,030 26,401,333 3,370,793 6.37,708 294,141 804,108 10,606,329 10,906,898 1S6S 129,874,434 31,8 11,906 20,.:il7,446 8,603,444 881,129 237,009 43.6,411 11,048,796 12,1190,110 18M 1,M.»6J,V49 40,241,393 33,432,700 4,018,436 881,4:17 220.1,63 300,242 10.454,436 14,488,612 1861 103,523,0'20 48,000,868 67,432,845 4,049,870 756,894 286,368 633,714 8,366,032 15,871,184 Values of Iiifobtb i.vto the Umited States feom— Venesueln, 1 Argentine He- Ye?t.. Rusiia. Italy.f Ilayll. Bfaill. Mexico. N. liraniida, nnit Kciador. America. puUlo and I'm^uay. Cl:!!l. Delgium. 1321 $1,3.VJ,19J l$:)73.403 $2,246,2.67 $006,120 .... 1829 3,307,328 11,562,033 2,341,817 1,486,867 .... .... 1823 9,263, -77 11,31.1,440 2,.162,733 1,214,810 1324 2,909,e83 |l,029,43:l 2,247,2.35 2.071,1]9 .... .... 1325 2,007,110 'l,.«r>4,023 2,008,329 9,166,707 $4,044,647 $1,337,0.60 $56,789 $749,771 $239,609 1320 9,017,109 '1,120,749 l,r>ll,S36 2,11)0,673 3,910,118 2,079,724 204,270 622,709 629,949 1827 2,080,077 1,013,120 1,731,30.) 9,060,971 6,231,807 1,N')0,243 261,342 80.006 184,693 1323 2,733,302 11,007,417 2,103,6^6 3,097,752 4,314,258 1,484,866 204,770 317,400 781,863 .... 183.1 2,218,995 1,409,633 1,7.19,309 9,838,467 6,020,701 1,266,310 311,931 916,190 410,118 1830 1,021,839 1 940,2.' 1 1.697,140 i;630,,67S 2,491,400 8,23.6,241 1,130,006 302,833 1,;13 1,883 132,636 1831 1,003,323 ;l,704,264 2,37.6,829 .6,100,746 1,207,184 193,6114 928,103 413,758 1332 3,261,383 l,61:i,796 9,063,336 3,SIK),346 4,293,954 1,439,182 233,310 1,,600,171 6S1.628 1333 2,772,880 999,134 1,740,063 8,039,0.13 6,462,318 1,624,622 267,740 1,377,117 834,180 $139,028 1334 2,696,810 11,422,063 9,113,717 4,729,909 8,000,068 1,727,183 170,908 1,4:10,118 787,409 186,079 13.15 3.398,245 ] 1,4.67,977 2,347,.VV1 6,.674,4fl6 9,490,440 1,062,704 216,460 878.013 917,096 341,907 1336 2,778,8.'>4 ;1,970,246 1,323,019 7,210,190 6,616,819 1,696,660 ]!'I6,304 1,0,63,603 811,497 430,009 13.17 2,816.110 1,327,131 1,440,3,60 4,991,393 8, 6,64,00 J 1,667,346 103,402 1,000,002 1,180,166 649,009 1333 1,S91,.II6 044,2.13 1.276,702 3,191,233 3,.660,709 1,616,249 1,'>,6,014 1,029,5:)9 942,096 239,923 18BJ 2.393,394 1,133,297 1,377,939 6,992,968 3,127,153 2,073,216 192,845 1,1,60,640 1,136,641 4116,701 1840 2,672,427 :i,1.')7,29'i 1,252,324 4,927,2:10 4,176,001 1,.')72,643 189,IU1 787,904 1,016,859 274,807 «T4,s.63 1341 2,317,443 1,161,2.30 1,809,634 6,302,063 3,234,057 2,156,121 130,911 1,967,747 1,280,980 1843 1,:160,106 ; (•S7,.-i23 i,'!06,997 6,943,814 l,g05,69« 1,720,658 124,994 2,417,r)41 831,039 619,53! 1343 7«-.',S;lS ' .394,604 h:w,447 3,947,663 9,782,406 1,.307,013 132,167 916,241 8f>7,666 171,096 1.341 1,051,419 1,0.16,920 1,441,241 6,833,390 2,387,003 1,028,096 139,010 l,Wi6,!'6'> 760,370 0:14,777 1346 1.492,203 2,172,479 1,330,307 6,034,59:1 1,702,936 1,440,196 06,209 1,771,271 1,123,690 709,603 134! 1,670,054 2,032,740 1,642,902 7,441,803 ?,356,691 1,676,043 1I0,7:13 S2.'),086 1,276,900 830,372 1347 924,673 2,0|s,,'k')2 1^91,630 7.096,160 746,818 1,479,180 80,681 .364,019 1,710,90:1 94S,32.'i 1943 l,:il:i,"31 2,234,129 1,307,174 7,992,048 1,631,247 1,438,907 13,273 l,M9,lfll 1,310,+M 1.326,001 1349 311,233 2,123,078 901,724 3,414.363 2,216,719 1,. 672,060 riO,lll7 1,789,761 1,817,723 1,844,293 1869 1,611,673 2,927,911 1,644.771 9,324,42.1 2,13,6,366 2,612,239 201,4.'.9 2,063,877 1,796,877 2,404,964 18.61 ],:192,733 2,330,623 l.SS 1,903 11,625.804 1,304,779 8,162,693 149,S.')6 3,234,490 2,734,74c 2,377,0:10 1362 1,631,62,1 2,926,936 1,370,672 12,230,28.1 1,049,200 2,372,391 808,3.'>6 2,141,339 2,002,100 2,064,li4:! 1263 1,27s601 2,846,206 1,088,624 14,817,961 3,107.986 8,189,308 6:K1,937 9.489,021 2,214,2.62 2,7:12,103 1351 1,644,2.15 3,109,421 2,357,262 14,110,337 3,463,190 4,003,703 2,300,422 2,012,160 3,.132,167 :i,402.241 1S65 2.10. 113* 3,709,'iOI 2,616,626t 1.6,218.936 2,832,330 6,429,094 280,4i):l 2,787,890 3,613,390 3,:198,090 1360 330,531 3,411,.')70 1,9S4,4.^6 19,202,0:.7 3,.6C8,631 0,012,616 24ll,8.')3 9,083,197 2.407,319 :i, 100,6 11 1867 1,519,420 3,602,914 2,400,116 21,460,783 6,986,887 6,344,490 238,000 3,162,770 3,742,439 6,iKio,::il The figurca for 18.'i5 aru the agi;ri'i;atn of tliouc given In " Commerce miil XavlKatlon" for Hiissia on tho Haltic and Noirh Kca?, on the Black Sia, anil In American anil Asiatic ltn»>la, all unibraceil in jirlor n-portu nmlcr the hIiibIo ti»i. lin.uia. t Italy, fuh'ciini'ntly to 1644, 1< niailc to I'lnbrari' a/i llin Itiiiinn Blate«— ^:icll)•, Sardinia, 'I'n^'ciiny, 'I'rliHti e.,\ ; Imt after 1866, It emhrac™ Sardinia, Tuscany, rapal state.i, an.i Two Sicilies, only. t llavti after 1S;)6 einbrace.i the utals glv, n In •' Commerce and XavlBatlon" for Ilaytl and .8»n Uomlngo (Dominican lie- pilblic),' which were embodied In forinor reporta lUlder the single title, Ilayti. From these tables it nppear.i tlint the principal in- Towns. Tlie .South American states that show an in- cicasQ in tlio countries of Europe was in Ureal nrilaiii crease are, Brazil, Argentine Kepublic, and Chili, ami its dcpen'lcncie.i. Frame niid its dependencies, The countries in the nortli of Europe geuorally show ■; Spain and its dependencies, Uulgiuin and the Hanse decrease. 1822.. 1823... 1824. 1326.. 1S20. . . 1837.. [1828.. 1839. 1830., 1331. 1833. 1333., 13.14. 1336.. 1330.. isa7.. ■ 1833,. 1339.. 1840.. l-^l... 1842.. '''43... 18+4... 1345... l'*4'i... •347..., 1843.. 1349.. ' 13,60... ■ 1861... 1853.. 126a...' '864. . . ; I3.'>6. ;i36o..""' 11867.. " t^tey V-y^ff^' UNI StniMiBT Statbmptp n, , 1913 KJDtamHo J^ioD or ;3??|S| « ••■ •••• ;^h;S; S P:q ^^^t 1,0^,003, 20.h'S 1-ni'e^i 1743S 1,1127,2U 2,51)6574 1,15.'>,557 2,517,273 STO.MO 2>, .,kI , ''■M,370: 1,7|(2 LNSI 1>-1'I5,7J0 2,,.'37,n.',0' J.1S7,142 7,44 IS 3' .2!"i,T73 2 W3'77S| l.f 3,S15 3,372,4,W I,«4-,29n:;,r.i2,'.lol J\^';.»n3 3,021 042, '2.2An52, 4,2;?V73 ^■j4,62.S, 5,54,'),207| Argentine Re.^ l;V''l"c«nd ' C-lilU. Bolginui. 2,SS(i,^S4 2-.-13I,lfti ;.S37,;.58, •'■'i'S.SlSi •%2fi.'i,o,,i !',"29,221 C,"41,(ia'-, •l,''''''0,323 2,104,197 2,787,302,' I 2,.'>lr,,34l 2,ii30,C20| l,f>34,233 1,471,937 1,794,833 l,l.';-',.-«] 1,531, ISO 092,428 2,0.(0„S«<'' 2,012,827.' 1„''^1,7<3' 2.284,92!!; ■l,Wi<,S''4l 3,l.'W,4S6i 2,"22,S04 3,702,2:i!) ■1,6I6,20(l' i0s5,:)47i 2.:!(i:i,2u7i 700.997, 2."8,1S,1. ,„, 2,.^M,;,S0,l,2(i2 170 3.3M,0OC, '390 02 ',"='2,443 137.02 $99,.i22 111' 774,' 224,77,> l.W,272; 23.9,S.',4' 2-'>0,||8 •W0,4!,7 3.'i.'.,:)07 •'''S.OIli 1 '4,l4!i; 18.3,793,' 189,.')l,s IS^OCSl 243,040 210,241 217,940 H9,9I3, «9,4(J0, n2,90(i I,''"),270| 07,040 120,25.3 »«,BOSi '>0,378, l.'!«,219l 70,192l 203,3;il 47J,.Ms' •"40,33o; 30-!,Sfl4 «673,520,'jl92i45S ':' ,204 l,702,(iOI '•20,li,',2 1.421 iqf i:')o o.— ,V "*,''^4I ,5.30,114 1,30s' l,^, ',221,11!, , ,40:i,940$l,d,if-ij,| „ , oq-oi- „ '4\222 273,872 1 iHifJ 2,284,060 2«0,99^i'*7o'q?? ''l''v'-'S7 40630.1 ii',}?^* 1,' 14,961 029.8. , 0511,779 020,:iii5 0!l!l 7.,.,. !'7I„S37 7ftS,9IS •'I84,!li)3 411.';)29 70s-io| i'.f'l."73 3,120,557 sS.''?:'^^«<" i'»2,190 2 339 I-i'il 1,274,082 2193.^ 1,391.599 .■!,4-0'-",57 1,811,192 2sot'74. ( 2,'il9,979 21107;^ I • Tho flgn.'P, fiTricT." '---'■--''l-:*".'*».,528 5,54,5,2071 in" fnp Tr., ..*. . ' ftiter f,*>2,oi2i 4,203,770 3,208„W3 '',006,894 3,927,240 0,'>0O,62.i ',044,320 i li„ V. J"-"" ■^""•illiiii 'I T|,pf„|, . ' "i'"™ under tl„. 8in„ i lie followniff tables exhibit i„n ■ "•"■• ■ ■=- v'-u.uRfln Re. o'^p^amr^wispm^n "Wgi^firTgfi?' r a-Kr^K'^^V^I''^ '\^0i ' UNI 1914 UNI .. STATmnNT UillBITIHO TUH OWMS VAI.UK OP EXTOBW *H7> lUPOBTB 0» T1I« 1 NITKD STATKB PBOM 1790 TO 1831. Y«»ri 8«pt.30. e.port.. Impirb. ending 8i)o,oflo 518,(141 1'.|,(I18,1IJ1 ■.;i,098 31,600,000 1808. .. O,48:),M0 18,997,414 88,480,90(/ 50,990,000 17M. . . . a4,ooi),ooi) 8,10.1,512 afl,lcl;i,5r8 31,100,000 : 1899.... 31,408,708 80,797,581 58,203,838 69,400,000 1794. . . . a«,50o,oou 0,680,83:1 33,080,833 34,6i ,t»0 '! 1810.... 48,300,675 84,891,895 00,767,970 86,400,000 1796. . . . ;i»,5flo,ooo 8,499,472 47,;)H'.l,47a 09,750,228 1 1811.... 46,894,043 16,088,790 61,816,838 63,400,000 1708. . . . 40,704,0;)7 JB.iiCO.OOO (17,004,097 81,430,104 1818.... 80,032,109 8,495.127 33,687,880 77,0:iO,00O 1797. . . . 2fl,8SO,'inO ■,r,oot),oflo M,8."i(l,80« 76,070,406 1818.... 28,009,138 8,847,806 27,858,!i97 28,00.'),(KI0 1798.... 88,627,01.17 .:!t,ooo.oun 01,687,0.17 0S,661,7(I0 1814.... 6,782,878 ]45,i«ri 0,087,441 18,0(,6,000 1709.... ISOffl.... aS,U8,0'i8 *'5,S2:i,OllO 78,008,682 79,009.143 1816.... 45.974,403 6.';:3,86o 61,667,763 113,041,874 ai,840,IH)3 ,'19,1110,877 70,971,789 91,8,63,708 1810.... 04,731,836 17,1.3h,16« 81,980,468 147,103,(100 1801.... 47,473,804 4I),«4J,731 94,116,1186 111,303,611 1817.... 69,313,600 19,358,009 87,071,660 99,860,000 1808.... 3fl,70S,18;p 36,774,971 78,493,100 70,333,333 1318.... 73,364,437 19,480,096 93,281.183 18J,760,00O 1808. . . . 4'i,806,Dai 13,t94,072 66,800.033 04,0110.000 1819.... 60,970,833 10,105,688 70,142,581 87,128,000 1804. . . . 41,407,477 80,831,697 77,099,074 68,oi'a,;")o 1 1880. . . . 51,693,040 I8,(HJ8,089 09,091,060 74,460,000 1808.... 49,387,008 63,179,019 96,500,081 189,000,000 j| 1881 .... 43,071,894 21,308,498 64,974,8881 68,636,784| Gkhxbal Statimint of Tm jmnjut fobeion flo.vuEBcii AND Navkjation of toe Unitid ^1 TO July 1, 19.'>7. c-BOM OOTUUtB I, 1880, Yean enJlngf KxporU. Imprirla. Whereof (li Bullton e J . , Tonnage cleared D..ni»llf. FrtMlnn. ■folal. Total. Kiport. Import. is;rKi4,8Tio Ainerfran. Kortjgn. Sept. 30, 1981.... $43,671,894 $81,308,499 $04,974,393 $08,69fi,784 $10,478,06.1 804,947 83,073 1882.... 49,971,079 2'.',89a,308 73.100,891 ,98,841,611 10,810,180 1 "Ci 810 813,74,9 97,490 1923. . . . 47,168,408 87,613,038 - ,uJ9,030 77,679,807 (i,."7;i,987 . ,8110 810,701 119,740 1924. . . . 69,049,600 8,S337,167 f6,936,fl57 80,649,007 7,014,653 8,iif 0,836 019,878 108,663 1936. . . . 00,944,748 38,.6:)0,84;' 99,636,399 00,340,076 8,982,034 6,1fjO,706 900,800 95 "80 1828. . . . 63,065,710 24,639,618 77,636,388 84,974,47 f 4,704,63.1 0,880,000 1163,018 9 17 1887.... 69.981,091 ■-'3,403,130 88,384,987 79,t94,0(ls 8,014,880 8,161, 1.'IO 880,648 131,850 1888. . . . 60,669,609 8I,6M,017 78,804,090 68,509,984 8,843,470 7,499,741 81.7,404 161,030 1889.... r)5,700,198 l(i,669,47S 78,369,071 71,403,684 4,984,030 7,403,018 fe,lM,0li4 $09, 144,(1 tfi f4(,799 133,000 1830.... Total 69,408,089 14,.3.97,4I9 73,S49,6'IS 70,970,93(1 2,178,773 971,700 183,130 1,140,074 51530,104,918 $889,0 tl,834 $706,749.7.V.' $798,038,487 $71,073,494 9,060,017 Sept 80, 1831.... $01,377,057 $30,033,686 $91,310,.'>9:i $103,191,18^ $9,014,'.I31 $7,305,946 973,604 371,004 1832. . . . 03,137,470 84,039,473 87,170,943 101,039,30(1 6,080,340 6,907.604 974,866 887,605 ]9.'i8.... 70,317,098 10,988,756 90,140,433 109,113,311 8,611.701 7,070,308 1,148,100 497,039 1334. . . . 81,024,108 83,318,811 104,336,973 180,531, :I38 3,070,759 17,911,033 1,184,020 677,700 ISiW. . . . 101,189,088 80,50-4,4'>6 131,693,577 140,.996,74'J 0,477,775 13,131,447 1,40«,517 080,934 1330.... 106,910,090 81,740,300 139,003,040 199,090,036 4,.')84,3:i0 13,40((,SSI 1,316,6'3S 674,781 1937. . . . 95,604,414 al,K64,062 117,41O.3T0 140,09:1,817 5,970,249 10,510,414 1,8.10,088 7i:fl,2(l2 133S ... 90,033,881 13,453,706 108..l<;i,010 113,717,40(1 3,609,040 17.747.110 1,408,761 004,100 1339. . . . 103,6.33,891 17,494.r>86 181,(189,410 102,0i)8,13'.! 8,770,743 5,6;i6,170 1,477,929 811,8311 1340.... Total 113,396,034 19,190,318 i;i8,09,'),'.)4(; 107,141,611, 8,417,014 8,898,813 1.047,'J09 700,480 !it998,999,009 $1'J0,4!»1,9U4 $l,(l'JJ,il41.0(.i3 $1,308,070,094 $60,839,803 $107,400,'8«u 18,139,909 6,71,9,470 .Sept. 30, 1941. . . . $100,388,728 $1.''>,469,09I $131,851. 9(K1 $137,940,177 $10,0.34,388 ,$4,099,033 1,()34,16e, 730,,949 1918. . . . 98,969,900 11,781,639 I04,(l'.ll,.6:l4 100,102,097 4,813,639 4,097.(110 1,6;i0,46ll 74(i,41'7 ,Iiioe30,1813*... 77,793,793 0,5.53,097 84,340,480 04,763,799 l,63f,J91 23,3flO,K)'.i 1,209,088 688,049 1344.... 99,716,179 11,494,907 111,800,046 108,486,036 6,4.64,814 6,830,4311 2,010,024 900,814 1945.... 99,399,770 1.'>,340.930 114,040,000 117.864,,604 S.000,4!15 4,()70,'.'43 8,063,977 030,8"6 1916.... 103,141,893 ll,34!i,(J83 113,499,610 131,091,797 n,006.'8CS 3,777,73'; 8,'281,029 908,179 1947.... 150,637,404 8,011,189 15'<,049,628 140,646,0.19 1.907,034 24,131.'iMl 8,808,393 l,170,0i;6 1949. . . . 138,904,181 81,132,316 in»,O30,436 154,999,988 1,6,841,010 0,3C0,8'.'4 2,401,380 1,104,169 1949. . . . 13 ',660,965 13,099,906 14,^,76,^930 147,957,439 6,4ft4,04S 0,061 ,'8 Ki 8.763,784 1 376,70.1 I960.... Total 136,946,918 $1,181,453,801 14,96l,90t 161, 998,7-30 178,138,3lN $1,307,793,783 7,683,004 4,028,708 $80,000, l.'iO 8,032,789 1,738,814 10,791,849 $189,106,788 $l,800,504,„'i8 $05,010,081 •20,774,804 .lane 30, 1961.... $190,899,719 $81,699,803 $819,399,011 $310,324,9.38 $30,472,762 $5,4r>3.698 3,200,619 1,929,536 1988.... 103,369.084 17,880,:W3 809,0,69,306 '.'18,016,442 48,074,135 6,606,044 3.830,6'.l0 8,047,576 1863.... 813,417,097 r(,5S'',lfl0 230,970,167 807,978,041 '87,4,96,875 4,'i 1,.3S2 5,700,789 2,898,790 1954. . . . 853,390,97'! 84,9,60,194 378,341,004 804,688,381 41,381,604 0,769.697 8,911.393 8,107,81 . 1356.... 3-'fl,709,.V)3 88,449,393 87.6,160,840 201,409,630 5(;,347,.'H3 8,069,813 4,flO,V, ;9 2,110,382 1966. . . . 310,590,330 (0,378,1579 3i.'0,964,90S 314,030,943 46,746,496 ','207,038 4,688,.-ifl4 2,462,109 1867.... 339,0,96,005 8.\975.617 808,900,093 .300,890,141 09,136,088 18,401,799 4,051,812 8,400,170 Nlue months to June 80, and the fiscal year fium tliU time begins July 1. Tlio following tablo shows tlie extent und progru,is of the lake tonnage of the llditeil .States for the jeara 1855, IV)*!, 1H57. This Ijranch of our shipping has ac- (iuired such importance as lo require a separate state- ment of it.i progress and extent. Tnhlo of vessels built at the American lake ports in the year 1857, in- cluding lalies Krio, Ontario, Huron, and Michigan. 11l.i5. 18S6. 18t7. 1 No. Tons. No. 1 Tom. No. Tone. \ Hteftnii'M.. ., 3 1.0115 3 2,000 6 4,l'8(l IYoih41*m. . . s 4,'813 88 1'J,766 83 11,976 T^A 4 861 6 896 16 1,418 HftrKt . <2 T78 6 3,4.38 3 1,'304 Hrtgs 8 1,748 1 434 8 8(i9 SchooncrH . . . 105 1 28,763 181 34,929 90 88,043 SC')W1 T^ifi.... 5 140^ 416 liW 87,489 157 63,860 48,598 Tttii gives our lake tonnage an increase in three years of 11 steamers 7,916 tons. Ri propellers 99,814 '■ 24tug8 ■.... 2,669 " Total Steam 39,817 " 10 harks 4,478 Ions. 9brlB« 8,045 " 827 schooners 08,637 " TotiilBnil 109,100 " (ironil total 139,377 •' The value of this new tonnage is as follows : Yean. Slaam. Sail. Total. 1865 $395,000 1,133,000 1,320,'JOO $1,813,300 1,004,41)0 1,439,300 $1,009,300 2,7.30,4fi0 5,743,500 1850 1867 Total.... $2,947,'..:00 $4,841,060 $7,099,860 The total tonnage on the lakes in the Fall of 1857 was .'">88,8(i8 tons, and the value of the same was $15,195,100, or nearly forty dollars per ton. UNI , and North Sea, ''} Asiatic Kusala. ' «;.».«. po,m„n;a-„v Sureden and Norway ' ' ' urniitrr''""'^''' I Bronion... Uiitcli VVcgi, r'n'rti ■ • ■ • Wutcl, Oulana ; J "elgiuni I •■"ngl.iiid . . . Scotland I Ireland Cillirultar I -Miilla ; Canada . /, TIP' W'ost Indloa I,''.''K''«ulana.... , Oier port. In Africa • "'"iiii Kurt ;„j|,.s I franco a.i tl,e .V(l„„',i,. 'fvcMchv '5*= *'"•''''-■'■•»: iririci N. Anier. I'oss n.nc , West Indies - ';i-L"icli«niaim. I '■■'-■"Hi I'oM. inAfr!r I Sp;i n on the Atl«, „ 80 21,1 133 I,.1II3 !,(i51 j,(ill 18,:: 10,l,_ S,TTI. »,asr 8ii3,4S4 Bs,rr I8,2::i 8,43 07 "as 106 " 878 31) 1.H3 ' Vlll 38S ^'■)3 275 "04 8,1546 43 lie 117,074 ll,43(t l-.',703 13,.',|]1 I4,0:;6 60,;)S1 .'>3,S75 20,i,Sl.', 1,13.') 2r,«s i,c8r 21,0:i5 773 485 1 T,'i83l ■*,77-i| 107 '« S ( '143 4{>4 637 l,.'*! ' l,50n I 6,'l|0 4 1,0-' Tom. M,l»5j 'Afi7x 8,1)04 'AToii yUHt »!''!" «2,()3'.( B!(,4M .'I8,()li4 l,C49 43,1)40 ll,')«fi l>,r«f, IO,SO« 8T,(iS;| 0,047 ti7i 10 "('••.II uii tne Atlanlii. I nXl 8ii4 fP"". on the .Med er.„' PJ P-'S.) ' li llppino I-/ai„i« "" : hi&a R4i! !ii,o:i:) 1,671 200 .'IS (iO 173 440 ; 03 inj 2041 13;) 10 204 [ ,,,•'','"■)' IsmiiiiN... I ','1 llppino I-|«i„i8 ' "ha . . . I'orlr. dlco.'; ' 'yiuiitti I .'Inilclra <:apo^d„v.Mii^,;,i- I Sardinia .' I Tusciinv Tivo.sl6ilies.',' Aiiatria ... Austrian iWin Y,' ■,;. ' ,';'"«nl!o,„,l,)le.. * .'."f'yin Asia. I'-pl't ■ "nj'tl ManlJomlngi';;." I '■•"I 33,lii,,| jg,],! •f'tral liepuhlic | ' JU | «-•*. " -^^ | ? 43- I ae» (Jittuada . I Veueznoln Urazil " Jji'ilgiiay.'.' J "iiPHos Avr.'a' Chill ... ' ' Uollvia..; Peru ." ■■ I Kciiador |l^;«..da.rtl,e,Wc'; whaie-flsheVies.' :::;;;: ml 1°**' Cleared, 18S7J6 clear'i^d,' I'^fl'^s 1'',^^ f-^.^ 11/,'^^ 1.7 218 0'; SO 29S 22 1 10, 61)0 '"TisTZSTlTKai" 3-7 ilMI.!J7 .J' 20l>,4il3 10 "'0,170 ,. Tho above table gives „s n , , -^^^^i^^^^^y^^iiyi^wljM t''?M .%^i' '" '^'^ "onal eliaracter of ,,,, ' "^"'^ "''''''* of the nn I i ^^T ' — ^-Lil!Z'i?'.'-8l«j277,>.r, , ..,,;:, r ;^,;;7ir.t J'-'ao^^ oieabkd rRo.« the Cvir^ f, •'" I Canada I K'lRland Cuba ., I 'V-f'^h WosViniVios: L5;^>MJranada .^______ _ '..r.!/ rno.\I Ti i.i;).'!,.'« UNT 1916 UNI BTATimiNT BUOWTNO Tn» Natioatiom o» BAon Stati and Tkbhitobt fob tiib Y«An iifniNa .Tcm BO, IftM. Tooanit tnUrtd. Am«riran Vcm#1i. Fonlin /tttlt. ToUl Amtrtean uid Koraiyn, | Ndik. tier. Tom. Crcwi. Num- ber. Tom. Crowi. Num. txr. Tom. ('rtwi. .<|FII. Doy.. Man. Hoyi, Mon. Uoji. Matno New Hampshire 878 6 832 1,319 78 121 4,076 4S3 4 395 2 105 140 194 114 212 li6 054 312 470 21 74 14 128 2 06 116,121 2,7«2 19,147 428,898 15,139 27,919 2,411,087 117 144,081 845 118,483 420 73,422 23.8.;h 44,.'I7S 02,450 80,778 433,7^7 66,108 80,761 11,304 28,678 4,221 100,014 o28 11,151 4,396,012 4,410,033 4,721,370 4,63l,21i 8,749 69 904 It, 699 007 1,118 7:i. f 60 6 4,080 28 8,048 10 2,337 062 2,367 1,201 2,4,')9 1,089 1»,2S0 2,760 3,0,'>6 385 997 139 4,099 10 6(KI 141, Ml7 144,«r>7 1 01, 002 154,305 4 6 "io 73 97 140 426 32 239 2,668 68 61 4,610 29 109 ' 'is'o 1 »4 10 136 08 45 48 886 253 621 14 &l!,liO • :.,J2|i «';,i<,v2 384,070 10,774 10,382 1,124,020 3,070 24,083 38',32-2 102 18,910 2,091 43,470 25,015 7,718 36,051 1M,200 31,013 136,303 2,928 22.260 4,0:;5 48,.^32 419 2,490 2,20;',4U3 2,3l2,7.'i9 2,4'>l,040 2,4!IO,170 2,752 173 1,060 16,9*16 416 893 66.044 163 972 i,'7'36 5 731 79 1,800 936 438 1,012 n,^s') 1,8.54 7,823 180 925 105 2,065 25 134 102,470 103,777 110,707 119,807 16 'so 859 "2 2.-i 83 803 87 031 3,S87 131 182 9,4811 30 647 4 676 3 269 150 830 182 267 173 9110 M6 901 85 104 23 266 5 77 107,231 6,021 43,099 812,908 26,913 8S,30l 3,636,107 8,787 10.8,164 845 156,810 622 92,3.32 ^^950 128,605 69,993 70,108 115,832 589,047 80,121 222,0M 14,287 50,829 8,8511 148,641! 747 13,041 6,501 282 1,90* 81,606 1,rJ2 1,711 128,813 168 6,001 28 5,084 21 8,068 1,031 4,60-1 2,1.10 2,877 8,001 17,809 4,014 1I,47.'< 571 1,922 BU4 6,7,046 B.802,702 7,180,310 7,071,382 244,373 248,4.34 2; 7,^^69 274,172 1417 14-2 2075 ETATIUEilT or THE TONNAOE OF Till UnITKK RTATKS AHNDAT.LT, FBO.V 1703 TO 1814, IHCLUStTI. Year eniiinK Deeemtior 31, 1703. 1704 , 1795. 1706. 1707. H:9S. 17119. 1800, 1801. i&m. 1SC3. Reglitrrdd Hull TonnRtTO. 307,734 43S,S03 6«.,47l 670,7:13 6117,777 003,370 602,107 669,921 032,907 500,380 697,157 KiiroUe.) (infl LirflnMil Hail Tonnage. ^KTiilllir ' 189,756 218,494 2.'.,'>,li:o 279,130 294,1-53 277,213 302,571 814,070 831,724 852,016 ToUl Tonnage. 620,704 028,018 747,966 831,8;iO 870,013 898,328 989,409 072,402 947,677 892,104 940,172 Vcar ending December 31, 1804. 1806. 1806. 1807. 1 808. 1809. 1810. 1811. 1812, 1813. 1814. Reglitered Sail Tonnage. ~6f2,6:r«~ 749,841 808,205 ,848,.T07 7ll9,0.')4 910,0,VJ 934,209 70S8,')2 700,024 074,853 674,033 Enrolled and l.lrenieil .Hall Tonnage. "~309,874~ 891,027 4'10,461 420,'j41 473,.'-;4J 440,222 410,515 40:l,050 609,373 401,776 481,677 Total Tonnage. 1,0-12,404 1,140^08 l,2li.s,7l0 1,208,543 l,':42,.W0 l,.H.'>0,23t 1,424,-84 l,-;3:',502 I,'.'C.1,!I97 l,100,fl2» 1,159,210 Com-An-ITIVR ViKW or tub KEniBTRRKn AND KNnOI.LEn To.NNAOE Of rirn r. Rtatrs rniiM 1815 to 18.57, INOT.UStVE, Yean. Keg liter 'd Touni . Rntolled Tonnage, T lal Tonnage, KeglHlerod Ton- nage in the WhaKtBihery, steam Tonnage. 1'ruiiotlion.ol tlie enroMod Tonnage emplo ye.l in tito t'liasting Trade, Cod- flibery. -Mnokerel- Hehery, Wliiile- tl-fbery. 1^15 8,') >« 5I3,8:13 i,3i;8,127 4- 16,006 '20,510 .... 1 .29 ISIO SOD.iKP 6n,4,',3 1,372,213 470,079 87,879 .... 1108 18:7 8,W.724 5',I0,1S3 1.3:19,911 4,871 431,457 53.01 .... 840 1813 600,08-1 01 9. 005 1.2 5,18t 16,134 ,MI3,140 5I,.'.5I 614 1SI9 01'2,9:iO 047,821 1,26!I,T51 31,700 5. '3,550 O.'>,044 6 IS'O Cl!i,0|7 001,113 1,230,100 35,391 f3:>,080 0il,842 1053 isn 010,8"0 07:1,00.' 1,29S,9,'.8 20,070 I-W,4I5 5I,3.')1 1924 ifiI2 023.1,50 096,.'4a l,.".24,0',i',l 45.449 573,080 5^,4')5 SI33 1823 03:i,920 9,1144 1,3:10,505 39.918 24,879 ,'.00,403 07,021 686 1824 00 I,!i72 72.1,1110 1,3.59,103 3.1,105 21.009 r>S i,2'23 0^,4I0 ISO 1825 700.737 722,:l.'3 1,423,110 35.379 23,001 587.273 70,0-20 .... 1826 737,073 790,212 l.Ml.ii'O 41,767 34.0iS 00l!,420 (:-.i.7oi 220 1327 747,170 873,437 l,ll'20,007 46.0.53 40.107 732,937 74043 328 1828 8 12,019 928,772 1,741,391 61,021 39.418 763,022 74,047 . - . . 180 IS.'O 050, 142 010,054 I,'.'0O,79- 57,284 t>4,o,;o 6ll8„3;.8 101,796 . , 1330 670,075 fll.'),«ll 1,101,770 3S.9U 64.471 610,078 01„56» r6,973 793 1831 620,451 017,3114 1,207,816 83.315 34,4.15 631.723 09,977 40,210 481 1832 636,98,1 781,0.'(i 75;,4liO 85,1, i'.>:, 1,430,4.50 1,0;W,14'J 72.808 10l,lr>8 90,813 101,819 049,027 741,198 54,027 02,720 47.420 4,S,7'26 377 473 1833 1S3( 857,4:18 901,403 1,763,907 108,000 122 815 783,013 M,403 01,082 304 1815 8S.5.S.'I 9!i0,ll8 1,824,040 97,040 122,815 792,301 7'2,374 04,44.1 vm 897,774 9S4.3'.'8 1,882,102 144,080 Mxrm 873.02;; 02„107 04,4'25 1573 I8:i7 810,417 1,030 233 1,810,0.36 l'27,24a l.')4.7iJ4 '156,080 80,5,51 40,810 1394 1838 8'i2,5:)) 1,173,047 1,9i'6,6:!9 119,029 193,413 1,041,105 70,0(14 60,049 6229 I88.I S3< ■' 1,26i.'284 2.096,418 131.816 204,033 1,1.53,661 7-2,-.')8 nf>,f83 4:l9 1840 8:m,;o4 i.230,9:.9 •2,1*1,704 130,926 201,83;» 1,170,0 '4 70,O3.'i ':S,269 1841 S45.3.13 1,134 0») 2,130,744 1.57.405 17,5,083 1,107,01,7 00 ,551 11,3-21 1842 975, 36 < 1,117.031 2,09-2,390 181,012 220,001 1.045,7.'>3 54 804 l6,o:o 377 184;t 1,009,315 1.14'.>,'297 2.l.'i8,002 1,52,374 236,307 l,07(i,ir« 01, 2-24 11.775 143 1844 1,003,704 1,211,330 2,230,0',I6 168,293 273,170 l,lo;i,fil4 85,2-24 16,170 321 1845 1,09.'), 17.' l,S2l,»i9 2,417,002 190 6'6 320,018 1,190,898 fl9,8J5 21.418 206 1846 1, i:io,'.'s.5 1,431,7 8 2,662,031 183,981) 347,8:13 1,289,870 7'2.5I6 30,103 4:i9 1847 1,241.312 1,597,732 2,839,015 193,8.58 404 841 1,4.52,6-13 70,177 81451 1843 l,:iO),sso 1,711,1. 1.^5 .3,iM,04l 192,179 427.391 1.6'iO,!lR3 8.',i>r)l +;„'.58 432 !S41 1.438,941 1,895,073 3,3:+l,015 130,186 402.304 1,730.410 42,970 73,a'-.3 1»50 i,.'>3'.,7i1 1,040,743 8,63,5,484 140,016 525,!'4« 1,7.'>5,79fl 85,040 58,111 .... laM 1,726, .307 2,04'i,132 3,772.4.19 131,644 RS3,007 1,3:4,317 87.475 50,531 1852 1.8»fl,«3 2,233,902 4,113,440 193.707 fl43,'240 2,008,021 10-2,0.59 72,516 1863 2,103,674 2,803,336 4,407,010 193,'202 .14.097 2.134,2.10 109,-227 51,S50 18.54 2,333,819 2,409,083 4802,902 181,901 676,607 2,273,000 102,194 36,141 .... 1868 2,K)'>,l,3rt 2,070,804 6,212,001 180,773 770,285 2,491.108 102,9-27 21.6'24 70 1866 2,401,402 2,380,249 4,871,652 189,213 673,077 2.211,935 9.5,816 29,886 S47 185T .-. 2,463,967 2,470,875 4,940,848 196,771 708,784 2,800,899 104,67'2 2«,82T TO , 1813 1819 18'22 1823 1824 1827 IS'28 1823 1S30 i 1831 1S32 1833 1834 1833 1830 1837 IS33 1339 1840 1841 1842 18*3 18(4 1846 18(6 isir 1843 1851 lSf.2 I 1865 18,54 I 1866 I 1856 1867 I 1863 IJNI Co«w.*Ttr» ««,i„^^ 1917 r— ^ ""^--""-x»„ Ko„„„, ,,,„^^, UNI enaete ' " Stuti laws „, „i, provisions. Suilinm,':"'-"' """'^ "'' ■"■otcctini ments of tl.o co„,„rr •" ", , V''" !'™'"l'i*,' or nrotcctine '"'in. ""I Tp^j^rafnC^y URU 1918 URU ' The limited apaco allotted to the artlela Uvitrd Statks ill tills work procludua any attempt to give nioro than tliuBtnlijitU'aurilio production, cominorce, anil nav- igation of tl;u I'liited 8lat«K proper. Under their sep- arate licaiii arc given tho imports and exports of every articloof coninicrce— asC'oTi'o:*, Kiikaustukpn, Kick, SuuAH, TonAO'o, etc.; also the trade of tncli individual State under its proper head ; and under thoir proper be» >he commercial law ond the latest statislies re- garding tho Uniteil States in subjects— as Coinh, Com- MKiu'K, Canals, Consuls, Kailuoaiis, TuLKonArii, Siiiri-INO, ToNNAOK, etc. To all of which reference is made for more particular inforniatiou rejjanling the United atat«i. Vnignay. This imall republic, known also as the Bandu Oriental, or tho CIsplatine Kepubiic, lies on the north coast of the estuary of the Kio do la Plata, and contains a population estimated at 120,000 — tho least of any of the South American States — of which about 1(1,000 reiiido at tho capital, Montovideo. Tho Boll of Uruguay is fertije, well iratered by largo rlve'o, and is peculiarly adapted to grezing and agriculture. Animal products are tho staple domestic exports, and consist principally of hides, dry or salted, of horned cnttle and horses ; tallow, grease, bones, animal carbon, boms, horse-hair, i-ow-tails, sheep-skins, and wool. Though there is no treaty existing l>etweon the Unit- ed States and Uruguay, our commercial intorcourso is on a footing of C(|ualily with thiit of other countries; being favored by no privileges, and being subjected to no restrictions not common to all other foreign na- tions. This intercourse is regulated by the legislation of the republic, and during tho past few years has un- dergone several liberal and important inoditlcallons. Prior to 1849, an exorbitant impost of $15 per barrel was levied on tho article of flour. By decree dated April 6th of that year, this duty was reduced to $2 50 per barrel, with a provision tiiat "this impost shall last no longer than necessary to pay the debt incurred on the article of flour, tho liquidation of which shall commence iromediately." By subsequent decrees of April, 1862, tho export duty on horse-hides, dry or salted, and the transit duties npon all merchandlsa were abolished; and the former duty of 20 centr per hide on ox and cow hides, dry or salted, was reduced to 7i cents per hide. By tho now tariflf, however, of October 11, 1863, now in force, the duty on flour ia fixed at 86 per cent. ; and all products of tho country, and all foreign nierchaiidise free of import duty, or that has paid such duty on importation, are frea of duty on being exported. Tho transit duty is also abolished. This tariffhas been superseded by another, bearing date July 19, 1866. The provisions referred to remain, however, quite the same. The port regulations nro lilioral — vessels being al- lowed to remain in port twelve 00 vesiicls of between twenty and fifty tons each, averaging each about six men, or from 1800 to 2000 men in all. These are mostly engaged in the in- ternal and coasting trade, tlie letter chiefly with Bra- zil ; which trade is also open to foreign vessels, on tha payment of the discriminating li.nnage. Besides the above, there are five vessels, all of foreign construction, under tho Uruguayan flag, measuring in the aggregate about J500 tons, which make voyages north of tha equator. COMMniOB or TUI t'NIIBB StATFS VITII I'eUOOAT (rOEMKBlT C'lBFLATlMB HinrnLioJ, feom Oct. 1 1830, TO July 1, 185T. Vwn anil Inn KipotU. Importf. Whireofthtn wmIh Hiilll„ii aiul Simla. Tonnas* clflared. Dultwitlc. KortlKH. Tolm). ToUI. Kiporl. ImjiMft. Aninrlean. Forelnn. .-iept BO, 1831 .... .... il50 .... 1832 $3,326 $3,326 .... 87!) .... 18.11) , . , , .... .... H129 .... 1834 1885 •■;: .... .... ^t '849 1836 , 6,734 .... 18ST 7.81)4 7.804 $10,610 8,602 436 18B8 86,702 $24.,'>(<7 00,329 18,031 $U.'>0 .... 8,112 170 1839 60,««3 88.302 89,300 626,482 7,875 8,6.10 262 1840 Total. . . Si.Wi (•,7,628 149,730 494.4m this time begins Juljr 1. In 1861, tho number of vessels under the I'nited i States in 1854, according to official returns of Uruguay, States flag which entered the port of Montevideo was consisted of rum, ■I5;i barre's; spirits of turpentine, seventy, with an aggregate tonnage of 22,0I.T tons; ' 202 barrels; starch, 2556 casks and boxes; rice, 2169 and the number cleared was thirty-nine, with an aggre- j casks; refined sugar, 1V97 casks: codfish, 312 lioxt-s; gate tonnage of 12,701 tons. Imports from the United tubs and buckets, 629 dozen; bitamen, 133 barrels; clii wild ''" ""'entitle tho holdc^ e, nrl ,T ''^''""""■'. ami w Sl"'"""!'''^' *-"«-"l. B„ so 'T-T™'"' ^'>'^^'e, Poj-a of (frace aro In f "'" ""'ecoilcut parti. , t , '""P'" "'"i die y„,rU,. " ""''"""'I were t|,c ".'''»''»'<■- a half „,a,,eeetc?,f„r ""' ^"' ^S '" ' %;''7,|aw» wa. -■""•lation nnt modes of eomr 'i„, .• Allplacoa ;.,\, '"'"'"•'• «!"fl-''i]Iscom . ,' ..C"'"'" '.'"""""■'of "fgotia. "»■' fro-" 'he |,ir,h of- '*•,'■■ ■"'"•! ^^-^koncd in a 'e. ^>n a bill dra. ., t "'^^'^"'"•"OMr.Seeidavs PVablo at a place „„V.:'. .';:™ "^ "f "ne'styli, 7.a feckoned from tho • ° "' '^ "'" "— '■' ■ -•''ored a„d^'a?;;;;rsed ^,.r -■- was sfronfjlvurr J ,„.(!„» ''" '""^"g" "f (he Lin CImncelior. I.o,d 'li ■ou^hal?'"'""'"' "'"' "-n Lord »» n-errantilo ami n ora! Z, I'?'"""'^^ "'••' W", loth . , ... „...„. one style, „„d I '"'.'J^t"-"" ""'"'i^edtlmt f """"'■ ^'"^ ^'"Vns of ■ v^ d awn „7h"*'' '° '"'"'^' «'«• ogr^a tC' ''^''".''' "^-"-V had be *n -™^-'Par-lt.e„fo„nd„ece«a^Cte3etCaL^:! USA 1020 UTA time. At tlia time of the coiiimorclal fat: .<%< in th« yoarj IN8U aiiil 1H37, It wai fuiiiKl that tlio ){re*toit ru- llef whii'h was oxperiencuil was tlio renult of a provU •iiiii which had been Introtlucoil nut lonK proviuualy Intu tho act fur the ronewal of the llanic cliartur, onabilnK lliu Hank of Kligianil to Uispcnsu with tbu uaury lawa." Many people, iu their avoralun to any mudlllcallun of the uaury lawa, are undar the conviction that If the price of money la nut rvKuIatcii by law, thuy will l>o compelled to pay an onurnious tax(runKliiK '''»•> '^^ to 7!) per cent, per annum) un luana uf money. Thoao who aerloualy reflect upon tho ninttur— who have any practical or faniliiar knowledge of the lawa of trade- are unanlnioua in their opiniona that all ahacklea of the kind ahould be permanently removed. If we examine tlio uaury laws of tho dilTorent States, we wilt llnd In all elaborate and atringent en- aclmenta providing punishment and penalties fur the exercise of every one'a Inalienable right; namely, that of using their properly to tho l>est advantage. Wo give a aynopsia of the uaury laws of the United Statca as they are now in force. N. Ilanipahlro. A Vermont fl Muaacliunotta. KIkkIi! laland.. Connecticut. . . New York . . . . T New Jersey ... 9 rennaylvania , Dcifiivare Mnrylani] Victrliiia . . SUtM. f'«irftl Int. PcnHltltfl. Maine per cL Loss of oxrciia of In tcrost and law coats. Ijoatorthrcuthnt'HexceaaoftritorRHt. I.o^s of exroaa of interi'Mt. Losa of throii tlme.i ttin wholo tutor- cat and law coHta. I,o»a of exccna of intcieat I.oia of all Interttat. Korfoltnre orconlrart j anil, In I'rim- iital action^ lino not exoeuiUui; $1000, anil imprimniMtU not ex- ceeding tlx monthn. Contract volil, and principal and In- tereat forrdtod. I'rinclpiil and Inliin^at forrelted. I .. iclpal and Iiiturt'Ht fui-feltcd. Luaa of exresa of Interest. Uauriona contracta voi.BS uf lnt4MX>Ht. Loss of IntercHt. Ivoaa of Intenjst. 10 per cent, allowed on contract. and luas of Interest If execcdlnif this. Ixj.M of five tiuu'S the lntcro.it. 10 per cent, allowed on contracts. 1-orfeltura of oxceaa of Interest. Load of Intoroat. liOsa of Intereat 10 nor cent, allowed on contractii. Forfeiture of eiccaa of Intereat. 10 per cent allowed on contracts. Forfeiture of eicoa of intereat. 10 per cent allonod on contracts. Forfeiture of cxceaa of Intereat. 10 per cent, alhtwed on contracts. lorfelturo of exceaa of Intereat. Liable tu an tndlctuient for inisile- mcunor. Forfeiture of uauriona Intereal, and fined. 12 per cent, allowed on contracta. lorfelturo of all Interest. Losa of luterest. No penalty. North Uaroilna South Carolina T < ■ 'u'ro is an abundance around them, but when the lega erost does not pay capital- ists for the rUk.— i.9r« arlicln Dankh, Commbrcb, Ik- TKKHsr, etc. For Uaury Lawa, Discuasiona un, etc., ace l',itinlmri)h Rtvirw, xxvil. WJ (^Uefenao of > : Anuri- can Qiiarltrly Ueeitw, xjiW. 177, xxi. Itftj A'o/ / /li/i'i'. mm Hrvieu), xxxix. HW (A. II. EvittiKTr); Wuctoiw./V Afiii/ii:ine, xxiv. OH; llnnktri' Mmjaiine, New York, iv. 6HI (^' )IIN VViiii'iM.K), «8;i (J. It. M'Ci i.i.ocii), v, 781, Hlli, vlil. Hli, ix. m-iM OI'VliKAU), «Uj IIvNT't .1/ n-liniit't MaijtaiM, ill. 61ll, v. 40, llu| Ihm. Htv., wvii. '221-:i^H; Uuar. Hev., xxxiil. IHii. Utah, a territory uf the United States, moatly cuni> priaod In lliu Ureat California llaain, and extending from the creat of the Kocky Muuntaina on tho eaat to tlie Sierra Nevada on tlio weal. It has Oregon on the north, California on tho west, and New Mexico on the south. Area, 2(W,776 square nillea. In 186U It wai divided into seven counties, and the number of dwell- ings and populaliun wero us fullowa : Dwellings, 'i'Mi ; wlilte inliabilants, U,33l) ; free culurud, 24. The euuii- lies erected since 1H50 are Deaerut, Green Uivur, Mil- lard, Jual>, and Wuahington. Tho eastern portiun of Utah is drained by the Colo- rado Itiver of the (iulf of Culiforiiia. Its valley hai been but imperfectly explored, but, as far as our knowl- edge exists uf it, a very small purliuii uf it only can be brought into cuitivatiun. The remaining purliuii uf Utah is comprised in the Oreat Basin, and forma a dis- tinct and most peculiar region. Tlie rivers nil termin- ate within its limits, in lakes with nn visible outlets. Tho Ureat .Salt Lake is about il& miles broad and 70 lung, anil i ho waters contain mure salt than can be held in suiutlou ; hence its borders abound witli crystallized salt, and tliu bottom of tlie lake is incrusted with it. No living creature can exist in its waters. Tlie valleys aro susceptible of cultivation, and aro very fertile, wliero they can bo irrigated. Timber, although scarce, is very durable. Iron ore exists in the mountain ridges, and several furnaces are already in operation smelting it. The temperature is more uniform in the (ircat Salt Lake valley than on tliu Alliintic coast; it rarely fails below zero. There is but little rain, ex- cept on tho mountains, from .March to October. There wero in this, territory, in 1850, 10,3!I3 acres of land improved, and ilO,,';li> uf unimproved in farms; cash vaiuo of farms 1^311,709, and the value of Imple- ments and machinery $81,288. Live stock — horses,' 2429; asses and mules, 32j; milch cows, 48G1 ; work- ing oxen, A2CU ; other cattle, 2489 ; sheep, 32C2 ; swine, 914; value of live stock, l).)l(!,9(;8. Agricultural Vroducts, etc. — Wheat, 107,702 bushels produced; rye, 210; Indian corn, 9899; oats, 10,900; bnrley, 1799; buckwheat, 832; peas and beans, 2:<9; putatnes, 43,968 ; sweet do. IX) bushels. Value of prod- uce of market gardens, $23,868; pounds uf butter made, 83,309 : of cheese, 30,998 ; molasses, 58 gallons ; beeswax and honey, 10 lbs. ; wool, liis. produced, 9222 ; flax, 560; hops, 50; tobacco, 70; tons of hay, 4805; clover seeds, 2 bushels ; flax-seed, 5 ; value of home- made manufactures, (1392; of slaughtered animals, 4ifi7,985. Tho capital is Fillmore City, but the Great Salt Lake City is where tlie legislature meets, and it is also tlie residence of tho governor. The other towns are Palmyra, Springvillo, Prove, Cedar, Parowan, Manti, Ijchi, Hrownsviiic, etc. Utah was a part of Alia California, which was cod- ed to tho United States at fho treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo February, 18(8. Previous to tiio Jlexican war this territory was only known and occupied by trappers and Indians. About tiio time of the opening of the war, tlio Mormons were driven from Nauvoo, Illiouis, and, after making a temporary sojourn at Council lilufTs, Iowa, they settled in Utah. They organized a government under tito title of the State of Desoret, but the United States established a territorial government in 1850, by which the territory is nominally under subjection. cioii VAL mi VAL me. The, 'P»'"'""'ihuAi,.^»77™n. v„ Wchujm,,,, ""f'MKht ".h 1"'' •''"' »!« iniiir... 1. •tl.l,„n,.,r""^''»i'l»r. An, Mdtriibl v«ne. '...„ of (li« aoor/i '">»!< injuros it, ft" Vroiixdi an.) ""I's, anil I, «nlul,., if i, ^ .,f^ ""'P can iiiih t,!,. ""'""'"'s'oofvalu "".v.^ Iligh. '' it of . V IT""""' " "" .1, Wwl 7 ,?"J''''""l'- I.. . """Of. In tlio vurv worn ■ , • ""'''" '-i "' '■■■ ■'!=S-z:r?^ iinw """".' I lUniii,,,. f. ■ •' „•■-""-■■'' 'outhora roach ",r,," "■'""' ■'' is «t I ,l, . ' ,'' '" '-<""Ioi> to los - , • *■ f""-''' "»•• « per ti tiirv n„.i ,!.■' " .' •"•. nowovcr. the »,!,.,i i.- " ™ " I '""es ohtaU, r,„.i :.. '.,"■■ '^'eani-vessels can nf „ll cstalinn.i. ""at an lo»„' the coast. \\-;, ."'""?' »"'l f"-"//r,,/,/,^, " Porfoct cahn.-iUv,xr-s AZ „";""" '!"''"'>•. f™ t «!/<■// tS'to^, _Ti,„ ,T . J • at many po'nts alon - (i.„ ' "' ""rannano ami "'«. Aniodcan Ihilon ihtT °'^' "'"^'""'a as « State of '""'" "'" '"^■'•cha ,ts If f *- ""™ ''■■»"•" to •'"S"'"! to the Un^^ "J "' '•""'' '■" tl'is trade is „„i ™n'n'ercial nations of tl „ ,. , ^'T ""'"^'nal a.ul IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I l^|2£ |Z5 ■50 "^^ MHB E lu ■■■ s tis. ■^o IL25 iU Photographic Sciences Corporalion •SJ <^ V ^ >. 'm this that the merchant marine of Chili actually counts that number of vessels. The figures merely indicate the number of times the national merchant flag entered Chilian ports during the year. Still, within the past few years the merchant marine of Chili has largely increased. Starting from 1848, this increase is found to be— of vrMels, 100 per cent., and of tonnage over 900 per cent This is shown by the following state- ment: v.._ . No. of 4(ii»(«to 1848 106 12,828 1848 119 20,031 V 1860 188 97,601 1881 183 84,617 1868 318 41,809 An official dispatch to the British government from Chili, under date of September l.S, 1866, states that the returns of Chilian trade for 1863 and 1864.shows a great increase in both branches of import and export; but that the markets were considerably affected by the high price of provisions, which commenced in 1854, and continued -up to the date of the dispatch ; owing main- ly to the large exportation of wheat to Australia, where it broughtju high as $80 per quarter of eight bushels. Wool may be said to be, after copper, the chief article of import into the United States from Chill. The fol- lowing tabular statement exhibits the quantities and valuds of wool imported into the United States from Chili, during the five years ending with June 80, 1856, together with the aggregate quantities and values of the same imported from all other countries for the same period — as given by United States authorities : Ytui. Fn>lli«llCo«nlHin. ValoM. Pron ChMli ValuM.' Pouaili. Pwinda. 1S51 83,548,491 $8,833,157 2.100,8411 $128,650 1863 ia,B4l.2»8 l,9i)fl,711 1,803.189 169,616 1Q8S 21,006,079 2,669,718 8,664,300 268,196 1884 20,200,110 3,R82,18B 1,887,447 161,066 18E8 18.834,418 2,072.189 2,848,902 817,864 In 1848 a decree was passed by the Chilian govern- ment providing for the establishment of a statistical board. Since that period full commercial returns have been regularly published, under the title of Ettadittica Comercial da la Jtepubiica dt Chile. From these publi- cations the fallowing tables, exhibiting the general for- eign commercial movements of Chili, iVam 1844 to 1861, have been compiled : TaBULAB OOMPAlATIva STATaMOHT XXmsiTIIla TBI >oa- IION IMPOBT AHS EXPOBT TxADI OP C'HILI, THE PBIM- OIPAL O'OUHTBiaS PABTIOIPATIMQ TnBBIIH, AKD TUB SUABE ASSIONBD TO BAOII, IN 1S61, AMD ALSO TUB TOTAl. TBADB FOB A PEBIOD OP XIQUT TBABS. CmiBtrlM. ImMrta. Eipotti. France *nd colonies $l,7d6,929 $661,118 Belgium 198,373 2.496 Holland 402,089 68,739 OennsnT 1,089,868 469,1D6 England and eolonle 4,819,864 4,648,290 Denmark 1,390 Sweden and Norway 8,081 2,194 Spain and colonies 146,510 74,853 Portugal 18,168 Saidlnla 74,410 21,809 China 329,348 42,847 United States A«94,2I1 8,618,238 Mexieo \ 23,837 7,632 Central America 43,241 108.613 Ecuador 130,783 43,774 BnzU 624,817 618,898 . Peru 1,616,644 1,179,547 Bolivia 436,988 309.902 Urugusr 10,383 61,318 Argentine Conrederallon... 170,636 46,624 Polynesia 68,910 59.383 NevGrsnoda 325.483 Other oonntrtes 7.80i Total year 1861 $15,884,97^ $12,146,119 1 " " 1860 11,788,198 12,420,269 " " 1840 10,722,840 10,603,447 " " 1848 8,001,367 8,853,596 '■ " 1847 10.068,849 8,442.098 " " 1846 10,149,136 8,115,1!8S " " 1846.; 9.104,764 7,601,163 •' " 19*4... 8,696,674 6,087,023 TABVLAB COHPABATrri Statxhbht xxhiditimo p/.ktioo- LAB OlSCBIPTIOMS OP TUB PRIHOIFAL ABTICLKS OP il KB- OUAHDISB, AND TOB BBSPXOTIVE VaLDCB THKBEOP, Ili- POBTBD INTO TBB FOBTB OP CUILI PBOH 1849 TO 1861, BOTH INOLDSIVJS. Ale and porter -, .^ Books, printed Calicoes Coulmeres .' Chairs Cloth Clothing Coal Cotton checks '• drlllingi " handkercbieiii " colored •• shawls " and wool shawls " silk and wool " stockings " tickings •' thread " unbleached " white " and woo' Crape shawls Drugs and medicines Earwen-ware Household fUmiture Iron, assorted Jewelry Lostlngs Uanots, assorted Machinery Paints Ribbon Rico Saddles Shoes and boots Silk shawl! and handkenblefs Soap Sugar, refined " crushed Tea Tobacco Woolen goods *■ shawls I84S. $10,61)7 33,834 666JS12 328,469 86,846 170,661 43.629 346,800 14.628 26,448 103,950 66,287 76,289 71,627 49,966 66,678 27,186 69,611 681,201 1,039,888 166.849 102,849 86,681 71,293 22,870 77,836 88,608 36,115 13,978 14,1169 17,466 89,094 70,840 17.!iT8 86.867 169,948 73,227 96,428 326,490 31,873 861,760 92,949 87,421 lato. I lijiT $10,033 36,330 486,627 288.714 82.656 171,217 18.406 263,246 16,166 43,276 92,689 56,666 82,833 101,931 43,204 52,423 31,450 67,026 476,604 748,051 160,534 120,281 29,061 77,865 46,689 180,737 31,76S 12.815 10,409 4,000 19,906 45,606 Ba.69!i 16,8811 21,268 822,517 69,224 400,969 836,684 91,913 G87,340 6.>,714 118,073 $18,068 86,490 616.148 286,674 3<.l.878 164,572 19,477 236,473 17,506 28,698 66,642 9.077 66.267 118,737 42,387 66,890 38,498 47,688 6I5,8'.'6 800,S72 169.4'8 98,'.'73 29,084 S4,0a9 62,(121 8,^.802 100,983 lf),(:66 16.4,')4 89,150 13,547 53.81!t) OS.'.'IS 19.15'.' 43.778 162.507 66,427 603,129 800,141 49,676 669,065 77,018 143,801 •lour,. BiKult liMU.... jpoutosi..;; Nun.... Dried ft.„,(;; •■•..... I JW'bMf.... I S»Uoir, Hldsr ' etc., p The ^J^,_.......... 8,0 8)0,01 iiJ ""■ » loreign port Th. ' """ '"a^ Chi « ""«,""" Vdiw V??'-«e« Ckiu " '""« one yea Wlifications h«Wn» 1 ^ "' ''■^•'y of MaiTia ^"""J fiHSffft/*- ,* . '>'''<'e> Of he »»T ' ^•'^ *onId each «.deAp„-,2jY^«^ ''««" exchanged -n^lfi "»h ^^l S^^^ ff ''"' ..»e «odMed and el Iar«d " ''"'' ^'""'n XSmlTrT" »"«'* "iHil f 'f' B^"" of Wow"'"'' "^""^ flfH-Sflfih^i... ."""'J tut. 8UDnn«!-„ VAN 1924 VAN Piicas hkve been often affected by vartationa in the cost and supply of gold and silver, whether arising from the exhaustion of old, or the discovery of new mines, improvements in the art of mining, changes of fashion, etc. Hence it is that tables of the prices of commodi- ties, extending for a considerable period, communicate far less solid information than is generally sopposod, and, nnloss the necessary allowances be made, may lead to the most unfounded conclusions. The real value of any commodity depends on the quantity of labor re- quired for its production ; but supposing that we were to set about inferring this real value, or the ultimate sacrifice required to obtain the commodity, from its price, it might happen (had the quantity of labor re- quired for its production declined, but in a less degree than the quantity fcquired to produce gold and silver), when its value would appear to rise when it had real- ly diminished. When, however, the rate of wages, as well as the price of commodities, is given upon authen- tic data, a table of prices is valuable, inasmuch as it shows the extent of the command over the necessaries and conveniences of life ei\joyed by the bullc of the community during the period through which it ex- tends. Those desirous of detailed information as to the prices of commodities in Great Britain in distant times, may consult the elaborate tables in the third volume of Sir F. M. Eden's woric On the Poor, and the fourth volume of MAcPiiRRsoil's AnnaU of Com- merce. Aruiitiinot's Tahiti of Ancient Coint, Weight*, Measures, Pricei, etc., are well known, but the state- ments are not much to be depended upon. The Traite de Sfetrologii of M. Paoctos (4to, Parjs, 1780) is the best woric on this cui.ous and difficult subject See also Tooke's Hietory of Pricv, vols, i.-vi., which is the most complete history of prices extant. — See arii- del Commerce, Golo, Monet, Piuces, etc. VanoonvAr (or, more properly, Quadra an(t Vancouver) Island, British North Amerira, be- tween lat. 48° 20' and 61° N., and long. 128* and 128° W., separated from the main land by Queen Charlotte Sound and the Qalf of Georgia. Length, northwest to sontheait, 800 miles ; greatest breadth, 75 miles. Estimated area, 16,000 square miles ; and population, 11,468. Surface mountainous, and richly wooded. On its west coast are Nootka Sound, and many other har- bors. This land was named in honor of George y>-.n- couver. This British navigator was bom about 1760. He served as midshipman under Captain Cook, in his second and third voyages. In 1790 he was appointed to command the expedition to «x;;^'are the western coast of North America, to ascurvoin whether any navigable communication existed bet'.veen the Atlan- tic and PaclAc oceans. Of this voyage, which occu- pied from 1790 to 1795, he compiled an account, but died before its entire completion, May 10, 1798. The island is intersected by high mountain ranges, but it has, notwithstanding, a considerable extent of level and undulating land susceptible of cultivation. Soils very various, being principally, however, of a friable description. The best is a black vegetabla-mould, producing a most luxuriant vegetation. Climate pe- caliarly mild ; but in winter the rains, accompanied with violent thunder-storms, are heavy, and almost in- cessant. The bays, rivers, and a(\jacent seas, swarm with a variety of flsh, includlug salmon, sturgeon, her- rings, etc., with seals, sea-otters, tortoises, etc., and the}* are also resorted to by whales. The liarbors of the island are consequently well situated for carrj'ing •0 an extensive and protltablo fishery, and well fitted for ship-building. The mineral riches of the island have been very imperfectly explored. Bods of ooal are to be met with in Its northeast parts. In various localities the beds have been found cropping out at the sntfaoe, and large supplies have been obtained with but UtUc difficulty and little expense. The native in- habitanta subsist principally by hunting and fishing, especially the Utter, and by cultivating the potato. They are remarkable for indolence and fllth; their heads are flattened when young by artificial means ; and ineir legs are ill formed, those of the women being (Vequently swollen. A settlement established by the English at Nootka Sound in 1788 was suppressed in the following year by the Spaniards, an outrage which nearly occasioned a war with Spain. Since then it has l>een almost wholly neglected, till within these few years that some establishments have been formed npon it by the Hudson's Bay Company. Latterly it has been proposed to make it the site of a colony that should prosecute the seal and whale fishery, for which, as already stated, it is supposed to be peculiarly well situated , and, with a view to the realizing of this prqject, it has been made over to the Hudson's Bay Company, on condition of their establishing a colony within Its limits in the course of the five years follow- ing 1848. Coal is procured at the settlement of Na- nalmo, where the Hudson's Bay Company have made a large purchase of land and commenced an extensive coal work. Two valuable beds of coal, varying from live to seven feet in thickness, are found within 100 feet of the surface ; the coal Is bituminous, and is great- ly prized for domestic consumption and for steaming purposes. The produce of tiiese works may be In- creased, by increasing the number of hands, to any desirable extent. Another source of wealth and en- terprise may be found in the magnificent ship spars produced on Vancouver's Island, which, in point of size and comparative strength, are probably the most valuable in the world, and may be procured in any numlier, oven wero the demand to include the supply of spars for the whole British navy. The oil exported from this colony is procured from the native tribes in- habiting the west coast of Vancouver's Island, and is manufactured by them from the whale and dog-fisli ; it is of excellent quality, and has a high character in California, where it brings from two to three dollars a gallon, in consequence otits retaining its fluidity and burning freely in the coldest weather. It is estimated qi'antity equal to 10,000 gallons was purchased ue natives of the west coast last year ; and, con- . ig tho imperfect means they possess for taking cue nsh and trying Qut tho oil, it is not unreasonable to propose that with the use of proper means the re- turns of oil would be greatly increased. The oil trade is carried on by a few enterprising individuals who live among the Indians, and collect the article as it is manufactured by the natives. The number of ships with cargoes which between July 6, 1854, and July 5, 1855, entered inward was 25 ; tonnage, 4054. In bal- last, S ; tonnage, 260. Cleared outward with cargoes, 16 ; tonnage, 2350. In ballast, 9 ; tonnage, 135a Port Victoria has five ves.sels belonging to it, and Vancou- ver's Island is a rising and nourishing little colony, all the more to be cherished as its people seem to be on good terms with the natives and encourage them in industrial pursuits. Van Diemen'a Land, or Taamanla, a large island belonging to Great Britain, forming part of Australia, lying between lat. 41° 20' and 43° 30' S., and long. 144° 40' and 148° 20' W. It is supposed to contain about 27,000 square miles. This land was dis- covered by the Dutch navigator Tasman in 1642, and was named in honor of Anthony Van Dicmen, at that time governor-general of the Dutch possessions in the East Indies ; but it is now frequently called Tasmania, from its discoverer. Previously to 1798, it was sup- posed to form part of New Holland, but it was then ascertained to l)e an island. It was taken possession of by tho British in 1803 ; and in 1801 Hobart Town, the capital, was founded. The surface is generally hilly and mountainous ; but though none of tho land be of tho first quality, there are several moderately fertile plains, and a good deal of the hilly ground U susceptible of iieing oultirated. On tho whole, how- ever, it Is not supposed that more than about a tb^rd 1S4I.. 1M9.. 1843.. 3844.. IMS.. 1846, . 1847... 1848. <«,05T 81,490 68,002 »SS,36« 881,081 8ST,4e3 T05,2«o «2,98S 820,662 661,233 724,608 _ro4,164- Jorti. 876^166 S67,007 680,601 632,609 430,880 403,790 422,218 "82,686 dm- —,081 84,214 82,038 »2,601 88,462, 78,294 86,940 01- 77,«w 86,701 88,201 82,866 8S,0S4 73,766 71,422 70480 180,768 126,210 181,78d 121,728 sSd'ZT''.""'" SpS'' VLX"""".""™""'"^ |4.""j7;;,TTi.T "P^""' oni» «ddi.?/ """"Often s~> «~ *..M h ..J (.; ~ S« **., „ ^ * "v not exceed. fi VEL 1926 ■ YEN lag 830), and iti solvent power over some of the more intractable realm Is sometimes improved by the addi- tion of a little camphor. In order to prevent the agglu- tination of the resin, it is often requisite to mix it with sand or pounded glass, by which the surface is much increased, and the solvent energy of the spirit faclli- 'tated. The proportions in which the several ingredi- ents are used, and tba selections for particular pur- poses, are influitely various. The following are a few good varnishes, in illustration of tlieir varieties: 1. Spirit Vamitk. — Sandarach 4 oz., seed lac 2 ox., elemi 1 oz. ; digest the whole in a quart of moderately Warm alcohol, and when dissolved add Venice turpentine 2 oz. 2. hoc VamxA. — Seed lac 8 oz. ; digest for four days in a warm place with a quart of alcohol, and then strain through Aannel. 8. Turpcntint Vamitk Mastic 12 oz., mixed with 6 oz. of pounded glass, and digested in a quart of oil of turpentine, adding at intervals about half an ounce of camphor in small pieces. When the mastic is dissolved, add to the warm fluid an ounce and a half of previously liqueAed Venice turpentine, and stir the whole together. 4. Copal Vamith. — Copal which has been previously molted by gentle heatSoz., oil of turpentine 20 oz. (measure): put the oil into a flaslc placed in boiling water, and add tho powdered copal in small portions al a time, so that it may Ih) gradually dissolved; let it stand a few days to clear, and then pour it off, and if too thick for use, add tn it a little warm oil of turpentine. This varnish dries slowly, but is very durable.— .See arUcU P.\iiiTS. . Vellom, a species of line parchment.— m Venezuelan ofHcial sources, are generally slated. The dollar of the United States is equivalent in value to $1 SI) in the present currency of Venezuela. The dollar of Mexico, Peru, Chili, Cen- tral America, and of Cuba, is (hat of the United States. Internal Commerce.— 'tho Blver Orinoco is now navi- gated as high up as Nutrias, in tho province of Vari- nas ; and the productions of the fertile countries water- ed by this magnificent river are thus added to the com- mercial wealth of the republic. A recent communica- tion from Puerto Cabello afibrds the fulloiving facts : " Several mercantile firms of Puerto Cabello have ap- plied for and obtained from the Congress of Venezuela u charter for a railroad to run neariy west from that city— (4 miles— to San Felipe, in the province of Bar- quisimeto. The estimated cost is $1,400,000 (United States currency), exclusive of land, which, for the most part, will be afforded firee of expense. Tho govern- ment gives all the public land and timber which may be required, either for tho road or buildings, and ad- mits the tools, Iron, etc., free of duty ; subscribes for $186,916 of the stock ($250,000 in Venezuelan cur- rency). Tho provinces of Barquisimeto and Corabobo togetiier take $67,290 of the stock. Of the grades, 70 per cent, will be below 80 feet to tho mile, and only 6 per cent, above 60 feet. There will be 15 bridges, es- timated to cost $104,590. Tho charter is to continue 40 years as an exclusive privilege, and 40 years more the* right of property In the road is guaranteed to the company; after which it reverts to the government. The road must be commenced within two years from 1st July, 1855, and be completed within four years from tho date of its commencement. John Dougherty, of New York, chief engineer of the road, estimates the annual net income at $242,222. San Felipe is situ- ated on the Yariciu River, and Is a commanding point for tho collection of the products of the interior. Puer- to Cabello is the best harbor In Venezuela." Tho provinces of Varinas, Apurc, and the two Guy- anas, are now brought into direct communication with the sea; and by the establishment, in 1845, of a line of steamers under the auspices of a company from the United States, specially chartered by the Venezuelan government, and by means of the 240 sailing vessels, with a capacity of 36,000 tons, which annually ascend as high as Angostura (Ciudad Bolivar), some 250 miles from tho sea, there is but littlo room to doubt that Venezuela Is about to enter upon a career of commer- cial prosperity. At present, the annual exports from Apure and Varinas consist of dry hides (about 100,000), buckskins, coffee, cotton, indigo, cocoa; and from tlio latter province between 1,000,000 and 2,000,000 pounds of tobacco. The value of this trade to tho United States will be perceived, when it is known that nearly all the hides offered In the Venezuelan markets are taken by this country. The value of the total trade of Venezuela for the fiscal year ending June 80, 1846, has already been given. For the year ending December 81, 1845, it reached a total of $8,021,040, and the navigation em- ployed 8209 veseels, measuring in tho aggregate 190,732 tons. VEN jAuitria. pelglum .... jSardlnU..'."* IHanieTowiu' .'.■■■ I Denmark . {Spain.... It'rance.... ' t'nItodSUtM;.""' pro»t«ritaln..."" NoirOranada.'.""' JJethcrland,..."- Other places.....'; JTolanssil'oi logol 83 42 US 124 615 105 2,015 14,257 B,621 6,U60 10,112 28,7J7 23,033 ii,»M 1 1 l8t July, 1849, to7h/Ti. ?'■'"«" countries. Fro™ .^ 'eoched OCO 117 11,;.' ""^ ^''P"''" of ri„ Ij,, ' tjonal vessel /5200IU "1 "' •".2« v k" 4°'^" e'en vessels, fiM 917 1, '•' "'?'"='» «t «I5810 • a„d i^ ? from which' raw' cotto-f- ''"'■"=" "' «38.438 Th Lw"": Setherwith thequ^Xr' "^^O'^^in isiO^TZ ''ere as follows T'"""" "Po^e" during tbatpeld 11,680 8,350 11,224 10,876 81,874 81,829 826 472 22 10,7S8 jPi'ertofabilJo.. Madirin l-«Gua»r«.." I^Vcla.... Uudttd Bollvi;" iiio Coribe . 00,698 4,600 2,800 2,000 VEN 1928 'VEN that of H36, enterad Into in the vtry tnflinojr, poUUeal M wall ai commercial, of Venezuela. Ill 1810, four ,vcars after tlie ratillcation uf thli treaty, the Unitoii States exported to that country 20,084 bar. relt of flour, valued at tti'iBOI. I" 1851 our ex- porta of that article reached 40,0'i7 barrels, valued at $318,733; showing an Increau In the quantity and value of that one article, which we exchanged for the hides, colToo, and indigo of Venezuela, of 100 per cent. Tlie hides Imported Into the United States in 1840 amounted in valuo to $288,372. In 1864 they reached as high as $l,6'2.'l,r>D6; siiowing an increase. In that •ingle article of our Imports, of over 400 per cent. A more li!>eral tariffof duties on our flour and cotton goods lu the ports of Venezuela would continue to augment still more largely this growing trade. The Justice of such a measure will bo olivious when it Is considered that the principal article which the United States im- port from Venexucla (hides) is suliject in our ports to a duty of 6 per cent, only ; while tho principal arti- cle which wo fumisli in exchange (Hour) is taxed in Its ports with a duty of t4 per barrel, which, at a value of from {112 to ^10 per barrel (Its average price in tlie Venezuelan markets), is equal to 26 (jj 80^ per cent., besides sundry other duties which are superadded be- fore the article can get into maricct. These facts are lutnciently suggestive without further comment. Du- ties are levied on a valuation basis, though many ar- ticles in the tariff are liable to speclflc duties. In- stead of spnciiying each extra charge separately, these heavy imposts can be best illustrated by an actual case: Custom duties on 100 Inrrels American flour landed •t the port of Ls Ousjm, at $4 per barrel import duty $400 00 10 per cent, on amount of duties on account of late Internal war 40 nO 2 per cent, on amount of duties for irharfage 8 fM • percent, road tax 8 80 $t&T Oil <0 per cent on aggregate amount ; contribution ex- traurdinary Ol S2 •J SO i per cent for the new church on $4ST 09 ... . Total dutiei, extras, etc $65141 Navioatiok Dcib. Tonnage duties $0 8Ti per ton z= $0 M (U. S. cur'y.) Anchorage 18 " = 12 " Water 12 " = " LIght-bonse « " = 4( " Kntrance T " '= A " Clearance » OO " = 1 54 " ToespUInoftheport.. 8 00 " = 126 •' To beaUh ofHoer 800 " = 2 2|i " To Interpreter 800 " = 5 35 " The ton is Venesnelan measurement, gonerolly IH per cent, more than that of the United States. ' The value of Venezuelan money diflers considerably, as al- ready noted, from that of tho other South American states, though of tho tame denomination. The follow- ing are tlie legal values of some of the foreign coins in circulation in Venezuela, as flxed by the law of May 80, 1848: One dollar of the United Slates equal to $1 &4t Ono dollar of Peru equal to 1 84( One ilollur of Mexico equal to 1 S4) yivc-frunc ploce of Knincc equal to 1 28 One ahilllng of Great Britain equal to BU One guinea of Great Britain equal to 060 —Com. Xel. U. S. Articles noted free in the tariff pay, in lieu of all ex- tras, 15 per cent. One of the greatest impediments heretofore existing to the increase of American trade with Venezuela was the restriction imposed on the transitago of American merchandise imported express- ly for the marltets of New Oranada. Some years since, Maraoaibo was declared a place of deposit for such mor- cfaandii * a measure of the greatest importance to com- merce, as nearly half the importx at that port are des- tined for San Josi de Cucuta, in New Granada. Tho privilege thus granted was tnbscquently rendered nu- gatory by MT«re restrictions and onerooi duties. A more liberal decree, however, has very lately been pro- mulgated (August 10, 1865), which must necessarily largely augment tho imports Into Venezuela, and thus promote the general commerce of the republic— m the south for the most part make Plrano or Rovigno, on the v^oast of Istria, where they take on board pilots, who carry them to tho V«u>. 1861 . 18&2.. VEV mo •t thf b«f, »h|,„ , '" ^"^»'Mmt .l«||L?/'"" "wno or ,3 VER J/'«.'y._f„r„.., . ^''■""'"•v.li 'thorn" "*^''»«"» given! '" "*^ ««'P«*d wi,h «n.n«.. .„*. '''• ■' 'm>m,l ,,. "T.^'M or lon.i, n,.,,„. ' ^ 'he c^rn'.r;;;,';;';;;!"';""!, v«i;r;,';',;7-' >voii TI.0 «i«l»porM,nrC;';j;ow.n(ll.tVa^^^^^ ro ftir <.„.- ,. '.r."'»"'«'n- 186,4«» 18tf,kt3 '?« Vo i, c,.t ^.r."!;^ , Jh . mv .eon, slJZ."'?'* » following ,,,t «'•"«« wh,„ C'ereti, Wlve-oli;. d«Itedfl,h.. <-o»l.,. 8«lt.,. Dried (hjiV,;-;; J,»l»l (fli kind, Lrn ^'•'P'ri'ta." ^n«nd.t4i ...;;•;• 'rDmaiMt....!.^ „ 'nun. 8.1ii8,ll00 *.*"I,400 i«l,600 ?-«»o,»flo 1.891,600 1.069,200 1.084,900 968,»00 881,200 Tftt.BOO «T,900 , ««3,fl00 l.«4,800 Thomoggio or'» """■^""'-'^o/i'rfr F« ''"•""'''■"toV dlcated by the exltting tariff—" parmita" to import that article at a greatly reduced rata having b«en granted to favored Individuala. Tha regular duty la throe centa per pound, but permlta can now ba bought up at aecond hanil at two centa par pound. Yard [Oape] XaUnda. The Cape Vard lalanda ara alluated IMO miipit wvtt iif ( upe Verd, between lat, 14° «' and 17° 13' N., and luii,; W° 45' and 26° W W. The Archipelago cunalala u( tha folluwing ton lalanda: 8al, lioavlata. Mayo, Santiago (St. Jamaa), the largeat. Forgo, Urava, Urande, Kombo, St. Nicolao, and St. Luxla ; and four ialeta, llranco, Uozo, 8t. Vi- cente, and 8t. Anttlo. Aroa eatimatod at 1U80 aquaro mlloa. Population in 1850, 8U,738. Tha white popu- lation in the whole Archipelago la to tha colored aa one to twenty. The aurfaoa of tha lilanda la In gener- al mountalnoua, and lomo of their peaka have a con- aiderable olovation. The volcano of Fogo la 01&7 feet In height. The aoll la extremely varioua, but mo!tly fertile ; tho abaenco of treea and tho icarclty of water are the cauaea of frequontand aovere diitroaa. Chief vege- table producta, maize, rice, and French beana. Cofl'ue, introduced In 1700, ba* completely aucceeded; tho cot- ton shrub Is indigenous ; indigo grows wild, and tobacco is cultivated In some of tho islands; tropical fruits are abundant. The sugar-cane and the vine are culti- vated, but the manufacture of wine Is prohibited. Tho climate of these islands Is piuch varied by extreme heats and droughts, no rain falling during some periods for three or four years. Hence the population arc fro- quently subject to diati-css and suffering. These visita- tions have, on several occasions during tho past few years, strongly appealed to tho sympathies of tho civil- ized nations of tho world In behalf of the 87,000 In- habitants of thoao islands.— i9re article Mexico. Vkbd Islands, fsom Ootobxb 1, ISiO, to Jclt 1, 1S6T. n4,ii4i iM.nns M.OIU tMi,nTil S l.flOII no.nio ti.iMi M.SiO DO.IMM "lajciBr" iirorti. I IB. M, m, w, m. •T. M,l T7, 111,1 1fi'l*,l 4llt RM Oilil Bll 449 VIO 901 »4I \m All iiTir MA,OM T(W,B07 M,W7 m,Wi IXI,C.MI nt.rn TI,nM 101, Tim ««,«4T 4T,0ia $nT,4TA »t,4«B ill,2TB iio,naT A«,4M BI,4IR TSST t>,S83 It.oin ll.tllS 18,007 »,9l)0 l4,llUi »,tn 18,471 7,778 »ta,iin7 10,487 44,087 il6.8S« 117,747 8,144 »7,SS7 8,033 8.4m 9,809 ^187,004 118,990 1I,B20 4,078 B,909 9,884 0'!6 17,848 «,840 8,816 9.107 |0»,98O t9,487 0,«t 1,804 2,908 8.190 9,994 1,8»B "TwT 70,778 83,006 79,084 70,080 48,002 lOl^lOK 71,290 8'J,0I)6 68,838 $0M,I29 $68,080 80,9116 907,020 106,807 130,187 76,466 164,088 10l»,g74 86,K» 8^49<) 41,104,970 •80,159 116,080. B7,90R 70,637 68,438 81,783 88,033 106,679 06,409 40,210 $721,371 160,018 frt.076 94,870 82,946 69,013 68,700 04,603 Import!. ToUI. liiOI,UUO 47,429 60^840 «6,80S 80,609 104,120 77,426 62,063 20,400 83,768 $018,626 $08,043 87,700 8S,318 40,088 10,706 18,813 88,843 20,174 80,628 80,848 $101,796 $42,001 17,800 4,713 4,830 7,670 867 9,300 926 1,863 $82,080 $1,880 18,199 41,063 8,086 94,800 86,010 96,806 Whereof tliflr* woa In BulHoii ind Hpeele. BipoH. ^7,626 2;'i77 $0»,8U9 S400 1,463 1,960 076 4,100 8,836 800 680 $18,203 $8,003 800 10,000 1,000 1,676 $22,878 $4,100 "sio 8,443 480 Import $8,900 17,078 17,419 80,149 89,060 91,448 94,000 17,646 7,008 16.467 $21b,4U0 $32,827 97,tl81 11,670 90,028 0,087 r>,492 16,073 0.390 4,100 $180,104 $0,800 8,701 8,200 8,000 J,200 $21,404 $18,067 1,600 7,000 19,068 19,000 Tonnaf • eUond. 826 1,040 089 1,781 9,080 764 9,120 9,433 8,208 9,098 18,930 1,900 8,048 6,844 8,891 9,043 2,087 8,726 3,224 8ato 9,9119 8i,86.'» 1,000 8,910 1,809 1,097 4,960 1,004 1,708 4,1184 2,714 1.880 23,047 1,606 1,028 9,181 4,aoi 6,748 3,188 2,002 yoFoian. 67 184 "ss 2W 230 lU'i 810 2148 6':8 1140 4870 107 Hifi 170 648 240 20;« 4778 Oil 8020 730 1169 248 400 646 ' Nine monUia tu June 80, and tho flacal year from this tlmo begins July 1, f \tmd. . rmipi. "hi "m 280 lO'i 810 2i48 6C8 'I'vii 48Tlt — I 1 'ifii 8S3 no 648 240 2038 4T78 Oil -5529 780 11B3 I J J I "248 400 546 clenu, and various «av« of „/ f ''""""' '<> "lo an 1 ho „e.t v«,d,«,i, U made « C.ndl?"' '"k """"^•'"'' Worn,, but moro^.u UaiWe ?' ? '? "^'"'- The .o Wool , ,h„ „ ,„ pro TcUon . r'"';''^ """ ""•«" •ro raUed In great nun C' on P' ''"""• «'"' «"le copper, and forrnC M. . T ?" •"'««'' for corroding », ?''*'' '" B""' ""nil«,r, • ,'„„Jn '^' ''"""• «'"' «"le exported In oak of aboutr';"'''^''- '' '' «ene'^S I ^ funJant. and valuab ' S^^^^ «I»o manufactured In ilT ""• ""'eh' each, lit c. '.'"'" "^ "bounds in .ever J,"' ,",''' "''*> «« work- fu«o of elder, etc The i ." •^' ^^ "'='"" «' the ri « ""' ""' ''""» "'o «ulpl u» ' n """! ""»"«hout the cf from the CnJandTirn "' T-^'S''- '»jXe^ »«", and 11, forming""!, 'fi'bb V "'",' "'^'"' "» "o' T hi""'""?' '"""«• occuV "'^ "-nufacturcd. "' "' ^\™?»'» '»™ T„, Umrn, fiT^„. &'"■"""' «'«' "•"ohincr; *o t'o'c,""'! "'«/•''•»<' of iml Jlonihurg.... I'^Rland ... Brlil.hAmeri«,iVoVonIc.; Spain..'.".".';;;;;;;;;; Total Poundi, • i.oar 700 200 • 80,801 ■ _ 220 8a,R48 V>lua. $803 IDS 41 0007 85 $1'«;0 r--...v..„ am, mach ncrv fto Tan „c,7. . '"™ or im- ^S^^ahural Product/ ./.. •mi. ' !!T;'«''''y valleysaboundnSthSn^l^ir'^'r r"""^ morhf/pu'bllcat fi;!,' "J^'^'^""^. «1 -"eWy ire mostiv rn..»„,i ._...,*• """ »?""«« and brooks. Jannarv isk/ <>..".'• . "here were on the 1st terjecte^b/val^VCdK-r'^'-^"'''"^ and are mostly covered wi.hol '''""8' «'''' ''""''s, mit., from which thevi>Z /•■■?"."' '" "■«'' sum- riven, an, InconsJd r ,, "^^otof'th " «' "f""- ^he ■newly an.all tributars'o?therIn. """'"» «""'"« »he W,t aide ,ro laZ. and th« .h"""!?''" "'«« <>» "ffccr, and the three principal, viz., Januar TssflV"''. "T'- ^here were on he 1,1 factures, JS.OOrST?! valae if "'P'"^'"' '" """>"- $8,670,920 ' The rrinci„„l °f, ""'"''.'^''^""red article,, Montpdier,thrcapUa"B''uri,J^t:" MM*,';\^'»"' *" tUboro, Norwich, ttfbatfKfflon.'^'^"'- VR« im '^m r«m«« ('Mnraww ar tn* Ktati nv VmrnoiiT, nuia nirmim 1. inn, m .Tvtr t, IKBT, ■nowm alm Tin Diitkiirt rniiii4ul IK IMI, liMI, IMI, iKB IIAI, n 1 •tf-m, - 1 tmffit^ Tmh(< IUf»l Dtauto TMMkf*. Vmm<*4Iii« DMMrth, rmlf*. »>l',4T» TMI. "i'lM 11311 DIM. 14'! VIM.IM BIW.IM ll'i4.Wt l,IAI»,441 WMI.HIO » «.ii;» TMll. imrl.u. rml(ii. Raflatnxl. Kunltad tm* i.ia. Al|ll,U,in lis KM I4|i ">(<*. •»'l »4I>,«I« IIM.ItO WM.IM.ll WHIM M4,tll| l,VAi,44l MH.DIII • M ii;u ItA^'iCiH ft^sin KV.OIW n}T,IKW KM, ATI t4.a aii,u4& 'i7.0ll W 4Hi) 44.Ti!a Ai.(.N4 — iJT' '.'.'.'. aiT tll.»^9 T.«l« miiT yiATvii DM Ml IWAOl 1I0JJIR «H4,*IM IM.HHI M, lAT li:^u,4ru »J77,MT NIT.AOII IWUTI 4iaMi; A4'J,a07 40!),KS(I Bt4,WN 6114 IW ass.HOii 480,000 |U,1MU,4UI> ('Mll.78l> tHIO.Him B8,IIIIU nT.isa 81,1107 m.ssB «8'.I,«4I 8IMI,II06 147,741 4IM,0IHi BM,VM 18,600 lA.BM A4.I184 6i,1t» 70.TM 7'i,IM4 T4,4ia O'.'JIH 81,073 'aiB i,7Ha '•'■'•'■ 4880 «T«I.TI3 (l»,IM4 I«V.IITA Bin.iilt N«'>,AI4 iCTiK-iiT" 11.741 I.IAMM «,fpT'i,W4 Mil. MB II«,4AI lJ;h8;i.H6-- (Tin.fti* ufM,iia II4.IIT l,4IAV44 'i,wn,4(W i,iiai.4Aii I14d8 iiia,M» iM.Aia ii:i7,«7» N)i,A»a i,Adii,im '.(,7110,198 64'J,4ltO 104,114 4y,ll7a l4,4U'i 1111,808 ll.liHU liO,IB7 Vl.M'J 9,lUg n,TM 14.000 «.044 lO.IAI H.4iia 10.787 ii.ofu '■'■'■'• aw9 ' H\n» mull Ih* In Jun« 1 0, tiHl the Bm Kl yetr fruiu tl lU tiiuu lif ulna July 1. Ilurliylon, Voriiiuiit. U (hit |irlncl|i»l port of tho Stale. lU oommarr* by Lake ClliiintilaIn, on a bay of which tba town la liulll, la liniHirlanl, anil Iti con- neutiona hy rallruA4 and ataaiiilxiat alTimt It every facility In Ita proaai'Ullun, Tbn harlmr of llurlinHton la till) liait on the lake, and mure veiiMr, VlotOria (formarlv ii«||nd Atutralta TMx and Port FblUp), a HrilMi cuhmlal territory, coinpris- ing all the part of Aiiatralia miuiIi of the rivers Mur- rumblgeo and Murray, liatwaitn lal. M" and 90° S., and long. UV> and IMT K., having on thn northeast New South Walea, on tbn wnst tlio nolony of itoiith Aus^ tralla, and on tlm aniith tho oc-oan a:id llass's Hiralt, aoparating it from TMinanIa, Area, ON.UOO square miles. Pupulalion In INAI, 77,fliri, „t which 40,202 ware maks, and 111,11!) fmiiaiMj In 1856, Son.ooo, ond of tliasa it ia astlinatiwl that liOim am aborigines. The territory darivnd ita fonnitr namn from the fine bay of Port Philip, near Ilia iitnirn of Its roMt line) besides which, hero aro tba inlnts >Vael«rn Port, Corner Inlet, taka King, Port Fairv, awl Portland Hay, most of wblcb adbrd gooil am.Twragn, and aro the Kats of in- ciplont towns. Surface mostly undulating or level, separated into diflTorent river basins by hill chains. Temperature at Port Philip ranges from 82° to VO" in the year, and may average about 01" Fahr. Soil more fertile general!/ than in New South Wales, though around the borders are extensive tracts of bar'cn land. For aliout 60 mites from the coast the country is al- most every where of high fertility ; there is also much good land on the banks of the Ilumo and llovvll ; and although hitherto tlio corn raised has been liiadc(|uato for home consumption, and a supply has bean imported from Tasmania, this ooiony bids fair to kccoino a thriv- ing agricultural region. Sheep and cattle rearing are, however, the principal occupations of the population, and In 1861 the live stock in tho province amounted to 6,000,000 shoop, 16,600 horses, and 390,000 horned cattle. In tho same year, 100 acivs were planted with vines, and 1300 gallons of wine were made, chiefly near Geelong. Wheat, oats, barley, potatoes, salt from the lakes, pumice-stone, lava, and other volcanic products abundant in the western plains, are other chief articles of produce. Some veins of coal, and ores of copper, load, and manganese, have been met with near the coast ; but few, if any, mines are at present wrought. Tho principal towns are Mcllwurno and Geelong. Tho colony was formerly called Australia Felix, and was at- tached to New South Wales. It was formed into a dis- tinct colony in 1850, under the name of the Province of Victoria. It was first settled by the British aliout 183^1. Tho commercial relations of tlio United States with the Ilritish posscasions in Australia, Now Zealand, and tho Capo of Good Hope, are regulated by the orders of the local governments, within the limits prescribed to their authority by the legislation of tho Imperial Parlia- ment. The repeal of the British navigation laws abol- ished all the restrictions upon foreign commerce, which before that period secured to the British merchant the flor order Ir"""' "">'' •••n,l,rd. ,h. *''! "•""«1- j.,...|,»|0 «»,(kift,J78 low. : ^"^ "•""ff JUMO 80, 1867, ««r. ,. fot I" M...no.,«. ..„„ 1 ,1!,". */•'!','"' j" JJ20. 1. „;. ; ': r;!': r"; '''"'"■ ^ su::- 'r^^::^; M^;^^«4'«^"'^ter:"'«i^-^ t ">m \ew york. ' *>hoonen"::;:;'"- ?i ;: •• i"? .. ■■kl!„ " "0 " Sehooneri" .'■■.' ^' " " 127 ■'.' ■"" »«l(l, 'tovcl^ plant f I ',•„'"' """PProaclied it not', I18 ,lavo,l thoin at ll S r'l'"''- " "on, «,„| 1 for first quality flo,,r . " "'" "•''«'' marltot di7™ v.^'~'''"^^'''('*tKTic) for« T .?"''■ I-^t-^lff- ^ays comiiinnri 1 '° 'narltcts of Victoria ami ni' '"*""'PR"'h 'osliarewiih Z,!. •..,'"'' "■"• kintlJy VIO 1984 VIR EzroBT* or VnntoAB wttm Tin! ITmnD Stari ros th> YiAm niDiNO JiMB 80, I8ST. WhtUicrctportad. OallcM. Vtlw. SwedUh Weat liKlIra M) «U Dkiilah Wut Indiei MO 60 Dutch Weit IndiM D,0T4 OW nutehOutank *u\ 75 Canada 53,074 S.SfiO Other Brillsli North American I*oia, 33.149 0,749 Ilritlah Weil Indlei 23,118; 8,.'I1.S BrltUh Hondiiru l.Son 218 BriUihOulana 10,660 l,6e» Brltlah Foaaewloiu In Aftica 8,62S 600 Other porta In Africa 6:i9 101 Biltlah Eart Indlei 1,688 804 French West Indies 600 60 Cuba 18,864 S,881 Porto Rico 890 68 HayU 2,860 487 Mexico 6,860 1,086 Central Bepubllc 40 6 KswOranada 6,881 918 VenexueU 890 133 ArgenUne Kepubllc 6,840 818 Chill 10,750 1,684 tferu 16,167 2,68B ^ndwlch iBlsnds 2,422 485 China 2,867 888 Whale-a«herie« 7,754 784 Total, 1866--67 280,u66 $30,788 There were no imports of vinegar into the United States for the year 1857. Viol and Violin. As the lyre of the Greelcs was the harp of the moderns, so the viol and vielle of the MIddie Ages l)eeame the modem violin. The viol was of \ drious sizes formerly, as it is at present, and was anciently very much in use for chamber airs and songs, That of three strings was introduced into Europe by the jugglers of the 13th century. The violin was in- vented toward the close of the same century. — Abbe Lexolbt. The fiddle, however, is mentioned as early ^ as A.D. 1200, in the legendarj- life of St. Christopher. It was introduced into England, some say, by Charles II. in 1684. Virgiiiia, one of the United States of America, lies between lat. 36° 33' and 110° 43' X., and between long. 75° 26' and 83° 40' W. It is 370 miles long, and 200 miles broad at its greatest breadth, containing 61,362 square miles. Population in 1790, 747,610; in 1800, 886,149; in 1810,974,622; in 1820, 1,065,366; in 1830, 1,211,272; in 1840, 1,289,797; and in 1850, 1,421,661. Earlg Ilulory, — ^The coast of the country which we now name Virginia is said to have been Ivnown to tho old Northmen. Ono of them, Gudio'' Gudlaugscn, is said to have sailed In the year 1028 so far to the south. He is supposed to have called the country lluUramim- naland, the Land of the Whitemen, wliich may bo con- sidered the oldest and first name under which these re- gions became ever known to the Europeans. The Spaniards, sinuo 1620, included the land under the names of Terra de Ayllon and Florida, and the French, since 1563, under the name otNaurilU France. The English invented the name Virginia at first (1 583) for the country lying round Pamlico and Albemarle Sound. They composed this name, it Is said, for two reasons : first, because it was dUcovercd in tho rcign of their Virgin Queen, Elizabeth ; and, secondly, " be- cause tho country seemed still to retain tho virgin purity and plenty of the lirst creation, ond the people there the primitive innocence." They extended this name at once over a great part of the cast coast, and particularly over tho vicinity of Chesapeake Bay, which was already discovered from tho Roanoke settlements, and Arhich we see included under the name c. Virginia on the lirst map of Vir- ginia, 1590. When, since 1606, the Chesapeake Ray was better explored and settled, and when it became the principal centra of tho English settlements on the cast coast, this region was, par excellence, called Virginia, sometimes Now Virginia, while tho former settlements and coun- try round Albemarle Sound, then forsaken, were some- times (for instance, on a map of Captain J. Smith) call- ed Oald Virginia. This was, however, more a popu- lar manner of denomination. The official or legal name of the country was, in tho year 1606, by King James I. thus confined : He called Virginia, or the Vir- ginian territory or coast, the whole east coast of North America, from the thirty-fourth to the forty-fifth de- gree of north latitude. This whole territory was di- vided by the royal patent into two parts, a northern and a southern. 'The southern commenced in the south at 34° north latitude, and ended in the north at about 40° north latitude. It was called the First Colony, or tho Southern Settlements in Virginia, or Virginia proper. When Captain J. Smith and Prince Charles invent- ed nnd introduced (1616)far Northern Virginia the new name of New Kngland, the appellation Southern Vir- ginia disappeared, and was changed to Virginia. By tho separation of tho territories of Maryland (1632), of Carolana (1629), and of Carolina (1668), tho name and province of Virginia lost a great deal of their former extension, and received at last their present limits, between 38° and 86^° north latitude, so far as our coast is concerned. The changes of the boundaries toward the interior regions have no interest here for us.— KOIIL. Phytictd Features, etc. — As regards surface and soil, this State may Ixi divided into four sections. The eastern includes a tra>:t of about 100 to 120 miles in width, and is generally low and level, and in come places marshy. It has a light sandy soil, mostly cov- ered with pines. West of the line of the head of tide- water the country becomes undulating and hilly, until it attains one continuous mountain elevation known as the Blue Ridge, crossing the entire width of the State. The alluvial lands in this tract are for the most parf very fertile, those of James River cspeciall)' l)eing un- usually productive. The third section includes the valley lietween the Blue Ridge and the Alleghany Mountains. This tract, though in parts broken by mountains, is generally the most fertile and healthy part of the State. The fourth section includes the country between the Alleghany chain and the Ohio. This portion, though in many places wild and broken, has a great deal of fine fertile land, and vast deposits of coal, iron, salt, etc. Gold is found in Fluvanna and Buckingham counties and vicinity; and many valu- able mineral springs exist. There were in this State in 1850, 10,360,136 acres of land improved; and 16,792,176 unimproved land In farms; cash value of farms, $216,401,613; and the valucof Implements and machinery, $7,021,772. Live ■S/orl;.— Horses, "72,403; assesand mules, 21,483; milch cows, 317,619; working oxen, 89,613; other cattle, 669,137; sheep, 1,310,001; swine, 1,829,843. Valuo of live stock, $33,656,659. Agricultural Producti, ffc.— Wheat, 11,212,616 bush- els ; rye, 458,930; Indian com, 35,224,319; oats, 10,179,'l43; barley, 25,437 ; buckwheat, 214,898 ; pcos and beans, 621,679; potatoes, 1,316,933; sweet pota- toes, 1,813,634; rice, 17,161 lbs. ; value of products of the orchard, $177,137; produce of market gardens, $18,3,047; pounds ofbuttermado, 11,089,359; of cheese, 436,292; maple-sugar, 1,227,666 lbs.; molasses, 40,822 gallonn; beeswax and honey, 880,767 ; wool, 2,860,766 lbs. produced; cotton, 8947"; flax, 1,000,460; silk co- coons, 617; hops, 11,506 lbs.; iobacco, 50,803,227; hay, 369,098 tons; hemp, 88 tons ; clover seeds, 29,727 bushels; other grass seeds, 53,428; flax-seed, 52,818 bushels ; and were made, 5408 gallons of wine ; value of home-made mannfactures, $2,150,812; of slaughter- ed animals, $7,502,986. Hivert, etc. — The Potomac River separates Virginia from Maryland. James River is tho largest which be- longs to this State. It is 500 miles in length, and flows from the mountains in the interior behind the Blue Ridge, through which it passes. It is navigable for sloops 120 miles, and for boats mucli farther, and VOY flows Into Che8ani..t. n ^^SS the Potomac J„8t before f,'?''' «''<'»''ndo.-.l enters W T.^'"'''' ^"v. latll","'',''"' \^ ""hs from th« im «.209,8&2 IgOH »-2iO,47S 180? 4,696.o;7 Igoo 3.324,(110 a::::;:ljlj!« Total... r$3§-jjg;^j- I Sept 80,1831.... ,-,,„„„. 1832.. •■ *i'^?»'^ 1833. .:•• I'jS^!" 1834.. K'iJ2'^-» iSSl ftOHW, isw:::-- S'».?28 l&ST. 1838.... 1839.... ' 1840 ; Total.. S,6:iti,T10 I 8.977,8Pr> 6, 1 S3, -124 4, 70'.! 07 *-lS,30i,f,|5l $489 10,734 s.wa 13.S6S 9.C18 148.012 3,604 8,;;33 3.772 S,2,'i8 Onioi, ]|«; 8,745,227 j«n<,8o.i|«.;:;::; ^;S 18(6.. 184«.. 1>''47.... ]8«.... 1S49. . I860..,;; 1 tal. 2.101,045 I 8. 62,'^, 903 S.646.66S 3,fl79,8SS 8 30fl,4.)2 3.413.158 (June80,I881 | jarq-j... iX 3,.3n2,f,(t| is? 4.762,218 iSS I 6.489,022 -^^1i:^.i:jA^ T,23l,33l» $1,370 6. 159 2,fl.'j5 19.l'41 3,6,18 330 12.700 l.r>B4 4,310 2. 4^8 $2,024 2,!'S0 4.230 SS.rm 6,745 16,979 «M)Tii;2io- 3,217,089 4.000,788 8,277,564 <■ 129,620 4.690,732 4,067,933 .''.340,185 3.787,431 4,7!i].t84 itiSissi^ojr $4,159,475 4,610.050 4.407,687 6.483, 098 0,004,003 0.192,040 3,702,714 3,980,228 6,187,190 __4J78^) $48,622,271 *l,078,.l'„ 804.102 081,810 039.787 663.602 038,488 431,70.5 8K,23S 396.862 __40BJ8J $0,0(il,3!i8~ *»,0,'!0,280 3,76il,.3,S6 1.967,106 2,942,279 2,104,681 3,.5£9,299 6,0'8,374 3,081,412 S.S78.7S8 .'!.4lr>,040 ^3M43,I00 " "' Iw^ ™^-- ^^Ks^oa xna $488,622 C63,«39 090,391 837,826 091,258 1,100,814 8!.1,802 177,142 9I.'i.4fi2 645,086 "IriaiTaiir $377,2.17 310,705 187,002 207,064 207, CW 209,004 880,)ii7 21,^08l 241.(.'i5 420 5: 9 ¥2,8. 6,002 $652,rS3 7.'i5,8;;8 .'il9,lin4 1,270,210 8.'i5,405 09>,sr5 l..''>.W,lf.4 J.646 J, 122 28,800 46,677 41,309 60,734 63,S85 42,r,'-,8 40,020 48,719 66,183 40 527 49,8(:8 43,092 42,012 29.397 18,779 41,494 _48,400 420;83r 0,4S3 I 7,413 1 9,.'!20 I 8,070 7,010 8,069 I 7,S43 7,278 0,771 T2;216' ',637 12,,W9 6.1,910 46,122 34,943 44,100 SO, 180 48,571 0,1,110 48,420 (S.ns9 42,091 .14.101 37.3S4 .1.'>.901 02, 00,1 4S.790 43,679 00,224 Vv, - -' ■y,''J:'_l 7,249,709 1 .-tin' ,,Y ™.0»0 24,04S ^'- ■""""- to j„„e ^J^dr^StiJ '"^-^^^ »PEn.v8. '' "■"" '"■Sins J"iy 1 I41,3'81 9,833 10,518 4,353 7..143 4,621 7,103 3!iir.72 I 10,r72 10,689 I 23.307 1::U,171 31,180 29,089 27,000 30,007 , 22,94.' 24,043 ,' 22,500 13,156 10,337 " "'" "mo boBJns July 1. ' — ^ J ■^^~<^^ p£CXSi tSr'-'- K vo.v«ge ro„„., „,o „.orI.I y^^^r^llT"'''': ^Le fln,t Spanish squadron which h„,i i •' " '*">' Pa" of a ?f Magellan (.ho wtt ituuhe' P -n "''' """'"•'•n^ _^^__^ _;^L^^^, ma skirmish) i„ 151!)-'20 The em^r "PP'"* ^"''"<'' ^'"««-^oat^^^^^^^;^-'|-^J.^^^^^^ WAG 1936 WAR '«..^'. w. Wages. The wages of sandry workmen In En- gland were fint fixed by act of Parliament, 26 Edward III., 1860. Hay-makera had but one penny a day. Master carpenters, masons, tilers, and other coverers of houses, had not more than 8d. per day (about 9d. of the present currency, sterling), and their servants Hd. — ViNER's atattOei. By the 23d Uonty VI., 14-14, the wages of a bailiff of husbandry was 23>. iii. per annum, and clothing of the price of &«., with meat and drinli ; chief hind, carter, or shepherd, 20«. ; clothing, it. : com- mon servant of husbandry, 1S«. ; clothing, iOd, : woman- servant, 10«. ; clothing, 4>. By the lltb Henry VII., 1495, there was a like rate of wages, only with a little advance ; as, for instance, a free mason, ii^aster car- penter, rough mason, bricklayer, master tiler, plumb- er, glazier, carver, or joiner, was allowed from Easter to Michaelmas to take G(<. a day, without meat and drink; or with meat and drink, 4k ; from Michaelmas to Easter, to abate \d. A master having under him six men was allowed Id. a day extra. The following were the wages of harvest-men in England at different periods Vmh. 1360 14fl!l IMS Per Dlam, t. d. 1 a 4 Y«>n. 174') 1701) 17S8 1704 1800 P«r Diem «. d. II 10 1 1 4 1 . . *2 lfl»2 1088 8 1710 9 1841) a » Wake, the track of a ship which she leaves in tlie watet. A vessel directly astern of another is said to bo in her wake. Wales, a peninsular portion of South Britain, on its west side, between lot. 51° 23' and 63° 26' N., and long. 2° 41' and 5° 17' W., liaving on the east the En- -glish counties of Chester, Salop, Hereford, and Mon- mouth, and on other sides the Bristol and St. George's channels and the Irish Sea. Agriculture is extremely backward. Barley ond oats are the chief grains raised ; the culture of potatoes and turnips is extending. Farms mostly small, aver- aging in South Wales only from 50 to CO acres, whore, however, the tenantry are fur better lodged than in the north. Large numbers of cattle are reared for the English markets. The number of sheep is estimated at 1,250,000, and the annual produce of wool at 10,000 packs. A hardy small breed of ponies is reared, es- pecially in the counties of Montgomery and Merion- eth. The mining interest is highly important. Iron, copper, lead, silver, slate, limestone, and in the south Urge quantities of coal are raised, which lust product is extensively exported, and used in large quantities on the spot for smelting both British and foreign ores. In lit40 South Wales had 132 furnaces in oi)cration, consuming annually about 1,430,000 tons of cuul, and prwlucing 506,000 tons of iron ; and North Wales 12 furnaces, consuming 110,000 tons of coal, and ]iruduc- ing 26,500 tons of iron. The principal iron- works are at and around Merthyr-Tydvil, Tredegar, Aberdure, and Rhualwn ; at Swansea largo quantities of Amer- ican and other copper ores are reduced. Manufactures of woolen fabrics, especially of flannel and hosier}-, are ver>' generally pursued in the cottages of the peasantry, particularly in North Wales, where Welshpool is the chief mart for these products. The cotton manufac- ture has extended into some of the northern counties ; and in 1847, 1860 hands were employed in wooleri, cot- tun, and silk factories. A manufuctor}- of slate articles exists at Bangor. Trade principally in tho export of mineral produce, cattle, and woolen goods. Frbicipal ports, Swansea, Newport, Cardiff, Caernarvon, and Beaumaris ; besides which Holyhead is a chief packet station for communication with Ireland, and Milford is a naval port, and the seat of a government dock-yard. —Set arti'-l'.t Eholaiid and Qbbat Bbitauc. Walnuts, the fnilt of the Jughtt$, or v*liint4re«, of which there are several varieties. The walnut is a large, handsome tree, with strong spreading branches. The fruit is a pretty, large, smooth, ovate nut, contain- ing an oily kernel divided into four lobes. The nut has been always held in high estimation ; it was called by tho Romans JovU jjiani, the acorn or mast of Jove, and hence the name of the tree. The walnut-tree is indigenous to PersU and the countries bordering on the Caspian Sea. Previously to the very general introduction of mahogany, the wood of the walnut-tree was generally, and is yet ex- tensively ' used in making of furniture. It is much used by turners, and is sujierior to every other sort of wood for tho mounting of guns. Great numbers of wal- nut-trees are annually consumed in the Haute Vienne and other departments of FrancOf in the manufacture of the wooden shoes or clogs used by the peasantry. Tho nuts are either gathered when ripe, being served up at desserts without any preparation, or they are plucked green and pickled. — Poiukt, Ilisiiire Phito- tofMque de» Planles, tome vii. ; Kees' Cyclojmdia, etc. Wampum (from Wampi or Wompi, signifying, in the Massachusetts Indian language, white, the color of the shells most frequent in wampum belts), shells, or strings of shells, used by the American Indians as money. These, when united, form a broad belt, which in worn as an ornament or girdle. It is sometimes called wampumpague, or Kampeague, or wampampeague, of which wampum seems to be a contraction. Wangheea, sometimes called Japan canes, a spe- cies of cane imported from China. They should bo chosen pliable, tough, round, und taper ; the knots at regular distances from each other, and the heavier tho lietter. Such as are dark-colored, badly glazed, and light, should ba rejected. — Milbuhn's Orient. Com, See article Cane. Warehousing System. By this system is meant tlie provisions made for lodging imimrted ar- ticles in pulilic warehouses at a reasonable rent, with- out payment of the duties on importation till they be withdrawn for home consumption. If re-exported, no duty is claimed. Kxpediencg and Origin of the Warehouting Sgstem. — It is laid down by Dr. Smith, in one of his justly cele- brated maxims on the subject of taxation, that " every tax ought to be levied at the time and in the manner that is muf't likely to be convenient for the contril>u- tor to pay it." — Wealth oj" Nations. No one can doubt the soundness of this maxim ; and yet it was very strangely neglected, down to 1803, in the management of the customs. Previously to this period, the duties on most goods imported had either to bo paid at the moment of their im|)ortation, or a bond, with sufficient security for their future payment, had to be given to the revenue officers. Tho hardship and inconvenience of such a system is obvious. It was often very diffi- cult to find sureties ; and the merchant, in order to raise funds to pay the duties, was frequently reduced to tho ruinous necessity of selling his goods immedi- ately on tlieir arrival, when, perhaps, the market was already glutted. Neither was this the only ineon- venlcnco that grew out of this system ; for the duties having to be paid all at once, and not by degrees as the goods were sold for consumption, their price was raised by tho amount of the prollt on the capital advanced in payment of tho duties ; competition, too, was dimin- ished in consequence of the greater command of funds required to carry on trade under such disadvantages ; and a few rich individuals were enabled to monopolize tho importation of those commodities on which heavy duties were payable. The system had, besides, an ob- vious tendency to discourage tho carrying trade. .It prevented this countiy from becoming the entrepot for 7 "" "UCn n., Storage business" in stores of this class WAS 1088 WAT Ohio Railroad. Ut. (of tlie National Olxiervatory) 88° 88' 89"-8 N., long. 77° 2' 48" W. from Greenwich, England. It is 296 miles from the ocean by the course of the river, 88 fh>m Baltimore, and 226 from New York. The population in 1800 was 8210; in 1810, 8208 ; in 1820, 18,247 ; in 1830, 18,827 ; in 1840, 28,864 ; in 1850, 46,000; and in 1864, 46,000. The Navy Yard is situated on the " Anacostia," a branch of the Potomac Kiver, at the southern termina- tion of Eighth Street, east. It covers an area of about twenty acres, and is inclosed by a substantial bricit wall, having a principal entrance at the foot of Eighth Street, through a handsome arched gateway. The mechanical o|)erations of this establishment are various and extensive, and the skill of the workmen and the •zcellence of the materials employed have been satis- factorily tested in every sea. Anchors of various sizes, for the naval service, are manufactured by the use of two heavy steam-hammers (termed the "Nasmytb Hammer"), one of which weighs 3600 lbs., the other 2240 lbs. The forges for this work are kept in blast by a fan-blower attached to the steam-engine in the macliinist's department. There is also in operation, in the anchor department, a direct action steam-ham- mer (called the " Kirk Hammer"), in connection with a blast furnace for working up into looms and l>ars all the scrap iron of the navy. The massive chain cables are made in another shop, which is provided with a powerful hydrostatic press for testing their strength. — See article DisTnicr of Columbia for commerce of Washington. Waahington, a territory of the United States of America, lies between lat. 46° 26' N., long. 108° 80' and 124° 30' W. Area, 113,821 square miles. It is between the Rocky Mountains on the east and the Pacilic Ocean on the west, has Oregon on its south border, and the British possessions on the north. The entire population in 1860 was 1201 ; in 1864, estimated at 6000. It is divided into six counties, viz. : Clark, Lewis, PacUic, Pierce, Stevens, and Thurston. The country west of the Cascade Range is the only portion yet settled by a white population ; it lias a diversified surface, and the valleys iHirdering the streams have a luxuriant soil. The streams are small, the Cowlitz and other small streams entering the Columbia River on the south, the Cbickeeies entering Gray's harlmr on the west, and a number of other streams entering Puget Sound on the northwest. I'uget Sound, Hood's Canal, and Admiralty Inlet abound with fine harbors. The Cascade Range crosses the territory from the south (at the Cascades, on the Columbia Kiver) entirely across it to the north, rising in several peaks above the snow line, as Slaunt St. Helens (an active volcano), Mount Rainier, Mount Uofcer, etc. East of this range little is known of the capabilities of the country as an agricul- tural region, although there is no doubt of its being well adapted for stock raising. It is drained by the constituents of tlia Columbia, consisting of Kooskoosky and I'eloose rivers of the Lewis Fork, and Spokane, Okunagaii, Uairier, and Yakima rivers of Clark's Fork, and (Juthalacodes entering the Columbia River. The Strait of Juaa de t'lica, including the waters of Admiralty Inlet, Hood Canal, and I'uget Sound, with the Archipelago of Arro up to the 49th parallel, were ail surveyed by the United States Exploring Expedi- tion. The whole is unBur|>asBed by any estuary in the world. They comprise many very fine hnrlrars and safe anchorages, are entirely free from dangers, and cover an area of about 2000 s()uiro miles. The coun- try by which these waters are surrounded is remark- ably salubrious, and oSen cverj- advantage for the ac- commodations uf a vast commercial and military ma- rine, with conveniences for docks, and many sites for towns and cities, at all times well supplied with water, and capable of being provided with ail needful supplies from the surrounding oountrj-, which is well adapted for agriculture. This strait is ninety-five miles in length ; average width eleven miles (entrance eight miles In width) ; no dangers exist, and it may be saloly navigated throughout. This territory was separated flrom Oregon in the year 1868, and constituted a separ- ate territory. — Harpeu'b OaieUeer. Watohea (G«r. Uhren, TVucAmuArcn ; Fr. Mon- Irtt ; It. Oriuoli da tana, o da eaceoccia i Sp. Jlehjet de/altriguera ; Russ. KarmannAe lichoiU), portable ma- chines, generally of a small size, and round, fiat shape, that measure and indicate the successive portions of time, having for the most port their motions regula- ted by a spiral spring. When constructed on the most approved principles, and executed in the best manner, a watch is not only an exceedingly useful, but a most admirable piece of mechanism. It has exercised the genius and invention of the most skillful mechanics, as well as of some of the ablest mathematicians, for nearly three centuries. And, considering the small- ness of its sire, its capacity of being carried about un- injured in every variety of position, the number and complexity of its movements, and the extraordinary accuracy with which it represents the successive por- tions of time as determineil by the rotation of the earth on its axis, we need not.wonder at Dr. Paley having referred to it as a striking specimen of human ingenu- ity. Spring watches are constructed nearly on the same principle ais pendulum clocks. Instead of the pendulum in the hitter, a spring is used in the former, the isochronism of the vibrations of which corrects the unequal motions of the balance. JIutorical Notice. — The invention of spring watches dates from about the middle of the 16th centur}', and has been warmly contested for Huygens and Hooke. The English writers generally incline in favor of tho latter. Dr. Hutton says {Slalhtmatical Dictionary, art. Watch) that the words " Kob. Hooko invonit, 1668," were inscribed on the dUl plate of a watch pre- sented to Charles II. in 1676. But Montucla aHirms {Itittoin det Mafhematiquet, tome ii, p. 413, ed. 1800) that Huygens mode this " belle dicouverle" in 1660, and presented a spring watch to the states of Holland in 16.')7. Comparing these statements, it certainly ap- pears that the claim 6f Huygens to the priority of the discovery is the better established of the two. We do not, however, be'lieve that either of those distinguished persons owed, in this respect, any thing to the other. The probability seems to be, that tho happy idea of employing a spring to regulate the motion of watches occurred to them both nearly at the same time. Improvement of Watchet. — Owing to the facility with which the longitude may be determined by the uid of accurately going watches, it is of great importance to have them made as perfect as possible. In this view, liberal premiums have been criven to the makers of tho liest marine watches, or chronometers. In the reign of Queen Anne, Parliament ofTered a reward of ;e20,OUO to any one who should make a watch, or other instru- ment capable of detemintng the longitude at sea, with- in certain limits. This magnificent premium was awarded, in 1764, to the oeIebi,-ute having Ingonu- ou the I of the former, recta the watches tar)', an* 1 Hooke. ,or of the Uctiotwry, a invonit, ftUtch pre- cla affirms 1 ed. ISOO) 1 1050, and floUand In ■Wtnly ap- ,rityofthe lo. We do ltlnguW»ed the other. Ipy idea of of watches ime. tcmtywitn ■ the aid of portance to \ this view, Aersoftlio 1 the reign of£20,0UO Ither instru- itsea,wlth- smioin was irriBon,foro rage to War- k more than , though of to Messrs. two prizes, luaUy given [judged to 1)6 [o a twelve- Greenwich, ire attained, J by naviga- [ite climates, inds in tlicir ling business Ists of which Ice in this dor at least 18 per cent, on the dockf, which fa a parinir buslnen. There are doubtless many similar agents mthe exporUtlon of the article, which Is an advanUse to ourselves ; and for this reason we desire to see it fostered, and again take its place among the industrial products of our country.— &e Homt's Merclumli' Maa- aztne, Januarj-, 1867. The following table shows the value of clocks Im- ported into and exported from the United SUtes dur. mg the year ending Jone 80, 1866, derived ftam the annual rej^rt of the Secretory of the Treasury : Hamburg .^".!'.''."; '*^- «■'"««'■ Bremen T i jwi Belgium ;: ''JflJ Ji^W '■'■'■ i».»«« Ireland t'anadk . CO - — g France Ko RTT Papal States Mexico Now Granada VGOrzuela. . . China Total. , $4200 IMS 483 IT 141 4 ITS W lupoEis OF Watcito and Paets or Watoiiks mm the I niteh States for tuk Ykab kniiiho Ji;nk 80. 185T. Whenta lmpor1«d. RuBalan Pom. In N. Amcr. Hamburg Ilremcn Holland '.','.■. Dclglum Kngland ffcolland Canada France Cuba I, New Granada VencKucla Urarll Total, 1866-'5T Wnlebtt uid parli of. Value. $1,S!0 1,2T9 103,02» M 18 2,463,«)8 8,T18 309 l,106,ei>4 KO 2,118 140 1,4W Waleh Crjitab. "ValuaT 16,430 $98, ITS 8,9m partment. There may be about 14,000 gold and 85,000 silver watches annually assayed at Goldsmiths' Hall, London (Jacob on the Prtdou, Metal,, vol. 11. p. 418) under £600,000. The manufacture Is also carried on to a considerable extent at Li^rerpool, Coventry, Edin- burgh, etc. Watch movements used to be extensively manufactured at Prescot, in Lancashire; but latteriv we believe, the manufacturers have been withdrawina to Liverpool. On tho Continent watches are prinoi- pally manufactured in Pari,, Geneva, and in Neuf- chatel. Some of the French and Swiss watches, par- tlcularly the latter, are excellent ; but, generally .ieak- Ing, they are slight, and inferior to those made In Lon- don. Paris and Geneva watches are largely exported to foreign countries, and are every where in high es- timation, particularly among the ladles. Watches impressed with any mark or stamp, appearing to be or to represent any legal British assay mark or stamp, or purporting by any mark or appearance to be of the manufacture of the United Kingdom, or not having the name and place of abode of some foreign maker abroad visible on the frame and also on the face or not being in a complete state, with all the parts properiv fixed in tho case, n-ay not be imported into the United Kingdom, even for the purpose of being warehoused — 8and4 »ri«.7K.,c.ft2,§68. Watchei m CAimi.— Large numbers of European watches are Imported into China s and it may be worth mentioning, as a curious Instance of the diversity of tastes, that the Chinese, as well as most other Eastern nations, who can afford it, uniformlly mar vatchet m pair* / This sort of extravagance is not, however, confined to watches, but extends to a variety of other articles. Shawls, for example, are invariably worn in India in pairs of exactly the same pattern ; and it is hardly possible, indeed, to find a native dealer who will sell a single shawl. Watches and Clocl-t — Out of thirty-one clock man- ufactories in New England in 1862, four have been de- stroyed by fire, nine have stopped by failure, and five have stopped manufacturing on account of small prof- its. There are still thirteen factories making clocks, but only six of them are runnuig full time, and with a full complement of hands. These six will produce about 95,000 clocks this year. The remaining seven factories will make about 48,000 clocks, so that the total production of clocks this year will not exceed 143,000. The Jerome Manufacturing Company, in 1853 and 1854, produced each year 4'!4,000 clocks. Thus they must have produced more than an average of one clock per minute. The factory of J. C. Brown, during 1851 and 1852, issued from 80,000 to 100,000 clocks annu- ally, making a total from the two establishments of over 500,000 clocks each year. The Ansonia Com- pany manufactured about 150,000 last yeor. Thus it will be seen that all the thirteen factories now run- ning will make hardly one-fourth of what was pro- duced by three of the large factories now standing still. The question naturally arises. What shall we do for low-priced clocks in the future ? There is still a large amount of fancy clocks on hand, but the wooden-frame "ogee" and "sharp-top Gothic" clocks are not being made, and there is comparatively none in the market. The wooden-frame clocks can not l)e made for the prices that they have been ,r. A. T. Thom- son's Di$pen$atory. Beeswax is prepared by draining and washing the honey-comb, which is then melted in boiling water, ress is so '0 liavo ni WeaK nnly a cer possession "f others, "re many conflagrati "apulus, w ••"ndrertmi Ciccilius Jc .MOO oxen, '■q'lnl to til *e articles , Wear.t "er round i , Wearti dude onlv < "■pm upon ( WAY 1941 WEI ite re- cat of I by din ched w»rd , »nd itlons nding th the riction Utile nuance ae roU- a groat 1 Hope, t, that a stent of ships B8 ,B. The ling and the BUil- ve. The agnltudo. tie rate of I common inces with n only ad- of a little lame place j„ a •wave, the vratcr , ftg it can ' Ho ■wave the ■water, twenty feet le next do- jstucle may i-E. A. Seo Iesby). ^«« „ Sp. C"""' Lral P^""'" Ike it worth Lt is known loney is first ri melted into InslpW. and i-ct soft, and Iften adulter- B presence of Jcako U very I gray than to Ibe Buspected ^Ing, Instead Ed or purified, Li Bomowhut ■to the touch, I It is Bomo- |of lead to in- II with potato Ig the wax in Im; the ptes- VmgofaduU ittrency whw' ly be detected Xcted wax, »» Lctingontho 1 A. T. TiioM- 1 vrasUlng the tolling water, strained, and cast Into cakes. English and foreign wax are found in the market ; the latter being chiefly imported from the Baltic, the Levant, and the coast of Barbarj-. Fresh wax has a peculiar honey-Uke odor: its epeclflc gravity is -96. At about 160° It fuses, and at a high temperature volatilizes, and bums with a bright white flume. It is bleached by being exposed in thin slices or ribbons to light, air, and moist- ure, or more rapidly by the action of chlorine ; but In the latter case It does not answer for the manufactm« of candles, which is one of Its principal applications. Wax candles are made by suspending the wicks upon a hoop over the cauldron of melted wax, which is successively poured over them from a ladle till they have acquired the proper size, so that the candle con- sists of a series of layers of wax ; the upper end is then shaped, and the lower cut off. Attempts have been made to cast wax candles in moulds, but when thus made they bum irregularly. Bleached or white wax is generally adulterated with more or less spermaceti, and sold at different prices accordingly; in this case it has not the peculiar lustre of pure wax, and Is softer and more fusible. It Is also largely adulterated with stearin or stearic acid, which Is detected by the odor of fat or tallow which it evolves when highly heated, and by its crumbly texture ; it may also be separated to a certain extent by ether or alcohol. 'Wax is in- soluble In water, and scarcely acted upon by the acids, so that it forms a good lute or cement : boiling alcohol and ether act partially upon it, and deposit the portion which they had dissolved, on cooling. Some varieties of vegetable wax appear to contain two distinct prin- ciples, which Dr. John has termed cen'n and myricin; the former soluble, and the latter insolutile, in alcohol. Heated with the fixed alkalies, wax forms a difiicultly soluble soap. ExroBTB OF Wax fbom the I'NiTzn States fob Tna Yeae K.NIIISII JCSK 30, 185T. KxpotTs or wKAiiNa An-Aan. fsom n» Vrnno Statbi roa Tui Y«A» iMuiNu Jen 80, 1861. WliilhgrBniurlf,(iOi) S,4iB 11,010 CflO ],il67 12,737 4,900 38,736 6,120 48 1,011(1 al6,3TS V>lue. $3,112 1,889 6,S33 22,1(K) 303 400 8 30,302 1,600 2,307 2,900 171 690 6,179 1,772 11,603 2,043 14 360 !191,9S3 'Way, the sea term for progress. A ship in prog- ress is said to have iroy upon her ; when stationar)', to have no tray. VTealth. This is a relative term ; for as there Is only a certain amount of property in a countrj', so the possession of a large share by one man is the poverty of others. The instances of wealth in the early ages are many and most extraordinary. The mightiest conflagration of wealth on record is that of Sarda- napulus, where riches amounting to one thousand four hundred millions sterling weredcstroyed. — Athen.f.us. Cajcilius Ifidorus died nt Rome possessed of •1110 slaves, .1000 oxen, 200,000 head of other cattle, and money equal to three millions sterling, 8 B.C. — Unh. Hist. See articles Basks, Coins, Gold Monev, etc. ■Wear, to put the ship on the other tack by turning her round with her stern to the wind. 'Wearing Apparel, generally considered to in- clude only the clothes and personal property actually worn upon tho person, and as such it is admitted free of duty into the United States, WhlUatrciporttd. Asiatic Kuuiu Valw. $2,231 liunalan l-uaaeaaloni in North America! '. " ' n'ina lianlah Weat Indies "'S! 668 t Indies ^_. Hamburg " „Si Holland Ili'lglum KnRland Houiland MalU Canada '.'. '.'.'jt'. 6,nOB 180 1,«I0 1,614 200 890 47,121 Uritiah Weat Indlea 'fro llritlah llunduraa . llritlah (iulana IlrltUh AiiBlralla... llritlah Kaat Indies. 179 62 306 0,601 SlIO 600 Itll) 4,382 449 402 160 164 Franco on the Atlantic 677s Franco on the Mediterranean '" Spain on the Atlantic ( nba I'orto Itlco Sardinia " 'I'woSlcmea Turkey In Aala '.■.■.■.".'.■.■.■.■.■■■■ ,„ rortafn Africa :....: ,,JSJ 'W' 782 Mexico 2 45, Central Hepubllc '. !!!.'!!!". '660 New ({ranada 116 848 Veneauela :;::;; a'gjg Uraall 'ij^j Argentine Hepubllc !!!'.'.!*.".'.'. i 83B ii"" .' 11,'484 }"•': 1,008 Lcuador '^gg Sandwich lalanda ,', ... 69 748 Other Islands In the I'acmc '.'.'.'.'.'.'. 8 773 China 23(14 ■\Vbalc-flaherlcB 29 133 Tot*' $833,442 Weaving, the art of forming cloth In a loom by the union or intertexture of threads. The art of weav- ing appears to have been practiced in China from the earliest antiquity— more than a thousand years before it was known in Europe or Asia. Poets assign tho art to the spider. Women originally spun, wove, and dyed ; and the origin of these arts is ascribed, by an- cient nations, to different women as women's arts. The Egypti.ins ascribed it to Isis; the Greeks to Mi- nerva ; an'l the Peruvians to the wife of Manco Capac. In most Eastern countries, the employment of weaving is still performed by the women. Our Saviour's vest, or coat, had not any senm, being woven from the top throughout, in one whole piece. Perhaps, says Dr. Do:,!».. WEI 1042 WEI UMMttNi wwe prOTldad furtha wholn kingdom of En- gland by the ahsriffii of London, H Itirliurd I., 1107. A public weighing-machine wan 8«t up in (.ondon, anil nil coinnioditifia nrdored to be welglied \iy the city of- licer, called the weigh-muster, who was to do Juatice between buyer und seller, statute 8d ICdward II,, 1800. — Stowe. The drat statute, directing the use of •volrdupois weiglit, is that of 24 Henry VIII., 1532.— Philoiophical Trmuactioiu, vol. 65, art. it. The French adopt the metre of 8'28084, or the lO-millionth part of tl>e distance from the po^ to the equator, as tlio st.ind- ard of measure ; and th* kilogram, equal to 2265 lbs. avoirdupois, as the standard of weight Haydn. Neither the magnitude nor the weight of any bc., unotlior 2 ll)s., a third 8, and 90 on; meaning not only that these weights are to each other as 1, 2, 8, etc., but also that tli« weight or specific gravity of the first is equal to the known and determinate weight denominated a lb., that the second is equal to 2 lbs., and so on. Stttudard* of Weight and Meamre. — Standards of lineal measure mustbavo been fixed upon at the earli- est period, and appear to have consisted principally uf parts of the human l)ody — as the cubit, or length of the arm from the elbow to tlie tip of the middle linger ; the foot ; the ulna, arm, or yard ; the span ; the digit, or finger; the fathom, or spaco from the extremity of one hand to that of the other, when they are both extended in opposite directions ; the pace, etc. Large spaces were estimated l>y measures formed out of multiples of the smaller ones ; and sometimes in day's Journeys, or by the space which it was supposed an ordinary man might travel in a day, using a reason- able degree of diligence. But lineul measures can only be used to determine the magnitude of solid liodies ; the magnitude of bodies in a liquid ur fluid state has to be determined by what are called measures of cujiac- ity. It Is probable that, in the infancy of society, shells, or other hollow Instruments afforded by nature, were used as standards. But the inaccuracy of the conclusions drawn from referring to them must soon have become obvious; and It early occurred that to obtain an accurate measure of liquids nothing more was necessary than to constitute an artificial one, the dimensions, and consequenUy the capacity, of which should be determined by the lineal measures previous- ly adopted. The determination of tlio gravity or weight of different bodies supposes the invention of the balance. Nothing is known of tho steps which led to its introduction ; but it was used in tho remotest antiquity. It seems probable that, at first, cubes of some common lineal measure, as a foot, or tho fraction of a foot, formed of cop|>er, iron, or some other metal, were used as standards of weight. Wlien the standard was selected, if it was desired to ascertain the specific gravity or weight of any given article, all that was necessary was to put it into one of the scales of the balance, and as many cubes or parts of cubes on the other as might be necessary to counterpoise it. Weights have, however, been frequently derived from grains of com. Hence in this, and in some other European countries, the lowest denomination of weight is a grain; and 82 of these grains are directed, by the ancient statute called Compositio Afenmrarum, to compose a pennyweight, whereof 20 make an ounce, 12 ounces a pound, and so upward. In every countrj' in which commercial transactions sre extensively carried on, the importance of having weights and measures determined by some fixed stand- ard becomes obvious to every one. But as the size of lUffeient parts of the human body diflTers in diflTerent in- dividoals, it is necessary to select some durable article — a metallic rod, for example — of the length of an or- dinary cubit, foot, etc., and to make it a standard with which all the other cubits, feet, etc., used in mensura- tion shall correspond. These stanilanhi have always been preserved with the greatest care : at Home tliey were kept in the temple of Jupiter, and among the Jews their custody was intrusted to the family of Aaron.— Pauctor, Mitrolngie, p. 228. The principal standards used In the ancient world were the cubit of the Jews, from which their other measures of length, capacity, and weight were derived; and the foot of the Greeks and liomans. In England, ancient his- torians toll us tliat u uew, or rather a revived, standard of lineal measure was introduced by Henry I., who or- dered that the ulna, or ancient ell, which corresponds to the modem yard, should be made of the exact length of his own arm, and that the other measures of length should be raised upon it. This standard has been maintained, without any sensible variation. In 1742 the lioyal iiocbty had a yard made, from a very care- ful comparison of the standard ells or yards of the reigns of lienr}' VII. and Elizabeth kept at tli« Ex- chequer. In 1768 an exact copy was made of the Royal Society's yard ; and this copy having been ex- amined by a committee of the House of Commons, and reported by them to be equal to the standard yard, It was marked as such ; and this identical yard is de- clared, by the act 6 Geo. IV., c. 74, to bo the standard of lineal measure in Great Britain. Utti/ormitg of Weighln and MeMbres. — Tho confusion and inconvenience attending tho use of weights and measures of tho same denomination, but of different magnitudes, was early remarked ; und there is liardly a country in which efforts have not been nuido to re- duce them to the same uniform system. Numerous efforts liave been made having this object in view, und enjoining tho use of the same weights and measures, under very severe penalties. But, owing to tlie in- veteracy of ancient customs, and tho difficulty of en- forcing new regulations, those statutes have always had a ver}- limited influence, and the greatest diversity has continued to prevail, except in lineal measures. — See article Decimal Weioiits and Mkasuuej), p. 610. Invariable or Natural Standard). — As tho standards adopted in most coun(ries have been in a great degree arbitrary, it has long been the opinion of scientific men that, to construct a more perfect system of weights and measures, some neural and unchangeable basis should lie adopted. It has, indeed, been contended that the measures of the ancients were deduced from a basis of this sort ; and that tlie stadium always formed an aliquot part of tho earth's circumference, that part diflTering among different nations and authors. But no learning or ingenuity can induce any one to believe what is so obviousi}' incredible. The ancients had no means of determining the earth's circumference with any thing like tho accuracy required to render it the great unit of a system of measures ; and, what is equal- ly decisive, no ancient author ever makes the slightest allusion to any such standard. In modem times, however, the idea of seeking for a unit of weight and measure in some unchanging natural object has been practically carried into effect. The standards that have been usually pro|)osed for this object have been some aliquot part of the quadrant of the meridian, or the length of a pendulum vibrating seconds .in some given latitude. The standard of the second pendulum has been in so far adopted into the existing system of weights and measures established in Great Britain by tlie act of 1823, that the length of the standard yard, as compared with that of a pendu- lum vibrating seconds in the latitude of London, is specified in the act as follows : " Whereas it has been ascertained by the commis- sioners appointed by his majesty to inquire into the subject of weights and measures, that the said yard hereby declared to be the imperial standard yard, WEI '< ~«»d=,;2"«»-'»b.«,.ii,„. ? vessel ooiitnln... . 1!:'.'.''^ IW«»MrB, r/>« Ji""- ,' I ? P"'''«l''y the result of S" '" ^ ^^'gl^ed, i' clear, a, vet. »h..k "\??'*'*»»ness or fraud -. n„, .-.' "4"m, una Oia busha /•„, :, "•""''"™ «« «ia irallon for l. ,.?'.. '"* ''""'X's articles i^tlZ V '''""w's}, ac » vessel ooutalnC 6S«7a^' "T'"*' 'J''- VCn h t r'""''^' "■" «»•"' of oareies ' " / ". '^ *""«''«''' WKI 1944 WEI lb* itondtrd turn whijh »c.e\i\»nt or nantlRanct hu divUMil. Wfii/Mi 1 rinUmr BAok* KK) roll - 14400 ilrMhma, Thi ruti iIihk not «|ip«iir tu h« ayt- Itmilluklly imImIIvIiImI, Th* Imrirlt, ippllml to watgh- liitf (llli, b tvliUntly Itm nkt, iinilvr (i .i|Mtrlal n«mn, llr^ t'ajtaeilfi t •nUli 34 ruli. l^tngtH; I guth—i lUritti, 'I'ht Yurklih pin U ntnirilly unod fur nlotha ; k b very llttU toiiKir than lh« * pUu 0' ■Mil - 111} ((ulnto l«l agulragci - U'i inadla-talilu 4* akay. Tha Unt denomination, which la thn ii|iai'lal welifht tot gold duiil, In only theo- ratliittlly cnnnei^tad hara i lit aotual value aa reported U nearly half a grain U» than the -^ of the benda. Ai'Arr/Vi. — Till* Anglo-Amerlcnn negro colony at (,'a|ia Maturadn, aa well aa the Indopondent one of Mary hind at Ciiiia I'almnn, imto, It may be auppoied, ■tandanU frotn tiia Unltod Ntatea. J/orocco,- All the dniwndiini'liM of thU eniry Citpac- it)/ : I oallau ' 1(1 (|ulba 11)3 aiilm or anh. length t 1 plo (woolen) 1 1^ pic ry In England used only the generic term bnut, and fail- ed to deflne the speciflc gravity of the metal to bo em- ployed : the consequence of this omission Is to leave room for an erior of i bu*ii(H) '" everj- attempt to repro- duce or compare the results. This is the mintmHin pos- sible error : the maximum would bo a function of the diflcrenco In specl!?c gravity between the heaviest and lightest brass that can be cast. Liquid Copacity : 1 gallon = 2 holf gallons =4 quarts = 8 pints = 10 gills. The gill is not among existing standards of public authority, though It is used in commerce. Thcro are other denominations higher than the gallon, such as barrels, hogsheads, pipes, etc. ; but these are only vemeh, not meaauns, and are always gauged and sold by their actual capacity In gallons. The gallon, In fact, is almost exactly equivalent to a cylliider 7 inches in diameter and 6 inches high. In theory, it must contain Just 231 cubic inches ; and, filled with distilled water at the temperature of maxi- mum density (say 89°-8 Fahr.), weighs, according to the official rejrart, at that temperature and at 80 inches of the barometer, 8-339 commercial or avoirdupois pounds ; or more nearly &8372'1764 grains. It is in the temperature only that this unit difi°ers from tha former wine gallon of Great Dritaln. The apothecaries use the same gallon, but divide it dilTercntly, as fol- lows : 1 gallon - 8 pints — 128 fluid ounces = 1024 fluid drachms = 61440 minims (or drops) =281 cubic inches. These are graduated measures ; they also use somc- timea the following approximate ones fW>m vessels in domestic use : 1 tea-cup = 2 wine glassea = 8 table- spoonk~82 teft-spoon8=4 fluid ounces. J'-n-MaS inch. i>y tho foot and .ubdivn'"'"-'"' ""•l "rt^lcl I '" ^'"■'«| 1 iw) (ur a iMMtilful) U» iirittiK af inllUt i sikI I Imtl VM grdna of itillUt. 'I It* illvlaliiii uf tlm tliiMMi liilo 10 mu Mil 4'(W7ft l4iat wiiulil iMNi l» Inclli'Mfi two illlTantnt iy>Uiil>t liul M llw riiiii|>ilii iiilllot uiiil iiur own an iiul uf llio MNia (Im, wo bora no •Untrl- •uii ur ■InUriiiliiittliiii, I^HI/lhi Th«ru »r«lwii lliiMNMir vulilUi una fur ||*n> tral lua, III* iAli«r, wlilrli U j^ liinu'r tliaii llio rnrnitr, •Ki'lu^lvtly for villi li», (tlk*, «iii| nllixr wuvnn fuliriin, 1. Mcri'ori',— I nun ID Hint IM) truiini IMill lhiio«i| Itliuiiuioroll) IUUu~1iN)|iImii l(NM)ly. ». llulM- •ra'.Klr. -I iimil tUasti WMikh IMMbuuv) 1 tliuiio (iir cubit) UMitii |lM|ilMn IIKNi ly. Ai/raruiHi TbU U*i iwrl*ii I* atiio umd liy land- uiaaaurara In HMug tba M|iiara nimtant of IhihI, 'rb«}- iiiinatlniaa uia •niithar aarlaa Oallail mmi/ liu; In ciin- lrai||>lliii!llon tii llm riintif/ H//ii,Jual Klvan), In wblub Iba tail la ai|iMl lu III) tbimi', Tba mail In, tlinrvrnra, lU |iar i!v<, wbli'b b.ivs l>ern uibi|itauu) uf wblcb tliay aro nulla, Tba tlianry la aiiii|inaail to U na fullowa i 1 |ilnK ft y u Hi bilk i» ablk Ml Uil i I tnii ^ 10 ablnic - 100 kii|i ^110 yank iOIKIcbauk IINNIOrbflU'llNMMH) taut lOOOOOU bwal IKNHNNHI auk, or ift»\nt of mnlzo. Of ulltbaaa, Ibara ara only fuurartual mcHaurea; viz,, tba tau, tba abliitf, (Ini liitlf-ablnK, ami tba kop. Tbeae ar« ulao u|iun tarn illlfarnnt iiiiHlulaa, illatlnxulabed liy Iba ailjuut'ta /h/i/ tii«aaiir«a ; and tbeir •varaifa uuntanta ara ao railunail Mi'unlbifily In the Die- tiuniiry, Unf/thi 1 VM'lOrhaiinK 100 cblk — 1000 tann - loiiuo fan, Tba ulilk, lUxil by Iba Miitbamatlcal Ikian) ttt I'akin ^lI'l'iA limhaa ' mwd by IrndaaniPn In Cnutiin — HtM to 14'N1 Invhi umiiluynd by angineers of public worka 12'7 ini'ltaai and tbat by which di tauiiiia ara iwiutlly niaaaiirad U\ Imthaa. lliiumrn! I to Vt fan li(f» taun V60 II or miles; 1 II - Wia KntflUb fa«t, Tbla la tba rnunt alnce the llitarvaiitbin of KuniiHMli nwlliamnlb^lana at I'ekln, Tba furinar uaail lu Iw I to I Ol^ II -= TtliWO po ^ HWiftOO chiki 1 II- \H\n\ Kn^llah faat. Homa ambiguity ■riaaa from tba uaa of tba Mmn wofil, II (probably tnm Kurupasn Igiiuruiii'a of tba langiMKa in not dlacrimin- uth i{ batwaan almlUr but not bbmllral tarma), aa a iortar rnanaur.. tba X, ,4 ih« fnn. The iia I* to give tba ralalln'\< u( the prim Ipal inaaauroa In com- miin uaa, wbara I'.ii'ni oun ibimlnalUm pravalla or Ku- rupaan coniinarra \t»t I'ntnlilUlMil Itaalf, Hriluh I'litttuiiiiu: halllM 4 ralk 04 kbuunkA !l'i0 cbattao, Lmiiih: 1 haul or covid '8 ((lieria T'^IJaob. Itmrnirg : fcuaa 4lMN)baut, A^-i^ nun,' 1 lilggah 'iO cottab lUO chaltack aa i.iuO «|Uare rovlij, Tba rbiitturk la, In fact, « • vf o ft cuvid In length liy 4 covId in width, ik •■ r Wtighl : I gan-i W candy or haniay ' iiO ii.an ■ I oi maim - »300 vlaay i I vlaay 40|iurur ' jOraiabnn. Iiiy ( '(i/xwiVv ; 1 g«rci)-H0 |iara lOO ir'.'. WOO pudily 2.'>liOO uUui'k. Im/uuI ./niri'ly, i.ae >' .ry, la dalvmibipd by wnl|r't| aii> 'annnitnatloiu ^re the aanie aa In Mia lall r. ' • ■ 1 cuaaaney — .'4 iiutony '210 ai|iinre cov'''. llnnith I'u—rnumtt Stramiiifi ami Trani/wbar — The WelghtH ami i laaurna here are legally ti 'isn uf llanmark, and liy ciiatom thoae uf CaUutla and Mud- raa reapecth' tv . t'rmrh /'o». mi'o»< ; l^omlkhirg. — Tba colonial do- numlnutlunH and dlvlainna iira Identical with tliuan uf Mailraa, although the valuea am dlfTcnint, PoHuiputn I'tmnninHt; fi'i ri. — Here Purtugiieaa welgbta and mcaaurva arc cm, liiyed, Jninn.— Wright ! 1 plcul Uio catty 1000 tttel = HiOOO niaa-' liuioOO cundorliie. The connection uf the utbor tiieiiauroa la not known. Ottoman Aiia; Alejipn, Smgrna, rtr. — The weigbta and meaaurea here are an variant, or aro rather an nilx- cd up with the uiiita and valiica of foreign coniuicrco, ai nut tn ndiiilt uf aatlafartory cluaaillcutiuii. J 'rriia.— Wright! 1 batman -0 ratel 300 dirbem ■- ISIIO liiaacaia, Tbla la the liatmnn of 'I auria ; that of Nliirax, which la twice the value, apjieara pMperly to lie part uf the aumo ayatem. The other measures are unayateniatic. ,Siam.— Wright: 1 plcul = 100 catty = 2000 t»el — WKH) tlcal. J)rg Ciij>aritg ; 1 cohl =40 ceatl -- lOOO sat. length: 1 vouab^aken^sok. Itintrarg: 1 roOneng = 2000 voiiah. IV, Kviiiii-K. — Auftrinn Kmpire: I'ifnnn. — Weight: 1 pfuiid = 2 mark- 4 vierling or vlording- Hi unM = 32 loth = 12M quent=612 pfennig. Apothecaries': 1 pfund~l) mark -12 unze=U6 dracbma=2HH acrupcl = 6700 gran. The mark la Identical In Imtb scrioa, and is the unit of gold and silver weight, 1 centner ■> stebr =100 pfund. Liquid Capaeilg : I fuder — 82 i' I'r i;'4 v1 rtel=1812 (im|ierial) mass; 1 ni»s8 = 2 mu" i» I . iiie)=8p(lff. />~' fcpnciVy; lniuth=S0 ♦j1=240 Bi 1 achtel = 2 mOhl- J ' .Mnnassel = 10 lM;cber = 128 probmetzo, 1 klBlter=6 fuss =72 zoll=864 llnie = 10308 Itinerary : 1 meilo = 400O klafter = 24000 fuss. Agrarian: 1 Joch or jochart- 3 mctze = 676 square nithe => 1600 square klafter = 57600 square fuss, Prague. — Weight: 1 centner=6 stein =; 120 pfund. The lower sulidlvisiona are as in Vienna; but their values, as well as of the terms just given, corres^nd with a lighter pound than the imperial standard, I.uptid Capacity: lfass=:4elraer = 128 plnte=6128eldel. Dry Ciipneity: 1 strich-4 viortel=16 massel = 192 seidel. Agrarian: 1 Joch of Vienna =2 strich. Vtnetinn Lombardg : Milan.— Weight: Posogrosso: 1 libbra— 4 quarto = 28 oncla. Peso sottile: 1 libbrft = 12 0Dcia=:288 denaro=6912 grano. Gold and sil- ver are by the mareo, subdivided aa follows : 1 marco =8 oncU = 192 denaro = 4608 grano. Apothecary: 1 libbra peso sottlle-12 onela=9fl drttcbma=288 icru- polo = 6912 grano. In 1808 the French kilogram, with decimal aubdivkions, was Introduced; which Is the ni-tiii punkt. WBi WKl "•0.1 ••«» flalum i^H^j 1047 *»'» )a .,,1/ ,!?""''■• vuluoH of »/•«„, .i""^''™e"'"'le in tli« ,,,. J. _*"f I "»rori«n unit ,.h„ "•.-*,?' "f o«ii« ^ i ,„;,,,«. ,h rtk ^» I.'. WEI 1948 WET V ^hcr or Iflcher, Lenrflk: 1 olle=2 »chnh = 2i zoW. Ititurary: 1 riitho- H (tUa=10 schuh. The usual mails contains iH424 Khonish feet. Agrarian ■ 1 mor- gan =120 square rutho— 110720 square scliuh. Cracoiv, — iVeight; 1 funt = '2 mark =48 skoyciec. Apothecary weight is that of Nnmberg, Liquid Ca- pacity: 1 8tangiow=2 beczka=;72 garnlec=;28 kwart. Dry Capacity: 1 korzec=2 polkorzow=4 cwierc=32 garcy nr gariiiec, lAagth: 1 stopa=12 calow=:144 liniow == 1728 punkt. The other measures are those of Poland. Denmark. — Weight: lpun(l = 2 mttrk=lC unze=32 lod = 128quintin=612ort ; G2pund=weight of 1 cubic fod of rain-water at 16|° centigrade. Gold and silver is weighed by a pund nearly (i per cent, lighter than, but not aliquot with, the commercial pound, and is subdivided like this last, only more minutely, into 8192 as =65530 gran. The royal Mint, however, uses the mark of Cologne. Apothecaries' weight is that of Niiml)erg. 1 la8t = l(ii- 9kippund = 144;f waag— 325 lispund =433^ bismerpund — 5200 pund; 1 8kippund = 20 lispund=320 pund. Liquid Capacity: 1 aam=:4 anker=20 viertel=40 8tQbchen=77J kando = 156 pot =G20pagel. Dry Capacity : 1 toende=4fjcrding=8 ■kieppe=32 fjerdingkar=:i44 pot. Length: laln=2 fod = 24 tommo =288 linio. The fod represents J^ of the pendulum iHsating seconds, in a vacuum, nt tho level of the sea, under the mean parallel of 45° north latitude. Itinerary: 1 miil= 2400 ro08 mi>,sschen ; 1 last, for luirley and oat* =48 scheifel. The schcSel is ^ of the eimer in absolute capacity, or 8072 cubic zoUe. Length : 1 fuss (rheiufuss)=-12 zoU=144 linie=1728 scrupel. This unit lias been established at 139, 13 lignes de Paris. The oUe is 2&| zoUe. Itinerary: 1 rutho=10 land- fuss =12 rhelnfuss. The landfuss Is also subdivided decimally into 10 zoU = 100 linle = 1000 scrupel ; 1 post- meile = 2000 ruthe = 24000 rheinfuss. Agrarian: 1 morgeii -180 square ruthe=23920 square rljeinfuss. Solid: 1 khifter=6 F. long X 6 F. high X 3 F. deep =108 culiic rheinfuss; 1 haufen=4} klaftcr = 18 F. long X 9 F. high x 8 F. deep = 48« cubic rlieinfuss. The old values and denominations wliich are still re- tained, as well in the capital as in several principal cities, are given under those heads. Roman Statet. — Under this name is intended whot has, until recently, been known as the State of the Church. Late events have shown this lost title to be uncertain. Two principal cities comprehend all that is systematic la weights and measvres. Bologna. — Weight: 1 libbra=12 oncia=9ti ottava = 192 ferlino = 1920 carato=7fl80 grano. This weight serves also for gold and silver, though the new Italian metrical |xiund (the kilogranr.y is also employed, as well as the libbra of Komi. In Ferrara, use is still had of the marco of Milan. Apothecary : 1 libbra =12 oncia =9G drachma =288 scrupoIo=6912 grano. This libbra weighs 11^ commercial oncie. Liquid Capacity: lcorba=2mezza- carba=4 quarterono or quarterole = GO boccale=240 foglietta. Dry Capacity : 1 corba = 2 stajo or staro= 8 4Uarterone=32 quorticino or quurtucciono. These two corbe are of the same capacity. Agrarian: 1 tor- n:itura=140 square pertica = 14000 square \Ak. Home. -.— Weight: 1 libbra = 12 oncia = 288 denuro = 6912 grano. The same weight servos for gold and silver, and for medicine. Liquid Capacity : 1 botta = 16 barilo =512 boccale =2048 foglietta =8192 quartnccio. The barile for oil contains only { of the above, or 28 l>or- cale. But oil has a proper measure, viz. : 1 soma = 2 mostello or pelle=20 cugnatello=80 boccale. Dry Capacity: 1 rubbio=2 rubbiatella=4quarta=8quar- tarella=12 8taja=16 starello=22 scorzo =88 quartnc- cio. Length and Distance : 1 canna (ordinary) = 2 braccio=6 pi6=8 palmo=24 linea ; 1 canna (archi- tects', etc.) = 71- pio = 10 palnio =120 oncia = 600 minuto =1200 decimo; 1 canna di ara = l} braccio di aTa = 9 palnio di ara ; 1 catena = 10 stajolo — 57 J palmo (archi- tects'). Agrarian: 1 rubbio=4 quttrta = 7 pezza = lG acorzo = 32 quartuccio = 112 square catena = 11200 square 8tajulo= 370300 square palmo (arcliitectf>'). Ruuia in Europe: St. I'eteriburg. — Weight: 1 funt = 12 lana (2 loth=96 zoiotnic=921fi do'li. This is used forgoM and silver also, ami the Nnmlwr); weight by apothecaries. 1 packen=3 l>ut for live stock it is only 102 pfund; that called herg-geirirht at the mines, is 111 pfund ; and stahl-getricht, for iron and steel, is 118 pfund. Liquid Capacity: 1 fuder =2^ faBs--=4 tonne = 6 ahm = 12 eimer = 14 anker=7o6kanno=1512niis- sel = 6048 iiuarticr. The fuder of Dresden is similarly divided, but is smaller, containing only 672 kanne of Leipsic. Dry Capacity : lwispol=2maUer=24 schef- fel =06 viertel =384 metze=1636 masschen. Length : MO'weiaht- , ,., ''""''""ies iihtmL f ''''''''''f' (ht* Zi ^Z'*^'' '' ''"Wed into % *"■ '' ''""or irold --" .lura; i quintal nni.l ''"*'"*' * '■' '■■"»*'.'•»; J)W(W ,,'J '♦"''*''"* liHSiO anrf iL '"'' '^'" gardens, 3(10 . WEI 1952 WEI p«r cant. ihort«r th«n the rheinfusi. Oth«r measarea ue thoM of Zurich. Zurich. — Weigkl: 1 pfund=18 nii>eK86 loth =144 qusnten; 1 pfund (of Antorf, for gold and tUver, etc.)==2 mark=16 unze=82 loth=128 quent = 613 pfennig. This weight ia } of the commer- clil weight. The apothecary pound is that of Lucerne. Liquid Capacity! 1 eimer (lauter-niass)=4 viertel = 80 kopf=60 mass=l'20 qu&rtli=240 stotzen. The •imer (stadt-mass) for wine in retail is sul>divided in the same manner, but is 10 per cent, smaller. 1 eimer (trabes mass) =4 viertel=:82 kopf=64 mass =: 128 qu>rtli=2S6 stotzen. This eimer (which, as its name implies, is for wine unrefined, as the lauter-mass is for fined wine) is -^ larger than the latter. Drg Capac- ity: 1 maUer=:4 matt=16 viertel=64 vierllng=266 infisBli=676 immi. The malter for grain generall}-, ■nd all dry seeds and fruits (gtaite frucki), contains 12^ cubic feet ; that for oats and for green articles (legu- minous growth, rauhefrucht) contains 12-j^ cubic feet. Lmglk ! 1 fuss = 12 zoll = 144 linie = 13,1 lignei de Paris. The same fuss is divided decimally by sur- veyors. The architectur.M foot, since 1820, is xj^ longer, but divided like the ordinary' fuss. 1 rutbe= 2 clle = 10 fuss. Agrarian; The ordinary juchart = 400 square rutbe=4000 square fuss. There are also juchart in the same variety (except the very smallest), and similarly applicable as at Bern. SiJid: 1 klaf- ter.for fire-wood=C F.longXC F.highx4 F.deop = 144 cubic fuss. There are also klafter of 72 and 108 cubic fuss, the billets being 2 and 3 feet long respect- ively. The klafter for turf (torb-klafter) contains 12 kerb of 6 cubic fuss, each=72 rul)ic fuss. In 1828 a new system of weights and measures was proposed and adopted for the Cantons of Aarau, Basle, Bern, Frei- burg, Lucerne, Solothum, and Vaud, which rested upon the metrical system of France ; but, except in the Canton of Vaud, it has not l>cen generally carried out. Tuscany. — Weight ; 1 libbra — 12 oncia = 96 drachma = 288 denaro = 6912 grano. The same weight an- swers for gold and silver, and for apothecary use. Tlie legal centiuajo or cantaro (as in all the cases liitherto not specially mentioned) is lOO libbre ; but the can- taro for wool, meat, and salt fiah is yet 160 libbre. Liquid Capacity: 1 baTiIo=20 flaseo=40 boccale=80 mezzetta=160 quartuccio, weighing 133^ libbra; 1 barile for oil, or orcio=lG fiasco = 32 boccale = 61 mez- zetta ~ 128 quartuccio, weighing 120 libbre. The soma for oil is 2 barile. The barile of alcohol, brandy, •nd rum weighs 120 libbre. Dry Capacity: 1 moggio =8 sacco=24 8tajo=48 mina=9G quarto = 384 meta- della=768 mezzetta = 1536 quartuccio =3072 bussole. Length: 1 canna=4 braccio=8 palmo=80 soldo =960 denaro ; 1 canna (architects' and surveyors') or pertica =2i passetto = 6 braccio=10 palmo=60 crazia = 100 soldo = 300 qnattrino= 1200 denaro. Itinerary: 1 ca- vezzo = 2 passo = 6 braccio ; 1 miglio = 566} canna (architects') = 28331- hraccio = 6666| palmo. Agra- rian: 1 saccato = 10 stajolo=13} stioro = 165 pannro = 660 square pertica = 16500 square braccio. Wiirtemberg. — Weight : Divided as the Prussian, from which it differs but slightly in value. Gold and silver are weighed by the mark of Cologne, and medi- cine by the apothecary weight of Numberg. Liquid Capacity: 1 fuder=6 «imcr=96 immt-960 mo8s= 3840 sr'ioppen. The eimer is of a ciitTerent capacity, according as it is for clear or unreflncd wine, Tlie latter is nearly 4} per cent, larger than the former. Dry Capacity: 1 scheflbl = 8 siniri=32 vierling or viertel~64 achtel = 128 mu8sUin = 2fi6 ecklcin = 1024 viertelein. IxMglh : 1 fuss -- 10 zoll = 100 Unit) = 1000 punkt. This measure was established in 1806, when the fuss was fixed at 127 lignes de Paris. Tlie elle is not aliquot with the fuss, being 214|^ lignes de Paris. 1 ruthe=l) klafter=10 fuss. This is the modern division. In the older habits there was 1°, a rutha of 16 fuM ! 2°, one of 12 rbeinfuia ; and 3°, ona of 16 rheinfnss. These different lengths affected, of conne, the value of the acre. Agrarian: 1 morgen=4 vier- telmorgen = 884 square ruthe = 88400 square fuss. This is the legal measure, which corresponds in value with the old count of 150 square ruthe (of 16 fuss in length) to the niorgen. There is also the little mor- gen (old measure) of 160 square ruthe (No. 8) =33750 square rheinf uss ; and the great morgen (old measure) containing 400 square ruthe (No. 2) =57600 square rheinfuss. 1 juchart or jauchert = 1^ morgen. The variations in the computation of the mile, the gallon, the hhd., and the barrel, are so great in variouB countries, that we give a list by way of comparison. Milk. MlgUo, since 1803... Aniitr. Lombardjr. 0-6914 miles. d'ltalia Milan llt.38 " " Naples 1-15311 " " Home 0-9353 " " Turin 1-5T44 " " Tuscany l-0i)7« " Venice 1-139T " Denmark 4-«S " Holland 8-MM " " 8-4631 " " 0-6314 " Sweden 6-6336 " " 6-0316 " 1 " 1-1428 " 1-2fK)60 gallons. 0-08506 ik 0-03506 ii 1 ii 0-06970 it 1-22078 ti 94199 ti 3-6S109 li 1 li 1 i( 0-12556 bnsbola. 0-12360 0-12451 0-12660 0-13904 0-12500 Mill Myi, old mcasuro. . . ** marine " Ipgal, Xotlierl. Mil " of Norway " Mile, legal Great Britain " marine '* » Ireland 1-2T2I " Hcotland 1-1373 " " United Ktates ... . 1 " " of land England and U. S. 640 acres. Mliha I'ortugal l-27SSmlle8. " marine " 1-1507 " Mtlla Spain 0-8648 " " marine " 11530 " Mllle, old measiiro.. Franco and liclg.. 1-2111 " " marine " 11507 " " metrical " 0-6214 " Oauxjs. Imperial, since 1825. . . . Croat llrltaln For wine, Saxon England, 1000 » Itumford .... " 1266 " Wlncliestor . . " 1266 " Guildhall.... " after 1406 For ale and beer, 1803.. " 11111826. For wine Ireland For liquids Scotland For wine E. and W. Indies.. For liquids United States For com, Saxon England " Kumford ...... " " Winchester.. " " Guildhall.... " Imperial, since 1826 . . . Great Rrltain For com United Statce Darrki.. For lamp oil Clnclnnnll 4.1 gallons. For wine and biandy. . Urcat llrltain. . . . 81-5 " ' - - .i ... ,^.^^) I. " .... 36-0 " London 30-O " " 29-0 " " 36-0 " " 27-5 " " 34-5 " " 32-5 " Uraniiy, etc United States.... 81-5 " For corn Maryland 5 bushels. Forflah '' 220 pounds. Forfloiir " 106 " Forllmo " 320 " For salted provisions . . " 31-0 gallons. IIOOSHEAn. For wine, etc . . . England 63 gallons. Ofelaret " 59 Forale " 59-6'l744 " Forlwer " 65-0-2213 " Old measure Scotland 57-20746 " For liquids United States 63 For tobacco, net . Kentucky, mean. 1200 " " . Maryland, " . SOO " " . Missouri " . moo " " " . Ohio " . 750 " " " . VlrgtnU " . 1300 " For the greater part of the preceding article we are indebted to the able work of J. H. Alexander, Esq., entitled Universal Dictionary of Weights and Measures, Ancient and Modem, reductd to the standards of the U. S., to which we rafar for mora extended information. For beer, before 1803. For ale, etc . . . Barcelona wine Claret Lisbon Madeira Port .sherry pounds. Milioi I'nimlpw ("bltiiH . (iradus . I'cnilna . . . Sex tori us. . , Modlu, WEI AncitfU Wtiqht, and \r. ^^^^ WEL Atllo obolug . Attio drachma I«»»crmlna Orentcrmlna JMcdlcnl mlna. • -^ S fl '■•'.'•'-""I "'•'■* Br. ArbiHhnot. I.. "Arh.'^f"'^"""". Medlmus. , "uw*. I Cab.,,.' (Joiner ,'.'."■_' _' i . ! ,' ," Old Orock drachm Old fJreck mlna ( --:""'"nniiu I'tolenialo miim oVcieo;;;™ '"'2« dn A«a„dHa„,„,„ao/Lr™ii-; ?io1 t" Roman denarius.. i 519_. ''°- O^aariusofNero,.. 1 «2 M t "'• f""- ^'w-i.:::::::::- ^, fe""^'"- J ;„..! V'ristlanl. !'»•"'«« of 10o« |43H i^.tt'n""'- dllii ' 7"»-WIl. 8cu.rrraK M...snB,3 o. tear,, '/;;, '■"""""'• Palm I"L'?«'. ^ Span ..!!'"..'. I .' ] I.esscr cubit . . Sacred cubit. . ..'.'.'.' Fathom Eieklel'a reed .' .' i Arabian pole . SchoBnus Stadium, Sabbath day'Vjoiii^eK '.'.'.'.'.'..' f Phah . . . La tech . . . J-'orom ) iier/ Chodier «°»-'M.:,„a».,„,;;,"";j;';;-- '""^ I'«n.Ina.. ^-^'^""'""^t ant rTuttor,.) U-19*) * ■ s-au ■ I01B3 ""nUili l'„\, \«, '■"'"> "Incli. Butl,,!. 1-09«| 6-4sor •Jiurler, 1-8702 I'omina. f,'-'»tarlu8, '-oiglua , , . t'rna Amphora,',' t.'ule»s , Cotylu,. Acitca , , *-'lOU8,.] Mctcotca ''""''""^""■'OB !:;,,;„: Caph , Log. , , , lab, . . , "In.... ■Senh . . ' Hath, , , Coron, . . . •'—M^a;, ;„„---■ Kngll.h Pi„h' - ■ O.M7(i9"' ■• l-ll'ftlS •• T-1713 '"'•" »y« Journey 41.M | „„„„• iCon 1 '-'r- r'^^i"""^- BO ■ liochmcf "'^^^ nichaa,.,. Orthodoron Spithamc, ,, Tons Wheat . , . 5;orn, shelled ;, M f "Don the cob,, n !'ats .' ^ llMckivheat ,';,"" 53 '""h potatoes, ' ' m JJ pounds, Pons J'j-gmo . . I'.vgon I'echya.. . Sladlos) Dulos ( ■ - Millon . . I'nimlpos f "bitua . , '•radua . . , -•• 802187 • • T.66403 ■• 831015 •• 9-06583 •• 12-0875 Engllih Peel. ■• l-(}0729 ■• M£^)3 • 1-26911 • 1-51993 BaglMi Pua. 1 ■00729 100-72910 . 805.S333 Onions.... ,, 'teana "' Pounda. Hran.,, ™ " <;'loverseed,';"" ?? '' /.'■"othyseed,'."5 Hoj-seed,, 'S '"'"p-ecd: ,':.-^ I '""grass see, ,4 JJfted peaches.,. 3I V r L ' """U peaches . 3J .. "''o- B.ilt,, 1855 nankm' \ln ■ "• ^'•bxa.vdeb Weld, or Dyer's Weed rr!, ,.; ^' ^"'^"s, 8vo , r "'perfect bienn a'l, withTman r"':/"'' ^"''"H S fml from 80 many cause "nrdul -^ ""'^ " "»"« to Knsliih Peel. 1-211875 1-4505 2-4175 Pjlpen. 0-007 120.875 1M7 Passua,., "" Stadium .. - Mlliaro . Ji<''0(0 8e»t«riui::;:;;;;;;;;_-- ^"o'-wi"* Modluj.. , 1CU9 sopllihPetk en i^i« :.,,■- ""™a to niaturitv and ,.■'■'"" """"ners be- fml from so many cause "and u1 -a ""'^ " "»"« to .tl'at its cuItivntionThv n„ "'"^^^ '° ".xhaustin^ " preferred to aIUt"er ub taTc^r- ""'■''■''''''■ '^"^ green lemon yellow. It is ™ ^'""S '^o lively I " ■' fo«nd, when employed t?„:r' fr"^'^« ' ""^ grade and interfere wiH,ma.ld",.nf •''""«' '» do- jellows. and to stain the part wal?fTl ""•" »""'' ."enee quercitron bark is now Ini ?• '"'P' "''i"- 'ng, to the almost total e "clusrn'^ 7"",'? '""^"-P^i-"- I ''owever, employed in dye ^ ,1,f *'"; " " -"i". ana in paper-sta^.^^f^^^- ^^^^^^^^^^^ WES 1954 WES West Indies (Antilla or AniSle*), an Archipalago of bland* which e.-ttend firom the Gulf of Florida to the Gulf of Paria, and form part of tha division Cen- tral America, lietween lat. 10° and 28° N,, and long. 69° and 86° W. ; bounded on the north and eaat by the Atlantic, and on the south by tlie Caribbean Sea, which leparatea tbein from the north coast of South America. The northwest group contains the largest islands, or Greater Antilles, as Cuba, San Domingo, Jamaica, and Porto Rico. The other group, or Lesser Antilles, stretching from north to south, consists of Guadaloupe, Martinique, Barbadoes, Trinidad, etc. The Bahamas form a third group. The Lesser Antilles, from Porto Rico to the Uulf of Puria, are by somo writers called the Windward Islands, and the smaller group along the coast of Veneiuelii, the leeward Islands ; but in British charts the M'indirard Iilanda comprise those between lat. 10° and 15° N., and the Luaard those between lat. 16° and 19° N. LuwAsn Islands. Virglii laleb Rcdonda. Angutlla MontBcrrat St Martin Antigua. St Ilartholomcw Hartmda. Saba (iuadaloupo. St EiuUtlus Tho .Saiolca. St Christopher Dcuada. Nevla Maric-Cialante. Dominica WiNDWAaU ISLANDO. Martinique C'ura(oa. Bt Lucia lluen Ayre. Barbadoeii Ixw lto<|uoa. Bt Vincent Orchilla. Itcqula lllanca. The (ircnadlnes Tortuga. Grenada .'^alada. Tobago Margarita. Trinidad Cubagiia. Oruba I ocho. The total area of the Archipelago is 93,100 square miles. Population, 3,684,0U0. The lesser Antilles are of volcanic origin. Climate of the whole tropical, but modified by the surrounding ocean and the elevated knd of many of the islands. Sugar, coffee, cotton, dye-woods, and spices, are the chief products and ex- ports. Of these Ulaiids, France possesses Guadaloupe, Martinique, Deseada, Marie-Galante, and part of St. Martin; to Spain belong Cuba and Porto Rico; to Denmark, Santa Cruz, St. Thomas, and St. John ; to Holland, St. Eustatius, Salui, Cura^oa, and part of St. Martin ; to Sweden, St. Dartliolomew j Hayti is gov- erned by rulers chosen from the citizens of each of its two governments ; Margarita and adjacent isles belong to the republic of Venezuela ; and Angiiilla, Antigua, Barbadoes, Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica, Montserrat, Nevis, St. Christopher, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Tobago, Tortola, Trinidad, Baiiamas, and Bermudas, belong to Great Britain. Columbus landed on St. Salvador, Bahama group, in October, 1492 ; and the Arcliipelago, under the erroneous impression, at the time of discov- er}', that it formed part of Asia, was called the We$t Indift. Particular descriptions are given under the heads of the various islands, and we shall therefore limit this article to the statistics of tlie trade between the United States and the several West Indies. AaEAs or Tua Wkbt Ikdies. klftnUi. San DomlnKo Arra In Ba. MUm. 20,000 a~„i I, (i:uba 4«,383 rrrlnlilad a.020 6,251) 8*U 778 3,082 4!I4 aai SS2 600 192 26 Total square miles »!,*)« •Jamaica. t,ceward IntandR Windward Islands Ilahamas Turks Inland and ( alms . "«-■ {'.irinrqr.;:::;:. Dutch Wi-at IndiM Danlih WcKt Indlci Swedish West IndlM. Srititk Wut Tndiu. — There are several small islands in the West India group, but they are, in a commercial point of view, too unimportant to require a separate or more special notice, l>eing all comprised under some of the consular districts for which full returns of trade, |)ort regulations, etc., are given in the preceding irages. American trade with the West Indies .'s placed on iin equal footing with that of the most favored nations. Indeed, in some of the islands, as in Canada, American vessels are allowed privileges that are not sanction- ed, if not expressly withheld, by the colonial rcgulu- tions of the mother countr}-. In both these divisions of the British North American possessions they are ad- mitted, to a certain extent, to the benefits of the conct- ing trade ; thus proving how impossible it is for tlio lauther countr}' to frame commercial regulations adapt- ed, in all respects, to the wants and necessities of lior colonies in distant quarters of the globe, the effect, if not the design, of which would be to embarrass and clog their intercourse with the neighboring markets. The act of the Imperial Parliament, 18 Victoria, chap, xxix., sees. 4, 5, 6, clothes the governor-general of the East India possessions with ample powers to ad- mit to the coasting trade, in that part of the glol)e, oil foreign vessels, whenever, in his opinion, the require- ments of commerce or the interests of her majesty's subjects in the East Indies may demand such a conces- sion. By virtue of this authority, the coasting trade of these vast possessions is now thrown open to every flag. A similar net in favor of the West India and North American possessions would seem to be more Imperatively demanded, even as a boon to British sub- jects in these parts, particularly in the West Indies, where but few of the staple articles of food are ])ro- duced, and such as are imported are necessarily bur- dened with the taxes and imposts incident to reBlii))- ment coastwise, and transportation into the interior, l)efore they reach the consumer. Such a measure would 1>e productive of the happiest results ; and, while it would impart additional stimulus to American en- terprise, it would, at the same time, cheapen all tho necessaries of life to the North American subjects of Great Britain, who, by reason of their geographical proximity and their different staples of trade, are tho natural cUHtomera of the United States. Official returns received at the Department of State represent American commercial intercourse with tho British West Indies generally ns being on the moat satisfactor}' footing. Indeed, nothing seems wanting to render that intercourse wholly unembarrassed, save a modification, if not a total repeal, of the protectivo tariff now in force in Great Britain, in favor of aonio of the staple productions nf these islands. Daniih West Indies. — Tho colonial possessions of Denmark are the Faroe Isionds, Iceland, Greenland, and the islands of Santa Cruz, St. Thomas, and .^t. John, in the AVest Indies. Tranquebar and Serum- pore, in the Fjist Indies, were sold to the Englisii Ku^t India Company in 1846. The extent and populatimi of these, in 1860, were as follows : S1,033 1 June8M8« 2.M2,30.I I isS flU,2Is i8«:: »5M iSl 3.!I3«,S34 Total... $37,7]-;^ ■"•""""■Jgj $3,943,6.0, 1,^3 3.812,13;) lis *.O50,O27 iSs f 79S,I51 ' lis? 4.«3,(K13j CoajIEBCB op TUB Vy 82,840 l»T,031 43,80(1 120,218 00,042 88,000 *1'',311 23,307 25,071 21,828 30,720 82,474 20,141 4'>,347 203,0.17 173,044 *522;35r *t51,945 7:i,!l50 100,081 1^3,277 232,9ii2 61,0+4 62,803 TpUl. »2«Mir «8,I4I ],M7,»«7 1.771,003 1.947,04« 2,110,802 6!K),576 28,866 «.521 1,901 !|Mui7iir «1.*«1,263 l,08i.,270 l,S14,0li6 1.696,63» 1.838,327 I.8«,43fl «,ll8,0fl4 2,200,852 2,563,475 *^l'.«74;t5r $3,231,994 8.237713 2,357,980 *,I30,040 *,124,22() <.947,5,',7 8,993,3.12 ♦,834,883 «, 133,931 3,791,440 $^^3TJ3i3a- $■4,103,609 8,892,08.) ♦,102,008 4,909,675 6,021,1.13 ♦,484,652 6,084,918 Imporu. $927"; 88fi, 1.844,1 _. 2,753,067 2,487,122 2.204,412 895,'2o7 123,'.J!I1 240,224 $11,934,716 $1,803,301 1,422,237 1,368,239 1,163,609 1,161„W 1.285,2,S7 1,451,31)... 1,"35.S.1S 941,0 9 _J.04'<,1(1', *12,70,),l 34 $S.V>,l'm 820,481 837,830 087,900 '82,530 833,678 947,932 1.158,.'«i3 997,80.', J. 120,! 68 »Mi24,93r WE8 r«o» Owo,m ,, ,g^^ ' '51''?'*'' 'k »^JciT 1, M6T. 91,003,371 1,030,517 1,044,204 1,120,417 1.613,070 2,28.5,248 2,653,0;i8 ilti 1.14)041 J||J 1,281243 }I|? 1,3.11,004 iffl 1,463,611 llil 2,202,465 18?? 1,942,'mio ^'*'" 1,63.8,0''2 Total. I $18,269,023 ["""•'"•J^fl I $1,431,071. is?? 1,393,490 Eiporlj. $4«5,4STi' «28,256 631,092 698,302 668,177 676,001 638,190 603,0.34 282,401 _220,723 $5,336,569 PBOM OctouEB 1, Tout. $M»l777i 2,281,75;) 1.862,154 1.847,943 1.849,425 2,067,005 2,0«l,3.il 2,810,419 2,224,411 1,90S,745 Wlie«, 1,300,504 1 2,110,066 1,412,765 66 70. 2,067,900 '"■* 2,899,341 47V,sn 66,209 " 200 2,250,123 1834. 183S... 1836. . . . 18.">r. . . . 1833.... 1839.... 1849. . . . Total, 1,084,202 1,26,5,881 1,320,3.12 1,124,64.' 949,769 1,014,381 918,931 $11,768,432" . 'mos., 1843* Juno 30, 1844 1845. . .' 1846... 1347..., 184S. . . . 184).., 1850... 791,923 672,163 783.192 833,513 959,4.52 836,672 876,90) 727,197 807,14) ■f8,IlS,019" I Judo 30. ISM I I 'la™ $902,687 01.1,481 928,924 84.1,111 817,2;iO J,419,0IS ' Klae moathj to j $224.5;)2 282,341 267,200 354,303 201,316 210,092 233,850 227,417 303,154 JS0,.",18 *"2,4S5n9r $83.5'57 157,260 74,540 87,1.10 16!l,926 166.404 1.52,631 76,874 .54,149 114,818 $I.137;379" $12.5,602 120,6.17 41,100 1 34,020 I 46,3,'.3 60,511 97,677 $1,645,677 1,676,831 1,540,870 1,4,19,010 1,457,190 1,536,4<4 1,8.58,492 1,177,186 1.317,536 1.099,449 $I4;253;630" $852,495 941,088 746,098 870.322 994,42 1 1,125,916 98), 303 !'53,S4;1 781,.14.i 9Jl,X,8 $!',245,39S" $1,028.2^) I 931,1,16 i "64,641 962,9.50 883,404 90ii,Si)l I 1,516,6:'6 053,206 61 1,606,834 20 *iW4;is5'raj6;' *i''??''Si' $40, ™»ml,M20,™j„„,_jggj ,.•''"'•'•«« in ^wiandSpecia, Import. $30,1,56? 177,559 842,097 631,522 156.093 166,642 26,1,312 176,007 164,732 247,326 $2313^64 1,119,366 , „, 1.133,700 24 1.621,826 J2' 1,282,902 07 303 33,045 1.826,309 7'S3 12,114 ,6,56 1,104,087 is' 31,643 1,617,747 1,46,5,761 ,434 100,467 _969J77l 21, 165,227 $13,360,; ,429 $242,479 I 9T,!,S7 I 11.5,783 83,873 , 71,807 11,075 I 2r3.835 | 20,1.841 48,997 ,' 140,187 *'V"IK!?? $'0.9.11 '.605 rjT;^^! Anienctn. 4fl;299" 43,288 33,932 86.458 37,780 ♦3,684 ♦4,853 67,9,32 66,738 62,635 ♦1,730 39,762 33.642 38,767 36,!)70 I 82,966 31,667 88,168 3,1,563 1 27,700 i_yoniga, «38 I 220 66.') I 826 718 I 1,070 810 I 2,411 1,299 2,708 3,803 8,512 1,737 I 681 8,231 6,199 719 3,607 I 1,197 I 684,321 55; ♦85,28! 624,447 1 683 4,290 760,399 67 ''6-'.6I4 100' 846,743 4? 11,980 995 270 000 635,73S 33),I41 , 207,459 1 27; $6,272,092 I $0T5;9~7r, 34,0.16 I S,!'43 ', f23,\S)4 191,745 184,497 286,044 225,303 22,5,628 281,559 $243,.5S0 161.987 338,325 I 235,754 4S,'l00 I 469,048 unc 30, aad 'U. fl.„r,Wfrom thlTtl^-^^J $93,303 105.482 I 167,224 102,113 82,877 91,020 127,2,"fl I 181,831 12,379 68,li00 I $13,9,14 9,143 7,916 8,413 22,155 8,030 2,260 348,920 lIpsT 29,464 26,740 23,0.16 24,543 28,920 27,964 22,1,56 2,5,579 2,5,5:)7 19,376 253,379 18,233 1 20,498 14,032 22,846 I 24,247 21,875 21,334 I ♦27 700 I 853 I 863 1,457 1,375 4,316 4,065 6,420 2,690 '2i;676 WES 1956 WES Coimnuii or nii rniTiEi) HTATm with tui I)rTi.'ii Wmt Indim, r»n» noTniim I, UiO, to Jviy 1| 18ST. YMfi mdlnf Biroitt. ~1>oiiimU«. $.160,S0S MD.flTi) SfSl.'JftH 871.3*) «3-.',il4n 86»,SIT l|iU>,TM 1M.70* IhT.Oflfi 1II.9H4 IT.ftM M,4J« 44,103 41.ai« IS.iWI __ 4'i,li»S $867,708' $40,274 4A,(U4 64,0»8 02,136 84. Ill) «T,427 nn,s7« 4a,083 $274,004 $138,080 I7,7«rt ls,7S0 22,005 7,010 0.328 10,770 — v^sx — $«S3,I>43 l,O7s,770 812,H2S 7«I,7M 574,2H« 40l,r>5l 431,735 450,!i59 80S.541 801,7118 "$8;B01,27i $410, 404, 842, 840, 408, 473, 822, 251, 853, 802, $3,0 Ui, $332,8 18 207,231 215,7r.O n23,2sO 337,788 270,164 233,riOI 838,813 867,318 421,1118 $8,110,S20 $504,087 317,445 270,047 808,445 240,266 S20.!<82 886,206 Inpsrlf. $67^,470 552.601 400,186 634,078 4'I8,841 630,875 518,254 Whrncpf Kl|Hirl. If34,300 22,4.M 8,700 8,000 "17 '2,200 $08,187' $70 56,000 22,808 23,430 47,026 17.137 $107,130 $20,068 6,4',:S ' ' 042 17,906 6,332 6,225 8,009 34,018 41,204 lhi,r« w «« In mi,) HfvfU. int|)t>rt. $10^570 137,328 118,202 (4,408 74,087 87,141 107,810 89,018 148,1127 127,3110^ $1,020,508^^ $73,2il7 86,072 41,162 63,404 60,18 1 25,510 40,872 86,315 08,700 _ 82^342 $471,950" $62,003 40,084 53,804 04,260 27,50:1 80,16.1 18,847 IIO,.^ 89,040 43,037 $141,719 $168,6M 1,800 4,000 11,425 0,200 0,600 7,320 $484,110 $20,860 20,007 28.070 11,012 15,041 6,854 4,033 Tunn«(« •Uartd. rortiifn. ^S2'8~ 827 1244 1406 18,i98 25,641 10,788 10,071 14,800 12,733 13,374 11,506 12,217 11,048 166,400~ 11,430 0,511 11,478 11,200 8,215 8.624 0,208 2,048 4,020 8,700 07,386 0,060 t,254 3,704 4,081 6,085 6,047 4,870 7,8!i4 14,198 9,288 06,007 7,087 4,977 6,988 7,926 0,222 7,810 8,051 Oil 212 823 303 _ '''*'*_ 6033 1C4 80 80 181 '22.3 503 16S 441 J 158 8083~ 720 528 248 89 113 M:) 867 101 800 715 400 600 00 004 4S6 POMMBIICI or TBI I'NITKD 8TATU WITH TUK FUMOU '\Vl8T IMIIIE8, TBOH UOTOIIEIt 1, 1820, TO JCLY 1, 1867, YMra •odtof BlportA Sept. 30, 1821 1829. 1823. 1824. 1826. 1826. 1827. 1823. 1829. ISSO. ToUI. . . Sept. 80,1831 1882 1833 1884 1886 1836 1831 1838 1880 1840 ToUI. Hept. 30, 1841 1842 OmiM., 1843*... . JuuoSO, 1844 l'H5 1840 1847 1848 184 1 1860 Tottl. . JnoeSO, 1861. 1862. 1863. 1864. 1865., 1866. I86I., $9,019,520 $704,833 005,7113 013,710 501.170 540,4,')3 471.927 5i>6,o08 430,008 5S,'..flltf 4s:i,.'iitt ""$6,511, 480 $.381., WO 40.V.397 281,8'>8 .'iSI..V,8 642.4.')5 018,112 60.(,120 40.l,3.'>3 180,731 200,377_ $4,890,663 $2«0,5:o 42!'.84') S6.'.5I3 56I..V>5 S'0.837 472,119 720,779 $20,702 25,.50« 85,738 60,5!12 12,'*«4 8,025 1,364 $429,108 $0,448,094 $13,044 19,182 24.346 10,0S4 84,:)o:i .30.173 61,706 !18,K80 105.006 30,«.5li $376,353" $40,!idfl 23.009 13.108 8.5,078 21,«4'< 17,500 84.o:i'< 20,571 14.207 18,201_ '$239,bS6 $4,629,488 $310.2S1 4.V>,U4 801,251 012,027 409,701 476,144 781,143 $671,842 678,867 611,242 410,072 447,208 417.836 414,203 810,C60 702,708 836.261 $4,804,858" $108,216 100,100 i;!6,021 374,005 415.032 34.8,236 161,306 127,0.30 71,460 76,084 $2,096,818 $22,909 46,287 52,340 101,086 44,484 66,188 60,689 Whtraof Bullion lli«r« WNa In «n3,l!03 112,027 122,170 70,604 48,209 101,423 $1,100,016 ,8(18 201 ,000 105 ,!P* 4:11 513 OOil 750 030 $4,292,328 $18,604 42,702 23,1111 87,518 42,637 61,736 61,107 $09,< 11fl,'i 02,1 2.50,1 191,! 216,.| 114,( 100,( 80,1 6:i,( Tonnif* ele«red. Anigrlran. | KiirelKn. 48,306 45,229 30,112 86,'.82 48,580 4:1,047 50.031 64,043 65,019 47,129 450,047 .<)5,334 20,077 27,307 20,900 22,024 18,465 21,514 23,108 34,36:i 25,012 201,410 22,154 09,700 24,000 37,375 8.3,150 81,698 22,716 21,148 7,486 11,227 240,748" 10,888 10,!'65 13,202 13,570 17,287 17,416 80,588 2,326 5,(i37 4,143 4,530 4,137 4,317 4,325 28,876 2,264 4,448 0,710 6,314 2,083 2,of)7 2,270 1,871 1.22s 1,2.'>5 '30,102'" 4«7 I.ISO 103 2.263 1.204 1,701 2.,'.27 2,170 2,780 211 14,752 871 2,110 4.741 6,007 1,072 1,842 1,906 Nine moatlu to June 80, ud the fianl jrew from tbU Urns begbu Juljr 1. I'SiiiiruiJ, In;| iiaa,, WiO, ,'" ««pt. no, jnoi, ' i*in.,'," "*■'"•. . . , ""'■«. , . INflh, ,, "*M.,, 111(11,,, '"<".,,;,' Total , ISxl'tao, )»,<|, ';'"'»., |H4B», JUBoBO, |((44, Tuldl" |junoBO,IK»l •• I'ltVI'IMIII llHlU MgWr*.,, W. I'Urrn •ml Mbiimlnn, dtti. . I>li<4 M»yi>tui «ii>l Mitiliigaariir liiti'itrU. j(iirtj,lM NM.IItl M,'ye(l in IMfl, ioi ■hi|)«i III INI'J, All I In MM, IMf In IN&l, OOi; in IHAsI, 077 1 III IMA:!, ftil3. Tha moan uf tbs ilx yearn, 6)1A vntMla, HmUitK WoM Mifi.—'thn Manil nl Ht. liartholomew U tha only |H)i)>««ilnn of tha Mw«(te« In Amsrica. It haluiiK« to tlin linnwanl K"»i|'< ■"■'I '* "itiiate centrally In lat, 17'^ao' N,, ami lonK. y from two to tlira* inllaa wtiln, iiiiil contalnn an area of alHiut twonty- llva «i|U«r4 iiillai. IJapltal, OiiAtitvla. Tho UUnil'U of an lrr«;(iitaf aliaita, anil deeply inilenteil hy niiiner- oui •mall naiiily liayn, aaiiaratnil liy liiild and ntcop rotlky iiix'llvltlait, nf iiniiUMte hnl|(ht. In the inturiiir It U hilly, Imt It* loMe^t •lavutlun* are lenii than llMX) faat. In iiiii«t purtK It la barren and ■terilo, but Ims nuinaruiw w*ll-4tiiltlvatad valleyn. It prodiicea all tho •taplet of the Went Itiillen'i'iitton, augar, toliacco, in- (lltfn, atii,, and alto ll|(iiuin vltio and iron-wood, lu only «X|Hirt« ar« niltln and mnna nalt. Water U acarco, and the iiilinbltiint* depand for lupply on the rain.H. Tha only harltiir U l.a Ottontgis, a aafe and conimodU oua unn, and min'li rrei|iientpd. It la on the vrnnt dU'i uf tha laland. (,'loiin by U Ouatavia, tho .iriiiulpul town, a IhrlvinK plai'n, — Ki, !t:i:i, Thn lm|Hirt of whulcbuno Into the United Ntotan fur « nuinliar of yearn puat liaii been an follows : fMllrtl. IMT n,!tii,3,aoi) liBt 8,«.V10« Hri5 S,71)V,BnO \VA «,3S7,4ilO —Hm WliAI.K.KlnilKiiiKH. Whiilebone first became in une In Kuro|ia In the 17tli century.— *« p. 390. Whale -flahery.— ir/i'i^: (r'.iHimon), tiio nalmna Ini/fifHiit of Mnnii'iin, a iiiarino animal of the cetaceous •peclua, and the largoit of all thwio with which men are «ci|imlnliiil, The whale jns. It la afnrmod, been found una hiiiiilrnil and aixty feet in length; but this U niOKl probably nn oxaggerallon. In the Northern •oas it In at prii«i nl nnldotn found at)0ve sixty feet long : lieinK, tiuwaver, generally killed before it arrives at its full (f-owlli, lhi« li no proof that tho animal may not formally hava attained to a much larger size. Tbo llnh is from twelve toelgliturn iiiihea thick. In young whales this fatty mailer resemblus bog's lanl, but In old onus It is of a reddish color. I'liis is the valuable part of the whale, and the desire to possess It has prompted man to attempt the capture of ibis mighty animal. The blubber yields, by expression, nearly Its own weight of i thick, viscid oil (train oil). The com- mon whale Is now rarely found, except within the Arc- tic circle ; but at a former period it was not unfrci|uent- ly met with on our coasts. There Is a good account of tho common whale, and of the manner In wblch tho fishery Is carried on, in Mr. John I^vini/.i Voymje to Spilibtryen, one of the shortest, clieupcst, and best of the innumorablo books published on this hackneyed suljcct, 1. Thf .Iptitn Whale (tho Cachahit or P'yietrr mic- rocrplialiiii).—'lihe principal species are the black-head- ed with a dorsal tin, and tho rMiiiiil-licadcd without a lln on the Itack, and with llstubt in the snout. This whale is kn. wn at a distance I'y the peculiarity of his "spout'ngi" or "blows." lie can bo easily detected by whahiti 0. , if he happens to bo in company with other sporii..] of whales. He blows the water or vapor from his .i' : '.r'ls in a s'.iigle column, to tliu height, per- haps, of twilvo feet, inclining in a forward direction, in an Aiigin of forty-llvo degrees with the horizon, and visible for several miles. Tlicre is also a wonderful regularity as to time in which he "blows," perhaps once in ten minutes. He remains on tbo lurfaco of tho water from forty-live to sixty minutes, and under wa- ter about the same time. Uiilc»s tho wimie is fright- eiiod, whalemen make i|ulta correct calculation as to the chances of overtaking him, or meeting him, or when lie will rise to the surface after lie has " turned flukes." When tho sperm whale Is near ho can be easily dislln- guished by tho form uf bis bead, iinliko any other va- riety of whale Its head is enormous in bulk, being fully more than one-third of tbo whole length of its body, and It ends like an abrupt and steep promonto- ry, and so hard for several fcot from its front, tlmt it is (I'uito difficult, If not impossible, for an iron to enter it ; us inipcrvioiis, indeed, to a harpoon as a bale of cotton. Ilesides, the sperm whale has a hump on his back, which distingivshes him from others. This hump is farther forward than the hump on tho finback whale. K^perm whales have been captureil from seventy to nine- ty feet in length, and from thirty to forty-five feet in circumference round tho largest part of their bodies. It is supposed by whalemen, from their appearance, that they live, or some of them at least, to a great age. Uiio writer on this subject thought that the sperm wbalc would attain tho age of many hundred years, and even to a thousand years. This, however, is mere conjec- ture, because there are no dates or facts upon which to found a correct opinion. It is supposed, that as tho sperm whalo advances in age, his head not only retains its ordinary proportions, and to appearance becomes enlarged, but the truth is, tho other parts of bis body, especially his extremities, do actually dimininb in bulk and circumference. In somo instances more oil has been taken out of the iioail of a s|>crni whale than from the other part of his body. Tho principal food of tho sperm w hole is " squid," a molluscous animal. "This is an animal of so curious an order as to merit a word of special notice. The principal peculiarity of this molluscous tribe is the pos- session of powerful tcntacula or arms, ranged round tho mouth, and provided with suckers, which give thcni the power of adhering to rocks, or any other substan- ces, with surprising tenacity. Somo of tbis trilie at- tain to a groat size, and, as large as tbo whale is, will furnish it with no contemptible mouthful. In the gul- let of one sperm wlialo an arm or tentaculum of a sea- squid was found measuring nearly twcnty-sovon feet long." Wholemcn frequently discover large masses hodlaa uf whalas «r« covered, iiniuediately under the : or Juuka of squid floating about, probably torn in pieces •'/ wlmiei In Ui«lr ^^ l !• •alil that .m, r ""•""'' '">i o, „„! ■."""P*''- "nKUl.lio,! I.y wl,.|.. ",7 '"'""■ ""'l wlil.l, . "• «l>«nn I,, „,„ f„,|„;.|, '' '•l« 't «halo .ll/r„„ / ' ,° 1039 WHA I *. tioiiikttui ft'kaJ, 'II ■ ' i« ■l.oci,, call,,, ,, ' "" <'rot.|,|«,„| ^1^1 '''"'" •iifli a. tho " Soriiir •• . "■""■' "0 ""acho ,„^; ""' «li«".nc<., oven ^ ..^ "^ "'"' "'o water to al I' ^IV"" ™'-« ■ <-'e Pel -»-"<»> of ,h, mouth or head «« (i.„ *'"' <"■ lonioiid will. 1 1 I '"""'f " wcro (hat iI,a ,. i ' , "'^^-■"lo want of flsh of attaek„t::&„:x;^^''""■ '-''"»" a^^^^ Ho will, however Xn ?"■' '" '''» »'>»""ou, fl.,ke !,„?, """'' "" '""K" Mt the ] ■ i? 'Y' "' '«'"'"« wlialenien say, .„ , !?".'""'•'''' "'•''^'' «™und,'- „ J '^I'^f" "™'>y -leMroye, , ee ,Ji„ f i "^'''"' '''« ^^^^^ time for remaim-,,7on ,, 'J'"'"' '"'^•'' "o re Jiar ,,",,''*''"'' '"■'"g "''liKcd to ..i. 'u'".'" """««; thov " hren,.h .. 5.? "'" "'"f"^" of the «■«»„/„'! '" !""'<'' "f Newfo„„dI„n .'X ""''> Prey upon »f-^:ai:u;::,r:::;:;i^rtirthJ"°""' ^ WHA lOOO WHA tiiilitrk In tvtry toinm«rrUI pnrtnll lh*t gitv* my liu|i*a of iUCiMM, (igtrly miUrtil on thU new iirnoMi of lialilnil •nil iif iIiIWiim annlntl tli* mUclit or olhtri. Till) Uitumvy I iiiiiimnx liavlnif ■lt«mpl«l to vlntllrau ill |irtl«niluiii I'l' rnrc*, Mvur.il unrountari took |>liice lii'iHi'tiiithnlr ililiia mill tlniM uf tin Dnlcli. T'h* inn- vii'llijii itt Uii||lli Ihiimiiiii K«iiiiral that tiMr* w«i nmm •iioui|li for all imrtlM In lli* Norllicrn miu| anil Inor- il«r It) iivoM ill* rhitni'« of iimilnK ^ito eolllilun with till h iiilwr, llMy |iiirr«M H|iliiilivruin mil the ■iljiirtiit oi'imi Into illilrlrl*, wliltih warn maiwellvi'lv aaalKnail to Ilia I'JiKllali, Duli'li, IUinliurK>ir«, Kri'noli, iuiiea, ate. 'Iliu Diili'li, liKliig thiia laft to prixai ut« Ilia llalicry wllliout liavliiH lliulr atlantloii ilUarteil liy lioatlla at- tX'lia, a|wtii|||y «ci|iilrail • ilmlili'il iiii|rarlorlly ovor all tliair riiiiipiitllora. Wlian tlia Kurii|iflaiia llrat b«Ki»> ^ priiaariitatlia Hillary nil til* cimat of Nplt/.li«rt|HM. f "HlH,— I liava tlm liniior to aiilnnlt lu tha Depart- liwiit uf Hlatu II mport on wlinlnra anil tliu wlmllnK iiy»- taiii, na pur>uail nml ciirrlml on from aavoral (wrta In tha I'nttail Htalaa; mil I hupo, altlivUKli I alinll lin t:iiiii|i«llail to Ko aoiliawliat Into ilntuil, tlio todlouanom tliuri friiiii hIII Ii« ooinpanaatail for liy llie Information vunialiii'il, " I faal lonflilant that tlHiri la no hranoh of trailo or aniurprlaa antiirail Into In tli« Itnlloit itatci In which au htu» » I'upilal la lnv*tt«il that la ao llttlo iinilcratoml, «xri>pl liy tlia linniniliata |Mir>ona concornod. Kvcn In- ti.'lil.|K raotlon and are aoon loat to alffht. It hua liceii found, tharefurn, that a fait-aailing clipptr, aUliniigh alie can nut com|Hila with the wiiule wlien tliuroughly ahiriiiuil, yet wiiaii he la aeun from aloft aha can, lo»vd upon myself this (which I conceivo to lie not a tu»k but a sucrcd duty), will not shrink from doing Justice to the mariner, aft- er having liestowed that pruUo which was duo to tiio owner and muster. "In order lo make myself thoroughly undorstooil, it will be necessary to explain that, generally speal^- ing, when a veswl U bcini( fitted nut for a whaling voyage to tlin Tacilic Ocean from tho United States, u shipping-master is applied to, wlio, if ho has not on hand a aufliclcnt number of men, immediately sriids his riinnn- througli tho iiitt!rior of SIa8»acilU^ctt8, New llanipsliire, Vermont, New York, and oven us far ua Ohio, to pick up what are termed green hands. As theso shipping-masters inuku largo proflta upon cacli ond every man whom they procure, tiicy use every means in their power to excite tlio fancy and stimulatn the ambition of thoso whom chancu may throw in their way. They return to the port with ten or fifteen line able-bodied young men, who aro sliipped liy the iirop- cr authority, and aro then told they cau amuse them- selves at their boardlng-huuao until tlio day of sailing ; and that the shipping-master has orders to supply them witli clothing adapted to and iioceasary for the voyage they are about to undertake. " The time of sailing arrives. All hands are hud- dled nn board. Tlieir chests, into wliieii tiicy have li.ul no chance of looking, are put into tho forecastio wlicu rrir. -"»'"« count,,. ,[ " per cent, Iniiiranrn .... 11,". f." o.i .).y . 4000 "'"" to be recelrcd .t iho end of ror.ee ' 2?!' I „ "'-" and honestly put un- thnt l""^'^ •"""' Propcrlv r^""""" "' "'""cy naW lo m '^'' ••• • "gift to encournftc the younc m„,? '■''""'" "> «' ,."""«•- cc ..?:."'""^'' '""'"><'. Including in, fession for whM, i ^"""8 .man m coiitimm « „,„ I Value of ti,„ „„„..■.■;■ * "n 'lio day of .. ||„r° '7,' '"":'« to «..»,„,, each • °"|"ft at tlio rate of $26,000 " •flO,5J5,000 f'Bl.SOO l, I'lvnnced, t«'o.t upon these various" ,m.7T; """^ »" "'« in- »B.ft to encourage the yoS!^f''°'!'^"'™ ">«',.•""«•-''''•■••:. ' ■"'™'»''' '""""""« 'n- "« ftW monthly wages? A '.??," •"='"««•> the «),„i„ !.„,?", L';"om this dato ,„„n :■:. __ K^T^ R^^^^Si-ERi^n V lS5f). i«r)i 1S5-.'.. 1S53.. 1554. 2.S92 'J?^ 928,483 3,077 „?*•*' 1 2,«4'.» 1,041 „. ,200 3,910,600 1.269,U00 JU,837 3.44f.«nn 1S4,'01B .44f,S00 toward ,he wl.alcfisl,"; '''^'^'>'«'>"ford was tunLj iTom this date until ii!„ obs,r„c.i„„, .,.h lb extS^^^ "" >«— "t has occurred io impede tf^radl T "^ ^S'^-'l^, terest given to this ente ris/ „ f ?'"' "'ofeasing i„ iiie Whole number of V i fishery ia this country as S"^'"'' '" "'° ^'''"'o- I' «ni be s,;;;7P"T'''--^-^^^^^^^!iJ-i-i^?!^ I o^-r„ited's^;^:--p--;w.aL^.,|.j;^-rr;^'s£^^^ siderable shipment, of bone tTlT '"'?'='»• Co„. iK4,oiB sfnrAX^ ivT.."*'"''"''' ••.7rT(T(r l»«rtnioutli . . ■ ■ ■ ' ,' WMtport "• i Mattnpuisett...." , SIpplcan ... I '' llolnios's Iloli." I n«ntucket.... Kdgartown .".".'"" J'rpvliicetown. Orleans I Gloucester.." ' Ileverljr "' I Lynn .".■" I Uoslon .. f«ll River.""" I'rovidenee . . " Warren, Rl...'; ^ewUndon.... I J-"''' Spring . . Stonlngton . . ' t»reenport ' Mystic J Sag /larbijr',"" I New York...'.".' „ Total In mr, I Ueoolpi, in I86(). ' ' "18,^1..' " 18-.2. . " 1S83.. " 1864. . " 3866. . ■' 1866. 2" , -.:. " U2.! -»p "'-nor^vbicb vn 7e d'sHll'r 7'"'' '" ""o 'I'o iniport of tliis article the n, '^"''"'" <» «duco nn; .peculators' hands/on LtofT "' '"P"""'' j g" en as follows : '" of January, isig, is N'ew Bedford . f I'arlmouth . . Wcstport .'." Mnttapoieeit SIpplcan ... New London .' ' ' Aantiicket.. " I Sng Harbor .""' I KiiBartoi™ . . ." " Warren . " i j;°^n«ndi;nA:i„ceii„:„| Jlonington . . . ' ■New York.... I-'almonlU . . Newport .. FallHlvcr...'.'; I Hevorlv.... lloliiiea's Hole" I Salem ' Total.... , Th7fSi„;^i7„^:eL-''^^-l'^3?iLi:^^| I _J!^ rsi;::;;;r?i!r-pyj;jjj— — "•troh. 9T1 17.40T l,'i«0 T,VC3 2, TOO 2,610 1,000 3,242 2,266 6,600 eoo 17,801) 6,000 I Spgrnt otlT Ilitrreti. 29,05a 37.231 WHA 1964 WHA The increased shipments of oil during 1867, as com- pared with the totals fop 1856, were less the result of an actual foreign demand than a desire on the part of our Importers to sustain the market here I>y reducing the ttock. The effect, however, was direcliy the opposite of what had been anticipated, for, by overstocking the London market, prices declined there very rapidly, and our home markets were left without the competition resulting ftx>m a domestic and foreign demand, and prices of oil declined to a lower point than they have been since 18-19. The demand for bone, however, has been unusually active, owing to the fashionable pro- pensity of the ladies to "spread," and the price bf this article advanced to a higher point in 1867 than was ever before known. We annex a comparison of the average prices of sperm oil and whalebone for seventeen years : Y«.r.. SpgrmOil. | Wlinla ON. WLtliboni. 1S41 100 C. 94 78 63 901 8S 87J 1001 lOJ 9-10 120 7-10 1271 1281 124J 14S1 177 2-10 102 liSl 801 c. 811 38i 841 801 82J 881 SO 39 9-10 49 1-10 45 5-16 681 Ml r,,st 71 3-10 791 7^1 VJc. 191 23 S5i 40 33J 84 30} 31 8 10 84 4-10 841 60i 341 39 1-5 461 (S 971 1842 1S43 1844 1845 1840 1847 1848 1819 1350 1851 185i 1853 ^S.•A 1S86 1850..., 1857 lUFOKTATIOIfS CiT SpaiH OiL, WllAtl OIL, AMD WBALKDONI INTO TUH L'MITXD STATU IN 1867. Porti. »p«rni oil. Wb«i« oil. WhKleltond. New IJcdford Uirrell. 41,108 5,5IK) .144 4,705 403 809 2,012 61.440 3,610 8,4.'>6 1,1110 6S0 568 1,981 1,800 692 201 103 480 131 8:6 113 700 108 863 6S 94 , 840 20 Barrali. 12?.302 17,417 40 890 1,800 63 2,143 149.044 28,0S3 6,786 6,876 8.331 8,959 3,712 11,203 8,299 371 2,050 4.8S6 104 8,930 813 800 2,650 6 ' ' '40 20 I'oundH. l,i)5J 103,200 2,100 3,'w)0 20,'7do l,479,b60 t-9.000 20,300 20,100 18,400 88,700 5,800 306,80;) 6,000 8,100 17,8:10 14,600 10,000 14,500 2,100 17,'2'o'o NVoetpoi't Wftreham Hipplcan MattapolBett Dia. of New Uodford . New London Kdgartuwu Warren I*rovincetown Oreenport Cold Spring StouingtoQ Mystic Holmea'a Hole Fall lliver PMIadelphla Total for 1867.... 7.S.140 2311.1141 2,068,8,'iO The imports of oil anil whalelmne the product of for- eign fisheries into the United States for the year end- ing JuneSO, 1857, were as follows: Oil, $17,280; whale- bone, $252; spermaceti, $413; total, $17,945. COUMEBCE OF THE I'NITED .STATES WITH TUB WHAlK-riBIIEB'KS EOE THE YEABS 1836 AND 1857. Vtari taiHag Kxiioru. Imiturtc. Tminage eleared. | Uumeitlc. Fgralipi. Tulal. T.>1»L Aiuaricnn. Koralgli. .) line 80, 1856 $a2:l,04,'> 496,253 $22,290 21,010 $li4-.' 3.1,') 1 .*.'>.S Oft" 6;,74» 67,1183 070 1857 617.208 107.1.30 ExroBTB or Oil, Woalioohe, an» Spebmaceti (the Pboduot or the Fibdbbieb of the United States) fiom tdb United States fob tub Yeab endinq June 30, 1857. WhlUiir tiportid. Spamtftratl Oil. Whale an d other Fiah. Whalabono. Spermaceti. jporniacctiCaudlea.| Onllont. Value. Gallons. Value. Pound*. Valba. Pound!. Value. Pounda. Value. liiissia on the Ulaclc Sea ... . 64 7,"6l5 "ilo 084 i,'a88 721,887 51,744 26.'so') 2,3S0 101 ' "410 ilo'e'i 432 "I'eo 1,383 ' '3«1 t,m "iio iDuu I'i'ws ■ ' '6'2i! 1,175 '2,"9'92 l,078,0;i2 84,541 Hmv. 0,033 210 "'461 '2,'8'77 670 ' ' '240 1,787 ■ ■ '674 '8,'8(HI ■ ■ '270 "803 4l641 643 80.801 40,362 161,208 10,330 8,176 81 6,681 186 '6^012 10,310 "883 3,186 107',388 6,421 260 '5,967 2,886 128 503 848 80 171 «,431 "484 "277 '$702 '3!5i4 610 20.481 C6,8U 104,717 0,457 2,642 «7 . 4,490 208 '4,866 0,127 2,714 80.409 4,282 182 '5',0D» 2,446 121 893 662 66 197 7,129 "eoa "S68 ' ' 'l'«0 711,037 884,076 10,107 100 'i.'aoo 277,277 ■i,'617 ' ' '200 027.'2'in 4,148 'i,'l'60 750 19,508 '"600 ' ' 'o'ao 1,902 "■$'.10 4C4.66'i 193,002 6,683 *) 'i.'sofi 197,294 "'9'so ' ' '140 42f).'8'60 2,64S ' ' 1 .20 800 13,331 ■ ■ '219 ' ' '372 848 6,049 07,484 r,260 l',658 3. 306 '746 'eio $V,206 2'9',94.' "261 "654 ■l',S63 "279 "ioa "iso "ioi 191 180 706 1,072 1,260 29',SS9 ' '».% 860 6,8i6 ' 'boo "350 384 16,783 830 "450 «I7 6,680 12,754 '2',oi8 is'iii '8,760 1,681 "900 '$65 "si 77 92 236 416 500 8,070 '298 ISO liiisi) "136 'iii 200 6,;no 302 'iii'i 70 2,050 4,791 ■701 6',0&3 'oso 672 '456 SiTcdcn and Norway Danisli West Indies Itremon Holland Iluteli Woit Indies Dutch Qulana HelRium I'.nj^land Scotland Gilirnltar Other British N. Am. P«n. . Drltiah Weit Indiea Di-itlsh Honduras UritUhOulana British I'oasi-sBlons In Africa. Other portj 1 ii Africa Uritl.li Australia Kraneo on the Atlantic France on the Mediterranean French North American I'osa French Guiana Spain on the Atlantic Spain on the Mediterranean . Cuba I'orto Kico i'ortugal Madeira (j'ape de Verd Iilandi Ilaytl VeneaueU nraxil Argentine Depublic lUilIl F«aador Sitndwieh Islands China Whale-lUberies Total year 1866-'5T 819,061 $1,216,888 414,4M $8«S,6<6 2,042,890 $1,807,822 80.087 $84,11171104,676 $35,121 cd no I the. WHE 1966 T7HE AoooimT or mm Atsbaoi Pkioh or n«Tnmi Comn . d. 6 6 6 5 9 9 3 14 4 8 6 7 3 18 6 4 16 11 4 6 3 8 14 6 8 7 10 2 16 1 3 4 7 2 IS 4 8 S11 3 8 6 2 18 8 2 18 SOB 3 6 8 3 4 3 3 6 4 2 18 8 2 13 11 2 6 2 1 19 4 2 8 6 2 15 10 3 4 7 3 10 8 3 6 4 3 4 4 2 IT 8 2 10 1 211 3 2 10 10 2 14 8 8 9 9 2 10 6 3 4 8 3 8 1 18 6 3 9 X •. d 8 6 9 3 18 A 1 IT 4 1 10 8 1 13 11 3 9 4 3 18 10 3 5 1 13 10 1 6 1 1 10 1 11 6 1 16 4 2 1 14 4 1 IT T 1 13 10 1 12 6 1 12 T 1 18 1 13 1 1 T 6 1 9 1 9 11 1 12 10 1 10 4 1 11 6 1 19 B 1 16 6 1 12 10 1 T 1 D 6 1 13 8 1 11 8 1 13 8 2 4 2 1116 1 T 9 1 8 B 1 4 1 8 6 X .. d. 2 4 6 1 18 < 1 6 8 1 8 7 17 3 1 12 6 1 12 5 1 8 3 14 3 19 6 18 1 1 3 11 1 4 10 1 5 8 16 8 18 3 1 a 6 1 3 9 1 4 6 1 B 4 10 6 18 6 1 Oil 1 2 1 8 1 1 8 1 13 5 1 5 11 16 8 1 2 6 19 8 18 4 1 7 1 a 6 1 8 8 1 8 8 1 6 IT 6 16 6 18 T 19 1 X •. d. 8 18 T 8 11 11 2 4 8 1 18 1 8 6 1 3 18 8 3 16 4 3 9 3 3 1 13 1 10 1 It 10 3 1 6 3 3 8 3 1 1 3 3 1 14 3 1 14 10 1 16 10 2 1 14 T 1 12 11 1 12 1 10 4 1 18 4 1 14 9 1 16 1 2 2 1 IT 1 16 9 1 13 1 10 T i 13 11 1 12 6 1 16 2 9 1 "6 ' 8 1 8 8 1 6 6 1 9 10 1TT2 1813 1T78 1814 1TT4 1816 1TT6 1816 nT6 1817 , JTTT 1818 1TT8 1819 1TT9 1830 1T80 1821 1T81 18i2 1T83 1828 1T83 1824 1T84 1826 1TS5 1826 1T86 1827 1T8T 1828 1T83 1829 1T89 isoo 1T90 1831 1T91 1832 1T93 1883 1T93 1834 1T94 1836 ,1IJ5 1836 ITM 183T 1T9T 1838 1T98 1839 1199 1840 1800 1841 1801 1842 1802 1843 1808 1844 18M 1845 ISilO 1846 1806 184T 180T 1848 1808 184V 1809 1840 1810 1851 1811 1S52 NoTr. — Thu Imperial builicl contains 2218192 cubic inclicn, tho Winchester hnahol 21B0'43 cubic inchea, the former being about on« tblrtx-ioeond part larger than the latter.— 5« WiionTf and Mbabdbis. BRITISH GRAIN TRADE. Aoootmr bhowino thb QiriirTiTiEa or thb niFFBiiitNT Varii!tik9 or Foreioh awt) Cot.owiai. Obain KNrEKEn fob Cok- bVMmoN iH Tne ['nitei> Kinodom im kacii of tiik eiouteeh Years e?(1iiho with 1852, with tiie total (Quantities so entebbi>, and the annual Kntbies at an Avbuaue of TiiR ADovB I'EBioo ; with a rimilar Account fob Indian (.'OEM AND MeAI. FOB TIIE TEN AND BETBN YBABS BNDIHa WITU 1852 (COliriLXD rSOli TABIOUB rABLIAHBHTABt I'ArEBS.) Y»n. Whnd Barley. OaU and Rye anil Paaa and Beaaa and Total Indian Cora Flour. Oat'iiiflal. Ry«-tii«at. Paaoiaal. Bean-msal •nUred. nod HCAl. (iuMUn MuarUni. Qttart«n. guartan. goartora. Qoarlan. Qaartari. QoArtan. 1835 2S,B64 I36,^63 176,14-! 8 25,184 69,8.'4 430,560 * • a B 1836 80,10T 110.021 97,197 18 80,923 8T.T96 400,00T 183T 244,2T2 4T,47S 834,024 19.576 8T,015 109,0T6 842,038 • a •• 1838 1,818,4T5 8.102 1I,0T2 2,6lT 11,618 64.240 1,986,114 1839 2,T 11,723 3,401,436 594,301 619,801 222 83T Bil2,T8'J 152,182 1TO,2TO 159 46T 153,n9T 4.616,263 8.829,120 1840 BIT 06) 1,857 12n,6IT 1841 3,A4T,808 2T918 518 132,867 26T,63T 8,209,685 8,48T,296 1843 2,089,646 49.969 396 437 28 616 80 460 43,279 1843 930,623 988.515 223.643 l,020,T6fl 45,3.%4 258,236 2,724 2S,T79 4.\883 106.376 45,T0i !2r..680 1,858,129 2,0'.>8,36O 10,21?B 38,711 1844 1845 316 615 299,430 68T.434 28 81,735 19T,919 1,493,160 42,296 1846 8.962,028 404.644 779.443 1.710 181,801 209,RT4 4.641,399 767,009 184T 4,612,110 T8>,68i) 1,T88,06T 261,510 193.078 476,253 8,105,6(14 4,023.918 1S4S 2,193,T&'S 8SS,925 872,563 65.481 1M.771 448.704 4,624,18:) 1.63T,419 1849 n,6T.',5M 1,644,88^ 1,87.'>.58.5 259.986 283.092 482,012 9,M8.7i)5 2,'2W,!161 18.V) 4,84S.8.%4 l,023,itOT 1,163.97'.) 93,431 1T9,T88 441,612 7.740,821 1.2T6.S16S 1881 B,«7.%.67T 8'>6.3SI0 l,193.6ll.8T6 624.062 982.378 9,5T6 ia5.51T 872.r.75 6,2^9,784 1,471,097 Totaia Arerage annual con-) 44,814,968 9,428,090 11,354,876 98:1,284 2,lt>3,6J8 4,10i,»8j 72,811,315 13,321,942 sumption for the 18 - 2,489,720 6>8,8I6 080,793 61,849 121,530 228,216 4,040,739 1,832,194 years endInK 1852.) Areraj^ annual coo-) sumption for the 7 - 4,231,185 870,780 1,163,546 99,510 1T2,393 303,366 6,030,T!)8 1,800,101 years ending 1R52.) Wo give here ns an intercstlnjf statement, and ua showing the present liberal system of Groat Britain in regard to the importation of wheat from the United .States, the tariff impart duties on wlieat in the princi- pal countries that import from the United States. ro.tatr{aa. Import Pnttoa on Wlitat. Austria Vet centner (110 pounds), 16t cents, llelgium 18t cents per 230 pounds. nraEll 30 per cent ad valorem. Chill 25 per cent, ad valiTim when tmder )S per 2^ bnahela — otherwise free. China 6 per cent ad valorem. Peru 76 oeuts per (anega of 185 bushels. Ooanlrioa. Import Dotlea on Whaat France Tariff regulated by average monthly prices of M-heat in home market Uroat nritain,,.. 24 cents per (luarter (8 bushels*. Nirth American PosBeasionB free. Ilanae Towns. ... ) to 1 per cent ad valorem, Holland $3 20 for 1 last, or 85-20 buihels. Mcilcn Rencrally proiiiblted. New (tranada , , , I-'rce, Nonv'ay 1 toende (8-94 bushels), 68 cents. Bpain Generally prohibited. Culia $5 per quintal (101 pounds). 22 per cent In favor of Spanisn vessels. Sweden Per 4-15T bushels, 60 cents. United States, ... 16 per cent ad valorem. F-v^^f^^WJJ^ ■./■■■/iT.^^ Hy.. X 1 il 8 IH T 8 U 11 2 4 S 1 18 1 3 6 1 2 18 8 2 16 4 3 9 3 3 1 13 1 10 1 It 10 3 1 6 3 3 B 3 1 1 2 2 1 14 3 1 14 10 1 16 10 2 1 14 7 1 12 11 1 12 1 10 4 1 13 4 1 14 9 1 15 1 2 2 1 IT 1 16 9 1 13 1 10 1 i 13 11 1 12 8 1 16 2 9 1 6 8 1 8 8 1 6 6 1 10 10,2?5 38,711 42,295 757,609 4,0'23,918 1,637,419 2,2fi5,»6l 1,270,(16-! 1,808,748 1,47 1,097 13,321,942 1,882,194 1,890,101 WHE ,• WMAiAin>wira„,,,„ 1967 Sweden a;,dN---" nx& '':.T,"J^^n.lr',lI^~-'~J»i!n.r-'i.ml 5,940 "1,787 -8, 156 i2,5!)l i3,0r8 8,3a8 0,010 017 83,170 H,67a 4,129 45,340 2,765 '*'"■'!' J.. ■ I80.25J Uii :9^,„J e,,;; raaTaN 54(1 .834 ^,202 >,C31 ,103 r,i06 i2n,( on P"co of wheat i, freaue„°.:'!L*'.^1"?J'«"a3-ear. 7u. i ^^^' «!«• ^vhich restr«r„nf 2' "^ '""'"^ ""'a^n Tiieforei „''''•'''''' ■"'•"^""■ies. ' ""'' ^ P" «>J<=o in Han,I,urg. mf/, "''' '^'"' in great ab„„,7 ,'.■"" '':"K''''m was diWded 7 »"!' "'^'""^ '""'o which tenclingitsconveyan efrorp'^' •"""'■= >-''"'"^eVat « quarter, and prevent •,">'"'' '"""nnt to, Tis" •I"pme„,sofwheatfr„f?;:i'r'Z'''e'>. InlV Zl quarters of whieh 40^ ^i "fT""."'^'" '»«"■ ^oH •""" ^'•'"■» ''«reh "use 'i^" „""" 'f »»meti,ne« . 'V^ncA meat Trad -It?' ' ^"«'''''"''- ' h„. ►! ' " ""' "dmissiblo excen/? ^ P'"-"'^'''ar port, K"'<=n by the Marqui, 7. ?'^''"''" '™n' "'e account ^ '^°" ''^"'^^ to another n?f ?"''''' " '"'«'' d ntv lsequalto30franc/snl : , "'^'"n'«53cent^ wMniV , *"""* ^'•'"■» ^ra* _ti,» ing the importation of „ J''^™"<"'» wpenses attend' !'^„- '".""' "-^P""'" "f carriage' or'*' *■'""'^•'='■- Undon may bo tlk.n . ^''"'" »f French wheat i,? f. "!" '» ""^ sea-norts and ?h' '" ™nveyanco of ""• FrancCholt; .a?""""',""' ''''°»' ^ a i ' L^'.^.S- !',<'-"'er, to^heVrain.^^• '° """. ^""is"-. ban, Quesnay Exninf r' •'?'"""«' Earned by Vau I nS"'""^: «"'" "'« '» ^ V™"^'-^^ carriage frc Th '""™<" price. "'•".oaioninj statisticians fullv con P rT " P^n^Pally brought from Vn h ■ ''^f "' produce of the hir ™t L '. , TT''"'"' '" ""^ 'onthofCralolCr '','''• 'ated, from return. 0. n. '„:?"* »'« ""cep.ible of an n l„«'^^: 'f ..!"PP'"« firm tbi« remark 'rh„ ^°""' statisticians fullv con vTT " I'^n^'Pally brought from Vnih"" r""i'l'"" a WHE 1968 WHE tnnd during th« night, and they take advantage ofths period wlieu the peaaantry are not occupied with the harvest, )o that the charge on account of conveyance is comparatively trifling. Both soft a.id hard wheat are exported fVom Odessa; but the former, which is by far tlie most abundant, is only brought to England. Supposing liritish wlicat to sell at about UOj., Odessa wheat in good order would not be worth more than 52«. in Iho London marltet; but it is a curious fact, that in tliu Mediterranean the estimation in which tlioy are licld is quite the reverse ; at Malta, Marseilles, Iisgliorn, etc., Odessa wheat fetches a decidedly higher price than Dritlah wlieat. The hard wheat brought from vho Itlack Sea comes principally from Taganrog. It is a very flue species of grain; it is full 10 per cent, heavier than llritish wheat, and has less than half the bran. It is used in Italy for making macaroni, vcrmiccili, and things of tliat sort ; little of it has found its way to England. The voyage from Odessa to ISritain is of uncertain daration, but generally very long. It is essential to the importation of wheat in a good condition, that it should bo made during the winter months. When the voyage is made in summer, unless the wheat be very superior, and be shipped iu exceedingly gooil order, it is almost sure to heat, and has sometimes, indeed, been ii^ured to such a degree as to require to be dug from the hold with pick-axes. Unless, therefore, means lie devised for lessening the risk of damage during the voyage, there is little reason to think that Odessa iviicat will ever be very largely imported into liritain. Tlie entire expense of importing a quarter of wheat from Odessa to London may bo estimated at from IG3, to IHt. The exports of wheat from Odessa, and other „ ports on the Itlack Sea, to Constantinople, the Levant, Italy, the south of Franco, etc., have latterly been very largo indeed. In 18'lti the exports from Odessa only amounted to l,27U,u02 quarters, and iu 1847 to 2,016,G'J2 ditto : the latter being, wo believe, the largest exporta- tion that ever took place in a singlo year from any single port. Owing to the scarcity in England, above 40(),0U0 quarters of the above quantity were shipped for that country, but the speculation entailed a heavy loss on the importers. Tlie price free on board at Odessa considerably exceeded lO^. a quarter. — E. U. I'nited SliUet. — When wo see the growth of wheat keeping up with the progrc.is of population in tlio old- est States of the Union, we need have no apprehension of a decline in tlie cultivation of this important crip. Tlio amount of flour exported from New Jersey in 17S1 was 6124 barrels ; from I'hiladelphia, iu 1752, 125,'JtJO barrels, besides 80,&0O bushels of wheat; inl767,rj8,81() barrels, besides 807,500 bushels of wheat; in 1771, 252,744 barrels ; from Savannah, in 1771, i2lX) pounds ; from Virginia, for some years annually preceding the Kevolution, 800,090 bushels of wheat. Tlio total ex- ports of flour from the United Stales in 17'Jl were ClU,(i81 barrels, besides 1,018,339 buslivis of wheal ; in 1800, GJ3,0J2 barrels, besides 211,853 bushels of wheat ; in 1810, 798,431 barrels, besides 325,924 bushels of wheat: in 1820-'21, 1,056,119 barrels, besides 25,821 bushels of wheat; in 1830-'31, 1,800,529 barrels, be- sides 408,910 bushels of wheal; in 1810-'41, 1,516,817 barrels, besides 868,685 bushels of wheat; in 1845-'4(;, 2,289,476 barrels, besides 1,613,796 bushels of wheat; in 184»5-'I7, 4,382,496 barrels, besides 4,399,951 bush- els of wheat; in 1860-'51, 2,202,335 barrels, besides 1,020,725 buAhela of wheat. According to the census of 1840, the wheat crop of the United States rniountod to 84,823,'i72 bushels ; in 1849, according to i. ;> census of 1850, 100,503,899 busliels, although in souk of the largest wheat-growing States the crop of 1849 fell far below the average. The production of the year 1857 in the United SUtes is estimated at about 200,000,000 of bushels. In the State of Ohio, especially, there waa great de- ficiency, ai woi made apparent by the retunu of the wheat crop for the ensuing year, made in pursnanen of an act of the Legislature of tliat State. From the al- most universal returns of " short crop" by the mar- shals in that State in 1819, which fell below that of 1839, 2,000,000 bushels, and the ascertained crop of 1850, wo are fully satisfied that the average wlieat crop of Ohio would appear SO per cent, greater than shown by the census returns. The saino causes wbicii oper- ated to diminish the '.vhcat crop of Ohio, were not with- out their oflects upon that of other States bordering on the upper portion of the valley of the Mississippi. In the London exhibition very little wheat was ex- hibited equal tu that from tlio United States, especial- ly that from Genesee county, in the State of New York — a soft, white variety— to the exhibitor of which a prize medal was awarded by tlio Koyal Commissioners, and recently transmitted to Mr. Uill by the President of tho United States, tlio chairman of tho American Executive Committee. The red Mediterranean wheat exhibited from the United States attracted much nt- t^'nlion. Tho wheat from South Australia was proba- bly superiur tu any exhibited, while much from our own country fell but little behind, and was unquestion- ably next in quality. — Patent Office liiport. Statement siiowind rna anni ai. Avubaoii Kxronr I'mra OK I'LODB AT N«W VoBK VBUU I8UU TII.I. .ItiNa 80, 1%6; ALSO IIIB ANNUAL AVRllAOK i'BlOE OF I'LOUB IN TUB Cities or IIusto.n. Nkw Vobk, riiiLAi>Ei.rniA, Kalti- MOBK. New Obleanb, and 8t. I.ouib, tbou 18(10 till June 80, ISDB. Prir.. N«w Fhlln- IJalU. N. oi- SI. Viiin. 1800 Do«ton. Voik. dalpliii. ti)ur«. $1142 leaM. LouU. $10 (Kl *I100 $9 38 »'J76 .... .... ISOl 13 00 12 10 10 14 10 85 1142 18119 9 00 8 17 19 6 94 700 .... .... 1803 Too 765 01 6 76 60 .... .... 18(4 7 76 8 07 7 15 781 7 33 .... .... 1805 13 00 112.'> 9 69 10 15 12 (8 .... .... 1800 •7 50 8 •-■5 7 13 7 15 7B3 .... .... 18(lT 8 SB 7 73 70 7 10 7B0 .... .... 18118 00 25 6 15 5 59 5 75 .... .... 1800 7,M 7 03 7'J 43 50 .... .... 1810 8'.'B 42 8 77 9 87 9 40 .... .... 181! 10 .-iO 10 42 9 05 10 40 10 07 .... 181'i 10 75 10 no 908 9 96 10 13 .... .... 1818 13 IK) 14 «7 7 70 9 29 1017 $18 50 . . * ■ 1814 14 60 14 .57 7 70 7 07 8 50 900 181.% ;i 25 8 95 8 17 8 08 792 9 00 1816 7 87 9 40 9 84 9 7B 8 07 80 181T 14 75 12 27 1172 12 12 10 31 12 60 1818 10 25 10 fK) 9 42 OSS 9 69 10 83 .... 1810 8 00 7 70 70 7 19 050 9 02 .... isao 6 87 6 25 4 81 4 94 4CB 20 .... 1831 4S6 4 42 4H5 4 92 404 28 .... laii 7(H) 0!'4 o:;o 48 30 6 76 .... 1S23 7 75 TS4 93 90 0S9 08 18'24 02 007 5 03 6 02 BB4 6 26 .... 18V6 6 87 6 67 6 19 600 488 4 '.11 1820 6 25 6 24 6 00 4 00 4 78 4 49 18J7 800 BC4 6 14 6 27 6 16 5 12 . . . • 1828 650 14 5 50 629 548 6!lfl 1S29 6(10 6 81 atA 25 6.37 7 20 I8!I0 7 25 6 26 5 08 4 83 4 86 4(8 isai 6 0.' OOB 5S4 5 82 5 61 5 47 1S32 5 87 20 5 5.7 6 02 8 79 84 18;l8 660 611 6 70 5 8.'. 6 09 5 23 $193 18:14 6I>0 6 42 6 07 5 21 4 99 5 19 450 IS36 0(10 4-' 00 5 75 5 84 35 25 isaii 760 8 50 7 7^ 7 41 9 92 8 .'.5 8 110 1R3T 10 25 10 18 009 9 76 9 43 9 10 9 12 1838 9 50 8 1;6 8 02 7 81 784 8 07 7 07 1883 S75 7 20 7 40 89 0,% 57 7 19 1810 BHT 5 61 B17 6 22 6 0U 4 1'3 4 03 1841 6 20 6 77 6 39 5.34 5 31 6 Its 4 75 1842 00 6 07 5 07 B47 8 20 4 54 4 50 1843 4 60 4 87 6 07 400 4 36 4 18 3 75 1844 4 76 6 13 4 01 4 34 4 31 44t 450 1845 4 61 5 32 8 00 4 09 4 03 4.13 4!'3 184(1 BI8 5 53 6 19 4 79 4 53 4BS 4 60 1817 6 96 7 17 80 0(i2 21 684 4 '.'3 1848 22 43 671 6 07 6 82 4 70 5 25 1849 8X5 00 4 90 484 4 8S 4 01 5 43 1860 600 600 4 80 4 07 4 89 8 31 28 18BI 4 77 6 25 419 4 38 4 18 400 4 88 1S62 4 24 5 20 4 90 4 23 4 20 4 10 5 23 laMl BOO 27 6 61 8 47 8 39 848 B03 18.%4 TS8 9 '.'5 8 02 8 14 818 TOO 09 1865 1010 10 25 900 9 02 9 87 9 36 7 83 Note.— The price of flour for Now Orleans and St. Ixmls could aot be obtahwd for earlier yean than those reipectWely givea. WIIE 1969 WHE KTO. ino TiiH rEonroTiOK or Graix, Wimt, in UtrrEBKUT (JOONTEIM. $1 OT 4fiO I '25 1 on I 7 87 T.U ' 4CS 1 4t>a I 3 75 1 460 ' 4 '.'3 I 4 60 I 4 1-3 ' 5 ''5 1 6 43 ' B'26 1 4HS 5 '23 I 6 03 ' OCO ;83 I I ■•'3 i64l i«J 1S3 I I as ^6* i;o 1611 iSl 1 kOO\ iw\ >4S roo AualrUa Enipira . . Biltlih Empire. Fnnee , ,,,, "''" '«,0«4,6'J1 lira. ;;''""'•,••••,• 'i"' a,4(i«,94« tyo anil umlzu ,,rn 10,()«6,7s I "'«)' 40,lilil "'"',•,• ■, qm. 0,021,813 I.BHm«lii, 18«. . 00,Q45,OIH) i|™. ); ' ,>"" qra. IS.m.OOO ""'oy („. Ii,')ii5,ooo Outs »nd rye ,,r». 80,600,0()0 l>e»n« »nil pca« qn. 'i,0»,OuO Value of aBrlcullurnl ^P"^"" £ 215,m8,RU Splndlm No. '27,BS8,DO0 Fniulk. Buulan Empire. Vnited Stktei . BaTUla Belgium, 1840. BniU.... Deiunark . Kgypt,1834. Oreeoe, 1346 , Uaraliurg . , . . Holland . Mexico Fapal States . Portugal BiidlnU. Hpalu. Swuden 4 Norway. Turkey , I'lO 6i,7a8,48J qiii. PrtHlue*. 184!). U.BUl.Vr^ iirH. 23,U'27,7S1 13.0:19,444 6,":il,4!i7 10,8>1,391 2,021,340 53,095,900 819,530,000 £73,024,900 20,874,900 51,IB0,U00 308,227 28!),4;6 2118,946 800,24& Whcut qm. Moulin and ryo qti, Barley qr,. 0«t« qrs. M»1m qr«. I'olatOQi qm. Production of whm . .galls. Estimate, 1846 .... - Grain x I'otatogt Ji Kxported, 1549. Danttlc qrs. Stettin qr,, Kunlg»borg qm, .Memul qrs. Average cstlnmtud prodnce, 1818 6J,622,«0U qn Exported. Wheat qr«. il,865,222 Hye qrn. 106,738 Itarloy qr». 110,507 Oats qrs. 170,835 18i8 118,652,440 qrs. 15,7;i5,575 4,890,891 23,187,500 1,253,800 74,618,750 218,009,000 174,617,495 62,650,102 2,065,257 Two Sicilies, China . COLOHIXS. British rossetslons. Indies Canada 6,964,860 2.800,843 1,983,088 1,243,284 4,2&4,88« 3,680,486 qrs. 187,608 1,'281,680 1,(130,023 1,013,007 2,813,811 Oslsli, IHI. 180,083 157,l!)l 8,000,000 70,000 1,400,090 10,000 80,000 Wheat qrs, Ilarlcy and rye qrs. Oats qrs. Uuckwhcat qra. Indian corn qrs. Tobacco produced . . . Prod, of agriculture., l^od. of live stock . . . 1950-'61. Cotton crop bales. Average estimate. Grain qrs. 1,990,924 Potatoes qrs. 2,181,818 Wheat qrs. 1,068,045 Itvo qrs. ],920,427 Barley qrs. 083,049 Oats qrs. 2,319,473 Potatoes bushels. 61,899,107 Sugar produced tuns. 1 10,000 CoBfee exported bags. 1,673,256 Estimate production In Denmark and Holstcin ... 7,9:3,210 qrs. grain. Wheat qrs. Ilarlcy qrs. Hy« qra. Data and nialr.u qrs. Wine exported galU. Sweden, 1887. . Wheat qrs. Ityo qrs. Oats and peas qrs. Ilarlcy qrs. Potatoes irs. IblsOa Kiporl, IMT. Wheat qrs. 31W,658 Harley qrs. 805,8iW Indian corn. qrs. 62'.>,017 7,404, 188 qrs. grain. I Wheat and mulzo . . .qnk Dllve-oll tons. ■fllk qrs. t'otton tons. Linseed .qrs. Exported June 80, 1840-60. Tea 83,246,800 lbs. Great Urltnlu lbs. 68,006,800 Other countries lb». 2'J,288,600 Jnly 1, 1860, to May 20, 1951. Groat lirltaln lbs. 60,193,300 1860. Indigo niaunds. 110,000 1847, total value. . . . £2,676,588 Un. V.lufc Wheat 7,558,773 i;i,'222,785 llarley 616,727 68,019 Oats 7,066,780 440,983 Ityo 440,203 60,208 Maize l,137,N'i5 142,2m lluckwheat . . . 432,578 86,614 Peas 1,763,880 V!19,230 Potatoes 4,781,881 856,829 Cape of Good Hope Hides pieces. 811,991 8klns pieces. 261,664 Tallow lbs. 434,483 Wool lbs. 1,010,SUT 1848. KIshcriCB £ 08,9(9 Australia New South Wales . Ceylon \Vlieat qrs. Rye qrs. Uarley qr^ tWs qrs. Hcans and peas qrs. Wheat qrs. Beans qrs. Uarley and maize . . .qrs. ('otton, Egyptian..., cwt Cotton, foreign cwt. Linseed qrs. Currants tons. Exported to Groat Britain from Ilanseallc Towns. Sugar c»t. 3,622 1349, average of nine years, 2,987,876 qrs. Wheat irs. Rye qrs. Uuckwhcat qrs. Uarley qrs. Oats qn. Indian com (irs. Tobacco lbs. Oil lbs. Produce, 1849, 8,123,851 qrs. grain. Wheat qrs. 680.160 Barley qrs. 213,330 Rye qrs. 621,980 Maizo qrs. 1,660,814 Oats qrs. 41,601 Average produce, 6,358,125 qrs. Wheat....!... qrs. 2,609,375 Indian com qra. 1,616,625 Barley qr«. 446,876 Chestnuts qra. 848,760 Sice VI. *12,600 61 874,106 1,965,430 2,200,238 '2,884,725 493,711 630,000 600,000 450,000 0,000 200,000 87,600 18,920 445,736 962,719 330,091 483,930 821,400 8,293,750 1,940,000 113,025,000 Spanish Possces. Cuba Dutch Fosses9lons. Java Exported to Great Britain, 1850. Cotton lbs. 1860. :4ugar produced tons. Total value of agrlcul- tuml produce $ 1S60. Indigo cwt. Pepper cwt Cocliineal lbs. 807,303 250,000 0,821,921 831,480 661,605 186,636 Peoddciios or Wheat im the sevebai. States or thb UMON IX 1810 AND 1850. luo. Biuhtls. 83S,llf)'i States sad Territories. Alabama Arkansas 106,873 California .... Columbia, District of . . 12,147 Connecticut 87,000 Delaware 315,165 Florida 412 Georgia.- 1,801,8,10 Illinois 3,335,393 Indiana 4,040,376 Iowa 161,693 Kentucky 4,803,152 Louisiana CO Maine 848,160 Maryland 8,346,793 Massachusetts 157,023 Michigan 2,157,108 Mississippi 196,626 Missouri 1,007,386 New Hampshire 422,124 KewJcmoy 774,203 New York 12,286,418 North Carolina 1,960,886 Ohio 16,671,061 Pennsylvania 13,213,077 Rhode Island 3,093 South Carolina 908,3.'>4 Tennessee 4,569,692 Texas Vermont 40,\900 Virginia 10,100,716 Wisconsin 212,110 Minnesota Territory New HixUo Territory Oregon Territory Utah Territory ■■.• ToUl 83,613,270 1850. Bnshtle. 204,044 199,689 17,228 17,870 41,762 482,511 1,027 1,088,634 0,414,676 6,214,4.^8 1,630.681 2,142,82? 417 296,269 4,494,680 31,211 4,925,839 137,990 2,991,662 185,6E8 1,601,100 13,121,408 2,130,103 14,487,851 16,307,691 49 1,060,277 1,019,380 41,729 635,956 11,212,018 4,286,131 1,401 196,610 911,943 107,709 100,486,841 WHE 1070 WIIE EipoBTt or DOMMTio WiiiAt AMD Flodb rioH Tim I'MiTni Btatm roB Till YiAB xNDiNa Jmni BO, IffiT, Wbllliar (iliortod. Bmhtli. Valut. Ilarnli. Tins Aildic lliiHia KuHlan rniuMlont in North Aintiica Sweden end Norwejr gwcdlih Weit IndiM Denlnh Weit Indiei Hemburg Bramen Holland Dutch Wcat Indlee Dutch Oulen* Dutch Rait Indlei lielKluin England Scotland Ireland Olbralur MalU Canada Other llritleh North Amorlcan I'oMceelone. Ilritiih \\>it Indlee Uj itiali llonduree IlritlBh (•uiana Uritieli I'ueecealonii In Africa Other porta In Africa Urltliih Auitralla British KMt Indies Franco on the Atlantic Frincp oil the Moditerranean F.vnch North Auioriean roseeselone F rcncli Weet Indiee French tiulana Spain on the Atlantic Spain on the Mediterranean Canary Islands Cuba Porto UIco . . . . „ Portugal Madeira CajM do Verd IsUnds Aiercs Sardinia Two Sicilies Austria Turkey in Kurope Turkey tn Asia Haytl San Domingo Mexico Central IteiMibilo New Uranada Veneauela Brazil Uruguay, or Cispiatlne Kepublic Argentine Kepublic Chill Peru Ecuador Sandwich Islands Other Islands in the Pacific China Whal«*flsheries Uncertain places ToUl, 1J56-'5T 110 12,648 2,000 ST4K>9 8,6611.084 1,(119,629 138 ma 24,930 1,666,641 142,668 14,3'JB 9,100 1.400 36,932 631 1,14«.09I> 880,129 861,617 89S.07T 4,T70 7,90T 869,801 12,103 210 $128 10,4T0 a,12S 417,501 13,436 826 1,644,787 232,466 41,696 1,867,457 221,660 23,012 20,868 2.000 64,683 1,040 1,860.821 616,676 604,060 640,002 7,076 10,171 toe'.oM 17,476 440 1,631 t,60S 14,&70.!l»l »22.240.S67 ■ 60 ino 979 4.502 84,79f( 1,688 6,201 4,477 18,827 6,600 2,030 6,008 1,027,066 121,160 92,272 46,80] 478 118,867 430.281 245.641 16,641 50,017 19,03T 10,029 118,866 2.879 166,644 29,260 6.824 88,011 249 72,1181 156,660 2.386 46,146 22,203 68.671 2,209 697 801 1,738 12,8:>S 10 1,168 4.028 fill.OiV 656 24, 08 J 010 16,901 47,888 607,) 84 72,061 (SO.Oll 6,689 1,910 788 8,664 6.18 11,t.00 1.333 4,814 U,712,U6a »7»> 1,303 e,34.'i 80.430 2A3,ejO 10,l'67 89,228 30,2^8 104,!i02 60 876 14 6411 85,710 6,llOB,7(iO 887,149 164,0'29 810,167 0,7li2 717,246 8,B81,Kai 1,683,027 96.707 a:io,77» ira,'.'Mi 76,070 81'3,07a 22,704 1,001.505 198,1142 43,4ti9 284,106 1,862 400,188 •12(1,717 15,791 324,410 162,2'. 6 461,148 16,312 4,300 S,10S 12,006 84,407 90 8,50.') 29.279 872.01- 4.224 170.038 4.990 120,141 861,174 8,900,407 812,471 378.S10 53,620 15,mO 6.804 80.8S2 5.878 la-i.riSO 17,946 29.W)9 $26,8s2.3IO EzroBTa or roMioM Wheat and Fi.ni-B raoH tub Uhitkd STATKC rOB TIIB YeAB K.NIIINa ,lDME 30, 185T. wbiHiai nportad. Whmt. Whaal rkxir. | Huibal. Valut. Cwl. Valaa. Kii|;land 36,070 6,173 41.843 10,678 81.105 :(&0,302 li.'ll3 *07.4r6" .Vl7.0e4 8'».331 45.C85 640 3,365 "mo 60.i%:!>C 94,670,865 97,817,020 ll,l'.iH,(i:.s 8.S;7,(in ; 12.948.49(1 1 IS.tfflO.OsO 18.95S,9'.(1 28.148.59.') 7.821.5'(4 30,flOO.(:(Ki 1850. 18.M 1862 18(H! 1854 18M 1856 Yaara. Saeil. Crop. Ptlra In Naw Ymk. lf)40 8.482.727 11,470.022 12,000,000 11,680.803 12.500.000 13,000,0(10 13,500,000 13.5no.OOO 84.827.272 101,470,023 110,032,304 117,511,501 121,136,048 133,172,285 114.091.989 140,317.000 $6-44 6 021 6C8 4 37 4-!'4 9-25 9-50 1S50 1851 1852 IS.'iS 1864 1886 1856 r <■ Win AiioiniM n» 19T1 WHI t 1 t, w 11 117 TS srt ino M4 B(* ,(14« ,41.9 .,10« i,8«'i <,l«l ii.in ;4.ll0 !»,*. ft J1,U» 16,81'1 4.!»'>0 3,W5 I'i.liml 84,4(n 00 8,60''> 4.'W* I n»,03« 4.W0 146,141 861,1" 1 mHi,4«7 Bl«.«» 8:8.si« 1B,V40 B,SM B,«"8 lO-l.tiSft n,»-» S9.N>» ■g^^iaiS' bat Is nearly J con«u» t'H- pt Uie >■<•«" populatio" Till I Nit>ji *iiMm niuiNii YlAM, IIAlin KNIIINll UN TIIH * I'KllKPIl cir TIIIITYHIk '"^11 II. ,IUNI. v«i tl„,„ M»hut||r|un«. Mn.mt Tflii,n4n MH,(na l.iKIT.II'il l,0'i'i,4M NiJ.ViH l>T4,bUS t.«I.ll« Wl'i.OM 761,77(1 IIII.8I4 IHIh,4'<» l,VI7,ai1J Wt,in VI 1,0 14 M4,!IUI 7ini.tiio l,iMii.r>in (Kiri,4it 7ii(),tMri 1,045,0117 l,0,\'),'illi| «,llll,744 l'<.iitiA,r>w D,d4n,(iM4 n.iiifi.mu 4 «ri';,D 14 >.iiHi).4ir> ti,ii4.(;(ir< 5,014. II.M 7,n7T,M N.IUH.fl:!;) tt,7iw,vr>ii Il,l4i,4a7 v«iii.„rwiitM' ■nil tu MtnudelurM, »».4T(i,"l)ftf~ B.'iHT.'^HS Mfti,4n7 B,»77,iM 4,40a,«7» 4,41 1. HTO 4,«4(1.7(i4 4,4*4,774 A,l>7/,tt'ia fl.B'M.ooa I0.7III,V0I B,i'^9,a5S B,H9B,IA7 4,7U1I,0',I 4,M7,a91 8,')5<,707 8,8!6.I10 7,4IU,Wi 14,508.0811 8,ll«0.ri6S N,0lh,7til '<,ail»,414 7,048,491 A.IOI.004 18.717,88: 8J.78II,487 10,4S-2,asO 1^,401,748 8,074,488 ii,Hi)4.:ug i4,;4:i,2si Il',tp91.sl7 4o.aie,i)t>« ri,M8,iia7 46,581,411 48,U8'2,Kt i?,!:"r:±r'i;C*:^"r.V «"«mT.'^roi ! T"'""' <^^^< •»«> of Ule year, no .mail prcportlon or «iiBar ond molanHi, aildlng merely enough of malt to Induce the chemical conversion of the starch in tha unmaltcd groin into grape sugar. Uiirlng the gerniiuation of barley (as In iu convw- «ion Into malt) a peculiar substance \» gennratcd In tha grain called dintlnte, which acts chemicallv on the starch of ttio grain, converting it first into a kind of gum called dnlrine, and then Into n sitcet substance Identical In composition with grapo &%ar. It has been found that this diastase can convert iOOO parts of •Urch Into grape sugar; and it Is of this valuable property that the distiller avails himself when ho adds mat to his raw grain. To save the more expensive article malt, ho uses only so much as experiment has proved will suffice to change the slarcli of Iho raw Ti"".. ■?,'""" **""' "'''"^'' "'"' " '" •>'» mash-tun. 1 Mil distiller, therefore, to prepare the sncdiarlno fluid for his operations, has to go tlirough all the processes or brewing before ho gets It ready for the still.— See ortiifc BnKwiNd, Tht ilantifartitn of H'AW-j.-Clncinnatl has become the greatest whisky market in the world, and the Ohio Valley the most Important whisky-producing region with which we are acquainted. The distilleries in the vicinity of Cincinnati arc on a large scale, and they are said to exhibit many Improvements devised by Invent- ive genius. Steam is made to perform nearly all the labor. Few men are employed, and thcv do little else than look at Iho machines as they perfo'rm tho work. The quantity of com consumed In a single distillery in Cincinnati is about one thousand bushels per day, from which about 4000 gallons of whisky are produced. This gives for this single establishment a consumption of 312,000 bushels of corn per annum, and a production of 1,218,000 gallons of whisky. Wu have not tho data upon which to base an eal'lmato of the quantity of whisky produced in tho Ohio Valley, Tho quantity sold In the Cincinnati market annually is aliouf 220,000 barrels, or about 9,000,000 gallons. This is probably not more than one half tho production of Ohio and Indiana alone. Wo presume that Iho production Ig 18,000,000 gallons, and lind the consumption of corn averaging four and a half million buslicls. It is prob- able that the production of whi.sky In tho Ohio Valley is 50,000,000 gallons per annum, involving a consump- tion of ':?,500,000 bushels of corn, the average value of which IS $5,000,000. The demand for the article is great, and daily increasing. White Sea. The entrance to tho port of Arch- angel, situated nn the right bank of the Dwina, about thirty miles from its mouth, is interrupted by a bar, over which vessels drawing more than fourteen feet of water can not pass. Larger ships discharge and load outside the bar. The trade of Archangel extends as far as Silicria, and along the coasts of the White Sea, cast and west. Previous to the founding of St. Peters- burg this was tho only place of maritime commerce in the empire. Since that period its trade has consider- obly declir ed. The Uivcr Dwina is connected with tho Volga and Neva l)y canals; but, owing to tho rigor of tlie climate, the port of Archangel is open only *•■„.« T.,1.. .. o._. — 1... j(j jn,pQft8 consist of colo- Whlp, III "OH UiiKuagp, a ropo passed through a ilngln bliic'k or piilUy, Whirlpool, a vorltix, eddy, or gulf, where the water has »i'lr«uliinii(iili)n. Whirlpools are produced by tha iiiiwiliig of ciirruins which run in different dlrec- tloiii. Tlitilr ilaiig.'r in nnvlgntlon is well known, but li, porhapi, not ciiiml in the (|rir>, mIi, anit p«Url«i. Tha •>• porta itrii (la^, lliiinia, llnaiiiiil, tlinbar, tar, ctr. Wlgt. I lin wl|{.|r«(tii la iiliii iif tlin liKiat curloui I'Uiiilui'liiil vtllli iiiiiiiiil'iii'tiiriia III liiilr. Tim Kri'iirli aro fuiiioiia III llila i|i'|iiirliiiniit. Tlicro U a ri'giitur Imlr- linrvoil ill ■iiiiici iif llin I'lililral illatrlcti of Franco ; I'uria llriiia aoMil Macula liilii tlioaii illatrlcli III tlio ■|irlti|{ ut til* ymtr, wlm |iiiri'liuan llin licniltlfiil trcaaea wliicli tlio t'uuiilry iiiiilili'iia liHvn Imi^ii iMill'.vatlnK fur that |iur- |MMtii tlilt liulr-<:ri>|i la a« iiiiuli nii annual all'air aa • (iurn<('rii|t In tlii< lli'Ma, Tim |irk'u paid U about tliruv- puiiL'ii (Kiiullali) piir iMini'U) liiit tim nKcnta uauall/ pay for tliu liair wllli rililiuna, liaiidkon^lilara, and ulliur trillkiila, ul faira iiml timrknia. Nut tliu Inaat curious funturu la, lliiil \la at(iriita can dlatliiguiali tlio lialr of uiiu dialrli't from that of aiiuthur nut far dUtant— an olbiiiiKruplilial fr to faaliion thli lialr Into \tlua, iwrilkca, and nalpa •iiiiiii of nliicli coinniand a vury lliiil prlc. Of tlio " traniparont wiga," the " vuiitllatlliK \i\u»," lliu " hald - aainiir-pnrlliiK wli{a," ilia •■ fronts with each hnir llxod •upuralnly," iiml hIIkt wonilurs of wi)(-iiiakliii;i wo liavu liiii'ii nliundnntly liifurinod by our advortlaing puruiiuliira, Wind-mllU. They nro nf groat antiquity, and tho basin of Ilia Mliaiaslppl. Thprrfure It Momnd to Im citabllahcd with innm drgrt'ii of probability, or, if that pxproasion bo too ationi;, with soniethinK liko ap- parent plauailiilily, that tliu rnin winda of llm Miaata- alppl Valley do nut, us a geimrul rule, got their vapors from tho North Atlantic Ocean, niir from tha Uulf of Mexico, nnr from tho Krcat liikcn, nor from that part of tlm ruclllc Ocvau over which tho iiortheuat tradc- wlnda pruvall. Soulhtiut Triiilf-winih . — Aflor llm northcaat trades have blown out their season, uhhli in India ends in April, tho greut arid pliilns of Central Aniu, of Tartary, Tlilbet, am* Mongolia, becomo hcnleil up; they rarefy tho air of tlm northeast tradcx, ami cuuao it to osceiid. This rarefaction and ascent, by Ihelr demand for an In- draught, arc felt by the air uliich tho southeast triido- wlnds bring to tlio equatorial Doldrums of the Indian Ocean: it rushes over into Iho norlhrrn hemisphere to supply tlm upward draught from tliu healed plains as tlm roulbweat niomioons. Tho forces of diurnal rota- linn aasUt to give these winds their westing. Thus Iho southeast trades, in ccrtuin parts of the Indian Ocean, aro converted, during tho summer and early autumn, into southwest monsoons. Theito the'- .oiiie from tho Indlim Oeoun and Sea of Araliia loaded with moisture, ami, striking wltli It perpendicularly upon tho (ihauta, precipitate upon that narrow strip of land between this range and llm Arabian Sea an aincuntof water that is truly astoiii»hiiig. Hero, then, are not only tho conditions for causing mora ruin, now on the west, now on the east Me of lliis miinnlaln range, but the eoiiditions also for the most copioua precipitation. I Accordingly, when wo come to consult rain-gaugoa, aoinit writers aliilo Ihiiiii to bo of Human Invention; but and to ask ineteorologicul nbset^'cra in India about the certainly we urn Indubled for Iho wind-mill to the Hara- euns, Tlixy are anld to liavo been originally Intro- duced liilii Kuropo by tho knights of .St. John, who took tliM liint friiiii what timy hud seen In tho crusados. — ll.tUKli, Wiml-milla woro llrat known in Spain, rraiine, and (leriiiaiiy. In Ili'.M.i.—ANiiKiiso!*, Wind aaw-mllla weru Invenleil by a Dutehnian In 1U33, whon unit waa aruclnd near the Htraml, In Ix)iiilun. Windows. i>i'il iinlll It was dune by Ueiinct, a.ii. li!l:l, Wlndowa of glaaa weru used In private houses, but tlm gluaa wiia imported, 1777. — Andkiisun. In Kiiglaiid ai'Miil IMliHI houaea now havo llfty windows and up( •St. I.awreiieii jilver I'urrles olV tho excess. 2d. Tho moan I'liiiiatii of the Inku country Is colder than that of the Mlasiaalppl Valley, und lliorcfure, as a general rule, lli« tnnipnratiiro of tho MisalsiUppi Valley i« unfavor- .iIiIh for condensing vapor from ihut iiuarlcr. It can not eoma from tho Atlanlie, because the greater part of the MlaalaaippI Valley la to tho windward of the Atlantic, The winds that blow across this a(«an go to Kurupe with thnir vapors; and in tho raeiflc, fVom Iho parallels uf (,'allfornla down to tho equator, the di- rocllou uf tilt wlutl tX lb* lurfaco U from, not towurd, fall of ruin, they tell us that on tho western slopes of tho Uhauts it sonietlmea reaches tho enormous depth of twelve or lirtcen inches in one day. Were the Amies stretched along tho eastern instead uf the western coast of America, wo should have an amount of precipitation on their eastern slopes Ihot would lie truly astonishing; for tho water which the Ama/.on and the other mi^jcstic streams of South America return to the ocean would still bo precipitated l>etwecn the sea-slioro and tho crest of these mountains. These winds of India then continue their eoiirse to the Himalaya range as dry winds. In crossing this range, they are subjected to a lower temperature than that to which they were ex- posed in crossing tho (thuuls. Here they drup more of their moisture in the shape of snow and rain, and then pass over into the thirsty lands beyond with scarcely enough vapor in them to make even a cloud. Thenco they ascend Into the upper air, there to become counter-currents in the general system of atmos|iherical circulation. Rain-u-indt are the winds which convey tho vapor from the sea, where it is taken up, to other parts of tho earth, where it Is lot down either as snow, hail, or rnin. As a general rule, the trade-winds moy bo regarded ns tho evaporating winds; and when, in the course of their circuit, they arc converted into monsoons, or the variables of cither hemisphere, they then generally be- como also tho rain-winds — e^pecially the monsoons— for certain localities. Thus tho southwest monsoons of the luilian Ocean are tho rain-winds for tho west coast of H indostan. In like manner, tho African mon- soons of the Atlantic are the winda which feed tho springs of the Niger and the Senegal with rains. Upon every water-shecl which is drained into tho sea, tho precipitation, for the wholo extent of the shed so drain- ed, may bo considered as greater than the evaporation, by tlio amount of water which runs olT through tho river into the sea. In this view, all rivers may bo re- garded as immense rain-gauges, and tho volume of water annually discharged by ony one as an expres- sion ■of the quantity which is annually evaporated from the sea, carried luick by the winda, and precipitated tbroDgbout the whole extent of the valley that k drain- WIN 1978 WIN f I'- ll- in of irt lie. ilo» t In »ty. rery oiul. n In- nulu- i(\lnn L're to in» a» loU- 'lUui ini\iun early ■ .OIKO III with y upon 'ot luiiil iriint of are not ( on ll>« line, but liitullon. i-nauROS, iilioul llio slopes of lus iloptl> llio Anilei itcrn coast .(•ipitatlon tonlsliliiRi ;r nittjcsllc ;an woulil ! anil tlio India then ige as ilry ]cctcil to a were cx- 1(1 rop moro |l rain, and yond with . ■n a cloud, to become losplierlcal J the vapor liarts ot tlio Vl.orrnln. fcgarilcd as 1 course of Ions, or the Inerally hi:- ^onaoons — i monsoons Ir the west trlcan nion- Bi feed tlio lina. Upon lio sea, tho Ted so drain- taporation, lirouBh tho Ininy ho re- Ivoluuio of Ian expros- Vratod from Iroelpitated lat la drain- ilrj for Mch loonlliy ni„| ,,.„„„ Bi.,irrnllv il.ro.i^hout iiieli a hash., wo ,ho.iM l», onal.l,.,! lo .Iciornilm. with ! ■ome dcKroe of prolMihlUiy „t i,,„„^ „, ,„ „,^ ' ^, the ocean from «hl.h -ncl, rain, »,,r„ evaporated. And thus, notwlth^tan.lloK nil th. nddk, rnused l,v moiinlaln chains nii.l other imuveii «urfn.T«, wo mlithl delect tho general course of (he atntosphi'rk-M .•IroiVln- tlon over tho laml as wnlj «, (|,„ ,e,^ „,„, ,„^,,„ „,^ Koneral course, of etrculiitlo,, |„ each valley «« ohvloi,. to tho mind of the phllosophi., ^, |, the current of the Mississippi, or of any oilier great river, to his senses These liivesllK«ilons as to the raln-wlnds at sea In. dieate that the vapors which supply the snurcet of tho Amazon with rain are taken up from the Vtlantic Ocean hy the nr>rlheast and snuthooil trade-wlnds • and many clrciimHtauces, ,omo of which have already'l.cen detailed, tend to show that the winds which feed the Mississippi with ruins Ret their vapor in tho southeast trado-wliid region of the other hemisphere. For In- •tanee, wo know from ohservatlon that tho trade-wlnd regions of the ocean, heyond the immediate vidnitv of tho land, are, for tlio niosi part, rainless regions, and that the trade-wlud zones may lie descrllied, in a liye- tographlc sense, as tho evaporatiui,' regions. They also show, or riitlier Indicate, ns ii general rule, that leaving tho polar limits of tho two tra Persia and the Levant ; but it is now found in mcJit tomperato regions. Tho limits within which it is cnltivatod in the northern hemi- sphere of the Old World vary from about 15° to 48° and fi2° ; but in North America it is not cultivated farther It Is rarelv gro^n at a greater nlMiiide than n00() f,.et. From Asia tho vine was In- li.ilmrd into (ireece, and thence Into Italy. The I'hoceans. who foundeii Marsiillos, carried the vino to tlie ..outh of France | but it is donbtful whether it was introduced into llurgundy till the ago of the Anloninsi. The ancient writers give ijm most coiKradlctory ac counts with rcspert lo the Inlrodudlon of ih.i vino into (iiinl.— iVif Ihe lenrneil anil rrnllnU work ; OhanI) I'' Ai'^SV. I'lV J'rim ,lei frarn'iii. The spcirs of Vith in lim iious to North America is very dlderent from tho liiM liiii/era. In favornblo seasons llie vino ripens in the open air In Kngiand; and In the lllh and lath centuries c onsiderable quanlilies of inl'.rlor wino were made from niillvo grapes. VIneyarils ale now, how- ever, unknown in (Ireat llrilnln ; hut tlm grapes raised in hot-houses, and used in desserts, are exn llent. Tlio vine grows in every sort of soil ; Inil thiit « hleh Is light and gravelly jiecnis host suited for the production of line wines. It succeeds extremely well In vo' anic countries. Tho best wines of lluly are prodiited in the neighliorhood of Vesuvius; the fnm.pusTokiiy wino Is also made in a volcanic district, as are soveial of tho best French wines; many parts of the south of Franco bearing evident murks of extinct volcanoes. Ilermll- ngo is grown among tho iUMh of granlle rocks. Tho most favorable situation for a vineyard is upon a rising ground or hill facing tho southeast, and Iho situation should not be too conllnod ; -npertos Itucchus amat roUoit. The art of expressing aiol fermenting tho Juice of the grnpe appears to have liecn practiced fnmi the re- motest niititiiiity. The suered writings tell us that Noah planted a vineyard soon aflor the deluge (fi'en. Ix. '.'0) ; and a modern l.aliu poet ingeniously represents tho vino ns a gift from Heaven, to console mankind for the miseries entailed upon them by that grand catastrophe! Oienla vastatis ergo quuin ccrneret arvis Dosoluta llous, nubis fellcia vlnl Dniia dcdit; trlstes hoininiim que niuncro forlt IteliquisB, niundl solutus vlte rulnsm I (■(inifrti /Viprf. IttiMliaim, lib. il. Sprciet o/lVin.i. — There are many varieties of vines ; and tills circumstance, combined willi dilfercnces of soil, climate, mode of preparation, etc., occasions an exticuio variety in tho species of wine. But between places Immediately contiguous to each other, and where even a careful observer would hardly remark anj dif- ference, the (lualitics of tho wines, though produced by the same species of grape, and treated in the same way, are often very dllTerent. A great deal evidently de- pends upon the a.'.pect of tho vineyard ; and it is proba- ble that a good deal depends on peculiarities of soil. But whatever may bo the cause, it is certain that there arc wines raised in a few limited districts, such as Tokay, Johnnnisbcrger,('onslantia, tho best Burgundy, CTiampngnc, tTaret, etc., thot no art or care has hith- erto succeeded in producing of equal goodness in other places. The leading character of wino must ho referred to the alcohol wliieli it contains, and upon which its in- toxicating powers principally depend ; not exclusively, however; for some of tho lighter wines, if brisk and cffcrsescent, seem to derive from Ihe admixture of car- bonic acid a peculiar exhilarating power not directly proportional to their alcoholic contents. And again, we find other wines, among which certain Burgundies stand foremost, which are eminently healing, though not very strong. The following table shows tho quan-' lily of alcohol (of tho specific gravity of M25 at 60°), by ine'i "Hire, contained in 100 parts by measure of the re- spcei've wines. Some other vinous and spirituous liquoi s have been added, for the purpose of showing the rel it ion which they bear to wine in the proportion of alcolol which they contain. WIN 1074 WIN I'mtnmiim nr *ri>iT nm dan. t.M«w it*! " IIM » IftKII I. MiMiialM,, 'i>M " " , , "II m . Mm MWi , l( 411 , nn III 11 , nm •HM , U¥t I. ttorwla , mi« 14 J J il'M ...UM '• ...ll'tS (*) JTHM In iHiltIa) ll-lt 114. NiiiiK rim.. , IIA diviiiii-hi'. . m 41 M. MiimiiiKi)' . Avar •n- iftrt , wot It, I luck U'DI I»'fl0 ' (nlil In •Mki HU »t'«4 t. M>4«lm. M'4« MM • (Mri'Uli'/i 40 ' Ili'*i M ,liihtnnl«h»rKrir I (IT\ " •' 1 1 an 141. ,411, Tank, t - 19. NIaIn aliia,. •JKI. firaiw arliia . III. l.'almfalla., ■H. Vliluiila ,,',', IX All* fliira , U Malatfa . M. WlilloHariiil laya M. Uiiiiallliiii , , , Alrallm , A.I "a ,,. • Ur.t,,. 1141 IK INI II 'M t*M H II 1)1119 una mill 4'*. HinllliirnilUiiiiUU'J in-ll, 41. viii iiii iiiKM' ur(<4 !4T, rrontlvnan , , IHTD IIK, t.'iila HullK . . uaj 44 llnorehu»- Uri IIOI DM em 4^0 Ma, MaluHtf*)! i)"lra l,unal, M, Mlinraaa irMli l.'iM akllai lit all an. II. l«4n (AM W Drown atomi M. l,ondun|jr»rtar I laveraui 1 . • rill, Loliiloli •malt \tptT lavar- aiit'l I'M It-WM. Ilrandr t>3 3» «l. Hum MI•( lhe«« particulars. Tliua, \if tlia taaa of I liaiiipaKiir, nuiiie varietirs are red, and bihari wlilla ur atraw-tolomil ; some are dry and others iwaet; tba aroma of on« rarlrty differs from that of anotlisri and, wbll« soma are allll, otbi^ri have every dilfarnnt lUKrim of olTflrvetclnK power. The same vu- riaty aitlst* In lia caan of riarats, and, indeed, of al- mutt Bvary dasi riptlon of wIim. TIm itlltnrani'ei In (b« i|ualiti«s of winoi depend part- ly nil iliiTaraNi'ai III tb<) vines, but mora on the difler- ancaa of tba soils In wbivh Ihay ara planted. In tha tx- posuro of tba vInayai'.U, and in Iha Irualinant of Iht Urapes, and the inwis uf nianufarluriiiK tbu win*. TliuuHh tba vina grows in avary tort of soil, a ritlnti ((round, or Kenlly-tlopinK bill failiiK tha auulb, with a loiiaf, Kravally, or ruthor vulcanic soli, is by far iha Ixat situation for a vineyard. It la in such situations that ail the llnsst winas ara producrd. It wuuld Im usalata. In a work of Ibis kind, to attempt cbaractvriitiiiK the dlH'emnt sorts uf wine nsvd, I'orland sherry liavo lonif ei^Joyed a decided prrpunderanca in tbu inarkats; and it niunt li« adniided that, when of Koud i|Uillty and spariiiKly used, tliey are very unax- captlunablu wines. Hut they are often harsh, and bava Ihu disidvantaxa of bciiiK strong and beatinK, so that they can nut liu taken, tu any thInK Ilka excess, by most pcrsuns with impunity. They are well cnuii|;h for a K'a'a or two, but they are not wines for conversa- tion or tociuly. It is not prolnlile, indeed, bad it not lieen fur tbu blKii dlirerenllal duties with wliich French winej were su long buriiened, liiat lii« use uf port and sherry would ever ba\a been so Keiieral { and since tha alioliiion of tlia diireranlial duly in 1X31, French wines have Ijegun gradually, tbuui(h slowly, to make their way from llio liigbcst, towbieb Uiev bavn bitberlo been inust- lyconlined,amung the niiddlc i lasses. They are, Indrad, superiur in almunt all reapei sa to every other variety. Tlie best growths of claret, Cbampigne, and llurgundy, seem to unite all Ihu qnuiiiies required lu cunstllutu perfect wlnen, Ilud tiiey been known in antiquity, wo uppreiiend they w oubl have engrossed most part of Ibo praise su profusely luvinheil on the I'ramnlan, Cccuban, Kulernian, and oilier reiiuwnod wines of llreoc« and Kumc— lln.vNUK'H />iii. Anvitnl ll'i'iiei. — The wines of Lesbos and Chios among tlie (jreeks, iinil tiio Kulernian and Ceiuljun among tiic Homans, have uci|uired an immortality uf renown, (ireat uncertainty, however, prevails as to tbu nature of these nines. l>r, Henderson thinks that the most celebrated of llioni ail, the Falurnian, ap- proached, in its most essential characters, near to Ma- deira. In preparing their wines, tlio ancients often inspissated thcih till tiicy liecamo uf the coiisistenco of buney, or even thicker. These w ere diluted with water pruviuusly lo their licing drunk ; ami, indeed, tbo lialilt of mixing wino with water seems to have prevailed much mure in antiipiity than in niudern times. Mixlern ll'i'ncs.— The principal wines made use of in Kngiand arc port, sherry, claret, Clmmpagno, Madeira, bock, Mursula, Cape, etc. I'ort, the after-dinner wlno, is produced In tbo prov- ince of I'pper Uouro, in Portugal; and is shipped at Oporto, whence its name. When it arrives in En- gland, it is of a dark purple or inky color; has a full, rough body, with an astringent bitter-sweet taste, anil a strong iluvor and odor of brandy. After it has re- mained tome years longer in the wood, tbo swectnisii, roughness, and astringcncy of the flavor abate; Imt It is only utter it has been kept 10 or 15 years in Imtili' that the odor of the brandy is completely aubilucij, ami the genuine aronia of the wine developed. When kept to tuo great an age, it becomes lawny, and loses its peculiar flavor. During the process of melioration, a considerable |)urtiun of tlie oxtractivo and culurln^' matter is precipitated on the sides of the vessels in tliu form of crust. In some wines this chaiigu occurs niudi earlier than in others, A large quantity uf brumly is always niixod with the wine shipped from Oporto fur Kngiand. Cicnuino unmixed port-wine is very rarely met witli. We have been su long accustuincd to the compounded article, that, were It pussildo to procure it unmixed, it is doubtful whether it wuuld bo at ail suit- ed to our taste. According to Mr, Brande's analysis, on which, howcyar, owing to tho dilferences °n tbo quality of tho wine, no great stress can bo laid, port, as used In I:;ngUnd, cuntaius about 23 per cent, of alcohol. Oporto ahlpped WIN Rt»o»T«ic>« nr Wmi rinit I.iimii, tlSt tKS, 1075 WIN T« wbtl r«rla, nil >nil ■ In .of no»- ••■ »'{ luiiHn It not itl »i»l iKO th« o»rw»y !i\ inuil' varloly- irKUudyi nully.w* ,rt of l»io (COM »"d ,n.\ Chioi J Cotulmn ortttlity of vi»il» u» to crnin", »l'- liiar 10 M»- liius ofltn islsteIKO of .wUUwattv [il, t>>o liftl''"- lo provnilod IICB. Ue u«o of in 10, Mailoi". Iln »l>o r'*>^'' livet m y."- I. ),a» ft f»"; \t tftile, ""'1 If il lias r<-'- ■o sweetii''"' lute 5 l.ulji Irs in V"i'^'" T WlicM kept L,i\ \ou» >» [flioration, » li„a coloriiiK lesseW in tlio 1 occurs »>"'■' I of braniiy >» lu Ororto for r verv rarely loniccl to ti'O 1 to \)tocuro It Vu ttl aU suit- ht'* an«ly»>»> tncea "n tlw to 1»W. V"''; [per ce»l- « Aallxiif AUI-r« Alml* AmiUrdam Ai(K"l* Aiwtralla llnlilK lUiMuiiflla K'-lM-'l I lllH/'KII hK«i* IIiIiImI liiii'iMM Ayr» t-'H|iti Vera Cuilla ('I'KrN ( lilim '..., <'ii|l only illatrli't on llio Duuro In wliirh wlni' could lia ralaiicl fur axpurlnllon s (ha aliaoluta illi- poaal of Ihu winoa raiiail In thia illatrlrt waa plai'ad in the lianiln nf thi' lompany, who wi-rf furllitr aulhoriaoil to lU tho prli-i'i In ho pulil fur lh«ni to ilie ciiltlvalora, to praparii thorn for axportatiun, and to llx Ihn prii-a at which thoy alioulil ho auld to fondKnara ! It ix ohvloua that n company wlih aurh powiira could not Iw any thiiiK vIm than an intuhrnUa nniaanco. What could ha mora arl)ilrnry and unjust than to intanilct tha ax- port of all wlnca ral«>d out of (h« llndia uf tho coni- pany'j territory? lut ov«n In lla own dlnlrlct, ill prnroedinm worn opprawivo ami lujurioun. Tha com- pany annually llxcd, hy a lUt of thr. Hen- derson, " tho liner products of the I>ouro vintaRos havu romoineil, in a (jreut measure, unknown to us; and port-wine has come to bo const Jcrcil as a nln|;le lii|Uor, if I nmy luo tlw expression, of nearly luiiform tiavor and strength; virylni;, 'tis true, to a certain extent In quality, hut ^1 always appruuchluK to a dellnlte standard, am udmiltinK of few degrees of excellence, The manipulations, Iho adndxtures — in one word, (ho ai/u((iTO(iim.« — (o which the best wines of the (.'Imo do Ibmro arc ^ulljcclcd, havu much the 8an\e olTcct as If alt the growths of Burgundy were to ho mingled in one imineuso vat, and sent into (ho worl ! an the only true Dursundian wine. Tho delicious produce of Itomanee, Ohambcrtin, and tho t'los Vougeout, would ilisappcar, and in their places we should lind nothing better tlian a sccoud-rato llcaune or Macon wine."— //iWnry of AncifiU ami Mudrni lime*. Not only, however, did tho Oporto Wine Company deteriorate the iiuality, but thoy also raised tho price of their wines to an enor- mous height. .Secured against the competition of their countrymen, anil enjoying down to 1H31 a nearly aU- wlutc monopoly of tlio British markets for red winea l)y means of tho high duties on those of Franco, they tilled their pockets at our expense. At the very mo- ment when tho company were aldpping wine for En- gland at X40 a pipe, they frequently shipped the same wine to other countries at £20.— Flehtwood Wii- r.i.iMS on Ike. Wine Trade. And tho authuntic tablet published by Tlalbi show that the price of wine was trebled and quadrupled under the management of this corporation.— A'Mdi Stalulique $ur le Jloi/nume da Por- tugal. It is long since the injurious influenco of the com- pany on tho commerce of England was distinctly perceived and pointed out. So far back as 1707, the Board of Trade laid a memorial before his majesty in council, in which they si ite, "With respect to many particular regulations of the Oporto Company, which I wo think justly objected to by the merchants as highly ! grievous and oppressive, wo have not thought it neces- sary to enter into a minute description of them, being of opinion that ono general and fatal objection lies against them all; viz., that they all contribute to ea- tablish in the company a monopoly against your ipuj- Oporto Wint Company.— Tho quality of tho wine esty's subjects from whi* by treaty they have » right shipped from Oporto has been materially injured hy to be exempted." But notwithstanding this authorl. the monopoly so long enjovcd bv the Oporto Wine tativo exposition of tho injury done to the EnglisU by Company. This company w»» originally founded in 1 this monopoly, and the experience which every subs*. It "m "W| S4 h «l W 81 k 8113 «41 8M 13 1) BO SI 1 ■■'ill ■ ■ 'm 82« 9 S| «36 i.'iio'o 2S1 ""u 53 "il ISC •ih.stm \ n,7wik SUHMABT or THE KXPORTATION 0» OlL, II«A!inV, ASB WlJtX ra»)i I.ianoN thi Yeam srxcinsn. Vun. IIU. Bn»ndy. Wina. 1 ISM 18S4 ripn. 4i0« M9 npM. 47 3S Pll<«. 27.647 2.^9C« 17.790 1866 »23 ToUl 694s 108 71,403 WIN 1976 WIN quent year afTorded of Us mischlevoaa influence, luch WBs the invuleracy of ancient prejudice, tliat it was not till 1831 tliat we tooli tliat step wliicli, liad it been tal(cn a cotitury before, would have rid ourselves of its •vils as well as a host of others, by equalizing the du- ties on French and Portuguese wines, and putting an end to the ii^urious preference given to the latter by the Methuen treaty. In 1833 Don Pedro, whose daugh- ter had been raiHed to the Portuguese throne mainly by the intervention of the Knglish, issued a decree •bolishing the Old Oporto Company. And it might have been supposed that once abated, the nuisance would not have been again revived. But such was not the case. A new wine company was subsequently established, with privileges little less oppressive than those of the old company. And as the taste for French wine had made little progress among us in the interval, we suffered from the monopoly and adulterations prac- ticed and sanctioned by the new company, as we hail done from those of its predecessor. Its mischievous influence being further aggravated by a heavy export duty on wine sliipped to any port in Europe, was lat- terly so intolerable, that to defeat it considerable quan- tities of port were imported by the circuitous route of the United States. However, the firm remonstrances of the Hritlsh government, and the growing dissatis- faction of the Portuguese themselves, have at length succeeded in establishing a more equitable and less illiberal system. In October 3852, the new company was abolished, equal duties (about 14s, a pipe) were imposed on all wines exported, and considerable, though not entire, freedom was given to the trade. — For fur- ther details, tee article OroKTO. Sherry is of a deep amber color ; when good, it has a fine aromatic odor ; its taste is warm, with some de- gree of the agreeable bitterness of the peach kernel. AVheu new, it tastes barah and fiery ; it is mellowed by being allowed to remain 4 or 6 years or longer in the wood ; but it docs not attain to its full flavor and perfection until it be Icept for 16 or 20 years. It is a ver}' strong wine, containing ubout W per cent, of alcohol. It is principally produced iu the vicinity of Xeres, not far from Cadiz, in Spain. It is very ex- tensively used in England as a dinner wine. Dry sherry, or anwntillailo, when genuine and old, fetches a very high price. Perhaps no wine is so much adulter- ated as sherry. With the exception of Marsala, the consumption of sherry has been far more influenced than that of any other wine by the reduction of the duties in ll<25. In 1852 the quantity retained for home consumption amounted to 2,600,857 gallons, be- ing 458,(X)0 gallons more than double the quantity re- tained for consumption at an average of 1823 and 1824. The province of Valencia, in Spain, produces a great variety of wines. Large quantities of a strong, sweet- ish red wine, called licnicarlo, from the port -whence it is shipped, is exported to Cette. It is thence conveyed, by the Canal of Languedoc, to Ilordeaux, where it is mixed up with the poorer sorts of the wines of the Gironde, to which it gives color, body, and durability. The \'at di! I'eiVu, a pleasant red wine of La Mancha, taid by Swinburne to be " the most drinkable, for com- mon use, of any in Spain" {Travelt in Spain, p. 819, 4to ed.),has probably been commended beyond its deserts. But in whatever estimation it may be held in its native province, we doubt whether it is ever likely to be ac- reptable to foreigners. When carried to the coast, it is conveyed in goat skins smeared with pitch. This gives it the olor de bota, by which it ii^ disagreeably distinguished. Ctartt, the term generally used in England, though not in France, to designate the red wines, the produce of the Gironde. Of these, Lafitte, Latour, Chuteaa- M»rg*uxi •1(1 Haut-Drion, %rc so generally and de- wrvedly esteemed, that they always sell at 20 to 80 per cent, higher than any others of the department The first-mentioned ia the most choice and daltoata, and is characterized by its silky softness on the palate, and its charming perfume, which partakes of that of the violet and the raspberry. The Latour has a fuller body, and at the same time a considerable aroma, but wants the softness of the Lafitte. The Chjiteau-Mar< gaux, on the other hand, is lighter, and pi'sseeses all the delicate qualities of the Lalitte, except that it has not quite so high a flavor. The Ilaut-Drion, again, has more spirit and body than any of the preceding, but is rough when new, and requires to be kept six or seven years in the wood ; while the others become fit for bottling in much less time. Among the second-rate wines, that of Rozan, in the parish of St. Margaux, a|)proachcs in some respects to the growth of the Chuteau-Margaux ; Gorce, in ths same territory, is little inferior to Latour; and the vineyards of Lcoville, Larose, Uran-Mouton, Pichon- I.ongucvlllo, and Calon, In the canton of Pauillac, af- ford wines of good flavor, which, in favorable years, have much of the excellence of the liner growths, from which, indeed, some of the licst can w ith difliculty be distinguished. Among the third and fourth class wines ore those of Pauillac, St. Jiilicn de Itegnac, St. Estcphe, Canon, St. Emilion, the wines of Ilaut Medoc, etc. These have each some distinguishing peculiarity ; but it requires a comwitseur to ditcrimiuatc between the cognate varieties. In good j'ears the quality is very superior. The aroma of the first growths is seldom fklly developed till after they have been kept eight or nine years ; but the secondary qualities come to perfec- tion a year or two sooner. The color often grows darker as the wine advances In age, in consequence of the depo- sition of a portion of its tartar; but when well made, and thoroughly fined, it seldom deposits any crust. See the valuable work of Dr. IIkndkkson o» Ancient iindModern Wines; and JfLi.iicN, Tupographiede Vifftio- bles. Bordeaux wines are very rarely exported in a state of purity. We have given in the article Bor- deaux some account of the treatment to which those shipped for England are subjected, and to it we beg to refer the reader. Champagne — so called from the province of France, of which it is the produce — is one of the most deserved- ly esteemed of the French wines. The wines of Cham- pagne are divided into the two grand classes of white ' and red wines, and each of these, again, into still and. sparkling : but there is a great variety in the flavor of the produce of different vineyards. Sillcry is univers- ally allowed to be the best of the still wines. It is dry, of a light amber color, has considerable body, and a charming aroma. " Le corps" (says M. Jullicn), " le spiritueux, le charmant bouquet, et les v.rtus toniques dont il est pourvu, lui assurent la priority sur tons les autrcs." — Topoffraphie de lout let Vi/jnoblei. Dr. Hen- derson agrees with Jullicn in considering it as one of the wholesomcst of the Champagne wines. The spark- ling wines are, however, the most popular, at least in England. Of these, the wine of Ay, five leagues south from Khcims, is perhaps the best. It is lighter and sweeter than Sillery, and has an exquisite flavor and aroma. That which merely creams on the surface (demi-mouueux) is preferred to the full frolhing wine {grand-mousteux). Being bright, clear, and sparkling. It is as pleasing to the eye as it is grateful to the palate. " Ccmia mlcantl eoncolor ut vitro Latex In aums, gemniena asjilcl, Sclntlllct cxuUIni ; utque dulccs Nsrlbus illecebrss proplnet "8uc.-i Istentls proditor hslitiisl Vt spuma motu Isctea turbido Crystslllnum l«DtlB rcfcrre Hex oculls propcrat nltorcm." HaotTilllers, about four leagues from Itheims and one from Epernay, used formerly to produce wine that equaled, and sometimes surpassed, the wine of Ay. Hut it is no longer cultivated with the same care ; so that, though still very good, it only ranks in the second WIN 1977 WIN M and ne that of Ay. ire i so JBecond class. The best of the red wines of Champagne are . qualiflo dans certains pays de loim qui aidmt i la qha- thoso of Verzy, Verzenay, Mally, Bou7.y, and St. Ilusle, " lis ont une bello couleur, du corps, du spirituoux, et Burtout beaucoup do finesse, de stvo, ct do bouquet." — JUM.iES. The Cl.os St. Thierry, in the vicinity of Bheims, produces wine wUicli, according to Julllcn, unites the color and the aroma of Burgundy to the lightness of Champagne, The province of Cham- pagne produces altogether about 1,100,000 hectolitres of wine; of which, however, the finest growths malce but a small part. The principal trade in wine is car- ried on at Kheims, Aviso, and Epcmay. The vaults in which the vintages are stored are excavatiil in a rock of calcareous tufa to the depth of 30 or 10 feet. Those of M. Meet, at Epernay, are the most extensive, and tow travelers pass through the place witlioul go- ing to see them. The briskest wines (_gmnda-mou»- teux) kcdp the worst.— Jullies. Burgundy. — The best wines of this province, though not so popular as those of Champagne, probably be- cause they are very apt to bo injured by a sea-voyage, enjoy tlie highest reputation. " In richness of flavor and perfume, and all the more delicate qualities of the juice of the grape, they unquestionably rank as the first in the world ; and it was not without reason tiiat the dukes of Burgundy, in former times, were desig- nated as the pirinctt dea bans fi»»."— Henueuson. SI. JuUien is not less decided: ''Lcs vins dct ircmiers lit6, sent toujours nuisiblcs aux vins de llourgogno." Koman6-Conti, Cliambertin, the Clos Vougeot, and Rlchebourg, are tlio most celebrated of tlic red winei of Burguiidy. Cliambertin was the favorite wine of Louis XIV, and of Napoleon, It is the produce of a vinayard of that name, situated seven miles south from Dijon, and furnishing each year from 180 to 160 pun- cheons, from an extent of about C5 acres. It has a fuller body and color, and greater durability, than the Koman6, with an aroma nearly as fragrant. The white wines of Burgundy are less numerous, and, consequent- ly, less generally known, than the othcis; but they maintain the highest rank among French white wines, and are not inferior to the red cither in aroma or flavor. The entire annual produce of wine in Burgundy and Ucai^jolais may at prci cnt bo estimated, at an average, at nearly 3,&00,000 hectolitres, of which about 750,000 suffice for the consumption of the inhabitants. Since the revolution, the cultivation of the vine has been greatly extended in the province. Many of the new vineyards having necessarily been planted in compar- atively unfavorable situations, a notion has been gain- ing ground that the wines of Burgundy are degenera- ting. This, however, is not the case. On the con- trary, the quantity of bons crui, instead of being dimin- ished, has increased considerably ; though, as the s''.,i- ply of inferior wines has increased in a still s'..:ater do- crus, lorsqu'ils proviennent d'une bonne annee, rcunis- gree, the fine wines bear a less pwinTtion to the whole sent dans do justes proportions, toutes les qualitea ^ui than they did previously to the revolution. — Jullikn, conatituenflea vins parfnUs; ils n'ont besoin d'aucnn The principal trade in Burgundy is carried on at Dyon, mfilango, d'aucuno preparation pour attcndre Icur plus Gevrey, Chulons-sur-Saone, etc. Besides the above, haut degro de perfection. Ces operations, quo Ton | Franco has a great variety of other excellent wines. ACCOCNT or THE QUANTITIES ASP VAI.tlR or THE WiSEB EXPORTKD FBOM FbASCE IS 1S52 ; niBTlSariSnlNa BKTWKEH THOSE CI' THE CtlBONDE AS1> THOSE OF OTHEB DKrAET.HESTB, AND UETWEKN THOSE EXPOSTEU IN (;aBI>S AND UoTTLES; AND SrECIFYlNO THE QOANTITIEB OF THOSE SENT TO EACH COUNTET AND THEIB TOTAL VALUE.— (AOUINIBTEATION SES DoUANES roE 1854, p, 241.) CouotrlM to which •iport«d. Of other nepartrngrita. QiiRiitity. liussla Sweden Norway Denmark German League , , , Holland BelBium Hanae Towns Hanover Mecklenburg Schweriii England Spain . . , Austria ." Suriliulan SUtes The Two Sicilies Tuscany Roman States Switzerland Turkey Kgypt Algeria .Mauritius Iiiilia, Knglish " Dutch " French United States llaytl Cuba and Porto Rico St. Thomas Brasil Mexico Venezuela Now Granada Pern Chill Hlodela Plata Uruguay Ouadaloupe Martinique llourbon Senegal t/ayonne Flsherica Guatemala Other places Totals llectulitrea. •i'2,S40 1,'J37 2,514 3,r>8(! 31,040 7S,1'.)2 fiS,3(B nS,530 14,908 2,5:;6 10,1T4 Quanlity, 2,30T 51,942 3,125 3,014 1,M'.> 101,970 3,'{39 6,207 3,080 1,359 8,'l89 6,574 17,157 25.600 a.233 T,4'2» 86,010 10,210 2,7!)4 1,608 o.'afo ■ 29,682,004 090,807 UectoUtrci. 18,549 4,fU3 2,003 7,720 9,163 14,013 3'>,30' 65,111 10,416 2,746 9,212 527,058 89,'7's;) 7,679 120,299 3,5S3 T.430 407,930 2,850 Va^ue^ Fraaci. 20,082,064 00,204 3,789 2,940 42,'6'lO 20,039 14,755 9,635 20.004 17,943 i,"343 41S9 38,304,132 Wine in Botllai. Of the (ilronde. qimntity. 10,021 1,6118,605 Heetolltrei. 814 102 'iii 884 042 459 2,727 4.970 480 218 371 581 2,223 1,080 24,405 l',9i2 205 4,636 629 3,260 8,097 070 1,062 283 801 1,033 8,072,610 urother n<)parlnienta. Qaantil.r Hectolitre*. 7,,324 600 6,689 lo,Biio 2,900 10,,366 815 420 1,033 677 438 aoe 6,->2 993 563 617 '422 19,101 057 1,000 870 «14 578 521 417 910 779 "469 634 1,972 Vrtliie. 10,284,658 38,304,132 I 60,000 | tf , ,072,010 I 74.172 19.294.068 '^^■^'^W^r^T^K^-^ ■n:-.'T ■i.-jv.'i'y :j^,T, « f ,■ r ■ ;, 1 jFT i;?:;--*:'?. 'trw-C^n S-" WIN 1978 WIN Thia makes a total export of 2,419,601 hectolitres, vorth 95,403,464 francs, or ^£3,816,000. Alwut ten years ago the exports did not exceed 1,600,000 hecto- litres, BO that tht^re has been a large increase in the in- ter\'al. And were France to adopt a liberal commer- cial policy, it is not easy to say to how great an ex- tent her exports of wine, in the production of which she is immeasurably superior to every other country, might be increased. Exclusive of the above, there were exported from France in the same year 18,968 hectolitres of vim de liqueurs, valued at 2,001 ,836 francs. The total produce of the vineyards of France is es- timated at about 86,000,000 hectolitres (770,000,000 imp. gallons), worth 640,000,000 francs (£21,600,000). We beg to refer the Teader to the article Borue.mjx for an account of the influence of the French system of commercial policy on this great department of indus- try. The question, whether the wines of Champagne or Burgundy were entitled to the preference, was agi- tated during the reign of Louis XIV. with extraordi- car}' keenness. The celebrated Charles Coifin, rector of the University of Bcauvais, published, during this controversy, the classical ode, partly quoted above, in which Champagne is eulogized, and its superiority vin- dicated with a spirit, vivacity, and delicacy worthy of the then.e. The citizens of Rbeims were not ungrate- ful to the poet, but liberally rewarded him with an appropriate and muniricent donation of the wine he had so happily panegyrized. Grcneau wrote an ode in praise of Burgundy; but, unlike its subject, it was flat and insipid, and failed to lirocure any recompense to its author. The different pieces in this amusing controversy were collected and published in octavo, at I'aris, in 1712. —See Le Graxu d'Aussv, Vie Privee del Franfait, and the Biographie Vnivertelle, art. Corn s (Charles). Erasmus attributes the restoration of his health to his having drunk liberally of Burgun. Bbla. Krann. 8U ai) r)ll(^o(*^700 !•« BO MOOSfilOO 80 30 6000 180 23 4000 100 n 4000 IM 30 8T00 226 45 8000 46 H 8001) 8'i 4 8000 rreignu: " 800 Petit lloutoc •' 1000 tfadtira — so called from the Mknd of that name — Is a wine that has long been in hi<;h estimation in this and other countries. Plants of the vine were conveyed from Crete to Madeira in 1421, and have succeeded ex- tremely well. There is a considerable difference in the flavor and other qualities of the wines of Madeira : the best are produced on the south side of the island, Though naturally strong, they receive an addition of brandy wlien racked from the vessels In which they have been fermented, and another portion is thrown in previously to their exportation. This is said to be required to sustain the wine in the high temperature to which it is sulijccled in its passage to and from In- dia and China, to which large quantities of it are sent, it being found that it is mellowed and its flavor ma- terially improved by the voyage. It does not, how- ever, necessarily follow that the wines which have made the longest voyages are always the best. Much must obviously depend on the original quality of the wine ; and many of the parcels selected to be sent to India are so inferior, that tlie wine, when brought to London, does not rank so high as that which has been imported direct. But when the parcel sent out has been well chosen, it is very much matured and im- proved by the voyage ; and it not only fetches a high- er price, but is in all respects superior to the direct Importations. Most of tlie adventitious spirit is u. sipatcd in the course of the Indian voyage. Madeira wines may be kept for a very long per' i " Like the ancient vintages of the Surrentine hills, l- are truly /rniiWma t-tna, retaining their qualities un- impaired in botli extremes of climate, sufTcring no de- cay, and constantly improving as they advance in age. Indeed, they can not be pronounced in condition until they have been kept for ten years in the wood, and afterward allowed to mellow nearly twice that time in bottle; and even then they will hardly have reached the utmost perfection of which they are susceptible. When of gooil quality, and matured as above described, they lose all their original harshness, and acquire tliat agreeable pungency, that bitter sweetishness, which was so highly prized in the choicest wines of antiquity, uniting great strength and richness of flavor with an exceedingly fragrant and diffusible aroma. The nutty taste, which is often very marked, is nut communica- ted, as some have imagined, by means of bitter alm- onds, but is inherent in the wine." — Henderson, The wines of Madeira have latterly fallen into dis- repute in England. The growth of the island, when greatest, was very limited — not exceeding 20,000 pipes, of which a considerable quantity went to the West In^ dies and America. Hence, when Madeira Was a fash- ionable wine in England, every sort of deception was practiced with respect to it, and large quantities of spurious trash were disposed of for the genuine vintage of the island. Tliis naturally brought the wine into discredit, so that sherry lias been for several years the fashionable white wine. It is diflicult, however, to im- agine that adulteration was ever practiced to a greater extent upon Madeira than it is now practiced upon sher- ry. It is not, therefore, improbable that a reaction may take place in favor of Madeira. The quantity entered for homo consumption in England in 1827 amounted to 308,295 gallons, whereas the quantity entered for home consumption in 1852 amounted to only 69,730 gallons. Afalfiuey, a very rich, luscious species of Madeira, is made from grapes grown on rocky grounds exposed to the full influence of the sun's rays, and allowed to re- main on the vine till they are over-ripe. The trade in Madeira wine is carried on at Funchal, the capital of the island, in lat. 32° 37' N,, long. 17° 6' W. Weights and measures same as at Lisbon. Madeira is said to have suflcrcd very severely from the disease that has recently attacked the vine. Tenetiffe wine— so called from the island of that name — resembles Madeira, and is not unfrequently substi- tuted in its stead ; but it wants the full body and rich flavor of the best growths of Madeira. ing the grape, wilu U U.^trf ' /^''-^^fe -n,-^ "■=- --'1 Prevent tur" "-■""> new mm, or must, bei,« !,! * "'""'I '/«»»(»/»& f-'' ^""^'^t is not ZZTJ^ fP" '"'•'" same berries, and siiluecii,.,, ,i '''"*"''* mm umiL Ji^ '""' "' ^'SfyindiflfernnT T """"» '«> Preas. Of these varC f '^'? '" "'« *'.'K it "'* *'"« " Produced from ,?"."'^- '^'"'^i "> very arnall quant .?'' ^''h .•*''"/< *^ «M '! ?'.."» ""'4uisl t^.^""^ '^'""^ •" the «T«',.'r..'!«:^"'« produced fro,r;;;: "^e-" «- "I" "''"general, ihoughmuchof '" the corn-fields :Cn S"""'"" 's seen i„ t„„i: ^'^» ' "'"I ''« /»((«'; C ""'^' Pftuctive districts ho „ „ 'P'" """ /"^mbardy not being sufficient for the consumption of i's population, nearly 4,402,000 gallons c ' tar more were imported either from the Venetian provinces, which produced much more than was re- quired for their own consumption, oi' from the neigh- boring states of Modcna, Piedmont, and the Papal ter- ritory, according to the respective local produce and prici'S. But since 1851, when the oidium attacked all the vines of the country, the produce has so fearfully diminished, that in 18S6 the government found it nec- edsary to grant a reduotion of the direct land-tax on lands chiefly cultivated with vines, in proporttcii to the ascertained amount of loss. The whole produce of r ambardy in 1862 was reduced to 11,004,834 gallons, and that of tlio Venetian provinces, in 1854, to 7,638,31 1 gallons of wine. The respective loss of each province was as follows : Gov«RNMK»T or Milan. Gallotit of ' Mantua 10,S47,406 Milan 3,800,68:. UreseU 3,«74,S43 Pavia S.2«4,J3U nergamo iMiM t Como Z.OCi.aOS Cremona '.'.ii«3,170 Sondrlo 'i..T2r>,l!H) I^odi l.DD.'.PIO Total iUi,4i)ii,U&l GOVKBNUBMT OF VCNIOK. rotlncfld ui ISSl. :t,43:i,077 998,976 747,778 fiDl.lia 1,'M7,090 l,!i83.a'>3 l.fiSlJ.-SO 90,614 if(H.4C4 l-.t,lUU,X13 tialloni of Wine prodn«ad la 1847. 18(4. radora 10,4^4,80« 2,6,11, 119 VIeenia 9,904,860 1,320,680 Udine 9,674,V!00 1,210,632 Verona 8,683,770 600,290 Trev!«o 7.483,287 748,329 RoTigo 8,961,740 862,164 Venezla 2,761,209 028,282 Belluao 306,174 187,0 82 Total 53,lU9,3i8 7,MS,81l Winu of Gitece and Cypnu. — The soil in most parts of (jrceco and of tho Grecian islands is admirably fitted for the growth of the vine ; and in antiquity they pro- duced some of the chohost wines. But the rapacity of the Turks, and the insecurity of person and property that has always prevailed under their miserable gov- ernment, has effectually prevented the careful cultiva- tion of the vine, aiid has occasioned in many places its total abandunmcnt. It may, however, lie fairly presumed, now that Greece has emancipated herself from the iron yoke of her oppressors, that the culture of tho vine will attract somu portion of that attention to which it is justly entitled, and that at no distant period wi.,e will form un important artiilo of export fVom Greece. Nowhere, perhaps, has tho destru :tiva influence of Turkish barbarism and misgovcrnment been so apparent as in (.'nndia and Cyprus. While these two renowned and noble islands were pussicssed by tho Venetians they supplied all Kurope with the choicest dessert wines. Becci affirms that, toward the end of tne ICth century, Candia sent annually 200,000 casks of malmsey to the Adriatic, whereas at present it hardly produces sufficient to supply the wants of its few impoverished inhabitants. — HENnEiisoN. The wines of Cyprus, particulorly those produced from the vineyard called the Con.mandery, from its having be- longed to the Kniu'hts of Malta, were still more highly esteemed than those of Crete. In the eailier part of last century the total produce of tho vintage of the island was supposed to amount to above 2,00P,0n0 gal- lons, of which nearly onj half was exported; but now the wine grown and exported does not amount to one- tenih part of these quantities! The oppression of which they have been the victims has reduced tho peasantry to tho extreme of indigence, 'i'lio present population of the island is not supposed to exceed (;0,000 — a number insufficient to have peopled one of its many ancient cities ; and small as this number is, it is constantly diminishing by the inhabitants avail- ing themselves of every onpcrtunity of emigrating. Capt Wines. — The famous Constantia wine is the produce of two contiguous farms of that name at the base of Table Mountain, between eight and nine miles from Cape Town. The wine is very rich and luscious, though, according to Henderson, it yields in point of flavor and aroma to the muscadine wines of Languedoc and Koussillun. But, with this exception, most pt.rt of the Cape wines brought to England have an earthy, disagreeable tnste, are often acid, want flavor and aro- ma, and are. In fact, altogether execrable. American Wine. — The extent of our terriiorj' over which the wine culture moy be advantagcousl; dif- fused has long aflbrded a subject of much speculi tion. It eit y attracted the attention of tho first colo lists, who not only attempted to form vineyards of the Eu- ropean vine, but to make wine from our own nat.'ve grapes. Altiiough tho subject has been zealously anu sedulously pursued at various periods sinou, all those dwelling on the easterly half of the continent who have made trial of the foreign grape have never been able to bring their designs to perfection ; and those w)io have tested their skill in our native varieties have only met with partial success ; yet a degree of perseverance and enthusiasm seems to have pervaded all the vota- ries of this delightful pursuit, and a warm and mutual interchange of views and sentiments has existed among them, which has been comparatively unknown in oth- er species of culture. Although tho oporators in re- cent times, fl-om being interspersed over so great an extent of territory, are consciiuentl)- more widely sep- arated, still the connecting link, by a friendly co-oper- ation in one common cause, may justly r.nd appropri- etely assimilate their uniied exertions to that joyous period in the history of Franco when, during the reign of Probus, thou.sai'ds of all ages and sexes united in one spontaneous and enthusiastic cfibrt for the restora- tion of their vineyards. Indeed, when the far greater limits of our domain are considered, the combined ef- forts of our fellow-countrymen can not fail to produce eftects even more important, from the great extent of their induence, and cause each section of our republic reciprocally to respond to the efforts of others, with all their attendant advantages and blessings. yrm mmmmmsm Census on that interest 'n,,"'" '" ""^ Seventh uV""""^' "'""g botlT Z? ," «'"''P'= '-■"'ture 1 1^ Jons. This quant tv do , rf7""l'«:«d 60,718 ™ « ^» f ".voted to wine gro vL f, """Pf ""vely small lonves 100 511 „.\r ''°"'<=''--<' from the a..J„° , "'" ^"''e'l States «.n»-^' "'° P^'i'i'^e of winp!„ ---. bj fhi ?:";;, t/^'i; "Pt- ^^ "-^ s:; zt z' '''' "--■"- h":"i;:t^'>«»-r «^™- only 38,000 gallons T. • '^'''-"""'^ating a ^in of t ^""'"orman, at Cine n, l/i °^'^f?-^''s. Lon;u„.orth «''nt. but u!oer;„ pl^ : ;; '-■'''Kv an °Mdfrt t^ ^ «'S has yet been mar ,1! , "" "Miderable procr T ^ ""'' "■''''•«'. "ince the n^ rfoubtless bo production the !,„«„< T"^ '"^^^^""^ ''y a Kw si '° ''?^\"'° P^"""""" a fai, n 1(1^™ ^'^ P"'™^ of value or invoioo . . / "'" '*"'«« of France Th ?"''-*' '""eased to such „,, ' l"<«l"(.'tion has The«„ ' ^'7"'™ ™»' of 'be article «.n/J!f„',. Ji"' estimated the v.l„„„/ '''.'.'' '=■'''<'"' that «„d„m„,f WIN 1082 WIR ctea, WM found to contain Oi per cent. Buchanan ■tatea that the proportion of alcohol in the American wines Is about the saniu as In the wines of Franco and Germany. Brandc, however, contcudi that the French Graves wine contains lI)-94, Harsac 13-86, Sauterne 14-22, Rudesheimer of 1800 Vi'ii, and Hocic 14-37 per cent, of alcohol. The prices of American wines may be considered high. Ten to twelve bottles of stored still wine cost from fS to $8, and sparkling wine liroiight (12 in 186i. Kew wine ranges from 40 cents to (1 10, Of the recent 'orritorial acquisitions of the United States, California, and dorida will probably ere long be ranked among the wine-producing States. In Cali- fornia the efforts of the old Catholic missionaries to cultivate the grape resulted satisfactorily, and the manufacture of wine from the domestic grape of Florida was also attended with success. Sir John Hawkins reports that in 1694 the settlers in Florida realized twenty hogsheads of palatuble winn from the native grape. The good results which were anticipated from this discovery were, thanks to the political disturbances in which that colony became involved, never realized. In Canada West, where certain species of wild grapes are very abundant, the manufacture of wine, recently inlnxluced, has been attended with the most signal success. Buchanan's Journal pronounces it superior to the imported port-wine. — JV. ¥. JCee. Pott. The following statement shows the production of wine in the several States of the Union in the years 1840 and 18.'>0, according to the census returns : Pboddotion or Wimi in tiii I'NiTan ^tatis in 1840 AMD I860.— (t'tusus RimaT.) BUtw ud TcrritoriM. 1840. 177 "JO },<66 812 8,6.i7 474 10,2C5 s'.ioi 2,884 2,286 7,f*S 198 "ii 23 94 0,416 0,7(19 58,762 11,624 14,828 803 043 668 ' 'I'i 18,011 IflMI. U>Uoni, 2'.'0 86 68,066 son 4,269 145 10 7»« 2,097 14,066 420 8,01'8 IB 724 1,481 4,688 1,064 407 10 608 844 1,811 9,172 11,068 48,i07 26,690 1,013 B,SW) 92 »9 669 B.40S 113 2,808 ('•iifornlA Colunibia, Utatrlct of.. Florid* Illlnou Kentucky I.oulBlana Maine Maryland Masiachuselta Micliigsn Mluluipiii Hiisoiiri New Ilampshlie Now Joftiey New York North Carolina Ohio Pennsylvania Itliodo Ibland South Carolina Tennessee Texas Vermont Virginia New Mexico Territory. Totaln..... l-J4,7»4 !i21.24U W INK, SriBITa, ETC , IHPOBTID ANHDALLT INTO TUB L'nited STA-rat, pboh 1843 to 1867, inclusive Dalt. WIRB tM »•■«. 1 MiMrs. Rberry. SIsUy. Port. 1 Cl«r«l. Othar rail WIna. Utiloiu. ^V.lu.. Uallou. VrUu. (■•Iloiu. v>la«. Olllont. Valun. I (lillonf. Vilua. Oallona. I Valua. 1»4«'.... |i.9ttf $.1,076 4,086 Cj,491 14,679 $11,617 88,603 $J6,714 878,896 .1I1U4.6WM .... l-vt* 16,I.'^4 ilO,57B IS.OOS 23,418 81,18) 16,000 223.615 166,S78 0V3,198 218,'«9 340,387 $00,006 1846 101.170 14.1,237 23.616 88,289 llfl.MO 46,033 260,608 102,868 1,061,802 ■.^49,033 495,66-* 143,210 IMO 10»,7D7 122,836 26.638 41,761 209,131 74,000 372,628 148,895 «B1,361 249,708 064,646 316,821 I'i46t.... 117,117 128.613 14.Bltt 26,19-! 21,281 8,938 60,001 6-A861 294,438 111,463 1,072,680 828.814 1847t.... 13,8116 6,717 77,621 6«,0C1 02.031 IViiW 8,075 3,791 691,660 119,844 639,4,';4 119,411 TS4S 44,034 21,630 21.'..936 ln!t,lS3 loo.siu 07,864 601,123 170,134 1,2.7,071 221,410 781,078 180,928 1849 11)3,971 106,.W> 170.704 I2,S,510 130.861 32,231 711,268 272,700 1.912,701 203,830 994,168 221,177 19-)0 303,128 160,01)0 212,002 118,962 SI, 123 24.933 6>6,2n 306.364 1,919,760 207,446 1,469,260 205,088 la'.i 168,941 116.006 2f>0,277 IM.Oftt 301,010 98,075 702.(107 340,849 1,940,121 280,383 1,246,201 230,727 1853 216,08;) 103,017 lOS.ClO 97.0,S0 91,746 22.603 014,513 240,238 2,702.012 4( 8,380 1,17'2,S10 229,360 I8'>3 226,403 1 OB 628 313,048 1BB.810 190,206 45.704 36i,701 iW.OWi 2,03!I.Sfl2 4<.2,827 1,874.416 377,482 18.')4 120,891 64,270 41.\--1 8 241,028 68.870 23,101 393.(97 177,986 2,045.474 407.0('6 l,S.%4,8ir. 4f>!>,196 1885 71,912 46.446 3H.i,3: 8 •i()8.414 197,700 6.'>,8M) 180,460 07,087 1,371,400 440,031 i,Bi9,r2 i70,817 184,104 61.961 264,816 161,7'2» l,BI6,01,S 661,440 697,R34 288,111 1S.')7 i(Ki.:i6,i 66 8S0 [6l4,649j 364,!H)6 280,846 183.8.14 [m.i\oj 407.504 1,897,108 663,403 1,186,293 B00,B27 Data. WIRB, BMiRDV, AMD QBAIM arilltTa. OTHin aaiRiTa, laia, alb, and portbr i Ulhar whiU Wiaa. ' Rrandy. 1 Oialo Bpirita. other Splillt. Baar, Ala, and •'-rtar 6oin Knglan ;. Baar, Ala, aud foilar tTitm Hi-ntland. ■ Uallona. Valua OalUna. Valua. $116,207 (iallma. 26'J.ri Valua. Galloni. I35,3..9 Valua. $32.1105 Iiall,>n-. 1 Valua. lialloni. 7,428 Value. I84,T.... 12.i,H82 *2S.205 1(1', 832 $1-21.647 6,:.012 $,'.7,IS 8 $6,335 1S44 268,414 i,%,(li:0 7.-12,610 006 0;)3 416,0. ,j 171,015 210,477 78 0-27 107,489 10-2,167 19.-. 80 18,343 1846 601,736 211.1.S3 1.081,314 819,450 000,311 •202,513 ■-70.484 78.067 79,302 73,729 -.'6.711 21,2(4 1846 70,1.8118 310,241 963.147 839,231 677,785 S46.3,52 ■2-21,814 81,713 117,021 110,397 ;j8,404 30,8:)1 1816t.... 618,-^67 290,730 .381,108 8f),5,4,M 1.30,323 8fl,n7o 66.477 28.862 46,146 4-2,087 2,161 1,896 IS47{.. . 278,4Si 69,831 6>3,309 676,631 327,636 143 54'.i 100,747 67,800 182,157 67.805 16,376 8,6f>7 1818 840.687 193,3,'>8 1„'I7U,1I1 1,1.^5, 0,8.1 676,683 3-27,493 228,671 76,943 130,IKI8 101,171 89, -.82 21,6.33 184!) 071.8.16 210,130 2,06k00l 1,347,614 706,'^76 827,957 .'>4'2.492 14,5.784 146.478 118.233 62,297 !10,I88 MVM 1,088,801 215,:U13 4,146.802 2,069,637 761,188 801,078 339.16;) 113.779 lr,3,73B 129,967 62,866 4I.70O 1851 1,085 374 20;>.847 3.163,783 -.M2»,(I70 984,417 364.204 ;i0().214 100,85!! 275336 189,010 88,179 66,736 1852 9.36,870 19.5.870 ■2,7,M,810 1,702,7-29 866.301 294.380 369,077 98,040 202,838 186,904 110.762 67,804 18,'.3 1,276,290 3' 15,287 3.8.54.966 3.251.408 1,060,4.')6 424,0:18 ;i36,477 106,501 807,4-20 V 84, 847 131,367 77,414 isfll I,379,.S83 3SO,'204 2.1.V.'.Slifl -2,2,56,34« 1,197,->;;4 ,'>04.,'i6!i :l9:i,5S3 12S,30s 825,671 424,875 270.(K54 128,607 1866 1I89.,'154 322,'<'57 1.024,497 1,479.362 l,10»,61-2 ,'.75,60(1 ■ ;97,572 161.878 019,262 669,000 345,010 188,457 1856 517,136 18;l.499 1,71.5.717 2,850,34-i 1,632,1-20 773,276 772,6114 2R8,»94 79-2. ln6 r>04,146 3.59, 4K6 193,000 lSf)7 721,417 306.739 1,618,828 2,527,-262 1,988.037 1,125,160 4*3,495 218,907 1,048,903 619,7-27 875,706 221,810 Nino months. t Five months. t Seven inonthn. There were no exports of wine of domestic produc- tion from the United States for the fiscal year t86r>-'57. The exports of foreign wine from the United States for the year ending June 80, 18&7, were as follows : Value. Madeira $6,101 Sherry and 8t. Lucar 11,908 Port.. 14,081 il40 WingB. In naval matters, passages along the sides of the ship between the fore and after coclipit. Wire. The invention of drawing wire is ascribed to Itodolph of Nuremberg, a.d. 1410. Mills for this ]iurpose were first set up at Nuremberg 'n lifi;i. Tlio first wiro-mill in F.ngland was erected at Mortluke, in 1068.— MoiiTiMBii. T!io astonishing ductility, which is one of the distinguishing qualities of gold, is no way more conspicuous than in gilt wire. A cylinder of -18 ounces of silver, covered with a coat of gold weighing only one ounce, ia uiuolly drawn into a wire two yards V«lu«. $f>o,'6'.io 148,210 310,821 328.814 1H»,411 180,928 221,177 2tJ6,(i88 230,727 229,350 377,482 4f)!),195 459,1 8S 286,111 500,M!T 1 In, •lid tarter 1 I.S< iilUnd. ' ■. Value. 2,H $fl,a»f> 1« 18,il4B n 21,214 M 39,8;!! 51 1.89.5 Tft 8,0,'>7 »2 21,633 07 30,(88 ISO 41.790 79 60.736 .W 67,804 r>7 77,414 W4 128,007 ll« lSS,4f)7 Wl 193,000 100 221,310 "". /I aim '<»«:.0f.J0«Ml,U0EO,.Tn. 1. I Vear> ending I ^■«I^o^l. J" r • ■ I *3ll,404 •• ir4,((.',7 ••34,'.. 4»;! ■I f)i'iM44 "and improve,, a^riS^iii'; ^^ 1,0,5,409 aero, „f fern,,; cash valuoof fun ;s.it«'^'"''''""^<='' '"-"I in "f .mplemen,,, and mac reVy s • .'. " 4 "»" "'« ^-"l"" -Horse, 30.17!); us8cs "„ 'i';'"'A«-^- «"« «oci barley, 209,fi92^ huoku-i, ''™'*''''9; oats, 3,41.| cr^. , P '^■'' '" "■''Pross (1,„ wad.J. ^ ^''"'»"' ''V ina- 20,657; PoU.oo , t ' 5,?'«/«' P««» «"-' b^a V f^' l^-'-'-^ennent am ^^^^ - '"nne.i i„T„ ofproductanf.i,.'''*"'^' potatoes RTQ. ,. i ' '""' '« tie dver \v . "'" "'".^'Powder whirl. of choose, 400,283 -uah '"'""=' """>«■ •''.C33"750 ' IfTi'^." ""'s'" a-I deep b1. o "r" " " '■"«l"'l''o 9874 gallon.,; .ees^-a "Z i"^"' *""''''« ! '"oI«es' i Tf " . ''•''"«"'« '" vervXra'l '" n ' "" ""> ^1"^ 253,903; flax 68 mT """J'™'-'.''. l;i'.,U05 bs • ,™n?' ~"1'"^""e"'of.Tmentat!l? ■ ^'"' '"»' n.ethod, 'ons of,'276 66..' ni', '"!f ' '^''^''- 'ohioco, 12^. ""J' "" «"'»o >eryill understood -h"' T''"'""''" "f'^ad other K^a3see,N 03',.' '^"'r ■'«""^- '*^3 tu.h 2' 'Tf' "^ '' ™» ""verbeS.li.'Ii^'r.r '""»«' of""" flows centraUv ami ""'? """"' '^'"'in , ,„ S 'il ' !' ".» l'™^P=ct that nnvi . nrlvtn^ Th'*' '» """ "■»« border. It if ka , r" """ '^"«*i»«ippi on i 1. 'j '" '" P^^foraUon wiil "^.^n "'"•""•? '""■*• ''« """"o ""h River where a':?'",'" ""-' P-^'-S" of F^ ^.Nell T^ i'"'"""''«»- « ri a .^-^ "l"/'' "'"'" '" Sood- woo 1084 WOO iMTOlTii or Wuoi> AND MANurAflTtiBiii or Wood, nro., into the I'nitid !. tilTfd lork. Caliloat •nd lloaHllolil ITuniltara, Ctitar, Kaa>, and iailn. Willow. Dlliar Mann. (aalursa of. Cadar, Of»n- adllla, Ma- hosany, Koaa, aadibllln. Willow. Klr....»>l 1 and nihtr < not aparlll.d. 1 wo.nI In ■llak. UuuUn I'uM In N. Am... Swoden anil Norwny Panliih WcMt Indict .... I'liiilo 072 783 ■"so 1,8S0 ■"ia "426 80,443 "'b5 262 "lis 600 "'fl's 101 2,'2'07 ■$8'i8 807 ■ '241 4,706 00 "'so 7,'408 no '"85 '"68 "606 ' ■ 'l7 J«,'8'68 112,240 80 ' 'oBO 1,6U6 ■ ' 'is ' ' 'I'o ■"l7 64,006 ' ' 11 " "o 21 ' ■ '96 818 ■|61 6i,'ii»n 110,KU6 1,168 ' ' '4'J 4.880 66,l.'80 1,040 113 JMOB 8,76i 468 "'S6 "m i.oio 80,642 OS ■"lo 82 170 187 "l'44 ' ' '20 7,247 ■"is 14 1,130 ■■■(is i,'08.'. 1,408 030 64 8 1.'!,771P ■»6!1 845 ' 'doB ' 'm8 " ' '78 7.866 28,881 111 Si,'li80 ioo'dm 1,801 104,'4'04 83,248 43,813 800 2111 tOW.I 164,840 $8! 807 688 •20a $6m ■ ' 10 18 i.'ui 57 i,'J62 7 8,2S8 ■ ' '21 ' '.138 1,4-8 lOi) "Vl ■ ■mo 780 ' 'M8 1.030 0,801 187 i,'s23 1.786 1.44'> 2,061 ' ' '26 ■$110 is.'i'so 1,610 7110 260 T.B1I8 " '2 1,400 82.'^t;« '27 ,(.'•4 S» r)24 4,70.'> 0,'l'4'4 80 « ji'lHl O.IIIO 828 Bio'iiiB 2.877 6',212 0.004 20.f»!l 81, .',22 9.011 88.877 $.S00.04'> '$144 6,704 i,'700 iiw's 26.'()8i 88,flU» *9.m 22,'JSO im'm ' m ' m 6,012 "JSS "$88 "i7i 608 ' ' 'itt '"11 10 ' 'alio 1 '1^674 4,ab6 llolUnd Dutch Weat Indici Dutch (liilan> Dutch Guat Indlca Dolgtum Ulb'-altar Other llritiah N. A. I'oiii.. Ilrltiih Wuillndioi Ilrltlih llonduru Uritlih Uulani Ilritlali l-iiM. in AfHca . . . inhcr portH in Africa Dritiah Auatralla llritiah Kaat Indies France (in the Atlantic. , . fVancc on the Mcdiler'n. . French Ciuiana Hpain on tlio Atlantic Hpiiln on tho Mcdiler'n.. . riiillppinc lilanda Cuba rurtUffHl Madeira Atiin-B Anatria llayf ■ Han Domingo Mexico Central Kcpiibllo Braill Chili Sandwich Islands China Total yonr 1SM-'B7.. »47.8»fl $16.18.') $176,484 $8111,1711 $»IS •.•>i $41,773 $211,467 $jo;i.r>72 *17.01I2 Tne natives of tlie Isthmus of Uarien pick out tiie fibres from aomo of thn palms, and use them as nails ; in lome spociinens they arc as hard as rose-wood. Some of the smallest palms are imported into this country for walking-sticks, under the names of partridge and Penang canes. Of the four or fivs hundred varieties of palm-trees known to exist, only a very small num- ber are imported. The palm woods so imported are sparingly employed for cabinet and marquetry work, for billiard cues, for snuff-boxes, etc. Tho twisted palm walking-sticks am the central stems or midril>s of the loaves of the data palm : they are twisted when tj-rccr., and stretched with heavy weights until they ore thoroughly dry. Thn nut, or fruit, of many of this group of plants is applicable to uses in the arts ; such as tho betel-nut or areca-nut, whose substanco is made into necklaces, tho tops of walking-sticks, and other small objects; tho cocoa-nut, whoso shell yields the fibre or coir, now used in England for a great variety of purposes, and the hiinl portion of tho shell, which is tunied into cups, vases, buttons, otc. ; the coquilla-nut, the shell of which, bcin-^ hard and cluso-tcxtured, is turned into knobs of umbrellas and parasols, small toys, etc. With respect to tho simple wants and primitive arts of the people among whom tho palms and bamboos grow, tho uses of those plants are very numerous ; of tlio Cocoi nueifera, or cocoa-nut palm, for example, tho fruit is eaten, the husk of the nut sup- plies coir for cordage, tho leaves are used for making bukets and mats, the lower part of the stem yields wood fitted for joUta and other kindt of carpentry, and dilfercnt portions of the plant arc made to yield oil, sugar, palm wine, and arrack. IJut it is the exogenous or true woods which render the inoro important services to man, so far as regards the stem or wood itself. The fibres do not appear to difler in size or bulk so much as in density and dis- tance; these two last-named difTerences give rise lo the distinction between hard and soft woods — the former comprising oak, mahogany, eliony, rose-wood, etc. ; and the latter willow, alder, deal, etc. Another classiflcalion is that which springs from the direction of the fibres; if tho annual or longitudinal fibres be tolerably straight, and very little interwoven with the medullary rays or interrupted by knots, the wood be- comes elastic and easily rent ; such are lance-wood, hickory, ash, etc. ; but If tho fibres ar.i more crossed and interlaced, the wood becomes less clastic, and more rigid and tough ; such arc oak, beech, mahogony, etc. ; and if the fibres be entangled to a still greater degree, they produce tho non -clastic, totigh, cross-grained woods, such as elm, lignum-vitic, etc. Another mode of classification, traced with sonic minuteness by Mr. Iloltzapffel, is that which is determined by the beauty of the surface presented by woods. The knots, occa- sioned by the Junction of a branch with the stem; tho curls, proiluced by the confused filling In of the space between the forks or springings of the branches, os in tho yew; the gnarled appearance of the roots, formed at the points o( junction of tho rootlets or arms of the root with the body of the root itself, as In walnut wood ; the pollard growUii of the oak and other trees, which ..'.' 2r,M5 42,678 «... 10,0«4 ^. »k 1,34S • ••• 1T,18« • ... 1,906 8.299 124,188 woo 1966 WOO KavoH* M Wnnn «ii» kUiiuyAorvMt or Wnoi> or inatiaii raoiicanoN rniiM Till 1 Nitah "TATiia ron Tiia V«aa KaiiiNu .liiNM :ill. lltflT. niMHM„iar M«aufa«lur«i «iIWwhJ 1/ •ir»4l WiKM*. Wklikn .•|«rl«4. (aliliMi Nllli Willow. (Hliai M.nil- I p>Uf, urviiH- .lilU, Ma. WIII.M. mill III >i*r i)).wiii>a lluu«b..l'i,li|8 likiUtn i\u lUllomI \orih i^oJ'"; . * • • (i,4MI • • • * , , , , . • • * $800 . > • • . . » • rVUMtA • « . > < • 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 « t « . . • • a • a a a • • a .... III.IIOO llirmlKri niiil NiirviiJ' ...,,...• i ••>•••• . • . 1 1 • •• • . aa t .... 4,T»S 111,180 Ilwilili W«»llntll« • . • • • a • a 11.10 Ilaniliiini • . • i aa • . 4.100 1117,816 Ilnninn i , , .... VII.I4I 411,627 llulUiiil . . t • • 1 aa .... 10,ti04 VII. 148 IIhIiiImim Kniltnil .... ' . a • a III.Mii 6fi.'.':i2 .a.. • • . • 4,«I6 61,1(8 128 airar* Nriiilmiil . • • • • • aa . > I > i>,i:>8 (Ilbniur .... .... iiin v.aim MdU . . • • l,no!i 1,(188 0,247 I'tnwU •T4 td'M 8,0V9 .... .... 213 DihiT llrUlnli Siinh AtnurloM I'nM, ,,. .... 4M 8,7(8 019 1610 llrUUli Wi'>i liiilli'* 1 • • • • • 24 0,IRO ItrliUli AiitlrKll* 8,9(17 llrllUli i:au liiillga . .... .... 14,041! $'.N|| 80B 6,478 I'Vuticii liii Ihn AtUttllr < »nn:> .... .... .... l,fl!IO .... 86,71iS i:i>,l)4s Vnimi uii tliii MgillMrruMan H|mIii iiii Itin AtUlitlii • • • • . • . . l,4(>8 .... .... .... .... "m .... 8,(H:0 06 (.■nnry ItUuida t'uU a. .a 23,4«!l < . . . ... a li:8 I'urliigal , , , .... 860 .... 6,'. 34 Aiiiriw ,,, . • • • 2,079 , , , , ... 1 VT Munlliilii V4'.f.74.' $ KM >.8ii « 2i. «>M|H.I4.1 1 $17.5114 1(140 »iS »4(l<.8 y..4ll.8ii, Wall T)a. lUU; Swcd. h'll; Vr, hiiiir I 1 1, and Mp. hinni I'urt. /,i ri'fi'r only lo ilia wool of idiecp — an articlo wlili'li liaa luihllniti'd, from tlio curllcKt period down tu (bo prnaiinl day, lo liu of primary IniporUnco, liuving alwayi fornuMl llin principal part of the cluthiiit; of ininkind in moat ti'inporalu ri'iflonn. ^piiiri 11/ W'wil, It liai liocn cuntomary to divide wool into I wo Kri'Ml iliiaaan — lonK and abort wool* ; and lllSMi HKuIn liilo aiiliui'dliiatii claaaen, ancordhi); to the lluanuaa nf llm lllirc. .Sliort woid la used In tlio clolli limniirni'luro i and la, tliurvforp, frci|nontly called cloth- ing wool. It may vary in IciikIIi from ono tu thrco or fuur liii'lii'ai if It l>" lonu<-r. It re(|uirei to be cut or brokt'ii to proparii It for llio manufacture. 'I'Uc/dting propurly of wool la known to every one. Tbu prov-'cus orbttt-inaklnt;, for uxamplr, dcpemla entirely upon it. Tbit wool of wlili'li liata nru made is nuitbcr spun nor wuvi'iii bill locka of it, bciiiK tborongbly intermixed and coiii|iri'a>io| In warm water, cobcro and form a •olid, li'iiai'lnii* aiilwlanco. (lotli and woiib'ii i^oods nrn made from wool possessr Ini; tbit pnijiiirly ; tbu wool Is carded, spun, woven, and tliKii, UdiiK put in ibe fiiliin^-iiiili, tbc process of fultiiiK lakua plniii, Tlie slrokcs of tbo mill make tbc ilbrea cobi'rn ; llm piece aubjcclcd to the operation coii- trictx III lenKtli and lireadlb, and Its texture becomes muro coinpiiiil and uniform, 'Ibis process Is essential to (bu beauty Mini slronKll' of woolen cloth. But tbo loiiK wool of wlilcb atulla and worsted are made Is de> prlved of Its fvllInK proportlos. Tbia Is done by pass- ing tbo wool tbroiigb beated iron combs, «bieb takes away tbo lanilno) or fenlbery purt of tlie wool, anil up- proxiniatcs it to tbe nature of silk or cotton. Longer combing wool may vary 111 length from three to eight inches. Tbo shorter combing wools are principally nscd for hose, and are spun softer than the lung ('(iiiit>- iiig wools ; tbo former being made into what i.s called hard, and the latter into toft worsted ram. The liiie- nesa of tbo hair or filiro can rarely be estimated, at least for any useful purpose, except liv the wool sorter or dealer, accustomed by long habit lo discern those mi- nute din'urences that are quite inappreciable by com- mon observers. In sorting wools, tlieio arc frequently eight or ten dlflbrcnt species in a single lleeee; niid if t lie beat wool of ono fleece bo not equal lo tbe tiiiest sort, it is thrown to a 2d, 3d, or 'Ub, or to a still lower tort, of an equal degree of Ijncness witli it. Tiio best b'.n- glisb short native fleeces, such as the flno Norfolk and Soiitlidown, are generally divided by the wool-sorter into tbe following sorts, all varying in niicneas from each other: viz. 1. rrinio; 2. Choice; n. Super; -1. Head; 5. Downrigbts; C. Seconds; 7. Fine .Mib; «. Course Alib; 9. I.ivcry; 10. Short, coarse, or lircecli wool. Tbo relative value of each varies, according to tbe greater demand for coarse, flne, or middle cloths. The softness of the fibre U a (piality of great imporl- ancc. It is not dependent on tlic fineness of tiie fibre ; and con.sists of a peculiar feel, approaching to that of silk or down. Tbe dilTerence in tbe value of two pieces of doth made of two kinds of wool equally riiic, bin one distinguished for its softness and tlio otlier for I lie opposite quttlity, is sucb, that, with the same procef* and expense of manufacture, the ono will bo worth from 20 lo 25 per cent, more than the other. Jlr. liakcwell sbowod that tbo degree of softness depends principally on the nature of tbe soil on which sliecji Woo ^^^mmm ""•■mUm „t |,;„. o'o'h i« Moved (liov 1.7 """ ^o"' wrter v„t° K ""'' """• "no ti '" ""'""'I" lo V,rZ ' '"""'^'M- Th" IPiiiiM^ .:.":. ^'"= "lioness othl^°"' '•" '>«' to bo rt,.„i '" "'').''"emn(s aro l„in" .V'"" " """-o inter«M-„' "< it ha, been a,,e,t„i„,;^^»™»rsc, rough kind of hai^T^^ " " ''"'. ^ IT much ,lcge„era(o, ,h e„ ' '" "'""'"•"""ro of coar,' l„^ " )""''' "'^ '" " "I „' " ""™'"tliocdosoofl„ ^«s^, which is naturlly /llrr'' •>''""'>to, .hcaW "'"""'■"«'''« »fcoX'clo^'"^'"''''"V'" "'"in '.''» '"'tcher n,»,^:. ?.,'"" P""l"eo of ,v„r,l ..... ..r'PMf''«"rc unless some e.Ztt, ''"™'' "^ "'« "■«„.■. I '"' ' evi»ed. Prince A bo h " '^'""''-"' '"^'•■'•'' ''' ™" - ........... sne-. . ..- /""'^'"■' "•'■' "- " "' '"""' ^'^'""•"" ""-' porter the CoJm- „"";""':','!' »"yoined to ,he -. ,>, / '" ''"•"•"■"^'-rinKp™;;';;? T?''' "'"° ""^s"l'j<;ci;d woo 1088 WOO MMh • mod* of ni«nMh«turt for milMty mU woulil b« (|ulU illfpru|iartUiiisU In Ih* r«iull ubulntd t liiil ih* prinoa'a prHlMwurlliy uIiJmI wit ■luwtrmi liy ihuwlng Ihtl tlw CiMliiiitrf liMt ran Im tntni\, mil (hit l\\a AMiiy i!uv«rlii|| ti*n Ik wniMuhl liiln oliilh. Th* •rti. eln priMlucnl fri>iil ilm wwil in (|iiMtUiii noiiaUUtl uf a pUm of wliila itliitli, with (Ilk warp and CiMlinitrt wuft, wuvcM Willi • lirmiiuliHl lltfum | ■ pIcc;* of linilUr ahttm'fi, l>ui i)y«il I iwu iliawli mail* wliully of th* Cwhmara wunli itnil a plnva of emt— wuulan cluth ma4a trnm ilia kamp or lialr."*** CAaiiNKM*. 5 11 ! ! 4i<< It/, a pound nn for- alfin wool of a vulua aliova l«. tha pound, and iJ. • puuiii! on that of liiwar vulua. Thaaa dutlnt continued until repealed liy HIr Kobert IVel. After tlio ffrrat ra- duollon in IH'ii the contumption Inrrcnicil, and In INM reached 3a,U)M,fl'.tO poundii ; in 1HI2 the (uniiuinptlon bad further rlten tu -tAtHHIiOIlO pouixU, when the lup- ply from Aualralia beRan to ba filt. Hut from that tlina forward, and after the duty wan reiMalrd, the iin- portatinn Inrreitaed at n rata wliUh no one could liavt contemplated, until in IHlii It reached no leae a i)uan> tity than I'.'O.'iO.HOH pounda. In tha lait conipleto your for which we liiive the accounia (IH57) the (|uun« tIty recoiveil from Auitrnlia hud rlxcn to iO,'2W),KtS pounda ; from India the Iniporta in the auina period liad riaen from 2,44 1, a70 pounda to in,.170,7-ll pounda ; from (lie Clips It had rlaon from 7 .>l,7'll pounda to 14,2H7,H28 iminda. Much haa been the rapid Increaae in tlie aun- (>ly from Indiri that It ia now obout equal to the « hole Austrnliiin prmluctloni only twelve yeara a)(o.— Aon- doti Kcanomitl, January, 1851). An A'xniTNT or tiir a* linparlf. WutiJ, rur«l|fii ftnd rolonUV Rumla, northern port* b»t,ll07 Kiiiolnn porta wltliln tliii llluck 8ea lt,3I2,1S0 Denmark, Including Irelnml 1,667,(110 I'niula 42,«11 Ilunaeatle Towni 8,2I0,II'J(I llnltand 142,089 IlelKlum 400,789 Kr»nce 00«,»14 I'orlugal proper 2,SAn,033 Himln 8S3,l!iO C}lbr«lt«r 44S,1'20 Hnrillnlan tnrrltoriea 14,liNJ To«c«ny 40S,1^7 I'lilMl tcrrllorlci 15S,IW4 Naplen anil BIrtIv 2211,430 AiKlrlan terrttorle 49R,sn4 MnltA 181,JBB TiirkUh lioiiilnlona 891 ,240 Kiiynl, Hyrtn, anil l>ale>llno 1,741,002 MoiiKco 1)67,010 HritUh po5. -,u«„,i,rof '■'"'"tio'S^ I liliii,|),'),n .".ftir.ido 14."OH.«iio j'8,8:i.j,04n ln,fi6,S,i;47 8,400,1(11) Il„'l4l,4i>!) 18,UJl.,'r()4 •'U(»,i,?;i« »,/vn,ar, Total!. ,. I«M. 1 !""'"8 '' l'*J.M6 7 %'i" ,' «7,4ft4 * l'I,7(H a.T247 i)»n,nio '■'.iBo.iia . 37;i,8i)N i'.-H7,483 100. NOT 1.364,0114 4T7,4ai ■^M'm l.««,ltt. '.l'«,47(l , •■'Tn.sM ii'.OTi.aoi ,„»70,TT8 4.4SI,57o I.sn4,ar8 „ wi.oir 3.40(1,717 !«,8(l(;,7g6 ltlVl,S«8 -— J^ '^AAio.uog Furolgi wool , ■♦'■-'(1,6(17 ■■.3<7 W U'dfT »J....T7rr- !'«"Sr j v.,~-LlI~: mr~~~ J!Z^' '*H 1856. I England I I'Vunce , I Turkey K),;^''""°«<'PuiiiVo' .■:;;.■;• I OtIicrpiicM.'.'.W"; _ Total.... ",' _J'«inili. 3.NS4,,'! 2,'.iii6,s 4,351,2 e.T4\8„ 2,604 30; ,887 V.l,„ «773.45ir '^''O.SOO ■■17:',OI2 6^8,6,',3 •-6r,.i:m 4lO,llSS 4, .Mo, 12,487 m Ian- Chester, and :ut on holly and other blocks on the spot. The analogy between this manufacture and tint of paper is so striking thit it must force itself on the at- tention of every one, the vilest and most worthless nmterials being converted in both into tho most beau- tiful and useful fabrics. Tho shoddy trade is, in fact, one of the (greatest triumphs of art and civilization. Though of comparatively recent origin, it is rapidly extending it. imported wool operates, will surpass us so largely in our own markets, that wo shall bo compelled to stop all eur broadcloth spindles. This has been the efl^ct of tho tariff of 1816 upon our woolen manufactures;' and the prospt.ct of relief to be afforded by Mr. Camp- boll's bill will give life to this decaying branch of our industry. Tho relations of the tariff to. our woolen manufac- tures has attracted so much attention of late, that the following table, showing the rate of duty tiNcd on wool by the various tariffs enacted by Cdiigress since 1789, will bo found interesting. TABirr DirriEB on uipobtxd Wool fboh 1T99. Jnn-jary, 1789, to Aprlt, 1810— free. April, 18IU, tu Mu}-, 1S24— 15 per cent, nd valorem. May, 18i4, to June, 18tI6 — contiiig under 10 cents per lb., 15 per cent, ad vnloreni. May, 1824, to June, 1825— costlnf; over 10 cents per lb., 20 per cent, ad valorem. June, 1825, to June, 1836— costing under 10 cents per lb., 15 t>cr cc.it. ad valorem. June, 1825, to June, 1320— costing over 10 cents per lb., 25 per cent, ad valorem. June, 1826, to June, 1828— costing under 10 cents per lb., 15 per cent ad valorem. .fune, 1826, to June, 1828— costing over 10 cents per lb., 30 per cent, ad valorem. June, 1828, to June, 1829— 4 cents per lb. speclflo, and 40 per cent, ad valorem. June, 1829, to June, 1S30— 4 ceuts per lb. specific, and 46 per cent, ad valorem. June, 1880, to Juno, 1832—4 cents per lb. siicclflc, and BO per cent ad valorem. June, 1832, to June, 1842— cocLIng underScontspcr lb., free. June, 18;i2, to June, 1842 — coutliig over 8 cents per lb., 4 cents specific, and 40 per cent, ad valorem. June, 1842, to July, 1846 — costing under T cents per lb., C per cent ad valorem. June, 1842, - July, 1846— costing over T cents per lb., S cents spcclfir, and uO per tent, nd valorem. July, 1S4«, to Marcb 3, 1857— all wool SO per cent ad vnloi-eni. March 3, 1857, woo! 24 per cent Less than 20 cents a pound, at thft place of exportation, free. Tho fluctuation.^ in this table are remarkable, and, considering their frequency and the extremes to which tlicy run, it is surprising that capital should have been invested in woolen manufactures in this country, " The statistics upon the production and importation of wool, a..J manufactures of wool, have been prepared with care, in order to place the questions connected with tho production and importation of wool and manu- factures of wool, involved in the proposition to admit wool as a raw material free of duty, fully and fairly before Congress. It will be seen that in 1840, accord- ing to tho census of that year, we manufactured woolen goods to the value of f 'iO,COG,099 ; and that in addition wo imported manufactures of wool to the value of $8,652,785; making our consumption of the manufac- tures of wool $29,349,784, and the consumption of tl 71 94-100 for each person tlien in the United States, Tho census of 1840 does not give tho number of facto- ries devoted to, nor tho capital employed in the mdhu- facturo of wool. The census of 1860 shows there were 1559 factories in tho United States, with 28,118,()60 of capital devoted to the manufacture of wool, with the particular States in which tlie factories were situ- ated : also that the inanufactnrcs of wool amounted to |43,'207,&45, and we imported manufactures of wool to the value of (16,970,575, making our runsuniption of manufactures of wool $60,184,120, and the consumption of f 2 591 for each person in tho United States. If wo estimate the increased value of our woolen manufac- tures since 1860 .t the ratio of the increase between 1840 and 1850, it give* our manufactures of wool at (56,406,786, for the year 1865 ; and wo And the value of our iiiiportations of manufactures of wool for 186^') to lie $28,297,(184, making our consumption $79,70 J,170, and $2 93 18-100 as tho consumption of each person then in tho United States. These tables also show, at tho periods of 1840, 1860, and 1856, the volue of tho wool produced in tho United States, and also tho value of wool imported into the United States at the same periods, less the exports of wool. They also show the I value of tho wool. In the imported manufacturos of I wool, at each of those periods, estimating the value of , '■iis'and . , llnri.so To I FiMhoe... I Olhor pla'i Tut a Kriglanil . . 'fniiion . . I t'liuico. .. I Oilier pliic, Tu(«; I i. , '*"■ r.NglaiKi . . "lemon . . . f'mnc,!.,. I O'li'T place mm§mmMwmm m^mmmmmM O"" a...l will manufa^c „ e for 'l """ "'"<'" ""rpeopt *'""'«'' " """J ''een rapped f "?"*'' «<"" a>vs are arranged so a, „, '"^'wolves, if our Sff ^.^''^S" "'« growl .of! . "'' «"'"''«i.i;o;?,.!."'.!il"'^'^''ow that the advantage over us thevw ,"":'' ^'■'='' »f ''"'r- TIlJ ''°^ """''' ^-^ ^neouraZt h, ""'''• "»'»''« ao mil- >„.. !- r "V "111 continn/. . , •' ""S I tiusinpco ! i ""easo g^d exte rl »h sume more n.anufa"°n L' °?' ""■" "« P'oducc, a,.d co , r ''''" /^'^'""""ffVall, f ' ,hV'l''" «"'' indispensable woo 1992 WOO BzposTi or Wool and MASDrAorinuB of Wool or roanoK PBODoonoN ■MDINO JVNI 30, 1857. raoH *na UxiTn> Statu wot mi Yiab WhlllHrnpnM. 1 t Jill 1 1 Is as III 1 1 u 1 ■8" a S SB- a 1 1 AHtutIc KiimU Kuwluii IViiwciiii. In N. Am. Swcdiii Slid Norway Danish VVoat Indlea $300 °SS4 220 $1,1110 1,019 •'807 800 791 9,'ri.l8 8,979 4,032 1,728 4«i 4,6«2 i,026 ■ T92 420 10,443 277 $373 "687 9,9TB 1,237 8,'401 406 ■■'85 82,075 483 1,735 466 l6,'68S 1,782 3,605 1,927 2,925 472 88S $701 ■722 'm 1385 2385 '372 '878 ■$48 ■493 ■iio i478 $3,'do'6 2,5S9 i,'0(JS l6,'825 701 i,'M8 $649 $2S(US3 6,0D4 2,'0l'2 4,753 ■ ■ '84 i,'476 $32 090 ■534 $219 '280 Brciiiun Scotland Canada $283 .... Other UrltlHh N. Am. Pom. ISritUh llondunui UrttUh Australia France on the Atlantic French North Amer, Pom. . Cuba Porto Jtlco Turkey in Asia Porta In AfHca Haytl Mexico Central Republic New Granada Vener.ucla Chill Pom Sandwich Islands China Totol, 1866-'6T $'8S $320 $47,145 $«3,li6J S!W,10i( 27,054 *6<18S $2184 i $2i.U52 1 $II4'.I 1 $2.13,1112 $IS00 $4911 From warehouse Not from warehouse .... 1 i'na $288 1 694 $35,037 ll.lOS $;t7(K) 2988 $536 1 $17,697 1 .... : $184,608 ' 1648 1 3,855 | $64') I 100,314 $1224 82 $219 280 iKFOBTi or Wool asd MAHurAonrBCs or Wool imto ruB UiaixD Statbi roB tub Ybab BMDXMC JUNS 30, 185T. Whence Imported. 8| 4 h Si m i 1 m -1 1 3 1 1^ III i .S„o ll |||. 1^ 1 * * • * • * • * « « « BussIaonthoDaltIc) and North Seas. . / 1,612 .... • a a. . a a a .... RuMia on Bbuk Sea . 43,6-26 • ate a a t a .... . a . . Danish West Indies. 3, 3118 . . . • • a ■ . . • , , Hamburg ISl 976,271 63.8*1 1«0 87,775 285,606 85,627 8,S98 5,8!)!) 2?S 39 5JG 1,588,381 11,219 154,503 2,086 28t} 8 199,109 3,998 790,826 1,774 36,211 228 27,fi22 415 9,807 600 226 Holland Dutch West Indies . . 1,960 • . a a .... . a . . Dutch Guiana 2-8 a. • a .... Uelgium 90!),831 l'2,920 • a • 4.5,651 18,445 83's 8,104 82 1,104 498 104,736 6,771,082 42,439 782,449 332,083 1,692,883 542 1,872,722 11,414 T,1B0,118 1S3,002 68,177 694,116 5,0T3 06,896 817 2,138,691 19,830 Scotland Ireland . e • a .... • a . • 683 ... a .. a a a . . . Gibraltar 8,670 . . • . .... a . • s .... .... .... C67 Malta 02,319 a . . a . a . . a a a . a a . . . a • a anada 6 1,402 168 217 22 845 8 2,181 72 196 Other Urit. N. A. Poa 4V .... . a . . 1,790 S38 14 71 a a a a a . . a British West Indies. . 04^ , , , , .... 36 .a a. a. .. ..aa 108 British Honduras 762 • . a a s . ■ a .... . a a . a a .. British Guiana 6.615 . a a. .... ... a a a . . . a . a .... British I'os. in Africa 168,42t; .... a i a . ... a ... a 17 a . . a Other (lortJi in Africa. • • • 84 .•a. .... ... a a . . a .... a a a a Britirh Australia .... 4.56 41 .... . a • . British VABt Indies . . 8,o«;> l'8.896 a . . a a a a a 182 88 France on the Atl'tlc. .18 364 1,659,479 883,973 3i.4.V!! 86,772 3,022,828 OoC 72,811 22,760 20,496 France on the Med'n. 165,816 6,868 .. a a .. a . . . a . Spain on the .Med'n.. flilUpplne Islands . . 1,04(1 81 .... a . . . a a . a • • e • 8»8 a . . a a..s .a.. • aaa .... ...s Cuba. 2,452 . . > , a . a a . a . a a . . . Aaorcs 3ir, a . • • e a • • . a . • . • a ■ 340 s a . a .... .... a a . a Tuscany 30,477 81S 2 . a . a • a a . a... aa .. a . a. 22 Austria 860 . . a ■ 1>? *. .a 885 . a a . .... aaa. • a a . Turke)- in Kurope . . . 5.185 . . a • ,. a a a a ... a a . a a Turkey In Asia 806,382 a . . » 2"0 .... . a a . s a a ■ .... 461 Mexico 3,054 a - ■ < a a . . ...» • . •• .... aaa. Central Republic .... 809 . a . a *.i a .... a a a • New Granada 31V 4 . -SO J.,li' 61 s SJ58 00 . a . a Vaneauela llfl . . . • . .• .... .... .... a . . . a • . a Bnutil 14.466 .... . a a ■ a a . . a a . . .... a . a a a . a . Uruguay 10,102 ... ... . a .. a., a ... a a. .. ..a a Argenline Kepublic. . 694,7.')(i .... .... . . a a .... . . a a . a . a 364,610 878 a . • . .... .... .... . a a * Sandwich Islands . . . 1,061 408 . . . a . a a . a a a ... a 12a . • a . China Total. 18Be-'B7. . 12.080 6 86,294 1ft T9 575 2,126,744 11,009,606 2.246,851 l,U81»,97a ij40,aiu n.i;60,oa9 lUlt,]4Ti81B,47o|I06.77D 2,181,896 lYlAB 1 $21» '280 $40;i 280 Maryland.. ''■••'"/ « 'iTM* TM'sJi .i''^' 64s s«7 *■'*'"* 2 412 1 Virginia •'•I «S i ii?*''' A« (iX '"■'" 8 282 r?I *" Isr Tennosseo ••• { "J'™' TO9W •■• 18,060 ,| 190 1 ^"""«^ky • • ■ 4 MM ^W ■■■■I 80 M ]6 16 Total, I860 h-r-i- ® %«(»::•• S.S'iO 'S 10 | '^1-™ o. Woo,. 0. ^yT' '•■'"*' ^'^''^.'^SS^'^^^-^^-^f-^l- "SI r»' have come1rL?.!."'^*•«f'^,f1;;ltT'!''«V I'her^^^^^^^^^ guished I •nd hffau. m nnth" "'« person, a,i,i pro,,','', '» most rii.u „. .1 ' ' .' ' « vessel »h.>,rwoM ; :t'r'*''«'^»/C^^ ''" « '■able to answer for tboJ., f^"'' '»*te fiw i««l "*" '""'^ str .'^eck were ove.-y wl™!:^:.":"? «?igularly employed in the business of wrccliing on the coast of l'°luriilii witli- out the license of the judge of said court ; and before licensing an}' vessel or master, the judge sbu^l lie sat- isfied that the vessel ia sea-worthy, and properly and sufficiently fitted and equipped for the business of sav- ing property shipv;rccl(cd and in distress, and that the master thereof is trustworthy, and innocent of any fraud or misconduct in relation to any property ehlp- wrecltcd or saved e« said coast. — Act of C'ongrcu etlub- lishing the Court, 1847. 2. All vessels of the burden of ten tons and upward, regularly employed in the business of wrecking, must be licensed by the judge. The license shall state tlic names of the owners and masters. The clerk shuil keep a register of licenses, stating the name of the ves- sel, owner, master, and date of the license. Every change of owner or naster must bo approved of by the judge and registered by the clerk. For furnishing tlie license and keepiufr the registry the clerV. sliall be en- titled to receive f-.om each vessel two dollars a year. 8. No license will .e granted in favor of any owner or master of any wrecking vessel who shall give or offer to give to the master or mate of any wn-ckod vessel any part of the salvage, or any sum in lieu there- of, or any unlawful nresent; or who shall give, or offer to give, or secmt io such master, any proportion of the wharfage, storai^, or commissions, or any sum or thing in lieu thereof, to induce him to employ such master or owner of the wrecking vessel as his agent or consignee, or to use his t -harf or store, or lo purchase his goods; or who shai' make any other arrangement i;Uh the master or mate of any wrecked vessel, where- by and with Intent such master or mate may make any money for his own use out of the wrecli of his vessel. 4, Licensed wrecking vessels, including the smaller as well OS the larger, shall be admitted to assist ut a wreck in the order in which the vessels themselves ar- rive, if further assistance be needed, unlesj some good cause shall exist for the contrary ; and the master of any vessel deeming his vessel and crew excluded with- out sufficient cause, may apply bv petition to the court for a distributive shiire of the salvage. 6. In anysalvagu ca tsc, upon petition, stating fac^s and circumstances, showing that the master of nny vessel has voluntarily cast her away, or luis fraudul^int- iy abandoned her, or haj been guilty of any other gross or barratrous misconduct in relation thereto, or has fraudulently colluded with the salvors, or iias accepted or agreed to accept, nny part of the salvage, or any thing in lieu thereof, or nny unlawful present from any salvor, or employs as his agent cr consignee any per- son entitled to c share of the salvage, knowing him to bo so entitled, or stands in any other relation to the property incompatible with a proper and independent discharge of his duty in the prutectiou of the rights of the owner; in every such case the court will, upon notice, an'', the hearing of such petition, and U[on being satisfied by proof of the truth thereof, appoint and admit the resident agent of underwriters, the proper consul ar some other suitable person to intervene in the cauee, :is amicui curia, tor the protection of the interests of the absent owners, by himself or by his proctor, without stipulation for costs, and to answer and defend the libel, and to object to any item of costs or charges, and generuily to do whatever may be deemed necessary to protect the rights and interests of such owners. 6. No master of any vessel, wrecked or in distress, can lawfully make nny money out of his vessel nr cargo, or out of the business growing out of the dis- aster. Every agreement whereby any muster senks to make such money is contrary to law, and void ; and if made with salvors, worlis u forfeiture of salvage Every master reoaiving any sum of money or other thing for any n'atter connccled with his voss»d or cargo or the disaster, may be compelled to account therefor under oath, in a Court cf Admiralty or Equity. 7. Every agreeuient to give the master of a wreck- ing vessel, or otlicr person, nny money or thing for his recommendation or elUirts to procure any l)uslness for any wharf, or s'nrc, or commission merchant, is contrary to law, und void. 8. Wreckevs v.'ill be entitled .o salvage for services rendered in saving any vcssil or cargo, altnou^h sucli vessel may have been voluntarily cast away, or bored, or otherwise destroyed by the master; provided they do not in any munner connive at or kno-.vingly assist liim in his design, and provided th^y make a full state- ment to the cour,, of their knowledge of the facts in the case. But if they in any manner knowingly aid or assist the nmstcr to destroy jus vessel, or oonceal theii knowledge of facts or circumstances showing such a design ; or if they give or agree to give the master any part of tlie salvage, or oilier sum of money, or incke him any unlawful present, or help him in any manner to make any money out of the wreck of liis vessel, their salvage will be forfeited. 9. It shall be tho duty of the master-wrecker, or first boarder, on flr^t boarding a vessel on the reef, or in distress, to hand this license and these rules to tho master, and !cav? the same with him, if ho shall so de- sire, long enough to be read and understood liy him. 10. Tho first set of salvors are entitled to save the property, and have the right to exclude all others as long as they have the means of saving it, and act in good faith. But if tho services of a second set become necessary, sich second set are entitled to bo admitted co-salvors without being required to make an consort' '»"■ Wre •hip or other ajtreomonf „, ^^^^ «~ have no right to exo^,? .u ^'" ^^ond set J,o ^"^E Ji. 1 he masters 6fwr..|,,„"- ' Jhenart.^ ^ Sut'rn^:'"''' '" «" "" I'oaM fe:;"-»""» .'hall not a!lo„ •ny of thf cargo """■ °' '"'*»SC3, or to "m! "' !T^"' »„.ck*d it I °" ,"'? C«n,,li«n ,),„""'' ,f;''=«'' ''^ torostod against his oZrl' Z'^TT' "--""- Id. TI18 crews of wrecl((.,lv„,°'^''<'osps. that ,^.ey are notdischarg * ::»?"'''.'''' ""'-'"eel dut^_ 0,. account of the vf ss»I °" 'i""' ""'^'e^ or their «ons is distributed n ontldv as f" i"^ '"''^' <""• eoUi- February 154 ; March, 9«f AprU -^ •a/''"^ '•^•' ^1" '• 32i July, 48 ; August. 51 : S„na.'i'i^''-r' «' ; June, doubt foldt;d S"^' "S'' °f t^em a"P2 .1 «' g» off, and probabiv more • 67 ^'"7" '" ''"^o ''^o,^ of then, raised ; 6 run dotvn'- n ^"""'l"'''^ "^ '""k, 4 «ftor.vard carried in; 3 Z'( 2 n/."^"''''' ^ "'''''e'n "'««'ng, no doubt fot,ndered n •"■" "■«'"^''; 16 Of the 4cK.e;seIs'q?4 "''•'■" ^" l'"i»lio'»"' '""^oa vor-l ; ^ fi "^ \''' " "ot exact/ v,. f ?',f"? » ^-o" ■' Tllo lundy; 5T1?,!^?V^,^"''^! n upon the Isle 'fi'''""'"'^' """'<='•<'"'• InlT59 fnr. ' ^"""etobe WRI 1996 TUC indiapetisable to CTiahle any individual to bo appoint- ed to ttir command of a aliip. Duriiij^ (lie war with France, t'., xSlps of tho line went to (lie bottom, br- aides 1° 111 '-Kun iiliips, 80 frigates, and a vant ninnb<:- of sinalloi' vemiels. And llie Iomci suetuincd by tin Tmviea of I'Mnre, Spain, Holland, Ucnnmrk, etc., must I»»ve verj- Ki^atly exceeded tboso of ours. Hence, as Mr. LyoU lias oliservcd, it is pri.iiablo tli^i. a greater Dunit>cr of monuments of t'' ' >klll ind indt try of man will, in the lourso of ages, be cMi^ ted togeei' ii. the bed of the oi"i nt one ti> on the surface of tho > MH'inent. — I'riw-.)' n of Geoltigi/. VTrlting. i'i- tures wcr' !!■ i uibtedly ihc iir«t easay towaii> wiii/iig. Tlio jiu-l ancient rcnuins of writing whlcii buvo lieen transmitted to m» aro upon hard hubbtunccr , ajch aj ttonca uiul met.:!' used bv the ancients for edic;.- and matters ■■ nablit iiotnii, ly. .lYtiiotes, or Hermes, if said to have wiittcn a bl.itury of (ho (Egyptian*, and to have been the author of hloro- Riypliirj, ittl' A.c. -Ubiier. Writing is sni.l to hav« ijeeii t«iiq;ht to thr J .I'liis I ; nor, K o;.''.f I'hcer ii.iii, H\] : :«v.'., i"'; 'oundor if Oad.u Plianr in< letteia into!!.' iKHudintiiiH wore written " .1,::.- -l'--iiM . n 'iree!. : talile-biuilts, Rv.d ontinivit :l ryuawaaltnown. — .v«cl'Ain .iii;,Paii(i;mknt. PArnR, '• ( rfould clieck tho petty vnidty of tlioio who alight goue licensed on terms which will authorize then tJ proceed from port to port of the United States without entering or clearing at the cus- tom-house. iSuch license shall be in such form as the Secretarj- of the Treasure may presenile : Providt J, such vessels tt enroll<4 days, 8 hours, 48 minutes, and was in use among the Chal- deans, Persians, and ancient Jews. Once in every three years was added another lunar month, so as to make tho solar and lunar year nearly agree. But though th^ months were lunar, the year was solar • that is, the first month was of thirty daj" a»i '. the second of twenty-nine, and so alternn'el} , and the month added triennially was called the second Adar. The Jews afterward fillowed the Koman manner of computation. — Havi> , .SVc Almanac, Calenpab. Vucatan, a [leiaisular state of Mexico, Central America, mt stly between lat. 17° 80' and 21° 80' N., and long. 87° and 01° W., having north and west the Gulf of Mexico, east the Caribbean Sea, and landward British Honduras, Gunteniala, Chiapas, and Tabasco. Area, 7364 square leagues, or Ii2,947 square milei. Population in IH.W, fi80,y4t!. Surface nioftl. ijvc'. fertile in the south, liut deficient in regular supni'i' .)f water, though so inundated in »"mnieras gr'" •> I impede agriculture, in which, ns wci.as man:, »,-s, it appears to be behind the more northern \. '-ticiis of Siexico. Cattle are numerous. Other chief n urcea of wealth are maize, cotton, rice, toliacco, pepptr, sugar- cane, dye- woods, liides, and soap, mostly exported from Campeachy and Sisal. It is divided into five depcnd- enricb niid eighteen distri<-*> Principal cities and towns, Blerida, tho" capital, V udadolid Isam.il, ''ara- peachy, and Tekae. It also comprise, tho remarka- ble ruins of Uxmal, Chi-chen, Kabah, and /ayi. The Day of Yucatan is e name sometimes given to the sea immediately north of the Bay of Ilondur s. The Channel of Yamtan, between that rountry and Cu(,i. ! is 120 miles acioss. i ■/'^••^' ^''- -^^4^^ ZAP , and 1997 ZAN f.'.* tliecurrant 'ri,?'*'".'''"'"'"ilfmfod tn (i,„ f. ■' ""'"n account .0:.^,--— " I'-upnetora are i" 'ioT, will ^,.„ V 1 ; , ^ 'wpoil Hiat tlii, ,,,„;„ '""'"n Zanzibar or T'a^^l 1. '^ aliundant. *ions under Crcntv „m !?"'"'• "" l'J- ve,scl"!*> IT V**' ^o'' "i" Africa tL/"' ' P°«8ession9 on twatv. In'^ ,IT, "^ '""'»"» wLich are 1? , '""""V <■»■■ KuroneanH a ««"ation is very un- •t«nd,,„„atb Lh'' ^"'""""n "- An.oril""fl" i^^'' «« -"h Au, h '^^/^.^^n^iJerable trade JTcar- "g-Jar intercour''':;?'''^^^^ l" """ ^''^ S^a- ,^f^'' ■ #Ar ZEA 1008 20L The principal prmluce of tlio luliiml li cloves — tho annual prmluce Iwing from 2,(HM),0(I0 to 11,000,000 lln., of which the Bultan hiinsclf producru iiliout 1,000,000 Iba. Tho value of American traile with /unzil)ar may bo eiitimateeral character. The stip- ulutions of tlio treaty with tho I'nited States are faitli- fully observed, aiui -very dcsiralde commercial facility freely extended to Am,^rican commerce. Zea, Indian Corn, or Maise. .Sk- IfAiy.r.. Zedoary ((ier. Zittvir; !•>. Zeiloairf, !t. Ztdo- ariu; Up. Ccdoaria, A en\). Jiuiear ; Hind. -Virftisi), tho root of a plant w ilcli grows in Muiuliar, Ceylon, Cochin China, etc., ot whicu then are throe distinct s|>ecies. It is brought ! fan ash < dor, but internally of a brownisli red. Those i.. 'ts ' hich arc heavy and free from worms are to lie clioseu, rejecting those which are decayed and brolten. The odor of zedoary is fragrant, and somewhat like that of cjuiplior , the tarite lilting, aromatic, and bitterisli, witli some degree of acrimony. It wos form -rly employed in medicine, hut is scarcely over used uy modem practitioners. - SIlLni'iiN's Oriint. Cvm. Zinc, or Spelter («61 to 7"1, the liglitc.it being esteemed the purest. When ham- mered, it becomes as high as (-lUOM. This metal forms, as it were, tho limit liCtween tho brittle and the malle- able metals. Its malleability is l)y no means to i*- comiuired with that of copper, lead, or tin ; yet it Is not brittle, like antimony or araenic. When struck with iMroRTS Of /mo nnro ma I'nitkh Ptatzs roi nn Vr»i mniiiu .IfNs !l(i, Vtil. Whtnm liii|<(irt«il liennisrk Kanlnh West Indies. llamhiirK HulUnrt Ilutrh VVrat Indies.. llelKlion KlUJlullil MriiHiiiiil llrlllKli N. Am. Toss. IlrltiHh Wiwt Indies . Frsnro on tliu Atlantic Total, IStSl-'til. In Pl«t_ v«lu»'. tIM mi 11,011) in,3IKl 4'44,7ft4 StiHta. "Viiliii."" #»,»68 13o',M» O.tllK 8W,«!1T V.ixa 4 $i>4a,tiso _N.IU. VsTw." $2870 11 $'i4MI Zine Paint, — The zinc paint, now brought beftre pub- lic notice, Illustrates at once tho ingenuity shown In de- vising means for remedying an evil, and the difficulty of applying the remedy in opposit ion to popular custom. AVIiitc-lead is deleterious to health, and nothing has suc- ceeded in rendering it otherwise. Hence attempts are being made to find a substitute ; and zinc seems at pres- ent the best fitted for this ofHce. Tho manufacture of the white oxyd of zinc is a beaiitifnl example of chem- ical action, ftletallie zinc is heated in a furnace to which a current of air is admitted ; tho zinc vaporizes ; the vapor passes into a series of chambers ; and here it collects on tho wails as a light downy flocculent oxyd, which Is scraped ofT and removed. When ground up with linseed oil, tho oxyd foms n white paint, which may be the ground or substance for other colors used la house-painting. Then comes tho rivalrj' between tho two " whites" — the oxyd of zinc and the carbonate of lead. The chemical virtues of the former are insisted ujion ; but the advoi'iitcs for the latter have not failed to point out the qualities in which it is unquestionably the lietter of the two — especially in drj'ing more quick- ly than tlio zinc white, and hi.ing more " body" or substance. One among many propo^ied nuides of ap- plying tho zinc white . in iloor-cloth painting. In this manufacture oil paint is iaid on thickly, first with n brush and afterward through the medium of carved blocks. Tlie quantity of jiaint consumed is so large, that the white-lead contained in it becomes a sad ene- my to the men employed in the processes ; and henco a recent attempt has been made to adopt zinc white s a substitute. Zoll-Verein. The Germanic confederation of t tales for purposes of commerce came into practical ooeration liy the treaty of March 2'2, 1833. Trior to tliat period, tlie states of which the union is composed did not allow of the Introduction of merchandise across their respective frontiers without tho payment of du- ft hammer, it does not break, liut yields, ami becomes tics ; numerous prohibitions existed, and the commer- .«omcwhat flatter; and, by a cautious and eUi. S(1,0.VI !w,roo 3;t,oflfl 20,100 I3,C00 S,000 __2,20fl 15S,"(!r)« 80,000 13,000 0,200 8,T0O 4,000 ••,'.'00 11,1,. «•,;.'.» 73,700 'i«,oiml 20,300 l7,:ioii 7,1100 O.lOil "^"""d wi.hi,, tTZ\iy I':' !"'"'" "'"""or in. wnu, iiri(lB|. (|,„ ■■- w> .„,u„ univorsities «lt«'l M<) lletl, ttirt, , , ,1 ^ "'"'« """nan ,-,■■ had l-c K^ymumnU X ',:,'"'" "^ "'" '"ver l Germ"" mnm,, H,|,|,,|, |,„| , ™ ' ''" "l'pn'l,c.„,,ion, and «,, ,'*'"' '•"^'irt.. ..Mk„ .,„;;"'!"'• """ now Pr.J: iilanv 1111,1^. .. V "»i riMifq III i,f,i„_,„ .._,. ,. '» J"st reIi!.T,r/uH?,Iefrf ,tV"'P'':5 ""^'"rding to tlie -cotton ,na„„f.„„ne, «"i h ,/ f"/ '/■''• "m„l,ered 208 Anioiitr ( ,0 rpo-iil. ,i„ ■ ' '■'"-"™ IJalos. vi'ln. " ,h:„ , """,'" °7f ' ■" ^oll-Vercin, it i, pr„. IV be evfnn.ln.i ;„ ... thoso cun-,1,1.'' "'"lOMo fmind'fur her f,!",;''"''''' """"'"' ''™is 'n the taii/T"iV,'7 '" '"7'*'''°'''"'''''' """'" '".I Citur,, I r ,.r t , r '" "''''y ' '■"'■™- Ar o" ^-a „f ''' '^'^ ''"='' """""o" to bo i, of tl „„'!'" ■"'"' '"''"•" |.roi.m.i-lf , T """'•'■' ' '^"'■™- Article" ''3 „f • ""'' """ation lo bo i„ • rwalii, Iluv,i|.„, ',l'iU(„,„|„„., V V, '""KJonis v diis .,wi,.i„ ,m ,'""80 or niodiiicatioii of duties " Vera " r 1 '":;•;'" <''"-""-.. ,m,„cI„ ;;,' ''■^„';f- ™"»'™3 to reciprooato'vi r? I rr"f '"''''•''='■ ZOL 2000 ZOL liehii »n In many pari* «r|unl, and in ionm iiu|i«rlor, to lh«M of Vraiicn, 'I'hn null, tlioUKli In sonic parU ut' Ihr II' ■ U ''>l mill fkLky, I* Ken«rull> furillr, an ' ' 'n 11 and I'nllnury vaunUblo, listlilon liiiini', 'I << icv, inaUo, alv, I wlilla In tlie Ulioniili 'Oiinlrtti tfiiii :n ionii' iiarta iuutli of CuloKne, vinu- yarili aru oaliinilvnly lulllvaltti, wlilrli pruiluuo tliusv •yniiiiiliU anil I'Mdl wlnvi ti'narally culled lloei' and ITiimIIk, tliai'iiimuMiplliin uf tvlilili in ^upldly iiieroaaliiK in lliu t'nUvilKluliM. Tli« pliynlrnl aspect of the utatu* of tlio cunfudiirai')' prramilj iiIiiiikI every fuatura uf lialural «r vuhlvaliid appaaraiuv, "The lowlandi), lllilit (ulla, and alluvium uf tliu north; th« hilly coun- try uf NaaMU) till) iinilula'liiM* nC" ^iphnlln, of tho MvMilia, and wan ••! 'I ^ i('> , >. .i mifhlau ' if tlic lllack Kurrtt, and tli i UiicnMald, 'i'huiiiiKia, uiiil buu- bla, vf l>arni»l .ill, Wurtimiliart(, aii'l lladuu, to tlio •uuth) llin moiinlalnii of (l"i llarx and Tauiiua; thv Krx>)|iyii, pluina, and lioi((ht4 ufHIInnUi Ilia plalnii anil Alps uf llnvarin ; thf Ithiiip, DanulMi, KIImi, and nunioroui othnr rivors ; roiki, rurn- lluliU, vinayarilii, and pailurvs, aru tho prhiclpul aspect uf (lin I'uiifiidnratlun," In fai^lllili'S fur cuminari'ial intorcnmiiiMnicathm, nn- tura liaa Irnxn viiually bonntlful to Ocrniaiiy. Aliuut •Ixty navli(alda rivtri, or brancihai of riverx, intersect lliia I'uuntry. Tliay aro Konarally rniincctod by moans of I'anals and railroads, sumo of which aru still in proj;- rtas of cunalrni'tlnn, Tlia Khlnn, frum llanicrollpntnaviKatlonto thnorcun, may Ixi runsldcri'd onn vast port, tho principal onlri'- pAla uf whii'li arc ("oloifno, t'oMontz, Maycncp, am! Fraiikfurl-uiMlii'-Malni'. Tho Daaubo carries down tha produ!' IH!M tu thccnlof 18-11; the neiond, twelve yeara—friii. the eommenn nient of 1H4'J to iba and uf Utb'i ; aud the third, upon wbicb It entered ul the beginning of IH&I, la to continue alio for tweWe .wars. Iwu facta uf importance mark Ibo romniencc- iiiunt uf the third periud : one, the acceaalon of tha 8teu- ur-\erelii; the otiier, the coiicluslun of a rommerclal treaty iMtweon Austria and I'russia, which may be re- garded aa the liuslsof a future Auatru-Uermanie Cuatoma League. The fuliouing recapitulation of facta con- nected with lli'se two Imporlnnt eventa aro compiled from ulllcial dii< umeiita, and iiiu deemed necesaary to a clear eumprelie.ision of tho present aa well aa of the prnspuclive i/ii^u< of the ZolUVcreln. On tho 7th of Sipleniber, W>1, the twu kingiluma uf I'msula and uf Hanover toparatoly concluded a treaty of a ciisloma union, which, ten years licfurc, had been a subject of fruitluaa neguiiation, reserving the question of a union between their Kapoctlve I'ualoma Aaaoclationa (the Zoll-Verelu and the Sluucr-Veniu). Aa the atipula- tions of thia treaty would rai|uira a reconstruction of tha ZuU-Vcreiu, and, consoi|uc i ' '-, a reiniucintion of tlio treaty of 1841 between the uld meuibors uf that league, tho Prussian cabinet, in tho following Novem- ber, gave notice of thia renunciation, not fur the pur- |K»e of retiring from a league so lienellcial in all ita re- aulta, but with n view of reorganizing it on a new basis. '1 he rruasian government further gave notice that It would aoon communicate propositions to that end, and that a confei«nce, or cong. ess, to take the subject into consideration, would aasenil la at Ilorlin. The following statement will prove interesting, aa exhibiting the revenue and population of the Zoll-Ver- ein from Its commencement down tu tlie year 1851 : VtsnL Pupulatloa. R*T*nut In Tlislan. ItUVi ii:i,4'H,l'iU 14,Me,T'iS tsao 2:i,4Ts,)2o iB.Rsn.iso WC, '.5 lVI,iili\ lS,4(ti,RT8 liwl »> :rio,8B8 IT.WT.HlS ISW S6,i*H.BI0 S0.4l»,'.ST ISGO '.fl.iHS.Ml S0,86».488 1940 S«,(14S,0i(l 81,6(10,191 1S4I S7,184,ll« S«,S1'ft,4M 18tS i(7,.^^8,710 28.789, 7U4 1848 27,020,815 ' «,702,028 1R4» !i8,408,18a ,60.794 184B S8,40I»,6M tl.-i.rM 184« SS,ft08,48« 2ti,Jlil'J«» 1817 20,401.1181 87,834,068 1K48 2(i.4flO,7M m.OHS.lM 1810 , 2v,,4(ll,flM .4,144,678 IKfti) 29,S0n,0im KB.B'.ROM 1861 i9,VlS:M6 i«,64^6S7 — Com. Rtl. V. S. For tho port regulations uf rrusala, ttt I'Hi.'gf)iA; and for more extended information re- garding tho atatea composing the Zoll-Verain tho read- er ii referred to the articles on the states separately. '^ ALPHABETICAL INDEX ^ ♦ ASAMnoNMBMT, 1057 Acuillii, 1452. Aiw)tHn.», iro, ir.) io-)o ■Acet/o ndd, 5. ' "■"• Acl.l IL'O;), i.Wl, ifloo A< JUHtmcnt, \m, HU7 Adulteration „f„„,„Vl7fi'- 7'*™'k''' lit, 29i 7,r,| Africd, 271 .ri-, ji, ,• 7«(), «(w, M32 iat «l!i"',',':">' '■'■''■. nn American wines, 1980^'''"'- A.nrWor- ■ ' A^^^^-lam, Bank of, 121; canal. Ananas, 1532. Anchors, 226, 271, 428 ins t-j- Ancient coin,' 352 ' *' '''■**• f^^'^l -commerce, 789. Ancient^wi„e.,,,a7,. Annuities, 1039, ,o«3, IO07, X079, Antilles, 1964. Antwerp 383. Aquafortis, 7, 1 444 Aquamarine, 16(i " A?a"bif9^2W"ft«". Ar.Wa'r65f8Y7""'"^^'»38^ 6L A rim, 02. Arc iai,^I ,3^ Arel.,,,e|„«„;f„jJ«- 1M9.""""' '«». 802, 892, 1,47 Anient .HpirK, 17 Arw'ii'l laini.s, 1229 12110 '^;i;'y9,f''^^'?2i9,ii72 AriiM, |,-,20. ■ ' Arliaiisas, i;)9 ,7, , 'Vrmaiiient, 2,07 Armed iiciitnilitv w? Ar!!nalfnel,,7fir ArjKicial pearls Iin- A.slie«, 1,071/ 'l7iHi,5f.«3U030' States. ,s„ ... Marlicr's |,olo, 52 "arce/oiia, 1742 "iirL'es, 184. • I lar cy, 219, 1898. '^arratl^•, 1043 Barrel, 19,-,2, "ass-wood, 1261. Jiatavia, I141. '^S^'''^" (-""-), 1179, 1847, Bavarian Ijcer, 158 ;;yofAlKSai;,,s,*'84. I%«fHon,f'u'r„s 685 «-co,,s, 1238, 1251^*- "ear-skins, 768. Beaver, 282, 764, 770 J«l«uin Aral,, i^73 • »«'f, 283, 490, 875 Beet sugar, 716, 1776 Be.nnK, 500. ' " Be em, 1490. b1"7oS"^""-'""'-'^221. "7ii;. 230, 236, 508, 579, 989. 1024, Benzoic acid, 6. Benzoin, 88. Benzole, 1470. {'.'carbonate of potass 9S «!chedeMer,^77. • Bi«lit of Benin, 669. - a^M.. 2003 rillU iif liodili, livil, I7ruiiiii/, t;iw, lll»iirra|ili)', fi, 'iM, Ulriliii»li, IIHM, iiui'uit (iii««ii, i;m7, lllltar ('uoiiiiilK'r, IIMI. Illtiiinvn, 'til, lllMII, ItllllMlnoUilnul, IIIN, liUrk Hon, INI, r, Htm, 771), MI7, iiKir*, mm, 1I7«, I'ilii, I'jiii, [w,, i,'mr>. IIMI, iftiw, iwi, ia>7, tnvi, \m<, nw, lN7!i, iimii. IMii,iii>, iiri7, liolitiii, III, iii'i roiiiK), 110(1, 11109, lioinlmv, Vill, IO';i IImiiiI>'47iI, llt, IMN, lliioli-ki'i'pliiif, ';NI, 1117, 1100. Ibxiki, 1117, Rl/M, llVO, ll<>, nil, lliNiU mill •liiiM, llOII, 1710. Iliiriii'lii iii'lil, r>. mn. ll'Hi|i||iirua, '101, iici.toii, urn, mm, 11271, 1710, Ih;h», lloiiliMiitt M, 1.-17, 4iin (nillntlV lillN, I UNI, I 111-/, lAM, I.V.», 1(1117, I7M, I«I7 (lnflff>, mill, inn, llri'iti'liiii, illll, UNO, 1017. llril, imi, 190, 341, 21)7, JHKi, IMHI, 111)2, 4»A, (lAI, mft, Nil7, N7H, NNII, Oiil, lldft, 12110, limi, IIUMI, lllll, illlK), lANM, 1063, 1717, 172:., III2I, llii'iri. Ilrilloll (llllllllll, ININ. Itrlll>li iNiirtli Aini'rli'nn I'mmMlnnn, HNII, IIM, 1(17(1, HOI, 1104, 1462, ir'lii liii'o, Iiri7, lliilililiia, r'liiiii icrHdl, 807, 1177, I7!lll, llui'i'DiuMn, 74N, lliKikwhi'itl, 2111, 16IIN, ItsOH. lluaiiiiit Avrio, 1172, lllllMflltf, llt!HI(i.li||,i.). Ilullloii, 71, li2N', I67M. Hunk, 'illlt, Hooyi., I2IW 1262. IturKiiiiil)', 1077. lliiniinli, 1026, iiurliiii nIii, I6H, UuiulMm, 4, 72)1, Uutter, 2U4, 477, fiOR, 8tS, 1809. INDKX. Culitaiii, 271, I2H, OKI, Nn7, OM, 066, 1fH7, IHMO. ('-iiul, IMIl, »a2. I'ltiilii, 1712. CaillUrl, ItWO. Ciilni, 2711, 4I11I. CaUutlu, IIINI, 1021, 1027, 1478. I'Nli'iiiliir, 1127. Citlironiiii. 177, 1114 (n>lii>.),nir>, 811,1, NIKI, loril, l.'iT.'i, IMfl, loot, 1621 (rillr>iii7. Chliia-liik, 10112. Chlna-warp, 1642. Chlnihu Manila, 899, 902, 1S17. Chlni'hilla, 7(10. ChliicM Juiika, 200. Cliln(*M(i Hii^ai'-cant*, 1770. ChipMiiu Manil, IHIl. I hiiy riKit', 2911. ClimiKildKy of connncrcial law, 1180. Chroiioini'tcrii, I2H0. CItiarn, 4HH, 1861. Cincinnati, 974. Ciiinuinnn, 287, 288, 870, 174*. Cinq CiKlf* IKM. Clutilullnn Ki'pulillr, 1018. CllUuna, Nalurallzml, 1U09, Citric acid, 0, 1208. (;ilrnii, 10.6, Civic coinpanlcn, 300, Clttinm, Court of, 470, ( lanit 1970, 19H2. Claved (lUKar, 1707. CliinatcH, 480 (.cotton), 674, 618, Clo.kiii 12S0, 1988. Cloth, 081, 846, 1297, 1087. ClothlnK, ■!>4I. Clover-Ncpil, 050, 1898. Cloven, 1749. Clyde, 821. (,'oak. Ste floKK. Coal, 3.W, 408, 767, 788. 1104, 1144, 1403, 1470, i018. Coal Kan, 700, Coal oil, 1470. CoantlnK trade, 073, 808, 809. Coaiitof the I'niled .Stated, 1838. Coant Burvcy, 670, 945, 1242, 1817, 1838. Cochineal, 260, 507. (Jocoa, 001. Cocoa-nut, 287, 370, 1483. Co(I-li«lierle», (i06, (S72, 742. Collcp, 287, 870, 489, 098, 954, 900, 1307, 1548, 1080, 1820. Colimne, 01, 02, 00, 0,6, 272, 806, 4911. 610. ,641,027, 81)0, 1031, KHKI, 1361, 1300, 1511, 1670, 1054, 1080, 1701. t'oitiK, 2, 3, 4, 8, 12, 28, 47, 03, 09, 70, 80, 100, 203, 286, 423, 427, 4H.1, 604, 513, 526, 612, 564, 6,66, 504, 607, 0,63, 084, 700, 770, 887, 897, 91.1, 1119, 1209, 1280, 11)24, 1,628, 1001, 1003, 1026, 1646, 1040, 1661, 1(>97, 1704, 1724, 1780, 1760, 1701, 183,6, 1854. Coke, 356, 759, 1104. Cold current of Okotak, 601. Collins sleaniers, 1754. C4>lli»lon, 1018. Colottnc water, .682. Cidoniljia, 832, 008, 1408. ('(dimial slavery, 1727. Cidonies, 380, 7"lO, 740 [British, 878, 98M, 10201, [Dutch, 1397], [Span- ish, 1740J. Colored ulass, 827. Color of the ocean, 1468. Colossus of Rhodes, 1219. Columliia Kiver, 1479, 1841. Colunihus, Christopher, 799. Columhus, UieRo, 1120. ColwcU on free trade, 749. Commandite en companies, 890. Commcrw, 60, 68, 278, 302 (colo- J;'"i«r(l s„ Currants, i t'Wrency, Coniniarclnl |»||rv, 4iw |,«ni|iii..l8,, Afrln,, li ,S""'I'«"Im, |)ut,.|, „„• (oiniiaiiliii I.',... I . ■ «, ' ""T"' "urcii, 11). , > J, .' aS'■*'•"'«• 'J^;l;:;^«"';7■6,77s. ' {»'*1 letter., Imi. 20U3 K«rth. r»7 J»"« In.llf,, Hrllh"' V. r tf'a;'"*V'^:'^uV7i,, ''^^-•""'•■"''^'•H.7o,,8Hja::;:'S^ C(Hitral.an(l. lanH ir.m : l)r.|,i„.,. " ',"." "j '. ""n Ciiiiul. ^.',:i -—..I, .imi>. Uotrolt, 1358 ■ — ^Td"^,.^'". «3, 876, 1806, 1898, {J^^^^fr;;;.';™"', voyage,. ,043, Cornelian, 16. Uianiomk 37 i?^'"'""™- 10«3. l^onlivainer, S8, I'orfli, 1085. 'y'orn, "■ 1071. Cornelian, 16. Corporatlonn, 898. Coruna Towor of, 1220. Cosmet c». 1B4<1 u"n Cotton OK?' .',t'.'', '•"' ""^a, 874, 917 91.V , n~V< ""'1 la Bm, 13(i«, ,419 i;.. ,',.;;'• :;:?fi ^>oik.var(N A') 'ff\n una •. n_ . J Mi-llllil— 1.. * I ore.,), IM.^ ^*"'«'"» ""■I nicail: l>o Soto, i;i,i2_ • U anioiirls, 37, 594. "jl'loniaev, 407. '•'WCOUMt,"l08 &^;;^^;:^"?i:ii>"37. Cotton carnota, 27(1. l;0 on einf.roi,ierle.,, 693. X'''»"ff'""H«x,eti„(i79. l^olton splnninif, «o Ootton-wood, 225 Courten's As«,w|ation, 575 CourtofAtlmlraltv 10 Court of He I'„„(|j;<; yj^ Cow,, 22,^ 1897. • Jjracotv, Commercial system of I l«n Cream of tartar. 58 I'iiM °'> "S". Credit Fonder, 74,}.' ''*'**• Oredt, Letters of, 1204 Crdd t Mobiller, 122 124 TK- Credits, 378. ' ' '*"• Crimea, 1460. Cronstadt, 1667. l^rossley's carpets. 278. Ki5r""™'^''^S'i»«i, IJrUk'H, 2l,i, 3,58. 482 4«i r,r ^~„ ,R""'j"i""'IIWiM227. Dry-ilocks, 549 I'ry-rof, «J8. ^^^l^•92l!l|-a'"• Bun.lce, 12(i3 " ^"''■^• Uutch 39 [Oolonie,, 3681, fEnst In "" Con>p„„y, 40, '396J '9V6 1132 Hutch Colonies, 40. 1,54 3M qto nutch cominere'ial iol lev 39' 839' I)i.cli(;uia,m,911,'l49l.' ■ »• Dutch, Trade if tl,;, 311 Dutch TradinK Company 39 Duties, 237, 5«3„'i44,,'i56U(i2 ,40, Over's weed, 1953 "'"«^. "81. >!(/9l3""'^'" ("""".). «9. J.I<'ineur, 527, 535 Kma!::ri'ilii^'«<'. '«<«■ ' f;i>"lon, 028. • • ' {•;"iJKrant«, 925, I m f;ne„, „;^;,'ty- 'V'K'iio, «,i.|. I'i89 19,i7 ' '"'"• '^'«. Hoi, j?n)fll»li (Jolonies, ,300 [iiiKronsi,,^, ,;9,i. ™' '"8. [Jiirollincnt, 1627 I'l'l.uiniH.tlal eurff', ,-., Rrje, Uke, Hfl. . j;-fle, Port, 16J , Iwsenenot'row' ,,;, ijwntlai , 'Is, I j,.,; • Ksscqul, ' I > Ktching '.; Kunme, ■.■:x fcuxino ^ a, ,(,. IvxchanKo, Hill, , ,, . hxehanrfc, K„ya| ,(,j,i Exports, 1904. ll.)l 'PH. Foctor, 213. Factoiros, 259. J.alse keel 1148. {•.eathcrs, 655, 585, 1004 [r'< Consular, 414. J,?' "ft 770, 948, tieM beet, 1311. riliferec, am. rniance. See Bavito ..j i» Fin'-ack whaler 1m9'""'*^<"'"- riiiiand, H70, 1054 " ;;ire-arms, 153-1. ^|re-hrick, 212. Hre-cscape, 1208. fire insurance. 10,W *'re Wand li^ht, 124S. f.ir-tree, 1532. .— ■, Jill, n,m 1877 S.-*.**.'-. (-.H / 17, 721, 741 843 'o^o, 18S1. J;"nard steamers, 1751 Currants, 889, 1997 Currency, 1870, 1579. P)-e.woods, i54, 1161 HOI, 1105, V4-',^,\liV^28S' ,f?^!^^i.iS''^-.^ Ffteh, .Toll,,, 7fi3|' ""• |J,jxedoils, 1466. jji I nags, 1309. ^* 2004 INDEX. Flai.1er8, 882. Flax, 713, 966, 1092, U47, 1261, 16o5, 1899. Fleet^ C84. Floatmi; anchor, 44. FloatinK breakwater, 942. Florence oil, 1472. Florida, 143, 177, 1034, 1151, 1249, 1840. Florin, 982; Flour, 208, 486, 490, 694, 875. Fluctuations in prices, 102, 1586. Fluoric acid, 6. Fog signals, 1252. Fonseca, Bay of, 986. Foo-chow, 689. FooK:how-foo, 260, 1700. Food, 1336. Food, Adulteration of, 11. Foreign bills, 174. Foreigners, 599. Foreign exchange, 625. Fowling-piecps, 919, 1354. Fox-slcins, 768. Fractions, Decimal, 616, France, 192, 229, 250 (canals), 277, 287, 295, 337 (coffee), 841 (coins), 368 (colonies), 375, 455 (cotton), ft49, 665, 765. 897, 952, 1033, 1071, 1102, 1157, 1180, 1229, 1285, 1294, 1324, 1387. 1438, 1450, 1494, 1609 (railroads), 1777, 1805 (tariff J, 1825, 1847, 1855, 1864, 1918, 19o6 (West Indies), 1962 (whale-tish- enO, 1977 (wine). France, Biinli of, 121, 1948 (weights and measures). Erance, Commercial system of, 1180. Francis's lifo-ljoats, l'il8. Frankfort, Commercial system of, 1181. Franking, 1569. Franklin, ijir Jolm, 802. Free trade, 385. Freight, 82, 291, 1045, 1588, 1607, 1619, 1629, 1693 1707. I'rench bills of exchange, 172, 174. French Colonics, 284, 868, 741, 744, 897, 912, 1321, 15-11. French East India Company. 578, 1541. French fairs, 649. French (jniana, 912. French light-houses, 1229. Frei.ch whale-Usher)-, 1962. French wheat trade, 1967. French wine trado, 1977. Fresnel lights, 1220, 1230. Frifsland, 978. Frobishf r, 892. Fruits, 295, 477, 499, fiU, 660, 908, 1203, 1261, 1311, l.m 1(77, IWS, 1532, 15,17, 15.38, 1540, 1593, 1604, 1634, 1792, 1793. Fuel, 1104, 1242, 1508. Fuerteventnra, 250. Fullers' thistle, 1826. Funding system, 1703. Funds, 400. Furnaces. 1099. Furs, 283, 016, 145j, 1509, 1661. Galati!, 61.3, 775, 1883. Galena, 1193. Gallic acid, 6. Gall-nuts. 1456. Gallon, 1952. Galveston, 1840. Gas, 700, 1227. Gauge, 775. Gauge fur ti<'''t "U I jS^nf on s ■^ent on c Indelible ink, 1082 INDEX. India mail, 20. Indiana, ihj, 177, 253, IOS4 Indian berrj-, 330. ' " Indmn corn, 210, .29, ,306, ,898^ Indian Rlue, 829. Indian Ocean, 165, 500 India rublwr. 267 OTo 'ion-, . n'ligo, 234, b67, 1013' ^^^^' '"«''• Indoraemeut, 168. 179 Inl(, 1025. ' ■*• InJf,?274'!''«'"""'2*^-975. Insolvency, 150, 1345. Insolvents, I60 Inspection of drugs, 557 Insurance aKcntsfl'o53 Insurance clubs, 1042 Insurance, Fire, 1208* Insurance, Life 8, 49 ior,7 Insurance, Marn„' %\i^fn 'Kent on contracts, 420. Kent on embassac^ors fiqi Kentonlawofiie'ntra, 189S Kent on piracy, 1534 ' " Keno„p,^4-IJ3^- Ken "Sn??-. Kento„'sXlSfG75''"'^''28- Kento„8ea,169'o''^'*- Kiachta, 1657 Kingston, I123. Labrador, 1404, 1608 fa., ...w I'lnique, Island of, 901 mon f-ititudo, 324"51<) r,pn -„. ,.S.f,U^«- ^»^'. «nV^tj&[-[;^"» Warof,1043. Irish bai.lcH 119. 563. {'"»», Corn, 430 Irish jlainaslcs, 510. {-""s of commerce 37i Irish linens 1263. J-'ws of merchant 1 «j7 *ce Teih. We of Wight," 477 Isthmus of Darien, 1484 Isthmus of Suez, 1706 • Isthmus of Tehuantehec 1826 ItaianbllhofexchaEm- Italian fairs, 649. '^ ' ' Italian wines, 1971) , 1013, lOo'o, 1979 ^' ""'• "««. Ivory Coast, I4. ' Jaconet, 467. Jamaica, 364. ■Jamaica pepper, 1531. Jamaica rum, 1050. Japan, 1144, 1159 1007 ia<.c ' Java, 154, ?37 ' '''■ ^'''^• JelFery'a ^lue, 829. Jenny, Spinning, 463 Jersey CiV 14li Jetsam, 684. Jettison, 1046. a;;oii;:::^^:-"'-s--, Jewish measures, 1953 Jobber, Stock, 1761. " Jo°pp«!ni9!''"""""''^''3!)4. Juniper berries, 165. Junks, 268, 1146. jSr"""'^'""^"''- ''«<'• Juvia-tree, 205. Kane, Dr. E. K., 898. K-nt on admiralty, n. Ken "'" "|f"''K''»"'cnt, 13. J^ent on aliens, 22 l^ent on contraband, 419, 559, •101, 417, J.azarettos, 1601 I-Ciii , 539, 779. J-™d, niack, 181. ; paf, Gold, 836.' •'^• J'Cague, Hanseatic, 930 f-eewardi^iands, 19,04 Le;,'al temlor, 97 ITn ibqi .,, ! '"Khom, 1888. ' ' '^^'- '"", j lenses, 123; '"" letters, 1558. 'setters of marque, 1589 , 507, Sr4, 18h, 'l^s'' ^' Level of the oican iTls Liability of e„rrier:,,'^;'S- 1,06 I. beria, 4«G (cotton), luj.| " Life annuities 49 ' Life-boats, 1214, 1237 Life-buoy, 222, 1212 joo- L;fe insurance, S, 4!)' in^!; ,0— ■ife-preservers, 429.' ' ^*'" Light-houses, 481 n-iS .ilfi7, ]«77. ' Light-ships, 1229 1037 Lignum vira?, (). fObec'k, 526, 118^ ^"'*' ^^^^- Lucayas, 83 fneca, 1183, 1889 Lucifer matches, 1333 ^1-^-- 206, 365,Tl6, 1536, ,842. Lunar eclipse, 1281 Lunaryear, 1996. ' Luxuries and taxes, I8OI. JJice, 1747. MacKere'-fisher^-, 672 ^Jadcira, 1978,-l'a82 Maaras, 231, Magnctj 1270. ^agnetic needle, 397 Magi^tic telegraph.- Magj-ars, 999 Mahogaiiv, 985. MatV25,^''6'7rVl„P»---. i^i 1839. '"' '"•*' ^^> 12^5, Maize, 420. *|" aga 1741. Jla aysia, H58. ^lalic acid, 6. Malmsey wine, 1978. Malstroem, 1272 i\falM7, 608, (Malta, 1183. I Maltese oranges, 1477 lManl,atta„I.ii,„;,,;j73,, iK"-""'' ^"26; 1743 1016 9fiQ iVo''^'/'''' 8Gf 929 I 1785:19m' ''''"'''' ^3=^». "52; Maps, 176, 291, 327, 79.., 1001, ,288, Marianne Islands, 1159 Marine gl„o, S29. Jlarine liospltals, 993 1691 Jfarine protests, 1709 ' ' ^'^''• I Mariners, to Se,i.mi:v JIainierscompas.«, 397 ' I'JonT^'"""' "8». 1332 I398 I IMO, 1629, 1673, IB! fegi ^^^^' Markets, 524, 648 ' ' Jlarmora, Sea of, 401, 414 613 I Marquette, 1362. ' ' (Marriage of aliens, 592 Mamed_^™.HiawoU347. Marten-skins, 767 Martha's Vincvard, 1217 Martinique, 368, 745, 1326 Marylainl, 90, 134, 177, 295 10^5 ifiioV ^f'' '""O, 15.30 (pilots? IflO (railro,i,)s), 1710 1889 '^' Masters, 1692,1707 '"""'• I Mastic-tree, 9' 6. Matanzas, 497. I Maupertuis, 571. 'T'h 2006 INDEX. Maurltins, 1M5. Miiur}- on Atlantic, 78. Maury on currents, BOl. Maur}' on Dead Soa, 516. Maur}' on deserts, 638. Maury on trade winds, 1373. ^lavaKbez, 1547. M'Clure, Captjiin, 802. Meadow saffron, 358. Measures, 8, 47, 2«8, 296, 498 [Dec- imal, 5171,654. 663, 696, 726, 1152, 1194, 1266, 1358, 1494, 1609, 1512, 1533, 1941. Meat biscuits, 1337. Mecca 273. Mecklenburn, 1183, 1648, 1866. Meconic acid, 0. Mediterranean Sea, 14, 441, 500, 619, 737, 815, 1309, 17-14. Meerschaum ivipcs, 1533. .Mclljoume, 1933. Mercantile actions, 374. Mercantile laws, 02o, 1450. Merchandise, 1752. >rerchant adventurers, 12. Merchants, 50.">, .'.54. 1653, Merchants, Customs of, 50&. Merchants, I^wa of, 1347. Mercury, 1604. Meridian, .'■)70, 1279. Merino wool, 1988. Metals, 424 (copper), 830, 1015, 1 192, 1306, 1113, 1522, 1537, 1733, 1842. Mexico, 36, 3-12 (coins), 437 (cotto.i), 469, 832, 1120, 1161, 1724, 1745, 1793, 1845, 1866, 1913, 1929, 1944. Mezzotint, 611. Michigan, 178, 539, 1035. ~Michigan, Lake, 1165. Middle Ages, Commerce of, 381. Mile, 1952. Milk, 477, .^08, 690, 094. Mineral alkali, 26. Minerals, 621. Mines, 240, 602, 709, 1089. Mining |Coa<, 814 1, 483, 688, 696, 699, 949, 1098, 1167. Ministers, Foreign, 407, 690. Mink, 767. Minnesota, 773. Minors, Law of, 1847. Mint, 340, 346, 353, 1277, 1511, 1579, 1680. Mint valuation of gold, 340. Mississippi River, 35, 139, 682, 915, 1249, 128/, 1.594, 1417, 1423, 1810. Mississippi srueniu, 1178. Mississippi St:ite, 178, 439, 1035. Missouri River, l:r>3. Missouri State, 143, 178, 1035, 1107, 1110, 1664. Mobile, 1249, I8l0. Mobilier, Cndit, 480. Mocha, 337. Modena, 1183, 1889, 1949. Moftadore, 1378. Mohammedan Status, 417. Molasses, 48H. 1420, 1548, 1651 1768. Moldavia, 775. Money, 15, 72, 427 (coppi'r), 544, 626", 764. 1078, 1203, 1474, 1586, 1792, 1919, l!i:i6. Money orders, 1 .559. Monv)polics, 377, 624, 696, 1583, 1848. MonUuk Point light, 1246. Mont de I'iclr, 12(1.1, 1504. Montreal, 245, 1603. Mooring, 46. Mores, 1502. Morocco, 1368, 1866, 1944. Morocco leather, 1 198. .Morse Udegraph, 1828. Mortar rockets, 1214. .Mothcr-of-iH-url, 1607. Motintain flax, 37. Moant Desert Kock light- house 1246. Mulben3--treo, 714. Mule-jenny, 465. Mnlcs, 708, 1897. Muriatic acid, 6. Murrhino caps, 1543. Muscat, 1866. Muscovado sugar, 1766. Muakrat, 767. Muslins, 467. Mustard, 1747. Muster-roll, 1708. Nankeens, 463. Naples, 779, 1471, 1718, 1856. Nassau, Duchy of, 1188. Natal, 14. National debt, 764. Notions, Law of. See Law of Na- tions. Naturalization, 22, 1009. Nautical Almanac, 28. Naval stores, 61, 257, 280, 875, 916, 917. Navel oranges, 1477. Navesink light, 1247, 1434. Navigation, 28, 167, 247, 896, 483, 516. 669, 676, 915, 919, 971, 979, 1199, 1279, 1291, 1811, 1831, 189H, 1462, 1536, 1601, 1626, 1629, 1633, 163.5, 1646, 1661, 1697. Navigation laws. 979. N&vigation, Ijiws of, 1317, 1766. Navigation, Steam, 1752. Navigat :,rs, 308, 610. Nuvy, 681, 684. Navy yard, 653. Neat cattle, 1897. Needle, Magnetic, 897, 518, 642. Negotiable paper. Set Piiiiminsory NoTKS and Bji.ls or E.\cii anui'.. Nesis, Birds', 179. Netherlands I Bank of. 38, 121], .343 (coins), 382, 974, 979, 982, 1856, 191.3. Neutral, 419, 1056, 1323. Neutrality, Armed, 60, 626. Neutrality, Breach of, 1050. Neva Kiver, 16S7. New Bnmswick, 1668, 1669. New England, 128, 1617 (railroads). Newfoundland, 333, 605, 664, 667, 1663, 1669. New Uranada, 280, 343 (coins), 832, 1484. 1867. New Hampshire, 17G, 1035, 1889. New Holland, 76, 804. New Jersey, 135, 177, 263 (canals), 1035, 1247, 1678. New Orleans, 1288, 1840. Newport, Rhode Island, 1839. New SiMith Wales, 78, 838, 1789. NcwspaiKTs, 12 (advertisement.*), 1558. New York City, 582, 1247, 1369, 1,390, 15.30 (pilots), 1678, 1755, 1776, 1839. New York State, 130, 177, 221, 2.53 (canuls>, 996, 1015, 1246 (light- houses), 1496, 1616 (railroads), 1671 18.19. New Zealand, 804. Nicaragua, 36, 1626. Niger, H05. Nile, 18, 21, 4.i;» (cotton). Nineteenth wnturj-, Evcuts of, 392. Ningpo, 260, 1700. Nitrate of imUsh, 1672. Nitrate of soda, 1520. Nitric acid, 7. Nouh's ark, 58. Nomini.l "xchunge, 625. Norfolk, Virginia, 1839. Nortli America. S'4, 227, S(i3 (colo- nies), 371, 384, 4:18 (cotton), 800. North American Fur l^niiipanv, 772. North Cnrolinii, 142, 177, 2«<, 853, 1036, 124M, 1737, 18;W, North I'acillc, 802. North Polar Sea, 1839. North Sea. Se« Aiicrio Oceak. Northwest Company, 765. ' Northwest passage, 58, 802, 1148. Norway, 165, 304, 343 (coins), 842, 1183; 1272, 1760, 1780, 1866. Notes, Bank, 98. Notes, Promissory, 1029, 1450. Nova Scotia, 669, 921, U03, 1668. Nutgalls, 1031. Nutmegs, 1747. Nutria, 768, 770. Nuts, 205, 281, 295, 780 1800, 1684, 1726, 1936. Oajaca, 1364. Oak, 428, 780, 1266. > Oak bark, 163. Oakum, 241. Oats, 686, 1897. Observatories, 670. Ocean, Arctic, 67. Ocean, Atlantic, 78, 241, 600, 915. Ocean, Indian, 1024. Ocean, Pacific, 600, 1481. Ocean steam navigation, 1763, 1767. Odessa, 1686, 1967. Ohio, 186, 178, 306, 809, 974, 1086. Ohio River, 1363. Oil-cloth, 682. Oil of turpentine, 1887. Oil of vitriol, 7. Oils [Camphor, 2241, 229, 282 [Clove, 811], [Cod liver, 3341, [Shark, 834 , 3<3, 483, 616 [Fit- .xel, 774], 780, 1227, 1242, 1405 [Olive, 1471], [Palm, 1483], [Raj.e, 1625], [Whale, 1958], Oil-stone, 988. Oil trade 834. Okotsk, Cold current of the, 501. Oldenburg, 930, 1867. Olibanum, 700. Olive oil, 1467, 1997. Olives, 887. Ontario, Lake, 246, 1162. Open policies, 1047. Opium, 284, 261, 689, 1013, 1021, 1296. Oi)obalsam, 87. 0(M.rto, 1561, 1975. Orilnance, 258, 899, 605 rSurvcy, 571], 917, 918. Oregon, 369. Ores, llOO. Oriental carpets, 276. Orinoco River, 1408. Ornaments, 567. Orris root, 1098. Ostend, 52. O.ilrich feathers, 0.57. Otter, 76K. Otto of roses, 75, 1647, Over-insuruncc, 1047. Overland m.iil, 20. Owner of ships, 1706, Oxalic acid, 7. Oysters, 287. Pacilic, 500, 778, 1540, 1732, 1827, Pucilic liailroud, 1621. I'nck, 86. I'uinted glass, .*<27. raintiiig. tiOO, 75,5, 1470. I'uhils, 422, 782, UU4, 1,501, 1998. I'nit4i, 1520. I'iilcrnio, 1716. pHleslinc, 17'JO. Palm od, 14119, 1717. Palms, KM. I'.inam.i, 37, 60, 51.1. 1410. Panama Islbmus, 'Mi, 37, 1 111. I'apal Donnnions, :MH, Paper, 1605, 1626, ll!35. I'iipor nioiiev, 72, 102, 628. Para, 31. l'aral)oloid»l mirrors, 1224. Paraguay, 72. I arana River mto Parasols, 18«/. '"' Pjiiah-arrack, 60 Piris, 719. ' Parm«, 1184, 1889, ms Pur of exchange fii/"**' Pafr,'. Edwar'«W. 17,0.') ' j Koman SI""" "f*". 1953. Pencris' Le^ igj ^77 j, Peiinsyivaiiia m'u-^'J^/ , Penny postage, ISO^; ' '^**'' Pensacola, 683, 1248 Pensions, 49. Pepper, 284, 300, J7)s ma fWidtt,,, 1042. 1647 Periodicals, H26, um ma Persia, «7, 223, mitk'^^- Persian caravan.s, 274 Persian Gulf, laoe. Persian walnuts, i.WO '"2i,'&7''': «« Peru, Balsam of, 88. -•—■■ail oral Kome, 381. ""pees, Uc of,' 1156 19I3,l!i5i!'*''"'^'»2.1S24,l«(;8. Cia'h;rp™^S'°'^^-^''="''>f-''«^- Kus.siun Pni ■ Kus.siun Company SD'i Russian fairs,V».'^- "iissinii LanliArf ,,-, 'S<*'*-'' ""•«. ">29 1«0 (,flT/i- '«*,))„ ,,';', 7- * ■lusjjiiuric Piastre, 19. Pico, 655. Piedmont, 1685. Piers, 942. Pilcliard (ish'-rj', 60<. P| Bruns to Mecca, 273. 1 'How lace, 115(5 P;lotage, 2,32, 871. Pimento, 1748.' Pinnaces, 184. P'Pes, 390, 1348. Pii-ate, 214, 216. Pi.ia, 381. Pitch, 222, 609, 1392 179, ,go„ Pitch coal 1144 ' *'"''' ****' PittslmrKh, II07. i aster. Court, 476. 1 liiinl)aKo, 181. fef'Alenjon, 1157. 'ointlaco, 1157. Po icios, 1047, 1051. Polynesia, 1469. Ponce, 1647. i.oppv, 1176. { opiilation, 285, 622 726 18«r Porcelain, 716, 1642 ' '*'*' Port Ir^'l '^■'' '■'*". «7«. m, poni^r'i^' '•"*■ '^'-^ J ortlami, Maine, 1.S06 18*1 (mk<,)h». m, 1348, 1680, w ^*' 1»^^. I ■'"■■"tvifii Islands ,, '"« il.iyi, 1485 ',„,"• ,'"'». 109«, .Santa Cruz, 530 »"'«, ?«, 845, i.»7 Sardinia, 229, 468 (< llittxisi.ii I ..il ..,.,'• n«J mill ', ,.„„'■ ^a ad oil, 1472. gal Ammoniac, 24. , 616,%."'' ^'«^' ^21 (contract), Sal Eni.\um, 25. Salmon, 140,5. Salonica, 1883 Salt, 604, 710, "1713. faUofrfat^r-'^''-^^^- Saltpetre, 26. Salvage, 3. 957, 1544,1708, 1914 ' ^"^^ '^'' oan Francisco, 240, I841 ■j-.,.,-wm(isv (972. Jf''?.*Hk/ J7i9. I """aiiiian, »09, 1840 « ^%S "7'''. J*? (Canada), Savoy, 1685. W fii*'/-^, tqifi,;,. Saxe-Attenl,urp, 1185. ,7'} .'»«.^i !', 21, ,047, 1367 Saxe- Wcnmr, 1 185, '}*««»<■, m ,1 (t,M I '^^alo, (iuiiter's, 919 ""*'"- '■'- '-'— ■- '"^cavago, 1481. ■Schiiifl.Qni ..:.. ^1 118i;78^^'S^'^»"),7«8,780. Sardinian carpets 975 Sargasso Sen, 500 Savaiiiiab, 809, 1840 Savings l.aiiks. 148 " j, '"-', i"!, 877, 979, lO.lO, 1165, 12IW, 1239, 1319, 1331, 13;!9, 1633, 1589, 1601, 1627, 1629, , 1673, 1692. Ships, 44, 5.', 68, 86, 16,1, 107, 101, 201, 226, 243, 266, 271, 272, 276, 397, 414, 425, 428, 4S.% 477, 483, 615, 538, 551, 657, 096, 699, 756, 779, 782, 919, 920, 927, 947, 949, 956, 965, 084, 1016, 1146, 1148, 1152, 1154, 1176, 1195, ll!,9, 120,3, 1210, 1253, 1278, 1291, 1311, 13.10, 1333, 1390, 1392, 1.S95, 1.S96, 1489, 1456, 147(>, 1480, 1;>82, 1590, 1602, 1624, 1627, 1629, 16,^5, 1636, 1647, 1650, 1661, 1090, 1698, 1703, 1729, 1751, 17.58, 1779, 1791, 188.3, 1841, 1871, 1916, 1037, 1940, 1978, 1990. Ships, Docking, 6,^0. Ship's papers, 332, 1708. Ship worm, 188.3. Shipwreck. See WuF.rKi. Shipwreck, Escape from, 1210. Shoals, 329. Shoddy trade, 1990. Shoes! Makers of, 428], 1196. Siam, 92, 15ll, 318 (coins), 18G9. Silierla, 1056. Sicilies, Two, 1116, 1185, 1319, 1182, 1879, 1951. Sicily wine, 1982. SIdon, 379. Sierra Leone. 914, 1207. Sight hill, 178. Signals, 1252. Sift, 303, 607, 684, 714, 861, 1093, 1699. Silk carpets, 276. Silk niaiiiifacturcs, 218, 610, 714, 1119, 1294, I3«8, 15;i8, 168!«, 1791, 1801. INDEX. Silver, 36. 298 [ coins, 846], 858, 883, 1167, 1574, 1579, 1664,1724. Silver lace, 1158. Simodu, 1183. Singapore, 266, 919. Singles, 1718. Sixteenth centurj-, 890. Sksrrj'vore Rooks, 1222. Skins, 283, 502, 764, 970, M67, 1196, 1465. Sliughter-houses, 8. Slave labor, 337. Slave-trade, 1123, 1717. Snicaton, 936. Smyrna, 614, 1888. SnufT-bozeg, 499. Soap, 715. Socotrin-, 29. Soda, 26. Somera' Isies, 166. Soigtium, 1778. 3oui.i| dues, 527 584, 688, 931, 1864, Soundings, 601, 1194. South America, 33, 832, 909, 1491, 1517. South Carolina, 142, l"", 290, 488 (cotton), 1030, 1248, 1638, 1840. Southern Ocean, 1589. .South Polar .Sea, 1639. South Sea bubble, 397. Soutli .Sea Msher>-, 1961. Spain, 22, 151, ld7, 228, 261 (canals), 280, 359, 882, 457 (cotton), 487, 066, 831, 950, 1033, 1186, 1300, 13.39, 1609 (railroads), 1674, 1807 (tariff), 1849, 1865, 1913, 1951, 1957 (West Indies), 1976. Spanish bills of exchange, 175. Spanish Colonies, 359, 365, 367, 1312, 1957. Spanish (ly, 258. Spanish grain trade, 1967. Special partnership, 396. Speculation, 377, 1684. Siwlter, 1998. Spermaceti trodo, 1964. Sperm wlnile, 1958. Spices, 275, 281, 807, 808, 311, 370, 498, 695, 820, 843, 1296, 1886, 11.54, 1531. Spindles, 463, 679. .Spinning, 59, 228, 461, 468, C79. Spinning-jenny, 69, 46.3. .Spirit!. 17, 60, 545, 608, 707, 785, 814, 1093, 1289, 1050,H«71. .Spirits of ha'tsliorn, 24. Spirits of turpt'itine. ijee Tobpbn- TI.1I!. .Sponges, 1731. Spruce pine, 1532. .Stado dues, 923, 930. Stages, 312, 1606. .Stamps, 470, 1557. Stanilurd uf coins, 340, Starch, 690. Sutioncry, 1186. Statues, I'oundery of, 699. Steam-engine, 761, 1600, 1752. Steamers, 21, 3-57, 621, 869, 1G41, 1656, 1752. Steam navigation, 760, 762, 821. Steel, 48, 505, 510. Strrlnig silver, 349. Stock companies, 894, 1145. Slock • xchanpe, 1472. Storax, 88. Store, Ilill of, 179. Stores, Naval. See NxVAt 8T0n«B. .Storms, 1001. Straits of Dover, 556. Straits of (JibralUr, 817. Stranding, 1040. Straw hat», 048. Sublime, I'orte, 1645. Submarine tclegrapb, 3e« Tsi.E- (illAI'll. Succorv, 298. Sue/., Isthmuaof, 21. Sugar. 235, 489, 490, 694, 707, 716, 781, 954, 1018, 1316, 1385, 1869, 1420, 1616, 1627, 1648, 1640, 1645, 1712, 1903. Sulphate of lime, 920. Sulphuii" acid, 7. Snlphurouo acid, 7. Sumac, 1711. Sumatra, 887, 1618. Srnda Islands, 1779. Su|>erior, Lake, 426 (copper), 1164. Supply, 522, 1588. Surmam, 911. Survey, Coast, 821, 570. Suspension piers, 042. Svanberg's fexnnsition, 672. Svosh Channel lights, 14.34. Sweden, 249 (canals), 348 (coins). 426, 459 (cotton), 604, 843, 1108, 1186, 1448, 1759, 1849, 1869, 1918, 1951, 1957 (West Jr''»'\ Sweet potato, ib71 Swine, 1593, I '37 Switzerland, 4,58 < '1, 1180, 1869, 1951. Swords, 510. Sycamore, 226. Syria, 16P. Tabasco (Mexico), 1852. Table Dav, 268. Tallo*, 1666. Tamaulipas (Mexiroj, 1353. Tandwjr lace, 1167. Tampico, 1358. Tunnirg, 546, 1196, J838, 1921. Tapestrj- 829. Tar, 1892. Tares, 27. Tarifl-, 12, 232, 237, 387, 418, 503, 644, 556, 680. 718, 738, 742, 7J,', 749, 865, 966, 1082, 1142, 1169, 1356, 1396, 1407, 1551, 1670, 1592, 16.-)3, 1729, 1786, 1874, 1990. Tartar, 68 Tartaric acid, 8. Tasmania, 1924. Taxes, 71, 724, 1486, 1684, 1844. Tta, 264, 266, 308, 691, 1161, 1657, 1699, 1702. Teak, 1718. Tchuantepee, Isthmus of, 36. Telegraph. 73, 602, 1253, 1283 (At- lantie, 1735J. Temperature, 618. 'i'^nipcraturc of ocean, 89, 1458. Tender, Legal, 97. Teneritfc, 25,5, 1978, Tennessee, 139, 178, 1036. Terec'ra, 655. TexoB, 178, 242, 439 (cotton), 780, 10.16, 174.5, 1772. Thames, 549, 845, '881. Thermometer, 153, 1113. Thilwt wool, 281, 1703. Thrcod, Gold, 835. Thread lace, li.56. Thrown silk, 1718. Tidal harbors, 939. Tides, ,327, 616, 930, 1S?G. Tiles, 212. Til-tree, 700. Timber, 559, 058, 943, 1152, 117n, 129i, 1330, 1391, 1466, 1759, 1833, 1984. Timber pie.-s, (;42. Timber, Strength of, 944. TImbuctoo, 805. Timothy hav, 9,57. Timothy scc'ds, 957. Tincal, 191. Tin.ied iron, 780. Title to ships, 170. 236. 296 6]] m }.'l'.l'« Canada', 245 Trf"' of Pv.f. 7(1 Trinidad, 49V.' Trinity House, 357. 1268 1977 Tripoli, 1869, ISU ' ^"' Innil'i'Z (I'aru), J520 ,],""'«, 11S«, 18 0, i944 liirkpv, 6, 276 'ita r • ■. ('■'• •'•'.'••«,«« 777 ilsT'iM?' n-ln .,,!„ '-'.'j. J?"', lr'j/5, Lriu acid, 8. Urufjuav, I374 IjruKuay Kiver', H73 ll^anacx, 638. " '•;'"ry, 1067, 1072. Utrecht, 978. ' Vdkncia oranges I477 ''"'"Ilia oak, M56. //■;,\ .;"' "''". 777. il87 I •' ,V'''''"i 1309. T,' t'"' P-"; ".'io, 1870 187i i 0' i X"'""!'. oak, M56 ,{, rkey l,err/os, l«b. ' "*''' '■"»• J.^'-wuver's'lslaml 757 rZk^' "l'/'"^*"' '-^76. ),"» I'ionicn's Und m 1», o Inrki.y /-stone 088 Variation of fh , ' *'"^' ^^'8. Turk|,s,. f„irs;65'0^- }>".(-(" ii^H.™",')';^''! .l^?, ■ Inrnips, 162o. Tyre, 379. 380. ' ' Tyre, 379, 380. Under currents, 501. I IK erwriter, 1037, 1054 1070 IJn, crwriter's duhs, 1042 ' ( ;,'""<^'' turpentin.'Yssft VmU;l Provinces, 978. i Vermont, 1036 '""' " '• «'--''Bfi'"*™' 3«7, -m 419 (ifio l-T^^- *<■ Ships M^^'^lJ^te f i5 &:'2f ■ «^^' ^^^^, n« Varni- ' A inr''";F-"„''' ''27, 39S. J^egetaMe ivor -.'lus Velluin, 1494. •■''*'• Velocity of tides ■ ;37 Unied it """""'"- 2W uSs{r"-'.^^.l«38. ' nitod htatos ooins Via I ii.i'vd States ColoViie, qi;.? 1 ,'.'."«<"• 1G95. ^-^^:' States, Co.i^^«^-^ ,,0, I ^K%^f(ra l-niterl l^.'"' "^oisular .system 406 ' w"'"!'?'' '■-^' '^OO. U le i"!^' '^°1'P«'. ''Se. • *""■ , JJ-;'^;. ,^™tral.a„d „f, 418, '>Vatclie<.,3U6, 310, 'l280; 1787. THE E.VD. v',".". a'^rt tartar, 25. volatile salts, 24 I V" »i, 619, ](;57. I -Villaic li^riit, ].j.,- ' oyages, 1013. ' Wages, 1695. tei:^%;^'^<""'-''o. »vna ebono trade, igei' Whale-tislicries Ms^V. - ^Vhitejish 1357. " hte-Ieaii, I194. Wicks, 267. • Win,?" "'■"'P''' 278. n iidow curtains "inq |.!ndow«las.,,826''^- 1858: ''■ ''' ""l. 1372, 1838 ^J.indward Island, 1954 Wine, 12, I'l-) Tyo'-^f*- „ ™'^7X! ii-Vgi?- 256, 289, .qo9, 1307, M7(! is'^, ^•J'*7, 999, 1299' ;\>,Goi:,;'',!,f'l'0^>18Hl903: "12, 176 ]o'fi?^f:,«. 083 991; "!•< 17ft K99' 182,?' ,^«??.'«4' 1879. '''"''' ^*'''^18i;), 1841 1883,' lSoo'*^'^"'''l'89, 1800, IJ.ool, Cashmere, 281 ^:Gs:^^!!"^?r^^3^276,2«,, 1-02, 1799, iioj/' •''1. «5I, 1538; '']^J^M«;^^'. 1058, 1166,1209, I ^>rns, 35r, 461. I'^'l';. I'iscil, 663. 5ed(!„, 1144, j iiicatan, 1161, 1,352. I Zanto, 1085. j &alaii.|, 588 978 Zinc, 203, !27, 1889. $",',''"i?r.ipli.\,612. IC8V'i7^;'=>»». 813,929,1583, j /ones, 573, Zuyder Zee, 249. 'T''-^" "Tf.'''Sfl''-' , '^^"'a tlw best 'St?' V, «"""'■'"='' "M Sf; /'""'"i"- J^^tin yc.„^"^^^ ^'J'': ra cento Cicero', iWwTof"^''* *"">• Ci«ro'« y„i„j,„ xi?^',"'".- ir^SSS5.5 ;?^3£Sop jISI^^ ""u certain Mcth.,,1 ^V V, J" ""■' Scionco »nir '{.'"S cicnts. wuh " ?*^ ,""= World as knoL'^'"'.'j'« *>^e nniili;, ^"'' •"'■••'■I'. $a"'o^ ■""' """'XSON, D D p ""' E-tabllshraen of M.n 1"' *'!° '''°'''"'«' Periods .'"■niagLliUdreuia the Ob- Edition To whi^h'l^ ^iJ''«"'>». nn'j l"o"S;' Sheep, T6 Mntr""" " «"""' « Sugecsllvo Ke™' laiiio, W ^*P- HARPIR .l>. Illn^tratcd by Numorniis Wooil-riiti*. T'lilfoiin with Smith'a "lllnlory of (ireeec." linin, Miinlin, $1 00. UDDELL AND SOOTT'S OREEK-ENOUSH LEX- K:ON, banod on tho Uernmn worlc nf FkAKcin I'Aa- •ow. With Corrections and Addltlona, and the Inser- tion, In Alphabetleal Order, of tho l*roper Niimea oc. enrrlnff In tha rdnclpal (ireek Authors, hv IIembt DaiBl.Hn. MA. 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Il.tl . .♦,.';■ INCOMPARABLY THE BEST WORK ON THE SUBJECT. •Unda first af our phy«lologloal treatUe*.— London Medical Times. DtwrvM to bn In the library of every student of physlology.-AthoMOUiu. Mnp", . SI -I*- |j,lu»Un. TIOAi linK tli» Itli'S. i DGEP. ismo, ISmc bla. Dkiii'ER'S PHYSIOLOGY. HUMAN FHTMOTOOY, STATICAL ANJl DYNAMICAL ; or, The Condition, nnd tourtfl of llio LIfo of Man : being the Text of the I.octuros delivered in the Medical 1)1 urttn of the Univoriity. By John W. Duapeb, M.D., LL.D., ProfoMor of Chemis- try snd I'liynlology In the University of New York. Illustrated by nearly 800 fine Woo* cull fVom I'lii) ;ril|)li». Now Edition. 8vo, 650 pages, Muslin, $4 00 ; Sheep, |4 25. Two yort iijo lliii (Inl pdlll-.n of thii work wu piibllnhsil. Slnco that time Mvural thouttnd coplej hare been dlapoHd of I U liM boon liilroSucod u a toit-boolc In many of our medical Mliools, and hai been very favorably rwnlvail by tlio (infoiolon and the public, rhli iucccm provoa how completely Iho work ha« aooomplibed lU ob. J(i«t iif krlliKlliK llio "clonco on which It troata to tho coraprchen«lon of iho gcnoral reader, without any iaorlAro of lit lililll wli'lltlllo poaltlon. At a representation o( tho present state of Phynlology, embodying all the recent foreign dl«««»iirt«» In » form not othorwlsn acccsilblo to the student, It has, In lesj than i year, been adopted as a text-book In » mi^urlty nf American t.'ollpgei, (Iritat, howovi'f, a* lis aiircess In that respect has been, the favor axtendcd to It by tho reading and edneated oliissiia generally la atlll mure striking. They have appreciated the manner In which It brings knowledge on a sub- JmH «f lh« lilghest Importance to tho well-being of society to the cii»y comprehension of persons not familiar with ineilleal inalWra, 'i'liey hn-n found U to be a book not alone adapted to the University or College, but suites', to the liistruetlufi of overv ' r^il of a family. The numerous I'liolographle engravings U contains tend greatly to a riear llluslrttinn of the < arlum topics It dlscuises, eiia!illng those who havo only the opportunity of casual atudy I'l fulliiw Oiu Auilmr In hi' di xriptlojs without any dlfUcully. of all the •olmccit, none mon more clearly homo to us than Physiology. It explains to ns how " fearfally and wonderfully we are made," tenches us how tho varloui, purls of our syitcm act In a state of health, and enables ns to understand the pauses of our ailments and dlscajcs. There Is no class of society, and, Indeed, no Individual, wild limy nut pmlllnbly become nc'iualnlcd with 11, It Is therefore to the general reader, as well as the Protesaloii, lliat tills book la ulfered, Aliiiok Ihatlafiillof Inl < liiK vliiws and novel eip niakn "ur alni^'rn aeknowloili' - frixli uoii'.rlbiithina lie lias ,'' • of tliK laws of llfii, and the now lu tliu atudy of ll< inyi> ' ''so he h>is imparted t U lull and thorough bc- we havo seen. As to dc- serlii'tve didall and tlio ent..i' ihcory of organization, it eoiiipi'ttlh'iidi tho laldSt discoveries and embo llai tho lat- uNt ooilcliiiiluiia of »olnnei'.— ,V'/r/A Amtrkan R-vieie. It Is ail iirluliial and liiierc^tlng work, rich in expcri- ntimt, ftirtlte fii iiug^i-stl'iii, and flcholir-liko in compjsl- tluii,— Wn'ii'i IU«imU mill Niir/l'-nl Jaurnil VV'i I'U" from Urn •iireey of tills work with an imprci- •loii of gruat power and vaim, We am satUfled tliat Draiiei'a I'liysloliigy wlli tf o i u important place ot lUioft, nnd will add one mtiro ■ ti't» lunnbr-r of American tad-h'i'ilis wllleli tmiy bo plii< i ! side by side with the bati, ol^ tliortn iibtnliied from abro "1.— f/iiljifs/ji/iia Mali- ml Kmnndhv, 1)1', Dmiior'a I'liysiolony hpciUnps thn greatest work KVHr IMIM"! from llin Atnci icnii press. It rnuks witli thi' kiudrod (ilntman) work "f I,>'linmnn, but Is much more roiwlublii and iil.ilh. Tlio rcudiiif! and studying of it Is worth tho rimdIiiK and sin lyiii;; nil tlio medical pnirticni of llio last iiuarlor of « ceiilnry.- -S''. / . «vi( rttwanwl (jiu '!■ iVobiibly llio Ill's 11 ' t'hrinllim ''/iroiii'*!" li ,..i»ili'i (;uiiip)i"l auil I'll ill, enil" ■ most liitiiruilinu and valmvii: UU 1.1 in its width ofvlcvit treatises.— /iomion ilfd- •till'', lirforo the public.— ■'•i«). ii ininionsc amount of I., tlir — f'oiiyreja/ioinil- Tho gieat amount of Information logically arrranged and clearly stated In this comprehensive yet compant work renders 'I oreenilncntly lit to bo adopted as a text- book In all Inn'uui .v . ' '^nmlng In which Physiology forms part of a course of instruction, and generrl readun win find It Hie nio^t Interesting and u.sefiil com|ienilliim of the science f tr prlvste study. — Commcrcicl Aiit:erHner. It coiistiUites an admirable book for students while in attendance on lectures ; at the same time it wil. be found well adapted to tho general student, who Is without an o;-al teaciier, and yet is Eceking to know and nndeictand the physieiU laws of his being. — ^Imcrican Meii. (fazefte. Fur above elementary works in scope and character, it KceiiiB fitted to secure a wide circulation. — London Ex- aminer, It would do excellent service as a text-book In schools and colleges, and la a valuable contribution to every li- brary in the country.— iV. 1'. Chronide. Il Is the largest nnd most complete treatise on Physl- oioj;y ever published in our country, and will be received and honorod as a etandard of high authority In colleges and academies, and among professional men.— /^/iflattpj- jiAia Christian Obnttser. Written In an easy, Huent style, and is a work that de- serves to be in the library of every student. — London Athmurum. Ueyoiid question iho best presentation of this great subject accessible to the mass of jVmerican students, — yjtV/iDKMid Central I I'fabyterian. Wo sliould he sorry to tee Its knowledge confined to the colieslnto class, when a diffusion of more accurate physiological knowledge, even among our educated class- es, is cxccedlncly desirable.- Pro(«i?aii« CAiirc/iinan. The pupils of our public and private schools, who have been well drilled in the sciiool physiologies, will take great interest In pursuing the subject In Ihls more ci' tended treatise. -Memphis lledical Hemnler. Can not fail to be useful to the physician and student, and deserves a place in colleges and libraries.- /..utnemn Ofi.wner. . . . , Sime of tho wood engravings are very choice, being rem.ukablo for the delicacy of their detail, and for the multiplicity of objects condensed in a given space.— Cin- ciniwfi Medical Observer. It 1 iiisl be read with interest and profit by those within and without tho profession.-Ciii' innati Cotltgt Journal. ILvRPIR A ItftiiTltllllit >'-''< •cn'J I '. , ■bo n'nri- III Mail, postage pmi {.for any distance in the United Statta under „, 0.1 nitei), oil receipt of the price. HARPER'S KKAaAZXNE. A fan of the numerous Ojnniom of the Prtu. N0 M*(>iilni) In f'uropo nr Amfrlrt !• » well known ; nna hM liaU u m*nv ri>>il«nf knd, we nmruft^ly ujr, llonii liM rtu-rlvfrf iM> UrKfl « tribute of ■dnlrKtluii ft-ooi tb( milllfili'il clMMii, tlmt itrll||l\t In » henllliy. dWtnil- llftd, vlnvatlriK (wrU'illrftl lllrmtiiro. It nut unly rovrn » lirowlir Kririnid limn any ihiilUr piilillcatlon, but It In iniirn illnllitrlty planrtrd an a pfipiiUr edurator In all the dtt|farlniiiiitii ni an avrei^ahl* and Intttrurtlvc mUcellany tlian any w' If Ideaa, faria, and aentlnienta have ■ uione- inty value i above all, If the humor that refreahea, the lileaannlilra that bring a gentle imlle, and brighten tho jwanign of a truth to your brain ; and the happy eumbi- nation of Ibn real and the Imaginative, witliout which nr nnn ran lit* a life above tho animal, are to bo put IntM ttia Ncaln op|io»ite to dutlarit and cents, then you may Iw e«rt«ln, Itoil if Harper plier (>f llfhl K'xtalp and eloilty Hiu^rdotci^ -but a Magarlne tliat taillM every form uf Interesting, (ilgnifled, and altrtctlvo ill«r»turiln in grup.-.Vuuf/irni Times. lUrpor'a Hafasino alms to give iKt beU reading, no matter where It may onme from ; and whenever lis con- ductors can prucuru from American authors better liter- ary matter than thev ran Dud elsewhere, they gel It, and they pay prires for It which would hstuniali aumo uf the Lngiish Magaiinia. -.V. )'. l}ail\i '/Yniea. The aueceaa of Ibis purlodlcii la whallvunprerien expected from a community sutllcicntly instructed j to appreciate lt.< escellences.— JoHmfll o/ Comnures. I The most extrsurdiuAry B<'rial publication of tb« world, I - The London I'uMUher'e Cirrular. I Tho luost popular munlhly in tho world. It has be- come one of the literary wonders of tbla country. Al- most exclusively composed of the works of American an> (bars and artUts, It pays Its oontrlbuturs some twonty- flve linndrcd dollara monthly. It Is a hapiiy clreum- I stance that It alms at the highest standard of lltiraturo and tho purest morale in nil iti pages. It Is not n mat- ' ter of surprise that a Magazine pn-wnting monthly suf-h an Immense amount of popular and tisefui reading I ahonid have a olrculation of a hundred and thirty thou- sand or more.— iV. K. Obierwr. I This popular Megan ne, while It does all that IsUwfnl < to cuurt popularity, never descemls to enter for It by niin- ; isterlng tu opinions or nropensltlea Injurious to good morals or social order. Though not exciuiively a rcllg- louBwork,lt Is nlwnys auxillnrv to llible truth and B" 'ountry. Its iwn portraits of distin- guished living fiii'Ti ore of thomwlves worth the prlee of the vidnme.— .V. Y, ChHMIan Aihncate and Journal. We Itavs bsd a few attempts to establish a tirvt-cUsH lllHStralrd iiapcr In this country. In emulation of the " l,' ispnmacbed, as a whole, by that of any other ■mong Itx 40(1, perha|is, nut lurpasaed cisewherv.— A'. Y. Ktamlner. It would h» diflleull for any weekly paper In these t)nlt<'d Wales to eomiieto wllh "llHriier's Weekly." I.Iks Ibeir Mnnlhly, II Is exncily ada|iled to the literary eaimrltles i.nd thn nemis uf tho masses at the present llniui *hd II will And Its way to, and shed light around, ■nsny boniss which elan would have hardly received a gleam ol Inlelllgenre. Its vast profusion of lllustrallons, fre-li and orlglnHl. catch the cursory eye, while the con- dfliisatl'ifi and lucid arrangement of the Immense variety of riirrent, local, and foreign news, enable the render to follow the course with ease, and instruct liinmulf readily nn ail toidra worth talking about. The size ami general appearance nf thn paper In like the most popular uf Lon- don Jonmala. Kntertalnlng Action, liglit slietches, and pi'lusnt and bumorous anecdotes form prominent feat- nrea. Arrangements have lieon made by Ihe publishers fnr • new romance, from tho pen of Hlr Kdward Unlwer l.ylt'lti. which he ranks among the best. It vill po pub- IMied III snccesNlve numberatn " Harper's Weekly," and may Iw Katlcipttcd as • rare literary treat,— .Y. 1'. Jk'x- prsH. Our eonlenipomry, "Harper's Weekly," has secured tho new novel, "What will be do with It?" by llulwer. which will no doubt be tho masterpiece of the great nov- elist, It opens ailmlrably. We sny mo arc glad that our contemporary baa secured this great work, for "Har- per's weekly" deserves as large a nieasun^ of success as tho Monthly. It Is by fur tho best pa|>or of Its kind we ever had In thl« country, and. In respect of reading mat- ter, Is considerably ahead uf tho "Illustrated 1/iudon News. — .V. Y. Ledger, In external appearance It Is fnuUlcu. It Is printed on the finest and wlilteat nf paper, and with clean, sharp cut . type, so that it Is quite a luxury to look upon, for eyes wearied and balfblindcd with the villainous printing of many of our city dallica— .Yeie I'orit Kmngelitl. We like tho "Weekly" very much. Its oditorlnl Hr- I tides are calm and candid ; its sclentiflc department is full of Interest to practical people ; its stories are admira- bly told; its illustruiions arc good; Us chat is iilennant, and its nonsense is very sensible. It Itut't trashy, nor silly, nor lovc-»lcky. It can bo carried Into the family ! witn safety. — }'^owleiKC Pout. Very handaome — Just what was wanted — full of newR, Rclenco, criticUm, stories, facts for the hour, and mate- rials for Ihe fireside and the study Corresponient Doe- Ion Tranarrii)!. ; The beet /iimilii paper ire ever mw. Its pages embrace ' a grvat variety of reading mntter, and its articles on thn leading topics nf the day aro wrlttt'u wltli an ability which would do credit to the "Thunderer" of tho Dritlah press —the London " Times." In point of Illustrations, It Is ahead of any of our pictorial slicets. — .Veto London Adr. Fresh, S|iarkllng, and vivadoua. Its circulation Is probably tho greatest snccess ever achieved by any pub- , lication at lucb an early period of Its existence.— ifrooJt- lyn KagU. My ■n. mn.. Sheep extra, $i oo Pr„f ,_.^ ,.,.-..:'ir""."'''''l NvTi;H\r p.. ■pjiUl • '^C" — • ■ -- » I ... , ,,.„, iw"L"" •?•',"'"•'■'"•■ 5'.wr' ' "''™ """""eJ. -Prof "^Itli olcarnoas «n,I brcvi v i ? "V'''''-''' "rMidoim, i ITof. Looinis's Naturul I'S ' ?"•"'"""■;.', iV. tarywork on llils"ubK,v| ri'I/''^" '? ""' l^"« Ho,„,.„ ■■vuy subject wiwhlcliit , , Among tho n ,«.."">" "aitii Time. "' '"' ""«■ o^'m Wconf' ' '•'''"""• '2"-, 3m' g^ ''"^,,»"; I ELEMENTS or ANALYT.ra. nomelrij mnrt i .It ' ; '^"'•f '™. *1 60 Tim i' ' ., DICTIONARIES AND WORKS OF REFERENCE, PDBLUKIID IT ^ HARPER 61, BROTHERS, FRANKLIN SQUARE, N. Y. ** AWDRDWia LATIW-imaLnK LXXIOOIT. Fmin-leil «ii lliK Uriirr Lniiii'drmiiin It'ilrmi ol Dr Wm. Fmcurin. Willi AililllliiiK mill Cotrtrlioiiii, lYiim Iha Ltilronii urilea- imr, Kai'i'liiUll, ^nlwUtr, UwrfM, Ac. Ruyil Hvo, Hhmp •ilrn, •/) INI. Tli« iipM'in "t M.|>'.liin. tmlli In Ikli twnUf «nl«l«'l r'llltf'M If) l^f vMalmUrjr, lh« iihilc«i)ptilr«| Arrknftm*nt 'if Ilia ilalliililiiiM, III* ahitiifliinl nffMft^M 111 t)i« Romiin •ulhuri whirh ffu|i- ■•'ii| lliMM ill rtniiliiiM, III* i4'il|inillMi III llw wr *ii'>llMiiiiii4 nlil.lt blmiiii ihl* l.pilriiii r*t «liiiTii *nv <>l>i*r uf Iji* aui4 |ii»( I li«»* MifH I'M . N. HuMua, Okflla CW(<||>, Uliu. ANTKOir'S OLAMIOAL DIOTIONART. Conlalninx an Aniimiil iif Ihn prliii'l|iiil I'riiiMT Nnmca iiirntloneil In Anrknt Auihiira, ami liili-iiili'il In rlin'iilnin till iha lin|iortoiit rnlrila auiiiiaiiliiil Willi lliii Miiiiiraiiliy, lllalorv, Illntraptiy, Mytlioi- uiy, ami Kliia A rta iif llw (Irwlia anil Rimianii, rom'tlnT wlih •II A iiinl iifiha I'lilna, Wrlihla, and Mi'aanri'H iirihr An- almila, wilti Tahular Valiua ofiliu aamr. Huynl Hvu, sheep •Ufa. It INI. Til* •■ ..J.* ..r llil* •»•) Kiitk I* ».ff •itofialv*. •nil rnn.iirliM InfnTmallcn r**iHi«liai^ 111* iii,.| l|ii|...,|,i,| l„,B,|,«i „f ,|,„i„j li,.,,|*,. ..* lUr* niuy II* rmiig II * I.I.I* Km , ..|..i>(.|ia ,1 ah,!,,,! Ili..,ji,,,h», l.'lilnrr. Ill..«r«- lihr. aii.l M>lli'.l..ilr 'I'l.* il*|.»ilni*it) i.f 11.* Km* An* ri.rlii* mi *lillr.ily r«*l.iia, «.ii'i.N.l.iK lrl'>tfi*|'lil** Iif NiiriHiil iirlkt*, «inlcrilirbiimiiii<.ii Tli.ia-'ft l*i.'rt .. ■ ■ •■ i*)|.*ll|.Arh- •nly liiill*|>*ti*ntil*l(itlineli I.I 111* i.r(if*flali.n«l iiiMti. IhMl NliiM III V* *iiin|il*l* II h** ti**ii pru- hIIv iimIiiI I.I 111* i.r.if*flali.n«l iiiMti, anil r>.nii* a ■ 'ttl IhMl NllIM III V* *it lltrlln, iin* of Ih* IcaillnK it hulan lu Uarniany, lll*li i.t...|.i •r aii.| i|.i.|h..i, i,.|i miilni »*u«ar|. pail iil ...i* |,|,ftf,j ai»i»<*.|l.>l').i( H.hkU.i "a mu'l Hirallaiil ttiirit h III Alilli'Hi liM* ilHia iimtM tiir Mmnit rUaali-*! arli....1 llt*r*liir* than RRf liall iliuii Kiitll n III, l...,|,.ar. a.lii.lraMv a.lllnl. Hi. maiiu «a an ««ll.if Mf Ilia >»l I *l*.a|fa *r* ... wall iti).lanil.HHl anil aiiprsrlMI.-.'. In titi* aiiiiiilrii, a* w.ll *. in bu „»|,, ||,,| „„ .„iUUuii tiniil.l b* tuuaitluuiu — iMMva .4fiiai«*M». ANTHON'I tATtN-BNaLMH AND ENOLISH-LATm l)|i;'ri'lNAIIV, (tif lllii nan 111 SrlliHila. Clilrlly from llio l^aali'iiiia iir t'riMiiiil, lli'iirni.*, unil Kallailiniiilt Snml! 4la, Hliiiii|i uMia, tiiiiv. Tli* j»»*il(|,..(|l.. 1.11 ».»il lanU'i fai.dill. Itiaillail.aiilll.. JHfuniiil'panai.f Ml* wwr.l alvait. Willi", it II U a Hallralir* W'lrd, lU llrri'k or l.atla Mul i.r iKIaliMl l> al*ii »i>>ii I ainl ih* ilaanllliwanbtlar, -i»iipr*b*Mi>r aadror 'Ill* •iili..l*r.l..|. ii iii.Mii*ir, lliarrlll-lainaiHinil, III* rulaa of prununciatlon •uir*«l aii'l >alii*lil» //«ii/.,fri H,i»Mirmi>. BHATCDt'B BIf OYOLOraniA. A Dinlnnary nf Srirnre. lillnrnliiM". ami An. I'lTiiii.flalnii Iho Illatury, DraiTlpciun, ami Niiinililli' rrliiri|i|in iil i.*iT)f Ilrancli of llunmn Kniml- »illl«. Willi Ihn llifiniiiiiii ami Ilinnlllim n|' nil iho Tmii-i III Ki'iiiirnl UK" lllilalriiliil liy nuiniruua Kngravlnga on WiWil 1*11. Nliiii>|i cirn, |< iKI Till* valii«.lilii w..flt, fm iti.i'ii'i.l* lufnriiiuli'in np..R a vmI variety of a.ib. .I*/I*, brailirl.l .If. |.i II.H prioiil .la; ami rafafiillv iligeaUiJ, ia uiiriviituj aihl ua«aiial*4 -^ili'i Ifa^iia* rbaiMiiJ aiiit ii.', r..pi'..i. *tti'«iiaii'ia 1.1 fail* wi.l 1*111' t/»l«il aN4 •l|iUliii'il timn rllli'.iil ptiillilly. II lilt** But fiiniUli a h«lj bill * il*v*lupiii«Dt vf priariplas w«ll tllur- OOIB'H MtNUTURB tBXtOOIf i>rilipKnji!lahI,iinKUaiie. (tliin, MilHJiii. fill ri'iila I riM'krl linoh Dirm, (I (10. A ainvaalMill lull* liiNiiHal ) rianr In ll.i. Ivp"|rnipi. v. rh.I r.> iinall thut It .way l)*i<*ril*i| 11. ;..* ii'..|ii.t. fl rimiHlii. r..pl.iii«il«llnlti{m*,Myllal.ie divl*. |.*H, iiii'l lliM NiifniifriMliiiit ..f i>nrli wi.r'i , ^Hrli f»%* 111 lumiunijcil by •uun.l maalai*. II l«, la Iriilli, "aiHfiwMt lN/ar*1 (>Ul|...|tar)'i •ln/ul.l bar* a plae* In avery buiuabiilil. BAnPBn'K UTATHTIOAL OAZBTTBEH OF THE Wlllllill, imrili'iiliirly iliairlliing llio Iiiiili'il Stiitca of Airiir- ln*, I'niiinlii, iVi-w llrunawiiii.niid Novn.;roila. IlyJ.l.'Ai.- VInHmiiii. Ilhlairali'il liy Ki'Viti Mnna. To he coiiipletiil In mm ml or in 'I'lii Hiiiii-iiionllily Nunihera, at 50 cents eai'li lliiifal am %'t m Tina aiiili lilt* Una iin.l.fliiki-it In Biiprly a want wblrh It ilally bi-o.iminif Di'.r* liiiini..|l*l* ami iii*..|.. ami II U I>*IIi.t*.| Ibal II rcmlalna i> Inrn. r • iniiiiiil ..f li.w aailtal'.itl.l. ii.alliit Mi*n li bi b» fnnn.l In any olbar publi'.n. ll.ia b*frl.,f.if* 11llkr1.1l III III* pntilir 'Hi* . Ill.ir I,.., ariililii.l l.di, .li<.|.i|.l,|..na ■iiilrilrn.lr.I .Irarriptinna, with, ■iril. II 1* l,i.|l*>B.|, aminina any Ihlna •laenlMl I., a full onrl it.la.iual* Irnl. ln*nl .If lb* • .1. .*. I* i.|..|iiiai..| Tlwwnrb will nialaln ■<.> an lara* aitU B*- riirala iimii., full ii,.r.ii.,, „,.) ||,|, n( |h* pla<*l laid down, ag arraiinad ai Id (atllllaki laiMHillala iaf*Kn**. lUDDBLL AWD BOOTT'I aKEEK-BNaLIBH LEU- CdN, haaeil u|ion 111" IliTinan Work nf Kbancii I'»»«)w. With Correclioiii anil Aildiliiina, ami tbi Inaertlon, In Al- phabetical Ordir.of Ih 'io|ier NaiiM?» miurnng In the prin- cl|nl<'riiiiit.tH, MA. Uiiyil tlvo, Uhinp eitra, •> UU. Knr many y*Hra 1 mail* ua« of .aiow** nr*ali and (1 irman I.*il*on ni Iha bail tli*n atUiil. On Ilia ap|.j*ri -i- »f Llddal. an.l ai-nll'* Lsilmn, It wai avid.nt Ibnl th*y bail rftl*li<*il Ilia •■in i.f I'aaaow, li«>«ld*a aildlna lu II lb* ! b*«l I i.arai-larbll** nf Knalla*! acbi. r*blp. 1 ba**, a*roidln«ly,*var aliii.* I mail* bahlliial tun nf thair work, aialnly In ynar *dlll.*l, and ll a*rv*d *■ t)i« b«ila i.f lb* .-iBMlL'ai purlltifl* uf my nwn l.i*r*. RIDDLE AND ARNOLD'S ENGLISH-LATIN LEXI' CON, ftiunilrd on the Ocnniii-I.alin IMciinnnry of Dr i'. K Oiuaiiia. Firal Aini-rlran Killtlon, larenilly revlii'il, iind contalnlnn ■ eoploua Ulctlonary nf Proiar Nainca iroiii iliu heat 8ourc», by CiiA*I,r.a Antiion, I.L.U. Itoyul bvu, Sheep ekira, t3 UO. II niiiil iitp*rw<.l* *v*ry almilar worV now In oaa in iahmili and c.i1I*f«a Ihrniitrh. ul In* Unlt*d aiaUa, at it baa alr**dy dun. lu Kntflaad.— (uarl** II la 111* only FnirlUb-Lalln lUrllnnary tl'it a itiidenl ran rnnanll with a rvaMin.tbIa bi.p* uf tlndlna what h* WMnIa, or wllh any <«rtainly v( b*iBK atilf tu trual what b* llBda.— iVarfain'a Jffl^aiia*. ROBINSON'B GREEK LEXICON OF THE i'EW TEST- AMKNT. A new Edition, reviaed, and in ureal part, ro- wrltlcn. Royal Hvn, Mualln, %i 5(1 \ .Sheep citrn, $ I 75. II. iw r.>innletaly tbia vnlnm* iiiiiiilia.l a a'**! vmnl m th« lni«u Biib**iiu*nt Bbri.tiiiiii>ntii. Th« flratodition havlnBb««n *ih.iUNli..i, rir. R.ibinann, durititf lb* laatlhra* y«*ri. baa r..nr*nlrRI*ii hi* labor* npun th* pri>|.«ratiua of In* pniB*nl adilii.n of 111* laxirnn A ronipariaun of wblrh a it'i till' lltil iinprRBaioti rnnble* u* In nlti.»t Iha Irutlifni arour^ry ..f lit* au- Ibof'.. MtHlenieni UiRt it U ln.la«d "anvw *diii»ii, rrvtiwd and p*rlly rnwrll- ti.li," Mn.l w-i. tnual Rdd. With uiuRt valuabl* Rddltluaa and iniprovoniauU. — darrA t>f KngUnd Ht9U». SMITHS DIOTIONAHY OF ANTIQUITIES. From the beat Aiilhorltlea, and iinbmlyliit nil llii' niint DiacoveruH of the moat einliient (frrmiin I'tiiloloKlhla and Jurlata. Firat American Edition, corrocti'tl iinil enlariied, iiiiilioiiiaininK nlxo iiunierous Articica relutive to tlif lloiuny, .MimTiiIofry, Mini /miliiity of the Ancionia, by CiiAiibi;.'! Asthon, 1.1,.U. Riiyul Hvo, Shivp e»lia, $4 (HI. Aa R dirllonary, 11 U Ih* b«kl ai.l In llie rludy uf rUaalral ant'iuily v ' -h wa piMw*** In our iRnauRR*. VNbtabl* h* tbi* dli-liuiiHry niiiat t.a In I lu> dunt uf RRciant lil*rRtur«, it will bo nl ararraly I«w »*rvlro lu Iho Rtuilent of Rnricnl an. fur lb* lIIuttrRlluni bRv* been selected wllh care and Judgment. — ^lAfHaum. SMITH'S NEW OLASSIOAL DIOTIONART of Gm-k and Roman DtoKraptiy. Mytliology, anil (icoKraphy. EdlK-'l hy CifAKi.FH AnTitoN, M..I>. Ilovial Hvo, Shfpp cxlra, %-i. .'lO. TM< ilicliutinry r(ini|>TiR<»i tlio •Hiro BubjArlB n% aru ninlAlneU in Ilia well. knoM n (lirllfMlMrv or l*cnt|>rlerf , Bvniilmg Hit errora, >uii|ilylni[ it* ileflr ifiKNM. hikI fihlbitinv, in % cimriis fumi, lliv r*;ult of tli* lRbi)n uf Rctiiiliin. It wit] tliiii luiibly ft wftDt thM bM long b«tn fftt tiy ttiidfnu ud pcnoua cti- (iigiiil Id tuilioo. WEBSTER'S OCTAVO DICHON-ARYa Exhlblllnir tho Origin,. Orthofiraphy, Pruiiiin<-laiion, and Dcfliiition or VVonlH. Towhlch ani added a SynopHln ofWordn difl'iTL'iit- ly pronounri'd by dlirtTpnt OrthoepiHta, and Walkcr'H Koy tu tno ClaHNicnl Pronunciattan of Oreek, Latin, and Seripturo Proper Nnnu'fl. A new Ktlition, nsviwd and eidartfcd, hy CiiAL'NiKY A. OooDRKii, D 1)., ProliBsor in Yiiln CoMijre. WUh thti Addition of a Vocahulury of Modern ticojrriiphirid NameN, with their Pronunriulion. This Edition contnitis oil tho U'oidN in tho Quarlw Edition, and aUo an arran^'i nuiit of SynoiiyniH under thu lendintt VVorda — a new and minor- tant ftmtiire, and not to bo Ibund lu any ulhcr Work, ovo, Sheep extra, $3 5U. Tub Adtamtaoii nr rniii Epitiom jiaa, 1. It hRahctnl iJitUn IN fKt i/uartit fiTUi. ' 3. Tim Spnofiit and It'alter'i A>y to tin* rlnwlral rronunclBlum (if Crtilt, I Lalin, niid Hrri|>lur() |iro|wr nanii>» Iihva Wr>n ravlM <1 with murh run- iiml I frrviitiv iin|iroved ; also, a roniplett VofahHlary, |ivlnf tfaa pronuiiriiiliun I uf iDotlem (li>o|[Taphli-al namri, hru breu addcif. 4. tirciit Rll.t wnnU hnvlnu Iwnr mpelltd, it will now ha found to ba a ! roniiilrlfl Pronoutifinff /JiV/ioaarw. I 6. rheutm
  7. rt la cnHily cli'.liiiKulHhiKl fnnn thut of tlm rini-lloworMil niuple, whi. h It nmm- \<\m In uppnirunii', hy lt« wciKlit and li:irdrii'HH, TImri' li, iKinldim, a n'ry nhnplo Jind ii'rtuin ti'»t. A frw drop< of Wiitiir HUtitniti'd with roppiTin (anlphutii of iron), litdnK iiourud U|Mm nainpliw of dlll'i'rcint woodii, that of the Hiinar niaplii turn.i Kr<'''"i'lii "'"l the white niiipio and III" rcil-UoworcMl niiipli- clianKO to a ilui>p Idue. Thn UHlms of the iintjir niaplo aro rhh in tlio alkaline principle, and It hu.n licon Uicatlon. lleshlon, the annual draw- B({e of the nap renders ttm Ireea nickly, unit causes a premature Jucay. From the )(reut liel)(')it, extended hranchea, re){ulur and often pyramidal I'urm, and the rich venlure ami ideanllneiiri of the foliage in nprinK and Hunnner, the HUifar maple in accounted an one of our llnost shade- trees, ami in hi)(lily recommended 'o he planted aloni; streets and avenues, In pastures, and urnumontal grounds. And It is no less lieuutiful in our forest or wo(Mll.iiid scenery in autumn, wimn it puts on its liri|{lit-orani;e and doop-crlmson rohes. At llrst, the extremities uf the houghs alone chan);o their color, leaving the internal and more sheltered parts still in their vcnluro, which " gives to the tree the ell'uct of great depth of simile, and displays advantageously the light, lively coloring uf the sprays." Later in the season, nn the contrary, when the tints liecoine more and more gorgeous, and the full heams of the nunnhlno fall \i|xin the large mosses of foliage, the warm auil glowing cidors of the whole summit possess a great deal of grandeur, and add much to the beauty and effect in the landscape. The wood of the acer eriocarjmm, or white maple, is very white when newly cut, and of a line texture ; but it is softer «nd lighter than that of any other maple in the United Statin ; and from the want of strength and durability it is little used. When dry, it weighs '68 pounds to a cubic foot, and in seasoning, loses nearly half of its weight. It is Bometimcs used in cabinet- making, instead of tho holly or other light-colored wimhI, for Inlaying furidturn of nialnigaiit , ilmrry-lm*, and lilai Ik wulnut ; though It Is Icm nullulilrf liir IhU purpose, an It soon i hungvi lohir by «ii|Hi>ure to light, WiHHlan bowls are also mad>< of it, when thut of uah or tullp-truu can not bo obtuliiHd, i'he i hunoal of this wimmI Is preferred by hattcrn and dyern to every other, as It alfordn a heat more uniform, and of lunger dura- tion. Tlm sap Is In inollon earlier In this spi'ilen tlniii In the sugar maple, lieglnnliig to asiind. In the mlddlu .States, alniiit the IMh of .laiiiiary i no that when It U employed for making sugar, the o|>eriitlonn are minrh.r completed. Mko the nap of the red-llowered muphi, it yiehin not mure than oim half of llm product of nugir, from a given meamire, as thut of the mrr mtfilinnniim. Its Imier burk priidiucs a black preilpltate with i'o|i- pcran (sulphate of iroiil, and In aomellmcs employml In donientic dyeing. Tho wMoil of the iifrr nilinim, or red initfile, whi'n dry, weighs 11 pounds to a ciililo font, and when green. It Is noft, full of ui|iicoiia mutter, and loncn In drying nearly one hiilf of Its weight, In this tree, as In othera hIiIi'Ii grow In wet plucca, the aap-wiiod bears a large proportion to the heart-wood, tlm latter of wlihdi nin- slsta of an Irregular cidumii, alar-IIke In Ita Iranntersn sectliHi, and occupies the central parts of large trunks, with Its |Hiliiln priijei'lliig Into the aup-Wood, TIiIh wood liua but little strength, la liable to Injury fniiu insi'i'ta, and ferments, and apeeillly decays when ex- posed to tlm alternation of ninlnturo and dryness, Vet it Is solid, and for many piirpoaen la preferred by workmen toother kinds of wood, It Is harder lh:iu that of the white maple, and of a liner and clnser grain ; hence it In uaally wrought In the lathe, and uc- i|ulrea, by pollahlng, a gloasy and silky surface. It Is priiu'lpally enijihiyed In the inanufu'tiire of cliiilrs, saddle-trees, shoe-laala, ox-yojies, brooin-humlles, and various other artlclen of donu'ath: use. It soinetlmea happens Ihul, In very idd treen, the grain of the wood. Instead of following a per|Hiiidli'ubir direction, is unilulateil { and this variety bears the name of i-iirliil miijili: This slngiilur arrungeinciit Is never found In young trees, nor even In the br.oiclies of such as exhibit It In tin Iriink i It Is also less ci,n- spicuons in the centre of the tree than near the liiirK. Trees oll'erlng this dis|Hialtlon, however, are rare. The serpentine direction of the llbres, which renders this wood ililllcult to split and to work, produces, in tin' hands of a skillful mechanic, the nmat bcnutlful I'll'ei I < of light and shade, These elfecta are rendi'red iiinn striking. If, after ainiHithlng Hie surface of Hie wih„| with a double-Ironed plane, It Is rubbed with a little sulphuile uchi, arid afterward with llnaeed Oil. iiii examining it attentively, the varying shades are bnnid to be owing entirely to the lllllecthiii of the rays of light j whhdi Is mora aanalbly |H'< In u Kiiiiilii' nn (ciuiiiii"" fur ilyi'iiiH Hjiir froi" ''"> {iMomltntt KfHti'lrA, lh« pnulurt iif II ff\vfn mKimurn U nut iiiiirn tliim mill liiilf ii* Kruiit ii« timt of Ihn i. ' Tim ihir l•rlm/l<,^^•c, or tli'M miipli', In fiiiiiiil lhri>ii)(li- 1 nut till* iiililillii StiilPK nf Kiirii|iii, miil In tlin mirth nf ' Ailii. A rillii)( to I'lilliiM, it iiIiihiiiiIk In New llumilii, | ami aliiMit ruuruiiiK. It Ix ciinimnn In Iii-iIkoh nnil llili ki'tH In tlifl inliMIn riiiiiitli<« anil noiltli iif l'',n|{1iinil ; liiit III tint iiiirtlii'rn rmintli'K, iiml In Nciitliinil, It in riirn. It Ix nut lnill|(i'iiiinii to Iri'liiml, nnil |ii'rhii|iit nut til Si'iitltiiiil. 'I'liii wiiiiil (if tliu lilt r ritnijifMfri', wlii'ii iillnwcil til ln>riiiiio II triMi, nnil nf ii |irii|i(>r nno, I* vory ('iiiii|Mi't, pimm'iiKi'K a IUki Kfi'liii «"iii('tlnii'H licau- llfiilly vi'Ini'il, anil Ih i>uii('«plllil(> (if a IiIkIi phIIdIi. Wlii'ii dry, It wclnliH M piiiiiuN tii ii ciilili' font. It inaki'H i>xi'i<|li'nt fuel, ami prmlin'oH cliari'iinl nf tlin lm.4t ipiiillty, wlilcli In nnnictlnicH iMnplnyiiil In tlin iiiiiniirxi'liirn iif ^iinpiiwiliT. It ««« ccli'tiriiti'il aniiiii)( tliii anrlcnt Ituiiiaiix for talilcn ; iiml I'lliiy, who lian triMtwl lit lin^th iiiKii llin lirunn ami mtiUimni, thn liiiini'x iiiiili'r which the kiiolm unit oxitoai'i^iicch of thU trill wi'rii kniiwii, inl'nniH ii» that ciililnct-wnrk of Ihn iniint roxMy ilinirlptliin was falirlratoil fniin thfni. In I''ranii> ami olhcr Kiirnpcan oounfrli'K, It I* kIIII p\- tiMi"lvi'ly iiKi'il liy tiirncri, carvprn, and lalilnot-inakorH, ami till! wiiiid of Ilin roiiti, whlili It often knottoil ami (iirloiHh- iiiiirlili'il, l< wrnii){lit Into sniitT-linxi'n, pipcn, and varliiiin other artliles of faney. — llnowNK'n 7Vcc» lyM inirint. Maps and Charts. They wern Invented by An- n.{land liy Ilarthnl- oiiiew I'nlniiiliii'i, to llliintrate hN lirntlier'n theory re- speetiii'; a western enntineiit, .\. T>. 1 IHD. The (■arliest map of KnylamI wan drawn liy (ieiirjje I.ily in l.WO. Mi'v, d 'i''ii I'hart, in whiih the world wan taken a.s a plane, was invented in l.'i.'ill. A map of the inomi's sarfaoi wa.s llrst drawn at l)ant/.le In ll'il". — IIaviin. fJ/V/ii' ('iiii.ftriirlliiii nnil l'.ir nf Afiipf, — In n-prenent- hij; tho (;eo;;raphieal (lIvisioiiH of the earth's Hnrfai'T', two olijects are tn lie kept in view ; on the one hind to exhihit aeciirately to thii eye thn ndativo ponltieii of tho different countries, and, on the other hand, ti> nivo a delineation Hufliciently minute tn furnish a di«tinet knnwlodgo of tho necessary details. As a jrluho his very nearly tho exact lli;'"'" "f the enrtli, tho repre- seiitatiou which It nlTonls of the mirl'aci) fullllls tho llrst of those olijecta in the most perfect manner ; lint to attain tho second it wonld he re piisite In enlarjjo tho glolio beyond nil convenient si/,.. .\ j^Iu'ie of tlio ordinary dimonaions serves almost no "i'' purpose in this respect but to convey a clear i tinn of tile earth's snrfaco as a whole; exhiliitiiiL; the tl){nre, ex- tent, position, and general fe.itiires ni Mio great conti- nents and islands, with the iiil erven i;; oceans and seas. To obtain a detailed pi, resents ni of any part of tho earth's surface, (;eo;;iaphers liavo therefore found It necessary to have recnurso to maps, in which countries are delineated on a ])tano, whilo tho mutual proportions of the distance of places are preserved as nearly as possible tho same as on tho globe. For the construction of maps difFerent mathematical hypotheses have been adopted. By ono method of construction, that of /inyVc/iim, tho boundaries of conn- tries, and their more remarkable features, are repre- sented according to tho rules of perspective, on tho supposition of tlio eye being placed on some point nf tho sphere, or at some given distance from It, which may be increased indellnitoly. Wherever the eye is sup])osod to bo situated, the representation thus ob- 1 talned answers very well, provided the surface to bo I represented is of small extent, and the point of view, ' or projecting point, is nearly over tho centre ; but I when tho surfaco is of great extent, for e.xamplo, a I whide homUphom, thnso plactis which arii iltiiatxd n»iir the lioriler of the projiicllon ani In all of thxtn iniieh ill'tiirted. Anoth«r iiiethnil, that of ,trirl,ipm,nl, \t foiinil.d on tho supposltliui that the spherical surface tn lie represented Is a |sir1liiii nf a cone, nf which th« vertex is nltiinted soinewhere in the |Hdir nxU ptt)- diieeil, mid tho iniilcal surface Is aup|ius. Nevertheless, though there are currents that flow with nearly the same regularity as rivers, no ma|>-maker gave any visible hint respecting them to the navigator to whom he pretended to fur- nish useful charts, until tho time of our model u Ken- nell's Wind-maps, which are also a very lato limova- tlon of our century. Tho existence of the banks of Newfoundland was known to the very first discoverers of tlio eastern coast of North Anionca. Nay, for a long time these banks were the most frequented part of the Nortli American waters, lieing visited since tho year 1501 l)y whole fleets of French, Portuguese, Spanish, and Fnglish fishermen. To have a true conception of tlicir configuration, extent, varying depths, currents, and other circumstances, was almost of greater importance for all the navigating nations of Euro|)e than to know the configuration of tho coasts of the great continent itself. Yet at a time when the whole cast coast of North America was already very well represented on the maps, we see the Georges Bank, Nantucket shoals, and the other great banks, before this coast, cither not given at all, or else in a sb.tpo so little like reality that it would have been almost better to leave tlicin out altogether. Tho other qualities of the bottom of the ocean, its deep valleys and lofty mountain ranges, were of course not noticed in an ago which did not possess our deep-sea sounding instruments, and which had also no practical occasion for such explorations. This practical interest has existed only since the question has been mooted where we can lay with safety our electric wires for the connection of the two coutincnts. For this purpose we now explore those hidden recesses, and we may expect that ere long our pictures uf tho oceans will present as groat variety of scenes as do those of the dry land itself. Wo should endeavor to collect and preserve uU the old records and charts of our early maritime history. These are valuable to science, and are objects of curi- osity and interest to our merchants, anil it should he the object of tho Chamber of Commerce to collect and preserve these records of the past. Maranham, or Maranhao, a province of Bra- zil, In South America. This name, which is couunou to the province, the capital, the island on wliich it stands, the Kiver Meary, and the Amazon, is derived from Marufian, tho appellation which the nnvi(,'atiir Pinzan first liestowed upon the estuary of tlio Am:i- zons, upon finding tliat its waters did not possess the ealiue iiroporties of tlie occun. It lies bewccn 1° iO' and 10" 50' of south latitude, and -15° 10' and 5:i° W of west longitude, being nearly 100 miles in length from north to south, and having an average breailtli of about 200 miles. Muranham, or St. Luiz, tlio capi- tal, is situated on an island of the same iiaiiic uf uliuut 42 miles in circumference. It forms the soiiHi-cast side of tho Bay of ilarcos, having to tlio eastward the Bay of San Jos6, in lutituile 2° 32' south, and loiij;- itudo •13'' 40' west. It Is fertile, and well iiiliiibitcd, there being, besides the capital, numerous small liuiii- lets belonging to the natives. Much difliculty is ex- perienced in reaching this island, on account of the rapidity of three rivers at the moutli of which it is situ- ated. The harbor, which is formed by a narrow creek, is of a sufficient depth to admit of luerchantiiieii loiter- ing ; but it is so beset witli shoals as to require a pilot, and its depth is diminishing. Populat ii ii about 30,000. Chief public edifices, an episcopal palace, college, luis- pltal, theatre, and numerous convents of tho Francis- can and Carmelite ordcis. It is the residence of tlie governor, and has a lyceum and schools of navlgiitioii ond commerce. Chief exports, cotton, rice, and sar- siiparilltt. Chief Imports, slaves. Tho average num- ber of slaves imported between the years 1H40 and 181o averaged 5000 annually, for whom a considerable duty was derived. With regard to exports and imports, there are no returns which can be relied on later than the year 1820. From 1815 to 1820, the average niiiuber of bags of cotton exported was 08,000. The exports of rico varied during these years from 50,000 to 82,000 bags. The other articles sent out of the country con- sisted of hides, tunned and untanued, skius, and gums. The entire population of the province amounted, in 1821, to 182,000. This province might be made one of great importance, for it possesses vust capabilities; but as yet it is in an infant or seuii-barbarous state. Marble (Gor. , Bus. , and Lat. J f anno ; Va. ifdrma- ; Fr. Marbre; It. Marine; Sp. Marnwl),a. genus of fos- sil <, composed chiefly of lime; being a bright and beautiful stone, moderately hard, not giving lire witb steel, fermenting witli and soluble in acid menstrua, and calcining in a slight tire. Dipumus and Scyllls, llroinon Ifoilnnd Uulgiurii.,.. , I''ii(iluni1 8i'iitlariii.,,,, Malta i'nniula Hrltlsli Kast |i Jrnni'o on Ihu f raiien iin t||„ llnrtiiKal,..,,, iSarillnla ITiiseanv. . ., iTivo Blulll.is. . . jChliia I Total... Brando divl Int 1 classes, on 1- Unl-coloreil the black, 'i, lur spots or VB nniiniil reiiiali with irregular 4. Slinll murlil In the ualcarei tirely ouui|io8e MAR 1319 MAR ■tiitii«rli)« of Vnto, w«r« tha itrat nrttats who sculp- tureil niitrlilH, niii) |ittllihttit ttietr works i nil atatuen pr»vli)ii»l,v to tllfir Hull Iwlng nf wood, 608 n.o.—Plini/. Miirlilii »rt«rwiiril imnw Into ima for atataes nnd the anlinnnii nild nniitiil«H(ii nf (hie butldltiKa | and the edi- iioita itnd iniiimmtintii iif ttonie w«ro conatructed of, or orimiii«nted with, Dnt* niiirlite, The riilna of Pnlmjrra prove timt It* lim((i)lll>'*'t>t atritctiiroa, which were cliJBlly ot^ wiiitB niitrliitt, wwrtt fur more extenaivo and itpltindid tllitl) tiinmi of ttv«ti Konia Itaelf, Tliese latter were liiacovurHil \iy aoillA I'lllKllali trnvvlera near Alep- po, \, i>, J(I7M, 'I'lie nolom liy wllloll ttliirlitna urn dlntlngutahed are uliiiobt iniillMlomlillt, Nonitt nrn ((Uite Idacic, othera, iiga>ii,'nr« of It »mtwy wllitii t aoiitn nrn xreeniali, others Kriiyiah, ruddloll, iillliah, yiillowiah. ilc. t while some iiro vnrieKiitnd nnd fi|iiittitit witli mimv different colors nnd BliudBa of iHilorUt 't'lin lliicat aolld nimlcrn marlilos iirti Ihoxii of Ittily, llliilil((na Arnnd>-lian ninr- lilea waro lirollulit, 'I'llii miirliii" of Cnrnm ia lilie- wlsn ill liljjli ruiMita iililoiiK aiMilplora. Tho apocillo (gravity of mrtpliiii la fhiiii 'i'TfHI to U'SOO. lllack mar- hln owoa \U I'olor to It alight lalxtliro of Iron, HTATKJIKNTIinclWIXO 'IPII4 H^I'OllTn (If TUB MAHUFArTURES iiH M.MililK moM 'IIIH llNltl'li ■ItAtm roH TIIK FiacAL Vbau knmino rliiMB llOtit, lafid, WlillLiir .nik.tl.ii, Duli'li ilulmiii, ,,, K.niilioiil ,,,, li'itlanil, ..,,,,,,, (Ilhnillar. ,.,,,,, OiUtllila,. Other llr. N. A, n"» , llrltUli Wi'xt IiiiIIi'IIm llrillbli lliijiiliii'iia. ,, llrlllsli 1IMI-. In Afrlc'it Drlllsli Aiulmllii..,, ()uh» Porto itiuo,, , Mailulra |iiillnr<, no ,. i,iiaft ,, Ml »ii ,,|ltfi,MHIl lO.iMt II IN III! IIII4 I all illl.aat T-tll |N| WlilllfPtPlli'.rleil. IX.II«r«. Tdfliry III Europe.. 815 Itnytl 1,«.W Man lloinliiKu KM Mexico 3,0fiS Oeiilrnl llrpiibllc.... 4(10 Npw (Iraiintia 195 Vpiii'iiilfla 105 lll-n/.il «T0 llilioioa AyrpB. MB (thill 2,004 Hniidwich lalnmla.... 4,269 Tirtal 10a,3TO Statkmknt uiniwitiii TliM Im'iiiita of Maiiiii.i'. into tiik ItNiriio Htatw pioi fiitt I'laoAi. Ycab rsdiso .ItNE miTii, iHftii, Unlnniiiirar- lunul. Wl,»i..«lm|».rl«,l, Mamijjrimci ii7oiiiiii, , . , . , , ■TTTTTiTr, , lliffl llnllnnd ,f,,,,,,,, tn llulgluin ,, ,.i,.,.i,,,, IT Knulmol , t ,,,,,,. , 11,017 He.itlaiiil , 1,14ft Malta , ,., 170 Canaiia t.,.,,,,,, IM llrltish Kaat liii||r<4 8A Krnni'iMiii lliii Allaiitli', , ,,,,,, 8,4117 Praiirn on tlm MiiiiltarrHni>aii , , , , H,7fl7 I'nrtaKul ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, , , , . iSariUiila ,,, II.ISH iTuwiinv ,,,,,,.,,,,,,., lft,a. I.'W2. Tho variation of the needle was first discovered by ('olumbus in his voy- ages of discovery, 1 1!)2 ; and it was observed in Lon- don in 1.580. The dipping-needle was invented by Robert Norman, a compass-maker of KatcIifTo in that year. See (JdMp.vss ; Am. Jour. Sc, xl., 212. Maritime Lavr. Hy maritime law is meant the law relating to harliors, ahipa, and seamen. It forms an important branch of the commercial law of all maritime nations. It ia divided into a variety of dif- ferent departments ; such ns those with respect to har- bors, the property of ships, tlie duties nnd rights of masters and seamen, contracts of affreightment, aver- age, salvage, etc. The reader will find those subjects treated of midor their respective heads. Sketch nf the Progress of Maritime Imw. — The earli- est system of maritime law was supplied by tho Rhodl- nns, several centuries before the Christian era. The moat celebrated authors of anthiulty have spoken in liigh terms of the wisdom of the Khodian laws ; luckily, however, we lire not wholly left, in forming our opin- ion upon them, to the vague, commendatory state- ments of t.'ieero and Strabo. (CicKno pro t/tge Mnnillia; Strab., lib. xiv.) Tlie laws of Rhodes ill ,. I 'I i f if m MAR 1820 MAR •rere adopted b}' Augustus into the legislation of Rome ; and such was the estimation in which thoy were held, that the Emperor Antoninus, being solicited to decide n contested point with respect to shipping, is reported to have answered, that it ought to l)e decided l)y the lihodiun laws, which were of paramount authority in such cases, unless they happened to be directly at viirianco with some regulation of the Roman law. — (" Ego quiihm mundi dominua, lex autem marif legis id Jikiidiii, qua de rebus nautieis prnscripla est, judicifiir, qiiiUenua nulla nostrarum legum adversatur. Hoc idun Dims qnoque Augustus jndicarit.") The rule of the Khudiun law with respect to average contriliutions in the event of a sacrifice being made ut sea for the safety of the ship and cargo, is expressly laid down in the Digest (lil>. xiv.) ; and the most probable conclusion seems to be, that most of the regulations as to mari- time aftiiirs, embodied in the compilations of Justi- nian have been derived from the same .".mirce. The regulations as to average adopted liy all modern nations, arc Irorrowcd, with hardly anj- alteration, from the lEoniau, or ratlier, as we have seen, from the Khodian law ! — a conclusive proof of the sagacity of those liy wliom ttiey hod betn originally framed. The only authentic fragments of tlie Khodian law are those In tlio Digest. The collection entitled Jus naeale R/ioiliiirum, published at ndle in l&fil, is now admitted by ail critics to be spurious. See iin/p, pp. 1188-1192. The first modern code of maritime law is said to have lieen compiled at Amalfl, in Italy, a city at present in ruins ; but which, besides twing early dis- tinguished for its commerce, will be forever famous for tlie discovery of the Pandects, and the supposed Invention of tho mariueris compass. The Amaltitan code is said to have Ijecn denominated Tabula Amal- Jilnmi. Hut if such a Iwdy of law really existed, it is singular that it should never have been published, iior even any extracts from It, M. I'ardessus has sliuwn tliat all the authors who have referred to the Amaltituu code and asserted its existence, have copied the stutemeRt of Frcccia, in his book i)e Suh- Jeudis. (^Collection des Imx .Ifarilimes.') And as Freccia assures us that the Amaltitan co" < .;u< e»t en fa- vour de Marseilles, je dois reconnoll' ^ '>: ',: -i -"t que les probabilltos I'emportent en faveur , ' me." — Tome ii. But to whicliever city tl ;. .■ com- ])iling the Consolalo may be due, there .■j.u ml no cloulit that its antiquity has been greatly exaggerated. It is affirmed, in u preface to the different editions, that it was solemnly accepted, subscribed and promulgated, as a body of maritime law, by the Holy See in 1075, and by the kings of Franco and other potentates at dlftcrent periods between 1075 and 1270. Hut Caii- raany, Azuni, and Pardesaus, have shown In the clear- est and most satisfactory' manner that the circumstan- eos alluded to In this sketcli could not possibly liave taken place, and that It is wholly unworthy of atten- tion. The most probable opinion seems to be, tliat It was compiled, and began to be introduced alxuit the end of the 13th or beginning of the llth century. And notwithstanding its prolixity, and the want of precision and clearness, the corresiMuidouco of the greater number of its rules with tlie ascertained prin- ciples of justice and public utility, gradually led, with- out the intervention of any agreement, to its adoption as a system of maritime jurisprudence by all the na- tions contiguous to the Mediterranean. It is still of high authority. Casarogis says of It, though perhaps, too strongly, " Conaulatus marin, in maleriij mariti- mis, lanquam universalis consuetudo habens rim legi.f, in- violabililer allendenda est npud omnes prorincias it nn- tiones," — Disc. 214. The collection of sea laws next in celebrity, but an- terior, perhaps. In point of time, is that denominated the Roole des Jugenients (TOleron. There is as much diversity of opinion as to the origin of these laws, as there is with respect to tlio origin of the Consnlnln. The prevailing opinion in (ircat Hrltuin has been, that they v.-ere. compiled liy direction of Queen Eleamir, wife of Henry II., in her quality of niiihcss of Gul- enno ; and tliat they were afterward enlarged and im- proved by her son Richard I., at his return froui the Holy Land ; but this statement is now admitted to rest on no good foundation. The most probable theory seems to be, that thoy are a collection of the rules or practices followed at the principal French ports on the Atlantic, as Bordeaux, Rochelle, St. Malo, etc. They contain, indeed, rules that are essential to all maritime transactions, wherever they may lie curried on ; but the references in the code sufficiently prove that it Is of French origin, The circuuutunco of that Mik.' fw MAR 1321 MAR monairh's having large posBesstons in France at the period when the Kales of Oieron were coliected, natu- rally facilitated their introduction into England ; and they have long enjoyed a very high degree of authority in thnt countrj-. " I call them the laws of Oieron," said a great civilian (^Sir Leoline Jenkiiu, Charge to the Cinque Portt), "not but that they are peculiarly enough English, bebig long since incorporated into the customs and statutes of our admiralties ; but the equity of them is b6 great, and the use and reason of them so general, that they are known and received all the world over by that, rather than by any other nnniB." MoUoy, however, has more correctly, per- haps, said of the laws of Oieron, that " they never obtained any otiier or greater force than those of Rhodes formerly did ; that is, they were esteemed for the reason and equity found in them, and applied to the case emei-gent." — De Jure Maritimn tt Navali. A code of raaritinle law issued l)y Wisby, in tho island of Gothland, in the Baltic, has long enjoyed high reputation in the north. The date of its com- pilation is uncertain ; but it is comparatively modem. It is true that some of tlie northern jurists contend tliat the laws of Wisby are older than the Rules of Oieron, and that the latter are chiefly copied from the former I But it has lieen repeatedly shown ttiat there is not so much as tlio shadow of a foundation for this statement. See Parressus, Collection, etc., tome i., pp. 425, 402 ; Foreign Quarterly Reriew, No. 13, art. Ilamcatic League. Tlio laws of Wisby arc not cer- tainly older than the latter part of the 14th or begin- ning of the 15th centurj' j and have obviou-ily been compiled from the Comolato del Mare, the Rules of Oie- ron, and otlier codes that were then in use, Grotius has spoken of these laws in the most laudatory man- ner : — " Qiiai dc maritimis ncgotii»," says he, " insula Gothlandim habitatoribui placueruiU, tantum m se habent, tuni equitalis, turn prudentice, ut omiies oceani accola eo, nan tanquam propria, led velut gentium Jure, ulantur." — Prolegomena ad Procopium, p. ft!. Besides the codes now mentioned, the ordinances of the Hause Towns, issued in 1597 and 1C14, contain a system of laws relating to navigation that is of great authority. Tlie judgments of Uamme, the customs of Amsterdam, etc., are also often quoted. A translation of the law of Oieron, Wisl>y, and the Ilanse Towns, is given in the 3d edition of Malynes's /*x Mercatoria, but ttie edition of them in the work of M. Pardessus, referred to in tho text, is infinitely superior to every otlier. But by far the most complete and well-digested system of maritime jurisprudence tbat has ever ap- peared, is that comprised in the famous Ordonnance de It Marine issued by Ix)uis XIV., in 1G81. This excel- lent code was compiled under the direction of M. Col- bert, by individuals of great talent and learning, after a careful revision of al! the ancient sea laws of France and other countries, and upon consultation with the different parliaments, the courts of admiralty, and the chambers of commerce, of the different towns. It combines whatever experience and the wisdom of ages had shown to be best in the Roman laws, and in the institutions of the modern maritime states of Kuroi)e. In the preface to his treatise on the Law of Shipping, Lord Tenterden says : — " If the reader should be of- fended at the frequent references to this ordinance, I must request him to recollect tbat those references are made to the maritime code of a great commercial na- tion, which has contributed much of its national pros- perity to that code : a code composed in the reign of a politic prince ; under tlie auspices of a wise and en- lightened minister ; by laborious and learned persons, wlio selected the most valuable principles of all the maritune laws then existing ; and wliieh, in matter, method, and style, is one of the most finished acta of legislation tbat ever was promulgated." Tho ordi- nance of ItiSl was published in 1700, with a detailed and most elaborate commentary by M. Valin, in 2 vol- umes, 4to. It is impossible which to adinlra mint ill this commcntarj-, the learning or the sound (('""1 »m»» of tlie writer. Lord Mansfield woa Indelitud for m inconsideralde portion of Ids superior kn'iwIuijjjB ut tho principles of maritime jurispruUenca U> » vitrtifMt study of M. Valin's work Thnt part of the Codt de Commerce wliluh treat* of maritime affairs, insuranti, etc., is copied with Vttry little alteration, from the ordinance of 1081, 'J'llw f»W changes that have been made are not always? liH|iriivii> ments. No system or code of maritime law hn* ovtir teen issued by authority in Great Britain. The litwn and practices that now obtain among thom, in rsfar- ence to maritime affairs have been founded prliiel|iii||y on the practices of merchants, the principles luld i\uwn in the civil law, the laws of Oieron and WUIiy, II14 works of distinguished jurisconaulU, the judUlnl i| leged— and tho allegation is probably, in soma d«iif«i« well founded — that his lordship has coneedod ton much to tho claims of belligerents. Still, howitysr, his judgments must be regarded, allowing for this «<. cusoble bias, as among the noblest monuments of jiidU cial wisdom of which any country can boast. " Th<'y will be contemplated," says Mr. Serjeant SLiralmli, "with applause and veneration, as long oa rlcjifl) i,f learning, soundness of argument, enlightened wisitoni, and the chaste beauties of eloquence, hold any plni'* in theestimationof mankind."— On Inmrame, j'fullm. Disc. The Treatise of the Law Relative to M'l'ihimt Ships and Seamen, by the late Chief Justice of tlia Court of King's Bench, does credit to the talents, eru. dition, and liberality of its noble and learned iiiitlmr. It gives, within a brief compass, a clear and adiiiiraljla exposition of tho most important branches of our imt' itime law ; and may be consulted witli eiiuul hr\\\ty and advantage by the merchant, the general scliola)-, and the lawyer. Mr. Serjeant Marshall has onteruj very fully into some, and has touched upon most polntA of maritime law, in his work on Lisurance; ami hiia discussed them with great learning and sagacity, TIm works of Jlr. Justice Park, Sir. Holt, and u few otiu ers, are also valuable. Of the earlier treatl-so-s, tlw Lex Mercatoria of Malynes is by far the best j iMid* considering the period of its publication {Wii), U a very extraordinary pcrformencc. See Sorlh An, Rer., vi., 323 (J. Stouy), ii., 218, xiii., 1 (II. WliKV TON) ; Hum's Mag., xiii., 232, 455, x., 337, Is., 2iil,- 358, 513, xiv., 547, xv., 75, xxiv., 191. The marine law of tho United States is the same a* the marine law of F.urope. It is not tho law of a partic- ular country, but the general law of nations ; auilXord Mansfield applied to its universal adoption the ux|irus.s. ivo language of Cicero, when speaking of the etxriial laws of justice ; " Noc crit alia lex Roina>, alia .\tlij)nU ) alia nuiu', alia postliac ; sed et omnes gcntes, et omni tent' jxire tma lex et serapltcrna, ct inimortalls coutineblt," In treating of this law, we refer to its pac^lllo eharao. ter as the law of commerce and navigation in time of peace. The respective rights of belligerouta and noil. i:f';t || W' m ill! ".'W.^'PIT'^ MAR 1822 MAR trals iu time of ~n constitute tlie code of prize law, •nd that fonns a >Btinct law of inquiry, Wlien Lord Hansflold menti-jned tlie law-merclmnt as l)ein|{ a brancli of public law, it was l>ocau8e tliat law did not rest essentially for its cliaracter and authority on the positive institutions and local customs of any particu- lar country, but consisted of certain principles of equity, and usages of trade, which general commerce and a common sense of justice huil estaMirhed to .'ei^u- late the dealings of merchants and mariners in all tlie commercial countries of the civilised world. In the study and cn'tivation i^f maritime law our improvement has been rapid, and Aur career illustrious, since the adoption of the present Constitution of the United States. The decisions in federal courts, in commercial cases, have done credit to the intpllectual and moral character of the nation, and the admiralty courts iu particular have displayed great research and a familiar knowledge of the principle!) of the marine law of Europe. The reports of judicial decisions iu the several States, and especially in the States of Massachusetts, New Yorlt, and Pennsylvania, '?vince great attention to maritime questions ; and they contain abundant proofs that our courts have been doalini} largely witli that business of our enterprising and commercial people. Dedaratiim r^apectini/ Afaritime, Lair aii/ned by the Pleni- potentiaries of Greet liritain, Aiistri'i, Frat<-i;, Prtiii- sin, Rusiia, Sardinia, and Turkey, aatembled ill Congress at Paris, April 16, 185*5 : The plenipotentiaries who signed tlie Treaty of Par- is, on the '".Oth of Murch, 1H50, a8seml)led in confer- ence, considering : That maritime law In time of war hiis long been the suliject of deplorable disputes ; that tlio imcertainty of the law and of the duties ill such a miitt.-r gives rise to differences of opinion between neu- tr.ils and belligerents which may occasion serious difll- culties, and even conflicts ; that it is, consequently, advantageous to e8tai)lish a uniform doctrine on so im- portant a point; that the plenipotentiaries assembled in Congress at Paris can not better respond to the in- tentions liy A'hich their governments are animated, than l>y seeking to introduce into international rela- tions tixed principles in this respect. The aljove-nien- ticmcd plenipotentiaries, being duly authorized, resolved to concert among theniselvrs as to the means of attain- ing this object; and having ;oine to an agreement, have adopted the following solemn declarations : 1. Privateering Ls, and remains, abolished. 2. The neutral Hag covers enemies' goods, with th exception of contraliaiiil "f war. 3. The neutral goods, with tilie exception of contraband of war, are not liable to cap- ture under enemy's fiag. 4. Blockades, in order tu be liinding, must ' -IFective; that is to say, main- tained l)y a force t^ cut really to prevent access to the coast by the eniuiy. The governments of the undersigned plenipotan- tiarlos engage to bring the present declaration to the knowledge of the States which have not taken part in the Congress of Paris, and invite them to accede to it. Convinced that the maxims which they now proclaim can not but bo received with gratitude by the whole world, the undersigned plenipotentiaries doubt not that th" ettorts of their governments to obtain the general adoption thereof will be crowned witli full success. The present declaration is not, and shall not bo bind- ing, except between those powers who have acceded or shall accede to it. Dbne at Paris the 16th of At..-il, 1856. (Signed,) B00I/-SCUAUEN8TKIS, HatZFELDT, IIUBNEIt, OllLOKF, Walewski, Bbunnow, ■ BOURQIIKNEV, CaVOUK, Cl-AntiNUON, De Vii.i.amarina, Cowi.EV, Aali, Manteitfpbl, MeiirmmedDjemil. The United States' Eicecutiv«, throUKb th« l^tifntU ment of State, communicated to tltn Vtamh KDynrtt' ment its reply in August lH6(i, viii, i These four pol'its ura indicitUjln, \mmmm \m um mit accept the ttrst point — the abolltl/iii ui \iA¥»UmAii^, Governor Marcy respectfully pmpwMS, lti(W«V«r, two distinct amendments : 1. Either to add to the jlrit pruiMNltUm In tllo " da. claration" of the Congress uf l'aris~- " And that the private proiwrty uf t\m niibjucts i,t citizens of a belligerent on the l.lgli imm slmll Im «%. empted from seizure by public MriiMi4 Vti»Mtl« of thn other belligerents, except it be coiltritlwHil," ill 2d. To adopt the 2d, 3d, und 4Hl |»ro|Ki(ilt((in», »lth- out the flrst. The argument contained In tlw rsplyof (IdVPfddr Marcy is historical, argumentutlvs, itiiit fori'llde, It goes to say, that no nation bus it rf«l(l to \,ie. scribe to anotlier what shall cuti»tltuti< litir iiillltiiry or naval force ; and that ws can, (.'uintintoiilly «i|j, our institutions and policy, neitliitr iigr«o tdit lo prn ploy volunteers on land, nor prlvdtwrs oti the liijji, seas. When a nation having a larga stKlidliijj iifiiiv is threatening a nation *lth a siimll iitittli1itif( nffifv, the latter musli have rc?oursa U) v«lHl»t««?)i ( iitid sn when a nation with a largo navy, iiiitkffii witr mi an- other .irith an luforiur navy, tliu litttxr tiitiiit hnKi te- course to privateers, otherwise tlia tmtlmi with n iiifiii. navy could employ a portion of Imr n«vy Ui \itv\, tli.. inferior navy of her enemy In i'li«i*, mvS Willi t\v rest sweep the commerce of the lattar frimi thn wcmi. Parity of imsitloii could only Iw tmw\m\ If tim ttr\mi\ cruisers of the superior navy and otiliir tmtliitinl slilpf of war would forego iiiakii:|/ lapturus of Hi« PiiPiiiVi property on the high seas, or If the lliitloH Witli rtii lii- ferior navy armed privateers to lidllct »* niiuli rl,iiii i;,'i. on the commerce of the greater niivilt \iii*ivl »<< Ihi' latter does on its inferior utittmy, TIm< itottiliiilliii; portion of Mr. Marcy's reply is as fiilliivrs ! " In discussing the effect of the pciilioiidd iii(i(islifi-- the abolition of privateering — a ruf«r«lMW tii tlm cshI- ing condition of nations is aliiioi>t Miwvolilitlilc, An instance will at once present il««lf In WfiUfiS to Uin nations where the commerce uf emh is nlnmt enua), and about equally widc-sprea4 ovmr thtt wiirid, A^ commercial jiowers they approach to till wiimllty, l.lit as naval powers thers ii g»uat dlspttrlty Iwtwwii'HiMn. The regular navy of one vastly kikwbiIs tlmt n* tlif other. In case which have powerful navies, arise mainly from the practice of sul)- Jecting privote proportj' on the ocean to seizure by bel- ligerents. Justice ami humanit}* demand this practice should lie abandoned, and that the rules in relation to such property on land should be extended to it when found upon the high seas. " The President, therefore, proposes to add to the first propoi'ltiim in the ' Declaration' of the Congress at Paris the following words : ' And that the private property of the subjects or citixens of the belligerent on the lili'li SF.as shall be exempted from seizure by public armed vessels of the other belligerent, ex- cept it lie contraliand.' Thus amended, the govern- ment of the United States will adopt it, together with the other three principles contained in that ' Declara- tion.' 1 am directed to communicate the approval of tho President to the second, third, and fourth propo- sitions, independently of the first, should the amend- ment he unacceptable. Tho amendment Is recom- mended by so many powerful considerations, and the principle which calls for it has so long had the em- phatic sanction of ull enlightened nations in militnrr operations on land, that the President is reluctant to believe It will meet with any serious opposition. AVith- out tlie proposed modification of the first principle, he can nut convince himself that it would be wise or safe to cliange the existing law in regard to the right of privateering. " If the aioendment should not lie adopted. It will be proper for the United Stales to have some understand- ing in regard to tho treatment of their privateers when they shall liave occasion to visit the ports of those powers which are or may become parties to the declara- tion to the Congress at Paris. The United States will, upon the ground of right ond comity, claim for them the same consideration to which they are entitled, and wluch was extended to them under the law of nations, before the attempted modification of it by that Con- gress. " -\s connected with the subject herein discussed, it is not inappropriate to remark that a due regard to the fair clii'- \s of the neutrals would seem to re(|Uire sonic modiftccion, if not an abandonment, of the doctrine In relation t"^ contraband trade. Nations which preserve the relations of peace should not be Injuriously affect- ed in their commercial intercourse by those which choose to involve themselves in war, provided tho citi- zens of such peaceful nations do not compromise their character is neutrals by direct interference with the i military operations of the belligerents. The laws of •lege nod blockade, it Is believed, afford all the reme- dies against neutrals that tlio parties to war can justly claim. These laws interdict all trade with the be- •lef^ed or blockaded places. A further interference T7ith the ordinary pursuits of neutrals, in nowise to blame for an existing state of hostilities, is contrary to the obvious dictates of justice. If this view of the subject could be adopted, and practically oliMrvad \iy all civilized nations, the right of sonrcli, wlileli Imi been the source of so much annoyance, and of nu n iny injuries to neutral commerce, wouhl be runtrlctiid t<> such cases only as justified a suspicion of an uttsMipt to trade with places actually In a stats of »Uiga or blockade. " Humanity and justice demand that the catiimlthi. incident to war should be strictly mnited to tliu Imlll- gerents themselves, and to tho.ie who voluntarily tiikit part with them; but neutrals, ubntuluing hi Kood faith from such complicity, ought to bo left to purnun their ordinary trade with either Ijelligeront wltlioiit restrictions in respect to the article ; « . ring Into If, " Though the United States do n ,t propose to unibnr- rass the other pending negotiations rehitlvn tii tlui rights of neutrals, by pressing this clmuge la the luw of contraband, they will be ready to give it thoir »miii> tion whenever there is a prospect of its favoralilu ritcuii- tion liy other maritime powers, " The undersigned avails himself of this op|«irtuiilty to renew to tho Count de Sartlgos tho ussuranio i.f hlit high consideration, " W, L. Mail r," The points here settled are all of thuni liiiportiiiit. Privateering has been tho scourge of tho octiin— ii lawless sort of warfare between belligereMtK tiieirl- selves — a grievous annoyance and d-ii ige Ui ni'Utrulii, and a most prolific school of piracy, Thimu wliowi recollection extends back 30 or 40 years ruiiieinlifr when the ocean was traversed by pirates, (ralticd (m their fiendish business by the long wars of the eurllur years of tho ceiiturj'. The liest men of nuHlem I'lirlii tendom hud never ceased to protest against tho ny*. tem, Sweden and Holland attempted. In the 17tli century, to put an end to the practice, but without effect. The United States and Prusi^iu, in 171^6, en- tered into stipulations against privateering, uh litj- tween themselves, but did not renew the provlnliin, The French Legislature, in 1792, made u Kinillitr, but fruitless effort. Privateering was dcstiiivd to juivu one license moro for perpetrating its atrocltiuii, iirnl shocking the sense of mankind. ,Jurlii> of h«r II Kr«*M'. 'I'lirkny, Uxi, hns a proud dUtinctiiin In tlitt ilm'liiriitloti, for in iict- tlin^ tlic point that free iihipit niakti trim tfond*, nhn in but pulilishini; anew whut iih<' wa» tlio llmt t'l ilRitlnre 250 yearn ago. The li'.lKin of our own )(iiv«rnment have l)oen in the Hamu direi'tion through tlin whole period of our national hIatJiry. Our ((overnnimt, while ndmittinK the I'.nKliih rulM »» (o tiM law of na- tions, liaK deehired that tlia rul« hicl no fotlii.lntion In naliiriii rl^ht, and in rH|i«at«.t Umtim h»» ifiilnnA tlie insertion of the diH'trtna iviw pro'^hiim'^it In I'arla, 'I'liu third item in the lata |)«i'l(irMtMn liiln fm'i|il'*<< or tiMi((«» for wlih'li wo have contcrnleil, and all, It may im lio|ied, vlll have our uniform ami liaarty prai'tii'nl rmicur- TL'nie. It haa Iwcn generally th« fmUry tit our Klntea- mcn to keep our government ', llownver this may lie, the moral aeiiaa of (liii tmtion will iicceiit M'ith thankfulneaa th« reaulla of the I'nrla Conference, mill the (^lirijtian will ace new forxlokeiilnga of that day wild nations aliall learn war no inori'. Maritime Loait*. 'I'ha »inlracta of Imi/omr// und rtspimli'ullu are niaritima loana of n v^ry high tiiid privileged nature, and they nrn ulwnya nplield liy tlii^ iidmirally witli u atrong hand, wlinn rat|>iltiililn. The vital princlplo of a liottomry bond la, that It Im taken in a case of unproviiled ncxaaity when the owner haff no resources or credit for obtaining nii'vaaary supplies. If the lender knew tliat tha owtwir had an «ni|>owrrcd consignee or agent in tlia |»irt, wllllttg to simply his wants, th'3 taking tlie loan la « frau/l t but if fairly taken under an ignoranea of tlin fact, tha courts of atlmiraity are diapoaed U) uphohl ailch bonds, as neces- sary for tlio BUpiHirt of cornm«rou mai-itiina riaka, U> im \Hmm \iy the lender for a speciQc voyage, or fur • ilallnit« (leriod. It U In the nature of a mutti^t^, ii^ «ii^ f^ sMp-owner, .TT tlie master oii bis ^ltAn4(, *iM)(i">« «*« sMp as a se- carlty for the mouey (Aorrwv. o^, ^ttt^ U S(V*i«r« {!» freight of the voyage, or liuri'^ # lj*wf<#4 dW*"/ A rffpnmkn- lilt lamd is a loan U|>o« Hm iM^ i4 tk* f iKfgo, thongh an hyfiothecatlon of lw«fe litip #*4 ttitxtt miy f* mudn in one bond ; ajid It i)m»»»(* #(t m*M (ft i»rt ef(riitalilo lien on the salvage w taw ^' i,ntt, 'fitg erm<}\tiriu*ii4f m W^fl H* iWerest is at the risk of the leiuier ttttmill ttm «nirllf(n.- The lint- t(jmry holder uudert«iti«« |t^ titk i4 i1^ ♦oyngn ns to the enuinerateil jmtjIji, (Wi* w* m U< tW* «h!-h ^iriso from the fault or i»iww*'r*'i> i4 ttiti tUMafeT or owner. The money is loaueij w tfm h>ff//W^fi rtjs.n condition that if tlie subjiM* vMawl tm UM iij/ « Jieril of the sea, the lender t>ha«( m% im ffp/ti^t, A^STJi* to the ex- ty Hs own defect, or tlie f»i;lt «f rtie w*ti*f i/f miritttt/, the I .or- rower must return th" mm Wfowevl, together wi'h tlio inaritiiue iuti'Wui ttJlfuM Hpi/tt.- ntsA tiir the rojmy- inent tlie prrsuu i>( tiw iMffifVrtH' U ttfflltxl, us will -is tlie property pledge/*, 't'Ui* i* i^' ((efitiitfin of the contract given l>y i'tititwr, iWii^ H ##» fKktU from the Komuii laws, and btu *»»w n4f/p(*^ tif fctrtetigon, and he says the defiuitiow U fiyttl itt rtewfly ffio same terms liy all the uieritiw* }«WW..~(4*;«i>'s f'nm. Mark, or MarQ, a m^kctH >p»>i in several parts of ICiiroijc, for various f/ttttttt/i/ii(.i«.t; esirt>ci*|(y gold and silver. Ill I'ruui*, |l/,w m/trtf^ **< rtifvJ'led info s ozs. =M drachms^lW 4mm* W (s»yi'tt:»*«ights^;t,'103 grains, in liollaMd, «*e imtit *e1i^ Wks alsfi called Troy weiglit, and »»s m>t4t iti titift (4 t/fnlite. When gold and silver *tp' *<#( mttlif jt it divided Into 24 carats. The pound, or llftv /f/it/iH tl<< miff, ttw weijjht nio«t coininoniy uaed Jw r*it#j( ^ffAi^i* g.aiiis. Ow*- fcJt'.fe^slWfWe h nearly eqiiiil to 2 llvres. SMi4oiw*'4 j* # ii^^ nt ji»re« palds ik mure, from I to W, tiW»'jtrt,»4 WrfiV Itflojjf^aimmes. Any greater iiuuiUt way M J*>WW>4 fcy » sfwple miilti;ili- catiou and addiUoi^, livrvt. 1 _^ fil iT : «•!«?« 2 -; mm *««fi » =- »*«J|6 ! * - tmm i = ji'«^ 1 * ^ 4-*ifi<» » = *■«?# ' w = .fvl*! Mark, is a tjtim mmiititm* mM tuf « rthiney of ac- count, and ii. oime mttmv* fnf * WiW.- The Knglish mark is jds of « ^tmM H*ftitltti '**' 1*>. ♦<'■ ; ai,.l tlie Hcotch murk is jdii »4' # WiWWJ .*»Mch. The mark l,ul)S, or l>ul>e.c wwfej 11^4 i# U/tmtmtK^ U a money of account, cijuai fj> ;*Vi f'*w**,- See U.Kyittt RU. Market, a l>ik lii***' W * eWy or town, where provisions are sold. Sm tmtiiH js(«(* Icept within 7 miles of the city »f f/^ttt i trtlt *(( btrtchor*. vii t- ualers, etc., may Uif" 4iliU Ittlli s^SdWtJrtffs in tlif flesh- markets there, m)4 "'W mint >M*4 ftthef provisions. livery person wko !**» # amii^i M etttWIed fo receive toll for tlic things t*M iff it } ^ti4 ftf srncient cu^tmn, for tilings rfandjug W tim tmit^iittum^h not sold ; Imt those who Itaep # )H»*%H Jrt #«y other manner than it is gi-aiitedj W (e^llv^lt UAU If fees wt.are none are due, forfeit tli« am**.- fiff/ VntHf.- Mar«eilie4, a lef^ ^wmmff(■M cft.v and soa-port t)t Krunce, on the tf*xiJ|l>W«IWslM, int.- isi^ 17' W" N., long. 6" tH' a. t'opHtliifm.. M'ti HieUiiVmy suh- ' urbs, 195,207. TiliW imftx^.- ♦♦** iKceMs to which is de- fended l>y eevef«i> 4fmi (iliilifAhHii,. hi in the centre I of the city, forwi»g « i/^j^ ffH'^ f.lttumii in length, by I aliout 152 fatUouw i» ifff'tt4tii.- 'tfifi tMa is h.irdly ! Bcnsible ; but tlte .if^h l4 »*♦♦*' irt (he entrance to ^ the horlwr vwilea (ft>i^ id Ut Ui feet, lieing lowest I when the wiud u mr^-Wii^f itnA ki^sl when it ia MAR 1325 MAR ]17' to" N., Iludins? ^»'i- 1 whie- Itn the contro In Icnjitli, l>y |lo is hiirdly cntmiKT to l*ing l"W03t 1st when it is ttouth-vest. Within the biuin, the depth of water mrieH fro!T! 12 to 24 feet, Leing Bhallowost on the north, nncl deepest on the south side. Dredging machines are constantly at work to clear out tho mud, and to prevent tho harbor from filling up. Though not ac- cessible tu tho largest class of shipa, Marseilles is one of the bejt and safest ; rrts In the world for moderate- sized mer''hantmen, of which it will accommodate abovo 1000, Ships in the bitsln lie close alongside the quays ; and there is every facility for ge' 'ing them speedily loaded and unloaded. The Isles ae Katton- eun and Pomegues, and the strongly fortified islet or rock of If, lie W,S,W, from the port; the latter, which is the nearest to it, being only If miles distant, and not more than } of a mile from the projecting point of land to the south of the city. There is good anchorage ground for men-of-war and other large ships between the Isles de Kattoneau and Pomegues, to tho west of tho Isle d'lf, Wlien coming from the south, it is usual to make the Isle de lilanier, in lat. 48° U' 54" N., long, 6° l.S' 59" E. A light-houso erected on this island is 131 feet high ; the flashes of the light, which is a revolving one, succeed each other every half minute, and in clear weather it may be seen 7 leagues off. Sliips thrt have made the Isle de Planier, or that of Le Maire, lying east from it about 4^ miles, steer northerly for the Isle d'lf, distant about 7 miles from each, and having got witliin ^ or J a mile of it, licave to for u pilot, who carries them into a har- bor ; it is not, however, obligatory on ships to take a pilot on board j Imt being obliged to pay for one whctlior they avail themselves of his services or not, they seldom dispense with them. Tlie charge is 4 sous per ton in, and 2 sous per ton out, for French vessels, and the vessels having reciprocity treaties with France. Thero is a light-house in the fort St, Jean, on the north side of tlie entrarce of the port, Tho Itiinretlo, which is one of the best in Kurope, lies a little to the north of the city ; and there is an hos- pital on Rattoneau Island, for individuals whose !>ealth is duliious. With the exception of the above charge for pilotage, and the charges for such vessels as per- form quarantine, there are no port charges on ships entering at or clearing out from Marseilles. Usages. — As soon as the master has, on his arrival, made his declaration at the Health Ofilce, and received pratique, he is directed to an office close by, called the Patache, where he makes two similar declarations, the one for the captain of the port, and the other for the custom-house; the day and hour of the latter being made is marked, in order to ascertain if the reg- ular manifest of his cargo is delivered at the custom- bouse within 24 hours after, us required liy law. As soon as these declarations are made, tiie master is ac- costed by one or more public brokers, who alone are authorized by law to enter ships at tho custom-house and other public offices, and to interpret, if it be neces- sary, for the master. Tho broker whom he may select then gives the master all the necessary information respecting the usages of the port as regards the ship and cargo, and goes through all the formalities re- specting them that the law or local regulations require. Independent of the regular manifest which it is usual in all ports for the master to give in to tlie custom- house, lie is here required to give in a full and com- plete list of all tho ship's stores, provisions, etc, that he has on board for bis own use, and that of his crew ; and he can not be too carefu^to make this list as cor- rect as possible, as when it is subsequently verified on board by tho custom-house and excise officers, any variation subjects the ship to penalties, Tliis is par- ticularly the case with tobacco, v;hich, being a gov- ernment monopoly, is watched with the greatest vigi- lance. All the tobacco on board over that which the crow have in their chests for their own use, must be declared, and any attempt at concealment or smug- gling ii visited witlt heavy fines. When the ship sails, tho stores, provisions, etc., are again examined, and an excise duty cliarged on siicli prii\ isioiis and otlier excisable articles as may liave been consumed in tlie port. No lire or liglit is allowed on liourd, and the cooking is all done on shore. Klarsuilles is u city of great antiquity, and lias long enjoyed a very ex- tensive commerce, Havre, partly, no doubt, from lis being, as it were, the port of Paris, used to enjoy a greater share of tho trade of France; but, notwith- standing the increased importance of the former, it liua recently been surpassed l)y Marscillcd. This statement shows conclusively that tho trade of Marseilles is not only increasing, but that it is al- ready very extensive. She is the grand emporium of the south of Franco, and the centre of Mine-tenllis of her commerce with the countries on the Mediterranean and Ulack Sea, The exports consist principully of silk stuffs, wines, brandies, and liquors; woolens and linens; madder, oil, soap, refined sugar, perfumery, stationery, verdigris, and all sorts of colonial products. 7>a;at3 for Liverpool, one witli salt for QuSbec, one with coal for Marseilles, and twelve in ballast. "At the port of Cettn fifteen British ships havo ar- rived, whereof eight from the I'nitcd Kingdom with coals, tlirco from \'enioe and Alexandria with corn, and four in liallast; and fifteen lune sailed, wliereof eight with ciirgooa of Krencli produce for the Baltic, Uio Janeiro, and Quclicc, and seven in ballast, "As regards the foreign trade nt the port of Mar- seilles, I regret that it is not in my power to transmit, as I have usually done, a return of the amount of the principal articles of inipovt and export during the year, as tho custom-Iionso has unexjicctedly ceased to pub- lish it, and it is impossible to procure it from any other source, Tlie total number of ships of all descriptions which have irrived during tho year has amoiinfed to 10,104; tonnage, 1,67.3,772 tons; being 585 sliips and 135,595 tons less than in the ya»r 185G. "There has been a considerable falling off in tho trade and commerce of Marseilles, especially during the last quarter of 1857; tho custom-house, which vieldeu, in 1850, £1,450,000, has only given £1,382,000 in 1857, and a great etagnation prevails in all the I MAR 1828 MAR lirnnflioiioffrndottml \ni\\MTy."—nritiah ComulTntm- Hiii.t's Ufpo'i, April (!, 18S8. We arc unnhia to lay before the reader any very recent account of the import and export trade of Mar- nclilcK. We liellevo, however, that the value of the llmt was, in 1H63, entimatetl at altout 200,000,000 fknncn, and that of the exports at al>out as much. For in- forinntinn aa to money, wei(;ht.i, meanures, dutien, etc., the reader is referred to Fiiancr and Havrk, under wlili^li heads he will And an account of the trade of t'riinco. The trade of Marteillen has Iwen much Increased by the occupation of Algiers, she being the f^rand centre of the intercourse carried on with that country. But indo|>endently of this circumstance, MameiUes en- grosses by far the largest share of the extensive coro- nicrco carried on between France and the east coast of Spain, Ita!>- Greece, and the I,evant. See FbXncb. Maitlu.so, or Martinique, one of the French West India Islands, in the windward group, Iwtween lat. 1|0 24' and U° 63' N., and long. C0° 60' and 61° 1«' W. Population, 1850, 121,14S. It is mountain- ous, and contains several extinct volcanoes ; the nu- merous small rivers are used to turn sugar-mills. About one quarter of the surface is covered with dense furests. Soil fertile, but only one fifth of the super- ficies is cultivated. Chief proal town and only port of the island), arti- cles of merchandise enumerated In the following tariff; TAairr roa all Flaos, National and FoaiiaH. DtDomliuiUnn uf mtreb. Nu., w«l|btortii«uuH. Rait of duly. Animals, llTlng 10 per ct ad rtL Iteef.talL 100 klloL=WO Ibi. |j| Su 4-ft CodOtbih other salt flsh. " >' 1 80 l-A Indian oorn. In grain....! bect=:'J 4-5 bush. 87 l-A Vogotablei, dried " " 64 41! Rice UO Ibi. 1 80 1-5 Halt " B8 Tobacco 7 per ct. til val. Iloop-polos 1,000 11 an ( In Ibr. ships, ti" 'o-Oo. Wlao, foreign, 1 hoot =80 gals.. ( i„ „,(_ titoneoaal....'. 220 Ibi. |0 09 By decree of March 10, 1856, salted provisions (meats) of every description pay only 6 I centimes (0'8 cents) per 100 kilogrammes. Wood of all sorts, other than hoop-poles j tar, pitch, and other extracts of pine, etc. ; hides, with the hair on ; forage, green and dry ; table fruits, and seeds, pay 4 per cent, ad valorem. No. 2. — Free of IhiUj. — Ammonia, nnpulverizcd ; animal substances used In medicine and pei-fiiinery : bones and horns of animals ; cassia ; cochineal ; cocoa- sheila ; copper ; elephants' teeth ; fats, except of fish ; ginger ; gloves ; gums ; indigo ; .lesults' bark ; kernies ; lac ; load ; medicinal balsams, juices, roots, barks, herbs, leaves, and flowers ; motlier-of-poarl ; nutmegs ; peltries ; pepper ; [lotash ; quercitron ; rocou ; rushes and reeds ; seeds hard to be crushed ; skins, drj- and un- dressed ; sumach ; tin, unwrought i tortoise-shell, tur- meric ; vanilla ; vegetables, green j M'ux, not worked ; whale fins ; wooils, oay that old and hintoriciil name. It may l>e a more accident tliat tlie nuinn Maria was aa wuli in modem aa in an- cient tiinea applied to the anme regions, Huf hat we call accident in hiatory la often aecretly iinitod together iiy an aanocintlon of ideaa which eacapea our roKearch. Othora think that the Calverta and their aasociatoa, and their Catholic mlaaionarlea, who explored and nettled tho territory of Maryland, thought, in k'^'^K thia name, oxcluaivelr of the Queen Henrietta Maria iind not at all of tho Holy Virgin, It waa amon)( Spaniards and French, and anioiin all Catholic colon- ists and discoverers, very customary to -ow a new country or place, to whicii tliey gave a n imo in honor of some person, at the aaniu time to tho protection of that saint which liore thn same name. They would, for instance, call n place named after Christopher Co- lumlma, not " Ohristophoro," ■ -t "St, Christophoro," l>ecauso they thouglit at op .e , well of the man aa of his protecting saint. T'lat something similiir was going on at the l)aptism of Maryland k jms not un- likely, from the circumstance tiiat the (Irst principal settlement of Maryland waa called Nl. Mary, ar.d that this settlement, as well as tho surrounding country, is so called to tills day. I'lio fact that tho old forgotten name Mary, in later times, returned to tlie same re- gions, appeara one of the so-called " curious coiuci- (Icnccs In history wortliy to be pointed out." — J. O. Koiri,. Phijiical Ftalun; tic — tjiatern Maryland, or that part of tiir l-ttate eaat of the Cliesapeuko Hay, Is nmstly level. The country on tho west sliore to tlio head of the tidea ia similar to the eastern shore ; the soil of thia portion ia :> aerally fertile, producing wheat, Indian corn, toliacco, etc. Aliovo the tidea tl:e surface ritea into liills, anil the weatern part attatna un ele- vated region, being crossed liy tho Alleghuiiy Mount- ains. Tho western jiart coutaina much lino land, lulaptcd liotli to g.uln and graxing. Kxtenaive beds of coal and Iron ore ixiat, Tliero were in this State i'l 1H50, 2,797,1)05 acre < of improved land, and l,83G,4-'5 of unimproved land, In farms ; cash value of farms, $87,178,515; and the value of implements and mo- chlnery, I5i'j,4(i3,4 ill. Live iV-d. Dlilrici TotuiRtn. DoniMlk. FoF^Ign. Tou). Tout. Amerlmn. Foreign. Regliland. linr. Ili-il iiiij Uc<-n>oil. 8ept 80, Wil (2,714,850 (i,i;ja,M4 ♦8,S60,S94 (4,II7(',.S42 6I,6'>7 1 4,877 48,012 80,244 \»ii 8,41W,9!W 1,039,803 4,,'W6,798 4,79-',4S6 59,790 ' 9,169 18-.'8 4,17.1,113 1,8.57.|I8 6,ll!10,22a 4.948,179 62,911 7.815 1S24 8,M1),!1,M l,31H,i78 4,S8:1,28;1 4,M 1,842 7(1,610 8,017 .... Wis 8,09i,3tl5 1,-108,939 4,5()1,;104 4,751,818 86,228 :i,ta5 .... 1 16^8 2,1147,^2 l,06:),-896 4,oli),748 4,92i,.5ri9 82,212 2,931 1S27 i),45r,(191 1,058,715 4,516,406 4,4OT,708 87,4:!() 4,191 1 .... is-is 8,107,819 1,228,808 4,*)4,422 6,629,894 59,.5:I2 8,881 182D 8,082,278 1,142,192 4,804,465 4,sil4.|:l6 ,'>4,9>:l 8,890 I'JOO Total.... ii,o;5,ua5 715,497 8,791.492 4,,52:),S88 ,55,020 S,S86 »i)3,a7s,397 HI,961,0Sl (45,289,478 (47,404,936 022,403 56,102 8ept.80,1S81 ♦8,7;ln,.^n(i (579,141 (4,808.847 (4,928,577 66,870 10.276 2^959 47,953 1S!H «,oir),s73 1,484,045 4,499,918 4,629,3(13 49,3^0 1.5,6»9 1*« 8,!K)1,UI4 761,45:) 4,062.467 6,487,ll,'i7 47,181 25,499 1834 8,012,108 1,1M,B87 4,168,216 4,6J7,4S:| 41,7(12 17,«.50 1S35 8,17«,S6« 7-tS,88.9 8,926,234 5,647,1,V3 4,5.-)98 18,526 1S86 8,028,1)18 C.K1..559 8,676,476 7,181,887 89,418 18,507 1H8I 8,311.5,178 424,744 3,789,917 7,557,033 .S9.UI5 .8.5,799 1888 4,18,\188 3,59,407 4,624,.576 5,701,869 M,421 22,(185 1889 4,8I,8,IS9 288,872 4.576,561 699,5,285 49,298 19..V)8 1840 Total.... 5,495.1120 273,748 5,788.788 4.910.748 87,7 1» 2,5.648 »80,604,483 (8,893,874 (4.3,299,8117 (57,7*4,378 495,979 209,891 8cpt,80,lWl (4,780,180 (169,006 (4,917,186 (6,101,313 6.1,858 23,699 41,935 64,920 1842 4,«!15,5fl7 269,259 4,904,788 4,417,079 81,417 21,280 .... Omos. 1W3 2,920,214 195,842 3,01,^556 2,479,1.32 41.473 15,481 Juno 80,1844 4,841,950 291,218 M83,188 :),917,7oO 69,834 21,206 1845 4,94«,2!17 275,740 5,221.977 3,74I,S)4 69,718 1 22,842 1S4« 8,744,1 10 124,945 6869,056 4,042,915 S3,4li4 80.887 1947 9,6:12,880 129,'«4 9,762.244 4,4.92,314 114.802 66,223 184H 7,018,034 113,749 7,129,782 6,:i43,643 81,709 86,221 1849 7,786,895 218,986 8,IHHI,080 4,976,731 119,278 81,852 1850 Total.... 6,539,481 877,872 0,907,353 8,124,2(11 89,296 37,628 $59,801,748 (2,'.49,977 j (61,951,725 (A'-'T^s-^l 1 801,818 j 295,3*7 Jane 80, 1951 $5,41 6,798 (218,988 j (,5,(V)5,780 (6650.845 75,406 80,393 96,675 108,300 \«a 8.514,641 158,220 6,887,861 6.719,986 88,806 42,637 135.? 7,788,224 I38,2.'W 7,906,159 6..3:i0,(i78 87,219 68,879 1S.M 11,6,'»,250 127,882 1 11,782,632 6,7S7,r^52 138,.5-?4 1 64.750 1858 9,882,219 618,766 1 10,39.5,9-'4 7,78S949 111,098 1 47,494 1856 19,850,637 264,761 1 11,121,898 9,119,907 118,872 40,4-39 1 .... "flie Potomac River, which divides the State from Virginia, ia 350 miles long, and navigable about 150 miles to Washington city. It ia 7^ miles wide at its mouth. The great falls are U miles above Washing- ton ; the perpendicular descent is 76 feet, and tlie rap- ids extend for several miles up the river, and form a very picturesriuo view. The Susquehanna is n largo river which enters into the head of Chesapeake Bay in MAR 1828 MAS thin Statu. It In U ">"<*" wl*!" *t It* ninuth, l>ut Is imvl)(iil>lo only 6 miles, hcInK k'x'Vo timt iiiiuh oli- struituil l>> fails ami rapMH, Tho I'atiipscu In a small rlv«r, iiikvittalile, liowevnr, M miles to llnltiiiiurn for •lil|is. The i'atuxeiit is 110 mllns ImiKi »iiil Is navi- gMi for M milns for vessels of 'iM tons. 'I'lio other rivers aro I'.lk, HasuMlVas, Choster, (Mioptiiiik, Niinti- cok«, anil I'oconioki'. The (^'hesapeiikn Hay Is 'ill) miles loni;, an IViniili's ; proiluots valueil at i^°2,0'21 ,8UII ; 18 woolen fAvtorioH, with u vap- Ital of $2&H,100, employing 'iM males anil Kit) fumnies ; priHiiii'ts valueil at t81l>,'J 10 j l!lestal>lishments making plK iron, with n Capital of i|l,0.'l,'l,r)00, enipliiyinK 1851 persons, proiIucinK^8,lMI tons of pig Iron, «to,, valueilat IJill,0'IH,2.'iU ; 10 eatuhilshnicnts, with a I3upit«l of ii>8fi0,- 100, employing 701 persons, and making 0214 tons of canting I'tr., ilueil at i|i(iNr>,000 ; 17 estaiili^hnients, with It rupital of l$7HO,050, employinK bdtt (Hirsons, mannfiu'turing 10,000 tuns of wtuiight iron, vaiueil at Iii771,'t81 ; 8t)J flouring ami grist mills ; 180 saw mills; 110 tanneries, with a capital of iiiU2H,lH)0, employing 479|iersons; value of proilucts, ifil, 108,181); uO print- ing-offices ; 6 daily, 4 trUweekly, M weekly, 1 semi- monthly, and '2 mouthly publications. 'I'horo were in tills Stale (.lanuary, 18uU) 8 railroads, with 400 miles of road llnisheil and In operation, unil 80 miles in course of coustruction, Tho (Jhesupcake and Ohio Canal, IH I miles long, is mostly In this State. Ca|)- ital invostcd in manufactures, 4il4, 76.1,148; value of maniifiictured articles, ij(.'l'.',477,702. 'I'lie principal places In the iStato are Ualtlmoro, tho metropolis; Anna|iolls, the capital; Havre ile Urace, Frederick, llagurKtown,and Cunilierland, There were (.lanuary, 1H54) 23 banks, with an aggregate cosh capital of {!'J,,'i5H,401l, The ex|>orts of Maryland In ltt62 of domestic produce In American vessels amounted to the value of 1^,801,01)2 ; in foreign vessels, $2,122,- 949. Foreign produce in American vessels, l|tl20,129 ; in foreign vessels, iji8H,0l)l. Total value, .|«,C07,e01. The ini|K)rts same year In American vessels amounted to $i5,02l),114 ; in foreign vessels, $1,099,872. Total, 1iitiunary war, held some of Its sessions. The Semite Chamber, which witnessed tho last scene of the great drama of tlie Kevolutioii, Washington's resigna- tion of his commission to tho Congress, has been pre- served unaltered. The Unitel|» t bnrki. Urlgl. Sohrion- Sloop, A ttrt. cuuu b'u ToUl No. toniuge. Baltimore . . Oxford Vienna...... Bnow Hill. Annapolis . . la 8 48 26 83 T i 8 «6 25 88 7 8 15,898 2,001 1,920 469 183 Totd..... IS i no 8 188 19,918 MAMaOhuiatU, one of the riwtarn ITnltad States, lies lietwoen H ' '28' and 42° 52' north Int., and lie- twcen 09° UO' and 78" llll' west Uing. It Is about IIM) miles long, with an averagu brimilth nf 90 miles, ami rontalns I'i'iO sipiare milos. I'npulatlon In 17911 was 1)8H,7'27; in 1800, 4'22,84fi ; in 1810,472,010; In iNjn, 5'2a,'287 ; In WM, 010,408 ; in 1840, 787,099 ; ami in 1850, 094,409. A'nr/y /litlmti. — The llrst and most aniiont imines whlrli were given by historians to the territory of the .State of Massachusetts were more or less the xiiiiiu with those of Maine, ami we need not re|i<'at tliem here. I'he namo " /,« i.'iili: ilfH .I/hi"«i7(iV/«ii'»" (iho Coast of tho Aliiiiiuchii|Uois Indians), which the French introduced, and whicli the Dutch geographers fre- quently i'li.ingeil to " ]'/ie hiiul iiJ'.Uiiiiithiliiiint" ciiv- ored particularly the whole extent of Massachusutti. This latter name was llrst intnHluccd by the Knglish navigators and explorers. The word is said to be cnui- posed of the Indian wonls .I/us (. I /voirAnii/^ ami ItV- liiait (hill). The pure and correct orthography of Hie coin|iuund word Is from this said to be .Mumveliiiiel, tlio lilil in the shape of nn arrowhead. The king of uu Indian tribe Is said to have resided on such a bill near the shores of Massachusetts Hay, and Ills tribe of In- dians received from this, tho namo " Tlif /nilinii.i of Momittlniel, The name is alreaily montiiineil liy Cap- tain .'ohn Smith under the year 1010. llo writes it ,MiUimihii»ii. In the early times, tliii name was, lum- ever, corruptoil in many difTerent ways. Captain llir- mer writes, in his celebrated letter on his iliscovcrie.H, iftuaarhutit (1019). In a letter from I'lyniunth in the year 1029, the name is written .Maomchulrla liny, and in tho patent of Sir F'ernando ( iorges, repeatedly .l/ii,<. $nchimack. In tho earliest time of tho I'ly mouth Col- ony tills name included only tho country round lIuNtnu harbor, and the name was principally given to tliat great bay, of which Boston harbor is a part, and wliirli was called MansiiihimUii Jlat/. The llrst Knglish inl- ony or province was therefore not called from the country, but from the bay, " T/ie Vohmi nf Mn^mchn- aelts Hiiij" (.since 1020). The territory wliicli this name covered was at llrst not extensive, but l>y ami by It became the greatest name throughout the whole of New i;ngland. In the year 1092 the country of tlie I'lymouth Colony was united to it, and for tho wliiile was now introduced the name of " The J'nirimt'ii/.llin- mchuselln." So long also as New Hampshire ami Maine were united to the niiijhty Massachusetts, dur- ing tho greater part of the 17th and 18th centuries, tlie geographers, forgetting local names, extended the name of Massachusetts often over the greater half of all tlio Now England seas and countries ; while sinpo 1774 the numo " SUtle (if Maasachugeili" includes the coiist.i between Merrimack liivor in the north and Naragaii- sett Hay in tho south. — J. G. Kohl. Phi/siral Fealurei. — This Stato presents three di?- tiuot zones. The iirst toward the ocean, is a marine allnvion but little elevated alKive the sea ; it is mostly sandy, and the least fertile and smallest in extent m' tile chree sections. This plain is followed by a line hilly tract which crosses the State from north to soutli, elevated in some places 300 feet above the sea ; from these elevations the rivers flow in every direction. The Kccond, or middle zone, includes part of thi! beau- tiful valley of the Connecticut, and is followed by the mountainous, but highly fertile county of Berkshire, which comprises tlie whole western part of the State. Through Berkshire passes two mountain ranges, tiio Tughkarlc, on tho western border of the State and between tho Housatonio and Connecticut Rivers, tlic Green Mountain range here called the Hooaick Mount- ains. Mount Holyoke, near Northampton, is near 1200 feet aliove tho level of the sea, and Wachiisctt tlountain In Princeton, is an elevated peak from 2000 to 8000 feet high. Saddle MounUln in the Taghkanic range in the coTth-west comer of the State ia 4000 feet 'I'llU 1SS7.. 1845.. 1856., That is, ' ud 62 per ( MAS 1330 MAS kl(|h, knd Mount WnnhlnKtun In the ■mnf riiiiKit In tlin mutli-wMt I'lirnerortlifl Ntntii, li Hliuut U<^H) fvntlilKli. Tliu vuUryN »r lli«i ('iinn«c ticut iiru furtiln, uj< iirii ulnii tlioxe uf tliu llDUKiitiinlr. Tlicru wiTo In thl.'< Nlatii In 1M5II, -.iil.'lll.'ianneruK iit liirid lin|jriivi!(l, iinil l,'.>'iV,A7li ot unlniproveil lunil In fiirnin ; niwli value of farnm itl»9,07(S,iM7, anil tli« viiluo of iMiplemant* unil init- chlnery '.'j poundu ; m!l,r>IIH poiniilH ; wnul, poiiniN pruiUueil, Xur>,1!ltl; tlax, 1102; HJlk I'o- ciioMN, 7 ; hiipn, l'Jl,ri!l5po inli ; toharro, 1118,21(1 ; hay, tons of, l!.'il,807 ; cIuvim' »cci1, 1002 hunlicls; other gmx^ di'cilii, fiOH.) j (lax aeeil, 72 liti'hclii ; unil wuro niailo -1088 itallnnii of wine. Value of lioinn-mailu nianuf u'turi'K, 4'2ori,:i;t3 ; of slau^htcrvil animiilH, i|!2,- f.0O,!i:' i 'I'liii |>rin>'lpal rivers are the rnnnoctirut, u nolilu Ktream wimlin); for 50 nilleii arroas the IState. llou- natunic, wlilili risen in llcrksliiro county, and (Iowh through the wi'xt part of the Statu, and Morrimae, which ri.seH in Nuw Hampshire, and has a course of 50 miles in the north-east jiart of the 8tato, and enters the ocean below Newlinryport. It Is iMtvl){alde for lar);fl vessels to Haverhill, 15 miles, llcsides these, there are Nashua, Conconl, Tauntun, and lllackstone Itlvers, Massachusetts has numerous good harbors. There are several important islands olf tlio south sliore of this St lite, to wliichthcy tiolon){. The largest U Kan- tucket, 15 miles long and 11 miles broad, and which constitutes a coimty of its own name. Slarthu'a Vine- yard, west of Nantucket Is 20 miles long and from 2 to 10 miles broad, which, with other small islands, con- stitutes Duke's county. Tlie shores of Massachusetts are divorslllcd by some bold promontories and cupii- clous bays. Of •' latter, Massachusetts Uay, be- tween Capo Ap . on the north and Capo Cod on the south, ia about 10 miles in breadth. Buzzard's Day is on the soul h-wost side of Cape Cod, and is 20 miles long. Cape Ann, in the north part of the State, is a rocxy promontory 15 miles in length. Cape Cud is a peninsula in the south-east nart of the State, extending 75 miles long and from 2 t' -0 miles broad, with u bend in the middle nearly at right angles. The peninsuhi of Xahant, a few miles north of the harbor of Boston, is connected with the mainland by Lynn-beach two miles long. It has liecunie, on account of its cool breezes and wild sea views, a place of fashionable re- ■ort during the summer months. There were, January, 185G, 43 railroads, of which 1409 miles were finished and in operation, and 48 miles in course of construction. The Middlesex Canal, 27 miles long, connects Boston with Lowell. The Black- stone, and the Hampshire and llamdcn Canals are both in disuse. The value for the year of the products of industr}-, as found by adding the separate returns throughout the State, is found to be $295,820,081. If allowance be made for defective and erroneous returns, the Sec- retary thinks the whole amount would be at least ♦350,000,000. The returned value without allowance, shows an enormous increase of thu productive energy of the State us compared with the previous returns, viz. : Prmluetion. Prtpulatiitn. ISar. »S8,292,G18 TOO.dOO IMS. 124,749,4.'iT &«i,0«0 1885. 298,820,681 l,183,l'i8 That ia, while the population has increased only 34 ud 62 p«r cnt. reapectirely ; tlie value of the product 4P of Industry (returned) Imn in'Teasod l.'W and '2I'J |mp cent. The amnunt nf rapita! invpated in munufac- lurrs and oilier priiduitions in Maiaaeliuietta, is showu to lie i|il20,000,iioi), anil th« gniHS val.ui of pruduclt ♦'.'95,iHKI,0(Mi annually. The number of hands «m ployed is 2l.'i,»0H. 'fhn leading pniilui la of the Slate In 1855, and the anuiunt of capital employed In 1815 and 1855 are ns follows : ValM, C'ottoa Romli, t'»ll<-o O'HxIa, liliaebiiil anil colnred. Wooliin |/(iniln Kiilleil mill allt Iroi), ami iirtia Moljiiw wnru anil eualliiKn..., MaeliliuTV Hiram eriiilnea aioi Imllira ... Iai1 eaiA l■llal'llll^ etc. . ^•^M^I, Caulial. ISIH. IMJt. Ih.lUo. ' I'r llir". l>..|lNri. 2il.l|i>,lNHIIII,'MI|.laKII7,78U.llOII ^^IM,INHI I.UtlMUNI l,(lll,IHNI| MII.INH) l'„M).ll I'aper -^MI.ihhi '/..wi.ihki i,| i«,i>ih|{ Miiali'al liislruiiieiila 2,'^vn,islfl 1,'Jsii,ihiii 'JUM.ihiii' IWatelioa. chroiioniuttTa, |{oli| ' anil silver war*. Ciinlaue , . Vt'ssi.'!ii. Huuar, refined Hpunii ranillea aiiil oil . . . Heap anil tallow eaiidles . Clialra and ealdnut ware, lii-iitlier. lioots and slioea 8lraw liiiiinols Ilrleks Aleiiliiil and lliiiion Ilread Ololhlnn [•i,ll«l,iiUiil 2,47H,IIOol 4,f'4il,0(IO 2.11811,1100 fl,K18,(HI0 7,7'iO,(^(Kl »,0(n),IKMI 12,2(16.IMm 87,4'^»,0fl(l 4,WI.VMK1 2,(l'i7,ll(Hl H.l.Ml.lllKI H,8W,I»»1 7'Jo,(aHi flim.ism 1,I(I0,IKI«' l'i(l,IH10l MH,OOo| 4rn^iiiW «,'iS2,(llHI 2,4ftl,lKHi 1,8i'i,IHHl, 40.'i,IKSl, 1,111:1,000 4,8-fll.lNHl (KW.IHKl Dlll.lMMll 477,IHKI l,IIISI,IHIO V,IHII.0IK1 'J,770,IHHIi Tho actual expenditures and receipts for 1855 are contrnstod with those of 1850 (mostly actual, though a portion necessarily estimated), and with Iho esti- mates for 1857, in the foUowing table : K.xi'KNOirraKH vnn ISVi ano l».')fl— balance. 66,600 Cash on Land l'8,6io h),m Total 11,668,425 tl,4S2,6«U 1781,800 Kor Manufactures, Finances, Commerce, Ma.^.sachu.sett.s see Xvrlh Am. Hei:, ].. -323 (N. 11., '277 ; I)E Bow's Rev., iv., 459, Ixvi., 190 ; am., xlii., 294. Comix Manupactobus in MAssAcni'ims ix Cotton mills, 294 Number ofsplndles 1,819,.'527 Cotton oonsuincd lbs. 108,881.749 Cotton eliitli yds. 814,996,:.«8 »24,1 tinnianul'act'd, cotton yarn. lbs. 8,821,146 Cotton thread lbs. 634,898 Cotton batting Tbs. 4,82.8,686 Caoltol invested "i ^ Males employed .... 11,987 Females '' .... 22|8S0 etc., of Hai.k), t'A. Kx- 1955. 'alu*. .IVi9,2l2 680,546 285,9tU 89^874 ,««1,000 MAS l.'lliO MAN In IIAO, tho tiitul vnliiD iif I'uttiiii innniifkitiirM In MmiMi'liuaiitlia wiia #lll,7l'i,'l'II I In IMM, It wii« •'i)l,- 7U0,(Mltl, an Imraaao of IM p«r ciinl. In k parlotl »! Ilv* foMiuii I'diimimji or Till Htatii or MAMiiiitiirnj, moil Oiniiia* t, IIW, to .Iviy y»»n, 'I'Im uplul liicrittaail In th« Mnin (ixrliHl from «,M,M&,lliM) to $»l,lHII,(M)tl, in Inrnua of only I'i p«r iwnt. liM. Tvari •mllnff lliiiiiwalli'. Kiptiru. liii^>ri4. TitHMf* UUmi4. lit|lil«f«, iMil |H,lUiri l»,IUi7,H'*t lilA,-*! MWT H,»44,V< f • f • •• t flg4 4,nBM,M« MUft.ilM |IK4H4,H»H IM7»,7M IHI.Mll 4^ I • • • d5^ 4,!II4B,I4I I4A,«T« 4.II4II I • 1 1 Mi ll,»HM,|IW Ml(l,7ll4 l(l,IHll» ift, 111,11 H,UIU,7M 4.HllA,ln« N,«ft4,M7 ll,Mlit,r44 l*l,mT ii,,47H,>wir' l«».IM l,H7»,«ftl M7( ii,m • *t* • 41. (HV,H1I,IIH» ♦«il,*W,«Tr 8«pt«o, l«ni $4,IWI,'.'»I JH,7cl«.r)(Vi |7,7IW,7M |I4,'JM,0M lM.tM T.tHIt 'rir\,Ti6 UlMdi IBM 4.i»«,IM.'» 7,3H7,I'IH U.»W.HH IH,II'<,I)IHI •iM.'iin IIM7II .... ' .... I IM 6.l.^),IVI* 4,Mll,NM V,«HH,W'i ll).l)4li,VII mi.iiiiT Hl.7«« • > . . tm4 4,«T«,T4ll ^I7II,IIT4 III, UH, Hid ir,ll7!l,IW IHil.Ml HI. VIM 1 1 f • .... IHM 6,A«4,4>I) 4,47»,ilfll in.mH,Tu(i 1«.>«I0,H7H 'iln.iKIt HN,|ii7 . • « • iNtM ^IIH,l«a MUT.IWl lll,HK.I.R|ll 'i.MlHl,4 ll.»TtMH1 Ill.HMft.rM IIIII,H7h 4r>,i>W t • >• • •• . 1*10 ToUl ♦a»,uo»,»m 8,«I>*.I(U) 10 wH.vei in.fil.l.xftH »ltl,it()7,.'iOA~ IN7.IWI l,'.»Iil,(lM " ft«,7llA .... .... lltf'^iiiMiill ♦ll»..'79,(l«T llll'V.44<44 (VH7I.SHA 'i.Tii,i.y> I),IIUI|.VH« »0,WH,IHI7 INtt,«>.I 1117,117 1S4T H.'.'M,777 l,»Nn,iwfl II.WMil' H|,177,OIIH VHA.HIHI iH';,iiii4 IMS ».«iN,iaT 4, III, HIM IMIIi.'li'U •^\ill7,7llT XlHI.tNIt 1^,717 .... IMff M7»,(W7 2,lK)0,lllA 10,iiH,-iia VI.7I.MIIT IWMlT «44,04,87« 1M,03« IWi V,4<)y,4(IH lll,MH,4IHI HH,nm,7Ni) Him.riHu lim,l»74 KW l(l,H|Mt,iin4 H(lft»,l)7'i lll,U,V,\'V7ll 4l,ilil7,UM HH7,'UIJ) H7»,0'iM InM 17,H9R,7.W fl,M2,7«« !>l,4HN.rwi4 4-*,rMIH,7HH m.lllA H7."i,nBI i ..1 KW M.4li,l«H H,77K,0(HI :t4,l90,ll'JA 4A,IIH,774 4H'i.lllll Hso.xAo K'pH 'i6,!I.Vt,HIH H,4B7,ai7 W.vij.^in 4H,HI4,HM4 411.11^1 Il7'/.'ilil .... Tim iirincipiil |ii)rt.M are- 1. llonton, liit. IP 'i'V N., lant(. 71° l' W. Tlin city in Hitiiiitcil iit tli« lioail nf u deep liiiy, on ii iwiiinaulii, liein;{ Miirrotmiluil on tliri'ii nIdoH liy water. (jPiiiTttlly tliiTo \» Kufliiii'iit ilpptli of watvr to i-nalilv tli« larxuHt rlilpn to conio up to tliu e!ty tit nil tliiii'H of tlie tiiln ; iiiul th«y UHUiilly moor HlonifHliln of clocks wliuro there Im perfect safety. Tlin depth of Witter in tlie clmnnel viirleii from 10 to HU feet. It in tho ({rent ceiitro of tlie coinniercu of Now Knglund, iiiul in thin capiicity reeeivui' unil dixtriliuteii one llftli of the wliolu coniniereial inuteriiil of the Uniteil States, 'I'ho tunnu|{e of lloaton in JNrill waa 521,117 ton.i. .See lloHTON. 2. S»lom, eity and port of entry. It in cliiefly liiiilt on ii tongue of limil fornioil by two InletK from the sea, culled North and South Kivers ; over the former are two lirldnes (one of which la crossed liy the railroad), connecting it with llcvoriy. The harl>or has i;o(k1 anchorage ground, liiit vcsselu drawing more tliun 12 or 11 feet of water mu»t lie par- tially unloaded licforu they can conio to its wharves. The tonnage of iSalem in IH&U was 2',I,U7U tons. II. Nantucket. Tonnage in 18I>6, 1G,M5/ tons. 4. New Uodford. &. Full Kivor. 8, Newliuryiwrt. 7. Glou- cester, CoMUittcE or IluBTOX, IbSA— AH. Yt.n. Cuitom Kouis Forslim ntvfniiH. Rrrlvftli. IWW |8.H.'i7,IV.i4 2,990 liAS 7,778,7»4 2,90« Mast, a long piecp, or system of pieces, of timber, placed nearly |)«rpendicularly to the keel of a vesHel to support tlio yards or galfs on whuli tho aails are ex- tended. When the mast is one entire piece, it la called a pole-mast ; but in all larger ves.sels it is composed of several lengths, called lower, top, and top-gallant maats : sometimes a fourth, called a royal mast. The iiii'tliod of Kiipporting each mast on the one next Ijelntr it, is peculiar, (In lh» sIiIm of the lower niast,s>iiiie I'ert below tho head, lire placed checks I on these ore lixcd horlnoiitally two short piHces of wiKid, fore iiiid aft, callail trestle trees. Ai'ross theiie at right angles are laid, before and abaft the mast, two or iiiurn h>iiKer and lighter pieces, I'alliid truss trees, which give the name to tlie entire syatnin. On the mast head itself Is a cap. The topmast being placed up and ihiwii, tlio fore slilu of th« lower mast Is swayed up between tlm trestle trees, and through the round or foremost liirle In til* cap. When raised so high that the lieid of the U>]i- mast la nearly up to the snrfacn of the cross trceti, a piece of Iron, called the lid. Is put through the hidi' in the heel for the pur|Hisn | and on this lid, of which the ends are supisirtci'i on the trestle trees, the tiipniast rests. When ilildi'd, the topmast Is stayed, and the rigging or shrouds set up to the dead eyes in the emls of the crosn trees, These dead eyes pull from tlio lower rigging ladow, and thus the cros,i trees serve merely to oxteiid the rigging. Tho topgallant ii mp- ported ill lli« same manner on tho topmast. When tho mast is to be taken down. It Is tirst raised to relieve the' lid ; wlilch being drawn nnt, the mast is lowered. Tho masts are sup|Hirted by n strong rope, leading forward, called the stayt by others, leading alt on each side of the ship, called. In general, backstiiys, and by others abreast, culled shrouds, and also breii4 backstiiys Large lower masts are com|)ased of picien and have for some years Isien made of several lengths aliout a foot or so sipiare, and the whole supporteil merely iiy hoops ut Intervals. The mainmast is iicur the inlddlu of tliii vessel, tlin foremast is tliat whicli H nearest the fore part, anil the inl/./.eninast is abiift (he uulnmiiat. TUt old rule for the leniftb of the main liediciicy of iecting a pei lie as worti that this sp that all opi oliviiitcd, it re .sponsible petlipc'iite, 01 repuira exec the voyage ; IHitliccated i has no lien i ailvunccd b; Judgment ii| " As to wiigi ship shiiiilcl th.at piirpni the dealing, considered I the owner; respect, bcei SDiis belonfj have its fn gators ; for, i evcrj- day, vcniencc, havinr, or ni keep tho shi Kngland is i of I he emplo [lothccato th Ihe tradesmi that they mi master is bo tlon in the i •rty to enter MArt mat MAR tl7,4M tii«'«r iiiiut la tn tiiliit «n* Imir th« •urn of th« IriiKlh (if tlix liiwcr iloi'k kiiil I'KtrKmo limmllli: Ihn fdmiiiut In rlltlit iiliiUm "t til* innlnniiuit, tho inlai'nniMt I'lin- •Idi'Mlily ■iiiHllvr. Ths topmnxt I* iilKiiit thrm tlfllm uf thn lowar init^t 'riinun rulir iniiviiiilrnrr, Iwnfil on nil mai'liiinli'*! iiriiirlplK, anil an \ mi'an< atrictly fiilliiwvcl. MnntA nr« Ktlll Imllt up In pltrvii, lint liy th« iilil iif iniirln» k'""- ^ joint iii>cMiri«l liy thin gXu* U Ixnn rnnlly iirpiiriilili innn thn ai'tual lllirnii nf tlin wikmI itiieU, In Ihn Kmiit KxlilMtlop iif Loniliin thnrx w> rn many nirlouit 'pcclnii'na lllimlrattva of thn iiaa of thin rxtrannllniiry iTnirnt. Onn wn< a ]iliii'« of thn miint of tlifl "hip riirajmi, foiinil hufpiiraliln rVfn liy lhi< wfiljjo. An- nthor wim part of u nmlnniant, from whlih n kIoi'iI friiitriipnt wan torn iiway only aftor » forrn of '2'i ton* hiiij lii'xn upplli'il. A llilril wiia n liloci' if I'Ini, Jolni-il with K'""i " W'< v!(|>l"'l<'y K""' xliT, liut tlin Joint dill not ylwld. Annthxr wait an o.ik cnnnon-liall, nicoln of two kI""! pi'<'i'"; It had Impn lln>d with •i)(ht ouniKK of piiwdi'r, lint thn Joint hrlil fiiat. An- other waK a ilral liliirk, whirh liroke in tho lllirra liy a fiiri'R of four tons. Othern wnre pieces ' inanti, In- tpuili'd to iihow how Intcnurly ntninp; a niu t li('com<"ii whi'ii Imllt up with pliM'oH whlrh aiu Joined liy tlila ((lue. It la not only a g\»D : it In alao a auliatltutc for pltrh. Many venHid't huvn tli ■ ncania payed or ralkrd wllli thia g\w, whlrh la found much niuro durulile for tlia purpoae than onllnary pid h. Master, in coininerrjiil o v ligation, t4in |M>rNon i - truntfil with th« raro and navii;atinn of tho ahii. " Thn niiiati'r la tho I'linl) Vntiai aervant or a)(ont the owMora J and In confiirndty to tho rulea and max- ima of law the owners am iHiund to thn performanro of every lawful lontnut miidn liy him relatlvo to the uauiil employment of tho aliip." — AnnoTi on Ihr /jtir of Nhlpiiing. Krom this rulu of law It followa that tho uwnera are lioind l committed liy tho master or mariners nKilnnt their will, anil without their fault. Nor can tho e . jiedlency of this rule Iw doulitcd. The owners, liy se- iectlni; a pcraoii as master, hold him forth to tho puli- Uc as worthy of trust and contldnncL. And In order that this selection may lie niailo with duo can', and that all opportimitie.H of fraud and collusion may lin olivlatcd, it Is Indlspcnsaliln that thoy should lie made responsililo for his acts. Tho master has power to hy- pothecate, or pledge, lioth ship and cargo for necessary repairs executed In foreign ports during the course of the voyage J but neither the sli- i.- "argo can lie hy- IKithecated for repairs execute ' ' :•' ■ .•. Tho master Ima no lien upon tho ship for hi* a i;;ts, nor for money advanced liy him for stores or repairs. In delivering Judgment upon a case of this sort, i.ord Mansfeld said: "As to wages, there Is no pa;.lcHlnr contract that tho »hip should lie a pledge Jiero is no usage in trade to that purpose ; nor any iviiplication from tho nature of thn dealing. On the lontrarj", the law has always (■(insidered tho captain as contracting (lersonally with the owner ; and the case of the captain has, in that respect, liecn distinguished from that of all other per- sons belonging to the ship. This rule of law may have its foundation In policy for the bcuelit of navi- gators J for, as ships may ho making profit and earning everj' day. It might bo attended with great incon- venience, if, on tho change of a captain for mislie- havlnr, or any other reason, he should be entitled to keep tho ship till ho i.s piiiil. Work dono for n ship in Kngland Is supposed to \\v dono on tho personal credit of I he employer : in foreign parts the captain may hy- pothecate tho ship. Tho defendant might have told the tradesman, that ho only acted as an agent, «nd that they must look to tho owner for payment." The njaster Is bound to employ his whole time and atten- tion in the service of his employers, and Is not at lili- erty to enter into any engagement for his own benclit that may occupy «n,v portion of his limn In nthsr tnti orna j and, llinrf for*, if he dn so, and the price of ■iicli engagement h«p|i*n to Iw (lald Into the hands of hi- ownera, ihey may retain th« money, anil h« can not recover from them. -Aiihiirr on Skiiipmg. Willfully lUntroylng or caallng iiway thn ahlp, or priKurlng thn aaiiin to U done by thn niaatnr or mari- ners, to thn prejudice of thn ownnra, fnlghlen, or In- surnra | ruuuing away with thn cargo ; anil turning pirates I an nftenaea puulahaldn by trnn<|Hirlatlon be. yond »ea« for not le«» than 15 yeara, or by Imprl.on- mnnt for not more than 11 jeara. After the voyagn h»s lieen commnncnil, thn iiiiiater miiat proceed illriMt to til* place of hia deatlnutlon, without unneceaaarily •topping at any intermediate [Mirt, onbivbillng from tho short! it eouran. No such deviation will be aanc- tlonnd, iiuieas It baa been occaaioni'd by atreaa of weather, tho want if neceasary re|ialr, avoiding ene- mies or pit.itea, auci orlng of ahlpa in illatrena, aiikneas of f l.e miiater or marlnnra, or the mutiny of the crew. — Makhiiai.i, o« In.nnmrr, To juatify a dnvlntlon, the neceaalty muat bo real. Inevitable, and imperious, an ■ it muat not be prolonged one moment afterthe ne- 1 lalty has ceB inced in value beyond the kur above mentioned it u merchant ship has tho ml'ii'./rtune tn Ihi att:i, ked by pirates or enemies, tho master Is iKiiind to do his duty as a man of courage and capacity, and tn make Ihn best reslntauce that the comparative ktrengtii of the ship and crew will allow. Hy the common law, the master has authority over all the mariners on board thn shi|i — it being their duty to obey his commands in all lawful matters relating to tho navigation of the ship, and the jireservatlon nf good order. Kiit the master should in all cases use his au- thority with moderation, so as to be the father, not the tyrant, of his crew. On his return home hn may be called upon by action of law, to answer to a mariuiir hn has either beat or Imprisoned during the course of the voyagn; and unless he show sullklent cause for chastiiiing thn mariner, and als.i that the chastisement was reasonable and moderate, ho will be found liable In damages. Should tho master strike a mariner with- out cause, or use a deadly weapon as an instrument of correction, and death ensue, he will be found guilty, according to tho circumstances of tho case, cither of manslaughter or mnnler. — Amhott, part ii., c. 4. The master may by force restrain tho commission of great crimes : but he has no Jurisdiction over the criminal. His business is to secure his person, and to deliver him over to tho proper tribunals on his coming to his own country. T'ho master must not take on board any contraband goods, by which tho ship and other parts of tho cargo may be rendered liable to forfeiture and scinure. Neither must ha take on board any falsn or colorablo papers, as these might subject the ship to the risk of capture or detention. But it is hia duty to procure and keep on boani all the papers and documents ro- (luired for the manifestation of tho ship and cargo, by the law of the countries from and to which the ship is bound, as well by tho law of nations in general, as by treaties between particular States. These papers aiid documents can not bo dispensed with at any time, and arc ipilte essential to the safe navigation of neutral ships during war. It is customary in bills of lading to insert a dauso limiting the resiousiblllty of tho master and owners, as follows : " The act of God, en- emies, lire, and every other dangers and accldenta of the seas, rivers, and navigation, of whatever nature and kind soever, save risk of boats, as far as ships are r-sfS-?^- MAS 1832 MAS liable thereto, excepted." When no bUl of lading ia signed, the master and owners are bound according to the common law. The most difficult part of ttie moa- ter'a duty is when, through the perils of the sea, the iittaclis of enemies or pirates, or other unforeseen acci- dents, he is prevented from completing his voyage. If bis own ship have suffered from storms, and can not be repaired within a reasonable time, and if the cargo be of a perishable nature, he is at liberty to employ another gliip to convey it to the place of destination. He may do the same if the ship have been wrecked and the cargo saved, or if his own ship be in danger of sinliing, and he can get the cargo transferred to an- other; and in extreme cases he is at liberty to dis- pose of the cargo for the benefit of its owners. The most celebrated maritime codes, and the opinions of tbo al)le8t writers, have differed considerably la to these iwints. According to the Rhodian law (Pand. 1. 10, § 1) the captain is released from all his engage- ments, if the sliip, by the perils of the sea, and with- out any fault on liis iiart, become incapable of proceed- ing on her voyage. The laws of Oleron (art. 4), and those of Wisby (arts. 1(5, 87, 65), saj- that the captain may hire another sliip; harmonizing in this respect with tlie present law of England. The famous French ordinance of 1C81 (tit. Dii Frit, art. 11), and the Code (In Commerce (art. 29*!), order the captain to hire an- other ship ; and if he cnn not procuie one, freight is to be duo only for that part of tlie voyage which has been performed (jtro rati ilineru peracti). Valin has objected til this article, and states that practically it meant onl}- tliat the captain must hire another ship if lie wouiv. earn the whole freight. Emerigon (torn. i. p. 428) liolds that tlie captain, being the agent not onl}' of the owners of the ship, but also of the shippers of the goods on board, is bound, ip tlie absence of both, to n^c his best endeavors to ;'ru«ervo the goods, and to do whatever, in the circumstances, he thinks will moat conducb to the interest of all concerned ; or what it may lie presumed the ahippiTs would do were they present. This, which seems t» bo the Ijest and wisest rule, has been laid down by Lords Mansfield and Toii- terdcn, as stated aliove, and may be regutnled as the law of England on this point. Hut to use the words of lord Chief Justice Tenter- den, " the disposal of the cargo by the master, is a matter that requires the utmost caution on his part. Me should always bear in mind that it is his duty to convey it to the place of deilinalion. This is the purpose for which he has been intrusted witli it, and this pur- pose be is bound to accomplish by every reasonable and ;:racticabln method. What, then, k the master to do, if, by any disaster happening in the course of liis voy- age, ho ia unable to carry the goods to the place of destination, or to deliver them there ? To this, as a general question, I apprehend no answer can b? f?:iven. Kvcry case must depend u|)on its own peculiar circum- stances. The conduct proper to he adopted with respect to perishable goods, will be improper with respect to a cargo not [lerishable ; one thing may be fit to be done with f1;^. lect. If any passenger die on board, the master is obliged to take an inventory of his effects ; and if no claim be made for them within a J'ear, the master lie- comss proprietor of the goods, but onswerablu for tlieiu to the deceased's legal representatives. Bedding and furniture become the property of the master and mate ; but the clothing must be brought to tlio deck, anil there appraised and distributed among the crew. If a master die, leaving money on lioard, and the mate, be- coming master, improve the money, he shall, on allow- ance being made to hiin for his trouble, aeeount for both interest and profit. The conditions under wliicli seamen and a|iprenticcs are to be taken on board ship, and the obligations of the master with respect to tlicni, are fully set forth in the article Seamen, in this work; and to it also the reader is refened for a statement of the duty of the master with respect to tlie registry of seamen, and the contributions, etc., due to the corpo- ration for the relief of decayed seamen, their wiilm •, etc. For the duties of the master as respects custom- house regulations, .see the articles Coxsiii.s, Fiir.i.iiiT, Seamen, United St.vtes, and Insukanii;, etc. ; anil for a further discussion of this important subject, see the excellent work of Lord Tentehiien, On the Law of Shipping ; Parsons On Commerced Law; Kent's Commentaries ; Ciiitty On Commercial Lam, vol. iii, j and the articles CuAUTER-i'AUTy, Freight, etc. QiialiJicatioM of Masters. Means by Which They Should be ,/ljcer; Vu. ifasti/i ; Fr. Maalio; It, .Miitllci- ; Hp, Mmnilini, Mmuclija; Araii. -Irii/i), This resinous substance Is the produce of tlie I'itliioia !,i-iitlti'iiti, It native of the liovant, and particu- larly abundant l» thn Island of Chios. It Is obtained by making Irausversn Inclslnus In the trunks and branches of Ihe (fees, whence thn nuistio slowly ex- udes About WW ewf, are annually exiairted from Cldris, part of wlili'h l« brought to this ciumtry, packed in .hosts, 'I'lni best Is In the form of dry, lirlttle, yel- lowish, transpiicent tears ) It Is nearly inodorous, ex- cept wlien lieatttd, and then It has an agreculdo odor ; L'hewed, It Is almost Insipid, feeling, at llrst gritty, and altiniatolv soft, lis virtues are trilling.— Ainsi.ik's Mill' rid IiiiUm; Ttimisdi^'s l)l»iniimtn. No. of tons. Price per ton. Value. Ki. .1 I8W 4,952 25 12,»50 IMl 6,899 25 15.98^ 1842 11,847 25 28,717 184-'} 10,528 30 81,.W4 1844 14,245 30 42,875 1845 13,B60 40 ^3,4^•i 1846 16,798 45 76,593 1847 7,878 GO 89,.8l!5 Maulmain is a free port, on the same footing as Sing. apore, etc. There is no custom-house, and no duties on sea-borne goods ; but foreign sugar, and sugar frmu Singa[)ore and Malacca, is contraband. Tlio coins in use are the Company's rupee and its subdivisions, the same as are current in Calcutta. The English sove- reign is generally worth 11 rupees, and tlie Spanisli dollar 220 rupees per 100 dollars. The weights are tlic Madras viss, equal to 3'065 lbs. avoirdupois, or, say, 3} lbs. ; in this there are 100 ticuls. The Bengal Ijazaar maund of 82 lbs., is also occasionally used. Tlie meas- ures principally used are called baskets : they are of uncertain size. A basket of cleaned rice is aliout (j.'i lbs. in weight ; of mixed about CO lbs. ; paddy 51 llis. Ship-building Is well adapted to the place ; and some of the finest teak-ships in the world have been built here. There are several dry docks, though not of a verj' efficient description, for repairing vessels. Tlie British government bought here, during 18 17, upward of 5000 tons of teak for the royal dockyards in En- gland. The Jfautma!n Almanac for 1852 contains the follow- ing statements: "The value of tlie imports by sea into Maulmain during 18,50 amounted to 22,57,9-13 ru- pees, and the exports to 23,,32,951 rupees ; while in the first 10 months of 1851 the imports increased in value to 28,78,487, or X287,848, and the exports to 28,70,707 or £287,979. The town, which 20 years back iiui- taiiied only a few miserable fishing huts, is thus slioivn to have a trade of nearly £000,01)0 a year, wliioli is still increasing. The value of the piece goods imported from Europe during 1851 amounted to i'G.'i»229 ; coals, X5408, and iron £1849. Provisions were imported to the extent of £3496, and wines of tho value of £102 ; military stores £1653, etc. The articles of export pre- MAU 1335 MAU I Uie foUow- iports liy sea •22,r)7,0f<3 rii- ; while in tlic ased in value ;3 to -28,79,707 irs back lon- is thus shown ■ear, which is oods impurtc^l Ull^i!) , coals, a imported to uluoofXUVi; of export pre- fent no remarkable feature of interest, except timber, tlie value of whicli in 1850 was £56,108, and in the flrnt 10 months of 1851, £81,6G1. The town possesses a large and thriving European population, and 40 ves- sels, of an aggregate burden of 17,170 tons, have been launched from its dockyard since 1830. It contains three printing-presses, seven places of public worship (live of which are Protestant), besides eight schools, Knglish and native." Mauritius. Tho Islu of France was discovered by the Portuguese, A. D. 1500, but the Dutch were the tirst settlers, in 1598. The Mauritius was so ciUed liy the Dutch in honor of Prince Maurice ; but it was first settled by the French in 1720; and is indebted for most part of its prosperity to the skillful management of its governor, the famous M. de la Bourdonnais. It was taken by the English in 1810, and was definitive- ly ceded to them in 1814. Mauritius is fertile, a con- siderable |>urt of the surface lieing, however, occupied by mountains. Its shape is circular, being about 150 miles in circumference. The climate is healthy, but 8ul>ject to hurricanes. The principal product of the island is sugar, which is now cultivated to the almost total neglect of every thing else ; but it also produces excellent coffee, indigo, and cotton. Tlic bluckwood, or el)ony, of the Mauritius is very abundant, and of u superior quality. Very little corn or grain of any kind is raised in the island, most articles of provision being imported. Previously to 1825, the sugar and other iirticlea brought to Great Britain from the Mau- ritius were charged with the same duties as the like articles from India ; but in the above-mentioned year this distinction was done away, and it was enacted that all goods of the growth, produce, or manufacture of the Mauritius should, upon importation into any port of the United Kingdom, be subject to the same duties and regulations as the like goods being of the growth, produce, and manufacture of the British colonies in the West Indies ; and that the trade with the Mauritius should be placed as nearly as possible on the same footing as that of the West India Islands. This was a great boon to tlie Mauritius, and the exports of sugar from it have since rapidly increased. According to Milburn (Oriental Commerce, ii., 568), they amount- ed, in 1812, to about 5,000,000 lbs. In 1818 they amounted to alrout 8,000,000 lbs. ; and in 1824 to 23,- 334,558 lbs. Since 1826 nine tenths of the sugar raised in Mauritius has been shipped for the United Kingdom. Sugar Trade — Tho recent removal of the interdic- tion against tlie importation of coolies into the island of Mauritius has contributed largely to the prosperity of that colony, and materially augmented the sugar re- turns of 1856-67 over those of preceding years. Ad- vices from tlie island, under date of July 11. refer in glowing terms to the prosperous condition of tlie sugar planters, and inform us of tho gratifying tact — the more gratifying, inasmuch as the price of sugar has sensibly declined sincu that date — that "just as we are about to harvest the largest crop ever made, and the removal of the interdiction to emigration from In- dia at the same time, has wonderfully improved the position of every landed proprietor, and has placed the colony in a high state of prosperity." In 1856 the shipments were 235,958,460 lbs., amounting in value to $12,433,492, equal to 5-26 cents per pound. From Januarj- to Moy there were shipped 98,445,286 lbs., valued at $6,042,600, or 6-13 cents per pound. The average price in 1856 was 65 26 per 100 lbs. ; and dur- ing tlie first live months of the present year it rose to $6 13, showing an advance of 87 cents. Tho ship- ment of the old crop, it was believed, would be brouglit to a close by the end of July, and would reach nearly 220,000,000 lbs., against 235,000,000 Ibj. produced in 185li. This, howevv, was the largest crop ever made en the island. The next crop (1857-58) it is estimat- ed will reach 240,000,000 lbs., or 20,000,000 lbs. more than the crop now closed. We annex a statement showing the production of sugar In UfturittiM dutlng the past seven years : Yean. Pouiuli, [ Y«ftn, PwfMfi, ISSO— 61 116,0(10,000 ! Iti54-K, nhmM) jasi-es 186,000,000 , is&v-iw ,,, qittimjim 1^2-M 160,000,000 \i , mmm 18&J-54. 202,000,000 'I ISBI— 68 HO,imim Abbut one fourth of the number of mllU in tlw Inl- and were already, in (July) in operation, and \iy tlic first of August sugar-making would be gniiar*!. M«tHt' few parcels had reached market, and "oM i\t lllxh prices to complete a cargo to Australia, TIlMK, fi/f vacuum cluirced $9 76 to $10 ; good and (!iib yu\U)W, $8 76 to $9 26 per cwt. The news from V,utti\m hun, however, before this time arrested tlie«B «4vitllt'inK rates, and our next advices will show a i!i)fl»iil«r«l(t«< decline. With the exception of molasses, elHmy, »ni\ A f«w other unimportant articles, sugar is alinuet tll« imU article of export. Tho principal Imimrts ciiti»tat «f provisions, particularly grain and Hour i tli« bU()|(ly w- quired for the use of the island being alniott mmri>\y derived from the Cape of Good Hope, Mad>t|{i»>>Ditri India, Bourbon, etc. Eartlienware, inucliliiitry, furnU turo, hardware, piece goods, wine, etc., are itUo Imrijel) imported. The total declared valiio uf tllH 8«p')it« from the United Kingdom to the Mauiltlus in ixli'i amounted to £243,045. In 1851 the [wpulaHun flf the Mauritius amounted, including military ami ^isitiiMtl, t ands dependent on the JIauritius— amountod Ht tht< same time to 8000. The emancipation of tl)ii nUytm was little less injurious to tho Mauritius timii t, The ports of the Mamitiii> aii Mahebourg, Port liUuU, and Seychelles Islai^' There is some ^iirect tp:ule between tha l/»lt«(l States and the Mauritian. Occasionally a c»r|{i» i)t lumber arrives from Culifornia, but as yet this triwi^ has not been profitable. Maury, Matthew T— Lieutenant Maury 1* » native of Virginia. Ho received an appointment tw midshipman in tho navy in 3825, and was iirilernd t« the Hmndywine, then fitting out ut Wusliingtun, t'f convey the illustrious Lafayette to France, Hs f' turned home in that vessel, and in the spring of iH'iH again sailed in her to the Pacific, and was ulisunt rtboil* four years, returning in the Vlnrenwa oloop, PrtM= ing his examination, he was ogain ordered to til" I'* cific station as master of the sloop-of-war Folnuiiilli From the time of his entrance into the navy lie w«s A close student. He made himself master uf tlw S(»»ll« isli tongue, by studying a course of piatlMilDdtica 4n wtlk'lf he was ordered as acting lieutenant, whan the /'>4 ; Hiint'o xUaif., xvili., 616. Mayagiiez, oi Mayaguas. This is the most importuut [lurt on tlic isliind of Porto Uico. It pos- sesses large capital, and contains several costly and iino dwellings. Kupidly rebuilt after tlie groat con- H.igration, by whicli it was destroyed in 18H, Maya- gftez lias gained in prosperity; having l)een before that disaster but un inconsiderable vilbigts, it hog now become the nuist important cit} on the island. The Hurrouiiding district produces large quantities of cof- fee, thciugli, since 1840, tlicre has been a sensible di- minution in that article. For tliat year, tlie exports amounted to HU,O0U quintals, while in 18&.S they fell to 4.S,oOO quintals. The cotfee nf Mayaguez stands in such high repute in America and Germany, that pur- chascj are frequently mad" in advance of the crop. Hence cu:nes also the best sugar of the island, which is mostly imported in American bottoms into the Uni- ted States. In 18.")o, there arrived 83 American ves- sels, of 13,272 tons, carrying freight to tho value of i}223,ri00; and there cleared 76, of 12,680^ tons. i;aking cargoes worth $46U,013. The molasses from this port is always of the best quality, and much sought after by American and English shippers. U. .ddes coffee, in 185.'t there were ex(>orted 165} hogsheads of rum ; 8,221 hogsheads of molasses ; 20,766,033 pounds of sugar; but only 4,468 pounds of tobacco, showing a decrease, compared with tlio preceding year, of over jO,0UO pounds. Tliere were, besides, 1,000 hogsheads of rum mixed with tabasoo pepper {:nalngafta), a prep- aration constituti.ig now a new and )irotitable branch nf domestic industry. Imports from the United Stales a!i(' Hpgland are generally similar to the im- ports into San Juan. Mead, or Metheglin (Ger. Afeht, Meth; Su. Steede, .Merdnmk ; Fr. JJiidrvmel ; It. Idromele ; Rus. I.ipez}, tho ancient, and tor a long time, the favor'te drink of the noithem nations. It is a preparation of honey and water. ' Meal (tier. Afehl; Du. Med; Fr. and It. Farine., Sp. Farina; Uus. Muka; Lat. Farina), the edible part of wheat, oats, rye, barley, and pulse of diller- ent kinds, ground into a species of coarsu flour. See C'oiiN, Fi-otiB, Whkat, and Bi!EAiisTui.rs. Measures and Weights. They were invented by Phidion of Argos, 86!) ii.c. — Ariind. Marbles. They became general in most countries soon after- ward ; and were verj* early known in England. Stand- ards of weights and measures were provided for the whole kingdom by the sheriffs of J^ondon, 8 Kichard 1., A.u. ll'J7. Standards were again fixed in En- gland, 1257. They were equalized for tho United Kingdom in 1825. Meajiire, in legal and commer- cial sense, denotes a certain quantity or portion of r.ny tl ing bought, sold, valued, or the like. See WEiaiiTS and Mhasiikks. Meats, Preserved. The interest which has of late attached to the subject of such meatp. warrants U! in bringing under .xamination tlie principles and pt .ctice on which thii- important branch of industry is based. The art itself in of modeni inventi"nUm as it Is free from saline i.iatter, sini'a it h tli«tt wi murU the more capable of comiiinln;; wUli onygun «in. Thus, snow, which is pure water >'ry>i(illl/.iii1, luti* H prrw* er of pnxlucing the panary ferniunf»t|i)it whdtf fiiUcd with flour ; ancl this it is able to do In I'lmMnnnniii tit Ihn 'arge quantity of gaseciui ii-iV)(mi widrll It C'lH- tains. Siuiilarly, rain water, (.imI H«|i(i(di(lly ilcw, will bring on the putrefitctlon of jitlmiil tnattcr* tillliti sooner than spring watur; and Hia villmftr litfjltdire respecting tho effect of Hui moan'n r/tyi in tUK'n^ffniing the corruption of meat, is, Iwyond ditliltt, ilcliMiiloiit upon the fact, that during ^^luar limiMgUt li)|;bl^( there is always a large d«|M)iiitlon of dww t nnil tIrU having fallen in a minutely divldait i>t«l«i, (tiieiHt^iuiii tho largest amount of free iixyg«n, wlilc'i jtiifA or dli' tilled water is capable of al>M)rbing from tin* aftri'M' phere, and, therefore, lias a |iro|HirliiU'MliK, tlitli far our remarks have \ieen appUKd wil«ly Ut fftw nf uncooked meats ( bnt the praetimtl imitt\n)( itt tlif) ii)c ject which we have in hand r«»Uy \*MiU Ut titi«n which are more or less cooked or \if»i»tvm\, It In with reference to provisions of tills kind, tlwtt rt \iM- liameiitary inquiry is now in ]tronr»ii* ( /mil wn ciin not do better than show the great JlH|HirtillM'« iif silrli a sulijoct to a maritime nation, by utiitlnifi thrtt tlion provisions, when sound, urn an alMiiluta |iriiviititlv« of sea-scurvy — a disease said, on giKul »\ti\uif\iy, Ut hdve destroyed more life, and to liavu dniM' nii»r« ilumfliiii to commerce, than ail tho eneiiilAs ami l«nt|H'»t« itlilrli shipping ever encountered. W« n»«l not «« far In search of evidence to prove the faarfiil Imvon idiiacd by this disease ; for we are well t>i,'ttU\m\ \iy tlin lit'- tory of Admiral Anson':! insinnrabla ie. In splta of evii/y tlilnif ttinl latn and experiencn could do, Au«im t«||4 ui tllllt lin ioat, in nil, fully four fifths of his ixuipla by ni'Mfvy, (If 41/) men with whom the i.'enliiriiin I'icjmrtwii from England, only 200 lived to reaidi tli« lulitnil of .tiidti Fernandez, and no more than 1 of tlli-w' wcflt i'rt)i(itrlc of doing duty ; and but for a sHjiply of iitlii'r^ lit ^t. Helena, there would not h«v« lieun utrKniftll rMniiiit- '••■.^ to carry the ship to her aiudmrrtgi', Mtff di'eifll" ing, in tho most pathetic inaiiner, tliM ilrniwlfiil siiffrN ings of hia crew, and rejoicing at Hw l)n(rt''>'/pini'iil caused by the sojourn at ,i\,an VetmuiU/,. tbf writer concludes — " I therefore uliall »nm iip Hi« Uttn\ of oiir loss since our departure from Kiigliirid, tim lirtlcf to convey some idea of our |iaet atitturSn^* ami ii'ir pfi"«- ent strength. We hail hiirii'it on ln/iiril tlix ('miu- rion, since leaving St. Helana, 'iVl Wxit, iinil lidd re- maining on board 214. Thie, will, iliiiibtli's», iipircnf a most e'.traordlnary mortality ( lull yi't, on li(«rd the GloHCfHer (his other ship of war) It liifl imnn tiliich great!-: for, out of a much siimllnr «r«w tliaii oi'-<, they had buried the sama nntiitor, Mint liml imly X^ remaining alive. It might," continiwiii Anaim, " ituvn been ex]K;cted that, on Iwianl (Iih 7V//(|/ (n (ir«vl«lnfi ship), the slaughter would liava lwi>n ttl'Kt (nrrlliln i but it happened iilherwlso, fur aha aai^i|i«il iniirii favor- r.bly than the rest, since slia imln biirimi H, und lias now 89 remaining." Tho real oiijant of tlm voynK'' was, however, not yet cominfiiiuail ( (Imiii|{Ii nwt of WfO men with which the threa vensfls Inft Kntflniid, CM were dead before this time. It is almost su|ierfluous to multiply Inttani'ca of the same kind ; though, In or>Ur to (kmuniitrittii tli« tfimi MEA 133? MRD Kill (111 lll'f (lilt mfn ml. Iin l'"t, itfvy, Of (turn (if >tii!in rn ('(iiiiitild K'fa lit SI. rcimiiii- -r di'scril" tflll Bllffrf- vptin'nt iitftl iif i'"t llrttrf to (lllf llf("J- tllti rn.'i/- mt tiiiil f<" >'»«, I1ll)l''llt nil ti(iiiri\ iwMi miicti tliitit "*''■ ml imlv "i im, " itnvc rt (irnvlalnii it twffHili" '. IIKIfd fftvi.f- 44, i»(irt li«» |.|lfi viiViiK'' . .mtdfWK; Ii«lntii1, •''■!" ilicp;* (if the (t tiM iCOi't ntlltty of prenerved meats in the navy, Tre ihall give two or throe other examploa. In October, 1788, the fleet of Admiral Keppell came into harbor, and, before the end of December, liad sent 8,U00 Hiclc to the honpital at Haslar. In 1770, tlie (Channel fleet under Sir C. Manly, iient 2,500 to the hospital, and retained more than 1000 on board for want of hospital accommodation. Within 4 months diirinf; a subsequent year, C),Wi were sent to Ilaslnr, iind ^ir II. Hawldns ussertK, that, within the space of 20 years, to his own knowledg';, not less than 10,000 men had died of scurvy. When Admiral Geary's fleet returned to Portsmouth, after a 10 weeks' cruise in the Bay of Biscay, '2,400 men were ill of the scur- vy ; and the gross numlier of admissions into the hos- pital that year was ll,7it2, of whom 90'J died. Now the highest medical authorities in this kingdom, and also on the continent, liavn all expressed the opinion tliat this fearful disease and mortality is altogether caused by tile use of salt provisions; and tiie evidence of n iiost of navy surgeons and officers can be adduced to corroborate the truth of this view ; tlierefore, not only motives of humanity, but also of self-interest, imperatively demand that, wherever unsalted provis- ions can be used, tlieir employment sliould be insisted on by the voice of the entire nation. Such being tlie case, it becomes necessary fur us to inquire how fur the art of preserving unsalted provisions has reached that degree of uniformity, and certainty of result, which alone can warrant their introduction into the navy. — Hrande'a Did. Meat-Biacniti. — The American meat-hiscuita, now coming extensively into use, are a kind of preserve differing from most others. The manufacture is lo- cated chiefly at Galveston, Texas. The prairies of tliat country alwund in cattle of good quality, which ure prociied at so low a price as to justify' the manu- facture on tlic spot, thus saving the expense of trans- porting the useless portion of tho meat. Tlio meat- liiscuit contains in u concentrated state and portable form all tho nutriment of the meat, combined with wheaten or otiier flour. One pound of tliis biscuit is said to contain tlie nutriment or essence of Ave poimds of good meat ; a 22-gallon catjk can contain the con- centrated nutriment of 500 pounds of fresli meat with 70 pounds of flour. As compared with corn or flour, the meat-liuiscuit is said to be less liable to heating or molding during long voyages, and less subject to the attacks of weevils and other animals. It may be easily preserved in all climates, and for n gr^.^t length of time ; though it is not pretended that it pos- sesses the lasting quality of well-canistered fc id. The United States' Army in Mexico was 'u ulied with these meat-biscnits ; and their use is rap) i: prcading in America. The meat-biscuits are made in the fol- lowing way : — Good beef is selected, and boiled by steam until all the nutritive qiulities arc extracted. The liquor is strained, allowed to settle, and tlicn ev;i[jorated by heat to the consistence of thick treacle ; the fat is skimmed olT as it rises. Wliilc the liquor is yet lu; ; ir is added to it, and both ure kneaded up into a slilf dough, which may t'en bo rolled, pressed, uiado into biscuits, and baked. ' >>'■ 'iscuits are cither kept whole or are ground to pov. ,> r, and are preserved in air-tight cases. For making into soup tlie pow- dered biscuit is mi.xcd with hot water, and boiled with the addition of salt and otlier condiments. Professor Iiindloy, in a lecture before the Society of Arts, ex- pressed an opinion that the meat-biscuit " is one of the most important substances which the exhibition of IKol has brought to our knowledge." Meat, Prices of. Prices of Meat and Hread in Cities. — The following table of tho prices of wheat- liread, beef, veal, and mutton, in 20 cities of tho world, near Ifovembcr : 'ith, 1856, is derived from tlio report of a society in the city of New York for the improve- ment ef the condition of the poor ; the quantity of each {lound avoirdupois, and tho pri.m In cmiJk •ml hundredths of a cent, American widglit iiid iiiiiii«y i Rome j/bb I-ondgn 6'70 I'arls ' 4-44 OInsuov.- ;;i ,V4,| LIvorpool j 4-9)) Dublin \'} 5()ij Antwerp \'.\\< B+t BrussL'js 1 4-03 Amstorilam '.'.',: Vi9 Dantilc i 0-6!) Oporto ' 644 Santandcr, 1 4'1I4 Nii'o 4'ilK Milan 5-02 ('onstantlnnplu 8'7(i Smyrna fi'OB New York 678 Boston 626 I'lillndclplila 6-2,5 Cincinnati 4 00 Ib.Cu, imrW 7-iW 11 74 Tl-88 |:)IW 12 90 Ili'lW 12l» 1276 14-88 111-114 8-(W 6-80 noil lO-HD S-17 «'66 Wlb 1 4^00 11-60 10-00 v.«t. Ciij»7'i7 r«7 1(|(W 14-114 M-IVi IS-Vii IB-ft7 tl|-(V; Vlli lT-24 l;i-(l;( VIM hlHI i\n lO-IKI H-17 1IHW U'bl u-no 12 60 MnxUnL «, r> III' II HI IftftT liI'M I2'«tl IJ1N) 12'lW Ifi'W IV-7lt HM flu 11-70 S-IHI llVi 7'l(l H-17 lOIK) l.'ilKI IH'IKI iiino lomi Medalfl, are pieces of metal, generally in tliii fonn of a coin, and impressed with somu peculiar ntmiip, iii. tended to commemorate some hidivldmil or n'tliiii. Medals are of verj- different prices— varying Hcciinlliig to their rarity and preservation, tlio fliiciienit of thii metal, the lieauty of the workmanship, etc. Mechanics. Tlie time when tlie Kiiiipjii iiii'ihiiii' ical powers were first introduced is so uni^erlnlii, and perhaps so little known, that they have liecii uni't'llieii to the Grecian and otlier deities of tlio hiiatlieii my- tliology— for instance, the ax, tlie wedge, wlinlilo, etc., are said to be tlie invention of Dajdulus, We know iiotliiiig of tbc machinery liy whicli tliii iiiiiiiciiiiii masses of stone which are found in some of the iiiii'l«lit edifices were moved and elevated. The first writing on mecbaulcs was by Arl«lotli>, about no. WM Tho statcra Itoinnna Invented , , , . , , , The fundamental property of tlio liivi-r and ollur lii^ Btruincnts was dcinonstratiid by Arolilinudi'* V/S Tho liand'inlll, or quorn, wii-* vi'ry early In urn j tho Uoinans found ono in Yorkshire Cattle mills, molo) ,iumenlariir, weiu also In luu by lliu Koiuans, and In parts of Europe Saw-mills aro said to Imvoboen In usoat Aii'/shuri/.A. Ii, I8IKI Theory of the inclined piano InvestlKatud by Caiilnii, about .,,,,, , Ifllll Work on Statics, by Stuvlnus , If/kit Theory of falllni? bodies, Oullluo lltlH Theory of oscllliillon, Iliiygens , |IM7 Laws of collision, Wallace, Wren , JDM EpIcycloUlal form of (In, teeth of wheels, llueiiier,, .,,, 107(1 Perensslon and nniiiml ineelmnlc.«, Horelll ; ho died 1079 The water-mill was probaWy Invonteil in Asia; llio ltr«l, that was described was near one of the dwclltitKH of Mlthridatcs », «, 70 A water-mill Is .said to have been eroctod on lim rlvi-r Tiber, at Home (10 Floatlnit mills on tho Tiber *, u. IVM) Tidc-mllbi wore, many of them, in use In Veitleii, al,oiiL lii7l^ Wind-mills ■ jro in "very (jeneral n^o In tlw Iwiiltlli century. Appllcatlcin of meclmnlos to astronomy, parallelucdiim of force , laws (if motion, etc., Newton 1079 rrobloi'.i of the catenary Willi the analysis, Dr. (jreitiiry I W Spirit level (and manv other Inventioi .t), by Dr Hook, from 16(10 to '. 17«» The Mcelmnles' Institute in London was forinod hi..,, 11124 Mcehanii -' ': nto in New York formed IWW Medi. Ti ,.nean Pass. I'jio nature »f this «or, of instnuncr.' has been dcscrlh. \ liy Mr, llucvcd, In his Treatise t n the f.aw i-f Shijipiiii/, as follows !--" \,i tlie treaties that hav i en made witli tlir, Hiir(i-4»_, States, it has been agr. nt tho suljjcits of tho Ii in]t of Great Britain shouia pass tlio seas iiiimolnsti'i,' I y the cruisers of those States ; and for better asi-ertallil'if; what ships and vessels belong to llrltish sutijci-ts, It ht provided that they shall procluceu/M/M under tim Itund and seal of tlie Lord High Admiral, or the Lord* (!iiin' mi.ssioners of tho Admiralty. In pursuance of tliaitn treaties, passes are made out at the Admiralty, ]Uifmi\ Iti- ijniura in mode ; tht teoUofinl liijii «ni wtit in Dur- bury: and li«ing |iut in iMitneuiiiii itt ihn < t .Kf-r*, the cnmmiinders uro Instruitvd Ut nunVr •til ]i>fnm> (■• pngs who have paMeathut will (It th' «■• *m\Ui\ii-\ topx, The p:'otectloii uflfordvl \iy tUutu (,(>«()* U «'■<•.•>, that no iihipH, wbicli tiavame tli« "I'lia tn n»i\!nh'ii * •- i h«M rovern, e"er fall to furiiUh thi'iitw)"-* *l!?i '..'mm, whether in the tnido of il;i) l<»«t In ).<•«, tlip l«^«nt, 8;ia!n, Italy, or any pun ..' tli« Me''^'' uu I(«m ,' A from th« I'orc pnrtieular .•.*i.i of tli>„i in lli« Imti'i, they, no dou'l, tJitaineil ihn immim of \'itlil'rrnnriin pnstea. 1" ir XU: n.-xommixi,.! . in lit mititU,n'.» Itt (ll«- i.mt parts, M .ii!. {>aaiie», »l|,i/itnt^<'io'"it of It Uit>\ bi'tM under tlie dire<'tioii »( hi" ,<;ij«'.^y, l*l"i, ,.»i'« kJiall fi-. , rntitod. ^ iuimg others, ur>j the foltowljit; , — Tli-y a.":, to de RruuCed for none but Ilrltinh-huilt »lii|.«, or KhlpK randc free, niivi({ated with a master and thrm fotirJhn of the nj irincrp Uritish nubjeirts, or fort)ji*<'» ftcsd net he returned in less thuii three yeari It tiitu Ik-cii fonnd expedient, at the ion<:iusioti '•( v.ar, mid wimntlmes diirinj^a peace, to reoal! and latli* ' dl pajnenthat have licen issued, and to is»ue others Itt a l)M» form, 'Hiis hns been done for two reasons. ) i- 'I'lwt thee(n purehaae't by tlia >"riiwn, nt the ex- pense of keepini; np tiiix tort, lit ullfwd'*, 'ii\. That tlie Uarbary States eoinplalned that, adlinrlnjj to the rule of littint; tlie otiier part of tlw Inihrtitiirn to the uassc', they were ()l/ili{ed to suffer »hl(n( to |«»« dliM^t.'. Mediterranean Bea (.i/a,': Inirmum), »n In- lane sea indoHecl Ijy Asia on tli-: tr-iiat, Africa on the iioii'.h, and Kuro|>ardarielle»i, are considered as seiairate oeaa, T(|« Jilincipal rivers A hich flow into the Medlterranc Mit i.\m Chrn, llhone Arno, and the Tilier in Kuroj, ' / ' t' - Mie in Africr. The principal Islands are f tloditerranean int^i an east, Cyprus, Crete, Malta, and east, and Sardinii?. Curslci. in tile west. Tii; ■,• !;, in (taly, I^ponto |p ' ■)<• :■' , b'iry, in the easte I.ycin in France, ' ' J.!'lch dirldca t'.ie •rBntnrti |ioTt|cn), .1 Islands )ti tlie • iltl«^«i'lc I' lands •nt ((illfs are 'farant" •'■■:■', , tU and Calies in har ■.f.v't : if..d VaUrtcIa ',i «pa|(», . '" '.;ily, and Tiinis tn Africa, in tlie we.st. T;.e w'- i ■ lh|« iM« aro ver variable ; the tides are little .ili . i »>;ry If rftgwl/.f. Fish Is almsdaut in tlie i). V4-:'r. :. p»(tec'ally tunny, anciiovieg, pilchards, an4 iti i, "■ and './in (in'»t co- ral, sponge, and amb*r({rl ', Krc ; . ■ utid, 'f lio Med- llerraneu wa» c«Ue4 '.>!/ ttm lt>MttW» »ttm ftmrt »«•." Tte J'heuici«w lurit ttlti ftr«i pn.ot,n to t.av* •xUnded tiuiir wmm^ttm ttlmti *** «-"««« ; the tJr n It if cf-ci..., I that tiitutt iitm* ** Wrtefi water as the Me(!!tt'riiii»«u rwHyt^ (tt/m >«» risers is evap- (rt'Hted from ■'« avirftww. i'i^U m1ii'i« ftHitifikl, (ir.o- (iBAi-ur, f.iiri/rti.j'mliu /(rU'imiifit, tW* mn« h« m iver Mtiinute, hot tim (itxt, t^i4 teiy»pt9t/tHfyti timn it is In exce*8 of the ; .rwijiitaitiw*;, rii i>{ Aeiik. in vmi*l*fn A fMilttt^th*<'i\iiMiii'# < jfttrit as much as they pocr down tiiey itajk* ttp #«#W #W( es/rry off. We know tliat the volunie uf Wflt*f ffii*fti«4 tfjr the rivers, the rains and the dews, W*<< **ic; «1Me(0^»ati, i.s ex- actly equal to tile voImw* ^hif-U tii*i ^itt^ nt-nm gives back to the atmos);lier« j «« fyf M* fMf itiWi-rfiedge ex- tends, the level of einii (4 tii4'-'f (t»Ai «**•! ?* its permii- neiit as that of tlie gr*«t *M*'04 H*^'.- Therefore, the voimne of water dj«-fcar»<«* i>^ ri**r«,. th* rairns, and the dews, into tUe^ «,w« ftesfrf,. U (if**i1lly i-tfmi tn the volume which tUeae twi) *»♦» fli^K (mtlt *» ♦afpor to the atmosphere.— Mii'ity, /'Ayf. f/t//ff.. C'oiiimn-ie ufOt£ MirdilKi>fm*m.-=^ti*« IfftHed .States' <'onsul at 'J'ricste ..owwwi>iA'iMt.e.« jliv « #* id JM'frtd'ed stean nav- igation with the w\Muem iWlU t4 !th*' .WedHerranean : "The project of *.-4j,it;Ji4iiWsf «^*M eo*y»mnnicati(.ii with the Me.diter,'i*«>e#» k** U^ iff*i* M tHvorite one with a re»|)*ctatji« <•*»*» ii.pf' tfn-feiMMit in the ..\t- fantic States ; and, if t pect of the accoinpiii.hmfiit of tkU impt^ftM. cWpjVet, fmder the Immediate putroua^ i>ftU« AiM(*j#« j!<.r>*ernment. It Is, in fact, )>roiX)sedto«WH^*'iH.'1l«*if(«- Sfsf-c' ssst"...i. ships of .'J'200 t«u.s, bMit4« !' '*^ff'imiili, and KiiiO horse-jxjv/er, t<; '•uii l,.lt»**'# 'fti»4f Itiitl .NFew VoTk, making J 1 trijis ca< h .way V^ #WWWrt,- «w1 tonchinj,' ,it Corf- , Malta, Algiers, Hmx-.- **■♦ lA»*«W. The ve.s- ■*lf would carry thu m*ih, im^HHf^'^i «*'( goods from the l''ji»t, received by p^ (M>|> s^eWiWefs kM those of the Oriental HU'iUH JsTavigArfv^ *:V*<^rty, MM prohaMy those of the grea/*r i^aflt tif tUt.- tnm ml jiorts of the iHc^ditcrranean, to lie l'»U'^4 S«*feit, «Wl rirr rfM.i. 'i'he running time »*,-♦, fri>m T>V»>*» to Sfew Ynrlt, would be W days mi UU^ftf*) h*. '">, (■■ m New York to Trieste, i'i 4ay« § Jv.,^,.-.. U •.. . t s'„u .,•>«((? '. The steamers womM \)» MH » ^. • M.rfc, I'lii. . ■. under the Austr ■' ||ta|g, T ;:iM4t>f of this en- terprise is Mr. J/j<.«ey, ttn» -'^ .Mrt .'-Wrtl-gerieral nt New York— a geutiewjIW >■■• ■^ft^ tm^tifiK-f. -vhcr ha.s resided for the p«s(t ii jc«i. ^ ff^ r«iit>^ St.ites. I am credibly iufoiuie4, i^so.. ttmt ttt-'< rte* Wiini.ster c.f finance, Uaroii de lirMt%, »Mmh U^iifn the scheme. lie was foricrjy, Ut^Mi # Uft/>iHf( r;ie>'hanf in Trieste, ai .'> ,« (oimiffF t4'tt>^ Amtftxlt Lloyd's Steam Navigation Cumpm} if !*i* ;f('ijef( (eeeeds, its ef- fect upon die conwfwcial 1,1^ pi4Hif:ti1 relaitSons of the United State- and tumtifm t^mr/pn mw.^t be very g ..at. While It viH j^wi^ # Hmum y opening ucw ekmm:en now the success of this steamship project depends, in a great measure, upon the completion of tho balance of tiU miles of railway between Trieste and Vienna — the last Unit in the chain which connocto Trieste with the principal cities of Eu- rope This work is, however, in a state of forward- ness, and will, probably, be finished in the course of a twelvemonth." See Tkieste and Tciikky. Commerce of the United Stafe» with the I'ovta nf the Metli/ermnenn. — The trade of the United States with the countries on the Slediterrunean and in the Levant, is very irregular, and not yet developed. Tho statis- tics which wc possess arc of some value. MacOregor gives the best report on general commerce, and speaks, in reganl to the Mediterranean trade in 1812, us fol- lows : " The conunerce of the United States to tho ports of the Mediterranean and Adriatic, consists chicHy in the export of cotton, sugar, dried and salt fish, whale-oil, etc., which are shipped to Trieste and other Austrian ports. The American ships take home in exchange wines and other manufactured articles. To Spain, the United States export cotton and other produce, for which they take wines, etc." A few words, with some statistics, will suffice to show the condition of American commerce. Since that time this commerce has increased, and in some respects received a considerable impulse, but on the whole it presents nothing of much greater importance. The causes are clear : the Americans have paid, until now, very little attention to tliis Important trade j thcj- are not enough acquainted with it, while their successful rivals are thoroughly conversant in its sources, chances, and necessities. . Knglish and French merchants have, so far, tho control of commerce in these important regions ; they have agencies and branch houses — English, French, and Austrian steam- ers running in the Mediterranean regularly from port to port ; while the Americans have not a single agency, and not one of their numerous steamers, such as nav- igate the ocean, the Pacific, and numerous rivers, are to be found in the Klediterranean and Adriatic. Not- withstanding the passiveness of American commerce in these regions, it is still progressive, as the following statistics will show : Tlij exports and imports of the United States, in the year 1812, were as follows : GlbraUjr t466,WT Afalta. 11,(144 France on the Mcdittii . l,6T4,Tno Spain 221,893 Italy B15,6T5 81clV. I 8S7.861 Trlfsle 708,179 I'furkoy 125,461 Ktiwrla. DomesHc produce. V.MV l!),9fl5 7,30(l| T8,««S;l,74S,4a8| 98\C7S for the same year was $98,600. In 1853 they amounted to $81,000, all oi which were in foreign bottoms. The same in the your 1854, was : I linportj. Gibraltar iMalto. jfraiioo 00 tbo Mcdltcr Spain ,.,*,„„, 't7 81<:»y I a4«,IM anrUlrila 18t(:«i5 Tuscany njsf, Trlestn Jt oth. Aus. ports'l.dO? S19 |Turk<-y I 2\9,im »44a,«BI «Nf,H27||4i(7,779|'»ft9,«78' '■" 21,a4S| 169,»7» ha.RPBi 201,874 l,420,l(W2,8S9,«72i 8 1 ,04fl'«,24:i,4 ni' 1 ,5711,074' 071,0741 u.'iu.mioi W,07ffl l,1f.2,7i;| 74I,!l||tl 80.S,114| lM,489'l,7nUllt! IS.SW) 2,020 87,082 200.200 ., ,„,.., 108,70S| 828,19s 2I)0,('&I 190,828 4S,7fl7 l,lPOH,0(i» 1C,67S 804,940 19^797 186,520 76,516 23S,47iVl,0«.'),(M0 820,517; 9S7,.''2-> 4vi1,65sl M9,419 8*4,705' 413,210 202,036 370,248 From Tupcimy and Sardinia wo havi no reports of 1842. The exports from Morocco to the United States | From these figures it can be seen that tho com- merce in question lias, as it regards some Stutes, greatly increased. Tho most remarkable is tliat of Spain, in the Mediterranean. The export to that country has augmented 1,1 times. Also an imiKirtant increase is seen in Malta, Italy, Trieste, and Turkey, Tho commerce of France, however, on tho ilediterra- nean, diminished considerably, also that of Sicily. From both these rcjiorts we learn also, that tho com- merce of the United States in the Jlediterranean has not been developed in such an admirable manner as with other transatlantic countries, to which numerous mail lines and other steamers are running. What infiuencc tliese communications have on trade and commerce, the comparison between the trade of France on tlie Jlediterranean, and of France on the Atlantic, shows : KxrORT TO, AND ImPOIIT OF, TIIK USITEI) STATES IN TIIK Vkar 1s,54, from Fiianck. Allnnlir. Meditorriuieon. E.vport— Doniostli' prod. . . $29,749,400 jl,218,7S6 Foreign "... 97,s8.VS 201,874 Totol 130,727,821 |1,420,160 Import 82,892,021 2,889,872 The commerce in the first direction, where the steam-line exists from Havre to New York, shows $83,01.'),842 ; and the commerce between the United States and Franco on the Mediterranean, where no steam communication exists, was only 84,309,532. The difleronce is enormous ! Marseilles is much be- hind Havre, which, by its direct steam communication with New York, attracted the greatest part of com- merce. See FiiAXCE. Let us take, now, a view of tho countries on tlie Mediterranean in general. All depend for the expe- dition of their letters upon the linglish post-offices, if they do not prefer to send them via Trieste, Ostend, and Liverpool j for in both cases the postages ore very high and expensive, and, as the letters have to pass through several different offices, the loss of time is, in both ways, very great. These difficulties, and wo might add nuisances, have an influence in keeping the commerce back, and to them it is chiefl}- attributable that the commerce of these countries with the United States lius progressed no faster. Mr. Baker, who lived for several years us American consul in the Med- iterranean, and observed pretty closely the greot pro- gress of commerce between these parts of the globe, hinted to his countrj-raen, several times, to pay more utteiition to the Mediterranean trade. " Thousands, o ; both sides of the Mediterrranean," says Mr. Baker, "[rif"r American to other produce. Especially are flour and rice highlj- prized. The com- merce with dried and salted fish is profitable. Tho greatest part of the staves and lumber wliich are used on the shores of Spain, are mostly imported from the United States. Also other produce, such as biscuit, different kiuds of oats, sperm-oil, spermaceti candles, lard and provisious, find here ready and good markets. The port of Malaga is much frequented by American vessels ; the sumo may be said of Barcelona, the great emporium of Spanish wines and brandies, where American import articles find good sale. But very III Met) 1340 MET) hw American vcsseln visit Oartagonn, Allrnntc, nnil Viilencla, where Amcrlcun produco \vniil(t he snliihle, with prnllt. TIki nnrgocK whitli American Hhipii takn up In thoiii placen nro mostly lirui^lcH, red iind wliltc wlne^, iillk gdoilH, kIii.wN, rloths, woolen noi)d», pajior, hwe*, mif- Truii, niitH, raialns, and other dried rriiitH, (divna, etc. An to the commerce with Franco, only Jturneillea i«ir- tlcJpatea In It, and thl< vcrj- little. In comparison with tlio groat trade with the United Stutc^s. Tin' iidvun- tages (if Havre have already tioen atated. i H' e-J,mi); and imported from there, i5i'Jj'J,"300(£191,- 8(i0), which shows a decrease on both sides. This de- crease is a uliar fact, if wc consider tho (luantity and ijualit^ of the articles there consumed. It can only lie expluiueil by the great activity of Knglaud, and tiio little uttent! m |,:ud to this quart.er by Ameri- cans. Kusicd wiih the gieat commercial projects on the Atlantic, and culture in the interior, they have nut yet found time to pay more attention to this commerce, and not lieing much |wsted up in tlio market prices in .Sicily, they ignore partly tho iniportauco of that trade. It is now time to act with energy. The energy will not be missed, while the c /mra'i >' with the Kledilcrrancan will be fsiilitatcd an > >i eased. Tlio coHimeri.e of the United States v b. ' • and other Austrian ports, is not satl»ft;to. ' ': great wants in tho trans-Atluiitic markets, no. ' i.c sales of Austrian manufactures, which are consid. cud of very govjd quality. Cloths, woolen goods, linen and silk goods, can be had from Austria, at ohoap prtoes anil m f.ilr i|uallty, Nevertheless, tho Import of the said articles, In IH.l;), was i!i7:t,!KH,'2:t7. Other Austrian articlea would also llnd good market hero, by a regular aud quick communication. As to tho Austrian ships, very few sail into tlio At- lantic. In the year 1864 only four Austrian ships came to the United States. (Considering the passivity with which tho commerce with tlie I'nited States is regnrded, it will not surprise us that so little is dona between them. Wliiit has lieen exported from .Viistria to tho United .States, during 1854, via Trieste, and other Austrian |s>rts, was not more than iii741,019 ; in fact a great sum compared to the many good indus- trial articles, and its navigation, as also its ports, of which especially Trieste and the wurlil-ronowneil Venice seem to lie called to play a great part in tlie future coniinerco of tho United States. The export of the United States to Trieste Is much larger than their import from Austria, and was, in the year 1854, nut less than ii>l,!)U3,l>0U. Tho direct commerce of tho United States with Tur- key is fixed by the following data : to Turkey, the United States e.vported, in 1H5-1, merchandise in value of lii;)25,198 ; Importing from there $803,714. This Is a vcj' poor trade. If we consider the means of botli par- ties. This trade is in its llrst development and will soon lie Increased, if tho Americans will take hold of it with their usual enterprise, (jrocco and the Ionian Islands uro entirely forgotten by tho Americans ; no direct coramorco is curried on from there to the United States. Mr. Raker saj-s, " The commerce with the Jlorea would be of the greatest importance to the Americans, if they would only iittompt and explore it. Tho great ((Uantity of produco would easily procure re-cargo to American vessels. Tho demand for nine, lead, etc., is permanent, also offish ; rice, tlour, and other Amer- ican produce, wuulil find easy market. The same," says ]Mr. lialcer, " of the Ionian Islands, where a good trade wciild result." IndiivH Ctimmern: — .\8 to the indirect commerce of tho United States to the Mediterranean, there are very meagre data. The total export of the United States in 1851, to all ports in the Mediterranean, of goods not produced In the United States, was only ij'953,417. These foreign productions consist in coffee, tea, cocoa, leather, skins, ])eppcr, rum, dye-woods, sugar from (.lulia, sogars, cochineal, and honey. As to the yVinerican indirect import from those coun- tries, it is ditHcult to find It out. The lists of naviga- tion give only the direct trade; and at the nominations of the value of importation from the States on the Mediterranean, no port is named from where sent. Kngland, which has the greatest trade witli the Mediterranean (lorts, and which is from there extended in all directions, keeps no direct ship commuuicatioii from there to the United States. Of the 8608 Itritish ships, tonniigo 1,748,380, which came, in 1854, to the United .States, not more than 820 tons were from (iili- raltar ; nut one singlo ton from Malta ! The cause is natural. Knglund finds it more in her interest to do the commercial trading with the Mediterranean and Levantine produco to the Uni' d St /es, not direi'tly, but from Liverpool and other pori.i. The advantage of tl|is proceeding is easily explained. The Knglisli merchants receive, through Liverpool, regular reports by tho (Collins and Ciincr imers, of tho standing of the trans-Atlantic ma d < i. ids puts them in the way to use there all the i .'i.uuc olTering to dispose of tlie'r rich stocks of .Mei oli!™ nuu " \ ' ico with ai' to the United states. . lie sank is the cast in "i r ports of tho European lontiiicnt, which follow tie same policy. In this way consi 'er- ablo quantities of red and white wines, fruits, drugs, and other produco of the Meditorraneuu, rume by indi- rect comniorca to iVmerica, MED 1841 MEL hose coun- navit;ii- jminutiona on the int. with tlio extcni\ctl nunk:ili«n ,0« lUilisU 51, to tho from o very prolitaldc for our commerce if the Americans would engage in this liranch ; they would convince themselves, very soon, that such an undertaking would 1)0 very prolitahlo. This advice has not liceii followed up to tills time ; at least there are no statistics tiiat tliure have been any imports from there. Thoso aro ulmoat exclusively African, apd mentioned only in general terms, without brandies of commerce in these dominions." The American export to Africa in gencml, in the year ]H.')4, amounted to lill,801,72U ; tho imports to $1,38«,5G0 ; of which proportion, ♦47,708 and $.')0,007 belong to Madeira, Tenerlffc and otiier Canarian Islands, $20,117 and $39,fiD8; Cape of tiood Hope, $2'J!),!)»8 and $118 ' ' There is no data for the other African territorie!>. Vucording tu late disclosures, tliere are considerable numbers of vessels which leave Amer- ican ports to embark secretly in the s'.avr '.rade, land them at Cuba, and import a ccmsideraldo quantity of goods from Africa. Americans can buy many kinds of African produce from the great caravans of the Mecca pilgrims, which traverse Africa in its greatest extremity to tlie tlediterranean. From tho abo u, it will be seen that the Americans ajipear in the Mediterranean as well as in tiie Levant OS far less tlian a mercantile ^ ,)wer of tlie tirst class. And it is but too plain that tlicse great and rich terri- tories, for hundreds of years the centre of shipping and commerce of well-advised nations, are, by the Americans, very much iiotjiected. England and France are in opposition with steamers and manufactures on the Mediterranean, Adriatic, and Levant. Tiie mail lines of Cunard, Collins, Bremen, and Havre, ar^ not guificient for our steam commerce with Eunp: . and a Mediterranean line, alone, will be found to ar- swer tlio interests of American commerce. And through all this, tho great project of the Pacific Rail- road and Marine Telegraph across the Atlantic will the sooner be brought to completion. It is to bo lioped that Trieste and the Austrian commercial couimuuity in general, will not allow such progressive movements to pass witliout considering that the same which has been done by the small city of Bremen, can be done '.' "'riesto, with its powerful resources. Bremen can l^ivi satisfactory proof of tlio importance of a steam conanunication with the Now " orld. Bremen has ox, t'ted in 185'!, not less tiian |il 1,013,927. Bremen is much ahead of Hamburg, on account of its steam communicatior. with New York, -iS its exports in 18Jhl were only $',>,o22,971. Trieste would have double tlie adv.mta,je ; it would have all . I.c direct commerce with Austi I..', nad the indirect tonnection with the Mediter- raao^u wd the New World. The project U great, but promises well-paying results. It can be developed by a_ direct, regular, and quick conncition with New York, It is also well to mention, tliut Austria would, by these means, come into a more productive relation- ship with the Orient, as tlie coinmerco of Austria can look to a very prosperous future, on account of the Marine Telegraph from Sardinia to Constantinople and Alexandria, as the connection of the Mediter- ranean and tho Bed Hm.—Xaullcnl Mitgazinr. For Commerce, ■ ;,, of tiie Mediterranean, .see h'J. Hev., vi., 478 ; Hint's .1%., vl., 201 ; Fuaskii, zxvii, 377 j Qimr. he,:, Ixxv., 280; same article in tXlectic, V,, 33; Living Age, v., 301. Melbourne, the capiUl of the British colony of Victoria, formerly Port Philip, in Australia, occupy- ing the south-east portion of tliut continent, stretching through 9° of longitude, from Cape Howe on the east to the Glenelg Kivcr on tlio west. The town is situat- ed on tho north bank of the Yarra-Yarra Hivcr, about nine mlleii, following its windings, from Its mouth, in tho basin of Port Philip, latitude 87° 49' 5" S., long. 144° 58' 35" E. It was founded in 1837, and ex- tends along the banks of tlie river. In 1851 it had a population of 23,000 ; and such has been tiio immigra- tion consc(iuent on the discovery of tho gold-fields, tliat, including suburbs, it had on tiie 24th of April, 1851, 71,188 inhabitants. A considerable |>ortion, how- ever, of tills immense population, is to bo regarded us migratory only, and as residing in town merely till their ultimate destination has been decided upon. This sudden increase of population raised house rent to an unparalleled height ; and for some considerable tiniu a large proportion of the population was not housed, but encamped under tents. But partly through tile extraordinary stimulus which was tiius given to Imildlng, and partly through the mc'cuntile failures ci'-it'equent to tho overtrading of 1853 and 1854, thore ' i» been a very heavy fall of rents, which di. not now (K '"o) exceed half their amount in 1852. Tiie site of the I wn i nf-irtunate ; for tlie river being obstruct- ed by a Imri' diallows, it is not generally navigahlo for ves 1» ' . .nore tlian t!0 tons burden; and it has the furtlier (li.-.ail vantage of being low, and li.ibb to be flooded by the overliowing of the river during tlu ivet season. It has been proposed to facilitate the trade of tho town l>y removing the li.ii- at the mouth of the river, and deepening its channel : but this would lie a vcrj- expensive undertaking, and one of which tiie success would be not a little doubtful. The oxay to Melbourne has also been proposed ; and it prolnliiy would be the preferalde plan ; but, in the mean time, a railway has been conimeuii'ii, and is in progress to tlie liay, which, when completed, as is probalily tlie case, will obviate many of tlie inconveniences whicli are now experienced. It seems, however, not unlikely '■ ■• ' , IraJu of the town, and the greater part, per- ':\ , ' i'.s population, will ultimately centre at Wil- liainstown, a village a few miles distant, on a head- land extending into the bay, opposite to which all largo vessels coming to Melbourne are obliged to an- clior. Tlio principal objection to Williamstown is the scarcity and bad quality of the fresh water ; but this serious defect miglit, perhaps, bo obviated liy sinking wells, or by conveying hither a supply of water from some of the adjacent streams. Notliing can more strikingly illustrate the present unfavorable situation of the town for commercial puriKises, and the extraor- dinary state of things wliich was lately prevalent there, t' an tho fact that while tb" ordinary charge for the freight of goods from England to Melbourne Koads was in November, 1853, £3 lOs. a ton, it was £5 to the quays. There are very few goods or articles exported from the colony to tho United States. Tlie principal articles have been gum, in small quontities, a few hides, and some bonea. With the exception oi ^^dd, on which ml ■1^<\ Wi MEL I th«rn in ii duty of 60 ceiita \itit ounce (i». M.), none an liitlilu til tliity. iMfOHTII, RlPUKTII, AND PnPIM.tTION nr Till COI.OXX Or ViimiHU moil XHSt to IBM, both iKci.uiiir*. 1342 MRL RiPtmn or VicniaiA, IMklMW, IHW... 1840... IMI... IM9, , . 1X48 .. H44... I*«ft... iHia... 1841.. 1«,IIOO i'/WI.IKNI 89-i,IKX) IM.OOd MT.ooo KUMKI ri'«,0()0 I8Q,IMM) 474,MHI 14,000 'iM,no() '2UI.0OO 4flH,0(KI 10,000 llt'l,IMIO 87t,lllH) 401,00(1 2«,noo lAI.IMIII M-,000 44>H,INK) « 1,000 ■i4KIKIII 404,INIO 7l'i,000 liS,000 810,01111 4'A0l)O 41,000 81,000 ■•iHOoo 6W,00(I 1,I07,0(» 4'.',flfl0 KKt A7S.0II0 l,(M0,IKIO AUiOlMI *)0l>00 ■■ -,(MK) l.SHft.OIH) flO,IMI0 746,000 l,ln:,0'KI i,;'T,0(ifl 70,000 l,ftM,4:i: 1.41ii),«l9 li,WI,IM« 00,000 4,(i4;).sM T,4ftl,.M9 11.108.44.'^ 1H0,000 5,sii,ftil S,lHfl,01l« «,7SH,7iW I8,AS7,404 [ll,m,Wi iO,0«0,OW !J»i,l'H'K) The foUowin); ittatemont exhibltH the quantity of gold v.xportod from tlio noverul portii in Au»traliik In Oiioh year from the coinmenconiont of the |{oM iIIbcov- (irloK lu th« end of the ycor 18S6; the ex|)orts chiofly diisthied for (Jreut Urituhi and coluniul puMeMioas : (Ij'iJ cipoHMi from New Ri>nlh Wftlti, qmnllty. Vdlim. t^M Mlh Mar to Blot Doc... lS,Vi IMS 1864 at. tlwK Urt. 141,110 17 1« 80'i,»78 10 1» .M8,0.S!! 19 Vl iW7,i>10 1.1 28 ttMM 14 H f 2,841 ,080 18,0(HI,SflO ■»,0ll,'i,Vi5 ii,80(;,o4n 1885 1,(MO,»0 Total (84,iao,710 Hold tiiinrM from VlctoiU. Quantity. V«lu.. IWl th. (iwt^.irw. 14.M87 « 13 1,98H,W« 10 HI a,497,7M Ift 10 8.144.099 9 10 2,676,746 4 17 I'M 98,885 1 1-142 msa 8O,07»,04« , 411,822,045 l8,^4 41,277,750 ! 1986 ToUl 60,819,900 1 ♦ 174,292, 820 "i Kf'gB during last 4 yoan »4»,678,»08 1 To the precedini; itatement we annex an official return of all the gold eoinotl nt Mm mint in (ireat Hrituiii each year from .lanuary 1, 184(i, to Uectmlier al, W>5: Gold coined in Great Britain in — 1»4« »21.n74,55« 1^(7 26,702.200 1S4H 12,2:.:l,995 1849 I0,8V.U75 1850 1,461,191 1851 22,(Ky.',0M 1852 48,711,861 1858 ♦59,7«I,9M 1951 20,700.915 1850 4A,04;l,;llll Total... ♦209.;i.W,'i99 Average |20,98,\029 F"i' further details, see tlio Articles (^ii.oxikm, Pkf:<;ioi9 Met^ J;:f<,47» iillHI Mm 1848 4««,8I>I 10,152 5,280 425,201 1847 862,122 18,450 2,989 OAl.OU 1848 667,910 18,210 2,188 2,004 07l,ll.'l» 1849 787,087 13,072 721 4,400 7.Vl,«20 1850 l,«22,0«4 12,946 196 8,592 l.l)41.7«A I8AI 1,««2,2«7 29,588 2,107 9,IKI2 1.422,1109 1852 7,887,(1*/". M,898 t,-m 62,292 7,4.M.M9 1S8S 10,4II0,9M 141,01)4 24,1180 805,105 11,001.513 Population of census BOth April, 1Hri4, 2.12,000 HJiitw Ing tliat, exclusive of the excess nf immigrants over emigrnnts hy sea, the |xipuliitioii hud gained 17,25:) liy overland arrivals and otlier causes. Aucoi sr or tiik Nuuiirk anii T"NN,»m or ruH Hiiips r.NTKItKI) InWAHO lit TIIK PollTH ntr Vl(m»RIA IN ls6], 1862, A!«ti 1868, HPiU'irviNo Tiia OorNTaiBi to wiii'-t Tiiar ii«i.r cent. ; on piirchnse and sliipment of gold dust, if drawn against, 21 per cent. On the amount of invoice in either case. On [MrcliJiKi lid shipment of merchandise and (Ml other purcli:.^ ■ when not in funds, 5 per cent, j on purchase nn^' 'lipmcnt of mepli iiidiso and on other purchases ■ n in funds, 2J per cent. ; on pri- vate sales, includi. the purchase of hills for remit- tance, 5 per cent. ; on guaranty n.' sales, including remittances, .'> per ci'mI ; on goods received for sale and reshipped, and i u i Mnsignment" of inercliundi^o withdrawn, im invoiie val' ", 2} pci rent. ; on dclits, rents, and other acc!''nts collected, recovered, and re- mlttcil, fl per cent. ; i granting of Ir • ters of crijdit, -'J per cent. ; tm letters il' credit acteil , an additional charge of 'i\ per cent, on freiglit or barter procured for vessels, and freight or I'lssage-nuney ctdliM'ted, 5 per cent. ; on freight paid at port of departure, '.'J per cent. ; on ships' disbursements nud oiitHts when not in funds, 6 per cent. ; on ships' disbursements and outlits when in funds, 2^ per cent. ; on guaranty of captains' drafts on owners, tolten for balanco of ships' disKurse- r.icnts, ,') per cent. ; on money otitaineil oh bottomr)' or respondentia, 5 per cent. ; on insurance effected, or or- ders written for insurance, on the assured value, \ p(?r cent. ; on insurance losses, partial or total, settled, or on premiums recovered, h per cent. All sales of goods understood to lie guarantied, un- less there bo special orders to the contrarj'. Guaranty on security for contnicts, 5 per cent. ; acting as trustee on nasignments, .'> per cent. ; on ad- vances on produce for shipment, i^ per cent. Auctioneers' commission and brolioragc to be charged >vlien incurred. Advances and current accounts not liquidated at tlw) end of the season, JIarch Slst, the balance to be charged as a fresh advance, subject to a commlssi(m of 5 per cent. Interest. — On advances for duty, freight, and lighter- age, and im amounts occurring per annum, 10 per cent Charges. — For passing accounts with the govern- ment for emigrant ships, A'21 ; for entering sliip in- ward at the custom-house, when the original port of departure is Australia, Van Diemen's Land, or New Zealand, £2 29.; for clearing ship outward, when Memel, of light-hoii.« Illation, in 18 sost side of t lliif, near if. a»«ntly, the | 'ly the Nicmi] I'omnierce. 1 but the bar al dom more th.l than 13 or 14 r feet water arJ part of their I Is but indillerJ north-west. I feet in heighfl of the cntrnif flted and pol Weather at iil buoy lies in ol •Ight-houfo, J east. The cl| white buoys o1 Three beaconf into a line, leJ •lowever, as tH i-'iwJiAii-.-.^-.-v.:.. . MKM 1348 MEM I 28-1,7 10, 8.M,0C.6' ^8,98^| 81,70lll I 721,478 cent. ; on ail- Ihn pnrt nf (Ii'kI illation U AimtriilU, A' < Dlamnn'ii l.niiil, (ir Nuw /xiilunil, 1'2 '!•. ; fur cntiiriilK iihip In- wiinl I'roMi (itlinr |Hirtii, XH An, ; f< r rtdarinK "'''P *>'■'- wtril, AT) JiK.; for ultrnilinft lUlivrry uf car^ii from ll;;lit«ni, anil kI<')"K ootiio to i'i- |>«r iluy ; It'll Tor purli nurvi'vor within thit city, £l la. i foe for Hurvpy of tiitti'liii!) unil ntowiKn of mr to, £1 Ik,; f«o for Kurvey of hull of vnsiiel, X& (in. \ ii wool, for re- inivInK, w«l)(hln){, iiiirkinKi und ilullverhiKi i'l' |>«r load ; in aililltlon to th« tura on wool, un alluwanco fur ilruft of 1 III. |il boiiriiii or (leiilnnir, anil ff commercial town of east Prussia, lot. of light-houBO 5,')° a' '," N., long. 21° 0' 2" K. Pop- ulation, in 184G, 91ft(). Slemel is situated on tlio north- east side of tho great bay, denominated the ' 'fi-wrAc llnf, near Its junction with tho Bnltlc. It i.s, .'ni'.i,-.. qu«ntly, the principal entrepot of the country tru'- ir •• 1 by the Nicmen, and as such enjoys a pretty exfs-a^iv ■ commerce. The harbor of Memel is lar;se nnl «at\); but the bar at the mouth of the Ourrische llif bus sel- dom more than 17 feet water, and sometimes not more than li! or 14 feet ; so that .ihips drawing more than l(i feet water are frequently obliged to load nnd unload n part of their cargoes in the ro.ids, where the luichorage is but indiflerent, particularly when the wind is north or north-west. A light-houso, originally 7.'i, but now 100 feet in height, lias been erected on the nortii-enst side of tho entrance to the harbor. Tho light, which is fixed and powerful, may be diitinguished in clear weather at inoro than 20 miles' distance. Tlio outer buoy lies in 6 f.ithoms water, about n milo without the light-house, which boars from it south-east by east J east. Tho channel thence to the harbor is marked by white buoys on the north, and red on tho smitli side. Three lieacons to the north of the town, wlien brought into a line, leod directly into the harbor. Inasmuch, however, as the channel is subject to frequent changes, both In depth and direction, it is always pruiient, on arriving at the outer buoy, to heave-to for a pilot ; but this is not obliiratory ; and tlio Prussian authorities have issued directions for ships entering without a pilot, which may bo found in Noiiik'8 Sailing Direc- tinnx for thf Oit/ff/af and Jtiiltic, p. .'Id. Timber forms the principal article of export ; for though that of Dantzic lie considered better, it Ls generally cheaper, and almost always nioro abundant, at Memel. Hero, as at Dantzic, the liest quality of all sorts of wood ar tides is culled klinm, or crown, the 2d, brnci;, and tlio 3d, lirnvtn hrnrk\ Large (luantities of hemp and Hax are also exported, as are bri.-tles, hides, linseed (tho liuest for crusliing brought to Kngland), wax, pitcli, tiir, etc. The cxjiorts of grain are sometimes very considerable. Tho wheat of Lithuania is reckoned the best. All flax and hemp shipped from Memel must be bnirketl, or assorted, by sworn selectors. Sea Ki.AX and IIk.mi'. The imports consist principally of salt, herrings, coffee, sngar, spices, dye-woods, tobac- co, tea, iron, cotton stuffs ard yarn, cutlery, wine, etc. Mercliants at Memel generally send their liills to Kiinigsberg to be sold, charging their correspondents with 1 per cent, for bank commission, postages, etc. The navigation generally closes about the latter end of December, and opens about tho middle of March MElt 1844 MK.lt Maroautlla Aganoy Byatam, U. ■— Tin Mtr- 1 otnlil* Xgtnr.y U • naniii iiipllnl lo varloiu Iiijiim4 In IhaliiailliiK dti««ortli<' I'liUml Himna, iin rliuck upon our inuUt ayiitiiin, aro acknowjiidKrcl hy till) nxrc'iinllla cumniunlly. ItH liiitory, toKnlluir willi | an oxpUnaliun of il> niodu o( o|i«rritlon, inity not U< without intaratt to the ({onorul reader and foralKo nicrchant, 'Ilia AK»ncy waa lint aalaliliiihpd In IMIt in thn idly of Nbw York, l>y Mr. I,rwi» Tappiiii, iiiid wn» condiii't- ad liy hlin, npun it I'oniparativply llnilli'd ncalu, iiiilil IHIil, when Mr. Itaiijniiilii liouKlnni luriinii' hit rmid' Jutor, and aMuniod tlin i liiuf iiiaiinK''inciit I'roiii lhl> tlnin tlin buniiiciia Incri'imud rupldl\, mid iiMiimcd ii parnmnont and rr'ouKiiiiind puaillon among tlia inorcan- tllfl liislltutiona ofthn lountry. Our llniils will not pi'rmit us lo Iraiv, step liy »lop, tti« growth of tlio Anoncy, or lo clwidi upon tlin pcr- aonal nspcclii of ita hlnlory. hmndt'd upon thn InliT- Ofit* of iiiprrhants, and coiidiiiicd from tho licKiniiiriK liy nii'ii of ability, I'nparity for work, IiIkIi ihiiriirli'r, nn- division of the local trade among towns. Theau corrcapondunts aro selected for their integrity, long residence in tho county, general acquaintance, business experience, and judgment. Their duties are tu advise tlie Agency promptly, by letter or telegraph, of every cliangu alfecting the standing or responsiliilily of traders ; to notify it of suits, protests, murtgagea, luaaea by lirn, imiorscnicnts, or otherwise ; to answer all special inquiries addressed tu them by any of the associate oflices ; and to revise before each trade sea- son, or oftener if required, the previous reports uf ev- ery trader in the cuunty, nuting any change for the bet- ter or worse. No report is considered full unless It embracaa, in regard to eacli trader, Iiia business, tlio lenk'lh of tlinii liu liua piirauuil ll, Ilia aiirroa or llie cuiiirar^ , hU aga, i hariwlur, habits, capacity, niaaiii, protpai ts, proparly out uf buailiaaa, nrly Tliti graalast cara Is lakaii In aiilaclliig Ihn agmits, who furniab lliu bulk of Ihn liiforniallon lo Dm Ag■'l|c^ . Ihi'ir liitiigriiy of character, frmidnm from prcjuiliic, uml from any iiiilanKlliig coniiiiclioiia with iiicrcauiil, men, which might blua tlivm In Ihidr rcporla, tlicli >< rimiiiallon whldi \m^ liiin cxcriiaiid III lliia purlliulur, Nuvnrthidraa, uflur all tlila I am In tlio aclci lion of thn agnnta, prudeiicn woiilil M'l'iii to rcqiiirii aoiiiv i lu'ik upon Ilium. Tlila ia iIoim' liy travnllng agaiila who aru sent through liiu couulri, and who report the trailers upon their own roouniH, and giiniiriilly wltlimit any knowledge of what liu local agent lm« privli.ualy reporlcd, Tliuir reporl« am cuinpari d cand'ully with tlioaa o^tlui local agiiit, ami aii,\ lilaircpum y llioroiighly liivcallgalcd, Again. iiiiich Inforinalion of a moat valnabla character ia il<. rived fntin apecial rorrnapofidcnta, as bank caaliii r<. Iiiaiirance aganiK, notaries public, alierlUa, and ollii'r». wlioao ofHclal poslllim gives them peculiar opporliiiil. Ilea of knowing nut only the raMiiirces and churai lii of biialneaa men, but also thn degree of proniptuii'i with which lliiiy maet tlinir biialneaa obligations, Aii- ullicr aoiircii of Infiirinatlon la that alTordcd by mer- chaiila tliciiia Altiany lliiiralo ,\\'^ Oaivego Itocliuatcr ....,'.'.",', Hyraciiao . . . , Troy i;tlo» '.'.',','.'. IluUiico of tii'o" sVs'i lloston, .^tass«(•hllsetl llalaneaof thn His Philadelphia, I'ennaj I'lltaliurKh llulsnco of till, Htai. ClilooBo, llllonis Dalunro nf the gtali I'lnclnnatl, Ohio .... Clevelaiiil Halanpoof tho KtiiN New Orleana, LoulaU Dalanco of the Stale Ht. Loula, Mlaaouri... Halsneo of the Slate Pi.ivlilenee, Itlioila Is: llalanre of the fime IlBltlmore, Maryland. Ilnlnncii nf tho state llotroll, Mlclil^n llalanco of tho State Dubuque, Iowa Halanooofthn Stkio Loulavllle, Konuicky llalsneo of tho State Cliarleaton, South Cai ilalaneooftho btale Terrltoriea Indiana .".. Illchmond, Virginia i Balance of the SUtei Mllwaukle, Wlaconsln Usiancoof the Slate. North Carolina ... New Joraey Connecticut ... •Maine " Now Hampshire'."," Vermont . . Ocurgla ]'," Delaware and District! Arkansas I Atabama .Mississippi .'.'.' Tennessee . Horlda Texas ■■'■ I Toronto, Canada West. IWanco of Canada W Montreal, Canada East. I „"»'»"»« of Canada Ea I Nova ScoUa and New Bi Total BrlUah Provlni Totol United BUtp. . MKU 1845 MEn a \»Tge ilry-KiMiilfi hnum wn Inarn that, in nid tlin*!, Ila expeiiiiii for truvnliiri I'uuiiltil \ rnniial ol>- rn-rvBr It parlakca of tho natiiro of a nvalrni of cuplnr. Aif, aonnilnKly at varlain'i with that rnnilor anVhat merchant, hanker, or prealilont of an Inauranco company, who aakeil for ami rccoivoil auch infiirmu* lion aa that kept by tho Agency, from a buaineai cor- reaponilent, wouM Ihlnk of uainff It In any other wa^ than aa confidential, ami to b« kept strictly aecrut? Who wnulil i{l\i> iucli Information, liiiwcvcr pure tha Incpilier'a niollvii niiKht lie, unli'Ki hn were anaurnl Ihal ho could Implicitly ruly upon thi«f Mercantilv nKenciea are now eatubllahed In New York city, by Meaara. H, DouKlimt & Co., anil by Meaara. Tnppan & M'Klilnp. They hiiv« brHnchca In the leuilliii; citiea ami lowna of the riilled Slntea, In- cludiiiK lloaliin, Philadelphia, lliillimore, Cincinnati, I^ulaville, Ht. I.oul", New Orleona, Chiirlealiin, I'ltta- burnh, Richmond, ChlcnKo, Cloveliind, Ohio; Hatrolt, MichlKim; Dubuipie, |.,wiii and Mllwuukie, Wlacon- liil ; ulan In Canada, and In l.imdon, Theaa UKcnclea arc now conaidcred ■• ciiiiMrvutlvn check upon uiiduo credit, and aa hi(?bly conducive to aimlnininK tfie cred- It of aubatantbl and IcKltimalo purticn— ihcy aid tha credit of tho aound man, while Ihey promptly reveal the woaknoaa, and fraud, and all caaaaof dlalrual ainons thoau not fully untitled to credit. BTATitTHa or lUnKaonoT im tui L'mitxd HrATca ma tux Vma* ISTiT. .New York city. Now Yurk" , AU)any llllfTilIn Ohwcko , IlndicHtcr , ••• « • I HyraciiKe ■Ifoy Iltloit llulaiicn of tlio State ItnHtnn, .Maa«6a B.88l> 2,T27 1,170 2,<94 2,236 4,83T TS3 2, -(IT 204,Ut!l 389 3,444 S09 1,704 1,797 8,31)3 212,364 rallun Nmiilxr, VIA M 72 13 81 99 24 2U 417 2B3 230 2H0 28 22il 117 IVO 06 30 220 68 49 20 85 4 68 41 114 08 SO vm ID 81 SI 24 08 ISO 80 00 19 101 62 86 61 81 TO 6T 82 20 IS 11 40 T 16 4937 25 109 IS IS 22 180 6123 UnbllUUi. (lUb.i'.'O.nflo 8a8.niai 4,224,lino 101,000 B6l),(Nin 4IIO,()00 1,007,111)0 bss.mK) 6,"h;),oi)o 41,01(1,0111) 2,011,000 82,961,000 l,IS0,(IO0 2,2811,001) 6,672,000 2,700,1)00 8,tiON,ni)o 01!I,IIOO 2,367,001) 6,28^00l) 310,000 6,B'22,0OO 4:m,oiio 4,604.(100 1U6,0(I0 8,200,000 726,000 1,614,000 1,004.000 785,000 1,33.1,1100 767,000 1,007,000 922,000 806,000 1,7(15,000 l,6M,nfl0 781,(K10 082,000 aso.ooo 1,2-14,0(10 1,171,000 1,142,000 1,129,000 l,OflO,(KiO 928,000 478,000 926.000 201,000 809,000 296,000 445,000 712,000 260,000 803,000 OrUlnary railurtt. $291,760,000 2,714,000 2,172,000 62.1,000 1,267,000 1,376,000 1*8,061,000 Nuinkir. 6(H) IS 68 12 27 22 12 378 212 202 165 22 204 82 149 09 24 178 36 2 26 17 22 3 89 H7 I 24 j 71 I 2.1 20 46 114 22 70 14 92 42 7'i 50 71 60 49 21 18 14 10 28 5 12 8703 17 73 12 13 21 I. HO $299,801,000 I 3839 (.(■lllllll,.!. "$'1, BveraKC 43 cti. 8, aviTaue 48 cli. 4, avei'n|{e 31 eta. 8, nvera^'i.' 48 ct«. 6, average 47 ctt 182, average J8 eta. 6;i. avcrnKc 64 eta. 23, average 47 eta. 11, average (S4 eta. 64, average 48 eta. 10, average 47 ct>. 8, average 66 eta. (1 amounting to \$18,000, paya 50 c. •*. average 60 ct». 12, average 40 ctH. 1 T, average 44 eta. ^ tvcrngo 41 eta, I 1 i-sge 44 eta i, iverage 42 eta 16, average 49 cts, 8, average 63 ct>. 8, average 73 eta ; 1 Rmountlng to over $10fl,0(KP. will . pay nearly all. 2, average 60 cts. S, average 63 cts. S, average 68 cts. 8, average 46 eta 4, avernge 62 eta 8, average 86 eta 3, average 60 ' ' ^h 1^-. 4Q * Includes Brooklyn and Williamsburg. MER 1346 MER Mercantile La^r. Among the ancient Ramans, trade and manufactures were accounted degrading and dislionorttl)le employments ; and wlmt was done in that way was performed by slaves. None who had been employed in trudL, or v,iiose father had been a slave, could be chosen into the senate ; and no senator, or father of a senator, could, by law, keep a bark above a certain small burden, in order, no doubt, to prevent his engaging in commerce. The Coniurists likewise despised trade; and at the Council of Melfi it was solemnly determined that none could exercise any truilic, nor follow the profession jfthe law, with a safe conscience. These notions, however, were singular, and very different from thu policy which has ever prevailed in England. According to a law of Athelftan, if any mirc'hant made three voyages on his own account be- j-oucl the British Channel, or narrow seas, he was en- titloil to the privilege of a Thane ; and it is especially provided by Majna Charta (e. 30), that all merchants, unless publicly prohibited beforehand, shall have safe conduct to rtepa.t from, to come into, or to tarr)' in and go through the realm, for the exercise of mer- chandise, witliout any unreasonable imposts, er'cept in time of war ; and that if a war breaks out with an- other country, the merchants of that place shall l>o attached, l)ut in their person only, till the king is in- formed how our merchants are treated in the land with whicli wu are at war; and if oui nierchants are secure, theirs sliall !)« so too. Upon this Montesquieu remarks, with admiration, that the ICnglish have made tlic protection of foreign merchants one of the articles of their national liber.'/ ; and also that the English know much better than any other people on earth how to value at the same time tliesc three tilings, religion, liberty, and coiniiierce. These, indeed, are the com- mon rights of mankind. They are also inseparably connected together ; and as liberty is tlie life of com- merce, so commerce is in its turn tlie parent of man's advantages, moral and physical, personal, and political. Us protection und encouragement are now, therefore, an established principle of the law of nations. Trade anil connnerce being thus the immediate off- iipring of natural lil>erty, the lix mercatoria, or the law of mcrchunt»', is less a branch of tliis or that system of municipal law, than the law of nations, or that uni- versal law which reason teaches all men. It is, if one may so call it, an amlmlatory system of civil law, not confined to any one place or locality, but attaching to the persons of men in all their commercial transac- tions tliroughout tlio world ; the custom of merchants ! eing everywhere acknowledged, as tlieir persons and property ore 'ly tlie law of nations everywhere pro- tected. Thus, not to enter here at large into all the details of mercantile law, which will l)0 found in other parts of this work, divers sorts of writing useil among mer- chants and trading people in commercial transactions, are sustained in iiur courts, after tlio example of other States, although not executed witli all tlie formalities of common deeds. Missive letters, in i\-. mercatoria, are valid, although not holograph, and commissions from mcrcliant to merchant, though not signed before witnesses ; nor do fitted accounts among merchants, in mercantile matters, require the writer's name or witnesses. Hut of all obligations, bilU of exchanr/e, \ wliich owe their origin to merchants, are the most Jttvoreil, Tlie risks und accidents of trade have also caused particular favor to lie extended to iiersons en- ga;;pil therein, wliii have fallen into liankruptcy ; ]iro- vision being maile liy statute for their entire discharge on fheir surrendering their elVccts to tlieir creditors. Set Laws ok (Jo-mmkuck. Mercator Gtorard, one of the most celelirutcd geographers of his time, was born at Itupelmondo, in 1612, He applied himself with such industry to ge- ography and mathematics that he is said to have fre- quently forgotten to eat and drink. The Emperor Charles V. had a particular esteem for him, and the Duke de Juliers made him his cosmographer. Ho composed n >,hronology, some geographical tables, and an atlas, having engraved and colored the maps lilm- self. He died in 1594. His method of laying down charts is still used, and bears the name of Aferealor'i Charts. Meroator'a Charts. The true inventor of these charts is said to have been a Mr. Wright, who made several voyages ; and in his absence Mercator ]iub- lished the charts in his own name, 1656. — I'aiiuon, They are, however, now confidently ascribed to Mer- cator's own ingenuity'. In these charts the meridians and parallels of latitude cut each other at riglit an- gles, and are both represented by straight lines, en- larging the degrees of latitude as they recede from the equator. Mfrcator's Chart, or Projection, is a representation of the splicre on a plane, in which the meridians are represented by equidistant parallel straight lines, and the parallels of latitude also by straight lines pcrpeu- diculartothe meridians. This projection, which is uni- versally adopted for nautical charts, liy reason of the facilities which it aflTords in navigation from tlie cir- cumstance tliat the rhumb, or sailing course lietwcen two points, is represented by a straight line, was In- vented by Gerard Mercator (his tree name >vas Kai'ff- man, of which Mercator is the Latin equivalent), a native of Rupelmonde, in East Elanders, born in the year 1512. Itut, though Mercator gave his iiaiue to the projection, it does not appear tliat ho knew tlie law according to which the distance of the parallels from the equator increases. The true principles of the con- struction were found by Edward Wright, of Cains (,'ol- lege, Cambridge, who explained them in his treatise, entitled The Correction of certain Krrors in A'ami/ation, published in 1599, and are as follows ; Suppose one of the meridians on the glolie to bo divided into minutes of a degree ; one of these, taken at any parallel of lati- tude, will be to a minute of longitude, taken on tli^it parallel, us the radius of the equator to the radius of tlie parallel ; that is, as radius to tlie cosine of the latitude, or as the secant of the latitude to radius. This |mi- portion holds true on the map in this sense, tliat if a minute of the equator lie taken as the unit of a scale, and that unit be considered as the radius of the tables, then the re[)rescntation of a minute of latitude will be expressed by the number in the trigonometrical tables whicli is the secant of that latitude. Heme, in the map, while the degrees of longitude are all cipial, the degrees of latitude marked on the meridian form a scale of which the distances go on increasing fniiii the equator toward the poles, each being (approximately) the sum of the secants of all the iiiinutes of latitude in the degree, T' ■? nuinliers resulting from tlie addi- tion of the secants of the successive miiiutos, reikimcd from the equator, form a scale of meridional parts, which is given in all books of navigation. The very remarkable property of this projection, namely, that the divisions of the meridian are analogous to the ex- cesses of tho logarithmic tangents of half the respective latitudes augmented by 45°, above the logai-itliin of tho radius, was discovered by Hond alioiit the year l(i45 ; but was first demonstrated by .lames Gregory, iu his Krercilalionea ifalhcmalirir, publishcil in Kiiix. — Ure's J)icl. Murcator's Sailing is that which is perfornicd !)}• Mercator's cliarts. Merchant, a jiefson who buys and sells coiiinioill- ties in gross, or deals in exchsnges, or one who tralVus in the way of commerce, cither by importation or ex portation. The merchants of London and .\uisterda i wore accounted tho most enterprising und richest in tho world. An attempt was made by tjueen ,\nne's ministry to exclude merchants from sitting in the House of Commons, in 1711 ; but it failed. The Mor- MER 1347 MER I perfori o1i«nl Atlvsntiirsr'D Booloty was ostabllubod by the Diik^ Ht KrHliniit Itt 1200, It extended to England in Kitwitrtl Uti'ii tv\nn, and wan formed into an Engliali Bornomtliiit In Ifidi.'-ltAtim. /,(iH'» ij/' ,\hi'i'hmlii,^'tha laws controlling merchants HDil tiitiiinitirdlal traitnnctlons are numerous, and ero treiiteil of In (letall In tlio article Laws ok Commerce. \» an iiii«I>"nI* of tliese laws, It may bo stated, tliat moat uf tllH ICnrojictiin and American countries have left mii'nntriillt be pulillshcd in the gazette and nuw!ipiipi)r«i 'I'lils rej^Uter Is either eatiiliiishcd at the trlbUMilN of I'lmnnercc or at the civil courts. Every publicity U ylvcn til such enrollments ; and any per- «mi, !iy iHiyluj! a sniall fee, may ol^'ain extracts from thuui, rilH plirllfH Interdicted from engaging intrude urn, with a fiiw fXCfptlnns, only those wlio are labor- ing undiir a civil illmiuatlllcntlim, (leiirriil ll''iiiilii>i'niiii,^l'ht' Institutions of guilds or privllcgnd companies aro of lliuuan origin. Traces of thuMI xtlll it4tuta of William, c 85, but out o*" tliem ariisa all th" dlffarent corporatliuia of craftsmen. A liacioo, arbitral, pfoiHt(l({atcd In Kdlnburg, dated from " llalyrnlillMiHua, llmtwiMity-twa dayof Apryl,the ycir of (bid, ona Ulciusand ionrd hundred fourscore three years," tlius a>iprii»sas the union of merchants and cruftsincn In til" jjlllldry l "Towa. t the lung contro- verslus fur tlii< UMililflit, U Is llnally, with common consunl, appoynlit, axrelt, and concludit, that ais well craftsinmi its niarclianla sail ho received and admitted gild brathar, and the anc iint to bo refuslt nor secludit thcrnfra miilr tha ulher, they being burgesses of tlio burgh, Hi i mat and qnalllled t!iairfore ; and that gild- hratiier to liava llliarly to Mse nuirchandice ;" and liy th" sama dacraa It Is ordered, " That na manner of peifliin lia sulfarlt. to Use nicrchnndice or occupy the liardlawark iif any frra craft within this burgh, or yet to uxurcH th" lltiarty and privllcdgo of the said burgli without ha Im liurnass anil freeman of tl c same." Thirt ducraa was ratllh'd In t'arllaincnl ; nnd, therc- fiira, aflar this parlod, the (jcneral right of the ovii^iiial gulidUiif, or siiclaty of lucrchants of the rcalci, was iiliridgod so far that Ihcy could not tnule in Ivlhiliurg uuioss thay Wal'M itilinllted as burgesses. Tiic cmu- nia.'ciul rtigulatluiis of l.uliec are Ptill foiiiubMl on the sumo systaiui Ilia nn'rclianls are divided Into nine cumiianlas and coltajjca, and administrators, all nf which bear thu stanili of antlc(iilty. Kussia, besides tlio fiir.uliig of Hiarclinnla Into nuilils, divides ((iiu- mercH into varlnos branches, and siicrllics wlnit com- uuirclul opiirathins Include, with sdiiic notices i.f coMiniurcii with palcnl, I'Vance determines what aro acts of trada with rwji.inl to ttie competency of triliii- naU of conimarus. Ilolland, Wurteinburg, and a few other countries, have similar determinations of what is comprised in commercial operations. ' Who mag be Parties to Mercantile Contract! It was once the doctrine of the English courts, that the law- . merchant did not apply to any contracts between par- tics wiio were not merchants. But this view has passed away ; and it has long been a well-established rule in that countr)- as well as tins, tliat the law mer- chant applies to mercantile contracts, such as nego- tiable notes, l)iils of lading, chortcr parties, policies of marine insurance, and tlie lilie, whoever may lie the parties to them. All mercantile transactions begin and end in contracts of some kind— express or implied, executed or to be executed ; and the tirst clement of every contract is the existence of parties capable of" contracting. Generally, all persons may bind them- selves by contract. Whoever would resist a claim or action founded on his contract, on ground of incapacity, must make this out. See Parson's Mercantile Law. Minors. — Ry the English law, a minor can not con- tract commercial engagements ; yet he may act as a partner, and perform other functions for beneficial purposes, without being liable for contracts entered into during his minority. In Scotland, a minor may become a trader j and when he holds himself out as a major, he becomes responsibly. In France, minors, l)y being emancipated, may engage in trade previous to the 18th year of their age, when authorized by a registered act, either of their parents or family coun- cil, or iiy civil authorities. They are allowed, in this case, to pledge or mortgage tiieir estates. Similar principles are adopted in Spain, Portugal, Prussia, etc., etc. The age at winch minority ceases, is ; In England, Scotland, Britisli Colonies, United States, Hungary, Roman .States, Franco, Normandj-, Two Sicilies, etc., 21 years; in Mauritius, British Guiana, 24 years; in Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon, Holland, 25 years ; in Gurnsey, .Jersey (Coutume of Normandy), 20 years. Married Females. — In London, a married female may engage in trade as a feme sole, but she must trade within the city, and on her account ; siie is, tlierefore, liable to bo a bankrupt. In P'ngiand she may engage in trade when autliorlzed liy lier husband, but slie is not responsible. Her endorsement, acceptance, nego- tiation of liilis of exchange, are null, and no action can be maintained against her. The husband is ilalile for the debts contracted liy lier in a separate trade. In Scotland, parties may settle, liy marriage contract,, their several rights and interests. A married female can not act by or for herself. In France, Spain, Portugal, Prussia, and Sardinia, the authority of the husband is necessary for her en- gaging in trade. Her property by dowry, and that lield in common, aro rcsponsililc fcr tlie obiigatione she contracts with reference to trade. The authority of the iiusliaud ought to be made putdic, as also the revocation of tlic same. In .\merica, the common law of England is generally retained, with some exception, in Pennsylvania, Louisiana, and South Carolina. In Lower Canada and St. Lucia, same as the (Volume of Paris ; and in the JIauritius it is regulated tiy the civil code. In Slaita, a married woman may engage ill trade with the consent of her husband, l)ut slic can not be imprisoned for debt. In Luliec, married fe- males must receive tlie authoritj- of tlie Senate for opening a shop. In Wallachiii, a married female can not engage in trade without a marriage contract. ,\lifnsl—\n Crest Britain, United States and Amer- ica generally, aliens enjoy the same privileges as na^ tives with regard to trade. In France they enjoy the greatest liberty, and tlie same rights as the natives, in Uiissia and Sweden, a variety of provisions are en- acted with regard to aliens, but a restriction prevails in ail. In Spain and Portugal, aliens not naturalized may cnga'jo in trade, but they arc cstiblislicd accord- ing" to existing treatises with their respective govoim- •\M ■^if:r,yiviff^y^^f^jr^^r^y^ei^jr^!^yiytT^^ MER 1348 MER ments. In Lubec, the reatrictions on foieignera aro extended even to deny them the power of establishing themselves as residents, without the authority of the tribunal of judicial police. See Lkvi's Com. Law. Mercury, or Quickailver(Fr. Vif argent; Gcr. Quicksilber ; It. Aryento I'ieo ; Sp. Azogue ; Run, Rtut ; Lat. Uyilrwgyrum ; Arab. Zibakh ; Hind. Parah ; Sans* Fdradrt). This metal was known in the remotest ages, and seems to liave been employed by the ancients in gilding, and separating gold from other bodies, just iis it is by tlio moderns. Its color is white, and similar to that of silver ; hence the names of hydrargyrum, ar- genlum vivvm, quicksilver, by which it has been knovyn iu all ages. It has no taste or smell. It possesses a ' good deal of brilliancy ; and when its surface is not tarnished, it makes a very good mirror. Specilic grav- ity lli'flfiS. It differs from all otlier metals in being always fluid, unless when subject to a degree of cold equal to — 39 ^, when it becomes solid. The congelation of mercury was first observed in 1759. — Thomson's Chemistry. Slercurj' is found iu various parts of tlie world. Among the principal mines aro those of Alma- den, near Cordova, in Spoin ; Idria, in Carniola ; Wolfstein and Slorstield, in the Palatinate ; Guanca- velica, iu Peru, etc. Most of the ores of mercury are readily distiuguishcd from those of any otlier metal ; in the first variety, globules of the metal are scon attaclied to or just starting on the surface, which is at once a i^uHicient criterion, mercury being unlike every other metal ; in the second, by the fine white color, and tlie action of the blow-pipe, wliich suldimer the mercury and Icuvss the silver liehind ; the third by its beautiful di-ep red tint, varying from cochinea. to scarlet red, excepting in ihose termed hepatic cin nabars, wliidi are generally of a lead gray ; the fourth, l>y its gray color, its partial solubility in wa- ter, and it:, complete volatilization by heat, emitting at the same time an arsenical odor. Before tlie blow- pipe, these varieties burn witli a blue flame and sul- j>hurous odor, leaving more or less residue behind tliciii, and wliich may consist of eartliy matter, as silcx and alumina, together witli tlie oxyds of iron and cop- per.— J privilege or restriction. United States' vessels may complete their cargoes in one or more ports of this kingdom, or on the Island of Sicily, without being subject to pay the tonnage duty more than once. The inonej-s, weights, and measures known and in common u ^n at the difterent ports are not the same as tlioso established by the supreme bus' of the mother country ; and they are even at variance in the ports of Messina, Catania, and Syracuse. — Com. Jiel, C. S., 1866-7. Metalliquea, a kind of Austrian »Umk, mi «iill« I because the interest is paid In the pr«eli)M» mutitl", and not, like the interest of other stocks, in |»«|«ir iimiii")' The name was afterward used in UiMniji nnh otlisr countries, for stocks of a similar klii*'iti, Titles suppressed. May, 1820. Tim oKpuUloii of ill" Spaniards decreed, March, 1829. KpuMi.-ii im|itiili(lciir)tt«l* •ho boundary between Mexico and the Ibilteil Ht»ti'8, uddb tioiml ti-rrilory was ceded lo tho latter, for the eoiutibii'fttloii ' orjio,iKm,oi)0. More recent returns wouhl indicats a greater lit' 1 cro.ise of tho wdiite than other classes of population i fojHjIijIii/H in (111, MEX 1350 MBX Iiut it is prob.ihly explained liy the fact that oorfain literary uequireinnnts deflne color, anil that suceessful eftbrts h»vo hi ."n made to advance the common educa- tion in many of ihn Mtat<-s. A cmsUH stated to have been taken in IK'A, makes some verj' A'lj^ht alterations in the preceding table It raises th(t population to 7,85;),;i!ii. Aloujj the c istern deelivity of the Curdlllera of the Andes, from liOOO to lOnO feet ohove tlie li'S el of the sen, grow the coffee and toliacco, lioth of unusual ex- cellence ; hui the coffee is heavilj- liurdene'l with the internal taxes of tho States, and the sale of whaeco is R monopoly of i he ^jovcrnniont ; so that, with thest^ restrietions upo'i them, their cultiva.ion languishes. From this elevation to tho sea is the country of cane, of the product of which little is at present exported. Cochineal, which has greatly dlniiuished in iiiiantity within the piist few years, has become of little im- portance. Wheat, tho growtli of the table hinds, is iM^ual to the best in the world, and, when not abso- lutely forbidi'cn, u heavy duty rests upon tliu imported article, whidi, unless in times of sc :\rcity, is equal to a ]irohibitioii. 'lue lands of thb people of tlie hot und temperate climates are chiefly taxed with this great difference; and, in conseiiueneo, tho ilour is liniught to them, often 'i distance of 'JIIO miles, on mule-back, instead ' lieing received at a fair and cheaper rate froir abroad, by tho sea. This weight falls heavily upon the State of Vera (!ruz, and exists for the beuelit of tho proprietors of tho wheat-lields, principally of I'liebhi ; but force and wealth prove ever to al)ide with the latter State, in every attempt to obtain relief. Nnr do the burden and vexation stop here. Xotwitli-tanding the exemption .seemingly given to the imported article from other tlia.i tho fed- eral duties, the owner has often to jiuy other sums ,it the |)orts of entry, in the nature of municipal duties, and at every reinovo from State to State. Maize, althougli indigenous to the table-lands, and growing in every climate of tlin repuldic, is rarely to bo fimnd at a low price anywiiere ; and Ibis, not from any failing of industry or a want of knowledge in its cultivation, but from droughts that continue, at limes, for ye.irs, aid sometimes until districts are half dc' (wpulateil. Ktcu in tlie fertile vallej' of Mexico, about the capital itself, corn usually bears a price ot about iJJ the bushel. The cotton, wherever it has been attempted lo be raised, has been materially und di.sciuiragingly affected by insects ; and tho article is yearly tlie suIijim t of special licenses to individuals, to be introduced at Vera Ouz at rates lower than tho.se designated by tho tariff, to supply the calls of cotton manul'act' ric's. The vino and the olive have been attempted to be I'ultivated since tho revolt from Spain, but with poor, or only partial success. Tho lirice of tho tirii/iiri/, botli in its natural state as piilqi'e, and as the distilled liijnor made from it, nieariil, is an important item in ;bo economy of considerable terri- tories, but i>f no CO isideration in coinincrce. The pith of some varieties i,f the plant, baked like a jiota- to, is, ill many places, tlie food for nearly the year round of the half-wild tribes of tho sii'iTd • ; and tho s])irituous extra> t is the inebriating draught that keeps u large portion of the population about tho cities and towns wliere it can bo raised or bought, in a state of wretcliedness and physical destitution. Tlie principal inanufac^tiires of Mexico are sugar and rum. ahies, wine, und brandy, earthen and stone ware, glass, paper, and tissu^fr of cotton, wool, and silk. M. Lerdo ile Tejad.i estimates the entire value of the manufactures of all kinds iti Mexico, annually, at *BO,l)0(),Obi) to $«(),00l),0()0. The producti. II of gold and silver in the repuiilic Im* arrived at a state of great prosperity ; but the iu- ft4equate supply of iiuicksllver is (lit as u considera- ble ubstai.'le to the still greater development of the mineral wealth of Mexico. Jfanu/Mturet.— The prinelpitl priNluiiU iit Mnnlenil indiutry are brandy, and sugar imAtt (rum ('Khp, mej- cal, made from the Juice of tli« riiogiKiy, oil. mim, mid branilx made from grapes, eurlhiiii iiMii Klfiim wares, paper and spun anil wovsii etiWm, ullk kh/I wwilen, Sugar is made in mll'a on all Hl8 «»t»t»"i wliers Hie cane is cultivated, and wliicli ara fotlllil rlll«' rii»Uly and In pfiie, /» spinning and winding silk, ni/ir« tllitn 'iO liitnd infi- cliines are in the capital, I'mdda and (ill'MinlaJflM, iind ( the products are preferred to the (iir-iiiin, ill Hie cap- . ital is 1 im>cliiiie by horse-|ii,H ~>r, untim I'tpncli plan, I which can spin above Uhl lbs, it day. Aliiuit tli.OOll lbs. are estimaicd to ij« spun in i/lnM\m annually. The only wo\en silk yet miiiifi urti miliw rebozos and bands. All kinds of fancy trIni.'Uing* urn nidde in Mexico, as buttons, cords, braid*, and many orn, - mentn of cotton, wool, and silk j and tils («'«t factory is that of the Ilopicio for tli« poor in lli »:),7l)2,44T run; .'i,*4T,79.% 1S27 »,C(iO,423 ISliS 12,!H7,2SS From .July, 18i», to June, 1S80 12,n22,:n3 1,'flO " 18;)! 10,M4,974 » ISiil " 1*12 7,2S0,808 1S.S2 " 1&« 14,180,Ufl " law " 1884 l:^,M7,7.^9 " 1SB4 •' Isa5 fi,ni)2,2i!t " 1*» " -,s:)6 12,7a'-.,4;i " 1H!)8 " ls:)7 S,47I,S2« " ll«7 " ISas 4,4.-i9,745 1^39 1 l,02,'i,148 ls4l] 0,402,18,5 ISII ll,«(il,491 1 »ii|.|ily the manufacturing wauls y weight; but ut ri>t:ill ii (wrtkiiUr I'liiirtlllii U uMfl, ContiiiiiiiiK 17 auiiiMin miil U ilrni'lini* of ilintlllnl wntcr. Fur olivu uil tlio hiiiiui ruurtilUi lo UMtil H* for liran<1;r, wiiu-s, etc. At tilt! iiiiiiitii tli« iimri»i I* imwt tut guU and Hilver. The i/;iM iii»r<'u tn ilivUlml into M) i:iift!t- lauuH, of 8 tujiiiiii.-it of 1^ KmltlK. 'I'lin ullvrr marr i liuM H ocIioihIs, of t) UitiiiilH' iif Vi ur»Ui; Amnyrri, to ilcterniiiio tli« purit)' uf tli«Mi tifii tiiHlalfi, nm the samu iiiarco. For Kulil, llio i.'««t«lliJllii (* illvldod Into 24 (|iiiluteii, uf 4 KriiiioH <)« \fy, eot'ti Kfitno m|Uivalntit to r>l) iu wi'i^lit. For nilvitr, tli« itiari'o U tltvldad Into 12 (lincron uf 24 tfraiww ilu Ivy, iiii<^li Krntio lr«ln^ ei|iilv- ttlcnt to 11! iu wi'lKJit, I.ii|il4iir)i<*, fit tlui nimny of prvciouit HtoiiKH, UKK till! iiulUtA, wlifi'li li> tli8 tmth of an ounie, A|Hitliu>.'arlitii mm ttin lllifii tnn' n<'('iiiiiiilnt«d in Mex- ico to 1)0 ij'oii.iKKt.iKM) or ifMi'iiXli'Hiil i ¥ Mi\i ntim toin- (lared witli tlic |Hi|iulatlou tlivn exUl'iltti hi N'«w M|inln, corresponded in |iro|iortiun to iffUt foroixh Jnhalilt/int. Talcing tliin i^ileulatioii for a liau(;li tliiij duui U, doiilftli^**, niiniirlcnt for nil tlie oporutionii of tl>« iiit<^rii«r tnwln, wlili-li in yety HmM, as well in H({ri<'ulturu an in tiwiiiifni'tiirfi!! nnil connncrce, the clri-uin»t«n>M lit Urn xrmitsr (mrt Iwlng conlined to n few liands on tllii ollx nldn, nfid on the otlier the want of lii(; the rare phenomena of a country whh'h prmliii'i^ii ^(iiM and f^il- vcr fi) ahundantly, paying « hiijlMif llltf^rmt on money than in countries in/t yi«ldiMj{ it. TliB geoj^rapliical (Kxiitloii of thn MtnlfB and Terrl- toriea of Mexico in thus d«tiM«d! I, /■Itmlri'H nr (lulf Coast. — The States of Vuciilufi, ( 'hl.'i(<»ii, 'i'nUmit, Vera Cruz, and 'i'uin»ull|«l«. 2, Wmfmi or I'liiijk Count. — TliO States of (»ajai», I'MIiIiIa, and Territory of Tlascala; Stat« of Mekiio, aii'l I'whirnl lllitrlctj States of Miclioacan, .l»lt«ilit.«ln,1,!)iV),OI)0 •rancs ; Knglaud, l|llK),(»i") franc* j Cnltwl Ht»t«i>, l,(XtO,0«0 fraiii s ; I' ranee, '^.ift.'KlO francs ( other coim- trios, 925,000 franca j t.utal, U,tm,m) f.aiiw, or ♦1,023,- 000. The principal ports in Vuc»;j|« arf i'amiieche and Sisal. l)otli open to foreiga ciyrornerce. In tlie former, the water is so siiallow that ye»w<|it arn ob|l|(ed to an- chor some ( oui-ideralilu dl^tancn from the tl for the Import and export trad* of )K«rt*», «*# t'»^\ of Tneatan, and for all oiercUiMidW* H»*tiipntU4 itt nt from the In- terior of Uie State. Hj^tttiitifitu ttH:iit*«i1i ftnder the an- cient rule, a high lij/gntu uf w/ttrt**/' Jul pimpttity. It enjoyed a mouojwly of' *4( I**' impi/ttf titK\ exports of the province; but rfw,*' MMt iluh'pflvUtK'fi of Mexico, Ita coinmerc« has ^UmA-it fV^H tttitHght ahtmt by t'i« opening of vtiwf (AWflt* ttt /jswwint itftiH!, as well as by ita difticulties »w fJ*« tt^fttt «fwrtnmenf, and !ho fearful ravt^je* uf lej^lUwiny i/y *hieh, in one year, fully two dfttti nil U^ pttp^nrittti were car- ric'l off. C/iiiipiu.—Tlui fiM4i iWf' CUittpm pttf^'ife-f tnit little commercial interej*, |(t w#« itifttt'pntiltf.t} hitn the ter- ritory of Mexic^j i» >***j fi/fttiWfii imtinis that year, a portion of the UirriUtfj/ (4 (>tm(*tttttU.- /(s produc- tions are c<;rn, a, w*^*', Mtflft'ti,- indigo (of the very (inesit quality, i/ut m «WrvM i'(W«M(t'>.*rittli 4*^* tryitji frftterioT to the Spani.dcrtV( ''f #W tttitff l»#*# t««n discovered hitliert*i»t), rtw im^iUtfi S«t«<« of the con- federacy, was, j>r«y)i(^* p> (^ iKy* f'rrtz. Jts [)rin- cipal productions are iiw.<«,, «/#>*. pf~pp^i^ *nf4/tf mm''ft'V U fl^f iHftlM 0*1 v»ith tho adjoining States a^it wT^tJ^ (ii^t(t,-iiij,iit.- Vera Cruz.—Tkn S**l* t4 Vff/t (Utt/, (i«s nnder th" burning sky of tlie |tp^*'*j ttM ii tttmpt\iic(\ within a long, but somewhat n^ffi/it/, ^flfi i4 (etritory al«r k tli(^ (iulf of Mexico, l!»mtitHi tf'ittt ttm Month of the Tainpico Kiver in thn It/tttitj fn.-*sacnalco ami the boundaries i>f 'J'a'**!**'.!/ !ltfttHp«fi\U, vanilla. mahognny, ebony, 4j-(tt.-»>w4i», tmit e'Veyy variety of tropical fruit. 'I'lw j»ort f4 Vt^ti C-ftt/ fttppHe^ a great part of the republic, 4tt4 U ftittfitUil^i iff tut the most imnortaut shipping jmiw^ mt fUttt'i'fitfl-^. foreign ves- sels lira aUowe4 to i^iltW***' fittniiii tUltt effects from foreign countries '>«)y , .w^ iit^-i' ttfn pttttliUca to enter but one ]Kirt lor diwlwi'^' > tit^^ iti/ty thfit proceed, in ballast, to auy t>t|j*f jittft itt rtw ffptiiti'if for the pur- p<>8o of taking iu «afj5<*»* ttf titf fffmlut* of the < nun- try, louring the y«w ih'fi (ttt^tt iWyivert »t the |iort of Vera t>uz, fjxw nH (tw*i^ff (■itttitttif^!, )7S vessels, with an aggregate «f ;ttji;^-%iit/tif,. 'Jhe total value of mer'l* rwinwed, there were 49 American. HieaM|i*ilW ^HH-'Ul Mtts.- The character or value of tUeif 'um*f4 fttff^flf* U tint given in the United States' t-Mititiitr ft4ttnt'i Itttt lj*e hnport duties are stated to have mt/tttHtM Ut iitMfjfKtl 20. Amoimt of silver expurt«il, ♦•tv-^/*'? i iff ^'iti^ $.'r,">,««4; other j product*, i-M)!),l.i/li M*J »#!«« of fcoMtWard cargoes, |«14,322. I l>uring tlie imm y«!W? rt#« #«?*«< ftorti (Ireat lliitain :i« vessels, w^ tm ltfi§t'^'^.')«. MEX 1363 MEX :ifin I'f . from until 1 (luring iiull:\. r'Ktv "f iriMl hp nio-^t ;n %•?■;- ■ts fnmi to enter eeed, in the p«r- ctmn- lie iK'rt ll Vlllllfi silver ■re were laraoter in in the Tt (liitie- lAmonnt (ithei [•iirgnes, (;re;>t > tons. Ill silver l4.6>i«. covered t8,56o,359 ,12, and Rold $47,952. France holds tho next rank in the trade of Vera Oiiz. The numljer of l-'rench vesiiels arrived in 1852 was 28, of 6717 tons. Inward car)^es not ascertained. Outward, total value 11421,935; of which, silver *118,921, gold $45,5,->4. Number of Spanish vessels arrived at Vera Ouz during the year 1852, 20, with an aggregate of 3211'67 tons. Total value of cargoes exported S'141,287, chiefly silver and gold. The residue of the foreign trade of this port, (luritig tho same year, was distributed be- twcen 82 vessels, with an aggregate of 411t9 tons, car- rying, respectively, the Belgian, Danish, Hanoverian, Mexican, Portuguese, Sardinian, ond Venezuelan (lags. From Hamburg there were 8 vessels, exporting a total value of |i23,196. During the prevalence of the northers, the port of Vera Cruz is considered to be very unsafe. In 1840 the United States' brig-of-war Momert was lost in. sight of the city, making the third I'nited States' national vessel lost during that season, in the Gulf of Mexico. A norther generally continues two or three days. " It comes on," says a publication elicited by the loss of the Somers, "gradually, . i that tho mari- ner who is unaccustomed to navigate the Gulf of Jilex- ico is often unsuspicious of danger, and flatters himself with the idea that the 'stiflT lircezo' wliich impels his vessel onwnnl will soon carrj- her to her ])ort of ile.sti- nation. And so it does, but not in safety; for tlie ' still" breeze' freshens into a gale, and tho gale into a hurricane; and, at length, the vessel strikes on one of the rocks with which the harbor of Vera Cruz is studded. In that harbor the anchorage ground is, perhaps, tho worst in the world. At Vera Cruz no number of anchors hardly will keep n vessel from going asliore in a norther. All that the captain of a vessel c.nn ilo, under such circumstances, is to slip his anchors and stand out to sea immediately. Vessels of war, even those belonging to friendly powers, are not allowed by tho Mexican government to enter the liarbor of Vera Cruz. They always anchor at Sacri- licios, a liarren island at the entrance of the harbor. At Sacrilicios the anchorage is pretty good. Mexican men-of-war, when there are any such in tho harbor of Vera Cruz, are always moored to rings set in the walls of the castle of St. .luan do UUoa, and, by that means, are secured from tho effects of a norther." The offlcial account of tho loss of the Somers, bearing date De- cember 12, 184fi, in oil tile in the Navy Department, and contains many valuable sugges.sion3 relative to the dangers to which navigation is exposed in tho Gulf of Mexico. Tamaulipas. — This State is bounded north by the .State of Texas ; north-west by the Mexican State of Coahuila ; on the west by the States of New Loon, San Luis Potosi, and Vera Cruz ; and on tho east by the Gulf of Btexico. In breadth it varies from 12 to 55 leagues. This State has more than .S50 miles in length of sea-coast, and is fringed with lagoons vary- ing from 4 to 18 miles in width, divided from the gulf by a bank of sand. Tho shallowness of the shores along tho coast, and the dangerous bars which choke the month of the riv-^rs, render the navigation difficult and dangerous for vessels of almost all classes. Pop- ulation in IPJO, 110,074 ; thouga the census of 1804 gives Imt 1 00,0(i4. • 1 no chief productions of this State are similar to those found in the State of Vera Cruz. The coasting and foreign trade is conducted principally in the ports of Tampico de Tamaulipas and Matamoriis. From these places large quantitiee of European and North American manufactures enter tho middle and northern States of the republic. Querctaro, San Luis, Nuevo Leon, Coahuila, Zacatecas, Jalisco, Durnnp;o, Chihuahua, and Sonora, receive most of their foreign siipiilies from these points. Tampico de Tam.'iiilipiis. : on the northern bank of the Paniico, is the principal i commercial port of this State. Its bar is dangerous, j and its harbor considered unsafe. Tho towu is situated ! in the midst of extensive marsihcs, and can not be ap" proached by large vessels. Its foreign commerce ii represented as increasing (vide SIayek's Mexko, vol. Ii., p. 200), tliough a consular return from that jxirt, hearing date Kebruary 17, 1854, says that the trade with tho United States is on the decrease, owing to " high rates of duties, both impost and consumption ; as also circulation and municipal." Tampico exports hides, sarsaparilln, goat-skins, fustic, vanilla, wool, jerked beef, and Blexican hemp. Tampico is the outlet of the metals and other prodnc- tions of Sun Luis Potosi, Guanajuato, Zacatecas, and purango, consiilercd to be the richest mining districti in Mexico. The foreign trade of Tampico 2,928,4I8 ; total trade in British vessels, $3,215,918. Total number of French vessels, 9, of 1,315 tons. Total value of inward cargoes, $398,000 ; total value of outward cargoes, .>S|2080 ; total trade in French ves- sels, $100,080. Total number of Spanish vessels, 7, of 728 tons. Total value of inward cargoes, iJ139,.'t00 ; total value of outward cargoes, §50,176 ; total value of trade in Spanish vessels, iJ189, 17C. Tlio residue of the trade at the port of Tampico, during 1852, was distributed between Sardinia, llam- burg, Holland, and Jlexico. Matamoras lies on tho right iiank of the I!io Grande, or Kio Bravo del Norte, at the di.stanco of nearly .30 miles from its month. For purposes of navigation, this river is, perhaps, the most important in INlexico, ami has proved navigable by steamers for a considerable distance into the interior. Keeent returns from this port are not nt hand, Iiiit the general trade of Matamoras is not of much import- ance. The following facts relative to its traran(lv', manufnctiired in tlie Kl I'nno valley, and m^m, aoap, r«l>08an, KaddieH, l>rldle!i, leather, xeKarx, niatx, and frnitH, aincmnting unniially to about it70,U()l). Oajnra. — i'luH State lian a Hea-couxt on the I'acilic extending IIH league^*, and cuniprines an area of about 4U>0 i<(|uare leaf(ueii, cuntainiu^ a population of S'^n.lOl inluililtantH. Tlie fortiUiy of noil and riidiucsK of pro- ductions render tliin Statu, in a commercial anpect, one of the niont ini|H>rtu:it in Mexico. 'I'lierc in not, how- ever, any jiort open to foroij{n commerce on tliis part of the I'Mcilic, from tlio lioundary lino of (iuatemala to Acapidco, a distance of nearly UOO milcH. Tlie coast- ing trade is nearly nominal, aitiiounh tlio State pos- (pssos nine soa-ports or anchoraRCS, namely : Tchuan- tppno, lluatuico, Kscondido, Cliacaliua, and Jamdtepec. Corn, cotton, colFoe, sugar, cocoa, vanilla, tobacco, cochineal, wax, lioney, and indigo, are tlio staple pro- ductions. The indigo crop, produced in the dpart- nient of 'reliuuntcpec, is estimated at f)00 garr ,nes, of 175 pounds each, nnd ti^at in the vaile}' of Sonoia at (JOO garnmes, making the wliole crop ol' indigo equal to 1112,601) pounds. The price paid to planters is 6-'J cents to I?! per pound. Krom a nic^sagu of t!ie (iov- craor of Oajaca to tlie National tJonnrcss, it appears that, during the 17 months previous to March 1, 1H,'>I, the crop of cochineal produced in the State of Oajaca reached as high us l,248,.'i.">U pounds. The price usu- ally ranges from ,'iO cents to 75 cents per lb., according to quality. This State possesses, also, considerable mineral wealth. There are, at present, silver mines worked, 1 ; not worked, il ; gold mines worked, 6 ; lead mines, 1. Annual product of all the mines, ifXrlfim ; annual products of iron nii'ies, 211,000 pounds. On both siiles of the Uthmus of lehuante- jiec great (luantitiea of niahoguiiy and otiier cabinet woo served for the royal family. It still haa a deservad reputation. (luci ifro. — This State comprises tlie diatrictf ,)f Aca- piilco, Cliilapa, Tasco, and Tlapa, and the municipality of Coy ucan. Its princl|ial port Is Arapulcn, so spacious and secure that 5(M) vessels can lie at anchor in it with [lerfect safety. Tlie trade of Acapuico is incoi ler- able J the foreign vessels entering the port being either freighted witli loals for the racilic Mail Steam- ship (Company, or in distress — tlie former being com- pelled to dear in ballast. Uy decree dateil Kobniury ■1, 185-1, the Supremo (iovernment iiiado a reduction in the tonnage dues upon all vessels arriving in that port laden with coal, and consigned to any steamboat company h.iving a depot of coals in the harbor, vl/,. : 60 cents per ton, instead of l^l 50, as formerly. Dur- aing the year 18."i3, there entered the ]iort of Acapuico 81 American steamsliips, of 107,007 tons; 8 sailing vessels (ships) cnrrying 4,30!) tons ; 1 bark, and 2 sciiooners. llesides Acapuico, there are other [xirts on the I'acitic ((Mst open to foreign trade ; bu: o De- partment is Hut in possession of inform n\ res|)ecting them. They possess, however, no coi , rcial import- ance. The other States of Mexico, ■ "'g eithei in the interior of tho republic, (.r posicsaing no ports o|)eii to foreign coniincvce, arc not deemed of siiflicicnl commercial cnnsidcnitluii tn demand separate notice. Keturiiing to tho general cuiumeice of Mexico with for- eign nations, particularly with tho United States, it is foiiiiil tluit the principal articles of importation from the latter to that country are, machinery, articles of iron, small wares, linen, wcoleu, and cotton cloths ; silks, flour (when not prohibited), raw cotton, timber for the construction of houses, prepared medicines, household furniture, vehicles, harnesses, horses, salt meats, sperm, paper, marHo and otlier stone. The imports into the United States from Mexico consist, |)riiicipally, of gold, silver, dyewooils, ilye- studs, hides, skins of sheep, cattle, and other produc- tions of less value. The following statement show.^ a decrease in the import ince of our coinmercu. Commerce or tub Unitrd States with Mexico, from Octoiier 1, IS24, to Jtriv 1, 1958. Yuan fnditiK Ezltortt. Doine«tK\ | Furtlgn. Hept. tW, Itl'iS. If27 18'W Is29 ISSO Total.. tt)AI,U40 ],024,2i6 8stl,9nT W2,iil« 495,626 «S6,764 $'«,IJ05,U2S Sept. ?0, 1M1 »I,n!)1.4S9 mu S4S,7;7 183» ! 1,649,HI4 1884 1 ], 102,640 1888 ' 8,016,6113 1886 1 1,500,689 1887 1 989,618 1888 j 1,040,900 1819 N10,6«0 1840 1 9li9,98 S Total....' »13,i)6a,»94 I Sept. 80. 1841 $isO,518 1S42 9mos. 1*4h!!!!! June 80, 1S44 1»<45 i:4« 184T. rt69,:!n 9117,745 1,292,752 7--4,161 901,*)8 N36,64l 1848 2,09,\4S;> 18»» I 1,047,999 1850 1,49 ^,791 Total.... ♦10,92'M,i>4 Juno 80, ia5l ' (1.0l4,iie() 1882 l,4U«,«7a 1858 2,829,770 18,54 2,n91,S70 1S.VS 2,25.'),8il^ 1866 1 2,46»,»4a (5,619,104 5,2.16,778 a,2S6,.')50 2,361,468 l,->i)6.5-25 8,!55 1,691^ t22,118,916 $5,086,729 2.021.764 W,75'>,777 4,072,407 6,012,609 4,540,996 2,940,710 1.123,191 1,970,702 1,84 ,5,408 «83,678,2S3" »1,1.50,107 .564,S62 564,193 602,0Ml BOs,|77 629,S47 1,W,7S7 1.962,951 1,042,869 _ 5i4,l)38 »7,4M,909~! $567.0M 878,687 1,029,084 l,i)4.1,B1fi 1 609,4 )R 1.287,297 I Tolal. "«M7iM44 6,2s 1,0,50 4,t78,2r.7 2,8S6,4S4 2,331,151 4^f'37,15S ♦20,979,541 |«,;78,21S 8,467,541 5,405,091 6,26,'i,0,')8 !),029.22I 6,041,635 «,b,s0,823 2,101,097 2,787,302 _2,51,5,841 |40,7Ti0,S82 (2,086,020 l,M4,2.*3 1,471,9.37 l,794,8;t8 1,1.52,381 l,.58l.lt0 fl92,42S 4,0,5f,4.36 2,090,Mi« 2,0I2.<27 |1?,375,693 (1..5K1,"S8 2,284,929 3..\5,S,S24 3,135.186 2,922,804 8,702.239 Imporln. Wbertiof t)i«r« WAd in UiiUluu nnj SiK-.-if, ToDiisffe Cltfareil. Tol.l. T»,044,04f 3,016,198 8,28', 807 4,814, 2.')8 6,020,761 _ 5^235,241 ♦2«,208,972 1,5,100,745 4,298,9.51 ,5,4ii,SI8 8,000,068 9,490,446 8,6l.'i,819 0,6.54,002 3,,5(H),709 8,127,153 4,n,5,(H)l (54,542,715 (8,284,957 1,995,096 2,782,400 2,Ss7.0U2 1,702,930 1,880,621 740,818 1,.5»1,247 2,216,719 _2,135,3M ♦20,669|768 (1,804,779 1,649,206 2,107,985 3,403,190 2,882,880 8,568,081 ExLHJTt. (T9"9794(l^ 1,,5«0 890 4,880 4,040 »211,73tr" (24,210 1,00(1 1,41') 8,.S95 22,73:^ 4,200 " (02,547" (6,204 S.OSI) 11,825 0,000 '1,440 6,290 ■(4o;43jr $1,200 450 (13,159,335 (1,088,998 l,l)98,»42 I 1,411,885 2,825,.334 ' 1 ,97s,liwl 2,714,923 I Tlii«e Up from t It will u two count in the abn activity, , reaching t 18.30. 'J'l, was i{i,1,4(; a total of ^ year JN40, iwrtations illustrated I'or a |)erio( included, tl wjis iji82,24( Ca2,()()0,()00 I irl, were a> ''IK apparel printed book nitur, ,urri. 'on, eartheni and cutlery, '•-•ad, projiaro tur ^s of (lux instruments. cotton rank li I'ortatiou for ( $57,000,000, V comes next in 000, leaving o the aggregate ""'•iln Into Ji ehaiidise enter Me.\ico with I "le year 185], , 'he olllcjal i„tt| "lents thltlipr „ amounts, is, tl ulway,i bu 1,,'oro country. I'M,Tl,,|l0Tl„f „„,„,, Manafs. ofsllk... ," cotton , „ won), . . p (.'lass.. f'f ''vln«»,b'k.,,cl Ai-ins ,'_' ?,'»,""'. of niotai."' l^b hit .t haro'sk's ''•■■■5. .t oil,, tools l)rc9scilskln.«.. Ciitliirv fisli.plckiuii.'otc" -Artlllolal Uowcrs & fancy Kooda . . . Spirits m,\ liqueur; Mniiufs. of (lax a„,| lii'mp Jim iinportatio pnncipally of lin, creas, etc., etc. ; t ''ties, some chini cloths, cassimeres ■"on hardware, an 'J'lie quantities o Bromen to Vera Ci designated, were n; ( _ Xlula oriiu, Slleslan. . Cre.ij. . . , ," Kuancs .'.'.[ I'rotatias. . * l-stoplllaa..'] iistaUos.,.. f*»n«bniok ''ascrlllas. . . f 'nnaniaiofi. . Cities. MEX 1S8« MEX ■,.||!n. I %\a 4,719 3>'>1J 10,019 I 4,».'>9 1 11,1«9 4,r.s3 \ 4,01s i 'l.VK> I r.,c/io I auw ' "00,914 4.9;« i 1,'Bll 1 2,rt60 1,804 4,fiOO ' 4,M« 10.140 05,714 ■ 20.146 1T,974 15,804 15,173 10.428 7.106 This exhibit may Im rnlied upon, having been niRile up from olHc'Iul repi)rtn on " (,'uinmrice utiJ yarigatiou," It will be periwlvc I timt the commerco b 'ween the twi) ((Miiitrlu!! Ui'crciiSBil ilurini^ tlio 110 yoni . onibrnced In tho ab«vo tuUk. InlNiM ituxprrloncodcontidorublu activity, exuucdin); in vuluu tho totuU of lH.'iO, but not reuiJiinK thuao of IMlO, and still furtlier iielo tr those of 18110. Tho viilu3 of iuipDi'ts In IHM, us already Kiven, wan iiia,4C3,li)0 ; and of exportit, i|ia,lilA,'i'<() ; inultinK a total of iii(!,&U8,i;7(i — Wmg ^Ulfidli less than for tho yuar 1N40, and itl>,474,023 less than for IMIO. Tlie lin- |>ortationH from trei t ilritain into Mexico may bo illuittrated from a report made by order of I'arlianient, Fur n period of tivun ye'irs, from 1840 to 184)!, both Included, t^.' i' . 1 f the value of the Imports was i{i8'.','.'IO,7Uu, nial^ ' , an average value of nearly 012,1)00,(100 per annum. Tho principal urticlos of ini- |> irt were as follows ; drugs, haberdashery, and wenr- iii^ apparel, arms an I ammunition, nmit lii|Uors, printed liouk. manufactures of brass and copper, fur- niton carri s, coaln, coribigc, manufactures of cot- tun, earthenware uf all kinds, glixna wares, hurdwaro and cutlery, hats, on and steel in bars, nianufai turcd lead, prepared skii harnesses and saddles, manufac- tures of llax, machinery and machines, and musical instrunu'nts. Of tlicso articles, the manufactures of cotton rank )ii„'lie8t ; the estimated value of the ini- )iortation for tlic seven years amountiu); to more than $57,000,000, w liilo that of manufactures of linen (which comes next in order of value) wa.i more tlum i*12,000,- 000, leaving only some $1-.',000,000 or 4!ia,000,000 as the aggregate value of all the other imports from Great Urit:iin into Mexico. Tho clmractor and value of mer- chandise entering into the coKnnercial movement of Mexico with I'lancr may bo exomplilled by those of the year 1851, us exiiibitod from tlie data furnished by tlic ullicial letiirns of I'r nice. Tho reason of the ship- ments tliltlie'- of the p uious metals being in so small amounts, is, th:tt tlie exchange with Knglaud can always bo more conveniently arranged than with that country. I>eiicriptlon of meKlt. Vuluei. P-rfT.iery t4i!,057 I'rccloiis stones 4ii,000 : Clocks and watches. 89,94.') ' Carriages, etc 82,6:10 . wolry 85,M3 I'urnlture 82,591 I Maclilnos and nia- ] cliliiory 26,541 I Musical iuatruuients. 23,00* Stoailnooll 21,675 ' Medicines 19,S07 Iron and steel 19.747 Prepared skins 1!>,29S I 811k (raw & maiiuf.). IS.MU ' Toys ].'.,073 Ollvcol! 1,3,976 I Umbrellas and para- sols, silk 13,,525 1 Sundries 221,000 Tho importation to Me..ico from Germany consists principally of linen textures, such as Silesian linen, creas, etc., etc. j tu wliicli are added, '.n smaller nuan- tities, some chintzes, muslins, silk hnndkerciiiefs, cloths, cassimeres, crystals plain glass, fine and com- mon hardware, arms, can' .; 'i furniture, and pianos. Tho quantities of linen e.v , urted from Hamburg and Bremen to Vera Cruz and Tampico, during the years designated, were as follow s : DesfHnOoii of mrrch. Valu.." Manukofsllk tl.'.'i ,.,J " cotton . . 6-i ... " wool 62.'., ■ ■• " jrlais. . . . 82^,'.-l £ii!.'ravlnj,'s,b'ks,cto 27S.O0." Wines 24 ,i'.li3 2:11 19 Manl's. of metal l7..,s->0 llaln'Wlaslicry, etc 120..149 ItabMt & hare sk's. 604,210 Me.'h. .fc olh. tools. 103,1110 Prvs.fcd skins 67,017 Cutl.^rv ^6.K61 Fish, pickled, etc.. 6.MW6 Artificial flowers & fancy ^oods 47. 10 Spirits anil liqueurs Mnnul's. of flax and 47,. M Lomp 45,021 Klndioriiuon. 1839. I»40. 1841. j I'loffs. .'jaceK. rlrr,... 110,220 6!Ma8 20,754 1,1.55 52,854 ' 19,654 ; 1,470 ! Creas 20,.'>«6 Ruancs 1,073 Brotailos 12,795 11,0>2 4,160 : Kstoplllas 7,177 7,1.50 6,S'88 Llstados 7,508 10,442 2,3i5 ' Osnftbmck... 4,940 1,040 1ft) Ca^crlllas 10,852 4,104 20;) Cananiazos. 8,885 1,164 l,8.-i(l Cotles 753 1,960 1,559 STATmr.nT iiiowixo tiir \'\i.vm ov Impoiit.! rmm Hau. uriui ASH lliiKMKN i«o ruK I'liHTs or Vkra ('in'» Axn Tampico, witu tmi Ncmd»rs or VKsania «»• UAIiHD IIUKINU TIIK YtAIUI SPKCiriltll. Y»n. llwitliiirir. 111 vvut'U from lirniui'll. Bulb fvrta. V«lii**nfniprrh M piT iiin.t..e. 1887 1888 1H30 1840 1841 10 11 11 14 la 6 S 6 4 1 'i $I,466,INI0 1,7(W,000 l,070,«flO 1,750.IMK) 1,48^2IHI Aggrexato.. , . ♦8,432,000 ~ ],«86,4U0 Av. an' lvalue Statitmknt KxniniTiMi Tim amocst op Import Ditiks coiircTKn at Tim Pout or Vfra (Jrui ouhiso tii<< Jour 1 ears kniiinu with 18M, as oompilvd raou tik CisTOM-llousK Hooks op that Port. Ym K. I IWI... 18.53... 1858... 1854... T.rlir. _ I rilrilnrt. 1,0.54,888 87 '2,91.5,.5»1 30 2,484,723 0,8 'i,5»8,ll3ll 74 i\Ki;reg'o,9,018,839 68 ATerU liii poin. 1 Mola Im. T.irnli. Ili.|llir». I niillnri. iMi.tr». 4.35,012 14 110,007 13 2,Mo,on7 (ul 200,988 40 ! 100,548 88 R.2,;8.128 121 242.670 82 , l'i4,770 95 2,8iii,17i) 8nl '278,514 04 , 114,4-9 27| 2,9M,lU0 95| 1,15S(I02 .'10 4.56,415 6811,f,2V.-47 56; A verage. 2 . l78,8iU 89t^81Mi'28 ()7tJ^14,108 02 2,8si,9(H 8(i{ The foregoing is oxchisivo of city and hospital con- tributions, and iiitfrnnciun, or internal duty, levied upon tlio samo gooil.s when dispatched to tho interior. Tlio commerce of Mexico is contined to tlie reception of foreign goods sulFicient for the necessities or luxiirv of a very sinall class of tho population, for which is given in exdiange a largo portion of the jirodiicts of tho mines, and some few products of tlie soil. As the yield of the mines is estimated only at $2(;,0()0,(I00 an- nually, the amount of commerce can not much exceed that sum. The total number of Mexican merchant vessels, all of whicli are small, does not exceed 50, and of these more than half belong to the merchants of Yucatan. The following account of the trade and commerce of the republic for tho year 1851-52 is compiled from tho olllcial returns : Torn. Tol.1. ! Toiuuife. I ArHve.1. I Depftrteil, Vera Cruz 28.208 Tampico 7,704 Campcncliy ' 6,1)112 Si 111 4.'2:19 Tabasco 8,789 Acopulco , llil,380 Maiizanlllu ' 1.402 . .. "las I 3ij,321 Mazatlan ' 10,762 Altata. Ouayamas. Total.. 1,158 4,8:16 266,692 1,429 178 4,976 43 SI 81,212 11 4,803 5,095 81 J18_ 48,816 1,840 I 126 I 1 I 95 21 28,640 I 4,9'io 6,000 9 85J 4(MMj Of the vessels arriving, C8 belonged tn Mexico, 4H5 to the United .States, 108 to Kngland, C'J to France, CO to Spain, 13 to Hamburg, 24 to Peru, 5 to lielgium, 8 to liremen, an.l 1 each to Portugal, Nicaragua, Sweden, Hanover, and Venezuela. Among tho arrivals were 219 steamers, viz., 115 at Aeapulco, 7 at Vera Cruz, 4 at Tampico, 27 nt .San Bias, 115 at JIazatlan, and 1 at Guayam;i3. Of these, 145 were United States' vessels. Of the classes of vessels, beside steamers, there were 55 frigates (vessels of war), 114 barks, 105 brigs, (i3 hermaphrodite brigs, 155 schooners, and (W pilot boats. The chief coasting trade of the republic, on tho Gulf of Jrexico, is performed by schooners between Tampico, Tuspan, Sisal, Campeche, Tabasco, Minntit- lan, Alvarado, and TIacotalpan. For this trade, a few vessels exist of about a hundred tons burden, built at Campeche, and are equal to American ves.sels of like qiialitv in respect to capacity, sailing properties, and durability. National vessels make voyages only to the port.s of New Orleans and Cuba ; and in the year 1852 only seven sail were thus employed, and the amount of coasting in the same time was very sinall. There appears to be no increase in this trade, nor in tho building of vessels. Tho commerce with foreigu MEX 18S0 MfC eountrlea Is ro|M)rteJ recontly to lu^ ■ '?^cr«ain>il i mul with tlie United Htatt.^, In |iHrtleul,>r, I - ^''> on the ili>- cllnn. The ciiu«e nf thin chttng" !•. i' » 'jlered to Im th» hl)(h rntos cif iIiitlrH, hoth on importH unit I'xpnrtii, anil th« uililltliinni <'hiir)(i's, liii^iil iii woll as internal. It U known that Ihn hitn I'rc.iiili'nt of ]\tpxic'(> (Nantit Anna), n nhnrt tinio lial'oro hlH uliilicntlon, hiul ^'nintuil prlvilpgPK ami i<|iO(lal ionceK»lonn to oortiiin Kuni|Mian hoiidcn for tho Introcluc linn of foreln" niorrhandi^n on tho I'ui'lllo I'oaot, lit from 'Jo to 110 per mnt. lo»« than thn refjuliir ImpoHt t.y tht> pntahll.ihvd tarirt'. An thin for «nt«rln(( «nd clanring, $H ftO j pilotage, olthf-r way, per foot, ♦'i So ; pllot-hoat, with four or nix oarn, tS j hllln of hoiillh, If mpilri'd, #4 ; to ("on'od of ronntrj" whern drstlni'd, ft i vinit of health odIcHr, fi'i. Wharf. nxB and nuinhlpal dn«n aro very ln', IH.W, protented ' State department, I'art 11. The detalln of the tariff against nuch prlvlletfen and npecli.l concennionn. Un- ' of Januarj' ;il, IHW), are as follown : dcr niieh a syntom, American merc'mntn were rednceil IJhnryes <,n ]'v>aeh. — TonnaK"! 'S'l per ton ; free of to the uecennity of witueiwin({ the proijiicts of tho Unit- tonnnge, If In hull t to load loj^wood, npecic, etc. j or cil Stuten contriliUtinK to the rortumw of l.uropoan If lirlnjjinn eoal forilic Mexican deponltn; or If only merchuntn ; while they were denied the rl)(ht, notwith- ' lirhiKln); passeuners or mails. standing; treaty stipulationn, of iniportlni; .similar mer- J'mhiliiliniu, — llraudy, of sugar-cane ; and all oilier rliandine on tho name terms, under a penalty of uonlis- except that made ont of (;rape — excepting; ^i'li fimi, cation, and a lino to the extent of the market value of and olliern nameil in tli>' tariff, in liottlen, or jar< ; nii- the ' ar^iwri at the placid of importation. jcam, of nil kiiidn ; rice ; Imttons, with tho Mexican or T/if I'riiiiiiuit /'I'l/ji arc Acaiiulco, lat. Hi" TiO' HO" foreign arinn ; cofl'ee ; wax, made up In candles; oli- north, long. HO'-' 'Hi' wc»t, tlio la .-t sea-port on tho scene pamphlets, Iiooks, etc. ; flour of wheat, "yiept western coant of Mexico, and Is capalde of containhi); at Acapuico, Yucatan, Tampico, Matamoras, and tlie n large navy with perfect safety. Tampico, a eounlil- cuntom-liou4eH of the northern frontier. Kor regulu- eralile cummerclnl I'ort on tho eastern coast of Slexico, tionn, see t'limparnlirc Tnri'JI'n, i'art 1 1. Hoots, shoes, in lat. 22° 15' 110 ' north, long. !)7° .VJ' west. Tho slippern of leather with soles ; rein-hlltn and spurs of shirting of the har at the mouth of the river, and the Mexican fashion ; hooks prohiliited liy < ompetent au- shallowness of tho water on it, wlihh Is somctlmen un- thority ; lard, suliject to tho same exceptions (nmittini; dcr 8 feet and rarely ftljovol.i feet, are serhiusolistaclea Acapuico) as Hour; saddles, and appurtenances of to tho growth of the port. Vessels that can not enter Mexican fashion ; playlng-iards, of Mexican fashiim; tho port, load and uaload liy means of lighters, moor- scarfs, Mexican fashion, of all kinds ; speckled or liig outside the liar, so that In event of a gale from the printed textures imltallng the same ; wheat, and all north, they can readily get to sea. Vera Cruz, the principal nea-port on tho eastern coast of Mexico, lat. 1!)° 11' «•.'" north, long. WP H' If)" west. The har- lior lies lictween the. town and tho island of .San Juan do t'lloa, aliout "JlOO feet wide ; it is in-secure, the an- diorage being very bad, and no vessel in safe unless made fast to iron rings tlxed into the vt ill of the castle on the island, and even then accidents sonietiinen oc- cur, (iuaymas, ii sea-port town of Souora. on tho liiilf of ('uliforuia, at the mimtli of a loii-ideruMe river, lat. 27° 55' north, long. 110° ]B' west. It is neither large nor well built, but its harbor is tho best on the western coast of Mexico, and it has an active anil increasing tmde. .Viic I'ort;! Opin fur Foreign Trmle. — (luaymas, Ca- inargo, Jlier, Piedriui-negrtts, Slonterey, Laredo, Ton- itiii, /apaluta, (iuutzacoalcos, \a Ventosa, 'i'oniHitjti JJufttH and Port Cfitirgfis (it Vera Cruz. — On foreign ships and national vcsBels from foreign ports, per ton (tlie Mexican ton is 12 per cent. leas than that kinds of grain and seeds ; blankets, woolen or cotton, or mixed, excepting coverlets and bed-coverings of phpic, without seams. Aildiliniiiit Dull/ to Tariff.— \. Slmiicliml dut\' will will be 12J cents on each package of H arrobas weight,, payable at the time of importation. '1. For inipiove- ment of the country, 20 per cent, on the import iliity. 3. Inlernatioiial duty, 10 per cent, on importation duty, payable at tho time of sending tho goods to the iiiU'. rior. 1. Contra reiiitro, is 20 per cent, on iiiipiirt, payable at tho final place where goods are sent. ."i. Amortization duty of tho public debt liquidated and consolidated : this duly will lie25percent.ontheiuiiiort duty, and lie jiayablo in full at the (ieneral Treii^iiry I )epartment of tlie nation, with lionds of the public debt liquidated and eonsoliduted. Kj-jHirt Dull/. — (_)n coin and wrought gold, IJ per cent.; on coined silver, SV percent.; on silver bars, stamped by mint, 7 percent. All the remaining good!', products, and national manufactures, not specilied. of the United Stotes), $1 50 ; fees of captain of tho , may bo exported without paying any duty, port, ii3 50 ; water dues (Mexican vessels in tho coast- i AH laws, decrees, circulars and orders, whicli are in iiig trade pay OJ cents per ton, as water tax, but are ' condict witli this tariff, directly or indirectly, will cease exempt from tonnage duty), 12J cents ; stamped paper i immediately after jiubllcation of the present neiv one. ritO FOKMA I.SVOICB I'NDKR NKW TaUIFF OP JANL'AIIY filflT, 1S5G. irvK^ct o/tfiefolloalng gooiU »Mpped hy the tubserlbtr for , Captain toth» eoiiiigmnent qf. , tnercAuiitt ofUteporl of Vera Criu ( Jfiw/co), whilAer thta vemfl h bound. MatIc*. Namberi. 1 Numtwr of 1 Oroii weight pockaifi'*, j ufcach. D«soripti<)o of |l*ckll||M. Tolnlnrl wilghlor each which |ny hy w«l){hl.' ToIhI mcMi.reincnt hv Ifiijflhof((ooa» wIiIbIi i>Hy liy meiw- urviiient. WlJlh or gmiit ozccc.llne Olio vnn..* Cll(«> of KiKMll SlWClllcd. Value. P. ]tf.U. itoio. 10 (ten). 1 (onol quin- tal. Kales of common elze. lOO.OWt (one hun-'l (one) yord. drod thousand) yards. White ordinary cotton. New York, (date.) * 100 yoi'ds English are equal to 100 11-100 Mexican. (SIgnoturc). In this manner all invoices are to bo made ont, spe- clfying every one of its packages. The total number of packages to be speciHed in words also. — Com. Hela- tiotu, U. S. Michigan, a north-western State of tho republic, Ilea between lat. 41° 43' and 48° north, and between 82° 25' and 90° 34' west from (ireenwicli, or i>'^ 24' and 13° 33' weat from Washington. It consists of two penli fojiiilatioi 31,li;illi in i'Aytioai aoutherii j ovationn w rlur in gen lakes to thi giiiii may I ilOO letabi forests of tl eastern shoi "I' ly file w barren and i ron and .Sag 'lie Uiilt.-d fowl and gai 'hero wor land improve farms ; cash i of Implement — ''ornen, 58, fl!),fi7(i; work Blit'cp, 7l<;,4;i ♦8,008, 7.'U. ^Itfiiii/tura ol"! ryo, lofl < OM; barlev, : beans, 7.1,254 ^'"7; value I'roduce of p,,,, made 7,0(;5,8-| !f,439,7!)4; mo honey, ;15!I,2,12 flax, 7152 ; sili tobacco, U'lg. lfi,!»8U bushels i ' ■ishcla I and w. of lionie-nmile n animals ,«i] ;i2h : Of the northi " I'ortiiins of it scenery which p portion of the cot rivurn, and fores outline which mn ;i"r type of Nort 'on embraces the for the Uses of n »inall lakes. Ont largo hays and ■ aero have discov ore ; on the south of lofty bluffs am ni'co of ruins, toll J'f'/f.ortlieArchei character, as are t also several plctur llio southern pi several largo rive Winch, rising in t westerly, and norti fa and Huron Kivt "ifo Detroit .Strait, Strait of St. CJair, f'onofTitibttwass^, inaw Hay. j^ul, '"I'o smaller strea, ?»ph, Grand, Kalani "to Lake Michigan stocked with fish of ^nor. This State I „."•■ J^rio. Huron, JI O'Pal rivers of the iluron, Menomonee, "«• The principal ij MIC 1357 MIO licli !>rr in I new one. I roimlilici 1 or 5'^ «' tonsista of two pcnlnaulnn, and contalna 50,24.1 aquure mllea. roiiuliitlon In lull), wa« -U'M ; in 1H20, 0I4H ; In 1N30, ai,(i;W i in lH4n, -Jli/iTt) ; nnil In 1H50, ll«7,0()l. I'hgtinil t'eulurm, rtc. — Tlui «urfuc(i uf tlio lower, or noutliiirn |>*niii»iilii \» K«niirii!ly levul, ImvinK fiiw oU uvutiunA wlilcli mu3' lie ilenuniinutuil hllln. The into- rlur Ih Kentty iniiliil»tiii)(, rlHinK t^ruilunlly from tho litkust tu the ccntru nt' ilio ptuiinKtilii, TIiIk ivntrM te- kIiiii mil}' Ih) ri>|{»rli< land, vluvuted nliiiiit !IU(M' et itbovn til 'f tliu litkoH, covervil witli lino •". and prairli's, Alon)( tlii; 'M «rt< mindOiilln, tlirouii .1 fornid ({•"'"'riiily quili; ing l)Otn'oon Ltiko llu «nd swiimpy. No piirt uf «iiT>|>Ued with flsh, ac|Uuti(' forrst.1 of tlnilxM oastem »hoto of „(« up liy tho wiuils int liiirreri itiid naked, ron and Sagluii> ' tlio t'niti'd Still I fowl and |{iiin«. 'IhtTo wcri', ih hi- '.'lO, 1,929,110 acres of land iinprovod; und res of unlmprovod in fariUH; -M .loaeph, Bola Dlunc, Mackinaw, Manltnu, and ll«aver Island, In Ukes Huron and Michigan ; Mo Royala »«d tho Apimtles, in Lake Superior. Mimiifiiihinii, r^•.— There were In this Stato in 18150, 15 woolen faitnries, with a , aplt.il of i|<94,000, employing 78 males and 51 females, maniifuituring 14I,B7'» varda of cloth, valued at i»!m,2l2 ; 1 establishment making pig iron, with a capital of i||i|5,imfl, emploving 25 por-on«, priHlucing 000 tuns of pig iron, etc., vaiufl . l-.'lidBO | 03 establishments with a capital of iHOS...). ■■•'■\: ilag i.J7 pjrsons, and making 2070 tona ' ( ,•!;;:,< '..;.„, valued at i«279,i '17 ; 231 tliiuring • . m •. ,.,ii;<, ii'/». papora, 8 daily, 2 aeml-wi-cldy, -i; weekly, i scnii- inonthly, ami 3 monthly piiblicationH. Aggreg.ito number of copies iiuldished, 3,247,730, Capital In- vested in manufactiire-*, ♦5,701,045; value of manu- factured articles, 41(1, 107,285, There wore, .lanuary, 18,50, 590 miles of railroad In operation. The principal places in the State an Detroit, the metropolis, Monroe, .\nn Arbor, Vpsiiaiiti, Adrian, .lackson, Marshall, Kalamazisi. I.aii^lng, tho capital, St, .losephs, Mackinac, Grand Haven, and Sault .St. .Marie, There were in 185.1, banks and 1 branch, with an oggregate capitiil of .♦1,084,718. Experts (^1852) In American vesscN, of domesti. prtMluce, to the value of iJlOO.lSO ; in I'orr.ign vessels, t31,9;iOr of foreign produce in \inerican vessels, .f I.'IW ; in fon'ign vessels, 48448, Total value, .tl4.'>,l42. Imports in American vessels, ijl91,970; foreign vessels, iji42fl4. Total value, ?190,2I0. Tonnage, 1853, 4,591,284. The shipments from Detroit were as follows : Flour bills. Wliint bush. Imllan corn '* Whilr I'itih. — One of the largest and moat impoUant items in the commeri'e of Detroit, is the trade in white Hsh. Ei-oni the head of Lake Erie to the head of Lake Superior, including Lake Michigan, dining the tall and spring months, tho llslierics form an important branch of our western comuiene. Hut proliiilily there is no ]dace of the .same area along our lakes and rivers which is so valuable in this particular, as the rivor contiguous to this city. Eroni I'ightiiig Island, t.i the northern point of Helle Isle, a distance of 17 miles, there Is (uie complete lishery, from which lar;,'e num- bers of Hsh are yearly taken. The cost of taking tlieni, when the run is line, is very light, and i'sheriiien realize largo profits. They are known through all the States, and are esteemed among the diolccst delicacies to be had in any market, Tho large demand creates a corres- jionding valuation, and in every city they have become the iiist brand of lisii sought. The river tish arc gen- erally larger, fatter, and better Havered than those of the lakes, and are, therefore, always in greater de- manil, and always command better prices. In New York, llostun. Now Orleans, and even San Francisco, tho Detroit Kiver « liite Hsh are eagerly sought for. The season of 1855 was a remarkably good one. At the fisheries (about 50 in number), between Fighting Island and Helle Isle, over 7000 barrels, or home 700,000 lish, have been taken. About half of theso have been sold fresh, at an average of 11 cents each, bringing in a revenue of SliSSO. The remaining por- tions are mostly held by tho fishermen until naviga- tion shall o|icn to them the southern and eastern trade. Theso 3500 barrels, when sold, will nett the holders about 1*30,000, or in the neighborhood of $8 or ^'9 per barrel. From the fislicries upon Hello Isle ubioit 7000 lish were 'iken, a majority of which were sold fresh. Tile remuindcr of them were caught below tho city, moslly upon the American side of tlie river. The method of catching fisli hero in the river differs somewhat from the means adopted fur lake fishing. There gill-nets are the principal agency employed, while seines are the iustrumcuts here used. i M i I IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 12.8 m m ■ 2.2 u ^ |l.25 ||U IJ4 ^ 6" ► fliotographic Sciences Corporation 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14SN (716) •72-4S03 \: -.r.'^-.i j|i::5'v; O^ MIC 1368 m The number of barrels caught annually in the lake fisheries is nearly as follows : BUi. Lake Bnperlor, 8,000 Lake Mlohlgmu. 1^000 Uko Huron li,000 IskeErle 8,000 DetMlt Blyer 7,000 ToUl B?!oO These are sold at an average price of $11 per barrel, the aKgregato amount of sales being $462,000, or nearly $500,000. Probably one sixth of all the fish cauglit in Lalics Michigan, Huron, and Superior, are trout ; the remainder being irhite fish. They are commonly caught by gill-nets, set some 10 miles distant from the shore. Large quantities of the fish are talcen trom the Detroit Klver, which they ascend from I consln ; ftom Saginaw River, Michigan, IfiOO iiarrsls | St. Clair River, Michigan, 1500 ; Maumea River, Ohio, 8000 barrels, and an equal quantity of bass, mul. let, etc., making a total of 10,000 barrels, which are sold for $8 60 per barrel, or $86,000 in the aggreguto, The annual product of the lakes and tributary riven is thus shown : The Lakes 8S,000 DetroltBlver 7,000 Otberrivers. 10,000 Total 69,000 Vslu, |IWft,000 77,000 8fi,000 |M7,000 &ie Hunt's Mag., vi., LiAMs), xxii., 181. xix., 19 (J. B. Wiu FoBiiOM CoHHiRca or Tua State or HioinOAN, mom Ociobxb 1, 1820 , TO JULT 1, 1866. Yean fnjlug KiporU. ImporU. Tonniig. Olearwl, Dlitriot Tfmiume, 1 DODMIUO. roralan. Total. Total. American. Foralgn. RagltMrad. Enrulle4 mm) Ucanibil, Buptao, lt«21 168,290 .... $58,290 $29,076 802 UU4 18M 694 .... 694 18,377 ■ • . . 18« 1,010 1,010 2,169 .... • ... ' 1844 .... .... 1,886 .... 1826 .... . • . . ^69e .... .... . 1846 1,320 1,820 8,774 .... .... 1847 .... .... . ..• 8,440 .... 1889 .... .... .... 9,967 ■ ... 1380 Total 1,588 1,688 91,816 60 .... . . ,, ^7,902 .... $67,902 $88,679 60 ••.. SoptSO, 1881 «ia,892 .... $12,892 $27,299 48 .... 1.903 1882 9,234 .... 9,284 22,648 .... 1838 9,054 .... 9,064 68,876 644 210 1884 36,021 36,021 106,202 2,707 216 ■ •• . 1886 68,480 $1,3S0 64.830 130,629 1,680 629 1886 57,1SI 4,050 61,281 602,287 760 803 1887 69,790 . . . ■ 69,790 1,879 8,268 1 1. 1888 126,660 • • • • 12.\660 256,662 1,480 1,548 'ft 1889 133,805 138,805 176,221 3,708 1,986 1840 162,229 162,229 138,610 4,786 6,870 Total (678,840 $6,400 $683,746 $1,424,434 17,787 14,964 .... Sept 80, 1841 188,529 $Sa629 - $137,800 875 4,734 11.531 1843 262,229 262,229 80,784 1,714 4,640 Bmoa., 1848 262,904 262,994 76,370 439 1,507 June 30, 1844 298,901 293,901 120,673 18 ^7,'57 1846 261,220 251,220 41,952 1,807 8,542 1846 251,890 261,890 154.928 MO 27,920 1847 93,795 98,705 87,603 410 86,171 1848 111,194 «4«1 111,686 115,760 180,800 87,614 1849 127,844 5,007 182,861 99,141 »l,019 90,606 1860 ToUI 182,045 182,045 144,102 7,982 46,719 $1,875,641 $6,448 $1,881,089 $1,008,118 228,634 314,209 .... June 30, 1S61 $183,448 $7,978 $191,426 $182,146 7,266 A109 4i,m 1852 182,866 12,786 145,152 196,240 4,884 65,097 1868 295,809 67,876 8.58,686 211,280 8,005 71,928 . • • ■ ■ 1854 405,131 29,814 48 (,496 904,286 9,405 22,790 .... 1865 620,826 41,266 668,091 281,879 24,415 88,196 •trt 1856 89,%624 85,404 031,028 830,668 22,072 27,128 ■ .,.. The principnl port is Detroit, a large and flourisliing city on the Detroit River, opposite Windsor, the ter- minus of the Great Western (Canada) Railroad, which here connects by ferry with the Michigan Central Railroad, together forming a convenient line between Niagara and Chicago. It is also tlie south-western ter- minus of the Detroit and Milwaukee Railroad ; and a lino (tho Detroit and Toledo Railroad) ia now in prog- ress to connect wi^h the railroads centering at Toledo. It hu9 one of the rincst harlwrs !n the United States, and is admirably adapted for commerce. It has also extensive manufactures, chiefly machinerj*, agricul- tural implements, etc., and a large trade in lumber. On the wliole, it is a most flourishing place, and ranks as the first city of the State. Population in 18B5, 50,448. Detroit was founded in 1700 by tho French, and was for many years the .State capital. Twenty- five years ago it had only 2000 inhabitants. Tiie ton- nage' of Detroit in 1856 was 68,688 tons. Pitrl Huron. — A town at the mouth of Black River, on the St. Clair, and two miles south of Lake Huron. It has a large lumber business and fine general trade. Microscopes. Invented nearly at the sanu- tlnia in Italy and Holland, A. D. 1621. Those with iluiililo glasses were made at the period when the law of ru- fraction was discovered, about 1624. The honor of this invention is awarded to Drebel and Torrleelli. Solor microscopes were invented by Dr. Hooke. In ICii- gland, great improvements were made in tho mit'ro. scope by Henry Baker, F.R.S., who wrote two treat- ises upon it about 1768. — Biog. Diet. Mile (Lat. mille pasauum, a thousand paces). Tha Roman pace being five feet, and a Roman font being equal to 11 '62 modem English inches, it follows tliitt the ancient Roman mile was equivalent to 1614 Kn- glish yards, or very nearly ll-12tbs of an Kngllsh stilt' ute mile. Tho English statute mile was deliiieil (lnci< dentally, it would seem) by an act passed in tlin Il5(li year of tlie reign of Queen Klizabeth, by which persons were forbidden to build within tliree milet of London | and the mile was declared to be 8 furlongs of 40 perch- es of 16} feet each. The statute mile is, therefuro, 17(10 yards, or 6280 feet. See Weights and MB.'sunRU. The mile is used as an itinerary measure in almosi All friia; m MIL 13S0 MIN 1«M thiin iver, Wl». ) >iarr«U| ee Rlvar, baia, muU which are tar)' rlvari V.liii. )ga\ouo TT.IKM) 8P,(M0 |M7,UW I. B. Wiu Tftnmige, KnrulUil Mid Licalileil, m 11,594 41,174 he siimc timn with ch)ul)lo he hiw of ri>- honor of this ■icellt. Mat [)ke. In Ki»' in the micro, ito two treat- pncos), Tha un foot bolnR fullowA that to Kill Kn- KnKll"'' *'"*' dellneil (Im^l- jd in tho llfttll whi<'h (leraon* PS of London | ;8 of -1(1 porch- therefore, 17(10 MKAaDRRM. are in ftlmort tit cotintriM of Europe, particularly those which were ftirmitrl)> under the sway of the Komans ; but it is very dlAli'iilt to conjecture the cause which has given rise to tl6» lleMe 10,MT ItHtcl 0,896 Eogllih ;>d>. Irlshmtle 8,038 Italian 2,025 Lithuanian 9,7S4 Oldenburg ; . . . 10,820 Persian Pa-asanx. 0,080 Polish (Short mile) . . . 6,095 " (longmllo).... 8,101 PortUKiieso leguos... 6,760 Prussian mile 8,468 Boinau (ancient) 1,618 " (modern) 2,035 Russian versts. 1,167 Saxonmlle. 9,906 Scotch 1,984 Blloslan 7,083 Bpanlsb loguas, legal. . 4,630 " " com.. 7,416 Buatlsnmlle 10,126 Bwedlsb 11,704 Swiss 9,160 Turkey berries 1 ,821 Wostphallan mile. . . . 12,166 llungsriau 9,lia Mllford-Haven, a harbor of England, on a basin or deep Inlet of the Atlantic, on the coast of South Wales, county Pembroke, forming one of the htst ports III tile Mrltlsh dominions, Latitude of St. Anne's Heads, the north-western extremit}' of the entrance, and nn which are three light-houses, with fixed lights, Sie 41' N., long. B0° W2a" W, Length of haven about 16 miles t average breadth, 2 miles. It is com- (iktely land-locked, has deep water, and the whole shipping of the empire might ride here as safely as in tindk, In any weather ; wliile the access is easy, and th« «gross can be accomplished, by aid of the strong ••lib, «veli In head winds. It has for some tinio been a favorite scheme with the southern States to have a line of Btvamers between this port and Norfolk, Virginia, and tlii Annaal valae of mlntnl*. £19,TT9,BT0 Coal prodace, 184S, tons 4,141,S1T ' Plglron " 60(»,000 Salt " 8»8,U00 Pnu»ia. Value, 1949. £5,298,480 I'rodnce of mines. l,nis,177 Produce of foanderies. 8,fi«ij,«63 i Zinc owt 2,B74,)*61 Copper. " 708,951 Coat. tons 18,197,188 Peat " 8,778,«2« Bar and pig Iron " 200,000 Btu$ian Umpire. Gold, 1849 lbs. 71,711 Fine gold £8,860,728 Iron tons 160,000 United StaU*. Bee article Unitio Btath. Bataria. Iron, 1847 tons Copper refined owts. Belgium. Iron, mannfiutured, 1850. tons Coal " BrtuU. Qnld and silver produced In 1860 In tho old Ainerloan mines £7,000,000 Denmark. Iron tons Bgypt. There Is an iron fonndery, and they are able to cast 50 cwt of Iron per day, employing 60 cwt of coal. Greece. Insignificant qoantities of minemls are ez- tntoted. 16,000 11,012 280,000 4,600,000 18,000 271,688 7,000 2,000,000 750,000 4,000,000 8,000,000 22,000 1C9 £808,000 tons 18,000 ITamburg. Zinc exported, 1 849 cwt*. Bolland. There are largo engineering establishments. Maeieo. Pure gold marcs Papal SUUeii. fiar iron lbs. Cream of tartar " Sulphur. " Portugal. Sardinia. Salt lbs. Iron tons Spain. Value— Estln^ -•: Iron Oteeden and Koraay. Sweden, 1848 to 1847— Average. Oast iron tons Bar iron " Steel wares. " Silver 01. Copper. ewta. Brass. " '.'nrkey. l\noSiciUe». ■ Sulphur exported from Sicily, 1S4T. . . .owts. Sumac. " China. Colon IKS : Britiek PoMeuiont—Tndie*. Canada. White pine, 1346. pieces 404,690. . . .feet 24,698,260 Bcdpine " 141,706.... " ^287,MS Oak. " 68,102.... " 2,689,754 Elm » 97,204.... " 8,472,808 Property assessed, 1847 £8^667,001 Cape o/Oood Hope. AutlraUa—y»tc South WaU», Coal.lM8 ton* 45,441 Gold mines at Bathurst Weetern— Van Diemen't Land, South. Copper ore exported, 1348 ton* 10,681 Jamaioa, Ceylon. MaurUiut. J, French Poetetrtnnt—HayH. Copper mines. 8p face suddenly rises Into what are called blulfH, and Iw- hlnd them tlia country la a moderately elevated talila land with a divarsiftad snrfaoe. Cotton Is the prlniU- pal production of the Stata. The Yazoo is the largest river that haa Its whole course In the Stata. It risas in the north-west part, and after a course of 260 niilaa, enters the Mississippi. The Posoagoula Itlvar, after a course of 260 miles, enters the Gulf of Uaxioo. At its month it widena into a bay. It is navigabia for a considerable distance for small veaaela. Tha Itig Black River, after a course of 200 milas, enters tba Mississippi just above Qrand Gulf. It ha* a boat nav- igation of 50 miles. Pearl River rises In tha central part of the State, and passing through it to the suulti, farming in its lower part the boundary between tills State and I^uisiana, enters Lake Korgne. Its naviga- tion is much impeded by sand bars and ol>atructiiiii8 of timber. The Homochltto is a consideralila river which enters the Mississippi. Beside tliesa, there are a few other small rivers and creeks. A cliain of low, sandy islands, six or aeven milea from the abors, enclose several bays or sounds, the largest of whi«h are Mississippi Sound, Pascagoula Sound, and Lalia Borgne. Manufacturet, etc. — There were in the Stata in 1860, 2 cotton factories, wilh a capital invested of 138,000, employing 10 males and 17 females, producing 171,IMN) pounds of yam, valued at $BO,500 ; 8 establlsbnients, with a capital of #100,000, employing 112 iiersoiia, and making 924 tons of castings, etc., valued at (117,- 400; 1&7 flouring and grist mills, 2(S« saw mills, IHO tanneries, 53 printing offices, 56 newspapers, 2 tri> weekly, 2 semi-weekly, and 52 weekly publications, Capital invested in manufactures, $l,8i'l5,HU5 ; value of manufactured articles, i|2,962,038. There were, .Jarinar}-, 1R56, 10 railroads in the State, 87 roilas com- plated and in operation. Tba principal places in the State are Jackson, tba capital, Natchez, Grand Gnlf, Washington, Viuks. burg, Columbus, Alrardeen, and Holly Springs, On the 1st of January, 1854, there was one bank, with • capital of $240,000. Total tonnage of the Stats, 1860, 2,609,000 tons. DiBccT FouioN CouHKHcs Of TiiR Stati Or Husiaairfi. Y«an. EtporU. lin|)oHl, 183«. %vojm 18M. 6,«0 1987 $804,681 Juna80,18MtoJnne80,18M 4,888 1851»nd]852 0,781 These returns are very incomplete, and only Include the direct commerce. Most of the imports for Missis- aippi are entered in the port of New Orleans, MiMlMippl River, tho largest river of North America; and in length of navigable tributaries, and In extent of facilities afforded to commerce, tlie great' est river in tho world. DUcovry of ike Mitnuippi. — ^There seems ta Im little doubt that Pinedo, the Captain of Uaray, saw for the first time the mouth of the Mississippi when be accomplished, in the year 1510, his flrst circumnavlga- tion of the whole Mexican Gulf. We have no sjiecial report of Pinedo's proceedings. But on the few maps or sketches of tho Mexican Gulf which were made In Spain aoon after Pinedo's return (of the years 1 520, 1521, and 1629), there is to bo found, near the centra of the northern gulf shore, a large inlet called " Mar ' pequefia" (the little sea), and a mighty river leading into it called " Rio del Espiritu Santo." Diego Itibaro, on his large and accurate map (of 1629), which ha made for the Emperor Charles V., has this Iwy and lit* mouth of lh« rlv«f already under 30'' north laU. tuda, wbhih U v«fy ntmarkable, iMinauaa it Is th« triM Utl(H4« iif tba Mlsslaslppl mouth, and Iwnauaa It naitrly itw>i'1«a tli«) iiutistlon that not Moblia Bay, «« soma bavf nuppoaoit, hut the Mississippi, was iiidi<'iit«4 by it, NwlMKly <'rl«s funned by tlia Mlaiii4a||,|i| lasatia itttd tli« liortborn gulf slmra, and for wbii.'li wa Imva iHi giiiiaral tiNiiin, The Mississippi passes iim«( liava H^i|i«it>'Kil to tho old Hpanlsh navigut4ira as vtiry daiigMrims nnd (liltlciilt of approach. And wary utuu (liay imt (Iw imms of the lloly Cross to capes of this dasi'ri|itlmi. Tim svi'tmit intvaltir after Pinedo who saw and crossad Ilia Mi'sinslppi w(a no doulit Cab«i;a du \ii'% liiiit Ilia i'iitii|Mnlon!i, between tba years 15:CM5:i.'i, I'roMI ( 'illlllwi,'!* it« Vacu's relxirt. It Is eviilent llmt hi* luiiDinitiMliir, Narvaefs, and his i.'oinpanlons, got Imt alwut Mnblla or P«rdidu llav, or aomawhare elw nut v»ry far t«i th» «as( of the Mississippi, Once, ho ssii, tbav liallavad thatflMlvns to have arrived at the " Itsy (if Rspirllil Matllii, lii'Ht tha Mississippi." Afterward l!atiai;a Hinl his fiillownrs wandered westward In tba liirai'tloti of N», Wliiuli (if tha pKssiis it Was can not be made out, Iti' adinii, una uf tha writers un De Soto and Mosoiso, and lino iiftlialri'iiliipanlotis, states, however, tliat the riv»r bad A\K»tmi tnuiitba and branches. In one of tliu raporta m Vs HnUi'n expedition (liy Garcilassii il« la Vaga) it h) attM that the Indian naina of the gr«iii rivar wia " Chui^MKUa," Probably, in consci|ucni» of this, (ha gaflgraphera put sometimes on their niups tlix imiita " (Jitiuiaxim" to ilia river. Generally, howaynr, tha old imma uf " lllii del Ksplritu Hantu" (River uf tlm lidly (Ibiml) (iravallnd after lie Soto for a long tliuc Ona of tlia lilstorlans of Do Soto, the so-called " Vuf- tngiiasa gaiitlitiiian of Klvas," sometimes calls it " tliu (Iraat llivar uf (iiiif lioya." Guacboya was oiiu of tlis plains ahitiii (ha river where De Soto encamped, "In Uuaahoyit,'' nnyn llarcllasso, " the great river Is callsd ' Tamallsau i' In Nlico, ' Tnpala ;' in Coija, ' llico [' at tha (Hirt (ir tiiuiith It la called ■ HI,' " l,imit,^\n (ha year 1657 the Governor, I,un», was aant to CaHnitwila Hay, and from thence, witli bis cap- tains Nliit niaii. ninde many inroads into the intariur toward tlm nurtli nnd west. It Is very possible, tliuugh It h niiwhara (<<(NK(ly stated, that some of bis men aluo got AS far SNst Its tha Mississippi. Martiiwlln unit l.n SatU The French Uariiustta (liirtt) and soon Hf(«r him the Sleur de la Salia (titN2) ra4l«D0T«rad (h« Mississippi, and saw a greater par* MTS 1863 MIS Ith 111* «»!>• Iha Interim' llila, tlwugU lu men a-Ui tt tlM Hr«r than wm ever neen before them. Do In Ml* WM, «ft«r MoacoMi (1MB), the flrat who tailed (IWtT) down the whole river to its mouth, and entered thn Mexican Onlf. He explored in boats the whole dMia nf the (laaneii, and raw, without however naming thKm, nil the principal pauei, A little above the di- vMlnf( point of the pnanes he erected a monument with the arm* of Vrance. Thia was on the 8th of April, lAWt, On the 7th of the same month he had ex- plored the principal branches of the river and seen the •««. He observed alao the latitude of this place ; but there Is a great diversity about the resuits of his ob- iMrvatlons. Some say that he observed the latitude 17° north, as, for instance, that remarkable document of the taliInK possession of the countr}- at the mouth of the river by La Halle. Also, Barcia says that La Halle observed the latitude of the mouth between n" and 28° north latitude, " though," he adds, " some hMfd !/• Halle say that the mouth was l)etweon 28° and 20° north latitude." After this. La Salle as- (iMided the stream again to the north. father Marquette (1672) was the person who Introduceil for the first time into geography the In- dian name of the river, "Mississippi." lie, how- jrer, k*v<< to It at the sainv lime the Christian or ll'rench name " Riviere de C-mception." La Salle MMfMS to have ratiled this latter name. He called (Im river, after the great French minister, " Riviere it* Ciilherl," On some mapa even the whole upper Mississippi country is called " La Colbertie" (Col- l)«ft's Innid), The name Hiviere Colbert may be called t* Hnlie's name for the Mississippi. It seems, how- ever, soon to have given way to the Indian name Mis- slsslptd, which really was already longer known to th« ICnropean missionaries, and whicli was already (iftener adopted in books and in commerce than those WW Inventions of the European discoverers. 7V>n(i,— The next man after De la Salle who came 'lown the Mississippi was tha Sieur de Toiiti, or Tonty, who had already accompanied La Salle on his first navlfffltion. De Tonti had heard that La Salle had ae( out from franco to the mouth of the river, and he came, In the year 1085, down to me«t him at the shores III the Ouif, He arrived there during "the Holy Week" (Knster) of lfi8(!, but did not And La Salle, who had reached the coast of Texas instead of that of the MiKslssIp])! passes. Orlffin n/lhg Name. — " One of the names of the river tmder which Iberville, In 1609, had heard it called," my» Cbarievoix, " was Malbouchia." But the name Mississippi seems already then to have \ieen quite common. At least the first journal written In this colony— that of Captain Sauvol (1099, 1700)— uses always the name Mississippi, and not once that of Kivlere (/olliert. In the year 1712 an attempt was tfiade to give the river stilt another name. The great Kltlft nf France himself ordered, in the letters patent to CroKat, that the great river " heretofore called Mlssl»sl(>pr' should henceforward be called " Riviere Mil /louliii" But this name, newly sent out from France liy royal authority, did not keep Its ground S|{Alnst the (ltd long-ago adopted Indian name. Char- levo)*, who traveled along the river in 1721-22, and pllbllshml his work in 1744, never uses it. He always calls It " Mitiiiiippi" or " Micitsipi." Into general tine the name Hiviere St. I^uls has certainly not come ; (rtrt (m maps made by royal geographers or great sa- vans like D'Anville, we find it stilt nsed in the year HWi. though always beiiilet the name Mississippi. Tne name " Mississippi" Is an Ojlbbeway word, which the first discoverers of that stream heard pro- nminced In their missions round Lake Superior. Ac- cording to some. Its meaning is "/A« Great Wakr," Others, for instance the Reverend Bishop Baraga, ex- plalff It as " rivers," or " waters from all sides." The Frencti authors generally write " llisaisipl ;" MtMUilah authors have always "Mlsisipi." We now donbtd ever}' consonant in it, and write "Mississippi," in which word, I have no doubt, some letters could be spared J. O Koiii.. I)e$eripti(m. — Its extreme source, according to the explorations of Schoolcraft, July 1.1, 1832, is Itoska Lake, 47° 10' N. tat., and 96° 64' W. long., at an ete- vation of 1600 feet, and the distance of 8160 miles aliove the Gulf of Mexico. Itaska Lake is a beautiful sheet of water, lying among hills surmounted by pines. The outlet' of the Uke Is 10 or 12 feet broad, and from 12 to 18 inches dci-p. Its course is then northwardly and north-eastwardly, and It passes through Lakes Irving and Travera, and then east- wardty and south-eastwardly, and through some small lakes, to Lake Cass. This lake is of considerable ex- tent, and contains a large Island, 182 miles below Its source, and Its surface is elevated 1380 feet above the Gulf of Mexico. Its course Is west to Lake Winnipec, then south-west, through Little Winnipec Lake, until It receives Leech Lake Fork, the outlet of a consider- able lake of the same name. The most northern point nUalned by the river is a few minutes short of 48° ; it then pursues a winding course eastwardly, passint; through some small lakes, until tt attains a southward- ly direction. The average descent of thn Mississippi, from Its source to Its entrance Into the Gulf of Mexico, is a fraction over five inches per mile. The region about the r.ource of the Mississippi is an elevated table land, abounding in small takes of pure water, and fed chiefly by springs. ExTKNT OK Steam Natioatio» on tub Uitkiu, Batoub, ETC., CUNNECTKI) WITH TIIK MlBSIBSIm «y CuANMELS NAVIOABLR FUR STKAMF.RS, 10,674 Mll.RS. MlSAlSSU'PI AND ItKANOIIES, BAVOVS, RTO. Mllei. Mississippi, proper 2,Uiiu 8t.Crolx 8;i 8t Potcr'8. 1,120 Oblppeway 70 Black 6ft Wisconsin 180 Rock 250 Iowa 110 Cedar 60 Dos Moinos 2S0 Illinois 245 Msremeo 60 Koskaskla. 150 Big Muddy 6 Obion 60 Forked Deer 195 BIgHatchu 76 Bt, Francis 800 White BOO BIgBlack 60 Missouri and Branches. Mllri. Missouri, proper, 1,800 Yellowstone 800 Platto or Nebraska .... 40 Kansas. 150 MlUk Spring 60 Arkansas (navlffablo at high water, 850 m.).. 600 Canadian 60 Neosho 60 Yozon flOO Tollahateheo 300 Tallabusha 80 Big Sunflower 70 J.lttio Sunflower. 150 BIgBlack 90 Bayou do Glaze, 140 " Oaro 40 " Rouge 60 " LaFourchl 12 " Pl.iqnemlno.... 96 " Tocho 13 Grand River Bavou Sonf II 13 ■" Chlon S Mllai. Osago 275 Grande 100 BlgSloux 160 Outo AND Branches. Mll«. Ohio, proper 1,000 Alleghanv 200 Monongshela 6^ Muskingum 70 Kanawha 65 BlgSandy 50 Bcloto 60 Red River and Beakciiks. Mllei. Red River, proper 1,500 Washita. SK Snllno IWt Little Missouri 60 Bayou d'Arbonnc, 60 " Bartholomew... 150 " Biuf 150 » Mncon 175 " Louis 80 Mlln. Kentucky 63 SaltRlvor. 85 Green 160 Barren 80 Wabash 400 Cumberland 400 Tennessee 720 Mllu. Tensas 150 LakoBlstenaw 60 Lake Coddo 75 Sulphur I'ork 100 Llttlo River 65 KlamchI 40 Boggy 40 Bnvou I'lerro 160 Atchafaloya 880 The average width of the Mississippi below the Mis- souri is about a mile ; but the large rivers which en- ter It greatly increase its depth. Its medial current is about four mites an hour. At the head of the delta, the depth is from 75 to 80 feet ; at Now Orleans it is MM 1M4 Mia 100. At tba ilttuHtm itt UH mll«« UUm Naw OrlMiu, by tha oourau iif (Iim rlvNr, liHt 00 In n dlract cnnru, this niiijiiilir rUumnUiro l\m tiiiUnt Maxico dy nav- arul muMtiM, llw |irWMii|Ml tiC ttltlall ara ciIImI Iha Un- Uia, or Vofth-tmH I'm*, Ih ilW^ CM' Wl" M, l«t., and Hl)0 01' 1i" W, l«n«, l»niNlHM » mmty of over 1,000,000 »nmra miimi Ut antaut, It ^niild tiaturally Im axpoitail tl)«( it* mminn AmiiU mmM im vunt i and III coiiui(U8iiuN lit tbaiit, l( Mfarllott* It* tianka at that ■aaion tu « waat «iii«Hl> Krnm tiM aourcafi to tlie iiioutb of tita mmmrt, tiM tittm] rimmtni^M In March, and dua* n•>^ iti»lwi4« MittH tlia laH nf May, at an «▼- uraga baiubt itf U> faat, Vtum tiM Mlaaourl to the Uhla it ri«a» M M, »h4 imUiw th« Ohio, for a grfiat dUtawia, M fimt, At Witty ttimd It onfipreada ■ country, uliiarty mi Ita w*»t«fH aide, from 10 to 80 miUa wida, W) iHilaa (mm il« mouth. Thla river la oxtraiiMily wlinliiiK ill it* cimiI'm | and anmetlmea a lieiul will ui'iwr iii W) mil*'* 1)1 Kfilailt. In which the dUtanua »urwbi4g«d and protected In all tracts of country, unit«4 MIKbT tbi* *i«m« tmllllcal noclety, by laying the navigable river* open to nil their Inhabit- ants. Whan tlie** rivara «HI«r the limit* of another sooiety, if tlia riglltl of (Im Upper inhabitant* to dn- acand tba atraaiii waa ifi atty i'a*« olwtructed, it was au act of force by » alroHger w/ciety a)<(aln*t a weaker, condemned liy tba judglflent »( mankind, The then recent ease of tile atta)MI/( fit the Km)(eror .Joseph 11., to open tlia iiavigatbiH of tb# N((h«Mt from Antwerp to the sea, was iwnuiilartNi M a atrikluK pout of the gen- eral union of aeMtilHeht m Ibi* point, a* It was be- lieved that Aiiistardam had warcely an advocate out of Holland, and avau (here her tifeten*lans were ad- vocated on tlw groH«4j of Ireatle*, ami not of natural right. Tbia wntimattt of fight in favor of the upper InhabiUiits inuat \tm»im nttmgtt in the (iroportlon whtcli tiieir extent itt mmMry bear* to the lower. The United Mtatea liebl im,im *i|U«r« miles of inhab- itable territory 011 th« Mi**i*«ippi and It* lirancbea, and Uils river witli ita ((faiM'he* afforded many tbou- ■anda of mibia of navlf^ifie water* penetrating this territory in all it* (i»rt», Tlie inhal/ltalile territory of Spaia I)bU)w their laotHdary, and leirderlng on the river, which alona emtU jitMHend any fear of lielng iu- commudud liy tiieir i«ini of tlM river, was not the tbou- sandtb part of tliat «Kt«Ht, Thla va*t portion of the territory of (lia Ullile#l M(at«« bad no ether outlet for ita productiona, and tbe*« prutlucllons were of the bulUaat Uwt. An4, (a t« Stock. — Horses, 225,819; asses and mules, 41,067; milch cows, 230,169; working oxen, 112,168; other cattle, 449,173 ; sheep, 762,511 ; awine, 1,702,625 ; val- ue of live stock, $19,887,580. Agricultural ProducU, etc Wheat, 2,981,652 ; rj'e, 44,268 ; Indian com, 86,214,537 ; oats, 5,278,079 ; bar- ley, 9,681 ; buckwheat, 23,641 ; peas and beans, 46,- 017 ; potatoes, 939,006 ; sweet potatoes, 835,505 ; rice, 700 pounds; value of (he product of the orchard, $514,711 ; produce of market gardens, $99,454; pounds of butter mode, 7,834,359 ; of cheese, 203,572 ; maple sugar, 178,910 ; molasses, 5,636 gallons ; beeswax and honey, 1,828,972 pounds ; wool, 1,627,164 pounds pro- duced; flax, 527,160; silk cocoons, 186; bops, 4,130; tobacco, 17,118,784 ; hay, 116,925 tons ; hemp, 16,028 tons ; clover seeds, 619 bushels ; other grass seeds, 4,846 ; flax seed, 18,696 ; and were made 10,603 gal- lons of wine. Value of home-made manufactures, $1,674,705 ; of sUiughtercd animals, $3,367,106. The Mississippi winds along the entire eastern boundary of the State for a distance of 400 miles, and receives in its course tbe waters of the Great Missouri, which Indeed deserves to be regarded as the main stream. Through tbe central and richest part of the State the Missouri rolls iU immense volume of water, l)eing nav- igable for Ave months in the year for steamboats 1,800 miles from its entrance into the Mississippi. Tlie La Mine, Osage, and Gasconade on the south, and the Grand and Chariton on the north side, are navigable Twr.. 1M9.... I8S0.... 1858.... 1854.... 18.V5.... 1886.... MIS 1965 Mon frihutariat of the Mlnitourl. Marameo IllveT riinii through tho mtnvrnl diatrict, in a navlifalile ■traam, and enters tli« Mlnaianlpiii 18 mllei below 8t. lA>uia, Salt Klver, whirh la alao navigable, enten the Miaala- •ippi N5 milea above the Miaaourl. The White and St. Frnncia drain the aouth-eaat, and the tributariea of Neoaha the aouth-waat part of the State. Munufacturr; tie. — There were In the State in IRfiO, 3 cotton fiK-torlea, with n capltiil inveatod of (102,000, employing 75 malea and 80 femalea, producing articlea valued at f 142,000 ; 1 woolen factory, with a capital of 920,000, employing 16 malea and 10 femalea, manu- facturing 12,000 yarda of cloth, and 6,000 palra blank- eta, valued at (66,000 ; S eatnbllahmenta making pig iron, with a capital of (619,000, employing 884 per- sona, and producing 19,260 tona of pig iron, etc., val- ued at (314,000 ; U oitabliahmenta, with a capital of (187,000, employing 297 persona, nnd making 6,200 tona of castinga, etc., valued at i!i;i3U, 195 ; 2 eatal>lish- uionta, with a capital of (42,100, employing 101 por- aona, manufacturing 963 tons of wrought iron, valued at (0H,700 ; 75 flouring and griat niilla, 1138 aaw milla, 210 tanneries ; 56 printing oflicea, 5 daily, 4 trl and semi-weekly, 45 weekly, and 7 monthly publications. Capital invested in manufactures, (9,194,999 ; value of manufactured articlea, (24,250,578. Tho principal places in this Stuto are St. Louis, Jef- ferson Cityi tho capital, St. Charles, Palmyra, Colum- bia, liberty and Lexington. There were in ,lanuary, 1854, 1 bunk with 6 branches, with a cash capital of (1,215,406. There were 6 railroads in the State ; 50 miles of road completeorlous additions. Any other pe- riods would exhibit the same flattering results : Ymfi. PoUi. Lwd. Ptnoluil properly. Acre*. V«lu«. ' Vulu.. 1849.... 88,798 8,808,608 (81,612,000 $7,780,000 1850.... 88,846 9,511,261 86,099,000 10,797,000 1858.... 07,470 11.236,485 51,740,000 19,021,000 185*.... 103,988 12,901,287 67,744,000 22,974,000 18.V1.... 106,160 15.890,a»4 79,010,000 24,342,000 1866.... Ul,488 18,668,1«8 1 89,702,000 80,346,000 For mineral resources, etc., of Missouri, see North Amer. Rev,, xlviii., 514 (W. G. Eliot); Hdst's Mag., viii., 535 (0. C. Wkittlbsby), xlii., 222, xv., 28, xvi., 177. Missouri, a large river in the United States, rises in the Rocky Mountains, and takes its name after the union of three branchea, denominated Jefferson, Gal- latin, and Madison, in 45° 10' N. lat., and 110° W. long. The spring sources of Missouri, and those of tho Columbhi, which flows west to the Pocilic, are not more than a miie apart. At tho distance of 411 miles lYom the extreme point of navigation of its hood branches, the Missouri passes through the Kocky Mountains by what Is denominated the Gates. For a distance of six miles the rocks rise perpendicularly from the water's edge to the hcigUt of nearly 1200 feet, and tba rfver la only IW) fnrt\t wMx, Iff) t„ttna below this and (fll mllna frolM \U mtmi'i; ntH Oi» « and I.WM) Ifnm ^^» mnulh The Miaaourl enUra tlw l|i>4i«•> «MvfK«lit«i (mm 100 to 500 milea. Sea timmitim l(»VK«, 'ttm Mla.otlfl through the greaUr uart uf IN ,mm l« fHlild no.l turbid, and alH)ut a mlla in wUMt, 'Mw |il«( tif ^Hi-v of ita banks is axcaadlpigly furtlli* mh4 ftirtrt fl to 26 milea wide on eai'li aiitni. Mobile, city, iM)rt «f aiitry, hhA i-»\M»i t>t MuUU county, Alal>ama, 200 utiUa »t KiiimmniUnn " l>eautiful prospect. It Is MtfUiM wUU «/»#, *W(1 atifi- plied with pure water broMgllt ffon» "flic i'prirt^" tw.it Spring Ulii, a diatunco of It inll«'<', >n4 iMfiimlifii througliout the city in Iron I()(»ia, '( l(« fMHiiM In Mobile Hay la l)etweeu MobilH Colnt im tli« iitiH, and Dauphin Island on tlw west, hUiiM f(| iwdfa dpsft, the deepest channel having 16 (fui nmtft Hi hm tMi s but vessels drawing mors tiMH « itf )( fort Wjttfft cult not, owing to a abosl in tl»a Iwy. tum'h (Iw Umn ex- cept ot higli water. A Ujthi-mi'f Pfwlwl im i|i|. point, lat. 30° 16' N., long, *»" )«' W„ Ksl/ibUs ,i fixed light elevated fib t»et »Ih>v» tim level i/f liie .«e i. Vcs.sels drawing mora titun 8 faet w»(«f (i/jim up ft(M((- ish River, 6 miles, uroun bay, 30 miles lieiow tlifl city, fimf (imipHUi (stand is tlie anclioruge fur large (.Is^ia vnitiitiin, wtietH may be seen at times u fleet of 50 or W hU, (t #«.<( antten- dered to tlie Americans by Wp»in id )«f,'(, (IwHffed «« a town in 1814, ineor|iorute4 us H fity in iiiUI, H hria suff'ered tevercly l)y (ire : 170 liMiMlHi}^ *«« l(UHI«d in 1827, and 600 in 18t(U, ilMt it imn IWMI tuilUiH, with additional beauty Bn4 mnv^nl^nm, Statkmrnt or thr Vaiub oc fnmmi ♦*« (»(>ft(*s At tliii Port ok Mobilr run fitu V>;*» (»fi*), A!>u tO» ♦«* First anb StxoNO il)MABT>i|ti u)/ )»/)7, lat quarter, 1356.. 2d " " .. 8d " " .. 4tb " " .. Total, 18,16... " 1856. " 1854. 1st quarter, 1857. . 2d " I mflHUr DullabU. I fiL-n, I Tsliri.. |9VSi?fUI,T4«>*HW ■ mm "lim 'fin,im OHfilHi, 6ujl,iii' 6.iim, ftiriu- *ii.m« mm MOB 1866 MOB t'uiiRiaN Kiroan nan Tin I'omt or Mobili rn« tui TlA> IIUMI, AID roi Till riMT iix MoNTiw or laST, \< ~1i Ainai^M vmmU. UMKm !I8«,8»0 l,7T6,97li —Tii ftir.l».- »4a.tn Tolal. g,r>iA,A40 7lW,Bt7 |I»,I>I7,)M4 l«,HIII,(l(iA ia,i»it,'i'ii titquMiw, IMM..... ill " " ;til " •' 4lh " Tot»I,1SM " IKM " JaiM :::: :::: tut qnartor, 18S7 •M " ToUI, < inonthi.. |H,m7,l87 8,imi,Q6t |4^,S4T 8a8,l))IS $l9.iti47,5)M itaa.omi 17,7!JO,R8a 1 lAiLii or hxTain and Ci.«A«Aiicni or Vkmhu at tii« I'uItT or MoHILK (KXCLUIIIVK ur HtIAHIIWI and OTIIW ORArr NAVKIATINn TUR KiTIU AMD BaY), rOK TIK Traii nmiicnu .lum ROtii, 18ft7. ClwrMter, Auierlcan. . Kori'Igii . . . CoMtWllO. . Total.... RnirUi. ' CiMirHMM. 1 V.u.l.| Tun.. Or.w. VtmU ltJ7 217 466" Tom. Cr«w. uiM a,o«i 44,H8I l,2&8 71,8111 2.'i84 m,t>M 8,8oa 6H 4»,7Bfl SMI |t)47.l>S4 7uO JUS7,4UH y.084 1.418 0,7«0 Kxrom nr ('otton to Fokxion Poiiti, with tii* Wkimiit and Valum attacusd, roll tuk Ymab inuinu Auoi'it SlBT, 1867. BnlM, Ponlidl. (It Urluln, In Am, tomoU " Brit. " ! ToUl to Ornt Britain. Ifranee, In Amor. vcH«Ia,. " S»ril. " .. Total to Franco. ,Bi3lglam . 'Hweden., Ilumburf^. UuskIs Ilullana Denmark Hpain Total to othar tor. porti| 18,B|g Total tonign, 1VH,7I3 81,148 1,1)71 I 84,ft84,4))7 41,'i(>ti,ll0ll «0(I,48G 211,201 100,440,682 84,80S 14fi 49,78l>JMt 72,UV4 8t,840 42,862,627 1,167,801 1,088,261) l,80^478 4,1A060 760,M4 87",«.<)8 611 ,119 ».678,7(in 111.288 ,648' 814,989 168,921,840 |t2U,206;491 9,297 1,068 1,646 8,190 1,470 1,128 1,2'26 V.lw. I $8,878,741 6,2111,681 88^7 tl8,6M,218' (^294,0I4 9,614 16^808,628 $161,424 122,826 166,676 646,9.^ 91,186 74,200 86,464 CoMPAUATivK Viiew or TiiR KxpoRTB or Cotton keom MoniLR KOB Four Ykabs, oommrnoixo Ist HKrTKMiirR. Pom. I 18M-t1. I lUt-H. : 1)54-1S. ' 18U-t4. Liverpool Hull OUugow and Oroonook Cowes and a markoL . . I Total to Great Britain ilIa»ro IBochello, etc. Hanelllcs-aud DIuppe . . Total to Franco . . . ArngtordamARottordam Antwerp Ilamb' gLBronion,Ht I'et. Stockholm, Oliunt, etc.. Olbraltar and Barcelona Havana, oto Genoa, Trlwto, eto. . Other ports Total to oth. for. ports New York Boston Provldonco Philadelphia Baltimore New Orleans Other porta Total coastwise . Grand total SRCAriTULATION. Great Britain Franco Other foreign porta. . . . . Total foreign Total United Btotes... ' Onodtotol B»l»<. I H>lr>. I Bule.. 196,866 310,812 118,616 4,774 .... 8,069 6,188 .... 6,588 6,696 | 1.681 211,281 04,668 181 146 81,840 1,470 2,297 10,786 2,068 1,226 1,128 18,918 28,786 47,411 22,982 6,681 6,898 60,036 1,610 174.066 489,044 211,231 84,840 13,018 814,989 lT4kOM 48«,044 117,462 vis 861,690 216,148 281,230 94,011 804 1,946 110,074 1,016 96,262 111,090 966 9,901 10,7(9 7,881 6,017 8,080 87,083 28,492 66,807 17,672 2,076 4,6«8 73,707 8.SS5 196,286 681,821 a'51,B90 96,262 37,088 485.036 196,186 WW 1,900 1,689 1,660 8,777 V,9S9 1,268 18,978 80,986 26,968 1^875 1,813 8,8M 82,087 1,^00^ 112,792 76,817 76,827 1,960 6,087 8,894 1,626 8,406 100 6,709 418 29,094 S^414 48,280 28,406 6,M7 8,921 64,686 2.931 468,108 215,248 111,090 18,978 r78,806 616,'666~ 281,280 76,827 20,094 840,811 18.87,181 111,792 1178,506 468,103 616,686 OoTToH Caor or Boutii Alarama roi TwRNTT-iinirr Yrar*. 1880 18H1 1182 1H88 1884 1886 1886 1887 1888 1889 1840 1841 IfUl 1848 Onf. 101,684 118,076 126,6(18 120.HA6 149,618 197,847 187,690 282,686 8011,807 261,742 446,726 817,642 817.8161 482,6611 77,121 19(^988 ■■«78 164,816 sa AmiiiaI AnnuAl iDerMM. 4MnM«. ■Kf 11.866 10,891 12,680 8,761 90,147 48,884 89,748 4,906 68^066 126^068 YMit. Onf. AnniiAl Annuftl lllflriM*.'4wraUf, 1844 1846 1846 18»7 1848 1849 1860 1861 1861 1868 1864 1806 1866 1667 llRUt, {' 46N,I2« 6I7.BN) 42i.mio! 822,61(1 488,824 6I7>M 860,207 461,697 649,772 646,614 688,110 464,,^96 669,788 608,177 49,424 ll^8IIH 79,622 10I,4(K) 98,076 106,148 11,6(16 80,161) 187,640 8,2'jS 8,404 8i),BI,1 HtOOK or OuTTON AT Till PORT Or MoBILR IN PhKKIIIIII, Warxiiovsiis, and OH BiiirBOARU, AvuuaT 8Ut, 1887. PIlMltiir'i Rhl|> mitrk, llMrli«J. DtlH. BaIx. Factor's press and waroliouies .... 987 1,477 Shipper's " " .... 689 219 Alabama " " .... 196 Bolina warehouse 14 .... Plokcrlns, stores, eto IS Arrived by railroad 16 .1,796 . 18 Toliil. \M,i. 8,184 778 1U8 14 IS 2(! Total... Arrived since . 1,696 4,401 Total stock, Aog. 81, 1867. .. 1,808 1,696 4,604 COHPABATIVK IliFORTS Or TIIR rol.LOWINO STAPI.K AKTICLRS INTO TIIR Poiit ur MoiiiLR roB rivR Yrahs. Arllilai, Bogging pieces Bale rope, colls Bacon hhds ColTee sacks Corn ' Flour ....bbls. liny bales I.ard kegs Uine bbls, MolaMua *' Outs tacks Potatoes bbla Pork " Ulcc tlcroosl Halt sacks !26 893,681 140.998_ 639,042 Juno 30, Mobih J Gulf of M age 12 ml by two ati 'i'he strait drawing m between th and the clu 'i'hore is a 1 has only ]] u on tile ( Lat. 80° Shows a K level of tlic l^al miles, is Siind Isla 02' west, thu sea, 1 miles. Wii Mobile, Is t /rcrf light, ^y, ana is MOB 1807 MOO 8,2M K,4«4 8!(,6in 1 166,661 llnlM. 8,164 778 196 14 IS 211 4,401 18 4,604 I 1841-8. 1 2l,l"7 IS. " 84,Mtl 92,li'4l 1 64,141 I 2i,^:i" 1 22,IW» 'j 21,'i6'i lU.lltl 4S,«(l."ll 21.IU1 15M1 ! I,:W'.I I'il.'.'i'rii H,i\ri_ 21,7.^1 8,7881 7;602 1.862 2,2!in 1!78 » T.516 2.819 8,982 l.f'ft 0,6.V> 1,90(1 1,285 6i9 2,991 2.1;5 62f !M a,113 2,1.6 1,286 7ua, 1163 M% 174 19; 40a B15; «j ii 14,888 8,.wy 678 ll'l 1 8,498 3,208| { m. i,'»', ark's Islauil. 6 TO 1B.M, con- ll-iS. 1846-41. 8,829 131,166 1,812 89,293 9,070 1 19,7M 9,211 190,288 0,850 116,674 10,561 [806,907] Tariff of Chargt* on CoUon lU MobiU.—Tht proprie- tors of Ihe Mveral preiui and warebouaea at Mobile, have adopted the fullowInK uniform tariff of charges on cotton ! Kootor'i storage on cotton for the seasun, 20 cents |>er bale | compressing cotton, 60 cent* iwr bale j extra ropei on compressed cotton, eaidi 0| cents per Inle ; hilmr on ship marked cotton, 5 cents |wr iittlu I drayage, compressed cotton, 6 cents per bale i wharfage, compressed cotton, 5 cents per bale ; stur- ag« on cotton going coastwise, per week, 6 cents |wr Iwle ; turning out and re-stortng cotton, b cents per l>a!e I arrunging, 8 cents |)er Irnle, Aliihnma t'immcft, — The Comptroller and Treasurer of this Htitu have published the liienniul re|jort8 for Ihe riscal year ending ISeptemlier HO, 1H5U, which show • total of receiptr into the treoaury, from all sources, of #7M,'KM 4H I < r whl«li sMttt t«lll,nm if, w*a on the asseseiiMint of te««s (iit Urn year IWifi, j the Iwlance, •«I,H4 HI, HMkiNg lip IIm r.r«l Slim, was derived tiom Uunot IHH, \M1, IdftI, \m,\t, J*frl. from Mate Bank braiulws, Uinus Uum m>mk Itanks, Marietta and Olil.i IUIIro«4, 141b mH\tm fiiwl, end 3 and n |wr cent, funds, Bti., ilia dU/vn mm iit fe<^elpt«, ♦71»H.008 4fl, with the ImUiM* III tll« tr*iliia| |H«r|afS«s, «|iiiyiiil| Ut Hank Cominlssloner, •1)1,745 5i» Ui pay mmimf iit Ihe l,»glslatur<., etc., 4i2«,ll5l» 117 Ui Umm lw/«|ill»l, awl the balance to the Judiciary, Miilfvrsily rmid, et*(„ etc. There woi In til* treasury im M«p{«mlwr (W, IMO, ♦1,608,788 90. KoawuN ComiKacB or tiik 8tat» or Ai.ak*hs, rum K/inma* I, iwtn, in Jm.t I, \%M. Vmh mdlof KiporU. lw|wru, TvW, '»«**,. tUmt*, ISilrkt Tonriift. OooMiUe. ronlfl. ToUl. AimfUnt,, »"««•#«, M«*lH«rMt. Knrc ll.d mi U«IM«). Kept 80, 18lt 1829 1828 1824 1N26 1826 1827 1H88 18» 1880 ToUl.... Bept. 80, 1831 1882 1888 181M 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1840 Total.... Sept. 80, 1841 1842 Oinos. 1848 .lune 80, 1844 1846 1846 1847 1848 1849 1860 Total.... June 80, 1861 1852 1888 1S64 1SB5 ;866 1108,960 209,748 202,887 457,726 691,897 1,518,701 1,880,770 1,174,787 1,670,886 8,291.825 788 8,411 4^694 7,S22 14,678 8,129 «88,26* 11,083 2,888 5,740 6,760 2,664 873 6,898 196 " »26,89(r $11,445 V,«9 22,964 T^OM (108,960 2119,748 202,8«7 460,727 6»'2,«86 1,627,112 1.876,864 1,182,669 1.090,958 2,294,954 (9,749,404 (2,418,894 «,78«,«87 4,627,961 5,670,797 7,674,692 11,184,166 9,658,808 9,688,244 10,8;w,169 12,s,%4,604 VI,I|.2» (224,485 HiM »*.ui mm w/m Mm li»i,7W WM 1 '"Il .,::} 4m 4/lW IMiMlt I9,»M 9,'/<4 IIKAIi 11,996 '~Wf 19,666,185 12,412,862 2,788,664 4,629,221 5,e64,m7 7,572,128 11,188,788 9,669,910 9,68'<,(M9 10,838,169 12,864,694 t76,622,412 (10,969,826 9,96.6,676 11,167,460 9,000,185 10,616,274 6,260,817 9,05l,5so 11,920,698 12,82!1,725 10,544,858 1102,118,608 ' 118,628,824 11,888,681 16,786,918 18,911,612 14,270,666 28,726,215 i.m 8,926 > ■■•• (76,647,802 (10,981,271 9,966,676 11,167,460 9,907,664 10,688,228 6,260,817 9,0,^4,680 11,927,749 12,828,725 10,6«,868 (4,978,911 m»,m IWI,))!! R60,«6A 442,K|« 478 f'l 890,161 41»,8Wt fl*7,H7 845,802 mfifr «,79ft titiMm M,t«H 02.491 AMlif 4nM 1:^1 bjm 10,125 (42,914 ♦i;i28 7,955 (102,161,617 (18,528,824 17,88^70< 18,786,918 18,911,612 14,270,668 28,784,170 (4,r6tl,i)il7 (418,444 6»«,ll»2 mm 726,610 619,944 708,614 mm KO,** »J»19 18,749 Mobih Bay, Alaba Gulf of Mexico, and age 12 miles broad, by two straits, one The strait on the w( drawing more than 6 between the island an and the channel pass There is a bar across has only 11 feet wato is on the east side o Lat, 80° 13' 48" t Shows a revolving 1 level of the sea, and cal miles. Three ni is Sand Island light, 02' nest. Shows a^ thu sea, and is visi miles. .Within the 1 MobUe, Is the Choctt fixed light, elevated buy, ami is visible fo na, — Tho ba is 30 miles l< It commun )n each side ist side will feet water ; d MobUo Poi 3S within a f( the bav, neat r. The Mol f the entran lorth, long, gbt, elevate visible for u ilea south-H lat. 30° 11' txed light, el jle for a dis lay, a little iw Point lig 54 feet abov r a distance o y seta up )ng, and or Icates wit! of Dauph not admit that on tho nt, has 22 f w yards of its upper e ile Point I ce into Mo 88° 00' 3 d 57 feet distance of est of Mol 18" north, evated 54 tance of 1 south of t it-house ; [he surfi f 11 nautic from the 1 an avcr- 1 tho gulf n Island, of vessels east side, eet wuter, the |K)int. nd, which ght-house bile Buy. 0" west, ibuve the 12 nautl- )ile Point, long. 88° feet above 2 nautical le city of t shows u ce of the al miles. Mooba, 1 quenteil by 1 Yemen, about Uab-vl-maiidu east. Popula liaps, uiiiouiit with walls, uii from tliK sua margin of a i shore, betwuii form a buy, may anchor h town; but la roiuls, in 5 u Hearing ua^it the town .'out the shore, '1 coffee, which quality. It 1 ■stlmute of tl nay be takjuu greater portio litf prlH('l(ii ;iirif|waiia, 40 miUm b, hi, i!i'> lUin vnridi I'l frirtll 7 4 UiAWum is illltWI>iH ry siiiMly \ i tWII (Kill ithlii IliU gill nMfnt t r 1 M\m suilllMiilat, I by #ast, ( lie grant M a Hllfvfr<8l s iM't \mi*\ \» l(M>lllti(J lit \a,m II iij mni Ui nl plltt it It tllAt p Ui tim tin J!t' "Ml" fiy ♦'slftrt mt ui 70 ii\y tiitM \t, JMocd lnlH, It tl lit hm mfii^ frof tmy Mt ft) Nl'illf *i w wntw^ «ikI tho llfilant nt llcic llf P II*- wlm.tt l)l« U> tiif «j»fK/ti« t"Mi>, in the Ite< ttt of Am fth of tht north, ion tied) liiit m. It Is eil Its a a la sitlia is (rtlllt c which p (1 10 to 12 »)iit n mil lioiit the -till) grnn (ml to th ni Mix'b* ami MixlaliU, Unci IViiiii Kiin>|i«, ar* rrry M)n«iiUr*l>l«, Hatiilm uoITm, th( _^' |irtni'l|Nil artli'lfit of axpnrt ar*, l hanlwara, (itc. Tha Ivory, roM iluat, ami rivpt, mat with at MiH'lin, ir« limiiKht from th* (ipjHxiltn coiiat of Aliya- uliilii, whanra ara aUo lir<>Ut(ht aUvoa, ght9, ate. Th« Kranlar part of tha foralKH trniln of Morh* la Iranxttctail liy tha llanlaiia ; ami It Ik iiiuih aufar to iloiil with Ihem thiin with iy tlirpu inntaliiii'iiti), ornt ii •'vrtnin day, ucoordliiK n" »>ny '"'^" '""■' UKreed on. ( 'oDVe la alwaya piild for III rnaily money, (In the «al« of other )(iioila, thn priHliK'o of the country, ■ crvillt l« kIvuii ; or if roiidy money he paid, a diacouiit U allowed at tha ruto of per cent. When gtMMla are dlaclmrKlnK the nuinter inuat furnUh tha cuatom-houne ottteer with n munlfent, or account of the niarka, niinilierit, and contents of each package. He then 0|)ena two or throe liiilea taken ut random ; and if thoy vuixefptmd with the account deUvered,no further examination la made ; but If they ilo not correspond, the whole linlea are opened, and double duty U cliurt(pd upon the exce^a. The qiiantl- tlei lielnit Ihua aaccrtainad, their value la learned from the account of aalea rendered l>y the aallcr, und the duly ■'harifed ucrordlngly. In thia reapect there la nothing to oliject to at Mocha ; but a good deal of extortion la practiced in the exaction of port cliargea, proaenta, etc., which may, however, be defeated by proper llrmiieaa, Tha |>ort chargea on ahlps, or Ihrtt-miut veaaela, inuy amount to almut 100 Mocha dollnra, and thoae on briga to about half »a much. Provlalona are plentiful and cheap ; but water la dear ; that in the vicinity being bracklah and unwholesome, whatever U used for drink- ing, by all but the pooreat persona, ia brought from Mosa, about '20 inilea off. Fiah are abundant and cheap, but not very good. Mogadore, a aea-poit town on the west coaat of Morocco, lat. 81° 60' north, long. 0° 20' weat. Pop- ulation about 10,000. It la Indifferently furtitied ; the country in tlie immediate vicinity la low. Hat, aandy, and unproductive. Water la acaree and rather dear ; lieing either ri^n-water collected and preserved in cU- terna, or brought from a river aliout 1^ inilca distant. The port ia formed liy a small Island lying to the south- ward of the town ; but as there is not more than 10 or 12 feet water in it it ebb tide, large ahlpa anchor without, the long battery bearing eaat, distant \\ miles. The principal Imports are English woolen and cotton stuffs and hardware, (ierman linens, tin, copper, earthen- ware, mirrors, glaaa, sugar, pepper, paper, and a vari- ety of other articles. The exports principally conslat of sweet and bitter almonds, gum Arabic, and other gums, beeswax, cow and calf skins, ivory, ostrich feathers, gold dust, olive oil, dates, etc. " The duties levied on imiwrted articles are not paid In money, but in kind, and on English manufactures, army and navy cloth, brass, copper, tea, and sugar, and In fact. In all cases, with few exceptions, are rated at 20 per cent., or a fifth part of the goods, whatever they may be, that are landed. This primitive mode of business Is also accompanied by disadvantages, and assists, in conjunction with the high tariff, to cripple any endeavors attempted to bring the lUrbary States !u closer mercantUn allhince with ourselves." It Is to be hoped that the government of Blorocco may become alive to the nilachlavnua eona«|Uancea of tbia aynlam. Nothing would do so much to promota Imliiatry niultlv lUsatiim In tha iiounlry, as tha elTactuai mductlmi, or rather tha total n|Mial, of the axlatlng diitiaa on axiHirta. Mohair (Oar. Mukri Vt. Mtiir* ; It. .l/urrrii; Sp, Muf, Uufr), the h»lr of a varli-ty of tha nimnuin koiiI, famoua for living aoft and Hne aa silk, and of a allva ry whltanesa. It is not pmduceil anywhere but In the vicinity of Angora, In Aala Minor. Tha exiairtation of thia valuable and Iwautiful article, unlasa In tha ahajie of yarn, was formerly pnihlbitad | but it may now Ih) exportiid unapun. The production, prr|iara- tion, and auin of mohair have long engnisaeil the jiiin- ripal attention of the Inhabitants of Angora; and It used to fonn an lm|Mirtant article of Venetian iiim. inerce. It is manufactured into caniiata and other ex. IMinalve stuffs. Hitherto but llttlu has been liii|Hirtiid Into Kngtand. Hee, fur further imrticulara, Toiiiink- roirr, I'oi^di/tilu /.^fiin^andUltguiiAHTun I'urh ij mid ill HriKurcri, Moire Antique. In an oniinar)- woven gixuls the threads irosa each other at right angles ; the lung thread* forming the warp, and the aliort thriMiii:* the weft. According as the fabric is of high quality, so do these tlireads Intersect In a regular and cipialila •liiality ; but he It as good as It may, there are nlwuys aume irregularities ; they may escaira the eye, l>ut tliey liecome apparent in a singular way. If good silk lie wrap|ied tightly and ciireleaaly round n roller, it iiiuy become miiire much against the Inclination of thn pos- aesaor ; it will have acquired an irregular kind of glowing In aonie parts rather than in othera ; and this irn-giilnr glossing, when viewed from ■ little distance, preiieiits somewhat of the appearance of moiro, or watering— who knows ? Perhaps an accident to a piece of nijlcd silk auggeited the first Idea of watering as u dUtinct mode of iidomment to ailken goods? Hiuh iiiciilimts have fre(|ui)iitly occurred in the history of niuiiufac- turea. However, accident or no accident, watered silks ha> e long lieen In use, Iwth in this country and in France. If a pattern be engraved U|Hm one cylin- der In relief, and a similar pattern on unotlier cylin- der, In sunken devices ; and if one of these be hcutt'd from witliin, and if a piece of silk or velvet bo drawn lietween the cylinders, then will the silk or velvet ac- quire an emboascd pattern, because some parts of the surface are more pressed, nnd are consequently mure glossy than the rest. Numerous varieties of this pro- cess are employed In the preparation of fancy goods. But thia is not exactly watering. For this process two layers of silk are laid face (« face, and are pressed tightly between rollers. What follows? However close the threads may lio, there are still interstices lie- tween them i tliey follow each other in ridge nnil hol- low fashion tiiroughout the length and breadth of the piece. Now, if the slightest IrrcgiiUrity exists in the pressure, some of the threads It'iome pressed in particular parts more than others; and the over- pressed portions present a greater gloss, a greater power of reflecting light than the rest. Tlie more ca- priciously these proportions distribute themselves, the more undulatory and cloudy will be the result. Wa do not say that the actual process is nothing more than thia, but that this is the basis on which the whole is founded. The goods may be sprinkled with water pre- viously or not j the rollers may lie Iwth heated or lioth cold, or one heated and one cold ; the rollers may lie plain or variously indented ; they may move smoothly over each other or may have a slight lateral move- ment — how these variations of method would produce variations of effect every one will se* The adjective "antique" is most likely given to the silks thus jiro- duced from their resemblance to the tabby silk dresses worn In former times. It is chiefly produced In France ; but In Spltaltlelds, England, Its weavers and moirours combined, have lately copied the art so clev- erly as actually to excel the French. But Spitallleldi MOL I860 MOL Kuarrin tin iixcr*! m imluloualy m lh« m»K *t thtir dolnoa. Molaaaaa, or M«Iiiu«a (i^r. .simp lU SHm, »r. Inuft I H*t, iVyrK/i; It. Mirlnttn iti tufrhrr» t Np, Mifl tit ttiHvnv, Chttnrwrt ; Port. Afftntm*^ Auiirar in/uiih ; KiK. I'lilitkn tucKnmnjn), lit* uncryKt«llloiit N Kiillonii of pttxit uplrlt may, it la aalil, bn ohtalnml rmm a rwt. iif mi>- luKiwa, nui'h ai« hna rarantly lieen linportoil { but thin lUlMncln, of I'ourar, wholly on thn rii'linvii) of the nio- la«M>K. I'lirt of thn rnfiiKn thiit rninulna, aftnr rnllnlnK inunrovailo "U^ur, Ik a awKft "yrup, whbh, iin w«ll an thn iiyrup thut remaliii aftar lH>illnK inolaHmoi to ohtuln luMtanl*, |4 rallnil trniicla, llut thn tmai'ln ohtalnnil from the forniar lit alwayii pmfnrrpil to that olitalnml fniiii tha liiltcr, anil feti'haa SO centt |M)r rwt. mora. .MoliiiiAM la aoniatlmra uasil In preparing the coaraer aort of preacrvea ; and on tlin Kuro|M>an vontlnent 11 la extenalvely iiai'd In the inunufartum of to- luicco. The following atiitiatlca ahow thn foreign trade uf the ITniteil Htntea in moluaaea, and alao k* 'y the receipts to tha foreign nnd homo of thia at / . The laat table ihowa thn average value of thn different litnds of niolaaaea at the port of New York fur two yean ; AXNIIAL HTATKUItlT ailOWINII THa iMPOkT, Kxi-OHT, STOCK, ANO KariUATKO CuNaiiMi'TioN nir MuiAaniw in Tiia IInitko HTATca (axniaivK or OALiroaNiA Ann Oai- uuN), riiR Tiia Y«Aa ii.tnixu UaomutB tflar, liiM. Tl^rei.*. HmrvltTi B.Ti)6' «,8W IU<»lved al Na» York thiin Uuba... I'ortoKloo ItarbailiNii Trliililacl, I'. H IK'ini'rnro. Bt KUta AntlKUa St.OioIx \M»au, N. I'. Ollior (bri'lxn porta Total roct'lpls >r foreign dlttct Loulalana , , Utbvr coastwlao porta, Total roiwlpta Add atock Jail, Ist, 1896 Tutiil supply . ■ anil III Dodnot px'port and Inland shipmenta I to Canada. { Dodnct stock, Jan. lit, 1857 Taken from this port fl>r consumption (11, 176 "nu B9,6I0 14,6614 1,4,VI 1,047 189 19S 8ft 98 141 »9 Wt 10 mi! T9 84 "i "2 A7,414{ 4,n8»{ 7,l«4 .... I 198 8^H«8 4711 1»,IIIW 4,(MIS ftft,MU _U\ 917 I, «89 65,747 7,6ii9| M,»48r tt5,'i9l 9,250. 1,798 99 l.sas ~4~SrUan»- rroiii Cuba Mavannah, ('harl,'Bt»n, uiid utlicr aoullirrn purla-foi. Cuba, ale. Tnlul r.o.Mpla Add stock at all porta. Jan. I, IHM Total supply Di'dui't r<|Jorta and ablptiiants | inlanil to ('anuila, from allV the ports, In lH,'i6 ( Doii. aloi'k at all ports, .Tan. I, li5li Total ronnuiiiptlon offlirtlgn I'^.'i.W 12,11)6 1 12,811 _ '<,25« .... I .... 178,1)118 12,104 {19,811 18,014,878 16,591,0(10 Containing Add crop of I.oiil»l«na, Texas, Klorlda, ete,.'of |Hli5— 5)1, tlin most of wlildi ranio to market In 18.VI, nnd assuiiilnit tliu stuck uf this do- acrlpllon, Int Jan., uf incli year, to bo e(|ual Would iiiakn thn total consumption In ls56. 89.61 ih,h78 Total consumption In 1>M 47,26il,0S5 Ui'orease In 1856 7,657,907 llKoaiPTH or KoKRioN Mui.Asam in tiik ITNiTin Ktatim, roK TUB YtAa r.shi.Nu Dickhhkr nisr, 1>(55. I'urli. llUi. r49,»W 62,498 1,491 29,147 2,N91 1^066 9,658 11,666 570 2,618 Tlitrct,. 4,188 Harrili. Sow York Boston— from Cubo " " Hiirlnani t;ii9 1,897 1 Ao 88 : .. 969S rnr " " from other fbr. porta,. Portland— ft-om Cut)fi, etc l'rovliloni-<— n-om Cuba, etc New Haven— ftom I'orto KIco, eti-.. Nowburyport. (lloucealor, Kaloni, Ilrlstol, Warren, K. 1., and ntlier eoaterii ports — ft-om Cuba, Porto Rleo, Hurlimiii, etc Pblladelphla-IVoni Cubo '• " I'orto Hleo, etc.. Ilnltlinoro— fr. Cubn, I'orto liico, etc. New Orlcanft — fl'uin Cuba 7 40O 1,146 io9 114 258 9(\ 658 976 69 181 2,951 769 .Snvnnnnli— from (^iba, etc 1 Charleston — from Cuba, etc Other Bouthoru ports— iVom Cuba. 10,015 Total receipts Add stock at all the ports, Jan. IVM 1MI,62A 6.051 18,407 16,898 200 Deduct exports and shipments ' Inlniid to Coiiado, IVoin all . 7,881 the porta. In ls56. ' 485 1,808 Ded. stock at all ports, .Tan. 1, 1850 1M,K45, 1,701 12,982 1 14,228 84 1 57 Total consumption of foreign ll«2,144 12,948 1 14,160 Containing Add crop of LouisUnn, Texas, Florida, etc,, oflS54— M, tho most of which came to market In l$5,\ and assum- ing the stock of this description, 1st Jan., uf each year to bo eiiual Less export of domestic, not included in above statement of shipments . . . iislloni. 28,5ea,42S Oalloni. 24,119,749 • 887,080 . 28,789,( Would make tho whole consumption iu 1V>5. 47,266,085 Total consumption in 1854 50,493,019 Decrease in 1855 9,220,984 It will 1)0 seen by tho foregoing statistics, that the receipts of foreign molasaca In the United States for tho ypnr ending December 31, 1856, were 25,035,724 gallons, against total receipts in 1855 of 24,162,446 gallons, and the total consumption of this description in 1866 was 23,014,878 gallons, against • consumption" MOL 1870 MON of foralgn in 1866 of R8,&88,428 gallons, beln^ • de- creaao in the conaumption of foreign in INfifl, M com- pared witli 1855, of 2'20 per cent,, while i'\e total consumption of foreign and domestic in 186U was 80,- 60H,87H gallons, against n consumption in 1855 of 47,2liti,085 gallons, beinf, a fulling off in 186(1 of 7,667,207 gallons, or the large decrease of lfi-20 per cent. Tba cODtumptton of all kiuds in 1866, a« shown, wo* ](i'20 i)or cent, less than tliat of 1856, whlln that of 18.,,') was 16^ per cent, smaller than the consumption of 18,'i4. Thii" continued large decrease is attributable, in a groat measure, to tlie rapid decline in the yield c* Louisiana cane. The fallowing table shows tho aver- age value of molnseos in New York for two vears. Moi. »Bsi».— Its AvERAoa Valuk at New York for Two Yraim. Monlhi. im. 16U. NairOrliui. I'orto nico. Cub. Muaoor. Cub«l1»viHl. Naw (Mmiu. Porlo nicw. Cuba Muicov, Cubii Clayed. Tanuary C«at)». 24—28 25-28 28— 27t 98—82 2T— 88 27-88 211—88 88-37 84-S8J 87-89 86-83 86—49 rem*. 24—80 25—82 25— !t8 2.%-82 85-83 26—82 28—88 82—36 84-89 87-39 86—40 40—48 Ont*. 28—27 24—27 22-97 28-29 28-30 26-80 27—80 29—83 81-86 86-87 84-88 40—48 22 —26 28 — 2.'> 20 -22 21 -28 28 —26 25 —26 a6J— 27 21J— 81 80-84 84—86 88 —87 80—42 Olil*. 45—19 41—46 40—46 42—47 46-48 47-52 60-,V4 62-56 54-56 54—56 65—80 70—80 IVnin. 41— H 4.8—44 48-44 87—16 8»— 45 40-46 4.1-60 48—48 48— IS 45— .SS 60—60 66-60 C*nu. 41—48 86—42 84—88 82—88 82— .88 87—12 41—16 42-46 40—46 4-.'— 48 4T-62 4S-M Cfiili, 42-.. 8:1—40 88-38 80—84 80— .■12 84 ^6 8< -II) 87—40 87—40 89—11 40—42 49—.. March April iUy..... ......... June Inlv August Septi'inbor November Decou^ber Average for the y'r 82 82t 80i 28i 52 46i 41J .83 STATF.MRNT SUOWINd THE DOMESTIO EXPORT Or MoLASSXS rROM THK UnITKD STATIS rOR TlIK Yk.ab KNUIMU JirNK 80TII, 1866. WhIUiar aiportail. Gallona. ~~\J.9Sf~ 411, MS 6,671 2,265 1,9»5 41 4,028 511 10,769 Total 464,815 lllamburg Il'anaila Otber Uritliih N. Amer. pos. IllrlUsh Wc»t Indies IPorts in AMcs. JMexlco New Ornnailn iChlll Wbalo Fisheries Valua. (4,076 140,885 8,864 667 746 25 1,499 276 4,102 «I64,6S0 HTATHMKNT MIOWINO THK FoRKKlN E.fPORTS OF MULASSES .'BOM THK U.MTKI) 8TATt3 FOR THF. YkAR KKOINU iluNE Sllrir, 18,10. Wlillliar ai|>ortail. Russinn poMossluns In N. Amcr. . Hamburg Ctlbrnltar. 'Cannila.' ItHlior Hrlllsh North Amor. pan... jFrenoh North American pos jFreiH'h Wont Inillc.i Mailelrii. Torts 111 Afrli'tt Ilaytl Chili Wbalu Kbberios ToUl From warehouse Not from warehouse Qalloni. 60U 16,784 2,103 1,079,887 10i),US9 26,413 2,18.8 76 480 1,282 22,000 6,989 1,261,140 966,818 294.822 Valua. 1862 4,818 720 2.M,800 31,694 7,709 784 80 189 860 6,600 2,814 «806,1B0 (282,680 78,600 BTATKMr.MT SHOWING THR IMPORTS OF MOLASSES INTO THE HNITF.D States for the Year endino June 80rif. 1866. I Wlienca imporlad. I Uallona. DauUb West Indies Dutch West Indies. Dutch f lulsnn Dutch Fast Indies Kngland Canada Other British North Amer pos.. British West Indies British Host Indies British (iiilana French West Indies Spain on the Mediterranean Cuba Porto Kico Central Republlo Traill Sandwich Islands Total 5,970 26,123 782,810 80 1,232 810 8,6,4S» 782,022 856 6.V77 8,704 1,094 19,4*12,854 8,521,946 11,0!M 82 a«,4S8 Value. $908 8,760 94,282 4 89 106 8,585 154,299 47 12,419 1,007 164 8,610,600 68^687 1,010 10 10,882 23,617,674 , »4,881,668 See iSuoAR, Mole, in architecture, a massive work formed of large stones laid in the sea by means of cofler dams, oxtendeil either in a right lino or un arc of a circle, before a port, which it serves to close j to defend tho ' TWbuls in {Hirt from the impetuosity of tlio waves, aud to prevent the passage of ships without leave. It is frequently fortilicd. Mole is sometimes used to sig. nify tile harbor itself, which it serves to form or defend. Money. Wlicn the division of labor was first in- troduced, commodities were directly bartered for each other. Those, for example, who hud a surplus of corn, and were in want of win<;, endeavored to lind out those who were in the opposite circumstances, or wlio had a surplus of wine and wanted corn, and then e.xclian;;ed the one for tho other. It is <)l>viuus, however, tliut the power of changing, and, conse(iuently, of dividing employments, must have been siibjoc^ed to perpetual interruptions, so long hs it was restricted to mere barter. A carries produce to market, iind It Is desirous to purchase it ; but tho (irodueo belonging to It is not suitable for A. C, again, would like to buy It's pro- duce, but n is already fully supplied with the cquivii- Icnt C has to offer. In such cusos — imd tliey must be of a constant occurrence whoiovcr money is not intro- duced — no direct exchange could take place between the parties ; and it might bo very difliciilt to liring it about indirectly. The difliculties that would arise oii such occasions, and the devices that would be adopted to overcome them, have been very well illustrated by Colonel Torrcns, in his work on the I'rodiuiion lif Wealth, p. 291. The extreme inconvenience attending such situations must early have forced themselves un the attention of every one, Kflorts would, in conse- quence, bo made to avoid them ; and it would speedily appear that the best or rather tho only way in wliich this could bo effected, was to exchange either tlie whole or a part of one's surplus produce for some cem- modity of known value, and in general demand ; and which, consequently, few persons would be inclined to refuse to accept as an ci|iiivalent for whatever they had to dispose of. After tlii.s commodity had liogim to be cniplo}'ud as a means of exchanging other com- modities, individuals would become wllliiig to purchase a greater quantity of it than might be required to pay for tho products tliey were desirous of inuiicdiatcly obtaining ; knowing that should tlicy, ut any future period, want a furtlier supply either of these or other articles, they would be able readily to procure them in exchange for this universally desired commodity. Thougli at first circulating slowly and with didiculty, it would, as the advantages arising from its use were better appreciated, begin to pass freely from hand to hand. Its value, as compared with other things, would thus come to be univi^rsally known; and it would at last bo used, not only as tlie cnmiuon medium of exchange, but as a standard by which to ineasuro the vtdue of other things. Now this commodity, whatever it may be, is money. MON 1371 MON An inflnlta varieiy of commcxlUies have boen used u money in difTerent countries and periods. But none can lie advuntagoously used as such, unless it possess several very peculiar qualities. Tbe slightest reflec- tion on the purposes to which it is applied, must, in- deed, 1)0 sufliuicnt to convince every one that it is indispensable, or, at '.east, exceedingly desirable, that the commodity selected to serve as money should (1) be divisible into the smallest portions ; (2) that it should admit of being liept for un indotinito period without dotoriornting ; (3) that it should, by possessing great value in small bulk, be capable of being easily trans- ported from place tu place; (4) that one piece of money, of a certain denomination, should always bo equal, in magnitude and quality, to every other piece of money of the same denomination ; and (6) that its value sliould bo comparatively steady, or ns little subject tu variation at possible. Without the^><< of these qmilities, or the capacity of being divided into portions of every diD'cr- ent magnitude and value, money, it is evident, would be of almost no use, and could only be exchanged fur the few commodities that might happen to be of the same value as its indivisible portions, or as wliole mul- tiples of them ; without the second, or the capacity of being kept or boarded without iletcriorating, no one would choose to exchange commodities fur money, ex- cept only when he expected to bo able speedily to re- exchange that money for something else ; witliout the thinl, or facility of trans|)ortation, money could not bo conveniently used in transactions lietween places at any considerable distance ; without the/uiiii/i, or perfect sameness, it would be extremely diflicult to appreci- ate the value of different pieces of money ; and with- out the Ji/th quality, or comparative steadiness of value, money could not serve as a standard by wliich tu measure the value of other commodities ; and no one would be disposed to exchange the produce of his industry for an article that might shortly decline con- siderably in its power of purchasing. The union of the dittercnt qualities of comparative steadiness of value, divisibility, durability, facility of transportation, and perfect sameness, in the precious metals, doubtless formed tho irresistible reason that has induced every civilized conmiunity to employ them as money. The value of gold and silver is certainly not in variable, but generally speaking it changes only by slow degrees : they are divisible into any number of |>art8, and have the singular property of being easily reunited, by means of fusion, without loss ; they do not deterio- rate by being kept ; and from their Arm and compact texture, they are very ditticult to wear. Their cost of production, especially that of gold, is so consider- able, that thoy iiossess great value in small bulk, and can, of course, be transported with comparative facility ; and an ounce of pure gold or silver taken from the mines in any quarter of the world, is precisely equal, in point of quality, to an ounce of puro gold or silver dug from the mines in any other quarter. Xo won- der, therefore, when all tho qualities necessary to con- stitute money are possessed in so eminent a degree by the precious metals, that they have been used as such, in civilized societies, from a very remote era. " They became universal money," as Turgot has observed, " not in consequence of any arbitrary agreement among men, or of the intervention of any law, but by the na- ture ond force of things." When first used ns money, the precious metals were inan uufashioncd state, in burs or ingots. The parties having agreed about thu quan- tity of metal to bo given for a commodity, that quantity was then weighed otf. Hut this, it is plain, must have been u tedious and troublesome process. Undoulitcd- ly, however, the greatest obstacle that would be exjic- rienced in early ages to the use of gold and silver as money, would be found to consist in the difficulty of determining the degree of their purity witii sufficient precision j and tlio discovery of some means by which ibeir weight «nd Unenesg miglit be readily and cor- rectly ascertained, would bo felt to lia IndlspaniAbtt to their extensive use as money, Fortunatel/ Ihaap means were not long in bcmg discovered, The fubrj. cation of coins, or tho practice of impretsjiig pleiien of the precious metals with a stamp indicutiiiK Ihulf weight and purity, belongs to the remotest Hiitiqiilty, GoUQET, Dc I'Origine de» loix, etc, tome |,, p, 'M, And it may safely be affirmed, that there bavo liHPIl very few inventions of greater utility, or that hilVB done inoro to accelerate the progress of IniliruveillBrit, It is material, however, to observe, that tha iiitrU' duction and use of coined money make no clmii({ti whatever iu the principle on which exchanges wvti' previously conducted. The coinage saves the troillilM of weighing and assaying gold and silver, hut It ibiM nothing more. It declares the weight and purity of the metal in a coin ; but the raliw of timt metal nr coin is in all cases determined liy precisely the nmm principles which determine the value of other roiii. mudities, and would bo as little affected by lieing rs- coined with a new denomination, as the burden iif A ship by a change of her name. Inaccurate iiulliinn with respect to the influence of coinage senni to hiiva given rise to the opinion so long cutortuined, that I'lillis were merely tho sii/ns of values I Hut it U tiBar tliiiy have no more claim to this designation thuu hi)N tif iron or copiwr, sacks of wheat, or any othor iMiin= niodity. They change for other things, bociiusii Hiiiy uro desirable articles, and are posHoased of rBAl iritrllb sic value. A draft, chock, or bill may not iMipiiiiiurly, perhaps, be regarded as the sign of the nmnuy to fiB given for it. Hut that money is nothing liiit it uoiil- modity ; it is not a sign— it is a tiling BigiilllBd, Money, however, is not merely tho universal oqillv!' alent, or menliamHae buiiale, used liy scii'iety i |t is itliii the standard used tu compare the values of all sorts of products; and the stipulations in the grunt bulk of contracts and deeds, us to tho delivery and disposal iif property, Iiavo all rcfcranco to, uiid are cuuMUonly »%• prcssci in, (luantilles of money. It is plainly, tliefB' fore, the utmost importance that its value slinilld l)B preserved as invariable as possible. Owing, liowBVsr, to improvements in the arts, tho oxhuustiou of obj mines, and the discovery of new ones, the value of the precious metals is necessarily inconstant | tll0U|{ll| if wo cccept tho cITccts produced in the Itlth cuutUPy by tlio discovery of the American mines, it does not appcir to have varied so mucli at other tiuies as might have been anticipated. Great mischief has, biiWBVer, been repeatedly occasioned li}' the changes that llltve been made in most countries in tlie weight, and soine- times also in the purity, of coins; and sinco the InipoU icy of these changes has been recognized, similar, itltd perhaps still mure extensive, discords have spriini; from the improper use of sulistitutcs for coins, It Is, indeed, quite obvious, that no change can take plitd; in tlie value of money witliout proportionally affoclliijj the pecuniary coiidltlons in all contracts uml agfUB^ inents. Stuili, Iiowevcr, of the influence of a >liHng(i depends on its direction. An increase iu the vulliu (if money is uniformly more prejudicial, iu u pulilii' point of view, than its diminution; tho latter, though liijiirlouit to individuals, may sometimes be productive of natloil^ al advantage ; but such can never bo the case with lllB former. See Priiicipks of Political Kconomy, by MH' Ct;i.i.ocii, ;td cd., pp. 510-515. No certain estimate can ever bo formed of tho iiusn- tity of money rcijuircd to conduct the business of imy country ; tliis quantity being, in all cases, duterilllltad liy tho value of money Itself, tlie services it bus tu \mf- form, and the devices used for economizing Its em= ployment. Generally, however, it is very consldBfulilB | and wlien it consists wholly of gold and silver. It oc. casiuns a very heavy expense. There can, IndBBrt, I'B nu doubt that tho wish to lessen this expense has buan one of the chief causes that have led all civlllzBd mill commercial nations to fabricate a purtlun of IbBtr MON 13Y2 MON money of some less valuabla material. Of the various Bubstitntes resorted to for this purpose, paper is, in all respects, the most eligible. Its employment seems to have grown naturally out of tlie circumstances inci- dent to an advancing society. When govemmont be- comes suiBciently powerful and intelligent to enforce the observance of contracts, individuals possessed of written promises from others that they will pay certain sums at certain specified periods, l)egin to assign them to tlioso to whom the}' are indel)ted ; and when the subscrilwrs are persons of fortune, and of whoso solv- ency no doubt can be entertained, their obligations are readily accepted in payment of debts. But when the circulation of promises or bills in this way has contin- ued for a while, individuals begin to perceive that they may derive a profit l>y issuing them in such a form as to fit them for being readli}- used as a sulisti- tute for money in tho ordinary transactions of life. Ilenco tho origin of banic notes. An individual in whose wealtd and discretion the public have confi- dence, being applied to for a loan, say $5000, grunts the applicant his bill^rnoto, payable on demand, for that sura. Now, as this note passes, in consequence of the confidence placed in tho issuer, currently from liand to hand as cash, it is quite as useful to the l>or- rower as if it had been gold ; and supposing that the rate of interest is 5 per cent., it will yield, so long as it continues to circulate, u revenue of $250 dollars a year to the issuer. A banlicr who issues notes, coins, as it were, his credit. He derives tho same revenue from the loan of his written promise to pay ii certain sum, that he could derive from the loan of the sum Itself, or of an equivalent amount of produce I And while he thus increases his own income, he, at tho same time, contributes to increase tlio wealth of the public. The cheapest species of currency being sub- stituted in the place of that which is most expensive, the superfluous coins are either used in the arts or are exported in exchange for raw materials or manufac- tured goods, by the use of whicli both wealth and en- joyments are increased. Ever since the introduction of bills, almost all great commercial transactions have been carried on by means of paper only. Notes are also used to a very great extent in the ordinary busi- ness of society; ond while they are roadibly ex- ciiangeablo, at the pleasure of the holder, for coins, or for the precise quantities of gold or silver tliey profess to represent, their value is maintained on a par with tho value of these metals ; and all injurions fluctua- tions in the v^lue of money are as effectnaily avoided OS if it consisted wholly of the precious metals. In common mercantile language, tlio party who ex- changes money for a commodity is said to bu}' ; the party who exchanges a commodity for money lieing said to sell. Price, unless whore the contrary is dis- tinctly mentioned, always means the value of a com- modity estimated or rated In money. For a further account of metallic money, see the article Coix. Seo Banlxra' Mag., v., 309, .181, ii., 1, 641 ; Hu.vt's Hag., I., 50 (C. F. Adams); Ed. Rev., x., 284, xiii., 35, xxxiii., 668; West. Rev., i\., 00; Vr Bow's Rev., vi., 243, vii., 601. Monopoly. By this term is usually meant a grant by competent authoritj', conveying to some one individual, or number of individuals, the sole right of buying, selling, mailing, importing, exporting, etc., some one commodity, or set of commodities. Such grants were very common previously to the accession of the house of Stuart, and were carried to a verj- oppressive and injurious extent during the reign of Queon Klixabetli. Commercial monopolies reached to such a height in England, that Parliament petitioned against them, and they were in consequence mostly abolished about the close of Elizabeth's reign, 1602. They wore further suppressed, as being contrary to law, 19 James I., 1622 ; and were totally abolished, and it was decreed that none should be in future cre- ated, as was previously tho custom, by royal patent, 16 Charles I., 1640. — ANDBnsoN'a llinton/ of Cum' merce. The grievance became at length so insupport- able, that, notwithstanding the opposition of govern* ment, which looked upon the power of granting monoi>olie8 as a very valuable part of the prerogative, they were abolished by the famous net of 1024. Tha act of James I. declared that all monopolies, grunts, letters patent for the sole buying, selling, and maliing of goods and manufactures, shall be null and vnlil, It excepts patents for 14 years for the sole working or making of any new manufactures within the realm, to the truo and first inventors of such manufaoturea, provided they he not contrary to law, nor mischievous to tile State. It also excepts grants by act of Parlia- ment to any corporation, comimny, or society, for tha enlargement of trade, and letters patent coucurnliig tho making of gunpowder, etc. This act effectually secured the freedom of Industry in Groat Britain j and has done more, perhaps, to excite the spirit of Inven- tion and industry, and to accelerate the progress of wealth, than any other In the statute book. Monsoons (from the Malay muuin, season), periwiical trade winds, which Idow six months In ono dfrection, and the rest of the year in an opposite ono, They prevail in the Indian Ocean north of the 10th degree of south latitude. From April to Octolier n violent south-west wind Idows, accompanied witli rain, and from October to April, a gentle dry north- east l)reeze prevails. The change of tho winds or Ihn breaking up of the monsoons, as it is called, Is accoin. panied by storms and hurricanes. These periodical currents of winds do not reach very high, as their prog- ress is arrested by mountains of a moderate height. Monsoons are, for the most part, formed of trado- winds. When at stated seasons of the year a trarle- wind is deflected in its regular course from one quiid- rant to another, or drawn in by overheated diiitriiits. It is regarded us a monsoon. Thus tho African ninu- soons of the Atlantic, the monsoons of the (iulf of Mexico, and tho Central American monsoons of the Pacific, are, for the most part, formed of tho trade- winds, which uro turned l)ack or deflected to rcstiire the equililirium which the over-heuted plains of Af- rica, Utah, Texas, and New Mexico have distiirlierl. When the monsoons prevail for five months ut a tinm, for It takes about a month for them to ciuuige an'o^onttoZrJT^^ thu, '"«'-«,t trade,, are drawn '^'^°"".« ''""=« <'™ra the I„, ,^7 "S** P'«"«'l« 'he sta-hreT^ ' »"<»> that the 'Wnl-pl,«re. iioJJXl°,T """ "«' ''orthe™ of f/' •""'^ "« -""^ompanled with ^""'""y ~ntinue riolB", thplr tendency 1,1, """ «•>"»'»'• toward th^ ,1 ^^ "''' ' ""»'- on the contn.^ I.."" "P'^"'^ moth.n mmlon, II, well „T« ol'eythe force, of dlnr^.? ^ '»"° N. 77 observations w n i ? '""*''*"' hemisphere /,«„', '"'''"'"' '"'""« 'n ^Mlly taught tHunr,'"""' "" "°^ •« we „,; Z L'"'"p '""'•' <^''i„a /earndm tZ r'T' '™"«-wind ""Hlo time nil "'"PP""- fommence or end at^th "". *""' '"'''"n ArchineWo ♦. ^"'"•■'" O-'^on; in ""'•' 'wlow Calcutta ^ '■;'"''" 0™«n. In the «. f ?''' •' ■•""' ^cre, y.hXZ'l' """' '"'""oon pre" '!«tl«ml.m..t wind f^?!'^ ""'■"■ They now romrr''^"'"'''"^»'""'0 tr«deL„d »7^ '" ""'"'""« "'e •"' "omo timet t,.o"7"'^"^«'^™omhra^rrr^^r^ '"" '""«' 'he "•'rtlMH»t .«(m"oon, ,r. ^. P"'' °^ September iT: ,' "*''? '» ''^'•'■''« ^"htther monthi." • "'"^''^'''ions will «'';'hl.««rrdo°rjtl"::,'*'"°'''«"«*^he\';„fl^^^^^ ^nthejT.?^i;''2^''«'',<;<'-'''»''ot !. "«•" P«« of N„:;!J .r™. ""i ■"-« vi«„r S l it"'.?.?:' '"o --* monsoon':; 'ri'- "'o"'" t''» lliirth^a,t »;„«! ' T'^een 15° and 20° V i i'" ""''•■ "'"}' «re often fifii^? , '^'''"8 "P from ^' '^ "»'«''' ' RoP^Wic of UruX o7the'north l''\««P'"'l of th, «"»J , on the north bank of the Bio de MON 1374 MON la Plata, lat. 84° 54' 11" S., long. 6G° 19' 18" W. The population, which la variously estimated^ may prol)ably be about 12,000. The town is built in the form of an amphitheatre, on a rcgnlar plan, and is woU fortifled. It has suffered much from the various revolutions to which it has been subject during the last 80 years. Montevideo is situated 2° 3' 88" W. of Ca|>e St. Mary, the northern limit of the embou- cliure of the La Plata. Vessels ftrom the north l)ound to Montevideo generally malce this cape, entering the river between it and the small island of Lobos, in from 14 to 17 fathoms. The course is thence nearly west to the Isle of Flores, on which is a light-house 112 feet above the level of the sea, with a revolving light. ■ Prom Flores to Montevideo is 16 miles in a direct line, and the course west by south by compass. A light- house, 476 feet above the level of the sea, has been erected on the summit of the Montevideo, whence the town has its name. The latter is built on a projecting tongue of land, the port being on its south side. This, wliich is the l)est on the La Plata, is a large circular basin, open to the south-west. Generally the water ii shallow, not exceeding from 14 to 19 feet; but the bottom being soft mud, vessels are seldom damaijed by grounding. It should, however, be observed that the depth of water in the harbor, as well as throughout the whole of the Rio de la Plata, depends very much on the direction and strength of the winds. The south- west wind, called pamperoi, blows right into the Bay of Montevideo with much force, not unfVequently causing a rise of a fathom or more in the depth of water I But it rarely occasions much damage to ves- sels properly moored with anchors to the south-west, sonth-east, and one to the north. (Bldnt's American Pilot, edit. 1867 j Coulier tur let Pharet, etc.) Mon- tevideo has a considerable commerce. The great articles of export consist of animal products, or of hides, beef, tallow, hair, bones, grease, wool, etc. The imports principally consist of British cottons, woolens, and hardware, flour, wine and spirits, linens, sugar, tobacco, boots and shoes, salt, etc. The follow- table shows the exports from these \WTt» for five years : Account or sundbv Expobtb raosi Bursos Atues and Mostbvidko in the roLLOwixa Ykars. Vmk. Dry WHl Mitcil 01 A cow hlilttk. lions hldu. Horn hnlr. Wool. ShetpaklM. NuUlalkliu. Tslluw anil ■Oftp. Horu. 1983 No. 1,218,101 1,262,408 1,819.S27 8,562,988 2,980,040 No. 64,596 49,798 48,804 177,508 140,855 Arrobn.. 80,5:16 49,832 81,101 177,096 115,S11 ArrobM. 199,058 72,062 96,611 969,067 516,798 l»Mn». 58,965 10,804 10,851 211,694 102,424 Doitiu. 71,745 21,S.S9 1»,.M0 97,904 97,628 ArrobM. 814,288 407,892 876,474 1,222.086 511,785 No. 1,080,000 1,199.000 1,142,(186 2,687,972 2,183,919 1889 1840 1841 1842 Dntitt on /mportH, in National or Forelr/n VtMeli, at Montivideo. — 1, Machinery, agricultural implements, instruments used in the arts nnd sciences, boolcs, prints, and maps, free.' 2. 8ill(, raw and wrought, iai'es, blonde, gold and silver embroidery, watches, jewelrj', saltpetre, plaster of Paris, coal, timber, cot- ton fringe, and wooden hoops, 6 per cent. 3. Powder, pitch, tar, rosin, and naval stores, 13 per cent. 4. All raw materials, and manufactured articles, not included in tlie preceding enumeration, 15 per cent. 5, Sugar, ['Uruguay and China teas, cocoa, cassia lignea, and cinnamon, spices, drugs, and provurions in general, 20 \h:t cent. G. Furniture, pictures, looking-glasses, musical instruments, all sorts of carriages, carts, etc., and harness, saddles, horses' furniture (excepting liurse cloths of the manufacture of the adjacent prov- inces, which pay 15 per cent.), ready-made clothes, boots and 'shoes, licjueurs, brand)', wine, vinegar, ale and porter, cider, tobacco, and soap, 25 per cent. Suit, 2 reals the fanego, say lid. per 290 pounds. 7. Hides of all classes, hair, horns, tallow, silver and gold, in bullion or coin, free. A small charge is mode fur warehousing 'and porterage on passing through the custom-house. Goods may be bonded for an indefi- nite period, during which time they are subject to a moderate warehouse rent. Foreign flour pays as fol- lows : .$8 per i)arrel, when wheat is wortli #2 to $8 per funegu, about 224 pounds; (J6 per barrel, when wlieut is worth $8 to $5 ; $-1, when wlieut is worth >ti5 to $7; $2, when wtieat is worth $7 to $9; $1, wlien wheat exceeds $9. Wheat: §3 per funegu, when wheat is worth $2 to $3 per fanegu ; fi'i, when wheat is worth $3 to $6; $1, wlien wlieut is worth $6 to SilO; nothing, when wheat is wortli above ^X(t per funegu ; goods transhipped, or sliipped out of bond, pay 2 per cent. Foreign goods, shipped in vessels of less than 150 tons burden, for [wrts of the Uruguay and Paraguay, pay only 1 per cent. 8. All gotids imported, paying duties, are subject to pay un mi- ilitiunul 1 per cent, to the ronsuluJo ; \ |)cr cent, to the hospitul ; and for the extinction of cop|)er inop>{y, 1 per cent additional on all goods tlint pay 5 per cent. (This has, much to the honor of tlie autlior- ities and people, Ijeen ulreudy accomplished ; l>ut tlie duty is iiiaintuincd for general pur|)oses.) Un nil goods that pay 13, 15, and 20 per cent., 3 per cent. On all goods that pay 25 per cent., 6 per cent. On Sour, 10 par cent. On wheat, 3 per cent. j Duties on Kxporta, in National or foreign Vessels. — I Ox and cow hides, 2 reals, 25 centesimos, for recon- ; nidor valuations of $1, and 1 per cent, consuludo. Horse hides, 1 real for reconnidor, on valuations of 5 reals for reconnidor each, and 1 per cent, consulado. All other produce of the country puj-s 4 (ler cent, on the market value, and 1 per cent, consulado. Jerked and salt beef, pork, etc. ; also all foreign goods that have paid the import duty, fVee. Gold and silver, coined or in bullion, 1 per cent. Port Charges. — Tonnage from beyond sea, foreign vessels, 3 reals; national vessels, 2 reals. During loading and unloading, both classes pay $1 per day. Pratique, with pilot, foreign vessels, $8 ; national ves- sels, $4. Bout, with pilot, foreign vessels, $2 ; na- tional vessels, $2. Without pilot, foreign vessels, $4 ; national vessels, $2. National and foreign vessels that neither discharge nor load cargo, and that do not remain more tlian six days, pay nothing ; those tliat remain in the harlior mora than six days pay one tliird of the above tonnage dues. National vessels, and vessels belonging to the provinces of Buenos Ayres, employed within the Itiver Platte, called coasting, pay fur a license for each voj'age, if 8 to 7 tons, 4 reals ; 8 to 15 tons, 10 reals, or $1 02 ; 16 to 30 tons, 18 reals, or $2 02 ; 81 to 45 tons, 26 reals, or $3 02; 46 to GO tons, 30 reals, or $8 06 ; 61 to 80 tons, 88 reals, or $4 06 ; 81 to 100 tons, 46 reals, or $5 06 ; 101 and above, 54 reals, or $6 06. Hospital Dues. — National nnd foreign vessels, sailing for a foreign port beyond sea nr in the Itiver Platte, pay $2 for the vessel, 4 reals for the captain, 2 reals for each seaman, 1^1 for each passenger. Pilotage from Montevideo to Buenos Ayres to lie paid in Montevideo. If the draught of water do not exceed 9 feet, Burgos measure, $50 ; 9 to 10 feet, $60 ; 10 to 11 feet, $70 ; 11 to 12 feet, $80 ; 12 to 13 feet, $100 ; 13 to 14 feet, $120 ; 14 to 15 feet, $140 ; 15 to 16 feet, $160 ; 16 to 17 feet, $190 ; 17 to 18 feet, $220. Monigs, Weights, and ^feafures. — Paper money there is none. Current money, tlio Brazilian patacon and Spanish dollar; they pass for 960 cente.simos. 100 cents make a real ; 800 cents, or 8 reals, make a dol- lar; 960 cents, or 9 reals 60 cents, make 1^ current dollar, or 1 hard dollar or patacon. Weights and measures same us tliose of Spain ; fur which, see Cadiz. As regards the commeice of the United States with Monte' years, nine y which withoul breedin been dt the war Rozas a or no pi from th proceed return ci of late hi ticularly which flo of a few; to supply In exchai) vast consi steam mil as yot (Se this count the eiiterp and horse present tli streams of heen broug chiefly of 8 the latter i tributed to navigation ia gradual!) niiig regu'a and others t ing freight i sidered as vi fuel is a ser quarter, as n used comes i ▼ery dear rat not realized s ^ort Chan Reis to the M, mooring, $4; 150, if not mu "W ; stamps fc day while di $30; stamps, patched, $25 ing to the nui pilot to Friinqi fees, if for bui I'ei'c, $12. Si 800 reis. Vcs rival without i Jand samples, i their cargoes. Montreal, Mst, and the I, seat of comine [lie left l)ank o( "ne south-west <3° 25' west. «7,716; 1854, «; as that of Quel Perior to that c nead of the ship ""ak- its confluen "atiun with resi ™y makes it „„ a<'a. Theharl.0 »el» drawing 15 If» general dopt ouadvantage cun mile below the ci 't difficult to steii v."-/;-: MON 1375 MON Itatea with Montevideo, we find tt has mnch diminlsheil of late yearn, which may he attributed to the late civil war of nine years' duration. The interior of the country, which formerly abounded in horned cattle, in now without a sufRciency to supply the " Estanclas" for breeding those useful animals, millions of them having been destroyed for their hides alone in the course of the war before mentioned, by the troops of Generals Rozas and Oribe ; and the consequence is, tliat little or no produce conies in from the country. Vessels from the United States with their outward cargoes proceed onward to Buenos Ayres, where they find return cargoes, which are easily obtained. Capitalists of late have turned their attention to agriculture, par- ticularly to the cultivotion of wheat and Indian com, which flourish here in a high degree ; and in the course of a few years this country will, probably, be enabled to supply Brazil witli the article of Hour in abundance, in exchange for coffer, sugar, tobacco, etc, articles of vast consumption. There is a One opening here for a steam mill, for the grinding of wheat and corn, none as yet (September, 1854) having been introduced into this country, and it is worthy the attention of some of the enterprising citizens of the United States. Wind, and horse power for mills, are the only means used at present throughout the country ; and although its streams of water are innumerable, that power has not been brought into action. Tho manufactures consist chiefly of soap, tallow candles, chocolate, and leather, the latter of verj* inferior quality, which ma}' be at- tributed to the species of bark used in tanning. Steam navigation on the Kio de la Plata, and its tributaries, is gradually increasing. There are two steamers run- ning regularly between this city and Buenos Ayres, and others to the Parana and Uruguay Kivers, carry- ing freight and passengers ; however, it ma}' be con- sidered as yet in its infancy. The very high price of fuel is a serious obstacle to steam navigation iu this quarter, as no coal mines are found here, and the coal used comes from England and the United States, at a very dear rate, and, in consequence, the steamers liavc not realized so profitable a business as was anticipated. Port Charges on Foreign Vessels at the Rate o/"800 Jieis to the Monteeideun Dollar. — Pilotage inward, .$10 ; mooring, iJ4 ; tonnage duty, .BOO reis per ton (say on 150, if not more), $43 OG ; free of entry, if to discharge, $8 ; stam|is for ditto, ijil'2 ; custom-house officer .$1 per day while discharging and loading, aay for 30 days, $U0; stamps, in cuso of loading, and on being dis- patched, f '25 04 ; hospital fees, from $4 to $G, accord- ing to the number of hands on board the vessel, §5 ; pilot to Franquia, $4 ; bill of health, $4 04 ; escribano's fees, if for balance of cargo, $8, or if tho vessel lade here, $12. Spanisli 127 to 1000 reis, or .$158 00 at 800 reis. Vessels are allowed to lay 12 days from ar- rival without entering at the custom-house, and may lunil samples, so as to dispose of a part or the whole of their cargoes. Montreal, a city and river port of entry, Canada East, and the largest and most populous city and cliief .seat of commerce of British .\morica. Situated on the left banii of the St. Lawrence, 142 miles in a direct line snuth-woli>ting prlii' cipally of ei&lgmnts from Great Brltaiu, A letter fh>m the United States' Consul at Mnn< treal, dated Octolwr 9, 1866, remarlui — " Hliica my last communication, the only material alteratluH IW' tween the trade of the two countries has Imbu the rat- IHcation and adoption of the reciprocity treaty, wliluli has proved, so fur, at least, as has come under my nli' serration, highly satisfactory to the provincial govern' ment, and to the people of Canada ut large ; and tliure is every appearance of its increasing In usefulness, tu this countr}' at least. It is, if I may jje alluwud to use the expression, commercially speaking, tanta- mount to annexation ; while its lienellclal olfects liava shown themselves in the increased value of furnis and landed estates on this side of the line, and I am ii»' duced to believe, by careful observation, that there has been a corresponding advantage received by tlw Unit«4 Ntat«K, pttrtleularty the larger sea-port town*. 'I'M* (maty lias liecn InstrumeutuI In doing muili tut tllH «4vitMt«Kil lit tlie (tarrying trade, by umveyiiig llw prutlunts lit (his ticiivlni'fl over the rallrowis and caimU of tlia IhiUm, thereby placing (lunatit in reliitlim to the trade between lliu i'nlt' ail Ntatp* and (,'Hn«d«, which was to the effei't that tba Huwrmt In I'ouncll hod nliollshed the duty leviml uii. on tita i/rltfltiMl paiikages, containing products of Ilia I'ltlteit HtHttoi iiuported Into this province, under tlm provUkiMS lit tli« reciprocity treaty," Tim fiilluwlng llgiiros will show the luiinpurativN liH|iort»iw« ut IIm trad* of the principal cltlas of Oaiimia t CITIKI, . iHFonn. 1 myninii, | tm— toutma, ] itsa. 18M. IIU. 1 ISM, "£7Hii,'(»«~l vvm.iM" 8,0(1 l,0«l . I.HnH.TKH 1,401,4M i 'W.m ItM, MWi(4 II7IMMII IMt, { IIM. IIM, 1 IISU. 1 Qnebec Montreal . , Toronto,.,. £1,141,595 8,881, MO l,lfB,US« £I,TM,82() 3,Ml(l,«S2 l,,Sfl2,70« m,iv,» 1B0,(«8 £l7il,|ll« < tween Belle Isle and Quebec. There were other cir- cumstances which threatened that commercial iiroS' perity which once appeared to be the undoul)teii np' panage of the most convenient port of this large river ^using the term " most convenient" In reference to breadstuff's, the chief produce of tlin West, and to manU' factored goods, the chief article in demand by the West, The principal of these was the discovery that the nioitt fertile lands lay beyond the barrierformed by Niagara, Hence, the population which would otherwise, in the natural order, have fllled up the nearest land lirst, was tempted to the shores of Lake Krie and the country lying between that lake and the head waters of the Mis. sissippi. It has been In this region that the great eni' igrant population has chiefly established Itself, leaving the less fruitful shores of the St, Lawrence and Ielieved that at no former period was Its trade and general business on a more healthy footing. In INIHI, the population was 9O0O ; 181C, 16,000 ; 1826, 22,0(M)| 18.31, 27,297; 1851, 57,715; 1856, 76,000, at a very moderate estimate. Rtgulationa in /Vrcf.— Merchandise shall not ba u»». laden in Canadian ports except after due entry, at places designated for that purpose, under jwnalty of forfeiture. Merchandise shall not be imported exrept into some port at which a custom-house is estalillslied, under penalty of forfeiture of vessel and goods, if under the value of $1000 ; if above that sum, they shall lie retained as security for the payment of that amount, Whunee Imported. OrcatJirltaln... N. Anier. Culonios, West Indies. Unltcil States Otb. for. countries. Total vas £4,624,280 16S,IS4 869 «,«46.6!I6 268,B07_ £T,9«B,88» £5,7*«.*W2 16s,I7!i 668 8,8(M,2T4 888,771 £10,182,881 £i3,826,8«iS"" 216,4116 n,R8R 6,aor,i«» £»,02i,fi4« Hiinli» mnnn'tnt with Montreal. — Montreal liaing » larti« cuMtintirclal rontre, the banking facilities alfonhid tu the liilnllKii'K ctinitiitinlty are on an extemied tcitlv, Tlia blinks iif Caiindn have been, on the whohi, pru- dently ami jllillclitusly tnnnnged, and have proveit tu. inunerntiva Ui thn shHreliolders, while thurs bus .vet bean IMi innlilticti of the stoppage of a Canadliin bunk, Tha naint;m.im (JoiMMii'ri'lnl Mtiiih iirCfltiiwIa, BKuncy. 4,00U,(NW ■i/iW/m nAlik of t'liliiir ('hiiwIa, SKi'iicy 4,00(1,000 2,i)tl>i, £74,780 87,427, 2,49^«41 208,818 1,829,040 M.I60I 11,246' ica (brott. Aniniata and tlioir product! Aitrlcditnrol products. MAnufsolnroa Ollinr Hftlolei Total rnluo of exports. VsIho of ships built at Onebcr Ksflinatcd stiiiiiint of ox- tmrts, short rotumcdat InlRiiil ports i81,453l'' 114,980| 1,986980 893,790 8,267,699 119,019 17,140 i^,70O,264 i»,V2&,975 552,062 442,470 804,886 310,258 Orand total of oxporU. I £5, 7. 54,797 £7,047,1 15 £41,411 114,0861 2,504,970, Ml,014[ 8,74:1,068' 98,407 10,799} £7,148,749, 528,726 £8,011,754 The folhiwliig is a comparative statement of the valtie of Imports and exports of Canada during the years W>r> and IHJO ; i«r. £7,()47,11» IMX) 8,01 l,7M Impnrti. £9.021,543 lO,806O()6 Toiai. £16,063,067 13,907,861 ltiprf»,88i). Hummarii of Ihe Rtgulatiunt in force at the different I'nflu in dmutila, — Merchandise shall not be unladen, 3(i,487 510,833 639,846 1 734,(129 618,289 90.3,.502 1,312,693 $8,208,771 $2,098,806 2,712,097 8,328,587 6,790,a88 8,769,630 5,683,458 $10,165,549 $7,929,140 6,717,064 7,829,099 17.300,706 18,7';«,».t4 20'jS8,24l $5,706,552 $4,9,50,471 4,589,909 5,2T8,1I6 6.721..589 13,183,314 17,438,197 $131,500 $284,301 166.8.50 617,009 444,177 $343,749 $1,863,737 588,969 9*4,219 75,000 1,809,719 927,013 765,94.5 1,062,036 880,941 890,017 1,113,731 Moor, In navigation, signifies generally to fix a V(i»»c1 liy two anchors In nearly opposite directions, so that she ridrt by cither In certain winds, or partly by liotli lit other winds. Also, to secure a vessel to wcljjiil" Of chains sunk In harbors for the purpose. 'I'htisfl weight' nro called mooring bloch, and the whole dWinrntll", miiariiifis. "' MOrOOOO, or Maroquin (Ger. Saffiam ; Fr. Ma- fiiuiiln; \l, Midrnrrhino; Hp. Afarroqui ; Has. iSnfian), a (lfl(( kind of leather prcpcrcd of the skins of goats, Impottcd from the I.,evant, Barbary, Spain, Flanders, «t«t, (t Is red, Mack, green, yellow, etc. It is ex- Un»Wii\y tiMd In tha binding of books. See Leather. 4S MorOOOO. In Africa gcnerall}', barbi\rism, with all its attendant evils — ignorance, superstition, and cruelty — still characterize not only the several govern- ments, but most of the countries of Africa, if wo except Egypt, the European settlements, and the republic of Liberia, Balbi, the distinguished Vene- tian geographer, in his great work, Balance Politique du Globe, remarks : " The title of African statistics may be rejected as absurd ;" and, Lence, he persisted for a long time m his determination of excluding Af- rica, Oceanica, and the greater part of Asia, from con- sideration. Since Balbi composed his work, however, civilization baa made encouraging progress in some 11 ■Mh MOft 1S78 MOR iwrtlnii* at WtfotafH ^fliift, Viiini OnllonM haa b«en bruuKlit witttiii (Imi liH't(4, unit imiUt tlin liiiinanl/.lng Inllutiiii u., i,( H yimilK, vlK(if(M(«, Hnii Cflfldtliin repirb- lie, Wlwrx Urn »Uvit fminfU'* ime* nUuu], piilpim are noMT araotwl i mui n^VM^h trilwit, nniI Imrlmrnus vhlefn, iiuteiKi of WKfriii)} wttit Ml ll 'rtliof firr liiiinnn plunder, h4vii tUJit HWtf)' ll«« tlHlilciNctiti* (pf (urniiKe, and now •aak a t'uiMMU'lf lirilt*) (il>', Morocco, Tunis, and Tri- poli, 'I'lia will mill f'|||imt«i of llil< tegimi are eminently favurulilu U) tll« niltlint miiiI f^rnwtli of the eholcent produrlloHs, ltd, 'CliK tliird region comprehends the vast ilBKort of Mttloirit, wcH ffotrt VpMim and Uarfour to the Athiiilli', Miiit mmtU ffum the Itnrbary States to Hunogumtila, HoiMtmi, «»id (tortioil. 4lh. The fonrth region i'oiM|irii||aiid« Nlaillk, of western Africa, ex- kiidiiig from tin* noiiiliTioMiidiry of the western des- ert to thu Milllll liimmUfy at llengiieia. In alwiit lati- tuiltt lif^ voMtll, ilielwtillK ilin repiililic of Mberia. ftth. Tlia lifdi rctflwH «om(rt'«)lelids the (Jape of (Jood II(i|ie ijiloiivi (Im I'tilliitry of the (laffres and llotten- tota I ii|)>l tlia aiit«i||iifv«t t\tji desert coast north of the llottt'ntJit loiiiitfj', ta found )n tlia l»lgest of (tritlsh Colonial Posses- Hlimn)! »ii4 His nktli, Hie African possessions of the Sultan of Muneitl;, ilUilmtitlf^ the Island of Zanzi- bar. JIarbnrj/ Mliilti,=.\liiii»f (lie collective denomina- tion of liarlwty Wniei, «fe grouped together the coun- tries which form the tiortliern const of Africa, viz. : Morowo, '('Mllia, mwt Tri|»oll, I'riirT to the submission of Algerl» to tlie li'rem'li arms, this division was also compraliaii'lK'd miller the snme general name. Ileing now a VmtuU vuiimf, it is iticltided In the Digest of t'reiM:)! tUiluiM I'leotNfisitiMs, JiiHiiiir iif IHiifm'iiii,=^imHi'ii Is one of the most powerful of tlia \hl\mty Mates, nod comprises an area of UM),im ie respected and esteemed, iiiiil have full lilwrty to pass and repass our country unil sea-ports whenever they please, witliout interruption. ID. Merchants of Iwth countries shall employ only such interpreters and ftuch other persons to assist tiicm In their business as they shall think proper. No cdiii- mander uf a vessel shall transport ids cargo on iHniril another vessel ; he bball not lie detained in port iuii|{cr than lie may think proper; and all iwrsona eiiipioycil in loading or unloading goods, ur in any otiu'r iiiljur whatever, shall be ]iaid at the customary rules, not more anil nut less, 17. Stcrchnnts shall nut lie cum- pelicd to buy ur sell any kind uf guuds Ijut sucii us they shall think pruper, and may buy and sell all surts of merchandise but such as arc proliiliitcd to the otiior Christian nations. 18. All goods shall lie wcl^^lini and examined before they are sent on lionrd ; ami, to nvuid all detention of vessels, no examination »iiuii afterward be made, unless it shall first lie provoil that contraband goods have been sent on board ; in which case the persons wiio took tlie contra'innil gooiis on lioard shall lie punished according to the u.sa^e ami custom uf thu country, and no otiier person whatever shall be injured, nor siiull the ship or cargo incur any penalty or damage whatever. 19. No vessel shall lie detained in port on any pretense whatever, niir be obliged to take on board any article without the con- sent of the commander, who shall bo at full Hlierty to agree for the freight of any goods ho takes on liuard. The' treaty to cuntinue in furce AO years, with tiie usual 12 months' notice after tiie expiration of thut period. Thu principal ports of Morocco are Mogadorc, on the Atlantic, with a safe harbor for vessels of loU tuns ; Tangier, Tetuan, Dar al Kaida, Mazagnn, Salli, liu- liat, and Lnrocho. The import duties are often arljj- tnirily raised, and frequently corruptly levied. Witli the exception of cochineal, coffee, cotton, irnn, raw silk, sugars, and tea, on which articles there are spec- Ifled duties, and tobacco, which can lie sold only tn the temporar}- assignees of the emperor's mnnopuly, a general duty of 10 per cent, is levied on all impnrt.4. When thus sold, it is admitted free ; tiiu price of tlic mono|>oly varying according to tlie nuinlier of liiil- ders, but usually reaching as high iis ,*100,00O. Tlic assignee realizes from nett sulcs.about $180,000. lie- aides tobacco, the sultan reserves the monopuly of brimstone, gunpowder, and lead. Kvory article en- tering into the export trade of Morocco is subject to arbitrary, and frequently oppressive duties. On leeches and cork-bark the sultun retains the monoiio- ly, whicii is annually sold to tiie highest bidder, and sometimes adds to tlio sultan's revenue as much a* $100,000 per annum. If we compare this lur|,'e amount with the total value of these articles annually exported, viz. : lecclies $120,000, cork-bark $110,(1(10 (about 50 per cent, of which is paid for the monopoly), it can be seen at once how much the trade in these articles is affected by these burdensome internal taxe.". Morocco maintains an extensive trade with tlie inte- rior of Africa by caravans, the principal of whicli uMally accompanies the pilgrims across the wliolo con- tinent uf Africa to the Red Seu, and the tomb of Mo- hammed, and Mecca. The value of the investments in this caravan has been usually estimated at $2,000,000. The caravans trading with the interior depart from Tetuan, Morocco, and Fez, and meet at Tafilct, in or- der to cross together the great desert of Sahara. The trade between the United States and the empire of ! Ve,n. IS.'W... ISM... lS\'i... issa... ToUl. Average MOR 1979 MOR Morocco la principally indtArt, through the porti of Marseilles and riibraltar, and U conducted for the moKt part In Frenrli and HrltUh liottomi. It It nug- geated to tho Department of State, by the United States' consul at Tangier, that this carrying trade could be secured to American vessels If our Import duties on produce in general of Morocco, especially on coarse wool, were reduced to the same standard that rules in Kngland. In 18S8 the carrying export trade of the United States to Moro<;co, amounting to $84,000, was entirely effected In foreign vessels. In 18A2, of the 474 vessels of all sizes, measuring an aggregate of 80,426 tons, engaged In the foreign trade of the em- pire, there were but four American vessels, measuring In all 1,100 tons. Tho imports Into the United States from Morocco consist of coarse wool, gums, siclns, ootrlch feathers, etc. The exports from the United States to Morocco are raw cotton, coarse domestics, brown sugar, rice, and to)>acco. The latter article is supplied almost exclusively from the United States. In 1848 the maritime commerce of Morocco reached 15,040,079 francs (i|2,71)8,788), viz. : InipoHi. Kriinci, Merchandise 8,747,604 Bpcclo 258,800 Total. ... 9,001,804 Riporta. B,0H9,27S 856,400 <),l)4^075 In this general movement the returns assign to the port of Mogadore amounts as follows : Imports, 2,281,- 038 francs ; exports, 2,S84,804 francs j total, 4,805,842 francs. See MonADoRK, ante, p. 1368. This leaves 10,181,187 francs for the other ports— Mazngnn, Tangier, Tetuan, Dar ol Baidu, Laroohe, and liubat. For the purpose of comparison, the general move- ments for 1847 aro given as follows : Imports, 7,077,- 208 francs ; exports, 0,910,946 francs ; total, 18.988,- 164 francs. Compared wich 1846, these figures show a diminu- tion of 890,647 francs ; but when compared with the returns for 1848, they exhibit an increase of 1,058,825 francs, exclusively on imports. The diminution prin- cipiilly ufftcta the trade with France j thus, in 1847, the trade of this country with Morocco amounted to 2,814.1M francs— (Imports 520,905, exports 1,793,189) —while in 1848 It fell to 1,656,386 francs— (imports 40-1,906, and exports 1,251,480)-— showing u decrease of 057,708 francs. With every other coun .ry engaged in this trade tlioro wa.i an augmentation iir 1848, both in imports and exiiorta. In one article, ratiier suspi- ciously called "Americanos," Kngland largely aug- mented her export trade to Morocco — the whole increase in 1848 being upward of $1,600,000. This description of merchandise is thus explained in an official dispatch transmitted to tho Department of State from Tangier : " Throughout the whole empire, from the sultan down to the lowest subject, the article which we call ' coarse domestics' ia used under the appellation of Anifricanos. It is the principal article of import, and Is an imitation, by the manufacturers of Manchester, England, of the coarse domestics of Massachusetts. * • • • • u took with the Moors, who wore so enthusiastic In their praise of it, thut tlie English manufacturers dispatched an agent to this country to examine and report on the fabric, and the probable demand. They then set to work to manufacture mi tHU'U) Ih dVdff mp^H nimiUt \ and. stealing tli* itanu, Uu>y mmmumi to iindnrsell our countrymen and uummuMtm IIm tnittiiH." The tabu- lar stateiiiuutu that fiiihm, tfivlttu it iimiUnneii view of thu trails and iiavlgitdxo nf Miifwiii, are brought down to the IttaH jwrl'i'l (nf i^hinU niitlwntlr data aro accessible. Ilwy ^r* r«HH(rfM ttm fllUlh (ifflclal publications i Tiiiutia HiATaNKiir iummniH nn tw^wi tit Moaooco I'"* i*4». i'mn4Hmi wim «n. Tsnirier Tetuan. LaroL'lie .... Kabat DarallisliU Mazsitaii IHIMH" Mogailure •i.mhmi Total IMImi Official returns gtvw Ul Kltjjtwkl tlw (rflnclpal ihnre of this traile— un adfitHtjtuw wMlh •)(« (■lijiry,", imftly because of lliu proiciwily tit I Hi if nil Hf, btii milnly be- cause she niono|xiliiws )Im< Uf^u built lit tUn cnrrylng trade Iwtween the (,'»(|t*i| Hmttm »«d Mmmtn. The im|)ort8, Umm ynttr*, mininWii iit cottons (^Americimiii) und wimtm i l'(H(», titw sllli, Iron, steel, copper and li/u/J, uugnf, niffim, iffHUm, ilfMgs, hard- wares, tea, und mmUi Hm Hiniiiftit *cM Wool, bides ond skins, Uficlws, gM(ll, iiihu.-iiH. Wotiwco leather, and ostrich fouthurs, 'dm Kfimm euliwintce of the Mediterranean in ll*.')4 )M»f«(ti*4 imli'tMif over that of 1853 ; tlie iiicrtosii him, rlll^lly »j(li ftfialfi, Morocco, Sardinia, the Uiiltud Hti*(«», miA TdsiaMJ', Nuviynliun.—'l'Ua (uW'miHH *«•'•* «*(lll/ils the ««tl' gation of tlie jwrU of Miifmm in imi(l i N«Uuii«lii)r.. W«,(rf»fl EnKlttiid ,,,,,,,,,,, m Fran™ .,,,,,,, U 8paln Portugal Turkey Other countries. T' («,«<<« (,«« t,m (.^4(1 n 1//28 Total. mi M,l5fi The principal iiiipi)r(« Kr» iitltim ffHiiU lit nil klnd.4, cloth, silk stuffa, v»|y«ts, i»(i(i^f, iffJHi »r* fffJlH^ «H(l l»Mi _Aversgo[_ JftW^ Tliat our comiiwrclnl rnwVH IHWy s«# the share which Great Dritaiii ImiI4» it* f Iw tf/trfw of' TftHj^Ier, we sulijoin a taliulur .stati'ineiit i!]w¥i\n^i\i«m^\tUttiiin lit this port during tl«s 6H>m mf\ii>\, 4i.rtit covurud tiUH-lgV^O francs, ind itxporU 6,tlUtl,026 franca. In IH&'i tha total wo* • inly 6,920,A'.'i> franca; of which, for Iniporta, thei« wen 1),267,176 franca, and for export* lJ,lir>a,llfiO t'ranea. Thert waa, therefore, an Increase In 1H6U of, importn l,717,OIA franca, exporta 1,U5'>,U7S, making a total of U,(i;i,7;iU francH. Navlitation returna ahow that 67 vessola entered, ineaauring, In all, 74HB tons, viz.: Kngland, H7; France, ; I'ortUKsl, 'i ; Uelgium, 1 ; Spain, 1 ; other iiatlona, 7. The trade of thia port (Mogadore) in IHa-l exhibit* a total value of &,U4ll,0U6 franca ; of which there waa tor imports '2,M10,(M5 frunca, and for ex|)orta 3,186,050 I'ranca, Naviuation or Moaocco in 1A44, coxPAtcii with that or 1847. IMS. IMT., Knuratl. 1»7 81 e ToUl Vnnaaff*. S8,84« 81,4U Ueoroaso In 1<)4H. ID U »,OMS The general foreign commerce of tlio empire in lt<48 and 1860 is ahown by the following atate- inont : Y«iin. tmporti. Eiporti. TnUI. 1B4« fl.loaltiOO t\fim,200 |8,TS9.400 1860 1,f)'J«,H00 l,«88,tM0 U,fiO«,000 The commerce for theae years waa thus distributed lietwcon the ports of Morocco : Porli. ImpotU. Kiporti. I84>. ISM. IIM*. J Krano*. Tatifflpr ' 2,18«,0(M) Totuan I »,497,00() l.aroche '. eS.S.fltXI lUhat ' I,S87,(I0« iDiiralBalda.... 716,000 'Miuaitan 68.000 Kraiici. 1,614.000 Mi.noo I.SiM.OOO wo.ooo 496,000 I MoKodorc 2,786,000_i3128,0(:0 ' Total IO,6tl8,IN)0 j 9, il 4,000 I'rnne*. 1,649,000 1,116,000 B8'.t,000 477,000 I.A'AOOO 344,000 i,m,m 8,416,000" I 1,048,000 I 617,000 866,000 1,146,000 I 1,116,000 410,000 I 8,792,000 8,3»(,000 The following tubular Htutcment shows the countries which participated in the trade of 1860 : Counlrirb. Import!. 'England.., | $1,808,800 I France . ISnaln il'nrtufnil.. Sardinia., llelgluin.. Austria. . . I Total. 896,000 48,100 47,400 14,66o 8,800 11,822,800 Kiportl. |»7«,400 621,800 87,400 7,800 38,000 11,900 11,688,800^ Toul. |3;286,200 1,017,400 8^600 66,200 38,000 26,800 8,800 18,606,000 The principal ports of Morocco are Tangier, Tetuani Laroche, Kubat, Dar al Uaidu, Mazagan, and Moga- dore. The town of Tangier occupies an eminence at the western extremity of a capacious bay, within the limits of the Straits of Gibraltar, and nearly opposite to the Spanixh town of Tarifa. The peculiar advan- tages of its situation render it the most frequented imrt of Morocco. The town contains 900 houses, and about ^500 inhabitants— consisting of tiOOl Moors, 3200 •lews, and 840 Christians. The inhabitants are, com- paratively speaking, civilized and tolernnt. Chris- tians are treated with greater respect, and Jews with loss severity, than in any other part of the empire — privileges for which they are indebted partly to the presence of the chief representatives of foreign pow- ers and partly to the liberality o{ the present able imd energetic Pasha, Sid Mohamed Uen Abd-el- Maleck. Port Charge). — The port charges and dues are sim- ply for anchorage, and vary from f 2 to $25, with a gratuity to the port captain of from $2 to $4. This gratuity secures thj services of this officer in obtain- ing abundant provisions and other supplies for the vesMi, free of duty. The anchorage dues, as above, range between tlin two •xtremes, according to the friendly or unfriendly terms which may aulisiat be- tween the local authoritiea and tlie contul of the na- tion the tlag of which the vsaael may bear. — Com, Ktl. U. S. Contular Bei/ulalioiu with Ihe t/nilej iSlalet, — It is stipulated by the 19th and tha three following articles of the treaty concluded Iratween the United States and Morocco, OctolKtr 1, 1H87, tliat if any of the citizens of the I'liited States, or any iwraona under tlieir pro- tection, shall have any dispute with each otlier, t\w consul shall decide between the parties ; and wliencvcr the consul shall require any aid or aaalatance from the government of Morocco to enforce Ilia decisions. It abail be immediuteiy rendered to him. If a citizen of the United States ahouid kill or wound a Sloor, or, on the contrary, If a Moor ahall kill or wound a citi- zen of the United States, the law of the country iihull take place, and equal Justice shall l>e rendered, the consul nsaiating at the trial; and if any deiiii(|uicar, the consul ahall take possession of hix oirccts ; and if there shall bo no consul, the efTccts shall be de- posited in the hands of some person worthy of trn.it, until the party shall appear who has a right to liu- mand them ; but if the heir to the person deceuscil lie present, tlie pro|)erty ahall be delivered to him witliniit interruption ; and if a will ahull appear, the property shall descend agreeably to that will, as soon as the consul shall declare the validity thereof. Tiie consul of the United States is permitted to reside in any sea- port of the diimiuions of the emperor of Jlorocco tluit he shall think proper ; and he shall be respected, and enjoy all the privileges whicli the consuls of any other nation enjoy ; and if any of tlie citizens of the United States shall contract uny debts or engugements, the consul shall not bo in any manner answerable I'ur them, unless he shall have given a promise in writing' for the^iwynient or fulfillment thereof ; wltliout which promise iu writing no application to him for any re- dress shall be made. Mortgage. A mortgage is a conveyance or truns- fer if real or personal estate to secure the grantee or assignee tiie payment of some debt or the pcrforniiincc of some agreement, with a condition or understunilin|{ that, in case of the debt being paid, or tlie agrccnieut being performed, within a certain time, and in the specifled manner, the conveyance or assignment sliull be void, and the land or personal property revert to, or rather, still belong to the mortgager. The Kngllsli, and so the American mortgage of bind, is mcjstiy bor- rowed ttom the civil law (see Kent's Commentariei, vol. iv., part iv., lect. Ivii. ; UitowN's Civil Lmr, vol. i., p. 200), or, at least, many of the rules and inci- dents of the Roman hi/potheca, coincide with ours rela- ting to mortgages. The essential characteristic of a mortgage, however, according to the impart ond dell- nitlon of the term, must be the same in all countries, namely, thot the property convoyed or transferred. whether real or personal, shall not absolutely go, and belong to the grantee or assignee, in case the dolit in tended to be secured shall be paid, or the contract, whatever it may be, intended to be guarantied, shall be performed within the time and terms agreed upon. The rules and incidents of such a hypothecation will, therefore, have some resemblance under all codes of laws. There is no limitation of tlie kind of debts or contracts, the payment or performance of wliich may be secured by mortgage, for all legal ones may be .so guarantied. What will be a sufHcient conveyance of the property, whether real or personal, will again de- pend on the laws of the place. A conveyance of land, for instance, must, in most countries, be made in writ- ing, and with certain formalities. So, in England, tlie right of property in a ship must appear by a bill of MOR 1311 MOfl e or tr:ini- (frantce or !rfi)rmuiicu iirstaiidinn ugri'i'iueiit mil ill tlio meiit sha\l evprt to, or ,e Knglisli, ncjutly bor- nmenUtriei, 1m«; vol. and inci- . ours rclu- leristic of a and deli- . countries, tanaferrcd. ely go, ai>'l ho debt in „ contract, ntlod, shall jreed upon, cation will, ,U codca of of debts or which may may be no iveyanco of 11 again dc- nce of land, \ade in writ- tnuland, the by a bill of 11 nl«, WIlHtavor than* rulm arc hy which thn aliio- 1 !utfl tranxrvror pr(i|i«rt}- 1» r«Kiilat«il, th«y will miually ' •pply tn K conveyance or aiiiil|{nment by way of hy. I |M)tlirciitlon. Aa real entate la uaually ra<|iiir«il hy tlw j I'lWK to lifl rnnvoyed hy written dncumenta, anil, n\ cnrdlnit to th« law* of most placea, thena convryani'iit are eviilenced hy piilillc reconia of the Initrumenta hy which they are made, there is no neneialty of an open, vUlbla ponaeaiion of the estate hy the K'*>itee, that the public may take notice of the Rrant, for they may find the evidence of It at the office of public rei^onl. The case Ik not the name with (leriianal property, thn title to which is uauall}' eonflrmed and establUhed to the piirchanrr by a delivery of the article Into lili pon- neAHliin, In respect to all chattels, of which manual pnnsrsslnn and transfer from place to place Is prai'tlca< bio, tho delivery by tho vender, and actual |)osiesslon by the purchaser, aro very material circumstances in establlKhintt the right of property in the latter. It Is, indeed, laid down as a maxim of tho Knglish, and also of tho American law, that movables can not bo validly solil or mortnaged without a delivery actual, or con. itructlve, to tlin purchaser or mortgagee, and a |)»sses- sinn by him. Hut this rule Is very much modilleil and relaxed ; not that a delivery to and a possession hy thn venden and mortgagee are not cimsidered requlslta to establish his title, but a very lil)eral taterpretatlon has been put upon circumstances showing a eon- atriictlvo delivery and possession. Tho oliject and p(dicy of the law Is to leave the movable. Just aa it does land, to bo used either by the mortgager or mort- gagee, without affecting their mutual rights and obli- gations as to the property In the thing, as far as this indulgence can l>e carrieil without loading other per- sons into a misapprehension, and exposing them to fraud and Imposition in giving credit to the mortgager, iipim tiie supposition of his l)ping tho absolute owner of tho property hypothecated. Tho various rules and distinctions by which the mortgage of chattels Is rcgu- lated in tills respect, constitute an essontal part of the law upon this suliject. Hut, after all, wo may lay it down us an essential doctrine, that a mortgaged chat- tel must be in possession of the mortgagee, in order to render his title secure; and when the mortgager has, by tho law, been permitted still to use the thing, it is only in cases where his possession is, in legal con- struction, that of tho mortgagee. The most material consideration relating to mortga- ges, whether of lands or chattels, is the eft'ect of the non-performance of tho condition by the mortgager. This will depend, it is true, in part, upon tho terms of the contract of hypothecation or mortgage. If it he agreed between the parties, that in case of non-per formance of tho condition of the hypotheoation, the mortgagee shall sell tho thing hypothecated, whottier land or goods, and account to the mortgager for tho proceeds in satisfaction of tho doI>t, or discharge of the oljligation, intended to he secured, and pay over the surplus, if any, this is all that justice or tho law can demand, and this is, In effect, wliat the law aims at where the parties do not mal»m» mnU will rxiii h It In regani to one kind oi pUdgn, HKirtKHKx, „t hrpolhecsllim, and not another ^oranaiiipl,., |,)'lh« ^/.„^\M, „^) Amerlcin law, If a il«l,tor \iMg», bill, „f tni'tmnit", w nnv personal prop erty fur « lUW, )>, an amount eicredlrii; Its value, th- ■•mdltiir »nH«t iM'i«Mi«ii riirlll«|rr,ii'eeds. and pay over thi' surplii* Ui llw dvtitor 1 but III Ciitfland, and so In somi of tiM I'iiIImI Mal««, If lite ilnMor mortgages lamls, of whii'll tlw tfuWUif lakM fummUm tax breach ol I'onditlon, lh« MiUn lian ihrc* years to redeem It, al- ter whii'h tiiiMi ll*« laii'l Is alrsolutelv gone, though twiietliaaHKiuhlortlMiilebtln raliie. 'llie law, In tlil- I'aiw, nupiMw* thrco v»»rs (o U time ent), »» t»w1l »•( In (eeland and thn north nl liermaiiy, It Kfmtia tii « |i«liiltlni;-|«tt \mpimf^ of the color required. If the teiil|ieratl(ra of llm C«|((ief Iw too hi(}h, a portlou of the /ini' will (ly (tlf In vn^f, nnd the result will be merely siwltsr «f linrd »o1(l«f 1 b(lt If the operation be carried on at as \tm » lent ns hnsslble, the alloy will assume (irst » hr»»s$' y»\\tm mun then, by the intro- duction of small \wH\im» n( if.itw, It will take a pnrple j or violet hua, (*((d will nltltnntett become perfeotly I wliite i whk'b U tM (lp|W(tntmt« ut tho ptoper compound MUL 1383 MUL in It* fuMil lUt*. ThU (llov m»y Im poariHl Into liiKoU, I liul •■ U U dlllloult to |iri»«rti> lt.< churadi', wlimi n>>mtltiHl, it shouM lis nii In!) tha litr iin«l niiilcU, Tho |i«t«nt«M i^nliii tlm i- < iiiiive riuiit of I'oniixiumliiiK <> 'nntul riinalatliiK nf rnun M to lib |iurta lit i\uv nut nf KHI, Moulc |{<>lcl, th« nurum tin. i/i'»Hi (if th« iilil rlioniltta, U • miliiliiinit of till. ACoaalo ( .l/»v«riil kimU of mimiilf, liut all iif lliem raimliil In iiiilHMlilliiK frii)(iiwiitii of (lltrcrrnt i'iilftr« I'oiint iif tlio vaat niiiltltuil* of |ir«iiiou» miirlilio, J«»- liiira, iiKatim, uvunturlnitM, inalurliUiiii, «ti-., *|i|illi«l In Hiomilr, ii|N>n ItH wnlU. Tim ilrtttilpil iIIki'UioIou of tlilH milijtit't li«l(inKi to u troatlun U|Hin tli« llns nrta, Moaqulto Ooaat, Moaqultla. Tim llniK ■ tlilM |imiuito Ontriil Ainiirlviui Ntutx, Mom 'Itlu or : Miii>i|iilto('niist, iirii no inilvlinltn, iinil itanxtont ' ' i < n> lin|M'rfiu'tly Hii<'prtaltii>d, that avin'rl; iiiniu kI i - IhiMu I'hurtti'tpr rnn lis ksIiI ri>ii|H«'tliii: it phyalmlly. tliiin |Milltli'iilly or cominerclitlly. It la »ii|i|Hiap(l to extoiiil from t'lipe llaniliiruH toth* mouth of tlio lllvnr .Siui •liiiin, hiivln^ weat the >Stiii' « of lloiia, Tim Monqulto Imliana, Iti imt|va anil ainuiat only liihahltuiitii, aro reiirrsentvil aa an nctivii anil il»rlii)( raco, imviir ' roUK< t uniUr auliniiaalon liy the Mpanliirila. Tho Sun Uiun liivnr la I'lainivil aa Ita aoiitli iHiiiniliiry, Ita caiiital la lllnwilelila, ami It I'ontalna Hevprul otliiT amull vilhiKna, liihaliitKil I'hietly liy natlvii Indiana ami aomo fuw llritlah I'ohiniata, The iMiuntry la fortlln, ami, unilor |irii|ii5r iMiltlvalion, woulil |iro(lucn cocoa, cotton, aii|{ar, lnili|((>, \ anilla, anil logwood ; hut, until sonin chanf(a takua pliu'c rithcr in tho inndp of cultivation, or the form of Kovurninent, itn rvaoiircua have hut aiiiuU chance for (lovuhi|>ment. See 1Iiimi>i:h.vh. Mother of Pearl (AVktb ' ..iji or furrows which rur acroaa the surface of '"-ri i •■ net upon the ri° 2' S., long. 10° 4H' E., is aliout I^ miles in length, low, and of coral foriuation. Mulberry. Soil, Situation, Propagalim, etc. — Tho wiorus nigra, or black mulberry-tree, will grow in almost any soil or situation that is tolerably dry, and In any cllmct* not much colder than most parts of llrllain and tl.a IFnittd Ntates. It la very eaaily pni|v .igateil by truncheons or plrcea of tlm lirnmhea, I'iKht or nine feet In length, and of any thickneaa, iH'iiig planted half Ihtir ile|ith In tolerably good aiill| when they will Iwar fruit the following year. Aa It la iix- Irsmeiy tsnacluua of life, every part of the rout, trunk, buugha, and bramhei may Iw converted Into plant* liy aeparatlon \ the roollels, and iiiiall ahoota or apraya, lieiiig made Into tuttlnga, the larger Iniugha into atakra, the arms into truncheona, and the trunk, atiMil, and mots, liein». 'Ut ' lo fr gmenta, leaving a port inn of the bark op . '> m \ planting tlium after the ItnU Ian mod" r< -tin 'he olive-tree. Tlie iiiuilicrry may I'm ae Ml aeeiia, hy layera, or by grs ' I- ami I nidi.,, t his tree, from its alowneaa of <>i\\ , out us leaves, eing rarely injured liy aprliig I'roa in'' hiaves Iwlng seldom or never dinnurnl liy an; inr. xcept the silkworm, and never tniiilieii vith mihlew, viry seldom falls to produce a gooil imp ' fruit. Thia fruit, however, though excellniil, ami exceedingly whiilenome, dues not keep, and la m f.ir truubie'vorma, Tho leaves are also eaten by cattle, sheep, and goata, Tlie roots have an ocrid, bitter taate, and aro considereil aa an excellent vermifuge, when taken, in powder, in ilosea of half a drachm. The tree, in every part, contiiiiia a milky Juice, which, being coagulated, is fuund to form a course kind of eluat ■: gum. Tlio fruit of tliis tree is of an ugreeable acid «ud inimatic llavur, and la entcn raw, as u dessert, or may bi» formed into an agreeable preserve ; and Evelyn saystlint, mixed witli the Juice of cider nppica, it nial*. s a v. ry .strong and agrcoablo wine. Dr. Clurko iV'^tTvea that lie saw some Greeks, in tiie Crimea, 1 ipbiyc 1 in distilling brandy from mulberrie whieli lie dcM ribes as "u weak but palatable spirit, as clear .'* water." A wine is ulso made from it in Fraiiw ; but it rennircs to be drunk Immediately, us it very aoon becomes acid. The fruit, when ripe, is regarded as cooling and laxa- tive, allaying thirst, and being grateful in cases of fever. When mode into a syrup, it is cunaidereil ex cellent for a sore throat. Like tho straw lierry and raspberry, it is suld to undergo tho acetous fermeuta- MUL 13M MUL tiM In Mm tloniHih, und thanAm m»f to mkHf mIhi >i>«ini •HlU-tail with tlio thiiMiMMMI W wwi. All itinn niijrii ■liitis iiiul- , iil.nllt -10 milili-, mill II rilw fur lis wdinl 1» fiwl. In HlO ll'llVCK of tlie 'I'lui Icnves Tlii^ roots reil A* aw •r, 111 ilos''" ont:ii«» 11 fuiinil to fruit of tli'w or, Hiiil ii" A into an niixcil wltli itronii a'"' mt ho saw ilistiUini? ilics UK " u A wine (ilres to 1)1' •oiiii'x aciil. ^ iiiul la""- iii canes of is'ulnreiJ I'x w\K>rry and IS fermtuta- Hii! I ' <>r poultry an iixii. IntrHt and Itit "* -Ihe Icavaii of the montt ''4i», or whila lnulberr^ -trae, m *lwv«l to Im Mtan 1. no othar liiMct hut r'he allkwurm ' -u. ' ^r iii'Ti). M. I'uI- Ivln, iiiiwavarr, maila axiMiHnunii^ with v«rli"H khiilii of llir-vi'ta, liiit lliry all h-jni'tiitl Iha iiiulbcrr/ leiif fiif fiHnI, nxvupt ' it KrmtD wuriii, alHiiit an iii<:h IdllKi ami ua thlik ait uii out atraw Altluiit({li hi. follDHl ll ii|ioii It iiitlllwrrv, It wua hia Iwlief that It wi> not pwi iiliarto that trM ahiiiK. luit roiinil ita ws,v tintrc liy «< > lilaiit. Tim wliltn MiiilluTrv, iiowavuf, la uliacki'il hy iiumrr- una illaanai'a, ori'ii>luniiil partly, >i>< 'htaht. Iiy Iha im- nalnral inunnxr In whh'h ll i^ tniatvil. h,v \y»\n^ >trl|i|Hul of Ita folliit(i'. < )iia of tlitiiM i]iaeiiai>^ la liroiiKhl nil liy iinv anilileii rliiu'k KJvt'ii )ii ihi< tr.iiia|ilriilloii of llio li'iuiiN, nhhli turn yolluw, iiml I'nII olf, ahortly iil'tor I'aUHliiK Ilia trim to illr Anolhor in thu ilaath of tha roota, which la accuiuiiunlad hy th» I'orinatioii on Ihi'iii of luirualtic fun)(l, Tha iMvm ara alan apt tu hu attiii'lo'il with lioncy-ilvw, Blll* ((Ivan to tho liiaiicia w llhoiit injury ; l>ut lin otiu'r illaauauil Icavca alimihl lia llirown uwiiv If Ivavua covured with Imnay-iliiw aru ainployail o-in iit w,iahiiiK, they caniit ill acntcry anil ilentli tw the wii na. Aa it la not onr intcnilon to treat of Iha wli( tho rrarliiK unil inaniiKainoiit of the allkworin, »i uc i umiielluil to refer tho rt^mlcr to a " fivittitii' on tht '*f''* rini'lpal nana of that of the ti iik, U for varioua purjaiaea of turnery, and car|H'ntr and for the inaklii){ valued, ua it la aalii to impart iin uKreealila violet'llk' llavor to white winea. Tho liraiicliea are ined for \ ""-propa, laiala and niila to rural feniex, and for fuel, i n liaric may ho converted into linen of the tinoneaa ( ailk. Kiir thia pur|aia« tlie youn^ wood la ^atlierod in > J|(uat, ilurtiiK thu aecoiiil aacent of the aap, nnd iiniiiei "^1 for three or four days in alill water. It i,i . hull tali' i nut, at aunset, apread on the grttim, and ri'turnuil ■ the wilier at aiiiirlap. After ropeatlii|f ilii . proccK '..illy for aoinu time, it la tinully takun out, dried, ain ure- |uired like Ihix. Tho Imrk la ulao uaod like tliat tlie Kunipean lime-tree, for ninkiiiK bust for iiuiIk tr, Thu hark, iind more capeclally tho leavea of tho \> litii mulberry, abound in a milky Julcu, which in foun to IMiaaeaa inoro or leaa of the projierties of caoutchi iic, aecordin^ to tlio climate in which the tree ia ((row ii. It ia douhtieaa owin); to thia pniperty in the leavc^ of tho iiinllierry, that the cocoons of the nilkworm liii . o ao much more tenacity of flhro than thuau of any oth' r insect Mint feeda on the leaves of treea. Hence, aim the ailk, like the tobacco and wine of warm climate- and of puor, dry aoila, in alwiiya superior to tliat pro- duced In colder climatea, and from rich and moisl aoila. To verify this opinion, we quote the following very jndlcioua oliaorvatioiis from tho "Joiirwil irAi/ri- ctiUiire lie Piiijd-Hoii," which will not only show the iinpmcticability of prolitalily raiaing silk in the liinlicr lalitudca, but will servo as an Infullililu jjuido in tlie choico of a soil and climate for thia a|)«cies of ii);ricul- ture : " Tho mulhorrj'-treo is found in different cli- nmics ; liut tho juice of tho leaves grown in tho north ia much less auitablo for tile iiroduction of ^{oiid silk, than that of the leaves of the south. In thia reaiiect, ntulhavry )««ave< Ut>\ ailk illirar u moeh u wlnai, •«■ Mii^UMlf to Iha vlimatii anil soil In which Ihay ara pnxhaiwd. In Kanaral, every cllmala anil loll that will giMw Kiii'O wliaal will priHluea Urifn, aucculanl mwlWrry lam ea j but tbaaa laatvaa will, In many i lUiaa, lit t'lii iiMlriltvfi : that 1^ tlicy will haro tmi niuili aap, anil too niurli ilartmn.' and luoi ulencv. The wild mulliarry, will' a aull, than lli. A Ki'imral ruli mil liiullwrry, !.■ |irn|ii, aoll and ex|>o.Hurii tU.n boNi hIiic Kxiiiiiuii, , llonrUlin.l ' \ I. • 1 ({iitlu inu('l> belli . p^,. iia imiri' Jaettivlh.an dlai' ^, vtblil, which liaTM U.en r. " Kail i, extreimidy rii li i-oil I ho frii la If-n ,i>'iil ttian thu atnila ut I '' \,iri«liiv tii'HuUii, t uaed fur aalil to III •iiiiirkabK , The perfuct woimI o> i.. Iierry-tri'ii, which ir rtHa-stm IlKlit, la of a yellowish h" • It poaaeaana atreiiKth nii' aeaaoned, it la ainioat u^ which, by many periiiii dockyarila ut PhiUdiiii.i aouthorn|»irta, It Heini' the upper unil biwer fruiins liuibera, etc. j and la prelerri » mid fur Irenuila, except tliut Ion, .South Carolina, it la aoiu ribs uf luri{i' Uiiita. ll la ul>i country wIiith It aiwmida, fm which, friiiii -lieir durublilti tliuaii III' the . uat, Aa the 1 thick, riiiiKli. unil hairy, wliil pro|i«r fur the ^Hld of silkworin ! vantiiKe, In n rold liiinale, only acme of its vurictli'i. Thu red > i aervln)( of cultivation, liolh fMiii foliuKv, and thu a){reealile Ihivor ol ; The woihI of tlio paper mulberry aponK}', and brittle, ia of little vuliii The leaves are too rou|{li and course, n for the fiHiil of ailkworina; hut they in excellent fodder for cattle ; and aa llic ii.k will ^row raplilly in aliiioat every aoll, and tliri)ws mit nuiiieroua lufta of leavea, it Ima been au){Kcateil that it nilKlit he valuable to cultivate, in aunie aituationa uiid clinmtea, for that pur|K)se. Tho Juice of thia tree l< aulllclently teniicioua to he used in China as a ^lue, eiilier In Kiid- ing leather or paper. The liiieat and wliiteat clotli worn liy Ihe inliabitants uf Otaheite, and of tlie Munil- wich Islands, ia madu of its bark. Uut tlic principal use, however, to whic'i tliis treeap|)eara to 1»- upplied. Is for the manufacture oi' paper. Tho fo'.iiiii ing la an ulirldgnient of Kicinpfer's account of tlio pmceaa of making thia article in .Iiipan, aa (|Uotcd from the lifth vulunin of the London " t'nmi/ (.'i/clojualia :" "The branches of the current year, l)elng cut into pieces about a yani lung, are boiled until tlie bark shrinks from the wood, which is tulicn out, ahd thrown awoy ; and tlio liark, Iiciiig dried, Is preserved till wanted. In order to make paper. It Is soaked for throe or four hours in water; after which, the external akin (vpider- 'Ilia), and III" greon internal coat, are scraped otf, and •lie strongest and lineal pieces are selected ; tlio pro- duco of the younger shoots biiiig of an Inferior (luality. If any very old portions prociit tiieni«elvoa, they are, on the other hand, rejected us too coarse. All knotty parts, and every thing which iiiight impair the beauty of tlie paper, are also removed. Tho chosen bark ia boiled in a lixivium till ita downy fibres can bo sepa- rated by a touch of the finger. The pulp, so produced, ii'iavMi, auawara beltur, fur audi I uiulliurr)'. wllh large laavaa. ■<> Iw delicndad on, la, that tha best ailk. raquiraa thu aamo ine >.loaa to pnalit « tha , >■' vad that aiUwurni* •11 * dry aitil. auceeuil IW. ' \ am laaa aul 11 > I iin, lliun the ■ rtv*-> |iriMlucttil I lit iif the whitii mill rry the bln< > apaclea, and I lat of "-'i'uhurl} if tha Morii- . I. miiA M,' rob- .111 ayrin ., unrt la l':i: 'AUli , rlilimtlia. iiriif '■'■•' ir red niul- ^1 uii iiipaci, thuiigh ' 'lulungtu leinuii-culur. •I id, when |irii|Mirly IM lllllt uf llHllut, III le«m«l - i|Uui. Ill till' HII1II1 iiiil the niuri' lecoim^ructlonuf liiilh esaela, fi.ir knees, tloor- to every utliur kind nf 'I'locuat In Ciiiirlea- srlei led for Ihe the |iarta uf thu '• 1 "t riinil fences, :i ll esteemed us bis species are I they are im- !i feed with nd- / iiicin ii/A(i, or II' ia well de- ll k and aliadv I'll fruit." '" I' suft, I'l.r fuel. . ll \ture, iiiiil to he MUS 1884 MUS Is then agitated in water till it resembles tufts of tow. [f not sufficiently l)oiled, tlie paper will bo coarse, though spungy; if too much, it will be white, indeed, hut dcllcicnt in Btrongth and solidity. Upon the various degrees and modes of washing the pulp, much also deponils as to the quality and l)eauty of the paper. Mucilage obtained from boiling rico, or from a root called oreni, one of the mallow tribe, is afterward added to the pulp. The paper is finished much after the European mode, except tliat stailcs of rushes are used, instead of brass wires." The article thus made, constitutes the India or Cliina paper used liy engrav- ers for tailing proofs, and l)y chemists for filters. — Bkom'nk's Trees of America. Munjeet, a species of Jitibia tinelorum, or madder, produced in Nepaul, and in various districts of India. That which is lirought to Kngiand is imported from ('iilcutta, and is cultivated in tlie Iiigh lands about Natpore in I'urnea. The roots aro long and slender, and when broken appear of a red color. It is used in dyeing ; tlio red which it produces lieing, tliough some- what peculiar, nearly the same as tluit produced l)j- Kuropean niuddcr. Dr. Bancroft says tliat the color which it imparts to cotton and linemis not so durable as that of madder ; but that upon wool or woolen cloth its color is brighter and livelier; and, when proper mordants aro used, nearly, perhaps quite, as perma- nent. — Ptrmanent Colors, vol. ii., p. 279. The bept munjeet is in pieces about the bigness of a small quill, clean and limi, brealiing short, and not pii)y or chafty. Its smcil somewlmt resembles liquorice root. Murlatio or Hydrochloric Acid; anciently tnarifif arid, and spirit of salt. (.'I cide hi/drochlorique, aud Chlorhydriqiie, ¥r. ; Salzsaiire, Germ.) This acid is now extracted from sea-salt, liy the action of sul- phuric acid and a moderate heat ; l)Ut it was originally (il)tained from the salt l)y exposing a mixture of it and of common clay to ignition in an earthen retort. The acid gas whicli exiialcs, is rapidly condensed by water. 100 cubic inclios of w.iter aro capa1)le of absorbing no less than -18,000 cubic inches of tlie acid gas, whoreliy the liquid acquires u specitic gravity of 1"2109; and a volume of M'2 cubic inches. The muriatic acid of commerce lias usually a yellowish tinge, but when chemically pure it is colorless. It fumes strongly in the air, emitting a corrosive vapor of a peculiar smell. The cliaracteristic test of muriatic acid in the most dilute state, is nitrate of silver, which causes a curdy precipitate of chlorid of silver. Muscat, a city and sea. port situated on tlie east coast of Arabia, about 96 miles N. W. of Cape Kassel- gate (l{as-cl-had), in lat. 23" iiS' N., long. 58° 37J' E. Population uncertain ; but estimated liy Lieutenant Wellated at 4H,00t), whicli we incline to thinli beyond the marlt. Tlicre are more Banians here than in any other city in Arabia. There are among them some very extensive mercliaiits, wlio engross almost tlie whole pearl trade of tlie Persian Gulf, and the supply of corn from India. The negro slaves aro numerous, and aro generally stout, well made, and active. The liarlior, wliicli is the best on tliis part of the Arabic coast, opens to tlie iiortli, and is sliaped lilse n horse- shoe. It is liounded on the west and south by the lofty projecting shores of the mainland, and on the east by Aluscat Island, a ridge of rocks from 200 to .'too feet high. The town stands on u sandy beach at the south end or bottom of the cove or harbor, about 1^ miles from its mouth. The depth of water near the town varies from three to four and five fathoms, idhips at anchor aro exposed to the north and north- west winds ; but as the ancliorage is cverywiiere good, accidents aro of very rare occurrence. The har- bor is protected by some pretty strong forts. Vessels are not allowed to enter after dusk, nor to leave be- fore sunrise. If the usual signal bo made for a pilot, one will come off, but not otherwise. It is best to make them attend till the vessel be secured, as they have excellent boats for carrjdng out warp anchors, Muscat is a place of considerable importance, being at once the key to, and commanding the trade of, the Persian Gulf. The dominions of the imaum, or prince, are extensive, and his government is more liberal ami intelligent than an}- other in Arabia or Persia. The town, situated at the liottom of a high hill, is ill-built and filth}' ; and, during the months of July and August, is one of the hottest inhabited places in the worhl. The country in the immediate vicinity of the town is ex- tremely barren ; but it improves as it recedes from the shore. Dates and wheat, particularly the first, aro the principal articles of produce. The dates of this part of Arabia are held in high estimation, and aro largely exported, those of Bushire and Bussorah being im- ported in their stead. A date tree is valued at from $7 to $10, and its annual produce at from $1 to $1^. An estate is said to bo worth 2,000, 3,000, 4,000 date trees, according to the number it possesses. Hut the place derives its whole importance from tlie commerce and navigation of which it is the centre. The imaum has some large ships of war, and iiis suli- jects possess some of the finest trading vessels to be met with in the Indian seas. The part of Arabia ad- joining to Muscat is too poor to have any very con- siderable direct trade ; but, owing to its favorable sit- uation, the backward state of the country round the Persian Gulf, and the superiority of its ships and sea- men, Muscat has become an important entrepot, and has an extensive transit and carrying trade, tlost European ships bound for Bussorah and Bushire toucli at it ; and more than half the trade of the Persian Gulf is carried on in ships belonging to its merchants. (See BusiiiKi:,) But, exclusive of the ports on the gulf, and the south and west coasts of Arabia, ships under the flog of the imaum trade to all the ports of British India, to Singapore, Java, the Slauritius, the cast coast of Africa, etc. The pearl trade of the Per- sian Gulf is now, also, whollj' centered at Muscat. Ail merchandize passing up the gulf on Arab bottoms pays a duty of one half ]ier cent, to the imaum. lie also rents the islands of Ormuz and Kishmee, tlic port of Gombroon, and some sulphur mines, from the Per- sian government. In the magazines of Muscat may be found every species of produce iinported into or ex- ported from the Persian Gulf. Various articles are also imported for the use of the surrounding country, and for the internal consumption of Arabia. Among these, the principal ore rice, sugar, coffee from Sloclia, cotton and cotton cloth, cocoanuts, wood for building, slaves from Zanguebar, dates from Bushiro and Bus- sorah, etc. Payment fur these is chiefly made in specie and pearls ; but they also export drugs of various de- scriptions, ivory, gums, hides, ostrich feathers, horses, sharks' fins, .i sort of earthen jars, called martuban, to Tranquebar, dried fish, an esteemed sweetmeat calleil hiilinUi, and a few other articles. The markets of Muscat are abundantly supplied with all sorts of pro- vision. Beef, mutton, and vegetables of good (piality may be had at all times, and reasonably cheap. The bay literally swarms with tlio greatest variety of most excellent fish. Water is excellent, and is convoyed to the beach in such a manner tliat the casks of a vessel may lie filled in her boats while afioat. I'ire- wood is also abundant, and is cheaper than at Bom- bay. A duty of five per cent, is laid on imports, all exports being duty free. Tlie entire value of the im- ports has been estimated at i:900,0G0. Motley, Weights, and Measures, — Accounts here aro kept in go/, and mamoodies : 20 goz — 1 niamoody and 20 mamoodies ;= 1 dollar. All Persian, Turkish, and Indian coins, as well as French and (iernian crowns, and Spanish dollars, are mei with ; their value fluctuati;ig with the demand ; and they are generally sold by weight. Tlie weights are, the cuclia and maund ; 24 ciichos = 1 maund ^= 8 lbs. 12 oz. avoirdu- pois, Niebuhr thinks that Muscat occupies the site MUS 1385 MUS lioro arc liuoinly Turkish, Idermiin Tir viiliio l^ncruUy Lha iind liYoinlH- Ithc sito of the Moica of Anian and other Greek writers (Voyage, en Arable, vul. II., p. 71, cd. Amst. 1780) ; a conjecture which seoins to bo confirmed, not merely by the resemblance of the name, but also by the terms iijiplicd by Arrlan to Mosca being sufficiently descrip- tive of Muscat ; and as the port is bounded on all sides by rocks. It must now present almost the same appear- ance as In antiquity. Dr. Vincent, however, though ho speaks doubtfully on the subject, Is inclined to place Mosca to the west of Cape Itasselgate. — Com- merce and Navigation of the Ancienii, vol. 11., pp. S44- !H7. For further particulars, besides the authorities at)ovo referred to, see Hamilton's Xan Account of the, JCmt Indies, vol. i., p. 63 ; B"kazer'.s Journeg to Kho- mstin, pp. 5-19 ; Wkixsted's Trnieh in Arabia, I., pp. 14-25. The longitude given aliove Is that of Ail- iinwsMiTu'H Chart of the Persian (liilf. Commerce with the United Stales. — The Sultan of Muscat concluded a treaty with the United States, September 21, 183.1, and it took effect June 24, 1837, the daj' on which the President of the United States made his proclamation. Its stipulations establish per- petual peace between the two countries, and open the ports of cacli to the vessels and citizens of the other, with unrestricted llbertj- of trade, reserving In the Isl- and of Zanzibar the sale of muskets, powder, and ball to the government only, but leaving the trade In these iirticles In all other ports of the sultan's dominions free from every restriction. The treaty further stipulates that vessels of the United States entering any port within the sultan's dominions shall pay no more than live per cent, duties on the cargoes landed, which shall 1)0 In full of all lm|)Ort and export duties, tonnage, license to trade, pilotage, anchorage, or any other diarge whatsoever ; that no charge shall be made on tliat part of the cargo which may remain on board and lie re-exported ; that no cliarge shall be made on any vessel of the United States which may enter ony of the sultan's ports for the purpose of relitting, or for refreshments, or to inquire the state of the market. It is further stipulated tliat the American citizen shall pay no other duties on export or Import, tonnage, li- cense to trade, or other cluirge whatsoever, than the citizens of the most favored nation shall pay ; and similar equality in the ports of the United States is extended to the vessels and citizens of the sultan. In the report to the Department of State, of the agent by whom tills treaty was negotiated, the follow- ing paragraphs occur : " The Sultan of Muscat Is a very powerful prince. He possesses a :nore efficient naval force than all the native princes coninii.od, from the Capo of Good Hope to Japan. His resources are more than adequate to his wants. They are derived from commerce, running himself a great number of merchant vessels ; from duties on foreign merchandize ; and from tribute-money and presents received from various princes ; all of which produce a large sum. His possessions in Africa stretcli from Cipo Dolgado to Cape Guardafui, and from Cape Aden, In Arabia, to Kas el Hand ; they extend along tlio northern coast of Aman to the entrance of the Persian Gulf; and ho claims al.so the sea-coast and islands within the Persian (Julf, including the lialirein Islands, and the pearl- lishery contiguous to them, with the northern coast of tlie gulf, as low down as Scindy. • "' * In Africa lie owns the ports of 5Iongliow, or Mongallow, I.yndy, Qiiiloah (Keelwah), Melinda, Larmo, Patta, IJrava, iMagadosha (alias Mogadore), and the valualile islands of Monfeca, Zanzibar, Pemba, Socotra (Socotera)," etc. The exports from the African part of his dominions are gum-copal, aloes, gum-arabic, columbo-root, and a great variety of other drugs, ivory, tortoise-sliell, rhin eros' horns, hides, beeswax, cocoanut-oil, rice, millet, etc. l''rom Muscat tlio ex^iorts are wheat, raisins, drugs, dates, salt, dried lisli, etc. It is esti- mated that seven-eightlis of all the ivory im|iortc(l in- to the United States, and all the oopsl of tliit AMUt quality, are from the island of XunKilmr, Tii (hid place all the goods collected for tills |i(rx« I mild nm Imported, and sold to the Uanians and IliiMliiiiu h( hIk months' credit. The United States mipiilv hv ftir tll8 most Important goods for all tlia onittt 'trii'ilo, vln, l Lowell manufactured sheetings and alilrtlniid, IHIiitr goods In demand for tlie coast trade are nowijur, tMU*< kets, brass-wire, glass-beads, aiul India ruiiliui- uoiiilii, Ihe currency of Muscat dltfers materially Cnilii tliitt of the Persian Gulf or Africa, and, wUli lt« wt luliU and measures. Is peculiar to the country, The Njiitnixh dollar is current, and the Hpaul.U duiililuuit vi«r|t^rflil State of Arabia, cmnprising the eabtuni pott .i f t||it( peninsula, Its authority also extoiidiuK iiv . :iiiltll» east coast nearly as far as Aden, and iivei >iiii'U of thti coast of Persia on the Persian Oulf, and tlwt ill' ii||>>t Africo from the equator south to Capa IIuIkiiiIo, Af^ift and population not ascertaineil. Hesiilfis MH«(i|it, |||g capital, this dominion comprises tlie tuwiin iif lloiititk, Muttra in Arabia, and Julia, Melinda, Monilias, Mum- doxo, Bravah, Qulloa and I.yndy in Africa, with llin islands Zanzilmr, Socotra, ulc, and it lias an tii'tlvtt trade with all tlie adjacent cumitriea, and wlHi lli'lljiiji India. The iinaum bus a patriarchal and i|i'a|iiit|y sway, and the most efficient naval furca of any liativil prince from the Cape of Good Hope to ,lii|iaii,=-J/«yj. cat or Maectia (probably the Mosca of Arrlail), |« fiifH» fied maritime city of east Arabia, capital above iliinilit^ ion, on a peninsula in the Arabian Ssa, hit, ^11' 117' N., long. 58° I!,'/ K. Population estiiiiutoil lit (0,11(10 to 50,000. It is surrounded by lielghta all stFolial*' fortified. The harlmr of tlie city is well oluiltuftJii, and has deep water. Muscat is tlie grand iilllpiifiiini of oast Arabia, and the key to the eiitwili'B iiC tlia Persian Oulf. Im|iorts estimated iii4,ft»il,(Jlli) jn viiliw annually, and consist cliielly of almonds, ahws, ii^iiii. foetlda, gum ammoniac, sulphur, nitra, guni I'cipitl, frankincense, coffee, pearls, ivory, lioritb, liiiU'a, WilM from Persia and Africa, most of wlilili ar>i la^a-iiim ti.il to India and the Kast ; tlie returns tliemo liehlfj iiiiiiln in British and India cottuu goods, shawls, Cjilnii manufactures. Large quantities of i|at«s, i\a iiUii wheat, horses, salt, and dried llsh, are amung t||u pfju, cipal exports. The port is usually toiiujied at liv VM*i sels going up the Persian Gulf. Though tll« umilitcy around it is sterile, a plentiful supply of pi'uvjiiliiiM may generally be obtained at Muscat. Commercial lielations with the [Jiiittil ,V/i/^frf,- Th't treaty made by the United States in Ihij/, witli i|m Sultan of Muscat has been duly observed, iniil it vtifv friendly disposition shown by the autliorltli's to nil Americans. Tlie present existing lomniurclut ;ii..ji(» latious arc fixed and permanent. Tlieru are iin privi= leges permitted to other nations wlilcli iira i|H|iitti| Ui our own. There are no port charges or iitlini' 1I11114 levied on vessels of the United States, T|ibi« 1.-, mi drawback of duties ; merchandise from oiia VMa=nl t« another, or landed for re-shipmeut, iiuut pay n thiiy of 5 per cent. The German crown, and pica. Mild ply, from the Kast India Company's ]iossusaiui|s, iir,i tjii* only currency. Tlio number of pica fur a 'ial'limtl crown (belter known in tlieso countries as th» \i\Av\i dollar) varies, according to the supply, fi'iim Jill ti) 1l'8. At this present time, 120 pice are given (i>t nm black dollar, and 3 pic make one pice, Hpanisli nilit Mexican dollars are worth no innro, and do mil. i ifiMl. late freely. They are purchased fur tlio llyiDlmy market, usually at a premium of 2 to 3 pai' cant, ||( the commencement of the south-west inonsoiiit, In April, ami also near its close, in Sopteniliar, uild lllPl their way from thence to Chiua. American half ennlaa are worth 65 ; ICnglish sovereigns, ^l.ln j Hpaili»ll and Portuguese doubloons, fill j Spanish quarters and cigliths pass freely at 25 and 12J cents, and Alliurlui«l4 \ ■> MUS 1386 MYR dimes and half dimes at 10 and 6 cents. Merchan- dise is bought and sold for doiiurs and cents. /fory. — This article varies greatly in price, accord- ing tu quality and size. The superior liinds, and largest and liest, are sent to the United States, In lots, average weight 70 lbs. and upward, $40 to $44 per frasla of 85 ilis. Ivory, 60 to 60 lbs. average weight, $37 to $40 per frasla. Tortoise shell per pound, of 8 lbs. Knglish, $2 to $5. Uum copal, per frasla of 85 lbs. English, $6 to $7. Hides, per conge of 20 lbs., $10 to $15 per conge. Cloves, per frasla of 85 lbs., $1.75 to $2.50. Commissions usually charged, 2} per cent. As for freiglits and insurance, there are no rates to the United States. Cargoes imported from tlie United States are invariably sold at (i months' credit. If cash is wanted for a sak', a discount is made of 4^. per cent, fur G months. As for exchange, the captains of whuie ships draw upon their owners for the cash they require, and the usual charge is 20 per cent. Duties, 5 per cent. on all cargo landed. No duties on exports to the United States. There are no internal taxes of any kind paid by the people of this island directly. The sultan's revenue is derived from duties on ail articles of commerce brought from the neighboring coast, lied Sea, Aden, Persian Gulf, Dombay, and the Malabar coast. The negro slaves are almost the only common lalwrers, and receive per day about 12^ cents, or $2.50 tn $3 per month. The higher order of servants to oversee the work in preparing and shipping cargoes are paid from $7.50 to $10 per month. Native work- men in the various branches of mcclianic industry receive about $5 to $7 per month. No steamers are owned or built here, and there are no facilities for ship-building, or even repairing, to any extent. The sultan lias a few sliips-of-war built either at Bombay o: ut places on the coast of ]Malal)ar. 'I'hey are manned by slaves and officered by Arab.ii. Tlie only vessels owneeing separated from the nut is enqiloyuil, witli the best elfect, both by dyers and tanners, c-^peLiiilly by the latter. It produces with iron a strong, dibalilii, black dye and ink ; and with uliim, a very lull, tlimit^li dark, brownish yellow. The Imports vary iinisidur- ably. — Bancuoft On J'ermnnriit dilora, i., iijl, ore, Myrrh (tier. Myrrhen ; Du, Mivrliit ; I'r. Mi/rrlif ; It. and Sp. Mirra; Lat. Afi/rrha; Arab. .Miint, a ru»- inous sulistance, the produce of un nnkiiu»ii linn growing in Arabia and Abyssinia. It is iinpin'ttul in chests, each containing from one to two cwt, Aliys- sinian myrrh comes to us through the Eiist Inilius, while that produced in Arabia is liiought by tliu way of Turkey. It has a jiecullar, rather fragrant, oilur, anil a bitter aromatic taste. It is In small irrngiiliirly shaped pieces, which can hardly be culled tears, (Jnod inyrrh is translucent, of a reddish yellow color, briltln, lireaking with a resinous fracture, and easily pulver- ized, its specilic gravity is 1-36. AVlien it la opui|iiii, mixed with impurities, and either white, or of ii dark color approaching nearly to black, with a disugreoiiblo odor, it shauld be rejected. — Tuomson's JJiipituaior]/, I " fVT'A'*-'" NAN 1987 NAN N. .ireiit VII- jiii tliii »i/.i' llllOIlt twii liiily Vii\- »lr'mni'"l 1 lyiul, wHli if|iiM-iiilly , liiir.ililiii ill, thoim'i idusiilnr- ;1J1, mi'. NallM (Qor. Ndgel, Spiktr; Du. Spt/hera ; Fr. t'/"«» I It. C/iiodi, t'hiovi, Aguti ; Sp. Clavos ; Rus. (Iwmili) nre small spikes of iron, I)ra8s, etc., which, lieliiK driven into wood, serve to bind several pieces toKStlier, or to fasten something upon them. The con- Kinnptitin of nniis is immense ; and the aggregate value (if thoRo nnnuull}- produced is very large. BTAtRMK,:*! minwiNO thk Domestic Ksports ok Iron iNaim rnoM thk United States, fur the Year end- INII 'lUNE ilUtii, ISSd. OlttricU. 'wniimiiqiloilily I'unliiiid anil Knlinouth. . llaiiXMr t'ortiiiiiiMilh VcniiiiMt Nowbilrypnrt tllimcostfr Miili'iii Ilnflttih mill C'lmrlestown . h'ltll Itlvpr Niiw lli'ilftird I'nivlilini'c llrlsliil unit AVarron lNt>w|init ,New liuniloii (tlunraue (lnWi'Kil iNliii-'iirii Itllltiili) t'rei'k lOnWi'Klltrllie 'New York I'hllii.lHplila llnllliniin' Illi'liniiiiiil WlliiilnuUiii tJhiiili'Miiii Knvunimli Now Oilonnn ]l)iiyiiliiiu« llcll'Dlt H«n l«'ranclsi?o total 118,900 (e>,8i)9 20,094 804 12,000 600 100 6 T.flOO 290 8,000 880 1,200 48 86,000 l,66n 2,T7S,100 102,897 2,900 100 23,600 960 411,000 1,550 07,700 2,933 10,000 400 7,6S1 791 14,214 743 ^17,841 21,424 60,740 1,240 58,700 2,.V29 4H,822 2,152 1,8S0,172 60,360 flS2,i).V) 14,446 109,850 4,518 15,600 650 5,000 200 1,000 43 2,,W0 110 0,026 707 10,800 471 16,700 907 91,290 6fi<. 1.328 to 11)21), leading to which is a line-paved road with an avenue of gigantic armed figures. Tho governor's palace, and an ob- servatory, are worthy of notice. Here are important manufactures of crape, satin of tlie finest quality, pa- per, artificial flowers. China or Indian ink, and nan- keen, which hence dt 'cs its name, but is also made throughout the wholi, province. It is the centre of a very exiensive trade, and by the great canal which crosses tlie Y'aiig-tze-kiang, about 50 miles eastward, it communicates directly with I'ekin, to which city a good deal of fish is sent hence, among other arti- cles. It is also the place of a grand viceroy, with authority over the Kiang provinces, of a great mili- tary depot, and tlie chief seat of literature in the em- pire. Nantes, a large commercial city and sea-port of France, on the Loire, about 31 miles from its mouth, in lat. 47° 13' «" N.,long. 1° 32' -U" W. I'opulation, in 1851, 8G,3t)2. Vessels drawing 18 and 19 feet water come up to Paliuboeuf, about 24 miles lower down the river; but no vessel, drawing more than 11 or 12 feet can come up to the city, unless at liigh water a day or two before /«(/ and change. There are three entrances to the Loire. The first and most generally frequented is between the bank called T,e Four and Point Croisic ; there is a second between Le Four and the bank called fji Handle ; and the third, which in southerly winds ' is mucli resorted to, between the latter and the rocks called La Counmne. The navigation, which is naturally rather difficult, has been much facilitated by tho erec- tion of llght-liouses and beacons. Of the former, one has been recently constructed on the north part of Le Four, about a league from Croisic, in lat. 47° 17' 58" N., long. 2° 38' 3" W. It is 66 feet high. The light is a revolving one ; the flash, which continues for 7 seconds, being succeeded by a dark interval of 63 seo- IliS NAN 1388 NAP onds. Two liglit-houses, cnllcd the Aiguillon lights, Btanil on the north »l(Ie of the river, near its moiitli ; tlio lower light, adjoining Point de. Levi, l>eing in liit. 47° 11' 33" N., long. 2° 15' 1(!" W. The light ia fixed, and Is 111 feet above the level of tlie sea. The upper Aiguillon light, situated aliout a mile N. 31° K. from the lower, is 127 feet liigh ; it also is a tixed light, varied, however, by a flash every 3 minutes. A beacon tower, called the Turk, is erected on the southernmost extremity of La Blanche ; the course for vessels enter- ing between it and lia Couronne, is to bring the Aguil- lon lights in one. The dnpth of water on the bar at the moutli of the river varies from 2 to 2f fathoms. At springs tlie rise is 14, and at neaps 7 or 8 feet. High water at full and change 3J hours. Her situation renders Nantes the emporium of all the ricli and extensive country traversed liy the Loire, so that sho has a pretty consideriil)lo import and export trade, particularly with the West Indies. The exports ccmsist of all sorts of Krowch produce, but principally of lirandy, wine and vinegar, silii, woolen and linen goods, relined sugar, wheat, rye, biscuits, etc. The priiu'ipal imports are sugar, coffee, and other colonial products, cotton, indigo, timber, hemp, etc. Nantes is a considerable entrepot for the commerce of salt, large quantities being made in tlie Department, prin- cipally at Noirmutiers and Croisic. During the time that the slave trade was carried on, Nantes was more extensively engaged in it tlian any other Frencli port. The custom duties of Nantes, exclusive of those on salt, produced, in 18ul, 10,817,001) francs; she being in tills res|)ect inferior only to Marseilles, Havre, and Bordeaux. There belonged to the port, except river craft, coasters, and steamers, on the .'ilst December, lt>ol, 560 ships, of tlie burden of (i8,121 tons. The port charges levied on vessels of the United States are the same, and no more tlian the ))ort charges leviecl on French vessels, except the tonnage duty, which is 94 cents per ton register, the same as the French vessels pay in the United States. The tran- shipment in vessels of the United States of goods is IHjruiitted to any port, except from a Frencli port to an- other French port, which would be considered as a coast- ing trade ; and no vessels of any nation whatsoever are al- lowed to do that trade, except the Spanish vessels, Spain having an ancient treaty with F'rance to that effect. Amount and Chahaotkk of tiih Port I^iiaiioks i.kviko ON Amkhican Vessels ano FaKNcii Vi-»skij* at the Pout of Na.sti:s, the Vfj^skl heiso si'itoseo to he OF A iiriiOEX of 299 Toss I'Kn Ueoister, axd uraw- IMG 11 Frkt American. Port cliflrRi'! Banttary board at St. Nozairc (Kntry of the vessel :l*llotag'i from Belle Ilo to Pafnibuuf. Pilotage fi'om Palmbauf to Nantes.. . ri'oiinase duty jKlver (lues jConsulsr fees |Hlxty tous of stone ballast, at V2') fr. . PlIotoRO from Nantes to I'alnibiiuf. . . Ptlotoi'O fk'om Palmbteuf to sea. Clearances oat Brokerago on .461 tons delivered, at I 50 centimes ( rencli [ Ain«ricnti asuN. I VuvavIh. FrtiJii'*. 64 S5 13 00 If.) 6i 00 55 ir'io f.Vno 49 5.1 an in 12 m 140 50 Dollar.. a 28 121 iitf 11 5.1 2s7 00 8 87 4 00 14 28 9 44 6 63 2 26 84 83 Pilotage. — Vessels under 80 tons (if French or as- similated by treaty) are not obliged to take a pilot at sea, l)Ut must have one for the river. Tlie rates, which are fixed by law, are paid by the/on/ from the sea to PaimboDuf, and from thence to Nantes for uU ves.sels under 80 tons. Above 80 tons, they are per ton. The master of a vessel bound to I'aiuibncuf or Nantes has merely to give a note to the pilot stating where the pilot boarded him, wliero he left him, tlie name and draught of water of his vessel in Jint/Uah feet. The note will be deposited at the pilot's oftico, and the pilotage lie received from the ship's broker. No foreign vessel, however small, can be removed from one anchonigo to another, or to or from a quay, but by a pilot. Every vessel is boarded at St. Nazalie, and if she has a foul bill of health, or disease on board, is instructed where to go. Hiver Dues on vessels as- cending from PaimlKciif to Nantes are about l^d. ]ier ton. At Paimbccuf, and below it, none are levlcil. If a vessel under sail causes damage to anotlier that is properl}' moored, she must pay all the expenses of re- pairs i if to a vessel nt single anchor (unless inten- tionally done) or under sail, the expense of the repairs of both are added together, and each pays a moiety. The same rule ia enforced if damage bo caused by one vessel properly moored driving on board another in the same situation ; but if either wore riding at single anchor, the one properly moored ia indemnified ; if botli were at single anchor, both bear the loss alike. ITapleB, a large city and sea-port in the south of Italy, the capital of the kingdom of the same name, the light-house being in lat. 10° 50' 12" N., long. 11° 14' 15" K. Population, in 1861, 41(5,475. Naples is well situated for commerce ; but the policy of the gov. ernmeiit has hitherto been most unfavorable to its growth, and has confined it within comparatively nar- row limits. The Bay of Naples is sjiacious, and is celebrated for its picturesque views. The harbor is formed by a mole, built nearly in the form of tlie Utter L, having a light-house on its elbow. AVitbin tl.o mole there is from 3 to 4 fathoms water, tlie ground being soft. The water in the bay is deep, and there is no bar; it is, however, a good deal exposed to the south -westerly winds ; and to guard against their effects, vessels lying in the bay moor with open liawso in that direction. There is no oliligation to take a jiilot on board, but it is usual to take one the first time that a ship anchors within the mole. The light-hoii.so has a revolving light. Tlio period of revolution is 2 minutes, during the first of which the full strength of tlie light is continued, and during the second iiiiiuito its brilliancy rapidly decreases. The lieiglit of tlio light is Kil feet obovc the sea, and it is visible nt the distance of 18 or 20 miles. At the extremity of tlie mole is a low fixed light to guide vessels round its licail. KXPOKTS FROM THE C'oNTISENTAI, STATES OF THE Two JSlcIT.lES, lIV liANU ANO llY Sea, IN NATIONAL AND FORKION V»SELS, in KACII YeAK from iKllI To IvSJjO, noTlI INCLUSIVE. Yofirfl. By Innd. By ai-a. 1 In iiuttoDiil In furel^ 1 %-fS8Rl8. v.'asi'ls. UllCftt*. IhirHlK. IhirnlH. 1S40 401 ,.59.^ 7,22»,2:« 4,l«7,278 I'm 72(i,.'!.')7 7,.').')2,093 6,628,616 1S42 B(»2,168 9,524,804 8,9S9,8.W 18« .18.'),fl79 7,826,160 2,644.298 1844 293,Si10 8,844.870 2,82s,l,'>« 1846 2-.%961 9,9S4,7,5t 2,441,927 1848 27'i,600 ll,l78,l.'>t 2,897,824 1847 :isr,900 8,871,810 8,14.3,.'i.'Mi 1848 262,700 6.60i1.fS9.5 8,104,.')8.'J 1849 2.-)l,.M5 ^.-irt 1,960 4,962,691 1350 429,823 9,489,948 4,'i4ll,629 IhiPnt*. 11,728,112 18,607,046 13,870,324 10,86,6,1371 9,971,4161 13,702,039 14,:WO,0s4 12.102,766 9,9,80,678 13,776,096 14,760,420 SIPrline. 1,9.64.6n'i 2,267,^41 2,312.720 1,72.6,8.V, 1.661.91 13 2,288,773 2,89I.6S1 2,017.128 1,IW.MI8 2,296,016 2,460,070 The exports princlp-ally consist of the products of the adjacent country. Of these, silk is the most im- portant. Olivo oil is also a most important article ; but it is principally supplied by (lallipoli, u town in the Terra d'Otranto, wlience it is commonly < ailed Gallipoli oil. The entire exports of oil from tlio king- dom of Naples have been estimated at about 200,000 salme, or 3I),383 tons, a year, whicli, taking its iii?an value when exported at SlOO per ton, is eqniviilent to the annual sum of fi:!,G;i:!,:iOO. See Oi.ivK On.. 'Phe other articles of export are wool, wine, hninily, dried fruits, red and white' argol, tallow, liquorice, gloves, madder, hemp, linseed, cream of tartjir, bones, lamb and kid skins, oak and chestnut staves, rags, saffron, etc. There is a groat variety in the Neapolitan wines. The most esteemed is the lacrima Chriali, a red lus- cious wine, better known in England by name than in reality, the first growths lieing conlined to a small quantity only, which is chiefly reserved for the royal NAP 1389 NAP oellan. There are, Iiowover, large quantities of sec- ond-rate wines produced in the vicinity of Naples, such us those of Pozzuoli, Ischia, Nola, etc., which are sold i iider the name of lacrima Chrisli, and are largely expo>tet1. Several parts of C'alaliria produce sweet wines of superior quality. — Hkndkrson'h An- citnt atui Modeiti Wines, p. 239. Tlie price of wine at Naples depends entirely on the aliundance of tlie vintage. The imports consist principally of cottons and cotton twist, hardware, iron and tin, woolens, sugar, coffee, indigo, spices, etc, Naples is a good mariiet for pilchards, and it requires a large supply uf dried and barreled cod, " The existing regulations as to commercial inter- course with the United States appear fixed. When our treaty, however, shall expire, if not renewed, a cliange ma}' follow, as well for tonnage dues as for the additional 10 per cent, on the duties of merchan- dise. I know of no privileges permitted to the com- merce of other iiutious which are denied to the United States, nor are there any restrictions on the commerce of other nations and not on the United States. Tlie amount and cliaracter of the port charges and other dues levied on vessels of the United States are as fol- lows : On cnlri). — Tonnage, 4 grains, or 3 and one fifth cents per ton, when there is a treaty ; without treaty and indirect voyage, 40 grains, or 32 cents per ton. Light money, $1 ; presentation of manifest, &1 ; cus- tom-house visit, 80 cents ; liquidation of manifest and boletta, 35 cents ; customary present, 60 cents. Total amount on entry, except tonnogo, $3.76. On clear- ance. — blglietto of departure, $1 ; bill of health, $1 j roll of police, 25 cents ; roll of port, 25 cents ; usual present, 60 cents j " spedizionieri," or broiler's com- pensation, S2. Making a total amount on clearance of $5.10. National vessels pay the same, but the presents are greater by them. The health officer has for granting pratique on arrival $5. Should the ves- sel bo subject to quarantine, the cliarges increase according to circumstances, and still more so when sent to Visita to perform it. Transhipment in vessels of tlie United States of goods, either to another port in the kingdom or to a foreign port is prohibited, as well as in other vessels, except the Neapolitan steamboats. It is allowed by f»v!>r when the manifest, on arrival, specifics the goods and the port to which ...ey are in- tended to be transhipped. "Exports from this port have been put on board free of any duty, at prices as follows : Refined argols, at 20 cents per iMund ; refined yellow pink, at 23 cents per pound ; cream tartar, at 25 cents per [lound ; lic- orice paste (Corigliano) at 16 cents per pound ; licor- ice, Baracco and other, at 15 to 15J cents per pound ; olive oil, in casks, at 78 cents per gallon ; oranges, per box, $2.20 to $2.25; lemons, $3 to $3.20; filberts, 4 J cents per pound ; walnuts, 5 cents per [lound. There have been exported during the year, from the first of July last, about 60,000 lbs, of sewing silks — first, second, and third qualities — at :I4.20, $3.«0, and $3.61) per lb, of 16 oz, ; also about i'5,000 llis. of EUch silks, raw or undyed, at $3 per lb, of 16 oz. These are shipped by steamers for JIar',oilies or Liverpool for the most part. In like indirect way are also sent clay pipes with reed tulies, of little value, musical strings, coral and luva ornaments, l)Ut no prices can lie quoted, as their value depends on the beauty of the article and tlie execution of the work. Itctween wholesale and retail prices there may lie a dilVerencc of about 10 per cent. Five or six foreign vessels (Neapolitan and English) have loaded in part with oranges and lemons for the United States, and gone to Sicily to fill up, or first talio a part cargo in Sicily and fill up hero. About 20,000 boxes are shipped in the year from this port, but tlie prices vary coutinually ; they are now double what they were in the beginning of the season."— Com. Hel. U. S., 1856-7, Commercial Policy. — The policy of the Neapolitan government with respect to commerce was for a length- ened period the most objectionable that can well be imagined. Articles, whether of import or of export, were burdened, alike, with oppressive duties and re- strictions ; and even the warehousing of foreign good* could hardly bo said to bo permitted. Of late, how- ever, we are glad to observe, the administration ap- pears to have liecome alive to the injurious influence of this feU) de »c system, and hug given its sanction to sev- eral measures of a comparatively liberal character, Tlie duties on imports have also undergone various modifications Those on ftsli, sugar, and other colo- nial pro falo iind Tugela Kivers, dividing it from the /iioIihi counti}-. Estimated area, 18,000 square miles, I'op- ul.'itioii uncertain. Surface undulating, well watered, uiiil mostly covered with tall grass. Timber in the interior grows only in clumps, l>ut the sea-cimut id bordered l)y a belt of mangroves. Climate luout healthy, and the soil is reported to bo fur mora furtlla thun in the Cape Colony, Cotton and indigo grow wild, and the former has been produced fur axportiiT tion, of the finest quality. Sugar, coffee, wheat, oatd, heuns, and tobacco, are important crops. Sii|)erior coal has been found in the interior; building stona Id found all over its surface, and iron ore is abundant, Huttar, corn, hides, ivory, tallow, tobacco, cotton, and wool, were lately among the chief exports. Value of »Kr ports in 18.51, $1.5,000. Imports same year, vuiuod nt f '.'80,000. The territory, wliich is u dependeni'y of the Cape of Uood Hope, is administered liy a lieuten" ant-governor, assisted li}- an executive and u legislii- tive council. It is subdivided into thu districts Il'llrlian, I'lclni-- m.nritzburg, Xlmvoti, Impafane, Upper Tugclii, and Umzinzate, exclusive of a tract in the soutii, hitliarto without an estaldished magistracy. IMetdriuaritji- l)urg, the capital, is 50 miles inland from I'url \iilnl, which is near tlie centre of the coast Hue. This col- ony derives its name from the fact of its having Iihbu discovered on Christmas day (1498), l)y tlia I'ortu- gucse. It was revliited in 167.5 liy order of King Scliastian. National Debt. The first mention of parlia- mentary security for a debt of the Kngiish nation, oc- curs in the reign of Henry VI. Tlio present national debt commenced in the reign of William III. It had amounted, in the year 1607, to aliout fivu niillionn sterling, and the delit was then thought to be of alarm- ing magnitude. 1"0'2, On the accession of Queen Anne, the debt tinonntcd to i!l4,OrtO,n IML', Close of the Froaoli revolutionary war ftJI.iKHI.OOo 1314, Close of the war acalnst Bonaparte bil,5,iSHI,00U 1817, When the Irish anil Kngllsli cxcheiinera were consullilatuil i>4i,'i»'J,4T7 laso. Total am't of the fiindod and unfnndeil debt S40,|ii|,0'^'il ISIO, Total amount of ditto 7i!l,()Tn,oiMI !■«.% Kunded debt 7ih,7nll,(liS) 1857, " " 7iil,MilO,ilU() The national debt of the United States originated in consequence of the exjicnBes incurred during tlia revolutionary war, and amounted in the year 17111 to about $75,000,000. The revenue of the government enabled it to curtail thedel>t until the year IHl'J, w jian it was only $45,000,000. Tito war witli Kngiand ill 1812-1.5, ndded largely to this debt, the loans iiecadi sary for war expenditures Ijeing raised at a coiislileralila loss. At the end of the war tlie del)t was over ^illlil,- 0110,000. This was rapidly curtailed, and liy tlia yaar 18.'I5 was fully liquidated, besides an appropriation of several millicms of surplus revenue to tha individual States. In 18311, tlie revenue was less tlian tlia oKpuii- diture, and anotiier debt was created whicii liuil liuuii nearly liquidated up to the year 1845, when tliu war with Mexico rendered further loans necessary, 'i'lts 'm:,.. ,,,, »7i,4(W,47(t \m..,. fim,.,, .... 7T,ll'i7,»tl4 ,,.. J«,llf»l,4»ll iw M,m,im 1''27 7»,W,W \m* «7,47ft044 ItM. 8",4'il.4U IWIO 4«,ftt is4a iR,i)a«,4td ISffl KD.WVJ.W 1M( m,\vw.m IMA. lll,>(i||,il4T l«i« '»;m,M>f> IH47 4.'),ii«/.il.'/tf IttS M,Xo4,4M 1«49. U,1»t,«M I SAO um*,*'^ im\ «a;)(W,iWft im 47,WIO,!i»ft IWid M,WW,1.'/T ItM 44,U76.4M IW) H9,9(W,7;il moiNuv. IB) mfiixwMi Vi)t fiindcil dnl.ts of various Kuro|iean nalioiis, ««« urtiidn jJ'.iiiiiil't',, |i, im. Naval Aroblteotura. In the small spues w« vm mAnw Ui this subject wo shall merely endeavor to iwHVtiy It UPtltiml notion of tlia principius and pro- i>u»» of i'oii>itrili'tluii, Hliips arn built In dillerent forillii, Mi'i'iirdlllif to tlin service lliey are Intanihid ('ir, and tlia liiirit()|is tliny have to carry. It is in iiiuii-of. war, wlilidl, httsldcs possessing In an eiiiinaiit ■!• grea tha gaiiKfal ijilHlltles of u ship, have to support u lix.ivy uriimiiiaMt of caiilKin, and which are destined to xuvuru and loii|j--i'OHllMiiwl service, that the principles of con. elriu'tioii Imvx liecit carried to the greatest |wrf"i'li"ii, TIlH fiiriM iif thfl ship, her strength, or tho seuiilliiig iiai'aiiaitry for IIih services rei|uired of her, are, from oar iMlparf.fi't klliiwled^i* of hydrodynamics, tlie results .it Mi||iarli'iM'il hIiiik'. When a ship Is to bo buill, Inr form ja |iroJt'uiur Ui «aii|i otliKf. lot. Tilt" illlPri' ili'iiiif/lil, wiiieii is the sido >i<'w, or projiwdiiti oil tlic plane of the keel. i'i>i Hlwet It, liy Mlllilbers, The midship frunie is iiiit cKUcliy ill tha llllililln of tlio length, but rather before it. 'M, The liiiilfi nltin, or end view. Tills hliovs.i Hm I'oiltoilf of llm sides of tli« ship at certain points of lier lailgllli Itllii slues the two sides are exailiy alil>e, tliu laft llitlf fti(if("»(i|il9 the vertical sections in tli« ufu^r pitrtof tlin body, and tiie right-hand liuif tliocu in tli« fora pnH. The base of the projection is tlie iiiiilslijp, or larijast Nmition, called also the i/im/y/.i/, within whiiili tlin othfr stti'tlolls are delineated. On this uiu exhili- itail iilwi thtt beams of the deiks. II, Tlw llorl/,»ntal or floor plane, called uImu i\w lull/ hvmillh fihin, The base of tliis is tlie section niailii liy tlia liiiri/ohlnl siirf'iice of the water aioi the outsidu uiirfaca of tllii ship, and is caii»d tlio Ujipir witlir //«.', or liiiid U'lllff till''. If tiio sliip now bo supposed fi li" llgliti'iiad iiiilforinly, she will exhibit anotiier wut^r Una, Hllil tlllia ntiy number of like parallel sections at aqiiut ilUtHtlcfS diiWn to tlio keel. On tills projeitlim tlia wataf lines appear hs I'urves, on the sheer diaiigUt itn utritlKllt lltttis parallel tu the keel. Tliedu thrao nuc NAV 1301 NAV mil |:lill roipi llw ,'rii|/ii=li 111' iiii't' ■Ulll"* I)"' |tl'>i! l'KUi:tly H. lows tllH lis .if lii-r illk", till tlm iifu^r 1^11 ill III" miibliil'i II wlii>:li I'U L'Xllill' I till! W/ jiiiiulii liy \ilir lull', ttuil til l<" |nT wut ir I'ti'iii'i III' |,riijL>rtluU f (Iwiinltt Itliroo »tu;- tlonfl corr«!>pond to euch other upon the snme scnlo, nnil niiy piilnt In one U immodiutely roferalilo tn the other two (irojcc'tions. The several parts arc drawn from tlii»(i plann In their full size on the floor of the mold- loft, and worked from the molds or model so taken. 'I'lin piano ill which the ship is built is called a. )l!p. In the middlp, and leadiiit; to the water, is a row of plies (if stout pieces of wood called the bloch, having n dectivity towards the water of aliout one inch in one font. On these the keel, which is of elm, is laid, and Its component lengths scarfed together. Under the kept Is placed the false keel for defense. At the end farthest from the water is raised the jlem, wiiich is, in fact, the keel continued upwards. Inside the stem, and Just nljove the keel, is the npmn, a curved timber connecting both. On each side of the upper part of the stem Is fixed an upright timber j these are called the knii/ht hraJ), and the bowsprit lies between tliem. \i the other end of the keel is the sternpost, at which the planking flnislics abaft, and on which tlie rudder Is hung. Inside (or before this) are tiie inner post and other |i!Oi'ca for strength. Upon the keel is fixed a layer of timber of the same breadth, and rising for- waril and aft, called the liewl wood; on this arc jilaced the Jliinr limbrrt ; these consist of one wliicli cro8.ies the keel to wlilch it is coaked, and tiie two parts of a like timber firmly joining it, and projecting lieyond its ends, The several pieces are got into tlieir places by shifting shears. 'Vht\l'mmrii consist of pairs of timl)er8 composed of pieces of difl'erent lengths, joining tlie floor timbers, Hiiil carried upwards. Tlie length joining the floors is called the first futtock, the next the second futtock, and so on, ending in the top timbers. The pairs are bolted liy iron lioits, and of lato adjacent pairs have lieen tlius connected. Tiie frames are supported teni- |«irarily liy being fixed to the cross spnlh, long fir planks laid horizantiilly aluiut tlie heiglit of the gun deck. Those frames w' osc planes are perpendicular to the keel are called .^^»(ire yrn/Hc.^ ; at tiie head and stern these planes incline toward tlio extremities, and sre called mnt frames. These divisions of tlie ship are cillcd, accordingly, square and cant bmlies. When the fraiiiliig has assumed its form the ribamis are fi.xei' ; these are thick, narrow planks at wide intervals, ex- tending the length of the vessel, marking tlic direction of the planks ; they are firmly shored, and removed when the planking comes on. The riband lines ajipear on tlie tialf breiultli plan as diagonal lines. Upon the keel, and over the floor timliers, to wliich it is scored, is laid the kelson, which is, in fact, a second keel over the flrst. The stern of square-sterned ships is formed iil«rn the icinr/ y fi/HI(4 lil«ra», t'OfCPsiiondlntc In Cdn- itrmtlun, mul HtBCtftiW fit nKflinlh, to the how. TliBii* Imva m{4iM M»«1«rKiilM4 V«rl((iM ulterHtloTis, tend- ing to coiiiIiIho tlttt otroMUth irf' tlin new with the Im- posing ini^^rtmim t>( ♦Im (uriiu't utern, It l« iinly now hy (uditriwtiitg Hm wilM ami iiiinwvrthte fninie with the furnwf wsitliL md mmiiml^iil rttflclnre, tlmt we cnn fully |»ircii|v*i tJM* UwnU'imi'f lit the niiclent construc- tion, ill* tJn)lw»4,iM«)fAit iif fotmhix »" Independ- ent 8}'iit8Mi, w«r» MfM'M MHumtlM In imrt hy the phink- hirf itself, AS is Um ti*t(« hi Uimln, The masts, rostinR only upon tlwlr #(*(«, iii«l«iMt of Hnmg |platlorni» which dilfasa ||m prfuMurx mi nil sides, and pressed downwuvds hy lhi»||' Wffi^lit, mid hy the enormous strain of thu ligging, itMiitt floltl Hie wind on the sails, forcuil tUa kn4 iloWH, yimt imiin the ship leaky. The tluihuru and frumnwurtl, liclllX «» tlKht Bn«les, with- out mutual sup(»«lt, (In< wIioIh stress at the ship came im the faataniiiga ( unit, liuHt, the safety of the ship dupaiidart mtMy H)«»ll (Imt of the outside plank, the part most Bi||HiiiMt Ut Uliuty, Thu planks of (lia Afimn tldve also s<>, which, when the materials are sot, sulfara liHl* wf no increase, Exposure to moisturu |)«ii)g a imum of Uw decay of timher, huild- ing nnihiraivuf Ima liiitg liecii firittlced. This also protects the (Mail f'foill Hw weaHler, The wood usually employed in sllip-lolilillllfi is "«t l;« eaten through hy worms. To prevent fhasa avijii, (llfl h(rtt4«-.,,.,,,, »ft4«,f# l tea* iva $945,224 " \>M ,,,, VHMiV " lSf,9 I,099,,'i82 " Jfcft)., „,,,,, *(),«^(1 ' « tSftt 1,56«,6.i, "liiki! '2',i>io' 1.4161 2,88s ,'i5 8,(1*2 231 ,'1,4.%' 4,.'I89 1,994 8,237 8,li'.li 1,626| l,97ll -715 "im "uv 3,71s 31,210 4,437 2,4,'>9i 4,512' 4,631 "isi 990 I Total ' 87,705 235,487 ,524,799 1,222,UI10, Navigation (Lat. navis, a ship), is that branch of science by which the mariner is taught to conduct his ship from one part or place to another. To tin- derstand the principles of navigation, and their prac- tical application, it is necessary that the mariner should be acquainted witli the form and magnitude of the earth, the rel'itive situations of the lines conceived to be drawn on its surface, and have charts of the coasts and maps of the harbors which ho may have occasion to visit. He must also understand the use of the in- struments by which the direction in which a ship is steered, and the distance which she sails are ascer- tained ; and bo able to deduce from tlio data supplied by such instruments the situation of his ship at ony time, and to find the direction and distance of any place to which it may be required that the ship sliould be taken. A curve passing through any two places on the earth, and cutting every intervening meridian at the same angle, is called a rfitimb Hue; the angle which such a curve makes witli each meridian is called the course between any two places through which the curve passes ; and the arc of that curve intercepted between any two places is called their nautical di^lance. This distance is more than that measured on the arc of a great circle passing through the two places, un- less hott "le equal incldo, places Is i parallels and the u nr the anj <'f the phi Vltudes ol with rospt ence Is {,m 'mt when their difle Latitui>k, Navlgat about 1500 nted with ti liave of un nicians saili destruction its eoinmeri; the Komans It passed si nnil Ilanso ' and from tin I'lane charts a Variation of,, That thi, oWlq Nonius.. titat treatise Tlio lo« llrst ni Mcrrator's cba Davis's qiiniiriii J^Karlthrnle tn Middle latitude Miinaiiratlon of lladley's . 1420 Varliitlon of tho oonipass dlscoviTed by t'ohimbus H'Ji Ttiat the oblique rhumb lines are spirals, i( whi< I* ()*m limti't mid the greater im.ulwr of llm mw t»uf« hIldp.»witKf«, iIik mi went on to secure to tlieiii, us far a* (Im( ♦»**» (K(Mlld«, Ihp llii- ptirt trade uf |;uro|»i. hif iM, |,((f(„««, u riirllior enacted, that no good» uf lliu (j^mdl, \/tmUiHUm, or mamilaiauru of any mumn III i'MflHn', »li»itli| l,« iin- iwrted into (iruat IWtaiit, «ii..-|rti U> Ittlthli slilps, or in such ahipi lu irtre llu ruil ftniiitfli/)/!/),. iimtilKn/'lAii iwinlrg or jilare in whirl, lli« yimh iiNiiimliwil,ur from uhirh Ihrg roiild onl// lii, nr mat iimmllii mn-^, er. im-lrd. The latter imrt uf tjw t^\HU^« nn^, fintlrelr leveled against Iho l)ut.:|,, wlix Itmi but llltlx imtiTo produce to ex|)ort, and wluiM <.|(i(« ^titifH (itiiK l|-«lly employed in carrying tlw pfodww iif iitlipf loiinlrles l« foreign niarkols. ,Sui |» wuiu tllx imUtiK (ifiivislirns of tills fainous ait. 'llwy w«>u mUniiPii l,f titn regal government which sm cuiu(«,( (,>(/)mwkI|, Mild ttitm the basis of tho uct of thu litll»,'»f, i, wliMi M.iiMliiled, t ants of tho earth. Tho liglil ut (W«*(i^Pj tiled, must hold good for other pii)|»i».js, bugjij^i, lUim lit IradB i for objects of war as well us (or iinisn n( (k^ki^k j (ut all nations, no loss tlian for uny iiatlifli in ((•iHicKhit, awl be attached to artlHcial u.> well as in imUlfni Uifilmitfa, The principle coulil not, tlwitliirii, bti ili.-ic(«( un iff the Americuu goveriiiiuiiit, Mllhiss j( »< iif't^eW York und Ohio. Hence tho luu'-miHy ^Ukii iwts boetl felt by the writers un pulilic |»i»,i)f I'lHtlfiiitill^ tii« operutiun of a principle so e^teiisjva miii lUllfSffiiUK, Uf restricting the riglit of transit to [iit^m^ita ut iiiijot«(it utility, to be exclu.^ively det«fliliii*4 liy tli« i)im{ syy^ ereign. Ilcuce tlie right in i)M|ist)iiH is t^fiitfii Irjt them an Imperfect riglit. Kut tliulu WKii HMlilni< In these writers, or in the stipMlatjiills iif (Im {tfialie-i of Vienna, respecting tlie navigafiiOB of thf ({tfrtt thefa of Germany, to couiitenaiioc tlis Amnfiiiit) ihii IfiM uf un absolute nutuiul right. 'I'Ikhsh i6ti(rt||«Mj(||3 *gfg the result of mutual consent, ('iHmM mt i-imsUUfitliiim of mutijul interest growing out uf (lia fn}»ti('f aiHiadoii of tho dilferent Stutea concerijM III UlW HiMHiltim. The same observation woubi aplity Ui flw Vi(ti»M» ««/t« ventionul regulations which hail liwiHlt ilJfti'fpKt fmt- iods applied to tlie navigation of tJMi Itivi'*' Mis>is4ptii/ As to uny supposed right tlurivM frwiH tlw sitmiUilB^ caus uciiuisition of tlie ,St. IjiwrKIIwi by Hl« litliyi and American people, it could not Iw uliM*-'! Ui U»fH survived the treaty of 17«li, by whi*.|l Hi* UffVimMcnm of the United States was ai'tnowMgniJ, 4m » p(*fH-- tion of tho British dominions in Kortli AlfWtit!* ««» made between tho new goverAnwit Mid (tM( (rf t)i« mother country. This argument, it was repl)«4| sn iM |Mrt <^ tb& ill '1 M w 'M NAV 1304 NAV United Statps, that, If thn St. I.awrancn wore rcnarded M K Rtriilt conni'rtlnK niivl)(nlil« hpiih, ii« It nii){ht prnhii- bly to li«, thiTo would lie loss cnntrovi^rKy. Tlin prln- clpln (in which the right to niivl({iito Rtniltii di-iicnilii, l», Ihiit thoy nni iiri'esiiorliil to thono sens which they tinltp, ind the rl|{ht of niivlKntliiK which In not oxclunlvn, hut common to nil niiMonH ; the right to navl)(Ute thn acn< drnwliig nfter It tliiit of piiii^ing the ptriiltx. The United Stiiti'H nnd (irciit Hrit lin hiivn lietwcen them the exclusive right of nuvigntlng the liikcH. The St. Lawrence connectx Ihom with the oceiin. The right tu nnvlgate lioth (the liikcA and the ncenn), include* that of panning from one to the other through the nat- ural llnic, WuN it then reanonahle or JUKt that one of the two co-proprietors of tho luken nhould altogether exclude hln aKHociute from the iiho of a common hiiun- ty of nature, necennnry to the full enjoyment of them ? The diHtinctlon between the rlglu of piiHHagn, claimed h, one nation through the tcrrltirlen of another, on land, and that on navigahic wat r th.iugh not alwayn clearly marked liy tho writer" \'r{ puMic law, has a manifest exlxtence in the nniiir. >f thIngH. In tho former cam, the panaage ca.. haidly ever take place, cnpccinlly if it ho of nunu'roun iiodiex, without Homo detriment or Inconvenience to tho State whose terri- tory' h travemed. Hut In the caso of a paKsagn on water no Buch Injury Is nustalned. Thn American government clid not mean to contend for any prlun board of Its vessels, in nomo place not within the jurl.^- dlctlon of any other State.— Wiieatum, Int. Imw, n. 17ft. Claims to Portions of the Sen upon the (Iroiimi of Pre- sm'jition, —WcMen those liays, gulfs, straits, mouthn of rivers, and estuaries which are inclosed by ciipcs and headlands belonging to the territory of the State, a jurisdiction and riglit of property over certain other portions of the sea have been claimed by dilTcrent na- tions, on tho ground of immemorial use. Sucli, fur example, was the sovereignty formerly claimed by tho republic of Venice over the Adriatic. Tho nuiritiine supremacy claimed by (ircut Britain over what are called tho Narrow Seas, has generally been asserted merely by requiring cert.iiii liony tho t'lilteil NtitUa, uns. C. of C. I Navigators' Islands, a group of islands in the soHtiicm Pacific Ocean, remnrkablc for their extent, fertility, and population. They are about 10 in nuin- licr, and are situated between 1G9° and 172° :10' Vf. long., and from lat. 13° 25' to an uncertain lioundury southward. When seen from tho ocean, they present a lofty appearance, and are mountainous, but neither surrounded with a low border nor inclosed liy reefs, like the Society Islands. Tlie first discovery of these islands was made in 1722, by Roggewin and Ilunman, who full in with tho oastornmost of the number j ivliile Bougainville, in 1768, added another ; and Perouse, in 17*7, itlaoivtrtwl ^hm two treafxrnmott, which are thi* l»rg»at, Iwlii^ mtt» than Mi mile* In length. The luat navlgatiir wint \i\1iifmm\ of Ihfeo more In the aouthwanl, Tlw whoU groHp »«« «'ll tii \m r«nii«rlialily Indecent. They are also of Ih* nuial furoi lim* i)l«|x"lll>m. The leist dispute be- two^n lh«m U foljowwl by |,|»W4 from clubs, atlcka, or pa<|/||«a, und la oflati alienileil with the loaa of life. Ilwy ar« mry liiKonloiia. an,| Mshlon their work dex- teron.ly with UittihH, thapd like ail/.ea, and nmilo of yary Mux ami iimi(K« t ImaaUa, With these they finish worka in tn»i.l, mtii k1*« them ».. high a |ioliih that thay itmwar (• and ((rdrogrophy ; the Bureau of ConelrUitlun, l')<(l(l|rt»«(lla, and llepiiirsj tho Bureau of l'roviaionaanlWi Willfntn -(ones, Penn., .lanuary 12, INlltj BttlljatflJM W/ f'rotfnlnshlelil Mass., December 17, IH)(( Hinllh 'tlumnmn. ti. Y., November 110, iMlNi NainilW L, Ni/llthard, N. .L, December 9, 1H23; .lohn Huwh, H, C,, March (i, 1»t29) I/-vi Woodburj-, N. )!,, Amfuil, iHAt j Malilon Dickerson, N. J., ,luna :iil, mi j .latMM K, Cauiillng, N. Y., .luno 30, IH.W i ((«/rg« K Umiiinr, M. ('., Mi-rch 5, IHll ; AIki P. Upahur, Va„ MK<)ii«fnli<>r lI97. In the time of Henry VIM, ftw (M»i«lt navy consisted of 1 ship of 1200 liim, i of mt UiMf aifil (i or 7 smaller ; the larg est wan m\UA til* )lmU Iturfj/. Kllzabeth's fleet at NES 1306 NCT til* Urn* of tho Sgiuniali Ariiiuilii, In IMH, cniiaUlccl at unly VH vMiirl', nciiia liirK«r tliiiii frlKiitxii. Jumra I. lulilml 10 ililiiit cif IKN) tiiiu xui'li, mill 01 guim, tils Urnniit than nvor liullt. — Uiiiiiii..l«.l. N««j •■iluial*. nil Mcuunl. r.Mi IMS W lo^miii «.TIH) tt 1(|IM 4J IT.iifift N.nifl " i(vw IM r>7,iiiHi 11,1110 *' laiM i;« IIII.MI'i 41,111)11 M im ST'J imi.i>'iii 4«,llO(t tl,liM,»IA ITlHI 411 H'il.llll 7ii,0<)il H.li7,llll ITV'I 4IM im.'M 4A,lN») NWfl.imi IMHI Till mH,74» l;iA,iNiii il,iti.0»1 ImW NIIU NUJ,*i() 1 ui,''uliir to cuili otlmr, Wtit-n thn two forciia ai't in thn auiiin or nxiii'tly o|i|Mialln illriK'tlona, tJMi ipriiiy or hlKheat tlili'a urn pniiluiiMl, The nnap tiilca tiiku pUre aUjut four or llvn iliiya liu- fura the ii«w ami full miMmx. >Sn, ii (ivrinan, ti>U){ht llio art to thn Knifliah, who have hIiico lirou(;lit it to the lilf(linat ilo^rou of perfection. — Stowk. The family of the (in-nnliina, un- I'oatora of Lord Doruheater, eatulilltliKil a iii>cille iiiunn- fai'tory in Hucka uliout thia tiiiie.—ANi'KUHON, Noeillea are made from the liest ateol, rediii'ed liy n wire-drawing machine to the aultalilu diameter. The nianufacturn ia aiipiMiacd to liuvu origlnuti'd In Spain, and to have lieen intnidurod into KiiKlaiid alMiiit tho year l.'iliA, liy Kllaa Krauae, ur (irowao, who tlicii net- tled In Ijunilim. Dr. Ure, in \\\* llieliimanj nf Alia, Htatna that "the cunatructlon of a needle rei|uirea abimt 120 opcratiuna; but tliny are rapidly and unin- terruptedly succeaaive, A child can trim the eyea uf 4000 needles per hour. When wo aurvuy a manufaiv ture of tlili kind, we can not fail to uliaervo tliat the diveraity uf ojierationa which tho needled undergo l>eara the inipreaa of great mechanical relinement. In the arta, to divido labor ia to abridge it ; to multiply o|ieratlona ia to aimplify tlieni ; and to attacli an u|iera- tlve oxcluaively to one proceaa, ia to render him much more economical and pruductlve." — E. A. Stat«mk>t biiowini) tiif. Iwi'DKTa or Nr.icni.Ka into rna Unitki) Statks ton Tiir. Ykah kniiinu June Di^ii, 1SS6, Portland and Falnioutli ♦27fl Boaton anil Clurleatown 8e,il.W Npw York Wi,iM riillsililphla. B,NI« Maltlinoro B29 Charleston Mi Niiw Orlvona •. 1)h8 t)an Francisco 897 Total $240,060 ITaata, Baoulent. A species of nesta built by awallowa peculiar to tlio Indian lahinda, and very much eaf^incd In China and otlior parts of the world. Those nexts resemble in form those of other swallows ; they arc formed of a viscid substance, and in external appearance as well as consistence are not unlike flbrato ill-concocted Ulnglass. KsciiUnt nests are principally found in Java, in caverns usually situated on tho soo- coaat. Nothing satisfactory Is known as to the sub- stance ef wbich tliese nests are composed. IVat (Kr. t'iltl, ntfnui (l*r, AV(«), !• a taxllU fabric of knotted nieahra for i'atcliiiik( ll-lt and iithar fiurpoana. Vju-it ni*all ahiiuld \m •» <" .i.ir, hownver, that thia niachinn ban aci'iinipliabml tlin ob- ject in vliiwj for no eatabllaliiiiKnt waa ever liioiiiitnl to carry it Into excriitbin. Ncti arc uaiiully iniidx by the llahnriiinn and Ihrir famlllca during thn pcrlnili nf leiaiire. The formation of a mnali la tiMi almplu a inalti'r to rei|uiro dearriptbin in tlila dictionary. Natt (It. nilhi, piirv), tiiat wliich roniaiiia of a weigiit, i|iiantlty, nlc, ul'tur making certain di'diic- tiiina. 'Ihiia, in mnrcantlln lanituagn, the nrll mii/hi ia thn wnight of any article after deducting tare and tri't ; nrll pnijilt, iwnmr, rlr., la tlin almoluto pnillt or iiii'iimo, after dndui'tiiig ox|ieiisra, Interoat, etc. It ia opIHHcd to i/i'iiM (lirltto). Nattlnca, in a ship, a sort of grutea mailn of small M|x, un the llcriiiiii Ocean (capital Ainatorilam), compoaod of thn N'ctiicr- lanila pro|H-r, or the nnilcnt rcp.ibllc of thn Scviii I'liltcd I'liivincea, and part of the Diicby of l.imhur;,', altuati'd l»-twoi'n bit. M" 111' and .1:1" ^1' N., and Imi;;. 11° 21' and 7° 12' K., iMiiiiiiU'd ea«t by Hanover ami I'ruaala, aouth liy lli'lgiiim and Ibn (irand Duchy of Luxemburg |,tlin Hoiith-eaat portion uf which ia held by lliu King uf thn N'ctherluniis), and went anil iiorlli by tiin (icrmun Ucean. Kxtent and pupiilatlon iia follows : I Pmvlncai. Ilrabttiit ( NorliijTT Ui'Mirlaiiil liiilland (Houtin... Hollaiiit (North)... Zeolttilil J'lrcrht ■Frieiland lOverii'Uul lUroiilniton Orcntlin Llinburi{— iJuchy.. Qraiid Duchjr of Lnxom- burg, Dec. 81st, 1891. . . Total Arvaln i|«o(.' iiilliia. I IW'BOB 98-790 M-JT5 4A'188 St'OVI tJS-Ut fiO'5S9 au'ftsi) 41 TUT 4SVV29 _4l)i00 48 too 139 -uiF PiiuulailuH liiiait. Srllri,.!!. l««l. ♦is ' 401) 41)1) Ml) IM HM IWH 2411 140 ■ 210 8,168,006 I 8,298 408,«MT II8S,MS4 &S4,6»8 AlX,iM)6 ie8,:l1H 1M,M« 2fiA,9l5 «-i4,778 19B,2IV( 86,78A 21I),27S 194,619 8^862,025" AMenilunr^. 861,016 Tho leading features of the new navigation laws of the Netherlandfl may be gathered from tho following summary: 1. Unconditional repeal of discriminating favors granted to the Dutch flag, liy suppression uf tho rules allowing to this flag preference above foreign flags. 2. Conditional similarity of flag in the navigation to and frum the Netherlands' culonies. 3. Stipulations by law concerning tho trade and navigation in tho colonies of the realm carried un by other nations. 4. Uepoal of interdiction to grant Netherlands registers to foreign- built vessels, by their admittance for registry (natural- ization) at u duty of 4 percent, of their value. 5. Diniin- ishiiig of import duties on principal materials fur sliip- building. 0. Suspension of the shipping duties on the Rhino and Yssel. 7. Total aliolition of transit dutios. Public revenue, in 1H.53, 71,0H5,772 florins, of which amount nearly half is raised by direct taxation and excise dutios. Expenditure, 70,086,078 florins. Na- tional debt, l,2U6,4Ua,380 florins. The marine force in NRT 1307 NET 4111) 4IVI MO IM IM ts» M« 140 '210 1 lllWS I'f fdUciwiiiii imliiiitini; isloii of ttui reign H-'K'' itlon to mill ons liy liiw colonii's iif Ui'peal of to foreigii- ' (ntttural- ' 5. Dliiiln- la for sliip- itios on tliu isit duties. , of wliioU xution and irins. No- ne force in •HmI ■•rvl''lxi'luiilv« of lh»«it In tn« rolonlm. Thu iiiMnlmnt miirinn Ik ('ciiii|irli, iiK)|ri<|(iilii |jiirili.tiii>«nt UlMd* Muiniitni, WkhI t-fiut '* IWiikiili'ii " ldiiii|H>niti. " l'*l«inb*n( Inilnwirl ,, Aauhan.HiliM!, K»n, Mrd*, mill, Xo. Ilaiirii Itlilii [Boriiro. Hnmhw '■ W.'iit™»»( " Hnulli itnd ••*! ouut, iMartMar, Cilalxi, ' Ainhiivna > iMi'iiailo Trrnalo ' Itiiniln rriiiKir Ixiinbook Naw Uulnat Total ar«a III fiirif, mlU*. 1,U4II 4M« 4Tno l,BA*t'4 «Ttl» RMS HMt) Ut« 94411 a.Min MWIS >.I4»'0 4Tt» i.iwr 411 » l.nttn luin JI,'2I0'0 9,819-B lT^t MO-0 IM.'iMI t.MO.mti) miMvi* i)ii,n;a h'J.tNHI IT'i.oiiii Al 1,000 lOII.IHIII 4:1,111 HI BIMHlfl 4'l, rent, lirnt iinilvr the dominion of .Spain, paKscd In I'M tn that nf Aualria, and wua lullod .Spaninh Netlicr- lanil.i, AuKtrlan Netlicrlanda, or Ilclginin. The following is on extract from an cflloial report of the British consul at Rotterdam, under dale of Dwciii- bcr 81, 1H.J7 {Varliamentimj Vociimcnls nf IX.')8, No. (1) ; " Holland has not acted a very Important or con- apicuoiia part in the late commercial tragedy of tlio world ; and although she lias undoulitcdly sullcrcd se- verely, in common with other countries, yet the sound principles upon whicli her trade in general is cstalillah- cd, the judicious and cautious character of the majori- ty of her ntercliants, the limited supplies of colonial produce and corn which have been imported on pri- vate account, a wise commercial code, and last, not least, the soundness of her financial policy, li:ive pre- served her from that general collapse— that degrading universal suspension which has been exhibited in the United States of America, in Hamburg, Sweden, and Denmark, and the results of whicli have been »o dis- astrous, not merely to the unprincipled cvcrtrader, but to that rlass of honest, careful, nnil prudent men who, without having done any thing beyond the ntrict prin- ciples of sound business, ore nevertheless hxept away, unable to withstand the impetuous current of general panic and alarm. " There being no private banks of issue in the coun- try, the entire note circulation proceeds from tlie Neth- erlands Bank, and such Is the ability and caution with which that establishment is conducted, that the possi- bility of a run upon the bank by the public, or the ne- cessity of having to suspend specie payments, arc con- tingencies which have never, during the worst times of discredit, been contemplated. "Whan the Hank of KnKl,iiiil,ln Nnramhar, 1KS7, wni riiiiipi>lliMl Id ri-«nrt In a nuaprniiim of the Hank- t'hiirirr Art— when It .»aa iiimiiallml to raian Ilia ral<' uf ill^ooiiMt to 10 per rant., and thn nmniint nf linllbin In Ihii liiiiik bad fiilUu to an nl.irinlnijly Inw Hgiirf , tlii' iiHi'liil rotn of dlii'uiint at thn NdliarbiTicbi llaiik waa 7 per flint. ; aa the larKrut nione^ -lender and ilUrounlir In the country. It wa* aaalnilng the ri>niiiiarilal r munlty by an axlanilon of Its dlaooiiiiln; lliora wa« llltla or III) fi'or of any undue ilralii oniirrliig on the bank's rofTera, and rutnefjiuinlly, beyniid a miiiewhat closer «iriilliiy into Ihn rharaclerof r niiiiilul bills pre»nileil („\ diai'ouni, no oxtniiiiUniiry niijaaiirta had to bfl adoptud to insure Ihn Kafiily nf lli« i Klublliihinant and the regularity of Its Im-iincis. " There ore no jolnt-Klnck liunkn in this inuiil ry, and their utility would Im \ory nuiillonabln. In Kniiland. Joint-slnek banks arc a iiicuns of bringing lillii rapltal Into I Iriulalion, and fdntujiicutly, in theory, tlm plmi looks wi'll. 'Ibii ixperlcnco of the Iml \ fur, liowevnr, haa aliowii how crruneoua Is lliii Ihrory, and Imw In- ililVorently It ban I ecu fiiiiiid to »ork In praiiiie. " In liidland tlin |iriln Iple of ilniiteil liuliillty |., found to work u Ivuiitageniialy. A person eiiii Invest, witlioii'. rliKing Ids whulo riirliuie, a lerliiin aniuiint in a busiiiiKS which lici is able to Inviiiitlgjite and watch. But fur this llmiteil-llabllily law ho hihiIii probably have to deposit tbu nioiiuiit for investnioiit in tlie hainls of public companies or bunkors, who can srareeiy bo supposed to lake the same iiitirutt In liinlliig a »ufo and ctrtoin investment as the invm r klnisell'. The princi- ple of liinited liability haa coiincipiently uiiduiibted ad- vantages." I'oiniiiRoi or Till NsTuaRLtNiia i t'oanlrlM. Aiiitrnlla Iiel|{liini Ilrnill Iln-iuun ( hliia Tiilia Ciirnviia. lleiiMinrk Krarici* Tolal, ISM Total, 18.%.; Ilntitirti. t'lurlnt. !)l,liT'.:',M42 ii.oNa.i'.n l,nlf),!NT il,;i.".;',lll7 i,oi:i,r.nii '.'Ti.ss; 9,4it4,»i.U 17,iH',:;ii4 M,i:is tnn,oon,iri 4,'/r>><,iisii 4,17.',;!(S 0l,44l,|.|'i io,ai.ii,a(iB iios.flofl ai,s.'.ii (iii,7;.s 1,liOO,lliii,44.'i lB,>isrt,.MI.'. ^Jl.T'.ti 8;'S,TI.'i Tlo,^7:i 73.% 904 4,8Ait,M7 7l>,7l(i,o7U T.'i'j,s;in 1,7|-.',lWS i,7ii«,m;i _ iiia,;i74 41 1,741, in.'t 8i'.>,i:H,(Ki:i 8B8,4H4,r>l!i B2l,nM,T«!i ISM. rigtlai. 7o,o;ij 0D,IWl,73fl I sT.s-.n I t(i9,ati4 I ■IJ ,1.-.. 211,1ft: 4:i4,VA 1,»4ll,lii;! ' i'it,a7(),s.); j 74,iiV3,4BO a,niV*l I mV,«78 I 11,WI,48B i 4ri,4ii« I 5,9i;i,7ii:i i,4.s!),;in3 i,»i,a24 I,ti87,(t4l> 12li,iiOI,U3J '.',094,1130 : n,Bin,9'.'3 ' I.IO'i.BOB 814,1103,078 !i08,TRO,S01 27'2,sOI,(i(«l SniPi'iso IN 19Bt ANU UBS. VaiuU. "T!n' LonileiUlSM).. In ballast J'otallnlSN. Loriili'd(ISW). . In ballast T,l'i8 474 T^BM^ "7,788 469 Total In 19». 8,'/87 1,884.648 l,l.'i4.4.So 8ii,es9 1,80I),4BO Sl,«98 -r(.^i.rtil.- 4JS!W 8,991 Turn. 829,788 461.898 7.H'j4 I "1,984 ,681' 4,94'J I 810".19fl 4,'20a I 688,64 4 8,445 I 1,448,670 '4 f NEU 1308 NEU Neutral*. Of the General Ki'ghlt and Duties of ■Viulntl yaliona. — The rights and diitios which i)clong lo u utiite of iieutmlity form a very interesting title in tlio code of international law, Tlioy ought to Ije o1>- jects of particular study in this country, inuHniuch as it i8 our true policy to cherish a Kpirit of pouco, and to keep ourselves free from those political connections which would tend to draw us into tlie vortex of Ku- ropcan contests. A nation that muiut.ains u firm nnd scrupulously impartial neutrality, and commands the respect of all other nations by its prudence, justice, and good faith, has the best clianco to preserve unim- paired the blessings of its commcrco, the freedom of its institutions, and the prosperity of its resources. Itulligcrcnt nations are interested in the supjrart of the just rights of neutrals, for tlic intercourse whicli is licpt up by means of their commerce contriliutes greatly to mitigate the evils of war. Tlio public law 1)1' I'^irojie has estaldislicd the principle, tliat, in time >if war, countries not parties to the war, nor interpos- ing in it, sliall not be materially affected l)y its action ; but they shall bo permitted to carry on their accus- tomed trade, under the few necessary restrictions which we shall hereafter consider. A neutral has a riglit to pursue his ordinary com- merce, and he may become the carrier of the enemy's goods, without being sul>ject to any contiscation of tlie ship, or of the neutral articles on l>oard ; though not without tlio risk of having the voj-age interrupted by the sei/uro of the hostile property. As the neutral has a right to carrj' the property of enemies in his own vessel, so, on the other hand, his own property is in- violable, though it be found in the vessels of enemies. But the general inviolability of the neutral character goes further than merely the protection of neutral property. It protects the property of the belligerents when within the neutral jurisdiction. It is not lawful to make neutral territory the scene of hostility, or to attack an enemy while within it ; and if the enemy bo attacked, or any capture made, under neutral pro- tection, tho neutral is bound to redress the injury, and ulTect restitution. The l>o/ Ilestrictiou.i upon Neutral Trade. — Tho princijial restriction which tlic law of nations imposes on tlii\ trade of neutrals, is the prohibition to furnisli tlie bel- ligerent parties with warlike stores, and otlier articles which are directly auxiliary to warliko purposes. Sucli goods are denominated contraband of war ; but in the attempt to define them, the authorities vary, or are deficient in precision, ar.d the subject has long been a fruitful source of dispute between neutral and belli- gerent nations. Contraband of War. — In tho time of Grotius, some persons contended for the rigor of war, and others for the freedom of commerce. As neutral nations ure willing to seize tho opportunity which war presents, of beceming carriers for tho belligerent powers, it is nat- ural that they should desire to diminish tlic list of contraband as much as possible, Urotius distinguishes between things which ure useful only in war, us arms and ammunition, and things which servo merely for pleasure, and things which are of a mixed nature, and useful both in peace and war. He agrees with other writers in prohibiting neutrals from carrying articles of tho first kind to tho enemy, as well as in permitting the sicond kind to be carried. As to articles of the third class, which are of indiscriminate use in peace and war, as money, provisions, ships and naval stores, he says that they aro sometimes lawful articles of neu- tral commerce, and sometimes not ; and tho question will depend upon circumstances existing at tho time. Imw of blockades. — A neutral may also forfeit the immunities of his national character liy violations of blockade ; and among the rights of belligerents, there is none more clear anu incontrovertible, or more just and necessary' in tho applwition, than that which gives NEU 1300 NEU the be\- artiolcs purposes. nir; lint ary, or ong \wn\ ind lielli- rise to the law of blockade. Bynkerahoeck says, it is founded on the principles of natural reason, as well as on tlio usage of nations ; and Urotius considers the curryini; of supplies to a besieged town, or a blockaded port, as nn offense exceedingly aggravated and injur- louj. They both agree that a neutral may bo dealt with severely ; and Vattel says he may be treated as an enemy. Tlic law of l)lockade is, however, so liarsh and severe in its operation, tliat, in order to apply it, the fact of the actual Idockadu must be estublislied by clear iind unequivocal evidence ; and the neutral must liave hud due previous notice of its existence ; and the squadron allotted for the pur))oses of its execution must bo competent tu cut off all communication witli tlie interdicted place or port ; and the neutral must have l)eeu guilty of some act of violation, eitlier l)y going in, or attempting to enter, or by coming out witli a cargo laden after tlie commencement of the l>lockade. The fuilura of eitlier of the points requisite to establish the existence of a legal blockade, amounts to un entire defeasance of tlie measure, oven though the iiotilication of the blockade liad issued from tlie authority of the government itself. Jliy/it of Search at Sea. — In order to enforce the rights of belligerent nations against the delinquencies of neutrals, and to ascertain tiio real as well us as- sumed character of all vessels on the high seas, tlie law of nations arms them with tho practical power of visit- ation and search. Tlio duty of self-preservation gives to belligerent nations this right. It is founded upon necessity, and is strictly and exclusively a war right and does not riglitfully exist in time of peace, unless conceded by troaty. All writers upon the law of na- tions, and the highest authorities, acknowledge the right in time of war us resting on sound principles of public jurisprudence, and upon the institutes and prac- tice of all great maritime powers. And if, upon making tho search, the vessel be found employed in contraband trade, or in carrying enemy's property, or troops, or dispatches, she is liable to be taken and brought in for adjudication before a prize court. Neutral nations have frequently been disposed to questio'i and resist the exercise of this right. This was particularly the case with tho Ualtic confederacy, during tho American war, and with the convention of the lialtic powers in 18ui. The right of search was denied, and the (lag of the State was declared to bo a substitute for uU documentary and other proof, and to exclude all right of search. Those \)0wer3 urnicd for tho purpose of defending their neutral pretensions j and Kngluud did not hesitate to consider it as an at- tempt to introduce, by force, a now code of maritime law, inconsistent with her belligerent riglits, and hos- tile to her interests, and one which would go to extin- guish the right of maritime capture. Tho attempt was speedily frustrated and abandoned, and the riglit of search has, since that tune, been considered incontro- vertible. This right of search is confined to private merchant vessels, and does not apply to public ships of war. Tlieir immunity from the exercise of any civil or crim- inal jurisdiction but that of the sovereign power to which they belong, is uniformly asserted, claimed and conceded. A contrary doctrine is not to bo found ui any jurist or writer on tlio law of nations, or admitted in any treaty ; and every act to tho contrary has been promptly met and condemned. Neulnil JJominenIs, — A neutral is bound, not only to submit to search, but to have his vessel duly fur- nished with the genuine documents requisite U) support her neutral character. The most material of these documents are, tlie register, passport or .sea letter, muster-roll, big-book, charter-party, invoice and bill of lading. The want of some of these papers is strong presumptive ovidence against the ship's neutrality ; yet the want of any one of them is not absolutely con taa poicit tubveniemlum eat" Tha I'nnu^iillllitHt lit papers material for the preservation nt llitt llttlitnil character, justilies a capture mid carryllltf llitii \»iH for adjudication, though it dues not absullitely rti||Ulri< a condemnation. It is good ground tu refiiiiii iiiint mill damages on restitution, or to refuse flirtlltir jiruiif lu relieve tho obscurity of the case, wliuru IIih I'liilNtl |||< bored under heavy doubts, and tiiuro wits jii'lmil J)li luff f guilt ; but it does not in Knglaiiil, as it dues liy tlit> maritime law of other countries, iruutu nil itlii<(ilu(t< presumption juris et de jure ; and yet, a I'lCM tluit, ««. capes with such a lirand upon it, is siivoil i>ii hs by llfg, Tho Supreme Court of the United Stittes hits dtlliiWMit tlie less rigorous ICnglish rule, and held l||i|t tllM ii|iiillil= tion of papers was not, of itself, ai|fllii|ii||t gfiiMllit fiif condemnation, and that it was a circiniistiMUti iipcM fur explanation, for it may have arisen from DciiitMHli llt<= cessity, or superior force. — Kknt's (.'umin,, vol, I, Msii Wiieaton's luh'ruatitmal Imw, Neutral Trade, — The present pusitlnii of the I'lllitiil States in regard to neutrals iimy be leariltid friilll tllt< following extract : " Soon after the conimencemeiit of the jiita will" III Europe, this government sulimitted tu the unnaliUiriltlllM of all maritime nations two principles fur the tafi'lirltv of neutral commerce ; one, that the iieutrill llil|{ lahiiMlit cover enemy's goods, except artii'lus roiilritlMlliI iif war ; and tlio other, tliat neutral projitirty nil liiilll'il merchant vessels of belligerents sliuiilil be mkii|M|I( from condemnation, with the exception of I'lililrfiliHlliI articles. These were not presented lis hmw rules (if international law, having been geiiuriilly ilniiiiiiit by neutrals, though not always admitted by liulli)j|iri rti|i- resentatives of Kiissia, Kraiico, (ireut Itrltilill, Allslrlil, Prussia, Sardinia, and Turkey, assembled iit I'lilla, tC'.'V into consideration tho sulijott of iiiarltl'lie rlfjIltK, and put I'urtb a declaration containing the two prliu ciplcs which this govcr-iinent had subinittBit noiirly two years before to the coiisidoiutiMii of murltillie piiwain, and adding thereto tho following proposltioiia i ' j'fU vatcering is and remains abolished,' and ' llliiikitdiiiii in order to he binding, must be effective, that Is to illj', maintained by a force, sullKieiit really to pruviMll lie- cess til the coast of tho enemy j' anil to tlie ileilitrtl- tion thus couiposed of four points, two of wlll|i|| liitd already been proposed by the United States, tills ({iiv, eminent has been invited to accede by all the piiwar* represented ut I'aris, except (ireat Itrltaln mill 'l'llf» key. To the lust of the two additional prupiiaitliiiiK^ that in relation to blockades— there can uerlalllly be nil objection. It is merely the definition of what slliill constitute tho effectual investment of u bliickiiiltiil place, a definition for which tliis goveriiiiiBiit lius itU ways contended, claiuiing indeinnity for lossns wliefo u practical violation of the rule thus delliiod liiis litiull injurious to our commerce. As to the reiiuilnin){ Hr> tide of tho declaration of tho conference of Paris, ' timi privateering is and remains abolished,' I certainly (i|»ll not ascribe to the powers represented In tile I'lillftir" elusive. " Si aliMiU M aukimiibua lieficial, cum ejai-l ence of Paris any but liberal and plillanthru|ilii vl»W» NEV 1400 NEW in the attempt to change the unquestionable rule of maritime law in regard to privateering. Tlieir propo- sition was doubtless intended to imply approval of the principle that private property upon the ocean, al though it might belong to tlie citizens of a belligerent State, should l)e exempted from capture j and had that proposition been so framed as to give full effect to the principle, it would have received my ready assent on hehulf of the Uniteil States. But the measure pro- . ])oaeil is inadequate to that purpose. It is true that if adopted, private property upon the ocean would be withdrawn from one mode of plunder, but left exposed, meanwhile, to another mode, which could be used with increased effectiveness. The aggressive capacity of great naval powers would be therefore augmented, while the defensive ability of others would be reduced. Tliough the surrender of the means of prosecuting hostilities by employing privateers, as proposed by the conference of Paris, is mutual in terms, yet, in prac- tical efl'ect, it would be the relinquishment of a right of little value to one class of States, but of essential importance to another and a fur larger class. It ought not to have been anticipated that a measure, so inade- quate to the accomplishment of the proposed object, and so unequal in its operation, would receive the as- sent of all maritime powers. Private property would lie .still left to the depredations of the public armed cruisers. " I have expressed a readiness, on the part of this government, to accede to all the principles contained in the declaration of the conference of Paris, provided that relating to the abandonment of privateering can lie so amended as to effect the object for which, as is presumed, it was intended, the immunity of private property on the ocean from hostile capture. To effect this ol)ject, it is proposed to add to the declaration ' that privateering is and remains abolished,' the following amendment : ' And that the private property of sub- jects and citizens of a belligerent "^ the high seas shall lie exempt from seizure by the pxblic armed vessels of the other belligerent except it be contraband.' This amendment has been presented not only to the powers which have asked our assent to the declaration to abol- ish privateering, but to all other maritime States. Thus far it has not been rejected by any, and is favorably entertained by all which have made any communica- tion in reply. " Several of the governments, regarding with favor the proposition of the United States, have delayed definite action npon it, only for the purpose of consult- ing with others, parties to tVe conference of Paris. I have the satisfaction of stating, however, that the Em- peror of Russia has entirely and explicitly approved of that modification, and will co•^perate in endeavor- ing to obtain the assent of other powers ; and that as- surances of a similar purport have been received in relation to the disposition of the Emperor of the French. " The present aspect of this important subject allovs us to cherish the hope that a principle so humane in its character, so just an, .CS-l.^fK). The legislature is composed of the ad- ministrator of the government, a legislative cnunol), and a house of assembly of 15 members. Salary cif administrator, .£500. The island consists of 6 parishes, Cbarlestown, the capital, is at its soutli-west extreni' ity. Pul>lic revenue in 1850, £8,110. A letter from the United States' consul, dated Decemlier 6, infifi, says : " The legislature of Nevis has passed a law, to go into operation on the 1st of Marcli ensuing, reinov. ing all duties on imports, exports, and tonnage duties on vessels, thereby creating a free port. The cou.se, quence will be that the commercial intercourse with the United States will be very considerable." Novr Bedford, a port of entry in Massachusetts, 55 miles south of Boston, 28 east of Newport, -10 south- east of Providence, 226 east of New York, 481 from Washington ; in 41° 3S' 10" N. lat., and 70° 65' 1(1" E. long. Population in 1830, 7,592 ; In 1840, IJ.OH? | in 1850, 16,448 ; in 1851, 18,014 ; and in 1854, Jll.tlllO, There are 33 manufactories of all sorts ; the most lin> portant of which are, 15 foroil and candles, the jiroduct of the whale tisherj-; one large cotton factory, called the Wamsutta mill, propelled by steam, containing l'.',,'iOil spindles, 288 looms, employing 230 hands, and turns out daily 4,800 yards of cotton cloth, which has nh. tained several medals for its superior quality i una cordage factory, with an invested capital of iJtT.'iillOi), employing 100 hands, and producing annually l,(lill) tons of cordage, celebrated for being of the best quiil. ity ; a large paper-hanging manufactory which turns out 400,000 rolls of paper annually ; also a rivet fiii', tory worked by ■ .earn, and two iron fonnderles | four printing offices, issuing two daily, three weekly, nnil one mouthy publication ; and 186 mercantile aUiriio, There are two marine railways, one of them capalilo uf taking up large ships. Railroad cars leave three tiiiii<« daily for Boston and Providence, and ever)' gflernouu for Fall River and Stonington to connect with Bteani- boats at those places running to New York. 'I'lio wlmle flsherj' is the principal business which is carriuil (Jii «t New Bedford, and has been the means chielly of imllil. ing it up to its present importance in population unil wealth. As early as 1764, small sloops of 40 to 60 l(rii« burden wer( fitted out to cruise, during tho siininior months, off the Capes of Virginia and Hatteras for sperm whales ; taking care to return to port before tlni equinoctical gales commenced ; the blubber was brought into port and tried out on shore, (iradually the voy. ages were extended in larger vessels to tho Itay of Mexico, and about the West India Islands, thence to the Azores, and Cape de Verd Islands, nnil cnust of Guinea, In 1791, a ship called the Rebecca, was l|ttB(t out for a whaling voyage to the Pacilic Ocean | this ship was the first A merican whaler that ever eiitiireil that oceah in pursuit of whales ; her voyaga was suc- cessful. From those small beginnings, the whale fish- ery hos steadily increased to its present iuiportunio, with the exception of the interruption of tlio revolu- tionary war, and of the war of 1812 with Great Urltaiii, until New Bedford has become tho greatest wliiilliig port in the world. Her ships now circumnavigate the globe, and explore every ocean and sea from the Arc- tic to the Antarctic in pursuit of whales. The nuiulier of vessels employed in the whale fishery from \'w United States at this time, 1862, is 620, their tonnage, 193,990, of which there arc belonging to the illntrlut of New Bedford, 372 vessels, employing upwards of 10,000 seamen. Tliere were entered Into the United States, during the year 1851, of sperm oil, 99,501 blils, | of right whalo oil, 328,483 bids. ; of whalebone, 3,916,500 lbs. ; amounting in value to i|<10,02H,fl89, of which there were imported into the district of Now Bedford, of sperm oil, 00,465 bids. ; of right whale oil, 175,460 bbls. i of whalebone, 2,47;l,500 Ilia, ( amounting in value to #5,781,118; of which value, about $5,000,000 was brought into tile port of New Bedford. The average length of tho voyages of the right whale ships are 36 months ; sperm whale ship* NEW 1401 NEW ii niontlis, New Bedford is the great nursery for soiinien In the United States. See article On,. New Brunswick, a British province, oast coast of Nortli America, int. 4.5° B' to -18° -10' N., long. G;i° fiO' to OH'' W. i bounded west by the State of Maine ; north-west Lower Canada, from which it is separated by tlio Kiver Rcstigoucho ; north. Bay of Chaleurs ; I'ust, Oulf of St. La^vreIlCe and NorthumI)erland Strait, tliii latter separating it from IVmce Edward Island ; and south, the Hay of Fnndy, and part of Nova Sco- tia. Its coast-line is about 500 miles in length, inter- rupted only at the point of junction with Nova Scotia, where an isthmus of not more than 10 miles in breadth cuuticctij the two provinces, and separates the waters of Northumberland Strait from those of the Bay of Futidy, which it is proposed to unite by means of a canal. The most remarkable bays and harbors are llathurst Bay, on the north coast ; Sliramiclii Bay, on till) east const Passamaquoddy Bay, and St. John harbor, on the .uuth coast. There are, besides these lurKcr Indentations, numerous smaller liarliors, particu- larly on the south portion of the east coast. Area, 27,704 square miles. Tlie population of this province is principally com- posed of British settlers and their descendants. The remnant, of French extraction, are settled around the Hay of Chaleurs. There is still a few of the aborigines left, consisting of the Micmacs, SIclicites, and others, amounting in 1851 to 1,1]() persons. Phijsiml Features, etc. — The general surface of the country presents a series of bold tmdulations, some- times rising Into mountains, or continuous ridges of lltgh land. The latter are seldom of any considerable height J but their precipitous acclivities, sharp outline, and deep ravines, give them an alpine and picturesque I'luiracfer that t\ne\y and strikingly contrasts with the llch valleys and sheltered plains which alternate with the more rugged scenery. The shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Northumberland Strait, however, present ditfercnt and far less pleasing features. There the luiul, for about 12 miles inland, is low and sandy, covered with trees of a stunted growth, and skirted with extensive marslics, large deep morasses, and long sniid beaches. Along the shores of the Bay of Cha- leurs and the Gulf of St. Lawrence, gray sandstone lind gray clay-slate predominate, with detached rocks iif granite, quartz, and ironstone ; on the south coast, limestone, graywacke, clay-slate, with sandstone, in- terrupted occasicmally by gneiss, trap, and granite. Specimens of amethyst, cornelian, jasper, etc., have been picked up in various places. Coal is plentiful, and iron ore abundant ; the former is said to extend over 10,000 square miles, or above one third part of the whole area of the province. New Brunswick is drained liy numerous rivers and sfiall streams, the principal of which is the St. John, navigable for vessels of fiO tons to Fredericton. The HBltt river In Importance is the Sliramichi, which rises Hear the west limits of the territorj-, whence it iiows Horth-oast, and falls into Miramichi Bay. on the east coant, about lat. 47° 6' N., long. G4° 5!!' W. ; its whole course is upward of 110 miles, it is navigable for nearly 40 miles, and admits vessels of GOO or 700 tons The Kestlgouche is the next considerable river ; it forms the north-west limit of the province, and falls into the li«'ad of the Bay of Chaleur, after a course of about 100 miles. There are a number of small lakes in New Brunswick, particularly in the northern part, but none of any considerable size. In the south there are a few somewhat larger, the most important of which are Orand Lake, 20 miles long, by aliout 5 miles broad; nrtil Washcdemoak Lake, about 20 miles long, by 2 miles broad — both lying between St. John and Freder- icton. Staniifitrliirrs, etc. — There were in the province in iHfll, 62 woolen factories, employing 9G persons j 2C1 grlit mills, employing 366 persons; 584 saw mills. employing 4,,n02 persons ; 125 tanneries, employing 255 persons ; 11 foimderics, employing 242 persons ; H breweries ; 52 weaving and carding establishments (5,- 475 hand looms), employing 96 persons ; 90 of various manufacturing establishments, employing 95:1 persons. Coals raised, 2,482 tons; iron smelted, 810; lima burnt, 35,599 casks; grindstones quarried, 58,849; gypsum, 5,465 tons quarried. Products.— C\oth, 622,237 yards ; and 100,975 gal- lons malt liquor. Value of Ixjots and shoes made, £89,367 ; leather, ;£45,165 ; chairs, cabinet ware, and wood ware, ,£33,977 ; candles, f 19,860 ; soap, £18,562 • hats, £0,3B0 ; iron castings, £20,025. The principal places are °t. John, the metropolis, and Fredericton, the capital. There were in 1854 sev- eral railroads In course of construction ; 5 l)anks, ag- gregate ciipital, £337,500; a savings' institution, and 4 insnr.ince companies. I 'series nf New Bnmswick. — TLcro were French fishing establishments in that part of Acadia now known as New Brunswick, as early as 1638. The English succeeded to these at the treaty of Utrecht, in 1713 ; but they do not seem to have formed many others until after the cession of Canada, in 1763."* Among the first, I suppose, was that of Lieutenant Walker, of the royal navy, in the Bay of Chaleurs, which was extensive, controlling the fur and fish trade of that region for several years. There were similar settlements on the River St. John ; but from the esti- mates of Mr. Grant, ni.ide in 1764, at the rci|Mestof the Rev. Dr. Stiles, the whole population of British origin could not have exceeded 1000. At the peace of 1783, several thousand " Tories," or loyalists, compelled to aliandon their native land, set- tled in New Brunswick, and transferred thither the jurisprudence, the social and political institutions of " the old thirteen ;" and, the year following, were allowed to organize a separate colonial government. Like those who went to that part of Acadia still called Nova Scotia, many of the loyalists were gentlemen of education, eminent private virtue, and distinguished consideration. Some obtained olliccs of honor and emolument ; others adopted agricultural pursuits ; and another class, fixing their aliodes on Islands and tho shores of the main land, resolved to earn tlieir support on the sea. Of the latter description, several, though compelled to toil and exposure in ojwn fishing boats, had liecn persons of note and pro|)erty. But, ruined by the confiscation laws of the Whigs, or by the gen- eral disasters of a civil war, they resorted to the hook and line to relieve tho pressure of immetliate want, indulging the hope of " better times," and more con- genial avocations. Few, however, abandoned the em- ployment, and their children, trained to it from early youth, and acquiring fishermen's habits, succeeded to boats, fishing-gear, and smoke-houses, as their only inheritance, and continue it at the present day. I have often met with common boat fishermen of this lineage, whose earnings were hardly sufficient to pro- cure the absolute necessaries of life. The fisheries of New Brunswick are prosecuted with neither skill nor vigor. The ajtparent exports, small as are the statistics, do not Indicate their real condi- tion ; since it is certain, that of the products of the sea shipped to other countries, a part is first imported from Nova Scotia, and form a proportion of the ex- ports of that colony, t The number of vessels sent to Labrador and other distant fishing grounds is ne.er large, and often almost nominal. The cod-ftsherj' in tho Gulf of St. Lawrence and the Bay of Chaleurs is • The Frcncli built two forls on tlio Klvcr St. .lolm prior to tliu puace of Utrecht (1713), which they reimireil in 1764, iilthougli tlie country had been ceded to hngland quite half a ccnturv. t Tlic' imports into St. John from Nova Scotia for Inreo inonlhB only (.Inly M to October 1(1) of tho year ISB'2, were 7,«01 quiutuls of dried fish, 8G0 barrels of mackerel, i,«8 barrels of herring, and other ptcklcd liah. NEW 1402 NEW not A9 extensive as might be reasonably expected from the long experience of the inhabitants there, nnil the general safety and productiveness of the harbors and indentations of the coast. Tho same remarks need slight qunliUcatiun when applied to the I3ay of Fundy, and its principal branch, tho Hay of Passamaquoddy. Cameron's, Uoggett'a, IJrake's, Woodward's, Money, and Whale Coves ; Dark Harbor, Long's Eddy, Grand Harbor, and Long, Uuok, Nantucket, and Kent's Islands, v/hiuli are all in the group of islands known as "(irand Jlenaii," atford excellent facilities for catching and curing cod, polluck, and herring, in large ({uantities. In the waters that surround Campo IlcUo, Deer, and Iniiian Islands, as well as in those tliat wash Bean's, Ailanis's, I'arkcr's, Minister's, Hardwood, and Fish Islands, and along the coast between L'Etitn Passage and Point Le)ireau, embracing Mace's and Back Ilnys, Bliss' Island, Seclj's Cove, Crow, Beaver, and Dcadmun's Harbors, the advantages for lishing ufc very good. Every place here mentioned is witliin a few hours' sail of the frontier |>orts of Maine, and many of tlicm are within cannon-shot distance of the shores of the Vnited States. Tho fishermen of both countries meet on tho same fishing grounds j borrow and lend " bait j" ask after each other's "woman"* at lionie ; narrate the wonderful cures of tho last-discovered remedy for tho "reumatis;" complain of tlie " scacity" of tisli, and the low price of " ile ;" discourse about '• llat- hooped Hour;" and generally conduct toward one another as friends and bretliren, owing allugianco to one government. Indeed, the oliservution of quite °25 yoars authorizes me to say tliat the colonists always a.^ree far better with tho Americans than with each other. Our countrymen are not often considered in- terlopers when they leave the lishing grounds nearest home and visit those of Grand Menan ; liut the fish- ermen of Campo Bellu, and tho other islands on the British side of the Passama((uuddy, are sometimes roughly accosted and " twitted' wlien they venture to take tile same liberty. Frequent attempts have been made to disturb the friendly relations wliich have gen- erally existed between the people of the two Hags, but without (uccess. The efforts of otiicious individuals, and of functionaries of the colonial government, have l>een alike disregarded. The captains of the British ships-Mf-war on the station, gentlemen in their feel- ings, have stjadily refused to stoop to wage a petty warfare against the American boats that cross tlie imaginary boundarj line in tho waters of the Passa- maquoddy, though, of course, they have altraijs obeyed their instructions. Yet, in the spirit of Nelson, who looked at the 'signal he meant to disobey witii his blind eye, they have never been able to sh' a " Yan- kee," or to distinguish one from a subject of her nnij- esty. Some of them — as I rcmeral>er the stories of by-gone years — admitting tho necessity of driving oft" the aggressors, have asked, " How are we to know them — are they mnrkedl" Others, sending their barges into the He it of boats, have directed that " uU who say they are Americans must be told to go to their own side of the line ;" but, strangely enough, the un- broken silence of the fishermen to whom tlie question was propounded afforded proof that all were " Blue- noses." Still others, satisfying themselves, by peer- ing through glasses from their quarter-deck, that all the Iwats in sight mvM belong to the islands in New Brunswick, have thought the sending of barges to inipilre u needless ceremony. One, in 1811)— the cap- tain of the Ringdove — in his ofhcial re|iort, rccoin- mtiided that "every British boat should have a license; otherwise," said he, "it is impossible to dis- criminate them from Americans." Those who seek to put an end to this stato of things, whatever their motives, do not take into the account * They thus apeak of tbelr wives, that the instant they shall accomplish their object border strifes will follow of necessity. Before rcnew^ ing their eft'orts, they may bo kindly asked to consider that harmony and guod-fellowsliip between the inhali- itants of frontier settlements are indispensaljlo, rnd far better securities against tlie marauder's torch and bludgeon than armed ships or bodies of troops. The produce of the boat-fishery of tho Bay of Fundy, and of the Passamaquoddy, is not only small in valuer, but generally inferior in quality. An increase of this fishery, under present circumstances, is not desirable. The fishermen dress and cure the cod, pollock, hake, and haddock — the kinds usually dried — in a slovenly manner. It is stated in an ofHcial document that in 1850, at the dill'creiit fishing-stations mentioned as within these bays, there were employed G2 vessels of 1,2()8 tons, (Mi opp;. Ijoats, o5 weirs, and 1,3,')7 men, in catching and curing the sevc.-al kinds of (ish just referred to; and that the value of the products of the various liranclies of the fishery were jt'33,080 currency, or 4!l3'2,;i20. These facts show that tho fishermen re- ceived a miserable pittance for their toil ; since, with- out allowing for the use and depreciation of the capi- tal invested in the vessels, boats, weirs, nets, and other fishing-gear, they earned for the year less tlian $100 each. We may lament that men who pursue their avocation both day and night, 'mid rains and gales, are so poorly r"warded. Wo may lament, too, that the people of Grand Meiian, falling short of those of Campo Bello, West Isles, and the parishes on the coast of the main land, earn even less than the aver- age. But, what then ? The fault is their own ; en- tirely so. They may, if they will, produce as sweet and as well-cured polluck and cod as do their brethren of Harrington, and as good colored and flavored smok- ed herring as do those of Digby, and obtain prices to correspond with the (piality. Tlie general poverty among them is not to be attri- buted entirely or principally, as they aver, to the occa- sional loss of boats and nets, nor to glutted markets and bad seasons, nor to the interlopers who visit their lishing grounds, but to their own want of industry, thrift, cleanliness, and honesty. The few "' who work it right," acquire property, and enjoy the entire coiili- dence of the dealers, command credit for supplies, ami high prices for their commodities when offered for sale. It remains to speak of the fisheries of the Itay of Chaleurs, and of tlio Gulf of St. Lawrence. Tlie county of liestigoiiclio borders on Canada, and the counties of (ilouccstcr, Northumberland, and Kent, are favorably situated for adventures in these waters. The fishing grounds are safe, and generallj' close to tho shores ; and those near Caraquet, in (iloucostcr, ara much frequented by boats from Gaspc, and owned by residents of Canada. Since 18o5, the catch of both cod anil herring by the fisliermen of licstigouclio imd Northumberland has fallen oft" inoro than lialf, and in Kent has nearly become extinct. But the inhabitants of tho iKirt of Caraquet, availing themselves of the advantages of their position, have actually produced a large portion of the dried cod exported from the colo- ny for some years. These four counties are more re- mote from the capital of New Brunswick, and from the markets of tlie United States, than the county of Charlotte, which embraces Grand Menan, and the other islands in the Bay of Fundy (where the lish are so badly cured), and tho attention of tlie people is divided between sevi-ral branches cf industry ; but fishing, us an occasional and irregular employmeut merely, has commonly proved a source of profit, or at least has afforded a fair reward fur the labor and capi- tal dt tooted to it. Tlie fish shipped at Caraquet are in much better repute llian those caught in tlio Bay of Fundy, and the remark is true of the produce of the Bay of Chaleurs and St. Lawrence fisheries generally. It may be presumed that ihert tho herring does nvt NEW 1408 NEW "become rotten before Halting;" that, when Eold as the "gibbcd" article, it h not pacl(ed witlioiit taking out the entrails; unil tliut the cod is wnslied after being split, and luit salted and put in " kincli' in all its bloud and dirt, — Sauink's Ameririm Fisheries. The following statement exhibits the value of im- ports and exports to and from the United States and New Brunswick during the years 1849 and ItJ&O : Kxporls to Now Brunswick. . . Imports froui " , |l,822,sio 267,910 I8U). $1,810,740 887,000 The following abstract of the trade between the United States and the port of St. John, Now llruns- wick, shows the number of ships and tonnage entered inward, and the value of imports at that port during the year ending 31st December, 1851 : Vessels in- ward ; C05 vessels, of an aggregate tonnage of ltj(j,952 tons ; value of imports, §1, l.')8,205. Vessels outward : 859 vessels, of an aggregate tonnage of 64,344 tons ; value of exports, Iti312,8!)5. The United States export to New Brunswick, prin- cipally, books and stationery, Indian corn, flour, Tvlieat, lumber, salted provisions, rice, coal, tobacco, timber, and various kinds of manufactured goods, and mcrcliandise ; and receive, in return, timber of differ- ent kinds (except pitch-jiine, oak, locust, hickory, and black walnut), lumber, staves, laths, .shingles, spars, and lish. Coal and timl)er being classed among the staples of both countries, an examination has l)een in- stituted with a view to ascertain the probable effect of the Reciprocity Treaty on the trade in those articles between tlie United States and New IJrunswick. To meet this innuiry, it is necessary to know whether the coals and timlier of New Hrunswick and tlio United States are similar in chain tcr and kind, or whether they differ in both, and in tlio u^es to wliich they are applied; each having their own peculiar advantages for certain purposes. Dr. .lackson, an American geologist of ability, in a eketch "of the early history and of the i>rcsent state of our knowledge of the geology, etc., of Nova Scotia and New Hrunswick," referring to the mineral pro- ductions of tbe^e i)rovinces, says : " Tlie coals of Nova Scotia are of \ ious kinds, and are wlioUy different from those of tb' "nited States; at least, they dilVer from all the coaU hich are found on the eastern side of the Apalachiau iintains, so that they do not enter into competition \vi the coals obtaineroper, such vessels also pay 12 cents, or (id., per foot extra pilotage. Vessels belonging to the Two Sicilies are subject to the same extra charges. Ves- sels belonging to Portugal have the additional privi- lege of taking cargoes to or from their own colonics on the same terms as ta Portugal proper, but to or from any other country they are subject to the above extra charges. There arc, also, other nations, such as some of the South American States, whose vessels are sub- ject to these extra charges, but such vessels never visit this port. These extra local dues are, neverthe- less, payalile liy all foreign vessels coining to this port, but the British government satisfy these claims on the vessels of nations in reciprocity. " The port charges on vessels of the United States are the same us on British vessels. Annexed are par- ticulars of the cliarges on a vessel of 400 tons register, carrying 200 clialdrons, or 630 tons, of coals and 00 tons of other goods. Vessels belonging to the United States (by a law passed this (1854) session of Parlia- ment) are allowed to carry goods of any kind coast- wise without any restriction, and with every privilege that British vessels enjoy. List of t'l.nAniso Oiiaroes at the Port of Newcastli!, OlIAROF.]) ON AS AmRRICA.V VeSSF.I, OF FoUR ilUNDRKD Toss RKlilSTKlt, CAKRYIN'O TwO HuNDltF.D CUALDRONS OK Coals and Sixty Tons of other Goods. charges. Low llghti Life boats (onco a year). . riurducs NlRlit olHco Brindllnston pier Wliltby pier Kiver wutch Itiiinsijato Trliilly lights Tower .lues [^^[«°:;;;; U. S.CHrrency. SlorliDg. Total. to ui £0 'i a 73 8 U 8 0~i 1 18 4 4S 8 1 21 5 3 02i 8 4 2 02i 8 4 4 84 10 64 5H 11 B 5 8 07 1 13 4 77 3 2 (Sa39 til 4 T " If the vessel bring ballast, there is an additional charge on it of Is. Od., or about 30 cents, per ton on the ballast. Sea pilotage, in winter, Is. Od. ; and '.n summer, Is. 3d. per foot. Towage, according to dis- tance, from 5s. to .£3. " Insurances are mostly effected in the States ; the rate here runs from 2 J to 5 per cent., according to season and class of vessel. Freights from $4 84, or 203., to i!!7 74, or 323., per ton, according to circum- 11 NEW 1404 NEW ■tanneg, Commlaslon for purchasing is usually 31 per cent. Sales are made either l>y direct corresponaanfla or through agents resident here. Terms vary, with the articles, from 2 to 4 months. Bills, und a various discount for cosh, are the ordlnar}' terms, Thara is no export duty payable on goods to the United Htstas There are no internal taxes levied on any of (ha com- modities mentioned, either in a crude, partially wani^' factured, or wholl}* complete state." Newfoundland, Colony of, is In lat. 46° 40' and 51° 89' N., and long. 62° 44' and 69° 81' W, Area, 35,913 square miles. Extreme length, ahoul 420 miles, and extreme breadth, about BOO miles, Newfoundland is an inland lying on the narth<«Mt side of the (iulf of St. Lawrence, and Is bounded on ths whole east shore liy the Atlantic Ocean, on tlis north* west and north by tho Strait of Belleisle, which separata* it from Labrador, on tho west by the Qulfof St, I*W' rence, and on the south-west it approaclies at Ca|ia Ray toward Cape Breton, so as to form the main ait^ trance from the Atlantic into the St, Lawrence, (!ap' ital, St. John's, The island is of a somewhat triangular form, but without any ajiproach to regularity, aiicli of its sides lieing broken into numerous bays, barlioni, orcelcs, and estuaries. Its perimeter Is not less timn 1000 miles. From the sea It has a wild and sterile a|)» pearance, and its general character is that of a ruggad. and, for the most part, a barren country. Hills ana valleys continually succeed each other, tlia former never rising into mountains, and the latter rarely eip- panding into plains. Of various cliaructer, tha hills sometimes form long, flat-topped ridges, and are ac* cosionaiiy rounded and isolated, with sharp peaks and craggy precipices. The vtlieys vary also from gently sloping depressions to rugged and al>rupt ravines, Tha soa-clilfs are bold and lofty, with deep water to timtr bases ; and tho rough character of the country is in' creased by tho existence of vast boulders scattartK) over It, This uneven surface is naturally distill' guislied into woods, marshes, and l)arrans, Tha " woods" are spread over tho whole country wh''r8VBf there is any water-course, and are even found uriiwil' ing the summits, and near the sea-coast are especlitily luxuriant. The trees consist principally of nine, spruce, lir, larch (or hackmatacli), ami liirch | in soma districts the mountain ash, the alder, tlie aspen. And A few others are found. Most of the wood U of small and stnntcd growth, although the character of tha trees is greatly varied in this respect according tii soil and situation, and in small groups wood of fair growth and length may l)e found. The open tracts are genBr< ally called " marshes." These are not necessarily low, or even level lands, but are frequently at a considurit- ble height above the sea, and have often un uiidllUtlllg surface. They are open trvcts, covered with moss, sometimes to (he depth of several feet. This lliiiik coating of moss is precisely like u great sponge snread over the country. At tha melting of tho snow, It lia> comes thoroughly saturated. Numerous small hulas and pools, and in the lower parts small sluggtall brooks or gullies are met with. But in most eases the surface is sufficiently eligible for drainage, and when tlie moss is stripped off, dry ground ur bara rock is generally found beneath. The " barrens" ooeu|iy the summits of the hills and ridges, and other elevatad and exposed tracts. They are covered with a thin and scrubby vegetation, consisting of lierry-liearing plants, and dwarf bushes of variuus kinds, llara patches of gravel and Iwulders, and crumiiling tf^H' ments of rock are frequently met with upon the barrens, which are geuerully altogether destitute uf vegetalita soil. Tboa different tracts are none of tlioin of greitt extent; v. -.da, marshes, and iiarrena frequently itltar' nating. Not the least remarkable features of tim island are its lakes and ponds. These are found in every dirxu' tion, and in almost ever}- situation, not only in tim vallayn, hut on (h« highlands, and even In the hollow* of »ll« nummlts, «nd on tlie very top* of tli« hills Thay y»ty In iIm ttom poAIs of W) yards In lutalv (umntliiiiii, '/'w A'/M«Wp#,— Tho following talila »hows lli« quuii. titia* ef dried cwt and seui oil exported from N.w- fMUiidlniid for cttcli year from 1861 to J«65, a quintal of fl»lth«lMt$IOlllb«,i ¥••«, brt«lL-od. HMlllil guinlali. Tui.i. IWI , 1,0IT,IW «,«»i* !«fij!...... \)Vt,Vil V,:iii:i "hi .•!. ii'i.iia tt,l!i( {"hi,,,,,,,,, 714,117 5,1)1)7 Iidh,,,,,,, 1,I(I7,3S9 !l,7iii» Tilt* Hiimb«r of vessels that entered In IH^Kwas IM, and tlidlr iotinitge 100,503 j tliosa that cleared wirn 1017, Hnd llieir tunnago 137,613. The total vuluu of (JMi llllpuits III the same year was £1,142,212, /i'Mi'^"Tli8 most remarkaldefuatura connected Mid) Mewrulimttmid is tlie foga which prevail on Its roaili, Tlin»8 of tlio iiulf of Ht. Lawrence are attributed lo 1I14 KoldlMitM of the Uulf waters, whicli is iiippuiied Ui tm liDniliilient 11 few feet below the surface, us well us ut Urwul deptlli The fogs on tiie banks of NawfouiMitiiiid Hftt ttlldolilitedly cbielly duo to tlie meeting, in iImI jiiilllt, of (ho cold nir transported along witii tli>! poliir uiif mill w Itli llie Warm utmos|ilicre vor tlia (> ulf ^iruiiiii, On ilm ufmt Itank (he surface of tlie water is many da- urncH eii\ikt limn It is In (lie nulglilioring seu, und iiiuirji hm (liiiii llmt of the Oulf Stream, which is wUhlii it KJIMfl tll! msitn cud, the numerous large aiii< siiiull aliwis of WAlitr libiiiiml In divers kinds of excellent tioiil, iiiid wU of A f^trnt sIm, and lobsters, lam <' herrings, iiii|i i. and, niid xAlmon, nro in great abundance ; pluli e, eolu, IiiiIIImiIi Afid tliofnlmck, nro likewise found on the rouai, ill" impidAii nrrlroK periodically in such imnienin sliouU f* (n < ml f !>' IW, Is uli'iul ciiiryliiK lillll(4ll"« J rtlstrl' l*> ICImoral Diilriiu. TwIllliiKald and Fogo . , . . BonnirMn Hay Trinity Itay Uonconllui'i Day St. ,?ufm'ii Kcfrylnml I'larvnlla and Ht. Mary's. . Hiirin Fortuno Day ToUU Malti. FemalN. 8,771 8,948 4,689 14,899 18,177 2,413 8,.578 2,4sa &a,0(U 2,973 8,28t 4,112 18,127 12.019 1.9.57 2,s9.5 1,h78 1,001 44,231" Toul. 7,227 8,801 28,028 2.5,196 4,870 0,473 4,a58 6, UK) BB,'295~ The population of Newfoundland at various perlwls, from INOG, lm9 been as follows ; in ISOfi it was '20,505 ; ill IHIB, 52,072; In 1823, 52,1,J7 i in 1825, 66,7I!ti in 1828, 00,088; in 1832, 59,280; ill 18:10, 73,705; and in 1845, as aliove stated. Tlio [mpulation in 1861 was es- timated ut 101,000 souls. The chief statistics of the ogrlcultural rondltioii of the I'olony, as gleaned from the census of 1845, are exhib- ited in the subjoined table, sli(JwinK ^^^ disposition of land, number of live stocli, and agricultural products ; KiMltral Dlilrltu. Undln Uml In Uvo Block ownod. 1 Agrlciiltiinil {iro(lii20 The chief foreign trade of Newfoundland vessels is with England, Kcoi' 1. Ireland, Spain, I'ortiigal, Hamliurg, Brazil, Vest Indies, United .States, and British North A a. The time occupied on the voyage to Kuropc and liack is from si.K to ciglit weeks. To (Ireat Britain the cargo, generally, is oil, and to tho other Kuropean countries dried codlish. A voyage to the West Indies and back reijiiircs aliout nine weeks. The outward cargo is dried cod and pickled fish, and the inward cargo West India jiroduce. Vessels from the West Indies sometimes return by the United States, bringing flour and provisions. Vessels proceeding to Brazil with dried fish generally go from thence to Europe with cotton, sugars, etc., nnd on their return to this consulate bring manufactured goods from Great Britain, This voyngo occupies them from three to four months. The trade with the United States and Canada is almost exclusively in the im- portation of provisions. American vessels could be advantageously employed in tho foreign trade, particu- larly in carrying breadstuft's, provisions, etc., to tills colony, and ilricd fish hence to the West Indies, etc. The following table cxhiljits ihe quantity and value of the products of the fisheries exported for the eleven years ending 1851 : Drieil hih. 1 oils. SvoUklni. 1 Salmon. 1 Herrlnji. j Y»«r«. (liiliilaN. { Valuf. Qalloni. 1 Value. N.>. j Value. TiiTcen. ~K,896'~ 3,642 4,715 4,058 3,7f).8 »..545 4.917 8,822 6,011 4,600 4:;o25 Value. Barrels. Vulue. 1810 1841 184'/ 1X13 18H 1815 18(7 1818 1»19 i860 mi 01.5,795 1,009,725 1,(KI7,0s(l 036,202 H.52.162 1,0(10,883 N87.973 020,866 1,176,167 1,089,182 1,017,674 €576,245 605,014 561,9.50 .532.104 4h2,4s0 fi:)(V.t90 489,010 491,924 688,728 682,069 493,014 3,206,,583 2,67.8,.574 •2,26'2,081 8,111,812 8,60,5,86') 2,219,801 2,224.283 2,6IO,s20 2,23'2,496 2,686.800 2,744,010 £80,5,107 266,8.82 238,313 88.'i,0"5 31.5,690 248,610 2.'9.I72 S.'«1.579 21.8,742 ,809,928 819,977 631,8.85 417,U5 344,6^:) 651.870 685..520 3.5'2.'202 4.86,^)1 ,521,004 806.072 440, S28 511,680 £.89,408 20,!I61 23,200 40,497 39,648 40,123 46,280 68,426 33,780 66,3.5(1 76,596 £12,939 12,303 13,073 12,218 11,945 12,794 9,782 6,597 10,815 9,'200 12,024 14,686 9,965 13.S39 9,649 18,410 20,003 9.008 13,872 11,471 19,656 36,259 £0,086 6.801 7.119 4,670 6,065 11,2.84 5,111 7,644 5,871 9,779 18,261 '' ■• . il ll NRW 1406 NEW Tlia unmK«i\ U mt mvnimi nt th« renaela and ton- 1 cleared outwanl, of the colony of Nowloundland, In th* nuga, iMitIt llritloh mimI CurslKn, entered Inward, and | year ondint; 6th January, 18&2 : OwwMm, OrfutBrlUJK,,,,,',,,,,,,;, f)lbr»lt»r, ...,,. ,,,,,,,,,, Jiincf wid HHunrnj/,, ,,,, «l>»l" ,,,,r,lt, ,,,!,, Kuitiig*!., ,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, Ktiiiimrif. ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, «urin»i»)r.,, ,,,,,.. />'!(» U(i« f <(ll(l(it It will Im seen that tli« arrivulii frm» Urn \'llit«i\ Wales (greatly exceed the de- l>arturii» (iif tlilt l'mllllry^ lliereliy nlinwlng thj bal- an™ of ifmU U> Im atfmnijr against this colony. Tha mimwf* Itllii «l«aranc«!i for the pant four years bavs bean nn ft4l'm> i 1651 im4 him t»fr(*fi "~f,(ifr l,(iS7 1.084 1,108 Tom. ^9n,64^^ 108,795 141.678 198,»90 TI»B stuHstl*!* 1)1 «l|)|Ml«ttJldlng for a series of years exhibit tliA M\im\ng r«*iiltt«r«d In (he colinv, on the Dlst VrnmnSmr, tdftl ( m^, »fW j tons, 62,078. Tlia tutal V»t(W «f' *((« ('(rtllHlerco of the colony for the part ()Ki y»M*, Midltlfj Oth ilanuary, 19fi2, has been oa 6«blhtM')H i\w fidl<«WJtif( tahle i mf,,r,77r, 1»4«,. |S4».. I«5>,, J V)ttHfitfiitiii"fi*i lit ,m wj.jfirt «MJ!«I Vh^ m of f tptffu." Mt.Ml 9f«,fi«f 075.770 9W,7M totnl ralur.' £1,760 014 1,667.9119 1.M«.767 l.'M-'t.O'ill 1,909,949 COUI/AmV¥H (*f.4fti((»'»t Of *!(« (UffNIC *.SI) EXPKNI)!. JUlim (II TH» ¥»!*((» (M», 186(1, ASI> 1351. . ( . iw, - ;«te. issi. tllhudBtl «fi *"'**' * * .... IJ«l.t4*M ..,,! |,w«« ? « «A«,«ai 19 £74.905 4 1 a,«»o 10 11 9,407 18 8 I- rum iiijitfii i.Mrt - a 6,143 8 8,722 11 5 TotaU ..««,«((( ft 1 *0((.»IB 8 11 £80,895 14 2 .KHmim^fii 1 ««,»«;( '^ 1 fl,W7 1 5 76,770 5 1 1 Tu?*(. Amiiim KH'Nmw **« (•*<« roa tub Ykab k.nd- I1(* «(*»■ KKCkWdtd, 1851. C»8l«w» rfiffflMf .■..,,..,,,,.,..., £74,305 4 trador have been estimated by the authorities of Newfound- land at $600,000 per annum, and the following is an approximation to the value of the exports : Americi in vessels (480,000 Nova 8. otia vessels 480,000 Canada -csseis 144,000 Voasols twned or cliartered by English and ,Jerse> liousej l'd« ing establislmients on tlio coast 480,000 Vessels owned or chartered by the people of New- foundland 1,200,000 Total $2,781,000 The total exports, however, are by some persons estimated at $4,000,000. [Authorities: OIBcial Abstract of Census, 1846; Return shmoing the Value of Articles, etc., imported, and the Neiefoundtand Almanac for 1853, furnished by Hon. James Crowdy, Colonial Secretary ; Martin's NEW 1407 MW 11,112 J 19 8 4 8 4 Vi 1 4 S 10 6 1 S 19 10 IS 10 Vi 2 n 5 IS 6 10 5 4 11 2 1 n 16 10 i 10 i 13 T t 1 9 118 4 1 ) lis B . «4So,noo 480,000 144,000 430,000 1,200,000 ..$2,TS4,O0O no persons Urilith Colonlf (Lonilon edit.) ; AjfonBWH's Rpporl im Colonial will Ijde Commerrr (IT. S. Sen. l)oc. ll'2, part vlll., p. 671)) ; llrpnrt o/lhf Commitlee. (C'ana The troiU of Httmfllm^Unl^ #l(h Mfccf connfrlen than the IJiilt*.! HM^,, \MH\iuUt\f ullh Npiihi, Por- tugal, Italy, uiid tlw KrioitI*, U timiU mof« enlensivo, 111 |iro|j<)rtloii U> i|« nitimmiM cnlrtihllltlcs, than In that of uiiy oCitr N«/r

  8. « 4,,H41 J,N1N,I4I iiBi;wti,M4' tn.OHIl.'inB ri,n44,tiuT »,MI,r.lo B,litT,lsT T,llJ4.ilfl M.iNin.nuT 4,1U4.fl4J> 4,IIHMKltl 4,liSI,'.nA T.V«M»I4 II,I>(UI,SN| r>,riw),ri4H H,ntii,4«i B.filn.T'W «,Mi;),4,I44 In.Miii.iiM) 1o.^7.l,1lo Kl.MNI.IIW ii,o4H.iiia 10,4M,4II0 Vh«r*,>Mhtn t ' »il..1!»l.4st" ft.uTn.um U,6M4,|lt1l 4,4IUI,<«M 4,ft'4 4^;f,IIU !IMI,4n4l S'N.suo 1,89I,«M Ilil.Mt IMt,INIO ViH,M\ (102.5011 t4(«,AM *MII),TI4 b7i,oeu iM«,r5A 1(V4,HI)0 lltl.M4 UU,U(M I'i.uia 0,061 sn,noo I Kiilllow inil H|M«I* (MO U,IIOO dJB'4 "i88.1*> 6,400 M 4,060 TMiii«r* I 'I AMcrUftN T 11.11411 N,llK> tt,4Tll o,n«ii lt,fl«T 4,IIM •,«W 0,6«4 6,aM ll,5ii| i)ua,a8'i $488 JT.IOT 6,061 •,806 11,1 IIS T,ll)4 6,661 8,T»I T,0I4 6,41» 0,860 6tl,U76 4,NT6 7.'.iBe lll,M'i 16,036 17,477 13,607 l'i,IUi4 17,160 11,740 I7,«i0 (■i,6MU,64S 9147,476 10,748 480. B44 ir6,688 674,189 'im 108,174 i,'o(io t im),080 46,117 67,-2a4 66,041 e8,C68 101,660 M>,438 1164 10,118 31,Ii(l7 24,K(« 18,M7 16,108 10,467 * U iiiuiillia liiiliiiiuSIO, All UiTtiun cnminari'ii )• »yi>t»mnt\iMi'«'ii nf I'llhir, milifily thn Chlni'iie wllli lliu |iriNliii'lliiiiii iif iilliiml nil Ihti win'lil l>cilileii, wliullicr lu nilnUli'r lo llm iici'CMillipf), (tin conifoiiii, ur iliii liixiirli'i tif llii'lr iiiimi'riMin tmiitilii. tion; mill li-iiva IliU Kmut i>iii|iln<, nit n niillon, nlninnt tndv|ienili'iit(if foriilKii •ii|i|illuii tlirmiKli thi< nicilliini nf coiimi«r('«. KatUrtml, or •fli<<'llnu to Im rnitlnfldl, with the prodiKiil liounly of iiiitiir«, Jcuhiilii of ntrntiKiTn. iinil Koveniuil liy a Krailutlim iir«riillr»ry ili'«|ii<>'illt> A very ('xi«iiaive.|ii|i>riiniiriHi la i-arrlcil on liy them with Japun, tli« rhlll|i|ilni< Ulaiiila, .liivn, Hnmntra, Timor, (ielulo, anil tliu Krmit lulniiil of llortif-o, In all of whirh ara fouiiit mulllluil'<« of I'hlni'M', living In haliita of poarvfiil liiiliintry, In the mlilnl nf the nioro iille anil loaa rivilliiuil tiatlVKa, riiilillliilM)( thfi I'nnrt^ma of trndi', t'uUivalliiK tl>a Krimnit, unit mfriMiit( nil the vurloiia liruni'h«a of Ilia tnxihniili'al iirt»i In no plai'fi, howovur, varying In tlio nmnllioil ilc«rpn their original cliariu'ler. Hut tlimiKh thn I'liliieKR nprenil theniaelvca over evory part of thn Anhilli', nnil Into many uf the I'olynnalnii Itlanila, tliftin neeina to lie no reciprocity of rumniurca liy tlio Vdnaeln of thiian coiin- triaa viaitInK tha |inru of t'hinii, cucnptliiff aonie ten or twelve Juiilu that annually vlall Ilia aolithflrn porta hunilred tona M-oiild pay from (4000 to f 500O, and a of Fokion from Japan, anil iwrlmtM aa tnnny from shipofnthouaand not nliovc double that anm. Cochin China. "From ('atltiin," aaya t.iird Mai'art- kermue. — To ascertain exactly or even npproxi- ney, "to Ten-ohou-fim, at tha I'tllrani'B of thn Oiilf of mntely the revenue of the Chinese Empire i.s almost I'e-tche'lce (to aay nothlliK of thn foiinlry wllhin the impo»«il)lo. In 1.W7, TriKuult, a French niis.sionnry, year ti> Juno 80. them ca|>ablp of admitting the largest Kuropcan shipa, and all of them safe and snfflciently deep for tho vra- aela of the country. Kvery creek or haven has a low n or city u|ion it; the inhahitants, who abound beyond credibility, are mostly of a trafflckinR mercantile cast, and a great part of thom, from their necessary employ- ment in thn llshery, which supplies them with a prin- cipal article of their subsistence, are accustomed tu the sea, and the management of shipping." From Java alone they import birds' nests to the value of hall' u million dollars annually ; the sea-slug r biche-dc-mcr (Jiohlhurin), from the coast of New 1;, '.n,.; Timor, and adjoining islands, to a xtill greatei ' .i' u , sharks Una ft'om the same quarter; copper fn.iii apnn, ond tin from Bantam; peiijier, arecu-nut, spices of lUtVer- etit hinda, ebony, sandal-wooil, red-wood for dyeing, tiirtolsc-ahell, (learl-shell, coral, campnor, wax, and a variety of articles, generally pro'liiocd or collected by their own countrymen resident in tho Islands of the East. Tho Chinese levy no specific duties on the orticlea lin|)orted, nor ad valorem duties on the cargoes; tho i>iily im|iost 1.1 on the ship it.ielf, and is estimated by a rule as absurd us it la partial and unequal. They measure tho length from the centre of the foremost to tho centre of the mizcn-mast, and tho breadth is taken cidso abaft the mainmast. The length Is then multi- plied by the breadth, and tho product, divided by ten, gives tho measurement of tho ship. All ships, accord- ing to this measurement, are classed under first, sec- ond, or third rates; all other vessiln, however small, are classed as third-rates. By this rule a ship of n Gulf itself). Is an extent of cuaat of tinar two thousand uilw, ludanUd wltti Uiuuuwnhl* iuirbor*, tnnny of i''m stated it at 20,000,000 taels— the tael being equal to about &>. 6d. Engliah, or ^1 25 United iStates currency. era 808 cm In 16JS6, Nleuhoff eaUmated it at 108,000,0nO taela. Twelve yean later, Magelhoens reckoned it at about £4,000,000 sterling. In 1731, it was calculated to have risen to .£10,000,00*) or X14,000,000 sterling. To- wnrd the close of the eighteenth century it was given by Sir 'ieorge Staunton nt XC6,0OO,0CO ; of which sum, however, little more than a fifth >t.is transmitted to Pekin. According to the Chinese constitution each province is obliged to support itself, and to transmit • certain surplusage for the maintenance of the Em- peror and his court. The manner in which the items of the revenue are divided are thus stilted by De Gulgnes, the last authority on this subject : Tuli. Income In money UT,BilT,000 Kqiwl revenue In kind from grain 27.907,Ut- lieved that this statement is not very wide of the truth. The mode of conducting tlie trade is fully described in the Chinae Commercial Ouide, where the forms of custom-house blanks are given both in English and Chinese. The foreigners themselves employ clerks called linguislt to transact their busineas, and these linguists act also in many transactions as brokers. Every Chinese who intends to engage in trade in tills capacity, or us a trader, previously leanis to speak Knglisli by studying manuscript vocabularies in which the English sounds of words and phrases are written underneath in the Chinese character, the student ol>- taining the assistance of more advanced scholars to correct his pronunciation. The idioms of the English learned in this viva race manner are 4:hietly Chinese, which explains the inverteosa to lie as copious and correct as foreigners themselves speak, but which hardly serves even the common pur- poses cf trade and household need, much less enables the two parties to exchange ideas up(m recondite suli- Jects. Much of the misunderstanding and tronlili' e:tperieDced in tUily intercourse with the Chinese i» doubtless owing to this imiwrfect medium, for they seldom take the trouble to ascertain if their idea of what is told them h tlie correct one ; and mutual vex- ation and ill-will arise, when one party finds his onlers to have been heedlessly perfonned, and the other that his ertbrts to please have only earned maledictious In- stead of commendation. These petty annoyances have also had more serious results in strengthening the national dislikes, and still farther separating those who origiiully intended, perhaps, to endure each "ther only so long as they could moke gain thereby. Canton Amoy Ningpo Foo^chow Shanghai The total amount of the exports and imports of the five towns now open to foreign commerce ia given iu the subjoined table for 1846 : Imports In vessels of nil natlonii . , £n,048,U4> Exports in vcsHcIs of all nations , 6.6*^2,7*^6 Impons in llritish vessels 147,404 KxporU In UrllMli vesseU 1 M,7S1 Imports 1 8,000 Kxports 1S.O0O Imports 100.000 Bxports 85,000 Imports I,M3,980 Exports 1,347,0ES The contraband trade in opium Is estimated to amount to upward of 40,000 chests, at a sale price of nearly ilu, 000,000 sterling, which with the pearls, gold and silver ware, precious stones, and otiier aiticlca smuggled, will swell the total of the foreign trade to about .€21,000,000 sterling anniuilly, exclusive of the Russian trade at Kiakhta. ' The consumption of tea in England is about 60,000,000 of pounds annually ; iu the United States it is about 20,000,000; in the Neth- erlands, 2,000,000; in Russia, 5,000,000; in Germany, 3,000,000; in Now South Wales, 4,000,000; in Spain and France, 3,000,000. The augrrgate consumption of tea in China itself has been estimated, though not on very good authority, at about 700,000,000 of pounds. The prospects of tlio rapid extension of the foreign trade with China arc* not very promising, except in a few articles. The raw produce flimishcd from that country' is very trifling, silk and alum being tlie chief, and there is in th<< mean time Uttle prospect of any great increase in the exportation of her manufactuved articles, except tea and silk goods. Tlie opium trade has been for many years between three and four mil- lions sterling in excess of the rL, "lar exchange of com- modities, and the drainage of the country for thi< bal- ance will probably go on as long as the taste for thia poniicious narcotic continues, or there is any specie to pay for it. To legalize the opium trade would moke no material difference in the exportation of specie, as long ns the liulanoo of imports so greatly exceeds the exports. England may make every effort to su|i|ily China with her manufactures, but so long as the Chi- nese furnish so little that she wants beyond a supply of tea, it is difticult to perceive with what they are to pay for all the cottons and woolens they may be ex- pected to buy. The Chinese appear to have no regular established system of credit among themselves, and the only cir- culating medium in tho shape of coin is a small piece of base metal (copper, tin, or lead mixed), of the value of tho one-thousandth |iart of six shillings and eight- |)enca, of little more intrinsic value, in fact, tlinn s cowrie-shell, which the Chinese, as well as the Ilindua, would seer', once to have used ; aa the same character in their language which signifies n uliell signifies also money and wealth, and it enters into the composition of characters which represent buying, teUim), paijitiij, etc. Silver in sniuU ingots is usetl in commerce, but they have 10 determinate value, the price fluctuating with tho demand, as in otiicr article" of commerce. The high rate of interest operates as a discouragement to mercantile speculations, and the rigor of corpora! pun- ishment is aTheir naval architecture wears the stamp of great antiquity, and is exceedingly grotesque. They have, in fact, made little progress in maritime navigation, from the inveterate dislike of tho (lovernment to all foreign intercourse, and to all innovation. The very same kind of vessels as those described by Marco Polo at the port nearest to Pekin, in the thirteenth century, were found without variation liy I^ord Macartney, five hundred years afterward, and accurate to tb>' Ilaliuu's description, even to the numl)cr of compartnicnlM into which tho hold of each vessel was divided. They had anchors of wood, and ro|)cs and sails of bamboo. The boats ami barges for internal commerce and communi- cntion are very varied, generally commodious, espe- cially the ptt,isage-boats on the grand canal, and all of them suited to the depth and velocity of tlic stream, and tho width of the locks and flood-gates of the re- spective canals and rivers which they are intended to navigate. These vessels are so numerous as almost to supersede the necessity of land-carriage ; and the moat common and convenient mode of traveling in China is in barges, which are generally provided with cabins for sleeping, and a kitchen and utensils for cooking victuals. Their military navy is unworthy of the name. It consists of a tjotllla, whose principal occu- pation is that of conveying soldiers where they may be wanted, and looking after pirates and smugglers. An English frigate would beat the whole naval force of China.— Qrozier, Du IIalub, Uarbow, Dk Ui'iu- .NK8, etc. The principal articles of export tram China are tea and raw silk ; and of these the following quantities have been exported during the ten years ending Ist July, 1868: Tea r.xcoRTEn rnoM Cuina to the UsixEn Kinokom. VMr andiDK iuiw. Poundi> 1H61 04,« 66,187,000 lesa 72,9.000 18413 47,6114,800 1S40 47,'i4'i,0tK) 1860 63,U6t,U00 Thus, in the last seven years, tho quantity of tea shipped from China to the United Kingdom has be- come nearly doubled, and, even compared with 1852, Is nearly one half more. But, as wo have already Inti- mated, it is as important a question, as regards the exchanges with China, what f'r,,gress has liecn made in tlie shipments to the Uniteil States. These have been as follows : Tea EXiwitTSn mOM Ciiika to the t'NiTEn States. Vtai •ndioK Jun«. Poandi. 18411 18,07!i.000 1850 81,767,000 YMir ending Jun*. PoiindJ. 186-". 40,1)74,000 181hl 27,8«7,000 1866 31,616,000 I860 40,i!4a,000 1S61 !8,70n,()0n iai>'i a4,3iU,ooo From these t< > tables it appears that since 1849, only seven years ii,,i>, the quantity of tea exported from China to the United Kingdom and the United States has increased from 63,314,001) lbs. to 131,280,000 lbs. Since 1832 the increase has been from 99,471,000 U)s. to 181,282,000 lbs. Then as to silk : the entire ex- ports from China to the United Kingdom, eleven years ago, amounted only to 10,727 bales. In the year end- ing June, 1848, there were 17,229 bales, since which time, particularly during the last four years, they have very rapidly increased. The following tablo shows the export in each year : Sii.KS ExronTEii to the Vniteu KiNonou from China. Year endinif June 80. Balei. 1849 17,'iti8 lb60 10,134 1851 W,I43 1862 23,040 Year endinff June 80. Bales. 18.'i3 25,571 1864 01,U4S 1S85 61,480 1860 56,439 IxixiitTs or Silks into the United States. Year ending June 80. I 1868.. 1^(64.. 1.S&6.. Plfte (loods. 7-.!i.l43 1,W1,'),B10 i,a;'2,!i65 Sewing silk. 8,497 2.863 1U,730 lOrabrold. erlee. 48n,<'60 174,BW1 0,104 Raw, S47,467 T4S,4B7 46fi,770 Olhen. 7.805 20,420 1,016 Statement or Cuinese Paksenoers and Tonnauk to Cal- ifornia, Yean. Veenli. Tonnage. PaeMngen. 1840 IS 24 8,'. 84 64 62 87 3,700 7,708 11,700 43,144 26,535 28,021 16,627 323 +47 2,710 18,434 4,;iic 16,063 8,212 1860 1861 1S62 1863 1884 U55 Totsl. . . . 207 ia6,,'i36 44,611 Statement op EMionATioN op Chinese to tiikiu own Cobn- Tnv, ANI> TONNAOE EMPLOVEI), V<»ele. Tonnage. Pawengere.^ 1861. 1862. 1863. .S.M. 1858. Total.... 110 120 89 113 02 61,241 T2,6'.i6 63,340 85,008 78,098 336,977 261 2,066 4,406 2,380 3,328 12.4!l« I China Porcelain. Thismanufacture is first men- I tloHud in history in 1331 : it was introduced into En- , gland in t(|e sixteenth century. Porcelain was made [ at Dresden In 1700; fine ware in Englimd, at Chelsea, j 1732; at Bow in 1758; in v.tIous other parts of En- ' gland, aliout 1760; and by the ingcniong Josiah Wedg- i wood, who much improved the British manufacture, in Stafl'ordshire, 1762 e(Mf. — IIavdn. See Porcklain. Cblna-ioot (Ger. Chiiniu'urztl ; Du. Chinaworttlf Fr. Hquint, £fjKtne; Sp. Hau China, Cocohntca; Arab, CHI 804 CHR JUvinm*), the root of • species of dimber (Aiiba Chi- na, Linn.). It comes ttom the West Indies, as veil as from China ; but that from the latter is best. It is ob- long and thicl(-jointed, full of irregular knots, of a red- dish-brown color on the outside, and a pale rod within ; while new, it will snap short, and look glittering with- in ; if old, the dust flies from it when broken, and it is light and kecky. It should be chosen large, sound, heavy, and of a pale red color internally. It is of no value if the worm be in it. — Milbubn's OriaUal Com- mtrei. Chint%or CblntS (Fr. Tndiennet; Ger. Zilze; It. Jmdiane ; Kuss. Siz ; Sp. Chites, Zanua), a peculiar pat- tern upon printed calicoes, in which flowers and other devices are printed in tivo or six different colors, upon white and colored grounds. A good chintz pattern in tut colors is one of the most surprising and diflicult eflbrts of the art. It was lirst manufactured in the East Indies, but is now largely manufactured in Europe, particularly in Great Britain. — See Calico. Chocolate (Uu. Chocohde; Fr. Chocolat; Germ. Schokolaie; It. Cioccolatai Voti. Chocolate f Russ.ii^cAo- iolad i Sp. Chocolate), a kind of cake or confection, pre- pared principally from the cacao-nut. The nuts arc first roasted like coffee ; and Iwing reduced to powder and mixeti with water, the paste is put into tin moulds of the desired shape, in which it speedily hardens, ije- ing, when taken out and wrapped in paper, fit for the market. Besides cacao, the Spanish use vanilla, sugar, maize, etc., in the preparation of chocolate. Choco- late was first introduced into Europe from Mexico al>out A,D. Ib'iO, It was sold in the London coffee-houses soon after their establishment in 1050. — Taller. " Alike easy to convey and employ as an aliment, it contains a large quantity of nutritive and stimulating particles in a small compass. It has been said with truth that, in Africa, rice, gum, and ihea butter, assist man in crossing the deserts. In the Xew World, choc- olate and the flour of maize have rendered accessible to him the table-lands of the Andes, and vast uninhabit- ed forests." — Uuuboldt's Pemmal Narrative, voL iv. p. 234, Engl, transl. Cblistiaiia, the capital of Norway, situated at the bottom of a fiord or gulf, in the province of Agger- huus; in lat. 59° 6di' N., long. 10° 48)' £. Popula- tion in 1845, 26,141. Christiana is atjout 60 miles tnm the open sea : the gulf is in some places very narrow, and its navigation somewhat difficult ; but it is sufficiently deep for the largest vesseln, having 6 or 7 fathoms water close to the quay. It is compulsory on all ships to take a pilot on board at the mouth of the bay. The trade of the town is considerable. The principal exports are timber and deals, which are large- ly imported into England ; gloss, particularly bottles ; iron and nails, tones, smalts, oak bark, etc. Salted and pickled fish, one of the staple product " of Norway, is principally exported from Bergen. deals of Christiana have always been in the highest estima- tion — a conscqucnco of the excellence of the timber, and of the caro with which the sap-wood and other de- fective parts are cut away ; and not, as Mr. Coxe seems to have supposed, uf the skillful sawing of the plank. The saw-mills were formerly licensed to cut a certain quantity only, and the proprietors were bound to make oath that it was not exceeded. — Coxe'h TrateU m (Ae Sorih of Europe, &th edition, vol. iv. p. 2". This ab- surd regulation no longer exists. There ai - far fewer restrictions on industry and commerce ii; -Nurway than in Sweden. In the fomwr, manufactured goods are admitted on moderate dnties, and are very, generally made use of. The principal articles of import are co- lonial produce ; iron and hardware ; machinery ; wool- en, linen, and cotton goods ; coals, butter, wine, bran- ny, etc. ; com is sometimes extensively imported. CuMonu ReguUuiunt. — Within i\ hours after a ves- iel has got to her moorings, the master should deliver to the GoUeetor his genual r^ort at t« ship and caiigo, or present the requisite documents fbr having inch re- . port made out with the assistance of a ship-broker, whose services masters of foreign vessels can not en- tirely dispenie with. On making this general report, the measuring bill is to be exhibited, and payment of the tonnage and other dues inward is to be mads. If the sliip have not lieen previously measured in Norway, and is, consequently, not provided with a Norwe(;inn measuring biU, she is to be measured, to ascertain her burden in Norwegian commereial lasts, for the calcu- lation of the tonnage duty. The general report h liv- ing been made, the custom-house officers in charge of the vessel are furnished with the books for delivery, and the discliarge of the cargo commences under thi !r inspection ; and the consignees may make their spei ial reports under their responsibility and signature. If they are without precise information as to the ccn- tents of any or all of the packages or bales to th> ir address, these bales or packages may, at their requcrl, be opfned in the presence of the officers before report is made. If a consignee omits availing himsMf of this permission, his pretending thereafter that more or otli- er goods than he had ordered or been advised of have been sent to his address, will not be attended to. In the reports or entries is to l>e stated whether it is intciiil- ed to pay the duties forthwith, whether the goods arc intended for exportation, or whether they are to he landed. Prior to commencing loading outward, the master is to give verbal notice of his intention at the custom-house. If he have no Norwegian measuring bill, the vessel is to be measured. This being done, the shipper or shippers of the outward-bound cargo are each of them to make their special entries as to the quality, weight, and measure of the goods they mean to load, A copy of such entries is to be deposited at the custom-house, and the loading commences under the control of the officers. This applies to all mixed cargoes; but if the outward-bound cargo consist ex- clusively of wood, the shipper or shippers are only to notify that they intend loading yir-.'i. \\\'.\xo\A specify- ing quantity, measure, etc., as tl.a ., :;'rt duty on wood is charged according to the bui '' " jf the vessel. When the master clears outward, he produces the prop- er documents for showing the borden of his vessel, and to what port she belongs, and he is then, on proper ap- plication being made, provided with a pilot, who takes his vessel to sea. Warehouting. — In Norway goods brought from abroad may Ije bonded or warehoused, with a view to theirbeing again exported at some future period. Goods entered for home consumption may also bo bonded for a certain period, in order to facilitate the pavment of the duties. The former is called " Iratuit ojiag ;" that is, depositing or warehousing goo the Ippso of three months, as regards goods in the custom-house warehoasf^<, i!> i. creased to i of the transit duty per month. CredU Oplag. — This syst in ni5';wi n^i.' goods im- ported from abroad to be ,' i(i;il 'a !!i '.v icr's or im- porter's own warehouses, -.v t :''i' own i'lck, free of duty, for a given time, on hi looi^'ing i< he customs, every three months, how m> . ! Ins ..id, otherwise consumed, orexported, and the.! {.ay mgttie duty on such •moniit f the cui tom-hotue officers, who are bound quar- CHB 805 CHR tarly to cxamino the goods, convincing themselves by ocul«r demonstration tliat no more is missing than the quantity reported to liave Ijecn taken away. This credit on the duties in no case to exceed two years from tlio time the goods were imported. By way of security for payment of the duties on which the credit is granted, government reserve to themselves, 1. Priority of mortgage on all the goods in question. 2. Friority, or flrst right, in the property, goods, and effects of every description belonging to the trader availing himself of this credit, in as far as sucu property is not previously legally mortgaged. 3. Lib- erty for tlie custom-house officers, when and as often as they shall deem it expedient, between the stated quar- terly inspections, to look over the stock on hand, with a view of ascertaining whether there remains sufficient value for the duties ; and if they see reason to doubt this, full right, in default of other satisfactory security being oft'erod, to seize the stock, and to sell the whole, or as much as shall cover tlie duties. 4. In case of death or failure of the party, an equal riglit to sell fortli> with the whole of his stock at public auction, and to retain as much of the proceeds as shall cover the du- ties ; and in case of deficiency, an established claim for the remainder on the estate of tlio deceased or bank- rupt, as tlie case may be. In charging the duties no allowance is made for waste or damage in the ware- houses. The \yarehonse rent charged on goods bonded under the transit system, in the custom-ho"se ware- houses, is as follows : On a qunrlcr of wheat for the flrnt 3 ) /, n.ix^a _». ~..>v months (" ONSoB per month Afterwnnl ri076 " On a ton of raw su^Tir for tho first It ) „ ii.«oci ™. ™™.i, inontlw : I" n-S381 per month Aftemard 1 11'0"06 " Money, Weights, and Meaauret. — In Norway there are no gold coins. Tho principal silver coin, called a species dollar, is divided into 120 skillings. There are also half species, or GO skilling pieces ; l-5th species, or 24 skilling pieces ; l-15th species, or 8 skilling pieces ; and what is denominated skillemynt, or small change — that is, 4 and 2 skilling pieces. The species dollar contains 3'M-bS English grains of pure silver, and is consequently worth 4<.Ci(<.sterling, tlie par of exchange being four species dollars 42 6-17 skillings=;ei. All Norway coins, except the small change, are alloyed with l-7th copper, so that tho Bpocics dollar weighs 448-38 English grains, and its divisions in proportion. Small change coins are alloyed with three times their weight of copper. There are one and two skilling pieces of copper. Weights and Measures, same as at Cofeniiaobn ; which see. Shipping Charges.— T\ia various charges of a public nature payable by a ship of about 300 tons burden, en- tering tho port of Christiana with a mixed cargo on board, unloading there, taking on board another cargo, and clearing out, are as follows : 1. Charges /nimrrf— PilotaRe ttom Fardfr, at tho mouth uf Christiana llajr, where all ahlpa must take a pilot on board 2 3 2 Dill of hcaltli, asBumlnf; that the crew, Including tho master, eonflats of 14 pcreons IT 9 Tomiage duos and light money 16 9 Brokers' fees 1 5 4 i;i4 2 U t. Charge* Outaard.—VWathga 9 2 Ca«tlodnes 1 T Muster-roll of crow 10ft Pale or stake money 3 HcaMurlng bill 2 4 5 Charity chest 1 7 Tonnage dues and light money 10 11 1 Higholm light 9 Pilotage to Farder 1 jj h Uroken' fees . 1 IS 11 tily a compulsory assessment in 1816, Its capital consists of 2,000,000 species dollars, in transler- able shares, divided among those who were forced to contribute to its formation. These shares are now at a premium of 80 per cent. Its managers are appoint- ed by, and are accountable to, tho Storthing or Nor- wegian Parliament. It issues notes for 100, 60, 10, and so low as 1 species dollar. These notes should be payable in specie on demand ; but they arc at a dis- count of 35 per cent., and are paid by the bank at that rate. It discounts bills at twoand three monthsdate at6 per cent, per annum ; advances money on mortgage at 4 per cent. ; and transacts the ordinary banking business of individuals. It does not allow interest on deposits. Credit. — Goods are sold partly for reudy money, and partly on credit, but principally tho former. Commission, etc. — ^I'he number of brokers in Chris- tiana is limited to four. Commission on the sale of goods, 2 per cent., or, del credere included, 3 per cent. Brokerage is fixed by law at 5-6ths per cent., which, in practice, is paid by tho sellers. Insurance. — All houses situated in Norwegian mark- et towns must be insured in the General Insurance Company at Christiana, which is guaranteed by the state. The premium is moderate, being, on buildings situated in towns, ^tli, and on those situated in the country, Jth per cent. Sometimes, however, when very destructive fires occur, it is raised. Provisions, etc. — Christiana is not a favorable place for careening and repairing ships ; but supplies of beef, bread, water, and other sea-stores, may be had as cheap ur cheaper than in any other port of Norway ; but its distance from the sea is too great to allow of its being visited by ships desirous merely of victualing.— ^We have derived these details from various sources, but principally from Consular Kcturns. Timber. — A standard Christiana deal is 11 feet long, 1^ inch thick, and 9 inches broad ; and 51-2 such deals make a load. Freight of deals from Norway to En- gland is calculated at the rate of single deals, the stand- aril measure of which for Christiana and all the south- ern ports of Norway, except Dram (a small town on the Drammen, about 20 miles southwest of Christiana), is 11 feet long and 1^ in thickness, A single deal from Dram is reckoned 10 feet long and 1^ inch thick. Battens. — Tliree battens make 2 deals, retaining their own length and thickness. Half deals are only count- ed as deal ends, if they run under C feet ; but if they run or 7 feet long, then two half deals are counted a deal, retaining their own thickness. Ends of Deals. — Four ends of deals, although 6 feet long, make but a deal 11 feet long, retaining their thickness; but as vho freighters of ships seldom wish to have this assortment, which commonly run from 8 to 6 feet, and are taken on board as stowage, con- sequently for the advantage of tho ship and not the freighter, the ship ought to bear tho burden. Ends of Jiattens, called Lanuick Palings. — No lea* than six ought to bo counted a single deal, 11 feet long and 1^ inch thick. Pale-boards, when they have their proper length, are 7 feet loiig ; three pale-boards are counted a single deal. Slaves for hogsheads take up much room ; in conse- quence of which mote ttutu t«n can not be computed k single deal. CHR 8U0 CIN ^' Obrlatopher (St.), or St Kltt'a, on« of the lirlt- tth AVciit Iiiiliu isluiids, Lcewurd group. Lnt, (fort Smith) 17° 17' 7" N., long. 60° 42' 2" W., 4)! iiillci wett-Dorthwcst from Antigua. Length, northweat to Mutheiut, 20 miles, breadth 5 miles, except at Ita toDthe»> parish churches, there are throe Methodist congregations, and several schools. This island was discovered by Columbus in 14!i.1, and was then densely peopled by Caribs. In 1625 it was simultaneously taken possession of by colonies of Kn- glish and French, and divided into upper and lowitr portions. From that period it became the scene of frequent and bloody contests between the two nations, till at last it wn;^ iinally ceded to the Hrjtiith in 1789. Chronometer (Grecli xpo^'Kt >»»', and fierpov, meamre), a watch of peculiar construction, and great perfection of worlcmanship, used for delemiining geo- graphical longitudes, or other purposes where time must be measured with extreme accuracy. The chro- nometer differs from the ordinary watch in the princi- ple of its escapement, which is so constructed that the balance is entirely free from the wheels during the greater part of its vil)ratian ; and also in having the balance compensated for variations of temperature. Marine chronometers generally beat half seconds, and are hung in gimluils, in boxes ainut six or eight inches square. The pocket chronometer docs not differ in appearance from the ordinary watch, excepting that it is generally a little larger. Chronometers are uf ir;itnense utility in navigation ; and ships going on n, 'jint voyages arc usually furnished with several, for tiie purpose of checking one another, and also to guard against the effects of accidental derangement in any single one. The accuracy with wbicli some of the bel- ter sort of chronometers have txien found to perform is truly astonisiiing ; the erroi' in a two months' voyage not exceeding two or three seconds. — fite Dbnt on the Conttmction and Management of Chr/morMteri. Chmuun, the name given in India to lime. The best, ob'.aincd by the calcination of shells, Is employed in the mastication of bet':l (wnich see), to prevent, it is said, its injuring the stomach. Cider or Cyder, a vinous liquor made from the expressed and fermented juice of the apple. In Kn- gland, the counties of Devon and Hereford are noted as the cider counties ; but good cider is also produced in the counties of Gloucester, Monmoulh, W')rcaster, Dorset, Somerset, and Cornwall. Korwaudy lutf ttw^ been known for the oxcclli-nce of Its cider; and con- sldernlile quantities arc manufactured in other districts of France, and also in Belgium, Germany, and in North America. In F.tigland the manufacturo of cider io almost en- tirety in the bands of the common farmer so that little or nulfilng has lieen done cither to improve the machin- ery or bring science to bear on the processes which are followed, llence much of the cider is of inferior qual- ity, nn», Komcwiint similar to that used for mashing the itei^t-rool In the manufacture of sugar; and have also given s]H>cla) ntl<-nlian to the management of the proc- ess uf fermentation. The quality of the cider is siiid to have been thereby greatly improved. The cnke after its first pressure is sometimes broken up viih wat(!r, and siilijectFd to a second pressure, and the Julcn It then yiidds fumlshcs, on fermentation, an in- ferior elder, which must lie socn used, as it will not keep. Cider is not lit to be drunk till aliout three months after It Is made, Goo contains iiearl;' the same amount of alcohol as the ordinary bit- ter Indian ales ; but the Inferior kinds do not contain above half that proportion. Cider appears to be a re- freshing and healthful drink; and the natives of the cuunti'HS in which It forms the ordinary drink arc rc- iiiurliehio River at Cincinnati is 1800 feet, or about one-third of a mile wide, and its mean annual range from low to high water is about 50 feet ; the extreme range may bo about. 10 feet more. The greatest de- pressirrus are generally in August, September, and October, and tf.e neatest rise in December, March, May. and June, ihe upward navigation is in winter very rarely Buspe:'ded by floating ice, and in some win- ten not at all. Its current at its mean height is about three miles an hour ; vhen higher or rising, it is more ; and when very low, it does not exceed two miles The commercial returns for the year 1856 show that Cincinnati has participated in the general pros- perity of the West. The total value of principal im- ports for the year ending September 1, 1850, was 175,295,000, against 107,501,000 the previous year; and of exports $50,744,000, against |38,777,000 the previous year, showing an increase in the value of im- ports of $7,794,000, and in the value of our exports (11,967,000: these figures do not represent the total value of import^ and exports at Cincinnati. To the value of the imports 10 per cent, may be added, and to the exports 25 per cent,, to embrace those articles not included in them. The figures then would stand thus : Value of imparts $.S2,82B,000 Value of exports 68,480,000 No record being kept of imports by the Cincinnati cus- tom-house officers, except those which come under cus- tom-house bond, the Chamber of Commerce, at its own expense, keeps a record of the imports and exports. IlirORTB IKTO CUiniNNATI VOB FlTC YEABS, COUHENCIIIO SKFTSIIBIB 1st, and Enm>-a ACOrST SlST, BAOil Yeab. Apples Bnrrelr. Beef " Uarley Bushels. Beans. . .« " Butl«i Bam^la. Butter FirUaa and kegs. Coiti Bushels. CheeM .^ . . Boxes. Cotton Bales. <:otlee Backs, Fliur Barrci& Hogs Head. Lard Barrels. Lard Kegs. 2>e8 Barrels. Pork and Bacon . . . Ilogshoadgi Pork and Bacon . . . Tioicos. Fork and Bacon . . . Barrels. Pork iu bulk Pounds. Potatoes Barrels. Rye BuHhcIs, Sugar Hogsheads. Sugar Barrels. Wheat Bushels. Whisky Barrels. leto-'ti 16,S84 1,101 111,267 . 81,08T 8,269 11,043 489, lUS 205,444 T,lfl8 n,in 482,172 111,484 80,889 81,087 «1,490 0,277 1,183 81,696 14,961 10,049 44,808 29,803 18,634 888,660 244,040 ISil-'69. 71,882 1,009 89,994 14,137 10,203 18,720 668,788 241,758 12,770 96,782 611,042 160,684 8fl,Ot7 82,283 98,132 10,333 1,987 22,601 17,417 20,739 68,318 89,824 16,237 877,037 272,78S 18ti->53. 19,846 1,118 225,844 20,439 16,434 11,831 723,884 212,836 16,860 109,188 449,089 420,604 61,744 26,169 116,112 16,261 3,660 89,617 «7,2(«) 16,688 88,070 44,299 24,(XM 343,649 280,317 81,477 16,971 1,841 1,766 280,636 204,224 21,332 17,173 10,842 10,188 11,692 7,183 746,466 846,e7» 216,892 183,379 22,613 16.107 91,426 114,118 427,464 842,772 626,273 406,360 76,094 63,664 19,782 14,881 86,480 60,287 12,164 6,041 2,736 6,770 89,887 88,366 27,986 19.19T 86,244 29,282 29,692 63,164 64,461 46,963 26,441 19,466 408,084 487,412 286,348 272,165 In the above table the number of hogs does not include those driven Into the city or by private conveyance. V.ll.TIB OF XnE PBINnVAI ExPOKTS FBOM TUB POET OF CIN- CINNATI FOB THE Yeabs ENDINO AtlUC'ST 8Ut, 1S64-'66. Artlnlei Alcohol Beet', Barrel . . . B?cf, Tierces . . . Butter Com Cheese Candles Cattle Cotton Flour ..". Lard Ijird-oil Pork and Bacon , Sugar WhlAy Othc:' articles . . . . Total. . . $.528,838 202,216 287,609 808,636 00,081 887,701 1,067,861 719,960 440,924 l,0'.>4,fli)9 l,lfc,t.07 1,807,860 6,304,(181 2,010,784 2,922,612 20,484.998 »a8,777,894 $311,047 261,694 122,386 624,040 89,426 464,116 1,064,476 602,100 664,186 2,096,501 1,468,00(1 1,228,728 8,873,816 1,986,366 1,960,896 27,890,216 S; 16,432,780 — HonT's Merchantt' Magazine, Set Oma Cinnabar (Germ. Zinnober; Du. Cinaber, Vermili- oen; Fr. Chmnbre; It. Cfinabro; Sp. Cii^'brio; Euss. Kinmtar; Lat. Cinnnbriiim). A'a^n'e Cinnabar— a mineral substance, red, heavy, and brilliant. It is found in various places, chiefly in quicksilver mines, being one of the ores of that metal. The cinnabar of tho Philippine Islands is said to bo of the highest color; but that of Almaden, in Spain, is the richest. Tho best native cinnabar is of a high color, brilliant, and free from earthy or stony matter. Arti/iivtl CinnaJnc— " When two parts of mercury and one of sulphur are triturated together in a mortar, the mercury gradually disappeors, and the whole as- sumes the form of a black powder, formerly called Ethiopt mitunJ. When this mineral is heated i«d hot, it sublimes; and if a proper vessel be placed to receive it, a cako is obtained of a fine red color. This cake was formerly called cinnabar ; and, when reduced to a fine powder, is well known in commerce imder the name of vefmition," — Thomson's Chemistry, Cinnamon (Uu. Kaneel; Fr. Canntlle; Ger. Zim- met, Kanehlf It. Canella; Lat. Cinnaniomutn, Caneltaf Port. Canella; >Sp. Canela; Pers. and Hind. !><■: inie; Arab. Daraini; Malay Kainanu; Greek ; . ;iy freeing it friii.' the epidermis.— Okawfikii's Kmbaaiii to Siam, etc., p. 476, Cinnamon Muiuipoly. — Down to 1833, the cultivation of cinnamon iu Ci^yloii wrt restricted to a few gardens In the neighborhood ■'! Colombo, tho prod>i' tion and sale of the article b(M:g wholly monopoUz \ t>y gov- ernment. Upon the transference of the islund from the East India Coniputiy to the king's government, tbo former agreed to pay XGO,000 a year fur 400,000 lbs. or 4842^ b.ilcs of cinnaihun; it being stipulated that If the quantity collected exceeded this amount the tur- plut tru.4 'ii Oe burned! Uut this agreement was after- word broVcii (If; and the cinnamon was sent to En- gland by .i;ci vniment, an<) sojil on its account at quar- terly mIm. Ifho net revenue derived from the cinna- mon niori'jiuly, in 1831, is asld to hn\e amounted to i;i27.9<31, .%. tho monopoly could not lie o furccd, excctit ly co';;!.iii.<5 the colt.iii' of cinnamon lo "rtain districts, it i,-:ti;8r''.'i!;i' It'd (■> iln ;!'0(!i opprcs- i>'0 In- te-ierences witli tin n^'Ut 'V . ni :Mm«1p. to t;ic cre- ation of numbei less iii'aginjry > r ;. j*, fciu' tho multi- plication of pmtishraei.Ui. faim ';, a !f«v; ■' iwlwck upon the prosperity of tha island. I'l h-V).. oi tiieae di?sdvanta).;vii ied at Iciiifih lo tic iiboUuon vi ihe monopoly syiilem in i)NUi, when '"iigVii. ' .. ai-iii to K^ amenable to Ihe .hs'^-.. uf ij>lio!iiii-.:J v, and rcstiirtil to the n.-itUcs their il.,!" tij tultivate cinnomon any- where and ;. any nay lb.;- think fit. Cinqixb Poria v.*. e. tlic [ive porta), flvc havens on the Doutliccstern cuR..ii («f England, opposite France, and thus colled Ijy way of c-mmeuce, on accouat of their importance as snr -;. uarils against invasion. These comprise Hastings, Roiiiii^y, Hythc, Linger, aiid Snnd- -■Tich ; to which «ero aftc; w ird added tho two ancient ? >Tvn» rt( Wincbelsea and K i <■. These place i were nii- \,\! ntly dwni^d of so mucli importance in I'ne defense c( the kin(;cium against invasion, that they vi>coi\ed royai t;isnts uf uarticuiar privileges, on condition of proviilii; -■ during'! war a certain number of ships ivt their o.^ . -■■ pensc. Thoy arc governed by a ward-n with the 1.) i,f Lord Warden of the Cinquo I'orls, and cncli ).>.-:i'. the privilege formerly of returning to I'arUament uvo members under ..he title of Karons of the Cinquu i'orts; but since 1831 this privilege has lieen confined lo Hr>stlng», Dover, and Sandwicli. AVe *r, 'old by Camden that William the Conqueror ap- pti7.!ed the first warden of the Cinque Ports; but their charters are traced to the time of Edward the Confess- or. The salary of tho LonI Waplen is .{SOOO a yccr. E. B.-r-AV* CuiTiv'it Cvmmeri-iai Ijxtv, OironmnaviBatora. Among tho greatest «-id most da)iug os' huniau enterprises was the circuninKV- igation of the earth at ihe period wiien it was lirst at- tempted, .\,i>. 1519. Tho first ship that sailed round the etirth, an J hence deteimincd its being ,;lobulrr, wr Msgcilan's, or Magclhoen's; he waf. a native of Portufi't, iu the service of 8pa!n, and by keeping a vestt. > course he returned to the same place h3 had ret out trom iu 1519. Tho voyage was completed in tliree years and twenty-nine days; but Magellan was killed on his homeward passage, at the Philippines, in 1621,— 13UT1.S.H.. The following arc the most renown- ed of this illustrious class of men : their vovf-"g were undertaken at tbo dates affixed to their i. —Btt Mavioavors. M«fel'»n, a Poriaguc««, the fint who «nt». ■ ... "• FbCifii; Ocean VSVi Oroalva, g Bpwiish navigator ...!!."."! 1^3T Avalndl, a f Byrou (gmntlAitlier uf Ixjrd llyroii) lT'^j WalllB, UritUl Jim' C'arteiBt, an Kiigllfhman 1 JM Cook, tho illiislriaus raiituln \Wi On the death of Cupiol'i l^ook, hln ' :ijit voyage v ;.4 co:iilriicd by King .. lUO Jlou(,'«inTlllp, Fr ich 1i7t) J'ottlocko, Itrltliii 'V8H WllkcB, American t :1T rTrvllli-, Krend. 1^31 Sotc'.il voyages luv.- ti"en since uniiu.laken, and, amoui; .Hher nation.'^, I., |!;o liussians. — IIavun. Cities, The word -i'l) lias been in use in ICnglan' only since tho Conquest, iit vbd?! time even London was culled Liniionburgh. m Ihe > ..j ital of Scotland ii still c.illf! ydiiiburgh. Isu English cit.'.s weio verj* inconsiderable in the twelfth rcniii.y. C;ii<>n were (irt.l Incorporated a.d. 1079. The ini.iifjti( i of cities li.is aided aiucii in introducing reguliir gov> ruuients. )«> lice, mannrrj, and arts. — Iioni':ni> >N. Cltrou (lier. Succadei Da. iSiiHai; It. Cm/ettidi II i. 7 • Sp. .Ic'iVron verde; Kr. Cilronat tvrdj, an agree- i.l>1r. f I uit, resembling a lemon in color, snull, and taste. Tlio pii-.nipal diflcrencc lies in the juice uf the citron being somewhat less acid, and tho ycl!r/W rind being somewhat hotter, and accompanied with a considera- ble bittcrn.ss.— Lewis' Mat. Med. It ia imported, prcser\'ed and candied, from Madeira, i.C tho finett quality. Civet (Germ. Zibethj Du. Ciret; Kr, rieelle; It. j(ibtl!i> ; Sp, A Ijalia), a perfume taken fi uni the civet cat: it is oft'snsive unless cxtvemcly diluted, und then, in coml-inatioii with other perfumes, it adde to their energy. It is brought from the Urazils, Guinea, and llio interior of Africa. Civita Vecohia, a fortified sea-port tow n of tho papal doininions, on the Mediterranean, lat. 12° 4' 38" N., long. ir 44' 52"E. Population 7000. Tho port s, on which there are towers, being about ninety fathoms. Vessels :nay enter either by Ihe south or north end of tho outer mole, but the southern chan- nel ii the deepest, having from eight to sl.^ and four f»tbon:a. Ships may anchor within the port, in from si.Kteen to nighteen feet of water; or between it and tho outer mole, where tho water is deeper. Within the port there L a dock tnd an arsenal.— P/ar 1/ Cieita Vecfhia. Importi and AVrpor?*.- Though the weolt' nd popii- lation of th • country round Civita Vecolii'. ■'! ,:miii fallen off in modern timei» compared w't! i ■•»')', it still contiTiUcs to bo the entrepot of Rome, -rosse* almost the entire trade of the papal do .. ii tha side of the Mediterranean. The inipo ...t prin- cipally of cotton, woolen, silk, » . . lii; coffee, .lugar, cocoa, aud other coionial > 11..! ,.<( and salt- ed fish, wines, jewelry, glass ■ I'sv.'t -\ ware, etc. Tbo exports consist of staves .■:■. •'r^,.r, corn, coal, wood, cheese, potash, pumit(.-sto>^ . 1' m, from "V^Xh, in the vicinity, and other ariit; i. • ,. > Nitnl value of the imports may be reclionea . ;, iron . 000 to £700,000, and it may be fairly presume/ .0 real value of the exports ia not much infer ' ' *eillei 1626 lU4'i 1683 r.« 1710 1T';1 IVU' , IV-: . y;«( . nwj . 1783 nd [lopii- "1 .lui'n i ■■y.'y, it , KSSt'S .1 th3 .jt prin- s; coffeo, and aalt- ivarc, etc. corn, coal, rom Tolh, itiil value . 000 to tO real > laillea CLA 80^ CfyK and Ocnon have thu largest share of the foreign trade ot Uivita Vcccliia, and next to tlicm, Kngland. Duties. — Civita Vccchia is a free port ; that is, a port Into which produce may ho imported, and cither con- ■unicd or re-exported, free of duty. Qum-antine rpgulations are strictly enforced, no vcs- iel with a foul hill of healtlf being permitted to enter any of the papal ports. — Annunire Ju Commerce Man- Hm-, torn. ii. p. 806, etc. Claret, onu of tho fcest French wines. It is de- rived fro.n tho Latin Clarettim, from Clarere, to bo clear. — tiee the articles Bordeaii-X and Wine. ClarifioatiOD, the act of clearing ; particularly thn rltfaring or lining of liquids fron, feculent matter by tho sf^paratlon of the insoluble particles. This is perform- ed by depuration, filtration, or coagulation. The sub- stances usually employed for clarifying liquors arc tlio albumen of eggs, blood, and isinglass. Tho firit two are used fur such liquors as are clarified while boiling hot; the last for those which are clarified in tho cold state, as wines, etc. The whites of eggs are beaten up into a froth and mixed willi tlio liquor, when tliey unite with and entangle tiio impure mat- teiB that float in it, and, presently coagulating by tho lieat, carry these impurities up to tho surface in the form of scum. Hlood operates in the same manner. Isinglass is mucli employed for lining wines. For tills purpose, about a quarter of an ounce may be tiirown into tho ca9l{,or the isinglass may bo jircviously dis- j solved and boiled down to a slimy consistence. It is ; then mixed with tho liquor l>y rolling the cask about; ! after whieli it is allowed to settle. | Clearing, among London bankers, is a method adopt- ed for exchanging tiio drafts on each other's houses, and settling ttie difTerences. Thus, at half-past three o'clock, a clerk from each bank attends at tho clearing- house, where he brings all the drafts on tho other bank- ers which have l)een paid into his house that day, and deposits them in their proper drawers (a drawer being allotted to each banker) ; he then credits their accounts separately with the articles which they have against him, as found in tho drawer. Ualnnces are then struck from all the accounts, and tho claims transferred from one to another, until they are so wound up and can- celed that each clerk has only to settle with two or three others, and their balances arc immediately paid. Clearing-house, the place where the operation termed clearing is carried on. The London cleariiig- hou.ic was established some years since, for tho conveu- ienco of bankers and joint-stock bank.': in tho metrop- olis by facilitating thi transfer, 1. ,jidaLiun,urexchangc of bank check' .mi bills. This object is fully acconi- plishod by each party, or some one reprcaeiiting it, meeting at a fixed place, at a fixed hour per day, to deliver checks on each other, and receiving in return checks on themselves, or casii to balance. It follows, necessarily, that the payments and receipts daily must exactly counterbalance each other. Tho utility of this arrangement, its economy of tiino and labor, und avoidance of risk, may be estimated fVom thu fait that the annual clearings for o"" year ClP.'i',)) au.ou 'oj to JEfl54,0O0,O00 sterling oro- US,', '■■' Q'n eachliis ness day. Intheycurl810, tli> 1 u^e p;i, m; nls ui clear- ings were |>4,700, 000 <• ■ ' en an average. Tlie New York >.)« mmn^mn, Oberailons were lom- inented lbs •cwii4 »««(* fw ilaUmt, 1868, and have been carried «H r«i{Ml»f1^ CVCC «!«(■«, Tho hour hr nmkmti ¥mSmim ut iho clearing- house U 10 u'^^nvV. 4,w,, si«l«Hl (« (ho elcfk or repre- sentative of tlifl hmU fi'i>\Wi'{\-i(lH, »)i4 tium <**er i»i,iKm,000 pay iiWO each, ailJlMKtlj', TRAsBkennsntUffUH fim ^'im I'l.fMl^n-lliwBK^raml im VMUtiK urt-moiT, nriiiWKf islliii in iliKtIint 1, 1S!S6. 1809, , \m/. Octobti', Niiveinlwr, Decenibur, January, Ki'bruury, ■■? . . Murcli, » . April, '' .. M»y, » .. June, »> .', ,)iiiy, »» ;,; August, II , . BeptcmWi " ■; Tot*l.,, October, l!!(>4. Noveiiiher, - . Uccejuber, *' , , ,)aiiuiiry, 16'i ', August, » , Urpteuiber, " , Tot#)-, !m,m\-^i (f 4lxiMiMli«U 4tiiAiit. :mii «f-(i'M4lt«» +i|i,('4«j(l(»4« »5.-,||J'i,(!«? ,/f, 44i,m:ltlfi (;( mmMi iH .tl(i,H:i«,276 26 24.216,666 68 37,611,806 47 28,106,400 96 2,1,204,241 75 !ri,0S!),OS611 24.484.428 40 20.^,'il,988SO i/l,163,9910ri 26.549,709 M «».fi01,44«S8 211,722,465 47 .1t2t<7,4l 1,493 69 !)r:'4,r/r4,949 04 22,240,«tl6 87 23.«28,M;> 70 2H,ItJ9,l(>8ll9 2(M:07,744 42 94.I,';4,OT1 12 24. 14-4. 099 62 iti,M»,M8 94 •211,769,646 97 27,300,618 8.1 2».4-26,106 80 84.746,618 116 >2»»,0»4,788 14J Tho following t»l))i8 «f)/l»S fh«i lifietKtiMIs of the clearing-house at Hnw Ynfk i^JHW ft« CrtllKrtencement : Y«M •u4iv^ 1 OcUilwf ), 16f(> 1 " l»W..., " JSM . . , . " 1867..,, " ItK*!*..., ■;;; t't^ini ^ifiikhgt'. fiHlnneet. $297,411,493 2S9,e^4,7:i8 »»(,714,4S9 (t(:6,S13,n01 314,238,908 l'i39. ,la .^ll);.n(U. Bsnk-iioUj. Per I cr/l. .laituary Februaiy March April CSli,7fi2,40O 76,104,700 76,879,200 8^8S9,^00 60,687,600 67,413,900 83,80,1,200 87, MO.BO^ 74,i!87,700 87,478,200 81,729,200 70,888,800 £6,b48,600 4,9tiO,20rt 6,621,600 6,886,000 r •V'.6,000 l),000,000 6,284,800 6,164,901) 5,129,800 .\706,800 4.793,100 4,766.000 i;7-«7a 6613 7-408 6-800 6 ■884 7-606 7-493 7-087 6-910 6-624 6-866 6-718 Mty ;,. .1. : ■ A'J|nd io 1861, about 25,000; and with the addition of Oliio City, 7000 more, making a total of 32,000. Cluvclaiid is tlie emporium of Nortlieni Oliio, and, next lu Cincinnati, the moat Important town in tlie Stale ; poMvucsacommauding situation on Lalte Eric, at the mouth of the Cuyahoga Itiver, and the northern torniinaliou of the Ohio Canal, by wlitcli it is connected with the Ohio River, and by railroad to New Yorlt, to Duflalo, to Philadelphia via Pittsburg, to Cincinnati, to Chicago. It is 180 miles northwest from Pittsburg, 146 northeast from Columbus, 200 by water from Uuffalo, ISO from Detroit, and 859 from Washington. The value of im|)orts In 1861 amount- ed to (22,804,169; exports same year amounted to f 12,026,497. The licensed and enrolled tonnage of Uie district for 1861 was 30,070 tons ; 11,356 steam, and 24,016 sail. The harbor of Cleveland is formed by the mouth of the Cuyahoga River, and improved by a pier on each side, extending 425 yards into the lake, 200 feet apart, and faced with substantial stone masonry. Cleve- land has a ready coniniunicati n with New York tin railroad and tho Erie Canal, wii. . Philadelphia by rail- road and canal, with Cincinnati l>y railroad, and with the Ohio River by the Ohio Canal, and It exports much bythowayofthcWcllandCanaltoCanodn. — AVpOiiio. Clock, Clocks (Oer. I'/iren, diour f'hren, M'iaii- dunrhei Va. Uuren, ['unoerteii, lloroliKjinn ; Fr. Ilor- loget; It. (.In'tnggi, Oriuoii; Sp. Jielojm ; Kuss. Tsi'hatii), a kind of machine put in motion by a gravitating l>ody, and so constructed as to divide, measure, and indicate tho successive portions of time with very great accuracy. Most clocks mark the hour by strik- i:!g or chiming. It is a highly useful instrument, and is extensively employed for domestic and philosophical purposes. Clocks are made of an cmlless variety of materials and models, so as to suit the difTcrcnt uses to which they are to be applied, and tho different tastes of their purchasers. The Gcmmna, Dutch, and Amer- icans are particularly celebrated for their skill in the manufacture of clocks ; while tho Kngliiih, French, and Uenevese, especially the former, have curried the art of making metallic clocks, so us to kce|> time with the greatest precision, to a high degree of perfection. The history of the invention, introduction, and successive improvements in the manufacture of clocks, has been carefully invcHtigatcd t)y some very learned and in- dustrious antiquaries (aee Bkckm.xnn's Hist, oflnven- tiotu, vol. i. p. 419-462, English cd. ; and Rees' Cy- clopedia); but, notwithstanding these researches, the subject is still involved in con8ide depending on the action of a weight on .1 train of wheels, as distinguished from the wator-cloeks, cli-p- tytha, wblcU art well known to have bien uiied many centuries before. We will refer lb* raedar who il curious about It to the articles on clocks, *t«,, In tho Unci/cloiitdia lirilaimictt and llw various work* there citeil. We will only add to the lilfurtiiMiim there given, that it appears fruni a couiiuuiilcatluii ut Captain Smith to tho Antiquarian tiucliity in INAI, that there is still a clock in existence ut Uiivur (JastU bearing the date 1348, earlier by thirty years lliail IJMt of tho clocU made by De Vlck fur the |iulut'« of llw Km* peror Charles V., which has generally buuii iUiur\\m\ us the earliest clock of which the actual roii>trili.'tliiii is known. Mr. Denison also, in bis UuJitiu iiliiry Tri ui- ue OH Clocks (of whicli we have largely avslieil our- selves throughout this artlchi, and also uf various \m- pcrs liy him in the Cainbrldgo l'liil»supliical Traiisae- tions, und the Journal of llie Society of Arts), menllimn a clock in Peterborough Cathedrul, still in use »« to the striking part, of which tho cunslruction Is itiiirf like that uf the Dover Castle cluck than tliat uf U* Vick ; and Lord Chief Justice Coke tells us that a . 7)30. Pacificus, arcbdeucuii uf V»runa, invented one in the ninth century. Originally III* « heels were three feet iu diunieler. The earliest i.'utn' pictc clock of whicli there It any ccrlain roi'ori] WM« made by a Saracen mechanic, in tin) Ihirtt'vntti iieB- tury. Tho srapciucnt, ascril: i to Oerbcrt, A.n, . , , . , , , 1000 A clock oomtriirti'd )>y Ricliard, sliliut at Mt, Al>.sii's, about , ,,,, IIIM A striking clock in ^Vi >tinliistcr , , , , , Vm A porfec t rtah1e c>ne iiiude .,.,,,,,,,,,,,, ItiSO In Knalaiid no clock went ncc uratelv h'furr Ihal »>l up at mnipton Court (maker'd inlliiiff, N. O.) 1040 Kichard Ilarrts («ho ereited a clock In tli» churrli (it St raul's, Coveiil (.'iiidtnj and the yonngir IlitUUii conetnicted the penduhnii , , > > 1041 Christian Iluygens contcrled tliiii dlwnvcry, sn4 msda his pendulum clock lonie time ijrevloUHly to. . . , . . , . I'lr'H Froumntel, a Dutchman, impruved the uciraiiluiu, abuH* .( 'X' IlepcatliiK clocks and Kalrheii Invented uy(i«rl»ir,al>'j|a jilTO The dead beat, and horlsontul escxiieiueiils, lij Un\i»l«, oLout , , (TOO The sul>seqnent improvements were the spiral liakn«« spring suggested, and the d'.iplcx scaiwinent invmilell by Dr. Ilooke ; pivot holes jeweled by Fucio ; Ihn de- tached scapement invented by Hudge, and iniliroVAd by Bertlioud, Arnold, Eamshaw, and ouicrs,— iMrd*. Clocks ini)iorted into the United Stal«s pay ii duly of 30 per cent. ; watches, JO per cent. Of cluck*, the value imported in the fiscal year 1864 -'65 wes|l«y,MH( watches, #3,051,187. Olive-oil is most onimonly uHed in lubrlcatlnji clock machinery and j , eventing too great war. Wf, believe, however, that animni oil is lietU-r than «t'y of the vegetable oils, as some uf llicni are too tliln, while others soon get thicl. and viscid. For luirrt clocks and comnjon house clocks, good »|«'rni ull Is (In* enough, and is proliably the best. Vnr liner work III* oil requires some pnrillcnflon. Even euninion n««t'il- foot oil may be made extremely film and < leur by lh< following method: mix it with about tin >e i|ii«n> tity of water, and shake it in a largo bottle, nut f' I. until it becomes like a white soup; then /cl ii '< > till fine oil appears at the top, v.blch 0isv be sblii u,''J off; It will Uke several months ImfuTu It hat all "'i arated into water at the bottom, dirt In the mid4l«, •• 'i fine oil at the top. And it shuuhl not l>a dune In i ' weather, becauM heat makei some oil come out «» litti CLO 811 CLY ,t,,f 1«00 »U*$t 19M }Mi t»tt* l^ffO IMO Hup ,, , , . IMO bof men m\ ii»d« i«f,ti tlwM' ..w lliOkl )BTa ham, ITiid which in roll! would rpiiiaiii umonK the dirty oil in the I midillu, mill ill L'lilii weitthur.tliut lino oil uf hut wonth- er will liei'iiinn iiiiiiidy. 'i'hero aru vurious VKgetahlo i oil* aoi'l at liiiil-iiliu|i« as uil for watchea, including ' •onio Tor wliicli a, prize uiedul wui awurdud in the Kx- j hiliition, liiit nut ly the UKo of Hpcrni inntcaii uf .sweet uil to amall aplndlea re- quiring cunatiint tulirieatiun, — E. li. ClOBe-'hauled ; that ia, the tai'ka cloae down, the slieeta lift, the yurda liruRod aharp up, and the liow- linea liiiuled, the whip mal}hna, (larofunt, liarvffvli; Sp. C'Idi'oa de rtpeciit, C7a- viUnt, KusB. Iliiofdikn; Arab. Kerenfiil; Malay, Chan- ker), the fruit, or rather cup of the unopened liowerN of the clove-tree, or Cdri/op/ii/ltiu iirotmitirus. Tho clove-tree ia a native of the Moluccas, where it was originally found ; but planta have aincc been carried to Cayenne and other places, where they succeed tol- erably well. Cloves are shaped like a nail, whence tho name, from the French Jou, nail. They are Im- ported from the Dutch aettlenienta ; the beat in chests, and an inferior kind in bags. The beat variety of the Amlioyna cloves ia smaller and lilackcr than the other varieties, very scarce, and, as a mark of pre-eminence, is termed the royal clove. Good cloves have a strong, fragrant, aromatic odor; and a liot, acrid, aromatic taste, wliicli ia very iiermanent. Tin v ehould lie chosen large aired perfect in all parts; the color should lie a dark lirown, almoat approaching to black ; and, when handled, should leave an oily moisture upon thu fin- gers. Good cloves are sometimes adulterated by mix- ing them with tliose from which oil has lieen drawn ; but these are yi< ke' .^ '.n the rest, and of a paler col- or; and whenever tliey look shriveled, having lost t'le knob at the top, and are light and broken, with but lit- tle smell or taste, they ahoul'l be rejected. As cloves readily absorb moisture, ^ t uncommon, when a quantity is ordered, to .. •■,; •. -".n beside a vesael of water, by which moanx a \:i imii'crabT] addition is mai'o to their w^eight. — TirvMSo! ■ LHsy ^n^ tory ; 1Sii,nvii^'s ■ental Commerce, 'oliry ofilv. Jhtlch tu to the Tradf ;;. Cloves. — From th : expulsion of the English from Ainboyua, in 1623, the Dutch have, a few short intorvala only excepted, enjoyed tho exclusive 'w sa'^asion of the Moluccas, or Clove Islsada. Ir '.aei daotM to Ute clove trade, they have cxhililtelan more destructive of Industry, more hostile to the growtli of public wealth, or injurious to mor ils, than this ayatem framed in a barbarous age ; and it reflectB disgrace upon the diameter of n civilized people ft> persevere in it. It 1? curious ti remark how the mo- nopolizers, in carrying tho details of this system iuto cftcct, at once imp > iipon the natives and deceive themselves. The nominal ]irice paid to the natives it actually above the natural prico of the commodity, but tliey are cheated in the details. The cuifiv i.oi brings his produce to tho public storoa, where it ia subjected nt once to a deduction o/ one-fifth for payment of the sal- aries of tho civil and military officers. The price of tho remainder is fiyi-d at the rate of 9-0 Spanish duilara the picul ; but beini-n iiiyment is made, another deduction of one-fifth ianiailo; one-halfofwhich ia for tbe chiefs or riijas, and the other for the nati<-e riders, who are ovcr- fii-ora of the forced culture. Tiiu real price, therefore, paid to tho grower ia 8 Spanish dollars per picul, or 3id. per pound avoirdupois, instead of 11 52-100 Span- ish dollars per picul, or 4> f. which ia pretended to he given. When cloves have been sold on the spot, the price usually exacted has been about 64 Spanish dol- lars the picul, or eight times the price paid to the cul- tivator. The average price in Holland, previously to tho war of the French Kevulutlon, may be taken at lu. per pound, or 177 78-100 Spanish dollars per picul. be ing 2122 per cent, advance on the real cost of the com- modity in the place of its growth. When brought di- rect to England, they have cost at an average 8«. 8d. the pound, making ira 6-1-100 Spanish dollars per pic- ul, an advance on tho natural export price of 12S8 per '•e\\t."—Fwitem Archipelaffo, vol. ill. p. 888-390. Oil of Cloves ia procured from cloves by distillation, W'lnn new, it ia of a pale reddish brown color, which > .c.iKies darker by age. It is extremely hot and fiery, am' iinks in water. The kind generally imported from Infii.> contains nearly half its w i^ht of an insipid ex- pressed oil, which is discovered by dropping a little into spirits of ',-ine; and on shuking it, tho genuine oil mixes with Ihe spirit, and too insipid separating, the frain'i ',s discovered. — Mil iv.s. C'jie, one of the largest and most important river> in Scotland, It takes its rise from numerons striMrn-i flowing ttonx the -fountain range in the soatb- COA nt COA trn part »f l^nArkrlilm hikI lionleni orniimfriviiahini; thochlefimiiiinllKiif which iintthii l^wlhrn, I^Hdhllln, Qii<Hry Hill, miicI HwlKcr Iiii Dumbarton on the northriiai' i eii'lng the triliuUries of the Kelvin, Cart, and 1 ' i. Aitxr pa<«inK Dumbarton, it openn up into n nolilu e.n i jry four miles in width, nprvailin); northward into I.uoh Louft, ■nd toulhwanl into the Mrth of Olydi', v miles. From Glangow to the south point of llute Island sbont 4O miles. In the Clyde was launched the first stcanilioat convtructcd in Kritain, 1812. Clydeiclult is thu ilistri' t forniin); Iho valley of the Clyde, and is celebrati'd fur Its orchards, cuai and iron mines, and horses. Ooaohes, vehicles for r .imodious travolintr. They havo somulinies two, i.iiii - ,'iptinies four wheels. The iKxIy of tlio coach is genei illv suppeniU'il, by means of spring, upon the (Vrime-hort to which tho wheels arc attached. They ar usially drawn by hors<'s, but re- cently have lieen in pelled by steam. Tho forms and varieties of coaches uru almost innumeral)le. Jluloriral Xotic. — Hecl(maun has investigated tho early history of co'M'heswithhis usual care and learning. t is certain that a species of coaches i< * iiseil at llomn ; but whether they were hung on springs, like those now made use of, is not certiiin. After tlio subversion of tho Roman power, horseback was aim >st the only mode of traveling. About the end of the jifteenth century, however, covered carriages began to \>o employed by persons of distinction on great occasions. In IS.'iO, there were at I'aris only three coailus ; uno of which belonged to the luec i. ; another to the < ricliratcd Diana of Poitiers ; and tho third to a corpulent, unwieldy no- bleman, licno de Lnval, lord of 1' is-Daupbiii. Coach- es were seen for thu first time in Spain in 1610. They began to b« used in England about 15H0; ami woro in common use among the nobility in tho beginning of tho seventeenth cvntuiy. -fjh'ilort/ of Inventiont, vol, i. p. Ill, 127, English translation. According to Hayi>n'8 Dictionary of I>atet, the coach ia of Frencli invention. I'ndcr Francis I., who was n contemporary- with Henry VIII., there wcrobrf t'v,> In Paris, one of which belonged to tho queen, un Ihi' other to Diana, the natural daughter if Henry II. There were but three in Paris in 1.^)50; ond Henrj' IV. had one, but without straps or springs. Tho first courtier .> iio set up this equipage was John de Laval de Uois-Dauphin, wb ) could not travel otherwise un account of his enommus bulk. Previously to the use of coaches the kings of France traveled on horseback, the princesses were carried in litters, and ladies rode behind their M^uircs. The first coach seen in F.ngland was in the reign of Mary, about 155.3. — Pkiehti.ky'h Lecture. They wrcre introduced much earlier. — A.v- Diu;w8' IliitoryofOrtut Britain. They were introduced by Fitz-Allen, < arl of Arundel, in 1580.— Stowk. And in some years afterward thu art of making them. — An- PEBSon'h Ilittory of C'onmurce. A bill was brought into Parliament to prevent the effeminacy of men rid- ing in coacht ' Sliz. 1601. — Hayhn. Stage-coach Traveling hy. — Owing to the improve- ment in the breed of horses and the bi'ilding of cartia- ges, but abovt< all, to the extraordinary improvements that were effected within the last half century in the lay- ing out, construction, and keeping of roads, the ordi- nary rate of traveling by stage-coaches, previously to their all but total ixtinction by railways, was seldom ander 9 or 10 miles on hour, stoppages indjided, and on some roads was as much as 11 or 12. The stagoa having Iwen shortened, this speed was not found to Ihi maleriully mora U\Jurious to llio horses than lh>' slower rate at which they previously traveled. The surfiien ' of the roails being perfectly smootli, and moKt •liiirp ri ', < I pid duscents having been got rid of, triivi I- i\f, ai this rate was comparatively safe ; ami ll w ts ' iiriaing, considering tho numlier of coaches, how . r< w a cldents O' curred. Tliey wero occasioned, for tho I most part, by thu misconduct of the drivers ; and prin- cipally by their endeavoring to make up by iiUTcavcd speed for lluio lust at stoppages, or by their aftemplliig to pass each other. It is, perhaps, needless to adil tbiit, since the opening of railways between all the prln(l|ial places of the country, traveling by stage-ciiaclie.t in ' Knglund no longer exists. "' "cpt in a few remole dis- ] tricis, ond hits I' iw !■ ■ :. .ost a n'""er of hl»lnry. ' Co«l(I'u. .NV< i'»< ■ -i/m ; Fr. i'harbnn ar trrrr . tier. ^ ^lein};oHrni It. Carboni fimtili! Lut. I.ilhimthnur; Port. Carvoea tie trrm^ on (/<■ »f*tra ; Kunm. I '/"{j, A'ri- mntnoe i Sp. Cttrbotii'g tie tifrra, (*arb' neji ftf pittlrti; Swod. •Slinkdl). This higlily Importunt eonilmstlblo mineriil is divided by mlneriiiogists into the three great fumilies of black coal, uninfljinimiilile coul, iinii brown conl ; cacli of these being again divided into many sub- ordinate s|)ecics. It is cimtenilod, with much seemingtruth. tbut coals, although they are not mentioned by tlu' liunuins in their notices of llritain, were yet in use by the ancient I Ilrilons.— Hn.\MiT. They wero first discovered nt NewcastliMipon-Tyno in 12111; some siiy earlier, nnd ' others in 12ilU. Seu-coiil wus prohibited from lieing used in and near London, as being " pn>judlciiil to hu- man lienllb;" nnd even smiths were obligeil to burn wood, 1278. — ,Sri> 'k. Coals wore first made un arti- cle of trade from Newcastle to London, 4 Uich. II., I lUMI.— Uymkum Fmtrra. This mineriil »iil Iw ciinsid^rcd under tho general heads of— I. Origin of Coal; II. Coul Statistics of (ireat llritain; 111. Areis of Coal-beds in the World, and aComparison of theirKxtent ; IV. Compurisiin of the Coal Trade of tho I'nitcd (itates anil F.uropc; V. Statistics of tho Coal Trade in tho I'nited States. I. Ortgin iif ('mil. I'lienomena of Comhuetion, etc. — (.'■ml iH'ds, or strata, lie among those of gravel, sand, ■balk, day, etc., which form great part of the present surface of tlv earth, and !.avo liecn evidently nccumu- I lated iluring remote ogcs by the agency of "moving water" — similar to ih cumulations now in process of formation at tho months of all great rivers, and in tho bottot IS of lakes ai'' neas. When tiicse strata had. by Ion;.; contact and ]n\ -sure, been soliililled into a rocky crust to the earth, tliis crust, by sulisequent coiivul- ! sions of nature, of wliich innumerable other proofs re- I main, has been in various |iarts broken and fieaved up above tho level of tho sea, so as to form the greater part of our dry or ) '.Mtable land ; in Bonio places . n- [Hsaring as lofty nuuintains, in others as extended I plains. In many situations, the friirturc of the . ru.st exhiliita the edges of tho v irious distinct strata found in a piven thickness o" it. When the fracture has the form of o precii '• ous clilT, these edges nppeor one above \ another, lik^ edges ii' piled planks or books : but often also h c met ith in horizontal succession along (I pli >ie eil^ s of n pile of books laid down upon a table; or they in «r»lly tliuru li /mi/, contl'lliiR of vHrloim kliidit n' iilnntn end UHuil un fuel ; nnil In iniiny couiitri(-K where the arlit mesa, iuibedilud unil pri>iiii«d toffpthi-r liild i m»*\ and httvo not miuh llourlaliod, It cnnllntifi to Iw |iriiu-l- expoaoil tothe maloii of jilr or w»ter, or both, nnd per- piilly empldvcd »» such. (!oiil, however, for many Imps liejit, for unnunilmred centnrl^a. 'Uini thrre Is puriMinea, iiiiawcrs mui'h hotter thnn wood ; and, In tignUt, tV^rnji^d in nenrly tho annin wiiy from trunka of fii't, tho two, although in apiioiirunou so dilTerunt, aro ■ trooa, and uci'uninluted in layers of vint tbiokneaa In In thi'lr ultimate coni|ioaitIon Very nearly allied. 'I'hoy (lerniuiiy and other paria of Kumpe ; It hna not hltli- botli have for their liuais or eliief luKredlent tho auli •tanec eulleil by tho clieniiata «ii'6u», and for their chief other ingredient tho aubatanco calleatance called ehnmml — both being nearly pure carbon, but dltVerintf ua to the states of compact- ness. TIda kindred nature of coal and wood does not surprise when tho fact i^ known that much of our coal oil has been manufactured, which by experiment has proved quite oqnal to spenn whale oil. If n«t sn|)crlor, and can be uianufactured I'orone-hulf tho cost of ajicrm oil. Tho I'nited States government have under con- is really transformed wood ; nuiuy caul ndnea l>elng : sidorntion a contract to uan it In the light-houae ays- ovldently tho reiuainsof antediluvian forests, swept to- ! tem. Next is tho cikini/, or common liitunilnoua coal, gothor in the course of tho terrestrial cliangca alluded ' which combines so nuiny useftil quiUities for house- to, and aiierward.iiolidilled to the state now aeon. In hold purposes. Somewhat ditrerent from tliia Is the theso mines tho B|iecles of tho plants or trec.4 which ' .4/nif/^Vi/ cw// of tho nddljind countiesofKngland, which formed them arc atiil quite evident in abumlant spool- '. Is obtained in very long pieces, and hns less Idtumin- uious, mixed often witli tiie remnants of tho animals oua or caking <|uallty. A still ioaa gaseous coal la that which inhabited tlio earth at the aame time. The o.x- which, fnun the purpose to which it is now found to \m tonaive peat.4U0Hsea now existing on tho surface of the I admirably adapted, is culleil ttfnm rnal; it ia obtained earth consist cliieliy of vegetable reniiuns at an early chiefly from Wales, and Inirns with intense heat, ond stagr i>r the kind of chango which teruiiuatea in thi! ] littlo tiamo or anmke. Last on the list ia nnlhrarite, formation ' f coal. '• so nearly without gaa aa to consist almost entirely of A ■nil.''' nco which, like iimI or wood, cheaply an- ' carlion; ita intense heat and freedom from sulphur swers th '|H)ao of producing great heat anil light ia render it invulualdo for iron-smolting and other man- called fue, mI tho phenomenon of tliat production ia called comhuBiion. Now moiiern discovery has ascer- tained that, ill I'vory instance, camlmatiou ia merely an ap|ieary tho latter, liesides con- and there is m. light. Thus, « iior and sulphuric acid, verting winter into any climate which ho desires, ho when mixing, prolines great hi.it, but no light. Wa- is enabled to effect moat important mutations in many ternnd quick-lime prmluce still greater heat; sufHcicnt, ' of tho sulistanees which nature olfers for his use; and, it is known, to set lire to a ship in which the mixture \ aiuco tho invention of the steam-engine, ho makes heat unfortunately occurs. It Is on oecurreneo of tho same ' perform a great proportion of the work of society, kind when heat Is evolved from an acid dissolving a ' From theso considerations may be perceived the i'.i- metttl; and it Is slill of tho same kind when a muAsof ! portanco of having lire at command; and, as thechoi. co;il or wood in a liro-gratc is, with the appearance of comlmstion, undergoing solution in tho oxygen of tho utmoaphero. In this lust case, however, the tempera- ture of tho fiiol is, by tho very intense action, raised so much that the fuel becomes incandescent or luminous ; an appearance assumed by overy aulistancc, whether burning or not — of a atone, for instance, or piece of metal — when heated beyond tlio tem|>erature indicated by 800^ of Faiirenbcit's thermometer. The inforior degrees of such ineandeseeii'T .iro called red hunt, tho superior degrees icAiVe heat. The reason why any strongly heated body throws out light, wo can not yet explain. When a quantity of woml or coal has been burned to ash in a conflned t>ortion of air, tho whole of the fuel, vanished from view, ia held in solu- tion liy the air, as salt is held in water, and is again recoverable by the art of tho chemist. The phenom- enon of common lire, or combustion, then, is merely the fuel lieing chemically dissolved in tho air of the atmosphere. If tho fuel has nothing volatile in it, as is true of pure carbon, and nearly true of coke and char- coal, it burns with tho apixiaranco of red-hot stones ; but if there bo an ingredient, as hydrogen, which, on being heated, readily assumes the form of uir, that in- est means of commanding lire, of having abundance of coal. il. Cml in drenf lirilain. — As respects the fliir jdy of coal, (ircat Ilritain is aingulurly favored, a lu;ga portion of the siirfuco of tho country having under it continuous and tliick lieds of this valuuliie' mineral — vttatly inoro precious tlmn would havo lieeii mines of tlie precious metals, liko those of Peru and Mexico; for coal, since it has lieen upplied to tlic steam-engine, ia really hoarded jjower, applicaldo to almost overy l)urpose which liuniun labor directed by ingenuity cun accomplish. It is the possession of her coal mines which has rendered Great Ilritain, in relation to the whole world, what a city is to tho rural district whicli surrounds it — tlie producer and 'ispenser of the va- rious products of art and industry. Culling her coal mines tlio coal-cellars of the great city, thero is in them a supply wliich, at the present rate of expondi- ture, will lust for 2000 years at least ; and, therefore, a provision which, as coming improvements in tho arts of life will naturally effect economy of fuel, or substitu- tion of other means to effect similar purposes, may bo regarded as inexhaustible. The kinds or differences of coal depend on their COA 814 COA eoni|«r*llv« pm|iortlonii uf carbon ami hyilroftan, and of rarth/ liii|iuritUii (uUlly liuimilmatllilK. Whila aoiiic >|N<('U'ii of t'oal coiituiii nearly a tlilrcl of thoir waiKht (if liyilrotfen, otiii'm hiivu nut a Itfliiitli part. The runner k'nda am lUiniiiK rnal, pleaainK In (wrlnr flroa, and tit for Ilia manufacliirt) ut gik». Tha utlior kiDila— tuMio of tlia> WvUti alono eiwl, fur inntanco— will only liuni wlicii In larKo h«a|m, or when lulxail with niura luHainiiiable cuiu : thuy havn nu Aania. Whan rianiliiK rual la liunieil whom u ■ulllcieiiry "t oxyK*«i >'an nut |M»a throuKh or enter uliuvo tlia lire, to vuinlilue with uud runtuuie tha liyilroKen ua I'aat aa k rini'H, II cliuimi aniulii) ii Klven out, cunsiiitlnK of liy- tlruK<'ii mill carliun vuniliiiu"! in the prii|Minti>na which form a pilrliy xiibatuni'u. 'I'lio Widali coal ubovu men. tinned (Mil iiH little kIvo out ainoko ui lluine, and hence la now iiincli uted In (treat brewvrlva, and In the iteain cnKlno furimvea iif town*, where anioko Is a aerlous nuiaancn. Tliu foliated or cubital eoal, and (lata coal, •ro chivHy uaed na fuel in prltale hiiuiica; the cukiUK I'uala, fur smithy furKca ; the alatu cool, froth ita ke«|>- int( o|ien, anawera ! eat fur (tivliiK Kreut heala in a wind fnmat'o, ua in iliallllalion on a lurKU aculc ; and )(lanre coal, found In HtafTordsliire, la uavil fur dryiiiK K'ala and malt. The coula uf Huuth Wolea contain leaa volatile mutter than either the Kngliah or llio Hcutch ; and hence, when employed In aniclting the ore, pro- duce a KTcater quantity of Iron. It la aup|ioacd that three parta of g^ miles 243 — 88T Portion MMfottd, In Dnrbam, onTyne, my St oa Wear 40 TO b N«rtbiunberltnd, njr u mllea by a ,..-.... 'id ^» no ;■.;.'; ■ :.-■..• "!; 4i:-c '^i;. -.j ■:'. Wi Cillmallnr tha workahia rnal •tnla at an aT< Tut. ersfpi thlrknsM uf W fi'iil, the ciintants of one ■r.iiare mile will Ihi I'i.ilVO.iHKI tuns, snd of TU'i squsn' nilli'< (»,0«»,4IW,nOO Imdurl one-thlnl iwrl for Ions liy •iiisll rosi, In- liircuplloHs by dikes, and ulhrr liilemiptliimi 9,(iva.l«i.iNIU llaniallidsr «,ll4ll,ll'iO,INKI This ronialnder l> adeqiialii In supjily ths |irt"i'iit viiid fmai Newraalls, ^iindorUnil, llarllrjr, llljrili, luid Hlnrkluu, of il.lXNI.nnil liiiin, fur a iH'rImI of IliT yi'sra II will bu iiihli'rsliiod tiiat llils ('•tiniule of Iho quantity uf cnal In Durham slid Nurthunilicrlsiid rsii niily ho an ii|ipnii- Imatlon, espi'rliiliy •< Ihi' vuiilliKMlarn cusi dlilrlrl of liiirlisiii In yet almost wholly iiiioplnri'd; liiitlheattimiit la made, In the hiipe of uUsryluK your lord>hl|M that ni> siiprrlii'iiKlon lu-ed Im' uiit«!rUluflil of this valuable mlueral hftliiK i!xhauiiti<Kt milt* able and avnlliiblo for exfiortatluu. It Ic, liowevor, to Ih< oIi- •orviMl Ihst tho >hl|ini«nts uf rosi from Hie |H>rt< nii'iitlniicd by Mr. Taylor liiw liceii largely InrrosMtd diirliiK the last doaen years; m that, siipihhiIiik IIio t-alliiiAto tu Im lu othtir nifpocta aeciinile, It mnst now be modlHcd accordingly. — LortU' ItejKirl, [sttt, |i. I'ii, Dr. Ilucklnnd, the celebrated geologist, rnnstdera Mr. Taylor's cstiinalc ns greully exaggerated; but In Ilia examination beforn Iho cuminittce of the House of Commons In IH'211, he (|Uoted with approbation n pas- sage of llakcwell's (.ntioiiy, In which It Is slated that the coul-bcaking, an advantageous one. It is distinctly the rovcrso. >Sometimps, no doubt, largo fortunes huvo lioen ninilo by individuuls nnd associations engaged In this business ; but these arc rare Instances. The ccn entirely aban- doned. Out liesides explosions, which arc still every DOW and then occurring, ttom the rurelessiie!<8 of the workmen, and other contingencies, mines arc very lia- ble to bo destroy^ by crtfpt, or by the sinking of the roof, nnd by drowning, or the Irruption of wuter from old workings, through flssuret which cnii nut bo seen, and consequently can not bo guurdcd ugiilnst. So great, indeed, is the hazard attending this sort of Turkey.'.'.'"""" «rill.li West Indl^, iLnltt.d«t«|„,. North ; TlmquantltUaof. ^?|^"»vlgatloH Into 004 81J OOA property, Ihtt It ha* imvur Iwcn iwhIIiU In tftfct uii lliiuraiiva 4111 » cuitl-wurk vgitlrial llro, wiitar, ur iliy •tlwr ut'i'l>li>iil, I'im/ I'lwlt.—h U wllwOdl llwt nut lent (hiin for- ty iiillliiiii luim uf rtiaU tr* mliMxl annuMy rmni tli« vnriuiit mliwa In tlm IJnIlml KIiikiI"iii. or llit'ni thit ntvuUir |i«rt U ullluir umhI In llm Irnintdlulii hxIkIi- iMirluiual iif llw Mtliwa, or imnt dy InUnil nnrlKiitlun or Uiiil I'urrlitKu 10 lUnWranl (iitrla of Ihn kingdom. In INi'J, l'i,70U,77l ion* of I'lmli), ilniliim, iind culm woru ihl|i|Miil from (lortu In dm I'nlloil KlnKn ton* wurii Minlisoiwlwlwi lo utiwr portii of thi' klnu'lom I IwliiK, nonlit N,Nor>,UIM tunn, vliidvm 111,370 tuna, culm tMtfW lon», TIm (|U«ntllk'< of iimla, iln- (l«r», anil uulm ahliijiiiil iuMMtwlM from iho illlTuront port* oftlw l/'nItaU Klnutluin In IM6I Mid \hM, weror kaallM*, I'urtamoutli ,•<■.•>>•.. Hrlitnl (>lauM*(«r 1 . 1 1 . 1 i;*rdltt Ni<»|Mrt ,.,, ,, MWXIMS ■■•tiioiii I.Uiirllir , Mllfofd Cluatar ,,,,,, I.Kol inn.t l'ri'>li>n iio.ii FIt'dtWiHHl nfttf iMtwuiur ....,,**,•*>*! to WlillolMvin ,,,.,,,,,,,,,,, Worklnftuii Muryimrt ,,,,,.,, (;»rli»lH ,,, Nl'HI'Mtl* Bhiiild* ,..,.,,., Nuiiili'rlitnii , , ,,,,,,,,,,,i>,, Htiirklo llHrtl(.'}HII>| (t>*(>tr,t« tialiubiiruUiifc , . > > , I • • 1 1 . > . Hull , OiiiiIh Olliiir |iurl< ,,, •i'ffL***. Wih ,,,,,, ll*rri>w*ti>iiiiiii'M ,t ( IraiiHniiiuuUi ,,.,...1.1,). Allii* ,,, Klrki'Dldr ...,,. (llaauDw mitt,, IrvliHi .,,,.,,,.,.,,,,. Ayr , Olhi'r pi>rt< ,,,..,,,, 1C»M ,,,,,,, tttttttt Tiil«l , IMl. IMt 6\m Tom. «,au \.tM l.nnn W>,ti(lll HH.HOl Itol.noS *ivu*a 4ri|,4(i| 4/il,77n tiM.IMT n7MM VIV.Mil tlt,78r> M.Mll M.IW 101,1144 WV.771I iin.ont 1or>,i>84 4tl.i»rT 87,I>IS H.HtM V,840 MIU7 4.N8« ni),!iM nvtm li»,703 Nfl.nu iriii.ii7'i sno.on iMha l7,Hfil 1,0)17, 111 9,nr),«t57 VU.a'iR IOS,l7i 1,«MMltO i,ii7H,nii ».r.77 7,0(« w,7iin lO.IIB IV4.IIIHI M.OHO 4,VIii ll,U84 ii.mii o.niM M.iiri» M.r^i) fl.rrJl il.l>48 SII,OIA 14.9(10 07,oiilV !»li,t>OI *l.»(/ll NI.OIM) SM.Ititf 8M,K47 Vi,t>,,#•>,,, I'rutal* > ■ > > • f • • > 1 1 IlanKwtiu Tuwn* ..,,,,. Ilollmd ,,,, Vranca ■ i ,.<>.,,, , 8p>lii and Canariat, ,,,,,,,,,, Itoly ..,,,,,,, Tu Aoy ...,,,,,,,..,,,, BrleliliK».tIn«,,,, HrltUh Went Indlc* , , , , , llnlua Htai,*, Niirtli Ani«rli<« , qawillIlM l!i|,orM. 1 lut. IMJ. "TTw, Tmt. •/ih.wi l«H,n4i !wr..ir.» »ia,a8ii 'iln.Aoa 914.518 iMH.oaft llfA4»9 IflV.VM 147.540 tfn.mm (W8.?81 iiii,!ir« 903.871 Wl,V\9 171,807 tto.inn 7«,7M2 M,7IW M.Bn4 M,t4T »0,44» Sil.MO 139,'^8B The quantltia* of coal liroHxIit rnattwiae and by In- land navlgatluii liib> tlia (atrt of Mndrni war* i Vi*l» I8BI. IdOi. CatttvlM. »,VM)Mt fftlMN'l M*W*ii. ii'/« and t>*M _ <'»frl*((*, "' Tom. Vri4,491 4I4,I)IT Tent. 8,4M0,M8 «,74B.846 Ciwi Traih t/Ortal Hriiain.—K recant parllamanl- ary paper ihow* that there am no fewer than '21(0, IHM) (wrtouii employed In the rual mine* of llreat llritaln. A innrkcul iuiproveinent Im* taken place in the man- nor* *nlnntlon of the men ha* lieon niitde for the purpoea of ralalnit fundi for ln> vcilinont In coal mine* and other aafa ventures, the prorcoil* of which ura to provide for lickneaB ami auch 111 her Ilia, tu which thia clua* of men are more iiald* than ■oma uthnra. The neceaaity uf moan* of rnllcf in caaa of alckneaa ur violent death la abowii by tlie fol- lowinit IlKurea 1 In IH61, the number of Uvea loat waa !)H4 I in lM6'i, OHO ; In 181)11, U&7 ; in IHM, 1043 ; In 1H66, Dfill; In IHfttl, lO'iT; In Mbl, 1110. Haven tbaua«u4 and eighty Uvea loat In aeven yoara. HTATiarioa or llBiTian Coal Mixia. DUlrUl. No, of ^rnlll.llM. To..,.f- CmI rolMd. Oiirlmm mid NorthuiiiberUnd 968 •1» 374 1»4 1« 14 BII8 am 81 fib 09 S9A 49n TO M'.'.om 8,S7.'),44() 8,fll7, I4i 8M.><,iiOo ■oi'H,7rio T,iM,n»ft «,8«n,fsoo 7rio,Mn 75ll,IHlO l,'J'2B,ll I)uTon»!Hro / North Walei Hoiith Walei TotiiI,l«l58 9Wft (1B,:!04,7»7 TliouKh these duties are now abolished, tlio coal trade Is still in some places burdened wltii heavy local duties. Tliiis a duty of it. Id, \tcr ton U cbafKeablo upon all coal lirouKlit into tiio port of Loudon. l)y act Int and '2d WiiUani IV., cap. 7U, several upjircsslve acts ys'nTa repealed, and tint duties ]Hiyal>lo to tlie cur- poration of the city of London were coniniutcd fur a duty of 1*. Id. per ton ; and by 8tli and Otli Vict., cap. 101, a like duty was imposed on coal lirou^ht into Lon- don by railway, canal, or other inland carriage. Of this duty M. |icr ton Is carried to the London Uridgo Approaches Fund, for eO'ecting street iniproveinents in the metropolis ; 4(1. |)cr tun is the property of tlio corporation of tlio city of London, and after defraying certain cliarges is carried to the general account of the corporation; li/. per ton is payable to her majesty's commissioners of works, to be applied liy them in ef- fecting public improvements in the metropolis, bu- tliorizcd by several acts of Parliament. Tlie produce of these duties, with the drawbacks allowed upon coal exported, was, in 185'2, 8d. pi^r tun to fith Jan- uary, 1863 4d. per ton to 8l»t l>c- rember, 1859 Id. jicr ton to 8Ut lie- cembcr, 1902 Total Unm Diny. £128,067 82,040 16. BOO Dranbuk. £10,003 6,040 1,202 £201, H67 I £10,400 N»i Diitr. £113,6!>0 67,601 14,203 i;i80,44« In 1861 the gross amount of duty was, on sea-borne coal, £175,840; on coal brought laudwise, X12,161. The id. per ton duty, in 1851, amounted to .£54,104, of which i;215 were salaries in relation to collection ; £8009 drawback allowed upon coal exported ; X7607 retiring allowances paid to deputy sea-coal meters and others, u])on the abolition of their offices in conse* quence of act 1st and 2d Will. IV., cap. 70, and which had gradually decreased from £16,8'20 in 1886; and £20,000 an annual charge for making a new street ia the lino of Canon Street, and other improvementa. The attention of government is at present directed to these unjust local imposts, by which our home trade la uunocesiarily buidened, and the merchant andahip- ^;V>* \ OOA 816 COA owner madt to pay for improvcincnts which ought properly to be charged against the landlords or inliiilj- itanta; and it is expected that they will speedily be aboliehed.— E. B. MI. AretL: of CoM>eda in the World, and a Compnr- im: vf their Extent. — From the eluborote woric, " Sta- tistics of Coal," by R. C. Taylor, we cxtratt » <'zm- parison of the proportionate areas of coil, land in Eu- rope and America : The following table shows the relative magnitude of the principal coal-producing countries, and tlieir respective arras of coal Inml, together with the propor- tions which they severally bear to cnch other. Those of France and Spain are considerably loss than the act- ual amount. Coal occurs in almost every principal subdivision of Spain, but. we have only included the Asturius region. Hence, as regards Eurojwan countries, Great Brit> ain tolics the first rank; Belgium, a» regards territo- rial proportion, occupies the second rank, although In relative coal area she is the least of the four. Penn- sylvania, in respect to territorial proportion, Is higher than any of these, l)eing relatively oi e-tliird ; Imt in absolute area of conl formation, the lour eastern colo- nies of British America united exceed them nil, being larger than that of Great Britain, Frimcc, Belgium, and Spain conjoined. This table is not pfrietly p(\r- fect, since we possess the areas of tlie concessions only in France; and in Spain, only of the single coal region of Asturias, We a(1d tlie conl areas of Prussia and Austria, but can not state the propor- tions of coal formation therein. The American area Of coal is nearly three-fourths of the whole amount in our table. C[.Ure Aren of cnch Countrv. \roft pf Ciiil Landt. rrfl{ioitiou of Coal lo tb«ir whole Areas. Proportlona, Rala- llve rarti of 1000, of Coal Areat. Great IMtain Spi.in (.\stnrias region) I'nincc (.irea of fi.^ed concession) In 1845 llclgium conceded lands rennsytvania. United States Ili-itinh l>rovinecs, North America IVrsian dominions AuHlrian lYovinces containing coal or lignite . United State.^ Twelve piliiclpul cua'.>prodncing t*tatcs TotaL Square r.'o, 1T7, 203, 11, 43, 81, 107, 160, 2,280, M5. Milet. ,290 ,i8l ,7.10 ,oia .tums of the census of 1870."_t/'«f<(!d Stette% Treamnj Rejiort, 1*^*(5. Tlie question of duty on coal nttracls considerable attention, and it is well to understand certain facts ■whicli have a direct bearing ujion its decision. In the year 1815, when the (luty on foreign coal was $3 GO, the price in NcAv York was $23 the chaldron of 36 liushels. From 18iC to 1823 the duty was $1 80, and the over- age price was $11. From 1824 to 1834 the (July was $2 16, ond the aver- age price was f 14. In 1842 tlie duty was $1 75 per ton, and the market price was $7 IG; and in 1844, with a duty of $1, llie price w"js $5 58. In the year 184ti tlic duty was al- tered to an Tjd vidorim one of ,30 per cent., or aliout 45 cents per ton, and the market jirice since has ranjjed from $C 50 to |7 60. V. Staliflirs of the Coid Trade if the I'nited Slates, Pennsylvania is rich in its conl product. Tliis arti- cle is one of the great sources of wealth to tliat Slate, and its i-uportance may lie seen from Ihe single fact that aliout G.OOO.OOO tons are carried over or tiirough the various railro&ds and cnnnis of that State eastwardly. We refer only to tlie anthracite region, wliiih min?3 seem to lie inexiiaustiblc, and we leave out of view the immense production in Western Pennsylvania. The latter portion of the State owes its growth mainly to its coul-tieds, '.;. conjunction with its iron and glass manufactures. The maximum c ipabilities of the transportation COA 317 COA I market $1, tho was al- ul)Out 45 ranjjei (J Stalti. riiis arti- at Slate, igle fact iigli tho twnrrtly. ill initios of view iylvBllill. .1 mainly mil k1««» [lortatlon companies may be set down at 7,000,000 tons per year, witU their present forces ; viz. : Tom. tchigh (Coniil) Navfgotlon Company 1 ,SOO,000 ecbuylkill (Canal) Navigation Company 1,000,000 Roadlng Kailroad 4,000,000 Delaware and liiidsvu Canal I,u00.000 Total 1,600,000 If we may judge by the iacrease of the last two or three years, the quantity of coal required liy the al)ove conveyances will bo 7,500,000 tons fur the coining year, and between eight and nine millions for the year 1860. We have received trcm London the special Report of Professor Wilson on the New York Industrial Exhibi- tion, in which document we And a variety of useful in- formation in reference to the manufactures, mineral.", mining, and metallurgy of the United States. His r( - marl(s on the iron, lead, copper, and zinc products and manufactures will be a valuable addition to tho in- ^formation already in possession, and will be accepta- ble as well to the legislator as to tho manufacturer and merchant. Virginia talce.i the lead among the Eastern (or At- lantic) States as tlio owner of coal-tields, and is, in fact, one of the prominent States of the whole Union as the possessor of this valuable mineral. Ark.i of the bkverat. States wiiintE Coal is founp, and TUE Coal Arp.a of each, ani> the PttoronxioN of Coai.. St»t«. 1 Ant. Coal AWM. PronortlonofCoRl. Alabama ........ corgia Tcnnt'ssoo Kcntncky VliTfinla Maryland Ohio Indiana einara HIIm. 6«,SJ5 68,-.'00 44,120 89,015 64,000 10,829 8S,S60 B4,N00 69,1.10 43,960 60,520 60,SS4 Sqnara Mllai. 3,400 160 4,300 13,500 21,195 660 11,900 7,700 44,000 15, ■137 6,000 6,000 1-14 1-3S6 1-10 1-8 1-3 1-20 1-8 1-6 8-4 1-3 1-20 1-10 Illinois ronnsylvauia. . . . Midiignn Mlssonrt 1 Total 565,293 13;),132 Niiarly Jth North Carolina is reputed to hold about as much coal land as Georgia. lowi is one of the riclicst coal States, and has a cool area almost equal to Ohio. From tliis valualilc rcferencc-tuble it will he sien that Illinois takes the lead, having within her own borders one-third of the entire coal region of the United States. Ne.xt in importance is Pennsylvania, produc- ing both anthracite and bituminous cools. Of these immense fields Professor Wilson says : " These comprise the threu anthracite coal-fields of Eastern PcnuEylvania, known as the Southern Scliu} I- kill, the Middle of Shamokin, and the Northern or Wyoming, and the Frostburg or Cumberland coal-lield (semi-bituminous), in tho State of Maryland. Besides these beds, a small outlying bed exists in Peiuisylvu- nia of SLini-bituniinous coals, known as the liroadtop, which, however, owing to its ins-'lated position, lieing without any means of access, is only available for local purpo.sfs j and some deposits of considerable area in Virginia, whose importance i.s being daily recogni/.cd, and whose produce is gradually finding its way into the markets. The demand at present, however, is confined chiclly to gas-niuking purposes. "Of the three anthracite beds of Pennsylvania, the Southern is, both by situation and magnitude, the most important, and furnislies a large proiiortioii of the en- tire supply. It presents grcit facilities of acces.H, which have been made advantageous use of liy two Canal Companies, the Lehigh and the Siliiiylkiil, ami by the Reariiiig Uuilroad, which peiietrati! fur mto the interior, and form the groat outlets for it.s luoduce. Other railways are now in progress, wliieh will not only afford additiimul facilities of transfer to the At- lantic cities, but al.so open acor.iniunication to tho lat- ter, and through them to tho Western markets."' The third in importance is Ohio, having nearly one- third of it* area in coal. The returns as tv producUoa are not copious ; but Charles Lyell, who made critical inquiries on the subject, reported the followiug as the yield for 1851-' 52: Builisli. 1 Tmi. 1 Western Pennsylvania Virginia Eostera Ohio Total 36,000,000 15,000,000 16,000,000 1,170,000 500,000 636,000 66,000,000 2,206,000 | At the Exhibition were produce,', samples of coal from Valley Falls, Rhode Island, but the product is of inferior quality. Of the Virginia coal, twelve miles west of Richmond, and extending fifty miles, the seams are 800 feet in thickness, being the deepest mines known in Ameri- ca. In Uelgium some of the mines are known to l>o fi-om 1140 to 1476 feet in depth. In England, 1000 to 1794 feet — with an average in Lancashire of 730 feet. DiSTAMOES OF THE OJIIEF COAL DISTRICTS OF PeMMSVLVANIA ANI> MaBTLANU FBOll TlIIE-WATEB. OiTOMiNotis Coal. MUm. Farranilsville to Havre do Grace 202 Allcglmiiy Coal Mines to Havre dc Grace . . 196 to 200 CiinilM^rland, Maryland, to (rporgetown 199 Cumberland, Marj'land, ■ — -■• Dauphin and .Siisq. Co. ASTHBACITH COAL. Del. and Hudson Co. Pine Grove Lyicens' Valley Co. Bear Mountain Co. Lehigh Room Run to Baltinioni 189 to Havre de Ont'ie 93 to Rondout 125 to Havre do Grace 120 to I'avro de (rracc 116^ to Havre dc Grace Ill toUilBtol 110 P. Grove by Minersvillo to Philadelphia 110 Stony Creek Coal Kstate to Huvrc dc Grace ItH) Minoravillo to Port Richmond 93 PottsvUle to Port Uicbmund l)6f I.MPORTED Coal. — The only countries from which coal ever finds its way into the United States are Groat Britain and British America, and tho contributions from them appear to be annually diminishing. For a time there was an increasing foreign importatioii ; viz., from 22,123 tons in 1821, to 181,551 tons in 1839. By the operation of tho American tariir this advance was not only checked, but a retrograde movement wos pro- duced, so a.s in 1813 to amount to only 41,103 tonji, by the United States returns. By the last annual return, that for 1847, the entry of foreign coals, whether from Europe or from British America, was 118,021 tons; of which from 12,000 to 1 5,000 tons were re-exported for the service of tlie English steamships. In 1850, 180,439 tons were imported into the United States ; in 1853, 231,508 tons ; showing an increase. Incre.vsei) PiionucTioN m- Coal. Anthracite Coo!. — The production of anthacite may be said to bo en- tirely confined to Pennsylvania, which possesses a nu- merous and interesting group of coal ' aslns of various sizes and character. Our returns siiow that tlio consumption of anthra- cite, in other words, the coal trade, commenced with 3C5 tons in tho year 1820 ; that the production re ehed 48,017 tons in 1827; that it had increuscd to 881,020 tens in 18,'IT, and advanced to i!, 000,000 of tons in 1847, without including much that is consumed on tho spot, in the mining district.'!, or interior of (he country. The increased production, therefore, was, in the fir.st ton yenrj, viz., from 1827 to 1837, 17i)5 per cent.; in the second ten years, viz., from ]8.')7 to 1817, 210 per cent. ; and in the twenty years prcvioicj to 1848, that is, from 1827 to 1847, filOO" per cent. We introduce another view of tho subject, which ex- hibits this accelerated increase in the consumption of anthracite, perhaps, with yet greater iier.«|ii(uity. The amount whicli was periodically forwanled lo iiuirket, exclusive of the consumption in or near the places of production, and which has not been estimated, is as follows : Aggregate In the 21 yean, from 1820 to 1940, Tom. inclusive 6.R47,179 In tliu succeeding 7 years, to 1847, InclUBlvo. . 12,371,061 Total 19,21!).13B From 1347 to 1863, Inclusive 23.»41.3IW Total 4S,oaO,4»l X COA 81* COA We add th« atatistics from the variooa regions for the year 1865. SCHUVLMILL RbSION. ISI54. 1 IBS!. Inertue. j D6,648 492,689 39,282 138,966 63,606 1,224,842 9,063 606,460 507,803 604,030 60,209 187.000 116,117 Anthracite iDcreaso of anthra- ( cUolnl868 j 6,831,834;6,617,6«9 .... |5,S31,81S 716,888 28,060 28,060 686,736 686,736 .... Showing an increase of anthracito coal in 1855 of 686,735 tons, against 734,690 tons last year. An Official State.veht of the Amocmt of Coal sbnt to Market from the Leiiioh Reuio.v, from tub commencp.. MKNT OF TUK TRADE TO THE ClOHF. OF TUK YEAS 1856. Y<>n. 1820. 1821. . 1822. 1823. 1824. Tom. 806 1,073 2,441 6,823 9,641 1825 28,896 1826 31,280 1827 82,074 1S28 30,232 1829 26.110 1830 41?r.'S0 1831 40,906 1832 76,000 1833 12.%0flO 1834 106.244 1836 131,260 1836 140,522 183T 226.037 1888 214,211 BUuminous Coal. — Wc have given, in the first part of this article, data by wliich tlie appto.xiiiiatc increase of tliis description of fuel can l)C deterniined, and give here all tha statistics that can be collected. Yean. Tmi. 1839 222.042 1,840 226.691 1841 14'-',S07 1842 271,013 1S4S 207,126 1844 876,363 1S46 430,088 1S46 622,61S 1847 64.').5(B 1848 6'2 1,113,843 1S63 1,fl80.r)60 1S64 1,24f,,8l5 1W)6 1,274.083 18S6 1,367.620 SKHI-ANTHKACrtB OX BiTVMIMOUI. | 19M. ISM. Inrreue. litenut, Torn. Tom. Tom. Toi... Lykens' Valley Co.. 67,600 00.721 9.221 Short Mountain Co, 6'l,00il 5fl.ono 600 Dauphin <■■. 63,000 1.000 02,001) CunibtTlnnd Jlt'^^ioii 64<.299 664,304 1I),IHI6 Foreign coal Total 26->,S06 287.408 34,M:t 60,209 1.071,064 1,069.933 OJ.OIKt Decrease in l.'«i6.. . i,*>9,»;'.3 OO.'JOO 1.731 .... 1 .... l,7::i The increase of semi-anthracite or bituminous coal in 1854, including foreign, over the previous year, was 218,167 tons. This year (1855) there is a decrease of i731 tons, making the total increase of all kinds in 1855 C8t,001 tons, against n5-i,H.07 tons in 1854. Almost as interesting as the statistics of the areas and production of the coal countries, is the considera- tion of the means of traiiup'^ rtation and the facilities nece rcfculated. If the grades be level or descending, the capacity of the engine is not only increased, liut the expense i^ f" much reduced as to determine its value, and it is only upon a road so graded anil so con- ittact«d M ($ esdure the burden that the price can be fixed or defined. On the down-hill grade the momen' tum keeps up the speed, and relieves the engine, while on the up-hill grade the speed is depressed, the power is reduced, the strain < ' 'ncreased, and the expense ang- mented. " On the Beading Railroad, in operation since 1841, these facts are so illustrated and defined as to establish their existence beyond a question. On the stem as upon the laterals, the descent is from 22 feet to a mile to a level of 36,000 feet, and as the maximum is but four miles in length, the balance descends to the level without the slightest rise to interfere with the speed. On this descent and over the level, a single engine can take as many cars loaded as it can bring empty to the place of starting. This difference, from the weight of the descending and ascending trains, is ascertained to be equal to two and three-quarters engines, or 176 per cent, more than on the downward grade— consequent- ly a reversion of ;he trade ; or upon a road where the. grade is equal to twenty-two feet to the mile against the trade, the expense for engines, fuel, and wages, would be more for the same distance than the profits derived from the coal in market. " Hut as these are the questions for railroad-makers, we will next consider the extent of the trade, and ar- rive atourolgect by the expenditure made to accommo- date it. On the Lehigh, we have an expenditure on the part of the I.ehigh Coal and Navigation Company of $8,441,405, and on the part of some fourteen or fif- teen companies passing over their works about five millions more, making together $13,441,405. From the commencement of the company in 18i0 until the close of the season in 1855, the production of the re- gion is 12,278,01'i— equ:il to ,')fi.S,725 tons per annum. l?i;t if we take the amount sent to market during the year just closed, 1,274,086 tons, and admit a clear profit of 75 cents per ton, which it did not give to the sever- al parties concerned, the income would be less than 7 per cent, on the money expended. In the region it is also imderstood the mining operations are above water- level, and that until recently they were condiicted on the jirinciple of n quarry, and that the expenses, to- getlier with the transit, prevented a dividend to the stockholders until the outside operators came in to their relief. "On the I.ackawana, the Delaware and Hudson Company, and the Pennsylvania Coal Company, with capitals amounting to $11,626,761, brought to market during 18.')5, 1,092,000 tons, and during the period they have been in existence the average is equal to 332,000 tons per annum. The i)roduction of 1855, at 75 cents per ton clear profit, gives, however, but 7 per cent. " On the Schuylkill, the operations are more extens- ive, and the expenditure, including the Ii>a(::i g Koilroi d, cost $18,464,114 il4 SrhuvlkiU Canal cost 10.860,4,'>1 41 496 miles ijitcral Roads to the Collieries. _4,00«,IKK) 00 Total |!t3,314.6i16 (16 Besides this expenditure for reaching the trade, there i.s a population depending upon it of 60,717 in 1850, which is divided into 10,!I27 families and 10,670 houses. In the region tiiere are also 300 stationary engines, equal to 10,000 horse power, used in mining. In 1856, ' the production was 3,318,340 t_.ns, and during the ex- istence of the works (the Navigation Company thirty- four years, and the Reading fifteen years"), the product has been 28,508,041 tons, equal to 838,495 tens per an- num. At 75 cents on the product of the year just closed, clear profit, the percntnge on $'16,631,510, in- cluding the improvements tt the mines, would be be- tween 7 and 8 per cent. " Altogether the cost for improving and reaching the three region.? in operation, Including tiie eastern division of the I'eimsylvania works, is $62,272,898. Tho product during 1855 amouutecn, if (!.crc be on'", otherwise to the collector residing a' any port where such vessel may next arrive, who, upon ine oath of such new mas- ter, or in case of his absence, jf an oiviicr, t liat he is a ttitizen of the United States, .md that !■'>• riiall not, while such license continues in force, be iinploycrt in any manner whereby the revenue may be defraudcil, shall indorse such change on the liceuu*, w ith the name of the new master: and when «i,. Vnngc shall so hap- pen, and shall not Ic reportej, and the in;lorscment so made, such vesse'i, found carrying on the coaMing-trade or fisheries, shall be subject to lay the -ainc fees and tonnage as a vessel of the United Stni.'s having a rcg- later, and the new master shall forfeit and pay the sum of ten dollars. IJcfo'c any vcisse' , of the burden of five tons, and less than tneiity tons, . liall be licensed, tho same admeasurement shall be mad, and the same provisions observed relative ihcrefo, us are to Ije oli- servod in case of admeasuring vessels to be registered ; but in all cases where such vessel, or any other licensed ccssel, shall have been mice admeasure I, it shall not be iii'ci'ssary to measure h.-r anew for the piir|,ose of ob- t.'iiiiing another cnroUinent or license, excejil she shall IwiM' undergone some alteration as to her burden sub- scipicnt to the time of her former license. Every licensed vessel shall hav ' her name, uiul the port to which she belongs, painted on her stern, ns is directed for rcgisterc'1 v"ssels, and if found without such paint- ing, the owner shall jiay twenty dollars. No collector shall grant to any vessel, whose enrollment or license for I'arrying on the coasting-trade has expired, a new enrollment or license, befon? the master shall have ren- dered n true account of the nnmber of .seanun, and the time! they have severally been employed on board such vessel during the continuance of the expired license. w-.?. :i COA COA and shall havo paid to tho collector tWMity mit« |)«r inoiilli, for every montli such M.'imcii liavo been i»' severally employed, wlilch sum the iimHter may detain from the wages of such seamen. If the mustier shall render & false account of the number of men, iind Ihe length of time (hey bav<: severally been employed, he shall forfeit and pay one huiulr>.'d dollars. Any bout, ■loop, or other vessel of the I'niteil Slates, navi)(a(iMK the waters on our northern, northeastern, and norlU- -westeni frontiers, otherwise than by cea, shall Ije en- rolled and licensed in such form as may bo prescriljud by the Secretary of tlie Treasury ; which enrollment and license shall authorize any such boat, sloop, or other vessel, to be employed either in the cuaslinK or foreign trade ; and no cnrtilicatc of reyiotry slinll bti re- quired for vessels t-o employed on said I'routiers : Pro- vu! J, That such boat, sloop, or vessel, tlmll lie, in STory ot!>.r respect, liable to the rules, re{;ulutioiis, •od pi r.,iltie!>, now in force, relating to registered ves. •eU uii uur northern, northeastern, and northwestern frontiers, l.nut nftlie I'liUed Kilaltt. TON.4AUK EUPLOTEU IN TUE CuABTIMU-TBADB OF THE I'. H, Y*«n. Tdonnn. ; Y«An. Tmilisfl*' I ,^j^ 8T».I»1« 18,17 OfKt.KWI 1838 1,041.106 18.«l l,IMt,t»l 1840 I,l1(l,av4 1841 l,l»7,U<17 1842 1,04«,"M 1843 t,07'« at this time a larger tonnage than any other n.ition. " The coasting-traJ' of the United States hai , ', uni the beginning, liecn strictly rescr\ed for vessels built within tho I'nited .States, and owned by citizens of the I'nited States, to the cxclusijn of forelgn-bnilt and foreign-owned vessels. The American tonnage en- gaged in foreign trade and in the coasting-trade has switrnd • Urgfl and eMclcnt body of skillful officers and snIIoiw, ut all time . ready for the defense of <,dr < iliiw Mid .vast, for repelling aggression on our com- merce, and for manninK our ships of Mar. In the priiteetion given to >iiir shipping interest, for the pitonnage. and the annual number of tons of freight transport!. . on oer railroads, with an estimate uf that carried by other nodes of Iran: ier, exhibit the inogliitudii uf the means re(|uired fur our internal Iradi'."- - / ', M, 'J'riiuury llfjirri, December, 1856. COMt Lltl0. '1 lie following statement of tlic river nu\ igatiiin and siioro line of the United Slates was |ire- pured by C'ohinel Abert, of the Topographical Eiigin- eerx, at the request of the Treasury Department, Dc- ci'tnlivr Till, IMlu. It lias since been completed to date. The head of tide-water is assumed as tlie limit uf .steam imvigatlvn, as Impelling falls or rapids are encountered at timt point, above which many riverH are adapted to steam navigation, but to what extent is nut suflicicntly known. The shore line of rivers to head of iide-watcr, front JMsine to Tom, Is 10,501 mller Itlii'm of 'IVwis 1,210 •' 1,'iwer tllMilwil|i|>l, Islsnila and hsyoue 8,,t72 " Imx-r JMlMliisliipl and trllHitsrles 2,736 " ItlK Kliirli. Vst'Ki, anil lift) ous 1,190 " llixl Jllvtr Hi»l trtl;:itririeii 4,924 " Aik»fi«i« Illversiiil Irlliuliirle^ Il,2.'i0 " Mfitiiiiri Hirer «ii<1 trtliiitsrlen T,8S0 " oliui lllvi r anil triliiitarles 7,U42 ■' Tii'al 47,866 " Aul rlrun un tlui radflc— i^MTsmento 600 Han .loaiinln ... 000 Oregon 400 Unipqaa 69 1_J10 Total river shorn line In the I'lillcd Htateii In ti<.'>4, InrliiilInK ImpIIi bankn 49,06.'i niilca. Mhuni line of fiortheni Inkef, ineltidlng bays, ciunilK, iinil lAlsiids (Ainerlrnn) 8,620 " Tolsl river snil 1«ke nhore liiio 52, i.'W " A caliiilallon made at the ofTice of the Coast Sur^-ejr In l»<.'r>r iDcludius Bft) t, SounUi, «lc. Ploportfon of«Mli I'art ofl'oftft to ToUl. Iflanda. RivaHl,. Ilaxl ,t TKIa. Atlantte coast Pacific coast. Uulf coast... Tolsl,... HUM. O.'^l 2,281 8,467 12,609 Car CmI. 6441 ISflO 27-50 loit-wi Hllai. 6:i:''< 7»'.' 2217 924V P«ll, (18-44 7-fi« 23-97 liill'lll) Hllaa. O.I'M 712 .'I.SW ■ lUlil 11.41 T«(i «;6 bjuiio Mllaa, II.IW6 U.WMt IIM i'alTT IIIIOI 1117 28 8;' IWHKI n.>#«n I.lna III ,s more favored than any other portion of the earth, and North America next; the tbrnier having, according to Guyot, puly IM nillc-a, •Dd Uic latter 22H miles of surfr^co to one mile of coast ttbe United States having 241) ; while S<:ut)) Atontlca ■M S?6, Africa 623, and Asia 469 mllec. Tho fullowlng table furnishes three measurements: 1. Tiif I'oniri tint, I, e. scs-rimst, liays. islsnds, ell",, -.f the Atlantlr enssi 12,,169 miles. Tlin lUffSl'i besil I'f tide, W/i iiA.;/-M O.W* " Kiif llietllllfnf Menlr.j. Ilie r..««t lllielf. ... 5,714 " //•MKlliof rlreral'i lieml (if tide i),84« " 2, t'iKift tint, tMiwive i\f li^ai dn and ripen lo lieodoftlilc- fcrllio Allnnllc 6,017 " " (dilf B.BBl " 8. C'utut lint, txrluatrr uf hoy*, iaiaiuit, etc., «l«.,cxcetrtMa«uchu9etuU*>-Atlaallc. 2,108 " aulf.... 1,7»< " COA 821 COA Tni Results or MEABcr.i:.MENTs or Coast and Suobk Limb or mi United States as kiquishd ut nn SupcBiNTBMDBirr or Tim C'ENHim iIukeau ntosi tub Coast Scbvey or July 12, 1861, aiu: as ruLLous, in Statute Miles: ,'i miles. mciitf : SlaUi. shun LliM, iD- cluillnic Bmyt, Iilaud<,andaU IniguUrlUM. Short Ltat, CoDUD«DtLin«i vli. : Short Liii«,*xceptbl> lUmatta. Maine a,48S 40 660 820 202 U80 CM 118 609 784 41 622 246 240 60 800 106 411 S78 18 £36 46 104 none. 120 S3 S3 Mcasureuionta taken on best maps of tbo Coast ttui-vey Ar- chives. Measured on Uroonlcaf 's map of Maine, as correc*. o! possible, but the great ln«f;ularitics of coast prevent a C'>rrcct result Measured on UarrlKain's map of N. H., gener^iUv correct as compared with Smith's map. Measured on Itonicu's map of Mass., generally correct as c«m- pared with Smith's map. Measured on Smitli's and Mitchell's maps. "' ■' • ■ ' Measured on Coast Survey otr shore charts. Measured on Coast Survey off slioro charts. Measured on Coast .Purvey off shore charts. Measured -jn F. Lucas's map of Md., Chcs. Bay, and C. S. Sketches and Charts. Measured -in F. Lucas's map of Md., Chcs, Bay, and C. 8. J'ketciics and Charts. From northeast boundary to State line between Md. and Va. Measured o. T. Lucas's map of Md, and C. S. maps. Measured on Brazier's map of N. C, and compared with 8m" 's. Measured on Smith's map, and compared with Mitchell's. Measured on Smith's map, and compared witli ilitcheH's. Measured on map of Topographical Engiuccrs. From State lino between Md. and Vo. to S. extremity of Florida. Measured on map of Topographical Engineers. Measured on Smith's map, and compared with Mitchell's. Measured on Smith'" map, and compared with Mitchell's. Pleasured on (ierdcs's Kecounuissances aud Smith's map. Measured ou Bluut's and Smith's map. Measured on Aldon's Kcconnolssanccs. Now Hsmpalilre . . . Mossachusotts Khoile lalaiid Connocticut Nbw Jersey Mi"yl»nd Nirthcm Atlantic Vl.'ginia 0,160 2709 907 6M 1,641 780 «*» 2,474 843 1030 20T 460 1084 110 820 220 128 472 North Carolina .... South Carolina Florid. • ICoast. Ii lantlr ■ . 'c ... *1oni.», 1.^.. Coast i;,im 8-^18 1266 I'i.llB'J 0017 V108 l,S(V,i 31P 1, ,.w S83 24T 226 1260 040 ■ iU 88 88 662 892 4SBl|)pl Te- Total Gulf. Total South Atlantic anil (iulf TotuI I'uoMic. from boundary of San Pii'Kotoiv.outhuf Frazcr's Kl^rtr. . . n,T+i 8B61 1704 11,963 8,261 C769 25.T) 8020 1843 Coaat Survey of the United States. It was to 1)0 cxpccteJ that .1 people devoted to tho pursuits of commerce, and dep^njinp in .sonic degree on the sea an a means of conin- anient ion between distant parts of tlie national territory, should demand, at an early pe- riod of their history, a competent survey of their coasts and inland water*. Hiif a short time previous to tho separation of tho colonieK, r-liarts had l)Of constructed oitho shores and harhoiw of Morth Amer. a. und«r the direction of F. AV. lies HttWiBf", liis majesty's Surveyor General for the Col- onies, f !»«• progress of liis labors was interrupted by tho Revoluiflon The surveys made under tho person- al superintendence of Dos Barren .itill bear testimony to his sliill and tidclity, -ind prctont a generally cor- rect view of those part* of New K.i.glaiid and tho Brit- ish possessions whicli, being rocky, arc but little liable to change. Tliey continue to form thr principal basis of the clmrts of the nortlu'astern coast of this continent. In tlio Southern and Middle States, however, they have bee- re>- leied worso than u«elc9!' by the inconstant character of tlic bottoms, and tl.c unequal nu rit of the ori;;inal3. Tlic 8urv('_ .^ of Des Barres, covering a vast extcii of coast, .vcro originally dpfirient in minute- ness of detail, and in hydrograpliicnl information ; and these defects have been increased by the rapid aud ex- tensive changes in tho direction, means, and wants of navigation caused ly the growth of the country. The project of a complete survey, conducted upon a uniform system and extending over tho whole coast, was first pix/posed liy the lato Professor Patterson, in IHWi. It combined three objects, tho astronomical de- termination of pntnlnent points, a triangiilation to con- nect those points, and a liydrographic survey based u)' jn this triangulation. Mr. t iallalin, then .Secretary of tho Treasury, encouraged the jirojoct, ami obtained in writing the opinions of learned men as to the best mode of executing it. He selected tht plan of opera- tions recommended by Mr. Hasslor, tho (Irst suporin- teadent of the Coaiit Survey. ThU (;etttloman, a na- tive of Switzerland, had been employed in the triangu- lation of the Canton of I'nTne, and had studied the sci- ence of geodesy under the most distinguished masters. It was exceedingly fortunate that his presence and ad- vice here secured tho curly adoption of tho only lucth- ou of conducting a comprehensive trigonometrical sur- vey that science approves — the only one of which the results have a certain and permanent value. it is only., b.oivcver, :;;"ce tho year 1832 that tho sur- vey of tho coast has been in uteady and active opera- tion. During this long inter\'al of neglect on the i)art of tho government, the coasting trade and foreign com- merce of the country have been chiefly indebted to tho indefatigable labors of those distinguished hydrogra- phcrs, tho Messrs. Blunt of Xew York (both father aud son), for the means of safe navigation. The history of its fortunes, or rather misfortunes, during the preceding twentj -five years, may bo recited in a few words. A law author-'zing a survey of tho coast was jiasscd in lt*07, but nothing was done under the law until 1811, when Sir. Ilussler was sent to Europe to procuro the tujtruments specified in his plan. They had all to be constructed. The war of 1812, and the failure of remittances, prevented Mr. Ilassler's return before 1816, and in August of tliat year he was appoint- ed to tho office of superintendent. In 1818 Mr. Ilass- ler's connection with tho work was brcken off by tho repeal of that part of tho law of 1807 which authorized the employment of citizens. During tho ten years that followed, the const survey seems to have been forgot- ten l)y tho public and by Congress. In 1827 Mr. South- ard, the Secretary of the Navy, a name never to he .nentioiied without an expression of tlio high respect wliicii ability, patriotism, and long, faithful, and valu- al>le services must always command in tho republic, took occasion in hit annual report to say that perfect surveys and charts of our harbors could not be made without the aid of the means ccnteraplated by tho act of 1807 ; and In February, 1828, tlie House directed tlie Committee on Naval Affairs to inquire into thu e^pe- COA *^ COA dlency of rarrylng into effect the provisions of that act. Finally, in 1832, the act of 1807 was revised, and an appropriation made for carrying it into execution, and since that period regular annual appropriations have been made, varying in amount, but generally such as have been called (or by the estimates of the superin- tendent. In 1843 there was added to the appropriation a pro- viso stipulating that a board, consisting of scientific persons in thu service of the government, should be em- powered to reorganize the work, and the plan present- ed by them, when approved by tbei president, was to be, and is now, tho law regulating the operations of the survey. The scientillc methods pursued by Sir. Hass- ler were continued, and it was directed that the topog- raphy should be carried so far inland as might bo nec- essary for a proper dolinealion of tho shore, and for pur- poaep fitlor of commerce or defense. It i» Koy, I'.odcrstood that the aim of the coast sun'oy is to furiiUh with the utmost attainable accuracy, and in a connected and uniform manner, all tho geograph- ical toimtjr aphical, and liydrographical data tliat can bo mw\<' ir nuy way useful to the navigation and defense of tilts exist. And it is also supjioscd that, in coUect- V^T these data, information will be accunmiuted that »y b'come ser\iccable in suggesting nnd directing .1 ;jnd general improvements; such us the placing u:A constructing of light-house::, beacons, buoys, ct<\, the r.p J' • "'mproving channels, the efliKt of conteni- plstiU .:., . ictions upon harlwrs and tidid deposits, the in.tablcncss of a submerged soil for Imiiding, etc. And, lastly, it is presumed that those Stales through which the survey passes will, sooner or later, avail themselves of tho base it is able to supply, to form a correct geographical map of their o^^ n territory, undiT circumstances very favorable to economy and nceuru- cy. These are Uio practical liunetits, either direct or incidental, conferred by the roast purvey. In altstract science it has also its n\ission, equally useful and distinguished. It is to contribute » yiart of the means by which tho irregularly elliptical (una of tho earth may he eatisfactoriiy determined, tho varia- tions in local gravitation, their causes, and thencti the internal structure of the earth, bo mado known, and tl'e phenomena of terrestrial magnetism be explained. It will illustrate the astrouo' .ical prcblem of the tides. Its numerous meteorological records will also contrili- nte to a better knowledge of the ciiniotcs of the United States, and of the nature and action of meteoric storms, and thus be of serdce to the farmer as well as the nav- igator. The science of gcodetics prescribei, -he principles upon which a survey of an extended .egion should bo conducted. In the crdinary operations of land survey- ing, the surveyor is pe.niittc 1 to regard his field of work OS a plane surface ; but the engineer who is to conitruct a map of a .hole country-, or of a long line of continuous sea-cuast. must take into consideration the spheroidal figure jf the earth, and present an ex- act delineation of that part of the sphofofd upon which he is employed. This necessity controls the processes used in computation, and the plan of projection upon wliich the detailed result!) are given, whether it be c.-.ll- «d Ji map or chart. Both the projection and the form- ula for computation involve the higher mathematics, and require on acquaintance with the most adv>inred f tate of the niathematico-physical sciences. The system of projection introduced Iiy Mr. HasBl-./ originated with Flamstced. It is the development of a part of the ca'th's surface upon a cone, either a tan- gerrt to « certain latitude, or cutting two given paral- lels and two meridians eijuidistunt from the middle -nc- ridian, and extended on both sides of tho meridiui. ind in Iktitude only so far as to admit of no deviation fronj the real putgnitiuies, such as would be sensible in the detail suneys. In this method of reducing the curved surface of tbe eirth to a plane, the radii of curvsturu of tho parallels and meridians, depending upon tha value given to the expression for the clllpticity, and the assumed form of the globe, are important tcrmi. For practical use, tables have been computed in tho oflice of the coast survey, showing tho length in metres of every minute and second of the arcs of the meridi- ans and parallels comprehended in the maps. It has been found neciissary to recalculate these tables since 1844, on occount of the new value of the clllpticity an- nounced by Besscl, and adopted by the present super- intendent. There will be occasion to recur to this subject. Tho practical operations of the const snrvcy are class- ed under the general heads of triarigulntion, astronom- ical and magnetic observations, tcpography, and hy- drography. Tho fundamental liasis of the survey is a net-work of great triangles, tlio sides of which, varjdng from ten to one hundred and ten miles, are the longest that tho limits of vision or the nature of the countrj' will allow, and hence a mountainous rejjion Is much the most favorable for a first or pninay iriirngtilation, Tho starting line, or first side of tho first triangle, call- ed tho bajte tine, is measured by mochanical means, and this is a labor demanding, as much as any other on the survey, accuracy, a philosophical regard to minute de • tails, and long previous preparation. Observing, in passing, that several kinds of measuring-rods hai c been heretofore used, as wood and glass, and that the appa- ratus of Mr. Ilasslcr consisted of an assemblage of four irfjn bars, each of them two metres in length, with which he obtained excellent results. In 1817 the prtUmitiary measurement of two base lines was made by Mr. Ilass- ler, and in 1834 the length of the same lines was de- termined liy computation, carried from the new base on Tin Island beach. The diflfcrence between the meas- ured and computed lengths of these lines was in one case less than a foot, and in tho other about four inch- es ; the bases themselves were 6"9 and 4'8 miles long. It will, perhaps, best servo to convey an idea of the dif- ficulty of measuring a base-line if some account bo given of Professor liachc's baae-apparatus. The meas- uring bars arc upon tho compensating system, first used by Colonel Colby in (ireat Britain, and by Mr. Ilorden in the trigonometrical survey of tho State of Massachu- setts i but a principle not before applied was introduced iu reference to tho dimensions of the bars, whicli is thus stated. Bars of brass and iron (tho materials employ- ed), of tho same dimensions will not, owing to their dif- ferent conducting powers and specific heats, heat ociual- ly in equal times, and therefore, during changes of tem- perature, the system ceases to bo compensaiing. This Mr. Bache corrected by giving a coating to the liars that made them absorb equally, and by proportioning the sections to each other, so that both would liavu tho same temperature during variable temperatures of the atmosphere. In order to do this satisfactorily, it was necessary to niako direct experiments upon the mate- rials of the bars themselves, after having first arranged them approximately by means of the numbers lakeu from tbe Ixioks. Tho contact between two sets of bars is inado by a blunt knife-edge and a plane of agate, and a lever of contact at the ends of the bars is corrected ijy a level so delicate that several of its divisions make up a quantity entirely insignificant in the measure- ment. The bars ore covered with a doulile conical cose of tin, to keep the fluctuations of the temperaturo within moderate limits, and tho bases on which they arc supported ere covered witli several thickness! s of imperfectly conducting material for the same |mrpose. The length of the apparatus is compared, before and after final measurement, with a stiindard iron bar iliat had 'leeu compared in the coast-survey oflice by means of Mr. Saxton's reflecting pyrometer. By this instrument, a change uf the one hundred thousandth part of nn inch in tlie length of the standard bar is per- ccptilde. To the preceding description it should be added that COA 328 COA the bars (regulated in aizo by the relative speciflc heat* of the two metals) were heated above the poasible tom- peraturo to which they could be exposed in use, in or- der to give them a set. This precaution was at tirst ovcrloolted in the compensation base-apparatus of the British ordinance survey, and it was afterward found necessary to resort to it. Those wha are at ull famil- iar witli the sul)ject will perceive that Professor I)ai:he's application of the lever of contact and level (first used by Rcsscl in standards of measure) has not only great- ly increased the delicacy of the instrument and lessened its complexity, but also removed several sources of er- ror. Uy optical contact, and tho employment of a mi- croscopic apparatus to determine tho distance between tho compensation points, tho measures are repeated in two different terms, each having its peculiar standard. Such was the case in the British ond Indian surveys, and Colonel Everest complains of the consequent lia- bility to error, and the ijurdensomo accumulation of petty corrections. The remcasurement of a bose of seven and a half miles, in India, ditfcred, however, only 2-4 inches from the first length. In a base of seven miles, Professor Bache found that the same difference miH'it bo about 0-5 inch, if all the errors were supposed to fall on the same side, whicli is most improbable. The probal>le error in remeasuring one hundred and twelve yards was loss than five tliousandths of an inch, and tlio actual resulting error in remeasuring one-third of a milo was nothing. This may appear lilte retining too n 'j, but it luust bo known that the linas measured by ttiu same bar in winter and summer might differ materially in nominal length. Tliis difference in tho original base of tho coast survey might bo about twenty feet, and, nt a rougli istimato, an error of twenty feet in this place would amount, In one of tho largo triangles, of which the sides arc between tifty and si.xty miles, to aliout one-tenth of a mile. The source of error and its correc- tion being recognized, there is no other limit to accu- racy tlian the possible. We roium now to tho great triangles of tho survey, whicli, as has liecn said, form its fundamental basis. The points of the jiriniary trianguiation arc selected with scrupulous regard to all those conditions which make triangles, in the teclinieni acceptation, good. Scattered at dislnnt intervals over the vast field of ■work, tlicy are certain guides liy which the more de- tailed opcrntfons are conducted and controlled. With- in tlieni tlie space is subdivided into smaller trlangleu, constituting tlie sccimdai-y and taliary tnanijulatitms. They bring down the work to the minute details of to- pograpliy and hydrography, and theuo subsidiary tri- nngulations and details, circumscribed as they are by tlie primary points, are restrained and corrected by them In their deviations. As an additional explana- tion of the necessity for this first net of great triangles, it may be well to inform the general reader that there is no iiistrument, however delicate in construction, that Is not liable to very small errors, which the most stu- dious attention to every disturbing influence, whether mechanical or nicleorological, can not altogether re- move. Now this primary trianguiation, which in a mountainous region spans the surface w ith giant strides, has fewer of these unaccountable errors, simply Iiecausc it has fewer triangles. It is hardly necessary to add that better instruments also arc used in it. The two and a half feet theodolite, made by Simms (^nfter Troughton's death), under Mr. Ilassler's supervision, and used by him and by Professor Bacbo in the prima- ry trianguiation, is still regarded in this country and in ICurope as a master-piece of invention and mechan- ism. It reads to seconds. Magnetic and astronomical observations accompany (ho primary trianguiation. The latter Lro for lati- tude, longitude, and azimuth, or angular direction from the meridian. Following the secondary trianguiation in order comes the Tiipng]'a]ihy, ||)8 ^uly «(f*♦hi^■f( f« lo delineate faith- fully till.' feitturvs <'f (JM< 0m»ili, H e«hlblls the height and contjuur of iB|wv«(i(««i, itM* dh/tpc and extent of plains, tliu cnmmt iff •IrfAttW^ »\\ (l(e eornstructions of man, and l\m whvjki; imA \mUMh\ inilllne of the shores. It di*liM(jHl«i»Mi( Jhf (il(«(l )«nd from (he pas- turage, and tlci gM'V (mn i\w (iH'hsrd, and m1('( (liMlly to nature. Depending M\mn )M mmmUfj trianguiation and tlia topography Uit i»» numm */*■' progress, follows the IlijirDgrajihn, In fl*W P't'ttt in JHelwded all that con- cerns local n»vig»t)(w, #«4 ((» rt*'((fhn and character of the bottxjiii, tlw iWfmnUm mu\ nmttf^ih ol the currents, the ebb and IfUtm iit iim Ij/t^s, mii\ ((«) Irtformation, com- ing under the ||i/»4 nf mtUiii rtlrtfddhs and nautical instruction, wltM l» »mk« lip (Iw iri«lM«(de knowledge of tho local or gei)«fa( pititt, 'tUU bf awth enjoys the hon- or of annuM"' iMt; hImi miUU'l»\ Ahuifftks of tlie coast survey, which, tlumnU ff^uMlilt (film (he combined op- erations of all, Jtru |r4 lifliUfiUt nlH Uf its means. In (lie preiadiMg p»({W lim pimi fitihe survey is pre- scntcd, and tlw g«H«f«l rfiistfil/Ktiwti of its Inliors is stated ; it roHiwJIis mw U) fWltii nf the e^teciition of the various details, itll4 uf ihf mwlilti tl(«( have lieen con- ferred by the co»»t ^HfVff lipuli «i#h(e, and upon the local and general mmimnf at (lt« *(«intry and of the world. In (liiing iUU H »tll hn tmnl convenient to keep (0 its actual ninUl »< lilin rffty, 1 It would nut Im JMet, inm^t^ft id leave Its past his- tory without » tfimtit lif fwfycel (« (he memory and services of tlie in#n l*y »(W!« (^llifjhtettert efforts a right direction was giyti) Ui llw *tc»(» iif (((« government in founding tha eurvej-, w(im wma filtldlfiit to it (lirougb thirty-five years uf itmhi'mi fw'(t(»(#s, tuui who literal- ly died in (h« pirforMl^M' " lifih rtdtlcsj having written tho last few lines of bis (\»*i fC|«*(t Hflet he fel( that he liad l)een tuuclu>4 |»y f(»t^ Ii»h4 t/f death, iJdiicated in tho best European silmuU u( ttmtff Htiti ptaetice, and devoted to the pursMits (tf m-ktV'i'i (ttf l»hich he was eminently riuaiifted )»y K^lMtVti CHrtw**«ents, Professor Ilassler always liruMgb^ Ui flw (»«(( before him that zeal and tenacity ufpwcpos^ *ll)/)(pit« «piflt to enter- prises of great iiioin«M(, »)((! nMli tiif (hem the name of ootion. Ilii is lionor/jl/lj- fctW/Wtt tin bis matbemat- icul and astroiwmiciil »ri(}))(;e, mui hii; papers in the American l'hilosi»pli)<.»|'|>7M»o»»f i"Hs,( (rtitaiiiing an ac- count of the uieiiwds wiifbijcil itf Idtn on the coast survey, will always tm rtii^ufiM ni » ♦abiable contri- bution to gcodolical hiumhiiui': 'tbmu ^ho knew him intimately praise lUu ^rfU't lif iiU frtpfld«hip and the generosity of liis dispws)(ij*H, wl(il« (be labors of his life, and the nianner Ul V*hi()l tlw-J' «ere performed, bear ample witness to Mi il)4/#S(f >■ (tbd inlegtity. That ho iiad some defects »f i!\mfi*i'lttf H is hardly necessary to say, for this is (|w wttvMiUi iiii lit htimanily ; but they were not such fri it miUifi'!* lt(# exercise of mag- nanimity to forget, «!)'< tiim, wlfii h is rapidly drawing over them tho veil of pffiufrf «)»(•((«(}', #lll endear his name and his virtM«» Ut tl(« fvcfctit «»(1 aifectionate respect of all true Iovaf* of' All»>fU'»n ScieHce. I Un tiie death uf Mr. iim^ixf, Ui 1M»t the appoinl- I ment of his successor w#« fcgdrrtwd *M^ deep interest by tho learned wien of tiwi : vHH(f^< The o(fice of su- perintendent of tli« coast sMrviiM4 ('f ^fMyitUHi in all parts of the country t;nga(i'ud in (li* |'((tsiii(s of lenniinl;. He was educated «( W« Iiahi 8er>'cs as the verlflcatlon>baso of an acyoiniliK sei'llon. The rapidity of this ])lan Is made apparent by I'oniild* ering that all the difivrent pruccitcs uf the t\ir\i'y (In their nc-essary order) may bo conducted at lli« naiiio time i >: ry section, and thus. If tbu approprlalli/nt wer« sufficient, the whole coast might bo eumplelid In the time required for a single divUion of it. Itiil ihU plan accommodates itself more easily to lire iharaetvr of th'.' ground than one in which the direct lun and pruK- ress arc derived from previous connections, liidvfdi every latitude Is allowed for the selection ut ftllis fur liases, and for the most favorable difposillon of thu trl« angles, because each section is for the llnro n distinct undertaking. The combination of all will uiilln tilt extended coast of the United Htales into onu cotiipr** henslvo scheme of ti-iangiilation. The volue of permanent and conspicuous slriii'Dirai of masonr}' to designate points of primary lrlaii(rulA< tion Is not, however, underrated. While linipurary means of elevation are employed, such as lliu htith trU pods, with independent stands for the inslrunieiitu, first used in Delaware Kny by the senior astisliinl ol' tilt sur\'ey, Mr. Kdward Illunt, of New York, it mum lio rB« membered that the coast survey Is i iiubU'd to nvail itself of the light-houses, and otlni lofty slrwcluret along the const. And it may lie Fiifely concluded (hat the governments of the .Sonihern Ktutes will raix: up* propriato edifices at those points of the primary Irian* gulation of the coast survey w liich limit tliu Uamt ut their local operations. Accompanying the primary triangulathin, as an em sentiul part of it, are tlie uatnimmkul ami mnijlifll'' ub' serruliuna. The former arc for a/.lmuth, lulidide, and longitude. For the determination of axfiiiulli*, Mr. Dacho has employed (for the first time on tlie wink) tlie elongations of Polaris in its eastern and tteslein dU gressions. At the time of elongation, w hen the iliiinga in altitude is most rapid, the movement in a/iniulh in nothing ; and thus the opportunity is enjoyed ut iimk- ing careful and dclilierate observations, Tills iiii^tliod is independent of local time, ]ly utlni{ several ujr* cuinelongation olj.-icrvntions, a mean uf u number of rii> suits is substituted for a single one. In this rediiitiun a very simple formula, first invesligated by Mr, Null/, of Philadelphia, has been applied, and the praclfi'ti || simplified by the u?c of tallica fur the conipulaliuiis ut latitude, subjected to a slight trigonometrical ihwiiffit, It is proper to state that this method has been in ii>« oil the survey since iMh, as one similar to It, if not likn* Ileal with it, has recently been communlcaldd tu tilt Roj-al Astronomical Society of Ix'ndon, The superintendent has adojiteil the suggestion uf Itm astronomer roj'al at Grcenw icb, who propoeid tefuftliiij the points of greatest elongation of circiinipular kliirf to marks in the horii'.on, by perpemilcular lliiei dfliilt» ted by means of an altitude and a/liDulh circle, I'',luii< gation signals are estaldishcd aliout two miles ditlnnt, consistftig of a delicate wand by «f ||i« azimuths) are frequent. Since \Mi tu»ti'> ii Xiltluiiq have been occupied for latitude, and seven fur a/innitll, in Sections I., II.. and III, of the survey, A eumpar- ison of the latitudes deduced geailetically from a •i'ii> tral point with astronomical deteriiiiiibtloiis led thu lu* perintendent, in 1844, to tne discovery of i'erli>ln vari' ations in the level, which could only Iw allrllmt«d 10 changes in form and density uf the amtvrUI vviii|i«»< COA 828 COA \tiK tho earth's crust. Tlioao variations ore limilar lo tliusu cau»eil by tho |iroxiiiiity uf iiiuiiiitninn ; l>ut wliilv th« lattur Imvo l)ccii well uiiilorntuod, tho Ibrnior liail osrnpcil iiotlco. Tlio mijiicro"..) ilotcrmiiiations oftlil olcinimt will, thoroforo, occupy .in Important nh. tfao futtiro (lUeussiona of tho ({oncral form anil intt;.i ^' ■triu'turo of tho earth. A similar discovery has sii<" been niado in tho ordinaiico survov of Ireland by Aiu- jor-;ccnoral Colby, and appears U iiavo been anticl- pntud liy Laplace in tho oi)inion given by hlin in the ChaiiiliiT of iVers, in 1H17, u])on tho topographical map of Franco : " If tho latitu- ■erv(Ml, and tlio length of tho seconds pendulum corre- sponding to these points measured, a great deal of light will (lu tliruwn upoti tho llguro of the earth, and upon tho irregularities of its degrees and of gravity." It is very interesting, in this respect, tu kuow that latitudes observed at tho cxtrendties of tlio side of a triangle, and forward anil backward azimuths on the same lino, have dillisred by several seconds, and that these deviations in tho plunil)-lin< ''avo occurred where the want of uniformity («•' "the. .irising from difler- cnces in density, or tho . it of homogeneousnetis of structure) was not appa' -m m a topo'^raphiial feature of tho country. After tu ^omputationa from which the preceding conclusions aie di'ris ed were vciilied, llie results were ootilirmed by llio introduction of new in- strunionts on tho work. During the last year a ircuitb telescope has l>ecn used fu> obtaining tho latitude, by a mcthoil invented by Captain Tulcott, w liich consists in observing tho dill'ercnccs of zenith distances of stu's culminating within a sliort distance of each other, and at nearly tho sanio altituilea, on diU'erent siiles of the zcnilli. Tho eirciimineridian altitudes by tho repeat- ing circle, tho prime vertical transits, and the alisoluto measurement of zenith distances by the zenith sector, arc still used. Observations for the comparison oftheso instruments nnd methods liavo been inudo liy the snporiiitendent, and liy ('aptain T. J. l.ee, of the I'nitcd States Tojio- graphical IC'iginecrs, an assistant in tlio coast survey, ■whose valnatdc labors have been ohietly devoted 'o the astronomical and magnetic observations. Uf tlio mm/- iKlic uhacrealiuns it will bo sullieient to say, as an indi- cation of their character, that they are made witli the now instruments invented liy Dr. Lloyd and 5Iv. 'Weber. Tho portable declinometer of Mr. Weber (perfected liy Lieutenant liiddic, and manipulated according to Ids instructions) measures inclination, and, by a (^ulisidia- ry apparatus, tho horizontal force, by tho method of Gauss. Fox's dip circle, with the use of the dellecling magnet, has given verj' satisfactory results. By means of these instruments, the ilccUiiativn, inclination, and intrnsili/ (liorizontul ond vortical) aro determined in n manner that supplies all that is practically necessary, and contributes valuable additions to general magnetic rcsearclics. Longitudes have been determined by occnitatlons, eclipses, inoon-culminatioiis, ond the freipicnt trans- portation of chronometers. Mr, Hond, the director of the observatory at Cambridge, Massachusetts, com- municates tho meridian ditl'erences by chronometers between tho Itritish observatories and Boston. All determinations of this element are referred to .I princi- piil port on tho sca-coost^ and are connected in tho ag- gregate willi dlfl'prences obtained from Europe by chro- nometricand a^trononli^al comparisons. The security a(?aiiist error afl'orded by employing jiersons to com- pute who are disconnected with the duties of tho field or the observatory, is well undorstoo- servations wcro consi(,ncd to Sir. S. C. Walker. Tlie rolluwiug concise account of tho manner of transmit- ting tho signals, of tho possible errors of obsorv .tioi\, and of tlio real value of tho re >ults, is from the pen of Dr. Baclio : "Tho signals aro given at one of the sta- tions by pressing a key, which causes a closing of tho circuit. This closing, it is Intended, shall lie simulta- neous with the ticking of r clock or chronometer at tho station. Tlic circuit beuig clo.cd, if the electrical wavo or current takes a sensiblo t'mo to propagate itself, or to puss from on.' u. lui .lotlier, the absolute time ill which the signal read, .s tlio second or receiving staliiin is sensiljly diil'crent from that of making tho signal at tliu llrst or giving station, A coil about tho poles of a horse-shoo iiiagn<.t of soft inm furiiis part of the circu' thro " >i which tho electrical ell'ect is trans- mitted. Undci' its inlluenco tho soft iron becomes magnetic, attracting tho soft iron bar (armatura or keeper) delicately po' \ at a determined ilistuncc from the poles of the magi.< c; the inovjmeiit of this keeper jets in action a local batter^', which gives sullieient power to make the dots and lines constituting the Morse telegraphic signals. Tiio click of tie' keeper of this temporary magnet is cortiparcd, at the neciving sta- tion, with tliut of a clock or chronometer, tlius marking the time at which tho signal made ut a known time at the giving station is received. From this explanation, it appears that there is liability to error." Dr. llaclio then proceeds to enumorato llvn possible errors, njnibered in ordir, and shows that tho iiunicr- icul values can bo i,. , wli cose assigned to two (viz. 1 and Ti), and t) at one (i i/. ') Is iusensilde. A conipar. ison of tho observations Moves that tho errors denoted by 3 and 1 are canceled liy a very small residual ipian- tity having the opposite sign, and "the interesting conseiiuenccs follow, tiiat ' tho lelegiaphic method of comparing clocks, distant t>v'o liundred miles from each other, is free from erni .en the method of coincidence of beats is employed ; > tiiat llie probulde error of tho longitude, from tJi iiiethod, is tiio same as the mean result of the coiiipal ' relative correction of the clocks for tho night8o''obBet>utian.' An investigation of tlio probaldc value >.' such error shows that, under favorable astronomical circunistancc«, and witli 'ju> earo in tho use of liio transit instrument, 'the astro- nomical ditVerenco of longitude lielweeii any two sta- tions of n trigonometrical f irvey may be determined by telegraphic signals, witli a degree of precision of tho same order as that of 'itVerenco of latitude,' the inac- curacy depending upo tlio snnio causes as tlie devia- tion of tho plumb-line. Before concluding w ith the primary triangulatiou, it must bo observed tliat Dr. Ilaclic uses reciprocal ■. .' cal angles for determining dilFerenccs of heights at the primary stations. These angles may bo measured at a tiniu of day when it is iinpraclicaole to observe horizontal angles, and the ef- fect of refraction near the surface is Investigated by a ioiig series of observation . The space circu iscribed by tho terrestrial angles i i no first order, and defined by the celestrial observations that accompany them, is subdiv ided into u minute net-work of smaller triongles, constituting the aecondarn and Ur'.iary trinnffulrUioiu, 'lie points of w hicli embrace and dot ^' mine headlands, ligiil-iiuiiscs, beacons, churches, hills, tiid all conspicu- ous objects along tho c<"-.«t, tliat can be made useful in its navigation. They also bring down the work to the details of tho to; ^grtpliy and hydrograjihy, and sup- ply the bos* 'i 'i, ' ranches of the survey. It has bof ' > ^' mentioned that tho topography is minutely m.l ^n—.y Juocriptivc of the ground, both in form anu char.tcl"> The Lehman system of topo- graphical drawin)^ i, < i ci n adopted, but with such COA 826 COA inodlC i' lit at (lie nature oriliU country o .»•" .In orUur to |ii«Hrve tha Iwauty of tin- nitpi. 1 he aloptt ■re reprcKDled liy liuliurua, tl,e HI ii,;lh and "toncii apart ofwhich liidlca'e thu tlo'.oe of inclinalh .'j. In tka original nin|i», tlio horizontal CMrvci llinltin){ the illHbrent alupca ant drawn in rud ink, ai the draughts- man prnKruMca in Ilia ahoct. The aralu oflhu i>ri)(inal ahcet la l oion , or about (•} . Incbea KuKlioh to the mile. I'lana iiru l'ri'(|uc'ntly exe- cuted in the tluld, and furniahcd from the ottit'r, when wanted for local improvement, on t» icu thia acalo. Hut tha charta dexlgned for nnvi);atnra are iiocraaarily rr- duced in dimenalon. The harbor chnrla are publiahi'd on the acalo of ^fn^^pr '"' '»'«"" -'i InclicH Kngliah, and the mora general charta on that of miiioo ' '"' ot>"'>t three-fourtha of an inch to the niilo; nlilili last ia the acale of the iV(i< to|iographlcal niiip of I'ranco. In all the mapa, the topographical detaila are faithfully pru- a«r>'ed, including height, contour, etc. It appear* from the report of the council of the Koy- al Aalronumiral Society to the Iwrnty-acvunth annual general meeting, that a ainillar acalo of execution, and an equal lldelity of repreaentalbin in the topogrnpiilcnl detaila, have been Ihmlly attained in the ordinance mapa of Kngland and Irrlaiid. In both tho American and Knglish nia|ia, the aubdivisiona of tho uieridiana and parallela are ao minute, ttiat parta of a second of apace can lie eatimated. Aa tjio lirat object of tho coaat aurvey ia tho knowl- edge nf our own ahorea and inland watcra, and the gen- eral improvement uf the navigation, both external and internal, of the coaat, ao tho large clasa of facta and re- aearchea embraced in tho general term hyiii-ngruplnj ore nxardej na being of paramount iniportdncc. It ia to the hydrograpliy that the frienda of tlie coast aurvey direct tho public attention for tho oviiK wxh i f ita great practical utility, and the diacovefii-.^ In t'') depart- ment have been ao numerous and > JuksI.' ...- to secure for it a high degree ufpulilic favc; i he llr t popular inquiry concerning the const mu ^-v ■" "» '" the prog- ress it has made, and ti'.a inquir,t h t.ti'vny-ii by learn- ing the extent of tho ahore lino ovoi i< ii<. u tho hydro- grapher has passed. Hut Iwfure estiniaiing its per- formance in thia way, it is necraiiary to say, that, as tho operations of the triangulations, etc., must precede tho hydrography, this leads to an unfair eatii-.ate. The hydrography cun only bo laid down when the trigono- metrical points on which its operations aro bated have been established ; thus two-thirds of tho work may lie completed wlicn tho hydrographical lal>ora commence. In 1841, the iirst year of Dr. IJache's aiiperintendcnce, nine States on tho Atlantic sea-board shared in the benefits conferred by tho coast survey; in 1846, thir- teen Statea; in IMIi, fifteen; and in 1H47, eighteen Statea. Tho eatiniatcs for tho jiresent year include all the SiMes on the Atlantic and tho Gulf of Mexico, and it may bo inferred at once from thia statement thai, if antficient appropriations aro supplied by Con- gresa, a delinite and nut diatant period can be assigned for tho completion of the whole work. Having premised thia statement, which was neces- sary to give a correct idea of the progress of the work, it may be added that the nautical jiarts of tho survey have extended generally from Nantucket Sound to Hampton Koads nearly, including the Vineyanl Sound, Block Island and Long Island Sounds, with all their harbors, great and small, New York Hay and harlmr, Delaware Hay and river, a large part of Chcaapeake Bay, together with most of the rivera emptying into It north of the Potomac, and all the external aca-coast, from the southern coast of Massachusetts to the Capes of tho Delav.arp. In this broad field a little remains to be done, but very little in comparison with tho whole. In addition to the above, something has been acicjui- plished in the hydrography of Albemarle and Mi.-'sis- sippl Sounds, and in the latter especially great benefits have already resulted to its local commerce. It will give, perhaps, the l> ' idea of the valiin of the hydiugraphicul wurk to enumerate aomo uf 'i|»)a diacoveriea and corrections which, in ilitlcrcnl |iiaij>a, have signalized the progreaa uf the roast aurvr; , '\.\\i< flrat uf these In order and in merit in the di»c< v<'ry ui • new channel, straighter and deeper than the channels before known, over the outer bara uf New York harbor. Hui'h a gift aa this to the first cuninicniiil city uf tho ruiitincnt,where it was very much nctilid, ought to gain permanent favor for the entcr|>rlM' by w hicb it has been made. Important changes in the main ahip-diannel near Sandy llouk were llrbt nuticcd by Jl^jor HlcIic, uf the Topugruphicol Kngineera, by a c ('nlpari^on of bis own limits with those of the coaat aurvey in 1842, and this discovery has since been confirmed by the latter. So rapid haa been the accumulation iipun the extreme puintofthe Huuk, that thehigh-wntcr mark now stands wlicru there whs a depth of 40 feel in IWIO. '1 he ( liani- ber of Commerce of New York hna gratifully ttiknc*!- edged the communication of this ini| uriiint tact by the pi'v^eiit superintendent. In lUluuure Hay u new iind straight chaimel waa discovered, lying parallel tu thu main ship-channel, more narrow than the lutlcr, but likely to prove serviceable in scant winds, and jjcller sheltered from floating ice. Three dmnnils were o|)ened through the ridgea of CajKi SIny, and apnraiigc made known through tho "Over-falls." 'I be future changca in the latter, which may prove to I e the germ of a new paaa to tho ocean, will be watched with inter- est. Tho result of the survey in iJeluware Hay lina been wholly to change the form of the butlum, as it stood un the old charts. Some shoals have been cruM-d altogether, a new one near the deep water uf the chaii- nel-way has been added, and the limits, hlinpe, depth, and direction of every shoal in the bay have been al- tered. In Long Lsland Sound, Buzzard's Hay, Ma.'fachu- setts Hay, and Chesapeake Huy, no niiii h lins been add- ed tu the sal'cty uf nnvigutiun by laying duwii posiiiuns curreclly, and by good sailing dircilions, but chiclly I by the actual discovery of useful channels or uf hidden I and unknown dangers, that a list of these addilions > alone would occupy too much S])acc. In Long Island I .> fathoms, divides itselfinto two principal i)runi'hcs,sppariited by a portion of cold water, ami that tiio transition from tlie cold wa- ter, alon)( and next to the cojisl, Is almost instantaneous, •s if til* two were separated by a nearly perpendicu- lar \v ill, Hili^htiy inclinint; to the cast at the top." Thi- suliJL'ot of tlio tides is now rcceivlnK for the llrst time, ill tliH country, proper nttentiun. The tide-lu- Idos un (III! charts contain all the Information an to times, liel^hts, and durations, that Is reipiired in prac- tice, Corructol establishments are deduced fnnn tiie moans of the luni-tidal intervals comtiined fureucli half- hour uriraiisit, 'I'lia astronomical probicin of tiie tides Is worked out fir prominent points wliero thu observa- tions liiive sulllciently ucuumuiuted. The nii'nn curves of semi-nienstnial inc()uniily nf time anil lieijrht, corrected for thu mean annual paral- lax and docliiialiun, arc compared with tho curves of observation (freed from the diurnal ine(|uaiity) at each aemi-lunatiou, and tho variations in the times and hei^lils of lii^h water, duo to chauKcs in thu moon's dec- lination ami dl.itnnce from tlio earth, are tatiulated for the future improvenieni f tlio tide-tables. Ity llie continuance of careful and constant observa- tions, the means will be supidied of addiiif; to tlie kmiwicdffo of the diurnal and solar inc(|ualities, and of slmlyiuKaii other phenomena of the tides. The resid- ual errors that ajipeur in tlie seini-nien.strHttl curves, after eliminntin); IliiullVcts of parallax and declination, are caii.sed by ntiunsplieric cliangcs. Tiio local iiitlii- cuce; therefore, of particular u inds, and the general ef- fect of changes ill tiie pressure of tho atmosphere, aro to he inveHti);ated, ami enoui;ii is already known to prove that the seaman will derive great prolit from tliis part of tile labors of tho toast survey, 'I'lie direction and velocity of lldai currents are now carefully determined for the normal condition of the tides, and for their dis- turbance iiy winds and storms, and a itnowlege of tho courses and conHicIs of the liilea in the liarbor.s and in- land waters of the United .States (us Long Island and Vineyard Sounds) will also result from tho comparison uf numerous records, kept Willi a special view to their investigiltion. To the preceding account of tho operations of the coast survey it must bo added, that tho reductio-i of tlie maps to tho scale of publication, thu engraving and printing of them, aro entirely executed in tlie ollico ot Woahiiigton. An exception is made in tho engraving of the smaller harbor maps, particularly of tho harbors of refuge. They arc sonietimcs placed in the hands of private artists, wiiich serves the double object of an earlier publication and of encouraging tho art of map- engraving in this country. Tho propriety of publish- ing to the world the important results of the const sur- vey as soon as obtained was immediately recognized by Professor Kache. In the case of a discov jry aflecting the general navigation of the coast, like that of tbe " New South Shoal," a " preliminary sketch," antici- pating tlie complete chart, has been freely distributed. In other casoa, information has been diEsemtnatcd througli tho press, or furnished by authority, to chart- «( Hera. The oflice at Waaliington contains also work- shops, at whifli tho various instruments of tho aurvev aro repaired and made. Ail tho dotalla of tho olBc« duties, whether relating tu tho vcrilicatlun and engrav- ing of maps, or thu occupation of tiie workmen, in the absence of the auperlnteiident, are under the direntiun uf I'aptain A. A. Humphreys, of thu Topographical Kngineera, an asilataiit. As tlio uperatiuna uf tlie cooat survey are numerous and variuua, and its duties very multiplied ill detail and conipUcatud in tiieir ronnec- tiun, it will bo readily liclicved tliat thu dlructlun and ttdjusliiu It of tliem — tin tiructloiis, tlio repuils, and them — make the ullico of ' labor and respoiislltil- lii Ilii'Se duties. Dr. nary triungulatiun lietlicr geodetic, or either made by hiintelf '!<>'< In tliu aaiiie man- for Hectlun VIII,, iiaiii triaiiguiation iiigtiiii. Inawork , uc> usionai iiiillrcct con- ronimuiiicatluns arUi superiiileiident one i ity. Ilcsldes persui llucbe occupies the atair at the north, and tile (il asirononiical, or nn or under liisiiniutHl. ner he has aisi; iiiea .re. un Uaiipliin Island, •ml acruhs frum tliu (.'iiesapc.i uf such niiignltudo and e. triliutluns to knowtedgo may bo expected, and tlierc it every disposition to uiako tiiein, A point of interest to tlio geologist, dovoloped by tho operations of the coast snrvey, is tin- changes that aro coii.slanlly occurring in diirerent parts of the coast. Ill this respect its present accurate determinatinns will furnish in future thu means of interesting; comparisons. It must be remarked here, also, that too mucli import- ance can not bo ossigned to this view of tiio resiills of the coast survey. With regard to most harbors of conseiiuence, the question is repeatedly asked wliether they have undergone any change ; and tliis ipiestion can rarely bo satisfactorily answered, for tho want of a correct standard of comparison. The charts of the coast survey will enalile tlie future hydrographop to point out the changes, if any, and the future engineer, in his endeavors to improve or to preserve tlie channels of navigation, will, by a careful study of these changes, be aide to guard ogainat liio causes of olistruction, and loco-operate intelligently with natural laws, instead of blindly opposing tiieir cll'ects. Thu manner In which barbgrs are atfectcd by the matter hold in suspension by tile rivers emptying into them, that is, the place aud form ill wliidi this matter is deposited, will receive such elucidation from the inciiiiriea of tho coast survey as will assist the counsels of thu constructing engineer, Tho charts of the coast survey exhibit, as far as they go, a view of tlin topographical formation of tlio bottom of the sea. Specimens aro collected, and preserved in tliu office, of the bottom in all its varieties, and it was the intention of tho late Lieutenant Bacbe to form a geological map, on which the materials thus collected slioulil appear, in tho natural order of their formation, Uesides serving as useful indications to tlio navigator and pilot, they prove to be, wiicn placed under the mi- croscope, liighly interesting to tho naturalist. The doep-sott soundings have been examined by Professor I. W. liailey, of West Point, and have been found to be tilled with organisms, particularly those of the cal- careous polytlialamia,toan amount that is really amaz- ing, hundreds of millions existing in every cubic inch. " One specimen, from tlie depth of ninety fathoms, is crowded with remains, most of them large enough to be recognized iiy a practiced eye w ithout the aid of a mngnifler." And it is not impossible that, in similar cases, science may supply tho mariner with another mode recognizing the character of the bottom. In 18 17, Professor L. Agossiz, of Cambridge, accompanied one of the hydrogra|ihical parties engaged in the oflf- .shore work, by the invitation of its commander, and enjoyed an opportunity of examining tho animals In- haliiting depths that are rarely accessible. It proved to bo a rich field of discovery. Not only many new species, but several now genera, were added to the known lists ; tho suliject of embryology received fresh illustrations, and a new light was tlirown upon the IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 1.1 ^U& MIL ■so ■^~ MHi ■^ ^ 12.2 i*a 12.0 lU 111 Mil I'-^^i'-^pi < 6" t, HiotDgraphic Sciences Corporation 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14SM (716) •72-4503 COA. J98 COA laws of the geographical dietribution of animali, show- ing that in the different depths of the lea, as in the eleva- tions of the land, distinct families liave each their a»- tigned and native dwelling-place. It would lead to but a partial estimate of the value of the coast survey to omit these examples of its inci- dental iMnefits to Imowledge. There are others upon which there is not room to dwell. The friends of this work have reason to be satisfied with its progress, and It ia confidently l>elieved that they may lay aside all apprehensions for its future prosperity. It testa upon the firm support of a controlling pubUc opinion in the government and among the people. Working, as it does, in a field that is useful and honorable, and Iwing conducted in all its branches with aeal and efficiency, it can not fail to add every year to the consideration with which it is now regarded, not only at home, but in every country where science and its application to the arts of life are justly appreciated. — American At- manae/or 1849. BncLTB or thi Coast Sdbtet at Dimnmr Pebiods, fboh 1844 to 1854, PnTlooi to 1844. ri<>ml844 tolSti. FcrlUi, For leu. Total ftom biflllilnc of Bunay. »,«4S 80,648 . 1,706 6 1,708 6 48,804 1 6 9 8 S 14 4 4 34 Wt 64 4* 18* 106i 0,078 17,294 1,708 8,089 ^*;JS 810 978 224 IM MIB 6,427 900 688 11,430 TBO 1,160 223 324 2,867 1,133 2,008 446 840 8,083 IB 71 14 7 107 44 244 86 » 868 82 6 66 P 44 17 20 00 1 27 18 ""6 81 67 :;," 116 8 18 4 6 IS 16 7 187 8,822 8,967 601 661 11,341 6,100 7,088 1,801 16 1,468 14 16,902 0,628 20,980 ■■"o "lO .... 808,147 1,862,009 1,466 148,108 288,876 806,877 8,263,908 1,466 143,108 108 174 66 6 8 100 6 8 488 821 31 80 481 1,827 4,846 262 106 60)29 166 • 187 20 84 416 127 172 26 49 873 826 899 174 133 1,082 610 768 228 216 1,821 07 183 83 64 327 17 149 48 89 243 4 43 7 6 60 87 260 73 76 426 78 168 72 101 409 188 990 306 188 1,667 28 70 27 16 140 127 490 180 128 888 • ••• 609 183 114 846 ■ « • 320 26 6 252 666 8,110 763 717 6,166 1,678 171 873 • 3,117 6 40 8 4 62 «... 66 38 47 125 .... 87 6 6 47 .... 16,801 6,700 8,048 39,342 .... 28,077 6,866 4,876 39,818 . , , , 67,001 81,818 24,070 112,895 ..,. tlOT,004 «8,8Se «6,296 $176,236 HeoonuoiManoe : ueaiDsqusre miles , putiet, number of BasoUneB: number of. {)raUmbiai7, number of. ength ot, la miles Triangulalion: area in square miles , , extent of coast line, in ml'.ea extant of shore line, In piiles horizontal angle stations, number of points dotemUncd, number of. vertical angle stations, number of heights determined, number of Agronomical stations: azimutb, number of. latitude, number of longitude, number of latitude, extra, number of longitude, extra, number of, JIagnetle stations, number of Triangula tion parties, number of, Astronomical parties, numlier of, HagneUo parties, number of Topography : area in square luUes lengtli of shore line, in miles Topographical parties, number of, Hydrograpby: area in square miles parties, number of soundings, number of soundings in Gulf Stream for temperature ikthomsof line used in same tidal stations, number of tidal parties, number of cunv^nt parties, number of, current stations, number of ,- specimens of bottom, number of, Topogmpbioal maps (original), number of Hydrographical maps (original), number of Beductlons and other maps Total number of manuscript maps Becords of trlangnbitious (original), number of volumes Records, astronomical (original), number of volumes Kecordi. magnetic (original), number of volumes Duplicates of the above, number of volumes Computations, number of volumes Hydrographical books, munding j (original), number of volumes and angle observations t (duplicates), *' Hydrographical books, tidM and / (original), " current observations ) (duplicates), " Hydrographical books, tidal leduetlons, number of volumes. ... Total recoids, number of volumes library, number of volumes Engraved plates of maps, number of. Engraved pistes electrotyped, number of Published maps, number of Printed sheets of maps distributed, number of. Printed sheets of maps, sale agents, number of Total number of printed sheets Instruments, cost of, C'fteral List ofCoatt Survey Diicover--'< cnch") and Bon . has been le an im- { colony, ared witb ircc; but various tates. It If a grain consider- Inrope, to are two domesti- \a, or fine ityhtttra. ter, prob- le favora- lioas and JO Cactus [cochineal jch is cul- le period, a pound, y feed by [n boiling U in the [f tcariet, jatery in- bf a deep [or rather mtaining ipearanco \ei», of a I a vrhlte they Buf- Bancroft k "large, [surface." duBt, is inned of grana tglvettra. The insects of which it consists are smaller than those composing the fine cochineal, and it does not yield more than a third part of the coloring matter that is yielded by the latter. The cochineal insect was introduced into India in 1795 ; but a very inferior sort only is produced. It has also been intro- duced into Java and Spain, but with what success re- mains to be seen. — Thomson's Dispeiuatorj/ j Ban- CKOFT on Colon, etc. The cochineal plant (Cactus cochiuiUifer), or some of its congeners, is found in varying abundance through- out the ton-id zone, as well as in several warm and temperate countries without the tropics. But much doubt still exists as to what particular species nour- bhes the cochineal insect, as it is believed that the plant which was named by Linneus, and which has been almost universally called Cactus cochiuiUifer, is not the one that produces the best Mexican cocbiueal ; nor is it positively known in what part of America it was originally a native. Linnoeus speaks of it as indige- nous to Jamaica, and the warmer parts of the Kew World; but others assort that it was brought &om South America by a Spanish priest. Cochin China. This extensive kingdom is situ- ated in the Bouthern extremity of Asia, and forms part of the peninsula between China and Hindostan. It is not separated, however, by any distinct boundary from the ncigl^boring countries ; and its limits have been greatly'exteuded by conquest beyond those of Cochin Chuia proper, which is merely a strip of land between the China Sea and the mountains, and is not above sixty or seventy miles broad. The empire of Cochin China, which took its present form in the be- ginning of the present century, comprehends Cochin China proper, Tonquin, the principal part of Cambo dia, and the little state of Chiampa. This state, as it has been ag^jrandizej ^y conquest, extends from the point of Cambodia, in about 8° 30' N. lat., to the north- em confiiies of Tonquin, which reach within a very few miles of the tropic of Cancer, and from the longi- tude of 102° to about 109° E. It is bounded on the north by the Chinese Quangsi orKiangsi and Yunan; on tue west by the kingdoms of Laos and Siam ; while the Gulfs of Siam, Tonquin, and the China Sea bound it on the southwest, east, and northeast. Its area is es- timated at about 98,000 square miles, and its popula- tion at from 12,000,000 to 16,000,000. This great coun- try is divided by long ranges of mountains, which run nearly north and south, and in almost parallel chains, forming it into separate provinces, divided by physical boundaries, and inhabited by distinct tribes and na- tions, although subject to the same sovereign. By these mountainous ridges Tonquin and Cochin China proper are separated from Lactho, Laos, and Cambo- dia. Another chain separates the three latter states fVom Siam and China, and gradually diminishes in height as it approaches the south, terminating at the ■outliern extremity of Cambodia. The soil in Cochin China, especially in the low lands, is fertile, and its products are very valuable. Of these rice, as being the general food of the people, is the sta- ple commodity ; and after supplying the wants of the people, about 100,000 piculs remain annually for ex- portation. The cultivation of the sugar-cane, as well as the preparation of sugar, has of late years much in- creased ; and the annual exportation of sugar is con- sidered to be not less than 70,000 piculs. Cotton of the best quality is produced on the coast ; and of this probably about 60,000 piculs are exported. Though raw silk is produced, it is principally for home con' iumption. Cinnamon ranks hi^h among its produc- tions, and has always been celebrated in China. In the southern parts the cocoa-nut growv very luxuriant- ly, and hence there is a large exportation of oil. Pep' per of a good quality, but in small quantity and of a high price, is produced in the centr; 1 provinces of Co- «Un China ; but the quantity is in»dequate to the de- mand which the Chinese trade creates for its export*- tion. It grows among the central mountains of Cochin China, whence it is exported to Cambodia andTonquin, but principally to China, where it is much more highly valued than any other quality of tliis aromatic. An- other exclusive product of tbo central parts of the king- dom, which is extensively ctdtivated and sent to the neighboring provinces, is tea, which ia very coarse and only used by the poorer classes. The other productions of the country arc, gamboge, gum, cardamoms, eagle- wood, areca-palm, betel-nut, ivory, stick-lac; hides, consisting of deer-skins, buffalo, elephants', and rhi- noceros hides ; peltry, consisting of tiger, leopard, ot- ter, and cat skins ; feathers, salt fish, horns and bones, dye-woods, and woods for ship-building and for domes- tic purposes. Valuable timber is only found in Cam- bodia, and a small quantity of teak-wood is found in the forests ; also ebony cedars, mimosas, walnuts, iron- wood, and poon, and most of the other trees found in the woods of India. The wood used for ship-building and for domestic purposes is strong and durable, and is carried to the capital in large quantities. There is a hard, black wood extensively used in cabinet-work, and of large dimensions, which takes a fine poliiih, and might form an article of exportation. Cambodia also produces the Portuguese rose-wood, which the Chinese export as they do from Siam ; also sandal-wood and other scented woods. Among the products of Tonquin is a species of vegetable root, a cheap material, which forms the dead-weight of all the Chinese cargoes ex- ported from Tonquin, and is used extensively both throughout Cochin China and the adjacent countries, and also in China, as the material of a red d^-e. Edible birds'-nests, the sea-slug usually called biche-de-mer, or SipuHculus edulis, and various marine productions of a gelatinous quality, form standing articles of trade with China, and are always in demand. The geological formation of Cochin China is primi- tive ; the mountains are chiefly composed of granite and sienite, Uica slate and primary limestone here •nd there occur, while several hills consist of quartz rock. Among the mountains of Tonquin is the only portion of the Cochin Chinese empire which produces iron, gold, and silver. The iron received from these mines, which is as cheap as that from Siam, supplies the. whole kingdom, with the exception of Saigun, which is furnished from the latter country. Gold dust is found in many of the rivers ; and there are immense rocks of marble situated on the banks of the Kiver Faifo, on a kind of sandy plain, of which large quan- tities have been exported. This remarkable range of limestone rocks rises almost perpendicularly from the low sand hilb, to a height of from 300 to 400 feet, with- out a hill or mountain near them. The foreign trade of the Cochin Chinese is almost exclusively with China; the trade carried on with Siam being inconsiderable, and that with European nations still smaller. But there is no indisposition to trade, though among the Enropean nations the notion has been propagated by travelers that the resort of European traders is in a great measure interdicted in this kingdom, on the same principle as in Japan and China. In 1818, a new tariff was imposed on foreign vessels, by which the high duties imposed on all for- eign vessels prior to 1818 were repealed, and equal du- ties substituted in their stead. By this regulation all vessels pay a rated measurement duty, moderate in its amount, and are exempted from all import duties pay- able previous to 1818, Vessels that are driven into the ports of Cochin China by stress of weather, or that visit them for the purpose of commercial inquiries, are free from all charges. Besides the exports above men- tioned are cardamoms, betel-nut, eagle-wood, dye- woods, stick-lac, gamboge, ivory, elephants' hides and bones, and rhinoceros bones. The imports are silk goods of various kinds, the coarser kinds of teas, coarse china-ware, paper, cotton and woolen stufia, iron, opi- coo m COD vm, entleiy, ato. Of the Internal trade of the ooimtty, though conelderable, little is knovm. The trade with China is chiefly conducted with Cachao In Tonquin, Salgun In Cambodia, and Falfo and UuA In Cochin China. Then U also some inconsiderable interconrse with other parts of the empire. Cochin China, flnm Its central situation, Ita naviga- ble riven, and Its many excellent harbors, possesses extraordinaiy advantages for commerce. Few coun- tries ara so amply provided with harbors, there being within the 0^° of latitude which intervene between Cape St James and the Bay of Turon no less than nine of the finest harbors in the world, accesnible in every wind, quite safe to approach, and affording the most complete protection. The Bay of Turon, situated in lat. 16° T N., is equaled by few in the iiastem World, and surpassed by none for the security and con- venience which It affords. — £. B. Cooket, In Commerce, a scroll of parchment, sign- ed and delivered by the ofHcers of the custom-house to merchants upon entering their goods, to certify that their merchandise Is customed and may ha discharged. Oook-plt, of a ship of war, the apartment of the surgeon and his mates appropriated to the use of the wounded in time of action. It is situated under the lower deck, Iwlow the water-line. Cookswain (pronounced ear«i>), an officer on board of a man-of-war, who has the care of a Ijoat or sloop, and who must be always ready with his gang or crew. He sits in the stem of the Iwat, which he steers, and has a whistle to summon his men. Ooooa, or, more properly, Caoao (Fr. and Sp. Ca- cao I Ger. Kakao), the seed or nuts of the cocoa-tree (Theobroma cacao), growing In the West Indies, and in many parts of South America. It is said, by Mr. Bry- an Edwards, to bear some resemblance, both in size and shape, to a young black-heart cherry. The nuts are contained in pods, much like a cucnml>er, that proceed Immediately from all parts of the body and larger branches ; each pod contains fh>m ten to thirty nuts, of the size of large almonds, very compactly sot. The shell of the nut is of a dark brown color, brittle and thin; the kernel Is, both Intenally and externally, brownish, divided into several unequal portions, ad- hering together, bat separating without much difficul- ty; it has a light agreeable smell, and an nnctuous, bitterish, rather rough and peculiar, but not ungrateful taste. The nuts should be chosen full, plump, and shining, without any mnstiness, and not worm-eaten. They yield, by expression, a great deal of oil; but they ara cultivated only that they may be employed in the preparation of the excellent beverage cocoa, and the manubcture of chocolate, of which they form the principal ingredient. The finest cocoa is said to be that of Socomnsco. The principal importatijns were for- merly derived from the Caraccas and Guayaquil, partic- nlarly the former, the cocoa of which is also the more '"aluable. The exports fh>m Venezuela amounted in 1851 to 8,169,905 pounds, worth $1,299,C31. M. Hum- boldt estimated the consumption of cocoa in Europe in 1806 at 23,000,000 pounds, of which Avm 6,000,000 to 0,000,000 were supposed to be consumed in Spain. The production of cocoa was languishing in the Caraccas for several years previously to the commencement of the disturbances in South America ; and latterly the culti- vation of eofffee seems to have been in most parts gain- ing the ascendency. — Hcmboldt, Pert. Narrative, vol. iv. p. 386-247, Engl, transl. In 1851 the exports of ooflbe from Venezuela amounted to 87,968,081 pounds. Cooo, Coker, or, more properly, Coooa-nnta (Qer. Koioaiam ; Dn. Koiomooten ,• Fr. and Sp. Cocoi ; It. Cocda; Ross. Koihot; Sans. NarHcM), the flruit of • s(>ecles of palm-tree (Coeot nucifera, Linn.). This tree is common almost every where within the tropics, and is extremely v|iluable ; being to the palmlvorous inhabitants of many parts of Ceylon, BrazM, and other intertropical regions, not manly their principal wealth, but almost their entire dependence. Every part of tha tree is appropriated to some peculiar purpose ; and an Indian with a garden containing twelve cocoa-nut trees and two Jack-trees Is said to be comparatively Independ- ent I But we may observe that this facility uf olitain- Ing subsistence is not an advantage, but the reverse ; Indolence and a want of civilization being its Invariable accompaniment. The tree grows to the height of from 60 to 00 fccL; it has no branches, but the leaves are ttom. 12 to 14 feet in length, with a very strong middle rib. The Ihtlt Is nearly as largo as a man's head ; the external rind Is thin, tough, and of a brownish-red color. Beneath this there is a quantity of very tough ' fibrous matter, which is used In the manufacture of cordage and coarse sail-cloth. It is buoyant and ex- tremely well suited for ropes of largo diameter ; and until the introduction of chain cables a majority of tha ships which navigated the Indian seas were supplied with cables of this material. Within the fibrous coat- ing is the shell of the nut, which Is nearly globular, very hard, susceptible of a high polish, and used for many domestic purposes ; the kernel is white, in tasta and firmness resembling that of a hazel-nut ; It Is hol- low In the interior, the hollow being filled with a milky fluid. While the nut is green, the whole hollow of the shell is filled with fluid, which is reft^shing, agree> able, and pleasant to the taste. The solid part of tho ripe kernel Is extremely liutritious, but rather indi- gestible. The kernels yield by expression a great deal of oil, which, when recent. Is equal to that of sweet almonds ; but it soon becomes rancid, and Is then em- ployed by painters. A tree generally yields about 100 nuts. In clustera, near the top, of about a dozen each. The wood of the tree is made Into boats, rafters, the A-ames of houses, and guttera to convey water. The leaves are used for thatching buildings; and are wrought Into mats, baskets, and many other things for which osiers are employed in Europe ; so that every part of It Is applied to some useful end. If the body of the tree be bored, there exudes from the wound a white liquor, called palm wine or toddy. It is very sweet when fl^sh ; kept a few hours, it be- comes more poignant and agreeable ; but next day it begins to grow sour, and In tho space of 24 liours is changed into vinogar. When distilled, it produces the best speclos of Indian arrack ; it also yields a great deal of sugar. Toddy Is obtained from several species of palms, but that of the Cocot nucifera is the best. — (SeeMARsnALt. on theCocca-nut Tree; AinihiK'sMateria Inditxt. An improvement effected in the preparation of cocoa-oil has made it of much importance in the arts, by rendering it available In the manufacture of candles and soap, and for various purposes to which it was not previously applicable. The palm-oil met with In the market Is not obtained trota the Cocot nucifera, but from nnotherspedesof palm. It Is chiefly import- ed from the coast of Guinea. — See Palm-oil. Cocoa-nuts are produced in immense quantities in Ceylon, forming, with their products— oil, arrack, and coir— the principal articles of export trom that island. They are also very abundant in the Maldive Islands, Slam, and on several places of the coast of Brazil. Cocoa oil is in very extensive use all over India, and large quantities are manufactured in the lower provin- ces of Bengal. This latter is said to be superior to that Imported from Ceylon. At au average of tho three years ending with 1860, 431,071 gallons of cocoa- nut oil were exported fVom Ceylon. Cod (Ger. Cabljau, lialalau; Du. Cabeljaauw, Bau- haelja ; Dan. Cabliau, Skrtitorsk, Sakelau ; Sw. Cabeljo, SakelaU) Fr. Morue, CahiUaud; It. Bacca, Baccalare; Sp. Bamlao; Port. Bacalhdoi Lat. (iadtu), a species offish too well known torequire any description. " It is amazingly prolific. Leowenhoek counted 9,384,000 eggs in a cod-fish of a middling size — a number that will baffle all the efforts of man to exterminate. In the British seaa they begin to spawn in January, and COD 888 COD depotlt their eggs in rough ground, tmong rocki. Soma continuo in roe till the beginning of April. The cod is only found In the Northern parti of the world ; it is an oooan llsh, and never met with in the Mediter- ranean. The great rendoEvous of the codflsh is on the Banks of Mewfoundlxnd, and the other sand banks that lie oir the coasts of C pe Breton, Nova Scotia, and New England. I'liey prefer those situations, by reason of the quantity of worms produced in those sandy bottoms, which tempt them to resort there for food. But an- other cause of the particular attachment the ilsh have to those spots is their vicinity to the polar seas, whero they return to spawn : thoro thoy deposit their roes in full security ; but want of food forces them, as. soon as the more southern seas are open, to repair thither for subsistence. Few are taken to the north of Iceland, but thoy abound on its south and west coasts. Thoy Bwarra on the coasts of Norway, in the Baltic, and off the Orkney and Western Isles; after which their nnmbers decreaise in proportion as they advance to- ward the south, when thoy seem quite to cease before they roach the mouth of the Straits of Gibraltar. Be- fore the discovery of Newfoundland, the greater fish- eries of cod wero on the seas of Iceland, and off the Western Isles, which were the grand resort of ships flrom all the commercial nations; but the greatest plenty was met with near Iceland. The tlnglish re- sorted thither\l)efore the year 1416 ; for we find that Henry V. was disposed to give satisfaction to tho King of Denmark for certain irregularities committed by his subjects on those seas. In tho reign of Edward IV. the English were excluded from tho fishery by treaty. In latter times, wo find Queen Elizabeth condescending to ask pennission to fish in those seas flrom Christian IV. of Denmark. In the reign of her successor, how- ever, no fewer than 160 English ships wero employed in the Iceland fishery; which indulgence might arise from the marriage of James with a princess of Den- mark." — Pennant's British Zoology. Cod is prepared in two different ways; it is either gutted, salted, and then barreled — in which state it is denominated green or pickled cod ; or it is dried and cured — in which state it is called dried cod. Ready access to tho shore is indispen- sable to tho prosecution of tho latter species of fishery. Distant Cod Fisherj/. — The great Bank of Newfound- land, discovered by John or Sebastian Cabot in 1497, was long, and perhaps still is, the principal seat of the distant cod fishery. The extraordinary abundance of codfish on its banks having been speedily ascertained, the French, Portuguese, and Spaniards soon after en- gaged in the fishery. The English were later in com- ing into the field. In 1678 France had on the Banks of Newfoundland 160 vessels, Spain 120 or 130, Port- ugal 60, and England from 30 to 60. During the first half of last century, the fishery was principally carried on by the English, including the Anglo-Americans and the French ; but tho capture of Cape Breton, and of their other possessions in America, gave a severe blow to the fishery of the latter. The American war divided the British fishery ; that portion of it which had previ- ously been carried on from Now England being there- after merged in that of the United States. During the last war, the French being cxcludccl from the fisheries, those of England attained to an extraordinary degree of prosperity ; the total value of the produce of the New- foundland fishery in 1814 having exceeded ^12,800,000. But since tho peace, the British fishery on tho New- foundland banks has rapidly declined ; and can hard- ly, indued, l)0 said, at this moment, to exist. It is now carried on almost entirely by the French and the Americans ; the facilities enjoyed by the latter for its prosecution being greater than those of any other peo- ple, and the former being tempted to engage in it by the extraordinary encouragements offered by govern- ment. At present, the British fishery carried on by the inhabitants of Newfoundland is confined entirely to the shore or boat fishery. But this, though probably not so good a nursery of sailor* as the bank fishery, U admitted to bo " the most productive of merchantable fish and oil." — M'Queook's liril. Amtr., 2d cd. vol. 1. American Cod Fithery. — Tlie Americans have at all times prosecuted the cod fishery with great vigor and success. Their fishermen are remarkable for their activity and enterprise, sobriety and fhigality; and their proximity to the fishing-grounds, and the other facilities they possess for carrying on the fishery, give them advantages with which it Is verj- difficult to con- tend. In 1706 the Americans employed in the cod fishery about 31,000 tons of shipping ; in 1807 they are said to have employed 70,30(3 tons ; but it subsequently declined for several years, and was almost entirely sus- pended during tho late war. According to the ofiidal rotums (laid l>efore Congress the 1st of January, 1868), the Americans had, in tho year ending the 80th of June, 1662, 102,669 tons shipping engiiged in the cod fishery. During the same year they exported 134,782 quintals of dried, and 19,379 barrels of pic]^led cod; their aggregate value being #463,010. " The Amer- icans follow two or more modes of fitting out for tlie fisheries. The first is accomplished by six orsovcn fai m- ers, or their sons, building a schooner during winter, which they man themselves (as all the Americans on the sea-coast are more or less seamen as well as farm- ers) ; and after fitting the vessel with necessary stores, Ihey p/ocecd to the banks, Qulf of St. Lawrence, oi- Lat)- rador ; and, loading their vessel with fish, make a voy- age between spring and harvest. Tho proceeds they di- vide, after paying any baianie they may owe for outfit. They remain at homo to assist in gathering their crops, and proceed again for another cargo, which is salted down, and not afterward dried : this is termed mud- fish, and kept for home consumption. The other plan is, when a merchant or any other, owning a vessel, lets her to 10 or 16 men on shares. He finds the ves- sel and nets. The mon pay for all the provisions, hooks and lines, and for tho salt necessary to cure their proportion of tho fish. One of tho number !.j ac- knowledged master ; but he has to catch fish as well as the others, and receives only about 20^. per month for navigating the vessel ; the crew have five-eighths of the fish caught, and the owners three-eighths of tlie whole. The first spring voyage is made to the banks; the second either to tlto banks, Gulf of St. Lawrence, or the coast of Labrador; tho third or fall voyage is again to the banks; and a fourth, or second fall voyage, is also made, sometimes, to the banks." — M'Gkeoor, vol. i. p. 220. It is stipulated in the first article of a convention between Great Britain and the United States, signed at London, 20th of October, 1818, that the citizens of the United States shall have liberty to take all sorts of fish "on that part of the coast of Newfoundland f^om Cape Ray to the Ramcau Islands, on the western and northern coasts of New- foundland from Cape Ray to the Quirpon Islands, on the Magdalen Islands, and also on the coasts, bays, barlmrs, and creeks, from Mouut Joly, on the soutliern coast of Labrador, to and through tho Straits of Bolleisle, and thence northward indefinitely along tlie coast, without prejudice, however, to any of the exclusive rights of the Hudson's Bay Company; and that the American fishermen shall alsohavo liber, ty forever to dry and cure fish in any of the unset- tled bays, harbors, and creeks of the southern parts of the coast of Newfoundland here above described, and of the coast of Labrador ; but so soon as the same, or any portion thereof, shall be settled, it shall not be lawful for the said fishermen to dry or cure fish with- out previous agreement for such purpose with tho in- habitants, proprietors, or possessors of the ground. And tho United States hereby renounce forever any liberty heretofore eqjoyed or claimed by the inhabit- ants thereof, to take, drj-, or cure fish on or within three marine miles of any of the coasts, bays, creeks, or harbors of his Britannic mi^eity's dominions in /X .# CdD 8«r tot Aneriea not Inelndtd within tht tbore-mentioned limiti." The AmertcM flihermen sro, bowovcr, ad- mitted into all bayi, etc., for the purpow of (helter, of repairing damage*, of porcbailng wood, and of obtain- ing water, and for no other purpoie whatever ; and when there, thejr are to be placed under inch reatrlc- tloni u may ba neceiiary to prevent their abtuing tkj '* privilege) hereby rcaerved to them.--S«e Fihiikhiu, f'rtnch Cod /IMcr^.— France hai alwaya enjoyed a conilderable ihare of the cod flihery. The follow- ing table ahowi the extent to which the ha« carried it ilnoe the peace i Aooooirc or ma Moioiaa or anva, witu mni ToiraAoi, Caawe, Aim OAaoOM, toat bavi aNTniD nn mmamT Pom ' or FaAHOB nou tui Cod t'liMEB* vvaiiia nia vMina-inirriOMiD YaAia, lais. 1880. 18». IMO.. 1841. BU 87T 4fi6 aipph," C«l«di, ImiKirti. 8MT1 46,0M (0,881 IM,UM 0,811 8,174 Il,tt0 «,8W S,il8» giilaUb, 1M,00!1 l«l, ; there ere alto tomid*, etc MiraelllM, OnnvOle, Dun- kirk, llaideaiu, Vk BoobaUe, and Nutea are the prlnolpal porta whenoe ihlpa are fitted out for the flahery. But notwithstanding tho apparent proapority of thia branch of induatiy, it may be doubted whether it be really ao beneficial to France at woald at flrat light appear. It depends more upon artificial regu- lations than upon any thing else. Foreign cod la ex- cluded from the French markets by tho oppressive duty with which it is loaded ; and the comparatively great demand for dried flsh in Catholic countries ren- ders this a very greut boon to the Fivnch fiahcrmen. But It is admitted that this would not be enough to sustain the fishery ; and high bounties arc paid to those engaged in it. Tbeae, liowaver, have been reduced of late yeara; and they will probably in no long time undergo atill further alterations. St. Pierro and Ml- quelon, small islands on tho coast of Newfoundland, belong to tho French. Their right of lishing upon the shores of that island, and upon the great bank, was re- placed in 1814, upon the footing on which it atOod in 1792. Thia conceaaiun has been much ol)JectGd to by Mr. M'Gregor and others : wo believe, however, that they have materially overroted its influence.— For fur- ther information, <«< Fisiiebies and Fkance. Cod-Uver OIL Pure cod-liver oil is obtained fyom tho livers of codfish ; and la l)C8t prepared when the liver la in a state moat nearly approaching that in which It exists when alive, and is beat adapted for me- dicinal use. The fineat oil ia devoid of color, taste, and smell, three physical characters that arc more valuable than any chemical tests. The aucccaa which haa at- tended the uae of this oil in pulmonary complaints has led to the introduction of a apurious oil, chiefly pre- pared of bleached whale oil, etc., which doea not pos- sess the valuable medicioal properties of pure cod-liver oU. SkarkJner OU ia an oil that has been lately import- ed fh>m the coast of Africa. It gives the usual liver- oil reactions with sulphuric acid ; its peculiar interest, however, comes from its low specific gravity. Until DOW, sperm oil, which has a specific gravity of '876, was the lightest oil known ; but the specific gravity of this oil is only '866. It is prepared, as its name im- plies, flrom shark's liver. CofliBe (Ger. Koffe, Koffeboimm ; Du. Kojfy, K(M. hoonen; Da. Kafft, KaffebSnntr; Swed. Kojfe; Fr. It. and Port. Cage; Sp. Cafe; Russ. Kofc; Pol. Kaaa; Lat.Coffea, Caffta; Arab, fun; Malay, A'dtca; Pers. Tochem, K/mli ; Turk. Chaube). The coflee-tree Is a native of Ethiopia and Abyssinia ; but It was in Ara- bia that It first became an ol^ect of interest and im- portance to the civilized world. The plant is an ever- green, and ia accurately described by La Roque as fol- lows : " The coAee-tree is f^m six to twelve feet high ; the stem ten, twelve, and fifteen inches in circumfer- ence. When it Is full grown, it much resembles In figure our apple-trees of eight or ten years' standing. The lower branches ordinarily bend when the tree be- gins to grow old, and extend themselves into a round form, somewhat like an nmbrella ; and the wood is so yery limber and pliable, that the ends of the longest branches may bo bent down within two or three (tai of the earth. The bark is whitish, and somewhat rough ; Its leaf is much like that of tho citron-tree. It continues green ail the year, and tho tree is never without leaves, which are ranged almost opposite on each side of the liough, and at rmall distances (W>m each other. Nothing is more singular in lis kind tliaa its productions ; for almost in all aeasona of tlie year blosaoma, and green and ripo fruit, may be aecn on the aanio tree ut the aanio time. When the bloasom falls olT, there remains in its room, or rather springs ttom each biossum, a small fruit, green at first, but which becomes red as it ripens, and is not unlike a large cherry, and is very good to eat. Under the flesh of this cherry, instead of tho stone, is found tho bean or berry we call coffee, wrapped round In a fine thin akin. Tho berry is then very soft, and of o dlsiigreo- oblc taste; but aa the cherry ripens, the iicrry in the inside grows harder, and the dricd-up fhiit, being the flesh or pulp of it, which was before catubic, becomes a shell or pod of a deep brown color. The twrry is now silid, and of a clear transparent green. Each shell contains one l>crry, which splits into two equal parts. When the fruit Is sufliciently ripe to lie shaken fl'om the tree, tho husks are separated hom the ber- ries, and are used In Arabia )>y the natives; while the berricB are exported for the European markets." From Arabia the plant was taken by the Dutch about the year 1C90 to Java, whence its culture spread slowly among the islands of the Indian Archipelago. In the early part of the eighteenth century it found its way to the West India Islands. The plant ia now common in every botanical garden of Europe, and there are few private conaervatories without good speci- mens of the tree. When cultivated with a view to trade, it is most productive on hills and mountains, where its root is idmost always dry, and its head flre- quently watered with gentle showers. It prefers a westerly exposure and a loose gravelly soil, liut freed from weeds and grass. The plants are inserted ut dis- tances of six or eight feet asunder, and in holes from twelve to eighteen inches deep. If left to themselves they would rise to tho height of sixteen or eighteen feet ; but in extensive plants^ tions the trees are topped and stunted to about five feet, for the convenience of having tho fruit within reach of the gatherer. Thus dwarfed, they extend their branches until they cover the whole spot ro — '.d about them. They begin to yield fruit the third year. By the fifth, sixth, or seventh year, according to the nature of the soil, they are at Aill bearing, and con- tinue to bear for upward of twenty years. It has but recently come to the knowledge of Euro- peans that the leaves of the coflTee-plant contain the same essential principle for which the berries are so much valued, and that in the Dutch island of Sumatra, in the Indian Archipelago, the natives scarcely use any thing else, and greatly prefer a beverage made fl'om the leaf to the berry itself. The leaves undergo a proc- COF Mi^ COP Ml of eurioK ilmUw to Ua, Mil thty immmh nil lh« virtual of eithar ti dia planteri admit that tlili pruoeii; li In luma ImiMirt. ant reapeoti Inferior to the Urlentul nioda. " \ ntanU felt preference," say I one, "li Klvxn In thu InndlhK Euro|>oun murketi to coffee which hai Huito tliruuuh the pulping and waihing proceii | but, itrangu Ui »»y, the conauman of th|i beverage are totally Ignorant uf the foot that the piytluce which la cured In the pulp furniahei a itronger decootion than an equal quantity of the aame coffee which hai undorgona the ulhnr priiii- eii. The muclloginoui lubitanoo whiuh li wuilind ulf by the pulping proceia ij abiorlied by tlia Iwan when cured in the pulp. Thia givoa itrangth tu thu prndui'ii, and enhances iti aromatic tluvor." lluforu lliu liarry is available for use, it undergoes a proceii called ronat> ing. The valuable propertlei of coffee da|ifiiul vnrv much on the manner In which this prooaai li irarforninil, For the most recent and IntalllgvMt dliiertallon on tlili point, consult Dr. Urk'i DlelioiiurD qf Arit, Afimi^iiti- tuivs, and ilinet, last edition, vol. i, p, W, Speciet o/Cufe». Koaiting, rt(^— Th« voflTeea of Ja- maica, Ceylon, and Mooha are generally eiilunnied tha best; then follow the coffees of Costa Kica, llumlnli'ii, Herbicc, Domorara, Bourbon, Java, Slartlnlqua, ami Hiiytl. Arabian or Mocha coifoo la prjiU.cuil In » vi best being raised '>;.ii) mountalmiiii slopes and sond^- soUi. The moat '- sulla are not suitable for the growth of very fine uuA-i, Mr, Ilryau Edwards observei, that "a rich deep ii.il, fVequanlly ameliorated by showera, will produce a luxuriant tren and a great crop ; but the lieani, which are large, and of a dingy green, prove for many years rank iind v«|)- id." And thf same remark Is made by tir. Cruwfurd with respect to the coffee of Java, — Kiut Utdiim Arehh pelago, vol. L p. 487. Coffiie Is Imnroved by being ke^it ; it then becomes of a paler color. Movba, or, as it is commonly called, Turkey ooffeo, should \« chosen of a greenish light olive hue, firnsh and new, free from any mustineia, tha berries of n middling alaii, clean, plump, and without any intennlxluro of alliiki or other Impurities. Particular care ahoulil lio taken that it be not false packed. Uood Weat India coffne should be of a greenish color, fresh, free from any unpleasant smell, the berries small and unhrukuil, Coffee berries readily tmbilie exhalations frnm other bodies, and thereby acquire on advvnlllloui and dla«. grceable flavor. Sugar placed near coffee will, In ii short time, so impregnate the lierrles and Injure their flavor, as to lower its value 10 or 20 per cent, Vtr, Moseley mentions that a few bags of pepper on liuard a ahip from India spoiled a whole cargo of ooffae. " The roasting of the berry to a pro|)flr dogros re« quires great nicety : the virtue and agr««alilenuai of the drink depend upon it; and both aru often Injured by the ordinary method. Bcrnior i»ya, whan Im was at Cairo, where coffee is so much used, ho was naiured by the best judges that than yrew »oly two |)wpU In thai great oily who understood bow to prepare It la ' perAH'lInn, If It be underdone, its virturs will not ba Imparted, and In use It will load and opprnas the •toiMi'h I If It be overdone, it will yield a ilat, burned, and bitter taata, Its virtues will lie daatroynil, and lu Uia It will heat the Imly, and act aa an astringent." CultiM alio danules the drink which in made from tha ooffba berrioa, This Iwverage has been funiillar In Kurupa for tha last two hundred yean. The tint hu- man lialngi who appear to have used the coffee iMrrlea ware the half aavage tribca of the higher Ethiopia. According to liruce, the lierrles wore first parched like any other grain, bruised Into powder, and mixed up wllh any sort of grease into paste rolled Into little balls. The same authority declares that two or throe of Ihaie balls were lufUcient to support a mm for a whole day In a marauding excuriion, or In active war agalnit loma nelghUirlng trilie. They merely pre- ferred Iba roffee lierry to other grain, became It fed 1 1 hem ai well, and cheered them more. From Ethiopia, both tbo coffee plant and the use of I Its fllilt wore Introduced Into Persia and Arabia, and It la to the Arabs that we aro indebted both for the tint written account of It and for the manner of using It In A liquid statu, But though we derive the only iiuthenllu account of coft'oe from the Arabs, they ad- mit that they wore taught by the Persians ; and It was In the city of Aden, In Arabia, about the middle of the llftgentb century, that the drinking of coffee first lio> came general. The mufti of that city introduced the custom from Persia ; his authority gave reputation to the practice— lawyers began to drink It — thnne who liived reading followed their example — artisans who were obliged to work In the night did the lame thing, as well ns travelers who Journeyed In the night to avoid tbo beat of the day. In short, says M, Galland, "Ilia wboto Inhabitants of Aden soon becumo drinkera of coffee, and not only at night to keep them awake, but even In the daytime for Its other virtues." Kruin Aden the' taste for coffee found Its way to Mecca, from Mecca to Cairo, from Cairo to Damascus, from Damnscui to Aleppo and from Aleppo to Con- Hlantinupla ) but it wus not until 1016 that the use of I'lillhu found Its way from Constantinople to Venice. Ill IU44 It was Introduced to Marseilles, In 1662 to London, and In l(Hi9 to Paris. The flrat Kngllsh author who mentioned coffee was llurton. In lila Aiuitimy of Melancholy (vol. I. p. ISO), piilillsbed In 1021, thirty years l)efore the introduction of tha drink Into Undon. "The Turks," says ho, " liavo a drink called coffee (for they use no wine), so tuunod of n lierry as black as soot and aa bitter, which Ibiiy alp up ns warm as they can suffer, because they find by exporionce that that kind of drink so used liclp- ntli dlgcatlon and procureth alacrity." It would be an error to Infer that the mode of inak- Ing coffee In Europe nnd Asia is the same. In Eu- riiiw, an Infusion or a decoction of the roasted berry Is nil that Is consumed ; but this is a refinement In cook- ery not ajipreclateil In Asia ; there the custom is now, and always has lieon, different. A highly trustworthy traveler, Lamartine, In de- scribing tbo ordinary khan In Palestine and Syria, My*, "a charcoal fire Is constantly burning on the bititrtb, and one or two copper coffee-pots aro always full otlhlekfarinaeeoui coffee, the habitual refreshment and only want of the Turks and Amhs."— Travel/ m Hl)rla tmt thu Kail, vol. I. p. 292. A cup of well-mada rolfte exhilarates, arouses, and keeps awake. It al- lays hunger, to a certain oxten; , gives to the weary in- rreaaed strength and vigor, and Imparts a feeling of cumfbrt and repose. Its phyilological effects upon tho ayatem, ao far ns they have Ixicn scientifically Investi- gated, appear to be that, while It makes the brain more active. It soothes the body generally, makes the change and waste of matter much slower than usual, and the demand for food In cooscquonoe proportionately leas. COP 8se COF 4 AM Umm efflMta an produced br the coi^oinMl aetlon of thrao logndlcnti, aithtr id«ntlo«l with, or •iinlUr to, thoM contaluml in tea. Thers li • voUtlla oil pro- duMd during tb« routing ; • vtriaty of tuinlo Mtd, which ii alio altcrad In Mm* degrm during the roait- Ing ; and the tubatance called thaln or call'oln, which ia common to lioth tea and coflbe, and i> found In tho learei of Onarona <0UiKaHi and llfir paraguintu, U>lb UMd lijr the ahoriginoi of South America, u tea \» In the Uld Continent, a nmarltable reiult of chemical In- veitigatlon. The chemical conititution of caflfaln U C,. H,. N. O,. Ooff««-trade. The extent to which the enltira- tloD of colKia hai lieen ovrricd in the britiih potMHioni, the va>t amount of capital embarked in plantation! aulted to iti growth, tho multitude of handi engaged In ita culture, and the thipping noceuarlly employed in connection with that trade, iuvett the article, In a com- mercial point of view, with great importance ; while ai a lioveragc, tho tendency of which la to wean the community (Vom Indulgence in into^Acatiog llquora, it la lecond to no commodity in the Brlttah tarlflT. The hlatory of the coffiie-trade prior to ISSOla only val- uable now aa an ezamplo of a commodity for which there ia a universal craving among mankind, atnig- gUng succcaafblly, and at laat triumphantly, over lla- cal reatrlctione, high duties, diffbrentlal dutiea, and an endleaa mau of antiquated obatmctlona. In common with other important neceaaariea of life, It has now at- tained to the natural state of unrestricted competition, though it still puys a cuatoma duty of three-pence per pound.— E. B. Tho cultivation of cofTeo mot with groat sncceis In St. Domingo, and for many years that was the source whence Europe derived ita chief supplies, having nx- ported at one time about 88,IJ.«att.iw Wa thna find that tha asporta of coffte fell off tha first five yeara after ainanclpatlon about one-half, and Bugar nearly In an eqnal ratio. In Auguat, 1834, tlia negroea ware emancipated by the Engliah government In Jamaica, which atruck a death-blow at Its culture there, while sugar had msaaurably aupcraeded Its growth in Cuba. Theae causes combined, with the unrestrict- ed supply of AfHcan slave lalior, to giro Its culture a powerful impulse In Braiil. Ilence we find by the year 1880 its crop had increaaed to 400,000 baga, or 04,000,000 pounda. The alave-trade, by convention with England, waa to ceaae in February, 1830. Thla produced an enomioua import of slaves, which could ouly be disposed of at low prices and on long credits. This, again, stimulated the planting of new estates, and the crop rapidly increased, so that in 1840 it actually reached 1,060,808 bags, or about 108,000,000 pounds. The cultivation being found profitable, the demand for slaves continued, and notwithatanding the attcmpta of the British government to put a stop to it, the slave- trade has been continually carried on clandestinely ever since, tho importations from Africa having amounted to from 80,000 to 50,000 annually, the vessels supplied for which having been chiefly built and fitted out In tho Northern cities of the United States, and sailing under whatever colors best answered their purpose. The increase in the crop since 1840 has been very rapid, and in 1847 reached atiout 1,804,668 bags, about 288,88»,000 pounds. Tho low prices in 1848 and 1849 had a tendency to check production. The difflculties of importing slaves, under • new treaty made with England in 1845, cut off the supply so nr that those which wore secretly introduced barely supplied the an- nual loss, which was 10 per cent., and sometimes more ; and should tha trade be stopped altogether, as aimed at by England, It will cause the cultivation of coflbe to decrease in Brazil, to become augmented In the East Indies, and especially in British India : and should ne- gro slavery be overthrown, coffee would to a great ex- tent follow the course of indigo, and bxcojie to some extent an article of British production and control. Tho climate of Brazil ia highly favorable to the culti- vation of cofltee, the trees yielding nearly double those oftho West Indies. Tha growth of Brazil, by 1854, reached the astonish- ing quantity of 400,000,000 pounds, while the produc- tion in tho British West India Islands has rapidly de- clined since the emancipation of the slaves in 1834, ai will be Eeen fyom the following table : In the jrear 1848 the British West ludln Isl- ands/ielded 10,000,000 Iba In tho years ISSa, tt, and 'C6, thejr ylslded only t>,000,000llis. Jjunaica alone, in 1834, the year the Enisnd- pation Act was declared in the islands, a.noontcdto 18,288,188 Iba. We see by this the same result as that which fol- lowed emancipation iu St. Domingo. Coffbe, with oth- er tropical products, has fluctuated with the supply, and cheapness, and reliability of African slave-labor. If coolies can be brought in under a voluntary apprentice- ship, why can not Aflricana be allowed to come in by the aama method, placed under proper ngnUtioiia and gwnntMt on the eoaat of AfMotf .i; COF 'nk' cor I astonlBb- ke produc- »pldly (l8- |iil884,** A.OOOni. M,000llil. b88,lS8»A ivUch fol- 1 with 0th- Ipply.wd labor. U ^prentice- lime in by LtlonKB^ The •oAW^rowing dUtrieti of BniU aro/llvldeil lata lb* Herra Abalao (or beluw Ibi mountalni) and Sarra Aciiiia (ibove Um mountain*). Tha praduce of the formtr li about on».*lxth part of the whole crop In (ood yeara, but ia mnob mora uncertain than lb* Serra Aelma, being more liable to injury (h>m drought, which li aaid of lata yean to have bean fra<|ucnl. The qual- ity li alio inferior, and ealdoiu thlpped to the United Statat. The tmoi uually flower three tlniei each year, generally in AuKust, September, and October, and are ready forplckinK, In favorable eeaaone, in March, April, and May, with contlderabla variation according to tltuatlou. In April imall quantitiee of poor new cof- fea appear In market. In May and June the quantity li greaUr, but never abundant until July and Augutt. The treat of Serra Aclnia bloom later, but Iho crop i» mora nniforni, enabling planteri to gather a crop at a tingle picking, which it a great saving of labor. En- tire cargoet are not generally obtained from the Serra Acima iliitrlct until August and September. Utually the euppliet remaining over of the old crop are flrtt tent to the market before planters clean out the new, and hence it is often at late at October and November before the bulk of the new crop it In market. The cost of transporting the coffue to market It laid to average the planter about two cents per pound, ow- ing to imperfect faiiiUtloa. The actual cost of produc- tion is said to bo not much under H cents per pound, and a* negroes are decimated by cholera and other dis- eases, without now Importations are required to supply their placet, negroct mutt advance In value and en- hance the cost of production. The Hrst import of Uraxll coffee into the United COHTABATIVl BtATEHINT OF TIIK PaODOOTION or CorVKK IK TH» WOILD AT HimBniT PniOM. YEAU aHTBBS INTO TIIC (JOMSVlirTIO.t OK tUT, SUCMJiaUl.Na Ybab.) Statet wat made In 1809, which eonaialad ofiaot baat^ landed at Salem, by lh« ship Ifat^att poru lu llnull «,WI,«T» IMsnoo of intda ogsliiit tbe United Stolas .... tlO.V6T,4» 980,000,000 116,000,000 46,000,000 80,000,000 6,000,000 16,000,000 6,000.i"1 86,0(10,(1 m Korthem nations. In order to secure them, or, in otber words, place them under heavy tribute for article* which are, from habit, necessary to their comfort and well-being. England, through her East India possessions, Is, no doubt, anx- ioua't* secure as large a share of this Iributo oa possl- ble^. and may, t« a certain extent, succeed with iadigo, sugar, and coffee ; but she has failed, and will con- tinue to fail, -in tho production of catton. Tbe United States have sccuredj and are likely to keep, and, if necessary, by the aid of England to back the South In securing this Indispensable production to her prosper> ity, as well as the prosperity of Europe and the North- em States of this Union. The vaino of slaves In Bra- zil—the only Sooth American state which boa made any great progress, and that througn African labor — has for several years steadily increased. Prior to 1880, when the slave-trade was legal, slaves wert told at 12011, or «G6. From 1880 to 1850, when the trade was, under treaties with England, prohibited, and had to be conducted clandestinely, thiy advanced to 400||, or ISaOb Sine* 18$», th» trade having boon almoik // oor MipprwMd, Ih*)' kav* (ndMUt.r wttwutmi, f lb* ilMlaMllM af IV |Mr otbI. r*r Mnaa, I* UMiartWt, UIMI. Mim iIm% 10 ^ tMU., U U Mrtw> t »4, Imt« dM Awn akalart. m tppMn b)r • >•■ r tlM B«gli«, sad tlMV •M MW lUUd U Im w*rtli ifiOOi or titS Moh. It Mat itoMMMl af Ik* Mlnlttcr of iIm B«gli«, sad tkcv WM Mm low mIo* of ifaiVM prior •• IMO whlob Mlmit- Utod Um prodMrtoB of ooWm, aad raaMd |*<«m Io rult N low, wkMi woro la lUft to IMO not MMh ovor half Um pvaaant prloaa* It takai (bar to flva raara Io matwa eoffta^traaa aftar pUntliw ikaM bafcra iMjr will jrlald a crap af batrUa) iMiiaa ina laddtn rlw or Call Ib pricaa oaa aot ao aad- daaljr Inttuanoa produellon, aa la tba eaia wilb anaaal crapa lyoai d«w plantatloni of lugar and cotton. At tka praaant tima, owing to tha high priata of ilavaf, COF no aaw aalataa aaa ba bnnail, and noaa ha*a haaa for •avtral vaart | and It la ttaltd that thara ara not baadl anoagb laft la tha eaantry ia plah oat a full arop, laroata or Cotraa wto raa I'MiiaB ttiTaa, IIU. llolUnd 8,aM,4tU l>*Mk RMtla4l(a a,ul,78t HrtlUhCaMladlaa.. ... UrllUh WMt MIm (■uba Hajil . . . lUaill . I,< a i wp t ad by tiaaly, ar nan-pud arwa. . . 714^8 Total , I»I,478,«T OiNBaAL RTAraaaitT or raa Coma T«4Db or ma I'Mrm trAtaa, roa na YiAaa 18M, lUT, ahd 18M Ifn At .Now Ywk Al BotloB — VrDin Jaira ) and porta In tlia Eait { M,4M Itttio ) 8t DomUun ViMlk AArlaa 1,140 Otkor fcnlgn porta I,l7ft At rklladalpbla. BtmU.... lOlkTM UOuarmandP. Cabollo 48|6M ■I, DiMnlngo lt,MW ManMalbo a,!*! Otbar (M«l(n part* ■» At laHlnera. Uraall 1M,TI* U Ouayra u4 P. Cabollo 1I,IH Jamaica and Porta Rloo. . 478 Othor ferolgn porta 8^lM At Now Orloaaft Braall 144,784 Caba,ate. 1,074 At Total. -«- •Nal ya^ayy. Tfijar 181,1 111,011 Mt,ll8 4il,54B 70,1^08 i;s?i;8ui i« 1M,M8 in,ON JM,«H 874,708 88,800 i,o(ia>,«a8 ~llli~ •HSllli iit,8aT 1W,80T 111,4 848,888 TOT lM,u4ir 18,440 (,M0 18,800 80,700 i»,aoo «44,«8» TTTBr »,B04 88,880 86,000 Cli,000 H,800 IU8,M1 -mr- 88,88(1 M,0BI 4,800 i«,noo »,»00 IV8,S01 (1,741 l,48lt 881 8T0 lUt. TTd;S»4 •4,»T7 184 8,187 14,108 1,'ttO 8AU0 Tsr 'SCM 18,788 146 80fi 188 440 Mior lui ' IMi Its*. Waifbtafrooripia K^rtad ' N«4i. ISU,M8,1M 8,780,400 r«m4t. 817,871,888 10,410,875 n7,lM,l8« 8,010,788 ■elalned for eonoumptlon ■■ )iiiiw,t8r- lBOf4WlaV0v il»,l4B,4*S - tiooE, A* Aix Poata, jAnoAar 1, 18S>. At Na« Yeib, or Mo bofa, » ofBahU » •> ofHanuaibo » ^ » ofJsTa " 4>" » af Jan roatu afLoOiia^ia km af ,<,u " af StOomlnco. •• afJamalca. " « , ofHanllla « >M>i .Yt'ar Porto Mm » M aflanollU » l,t4l TOO 7,104 »;884 41,000 8,818 8,280 1,981 481 800 Total at Now York pl«it «!3J8 At Boilan--JaTa, St. Domingo, ale. " VUSf, Now Orioana-Braall >> 8 PMIadolpbls-Br^cH, Ota, » tO,OB4 :•'- BaUlawn— BraalL al«. '> 4,000 Othor porta— Bnab, ate. " l>,»W Total " iEIioi Total ponndi. 10,488,084 aioek Jaaiiary 1, 1808 » ei,0!i8,t«0 DaereaM •> j»,l most other articlei, waa var}- limited. The levare re- vnlaion of that year baring for • time annihilated cred- it, and occailoned a rery great acareity of money, atocki in diitributlng Handa throughout tha country became reduced to a very low ebb ; conaequently, the'quantitv withdrawn tnm the ports for the past year, though nominally abowing the consumption of but 13 montha, Is In reality the consumption of at least 16 months. The annexed statement shows the recelpta and con- sumption ftir the past eight yean : v««. BMl,*.. IfiOO POMHll. 189,080,810 118,048,870 100,041,800 l«8,llt,S00 18>,478,88S •88,114,088 180,018,180 117,871,88* n7,eo8,i8< Poimdi. 184,089,786 18I,1«ii,7a0 104,001,000 176,687,7m m,4«l,088 110,878,187 1tR,i10,4M 171,086,984 1M,2B6,09» 1861 1801 1868 1804 ISOB 18B8 1887 1808 being an average annual income of about 11 per oent. Included in this statement Is the quantity withdrawn from our markets, and forwarded inland Io Canada and tha British Provlncea ; we are unable to aacartain the exact amount, btit it doaa not vary greatly from 2^380,000 pounda. cor 889 COI 146 Oofb«-ko«aMk TIm flnl in KnirUnd wu k»fi hy ■ Jaw, Damtd .iKolit, In ()xr»rn. OOflit-dam. In arrhltactiira and hrldKo-hnlldlniTi ■ caaa of pUlnjt, watar-tJKht, tUml In the bed of a river for tiia purpoaa of la.vlnR tha Irattom dry for a npana latK* anoiiKh to build Iha pier on, CulTur-dami am formed In varloua way*, either liy aalngle Inrloanraor a donbla ana, witk clay or chalk rammed In lietwaan Iha Iwo to pravant tka water from comiiiK throuRh th« •Ida*. They ara alao made either with piliia only, driven cloia toK«tlier, and aometlmea notched or dove- tailed Into one another; or, If tha water ia not very deep, liy pllea driven at a jllatanoe of live nr nix feet ftroni euvh other, and grooved In tha aldea, wl' larda let daw n betwaan tkani In tha Rroovea. In order to build In eoffar-damt a very Kood natural bottom of iolid earth or clay U required ; for though tha tidai be miula wat«r>tl||ht, If the bad of the rivar be of a looae conilitonra, tha water will ooxe up through it In too great a quantity to pamill the o|Hirutiona tu Ihs curried on. It la nlinoKt needleaa to mmark that the ■bleu Blunt bo very utroug, anden colHna in Kngland ia that of the barial of King Arthur, who waa buried in an entire tmnkofoak, hollowed, A. II. M'2.— AgitKit. Tha patent eufflna were invented In 1796.— U^vdn. CoglMO (Cimaeum,) a commune ami ^own of Frant.«, capital of arrondiuement, department of Charento, 31 milea weat from Angoulume, on the left bank of the C!ha- renta. Population 4 Uf). Ithaaanoldcaatle,inwhich Francis I. wat Iwrn. It U the entrepot of the brandy of the Cbnrento, to which it givea ita name, and which forma tke object of a very extentive commerce. Manu- facturca, eartben-ware and paper. CoilMr places of metal, moat commonly gold, silver, or copper, imprcaaed with a public stamp, and fre- quently made legal tender in payment of debts, either to a limited or an unlimited extant. When the pre- oloua metals Oral began to be used aa money, or aa standards by which to measure the value of diiferent articles, and the cquivulents for which they were moat commonly exrhan^ed, they wore in sr unfashioned State, in bars or ingots. The parties having agreed upon the qnantity of metal to be given for a commod- ity, the exact amount waa then asceilained by weight. But It is obvious that a practice of this sort must have been attended with a great deal of trouble and incoit- venlence. There can, however, be little doubt that the greatest obstacle to the use of unfiishloned metals a* money would ba found in the difficulty of determin- ing their quality, or the degree of their purity, with anfflcient precision. The operation of asunying is one of great nicety and difficulty ; and could not be per- formed in the early ages otherwise than in a clumsy, tedious and inaccurate manner. It is, Indeed, most pTolwbls that when the precious metals were first used •• money tbeii quality would b« appnoiated only by Iheir weigkl m4 aaiw, A Tt«v almft ai|i would, kowavar, ba saMoleal ia aMW tka aalMMt l» \xactnaaa of oonelnalona darivod ftani aaak kNMa m4 nnaalUfiMlary erMaria | and Iha davMafl of smim hm od by wblch Iha llaanaaa uf Iha nMtal MtfliM Iw aaatif and rornrtly asrartainad would vary a«M b* Ml M indispanaabla to Iha Ronanl uaa of ■■ild aMt allvw M mimay. Hueh • mathod waa not loim In pfasMMlag itaalf : II waa aarlv disrovarad Ibal, to woaflalii ||m purity of tha maui, and al«i to avoid tha Iraubb mi4 expanse of weighing It, no mora waa naaassary Mmm to mark aarh piera with a <<>im;) da«larln| lla waIgM and fineness. Thia invantinn waa mada M • vary early period. According to Hanidolua, Iha LydUM were tha first who ooinad money.— /.M, I, (, 94, (Nkar ancient aulhora aay that Iha art of ralnlnf was In* vented during tha period, when Hatum and ■laiiNS reigned in Italy ; thai Is, In a iierbHl anlaaadsnl la authentic history.— (lotiitKT, l>»l'l)riyt»tdM lieis, rt«, tome I. p. M7, MrlaiuMid m th« Unniifiwlur* nf fVaa,— i lafttfa tha artofnielsllurgy was well undurstnod, IhalNkarnialalt were ftrtqiiently used as luiiney, Iron was tha primk live money of tho l^r«da>mniiians, and rappar of Iha Romans, Hut both iron nnd uuppar daiarlorala by being kept ; and besides this dnfai't, Iha ra|ild lmtirova> mvnt of tha arts, by lowering their |iri«a, randarad Ihalf bulk too great In proportion to tlisir value to parmtl of their continuing to ba used aa money , ('oppar, !»• deed, is still used, In the forninf tokana eunvarllbla into silver. In ver}' small payments, In Kngland^ copper pence and halftMuee ara ratad at alwut 73 pof cent, above their real value; but aa thair laaua la *n» clusively in the hands of government, and aa thay on only legal tender to the extent of ona tkUling In any ona payment, thia over-valuation Is not [miducilva cf any l>ad eflect. The use of copper In uthar euantrlM Is ilmltad In much the same way ; gold and silvar liainf every whore the only metals made uaa of In Iha iiianil* factura of the coins used In oonsldarabia iwymanls. Standard of Cuint. — By tha alaiulard of a miln U meant the degree of its purity and its weight ; that la, the fineness of the metal of which it is miiiln and Ilia quantity of metal cunlnliiad In It. Hilmir Mni,—K pound Troy, or 13 ounces, of the metal of whiah Kn- glish silver coins are made, containa 11 u«, I dwi*. pure ailver, and 18 dwts, alloy. This pound Is «oln«4 into 60 shillings; so that each shilling loiitalns MO'7>7 grains fine silver, and 87*37 grains standard silvar | and the money pound, consisting of tH) shillings, con. tains ieU-M6 grains pure silver, and 171ft'4M gralni standard silver. From 1000 down to IHlfl, Iha (MHind weight of standard silver bullion was culnad into itS shillings. All tho English silver coins hava liaan coined out of silver of 11 os. 3 dwts, fine, frnni Iha Conquest to this moment, except for the short period of 16 years, from the 84th Henry VIII. to the 2d KlU*. beth. OM Coi'fM.— The purity of gold Is not aatlmalod by ths weights commonly in use, but by an AbywlRhlll weight called a carol. The carnts ure sulHlivldad Into four parts, called grains, and these again Into quaN ters ; so that a carat grain, with res|iect In Iha cam* mon divisions of a pound Troy, la equlvalant to 1^. dwts. Gold of the highest degree of fineness, uf pura, is said to be 34 carats fine. When gold coins wtra first made at the English Mint, the standard of Iba gold put in them was of 38 carats 8^ grains Una and { grain alloy; and so It continued, without any varia> lion, to the 18th of Henry VIII., who in that yaiir first introduced a new standard of gold of 22 oarat* fine, and 2 carats alloy. The first of these standirdi was called the old, and the second the now standard, or crown gold ; because crowns, or pieces of Iha valtia uf 6f., were first coined of this new standard. Ilnnry' VIII. made his gold coins of iioth ths«a standards l..» der different denominations; and this practice WM continued by his succeasora until 1688. Viam (hat COI 840 COI period to the present, the gold of which the eoini of England hiive been nude has been invariably of the new standard, or crown gold ; though some of the coini , \ which they an made, or both. Or^naUy the '■Mm of all countries seem to have had the same denomina- > I tion as the weights commonly used in them, and con- made of the old standard, previonaly to 1688, contin- tained the exact quantity of the preciouu metals indi- nad to circnUte till 1732, when they were forbidden ' cated by their name. Thus the laknt was a weiglit to be any longer current. j used in the earliest period of the GreeliB, the provementa in the arts, the exhaustion of the present or the discovery of new sources of supply, none cm be selected to serve as money or coin that may not yary in ita real value. It is believed, however, that the precious metals vary less than any material that could be suggested. And with the exception of the extraordinary fall in their value caused by the discov- ery of the American mines, it seems to have been re- markably constant at other periods. But in addition to the fluctuations naturally inherent in the value of coins, arising from variations in the cost of the metal of which they are made, their standard has been re- peatedly changed. Notwithstanding that money or coin, from its bein); universally used as a scale by which to compute tlie value of all commodities, and •s the equivijent for which they are commonly ex- changed, is by far the most important of all measures used in society, and should, consequently, be preserved as invariable as possible, there is none that has been 10 frequently altered. Tlio necessities or extrava- gance of governments have forced them to Irarrow; and to relieve themselves of the incumbrances thus contracted, they have almost universally had recourse to the disgraceful expedient of degrading the coin; that is, of cheating those who lent them money, to the the pound by the English and Scotch; and the coins originally in use in Ureece, Italy, France, and En- gland, bore the same names, and weighed precisely a talent, a pondo, a livre, and a pound. The standard has not, however, been preserved inviolate, either in modem or ancient times. It has lieen less degraded in England than any where else ; but even there the quantity of silver in a pound sterling is less than the third part of a pound weight — the quantity it contain- ed in 1300. In France, the livre current in 1789 con- tained less than one tixtg-nxth part of the silver im- plied in its name, and which it had actually contained previous to 1108. In Spain, and some other countries, the degradation has been carried still farther. From 1296 to 13S5, the coins of England and Scotland were of the same weight and purity ; but at the last-men- tioned epoch the standard of Scotch money was for the first time sunk he\o\i that of England ; and by successive degradations, the value of Scotcn money, at the union of the crowns in 1600, was only a twelfth part of the' value of the English money of the same denomination. It remained at this point till the union of the kingdoms canceled the separate coinage of Scot- land. The gold' and silver coins of Ireland have been for a considerable period the same as those of Great Britain ; but, until 1826, they were nominally rated 8^ per cent, higher. This diflerence of valuation, which was attended with considerable inconveniences, was put an end to by the act 6 Geo. IV. c. 79, which as- similated the currency throughout the empire. The tables annexed to this article contain all the informa- tion that can be desired by mercantile men with re- spect to the weight, fineness, etc. , of English and Scotch •stent of the degradation, and of enabling every other gold and silver coins, from the earliest periods to the debtor in their dominions to do the same. The ignorance of the public in remote ages facili- tated this species of fraud. Had the names of the coins been changed when the quantity of metal con- tained in them was diminished, there would have been no room fcr misapprehension. But although the weight of tho coins was undergoing perpetual, and their pu- rity occasional, reductions, their ancient denomina- tions werj almost uniformly preserved ; and the peo- ple, who saw the same names still remaining after the iubstanca was diminished — who saw coins of a certain weight and fineness circulate under the names of flor- ins, livres, dollars, and pounds ; and who saw them con- tinue to circulate as such, after both their weight and the degree of their fineness had been lessened — began to think that they derived their value more from the ttamp affixed to them by the authority of government than from the quantity of precious metals they contain- ed. This was long a very prevalent opinion. But the rise of prices which invariably followed every reduc- tion of the standard, and the derangement that was thereby occasioned in every pecuniary transaction, un- leceived the public, and taught them and their rulers the expediency of preserving the standard of money inviolate. The standard may be r.-duccd by simply raising the denomination of tlw coin ; by ordering, for example, that a half-sovereign should pass for a sovereign, and the latter for a double sovereign, etc. If injustice be resolved upon, this is the least mischievous way in which it can be perpetrated, inasmuch as it saves all present moment. J/ in/, or Government Valuaticin nf Gold and Silver Coins. — If both gold and silver coins be made legal tenders, it is obviously indispensable that their value with respect to each other should be fixed by author- ity; or that it should be declared that individuals shall be entitled to discharge the claims upon them by payments, either of gold or silver coins, according to some regulated proportion. The practice of making both metals legal tenders was long adopted in England. From 1267 to 16G4, the value of gold coins was regu- lated by proclamation ; or, which is thf same thing, it was ordered that the gold coins then current should Ic taken as equivalent to certain specified sums of silver. From 1664 down to 1717, the relation of gold to silver was not fixed by authority ; and silver being then the only legal tender, the value of gold coins fluctuated, according to the fluctuations in the relative worth of tho metals in the market. But in 1717 the ancient practice was again reverted to; and it was fixed that the guinea should be taken as the equivalent of 21«., and conversely. • But the value of each of the precious metals is liable to perpetual change. And hence, how accurately soever their proportional value, as fixed by the Mint regulations, may correspond with the propor- tion which they actually bear to each other in the mar- ket when the regulation is made, the chances arc ten to one that it will speedily cease to express their rela- tion to each othor. But the moment that such a change taket place, it tjecomes the obvious interest of every one who has a payment to make to make it in the the trouble and expense of a rceoinage. But as it ren- , oterta'.ued metal ; which, consequently, becomes the ders the fraud obvious and glaring, it.haa rarely been I sole, or nearly tho sole, currency of the country, lesorted to; and most reductions have been effect- Henco the reason why the coins of some countries are •d either by diminishing the weight of the coins, or ; almost wholly of silver, and others almost wholly of by iBCTMsing the proportion of alloy in the metal of { gold. It it estimated, for example, that when it was ecM S41 COI fixed, in 1717, that the guinea oliould exchange for 21*., gold was overvalued aa compared with silver to tile extent of 1 19-81 per cent. ; and u the real value of silver with respect to gold continued to increase during the greater part of last century, the advantage of paying iu gold in preference to silver became more decided, and ultimately led to the unlvemal use of gold iu all large payments, and to the fusion or exportation of all jilver coins of full weight. In France, a different valuation of the metals has had a different effect Previous to the recoinage in 1785, the Ijouii iTor was rated in the Mint proportion at only 24 livres, when it was really worth 2a livrcs 10 sols. Those, therefore, who should have discharged the obligations they had contracted by payments of gold coin instead of silver would plainly have lost 1 livre 10 sols on every sum of 24 livres. In conse- quence very few such payments were made ; gold was almost entirely banished from circulation, and silver liecame almost the only species of metallic money used in France. In 1816, however, a new system was adapt- ed in Great Britain ; it lieing then enacted (56 Geo. III. c. 68) that gold coins only should be legal tender in allpny- menls I'Jmnrt thanforiy $hiUinr/», The pound of silver bullion, that had previously been coined into sixty-two shillings, was then also coined into sixty-six shillings, the additional ^ui* sbillinga tteing retained by the gov- ernment as a tetgnorape or duty (amounting to 6 14-31 per cent.) upon the coinage. To prevent the silver coins from becoming redundant, government has re- tained the power to issue them iu its own hands. Under these regulations, silver has ceased to be a standard of value, and forms merely a subordinate or sulisidiary species of currency or cbinge, occupying the same place in relation to gold that copper occupies in relation to itself. This system has been found 'r, answer exceedingly well. A good deal of differenc.^ of opinion has existed as to whether gold or silver coins are best fitted for l>eing made legal tender. It does not seem that the one possesses any very striliing advantage over the other ; none, certainly, that woiid justify a change after a selection had beei) made and acted upon for any consideral)le period, Down to 1626, a scignorage or duty upon the coinage was usually cliarged upon the gold and silver coins issued by the Mint; and it may be easily shown that the imposition of such a duty, when it is not carried to an undue height, is advantageous. A coin is more useful than a piece of uncoined bullion of the same weight und pu- rity ; the coinage fitting it for Iwing used as money, while it does not unfit it for being used for any other purpose. When, therefore, a duty or seignoi;age is laid upon «oin equal to the expense of coinage, it circulates at its real value ; but when this charge is defrayed by the public, it circulates at leti than its real value, and is consequently either melted down or exported when- ever there is any demand for bullion in the arts, or any fall in the exchange. It is, indeed, true, that were a soignorage to be laid on gold coins, it would be neces- sary, to prevent an enhancement of the value of the currency, that their weight should be proportionally reduced ; and it is on this account better, perhaps, to let them remain on the present footing. But when a seign- orage was laid on the silver coins in 1810, it was not necessary to take the circumstance now alluded to into consideration ; for as they were made subordinate to gold, and were intended to serve as change merely, its imposition had no tendency to raise the value of the currency, at the same time that it was calculated ef- fectually to prevent the fusion of the coins and to yield a small revenue to government. Current Coin ; lnt$ by wear. — From very careful inves- tigations made by the officers of the British Mint to- ward the close of the last century, It was found that 78 l-IO silver shillings, taken as a fair average from all tliote then in circulation, were required to make 1 lb. Troy ; whereai <2 is the number when new. Eleven years afterward another fair average was taken, and another examination made, when it was found that 82 9-40 shillings were required to make a pound. Rot this diminution of weight is excessive, and is not like- ly to ira exhibited by the lesn-wom and more frequent- ly renewed silver coinage of the present day. Still it is unquestionable that the gold and silver coins are exposed to daily wear and diminution. The British government requested Mr, Cavendish and Mr. Hatch- ett, two distinguished fellows of the Koy al Society, to make an extensive investigation respecting the power of metals to resist fHction ; and their results are high- ly curious. They made various alloys of silver, cop- per, platina, iron, tin, lead, t>ismutb, manganese, nickel, cobalt, line, antimony, and arsenic, with gold ; they rubbed plates of different kinds of metal over each other half a million times, to determine which resist friction best ; and they rotated similar pieces among each other in a barrel. The effects were such as to re> fleet no little credit on those, whoever they were, who established the standard of English gold coin ; for the English standard (22 gold to 2 alloy) and the quality of the alloy (silver and copper combined) were found about the best of all the combinations sulijected to ex- periment. In 1807 the Mint otBcers, wishing to ascer- tain how much the current coin hnd actually lost by wear, selected at random one thousand good guineat from a broker, and found that they had lost on an aver- ago \9s. per cent, in value. A hundred guineas from a shop-keeper's till had lost 22<, per cent. Two hundred hulf-guineascxbibited a loss of 42«. per cent. — the small- er coins being subjected to more severe wear than the larger. Mr. Jacob, a great authority on the snbjectof precious metals, stated it as his opinion that, taking the average of all the goldcoins in this country, and an aver- age of ail the hard usage to which the coins are exposed, each one bears an annual loss of about 1-900 by fric- tion, which is a little more than a farthing in tlie pound. la silver coins the loss is supposed to be five or six times greater, owing to the more unceasing circulation of silver than gold, and to the less fitness of the metal to heiLT friction. The matter may be stated thus : put 900 new sovereigns and 900 new shillings into average ordinary circulation ; in twelve months' time the for- mer will be worth atiout 899, and the latter about 894. " Recent Coins ufthe World. — A coin, once set in cir- culation, retains its place and use longer than any other part of the machinery of life, and is extremely slow in going out of fashion ; so that the information respecting it which the dealer, the collector, and the public at large require, does not soon become obsolete. " Pieces are current among us a full century old ; and all that space of time is included in the history of coin- age, contained in our large mantuil. But new coins, or modifications of old ones, are continually appear- ing ; and in the latter case, it often happens that the holder finds he has become, if we may so speak, an unconscious sufferer. Old names are retained, but essential properties arc altered ; and a new progeny of douliloons, dollars, francs, or shillings, is found by an aKsaycr's scrutiny to be something different, most like- ly inferior, to the older stock. Keeping a steady watch on these, as it is impliedly our duty, we have collected a number of items which, as in cur former publication, will be set forth in alphal>etical order, and a* briefly as possible." — Manual of Coins, by EcKrsLDT and Do Boi8, The weight is expressed in grains, and the fineneti in thousandth parts, Belgimn.—(io\ii coin, 25 francs; a new denomina- tion : 1848 is the earliest date noticed. It expresses on its reverse the intended standards, 7'915 grammes (equal to 1'2212 Troy grains), 900 fine. The average of twenty pieces tried is 121-9, fineness 899 ; value t4 72. This is a slight depredation : it ought to be $4 79, to compare with the former series of Belgian gold coin, or $4 81, to be equivalent with the Frenob. Gor Uf cot Wa noties alM, in illver, » p)«c» of 3^ ftranes, 1849, waighing 192 grains; fineneu (of a aingla apecinien) 901; va'.aa 46i eenta. iteiMa.— The dollars from 1841 to 1846, tried in parcel*, varjr in flnenera from 896 to 901 ; a very largo lot gave 897; allowing some tendency downward. Weight, varying fhnn 41 1 to 421, averages 416i ; value on a general average, 100*6 cents. Briam. — The newjhnn, or two^hilling piece, being one-tenth of a pound sterling, is nnderstood to be an advance toward a decimal system. A considerable Dumber have been coined, and the piece is fairly in •ircolation ; but, lilia other silver coins of that coun- try, it seldom mokes its way out of the realm. California.— See Coins of l/ni/eH Slatei, p. 844. Central America. — It is not easy to keep pace with the fluctuations in the coinage of this country, any more than with its political histoi^-. Nine years ago, wc averaged the doubloon at $14 96, end the dollar at 91 00*1, The country now seems to be divided (we jodge by the coins) into two distinct republics, Cen- tral America and Costa Kica. Of tho recent gold coinage of Central America, we have had opportunities of examining the quarter-doub- loon, the eighth or escudo, and the sixteenth. The first, 1850, weighed 97 grains, tineness 863, value $8 60. The second, 1844 to 1849, 48 grains, 809 fine, value |1 67. The third, 1826 to 1849, 24 grains, 809 fine, ralue 881 cents. In nlrer, the dollar of 1847 is found to vary from 880 to 820 thousandths in fineness ; those of 1840 to 1842 averaged 887. It would, therefore, not be safe to give more than 92 cents for a single piece, or . 06 by the qoantity ; the laws of wholesale and retail, in the coin market, being directly opposite to those in other branches of trade. The coins of Costa Rica, the acceding state, are in aeveral respects quite remarkable ; and in this particu- larly, that the gold pieces are among the handsomest that are current in the world, while the silver are be- yond comparison the rudest ; at least the samples that we have seen. The specimens assayed here lately are tba half-doubloon, weighing 208 grains, 851 fine, value 97 62; and the quarter-doubloon, 97 grains, 846 fine, value (3 63. The silver piece is the real (apparently ahapiid with hammer and chisel), 1846, 29 to 46 grains, 650 to 637 fine ; average value 6^ cents. ChiH. — In the dollar of 1848 wu find a variation of weight from 416 to 419; fineness 901), which is lower than former dates ; but the average value is 101 cents. Until lately, we had no opportunity of testing the fractional coins. The quarter-dollar, 1843 to 1846, weighs only 92, but is 903 fine ; the eighth, or real, is strictly proportional. Values respectively, 22-4 and 11-2 centi; making a profit to government, and a loss to holders, of about 11 per cent. The nowspapers of the day contain the fallowing ctatement, concerning which we have no other infor- mation : " The Chilian Congress, now in session, hsK passed • dew coinage law, article first of which states that three clasws of gold ara to be coined, of the standard at nine-tenths fine, to be denominated, respectively, obndor, donbloon (doblon), and escudo. " 1. The condor to weigh three hundred and Ave fflft grains, and to correspond in value with ten sil- ver dollar*. "2. The doubloon to weigh one hundred and fifty- two '^1^^ grains, and to correspond in value with Ove silver dollars. " 8. The escudo to weigh sixty-one ^^fi^ grains, and b* of the value of two silver dollars. "Art. 2. There shall be five classes of silver money, •Im of tha standard of nine-tenths fine ; viz. : "A dollar, weighing five hundred -fiff^f grains, and divided into hundredth parts or cents. "A piece of fifty cents, containing twp fiundred and fifty -rtttr grains. a' i -. ^ ■ V- .- ** Ona of twenty cents, with one htmdred j^jj ^ ' grains. "One of ten centa, with fifty xjfv grains. " One of five cents, with twenty-five |gj^ grain*. " Art. Sd establishes two classes of copper coinage, to be termed cent* and half cents, to b* composed of pure copper without any alloy." CAina.— The trashy coin of this gr«at empire da- serves notice only by way of recreation. In 1842 wo quoted the cash (tong-tsien) at 800 to the Spanish dol- lar; in 1847 the equivalent varied from 1200 to 1800— so hard is it to fasten a value upon that which is value- less. A carpenter or tailor, we are told, receives 160 of them (say thirteen cents) for a day's work, of which sixty are required for his daily bread. The coin is ex- tremely convenient fur alms-giving, a single piece being the usual quietus for a beggar. Ecuador. — The quarter-dollar, or two-real pieco, 1847, weighs 104, and is only 675 fine ; value 18-9 cents. This depreciation corresponds with what pre- vails in some of the Oactional coins of Peru, /Voiice. — The twenty and five-franc piece* of the republic, although entirely changed in face, ore the same for weight and fineness as before. Germany. — Here there Is no change of standards, but we observe tlie denomination of double gulden, not in general circulation, value 79 cents. The whole German issue of the gulden series give* an average of 900 fine by actual assay. Since the adoption of the new rate of charges at this Mint, the thaler of Northern Geniiany, 750 fine, yields a return of 67^ to 68^^ cents, according to wear; the crown, 876 fine, 106 to 107 cents. Ilayti. — Large quantities of Ilaytian coins have been recoined here. They are so variable in weight and fineness that it is not easy to put a definite valuation upon them. They should, however, yield 76 to 78 cents per ounce, taken promiscuously and unwashed. The piece of 100 centimes, dignified witli the name of dollar, bearing the head of President Boyer, is worth about 25 cents upon an average ; while that of 25 cen- times, both of Petion and Boyer, averages 7) cents. In a large promiscuous deposit of all sizes, we found the average net value of the "dollar" to be 257 cents. The coins range fVom 600 to 626 fine, if free from coun- terfeits — a baser quality than is to be found in any other coinage on tills side of the Atlantic, But since August, 1849, there has been a new order of things ; and coin collectors and assojers are looking with im- patience for the head of Faustin the First. Mexico. — In 1842, we averaged recent dollars at 416| grains, 898 fine, value 100-6 cents. The average fine- ness has since improved to 899, and value 100-75 cents. The coins of two new Mints liave recently been tried. The doubloon of Guadalupe y Calvo, in the state of Durango, 1847, varies in weight from 417 to 420 ; fine- ness 869 to 873 ; average value $15 69. The dollar of the same Mint, 1844 to 1847, averages in weight 420), in fineness 908, and therefore in value as high as 102-8 cents. The Mint begun operations in 1844 ; its dis- tinctive mark is G. C, in the usual place in the legend. The dollar of Culiacan, in Sinaloa, 1846 to 1848, averages 416) grains, with a pretty wide variation in individual pieces ; fineness 903; value 101 cents. Tiie Mint-mark is the letter C. Mexiuan dollar* are not flowing so abundantly iu this direction as in former years, although they are yielding a better return. J/(bn.— The revolution of 1848 produced a new gold coin in Lombardy : it bear* on the obverse a female figure with the legend, Italia Libera, Dio lo vvoi.k — " Italy ttte, God wills it ;" and on the reverse, a wreath, within which is the denomination, 20 Liiui Itai.ia.nk— "20 Italian livres;" and outside of it tho legend, Govbkxo Pbovisorio ui Lo.miiardia. Ii weigh* the same as the twcuty-franc piece of France, and was evidently meant as a return to the Milanese COI 84» tUndard of 1805. Tha coin it oior* ran than coald be wialicd : only a (ingle epeclmeu baa readied u. Coin- ooUeoton will coniider it a* a priae fbr iu singular beauty and its scarcity, and as the monument of a great •vent in history. Nelherlandt.-'Tbt new 2f^ilders piece was an> noonoed in our Manual as having been decraed, but had not then been reoeit-ed. The legal standards are, 'ii grammes (885-8 grains) in weight, U4& thousandths in lineness. The actual resulu of dates 1843 to 1846 are, 886 grains, IM4 fine; value 98-2 cents. The coin often appears here in mixed deposits. It is remark- able for its high grade of fineness; yet it is really a depreciated issue, since, to be equal to the former guil- der series, it ought to bo worth 100-2 cents. New. Grnnada. — This countn' eontinues to send a large supply of doubloons to our market, and this ■takes it the more- important to notice a very recent and considerable reduction in the value of the coin. Within a few montlis a new piece has appeared, with new devices and standards ; the latter being expressed on the face of the coin by " Lei 0,900— Peso 26,8064 O." That is, fiaeiuu, 900 thousandths; vxigKt, so many grammei — a long-drawn fraction, corresponding to 8I)8'31 Troy grains. At those rates, the piece would be worth 016 48-8, and would avowedly fall below the previous value of. the doubloon; but upon actual trial it is still worse, as ViU be shown directly. This change must have taken place since the beginning of 1849, as we noticu pieces of the old style bearing that date. But as the doubloons of New Granada are alloyed almost entirely with silver, which is now profitably parted at this Mint, it is necessary to restate the Mint value of tlie older piece, as well as to give information respecting the new. The silver extracted makes a sensible addition to the values of both kinds ; that h, if they are oflbred in sutBcient quantities to meet the requirement that the net product of a parting must be not lass than five dollars; below that limit the opera- tion is not performed. The following terms must there- fore be noticed. The doubloon of the old style, down to the early part of 1849, weighs on an average 416^ grains, and contains 870 thousandth.* gold, and about 120 silver; if presented in a quantity less than 68 ounces, its net Hint value will be $15 61 ; in a larger quantity than that, it will be $15 66. The new doub- liran, beginning with 1849, weighs 898 grains, and con- tains in parcels 893} to 895 thousandths gold, say 894, and of silver about 100; net Mint value, in any quan- tity less than 93 ounces, #16 81 ; in a larger quantity, tl5 36. Narusay. — The immigration from this countrj' brings ut considerable parcels of Norwegian and Swedish silver coins. The daUn of these two realms, which have the same monarch, were stated in the Manual to be interchangeable as to value, although ver}- difllirent aa to their standards. Under our new Mint charges there is some variation of value, since those of Sweden are of so much lower fineness, and are subjected to a greater charge for refining. They will be noticed in place. The daler, and half^ of Norway, average 878 fine (the law calling for only 875, or seven-eights), and their weights, unworn, are respectively 446 and 223 grains ; net Mint value of the doler, 105 cents ; the half, 52 (. This valuation is down to 1848, the latest date we have seen, Peru. — A new half-dollar, with the word Pasco in the legend, 1844, gives an average weight of 203 (vari- ation 200 to 210), fineness 906; value 49} cents. /'rufsia.— The years 1848 and 1849, in other respects unsettled, show no change in the gold coinage. It still maintains its superiority to the other classes of ten and five-thaler pieces. The double-Frederick, or ten-thaler, is 908 fine, weight 206 grains, and is worth ii» 01 ; practically, an even eight-dollar piece for us. Auisa.— Five-rouble pieces of 1848 and 1849 show tha fineness of 916^ ; a proof that the ost^ytng and al- loying are conducted with admirable exactnaaa, tb* standard being 916). The coin is worth #8 96-7. Ai the Russian Mint depends, no doubt, upon the Russian miuee, and not u|ion foreign coins, for its material, w« felt an interest in examining at to what proportion of Mvtr wat left iu the alloy of the coin, and found oaljr 6} thoutandtht. Hitherto we have iiaund no gold coini so nearly desilvered. Siam. — We wera not anfficiently acquainted with tha silver bullets of Siam to take account of them in tha Manual, Some specimens of this curious money hava since been examined. They are of different calibres, and tolerably well proportioned to each other. The lical weighs, witlioot much variation, 286 grains, and is 928 fine ; value 58*7 cents. The mdmtg, 61 grains, 929 fine, 15-2 centa. The prang, 30 grains, 907 fine, 7-3 cents. Below this we have, as a present to th« Mint collection, three varieties, weighing 10, 4, and 1^ grains; the last being worth about three-eighths of a cent, and very good silver withal. A sight of it would reconcile our people to the gold dollar. Siam may claim the merit of originality in the shape of her coin, which will not admit of piling, and scarcely of lying still-^the lively emblem of n true circulating medium. i9iM(/«t_Tho specie daler of Oscar, 1847 and 1848, is 750 fine, weighs 625 grains, and yielda 104-2 centa after Mint charges. Turkty. — There was a new system of coinage pro- mulgated in 1840, which did not prevail long ; there la a still newer, beginning with 1845. The gold coins are evidently designed to be 22 carats (916-6) fine, aa in the neighboring empire of Russia. By actual assay they are 915 fine ; the piece of 100 piastres weighs 111 grains, and is worth #4 37-4; the piece of 50 piastres, 55) grains, worth $2 18-7. In respect to value they compare with the former series of 20, 10, and 6 pias- ' tres, though entirely of different standards. The silver coins are greatly improved in quality, and apparently based upon the Austrian standard of five-sixths (883)) fine. They are the piece of 20 pias- tres, 871} grains, 828 fine, net value 82 cents ; 10 pias- tres, 186 grains, 826 fine, 41 cents; and 6 piastres, 92| grains, 824 fine, 20} cents. These coins are well ad- Justed in their weight, and altogether show in their, way a great advance in the progress of Turkish civilU zation. The piastre of commerce seems to be based upon the gold ; the exchange in 1845, when these coins were received, rated the piastre at 4-3 cents. United Steen in operation in California, as indicated by specimens re- ceived here, is fourteen. Some of these have issued but a single denomination of coin, othors.two, and one (the Mormon) four. Ueaides these, there are the sUmp- ed ingoU of MofhU & Co., and of F. D. Kohler, State Assayer ; and lastly, the coin of Augustus Humlwrt, a United States assayer under a legal provision of 1860. 1. The coin of *' N. G. & N." does not profess the same degree of accuracy as Bechtler's as to fineness. iu claim to be full wbioiit ok half baolb is proved by a number of trials, the variation net exceeding one grain in any caae ; but the legend on the reverse, Cal- iroRNiA GOLD wiTHOiTr ALLOY, allows a pi«tty wide range. As far as our assays go, the truth of this stamp is proved ; there is no alloy other than that already inuoduced by the hand of nature, and which is gener- ally more than sufficient. Three pieces gave severally the fineness of 870,880, and 892 thousandths; all were within the scope of "California gold." They conse- quently are worth $4 83, ^ 89, and #4 9a| respective- ly, without the silver; and including that, 2^ oenU more. The coin is neatly executed, and besides the two legends above quoted, bears an eagle, a circle of stars, the date 1649, and the name San Francisco. It wears the somewhat brassy tint which belongs to gold alloy- ed with silver only. 8. The Mint of the "Oregon Exchange Company" issues two denominations, 10 and 6 dollars. They re- spectively profess 260 and 130 grains weight of " native gold." One five-dollar piece was found to weigh 127i grains, was 878 line, and contained only the natural alloy ; resulting value, t4 82 ; with the silver (in suf- ficiently large fote), 2^ cents more. The coin is not well struck, but is pleasantly dis- tinguished by the picture of a beaver, a good emblem of mining industry and of Western life. 8. Next is the mintage of the " Miners' Bank, San Francisco;" a ten-dollar piece, of plain appearance. The average weight is 268) grains, the fineness about 865 thousandths, part of the alloy l>eing copper. Aver- age value 99 87, with a risk of having it as low as #9 76. 4. Coinage of Moffatt & Co., 1849, 1860 ; pieces of 10 and 6 dollars, in imitation of the national coinage. Several of the coining establishments, ss will be seen, have adopted the same device, but evidently without evil intent, as most of their coins are worth what is professed, and some even more. The fineness, how- ever, is in every case inferior to the standard of the Mint, and this is likely to prove a source of discredit from European assayers, who will not take the trouble to assort. A large promiscuous lot of both kinds of Moffatt & Co.'s coins, dates 1849, 1860, shows an aver- ago of 897 ; average weight, to the ten-dollar piece, 268i grains; average value, #9 97-7. The S. M. V. on this and other coins is said to mean "Standard Mint Value." 5. Ten-doUar piece of J. S. O. (said to be Dr. Orms- by, of Pennsylvania) ; one piece assayed gave 842 fine ; weight 2&8i graius; valae fO 37. Very few have come to hand, S. Twenty-five dollar and ten-dollar pljeces of Tem- platon Keid ; weigh respectively 649 and 260 grains. Being the only two specimens received, they have not been cut for aasay, but appear to be of California gold without artificial alloy. Assuming this, the value* would be about #24 fiO for the first, and (9 76 for th« second. 7. Ten-dollar and five-dollar pieces of the " Cincin* natl Mining and Trading Company," 1849. These also have not been cut on account of their rarity, but ap> pear to be of native gold, and, at the weights of 268 and 182 grains, may be rated at (9 70 and 14 96 re- spectively. 8. Ten and five-dollar pieces of the " Pacific Com- pany," 1849; very irregular in weight, and debased in fineness; a ten-dollar piece weighed 229 grains, a five- dollar, 180; assay of a third, 797 thousandths. At those rates, the larger piece would bo worth (7 86, th* smaller #4 48; but the valuation is altogether un- certain. 9. Five-dollar piece of the "Massachusetts and CaU ifomia Company," 1849 ; a very pretty coin, but ap- parantly debased with copper. Only one specimen has been noticed hero ; it weighs 116i grains ; has not been assayed. 10. Coins of Baldwin & Co., four varieties ; 1. A ten- dollar piece, 1860, distinguished by a horse and his rider, with a lasso; 2. Twenty-dollar piece; 8, Ten- doUar, 1861 ; 4. Five-dollar, 1860; the last two in imi- tation of United States coinage. Of the first, one piece tried weighed 263 grains, fineness 880, value (9 96. Of the second, four pieces tried varied from 611 to 628 grains ; but one hundred pieces averaged 617 ; the fineness varied from 861 to 871 ; average fineness 868^, average value $19 38. Of the third, ten pieces averaged 269i grains; average fineness 870; average value $9 72. Of the fourth, average value $4 02. The Bald- win coins contain some copper; about 20 thousandths. 11. Ten and five-dollar pieces of Dubosq & Co., 1860, also in imitation of the national coinage. The larger piece averages 262 grains, and three specimens gave the fineness of 899^, which is a mere shade lielow standard; consequent value, $10 16. A single five- dollar piece yielded $4 92. But a mixed parcel con- taining $1000, gave the fineness of 887, and the closa value of $1000 20. Consequently the pieces may be averaged at par. 12. Five-dollar piece of Shultz & Co., 1861. Aver- age weight, 128} grains; fineness of three pieces, 879; value, $4 97-4. The devices are in imitation of United States coin. 13. The Mormon coinage, although executed in the Territory of Utah, is without impropriety classed among California coins, on account of neighborhood, and the source whence the material is derived. These are the four denominations of twenty, ten, five, and two and a half dollars. Although there is much irreg- ularity both in weight and fineness, the denominations are tolerably in proportion U> each other. A parcel made up of all sizes, and counting $662 60, yielded at the Mint $479 20; say $8 62 to the ten-dollar piece. The fineness was 886. 14. Five-dollar piece of Dunbar & Co., in imitation of United States coin. A lot of HI pieces averages 131 grains weight, 883 fineness, value $4 98. 16. Fifly-doUar piece of the United States Assay- Office at San Francisco, established by act of Congrers of 1860. It first appeared here in April, 1861. The coin is prepared and iteued by Messrs. Molfatt & Co. as contractors, and bears the stamp of Augustus Hum- bert, assayer. The two professed rates of fineness, 880 and 887 thounandths, are found upon assay here to ba duly maintained, whether in single pieces or in large quantities. But some irregularity in the weight of so heavy a piece, alloyed with silver only, and ofl°ering eight comers to wear is to be expected. When pre- sented in quantities sufficient to allow for parting tha silver, say 70 ounces, the average Mint value is al>out $60 10 ; in less quantities, the silver not Iwing allow li for, the average value is about #49 90. But oven with-' /■ COl 845 COI intha classed t)orhood, These e, and ch irrcg- Inatloni parcel ielded at piece. nitation iverages Asia^- :angreti The tt & Co. IS Hum- ness, 860 ire to be in large ;ht of so offering hen pre- ting the is about allow Jd enifith- out the sIlTer they occasionally come up fblly to the alluged value. This coinage is understood to have put a stop to all private issues in California. The foregoing compreliend all the varieties of cmn that have Iwen brought to this Mint There have been, besides, two sorta of stamped bars or ingots, evidently intended for currency. 1. The ingots of Moffatt & Co., of various sizes, firom •bout $0 to $260. It may bo stated, in general, that soma were found to be rated too high, and others too low. The sixteen-dollar ingot yields about $16 75, but is irregular, 2. Tlio issue of bars by F. D. Kohler, Assayerof the State of California, commenced in May, 1850. They are of various sizes, fh>m $40 to $160. Wo find a slight undervaluing in his basis of calculation, and gen- erally an error of assay in the same direction ; so that on the average his l>ars are worth at the mint 1 per cent, perhaps if, mora tlian the value stamped upon them. JtecapUiJation of Ike net Mint Value o/GM and Sil- err Coins itmed toithin twenty-five Yean past. — Inquiry haa bepn frequently made at the Hint for a conipend of the values of foreign coins, without a due considera- tion of the difficulty of putting in a small space sucli a statement as would be satisfactory. The quarto vol- ume, now entirely out of print, was not found too large for its purjioso, which was to supply such infor- mation as dealers, amateurs, and legislators would from time to tune l>e liliely to require. Still, a condensed table of the coins more usually seen, and within a con- tracted range of date, would certainly lie useful to deal- ers and others, and especially with the modifications occasioned by the new Mint tariff of charges. We therefore offer the following, inserting values only, and leaving the details of legal weight and fineness, and of actual weight and fineness, to be sought for else- where ; as also tho particulars concerning coinage of older date than just specified. Gold Coins. t>. CM. iluiMo.— Quadruple duoat tt I'i Ducat 2X7 6 Sovereign (for Lombordjr) 6 TS Aidnt.— Five gulden t Cones. >. CH, IVrtej/.— Twenty piastres (new) 82 nuMnj/.— Sequin 2 80 UwUti StotM.- Eagle (before June, 1884) 10 02 Five-dollar piece of C. Beditler, average 4 86 Dollar of the same, average 98 Five-dollar piece of A. Ucchtler 4 92 to 5 00 Dollar of the same 90 Oregon Exchange Company, live dollars 4 89 N. It. and N., San Francisco, five doUam. . 4 83 to 4 96 HInen' Bank, San Franc, ten dolUn, average. . 9 87 Moflktt's ten-dollar piece 9 75 " five-dolUu' piece 6 00 " •Uteen-dollar ingot 15 75 J. 8. O., ten-dollar piece 9 87 T. Reld, twonty-flve dollar piece 2400 " ten-dollar piece 9 76 Pociflc Company, ten and Ave, uncertain. MaHKacliusctts Cumpapy, five, uncertain. Clnciunati Company, ten, estimated 9 70 " five, estimated 496 Baldwin, twenty dollars 19 83 " ten " with horsemen 9 90 " ten " second issue 9 72 " five " " 499 Duboaq,ten " 1000 five " 600 Shults, " " 407 Dunbar, " " 498 Humbert, United States Anaayer, fifty dollars. . . 5l> UO Mormon coinage, twenty dollam, average 17 00 " ten dullara, average 8 tSO " five dollars, nveriige 4 26 •' two nnd a half dollars, average 9 19 Koblers's bar, about 1 per cent, higher than his ^ valuation. ' SiLVim Coins. ' Austria.— Itlx dollar 9T Florin 496 Twenty kreutzem 10 Lira (tor Lombardy) 10 Auini.— Crown 1 OV Gulden or florin 89 6 Bamriii.— Crown 1005 Florin 89 6 Six krentzera 08 Btlgium. — Five trance 98 Two and a half ihuics 40 6 Two francs 87 Franc 18 6 Bolinia.- Dollar 100 llalfdollar, dcbaiicd, 1830 875 (Quarter dollar, debased, 1S3U 18 T Braril.— Twelve hundred reis 99 9 Eight " 00 Four " 38 Bremoi.- Thirty-six groto 35 4 Britain.— Half crown 54 Shilling 21 T Fourpence 07 1 Brunncicl;.— Thaler 08 Cmiral it nicrico.— Dollar, uncertain ; say 97 Costa Rica, new rent of 05 8 CAiIi.-Dollar 101 Quarter dollar 22 4 Eighth dollar, or real 119 Denmart.- Rigsbank daler 698 Specie daler 1047 Thirty-two akllllngs 17 JSwidor.— (Quarter dollar 18 T Egypt Twenty piastres 98 Frimee Five ftwncs 98 9 Franc 18 5 *V«nt/ort.— Florin 896 Gretee.—VttvXwn 10 5 Ouiana, BrifisA.— Guilder 20 9 tfaneMr.— Tbaler, fine silver 09 9 750flne 08 Aiai/ti.— Dollar, or 100 centimes 257 Heme Caeael Thaler 07 5 One-sixth thaler 11 ffes«..,...;.... 686 f!|Hria-.PitUrera (4 naU TsUos) , 196 SMitcn.— SpmIm d«l«r 1M2 lUlfdtlwr 69 IWfa)/.— Twanty plutm, new oataMg* 89 nuoMi!/.— UopoMoM 106 Florin 1... 262 inirtmttrg.-^auU*u,iait 88 6 " . IBSSandttnoe S96 Double thdor, or 8( gulden 1 SO Compariton of American and fortigtt WtiffhU uied for Preciout MelaU. — Tho normal weight of the United StatM Hint ia the Troy otince, for considerable quan- tities, and the ttoy grain, for single coin*. This oonoe Is equal to 480 gralaa; to 81-0981S French grammes; to 1-08108 Spanish ounce. The grain is 64'788 milligrammes. Our standard Fhsnch kilo- gramme weighs 15,485 grains, or 82-15625 ounces. The gramme is 15-485 grains. The milligramme -0154 grain. The average estimate of the Spanish mark is 8562 Troy grains, or 7-40 ounces Troy. It Is differently subdivided, according as It Is applied to the weighing of gold or silver. For gold, it is divided into 50 cas- tellanos ; each castellano into 8 tomines ; each tonilne into 12 granos. For silver, the mark is divided into 8 ounces ; each ounce into 8 ochavos ; each ochavo into 6 tomines; each tomine into 12 granos. Consequent- ly, In gold weighings there are 4800 grains, and in sil- ver 4608 grains to the mark. Tlie castellano is much Bsed, however, as a normal weight for gold bullion. By deduction from the above, it should weigh 71 -04 Tvoy grains; by an invoice from New Granada, we liave found it to correspond with 70-935; so that 71 grains might be taken as the equivalent, accurate enough in practice. This is Just one grain less than tliree pennyweights ; or -H'O of a Troy ounce. This mark, being employed not only in Spain, but in all Spanish America, is of course a very important weight to the bullion and coin dealer, and should be duly un- derstood. It Is, (lerhaps, not more difficult to master than the pounds Troy and avoirdupois, with their re- spective trains. The Cologne mark, normal money- weight of Germany, by the German Convention of 18>8, was estimated at 233-866 grammas, answering to 8609-55 grains Troy. It was before rated usually at 8609. Our silver dollar, simje 1837, weighs 26-725 grammes. A kilogramme of standard {•Ar) gold is worth |S98 25 5. BMand Paching of Pncioiu if4luU. — A solid or cubic inch of fine gold weighs 10-1509 ounces, and is worth |209 84. A cubic foot of the same, $362,600. A cubic inch of standard gold weigbs 9-0989 ounces, and Is worth $169 28. A cubic foot of the same, $292,500. A cubio inch of flne sihvr weigh* 6-6226 ounces, and is worth $7-14. A cubic foot of the same, $12,838. A cubic inch of standard silver weighs 6-4178 ounces, and ia worth $0 80 3. A cubic foot of the same, $10,891. These calculations are based upon the weight of water a* 252-458 grains to the cubic inch, tb« thermometer being at 60° and the barometer 80 inches Sillimar's FirtI Prin. CAern., 1848. The specific gravity of flne gold Is taken at 19-8, standard at 17-3 ; line silver 10-5, *tAndard 16-3. As the** grav- itie* are only approximate, we may be excused for not carrying out the decimal* very far, as Is rather too eltan dona in works of science. Gold is not measured by the put, at least out of Califomia ; yet it may b« inter**tinK to know that a dry'«Ma«ui« pint of CalW itoraia grain* i* found to weigh Arom 141 to 148^ ounce* | value about $2600. The average specifle gravity 1* eon*«quantly 9-61 ; so that It occupie* about twice a* much bulk, in that form, a* when melted and caat lnt« ban. A pint «f African dn«t wa* fonnd to weigh 144 ounces. The advantage of having gold grain* or dn*t caat into bars as a preparative for exporutlon, I* per- bap* overrated. True, It ha* rather an Insufficient outfit, if packed in paper, leather, muslin, Seldllls- hoxe*r or porteiwbettle*, as it came at first from San Francisco. A good tin box, well soldered, will hold hst and keep dry ; and the Mint charges nothing for malting. This is the most general kind of packing now used ; but the tin case, if large, requires to be in- cloeed in a wooden l>ox, and after that there is need of a vigilaot watch and care. A moat daring theft wa* lately committed, somewhere on th* route,- by boring through box and case ; and about $0000 worth was ab< stracted. A keg 13) incites high, including the chine, and with a diameter of 10 Inches at the head and 11|| at the bilge (outside measures), is a convenient size for $2000 in silver coin, or $50,000 In gold coin. A keg whoaa measurement* are 19, 11, 18, as above, is a prop- er size for $6000 in silver coin. A rectangular box, measaring inside 10 by 8 inches by 6 in depth, is the *iie u**d at the Hint for $1000 in silver coin. This allow* the coin to be ihrown in promiscuously ; if piled, at least one-third more can be put in. Such • box would hold $36,000 In gold coin, laid in order ; or $27,000 in disorder. A bag 6 inch** by 9 holds $5000 in gold coin, with room to tie. A bag 14 by 18 is a good size for $1000 in silver coin. One thousand pieces of our three-cent coin ($30 worth) make a smaller budget than many of our customer* teem to«nticipate. A bag H inche* by 5 easily contains them. — See J/onu- aliffConu, by EcKPELliTand Dc Boisof United States Mint. Published, New York, 1863, by G. P. Putnam &Co. Privilege of Coining. — Th* privilege of coining money has always been claimed as a prerogative of the ex- ecutive power, which was guarded with extreme jeal- ousy. " The legitimation of money," eays Sir Mat- thew Hale, "and the giving it its denominated value, is justly reckoned in jura nuijettatis, and In England it is one special part of the king's prerogative." And Kuding observes, "As to the impression of the coins, the stamping thereof is tho unquestionable prerogative of the crown, and it was in very few instances com- municated to those persons on whom the privilege was conferred; for, in general; the die* were sent either from the Exchequer, or flx>m the master of the mint in the Tower." The privilege implied that the authority of the crown wa* necessary to give legal currency to the coin ; and although Blackstoi^e thinks it did not extend to the debasement of the coin to the injury of the people, no one can doubt that the power was not always leglthnately exercised. In truth, it Is only in the case of a depreciated currency that the king's proc- lamation is necessary to give legal circulation to the coin of the realm ; and, as a better protection to his subjects, the tender is limited within very narrow bounds. AncierU Conitiliition of the MinlL—Tht constitution of the mints in the earliest times of British history, and the regulation* applied to the coinage, are ques- tions of antiquarian research which will be deemed more curlons than profitable. The materials for such an inquiry are extremely meagre and incomplete ; for, according to Ruding, both the Anglo-Saxon laws and Domesday-Book are silent on the subject. They fre- quently mention the moneyer*, but make no allusion to any other officer* of the mint ; though it is reason- able to sttj^ose that the crown, whose prerogative it was to coil! money, must have had some jurisdiction over those vvlto were employed in the {tractical opersr- tlon*.— E.B .■ " - ■ /.' COl 84« cor Tablm BniTiTi TO mc Coim or Ouat Biiitaik k»\> oriin (.'c^uiiTam. Eirotnn Roini.— Aeconnt of the Quantity of FiM gUrar oontklned in Vit. or the Pound Sterling i the Quantitr of StotHtoni Silver, of 11 01. S dwte. Fine and 1 1 dn ta. Allnjr, contained In Ma. or the Pound Sterling. In the dUhrent Belgna, from the Time of Cclward III. to the Koign of George II I.— A •imllar Account with ivapeet to Oofd.— And au Account of the propor- tional Valuo of Fine Gold to Fine Silver, according to the Number of Oralna oontalned In the Oolne.— OatoitaMm OrMtM (mdlOOOtA ArM, IVov WiH^U. Nlv.,. ■ doU. 1. 1. 1 t. 4. NoaikilorOraiaior NaallMr«ranlMof Nimbtr of aniM NinkorolOnriaof riMGoliitoruulilnr, AaaeJUgaL rlna HiMr la fO SMlllan, or Ihe Pmigil RUrllnt, u Sun4at4 aiUir, II oi •rrUaaoldialo ■hillMit, or Ibo PmndMnliai.ai (Viuiod b; tk* Sludud QoM if Canii PlM, in W alillllDgi, w Uio iNiund RUrllni, ai Gotaod by iKi Mai IdoU. KlnaiUtOUiil- llnn, or lli« P«uBd Btor. wcordiog lo Ibo Quaa* UlyofnobHMalcoa' •71 CtlMd kr 'U lio*. •• l-o4Md \>i tk« aint ladMrtwM. laiMdlaUM MUl ladaolaM. Mlat Udoaliiroo. ladMitarM. Colu. dniM. OrrilM. Sralaa. Oratau. OoMtoMTOf. 1B44 18 Kdmrd III. 4183 '833 6388 833 407 990 446 080 1 to 12 091 184» OaKd ward III. 4t40'000 4Stl0'«)0 883-706 418-68S 110 11671 ISM 30 Mvard III. 889(1 '00* 4920000 868126 800681 1 to I116S idnt ailonrjriV... 810« 000 4880000 868-126 390 081 llA 11-168 1481 QliennrV.... 8380000 8800. 4. 1. 1. 7. 8. Equal lo Ih. Kqn.1 lo 111. Mini Prira *■ ^aelUgat rllM>MI0f Pound Prodi or Mini Prire for PInaiaaaof Ponnd Profilor thoSllror W.ldlit of Mirnorago Blandard Hllver Iho Oold Walgblof Solgnoraga far Sludard intha Inch silver wlbe oflloi. tinlliiii|il« of ITTI 8t-quln Ibn4ucll u( 1T8V IMriutMUrd*!*) Btiiuln funduoll ,,.,., YtmMubuililik < , . • TnoAMT ZtMblno or MqHln. , , . , Kutpona of Ilia kliiRiluiii of Klrurla I'MiTiii Statu. . . . Kaafa (t and i lit |im|Hirlluiil ViKioa Kaoehlno or anquln (i and t In |in|Kirtlun) WuTiMuiii} CtKlIn Uiiaal Diioal (dmilila and ( dunal In |ini|Hirtlaii) Eait Ixiiiu Moliur of ITTO Mohur, Half itT«T) i| In |il«twrtloi.) Mohur Sliwa of HanuHl , , . , »'.- ' Moliur of Ilia liulah Kaal IlldU t'ani- 1 '* panr.lTiW) 4 > I I Uoliur, lltir llltio (IM)I) -I .. Rupaa, lloniliay (1818) Hu|iaa«rMadra«(INI») Paiiodii •••f iMar- WMihl. I'M. ai. W. 1 1 W. I 1 W. I <1., the chief clerk of that offloe, who also oiMnlnad Ilia Tiblas In llinir proiircss. It may likewise Ise added, that tho Mint Reports of Iheao cominerolal oolna ara ehleAy fhini averaii* asaays i and tliat all thn roninulatlons hare been careftiUy verified by dlf- fuant oaleulatora.— Nola by Ur. K8U,v, lu aaiiond adilluli of the Cambist, published in 1991. QvAMTi-nia Aim Valdb or Ookii mm Hilvnii liiri.l.lAM| add or Oorria, biocitid akd rumonAUD nr mi Kotal Mint, AMU flOIMID TUIMAT I»tO MOMirB Of Till SIVMAb UlNOMINATtONa IK Till YlAia (■NDIMO UIO. Bl) 186U, 1S5T. aav'BivaD aho rua«a*sB». Gold bullion reoeivad fi-oni Ilia Hank of Kn|land Haatei' a supply , , , Silver bullion purchwad ■..■.BI,808"2m) 93,611 STO 1.948,118-100 "^iffeSO-IHiO 486,840-000 908,040-000 70,09(1-000 730-000 l,BB7,9flO -11(10" Toof. 14 11 B 80 — z 7r~i: 4,»H),183 19 9 1,106,954 10 9 e^J02,ll4"l» 6 9:iO,170 168,400 80,498 1,6S4 12,879 1C8 48^,688 0"0 0,061 4 4,048 1,84B 4 4T0 t I. i. 4,826,086 19 9 490 18 8 aOT,441 9 8,499 6,226,389 11 9 t I. i. 4,416,748 4 10 864,111 17 4 4,aW,860 9 2 167,119 1!8,106 66,836 21,978* 108 873,980 8,138 2,404 1,120 11,418 S 0,47 6,001 7 6 0,T20 6,239,810 9 9 " By one of the article! of tho ZolKVoroln, or Cum tomi Union of Germany, it was atipulateil llmt tho act- tlements for the duties ibould be m»ile eitlier in Prtia- Bian dollars or In florins, at the rat* uf 7 llorins for four Prussian dolUri. There were, howovor, no li'irin* in existence exactly of this value ; but 88 tlio iionreit «ti' proRcli to it was a valuation calloil tlw 'l\ Kuld«iifii88, or florin-foot, these Zoll-Veretn florin* wore nominal' Ir reckoned to Im in this rate, though (lin dlATerono* amounts to more than 2 per cent, ilia torin 24 ((ul* denfuBs implies that the mark weight of Una silver Is rated at 'H gulden or florins. It waa formed by giv- ing to the coins minted or valued in 20 guldonfuss an increased value of one.flflb, as rating the 20-lcr«ut88r piece at 24 kreutiers. At 6M, per ounoe standard, the value of this mwk of Ona sUvar ia worib Mi. lii, staN ling, from which the value of the different German monetary integers is readily obtained ; as reckoning 271 marks banco or 84 marks current of Hamburg, 14 dollars of Prussia, 24^ florins of South Germany, 20 florins of Austria, and also 60 lire of Anstriache of Lom- bardy, to ha of this amount. In order, therefore, to prevent the loss or inconvenience which would attend their adhering to this mode of valuation, a money con- vention woB entered into on the 25th of August, 1887, among the states forming the union, by which it was agreed upon that a new basis of valuation sliould be adopted for their coins, under the term of SQddeutscher Wlinrung, or South German valuation, at the rate of 241 gulden or florins from the mark's weight of fine silver."— /rffffr l Un rat* o( (k Id, per Oune* HUndud, tnm Aihjti aiatf* botk at IM Londim Md PuU Ma AMnu. ...... Bataua Bni* B*B(W »• T i Ea«i.AaB., : .iAiio'( «■» nuMoi OlMITA OmoA Uauoio Hasotib. UhuCihil. Ilouin ■I nil, I :>rfjr -» ^ LotM... LVOOA , Maua Miuur ,,. I t,,^,!/, .1,. MOMIIA. NAnn....... : i .'■( ' , '■ If RBXBLAJVDB . Rlt doHar of PrMiU II. (tMA RU doUar of Iha klntdooi of Uuanrjr . . Half lb dollar, or dortn, OmMiWon C'a|iflauck, or lO^cnutMr ptcoa lT4!nmtMr pleea Ildlba copf, or lO-cnulaar piaat Hlidollar , RU dollu of 1800 (i In proporttao) c'opftauck PaUgon or frown (( la pfpponloii) Hac* of 10 bataan ,,,^,, Htae of 48 urolM Hlidollar, CoitMiiMon Half rix dollar Guidon, or pleca of |, llna. of ITM Uuldon, connion, of ITM Guidon, ditto, of ins Half gulden, or plot* uf t, of ITM Rjrkcdaler, vroU, of ITMI Naw pleca of 4 Marka Halfrykadalor Mvk, apoela, or i rtkadalar Ul dollar, apwile, of Bloawick and Hoi- I itala (plooaa of I and t in proportion) { Phee of M •UlUnii* Crown (ii)U> , Half-orovn BkUUng SIxpaneo Crown (MH) , Half-crown BUUlng BUpanea Ecu of 8 Urraa DamI ecu Piaoa of S4 ami! (dirlaioua In proportion) . Fleco of 30 MUi (t In proportion) rieea of B fhinca PbieeofSfranri Fraae Demi franc Patagon ricceoflBiouiioflTM 8cudo, of 6 lire, of ITM (t< (•etc. In piopi) gcudo of the Ugnrtan RapHula RU dolUr, apem DnntiUi mark, or SS-Khllllng piece (sin- i gle In proportion) { Plecf ofSachlUlnga Piece of 4 Khllllnga Rlz dollar, ConarMMon Florin, or piece of I. Ane Half florin, or piece of i, ditto Quarter, or piece of • good groachen, ditto tloiin, orpiecoof I, baaa Rlx dollar, CmmiHim Florin, or piece of I (t In proportion) .... Thaler of 1TS» Ecu, CofiMnMon (1815) Bon groa Ducatoon Ilece of 8 florlna Rlx dollar (tho aasay varlea) Half rU dollar Florin or guilder (1 In proportion) li-ttlrer gece Florin of Oatavia Rlx dollar, or fiO-iUver piece Rlx dollar, apecle Doable mark Mark Seudo Barbone Onace of SO tarl of Emmannel Pinto 1-tarl pleca Seudo of lira (i In proportion) Ura, new Ura, 5 4 4i 1 w. 1 i w. I • W. I w.« W. 4 W. 6 W. I W. 1 W. 4 W. W.I I W. « J w. 1 a W. 1 8 a >• w. 1 « w. * * w. 1 « w. It w. i» W. p 10 w. i 1 W. li W. 4 T fltand. ilUnd. T T 8 T t 1 8 8 Wtlgkl BtMid. Btand. HIand. Stand. Btand. •W. T W. W. W. 8 W. W. W. w. • W. 1 w. « W. W. 9i W. 10 w. « » W. 8 It W. 4 < W. 9 a 18 a 18 a i< W. 8 1 W. 1 • W. 1 « W. 10» w. 1 a W. 14 B. S W. i W. 18 W. 18 W. *i W. Iti W. 51 W. 5t w. la W. » 8 W. • 8 W. 8 W. 8 8 W. 8 B W. 9 19 W. T W. 4 10 W. B W. « T yr.i 18 W.0 14 W. 8 W. 8 8 W. 1 W. 1 W. 1 « W. 1 s W. 1 « W. 14 W. 8 8 bwiaf. 18 1 18 1 :st 4 5 11 18 » IT II * «» 18 li 6 8 11 18 1 Ot 8 m » 11 U 4 II 18 14 11 9 1 T 4 18 II B t| II M 9 l«i 8 11 1 K4 18 4| 9 1 BIB) 1 l»l 18 18 9 9 5 SO 8 11 18 1 « 11 8 6* I 16 17 9 « H 11 9 91 9 18 18 11 IS S 8i « 1 18 19 8 II) 4 4 1 Oi 1 11 18 9 11 7i IT 281 1 4 10 n 10 T 18 « 9 « 18 4 11 5 IB IT 18 8 11 18 Ml IT 1 sot 19 U 1 1 14 101 4 1 10 14 tU 4 IT 18 in n 19 18 1( 14 16 17 16 IT 1«| 17 18t 14 18 19 8 4 ts^f Dwi(r. aa l« 4 M « 8 ■ • 1« I • I T 18 • 16 18 18 I 10 S IS T 14 4 14 IT 8 II 1 18 4 4 B s a • 1 1 5 1 10 • 11 T • 1 t IT II It II WI4 8 IT 8 a 11 11 IT 18 8 s a IS IB a IS 5 IS B B II 1 IS 10 18 4 T 9 14 B 18 « 1 19 14 18 T 18 9 1 18 8 IS 19 411 4 IB 19 4 6 8 8 8 8 1 4 IB 8 15 19 8 1 16 1 10 14 10 mil 1 IT II 11 Oil 8 18 4 1 S II 18 14 9 10 « 11 4 9 4 10 8 18 16 15 SI 6 T SB 8 II 17 5 16 SI a 11 6 11 4 15 SO 2 11 18 10 8 8 8 8 8 14 14 4 8 18 5 It 1 10 13 18 IT 15 11 9 11 8 4 IT 14 IS 18 10 1 T 14 15 4 14 19 8 14 9 10 19 19 4 14 10 4 5 11 8 IT 8 9 BIT 1 19 » 11 18 T 8 18 18 16 IS 13 15 S 6U 4 1 2 4 1! 3 4 6 B 4 1 1 1 1 4 4 2 1 4 t-C* in TR» 8M 1-86 «'T8 AST I'SO O-O) O'SO 0-1T 1'43 B-8B 2-88 4'WI 188 8 '40 OHO T-n 8'8T «'T2 B-3« 2-«7 8S8 4'Ot 3 lilt 8 '41 8 8 63 TBI T-88 8 8-Tl 10T8 1 4 B-T8 1 1 BIO 8 413 S B-24 ITl 141 1«0 B-10 T18 4n 4 4 4 NmiKLAHM . . . Pama i*iauiiovT I'«L ua t l>f>mrvatii . 1 .-•( 1 OKIlri SHI ','OV-t I i l>«nMA*. ft M.Y hn. ■ , -: ') ROMI. n •. ! r. SW . 8absi«u 8AXOIIT . 1. .1 4) ... BlOILT . t 8rAiJt.* ... *• (/ r. i\ Swinaif. BwiraoL AND rioriii*nii* lUlf Horln iwlUi dlvlslom lu pnportlon) DutftloriTM l>imt of ITM ii In pro|Miniaii) .....,,.. MeMorxUn Itiid*, ITBt (I, ale., In pni|wrtli>n) Muds, ITTi) (i *nil ) In pruuortlon) rtootortllnlUU) 5.muieple«a (1801) Wx4olUr, old Klx 4oll«r, tin* (ITM) KluiiB, or Ktil lMw« of ( niMUtM. of l\>r«H(«MM AT- / rim ( niito of e iiiita Dlllo of 4 illtta Uk dollw, I'niHiAn ourrtBox (t In prop,) Rlx dollar, ConwiiMoii Florin, or j)lece of | Florin of Mlaila UrUtal, or pl«re of 8 good groMtMn flee* of iRrowhen Hrtulu. or rruwn (rulnnd rinee ITDR) MeA/u Kuilu, or half-crown Toilone (ITW 1^10(1786) UroMo, or half INmIo (1T8S) Hcwio of the Roman Republic (ITW) Rouble of {"eier tha Orcal Ultlo of C'alliarlna I. (1T26) Ditto of Peter n. (1T2T) Ditto of Anno (IT84) DllloofKlliabethdTfiO)..... Ditto of Peter III. (1782) Ditto of t'athailaa II. (1T80) Ditto of Alexander flauda, or crown (f and i In pmpnrtlon). Rlx dollar, OnweiiMon, d and k In pn>-\ portion) I Piece of 18 Kiuflchen of I^elpele Rlx dollar current of Haxa Uotha i thaler of 1 804 . Ditto of 1808 Ditto or.leroma llonaparta of 1808 Scudo (1 In proportloti) Pleoe olMmlai tDollar, or late coinage Half dollar, ditto Mexican peceta (17T4) Real of Mexican plate (1776) Puccta proTlnclal of 2 reala of now plate I (17TB) j Real of new plate (ITOB) ., Rlx dollar (17(11) Rlx dollar of late coinage Ecu of 40 balaen of Lnceme (1706) Half ditto TctOAMT .1 '. , ?: UimzB Statm. . . . It V.V-;' ■ If Florin, or piece of 40 •eblillng* of Lu- came (17D3) Ecu of 40bataen of the Helvetic Repub- lie 1788 (1 In proportion) Ecu of 4 frankcn PlaatroefBeliin of 1801 Plaatre ofOrlm Tartary (1TT8) Plaiitre of Tunis (1787) Plaatre (1818) Piece of 10 Paolt of the kingdom of ) Etniria(1801) j BeodoPiuk of ditto (181)3) Piece of 10 lira ditto (1803) Ur»(1808) tDollar, 17HS (i, ate, In proportion) Dollar (1798) Dollar (180?) Dollar, an average ofS year* Dime, or one-tenth dollar Half dime Piece of 8 lire, or 24 orcutten (1800) Ditto of 2 lire, called rooneta provlnciale ) (1808) j Ditto of 8 Ure, 1808 (( and i In proportion) AMJ oi. 4»r w, w. W W. W. 1 W. W. W. W. W. 1 W.J W. 4 W w, w, w, w w, w, w, W. W. W. 8 l\ 9 Bt 4 s» t 17 t i- T T 4 9 I • W. W. w. a w. I w. t W. 8 W 8 W. 2 W. W. W. W. W. W. W. 8 W. 2 . W. 3 12 W. I 11 W. 1 T W. 2 3 W. 3 4 W. IS W, I W, 1 3 W. 3 1 W. 4 H W. 4 11 W. 4 W, 6 W. 1 W. 1 W. W. W. W. Q lU 4 4 3 8 8 •i W. 1 W. 1 tk WO 11 W. 14( W. 8 W. 1 2 W. 1 6 W. « W. T W, B « W. S IS w, a tn W. 6 14 W. W. B. B. W. vr.o w. m W. 8t W. W. W. 8 W. 8 4 T 4( 8 Wdikk W. 8 4 U»l tt. t n B II 18 II It 121 4 14 31 14 •8 14 7 lot It II 18 1 16 lOi • II • 8 » S 4 18 I Ot • * I 4i t 1 It OM T 12 B 13 3 18 14 8t 18 1 II 3 '"a B 8t 8 14 17 1 8 I2i 6 2 1 17 20t 17 1 18 1 17 II 18 B( 18 Ht 10 12 IB 10 IB IS la 13 IB n 18 • »t 18 1 3 11 8 6t 3 17 17 14 B 21 IT 8 a 18 4 7t 2 3t 8 18 1 21 18 20 18 17 ID 20 4 23 15 23 IS 23 8 6 10 6 10 6 6t IT 13t IT 12 2B 6 2 8 IT 8 IT Ifll IT 10 IT 8 1 lot 211 6 19t D 131 6 •{ ll»l.|>. Ml. « I« « 8 8 9 16 18 18 18 2 18 4 2 2 18 lU 3« I it T It It IB II 13 It t tt 11 t 8 18 It 10 19 8 I 9 1 18 4 12 18 1 32 18 Wfilkk L'aaUeH la l*urt ailrtr. 8 93 8 3 1 33 1 I 91 T 4 14 13 8 9 1 8 4 t B T 8 11 It 9 It 4 8 11 T It 8 20 1 10 , 10 IT 18 8 8 It 4 23 4 1 lA 4 20 18 13 18 14 1 8 13 28 13 23 4 14 It 14 II 18 12 12 12 10 8 12 12 11 14 IB It 8 4 T 14 18 11 4 2 2 19 1 21 8 1 23 6 16 It t B T 9 It 17 8 8 10 4 8 16 2 1 10 8 10 1 IB 17 19 10 17 12 15 13 14 8 20 11 4 8 14 IS 10 14 18 8 11 4 7 8 4 3 4 4 8 3 14 17 SIS 17 8 4 28 1 13 1 16 16 19 It 10 81 6 16 14 16 16 1 18 14 21 1 12 9 1 11 8 1 8 19 Uralaa. 148 4 78 ■ 8W« 8B7 9 9117 4889 490' 170 8 348-7 3608 2B4'3 84' 1301 9001 Mil 1004 4.14 1981 4t't 41B 13 3 104 1698 118' 781 IB1<« 3B9- 19a'4 1703 88-S 81 3 87 IB 186T 116-8 37 '2 18'B MSI 3121 300 -9 810- 317-1 3218 ITTB 8TB1) lT8t 814'T SSS'l 1891 248-1 463 481 43'T 048 -3 IIT'B tTO'D 18S4 92-3 48-1 72-9 861 SrB'B S88'S 4123 19t'7 n-8 40D'6 407'8 DBT 00'9 00 B tT-T 883-9 8SB-0 B78-7 63-4 873-B 874-9 SA8-3 8701 39-6 19B 83-4 02 '8 80'B 1 10-11 4'4T 1 10-90 1 11-37 4 2-11 1 3-70 1 II 78 IIKt 8-68 387 1-93 3-40 B-19 2 68 8-40 TBS 7 '27 1'IS B-IO 8-93 3'TB 8-B2 2-83 9-84 8 8 3 8 3 4 2-01 1 11-61 8 10 64 6-33 B-8T 6-10 0-63 4-40 S-T9 1-88 0-88 t-43 4 1 4 3 1 10-08 B-04 4 T-22 4 A-S8 4 9-6T 3 848 1 1-61 4 9-lS 4 9-18 1 1-86 1 049 1 1-4T 9-4B 4 6-46 8-T6 8-80 T-4B 4-tB 4-35 3-42 3-68 6-11 2-Tl 4-66 458 4-iB * Hm PniMUn coins, having been dehued at dllTcrent periods, vary In their reports. ^s^i t TMs ti the ooln which Is universally circulated under the name of the Spanish dollar. t The ABWMan dollars, and InAitor iUvtr plaoMoflate coinage, vary In flnaness ftom W. 4 dwtl, to W. H iirUL. :. '-**lfe;.; u.^ 001 U2 ^00X Mm. imtr H'atfkl. MM4a>4 Walfkt. la ran MI'M. TlSlaa.' Vnlaa la Maillai Oa.4*l. ID 1 4 !•♦ b»l |i. ail. *unUnm.... . . Ml ilollftr, iiMfll* , W, 1 1 W. 4 1 II. 11 II 14 II 1 U 11 in IMM IT6'« 4 114 u »-u 1 KM t.'opMurk .. Mm* Mm», eg|ii>4 hy Ik* Kut liiill* 1 ComoMy ■! ('>l«iu> 1 Comiwny'a nr IIUii4i>rii ■ 1 • , . HUII4. • • • I • • I IM' 1 II II 'lliH. V, UtkulU (IMID) MUiMl. II • no IT6« 1 OM RomlMjr. naw, or Hunil (lllll) W. fll W.O It T 11 T in 4 l«4T 1 IKM FUm, C'ananora HomlMir.old PondlrhMTr imio, ilauM* 1 II 1 II 10 ll'iw 4A II. 13 1 II 1 IS It Oft 4»» H A( 1 1 1 1 lit Am w. n 1 }" 1 II •• W' B'4t nuM« or Iha l>iit«h R. 1. «:a (tMO) .... W.O Tl » f' . It « I4II-4 1 »U Th« •UrIIng valu* of tbo rorelgn eolni, In Iha foni. colng UI>Ua, hai lM*n oompulad fW>in Iha aaaaya u fuU iowi I I.«t It bo r«i|ulra(l to auinn tha value, In ttcr- ling, of a Franch iloubia I^iula d'or coined tlnre I7HA, Iha au«y inailar't report lieing aa rollowii " Weight, > 4wt». 20 gn. ; aaeay W. li gri.," that li, vur. 1 ' gti, woria than tha Engllah atandaird. Wa pr 'leed an under i from 'ii car. gr. tha flneneia of EnglU'i ituiiuiir. f)ld, take car. H gr., there remalm "I >'ar. H gr. ben, aa '22 car. : 31 car. 2t gn. : : dwu. 20 grt. s U dwta. 16 gr>., tha atandard gold eonlalnud in the l.oui« d'or; and hence, aa 1 oi, : XO 174. l>>i I. :: dwU. 10 gri. I £1 17<. 7i(f., the value of thn I.uula in •tarling niona^r, and lo fur any of tha other coini. Naaiaa aa4 ProparUaea. Oi>r»h " nckah .. AiKunl C I ■• W' M : iln, fur the ronreniencr of •nch of ' ' r ^ r I* i m , any lime have oruatluii tu con i. voilf I Wi. ' al'arenca ia made lu an<*litlit col ic, .1 rulliii.liig tables of thnte that were prlnrl- nally ' '. "mg tha Jewi and (Ireeka. Th«r wre cakiilau y Dr, Arbuthnot (Tallin (^ Aneitnl f «, Wtlflklt. i'< , 4t(< ad., I.oiid., i'ni), aii'l do not ' .' maltrially from the tabira of I'aiirinn, whota .ii,frx>logi» (4lo I'arle, 1780) ii the mott complete and elaborate work th >l baa aver been publlihed with re- •pact to aiiciei t inoneya, weighte, and nieaauren. At the aaina lime we confeae we ihoiild not be dlapaaeil lo place much rolianca on Iheee tallica, and wa have cIt. where atated our rcaaona for holding this opinion.— Encfc. Brilannira, art. Momey. Jmrian (;oun> Valaa In Blarllaf ( •* 10 ^JO 1,200 00,000 3 120 6U00 Hhekel 50 flOOO Maneh \ . Mina Ilsbraica j ' "STI Talent 842 Solidua auraua, or aextula, worth Slclui auraua, worth , 1 ▲ talent of gold, worth S476 OBKOIAN COIKl, I. Lepton C'halcua 2' ! Dlch alcua Ilemlobolum Obolua Dlobohini Tetrobolum Drachma . . 2 |_pidrachraB 1 Tetradrachma 2 Ijr I Pentadraehina. >t 1 lA 3 ai 14 Oi 8 13 Oi lit U o^Vj 0}^ lA ify t u 2 2i S Oi 7 8 8 2 7 'i 8 An Aoootmr or all oiNUt AT Tua DaiTiaii Mint noM ma liT or Jamcaby, 1s16, to tiik Slar Dx- ooiiiitB, isea. Vaar. QoM L-olaaf*. allrar Uolnaia. Vaar. Oald Calaaia. ml>tr CUaaia. t I. 4. t : J. t 1. . IDlt l,B0e,VBl It 18SB 1,1(I9.TI8 8 10 140 0(16 4 U WIT 4,SI5,88T 10 t,4Sa.W7 12 1888 1,187,782 6 n 4*7.710 4 18IS «,80 949.fil< 10) 84T,T1T 4 1839 6:!4,810 14 8 »90.0f>t 1) 18 il 1».5'*),TM 18 Of 483,t8t ,1 1840 , 1--i () 18i4 4,0tfi,0TS SSi.OTO 10 J 1H48 6.0(I7.S4» 10 '■ «39,t.-'i n 18tS 4,S8'l,ffl9 41T,B3B It 1844 8,R«I8,»4» T 1. (110.0.12 I) 18M 6,890,401 T 008,t(l6 It 184B 4,244.608 10 6t i;-»7.668 II 1821 1,BI1.0S« IT S 88.019 It 1848 4.034,011 17 6 561t,l<4S II n 1818 l,0» : and In «llvor tl>« amount In pieces u( live frama rluwn to Avt MUk waa £:M.9tlil,A60 bearlnfc lh« tfHity of Louis XVIII. ami Olinil ■ X. <>n Ihv^ alMvo dau, the •mount or<'irculaiiiiK apacla in I'l-: kingidoni was (itl- maUU, on the lit of January, WM, at lt,7IS,7Sl,lN» franca, equal In valua to 4llll.ii?3,l8ti alerllnK. The gold and tllver rurranry, prinr tu the Itevolutlon In 1780, wa* aatimatad at i^W.tW.MO alclinK. Wa can icarcaly, howevnr, draw any poeitlvc inforenca from tha qiiaiilll)' of ((old and »ilv«r ctiliinl In Kranca, ra- •pacllng tha amount of apevla actually cIrculatInK, an within the laat twrnty-a*von years Ihu exportation of coin ha* l>ean Arwiy |><ortad, ^ COI ar««n««,<( to thfl naoaaaliia* of aommaf e«, for Ik* IM yaara pntMHnf I8S0, Ika quanllly of biilllan ImptrUi »»Mi. ■'I i«l,S« ra«M ,ui,iiiin l7.IUil.46. ('Mnttf0 <{flk» I « 'i' *im— — Th» Annual K*p«rl of th« Dlrm tor of tli. ''Mnt, Iw Ilia ynar INttA, >.<>•■ rlearly the xratlau '<« I'V ' iihi>,r)»& H'i. I'll, pill' «*x*<'utedalth«parMtt klint, and at saoU iruK-h, i. Iwin a* (lilluwai ^ ~ TaUl iMMfai IfW l» ts4 anaM, '|li1T,ii>iil,|i«aT M,IIM ii.mii.tiitii 110 4.»'i .'.ilvit 1)0 liii,si>ii,ii';i) »i _ va.iiitf.irj »t ijl4u«,iMil.l>ilA wi 4» Yaan. Qald. aiWar. I904-I8vt 18il« 1S87 W88-184T 1818 »U(l,0()Oi" B,0d3,fi00 IN' T,«35,0TB nil 896,876 011 7,uT9,1440fl 80,li3'!,ni4 (K) A6,54ii,ai'i On 64,K<«.!I6^00 M,(l'ii,(>Bl 1)0 B7,'2^-I,1M!I8 4»,85l,770 11 $II4;489 8,101 88,111 389,368 889,471 41)4,404 417,279 3'i8,10» 333,083 18« 1850 18SI 188a \«i& net 18» Total Deduct rc-dopoBlU uri8S4. Actual amount to 18fi6 l>31l1,0O'/,'i71 84 8,041,137 00 .','^61,634 1833,061,184 84 »i,S6t.884 Of this aggregate, been produced by Call' CalKunla (al(ht jraarai NortK Carolina Oouncla Vlr((l-il* Houtii ^arollaa AlakaBM TiMiiinaaae New Mexico Other aimmea 'It nliitti four par nscrt. ha* nawnly I %M,«.l|i«44 ' ih M .1). mn ■ ■ 10 iva 00 v<:m 1)0 M.Ntl M Tntai ■pirwrtmj Deduct radopoaiU of 1864 ,,, >;i)4l,ltT(K> Nut product of the Rtotos W^QITKi Tha gold mine* of North rnF'i1i< " ira iilH In work* Ing order, with a largo aullii\ ' . .tal fur Ihnlr pros- ecution ; but the average rraulla '...y Im Cvnslilnrad M not very prolllable to tliu •Imrelmlilitrf. Tha reduced coinage at I'hlliilnlphla fur 1M( li •«• counted for by the unavoidable dniaya in tha rapalm ai the Mlut, autborlud by an aiiiiruprlatlun tiiaiU liy Congresa for tbi* purpose In IR5u. Tlisa* rapair* and alterations were commoiicsd liltb July last, and oocu* pled six months. Tho total value of the eolnaga of tba United HUtei, from the year 170!) to 18ft6, both inclusiva, has baan within a fractlou »f Ave huiidrad iiiIIIIoiib, naiiMl/i Mhitf. I'hIladulphI* Ban Francisco Branch, lS'i4 New Orleans " lS38-18li8. Charlotte " 1$33-IS66. Dahlunem " lsa'i.1868. Assay Office, New York, 1S&4 .... ToUls Oolit $2»8,B7 1,681 6« Ji),689,V61 64 ;:7,330,866 00 4.1-29, 0!« 60 ' .f»0,16, 8]rjiji_ For the year 1865, the aggregate coinage, Inrluding flno bars, was t&6,312f7S3 00, namaly i HIala. Qold. Sllvat. (■»»p.r. fasT — Fhlladolphia $111,610,753 14 10,1 61,677 48 460,600 00 117,086 60 116,778 60 10,441,813 63 $1,410,170 164,076 1,818,000 $16,080 78 3i:i«ITAI48 f,IM«,mM 00 1I7.VM BO n«,77il60 10,Mi,8l8 88 ~li(l«,IIf,T«8 M Charlotte Assay Office ToUls $6'2,7«6,467 20 $3,601,146 $16,08018 COI Ui im It will appear from tlitf tabnUrriewtlHittliabranek Wnti at Nflir Orleani, Uablonaga, and Charlotte could h* advantageously diipeniad with. The gold ooinaga last year at Kew Orleaat «aa only $4SO,5(M), and the lilver, 41,918,000. AU thia coald havo been done at Philadelphia ; and now that the parent Mint is provided with new and improved machinery, all tha tUver coinage may as well be done at that point. It appears that the annnal coinage at the Georgia and North Carolina branchea is less than the yean 1848-185!)— having declined ttom f 900,000 in 1862, to #338,000 in 1856. According to a report made by Mr. J. Phillips I'henix, of the Conimittco on Commerce, to the Hoiiso of Representatives, in September, 1860, when the coinajjre at these two branches waa double what it is now, the expense of coinage wai astimatod W follows : "' At PMIadclphU.... Z'^Spercent i AtNewOrlcmi «-«S " ;. AtCbsrIotIc 9-00 " J,. AtDshlonegK »-»i " At this time, the percentage at the branch Mints must be greater, as the work Is less. Every dollar coined at the Charlotte and Dahlonega, probably costs ten cents ; whereas the raw material could be trans- ported, at a small cost, to Philadcl|iliia or New York. The annual expense of thirty or forty thousand dollars for the maintenance of these two Mints could well l)o dispensed with, and the coinage executed at Philadel- phia and New York. In fact, the heavy expense in- curred by the government for the support of the Mint at New Orleans is entirely superfluous. The receipts of gold at that quarter are now too small to require the further working of a Mint there. The Director of the Mint, In his report recently made, alludes to recent improvements in machinery which are calculated to facilitato coinage operations, and to produce more highly finished pieces, namely : " In the coinage of half eagles particularly, we shall be materially aided by a very remarkable machine lately invented. * * * This machine was manufac- tun>d at Paris, and has been introduced into the Mint there, and one of similar powers is also employed in the Mint of England. The one imported for the United States Mint is adapted to the half eagle only. It is justly regarded as a triumph of mechanism." The laiigely increased production of gold in Austra- lia and California, of late years, has, of course, stimu- lated the workings of the Mints of foreign countries, The coinage may be fairly estimated at about two hun- dred millions of dollars annually in gold, fifty millions in silver, and nearly one million in copper. We find tha miMMd ainnmnrf of (braign MlDa^a (hrtha year IMS, the lateat, t» -which wa add that of the United States for the same year, all radaced to ateriing; SumiAtT at TiiR CoiirAoa or TAKiom Mima TBtiOCaaOii* *iia Wo«Li> iif ma Yaia 18fiS> O oU. jcrTwst.Nl i8,)ll8,ISM COUBitlW. Omt BriUln. Fnnoe. apaln , I'Titmlt Austria Untted States. Inaia Totals... iA'8T,40O. 700 S6,m 1, gress in February, 1867, and now in force, will have the efliict to drive- out of circulation tha old and de- preciated Spanish coins that have for many yean been in use. The Act of Congress of February, 1867, in reference to the Coinage, will produce a very desirable reform in oar currency of silver and copper coina. The new ac* authorizes the creation and distribution of a new cent, which relieves us of a hitherto ponderous coin— the comparative weights being as follows : Apt of Jan- uary 18, 1887, 168 grains ; Act of Febrnarj', 1867, 72 grains : difl«rence, 96 grains. The former acts of Con- gress did not make coj^r coim a legal tender ; and it has been disputed as to what amount they were re- ceivable for debts ; nor docs the new act make them legal tenders for any sum. The new cent may be read- ily distinguished in the dark (h>m the current silver coin. It presents about the dame surface as the ten-cent piece, bnt is about double the thickness with a sniooth edge ; whereas the ten-cent piece lias a milled edge. With the aid of the ttrenty millions of dollars in small silver coins executed since the act of March S, 1863, and the coinage of two or three millions more annually, for the next few years, the country will be liberally provided with small silver coins, that will not only enter into general circulation and effect the purposes intended, but they will not be liable to be used for the arta and manufactures, their legal value being about ten per cent, beyond that of their intrinsic value as metal. According to a careful table prepared for the Augs- burg AHyemeine Zeitung, published April 16, 1866, the following table will show the amount of gold and sil- ver that haa been exiracted during various periods from the birth of Christ down to the year 1856 : V..™. - - Gold. Silvor. ValiM. V.lu.. From A.D. to 14M ,, Kilo. M«8,711 8,860,487 270,1 no 8W,614 8S9.5i» 1,616.664 Kilo. 13,602,107 137,096,880 6,337,414 ]«,716,928 8,018,411 4,054,882 Pranro. ^8,^6(•,oflfl.ooo 40,623,000,000 2,288,000,000 6,698,000,000 i,80:i.(ioo,(ioo «,37r>.(J0O,(lO0 UullRri. 4.6(lt,Sfli>,flOO 8,104 600,000 467,«()O,0fl0 l,81ii,flno,noo 260,600,000 1,276,000,000 " 149210 1810 " ISIO to 1S26 " 1826 10 IM8 " 1843 to 1861 " 1861 to 1866 Totil .... 81,046,000,000 16,209,200,000 PRODUCTION OP OOLD IN THE UNITED BTATEa WtkTTMtxT or Gold, or POHrsTir rnouccnoii, narosiTzn at tuk Miht and Brahoiiis to tur olobx or TBI Ykak 1S55. Vo.li. rhiUilelphl.. Saii PrAnclMo. | New OrleMt. rhATloHo, N. f. DAhlonoirB, a*. NfW Vork. ToUli. 1804-1827. . $1 Ici.l'iOd IHI $110,0(10 00 1828-1837. . 6,06.n..5IM) 00 .... • . .' 0,003.600 00 1888-1847.. 2,628,641 00 .... $119,699 00 $1,678,718 00 $3,218, 6i7 00 7,«:i6,07ft (10 1848 241,514 00 .... 12,693 00 370.786 00 271,"6:iOO S90,676 OO 1849 6,767,002 00 .... 677,189 00 890.782 00 244,131 00 .... 7.079,144 00 1860 8l,790..';0«0O .... 4,580,021 00 a?0,C8!l 00 247,098 00 B«,93S,314 00 1861 47,074,620 00 .... 8,770.722 00 816.061 00 B79,,1(I0 00 .... 66.,^4(^,61« 00 1862 49,821,4!!0 0«) .... 8.777. 7H4 00 480,(100 03 476,78;t 00 .... r>4,fi0«,li68 00 1868 62,Sf,7.!131 00 , , 2,0(1«,673 00 805,167 00 482,2«0 00 N>,622,n61 00 1864 86,71.1,3.^Sfl0 9110,842,281 38 981,611 00 218,600 00 280,226 00 $9,227,177 00 B-,'J6S,ir)8 23 1866 ToUI.... 2,691.407 6.1 20,860,487 20 411,617 24 216,988 86 Il6,ti62 07 V6,0M.686 11 49.861,779 11 !(!288,764,S7'J 6i) $31,702,718 40 :»21,SH7,70» 24 $4,138,236 86 ;^lS,fl86,^l14 07 $.14,281,863 11 $831,U02,271 34 8,041,137 00 Deduct r< Actual sn -deposits of 1864 lount of domestl ^ e gold deposited $322,961,134 34 ? cat 8M OoLS, SiLTiB, AMD CoppiB Coim o» TBI UmTm Statm. tXHi QoLtt CotMa or 18M-*U. Double eagle Eagle lUir-Mgle .' Three dollani SUArtei^eaKle ollar SiLTi* Coim or lait-'M. Dollar lUir-dollar QiMrtcr-dolUr Dime H«ir-dime Three cente Coi*PBs Coma. Cent(18u7j llAlf*eeiit Nuiroent(l8BT) iMW •900 •(100 ■too •ooo ■wo ■000 ■900 •900 •000 ■900 ■000 Studsni Wtlfbl. Oriiliia. 6I0^ 9W^ ^■4 64 'S 96^ II8^4 IS'S 11 'Sa 16S^ 84^ ValiH. DolUa. VO-UO lO'OO BOO 8-00 ^■eo 100 i^ot ■fiO ■S6 ■10 ■05 ■03 •01 005 •01 COINAGE OP THE UNITKD STATES. GOLn AMD SILVEB CoiHAOa AT THE MINT Or Till USITBD Status in tub ietkbal Ykabs fbom its KsTAULiBiiyBNT, IN lIKif, AND INCXUnlXa THB COINAOit OX THE KbANCII Mints ani> thb Assav OrrioB (Nkw York), fbom tiibib OBOANIIATIOII to SirTElllIBB 8D, 1867. Yun. 1703 to XXSf, . 17116 17»7 1703 17.)fl 1800 1801 ISOit 18U8 181)4 18116 lSil7 ISOS 1S09 1810 1811 ISIJt 1813 , SU 1815 1816 1817 1818 1810 1840 13il lS-'2 1823 1844 18» 18:'a 1837 18!8 ISiO 1S.TO 1S3I 1833 1833 1831 1835 183a 183T. 1S88 issn 184u 1841 184J 181) 1844 1N4B 1816 1817 1S43 ISW 1»5;) I8.M 1K63 1853 18M I8R5 (to Sep. 30) lS8tt (to Sep. 30) 1867 {to Sop. 80) Total.. Uald. Dollnn. Ci 71,485 (10 103,737 60 103,4J3 60 205,610 00 313,28500 317,700 00 433,570 00 433,1110 00 2BS877 60 268,643 60 17«,3il7 60 834,6115 00 437.406 00 384,665 00 160,376 00 5111,435 00 417,006 00 300.435 00 477,140 00 77,370 00 8,175 00 243,940 00 368,615 00 1,310,080 00 189,S35 00 88,080 00 73,4-25 00 98.300 00 166,3S5 01) 93,345 0') 131,,'>fl6 00 140,145 01) 396,; 17, VI 6I3,I0:>(I0 714,'J70 00 798.436 DO 97^,K> 1 00 8,11(54.370 00 3, ISO, 176 00 4,135,70,100 1,148 3^} Oil 1,8IK),69,-)00 1,8T5,T6 ) 00 I,tf0l»,8l)>0,l l,10>.O.17 6fl 1,833,1'OfiO 8.3)3.787 50 6,4J8,33 ) IK) !<,76ii.447 60 4,034,177 50 30.'^3I,8S5 00 8,776.613 50 0,007,701 60 8 1,08 1,7.^8 60 6.',614.492 60 60 840,187 60 66.213.906 04 63.01)4.696 47 41,l66.r>6T 03 5S.03a,S9:Ui 4'<.437,l)fl4 iil 403,880.408 0« Sllnr. Doll«n. ( 87l),a$3 80 70,077 60 13,601 45 830.301 Ol) 4'>8.615 00 324,3011 00 74,75S 00 58,348 00 87,118 00 100,340 60 149,888 60 471.310 00 607,418 76 684,800 00 707,376 00 633.778 60 608.340 00 814,030 60 630,961 50 661,687 60 17,803 00 38,675 75 607,783 50 1,070,454 50 1,140,000 00 501,080 70 82,\7«3 45 806,800 fiO 8.')6660 01) 1,7.V2,477 00 1,604 683 IM) 2,IHIi,(l90 00 2,80I),2i)O 00 1,675,6)01)0 1,0114,678 0) 2,41)5,400 00 8,176,600 00 3,6711,000 110 3,75 1,001 00 B.4I5,00>J00 .'!,44:l,a)3 ) 3.606,100 00 2,o:i6,oio 00 3,3I6,'>60 00 3,008,6.<)0 00 1,713.178 00 1.115 875 00 3,335,750 00 3,733.'i5,) (K) 3,115.560 00 1,873,300 00 3,5'i8 680 00 3,374,4^0 00 3,04l),05a (10 3,1 14.96') Ol) 1,866,100 00 774,307 00 1 001).4I0 00 9,077,r)7; 00 8.6ll),37(i m) 3.898,745 00 6.847,070 4:) 8,376,008 01 AgifrtgiiU. 108,375,088 40 DolUn. Cli. 44 ',108 80 181,806 00 116,013 06 635,901 00 636,800 I 543,050 00 4117,3.8 00 491,053 00 846.4" 5 60 863,V8!I 00 319,7f.0 00 795,834 00 1,034,943 75 968,1165 00 876,761 on 1,140,308 50 1,106.346 00 1,104,46460 1,038.091 60 6:18,067 50 20,483 00 28.,'i75 75 607,783 60 1,313.304 60 1,308,016 00 1,8.'0.710 70 1,016087 45 81)4,786 60 067,976 00 1,846,077 00 1,720,968 00 2,094,3;i;> 00 0,000,706 00 1,715746(10 2,'200,3056l) 8,ia8,605 00 8,88.i,k;o 00 .3,877.4.15 00 8,737,560 00 7,369,273 00 6,639,178 00 7,741,800 00 3,344.315 00 4,134.846 00 3,474,3116 00 8,403,1:80 00 2,217,972 60 4,168,020 6" 12,0i6,037 50 7,603,780 00 6 629,647 60 6.5 12,767 60 2-.',695 8,15 00 6.81S.66'2 60 11,12 ',711 60 33 817.838 60 63 883 S3 16) 67.8 16 6 '7 60 04,391.477 94 6l).7l3,806 47 44.060.30'> 93 64 383.1163 00 51,818.673 8'i 601,166.480 46 By an act of Congress, 1. The old Spanish coins are rccuivalile at the Treasury of the United States and several offices, at the Post^fflces and Land.«fflcc8, at the following rates ; ()narter-d«Uar . . , Elghtb.ins " shall not again be paid out or put in circolatlon, but shall be recoined at the Mint" for distribution. 8. All former acts authorizing the currency of for- eign gold or silver coins, and declaring the same a legal tender in payment for debts, are repealed ; but it shall be the duty of the Director of the Mint tr .40 assays to bo made, from time to time, of such fo- i." coins as may be known to our commerce, to ('.: . .,'.ne their average weight, flnencss, and value, ard la embrace in his annual report a statement of the results thereof. 4. T1ie standard weight of the cent shall l>a seventy- two grains; composed of 88 per cent, of copper and 12 per cent, of nickel ; and the coinage of the half-cent shall be discontinued, 6, Authorizes the Treasurer of the Hint to purchase the materials necessary for the coinage of (he nev,- cent. C. It shall bo lawful to pay out the said cent at the Mint in exchange for any of the gold and silver coins of the United States, and also in exchange for the for- mer copper coins issued ; and to transmit parcels of the said cents, from time to time, to the assistant treasurers and other ofBcors for exchange ; and it shall also be lawful for the space of two years from the passage of this act, and no longer, to pay out at the Mint the cents aforesaid for the fractional parts of the dollar herein before named at their nominal value of twenty-five, twelve and a half, and six and a quarter cents respect- ively. 7. Hereafter the Director of the Mint shall make his Annual Report up to the 30th June (instead of 81st December, as heretofore), so that the results of tho year's operations may appear in the Annual Kcport of the Secretary of the Treasury. In tho Annual Report of the Director of the Mint of tho United States for 1867, he says : "As my Kcport in January last presented a statement of the operations for tlio year 186tf, tills Report will embrace the opera- tions since that time, namely, from the first day of January to the 30th of June, a period of six months, "For the purpose of exhil)iling in a condensed form tho entire operations of the Mint and its brandies I present the annexed summary statement. It cmbraci 3 the amount of gold and silver bullion operated upon from the time of their respective organizations to the SOtli of June, 18,57: Mint of the United States, established 1793. . $394,805,410 Dl llraiich Mint at New Orleans, •' 1838.. 6.i,4'i3.ll6 00 Uranch Mint at Daliloiwga, " 1838.. 6,8'25i47 00 ItrAnch Mint at Oharlotto, " 1833. . 4. .163.05.) 00 llranch Mint at .San Francisco " ISIvt. . 71,100,4.3 93 Assay Office at New York " 1854. . 6'2.11)|.44 :I83 Total $6?8,010,188lt " Of this amount there has been received since tho 1st of January, 1840, of native gold, tho production of the United States, the sum of four hundred and two millions of dollars. If, in addition to this sum, wo add the gold produced from Australia and other foreign countries during the same period, which may be stated to be about five hundred millions of dollars, and tho production of silver bullion from all sources., which is at the rate of about forty millions per annum, it will be seen that within this comparatively brief period tho world's supply of the precious metals has been increased to the extent of twelve hundred and forty-two millions of dollars."— Furtlier Information on Coins and Coix- AOK may be obtainad by reference to the Unnrterty Rev., Ixxii. 194; A'lirM Ameriam Recirw, Ivl. 208 (C. F. Adams); Hunt's ^ferchanlt' Magazine, v. 879, vii. 207, iv. 434; Dr Bow's /f«i'ieu),ii. 281 ; Baiikert' Magazine, vol. x. (Professor Dr Mouoan) ; Manual of Coim, by EcKFBLOT and Da Bois, of United States Mint. _i ■ COK 986 COL Coir, ■ (p«cle< of yarn manufaetnred out of tho hnak of cocoa-nuta. Tho husks being steeped in wa- ter, the dry dusty substance mixed with the fibres is sapamted. These are afterward spun into yam, and manufactured into cordage, that is decmrtd by some superior to that made of hemp. Tho goodness of coir depends on the fineness of the filaments, and on their being of a bright yellow color. About 2,600,000 lbs. weight are annuiilly exported from Ceylon, principally to Calcutta, and other jrorts in the East Indies. It is also prepared in the Maldive Islands, and many other places; and is very extensively used throughout the East. — Bektolacci's Ctylon; Bell's Commerce of Bengal, itc. Coke, or Coak, charred pit-coal, prepared for the ■melting of iron ore by igniting tho coals piled up in long ridges in the open air, and closing in the cinders with earth when brought to a glowing red heat. For the use of tho manufacturers, tho method liitherto most in practice hus l>een to bum the small or screened ooul in conical ovens, built of firc-stono or bricli, tho floor being generally about 6 feet in diameter, and tho oven 8 feet high, while an aperture of 18 inclieg diameter is left at the top. The small coal is thrown in to the depth of 15 inches or more, and then ignited. The oven door is at first kept o|)en, and the hole at the top left uncovered till tlie mass is red hot. Tho door is then closed, and by degrees the hole at the top is cov- ered over with two large flat stones, gradually ap- proaching each other, when the whole is left to cool. When sufficiently cooled, it is drawn out with long iron rakes, and the mass is found to have assumed a rude columnar arrangement. The oven is ininiediutely charged again with small coal, which the heat remain- ing in the floor is found sufficient to ignite, and so tho operation goes on. In both the above ways good cokes are made, but tho volatile products are lost. To save those, Lord Dundonald proposed to burn the couU in a close furnace, to which ho adapted nn apparatus for conveying the coal-tar, with the unimoniacul prod- ucts, into proper recipients. About the same time, Baron Von Haak, a German, constructed works in tho neighlwrhood of Now/:astle for distilling the small coal in large cast-iron cylinders upon tho plan whicli has since been adopted in the gas-works, exotpt that the soot from the furnace fires is, at Newcastle, during a certain period of the combustion, before any gray ashes have Itegun to arise, conveyed into a cliamber contrived for the jiurpose, and collected for lamp-black. It is a curious circumstance, and illustrative of the changes which the carboniferous structure undergoes, that tho coal increases in bulk by getting rid of its gaa ; eight sacks of coal will yield ten sacks of coke. One of the curiosities in coke is that, although so granular in appearance, some of the particles have al- most the hardness of the diamond, and are found fit- ted for cutting glass. — K. I). Colliery, a place where coal is found in stratified mosses, and excavated by manual labor, and common- ly brought to the surface by mechanical power. The exact date when coal began to be used as a fuel is not very certain ; the appearance, if not the use of the mineral, must have been known for a long time in districts where tho de|)osit was naturally exposed; and, according to xnme authorities, it is mentioned as having been used in England in the ninth century, 862. In 1259 King Henry III. granted the privilege of ditjging coals to certain parties in Newcastle. Seven years afterward coal had lieeonic an article of DXjwrt, and was termed sea-coal ; and in 1300, bo extensive was tho use of coals in i.ondoii, that Parliament com- plained to the king of the noxious vapors therefrom polluting the atmosphere. In consequence of which proclamation was made against their further use, lest the health of the knights of the shire ahould sufler dur- ing their residence in the metropolis. Blythe, writ- ing in 1S49, states; " It was not many years since the famous city of London petitioned the Parliament of England against two nuisances or offensive commodi- ties, which were likely to come into great use and es- teem; and that was, Newcastle coals, in regard of their stench, etc. ; and hops, in regard they would spoyle the taste of drinck, and endanger the people." In Bel- gium tho earliest reference to coal was in 1198 or 1200, in the county of Liege, where, according to tradition, a blacksmith was the iirst to use it as fuel. In Franco tho precise period of its adoption as a substitute for wood is not ascertained. The commencement of its use in Paris was in 1620, the coal being drawn, not from the mines of France, but from the colVioriea of Newcastle. In Scotland coal was known and used probaldy at a very early date. We are informed by Chalmers, the antiquary, that coal was worked at Bo'ness by William do Veropont liefore tho end of tho twelfth century, and that a tenth of the coals was paid to tho monks of Ilolyrood House. It is more curious, however, than important here, to truce the date when mineral coal was first used as n fuel. The earliest em- ployment of it in England in tho manufacture of U'oii was in 1713, at Colebrookdalc, in Scotland, about tho commencement of tho eighteenth century, and in France in 1782.— E. B. Ste Coal. ColUaion (Fr. Abordai/i'), in a general sense, is the act of any two or more bodies coming forcibly to- j gether ; but in commercial navigation it means the shock of two ships coming into sudden and violent con- tact nt sea, by which one or lioth moy be more or less injured. From tho groat increase of navigation, the risk of accidents by collision at sea has been propor- tionally augmented. And it is, therefore, of much im- portance, 1st, to adopt such measures as may be most likely to prevent tlieir occurrence ; and, 2d, to determine by whom a loss, when it does occur, should lie borne. In regard to the first afid most essential of these ob- jects, it is effected, in part at least, by whatever con- tributes to tho general improvement and security of navigation. At common law, every master of a ship is bound to keep a proper watch at sea, especially in channels mucl) frequented by shipping, and to use everj' precaution to avoid coming into contact with other vessels. ' Hut this matter has liecn judged too important to l)c left wholly to deiiend on the good sense and care of individuals ; and with a view to tlie secur- ing of attention to the subject, and to the obviating of the confiision that would unavoidably arise were ship- masters left to follow their own ideas with respect to it, rules and regulations liove Iwcn laid down in regard to the courses to be steered when ships arc passing cucli other, tho signals to be made during fogs, the number and description of the liglits to be exhiljitcd at niglit, and other particulars. In 1840, the Trinity House, in Great Britain, promulgated a rule of this sort ; und though not in itself law, masters not complying with its instractions wero held to be guilty of unseamiinliko conduct, and tjie owners were made responsilde for the consequences, liegulations similar to those con- tained in the Trinity rule have since lieen enacted by the Legislature. As there is no especial statute law in the United Stotes, we follow in a measure the decisions of tho Englisli courts, and are governed by the prece- dents they have established. — .S>e Kent's Comvi., Left. XLVII. The existing English statute law on the sub- ject is embodied in the following clauses of the En- ' glish Mercantile Siiipping Act of 1864, 17 and 18 Vict, c. 104 : Jtegttlationt at to Light* and FO0 Sijjnals.—The following rttlefl shall lie olmerved with iv^ard to lights and fog signals ; vlr. : 1. Tho Admiralty shall IVoni time to time inako regula- tions rcqnIrinK the exhibition of sneh lights, by snrli classes of ships, whether steam or nailing ahlpa, within surh places and imdcr such clrcumstancos as they think fit, and may fVom time to time revoke, alter, or vary the name. 2. The Admi- ralty may, if they think tit, make regulations rcqniring the use of such fog lignali, by such classes of ships, whether stesm or sailing ships, within such places and under such olieumstances COL 857 COL Jho following ffog Blgnals i IbucIi classes I Buoh plnccB Vd may from J The Adml- llring the uM ■lor aUam or KrcumBtancei M tliejr think lit, old majr tram time to time revoke, alter, or vary the Bainr. o. All regutatlona made in pursuance of thli section shall be published in the London Gaiettu, and shall cuiutt Into operation on a day to be named In the Gazette in which they are published, and the Admiralty shall cauBe all such regulations to be printed, and shall furnish a copy thereof to any owner or mastcrof ashlp who applies for thesunie, and production of the Gazette containing such regulations shall be BufSeient evidonco of the due making and purport thereof. 4. All owners and nuuters shall bo bound to take notice of the same, and sliall, so long as the saiue continues in force, exhibit such lights, and use such fog signals, at such times, within such places, In such manner, and under such circumstances as are enjoined by such regulations, and shall not exhibit any other lights or use any other fog signals, and in case of default tho master, or the owmer of the ship, if It appears that ho was In fault, shall for each occasion upon which such regulations an) Infringed incur a penalty not exceeding £iO. Jiule aa to Ship» meeting each oMer.— Whenever any ship, whether a steum or sailing ship, proceeding in one direction, meets another ship, whether a steam or sailing ship, proceed- ing In another direction, so thai if both ships were to continue tlielr respective courses they would pass so near as to involve any risk of a collision, tho helms of both ships shall be put to port so oa to pass on the port side of each other; and this rule shall be olwycd by all steamships and by all sulllug ships, wliotlwr on the port or stoi'board tack, and whether close- hauled or not, unless the circumstances of the case are such as to render a deporture from the rule necessary In order to avoid Immediate danger, nnd subject also to tho proviso that due re- gard shall bo bail tothodangersof navigation, and, as regards nailing ships em tho starboard tack close-hauled, to tho keep- ing such ships under command. Rule /or Steamen in nar- row CAaniieis.— Kvery steamship, wlicn navigating any nar- row channel, shall, whenever it is safe and practicable, keep to that side of tho fair way or mid-channel which lies on the starboard side of such steamship. // Colligion enmtcs from rvmh of the above Rules, Owner not to be enlitkd to recover. — T f in an y case of collision it appears to tho court licforo which tho case is tried that snch cnllision was occasioned by thonon- iibwr^'anco of any rule for the exhibition of lights or the use of fog signals issued in pureuance of the powers before con- tained, or of the foregoing rules as to the passing of steam and sailing ships, tho owner of the ship by which such rule has been infringed shall not bo entitled to recover any recom- pense whatever for any damage sustained by such ship in such collision, unless it is shown to the satisfaction of the court that the circumstances of the case made a departuro fi-om the rule necessary. Rrtaeltta nf mch Rulea to imphj tdll/ul De/aiiU. —In case any damago to person or property arises from tho non-observance by any ship of any of the said rules, such dam- ago shall be deemed to have been occasioned by the willful de- fault of tho person in charge of the deck of such ship at the time, uiilcsH it is shown to tho satisfaction of tho court that tho circumstunecB of the case mado a departure from the rule necessary. An outhority similar to that piven to the Lonia of tho Admiralty by the clause of the Mercantile Ship- ping Act now quoted had been already givSn to them, and under that authority they issued the following regulations, which arc now (1856) in force : Steam Oswis.— All BritUh sea-going steam vessels (wheth- ej' propelled by paddles or screw) shall, within all seaa, gul&, channels, straits, bays, creeks, roads, roailsteads, harbors, havens, ports, and rivers, and under all circumstances, be- tween sunBct and Bunrise, exhibit lights of such description, and In such manner as hereinafter mentioned ; viz. , when tin- lieialeam: A bright white light at the foremast head ; a green light on the starboard side; a red light on tho port side. 1. Tho mast-head light is to be visible at a distance of at least flvo miles in a dark night, with a clear atmosphere, and tho lan- tern Is to be BO constructed as to show a uniform and unbroken light over an arc of the horizon of twenty points of tho com- pMB, being ten points on each side of the ship, viz., from right ab.ead to two points abaft the lieam on either side. 2. The green light on the Btartioard side is to be visible at a distance of at least two miles in a dark night, with a clear atmosphere ; and the lantern is to be so constructed as to show a uniform Sailing VtMeU.—Vffi hereby require that all BalllngTeiiela when under std), or being towed, approaching or being ap- proached by any other vessel, shall be bound to show between sunset and sunrise a bright light In such a position as can be best seen by such vessel or vessels, and In suWclent time to avoid collision. All sailing vessels at anchor in roadstead! or fair ways shall be also bound to exlilbit, between simset and sunrise, a constant bright light at the mast-head, except within harbors or other places where regulations for other lights for ships are legally estaUlsbed. The lantern to be used when at anchor, both by Bteam vessels and sailing ves- sels, is to be so constructed as to show a clear good light all round tho horizon. We hereby revoke all regulations here- tofore mado by us relating to steam vessels exhibiting or car- rying lights; and we require that (he preceding regulations be strictly carried into effect after the 1st day of August, 18S8. IHrectiona for Fitting the Lights,— thf manner of fitting tlie colored lights Is to be particularly attended to. They ahould be fitted each with a screen of wbod on the inboard side. In order to prevent both being seen at the ume moment from any direction but that of right ahead. This U important, for without the screens (a principle firat introduced with this plan) any plan of bow-lights would be InefTective as a means of indicating the direction of steering. This will be readily understood by a reference to the illustrations, where it will appear evident that In any situation In which two vessels may approach each other in the dark, the colored llghtB will In- stantly indicate to both the relative course of each ; that Is, each will know whether the other is approaching directly or crossing the bows, cithcrto starboard or to port This intima- tion is all that Is required to enable vessels to pass each other In tho darkest night, with almost equal safety as In broad day, and for tho want of which so many lamentable accidents have occurred. Patterns of tho lanterns to be carried, and of the mode in which the screens are to fie fitted, may bo seen at the custom-houses of the principal commerelal porta In the United Kingdom. The aystem of night lights laid down in the above regulations has been adopted In her majesty's service, and by the governments of the principal foreign maritime nations. Every master of a ship is bound, as well by the duty he owes to his employers and to those on lioard his ship, as by positive rule, to keep a proper watch at sea, especially in channels much frequented by ship- ping, and to use every precaution to avoid coming into contact with other vessels. In order still better to provide against danger, and to obviate disputes, the Trinity House promulgated, on the 30th of October, 1840, tho following Kule of Navigation : Rule of navigation issued by the Trinity House. — The at- tention of this Corporation baling been directed to th6 numer- ous severe, and in somr instances fktal, accidents which have resulted from the collis of vessels tuivigated by steam, and it appearing to be indispensably necessary, in order to guard against tho recurrence of similar calamities, that a regulation should be established for tho guidance and government of per- sons intrusted with the charge of such vessels ; and whereas, 1. The recognized 9*ule for sailing vessels is, that those hav- ing the wind fair shall give way to those on a wind ; that when both are going by the wind, the vessel on the starboard tack shall keep her wind, and the one on the larboard tack bear up strongly, passing each other on the larboard hand ; that when both vessels have tho wind largo or abeam, and meet, they shall pass each other in the same way on the larboard hand, to effect which two last-mentioned objects the helm must be put to port ; and as steam vessels may be considered in the light of vessels navigating with a fair wind, and shmtld girt way to sailing vessels on a wind of either tack, it becomes only necessary to provide a rule for their obsen-anco when meeting other steamers, or sailing vessels going large. Under these consideration s, ami with the object before stated, this Board has deemed It right to frame and promulgate the following rule, which, on communication with the Lords Com- missioners of the Admiralty, tho Elder Brethren find has been already adopted In respect of steam vessels in her majesty's ser\'ice; and tliey desire earnestly to press upon the minds of all (lersons having charge of steam vessels the propriety and urgent neccaslty of a strict adherence thereto; viz. :2. Rule for Steam Vesuclson different Courses. — When such vessels must and unbroken light over an arc of the horizon of ten jmlnts j inevitably or necessarily cross so near that, by continuing their of the compaas, viz., from right ahead to two points absft the I n'spective courses, there would be a risk of their coming la be^m on the starboard side. 3. The red light on the port side is likewise to be fitted so aa to throw Its light tho same distance on that side. 4. Tho side lights are, moreover, to be fitted with screens, on the inboard side, of at least three feet long, to pre- vessel she Is passing on the larboard hand. By order, vent the lights ttom being seen across the bow. When at an- J. HEBnzRT, Seen *Aar ; A common bright light collision, each vessel shall put her helm to port, so as always to pass on the larboard side of each other. A steam vessel passing another In a narrow channel must always leave tb« J. HEBnzRT, Secretaijr. TaiNiTV HODSK, London, SOth October, 1840. COL 858 COL It mty, however, be proper to itate that neither this nor any rule of the sort is to be regarded as inflexible, or 10 be followed at all hazards. The safety of the ■hip is the paramount consideration, and no master is justilied in abiding by a rule, when by doing so he plainly incurs danger. A. may be in Ills proper course, but if by pursuing it he will run a great risk of coming Into collision with B., who is upon a wrong course, he la bound to alter his course so as to avoid a collisioni The fact of one master being ignorant, careless, or in fault, is no reason why another should not use every means in his power to provide for the safety of his (hip, and, consequently, of the lives and property in- trusted to his care. The conditions under which cases of collision take place diflisr extremely. Thus, Ist. It may be merely accitlental, or be occasioned by circumstances beyond the power of control, as by the violence of the wind or waves dashing or Impelling the ships together, « ithout blame being imputable to either party ; or, 2d. It may be owing to the culpable negligence or misconduct of one party; or, 8d. Both parties may be to blame. In •lyudicating upon losses growing out of collisions that have taken place under such dilferent circumstances, the conclusions must also l>e veiy different. With respect to the lirst class of cases there is little apparent difficulty : wherever a loss is occasioned by a storm, a fog, or other accidental circumstance without any blame being ascribable to either party, it would appear to be equitable ^hat it should be borne by the Butlurer. And this principle having been embodied in the Roman law, was subsequently ingrafted into that of England. — H.iiuiiiALi^ on Insurance, cap. 12, § 2. But other authorities, to whom the greatest deference is due, contend that the loss arising from accidental collisions, however it may affect the parties, should be equally divided between them ; and this, in fact, is the rule followed in most maritime slates. — Ordminanee of 1681, lib. ill. tit. xii. art. 10, with the observations of Valin. It also is the rule sanctioned by the law of England in cases where both parlies are to blame, but where the blame can not be discriminated. Those cases in which the blame is clearly ascribable to either party present no difficulty. The leading doctrines of the law of England with re- gard to collisions have been clearly and succinctly stated by Lord Stowell. " In the first place," says his lord- ship, "a collision may happen without blame being im- putable to either party, as when the loss is occasioned by a storm or any other t'u major, !n that case the misfortune must be boi-ne by the party on whom it happens to light; the other not being responsible to him in any degree. Secondly, a misfortune of this kind may arise where both parties are to blame, where there has been a want of due diligence or of skill on both sides ; in such a case the rule of law is, that the loss must be apportioned between them, as having been occasioned by the fault of both of them. Thirdly, it may happen by the misconduct of the suffering party only ; and then the rule U, that the sufferer must bear his own burden. Lastly, it may have been the fault of the ship which ran the oilier down, and in tliis case the innocent party would be entitled to an entire com- pensation from the other." — 2 Dodsom's Admirallg Re- port; 83. We may add that the rule of the equal division of the damage where both vessels are to blame has been, since Lord Stowell's time, fully recognized and finally established by a decision of the House of Lords, on an appeal from Scotland. Various authorities have spoken disparagingly of the rule now referred to, and have called it a judicium nuticorum ; and it would, no doubt, be very desirable In cases of collision where both parties are to blame, that the neglect or culpability of eservations on this curious and im- portant sul{Ject, in addition to Valin and the other au- thorities already referred to, the reader may consult the chapter on collision added by Mr. Seijeant Shoe to his edition of Lord Tcnterden's work on the Law of Ship- ping, and the chapter on the same subject in Maude and Pollock's Treatise on the Law of Merchant Ship- Iiing. Number ofCollinoni at Sea. — A statement has been prepared bv Mr. John A. Rucker, underwriter, giving a classification of the number of collisions at sea re- ported in Lloyd's lists during the five years from 1845 to 1849 inclusive. It thence appears that the annual numljers were 603, 504, 699, 6;J,'J, and 565; so that there was a decrease in 1849, notwithstanding the increased traffic of that yeur. The total collisicms of the five years amounted to 8064. Of these 279 were cases in which a vessel was sunk, ran down, or al>andoned ; 189 were cases in which there was serious damage; 686 in which the damage, although less, was still eon- sideralilo ; and 1910 in which it was only slight. The average of steamers in contact with steamers during each year is about 11 ; of steamers in contact with sail- ing vessels ftlioHt 37 ; of sailing vessels in contact with steamers 86; and of sailing vessels in contact with sailing vessels 583. Since that time the number of collisions has lieen increasing; and in the years 1855 and 1856 they have been particularly large in number; and attended with great loss of life, especially in the cases of the A relit, the Pacijic, and the Lyimnait. Oolcbioum Autumnale (Meadoie Saffron, or A u- tumn Crotut), a plant of the natural order Melantha- eea, is largely collected for medicinal use in England. Its infusion is well known as a powerful remedy for gout, and has long been celebrated in France under the name of Kan Aledicinale. The cormus or bulli, and also the seeds, are used in medicine, and have u strong, persistent, l)itter taste. Its medicinal virtues appear to be derived fhHn n peculiar alkaloid, which hus been termed cokhieia. The Ijcst preparation is the wine of colchicum, prepared by digesting eight ounces of the seeds in forty ounces of sherry for about a week, shak- ing the vessel daily, and pressing out the liquor. The usual dose is from ten to fifty drops taken in water. It poaseasea intense activity as a poison. The plant de- rives its name from Colchis, in Armenia, where it i* gardi thou| tion wore •oas anbje and I uativ Were parat refim £plie ^^Jatii-ftii^biiti^iiSi' COL »^ COL Mid to have abounded.— E. B. Ste Chkistisom mi i'oi»um. Coleoyntliia, Ootoqulntida, or Bitter Cu- OUmbet (Uerm. Kukiiiumlen; Uu. Bilter-upjMUn ; Fr. Coloqinnlet ; It, Coloqumlidn ; Sp. Cvlnqumtidat ; Arab, and Pen. Huntit), the produce of an annual plant (Ck- eumu coloct/ntki*, Lion.), growing in Turkey, Nubia, India, and other places, much resenililingthe cucumber in herbage. When ripe, the fruit is peeled and dried In a stove, and in this state is lirought to England. It U inodorous, but haa an extremely nauseous taste. It if an exceedingly powerful drastic cathartic. When It is larger than a 8t. Michael's orange, and has black acute-pointed ends, it is not good, — Aihsliu's Uattria Jndicii, ■ ■■ CologiM (Ger, KiUh ; ancient Agrippma coUmia), a Ibrtiiied city of Western Germany, formerly capital of electorate, now capital of Khenish Prussia, on the left bank of tlie Rhine, across which a bridge of boats con- coct* it with its auborb, Deutz, 46 miles north-nortli- west of Coblenz. Lat. of cathedral 60° 66' 29 X., long. 6° 67' 62" E. Population 7»,600. It communi- cates l)y railroad with Hamm, Bonn, Aix-lo-Chapelle, Mnchlin, and has extensive passage traffic with steam- packets on the Khiue. It has manufactures of cotton- yam and stutb, silk fabrics, velvets, woolen cloths, faoniery, lace, cordage, tol)acoo, hats, wax-lights, starch, needles, clocks, gold and silver articles, vinegar, seal- ing-wax, earthen and lacquered wares, and twenty- four factories of AViu tie Cvlngne. 'Its position gives it an extensive and increasing trade twtween Germany and the Netherlands, and under the French it was the capital duput of Ro&t. Population of arrondissement in 1849, 497,330. Colonies : Colony Trade. Colmiet are esta)>- lishments founded in foreign countries by individtuils who cither voluntarily emigrate from, or are forcibly sent abroad by, their mother country. The colony trade is the trade carried on between colonies and their parent states. 1. E.HT.\BLi9itMENT OF COLONIES. Greek Coloniei. — Various motives have, in difl'eront countries and ages, led to the formation of colonies. The Greek colonies of antiquity seem to have lieen chiefly founded by citi- zens whom the v luience and fury of contending factions forced to leave their native land ; but they were some- times formed for the purpose of relieving the mother country of a redundant population, and sometimes also for the purpose of extending the sphere of commercial transactions, or of providing for their security. The relations between the mother country and the colony depended, in a great measure, on the motives which led to the establishment of the latter. When a colony was founded by fugitives forcilily expelled from their ancient homes ; or when it was founded, as was fre- quently the case, by bodies of voluntary emigrants, who received no assistance from, and were in no re- spect controlled liy, the parent state, it was from the flrst inacco, gunpowder, and some other leas important articles. The aloavala, and other oppressive imposts, which had proved destruc- tive of industry in Old Spain, were rigoroualy levied aa well on the exporta aa on the im|)orts of the colo- niea. No aituation of power or emolument could be filled except by a native of Old Spain. The Catholic religion was established, to the exclusion of every other ; and bishops, tithes, and the Inquisition follow- ed in its train : while, in order still Ijottcr to consoli- date and atrengthen the foundations of this monstrous despotism, the government endeavored to malie the colonists insensible of their degradation, by proscrib- ing every species of instruction, and watchfully oppos- ing the introduction and progress of all useful knowl- edige ! Under such circumstances, we can not be sur- prised that the continental colonists, among whom the monopoly system was maintained in its greatest puri- ty, should have languished for above two centuries in a state of sluggish inactivity. Though surrounded by all the means of producing wealth, they were not generally wealthy. Oppression rendered (hem indolent; and went far to deprive them not only of the power, but also of the wish, to emerge from poverty. The prog- ress of the colonists who occupied the VVest India Isl- ands waa not quite so slow. It is certain, however, that, down to the middle of last century, Spain reaped no greater advantage from tlie poaaession of Cuba, Hiapaniola, and Porto Rico, than Eqgland or France ttom the smallest of its dependencies. In proof of this we may mention that the noble island of Cuba, which could' without difhculty supply all Europe with augar, did not, in 17&0, produce it sufficient quantity even for the consumption of Old Spain. But the com- bined influence of an arbitrary and intolerant govern- ment, and of a degrading superstition, could not bal- ance tke means of improvement which the fertility of the soil, and the oomraand thence arising over most of the necessaries and many of the conveniences of life, gave to ttie colonists. Owing also to the total inca- pacity of Old Spain to furnish her transatlantic prov- inces with a sufficient supply of the articles she had forced them to import from Kurope, and the consequent extension of the contraband trade carried on with them by the other European nations, she had been compelled gradually to relax the severity of her commercial mo- nopoly. A new impulae was thus given to the spirit of industry. The colonists Iwgan to be more sensible of the natural advantages of their situation, and less inclined to submit to tlie blind and bigoted policy of the Spanish court. In 1781, a rebellion broke out in Pern, in consequence of an attempt made by the gov- ernment to establish a new monopoly in that province, which threatened to end in the total dissolution of the connection between Spain and South America, and was not <]uelled without great diQculty and much blood- shed. But the spirit of liberty, when once ezeitedi could not be suppressed. It continued to gain ground progressively, until the commencement of the last con- teat between France and Spain interrupted the comma* nication with the motlicr country, and gave the colo- niata an opportunity of proclaiming that indepcndenc* which, after a lengthened and bloody struggle, they happily succeeded in acliieving. BrUith CoUmiu. — ^The English, who, like all the ^her nations of Europe, had been impreaaed with mingled fcelinga of admiration and envy by the extent and inw portance of the acquiaitions made by the Spaniarda in the New World, apeedily entered with enthnaiasm and ardor into the career of diacovery. Owing, however, to the bull which Ferdinand and Isabella had obtained from the Pope, conveying to tliem the ample donation of all the countries inhabited by infidels that the Span- iards had discovered or might discover, the Eiiglish( to avoid encroaching on the dominions of their rivals, directed their efforts farther to the north. Several at- tempta to found colonies on the coast of America were made in the reign of Elizabeth by Sir Humphrey Gil- bert, Sir Richard Grenville, Sir Walter Raleigli, and others. But in consequence of their ignorance of tht country, the deficiency of their supplies of provisions, the loss of time in fruitless searches after gold, and the various difficulties incident to the first settlement of • colony, none of these attempts proved sucQcsaful ; and it was'not ur.<^il 1607 that a small body of adventurers founded the first permanent establishment of the En- glish in America, at Jamestown, in Virginia. I.et- ters patent were granted in 1609 hy King .lames to the principal persons resident in London, by whom the ex- pense attending the formation of the colony was to be defrayed, incorporating them into a company, and establishing a council in England for the direction of their proceedings, the meml>ers of which were to be chosen by, and removable at the pleasure of, the ma- jority of the partners of the company; permitting whatever was necessary for the support and sustenance of the colony for the first seven years to be exported free of duty ; declaring that the colonists and tlieir de- scendants were to bo secured in all the rights and priv- ileges of Englishmen, the same as if they had remain- ed at home or been born in England ; and reserving only, aa the stipulated price of these concessions, and in imitation of the policy of the Spaniards, mie-f/ih ]«at of the gold and silver ore to be found in the colonies, which was to be paid to his Majesty and his successors in all time to come. In virt-io of these powers, the company issued, in 1621, a charter or ordinance, which gave a legal and permanent form to the constitution of the colony. By this charter the supreme legislative authority was lodged, partly in the governor, who held the place of the sovereign, partly in a council of state named by the company, and partly in a general coun- cil or assembly composed of the representatives of tlio people, in which were vested powers and privileges similar to those of tlie House of Commons. It was not long, however, before the king and the company quarreled. The latter were in consequence divested of all their rights, partly by open violence, and partly under color of law, without compensation, after luiving expended upward of £160,000 in founding the colony; and a governor and council of state appointed by the king succeeded to the powers of those appointed l)y the committee. — Robebtson's Ilittory of America, boolc VK. postim I Jeffehson's A'o*** o» Virginia, p. 17!). The founders of the colony in Virginia liad been actuated solely by the hopes of gain ; l)Ut the colonies that were soon after established in New England were chiefly planted by men who fled from religious and po- litical persecution. The form of government in the New England colonies, though at first modified a good deal by the peculiar religious opinions entertained by the colonists, was in its leading principles essentially free. For a considerable period the coloniits elected COL ? 861 CJOL th«lr own governors, coined money, and exercised most of the rights of sovereignty ; while the English, wholly engrossed with the pontest between freedom and prerogative at home, had no leisure to attend to their proceedings. Subsequently to the Restoration, however, the governments of most of the New En- gland States were established nearly on the same foot- ing as that of Virginia; which, indeed, became the fa- vorite model, not only for the constitution of the colo- nies established on the continent, with the exception of the proprietary governments of Pennsylvania and Murj'land, but also for thoso tliat were established In the West India Islands. But under every vicissitude of government and fortune, the New England colo- nists wcro distinguished by the same ardent and en- thusiastic love of lilierty that had first induced them to quit their native land. Every thing relating to the Internal regulation and administration of the different colonies was determined, in the colonial assemblies, by representatives ftaely chosen by the settlers. The per- sonal liberty of the citizens was well secured and vigi- lantly protected. And, if we except the restraints on their commerce, the monopoly of which was jealously guarded by tlie motlier country, the inhabitants of Vir- ginia, Pennsylvania, and New England enjoyed nearly the same degree of freedom when colonists of England that they now enjoy as citizens of the powerful repul)- lic of North America. Their progress in wealth and population was in consequence quite unprecedented in the history of the world. The while population of the colonies had increased in 1770, at the commencement of the Revolutionary war, to al>ove 2,000,000, and the value of the exports from Great Britain totbem amount- ed to about £1,300,000 a year I It is not diflicult to discover the causes of the un- exampled prosperity and rapid growth of our North American colonies, and generally of all colonies placed under similar circumstances. The North Amnrican colonists carried with them a knowledge of the arts and scienceti practiced liy a civilized and polislied peo- ple. They had been trained from their infancy to haliits of industry and subordination. They were practically acquainted witli tlie beat and wisest form of civil polity that had been establislicd inJCurope; and they were placeS in a situation that enabled them, without diffi- culty, to remedy Its defects, and to try every institu- tion by the test of utility. But the thinness of the abo- riginal population, and the consequent facility of ob- taining inexhaustible supplies of fertile and unoccu- pied land, roust certainly l>e placed at the head of all the causes which have promoted the rapid increase of wealth and population in the United States, and in all tlie other colonies both of North and Soutli America. On the first foundation of a colony, and for long ofter, each colonist gets an ample supply of land of the bett qualily ; and having no rent, and scarcely any taxes, to pay, his industry necessarily becomes exceedingly productive, and he has every means and every motive to amass capUal. In consequence, ho is eager to col- lect laborers from all quarters, and is lioth willing and able to reward them with high wages. But these high wages afford the means of accumulation, and, joined to the plenty and cheapness of the land, speedily change tlie more industrious lal)orers into proprietors, and en- alde them, in their turn, to become the employers of fresh laborers ; so that every class participates in tlie general improvement, and capital and population ad- vance with a rapidity hardly conceivable in old-set- tled and fully-peopled countries. It has lieen fVcquently said that the establishment of the British American and West India colonies was a device of the supj/orters of the exclusive or mercan- tile system — that they founded them In the view of raising up a vast agricultural population, whose com- merce should lie confined entirely to an exchange of raw products for other manufactured goods. There is, however, no truth in these assertions. On the con- trary, the charters granted to the founders of the set- tlement in Virginia distinctly trnpouer llu i u.'anutj to carry on a dirtct intercoune leith foreiyn itittts. Nor we^ they slow to avail themselves of this permission | for they bad, so early as 1U20, established tobacco warehouses in Kliddloburg and Flushing ; and th« subsequent proceedings of the British government depriving them of this freedom of commerce, were the chief cause of tliose disputes which broke out in 1676, in an open rebellion of ominous and threa:cniog im- port. — HonuiiTsoN's Amiriea. It was not until the colonists had surmounted the difficulties and hardships Incident to their first cstaljlishment, and had liegun to increase rapidly In wealth, tliat their commerce became an object of importance, and that regulations were framed in the view of restricting its freedom, and of rendering it peculiarlv advantageous to the mother country. The act of 1660, passed tiy the republican Parliament, laid the first foundations of the monopoly system, by confining the import and export trade of tlie colonics exclusively to British or colony built ships. But the famous Navigation Act of 1660 (12 Charles II. c. 18) went much farther. It enacted that certain specified articles, the produce of the colonies, and since well known In commerce l>y the name of rnu- merated articles, should not be exported directly from the colonics to any foreign country ; but that they should first be sent to Britain, and tlicre unladen (the words of the act are, lau{ vpon the ihore) before they could be forwarde<1 to their final destination. Sugar, molasses, ginger, fustic, tobacco, cotton, and Indigo, were originally enumerated ; and the list was subse- quently enlarged by the addition of cofl'ce, hides and skins, iron, com, lumber, etc. In 1739, the monopoly system was so far relaxed that sugars were permitted to be carried directly from the British plantations to any port or place southward of Cojie Finisterre ; but the conditions under which this indulgence was grunt- ed continued so strict and numerous down to 1803, when they were a good deal simplified, as to render it in a great degree nugatory (EriwARtis's West Indies) ; and with this exception, the oppressive and vexatious restrictions on their direct exportations to foreign coun- tries were maintained on most of the other enumerated commodities of any importance down to a late period. But besides com|)elling the colonists to sell their produce exclusively in the English markets, it wag next thought advisulile to oblige them to buy such for- eign articles as they might stand in need of entirely from the merchants and manufacturers of England. For this purpose it was enacted, in 1063, that " no com- modity of the growth, production, or manufacture of Europe shall be imported into the British plantations iiut such as are laden and put on lioard in England, Wales, or Berwick-upon-Tweed, and in Englisli-liuilt shipping, whereof the master and tliree-fonrths of tlie crew are English." Tlie preamble to tliis statute, which effectually excluded tlie coloni.sts from every market for European protluce, except that of England, assigns the motive for this restriction to lie, " the main- taining a greater correspondence and kindness between the subjects at home and those in the plantations ; keeping the colonics in a firmer de)ieiKlence on the mother country ; making them yet more beneficial to it, in the further employment and increase of ICnglish shipping, and the vent of English manufactures and commodities; rendering the navigation to and from them more safe and cheap; and making that kingdom a staple, not only of the commodities of tlie plantations, but also of the commodities of other countries and pla- ces for their supply, it lieing the usage of other nations to keep their plantation trade exclusively to them- selves." It WHS also a leading principle in the system of colonial policy, adopted as well by England as by the other European nations, to discourage all attempts to manufacture such articles in the colonies as could be provided for them by the mother country. The /"V COL 862 cot Uitoiy of the colonial syatem e aiirt)rlscd at a declnratlon of the late Lord HheHleld, who did no more, Indeed, than exprcii the opinion of almoat all the merchanta and politicians of his time, when ho affirmed that "tiik only ute uf Ameriran colvniet or Wttt India itlantU it tiik mosof- OLY o/tktir connanftium, and th» earriagt oftkiirfroi- ,«,/••• - - - ,- ■ y.Sw1»?,»' .' .'. Jl-i. ■•«il W.-4-W /• C'ouiHns rnion to thi Rirotiitie)!, ITMt-lTTO. Y<». lli|iai«i. iMlUd. N.w YoA.' >«nii.yl»MiU. ^VirjInU lin.r»l«Vyf«iii CarotloA. o-*»- Inporta. Ki|>ort>. Unportl. KilMfto. Imvorla. KvjMfto. 1 ImporU. Bl|Kll1i. Imvorti. Eiporto. ! Import.. « £ & 4! jC e e V t i.' t 1' £ ITOO 41.430 91,918 17,567 40,410 4.608 18,629 817,801 178,481 14,066 11,008 .... .... ITOl 8«,6Sa 80,811 18,547 81,910 6,220 12,008 280,7^ 199,083 10,978 18,908 • . . > .... ITOJ 87,010 (4,(16 7,906 29,901 4,146 9,842 274.781 72,891 11,870 10,460 • • • . UM 3».Ba» e>.(08 7.471 17,662 M60 9,89« 144,928 106,713 10,197 12,428 .... ITM 30,813 74.800 10,640 11.194 2,480 11,819 164,111 00,458 14,007 (.621 .... ITOB i-.',7»a 61,604 7,398 27.(101 1,809 7,200 116,768 174,811 1,6«8 19,788 *. • • * . .■ 1106 12,210 67,060 2.8«9 31,588 4,210 11,087 149,151 58,015 8,651 4,001 , . ., .... ITOT 88,703 110,081 14,288 29,856 786 14„1(6 207,626 287,001 23,311 10,492 .... 1T08 4>,(as 115,51)5 10,847 26,899 1,120 0,720 «l.'),4(t3 79.001 10,840 11.996 .... .... 17(W 2»,B60 120,840 l-.',269 84,677 617 6,881 261,608 8(M68 20,481 28,521 .... ITIO 81,111 106, 8.38 8.11)8 81,476 1,277 8,594 188,429 127,039 20.7118 19,618 * • 1 1 .... mi 20,415 137,411 11.193 28.866 as 10,408 278,181 91,636 12.871 20,406 • • • • .... ITU Hjm 118.105 11,440 18,624 1,471 8,404 207,^41 184.588 2O.i:04 20,015 .... 1113 49,904 120,718 14.418 46,470 178 17,037 100.168 76.804 82,44» 28,667 .... 1TI4 61.641 121,288 29,810 44,643 2,t!68 14,927 280,470 128,878 81,290 28,711 • . •• .... 1T15 M,G65 164,060 21,816 64.629 6,461 17,181 174,760 199,274 29,158 16,681 «... .... 1716 (9.695 111,160 11.971 61,178 5,IU8 11,841 181,843 179,696 46,287 27,272 .... HIT 5S,8»a 181,0111 24.684 44,140 4,499 22.605 190,884 115,961 41,275 26,058 .... ni8 01,691 131,885 27,831 62,900 5,588 22,710 S16,67« 191,925 46,886 15,841 .... UIO 54,461 126,317 19.890 60,365 fl,.Mi4 27,008 332,009 104,680 50,378 19.630 .... .... nil) 49,100 128,709 16,836 87,897 7,(«3 24,531 831,482 110,717 62,736 18,290 .... mi 60,488 114,5.>4 15,(01 60,751 8.C187 21,548 867,811 117,876 fl1,S5S 17,703 1T18 47,956 133,722 20,118 67,478 fl.SSl 20,397 288,091 172,754 79,650 84,874 • . . . 1723 69,839 176,480 27,992 , 53,013 8.381 15,992 287,997 128,838 78,108 42,246 • .. . 1724 09,685 168,607 21,101 08,020 4,057 80,824 277,844 101,894 90,501 87,839 . . • . .... 17.» 71,021 201,769 24,976 70,(60 11,!8I 41,209 114,780 195,884 91,941 39,182 17S« (3,816 200,881 88,307 84,840 5,960 57.634 324,707 186,981 03,468 48,984 * i . . 1727 76,063 187,277 81,017 67,461 12,823 81.979 421,688 192,965 96,056 28,264 • . .. 17M (4,080 194,690 21,142 81,034 16,230 87.478 418,089 171,092 91,175 83,067 17« 6i.Ml 1(1,101 15,888 64,760 7.484 29.709 886.174 108,981 113,329 ^S,8C6 173» 54,701 108,190 8,740 64,866 10.681 48,501 840,828 150,981 161,780 64,786 1781 49,048 188,467 20,756 66,110 11,786 44,260 408,802 171,278 159,771 71,146 1731 (4,o:i5 S16,600 9,411 65 640 8.5.'4 41,0!!8 310,799 148,289 120,207 58,2(18 "m 1783 61,983 184,570 11,826 65,417 14,776 40,566 403,1(18 186,177 177,845 70.466 ' *2«'3 1,696 1734 81,261 146,400 1^307 81,758 20,217 64,891 378,000 172,086 120,466 99.663 IS 1,911 17SS 71,899 13»,li:> 14.155 80,405 21,919 48,804 394,996 210,881 145,848 117,887 MlO 12,111 17S6 06,78S 122,153 17,944 80,000 20,780 01,613 380,168 204,794 214,083 101,147 1,011 1787 (9,347 213,023 lfl,>t8n 115,883 15,198 6fl,0!:0 492,246 211,801 187,758 68,980 , 5,701 1738 6».1I( 103,233 10,218 183,488 11,918 61,450 891,814 258,860 141,119 87,798 IT 6,496 1739 46,604 110,378 18,459 106,070 8,184 54,461 414,(64 217,200 286,191 94,445 288 8.814 1740 72,889 171,081 21,41)8 118,777 15,048 60,761 341,097 281,428 265,560 181,811 924 8,524 1741 (0,051 198,147 21.142 140,430 17,158 91,010 677,109 243,582 230.830 224,270 .... 2,563 174JJ 63,106 148,8)9 13,530 107,501 8 5i!7 76,2(16 427,709 264,186 1.HC07 127,063 1,022 17,013 1743 68,165 171,461 15.067 184,487 9,606 79,840 667 .f^l 828,1 ('6 235.180 lll,4!i9 2 2,291 1744 50,248 143,981 14.517 119,910 7,446 01,214 402,709 284,865 191.594 79,141 .... 769 1745 38,948 140,463 14,083 M,957 10,130 54,280 399,423 196,799 91,847 86,815 * . , . 939 1749 3S.0I1 200,177 8,841 86,711 16,770 73,6'.i9 419,371 282,546 70,897 102,809 984 1747 41,771 210,640 14,992 187,984 2,882 82,404 4'il.«in 200,088 107,600 96,529 24 1T48 29.748 197,081 11,368 148,311 12,308 76,8.S0 494.861 252,024 167.806 160,172 .... 1,814 1749 3:),99» 238,286 23,413 266,778 14,944 238.087 434.013 823,000 120.499 104,085 61 6 1760 48,456 843,(59 35,632 267,130 2^,191 217.713 608.089 349,419 191.(107 134,037 1,941 2,126 1761 63,287 805,974 42,8(8 148,941 28.870 190,917 460,086 247.l''7 246.491 188,244 856 2,066 liSi 74,31!i 173,340 40.648 194,0.)0 19,978 201.606 509,466 826,151 283.204 160,777 1.616 3,163 17B3 83.uU.'> 845,523 40,663 177,804 88,617 246,644 1182.615 866,776 164,634 113,009 8.067 14,126 1764 00.638 329,433 26.668 127,497 30,049 244,647 673.435 323,513 807,238 149,215 3,230 1,974 1755 63,5BS 841.790 28,066 151,071 31,830 144,456 439.(68 28,M57 825,525 1,39,887 4,437 2,630 17M 47,869 3H371 24,073 260,425 20,091 200,109 337,76J 426,087 222,915 181,780 7,168 586 1167 27,660 S63.404 19,168 363,811 14,100 108,426 418, Vil 884,897 130.889 218,949 • t • 1 2,671 17G8 30.204 406.694 14,260 36l),Ni6 21,383 200.953 451,302 4iW,471 150,511 181,002 .... 10,212 1750 26.986 617.067 21,684 630.785 22,404 498,161 367,228 459,007 206.534 216,255 0,074 16,178 17(0 37.801 699,647 11,125 480.106 22,754 707,998 604,451 805,882 102,789 218,181 12.1(18 1761 40,116 834,215 48,648 189,570 89.170 204.007 466,083 545,360 253. U02 264,687 6.764 24.'i7'9 1761 41.733 247,385 58,881 288,040 38,091 200,109 415,709 418,599 181,696 194,170 6.611 28.701 1708 74,815 268,854 52,998 238,500 38,228 284,151 042,294 656,i»l 282,366 260,182 14.409 44.908 1764 88.157 450,766 53,697 615,416 80.258 4.10,191 569,508 615,191 341,727 305.808 81.325 18,838 1705 14^819 451,190 54,969 .182.840 25.148 863.868 605,071 883,214 885,918 334,700 84.183 29,165 1760 141,733 409,042 (7,020 330,829 20.851 327.314 461,093 872,648 193.587 190,781 5il.074 67,268 1707 128,207 406.081 61,428 417,967 37.641 371,830 437,916 487,028 3i;5,027 244,098 36.^)0 23,334 17(8 148.875 419.707 87.115 4S1,980 59,404 432.107 408,048 47VS4 608,108 289,808 42,402 5«,r,02 17(» 119,363 207,091 73,466 74,918 20,111 199,006 361,891 488,i)63 887,114 800,600 82,270 5S,,T40 1770 148,011 394.461 69,881 475,901 28,109 134,881 486.094 717,782 278,907 146.278 65,5.11 60,198 1771 l.'iO.SSl 1,420,119 95,875 668.011 31.616 728,744 577.848 920,326 420,311 409,169 63,810 70,493 1771 116,2(5 824.830 82,707 343.970 29.133 607,909 528.404 798.910 426,C23 449,610 60,083 92.400 1173 124.424 627,065 76.246 289,214 80,062 4M,448 689,803 «>S,9fl4 456,613 844.859 8fi,391 62,982 1774 112,248 662,476 80,0so 2,611 10,21'^ 15,178 CnlOBlM. ('•Iwilal riiyalMlM, Inrnaat Ml I'wi. llAl 4atriw«rB , i t , Ini'l. Ill I'a. IIT.INIW .... Ui-orKtH 6,im 27,000 .... 860-00 1840 Maryland 2B,noo m.omi I74,IIIW 240 ■00 6 00 IWll 4 00 6I0O0 806 MawMrhiiMttii . . TD.IMNI WO.IMKI IIM,0«0 21421) 440 «O00 281 402-80 644 Nuw llttmp«hlni, 1U,UIKI uo.oiiu m,im 200 40 417 S40II0 ••«8 D'iO'OO 12-48 Nuw Ji-ntey IB.IJUO OlI.IMNI I'M.im MIUM 26 180 00 BOO 8-^0'IMI 11-08 Ni'w York aii.iioo IUO,(lllt) il:iN.U 1-40 lom-oo 21-00 Kliudii iHlaiid ,., 1(»,(KK} ui 1,000 AN.INiO 26000 621 o&n 1'68 480 00 049 ^utli Carolina., 7,(100 ra.iNiii Uil,MN) II2H67 684 21000 808 122!* 57 10-00 Virginia 40,000 k,-i,uoo iiiN),oon 11260 2 84 !:62'r4 978 060 00 8-78 Whites XiioHTiiKi Slavoa, eatlmnted All clnaaca .... nno.iiod [3M, Dies of Ureat Ilrilain, uxclualvo of Iniliit, rxcuiiit In number, extent, and vulux, (lioan of iivury iitlii( Ameri- can lakes, gives to Canada all tlio lienullt* of n most extensive inland navlt{atlun, and forma a iiiitiiral out- let for her surplus produi-n, aa woll as for Iho surplus produce of that part of the United HtNti'it wlili'h Is washed by tho lakes, Tliero la overy varloty lit tlin Boll and climato of thesii rnuloiis, In Lower Canada the winter ia very severe, Tho aurfai'O uf Iho country la covered with snow for nearly half tint ynar, from lliu beginning of December to thu nildillo of April the Ml, Lawrence is frozen over, and alDiriU a anioiilh and riiii- venient passage for thu sIoiIkos liy which It ia (lion cov- ered. But though severe, thn cllmatu la 'fiif from be- ing unhealthy or dis; ;jjeeabla, Thn wrallier la K"»' erally clear and bracing; and tho liiltor of urllsniis, at th^ir out-door omploynieiits, la rnrrily sua|iiiiiili'il for many days in aucceasiiin, On tho hrenkltiK up of the ice in the latter end of April or tho iMi^lnillnK "' '^'■■yi the powers of vegetation almost liiiniadlatvly resume their activity, and bring on tho fliiii aoasoii with a ra- pidity that is astonishing to a atruiiger, Thn highest temperature in Lower (.'anuda varliia from IMI" to UVi" of Fahrenheit ; but tho purity of tho Mtniunphern nbatvf the oppressive heat that la felt III llioat countrlea where the mercury ranges lo high j and tho wiiather Is, on tho whole, decidedly pleasant, That part of thn province of Upper or West Canada which atrotilies from Lake Simroe and tlio liiveni Trent and Novnrn, Wnatward to Lake Huron and the Ht. Clair ltlver,Hiiil aoiithward lo Lake Erie and part of Lako Ontario, has a soil uf ex- traordinary fertility, capalilo of proiliicliiK luxuriant crops of wheat and every aort of grain, " Tho cli- mate," says Mr. Rouchettc, late aiirvsyor gnnoral of Lower Canada, " Is so piirtlciilarly aalubrloiia, thai epi- demic diseases, either ainc.ig men or cattle, are almost entirely unknown. Ita influenca nil tho fnrtlllly of the coil is more generally porcuptlhio thwi it In In Lower tylvanla wore each a third larger than New l/nlttd malM Cmttui Jttport, I860. Canada, and is suppoaed to be congenial to vegetation in a much superior degree. The winters are shorter, and not always marked with such rigor as In the latter. The doratioii of frost is always accompanied with a line clear sky and a dry atmosphere. The spring opens, and thn resumption of agricultural labors lakes place, from six weeka to two months earlier than in the neigh- borhood of Quebec. The summer heats rarely prevail to excess, and the autumns are usually very friendly lo thn harvests, and favorable for securing all the late crops." — BoI)c-iiette'.s Tvpngrajphicul JJtairiplion of Caiiaila, p. 69li. Tho ground on tho shores of Lake Ontario and Lake Erie, as far west as the junction of the Thames with the St. Clair Lake, is laid out in townships, and partly settled. But tho population i* still \ery thin. To the north of the liiver Thames, along the banks of the St. Clair and the shores of Lake Huron, round to the liiver Severn, and thence to the river that Joins Lake Nippissing and Lake Huron, is a liuundless extent uf country that is almost entirely un- occupied. The interior of this space lias hitherto been but imperfectly explored; but the banks of tho SI. Clair and the shores of Lake Huron uflord the finest situations fur settlements. The soil is in many placet of (ho greatest fertility, the river and lake teem with flsh, and every variety of the best timber is found in (lio grea(est profusion. The winters in the )irovinces of Nova Scotia, Prince Edward's Island, and New iirunswick are more severe than in Upper Canada, and they are a good deal infested with fogs and mists; but their proximity to England, and their favorable sitiintlun fur tlio fishing liusiness, give tiiem considera- ble advantages. In addition to the above. Great Brit- Inn possesses the Hudson's I'my territory, a tract of vast extent, but situated in an inlio»pilabIe climate, and wurlli very little except as huntiiig-grouiuU«. She also possesses the large islands of Newfoundland and Capo Breton, tho latter being a dcpi-mlcncy of Nova Scotia ; but their soil ia barren, and the climate severe and foggy: so that tbcy are valuable prim ipolly as llshing stations. The following table exhibits tlia population of tho dift'eront North American colonies at tho under-mentioned epochs : Colonlen. Population. Data of Cantufl. 1884 1864 1851 1849 1846 1850 fcaotem ( I^wiir) Canada Weatiirii (Upper) Canada New llruiiBwk-k Prlnri) Kdward'a lal. and C. Breton 1,04H,0(IO 1,200,000 193.8110 02.034 «0,5<»i 270,117 Nova Hcntia Of the inhabitants of Lower Canada in 1844, no fewer tlian filfl,565 were of l-'rench extraillon, forming wlmt Is called the A'a^i'un CanaUienne. In Upper Canada, on the other hand, the population is almost wholly of British origin. H'«$t India Colonia. — In the West Indies the En- glish possess Jamaica, Barbadoes, Su Lucia, Antigui^ COL Wl COL Oranad*, Trinidad, and noma other Ulanda, baitdaa Daroarara and Uerbica In South Amarlca. Jamaica, by far tha larKut and moit valuable of her tuiular poaMuiont, It alwut 130 mllei In lenxth and 40 mtlea in mean breadth, containlni; alxiut 'J,H(M),(XX) acrei, of whiuh froin 1, 100,00(1 tu 1,>2I)0,000 are auppoud to be in cultivation. IlvInK iltuated within the tropic of Cancer, the heat In the Wvnt Indlea U interne, liut la moderated by the iiea-breeio which blowa regularly during the greater part of the day. The raina make the only diatinction of aeaaoni. They •omctlmes fall iirith prodigioua Impetuoalty, giving birth to innumer- able torrent!, and laying all the low country under water : tha treea are green the whole year round : they have no anow, no tnit, ami but rarely aomo hail. Thu climate It very humid ; iron ruata and corrodea In a very abort time ; and it la this, |)crliapa, that rondcra the Weat indict to unfriendly to Kuro|ican conatltu- tiona, and producet thoae ninllgnant fevert that are to very fatal. The vegetable productlona are niiuieroua and valualile ; but the augar-cane and the coffbc-plaiit are InconiTiarably more Important than the othcrt, and conatltuti the natural richet of the lalar '.'i. The Weat Indiei are occaaionally availed by the moat dreadful hurrlcanet, which deatroy in a moniciit the hopet ai:d labort of the plantera, ind dovaatato en- tire ialanda. Whole flelda of augar-cancs tre aonielimca torn up by the roota, houacs arc eitbei' thrown down or unroofed, and even the heavy copper bullcra and atllli In the worki have. In numeroua inatancca, been wrenched from the ground and battered to pieces. The rain poura down in torronta, ewceping liefore It every thing that comet in ita way, Tiiu dcatructlon cauaed by auch dreadful acourgea aeldom failt to produce a ▼er/ great tcirclty, and not unfrequcntly famine ; and we are grieved to have to add, that the levcrlly of the diatresa hat on ac^nra! occaaiont been inatcriuUy ag- gravated by a refu i on the part of the authoritiea to allow iniportatloii direct from the United Stateal Thlt wa^ tha caae at Dominica to lute at 1817. " It ia ttsted In a report by a committee of the Aaacmbly of Jamaica, that 15,000 nugrocii periahed between the latter end of 1780 and the beginning of 1787, through famine occaaioncd by hurricanca any the English. Although It had thut been for more than a century and a half under the power of Spain, tuch w&i the deadening In- fluence of her colonial tyslem, that it did not, when it wat conquered, contain l&OO while Inhabitanta, and thete were immeraed in sloth and poverty. Of the many valuable articlea which Jamaica aoon after pro- duced in tuch profusion, many were then altogether nnknown ; and of those that were known, auch a sup- ply only wat cultivated at wat required for the con- iumption of the inhabitanta. "The Spaniah settlers," tayt Mr. Brj'an Edwards, " possessed none of the ele- gancies of life ; nor were they acquainted even with many of those gratittcations which, in civilized states, are considered nccosrary to Its comfort and conven- ience. They were neither polished by social inter- course nor improved by education; but passed their days in gloomy Itnguor, enfeebled by sloth and de- pressed by poverty. They had been for many years in a state of progrcwlve degeneracy, and would prob- ably in a short time have expiated the guilt of their ancestors by falling victims themselves to the venge- ance of their slaves." — Hittory ofihe ]Ve$t fnJiet, vol. i. p. 297, 8vo ed. For a considerable number of years after England obtained possession of Jamaica, the chief exports were cocoa, hides, and indigo. Even so late at 1772, the exports of sugar amounted to only 11,000 hogsheads. In 1774 they had increased to 78,000 hogsheads of sugar, 2(1,000 puncheont uf rum, and (IJM7 bags of eof> fee. The American war waa viry ii\JuriouB to tha Weat India aattlonienta; and they may, indeed, be aatd to lie atill auffiirlng from Ita elTecta, aa the indvpendenca of America led to the enactment of thoae rrstrictlona to the Importation of food, lunilier, etc., that wore ao very hurtful to the plantera. In 1780 Jamaica waa viaited by a most deatruclive hurricane, the dcvaata- tion orcaaioned by which prr, luced a dreadful famine; and other hurricanea followed in Ilia Immedlatily auc- ceeding yeara, Uut in>17H7 a new era of impmvunient began. The dovanlation of 8t. Domingo liy Ihu negro tnaurrectlon which broke out in 17112, lirtt dlniliiUhed, and In a few years almost entirely annihilated, tha annual supply of 116,000 hogahcadt of augar, which Franco and the Continent liad prcvloualy iiecii accut- lomcd to recei e from Ibat itiand. Tbia diiiiliiution of aupply, by causing a greatly increased demand for, and a cunae(|uent rise in the price uf, augar raiaud in the other isiaiida, occasioned an cxtraordiiiaiy cxlon- alon of cultivation. So powerful in tliia respect waa its Influence, that Jamaica, which nt an average of Iho alx years preceding 1700 had jirudiicod only N;l,()(H) hogaiieaiis, exported in IHOI and 1802 upward of 280,800 hogalionda, or lia,(m a year ! The aanie rixe of prici', w iiicli uperated ao powerfully in Jamaica, occuaionud a siniila, though less rapid ex- tension uf cultivation in other islands, and in Cuba, Porto Itico, and llie foreign colonics generally. Tho vacuum caused by Iho ccaaali'un of the aiippllcs from St. Domingo lioing thus more tliaii tilled up, u reaction comnienoed. The price of sugar rapiiUy declined) and, notwilhalandiiig a forced niurkot was for n while opened to it, liy aubaliluting it for malt in tlie distil- lery, prices did not attain to their former elu^ation. On the opening of the Continental ports, in INUI and 1814, they, Indeed, rose, for a abort time, to nil extrav- agant height; but they very soon fell, invidviiig in ruin many of the speculators iqion an advance, Pricet, iiuwever, continued at n pretty hif;h level down to 181(4 ; liut they sustained a material fall in tiie coiiriiu of tlis following year, and were comparatively low fnun tha( period down to 18!)6, when llie extraordinary falling off in the supplies uf sugar coiieeqiient to tlic mcusiirea connected with the emancipation of the slaves again occasionec' a considerable rise of price. Hut, as al- ready seen, this high price was entirely factitiuus, be- ing wholly caused by our excluding foreign sugar from our market. Now that the sugar of Brazil, Cuba, and Java it admitted on paying reasonable duties, prices are comparatively low. And from the extraordinary fa- cility with which augar may be raised in the countries referred to and elsewhere, wo have no idea, provided they adopt no rath or ill-advised measure in relation to slaves, that its price in their markets would bo like- ly to sustain any material or permanent increase, even though the demand for it were doubled or more. The imports to England of sugar from her West Indian col- onics, which amounted to4,103,800cwts, in 1831, sunk, in 1841, to 2,151,217 cwts, ! In 1852 they amounted to 3,408,627 cwta. The devastation of St, Domingo gave the same pow- erful stimulus to the growth of coffee t;: the o<'-ier West Indian colonies that it did to the gro-.rth of sugar ; ami owing to tho extraordinary increase in the de- mand for coffee in England and other European coun- tries, the supply went on increasing till it was checked lay the influence of the measures relating to slavery. In 1752, for example, only 60,000 lbs. of coffee were exported from Jamaica; in 177,' tho export amounted to 440,000 lbs, ; in 1797 it had increased to 7,y31,621 ll)s. ; and In 1832, when il had attaincil its maximum, (he exports to England only amounted to 19,405,0.'S3 lbs. Such, however, and so rapinaiiiuuiit<)illo77(MwhllM, and U6(Vt ilavn. It wuulil have banii will for the ill- and lim* (he raca* conlliiuuil to prvMrvu tliia relatluii to each othiir; Iml, uiifurtunalvly, the lilmk popula- tioii ha* llioreaiwd iiiuru tlimi Jlim linivi an ra|jidly as the white; the latter haviiiK uiilv iiicreaied from 77 of color, and 1 1(I,(HJU l)lucks. Of late years it has exported from 6IH),(M)U to 740,tNMI cwts. of sugar. Uarbadoes hud iiltaincd thu acme of lis pros- perity in the latter part of the seventeenth century, when the white population is said lo have uinouiitcd to about riO,0(KI, though this is probably an exaggeration. But it is only as compared with Itself that it can be considered us having fallen oil'; for, compared with thu Other West Indian Island:*, lis superiority is manifest. It raises nearly as mucli I'uod os is adequato for its sup- ply. Tlie islands next in imporlanco are St. Vincent, Grenada, Trinidad, Antigua, etc. It is unnecessary to enter into any special dittuils with respect to tliein, their po|iulation and trade i>eing exhibited in the uii- noxed taldes. Luring thu late war Great Ilritain tuuit ^um tlie Dutch tlio settlements of Uenierara, Ucrldco, and Es8C, In Guiana, which wore definitively ceded to them in IHH, The soil of thcsL settlements is nat- urally very rich ; and tiivy liavc, in tliii respect, a de- cided advantage over most of the West Indian islands, Th'.'ir advance was for a wliilu very great, but recently their progress has been clicciceil, and (heir exports liuve declined most materially. This, however, is entirely in consequence of the want of lalior ; for in other re- spects these colonies have every facility of production. Various ichcnics have been suggested for supplying this want; but none of Ihcm, unless they involve the principle of compulsory service, will, wo appndiend, l)e successful. The rum of Uenierara enjoys a high repu- tatit I. The best samples of Herbice coiTee are very tupetior, a.id it used to be e.xtensively cultivated both in tlm c colony and in Demerara. In 1831 the exports amn> iitcd, from both colonies, to 3 .67G,7'1'I pounds ; but the- have since declined to next to nothing, having amounted In 1852 to only tt4,89() pounds. C'uusidcra- ble quantities of cotton were formerly exp:.-tcd from vlr.iuna; but the Americans having superior facilities ft r its production, its culture has nearly ceased. Co- i/m, annotto, etc., are produced, but not aliundantly. I^xelusivo of the above, the English possess the set- tlement of Ilulize, on the Uay of Honduras. This is of importance asafibrdinga means of ol>taining aliund- ant supplies of mahogany ; but it is of more import- ance as an entreput for the 8up[ily of Guatemala and Centrnl America with English manufactured goods. The exports from England to the West Indian colo- nies consist of coarse cottons, linens, checks, hats, and other articles of negro clothing ; iron and steel, wrought and unwrought; leather, including saddlery and liar- netf ; glass ; beer and ale ; soap and candles ; station- ery; hardware iit sarthi --wtiret •(•¥•§, hoops, enaf, linio, paint, leaU ; Irish provisions, herrings, and other suit tisli ; along with furniture, wine, lieer, medicines, and iniiued almost every article which a great manu- facturing country can sup)dy to one situated in a trap* ical climate, which has very few mechanics and hardly any manufacliires. Since the o|iening of Ihe ports on the Spanish Main to ships from England, the exports (0 the West Indies have decreased both in quantity and value; this decrease being, however, more than bal- anced by the increased shipments to Mexico, (.'oloin- bia, etc. The declared or real valua of the exports amounted, In IHA-i, to i;'J,UIII.S68. Mmry. — M'hat used to be called West India curren- cy was an imaginary money, and had a diA'erent value In diflbrcnt colonies. The value it bore, as oomparcd with sterling money, was supposed to represent the cor- res|iondlng value of the coins in circulation In the dif- ferent islands at the time the proportion was fixed : these coins being for the most part mutilated and oth- erwise worn ami ilefaced, currency was in all cases less vsluaiile than sterling. Tlio following are the old val- ues of Xiuu sterling, and of a dollar, In the currencies of the different islands t Starl. Can. Dol, Carr, .Inimacn XIIKI =: «140 1 =: Os. M. llurlwilocH i:iUO ::= iilBB 1 = St, Bd. Wlndwanl Ulmndi (etcsnt llsr- b«doo«) 4100 = X17B 1 = Rs. Bd. Uewara Inland jtltiU = i.VflO 1 = ffa, Od, Uut latterly these currencies have been in great meas- ure siqiorseded by the introduction of sterling money, current at the same rates as in EngAiiid, and of the Spanish dollar. Ily an order In council of the 28d of March, 182A, British silver money was made legal tender through- out all British colonial possessions at the same nom- inal value as in England ; and liills for the same are given on the treasury of London, of iIKH) each IjIII for illUB such silver money. By this order, also, the value of the Spanish dollar was fixed at 4: id. Ilritisli silver L.oncy throughout all the colonies where ll is current ; but this value was further reduced on the 'ilst of Sep- tember, IHDH, to4<. 2(i. The value of the doubloon was then also fixed at Mi. Autlralian Colonies. — This group of colonics, though founded in a very distant part of the world, and at ■ comparatively recent cpocli, will pn .-ably, at no very distant epoch, far surpass the others i:; magnitude and importance. The countries in which ihey are situated, including the great Australian continent, formerly cull- ed New Holland, with Van Diemen's Land or Tasma- nia, New Zealand, etc., are of vast extent, and dill'cr in many respects from each other. Hitherto, also, by far the larger portion of the continent is wholly unex- plored ; and even the islands are but very impcrfccti; known. Enough, however, has transpired to show tl it this great division of the globe differs in some most ti ', • portant res])ccts from most or all countries with which we were prc.bunly acquainted; and that it is, in fact, full of anonial, s. The interior of the continent ha! not licen sufllciently explored to enable any distinct opinion to bo formed as to the height of the mounlain chains; but it appears to be pretty well es'ablisliec' that it has no great rivers, or at least none (hat rcac'.i the sea. Indeed, it seems, speaking generally, (o~')C a law in this new world that rivers are largest near their source ; and that they gradually diminish as they proceed, and most commonly dwindle into insignifi- cance, or lose themselves in marshes, before they reach the ocean. In consequence, perhaps, of this singular constitution of its river system, it is found that in Aus- tralia the best land is not nt the months, but toward the sources of the rivers. There are, no doubt, excep- tions to this rule ; liut it nppc .rs to hold in the greater number of instances. Generiiliy, also, the extent of fine land appears to be conipuralively limited ; and in so far as the continental portion of the countrj' has been ex- Mb^ VvO COL plorol, It appMn t« b* BMh baMtr adaplad A>r |MMt«r- ag* ibta fur tUlag*. (Jotil J)ipotin.—Jh» Und, Um pMturm*, lb* ih««p, th* co|)|Mr auil utliar vrilliiary mliKralt, whirh ar* funnd In abuiidanca In varloiu parta uf Anttralla, hava all baan raadarad, (wr Um pRMnt at Uaal, uf iiu Import- •nca aoniparaii wtib tba Rold dapualt* with wbUli tba aooUr/»nl li w Urgaly anduwad. 'I'baM, wblvli wiira dlaoorrrad to lata aa IIUI, ara uf tba most ealraordlna- ty riihiMu, I'hay axoaad In producllvanon nm only tba Kvid Oald* of Calirornia, bui (Vary tbIiiK, Imlaad, s4 which aay Idaa oould pravioualy hava bui'ii aiitar' taliixd. Aiutralla baa, in conaaquenca, bacuina an ot>- Ja«t of aarnatt and ualv»raal atlantlun. Au almoat unparalliilad amount of enilKraliun ha* Iwan dirvvigd la h«r ahurva. Il«r population and her trido are tM>tli iaaraaalnti with dlKantlo (tridaa ; and her gold i* InHu- anolng tlie waKen, the prleot, and the Induatry uf every sivillaed people. — .let ari. Auarn/ti.i i auJ (loi.ii. It ware idle to Indulge In upaaiilatluni In regard to the pariud whan the axhauetlun of the Aualrallaa gold Oalda may lie expected i there are no data on which to baaani avon a cui^actura on auch a aulifeat. Hut whether the lupplit'e fruin thuin Im duitlneil to bo of long or abort duration, tlixy have already [men, ami no doubt will ennlinue to b«, uf great advantage. Wo do not mean by thia to tay or inilnuale that thu good reaulting fnim tba influx of guld fruii\ Auatralia and Oaliromia ban b««n unaceonipanlotl by any drawbaclii, The gauibliug and diaaipation to whicli it haa given rUa ara ubvioua. liut theee, though conaiilerable, are but • trilling deduotion from Ita many advantage! ; from the puworful atiniulus it ban given to induelry and civilixallon, from the new chaiiuoU it haa openeil to coniinvrue, and from Ita greatly amidiorating the condition uf the Uburlng cUaaea In tbit and moat other oouatrlea. Tba northern portion of Auitralla, Inoladlng, peN bapa, about a third part of the entire continent, Una Ik-> twaen the tropisa; the other portion of (he continent, with the aiUacent Itlanda of Van Uiemen'a Land and Mew Zealand, being In the touth temperate xone. The climate of the dilferent parta of the continent muat, tliurefurp, it ii oliviuui, dKTvr wry widely. We, how- aver, know but little of the climate of intertropical Aim- trallo, except that it it within the range of the Indian monaoon ; that the temperature along tlie oooat it rap- idly niaed by • wind from the aoutli, which ha* been ■ f poaed to aflbrd • atrong preaumption uf tba axlit^ •Me of Bandy deaerta In tba Interior; and that the air la to vary moUt that during the teoaon of tba montoon iron tmplementa are with the utmoat difficulty pre- tervcd from rutting. It It commonly oald that the cli- mate ofextra-triipical Australia, and eepcoially of New Houth Wales, aaaimilatet closely to that of Southern Italy. Out thi* statement muat l>a taken with consid- erable limitatioa ; for, Itt. The atmosphere la very de- cidedly denser; 'id. The exiremea of temperatnra are inlinitely greater ; Sd. The average heat is rather leti ; and, 4th. The temperature appear* to decline mora rap- Idly by increase of elevation. The grand defect in the climate of exira-troplcal Australia appeara to contitt in th* periodical recurrence of wet and dry leaaont. Somelime* hardly a single drop of rain falls' for an en- tire year or more ; and though, happily, dew* are in tuch teaion* peculiarly abundant, they form no ado- quats lubttitute for rain. During long-continued droughU cropt of all kind* are destroyed ; and herlMige, except in a few favored ipot*, *uffert teveroly. I lence, oa already stated, all the ea*tcm part* of extra-tropic- al Australia, and perhaps alao the southern, would seem to be much better fitted for pasturage than for husband- ry. The drouglits arc exceedingly injuriout to the lat- ter, and they would necessarily Involve any large pop- ulation that depended principally on the indigenous products of the toil in extreme privation*. Certainly, bowevar, do coitgi^y taeiaa to b« bettar fitted for gra'i- iog, or rather for the growth of theep and wool, A dry climate I* m|H>rlally eultabl* tu lliv latlirg Md though the poaturaa b* far fhim luxuriant. (Iiplr liuund* leaa extant oampenaatet fur every oiler ni'> Hurk of twenty-nine head havhig liern Introiluo"! I' i the llrtt time by tli* original I'jiglitli tettlurt In l.nt. Fur a while, however, their valuii was not appreciated j but the Impiirtaniw uf ilieep-farming, and Ita tultableneta to the country, having Immh demonatratad l>y .lohn M'Arthur, Ktq. (,to whom lb* roluny la undvr tha graaleat ubilgatlons), it haa since Inoreaaed with un- preeedentetl rapidity. In proof of (his, it may bvilated that while the Import uf wool Into tm Anatralla amounted. In IM'i'i, to Only ia'J,tM*U pounda. It hail lH>n mentioned date*, nearly a* follow* i ('•laUn. Ymk. ^ CopulaUm. >ew8uutli W»le» Vlrlnrlii,!lllil Derenibor Van 1 Menten's l.aiid itir>i IWO \m) IHfiO 1U:,I68 'J(l(J,ll(IO 7»,(l«0 (M.UUO 7,01 '0 2^,4110 New i^'deiid TiiUl billl.BdS Krptndilun by llrtat Hriltim on Ihe Aiulralum CoU oniet. — Kngland doe* not appear to spend any money in Victoria! the last parliamentary return un colonial expenditure doat not mention that colony. The fol- lowing table exhibttt the amounts expended un four rolunles in the years l)l&:i-'&4, and tho purpute* to which tliey were applied : (Julflelaa. Hontli AiisfrelU New Moiitli Wales . . . Vail Dleiuun's l^nd . West Austmll* Total Milllarjt CbarfM. "im.Kitl ui.iiia M,1I0 06,711 i:it)'j,'.'B2 CItII ChanrH. JH-i lo.iiaa 2011, IIH.I^JS i3i7;3rt7 Naral CliarKM- A-m Total. 7i,aiii S04,'>7 ia.'i,x84 £>a |ji:47'.>.B84 These totals do not really represent X479,(W6 spent by Urcat lirilaln on her Australian colonies: except Souili Australia, all are " penal tettlementi," or have been, and tho large expenditure has mostly lieon In- curred in guarding, disciplining, feeding, and clothing convicts. In fact, tho Australian colonies cost Iter next to nothing, being but a small per cent, of what It would cott to keep cunvicia at home. Under tho new cunstitu- tion for the four free colonies, Western Australia lias be- come a convict settlement by her own choice, and has tho advantage of a large expenditure in consequence, the following tunit having been reserved out of the rev- enue annually fur the purposes indicated. The civil list includes the governor's salury, judicial salaries, and those of departments. Tho retiring allowances arc for ofticiala liable to removal on political grounds. OalMln CI*U LUI. Rtllria* Allowaoi'M. Pablla Wiinhip. Vtctorin «0,B60 18,300 10,000 A'4,0()0 B,90tl a,lTB 1,700 £&II,OOII 28,000 16,000 New Hoiitli Wales Van Uiumcn's Land South Australia Total i:vu,iic>o jC18,tMl i;uu,ooo COL tun*; KMUMHUtlMU TIU V4JUUt» 807 COIi x I? t'ouwiMi «r km iiir«iiT4iiiini|nU:K. ., DronaiU... •Uiiit'r* . , . MuhiKrnit. Nov In. Wut laDiM, ••t»a<*it*i Ht. (.iiiiii«iib«r . AiiKullU Ht l.u«l> Ht. Viuronl Tnbll||i> Toniil* TrinliUil llalutniM Uurmiiilitii Ilrillih OiiUtut. lloniluru Tutil , tilbnUUr MhIIh anil (loin ( '•iw of (IoihI lln|w tnd NtUl . ■ HIvrra U-uiui.... (Gambia Oolil liimat Cpylnn Mtturltliifl ,»... New guiitli WalH Victoria Van DIomen'a Land WMtcrii AnatralU Huiitli Aiiatralla New Zralauil Aacenaiuii »t. Heldia Ilniiif Kor.jC II(>ll|,'ulau(r Total Tolali / North Am MVot Iiull ( ( ttlllT cult ; North Ameriran. nlluii . uloillt'H , Otncral TolaU. MO.Mint VM.UM iva.nuo iiT«,ni U.IVM ll«.ftU« AMI.Ml n.im 110, VB« W.'ilH) BV.OTI I7T,4M T.i.U 0,11(11 tn,m I «.«II4 I ufiia I4,a;s H.Osl) «8,«(I0 ■i7,&IU 11, (KM ~TTo,448 II, 1st 11A,M4 M8,«TII 44,47« ) B,67 SA'.'.Mni l,«tt7.M» lOa.B-.'B lOT.KlS 'ito.ono 10,0(10 7,000 M.OOO 22,400 000 6,41)0 2,'.'IB U,27s,li4a 9,481, 0«1 II7U,44S 3,8Ts,(Mfl «.7ao,lAb tlMI'Ml ««JlH.| llMlarMValw^ I.I,. IL. I "' •'"'•'' —* • iyia(J.>iil, iM,ei5 i(U,iioa 77U,M7 70,148 (I4,BS1 l,B'i(l,RU» l,oo;i,oim 72a,(UK) 100,241 «1 BO,70ii 21,0B6 S'i.'ailT 4,40(1,006 9,18S,7I» 0,42D,28t 4,460,006 ia,«77,007 IMI NMalw mt Tmm«< •« rtwb, I44I. 2 l,4S0.H'm 072,W7 n.iii STii,nt TuiiT'ii 17.1. am 27,ii4a 774,242 ~r 2,4«l,BM 442,ll74 1U.2UI 1«,S2« t7B,i«a a2,(i»!i n2,4aA SS|i,OM 2a2,tfaa 4<*t,2M ai)i,44a 7B/.ai8 I 114,64(1 ) 47.107 107,66» 176,414 292, 1 M l,!01,>al (HM.4Ua 420,024 B4.72II i)7B,08n 171.000 2, Ml 28,248 •a2,B0tt 13A C>,eb8,MI« B,780,S80 2,4aU,6C6 B,(IM,0fla 11,828,614 l'iiifM4 Iiiww4 wia liMVa(Mla<(4nl. an, M4 Ml.ttl •r'rtai, M.I|Hi inT TIIK I'SITKII KmolMUi rOll ClOLUNIU AMU MILITARY AND M«IIITIIII HTATln.-lttnd Ionian Ulunda Falklanil Iilanda llon^ Knnfr PttmtMimu and Smtmtim. Ilarbadot'i (livnada 8t Vincent Tobafto AntlKua Montaerrat Xt. chriitopher'a NevI AngullU , VlrKln Itlaodi.. Dvnilnlca dt.l.nda Trinidad llrltlah Onlan* X 210,740 laii.atw 201.469 iia,a()7 128,076 ao.scB 1,488 048 183,042 8,403 1!M,270 7-3- 18 10 12 12 8 » 2 2 4 8 11 6 • 7 10 18 a 8 5 m,m 6 10 Jamalra Itahainaa Ilondural Uiinada ■ Nova Hcotla Npw llnmiwlck .., Prince F.dward'a lalud Newfoundland Sierra Leone Gambia I'ape Coait Ceylon South Auilralla < North Auatralla New Zealand < Labuu... rt»mt Silllmmtt, New South Walia , Van Dtemen'fl I.and Weat AuKtralia Oenoral Charge* Total ^ - l6A,0:it 22,1 M) 18,008 1180,284 144,718 1 1. ('84 a.CNO 8I,UW <4,8l'li »I,8'|'a' 1.1180 160.241' 8,221 68,184 224,444 _B4,2B4 . (T 8 6 IB 8 10 a 16 8 6 t 6 4 1 f » 1 10 T 11 « II * 14 T IB 4 IB II H II 6 Itf 6 Uil III. Otiikr Colonies. Spanith Colonies. — Spain, whoae colonial poasesaions extended a few yeara ago firgm the froutiera of the United States to the Straits of Magellan, is not at present poiseiaed of 8 foot of ground in the whole American continent. Htlll, how> ever, her colonial poaaesaloBB Me of great v*tu8 aimI COL COL Importance. In the West Indiea, abe is mistroas of Cuba and Porto Kico — the former \>y far the largest and flneat of the West Indian islands, and the latter also a very valuable possession. In the East, Spain la miatress of tho Philippine Islanda, which, were they in the hands of an enterpriaing people, would speedi- ly Iwconie of very great commercial importance. — iS'ee ike articlft Havana, Manilla, Porto Rico. Dutch Colonies. — Java is the principal Dutch colo- nial possession, and it is one of which it is not easy to exaggerate the value and importance. — iSes Uatavia. In tiie Kust, the Dutch also possess the Moluccas, Den- coolen, on the coast of Sumatra, Macassar, and the eastern coast of Celelies, Banda, etc. They have sever- al forts on the Gold Coast in Africa ; and in the West Indiea they possess the islands of Curaf oa and St. £u- Btatius, Saba, and part nf St. Martin ; and on the con- tinent of South America they are nuisters of Dutch Surinaip. Curafoa and St. Eustutius are naturally barren, but they have been both highly improved. From its lieing very conveniently situated for main- taining a contraliand traffic with the Coraccas and other districts in South America, Curafoa was for- merly a place of great trade, paiticularly during war. But since the independence of South America, Cura- foa has ceased in great measure to l>e an entrepot ; the goods destined for the continent l)eing now for the most part forwarded direct to the place of their desti- nation. That district of Surinam ceded to the British I in 1814, comprising the settlements of Demerara, Ber>< I bice, and Essequibo, formed the most valuable portion I of Surinam, or Dutch Quiana. The district which : atill belongs to the Dutch lies to the south of Berbice. It contains about 88,000 aquare miles, and a population of about 66,000. It is daily Itecoming of more value and importance. The exporta of augar may amount to alwut 25,000,000 pounda, and thoae of coffee to about 4,000,000 pounds, French Colnnia, — Previously to the negro insurrec- tion that broke out in 1792, St. Domingo was by far the most valuable colony in the West Indies. But this disastrous event, having first devastated the island, terminated in the establishment of the independent black republic of Hayti.— Sf e Port av Prisck. Hav- ing also sold Louisiana to the Americans, and ceded the Mauritius to the English, without making any new acquisition, the colonial dominions of France (for Al- giers can not be reckoned among them) are at this moment of very limited extent. They consist of Gua- deloupe and Martinique, and the small islands of Ma- rie-Galante and Deseadia, in the West Indies; Cay- enne, in South America ; Senegal and Goree, in Afri- ca ; the Isle de Bourbon, in the Eastern Ocean ; St. Marie, in Madagascar; and Pondicherry and Chan- dernagor, with a very amall surrounding territory, in the East Indies. The annexed tabular statements show the population, trade, etc., of the French colo- nies. ACCOnMT OP TUB POTOI.ATIOX OK THE FeEMOU COLONIES, AND 0» TIIXIB CoMmiOE WrTU FSAXCE, IN 1836. i'opuUUop, IM1. FrM. SlSYt. Toul. IniuorU Into rrftncs. u« , 188« . KxporU from KrRDrt. Hbiiii «tilcr«d. Shipi. Toflnag*. Nliip8cl««r«ilout. Ship*. Tonnng*. Saint Pierre and Higuelon., . . Martinique Guadeloupe Cayenne Bourlwn Senegal , Fieoch factories in India (1336) Totals Number. 1,4U0 40,043 82,069 6,060 36,803 18,040 107,788 Niunb«r. 7:,469 9B,flU» 10,692 69,296 Number. 1.40U 11T,.M2 127,008 21,t:48 100,099 18,040 (ljan.,1830) 107,736 FrUQci. 2,424,244 16,423,438 24,675,141 3,121,762 10,743,890 8,374,724 4,323,028 Franei. 700,336 17,062,292 22,119,138 2,098,106 9,804,940 6,466,923 441,326 No. 144 368 618 42 166 36 Turn. 23,920 48,861 70,027 6,T92 48,830 4,791 11,008 801,187 268,960 660,0113 70,086,221 68,348,121 209,326 No. 143 363 648 4C 149 62 8t 1860 Torn. 23, SO."; 122,'jll 69,060 7,f6l) 43,4S3 6,963 16,552 200,U'3 Account or tub Quantitoh or ma pbincital Abticles pboduced in tub Fbbnoii OoLOiaig in 1S36. Cblonla ud KitablUliiiMiiti. Sugnti or»u QasUtiM. con<. Coco*. Cotton. CIOTM Mid Anaolto. Tobaroo. Oum. Wu. Bklni. Wood. MarUnique Ki!og. 34,1&»,680 34,836,722 23,384,116 2,422,796 6'.i2'!iil7 471,086 928,200 42,000 1,422 62,084 Kilog. 126.411 10,1)111 10,000 2B,UM1 1,447 Kllog. 18, •.05 18,194 280,000 6,720 Kllog 239 193,600 107,080 Kllog. !!!! 813,000 Kilog. S4,'(«7 82,000 Kilog. l,79i;610 Kilog. 46^134 46,134 Kllog. 227,728 Cent. 390 ) l«q. 38) Kllog. 13,03C Seueaal Factories in India (1836). . Totals 94,803,214 2,188,198 172,768 378,010 800,819 818,000 110.047 1,791,610 227,728 Cent 8;i6 Paq. 88 64,146 But it would appear from the following account of the exports from Martinique and Guadeloupe, in 1861, that the emancipation of the slaves has had much the same influence over production in the French colonies that it lias had in the British colonie8,witliout being, we believe, in any degree more advantageous to the blacks. AacooNT OF TiiR ExroKTS or Nativk Pboddcb feoh Mab- ti.mqdb and Guaiixloctb in 1861. MABTfniQva. Sugar, Mnscorado kil. SS,4«<,69a Sugar, clayed — 807 Molames lit 88,754 Rum _ 206,611 Colfee kil. 110,938 Cocoa — 140,033 Caaria _ 163,580 Logwood — 60,260 Sugar, Mus( orado ktl. 20,048.888 MoIaaaeB lit 18,870 Rum — 142,139 Coffee klU 221,218 Cotton — 20,443 Coeoa _ 11,461 Casala — IW Daniih Colonies. — In the West Indiea, theae consist of the islands of St. Croix, St. Thomas, and St. John. St. Croix contains about 100 square miles, and has about 24,C0O inhabitants. The soil is fertile, and it is well cultivated. The principal productions are sugar, rum, and coffee, the exports of sugar having formerly amounted to about 26,000,000 pounds a year. Proba- bly, however, they have been diminished in conse- quence of the emancipation of the slaves in 1848. St. Thomas, which has ai)out 14,000 inhabitants, lias long been, and still continues to be, one of the principal em- poriums in the West Indies. It owes this distinction partly to its convenient situation, partly to its spa- cious and safe harbor at St. Thomas, on the south side of the island, and partly and principally to the mode- ration of the import dutiei>, which vary from 1 tu 1^ per cent. St. Thomas has in consequence became, as it were, a depot for the supply of the neighboring isl- ands, goods being sent to it to be warehoused till op- portunity offers for cunveying them to their final des- tination. The great b.Hicles of importation are, man- ufactured goods, principk'Iy from England, but partly COL 869 COL Kllo(. 40,60; 13,03C 54,145 consist Si. John, and has and it is iro sugar, formerly Proba- in conse- 8-J8. St. lias long cipal eni- istinction its spa- louth side he modo 1 to It ecome, as orinK isl- ■A till op- flnal des- are, man- )ut partly also ft^m other countries of Europe, with provisions, | lumber, etc., from the United States. In India the | Danes formerly possessed Tranqucbar, near Madras ; and Scrampoor, near Calcutta ; but these they sold, in 1845, to tlio East India Company. SwedM Cohniet. — The Swedes possess one colony — the small island of St. Bartholomew, in the West In- dies. It is only about 2& square miles in extent, but is very fertile. It has no springs, nor fresh water of any sort, except such as is supplied by the rain. Pop- ulation between 8000 and UOOO. ' Selection nf Sites for Colonial Ettahlithmentt. — Noth- ing can be more unwise than the plan, if so we may call it, hitherto followed in the selection of places at wliich to found colonies. The captain of a ship, with- out any knowledge whatever of the nature of soils or the capacities of a country in an agricultural point of view, falls in after a long cruise with a river or bay, abounding with lish and fresh water, and surrounded with land that holes fertile and is covered with herbage. He forthwith reports all these circumstances, duly em- bellished, and strongly recommending the situation as an admirable one at which to found a colony ; and, in nine cases out of ten, this is all the information that is required in talcing a £tcp of such infinite importance. No wonder, therefore, that many lino schemes of colo- nization should have ended only in loss and disappoint- ment; and tint situations which the colonists were taught to look upon as a species of parudiso have proved to bo ony thing but what they were represent- ed. Botany Bay, though described by Captain Cook as one of the finest places in tlie vorld, had to bo aban- doned by the colonists that were sent out to it, as the country round it, instead of being favorable for cultiva- tion, is a mere sanc'y swamp. Is it possible to sup- pose, had the prope • inquiries been entered into, that any attempt would have been made to establish a col- ony in so pestilential a climate as that of Sierra Leone ? The colony on Sw in Kiver, Australia, may bo adduced as another instance of misplaced or prematura confi- dence in the reports of those who were really without the means of forming a correct cstimoto of the various circumstances necessary to bo attended to in forming a colony. Wo therefore hope that an end may be put to this system — a system which is in no common degree injurious to the public interests, and is higlily criminal toward those who embark as colonists. The founding of a colony should be looked upon in its true point of view — as a great national enterprise. It is not an ad- venture to be intrusted to presumptuous ignorance, but should be maturely weighed, and every circum- stance connected with it carefully investigated. Above all, the situation in which it is proposed to' found the colony should bo minutely surveyed ; and its climate, soil, and capacities of production deliberately inquired into by competent persons employed for the purpose. Were this done, government and the public would have the best attainable grounds upon which to proceed; and neither party would have much reason to fear those disappointments which have hitherto so often fol- lowed the exaggerated representations of those to whom the important and difficult task of selecting situations for colonics has been delegated. Columbia or Oregon River, in Washington and Oregon territories, and British possessions. Its north- cm branch takes its rise in the Kocky Mountains, in lat. 50° N., long. 116° W, ; from thence it pursues a northern course to near M'Gillivary 's Pass of the Rocky Mountains. At the boat encampment the river i? SCOO feet above the level of the sea (here it receiven two small tributaries — the Canoe Kiver, and that froo the Committee's Punch Bowl) ; from thence it turns south, having some obstructions to canoe navigation, and re- ceiving many tributaries in its course to Colvillc, among which are the Kootanio, or Flat Bow, and the Flat Head, or Clarke River, f^om the oast, and that of Col- vUlo from the west. Tbii great river is bounded, thus ▲ a far on its course, by a range of high monntaing, well wooded, and in some places expands into a line of lakes before it reaches Colville, where it is 2049 feet above the level of tlie sea, having a fall of 660 feet in 220 miles. To the south of this it tends to the west- ward, receiving the Spokane Rivorfrom the cast (which is not navigable), and takes its rise from the Cwur d'Alene. Thence it pursues a westerly course for about CO miles, receiving several smaller streams, and at ita bend to the south it is joined by the Okanagan, a riv- er that has its source in a line of lakes, ali'ording canoe and boat navigation for a considerable extent to .Mt northward. The Columbia thence passes to the south- ward until it reaches Wallawalla, in the latitude of 46°, a distance of 160 miles, reccivTng the Piscous, Y'Aka- ma, and Point de Boise, or Entyatecoom, from the west, which take their rise in the Cascade range, and also its great southeastern branch, the Saptin, or Lew- is, which has its source in the Wind River Mountains, and brings a large quantity of water to incrcaiie the vol- ume of the main stream. The Lewis is not navigable, even for canoes, except in reaches. The rapids are ex- tensive, and of frequent occurrence. It generally pass- es between the Rocky Mountain spurs and the Blue Mountains. It receives the Kooskooskc, Salmon, and several other rivers from the east and west — the former from the Rocky Mountains, the latter from the Blue Mountains — and, were it navigable, would much facil- itate the intercourse with this part of the country. Its length, to its junction with the Columbia, is 520 miles. The Columbia below this point forms the boundary be- tween Oregon and Washington territories to the Pa- cific. The river at Wallawalla is 1286 feet above the level of the sea, and about 3500 feet wide ; it now takes its last turn to the westward, receiving the Umatira, Quisnel's, John Day's and Do Chute rivers from the south, and Cathlatate's from the north, pursuing its rapid course of 80 miles, previous to passing through the range of Cascade Mountains, in a series of falls and rapids that obstruct its flow, and form insurmountable barriers to the passage of boats by water during the floods. Tho&o difQcultics, however, are overcome by portages around the falls. The waters here descend 40 feet in the distance of two miles. From thence there is still-water navigation for 40 miles, when its course is again obstructed by rapids. At the Dalles the river is compressed into a narrow channel 300 feet wide and half a mile long, and flows between high walls of ba- salt, and the water falls 50 feet in the distance of two miles. Thence to the ocean, 120railes, it is navigable for vessels of 12 feet draft of water at the lowest state of the river, though obstructed by many sand bars. In this part it receives the Willamette from the south, and the Cowelitz from the north. The former is navigable for small vessels 20 miles, to the mouth of the Klackamus, three miles below its falls ; the latter can not be called navigable, except for a small part of the year, during the floods, and then only for canoes and barges. TJie width of the Columbia, within 20 miles of its mouth, is much increased, and it joins the ocean between Cape Disappointment and Point Adams, forming a sand-spit from each, by deposit, and causing a dangerous bar, which greatly impedes its navigation and entrance. The influence of the tides is felt 80 miles above its en- trance into the Pacific. Its entire course is about 750 miles. During the year 1860, 160 vessels entered and departed from tlie ports of Columbia River. Vessels of a draft of 17^ feet have been safely taken over the so'ith bar, and it is supposed that vessels drawing over 20 feet can enter safely. This noble river was discov- erc'1 by Captain Gray, of Boston, in the year 1792, in the ship Columbia, and named from the ship. It was first explored from its sources to the sea in 1804-'6, by Messrs. Lewis and Clarke, by order of the government of the United States. By the Oregon treaty its navi- gation is open to British vessels. The Coast Survey are now preparing a diart of this river. ^',:,'r!li: COL 870 COL ■ Colombo, the modem capital of Ceylon, on the aouthweat coast of the island ; lat, ti° 6G' 6" N., long, 79° 49' 48" E. It is defended by a very strong fort, nearly surrounded l>y the sea, in wliieh is a light-house 97 feet high. Population of the town and fort, in 1881, 81,640. The houses, generally only one story high, are of stone, clay, and lime ; and the town has more of a Eu- ropean appearance than any other in India. The inhab- itants are principally Cin;^alese, The temperature is remarlcable for its equalil.v ; and though very humid, the climate may, on the ^v(K>le, b» eateemod salubrious and temperate. There in no luirbor at Columbo for large vessels, but only an open roadstead. A pro- jecting rocic, on which two batteries are erected, af- fords shelter to a small semicircular bay on tho north lidc of the fort, having a wooden quay to facilitate the loading and unloading of boats. The depth of water is not sufficient to allow sloops or large dhonics to come alongside the quay ; those exceeding lOU tons burden lying at about a cable's length from it. A bar of sand, on which the water is not more than 12 feet deep, ex- tends from the projecting rocIc across this bay. The channel where it may bo crossed by tho larger class of ships is liable to shift ; and it is only in tho fme weath- er of the safe season that they venture within tho bar. The outer road affords secure anchorage for half the year, from the beginning of October to the end cf March, daring the prevalenco of the northeast monsoon, when the wind blows off the land ; during the other, or south- west monsoon, when the wind blows flrom the sea on shore, the road is very far from safe; and the ships that frequent it are sometimes obliged to slip thoir ca- bles and stand out to sea. — Milbuun's Oriental CoM' merce; Hamilton's Gazetteer, etc. As respects Its harbor, Colombo is, therefore, very inferior to Trincomalee, tho harbor of which is acces- sible at all times, and is one of the best in India; but the country in the vicinity of Columbo is more fertile ; and it has tlin command of an iutenial navigation, stretching in a lateral direction along the coast, from Putlam, to the north of the city, to Caltura on the south, a distance of about 100 miles, partly obtained by rivers, and parly by canals. Many dnt-bottomod boats ar« employed in this navigation, the families de- pendent on which reside mostly on board. Nearly all the foreign trade of Ceylon is carried on from Columbo, and it has also a large share of the coasting traffic. Moneys, — The rix dollar=l«. 6(i. ; but accounts are kopt in pounds, shillings, and pence, as in England, The Bank ofCtylon, established in 1840, has its head office in London, its principal office in tho island being in Columbo. It transacts all sorts of banliing busi- ness, remitting money to and from the inland, granting cash credits on the Scotch system, discounting bills, etc. yVeighUi, Measures, etc, — The weights are divided into onnces, pounds, etc., and are the same as in Great Britain. The candy or bahar=600 lbs, avoirdupois, or 461 lbs. Dutch Troy Weight. The principal dry measures are seers or parrahs. The former is a perfect cylinder, of the depth and diameter under-mentioned : OepUi, DiMMtor, Seer 436 Inches. 4'35 incliea. The parrah is a perfect cube, its internal dimensions being in every way 11'57 inches. The liquid measure consists of gallons, and their mul- tiples and submultiples. 150 gallons=:l leaguer or legger. The bale of cinnamon consists of 92^ lbs. very nearly. Account or tue Qdantitus ahd Valufs or nix nuiiCiPAL Auticlxs raoDncxu ih xxd expobtid rnoH Cetlon dubinu 1881. ArllclM. QautlUtt. VllllM. ArUdM. QuAntiticR. ! Vnliiei. 1 Arrack galb. Anca nuta cwt Cinnamon pounds. Cocoanuta No. Coooanut oil . . . galls. Coffee cwt. Coir popo — Copperah — Homa — Plumbago — Precioua stones, pack. 168,789 ar^ 1 keg 78,030 26 509,491 4,037,814 44-'),6991and2a(an 849,967 10 37,612 12 27,0i6 1 2,020 3 K 26,832 3 17 4 X f. J. 6,269 9 7 64,806 4 11 60,849 2 6,701 4 1 31,414 9 7 688,166 14 9 13,286 4 1 0,078 7 8,207 17 8 6,608 2 8 1,206 Rum galls. Sugar cwt Wood pea. bdls. 9.841 1,703 34.740 2 14 809,558 634 JC I. u. 061 10 „ 1,086 4 ]'■ 10,993 4 4 43,088 4 7 139,927 10 11 727,311 10 8 Imports ro^ixpv rted . goodii. Ex. the warehouse . . siwcio. Total .... jei,806,S77 1 AocouNT or Tin Qcamtities or Coppee, CraKAHOH, Coooa- KUT Oil, and Coib, the PBont'oi or the Island, exfobt- ai> rsoH Ceylon nmiiNa the pollowino Yeabs, endino TUB 6TU jA>DABr. Vaan. CoffM. Ciiiwiaoa. ComMiil Oil. Coir. Cwt. Poumb. Oalltu. Cwt .1840 41.863 6U8,S'.t2t 367,643 28,196 1841 68.206 889,3731 478,742 23,440 1»12 80,684 817,919f 821,966 21,643 1843 119,806 121,146t 476,967 26,180 1844 94,847 602,704 726,206 22,187 1S46 133,967 1,067,841 448,301 28,077 1846 178,603 408,211 282,186 10,640 1847 173,8M 401,666 123,981 23,197 1843 293,221 447,8691 197,361 23,620 1849 280,010 491,ti87t 811,626 26,199 1860 878,6n3 7ii3,7(iU 673,279 28,422 1851 278,473 W4,867 407,960 89,886 1852 849,957 6113,491 443,699 87,612 FoBT Dues— CoLCMBo, Jt t.t. Entry Inward, with cargo, ton 2 " inbollast Frco. Clearance outward, with cargo, ton 2 " inballait Free. And In no case to exceed 600 Coffee Export, — Wo are enabled by the courtesy of the Collector of Customs to afford the total exports of coffee for the year ending October, 10th, 1864, includ- ing shipments at Galle. The exact figures are : plan^ taUon, 303,908 ; ordinary, 180,177 ; total, 484,086 cwt., wbich is an increase of 85,128 cwt. since 1862. — Co- Uwlbo Obstner, October Kth, 1864. ABTICLES EXPORTED PBOV COLCHBO AND GaLLP. Chamber of Commerce, Columbo, April It, 1856. CoffM : I'lantation . cwL Native cwt, ToUl Cinnamon . . . pounds. Coooanut oil. . gallons. Plumbago .... cwt. Coir: Kojw... — Junk . . — Yam .. — Fibre.. — F.bony cwt. Deer homs ... cwt Arrack gallons. From Oct. 11, 1861, ti> tpril 10, 1853, 131,447 74,344 206,791 173,6R8 600,477 7,806 8,249 867 16,288 1,337 6,636 1,182 396 From Oct. M, 18M, to AprinO.lJM. 169,323 94,134 263,467 886,987 782,218 14,201 2,762 264 14,486 3,8<)3 4,799 1,118 600 Prom Oct. I1,I8U, to April 10, 18U. 166,396 76,211 241,607 489,869 688,180 1,343 6,!I88 1,378 16,8'.i6 8,272 8,122 643 Value of Imports and Exports, Ceylon, July Hth, 18D5, — The value of the imports during the last quarter was £2,697,326, and that of tho exports £2,246,288. Foreign Ships in Coasting Trade. — By order of Coun- cil, Nov. 21st, 1856, goods and passengers may bo con- veyed from one part of the island of Cej-lon to anotlicr part thereof in other than Uritisli ships. — See Cbylom. Columbo-root (I)u. Columbo icorlel ; Fr. Racine de Colombo ; Germ. Columbo-wurxel ; It. Radice di Co- lumbo; Port. Rail di Columba; Sp. Raiz di Cotuntbo; Mozainb. i^a^Bini), the root of the plant of that name. It is a staple export of the Portuguese from Mozam- ..*.1 COL 871 COL biqne. It ia not cultivsted, but grows naturally in great abundance. It is imported in circular pieces from i an inch to 3 incites in diameter, generally from i to } of an inch thick ; the baric is wrinkled and thick, of a browniuh color without, and a brightlsli yellow within ; the pith is spongy, yellowish, and slightly striped : when fresh, its smell is rather aromatic ; it is disagreeably bitter, and slightly pungent to the taste, somewhat rosombling mustard that has been too long kept. Choose the largest pieces, fresh, and of a good color, as free from worms as possible, rejecting that which is small and broken. The freight is calculated at 16 cwt. to a ton. — Mii.biirm's Menial Commerce. Colmnbua, Chllatopher, the celebrated naviga- tor and discoverer of the Western World, was born in Genoa about the year 1446. Although several illus- trious families have contended for his alliance to them, his father Uomenico, and his ancestors, appear to have followed the trade of wool-combers or carders, and were of humble, though reputable origin. Columbus received his edu> ilion at the university of Padun, and, having evinced an early passion for the sea, entered into nautical life at the age of fourteen. The first voy- age in which we have any authentic accounts of his being engaged was a warlike expedition fitted out at Genoa in 1469, wlien, associated with hardy and daring adventurers, he acquired so much distinction as to be intrusted with a separate command. After this, it is supposed, he woIb employed in various commercial, pi- ous, and predatory expeditions against the Moliani- mcdans and Venetians, in company with a famous cor- sair of his own name and family, and acquired reputa- tion and experience in his profession. His son Fer- nando relates that, in an engagement oif the coast of Portugal with four Venetian galleys, returning richly laden from Flanders, the vessel on board which he served, and one of the Venetian ships to which it was grappled, took fire. Columbus threw himself into the sea, seized an oar which was floating near him, and by this means, and his dexterity in swimming, reached the shot«, although two leagues distant. Proceeding thereafter to Lisbon, he was induced to take up his res- idence in that capital, Columbus becanii! acquainted in Lisbon with the most eminent men in science and maritime art, whom the encouragement of Prince Henry of Portugal had attracteil around him. At this period (anno 1470) he was in the vigor of manhood, of engaging appearance, grave, courteous, and aiTal>Ie in his deportment, mod- erate and simple in his diet and apparel, eloquent in discourse, possessing high magnanimity, and a temper which, though irritable, was under the control of a gen- tle and enthusiastic piety. Here he married Dona Fe- lipa, daughter of Bartolomeo Monis de PalestrcUo, an Italian cavalier lately deceased, and a distinguished navif^ator, who had discovered and colonized the isl- and of Porto Banto, Having obtained possession of the journals and charts of this sea captain, and also hearing accounts of his voyages from his widow, Co- Inmbus was seized with an irresistible desire of visiting unknown regions. In order to indulge it, ho made a voyage to Madeira, and continued during several years to trade with that island, the Canaries, Azores, the set- tlements in Gidnea, and the other places wliich the Portuguese had discovered on the continent of Africa. Ily the experience acquired in such a numl)cr of voy- ages, Columbus became one of the most skillful navi- gators in Europe. Ilis eminent biographer, Washington Irving, relates that " he divided the clrc'imference from cast to west at the equator, according to Ptolemy, into twenty-four hou's, of fifteen degrees each, making three hundred and sixty degrees. Of these he imagined, comparing the globe of Ptolemy with the earlier map of Marinus of Tyre, that fifteen hours had been known to the an- cients, extending from the Canary or Fortunate Isl- ands, to the city of Tbinis, in Asia, the western and eastern extremities of the known world. The Portu^ guese had advanced the western frontier one hour more by the discovery of the Azores and Cape de Verd Isl- ands; still about eight hours, or one-third of the cir- cumference of the earth, remained to be explored. This space he imagined to be occupied in a great measure by the eastern regions of Asia, which miglit extend so far as to approach the western shores of Europe and Afri- ca. A navigator, therefore, by pursuing a direct course from east to west, must arrive at the extremity of Asia, or discover any intervening land. The great obstacle to be apprehended was from the tract of ocean that might intervene ; but this could not be very wide, if the opinion of Alfraganus the Arabian were admitted, who, by diminishing the size of the degrees, gave to the earth a smaller circumference than was assigned to it by other cosmographers — a theory to which Colum- bus seems generally to have given much faith. He was fortiticd also by the opinion of Aristotle, Seneca, Plin\ ind Strabo, who considered the ocean as but of moderate breadth, so that one might pass from Cadiz westward to the Indies in a few days." On these grounds Columbus formed the vast and daring enterprise which was destined to hand down his name to posterity with unfading honor; and, firmly es- tablished in a belief of the successful result of his proj- ects, "he never," says Ir\'ing, "spoke in doubt or hes- itation, but with as much certainty as if his eyes had beheld the promised land. A deep religious sentiment also mingled with his thoughts, and gave tliem at times a tinge of superstition, hut of a sublime oiul lofty kind. Ho looked upon himself as standing in the hand of Heaven, chosen from among men for the accomplish- ment of its high purpose; he read, as he supposed, his contemplated discovery told in Holy AVrit, and shad- owed forth darkly in the prophecies. The ends of the earth were to be brought together, and all nations, and tongues, and languages, united under the banners of the Redeemer." The disturbed state of Portugal under Al- phonso re'tarded the progress of discoverj*. The com- pass, though in general use, had not gained that reli- ance which induced mariners fearlessly to brave the dangers of the deep ; and the project of a voyage through boundless wastes appeared extravagant and impracti- cable. Nothing daunted, however, by these dishcart- eningsymptomSiColumbuspursuedbisfavorite schemes with ardor, and longed to put them into execution. So perilous an adventure was not, however, to be attempt- ed without the patronage of some sovereign power; and John II., of Portugal, having at this juncture ascend- ed the throne, and being favorably inclined to the cause of discovery, Columbus made his proposals, which were graciously received by the monarch, ond referred to a learned junto. The result of their conference therefore was, that they recommended the king to fit out a caravel privately, and attempt the proposed dis- covery by the designated route, which they ascertain- ed from charts and details craftily obtained from Co- lumbus. John, in an evil hour, had the weakness to adopt this perfidious counsel. The caravel departed, but the pilots had neither the genius nor fortitude of Columbus ; their courage failed, and putting back to the Cape de Verd Islands, they returned from thence to Lisbon, execrating the project as extravagant and irrational. Columbus next carried his proposition to Venice, where he was equally unsuccessful. He also sent his brother Bartholomew to lay his plans before Henry VII. of England, having in the mean time sailed himself for Spain, where he arrived after having spent all his means. Columbus, in this state of alject poverty, set out for the Castilian court at Cordova in the spring of 1486. The moment was unpropitious for such a proposition, the Spanish sovereign being at the time engaged in military preparations against the Moorish kings. At length, throngh the intercession of Cardi- nal Gonzalez, he obtained an interview, and submitted '« \ COL 878 COL bii pnject to Ferdinand. AVom ont with a series of disappointments and delays, and supporting liininelf by mailing maps and charts, Columbus, despairing of the Spanish patronage, began to look to other courts, in hopes of meeting more encouragement. lie had al- ready made preparations for this purpose, and taken measures for the disposal of his children during his all- sence, when Juan Perez solicited him to defer his jour, ney, making application at the same time to IsaboUa- the result of which was a gracious invitation of Colum- bus back to court, accompanied with tho present of a small sum to equip him for the journey. The mon- •rchs were now pledged to attend to his proposals, and negotiations were set on foot to carry them into exe- cution. He proposed that a small fleet should be fit- ted out under his command to attempt tho discovery, and stipulating that he should be invested with the titles and privileges of admiral and viceroy of all the seas and lands he should discover, with one-tenth of all gains, either by trade or commerce. He further offer- ed to furnish an eighth of the cost, on condition of en- joying an eighth of the profits. His terms were, howev- er, deemed inadmissible ; the negotiation broke olT, and Columbus, in indignation, mounting his mule, was al- ready on the road to Cordova, with the intention of im- mediately proceeding to France, when he was over- taken by a messenger from the queen, who had been prevailed upon by the arguments of Quintanilla and St. Angel, two of Columbus' patrons, to favor his un- dertakings. The negotiations were now completed, and the capitulations were signed by Ferdinand and Isabella at Santa Fe, on the 17th of April, 1493. The articles of agreement were to the following efTect: That Columbus should be constituted high admiral in all the seas, islands, and continents be should discover, with similar honors and prerogatives to those enjoyed by the high admiral of Castile in his district. He was also nominated viceroy and governor general over all the said lands and continents ; and a tenth of all free profits arising from tho merchandise and productions of the countries within his admiralty was granted to him forever. Columbus, or bis lieutenant, was to be sole judge of all causes and disputes arising out of traf- fic between those countries and Spain. Ho was fur- ther permitted to contribute an eighth part of the ex- pense of expeditions to the countries he expected to ^irii'uver, and was entitled in return to an eighth part of the profits. A principal object of Columbus in this undertaking was the propagation of the Christian faith, to which he was a zealous devotee. Expecting to ar- rive at the extremity of Asia, ho hoped to spread the light of the Gospel among the barbarian nations of the East ; and so confid<.nt were his anticipations that let- ters were actually given him by the sovereigns for the Grand Khan of Tartary. Although tho royal docu- ments were signed both by Ferdinand and Isabella, her separate crown of Castile defrayed all tho expense ; and the queen in consequence reserved for her subjects of that kingdom an exclusive right to all tho benefits which might accrue from the success of the expedition. The arrangement being finally completed, Columbus set sail on the 3d of August, 1492, in three small ves- sels, only one of which (commanded by himself) was completely decked, The two others were commanded by Martin Alonzo Pinzon and Vineente Yaficz Pinzon. The expedition hod sailed nearly 200 leagues to the westward, when Columbus perceived that the needle of the compass, when night set in, had varied ; a circum- stance which filled the pilots with consternation. For this phenomenon he was obliged to invent a ret son, which, though it did not satisfy himself, yet served to dispel their fears. As the squadron ailvanced, various indications of land, suoh as birds flying from the west, the water becoming less salt, and occasionally covered with weeds, animated and supported the courage of the crew ; but at length murmurs and fears began to pre- vail UDOog them. They had lailed for •Uvea days, I: ■ wafted by a most propitious breeze, over a tranquil sea, without lowering or shifting a sail. The rude sea- men began to be alarmed that no otiier winds blew but easterly, and that it would therefore be impossible for them ever to return home, A few light brce/es from the west allayed for a time their apprehcnsiuns, and several small singing birds came in the morning and flew away at night. But the sailors lost all patience, and became so mutinous and refractory that it required the utmost address of Columbus to maintain his au- thority. The appearances of land, though frequent, were in many instances deceiving ; and at last tho sea- men broke forth into loud clamors, and insisted upon abandoning tho voyage. Fortunately, however, on tho following day tho manifestations of land were such as no longer to admit of doubt. In tho evening Colum- bus perceived a light glimmering at a distance, and the noxt morning land was clearly seen about two leagues distant. The sailors now burst forth into the most extravagant transports. They threw themselves at tho feet of Columbus, implored his pardon, and pro- nounced him to be a person inspired by Heaven with more than human sagacity and fortitude, to accomplish ti design so far beyond the ideas and conceptions of all former ages. At daybreak, says his biographer Spo- torno, on the 12th of October, the hero landed, "e di ffrand'orma il nuovo muniio imjmma" (and with his great footstep impressed tho New World). Columbus and his followers threw themselves on their knees ; and ris- ing, the admiral drew his sword, planted the cross, hoisted the royal standard, and in the presence of the astonished natives, who imagined that the Spaniards had dropped from heaven, took possession of theso new countries in tho names of the Castilian sovereigns, giv- ing the island the name of San Salvador. Having visited several of the West India islands, and settled a colony in Uispaniola, he again set sail for Spain. On the voyage he fell in with the Pinta, which had sepa- rated from him for a long time through the wickedness of the captain, who had gone in seurch of gold. After encountering several violent tempests, Columbus ar- rived in the Tagus, near Lisbon, on the 4th of March, 1493. He was treated with the most honorable atten- tions by the court of Portugal, and finally reached the port of Palos on the 15th of March. The triumphant return of Columbus excited the most unbounded transport. Wherever ho went tho air rang with acclamations, and he received such honors as are paid to sovereigns. The court was then at Uarcelona, and Columbus took care immediately to acquaint the king and queen of his arrival. They were no less de- lighted than astonished with this unexpected event. The admiral was conducted into the city with all im- aginable pomp. Tho sovereigns received him seated in state under a rich canopy of brocade of gold, sur- rounded by their principal nobility. When ho ap- proached they stood up, and, raising him as he kneel- ed to kiss their hands, ordered him to bo seated in thc>r presence, and give a circumstantial account of his voy- age. When ho had finished his oration, which he de- livered with much modesty and simplicity, the king and queen, kneeling down, oftered up solemn thanks to God for tho discovery. Every possible mark of honor that could bo suggested by gratitude or admiration was conferred on Columbus; the former capitulation was confirmed, his family wis ennobled, and a fleet ordered to be equipped to enable tho navigator to go in quest of those more opulent countries which he still confi- dently expected to (iiid. The successful attainment of tho splendid discovery of Columbus, great and manifold as were its advant- ages to mankind, was the prelude to tho dark and troubled epoch of li'"; life. By his second voyage to tho Western World ho no doubt in part realized his ex- pectations, extended his discoveries, and came back to Spain with substantial proofs of success; but tho os- tensible purpose of hia return waa to obtain Nparation COL 878 COM lid diBcovcry 1 its advnnt- lo dark and Id voyage to llUedhisex- lamo back to I but tUo 08- In reparation of Ii^urlons Imputations which had been heaped upon him, and generally to have lils privileges confirmed and enlarged so as to enable him to exercise his au- thority over the colonists, who had become refractory and unmanageable. Hut his third voyage only accel- erated his disastrous fate. The newly-discovered pos- sessions were distracted with the horrors of rebellion. The verdant and blooming isles, the expected abodes of peace an(> happiness, wete converted into theatres of sanguinary conflicts and misery ; and Columbus found liimself an object of fear and execration. It was during this voyage that he landed on the coast of Fa- ria, in South America. Meanwhile his enemies in the Old World were not idle. An investigation into his conduct was instituted under the control of Francisco Bovadilla, wlio was empowered, should he find the charges of maladministration proved, to supersede Co- lumbus, and assumo the government of Hispaniola. The result was, that ho and his brothers Diego and Bartolomeo, after having been treated with the great- est indignities, were sent to Spain in chains. From these disgraceful bonds ho was immediately on his ar- rival released by the Spanish monarchs ; but his com- plaints were tardily acknowledged ; he again sank into obscurity, and was reduced to such straitened circum- stances that, according to his own account, " ho had no place to repair to except an inn, and very frequently had not wherc«ithal to pay his reckoning." At length he Svas again employed upon a fourth voy- age, with restricted powers ; but the result was unpro- pitious, and he returned to Spain dejected in mind and worn out with bodily 4bfirniities. Death at last re- lieved hlni from his earthly afflictions. Ho expired on the 21 th of May, 1606, commending, with his latest broatli, his spirit to God. \ niarlde tomb was reared ever his dust, bearing the inscripdon, A Costilla y a Leon, NuBTO moiido dio Colon. Columbus was a man of great and original genius, energetic in his conduct, and possessed of lofty, daring, but noble nmtntion. • " The magnanimity of his na- ture," says Irving, "shone forth through all the troub- les of his stoniu- career. Though continually out- raged in his digi! v, braved in his authority, foiled in his plans, and en ngered in his person, by the sedi- tions of turbulent il worthless men, and that too at times when sufferiu 'inder anguish of body and anxi- ety of mind enough !■ \nsperato the most patient, yet he restrained his vnli it and indignant spirit, and brought himself to forlienr, and reason, and even to supplicate." His piety, tIioii<,'h tinctured with super- stition, was genuine and forvi'iit. If on certain occa- sions his religion displayed Itself in harshness' and se- verity, tho spirit of the ego ho lived in must be advert- ed to in palliotion of his conduct. His temperament was deeply imbued with poetic enthusiasm. " It spread," remarks Irving, "n golden and glorious world around Inm, and tinged every thing with its own gor- geous colors. It betrayed him into visionory specula- tions, which subjected him to tho sneers and cavils of men of cooler and safer, but more groveling minds. It filled his mind with solemn and visionary meditations on mystic passages of tho Scriptures, and on the shad- owy portents of the prophecies." " His soul," observes a Spanish writer, " was superior to the ago in which ho lived. For him was reserved tho great enterprise of traversing a sea which had given rise to so many fa- bles, ond of deciphering the mystery of hia age." " With all tho visionary fervor of his imagination," odds Washington Irving, "Its fondest dreams fell short of tho reality. IIo died in Ignorance of the real grand- eur of his dlscoverj'. Until his last breath ho enter- tained the idea that ho had merely opened a new way to the old resorts of opulent commerce, and had discov- ered some of the wild regions of the East. Ho sup- posed Ilispaniola to be the ancient Ophir which had been visited by the ships of King Solomon, and that Cubo and Terra FIrma were hut remote ports of Aieen the result of long, and, in some cases, of dearly bought experience. As a spec- imen we give the following : 1. Mercantile Axiomi ; example of them. — Short cred- its and quick returns, however small the commission or proflt, are eventually bettor than long credits and a large commission or charge. 2. The greatest mercantile profit arises from inter- course with populous and long-settled countries, such as Holland, because the inhabitants are in general pos- sessed of capital, and punctual in their payments. 8. Itecently-scttle trade by one nation must be lost by another ; and that our great otiject in receiv- ing returns for our exports should be to get money in- stead of merchandise." It followed from such notions, that of all possessions, a mining country, such as Mex- ico and Peru, was the most desirable ; and hence in a great measure the rupture of England with Spain in 1740, which led to the unfortunate British expedition to Carthagena, involved her in a contest with France, and caused her in the course of eight , 'ears an immense waste of blood and treasure. The return to a state of peace in 1748 obliged her to desist from attempts on Spanish America, but the influence of the mercantile system continued, and was singularly favored by the annual custom-house returns. These retur.ig exhibit an apparent excess of exports abovu imporcs, and give rise to the notion that the balance is sent to :his country in the shape of money. Supposing tho exports of En- gland to the Continent of En-ope to amount for any giv- en year to ^£20,000,000, and the imports to .£14,000,000 ; the difierence, or £6,000,000, is, according to this absurd notion, the amount of proflt paid in money. It is clear, however, that the custom-house returns take no notice of some very important items, such as the export of public money for foreign garrisons, the transmission of bills of exchange to foreign merchants, or the import of smuggled goods. Besides, if the quantum of circu- lating medium remain, as it probably does, very near- ly on a par, what becomes of the supposed importation of money ? Were England in posnession of all the an- nual balances which the advocates for this system sup- pose her lo have received in money during the last cen- tury, her metallic stock would not be below X400,000,000 sterling ; that is, ten times its actual a.iiount ! Wealth supposed lo cotuitt in Gold and Silver. — ^M'licn a merchant exports goods, tho sale, of course, takes place abroad, and a remittance is made, either by bill or by the return of other nicrchandiso. It liurdly ever enters into the contemplation of the exporter that he COM 878 COM would find an advantoge by obuiolng a return in coin or liullion. Money owct the reputation it has ucquiied, as an object of national intercbanVi to itH convenience iu other respecta; to its being The commodity with which we regularly go to market, and to its titness for the smallest purchases, by the minuteness of its sub- divisions. But this recommendation, however import- ant in private buniness, should have no weight in the intorcourco of nations; niercbanls can be at no loss to dispose of a remittance made iu the shape of goods, nor is it any object with them to multiply the means of petty purchases, Vapitul fifjined. — The interest of a ccmmereial conn- try is not to increase the amount of its currency, but to quicken its circulation ; the sume sura performing double and triple duty when passed expeditiously from hand to band, Now nothing promotes circulation so much as exemption from arbitrary interferences, were the etfect nothing more than the general preservation of credit. In Franco, the monstrous abuse made of the paper system in the beginning of the Uevolutlon has long prevented the use of any other circulating medium than coin ; the result is an annual loss of three millions sterling to the public, such being the difference between tlie cost of paper and the precious metals, even after making an allowance for the retention of a portion of the latter suflicient for the purpose of banking. Some people, however, imagine tliat to increase the amount of tiio circulating medium is to increase the capital of a country. These persons should recollect that capital is l)y no means limited to money, but embraces all that n\nss of property which is devoted to reproductive con- sumption. Wlien wo wish to lend capital, or to cni' ploy it in business, wo begin by selling the various ar- ticles at our disposal : the amount is then in our hand iu the shape of money ; but this is very transient ; the money disappears as soon as wo make payment for the new purchases. The public not having time to enter iiito all this reasoning, judge from first impressions, and take for granted that money is capital, because its agency is required to put capital in motion. Govern- ments, however, might have saved thcniselves much trouble in providing supplies of metallic currency, since tlie natural course of business will invariably provide them for itself. The plenty or scarcity of the precious metals iopcnds on considerations altogether different from the imagined balance of trade. Specie was so scarce in England in ISO'J that the government was not a little embarrassed to find £200,000 for the Walcheren expedi- tion ; yet in that year her custom-house returns present- ed an apparent balance of above ;£7,000,0 ties for the sake of an imaginrry prlitical advantage ; we say imaginary, because France could evidently have agreed to take English manufactures in return for her produce ; and if the increase of French trade had, on one hand, the efibct of augmenting, to a certain extent, her national power, it would, on the other, have in- creased her dependence on England, and have render- ed a war extremely impolitic and unpopular. English attachment to Portugal arose, in a great measure, ttom her not being a manufacturing country, and likely, in the opinion of the calculators of the day, to be so much the more advantageous in tlie capacity of a customer. This notion has prevailed to a very re- cent period; the administration of 1808 and 1809 not .'Crupling to give encouragement to the export of mer- chandise, on a large scale, to the unproductive occu- pants of Srazil and Spanish America. Now, the fact is, that the means of extending trade, and consequent- ly profits, with a foreign country, are to be estimated by a quite opposite rule ; they depend on the produc- tive power of that country, on its means of aflbrding equivalents for our .commodities; in other words, on its capability of paying for that which it suits us to sell to it. Now, what country was ever wealthy without in- dustry? The mines of Mexico and Peru, the richest the world ever saw, fall, in point of annual produce, far short of the annual value of the cotton, the tobacco, the flour, and other less tempting products of the United States, In like manner, the cochineal, the cocoa, the barilla, and even the indigo of Spanish America, form a small amount when put in competition with the ex- changeablo commodities possesiicd by the industrious nations, such as France, the Netlierlands, or the north of Gennanj". Mercantile Policy of other Countries. — If ft-om En- gland's favorite policy wo turn our attention to that of Continental states, wo And Holland steering a course of impartiality, and guarded from an imitation of these trespasses, n 'ndeed by superior knowledge, but by thecharacti moderation of her government. The northern king. s deserve comparatively little atten- tion, their rulers liuving in general given their thoughts much more to war than to discussions of internal pol- icy. The same thing was long true of a countr}' where the commercial interest has at no time been very con- siderable ; the personal will of the sovereign, and the influence of the noblesse, having afforded the grand rat- sons determif antes tor public measures. Still the histoty of France is notwithout traces of the efliects of mercan- tile prejudices. Among other regulations of the kind, there formerly existed several for the purpose of favor- ing line! manufactures instead of cotton, because flax was a home product, while the purchase of cotton car- ried money out of the country. Frjnce. — At last it was found out by some Frenchmen of greater sagacity than the rest, that cotton might be safely admitted to entry, the money required to buy it proceeding necessarily from the employment of French industry in some shape or other. But the extent of popular prejudice was most singularly exemplified at the time when it was proposed to permit the unrestrain- ed use of toiles peintes, or printed calicoes; every town that had a chamber of commerce remonstrated against it. A deputation sent from Rouen aflirmed, that " the proposed measure would throw its inhabitants into de- spair, and make a desert of the surrounding country ;" Lyons, the centre of the silk manufacture, declared that "the newsiiad spread terror into all its workshops;" Tours " forcRiw a commotion likely to cause a convul- sion in the 'body politic;" Amiens asserted "that the proposed act would Income the tomb of the manufac- turing industry of France ;" and Paris declared, " that .a^m COM m COM it«r mcrchanta camo forward that they might bathn the throiio with their tears." The government, however, ltooecn so thoroughly felt in England as to prevent any thing of the kind during the last sixty years, government having conflned itself in seasons of scarcity, as 1800, 1810, 1816, to permitting the free import of com. Modified Stale of the SfercantUe Sgttem. — We are next to advert to the mercantile system in its most limited sense, in the shape which it now bears, after all the moditications of the experience of a century and a half. Tho predilection for the importation of "hard dollars" has disappeared among a portion of the public, partic- nlarly since making the disoovery that bank paper can be made to answer the purpose of gold and silver. But even these persons are far from admitting the doctrines of political economists in all their extent ; they still cling to the notion that we should discou.-age t|)e import of a foreign article whenever a corresponiiing commodity can he raised at home ; that we should impede, or even prohibit, all foreign manufactures; and that we should not scruple to encourogr certain fabrics of our own by bounties. Buch was formerly the creed of the m^ority of the merchants and manufacturers; such was, forty years ago, the creed of ministers and presidents of boards of trade. It proceeds on the plausible idea, that there can not bo provided too much omploynient, lind that our people 'would bo in danger of falling short of work were ive to purchase finished articles at the lianda of foreigners. But there is not in the natural course of things any such deficiency of labor as to make it necessary, or '-ven expedient, for us to turn things out of their r.-x;ular order for the sake of giving em- ployment to uur popi-.latiou. Providence has evident- ly ordained thai industry should bo at no loss for ol>- Jects ; the interruptions to its peaceful course arise ft-om our own wayward policy ; from our restraints, prohibi- tions, and, above all, from, our sudden changes from war to peace, and from peace to war. » Equally erroneous is the notion that it b more for oar interest to send abroad manufactures than raw prodac«gr money. If yougranta bounty on an export. you do nothing mora or less than bribe a forelgnsr to make a purchase from you ; you withdraw from Its nat- ural destination a portion of your capital and labor; for the sake of extending one branch of business, you weaken your means of competition in others. Mr. Hume has Justly remarked, that in a question of per- sonal right, tlie percnpMon of a half-educated man may be sufiiciently sound ; but that the case is difl'oront in legard to matters of general policy, where the real is often different from the apparent result. Now this state of half knowledge has been the origin of almost all mercantile miscalculations ; wo have listened to flrst impressions, and hav>^ not scrupled to give them a prac- tical operation by acts of government, without ever considering that the rcmolu consequences would be in- jurious to ourselves. Tlie true Principle of Commerce. — Wo may safely dis- charge from our minds all that has been said, and all that has been written, in regard to the greater relative advantage attendant in trading in this or that partic- ular commodity ; we may feel satisfied that prollts are much more on an equality than is commonly supposed ; that no one would long bo a dealer in that which did not aft'ord him advantage, or remain a stranger to that which was throwing an extra gain into tho pockets cf liis neighbor. The same rule is applicable in a na- tional sense, the traffic in one commodity being eithtr directly or indirectly as productive of profit as in an- other. Even foreign articles of luxury should not bo discouraged, since tho money required to pay for them must be previously raised by the employment of in- dustry in somo useful manner. This affords a new proof of tho fallacy of first impressions, and leads to tlio grand practical conclusion of allowing people to " liuy commodities wherever they can bo got cheapest, with- out seeking to favor homo produce above colonial, or colonial almve foreign." Merchants should possess unrestricted freedom, not only in regard to the articles they deal in, but in re- spect to the time o' keeping them back or bringing them to market ; and this not only from the general title which every one has to the management of liis own property, but from a conviction that whatever benefits the individual will be productive of corre- sponding benefit to tho public. This is a point of the last importance, as reconciling the lower orders to a variety of unpopular employments of capital, such as buying up goods to be warehoused, and not brought to market till prices are advanced. Take, for instance, the capitalist who buys a thousand hogsheads of su^ar or its arrival from the West Indies in August, for the purpose of selling it in the succeeding March or April. Such a transaction is of use to all parties, affording, in the first instance, a customer for the planter or plant- tor's correspondent ; a depository for the public during the season that the article ought in great part to bo stored up ; and tinally a seller, at a time when, with- out such deposits and such forthcoming of supply, tho price might have become exorbitant, and might havo continued so until tho arrival of the next year's crop. The more we study the natural progress of com- merce, the more we shall be satisfied of the expediency of leaving all its various agents to their uncontrolled management. Business then divides itself, partlcu- litrly in a large city, into a variety of separate branch- es, each of which may bo carried on to a surprising extent by separate establishments. The comniis.'I'.n cl)arged by such persons is small, their dispatch ex- traordinary; capit'l doe: not remain locked up in their h/inds, and goods find their way to tho market when- ever prices are encouraging, that is, whenever the con- sumers are in want of them ; they are withheld only when the market is glutted, and when to force sales would be productive of eventual injury to the buyers themselves. The doctrine of the happy medium is no- where more applicable than in commerce : if you re- duce prices for one season bfllow what is necessary to COM 877 COM indemnliy the proUucaf, yuu rlliicnura|{« proiluetinn for I of inantifnctiiroii, without sufllclcntly weighing tho lo> tho noxt, Bnil you oxpoio yourulf lu tlia liaiaril of a dearth. Jfonnpo/ici,— Monopoly la now ((antinWy Aitinlttod to ho higlily impolitir. Ku new iirillit* of tlio liltid have l)con iaaued in Ureat llritalii fur many ynara, and every renewal of the charter of the ICaat India Com- pany has been inariced liy a dlniiniitlon of lu rnatrlot- ive character, till In 18114 ila monopoly waa ahuliahod, In the United Statea nionopollui liavu never hwn per- mitted, the government ImvInK early aneii their li\)ii- rious ofTecta. Tho puldio are now aware that a privi- leged company can not make Ila piindmw'a alirnad on hotter teniia than inJivlduala, and that llin chief ope- ration of the privilege la to enhance tliu aiiln prleoa, or, in other worda, to put money Into lliu hanila of a few at tho expenao of tho nation, They am further nwaro that tho concuma of a largo luirporatloii rnn not lie managed with tlie ndnuto economy and viKllanco of the private merchant, and tliiit Ila gritiid advantage Ilea in the intelligonco and duxtiirily n('c|ulred liy tho tranaaction of huainoaa to a large uxliint liy oiio nalnl)- liahmcnt ; an ad^ antago of great Imporlaiii'ii, hut which has nothing to do with tlie puaaeaaluii of oxoluslvo privilegBB. The liiial concluslona to bo drawn from Ihn princi- ples of commerce aro of '.ho moat ciinipridiiinalvo niid Iwnellco-.it nnturp. They teach ua that flvurv iiallon linds its account la the proapertty of its iieighlnira ; that it would oxperienco a corroapnnding niiirurlng tram tlicir decline; that to aim at ongniaaing tnnru trudo than tuilurally falli to iiurthnre, la aooiicr or Inlor injurious to ourselves; and that war. ovmi wliuii suc- cessful, is attended witli tiio most aarioua Inaaea. War turns to waato a large portion of our productive mnaiiH | it leaves us oppressed with a ruinous burden In peace ; it impedes the future extension of our oxporla, for the injury done to our neighbors recoils on ouraelvea ; In sliort, it is so replete with evil to tho puldin nnd Indi- viduals, as to he juatillublo only In nil oxtrninn Mao, such as tho defense of national Indupenduncp, or the overthrow of a tyrannical usurper. Division of Etiiphi/ment ; itt miml/M /\ dmnldffel,— Division and subdiviaion of omploy niniit form tho grrnt distinction between u backward and an linprnvcd stnto of productive industr}'. It inoruaaea tho nlllcliincy of the mcchaoio or manufacturer to an extent of which no ono who has not studied tho aultject can littva nil adequate conception. Now, tho dogroo to which em- plovmcnt is subdivided depends nioiilly on the al»i of a city or town ; and In eatinmting the atato uf clvlljisn- tion in a particular country, wo can not Iia>» n bettor guide than tho proportion of tho Inhaidtanta uf lowna to those of tho open country, Flanilura and llultnnd were long the most Improved part of tli« north of Kit- rope, and had the greatest nunilMrof towns on n given extent of territory. This they atill havo, with tharlaty cal olistacles or disadvantages. Of this Franco fur- nishes some striking examples, particularly in the case of Iron, The abundanrc of conl in Kngliind, and the case in conveying it, and other bulky goods, l>_v canals, give to their manufactures of iron and hardware an advantage which Franco in vain endeavors to equal. Her true policy would be to repeal tho very heavy du- ties on the import of foreign manufactures, and to trust to her means of supplying the world with wine, brandy, and tlio other natural products of her country to an equal or greater amount. I'rinHplet nf Cimimcrcej how far unJertlood. — In fioint of knowledge of the great doctrines of polit- I'ol economy, Germany, or, to speak more properly, the I'rotostant part of Germany, particularly Saxony, mny lie said to take tho lead of other countries on the Cuntlnnnt. Tho Dutch, however exemplary in their practical legislation, have little turn for speculative reasoning; the French have not patience to follow throiigli its various links a chain of philosophical de- ductions; hut their admiration of whatever is humane or liberal makes them wonderfully delighted with the brilliant conclusions of the science. They have the advantage of possessing, in the work of the late J. B. Sny, tho best arranged general treatise that has hith- erto appeared on tho subject; and they ore by no means III prepared for a very extensive application of politi- cal Improvements, such as tho abolition of privateer- ing, tlie repeal of all heavy duties on foreign goods, and tho sulistitution of inland taxes for those custom- house Imposts which impede the free communication of nations. Tho rest of F'urope is so much in tho dark In regard to the great truths of politicol science as to SCO merely through the medium of local governments. Niich Is the case likewise in Italy, although that coun- try con boast Individuals of some note among the writ- ers on tho principles of commerce, and tho reflecting turn of tho people Is favorable to such investigations ; and oven In llritoin a largo party is still adverse to tho unrestricted opplicotior. of these simple and benef- icent principles, but this porty is daily diminishing, Tho hoppy ctTects of tho free-trade principles, which havo been for some time in operation, os proved by tho periodical returns of the English Board of Trade, ore fads which con not bo withstood ; and wo may safe- ly calculate that a few years will convert tho remain- ing advocates of protection to the free-trade faith. Speculation in Trade. — Among men of business this expression Is applied to Incurring extensive hazards In the hope of extensive emolument; in short, to what- ovoris foreign to tho proper business of the individual, or beyond the control of common rules. It is to such undertakings that vulgar credulity ascribes extraordi- nary profits; and even well-informed men are apt to glvo way to tho assertions so confidently made, of vast ocraslonni gains In this line of business. Dr. .Smith himself, after remorking (\Veahh of Nations, book i. chap. 10) that to make a fortune in a regular line com- monly requires a long life of industry and frugality, odds, no doubt on the faith of repeated assurances from morcontilo friends, that there aro many examples of fortunes rcollzed by speculators in tho course of a few years. Now, tho men who embark in speculation ore. In general, very loose accountants; their estimate of profits applies to tho gross, never to the net return ; besides, they aro almost always adventurers, ond ad- venture's aro seldom noted for the observance of truth. T^eir favorite season of activity is a time like that of IHOH, when tho sudden stoppage of ordinary intercourse caused a rapid fluctuation in tho price of commodities, nnd when tho rcgulor mcrchonts withdrew from the scene. Now, what sober cstimato can be formed of loss or gain In such a chaos? Add to this, that these men trade almost always on credit, are in need of all the support which flattering representations, and ru- mor! of sudden profit, can glvo them. All thess re*- COM 878 COM ■oni Mom to Juitliy • dolllxrat* Inquirer In doing wliit ii wldom done on luch occMloni, wo nivan iu with- holding hil beUef from the conlldcnt ■llu)(atioiit uf ■pacuUton, lo long u thoy are uut ii npurtod by col- lateral eviilvnco. Frtiiuency <\f VuappoinlnuMt. — Our opinion li, that Initead of the large proliti cuiiiiuonly ucrilwd to thli coune of trade, tbu individuala concerned in It expe- rience little alee than diiappointinente, and maintain • perpetual itrugglu to keep up a fair appearance to the world. Thia opinion ii founded partly on a kiiowl- edKO of the actual career and cireuuislancca of apocu- Utoro, liut more on the woll-knuwn fact that altnoat every line of buainesa la in the liand) of eatuldiahed merchant*, who, of couriw, aru too vigilant to overlook the opportunity of emolument, and who have much better means of information than tenitwrary interlop- era. Still, ahould there remain doulils an tu tho accu- racy of our opinion, tha iiuoation may be brought to a point by reference to the account-books of any given number of celebrated speculators; their alfaira end almost always in bankruptcy ; their papers continue open to access for years in tho hands of (heir solicitors ur assignees; and we aro much mistaken if an inspec- tion of them would show, in one case out of ten, that the parties had at any period succeeded iu realizing tliclr boasted profits. Pemiciaiu KgtcU of Sj>tculaiioH.—\Ve have teen In- duced to dwell the more on tlie boasts of s|ieculators, liecauso they are productive of groat mischief in unset- tling persons in business, particularly young men, and iu raakiiiK thcni look on their proper lino with com- parative inditl'erence. It would bo endless to attempt an enumeration of the various w&ya in wliicli tho rage for speculation has brought misfortune on merchants oud manufacturers. Tho opening of a new country, such as Uuenos Ayrcs, Brazil, or Caraccas. led tu the export not only of a prodigious overstock of murchan- diso fitted for the country, but of many articles totally unsulted to the climate and habits of the people. Again, in 1814, when tho war with Franco was draw- ing to a close, goods, both colonial and manufactured, wore poured into the Continent of Europe, as if the compass of tho markets wa3 unbounded, and as if the calamities of war had produced no decrease of capital. Holland I itt iiutruelire JCxampU. — The country in which trade shone forth in all its splendor ; where ir was cultivated without the support of amis or prohib- itory regulations ; where, in short, it developed its ben- eficial tendency In all its extent, wns Holland. If we look to the early enterprises of the Dutch, wu find them enabled, by the power of thrir productive industry, to assert their independence at homo, and to assail their enemies in the remotest part of their empire. The Tortugueso in tho East, ind the Spaniards in the West, were each found unequal to the task of resisting these republicans. A proud stand was niado by them against tlio navy of England, and they did not fall into despair even when assailed by English forces in coi^unction with those of France. Afterward, when restored to an alliance with England, and when they co-operated with her in tho great struggle against Louis XIV., it is surprising how large a proportion both of troops and subsidies was furnished by this apparently inconsider- able state. " No country," says Sir William Temple, "can be found where so vast a trade has been man- aged, yet the inhabitants have no native commodities toward building vessels, and hardly any that ore con- siderable for trafiic with their neighbors. Holland is grown rich by force of industry-, by improvement and manufacture of foreign growths." Proceeding to s|)ec- Ify more particularly the causes of this mercantile pros- perity, Sir William enumerates " the easy communica- tion of water, particularly by the Khine and Maese ; the security of property; the undisturbed liberty of conscience, and the progressiva influx 'of people perse- cuted for tlieii religious opinions ia Floitders, England, France, and Germany." Such we. the original eanscat those of subsequflilt operation wore tho " general habit iif industry and orononiy ; tlio fnriimlioii iil' iJiiiais ; the institution of banks; thu lnw inlrri'st of nionry; the apprupritttiun uf particular towns to particular branch- es of business ; application to liio fisheries, an<>ul>^' riToivcs orders in the cournn uf tliii ycur from twenty or tliirly niurcantllo housen; tl>0)(u<)dn (o l>u exported prolialily (o (lio Wost Indies, tlio Npunish Main, or llruitil ; thu undttrstuod tonn of rrudil twelve months. The nmnufiicturer does nut rccoivo thu orders fk-oni aliroad ; lio has an Inter- mt'dlutu guurantri', that of thu exporliuix mcrcluint. 8till tho risk is consldurahli' ; Imt Im .laturully hopes fur tho liost, and is unwilling; to decline an order when It conies to him from a quiiricr of rcspcctalillity, Now by morcantllu roipcclahllii; our rciKlers are to under- itand Integrity, and the Intention of acting up to cn- gattemonts ; but tlin power of doin^ so, especially at n reniotu date, is u very dilt'urent ({uehtion, and is. In gen- eral, possessed In a much smaller dc^reu than the pub- lic imagine, Tiiu trader whoso capital is large will not seruplu to ship goods to tho viluo of M per cent, greater than his capital, tlrst In tho hopu, so general r.iuung merchants, of realizing il Imudnumu profit, and next In cuulldcncu that, shoidd the foreign market l>o dull, and sln mntl rvprv |M>rt in Kuni|i<', wai In lh<>«i iUy« undiT- timxl l>,v iinly it llniltiiil niiinlior, ami naa raninl on with a (lawn's orcautliin nml •InwiirM lianlly vri'illliln to a niiKli'ni rvailur, Tliuit lli« •rami'ii ufaiu'li'iit tliiii'* mailx It a ruin to kocp within oiniil ly fi!W haniln. Tlie niniill liiirk* »t thu anili'htii wvrii llttuil out with earn; a ninthodwlilih rr<|ulr<'n unkcil, wan tlio chirf cnnno of IJio axtpn»ion uf thn nA\ i^ulinn of t'hu-nlcla? Tho vicin- ity of K^vpt, anil tlio c|iiitntity of provlaionii and nicr- chandiMi exported from that fcrlilu country. Thu nav- iKatinn of the |{pd Hoa, uU», wnit condurli'd chlclly t>y I'hirulcinn*. Iliiitnry in not aulflrlonlly pxpliclt In rc- garil to thn comnioditica forming thn olijvct of tralllc •long the Kcd Hca, nor havo wii any certain knowl- s. Tlio epoch at which Homer velel>rate(l the wealth of that city Is nearly Iho sanio as that at which I'iKL'iilcian mariners navlKittud tho Ited Sea on account of Iho Jewish government In tho reipi uf ISol- omon ; hut no historical invcstlgatoi' has hein aide to fix with curtainty tho situation of I tphir and Tarshish, tho ports witli which theso vessels trado wise places of considerable importance. It was the coatom of these aad other colonies to maintain an al- liance anil mercantile ronnecllnn with the parent atatn, •iieh as Athens, Corinth, Argos: and a iiiiinlrer odhar- aeters eniinnnt in lltvraturu and the art< appi iired hi the culonles at a time » liuii their esliiblinhiiieiit might have iH'en conalderiil as too r nt to nllord mure than the noi'usaarles uf life. Hut In it iiewly-setiied cuiin> try, such as thu llniled .Slates uf Anierlea, variuiia cir- cumalaneea incur lu Increaau llic luiinlier and Inipniva tho condition uf Iho Inhaliitants- |irovisioii4 are alaimU ant, in riiiiaei|uenc« of the extent of uiiiH:cupieil land | thu connection with the iiiuiliir country Insures a cer- lain extent uf trade, wliliu tlie munopulies and other abuses natural tu a lung-settled cuminunlly are In • manner unknown. Al/ient.—On tho other hninl, Iho Inland territory of (ireeco was not well llttcil for cumniercial Intereuurse. It Is traversed by nonavigaliifl river; ondlieiiigmunnt- j ainous and riiggeil, it could not, oven In the days of ita prosperity, lionsl of ruads, inerchandlso being In thoao , days, as at present, conveyed, not in carriages, luit on I tho backs of horses and oxen. This dellcicni'v of cmn- muiiicatliin by land was oiiii cause of the dlllerent •tales uf (ireeco so long maintaining tlieir IndepiiuU ence, and of Iho limited ascendency altaiuiMl by Lai*- j diemon, whicli, In extent of iiiiillary means, was so su- perior tn lliu other states of tho I'llopoiinesus. Sparta and Thebes being inland towns, and Corlntli eonipura- llvcly a small state. Alliens was the chief coninierelal city of ancient (irene. Her distanco from the sea, live miles, was sui li as tu airurd her secnrily against a sudden descent from an invading ainiament, wlillo It : was siilHcleiilly near to her harlior, tho I'irnun, fur tho ■ easy transmlsslun of merchandise, Tlio trade anil »lii|)- . ping of Athens, liowever small It might appear tu a I modern reader, ivin siieli as to give it an nsiendeiicy over the dlU'ereiit islands In the eastward of (Ireece, and to enable It lu niulnlain, in Ibe I'eloponneslaii war, a lung slrii(,'glo against a Htroiig cuiifeileracy. When uvcrciinio nt last, in eiiusciineneu uf what may be termed an aeildenlal cause, llie capture uf Its lleet by l.yson- der, its political depression was of short duratiiin : " octlvlty ami industry of its inhabilants revivcc! ] troile, so that Alheim continued for iiges the n I ,■ ]►- nlous and > iiiiiinereial place in (ireece, yV/ir.— Tyre, though at no time a town of lewal •«> lent, remained long In tho enjoyment of cx-inniileraMa trade. From tho reign of Solomon, »V*m its «wn- i incrcial activity is described in ScrlptKT. t > its cap- ture and destruction by Alexander I'v lin'at, Ihero I elapsed a period of seven centuries. T'he formidablo I rosistanco It made to tho Macedoni«n arms inipresscd j Alexander with a strong srnso of tho value of wm- I merco, and of its ollect in Increasing tho sources of na- j tlonal power. Though known to the world cliielly as a warrior, Alexander had considerable claims to tho j character of a politician. Ho adopted, and caused his followers to adopt, to a certain extent, tho manners of tho nations they conquered ; and by tho expedition of Ncarchus from tho niunih of thu Indus to thu Persian (iulf, he discovered n cumincndablo zeal fur mariliino discovery. Kqual Judgmeiit was evinced by him In founding his new city of Alexandria In a position such as to command an extensive range of intorcourse. Tho Nile brought to it on one hand tho valuable products of Egypt, and aflbrdcd on the other a ready inlet to tho merchandise imported from Kurupo. To India, also, tho route by Alexandria and tho Ued Sea was )>referabla to that of tiie Persian Gulf, which involved thu neces- sity of considerable journey by land. Carthage. — Contemporary with tho deolino of Ath- ens and tho rise of Alexandria, but superior to either in commercial activity, was Carthago, the destruction of which forms one of the foulest blots tn Iho history of the Komans. The situation of Carthago was well adapt- ed for trade ; its harbor waa good, its range of naviga- tion extensive, both to east and west. Founded by • colony trom Tyre, It maintained a friendly IntergourM COM 881 COM with riwrnlcU ; wlilla hi tb« wnt of tlm Ui'iiU«rr»- a«M, III Nit'il}', Hpnlii, iiixl tliD wiiitli ol KraiuB, It iiiot wltli iiu i:uiiiiiitiri'l«l rival. 'I'Iii'm cuuiitrli'i, at that tliiiu iiiirU IIUuil, ami aliiiunt iiiii'iiUlvali.'cl, ttcrn t(r^'at- ly liiiliilili'il to ('urtlia)(u fur tlm iiitrc>ilu<:tloii ufiiitilll- gaiit •I'tllnr*, anil ilnrlvuil fruiii Imr lliu naiiiu ail\aiit ■t(uii wlili'h liri'tiiu, iigvural ri'iitiirli'a Inrciru, liml ru- Mlvril rniiii riiii'iiiciu anil lbK>pt. In .Spuiii llui lliio harliunuf ('urlliUK<'naauc| CailU wcru ri'iiili'nil tlm ru- lort iif •lil|i|iliit( liy tlici CurtliiK'"!*"* i ■»>'' ultlmnt mIIIiii; on nur ruaclcra tu livliuvu tlia truilltiniial atair- lliiiia iit tliu uxtL'iit (if tlii'ir navl)(atluii, titlivr tu tlm Dorlli lit Kuropu ur tliu tuiilli uf Africa, wu iiiiiy wllli cuhllili'iiiu alllrin thai, had nut thin litnlu unhii|i|iily falli'ii, rroni tlm Jraluuxy of tlm Ituniaim, It wuiiltl haw txiun tlm inoiiiis uf ilimiiln^ Imluilrloua Imlill* uvur a gruat part uf thu wu>t of Kuropv, ami uf aivu improvement uf navltftttiun, to prueced cither liy thu Itcd Sen ur tiiu I'urHiuu (iulf. Tlm inurinpr»' cuinpaas was atill 11/ ^iwii, liutthu inii- fonn diiectluM of thu winil in cci, lin seasons enabled tho nuvi|{ut(>ra to and from liulia to coiiipluto their VoyuK''^ with llttlu dllliculty. The MiiUlle Agin. — It woa li)ward the middle of the flfth century, about a hundred years after tho rcmovul of tho mat of umpire tu ronHtanlinople, tliat thu Ui>- mana beeuino unublu t" defend their frontier nt(alni» tho uncivilized trilrua «ho presKed on them from the north and lail. Tho conseiiiiencu wua that thu cuiin- try along the lihinu, tho inliiml provinces uf (jaul,and, •oino time aflurward, Spain and thu north uf Italy, were ovorruii by those rude U:s9ailants. The increase in tlm population cjf luwns wus chickod, many |)laccs bein^ plnndereil. others subjectud to heavy cuntributions, and property in Kcncnil rendered unaufo. There was nu loiiKOr a cci ' ' . ir general government ; the tcrritury of tho cnipi .' \«as dividud into a number of separate (tntes, thu riders uf which had no just idea of tho iin- porliince of iimmorcc. These uneducated governors, accuNtomed > appeal on almost all occasions to the HWunl, werv nut sutllciciitly enlightened to forego thu teniptatiun of a present seizure for tho sake uf the last- ing advantage of mercantile intercourse. J'iaa. — Next to Venice in tlm history of modern com- merce came I'iaa, a town built on tho banks of thu Arno, St a distance of nearly three leagues from tho sea. Its trade was chiolly with tho wostorn cuast of Italy, with Sardinia, Corsica, and Sicily. Its coniiiiurcial import- ance was prior by two centuries to that of (lenoa, al- though it never equaled tlm latter in extent of naviga- tion, nor in the number of diKtant sel!'.. uicnts. Pisa declined from its cuinmorciul rank in consequence of Leghorn, which was situated immediately on the coast, b«ing better adapted to foreign intercourse. Genoa. — Genoa continued flourishing from the year 1000 until its ill-judged hostilities with Venice in tho Utter baU ef the fourtMntb c«Dtuiy, These were in- jurious tu liulli, yst tioth ni'ovurad ttmti iIm «lb«lt M aa tu hold, during aovaral eanlurloa, a dlitliinulalwit rank In tradu. Thuy war* raitiarkahia alaii, iiarlliu* larly Venice, fur a variety of tha lluar inaiiulartura*. Neither cuiilil liuu>t uf a supply uf iha raw nialrrlala uf ulinoat any inaiiufaciuru In ihalr rMpecilva tiirrlliirl«s| but thair iiunmroua inurchant M-»a«la bruuuht a tarlaly uf pruducta frum a dlaliincn, and tha amount uf Ilia pi>|K ulatlun uf either ciiy Hua aueli aa lu randur prai'lh abU that divialun ^f enipluymeiit which la Ilia auul of liiaif ufacture, anil wlilih waa at that tliiiu aliiiual utikiiuwa In uther purta uf I'iuropa. (.'uiKfiKifiniiji/r.- ('oiiatantliiupla hail Iha guiiil fur* tuim to ri'inuin nnluiiihed by Iha ananiliiB uf llw till' piru until thu middle uf llm llflaanlh canliiry, a lima when civlli/.atiiin bad mudu prograaa In tlm h. it uf Ku< rope, and liturulure wa> uii lliii aya uf run Ivlng itgraat c.-itvnaiun by th« dUcuvery uf Ilia art ul printing, Ta tida lurtunate colnchliniu uf tho ravlval uf llm aria In thu weat, at a tiniu when tha vaal uf Kurupa wa* sink- ing under thu preaturu uf barbarlain, wu uvm Ilia prai* ervallun uf nmch that waa valuahla In Iha atiilimt wurlil; and, among uther thinga, that uf vi-rlalii man- ufacturea and bmncliia uf cuinmirca, i'unalanllnupla hud all along ninintuiiiedacummarrial lnli np' prouch uf barbnriuna from tlm iiorlli and eaal, led a number uf traders and nninufiietnrura aiillli'il In tha north uf Italy tu llx their fuinillua In llm anmll ialuiidi near tho months of thu I'u, Timrii lliu aurrunndllig waters all'urdcd them a degreu uf pruliu'llun agalnat In* viideis, w hu, huwuver furmiilablu liy land, had nu nieaiia of carrying on hualilltlea by sea, Much Waa llm origin of Venice, a city situatud in tlm nildal uf Uiv watnra, and destined to acqulru exteiislvu tradu frum Ihii aceii' rity attendant on her pualtlun, and lu laku a lead amid tho inurcantilu states uf the MIddlu Agfa, The gruwing trudo between Kuropii and India, though of cunsiderablu value, w aa nut uxtvnalVM anuugh to be iiroductivu of tlm wealth aaurlliud lu It by I'r, liobortson ami other hialorlana, wliu, unui'i|uaiiit«d practically with coinmercu and lla IlinlUul gains, are ready to lend an car to tho aangulns •lalvtimnta uf rnr- ly writers. Thus thu wealth uf Venice, luininunly as- cribed tu its trudo with Alexandria und India, waa Ilia conscc|Ucnco of a variety uf cunaea, nu unx lielng uf par- ticular iinportuncc, becuusu auverul I'enturlua weru pnaa- edin tho gradual incrcusu of ill pupululhiM and capital, yenico all'orded a securu rcaort in agva wlii'ii utiiar countries were in danger uf invaalun and pbindar, it hud also a prudent guvcrnineiit In tiinas wh 1.. In must purls of Europe, there was Utile Idea uf u fr' 1 •.nalilu- lion, or of a regular adininlatratlun uf Juallip, Vimlva was in this state when, in tho twulflh and ihlrieMnth centuries, the Increase of trallic, arialng frum 1 nviylng tlie crusaders, with ihuir military aluroa, himI llm readU ness of Ihoso zouluus cumbatunts lu uxluiid lliv sway nf a Christian state, enabled that cuniniuri-'lal ri'piilille to increase her furuign territories, In ganarnl, thu for- eign policy of Venice waa pacllle, hut alia foiiml It dlf^ flcult to avoid hostilitlea with tho Turka, iit tu «aca|i« (rom taking • part in tha repeated eoDteiU wbieb took COM COM place between France and Austria for the territory of the Hilaneiie. Those who take an interest In tracing the gradual extension of industry will find in Venice the origin of several important commercial institulious. In that city was established the first pablie bank, And there also was first introduced a funded debt transfera- ble from hand to hand. The same thing held in re- gard to lesser matters connected with the details of mercantile business. Bills of exchange, If not invented by Venetian merchants, were first carried by them to a great extent ; and the principles of book-keeping by double entry were there first understood and applied in practice. However familiar those principles may bo to merchants of the present day, they were too refined for the rude and primitive state of roost parts of Eu- rope in the Middle Ages. Spain. — Here it may be well to point ont the fallacy of a notion general in Spain, and not uncommon in other parts of Europe, namely, that in the Middle Ages Spain was a flourishing country, and possessed, in Tar- ragona, Tortosa, and Zaragoza, great population and wealth, each of these towns lieing said to have contain- ed several hundred thousand inhabitants. This sin- gular opinion was widely spread, in consequence of the prominent figure made by Spain in the politics of Eu- rope, in the reigns of Charles V. and Philip It. The public did not take into account the great addition of power conferred on Spain by hrr possessions in Italy and the Low Countries ; nor were there in these days statisticians capable of explaining the very slow man- ner in which either cultivation or commerce can ac- quire extension In a country so mountainous, and with •o few means of transport, as Spain. Of roads she can boast only the few that are required for the purposes of government, the cross-roads being little more than bridle paths, and the traffic of the country being in gcn- ral carried on by mules. All this indicates a scanty population and backward state of society, as has been the case in Spain in every ago ; for there is no truth in the traditionary opinion that her population was great- ly thinned by emigration to America. The numlwr of persons who proceeded annually from Spain to America never exceeded the tenth part of tliose who at present go annually from Ireland to Canada. The truth is, that the power of Charles V. and I'hilip II. vraa great only because the power of the other princes of Kuropc was very limited. The military establishments of that «ge were quite Insignificant compared to those of the present times. The Ilantt Toani. — One of tho chief features in mer- cantile history during tho Middle Ages was the associ- ation of towns in the north of Europe for the purpose of giving security to mercantile property. At that time the diflTerent countries of Europe were very imperfectly governed ; there were then no regular posts and very fow roads, so that tho means of redressing grievances, or of making communications from one part to anoth- er, were very imperfect. Too much has been said of the political power exercised by the Hanse Towns, but the association was of great use in protecting individual property. It dated ttom the middle of the thirteenth century, and originated at Lubeck, a sea-port, which bad not in those days more population or wealth than •t present, but possessed much more comparative im.- portance, because very fow places in Europe could at that time boast of 30,000 or 40,000 inhabitants. The trade between the Baltic and tLa west of Germany cen- tred in the harbor of Lubeck, in ages when navigators were not sufllciently skilled to proceed to or come fh>m tho Baltic by the circuitous route of the Sound. The association of the Hanse Towns consisted first of Lu- beck, Hamburg, and Brunswick, but soon extended to other places — to Amsterdam, Dordt, Cologne, on the ' one side, to Dantzic, Konigsberg, Riga, on the other. These and mony smaller towns, to the number of sixty and upward, became members of this protecting body, which oontinned in a state of union daring threo cen- toriea. At the end of that time It wa« gradnally dia> solved, not by any violence or exercise of authority, but by the continued progress of civilization; tho di& ferent governments In the north of Europe having by that time acquired the power of protecting their mer- cantile subjects. It is now about two centuries since the association of the Hanse Towns ceased to exist ia a comprehensive sense; and for a considerable time the name has been confined to Hamburg, Lubeck, and Bremen, Hamburg took the lead of other trading towns of the north of Germany, by means chiefly of the extent of its river, and the consequent easy com- munication with the sea on the one hand, and the in- terior of Germany on the other. It gained also by the improvement of navigation in the fifteenth and six- teenth centuries, when vessels ttom the south of Eu- rope found it no longer necessary to suspend their voy- age at Bruges, but found it practicable, and even easy, to proceed at once as far as the Elbe, The Ntthei-landt. — The wealth and possession of the Netherlands belong, like tho early opulence of Tyre, and tlie magnitude of the trade of Carthago, to the re- matkablo phenomena of mercantile history. To judge from tho physical aspect of Holland, the general marsh- iness of the soil, the indiflTorent climate, and the total absence of mineral products, wo should bo inclined to consider it among the least favored countries of Eu- rope ; but all these advantages were balanced, and more than balanced, by the possession of extensive wa- ter communication, Ko part of Europe equals Flanders and Holland in extent of inlets from tho sea, in the breadth of navigable rivers, or in the ease with which canals may bo excavated. To these advantages, much more than to civil instUutions, wo are to ascribe tho early prosperity of the Netherlands ; for these appai^- cntly unpromising countries took a lead in civilization almost as remarkable as the more favored regions of tho nortli of Italy, That they were not so early in the career of improvement, was owing to tho comparative barbarism of tho countries in the north of Europe with which they held intercourse ; wliilc Italy bad commu- nication on one hand with Constantinople and the EasU cm empire, on the other hand with the soutli of France, t)ie west of Italy, and various sea-ports which still pre- served a portion of ancient civilization, Flanders ■• IloHand. — Tho soil of Flanders, without being naturally fertile, was more easily cultivated than the comparatively marshy districts of Holland. Hence the early superiority of tho Flemings in agriculture and manufactures. It was in the fourteentli century that tho art of weaving the finer woolens was introdnced fVom Flanders into I'lif^land, and in the sixteenth that we derived from tho same quarter many useful imports in agriculture and gardening. The progress of tho Dutch in navigation was equally remarkable. Tho tiaese and Khine enabled them to bring down tho bulky produce of the interior, such as timl)er, com or cattle, to their own coast, as well as to carry up tliese rivers to the inland provinces the various articles of merchandise imported from the south of Europe. Hence the increase of Dordt at Ilotterdam. The rise of Am- sterdam was owing to a different cause ; to the extent of the Zuydcr Zee ; to tho easy access which that ex- panse of water afforded to vessels from the Elbe, tho Weser, and the Baltic. Bruget. — Bruges owed its increase to its adoption as an intermediate port for vessels from the north and south of Europe. A voyage from tho Mediterranean to tho Baltic was in those days a formidablo undertak- ing ; sea-faring men accounted it too long to be perform- ed out and home in one season, and gladly embraced the opportunity afforded by the warehouses of Bruges for landing their cargo from the south, and taking on board another from the north, without tho dolay of a passage through the Sound. This plan of dividing the voyages to the north continued during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries ; in the flfttenth it iu a great cou S8S COM niMsnra ecaicd, because the improTementa in seaman- ahip made it easy for vessels to proceed directly to Hamburg, Copenhagen, and other northern parts. Anttcerp. — Antwerp succeeded Bruges as the station authorized by the Hanso Towns ; but its prosperity was mainly owing to the width and depth of the Scheldt, -which may be said to surpass any of the maritime in- lets in the north of Europe. The time of the chief pros- perity of Antwerp was in the sixteenth century ; its population and wealth had attained a great height for so unimproved an age, and would have continued to in- crease, had not the tyranny of Philip II. provoked the Inhabitants to insurrection, and exposed them to all the evils of a siege and capture by a military force. The consequence of this misfortune, and of the contin- ued intolerance of the Spanish government, was the re- moval to Amsterdam of many of the inhabitants, and of a groat share of the mercantile business of Antwerp. In the next century the Dutch acquired ip'cat political weight, and toolc advantage of it to prevent the navi- gation of the Scheldt, that Amsterdam and liotterdam might possess exclusively the trade with the interior provinces. This singular prohibition, unexan.pled in the history of commerce, remained in force 15U years ; for the Scheldt was not opened to merchant vessels un- til 1794, when the Netherlands fell under the dominion of France. During all that time Antwerp was deprived of the benclit of foreign trade; its population ceased to increase, and roinained stationary at the number, on an average, of 60,000. Maritime Route to India. — The great olyect of navi- gators in the fifteenth century was to reach India by the ocean, ami to curry on what was accounted a lu- crative traffic without interruption from the Turks or Arabs. The discoveries required for this purpose were made by the Portuguese, who, in situation, were nearer than other Europeans to tlio western coust of Africa, the line necessarily followed by those who aimed at rcacliiug India by a now course. The Portuguese had in those days more tlutn one prince of the blood disposed to pat- ronize maritime discovery ; liut their seamen were very unskillful, so that in following their awkward eflbrts at discovery, wo And season after season passed in tracing the unknown part of the coast of Africa to a distance of only fifty or sixty leagues. This inconceivable slow- ness marked the navigation of the Portuguese in their progress toward the equator, until, in 1484, they ven- tured to forsake the coast, stood out to tlie open ocean, and penetrated l&OO miles to the south of the line. From that time a bolder course was taken by these ad- venturers, and at last the discovery of the route to India by the Cape of Good Hope was accomplished in 1497. Ditcottry of America. — The discovery of America was efl'ected in a very ditl'crent manner. Though ac- complished by Spanish vessels, the honor of the enter- prise belonged more properly to Italy ; for it was only in a country accustomed to navigation, and possessing well-educated mariners, that so distant a voyage could have l)een accounted practicable. Many years were passed, as is well known, by Columbus in forming his plan, and soliciting the aid re At that time the chief trading towns of Europe were in Italy, the Netherlands, and, in a much less degree, in France, England, and Germany. In the latter countries the towns wore very small, not being peopled to the extent of one third of tlieir pres- ent numbers. Nothing shows more clearly the back- wardness of manufactures in that age, the imperfect division of employment, or the limited communication between one province and another There vere in those days few lines of intercourse entitled to the name of roads, or fit for conveying com or merchandise by wheel carriages. Even in countries comparatively lev- el, such as the south of England, the north of France, the north of Germany, there were no carriage roads, and goods were conveyed on the backs of mules and horses, in the same manner as over the mountainous regions of the Alps. Nor were there in that time post- office establishments for the service of either govern- ments or merchants. An increase in town population is the best evidence of improvement in agriculture, as in commerce. In a rude state of cultivation, the la))or of seventy or eighty persons is required to raise provisions for a hundred ; so that three fourths of the inhebitanta are obliged to live in country districts, for the mere purpose of rais- ing subsistence. But as machinery and implements become improved, and the art of husbandry is better un- derstood, the fanner can render more effectual the labor of himself and his assistants ; there remains a greater surplus of provibions for the support of the inhabitants of towns; and somewhat more of the population are enabled to attach themselves to employments distinct from agriculture, namely, those of mechanics and man- ufactures. To this improved condition Europe was slowly advancing, when the discovery of the silver mines of America had tlie effect of materially quicken- ing its ]>rogress. This renders it proper to make a few remarks on the supply of gold and silver in early ages. The precious Metals. — It is somewhat singular that Egypt, a country never remarkable for mines in its own territory, should have been among the first to give an example of mining on a large scale. But the Egyp- tians had extended their conquests to the southward, where, in the mountains of Nubia, there were extensive mining districts. In these, as in the mines of other parts of the world, masses of ore contained only par- ticles of silver, and the task of raising the ore to the surface was very laborious. This was performed in the Nubian mines with little aid from machinery, and chiefly by manual labor, as is still the case in many parts nf Spanish and Portuguese America. The next ac- counts of mining in ancient history relate to Greece, where, from the mountainous nature of the country, the mines were nmuerous, though not particularly pro- ductive. They were wrought in Attica, Thrace, and several of the islands. The laborerswere paid partly in money, partly in provisions ; and the accounts handed down to us by Greek writers show that mining, like agriculture, afforded a fair return for the capital and labor employed, but no remarkable profit. Spain in those times, as at present, was remarkable for exten- sive mining ; as were in a less degree Sardinia, Corsi- ca, and the small island of Elba. Such undertakings were long carried on for the pub- lic account; but toward the fifth century of the Chris- tian era, the Koman government withdrew from most of its mining establishments, allowing individuals to carry them on for their own account. The quantity of gold and silver in circulation appears to have sub- sequently decreased ; but we are greatly at a loss for correct information in regard either to the state of mines or the prices of commodities, as represented in money, during the Middle Ages. Jn^ii qf Silcerfrom America. — It is now three cen- turies since the importation of silver from America, in particular from Mexico and Peru, amounted at first to iialf a million annually, and increased to one, and af- terward to two millions. This sum was such as to af- fect the prices of com, labor, and merchandise general- ly. It caused a gradual rise of prices, carried to the greatest length hi maritime districts, in parts connect- ed -with each other by navigation. The published works of the sixteenth century contain many noticea COM 884 COM of the riae In the price of commodities, and of the in- convenience resulting to the consumers from such rise : the advantages to agriculturists and producers general- ly were not so clearly perceived, or the humble classes ei\)oying them had not equal means of stating them to the public. The supplies of gold and silver from America to Europe continued during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and on a much larger scale than during the sixteenth ; yet their etfect was not so great for several reasons. First, the number of per- sons among whom silver now circulated was far great- er than formerly. Gold also had become more com- mon, and began to form the chief, or almost the sole medium for large payments ; and, lastly, the use of sil- ver for plate, jewelry, watches, and other ornamental purposes, increased greatly in consequence of the im- proved circumstances of the middle and upper classes. There remained thus less silver to add to the coin in circulation. Bank-noiea. — It was in the eighteenth century, par- ticularly after 1750, that the use of bank-notes became general in England, and subsequently in the United States of America. This may be compared in its ef- fect on prices to an additional supply of gold from the mine, because its tendency to raise prices is consider- able, though not so great as is vulgarly supposed ; be- cause bank paper payable in cash on demand, of which alone we speak, can never be unduly extended. Bank-notes have as yet obtained little currency on the Continent of Europe ; but in Great Britain, Ireland, and North America, their eflbct on prices may be naid to have been similar to that of the importation of the precious metala from America. In cither case, the con sequence was a rise in the money price of corn, and commodities generally. To comprehend the benefit of such rise, wo should consider society as divided into two great parts ; the producing and the ncn-producing classes. The latter consist of capitalists, landholders, or fixed annuitants ; the former of farmers, especially tenants on lease, manufacturers, merchants, and, in general, all persons who carry on business with borroW' ed capital. If a tenant on lease continue to pay during twenty-one years the same rent, while the market price of his crops experiences a progressive rise, it follows that his circumstances will improve. Thus, on the aug- mented importation of silver from America to Great Britain, which began three centuries ago, there took place a slow but steady rise in prices, the etikct of which was of great advantage to agriculturists, in par- ticular to those who held land on lease. The yeoman who was cautious and persevering thus laid the found- ation of a little property, the next generation a(!ded to it, and the third rose from the condition of cottagers to that of farmers. This, or something like this, was the course of circumstances in England, during the chief part of the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth cen- turies. If the efibct was at no time very great, it was continued and progressive ; for we can trace no great or general decline in the price of agricultural produce until the general pe^ce of 1814. Trade of Great JirUain. — The trado and navigation of Groat Britain, great as it now is in extent, did not by any means make an early figure in the commercial history of Europe. Of this the principal cause was the thinness of her papulation compared to that of the north of Italy or the Netherlands, and the consequent insig- niflcancu of her towns. The slow progress in trade is also to be ascribed to political causes, to the civil trou- bles originating with the great barons, tho fhiquent wars with France, and still more to the long and san- guinary contests in the fifteenth century, respecting the rival claims of the houses of York and Lancaster. It was not till the reign of Henry VII., little more than throe centuries ago, that the advantages arising from the extant of coast and abundance of fuel began to be brought into active operation. During the reign of U* McoeiMr, the prograw of improTeiaaut racelved ]!(• intercourse was moi fined to the East Ind . tie patronage 'Wim the court, but a most efficient indi- rect aid from i\\a introduction of Protestantism. The advantages rcsu: jing from that happy change, and the development of national industry, were strongly dis- played during the long reign of Elizabeth, under the wise adniiuistration of Cecil. At that time, also, was felt the benefit arising to the productive classes, from the augmented import of gold and silver from America. Exporti to North America. — A striking feature in the trade of England, compared to that of France, Germa- , ny, and other Continental countries, is the magnitude of its exports to distant parts, such as India, North America, and the West Indies. These different branch- es of trade employ a number of seamen, and make a conspicuous figure in the list of yearly cxportii. Thej' are considered as the pillars of commercial prosperity; but those who estimate them so highly have no idea of tho large sums of capital that have been withdrawn by each of these countries from England. The Unit- ed States of America consumed English manufactures largely for nearly a century, but in no one year did we remit back to Great Britain the full value of the articles which wo imported. Tho amount due from tho United States to England has exceeded the general estimate, and is known only to the merchants, who feel the deduction thus made from their pecuniary means. A similar drain has long been made by her West India .colonics, but in a Xc"' ''^.^ree, until within these fifty years, since which r'"! . , rawnfrom England has amounted to many m Vith India commercial . uad the exports, con- ii.pany and to a few mercan- tile houses in London, were on a comparatively small scale until tho present ago, during wliich the extension of the private trade from Liverpool, and tho advance of capital on indigo plantations, made the India busi- ness assume a considerable resemblance to that with North America and the West Indies. The real and substantial benefit arising from commerce takes place At home, and shows itself in the extension of manufac- tures, the increase of towns, the improvement of roads, canals, and harbors. Of the Course of trade in Great Britain during tho last half century, tho following is a brief summary. After the peace with the United States of America in 1783, her trade suffered for some time by the transition from war to peace, but gradually improved ; and in tho years 1789, 1790, 1791, 1792, was decidedly prosperous. After this came tho war with France, which was at first injurious to trade, but after the abundance of mon- ey consequent on the extended circulation of bank paper in 1797, assumed a very different appearance, and seemed to bring a yearly addition to the national wealth. This ostensible increase of profits was kept up during the chief part of the war, but at the peace tlic state of circumstances underwent a complete change ; the transition was great beyond example ; prices fell in every department of business, and the year 1816 was among the most gloomy in the commercial history. A revival of trade took place in 1817 and 1818, but it was succeeded by a long depression. In 1823 trade revived once more ; in 1824 it became prosperous, and in 1825 afforded a striking example of the abuse of mercantile prosperity ; at the end of that year a general fall of prices, and afterward the heavy calls to meet the ex- penses of the late gigantic railway undertakings, ag- gravated by the failure of the potato crop of 1846, oc- casioned the greatest difficulty in procuring pecuniary accommodation, and led to tho crisis of 1847. Effect of War Expenditure.— ¥rom the ease with which money was borrowed by tho government of Great BriUin during the eighteenth century, the wars carried on were both of frequent occurrence and on a scale of great expense.- The result was a continued in- •rease of debt and taxation ; but the burden did not ap- pear beyond her means, until the unprecedented length to which it WM carried by the wan of 1798 and 1803. :/ COM Both took place under the ministr}' of Mr. Pitt, and the extreme to which he allowed expenditure to be car- ried was the more remarkalile when wo consider hia long experience in finance, and that from the time of his coming into office his attention was given to the state of the trade and revenue. Several of his early measures, such as the commutation of the duty on tea, and the commercial treaty with France in 1786, were entitled to great commendation. A similar opinion is not now entertained of his revival of the sinking fund; and it was in an evil hour that he allowed himself to be diverted from his pacific course by the urgency of the aristocracy and his sovereign to take up arms against the Frencli revolutionists. Unfortunately the atrocities of these men, the endless usurpations of Bona- parte, and, above all, the facilities afforded by the un- checked issue of bank paper, carried the expenditure to an unprecedented height. In the midst of ihis hazardous career, the death of Mr. I'itt, and the removal from office of his immediate successors, transferred the management of British tii an- ces to the hands of men wholly unequal to the task: of men unconscious of the precarions nature of paper cur- rcncy, and of the danger of such measures as a stop- page of neutral navigation, or a war with the United States of America. The consequence wos a deprecia- tion of the bank paper during five years, an enormous waste of the public money, and a burden on the coun- try of unparalleled amount. A state of war is attend- ed by a great demand for the 6er^-ico of individuals, as well in the army ond navy as in the public offices. A great number of persons are thus withdrawn from pro- ductive employment, and the consequence is an in- crease of the wages and incomes of those who remain 80 employed, as well as bringing into activity a number of persons wlio in a season of peace would hardly have been accounted worthy of employment. A rise in the price of com and other produce is another consequence of a state of war ; this leads to a rise of rent ; a rise of rent to increased e.\penditure on the part of the land- lord ; and that to a geaeral activity and continued em- ployment of working classes. Such was the condition of Great Britain during the twenty years from 1794 to 1814, while in the twenty years that followed the peace there was a corresponding decline, and then a gradual return to higher prices. The fall in the price of prod- uce lowered rents, and greatly lessened the income of the upper classes ; hence a contracted expenditure, and a want of employment for the lower orders. All this exemplifies tin; i>rccarious nature of such a riso of prices as took ])lace in the late wars, and will, more than any other argument, confirm the public in an ad- herence to peace. Vecrenn cftheprtcions ifdalt. — The supply of gold and silver from America to Europe continued regular- ly to increase until the year 1810, since which the dis- orders in Spanish America, particularly in Mexico, shortened the supply from that quarter by at least one- half. Mr. Jacob, in his work on the precious metals, calculated the reduction in the quantity of circulating coin, during the twenty years that succeeded the peace of 1814, at not less than 20 per cent. This decrease in the supply of the precious metals must have had some effect in lowering the prices of commodities, but to what extent it is not possible, with our imperfect data, to form an opinion. But the discovery of gold in Califor- nia in 1848, and in Australia in 1861, has not only made up for any deficiency in the supplies from other quar- ters, but from these two countries alone there has been furnished more than twice the amount of the entire an- nual produce of the precious metals from all ports of the world in the most productive periods nf their work- ing. The effect of this has beeu to raise wages and prices very largely both in Europ* ind America, and to give a great stimulus to emigration from Britain, and especially from Ireland, and to some extent fh>m Qermau}-.— iSM Emiokatiok. Bb COM Fm Trade.— In 1846 Sir Robert Peel abolished th« customs duties on 420 different articles. This measure was a virtual abandonment of the system of protection, which was shortly after followed by the total repeal of the com laws. Progmt of American Commerce. — The sixteenth cen« tury introduced the leading European powers to a nit' nute acquaintance with the continent of America. Ad- ventu.'ous navigation had rescued a world from savage dominion, and there were adventurous spirits enough to people that world, and identify thenceforward their destinies with it. A hundred years after, and civiliza* tion planted her abodes through all this waste. Pe- culiar, indeed, is the feeling with which these infant days of our country arc regarded, so like an illusion doe* it seem^BO like a dream of glowing imagery. We look back OS to a classic era, and the romance of Pocahon- tas, and of Raleigh, of Fernando de Soto, and Juan Ponce de Leon, do they thrill us less than the bcatifio visions of the Greek, recurring to ages long ago, when Ilion resisted the shock of Agamemnon's heroes, and the Argo sailed away to distant Colchis? The dim antiquity seems gathered around both of them alike. But let it pass, all — the romance of our history. They imagined not, the men of that day imagined not the stupendous results w liich have occurred so soon. They saw not the benign and regenerating influences of a virgin land, preserved for countless ages uncormpted by tyranny, and ignorant of o] pression. Could such a soil have nurtured else than freemen ? They saw it not, and do we— even we — see other than darkly j-et the great consummation, the mighty destinies of the regions which, three cer.turies ago, were proclaimed from the mast-h'jau ui a crazy ocean bark, a speck upon the distant her /un ? The development of American character is replete with instruction, and solves one of the roost remarka- ble problems in the history of mankind. The untried scenes of a new world, cut off by trackless oceans from contact and communion with the civilization of unnum- bered generations, were sufficient to introduce, what might have been predicted of them, results new, strik- ing, and without a precedent. The indomitable will, the stern endurance, the inflexible and hard; |>, but those they do send are richer, as dealing more in furs and skins with the Indians, and they are at least of equal advantage to England with those of Pennsylvania. The soil of New England is not unlike that of Britain. Ti employs about 40,000 tons of shipping, and about 600 sail of ships, sloops, etc., about half which shipping sails to Europe." Now be- gan the parent'8 jealousy of her oflkpring. Nothing, it was said in Parliament, nothing is more prejudicial, and in prospect more danscroiis to any mother king- dom than the increase of shir.ping in her colonies. The only use of colonies, added Lord Sheffield, is the mo- nopoly of their consumption and the carriage of their produce. In 1780 the Commons of England struck an inefrcctual blcv at the American trade with the French and Dutch colonics, it having lieen represented to them a* greatly detrimental to England and her colonies. In 7.782 a writer gravely announced that the con- venience of the Americana from the plenty of beavers, hare, coney wool, and many utiier furs, gave them such advantages that, unless restrained, they would soon supply all the world with hat). The Board of Trade of the same year report that there are more trades car- ried on and manufactures set up in the provinces on the continent of America, northward of Virginia, prejudi- cial to the trade and nianfactures of Great Britain than in any other of the British colonies. In 1760 the Amer- icans were forbidden to work in iron, and Lord Chat- ham declared not long after in Parliament that the col- onies of North America had not even the right of man- ufacturing a nail. So stringent had become the pro- tective policy. In 1764 was imposed an onerous burden upon Amer- ican commerce by the mother country, grown jealous of its too great extension. This commerce had great- ly enriched the home as well as the colonial govern- ment, but the former was too much blinded by erro- neous i:ol!cy to perceive it. She heeded not the annu- al purchases made in hor markets with tho avails of lumber, beef, fish, pork, butter, horses, poultry, live- stock, tobacco, corn, flour, bread, cider, apples, cab- bages, onions, etc.. disposed of by our traders to tlio eager West India planters; and Lord Sheffieldj in his oluervations on the commerce of the American States, tells us that at this time the Carolinians, of their ex- ports to Kingston, Jamaica, took back one-half in tho produce of that rountr}', the middle provinces one- fourth, New England one-tenth, and tho balance in spe- cie dollars. The trade of Britain with the American colonies employed in 1769, 1078 ships, and 28,t)10 sea- men. Tho valuo of her imports from them for that year amounted to £3,370,000, and of their imports from her to £8,724, flOU, showing a Inrgo difference in favcr of the parent country. In 1770 tho imports of Carolina were £635,714, thoso of New England £564,034, of Mar}-land and Virginia £851,140, the exports of Virginia at (he aamo time be- ing double the value of thoso of either of tho 9tlicrs named. Mr. Burko triumphantly announced in tho House of Commons, " Our trade with America is scarce- ly less than that wo carried on at the beginning of the century with the whole world ! In the six years end- ing with 1774 there was an average import from tho colonics into England of £1,752,142, and an average export to them in turn of £2,7S2,0S6. Crippled as our energies wero, they could not be repressed. It was a vain effort to contino the enterprise of a people whose views embraced tho world itself, into tho narrow com- pass affbrdcd by English ports, and by portions of Eu- rope southward of Cape Finisterro. When the day of reckoning came, ui it did at last, for these reckless abuses of power, and they were proclaimed in the bill of rights, not tho least of the us, rpations for wl'.ich ret- ribution was demanded is to bo found in tho clause : ' She has cut ofl' our trade with all parts of tho worid.'" In the article Colonies a table will be fotind com- piled from the most authentic sources, which exhibits the trnde of the mother country during the whole of tho periods we have been considering; the table is of great interest, embracing as it does in one view almost the entire commerce of America for seventy-six years. From these statistics we learn the relative commer- cial position of the different provinces. Dividing tho whole time embraced into periods of twcnty-fivo years each, we observe in the^r»< period that Virginia, Ma- irland, and Carolina furnish almost the entire export!), and import much more largely than Now England and New York. In the tecond period New York greatly increases her imports, which still fall short of those of New England, or Virginia and Maryland, while her exports are enhandd but little. The whole exports of New York, Pennsylvania, and New England com- bined did not reach the amount of those of Carolina singly. In the third period Pennsylvania imports more glish ( ITst . 17S6. I7M. 1787. 1T88. 1T89. vm . Comm and unti men and and ther much in and into and unio fortunes, first grar Constitui eiff^ naiit dians." cd under serves, ' ing claim and (he men ted struggles and mark The finam to use the each statt or conven the confcd ready to i its ruins. COM 887 COM _, found com- hicli exhibits 1 whole of the l)le 19 of great w almost the lix years, itivo comtncr- Diviiling the nty-five j'oars Virginia, Mn- ntirc exports, England and York greatly jrt of those of nd, while her whole exports England com- se of Carolina import* more largely than New York, bat less than New England ; the Southern provinces retain their rank aa exporters, Carolina being still greater than Now York, New En- gland, and Pennsylvania together; and Georgia, a new plantation, equals New York. Truly is the empire of trade a fickle and inconstant one. Conmerce <^the United Slates nniler the Articfet of Federation. — Dnrinr; the Revolution all foreign enter- prise was of neces 4ty suiipcnded, and in struggling for liberty men taught themselves to .forget and despise every mere physical want. Leagued together for com- mon defense, the states were able to resist every device of power, and sustain a long and bloody contest. But when that contest was ended and liberty wen, the con- federation exhibited at once its nervelessncss for peace, and for the arts, and p'^licy, and duties of peace. The fabric which could resist the storm crumbled away when the sunshine succeeded. So true is it that the necessities of men are the only durable bond of their union, and that without this union there is no strength. From the close of the war until the adoption of the Constitution there may bu considered to have been no great regulating head in America. No uniformity or system prevailed among the states, and their commerce was consequently exposed to the utmost uncertainty, fluctuation, and loss. Tonnage duties were levied in different ports, ai it suited the caprices of the several governments, and as they were more or less desirous of encouraging particular branches of navigation and trade at the expense of others. By a policy more as- tute than that of her neighbors. New York managed in this way soon to increase largely her foreign trade, and laid the foundation of the empire she now maintains. From 1784 to 1790 our commerce exhibited the most remarkable results. For seven years consecutively the imparts into American cities from Britain were never otherwise than twice the amount of the exports to her, and for several years were three and even five times their value. A drain of specie is said to iiavo been the consequence, a very natural, though not necessary one, and great commercial cmbartassment and distress. The following tible made up from records of the £-.•- glish custom-liuuse will he found of interest : Vtm. Eiliorta, Amcrleft to Britain. ImporU. Amerlcft from Brilain. 17S4 i;74(),846 8113, (>04 440,119 893,037 1,023,784 ],ODO,1I18 1,191,071 i:8,07»,467 2,308,023 1,003,465 2,009,111 1,886,142 2,526,298 8,431,178 1786 1780 1787 1788 1789 1700 Commerce of the United States under the Constitutiott and uniHim. — In this crisis the attention of thinking men and patriots in all parts of the nation was aroused, and there was perhaps nothing which contributed so much in urging the States into a general convention, and into the adoption of a constitutional government and union, calculated to preserve their liberties, their fortunes, and their glory in all the future. One of the first grants of power conceded to Congress under this Constitutio.i was that of " regulating commerce with for- eign nations, among the ie,;eral stoics, and fcith the In- dians." Referring to the state of things which exist- ed under the articles of federation, an able writer ob- serves, "Interfering regulations of trade and interfer- ing claims of territory were dissolving the attachments and the sense of the common interest which had ce- mented and sustained the Union during the arduous struggles of the Revolution, Symptoms of distress and marks of humiliation were rapidly accumulating. The finances of the nation were annihilated. In short, to use the language of the authors of the Federalist, each state, yielding to the voice of immediate interest or convenience, successively withdrew its support (Vom tlie confederation, till the fVail and tottering edifice was ready to fall upon our heads, and to crush us beneath its ruing. Most of the federal constitutions of the world have degenerated in the same way, and by the same means." — Kent, vol. I. p. 217. No more, said a memori",! from Charleston, on the adoption of this Constitution — no more shall we lament our trade, almost wholly in the possession of foreign- ers, our vessels excluded from the ports of some na- tions and fettered with restrictions in others ; our ma- terials, the produce of our own country, which should be retained 'ir our own use, exported and increasing the maritime consequence of other powers. With this memorial before them, and others of a similar charac- ter, Congress at its first session appointed a committee to report upon " the expediency of increasing the duty upon foreign t'" ii age carrying American produce to places in As'-'rica not admitting American vessels ; and to frame a bill placing the same restraints upon the commerce of foreign American states that they place upon us." By the report of Alexander Hamilton in 1790, it ap- pears that the total tonnage of the United States at thst time was aa follows : American vessels in foreign trad,3 363,093 tons. Coasteni above twenty tons 113,181 ^* In the fiahcrica 26,262 " —602.626 tons. Total foreign tonnaRC 262,913 " United States and Uritlsh 812 " United States and other foreign 838 " Total 766,089 " The tariff o^ I 89 was specific and ail valorem, and discriminated lu per cent, in favor of the trade con- ducted by our own shipping. In this we but imitated the navigation acts of European slates, by means of which it has been supposed the enormous maritime consequence of some of them was principally secured. Wo shall not pause to argue a point in political econo- my so long mooted among writers of the greatest abil- ity. The jealousies of nations have gone and still go very far. Even the philosophical Voltaire thought that their gain could not otherwise accrue than with each other's loss. England long imposed the most on- erous restrictions upon all other commerce than her own, and her advances in consequence, or notwith- standing, have been unprecedented. Her tonnage when she commenced this system was less than that of the United States at the adoption of the Constitution. There was one department of our maritime industrj- which demanded the earliest attention of government, and we think its general interest will be siitfieient apol- ogy for any space we may allot to its consideration — TiiK nsnERiEs. Mr. Jefferson, in 1791, then Secre- tary of State, fumisl..d an admirable report upon the subject, which wo proceed to analyze. As early as 1520. there were fifty ships upon the Newfoundlaml v„..-"t« at a time for cod. In 1577 the French had 150 vessels there, the Spaniards 100, Portuguese 50, and English lo. The French fisheries began early to decline. In 1768 tlie Americans took but little less than the En- glish, and the French took lea8^ of nil. In 1789 England obtained double tlio quantit.y of America and France together. During the Revolution the American fish- eries were almost entirely abandoned, and Mr. Jeffer- son left it to tho wisdom of Congress to decide whether tliey should not be restored, by opposing prohibitions to prohibitions and high duties to high duties, on the fish of other nations. Tlie whale fishery was prosecuted by the Biscarans as early as the fifteenth century. The British began its encouragement in 1G72 by bounties. The Americans opened their enterprises in.l716. They succeeded ear- ly in the discovery in the Southern Seas of the sperma- ceti whale, v.>hich they attacked instead of the Green- land hitherto known to navigators. In 1771 wn had 204 whalers. During the war England held out tho largest bounties to the trade, and so irresistible were these in the depressed condition of our fishermen, that it is said many of them were on the eve of lemoving to Halifax, to prosecute the business there, and were only deterred by a letter from Lafayette declaring that COM 888 COM Trance would'abate her duties upon oil. The little isl- and of Nantucket is tlio great heart of these lisLer'es. A sand-bar, said Mr. Jefl^rson, fifteen miles long and three broad, capaldo by its agriculture of maintaining twenty families, employed in these flsheries, before the Revolution, between 5 and COOO men and boys, and contained in its only harbor 140 vessels. In agricul- ture, then, they have no resource, and if thnt of their flsberies can not be pursued from their own habitations, it is naturol they should seclc others trom which it can he followed, and principally those where they will flnil a sameness of language, religion, laws, habits, and kin- dred. In 1803 Mr. linger stated to Congress in his report, that it would seem the cod fisheries had gained ground since the Revolution, but that the whale fishcrieu, on the contrary, had been for some time post ou the de- cline. The war of 1812 was most disastrous to the fish- ermen, but they soon afterward recovered their pros- perity, and en the first of January, 1814, n-o had 614 vessels engaged nt sea, of the value, including catch- ings, of #27,784,000. On the first of .Tanuory, 184G, there were 680 ships, 34 brigs, 21 schooners, and 1 sloop; tonnage 233,149; manned by about 20,000 sea- men and oSicers, consuming over tliree million dollars annually of American produce. Proceeds of whale fish- eries #9,000,000 per annum, of which only $2,000,000 are re-exported. In 1844, Mr. Orinnell stated in Congress : " This Aeet of whaling ships Is larger than ever pursued the business before. Commercial history furnishes no account of any parallel. The voyages of thouu engaged in the spcmi fishery average three and a half years ; they search every bco, and often cml^o three or four months with a man at each mast-bead on the look-out, without the cheering sight of a whale. They are hardy, honest and patriotic, and will, as they did In the lost war, stand by their country when In da.i- ger; thev will man our ships, and fight our battles on the oaan." Mr. Clayton remarked in February, 1846 : ■* We have at this time a commerce uf 2,417,000 tons of ship- ping, England iias 2,420,060 tens, so that we are nearly, nay. It is my opininn. we are completely on a par with her. I doubt, sir, whether England has a greater rominercial marine or greater inteiests to protect Wo have more than TOO wliale ships In the racihc, an extensive Indian commerce and a great and daily growing coiniucrco wit!' China."— Ebohne's WliaU ing Cruite and Uittaty qf ttu, Whaling Fiihtry. IfrW, p. fc3i». At the close of the last century there were many causes which tended to odd a vast importance to the commerce of the United States. For several years this commerce enjoyed unparalleled and almost unmeas- ured prosperity. Scarcely admitted into the family of nations, we found the whole civilized world engaged in the fiercest and m\.A sanguinary conflict. A wise and indeed "m.isterly" neutrality was of course the true policy of the nation. The oarrj-ing trade of the world fell at once into our hands. We supplied the mother countries with the products of their own colo- nies. The East and West Indies alike were opened to our shipping. Their rich products filled our ware- houses, supplying consumption and re-export. Pros- perity such as this, however, was fated to be brief. The conflicting powers sacrificed every thing to their mutu- al hatred, and minded little the rights of a nation they had not even learned to respect. Protestation ended in war, and the rights of our sailors were established on every sea. With the return of peace in Europe, the carrying trade departed rapid!y from us. In 1791 the king and council of England admitted American unmanufactured goods, except fish, oil, blub- ber, whale fins, certain naval stores, etc., into Britain at the same duties as British American produce. The treaty of commerce of 1794 between the two govem- manu was a reciprocity one, both parties binding them- salvet to impose no greater restrictions upon each oth- er than thay imposed upon ethen. Thli treaty regu- lated ourKait India commerce, then ner.'ly opened aiiu promising a great extension. From 1790 until 1797 Pennsylvania continued large- ly the greatest cxpoiler in the Union. In 1791 South Carolina occupied the third rank. In 1797 New York for the first time took a leading position, which site has ever after maintai-ied. The llrtt exports of Tcnncsseo and Mississippi date from 1801, those of Kentucky und Indiana from 1802, oi Michigan 1803, Orleans Territor'. X804, and Ohio 1806. This wu shall see more partic- ularly hereafter. It is sufliciont now to indulge (he re- ilcctions which the facts before us so naturally awaken. Mysterious have been the changes. Old age and pi .- mature decay have fallen upon citits once famous for their tradv ; and .'.lie quays, ulitru tho flags of all na- tions floated, have come nt last to bo comparatively deserted. AV ^.ook around, and there have started up others like mature creations, full o( vigor and stalwart even in their i'llancy. How hardly can reason realize thnt these wondrous changes are not all the pictures of a fertile imagination. Where is placed Virginia now, that mother of states, who in 1769 exporiel to foreign lands four times as much as New York ? and where is Carolina, who::^ exports at the same time doubled thuso of New York and Pennsylvania together, and were equal to five times those of uU New England ? If tiade grow to colossal stature, its proud empire, hastens also to swift decay. The difilculties which beset our commerce in tiio early part of the present century, when the ti\ al hos. tilo powers of Europe, jealous of our prosjicrous neu- trality, strained every nerve to involve ns in their dis- putes, will be called to mind by every one familiar with history. AVo ~werc matlc thp victims of tho policy and arts of these nations, and even as early as 1703 their depredations upon our commerce were considerable. In five months alone of that year it was stated in tlio House of Peers, that six hundred A meriean vesseU were seized or detained in British ports for alleged violations of orders and decrees claimed as principles under tho la IV of nations. These aggressions upon our rights were long and extensively practiced, as the fallowing table will exhibit) Seizures of Ahericjui Vessels from 1803 to 1S12, nythellritbh BIT lly tho Krcnch 553 lly the Neapolitan 4T Uy Iha Danish tribunals TO Total vesaols IWi And this at a time when we were at peace with all the nations on earth ! Indemnity for these spoliations hac ')ecn the subject of numerous treaties; among oth- ers, that of England in 1794, France 1803, and Spain in the Florida treaty of 1819. But this whole period, so interesting in our annals, deserves a minute survey. On the conquest of Prussia in 1806, Bcuiparte con- ceived the idea of crushing the maritime power of Brit- ain, by prohibiting all the world, in his famous litrlin Decree, from conducting any trade with lur or her nu- merous dependencies. Tho retaliatory British orders in Council followed at once, and ail countries in tiio world connected in any way with France, or opposed to England, were declared to bo under precisely tho same restraints as if actually invested in strict block- ade by British forces. Incensed by so unexpected and ruinous a measure. Napoleon issued tho memorable il/i- lan Decree, making lawful prize of all vessels submit- ting at any time or in any way to British search or tax- ation. It was natural that these illegal ond unauthor- ized proceedings should excite the utmost interest und concern in tlie United States so materially und even vitally affected by them. We protested in vain. The administration recommended as the sole remaining al- ternative of peace an embargo, which Congress adopted in 1807. This measure tlio commercial interests warm- ly opposed 01 ruinous to them, and memorials were for- warded from many quarten praying for it* repeal. To ftese It wi teaching f merco and ■ition to pr try for arti 'o supply matter, ho' leon, who ' to France, i glish coinm Ingston, "t would bo f( Just ground In 1809, t wos substitu er regarded i % her in pr American pr The Cong! sion of the c named, if the hostile and ai pretended to c nearly one yen ofliciolly pron part ofNapol tuni the gam, milfating to oi With England ^■0 might exn alternately, ac «ho had provok deep to l)c subd od a crin;e. Tl and the aggresj '^oi ot sixty ,!„!/, solemn dicliirat: vere retribution dignity of Amor Commerce of been an era of j great powers of Ized for once tl "ec, or, if anodi ed, and we hoi wnk, the United am only, and ha prepared to shar can be wielded a the seas be transi The history of Material enough i to it, even with tl has been celebrat mternaHonality, ai name. The prog most strongly mi minds of evervlo ment, perceived fi imperfectly, prose fiU'redaathewind enimcnt, free pros, andinoverv-right( When sholl natioi ana meet each oth gounad fiiitli, and to turn the game at any time to liia advantage — so hu- miliating to our ■ nda are the events of this entire era. With England K was long doubtful what relationship wo might expect to sustain. Hostile and peaceable alternately, according to her caprices or her interests, she bad provoked in American minds a resentment too deep to 1)0 subdued, and forbearance longer was regard- ed n crime. Tho Orders of Council remaining in force, and the aggressions Increasing daily, a non-intercourse act of s{:ctii days was resorted to, the prelude only to a solemn diclnratian qficur. Then was tho hour of se- vere retribution, and then t as tho national honor and dignity of America triumphantly vindicated ! Commerce of the United States since 1812. — This has been an era of prosperity and rapid advance, and the great powers of tlio civilized world seem to have real- ized for once tho rich benefits of n prolonged armis- tice, or, if another o.tprcssion bo preferred, a protract- cd, and we hope permanent peace. In commercial rank, the United States of America, subordinate to Urit- ain only, and having outstripped all tho world else, is prepared to share a divided sceptre, until that sceptre can be wielded alone by her hand, and tho empire of the seas be transferred to her keeping. The history of our trade for the last thirty years hi"^ material enough for many more pages than wc can all < to it, even with the greatest condensation. The period has been celebrated by an approach to a more liberal intemntionality, and a reciprocity something else than in name. The progress in tho last year or two has been most strongly marked toward that ultimatum, in the minds of every lover of truth and of human advance- ment, perceived first by Lord Bacon, and ably, though Imperfectly, presented by his followers — commerce tin- fett'.red as the winds that waft it — free religion, free gov- ernment, free press, ft-ee traffic — freedom every where, and in over^- righteous thing throughout all tho world ! When shall nations sacrifice their foolish jealousies, and meet each other on this high, broad and Christian ground ? >Vo are no partisan here, but a cosmopolite. We advocate a policy as wide as tho earth, and as gen- erous. No single nation can afford to act alone — the movement, if made at all, must bo universal. The condition of Europe now, however, argues little for the early triumph of those principles to which we have been referring. The latest British, French, and Austrian tariffs have been restrictive, though in the case of the first-named nation her policy would appear about to be radically changed, as In the late repeal of the corn-laws. Tho German states maintain the exclusive policy, as do also the Spaniards oud Fortugueso. liussia was latest In adopting the restrictive system, but we see by her last tariff some evidences of improvement, which neither Sweden nor Denmark furnishes. The duties of the Italian states have been generally moderate, ex- cept for Rome and Naples, and wo recognize a great Improvement In these In the late tariflf of his Holiness the Pope. Tho commercial system of Holland is tho most liberal in all Europe, but tho South American states appear to be governed by the same spirit as that which dictated tho policy of Spain. In 1824, Great Britain seemed desirous of removing in some degree her restrictions upon tho navigation of other powers. Sho entered into reciprocity tre".ties with many of them, and in this was soon after imitated by the United States, In the treaties of 1825-(j-8-9 wjth Central America, Denmark, Sweden, Ilansc Towns, Frussia, Brazil, Austria, Hungary and Bohemia, Mex- ico, Russia, Venezuela, Greece, Sardinia, Netherlands, Hanover, and Portugal. Wo also entered into similar but limited reciprocity treaties with Franco In 1822, continued afterward, and with England in 1821, 1826, and 1833, and a full reciprocity treaty with Canada In 1854. These treaties were arranged by Mr. Kennedy, Chairman of tho Committee of Commerce, into three clussoB. 1. Those securing mutual privileges of export and import of produce, the growth, produce, or manufacture of tho stipulating powers, transported in tlieir own ves- sels, without discrimination on tonnage. 2. Those providing for a levy of duties not less favor- able upon the tonnage of either than are levied upon tho tonnage of other powers. 8. Those requiring equality of port charges. For statistics of the commerce of tho United States, SCO artlclo Umteh St.\te8. Commercial Policy of the United States. — The United States have, since the very commencement of their ex- istence as un independent government, ever been will- ing and ready to reciprocate, to the fullest extent and in the most liberal spirit, all privileges and favors, wheth- er of navigation or commerce, extended to their flag by foreign nations. To this end, and in order to antici- pate the usually dilatorj' process of treaty negotiations, the President of tho United States is vested, by act of Congress, with authority to issue his proclamation granting to the vessels of foreign nations equal and similar privileges and favors to those extended to the vcss24. First discovery of Peru, by Pizarro and Almagro. 1631-1540.— Porto Bello and Cartagena (Spanish Main) founded in 1532. — Mines of Zacatecas discover- ed. — 1583. Cortez conquered Cuzco and Quito, the capitals of Peru. — 1534. The Sound opened to the Netherland merchants. Canada discovered by Car- tier. — 1635. The use of tobacco flrst known in Europe. — 1536. Final subjugation of Peru ; discovery of Cali- fornia by Cortez. — 1537, Conquest of New Granada. — 1640. Cherry-trees brought from Flanders and planted in Kent, England. 1541-1550.— The Portuguese odmitted (1542) to trodo with Japan. — 1543. Death of Copernicus: he deferred until his lust days the publication of his great work, De OrHum CaUstium Reitolutionibut. — 1545. Dlscowjrj' of the mines of Potosi. — 1546. Rate of interest in En- gland fixed at 10 per cent. (37 Henry VIII.).— 1548. Introduction of the orange-tree from China into Port- ugal. 1551-1560. — ^Tho London Steelj-ard Company (the first commercial company established in England, 1232) deprived (1551) of their privileges. — 1552. All loans at usury declared illegal, and subject to forfeiture in En- gland. The King of France (Henry II.) prohibits the export of money. — 1558. The Salters' Company, Lon- don, established. — 1560. Ordinary rate of interest at Antwerp, 12 per cent. ; and fixed at tho samo rato in Germany, Flanders, and Spain, by Charles V. Bourse established at Antwerp. 1661-1570.— Merchant Tailor8'School,London(1661), instituted.- 1564. Tho Manillas, ceded by Portugal to Spain, received the name of the- Philippines. — 1567. The Koyal Exchange, Ies improved and brought into general notica by Janscn, of Middlo- burg, — 1593, Whalebone first used in England. — 15'j4, The Falkland Islands discovcrcl by Hawkins. — iu96. Oranges first known in England. — 1598. Whale-fishery commenced at Spitzbergcn. — 1600. The English East India Company estaldished. Seventeenth Clrntury.—1601-1610.— Debate on mo- nopolies (1601), def?.nded by Francis Bacon — abolished by Queen Elizabeth. The flrst English factories es- tablished on the Malabar coast.— 1601. The rate of interest in France (Henry IV. and Sully) fixed at 6^ per cent. — 1602. Artichokes introduced into England fVom Holland; Asparagus from Asia; Cauliflower from Cyprus. — 1604. Tho plague raged violently in London. — 1606. English companies chartered for set- tlements in Virginia. The French established them- selves in Canada. New Holland discovered by the Dutch. — 1608. Hudson explores tho bay now known as Hudson's Bay. Quebec built, — 1609. Many Puri- tans left England for Virginia, with Sir Thomas Gat£i and Sir Q. Somers — the latter driven to tho Bermudas (or Somers' Islands). The Dutch, by levying heavy tolls at the mouth of the Scheldt, transfer the com- merce of Antwerp to Amsterdam and Rotterdam. Cop- per coin first issued by tho Mint, Itondon. Armistice of twelve years concluded between Spain and the Unit- ed Provinces.— 1610. Batavia settled by the Dutch on the island of Java, The invention of the thermomater ascribed to Fra Paolo, to Ssoctorio, and to Drebbel «>f Alkmaar. v..4uSiv:;;?i-/4 feif* «&i4«*'l- -4ii ^fU St* COM 801 COM 1611-1620.— Thfl IlnlUiil I'rovlrmi oliUlntd (1013) ttom th« Turki •Uvandtunuuii Uriiii in lliuir «iruon, on llu- t'onlan Uuir. The Imcuanaara notad on llio I'oaula of Aniorlra. — IGH. I^ijarlilnn* invanlad liy l/iird Napier,— 1015. Coll'ea in at Vunica.- Kill!. Ilallln nxploroi. tiio bay to wliiuii liia nania wat uivan.— lOIH. Firiit voy- ■gu of tho Uantia to Indta, and nuttliitncnt at 'J'ranqiia- bar. I'atunt t(runtiid 'ur u llru-anKino f'lr rnlaInK lial- lost and water, naarly on tli>i |irlni!l|dn of tiiir »t«ani. tnijino. - lii2U. Hlll( lint nmnuraulurud III Kng'aml. Fl^moutli c'oluuy auttlud. I(!'.il-16;l0. — Tliu Qoni|uait«uf tli« Dutcli nomtnonui d. First punnaiiuut aolllumttnt on Manliattan Uland(i02'> by tliii Duteli. 'i'liu colony at Nuvit Hvotia (l&i'l) mt' tlud by tlio 8uotcli lUil, Tlia ratit nr inMrvat In En- gland ri'diiL'tid to H |iar i^unt, (;2i JaniNa I.), and In Scotland in IIUI2,- KI2A, Thii uulturaof ailk coniincncod In Virginia. — lOltu. Krunuli itullliimtinia ut Hun<')(al aud (inyuna.— lt'i!{7, HniuiuM of tliii Uiili'li admiral, lluiu, in Itruzll: Kiiae<|,.i|io, in Unyana, foundod liy blm. 1U31-16IU.— (.'Iiarliia I, rovlvud nninii]mlltia, told pat- ents and privlluKo* to nutv aiin|>anl»i<, and lm|io«od a atamp on carda. — l(iU2. A aolony of I 'atliolli'it, nnder Lord r"Uiinoro, autllud In Maryland. 'Ilia lliitcli nc- "-.ircu ioi»lun.ofHt, l''.ii»lallit,---lllllt. Writ fur lovy- iiig sliip-nionity In ICnifland, TIni Dnli'li toolt Curncoa, — 15:15. I'roclainution In ICnKlund axnlnil liacknoy- coa(di(;s «tandiii|{ in tlio ktruula, .— I(ltl7. Tlio lovy of sliip-nioncy unpopular.— 'HI 10, Hliip-nunoy votod to bo llloKol. l(ill-10&0,— Tatniun dUvovarad Van tllMimn's Land (l(!i'J), and nnniod it in lionur of Ilia Untcli Kovvrnor of llutiiviii.— lOia. llayunnoi'olonlxiid bytliul''r«ii(di. Van Dicniun Kunt |)u Vriun uinl Muliwup to uxploro tint octmn nortli uf Japan. — 10 If). Tiuinrualar part of C'nndlo con- qnorod by tliu Turku.— I1II7, lliiyK«ii» lnv«nt(3d ond applii'd the ponduluin to ii^orku, •-lOriO, 'ilia Uulcfa took po88uii(iion of tlia (>Hpu of Uoiid Hope, lOAl-lOiiu.— invrce, niarlno and colonial iiyiiteni of l''rtttii'c. Improved under Colbert. — 1005. London udlivtud liy tliu plague, April 'J8.— 1060. Urent liru In liondon, from Hrpteni- bor 2 till September 0; propurty dtiitruyad valued at i8,000,lWO,— 1007. A tax of twidvo-ptinno levied on every ton of coal brouKlit Into London, daniiary IH, to aid the rol>nildiii|{ of Lonilim. 'lint llrnl Ktono of ihe new Royal ICxchunKO laid (Aiiuunt 211) by pu»t flmt nalabliahed in Lon- don (108^) by a privalu individual named Murray, — 1686. The I'opo of Komu, by ootnpiiUory procein, re- duced the rata of intaruat on tlia puldio dobt from 1 to 3 per cent.— 1088, The Vciiuliunii mado further prog- ress in DalniBtia. 1691-1700.— OrlKin of tliB Hank of KiiKlnnd (1694, 25th April), under William III, Htamp duties In En- gland commenced, 28Lh June,— I OKA, CiniimlMlonorsap- pointed for buildinKliruenwieli llnnpllaL — 1607, Char- ter of Dank of ICii|{land rsnawitd till 12 tnnntha' notlco, —1008. Addreas of tha ICnglUh lloilM of Common* to William III., for the dbii'ouriiKAmiHit of the woolen manufacturo and tlio pruinutluu uf tko linen, 10th June. —1600. Czar Peter Introduced the compntatlon of tlffla In UumIu liy the Ciiriatiun era, but adhered to :iie old •tyle. Dainpier explored the northw jtt coaat of New Holland. Kighttenth Ctntury. — 1704. Tho Baiton Neu-i Tetter publiaiied — the flrst newapapor In the American colo- nic*. — 170H. Bank of EnKliind charter rcnnwed, and again in 171U.— 1700. Copyright act In England, 8 Anne.— '1710. The 8outU Hea Company originated, 6tb May. 1711-1720.— A capital of X1,000,000 raised (1711) for the South Sea Company. — 1711. Kio .Tanciro taken by tlio French admiral, Uuguii Troulii. — 1712. The flrat atamp duty on newspaper, levied ..i England. — 1718. The ClarenJon Vrtu established at Oxford, by the profits of tho History of the Itebellion.- 1714. The rate of interest in England reduced fl'om 6 to 6 per cent., and all contracts at a higher rato declared void, — 1716. John Law originated his banking and Missis- sippi schemes.— 1717. Kirnt project of a sinking fund for the liquidation of the English national debt. Law ob- ained extended privileges for his bai.k. — 1718. Law's I ionipany declared to be the Hoyal Bank.— 1720. Tha ^ oulh Sea Company Act, passed 7lli April. South Sea a ock rose to 890, June 2. Kage for speculative schemes, ^■iventcen petitions for joint -stock patents refused. £ outii Sou bubble burst, IlOth September. 1721-1730.— The directors of tho South Sea Com- pnny (1721) taken into custody, 24th January. Aisla- b'e, and otlicr members of Parliament implicated, ex- pe'led. Walpnic, Lord I'reaaurcr and Chancellor of the Exc'icqucr, 2d April. Tbo estates of directors of South Hen Company, amounting to two nillliona sterling, for'- feited. — I72''l< Act passed to prohibit English subscrip- tions to the Ostcnd Company. — 1725. Tumults at Cilas- gow, 25th Juno, on account of tho* Malt tax. — 1726, Cotton a staple product of llispaniola. — 1729. Fire at Constantinople ; 12,000 houses und 7000 people perisb- cd. John Law died at Venice, 21st March, x. 68.— 17ilO. Charter of the East India Company renewed. 1781-1740.— Culture of silk commenced (1732) in Georgia. Parliamentary grant to Sir Thomas Lambs (17:)2, April 8) for having introduced the silk-engine, — 1738. Thu English government refused to join the Dutch in stopping the East India commerce of the Danes and Swedes. — 1733. The Excise law proposed In England, and abandoned by Walpolo. — 1734. En- glish ai't passed against stock-jnMJiiig. Tho new Uank of England building opened 5lb June, in Thread- needle Street. — 17,10. High tide in the 'X'hamcs. West- minster Hall Hooded. Parliamentary debates publish- ed in the (ItntUman't Afaijaziiu. — 1740. Tho first cir- culating library in London established at 132 Strand, Parliamentary debates prepared by Dr. Johnson. 1741-1750.— Chortcr of Hank of England (1742) re- newed. Lord Anson returned (1744) from his voyage round tho world, with ^£1,250,000 in treasure. — 1750, A riot at Tiverton against the Introduction of Irish worsted yarns, lOtb January. Uounties granted, and a company formed, to encourage tho British and white herring and cod fisheries, 1751-1760.— An act of Parliament (1751, 24 Geo. II.) orders tho Gregorian (or now) stylo to be used in Great Dritain. — 1753. Two thousand bales of cotton exported by Jamaica. — 1754. Commencement of war between England and France, and military operations under Washington in Virgiuia, etc. — 1759. 'The Bank of En- gland issued £16 and £10 notes, Blst March.— 1760. Culture of silk commenced in Connecticut. 1701-1770.— Opening of tho Duko of Bridgewater'a Canal (1701) between Manchester and Liverpool. — 1762. The island of Cul>a surrendered to Lord Albemarle and Admiral Pococke. Martinique, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, and other islands taken from tho French. — 1764. First improvement of the steam-.engine by Watt. Bank of England charter renewed. — 1765. Stamp Act for Amer- ica passed by the British Parliament, March, — 1767. COM 808 COM Tbt IIouM of Commona niolvail to impoM UutlM on vsriuui articU* iiii|>nrta(l into America. 1771-17HO.— Arkwritilit'i mcuiuI paMnt(1771)rorbU imprnvumont In cotton uplnning. Cultiiri' ortilk com- manccJ in I'onutylvanlu. — 177;2. Goninicrclsl panic in London, c«umi. Whitney's cotton-gin invented and lirat used. — 1795. Embargo on all Dutch ahipa in Knglisli porta, 2i>th January. Warren Hastings Bc<{uittod, 23d April.— 1797. Sua'pcnaion of the Bank of England, 26tli February. Notes of £1 and £2 llrst iaauod, March 11.-1798. Silver tokena iasued by tlio Bank of England, lat January,— 1799. Sugar first extracted from beet-root, by tho I'ruaalan chemist Achard. — 1800. General distress and rlota in England, caused by the liigh price of bread, January. Dispute rcapecting the cloao of tho century. Lalando decided that Slat December, 1800, ia the laat day of the 18th century. Union of Great Xtritain and Ire- land, 2d July. Bank of England charter renewed un- til 1833. JfineteentH Ontury. — 1801-1810. —Embargo laid (January, 1801) on all Kuasian, Danish, and Swediah vaaaela in English ports.— 1802. Santeo Canal, .South Carolina, completed.— 1803. Louiaiana sold by Franco to the United States for $16,000.0O<^ Tho flrst printing- press in New South Wales eatabliahod at Sydney. Cale- donia Canal opened for travel. Trial of steamboat on the Seino by Fulton, 9th August. The flrat bank in Ohio chartered.— 1804. Wilberforce's slavc-trauo bill n^ectod by the House of I^onla. The Code Napoleon adopted. Ice tirat exported from the United Slates to the West Indies.— 180j. The Gregorian calendar again adopted in France. — 1806. Tho Capo of Good Hope surrendered to the English. Abolition of the slave- trade by English Parliameut, 10th June. Tho loom In- vented by Jaequard, a mechanic of Lyona, East India docks opened at London, 4th August.— 1807. Milan de- crees against English commerce, 11th November. Ful- ton's first voyage on tho Hudson. The Bank of Ken- tucky chartered. First manufactory of woolen cloths in tho United SUtes establibhed at Plttsfield, Moaaa- chusetts. Middlesex Canal, Massachusetta, completed —1806. Manufacturing districts of Manchester, etc., pe»itionadforpeaco.— 1810. Deaths, by Buloide,of Abra- ham Goldscbmidt, Francis Baring, and other English merchants. 1811-1820.— English guineas publicly sold for a pound note and seven sbillings.— 1811. Mr. Homer's (lo^ition for resumption ofoaah payments In England nyeetod. Firat steamboat built at Pittsburgh 1812. Various riots In tlie matiufacturing districts of Lanca- shire and Yorkshire. Daclaralion of war liy the United States agalnat England, IHth June. — 1811. London TinuiD Aral printuil by ateani, 29th Novenilier. — IHIS, Veto of the L'nited Slatea bank liiil by Proaident Maiil- ■on. Bank rechartored for 20 yeara. — IHli). Tho new Itasslan tariff' prohibited the importation of n^'arly all Uritiah goods. Bank of England advanced X':i,i)00,OI)0 further togovamment, making a total of jei4,0ou,000.— 1817. Paris lirat lighted by gas. First atoanibiat from New Urieana to Louisville 1818. Firat Polar expedi- tion of Captain Julin Franklin left England. Stviiin- lioats built on Lake Erie. — 1819. Emigration to Cape uf Good Uopo encouraged by the British government. The steamship HarannaA arrived at Liverpool from tho United States, 15tb July. Commencement uf tho sus- pension bridge over the Monai by Telford. The flrat bank in Illinola chartered. — 1h20. Florida codiid to the United Statca by Spain. Suspcnaion bridge over the Tweed. Firat ateamer aaiendcd tliv Arkanaaa iiivrr. 18:.!1-I830.— (Japtain Parry'a and Lyon'a oxpodition to the Arctic Ocean left England 80th March, 18J1. Bank of England resumed specie payments. — I '422. Funeral of Coutts, the London banker, 4th March. The tirat cotton-mill in Lowell en'c tud.— 1823. licvivnl of buaineas in tho English factories. — 1824. Advancn in the prices of agricultural produce in England. Act passed for the Thames Tunnel, 2 Ith June. Fauntlcroy, banker, hung for forgery, 3Ulh November. ( 'hamplain Canal, New York, completed. — 1826. Panic in the En- glish money market (December). Failure of numer- ous country banks. Erie Canal completuil. — 1820. Mr. lluaklaaon's free-trade policy advocated in liouio of Commona by vuto of 223 to 40. Coin in Bank of England reduced to £2,400,0()0, 28th February.— 1827. Commercial confidence restored in England, and em- ployment for tho poor. "Society for tho IMHusion of uaeful Knowledge," eatablished at the instance of Ixinl Ilniugliam. Union Canal, Pennsylvania, coni|ilctud. liuincy liuilroad completed. — 1828. Delaware and 1 1 lul- sonCanal, Syracuse and Oswego Canal, New Y'ork, com- pleted. India rubber guoda manufactured in Cunnucti- cut. — 1829. Increase of silk manufactuma in Kiiglnml and reduction of duty on raw silk. Prize awanicd to Mr. Stephenson for hia locomo'iv- "ngino on tlio Liv- er]>ool and Manchester lio'.iway. Suiiaci I; nd Oh'n Canal, Muv 3. De- parture of Captaii. "--.J on bis voyage of disL-ivcry. Chesapeake and Delaware Canal opened, 17th O 'to- ber. — 1830. Opening of the Liverpool and Man'-'..ca. ter Railway, 15th September. Free navlg.ition of tho Black Sea opened to the United States by treat. ', 7tb May. Charlca X. fled from Paris, Slat July. West India trade with tho United States opened to B ilish vessels. Independence of Belgium acknowledged. Pennsylvania State Canal finished. 1881-1840.— Parliamentary reform bill introi'u^uii in iiiSl by Lord John Kuasell j rcjoetud by tho House of Lords, 8th Octolwr. Free trade convention at Pliiln- dclphia, October 1. Stephen Girard died 2<;ih Decem- ber, JK. 84. Insurrection in Jamaica, 28th Deconilicr. —1882. Veto of United States Bank bill by President Jackiion, 10th July. New taritr act passed by Con- gress, July. Ohio State Canal finished. Albany and Schenectady Railroad, Columbia Railroad, Pennsylva- nia Railroad, Newcastle and Fronclitown Railroad, com- pleted.— 1888. Ice flrst exported to tho East Indiea from the United Statea, 18th May. Opening of tho China trade to the Engliab. Eoat India Company charter re- newed ; ceased to be a commercial body. Bank of En- gland charter renewed. Usury restrictions removed in England from all commercial paper having less than tbreo months to mature. Mr. Clay's tariff bill passed l)V Congrcaa. Removal of tho depoaits from tho Unit- ed Statea Bank, September.— 1834. Tho Chlneao sua- pend intercourao with tho English at Canton. Tho COM 808 COM first bank In Indiana chartered, London nnd Weat- niiiittor lUnk cumuu>ni;od butlneu, lOdi March. Ueto- lutlon uf the United Statci Hunntu rondemiilng Priiil- dunt .lttckBc>n fur n-niuval of dopoill*, SUruli. NomU nation of Koger U. Taney as Huurptary of iho Troasury, rojeutcd l>y vote of 28 to 18. Abolition of slavory In llrltlah West Indie*. Uultlmoru und Ohio Kallroad opened for travel to Harper's Kerry, 1st Decemlier. Hank of Maryland failed, 24th Marcli. — IHDfi. French Inilemnity bill passed, IHth April. Ualtlmoro and M'ashlnKton Uallroad opuned for travel, 'iSil AuKiist. Hank of Maryland riotn In Ualtlniore, 8th August. Loss of ♦•.•(),0(M),000 by fire in Now York, Mth Ueconibor. lldiiton ond rrovldcm'o Railroad, lloston and Worcester Ituilroad, coniploted.— IMilU. Charter of United States Dank expired tiarch I, and aucocedod by Pennsylva- nia United Htates Dunk. Keduction of the newspaper Stamp duly In Kngland, 15th September. Failure of the Commercial and Agrienltural Hank of Ireland. An- thracite coal used for atoamlioatson North Ulver. In- dopcnii lice of South American ropniiilcii acknowledged iiy Spain, 4tli Dttcomber. — 18!I7. I'anic in the London market, Juno. Failures of American bankers In Lon- don. Further nuulilicatioiia of the usury laws of En- gland. Fniiuro of banks in the city of New York, May 10. (irand Junction Uailway, Kngland, opened 4lh .Tilly. Revolt in Canada. Mont do Viblt, Lim- erick, CBtaiillshod. — IX.'IS. lUilway o|ienod from Lon- don to Southampton, 17lh May. Wreck of the Forfar- Aire ; heroism of Uraco Darling, Ath September. Koyui F.xchango, London, burned, lOtii January, Koaumption of specie payments in Now I'ork, May. Sub-trvasury bill defeated In Coni;rcs9, Juno. United Stntos lOx- ploring expedition, under Captain Wilkes, loft Hamp- ton Roadx, lUtii August, linpriKonnient for debt abol- ished in England.— 1880. Hrilish trado with China stopped, Decemlier, Second suspension by tho banks at i'iiiladclphla (Utii Se|itpmber), followed by bank fail- ures 111 the South and West. Western Railroad, Wor- cester to iSpringfleld, opened Ist October, Union Dank, London, commenced business. — 1810, Penny postage adoploii i I F.ngland, Antarctic continent discovered by Wilkes, I'Jth January. First sti'nni vessel at Doston g 'vcd from Kngland, Ud Juno, First Cunaril steamer, ^.■10 llrilannia) arrived at Doston 18th July ; and the /lc«(/i(i, 17th A'lgust. Fiscal Dank bill vetoed by President Tyler, IGth August. Bankrupt law passed by Congress, 18lh August. Dill for distribution of public lands passed by Congress, 2;ld August. Fiscal corporal inn bill vetoed l)y President Tyler, !>th Sep- tomlier. I.oon of $12,000,000 autliorizcd by Congress. 1841-LHJO. — The island and harbor of Hopg Koig ceded (1841) by tho Chinese to England, Pennsjh n- nia United Stales Dank failed tliird time, 6th Fetrni- ary, and made an assignment 4th .Scptcml^r. Union of Upper and Lower Canada, lOtli February, Foreign trade of Canton suspended, and hostilities with the En- glish renewed, 21st May, Canton taken 27th, Ainor- tcan clucks exported to England. — 1842, Anti-corn-law movement in Parliament by Sir R. Peel, Captain Wilkes returned from his exploring expedition, 11th June. Aahburton treaty ratilied by tho Senate, 20lli August. Dritish treaty with Cliiiia (29th August), by which it was agreed to open five free ports. — 1843. Re- turn of Captain Rosa from tho South Pole, Cth Septem- ber, Trcoty of commerce by Sir H, Pottinger with Cliina. — 1844. Treaty of annexation of Texas to the United States rejected by the United States Senate, 8th June. Anti-rent riots in New York, August. Re- charter of Dank of England, Magnetic telegraph be- tween Daltimore and Washington, Cheap postage act of United States went into operation July 1. — 18-15. Treaty between United States and China ratilied by United States Senate, Kitli January. Sir John Frank- lin left England 25th May on his Arctic expedition. Anti-corn-lsw league at Manchester. Steamship O'rrat Britain arrived at New York, 10th August. Treaty of annexation of Texas ratilied by United Niatea S«nat«, 1st March. I.oaa of 4il,00il,l)00 by fl'e In New York city, 10th July. Peel ministry resigned, llth Decem- ber. — 1810. Oregon treaty between Kngland and tho Unltcil Slatea signed In London, 17th July. Second fuilura uf the potato crop In Ireland. Steamship (IrtM Ilrittiin stranded In Dundrum Day, 32d Octolier, Dec. larution of wur with Mexico by tho United States, 12th May, Now tarilT bill passed by Congress, 28th July, Veto of French spoliation bill by President Polk, flth August.— 1847, Gold In Calirornia discovered. Unit- ed States ship Jumttlomt left Doston 28lh March, and frigate Miwrdonian, IHlh July, with provisions for relief of the Irish, (jreat commercial distress tliroughiiut Greit Driloiu, Hcpt.-Nov 18-18. The State of Mary- land r'«rt uf t'rvnch lc){liilutiun. The Inalllullon of (he coniniercial trilmnala haa Ixicn of Knat advantaKo to Fraiicn, and haa Ih)«ii uduptod in other cuuntriea. Thaao couria, of whicli tliuru aro 'ilii, conaiat of apreaUUntand twour niureJudK«»t oUchuavn by tlui inonhanta ainonK thoninclvva, and for ii liniitod tluia : (licy arc nut paid fur lliclr acrvirca, hut tho i/ri/- Jitr ur rc't(iatrar ri'cuivua a aalary. Thu LWc dt Cum- fntree cunaiata uf fuur hooka : tha flrnt trvata uf coni- mcrcu in {ivni'»\; of tho varloua dcacriptiuna uf coni- Uirrclal muii , uf the keeping of bouka; of compunlea and partnerabipa ; cil' lirokvra, cuuiiniaalunera, carrlcra, etc. The aacond Ireata of inarilinio cuinniuriu ; aliip- pinfCi inaurancca; Lankruptey, etc. The third vun- cerna bankruptciea ; md Iho fourth treata of thu com- morcial trlhunala, tin ir Juriadictiun, mid proccudinK''. lly a law uf April, Win, appeula In in iilera uliuvo Uiuo fraiici (^furiiiorly 1000 frauca) are carried to thu C'our Koyaltt of tho diatrlct,--Ii<>iiN'.'4 Cj/rloiiulia. The French code la retained In Ulienlali IVuasIs ; In tha kinitdoni of Naplci with auinu tew niodillcationa ; in the Caiitnii of (isneva, In Switzerland, and in llel- giuin ; and rurmed the baaia of the cude of Loulnluiia, iUKKi'^ted ur prepared liy the late lldward l.l\ In^'itluii. Comtnarolal Treaties. Tliu llrat treaty uf cum- mercu iiiadu liy Kiit(laiid « illi any foreign iiutinn, »ua entered iiilu Willi the KliMniiitc, 1 I'.dwuril 1., I'i72. Tho accuiiil waa with I'urtujjal and y|)aiii, 'i Kdward II., 1308.— .•<<;(; TltK.tTIKH. Commodore, a Kcnoral offlror tn tho nnvy, inveat- cd with tho command of a detachment of ships of war deatined un any particular cnterpriae, ami IiIh ahip is diatiii^uinhcd fruni tlia real of his aquadruii l>y u broad pendant tapurlnj; toward tho uulcr and, and aoino- liiiios forked. The word la corrupti'd fruin the .Spuii- lah coniffulaJor, wliich ai^illca butli tliu supcriur uf a monaatcry and a knight who huUlfi u commaiidcry. Couiinudoro la alao a name given to the cuiivuy or lead- ing ahip in a fleet of merchautnien, which carries a light In her top to guide tho other ahipg. — K. I). See Co.Nvor. Companies. In commerce or tho arts a company is a nuiiilicr of persons aasoclated for the purpose of carrying on aonio commercial or Industrial umlnrtuk- ing. When there are only a few individuals associated, it is most cunimonly called a copnrtHery ; tho term com- pany being usually applied to large associations, like tlio East India Company, tho Hank of England, etc., who conduct their operations by ineuiis of agents act- ing under the orders of a lioard of directors. Compa- nies have generally been divided into two groat classes —exclusive or joint-etock companies, and open and reg- ulated companies. 1. KxHunee or Joint-Uoch Companies. — Bj an insti- tution of this sort Is meant a company having a certain amount of capital, divided into a greater or smaller number of transferable shares, managed for tho com- mon advantage of tho shareholders by a body of di- rectors chosen by and responsible to them. After the stock of a company of this sort has been subscribed, no one can enter it without previously purchasing one or more shares belonging to some of the existing mem- bers. The partners do nothing individually ; all their resolutions are taken in common, and arc carried into ofTect by the directors and those whom they employ. According to the common law, all the partners in a joint-stock company are jointly and' individually lia- ble, to the whole extent of their fortunes, for the debU of the compan/. They may make arrangements among thamselrea, limiting thnir ubilgations with rnipsct to each other ; but unleaa entablialiud liy an authority eoni- pntent to sat aaids tho gi'iiural rule, they aro all indall- nltely reaponalblu to tlu' public. " In a private coparlnpry, no partntr, withnut thn consent of thu company, can tranafvr hia >liHru tu an- uthar person, or Inlruduce a nuw memljer into the com- pany. Kacli iiicnilirr, however, may, upon proper warning, withdraw from thu copartnery, and demaiiil payment from them uf lila ahare uf the cuniiiion atocli. In a juint-stuck company, on thu contrary, iiu ineinbar can demand payment uf hia share from the cuinpany ; but each niainlier may, without their cuiment, tranafar his iliare tu auother peraon, and Ihi'rcliy introduce a new member. Tho value of a aharu in ajuint stuck la alwaya the price which it will bring in thu market; and this may lie either greater or less, in any propor- tion, than the sum which ita owner ataiida credited for in tliu stuck of the company." — Wrullh iifMuliuiu, p. II3D. '.'. I'tilili/ iif JoiHl-tloch t'lmpunitt. — Whenever Iho capital required to carry on any undertaking exceeds what may be furnished by an individual, it is liidlspen- aable, in order tu the prosecutiun of tliu undertaking, that an aaauclation aliould be funned. In ull tlioso caaes, tuo, in which tho chances of auccesa are doubt- ful, ur wliero a lengthened periud must iii'ccHiturlly elapsu lieforu in undertaking can be conipldcd, an in- dividual, thuugli ready ciiuiigh to ciintrlbulo a small Kuin In connection with uthurs, wuuld, generally speak- ing, bu very littlu inclined, oven If ho had tho nicaiis, tu encounter tho whole respunslbility uf such enter- prises. Hence tho necessity and advantage uf ciimpa- iiioa or ssauclatioiia. It Is tu them tliat »c are indebt- ed fur tliune canals and railways by which every part uf the I'uiintry Is Intersected, t'ur tho furinatluii of so muiiy iiublu ducks and wareliuuses, for the institution of our principal banks and liisuranco olHces, and for many other establishments uf great public utility cur- ried (111 by tho combined capital and energies uf large bodies and individuals. 11. llianchf iiflnilu»lr!),fut the Prottcutiim (\fu-hifh Jti'ml-itoik Cumj>anie» mny be. ailiaiUaymiutu eilMiiih- eti. — III order to Insuru a rational prospect of success to a cuiiipaiiy, the undertaking should admit uf being car- ried on according to a regular systematic )iian. i'he rea.Hun of this ia iiulliclently obviuus. Tho liuniness of a great association must be conducted by factors or agents; and unless it lie of such a nature as to admit of their duties being clearly pointed out and delhied, tho association would ccaso to have any ell'ectiial cuii- trol over them, and would be, in a great measure, at their mercy. An individual who manages his own af- fairs reaps all tho advantage derivable from superior skill, industry, and economy ; but thu agents, and even directors of joint-stock companies labor, in most cases, entirely or principally for the advantage of others ; and can nut therefore, liuwevcrcunscicntious, have the saiiio powerful motives to act with energy, prudence, and economy. " Like," says Ur. Smith, " the stewards of a rich man, they arc apt to co.isider attentiun tu small matters as not for their master's honor, and very easily give themselves a dispensation from having it. Neg- ligence and profusion therefore must always prevail more or less in the management of tho allliirs nf such a company." It also not unfrequently happens that they sulTcr from tho bad faith, as well as the carelessness and oxtrava|j;ance of their servants; tho latter having in many instances endeavored to advance their own in- terests at the expense of their cmplaycrs. llonco the different success of companies whoso business may bo conducted according to a nearly uniform system — such as dock, canal, and insurance companies, railroad com- panies, etc. — and those whoso business does not admit of being reduced to ony regular plan, and where much must always lie loft to tho sagacity and enterprise of those employed. All purely commercial companies, trading upon a joint stock, belong to the latter class. COM Mot out of (ham hu Ihwii uhla tu willuUnd tlia compa- tllinii of privata ■ilviiiturnr* i llivy tau not iiilijnct Iha •gi'iiti tlii y ainpluy (u buy aii un> rlTrctual rPii|ioii>iliility ; anil frum tliU < In iiiiialani'i', ami lli» aljimo that imuully liialnu- •tu tliciiitrlvi'i iiiti) aviiry (U|mrtniiiiit iiflliitlr niaiiuk;:t'U(!i'il, uiiU'm when It haa altahRil luniu i-xclunlvo prlvllvgu, ur bucn protcctuil from i't>in|i«tUliin. Thu Ahhu Morclk't ha> ulven, in a tract piiUUbuil In I'filt (A.Vomm ile lit llt> Jiilnt-atuck iMinipunu'H, fur tho pru»i'rutl(in uf va- rlouit lirnnihca of furul^n triitli', «8talili>h- llcnlion of Ihu Ahl>«i Murcllut'a triu t havii Imii a simi- lar futo, Itut notv ''h.ilamling Loth prlnilplo nnd cx- paricnco concur in lowin^ how vury ill lllteu u lar^o aaaoclatluii la fur tho purpusa of proacii'ting cunimur- clal unilurlaklnga, Ihurs aru casca In >ihlch they inn not lie proaccntod oxcupt liy aaauriull'lia of thia aurt, •ml when It may bo cxpi'iliuiit tu );■'' t thcni cortuiu peculiar prlvilcgca. '". hen, owiii(! i'hcr to ihu diain- cllmillun or liiulillily oi govornmi' >u ulVurd p c- ttun to tliuBO engaged In any purticiilar departn. ' of trade, tlic'V aro obllge fciiBo and ^'curlty, It la ubvioualy neieaeary ,v t .liey (hould luivo tka power to exclude anch lndi\i luula as may nfn f to nubnilt to the men h, or to bear their due aliiur uf tlu! expense, r quirmi to facllltnlii eunmiurel.il daallllga, or Xu liulM fiictorioa, maintain criilaars, utii. Iha inumbvra uf auuk conipHiili'a tradu upon tliidr own aluvk, ami at lliair owa rink I ao that when thu lliiii, ur tliu aiiiii payalila on a4« misaion Into a ruguUlail company, la iiiudiirala, It la Inw puaalblu fur Ita iiii'mlHira to form any euiiibliiitlluii that wuuld have thu elVei't of raialiig ihalr prullta alwva iIm cominoii lovul ; anil tliuru la tlm aainu kanii ami eluaa coinpelitiuii amung Ihnn that lliaru la aniuHK utiiar clasaea of tradura. A regulated ■'umpany la, In faiit, • devleo for making ihiiaoviigaKiiil III a particular braiiuli of Irado bear the puidie or pullllial axiMniavs Im Idaiil to it, at the aanitt lliiiu that It luaviia tlioiii tu roinlual their own bualnesa with thulr own capital, and In thair own way. hhould, therefuru, guvarniiieiit at any tlm« refuae, or ba iiiiablu to allurd, that prulai.tluii tu IImib* engaged in any branch of Irada which la imi'iiaaary t« enable ihem tu carry It on, thulr fornialluii iu'u a ran* ulatcd company wiiubt aci iii lu ■.. liiu moat JuUI< luu< meoauro that could lie adoplud, Inaamuih aa It ttouM ubtc'ii for them that protection which la IndlapriiaabIa, witluut encroaching on Ihu fruaduin uf Individual an- terpriac. Thu African and Iha l.avanl cuiii|iai posed to attend cirefully to all the iiiaaiia by wlilvli the prosperity of tho osaoclatlon may b« bual aviiirnd. On tho other hand, however, it Is •eldoiii timt tliu direct- ors of Joint-stock companiea atop at thu prupur point | having almost invariably attvmptad lo ektund llieir commercinl dealings by force, and to bticiiniu nut unly Inercliants but sovereigns. Nor la thia any thing but what might hove been expected, seeing that the ii>ii< siderotion and extcnsivu palronugv aeiruliig from audi measures to tho direciura la geiiurally uf fur iiiurii ltn< purtance to them than a moduratu liicruOMi uf the dIvU (lends on their stock. Whenever tliay have JMian able, they have seldom scrupled tu amploy arnia to advaiiM their projects ; and initeud of conteiitliig tlHiltiaulvea with shops and fucturies, hovu cunatruutad furtillca< tions, embodied orinics, ond unguged In war. llut auch has not boon the case with rcgulatud emiipanlM, TIm businesses under their control have iiiilfuriiily Iwun voti> ducted in a comparatively frugal and |mraliii"liluui manner; their estnblishmunla huvu buuii, fur tho moat part, ttnfiucd to factories ; and they huvu rnraly, If ever, ollowcd themsulvci to be ludueed by wiieliiea of conquest ond dominion. And hence, contidoring them as cammtretul muolitnu, it does not really seem that lliura can be any iluubt u to tho superiority of a regulated over a juliit'«toeli eoiU' pony. The latter haa the defuet, fur wliivli nothing •!• uost cou compoiuate, of nitinlif ucluUitty imUmiml COM 896 COM tnttrprtM and eompetilion. When such a compnny en- Joys any peculiar privilege, it unturally, in pursuing Its own interest, endeavors to profit by it, how injuri- ous soever it may be to the public. If it have a mo- nopoly of the trade with any particular country, or of any particular commodity, it rarely fails, by under- stocking the homo and foreign markets, to sell the goods which it imports and exports at an artificially enhanced price. It is not its object to employ a comparatively large capital, but to make a large profit on a compara- tively small capital. Tlio conduct of the Dutch East India Company, in burning tpices, that their price might not be lowered by larger importations, is an ex- ample of the mode in which such associations uniform- ly, and, indeed, almost necessarily act. All individu- als are desirous of obtaining the highest possible price for what they have to sell : and if they are protected by a monopoly, or an exclusive privilege, from the risk of being undcrwld by ,->thers, they never hesitate about raising the price of their products to the highest eleva- tion that the competition of the buyers will allow them ; and thus frequently realize the most exorbitant prof- its. And yet, notwithstanding these advantages, tuch is the negligence, profusion, and peculation insepara- ble from the management of grert commercial compa- nies, that even those that have had the monopoly of the most udvantageons branches of commerce have rarely been able to keep out of debt. It will be shown in the article East India Co.MrANV, that ti\at associ- ation has lost by its trade ; and that, had it not been for the aid den . d from the rovennes of India, it must long since have ceased to exist. To buy in one mark- et ; to sell with profit in another ; to watch over the perpetually occurring variations in the prices and in the 8up)ily and demand of commodities; to suit with dexterity and judgment the quantity and quclity of goods to the wants of each market, and to conduct each operation in the best and cheapest manner, re- quires a degree of unremitting vigilance and attention, which it would bo visionary to expect from the directors or servants of a great joint-stock association. Hence it has happened, over and over again, that branches of commerce which proved ruinous to companies have be- come exceedingly profitable when carried on by indi- viduals. 6. Cowtitulim »/ Cfompanies. — When application is made for an act to incorporate a number of individuals into a joint-stock company for the prosecution of any nseful undertaking, care should be tal .n not to con- cede to them an}' privileges that may be rendered in- Jur!ous to the public. If a company lie fonned fur the construction of .^ dock, a road, or a canal, it may be necessary, in order to stimulate individuals to engage in the undertaking, to give thrni some peculiar privi- leges for a certain number of years, ''ut if other per- sons were ti be permanently hindered from construct- ing new docks, or opening new lines of communication, a lasting ii^ury might be done to the ])ublic. It may be highly expedient to incorporate a company for the purpose of bringing water into a city; but, supposing there were no springs in the vicinity o'her than those to which this company had acquired a right, tlic y might, aniess restrained by the act incorporating thorn, raise the price of water to an exorbitant height, and make large profits for themselves at the expense and to the Injury of the public. In all cases of this sort, and in the case, indeed, of all joint-stock companies establish- ed for the formation of canals, railroads, etc., it would be Bound policy to limit the rates charged for their services, or on account of the water, ships, goodly etc., conveyed by their means, and also to limit the divi- dends, or to fix a maximum beyond which they should not be augmented : enacting, that if the rates'cbarged by the company produce more than sufficient to pay the maximum rate of dividend, and to'dcfray the wear and tear of the aqueduct, canal, etc., they shall be al- lowed to reduce tbei^ till tbe^r only yield this much ; and, in the event of their declining to do so, that the whole surplus above paying the dividend shall be ap- plied to purchase up the stock of the association, so that ultimately the charges on account of dividends may be entirely abolished. 6. Companiet en Cummandile. — In France there is A sort of companies denominated lociitet en commandite, A society of this description consists of one or mora partners, liable, without limitation, for the debts of the company ; and one or more partners, or commanditairei, liable only to tiie extent of the funds they have sub- scribed. A commnndilaire must nut, however, take any part in the business of the company; if he do this, he loses his Inviolability, and mr^es himself responsi- ble for the debts of the association. The names of tho partners in such societies must be published, and the amount of tho sums contributed by the commanditairei. It has been proposed to introduce partnerships of this sort into this country ; but it seems very doubtful whether any thing would be gained by such a meas- ure. Partnerships en commandiVe may be very easily abused, or rendered a means of defrauding the public. It is quite visionary to imagine that the commanditaires can be prevented from Indimctly influencing the other partners ; and supposing a collusion to exist among them, it might be possible for them to divide largo sums as profits, when perhaps they had really sustain- ed a loss ; and to have tho books of tho association so contrived that it might bo very difficult to detect the fraud. This, it is alleged, is by no means a rare oc- currence In France. 7. Ciric Companiet, or Corporations. — Exclusive of tho companies previously mentioned, a number of an- cient companies or corporations exist in most European countii<'s, tho members of which cijoy certain political as well as commcrdal privileges. When the feudal system began to bo subverted by the establishment of good order and regular government in the towns, tho inhabitants were divided into certain trades or corpo- rations, by which the magistrates and other function- aries were chosen. Tho members of these trades, or corporations, partly to enhance tho value of their priv- ileges, and partly to provide a resource, in ease of ad- versity, for themselves, acquired or usury d the power of enacting by-laws regulating tho admission of new members, and at tiie same time set about providing a fund for the support of such as Accident or misfortuno might reduce to a state of indigence. Hence the ori- gin of apprenticeships, the refusal to allow any one not a member of a corporation to carry on any business within the ])reciiicts of any town corporate, and the va- rious regulations that had to bo submitted to, and the fees that had to be paid by the claimants for enrullinent in corporations. For a lengthened period these jivivl- loges and regulations were very oppressive. Within tho last cent iiry, however, their iniluenco has been pro- grcesively diniinisliing. In France, where the abuses inseparable from tho system had attained to a very great height, it was entirely swept off by tho Revolu- tion : and though corporations still exist in (ireat Itrit- nin, they have been stripped of several of their pecul- iar franchises ; and should now, for the most part, bo regarded more perhaps in the light of charitable than of political institutions. It would be well, however, were they reduced entirely to tho former character, and were the few political and commercial privileges which they still enjoy communicated to the rest of tho citizens. At their first institution, and for some time after, corporations, coiisiilcred as political bodies, were probably useful: but such is no longer tho case ; and in so far OS they now possess any special immunities, they tend to obstruct that free competition that is so ad- van tageons. The following extract fi'om a Report on the Commerca and Manufactures of the United Slatet, drawn up by Albert Gallatin, Esquire, then Secretary of the Treas- ury, and laid before CengToas in 1816, sets the superior COM 897 COM adrantageg resulting from the unrestricted freedom of industry in a very striking point of view. "Ko cause," says lie, " bas, perhaps, more promoted in ev- ery respect the general improvement of the United States, than the absence of those systems of internal restrictions and monopoly which continue to disfigure the state of fiociety in other countries. Mo laws exist here, directly or indirectly, confining men to a partic- ular ocGupatiou or place, or excluding any citii'..'i' from any branch ho may at any time think proper to pur- sue. Industry is, in every respect, free and unfetter- ed ; every species of trade, commerce, and profession, and manufacture, being equally open to all, without re- quiring any regular apprenticeship, admittiun, or license. Uence the improvement of America has not been con- fined to tlie improvement of her agriculture, and to the rapid formation and settlement of new states in the tTildemcss ; but her citizens have extended their com- merce to every part of the globe, and carry on with complete Sdcceas even those branches for which a mo- nopoly had heretofore been considered essentially nec- essary." Tlicre is in Rees' Cyclopedia, art. Cohfany, a list of the different civic companies belonging to the city of London, iu which the periods of their incorporation, and various other important particulars with respect to several of them, are specified. Among the earliest commercial companiesinEngland may be named the Stccl-yard Society, established A.v. 12i)'2. The second company was the merchants of St. Thomas A Deckct, in 1248. — Stowe. The third was the Merchant Adventurers incorporated by Elizabeth, 15G4. Tbera are ninety-one city companies in London ; the first twelve are, 1 Mercers 18»3 2 Otoccra 184S 8 Drapers 1400 4 FiuhinongcrB 1384 B OoIdMiilths , 132T 6 Skinnem 1S2T T Merchant Tallon 1460 8 llabcrdashcra , 144T 9 Saltern 1508 10 Ironmongera 1464 11 Vintners 140T 12 Uoth-workera 1482 Companies, Bubble. Ruinous speculation:; com- ing uiiiler tliis name have been formed, commonly by designing |)ersous. ' Law's ISubble, in 1720-'21, was perhaps the most extraordinary of its kind, and llic South Sea Bubble, in the same year, was scarcely less memorable for its ruin of thousands of families. Many companies were established in Great Britain in 1824 and 182A, and most of them turned out to bo bubbles ,- and owing to the rage for taking shares in each scheme «s it was projected, immense losses were incurred by individuals, and the families of thousands of specu- lators were totally ruined.— ^See Law's Bubble and Bankrupts. Compaaa (Germ. Kin Kompast ; Du. Zeehompass ; Do. Hvehmpdss ; Sw. SjiKompast ; Fr. liouitole, Cvnipas de mer; It. JIussuta; Sp. Agiija de marear; Port. Com- passo de murtar; Kuss. Kumpass iorabelniii), or mari- ner's compass, an instrument composed of a needle and card, by wliicli the ship's course is directed. Tlie nee- dle, with little variation, always points to the north; and hence the mode of steering by the compass. The common opinion is tliat the compass was in- vented by Flavio Gioia, a citizen of the once famous re- public of Amalphii very near tlio beginning of the four- teenth century. Dr. Kol>ertson has adopted this opiU' ion, and regrets that contemporary historians furnish DO details as to the life of a man to whose genius soci- ety is so deeply indebted. — History of America, vol. i. p. 47, 8vo ed. But though Gioia may have made im- provements on the compass, it has been sI\own that he baa no claim to be considered as its discoverer. I'aS' lages have been produced firom writers who flourished More than a century before Qioia, in which the polar ity of the needle, when touched by the magnet, it dis- tinctly pointed out. Not only, however, had this sin- gular property been discovered, but also its application to the purposes of navigation, long previously to the fourteenth century. Old French writers have been quoted (Maci'Uehsom's Annals qf Cummerce, anno 1200 ; Kees' Cyclopedia), tliat seem fully to establish this fact. But whatever doubts may exist w ith respect to them can not aft'ect the passages which the learned Spanish antiquary, Don Antonio de Capmany {Quet- tiones Critkas, p. 73-182), has given from a work of the famous Raymond LuUy (fie Cotilemplatione} published in 1272. In one place Lully says, " as tlie needle, when touched by the magnet, naturally turns to the north" (aratively safe, by ena- bling the navigator to launch out upon the ocean free from the danger of rocks and shoals. By the use of this noble instrument, the w hole world has become one vast commercial commonwealth, the most distant in- habitants of the earth are brought together for their mutual advantage, ancient prejudices are obliterated, and mankind are civilized and enlightened." According to the purposes to wliich the instrument is chiefly applied, it becomes the tnariner's cimpasi, the azimuth compass, tlie variation compass, each particular application requiring some peculiarity of construction ; but whatever modifications it may receive, the essen- tial parts are the samo in all cases. These are a mag- netized bar of steel, called the needle, having fitted to it at its centre a cap, which is supported on an upright pivot made sharp at the point in order to diminish the friction as much as possible and allow the needle to turn with the slightest force. The nuiriner's compass has a cir idar card attaclied to its needle, which turns with it, and on the circumference of which are marked the degrees, and also the thirty-two points or rhumb*, likewise divided into half and quarter points. The pivot rises from the centre of tlio bottom of a circular box, called the c«mpass-b«x, which contains the needle COM COIT •nd it| card, «nd which ia covered with a glaas top to prevent the needle from being disturbed by the agita- tion of the air. The compass-box is suspended within a large box by means of two concentric brass circles or gimbals ; the outer one being fixed by horizontal piv- ots, both to the inner circle which carries the compass- box, and also the outer box, the two sets of axes being ■t right angles to each other. By means of this ar- rangement, the inner circle, with the compass -box, needle, and card, always retain a horizontal position, notwith.^tanding the rolling of the ship. The notation of the mariner's compass is as follows : The circumference being divided into the four quad- rants by two diameters at right angles, the extremities of these diameters are the four cardinal points (cardo, a hinge), marked K, S., E., W. (north, south, cast, west). Bisecting each of the quadrants, the several points of bisection nre denoted by placing the two let- ters at the extremities of the quadrant in juxtaposi- tion. Thus N.E. (northeast) denotes the point which is half way between north and oast; and so with N.W., t- -->■■■ ^*% ►v^. S.K., S.W. (northwest, southeast, southwest). Let the octants next be biscctei- sected, then each of the points so found is expressed liy that one of the preceding points already named to which it is nearest, followed by tlic name of the cardinal point toward which its departure from the nearest point leads It, the two being separated by the letter b (by). Thus the point halfway between N. and N.N.E. is N. by E. (north-by-east); that which is halfway between N.N.E. and N.E. is N.E. by N. (northcast-ljy-north), etc. The whole of the thirty-two points are thus distinguished in the figure. The principal requisites of a compass are intensity of directive force, and susceptibility. The first of these is obtained by constructing the needle of the materiel and form I>est suitdd to receive and retain the magnet- ic virtue. A number of experiments on this subject were made i)y Coulomo, and more recently Iiy Captain Kater, an account of which is given in the Phil. Trans, for 1821. Captain Kater found that the kind of steel capable of receiving the greatest magnetic force is shear steel ; and that the best form is that of a lozenge or rhomboid, cut out in the middle, so as to diminish the extent of surface in proportion to the mass, it being found that the directive force of the needle, when mag- netized to saturation, depends not on the extent of surface, '•—.<. ■.,•'. the wass Beyond a certain limit (about "■' iif^a •s^ no additional |)Ower is gained liy incren.j.' , liK; icn.'lh of the needle; and needles ex- oae'l'iiif! a vOTi .;> i:h rate length are apt to ha ye several MK- cntiv)' )'i''^<'t, i le effect of which is to produce a gwa: di'.i'.liiatic it' directive force. On this account ihori ""Ji.!", m; 'J very hard, are to be preferred. — Bba. I K '•' .'.-vj . 'jpedia of Arts. Like many other of the most valuable arts of life, the origin of the compass la entirely nnknown. By some writers it is ascribed to Flavio Olola, who lived In th« thirteenth century ; yet Guyot de Provence, who lived a century earlier, speaks of the loadstone, to which he gives the name of marinetti, or mariner's stone, as use- ful to navigation. Others protend that it was invent- cd in France ; but there seems to bo no other reason for this supposition than the fact that from time im- memorial the north point of the compass card haa been distinguished and ornamented with a Jleur de lit. For a reason of a different kind, but perhaps of the same degree of weight. Dr. Wollis and others have supposed the invention to belong to England, the name comjxut, which is given to the instrument by most Eu- ropean countries, being used in England to signify s circle. The term hussota in Italian and touisole in French, has also i)ecn supposed to be derived from our term box, by which the compass is frequently desig- nated. Giloert, in his celebrated work De Magneie, affirms that Marco Polo brought the invention to Eu- rope from China, about the year 1260. It appears very probable that the Chinese were acquainted with the directive property of the loadstone at an early period. The azimuth compaii, l>cing intended to show the bearing of objects in respect of the magnetic meridian, baa its circle divided merely into degrees, instead of the rhumbs used in navigation, and ia provided with sights to allow the angles to bo taken more accurately. The rarialion compaii is designed to exhibit the di- urnal changes in the deviation of tho magnetic from the true meridian ; and tlie needle is genera'ly made of mucli greater length than the mariner's compass, in order to render minute variations more sensible. Compata Vatititions. — In a recent publication on tho danger to which vessels are exposed from compass va- riations, there was suggested a plan of much import- ance to commerce: that in all large ports at least, wliere vessels are equipped, a competent person ought to be appointed, whose duties should be to select in ev- ery ship an advanta^ous position for a standard com- pass, combining the two requisites in such selection of a manageable local attraction, and of convenient ac- cess for navigating the ship — to determine experiment- ally the local deviations of the standard compass in different azimuths, to instruct the master how to repeat the same on future occasions, and to see that he right- ly and thoroughly understands the deduction of the true magnetic courses from those oi the standard com- pass, and of the course by the standard compass corre- sponding to the true course which he desires to steer. Self-registering Compans.—The self-registering com- pass, by M. Deluil, is designed to register the changes of direction in a vessel for every three minutes during the twenty-four hours. The marking is made upon « compass card. It consists of a clock movement placed at the centre of the apparatus for causing the point or pivot carrying the ncerlles to move up and down at regular intervals— of an endless screw, furnished with a nut cnrrj'ing the point, for piereing the paper — and of the compass card, made of three needles fixed to a sheet of mica. The mica is covered with a disk of velvet, fimilj- glued to it by means of strong glue, and whose tissue has been saturated with a kind of glue that ia soft when cold. When the needle is fixed toward tha north, the axis or diametral line of the compass card is placed in the line of the axis of the ship, and the puno- tures made every three minutes indicate the deviation of this axis. Composition, i» Commerce, commonly implies the dividend or sum paid liy an insolvent debtor to his cred- itors, and acrppted by them in payment for their debts. Coney T^JTool (Gcr. KanincheMtroUe ; Du. Konyn' hair ; Fr. Poil de lapin ; It. Pelo di Caniglio; Sp. Cotit' jiina), the fur of ral)bits. This article is extensively used in tho hat manufacture ; and besides the large supplies raised at home, a groat deal is imported. Th« imports usually range from aboat 800,000 to aboni 600,000 skins a year. CON 899 CON Congreve Rockets. Invented by General Sir William C'ongrovo in 1W)3. Tlio Congrovo rockets, iirst uDod against IJoulogqe in 180G, are of various di- mensions, and difierently armed, as they are intended for tiic flcld or for bombardment. Those of the former class carry shells or case-shot ; those of the latter are armed with a very combustible material contained in a strong mctallio cylindrical case with a conical head. When once inflamed, this substance is unextinguisha- ble, it scatters its burning particles in every direc- tion, and when spent, the ball explodes like n grenade. The rocket is ]>roJectcd hcrizontally, and makes a loud whixzing nuiso i:i its passage through the air. The ammunition used varies from U to 42 lbs. and upward. These rockets were certainly a very important inven- tion ; but from their liability to deflection and other defects, they are now regarded as less advantageous than the ordinary red-hot slrot and bombs. The se- cret of their composition also is not so great as to defy imitation by foreign artillerists. plied often as a river name. Among others, we find also ill Long Island a Connecticut Biver. The name was at first written in different ways. AVo find, for in- stance, on one map of the year 1635, the orthography "Ji. Conokteook." At last the orthogrophy "Connec- ticut" prevailed. The English colonists applied the name of the river for the first time to a territory in the year 1631, when they claimed a tract of land around the present site of Hartford, and intended to erect there a colony, to which the name of" Colony of Connecticut" was given. This was an inland country, sometimes also called " the Colony of Hartford." In the year 1662 ting Cliarlcs 11. united with this colony that of New Haven, which was planted on the shores of Long Isl- and Sound, and which had existed for some time sep- arately imder a particular name. The king named both united colonies " The Province of Connecticut ;" and in this way this name was extended to the sea-coast. It included then also » great part of l>oug Island, which had been settled and was claimed by planters and emigrants from the Connecticut valleys. But soon after the conquest of New Netherland by the En- glish (1664) the Duke of York claimed the whole of Long Island, whi' li now was separated from the colo- ny of Connectici. and became a part of the province of New York, lu compensation for this loss the bound- aries of Connecticut wero extended to the west as far as Mormaromck or Byram's Biver, within thirty miles from New York, so that now the name Connecticut covered nearly the whole of the northern shore of Long Island Sound. These boundaries along the sea-coast have, upon the whole, remained unchanged ever since. — J. G. Koiii,. Though generally hilly and broken, no part of the surface rises to a great height above the sea. The greatest elevation is a range of mountains commencing at a bluff called East Kock, near New Haven, and con- tinuing northward through the state. The hills are generally of moderate size, and occur in quick succes- sion in ranges trending northward, presenting to the traveler an ever-varying aspect. The soil is gener- ally fertile, but better adapted to grazing than tillage. There were in this state, in 1850, 1,768,178 acres of land improved, and 615,701 of unimproved land in farms. Cash value of farms 4172,726,422 ; and the value of implements and machinery, $1,892,641; live-stock: horses, 26,879; asses and mules, 49 ; milch cows, 85,461 ; working oxen, 46,988; other cattle, 80,226; sheep, 174,181; swine, 76,472; value of live-stock, $7,467,490. Manufactures. — There wero in the state, in 1850, 106 cotton factories, with a capital invested of $4,012,000, employing 2665 males, and 3313 females, producing 54,370,627 yards of sheeting, etc., and 950,000 pounds of yarn, valued at $4,122,962 ; 149 woolen factories, with a capital of $2,583,742, employing 1893 males, and 1666 females, producing 8,950,372 yards of cloth, valued at $4,921,162; 12 establishments making pig iron, with a capital of $207,600, employing 120 persons, producing 13,020 tons of pig-iron, etc. ; the entire value of products, $379,600; 60 establishments, with a capi- tal of $580,800, employing 049 persons, and making 11,210 tons of castings, etc., valued at $981,400 ; 18 es- tablishmi nts, with a capital of $529,500, em))loying 374 persi'iis manufacturing 6325 tons of wrought iron, etc., valued at $667,560; 117 flouring mills, 116 tan- neries, with a capital of $360,500, employing 407 per- sons; value of products, $731,006. Capital invested in iTir.nufnctures, $23,890,848; value of manufactured nriicki. i^-i 1,897,848. '\ hi' ^tlllu is watered by numerous rivers and streams. Few of (ho rivers are navigable for more than a short djfianc'; from their mouths. The principal is the Con- nect icui., w bich rises on the northern border of New Hampshire, and after a course of about 400 miles falls into 1 ong Island Sound between Saybrook and Lyme. Its general direction is south-by-west, separating New Hampshire from Vermont, and aftrrward passing tliroifih the western part of ilassaclnnetts and the cen- tral part of Connecticut. Below MidUletown it turns to the scuth-southeast, and continues iu that direction to its mouth. It is navigable to Middletown, 30 miles from the sea, for vessels drawing 10 feet, and to Hartford, 20 miles higher, for vessels drawing 8 feet of water. The canals and other improvements recently made to over- come the rapids and falls, have rendered it navigable for small boats as far as Wells Biver, 260 miles above Hartford. The principal tributary of the Connecticut in this state is the Tunxis or Farmington, which rises in the eastern slope of tho Green Mountains in Jlassa- chusetts, and flows southward to Farmington, where it abruptly changes its course to the northward. On breaking through tho trap range of the Talcott Mount- ains, it again takes a southerly direction, and falls into the Connecticut opposite East Windsor. The Ilousa- tonic rises in the western part of Massachusetts and en- ters this state ueai its uortUwost corner, after which it CON GON hM • sonth and soulheaat coarse to tho Sound. Iti en- trance is obstructed by a bar, but them is a sloop nav- igation for 12 miles. Tlio Thames, forme'.l by the Junction of tho Qiiinebaag, Sbetucket, and Yantic Riv- ers near Norwich, falls into the Sound at Xow Lon- don. The mineral wealth of Connecticut is considora- blc. Iron ore of excellent quality is found abundant- ly in various parts. The copper mines of Bristol and Plymouth tti-e said to be the most proUtublo in the United States. According to Professor Sitliniun, tho Bristol vein extends in a soutbeily direction for more than 30 miles, and if fully worlced is capable of aifoi'd- Ing employment to 30,000 minors. The Plymouth mines are considered to be equally rich. Copper is also found at Granby. Fine marbles of diffcrcnt kinds are abundant, and extensive quarries of freestone nX' 1st in thi. mounuin regions, end furnish an c.xcelleat building material. Zinc, cobalt, manganese, and plum- bago are also found ; and the nunnral waters of Staf- ford have long been celebrated. Connecticut has a larger productive school fund, in proportion to its population, than any other state, amounting to (2,049,482. This originated chiefly from the sale of the Western Reserve, constituting a large part of the northern portion of the State of Ohio in- cluded in its original charter, and ceded to it by the United Spates by way of compromise. In 1662 tlicre were in the state 53 banks, with a capital of $12,6011,808. It has no state debt. There is a state prison at Weth- orsfleld, erected in 1826. Tho following synopsis of the length, cost, capital, earnings, etc., of the Connecticut railroads, is from the Official Report of tiie Railroad Commissioners of that state for 18&G: Nmici. New York and New Haven Now Haven and Hartford Norwich and Worcester Hartford, Providence, and riahklll N, London, Willlmantio, and Palmer New Haven and Now London Housatonic Naiigatuck Danbiiry and Norwalk New York, lYovidence, and IVwton New Haven and Northampton BoKton and New Yoik Central Total Total Lflosth. Mllw. 62t 72 66 122t «6 60 li 2iH 6't f>Ot 74t L«ngth In ContiecUeut MllM. «j 6) 06 67 6) 74 67 23 1 6 6Si 8 TTii bMi InpiKI Paid lii. $2,092,460 2,360,1100 2,122,.'llW 2,not',iio 600,200 788,6:18 2,000,000 1,031,800 270, o^o l,8C;,,0Oi; 02>,5O0 2.240,300 Dsbt Ftiiidod and Uiit'uDdad. $2,888,010 140,000 1,664,689 2,030,66"i 1,073,672 761,46. 414,240 524,244 97,100 440,700 600.000 l,6is,071 Earniogi, 18U. $6,070,079 8,818,982 2,607,153 4,060,868 1,604,682 1,465,669 2,431,773 1,630,723 873,460 2,158,000 1,400,0-0 3,403,818 $968,275 730,012 30''i,286 268,6S« 124,043 88,007 839,196 220,469 66,241 260,627 145,136 10,917 $l S,702,24 S|$r2.1 06,35fl|$J9,605,fl6J^$ »,584,339 Nai DWI- Earnlnj^ danda. $838,8n 862.799 $235,000 68,4."SS 5'.',7S7 119,011 18.141 063,830 .... 80,818 176,629 .... 08,965 21,900 13,070 74,S34 !i7,(;»2 74.054 36,900 8,139 $1,44S,4I2 $ai'4,491 COHMKBCC or TOi Stats or CotrNxonouT (snowiKo ;ii.so tuk TiisTBicrr To!n(AOB in 1821, 1881, 1841, ahd 1861) ntov Oci. 1, 1S20, TO .h.ir 1, 1866. Yaara aoding Bxporla. lui porta. Toooaga Clearad. Dlilrlf I Tonnaga. | Domaalie- ForaigD. Total. Total. Atnarlean. PoralfD. RcgUtarad. Enrollad and Licanaad. Sept 30, 1821 1822 1823 18M 1826 1826 1827 1828 1829 1830 Total. . . Sept SO, 1831 1832 lasa 1834 1836 1836 1837 1988 1809 1840 Total... Sept 80, 1841 1849 9mos.. 184S* June 30, 1844 1846 1846 1847 1848 1849 1880 Total... June 30, 1851 1862 1863 1864 1866 1866 $366,180 479,363 430,941 570,684 684,686 63.>,454 567,100 493,926 460,986 £85,610 $10,007 6.969 1,120 6,218 4,684 1.1,439 23,176 27,620 6,985 3,901 $876,187 485,312 4S2,061 675,852 039,270 708,898 690,276 621,546 467,970 MO.r.U $312,090 607,004 456 463 1561.510 707,478 786,194 6.10,004 485,174 809,5i)8 260,683 14,749 17,442 16,788 20,946 24,396 21,634 18,078 17,588 16,090 18,286 "ios ■ 77 74,084 81,720 $;>,174,868 $48i,07S 430,466 427,603 421,419 487,510 i<31,176 623,103 543,610 6S8,226 618,210 $102,008 $810 "997 !.'-,460 7,023 9,487 $5,276, itIO $482,883 430,466 427,603 422416 tl2,9i'l 438.199 682,600 643,610 583.226 618,210 $4,996,128 $406,066 487,715 862,014 885,720 489,602 468,168 818,849 843,331 442,847 277,07ii 1C6,940 20,139 20,944 1P,468 18,548 10,628 20,842 20,209 18,892 26,308 24,122 108^1580 27.886 27,263 14,118 88,881 87,086 in.181 20,536 23,600 20.440 17.616 185 ■«6f 606 204 618 1,649 2,146 420 916 479, 18,068 84,810 $4,848,890 $699,848 532,802 807,223 798,725 960,S10 766,912 608,702 601,064 261,000 241,262 $43,777 i,m 8.245 lO.OOfc 400 "oih $4,892,173 $•599,348 632,392 807,223 800,016 909,055 775,012 109,192 iiOI,064 264,000 241,930 $3,870,279 $2;.6,!189 835,707 230,841 823,299 872,075 413,47ij 275,823 220,310 234,748 872,390 7,297 0,027 4,791 2,748 4,730 2,101 6,987 1,966 4,818 8,719 9,802 26,421 88,e5i $5,660,438 $483,804 606,904 497,709 721,807 369,402 800,6S2 $20,094 $1S4 270 ll,6ti6 1S.2M 10,382 20,212 $5,fi80,13J $434,0.-8 500.434 789,676 878.874 968,876 $3,083,655 $342,994 394,076 645,798 662,977 688,826 741,786 252,841 i%rM 21,507 10.042 23,760 21.869 31,417 48,179 8,127 10,287 8,062 7,842 7,879 8,029 41,805 .... 74.874 Nine months to Jun« 30, and OoiUlOlldat<«d Fnnd. Dovn to 1816 the ex- chequers of Great Britain and Treland were kept sepa- rate, certain portions of the publ'c revenue arising in each kingdom being especially r.ppropriated to tho dis- charge of the interest on its own debts, and other pe- culiar purposes. But on Jannary utfa, 1616, the sepa- nt* axchequeri were consolidated into one ; and an fiscal year begins July 1, 1S4S. act was at the same time passed consolldoting certain portions of the Joint revenue of Great Britain and Ire- land into one fund, hence called the Consolidated Fund, and providing for its indiscriminate application to the payment of the public debts, civil lists, and other speo- itied expenses of both kingdoms. Some portions of revenue are not included in this fund •■ but it embraces byfai 1838, dated pendi frayet X81,7. ble to p. 8!Hi Co £urop still la land, (Propt phorui 0*12" estima the bei tionof lUftrme thedlroctli CON 401 CON by far the Ur|(est part of th« piiMlo income. Thus, In 1888, of • toUl net income of £47,888,460, the Consoli. dated Fund included no less than £44,144,488 : the ex- penditure on account of the peculiar charges to be de- frayed by the fund during the same year amounted to £81,742,918, leaving a surplus of £12,401,670 applica- ble to other objects. — Faibman on the Fund; 7th ed. p. 896 J Pari. Paptr, No. 849. Sess. 1889, etc. Conatantlliople, a famous city of southeastern Europe, formerly the metropolis of the Eastern, as it still Is of the Turkish empire, on a triangular point of land, on the European side of the Sea of Marmora (Propontis), at the point where it unites with the Bos- phorus, or channel leading to the Black Sea, lat. 41° C 12" N., long. 28° 59' 2" E. Population variously estimated at from 800,000 to 600,000, but believed, by the best authorities, to be about 450,000. The situa- tion of this renowned city is, in a commercial point of view, one of the finest imaginable. Standing on th« narrow straits uniting the Mediterranean and EuxioS Seas, she at once commands and is the entrepot for the commerce between them. The harbor is most ex- cellent. It consists of an extensive inlet, or arm of the sea, Ftretcliing along the northeast side of the city, which it divides from the suburbs of Galata and Pera. It has sufficient depth of water to float '.he iargost ships, and can accommodate more than ICOO sail. The strong current that sets through the Eosphorus into the Sea of tlarmora strikes against Seraglio Point (see Planiy ; a part of the water, being in consequence forced into the harbor, runs along its southwestern side in the direction marked by the arrows (see Plan), till, arriv- ing at its extremity, it escapes by whe opposite side. In the middle the water is still, un leaving the port, it is necessary to keep well over to the northern side ; for otherwise the ship might be taken by the current, 74.874 "?•'? SEA OF POBT or OOMSTANTINOrLE. AlAmiMs to Plan.— A, Seraglio Point ; D, QalaU ; C, Scutari ; D, Tower and Light-house of Leander. The arrowi show Uw direction of the currants. The soundings are in fathoms, Co CON 40» CON and driTMi en flnaglio Point. It may b* wortk while, bow«y«r, to femark that, notwitlutandiog tliia iucon- TMloiin, the current ha* been of aignal terrice to the dty, by tcouring the harbor, and carrying awa/ the flith and ballaat by wLich U v.w- oihevfii'i: have been long since cholied up. TIv: CiMnncu aci-oti from Se- raglio Point to the oppc": ui a::'iui'b of ;3cttt!. .>n th. Aiiatic coast, is ratbe:> mote /Imj; ua Engiiia rail \ Within less than a quai:'.>; of i .nil! of the lutier is i (ooky islet, upon which iw % U-'^tr and l:(.-!'it-iioa;;, known by ths name of ^Un Tn^rer nf Ijeauder. Fi'i - •ignuirs rssiu. n Ualata, '•'•v^^ imf tV ' .tbir! i aa t^'' aasturn side ''' the harbci ; aiud it ii tiuen, ' jiit^qiioui - hf, ;J.at the |i'-incipul trade of the place is carried •ni. Vim qqays arc ,, >d, and *b>,i' l!ft close alongside. r.'je Boephorai. or c-haauk'' of Constantinople, runs in I >< >i-theast by n>n(ii direction about 16 miles, vary- ing .11 breadth from 1^ to i a mile. It is swept by a rapid current, wliicb it reqi-ircs . brisk gale to s*>!ni, and l>a!- tbrfjuj, >our n gn'it depth of wat' ■. 'j'fie .ol- lespci', crSlmitof liie Ourrianellos, leading from the ArcbipoUgo to thu Stit of Marmora, vs about 13 ]tvi^iies in length. Iti dire, fioi: i« nearly iwi'ft'i*'. Where narrowest, it l,i lit;i>.< more U:i>i a mi.-: ton. It also is swept i>y a iiioag currat:% tind haj Ueep walt;r througliout. The Buljoined plan of part of Constantinople and its port is copied, uithoiit reduction, from the beautiful plan of the city and iiosphorus, drawn and engraved by M. Mcrsoff Robert of Munich, and pnblished by Mr. Wilde of London. Nothing can be more imposing than the appearance of the city whon seen from the sea, but on landing the illusion vanishes. The streets are narrow, dark, ill- paved, and irregulai'. Owing to the want of any ef- fective system of p'lKi', and of the most ordinary at- tention to cleanlinesN, they are extremely filthy, and are infest>id with beroVs of dogs, and also with rats, which pen'brm the fuiiclions of scavengers. The houses are mostly built o< wood, and fires arc frequent. Most of these happen desi^^'i^edly ; the burning of a few hundred houses being deemed the readiest and most efl^ctual means of making the government aware of the public dissatisfaction, and of procuring a redress of grievances, Moneg. — Accounts are hept in piastres of 40 paras, or 120 aspcrs. The Turkish coin has been so much degraded, that the piastre, which a few years ago was worth :U. siterliiig, is now worth little mora than id. A bag of silver (Iryftrj =r JOO piastres, and a bag of gold (i« ■ u- '^"cmau vnpiie are fixed by treaty •t 800 aspen i ••,(; - -imc nor less. rrwds.rtf. — Owii]/ t- e vicious institutions nfthp ' I ittoi or killotp r:0'941 of a • )i=:l quarter. The/onin ■ re sold by the alma or mrtT= h wine measure, '.'he alma of .1. — Xklkenhre(;uei( and Dr. Turks, and th* disorganized state of th« empire, the- trade of Constantinople is very far from being so ex- tensive a* might bf supposed from ita situation and population. The imports consist of corn, iron, timber, tallow, and furs, principally from the Ulack Sea ; and of cotton staff* and yarn, coal, tin, tin plates, woolens, ^Iks, cutlery. Watches and jewelry, paper, glass, furni- rure, indigo, cochineal, etc., from England and other i'.nropean ountrie*. Corn and cot!ce are ini|iorted ("'<« Alexandria; but considerable quantities of lira- j ' ' rA West India cqffee are also imported, partlcular- > i iJrItisb and American bottoms. Sugar is parti/ ii.'.f tried from the East, but principally from the West iniies. The exports consist of silk, which is by far the most important article, carpets, bides, wool, Angola goats' hair, yellow berries, boxw jod, opium, galls, bul- licn and diamonds, and a few other articles. Rut llie ex- ports are always very much less than the imports ; an4 s!'.'is carrying goods toConstanlinoplo cither return in ha .ast,'orget return cargoes at Smyrna, Odessa, Salon- ica, etc., on which piaccs they frequently procure bills at Constantinople. Uy far the largest proportion of tho trade of the city, and of the Levant generally, is in the bands of Greek merchants, who by their superior skill, industry, and knowledge rf Ihoae with whom they have to deal, have completely distanced their English, French, and other European competitors (denominated Franks). The Armenians only have been able to withstand the competition of the Greeks, llurgains am negotiated liy Jew brokers, some of whom are rich. Constantinople was known as tho Stanboli of tlio Greeks, or Istanboul of tho Turks, An attempt was made to change this latter name into Islambonl, that is, the town of Islam or Mohammedanism, and coins wero even struck bearing tko new name ; but tho at- tempt failed, and tho c(>inage again bears the inipres- Kion " struck at Istanboul." The entire civil and ec- clesiastical authority of the Turkish empire is con-^cn- trated in the city, where re<:ido the chief pashas, muf- tis, and ulcmas; tho patriarch a.nd synod of the Greek Church; an Armenian and a Catholic archbishop. That part of it which is now occupied by the seraglio, and which is separated from tho rest by a wall, is un- derstood to have liecn the Byzantium of tho ancients. Commercial Policy. — 1 1 is singular tliat, as respects commerce, the policy of tho Turkish government, wliether originating in design or carelessness, is enti- tled to the highest jiraise. " Nu restrictions," says Mr. Thornton, " are laid on commerce, except in tlie instance of agencral prohibition of exporting tho arti- cles necessary for the support of human life to foreign countries, especially from the capital, where alone it is rigoroiuly enforced ; nnd .wis in\ "litio 'C'fraint will no doubt be reii .. raX when the Turkish government shall become sensible that what is intendeil as tho means of securing abundance is, in fact, tho sole < nuso of that scarcity which is sometimes experienced. ^^ ith this one e.yccption, commerce is perfectly free and un- fettered. Every article of foreign or domestic growth or manufact'ire is conveyed into every port, and over every province, without any iiilcrferenco on tho part of the magistrates, after payment of the duties. On this subject I spr ak from actual expcri<'nco, -mkI may appeal to every fori'irn or : i ti rfh.int in T:i Ucy for its general truth.' — /'; . ■ S.iilt o,~ '/'• ■I'-j. a 01. i. p. 82. The ' :ies, too .iT>ir.ely moderate, bcinf . nly five per cent, on is.) ■rts , viz., three.pcr cent, on ^m 1 when landed, bimI mvo per cent, on I'lcir being admit- ted to consumption {L'bicini, i. 281), antt about three per cent, on most articles of cx|.ort. Hence, in almost all that relates to l:cr commercial regulations, Turkey is : ttled to re.nd a lesson to tho i.odt civilized Euro- pi. . powers; and this she did in a very able manner, in an ofHclnl paper publishcii m tho MonUeur Ottoman, in Scptemlier, 18.i2. We extract a few paragraphs from this interciiiiiig document. CON 403 CON . " Good aeom, toIemncR, and hoiplUUty hart long af(0 done for tlifl Ottoman empire what the other itatea of Kuropo are endeavoring to effect by more or le&a happy political rombl* natloni. fcUuce the throne of the aiiltana has been elevated at Conitantlnuple, commercial prohibiliona have been un- known ; they opened all the porta of their ttmpiro to the com- merco, tu the luaiuifacturcs, to the territorial produce of the Occident^ or, to say better, of the whole worlil. Liberty of commerce haa reigned here without llmlta, aa large, aa ex- tended aa it waa poMible to be. *' Here every oltiect of exchange is admitted, and clrcnlatei without meeting any obstacle other than the payment of an Inllnlti'ly small portion of the value to the custom-houne. The chimera of a balance of trade never entered into heads ■enslblo enough not to dream of calculating whether there was most profit 1': buying or selling. Thus the markets of Turkey, supplied from all countries, refusing no oldectii which inercantile spirit puts in circulation, and imposing no charge on the vessels that transport them, are seldom or never the ■cones of those dlfordcrcd movements occasioned by the sud- den deflcleney of fuch or such merchandise, which, exorbi- tantly raising prices, are the scourges of the lower orden, by unsettling their habits, and by inflicting privations. From the system of restrictions and prohibitions arise those de- vouring tides and libbs which swoop away In a day the labor of years, and convert cummrrce into a career of alarms and perpetual dangera. In Turkc'y, where this aystem docs not exist, these disastrous effects are unknown, *' The extreme moderation of the duties ta the complement of this rL'gimc ot commercial liberty; and In no portion of the globe are the olllcers charged with the collection of mure confiding facility for the vahwtlons, and of so decidedly eon- dilatory a spirit in every transaction regarding commerce, "Awny with the supposition that these facilities granted to strangers are concessions extorted from weakness I The dates of the conti*uetB termed capitulations, which establUh the rights actually eujoyei' by foreign merchants, recall pe- riods at which the Mussulman power waa altogether predomi- nant In Europe. The flrsteapitulation which France obtained waa in 1CU5, from Soliman the Canonist (the Magnificent). The disposKlona of these contracts have become antiquated, the fundamental prlnciplen remain. Thus, SCO years ago, the sultans, by an act of munificence and of reason, antici- pated the most ardent desires of civllieed Enrojw, and pro- claimed unlimited freedom of commerce." Pul the policy of Turkey in other respects harmonize witli tliis, rlio would be one of the most civilized and powerful of nations, instead of being one of the most abject and degraded. Unfortunately, liowevcr, this is vcrj- far from being the case. Tyranny and insecuri- ty univcrsoUy prevail. " The cultivator of the soil," says one of her eulogists, "is ever a helpless prey to injustice and oppression. The government agents have to suffer in their turn from the cruelty and rapac- ity of which they tliemsclves have been guilty; and the manufacturer lias to bear his full share of the com- mon insecurity ; he is fixed to the spot, and can not escape the grasp of the local governor. The row ma- terial monopolized by a boy or oyan, may be forced upon him at a higher price than ho could purqhase it himself, and perhaps of inferior quality ; fines may be imposed upon him, he may be taken for forced labor, or troops may be (piurlered on his workshop." — Ungu- n\HT (in Turkey audits Rrsouthis, p. lai). Some vigorous efforts have been made of late years by the Turkish government to rcfornt abuses; but with little or no practical effect. There is, in truth, neither public virtue nor principle in the country to second these efforts. Corruption of every kind is as prevalent as ever ; and tliu rayahs continue to be ex- posed to every sort of oppression. There are no roads in any part of the empire ; and agriculture is every- where in the most abject condition. Indeed, vast tracts of the most fertile (and of W tlie u.^-t flourisli- ing) districts of Asia Jlinor are wholly waste and un- occupied ; and (he e>"i, imtead of diminishing, is con- tinually .ncrcasing. The greater density of popuhil ion in European Turkey, and the little industry found in it, are due to tlie ( nergics of the Christian population. And when th<: latter have been emancipated from the ilaveiy in which they have Iiecn long held, by the ex- pulsion of their barliarlan task-uiasters from Europe, the beautiful provinces in which thoy have bo«n so long permitted to encamp will again become the favor- ite seats of industry and civilization. But the degra- dation in which the native inhabitants are involved would have been still more coinplote, but for the free- dom of commerce they have always enjoyed. This has tended to keep alive the seeds of industry, and to coun- tervail io some small extent the destructive influence of oppression and insecurity. Had their intercourse with foreigners been either prohibited or placed un'*,er oppressive restrictions, the barbarism of Turkey would have been completed, and it is difficult to suppose that there could have been any thing like wealth or indus- try in the empire "As the Turks do not allow a census to be taken, all statements of the number of inhabitants in tl< 't dominions must be doubtflil and coiijectural, Utua calculates the population of Constantinople at no more than 300,000; while General Andr6ossy calculated it, without including Scutari, at 697,600; his calculation being founded on the dally consumption of bread. The number of houses is about 88,100. According to An- drl-ossy, tho division of the Inhabitants is as follows : 300,000 Turks, T&lars, and other Mussulmans; 200,000 Greeks; 60,000 Armenians ; 30,000 Jews; and the re- mainder of tho various Frank nations. In 1861, tho census of tho resident British gave only 200, The mortality is said to be greater than in any other city In Europe ; but tho recruits that arrive from all parta of the Turkish dominions, and especially the slaves brought for sale, till up the numbers faster than they fall away by death. Of late years, too, the rayahi seek refuge from the exactions of the provincial pashas in the ncighborhuod of the seat of government, where the Tanzimat or new constitution Is better observed. Although the public slave-market has been sliut for a few years, the trade in slaves is still carried on with all its episodes of horror and abomination. The close- ly latticed windows of the harems of the rich, the pris- on-like aspe(^t of the better streets, and the caravan of gaunt, shoeless Nubian girls in their cotton wrappers, are part ami parcel of the odious system, " The trade of Constantinople consists chiefly in the supply of tho wants of the state officers, and of the mil- itary and naval persons who are attracted to the cap. ital ; but it is chiefly by foreigners that the handicraft operations are performed. The principal manufactures are those of cotton and silk goods. The Armenians are the cliief jewelers and silversmiths. The Jews are perfumers, druggists, and brokers; the Franks are the principal mechanics; and the chief business is trans- acted uC the several liazars. " The foreign trade of Constantinople is favored by its excellent harbor, capable of containing 1200 ships. It is the medium of intercourse between that part of Asia whence laden camels arrive, and the difl'ercnt di- visions of Europe, collecting the drugs and silks of tho one, and distributing them among the others. It w ould require much space to collect and enumerate the ram- ifications of such a trade as is carried on In minute ar- ticles to and from the city of Constantinople. The city is distant 1G80 miles from London." — E. B. Ste TUKKEV. ConBula. We propose to divide this article into thren parts: I. Consuls, their Origin, and I^ws re- sp ctingthem; II. Duties of Consuls; III. Diplomat- ic ami Consular Law of the United States. Consul (Cn-arof), the highest ordinory magistrate of tho Roman republic. It \i probable that tlie word is compounded of cm and >a/io, and is formed like ex- sul and prastil, so that coniiilet signifies those who go together. They were anciently called pratvret, impera- tores, or jndices. I. Co.N.suLs, TitEiit Origin, ano Laws nKSPEcriNO TiiKM. — Consuls, in the nineteenth centurj', are com- mercial agents, appointed to reside in the sea-ports of foreign countries, with a commission to watch over the CON CON oommercial ri|;hti and privtisgei of th« nation deput- ing them. TJio eatablithmunt of connuU is onq of the IDMI uiefUl of modern commercial inalitiitions. The}' were appointed about the twclftli century in the opu- lent states of Italy, such as Pisa, Lucca, Genoa, and Venice, and their origin has Ixxin ascribed to the ne- eesiity for extraordinary assistance in those braiichon of commerce formerly carried on with barbarous and tinctvilixed nations. The utility of sucli a mercantile officer has been perceived and felt by all trading na- tions, and the Mediterranean tradu iti particular stands highly in need of sucii accreditvi! persons. Consuls have lieen multiplied and sent to uvery part of the world where navigation and commerce can successful- ly penetrate ; and their duties and privileges are now generally limited and doHned by treaties of commerce, or by the statute regulations of the country which they lopresent. In some places thoy have been invested with Judicial powers over disputes between their own merchants in foreign ports; but in the cumnicrcial treaties made by Great Hritain there is rarely any stipulation for ciothing thoni with Judicial authority, except in treaties with the Barhary powers; and in England it has been held that a consul is not ntrictly • Judicial officer, and tlicy have there no Judicial pow- er. It has iioen urged by some writers, as a matter highly expedient, to establish rules requiri'.g mer- chants abroad to submit their disputes to the Judicial tuthority of their own consuls, particularly with ref- erence to shipping concerns, llut no government can invest its consuls with judicial power over their own iulijcct!> in a foreign country, without the consent of the government of the foreign country, founded on treaty ; and tl'oiro is no instance in any nation of Ku- rope, of the adniissiun of criminal Jurisdiction in for- eign consuls. The laws of the United States, on the sniiject of consuls and vice-consuls, especially authorize ;hem to receive the protests of masters and others in relation to Aincrican commerce, and they declare that consular certificates under seal, shall receive credit in the courts of the United States. It is likewise made their duty, where the laws of the country permit, to administer the p<orclinatiun,and to lend their aid to the local authorities for that |)urpose, and to discharge the seamen cruelly treated. It is also made the duty of masters of American ves«el.i on arrival at a foreign port, to deposit their registers, sea-letters, and pass- ports, with the consul, vice-consul, or commercial agent, if any, at the port. These particular powers and du- ties nre similar to those prescribed to British consuls, and to consuls tinder the consular convention lietween llio United States and France, in 1788; and thoy are in accordance with the usages of nations, and are not to lie construed to the exeluiion of others, resulting from the nature of the consular appointment. The consular convention between France and this country in 1778, allowed consuls to exercise police over all ves- tcUot their respective nations, " within the interior of the vessels," and (o exercise a species of civil jurisdic- tion by determining disputes concerning wages, and between the mastcrr ai.. crews of vessels belonging to their own country, iiio ''r the consular convention wi >' uiitary, and altogether cxii ;i- thority ; and we have no lre»' cedes even such consular fun> our courts is, tliat a foreign con^ tion claimed under was merely vol- i y coercive au- i'»i.nt which con- rhe doctrine of luly recognized by our government, may assert and defend, ai a compe- tent party, thu rights of property of the individuals of his nation In the courts of the United titates, and may institute suits for that purpose without auy special au- thority from that party for whose benefit be acts. Hut the courts, in tliat case, said that they could not go so far as to recognize a right in • vice-consul to receive actual restiluticm of the property, or its proceeds, with- out showing some specific power fur the purpose from the party in interest. No nation is bound to receive a foreign consul unless it bos agreed to do so by treaty, and the refusal is no violation of the peace and auiiiy between the iintions, ('onsuls are to l Ij:- ;ry States but un- der the protection of treati' '. Considering the impo!.^;.:. .; ',>( insular func- ti"- ind the activity >v iiich ;■ ..quireu 'f them in all .;i>. larltime ports, and the approach xhlch consuls ' As WM the case with the British cnnsuio at Nuir York, Philadelpliio, and Cincinnati, in tlie year 1H&G, The oincial eiequatur of those gentienien mis hith'lnwD by Preaideut fierce, and their ofBcial fu- ta ceased. CON 40A CON iD«k* to tha cfficMx •ntl MgnHy of r1l|itniiiatlu tharac- ten, it w» • wImi |iruvltluii In lh« ('uliilltiidun of (ha United 8lutei, wliiuli gtvu lu tli« Nii|inima V.uurl oriK- inal Juriuliutiuu in all vaaa* affaulitiu (lutiauli m wdII ai cniliaiiaUora an J otlinr |iulilic iiilnliilvra ) ami (liu federal Jurlwllialon U unduraluinl In lin iixiluilva uf the atate cuurla. — Kknt'h Cumm., \«eX. II. In the treaty ijetwt'un Hwifilcn and Ilia thilKd Htaloa of Ameriia, raliliud on ltn< Vlth ufJuty, IMIH, It ii iill|c ulaled that (ho vuniiuU a|i|iulnlud \ Jnduet or artltara In all t%w» of dllfi'rMK'eii whU'ii nity urlM totwuan thu ia|itulii» mid irawii of the ve8«eU of tha n'ltlun wluwa altiilr.* ara inirunted to their care. 'I'lio ranpacjtlvu uovvrniniiiitii nbull have no right to lutorfura in thin nurt of wirulm, except In the caacof the conduct of the craw* dlntiirlilliK |Hibllu or- der and trani|ullllty in the country In whlcti the venm I mn^ happen (o he, or In which tlin cuniul of Ihe place may ha ohilt;ed to cull fur llni inlervnnlion and lupport pf the oxocutivo pouar, In order l» canon IiIk dcelnUin (o ho re»pi'eled j it iH'iiiiti however, well iitidomlood, (bat thii (ort ofjudtfineiit or arhltrathm can iiotdo- privo the cuntendint; parliet of tlmlr rl((hla of appeal- ing, on tlieir return, to tha Judicial aullioritlva of their country." II. i>u«ij/'(7onii' - tioiia aa advantageuiia vnd aecura a* puaalhla, 'iho fullowing more detailed nxpimltlon of tha^cn- tral dutiea of a conani la taken from Mr. ChUty'a work on Commercial Jmu! I "A iit..i.'rn (o each o(her. Heia (o nialie hima«lf Aci^i'tlii.i 'i i ht Im not already, with the luw of nation* ai.l , ' jii>. .•, with the tarift' or specification of dulie nn i> llvlaa Imported or exported, and with all tho muniuipal ordinances and laws. " He must take especial notlca of all prohibitions to prevent the export or im)>urt of any artlclea, aa well on the part of (he a(ate wherein he realilca, an of tho gov- ernment employing him j so that lie may adniunlah all his coun(rymen against carryinK on an Illicit com- merce, tx) (ha detriment of the ravenueai and In viola- tion of tha laws of either ; and It is his duty to attend diligendy to iliU part of hia oAicu, In order to prevent smuggling, and coiiaoi|uent haxard of conttuvatlon or detention of abipa, and iin|irlsonment of the inaatera and mariners It la alao hia duty to protect from in- sult or inipoaaiim Ilia countrymen of every description widiiu hia j iriadietion. If redrvas (or lijury luflbrod is not obtained, be ia to carry hli complaint by msmo' rial to (he minister resiorting the lawful irndu, lie Will lake special notion of all probililtioiis with renpiMt to the export or Import of apeclHad arllcl-.n as well on tbe part of the state In which lie resides as of his gov- •mmeni, so that ha may caution all his countrymen •gainit carrying on an Illicit comiiiercu to the detri- ment uf the revenue, and in violation of the laws and regulations of either country; and he will not full to ^ \ partment imniedlato noliro of any attempt 10 Lonirav' lo tha . iws and rc)(ulationK. "The consul will give hia lust advice and assistance, when called upon, to his counlrymoii, quieting thoir differences, promoting peace, hamiony, ami good-will among them, and conciliating as much as |>os«iblo the sulijects of the two countries upon nil points of dllTcr- ence which may fall under his cognizanco. In the orent of any attempt being made to iigiiro his country- men, vltlier In their persona or property, he will up- hold their rightful interests, and the privileges secured tu them by treaty, by due rcprt^sentallun in the proper oftlcial quarter. He will, at the same time, be careful to conduct himself with mildness and nioies, in order thai he may make a representation to tlie higher authori- ties, or take such other steps in thu case as ho may think proper; and the consul will pay strict attention to tlM instructions which he may receive from the iiiin- iater or consul-general." — See M'Cui-Loril's Vulionmy ofCvmm-rce; Kent's Commentariei ; Knryclnpeilin liri- Umiifa, Hth eil, published by Messrs, Little, lirnwn and Co,, Boston; Manunl for Ifnited tiltilet C'liuuh, 1W&7; Ti-on's British Cuiuul't Afimiial, London, 185S. Tl.c reader may vith advantngu refer lo the articles ri Con- lult and Ctmiular JJutiet contained in Dk Bow's Re- eifio, vol i. p. 66; Hv^r'i MerehanW .}fiigmine,\ol.\i. p. 297, vol. :.iil. p. 651, vol. x. p. 447, vol. xii. p. 211, Tol. xvll. p. 4,1, vol. xviii. p, 60; Foreign Quarlerli/ Re- vino, vol. xix, p, 106, Juritdtction, Pririteget, and Immunilie$ nf ContuU. — "The Jurisdiction (^ a consul only extends over the ■objects of tho nation he is nominated by, eitlio'- K>si- dent iu, or arrivi.ig at, the v'ace In which he has been appointed to reside. In countries where there arc em- bassies ir well as consula^'S tiie JurisuLCtion ot the lat- ter .generally only extends over the sea-faring suljects ofour nation, at the same lime it 'a aichcs over her com- mercial Interests, That of a consul-general presides over tho consul, and that of a consul, in most instances, over that of the vice-consuls. The consular jurisdic- tion depends more entirely into what country tho con- sul may be sent. Thus foreign consuls in England have no Judicial authority whatever, British consuls, however, in most countries, have judicial power, and consequently their Jurisdiction liecomes either retrench- ed or extended, according to the nature of the stipula- tions of the ratilled treaty. '* When the consul is appointed he Is always pro- ridad with copies of the conventions with the country he is sent to. In regard to the privileges and immu- nitii)^ a consul ei^ya, there have always existed doubts whechar he may b« considered exempt from the civil Jurisdiction of the state to wlm h he is nominated ; and although many others have laid down lo thu contrary, still It may be maintained, and In perfect conformity to the law of nations, that where thu regular uxrquu- lur has burra accorded to the consul, ho ought to be ex- empt from the civil Jurlsdiclino uf the stale lo which he is accredited. By the exequatur tbe sovereign ac- I knowledges lilni as the cuiiaular i'('i' in which ho resides, except there bo a spe- cial conveiiiion to thatclTbcl, All dueuniculs, nsqulrcd to bo valid before tho tribunals of the country he ia In, ought lo be niado out by the proper lawyers uppuiiit- ed fur that purpose; for it can not be expected tliul where a consul la only authorized as Judicial authority for his own country, that his acts should be acknoul- edi;eil and received a.< legal Instruments in the tribu- iiiil'i i,t tie grounded U|"h iiiite a Jilfcrent Irx iifr- ctUoria, i i .'ould nut, Iherelurc, be taken in ovideiieu against d>. nients perhaps quite opposite in a legal point of view, and it would 1 1 unjust to allow them tu bo received "-Tiison's British CmuuVs Manual. 1858. III. Coti.>(l(ii f fiilem of III'- United ,SVn/M — Tho es- tabliahmcnt of a coi ■'ular Mntein in the I'nitcd Slates was nearly • "evnl with that uf the general govermnenl. In thu see(.' i annual adilre of President Washington to tho first < ungrcss ho iiii • mcd that body that " the patronage of "tir eoinnierce, uf our nierchunts, and sea- men, called for the appointment uf consuls in foreign countries ; that it seemed exjiedicnt to regulate by law the exercise of that Jurisdiction and those functions which are permitted cither by express convention or by a friendly indulgence :' i the places of their resi- dence," Prior lo this perloil consuls were not allowed salaries, nor permitted lo demand fees or receive per- quisites. In each branch of Congress this recommendation of tho I'rosident was referred to the appropriate comniit- tee, and consular bills were reported in accordance therewith. They failed, however, lo become laws, the House having stricken out the whole of the Senate bill with the exception of the first section. In the early part of th" second Congress substantial- ly the same bill, probably drawn by Mr. Kllsworth (afterward Chief Justice), was reported to the Senate by a committee lo whom the recommendation of the Pres- ident had been referred ; and, subsequently, after the adoption of several amendinenis, it passed both branch- es of Congress unanimously, and became, on tho 14lh of April, 1702, a law uf the' land. From this period till the year 1855, with the excep- tion of the act of July 20lh,'l840, regulating the ship- ment and discharge of seamen and the duties cf con- suls, scarcely any change was made In the laws affect- ing tha consular system, ' CON m CON Mxlation of nto commlt- accorclance lie lawn, the Senate bill substantial- KlUworth 10 Senate by of the Prcs- after the j'oth branch- on the 14lh 1 the excep- ng the ship- itiea cf con- laws aifecl- In tb« year 1NA4, 5lr, Perklni, of Loiililana, then a { mxinber of Ihe llouan of H«preMnlativiia fVuni l,oul- { ■I>]|*, havini{ il'vutml nisolf moiit axalduouialy to Iha •ludy of Iha lubirct, pninrud a hill to ritniwlvl the dip- lomatic ami coiuiilar nytlema of the Uni(«'l HIalea. The bill wai advocated in the Ilouie, and llnally paascd by a rota of I41i yi*ai to 03 nayi. In tiiR StMiate it passed unanimoualy, racetvod the approval of llm l'r«^ Imt on llie Int of March, 1(I5A, and went into operaii'in on the Ul of July, in the lanie year. AccordlnK to the rrinnimendaMnn of Mr. Marcy, Sec- retary of Slate, the subject was a^ain liruught forward ill AuKuat, ImAiI, mud a new act paiMiMl by a vote in the HouM uf KMprcKiilatlvuii of 103 to !>(!, and pasud the Seiiulu iinaninioualy on the lUlh of I hat month. It has rarely happened that a law so Important sk this has paKned CiHiKrosa with such unanlinity~-one lu- volvinft many and Important chanKos in the diploniat- lu and consular systenm of thii United Slati'i* ; creating newolHcca; incri'aaing, reduiin^, or enliri'ly abolliili- \nn Ihe nalaricft nl' iilany consular oftlcim; cmilulnlnK proviniona allxiiln/;; every Amrrii'aii merchant unit shipmaster (Mii;at;cd in foreign tradi', and every Amer- ican traveler in Kuropc^ repealing provlaiuns of e^llll- inf; lawn; onactinf; others for llie ri'Kulation of the af(nnl« of the )(0vernment in fi>rei){n rountrics, and uf civil ofliceni in the I iiitt'd. Slates; inipoBiu); heavy pen- alties for tlin violuliuii of lli« proviaiunn of Ihe slalute ; and nuthnriziiiK and iri|uirin;( Ihe performance of im- porlanl dutioK I y the hiKlicst executive olHoerH of Ihe government. Tli>' favor which tlie liill received in bolh branches of ConKrcas was doubtless due, In parl,lo Ihe fact lliat the near approach of the close of the session left little lime for its discussion and amendment, and to llie respect entertained by the Ilouso for the com- millce on forei);n atfairs, which reiKirled the bill, whose chairman, it was understood, had devolpd much time and care In ltd preparation. The law provides for the rate of compensation to be received by all diplomatic and consular ofHccrs, of whatever (;rade; fixes their compensation ; permits the latter tu transact business, or prohibits them from doing so, in certain places ; pre- acrllws the conditions of otlicial bonds: imposes penal- ties for the violation of the provisions of Ihe law, and indicates the manner in which actions for the recovery of penalties shall l>e tried ; authorizes the appoinlmenl of consular pupils, of interpreters, and of additional iecrelaries of le);alions ; fixes the period at which Ihe com|)ensalion of the ofiiccrs named in the act shall com- mence and terminate ; prov idea for the filling of diplo- matic and consular ollicea teni|>orarily vacant, and the pay to bo received liy olllcers acting ad iiiterim ; for- bids the exercise of diplomatic functions by unauthor- ized persons; authorizes tiie President to define the limits of the several consul i' and commercial Agencios, to provide for the a^ipointi lUt of •idiordinate consular officers and their coni|>en8nlioii ir\'\ lilcewise to fix the rate or lariffof fees for cinuuliii i-ivices, and designate what sbnll be regarded iit oljii'i.'kl services; requires the consular tariff to lie n i-urici lo Congress annually, and also the amount of fees received at the several con- sulates; directs the mode in which the payment of fees shall be made and accounted foe, and the coin in which ihey shall be payalde ; imposes additional duties upon collectors and shipmasters in respect to consular serv- ices, receipts, and invoices; forbids diplotnatio and consular officers lo be absent from their posts, or to hold correspondence in regard to the pulilic affairs of •ny foreign government with tlie press, or private per- sons, or otherwise than with the proper ofHcera of the United States; forliiils consular officers being pecun- iarily interested in tlie receipt or disbursement of the wages of seamen, or in expenditures made for their ro- lief or transportation; provides that no compensation ■hall be paid to diplomatic and consular olHcers, un- leai they shall be. citizsna of the United States ; au- thorises the President to supply the bigullons and eon- sulales of the Ci Ited NIaIvs wllh enrlaln iirlirlea nccw esaary for the transaction of Ihe pujjlic liusiness, and lo prescrllie sucli regulations, and make and iaaim such orders and insi ructions, not inconsistent Alth Ihe Con- stitution or any law of the 1,'nlled NIales, in relation to the duties of all dlploniallc and ccmsular officers, the transaolion of llicir busineaa, the rendering of account* and returns, the payment uf compenaallun, the safe* keeping of the archives and pulilio property In the hands of all such officers, Iha conmiunicalion of infor- mation, and Ihe procurement and Irunsndasiun of Ihe products of Ihe arts, sciences, man ufati urea, agricul- ture, and commerce, from time to lime, as he may tliiiik conducive to the puldic interests ; reijuires these officers In conform to such regulations, orders, and In- Btrucllons ; makes It Ihe duty of Ihe Secrelnry of Slate tu publish official notlllcations, from lime lu time, of such commercial infoniialion communicated lo him by Ihe diplomatic and conaular ofliiers as he inny deem important lo the public interests, and to report lo ('on- gresa, at least once in each year, a synopsis of so much of Ibo Inriirinntion on all subjects, which shall be so commimiriiird to him, as lie may deem valuable for public iiili rmation; authorizes tlie granting and Issu- ing of pns 'Is, under certain conditions, and the per- formance .'I notarial duties by secretaries of legation und consular officers ; enacts various provisions in re> glird to Ihe desertion of seiimen, the payment and the fiirf'eilure of wages and extra wages in certain cases, and the settlement of seamen's aceounis, and their dis- charge in foreign countries ; provides for Ihe account- ability uf cunsular officers for the extra wages of sea- men ; prescrilies the kind of returns and reports to be made liy consular officers, and requires all shipmaster* III apply to consular officers fur the transaction of con- sular liusiness, and |iermils the detention of ships' pa- pers till payment shall lie made of all demands and wages on account of such ships ami vessels : defines the duties of consular otlleers in respect to all eiliiens of the I'nited States (U ing alirond, and the meaning to be affixed to the several titles by which consular utH- cers are designated; imposes heavy penalties fur all malfeasance, and for the violation of the jirovisions of the act ; repeals all acts and parts of acts inconsistent with its provisions ; and, llnally, provides that the act shall lake effect on the first of .lanuary, 1867. It will thus Ihb seen that Ihe law which now regulates the dip- lomatic and consular systems of the United States em- braces a great iinmlier of sulijects, and enters into much detail with respeei to all matters pertaining to the consular office. Many uf its provisions are emi- nently Judicious ; the expediency of others must ba tested by time and their practical operation. The treaties und conventions of the United States w ith foi^ eign nalluns contain many iniprrtunt provl,siona relat- ing to Ihe duties, rights, and privileges of consuls, es- pecially those which have been negotiated with China and the Ottoman Porte, Ilut "Ihe most complete consular conventions ever concluded," as remarks Mr, Tiison, Ihe latest writer on the snliject of the duties of coii.siils, " are those between France and the United Slates, and between the latter country and Holland ; the former negotiated at Wash- ington liy Mr. Everett and M. Sartiges, and the latter at the Hague, under the instructions of Mr. Marcy. The rules laid down therein aro very explicit, and ought to be taken as examples by all other nation*. They will be of great utility to all consuls, in showing them wliat their present duties are, and what they are most likely to liecome. These conventions are such as are likely to be taken as precedents for f\iture treaties on the same subject." Occurrences which have taken place in the United States and elsewhere, within the last few years, have shown how defective is the legif- lation of tills country in respect to consuls. The sub- ject attracted Mr. Webster's attention, while Secretarf CON 40t CON of SUU ; and, at hU ■U|{K*i ()>• ■tlcatlon of Con- Kr«M wu cill«l to It. lU ninarlitil that no •■ountry hai a dMp«r Interett in McurliiK the prutsctlon uf Ulp- lomatlo anil coniuUr aK'uti than th« Lnitad Statvu. Tbair ooromarca •praailt ovar avary aaa, and vltlta «cial ruapact and protecllon, aach according to the rigbta belonging to bla rank aod alation. Aa much haa baao dona durlntr Iho laat fouryaara aa •t any forninr parlod in this country, liy niaanr of con- aular convention!, by la|{lalatlan, ami liy clrtulara la- aued by tha Hacratary of State, nut only to aeoure Ibaaa objecta, but to perfect the consular ayitam, and to rentier It uaeful to the country. In obedience to the circular! Isaued by Mr. Marcy to conaular olHcers on the (llh of October, IHAa, the l&lh of March, 1H64, tha 11th of July, IH&6, and alio the gnneral and !piM'ial In- •tructlona of tha Department of Htate, a vaat amount of Information relating to ahlp-hulldlng, (hipping, nav- igation, tonnage, learoen, foreign tariih, commercial ragulationi, and other subject!, haa liean tranamitted (0 the Department by the United Stale! consuU. The matter thue collected Is Important and valuable; its preparation reflects great credit un the Industry and In- telligeiu'o of the cun!ular corpa, and alTords a striking lUaatralion of the importance of their servicea. At the present time the consular corpa of the United Statea consists of seven consula-general, one hundred and seventeen consuls, and nine commercial agents, who receive for their compensation fixed salarlea ; ninety consuU, ten comiaercial agents, and elKhty-livo consular agents, who are authorized to retain for tholr compensation the official fc^us which they receive. Ke- tldlng aa these officers do in all the principal marts of traffic and commerce throughout the world, aud hav- ing their duties carefully detlnod^ by law and the In- atructions of the Executive, It may reasonably b« ex- pacted that all information affecting the commercial relatione of the United States with foreign nations will ba furnished by them to the Department of State, and published for the benefit uf their fidlow-cltizens. As an Illustration of the value to bo placed on the correspondence of conaula. It may lie stated that in a dnbate which took place In 1842, In the House of Com- mons, Lord Falmerston remarked, ttiat, during the timu he had the honor of being at the head of the for- eign department, he liad read e<-ery report and every letter received from the consular officer* abroad, from the most elaborate report of the highest consul-general down to the leait-lmportont letter of the lowest vice- ooiMul. " Very lal)oriou* reading it was," he add*, "but, *cattored tbiougb the voluminous papers that thus came nuder my eye, I found many impoitant matturs witli which it wo.- my dnty to be acquuinted ; and it U i|uile a mistake to smpoco that, because there I* a lupcrintendent of tlio conr.ular department, the Secretary of HMt doe* not give the same minute at- tention to the consular a* to the other dutie* of the ofBce, though the conaular correspondence amount* to one-bialf of the whole correspondence of the foreign office." The perfection to which the coniular system ho* attained in Franco fumishet an Illustration of what may be accnmplialicd by a thoroughly organized con- iular rstablishment. The objects contninplated by such • syrUtm, as has been well remarked by a writer prac- tically acquainted with tha ■miijeet, ara Dotblng lesa than the advaucoment of the prosperity and power of nalioiu. Deputed to watch over the commercial right* oud privilege* of their respective cnnntries, consular officer* are intrusted with the care of the highest iate- rasta, and exercise a more important influence upon mercantile prof perity, the foundation oi national great- nesa, than any other foreign agonta of government. Scattered tbroughout the whole world, occupying aa eminent social position in all the mercantile cities of avary nation, and performing dullas whlth bring them mom or less Into collision with (lie people among whuni they reside, they, by their conduct and maanera, iuHis- encu the Judgment which i> I'urnivil of tha country tbry represent, and either add lu it* dignity or reltocl dia- honor un Ita national cliarai^er. 1. Nalurt atui Hulitt itf' (A« t'ontuUr pointed by their governnient to reside in foreign coun- tries, and especially In sea-|iorts and other place* of commerce, to discharge ailnilnistratlvn and sonietlmea judicial functions in regard to their countrymen who dwell or may be in the country where they reside; to aid In tha authentication uf ducumoirt* abruad, and generally to perfunn such uther ilutles as may Iw aa- signed to them by tha laws and orders uf their govern- ment. a. Clnua o/Coiuular (J/iKcrrs.— Accordingly, by va- rloua lawa of the I'nilud Slates, duties are imposed and rights conferred on this description uf pulillo offi- cerx, under the names uf cunsul.t-geueral, contuU, vice- consuls, deputy-consuls, commercial agents, vice-cum- nrarcial agents, and consular agents. It Is provided by the Ulst section of the act uf Congress approved August IH, IHM, that these official designations shall be deemed to have the respective meanings therein assigned to them, namely : " consul-general," " con- sul," and " commercial agent," shall be taken to dfr note full, principal, and permanent "consular officers," aa distinguished from subordinate* and substltutea; " dtiputy-conaul" and " consular agent" to denute " cou- aular officera" subordinate to such principals, sxcrcl^ Ing Iho powcra and performing t)\» duties within th* limits of their consulate* or commercial agenelea ra- ■pectivoly — the former at the same ports or placea, and the latter at porta or places dill'erent fruni thosu at which such principals are located respectivuly ; and "vice-consuls" and " vice-conmiercial agents" to de- note "consular officers" who shall be substituted, tem- porarily, to All the places of "consuls-general," "con- suls," or "commercial agents," when they shall b« temporarily absent or relieved from duty; and the term " consular officer" to include all such officera a« are mentioned in the said section, and none others. 8. Appticaliiin of Acli ((ft'ungnu.— It 1* further pro- vided by the *ain« auction that, in the construction and for the purpose* of all other acts and part* of acts which shall remain in force after the act above mentioned shall take eflbct, defining any of the power*, declaring any of the rights, preacrlblng any of the dutie*, or im- pb*ing any penalty or punishment for any act of omla- alon or comml**lon of any consul, commercial agent, vice-consul, or vice-commercial agent, or allowing or enjoining tho porformatice of any act, matter, or thing, with or befure any smh officer, all such act* and part* of act* shall In all these eeveral respocts, so far as may be cinsistent wilh the aunject-maiter and context of the same, and with tlio said act and the treaties of th* United States, be deemed and ttken to mclude and apply to all consular officera Just as though all such offlrers were specifically named tlinrein. 4. Cerluin CotuiUar Pviyt. — The ii.iportant act of 1792 contains a decl* ratory provision, which is to ba understood as implied in all other acts of Congress, aa follows : " The specification of certain powern and duties, • • ♦; to be ex'jrcised or performed by the consul* and vice-consuls of the United Slates, rball net be construf>d to tha exclusion of others resulting from tlm nature of their appointments, or any treaty oi conveu- tion under which they may act."* So that the powers and dutie* of tsoniula, besides • gtsiutei at largo, vol. 1. p. W1. being d< general t between t. Ill4f^ the law ( leges, iiih legislaliv *l. CVnm •rise fron they are r lie minlst and, consi among dil lali\'« |,„|| missions w govern mei fir Ilia uii are to lin«; ani-e wKh nioy Iw niu nitle., rlgh niutiinl ron exercised li oiin\,'n(ionj •flairs have •ular ortlicn or are not fi wlik'h are a tlioy are pei granted to f, lis own l(ive faith and o It is likeH'ise mi the laws of the the assets of the who may die wit npreaentative, a CON 400 I act of to be Itas, U «itidei balng ilcAiMil by krit of ConffTMii, am tnillcatml liy gonml trvttlM and roniular conrtntloni tiiteml Into b«lWMn III* llnlUil Statu and uther •ovtrnlKii (luwun. 6, Inlrmulionat Ijue.—CouiuU |hmmm, niuraovnr, hy tha law of nationi, many funcllani, rlKhli, and (irivi- leK«», uihar than iurh at an deflnid by cunvantlun, by Irglilativa art, or by rrKulalbiii. «. Contiiliir /'rtfi/ri/r*.— Their prlviloK** nf^Marlly ■riM from iba rhararmr of tbiilr a|i|>uintni« extended or llniltod among dllhmnt natluni, either by treallen or the legli- lallv'o (Killiy of ihoaa counlrle*. Although the coni- nilMlonii which I'nlted Ntaten coniuU receive from their guvarnment aru expr«MHl in the eame termi and con- fi'r the uino authority, yet, a* the consular fUncdon* are to bnexercliied in a foreign country, and In accord- ance with un exci|uttur l»ued l>y it* •overeign, they may lie nioru ur lc«* n^iilrlctcd. Whenever the immu- nltlcn, right*, and dutic* of con*nU are pretcrlbed by mutnni consular convention*, tbcy are to be oi\)oycd or •xerciicil In accordance with tliu iitipulation* of such cohvcntlunn. In Ibune counlrlcii with which the United Stales have entered Into no coiiMiliir convention, con- (ular olllccr* may discharge suib iliilles as are allowed or are nut forbliUlcn by the laws of those countries, ur which are allowed by connnon usage ; and sumelinics they are permitted to exerclso such privilugns as are granted to forelga consuls by the United States within Its own territory. 7. When Obttarlet art inlerpoitd. — If the authorities of the placcH where consuls reside oppose any ol>stacles to their er\)oymcnt of the privileges which may have been atcoriied by consular conventions, or wliieh, found- ed on usa|y theniselveH. they will refer the subject to the legation of the United States residing in the country, and re- port the facts, together with their own proceedings and a copy of all their correspondence in relation to the same, to the Department of State, and await lis in- structions. In no case will they strike the consular Hug or al)an. vide fur dettilule tsaiiinn within Ihalr vniisulalss, and to sand them, at ih* public ■ipanss, lu lli« Unllsil Niatss. ll is their duly, likawita, to rM'lalm daaarltrt, to discountenaucu inauliordiiiallun and land lliair alii to tho local autliiirlliat for Ihit purpuau, lu dlsiharH* taamsn cruelly traalad, and to raialva rriiiii iIm iiiaa- lar* of American vusselt, on lliidr arrival at a fural|n port, and after llie vuttal ahail bav« uuma In an vnlrir, the register*, tea laltiirs, and passports of turli vrtaala. These duties, and some olliara which ara preurlliad \>f legal enactment, are In acrurdaiuo wllh llm iiasges of natiunt | Kknt, vuI. I, p. '<';|, and with spedal Iraatjr slipulalions wllli eiirlain countrlfi, 12. Viirirty and Impiirliinet nf (,'imtuliir llullti,-m Many of thu lunsular duties arlHi from pii ullar t\u cumtlances: such as the charaiier and liaMlt uf ilia nation in wlileh the consul risldvt, lit laws and ru«> turns, and the nature of lit iiilercoiirsu wllh Oih United States. In the most restricted sense, lliey ura Imiiur* tant and multlfurluus, are qullu dll1'er> lit fruiii lliui* of other ollliem emijiiiyed In foreign alluirs, ami ra> quire for tlicir proper perfurmani'v an aiiiounl of prao* ticul informallon fur which the loinularolllciir nved* a special training. Coiituls are so ■llUNli'd as lu aa«r> else toward their counlrymen wllhin llielr iimsular jurisdiclion the duties ul^Judgus, arbiters, and prace- mailers ; they aru tliu regUlurs of marrlagi'ii, lijrlhs, and lar to the country of Ihrir renideiieo, III. Cuminereiitl Utyulutiiini. — 'I be euinilM'rclal lltlaf- eats of their own country are. In a iiieaaure, niminll- ted to their care. They are to tee wlivlhur Ilia allptf latlons in commercial treaties aru ob«ar\ad, ami n'ci i', ii >, t be imnicdlalely Imnamlllad tn thu i^ii:'.<. . ui.kit. ' i> ; and, if It lie a local regiilalioti, opernsh^ •uilvdii li r , "eular port, they must aUoglva 1 .M'|'(I;h ' iu>ir' 'll ' to llie initilaler, if there Ihi t'u 1,' il>i 1.. -itf' ' « itc! the dl'Irlcl Imluiigs, '•1 ' 'j7^<'' "■< ' < .ifii ix oftlcurs are axiieeliid, In )iuiiIiIhIso be sent. In general, the duties of a contiilar olllciir rt> quire an attention to every thing that cun pruniulu tli* commercb and navigation of this country, and th« In- terests of its citizens. Ifi. Contentiona to be avnidti, — Contiilar oflleer* art particularly cautioned not to ente: 'mIu any I'lintfll' lions which can be avoided, eithei < ,i t' 'Untry- men or the authorities of the co itr> 'ii #\) , lliay reside ; referring questions of that nature ' ' ,'t)iiia tm 410 COIif Itter or to the Department ; using every endeavor ro settle in an amicable manner all disputes in which their countrymen may be cone ;riicd ; and countenancing and protecting them before the authorities of the country in ■U cases in irhich they may be ii^ured or oppressed, but withholding from them support when they have been willfully guilty of an infraction of the laws, par- ticularly in any attempt to defraud the revenue. In this last case they will aid the proper ofliccrs in check- ing any such practices. 16. fortign I'olilics. — All consular officers are for- bidden to participate in any manner whatever, direct or indirect, in the political concerns of the countries by whose governments they are severally acknowl- edged and recognized in their public character ; and they will be on their guard against the enlistment of their feelings upon the side of any of the political or sectional parties which may exist in these countries. In tlieir letters upon such subjects, even to this De- partment, they will confine themselves to the commu- nica ion of important or inteitsting public events, as they occur, in a clear and concise form, avoiding all unnecessary reflections or criticism upon the character or conduct of individuals or govenmicnts; and tlicy will not give publicity, tlirough tlie press or otherwise, to opinions or speculations injurious to t)ic public in- stitutions of those countries, or the persons concerned in the administration of then ; but it is, nt the san)c time, no less their duty to report, freely and season- ably, to their own govcrnnient, all important facit which may come to their knowledge, tbroiiKli aiilben- tic channels, touching the political condition of tliesc countrie.s, especially if their conimunicutions can be made subservient to, or may aU'ect, the interest and well-being of their own, 17. Prohibitions. — All consularofficcrs are prohibited b}' the 19th section of the oct approved August IR, 185(1, from corresponding in regard to the public aft'airs of any foreign government with any private person, newspaper, or other periodical, or otherwise tlinn with the proper otficers of the United States, and from rec- ommending any person, at home or abroad, for any em- ployment of trust or profit under the government of the country in which they are located ; as well as from ask ing or accepting, for themselves or any other person or persons, any present, emolument, pecuniary favor, of- fice, or title of any kind, from ony such government. 18. Diptomotic Functions. — As consuls, excepting in Mohammedan states, are not invested with dijilomat- ic powers, they are not entitled to communicate direct- ly, except under special circumstances, with the gov- ernment of the country in which they reside. Consu- lar officers are forbidden by the 12th section of the oct to exercise diplomatic functions, or hold any diplomat- ic correspondence or relation on the part of the United States, in, with, or to the government or country to which they shall be appointed, or any otiicr country or government, when there shall be in such country •ny officer of the United States authorized to perform diplomatic functions therein, unless expressly author- ized by the President. 19. Mode nf addressing furtiyn Ocremmenls. — When- ever application is to t)e made to such government, it mnst Iw done through the minister of the United States, if there be ono ; if not, and the case should require it, the consul may make the application to the proper de- partment, but in lespectful terms, stating tlia exigency of the case, and that an application to the subordinate officers could not bo made, or that it had proved Inef- fectual. 20. Pricileges.—k consul is not such a public minis- ter as to be entitled to the privileges appertaining to that character, nor is he under the special prolwtlon of the law of nations. In civil And criminal rases, where not otherwise provided by trooty stipulations, ho is subject to the lews of thecountry in which he ntldes. 21. Tttatiet and Conventions.— It is the dnty of con* suls to be conversant with all treaties, conventions, and consular conventions, also with the laws and com- mercial and other regulations relating to their coKjular functions. — Manual for Consuls, issued by the Vtpart- meat of State, Washington, 1857. An Act to regulate the JHpUmuitie and Consular Si/stemt i^the United States, paasnt August 10, 1666.— Be It enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America, In Congron usembled, thul. embuudora, envoys extraordinary and minister* plenipotentiary, minis- ters resident, commiulonera, clmrgcis d' affaires, und secretaries of legation, appointed to the countries horeinaner named in Bchcdu!') A, shall be entitled to compensation for their Bcr\*- ices, TPRpcctlvely, at tlio rates perannum hereinafter Bpecllled ; that is to say, cmbaafadors and envoys extraordinary and ministers plenipotentiary, the full amounts spcclAed therefor In said schedule A ; nilnlsters resident and commisaioncrs, T6 per centum; charges d'affaires, 50 per centum; and secretaries of legation, 15 per centum of the said amounts, n^spcctivcly ; Provided, that the compensation of the Secretary of the le- gation to China, acting as Intcrprcter, vhall bo at tho rate of .15000, and If not acting as such, at tho rate of $11000 : aad that of the Secretary of Legation to Turkey, acting as dra(j. Oman, at the rate of $3000, and If not acting aa such, at the rata of $2000 per annum. Schedule ^. --Great Britain, $17,500; France, $17,500; ItuBBla, $12,000 ; Spain, $ltf,000; Austria, $I2,0:K): l-rusila, $12,000; Brazil, $12,000; Mexico, $12,000; China, $12,000; all other countries, each $10,000. Sect. 2. And lie It further enacted, that the President be, and Is hereby authorized to appoint for tho legations at Lon- don and Paris, respectively, an aajlstant Becrotary of legation, who shall be entitled to compensation for tliclr services re- spectively, lit tho rate of fifteen hundred dollars per annum ; for the legation to China, an Interpreter, when the secretary of legation sliiill nut be acting as siieh, who sliuU be entitled to comiicnsiitlun at the rate of $,'>000 ; and for the legation to Turkey, a dragoman, when the secretary of legation shall not be acting an such, irho shall be entitled to compensation at the mto of $1000 per annum. Sect. 3. And be It further enacted, that consuls-general, consuls, and commercial agents, appointed to the ports and places hereinafter speclticd In schedules B and C, sliali bo entitled tu compensation for their services, respectively, at the rates per annum herelniifter specified In s^ild schedules II and C ; and If the President shall think proper to appoint a consul to any port or place named in the said Ech^'dules B and C, for a commercial agent, inetead of such eommercial agent, or vice versa, and an appointment shall be made ac- cordingly, the conipensntion for such consular ofllcer shall be the same In any such case as that fixed for such port or place in tho schedule embracing tho same; and if he shall think tho public interests will he Bubser\ed by appointing to any such port or place a consul-general, instead of a consul or commercial agent, and an apiwlntment shall be made accord- ingly, the compensation for such consul-general shall be the same as that fixed for eucli port or place hi the schedule em- bracing the same. Sect 4. And bo It further enacted, that consuls-general, consuls, and commercial agents, not embraced in schedules B an>' C, shall be entitled, as compensation for their soiv Ices, to such fees as they may collect In pursuance of the pro' visions of this act, respectively. Sect. 6. And be it further enacted, that no consul.gcncral, consul, or commercial agent, embraced In schedule B, shall, while he holds his oflico, bo interested in cr transact any business as a merchant, factor, broker, or other trader, or us a clerk ot other agent for any such person, to, from, or wltliln the port, place, or limits of bis conpulate or commercial agen- cy, directly or Indirectly, either In his own name, or In the name or through the agt-ncy of any other penou ; and if aii- pointed after tills act shall take effect, he shall, in his oflielal bond, stipulate, as a condition tlereof, not to violate this pro- hibition ■ and If apiwiiited before, and retained in olBcc after this act shall lake effect, bo shall, within such reasonable lime OS tho i'renident shall prescribe, enter Into n new omclul bond, with such stipulation as a condition thereof; and if any such ronsnl-g"neral, conBUl, or commercial agent, ahull violate such prohibition, ho shall bo liable to a penalty therefor, for the use of tho Tnited Btaten, equal In amount to the annual oompeusa'ion specified fur him In said sched ale B, which may be recovered In an action of debt at the suit of the United f-taten, elthei directly for tho penalty, as such, agalUHtsi'^h consul-general, or consul, or commercial agent, or upon his offlclal bond, as llnuldated dumages, for the breach of such eondltioni against su 'i canaul-geaeral, coasul, oi CON 411 CON MmmeroUl ftgent and his BiiretieSf or any one or more of them ; and In every such caHe all such ttctlons shall bo open to the United States for the coUect'.oa of such penalty till the ume shall be collected in aome one of such actions; and every such penalty, when colleotedt shall be paid Into the treasury of the United Statee; and such prohibition shall be applicahlo to all consulH'general, but not to any consul or commercial agent not embraced in taid schedule B, except as hereinafter authorlxcd, unless otherwise expressly pro- vided by law. Sect 6. And bo it further enacted, that the President bo, and is hereby authorircd to appoint three interpreters of the Chinese language, who shall to entitled to compensation for their services, resiiectlvcly, at a rate not to exceed fifteen hundred dollars ptT annum, to bo determined by the Preul- dent, and to assign such interpreters, from time to time, to such eonsiilatos in China, and with such duties as ho may think proper. Serf. 7. And be It further enacted, that the President be, and is hereby authorUcd, whenever he Bhall think the pub- lic guod will hi! promoted thereby, to appoint consular pupils, not to exceed twenty-five in number at any one time, who shall bo citizens of the irnlted States, and entitled to com- pensation for their flervlces, respcftlvely, at a rate not to ex- ceed one thousand dollard per annum, to bo determined by vhe President; and to aflsign such pupils, from time to time, to such consulates, and with such duties as be may think proper; and before the appointment of any such pupil shall bo maile, satisfactory evltlcncc, by examlnr.tiun or otherwise, shall be furn'-^hed of hlii quallflratlDnti and fitnciiis fcr the ofilco to tho Secrotar)* of State, and by him laid before the President. Sect 8. And bo it further enacted, that no person appoint- ed, after this act shall tako effect, to any such office as is mentioned In the firat, second, third, sixth, or seventh sec- tions of this act, Bhall bo entitled to compensation for hU ■ervicea therein, except from tho time when ho shall reach hid pust, and enter upon his official duties, to the time when he shall cease to hold such office, tind for such time as shall 'jo actually and necescarily occupied in rc-olving his instruc- tions, not to exceed thirty days, and in making tho transit betwci^n i\u* place of Ms residence, when appointed, and IiIb post of duty, at tho commencement and termination of the period uf bis official service, for which he shall in all cases bo allowed and paid, except ns hereinafter mentioned, and no person bIiuU Ik^ deenu'd to hold any such office after Ills sue- cesKur hliull bo appointed and actually enter upon the duties of his office at hla post of duty, m>r after his official residence at such post shall havo terminated, if not so relieved; but no fuch alluwance or payment shall ho made to any consul- general, consul, or commercial agent, contemplated by the fourth section of this act, or to any viceconsul, vlcc-com- mcn-iiil agent, deputy consul, or consular agent, for the time Bo occupied In recelvln-j itistructlon.i, or In such transit as aforesaid; nor shall any such officer as Is n^fcrred to in this section bo allowed compensation fur the time so occupied lu such trans't, ai tho termination of the period of his official service, if no shall havo resigned, or been recalled therefrom, or fur any malfeasance in hts office. Sect. 9, And bo it f; .her enacted, that, when to any dip- lomatic office held by any person there shall be superadded anoth'-r, such person shall bo allowed additional compousn- tiou fur his services, in such superadded office, at tho rate uf fifty per centum of the amount allowed by this act for such superadded office; and such supi'raddod office shall be deemed to continue during the time to which itittllniUed by tho term« thereof, und for such time aa shall be actually and necesoarlly occupied lu making the transit between the twu jwsts of duty, Mt tho coninicncoment and tenninatlon of tho period of such flUiM-Tailded MVhv so lluilted, and no longer. Sect 1". And Iw it further enacted, that for such time an any seeretay of h'gatlon shall bo lawfully authorized to act as charge d'afTatrtH tiu interivi ot the post to which he shall have been apiH*lnted, he shall Im! (^Tititled to receive compen. satlon at the rate a'lowid by this act for a charge d'affiilres ut such post; but ho .»hall not be cntltU'd U* receive, for such time, Ibo conipeni-ation allowed fo: h'a Rcr\icea as secretary of legation. Sect. II. And bo it further enacted, that for Fuch time as any conKular officer shaU he autboilred, pursuant to the pro- vlAlouH of this act, to perform diploniatlr funrtionKlntlie ub- senco ofthe regular diplomatic officer in tho country to whirh he shall be appointed, he shall be. entitled. In addition to his compensation as such consnb.r officer, to receive compensa- tion for his serxlcea while hu anthodrpd, at tho rate allowed by this act for a fecn'tary of lef^fatlon In mieh country. Sect. V2. And be It furtVer enacted, that no consular officer shall exercise diplomatic functions, or hold any diplomatic obffespond^Te or relation on the part of the United gtates, In with, or to the goremment or the country to which he shall be appointed, or any other country or government, when there shall be In such country any officer of the United States au- thorised to perform diplomatic functions therein, nor in any cAse, unless expressly authorized by the President so to do. Sect 13. And be it further enacted, that every consul-gen. eral, consul, and commercial agent, apiKihitcd before, and re- tained In office after this net shall take effect, shall, without unneeessary delay, und every such officer appointed after this act shall take elTect, shall, before he receives his commission or enters upon the duties of his office, enter Into a bond with the United States with such sureties, who shall be permanent residents of the United States, as the Secretary of State shall approve, in a penal sum no^less than one thousand nor more than ten thousand dollars, and in such form as tho President shall prescribe, conditioned for the tnie and faithful account- ing for, paying over, and delivering up of all fees, moneys, goods, efTeets, books, records, papers, and other property which shall como to his hands, or to the hands of any other person to his use as such con ful -general, consul, or commer- cial agent, under any law now or hereafter enacted; and for the true and faithful performance of all other duties now or hereafter lawfully Imposed upon him as such consul-general, consul, or commercial agent t and In the cues of consuls-gen- eral, consuls, and commercial agents embraced In schedule B, such bond shall contain, by way of further condition, the stip- ulation required by the fifth section of this act ; and all such bonds sliall bo deposited with the Secretary of the Treasury, and In no case shall the penalty of such bond be leas than the annual compensation allowed to the officer entering Into such bond ; and the President shall be authorized to require a new or additional bond from any such consul-general, consul, or commercial agent. In like form and In such penalty, within the limits aforesaid, In amount, as he shall prescribe, when- ever. In his opinion, tho public good shall require It. Sect. 14. And be It further enacted, that the President be, and he is hereby authorized to define the extent of country 10 bo embraced within any consulate or commercial agency, and to provide for tho appointment of vice-consuls, vice-com- mercial agents, deputy consuls, and consular agents therein, lu such manner, and under such regulations as he shall deem proper ; but no compensation shall bo allowed for the serv- ices of any such vice-consul, or vice-commercial agent beyond nor except out of the allowance made by this act forthc prin- cipal consular officer In whoso place such appointment shall bo made ; and nu vice-consul, vice-commercial agent, deputy consul, or consular agent, ic collected, for any auch aenice, any other or great- er fees than such as shall bo allowed pursuant to the provi- sions of this act for such service, he shall, besides his liability to ref\ind the same, be liable to pay to the person by wliom or in whose bt^hnlf the same shall bo paid treble the kmuunt of said unlawful charge so collected aa a penalty therefor, to he re- covered by such person in any proper foim of uct'.on, to and for the use of sucli person, besides costs of suit ; and in any such cas'e the Secretary of the Trensury is hereby authorized tu retain out of the compensation of such officer the amount uf Kuch overchai^e and of such penalty, and charge tho same to such officer in account, and thereupon to refund fuch un- lav.ftil charge, and pay such penalty tu the person entitled to the same, if he ithiill tlilnlc proper so to do. Sect. 18. And be it furllier enacted, that all fees collected at any of the legations, or by the consuls-general, consuls, and commercial at^ents mentioned in schedules U and C, and by vice-consuls and vice-commercial agents appointed to per- form their duties, or by any other purauns in their behalf, shall he accounted for to the Secretary of tlie Treasury-, and held subject to his draft, or otiier din'ctlonH; and all such conau la-general, cont>uls, commerciul agent.i, and conttular agents as are allo\tcd for tlieir compensation tho wholo or any part of the fees which they may collect pursuant to the provisions of this act, and all vice-consuls and vlce-oouimer- cial agents appointed to {H*rforni the duties of said cuntjuis- general, consulii, aud conmierclal agents as are allowed for their compensation the wholo or any part of Buch fees hh aforesaid, shall nialtu returns of nil such fees as tliey or any other persons i;i their belmlf bhull so collect, in such manner as the Secretary of State shall prescribe ; and all such fees an sltall be so cuPccted, accotmted for, and reportiul, shall be re- ported annually to r'ongre&a, with tho report of tho rates or tariffs of fees rciilar ufficerh; and if any consul gen- eral, consul, or commercial agent, mentioned in scliedules H and <', or any vice-consul, or vlce-comniercial agent, appoint- ed to perform the duty of any t^nch officer mentioned in said schedules II aud C', shall omit to eolk-rt any fue.-t wltich he shall lit^ etititlei to charge, pursuant to tlu' provisUnm of this act, for any official Kcr\'iro, ho Khnll 1« lialde to the Inited Btntcs tht refer, aa though ho liad collected the Kame, unless, upon good cause shown therefor, the St^cretary of the Treas- ury shall think proper to remit the same ; and » vi?ry consular officer Hhall numl>erall receipts given by him for fues received forotHeial servlcci*. In the order of their dates, beginning with number one at the coniiuencement of tho perind of his scrv ice, and on the tinil day of January in every yciir thereHftcr; and he shall keep a book, In which he shall register iitl fees BO *¥ccived by him. In the order in which they shall be re- ceived, speoifylng in such register each item of ferviee ond the amount received therefor, from whom, and the dates when received, and If for any service connected with any ship or vessel, the name thereof, ami indlt:ating who: items and amounts are embraced in each receipt (flven by '.ilm therefor, and numbering the 8.ime aeconling to the noatber of the re- ceipts respectively, so that tho receipts and leglster shall cor- re«pond with eaelt other; and he shall, in kucIi reglHter, H|}er- ify the name of the pers'jn for whom, and the datt wImu he shall gtunt, issue, or verify any passport, certify any invoice. or perform any othtr official service In the ei try of the re- ceipt of the fees therefor, and also number each consular net Bo ivc-eipted for, with tlie number of such receipt, and as shown by such register; and it shiill Iw the duty of all own- ens agents, consignees, masters, and commanderH of shl|m and vessels to whom any receipt for fees Phall be given l.y anyeonr^tilar officer, to f'trnhh a copy thereof to the citllector of the district In which sucli ships and vepsels shall tirst ar- rive on their return to the I'nited States, and It (slmll be the duly of every collector to forward to the Secretary of the Treasury all at any one time, without the permission previously obtained of the l*residont; and no com- pensation shall bo allowed for tlie time of any such absence in any case, except in eases of Blcknese ; nor shall any diplo- matic or couRular officer correspond In regard to tlio public alTalrs of any foreign government with any prlvato jicrson, newspaper, or other periodical, or otherwise than with tho proper officers of the United States, nor recommend any per- son, at home or abroad, for any employment of truKt or pro6t under the government of tlio country In which he Is located; nor ask nor accept, for himself or any other person, any pres- ent, emolument, pecuniary favor, office, or title of any kind, from any such government, Sert. 20. And bo It further enacted, that the comj)cnBatlon pi-ovlded by this act sintll bo In full for all tho services and personal expenses which shall be rendered or Incurred by tho officers or iwrsonp n^spectUely for whom such compensation Ik provided, of whatever nature or kind such services or per- sonal expenses may be, or by whatever treaty, law, or In- structions suc'i services or personal expenses bo renden'd or Incurred are or shall be required; and no allowance, other than iy advanced to any such seaman or mariner who shall beck re- lief from any consulate or commercial agency: nor Khullany consular officer, or any person under any consular ofbier, bo Interested, directly or indirectly, in any profit derived, from clothing, boarding, or otherwlsi* j-upplying or scndhiij huino any such a-aman or mariner: provided, that such prohibi- tion as to profit Khali not '.e conr^lnied to relieve or i-revont any such otllcerwho shall lie the owui-r or otherwise interest- ed In any ship or vessel of the Unlttul .States, from transport- ing in sudi ship or vessel uny such seaman or mariner, or from receiving or Ijeing interested in such ifiosonable allow- ance HA may lie made for such trans])ortation, under and liy vli'tre of the fourth seotion of the acr. entitled "An .\t t nup- plementary to the Act coneeniing Consuls and Vice cinsulf", and for the further protection of American seamen." approved February 28, lSft3. Sect. 21. And be It further enacted, that no eompensatlon provided by this act for any such officer as i.-' mentioned in the first section of Ihls act, or for auy as^slstant «tvri'tar>' of legation, or for any sncli officer is Is mentioned in sclMidulcti It and (J of the third section of this ait, or any apptojjrin- tlon therefor, shall be applicable to the payment of t)u' lom- pensation of any pirson ujipointed to or holding any such officf after this act shall tak^ effi-'ct, who stiall not he a eiti- reii of Mm Inlted States; nor shall any other campensatlon Ih> allowed in any such case. Sect. 22. .\nd be it further enacted, that the i'»*e8ldent bp, and Is hereby authorized to provide at the public expense uU Kuch Hlotlimery, blanks, r»'C'»rd and other books, B»ai(', presses. Hags, and signs, as he nhall think necessary fnr tho several legatlvnv niulatcs.and commercial agencies in the iransaetlon of t' i. huHiness; and i^'hunever ho shall think there la sufficient reason ;hercfor, to allow consuls-general, consuls, ond commercial an'.'uts, who are not allowed to trade, actual expunscB of office rent, not tu exceed, in any case, ton per ccntun lowed to 81 make and I with the Ci latlon to tl the transac «nd returns of (he arch; officers, the xaeat and tr nianufuctun as he may I ahall be the Ulations, ord of the Secret time to time, to him bysu deom imjiort not to exceed to Congress, niuch of tho communleute. Information. Sect 23. Ar Stato shall he cause passport countries by SI States, and nn and prescribe 1 other person si nor shall anvp any other jiors ahull any ch.irjj '•■^ypussport i'2 case the feo nlh dollar, nor shai] sucli verilicatio: acting, or claim ^'nited States', o ahall not be law or verify any pa; pftKHpnr'.toorfo anyp,.rs.,n claiii; portorv.riticatit thor.iite.) i„gruni and wiiMiiiiy gri f'^ranypers.jn u. «o 'jffepdingslj .1, dem< *.i<,r, ttMc. notex.' edln^o^ hundred -i. Mars, against, tn* d, coi trict where u< urn tho duty of all ^ theprovis! msof toniak.- return , , manner ai.d ns of shall specify ,;., , ."ons lo whom tho as embraced in wu. where a legat'on « i^on other tha:i thi States at HUch yi passport, oxcent a'ivo. oec-r 2-t, And Ij( of legation mid coi over ho hhal! bo rer 80 to do. at the po legation, consulate, «'■ take from auy pci ('"itlon, and also to any AoUuy public i perform within the nrmalion, affidavit, *»wom, affirmed, tak office- wljeii e(>rtiiie "c aa^ood, valid, ofl tlio United States to ailirmation, affidavi minlHt..red, sworn, a a'ly oth-.T person wii "Hdc'inpetent there *-'orrui.tly commit pe »>'! to commit perji aavit, fn- deposition, art of Congress now. charged, proceeded a ■ft vlt CON m CON t'ij or pcr- iw, or iD- ndon'tl or ncc, other 1(1(1 In any or or pcr- >erBon nn- ■, dlrcct- ission or or extra tUlcd who ,ny nioiH'y U seek rP- hhiilUny ^.thr.T, Vhs i^,.^y from iiuj huino |h i.rohlbl- iiitcroht- tranttjiort- .inrlniM-, or hW iiUow- lor and hy \rt ftUp- rnnsuh", ' approved Jnponsntion luUont'd in Tori'tar)* ^^ IftllOtMUl- r any such Et \io a eiti- liiponnatluu JcBhlent b^, lie *'si«mBO Inks, 8*■"l^ ■ary for Iho TclPHin tho LhaU thUik lilHfi''in'raI» 111 tntrarte, ty case, len per centum of the amount of the annual compensation al- lowed to Biich ottlcer, and to probcrlbe such regulations and make and Itwuo such ordrrs and Instructions, not liiconslBtent with the l^uuhtitution or any law of the I'nitcd States, In re- lation to the duties of all diplomatic and couBular offlccre, the transaction of their business, tlio rendeiing of accouuta and returns, tho payment of compensation, the safe keeping of the archives and public property in the hands of all such officers, tlie communication of information, and the procure- ment and transmission uf tho products of the arts, sciences, manufactures, agriculture, and commerce, from time to time, as he may think conducive to tho public interests ; and It Bhall be tlio duty of all such officers to conform to anch reg- ulations, orders, and instructions. And it shall be thf duty of tho Secretary of State to publish official notifications, from time to time, of Nuch commercial Information communicated to liim by such diplomatic and consular ofllcers, as ho may deem importont to tho public interest, in such newspapers, not to e?xeed three In number, as he may ficlert, and report to Congress, at least onco In each year, a synopsis of so much of tho information on all subjects ',vhich Bhall be so communicated tu him, as ho may deem valuable for public Information. Sect. 23. And be it further enacted, thftt tho Secretary of Stato shall l)e authorized to grant and issue passports, and cause pitssportii tu 1)0 granted. Issued, and verified In foreign countries by such diiilomatic or consular officers of the United Ftatcs, and under Buch rules as the President shall designate and prescribe for and on behalf of tho United States and no other person shall grant, issue, or verify any sucli passport , nor shall any passport be granted or issued to, or verified for any other i)ersonri tliau citizens of tlie United States; nor Bhull any charge be made for granting, issuing, or verifylut? r .^y p^sKjiort except In n foreign countrj-; and in any sudi case the fee iillowed tliercfor Khali not exceed the sum of one dollar, nor shall any such ehari;c be mado for mon' than one such verification In any foreign country; and if »oy person acting, or claiming to act, in any office or capacity iMWler the United States, or any of the states of tho United Stat**, who shall not be lawfully authorized so to do, shall grunt, l«mi«, or verify any passport, or otlicr in-trument in the nature o^* paHHiPMi*, to or for any citizen of the United Stiites, ortoorfor any piMsin claiming to be or designated as such in such pass- port or v»ri1ioation, or if any consular officer wlio shall be au- thor? zc(i to grant, issur, or verify passports, shall knowingly and will-iiilly gram. S&tue, or \crVy any uich pas^p^rt to or f'jf any person not a citizen of the i .lited Htattv, the person so -jffopding fib' Jl be dee-ufd and taken to be guilty of a niis- demt iii'ir, a'ui on convit liou thereof, shall br imprisonrd, not exc ■(•ding one year, or fined In a sum not to exceed live hundred -I'Mars, or botli. and may ho. chjxrgrd, proceeded against, tfifl.conviol'jd, n'lid dojilt with, therefor, Iti tlic dis- trict where Ik may I c am hted '.r in custody ; and it shall be tho duty of ail y«'f»ions wlin shall be authorized, pui-suant to the provisions of t1;ii ac:, to grant, ieptir, or verify pasHports, to m»k.» return of tl'.<' same to tho Serrctarj' of State, in such manner fti.H f>8 often as he shall require ; aim suoli returns shall specify .;.. . aiues and all otl>er partinilars of the per- sons to whom the same «I atl 1)0 graut^id, Issued, or veriflod. as embraced in r»ueh passpoit j>rovldod, th»t in anyeuuntty where a leyat'on of the United .'States is t?stablished, no pcr- hon other than thft d(;jloniatic i. itresemative of the United Btates at such jsla -o A\^n \)c permitt^ d to grant <.r issue any passport, except !'.i the abaence then*"p»m of such reprosent- aUve. ^c<;^ 24. And bo it further enacted, ihat every secretary of legation and con'jular offlrpr U hereby authorized, when- ever he sliai! Ijo required or nniy deem it necessary or proper 60 to do, at the p'^st, port, place, or wltiiin 'ho limits of his legation, consulate, or commercial agciicy, to administer to or take from any person an oath, affinujitlo'i, affidavit, oi dep- o-'itlon. and also to i jrform any uotariul act or nets sudi as any ;iotnry public Is rcquln^d or authorized In* luw to do or perform within tlio United States; and eveiy smii oath, af- ilrma.icu, allidavit, deposiiion, and notarial net adn.iini.-tercd, bworn, affirmed, taken, liad, or done, by or i.efure any sncli office' when cenilied under liis hand and seal of office, shall be as ^ood, valid, effectual and of like force oud effect within tho United States to all Intents and purposes as If such oath, affirmation, affidavit, deposition, or notarial act had been ad- ministt.red, SMoni, affirmed, taken, had, or done, by or Iwfore a'ly oth'T person within tho United States duly authorized and ( unpctent thereto; and If any person shall willfully and corruptly cuuimlt perjury, or by any means procure any per- son to commit perjury, in any such oath, affirmation, affi- davit, of deposition, within the intent and meaning of any act of Congrc>s8 now or hereafter mn'le, such offender may be charged, provcedod against, tried, oinvicted, and dealt with in any district of the United States In the same manner, In all respects, as if such offense had been committed In the United States, before any officer duly authorized therein to administer or take such oath, affirmation, affidavit, or depo- sition, and shall be subject to the name punishment and dis- ability therefor as arc or shall bo prescribed by any such uct for such offense i and any document purporting to havp af- fixed, impressed, or subscribed thereto or thereon tUf seal and signature of the officer administering ur taking the same in testimony thereof, shall bo admitted in evidcnco without proof of any such seal or signature being genuluc or of the official character of such person; and if any person bIiuU forge any such seal or signature, or shall tender in evidence any such document with a false or counterfeit seal or signa- ture thereto, knowing tho same to be false or counterfeit, he shall be deemed and taken te be guilty of a misdemeanor, and on conviction shall be Imrrlsoned not exceeding three years, nor less than one year, t.-'d fined in a sum not to ex- ceed thrco tlioLsand dollars, and nuiy be charged, proceeded against, tried, c< 'vlcted, and dealt with, therefor, In the dis- trict where he may bo arrested or in custody. Sect. 26. And be It further enacted, that whenever any sea- man or mariuer of any vessel of the United States shall de- sert such vessel, tho master or commander of such vessel shall note the fact and date of such desertion on the list of the crew, and tlie same shall be officially authenticated at the port or place of the con*«ulate or commercial agency first vi.-ited by sucli vessel after such desertion, if such desertion slinll have occurred in a foreign country ; or if In such case such vessel shall not visit any place where there shall ho any consulate or commercial agency befo'-e licr return to the United States, or tho desertion shall have occuiTed In this country, the fact and time of such desertion shall be officially authenticated before a notary public immediately at the fii-st _ irt or place where snch vessel shall an ive after such deser- tion ; and all wages tlmt may be due to nrh seaman or mar- iner, and whatever interest he may havo in the cargo of such vessel, shall lie forfeited to and become the property of tlie United States, and paid over for their use to the collector of the port where the crew of such vessel arc accounted for, aa s^Xjii an the same can bo asiertaliied; first deducting there- from any expense which may necessarily have been Incurred ■n ac/jount of such vessel in consequence of such desertion ; A*-^ in Bottling the account of such wages or interest no al- I 'iwance or deduction shall be made except for moneys actu- ;.Uy paid, or goofTs at a fair price supplied, or expenses in- curred I" or for Kiicli seaman or mariner, any receiptor vouch- er from, or nrrnngement with such seaman or mariner, to the contrary notwithstanding. Sect. 26. And be it further enacted, that upon the appli- cation of any .-eaman or mariner for a dircharge, if It shall appear to tho cunsulai' officer that ho is entitled to his dis- charge under any act of Congre,-B, or acvordlt:;; to the gene- ral principles or usages of maritime law, as recognized in tho United States, lie shall discharge such seaman or mariner, and shall require from tlie master or commander of the ship or vessel from which such discharge shall be made, the pay- ment of tlireo months' extra wages, as provided by the act horcinl)efore mentioned, approved February 28, ISOr ; and It shall be the duty of such matter or commander to pay the Kame, anu no .^uch payment oi any part thereof s!. all bo re- mitted in any case, except such as are mentioned in the pro- viso of the ninth clause of the act entitled "An Act in addi- tion to the several Acts regulating the Shipment and Dis- chorge of Seamen and tho Duties of Consuls," approved July •JO, 1S40, uud as hereinafter provided, and the extra wages required to be paid by tho said ninth clause ol the last hcre- inbefoie mcutioued act, and by this section, shall be applita- bio to the same purposes a;id In the same manner as is di- rected by tho sold act, approved Febnniry 28, 1803, in regnrd to tho extra wages required to be paid thereby; and if any consular officer, vhen discharging any seaman or mariuer, shall neglect to require the payment of, and collect the ex- tra wages ivquinvl to Iw jmld in tho case of the discharge of any seaman or mariner, by either of the said acta, as far as they shall remain in force under this act or by t)ils act, he shall bo aceouutablo to the United Stat"a for thj full amount of their share of such wages, and to such seaman or mariner to the full amount of his share thereof; and if any seaman or mariner shall, after his discharge, have incurred any ex- pense for hoard or other necessaries at the port or place of his disehHrge before shipping again, sucli expense shall be jmid out of the share of the three mouths' wages to which he shall be entitled, which shall l)e retained for that purpose, end the balance only paid over to him: provided, however, that Ih cases of wivckod or stranded sldps or vessels, or ships or ves- sels condemned as unfit for service, no payment, or extra wa- ges shall be required. Mi^ I !•'• CON 4U CON Sect. 2T. And be It Airther "nacted, that every coniuUr officPT Hhil', keep a detailed Uat of ali seamen and mariners ■hiiipc'I and diacbarged by him, (•pedfying their nnniet and ibi nanina of the veaaeU on and from which they ahall be ihlpped and diicharged. and tho payments, if any, made on account of each fta dlacharj^d, and also of the number of the tcimIs arrived and departed, and thu amounts of their regis- tered to^na^, and the number uf their aeiunen ind mariners, and df those vr\\o arc protected, and whe.ber citteena of the Vnlted Stateo or not, bikI aa uearK- a^ posftble the nature and value of tlieir cargoes, and when' produced, and make re- turns of the same, with their accouuts and other return.", to the Secretary of tlio Tieaaury; and no consular officer shall eeriffy any invoice unless he shall ' o satlnfied that the person ma^iiif^ the o:ith or afHrmution thereto iK theperjon he rep- rest rtd himAcIf to be, that he Is ncredibli' pei-son, and that the Btab< mrnts made under huc'u oath orariinuutlun are true; and be shall, thereupon, by hie certificate, state that he was so Mtisfied; and it sliall be the duty of every consular otflcer to fhmish to the Becrctury of the Treasury, is often as shall be reqifircd, the prices current of all articles of merchandise usually exported to the; United folates frcm the port or place in which ho bImII be located. iitct 28. And I , it furtht rcnftcted, that it shall ho the duty of every niastcr and eumiimndor of a ahlp or vessel of the V'nlte-I States, whenever ho f'hall Imvo occasion for any con- sular or other ofTicial sc/vlce, which any consular olTlcer of the United States shall he authorI»-'i by law or usage ofllcially to perform, and for which any fees shall Iw allowed by thu said rates or tArlfTs of feen as Aforesaid, to apply to fueh one of the Mid ofUcers as may then Im officially located at the consulate or commercial agency, if any there be where i.irh service shall be rcfiuiriMl, to perform ^uch service, and sncM master or comaiander shall pay to such ofTlcj^r such fees ra ■hall Iw allowed for such service. In pursuance of the pruvi.s- ions of this act ; and if any such master or conimantler shall omit BO to do, he shall be llnble to the I'nitcd States for the amount of the fees luvfnlly chargeable for such senicc?, as thoi](;fh tlie said scnicus had Ik en pcrfi nied hy such off\cer. And all consular cfliccrs arc hereby authorized and required to retain in th'^ir possession all the paperti of such ships and vewela which shall be deposited with them as directed hy law, till payment shall bo made of all demands and wages on ac- count of such I'hipfl and vcBsels. Sect. 29. And be it further enacted, that if any citizen of the United Htatcs who shall die abroad shall, hy any lawful tcatanientarj* dlepos'tlon, leave special directions for the cjs- tudy and management, hy the crnstilar officer of the port or place where he olia!I die, of Wv personal property of which he shall die possessed In such country, as contemplated hy the act entitled "An Act concemiu^j (,'onsuls and Vice-con- suls," approved April 14, 1792, It shull be the duty of such officer, so far as the law of such country will permit, strictly to observe such directions; and if any such Wtlzen so djin^ shnll, hy any lawful teslanientary dir'puHlti'n, Imve appointed any other person or iKTdons than such officer to taico charge of and manage liuch property, It nhall be t'lc duty of such of- ficer, whenever rcrpilrcd by such person or persons so ^.ppoint- cd, to give his official aid iti whatever way may he necessary to facilftat:! the proceedings of such person or pei-sons in the lawful execution of such trubt, and, so far as thu laws of the country permit, to protect the property of tlie deccaBcd from any interference of the local authorities of the country where such citizen shall die; and to this end it shall be the duty of such con:4Ular officer to phiro his offici.U seal unon all or any of the personal propiTty or cfTecttf of the deceased, and to break and remove huch seals as may bu required by such person or pcr/^on.i, and not otlierwlse. Sect 80. And be it further cuueted, that all fees collected for and in behalf of the L'nited States, In pursuance of this act, shall be collected in the coin of the Lnlted Stutos, or at Its representative value in cxchau^ Sect. 31. And be it further enacted, that In the construc- tion, and for the purposes, of all other n.'ts and parts of acts which shall remain in force after thla act pholl take effect, defining any of the powers, declaring any of the rights, pre- Bcrihing any of the duties, or imposing any penalty or pun- ishment for ftitv act of omission or commission of any consul, fomnicrcial agent, vice-consul, or vlce-commcreial s^ent, or allowing or enjoining the performance of any act, matter, or thing, with or before any such officer, al! Mich acts and parts of acts ahall In all these several respecti;, sn far as may he consistent with the suhject-uiatter and context of the Siime. and with this act and the treaties of the United State.t, he deemed and taken to include nnd apply to all consular offi- cers as though all Kuch officers were sperially named therein ; and the said official deMgnatfons in contemplation of all such aclH, and parts of actf, and of this act, bhall be deemed and t4ken to have the respective meanings hereinafter aaalgned to them — that Is to say, '^Consul-General/* ** Consul," and '^Commercial Agent," shall be deemed and taken to denote full, principal, and i>ermaner\t "consular officers," aa distin- guished from aubordinates and substitutes: "Deputy Con- sul" and "Consular Agout" ahall be deemed and taken td denote "consular officers" aubordlnate to such principals, exorcising the powers and performing the duties within tho limits ol their consulates or commercial agencies rosjiectlve- ly, the former at the same porta or places, and the latter at ports or places different frtm those at which such prlncipaU are located, respectively ; aad "vice-consuls" and "vice-com- mercial agents" shall be deemed and taken to denote "con- sular officers," ^ho shall be subbtltutud temporarily, to fill the p1act3 of '■ consuls-general," "eouBulB,"or "commercial agents," when they shall be temporarily absent, or relieved from duty; and the term "consular officer," as used in this act, shall he . eui'^d and taken ti Include all such officers ain arcmcUloned In his section, and none others; and the term " diplon.atic officer," as used in this act, 8l>r«ll be deemed and taken to Include all the ofilcers mentioned in tho first section of this act, anil none others. Sect. 32. And bo it further enacted, that If any consular officer shull willfully ncg.cct or omit to perform seasonably any duly Imposed upon him by thla or any other act, or by any order n-- -Titruction made or given in pursuance of this or M\j oth 'ball he guilty of any willful malfeasance or uh'< M 'I any corrupt rouduct in his office, he shall bo liahlt 8 injured by i.ny such neglect or omisbion, malfedoiiuu.., u^.. e, or corrupt conduct, for all damages occa- sion 'herei.y: and fnr all such damages by any such officer, he, his sureties upon his ci'lctttl bond, shall bo responsible there i .• lull umouutof penalty thereof, to he micd In thenamt <..! the United Stnter, lor thu us'i I he deemed and taken to be guilty of a misdemeanor, and on conviction thereof shall be punished hy imprtEonmcnt not to exceed ten jiars nor less than one year, or by fine not t'( t'xceed two thouribud dollars nor less thun trtu hundred doj- !a>i,or both, at ib- discreti* n of thu court; and any sudi offl- cei 3o offending may be ..arged, proceeded aguinst, tried, convicted, nnd dealt with, u any district in wlilch ho niuy }je I arr« Htrd or in custody. Sect. 33. And be it further enacted, that the fifth, Mxth, and s«'vonth sectiuns of tho not hereinbefore mentioned, ap- proved July 20, F40, and all of the act euiitled "An Act to remodel \\\v. Diplomutlc mid CouKuhit' Systems of tins United Stotes," approved Murcli 1, ISft.*, and all acts and pnrtHof acta whcithy any such fees as arc nutemplated hy the seventeenth section of tliif* act arc fixed or ailowod, and any iihsge or law whereby any uttaeho U or may be allowed to any legation other than such as arc provided in this act, or ref^uirhig any secretary of legation to be employed otherwltie tlian ao pro- vij«"l by this act, and all other acts and parts of acts, m far as tac e.'.nio are iucouslstent wi'h thU act, he and the xanio are hereby annulled it'd repealed, and no attuclio t-:hall bo allowed, in any case, i:ur any secretary of legation, otherwlso than iis providetl by tlds act. Scct.ii. And bu It further enactcff that this act shall take effect on thu first dey of January, ISbT, and not before. SCIIKDULK B. BALABIES OV CONSrLJ-OFJfCRAT. A.NP Cl/NBUf.S OF TUR CNITKD BTATIIA. I, CoTVtxtlg-General—i'uhA: Havana, $6000. nritish In- dia: CUcut'ia,$6000. Urltlsh North Amerlcat QueU'c, 4:4000. Japan : Slmoda, $5000. Turkey : Constantinople, $30i)0. Kgypii Alex-indrla, !ti.BOO. Frankftirt-ou-the-Maln, !f3OU0. II. r'ofw«/«- /••ir8f rtow.— (ireat Hrltttln: London, $7 WK)- Mverponl. $7fiO0; Mellwume, $4000; Hong-Kong, $;ir>00: • Jlasgow. !f8()00, MiutrUIus, $2C00; Singapore $2r>00 : lie!- fast, $2000; fork. $'i(KH>; I>uudee, $2000; Demamra. :{:2000; Haliiax, $2000; Kingt-t^m (Jamaica), $2000; Leeds, $2000; Manchester. $2000 ; Nassau (New Providence), $200t(; South- ampton, $2fKM)- Turk's Island, $2000. France: Havre, $6000; Paris, $PiOOO ; Marseilles, $2600; Bordeaux, $2000; La KocbeUe, $lfiOO; Lyons, $1500. €0N JliS CON Runla: Mokcow, $2000; OdefM.SaOOO; Ravol, $2000; St. PetersburK. $3000. Spain: .Mllt4nzl>^ $'.J600: Trintdid de Cuba, $!!fiOO; Sant- UxD do Cuba, $-2euaro (I'nrta Ulco), (1600. Auitria: Trleate, $9000; Vienna. $1600. I'ruMla: Alx la Cliapulle, J^jO. China: Canton, $4000 ; Sbanghal,$4000; Foo-tcboir,$S600; Amo)', $3000; Nlngpo, $8000. Turki'y : Beyrout, $2'iOii ; Smyrna, $2000 ; JeruBalem, $1600. Netherlands.- llotterdani, $2000; AicatcrdaB., $1000. Belgium : Antwerp. $2600. Portugal: Fundiul. $1600: Oporto, $ 1 5<)0. Denmark: St. ThomiiH, $4000; KUInour, $1600. Sardinia: Genua. $1600. Switzerland : UuhIc, $2000 ; Oenovn, $1600. Slcllleii: Mefslna, $'.S00; Naples, $1600 ; Palermo, $1600. BoAony: Lclpsic, $1&J0. Bavaria: Munich, $1000. Tuscany: Leghorn, $1600. .': . Wartcmborg: Stnttgardt,$1000. Iliinsealic and free towns : Bremen, $2000 ; Hamburg, $2000. Birbary States: Tanglers, $3000; Tripoli, $3000; Tunis, $3000. llrazil ; Illo do Janlrro. i(CflO0 ; Pomanibnco, $2000. Mexico: Vera <'ni«. $8500; Acapulco, $200a Peril : ^•allno, $3600. Chill : Valpaniiro, $3000. Buenos Ayro!i: Buenos Ayrcs, $2000. Nlcamgna : San Juan del Sur. $2000. New GrHniida: Asplnwnll, $2600; Panama, $3600. Venezuela: I.ry 1 00 Of advertisement of sale of vessel or cargo, provisions or stores 1 00 C30N 416 CON AvtienUeeUing Signalun*. To report! of lurrcy on Tewnl or citrgo, prorUloni or ■torn fl 00 To eftimtto of repaira of vetael 1 00 To (auetionwr'i) account of Hie* of reieel or cargo, proviHlon* or atorei 1 00 To avemife bondi 8 00 Of governors, Judge*, notario* public, cuitom-houae and other offlcer* i 00 or nierc'hanU and indirlduala S 00 For any other conaular certificate or servlccB of like character not herein named or enumerated BO ConauU' Oritri and Lftleri. To lend seamen to hospital no fee. To send seamen to prison KO Tu release seamen vrom prison 60 To authorities or captain of the port, In cases of slnlc- Ing vejtscis KO Bequostin^ the arrest of seamen 60 For any other letter or order of like character DO Filin0 Doeumentt in OontulaU. Call* of survey on vessel, hatches, cargoes, provlalona, and stores, or rtther 26 Warrants of sui". tiv on vcaaela, hatches, cargoes, pro- vlaiona, and stores, or cither 26 Iteporta of survey on veaaels, hatches, cargoes, provis- ions, and Ktores, or either 26 Estimate of rcpaira of vesael 'i6 Consul'a certificate to advcrtlxemeut for flmda on bot- tomry 26 To advertiaement of sale of vi'«».'l, cargo, provisions, and stores, or either 26 Inventories of vessels, carf;o, provisions, and stores, or cither 26 Letter of masU.>r notifying consul of sale of veaael, car- go, proviaio'ifl, and aturca, or either 26 Ofinastcr notifying auctioneer of aalo of vessel, cargo, provlKioiia, and stores, or cither 26 Accounts of sale of vessel, cargo, proviaione, and stores, or either 26 For filing any other document prepared lu or out of the consulate 26 Bemrding Doettmen/A Calls of survey on vessel, hatches, cargo, provisions, and stores, or either ; warrants and n-ports of ditto, ditto; estimates of repairs; certificates of consuls to advertisements for funds on bottomry, and of anlo of vessel ; Inventories of vessel, cargo, proviaions, and stores; letter of niaater to conaiil notif}-ing salo of vessel, cargo, provisions, and stores, or either ; letter of master to auctioneer, and account of sale* of vessel, cargo, provisions, and stores, or either, for every 100 words 20 (As the original documents are required to be filed In the consulate, It will not be necessary to record them. Should It ever become necessary, however, to deliver up the originals, they must be recorded before deliver}-, the party receiving the same paying the record fee, a* above mentioned.) Order and consul's certificate to pay aeumen's wagea or voyages, at home 26 CertlArahj given to master at hi* own request, when required 26 Appointment of new master 26 Application of a citizen of the United States for a sea letter..., 26 Sea letter, for every lOOworda 20 Bill of sale, when required, for every 100 words 20 Consul's letter to captain of port, or authorities. In cases of sinking veaaels 26 Consul'a certificate* to njaatera taking home destttuto American seamen do fi^e. Prot«'sta of matera and other-, other than marine pro- teata, for every 100 words 20 Average Iwnds, when required, for every 100 words. . 20 Powersof attorney, when required, forevcrylOOword* 20 Any other document or Instrument of writing not here- in named or enumerated, prepared in or out of the consulate, and required to bo recorded, for every 100 words 20 BftaiMi of d/vta»ed American CTWiena.— For taking Into pcjaesslun the pemnal estate of any citizen who shall die vltliln the limit* of a conaulatc. Inventorying, selling, and finally settling and preptring or transmitting, according to law, the balance due thercon, 6 per cent on the gross amount of such estate. If part of such estate shall be delivered over before final sfUtlcnient, 2J per cent to be charged on the part !» delivered over as la not In money, und 6 per cent, on the gross amount of the residue. If among the effects of the de- caaaed arc found certiflcatea of foreign atocks, loans, or other property, Vi jut cent on the amount thereof. No charge will be made for placing the official seal open the personal prop- erty or cfTccta of such deceaat d citizen, or for breaking or re- moving the aeala,' when reqtiired by the poraon or person* leferred to in secUon 29 of the act of August 18, 1860, Miieellmiemu Sertieat. ki^n. For connil'i aeal and algnature to clearance flrom eui> tom-houae authorities $0 00 For administering oath*, not herelnboforv provided for each 26 For consul'a attendance at a ahlpwreuk, or for tlie pur- pose of asslatlng a ship In distress, or of saving wrecked goods or property, over and above travel- ing expenses, a per diem of $4, whenever the con- sul'* interposition 1* required by the parties Inter- ested 4 00 For attending an appraisement, wUem the goods or effect* are under 11000 in value B 00 For attending valuation of goods of $1000 and upward In value, for evory day's attendaaco durlug which the valuation continues 6 00 For attending sale of goods. If the purchaae-uiuney bo under $1000 8 00 For Attending sale of goods. If the pmvhase-moncy Is tlOOO and upward, for every day during whlcli the sale continues 5 00 For attending salo of vessel, when required '2 00 Fees for unofficial Servieea A* the unofilcial acts uf a consular officer may be performed by a notary public, and as the compensation cliarged therefor la regarded aa a perquisite of htsotlice, the rate of suchcompenaatiou may bedctei*mlned either by agreement or the custom of the place, aubject, how- ever, to future Inatructloiu). i:xterritorialand otktr Privileges nfContuls. — Accord- ing to an elaborate opinion prepared by Mr. Cualiing, Attorney-General of the United States, under dato July 14, 1855, tlio United States may, witli consent of the government of another country, auperadd to the regular duties ther(;in of consul any of those of a min- ister. There are tivo great classes of cases in which this fact exists, and might well bo systematized, or at least more explicitly recognized, in consular stipi'la- tions witli foreign governments. Consular Priiitcges in Colonial or other l^pendenciea of Forrigih Slates, — Uno is, that of the transmarine posses- sions of sundry of tho states of Europe. Here, many cogent reasons dictate that tho concession should be granted to our consuls, by such slates, of tho right to address tho colonial or provincial governor. There is nothing in the law of nations to prevent this ; it is con- venient for all parties ; it is a consular right exercised by treaty in the ^reat pasholics of the Turliish empire. Tho United States have recently made provision to tho same elfcct in treaty with a Christian power, name- ly, the Netherlands ; and that government having thus wisely relimiuishcd its long-subsisting scruples on this point, we may reasonably expect similar liliorality in future commercial negotiations with other countries of Kurope, Consular Duties whvre there is no Diplomatic litprcseul- atire of the Untied Stalts. — The other class of cases of this nature is that of a consul residing near a metro- politan government where there is no minister, either because of temporary cessation, or bccaose inducements have not existed fur the interchange of diplomatic rep- resentatives between such government and the United States. In this case it becomes tho oflico, perhaps it may bo said the right, of the consul to place himself, uith the permission of his own government, in direct com- munication with the political authority of such gov- ernment. Here, as in tho other case, tho fact occurs, and is of common convenienco ; it is not inconsi.steut with public law ; and so far as regards the Uniti.d States, it has example in treaties, for iustanco, in our lost consular convention with France. It is a tiling of manifest necessity as between the United States and some of tlio countries of Germany, with which our re- lations are entirely amicable, without calling for per- manent diplomatic representation. The German Band, though in some features resembling our own federal republic, yet differs cssentia'Iy In this, that, in the for- mer, tho federal outhority, in matters of peace and war, acts on states, not individuals, and of course each state retains the power of foreign representation and negoti- ation. Hence, if we do not see cause to interchange ministers, we may yet well reciprocally enlarge the consular functions, in our relations with such states as CON m CON 400 B 00 6 00 8 UO 500 2 00 Bavm-ia, Saxony, 'Wiirtomlierg, llanovor, the Ileuien, the Mcchk'nburgB, ur any utiicr of the members of the Bunil. Derivation of Pritilegea by Coniuls. — Meanwhile, It ■woulJ not ill either of these classes of cases folUiw, be- cause a consul of the United States in Davaria, or one of Vurarla in tlic United States, may be admitted to address the government, that therefore he becomes a diplomatic personage, with mtcrnalional rights as audi, and among them tluit of exterritoriality. If his coninii.ision be that of consul only, if his public recog- nition be an exequatur, tlic foreign coniml is subject to the lociil law in the United States; and our own con- sul ill tlic foreign country, if invested in ony case with quai.i-ext<'rritorial riglils, doiH not derive these from the law uf nations, but only from tlie special concession, by general law or otherwise, of the particular foreign government. If, indeed, the United States see lit, in any ca:ie, to confer the function of charg6 d'all'aires on their consul, cither with or without limitation of time, as they niny lawfully do, that is, to superimpose the oftice of niiuisttron that of consul, then ho has a double political capacity, and, though invested with full dip- lomatic jirivilcfjc, yet becomes so invested as charge d'atfaircs, not as conrnd ; and the fact of such casual duplication of function does not clinngfl the legal status of consuls, whether they be regarded through the oyo of the 1.1W of nations, or that of the United States. I'agan and Mohammedun Omntriea. — It has been ob- served, that " in Egjpt, Tunis, Tripoli, China, the inl- ands of the Pucilic, the coiisuIh enjoy all the diplomatic privileges. The motive i.s not only iu the dillcrence of law and religion with ointin ur Western Europe. Approximate Unity qf Public Law. — This imperfect political unity of Western Europe was obstructed at first by the antagonism of the C'elto-Komanic and the Cermanic races, and was threatened with complete dissolution when that original antagonism reappeared in tho separation of some of the Germanic populations from the Pupal See, under the popularly assumed re- ligious title of Protestants. But after thirty continu- ous years of reciprocal devastation and slaughter, the states of the old and new faith concluded a truce at least, if not a peace, and agreed, while acquiescing in the fact of religious difl'erenee, to maintain approxi- mate unity of public law, and thus, by subordinating the religious idea to the legal one, to livo together in some sort, as they have continued to do, with only oc- casional spasms of fanatical intolerance breaking out into civil or foreign war. At a late period, Kuasia, though of Greek faith, came into the European system of public law, with the less ditfirully, indeed, for the reason that Latin Europe and Greek Europe alike nour- ished the legal traditions of the Roman empire, though these bo derived in the former case from Rome, and in the latter from Constantinople. Change in the Nature of the consular Officeamong Chrit- tian Nations. — Thus, by the combination of Romanic law and Christian faith it is that we have come to have a common public law, under whose gradual operation claims of private exterritoriality soon fell into desue- tude among the governments of Christendom ; Italians in England, and Englishmen in Italy, at length sub- mitted to the local law ; foreign colonial nationalities finally ceased to exist of right ; their consuls proceed- ed to sink from the condition of municipal functionaries into that of mere commercial or semi-diplomatie ones : and thus, in process of time, by traditional usage, by positive provisions of local law, and by treaty stipula- tions, the existing legal character, with its limited right.s, was fixed on the foreign consuls mutually ac- credited in the countries of Christian Europe and America. In Mohammedan States Inoarrelatienswith nations out of the pale of Christendom, we retain for our own citizens and consuls, though wo can not concede to theirs, tho rights of exterritoriality. Religion is tho chief representative sign, and it is an element of the question of public law. But the critical fact is the difference of law. The legislation of Mohammed, for instance, is inseparable from his religion. We can not submit to one without also undergoing tho other. The same legal incompatibility exists, for one reason or another, between ns and the unchristian states not Mohaniniedan. Insiitatfs and Pandects. — Whereas Christendom, on the other hand, in all its subdivisions of race, nation- ality, and rbu;',iaD, i* the common heir of the political CON 418 con idea*, and eip«iclally thu leglalatlon, of tbA Roman nn- pir* ; for the Instltutci and I'andcct* thuinselves, though comprising thu sum ot the Icyal science of Some, were conipilod and promulgated at Constanti- nople, and constitute the hniad foundation of the juris- prudence, iiublic and private, of the whole of Cbrlsten- dom. Until/ in Ckruttnduta. — When the countries now Mo- hammedan shall be reaubjected to the doctrines of the Bomun law, then can they bo admitted to the same r«- dprocal community of private rights with us, which prevails in (;hrlstian Kurope and America. Until that event happens, Turkey, and v^thr? Moslem states in Africa or Asia, may, like China or Japan, enter into the sphere of our public law in the relation of govorn- roent to governnient, but not In the relation of govern- ment to men. That full interchange of international rights la admissible only among the nations which have unity of legal thought, in being governed by, or constituti'd out of, the once dissevered, but since then partially reunited, constituent of the Grieco-liomun empire. — MnnuaIJ\>r CoiuitU, Vnittd Statet, lf<57. Contraband, in commerce, a commodity prohib- ited to be e.xpurted or lnip(jrtcil, boii,';ht or sold. Con- tralwnd is al^o a term applied to <''.aigtiate tliat claas of commotii'iis which neutrals »ro not allowed toourry during war U a belligerent power, it is n rceoi^nir.cd general priucipl law uf nut-ona, that ahipa may sail to and trade with all kingdoniB, c»untrio», and states in peace with the [irinces or authorities whose flags they l)ear; and that they are not to bo moU'Sted by the ships of any other jmwcr at war with the coun- try with which thoy are trading, unless they engage in the conveyance ot contraband goods. Hut great dif- ticulty has ariiien in deciding as to th« gooe la Saitie det Batiment NetUra, torn. 1. p. 193), that every thing that may he made directly avaUaule for hostile parposes is contraband, aa arms, ammunition, horses, timber for ship-building, and all sorts of naval stores. The greatest difficulty has occurred in deciding tm to provisions, which -ire sometimes held to bo contra- band, and sometimes nu,.. ImtiI Slowell has shown that the character nfthe jtort to which the provisions are destined, is the principal circumstance to be at- tended to in deciding whether they are to be looked npon as contraband. A cargo of provisions intended for an enemy's port, in which ii was known that a war- like armament was ii: preparation, would be liable to arrest and confiscation ; while, if the same cargo were intended for a port wber j non.. but merchantmen were fitted out, the most that could be done would be to de- tain It, paying the neutral the same price for it he would liuvu gcil from the enemy. Contraband ofWar. "Questions of contraband were much discussed during the continuance of our neutral character, in the furious w .r between Kngls' and France, commencing In 17V8, and the United Mc-. professed to be governed by the modern usage of na- tions on this point. The national conveiilion of France, on the yth of May, 1793, decreed, tha leiilral veaseU laden with provisions, destined to an enemy's )>ort, aliould be arrested and carried into France, nnd onu of the earliest acts of (England, in that vt ar, w ks tu detain all neutral vessels going to France, and Imliii with com, meal, or flour. It was insisted, on the part of Kngland, that, by the law of nationa, all provisiuns were to he considered as contraband. In the ease whero the depriving of an enemy of those supplies wos one of the means employed to rcdnce him to reasonable terms of peace ; and that the actual situation of Franco was such as to lead to that mode of distressing her. In- asmuch as she had armed almost the whole laboring class of lier people, for the purpose nf commencing and supporting hostilities against nil , . governments of Kurope. This claim on part of FIngland was promptly and perscvcrin v ^slated by the I'niled States; and thoy conlenden ..t corn, Hour, and nieiil, being the produce of the soil and labor of the country, were not contraband of war, unless eorricd to a jilaeu actually invested. Tlie treaty of commerce '.villi V.n- gland, in 17n4, in the list ■ .' contraband, staled, that whatever nintcriula served directly to the building ond eartiis engaged In it. Among the clrcumatanccs wliicli te.id to preserve prm'iaions from being lialilc to be treated aa contraband, one is, that they an- tbo growth of tlie ;country which exports them. Anothter circumstauce to which nations, I nianufacti *ncc, thoc out of it n orably cui •IJcri' 4 as to an enen of it for hi '», wbethei use of life, tliey were j tnlllturv ui whieli the If the p-rt the ai tides ■• l:, „• If tlie gie,; Brest III Fi ft a port of ««mcd that <'■ "igh It is ' 1 1'lied to c ascertain poi IMIM, i ? IIOI "»o frc.i the tion of o ho military port when tho aril was notorious articles wouk These cloct sentially the « (-'ongress in ] 'o wliomsoeve neeessarie. , to colon' , pfioul 'lliey w.i,. lij Court of tho 1 »nil feel tlio v/i parly to a niar <'"', tt neutral in tlicaetofca ish ormi— '.. being ni , country, n- ; ,'i military c; . observed Ibac ions wei-. mt become so on ai war, or on acct for tlie ordinary ■"■ere not con'ro for the nnny or military e.-nav were the f -oh lli for tho cue, - . „ Ijand, and linbh or navy w(.,. , «et interpositioi "This case ft Reoit, and carrit piled to provisioi voyage of th. ,St (ho infliction ,_ "Itwastheu.,, l>o conlrabnnd ; n ni™t,sofwarwhl( 'II (he remark thi^ from time to time not indeed by the in (1 e application to mc-t the varyl " t elearl captor "• . 'i- ;.. ill iffprorffi; an CON m COlt cation of ions wiTc slioulil togctti- Oiir tjuv- iis lliiit ilc.liirii- 1 tlio 9ub- mnii, w»» i.f tlw tllttt tliu 111(1 EOUlt!- t to assign iculnr cir- •oiuliniiicil ill ortii'li'S onicJ coii- m of great tlio ailnii- f^r Borls of llianil. In ! were CDll- L- tliat nrli- lontralnml Ir naval or lie is, tV It. Til may 1j>- Ithe iiarlic- Itlie parties Ivliich teiid The treated L.vtli of the tcumetancc (0 which lome tniliilKcnrn U ihown hy th« pMrtle* of natlona, It vheii thn ortlilva urn III tliitir nmlvn or tin- iimnufacturcil atato. Thuii Iron In trontml with Iniliilti- tncc, though anekun anil olbxr liiitnininnla fnlirlcatoil out of it are dircelly contrahanct, lli>in|i l» niiiro fk>v> orabljr cunsldorod than cordaKn, anil wIk^ai U lint con- ■Idcre 1 ai so uljortiuiialile a cummiMtlly, whnn gotng to an enemy's ronntry, as any ot tha lliml pmparallons of It for human use. The nioi , ini|iorlAnt (llsllnrlUm l>, whether ili j artielui wnro Inloniliid ftir thn iifillnary use '}f life, or even for increanlllu ship's iisn, nr whether tlicy were Rolii/ with a hlithly |irnlinhl« ildsllnatlon to military use. The naturo and i|uallly of thn port to whirl) the artleles aro goinK '■ ""l^ 'x Irrational tasi, If the p'Tt lie n general coinmiirelal min, It Is pritsnmdd the ailicles nro going for elvll usn, tlMMi;{h nci'Aslnnnlly r. 1 :, u' may ho ronstrueted In that port, Hut if the gi'v.'. predninlnant vharai'ler In that port, llko Drcst in Frnneo, or I'orttmuulh In Knujand. Ii« that of a port of naval military ci|ulpnii*nt, Ft will lia pre- sumed that Jio articles wnru going fur inllllary use, al- ii, nigh it Is poisibla that the artleles might have lieen 1 1 |j|jcd tn civil eouauniption, As It Is liii|i»ssllil(i In aacert»!n positively tlio llnal use of an artii'lii anrljiillt uma, i % not an iiijurious rule whii'h dtidni'i'S Ihn llnni use frc.i the immcdiato desllnatinn ; and Ihn pri'sntnp- tion of a iiostilc use, founded on lis di'sllnnllon to a military port. Is very niuih Inllaini'il, If, nt thn time when tho arlieicj wero .'{oliig, a coiislileralilii armnnient was notoriouflly preparing, In wlileh a supply of llioso articles would lie cmincnily useful," Tlienc uoctrines of the I'.ngllth prl/.»' law Wero es- sentially tho same with lliosn adopted liv llin American Congress in IVTS, for they deiiared, llillt all Vesnels, to w liomscever lieionglng, enrrjing provisions or other neceR.iarle. , to li.o Hrltlisli army nr navy ttllhlii the colon' , fIiouIiI lie liable to selxnra and rnnllseatlon. Tliey wiic likowiso fully adnnted liy tliii Miiprenio Court of tho X'nited States, when tvft ennin to know anil feel tlio value of lielllgerent lights, liy lini'nnihig a parly lo a maritimo war. In tlie eiiso of Ihn Cnmmrr- ren, a neutral venffl, ruptured liy iinn of iiiir ei'ul«ers in tlic act of carrying provisions mr tint uso orilie llrll- ish armi' n Spain, ;n himself. It was con- tended on the part of the French nation in 17!lfi, that neutral governments were bound to restrain tlieir sub- Jcels from selling or exporting articles contruiiand of war lo Ihe belligerent powers. Hut it was siicccsi ''iilly shnwn nn the part of the I'nlted StaUs, that iieutraU may law fully sell, at home, to a licUi^rent pur.hascr, or car'v, IbemBelvcs, to the bclllgoient powers, contra- biind iirlicles suliject to the right of seizure, m/inn.«'(«. This right has since been explicitly declared by the Judicial authorities of this country. The right of the ncutrul to tranp[iort, and of tlic hostile power to seize, are conflicting rights, and neither party can charge the other with a criminal act." — Kent's Commenlariet, I-ect. VIII. Coiitrnband articles are said to bo of an infectious nature, nnd they contaminate the wholfl cargo belong- ing to Iho saino owners. Ily the ancient laws of Eu- ropn, the ship also was liuble to condeinnatioii when ca|itiired. lUit tho modern view, since Grotius, is milder, and latterly the ship is liable to confiscation, and when fraud is detected, Ihe innocent portions of Iho cargo are also lialdc. Ily tlio ancient law of Europe, a ship conveying any rnnlrnliand nrtlclo was liable to confiscation as well as the nrtleie. Hut in the modern practice of iho courts of admiralty of this and other countries, a milder rule has been adopted, and the carriage cf contraband ar- llch'S is attended only with the loss of freight and ex- penses, unless when the ship belongs to tlio owner of tho contraband cargo, or when tho simple n'lisconduct of conveying such a cargo has been connected witli other malignant nnd aggravating circumstances. Of these a folso destination and false papers are justly held to be tho worst.— (5 Kodinson's Admiralty Itiporta, 275.) The right of visitation and search is a rigiit inherent In all belligerents ; for it would be absurd to allege that they had a right to prevent the conveyance of con- traband goods to an enemy, and to deny them the use of Iho only means by which they can give tfTect to such right.— (VATTi-.i., book iii. c. t'. § 114.) The object of Iho search is two-fold : Jirst, to ascertain w hetlier the ship Is neutral or an enemy, for the circumstance of its hoisting a neutral flag affords no security tliat it is really such ; and, sccoiiJIi/, to oscertain whether it has contraband articles, or enemies' property, on board. All neutral ships that would navigate securely during war must, consequently, be provided with passports from llicir government, and with all the papers or doe- iimonts nccessory to prove the property of the ship and cargo ; and they must carefully avoid taking any con- Iraliuiid articles or belligerent property on board ; nnd hence, ns Lampredi has observed, a merchant ship wliich seeks to avoid a search by crowding sail, or by open force, may justly bo captured and Bulaectcd to confiscation. It has, indeed, been often contended that free thij'S make free f/imda (que hparilkm nmrrc la manhandife), and that a belligerent is not warranted in seizing the properly of an enemy in a neutral ship, unless it be CON 420 CON contraband. Tha iliicuMl" < of tlili Important queitlon would lead ui Into detal ' . > h do not properly conio within tlio scopo uf tl' ' V. i". , Wa may, however, ihortly ob>or>'c, tliat t " sacii prlvllego could be con- ceded to DeutralH, without takinK from bclllKi'renta the right, Inaeparablu from a atato of war, of tcl/lnK an on- erny'n property If found In plncra where hualilltlcs may bo lawfully carrleil on, aa on tliu high icaa. In fact, were tha princlpto in queatlon admitted, Iho conimcrro of a belligerent power with ita rolonica, ur other coun- tries borond the aea, might bu proaecuted in neutral ahlpa, with a<< much aecurity during war as in puace ; ■0 that neutrals would, in thia way, bo authorized to render a belligerent more Important asaiatanco than, perhapa, they could have done had they supplied him with truop8 and ammunition ! Ilut it la aurviv unnec- essary to suy, that to act in this way is a proceeding altogether at varianco will. tb'> idea of neutrality. Neutrals are bound to conduct tl.'smselves In the tyiril nf iinparlidUti), and must not alTord such aid or asAitl- anee to one party as may the better enable him t« make bead against tlio nihnr. It is their duty "nun inl'rponere m htUn, non hoilt imminente ko$tun iripere." .^nd yet it is mlbifest that the lending of neutral bot- toms to carry on a belligerent's trado is in direct con- tradiction to this rule. The ships or cruisers of a par- ticular power may have swept those of its enemy from the sea, and reduced him to s state of great difKuully, l>y putting a stop to his commcreo with foreigners, or with his own colonics ; but of what consequence would this bo if neutrals miglit step in to rescuo him from such difficulties, l>y carrying on that intercourse fur him which he can no longer carry on for Iiimy neutrals ; but, however advantageous to them, it Im wholly subversive of the tuiversally admitted rigiiLi i of belligerent powers, as well as of the princi|i1ea of | neutrality ; and can not, therefore, be truly said lo Iju ' bottomed on any sound principle. | In the war of 1756, the rule was laid down by Great j Britain, that neutrals are not to be allowed to carry on a , trade during war that they were excluded from during peace; so that, supposing a nation at war with Great Britain had, while at peace, proliibiled foreigners from j engaging in her colonial or ci>asting trade, neutrals would not have been pcrniitlcd to engage in it during | war. This rule has been much complained of; but tlio principle on which it is foun nrived of tho advantage of her superior force ; and the neutrals would, in fact, when employed In this way, be acting as the most efficient allies of her enemy. For a full discussion of this important and difHcult question, and of the various distinctions to which it gives rise, see the work of Ilubncr {De la Suiaie dca Bniiment Neutret, 2 tomes, 12mo, 17.^7), in which tho diflerent arguments in favor of the principle that " tho flag covers the cargo," arc stated with great perspicu- ity and talent. The opposite principle has been advo- cated by Lampredi, in bit ver^- able treatise JJel Com- mercio de' I'lpoli ffeutrnli, J lo ; by Lord Liverpool, In his Iritcourtt on the Conduct of llrtiil llrilain in riifmrt lo jVo entiTcd into Ijy means uf viulenco offered to tho will, or under tho influence uf undue con- straint, the parly may avoid it by the plea of duress ; mid it is re(iui-ile to tiie validily of every agreemeut, that it be tho result office and bondjiile exercise uf tho will. Nur will n coiitra( t bo valid if ulilained by mis- representation or com- alment, or if It Ire fuunded in iiiiHtako as lo the subject matter of tho c< iilract, A contract, valid by tho law of the place « here it is made, is generally speaking valid every wlicre, _/'ur(i gentium, and by tacit consent. The lex loci coiitivrlua controls tho nature, construc- tion, and validll^ of tho contract ; and on this bioad foundation the l.nv of contracts, founded on ncce^sity and commcreiul convenience, is said to have been orig- inally cstublislied, If tho ride were otherwi.se, tlio citizens of one country could not safely contract, or carry on commerce in tlio territories uf anulhor. Tho v.'^ivmaTy intercuurso of mankind requires that llie acts of parties, vu'.il where made, should U^ rccoguisied In other countries, provided il.,_v !,o not contrary to (jood morals, nor repugnant to the policy and positive insti- tutions of the state. I'artios are presumed to contract in reference to the laws of tho country in which tho contract is made, and where it is to bo paid, unless otherwlso expressed. Hut if a contract bo mado under one government, and is to be performed under aiioilier, and tho parties had in view the laws uf such other country in reference to tho execution of the contract, tlie general rule is, that the contract, in rcsp- "t to its construction and force, is to l>e governed by tho law of tho country or state in which it is to be executed ; tho foreign law is in such cases adopted and efl'ect given to it. Thus, the days of grace allowed upon bills of ex- change are to be completed according to the usage of the place in which they arc to be paid, and not of tho place in which they are drawn, for that is presumed to have been the intontiun of the parties. It is essential to the validity of a contract that it bo founded on a sulficicnt considcratiun. It was an early principle of tho common law, that a mere voluntary act of courtesy would not uphold an assumpsit, but a courtcsj' shown by a previous request would support it. Thero must be something given in exchange, something that is mutual, or something which is tho inducement to the contract, and it must be a thing which is lawful and coDipelent in value to sustain the tc of tho mail; Is I posul, In< time i party sion, other, the tit bound less he Tho I the qii to be 1 and w Wh pnrch; then of brc turnii scind rccovi after right If I of ma whcr tion, the c Wi| bein^t twcei and t cntitl dltioi made CON 421 CON DOI, 111 Lnnl itt All* :. III. >i« i/u niaiimptlnn. Tho rule, that a contl(lerat1i)n U necMnar}' to tlie validity ■■"( under wal, with the excqillun of lillli of exchan^fo and ne((i>tlalj|n iiutoa aftvr thny have been nt'Kiillali'd and paucd into tho hanUnf(e«l, 'lie Contrael of Sale. — A aalc la a contract for tho ' i>r projiiTty from ono person to another. Tor ■ ' '>n»ideratlon ; and three tl>'>ii){> n.ro requisite t< vi/..! the thin|{ sold, which la tho object ot t,tho price, and tho consent of tho con- , ' iM I. Tho thing sold niiiit have an net iinl tiol t'xiatcnco, and bo api'dllc or ideiililied, ai ''• of delivery, othcrwl^e it la not strictly a CO 1", but a apccinl or executory 0),'recnicnt. It I matter bo In oxiHiencc, and only con- eti , i\ .1 the iioBsosolon of tho seller, as liy Mu^ In the po!!esjiioii of Ida agent or carrier alimail, it is noverliioless a sale, tliough a conditional or imperfect ono depending on thn future actual delivery. Dut if tho article inlcndei) to bo sold has no existence, there can bo no coiitraet of sale. Thus if A sella his hurse ' to II, and It turns out that tho liorso was dead at the | time, though tho fact was uulinonn to the parties, the contract in uetexiMirily void. The prill: is uii ensentlul liigredlenf In tho contract of sale; and it must be real and not merely nominal, and llxed,or bo susceptible of lieing ascertained in the mode prc."eriln"d by tlic eontroct, without further nego- tiation between the parties. Mutual consent is req- uisite to tho creation of the contract ; and it becomes binding when n proposition is made on ono side and accepted on tho other ; and on tho other bund, it la no contract if thero bo an error or ndstakc of n fact, or in circumstances going to tho essence of It, In creating tho contract the negotiation may bo carried on by mail; and the contract is complete when tho answer is sent with nil duo diligence after tho receipt of pro- posal, and Is out of the iiiiitrid of the parly accepting. In every salo of a cimttei, if the possession be at the time In another, ond there lio no warranty of title, the party buys at his peril. Hut if tho seller lias posses- sion, and he sells as his own and not as agent for an- other, and for a fair price, ho Is understood to warrant the title. With regard to tho (quality, the seller Is not bound to answer unless ho expressly warrants, or im- Icss ho has mado a falso representation or concealment. Tho common law requires tho purchaser to attend to the qualities of the article ho buys, which arc supposed to ho within the reach of his observation aiid judgment, and which it is equally his interest and duty to e.xert. When the goods aro discovered to bo unsound the purchaser ought immediately to give notice or return them, ,.nd thereby rescind tho contract. In tho eoso of breach of warranty, ho may sue upon it without re- turning tho goods ; but he must retnrn them and re- scind tho contract before ho can maintain an action to recover tho price. Ho can not deal with the goo('s after discover}' of fraud in a sale, without losing his right of action. If there bo intentional concealment or suppression of material facts in tho making of a contract, in cases where both parties have not equal access for informa- tion, it will bo deemed unfair dealing, and will vitiate the contract. When the bargain Is completed, by the terms of sale being agreed upon, the eontroct becomes binding be- tween the parties and w ithout actual delivery of goods, and the property is at the risk of tho buyer ; and he is entitled to tho goods on payment of price when no con- ditions have been made. Special conditions may be made as to risk, time of delivery, credit, &c. In the flrit inatanco In make the contract valid, Ihrro munt be a delivery or tendei of paynumi, or earnest given, nr u momorandum in wrltlnK aigned by tho purchuner. When goods are to In) delivered, delivery to an agent, carrier, or matter of a veatel la uquivaleut to delivery to purchaacr. Tho delivery to agent or carrier muit be auch aa to create reaponalbllity In that agent or car- rier, and if Insurance in tlie unage it ought to bo done, and also the buyer iiifdrmed, with diligence, of contlgn- nient and delivery. Symbolical delivery will, in many catea, lie sulllclent, such at tranafer of key of ware- house Ik lu seller to buyer, or putting private nuirk by buyer upon tho goods, tellers lime ami iilace are .* cash juiynicut and place pecitled, the comnio' where (hev aro at '' ii Led. XXXIX. Convoy, !• natu a ship or , p^ ul ■ -Ke.nt'b ('i.m»nn(iiWt*, ' .1' term applied to detlg- i,)'.olnted liy ^uvenimenl, or by tho cominander-iD.iiiier on a piiitlnilar atutiou, to escort or |irotect tho merchant ships procoetling lu certain porta. C'unvoya aro mostly appoinlid during mtr; but they are sometimes also appointed during peace, for tho security of ships navigating seas infested with pirates. Indlviduula have not always been left to themselves to judgo as to the expediency of sailing with vv with- out convoy. Tiie governnienta of most nmi ilinw atatca buvo thouglit priijier, wiicn they were engaged iii hoa- tilities, to oblige their subjects to place themselves un- der an escort of tlii' aort, that tho enemy might not bo enriched by their capture. Acts to lliia oflect were passed in (jreat Hritaln during the American war and the last Kreucli war. The lust of these acts (13 Geo, III. c. (i7) enacted, that it should not be lawful for any ship belonging to any of his majesty's subjects (except a> therein provided) to depart from any port or placo wbalever, unless under audi convoy as shoidd bo ap- pointed for that purpose. The master was rc<|uii'ed to uso his utmost endeavors In continue with tho convoy uuri g the whole voyage, or such part thereof as it should bo directed to accompany his ship ; and not to sejiarate therefrom without leave of the commander, under very iicavy pecuniary penalties. And in case of any ship departing without cimvoy contrary to thu act, or willfully separating therefrom, all insurances on the ship, cargo, or freight, belonging to tjje master, or to any other person directing or privy to such dejiart- urc or ae|iaration, wcro rendered null and void. The customs ofTicers were directed not to allow any ship that ought to sail with convoy to clear out from any place in tho United Kingdom for foreign parts, without requiring from the master bond with one surety, with condition tbat the ship should not depart without con- voy, nor afterward desert or willfully separate from it. The regulations of this act did not extciul to ships not requiring to be registered, nor to those licensed to sail without convoy, nor to those engaged in tho coasting trade, nor to those belonging to the East India Com- pany, etc. It Is very common, during periods of war, to make sailing or departing vilh cumvt/ a condition in policies of insurance. This, like other warranties in a policy, must be slnclJy performed. And if a sliip warranted to sail with convoy, sail without it, the policy becomes void, whether this bo imputable to any negligence on the part of the insured, or the refusal of government to appoint a convoy. There arc five things csscutial to sailing with con- voy, viz. : jirst, it must bo with a regular convoy un- der an olTicor appointed by govcramont ; aceondly, it must be from the place of rendezvous appointed by government ; Ihirdli/, it must bo a convoy for the voy- age ; fiiurl/ily, the master of the ship must have sailing instructions from the commanding officer of the con- voy ; and Jijlhly, the ship must depart and continue with thn convoy till the end of tlie voyage, unless sep- arated by necessity. w^ A^« IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1.25 ■^|2i& 12.5 ■^ Ui §22 L£ 12.0 us ■u u II I ■- I. il.8 ^1^ V 7 Hiotographic Sciences Corpordtion 33 WEST MAIN STIteET WEBSTER, N.Y. i4S80 (716) 873-4503 \ \^ •NJ N> GOO 422 COP with respect to the third of tboae condlllona we may ob«erv«, that a warranty to wil with convoy generdly meani 3 convoy yin* tke voyage ; and it ia not neceaaary to add the worda " for the voyage" to make it ao. Nei- ther will the adding of theae words in aome Inatancei make tlie omiaalon of them in any caaa the ground of a dtlferent conatruction. A warranty to aail with con- roy doei not, however, uniformly mean a convoy that Is to accompany the abip inaured the entire way from the port of departure to her port of deatination ; but such convoy as government may thinlc fit to appoint as a sufficient protection for ships going the voysga Insured, whether it b« tot the whole or only a part of the voyage. Sailing Instmctlons, referred to In the fonrtb con- dition, are written or printed directions delivered by the commanding officer of the convoy to the several masters of the ships under his care, that they may un- derstand and answer signals, and Icnow the place of rendezvous appointed for the fleet in caae of diaperaion by storm, or by an enemy, etc. These aal^'ng instmc- tlons are ao very indispensable, that no vesst' can have the full protection and benefit of the convoy without tliem ; hence, when, through the nogligcnco of the master, they are not obtained, the ship ia not said to have aailed with convoy ; and a warranty in a policy of Inaorance to that ef^ct ia held not to be complied with. If, however, the master do all in his power to obtain sailing instructions, but is prevente'd m ob- taining them by any insuperable obstacle, as the bad- ness of the weather, or if they be refused by the com- mander of the convoy, the warranty in the policy is held to be complied with. For further information as to convoy, see Abbot on the Law of Shi^nng, part ill. c. 8; Marshall on In- surance, book i. c. 9 § 6. Cook, Captain Jamea. This celebrated navi- gator was bom at Marten, near Stockton-on-Tees, Oc- tober 37, 1728, and was originally apprenticed to a merchant in Yorkshire ; but having a strong predilec- tion for a sailor's life, he succeeded in obtaining his discharge, and immediately entered into new. indent- ures with some coal shippers in the same county. In iiieir employ he became a good seaman, and was pro- moted to mate, but subsuquently entered the British navy as volunteer. In 1766 he was appointed to the mastership ift a sloop, and Joined the fleet operating against the French, in the St. Lawrence. His Judg- ment, bravery, and great skill in conducting hydro- graphic surveys, gained for him a lasting reputation and Increasing honors ; and In 1764 he was appointed marine surveyor of Newfoundland and Labrador. In 1767, on the recommendation of the Royal Society, ho was sent to the South Pacific to observe the approach- ing transit of Venus, and was accompanied by Messrs. Green, Solander, and Mr. [afterward Sir Joseph] Banks. All the phenomena were successfully observed at Otaheite, June 8, 1769. Cook then sailed in quest of the supposed southern continent, circumnuvigating New Zealand, and after other scientific observations he crossed to Batavia, and thenco returned to England in the aummer of 1771, and was promoted shortly after. In July, 1772, he commenced his second voyage, which lasted three years, when he was raised to a post-cap- taincy, with a lucrative appointment in Greenwich Hospital. In 1776 lie volunteered to lead the scientific expedition to determine the problem of a northwest passage between the Atlantic and Paclflc oceans, and running fnm the Cape to New Zealand, and thence through the Pacific, he discovered the Sandwich Isl- ands, which he left for further observttiona, retumicg, however, to winter at O.fyhee. An unfortunate ml** nnderstanding between some of his people and the "na- tives terminated In a fray, in which Cook was killed, after a deaperatn resistance, February 14, 1779. CoMMrage. This art must be coeval with the dawn of history, and seems to have been early known in every country. The coopers of London were Inoo^ poratedinlSOl. Copal, a resin which exudes spontaneously mm two trees, the Xhtu cooaUinum, and the Elaocarput co- palffer, the first of which grows in America, and the second in the East Indies. A third species of copal- tree grows on the coasts of Guinea, especially ou the banks of some rivers, among whose sands the resin is found. It Qccnis In lumps of various sizes and of va- rious shades of color, ttom the palest greenish yellow to darkish brown. Its specific gravity is found to vary in difierent specimens from 1'069 to I'O'l, being in- termediate in density between its two kindred resins, animi and amber. Some rato its specific gravity so high as 1-189, which is probably one of the errors with which chemical compilations teem. Copal is too hard to be scratched by the Luii, whence the excellence of its varnish. It has a conchoidal fracture, and is with- out smell or taste. When exposed to heat in a glass retort over a spirit lamp, it readily melts into a liquid, which being further heated boils with explosive jets. A viscid, oily-looking matter then distills over. After continuing the process for some time, no succinic acid ia found in the receiver, but the copol blackens in the retort. Anhydrous alcohol boiled upon it causes it to swell, and transforms it by degrees into an elastic, vis- cid substance. It is not soluble in alcohol of 0'825 at the boiling point, according to experiment. Copal disaolvea in ether, and this otbereous solution may be mixed with alcohol without decomposition. Caout- choucine acts very slightly upon it by an experiment, oven at the boiling temperature of this very volatilo fluid ; but a mixture of it with alcohol of 0-826, in equal parts, dissolves it very rapidly in the cold into a per- fectly liquid varnish. Alcohol holding camphor in so- lution also dissolves it, but not nearly so well -.s the last solvent. According to Unvcrdorljcn, copal may bo completely dissolved by iligesting one part of it for 24 hours with one part and a half of alcohol (probably anhydrous), because that portion of copol whicli is in- soluble in alcohol dissolves in a very concentrated so- lution of the bolulile portion. Oil of petroleum and turpentine dissolve only one or two per cent, of raw copal. By particular management, indeed, oil of tur- pentine may be t ombined with copal. Fused copal possesses different properties trom the substance in its solid state; for it then may be made to combine both with alcohol and oil of turpentine. Unverdorben has extracted from the copal of Africa five different kinds of resin, none of yrhich has, bow- ever, been applied to any use in the arts. The ultimate constituents of copal by an analysis are, cariron 79-87, hydrogen 9'00, oxygen 11-1 ; being of hydrogen 7-6 in excess above the quantity necessary to form water with the oxygen. Much Information has been received firom various sources concerning this somewhat ill-understood prod- uct of late years. It is now known that there are three different kinds of copal in commerce, but nothing is known of their distinguishing characteristics. We have East Indian and West Indian copal, and, under the latter name, two very different substances. The East Indian, called also African, is more colorless, soft, and transparent than the others; it forms a fine surface, and when heated emits an agreeable odor. It furnish- es the finest varnish. Fresh essence of turpent'io dis- solves it completely, but not old. Essence digested upon sulphur will dissolve double its own weight, without letting any faU. Fresh rectified oil of rose- mary win dissolve it in any proportion, but if tho oil is thickened by age it serves only to swell this copal. When cautiously melted, it may be then dissolved in good essence of turpentine In any proportion, pro- ducing a fine vanish, of little color. A good vamlah may he made by dissolving one part of copal, one of essence of rosemary, with from two to three (^ pure alcobol. This varnish should be COP 428 COP ireinooT- iflly from arpui CO- , and the of copal- \y ou the e reain U ind of va- Bh yellow id to vary being in- rei reslni, jravlty so irrors with is too hard :ellenco of nd is with- in a glass Lo a liquid, losive jet*, ver. After iccinlc acid kens in the causes it to elastic, vi»- i of 0-825 at nt. Copal tion may h« ,n. Caout- experiment, rery volatile 825, in equal 1 into a pcr- mphor in so- ) well ".s the 1, copal may part of it for lol (probably which is in- centrated so- itrolcum and cent, of raw >d, oil of tur- tles from the nay be made irpcntine. pal of Africa ch has, how- an analysis 11-1 ; being tity necessarj- from various Icrstood prod- hat there are !, but nothing eristics. We a, and, under stances. The colorless, soft, a fine surface, r. Itfurnish- urpent'no dis- enco digested own weight, id oil of rose- but if tho oil dl this copal, then dissolved )portion, pro- lissolvlng one ry, with ft-om Dish should be applied hot, and when cold becomei very hard and durable. The West India specie*, or American, comes, not in lumps of a globular form, bnt in small flat fl-agment*, which are hard, rough, and without taste or smell. It is usually yellow, and never colorless like the other. Insects are very rarely found in it. It is also found in the Antilles, Mexico, and North America. It will not dissolve in essence of rosemary. The third kind of copal, known also a» West Indian, was fonnerly sold as a product of the East Indies. It is found in fragments of a concavo-convex form, the outer covering of which appears to have been removed. It contains many insects. When rubbed it emits an aromatic odor. It gives out much ethereous and em- pyroumatio oi^ when melted. It forms a soft vamisb, which dries slowly. Fusel oil, or amyle spirit, has been lately used as a solvent of the hard copal; but it does not di-y into a vory solid varnish. Copal varnish was first discovered in France, and was long known by the name of vemit martin. It is applied to snuff-boxen, tea-boards, and other utensils. It preserves and gives lustre to paintings ; and con- tributes to restore the decayed colors of old pictures, by filling up cracks, and rendering the surface capable of reflecting light more uniformly. Copal is liable to be confounded y^Uh gum anime, when the latter is very clear and good. But it is of importance to distinguish between them, as the anim^, though valuable as a var- nish, is much less so than the finest copal ; the varnish with the former being darker colored, and not so hard. Besides tbe external appearance of each, which is pret- ty distinct to a practiced eye, the solubility in alcohol furnishes a useful test, the anime l>eing readily soluble in this fluid, while the copal is hardly affected by it ; copal is also brittle between the teeth, whereas anime softens in the month.— Bkbs' Cyclopedia; Ubb's Dic- tionary, ttc. Copeck (kopcika), a Russian copper coin, so called from the impression of St. George bearing a lance. A hundred of thoni moke one ruble. The value of the copper coin, compared with the assignation-ruble, va- ries in the different governments. Copenhagen, the capital of Denmark, on the east coast of the island of Zealand, In the channel of tho Baltic called the Sound; lat. 65° 41' 4" N., long. 12° 3u' 4G" £. Population, in 1845, 126,787. It is a well- built, handsome city. In going into Copenhagen, the course is between the buoy on the Stubben Bank to the left, and the buoy on the Middle-grounds, and those in advance of the three Crown batteries on the right, west- southwest by compass. From the three Crowqs to the roads the course is south-southwest. The water in the channel is from six to four fathoms deep ; but it is nar- row, and the navigation rather difficult. Thcr^ is no obligation to take a pilot on board ; but if a vessel wish for one, she may heave to abreast of the battery, when he will come to her. Vessels not intending to come into liarlior bring up in tbe roade, at from a quarter to half a mile fTom shore, In about four fathoms, tho town bearing south-south',, ist. In the harbor, within the boom, the water is Hm 17 to 18 feet deep. Vessels in harbor load and unload alongside the quay. The anchorage in the roads is good and safe. Money. — Accounts are kept in rix dollars of 6 marcs, or 9G skilliugs ; the rix dollar being formerly worth about 4j. lii. sterling. But in 1813, a new moneiary system was adopted, according to which the new or Rigsbank dollar is worth 2<. 3^., being half the value of tho old specie dollar, and | of the old current dollar. But the money generally used in commercial transac- tions is bank money, which is commonly at a heavy discount, The/xir of exchange, estimated by the Rigs- bank dollar, would be 8 dollars 7'6 skillings per pound sterling. Weight* uixi J/iswitrM.— The commercial weights •re, IB pounds s 1 lisponnd ; 20 Hipoand = 1 shlp> pound ; 100 lbs. =110i lbs. avoirdnpoisslSt Ibt. Trof zslOl lbs. of Amsterdam =108 Ibi. of Hamburg. The liquid measures are, 4 anker*=l ahm or ohm; l\ ahm=l hogshead; 2 hogshead* =1 pipe; 3 pipe* =1 quarter. The anker=:10 (very nearly) English wine gallon*. A^iuitr of win* =980 pot*; and 100 pot*=2H wioe gallon*. The Aty meaanre* are, 4 viertel*=l (chetAl ; 8 Mshaf. fel*=l tdende or ton ; 12 ton*=l Iast=471 Winoheatar bushels. Tbe last of oil, butter, herring*, and otlMr oily *ub*tance* *hould weigh 224 lbs. net. The measure of length is tho Bhineland foot=lti inches very nearly. The Danish ell=2 feet; 100 ells =68} English yard*. Trade ^Copitthagen. — The trade of Copenhagen has latterly increased considerably, particularly the grain trade with England. At the commencement of 1862, 297 merchant vessels of about 85,000 ton* burden be- longed to the port. Tbe harbor is large and commo- dious, capable of containing 500 merchant vessels be- sides the navy ; and by tbe aid of canals, large vessels can come almost to the centre of the town. The en- trance is commanded by the powerful batteries of Trek- roner and Sextus. The principal Import* are timber, pitch, and tar, chiefly from Norway and Sweden ; flax, hemp, masts, sailcloth, and cordage, from Russia ; to- bacco from America ; wines and brandy from France ; coal, earthenw&re, iron, steel, and salt from England ; and West India produce. The principal export* are com, rape-seed, butter, cheese, beef, pork, horses, cat- tle, wool, hides, skins, bones, grain-spirits. The manufactures of Copenhagen are not important, but are making considerable advances. There are ex- tensive cloth and calico factories, fbunderies, and iron- works; also breweries, distilleries, tanneries, Bugar-re- flneries, etc. Piano-fortes, clocks, watches, surgical and mathematical instruments, tobacco, chocolate, por- celain are among its other productions. The royal China factory is celebrated for its models of Thorwidd- sen's works in biscuit China. The population of Co- penhagen was in 1769, 92,571 ; in 1801, 100,975 ; in 1834, 119,292; in 1840, 120,819; in 1845, 126,787; and in 1855, 148,591 ; of which last about 67,000 were males, and over 76,000 females, including a Jewish population of 2500. The climate is damp, changeable, and unhealthy ; which, added to the almost total want of sanatory regulations, renders the mortality greater here, it is said, than in any other town of Europe witli the exception of Vienna. Tbe Port Charges at Copenhagen vary accordinir cs the vessel has come from this or the farther side of Cape Finistcrre, or ttom the Indian seas; as she is wholly, or only part loaded ; and as she clears out with goods that have been m traniilu, and are for the most part free of duty, or has on board a cargo of native produce sulgect to duty. On « ship of 300 tons be- longing to a privileged nation from this side Cape Fin- isterrc, unloading and loading mixed cargoes in Copen- hagen, the difierent public charges, including Sound dues, brokerage, &c., would exceed JE60 ; and ttom the farther side of Cape Finisterre, the charges would be nearly ;C100, M ben a ship is not fully loaded, lastage money and light dues are only charged in proportion to the cargo on board, Lastage money is not charged on ships outward bound, laden with transit goods, aa tar, pitch, iron, &c. But notwithstanding these de- ductions, it is obvious that port charge* are very heavjr, and there can be no doubt that they are a material obstacle to the extension of trade. Citizenihip. — To enable a foreigner to trade as a mer- chant in Denmark, be must become a burgher, which costs about ,£100, and it will require about £60 more to flree him from the obligation of serving in the miU- tia. The obstacles in the way of a foreigner estalv lishing himself in Denmark as a manufticturer are much greater, on account of the exclusiTe privileges COP 424 eop •qjoysd by the gvilds or corporatloni into which the principal crafu or tradeii are divided. CreM. — Goods imported into Copenhagen are com< monly raid un credit ; three monthi U the term gener- ally allowed on moat tort* of goods, and In a few in- stances six months. The discount for ready money is 4 per cent. Bankruptcy is of rare occurrence. Inmranct. — Marine insurance is effected, on liberal terms, by a company established in 1746. Many Co- penhagen risks ate, however, insured at Amsterdam and Hamburg. Copenhagen has good building yards, and is in all respects an eligible place for the repair of ships, and for supplying them with provisions. Gtnerai Rtmarla. — On (he whole, the commerce of Denmark used to bo in a stationarj' stfite; a conse- quence partly of the peculiar circumstances under which the country is placed, and partly of the policy of government. The latter long exerted itself to bol- ster up a manufacturing interest, by laying oppressive duties on most species of manufavtured articles. Even under the most favorable circamatanL-es, such conduct, though it may benefit a few individuals, is sure to be productive of great national loss. But in the case of Denmark, the circumstances were such as to render the restrictive system peculiarly injurious. AU, or nearly all, the branches of industry carried on in the kingdom were subject to the government of guilds or corpora- tion! ; no person could engage in any lino of business until he was authorixed by its peculiar guild ; and as the sanction of this body was rarely obtained without a considerable sacrifice, the real efibct of the system was to fetter competition and improvement, and to per- petuate monopoly and routine. Even the Danish writ- ers acknowledge that such was the infiuence of the late regulations. "JVos ouvrien," say they, "»ont chert, tracmlleut kntement, et touveiU mal ft tarn goAl ; leur education tH negligee. Oh ne ki forme point apemir,et PapprentiJ' tuU machinakment ce qu'il voitfairt au mai- tre. — C.VTTKAu, Tableau det Ktati Danoi», tome ii. p. 260. But within the last few years this system has been quite changed. Industry has been emanci- pated from many troublesome regulations, and moder- ate duties have been substituted for prohibitioas. But, however favorably situated in other respects, it would be idle to expect that a country without waterfalls, and without coal, should lie able to manufacture cot- tons, woolena, etc., at so cheap a rate aa they may be imported flrom others enjoying greater natural facilities for their production. The staple business of Denmark, her agricultural and rural economy, has been most ma- torially improved of late years ; and, as already seen, her exports of raw produce are now of great value and importance. The trade of the country suffers from the too great magnitude of the port dues and of the transit duties ; and the Sound duties, being charged on native aa well as foreign ships, operate as an inland duty on trade. Considerable improvements have, however, been effected in the commercial legislation of the conn- tiy during the last dozen years, by the opening of the trade to the East and West Indies, and the abolition and reductidn of other regulations and duties ; and it may be fairly presumed that the benefits resulting from these measures will pave the way for the introduction «f others of a similar character. — See Denmark. Cappvt (fierm. Kugfer ; Dti. Koper; Da. Kobbert Bw. Koppir; Fr. CirtiTe ; it. Jiame; Sp.Cobrei Port. Cobrt! Russ. Mjed, Kramoi mjed; Pol. Miedz; Lat. Cuprum { Arab. Nehau; Sans. TVimra), a well-known matal, so called from its having been first discovered, or at least, wrought to any extent, ifa the Island of Cy- pras. It is of a fine red color, and has a ^nat deal of brilliancy. Its tasto is styptic and nauseous ; and the hands, when rubbed for some time on it, acquire a po- cnliar and disagreeable odor. It is harder than silver : ita specific gravity varies according to its state, being, when quit* pure, near 9'000. Ita malleability is great ; it f/uy b» hammered ont into leaves so thin as to be blown abont by the slightest breeM. It* duotlllty Ii also considerable. Its tenaojty Is so great, llmt • eop< per wire 0-078 of an inch In diameter It vapabln uf sup- porthig 802-26 lbs. avoirdupois without hrealilng. lis liability to oxydation fhrni ejiposara to air or damn Is its greatest defect. The rust with whlub It li tlieti covered is known by the name of verdlKrIi. and is oil* Of the most active poisons.— Tiiomihin'n Chfrnitlry, It is one of the six primitive ineltli | Its dlmiovsry is said to have preceded that of Iron. We nu\ In th« Scriptures of two vessels of fine vopntir, nrtulous M gold. — £-zra viil. 27. The great dIvUllilllty of this metal almost exceeds belief; a gfaln of It dissolved In alkali, os pearl ashes, soila, etc,, will kIvw a Mnillila color to more than 500,000 tlniiis its whIkIiI III WMt«r| and when copper Is in a state of fusion, If lli« !)<«•( drop of water toucii (lie melted ore, It will fly about Ilka shot firom a gun.— Boyi,ii, Tlie ntlllH or Fultliin, In Sweden, is the most surprising artlllolal eNt'Mvatluii In (he world. In England, copper mines waru disi'overed in 1661, and copper now form* an initneui* bianeh In the British trade.— IIaydm. If we except gold and silver, copper seem* to have been more early known than any otliar nitlal. Ill the first ages of the world, before the iiidthad of working iron was discovered, copper was the prltii^lpul Inurtidl- ent in ail domestic utensils and Inntruiiient* of war, Even now it is applied to so many purposes, a* to rank next, in point of utility, to Iron, Attos$ of Copper are numerous and of great value. Those of tin are of most iniportantio, 'rlii aiUled to copper makes it more fiitible, less llaSile to rust, nr to be corroded by tlio air and other eoinnmii •ulmtaiirni, harder, denser, and more sonorous, In tli(d t'ulor, differing in this respect from every other nistal OKi-ept titanium. Its specific gravity varies, aodurdli: " density, from 8-6M4 to 80, Copper alloyed with from 1 to B per ttent, rendered harder than before j Its color la y#lloH , <, ..'t a cast of red, and its fracture granuUr | it lias i-onsiil- erable malleability. This appear* to Iimv<> been the usual composition of many of the anelent ed^sd tools and weapons, before the method of workln|t( Iron was brought to perfection. The ,re> .tif of the Uroekw, and perhaps the '< , was iiathiltt( else, Kv«ll their copper coins contain (t niUture of tin. Tlin itti- cients did not, in fact, possess (iti Im* been often efiiitciid- ed) any peculiar proccsu for hardeiiliig Clipper, sxcopt by adding a small quantity of tin. An alloy In which the tin is from 0-1 to one-eighth of the whole U hard, brittle, but stiU a little malleable, elo*« gralniid, Hita yellowish white. When the tin Is a* inupli us oiiit-iilxth of the mass, it Is entirely brittle | and eotilliiiiiis m In every higher propor'ion, Tho yellownesfi of III" itlliiy It not entirely lost till tho tin amounts to O'lt of llin whiite. Copper (or sometimes copper with « lltlln kIiiv), hI* loyed with ae much tin as will make from alioiit O'l to one-sixth of the whole, form* an alloy whit'li is priiii'l- pally employed for bells, brass eannon, hrotiKH statues, and various other purposes, IlaDue It Is t'lilUd binmM or bell metal I and is excellently Alted for tlin uses to which it is applied, by its hardness, density, sunuroui- ness and fusibility. For cannon, » lower (irtiporlion of tin is commonly used. Accerdliig to Pr, Watunn, tho metal employed at Woolwlcli enntlslii of UK) parti of copper and trom 8 to 12 of tin | liKiice It rttt«ln* some little malleability, and, therefttre, Is louKhar than it would be with a larger portion rif tin, Tills «ltoy being more lonoroMtliM iron, bractguni tfiv* • loud* as* as COP U Nport tbtn Iron guns, A common alloy for bell metal ii 80 parts of copper and 20 of tin ; lome artiati am Anglesea. Owing to the want of coal in Cornwall, the ores are not smelted on the spot, but are all sent to Swansea ; It being found cheaper to carry the ores to the coal than the contrary. The East Indies and China, France, the United States, and Italy, are the great markets for British copper. "Thus, in 1861, of the total quantity ex- ported from Great Britain, amounting to 17,665 tons, 3603 went to the East Indies and China, 8183 to France ; 808A to the United States ; 1896 to Italy ; and 2118 to the Ilanse towns and Holland. — Pari. Paptr, No. 462 ; Session, 1862. foreign Copper.— Copper ores are abundant in Swe- den, Russia, Japan, Australia, Cuba, Chili, Columbia, etc. Near Fahlun, In the province of Dalecaria, in Swe- den, is the celebrated copper mine of the same name, supposed to have been wrought nearly one thousand years. For a long time it was extremely productive, yielding, toward the beginning of the seventeenth cen- tur}', an annual produce of about 8,000,000 pounds of pure metal ; but it has since greatly declined ; and It is most probable that at no distant period it will be wholly abandoned; — Thomson's Travelt in Sweden, p. 221. There are copper mines in other parts of Swe- den ; but the entire produce of copper in that country does not at present exceed from 760 to 800 tons, of a quality inferior to that of England. The produce of the copper mines of Russia has been estimated at 290,000 poods or 4061 tons (English) a year. — TEoononsKi, f'orcet Prodttclirei rfe ta.Ruesie, 1. 300. The copper mines of Japan are said to be among the richest In the world. The Dutch and Chinese export considerable quantities of their produce', which Is spread all over the East, and is regularly quoted in tho prices current of Canton, Calcutta, and Singapore. It Is uniformly met with in the shape of bars or Ingots ; and when the copper of South America is worth in the Canton mark- et from 915 to (16 per picul, that of Japan is worth from $18 to f 20 per picul. Copper, the produce of the Persian mines, is imported into Bombay and Calcutta from Bushire and Biissorab. But, in a commercial point of view, the copper mines of the United States, Cuba, Chill, and Australia are, after those of En- gland, by far tho most Important. The working of the mines of Cuba, which had been abandoned for a length- ened period, was resumed a few years ago, principally by an English company, which has been eminently successful. Large quantities of Cuba ore are taken to Swansea to be smelted; and large quantities of Chili ore are also taken there for the same purpose. Of the total imports of copper ore in 1861, amounting (including rei/uftM) to 42,181 tons, Cuba furnished 20,876 tons ; Chili, 8051 tons ; and Australia, 7219 tons ; the rest being supplied by Spain, Peru, etc. There was a very extraordinary increase in the supplies of copper from Australia during the four or five years preceding the discovery of the gold fields. The produce of the Burra Burra Mine, for example, which in 1846 was 6369^ tons of ore, had swelled in 1860 to 18,692 tons. But since then some of the mines have been abandoned, and the progress of the others checked. Foreign cop- per Imported Into Great Britain, and the copper ob- tained from the smelting of foreign ore, were, previous- ly to 1842, wholly, or almost wholly, re-exported ; the duty in Great Britain on the copper ore when it was taken or snelted for home use being so very heavy as to make it bo altogether exported in an unwrought state. But in 1842 that duty on copper ores and un- wrought copper was very materially reduced ; and it was repealed In the course of the year 1863. The pre- sumption, therefbre, is, that the imports into Great Britain of ore for smelting will increase, and that con- siderable quantities of copper derived fVom foreign ores will be brought into use. ■' ,i-'^--i- »-:,-. i... Exports of Dbitisu Coppxb in tub mmiBiiiHTiointD Ykabs. Ymb. TTnwraiitlit. Cola. ShMli, NiUa, ite. Wirt. WiwighlCoppnot ToUl of BriUA Copper ezpoTiod. Cwt. Cwl. Cwt. Cwt. Cwt Cwt. 1S20 41,165 10 68,121 8 22,663 121,968 18JB 10 2184 6I,4ST 40 25,003 78,624 1830 B6,T«2 040 6«,B3l 16 66,448 183,164 1885 89,40(» , J 100,807 48 20,219 161,624 1840 »0,»56 S»l 119,260 89 , 10,427 150,478 184S lPi.,72T 618 154,859 S3 9,403 860,781 1860 164,«T8 148 2fl8,00T S6T 7,962 426,163 1861 112.245 1810 221,018 715 16,628 851,111 1869 118,4m 95T 291,887 2424 16,187 888,721 COP 426 etm ■ Coppw 1* in extensive demwid all over IndU, be> tag largely used In the dock-yartU, in tlie msnufaotiure of cooking utensils, in alloying ipelter and tin, etc. The funeral of every Hindoo bringi an accestioD to the demand, according to his station ; the relatives of the daceaaed giving a brass cup to every Orahniin present at the ceremony : so that Hve, ten, fifty, one hundred, ore tbonsand, and sometimes more than ten times this bat number, are dispensed upon such occasions. — Bkll's Commtrce <^ Bengal. A modern, and now a very extensive use of sheet- copper, is for the sheathing of ships. That part of the bull of a ship that is in the water is covered with sheet- copper. This covering preserves the wood from the attacks of the tettdo, and thereby gives the ship the advantage of passing more rapidly through the water, •a the copper bottom remains always smooth ; for sea- weed and shells will not take root and attach them- •elves to copper, as they do to bare planks, owing to the galvanic eflfect produced by the action of sea-water. As Uiis action, however, produces a rapid decay of cop- per, it was proposed by Sir Humphry Oavy to neutral- ise it by applying metaJUic protectors — an object which he accomplished ; but as this also deprived the copper of the cflTect it was intended to produce, and allowed the molluscous tribes to attach themselves, the protect- ing process was abandoned. Copper bolts are used for fastening the planks and timbers of ships. This is a great improvement in ship- building. A copper-fastened ship or boat is preferable to one with iron fastenings, because the copper bolts remain mialt«red by rust, aud ehduro longer than the wood which they hold together, particularly when used in the state of lUloy, which preserves it from waste by neutralising the galvanic action. For the frames of delicate dipping needles and magnetic compasses, cop- per is employed, as it has been found that the brass generally uawl in philosophical instruments sometimes contains Iron, which of course might affect the mag Belie needle. Copper is drawn into wire, used for com- municati )U with the bells in houses, and for other purposes. Small pipes for conveying coal-gas from the level of the street to the aperture by which the gas issues were formerly made of copper or of brass, till superseded by tin. These pipes were fitted ou an iron cylindrical mandril, and a cylindrical ring drawn over the outside. By this means copper and brass tubes are drawn oat. The brass tulies for tele- scopes are drawn out in the same manner. Copper may be plated ; that is, its surface may bo covered with a layer of silver, by rubbing the surface with a mixture of nitrate of silver, muriate of soda, and acidulous tartrata of potass (cream of tartar). But the method practiced at Birmingham is the most perma- nent and effiictual. A plate of copper, with a jilate of silver applied to It, and borax placed in the interstice, is heated to a particular degree, which it requires the skill of a workman to know — a degree of heat, in short, near that at which copper and silver melt. The two metals thus heated, and in contact, are then taken out of the furnace and passed through rollers. There Is a fusion and combination of the adjacent surfaces ; and their adhesion is perfected by the pressure of the roll- ers. Copper thus plated is manufactured at Uinning- ham into candlesticks, teapots, buttons, buckles, and a variety of other articles. Standard silver coins contain a small proportion of copper, for the purpose of giving them hardness. This proportion is regulated by government in the several countriea of Europe, and varies in diAerent states. The combination of gold and copper in various proportions is used for making rings and other trinkets. Copper is gilded by applying on its surface an amalgam of gold with mercury. Bron::e ornaments are gilded in the same way. Copper united with zinc forms brass ; when alloyed with tin it forms bronze. This combi- nation it bard and brittle if the proportion of tin be great; but when the proportion of tin !• iniall, the bronie is soft, and possesses tenacity so as not to be easily broken. The ancients employed hard bronst, containing much tin, in making sword blades, spear heads, hatchets, and cutting instruments. Bronse cramps are found in ancient buildings in li^ypt. Stat- ues and bas-reliefs, culinary vessels, and a variety of other articles of soft bronze, are to be seen |n ditt'oreDi collections of antiquities. In modem times soft bronze is used for casting cannon and statues. Copper melted with a large proportion of tin consti- tutes bell-metal, which is bard and brittle. The metal of which the Chinese gongs are made is composed of the same ingredlenta ; and it has the property of being in some degree malleable at a certain stage of its cool- ing, for their gongs are covered with marks of the hammer. The most common ore of copper, from which the chief supplies of that metal are derived, is the yel- low copper ore, or copper pyrites, essentially a combi- nation of copper with sulphur and iron. There are, however, numerous otiier ores of copper in which the metal is in combination with oxygen, carbonic acid, various other metals, etc. Copper in its varied arti- ficial combinations, as in that of verdsgris (acetate of copper), blue vitriol (sulphate of copper), Scheele's green (arsenhe of copper), verditer (carbonate of copper), etc., is largely used in the arts of dyeing, painting, enam- eling, glass and porcelain coloring, etc. The salts of copper are poisonous ; and from the facility with which copper utensils become oxydated, their use should be as restricted as possible. One or two of the salts of copper are occasionally used in medicine ; and the sul- phate of copper has been found to be one of the most eiBcacious emetics in croup, checking the disease ond preventing the effusion of the fibrinous matter into the tracliea. This salt is also used as a lotion In the treat- ment of ulcers, etc. Amtncan Copper. — Although the copper-mining in- terest In this country Is, as yet, in Its infancy, it has already produced results that give promise of its soon standing among the foremost of our mineral products, and of adding greatly to the already diversified re- sources of wealth and power of our people. Previous to 1840 we were, in common with the rest of the world, entirely dependent upon England for our supply of this useful material. We are this year, 1866, producing about 6000 tons of it, equal to one-seventeenth of the whole amount re- (I'Ured to meet the demand of the world. The copper mines of Cornwall, England, have been worked for centuries, while those of our lioke Superior region have only been opened a few years, and not successfully and systematically worked until within the last five years. The opening of the Sault St. Marie canal, by counecting the navigation of Lake Superior with that of the chain of lower lakes, has given an impetus to the business that will soon make it the great source of supply of copper to our own and foreign countries, on account of its great purity and the inexhaustible beds of its ore. Eighteen new stamping mills have been erected the past year, uod at least fifty more will be put into operation this year. The total shipments of the Lake Superior copper mines are thus stated : Tout. Ontonagon District 8170 PorUgo Lake District 345 Keweenan Point District 22|I4 Total 47f>a The value of the copper on the wharves on Lake Superior equals |440 a ton ; total product, $2,092,200. Tho increase of the year 1856 over 1864 was about 2000 tons, and it is estimated that in 185(>-'67, the increase will be 1600 tons over 1855. The government of r>anco has had Mens. Rivot, of tho School of Mines in France, examining the Lake Superior copper, in consequence of the supply from Russia being cut ofi*; and the Amer- ican copper haa been tested and found equal, if not su- eop 4S7 COB 8176 ... 346 ..... «i'34 ..... 4I6& ■ves on Lako ., ^2,092,200. a« about 2000 , the increase lent of Franco les in France, consequence nd the Amer- ual,ifnotBU- Mrior to the Ruultn, and tu (nparior to tM Englit^. The luperior tenacity of the American copper ia a (trong reconiniendatioD. Copper JiutU anil Statuet. — These couiit wholly of copper, in a thin ibeet ; and the whole of the metal hail been reduced or precipitated from a liquid solution. Wo believe that the flnt example of this striking pro- duction was a bust of the late Dr. Dalton, made by Mr. Cheverton about ten years ago ; and the practica- bility being thus demonstrated, the art may be now followed to any extent. The processes are curious. The bust is first modeled in some kind of clay, which may afterward easily be broken away piecemeal ; and on this a thick copper tUm is deposited by tlie electro process. The clay core or model being broken away, the copper remains as a hollow shell, the inside of which has taken the exact impress (though reversed) of the outside of the bust. This copper shell, on being properly prepared on the inner surface, is mad^ the groundwork on which a second deposition takes place ; it is used, in fact, as a mould, from which one or more busts may be procured. Architects and sculptors are gradually availing themselves of this art in the furtherance of their pro- fessional labors. The late Bavarian sculptor, Stigl- mayer, who was employed by King Ludwig on so many important works at Munich, devised a mode of coating coUossal plaster statues with copper, by the electro process. In a remarkably expeditious way. But one of the most important applications of the art is that which is exhibited in the new and splendid cathe- dral of St. Isaacs, at St. Petersburg, on which the em- peror has expended large sums. Certain parts have been ornamented in a remarkable way. The cathedral has seven very large doors, or rather door-ways, throe of which are 44 feet wide by 30 high ; they are formed of bronze, but all the adornments ar« produced by the electro process. These adornments are of a most elab- orate nature ; they comprise no less than 51 bas-rcllefg, 63 statues, and 84 alto-relievo busts. It is not simply as a matter of economy that the electro process has been adopted, for the czar is not a man to entertain scruples on such a point ; but there are certain advant- ages of an artistic character. By the electro process the sculptor is sure to have his model faithfully copied ; and the lightness of the material enables him to impart bolder relief to his designs than if they were cast in bronze ; while this lightness of weight also justifies blm la suspeudiug pendants or bosses from vaulting, of a larger size than would l>e safe if made otherwise. Copperas, a term employed by the older chemists, and popularly as synouymous with vitriol. There are three sorts of copperas : the green, or sulphate of iron ; the blue, or sulphate of copper ; and the white, or sul- phate of zinc. Of these, the first is the most important. Sulphate of iron i« distinguished in common by a va- riety of names, as Martial vitriol, English vitriol, etc. When pure it is considerably transparent, of a line bright, though not very deep, grass green color ; and of a nauseous, astringent taste, accompanied with a kind of sweetness. Its specific gravity is 1°834. It uniform!, reddens the vegetable blues. This salt was well known to the ancients, and is mentioned by Fiiny (i7M(. Nat. lib. x.xxiv. § 12) under the names of muy, tory, and calchantum. 1 1 is not made in the direct way, t>ecause it can be obtained at less charge from the de- composition of pyrites on a large scale in the neigh bor- bood of collieries. It exists in two states, one con- taining oxyd of iron, with 0-22 of oxygen, which is of a pale green, not altered by gallic acid, and giving a white precipitate with prussiate of potass. The other, in which the iron is combined with 0-30 of oxygen, is red, not crystallizable, and gives a black precipitate with gallic acid, and a blue with prussiate of potass. In the common sulphate, these two are often mixed \a various proportions. . ^uljf^te of iri^ i|t of peat importwifa in tlte trUlr It Is a principal ingredient in dyeing ; In the mannbo* ture of ink, and of prussian blue ; it is also used in tan> nlng, palming, medlcina, etc. Sulphurie acid, or oU of vitriol, was formerly manufactured 'from sulphata of iron.— iSe« Acius. Sulphate of copper, or Hut vitriol, commonly called Roman or Cyprian vitriol. Is of an elegant sapphira blue color, bard, compact, and semi-transparent ; when perfectly crystallized, of a flattish, rhomboidal, decaba- dral figure; its taste is extremely nausaous, styptto, and acrid ; its specific gravity is 2-1848. It U used for various purposes in the arts, and also in medicine. Sulphate of zinc, or vhile vitriol, is found native in the mines of Goslar and other places. Sometimes' it ia met with in transparent pieces, but more f?ommonly In white eiBorescencos. These are dissolved in water, and crystallized Into largo irregular masses, somewhat resembling fine sugar, having a sweetish, nauseous, styptic taste. Its specific gravity, when crystallized, is 1-912; when in the state in which it commonly oc- curs in commerce, it is 1-827&. Sulphate of zinc i« prepared in the large w«}' ttom some varieties of the native sulpburet. The ore is roasted, wetted with water, and exposed to the air. The sulphur attracts oxygen, and Is converted into sulphuric acid : and the metal, being at the same time oxydized, combines with the ttcid. After some time the sulphate is extracted by solution in water, and the solution being evapora- ted to dryness, the mass is run into moulds. Thus, the white vitriol of the shops generally contains a small portion of Irou, and often of copper and lead. — Lewis's Hat. iledica ; Vkk's ZHciumarg; Rkes' Cifclopedia. Copper Money. The Romans, prior to the reign of Servius TuUius, used rude pieces of copper for mon- ey. In England, copper money is of extensive coin- age. That proposed by Sir Robett Cotton was brought into use in 1C09. Copper was extensively coined in 1665. It was again coined by the crown, 23 Car. II, 1672. Private trailers had made them previously to this act. In Ireland, copper was coined as early aa 1339 ; in Scotland in 1406 ; in France in 1580. AVood'a coinage in Ireland commenced In 1723. Penny and two-penny pieces were extensively issued In 1797. The half-farthing was coined in 1848. — Ste Cent, Copyxigbt. See Books. Coraole, a small kind of boat, constructed of wick- er, and covered with leather, or with cloth made water- proof with oil or tar. From its extreme lightness it may be transported on the shoulders from place to place. Coracles are common In Wales. A similar kind of boat bos been used in the East from remote antiquity. CatiX (Germ. KwMen; Du. Koracien; Fr. Cormli It. Corale; Sp. and Port. Coral; Russ. Korattui Lat, CoraOiumi Arab. Beted/ Pers, Merjtm; Hind. Moon- go), a marine production, of which there are several varieties. It was well known to tbe ancients, but it was reserved for tho moderns to discover its real na- ture. It is, in fact, the nidus or nest of a certain spe- cies of vermes, which has the same relation to coral that a snail has to its shell. As an ornament, black coral is most esteemed ; but the red is also very highly prized. Coral is found in very great abundance in the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, in various placea in the Mediterranean, on the coast of Sumatra, etc. It grows on rocks, and on any solid submarine body ; and it ia necessary to its production tliat it should remain fixed to its place. It has generally a shrub-like appearance. In the Straits of Messina, where a groat deal Is fished up, it usually grows to nearly a foot in length, and its thickness is about that of tho little finger. It requires eight or ten yean to arrive at its greatest rize. Tho depth at which it is obtained is various — fh>m 10 to 100 fathoms or more ; but it seems to be necessary to its production tbat tho rays of the sun should readily penetrate to the place of its habitation. Its value de- pends upon its size, solidity, and the deptli and biU- COB 4 lUne^ of lU color, and li so very varioui, that while ■one of the Sicilian coral eelli for ei)(ht or ten Ruineai aa ounce, other deecriptions of it will not fetch l«, a poand. It if highly priied by opulent natives in In- dia, aa well ai by the fair lex throughout Kurope. The Inferior or worm-eaten coral it used in some parts of the Madraa coast, in the celebration of funeral rites. It It also used nwdioinally, Besides the fishery In the Straits of Messina already alluded to, there are valu- able flsherias on the shores of Majorca and Miniirra, and on the coast of Provence, A good tl...'. ' Licui- torranean coral is exported to India, which, however, draws the largest portion of its supplies from Iho Per- sian' Gulf. Tho produce of the flshery at Messina Is stated by Spallanzani {Travelt m thi Tiro SicUiet, vol. W.) to amount to 12 quintals of 260 lbs. each. The manner of Ashing coral Is nearly the same ever;'- where. That which is most commonly practiced In the Mediterranean is as follows: seven or eight men go in a boat, commanded by the proprietor ; the caster throws his net, if we may so call the machine which he uses to tear up the coral iVom the bottom of the sea; and the rest worii the boat, and help to draw in tho net. This is composed of two lieams of wood tied crosswise, with leads Axed to them to sink them ; to these beams is fastened a quantity of hemp, twisted loosely round, and intermingled with some loose netting. In this condition the machine is let down into tho soa ; and when the coral is pretty strongly entwined in tho honip and nets, they draw it up with a rope, whieli thoy un- wind according to the depth, and which it sometimes requires half a dozen boats to draw. If this rope hap- pens to break, the fishermen run the hazard of being lost. Before the fisliers go to sea, they agree for the price of the coral ; and tho produce of the fishery is divided, at the end df the season, into thirteen parts ; of which the proprietor has four, the caster two, and the other six men one each ; tho thirteenth belongs to the company for payment of lioat-hin), etc. See Ainh- lie's Materia Indica; Rkrs' Cyclojiedia ; Enci/clopedia Melropolitana ; Bell's Commerce ofhengal, etc. Cordage (Germ. Tauwerki Uu. Touwtaerk; Fr. Jfiwouorcf, Cordagt ; It. Caobane ; Sp, Jatvia, Cordaje), a term used in general for all sorts of cord, whether imali, middling, or great, made use of in the rigging of ships. The following table shows how many fathoms, fafit, and inches, of a rope of an}' size, not exceeding 14 inches, make 1 cwt. At the top of the tabic, mark- ed inches, fathoms, feet, inches, the first column is the circumference of a rope in inches and quarters ; the sec- ond, the fathopis, feet, and inches that make up 1 cwt. of such a rope. One example will make it plain. Snppoea it is required how much of a 7-inch rope will make 1 cwt ; find 7 in the third column, under inches, or circumference of the rope, and Immediately opposite to it you will find 9, 5, 6 ; which shows that in a rope of 7 inches there will be 9 fathoms 5 feet 6 inchts required to make 1 cwt 1 id 1 hi 1 III 1 480 a Itt 1 10 4 6 u 813 8 14 4' 6 lot 4 4 1 u 218 8 s 13 8 \u 4 2 3 1* IfiS 8 H IS 8 9 4 1 8 3 124 8 ei It 8 11 4 8 2* OS a in 10 4 Hi 8 6 T «» n 8 T 9 S < lU 8 4 1 s» <5 4 Tt 9 1 « iif 8 8 8 8 54 n 8 4 IS 8 8 8 B| 4S 6 2 T» 8 3 6 12t 8 2 1 39 8 8 T 8 6 8 2 H 84 8 9 H T 8 2 T 8 4 80 1 « 84 6 4 8 13 8 6 8 I 2« 6 8 81 6 % 1 13i 2 4 9 24 9 6 isj 2 4 91 3 9i 6 4 13t 8 8 6 B 19 a 9t 6 8 14 8 8 1 lU IT 4 91 6 6 —attGMi*, » OOIt Oordwalmn or Oordlnnra, the term by which ihoematen are designated In the statutes. The word is fornicil from tlio French eonbmnirr, which Mteaga derivp', from cordouaH, a kind of leather brought fttim (Jonlova, and used for the upper leather of shoes. Oth- ers derive it ttom corde, rope, liecauso shoes were an- ciently made of cords; as, indeed, they still aro In some parts of Spain, under tho name of alpargale$. But tho former etymology is evidently more proper. Cores, ft largo peninsula of Asia, formed nn one side l)y the Yelluw 8ea, and on the other by tho Sea of Japan. It is situated immediately to tho coat of Chi- na; and its length may be cstlmalcU nt 400 miles, by 160 in average breadth. A great part of what was formerly supposed to be its western coast was found by Captains Hall and Maxwell to consist of an immense archipelago of small islands, which have since been subdivided Into sererol groups, and aro known as Amherst's Islands, the C'orean, and Hall's Archipelago. Tho largest of these is the island of Quelpaert, called by the natives Mnsa, in the centre of which there is a mountain peak al>out 0000 feet aliova the level of tho sea. Tliongh rocky and bare, Ihcso groups aroforthe most part inhabited. Tho peninsula itself is divided from tho Japanese Inland of Kiusin by the Straits of Cor<>a, and by a high mountain ranga called the Shanalin or Champcshan, trom the country of the Mantchoos. It embraces an area of about 06,000 miles, with a populatiun of alKtuteight millions, Tho interior of the country is rugged and mountainous, being intersected by a lofty branch of tho northern range, wbfch in turn sends ofl' numerous offshoots to tho sea. The principal valleys lie toward tlie western and southern coasts, and these districts alone ei^oy a temperate climate. Tlie eastern coast is bleak and precipitous, while the northern frontier is cold and des- olate, and thus subserves tho purposes of despotism by cutting off all friendly communication with the main land. The principal products of the country comprise wheat, millet, rice, ginseng, tobacco, silk, cotton, and hemp. The three last are exported both in the raw nnd manufactured state. Timlwr and cattio are plenti- fully supplied from the forests and pasture-grounds, as well as furs from the northern jungles. Its mineral wealth is said to include gold, silver, iron, rock-salt, and coal ; and from tlio tril>ute sent to the Emperor of China — consisting both of bullion and manufactured articles — the precious metals seem to be wrought to a considerable extent. The Coreans resemble the Jap- anese and Chinese in dress, habits, and religion, but are said to be as inferior to either of these in mental vigor as they are superior in strength and stature. Their mode of writing is alphabetic, and they arc said to possess an extensive literature ; but as all ingress into the cot^ntry is denied to Europeans, and all egress to natives, little is known of these particulars. They keep up considerable commercial intercourse with Chi- na and Japan, whence they import pepper, aromatic woods, alum, and goods of Dutch manufacture ; but most of tho trade is managed by a circuitous overland route, and, lieing discouraged by the government, is carried on with secrecy and at considerable risk. The kingdom of Corea, although tributary to China, is gov- erned at will by its own king — tho Chinese emperor doing little more than formally ratifying his decrees. It is divided into eight provinces, and contains, ac- cording to Chinese accounts, 161 towns. The capital, King-ti-tao, stands on the river Kiang, a small stream which flows into the Yellow Sea. It is the residence of the king, and contains, among other things, an ex- tensive library. In modem times a few French mis- sionaries have penetrated into the country, but with little success. Cork (Germ, ^orit; Vu. Korl; Kurk, Vlothout; Fr, Liege; It. Sughero, Suvero; Sp. Corcho; Port. Cortica ( peatcd once every eight or ten years, the quality of lbs cork improving with the incrcaaing ago of the tree. The bark it taken off in July and August | and triwa that are regularly sttipped are said to live fbr one hun- dred and fifty years or more.— Poibet, Hut, J'hlloiH' phique detPhntet, tome vli. 41D. Cork it light, poraya, readily compressible, and wonderfully eUslio, It nmy bo cut into any sort of figure, and notwithstanding lis porosity, is nearly impervious to any conmion liquor. These qualities make it auperior to all other tubttancaa for stoppers for bottles, in the manufaotura of wlilrh It is principally made use of. It it also employed as buoys to float nets, in tho construction of life-boala, tbit making of water-proof shoes, and in various other ways. Before being manufactured into stoppers, the cork is charred on each sido ; this makes it contract, lessens its porosityy and consequently fits It tha belter for cutting oflTallcoinmunication between the external air and the liquid in tho bottle, Spanish block it modu of calcined cork. The cork tree, and tha uses to which the bark may be applied, were known to tha tireeka and Komans. Pliny mentions that the Romans *m- ployed It to stop all kinds of vessels | but the use of it forthis purpose does not appear to have been common till glass bottles came Into general use, whiuh, accord- ing to Beckmann, was not till the fifteenth century, Other vegetable productions have been soniotinius em- ployed instead of cork ; as, for instance, the ipondlai lutta, a tree which grows in South America, particular- ly in moist places, and which is there called moiibln or monbain. The roots of liquorice are applied to the same use, and on tbls account the plant is cultivated in Sclavonia, and exported. A tree called ngiia, which grows in North America, has been found also to aflbrd a substitute for cork. Considering it in a politic as well as in an econom- ical sense, seasonable measures should bo taken to form in the United States plantations of this tree, sufliclent for the future supply of cork, partkularly for tha in- creasing demands for that material which are likely to •rise from the culture of the vine. As a further argu- ment in showing the importance of fostering this brahcb of rural econdmy, it may bo stated, that the amount uf cork which It yearly imported into the United States, is valued at more than $284,000. Cork Jacket, an apparatus to buoy up the body In swimn'.lng. It consists of pieces of cork inclosed hetwecn two pieces of strong canvas, ond Is shaped so as to be worn like a jacket, but without arms. It is now almost quite superseded by the air belt made of waterproof cloth. The cork jacket appears to be a very old invention ; for Plutarch, in his life of Camil- las, mentions that the messenger sent by that general to his fellow-citizens when besieged in the capitol, made nse of a cork jacket in swimming across the Ti- ber, the Gauls being in possession of the bridge, Cork, a city, parliamentary borough, and river port of Ireland, capital of the county of Cork, and a county of itself, on the Lee, eleven miles above the entrance of Cork Harbor, and 187 miles southwest of Dublin, Area of city, 48,006 acres ; of the municipality, 2flliB acres. Population of county and city, or barony, 106,065; of municipal borough (1861), 84,114. Tba city proper is built on an island formed by the Lae, Priadpiil nuumfikotiutf are of iMther, iron, and otiwr mtlsllUi Meotli,|>lMt,fom Portugal and ill* Msdliarrailtiati ) tinilier from tho Baltic and North Anioriv*, ( 'ork iKiinmiinliates by steam-packets with l,utldun, I'ulillll, Itrlalul, Liverpool, and (ilasgow. Cork llurhur Is » lliiti land-looked batln. formed by the estu- ary uf tiM l^tt, whioii la navigable to 1^ miles above Cork uily. It It tariie and deep enough to contain tho wliulti llrlllalt navy, and lias an entrance one mile aiiru»f,wlllilit wliltfh lit breadth varlea to eight miles, it auttialH* Mpik« and llaulliowllna lalanda, on which ara «rtllt«ry barrwkt and various ordnance workt. I.N(, Al" 60 4" M,, luiir H" 19" W. On its shores ara Ilia t4)H'iia «if (!uv« and I'atiage, with quays four mllit III ImiKlti, and « hluli w«re erected at a cott of jei00,000. Corn (NantiH ddrn), tlie Krain or seeds of plants sep- •ralud friilli llin kiiIcm fir var, and used for making bread. AtwurdliiK lu Iha Kurupean Interpretation there are aaveral ii|i(i«l«a wf vmn, such as wheal, rve, and barley, inilli'l and rl«it, oatit, tnalte, and lentils, peas, and • liuilibiir uf iitll«r kinds, each of which has Its peculiar qiiNlKltia Nlld uii<(i patriot*, Ollicrt swy iliat Ceres passed first into Atti- ca, tlieiifw llilo (jret«, Hlid lant of alt Into Sicily. Many •ulioUrs, however, iiiMlnlalii that It was In Egypt the art of i-'iiUlviitltiK corn first began ; and it Is certain that Ibara wan mm In Kgypt and the East long before tha tiiiia of OrKK.^^K. II, Mdsti, Qv tiiillm Cvfiii^Among the oljecti of cul- ture ill tilH I'tlileii HlMWj mtitt, or Indian com, takes pracadaiiiie In the ««ale of rrops, at it Is best adapted to tba soil and clliitate, Ntid furnishes tho largest amount of imtrltWe twA, Where due regord Is paid to tlie tel«etion of V»rl«itleii, and cultivated in a proper soil, it may be Aft'oiilited as a sure crop in almost evary portion of tlie Imldlalde |$tube between the 44th degree of north lutitude and h correspandlng parallel south. Ueaidea Its produotion In this country, its principal culture It iliiiitfd to Mexleo, the W'est Indies, most of tha tt«t«i| of Moiitli America, France, Spain, Portugal, Iit§ CotNmlwi dtfcortrwl Am«rt««, Ju*n. ill CnIi*. In hi* "Ortiu BanlUtIi," nitkn no monilnn uT II, li Iw* n«t«f bcm found in tny nnoUnt liiiiiiihiit, Mriwtiht||Ni, or pft»- mid ; nor hM It awtt Uwn ruiiivMnlAl In »ny ancient Minting, ienlptura, uf wurk of irt. unmpt In Am«rlri. Bnl In thU Muntrv, •uwrillna In 0»r«tlMa (to In V«g«, on* ofth* enrliNt ParuvUn ntoloHani, IIm p»t»im ^»t- dini uf th* IncM w*n orn«m«nM4 with maJM In gold and •llvar, with all tlw icralnt, uttliid*, ilallit, and IcnvMi and In an* ln«tanndan t'onipany" »t»ptfil tha nnwle then practiced liy th* Indiana, whii'b, with nmna tnndlAra' tlona, h*> baao purauad war atnfa. Tim ylf-ld at thai time ia repra*ant«d to hav* Iwan from two hitndred to cioto than a Ihouaand fold. Tlia »am« Inrrt^aM waa noticed by th* earlv a«ttl*ra In lllln«l», Tha praaent yield, eaat of tha Rocky Nm Canada to Draail j hut. in ellbar e»»t, ita char- acter ia aomewhat obang»4, an4 oflan now varieties are the reaulta. The bla,!)On lioshels; fh>m North Carolina, in 17S8, 61,080 hiisbcis ; from Virginia, for several year* preceding the llnvolutlon, annually, (KX),000 busliela ; from Phit adeiphia. In 17M, 1)0,740 buahcls; in 1707-'68, 60,ml bualiels; in 1771, 2nB,44t bushela. The total amount exported from this country In 1770 waa D78,849 bushels ; in 17(M, 2,004,086 huahela, Bfil,09t of which were Indian meal ; in IHOO, 2,082,486 bnahela, nfln.lfmofwhieh were in meal: in 1810, 1,140,960 IiubH< ela, 8(5,74 1 of which y/en In meal. In 1820-'21, thera were exported 007,277 bushels of com and ISI.OOO bar- rels of Indian meal ; in 1880l.'»1 , 571 ,812 bushels of com and 207,604 barrels of meal ; in 1840-'41, 686,737 bush- els of com and 232,264 barrels of meal ; in 1846-'46, 1,286,008 bushels of com and 2V8,790 barrels of meal { in 184(U'I7, 111,828,060 bushels of com and 048,060 bar- rels of meal ; in 1860-'&1, 8,426,81 1 bushels of com and 208,622 barrels of meal. More than 11,000,000 bushela of Indian corn were consumed In 1860 in the manufoo* ture of malt and spirituous llquiin. According to the censn* of 1840, the com crop of the United States was 877,681,976 bushala; of 1860, 692,820,612 bushela. Alabwna ArlunwS Calircirnlik Oiliimbla, tXttrlct of. . ,)l8r l,*M,Ul 811,8 tT.ia) B,(61.«I9 ti 2,946,490 6,041,420 99,440,669 S6,914,b87 1,678,070 8.760,704 17,867,400 27,»41,061 69,078,096 19,836,214 680.901 16,971,454 69,1170,998 6,028,876 2,032,890 86,264,819 1,988,079 10,726 846,411 2,918 9,899 609.3^6,619 Oorn Irfiwa. An adequate supply of breadstuflh ia evidently of the yery flrat importance to every coun- try, and should be as regular as Is possible, since sud- den flncttutions in an article of such universal neces- sity are injurious, and scarcity, with the consequent high prices, brings distress upon the poorer classes, and is a fraitful canse of discontent and convulsions. The best means of securing a sufficient and steady sup- ply of this article ia a subject of some diversity of opin- Ion, and the practice of governments has varied mueh at diflbrent times. One theory, urged by Adam Smith, bnt questioned by Ur. Malthui and most others, ia, that the government should do absolutely nothing id the matter, on the ground that th* farmer* and eort COR Ml ooa M«r«li*nl(,lf nnchttktd, will ilwayiftmn oomolTUwi •f (hair own InUratl, Md that their Inttreit will coln- eide with that of th« rmt of th« oominanlty. Ilut broad, iwatping tliaoriei of thli lort ar* raraly adopted In tha pracllual adnilnlitrallun of altkira; and a Ktivemroanl, In inakinK rafpilatloni on thia lul^oct, at on ovary othar, lodka at ill internal condition, tha character and pur- miita of III popnlatlon, and its foreign commarcial rala> lioni ; and though it may not Judge correctly of the bcit maani of laourlng a iteady and luinciant lupply. Ibis docs not prove that a total nagluct of the aul^ct would bo the wi>e>t and the aafeil policy In all countrlea anil ut all timeii. It la oerlain, however, that very un- wise meaiuras have often baeu reaortsd to, and some- Umcii tuch at tended rather to aggravate the evil than to provide a remody. One way to guard againit a aoar- city is that adoplad by the king of Egypt in the tima of Joaaph-^tha purchaalilg of com by tha government In tima of plenty at home, or importing It ftam abroad, and storing It in public magaiinos, to !>« distributed ■a the public wants may demand. Uut this system Is attended with great expense, and affbrds but an uncer- tain and inatioquate provision. Most governments, accordingly, instead of making direct purchases, at- tempt to provide a remedy by the passage of laws. This subject of grain legislation Is by no means enttru- ly modem. The Athenians hr.d laws prohibiting thv exportation of com, and requiring merchants who load- ed their vessel* with It in foreign ports to bring tliclr cargoes to Athths. The public provision and distribu- tion of com was an important branch of administra- tion at Rome, and very intimately connected with tln' public tranquillity. The regulation in the supply of com, and the trade in tbo article, haa been a frultftil sul^ect of legislation in mom time to Ihne very malrrially ; but the principle* of the laws and their tlliti are the same.— E. A. Hf/orm |iMrt*r j •nil Hour miiI mimI, of nil wrti, to • flaml dulj- uf Hd. • owl,--K. U. Ootiraoopla (l pitar, whow nuraa, Amaltbaa, wliitn ono of hur Koala bad brokan otT a born agalnit a traa, praaontnd It tu Uta god wn-athad with fluwara and llllod with fruit. Banc* It bocama tha amblaui of I'lanI/ ainonH tha an- danta, in which light It l« ragarded alio by many mod- •rn nations. Tha cornucopia l» found In tha typaa of anclant coini, particularly upon tboaa of Sicily. Ooraoratton la tha tarm ganerally appliad to a body or men by apaclal law andowed with tha power and maana of acting collectively, with tha dIatlnctnaM and Individuality of ona man puraulng the Uictatua of bia own will, white their exUtance Is kvpt up liy a per- patual surceiiian, lo that tho collactiva hotly acta Ilka an individual man with a perpetuated vitality, Though the corporation might b« deonietl, from tha admiration bestowed on It by professional writers, to be tha pecul- iar creation of English genius, tliore Is little doubt that the system was derived from the mu»ici/iia, uniittrtita. tu, and collrgia of the Uoniaus ; and Ihera U even rea- son to Iwlitsvo that there are corporations which date their history back to the Institutions of tlie Weatuni Empire. The adage, Indeed, expressed by a Koman Jurisprudent, that it required three to mako a college — tritfaerrt collegium (60 l>Ug, 16, 8i) — shows a prac- tical consciousness of the most clfectivo meant of strengthening the action of a small corporation, la an a^iuatmcnt by which equal numbers with the chances of balanced divisions are to bo avoided, and tliat num- ber Is selected which always aflurds a ni^ority of two to ono. — K. U. Corporations aro stated by LWy to bava been of very high antiquity among the Itomans. They wore Introduced Into other countries from Italy. These political bodies ware first planned by Numa, In order to break the forco of the two rival factious of Sablnes and Romans, by Instituting separate societies of every manual trade and profession. — PMiTARCii, Oorsalr (It. curiai-e). A term used in the south of Europe and some other parts for a pirate or his ship. The corsairs of Oarbary wero coniinissioncd by their prince* to attack the merchant ships of hostile countries, OonrettS, a sloop of war ; according to some au- thorities, an advice-boat with fewer than twenty guns. CoamatlO (Koa/ieu, to adorn), any preparation to render the skin soft and white, or to beautify and im- prove the complexion. The word comutai among tho Bomans was used to denote a class of slaves whose business it was to dr«ss and adorn tholr mlslrosses. — E. B. Preparations for improving beauty were known to the ancients, and some authorities refer them even to mythology, and others to tbr Grecian stage. The Boman ladles painted ; and those of Italy excelled in heightening their charms artiflcially, by Juices and colors, and by perfumes. Bouge has always been in disrepute among the virtuous and well-ordered women of England, though somo simple eotmetici are regarded as innocent, and ate in general use. — Ashe. The fe- males of France and Germany paint mora highly than most other nations. — Biciiauuhox. In Great liritain a stamp was laid on cosmetics, perfumery, and such medicines as really or supposititiously boautlfy the skin or perfume tho person, and the vendors were obliged to take out licenses, 26 Geo. III. 178(.— IIayuh. Costa Rloa, a republic of Central America, bound- ed on the north by Nicaragua, from which it U sepa- rated on the northeast by the river San Juan, on the •ut and north by the Caribbean Sea, on the east by New Granada, fh>m which it is separated by the river Cbirigua entariog the Caribbean Sea, and the Cbiriqui antaring tba Padflc, and on tha wntb and wwt by tba I'aciAr I balwtan lat. H° and 11' N., and long. It* W and 84" W W, Area, about 1H,IMN) square miles. It Is divided Into six dlstriots, vis. i Han ioti, Cartago, Hnradla, Al^ucla, Uuanaraute, and I'unta Annas, and estimated to contain 'J1A,imnI inliatiltants, iif wliuni 'iMU ara Indians, It 1* Intarsaotud illagonally l)y tha pri- mary range of tha lathinus, which throwa off immaroua spurs on either side, giving tu the surface a cunllnued alternation of abrupt heights and sudden depressions, i'lie principal ranga has several lofty eminences, and ' also several volcanoes, huih active and dormant. In- cluding those uf Oroal, Votoa, and Cartago; from the summit of the last of which both tha I'aelAe and the Atlantic waters are distinctly visible. l>sta Itlca con- tains some exceedingly rich gold mines ; banc* the ori- gin of Its name. The mines, however, are now very littlu wrought. Niiver and co|i|>er also exist, With the oxoepllon uf tho Sfla-t'uusls, tho climate is mild and temperate, nuvnr subject to excessive heats ur colds, and rantly cxjirriuncliig any other vicissitudes than thoso from the dry tu the rainy season. It Is thers- fora extremely wall adapted to agricultural purposes, and capable uf bringing to maturity most of Iho plants peculiar to the tropics, and many oxotlits. Tim sull Is remarkably fertile, especially the valleys and the tabla- landa. Tho pruductluns are colTee, I'acao, Ihclian corn, tobacco, sugar, and sonio wheat. The huracs uf C'oata Uii-a are of an Inferiur deat'rlptlon, but the mulus are much esteemed ; and cattle, sheep, k'oats, and bogs ar* reared in great numbers, and of excellent quality. Among the principal rivers of Costa HIca are th* Tempis<|Ue and (irande, falling Into the Day of Nlcoya ; the ileus or Macho, which afterward takes the name of Ituventason, and falls into the Caribbean 8ea ; the Malina, formed by the rivers Chirripo and Harbiila; the Kscudo de Voragua, dividing Central from .South America ; tho Ilanana, Tiribee, and C'ulabra, all (kll- ing into the Caribl>ean Sea ; tho Chrico Mola or Clirlck- am Aula, falling Into the Bay of Cheriqul; tho Costa Itlca ortian Carlos, and the Harapiqul, Into tho San Juan. Tlio Ilaya Is a canal, believed by sume to be natural, and by others to have been cut by the aliorig- inos, couimonclng at the port of Moln or 8ult Creek, and running parallel to the coast at far as I'vurl Kay Lagoon, a distance of IHU miles. Custa Kica produces. In large quantities, mahogany, cedar, Brazil, and various uther kinds of timber. On the spo-vooat of Nlcoya somo pearls and large quanti ties of mothcr-of-|>earl shells are found. Coffee, how- ever, forms the most important product of the republic. Its cultivation, though only introduced about the year 1H80, has increased so rapidly, that 8000 to 4000 tout are now exported annually. Tobacco, which it of ex- cellent quality. Is a government monopoly, and is ex- ported In email quantities. The other exports are gold, sugar, Brazil wao ara ia\lty. ca «ro tha ofNlcoya; I iha oama n 8«ai the d BarbtUa; from South .ra, all Wl- aorChrlck- , tho Cotta jito tha San Homo to ba tlio ttlwrlg- 8ttU Creek, I'curl Kay mahogany, Imbar. On ,rife quantl Jolfta, how- he republic, lut tho year 4000 toni Ich li of ex- , and l» ex- rta aro gold, cow Wdea, if roanufac- 18; expeu- nlted States f of July 10, lintry. Th« amerce, and Ich other, on Ita Blca vas lllfied in the eiftctcd herce to the Idescriptions nment, and be Uriff of or porta, tha foanlMP*!- AH,B, AltlMlklMd«ffhHitl«»^*fto|Ma( akall b« aaiablltbad, under tuah raguUtlMit aa iba |av< ammani may daam III lu »dQ\it, An. i. Al (Mil |Mifla, InUntl Md ••pori eamiiMrea only ihall ba allawad, aMaapt In m|NNil uf auvh mar- ohandiaa aa abatl ba monupiaUiwI by (ba guvammant orproblbllad. Tha M«iMid abaptar of Ika law lontalaa a ipaclflra* lion uf fraa guuda, logalhar wllh a Hal of prohlbllad arilolia ; among iha (brniar iMlaif Iha paraoflal afllNiM of, or marsbandiM aanorlad for iIm u*a at, dlplamalla aganla or Ibair tulia, bul not Ihaaa of Mmaiila | aad In Iba laliar ara Ineludad rum, lln^anna, and mHnlllona of war, wbleh van lia Imporlad only nndar apMlai au- thorliy. Tha moiiuiNilUad arllalaa ara lobaiwo (In leaf or nianufaaturad), iiowdar, and aallpaira | wblab eaa ba admlltad only on (ovamHtaiil aaauunt, Thia law aaiandt lu alalaan aha|tlara| and aurh |iarts aa apply lo navlcallon and aammarM wohIiI Im trantlaiad and Intartad al laiitflh, ware II not undar- alood to have baan iiialarlally mutllflad by a raonnl da- oraa, of wbliib a aummary li given, wllb Iha tariff of Coita Klea, The I'nitad llalaa oonaul at Nan Joad (Cotla Klea) comniunk'iiM tl«a fulluwlug vbaiigaa, under data Uoto- bera, IHMi " I have Iha konor to laabiaa hatawllb ae|ilaa of three lie- cnn iMued by IbU (unmiiiMit, tiMiHlwrvil, rMi|wll»iil)r, I, 1, and 8. Nu. 1, daiad Nuvniiilwr 14, l«M, U imnif |irii- R>|uln( til* llaia flaail IW lit* iww UrtlT (a miif uf wlilch haa bean IranmilUad), lo Uka odmH (turn Iha In «f llartinilwr, lUM, to Iha lut uf July, IMA. No, *. uf lk« MHia date, ra- quint, artlclu lit, pravluu* lii Iha laiMiNf «f Manl.andlM, In addlllou to Iba manlhal hanrlaAtf* pmaanlad by Ihe maalar of anjr rnaael arrtvlaa al Ilia iwrt of I'HMla Aranaa, thai par- mlMlon lo dlMuibarfc liu uliUlnad Aula Iha •nllei'lor ul tua- tooia, and Ibal lu llw duauiiiaiil will«lllna IliU iwrnilMlon niuil ba upniMad (be <|uallly and orlifin of tha nwida Inlandud lo ba landed, and alw tliair niarkal value In llM porl, Artlrle 9 requlrae, proviuua to Ilia abiaraniHi »f a VMa«f frnm luif port of lbs rapubllo, the prtMuilallon \iy Iha aonManaaa of a man- UmI of tba werebandlae to ba vipurlad, and Ita value In Ihe paet of akipiaaat, Artlrle t, uf Ika tame, ra^aUw, hi aaaa where a paifl utiljr of a aar|o bee keea landed, Ikat tha aaii< ilinaai^ prevlniN to a alaarance, pnaani aaelliar ' a ei raa l ad manlfaal,' ipaalfirbif Ilia ((uallljr and value of the geodi that hava bean landed. Nn. a, dated Jiiljr ««, tlM, ordara thai all iMaMtM aplrtla landed In the port of Paula Annaa ba dapi>e- llad la Ike pablla alona, and aiaoto the pajrmenl of Ainr eenia per Boiind, anae «al|hl, upon Iheir retnovat tnm bond. Ne •'arliiar ahaagee have been made la Iha aunmetelal ajtale* of tble repuUla wllhlu the IIom epeelAed." Pur Iha laal Aftaen yaara Iha country haa liean rap* Idly prugreaaing, owing lo Ihe peacealilu and Induatrl- oua aharavlar of the people, and tha moderate eeuraa purauad by Ihe govornmonl. Many internal Improve- mania, principally In common roadt, have Iwen robi- pleled j and the producliona of tba country have In- vreoaed ao that tha axporta now amoant to $1,000,000 yearly, white flftaan yaara ago tbay amounted only to about 9100,000. In Iba lama lima Iha population haa been doubled, and may now (ISM) ba eallmatad at lllUilNH) lr.haliitanla. Home ibw emigrants, prinvlpally' Oarmana, have gone Into Iha oonntryg but the diffl- oulllea met with on Ihe route to Coala Hica will pr^ vent mocb IniinlKratton. Tha two principal porta of Coala Hloa are I'linta Arenaa, on tha tiulf of Mcoya, and Matllna, on the Caribbean Sea. Montfi. — The money of account la the peao, or dol- lar, valued at the aame aa the United Htates dollar; but soma are coined of bate metal, which are worth only 76 cents. At Venexnela and Ecuador, the dollars ara similar to tboio of New Granada. 1 dolUraag reals (100 cents); 1 real= 16 quartoas: 82 maravadi, alao U granl.— for. /'. J. ./ T. Tba valuea of imporit and exports between Iha United 8laleeand Cosia Kica can not be diitlnguished from tboae given fbr Central America generally. The Ibllowing atalemant, exhibiting Ihe general foreign navigation and trade of Ihe prineipal port of tba re- public (Punta Arenas), furnishes a fair average annual slateniant. It may be observed, that the values are given fhim ships' roglstera, or involcea; and are, eanso- quently, conaiderably below Ihe market values. SMTBuin uuiaiTiNO ma uaaai«li li'uasuiN Nitvi«iiTlnii «Hn Ta«iiK or lua Poai or PvnU Axaiiaa, Diiii«»*na Yaaa aaiiiai) liariMBtaUl, 18 b. Kaa-.u.^ "'A':' United Watoa — ij-' Brillah.... ft Vraneb , « Bunlah....; ,..,. Hamburg ',,,, Hanoverian ,,,,,, « ? BardlnUn , 10 ChllUn ,„, i Paruviaa .,.,.,,.,,, Near Oranadlan ,,,,,, IS Ceutral Amerteaa ,, 4 UoatoUloan Ift Total ~"M ' 4aaivaa. NawtM •< TnlM. i,44» l,MI M 1,94( r,«r CtMtuoM. Accounts of magnlrtwtnt allira rtflir to vary remuta antiquity, Tlia nuaiuiiia uf tba (iraclan and Roman ladios was cnniuty and graiMful. The wo* men of Cos, whose luunlry was faiiiHUN for the silk- worm, wore a manufacture of luiiuin anil silk of lo beautiful and delicate a tuxlure, and (hair garmenta, which were always wlilla, wura mi itlanr and Ibin that their bodies could ba aaan through lliam,'— Ovti>. As relataa to coatuma worn on the slag*, /KmiIivIui lbs Athenian was. It is said, tha lirst who •ravtail a regu* lar stage for bis actors, and urdarad Iheir dresaes lo be suited to their charactors, alwut -IIMI H.^.^y'iiWan Marblt: Excess in dress was rnstraiiwd by a law In Kngland, In the reign of Kdward IV,,Hl)A. Amla„a)(t in the reign of KltsaUiib, 167'<,~Ht or Cot, a particular sort of bed-frame, sus- pended from Ike beams of a ship, between decks, fur (ha officers to sleep In. It conaiils of a large piece i:f canvas lewed into the form of a cheat, about six feet long, one foot deep, and three feet wide, and is extend- ed by a square wooden frame with a canvas bottom, and tiiaa primlpally in tba waid-room of a maiMfrww* CSOT- *H COfSS Cottoa. ThU article will be coiiaidered under the general beada of I. Species and Places of Production, II. Cotton Climate : 1. Of the World ; 2. Of the United SUtes; 8. Nile; 4. Algeria; 6. Africa; 6. The Mediterranean; 7. British India. III. Cotton Trade of the United SUtes: 1. History; 2. Statistics. IV. Cotton Trade of the United States with 1. Great Urit- ain; 2. France; 3. Spain; 4. Hanse Towns; '5. Bel- gium ; 6. Sardinia ; 7. Switzerland ; 8. Kussin ; 9. Sweden ; 10. Portugal ; 11. Brazil ; 12. Egypt ; 13. Maklco. V. Capacity of the Cotton Bale. Cotton' &Ia»ufactiibk£ will be treated under its proper head. i. SrEciEs AND Places of Proddction op Cot- ton. — Cotton (Goui/piuiH) is a vegetable down of ex- quisite softness, with beautifully line fibres, and is an indigenous product of nil intertropical regions. Lin- neus subdivided tho cotton plant into livo speciea: 1. Oottj/piuin htrbaceum ! 2. G.arbvnum; 3. 6'. hirtu- turn ; 4. (J. religmum ; 5. (J. Barbadenie. Other authorities have enumerated as many as ten species, but for all practical purposes the division into three classes will be sutliciently minute. Tlie varieties are exceedingly numerous; yet of those most widely diffused, kerbactouf cotton, lArub cotton, and tree cot- ton need only be especially referntd tx>. Tho most use- ful cottou is tho herbacnouB, which is an aunual plant, cbietly cultivated in tho United States and jn the East Indies. It grows from two to five feet in height, is rich in foliage, and its fibrous fruit is preceded by flow- ers, of white or pale yellow color, like those of the con- volvulus. As the flowers fade, a pod, or capsule is /oruied of the size of a small walnut, containing tho fibre* of cotton, and as the pod ripens it expands, and itlie •■o.w-wliite fibres burst forth ready to bo gathered. 1. TA» Ilfrbaceout Cotton. — This plant grows to tho height of eighteen to twenty-four inches, Avith leaves of dark green, bluo-veined, and flve-lobod. Tho flower is • pale yellow, one pistil, livo petals or leaves, purple- apotted ft tba bottom. On the falling of tho flouer a pod of triangular shape and triple shell is developed. He pod, in course of ripening, bursts, discloses a snow- white or yellowish ball of down, in three looks, inclos- ing and tightly-adhering to tho seeds, which resemble those of the grape, though of several times tho size. The seed is planted in spring, and the cotton gathered at fall. The rows in the fields are five or eix feet apart; the distance of the holes, in which several seeds are de- posited, is about eighteen inches. Much care in weed- ing, thinning, and pruning, is required durin/; tho process of culture. TIhk is tho course pursued in tho United States, which has the advantage over that pur- sued in India, by producing a cotton vastly more val- uable. A field of cotton at the gathering, snys Mr. Balnea, when the globes of snowy wool are seen among the glossy dark leaves, is singularly beautiful ; and in the hottest countries, where the yellow blossom or flow- er and the ripened fruit are seen at the same lime, the beauty of the plantation is, of course, still more remark- able. The herbaceous cotton is grown to the greatest extent, and said to bo cultivated in nearly every coun- try congenial to the gossypiuni, existing even at Alep- po, in Upper Egypt, Arabia, and Senegal. 2. The Hirtutim, or Shrub Cotton. — It is said to grow wherever the herbaceous is found, and to vary accord-- ing to climate, being biennial or triennial in the West Indies, lasting from six to ten years in India and Egypt, perennial in the hottest climates, and in the mildest cotton regions an annual. The shpib cotton is likened to a curront bush, and is of several varieties. The hir. tutum, a low shrul) nircady mentioned, tliu Indicvm, at- taining ten or twelve feet ; the vitifolium, of the south of France and South America; tlie relii/iosum, of Suri- nam and India ; the la'lfiiliiim of the West IndicH ; the Barhadenu of Barbadoes ; and the I'eruvian. The pod of tho shrub cotton differs from that of the herb in l)e- \ng egg-shaped. Tha Ouiana and Brazil cottcn is of this kind, and is said to yield, in tha hotlsst conntrits, two crops a year. 8. The Arboretcml, or Tree Cotton. — ThU remark- able plant is of Indian, Chinese, Egyptian, and Amer- ican growth. The height of tlio tree varies from fifteen to twenty feet. Marco Polo describes tha treo at (juz> erat six yards high, and bearing fruit for twenty years. There is a tree described la South America, Indian Isles, West Indies, and on the Guinea coast, of a hun- dred feet high, bearing a silky cotton, only useful for making quilting and beds. Tho justly-celebrated Amtri.an lea-uland cotton is derived from the urbore- u»>. Its fibre is long, strong, silky, and of a yellowish tinge. Tile seed is black and of Persian origin, though originally introduced into this country from the Baiia- ma Islands, where it had been introduced by the Board ofTrado from Anguilla, an island of the Caribbean Sea. This cotton was raised first in Georgia in 1796, and tho first bag exported by Alexander Biscui, of St. Simon's Island, two years after. The section of country caj)a- ble of producing this staple is very limited, being con- fined to tile low sandy islands along the coast of Suulh Cii-olina and Georgia, from Charleston to Savannah. Tho quantity grown in 1806 and in 1882 was precisely the same. In tho United States tho seed of the herbaceous cot- ton is sown generally in the montl>.? of March and April, and its marketable fruit is usually gathered in the period commencing witli August and tcriuinat- ing with tho year. Boweds and Orleans cottons con- stitute the great productions of tho United Stat>.'S, and aro recognized in tho English and European markets as " American cotton." . These cottons aro cUiviiy cul- ti\'ated in the great valley of tho Mississippi, tho fields of its growth now extending to Texas. Tho cultiva- tion of cotton in the United States is moat scientilically and industriously pursued, and is attended with highly profitable results, the value of tho crop being little less than {< 15(1,000,000. It is expected that in 1856 tho en- tire crop will amount to 3^ millions of bags, of more than 4M lbs, each. But the skill of the American planter lias been most conspicuous in tho production of fine sea-islnnd cotton. Tho seed of this cotton, which is also an annual and herbaceous plant, was obtained in 1786, in the Bahama Islands, where it had been in- troduced from the West Indies, and was first cultivated in Georgia. Tho small islands which extend along tlio Americnn coast from Charleston to Savannah were found, from their sandy soil and contiguity to tho sea, to be admirably adapted to the production of exqui- sitely fine, long, and strong-stapled cotton. This cotton soon acquired great and deserved celebrity. A great demand arose for it ; but from the limited extent of tho islands upon which it can l>e grown, and tlic ex- pense attending its cultivation, it can only bo supplied at a comparatively higli |iricc. Ilcnco tho production of this cotton was not susccptildo of indefinite cxtonsion like tho shorter-stapled cottons of tlie United States ; and from tho beginning to tlio middle of the present ccntur}- the total yearly amount of tho crop bus not greatly varied, tho annual yield averaging about ten millions of pounds weight. From tlio circnmstancu of the seed of this cotton having been first introduced into Georgia, it was consequently called Georgia cotton, though its cultivation had only been successful upon the sea-coast of that state. Its celebrity, however, caused it to lie planted upon the high lands of Georgia, where it was found to de). »nerute ; but still the quality, though shortened in staple, was found to bo of a desir- able class, and it acquired the name of uplands, or bowed tinorgitt cotton, while tlie some seed yielded the famed sea-Island cotton. Here it may be observed timt a humid atmosphere and a sandy soil seem most con- ducive to the production of good useful cotton; but for the growth of very fine and long stapled cotton an im- pregnation of salt, both in the soil and in the air, ap- pears to be indispensable. „.„.„., ..„.^.. .„ ,,. COT 485 COT Without the energy of the American planter, it is difficult to conceive the poesibility of the cotton inde nf England and of the world attaining the extent and iiiiportan :a which It now poweases. As the colonics of Great Britain — the West Indies in particulai — pos- sessed all the natural advantagns of so'l and cllr.iate for producing cotton to an extent much beyond the probaliio consumption of the United Kingdom, it might reasonably liave been inferred that the colonial inter- ests alone would have stimulated the cultivation and production of cotton to supply the certain and increas- ing homo demands of the constantly-enlarging manu- factories. Whether the fatality of protection to tlie English colonies, maladministration of colonial affairs, or supineness on the part of the colonists tliemselves, produced the indilTcrence which caused an urticle of increasing importance lilte cotton to be neglected when renmncrativo markets wore opening for indeflnite sup- plies of it, may be wisely inquired into, not to remedy the piist, but for the purpose of asrcrtainlng how far a new and profitable direction may he (jivcn for the fu- ture to colonial labors and olVorts; for the stigma will remain, that while arts and inventions were lieing de- veloped at home, which became the sources of great national wealth, the cultivation of the material on which to exercise the skill and labor of her working- clnsscs had to be sought and obtained from a foreign source. In the British East Indies the cultivation and man- nfactura of cotton have certainly existed longer than in ony other country. For five centuries before the Christian era, cotton was largely used in the domestic manufactures of India, and the clothing of the Hindoos then consisted chiefly of garments nir.d s from that veg- etable product. 'Earliest in possession of the herba- ceous cotton plant, tho natives of India were enabled to manipulate its fibres, and to establish a cotton-man- ufacturing industry which hns remained almost un- cliangcd to the present time. More than two thousand yciirs before Europe or England conceived the idea of applying modem industry to the manufacture of cot- ton, India had matured a system of hand-spinning, weaving, and dyeing, which, during that vast period of time, received no recorded improvement. W'itli a plant indigenous to tho soil, and a people remarkable for iutt'liigcnce when Enropo was in a state of barba- rism, it is wonderful that no approximation was made to tlio mo>-iianicai manufacturing operations of modern times, and still more strange thiittho agricultunil pro- duction of cotton should not within tliot period have been improved ond considerably enlarged. The cotton of India, during its known existence, can only lie re- garded as n material for manufacture greatly inferior to the like jiroductions of other countries. India un- questionably possesses soil, climate, and all the requi- site elements from nature for the cultivation of cotton tu an almost boundlcEis extent, and uf a quality which ml^'lit lie must useful and acceptable in the manufac- tures of Europe, and even of America. During a scries of years tho weight of cotton grown in tho East Indies and consumed in Great Britain may have been one- tcntli of the whole, while the value can not lie estima- ted at moro than one-twentieth of the total cost of home-consumed raw cotton. The British West Indies supply only small portions of tho cotton required by tlic manufacturers of the United Kingdom, though the quality of tho cotton there produced is excellent ; and woul- ~no in quality ; the herbaceous cotton prospers cl'ifly in Bengal and on the Coromandel Coast, and there the best cotton goods are manufac- tured. Next to these two provinces, Aladure, Mara- war, Pescaria, and the coast of Malabar produce the finest cotton. The plant is cultivated in every part of India; the finest grows in the light, rocky soil of Guz- erat, Bengal, Oude, and Agra. The cultivation of this plant is very lucrative, an acre producing about nine quintals of cotton annually." Brazil is an extensive cotton-growing conntry, and sends steady supplies of it to tho European markets. The quality of its cotton is every where highly esteemed. Persia, Spain, Italy, Malta, and the adjacent countries, are all capable of producing excellent cotton ; but in .\frica there are probably greater uhdeveloped resources for the cultivation of cotton than can be found in any other portion of the globe. The example of Egypt is a great lesson for the governors of those countries whose agricultural resources remain undeveloped. In IS21, Mchemet Ali conceived the possibility of effect- uolly cultivating cotton, and succeeded. From that year to tlie present time largo supplies of that usefkil and now indispensable raw material have been ob- tained from Egypt, to the great convenience of the British manufacturer, who has found the quality sec- ond only to the sea-island cotton of the United States. Tho herbaceous cotton plant unquestionably exhili- its nil tho desirable qualities of cotton applicaiile to manufactures, as jirovcd by the productions of the United States and of the East Indies. The cottons produced in tho West Indies, in Brazil, and in Egypt, urc from the shrub ; and it is observed that the older the plant the coarser become the fibres. Tree cotton, as a marketable prod\ict, is almost nnknown ; liut in Borneo, and in nmny other tropical regions, tlic plant on whicli it grows is fuimd flourishing in n wild state. To insure economy of culture, and of gathering the cot- ton as it opens and ripens, it is evident that the plant and the shrub are most accessible, and that the tree can not nlwa_\ s lie cither safely or conveniently climbed to obtain its downy fruit. In Central Africa, cotton has also been a staple growth since the date of our earliest records. It Is mentioned by travelers as abundant on the banks nf l!ie Senegal, the (iambia, and the Niger, at Timbuctoo, Sierra Leone, the Cape de Verd Isi:iiid», on the coast of Guinea, and in Aliyssinia. In hot clinmtcs, also, says nil authority, the cotton plant grows so abundant- ly, that this is the cheapest material of which cloth can lie made. With such recommendations, it can not fail to continue the staple and universal manufacture of Africa. COT 486 ccrr lo modem tlnien, no material on whisk the indaitry •f manliind is exerted cmn be compared with the vaat inportaaca of that benelicent gift of Providence, cot- ton. HUlioni of our fellow-creatures depend upon its cultivation and manipulation for support. Capitalists •mbark in its production and manufacture, as also in ita trading and mercantile distribution. National re- sources are enlarged and benefited by it ; and to Great Britain and the United States it has proved a fbuntain of wealth, from which streams of prosperity have flowed from the time of its first introduction as an agent of la- bor and traffic lo the present moment. TIm upland cotton is a diAerent species from the sea- island, and is separated with such difficulty from the seed, that the expense of cleaning the wool must have put a atop to it* further cultivation, had not a ma- chine, by which the operation of cleaning is easily and successfully accomplished, been invented. Tliis ma- chine was invented in 1705 by Mr. Eli Whitney of Massachusetts. There are two qualities of the cot- ton — the one termed Upland Georgia, grown in the states of Georgia and South Carolina; and the other, of superior quality, raisr i upon the l>aiiks of the Mis- sissippi, and dictinguished in the market by thu name of New Orleans cotton. A strong prejudice existed for some lime against the upland wool, which was thought to be of inferior quality, and not to take a good color in dyeing; but being found suitable to dif- ferent coarse fabrics, its cultivation was so rapidly ex- tended, that in 1807, 56,018,448 lbs. of upland cotton were exported from the United States. The cotton of the tinost quality ever brought to the English market, or probably ever grown, was that for- merly mentioned as having been raised in the island of Tobago, between the years 1789 and 1792, upon the •state of Mr. Robley. That gentleman carried the cul- tivation of this article to some extent ; but the price of cotton falling very low, and the cultivation of sugar becoming extremely profitable in consequence of the destruction of the sugar plantations in the French isl- ands, he was induced to convert his cotton grounds into • sugar plantation. The production of cotton of this very fine description has hardly over been attempted by any other person, although it is believed that the price it would yield would amply repay its expense. Until about the year 1816, it was thought that the cotton wool of India, from tlie shortness of its staple, could not be spun with advantage upon machinery; and, in consequence, the greater part of the Indian cot- ton was spun upon the couimon jenny, and used as weft for the coarsest calicoes. It was discovered, however, that by mixing it with the longer stapled wools of other countries, it might be brought into a state fit for the mule and spinning frames. The United States consul at Naples, in answer to the cotton circular issued by the Commissioner of Pat- ents, says : " The cotton cultivi ' ^d in the plains near Castelamari, Angri, Scafata, and Nocura, is similar to that of the United States. The plant is small and an- nual, and is cultivated with so much advantage that various projects by companies have been started to give extension to its cultivation; but without being carried into execution. It has been cultivated fcr more than ten years. Before the French occupation there was a very limited quantity, but during the Ber- lin and Milan li^crees of Napoleon, the cultivation in- creased very i.ipidly, and the price reached a dollar a pound, though it had to be sent by land to Lombardy, Switzerland, and France. The quantity has since de- creased. I have not been able to leam whether the French introduced seed, or sowed such as they found here; but the cotton fibre has not deteriorated either as to length, strength, or uniformity. On the contra- ry, the quality has improved. "About two millions of pounds are produced here. Ib Sicily, to the south of the island, the cultivation is greater than in Naples. In past times, small quanti- ties of Artton wtra shipped to Manellies, but s!nc« manufactures liave increased here, it is all consumed in the country. The most extensive manufacturers (Vonwiller & Co.) import annually from the United States two cargoes of cotton, of moderate size, besides quantities indirectly. Much twist is imported from England. Manufactures are improving, but are still far from reacliing such perfection as to otter any induce- ment to export them. " The price of ginned cotton is about 14 to 16 cents per pound. The cultivation is protected by a duty of |8 per cantar of 196 lbs. English if introduced direct from the United SUtcs, and (16 if indirect. It is ginned by the ordinary roller and by hand, as well us by the saw-gin ; and 100 lbs of unginned will yield about one-third clear cotton. It is packed with band* and feet, and is not exported, nor is there any fixed number of pounds to tlie bale. The cost of producing one pound of cotton fibre, well ginned, is from 10 to 13 cents. "An acre of ground will produce about 600 lbs. of unginned cotton. Tim value of an acre of cotton land is 9450, and the rust is $20 to $25 per annum ; but yon must take into consideration the annual land tax of from one-liftb to one-fourth of the rent, which nmst be paid by the owner of the land every two months in equal rates. " If any causes operate injuriously to the cotton crop, they are to be ascribed more to the social con- dition of the inhabitants than to any thing else. The relations generally between the landowner and the cultivator are not of the best kind, the bad faith of the latter being characteristic, while the owner barely leaves him enough to miserably subsist on. In soma seasons, too, worms do ir^ury to the plants,' as well as fogs and mists in July and August." II. Cotton Climati». 1. The Cotton Dittruts of the Globe cotuidered with rrfertnce to their Climalet, — On inquiring into the climate best suited to the culti- vation of cotton, we must remember that we have to pay attention, not only to the air, but also to the va- por. These may be considered in some respects as forming two distinct atmospheres ; the one uniform in quantity, and in tlie proportion of its ingredients, but cver-vatying in temperature ; while the vapor varies not only in this respect, but in the quantity in which it is present, and also in its point of deposition, when alone it becomes perceptible as moisture. Cotton is cultivated in so many countries, that we can not but expect it to be capable of flourishing in considerable diversities of climate. Thus, the rich al- luvial lands of the Mississippi diflfer not only in soil, but also in temperature and dryness, from the sandy fields of Georgia. In dryness, both must differ from the uniformity of moisture which prevails in the isl- ands where sea-island cotton is produced. Some grows naturally in the warmer parts of Mexico, as well as in the countries situated along the cost of the Andes ; and much is cultivated in the moist parts of Guiana and Brazil. Humboldt liar, seen it at UOO feet of elevation in the equatorial Andes, and at 6500 feet in Mexico. But here different species may, perhaps, be included, as we know that which yields Pernambuco cotton is cultivated in many parts of South America. In the Old World, we find cotton growing in the interior, Iwth of Africa and of India, where there must be con- siderable dryness of climate. It is cultivated with some success in Egypt, and also, of late, in Algeria, and near Port Natal, in South Africa ; but, in the two former, only by tlie aid of artificial irrigation. It is produced in various islands of the Indian Ocean, in many ports of China, and in almost every part of continental India. Thence it may be said to extend into PMe— sometimes, bu'. more rarely, the G. hfrbaceum) thrives very well, but is stat- ed not to furnish such duralde materials as that in the higher and dryer districts of Minus Novas." Proximity to the sea has, however, other peculiari- ties besides the facility of affording saline ingredients to the soil or to the atmosphere. It participates, to a certain degree, in the peculiarities of an insular cli- mate ; that is, in greater uniformity of temperature than is found in places farther in tlie interior, and in tlie freer circulation of air from the usually alternating land and sea breezes. There is also greater equability of moisture ; for air, passing over the surface of the sea, necessarily takes up a larger proportion of water. Tills it does not immediately deposit on the coast, un- less it is backed by hills, because it usually becomes a little warmed by the heated land, and is then capable of taking up more moisture. But, as it reaches the coast in a comparatively moist state, it necessarily rather checks than favors excessive evaporation, and thus does not force the foliage, exposed to its influence, to give up an undue quantity of moisture. This, how- ever, is necessarily the case whenever a dry current of air passes over the surface of the leaves. To the influ- ence of moisture, therefore, we must ascribe the more luxuriant vegetation of some searooasts, and of many tropical islands. Baron Humboldt and Professor Dove have pointed out that, while Europe has a true insular or sea climate, both in winter and summer, North America inclines to a continental one in winter, and, in many parts, to a sea climate in summer; that is, it has a cold winter, with a oool summer, with the exception of certain dis- tricts, which are excessively hot. But Northern and Central Asia have a true continental climate, both in winter and srmiiier, or a cold winter and a hot sum- mer. Motwitbatanding this, we must also recollect that, thougli each locality may participate in the char- acteristic climate of its continent, all places near the coast will have more or less of an inoular climate, while tliose in the interior have such as are of a continental nature, though in varying degrees. The different varieties of cotton cultivated in the United States are believed to belong to one species ; that is, that the " Georgian," or "short-staple," is the seo-isUnd, carried into the interior; and that the "sea- island" itself was originally introduced from the Ba- hamas, or, more remotely, from Anguilla, one of the West India Islands. The "New Orleans" does not differ specifically from the sea-island cotton, and is admitted b}' the planters of the South to be identical with the plant of Mexico, whence they procure their finest seeds. It is conjectured tliat it was from the neighboring coast of Mexico that the indigenous cotton of that country was introduced into the Vest Indies, and thence taken to the island of Bourbon. Hence we ma}' account for Gastypium Barbadetue being identical in species with the New Orleans and sea-island, as well as with the Bourbon cotton. The Slexicaii plant is not a native of the temperate regions of that country, but of the iierras ealtentet, or hot districts. It is produced, for instance, in the neigh- Imrhood of Vera Cruz, and is represented as growing spontaneously near Valladolid, a town situated on the great plain of the Peninsula of Yucatan, described by Humlioldt as one of the warmest regions in equatorial America. Mr. Stephens states that the spontaneous growth of cotton around that town had led to the crec> tion of a cotton-faotorj- in the place. Mr. Norman, in liis " Rambles in Yucatan," says, "The cotton planta- tions, or, rather, the districts where the material ii raised that is consumed in the manufactory in this city, are to the north, and known as the Tizcmen district. The same spot is seldom cultivated for two succecsi>'« seasons. After the crop is gathered, the ground is suf- fered to be overrun with weeds and brushwood, which, when years have elapsed, are cut down and burned, and tho field is replanted." This rude method of cul- ture is adduced only to show how little attention is paid to the plant in its native country. But, as it is desirable to know something precise respecting the cli- mate of one at least of its native districts, we take from Professor Dove the subjoined notic« of the means of observations made at Vera Cruz for thirteen yean. This town, situated on the coast, in latitude ]'J° 12' north, and in longitude 96° 9' west, has a mean tem- perature of 77°.02 Fahrenheit, with a dift'erence of only 12°-42 between the hottest and coldest months, thus: January SO-tlS Febriisry 71-«0 Hareb 73-40 April 7217 May 80-48 June 81-S6 July 8150 August 82-40 Sepfcjnber 801)« October 78-44 November 7S'88 December 71 -Ot The Mexican cotton has been introduced into Texas, as well as into Louisiana and Alabama. In the south- ern parts of Texas, where the climate is very congenial, the plant does not require to be renewed more ft-equent- ly than once in three or four years, to yield a crop su- perior in quality and quantity to the annual planting of Louisiana. Cotton planting, in that part of Texas, commences in February, ond picking liegins at an ear- lier and continues for a longer period than in the other states ; tlie average return, also, to the acre, is consid- erably greater in Texas than in the other states, and the expense of cultivation considerably less, in conse- quence, not only of the greater richness of the foil, bnt also of the peculiar mildness of the climate. The cot- ton, moreover, is of a superior quality, and planters of COT 488 COT acknowUdgsd Ttrmclty ■tato that it is not' niiooRimon to plolc 4000 pounds of seed-cotton from an acre. Mr. Featherstonbaugli, after crossing into Nortliam Texas, in aliout latitude US" 40', oliscrved that he had never seen the cotton plant growing in greater perfec- tion lieforc ; for, in the cotton districts he had passed through, the plant was ■ low dwarfy bush, nut exceed- ing two feet in lioight ; but here the plants were Oto feet high, often liearing 800 liolls, and yielding from 1600 to 2600 pounds of sced-ootton to the acre, which gives from '26 to 80 per cent, in weight of row, marltet- able flbre. The most successful cnltivation of cotton in the United States, it is well known, is in the lower parts of Georgia, Alaliama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Tex- as. In tliese regions there is comparatively little fivst, and the winter is always mild, with considerable heat In summer; but this is tempered, to a great extent, by the pleasant and salutary eflbots of the sea breeze, which sets in from the Gulf or the Atlantic for a great part of the day. There are heavy dews at night, and frequent showers occur, in the spring as well as in the summer. In the interior and more northern portions of these states (which are in some parts elevated from 600 to 1000 ftet above the level of (ha im»), frofi Is «»i pected in October, and often coiitlliuas uiilll April | sometimes it occurs oven in May, so as In lnjiiri), but does not then usually dualroy, thii (ilitltt. 'I hn linat of summer, though frequently lilull, sllll Is tiillipored liy the influence of the ocean ur thu Gulf lit Munko, aitit of the numerous great rivers, as wvll as by Ilia ihiwa and occasional showers, Thu cullivNiloii of iinilnii Is generally commenced abuut tlia biiKlntiiiiK of April, when the land is still saturated with llin winter rains, and difficulty is sometimes uxperlenusd In gi'ltliiK tli« land sufficiently dry; otIiorwUt', a goiitl slioMxtr It ««• scntial when cutlon is tint sown, anil it U ilnslralilo also tahave occasional shower* during lli« planting, plowing. Slid hoeing soasuiis, The bulls ImikIii (o t)p(!n about the middle of July, and ennlimin to do so tnilll the appearance of frost, from (he inlddlti to lh« eiiil ot October, and tbu llrst delivery of Ihtt nnw t*ro)) uii Ilia sea-board is from thu llrst tii thu (weiitl«lll of AuKimt. In order to have a niuru |ir'Mi|«ii iiluH iif tliii «llliidlD< of the most favorable coltuii ijlaiilulii, and fur tha ad* vantage of comparing tlieni with lliunti of ollltir uoiin' tries, the subjoined Table la tolanleil frotii I'rufuisor Dove, as published by the Uritlsh Assovlatlofl I MXAM TiHrxBATimit, LoMlitlM. LaL N. Lous. (10 '30 rt, Nsr. 8T-10 "WTll IJ-I.I hi4ir Uslveston, Texas «)» 18' a6° 10' T5-0O 7B-2(t 88-60 861)0 88-/0 8S6il Nov Urleans, La. 29 OS BO 70 1 OO-TC 6S-39 msa 72-41 77-Jfl 81-18 Hi-i'i 82-12 7l»-4« Uii'TI (411 M'/ti Mobile, Ala. .... 30 12 ■J J 50 6D4U 51 -37 6604 70-00 70-30 8-^-17 8241 fi-VJ 7!f;i4 fli'KT itl'ho imm Daton Rouge, La. 30 20 91 81 BJ-S7 61 -S J 01-55 OS -99 70 f)}! 82-90 80-10 82-04 Ti>'6)i M'i«4 llJ't? i).i".y Jackson, La. 90 61 91 10 UT-60 494) Ni-iiO OB -40 70-80 79-70 81-70 70-90 76-10 0T'40 h'llio 4^'4 i.lSII iW'h llO'ii'J iV'lil Savannah, Ga 32 5 81 10 62-15 63 74 01-19 j 67-36 73-14 77-89 82-23 82 01 76 UU 6iH<2 hT'2 All 60 iM'iO Charleston, S. <;. . . 82 4T 79 67 49 01 5.' 80 BS-34 1 03-20 7619 T8-86 80-70 8U-I6 T-l'IIO 110 'ill 1)1 'Do hi "lO ormi Fort Johnston, 8. C. 34 78 B 61 -4-.' 5.' -19 00-6-' 66-28 73-70 78-18 HI -67 wi-:io 70-,T.I «;i'il Oii'lil tl'l'ill 110 'HA Columbia, B. C 84 80 68 87-70 42 -(lO 47-80 62-20 07-80 72-41 76-10 TO -60 110 '.iO ftivo III 'TO 'MM It; 'lit) Augusta, Oa. S3 28 81 54 45-69 [47-68 68-60 02-34 69 -08 77-72 79-4T 76'.B [T2-iia OO'IW 64<4» 4a'4fl 01 'DO 2, Climate of the Cotton Regumt of the United Statu. — The climate of Georgia is somewhat warmer than that of Carolina, but the low, flat country of both, in summer and autumn, is moist, and somewhat un- healthy. The spring is commonly rainy, and the heat of summer is considerable, but is tempered by the gen- tle breezes which blow almost daily from the sea. The winds change from southeast to southwest about the end of July, but are variable, from storms of thunder, and the heavy rains of July and August. The cold weather seldom commences before the beginning of December, and terminates in March, but the winter is usually mild, and snow seldom falls near tho sea, and soon melts away. The hilly parts, 200 miles from the sea, are agreeable and favorable to health. .The win- ter is colder ; snow falls to a depth of five or six inches. Though the preceding tables are sufficient to give a general idea of the climates, it would be desirable, for agricultural purposes, to have also the maxima and minima for the spring, summer, and autumnal months, for a series of years, as a night of frost may destroy the plants, and ^tyeai heat, with drought, will be equal- ly ii^urious, from dri-ing them up. Cotton, as before observed, is sown in April; picking commences in July or August, and continues until November, and, on the coast, sometimes e^-en as late as December. The sea- island plant yields about l'i& or 180 pounds of clean ginned cotton per acre. Of the short staple, in the bill country, from the Mississippi to the Carolinas, not more than 600 pounds of seed cotton, or 160 pounds of daan cotton, con be obtained to the acre. The short •tapla ootten is mora or lesa cultivated all the way ttom the southern borders of Virginia, lo tlio sniilhwegtom streams of tho Mississippi, Tlio liioiiii quatltlly over all is estimated at Vitt pounds ufgliiiml I'lilloit, of liuth sea-island and of the short staple, to all iiorii, but the amount of labor is much grttator for ths foriiior timn for the latter. In comparing tho cllmatai of tilt oottofl roglnns above described with lliosu of othur ooillltrlns, It Is ilpo essary to remember tho pucullarlty of that «f AmtiHifl, with which this sultject was ooiMinonwil, and nlw Imw much the best cotton distriuts nr« liillii)in««il by tlia Atlantic, or tha Mexican Gulf, Thu ulliiiain, to llio west of the Alleghany Moiitilalns, la (•(mDltlcrnl moro mild than that under the sunie paralliils In tlin Atlan- tic states, and, liy soma, even to thu oxtvnt of Ihi'ee de- grees of latitude. This has liean «)(plHltiiy the vicinity of the ■ea, and by the conllgtiration of the coast : Mifsittippi. — Near the Gulf of Mexico, the climate resembles that of the lower parts of Louisiana; the ' 'Winter is mild, the summer warm, but tempered by the constant prevalence of the brcezn from the Oylf, to- gether with the elevation of the surface. At Natchez, however, the thermometer in winter sometimes stands •s low as 10° Fahrenheit. In sickly seasons, the in- babilants frequently remove to the high banks of the bay of St. Louis. Alabama. — In the low and southern parts of this ttate the heat is very great. The climate of the inland and upper parts resembles that of Georgia, and may be considered remarkably mild. Frost commences gene- rally in October, and continues sometimes as late as the 20th of May, so aa to injure, but not destroy, the cotton, in the more elevated parts. During summer, there Is usually a prevalence of westerly winds. Those firom the southeast are regarded as the sure harbingers of rain. At Mobile, from nine in the morning till even- ing, the pleasant and salutary effects of the sea breeze are felt. The rich verdure of the earth, with the copi- ous dews that fall during the night, and the elevation of the soil, which, in the upland parts, is from 600 to 1000 feet above the sea, produce a beneficial cffiect on the climate. lAmUiana. — The climate of most parts of this state is somewhat variable. From tho sea to Point Coupee, it seldom snows or ft'eezcs, except in the months of De- cember and January, and then when the wind is from the north or northwest. There Is less heat and more moisture than in similar latitudes on the Eastern Con- tinent, and the climate is generally very mild. In winter, the thermometer seldom falls more than two degrees below the freezing point In December, 1800, the thermometer sank to 12° near New Orleans, and snow fell for the first time in twenty years. In Janu- ary, 1811, the mercury fell fk'om 78° to 10°, and the Mississippi was completely frozen over. At the pres- ent time (February, 1856), it is reported as low as 20°, and the Mississippi as frozen quite over with the ice several inches in thickness, and the ground covered with ice and slcot to a depth of six or eight Inches. Georgiit. — Ail the flat country of this state is de- scribed as moist and unhealthy during the warmer months, especially the "rice swamps;" tho climate is somewhat warmer than that of South Carolina. The winter ia the most pleasant season of the year, when the tliermometcr usually ranges from 40° to 60°, though soniclinics a considerable degree of cold has prevailed ; snow is uncommon, but frosts have been experienced even as late as April. A strong northeast wind will occasionally blight a promising fleld of cotton, as in- sects will sometimes destroy it. Tho spring is usually rainy, the summer inconstant, with a temperature of from 76° to 90° from June to September. The atmos- phere feels springy and enlivening, being refreshed by gentle breezes, which blow almost daily from the sea- shore. About the 20th of July the summer rains set in, often accompanied with storms of thunder, and se- vere winds, which, though not tropical In their violence, are often so heavy as to deluge the fields. About the end of July, or beginning of August, the wind usually changes its direction from southeast to southwest. The month of August is the period of most solicitude to the cotloii-grower, as heavy rains at that time occasionally cause Ihe plant to part with its young bolls, and even it! leaves. The autumn is ulually fine and clear; and about the 20th of October frosts are expected, but do not often come before the end of the niontli. Th« In- habitants of the hilly tracts, two hundred miles from the coast, enjoy an agreeable climate, wbiih is favor- able to health. The winter ia colder, snow scmetiuios falling to a depth o' livo or six inches. The summer is not BO hot, and the winds of autumn are less violent ; and the cotton, being less exposed, is allowed to hang longer, so as to become perfectly mature. Houlh Carolina. — The winter of the lower parti of this state is mild ; and the diSerenic between the mild- est and severest winter is about sevci teen degrees, often with lieavy frosts, and sometimes snow, but with a hot sun during the day ; though snow seldom falls near the sea. The winter may bo considered as terminating in March, when snow and heavy rains usually occur; but April and May are commonly dry months. In the low country the heat of summer is intense ; but Ihe climate is liable to sudden changes of temperature, wlien it is damp with fogs and heavy dewr, June, July, and Au- gust are generally the wettest months, and. Ihe rains consist of heavy bursts and frequent showers, vhich are liable to occur in spring, sunmicr, and autumn. Novemljer is usually fine, even after Ihe coming of frosts, which sometimes do not occur until December. The average quantity of ruin, for ten years, was 49-3 Inches; the largest quantity, 83-4 inches, and the least, 36-C inches, in any one year. In the upper countr}-, frost appears earlier and continues later ; but the weather is not so variable. In winter the cold is con- sideralile, but docs not last very long. The climate of the Santce Hills, which are situated eighty or nine- ty miles from the coast, is similar in character. Tejraii. — The climate of Texas is decidedly more healthy than that of Louisiana, or any other of Ihe Gulf states ; still, on the low Diluvial coast, intvrmit- tents are prevalent during tho summer and autumnal months; but tho yellow fever is rarely known. Com- paratively little rain falls from March to October, though gusts of wind, with thunder, frequently occur, with sufficient rain to make excellent crops. During the rest of the year, hot weather generally prevails. The winters are warm and mild on the coast, and, for some distance inland, snow Is seldom seen, except on the higher table-lands or mountains. From April to September, the thermometer, near the coast, usually ranges from 63° to 100°. The greatest heats, however, are tempered by strong and constant breezes, which begin to blow soon after the rising of the sun, and con- tinue until past noon. The nights throughout the mid- dle regions arc cool and refreshing during the year. — Report of the Dipartmer.t of Slate of the United Ktalea. In connection with Ihe climate of the United States, it is desirable to take some notice of that in which an- other species, the " Brazil" or " kidney" cotton, '■< cul- tivated. From the observations of the late Dr. Loudon, at Pemambuco, it is found, that the quantity of rain which fails at that place is considerable, and that the air must always be in a moist state. As Kostcr state* that cotton succeeds better from SO to 160 leagues inte- rior, the climato may still be more moist than thitt on the coast. 3. Climate of the Cotton Region of the Nile.— Ihe soil and climate of F.gypt are adapted to the growth of cot- ton, but the yield depends greatly on the rise of the Nile. When Ihe river is low the crop suffers, as little or no rain falls before December. Almost all the land in Lower Egypt is particularly well adapted to th& growth of this product, yet it is not all equally good. It rains frequently in the vicinity of Alexandria, and but seldom on the Delta. Tho culture of colton In Egj'pt, on a large scale, is comparatively recent. It was first tuidertaken by M. Juniel, a Frenchman, who, in 1821, laid before the Vice- roy all the advantages and results arising from its pro- duction. Previous to that period, the cotton produced in that country was of inferior quality. A few plants COT 440 COT onl^r had been Introduced from India, and were lo be found in the garden at Cairo, whure tb«>' lerved as or- namenta. From thew tho cultuni waa extended on a grand scale, and became one of the |>riiioipal branches of the agriculture of the Viceroy. Altliout;h the soil along the Nile appears to be generally well adapted to the growth of the " Jumel" or " Make" cotton, it is planted In preference in rich, heavy lands, which retain eonsiderable moisture, and wh^re the plant can acquire sufficient strength to produce well-iilled bolls. The grounds where the cotton is cultivated are kept free trom tho overflowing of the river, as the standing wa- ter would rot the plants and cause them to perish. The agricultural labor of the countr)- is performed ex- cloaively by the Fellahs (peasantry), a peculiar race, who labor under a system similar to that of tho serfage of Russia. The black slaves (chiefly Nubians and Abyssinlans) In the country are occupied exclusively In domestic duties, and live better and labor leas than the Fellahs. The latter are not permitted to leave tho {iremisas to which they belong, and the reward of their abor Is left to the will of the proprietor, and generally Is the minimum of subsistence. Thoy live in mud hov- els, r-m two to four seeds that have been previously steeped in water for twenty-four hours to hasten their germination. In some cases the Fellahs cultivate vegetables, etc., In the intervals between the plants. At the time of the inundation they eradicate the weeds. The first year, they cut the cotton plants with a kind of pruning-knife, and remove all the branches, which they use for fuel. This operation gives more strength to the plants, and protects them trom cold, which would otherwise cause the branches to perish. The second year, they only work the ground wheq making a new weeding, and the plants, which had before acquired a growth of from 3^ to A feet in height the first year, now grow only in a less degree. The cotton Iwglns to dower early In July, and con- tinues to bloom till December, and even into February or March. The period of harvesting raria* In diflbmit districts. The first year, it commences in July and ends in January, when the season is not too cold. The product of each plant is 1^ pounds in the rough; tha second and third years, from 1^ to 3 pounds; but, in the subsequent years, the plants lose tlieir fecundity, and it has been foand necessary to renew them eveijr three, and in some instances every two years. They would produce bolls, however, for a long period — say fifty years. At the expiration of three years the plant increases in its shrubby character, producing a very thick foliage with but few bolls. The yield of cotton varies according to the circum- stances under which it is cultivated. That which ia sown in winter, called liauly, and which is watered only during the inundation of the Nile, gives, on an average, above 200 pounds to the acre. That wateretl by means of wheels, and called Miikaici, gives about SOU pounda to the acre. The maximum yield has been as high as 700 pounds; but such instances are rare. 4. CltPtate n/Ihe Collm Regimu vf Algeria.— 1\m soil of Algeria Is generally well adapted to the cultivation of cotton ; but tho climate is quite the reverse, from tha deficiency of rain, the very light dews, the extreme heat of summer, and the almost incessant rains in au- tumn. Nor is tlie whole of Algeria suited to the growth of cotton ; it is necessary to select those parts which ara the most propitious. On the chain of the Atlas, as well as on tho plains which crown its heights, tho heat, al- though in summer excessive, does not continue long enough in autumn tu permit the complete maturity of the bolls. In tho region of Tell, it becomes necessary to abandon its culture at an elevation of 2000, or even 1600 feet above the level of the sea. But, beyond this central and mountainous country, there extend two zones which are declared suitable for the growth of cotton, and it is said that proof has been given to that eflbot ; one is the region of tho coast from La Caile to Nemours ; the other, that of the Saharian oasis. An- other obstacio to its culture is, that cotton, in general, can not be planted before the middle of April without running the risk of tho seeds perishing from tlio excesa- ive moisture of tho land. Consequently, it can not ar- rive at maturity Iwfore tb'j prolout,'ed rains of autumn commence, which nearly stop its growth. The province of Oran is reputed to be better adapted to the growth of cotton than the other two, Algiers and Constantlne. Algeria, situated as it is between the 34tli and 37th degrees of north latitude, bounded on one side by the Mediterranean, and on the other by tho Desert of Sa- hara, ttoxa which it is separated by mountains, pos- sesses a climate, in most parts, similar to the zonoa l>ordering on the tropics. It is not, however, strictly a tropical, neither can it l)e said to be a temperate re- gion. It is particularly remarkable for the uniformity of its temperature throughout the year. The Moniteur contains a report from Marshal Vail- lant, addressed to the Emperor, on tho subject of the growth of cotton in Algeria. In the document tha Minister of War recognized the good effects of the de- crees of the 16th of October, 1853, by which an annual prize of 20,000 francs was allotted for five years to (ha best cotton-grower in tho Franco-African colony ; and for three years, commencing with 1664, the whole cot- ton produce of Algeria was ordered to be purchased by the state at a price fixed beforehand, at an advantageous rate to the producer. In consequence of this encour- agement the growth of cotton has increased, and it ia said the quality is equal to that of American growth. In the cultivation of cotton in Algeria, stable-dung is sometimes used, though but few fanners pay any attention to their fields. As their cattle an never housed, their means of making manure become very limited. Thi^ plant from the 16th of April till tha 10th of May, in rows aliout two feet apart. The crop is hoed four tiroes, and irrigated as often as water can be spared from other plants; and, when abundant, it COT Ul COT .k sppUtd maty four dtyi. Th« bolls Iwgiii to fonn i,. July, and the plants contlnus in flowsr from 8«p- iombar until the latter part of February. The har- veating also commences in September, and lasts tmtil the following spring. 6. C'lmale of the Cotton Dutriett <^ other Part$ of Jkfnca. — Cotton of a very good quality has been culti- vated for some years at Natal, nearly at ths southern extremity of Africa. The coast is low along that re- gion, and, in some parts, even swampy ; but the land within ten miles of the sea is considered most favora- ble to the cultivation of cotton, probably from the con- stant moisture of the atmosphere and the warmth of the climate ; though, no doubt, it may ba successfully grown farther in the interior. The country beyond is described as lieing better adapted to the purposes of grazing. Various attempts have been made to obtain cotton from the west coast of Africa, and the seed of the best varieties have been iotrtxlaced Arom the United Slates. In Liberia, Dahomey, and other places, line samples havo been produced, principally from the green-seeded and kidney-seeded sorts. The climate is represented as favorable, but a different population is required for an extended and profitable production. 6. Climatt of the Cotton Regiont and Itland* tf the Mediltrrdnean. — Considerable quantities of cotton are cultivated in other countries bordering on tho Medi- terranean. It is generally the product of the India species, though seeds have been introduced from £g}'pt and the United States. These are cultivated in Asia Minor, in parts of Greece, and the islands generally known as the Levant. The Italian cottons are pro- duced in Sicily, in Calabria, near Naples, and in Mal- ta. Those of Sicily, Calabria, and Castellamare are the best, and are usually produced from American seed. A Nankin cotton is cultivated in Malta, but is all man- ufactured for domestic use. At Naples, the soil and climate are well suited to the growth of cotton, with the aid of artificial irriga- tion in times of drought. In some seasons, however, the plants receive injury from insects, as well as from fogs and mists, in July and August. Tlie manure, when employed, is the dung of animals, but no other fertilizer is used. The seed is planted in April, in rows, with sufficient space between them for the passage of water, for the purposes of irrigation. The plants are in flower in June and July ; the cotton harvested from September to Novemlier ; and tho yield per acre, unginned, besides other crops between the r*ws, 600 pounds. The soil and climate of Sicily are better adapted to the growth of cotton than those of Naples, particularly on the southeast side of the island, and within twenty miles of the sea. Farther inland, the heat is not suf- flclent to mature the crop. The maxitnum tempera- ture of the cotton regions, firom May till October, is 77° Fahrenheit; minimum, 61i° ; the mean 68°. The quantity of rain which falls during the cotton-growing months is generally fully sufficient for the perfection of the plant. The principal injury to the crop is oc- casioned by long-continued north winds, which, how- ever, but seldom occur. 7. Climate of the Cotton Dutriett of Britith India.— The British East India possessions embrace an almost boundless extent of territory, extending from the Him- alaj'a range of mountains on the north, to the ocean, including nearly the whole of the peninsula of IliuUo- Stan, the island of Ceylon, and that portion of Burniah lying between the 20° of N. lat. and the bay of Bengal. In the peninsula of India, the climate is greatly influ- enced by the two monsoons — one from the northeast, which blows chiefly on tho eastern coast, and the other fhim the southwest, which is mostly felt in Malabar and the western parts of the country. In some parts, the advantages of both monsoons are enjoyed ; but in others, the change from the moisture of the rains to the heat and dlyness which succeed them, is nearly as marked In Ita eharaotar as at Sahartuiporo, and tb« cotton-plants suffer as much from the transition. Such being the extremes of temperature and of dryness, m well as the shortness of the several seaaona iu which the plant may be made to grow— that is, during th* hot and dry weather, from March to June, or during the steaming moisture of the rainy season, followed, at fiiat, by a hot and moist summer, and then by a cold and dry autumn, succeeded by a bracing winter— a plant must be hardy to sustain uninjured such extrema and sudden vicissitudes. But all India is not identical in climate. In some parts the accession of the rains is earlier, their termination more gradual, and the cold of winter less, or the country ei^oys the advantages of a double monsoon ; so that there is a longer period of growth. Temperature, as we have seen, is only one of the eW ements of climate, and, though a very important one, is yet unable of itself to do any thing toward the growth of a plant, unless water be within the reach of its rooli to dissolve and carry into the vegetable cells and vei> sels the elements of nutrition. 1 1 must be decomposed, in contact with air, not too dry, nor yet too damp, but containing its due proportion of oxygen and carbonie acid gas, and illuminated by the light of the sun. There is no doubt that cotton-plants may exist through a long range of temperature, and of ntolsturc and dry- ness of the atmosphere; but it is equally certain that they will never attain healthy vigor of growth unless there is a due supply of moisture in a moderately warm, or rather hot atmosphere. Though tho degree of heat may be measured with a thermometer, moisture is not always indicated by the rain-gauge, for rain may fall and run off the surface, or percolate tho soil, and the earth and the atmosplwre both be left in a parched state, even during the season of growth. The moist- ure can only be determined by the hygrometer, or the wet and dry-bulbed thermometer; and, imperfect aa the minority of such instruments an, the information obtained from many situations would be invaluable, a< we might then be more sure of drawing correct infer- ences, because, though we might not be able to ealcn- late correctly the exact quantity of mois>ur° contained in the atmosphere, we could see whether tnis was in * state of saturation, or was capable of taking up a still larger quantity, and thus in the onecaee checking, and in the other favoring, evaporation from the soil, and from the surface of plants. To tho comparative moisture of tlie air on the sea-coast, and in places w ithin the reach of the moist sea air, must chiefly be ascribed the pref- erence of the cotton-plant for snch sitnations, or, at least, for its successful culture in so many islands and along so many coasts. But to this it may be objected^ that a long-stapled cotton is successfully grown in the dry climate of Egypt. In that country, however, co- pious irrigation pro^^-;?Mi^/^fiB^^ '/ COT TMWMKfiilil n TU 8iiu>a, it ti 442 Wi BflAia, or immAL LooAtmn nt Innu, wnna Cornni liii imin OULTIVATBU i Halfki ■buva ■ml 1 I 88 -IK) 77-7(> OU-Sll G'J'OO SI 2!! llfrt ftjtlft i 1 i \ ^ } } j t 1 Vut. Mi -68 81 -til 7H-0-, 80"i(l 8U01 71-71 7801 7(1-61 . SSir.".;;:::::::; 10 43' la 4 n sa 25 18 it 2D :8 41 a St 30 IB 81) 14 88 18 »i M 80 lii TT 18 77 89 78 5 Heifc level. MS IcreL ■M level. 1)00 ft 600 ft. 80 a 1000 ft. IKifiOft. 801l so so 8870 N(l'a0 8B'4O TII07 8IH1 72'lb.S8fi& «;)■(l(),~..•lHI^8l)il 80 80 87 70 8^ 80 8ft-70 88-70 Sl'>4(l .4-»|yO".'8 8'>-TI |M)0b.'l"2:i sOCD 8-J'6:i ST-IB S8 01 80UO|b;-uo 84-tlO 8U-;ii 87-lOM)-UO 8iVJ 78-1.0 711 -VO 7-1 ■»! Ml •411 7il-i:i !>()U0 ;«-Jti (1(1 -i;o «:i-.i6 07 1» 4'i-86 BO-OB DO -416 8->0ll8-.'-(l(P 8ft-V.' 86-WI 8r-04a.'.-rtu S-t -110 77-83 8.V.B78flO 8rOO|7N-u>i (jVAMTi-rf or Raix, in Imoiih anr PAm, o.i Tim Bi-m or Exi*itniMr,iiT> ix tiii ci'i.tvm or Cottox, ox tub Low LaNIiI ur TUK COAIT, AKU UM tub TAIILK■LA^U ur TUK UKCTAN, IX IMUIA, Mtw. Madru Dombav ButiiRgnt-n-y Taiina Uftpooleo K(ind«l!lal MahAbiileiihwiir Haunchguiinoe ItatUnli CoUpoor Poouh Nanuck Btilgatim Uharwar Ahmednugger .>. Shorapore 18° 4' 18 68 19 «0 IT 60 li' 10 10 SO 18 no 10 64 10 00 16 23 19 10 SJ" U' 72 63 78°'tlb TJ' 80 78' "l« 78 10 78 00 78 B8 76 (JO 76 8 78 IK Htifhi abor* (WU luviil. KCa hn-nl. 160 ft. ■ea level. 900 ft. 1740 ft. 4600 ft. 4000 ft 2B2un. 1812 ft. 2(XH) ft. I'fttio ft. I UU (I •la at (I au 08 ita 12-on "a _a. 8".jtl I b-U I -1 7il lU-Ut) t 12'4u.U><6 kuiikun, aeii count , » Inland . . '. WeiteraGhi^tii.'.!! •* •' coat branch . Decoan, table-land 87-20 48 lU-t6 UiO-10 184-90 1416) ^n4-84 ri0-e» 09-20 U(>-74 1UK)2 20-72 W-CO n^-81 'J I -88 B2-.0 —P. S. Patent OjfU» Report, 1888. III. Cotton Tradb of the Unitrd Statkr. 1. Hietory. — Cotton, which adininistora so boontifully to the wants of (jivilized ai well as to savngo man, and to the wealth and economy of the countries producing it, stands pre-eminent in the United States, lioth as re- gards its superior staple and the degree of perfection to which its cultivation has Ijeen brought. One or more of its species is found growing wild throughout the torrid zone, whence it has lieeii disscminntcil, and become an important object of culture in several coun- tries thereto aiUaient from time immemorial. It is mentioned by Herodotus as growing in India, where the natives manufactured it into cloth; by Theophras- tus as a product of Ethiopia; and by Pliny as growing in Egypt, toward Arabia, and near the borders of the Persian Gulf. Nieuhoir, who visited China in 1666, says that it was then cultivated in great aliundance in that country, where the seed had been introduced about 600 years before. Columbus found it in use by tlio American Indians of Cuba, in 14!)2 ; Cortez, by those of Mexico, in 1610; Pizarro and Almagro, by tlie In- cas of Peru, in 1&32 ; and Cabo^a de Vaca, by the na- tives of Texas and California, in 1536. Of the precise period of the tirst introduction of the cultivation of this plant into the North American col- onies, history is silent. In a pamphlet entitled " Nova Britannia offering most excellent fruits by planting in Virginia," published in London in 1609, it is slated that cotton would grow as well in that province as in Italy. It is also stated, on the authority of Beverley, in his History of Virginia, that Sir Kdmund Andros, while governor uf the colony, in 1692, " gave particu- lar marlts of his favor toward the propagating of cot- ton, which, since his time, has been much ne^ected." It further appears that it was cultivated for a long time in the eastern parts of Blaryland, Virginia, Carolina, and Georgia, in the garden, though not at all as a planter's crop, for domestic consumption. In another pamphlet, entitled " A State of the Province of Georgia, •ttestad upon oath, in the Court of Savannah," in 1740, it was averred that " large quantities hate been raised, and it is much planted; but the cotton, which in some parts is perennial, dies heru in the winter; which, nevertheless, the annual is not inferior to in goodness, liut requires more trouble in cleansing from the seed." Atiout the year 1742, M. Dubrcuil invented a cotton gin, which created an epoch in the cultivation uf this product in Louisiana. During tlio Kevolutiun, tho in- habitants of St. Mary's and Talbot counties, in Mary- land, as well as those of Capo May county. New Jcr- . sey, raised a sufficient quantity of cotton to meet tlicir wants for the time. It was formeily produced in small quantities, fur family use, in the county of Siii- sex, in Delaware, near tlie head-waters of the Chop- : tank. I The seed of the sea-island cotton was originally ob- I tained from the Bahama Islands, in about tho year \ 1785, being the kind then known in tho West Indies as the " Anguilla cotton." It was first cultivated by I ilosiah Tattnall and Nicholas TumbuU, on Skidaway Island, near Savannah; and subsequently by James I Spaulding and Alexander Itisset, on St. Simon's Isl- ! and, at the mouth of tho Altaiiiaha, and on Jekyl Isl- and, by Richard Leake. For many years after its in- troduction it was conAned to tho more elevated parts of these islandii, bathed by the saline atmosphere, and surrounded by the sea. Gradually, however, the cot- ton culture was extended to the lower grounds, and beyond tho limits of the islands to tho a(\jaccnt bhores of the continent, into soils containing a mixture of clay; and lastly, into coarse clays deposited along the great rivers, where they meet the ocean tides. Previous to 1794 — the year after tho invention of Whitney's saw gin — tho annual amount of cotton pro- duced In North America was comparatively inconsid- erable ; but since that period, there is probably nothing recorded in the history of industry, including its nian- nfacture in this country' and Europe, that would com- pare with its subsequent increase. In the Eastern hemisphere, the grow-th of cotton is principally restricted to tho maritime countries lying between the 4Uth degree of north latitude and a cor- responding parallel south. On the easterly side of the Western Continent, tills plant will perfect its growth in most of the districts adjacent to the tidal waters, in- cluding the regions bordering on tho Mississippi, tho Amazon, and the Parana, between latitude 39° north and 40° south | and on the west coast of America, be- COT 448 COT 81U1 7H-0-I SO-ifl tlOOl 71-71 78-51 W-b! \ Vmf. h«. •lb aiKi) 6S'7S lU-lB lUO-IO 184 «t 141-6) a>4-»t w-do BD-iO 80-74 ID-OS 20-72 JO-iO n^-81 HI -SB sa-iO twMn tho 40th puallel nurth and • corrMpondiriB d«- vmiiiii, Hal« iiiiantll/ exported to these twocountrlea, rlolics ur sjiccieii of cotton (soo page -lU-l) may he slatud liifludTlitf Ntttnlcii, was sirnie 7,n(Kl,n00 ponnds. Prussia in tliu lullowing manner i 1. (iot$>ipium Indicum, or herbactum — the cottuil plant of liidia, China, Arabia, I'orsia, Asia Minor, Ulid •omo parts of Africa. 2. (louypium urbotfum — a tree rotton, iiidlgsnum to India. 8. dnti/pium llnrbademe — (ho Slexican or West Ill» dian cuftun, of which tho sea-island, New Uriuaiis, himI upland Cicorgia, are varieties. It was long silicu inlrw' ducvd into the island of Uourlwn, and thcnea lulu liu dia; licnco it acquired tho name of " llunrlioii iiiltoil," •1. (liMi/jiium I'eruviunum, or «eu»ii>iu^M;»— .hIiIiIi yields lliu I'emambuco, I'uruvian, Maranlmin, UImI lira/ilinn cotton, especially distiuguisliod hy III Itlnt'k seeds, which adiioro llrnily together. 'I'lila variety Imii long since Iwen introduced into India. Tho clilef vurielics cultivated in the United HtftU>» are tho black seed, or sea-island (II. avboreum), known also liy tho name of " long-staple," from lt« line, wllil«, silky appearance and long llbres ; the greun seed (//, herbuceiim), called "short-stoplo," from Us shorlvr, -whito staple, -with green seeds, and ronmieriuUlly known l>y tho naniu of "upland cotton;" and two kinds of Nankin or yellow {U. llarbaiUme), the Mun> lean and I'otit Uulf. Tlie average yield It tthuut MO pounds per acre. Tliu earliest record of sending cotton from this cuiin* try to Kuropo is in tho table of exports from (.'ImrluS' ton, ill IT-lT-'-lS, when seven bags wore shipped | MM' other parcel, consisting of 2000 pounds, was shipped in 1770; and a third shipment of 71 bags was niailu 111 1784, which Kngland seized, on tiie ground that Amur' ica could nut produce a quantity so great. The amount exported from tho United States In 1701 was IHP,lt|li pounds; in 1793, 487,000 pounds; in 17IM, »,«Jl,7<«) pounds; in 1796,0,270,300 pounds; in 1800, l7,7N|>,Hlia pounds ; in 1810, 9.1,261,402 pounds ; In IM'^lW'JI, 124,893,405 pounds ; in 1830-'31, 270,070,784 puuildn | inl840-'41, 630,204,100 pounds; inl86O-'6l,0>i7,2!)7,UtW pounds. According ta the Census returns of 1840, the amount cultivated was 790,479,276 pounds ; of 1860, 087,-»4l»,««« pounds; showing an increase of 19(i,970.!l26 pounds. It appears that the culture of cotton Is rapidly dl' minishing in Virginia and North Carolina. In lliose Hint MWMlxn Ixgan linporling eollon from the United hlNlKS in IMM. HttMla, In 1809, received cotton from lint I/hIIdiI Hlale* fur Ihc first lime, and to the amount of half a nillllwi uf pounds; while In 1868, the year priur U) III* f'«ninii>iH Mipn, and ilnt United Hiales, that then had no manufao twrtM, MM Hhniil l,9UO,0OU more, lo say nothing of the «uniium|iil(in tit Asia. Of lids 4,000,000 bales, Ave. •Ijtilis «r« ttl« prnduat *A this country. The result of till) piMl lliri<« years proves, that neither tho existence uf M war ln«ulvllig the i-hief nations of Kuropo, nor the IIUMlliallunn In trade runst-quent on lis cessation, have bail Any iilfri't on the demand for our great southern slapln) ililis I'stnldlshliig the fact that, the next to tho ivadlllK nrili'lcs id' liiiman food, It has faeccime a great and llMdil nei'i'sstty. A ilui.iuniciit cotiiplled from the very liest data, by una tiDcutllirly filled fur the task, was lately read before tlw Mwi«ll«si«r Chanilier uf Commerce, exhibiting very Inipurlant fatls. The value of the cotton manufactur- llIK inilunlry uf the wurld was estimated at i:i20,000,000 Ntellillf{. ur l|ilt0O,IIUO,O0ll. Of this amount tho entire piipulHliiin uf liM'Mt Orltain con!>uined, in value, about iji'i'l*/) Iter lli>iiit per annum. England exports to tho it'nileil HUtes inaniifMi-tured goods at Iho rate of 77 V¥M* 1m «Hi'li indlvlditat In this country, but being our. SHiveM l«r|$« inaniifactiirers, and In view of tho general ImttHr cundltlun uf tl.c bulk of our population, it is pruliHliln lltat our cunsumptlon of cotton goods will l>Ni'i lull uiiudii flt Iht) rate of $1-63 per head per annum, for states it is doubtless giving place to other producliuns lliu whuin piitmlalloii ) to Uiissia, only at a rate of of tho soil. There has been a very hoovy falling uff llirii|i'llftlni uf A cent per head ; to France, two cents also in Louisiana, and no appreeiabln increata in Mill* pxr lieait f lu lier Kast India possessions, at the rate of sissippi ; but the diminution in tlie former alal«, and I III i,'#nU ) hilt these three lost countries niaiiufacturc at the failure uf any advance in the latter, are Accountud | lllilin', Mpeelaltv Vtmve, who mainly provides for her for l)y tho terrible inundations of tho Miseiaslppi and > uwn watllD, white ttussia receives goods from several its tributaries. But for that calamity, it is prnlmhia siHiri'im. Ksllnialing Ihe population of the globe at that their increased yield would havo eqiialei] that of ^ NAII,IIOI),0(IO, Ihe flppurtlonment of the w hole value of Alaliama, which now occupies the first ploce as a t'ot^ lliiiiiilfAi'Infed ^uuds winild lie aliout 70 cents for every ton-planting state, and has almost doubled its pi'odui^' IliliHliilAiil, limn, Woman, and child, tion since 1840. Immense as tho extent and value of i 't'hx iPintelli'V ut tlie nge Is gradually toward an this crop has become, it is not extravagant lo anlli'l^ \ i|il/ ol ri« matarUl ImvoimI »1m ftftsnt tMUiy «t lh« wortil to tt- hri, A rtr«rMMi« Ut UtUU " Uoiwral lM|)orl of Otton Into OrtM Urlisiit" will *Imw llMt Dm trntll firotluvt of iha W««t Ituliw I* •iMMMt rtMUm»iy-Ah»t the *wn« li tka ««M with llrMll, im »n «v«rM« of yaan ) tlia axport ilianua, U«t yaw, w«a only lM,mw lialaa, walgblng Iwaa (bMi 'iWI potMNla WMili, In Kicrpt, th* product of tba paat fuw ytmt* Imm •varaMd about twlca •« muah m tlia (traaMllNK iMifbMl i ■iKriant vaar only U&,(KW ImUw uaMia fnwi that amiraa, walghlnR 2&0 pouiia* «a>:li I wltil« tba avaraK* *bl|tm«tit« turn th« Ka«t Iiidtua (uf tba paat ala yaara li bat aiO,000 bales par aiiiiuiii, walKblNK alwut WN) |wunh«4 H,m,im lialaa out of a total proilut't uf i,1i»),m>. A* tba n«w land* of ih« Wait coma Into vultlvallutti and thn firoaraM of our railroad* bring* tba tiroii wllbin raacb of tba aaaboard, tbare will Im • griKlMal ln«r«a»« «/f our protluHlnn ) Init to thU avitn (baru tiiMrt Im n IImiII, i.«nabbirlnf( th* na- ture of the L'litnata and awil naaaaaary ) and the time may not be vary Ur di«t*Nl wItMt wa ihatl fall to Mie«t the dauiand. lindar thU atata iit iMnitn, It Is not to be wondurad at that tba uotaftlliMiils of KnKland and France an jiMttiiig fwrib avary tflturt to foatvr the oiil- tivalbin of cotloit In (lH«lr nolonbis, We hava, rertaln- ly, no caua* br faar »ri»»UtH»y In viaw of these eAbrts. Not only are wa, na ifrodMcara, iHl«rt<«t«d, but the for- eign maiiufauturar, Iba iNilitival aratiuinitt, and the pbllaut|iru()iiit, alika bava laban Iha matter Into serious considsratiuii, Wa van afaraaly I'onletnplale, wiiliout amotioa, tha diaastrwM* raaulla t'omtHerilally, jiolitiral- ly, and sociallv, (bat might folbiw a general liiilure of on/y ufM crou m tbU vimnUi/, 'I'tmta Mould bo no re- serve to fall bask H|)0H, 'iha sbH'li in (treat llrltain on the lit of January U»t wat lint lltlh* larger, wlili a conauiNption of 'i,m,m» l)ab<«, than It was in IMI, with ■ uoii>um|itb«M xf A tittla ovvr i,mi,»>4i. t;ii«Maa, M«0, Ur;Menai*rk ,,, 1 lilt 11 I'ri'K, I'lirtugst , WIiwh'imIs,,,, OI-AeeniA rusosny .,,.,,,,,,, I'upstiUah!* Juba,.,,,, ,,,,,,,,, ffMi, r4'NI ^ifHds , , IMpawida,,,, 10 ssnts, Ift nalMial tsssela, Idll In foreign Tcs- Sets, 9f| p«r cent. Ml a valoalloft of .#"»' • By the trusty of mi, I'nilMl INalKS VMSsels an eqiislUol with freneh vessels (» Hia difwf laifdirtall/rti Into tHhm nf •itldss the growtb, RHHlHllMlHM, Of pfsduae «f the Vnllsd Blatai, UoTTon llBor or baiki iTATa. Aixioamm to tub Vmrat HT.tTBS l.'BIOVS. auiMas4T Alshsms Arksnsss Uslswsro ' rosa44. iiT.iuH.Ma O.OHM.tlll aiM 13,IIO,t>3B ias,S'j'i,iiiM !i«0,l47 l«0 «*I,4M 161,KA8IH B,«73 t03.4OI,n7T Itil.lll 61,08(1,1(10 01,710,274 i<7,701,87T lialM of «M rxra^i. M)l.4'itt «A,^I44 4Kii31 ■m,on ■■"i4 7»8 ]T!(,737 4i*'4',m biljilB 3011,001 i04,r>a< M.ilTl U,II4I Florida (Irorgls Illinois Indians Kantueky I^uUlsns Msrylind MlMlMlppI Mtmiuii North Usrullna. . . . HoMlh t'arolius TutineMSfu Virginia Total 71)(),4Y0,lJ7r) tl,44b,7li!l The a*>ove nro eatlniatcN nufroly ; and the totals vary from •ho tabular rctnma on pam 44B. The ((uantltlfH ruusumed vheni grown will socount In part for the diacrepanolpa T*nii\;i Cnai'ABATivK HTAtrMrMT z::-.,,i A>ti> munryM tM Tjia OnITHII KTATBt. WITH THK VaI. :1S Or TH.! l^'. ANTITISH SO Bxpoaieu! TiHiKTH .11 Willi Tui; t;i av..i«:Atia, mil A I'iRMiit i,y sixnr.TMUH.: Vkaiw, nioM 1*93 to 1804^ ii'.n'ii i.'ltl». 1 II. H 1 11. B.] IVwiidi. PtNinda, UolUn. 1 CraU. Paafft. Vi'i nu'i 1T04 1 B,300,0(K1 748,000 283,000 31) 101-6 ISO.' 1 1803 1S(14 60,000,000 88,000,000 0,000,000 li'l 104-6 1SI3) I8i;-.j tsu) ISM IN«3 1»M4) 183:1 1833 1«t4 78,800,000 22,000,000 2,700,000 t«l ■m 203,800,000 IB'J.BOO.OOO 22,100,000 140 81 431,600,000 S44,0M>,000 38,fi00,000 U'23 71 i>m (rtl»44 i8r>2 1853 18M) (M 807,100,000 680,206,000 00,706,000 7 43 B (M l,32T,4OO,000 1,064,500,000 07,000,000 9-l'i 61-7 (rf) (a) This statement, mado up with esre and lalwr from sources ofllclal and unofllclal, and oftun conflicting, although not perhaps statlsllcsllx exsct. Is yet probably enough so tot those purposes of genersl conipariKun for whirli it U submit- ted. For obvious reasons, the agijri'Kate of the exportation and consumption of cotton ran not he expected to balance the production In any single year, independently of ntocks on hand from preceding years. An avrrage, year with year, of some 70,000 pounds consumed for household and other uses, and of some 8,000,000 pounds lost or destroyed, and of Mime 600,000 pounds of Imported cotton consumed, arc alDO Items to lie considered In striking this balance ; as well, moreover, as thd fact that the sums are In round numbers, and that the only flgurrs In the statement which can be viewed as at all atabsttcal aie those giving the amounts and values of expor- tation. The data for quantities, values, and prtoeH, derived from Uie Treasury reports, do not. It will be peroelved, slways alTord results entirely conil.l. i*io... .7.'..,. IMI h^. t.m.ouo i,«i4,i>ao l.«S8,«()0 S,B78,MK) 1,08U.400 1,(^4.6:10 IMl IMS 1M44 1M5 1840 U40l>60i) IMT l.TTSOOO 1S4H 1,040,1X10 'i,7V8,6aO 1S40 186) IgBI 9,0!I0,T()0 8,006,1100 ISBS IHfrJ.... IMM 8,ol^aao 8,«».IKI0 9,0811,000 1866 I8U 9,847,800 8,697,800 ukain A»(wrrrnii«( fmt. 1,704 8!U 6,780 0,>M 140 ],US» 9,804 477 «7 U,16B 6,OT7 74 1,001 98,V89 Not. It Nor. 90 Not. 18 Uot. 9T Nov. 14 Nov. 10 Nov. 90 Nov. 90 n'oV."«« Nov. II Nov. 6 Nov. 37 Nov. 14 Oct. 84 BIllAkKa. 1880— Flnl Urirn orop. R«uon n>iiiHrknl)ly flnu thrutighouC 1840 — t'nfuvorHblu ii>&jion. Ovprflow nf MlfMrtmlppl Hirer. 1841 — WcNtrni crop r(mm1, Hi'vcni druuglit In AUbAma. Ocorgla, KlorMa, and MlHiinlppl. 1848->'(lf>ner«1ly gnod M-aion and f^arly picking. 1H4^' — IMe Hprlnx, rulny inuinKT, and early tnttL 1844— Very Knod Kaaon, aiid early picking. Partial over- flow of Mlaaiiinlppl Klver. 1846— MlMlMliipl Klver and Wcntrrn crop gno— Iteniarkably flno arunin, early picking, and lato froik 186.1— l.atu and rainy acaHon. lSb4-'r>6— Backward anoiuin. About 260,000 baloa kept back by lowncRH of the watera in Alabama, Louiilana, Arkanaaa, and Texaa. 18&6-'tj6— Fine leaann. Karly picking, anfflclently good to countrrbalanee an early froat. About 860,000 balea of laat crop received, which. In Iket, will mako the actual product of 18M-'V>. .1,01)7,800 balea, and reduce that of ISeS-'OO to 8,277,800 liuloa. Sfa-Mand Cntlon, The crop of thlt Important ittpl* for Iha year ending fWpt. 1, IHM, waa 44,ftl2 baUa; IHM-'u.'), 4il,M41 balai, and In IH.i8-'U, »l>,6tt0 balaa. The nxelpta In lHftA-'6(l Ixflnjf, fynm l-lorlda, 10,000) CieorKta, 19,246 ; South Curulina, ■.ni,8«l7. I he exlrai>rdlnary crop of the year lN66-'{6 In the Cnlted Slatee (8,&8T,0IM) haira) haa paiaed into the nu« merouB cliannela of cuniumptlon at prirea ninch higher than fur Ave yeara |>ast, leavliiK a atock on liand un lal .Septambar laat of uiily 5-i,0«IO balea la all the United StMaa porlB. Thia conaumptlon la atlll going on throughout the Hrltiah and Conllnentat manufacturing dlatrlota; and tho liicreaaa of machinery added to nillla hitherto working, it Is eatlmated, will nxiuire In Oteat Britain atone an additional weekly lupply of 4000 balea. Acontmr aiiowiNii Tna DarTiNATioN or ina Cottob bi- roaTKii rniM ma I mitu) HTATaa m 1S4T, 1818, *hu lS4t. CoujitrlM. Rnaala Mwrden and Nor I way... iDenniark Ilunae Towna..., Illolland Ilelgiuin ... iKngland Hcotland Ireland ,Ulbraltar t.'antida UritUh Am. Uol. . France, Atlantic . . MedtUr'n. iRpain thiha Portugal Italy Sardinia lAnitrlan porta , . Mexico Central America China and Mouth Seal ToUI. IMI. Puunda. 6,«I8,BCB I 9,887,«l)a «60,T89 10,880,648 1,073.894 1I),1N4.848 8118, 160.6114 19,<8i>,788 4(4 40T 00,100 11 8,08(1 , I'i9.6(l7 I 07,4Jl,«6« 4,(ll&.4M 18,aia.«68 8,luO,lB3 8,720,718 4,404,l>04 11,780,078 848,008 697,8111,068 PtMn4a. 1U,8M,0I1 4,078,084 «t,ni» tT,480,408 4.861,eo» 16,8T0,«7« 648,011,188 8e,001,U«6 188,20! 88,!I68' li;9,26i;,878 7.084 f>8:i 10,8811 486 4,r;67,474 774 6,077,881 2.614,804 20,408,010 18,068 SU,274,481 Poiu>>. 10,SSri,«Bl 7,024,160 4,77* 18,844. 4(>4 ll,887,l!86 88,118,809 687,4IM),0I1 88,171,778 8,06».64T B. 718.819 I 04.1 6T I 2,747 14'),288.6()0 0,868.283 23,886,804 1,684,784 240,806 10,6(14,461 0.063,707 13,270,884 8,8(!8.-04 684,781 760,861 1,014,61)8,010 N.D.— Tho aea-lsland, umoiintlng to 11,060,260 Iha., la ex- cluded IVom the exports in tho fbregoiug table for 1840. In- cluding them, the total exporta of that year werv 1,020,602,869 pouoda. Statkmknt ixniBrnxo ma Qtantity amd Valve or Cottom rxrcBTEn anni'Ali.t iboji tok Umitid BTAXia raoM 1891 lO IS66, IMCtCSlVE, AMI* Tlia ATtSAHK iBIia Ff.B I'OtNIt, 1881.. 18-.'8. . 1888. . 1824. . 1886. . 1826. . ISiT. , 1828. , 1820.. 1830.. 1881.. 1832. . 1833.. 1834. 183B.. 1836. 18.17. 18:8. , 1830., 1S40. 1811., 1842., 1843. 1844. 1S4B. 1846. 184T. 1848. 1840. 1860., 1861. 180J. 1863. 1864. 18fiS. Total Iha.. Pouuita of ('oUoD. Olbar. 11,344,(166 ll,8.'>(>,636 18.186,688 9,B-.'6,722 lt,(168.278 6,078,862 16,140,708 ll,8ti8,410 18,833,807 8,14T,l6B 8,811,769 , 8,748,373 11,142,887 8,096,087 7,762,736 7,840,607 5,'.;86,ft71 7.886,..'i 637,210,(63 814,274,431 1,026, 602,26!) 036.381,604 927,237,OS9 1,008.230.680 1,111.570,370 0S7,!S33.ia6 1,008,4 24,601 18,476,264,240 Valua. (20,167,484 24,086,068 20,446,620 81,047,401 86,846,649 25,086,214 20,360.646 28,487,229 26,576 311 29,674,898 26,880,409 81,724,682 80,101,106 49.448.403 64,001.803 71.2S4,0i6 0:1,240,102 61,6.16.811 61,288,083 68.870,807 64,380,841 47,608,464 40,110,806 H063,801 61,730.643 42.767.841 63,416,848 ei,0F8,204 60,306,967 71,084,616 112,316,817 87,1'66,783 110.466,404 OS.006,320 88,148,844 $1,880,347.7^ Avorago iMt p«r pouad. 163 11-8 16-4 20-9 12-2 10 10-7 10 9-9 9-1 08 111 12-8 16-8 16-8 14-2 10-3 148 8 6 102 81 6 3 81 503 7-81 1084 7-61 6'4 11-8 1211 8-06 0-86 9-47 8-74 tior COT TAasiJUi eouritMtTf Rt*nitairr tHowiini Tin QvairriTiu or Votiou nromn rBOM m I'bitiii Dtatm to Tim r^nKiiriL niii«nni«L CoDinaiH ■ririoriTii.T, «mii thi *H«vtL tvniui Ahi>d<>i* innruri AKn tk* akmu^l at- ttta* AMoiiNn or l>irt(M iwiivitv TMimiiraiiM, ron a I'lmon or riTa \avK<, >i«»i l'» Till* itTATaitaMT Aaa nuaiTtu raiia tua I a(Trii HTtTiw Taatai at lltroiT*. i« wUdH tni i iiiiHai.ni ti YiAlt I luoa Jiiaa SO, Tiia YaAS m IhuTiaH ado Vnuieii urrirxAi. IMxiiitaiiTa ooaniaiNinM * i rn that nr tiia i al- mAK naiina <>»« ('aci« or A*i>AaKMr liiMttrANOiaa im Kn.oaaa ma wikhkailt tio lAMa > atua. OnalrtM to wkltk nftmt. 1 I l« tl. Urvat llrtlaln KraoM Wn liana* Towna . . . . Urlaiuin .VuArta Sardinia and luljr M»U« Ilalland Awmlrn anil Nnrwajr . DrIlUh N. A. yuawulona Hanmark ( nba , I'lirtugal Klmwliam To all oaunlrl«a. l9li,l»t,6Tl lll,VTM» 6 IdTIHMI l«,IW6,U|i< IO,M(l,4n« 10. 5. 1 ti 1,1)74 VU,6W ltII,6T1 (RiTr>IIT,(l)MI l(UI T6*.Mll,TH INO,^!,;!!! Wlhll.liVH li.Ulo.Mit n.l6T,Him KI,|I4(*,4II4 IT,I»I4.9M),09ft 1D,6«N ST.OM SHMM on.iu Mi.<<(tn r,(')i»ii,«i((i,(iri« 4 Imm lk« UaI HM. ■ tod aui« h ilM Y»n ftft Aniwuito •! CAtoa AMHMt •*«»(• AMiMMU »( OuUM l>N. 1 lut. T(M.I>H«,4lN"M,Vl|,(MT «T.i,4 H.llNi Ti'illW.141 KrtM', IHll,J*l,llUI IU.KH,I1«I •illl.llll,M)l> 171),N1ltt,6«4 l'.',oiiti,n(xi m ii«,>ni,('4'i aft."^4,(i:4 li:i,(ni.Iii6 ll«.7(U «:>V •iKi:m 0(1 W,(kTI.Ti<4 llT.TICtt'^'i IMI,Mi>V,(IVI «(I,(|||,1IM «8,71ID out l^4»4 4t< U,im.4il(l I.',tll».r6» I7,(lll7,47'i Krpp. IT,MH.«4't 14.1X11.144 l),Tdl 4(16 |(1,7M»,7«7 |-r.». V.W.9'* U,VK>.K\» I«,()n7,(«U I4,»ll,ll() IMlfcrrnt rHtra. tll.lMKnA i,li|4,«M 44H,XP7 i),n44.><(i« 47,(>l'« Dd T.4M.H(i| IJ.I4«.(MII 7,6.'T,('7U »\>M\.«Vl IIIU,"!" Wt 1.i»<.V»4 •,01(1,1116 4.IMI.4I4 (i.7riu,v<7 I'rrc. •,(i»0,Blt •,«l'i,Tli) H,4'i'<,4;i7 t.Mi.mi IMffirtmlratM,! ltl,WA 71I,T1MI H^ll.'/Ol 11(11,(170 Knc, 4lin.l«9 .I.MNII iioiMxa 14'J,HTA Vn*. 1»«,»M WI)A\H DO. '(I 1711 014 tmtfi M.m\ l-i 1,060 144 (KKI W \Vn i» a mt.im l,il46 V7(l,Ht<'i ■4«,0ls iii,6i(i,:it(r ^IINT,M».l(Hi^l,INW,4<'>,"'l l,Otll>,(iM),10(l * Th« Bimiiinla iirdiitli-A ptlil um raleiiUtol nh tlm riittnin* ralxa Riven In tli' Ivi' yiani clialRnati'il, liavii In xinio l((aUn<» i>rilix law of April IV, INOd. t The amount la mkuUtad ou tha niadluiu uf IIm ad wilorm duljr of Uroniun ami llamburK, on aa aaauinad vuluallon of 17 <«nta iH-r pound. t Tha amount l< ealoulalod on kha ratra of Ilia vilatlnf larllf of Janiury 01, 186A, prior to which i»tton waa altliur pro- hllillcd or aultjorti'd to a duty iMinlvalrut to prohlhltlon. I Tnltril HtHti>a Trcaanry rapurta do not itlva (|((antlil«a tn Notwajr diatluul fruni Uiuae tu 8w«dau. In Iha lattur, ootlon b fra* i la tbu furmar, tha dutjr la nuarljr half a oant per pound. F.xiimT or CartoH m riinaiim I'oara rnoni HaiTintuca 1, innn, to Aiiain 81, ISM, Wtlara from. (Iraal Brl(aln, rraar*. Nonliof Kuro)w. 1 (nli«r foralffM Pnfto, ' ■ ■■•■ ¥;toi. Nvw Drluana baliia Moblla •• Taxaa , ■> Flmlda " Havannah " Charlralon ■> Vlnilnla and North Carolina » llallimora '• (IHII,(l."i i»i,(im Itl.Otl IKI.N'.KI tO'i,7l8 1B0,631 104 4!24 181,048 7,4'il »t4,HI4 MAO ii.ono 18,W 87,U«a "■« l«.',ti'.n '.11,010 9,176 »,0.0 «,ll(>7 40,7iT i'Kwn nn.Mii »,0(i7 'i,'H'(i8 Ba,4ii« 'b.Vt'i ' i,mm 48n,0^'4i li4,flUtl r6,s.M l8-.,aj« 871,111 lOd 47J !:B(1,4'i4 l!l,077 ll.Wjd.dod lt,V44,'iOU 7i(>,m>7 rhiladtlphia •• New York » Uoaton » BM>^ , 01 Om.tMi Total. 186ft-'M .... Toul, ytuir 1864-» Innraan l.»Jl,IW(l l,M'l.7lt S7l,a70 4SO,0aT «>i),vai 70,706 B0»,|Xi6 1 >-.Kiil> 1148,678 w<,via Qcamtitt or Cottok ouKatHin ht Aim in ma kakm r>r MANirAcrirBxu mobtii or Vibiiiiiia. Yian. Balai. «6i.70il \ii^~— Balai. Vaaw, ■alai. ' Vtaia, ■■1S88--8* tITO.OH issa-'iM Ba'l... lod.iiu" iwuW l84li-'6 1 4S7,7(» 18UI~'44 r4'J,744 198U7i8 6:>o 6S4 l848-'4n 6l'4.(l,'IO l84!i-'4.) a^MM ih:i7-'I)8 li4fl,0(JJ iH,)2-'aa 1114.412 l!*i.'64 I (11,77'i 1841-'4'i M7(i60 1(W^ia,$(!r)l,000; MiasisalppI, 9H(i,«0( Kentucky, ^289,ui'i; Tenncaacp, (mSO.OOO; M' u,.!, $102,000*. At this period [18u0-7] these s' i< i : prolialily douMed. Slatoa- l«S4, ISU. " i»M. lUi. lilt. ISIt. into. North Carolina bnlst Houth Carolina " (Jporgla " K.OOO 16,000 :B,oao 1,600 ooo 4. V _11.,> ~ 1S,BJ(» 10,600 A 600 6,600 4,000 20,00(1 12,000 28,000 0.000 6,000 8S,0:lO 20,00(1 10,000 20.0(Kr 6,000 6,000 30,000 16,(HI0 10,000 12,000 ^00fl 7,000 18,000 18,000 10,000 18,000 4,000 8,000 12,000 20,0110 1500(1 27,00.1 0,0(10 12,(10(1 27,600 On the Ohio, Ftc.... " Total to Roptoinber 1... 86,IMlO 1IJ6,U*KI 90,000 7B.0(HI 00,000 107,60(1 To which, If added (for ti;? pat.f. ., .. •) lh« stocks in j nnj crop received this year to the 1st Sept., ond some the interior towns 1st Sept. (say J,'.% low rivers, etc., which it is fair to suppose came that lust on its way to mark,>t the post .vt'ai to the crop foi ;■ ard the pnst season, and is already added to the as given above, received at the sliippini; jwrts, the aj;- gregate will show, aa near aa may be, the amount rowed in the United States the past Bcason— say, in round numbers, 3,335,000 bales (after daduoting 1800 bales rec(>ipts at the )>orls), against IWW baica, n,17«,0fl0 18M 8,'iOO,flOO If^BS 8,"'«0.000 1862 8,100,000 18.11 balea, 2,460,000 1S60 2,2l2.onO 1849 2,R4fl.flflO 1848 9,867,000 BaUa. I'.Hl.llu l'.it,412 gliiiii, Ohio, ftlio OB))!!"! Lod" In llio ||i,'2ati,(K>0; l,n()0: i M""n..rl, »' 111" " • IU«. "211,0(10 IBOOO iT.OOt (l.OllO li!,i50n 2T,600_ TOT,Mlt_ L, and K"""' It. l»t, 1«M, ^poiie canio Iddcd to the L 2 450.0(10 "' 2 21'2,onO J,fi4fl,000 J3BT,000 GOV 44T COT I AM Mf U AMntm Of VN* (7At*M ClM AV Tm Vtnm h4TU am, 4I« MLMRIt T" hniia Mfto ..<••. to ••••.!•<•# 1,4(11,010 CoMtvlM...,, MM I«4.ll»f «lMk, IM l«f<< (T,4BI I(f>rW>a f»>iiii H^rliU .,,.■,.,•. *,l(0 K:4», i^'i K'MW •.,ti«ft«ii« I ••••••*»t*(* MT.ON I9MII 1,107 I0,«>5 t tf I* tf ( I II II • 4Jia4 CoMi '<• ur ■kxk, lit ••ptaMb' WtMt ^rt4 'It' ',1 1 ,1 iifi«(ii« *«ii*« 3iL i,Mi,nT IllBM BO.IIM «4.0lt I, aw titltttllllt IttttllllttI Ittltltlttll tttttlttttit ttttfltttttt Dtiutt itoak, I il aJVUintMr, IIBT . t < ritOiitAt Ktptrt To fortlgn parU— li|ll»nit» , 1 1 1 1 IUa-lalaM4«tttt,.t Cuaitwlaa— t'plaiiila , 1 1 1 , t , t J|rpl»n4« t • t ■ 1 1 1 1 NM-lakHiil* 1 1 1 1 1 1 ittttttt C'oaalarlaa— CptoMi tttttttntttttit HM.|a|«n•<.•• > Ktiirk III gataiiiMh, lit Haplaiilb'T, IWtT ,,,.,,,,,, Hluokln AuguatA, •!«., lai MptaiiilMr, IWi •••>.> lomi ii*lioi,ii«A. Kttmrt/nm ('H4Ki,nmii)— To fornlgii porta - 1' (lUiMla ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,..,> i •> < H«a-I«l*iul» ,■ .1 ,,,,,...<. I • ... • CoMtwIaa— IJplanda i,. i.i •>•■■>><•■>•<• > gaa-hlaiKla ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, nurnnd and m«iiuritaliir«4 at tltftrlvatlH ,,,,,,,,,, Stock In i;liarUiaton, Ut Mapitiiilwr, \ttl» ,,,,,,,,, Kiporljrom fJiuiaotroMfN, N, (!,— To coaatwlao porta— tplaiuta, .•>,•• t »■>•>•■ i ■ i < ■ DtdHft. R*mlvi>d IVi in Florid ' -tua.laland* > , > • < ■ > > > < • , • . Heo«'. V HAvaiitwIt— H<»-laUlida ,,,.,,•■,,,, I'liUiidM, ,..•,..<■<. Stock in UharloatoR, Itt SapOnitlwr, I WT ..<.<..., . 98.TIT M TO.WH) IB,(«I aon 10 inii,i4i ■ Ml liT.tw T,44T Mt l.VOI T,T«9 I.T4T SM.M7 in,sM 1IS.1IIS wi 1t,TI6 l9«,Sft4 1,«1S T,»IB 1,5TB Ift.TM B,«4I Export. To coMtwti* porta , HOkTil OARfthlNA. B>T,MT 4,tas TlgalNIA. Kaport, To foralgn porta, , Coaatwiao #>>><•>>>• >>if>>ii Munlkatnrad (tAktn from tlia pefM Stock, lit SapUmbar, IIM. . , fit*i(frii*i*ift*(««l(« 11**11 f< n.9m 4m 1,BT«,4M Mi Bn,M4 14S,M« in,4or BO 108,414 11,441 4SI,7n !B,Bn IB,1S5 4^0 fnfiwf Stock, lit Septamlwr, IIAT ,, RceelTcd at New York* PlitladalpliU, wtlt H»lllnian>, oyorland, rrom Tenniiaee, etc > nm >,,,.,,,.,,,,, , , Total Crop op th* Vnitim iiTAnR , , InnrwtM Avxr rrnp nf tWT. , , DlMraiiM frniii etiip tit IMM.. iMrMWOVCr Itnjl "Ji^M, ■ . '•■} 1,418,000 111,1101 80a,lTT 80,881 1S3,»3 400,161 13,g«B 14,T05 B.«t4 TTTI,I«T 1,«I1,4M 1M,844 •s . i Hi's' I SSiS" f^t ,-St8S ^lO Ar-> Si. 5 liii ;^& : "•2 ? " S82aS2 . . ;iSi2p§§s§ii S«%eot-*»Q ^« sif- oi ot Qi 9-* S 5* «t ?i « 2 5 CO »0 C. CC 3 ^ S i*- « M -I 8Sirswi-*OQ5JS« -I- C^»» <>» t-f l-« «' ?-• T-T.—' P-' i-f .-.' r-* ciDG0C£d:CCCC51-'si. I I((67-'58. Ctreit Uritaio l,8il.i.!mil Fnnco 8>t.0ii2 North of Europe 2IM4n Other foreign port! I III, 1142 ToUl |ii.M0;«58 H5«-'51 1,428,8711 4I3.8&T 246.THS _K4,«82 l,9'il.»>«i,l,5t'.i,TlUjl,60:t,7Sil 480,037 3U4,nnft 248.B78 V,9&t.6:HI 40n,!l3li irw.ano 14<*..'IA2 .174,or)8 168,172 17I1.I68 l,7iHJ,8«l 42«,72R 171,17(1 193,fi3(i 2,-.44,209|2,8ltf,148,2,BiH,4«0 1,(MS.;4'.I 421,375 108,871 lS4,i:4' 2,443.«I4« • COT I '^9 COT STATunrr aHOwma rm Wiiklt aitd Total Bkoupti of Cottoh ihto tii> Poan or Tin CinntD Statu ; Atio Tna W»KLT ASD Total Ezpotn or Cotton to Ouat Britaim, Fbahok, Mobtu or EoBora ahd OTnii FoREioN POBTa ; toqbtbkb with TBI Stock oh Uajtd n thb Soirpoia Pobt< ; Draiiia tbb labt Fiti Tbabs. Abbakobd and Fcblibbbd ST ViLUAM P. Wbiobt, riB J. Y^ Cotton Bbokbb, New Yobk. (tarn Fiovbb! ■BPBEaXNT TilOVBAMDS Or BaLKS.) r - Sbptubbb, 1851^ TO AoouiT, 1858, inoluuvb. 1 1. RBCEmS. EXPORTS. RECEIPTS. EXPORTS. 1 D*T BrIulD. FrUM«. North Eurolw OUiir Ibrelipi porta. t 1 1 OfMl Brlt.111, Fruee. North Earop*. Othar foralfO porU. i i 1 1 ft H 1 1 1 1 ^ 1 t 1 t 1 ^ g 1 1 1 ^ S 1 i 1 1 1 i d 8 1 tn Sept. 19 IS 12 1 1 14 64 8 17 1 e seen by the accom- ponying figures, was 8,527,845 l)alcs, which has been BO liberally disposed of that the supplies on hand, oa % COT 450 COT STAnmNT BRowiNO TBI! WxKKLT AND TOTAL Bcoinpn Or OonoH IMTO Tni PoBn or Tnx Unitkd Statu i egan to attract attontinn, and holders became indifferent about offering tlieir supplies; and as the high prices checked consumption, the market assumed an inactivity unusual for the season, which continued throughout July and August, holders all the time maintaining an unrelenting firm- ness. The year closed with a reduced stock, both here and at the South, and the supply in the manufacturers' hands at the eastward being also limited, the inclina- tion of prices was to a higher range. The trode of New York has apparently fallen off j a Cotton C«or of thb Uritxd States , FOE KAOII YEAB, FKOH gETTBl^BER 1 , 1828 TO SXPTEUBEB 1, 1866. DaU. TOTAl Oflor^ln. CROP BICnVBD U ATLAMTtO ffTATU. TOTAL CROP RKCBIVBO IH OVlt aTATRS. CROP. Graiul I'olal. Soiitb Cftrolliui. North Carolina. Virlrlnla. Florida. Alabama. LouUiana. Teia». 1824 162,786 184,618 46,000 end Virginia 4,600 44,924 126,481 .... • 609,158 1S25 138,000 97,000 72,000 u 8,000 68,798 200,463 669,249 1628 190,692 111,978 88,480 u 2,817 74,201 261,969 720,027 1827 238,920 179,810 112,811 u 4,168 89,707 836,870 967,281 1828 163,749 109,783 77,422 ti 8,940 71,663 804.188 790,598 1829 249,166 168,276 104,621 (t 4,146 79,958 264,249 .... 870,416 1880 268,117 188,871 86,862 a'!,600 6,787 102,684 854,024 .... 976,846 1881 280,502 186,166 86,640 83,895 13,073 118,188 426.486 .... 1,088,848 1882 276,487 178,872 28,461 87,600 22,661 126,021 822,836 987,477 1883 271,026 181,876 80,268 80,829 23,641 129,.S66 403,448 1,070,488 1834 268,655 227,869 83,220 4»,T25 86,738 149,978 454.719 1,205,894 1886 222,670 208,166 84,899 88,170 62,085 197,692 611,146 1,254,828 1880 270,121 262,971 231,287 82,067 29,197 79,762 236,716 481,536 1,860,726 1887 196,877 13,004 28,618 8.8,703 232,248 600,8n 1,422,980 1S83 804,210 2H884 21.439 82,000 100,171 809,807 781,288 1,801,497 1889 20.%112 210,171 11.136 22,200 75,177 251,742 684,994 1,860,682 1840 292,698 813,194 9,394 23,650 186,257 446,725 958,673 2,177,886 1841 148,947 227,400 7,866 20,800 93,652 820,701 814,680 .... 1,684,946 1842 282,271 260,164 9,787 19,013 114,410 818,816 727,658 1,683,574 1848 299,491 851,658 9,039 12,139 161,088 481,714 1,060,216 2,878,875 1844 265,697 804,870 8,618 14,500 145,562 467,990 832,172 2,080,409 18J5 296,440 426,861 12,487 25,200 188,698 617,196 929,126 2,894,BaS 1S48 194,011 251,405 10.637 18,282 141,184 421,968 1,037,144 27,(l68 2.100,587 1847 242,789 850,200 6,061 18,991 127,862 828,462 705,979 8,817 1,778,661 1848 264,875 261,752 1.518 8,962 158,776 486,886 1,190,788 89.742 2,347,634 18i9 891,872 46S,117 10,(U1 17,650 200,186 618,706 1,098,797 88,827 2,-28,696 1860 848,635 884,266 11,861 11,600 181,844 860,9,53 781,888 81,268 2,096,706 1861 822,376 887,075 12,928 19,940 181,204 461,748 933,689 4,5,820 2,865,267 1862 825,714 476,614 16,242 20,820 18f,499 M9,449 1,878,404 64,052 8,016,029 1863 849,490 463,203 28.496 26,788 179,476 54.5,029 1,680,876 8,5,790 8,262,882 1854 816,005 416,764' 11.524 21,986 1,W,444 588,684 1,348,925 110,825 2,930,027 1865 878,694 499,272 26,189 31,000 186,597 4M..595 1,232,M4 80,787 2,847,889 1856 889,445 496,976 38,098 20,453 144,404 659,:;« 1,661,488 118,078 8,627,846 * Texas at tlits time was not a part of the United States. FbuvIuts to Eueopb, Rates of Excii.'.nce, Stock ox Hand, and £xtbf.ve Pbices fkou 1823 to 1866. Year. rBiionni, From N«w York, lit October. BXCHA.NGR. AtNewYork,I.lOclob«r. 8TDCK ON HAND. Extreme Prlci • In Liverpool. 1 Mvarpool. Harre. London. France. America. Liverpool. Upland. " Oood." Sen fslmtid. IltUclobor. la. Jenimry pence. Iwncc- 8 1-2—10 3-4 I'encc, pence. 1823 -i-a 82 .^ 24 1824 3-8 -1-2 -1 1-4 10 1-4—10 1-2 -.525 861,000 g 8-4—10 1-2 ■23 — 27 1826 8-8 —1-2 I -1 1-4 10 1-2—11 —512 1-2 82I,IHI0 9 1-2-19 1-2 27 — 42 1828 8-8 —1-2 —1 12 —12 1-2 528 --580 811,600 6 8-4— 8 8-4 20 80 1827 1-4 —1-2 1-3 - 5-8 II -11 1-4 511 1-4—515 287,806 6 8-4— 7 8-4 18 _- 20 1828 1-4 —8-8 8-4 —1 10 1-2—11 610 —612 1-2 842,700 6 8-8— 7 8-8 18 — 22 1829 —1-4 7-S —1 1.8 9 6-8— 9 3-4 —622 1-4 . 167,690 6 1-1—7 18 — 21 1880 8-8 —7-16 -1 10 1-4—10 1-4 583 1-2—686 3l',805 203,200 7 — 7 T-8 18 — 20 1881 —1-4 7-3-1 10 8-4—11 510 —511 1-4 119,428 2,VS,000 8 7-8- 7 1-4 18 — 18 188j 8-8 -7-16 - 3-4 — 8 ,580 -682 1-2 41,599 212,860 7 —8 18 — 18 1838 1-4 -8-3 8-4-1 7 — 7 1-2 —582 1-2 48.205 197,960 7 7-8-12 1-2 IS — 22 1884 8.8 —1-2 1-2 - 6-8 7 1-4- 7 1-2 .580 —582 1-2 29,617 180,770 8 7-8-11 20 — 20 1836 8-8 -7-16 8-4—1 9 —9 1-4 .522 1-2-525 41,628 145.S10 10 1-4-18 1-4 80 — 83 1836 8-8 -1-2 8-4-1 8 — 8 1-2 —526 43,841 184,700 10 1-2—12 80 — 86 1887 1-4 -.3-3 8-4-1 14 -16 —602 1-3 7^820 204,590 7 1-4—11 80 — 40 1888 1-4 —.5-10 1-2- 8-4 10 -10 1-4 517 1-2-620 40,305 170,820 8 1-4— 9 1-2 80 — 88 1889 .5-16-7-16 3-4 —1 9 8-4—10 1-4 516 -517 1-2 62,244 24S340 7 1-2—10 1-4 88 — 86 1840 1-4 -6-16 1-2 — 8-4 8 - 8 1-4 -520 68,442 1st Sept 72,479 206,042 6 6-8- 7 1-4 S8 — 86 1841 1-4 -6-16 8-4-1 9 8-4-10 —517 1-2 866,140 7 —7 3-4 24 — 28 1S42 8-16—1-4 1-2 - 8-1 « 8-4— 7 1-2 —535 31,807 429,a80 8-4- 7 34 — 24 1848 3-16—1-4 3-8 — 6-8 9 — 9 l-4'528 3-4-525 94,486 4.56,600 6 1-2— 6 1-2 24 — 24 1844 6-16-H-8 8-4-1 9 8-4—10 —622 1-2 159,772 658,880 6 1-4- 6 8-4 24 — 80 1846 1-4 -5-18 IMO— 8-4 9 8-4—10 1-4528 8-4—625 98,420 749,580 6 — 5 3-4 80 — 80 1846 1-4 —5-16 5-8 — 7-8 8 1-2—9 530 —682 1-2 107,122 8S5,480 6 — 7 8-4 80 — 80 1847 3-16—1-4 3-4-1 7 1-2—8 627 1-2-628 8-1 314,887 488,970 6 8-4- 8 l-|l 8 —12 1-2-26—80 j 1848 —3-18 — 6-8 9 — 9 8-8 —620 171,463 368,630 4 8-4— 6 1 6 — 8 — 2(^-25 , 1849 -1-8 — 1-2 9 1-2-9 8.4.528 -.527 1-2 164,763 393,840 4 7-8— 7 1-S 6 12—9 3-4—20—20 1 1860 -1-4 — 1-2 10 —10 1-2520 —632 1-2 167.980 463,000 7 1-2- 8 8-4 9 —11 1-2—20—20 1861 —1-8 — 8-8 10 1-4—10 1-2511 1-4—512 1-2 128,304 6.58,896 5 8-4— 8 6-8i 8 —11 —20—22 1862 —1-8 — 1-4 10 1-4—10 6-8518 8-4—615 1)1.176 423,780 6 8-4— 7 ilO —18 —22—28 1853 3-16—1-4 — 1-2 9 — 9 1-2618 8-4—515 13.\6ia 577,810 6 1-2— 7 1-413 —16 —28-86 1864 -1-8 — 1-3 9 1-4— 9 8-4511 1-4—518 8-4 18.5,603 597,500 8-8— ■, 9 1-2—13 —34—86 1865 6.82-fM6 — 1-4 9 6-8—10 —612 1-2 143,836 651,840 6 8-8- Tl-2 8 —10 -SO-34 1866 84,171 ^ 1 ■«# 462 COT eircumiUnoe whloh ditoown • satlaftwtoiy expUnv tion In th* krg* Incraue of iraiuitn biuinau between the principal sontheni porta uid tbo markets of Eu- rope. These openUiona are mainly under the control of partlei in tUa olty, acting in tlw eapaolty of iMsu. laton, brolcen, o^nti for foraign •pliitiam, uto, U hw flraqaently happened that, wlian tlio ntui'k li) ducedtoaaomparatlv«lylowU|{ur«, iiitrtlxK whii (ipKritt* STATamicT BHowiNo THa SsTrainD WixKLY Balis or Corroic in thi Orrr or Naw Yuan, ma (iiitinwino roa "MiDDuifO Ui'L.^Koa" AHD "MiDDUNU OaLiAMt," wnu Tiia Ratis or FBgioiiT TO l.ivaai'001., ANii Tiia unuiua or EXOUANOI OR LOKDON AICO PA219, rOB Till TlAB IVDIitO BiPT. 1, 18M. OmU. Ssl«. UpUndi. lUdllnc OrkMti. Fralfht to Unltuol, "SX."* ""te" " 1 " s Oct " 1 .. g. " a Not. ( » li " 11 4, lasi..... 10,000 11 118-8 8-16- ... per lb. 1098-4-UO ■ 6,ili:«-. ,,,, r. 4,000 10,000 8,000 6,000 ^800 ^000 7,000 9,000 ^000 9,600 10,509 10 8-4 101-3 191-8 10 96-3 91-8 91-4 91-8 9 91-4 91-8 111-8 108-4 108-S 101-4 10 9 7-8 9 3-4 96-3 98-8 96-8 9 7-8 8-16-7.38 1-4 — 0-93 8-19- ... 7-16- 1-9 8-8 — 7-16 8-8— ... 6-16-11-32 6-16- ... 1-4— ... 6-82— 8-16 1-3-6-82 u u u u u u It li u It 109 84-110 1097*- ,.., 1097-8- ,,,. 109 1.»- ..,, 109 -189 M 108 m-l09 109 -109 M 108 1-1-109 108 1.3-109 108 -108 i-t 108 —108 1.4 «.iii-»- .... 6.18 I-8- ,.,. A,l8t-3- ,... A,|8R.4_ .... »,IA -A,1« M A,l«}.4^,t8M A,IAl-4"-A,1«84 6,17 l-3-fl,8ll A,I7 14-A,18M A, 1811.4-0,30 A,18H.4~-A,80 9 4 2 3 S I ) i I » Deo. { ; " 1' I » 11 1 " 81 Jan. 1 r 9,000 6,000 14,000 7,000 11,600 6,500 9 6-8 91-8 91-8 91-3 9 1-4 91-4 10 96-8 91-8 91-2 91-3 91-8 6-82-8-16 6-82—8-16 1-4- ... 9-32- 8-16 7.82—14 3-16- ... u u 1 1 u 1 108 —108 1 .4 108 —108 1.4 108 8.4-109 108 8.4—109 108 1-3— 108 8.4 108 1.2- ..,, 6,80 - ,,.. A,8I 1.4--A,4il 6.90 - .,,, A,l««.«^.lTI-t 690 -= ,,,. A,8A -ff.tn 14 .'.'.'...'.'.'.'. , 1856 " 11 " 18 " 88 " 86 Feb. 6 " 11 « 19 11,000 14,000 10,000 A600 80,000 10,000 82,000 91-4 91-4 91-4 91-4 9 8-4 9 7-8 10. 1.8 91-9 91-2 91-3 91-3 10 101-4 10 3-4 8.16- 7-82 1-4— ... 1-4— ... 1-4— ... 8-16- ... 7-82—1-4 1-4— ... * * 4 t I 1 108 —108 M 108 1-4-108 1-9 108 —1081-3 1081-4-1081-3 108 1-3-108 B-4 109 -109 1-4 109 —109 1-4 6.91 1.4- .,,, A,9I t.4- . , ,', 6,811.4- ,,,. 6.81 1-4- ,,,, A.8U.4- ,.,, A.I8 A.4— A,9I 1'4 .......... u ss March 4 " 10 » 18 u 84 April 1 98,000 18,000 12,000 16,000 16,600 88,000 108-9 10 8.3 101-8 101.3 101-4 10 3.3 10 8-4 10 3-4 10 8-8 10 3.8 101-3 10 8.3 1-4 — 9-83 " 8-16— 7-82 " 1-4—... » 1-4 - 9-82 " 9-82— M6 " 1-4-... '• 100 -100 1-4 1091-4 -109 8 Jt 1091-4-109 34 1001-4-109114 109 1.8— ,,,, 1U91.8— ,,,, 6.1T1-8- ,,., MTI4-. .,,, A.8I1-4-. ,,,, 6.80 -fl,17 1-9 A,9« -6,17 1.» A,8n -^,17 14 ' T » 16 " 81 " 89 Hay 6 »' 18 " 19 u 8x Jane 9 » 10 17,000 88,000 88,000 18,000 8,000 12,000 9,000 18,000 6,000 12,000 101.2 10 8-4 111-8 11 1-4 10 3-4 10 8-4 10 6-8 10 6-8 10 8-4 10 7-3 10 3.4 11 118.8 111-3 11 1-4-... ' 3-16— ... ' 1-8-... ' 1-8— ... 1.3 — ... ' 1091-8— ,,,, 10968- ,,,. 100 6-8- ,., 109 8-4— III) 1098-4- ,,,, 109 8-4-110 110 - .,,, 100 8-4- ,.,, 109 1-3-109 8-4 109 1-2—109 8-4 "* — -- "fir mm A,1T l+-ft.U M MT *- ,,,. MT1.3- ,,,, A,l»(.4-. ,.„ M«i.4_ ,.,, A,l«(.4-. ,.,, A.IAJ.4- ,,., A,J»1.4= ,.,, A.lfll.4- ,,,, A.lfll.4== ,,., U 1 8-16— ... * 10 7-3 10 7-8 11 111-8 3-16- 7-82 ' 8-16— ... 6-82— 3-16 ' 8-16- 7-82 ' " 19 " 84 6,000 6000 111-8 111-8 113-8 113-8 3-16— ... ' 8-16- ... ' 109 H-4— ,,,, 109 8-4--110 6.18 4- ,,, A.I7 I'S—MA " SO 6,000 111-4 11 1-3 8-16— ... ' 109 8-4—110 6,17 4-=A.lfl A.lrt .t-A.lA A,17 .4-6,1 S July 8 » 14 4,600 11 3-8 11 5-8 S-32— ... ' 100 8-4—110 8,000 116-8 117-8 6-32— ... ' 110 —11014 " 22 " 28 Ang. S 10,000 8.000 8,000 118-8 118-8 11 S-S"""- 11 7-8 11 7-8 11 7-8™"'- 1.8 - 6-82 " 1-8 — ... ' 1-8- ... " 110 - ,,,. 109 6-8—100 74 109 6-8-109 T4 A,I7 .8-fllA 6,)7|.8-*.IA A.17 IW-«,tA " 11 8,000 11 S-S""""- 11 7-8">'"n. 1-3 — ... ' 109 84— ,.,, A,l61-4-«,1S " 19 •* 28 4,000 6,000 11 ,11 118-8 118-9 6-32- ... ' 6-32- ... « 110 -IIOM 110 -110 14 6,1814- ,.., A.181'8- ,,.. ExroBTB raox, ahd CoinnHP' tiojr or CorroN is, Tni United Btatbi, raoM 1827 to IWX). Y..r. OONSUMPTIOW AT VARIUUa 1 l.iWia, 1 KnaLkXD. niAVcs. ontB room lV)TAt. IKQLAItD— WMkly. Bslu. rmiHci. udiuii aintu 1 nnrtlt pf • llll«W(«l« Httflliiul, wmlilf, nfallkllHlt, B«lM. tela. B«lM. Biilx. Vf\iaH. S«.I«. Balm. 280,000 Vlrfliila, 1 ■"IM,4«« ( VIriflnl*, 1827 646,1.39 157,952 49,707 863,793 8,181 764 1828 424,748 148,519 26,733 600,000 9,200 360 377,600 130,698 ,,, I4,nw 1829 489,001 184,821 06,173 749,000 9,092 869 241,68(1 mnas >,*( 14,881 1880 695,713 200,791 42,212 838,716 10,203 673 264,760 13fl,ftl9 . , ., 16,003 1831 618,718 127.029 27,086 772,783 11,041 688 260,784 183,144 ,,,» 16,49« 1832 638,143 207,209 46,871 891,728 11,540 689 248,343 178,800 .,,, 17,140 1838 680,145 207,617 29,793 867,486 11,868 460 273,463 194,418 . . . t 16,1128 1884 766.291 216,424 65,236 1,027.951 18,094 617 306,000 196,418 , . >, 1Y.667 1885 722,718 252,470 4.8,311 1,028,499 13,719 619 379,fl , 91,430 • 1840 1,246,791 447,468 181,747 1,^76,008 19,200 810 326,288 2116,198 34.009 1S41 858,743 848,776 105,759 1,813,277 17,279 817 446.61)6 39r,8liN t .«, 39,«89 1842 93^631 399,129 131,487 2,468,247 16,832 268 861,277 8«7,hAi) < 1 », 38,818 1843 1,409,711 848,139 1H287 2,010,130 19,978 893 44,1,1186 836,129 . . ,» 36,894 1 1844 1,202,498 282,685 144,807 1,629,490 21,821 296 880,878 1146,744 97,473 1 1845 1,489,806 859,857 885,098 1,088,756 24.412 aie 88l),»4r IM.MN) .... »t,277 1S46 1,102,369 859,708 204,780 1,666,792 34,260 877 417,861 498,697 . . , . 80.498 1847 880,909 241,486 163,827 1,241,223 Ifl,40« 888 413,079 4-^7,967 3i,3(lfi 1848 1324,266 279,172 254,824 1,868,261 22,443 892 393,407 681,778 7A,mK» 9<,146 1849 1,687.901 868,2.19 821,684 2,227,864 24,111 868 269,109 6|8,fl«9 im,«)rt 80,646 1860 1,106,771 28?,627 198,767 1,590,1M 20,238 288 8AI.«7'i 4«r,7A* 107,600 99.136 1861 1,418,268 801,8&S 869.037 1,988.710 23,748 427 8I0,«I3 404,108 Aft,(HW 81.918 1869 1,668,749 421,875 883,628 2,4(.3,6»6 27,748 677 851.667 608,089 76,00(» 36,790 1868 1,786,860 426,723 864,318 2,628,400 27,6i4 867 804,612 671,009 9«,0«« 86,618 1864 1,608,780 874,058 841,340 2,319,148 29,188 497 866,784 «lU,ft7l IIIA.IHK) 87,839 1868 1,549,716 409,981 480,687 284,660 2,241,209 99,728 650 A«lt,A»4 8A,n04 40,403 186S 1,921,886 562J>88 3,981.606 — nil , ^mm... lilM- pouni ceedc poun than quan Brita better exani the half I paria a dill the of wl Kif oftlj iJ meni fort and I COT 468 COT b transUu ootton were purcluaing ftom twenty to thirty thooaand bales per week, and not nnfreqnently turning the itaple over two or three times in the period wUch _ used to sulHce, nnder the old ayatem, of moldng bnt ' one fair profit out of it. The theory of certain par- tlen, based upon an incorrect estimate of things as they are, favors the impression that the cotton trade of Kew York is on the wane, but like all other theories resting only upon the basis of the imagination, it fades away before the recital of the hard facts that stare it in the face. New York being the centre of the world's trade on this continent — the grand focus of all the latest intel- ligence from the old world, and all sections of the new, the rendezvous of nearly all the most important lines of ocean steamers, the entrepot of more than five eighths of the entire foreign commerce of the country, the readiest medium, financially and every other way, between thu producer and the consumer, the planter and agriculturist here, and the factor and manufacturer there — Kew York being ail this and much more liesides, wo repeat, it must continue to control the cotton trade of the oouBtiy for a centnry to come. But it is some- times inferred that the American cotton trade at largo is destined to an eventual decline, in consequence of the constant endeavors of Great Britain to seek new fields for its cultivation by means of what is called firee labor, near the pyramids of Egypt, and among the sickly malarias of the East Indies. These experiments, we think, have been sufficiently tested to justify tho conclusion, that the cotton planter of the United States has nothing to apprehend, for at least a generation to come, from any competition from these sources. Even did the endeavor to cultivate the plant in the Indies succeed to any considerable extent, it must be conceded that the remoteness of the producer from the manu- facturer, must always give us such an advantage, as regards low freights and expeditious transit, as would render the colonial speculation comparatively profit- less. There are many other considerations and argu- ments which might be adduced to substantiate this conclusion, but these, we take it for granted, are not required, to allay any serious apprehensions of do- mestic ruin from this species of foreign competition. Stocks or Cotton on Hand in tue 0NITSD States on 8l8T AVOUBT. BALin. IBM. I8M. 1854. issa. 1319. ISM. ISM. 1S49. 1S48. I84T, 1 New Orleans.. Mobilo Florida. Texas Bav'h&Aug'a. Charleston N.Carolina.... Virginia. New York OtborM. porta. Total «,»»5 5,006 74 628 8,881 8,144 ■'842 84,657 9,500 89,425 28,519 166 3,062 8,887 2,086 "680 66,846 9,846 24,121 29,278 688 3,205 11,518 17,081 "760 82,988 17,129 10,523 7,516 528 428 12,9»t 16,126 "m 67,675 20,460 9,758 2,819 461 «17 6,65'i 11,146 "460 4^796 14,283 15,890 27,797 278 696 84,011 10,068 "620 35,410 8,850 16,612 12,963 1,148 S85 29,069 80,693 i'.ooo 60,720 1^466 15,480 6,046 616 452 25,819 28,806 V,760 67,085 15,260 87,4f»l 28,684 607 747 86,603 14,095 "444 41,987 16,180 28,(98 1 24,173 , 2,108 83 25,020 29,655 * '448 88,269 26,650 64,171 148,886 185,608 185,648 91,170 128,900 187,980 164,768 171,468 214,887 IV. Corroji Tbade of the United States with Great Britain. 1. General Information Respecting the Cotton Trade of the United Stale).— Great Sritain. — The annual average importation of cotton from all ODuntries int^ England the lost five years has been 838,335,984 pounds, of which quantities, according to British authorities, 661,529,220 pounds, or more than thrae fourths, were from the United States. The an- nual average exportation to the Continent and else- where has been 122,810,688 pounds, or about one sixth of the total quantity imported, leaving 716,525,296 pounds for the annual average consumption. Al>out one sixth of the whole amount imported was from Brit- itsh possessions. In 1781, Great Britain commenced the re-exportation of cotton to tho Continent and elsewhere. In 1816 the quantity thus re-exported had risen from the an- nual average of 1,000,000 pounds to that of 6,000,000 pounds. In 1863, the aggregate amount exported ex- ceeded 148,500,000 pounds, of which nearly 83,000,000 pounds were derived from the United States, and more than 60,000,000 pounds from the East Indies. The quantit}' of American cotton re-exported by Great Britain to the different markets of Europe, when com- pared with the quantities imported, is much less than of that imported from other countries — a fact which suggests the superiority of the American article, and its better adaptation to purposes of fabrile industrj-. For example, about one tenth of the cotton imported from the United States is re-exported, against nearly one half of that imported from the East Indies. A com- parison between American and East India cotton, shows a difference of 100 per cent, in favor of the farmer ; the cotton of the East Indies containing 25 per cent, of waste, while that of the United States contains only 12^ per cent. The fibre, also, of the latter excels that of the former. In 1788, the efforts of the East India Company com- menced for the promotion of the growth of cotton, and for tho improvement of its quality, in British India ; and the first exportation of the article to England was made the same year. In 1814 the exportation amounted to 4,000,000 pounds i it now averages 165,000,000 pounds per annum. An area of about 8000 square miles is said to be devoted to the culture. Liverpool is the great mart of the cotton trade of Great Britain and of Europe generally. Thus, while the total im- ports of the article into the United Kingom, according to British authorities, in 1852, amounted to 2,857,888 bales, the quantity at this port reached 2,206,788 bales. About six sevenths of the cotton received at Liverpool cemes from the United States ; and of this four fifths is estimated to bo imported for the factories of Lanca- shire and Yorkihire. Since March, 1846, cotton has been admitted into British ports free of duty. Prior to that period the duty was, of and from British posses- sions, 8 cents ; from other places, 70 centt per 112 pounds. Tho number of spindles in operation in En- gland is estimated at more than 20,000,000. The value of cotton supplied l>y the United States to Great Britain in 1853 was $57,616,749, being about the average each year the last four. The quantity of cotton exported from the United States to England in 11 months of tho fiscal year 1856, is estimated at 2,755,000 bales. It appears from "Commerce and Navigation," that the importailca u( raw cotton from the British West Indies into the United States has increased, for some years past, in a ratio quite proportional to the decrease of such importation into Great Britain. Thus, the import- ation of cotton into tho United States and Great Britain, respectively, from the British West Indie.o from 1861 to 1855, inclusive, was as follows : Yenrt. 1851.. 1852.. 1868.. 1864.. 1855.. InloUii Into UDlKd Slatfi. Greftt BrItalD pounds.. 29,858 446,529 " .. 6,756 708,696 " .. 252,893 844,000 " .. 159,881 205,072 " .. 880,217 No data The average price per pound of cotton from 1851 to 1855, inclusive, in the United States and Great Britain, respectively, is shown as follows : In tha At Man- YMri. United Stalei. cheiter, <).' B. 1861 18.11 cents. 12 1-4 cents. 1868 8.06 " 111-4 " 1858 9.86 " 18 4-7 " 1854 9.47 " 12 8-4 " 1866 8.74 " 12 1-1 » COT 454 COT The following ititement shows the qauitltlea of cot- /m impoited into Great Britain, and the countries whence importe,86S,674 28,358,120 82,622,688 I EMt IndlM. 149,a38,647 29,867,709 77,011,389 97,888,168 92,972,6i<9 66,709,729 88,689,776 68,487,426 84,640,148 88,984,614 84,101,961 70,888,516 118,872,748 122,626,976 84,939,483 181,848,160 119,329,162 146,213,976 654,44^096 180,889,139 Waat Indlci. 866,167 1,688,197 698,603 1,360,444 1,707,194 1,894,447 1,201,857 798,988 640,487 944,807 228,913 446,629 708,696 8U,060 206,072 No (lata. 1,099,867 424,839 ElM«rhor«. 8,649,403 ^061,61S 4,441,260 8,185,224 6,064,641 725,836 1,140,113 698,587 837,086 1,074,164 2.090,698 1,877,658 8,960,993 2,078,562 2,090,300 8,476,160 17,984.167 8,696,883 692,448,010 4»7.9U2,:)55 631,750,036 678,198,116 646,111.804 721,079,953 467,856,274 474,707,015 718,020,161 756,461.,012 668,67«,.s61 767,379,749 949,782,418 896,266,780 837,388,104 890,159,872 4,869,921,053 871,984,390 Stathunt snowiNo tiir Quantities of Cotton Exported by Orkat Britain to ali. Countrirs, hrspkctively, and THE UOrNTRIES WURNCR IKPOBTRD, FOR A PERIOD <>r FlVI YeARS, PROX 1851 TO 1356, BOTU INOLUBIVK.* Y..rt. Eiportod lotU countriot. Of which wu Imported from — Unlt'd BlAtOB. Itroill. Ejrypl. Eut Indlti. ElHwhen, 18S1 Pound*. 111,930,400 111,875,466 143,569,680 125,.'»4,800 124,84^760 Pound!. 66,931,841 69,217.120 82,701,472 55,101,200 66,989,683 P.mlid.. 1,38.3,880 8,619,840 4,786,768 1,433,193 759,860 Puuodi. 211,008 124,664 948,416 869,600 886,064 Pouiidi. 42,969,163 88,844,673 60,082,064 68,645,808 66.210,704 Pound!. 49li63 60,960 isn 1858 1864. 1866 Annnal average 124,466,219 66,136,168 2,498,608 407,948 U,353,43S .... * Compiled tnm the monthly " Accounts Kelatlng to Trade and Navigation," presented to t!io British Parliament, the only authority at liand from whlcii the countries whence the cotton exported was imported could be ascertained. Results gathered from these monthly accounts somctlmos vary from tliose given In the "Annual Statement of the Trade and Navi- gation of the United Kingdom," fh>iD which latter documunt was made up the table that follows. Coontri!* to which tiportcd. Pouod! of cotton exported from Great Britain In the year!— Annual areraire. IMl. 1 inti. ISU. 1854. Bnasia 8M 85,472 2,4.84,664 1,576,04t 87,473,0(0 23,119,104 13,866,480 1,34\504 2,742,820 1,366,044 2,647,120 A606,840 8,691,340 674,240 22,472,016 16,834,224 12.657,630 2,226,440 2,288,208 1,957.033 2,324,560 43,937,392 4,414,368 1,143,296 83,417,440 28,676,592 18,466,672 2,403,968 8,860.864 8,880,288 8,418,800 208,5(4 6,364,660 83,444,634 86,055,264 26,934,.'M4 14,0(0,768 2,759,282 8,321,323 4,311,364 6,883,893 82,484,312 4,076.8.'i6 6,709,556 29,364,440 28,891,116 14,506.400 9,lt-8,586 8.165,080 2,991,324 8,448,468 Sweden PmsslB Holland Belgium Frentse SardlnU Austria Other countries Aggregate , 109,766,82t 109,581,186 148,669,680 128,826,112 122,810,688 Statement or Iuport op Cotton in Bairs into Great Brptain, dorino the last Ten Tears. itu. AUanllc New Orleane, TouI Bnull. W. lodlei, K«Tt. Eut Slatei. Mobile, tte. United Statee. and Berblce- ete. Indlea. Total. Liverpool 420,884 987,604 1,603,480 134,443 1,090 6,84( 112,100 279,366 2,142,813 London 207 74 881 820 468 40 99,877 100,936 Bristol ds Hull.. 658 656 OUsgow 6,726 8.991 14,717 644 3,878 16,626 88,765 Total, 1855.... 624,819 994,459 1.623,473 184,763 1,090 T,856 115,018 896,014 2,278,213 " 13.54.... 613,600 1,152,970 1,664,471 107,898 673 8,775 81,036 809,293 2,172,697 " 1863.... 808,787 1,028,276 1,633,068 183,443 673 8,267 106,398 43.5,627 2,264,270 " 1853.... 642,104 1,164,809 1,789,318 144,197 , , ,, 12,530 189,936 221,413 2,867,338 " 1861.... 480,464 918,243 1,393,706 108,721 4,877 67,4.33 823,309 1,90.3,646 " 1880.... 610,248 616,646 1,134,194 171,797 6,640 79,7*J 807,901 1,749,295 " 1849.... 499,260 888,777 1,477,727 163,768 9,114 72,651 182,147 1,906,427 " 1843.... 45t009 678,183 1,875,375 100,201 7,889 29,010 227,613 1,739,997 " 1847.... 274,217 654,489 374,087 110,229 • > >> 4,984 20,729 222,766 1,282,797 , " 1S44.... 348,278 686,828 990,994 84,178 .... 12,998 60,681 166,140 1,248,937 Export and Consumption or Cotton ii> Oreat Britain roR rocR Tears, ■ EXPORT. CONSUMPTION. 1 lits. Urcrpool. 120,800 4,700 200 2,600 104,800 London. Other PorU. .ToUl. 1 ISM. 1 ISU. I im. ms. 1 I8i4. lUl. 1 uu. American. . Brazil West India. l2?{S'Ji.: ToUl 850 80 80 60 83,100 4,760 260 8,660 188,400 187,600 8,200 100 3,000 168,600 176,000 18,100 600 8,400 161,500 168,960 14,800 800 1,000 100,740 1,677,943 114,473 9,086 120,938 276,3()( 1,626,689 100,678 9,177 106,218 207,738 1,408,963 119,818 10,699 119,648 196,687 1,507,766 124,464 9,863 109,005 160,461 384,800 88,406 1 .... 816,900 814,400 849,400 292,300 2,099,293 1,949,827 ! 1,864.610 1,911,664 1 involv Fro water, now procee bales I of the 46,000 eion of on at ( advum of con! to loai larger very : year c; the lat in con! ished 1 2. twofh to Fra ported or ma terms, but th< the nrand ToUl. 2,142,812 100,986 6,W 83,T»5 2,278,2 IS 8,172,B9T 2,2&»,2'0 2,857,833 1,903,540 1,749,295 1,905,427 1,789,997 1,282,797 1,248,987 i68 i 1,507,706 124,464 9,863 109,005 16M61 i;9n,664 c(yr 4M COT BTATunirr or Stock or Oottoh in BmmB Poim, at tub oloii or tuc last aiz Tiau. DfMripUon. lau. ToUl In Iha Unidom. | Uvarpool. liondon. Other PorU. ISM. IIM. lut. 1)51. lUI, ISU. Bealtlud 10,240 1,690 860 10 10,600 1,600 .... .... .... .... .... BUIneddo Upland 84,220 180 880 86,280 811,810 808,870 860,770 946,800 978,900 Mobile ind Alabama. 83,240 880 88,670 .... New Orleana 109,690 8,660 106,140 .... .... .... * . • • Pornarabuco, oto 22,660 • • • • S!2,6«0 • • • • Bahlaand Mocolo 18,440 60 18,600 47,630 49,000 64,6i0 49,600 68,700 21,900 48,290 82,200 140 100 49,640 890 2,680 880 22,000 60,870 182,170 1,080 68^990 202,620 ro^iio i 970,660 102,770 188,210 26',o6o ( 172,000 86,i6o 148,400 Egyptian 8urat and Madras... . Bengal and Manl!Ia... Other dcscrlptiona. , . . Total 8,400 260 .... 8,660 '4,6io 8,040 6,160 1,800 1300 428,810 61,120 0,540 486,470 624,460 717,630 667,620 494,600 622,400 LIVERPOOL COTTON STATEMENT. B«lu. Stock, l»t January, 1865 661,800 Import la 1856 9,149,709 9,694,000 Total quantity told In 1856, as per I a ^^ f^gn weekly rcturni, . f "i"*'-'™' Deduct proportion sold to specu- 1 tqo lan lalora for ro-»ale .....\ ^^^'^ 2,266,200 Stock, l5t January, 1866 428,800 Balu. '''*Mrt UiSm!"!"'"".*?!'."." }2.2«8,200, or 48,662 pr. wk. pn 1864— 2,1U,lbo'or 4bi656 bales per vcck.] Ded. cxp. to Contbent, 228,600 ) » Irclana... 6,800). 284,800 Taken for consumption 2,080,900, or 89,056 pr. wk. [In 1864,.. 1,885,800, or 86,250 " ] LONDON COTTON STATEMENT. Slim. Stock, 1st Januaiy, 1860 62,300 Import In 1856. 101,000 Balei. 188,700 168,800 Stock, Ist January, 1850 51,100 1 Exported to the Continent... 82,600 J " Liverpool ) Taken for consumption In England . . . 19,600 or S7T pr. wk. [InlSM.. 7,600 " 146 '• The above figures show that the past year's con- Bumptiou was double that of 1810. The aggregate production of the past 12 years sums up 37,297,600 bales, while the coDsumption has been 38,212,500 ; the latter being in excess of the former 92r>,000 bales, thug reducing the stock of new material by that much since 1845 — a startling fact in view of the great interests involved. From a reliable source of iutelligenco across the water, we learn that new machinery added to mills now working, together with manufactories now in process of erection, will require in 1857 about 4,000 bales of cotton per week more than the consumption of the present year, making an aggregate of nearly 45,000 bales per week. On the Continent, the exten- Bion of manufacturing power is supposed to be going on at about the same rate. Consequently prices will advance till they reach a point tending to a diminution of consumption. What that point will be we have yet to learn. Though the stocli of cotton, at present, is larger in Liverpool than lust year, it will be reduced very rapidly, as the imports up to tlie close of the year can scarcely be moi« than half so large as during the latter months of 1845, and perhaps not even that, in consequence of the lateness of the season and dimin- ished receipts at our ports. 2. France. — Cotton constitutes in value more than two thirds of the domestic exports of the United States to France, By virtue of the treaty of 1882, it is im- ported, like all other "articles of the growth, produce, or manufacture of the United States," on the same terms, whether in United States or national vessel* ; but the importation must be direct, and the origin of the article duly anthenticated. A minUterial decree of December 17, 1851, enlarges the provision of the treaty relative to the direct voyage, so far as to extend the equality between the vessels of the two nations when importing cotton, even should the American ves- sel touch at a British port ; but, in that case, the cap- tain is required to exhibit a certificate from the French consul at that port, stating that no commercial trans- action there took place. The French government is directing its efforts to the development and extension of the cotton culture in its colonial province of Algeria. To that end, in December, 1863, an aggrgate value of 20,000 francs, in prizes, was offered by the emperor to the most successful cultivator of cotton in that province. The result is announced as most favorable. In De- cember, 1864, the entire sum was divided between three rivals, whose merits were judged equal — two of them being French colonists, and one an Arab — a gold medal to each being also awarded. To the meritorious of the second rank, a silver medal to each was pre- - sented. The amount produced in 1854 was 180,552 pounds. Next to Great Britain, France is the largest importer of American cotton ; and what Liverpool is to the former, Havre is to the latter. At those two points the importations are concentrated, and thence distributed to the different markets of either empire, or re-exported to foreign countries. The re-exportations of France are chiefly to Switzerland by railway ; after which country, in this trade, come Sardinia and Hol- land ; smaller quantities being sent also to Spain, the ZoUverein and other countries. Next to the United States, France derives her supplies of cotton fh)m the levant ; and the third place is held by South America. These facts are illustrated by the following statements, made up from the " Tableau General du Commerce deh France" for the year designated. [The quantities are given in kilogrammes, each kilogramme being equal to about 2 1-5 pounds. Kilogrammes multiplied by 9 and divided by 4 will give pounds.] Tabulab compabativb Statxueht suowino xnK QUAN- TITIBS or COTTOX lui-OKTED INTO FrANOB, AND TUB COUNTRIRS WnENCB ImPORTBD, FOR A PERIOD OF TUBBR Years, rBO«i 1862 to 1855, botu inclusive. CouDirifli wheocs imported. United Sutes.. Egypt Turkey England Belgium Brazil Peru Yenciuola Hayti East India's.... Elsewhere Aggregate... Kilogramme* of cotton imported Into France In the yesra — 76,104,464 4,882,.^75 1,027,887 088,907 831,074 418,563 168,710 816,9%3 76,697 47,955 898,091 18iS. IBM. 79,881,785 4,831,872 1,871,289 890,822 608,449 280,818 169,686 104,510 6,674 191,029 88,989,822 88,065,022 84,666,028 77,746,470 8,601,827 876,884 1,647,994 876,860 127,912 289,688 68,064 77,165 188,049 206,569 The only country in Europe which can, in any sense, be said to compete with Great Britain in the supply of the extra European demand for cotton goods is France. And when the character and extent of this branch of the French export trade are described it will be seen that this most formidable rival is not yet much to be dreaded. ^'■V COT 456 COT Tabulae noiiPAiATiTi Btatihikt uuiaiTiiio thi Qvantitixs or Cottom ihvobtid into Fhahoi noa nn I'mTro Ktatii. ahr riou otiikb Codntsiiib, imiLUDiNa Ubazil, with TIM Aa,4U2,(NI0 12,1172,(100 8,I68.IK)0 I2,2>>l,000 11,213,000 9,69.1.0110 7,804.000 6,758,0,10 6,906.000 6,110,000 (1,461,000 6,268,000 0,701. mio 6.1)48.000 6,4:i7,(KIO 7,(MI4,00O 7,B61,»00 AfinfiU. Klloiruu. 2(1,203.000 22,687,000 21,672,000 20,364.000 28,030,000 24,667,000 31,914,000 20,084,000 27,876,000 31,839,000 20,2(10,000 28 220,000 32.036,000 86.610,000 36.039,000 88,7(10.(100 44,113'.00O 48.880.000 18.18, 1839. 184(1. 1841. 1842. 1»13. 18«,|. I84A. 1846. 1847. 1848. 1849, ISM. 1861. lS.Vi, 1863. 1S64 1860 rijm ^nlUdJllaUr Kllofram*. 48,7h(l,O0O 84.882,000 48,6S1,(«]0 BO.860,000 62,B3.',0OO 66,136,000 61,241,000 66,612,000 60,700,000 42,226,000 43,24:i,OllO 60,931,000 61.9I9,0.(NI0 6.7(12.000 4 301.0(10 6.f/20.(»10 4 UII6.00II 3.8. r>.0 4,0^3 IWIO 4,11(1,000 8,4117,000 3.ili7.(HI(l l.MKi 000 8.2:i,'l,0(l() 4. 47.()(>0 4 67(l.(l(iO 6.329.(H» 4.87(1,0(10 4.141,(100 4,24l,(KIO Ac(n|>la. KliiMrramt. &1.2.'>il,(iOO 40.611 (.100 6.',I42.0(K( K> 870,000 67,827.0(10 00.000,(00 r)8,.'-02.ooo (10.71 8 Olio (14,2i7,«00 46 1>:22.0(;0 14.U(i9,IMI0 04,164,(KIO 69,46(1,000 68,484.000 72.069,000 76,0111,0(10 71,604.000 76.188,000 From the forcgoinfr tal>1c it will be seen that the importaliun of cotton into Franco from other countricii than the United States, including Itrnzll, IVom 1820 to 1855, Imn fallen off more than 50 per cent. ; while from the U. States it has increased more than COO per cent. The French tariff in 1858 imposed Ave diflcrcnt rates of duty on raw cotton imported in French vessels, according to where it came from ; and three other rates of duty, similarly distinguished, on cotton imported in foreign vessels. The duty most extensively operative — that on Anicrican cotton entering in French bottoms — was 20 francs per 100 kilograms, or about sixteen shilling.^ per 220 pounds. And as the whole quantity imported (75,0'J1,000 kilograms) yielded to the revenue r(',27C,000 francs, giving an average of 22'2B francs per 100 kilograms, it is probable that by far the greater part of what was imported actually paid this rate of duty. The bounty on exportation was 25 francs per 100 kilograms of manufactures or yam. It was allowed in 1853 on 7,117,864 kilograms of manufacture and on 198,601 kilograms of yarn. This, with a moderate al- lowance for waste of the raw material, though called a bounty, could in effect have been little, if at all, rasre than a drawback of the import duty. It would seem that the French exports in this kind are not more than a tenth in value of our own. .And where were they sent, and why ? Tlio largest custom- er for these French manufacturers (taking two parts in seven of the whole value) was Algeria; but Algerian consumption may be deemed practically French con- sumption. The two customers next on the list, when arranged in order of magnitude, are the United States and the United Kingdom. These took between them two other seventh parts of the whole. And the goO(.Is sold in the English and American markets are well known to owe their peculiar value rather to the de- signer and the dyer than to the spinntr and weaver. Their consumption does not admit of any very rapid or wide increase. French taste and French chemistry have deservedly won for the French textile fabrics, wherever they arc applicable, a- superiority as well knc n as it is incontestable. But this has little efTect in determining the locality of the cotton manufacture of the whole. With a few trifling exceptions, of which cotton laco imported from Uelgium is the only one w orlhy of notice, no cotton foreign manufactures were in 1853 admitted to French consumption. The following table will show the exports of cotton to France for six years, ending with June 30, 1856, and the value ; as also the total value of domestic ex- ports to Franco during the said years, respectively. Ytmn. PolUKlf. v.lu.. To(«l v>lu< (lonitilic Kxpurtt. I860 1.6,.s84.(,9l $l4.tll>.\44» 1(117,1 1)0,277 1851 139.164,671 18,1':4,6I2 26.1102.(»-6 1,862 186,214,270 in.J!18r80 22.190.070 la.'iS 18:i.2J0,913 19.248.070 21), 120.806 1864 144,4288(10 14.632,712 BO.068,262 1855 210,113.8(19 ll',086.42;i 81,623.81'8 French ofiicial documents furnish the following facts relative tc our cotton trade with that empire. Ity the custom-house returns for 1855, it appears that there were received for the following years from all countries: i:«» 168 400,000 pounds. 1,863 Itin.OdO.OOO " 18»» 11,7,620,000 " 1866 167,2{K),(10O " The following table shows the quantities of cotton imported into Havre from all countries for a period of four years, ending with 1855 : Ve»n. Prom tli« Unlltil SlXea. From Brud. Prom «lFewh«r«. Total. isf)a 1863 18.',4 1S66 BulM. 874,900 374,61)0 411,000 406.601) BllM. 6000 28(10 2000 2600 Bnln. 14.400 12,200 12,000 9. 01)0 BaleB. 396 300 88;».50() 42.-..000 418.100 TaDLB BIIOWIMO THE CjU.VNTI'l'lEB Oir I OTTOS RK(^EIVF.II AT TUB OTIIBR TORTH OV Fh\NHICO>IIIIIU TADM,] OouUriai to wUok •iporUd. Kllofrmaunw of coltM «ipor1«d tium ¥nuu0 In th« yu«rt— IWf. lUI. 1 104, 1 SwItnrUncI Matherltncla. Bardlnl* 7,oy»,M7 1,709,004 l,fi64,8M 108,408 110,6M 17,6S» 1,14«,PM 7l<7a 318,868 48,016 74,018 7,OIW,0M 8|)7,»Ba 18tMI81 188,686 S1»,8I0 m,u6i 61,17» 18,488 80,484 TT,'iKI« 6H,TM IIuisoTowna Austria Entftaiid litigluin Hpaln Tuflcanv £Iaewhore Aggregate 19,177,086 t,S7l,84u HjrmfiM COHrAKATITI TABDLAS STATIMIMT •IIDWIIIU Til* ({VAN TiTin or Cotton consdhko in Fkanui, anu thm CoUNTEin WIICNRK IMPOIITltD, rol A PKHIOII Or TH8R8 YiAU, rBOH ISSii TO 18&4, botu iMOLiiaivi, CoantH«« whsne* imported. United SUtva.. Egypt Turkey England BelglUDi Brazil Peru Voneznola Haytl Kaat iDdlea,,,, Elaowbere Aggregate. KllograjniiMs of flnlton eomuoud la 9i»m» tn Ui* yMrt — 1854. MM. «7,4MAlN 'i,H|it,MA Ml,ftll lT0,(t«4 8»S,IT6 10A,MI| m,4l4 141,181 TABnLAR COMrARATIVa 8TATRMRNT SIIOWINU TIIK QlUM' TITIRS or COTTUM WHICH PAIURO in TRANaiT TIIHUIIUH FllANOR, WITH THE CuUNTRIRa WHENCE IT C41III, Atill WHITHER IT WENT, EESPECTIVKLY, DISTINIIUiaillkO TIIK Quantities to and rRuM each. roR the I'KUion or . THKRE Years, rno» 1S92 to 1S54, both iNOLvaivii, 60,740,104 2,764.662 970,818 8,066 281.074 482,809 144,184 206,688 47,860 906,968 981,448 72,068,961 im», 70,WO,76a 2,401,407 744,881 8,442 661,066 966,460 210,077 161,609 70,680 968,874 176,987 7^091,2SS YMTf, Coontrlai wheiw«, QiwnUti«F« CimiitrWwhIthir. giwatilUf. 1862 1868 1854 United atstes, England Egypt Elsewhere..., Aggregate.. United States. England Egypt, Elsowliere Aggregate.., United States, England Eitypt Elsowliere Aggregate.. . KUo<. 6,060,467 1,266,630 1,028.128 266,810 7,607,684 4,800,»123 761.19!) 1,822,872 02,17 3 T,476,orr 4,628,826 1,402,872 S.'M.I.'iO 886,698 7,297,641 Bwltiorland. . , Sardinia Zollvcreln..., Elsewhere..., Aggregate.. , Swttterland. . , Sardinia Zullvereln.. . Oolglum ...... Aggregate,;, Switzerland... Sardinia Zollvcrein Elsewhere.... Aggregate.. Kllix, 7,M7,»9r iiw,nm 106,079 18,618 7,6rt7W 7,Oii«.OI4 107,11ft 102,770 70,26!) i.mM 6,601.926 266,887 878,660 66,770 7,997,IHt 3, Spain. — Tabular comparative statemont, nhuwliij; the quantities of cotton imported into Spain, unil tlio countries whence imported, for a period of Hve yaata, from 1851 to 1855, Irath inclusive. Tlie statistical office has no official Spanish data from which to inal(e up {he statement required. The quantities of cotton exported from the United States to Spain, according to United States' Treanury reports, the year specified, were as follows : PoiiinN, , Pouiu)*. 1851 84,272,626 1854. 86,IW4,074 1862 29,801,928 1865. 8!t,07l,79B 1S68. 86,861,042 || Average (6 years) 88,7114,21)',) Prom Culia, the same years, according to Dalaiim* Generalea of tliat island, the quantities exported to Spain were as follows Pdui^iI*. 1854 1,480 1888 NodaU), Average (4 years) . 1 )il,4!l» Pmindl. 18.M 18,416 1852 800,295 1868 188,625 From Porto Rico, according to official Ualauziw of that island, as follows Poundt. 1851 816,088 1869 141,807 tSSS 94^869 PoilWl*. 18M Nod»t», 1885 Nodata, Avtrrsc* yean) . 984,147 l«M M,,,, M..,, Vnm IImmII, fHieurdlng to the Propoita » Rtlatario lit (tml •iii|rlrf , for tii« yeari 1869-'!), and lHr>I>-'4, the i(Maii(lll«a of notion exported to Spain were as foilowa : PltvnAM. II P.itinda. l,WMyt8 ATsnue (9 years). 2,821,498 Hpnln, tMMMirilInK to the 6'uAdrv f7nKni/ of that king- dom fur IMtV, IttipnrttHi that year, from countries of pro- i1ut>limi,!lll.tllf1,MI {Kiiinds of cotton ; of which quantity (ll* DlilMol NUt«a mipplled 21,(H)9,4-il pounds ; Culia, n,l(7l,NW) iniiiimIs ) llrntil, Ha';,«U4 pounds ; I'orto Klco, llT'liNNI luilifidii, «lii1 Venejiiiela 21,1)10 pounds. 4, lliitif '/'//i/(»*,_Tlie states of Germany are sup. pllwl with tliH I'ottfin rimsiimeii( lii lit yniM, The number of spindles in o|)era- twifi III (Im slNtPS (lomtioslng the ZoUverein is estimated 8t MiiWHnl of 1,110)1,1810. This Is, doubtless, an under HulllilHtii, H» thfi Industrial enterprise of the ZoUvorain liDM MlNiln rNplil progress since the date of the official itiiiiMlllKiil. froiii wllh'li these figures are derived. Tha uKport of I'ottoii tissues from the Zollvereln in 1853 WMIimilUit lit value to 13,31)4,497 84, of which amount 4l./,ll7A,2lli> IM lit vnlile came from the factories of Httwiiiy, 'fllN \\m tli» »t«l«s lit tile Oermanic commercial Union, Wtsnim »n\mHi^ uf Ainprlrnn cotton and tobacco to these poliitit »n ll88Vy, Mud constantly increasing. These (ioiiiiiit|ii| i<|tt«s receive their snpplies of raw cotton not only from tim United States, Indirect trade, as well MS from ttl'8i«ll Nhil (itlier countries of South America, but nImi In lli« Indirect trade from English ports and otlmr Utttnuillln of Kiirope, In 1855, the ZoUverein sent throu^;!) tin* llMn.xe (sirts to the United States cotton fiilirlw til (ll« V8l(W of more than $1,600,000 in return fur (Im mw i)iiit«rtMl. Tl)« folliming statement shows the quantities of cot- toil DKiioHwl friim tlie United States to the Hanse TiiWDS (tvury lo yews, for • period of 61 years, from IM06 to im I 1W,0t4T»(i>T (NiiOlNit tN« (JvaRTtna or Oottoii iironio to omtain Oovitnin or NokTniRN KuMom, nuiH Tit* Vnniiu IHum jtnu tiiiM Biitiiw, iMrmiTiLT, roa a Piiiod or tiibu Yeam, rauM l*tU TO liM, mriit miii.iittrii, O..M.tai. riifiM Tfta I'urriD triTM. raoM ■■■*? MirrAiH. | IMI. mil. Pi d<. IIM4. IMI. im. IU4. P..HniU. I',...nd.'. i'uuniU. ■■. lUuMTiWIMtM I'fWMto JUTI.fH 87,719,931 gl<,l«l,«fl« B4,BflO,7B(I B9,4I»,KHS 8«i«i»iii »t,lM,*»0 1A,4»4,'US 18,»HO,4fiO ia,«,%7,(Wo lM»,K4l> 4N,eH7,8M kM <,MH,1«6 l^N»4,n4 9)*,l)7ll,fi«« 8^9A4,^44 •wtuan Mil Uotmtf, ,,,„ «,nw,M7 9,«13.7I» H,MI,S«I 4,414,808 S,8(MI,IWI0 ^Wl»» IW,')7M11 lllO,MW,MU iilft,()W.7lt« ft. Htlffium.—MiiH lit llt« vMtim imfHirUti Into ll«l- gium U fruiii tJM DiiIImI HtitU*, mihI Ik ('(rniiimeil hy har own htturlw* «( lilioMt, l.l'K". Antwerp, Mullnei (Mecliliu), aU',, wliU'll *r« m1|)*|iM(«, TImi TMmu Oen^rat of UalKiuui fur INA'l glvN* tlln lin(iwrliilbm of vuttnn Into that kln|{(luni «« fulliiwi I BTATiunar kiiiihitivu tun ((I'AKti'hMi iir IkmoK lu- ruHTKIl mt't itNliiMIN tM llin(1i« ttura conaum- nd, nnd 7,(HU,t«33 aviNirtad, Tlie i|iiuntitv tiii|ii(rtA!t t.onni1a, Of the i|uaiitlty a«|«)rt«il, «),tMi,IHth pauniU wia bv land and riven, »n4 tH),MfiH \nimiiU l/y imit, I'ruul* rwsailvtwv ()>)' land MHt rivi.fl>), . , . , Vraneo '• •» '*..., Ilolland " « » ,,,, And all oUu/ noHntrM mifiiiinf (bf mm 4«a.fi»« 184,118 Tuial by laud mid rir«r» and I// wa... . J,o»4,n98« The cutuin tliua a»purt«4 wna lin|Kirt«(l as fullowa : _ I'dllfKl*. •' From ITnlMifaW,,,.,,,,.,,, .,,.,,.,,, ft,ftS(i,W7 " Knalaiid, ,,.,,,,.,,.,,,.,,,,,, Mi?,M» " l/oliaiid.,, ,,..,,,.„„.. ...I.... ... tcVAA " Franan,, ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,,,,, 4,999 ToI»I.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,..,,"t,(1»4/iM The average annnal atwrnnt iif dutl^fi dfrlred hj Belgium from i:itlUm fiir t\m iWn ymrn ending with 1854 wua upward of (tHI.IHm, and, In tlln latter year, It raniced the tliirteentli hiimiiik artiidoq lin|Hirteil'ln tliin regard. Tlie duty Miidur tlin Uw iiCf miliary fll, 1862, was 1 franu 7U uentliMM iMr tW |«iiindi<, lly the law uf April Vi, W>4, luitUiu IwnaMiH rr««, In 18»4, ItelgluiH v^ntttmi MfttMtt faliflcn In value aa foUowa I Cotton fchrlaa.,.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,. H,701,B7J Belgian iiiauufiwitur*; ■,,,,,,,,,,,,,..., Foreign niaauAi«(lirii*rii'fX(i«rt«(!l..., |3,0flS,9M 6. ;$ar(/iflia.— Hardilli* im)iiirt«, m an average, aome four or five inlllioii |iiHiMd4 nt I'liHim each year from England and Franea, »im1 almlit (lie mnw ({iiantity from tiie United htatevj «ltlioil(jll, in Wif), the Impnrtfithm from tha latter (Miuiitry iiHi1ili,a72 pounda tlie precedlriii J'nar t pound* I There eeems no «wNli'l«(it rfHmm Why American vea- »eU should nut mnvty tlia wlioto iiuantlty re(|uireHm«>i'«' between porta of the IJniteit HMSos and thiiw of (lin MedlterrHnenn will, if successful, t«(>d Kraatly Ui fttcourage, If nut to secure, auch direct importattim. • TliU i».«q etcet» ittUjUHI ptmiiiil evef the amount glTon above as exportud, that i)H«iitfty Utning li««n entered for eon< aumptiou dm iuh««i|iMHll)' wKMnHTS. 7. Sicilzrrland.—Vour flftha of all the cotton con- sumed liy the factories of Switzerland is estimnted to lie im|H>rted at Havre, whence it passoa through Franca by railway, being burd^^ned with heavy chargca in the transit. In 183!l, the quantity thus recelv d amounted to nearly fi,(IOO,IM)0 pounds. In 1H43 it hud reached nearly 17,000,000 pounda. The entire receipt of cotton in 184;) was 2-2,000,000 pounds. In IHAI it omounted to !i7,0».5,72r> pounds, of which ll),721),n20 pounds were from the United States. In 1852, Switz- erland received through France 15,816,775 [lonnds ; in 1853, 16,816,471) pounds, and in 18,'>4. 14,078,257 |iounda, according to the Tableau (Unfral OOT 460 OOT l,lHi.^2^K) i8,441,83l) gent to the the late war, empire was The mim- ing annually yarns. The tu Btimulatos the article of itaple of ex- ler merchan- ide was suiv ain; hut the md hence the y. TUus the raw material, ities of cotton raw cotton •Anlttcd, M in KngUnd, firm of (Inty, the United States would, moiit prohtbly, lupply, In the direct trai'e, the whole quantity connumed in that empire. As It i», the rommerclul reforms In Kiissia, already an- nounced ofltcinlly, and now In progress, comprehend- ing, as they do, the establUhment of American houses at 8t, Petersliurg, must necessarily tend to that re- ■ult. There are at present In Kussia, or there were previously to the war, 41)6 cotton factories, employing 112,427 operatives, and protlucing annually 4(),lK)7,7IWt pounds of yams, and corresponding amounts of textiles, 9. Swtdtn. — The Importations of cotton in 1851, according to Swedish ufllciai authorities, amount to 7,08(),42H1 lbs. against 1 ,8»2,4II1 Il>s. In 18 11 , and 74U,4S4 pounds In 1881. In 184H, these authorities show an Im- portation of 2,U00,l)OO pounds against 0,88N,A72 pounds in 185!) ; which latter amount exceeded that of the im- portation of 1862 by 1,247,041 pounds, and that of 1850 by more than 5,200,000 pounds, being the largest of any preceding year. In 1848 the amount was 8,074,020 pounds. The value of cotton manufactures exported from Sweden in 1850 was (46,000 against $7,500 only In 1851. 10. Portugal. — In the year 1855, the quantity of raw manufactured cotton imported Into Oporto amounted to 0,607,454 pounds, the value of which Is estimated at $1,516,644, on which the duty paid was $800,579 13. This kingdom imported 1,011,45! poimiN of cotton in 1855, of which quantity 144,006 pounds were exported firom the United States, and the residue from Itrazil. In 1858-54, according to Uruzllian official reports, Por- tugal received thence 2,07»,760 pounds of cotton. Hjr imports of yam in 1855 were 1,218,157 pounds, valued at #171,817 07, and paying an aggregate of duties of $61,142 84. 11. Brazil. — The expottatlons of cotton trom Brazil, in 1848-44 and 1858-54, are stated by Brazilian official authorities as follows : Pound*. ISaS—ftl 28,420,820 184»-4» 20,050,1(10 Increase la ten years 3,g01,lC0 The growth and export of cotton from Brazil appear to be nearly stutlonary. Great Britain, which is the largest customer, imported from Brazil the following quantities : In 1828 32,600,000 pounds. InlSfiS 22,S24,0fl0 " In 1852-53 the exportation amounted to 31,983,050 pounds, of which quantity Great Britain received 26,881,201 pounds, Spain 2,291,578 |)ounds, Portugal 1,896,286 pounds, and France 889,048 pounds. Of the total exportations in 1853-54, Great Britain received 22,576,122 pounds, Spain 2,351,279 jmunds, Portugal 2,673,766 pounds, and France, 643,611 pounds. Ex- ports from Brazil to England began in 1781. There are insuperable drawi)acks to the extension of the cot- ton culture In Brazil, among which may be reckoned the ravages of insects, the peculiarities of the climatj, and tiie expense and difficulties attendant upon its transmission from the interior to the coast. It has long since been ascertained in Brazil that the cotton plant will not flourisli near to the sou, und the planta- tions have, in consequence, receded further inland, as well to avoid tiiis difficulty as to seek now and i''esli lands. Pernamliuco is the principal cotton-growing province of Brazil. The exports from that provmce were, according to Brazilian uuthoritios, in Bnlai (or 160 lb>. rich).' 182.^ 70,78,'. 1930 0I,1,^2 Uale<(ofl>OIbi. ga>'h), 1S40 W,S49 1842 21,867 1845 26,502 1885 62,142 12, Kgypt. — The cotton culture in Egypt Cvmraenccd in 1818, and exportation to England in 1823, The comparative tabular statement subjoined, derived from Egyptian sources, showing the quantities exported at the port of Alexandria, and tlie countries to which ex- ported, respectively, for a period of 3 years, from 1853 to 11)65, both InoInalTe, would Indicate an Inereai* (■ the culture by no means rapid In successive years i TouiMla of Cultttn «t|N)rtiid from K^fypl to Ur»«l Brllnln.t _l'rtn't. j _ AiiiiHa, lOjiO.OOol 8,H21,0I «635»,l»00 lO.TW.OOol 8,H21,000 J4,»fW,T0O T,4M,li)0 lo,lM,*KI 88,»8n,UM) 11,461,200 M,iJ(w,7oo;2r,«ii,Hoo I2,7T4,»0'I 2»,20t,10O 9*«,4A2,IN)0| »,2l(l,a00 P,7&8,T(HI I KlM.KH) 2iNH,4y Mehemet All are, it Is stated, going rapidly to ruin. The cotton goods manufactured are coarse " caftas," or soldiers' " nizam" uniform. Much cotton is used, also, in making up divans, the usual furniture In Egypt. The Egyptian bale is estimated at Alexandria at 800 pounds. The United States' consul general at that port, In a despatch dated the 1st Instant, from which are derived the ul)Ove facts, says: "The new crop Is now coming in, and is supposed to be a little above the average," 13, Co(/on Culture m Mexico. — The United States' consul at Tampico has furnished the following interest- ing Information, In rclatl,)n to the varieties, culturej and manufacture of cotton in Mexico, in answer to a circular issued by the Commissioner of Patents in Feb- ruary last : " Tlie greatest production in this country of this article is on the coast of Vera Cruz, and south- ward from the capital of the State of that name toward Alvarudo, and westward toward Flacotalpan and in Its neighborhood, A little over seventy-live pounds of seed cotton yields, when ginned, twonty-flve pounds of cotton wool. The quality is good, and tlie whole is sent up tlio country for consumption In the factories of Jalapa, Orizc'ia, and Puebla, From Vera Cruz to Matamoras, notwithstanding the territory being so ex- tensive, and BO admirably adapted for the growtli of cot- ton, nv/ne is proorhood of Matamoras cotton is raised, l.'ut in limited ' quantities, and Is also cultivated in Monclova. One hundred pounds of seed are required to produce twenty- live pounds of clean cotton. All that is produced in these places is consumed in the fuctores of Saltilto. " On the west coast mention may be made of Santi- ago, a place situated between Teplc and Mazatlun, where a considerable quantity is rai: vl, wiiich is dis- posed of by the factories of Topic. F'ui licr south, and between tlie towns cf Antlin and Colima, aud down- ward toward the sea, a very rich cotto'r country is to be seen, and where immense quuntitie'i could be raised were tiiere more hands to attend to its cultivation ; as it is, however, sufficient is gathered for the supply of the factories of Colima, and some of it even finds its way to Guadalajara, the capital of tii t State of Jalisco, " From Colima, a stretch must be made to the neigli- liorhood of Acapuico, where cotton 's raised, but by no means in abundance ; but all that is gutliurcd in that section of the country is sent tq^ho market at tlio city of Mexico. That part of the country is called ' Costa Grande,' and is separated from the ' Costu Cliicu' by tho river Papagayo. On the latter, and in the nelgh- borhoml of Ayutla, cotton Is raised, but in limited quantities, and sent to Puebla for sale. The cotton on tho whole of this coast only requires seventy-five pounds of seed to produce twenty-five pounds of cotton- wool when ginned. The whole of the east, as well as COT 460 COT lh*l of lh« wad ooul, for ahoat 40 U*((imi Inland, li uilmirohly adapUd Air lb* Kruwth of mtlnn. Tba miintr)' i>, howarar, entirely unpf. Tb«ra ara very f«w Und«d pniprlatora wbo davota Ibair attantlon tii tha cultivation nf cotton, axcepi on tha coait of Vvrit (,'rui. All lb* rait U raUad by imall farman (raucbeMii) wbo ara runtrnt to gxt about ona half the anuiunt uf Ita valuti. .Such paymrntn ara niadn in a fuw gim\» and gnK'ertea, In anticipation for wblib they ar» cbnrKi'd axorliitani pricct. An axpt'TiniKnt bua Iwrn niada to ralaa cotton on a farm aliout 12 laaKuaa firoin Hnn LuU Potoai, betwaan 6 and 7 tlmunand fw t above the leval of tba aen, and tba raault ha* lioan favorulda. An en- larpriaing Hpanlard Ir now raialnK cotton S taaguca trom Tula, with evary pro«|iert of a lutUfactory ratum. ilU farm li aliout 4.'i(H) or AIKX) feat aliove tha laval of the Ma. No cnro la bcntowod on tliu plant, Tba •eed in put into the ground, and no further notice la taken of it until It la quite rl|ie and ready for pIvkinK. The conaequence ii, thai the atnple la not ao Umft, nor the cotton Tnry One, althflui;h quite good enough for the manufuotoriea of tliia country. The growth of cotton throughout Mexico la perennial." V. CAPArtTT or TUB CoTTOw Balh. — Thn com- mercial atandard of quantity In the cotton trade la gen- erally the hale. The weight of tbn bale, however, ia liy no means uniform. Indee-ptian, 218 pounds ; for East Indian, 360 pounds ; and for West Indian 280 pounds ; while, according to Bums, boles imported Into France were computed at only 200 pounds each. Woterston's Manual of Commerce, a reliable British publication (1866), gives the Virginia, Carolina, Georgia, and West Indian bale at 800 to BIO poands ; that of New Orleans and Alabama at 400 tQ 600 pounds; East Indies at 320 to 360 pounds; Brazil at 160 to 200 pounds ; Egyptian at 180 to 280 pounds. Alexander's Unirerml Dictionary of Weights and Meaiuret gives the bale of Alabama, Loaislana, and Mississippi at 600 pounds, that of Georgia at 376 pounds, and that of South Carolina at 362 pounda. At Rio de Janeiro the Brazil bale is estimated at 160 pounds. Prior lo 1866, the Unllad Htataa' "Commaraaattd Navigation" gave axptirta ot cuttoo In pounds uuly. They ara luiw given In balea aa wall aa in puunUa— iba aggregate amount of tha year ending June IK), 1(66, Iwlng •i;M)n,UrA balaa, or 1,008,424,601 poun'U: tha bale, ai'uordiogly, averaging about 438 pounda. Soma liolet, however, ara avIdanUy much haavlar, and soma much lighter tlian this. For example, tba 210,118,800 pounila of cotton exported to Franca give 446 pounils to eai'h of tba 470,208 iialea ; rnd ttia tfAu,lU pounda (!X|M>rted to Auslrbi give 4U2 ,i wl. la ll« CoaUMllnev.n. Mobile not M New Orleans. 4M M llplanil 8t<> H Hualilanil 8118 ft Kiutlnillan 8X8 IB KiryplUn S4B H Wi^at Inillsn Illll 16 BrailUaa IM ST Tliese figures sliow nut only tba great variety of bales that enter Liverpool, but that tlia moat ellgilila fonn of bale is tiuit of tba VmkI Indies — double tba weight lii'Ing packed within the same compass as In any other description of bole. In the great cotton marts of Liverpool and Havre, as in tbuse of New Orleans and ilobile, the article ia almost invariably treated of by merchants, brokers, and commercial men, by the bale. Thus, a report on the trade of Liv- erpool gives tha import of cotton Into Great Britain, in 18,'ri, ut 2,367,3:18 liulea. The aggregate of cotton im- imrted in that year ia given in tiieofllciol report liy the Board of Trade, at !I20,782,448 pounds ; the boles aver- aging, accurdiiigiy, 3'J.'i jKiunds each. Cotton Manufacture, This subject will be considered under the general heads of, I. Origin and Introduction, II. Invention and Improvements. III. Cotton Manufactures of Foreign Countries. IV. Sta- tistics of ('ottun Manufacture. V. Origin and Eurly History of Cotton Manufactures in America. VI. Cotton Manufacture in the United States. I. OiiiiiiN ANO Intuuuui.'tion. — The nuinufacture of cotton had its origin in the East, where thn cotton plant Is indigenous, and where the cllmato renders a light and absorbent fabric a suitable cloth- ing for the people. It haa in conaequence been long estalilished over every part of Asia, although it was only In India that tlie fuliric was manufactured extensively, with a view to foreign exchange. Arrian mentions cotton cloth among the commoditiex which tlie Komans brought from India ; but the <|U»ntlty Imported by tliem was inconsiderable, ariaing from tlio preference wliich they gave to woolen clothing. Dr. Koliertson remarks, that the difference between the cargoes Imported from India in ancient and in modem times appears to have orlaen, not from any diversity in the nature of the goods prepared for sale in that country, but from variety In the tastes or in tlie wants of the nations with which they hove succcsulvely traded. The antiquity of the manufacture of cotton can not be reached by ony authentic records. Neitlicr wool, silk, nor linen, can claim a higher antiquity. One tiling is pretty certain, that its first manufacture may be traced to India, whence it passed to all the rest of the world. India, indeed, bos been tlio soune of many of the arts of civilized life. It was, in oil probability, the cradle of mankind, and the source of As&yrion, Egyptian, and Persian civilizotion. The Indians have in all ages maintained an unap- proached and almost incredible perfection in their fab- rics of cotton. Indeed, some of their muslins might be thought the work of foiriea or insecta rather than of OOT iil COT s s 97 mM I bat IkM* tr* priN|iiM/| In MiMn (|il*ntl(lM, uid ••Mom have liMn ••|»ir(«'« "t IiiclU frrini whli'li lli« •iii'lunl (tt—kt iilr{«lni«l iIjc lliii>y two Mnhiminwlitn lni««li-r«. " ho want til IikIIh In Hid Ml) iwntiify, llmt "In Ihst ' in- try lh»y iniiliH Karni*nt« iit aiiiili ••tr«f»- dally Maaull|ialani, a* iiriHlui'lnK " Ilia Hnaat and moat iMtutirul I'litttma tllat ara In Iw fiiiind In any part of tli« wnrlil i" aiu! IliU U •till Ilia i<»«« M In Ilia llar- niitted tu trana|N>rt It, for tha Kovarnor la olili)(ad to ■end it all to tlia IJrual MoKiil'a aarnKllo nnd tha prin- cipiil Ionia of tha court, to iniika Ilia aiiitnnnaaea nnd nolili'inen'a wivua' ahifta ami (("'"■'''it* f"f thn hot weutiier. And tliu kini{ and Ilia lorda Inkn Krant plaai- uro tu liehold them in lliaaa, and Mia lh«ni dnnce with notbInK elae ugxin Ilium," H|Ki'lolli ty tha Indiana in the illlferent proceaaes of tha cotton manufacture, from tha cleaning of tha wool to lla conversion into thn tlnast niualin, may Iw purchasad for the value of a few •hilllnK", ami ara ao riida nnd ainipla a conatrucllon as to Im aviilciitiy Iha Invention of a very early pariiMl. With the excep. lion of tha loom, none of them drserve the name of • machine, or display tha allKhtaat mechanical hiKcnu- liy. They spin Iha ynm U|Km the dlatalT) and yet, with nil the advantage* which we in this Muiilry ileriv* fhim machinery, we bavo only recently linen able to equal, either in rineneas or quality, the yarn which U produ<»d by means of Ibis primitive Inatruiiient. Tli« well managed use of the llng>ir nnd tbunili of the In- dian spinner, pntienlly and carefully iippllcd In tba formation of the thread, ami the moisture nt tlio sama lima commiinlciitnil to It, are found to have the effect of Incorporating the llbrns of the cotton inore (lerfectiy than cnn lin aceompllsbed by our most Improved mo- hliiHs. The loom is composed of n fiiw sticks or reeds, which the Inillun carries about with bim, and puts up In lb* Ileitis under tlin shade of n tree, or at the side of bll cottage. He digs a hole large enough to contain hia legs nnd the lower pnrt of the " gear," and fastens tha balance to some convennint brunch over-head. Two loops underneath the gner. In whU'h be Inserts hit great toes, serve ns trndles : and he employs the shut- tle, formed like a large netting-needle, but of u length somewhat exceeding the breadth of the cloth, as " bat- toon," using it alternately to draw through the weft and strike It up. The reod Is the only part of tha weaving apparatus which approaches. In the perfection of lis construction, to the Instruments we use. The loom has no beam, and the warp is laid out U|ioii the gniuiid the whole length of the piece of clolh. Thn wnaven live entirely in villages, as they could not, if shut up in towns, work In this manner. Upon this rude ma- chine, worked in the way wo have mentioned, the In- dians produce these muslins, which have long been such objects of curiosity from the exquisite beauty and flneners of tlicli' texture. It is probable that the whole of the tmplcmenta which wo have Just described existed ns wn now find thnm before the people of India were divided Into castes. The transmission of the same employment from father t.> son (which, although not specially en- Joined by the Hindoo code. Is the invariable practice in India), wbllo It has the effect of conveying unlm- paired the knowledge acquired In any art, tends to check its further advancement. It is the opinion of Mr. Rickanis, who so ably ndvocateil the interests of the natives of India In the discussion in the British Tarllament on the renewal of the Company's charter (1814), that Inttoriy this form of society, with all its dependencies, hublts, and restraints, has been held to- gether chietly by the oppression of the fiscal exactions, the want of a free trade, and the consequent nniversal poverty of the people. In support of this opinion, ha refers to what the Hindoo population of Calcutta and Bombay have achieved in the pursuits of comiperce. We tnist, however, that we may now look forward to the speedy alking a web, ho supports his family by agricultural labor. It thus happened, that in pro- portion as the demand for goods for export declined, the natives, without difficulty, and without that dis- tress which generally attends a change of employment in other countries, were able to direct their attention more and more to agriculture ; and the result has hith- erto been rather an improvement in their condition ttun otherwise. The cotton manufacture of China is of immense amount, and is carried on almost entirely for home coniumption ; but its origin is not of the same remote date as that of India. Indeed, the lateness of its rise, and tho slowness of its progress, in a situation so fa- vorable, iipjiear extraorJinary. In the accounts of tho revenues and of the arts in China during the period of tho celebrated dynasty, which commenced about 1100 years before tlie Christian era, and lasted for some centuries, no mention is made of the cotton plant J nor, indeed, is there any notice of cotton in these records until about '200 years before the Cliris- tian era ; from which period to the sixth century, tho cotton cloth, which was cither paid in tribute, or of- fered in presents to the emperors, is always mentioned as a thing rare and precious. The cotton-tree was introduced into China at tho time of the conquest of that country by the Slogul Tartars, in the year 1280 ; after which period every encouragement was given by government to tho cul- ture and manufacture of cotton. But there were con- siderable difficulties to be encountered, In the preju- lOr Coil lb. p«rlb. . Kill, 1815, 1«30 8M. ■nd 1854. il. 1. A. 4 8 7 H 6 «* 9 8 1 la 4 16 5 85 n T 45 1 84 » COT 468 COT dices of the people, and In the opposition of those engaged In the manufacture of woolen and linen ; and it was not until the year 1368 that these obstacles were altogether surmounted. After that date the progress of cotton manufacture was rapid, and now nine tenths of the population are clothed in its fabrics. Almost the only cotton goods exported from China nro nanlieeBs. Barrow states the production of all the fabrics of the Chinese manufacture at the time he vis- ited the country (in 1792), to bo stationary, attributing this to the want of proper encouragement from the government, and to tlie rigid adherence of the people to ancient usages. To keep a nuinufacture in a pro- gressive state, there must be a progressive demand for its products ; and the Ohineso manufacturers hav- ing no means of disposing of any surplus quantity, must accommodate the supply to the wants of their own consumption. It is said by travelers who have obtained access to that country, that the people show a great desire for articles of foreign manufacture. How valuable, then, to that countrj-, as well as to others, must bo the establishment of a free intercourse, and how conducive, probably, to the increase of the productions of all I The Chinese, over and above the cotton wool which they raise at home, import largely from British India, and from the Burmese territories. This intercourse commenced toward the close of the eighteenth rentur}'. A famine, which happened in China about that period, induced the government to direct, by an imperial edict, that a greater proportion of the land should be thrown into the cultivation of grain. Since then, the importation of cotton from India has been considerable, although constituting but a small part of what is consumed in tlieir manufac- ture. The amount of their importations is stated at 40,000 bales. Introduction into Europe. — The manufacture of cot- ton goods in Europe is said to have been Arst at- tempted by the commercial states of Italy, before the discovery of the passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope. These enterprising communities were the entrepots through which the cotton fabrics of India passed to the different markets of the West ; and be- ing situated in the noighlwrhood of countries whore the cotton wool was grown, and familiar with manu- facturing processes, it is supposed that they were led to attempt the imitation of articles so much valued, and bringing so high a price. Another account as- signs the introduction of the cotton manufacture into Europe to a later date, and gives to the people of tlie Low Countries the honor of having been the first man- ufacturers of these articles, in imitation of the cotton fabrics which tho Dutch, about the beginning of the seventeenth century, began to import from Iqdia. But this last account can not be correct ; for Guicciardini, in 1560, in a very full list wliich he gives of the dif- ferent articles annually imported into and exported from Antwerp,* then tlie greatest commercial mart in Europe, specifles fustians and dimities of many flne sorts among tho manufactured articles imported from Milan, and mentions cottons generally among those brought from Venice. But in the articles exported from Antwerp, although we find linens sent to almost every country, cotton cloth is not once mentioned. Italy, therefore, at that time had a cotton manufac- ture, which, it is probable, soon after made its way to the Netherlands ; for we know it was brought from the latter country to Britain by Protestant refugees about the close of the sixteenth or early in the seven- teenth century. For th'^ introduction and after improvement of many of thes -> articles. Great Britain is indebted to the late Mr, John Wilson, of Ainsworth. This gentleman was originally a manufacturer of fustians at Manches- ter, but had early engaged in the manufacture of cot- * 8 he dif- ferent processes connected with the cotton nianufac- ture had the effect not only to establish it mor) firmly, but rapidly to enlarge its extent. II. Inventions and Improvements in Cotton SIanufaoture. — It has been said that the yam pro- duceda century agoinEngland,bj'thoone-thread wheel, the only spinning machine known, did not exceed in quantity what 60,000 spindles of the present machinery cm yield. To have reared and trained hands suffi- cient to have doubled this quantity, liad it been possi- ble, must have been the work of a length of time, and the amount of manufacture would still have been in- significant. A change in the system, therefore, had become indispensable ; and we find that different inge- nious individuals had already begun to employ them- selves in contriving a better mode of spinning. When we contrast the splendid inventions connected with the cotton manufacture, which from this period burst forth in rapid succession, with the passive acquiescence in tho use of imperfect machinery during the long period which preceded, we are apt to ascribe these improve- ments to tlie circumstance alone of a number of men of genius having at that moment arisen, and to forget that tlio ultimate cause exists in the times which callem.tho cards, an operation which was per- fbrmed by women with hand-cards. These successful advantages show that the minds of the manufacturing class had been awakened to discov- ery, and must have encouraged and stimulated the efforts that were then making to effect corresponding improvements in spinning. There had been several unsuccessfiil attempts to im- prove the mode of spinning before the year 1767, when James Hargreaves, whom we have already mentioned, invented the " tpinning-jenny." The idea of this ma- chine is said to have been suggested to him by seeing a common spinning-wheel, which had been accidentally overturned, tontinue its motion while it lay on the ground. If such was the cause, it marks a mind of no common description, which from so casual an occur- rence could elicit an invention of so much importance. After several unsuccessful attempts to carry into exe- cution the conception he had formed, he succeeded in producing a rudely-constructed jmny of eight spindles, turned by bands from a horizon*.;! wheel. In it the eiglit rovings were passed betwe m two pieces of weod laid horizontally the breadth f the machine ; and these being grasped in the spinner's hand, and drawn out by him, formed the rovings into threads. The stroeture of this Jenny was soon afterward greatly im- pnived, and it was at last brought to work as many as eighty spindles. This machine, although of limited powers when compared with the beautiful inventions which succeeded it, must l)e considered as the first and leading step in that progress of discover}- which car- ried improvement to every branch of the manufacture — which, as it proceeded, changed the nature and char- acter of the means of production. l)y substituting me- chanical operations foi'human labor — which caused the manufactured article to become more and more a prod- uct of capital. The progress of invention after this wail rapid ; for when it was seen that, with the aid of the few mechanical combinations we have mentioned, the spinner had been enabled to increase his power of production eightyfold, the attention of those engaged In other branches of manufacture, was awakened to the possibility of introducing changes equally benefi- cial into their peculiar employments. Hargreaves' invention occasioned great alarm among those who earned their subsistence by the old mode of spinning, and even produced popular commotion. A mob broke into his house and destroyed his machin" ; and some time after, when a better knowledge of the advantage of his invention had begun to bring his spinning-jenny into general use, the people rose a sec- ond time, and scouring the country, broke to pieces every carding and spinning-machine they could find. Hargreaves himself bad by this time removed to Not- tingham, where he was engaged in erecting a small spinning-work, about the same period that Mr. Ark- wrlght came to settle there, who had also been driven from Lancashire by the fear of similar violence. The jenny in a short time put an end to the spin- ning of cotton by the common wheel ; and the whole wefts used in the manufacture Continued to be spun upon that machine, until the invention of the " mule- jenny," by which it was in its turn superseded. Har- greaves died, in great poverty, a few years after his removal to Kottingham. ^Vhile Hargreaves was producing the common jenny, Mr. Arkwright (afterward Si. Richard Ark- uright) wo* employed in contriving that wonderful piece of mechanism, the spinning.frame, called first the witer-fTame, and afterward the throstle, which, when put into motion, performs of itself the whole process of spinning, leaving to the workman only the office of supplying the roving or prepared material, and of joining or piecing the thread when it happens to break. In the year 1769, Mr. Arkwright obtained his patent for spinning with rollers, and Mr. Need and Mr. Stmtt became his partners in the concerns to be car- ried on under it. He erected a mill at Nottingham, which he worked by horse-power. But this mode of giving motion to the machinery being expensive, he, in the year 1771, built another mill at Cromford, in Derbyshire, to which motion was given by water. We shall now proceed to give an account of the different machines used in cotton-spinning, invented by Sir Richard Arkwright, and of those afterward invented by others, describing them in the order in which they are employed. In this manner we shall be able to ex- hibit a view of the present state of the art. The in- struments used in the preparation and spinning of cotton-wool, are the following : The opener ; the scutcher, and spreading-machlne ; the carding-engine ; the lap-machine ; the drawing- frame ; the slabbing fly-frame ; the intermediate fly- frame ; the finishing fly-frame ; the throstle-frame f^r coarse warps ; the self-acting jenny for numbers below 60 ; and the hand-mule jenny for higher numbers. The first three of these instruments are employed in the rude jirocess of cleansing the raw cotton, and sep- arating its matted flecks. In the carding-machine it is carded and further puiifled ; in the lap-machine it is fashioned in flat folds ; and in the drawing-frame it is formed into a loose rope, the fibres of which have a parallel arrangement. In the slabbing-frame it Is slightly twisted ; and in the intermediate and finishing- frame it is still further twisted, particularly in the higher numbers ; but it is not yet yam. The throstle- frame is chiefly used for coarse warps ; while upon the self-acting and hand-mule jennies, both coarse and fine yams are spun. This description of the carding-machine is still ap- plicable for numbers of yam above 100, which are made from sea-island cotton. For numbers above 60, a system of twice carding it is still employed. The engines are generally 86 inches wide. The cotton is partially carded in the breaker or first card ; it is then re-formed into a lap ; and is lastly passed through the finisher or second card ; for the finest yams, however, comliing Is substituted. To make the operations of the various machines just enumerated more plain, we will give the metamor- phoses of a bale of cotton, ttoxa the time it is brought to the manufacturers until it becomes yarn ready to be made into cloth. Women and girls in the mill take the cotton from the bale by handfuls, and feed with it the opening-machine. The cotton, laid upon an end- less apron, is caught between the teeth of revolving rollers, which eflTectually tear and. separate the locks asunder ; the cotton is opened into a light and flocu- lent mass, and the few remaining seeds and the dirt are expelled. Then the scutching-machiae comes into requisition ; again Is the cotton placed upon an endless apron, and again exposed to the action of revolving rollers ; the impurities are yet further separated, and the beautiful down}' cotton becomes lapped in a con- tinuous sheet upon a cylinder. These sheets of down •these softest of all soft layers — how do we convert them Into delicate yam ? The broad, soft sheets go to tlie carding-machino, where a number of wire combs, or rather wire brushes, comb the cotton out into straight fibres ; and these fibres are dexterously whip- ped off by a " doffing" apparatus, to assume the form of delicate, narrow ribbons, or tlireri. Next we see all these slivers joined by another machine, so a-t to form a continuous lap; and this lap is again carded and dofl'ed, by which the substance becomes equalized a RVfll franifT in sc[| whol^ throul ceiveif The COT 4«» COT ks moeb M ponlble. The cotton U thm ugiSn brought to the atate of a ribbon or silver ; and then are brought Into use the macbiqea which convert this ribbon into a yam or tiiread. The drawing, the slubUng, and the roving-macbhies, all have relation to this conversion ; we see numerous pairs of tollers, between which the cotton is drawn ; tbe drawing rounds it, equalises it, and gives it a slight twist ; until at length we see the delicate yam — fine, perchance, as a spider's web— elaborated from the thick but soft ropes of cotton. More correctly, however, we should say that the cotton does not become yam till after the spinning. Nothing excites more astonishment in cotton factories than the self-acting mule. The complex carriage, 20 or 80 feet long, with its army of spindles (sometimes as many as 800 in number), travels slowly to and fro, and draws out delicate threads to a state of still greater deli- cacy and tenuity ; the drawing out thins the cotton, the rapid revolution twists it ; and thus by drawing and spinning do the Houldsworths and the Bazleys of the nineteenth ecntur}- produce cotton-yarn whose fineness almost exceeds belief. And while the mule-machine is thus making fine yam for weft-threads, the throstle- machine,- by a different mode of action, produces the stronger yam for warp-threads ; then again, if it be sewing-cotton, or hosiery-cotton that is required, we trace the yam to the doubling-machine, where two or more are twisted, one around another, whereby a much denser thread is produced. The amount of machinery in the spinning-rooms of some of the mills is astonish- ing : in some cases 75,000 spindles whirling away at once in one room, each one requiring the co-operation of a number of other delicate little pieces of mechan- ism. We have noticed, in speaking of the cardtng-engine, which Mr. Peel erected in 1762, that at that time the cotton was taken off the finishing-cylinder by means of hand-cards. But by the time Mr. ArkWright began his spinning, this operation was performed by the ap- plication of a roller with tin plates upon .it like the floats of a water-wheel, which, revolving with a quick motioc, scraped off the cotton from the card. This was a rude contrivance, and in its operation injured both the cotton and the cards. Mr. Arkwright substituted for it a plate of metal, toothed at the edge like a comb, which, in place of b«lng made to revolve like the other, was moved rapidly In a perpendicular direction by a crank, and with slight but reiterated strokes on the teeth of the cards, detached the cotton from them in a uniform fleece. He employed narrow fillet-cards, wound round the dofling-cylinder in a spirol form, by which contrivance a continuity of fleece was produced, which, as it left the card, was gradually contracted in Its size by being passed through a kind of funnel, nnd then flattened or compressed between two rollers ; after which it was received into a tin can in the state of a uniform, continued carding. The taking off the cot- ton from the cards in this manner, is one of the most beautiful and curious operations in the process of cot- ton-spinning ; and although the crank, which forms a part of the apparatus, had perhaps been used in some wuy or other prior to the date of Mr. Arkwright's sec- ond patent (as was urged in the action for having It set aside), the comb for tatting off the fleece, and the spiral card which produces Its continuity, were inven- tions indisputably his own. Description of the Miile-jennij. — The mule, In Its structure and operation, is a compound of the spinning- frame and of Hargreaves' jenny, from which circum- stances it has probably received its name. It contains a system of rollers like that t)elonginf; to the twist- frame ! hut in place of bavins "very four or six of them in separate hands, as is thf. case in that machine, the whole are coupled together j and the rove being drawn through them, is, in its conversion into thread, re- ceived on spindles revolving like those of the jenny. The carriage on which these spindles ore placed Is Go mevable, and Istaade to recede fh>m the roUan • il*> gree faster than the thread is given out, After a cer- tain quantity of the roving has been thus delivered by the rollers, they are stopped ; but the carriage contin- ues to recede somewhat further ; and the spindles con- tinuing also to revolve, the thread is drawn out to the fineness required, and then receives Its proper portion of twist. This last operation resembles that performed by the common jenny, and produces a similar effect. In an account of the means which contributed to that fall in the price of spinning which we have men- tioned, we must not omit the progressive improvement In the cultivation of the raw material, and in the ap- plication of Its different qualities to their most profita- ble uses. Previous to the year 1793, the cotton used in the coarser articles of the manufacture, with the exception of a small quantity imported from India and trom the Levant for the fustian-trade, was wholly the growth of the English and of the French West India Islands. That for the l>etter kind of goods was raised in Demerara, Surinam, and Berbice. The wool for fine goods was grown in the Brazils ; and that for th« few very fine muslins then manufactured, m the Isle of Bourbon. In 1787 the descriptions of cotton Imported into Britain appear to have been as follows : Ponmlf. From the British West Indies, 6,800,000 From the French and Spanish colonies. . , 6,000,000 FromthoDutch 1,700,000 From the I'ortugoese. , 11,500,000 :,r. From the Islo of Bourben, by Ostend .... 100,000 ... From Smyrna and Torkey. 0,700,000 ToU 83,300,000 Had Britain continued to derive her sole supply of cotton fVom these countries, the progress of the manu- facture would have been greatly retarded, not only from the difBculty of making the production of the raw material keep pace with the increasing consump- tion, but from the impossibility of olrtaining the quali. ties of wool suited to the finer descriptions of goods, wl'.kh the improved machinery enabled us to under- t'lke. The year 1770 has always been stated as the period at which the planters of the southern States began to turn their attention to the raising of cotton-wool. But we happen to know that in 1764, William Rathbone, an extensive American merchant in Liverpool, re- ceived from one of his correspondents in the southern States a consignment of eight bags of cotton. This cotton, on Its arrival at Liverpool, was seized by tlit custom-house officers, on the allegation that it could not have been grown In the United States, and that it was liable to seizure under the shipping-act, as not being imported in a vessel belonging to the countrj- o( its growth. When afterward released, it lay for many months unsold, in consequence of the spinners doubt- ing T/hether It could be profitably worked up. But fortunately, about the year 1770, the planters in the southern States began to turn their attention to rais- ing cotton-wool ; and besides carrying the cultivation of the article to a great extent, they produced quali- ties of cotton before unknown. In 1792 the quantity of cotton exported from the United States was only l.S8,328 Ills., no manufacture of cotton goods having been attempted in America for many years after that period. In ISJJl they exported 619,000 bales to Great Britain, 127,000 to France, and 27,000 to other parts. In 1845 the quantity grown in the United States wiis 2,100,537 bales, and it is estimated that 3,500,000 bnlet^ will be shipped in 1857. The American cotton-wool first taken to Gre:,t Britain was very ill-cleaned, and, in consequence, was indiscriminately applied to the manufacture of tlir coarser species of goods It was soon, however, per- ceived that the cotton raised upon the coast, termed sea islatid cotton, had a finer and longer staple than that grown further back in the country-, and known hf COT M6 COT 111* name of upland cotton. But It wm England ; but this is now limited to the finer qualities. The cotton manufactures of the more substantial liind, called bonneterie, such as stockings and caps, are car- ried on in the Ardennes, in Normandy, and the de- partment of the Gard, in Languedoc, is also noted fur this manufacture. The exportation of cotton goods from France in 1840, reached 6,000,000 kilogrammes, valued at 105,7d<<,743 francs. I'he importation of cot- tou thread from England in 1853, was 90,002 kilo- grammes, in value, l,5u9,.Sll francs. That of raw cotton in 1839 was 40,634,278 kilogrammes, in value, 71,204,784 franca; in 1840, 62,941,681 kilogrammes, in value, 94,006,976 t'ranca. The cotton manufactures of Franca consume betwaan DO Mtd M nUlioDi ut kilo- grammes, annually impurtad. Cottou wool coDsarasd In FrtDM, . , Cotton wool In transit ..,,.... Cotton thread aied at boma ,,,,,.. > Cotton thread In tranilt, . , , , , , Cotton cloth coniumed In VruiM... Cotton olotb lo traoilt, ,.,,,, .....•• M,I«I,U70 l,ltlN,*i»4 IIM,IIM M,4M,»T8 Total Um»fiM We shall now resume our MMWunt of tb« prugrvsi of the manufacture in Great Urltaliii Fmiii Hir Ulcbard Arkwright having commeoveil bin <)|wrAll«iis ut Not- tingham, the seat of the sloiikliig iimnufMcture, and from his connection with Mr. N««it, who was largely engaged in it, the whole produpa of liU spitinliig waa at first devoted to that trade, Tba euttofi yam for this manufacture requires to bs purli^ularly iimiKilh and equal ; and to secure these quaUtUis, It is siiun by A process diff'ering a little from tbut tilii|iliiy*i(l fur ardl> nar}- twist. Being from two roves In |ikc« ut one, it is called double spun twist, Tb« liilrtHluvtIon of thli article produced a great vluin|{a U|t(in tba ilocklng manufacture. Ilund-spun cotton was nnllrely laid aside ; and stockings made itr«ni(lli to fit It for warp, although Its firmness And btirdnoss fcitilered it less suitable for weft. The wtifl, lliprxfiird, contin- ued to bo spun by Uargrtuvas' Jtmny i nnd from thli time the calicoes, and other arili'ln* In Imitation nf India goods, which bad bitbertu btan m«nu.''actured with linen warp, came to be mad* wholly of cotton t and the progressive increusa «f tbsio niiitiufacturas, particularly of calicoes, after tbU tlni«, was unexam- pled. After having made » consldaraltla quantity of those goods, Mr. Need and Mr. Htrult di«vuv«r«d that, whi>n printed, they were subject to iluulil* tli« duty charged upon calicoes woven with llnitii w«r|i, and that their sale was even prohibited in tli« liuiiia market. After a long and expensive appUcatlon to the i«Klslature, they succeeded in procuring tb* n\m»\ uf those Im- politic laws. Nearly about the iamm |itan, It would, perhaps, not be very easy to say | Minietlmes tbey In- dicate a degree of fineness In tbs y/mAt, sutnetlines the mode of weaving | suniatlnias a color, n pattern, a garment for which tbey are sultabltt, ur n dlntlngulsliiMl personage who first wore Ibeui | sutnttllinds a furcign product which tbey imitate | suin*tlinHS a country for whose market they ara Intended, ur a town which is the chief seat of their manufacturii, ur a firm which takes a lead In their productliin-'lt inatttrs little what the meaning may be | a naw naina lias a coninicrulal gowi was that of this GOT 467 COT Tsloa; and tb« ShskespeiUn dictam concerning "a rose by any other name," etc., is not always assented to in slioplceeping philosophy. Let us run hastily over a bundle of these nances. We have dress ging- hams and fancy gingluuna, and umbrella ghighams, checlced and striped ginghams, and ginghams linown by the high-sounding names of Camperdowns, Coro- mandels, matallas, vicuDaa, and brioias. We have boolc muslins, Jaconet muslins, binhop )awn muslins, saeharilla muslins, tarlatan muslins, Scotch lawn mus- lins, Victoria muslins, India and Swiss mull muslins, leno muslins, striped muslins, lappet muslins, spot muslins, sprig muslins, and a number of other memb«r8 of the muslin family. We have table-cloths, diapers, huckabacks, jean-stripes, clan tartans, galas, Hunga- rians, and Derries — all made of cotton. There are surongs, crossovers, selamporeg, Granvilles, denims, panos da costo — all, we believe, of the cotton shawl family. There are counterpanes, quiitings, vestings, dimities, swarsdowns, moleskins, doeskics, lambskins, velveteens, beaverteens, fustians, long-cloths, shirt- ings, calicoes, everlastmgs, nankeens, coutils, and other cotton goods, the enumeration of which would be almost wearisome. A few groupings will show the relations between these goods. For instance, the gingham family consists of stout cotton, in which threads of two or more colors are woven together into stripes, etc. •,J'uttia>u, beaverteens, velveteens, mvleskins, and several others, are woven on the same principle as velvet, with a nop or pile, which is either cut or left uncut ; damasks, huclMbacks, diapers, ticks, and cam- brics, are cotton limitations of the similarly-named flaxen goods ; quilts and counterpanes liave downy tufts to increase the thickness and softness ; shirting cali- coes, sheeting calicoes, printing calicoes, long-cloth, and duck, are varieties of plain, serviceable cotton goods, varying in stoutness ; chintz is a stout calico, after- ward printed in several colors ; corduroys, jeans, quiit- ings, and many other varieties, are very strong cottou goods, mostly twilled. As for muslins, their variety is almost interminable. The first attempts to make muslins in Groat Britain commenced simultaneously in Lancashire and at Glas- gow about the year 1780, but without success. There was no yam fitted fur the weft of these goods, except that spun upon Uargreaves' Jenny ; and when made of this, it was found they were not of a marketable quality. Recourse was then had to wefts brought from Indi^; and although a better article than the former was by tins means produced, it was still not of a quality to compete successfully with Indian muslin. As soon, however, as the invention of the mule Jenny enabled the spinner to produce yams suited to such fabrics, the manufacture of the finest cotton articles became an important branch of trade in Great Britain. That machine, as has been mentioned, came into use at the end of the year 1785, upon Sir Richard Ark- wright'a patent being cancelled; and it is from that period we ought to date the commencement of this part of the manufacture. So rapid was its progress, that in 1767 it was computed that 500,000 pieces of muslin were in that year manufactured in Great Britain. Muslin began to be made nearly at the same time at Bolton, at Glasgow, and at Paisley, each place adopt- ing the peculiar description of fabric which resembled most those goods it had been accustomed to manufac- ture ; and in consequence of this judicious distribution at first, each place has continued to maintain a superi- ority in the production of its own article. Jaconet, both coarse and fine, but of a stout fabric, checked and striped muslins, and other articles of the hea\ ier description of this branch, are manufactured in Bolton and in its neighborhood. Book, mull, and lino muslins, and jaconets of a lighter fabric than those made tu Lancasbiie, are man- ufactured in Glasgow, Sewed and t.'miboured muslins 20 are almost exclusively made there' and in Paisley. A machine of most ingenious contrivance for performing the operation of tambouring, was, in the year 1807, in- vented by Mr, John Duncan of Glasgow, and a patent taken out for the discovery. Eich machine contains about 40 tambouring needles, and Is superintended by a girl, who pieces the thread when it breaks. This beautiful and, at first, promising piece of mechanism has never come into general use. At present there are only three or four machines kept at work by the Messrs. Mitchells of Glasgoi^, who at an early period became proprietors of the patent. What are called fancy goods, woven in the loom, were first made at Paisley, which had been the chief seat of the silk gauze manufacture of this country. In the silk trade, which was then beginning to fall into decay, a body of most ingenious workmen had been bred. Ily em- ploying them, the taste and invention which had pro- duced the varieties displayed in that beautiful article were immediately transferred to the production of sim- ilar fabrics of muslin. From this circumstance. Paisley for a long time retained the exclusive possession of this branch ; but being only seven miles distant from Glasgow, the general seat of the cotton manufacture of Scotland, and the nuirt to which most purchasers of muslin resort, many of its principal manufacturers have been induced to move their establishments to that city^ although the weaving of these muslins continues rx> be executed in Paisley and its neighlxirhood. There is a curious circumstance to be noticed with regard to the manufacture of the very fine fabric.4 of muslins in Scotland — that a great part of the yom used for them is brought f^om Manchester, in consequtmca of the Scotch spinners not having yet been able to pro- duce the very fine numbers of yam of the best quality. This inferority does not proceed ttota a less perfect construction of the machiner}- employed in Scotland, the mechanics and the machine-makers of Glasgow be- ing admitted to be excellent workmen ; neither does it arise from the want of skill in those who conduct the business, or from any difference in the processes em- ployed in the two countries ; but it is to be attributed to the same cause which produces the superior yam of India, namely, an adroitness and mechanical sleight of hand in the operative spinners of Manchester, acquired by a few out of the great multitudes bred there. The manufacture of the thicker cotton fabrics v .at the same time, rapidly lising in importance. 1 manu- facture of dimities has Iwen exclusively confii/ to the north of England, all attempts to make them in : tiand having proved unsuccessful. Balason handkei liipfa were first manufactured about Preston and Cb(»t y, where they still continue to be made. The manufacture of ginghams was for a long time confined to I^ancashire, but for many years it has been extensively introduced at Glasgow, although Lancashire continues to be the chief seat of this branch. Pullicat handkerchiefs were first made about the year 1785, at Glasgow, where the manufacture of them has been carried on to a great extent. They were not mi.de in Lancashire till some time afterward, and the manufacture of thom there has never lieen to the same amount ; Glasgow, therefoje, continues to be the principal marl for this article. Blue and white checks and stripes for exportation were at first of a linen fabric, but were afterward woven with linen warp and cotton weft ; and when Sir Richard Arkwright's discovery enabled the spinner to produce cotton yams of sufficient strength tu be used for warps, a great proportion of these goods ciinio to be made wholly of cotton. This manufacture is carried on in Lancashire, and in the county of Fife, and to a small extent at Aberdeen ; its chief seat, how- ever, is Carlisle. The manufacture of cotton cambric was begun about the same period, and w^as separated into two brinchea ; into cambric to be used in garments in a COT Mi OOT whita or printed lUto, and Into cambric made In imi- tation of Frencli linen cambric, to be wed for the same purpose as that article. The first is made nearly alto- gether in Lancashire, irhere the manufacture of it is carried on to a great extent ; and the second, of much less amount, wholly at Glasgow. The Scotch manu- facturers have never been able to rival the Lancashire In the first, nor the Lancashire manufacturers to rival the Scotch in the last. Bandana handl[«rchiefs, and Bandana cloths for gar- tienU, were first made by Mr. Henry Hontelth, at Glasgow, about the year 1802, and are now manufac- wired there to a considerable amount. The cloth is lyed a bright Turliey red, and the color is discharged (rom those par*.s which form the pattern or figure, by passing a chemical mixture through them. Glasgow itill continues to be the chief seat of this manufacture, wd there are in that city several large works for car- ying it on. The demand for Bandanas, however, has •ttorly fallen off while, in consequence of the repeal if the impolitic duty on printed cloths, the consump- ion of these has greatly increased ; and most of the Droprietors of the Turltey-red dyeing establishments lave therefore been induced to add calico-printing to .heir former business. The value of the present annual production of the cotton manufacture of Great Britain is estimatod at /;64,000,000 steriing, of which neariy iC8.S,000,000 is the value of goods and yam made for exportation. ■ The capital invested in buildings and machinery may be calculated at nearly the same as the annual amount of the manufocture, and more than double what it was 80 years ago, while the quantity of goods annually produced is much more than triple ; yet, from the im- provement of the processes, and consequent diminution of the expense of production, with the reduction which has talien place at the same time in the price of the raw material, this more than tripled quantity of the manufactured article does not represent more capital than was represented by, and required for the bringing to market the lesser amount during the preceding period. In the year 1812, when Mr. Crompton applied to Parliament for a remuneration for his invention, he found by as accurate an investigation as he could make, that the number of mule spindles in the country was between four and five millions ; and Mr. Kennedy, in his memoir of Mr. Crompton, has stated, that the number in 1829 hnd increased to 7,000,000. In 1817, he estimated the number of persons employed in the spinning of cotton in Great Britain at 110,763, and the number of spindles in motion at 6,645,833, and the quantity of yam produced at 99,687,500 nounds. The quantity of cotton yam spun in 18.S2 wos 222,000,000 pounds, of which 132,000,000 pounds have been man- ufactured into cloth, giving employment to 203,373 looms; but In 1853 the yarn spun was 685,410,000 pounds. IV. Statistics of tub Cotton MANnpACTCRK. — It is obvious that the home consumption in the United States has always borne a most disproportioned ratio to the entire growth, and that even in the last four years, when it liad attained to the highest point which It has yet reached, the quantity'reserved for domestic use never exceeded a seventh part of the whole, and generally fell considerably lielow it. It Is deserving of notice, however, that in the period of time which this table comprehends, the Intemal consumption of the United States has been trebled ; but large as this increase may seem in the eye of a native economist, the conclusion from it will not be satisfuctor}- If the collateral circum- stances are not considered ; and the chief of these is, tliat it is an increase on small quantities, and indicates no more than the gradual growth of an infant trade, which the cotton manufacture was in North America in 1829. We believe that in this manufacture Great Britain has as yet little to fear from competition ; but we are not equally oonfident that Its prosperity may not ba exposed to risk from tier Ill-judged anxiety to secure a monopoly of Hi advantages. The practice of excluding from her markets the manufactures of other countries la not only contrary to sound political princi- ples, but gives rise to a spirit of hostility unfavorable to her interests, and places her in such a stato that when other nations in retaliation, exclude her manu- flictures from their markets, she has no right to com^ plain. That we may not decide this question rashly, let at examine what is the danger to which she would be ex* posed If she were to take the opposite system, and open her ports to the manufactures of other countries. If they can now export annually to the value of about ;£32,000,000 sterling of cotton goods, which, burdened with freight, charges, and the exporter's profit, they are able to sell in competition with foreign manufacture, can they have any thing to fear from a competition with that manuAicture in het home market, where the circumstances of the competing parties would be re- versed t So far from the introduction of foreign man- ufacture Into her market lieing an evil, we are inclined to think that It would be advantageous to her interests ; and that, in the interchange of various fabrics which would be the result, the sale of her own manufactures would l>e increased. Commerce being altogether a matter of barter, it is necessary for every country to purchase in order that she may sell ; and, fortunately, even In the same branch of manufacture, there Is always room for such exchanges. There are shades of difference In the fabric of everj' article, upon which taste or fashion, or caprice, never fails to fix an arbl- tnry value, thereby constituting them into separate commodities capable of being exchanged. But the view we are taking of this Important question does not rest altogether upon theory. Happily we have ex- perience in support of it. No one disputes the advan- tage resulting from the interchange of commodities between Maine and I/)ui8lana, or alleges that it would be for the benefit of either to have the manufacture of the other excluded from Its market. Yet these two districts have their dependence upon manufactures which in their general features are the same. It is well known regarding the commercial treaty with France, in which some approach was made to a free trade t)etweun the two countries, that while it lasted, the sale warehouses of London and Manchester were resorted to by purchasers from the different towns of France, with the same freedom, and in nearly an equal proportion of numbers, as from the towns in England. And although in these warehouses French and English commodities of a similar description were to be found, and British shopkeepers were at the same time dally resorting to France to make purchases, in no period wera her manufactures in a state of greater progressive prosperity than during the eight years (from 1786 to 1793) that this treaty existed. There is no one, we believe, who has taken the trouble to In- vestigate the matter, that will not say that both were benefited by this treaty, and probably exactly in the degree that the exclusive system In both had been de- parted from. In addition to this. It may he proper to notice, that Switzerland and Saxony have always been open to the reception of cotton goods free of duty ; and that in no other countries on the Continent is the cotton manu- facture in a more thriving state. Might it not, there- fore, be a wise measure to withdraw their refltrictl(iii» against the importation of foreign manufactures, since the Interfere ncc of these with her own products in the home market, supposing no Interchange of the two to take place, nevr could counterbalance the amount of the sale she may be deprived of l)y following the op- posite pn1i( y, and thus inducing the exclusion of her own gmnls from the foreign market ? Fe:irs have been expressed that the lo.'or wages for which the laborers of other countries 84,941,910 S4.816,17S 89,410,140 19,789.900 19,688,165 88,510,445 81.918,890 1841 1841 1848 1844 1846 1846 1847 1848 1848 1860 The following table gives the extreme prices of cot- ton wool at Liverpool on the 81st December, ttom 1818 to 1863, slinwiiig the progressive redaction of the raw material daring that time : Sea bland... Orleans Upland Kgypttan.... Pernambuco. Maranham... Demerara West India... Bnrat Sea Island... Orleans Upland Kgypttan Pernambuco. Miranham... Demerara.... Surat 16i-ll 17 — 19| 10— lOi 19 —14 17 -18i 8— 14t 1841. "d-: — T. 7|— 14 si— 9 81—7 6— lOi 61-8, 6-7} 5i-10» l|— 5 I8it. d, d. 14i— 14 7-11 H-H 9}-10i 8J-1U 7i-8i 6t-7i 1B44. d. d. 9—80 8 — 6< 6J— 9 41-8 *\— 7| 41—10 li— 5 ISM. d. d. 10—10 7-9 7}- 4 10 -ir 8l>-9 8-U 61-71 6 — 61 d. d. 9 —30 8—10 81-71 6i-ll 6*- 81 4 — 8 1 — 6 it -iJ' 6-9 ?t7i 31—5 1S4T. d. d. 8—80 41—10 41-81 51-11 6 — 91 41-81 41-9 it— 9 1848. d. d. 6—15 91—3 8 — 6 4i— 8 41-8 81— 7 4 — 7 11-41 181*. d. d. —18 8 — 9 7 — 8 ISM. d. d. 181—16 7i-ll 11—161 "=:!t m n- . 91-10 51 5 — 8| 1849. I8M. d. d. 61—10 ;ii-8i IJ- 71; 45-9 43-71 Sir- 61 81-71 11-61 d. d. 9 —10 61-10 6 — 9 81-61 I83<. I d. «. 14—36 7-14 71-11 11 —18 10 —161 9}— 14 9—16 81—9 8—21 6-11* 61-9 41- 8J 41-8 11-61 d. d. 14-38 5—10 6—91 81-161 81-11 7 -10 8—18 81-61 1851. d. d. 10 -18 81-81 31—7 6-11 61-81 41—8 41—9 11-51 IStn, d. d. 10 —86 41-9 41-71 8—14 81-101 71-10 7—18 81^61] 18U. The subjoined table contains comparative e8timal<>!< of the quantities of raw cotton consumed in the chief manufacturing countries during 1840 to 1853, inclu- sive (in millions of pounds' weight). Ooontritt. 1840. 1841. I8«i. I84S. 1844. 1841. 1844. 1841. IB4a. 1848. 18M. IStl. I8N. 1853. Splndlii miulrad In 1850 lo prodiiM th* qiie seen, that of the increase for the last year — equal to 15 per cent. — over three fourths, or 11 per cent., came from the United SUtes. '-' ■-.■■ T«r. rh«Uidt>d9Mtn. Brutl. Ti. Hedlhrninui. llrttUl.Pou.nt<>l>. In the Eut Indlu. krlUiliWtu lodlti and BritUli QiUiw. Other Countries. Total. 184T Pounds. 864,699,191 600,147,488 634,604.060 488.153,111 696,688,931 765,680,644 658,451,796 711,161,846 681,619,414 780,040,000 P-iindi. 19,966,9% 19,971,878 30,788,183 80,199,981 19.839,104 26.606.144 14.190,618 19,708,600 24.677,951 21.aiO,000 Pound.. 4.814.268 7,131.861 17,369,848 48,981,414 16,9.10Aifi 18,059,640 18,868,576 13,508,008 81,904,163 84,616,000 P.iundiw 83.9at,614 84.101,961 70388.515 118,814741 118,626,976 84,918,481 181,848,160 119,686,009 145,179,116 180,490,000 Pnnndl. 799,988 640/4.37 944,307 128,981 446,519 708.696 850^418 409,110 468,461 461,8M Poundi. 698.587 817,086 1,074,164 l,0»0,6f8 1377.65S 8,960,992 1,084,161 1,780,081 6,992,805 6,489,000 PnHnda. 474,707.616 718,010,161 766,469.011 668,676,861 767,879,749 919,781.448 896,178.749 887,388,149 891,761,061 1,013,886.518 1848 1849 1880 1851 1851 1868 1864 1865 1866 According to official tables, the cotton industry of Great Britain and Ireland yielded last year about flfty- four millions sterling, and which may be regarded as half the cotton industry of the whole world ; but foreign countries, besides taking half of the raw cotton sent to market reoeive large snpfdies of cotton yams fh>m Great Britain ; and ill Asia and Africa cotton is still largely spun by hand ; hence the world's cotton indns- try may be valued at 120,000,000, which would alford to every man, woman, and child, on the face of the earth, 2s. 9}d. worth of cotton manufactures, or about fourteen yards iier head per annum of excellent calico. COT 470 COT Omlamd TAtna or BuniB ako huu OonoN HANirrAonnin ard Twm aro Tabu ■xroram to nn in(i>m> ■ UITIOIIID OonXTBIM IN THI YlAB UW. PoMiUlton ol ComirfM liportsd 10, 67,000,000 8,000,000 1,UB0,18S s,, 1 10-80 1 1 9.78 7-98 9 1 9-80 18 18 078 780 '8-80 0-76 1-98 4-98 8 17 10-60 19 9-78 9-80 7 8-78 86 19' 8-98 1 8 1 9-98 1 . 1 10-80 10 9 11 7 9 9-60 9 6 91S OHM 6 1-70 1-78 4-70 •-76 4 Biual*— Northorn purta. " Ports within tbo Black Bm 8wod«n Norway Denmark (Ineludlag Iceland) Pmula Maeklenburg-Hchworin , Uanorar Oldenbarg and Knlphauwn IlanMatio Towns HoHgolahd Holland Belgium Channel Islands France , Portngal Proper , " Aiores , " Uadcira Spain, Continental, and the Balearic Isls. " Canary Islands aibralUr Italy, etc.— rlz. Hardlnlan Terrltoriea Duchy of Tuscany... Papal Terrltoriea ... Na|>lesand Sicily.... Aiutrlao Territories., Malta and Oozo , Ionian Islandi* Kinnloni of Greece Turkish Dominions, exeluitlve of Wal- 1 lochia. Mo. (laYla, V Syria, and Kgypt 1 Wallachia and MoldaTia Syria and Palestine , kgypt— Portu on the Mediterranean. Tunis Algeria Morocco, etc Western coast of Africa British possessions In South AfVlca. .... Eastern coast of Africa African Ports on the Bed Sea. Cape Verdo Islands I, Ascension ant? St Helena Mauritius. Aden Persia ^ Continental India, with the contlgnons I IsUnds :— vtx. British Territories f " " The BIrman Empire. Islands of the Indian Seas :— Jara ■• " Philippine Isls. China Hong Kong Japanese Islands British Settlements In Australia. Senth Sea Islands : . . , . British North America BritUh W. India Isls. and Brit Outana. Honduras (British Settlements) Foreign West India Isli. :— Cuba ■■' " Porto BIco.. ' " Ouadaloupe, " " Martinique.. * " Curacoa >• " BtOrolx... ' " BtThomaa,. French Onlana Dutch Oulana. Haytl Unlicd States of America CalUbmla. Mesloo Central Anierloa New Grenada. Venetnala Ecuador Braill Oriental Bnpubllc of the Uragnay Bnenoa Ayres, or Argentina BepnbUe. . Chill BollTia Pf-n Falkland Islands Gkeanland and Darla' Straits. 16 6 84,888 9,409 7,160 97,608 84,089 887 '619 786^800 478^700 69,170 4e,s«s 66,869 611,190 47,609 16,040 78,983 61,889 874,989 949,918 986,676 80,498 148,621 900,804 108,448 67,098 98,690 1,610,629 77,460 949,689 818,148 63,889 884.719 907,7S8 1,880 '9,787 979 124,987 088 4,447,418 4r9iiM 888.160 1,028,074 177,991 800^718 18,704 668.688 870.016 82,400 841,294 4,778 11,816 97'^64e i',6io 78,441 8,894,029 89,979 478,216 116,787 280,g«4 182,486 18,999 1,727,687 983,079 9l^^481 M8,418 623l604 108 lludary. L«c«, 109 9,176 1,798 2,027 900 "'is 909^968 9 81,480 07,890 1.283 46,874 10,808 808 721 6,897 8,066 21,996 17,796 96,696 618 18,979 6,069 9,000 023 807 18,829 681 7,601 "i'ii 1,167 12,714 486 ^782 64,899 '6^797 8,868 829 228,888 176 60,lk1 94,828 8,114 48,002 144 669 161879 "'91 9,938 648,601 6,914 47,790 6,801 12,480 6,880 629 60,009 10,988 17,164 4^099 88J80 100 CoMna Twkl, snl Ysra. 187,^ 4,186 48,990 98399 64,142 26,B0S 60 146,790 9,076^717 1,691^ 178,676 474 48,684 42,810 1,140 18 0,988 401 7,460 46,770 101,743 78.740 199,680 136,118 80,447 1S,4H 12,161 158,843 76,832 88,480 27,790 60 617 041 1,168,964 8bl844 9,1(0 101,306 97,089 '8^9i8 28^466 18-i 1,881 78 4,288 80 9,671 670 11,719 7,741 948 89 20 890 889 918 4,078 'l",481 TMal. 130,949 18,760 04,637 04,480 101,18s 97,'>4B 60 147,490 8,0M,8.SO 9 9,247,17s 200,286 48,202 108,710 664,868 49,869 17,68-4 86,188 66,270 408,670 806,788 868,118 109,776 661,028 841,469 140,991 86,000 108,008 1,682,819 183,380 2;6,720 888,080 63,810 8(16,603 921,040 1,080 '2,787 1,408 129,992 030 ^6S0,fl69 448^960 844,18b 1,199,799 978,684 1,040^621 18,880 749.2.«.2 S»!i,mii 06,868 884,464 4,917 11,978 iK,m I'.l'Sl 70,4 r4 4,182,901 90,868 032,685 181,399 293,781 188,928 79,669 1,7.18,366 264,449 2.N5,80H I 693,(188 ' 6S8|8i0 910 Total '. gi8,»01,940 £1,910,809 |f6,890,6ffl ^W,n2,90 2 EtUmated consumption of Ootton ManuAtotares In Great Britain and Ireland. . 91,294,494 1 S-17S [riM amount of British Cotton Manolkctaras supplied for the whole world.. 08.987,890 I COT 4T1 COT V. OBiaiR AKD Early IIiitobt or Corrow MaW' vrAcrnRKi or Ahkrica. — Cotton la nf IniliKHnima American ii[TOfrth. On the first UrnllnK nl tlie N|Min' laria in Mexico, tli«y found it In coniiditrulila iwr- faction. The Mexicans are aald to Iirvh lioaii miMy dependent upon this product, the wool of ralililt* Hiitl hares, feathers, and a fibrous plant called mttgmt, tiit their clothinf; materials. The}- had neither wmil, hemp, nor silk, and their f^ax was not used fur th«*« purposes. Out of cotton they fal>rlcated walis nf eip ccedini; tenuity, and their cloths were woven lilt** beautiful figures. Mantln^, bed-curtulns, and i'Kr|i«t<, they flnishnd elegantly witi. mingled cotton und fxittt^ ers. Cortez sent to Charles V. uf Hpaln, " cotton mantles, some all white, others mixed with whita 111)4 Mack, or red, green, yeUov, and blue, wulstmiHts, handkerchiefs, counterpanes, tai>eBtrlea, and cariiatii fif cotton." A peculiar cotton paper was rooila In M '»• ico, small cloths of the nam:; material conatltuta4 It part of thulr currency, and their warriors are said to have had cotton cuiroases. The modern Mexicans have loitB and hares, after liaV" Ing spun It into thread ; of this they mode most liaHU' tlful cloths, and in particular, winter waUtcniits ti)t their lords." Cochineal and indigo beint; native prod' nets of Mexico, they were well supplied with iyeinff materials ; but the fact of their having carried tba iirt* of manufacturing and dyeing cotton to such » lii|{li stage of perfection, is proof that they must liava f»t celred their knowledge ftom India, by way of tb» west. Magellan, Drake, Cavendish, Damplar, Van Xoort, all agree that cotton wae one of the articles of dre«s among the American savages, on the discovery of ttta country. At St. Salvador the wimen ara daacrlliDd aa dressed in cotton coats. Even as far north, says Mr. Seabrook, as the Mes-chacebe, or Mlasisslppl, tfiA earliest explorers of that river, and Ita trllmtiiry streams, saw cotton growing wild In the pod, and In great plenty. These facts, and they might almost Iw Indefinitely innltiplled, are Introduced to reliiit tlia opinion founded on the negative testimony uf Captnin Cook, that the gossypum Is not a native of the westATO hemisphere. That celebrated voyager found nn cottnfi between New Zealand, 86° 8., and the Sandwii'l) Islands, 20° N. In addition to flax, and the hark nf the mulberry-tree. In which Captain Cook says tlMt the inhabitants of those regions were habited, the nA' tions all over the continent nearly, used as artlclaa of dresa, besides cotton, feathers, the wool uf raliliUx, tllti maguei, and silk-graia. In 1726, cotton was » rtftpla product of HUpaniola. lu 1763, Jamaicit axponad 2,000 bags. On an averaga of eight years, fruw 1140 to 1748, the export of cotton from liarlMuloas woa tfUU bags ananally. lu 1787, St. Domingo, M, Cbrl'tU' pher, Grenada, Domi'iica, Antigua, Montaerrai, and Nevis, and the Virgin Islands, exported the same w>m< modity^ la 1803, there wcie grown Ave varietiaa uf cotton in Jamaica, the common, the brown-lwardaii, the Nankin, the French, and the Brazilian, Vrmn these facts, Mr. Baines draws the conclusion that tha manufacture of cotton must thereftore be supposed to \m eoerol with the origlul aettlemant ef America | but lairnMl mm an mnch divided as to the data of this avHttt, Mftnx mrrylng It nearly as hign as the deluge, Hiid iMwf ('(mtctidlng for a much later period. Th« AtitKrii'itn m.it I' ' tnre may at all events claim a high tUitpPH nf HHI ,lt\yUlK to ttt« Mute legislature for assistance, to «.^y<« tlt«m from lielng compelled to abandon the enter- prls.- "ItoKothef, In t IM*tr (iHUInM to the Senate and House of Repre- iMmtittlvpd of Massachusetts, presented June 2d, 1790, H'i\f thrtw yeatn after they hid commenced operations, tl)«*y HlUti "That their expenditure had already mumnMl to neArly X4,000, while the value of their tmsnining stock waa not equal to £2,000, and a further vary cnnsMornble advance was absolutely necessurj- to oliiitin that d«((re« of perfection in the manufacture, wliti^h ftloni* rnnid ensure success." Ai'm>fiHllK)y a grant nf £1,000 was presented them, to \m aiijtrnjtfiited In such a way aa would efTectually pfftfflot* tlm monnfaotntlng of cotton piece-goods in thwdomtnonwealth, Tha pethton almve referred to, and other collateral hty the Itavarly (inmpnny tn Massachusetts. And from this Mot* tna mantifactnre was carried to Rhode Island— tUimgH It tnxst h« acknowledged that both States were ItlitMlitfd to (itt¥^^ emigrants for instruction and assist- »ni>» In «pinn(flf( and weaving, as well as in preparing tlw (iott«m, i'o(tOlM{*tnnifig commenced in Rhode Island in 1788^ COT 4)8 COT !• wkkb jur DmM Aii|Im«x, AmIivw D«at«r, taA UwU PMk, kll uf I'rnvldMUMi. MtefMl Inki •■ ■cr**' nrat to malU what wm lb«n wifUd " iHiiiMbtpuii oloth." TIm IdM M Ant WM IM mnImi liiilM »f llii«n warp •pun by kand | lint imtrtng thai Mr, Orr, iif llrMgairalar, and Um iiavarlv I'umimny, Im4 ImMirtad miiM modcln or drangliU o/ mavltliiar)' A«M K«MlaM, Ihcv Miit Ibltbar and ubUlnwl drawlHiia «f lh«M, according tu wbick tbay aimiittiu|p rollii, and alUrwapf ronad !»}• bawd, 'ttm Mat wjla nplnnlnK- frama, •omatbintf aliNiU* t<« tiM wat«r>fram«, or rath p«r»#v»fa, Aiid wa can now par- eaiva that frum tbaaa Mnitll baglnnlnga, tba praaant brigbUnad proap««t« nnaivad tbair foundatlob. Tba Drat i^ottim-iMiil «f tba Ullitad MM«a waa aractad \a I'awtuufcat, UU44m InImh), Ity tba lata Mr. Samuel Slstar, a nativa of iMpaf, DartiytMre, Kngland, In 17D0. TImi maohtiiary waa that i4 tha Arkwrlght patant. 't'bara i« avld«iM<« that Hafgraava'a Jannlat wara in tm in tbi» lottntry ttravioaa to 17»0, bat by whom, and wb«n intMdHtMWl, la twA known. They wara workad (ifiwdpalty by H«'ot«b and Irlah weaTari,, wboproduaadmtMdgaod^ of llrnin and cotton. Great Britain, at that tima, umi tmpl«t« braaa models of Arkwrigbt'a patanta, Tba maoblHery waa oomplet«l •ad paakad, litit waa dataatad by tfa« aMmlnIng offloar, •nd IbrMtad, Muwrdiiig l« ttw wibitlntf lawa of Great Britain. No way rawaiHdd to obtain tha bmieflt of the Brltiib bivuntloun but to tHanufactura *Jwm on oar own aoil, I'or tMa purpMa Mr, Mataf came to Amer- ica, ifa bad baaii a nupil of Arkwrtght, and waa per- fectly familbir with Ml ftia |ait«tt(«. Itu brought with bim naitbar pattarna tm HMmofanda to nsalat him in bis work, Itut dapMided MttiKty «« bis meniafy, • thing wbiob tb« atatulaa #f Graat firltalo could not reach. Tba JUlig «f Kligtand bad ft'equently made piDciamstionb agtlMt MtytfadaMHanlMylng the king- dom, and haii tiallad on bia oA««H tot tbeir most vigil- aat watcb againat it| b«t tba pntfomfcrDa of men leaving tba kingdom twuM not b« always detected. Soma of tba Ant yam mad* tiy Mr, AUter In Amer. lea, and aouia of tita Arat Mitton cloth made fioniit, waa sent to tba (itaeratary of tba Traasury, on the 16th of October, 17*1 1 and it towubably In enlstenoa now. It is stated that Mr, (jlay Had mm of tha Arst yam to bU posaaaalMi i» WMt, ft waa aa Ana aa a tTo. 40. Mr. Slater mii» indtMad t« i««va bb amployinant un- der Mr. Arfcwrigbt, in Knglaitd, to com* to Amerioa, by aMing • pramium olhnA iiy tba f * nnsylvanU Bo- aiaty for a aartain mmMm to aphi eotloii. Mr. Hintar Uborad undar lb« graataat dlaadvanta^sa fbr tba want of suitaltia matMlals, and mechanics of taflaLtnt in^yasiity t« WMbA Mm. Tba bialory of his flnt labor* la deeply Intaraating, for tba detaila of which we roust refer the reader to his blograplier. Ilia flnt machine was what is called a water-frame, of only 24 spindles. Such was the humble origin of cutton manufacturing in Americii. from that flrst machine the advancement of the cotton manufacture baa been ^ruiy astonishing. It has caused hundreds uf piipulnus villages, towns, ami even cities, to spring up aa if by magic, where only a few years ago nothing was seen but a l«rren wiUemess. Astonishing as has been the in- crease of the various manufacturing towns anil vlllogea in the United States, Lowell, in Massaehuaetta, sur- passes every thing of the kind that has l)een wttucsaed within the memory of man. In IfllO its site was a wilderness, whither sportsmen went to ahoot game. The entire population of the territory unmnd it did not exceed 300 souls. It was a poor, barren dletrict, with but a few house* on the spot where the city now stands; and the Inhaliitants supported themselves principally by flsbing in the Couconl and Herrimao rivers, at the junction of which Lowell is situated. A company of wealthy men in Boston, seeing the valu- able water-privileges of tha spot, purcluaed it for manu- factUiing purposes. The flrst cotton mill was erected there in 1822 ; and in 1830 the population of the place bad increased to 0477 persoiia. In 1840 the population had increased to 20,796 1 and tha value of property there was ^12,400,000. In 18S6 the number of cotton- mills was 85, spindles 3S0,»48. Thus, what only 80 yean ago was a wild posture-ground has become a large and flouriahlog city ) a proof of what a water- power, seconded by capital and enterprise, can do for a place. Lowell is a splendid example of an American raanufucturing city, and excites the attention, and in some measure the Jealousy, says Mr. McCuiloch, of Manchester and Glasgow. We need no better proof of what manufactures can accomplish than the history of Lowell. The Lowell cotton-mills, owned by twelve manufacturing companies, extend in a continuous line of about a mile, f^om tha Merimoc to the I'awtucket Falls. The rapid growth of the cotton manufacture in thti country is luporaileled In the history of industry. The second cotton-mill in America waa erected in 1795, at the same place as the flnt, No more were built until 1808, when a third was erected in Massoohusetts, followed by a fourth in 1804. During the three follow- ing years ten more mills were erected in Rhode Island, and one in Connecticut, making in all iiflcen mills, with 8000 spindles, producing 800,000 pounds of yam annually. By a report made to the government in 1810, it appeara that 87 additional mills had been erected by the end of 1809, of which 62 were then in operation by horse and water-power, running 31,000 splndlri. The cotton manufacture continued to spread, onu ;eceived a considerable Impulse ttova the war of 1812. In that year there were In Rhode Island 38 cotton factories, with 30,663 spindles. In Massachu- setts there were 20 mills, with 17,371 spindles. A report made to Congress in 1816 gives the follow- ing statement of the consumption of cotton by our mills, showing bow rapidly the cotton manufacture had advanced. The consumption of cotton was, in BflM. 11 Mn. 1800 600 1910 10,000 1805 ,... 1,000 II ISIS. 00,000 Tha fbllowing statement is also officially made la the same report, showing the state of the cotton man- ufacture at that time : Oonltol employed In »ia 940,000,000 Molea employed over IT year* old 10,000 Women and female cbllaren 60,000 Boys under IT yean 24,000 Cotton sloth mannfkstured yarda 81,000,000 Cost of same tM,000,a0O Baweottoo, 90,000 bales,.. or lbs. 27,000,000 The aubjeot of protection was then extensively agk tatad. Tha importationa of cotton goods in 1816 and 1816 waxv immanae, aod eteotad great alarm amoo( \1 COT 478 COT in Bdn, 10,000 90,000 J made in tiUon man- minoflutaren. Th« ameiint of Importatloni of thoM two yein wu about %\mf!f*ifm. 'during tha yean 1H17, 18IN, 1819, and 1820, great diatreii prevailed •mong tha manufacturen, but Congreii waa uot dia- poied to K'ant their petltiuna In full. Tariff lawn were paaied in 1824, 182H, and 1883, in •aoli of wliioh tlie duty upon foreign cotton goods im- ported waa 2S per cant. ii>/ valorem, Tlieie dutiea, though they did not prevent our marluita from being glutted with foreign gooda, cauied our manufaoturat to gradoally incraaia. Taa CoTToir M«>urAonraaa a In 1890, the Ant cotton mill in PaanaylranI* wat erected at Manayunk l>y Captahi John Towom. i'hera were then only two mnall cottages on the ipot. II now contains BOO dwellings, 6 churches, 16 stores, and about 80 mills. Among the numerous towns that luve sprung Into existence, owiug to tlin inriuence of uiiinufactures, may lie mentioned — Wullhum, Patemun, Ware, Fall River, Taunton, Pawtucicet, Lowell, Lawrence, I>rov- Idenco, Rhode laUnd, Maco, Ltwilton I'tlls, MkbUi etc. -•!'. j;* ..:'■>- I ... , •.>,600 1,017,644 8,758,600 884,600 8,144,000 990,000 140,613,984 Nwnbar ftf ■pbMllM. 118,776 19,898 889,717 18^768 116,628 167,81( 68,979 180,810 34,806 47,288 9,844_ 1,1«8,708 YnHi of •letll podue«d ytarty. l,76tM8IO 99,080,600 9.28M00 79,281,000 87,181,681 2(l,u^^.V)0 21,010,920 ^ 188,778 81,882,467 ^2I)8,74« 7,1149,000 876,000 '28(U6I,990 lH)uadi of rr'"' 616,000 7,866,060 574,600 81,801,061 9,371,481 6,818,000 6,997,718 1,877,418 4,807,192 1,901.500 2,224.000 llH,IHIO 607514,036 77,467,816 DOTTOM MAlCnrAOTUKKS IK 1860. llalM. M Ciptui liniaUd. B>Ju of COUOD, Toiuof eoil. Valwofsll raw WMUtUd. Numlwr of hwula •mpiuyad. Eotlra wuM p«r tnoatll. V»la. of .0- tin frviueit. T«nli of ■bMUivr, •t«. M«Im. FcnuiU*. mi..: V.ttui.., Maine 18 4' 9 818 158 128 88 21 808 12 24 27 28 18 86 'ii 1 i 8 8 "l "» 88,839,700 10,960,600 802,600 38,46^680 6,87^000 4,819,100 4,178.920 1,488,600 4,698,926 460,100 1,386,000 1,908,900 1,068,800 887,200 1,786,156 80,000 661,900 88,000 18,6«0 869,600 889,000 897,000 48^000 loilooo 88^000 81,581 88,(y26 2.248 12.. 107 5(...l8 8U,»«I 87,778 14,487 44,108 4,780 28,825 17,785 18,617 9,929 20,380 800 5,208 480 170 8,411 8,760 4,270 "678 '3^160 "960 2,021 7,679 46°64B 18,116 8,806 1,689 4,467 24,180 1,9'ifl 8,212 4,806 1,000 8,6io 720 8.152 "800 1,658 81,678,110 4,889,429 114,415 11,189,809 8,484,679 1,500,061 1,98M78 886,645 8,162,580 812,068 1,168,679 828,876 681,908 195,971 900,419 8<1,000 387.081 81,600 8,976 897,600 180,907 887,060 38,220 86^446 oViooo 7SJ7 510,624 178,480 894,700 H800 141^900 100,000 82,861,6«4 118,106,947 1,861,000 198,751,801 06,7«V,611 61,780,700 44,901,475 8,128,680 46,746,790 8,521,688 97,888,928 1^64O,107 1,470,110 6,568,787 7,200,292 624,1)00 8,031,000 868;260 1,008,000 280,000 i,4ob;6oo New Uampshlre . Vermont Masaschusctts..,. Bhodo Island.... Connecticut , . . . Now York New Jomoy Pennsylvania.... Delaware Maryland VlriHnla North Carolina. . . South Carolina... Florida Alabama Mississippi Loulslaua Texas Arkansas Tennessee Kentuoky Ohio Michigan IndlanaT. Illinois Missouri Iowa WtsoonMn Callfbtnia Disk of Columbia. Total 1,094 74,501,081 641,240 { 121.099 884,388,066 88,160 69,186 Mm 778 8708,414 ' , .-,... J TABtrLAS OOMPABATIVE StATRMRNT SIlOWlNa THH QirANTlTlRS AND DKCI.ARRD VaLURS Or COTTOK MaNUFACTURRS AND Yarns Expobtrd rsov Orrat Britain and rRou tub Unitro Statrs, rrsprctitelt, to all Copntrirs, roa A riBioo orFivB Years, rRou 1S61 to 1855, both inolusivb.* Ymn. (IREAT BRITAIN. UNITBD STATES. | HANDVAOTOmll. VAUS. MARUrACrVKKS. TARNI. 1 QuAiiUtln. V«l«.l.t Qutuillllei. ValDM. <)lUI>8llM. Valwi. 1861 1861 1868 18.14 1856 Agrecats. Average. . . V.rd.. 1,618,161,789 1,6H1.VI,914 1,5(4,692,659 1,(91,977,478 1,986,846,987 (110,246,010 108,142,290 119,509,700 116,884,800 180,628,875 PoUili. 148,968,106 145,478,802 147,689,802 147,128,408 186,499,647 (88,246,010 88,278,276 84,478,965 88,466,986 86,152,140 No data. H U U .1 (7,308,»48 7,687,488 8,746,800 6,486,901 6,867,181 No data. u u (87,260 84,718 92,694 49,818 None. (148,887 19,777 9,290,886,775 ;,868,167,165 686,605,676 117,101,115 749,611,755 149,922,831 170,608,626 84,121,825 .... (84,981,0(6 6,»8«,811 ' . • .' l" * Made op ttom British and United States* ofllclal dooumants, respeotlroly ; the sommerdal year of the ibrmer ending Deeemher 81, and of tho latter June 80. t The ponnd'sterling li computed at five dollars. The articles Cotton and Cotton Manufactures have been compiled principally from the otBcioI report of the Statistical Office to Congress in 1866, United States' Patent Office Reports, tables prepared by Mr. W. P. Vl^right, cotton broker. New Yorit city, Enoyolo. pedia Britannioa, eighth edition, and De Bow's In|> dustrial Resources of tha. Unitad.States, the latter now published at Washiogton, D. C. cor 47i COT ■tAfiMiRT isaiaimra m riHiitaii Iii»mn*Tinn aid liaixmitATiaii*. Mniutici KmiBTtriniii «■» namb rna. (vnmnii ur riMMidH C'onoa lioopi, tovmiis with tih < oimvianitiir »r roHiiiua Lorrun (iiMina uttox ami IMO I»(t IMI KM IS44 INfi M« IMT 1848 1S4» IMM IMI .... 18U IBM 18B4 isns IMW Yntiy «v. • •Tt«-li, Makix laiinifM. il.AI)4- ii.7b;.(i»rM.7M IU.II4I.4;h IIIMdll,; laMn.A^A IA,l»AHTft iK.iill.ri8) m,TM.N4i .■o,i()8,Tr.i ."M 114,449 1(1 IW l,4M iT.TSI.BII '>)i,»4i>,Mje li.iftT.llS ■JMilT.IHW) lil.7iN41H l^uralfN I.IW).4NII UI4,l>4» 4.nftli), .^,-tl,7ftii lli.All.IIK 'il.4H«t,Ml« tMlt)/.4'l(l 'M.«7lt,in(i ..'J.4^l.ll.'4 l.'i,74l,B>H 'J4.m;.B'4 B,ii4,8(l4 IliXlM eii«m)m|f. IliM if r»r«lia 1 iMutt ituuia III cr iliMnMlJ« KifarUUaM^ I.N6I.IIHH 7.71*, 4114 A.7fO.U:i8 ri7H,7i 4' lll.Xli.lKMI 1I.3II.II4I Iii.ll'i4.il7 11,4^7, il'i Kl.'.'M.tlW lt.IU7.IN8 l4.'i4A.W.lT s.ll-.'O.BIft 17,7ilH,(lft(» M.Wt.mm li,MiT,liT7 I7:I7II.IIB * UuioMtle »purUtluiui uvir liuiua oonauuiptlun of Airalgii coltun gwUa. Rtatiiiint KxiitniTina tub PoroLATioH, total PBonnnr or MANurAOTCBBa or ('ottoii and Fxroari or baw CnrTow, UANurAiMuaaa nr Cotton in the I'nitiii .'•TATica. iiimB C'oNaVHrrioN or noiiaaTio lioona, iiomb t'oNacMrTioM or roBaiuN (iuoiia, AND Till TOTAL iioMa I oNauHPTioN or roBBiuN AND uoniaTiu (oTTOM Uuoua, AMD tub Allothbnt PIbCai-ita. roBTUB YiABa IN4II. I8MI. and INSA. PDpuUll'lll Total pniiliict of mannftusturva ot ration and orU of n» cation AllotiDi'iit |ier r«|ilta uf nii.iiiifai-hin'a of cottun and oporta of raw ratton MAnafartun-a of cotton In tlio l'o4tiH] Htatra , Allotm«iit iwr raplta of the maiiufacturea of cotton in Iho I nltvd Htatea Iloma oiniiiinptlon of doineatlc Kooda AilotiUi'nt per capita of the homo rotiauniptlon of domoMtli cotton gaoda Home cotHiintiitlon (if forrlgn rotloti gwntn Allntiiiniit |i4.>r raplta of the lioino ronauiiiiitlun of forclKo cotton gooila Total linini^ coiiinmptton of foreign and dontcntir Kiioda Allotini'iit per capttii of total home connmuptlun of forolKii and donicatte gooda. IHM. I7IHW..IB3 lllll,Vi0.7dll II 4rii'J 4a.HSii,4fi8 171 M 4^,800,840 ■i 60-74 n.4illl,B<. B Ulll M 48.'.>»1.n4I lU*. «i.ti)iH;n ♦ 133,86:1 HflO BIT IB 0l.8llli.ls4 ■i 00-77 67,134.701) » 41-1 -nil 1«,681011 11 H4-Nfl T0,81«,37« U31 'J2 ;F~St: mi. isbbTt' |IBV,|l8r>B0 6>fi'.iT 10,1(04,7 1 -i 1I«I04 06,107,681 SI DO 40 16,T44,BH 007*1 80.8BS,08U liU-40 Statbmny or -niB ItiroBTt iino tdb TiciTiin Statkh or roBBiiix CorroNR and (.'otton MAKvrAoruui riavAL ^ BABa 1864, 186,\ and IHBO. DVBiRa nil kaw col tun IMnlfld and colored cottona White cottona Cottona, tanilioulvd or embroidered*.. Velvet-* of cottun ^Vlveta of cotton and allk C'orda, i^'.iiipa, and galloona lioalery and aillclea made on fhimea, , Cotton, yam and thread Ilattcra' phiah, part nllk Cotton limtrting, lacca, etc All other ruttuiia , TiiIbI Iniporta of cotton »S4.884. ,11U,761 000,000 006,688 1114.00ft Bie84S inro.7iio 20, us ini.iiiu ■.«7.V88 »:iu. 1811.868 Sunimnry obowlng ths export* of domeatic anil for- eign unnjaniifacturcd anil manufactured cotton from, •nd the iniporta of manufactured cotton into the United Stalea for the fiscal year ending June ,10, 1857. This aiinimary atao Kperillca tlie countiiea- with which thli truilu was comlutlod. ExvoBTii or THB roanoN MANrrAOTOBB* or Cotton raou tto Initbd s^tatxb roa tub Yba a ItMIINS J T»lal Vara and Thraad. trwB 30, 1«BT. WhlUxr MportaJ. PW« (looJ.. V,.|<>«la. ronto, Ulmjn. and nadoaaa. Hualary and ArtlriM mad* o« rraiaa*. Maaafartuiaa of, not ■pMiaad. Aalatle Knaala »l.;i44 8.164 490 1,B« 410 ».r>B l.»IO 18,440 6,079 SBO I.0B4 n M,116 1T1.»4<) »,««l 49,638 4» n.Viw ?,B66 111 •880 145 .... $140 H«V6 T68 .... i'a'iB *60 si,Ma isb'm;) 8.31)8 lii'.JST 6,18T "iio iKsio HuaHlan INmSPsaioiu In North Amerloa Panliih West Indiea Hamburg Bremen England Scotland Other nritlah North American Poasesilona Britlah llondnma Brittah Cast Indies... 1 Mexico BrmBll Chill Sandwlrh Tdnndi Whala-llshetles Toul $806.30^ *B7S ili*.i $ll,Slfl $ 2.616 •22S.I0T «I8A.'.-VB 119.36T •iHs •M81 12 16.147 8.6T2 «IBS61 T.ZB'i SI6B,'.'4« Ti.SflS Not from warehouse Kuislauu III Hainhiirg. , nrenieii , . Other (leriiu I Holland . . UelKlum.. , Kiigland.. Scotland.. Ireland,.. Canada. . . . Other ilrilUl Ilritlsh Weit DritlKh foair British Auati ilritiah |;a>t France on Hi, Franco on tli Hpain on the Philippine la tuba 1 Azores . . Sardinia. . , Tuaaany Porta In AfHc Now liranadii Venoauela . Chill Sandwich lala China .... ^ GOT 4T< COT r.xTOBT* iir TNI wmwftr M»iiiir««»TlilM n» Cimnn riioii Tin I hitud ht4Tm rn« »ii« Viai imiiii* .(CUB t^, IHT. IlllWltll V'M, III V S, , NwihIIiIi Waal ImtlM, ,, IMlllilftik ,, l)*nliii W»M Iit4liw... HruiiMii til liutnh Wi'« lii,,•>, 1 1 OlliriilUr ,11 M»IU <'*iiiuiii ,,,,, Dllitr llrll. S. A, I'uWii llrltlnh Wi'M riiill Ilrlllah ll.iiiiliina llrlUihlliil*ii»,,,i llrltUli l^l<•. III MtU*.. Ililllili ikiKiiali* iirilUh Kui lii.IlM ■■'rftniiH (III Ihi- AlUiillii , , Kraniw »n ilm Ho'liurr'ii Knineli N. A. I'liMalnlniK gp4ln iiii (III! Ailkiillg ('aiiarjr |g|iiiii|,t rhUlpiiliin laUiiiU I , riiMiit Wblto 1 IHhat II lUltt ikH llMk Ifwl maiiiilM' _j »« ..n „*• •••• 4t» UiUM Kmxi ■iKit I* IMfi 1,111 lil.*M Kwm 1 ■ t M,«l» 4II.Ni 91 U.MII IflftM llitiM'i ITU AMI l<)Vi4l» IMIil iim.;iM IM4 4 D'l.1'1 •iT.TiM IJfM Ml< H,W/ Mr l.l«f I:M« l.M 4.IU i'l'iPi ii'iiiifl l.dfl IIU 'SM VT^W «». f m St HI »,vnn mwt IIIKIIA T*4 •111 ( 1 » » liM IKM I.4IIA j>:^i( * * « * l,iiliT 1 ■ < «,4I» UN Ml 10 • 1 r » 1 1 « 1 V.fMII . t 1 • I . 1 # lift Tflft 1,11)11 MIMA l.iWI .... WklUn tirMtt^, WMl. «k« ikw Uiuk l.illw I'lirln HloOi.i, Cnrtunl Mxlufrit < '•iw da VanI lalanila Aanraa Turkajr In Kurnp* Tiirkar In Aala FiirU In Afrlu Ilayll Han Donilniio Mai,.,,ii «1,BiB ■ ■ • • in.oas.ofB 1,V40,04'J Uaiiiiiurk . , ,1 i,,,,i,*,. ,,i, ,,,,«, II 1,4j:) • 1,1 i,i7(i,a«ii i&4.ai» llanibiirii ,,,ii,,,,,,i,,,iiii. Si.TiO • •It iii,m4.o;b 1.31 1,11 !ir> llniiiinn I ,1 III,,.,,! II 1,1 Tl,l«» 1»,1SB B4n6i.M'l 4 8Hil,4H Holland , ,, i ,,,,,, i,i i 9t.MJ . , •• 10,484 fi7 1 !M8.II'S UalRlnin ,,,>,,,,,,,,,,,, iM.lIB lOO.IKlO IV,U7,4'.'a 1.420,0116 KnKlaiid ,. i.,i,ii ,, .,,,,,■,,, >,,,,, <■,,,,, l,4IO,«4T , i),iiA4.vea 047.<)a',>.4H4 8l.62ll,0ia Hiutlaiid 1 1 1 1 1 , , 1 1 > , 1 1 , 1 , 1 , , 1 1 1 ,1 , , , 1 1 10,4m tlifiU 7,070 «,15 iiN>,ii8a Inland , 1 • , , , 1 , , , . , , 1 1 , , , 1 , , 1 , 1 , , 4fl,»lT 8i),W8 7»« <.«I'>.»B4 ('anaiU m, ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,1 I.1I4T «so 860.810 vi.a^s Kranao mii Ilia AIUiill*,i,i,,i,,i,, ,,,,,,,,, aTA,BTO 8,486,S73 100, SOS. an J 23,08i,mT t'raiii'u nil iliu M>»llliirriina«iiii,,,,i,,,i,,ii a,IBT ... - 1,I8B,UIS 181.118:1 Hpalnoii iliii .\ilanlla ..,,,,,, gBDO B.<108,IS« 474,04.1 8|ialnon ili« UiullUrmnaan ,,ii,,,i,,,.ii,. »B,Tn4 4t,7BI.!'8l B.O'.U.Ilf Cub* ,. 1,1 ii.,i, „,,,,,, 4 «,0.1(> '.'00 I'ortuuul ,.,.,, 1 ,>,(,,,. 1 ,,,, 1 1 ,,,,,,,,,,, 1 m no. 4:19 «,»;i'i Aiori'a . . . . I . . 1 , 1 , . , , 1 1 , , 1 1 , , , , , , , , , 1 , 1 , , , , 4 sas 1,000 «M Sardinia n*, n,,,,,,, i,,,,,i,ii »«,TP4 , , ia,fBs,«Tj i,r«:.M'3 Twn HIcllli'a ,,, ,.,,,,,,111,, ,,,,,, 1,1 l.JTB .1. IWI.B8T 7I.80« Auatita ,,,,,,,,,,«,,,>,,,,,, II ie.i3i . . I. 7.ai4,Wi2 »B.'.U24 M»»lc« Tolal , gti.ic* 7,ft,'>8 I'.as 01111,747 ""'VM:'^' l-i94i).':5iB l,liaB!l4i,7NI l|Hill.t)7B.Nf>',> IiiroRTa uy TU» MANVrAVTVUW or t'onm IKtii Tm 1 siiTin Htateb ron tiii YeaU KNUINa <)U!0i> llruniiMi , ,,,,n tl*.IW n.ftw 2,4'8 l,ll87,aS4 ITS $a,.i4i 292,4 '■ Dthi'r Herman port* ,iiii,i,,i 1 . 1 • . . t a • . . 2 a • • • Ilolland ,,,,,,.,, BDt «.«« 83 1S9 a a • * a.OI8 UalKlum , > , • I , , I , , . , , , , 1 1 A4BIK 1.4'iT (»T8 20,0D6 214 , , 111,^88 Kiiirland , , , • , , , , , „ , , , , 1 1 1 l«,4ilKiOHT e6i.a7A 200,fl.lo i,n-.',asft 094,020 0,191 IIOT.K' Scotland , , 1 1 1 1 , , , 1 1 , 1 t,IHt.'m i,an» 81 14,1! B 8117,313 • • a a 06,9^ t Ireland , , 1 1 , , , , , , , n.*n • •It .... • . a . • ••• »*< Uanada , ,,,,, nm 49 a • « . 1 1 2,761 VI .... • . . a , • • • • , , • ... a 4 llritiahWoO iMdIat .,,.,,.. 27 1 .... • • • . 2 . 1, • 1ST Ilritixli I'oaaeaatona In Afrlu* , , IM .... a . . a • ■ . , . . a* Urittab AuatralU ,,,, •m • > . . . • . < * . • . . ■ aa ,, llrltbili ICattIudlM.,,1 ,,,,,,, • a . 289 7T0 443 Franw on tlia AUaitlla ,,,,, 1,«4,I*T t.ilM) 6.B01 B»,l)63 7,7.>9 1,487 221,7.11 Franco on tho Mi'dllsrranaan , , , 1 , 1 i,im . . • < . • a • TBT Spain on lli>* Madtlwrsnawi , , Pliillpphiu laltuda , ,,,, 4 .... . a a t a • a a * * a . m» t . < i • . . • > •• • . • ■ a .• • a 4 Cuba , ,,,, Htt4 • < * * « . • a a . • . < ■ .■ 24 Azorpa , 1 , , , 1 • . 1 , , 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 .... . . a ■ 181 . • a a , , Sarilliilu ..i,i,i,>iiiii,,iii lit 1 * n . . < . m 40 Tuaaanjr , >,,,,,■. 1 1 ,,, , » *ll • « •• . • >. * . . • .... .... B Porta In Afrloa ,,.,,>,,,, 1,, 1 .... • *aa ,.,, • •• • 41 Now Uranada , > , > , , , 1 , , , 1 1 , , , «i,tTO H • i 215 B27 bOl a a a a Veneiuela . , , . . , , , , , , 1 1 , , , , 1 , IK ...» II,, • a . . . . a . • , •• a a * • ChlH ,,,,,,,,,, Nil) • ■ . . •II, • a. . • • • • a a a a Sandvich lalandl 1...,,, 1, »« 1.4* 1 1 If • . • » a •• ' . . . • China ,„,. ,„,,,,, Total value ,,• 111,11,1 .... • •a. 4 .••• ...a HMJf^.VnT ■»-il3S 4 $;».2lrt.M7 *l,-i3 $11,478 $1.7'2ft.flKT oon 470 OOTT Cotton Dyeing. (Ttinlur«daCoeon,Ft.;Baum- voUti^M>erti, G«rm.) Cotton and linen yarns and elotha hava nearly tha tame affinity for 'lyes, and may therefore with propriety be treated, in this reapect, together. After they have acquired the proper de- gree of whitenesi, they are BtiU unfit to receive and retain the dyes in a permaniMit manner. It is neceg- taiy, before dipping them into the dye-bath, to give them a tendency to condense the coloring particles within their cavities or pores, and to commnnioate inch chemicii.1 properties as will fix these particles so that they will not separate, to whatever ordinary trial they may be subjected. All the colors which it would lie desirable to transfer to these stnffs, unfortunately do not possess this permanence. Men of science en- gaged in this important art, have constantly aimed at ^be discovery of some new processes which may trans- fer into the class of fast colors those dyes which are at present more or leas fugitive. Almost all the goods manufactured of cotton, flax or hemp, are in- tended to be washed, and ought, therefore, to be so dyed as to rests the alkaline and soapy solutions commonly used in the laundry. Vitalis distinguished dyed cottons into three classes : 1. the fugitive, or fancy-colored {petit teint), which change their hue or are destroyed by one or two boils with soap ; 2. those which resist five or six careful washings with soap, are good dyes (Aon teint) ; and those which were still more durable, such as Turkey reds, may bn called fast colors {grand teinf). The colors of Ilrazil-wood, log- wood, annotto, safBower, etc., arefuyitive; those made with madder without an oily base, are gdodf and those of madder with an oily mordant, an/uat. Cotton'-WOOd. (Populus argenlra.) This spe- cies is scattered over a great extent of country, com- prising the middle, southern and western States. It is, however, quite rare in the middle States. K^ York city may be considered as the most northern point at which it grows. It is quite commo^i along the Mississippi river. The cotton-tree grows some- times to the height of 70 or 80 feet, and 2 or 3 feet in diameter. The leaves, while very young, are covered with a thick, white down, which gradually disappears, leaving them smooth aljove, and slightly downy be- neath. The wood of the cotton-tree is soft, light, and unfit for use, and inferior to that of most of the other poplars. It is appropriated to no pa,rticular use in the arts or for fuel. — Brownk, JSglea A mericana. Counterfeiting. Large sums of money have been expended with a view to devise plans for the prevention of counterfeiting bank notes, bank checks, etc., but thus far no successful plan has been devised. The New England Society for the Prevention of Counterfeiting, has for some years Iwen in operation at Boston, and is aided by the treasury- of Massachu- setts to the extent of 12,600 per year. This society has been the means of detecting and punishing nu- merous counterfeiters. Forging of government cer- tificates of United States stock, land warrants, etc., is, by act of Congress, punishable by imprisonment not over 10 years. For counterfeiting a post-ufiice frank, a fine of $10 will be imposed. The counter- feiting of coins of the United States, or of foreign coins, shall be punished by imprisonment l>ctween 3 and 10 years, or imprisonment of 6 years and a fine of tl,000.— See Dti.xLAr's Vigest Lawt U. S., pp. 76, •40J, 404, 726, 72», 1002. Conntennark. In Numismatics, a stamp fre- quently seen on ancient coins, often ol>litemting a large part of the impression. Tbe countermark is generally a figure or inscription, and some antiquaries have considered that their use was to augment the value 01 the money ; others, that it was only struck on money taken from an enemy. Coupons, from the French, is a term employed in England and elsewhere, to denote the warrants for the payment of the periodical dividends or interest on pnbllo stocks, a number of which being appended to the bonds, are severally cut off tor presentation as the dividends fall due, generally semi-annually — some- times quarterly. The prac ice of appending coupons to bonds is new generally adopted by States and cor- pot'ations, as they facilitate the collection of the semi- annuid or quarterly interest thereon. Courier (Fr., courir, to run), a messenger sent post or express with dispatches. The couriers em- ployed by the ancients were of two kinds ; first, those who ran on foot, called by the Greeks hemerodromi, or day-runners, regarding whom Pliny, Coinelius Nepoa, and CiEsar mention that some of them would run twenty, thirty, thirty-six, and in the circus even forty leagues a day ; second, riding couriers (etireorei equi- tania), who changed horses as modem couriers do. Xenophon attributes the first couriers to Cyrus, He- rodotus says they were very common among the Per- sians, and that there was nothing in the world more swift than such messengers. That prince, says Xen- ophon, proved how far a horse could run in a day, and built stables at corresponding distances ; and at each station a courier was always ready with a fresh horse to forward the package to the next stage, and so on throughout the empire. But it does not appear that either tlie Greeks or Romans had any regular system of couriers till the time of Augustna. Under that prince they traveled in cars, about 24 B.C., though it would appear tliat they afterward went on horseback. Under the Western Empire they were called riatoret ; and under that of Constantinople curtorea. Couriers or posts are said to have been instituted in France by Charlemagne, about A.i>. 800. The couriers or posts for letters were estaldished in the early part of the reign of lA>uis XI. of France, owing to this monarch's extraordinary tagemess for news. They were tha first institution of the kind in Europe, a.d. 1463. Court-;r-laster is a considerable object of manu- facture. It is made us follows : Khtck silk is strained and brushed over ten -or twelve times with the follow- ing preparation : Dissolve ^ an ounce of balsam of benzoin in 6 ounces of rectified spirits of wine ; and in a separate vessel dissolve 1 ounce of isinglass in as little water as may be. Strain each solution, mix them, and let the mixture rest, so that any undis- solved parts may suliside. When the clear liquid is cold it will form a jelly, which must l>e warmed before it is applied to the silk. When the silk coated with it is quite dry, it must be finished off with a coat of a solution of 4 ounces of China turpentine in 6 ounces of tincture of benzoin, to prevent its cracking. Court of Clainu. This is a new court, estab- lished by act of Congress of the United States, Feb- ruary 24, 1664, having jurisdiction of claims by individuals against the United States, arising fkom disputed cases at the Treasury. This obviates the necessity of petitioning Congress for indemnity for losses sustained under government contracts, etc. See DuSLAP's Vigest Ixma V. iS., pp. 1457 — 1459. Coutte, Ttaomae. This distinguished London banker, whose death caused much excitement in the metropolis, was at one time, in wealth and import- ance, ut the bead of the banking and moneyed interest in England, lie was at first a partner in the house ut St. Mary Axe, Ix)ndon, and afterward admitted into his brother's banking-house, in the Strand, Lon- don. His own bank stands on nearly the centre of the site where stood, many years ago, an exchange, similar to Exeter Exchange, It was then considered one -i the best-constructed places of safety in Great Orii 1, except the Bank of England. Mr. Joutts died on the 24th of February, 1822, hav- ing attained tbc age of ninrlg-one. His will was read tlie Sunday evening after hts death, in the presence of his family. To the surprise of many, he bequeathed his whole property, to the amount of .£900,000, to Mrs. Coutta, formerlv Mhw MeUon, an aetr>Mi at her own cmA.> 41% OBB , 1822, hav- lU WHS read presence of bequeathed 00, to Mrs. ■at her oirn diipMal, «{t1icn!t mentloiitiig any other penoa, or leavin); a niugle legacy. This was, prohably, to m- cape the legac}* duty, which, if his fortune were left to others, would haye amounted to £60,000. The firm of Cnutts and Co., said to be controlled by Miss Bnr- dett Collets, is still among the hanliing-honses of Lon- don.— See Mnteri' Mag., N. Y., 11. p. 626 (1848). Cove. An inlet on a rocky coast. It is a term nearly synonymous with harbor : the word cove be- iilg generally, though not always, nsed when (he in> dentation on vhe coast is too shallow or narrow to admit first-class vessels. Cowea, West, a seaport-town of the Isle of Wight, at the mouth of the Medina, 4 tcnlH K. of Kcwport, and 78 miles from London. It occupies a rising ground on the W. bank of the river, presenting a striking appearance fh>m the sea. The streets are narrow and irregular j but many of the modem build- ings are handsome, and in the vicinity are nume- rous elegant villas. It is much resorted to for sea- bathing, and has numerous hotels and lodgiug-houses for the accommodation of visitors. The harbor is safe and convenient, and its entrance is defended by a battery. It forms the rendezvous of the Koyal Yacht Club, who hold their annual regatta here. It has a very considerable coasting trade. Exports, chiefly agricultural produce and malt ; imports, coal, colonial produce, manufactured goods, etc. Ship- building Is extensively carried on. On tho opposite side of the river, which is here about half a mile broad, is East Cowes, where is the custom-house of the port, and near which is Osborne House, the marine resi- dence of her Majesty. Pop. (1851), 4,786.— E.B. Cowhage, or Cowitcb (Hind. A'lWacA), the fruit or bean of a perennial climbing plant (^DiAichot pruriens, Lin.) It is a nativt, of India, as well as of several other Eastern countries, and of America. The pod is about 4 or 5 inches long, a little curved, and contains from 8 to 6 oval and flattlsh seeds ; the out- side is thickly covered with short, bristly, brown hairs, which, if incautiously touched, stick to the skin, and occasion intolerable itching. — Ainsue's Materia In'lica, Cowries (Ger. Kauris; Du. Kauris; Fr. Coris, Courts, Bouges ; It. Cori, Porcellane ; Sp. Suciot Zim- bos) are small shells brought from the Maldives, which pass current as coin in smaller payments in Hindostan, and throughout extensive districts, in Africa. They used to be imported Into England previously to the abo- lition of the slave 'ode, in which they were subse- quently employed. They are on article of trade at Bombay. The best are small, clean, and white, hav- ing a beautiful gloss ; those that are yellow, large, and without lustre, should bo rejectpd. The freight Is cal- culated at 20 cwt. to the ton.— Mii.dubs'8 Orient. Com. Cozening, tricking, defrauding. In law it denotes an oltense whe''e any thing is done deceitfully, either with regard to contracts or otherwise, and which can not properly be defined by any special name. In tho civil law it Is called stelllmmttis. Cranberries, or Red Whortleberries, the fruit of a moss plant, the Vaccinium nrycoccus of Lin- niL'Us, The berries are globular, about the size of currants ; are found in mossy bogs. ' Cranberries have a peculiar flavor, and a sharp, acid, agreeable taste ; tliey are easily preserved, and are extensively used in making tarts. They are very abundant in North America, and In the northern parts of Kussia ; the latter being of a superior quality. It is suid that some very fine ones have recently been l)r()Uglit from Xew South Wales. Consideraide quantities are pro- duced in New England on the marshy lands near the coast. Crank, in sea language. Is applied to a vessel when, from too much top weight, or the want of suf- ficient ballast, or cargo, or from any other cause, she can not beiu: much sail without danger of oversetting. It also dniotei an lion brace tn inpporting thi lu terns on the poop-quarters of the ship. Crape (Fr. Cript ; 0«r. FloAr, Krauijhr; It. Ks- pumHItt, Soplillo ; Bus. Flior ; Sp. Crem the loom. It is for this purpose steeped in clear water, and rubbed with pre- pared wax. Crapes are all woven and dyed with the silk in the raw state. They are finished with a stif- fening of gum-water. Crape is a Bolognese invention, but has been long manufactured with superior excel- lence at Lyons, in France, and Norwich, in England. There is now a magnificent fabric of it at Yarmouth, by power-loom machinery. There is another kind of stufiT, called crfpon, made either of fine wool, or of wool and silk, of which the warp is twisted much harder than the weft. The eripons of Naples consist altogether of silk. Crayons. Colored cylinders used for drawing upon paper ; they are usually made of a fine pipe-clay, colored with metallic pigments or carmine. Crayons containing plumbago are styled soiid lead pencils. Cream. (Fr. Crime). A semi-fluid yellowish substance which collects on the surface of milk, and which is made into butter by the process of churning.' When the milk of any animal is allowed to stand for some time, it spontaneously undergoes certain changes — this substance rises to the surface and forms a thin stratum, which is called cream, and which consists chiefly of oily particles ; while the milk below, which of course is thinner than it was before the cream sep- arated from it, is of a pale bluish color, and consists of curd, coaguinm, or the matter of which cheese is made. When cream is kept for some days it gradually becomes thicker, and partially coagulated ; and if put into a linen bag and suspended from the ceiling of a cool room, it will acquire the consistence of cheese ; and this is one among other modes of making cream cheeses. When cream Is shaken by churning, it is resolved into its component parts, and hence we have butter and buttermilk. In order to make butter it is not always necessary that the cre^m should be separated from the milk ; but whether separated or not, the process is facilitated by allowing the liquid to stand for some time, during which a part of the sugar contained in the serum is changed into an acid, which shortens the process of churning by facilitating the separation of the butter from the milk. When either cream or milk is churned without having previously l)ecome sour, the process is much more tedious ; and some- times, from causes not easily accounted for by tho dairy-maid, it is nnsuccessful^ and the milk is said to be bewitched. The true cause, however, is the want of acidity ; because it bas been found that the addi- tion of a small portion of vinegar will dissolve the charm, and cause the almost immediate appearance of butter. Cream, when separated from milk nnd kept till it has become acid, is frequently mixed with milk newly drawn from the cow ; and this eaten with sugar is one of the most delicious preparations of the dalrj-. Costorphiff cream, so called from a village of that name in tlie neighborhood of Edinburg, is made b}- putting the milk of three or four days together with the cream Into a vescel, and allowing it to re- main there till it has become sour and coagulated. The whey is tlien drawn off and fresh cream added ; and when it Is brought to table it is eaten with sugar. OBB 478 ORS ■ad ia Um itnkirbeRjr ttuon, wiih tlut finiit. Der- onahin cream ii lim^^ loar curd, or lour oraam t$t- y anticipation. Bnt it la ac- cording to the expected facility with which payment may tm thua an .'.;, ated, that credit is at first freely and raadily gireu ■ i tai whenever any thing occurs to impede the circulation of ere Jit, there ia an immediate disposition fn the menhant to withhold or limit it. Kvery transfer of capital made upon a buyer or borrower's own obligation of payment creates a new sum of transferable credit ; and this is the case, al- thongh it should be the same capital that is again aad again transferred. But a sale of goods, or an fidvaace of money upon the obligation of a third party, indorsed to the seller or lender, forms no addi- tion to the sum of circulating credit, the transaction l)eing the circulutiria, not the creation, of a sum of credit. Neither does a succession of purchases or Irarrowings, effected by means of the same document indorsed from the one party to the other, add to the sum of credit in circulation. For although each of these transactions is the ground of a separate obliga- tion between the parties contracting, there is witli the whole but one absolute creditor, tlie holder of the bill, and one absolute debtor, the acceptor of the bill, the others being merely contingent debtors to the one, and contingent creditors of the other. Circulated credit is to be classed into that circulated by loan, and that which is circulated by means of sale. The first is the circulation of the credit founded upon the obligation of individuals or private companies, and called private credit ; t!. - ' of that founded upon the obligations of tuL y- i he transfers of the stocli of corporate bodiea u i t'. ' t public credit. The documents of these t- •■ -'^(ions of credit possess different and distinct :£UulUies, and are differ- ently negotiable. It may be proper, therefore, to examine how they are employed as means of borrow- ing or purchasing, what are their separate powers, and what is the probable extent of the circulation of each. We shall begin with those belonging to pri- vate credit, which are as follows : Firft, Obligations payable to the bearer on demand, and which, being passed without recourse, are em- ployed as money. Secondlt/, Transferable obligations payable at an after date, as notes of hand and Vills of exchange, which, teing negotiated with recourse upon the preceding obligants, are taken as guarantied pledges of a sum to lie received when they l)ecome due. The circulation of obligations, payable to the bearer on demand, or notes employed as money, is the circulation of a credit liorrowed liy the issuer of the note from the public ; the holder of the note at the time is the creditor ; and the property he gave in exchange for it is a loan from him to the banker. , As it is in the power of the party giving this credit at any time to put an end to it l>y calling for his money, these notes circulate upon the credit of the issuer alone. No assurance of payment is required from the person from whom they are received, as is the case with bills ; the payment of which being at a fu- ture date, it is thought necessary to reserve recourse against the parties through whose hands they have passed. The circulation of notes payable on demand is therefore a circulation of what may be termed sin- gle credit, and bills a circulation of collective credit. \Vhen bank-notes are issued by a lianker in dis- count of a bill, it may be supposed that a twofold credit is put into circulation : a credit to the party to whom the bill has been discounted, and a counter credit from him to the issuer of the notes. But in this stage of the transaction, no circulation of credit has taken place. Credit is circulated only when ex- changed for capital, and in this case it has been but the exchange of one credit for another. The lianker, indeed, In giving his notes payable on demand in ex- change for a bill payable at a futnre date, gives what U of a quality different from that which he receivei ; for what he gives is immedUtely exchangeable for capital, and to the person receiving it is the same a| capital. But still It Is only credit he has parted with, which will not be in a state of circulation until it comes to be exchanged for capital. In as far as relates to circulation, the transaction Is the fame with that of a person lending his credit to another, by accepting a bill to him without value. A sum of credit Is there- by created, but Is not circulated until the bill comei to be exchanged for value. The credit that Is In cir- culation fi«m the exchange of bank-notes for a bill, is a credit from the party who at the time has given capital or value for the notes. When the banker " cashes" them, he becomes the creditor, but while they remain in circulation the public Is the creditor. The amount of credit from the circulation of cash notes never can be pushed beyond what would have been the value of the specie that would have been in circulation had the currency been of the precious met- als, which the notes only serve to represent. Should the notes cease to be convertible into specie, their amount, indeed, may he augmented at the pleasure of the issuer ; but their value, and the credit in circu- lation from them, will still be regulated by this limit. The increased sum will represent the value which the smaller did before, and each note will be reduced in its value. In the proportion of the increase that may have taken place of the whole. This descrip- tion of circulating credit Is of a quality different from the others. Frou supplying the place of capital, in its character of currency, it Is lent out as capital ; but loans from this fund are precarious. Its amount depending upon the state of public confidence, and l)emg liable to be diminished by evei^' call upon the banks to replace the notes with specie. Circulating notes, not convertible into specie, issued under the authority of the state, have been called a fabric of unreal credit. But this currency, however unsuitable to Its proper ends, affords a circulation of real credit. It is indeed exposed to constant fluctua- tion of value, according to the amount of it in the circle ; and the party taking It is obliged, for his own safety, to Include In the price of what he gives for it, sufficient to cover the difference between it and specie, and the risk of further depreciation while It may re- main In his hands. Still, however, an amount of credit, to the value of what has been given for the notes, in the first instance, is put into cliculation, and an amount continued In circulation, to the value always of what they are exchangeable for at the time ; the holders of them always remaining credit- ors of the Issuer, to the extent of the whole sum which the notes profess to pay. A currency of this description, however, is Inapplicable as a measure of value, and therefore unfit to be employed as a circu- lating medium. And as to the other object. Intended by its issuers to supply an amount of funds to the state ; the depreciation with which it must be issued at first, and the loss to be sustained from taking It back again at par, render it an expensive means of Iwrrowlng. With regard to obligations payable at a future date, which constitutes the second branch of private credit, and which we are next to consider, the credit founded on them Is circulated, either in the transfers of the ordinary capital In sales, as when the credit of indorsed bills Is employed to purchase goods, or in the transfers of the bunking capital in loans, as when the credit of indorsed bills ia employed to borrow money ; the transfer under the lotter, when the lilU is ex- changed for money, lieing often a further circulation of a credit previously circulated under the former, when the liill was exchanged for goods. A fictitious bill, that Is, an acceptance given with- out value, vests In t1in person in whose favor it la drawn a stun of transferable credit not less than \ I ORB 48# OBR irooU lutTe bean tke cue if it lud baeo tli« io uum tu t ! «f • mIc, or loan of property. Mr. Thornton, in kli' trmtiM on Paper Credit, eatablialied tlie doctrine, till tlien disputed, Ui*t tlie credit of a bill does not rest upon the nature of tlie' transaction In which it has originated, but upon the conceived ability of the obli- gants to discharge the debt. The being able to em- body in bills every sum of credit, . fUmislied the means of employing, with incalr.t e advantage to commerce, a portion of the capital of tke counti}*, which otherwise, it is probable, would have remained inactive. The security they afford for the repayment, at a stipulated period, of the sums lent upon them, furnishes the means of an interim employment of money held for after occasions, whti li the party would not otherwise venture to lend out ; of money which formerly lay Idle in the hands of parties unacquainted with any safe means of using It ; and of the money which traders are daily receiving in the course of their business, but which they do not immediately require. These different sums collected in the hands of a banker, form wlut is called the banking capital of the country ; and which, lent out upon such secur- ities, produces not only a profit to him, but interest to the parties who liavo placed them at ills disposal. The importance of this intermediary fund in the transactions of the country is such, that when, from distrust, at any time, these deposits are withheld or withdrawn iW)m the bankers, the mercantile body is convulsed throughout. We now come to the second division of credit, that circulated by sale ; the documents of the first branch of which are, the negotiable obligations of govern- ment, as exchequer bills, navy bills, etc., and the whole of the public funds, constituting what is termed the credit of state. Whcu capital is to be competed for, this credit has an advantage in the market over the former. Its price rises according to the dem^Knd ; and by that means it is enabled to secure whatever share it may require of the supply. This is not the case with the credit circulated by transfers of capita^ upon loan, the price or stipula: d rent of which cui not, whatever may be the demand, rise beyond a pre- Bcrilied limit. It has the effect, in these circum- stances, to force the capital applicable to this ptrt of the circulation to seek the employment of the r'her ; .'■that the inconvenience produced by an interrup- tion of circulation i^m a diralnutiun of the general capital, fails entirely upon the circulation of bill credit, the supply for the circulation of the credit transferable by sale being kept full, at the expense of that applicable to the circulutie added to the amount of the circulating credit of the country. The mode of circulating tliis credit l>eing the same with that of tho public funds, and Its market value rising nr falling with the general abund- ance or scarcity of capital, its circulation, when capital is scr.rce, immediiitoly interferes w^tb the cir- culation of credit by simple borrowing. — E. I). See also " IIuuPEn on C'urrenrt/, Boston, 1850. JJanlert' Magazine, N. Y., 1855-1856. See IIu.sx's Mer. Mag. (0. F. Adam.s), ii. p. 186. Democratic Rev., ii. p. 167 ; UL p. 196; V. p. 147. Encgdoptdia Amer. Oi««it UMUim. TiM OiMil MebUtor Itonk, •ecoiding t« th« proTlakm] of ila cbHt«r, U • jotat- stock company, oripinlaol •! PMif , tot Iha purpoM of developing woiki of publlo ImprnvtiMiil by eonsolMtt- Ing the sacuritiai af varloM •n'npriiaa fait« oiw dom- mon fund. Its capital rtock IIm4 |t 00,000,000 ftrnncs, divided into sbarai of Afd flwnM ImIii, payabla to bearer. It i« autlioriMl to lubMfllw tot or «a- quire publio tatM, the •Im;«>« or boMlt of «nr joint* stock company, and mora partimilart}' of raUwayi, canals, mining, and other pnl Ho worhl, HOW aliitlng, or hereafter to axis*. | also to lH4 for any kMn, or for the stock of any kind of publlo work*, and hi dla- pose of and realize the aama, It la alao anthorlaad to issue its own bonds for an anuiltnt aotial to Itl sub- siriptions and purchosoi i sueh hoAdrniay lia ItiUMi to the extent of ten timaa lt« capital (tttat ttt, 000.000,- 000), but they shall not b»»a U»« than ftirty-flvadaya to run. This privilaga has not y$t baan availad of, the Government having raquaitM than (a postpona the proposed issue of 240,000 iMiflda (130^000,000 fram S) Ip 1895, in order ^ot to interfara with tlia fortheomlng State loans, as well as to guanl a)(itln»t lni'r#ns«d «m> baTassment in the money niarkat. Tho nK,1ii, anil mako other dis- bursements for them. /I it, hftwavar, frprmiilg vn- derttood (so runs the sti-tnia) Ihut U ihnll not lett " »hort" or bug on time, {tt t^t tfpvftitmmt tnttndu que la lociiti nt f'rn jismiflt rf» vmtu h lUeouvert, «i d'athali h prime.) The company, which was eraatad In November, 1852, has, thus far. Issued but thraa vary condensed and Inccmplets reports, awl eKtansiva as are its opar- atluns thus far, It slates thitt from It* Iniiblllty to Issue bonds at present, it hus not yot (Men abia to show the world the full merits of Its wnrkjtiff, The reports re- fer to tho operations of tlia cHltmdar years r( 1868, 1854, and 1865, and bear data April, 1DS4, 1M5, 1850. "TST" uw, lftm»t, M,BM),nOO ti4,tia),nuO rtsr 10tl,iBll,0VO l^is«,aoo Invosted (together with priiAts)! Stocks anil Rondi on band, Dec. 31 Less Inrtallnients not due Trcasory, City of Parts, and othor notes Hallrnad and oth- er Bonds Stuck contriii'ts. .. Total Total purokoMta throiigfi tho year Total sales through theyuar 8T,t6ll,lllll) 10,TdO,(X)0 IT.lWt.ttOO »S,Ofl(),(t()() i«,nnds of the Southern railroads (Midi), representing 28,000, 'XM) francs ; and it toolt charge of the loan of 82,000,000 ft-ancs for the Austrian Railway Co., which passed rapidly and almost wholly into the bands of German capitalists. The companj* acted os sponsor or ogent in 1864, for the re-formution of the mines of the Loire, and for the fusion of tlie several omnibus companies in Paris into one joint concern ; ,"nd in 1856 for the consolidation of the various Parisian gas companies. It has, more- over, iiccn preparing for two years past the consolida- tion of the Eastern and Southern Sai- AVorks. It put in a bid for the last government loan of 780,000,000 in behalf of itself and its correspondents, for no less a sum than 626,000,000 ; 1)ut its share was reduced when the bids were adjudicated to 1,281,000 francs of the 3 per cent, rentes. At the close of last year it em- barked in grand speculations, which remained unset- tied at the date of the last balance-sheet, but they appear there as yielding an estimated loss of 600,000 francs. The amounts received in account current are mostly from large companies, and can c ly be with- draivn, acconling to express stipulation, to bo ex- pended on their respective works. Individuals are also allowed to make deposits, t'lo company agreeing to take charge of their investment and stock specula- tion. In order to fully appreciate the power of this vast machine as n speculative agent, it must be borne in mind that the managers and leading depositors arc men in the enjoyment of extraordinary resources of wealth and position, and that in their speculative op- erations at the Bourse, they and the company all act in concert, thus acquiring a power over the market which nothing, in the absence of extraordinary cir- cumstances, can hope to resist. This power is made the greater froni the large amounts employed by the roiupany in carrying stocks for brokers and outside ■peculators, in the shape of stock contracts, or as the French call them, reports, which contracts mostly ma- ture on the game day in each month. The company are thus enabled to depress the Bourse when they Hu wish to buy, by refusing to make new contracts when aettlement-day comes, thereby forcing sales on s tight money market ; and to promote a rise when they wish to sell, by granting a great increase of facilitios to other dealers in stocks. — N. Y. Timet. See Banktrt' Magazine, N. Y. : July 1866, July 1850. Creek (Saxon crecca, said to be derived from the I>atin crtpido) is a shore or bank on which the water beats, running in a small channel from any part of the sea. It is also applied to any part of a iarr s river which is resorted to as a harbor or landing-place by small craft. In the United States, the term creek is used as synon}-mous with the English words brook and rivulet. Creole. (In Spanish CrioUo.) A name given to the descendants of whites bom in Iklexico, South America, and the West Indies ; in whom the Euro- pean blood has been unmixed with t\M of other rr. .es. The various jargons spoken in the West India islands by slaves, etc., are called Creole dialects. Creosote, or the fieiK-preaervtr, from Kpeaf and au^u, is the most important of the Ave new chemical products obtained from wood tar by Dr. Reichenbach. The other four, pamffine, eupione, picamar, and pitta- cal, have hitherto been applied to no use in the arts, and may be regarded at present as mere analytical curiosities. Creosote may be prepared either from tar or from crude pyroligneous acid. The tar must be distilled till it acquires the consistence of pitch, and at the utmost till it begins to exhale the white vapors of paraiHne, The liquor which passes into the receiver divides itself into tliree strata, a watery one in the middle, placed between a heavy and a light oil. The lower stratum alone is adapted to the prep- aration of creosote. Creosote exists in the tar of beech- word, to the amount of from 20 to 26 per cent., and in crude pyroligneous acid, to that of 1-^. It ought to be kept in well-stoppered bottles, because when left open it becomes progressively yellow, brown, and thick. Creosote has considerable power upon the nervous system, and has been applied to thf teeth with advantage in odontalgia, as well as to the skin in recent scalds. But its medicinal and surgical virtues have been much exaggerated. Its flesh-pro- serving quality is rendered of little use, from the diffi- culty of removing the rank fla' or which it imparts. Crecaet, a great light set on a beacon, lighthouse, or watch tower. It also signifies a lamp or torch ; a large light or lantern fixed on a pole. Minshen de- rives the word from the Dutch keerse, landela ; but it is more probably fiom the French croiaset, a little cross — that symbol having been usually placed upon beacons. Crew, the company of sailors belonging to any ship or vessel. Ready obedience to the lawful orders of their superiors, ability to discharge their duties, and alacrity in their performance, at all times and under the most perilous circumstances, are the dis- tinguishing characteristics of good seamen. — See Sea- MEX. See Kent's Com. Manual for Consuls. Pab- sojis' Mercantile La'c. Crimea, a peninsula in the Black Sea, forming part of the Russian government of Taurida, with the mainland of which it ' . connected by the isthmus of Perekop. It is situate between 44° and 46° N. lat., and 32° and 37° E. long. It is of an irregular square, or rhomboid form, measuring diagonally about 190 miles from east, to west, and 123 from north to south, and containing an area of a'oout 8,000 square miles. Its south-eastern, western, and jiorth-westem coasts, are washed by the Black Sea, and the oostern b}' a shallow lagoon, called the Sivash, or Putrid Sea, which is connected with the Sea of Azoff by a very narrow strait, and separated from it by a tongue of land, consisting of sand and broken shells, about 70 miles in length, and 1 to 1^ in breadUi. The east- ern part of ihe Crimea t'urms a minor peninsnla, A CRO 482 CRO ttntcblug eutwsrd to the itnit of Kertiih or CafTa, or Jenikaleb, tho ancient Cimmerian Bosphorus, whlcli forms tlie communication between tlie Blaclc Sea and tlie Sea of AzolT, but it is not navigabie by large or deeply-laden veaseU. The most valuable commer- cial production is salt, which, as already mentioned, is obtained in very large quantities from tuilai, or •alt lakes, near Perelcop, Kozlov, Kaffa, and Kertsh. It is a government monopoly, and yields a considera- ble revenue. The other principle articles of com- merce and exports are wine, honey, wax, leather, hides, wool, and lambsiiins ; of the last of which, called ihunuki, great quantities lue exported yearly to Poland and other neighboring countries. The only manufacture worth notice is what is called mo- rocco leather, which is produced of good quality. The mountains contain masses of red and white mar- bles, full of cracks and Assures, which make them well adapted for quarr}'ing, if there were a demand. Crimlnala. By the laws of the United States, oonsnlar officers are required, in casec of the intended shipment of paupers, or pardoned criminals, to the United Stat.", to give timely notice of the fact, both to the Dtpartment of State and to the collector of customs oi' the port to which the vessel having them on board may be bound ; furnishing the names of the parties, a d.^scription of their persons, the name of the vessel, and the date of sailing, in order that proper steps may be taken for the enforcement of such police regulations as may have Ijeen adopted by the several States upon the subject. — -Vanual/or Cotuuli. Crockery. In use, and made mention of as pro- duced l>y the Egyptians and Greeks, so early- as 1890 B.C. The Romans excelled in this kind of ware, many of their domestic articles being of earthen man- ufacture. Ciocker}', of u tine kind, in various house- hold utensils, was made at Faenza, in Italy, about A.D. 1810 ; and is still called fayence in French. Earthenwaro vesseU were in use among the most an- cient nations. Various domestic articles were made by the Romans, 715 B. c. The art was revived and improved in Italy, a.d. 1810. Wedji;ewood's patent ware was first made in 17G2. His pottery in Staflford- shire was extended to a variety of curious composi- tions, subservient not onlv to the ordinary purposes of life, but to the arts, unt.iquit}', histor)', etc., and thereby rendered a very im|j.,\-tant branch of com- merce, both foreign and domestic. Cronatadt, or Kronstadt, a strongl}--fortifiod seaport town of Russia, and the great naval station of the Russian fleet in the aorthem seas, is situated ou the island of Kotline (fret uently also called Cronstadt, from the town), at the h< ud of the Gulf of Finland, 20 miles west of St. Petersburg, in N. lat. 59° 69' 26"; E. long. 29° 46' 80". The popuUtion in 1849 was 26,120 ; but it varies considerably at different times of the year, and in summer generally amounts to about 60,000. The island of Kotline is in general out- line an acute triangle, 7 miles in kngtb by about 1 in breadth, with its base toward St. Petersburg, and its apex extending obliquely seaward. The eastern or broad end is occupied by the town of Cronstadt ; and 1^ miles from the western point ol' the island is the lighthouse of Tolboochin or Tolbeacon. The streets are regular, and in general well paved ; but the houses, with the exception of those belonging to gov- ernment, are chiefly of one story. The town was originally built of wood, and wooden structures are still numerous : but such buildings are now forbidden by law, and the majority of the houses are now built of brick, and plastered. Cronstadt is divided into two parts — the Mortkaia chatt, sea district, and the Konpachttkaia chcut, or commercial district— and into four subdivisions. Of the two canals which traverse the town, that of St. Peter, constructed of granite, is 2,160 feet long, by about 80 yards wide. It com- mences between the Merchant and Middle llaibort, and is in the form of a cross, of which one arm oom* municatos with a dock, where ten ships of the line can be repaired at once. The Catherine canal, 1,880 fathoms in length, communicates with the Merchant Harbor, and thus enables vessels to take their stores, munitions, etc., directly flrom the store-houses. Be- tween the two canals stood the old Italian palace of Prince MenscfalliofT, the site of whicn is now occupied by a large building used as a school for pilots, and educating above 300 pupils. On the northern s'de of the idlund the ]>assage is impracticable, except for very ;mall craft, being obstructed by rows of piles and large masses of stone, extending ftom the island to Lisi Noss, on the mainland. The southern channel is the only practicable passage from the Gulf of FInlank, atwut 1,600 yards apart. The former, on the left side of the passage, consists of a front with 4 tiers of em- brasures, and two flanks of 8 tiers each, and a rear wall mounted with guns on hartrtis. It is built of blocks of granite on a foundation of piles in 18 feet of water, and commamls the road by 116 8 and 10-inch guns, all in casemates. Fort Rlsbank, which was not tinished last year (1853), on the opposite side, is also of granite, resting on a foundation of piles, in 16 feet of water, and is armed with tiers of guns of the heavfest calibre. Further eastward, on the left, is Fort Peter, or Citadel Fort, with 3 towers or bas- tions joined by 2 curtains; the first commanding the approach to the rear of Fort Alexander, while the second and third sweep the main channel. These bastions have 28 guns in casemates, and 28 guns above en barbette : the curtains have no casemates, but mount 20 gun? en barbette. To the right of the Little Road 's Cronslott, an irregular pentagon, originally built by Peter the Great. It presents to the sea a low line of rimbor casemates, forming a battery of 40 guns placed a Jkur d'eau, and disposed in the half of each of two bastions with a connecting curtain. All this work, however, has been destroyed, and last year (1863) the plies had been driven on which a granite fort was to be built, which by this time (October, 1854) is probably com- plete. The mole forming the western flnnk of the Merchant Uarbor mounts 70 guns, besides 12 mortars ; and the channel, between Cronslott and tho mole, Li only 250 yards wide. Almost all vessels bound for St. Peterslinrg touch at Cronstadt, and those drawing more than 7 feet of water load and unload hnre — the goods being convoyed to and from the city in lighters. Vessels of 10 feet draugb jave, however, been Icnown to go up with high walor. The port is ;e-bound during the winter, from Xovembor to April. Cron- stadt was founded l)y Peter tho Great, 1703. — L. B. Cronstadt is tho port through which the foreign commerce of St. Petersburg i:; principally conducted. The number of vessels cleared in 1848-49, was as follows : rear.. Enterad. Cleired. 1948 1848 1,M5 WTO 1,470 1,550 In those figures Great Britain held the first rank. The number of British vessels entered and cleared was 920, measuring an aggregate of 209,318 tons. Under the French flag there entered and cleared 58 vessels, of 8,698 tons. The total value of French car- goes imported in 1849, reached about $5,000,000, against $1,000,000 of exports direct to France. Of- ficial returns for 1853 exhibit a total of 1,898 vessels, under all flags, having entered during that year ; and the following table gives the nationi^ty and number of these arrivals from each nation : CRU i83 CUB ftrst rank, id cleared 318 tons, cleared 58 rench car- :5,000,000, ,nce. Of- 98 vcBsels, year; and id number ' CouatHtt. No. of vetMli, CountrlAl. No. of toimIj. Kngland., HoIUnd Denmwk Swodon PruMla Norway Luboo RllMit Mecklenburg. , 684 ;t84 199 186 1!6 »T 89 88 b) Hanover Oldenburg United Statoa., . Franco 4S 43 41 41 sa 8 8 1 Naploa Brumon Hamburg CrcM-treea, in a ohip, plec«a of oak timoer, anp- ported by the cheeks and troatle trees, at the upper ends of the lower and top-masts to sustain the fran>e of the tops in tile one, and to extend the top-gallant shrouds on the other. Crotou Oil is expressed from the rieds of an eu- pborblaceouB shrub, the Crotou tiglium, a native of Hindostan and of the irarmer parts of Asia. The fruit is about the size of a hazel-nut, of an ovate tri- angular shap'i, b.. 1 containing three ovate seeds, about the size of a i«a. The kernels of these yield, on pressure, about 50 per cent, of oil, which is of a pale amber color, and a thlckish consistence, like castor oil. It has no odor, but has a peculiar acrid taste, vhich is felt most strongly in the back of the palate and throat. Croton oil is a speedy, powerful, and sure cathartic, in small doses, of one to three drops ; and it possesses two valuable properties : 1st, that however active and powerful the purgative action may be, it soon ceases, and leav^i no del>llity ; and, 2d, that it excites the biliary secretion, more powerfully than any known medicine. In consequence of one or two drop.s being a dose, and its action commencing very shortly' after its administration, it is invuinable in impending apoplexy, and in almost all diseases in which torpor or paralysis exists. In hydrocephalus, even when effusion of water on the brain appears to have taken place, the late Dr. Abercrombio stated that it would often bring al)Out the recovery of the patient. It is a medicine which deserves for more attention than it has yet received. — E. B, CroTVU, in Commerce, a common name for coins of several nations, which are about the value of a dollar. Sse Coins, Table op. Crovrn OlaBB, the best kind of window-glass. The hardest and most colorless, is made almost en- tirely of sand and alkali, and a little lime, without lead or any metallic oxyd, except a very small quan- tity of manganese, and sometimes cobalt. Crown glass is used in connection with flint glass for dioptric in- struments, in order to destroy the disagreeable effect of the aberration of colors. Both kinds of glass are now made in the highest perfection, in Benedictebura, where Kiechenbach's famous manufactory of optical instrumen... is situated. Cruoibles (Creuaeti, Fr. ; Schmektiegel, Germ.) are small conical vessels, narrower at the bottom than the mouth, for reducing ores in docimasy by the dry analysis ; for fusing mixtures of earthy and other sul). stances ; for melting metals, and compounding me- tiillic alloys. They ought to be refractory in the strongest heats, not readily acted upon by tlw sub- stances ignited in them, not porou»to liquids, und capa- ble of bearing considerable alterations of temperature without cracking ; on which account they should not be made too thick. The best crucibles are formed from a pure Hre-clay, mixed with finely-ground cement of old crucibles, and a portion of black-lead or gra- phite. Some pounded coke may be mixed with the plumbago. The clay should bo prepared in a similar way OS for making pottery ware ; the vessels after being formed must he slowly dried, and then properly baked in the kiln. Platina crucibles are not fusible, but are too costly for general use. Cruiae. (Germ., kreutzen, to crots.') A voyoge within certain limits, for the purpose of meeting with enemy's ships, pirates, etc., or for mere exercise, or for the relief of vessels in distress. Cfraiaers, in naval affairs, vessels, cs the nam* imports, employed on a cruise. The name is com- monly giv'jn to small men of war, made use of to secure merchant Bh!i» and vessels from the enemy'i small frigates and privateers. They are generally formed for fast sailing, and well-manned. Cuba, the largest .ind richest of the West India islands, and the moft important colony of Spain, was discovered by Columbus on the iJth October, 1492, ^i ring his first \ jya((0. It was first called Juana in honor of Prince John, ton of Ferdinand and Isabella ; but after Ferdinand's doath it received the name otFer' 'tandina. It was subsequently designated Santiugo, irum the patron saint of Spain ; and still later Ave Maria, In honor oi the Virgin. Its present name b that by which it was known among the natives at the time of its discovery. It was then divided into nhie independent principalities, under as many caciquet. The island of Cuba is long and narrow, somewhat in the form of an irregular crescent, with its convex side toward the north. It divides the entrance to the Gulf of Mexico into two passages : that to the N.W. being 32^ leagues wide at the narrowest part, between the points of Ilicacos in Cuba, and Tancha on the Florida coast ; and the S.W. passage 88 leagues wide between the Cabo de San Antonio of Cuba, and the Cabo de Catoche, the most salient extremity of the peninsula of Yucatan. Cuba lies between 71° and 85° W. long., and 19° and 23° N. lat. Its length, following a curved line through its centre, is 790 miles, and its greatest breadth (from Cape Matemil- los to Mota Cove) is 107 miles. The area is estimated at 81,468 square miles, or, including the other small islands attached to it, 32,807 square miles. The coast of Cuba ib generally low and flat, and is surrounded !)}■ numerous islands and reefs, which render the ap- proach both difficult and dangerous to those not ac- quainted with the proper channels. The low nature of the coast subjects it to frequent floods and im nda- tions ; and especially on the north side of the island, there are many large lagoons from which a consider- able quantity of salt is obtained. No island, how- ever, in proportion to its size, has a greater number of excellent harbors, many of them accessible even to ships of the lino. A range of mountains extends from one end of the island to the other, dividing it Into two unequal portions, of which the northern is generally the narrower. 'The highest are those at the ,S.E. ex- tremity of the island, to the N.W. of Santiago de Cuba, and have, according to -Humboldt, an elevation of 1,200 tolaes, or 7,673 English feet. This Cordillera is ono great calcareous muss, resting on a schistose formation. The summits are for the most part rocky and naked, occasionally interrupted by more gentle undulations. The central and western parts of the island contain two formations of compact limestone, one of clayey sandstone, and another of gypsum. The limestone formations abound in caverns. The secondary formations, east of Havana, are pierced by syenltlc and euphotide rocks united in groups. The > syenite strata are intercalated with serpentine, and inclined to the X.AV. In some places petroleum runs out of rents in the serpentine ; and abundant springs of this fluid are also found in the eastern part of the island. The rivers In general are necessarily short, and flow toward the north and south. The largest is the Cauto, rising in the Slorra del Cobre, and fulling into the bay of Buena Esperanza on the southern coast, after a course of 60 leagues, for 20 of which it Is navigable, though at low water obstructed by bars- The Sagua le Grande rises in the Sierra del Escam- bray, passes Santo Domingo, and falls into the sea in front of the Boca de Maravillas, being navigable for five leagues. The principal of the other rivers are the Sagua la Chica, the North and South latibonica the Cuyaguateje, Saai>, Agobama, and the Hanabana. On some of the rive , are beautiful cascades, while /^ CUB 484 CUB Mveral of them flow, daring part ot their counes, under ground. The mineral rlchei of the iBlind iit:ve not yet been explored to any considerable extent. Though gold and ailver have undoubtedly been found on the island, the quantity haa never been sufficient to repay *'^e labor of search. Gold was sent to Spain froL.^ us Island by the early settlors, but it was more probauly the accumulated wealth of the aborigines in previous centuries, wrested from them by tyranny and rapine at the period of the conquest, than the product of hon- est labor on the part of the colonists. Traces of auriferous sand are found in therirers Ilolguin, £s- cawbray, etc. Some specimens of the finest gold have been ol>tained in recent times from the workings of Agabama and Sagua la Grundo, but at an expense of time and lalmr that could not remunerate the par- ties engaged in it. In 1827, silver and copper were discovered in the jurisdiction of Villa Clara, and the first ores gave no less than 7 oz of pure silver to the quintal ( ^ lOTj^ lbs.) of ore ; but they have become less productive, probably from not being properly worked. The copper mines near Santiago, in the eastern part of the island, are of great extent, and very rich, employing nearly 900 persons, an<' yielding an ordinary average of about 27 per cent, of pure metal. They were wrought with some success during the 17th centuri', but had been abandoned for more than 100 years. About the year 1830, Mr. Hardy, a landed proprietor in the island, happened, vhon on a visit to that part, to cany off some of the refuse of the old wiikings in order to sul>Ject them to analysis, the result of wh! :h was, that the metal was found so rich as amply to repay the expense of sending it to En- gland for smelting. Several other mining companies have shice been estaolishcd ; and the amount of cop- per ore exported in 185U was 662,288 quintals, or nearly 25,100 tons. Of the 36,683 tons of copper ore imported in 1851 into the United Kingdom, 20,825 tons came fh>m Cuba. Coal of a highly bituminous character, affording a strong heat, and leaving verv little solid residue in the form of ashes or cinders, is very abundant. In some places it degenerates into a form resembling osphaltum, and near the coast it is often found in a semi-liquid state like petroleum or naphtha. In the quarries near Havana a thick slate is found, fit for floors and pavements. Marbles and jaspers of various colors, and susceptible of a high polish, are found in many parts of the island, and particularly in the Isle of Pines. It is generally be- lieved that iron exists in various parts of Culia; and many parts of the great Cordillera undoubtedly con- tain roclu of a ferruginous nature ; but from the diffi- culty of access, the scarcity of fuel, and the want of capital, no extensive mining operations have licen en- gaged in. Kative loadstone, however, has l)cen found in various parts, and chalylieate springs are numerous. The circulating medium of Cuba, was until lately composed entirely of the precious metals; paper money is now issued by the bank which has just gone ' into operation. The coins in use are the Spanish dooblon, or onza de oro, which is a legal tender for 17 hard dollars, and at the ordinary rate of exchange of 8 4-37 per cent., is worth £S lOs. lOd. sterling ; and the subdivisions of the doblon, the half, the quarter, the eighth, and the sixteenth — ^the last lieing equiv- alent to a dollar and half a real. The Mexican, Co- lombian, and other South American doblons are a legal tender for IC bard dollars, equal to £3 6s. 8d. sterling, and are sometimes in demand for exportation at a premium : their divisions are worth, 8, 4, 2, and 1 dollar respectively. Of silver coins, the Spanish dollar and its divisions, and also Mexican, United States, and South American dollars, are legal tenders at their nominal value. The principal port is Havana, or Havannah, on the north coaat of th« island of Cuba, of which it ia the I capital, the Moro castle l>eing, according to Hum- boldt, in lat. 28° 8' 15" N., long. 82° 22' 46*' W. The population of ttie city and suburbs was said to lie, in 1851, about 200,000. In 1827, the resident population amounted to 04,023; viz., 46,021 whites, 8,216 free colored, 15,3-17 free blacks, 1,010 colored slaves, and 22,830 black slaves. The port of Havana is the finest in the West Indies, or perhaps in the world. The entrance is narrow, l>ut the water is deep, without bar or ob- struction of any sort, and within it expands into a magnificent bay, capable of accommodating 1,000 large ships — vessels of the greatest draught of water coming close to the quays. The city lies along tho entrance to, and on the west side of, the bay. From its position, which commands both inlets to the gulf of Mexico, its great strength and excellent harbor, Havana h), in a political (Hiint of view, by fur tho most important maritime station in the West Indies. As a commercial city it also ranks in tho first class. The |)orts of the island licensed for foreign trade are Havana, Santiago, Tuerto Prince, Matanzos, Trin- idad, Baracoa, Giliara, C: lufuegos, and ManzauUla. A bank has lieen recently established in Cuba, under a royal charter. It is impossible, from the conflicting accounts of the different writers upon the subject, to arrive at uny thing like certainty as to the number of inliabitants on the island ut tho time of its conquest ; but it may be estimated at probably from 300,000 to 400,000. There is little doubt, however, that before 1560 tho whole of this population had disappeared from tho island. Tho first census of Cuba was taken in 177.'i, when tlio pop- ulation was 170,862. In 1781 it was 272,140. The following table gives the population since that period : y««r. \Vhlli.i. Fre. BImIh. Slavftn, Tot.l. 600,000 isn 274,000 114.000 218,4 KH) 1811 2M,021 116,691 22.\268 68(1,980 183; 3I1,UM 106,404 240,042 704,4^7 1841 418,201 i.w.sas 486,498 1,007,624 1S48 ^ift,7«9 i40,m 828,7.^9 898,782 1M9 487,188 164,410 828,897 94^440 18S0 606,660 206,570 486,100 1,247,280 Neither of the last two censuses include the gur- rlson, crew^s of vessels, or tho floating pcpulution. The following Is a more minute classiilcfltion of the people of the island, according to the census of 1850 : Creole whites. 620,000 gpaulariU 80,000 Troops anil marines. 28,000 Forelijnoni. 10.680 rioatinK population 17,000 Total whltos, 606,660 Free mulattoca 118,200 Froo blacks. 87,370 Total IVeo colored population, 206,670 Slavoa, mulattoca 11,100 Slaves, blacks. 426,000 Total slavoa, 486,100. Grand total 1,217,230 The present population, adding garrison and floating population, is nearly 1,100,000. The census of 1816 gives the population of the principal towns as follows : Havana, 106,968 ; Puerto Prince, 19,168 ; Santiago dc Cuba, 24,005 ; Mi.lon'zas, 16,986 ; Trinidad, 13,222. The population of Havana, in 1849, is given at 142,002, and in 1850, at 150,561. The chief agricultural products of Cuba are sugar, coffee, and tobacco. Tlie cultivation of thcoo has ad- vanced with great rapidity since 1809, when the ports of the island were more freely opened to foreigners. The cultivation of coffee advanced for a time with equal or even greater rapidity than that of sugar ; but latterly, from tho low prices of coffee, the cultivation of sugar haa become the more profitable, and in a great measure supplanted coffee. Among the other produc- tions are Indian com, rice, beans, plantains, cotton, cocoa, pine-apples, lemons, oranges, limes, flgs, mel- ons, etc. Of tho manufacturei, the principal are the CUB m CUB 640,000 8«,IW0 2s,noo 10.660 IT.OOO 118,200 8T,3T0 making of tngar, molouM, rum, and :?c^**, :ki| tli« preparation of cofTea and wax. The lateat and most rellalile atatiatloa of tlia UUiid proBent the following dlvlalona of agricultural indiM' tr}', viz.: sugar eatatea, 1,44'ii cuflVia oatiittt', ),ftlN| toliacco estates, fliKfi; and grazing farnm, Il,lttt0, iin which aro reared about 898,1UU head of uattlu, Ik' ■Idea these, large herds of cattle are alwi marad cm tita extensive and fertile prairies of the uncultivated (>ur- tlon of the Island E. B. Politically, the Island of Cuba Is divided Into (lirNN departments : the Oriental, the Central, and the l)iiii|> dental ; and these aro again sul)dlvided into a iiuitlliar of governments, aulvgovemments, and colonies, 'I'Iih Central ond Occidental departments form tlia I'lvl) province of Havana, and the Oriental thp uivll prov« ince of Cuba. In 1809, the restrictions Impoaet* upon Cuba, of trading to no foreign country wl ataver, wora re- moved; and from that period to tht. present, oAiiUl returns of the population, agriculture, commerce, and revenue of the Island have been annually prepared, and, apparently, with great care, These re|Hirta, or " Balanzaa Gcnerales," exhibit a regular and marked progress In the Industrial and commercial moyeiltenta of Cuba, from the period abovi specKled— its tfMls with foreign nations steadily advancing, and tilt, slip* plies of Its more prominent staples regularly kitapliig pace with the Increased demands of an mlurgad and comparatively emaikflipated commerce. In 177A, tlit< entire population of the island was 170,1)70, In l^M, it had risen to 1,247,230, showing an Inoreaaa during the intervening 75 years of 1,070,880, or about 700 (Mir' cent. ' Comnurce with Cuba. — The Increase of the trade of tlia United States with the port of Havana over that of all otiier nations, notwithstanding the bod feeling that liiia existed between the two countries, is truly wonderfMl, The Havana Mercantile Report of the 7th of August, 1855, gives a statement of the numl)er of vessela, their tonnage, and the nations to which tliey belong, whiili entered the port of Havana during the Hrst I) months uf the IC years last past. The increase in tlie total toiiimga for the first 6 months of the year, from 1840 to 1N/)A, is a trifle more than 100 per cent. While the Aliieriiai) tonnage has increased more than 200 {ler cent,, the Spanish and British are nearly stationary. For ths 11 ri>t 6 months In 181C, the American tonnage oinphiyed III this trade was 71,722 ; the Spanish, 55,628 | anii the British, 82,069. Tlie total numl>er of vessels wliliJ) entered that port during the G months ending July 1st, 1855, was 1,080, of a tonnage of 3a4,9ni) ; and '>f tlienu, 570, of a tonnage of 231,484, were A.nerlcan | ft8,fi;t8 Spanish; 82,105 British. The French tonnage lias increased firom 1,761, in the first 6 months of }H40i to 8,269, for the same period of 1854, and 23,2H;1, miw than two thirds of the British, in 1855. In the f m- nago of other nations, Belgian, Dutch, Uanisli, Ureni' en, Hamburg, and others, there has Leon no niaturiiil increase. Prior to the removal of tlio restrictions on foreign commerce, there was some trade carried on be. tween the United States and Cuba, by virtue of Hpsn. ish grants and occasional relaxations of the law | tint it was generally limited to the Importation of articles necessary to supply tlie people of the Island wltll the means of subsistence. Tlie wars between the mother country and tlia Spanish American republics having driven the Span* ish flag from the ocean, the lawa of differential duties remained in abeyonce, and the commerce of Culm, e*. isting chiefly with the United States, wos carried on in American bottoms, which even extended their serv- ices to Spain, bringing the oil and wine of the I'enill- sula to the colonists. The gradual settlement of tha dinicultlea with the revolted provinces enabled the flag of Spain again to come upon the sea, and her mercan- tile marine received a new impulse During the pa> Hiii (ttw( tlAd tilapsed since the opening of the ports, tha natiirni Inornnse of the wants of the colonists, at- Inlldaiit upon an exchange of their products with those lit fiirKlgft cotllilrles, opened a market In Cul>a f r many of dm |iriidil('ts of mechanical Industry, which found tliulr way tlmre tliroiigh the |)orts of the United .''tates ; Ml tlint, at tlid close of this era. In the year 1830, the fiiriilgti nointtmrcn of the Island was confl'.o^i almost ai«'lii«tv«>ly to our marts, to which she looked even for tllima artlclvK which were not produced In this countrj-. 'I'lila waa thii seamm of the most prosperous commerce li«tWi\)(lt ('llllllt^les, and In favor of Spo-.''' bottoms. Ni'gotlatloiis having proved abortive, a s^ .em of .lo- fitlMlVM or fptilllniory measures was recommended, as tlia oflly ttlPiilis of self-protection, in an elaborate re- liort madn by the Cimimittee on Commerce of the lloMSH of Itepresnntatlves, in May, 183-1, which con- I'luitii* thus I " Your committee, therefore, from a vkw of all (lie circumstances, have deemed It their duty (o re|iort a bill, authorlising the Secretary of the TrfHiiliry Ui collect such additional tonnage duties ll|Hiii HiMlilsIt vessels entering the jiorts of the United Htilt«>s from Culin and I'orto Kico as shall be equlva- lan( (o tllii itlscrlmltlHtlng duty that would have been llllpiwt«l M(«m the cargoes of such vessels, respectively, If tlia Mimn had been exported from Havana in Amer- Imaii liottomil ) Htld also upon Spanish vessels clearing out ffottl tlld putln of the United States, such ad- ditional tonnage duty as would be equivalent to the itlsirhlllnatitlg duty payalde upon their cargoes, ro- «|aiiitivtcame a law in June, 1834, and ('onforinalily f'; l.'s provisions, the Secretary of the 'I'fMllsliry, ill Ve\tt':nrf, 18!!."i, issued to the collectors of tliS "0.4trill lllld Just course of legislation in regard to the coiiiiiiarca brtween tlie United States and this island, by pliM'llliS Npanish vessels, with their cargoes, coming ittto ur diipHrtill(( 'rmn the United States, In the same OUB 488 CUB toDdllloii, SI to ImWNrt* wf all klml*, lliiit AnMrlaan vimmU »r* •uliiiii!i«4 III III Dm wilnnloii iif Hpula, ThU tqiulitx WM i|"iiwi«i|«i| Nil |inp« ii(iiHHili, a italli|{uii IiimI l/auii Hvciinhiil un tlio purtof the Npaniah |{iivurMilM«l( Itl vnaa^U 'if tha llnltnil Htatnii enterlnif unit fi|ili«<'U follllliu rrmn auch porta ur plucea are to \m niiiiilarly traatad, m tv^nuU toniinge duty, in tha (airta ut ilia l^liltwl Wlat«», 'I'ho cdlleut- ora of tlia LUntuliia u>i, tliariifiira, Inalructcd to nhataln from tha exaL'thili uf any t'ilinai(i< duty on Hiinlnh vea- aela coming from (Nirta ut \i\m ra^afded tonnage duty, light-money, ai|/J all olliaf d(ia» to Ihe I'nltcd Stataa, 80 far lid ru»|»«it4 vnMala, 'i'\wm actii (uf WM-M) have lieen in forua niiw diirinK a (lerliKt uf 22 yeara, and, with tba ai(j!a|4tiiH uf (ha atlf(lit privtlegea which called fur tlia MiriiMlmra already referred to, have failed to prialuoa tha alfai t tiuntemplated liv their rn- octment. Tha vuimiMiri'e lietween tha United Statea and theaa ialanda, in tha NKKr«f(ate, has not fallen oflTj hut tha iiii raaaa ha<* iiilt la<«n auoh aa aliould be ezpeutad from tha ginat e^iianohm ut our general com- merce, and tlia ii|i7aaiHabiblt# the number and na- tionality of vaaaala ampbiyed lo the trado of Cuba during tba tbraa y«»ra 1M0, MW, and laM t K»ria*». IM. IDm. lUt. 71IT MA KM guantah Ifnlled Btatea 188 1,10« aw 808 IMP 187 Allothar Total -l,«i4 l,7U» 2,888 Oliakid. IIU4. liN. Int. HnuUh m tu 94T 886 880 814 Tl»"' 910 2«0 1,817 ifnltodBtutoa..., Allolhor TnUI 1,288 ijrto An analyaia uf tha preceding liguraa will ahuw an aggregate inoreaao in the nuinlwr uf veimela entered frum 18^U to 1H2U, of 4U ; and to l>iil4, of 1)77 ; and iu veasela cleared, an increuae, fur the lirMt (lerhid, uf 282, and fur tha aecond, of 620. The incrauae in Spaiilah veaacia entered from 1620 tu tH2^< U from all uthor nations, fur the first period, waa 2H, and to 1H;14, 71 vcsmcIs. TAauB i;xuiuiT»a tue V-iLue ur Iuimjhid ikiu Cuba DUKiNo TUB Tuur« Vb.viis 1^28, 1S20, Itiai. IK«. 1B«». 18*4. [(8,412,487 1,184,407 4,070.018 8,tlUU,lUl 008,414 1,6711,018 B«2,«0U 2,210,270 hATIUNAL CUMUKHCI. National voaaela... Forotira voasela .... Dopotlt |4«8 1,180,451 1,«28,tl27 1,208,080 572.788 »I4,926,TM (I,160,M1 8,501,008 S,521,4«l 844,828 6,7iVl,7il5 1,245,947 1,'«7.77B l,0O,^740 544,800 rt>BllUR OMMBIICK. National vcaaola . . . Kriiiii iriiltoil tttatea From Franco Krum Kiittlund From IlanaoTowna From Italy, Hol- laiiil, PortUKal. DiMimark, and East Indlea. ToUI $18,606,858 118,668,800 The preceding tables show nn increase in the aggre- gate value of impurta into the ixland in 1829 over 1820 of $3,770,102! while, during the second jwrluu, frum 1829 to 1834, this trade remained stationary. A mi- nute analysts of the flgurea, however, will show the signlflcunt fact that, while the carrying trade in Span- ish bottoms has risen from *84-J,82C in 1829 to $4,970,- 013 in 1834, the impoiis from the United States, during the aamo period, fell from $5,7,11,705 to $3,090,101. During the three years compared, thu imports into tho United States from Cuba remained stationary, being in 1820 $3,894,597; in 1829, $3,191,535; and in 183-1, $3,824,724. Imports of Flour. — During the periods under review — indeed, at all times — provisions form the largest item in the imimrta from the United States. The enormous diacriminution in favor of the national Aug on flour has always had the effect of reatricting nlnio.st exclusively to national vessels tho trade in this article. Tims, In 1829 tho value of flour imported into Culm, in Spanish vessels, was $1,582,708, while from tho United States it amounted only to $345,335, and from all other places to $13,002 ; and in 1849, or twenty years after, the value of flour imported in Spanish bot- toms was $2,675,202 ; from the United Statea, $9,3,34 ; and from uU other places, $1,725. The acts of 1832 and 1834 can, unquestionably, be traced in this great falling off in the article of flour ; but, that other causes also iciitributcd in -oi^uring fur the Spanish flag so complete n monopoly of the trade in this article is demonstrated by tho fact that, while the value of flour imported from all other places (than the United Stutc!<) in 1829 amounted to $13,002, representing 1,093 bar- rels, we And this figure in 1849 dwindled down to $1,725, representing only 138 barrels. That tho re- peal of these acts would largely augment tho exjiort as well as the iinjiort trade of the United States with Cuba, there can bo no question ; but, ontU the dls- criminationa in favor of the national flag are modified or removed, the carrying trado between the Unitei' .'CUB 487 CUB SUtoi anil llitt isluiiit woulil, uiitlei tliair unequal and unjust »iii.ili lM>ttomii, Ciimmrreial J'liUi-y of Spain, — The raatrlctlvo pallcy of S|mln, eapeciitlly ua regonli the trade of her culonleii, u adhered to to-day, in Cuba and i'orto Ktcu, ulnioat aa ri|;uruuiily aa when ahe wua nibtreiia uf nmirly the cntiru auutliorn jmrtion of thla continout j and the Kta- tlonary condition of the trade between the United States and these islands since 18!l-k would seem to in- dicate the frultlessncaa of any elTorts to force her from thia lino of policy by measures of retaliation or coun- tervailing acta. So long aa the system itself nhnll continue to lie the colonial policy of Spain but little modillcation In its details need be looked for, whether the InSueuco to that end bo countervailing acts or diplomacy. " Be careful," says the Instructlona of the l(lng and Council of the Indlus to Luis de Veloaco, viceroy of New Spain, early In the sixteenth century, " Be careful not to foster manufactures, nor to allow the cultivation of vines, Inasmuch as there was always ample provision of theso things, and tho commerce of the kingdom should not be impaired by such colonial products j" and In the year 1010 those royal instruc- tions were repeated, with the addition of tho following emphatic language : " Inasmuch as you understand perfectly how much the observance of these rules Is necessary for tho dependence of tho colonies, we charge and command you to see to their faithful exe- cution." The same spb'lt that dictated this protection for tho wine and oil of Spain, und for tho exclusive trade In these articles to her American colonlea, in 1610, remains uncliangcd in any degree (because there Is no practical distinction between prohibitive discrim- inations and positive prohibitions) in tho commercial policy, which. In 185G, two centuries and a half later, virtuilly excludes American flour, and many other staples, for which the Inhabitants of Cuba must neces- sarily look to a foreign market. Until the system itself ia abolished, and Spain adopts the more liberal commercial policy which char- acterizes tho present enlightened age ; until she fol- lows the example of Great Britain, Belgium, Holland, and other nclghlioring countries, in removing all un- necessary shackles from commercial cnterpriso, the commerce of Cuba, not only with the mother country, but with tho Unltud States, and all foreign nations, must remain as It has during the past (quarter of a century — crippled, restricted, and struggling ; Incom- petent as a source of revenue to the home government — inadequate to meet the expenses of the colonial, and almost powerless, from tho restrictions with which it Is burdened. In developing the exhaustless resources of the island, or even In supplying the necessary means of. comfortable sulisUtence to the great bulk of Its inhab- itants, unless at prices far above their scanty means. If the government of Spain could be induced to pro- pose, or to agree, to a similar commercial reciprocity with the United States to that now existing l)etwecn the latter country and tho British North American provinces, it woidd not only supersede countervailing acts and retaliatorv measures, by establishing thn com- mercial relations l>etween them on a basis of just and liberal reciprocity ; but, it is believed that, while in a Tery short period it would make tho island of Cuba the richest in wealth, us It Is In natural resources, of any Island of the same size in the world, it would also eminently contribute to cement more strongly, if not render indissoluble, the Imnds of union between it and the mother country. luroRTS or TonAoco into the United States raoM Cuba, rOR TUB YeAKS ENDINO ,IVNE BOTH, 1SS3, HM, 1S05. Untiwnurnotiir^il, S«|»r.. 1 Pounili. V.lue. M. Valiw. 18S8 18M 186S 4,29M)80 4,662,187 3,718,986 |76(,629 700,871 628,112 177,9« 171,823 167,807 12,806,020 2,760,229 2.681,468 Th« folliiwlng table exhibits the ralua of export! from the United States to Culw during two |Mrloillr./ri.w. Vd». 1H115 ^4ll«,ol« 1H»6 6,668,281 VIM «,887,»6» 1,687 bbU. ♦7,780 1864 K,661,762 11,608 '<8,4tt» isee 8,004,681 8,428 88,176 It win Ik seen from thia table that the export tradt of the Ui)lted States to Cuba In IHSii is less than It was In 18S0, whllo tho increase in IHM and 1866 Is by no nu-ans proportionate to the rapid Increase of our general 'lommerce, and of th« agricultural products of Cuba. Were the dlscrlmlnui i'lna removed, flour would un barrel^ were from th« United States. Tho most moderate eatimatu puts tha consumption of Hour In Cuba, were It admitted at reaaonabio duties, at from 800,000 to 000,000 barrels. That this trade wor. bl be enjoyed almost exclusively by the United States ih evident from the fact that llour la among our heaviest articlea of expnit, and European compi'lltlon with a country within a few days' sail of tho island would be out of the question. Tho balance of trade between tho United States and Cuba is enormously against the former. In 1833, this balance amoimted to 1(112,207,706; in 185& it waa $10,020,757. Tho value of 600,000 barrela of flour, flxing the price at $5 per barrel, would be $2,500,000 ; or one fifth of tho balance against the United States would bo realized on the single article of flour alone. Thn increaaed quantitlcn cf liacon, pork, lard, and pro- visions generally, of douio^ttic manufactures, etc., would render the cummerco l«tween this country und Cuba more equal, as well as more Just j while tho exports from Cuba to the United Stutoa would bo |>ro)iortiona- )ily augmented. One year's trade, if cuiHluctcd on principles of miproclty, would bo sufHcient to demon- strate tho advantages which would ' ult to both coun- t.'lea from the adoption of a pollc- ...mmonded alike by tho products and wants of nac!., respectively, and by every principle of commercial economy. Great as is the productiveness of Cuba at present, some writers asser''. that under a good government it would be Increured fivefold ; its mineral resources would then be fully developed, ond it wo' 1 bo able fully to take advantage of its admirable i><>sltion to dovi'lop Its trade, Tho continuance of the present line of policy in reference to Cuba must in time lead to a revolution which Spain will bo unable to quell. Since the adoption of the Spanish tariff uf tho year 1880, in Cuba, several revisions have been made, and the rates of duty from time to time have been mate- rially dlMiiuishcd, to the eminent advantage of tho rev- (Miue ; but there has still been retained, and in many instances increaaed, tho dKTercntial duties in favor of Spanish products and national bottoms. The follow- ing instances of the operation of these differential du- ties will sufficiently exhibit their general character. LanX. — An article of great consumption In Cuba, Imported almost exclusively from tho United States, is subject to a duty of 4J cents per pound when brought from this country in American bottoms ; the coarser qualities of oil (olive), which are Imported for tho same purposes, are delivered with a duty of 2 4-5 cents per pound; and tho result is, that 10,000,000 pounds of lard, being a vastly superior article, are Imported, while 8,600,000 pounds of oil from other countries, far inferior to lard, are enabled to compete with it In the markets of Cuba, becouse of tho diflTerence in price, in its favor, produced by the duty. fl CUB 488 CUB ProdH, nr ram) It iltatilUd from iiiuluio kn>l thn rrtatt ufaiiKtr-work*. It In xilit Mr |ilp« <>f lift K'llon'i wl'h or without rtik, ■ccord- IliK 10 ii){rvaiiiip«r«nt, •ll»(htly brown In rolor, •ml iimwth taitn, Thn c»[H)rli of Ihia artUlo fur tlin jraar IX.'itl wore (lioiit lA, 1711 pipaa, of which TMA wunt to Spain; lAO to Iha rnicml Slalea; 2!i| to liritat llrlt- •In; 2i)Ul to Cnwva, or Falniniith and a market; till) to llamliurR anil Itn-nn^n ; XilII' to Kranoi; fiWI (< Triaale and Vnnieo; 1 Til i i South Anierlraand Mexi- co; and tho balann Ut\y, (llbmltar, aml^a market. Tha oxportt of IHItb vrry conaidiirahly exnsoil any pro- Yloua year, and from the nuiulxr of rxtanaiva distll- lorlea racently eatahllahrd, the article U likely to form • ronaidarabia item or ox|iortatlon In future. It haa eumniaudi'd the laat year aa lii|{h aa #46 and #18 per pipe during A portion of it; at the tenniniiliou of thu year It was i|uoted at $40 to |42, lirUk, I ho numbur of pipaa ahlpped wero 21,102, of whirh HIO want to the United States; 1140!) to (Ireat Krltnin; 798 to (ior- nsny ; 7114 to Kranco ; 17,787 to Spain ; KfJ to South America and Mexico) and the balance to Italy ami Other countriea. Iji'tf roh3ceo. — Toban o la one of tho moat Important •rllclea of pro leaver raih, unil marked 4,'llo. Thu atrungeat cigiir la nmad col- or, or have Ix-en slightly tnuclied i'y tho worm. Thit wrappar Is weaker than thu llrsts. This class Is put up in balea nf M) nianujns, uf 4 gavlllaa, ea( h uf theao uf 8ft to 40 leaves, and inurkeil V '.' « 80, Tercoras, ur thirds, eonslituln thu best llllers, nnd sonio wrappers nm found amung them, especially If llio lubuei o is new. Tho bales have 80 niannjus, uf I guvillus, buviiig up- ward uf 40 leaves eiieh ; tho bales nre Iimi-kod II ii 80. Cuartns, ur fourths: the iii'ist Inferior I'i.its, lit only for llllers. Thn bales eunlaiii 80nianujus, uf 4 ga\ lllua ; no(lel<'rniliiednii'ulierof leavosinthoKavlllas; marked 4 n 8ii. Vuelta Arriba tobacco Is puc up In tho aanie, or a similar, manner. It would 1m3 dinicidt. Indeed, fur any one to all' nipt to llx prices for lulmcro; they vary fruni, any :>li) to tITO generally, but occasionally fubuluua prices aro paid for that which is very guml In quality, and which olTers a fair prospect uf yielding a largo iiunilier of cigars, I have It frnm a very rcllablu source, that n little over n month since, Hie ccleliraled f nlory uf fji llija tie Ctthtiiiiu ;/ CarhijiU |iu!il thu sum of #10,0110 cash for a lot of only 4.') bales, none of which e.\eeodoil KH) llis. In weight. Ily the following quotatiuiis, given by our latest price-current, it will bo pcnelvcd how varied tho prices are for tubaccu : ll'iO tn $140 for Arsts, sunouds, and tlilrila. 00 to M) fur rijiirtha. "1 ArroriUiig to rpinl. 40 tu Mlforltnha. lily, selirtlun, mill ■ill to BOfursixIha (reiionn ; nil Is Vu- IT to '20 fur levciithaand Capadnnk.J ilta Almjo. When tobacco Is shipped, it is generally covered with crash, C'igni't ore made of all classes of tobacco, nnd of va- rious sizes and shapes, and therefore of various values. There Is probably no manufactured article sn difllcult to eslimato tho triio value of us cigars; there are cer- tain well-known brands that can coiiiniaiid almost any prico; they have a llxcd valuo; such, for Instance, as those of /,« llija tie Ciibtifitu y Cai'bttjttl, Ciibtirytis, I'a- Inrgtu, 1m Iliguera, etc, and even among those of high reputation, and having apparently fixed prices, cigars aro delivered nt lower rules tlian those appearing in tho bill of rates to persons that advance tliem largo sums of money for the purchase of tobacco, and recoivo in payment largo quantitie.s of these cigars per month. These celebrated brands are known to bo tho pur- chasers of thu best and highest priced tobacco ; at tho samo time, it is well known that they purchase cigars from smaller factories, niako scleclioiit with great care, pack them in their own lioxes with their on n brands, and obtain for thetc the same prices as for Ihe cigars made at their own manufactories ; and just as good an article may bo procured clscwhero for half the prico. But very few of the cigars proceeding from those cele- brated factories aro consumed on the island ; and thcro arc oven some, liut comparatively few of wlioso cigars are sent to thn United Stales, and thcro arc many whose works all go to the States. I mean, in tho above remarks, in tho way of trade. It would lie quito impossible to give any positive ligurcs in regard tu the extent of manufacture of cigars in this island;^ not- withstanding all my diligence in procuring informa- tion, and the various modes employed for the purpose, my efforts have failed. Tho only modo I could And to oiin 480 CUB of va- vnltics. fllcult nro ccr- rnoHt any unci', as J'a- uf high , einars ariiig in em lnrt;e receive man til. tlio pur- at the Bu cigars ■oat care, brands, ho cigars good an lie price. 1050 cclo- ind thcro so cigars ro many n, in tho lio quite rd to the nd;^not- infornia- purposo, Id find to makt an apprnalmtllnK •'•llmaid nt lhi> nnanlitjr mnnii- f»c'tiirr Ixir uaa Iha ilKarrlliia ur papnr ilKara, allll. It la known that a vary larifn |i»rtliiii uf Ihom alaii cunaiiinn Ihu ulhiir kind, »r Iiiirii4, My iilijni^t haa hraii In amor- lain, ill Ihii Itral pl«i!i>, iIm hiima I'linaumpllon. In my oll'uria III ualliiiala iIim Miiinlior y lni|iiirln> friiiii hulh HpttiiianU and (l»rniaii>, I lliid llw lallinato varyintf lMl»«an llu»a i>f liMNI (lai.li. 1,'akulatlng I'ucli lliuuauiid Ui wuIkIi I'i Ilia., vaih amukiir cnnaumoa 11 ilia, pur annum. 'I'hla, laki'ii In lonnralloii wllh llio amount ufdapiiria friitii all partauf Ihn Inlniid, that laii uut Imi hy many that I uiii ratlmr uuiliir than i>vi'rtliiiniiml>«ruf aiiiiik- cra, and ilm i|iiaiilll) timy lunaunin piir day. — f'omuhr lliprnl Id Ihn llfiiniiiiiriil i\^ Htnli\ I'lilliil Hlnlm, tfiii/ar. — Thia I* riinaldnrnd Ihn gri'ateal alaplo of tho inland of I'uliw, 'Mm Kriiidliig of Ihn cane gunpruily (iiiuiiiuncua ill Iha iiiiiiilliuf Ddiniiihi'r, and ilm sugars um liriiught lu imtrkiil fruin ilaniiary, niid aoniotiiiios as I'urly aa thu middlti , kiinwn na "clnved" and " Muscovadi) i" Ilm griialuat i|iianllly hy fur la cinyod. ofiliiii, thu prinoipal dlviiluii lai l-lori'li', whlln, vol- tow, hrown, and i'uKimlui, It la pa'ki'd on Ilm plan- tiitiona. Tho rlayi-d la put In liuxin, wclghinjj from I.jO tu Mill poiiiida uroaaj Ihn larii uaualjy la 17 pounds. A nicri'liuiilaidu huil of auuar niiiat wnlKh Ul arrolms (uf il) Ilia.) nut I If n llttln nnddr, a diidiictlon of M cents pi'r Iwx la iiiaila | and If miiili under, Ihn sugar is njcited, aa Ihn import duly la iijion tlio hox, ond il would not hn fur Ilm lnt'-'(!n, every year only to about I ;t,iHH) boxHa, JJInn years, 1770-78, every year only to about ftll,(KHI boxes, The grcot Increaaa In Ilin protlili'llun of sugar In this island coniiiienced about Ihn year INZO, when steam WHS substituted iinon jdantaliona fur ux or mule power. Nearly two-thirda of ihii ((iiaiillly exported Is from Havana, and the larguat porliun nn American bottoms. Tho olHclal returns of (mjairta lan liol bo considered ns correct ; for many a vuaanl liaa lienn cleared as laden wllh a full cargo of molaaana wliett alio carried n full cargo of sugars, and tliurfiby not only defrauded the royal revenue of Ilm export duty upon the sugar, but had her tonnage duty nut lovlnd or returned to her, and in former year* inany v#)la<